{"1": {"fulltext": "\u00e2\u0096\u00a0I\\nI\\nII", "height": "3645", "width": "2380", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0001.jp2"}, "2": {"fulltext": "*MJ\\nLIBRARY OF CONGRESS,\\n(hap Copyright No\\nShelf A.B-5L 7\\nUNITED STATES OF AMERICA.\\nM", "height": "3491", "width": "2190", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0002.jp2"}, "3": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3491", "width": "2190", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0003.jp2"}, "4": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3491", "width": "2190", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0004.jp2"}, "5": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3491", "width": "2190", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0005.jp2"}, "6": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3491", "width": "2190", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0006.jp2"}, "7": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3491", "width": "2190", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0007.jp2"}, "8": {"fulltext": "JUST PUBLISHED\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Twelfth Edition\\nAir Brake Catechism\\nBV\\nROBERT H. BLACKALL\\nPRICE, $1.50\\nJUST PUBLISHED\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Seventeenth Edition\\nLocomotive Catechism\\nBY\\nROBERT GRIMSHAW\\nPRICE, $2.00\\nSee back advertising pages of this book for full\\ndescription of the above books", "height": "3491", "width": "2190", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0008.jp2"}, "9": {"fulltext": "A CATECHISM\\nCombustion of Coal\\nAND THE\\nPREVENTION OF SMOKE\\nA PRACTICAL TREATISE\\nFOR ENGINEERS, FIREMEN, AND OTHERS INTERESTED\\nIN FUEL ECONOMY AND THE SUPPRESSION OF\\nSMOKE FROM STATIONARY STEAM-BOILER\\nFURNACES, AND FROM LOCOMOTIVES\\nWILLIAM M. BARR, M.E.\\nAuthor of Boilers and Furnaces, etc.\\nWITH EIGHTY-FIVE ILLUSTRATIONS\\nNEW YORK\\nNORMAN W. HENLEY COMPANY\\n132 Nassau Street\\n1900", "height": "3491", "width": "2190", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0009.jp2"}, "10": {"fulltext": "72555\\njl-iOi%J7oi Ctmjj^J ^f^\\nI NOV 3 1900\\nC^yf^ht entry\\nS\u00c2\u00a3C( ND copy.\\n0 rfHmr\u00c2\u00abrf to\\nCopyrighted, 1900,\\nBY\\nWILLIAM M. BARR\\n0-6777 r-tV.", "height": "3491", "width": "2190", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0010.jp2"}, "11": {"fulltext": "PREFACE.\\nThis edition of combustion of coal is so entirely differ-\\nent from my former treatise that it is to all intents a new\\nbook. Much of the original material has been retained,\\nbut worked over and presented in new form. The aim of\\nthe writer is sufficiently indicated by the title page, in\\nwhich it will be seen that the subject has special refer-\\nence to the economical and smokeless combustion of or-\\ndinary fuels in the generation of steam.\\nThe best book for practical and busy men is the one\\nwhich is nearest complete in itself. In view of this fact,\\nthe writer has included in these pages much collateral\\ninformation and useful data, not always bearing directly\\nupon furnace combustion, in the belief that such informa-\\ntion would be helpful and gladly received by those wishing\\nto acquire a broader knowledge, including all the facts\\nrelating to the subject of combustion in general.\\nUnavoidable repetitions occur in this book, as it was\\nthought improbable that it would in all cases be studied\\nsystematically from end to end, in which case the subject-\\nmatter might have been shortened by means of cross refer-\\nences. In view of the probability that this book will be\\ncommonly used as its contained information is required,\\nwhich will then be sought out by means of the index,\\nit was thought best to make each answer as complete as\\npossible, and without reference to the fact that the same\\ndata occurred elsewhere in this volume.\\nThere has been a somewhat unlooked-for demand for", "height": "3491", "width": "2190", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0011.jp2"}, "12": {"fulltext": "6 PREFACE.\\nsuch a book as this, mainly from locomotive engineers and\\nfiremen, by reason of the insistance on the part of the man-\\nagement of the more important railway lines that their\\nlocomotive engineers and firemen shall, among other re-\\nquirements, undergo a satisfactory examination in the prin-\\nciples of the combustion of coal and of the laws governing\\nthe prevention of smoke this, with a view to securing a\\nbetter or more rational method of firing, as well as leading\\nup to the abatement of the smoke nuisance, which in many\\nlocalities has become almost unbearable. For this pur-\\npose my former treatise was wanting in practical detail,\\nand is a reason for a new presentation and restatement of\\nthis important subject.\\nThe publishers have had marked success in the several\\ncatechisms issued from their press, and it was their desire\\nthat this book should conform in size and method of pres-\\nentation with their other publications. But aside from\\nthis, no apology is needed, for no form of presentation is\\nso popular with practical and busy men as the simple one\\nof question and answer.\\nThe questions are intended to cover every detail relating\\nto the economic combustion of such fuels as are employed\\nin steam engineering. The answers are, so far as the\\nwriter is able to prepare them, scientifically accurate.\\nThe authorities quoted in my former treatise have been\\nused in this, and in addition thereto free use has been made\\nof the several excellent papers by Professor Thorpe, on\\nfuels, heat, combustion, etc. Acknowledgment is also\\nmade of materials selected from the writings of such\\nauthorities as Hoadley, Snow, Kent, Bell, Thurston, Sin-\\nclair, Barrus, Carpenter, and others.\\nWilliam M. Barr.\\nNew York, November, 1900.", "height": "3491", "width": "2190", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0012.jp2"}, "13": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS.\\n7\u00e2\u0080\u00948\\nI.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Fuels,\\nII. Some Elementary Data,\\nIII.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The Atmosphere,\\nIV. Combustion,\\nV. Products of Combustion,\\nVI. Heat Developed by Combustion,\\nVII.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Fuel Analysis,\\nVIII. Heating Power of Fuels,\\nIX. Steam Generation,\\nX. Stationary Furnace Details,\\nXI. Locomotive Furnace Details,\\nXII. Chimneys and Mechanical Draft,\\nXIII. Spontaneous Combustion,\\nPA\u00c2\u00abK.\\n9\\n48\\n68\\n83\\n103\\n140\\n160\\n178\\n201\\n215\\n249\\n309\\n330", "height": "3491", "width": "2190", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0013.jp2"}, "14": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3491", "width": "2190", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0014.jp2"}, "15": {"fulltext": "COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nCHAPTER I.\\nFUEL.\\nQ. What is meant by term fuel\\nFuel expresses in a word and in general terms any sub-\\nstance which may be burned by means of atmospheric air,\\nwith sufficient rapidity to evolve heat capable of being\\napplied to economic purposes. The economic value of any\\nfuel will depend upon its heating power. The two ele-\\nments contributing this property to fuel are carbon and\\nhydrogen. The more important varieties of fuel include\\nwood, peat, lignite, coal, natural and producer gas, and\\npetroleum.\\nQ. Of what does fuel consist?\\nAll fuel consists of vegetable matter or the products\\nof its alteration. The elementary constitution of fuel is\\nconsequently much the same, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,\\nnitrogen, and inorganic matter that constitutes the ash.\\nThe gradual process of woody tissue into anthracite is\\nshown in the following analytical results in which the\\nhydrogen and oxygen percentages are based on that of\\ncarbon", "height": "3491", "width": "2190", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0015.jp2"}, "16": {"fulltext": "IO\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nTable i. Composition of Fuel.\\nFuels.\\nWood\\nPeat\\nLignite\\nBituminous coal\\nAnthracite\\nCarbon.\\nHydrogen.\\nIOO\\nI2.I8\\nIOO\\n9.85\\nIOO\\n8.37\\nIOO\\n6.12\\nIOO\\n2.84\\nOxygen.\\n83.07\\n55.67\\n42.42\\n21.23\\n1.74\\nThe following table shows the chemical alterations in\\napproximate percentages of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen\\nas occurring in the different fuels\\nTable 2. Composition of Fuel.\\nFuels.\\nWood\\nPeat\\nLignite\\nBituminous\\nSemi-anthracite\\nAnthracite\\nCarbon.\\nHydrogen.\\n52.65\\n60.44\\n66.96\\n76.18\\n5.25\\n5.96\\n5-27\\n5.64\\n90.50\\n92.85\\n5.05\\n3-96\\nOxygen.\\n42.IO\\n33-60\\n27.76\\n18.07\\n4.40\\n3-19\\nQ. What is coal?\\nCoal, as denned by Dr. Percy, is a solid stratified mineral\\nsubstance, black or brown in color, and of such a nature\\nthat it can be economically burnt in furnaces or grates.\\nOur acquaintance with the chemistry of coal is almost\\nentirely confined to a knowledge of its ultimate composi-\\ntion. We know it to be made up of variable proportions\\nof carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen but there are\\nreasons for believing that in bituminous coals there exist\\nready formed definite compounds, at all events, of hydro-\\ngen and carbon.\\nBesides these strictly organic ingredients coals contain\\nvarying amounts of what must be regarded as impurities\\nin the shape of mineral matters, which constitute the ash,", "height": "3491", "width": "2190", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0016.jp2"}, "17": {"fulltext": "CLASSIFICATION OF COAL. I I\\nand pyrites or bisulphide of iron. Sulphur in the free\\nstate is sometimes present in coal.\\nQ. What is the commercial classification of coals\\nThe coals of the United States range in hardness from\\nthe dense anthracite through all gradations to the soft,\\neasily crumbled lignite. The commercial classification\\nseparates them broadly into hard and soft coals, or into\\nanthracite and bituminous coals. This classification in-\\ncludes among the anthracite coals the semi or gaseous an-\\nthracites. The bituminous coals include semi-bituminous,\\ncaking, non-caking, cannel, block, and other varieties, as\\nwell as all the gradations of lignite, a faulty classification,\\nbut one which works little or no inconvenience, because\\norders for bituminous coals are usually placed in open\\nmarket designating whether intended for coke-making,\\ngas-making, blacksmith and forge work, boiler furnaces, or\\nother need of the customer large orders not infrequently\\nspecifying the locality if not the particular mines from\\nwhich the coals are to be shipped.\\nQ. What are the physical properties of the coals in\\nGruner s classification\\nIn Gruner s classification of coals the following physical\\nproperties predominate\\n1. Anthracite, or lean coals; burning with a short\\nflame; having a black color, and a specific gravity of 1.33\\nto 1.4. These coals form the transition to true anthracite.\\nOn coking they yield 82 to 90 per cent fritted or pulveru-\\nlent coke, and 12 to 18 per cent of gas. Evaporative\\nfactor, 9 to 9.5.\\nThis coal adapted for domestic use.\\n2. Caking coals (fat coals) burning with a short flame;", "height": "3491", "width": "2190", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0017.jp2"}, "18": {"fulltext": "12 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\ncolor, black, shining, often with lamellar structure. Spe-\\ncific gravity, 1.30 to 1.35. Yields 74 to 82 per cent fairly\\nhard coke, caked together very densely, and 12 to 15 per\\ncent gases. Evaporative factor, 9.2 to 10.\\nAdapted for coking and for heating steam boilers.\\n3. Caking coals proper, or furnace coals. Burning with\\nlonger flame color, black, shining, lustre more marked\\nthese coals swell under the action of heat more than those\\nof classes 1 and 2. Specific gravity, 1.30. Yields 68 to\\n74 per cent caked fairly dense coke, and 13 to 16 per\\ncent gases. Evaporative power, 8.4 to 9.2.\\nAdapted for coking and smithy use.\\n4. Caking coals, long flaming (gas coal). These coals\\nburn with a long flame. Color, dark, high lustre. Coals\\nhard and tough. Specific gravity, 1.28 to 1.30. Yields\\n60 to 68 per cent caked but very friable coke and 17 to\\n20 per cent gases. Evaporative factor, J .6 to 8.3.\\nAdapted for gas manufacture and for reverbatory fur-\\nnaces.\\n5. Dry coals, burning with a long flame. Color, in-\\ntense black. Coals hard, break with conchoidal fracture\\n(splint coal). Specific gravity, 1.25. Yields 50 to 60 per\\ncent pulverulent coke and 20 per cent gas. Evaporative\\nfactor, 6.J to 7.5.\\nAdapted for reverbatory furnaces.\\nThe ash-forming constituents of coal vary from 0.5 to\\n30 per cent, averaging from 4 to 7 per cent in the best\\ncoals; 8 to 14 in medium; and upward of 14, with 0.5 to\\n2 per cent of sulphur in the worst.\\nQ. What is meant by evaporative factor as employed\\nby Gruner in his classification of coals\\nThe evaporative factor, as employed by Gruner, means", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0018.jp2"}, "19": {"fulltext": "ANTHRACITE COAL. I 3\\nthe number of times its weight of water is evaporated by\\na unit weight of coal starting at ioo\u00c2\u00b0 C, or 21 2\u00c2\u00b0 F.\\nQ. What is anthracite coal?\\nAnthracite is the most rich in carbon, greatest in dens-\\nity, and hardest of all varieties of coal. Typical anthracite\\ncoals contain\\nCarbon 90 to 95 per cent.\\nHydrogen 1 to 3\\nOxygen and nitrogen 1 to 3\\nMoisture 1 to 2\\nAshes 3 to 5\\nThe best varieties of anthracite coal are slow to ignite,\\nconduct heat badly, burn at a high temperature, radiate an\\nintense warmth, and once ignited are difficult to quench.\\nGenerating almost no water during its combustion, anthra-\\ncite coal powerfully desiccates the atmosphere of an apart-\\nment in which it is burning. Anthracite coals occur\\nprincipally in Pennsylvania.\\nJ. P. Lesley states that anthracite is not an original\\nvariety of coal, but a modification of the same beds which\\nremain bituminous in other parts of the region. Anthra-\\ncite beds, therefore, are not separate deposits in another\\nsea, nor coal measures in another area, nor interpolations\\namong bituminous coal, but the bituminous beds them-\\nselves altered into a natural coke, from which the volatile\\nbituminous oils and gases have been driven off.\\nQ. What is the commercial classification of anthracite\\ncoal\\nThe larger sizes are known as lump, steamboat, egg and\\nstove coals, the latter in two or three sizes. For steam-\\nmaking, the commerce is confined almost exclusively to pea\\nand smaller sizes.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0019.jp2"}, "20": {"fulltext": "H\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nTable 3. Coxe Bros. Co. s Standards for Small Anthracite\\nCoals.\\nSize.\\nChestnut\\nPea\\nBuckwheat\\nRice\\nBarley\\nMade through.\\n1-^ inches.\\ninch\\nA\\nI\\na\\nIS\\nMade over.\\ninch.\\nT6\\nApproximate\\nprice at mines.\\n$2-75\\n1.25\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a275\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a225\\n.IO\\nThe above meshes are all round-punched.\\nQ. What is the composition of Pennsylvania anthracite\\ncoal?\\nIn physical appearance anthracite coal differs sufficiently\\nfrom other coals that once known it may be ever after\\ndistinguished at sight. The fracture presents a con-\\nchoidal appearance and is quite homogeneous in structure.\\nAnthracite coal from Tamaqua, Pa., is compact, slaty,\\nconchoidal, grayish black, splendant (Geol. Sur. Pa.).\\nSpecific gravity, 1.57 98.13 pounds per cubic foot.\\nFixed carbon 92.07 per cent.\\nVolatile matter 5.03\\nAsh, white 2.90\\n100.00\\nHeat units in one pound of coal= 14,221, equal to an\\nequivalent evaporation of 14.72 pounds of water from and\\nat 212 F. per pound of coal.\\nLehigh County, Pa., Anthracite Coal Proximate Analysis.\\nFixed carbon 88. 1 5 per cent.\\nVolatile combustible 5- 2 8\\nMoisture 1.01\\nAsh 5.56\\n100.00", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0020.jp2"}, "21": {"fulltext": "ANTHRACITE COAL. I 5\\nHeat units in one pound of coal\u00e2\u0080\u0094 13,648, equal to an\\nequivalent evaporation of 14.13 pounds of water from and\\nat 212 F. per pound of coal.\\nThe Buck Mountain, Carbon County, Pa., anthracite coal,\\nin the smaller sizes, such as pea or buckwheat, is largely\\nemployed as a steam coal. Such coals, by reason of the\\nsmall sizes, contain an excess of slaty matter, which re-\\nmains on the grate as ash. In average composition they\\nrun about as follows\\nCarbon 82. 66 per cent.\\nVolatile combustible 3.95\\nMoisture 3. 04\\nAsh 10.35\\n100.00\\nHeat units in one pound of coal =12,634, equal to an\\nequivalent evaporation of 13.08 pounds of water from and\\nat 212 F. per pound of coal.\\nSemi-anthracite coal from Wilkesbarre, Pa., in the\\nsmaller sizes, such as buckwheat, shows an excess of ash\\ndue to the impracticability of picking the slate out of the\\ncoal, as is done in stove and larger sizes. The average\\ncomposition of fine coals from this locality is as follows\\nCarbon 76. 94 per cent.\\nVolatile combustible 6.42\\nMoisture 1.34\\nAsh 15.30\\n100.00\\nHeat units in one pound of coal 12,209, equal to an\\nequivalent evaporation of 12.64 pounds of water from and\\nat 212 F. per pound of coal.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0021.jp2"}, "22": {"fulltext": "l6 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nQ. What is culm\\nCulm is fine anthracite coal. Formerly this was waste\\nproduct and had no commercial value. Culm heaps\\nabound in the anthracite regions of Pennsylvania, and\\nmuch attention has been given to various processes for its\\nemployment as fuel. The late Eckley B. Coxe, an expert\\nin all matters relating to the subject of coal, devoted much\\ntime to the utilization of culm in steam-making, but with-\\nout satisfactory commercial results that is, no demand for\\nculm has been created outside the mining regions. An-\\nthracite differs from bituminous or coking coals in that it\\nburns only at the surface. Hence it is absolutely essen-\\ntial to provide for the necessary air spaces around the\\npieces on the grate. This can be accomplished only by\\ncareful sizing. With coal not carefully sized the inter-\\nstices between the larger particles are filled by the\\nsmaller and, the air being unable to find a free enough\\npassage, combustion is imperfect. Culm banks are mixed\\nfine coal, of many sizes, with a considerable proportion of\\nslate and pyrites requiring careful attention as to draft,\\nfiring, and details of grate, upon which it is to be burned.\\nQ. What is semi-anthracite coal\\nThe semi-anthracite coals are restricted, with few ex-\\nceptions, to those coals which possess on an average from\\nseven to eight per cent of volatile combustible matter. In\\nconsequence of this combustible matter, part of which at\\nleast resides probably in a free or gaseous state in the cells\\nof the coal, this variety kindles more promptly and when\\nsufficiently supplied with air, burns more rapidly than the\\nhard anthracites.\\nThis coal occurs principally in Pennsylvania. Samples", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0022.jp2"}, "23": {"fulltext": "SEMI-BITUMINOUS COAL. 1 7\\nfrom Wilkesbarre average as below The semi-anthracites\\nof this locality are compact, conchoidal, iron-black, splend-\\nant. Specific gravity, 1.40 87.5 pounds per cubic foot.\\nFixed carbon 88.86 per cent.\\nVolatile matter 7. 66\\nEarthy matter 3. 46\\n100.00\\nThe calorific power of this coal is 14,199 heat units per\\npound; this is equal to an equivalent evaporation of 14. 59\\npounds of water from and at 21 2\u00c2\u00b0 F. per pound of coal.\\nThis coal is held in high estimation for domestic use,\\nand for the generation of steam.\\nQ. What is semi-bituminous coal\\nSemi-bituminous coal is not so hard, and contains more\\nvolatile matter than the anthracite coals proper. In this\\nas in all other classifications of coals its limits must be\\nfixed somewhat arbitrarily. In appearance it more closely\\nresembles the anthracite than the bituminous coals, differ-\\ning from anthracite in fracture, as being less conchoidal\\nit is not so hard; it is of less specific gravity; and when\\nthrown upon the fire it kindles much more readily and\\nburns faster than anthracite.\\nCumberland, Md., semi-bituminous coal. Specific grav-\\nity, 1. 41 88. 13 pounds per cubic foot.\\nFixed carbon 68. 19 per cent.\\nVolatile matter 17.12\\nSulphur .71\\nAsh 13.98\\n100.00\\nThis coal takes high rank as a fuel. Although contain-\\ning less carbon than anthracite, it is quite as desirable on\\n2", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0023.jp2"}, "24": {"fulltext": "1 8 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\naccount of the readiness with which it kindles and the\\nquantity of heat it is capable of giving off when burned in\\nsteam-boiler furnaces.\\nBlossburg, Pa., semi-bituminous coal. Specific gravity,\\n1.32 82.50 pounds per cubic foot.\\nFixed carbon 73. n per cent.\\nVolatile matter 15.27\\nSulphur 85\\nAsh 10.77\\n100.00\\nSemi-bituminous coals are much more easily regulated\\nin the furnace when burning than in the case of anthra-\\ncites. It is characteristic of these coals that they burn\\nalmost entirely smokeless.\\nQ. What are the properties of bituminous coal\\nBituminous coal is the product of the decomposition of\\nvegetable matter, and was formed previously to or in the\\nCretaceous period. Chemically it occupies a place between\\nlignite and anthracite coal, but the transition of lignite\\ninto bituminous coal is as gradual as the latter is into an-\\nthracite, so there is no precise line of demarcation between\\nthese classes of coal. The use of the term bituminous is\\na misleading one, because none of the so-called bituminous\\ncoals in this country contain any bitumen in their composi-\\ntion. The true bitumens are destitute of organic structure\\nthey appear to have arisen from coal or lignite by the action\\nof subterranean heat, and very closely resemble some of\\nthe products yielded by the destructive distillation of those\\nbodies. It is possible that its name has been applied to\\ncertain varieties of coal on account of a similarity between\\nthe burning of a coal rich in hydrocarbon and bitumen.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0024.jp2"}, "25": {"fulltext": "BITUMINOUS COAL. 19\\nThe latter is very inflammable, and burns with a red\\nsmoky flame.\\nAll coals which contain as much or more than 18 or 20\\nper cent of volatile combustible matter are quite indiscrimi-\\nnately classed among bituminous coals. Some coals con-\\ntain as much as 50 per cent of volatile combustible.\\nIn external properties the common bituminous coals\\nrange in color from a pitch black to a dark brown. Their\\nlustre is vitreous, resinous, or in the more fibrous varieties\\nsilky; their structure is compact and cuboidal, slaty,\\ncolumnar, and even fibrous their fracture, irrespective of\\nstructural joints and cleavage, is conchoidal, and often\\nflat and rectangular, and sometimes fibrous.\\nIt is distinctive of these coals to burn with a more or\\nless smoky yellow flame, and to emit when burning a bi-\\ntuminous odor.\\nQ. What is the composition of bituminous coal?\\nIn proximate composition namely, in fixed carbon or\\ncoke, volatile matter or combustible gases, and earthy\\nsedimentary residue or ashes they may be regarded as\\nranging between the following general limits\\nProximate Composition.\\nFixed carbon 52 to 84 per cent.\\nVolatile matter 12 to 48\\nEarthy matter 2 to 10\\nSulphur 1 to 3\\nDried at a temperature of 212 F., from 1 to 5 per cent\\nof moisture may be driven off, with occasionally higher\\npercentages.\\nThe proportion of earthy matter, or ash, is too variable\\nto fix a maximum limit, as all bituminous coals may, by\\nimpurities, graduate into carbonaceous shales.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0025.jp2"}, "26": {"fulltext": "20\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nBituminous coals may be regarded as ranging\\nUltimate Composition.\\nCarbon 60 to 80 per cent.\\nHydrogen 5 to 6\\nNitrogen 1 to 2\\nOxygen 4 to 10\\nSulphur o. 5 to 4\\nAsh 3 to 12\\nThe proximate composition of coals as given in Table 4\\nis intended to give a general survey of the principal bitu-\\nminous coal fields of the United States, and is not at all\\ncomplete as to localities.\\nTable 4. Selected American Bituminous Coals.\\nW= Water. G Gas. C Carbon. A Ash.\\nLocality.\\nAlabama\\nJefferson Co.\\nArkansas\\nJohnson Co\\nCalifornia\\nAlameda Co.\\nColorado\\nTremont Co\\nGeorgia\\nDade Co\\nIllinois\\nMercer Co\\nVermilion Co\\nIndiana\\nBlock Coal\\nCannel Coal\\nVermilion Co.\\nIndian Territory.\\nChoctaw Nation\\nIowa\\nMonroe Co\\nVolatile\\nmatter.\\nw.\\nG.\\nW.\\nG.\\nW.\\nG.\\nW.\\nG.\\nW.\\nG.\\nW.\\nG.\\nW.\\nG.\\nW.\\nG.\\nW.\\nG.\\nW.\\nG.\\nW.\\nG.\\nW.\\nG.\\n3.01\\n42.76\\n1.52\\n14-73\\n18.08\\n39-3o\\n3-93\\n42.43\\n1.20\\n23.05\\n8.40\\n31.20\\n5.7S\\n43-70\\n13-05\\n32.34\\n3- 50\\n48.00\\n5-50\\n44.00\\n6.66\\n35.42\\n5.16\\n40.21\\nCoke.\\nc.\\nA.\\nC.\\nA.\\nC.\\nA.\\nC.\\nA.\\nC.\\nA.\\nC.\\nA.\\nC.\\nA.\\nC.\\nA.\\nC.\\nA.\\nC.\\nA.\\nC.\\nA.\\nC.\\nA.\\n48.30\\n5.93\\n74-49\\n9.26\\n35-6i\\n7.01\\n47.16\\n6.48\\n60.50\\n15.25\\n54-8o\\n5.60\\n45-37\\n5.15\\n48.78\\n5.83\\n42.00\\n6.50\\n46.00\\n4.50\\n51-32\\n6.60\\n45-88\\n8.75\\nHeat\\nunits per\\npound.\\n14,017\\n13,217\\nII,6o8\\n13,797\\n12,553\\nJ 3,o63\\n13,746\\n12,377\\n13,962\\n13,886\\n13,248\\n13,247\\nEvaporation\\nfrom\\n14.51\\n13.68\\nI2.0I\\n14.28\\n12.99\\n13.52\\n14.23\\nI2.8I\\n14.45\\n14.37\\n13-71\\n13.71", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0026.jp2"}, "27": {"fulltext": "BITUMINOUS COAL.\\n21\\nLocality.\\nKansas\\nCherokee Co\\nKentucky\\nMuhlenberg Co\\nMaryland\\nCumberland\\nGeorge s Creek\\nMissouri\\nPutnam Co\\nMontana\\nCascade Co\\nNebraska\\nAdams Co\\nNew Mexico\\nColfax Co\\nNorth Carolina\\nGuilford Co\\nOhio\\nHocking Valley\\nMahoning Co\\nOregon\\nTillamook Co\\nPennsylvania\\nPittsburg\\nConnellsville\\nYoughiogheny\\nTennessee\\nMarion Co\\nTexas\\nPalo Pinto\\nUtah\\nIron Co\\nVirginia\\nRockingham Co\\nWest Virginia\\nMineral Co\\nPocahontas (semi-bit.)\\nWashington\\nPierce Co\\nWyoming\\nWeston Co\\nVolatile\\nmatter.\\nw.\\nG.\\nW.\\nG.\\nW.\\nG.\\nW.\\nG.\\nW.\\nG.\\nW.\\nG\\nW.\\nG.\\nW.\\nG.\\nW.\\nG.\\nW.\\nG.\\nW.\\nG.\\nW.\\nG.\\nW.\\nG.\\nW.\\nG.\\nW.\\nG.\\nW.\\nG.\\nW.\\nG.\\nW.\\nG.\\nW.\\nG.\\nW.\\nG.\\nW.\\nG.\\nW.\\nG.\\nW.\\nG.\\ni. 9 4\\n36.77\\n3.60\\n30.60\\n1.23\\n15-47\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a259\\n18.52\\n9-03\\n37-48\\n3.01\\n30.23\\n0.21\\n27.82\\n3.10\\n35-oo\\n1.79\\n29.56\\n8.25\\n35-88\\n2.47\\n31.83\\n8.00\\n37.83\\n1.80\\n35-34\\n1-93\\n28.71\\n1. 00\\n35.oo\\n3.16\\n31-94\\n6.67\\n40.20\\n3-5o\\n43-66\\n1-34\\n30.98\\n.76\\n19-39\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a250\\n19.83\\n1. 10\\n35-IO\\n4.20\\n40.60\\nCoke.\\nc. 52.\\nA. 8.\\nC. 5S.\\nA. 7.\\nC 73-\\nA. 9.\\nC. 74.\\nA. 6.\\nC. 46.\\nA. 7.\\nC. 59-\\nA. 7.\\nC. 60.\\nA. 11.\\nC. 51.\\nA. 10.\\nC. 58.\\nA. 10.\\nC.\\nA.\\nC.\\nA.\\nC,\\nA.\\n53-\\n2.\\n64.\\n1.\\n45-\\n9-\\nC. 54-\\nA. 7-\\nC. 63.\\nA.\\nC.\\nA.\\nC.\\nA.\\nC.\\nA.\\nC.\\nA.\\nC 43\\nA. 9\\nC 43\\nC. 41\\nA. 13.\\nHeat\\nunits per\\npound.\\nEvaporation\\nfrom\\nand at 212\\n13,585\\n13,544\\n13,205\\nI3,8l2\\n12,852\\nI3,6l6\\n13,390\\n13,208\\n13,302\\nI3.59 1\\n14,537\\n12,754\\n13,762\\n13,881\\n14,208\\n13,185\\n12,906\\nI3,4H\\n13.321\\n13,764\\n14,218\\n13,659\\n12,676\\n14.06\\n14.02\\n13.67\\n14.30\\n13.30\\n14.10\\n13.86\\n13.67\\n13-77\\n14.07\\n15.05\\n13.20\\n14.25\\n14.37\\n14.71\\n13.65\\n13.36\\n13.88\\n13.79\\n14.25\\nT4.72\\n14.14\\n13.12", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0027.jp2"}, "28": {"fulltext": "22 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nQ. How are bituminous coals classified\\nGruner s classification is given on page.n, and in addi-\\ntion thereto the classification for economic purposes, by\\nPercy, is also given\\ni Non-caking or free-burning coals rich in oxygen.\\n2. Caking coals.\\n3. Non-caking coals rich in carbon.\\nThis classification of coals is based on their chemical\\ncomposition, and therefore on their calorific powers.\\nQ. What are the distinguishing properties of a caking\\ncoal?\\nCaking coal is the name given to any coal which, when\\nheated, the lumps seem to fuse together and swell in size,\\nhaving a pasty appearance and emitting a gummy or sticky\\nsubstance over the surface, liberating meanwhile small\\nstreams of gas, which appear to escape as from a consider-\\nable pressure from within the coal this escaping gas burn-\\ning with a yellow and sometimes a reddish flame terminat-\\ning in smoke. A characteristic of caking coal is that\\nlumps, either large or small, being rendered pasty by the\\naction of the heat, will cohere in the fire and form a spongy\\nlooking mass, which not unfrequently covers almost the\\nwhole surface of the grate this is the property called cak-\\ning.\\nQ. For what purposes are caking coals especially de-\\nsirable\\nCaking coals are employed in forges where a hollow fire\\nis wanted for heating iron or steel. Caking coals rich in\\nhydrocarbons are highly esteemed by gas manufacturers,\\nbecause after driving off the gas the remaining coke is a\\nvaluable by-product which commands a ready sale. Cak-", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0028.jp2"}, "29": {"fulltext": "COKE. 23\\ning coals which will yield a hard strong coke are valuable,\\ninasmuch as coke having these properties is greatly in de-\\nmand in the manufacture of iron and steel.\\nQ. What is coke\\nCoke is the solid product left after the expulsion of the\\nvolatile matter from coal by the action of heat. The only\\ncoke of any commercial value is that made from caking\\ncoals. The fine coal, screenings, or small lumps of caking\\ncoals, when heated sufficiently high and protected from the\\natmospheric air, as in a coke oven, gas retort, or in a closed\\nfurnace, will have the volatile portions of the coal driven\\noff, and a coherent mass of fixed carbon, containing usually\\n5 to 10 per cent of earthy matter, alone remains; this\\nfinal product is called coke.\\nA very excellent quality of coke is made in the Con-\\nnellsville region, Pennsylvania. It is there produced in\\nenormous quantities for the manufacture of iron and steel\\nin and near Pittsburg, and for the remelting of pig iron in\\ncupola furnaces in other localities. The coal from which\\nthis coke is made is mined in Fayette County, Pa. it is\\nof columnar structure, inclined to be granular, and easily\\nbroken into small fragments. In appearance this coal\\ndisplays prismatic colors on every side its specific grav-\\nity is 1.28 80 pounds per cubic foot. By proximate\\nanalysis it contains\\nFixed carbon 65.00 per cent.\\nVolatile combustible 24.00\\nMoisture 4. 50\\nAsh, white 6. 50\\n100.00\\nCoke 71.50 per cent, of steel-gray color, having a me-\\ntallic lustre, columnar, very strong, dense, slightly puffed", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0029.jp2"}, "30": {"fulltext": "24 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\non the surface this coke occurs in long pieces, not un-\\nlike ordinary cord wood sawed in half. It is an excellent\\nfuel for melting iron. It requires a strong draft, about\\nthe same as hard anthracite coal. It yields an intense\\nheat, burns free under a strong blast, and will support a\\nconsiderable weight of iron above it in the cupola without\\ncrushing.\\nQ. What is the object in coking coals?\\ni. The coking of bituminous coal is intended to drive off\\nthe volatile combustible gases and thereby to concentrate\\nthe carbon which the coal contains, so that the coke may\\nbe capable of producing a higher temperature.\\n2. To remove the volatile substances which on burning,\\nchiefly for domestic purposes, have an unpleasant smell.\\n3. To deprive the coal of the property of becoming\\npasty at a high temperature, in iron blast furnaces for\\ninstance, in consequence of which the blast cannot pene-\\ntrate sufficiently, and the process of the furnace becomes\\ndisordered.\\n4. To remove part of the sulphur, which coal frequently\\ncontains in the form of sulphide of iron.\\nThe production of good coke requires a combination of\\nqualities not very frequently met with in coal, and hence\\nfirst-rate coking coals can be procured only from certain\\ndistricts.\\nQ. What are the general properties of coke\\nThe properties of coke must in some degree be influ-\\nenced by the properties of the coal from which it is made.\\nIn external features it will depend whether the coke is the\\nproduct of a gas retort or that of an oven, the general ap-\\npearance being wholly unlike. As an article of commerce\\ncokes contain Carbon, 80 to 96 per cent ash, 2 to 15;", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0030.jp2"}, "31": {"fulltext": "CANNEL COAL. 25\\nhygroscopic moisture, 1 to 5 and is capable of absorbing\\nfrom 5 to 10 per cent additional water if exposed to the\\nweather.\\nCoke weighs 40 to 60 pounds per cubic foot and the\\ndenser varieties more. About 60 cubic feet of space are\\nrequired for storage per ton.\\nQ. What properties in the coal are required for making\\nthe best coke?\\nTo make a homogeneous good coke the fixed carbon of\\nthe coal must be of a kind that will melt at the lowest pos-\\nsible temperature; for if the process of coking produces\\nthe least pressure on the volatile hydrocarbons whereby\\nthere is an increase of heat, such pressure causes so com-\\nplete a liquefaction and expansion of the fixed carbon that\\nthe coke is left cellular instead of being compact.\\nQ. For what purposes is coke chiefly employed\\nCoke may be employed in all kinds of firing which do\\nnot require a large flame, but it is most effective in those\\ninstances in which great heat is required in a small space,\\nas, for instance, in crucible meltings, in smelting of iron\\nores in blast furnaces, in remelting of pig iron in cupola\\nfurnaces, etc. When a sufficient quantity of air is ad-\\nmitted, coke produces a far greater heat than charcoal.\\nAs it remains longer in the furnace than charcoal before\\nbeing ignited, it undergoes a better preparatory heating\\nbefore ignition, and by this means its effect is increased.\\nQ. What is cannel coal\\nCannel coal is a variety of bituminous coal very rich in\\nhydrogen. In appearance this coal differs from all other\\nbituminous coals. Its structure is more nearly homoge-\\nneous than others, being a compact mass, varying from", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0031.jp2"}, "32": {"fulltext": "26 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nbrown to black in color, and having usually a dull resinous\\nlustre. When broken it does not usually preserve any\\ndistinct order of fracture, and is liable to split in any\\ndirection. On account of its being excessively rich in\\nhydrocarbons it is highly esteemed as a gas coal, prefer-\\nence being given to those coals in which hydrogen bears\\nthe greatest proportion to the contained oxygen.\\nThe amount of combustible matter which it contains,\\nand the readiness with which this is given off in com-\\nbustion, account for the name given it by the miners\\nas cannel, a corruption of candle coal. This coal\\nkindles readily and burns without melting, emitting a\\nbright flame like that of a candle. When thrown in the\\nfire the piece splits up into fragments, producing a crack-\\nling noise, which, from a fancied resemblance, has also\\nreceived the name of parrot coal. It is highly es-\\nteemed for domestic use, being especially bright and\\ncheerful when burned in an open grate. Cannel coals are\\nused for enriching gas made from coals containing a large\\namount of volatile combustible, but somewhat deficient in\\nilluminating power.\\nQ. What is the composition of cannel coal\\nCannel coal occurs in so few localities that the variations\\nin composition are less noticeable than is the case with\\nother varieties of bituminous coal. Cannel coal from\\nBreckenridge, Ky., analyzed by Dr. Peters, resulted in:\\nProximate Analysis.\\nCarbon 32.00 per cent.\\nVolatile combustible 54-4\u00c2\u00b0\\nMoisture 1 30\\nAsh 12.30\\n100.00", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0032.jp2"}, "33": {"fulltext": "CANNEL COAL.\\n27\\nElementary Analysis.\\nCarbon 68. 128 per cent.\\nHydrogen 6. 489\\nNitrogen 2.274\\nOxygen and loss 5. 833\\nSulphur 2. 476\\nAsh 14. 800\\nCannel coal from Davis County, Ind. Analysis by E.\\nT. Cox. Specific gravity, 1.229 76.81 pounds per cubic\\nfoot.\\nProximate Analysis.\\nCarbon 42. 00 per cent.\\nVolatile combustible 48. 50\\nMoisture 3. 50\\nAsh, white 6.00\\n100.00\\nCoke, 48 per cent, laminated, not swollen, lustreless.\\nElementary Analysis.\\nCarbon 71.10 per cent.\\nHydrogen 6. 06\\nOxygen 12. 74\\nNitrogen 1. 45\\nSulphur 1. 00\\nAsh 7.65\\nQ. What is the calorific value of cannel coal?\\nThe calorific power of cannel coal from Davis County,\\nInd., analysis of which is given on this page, is 13,131 heat\\nunits per pound of coal. This is equal to an equivalent\\nevaporation of 13.58 pounds of water from and at 21 2\u00c2\u00b0 F.\\nper pound of coal.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0033.jp2"}, "34": {"fulltext": "28 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nQ. What properties do non-caking coals exhibit in the\\nfire?\\nNon -caking coals have the property of burning free in\\nthe fire much the same as wood charcoal burns that is,\\nheat does not cause them to fuse or run together in the\\nfire. Perhaps the representative non-caking bituminous\\ncoal is the block coal of the Western States, and notice-\\nably that of Indiana.\\nQ. What is block coal\\nBlock coal is a non-caking bituminous coal occurring in\\nlarge quantities in Indiana. It may be described as lami-\\nnated in structure, consisting of successive layers of coal,\\neasily separated into thin horizontal slices, not unlike\\nslate. Between these slices of coal is a layer of fibrous\\ncarbon resembling charcoal. In appearance it has a dull,\\nlustreless face on the line of separation, and glistening or\\nresinous black when broken at right angles to its horizon-\\ntal face. A peculiarity of this formation, and that which\\ngives it its name, is the presence of fractures occurring\\nin the coal bed at right angles, or nearly so, and extending\\nfrom top to bottom of the seam, enabling the miner to get\\nit out in rectangular blocks, as these lines of fracture indi-\\ncate or permit. It is a very strong coal, and will burn\\nwell under a heavy load without crushing. The blocks\\nare very compact, and will endure rough handling and\\nstocking without suffering material loss from abrasion.\\nA sample of typical block coal from near Brazil, Clay\\nCounty, Ind., has the following characteristics The coal\\nof a dull lustreless black, in thin laminae, separated by\\nfibrous charcoal partings, very strong across the bedding\\nlines, free from pyrites and calcite. A sample fresh", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0034.jp2"}, "35": {"fulltext": "BLOCK COAL. 29\\nfrom the mine, and holding an excess of moisture, analysis\\nby E. T. Cox. Specific gravity, 1. 285 80. 3 1 pounds per\\ncubic foot.\\nFixed carbon 56. 50 per cent.\\nVolatile combustible 32. 50\\nMoisture 8.50\\nAsh, white 2. 50\\n100.00\\nCoke 59 per cent, laminated, not swollen, lustreless.\\nThe 8.50 per cent of moisture was reduced by exposure\\nto the air to about 3. 50 per cent. The heat units in the\\nwet coal= 13,588, and that of the dry coal 14,400.\\nThis coal is used as fuel in blast furnaces for smelting\\niron, and in puddling furnaces. It is largely used for\\nsteam-making and for domestic stoves, grates, etc.\\nA test of Indiana block coal by A. F. Nagle in steam-\\nmaking yielded as follows\\nRatio of heating to grate surface 50 to 1\\nAsh, per cent 7.25\\nRate of combustion, pounds per square foot of\\ngrate 15\\nTemperature of escaping gases 557\u00c2\u00b0 F.\\nEvaporation per pound of combustible from and\\nat 212 10.05 pounds.\\nQ. What is brown coal?\\nBrown coal is an imperfect coal. The term is often\\nused interchangeably with lignite. The brown coal of the\\nGermans is distinguished from true coals by the large pro-\\nportion of oxygen in its composition. The chemical dif-\\nference between brown coal and lignite may be determined\\nby dry distillation, in which the lignite yields acetic acid\\nand acetate of ammonia, whereas the brown coal produces\\nonly ammoniacal liquor. Woody fibre gives rise to acetic", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0035.jp2"}, "36": {"fulltext": "30 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nacid. Lignite must therefore still contain undecomposed\\nwoody fibre. It, together with brown coal, belongs chiefly\\nto the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods (Cox). According\\nto their geological age brown coals have either a distinct\\ntexture (true lignite, fibrous brown coal), or are without\\norganic structure and earthy in fracture (earthy brown\\ncoal), or black, shining, with conchoidal fracture.\\nThorpe s analysis of organic substance consists of Car-\\nbon, 60; hydrogen, 5 oxygen, 35 100 in fibrous brown\\ncoal; and carbon, 75; hydrogen, 5; oxygen, 20 100 in\\nconchoidal brown coal.\\nThe analysis of brown coal from Ballard County, Ky.,\\nshows it to contain 20 to 30 per cent less fixed carbon\\nthan coals of the Carboniferous epoch, and a larger quan-\\ntity of hygrometric moisture. The specific gravity of this\\ncoal is 1. 173.\\nFixed carbon 31.0 per cent.\\nVolatile combustible 48. o\\nMoisture 11. 5\\nAsh, white 9.5\\n100. o\\nThe large quantity of hygrometric moisture in this coal\\nlessens its evaporative power as compared with any aver-\\nage bituminous coal for steam-making. It is quite im-\\nprobable that any considerable quantity of available heat is\\ngiven off by the volatile combustible in this coal and that\\nits heating power is limited, almost if not entirely, to the\\nfixed carbon, yielding 4,495 heat units, or an equivalent\\nevaporation of 4.66 pounds of water from and at 21 2\u00c2\u00b0 F.\\nper pound of coal.\\nQ. What is lignite?\\nLignite is classed among mineral coals, and includes", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0036.jp2"}, "37": {"fulltext": "LIGNITE. 3 1\\nthose varieties which form the intermediate stage between\\npeat and true coals of the Carboniferous age. It is believed\\nto be of later origin than bituminous coal, and is in a less\\nadvanced stage of decomposition. The woody fibre and\\nvegetable texture of lignite are almost entirely wanting in\\ncoal, though there is little doubt that they are of one com-\\nmon origin.\\nLignite varies considerably in appearance and structure,\\nusually, however, preserving a wood-like appearance when\\nbroken. The fracture is uneven, presenting a brown to a\\nvery dark brown-black color, with a dull and frequently a\\nfatty lustre. Lignites break easily and crumble in han-\\ndling they will not bear rough transportation to great dis-\\ntance neither will they bear long-continued exposure to\\nweather, crumbling rapidly. As a fuel lignite must be used\\nin its natural state, and near where it is mined, to get the\\nbest results. It is non-coking in the fire, and yields but\\nmoderate heat as compared with the best bituminous\\ncoals.\\nIn specific gravity lignites vary from 1. 10 to 1.35, cor-\\nresponding to 68.75 t0 84.38 pounds per cubic foot.\\nQ. Where are lignites principally found?\\nLignites and brown coal occur plentifully on the\\ncontinent of Europe. In the United States very extensive\\ndeposits occur in Colorado, Nevada, Utah, Wyoming, New\\nMexico, California, Oregon, and Alaska, and in lesser\\nquantity in some other States. As the States and Terri-\\ntories west of the Mississippi are developed, lignite will\\nbecome a matter of growing importance, as it must be-\\ncome their chief fuel after the disappearance of the for-\\nests.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0037.jp2"}, "38": {"fulltext": "32 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nQ. What is the composition of lignite?\\nThe lignites of the United States vary greatly in their\\nchemical composition, consisting of\\nFixed carbon 40 to 70 per cent.\\nVolatile combustible 23 to 48\\nMoisture 4 to 40\\nAsh 3 to 20\\nColorado lignite, Canon City: Color, jet black; specific\\ngravity, 1.279.\\nFixed carbon 56. 80 per cent.\\nVolatile combustible 34. 20\\nMoisture 4.50\\nAsh, ochre yellow 4. 50\\n100.00\\nCoke 61.30 percent, slightly swollen, unchanged, semi-lustrous (Cox).\\nWashington lignite, Billingham Bay: Color, glossy\\nblack fracture slaty and parallel to stratification. In the\\nopposite direction the fracture is irregular and brittle.\\nProximate Analysis.\\nFixed carbon 58.25 per cent.\\nVolatile combustible 31-75\\nMoisture 7.00\\nAsh, reddish brown 3.00\\n100.00\\nCoke 61.25 per cent, slightly shrunken, dull black.\\nUltimate Analysis.\\nFirst Second\\nsample. sample.\\nCarbon Per cent 68. 454 67. 090\\nHydrogen 6.666 4-555\\nSulphur 1. 000 1. 000\\nWater at 212 F 7.000 7.000\\nAshes 3-4QO 3. 100\\nOxygen, nitrogen and loss 13.480 17.255\\n100.000 100.000", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0038.jp2"}, "39": {"fulltext": "LIGNITE. 33\\nSamples contained a large amount of oxygen and were\\ndeficient in the amount of hydrocarbons, and therefore\\nmore difficult of ignition than most of the Western varie-\\nties of bituminous coals but it is rich in fixed carbon in\\nthe coke and will therefore be durable. It is intermediate\\nin composition of its ultimate elements to cannel coal and\\nlignites (Cox).\\nKentucky lignite, Ballard County Sample had much\\nthe appearance of coal, hence apt to be mistaken for it\\nbut it is of much more recent origin. Specific gravity,\\n1.201.\\nFixed carbon 40 per cent.\\nVolatile combustible 23\\nMoisture 30\\nAsh, reddish yellow 7\\n100\\nCoke 47 per cent. Reduced in bulk and nearly the same shape as orig-\\ninal specimen (Cox).\\nArkansas lignite, Ouachita County This lignite has a\\nrhomboidal cleavage. Can be cut with a knife, and re-\\nceives a good polish, which gives it a much blacker ap-\\npearance. It is solid, heavy, compact, of a bluish-brown\\ncolor, disintegrating, however, by exposure to the atmos-\\nphere.\\nFixed carbon 34. 50 per cent.\\nVolatile combustible 28.50\\nMoisture at 260 F 32. 00\\nAsh 5.00\\n100.00\\nCoke 39,5 per cent.\\nVancouver s Island lignite Color, dull black, submetal-\\nlic. Fracture, foliated and slaty, numerous partings filled\\nwith scales cf carbonate of lime.\\n3", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0039.jp2"}, "40": {"fulltext": "34 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nFixed carbon 62 per cent.\\nVolatile combustible 31\\nMoisture 4\\nAsh, reddish brown 3\\n100\\nCoke 65 per cent. This lignite shrinks slightly in coking, and is dull\\nblack in color (Cox).\\nTexas lignite, Robertson County Sample taken from\\nseam ten feet thick. Color, lustreless, dull brown, with\\nirregular fracture and much inclined to shrink, crack, and\\nfall to pieces on exposure to air. Specific gravity, 1.232.\\nFixed carbon 45. 00 per cent.\\nVolatile combustible 39. 50\\nMoisture 11.00\\nAsh, white 4. 50\\n100.00\\nCoke, slightly shrunken, lustreless, and bears a close resemblance to\\nwood charcoal. Heat units, 13,068.\\nThe ash of lignites is extremely variable as to quality\\nas well as to quantity. In composition it is similar to\\nthat of bituminous coal. It differs from the ash of peat\\nin the low percentage of phosphoric acid. Usually it is\\nrich in sulphur, as gypsum, iron pyrites, and sometimes as\\nfree sulphur.\\nQ. What is the quality of coke obtained from lignite\\nLignites are in general non-caking in an open fire. The\\ncoke obtained by distillation from the best lignites is not\\nof good quality and takes rank much below the inferior\\ngrades of coke made from gas coals.\\nQ. How are woods classified?\\nWood as a fuel is commonly divided into two classes\\nhard and soft. Hard woods include the heavy compact", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0040.jp2"}, "41": {"fulltext": "WOOD.\\n35\\nvarieties, such as oak, hickory, beech, elm, ash, walnut, etc.\\nThe soft woods include pine, birch, poplar, willow, etc.\\nThe specific gravity of wood varies considerably. Air-\\ndried woods, with 20 per cent hygroscopic moisture, hav-\\ning a specific gravity of more than o. 5 5 are classed as hard\\nwoods; with a lower specific gravity they are classed as\\nsoft woods. After complete expulsion of air from the\\npores the specific gravity is the same in all woods, viz., 1.5.\\nQ. What is the composition of wood\\nWood consists of about 96 per cent of organic tissue\\nand 4 per cent of sap, containing a small proportion of\\ninorganic matter. Freshly cut green wood contains on an\\naverage about 45 per cent of moisture; and after long\\nexposure to the atmosphere under favorable conditions it\\nstill retains from 1 8 to 20 per cent of moisture, a matter\\nof practical importance in the direct application of wood\\nas fuel. The accompanying table, by M. Eugene Chevan-\\ndier, shows the composition of several well-known varie-\\nties of wood\\nTable 5. Composition of Wood (Chevandier)\\nWoods.\\nComposition in Per Cent.\\nCarbon.\\nHydrogen.\\nOxygen.\\nNitrogen.\\nAsh.\\nBeech\\nOak\\n49-36\\n49.64\\n50.20\\n49-37\\n49-9D\\n6.0I\\n5.92\\n6.20\\n6.21\\n5.96\\n42.69\\n41.16\\n41.62\\n41.60\\n39-56\\nO.9I\\nI.29\\nI- 15\\n.96\\n.96\\nI. OO\\n1.97\\n.81\\n1.86\\n3-37\\nBirch\\nPoplar\\nWillow\\nAverage\\n49.70\\n6.06\\n4I.3O\\nI.05\\n1.80\\nQ. What quantity of moisture is contained in wood\\nWood contains about 45 per cent of moisture when\\nfreshly cut. Some of this is lost by subsequent evapora-", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0041.jp2"}, "42": {"fulltext": "36\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\ntion in the atmosphere, but there still remains about 20\\nper cent of moisture which cannot be expelled except by.\\nmeans of artificial heat. The following table, prepared by\\nM. Violette, shows the proportion of water expelled from\\nwood at gradually increasing temperatures. The samples\\nof wood operated upon had been kept in store during two\\nyears. In each experiment the specimens were exposed\\nduring two hours to desiccation in a current of superheated\\nsteam, of which the temperature was gradually raised from\\n257 to 437 F. When wood, which has been strongly\\ndried by means of artificial heat, is left exposed to the at-\\nmosphere, it reabsorbs about as much water as it contains\\nin its air-dried state.\\nTable 6. Water Expelled from 100 Parts of Wood (Violette).\\nTemperatures\\n257\u00c2\u00b0F\\n302 F\\n347\u00c2\u00b0F\\n392\u00c2\u00b0 F\\n437\u00c2\u00b0 F\\nOak.\\n15.26\\n17-93\\n32.13\\n35.80\\n44- 3 1\\nAsh.\\n14.78\\n16.19\\n21.22\\n27.51\\n33-38\\nElm.\\n15.32\\nI7.02\\n36.94?\\n33.38\\n40.56\\nWalnut.\\n15-55\\n17-43\\n21.00\\n41.77?\\n36.56\\nQ. What is a distinguishing property of wood as a\\nfuel\\nThough the calorific intensity of wood is small as com-\\npared with coal, its combustibility is greater than that of\\nany other solid fuel, and it gives more flame.\\nQ. What is bagasse?\\nBagasse is the woody fibre of sugar-cane after the\\nsaccharine juices have been expelled for sugar-making.\\nSpecial furnaces have been contrived for burning it, and\\nwith fair results. The contained water is about 50 per\\ncent of the gross weight. The remaining fibre is not un-", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0042.jp2"}, "43": {"fulltext": "TAN. 37\\nlike wood in its heat-giving power. On an average six\\npounds of bagasse are equivalent to one pound good bitu-\\nminous coal.\\nQ. What is tan\\nTan is the spent bark from which the tannic acid has\\nbeen extracted in the process of tanning leather. The\\nbarks commonly used are oak and hemlock. The princi-\\npal drawback to tan as a fuel is its contained moisture,\\nand for this reason special furnaces are made for burning\\nit. Tan bark, as commonly used for fuel, will yield about\\n3,600 heat units per pound, which is one-half the value of\\nordinary dry wood, and about one-fourth the value of good\\nbituminous coal.\\nIf it were not for the contained moisture in tan very\\nmuch higher calorific results could be obtained. Accord-\\ning to M. Peclet 5 parts of oak bark produce 4 parts of\\ndry tan, and the heating power of perfectly dry tan, con-\\ntaining 15 per cent of ash, is 6,100 heat units, while that\\nof tan in an ordinary state of dryness, containing 30 per\\ncent of water, is only 4,284 heat units. The equivalent\\nevaporation from and at 21 2\u00c2\u00b0 F. would be:\\nPerfectly dry tan J ~TZ~ 6. 3 1 pounds of water.\\n4,284\\net tan, 30 per cent water, 4.44 pounds of water.\\n900\\nResults which are much higher than obtain in average\\npractice.\\nQ. What is peat?\\nPeat is the product of the decay of plants which are un-\\ndergoing a gradual transformation by a process of slow\\nburning or carbonization, in which the oxygen of the", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0043.jp2"}, "44": {"fulltext": "38 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nplants is being liberated under special conditions of air\\nand moisture, leaving a spongy, carbonaceous mass, in\\nwhich the remains of the plants are often so well preserved\\nthat species may easily be distinguished.\\nIn color peat varies from a yellowish brown through all\\ngradations to a very dark brown, almost black. The struc-\\nture of the former is light, spongy, and fibrous the latter\\nis more compact and pitchy in appearance, the fibrous tex-\\nture being almost entirely obliterated. In advanced stages\\nof decomposition it is compact and dense, presenting an\\nearthy fracture when broken in general the darker the\\npeat the richer it is in carbon.\\nQ. What is the composition of peat\\nIn its natural and more advanced state peat contains\\nabout 75 per cent of its entire weight of water. In the\\nearlier stages of decomposition the quantity of water more\\nnearly approaches 90 per cent, the peat being of the con-\\nsistency of mire, and is of course totally unfit for any of\\nthe purposes for which fuel is employed.\\nPeat shrinks very much in drying, yet 20 to 30 per\\ncent of moisture still remain in ordinary air-dried samples.\\nThe remaining product is decomposed vegetable matter\\nand contains the elements common to plants. The chemi-\\ncal composition of peat varies according to its stage of\\ndecomposition. The following analysis of Irish peat is\\nupon the authority of Sir Robert Kane\\nLight fibrous. Compact\\nand dense.\\nCarbon 58. 53 56. 34\\nHydrogen 5.73 4.81\\nOxygen 32. 32 30. 20\\nNitrogen 93 .74\\nAsh 2.47 7.90", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0044.jp2"}, "45": {"fulltext": "PEAT. 39\\nThese samples yielded by distillation\\nLight fibrous. Compact\\nand dense.\\nWater 38. 1 38.1\\nCrude tar 4. 4 2. 8\\nCharcoal 21.8 32.6\\nGas 35.7 26.5\\nThe tar when redistilled yielded water, paraffine oils, char-\\ncoal, and gas. The water yielded chloride of ammonium,\\nacetic acid, and wood spirit.\\nThe inorganic constituents of peat vary from 0.5 to 20,\\nor even 50 per cent, according to the elevation at which\\nthe peat was formed. The average ash-giving constitu-\\nent is from 6 to 12 per cent, and, unlike that of wood,\\nthe ash is poor in alkalies, and consists chiefly of a mix-\\nture of\\nArgillaceous sand up to 35 per cent.\\nMagnesia-bearing gypsum 40\\nFerric oxide 30\\nAlkalies 3\\nWith traces of phosphoric acid and chlorine.\\nQ. What is the density of peat?\\nThe density of peat varies according to its occurrence\\nwith reference to the surface of the ground, that belong-\\ning to the upper stratum being lightest. The specific grav-\\nity of the light fibrous peat in the preceding question is but\\n0.280, while the compact and dense peat in the same para-\\ngraph is 0.65 5. Thus the light fibrous peat =17.5 pounds\\nper cubic foot, or 114 cubic feet per ton of 2,000 pounds.\\nThe compact and dense peat 40.94 pounds per cubic foot,\\nor 48.85 cubic feet per ton of 2,000 pounds. Compressed\\npeat will weigh from 70 to 85 pounds per cubic foot, or\\nfrom 24 to 30 cubic feet per ton of 2,000 pounds. The\\ndense peat found in the lower strata of peat beds, and", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0045.jp2"}, "46": {"fulltext": "40 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nwhich is in a more advanced state of decomposition, is not\\neasily compressible. Its specific gravity is seldom greater\\nthan that of water or unity therefore the densest varie-\\nties will seldom weigh more than 62.5 pounds per cubic\\nfoot, or 32 cubic feet per ton.\\nQ. How is peat prepared for use as fuel?\\nThe machinery used for making peat fuel is not expen-\\nsive, and requires but little attention when in operation.\\nIf the fibre of the upper formation of peat is crushed or\\nmilled while it is still wet, the contraction in drying is\\nmuch increased; and as surface peat is always fibrous and\\nspongy, it is the lightest. This breaking up of its fibres\\nfacilitates its subsequent compression for use as fuel, the\\ndegree of compression varying with the density of the\\npeat, which grows more dense in the lower strata, where\\nthe fibrous texture is nearly or wholly obliterated.\\nIn Canada the peat is cut and air-dried, after which it is\\npulverized by being passed through a picker and auto-\\nmatically deposited in a hopper, which feeds a steel tube\\nabout two inches in diameter and fifteen inches long.\\nThe pulverized peat is forced through this tube by press-\\nure, and formed into cylindrical blocks three inches in\\nlength and almost equal in density to anthracite coal.\\nThe fuel is non-friable and weather-proof by reason of its\\nsolidity and the glaze imparted to it by frictional contact\\nwith forming dies. The inherent moisture of the peat is\\nreduced to 12 per cent of the mass. It is claimed that\\npeat can be thus prepared at a cost of 60 cents per ton.\\nQ. What are the properties of peat charcoal?\\nThe charcoal produced by the carbonization of ordinary\\nair-dried peat is very friable and porous; it takes fire", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0046.jp2"}, "47": {"fulltext": "PEAT. 41\\nreadily, and when ignited continues to burn until its car-\\nbonaceous matter is wholly consumed; it scintillates in a\\nremarkable degree when burnt in a smith s fire; its ex-\\ntinction when in mass is difficult, and hence this is the\\ntroublesome part of its manufacture by the usual method\\nof carbonization in piles and it is so little coherent that\\nit cannot be conveyed without much of it being crushed to\\ndust.\\nWhen sufficiently coherent, and when the percentage of\\nphosphoric acid is low, it may be used in low, small fur-\\nnaces. Peat charcoal is easily kindled, and has a calorific\\npower of 11,700 to 12,600 heat units. It is not adapted\\nfor iron-making, but may advantageously be used for gas\\nfurnaces on account of the large size of the lumps, absence\\nof clinkers, and the fact that the ash readily falls through\\nthe bars.\\nQ. Where is peat principally found\\nPeat formations are confined to cold and temperate\\ncountries and swampy ground. It occurs in the United\\nStates, Canada, Ireland, Sweden, Germany, France, and\\nother countries. In Europe peat is used not only for do-\\nmestic purposes, but for metallurgical purposes as well.\\nOne of the most extensive peat beds known is in the Kan-\\nkakee valley, Indiana, the bed being some three miles wide\\nand sixty miles long, varying from five to fifty feet in\\nthickness.\\nQ. How may peat be classified\\nPeat may be classified (1) according to the localities\\nwhere it has been formed, as lowland and mountain peat\\n(2) according to its age, as recent peat with distinct vege-\\ntable structure, and old peat of a dark brown or black\\ncolor, with more traces of organic texture (3) according to", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0047.jp2"}, "48": {"fulltext": "42 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nthe mode in which it has been extracted, as cut peat or\\ndredge peat (Thorpe).\\nQ. What are fuel briquettes\\nBriquette is a name given to a small body of prepared\\nfuel, made up chiefly of the culm of bituminous coal held\\ntogether by a bonding material, also combustible, the mix-\\nture being then compressed into a compact mass, of a size\\nand shape suitable for use as fuel.\\nBriquette-making has become quite an industry in Ger-\\nmany, Austria, and France, where the fuel question is\\nmuch more important than it is with us. The culm piles\\nare being utilized in those countries and made a profitable\\nsource of income.\\nBrown coal has so far been the chief material for bri-\\nquettes. Some recent experiments with briquettes made\\nof solidified petroleum or residuum have been made, which,\\nhowever, did not result satisfactorily, for the reason that\\nthe boilers were unable to withstand the intense heat de-\\nveloped by this kind of fuel.\\nL Industrie describes a process devised by the chemist\\nVelna, who uses petroleum or mineral tar only for enrich-\\ning culm and other inferior, formerly worthless combus-\\ntibles, and produces briquettes from this material the\\nheating power of which is 30 per cent higher than that of\\ngood coal. He first prepares a mixture consisting of pe-\\ntroleum or bituminous shale tar, oleine and soda in suit-\\nable proportion, and by this means the culm, slack, or coal\\ndust is cemented together. Three kinds of briquettes are\\nproduced in this way, namely, industrial briquettes for\\ngeneral firing purposes, gas briquettes for the manufacture\\nof illuminating gas, and metallurgical coke.\\nThe cost of briquettes by this method is said to be as", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0048.jp2"}, "49": {"fulltext": "PATENT FUEL. 43\\nfollows If culm or dust from a good coal, valued at $1.20\\nper ton (France 2, 205 pounds), be taken for their manu-\\nfacture, six per cent of the mixture would be sufficient.\\nThe price of a ton of briquettes would be\\n94 per cent coal 2,073 pounds 6 cents $1. 24\\n6 mixture 132 60 79\\nLabor 40\\nTotal cost per ton $2.43\\nIt is claimed that the heating power of these briquettes\\nexceeds that of average coal by at least 25 per cent.\\nQ. What is patent fuel\\nPatent fuel is a term much used in Europe to designate\\ncompressed fuels as a class. Numerous patents have been\\ntaken out for producing a good fuel by mixing various sub-\\nstances with small coal, in proportions sufficient to enable\\nthe mixture to be pressed into a coherent block. Various\\nbinding materials have been tried, such as soluble glass,\\nasphalt, turpentine. Meal from potatoes was abandoned\\nbecause the blocks were not water-tight. Coal tar (War-\\nlick s process) was tried at Swansea, England, the blocks\\nbeing baked after compression, whereby a quantity of tar\\nwas recovered. On the Continent cellulose (German pat-\\nent) and treacle (crude molasses) have been tried. Pitch\\nmade from coal tar has been used for many years with\\ngreat success.\\nIn the dry process small coal is carried by an elevator\\ninto a large bunker, whence it is lifted by another ele-\\nvator to a chute, into which it is tipped with the contents\\nof a small elevator containing pitch. The mixture then\\npasses into a disintegrator, and the resulting product, con-\\ntaining 8 to 12 percent of pitch, passes to heaters, and", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0049.jp2"}, "50": {"fulltext": "44 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nfinally to the presses, which turn out ioo to 200 blocks,\\nweighing 10 to 30 pounds, per day of twelve hours.\\nIn the steam process there is used a large vertical iron\\ncylinder with arms revolving inside, constantly kept full\\nof a mixture of pitch and coal. High-pressure steam is\\ninjected near the bottom and allowed to percolate up\\nthrough the mass, while the arms expose every portion to\\nits action.\\nAttempts have been made to utilize peat by mixing it\\nin a state of powder with small coal and sawdust, and\\npressing the mixture into blocks (Thorpe).\\nQ. What advantages are claimed for artificial fuels?\\nThe advantages claimed for patent fuels over ordinary\\ncoal are stated to consist\\n1. In their efficacy in generating steam.\\n2. In occupying less space; that is to say, 500 tons of\\npatent fuel may be stowed in an area which will contain\\nonly 400 tons of coal.\\n3. They are used with much greater ease by the firemen\\nthan coal, and they create little or no dust or dirt, con-\\nsiderations of some importance where no bulkhead sepa-\\nrates the fire-room from the engine-room.\\n4. They produce a very small proportion of clinkers,\\nand are far less liable to choke and destroy the furnace\\ngrates than coal.\\n5. The combustion is so complete that comparatively\\nlittle smoke and only a small quantity of ashes are pro-\\nduced by them.\\n6. From the mixture of the patent fuel and the manner\\nof its manufacture it is not liable to enter into sponta-\\nneous ignition.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0050.jp2"}, "51": {"fulltext": "PATENT FUEL. 45\\nQ. What is the composition of Grants patent fuel\\nThis fuel is composed of coal dust and coal-tar pitch.\\nThese materials are mixed together, under the influence of\\nheat, in the following proportions Twenty pounds of\\npitch to 112 pounds of coal dust, by appropriate machin-\\nery, consisting of crushing rollers for breaking the coal in\\nthe first instance, to pass through a one-fourth inch\\nscreen secondly, of mixing pans or cylinders heated to a\\ntemperature of 220 F., either by steam or by heated air;\\nand thirdly, of moulding machines by which the fuel is\\ncompressed, under a pressure, equal to five tons, into the\\nsize of a common brick. The fuel bricks are then white-\\nwashed, which prevents their sticking together, either in\\nthe coal bunkers or in hot climates.\\nQ. What is the Strong method of making artificial\\nfuel?\\nThe combination of materials and processes of manufac-\\nturing artificial fuel or coal briquette by R. S. Strong s\\nmethod is to wash the small coal in order to free the same\\nfrom shale and dirt, and convey it from the drainers to a\\ndisintegrator by which it is ground, adding about 2 per\\ncent of fresh calcined powdered alkaline earth, preferably\\nlime, in order to absorb the moisture in the coal. To this\\nis added 4 to 10 per cent (according to the nature of the\\ncoal or the purpose for which the fuel is intended) of\\npyroligneous acid, preferably from a steam-jacketed tank.\\nThis acid is the whole of the distillate from destructive\\ndistillation of wood or other ligneous substances and im-\\nmediately absorbs the lime and solidifies the mixture,\\nwhich is at once pressed in briquette form in the usual\\nway, and on leaving the press may be cooled by a fan or\\nblower and shipped or used at once.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0051.jp2"}, "52": {"fulltext": "46 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nIn carrying out the process with unwashed coal only one\\nper cent or less of the caustic alkaline earth is used to\\ngive a hook to the pyroligneous acid to act on, all other\\ntreatment being as before described.\\nFuel manufactured as described is suitable for house-\\nhold, steam, or metallurgical purposes, and burns with a\\nclear bright flame, and is produced at a reasonable cost.\\nQ. What is the Corning method of making artificial\\nfuel?\\nIn the working of the Gardner Corning process the\\nbinding ingredients employed for uniting the coal dust\\ninto briquettes are suitable bitumens and quick or fresh-\\nburned lime. Of the bitumens natural asphaltum is pre-\\nferred, although the artificial bitumens, such as the by or\\nresidual products of petroleum, are suitable. The crude\\nnatural asphaltum, however, is too brittle for the purpose\\nand requires tempering by the admixture of some artificial\\nbitumen, especially a residuum oil of petroleum, to impart\\nelasticity and tenacity. To properly combine the coal\\ndust and bitumen, both are heated to as high temperature\\nas practicable without injury by burning or cooking. By\\nthorough intermixture while thus heated the thinnest pos-\\nsible film or coating of bitumen is given to the dust parti-\\ncles to secure their firm adhesion when cooled. The pref-\\nerable temperatures employed with natural asphaltum\\nhave been found to be about 300 F. for the dust and\\n320 to 340 for the asphaltum. If other bitumens are\\nused, the temperatures may be varied to adapt them to the\\ndifferent melting points of the bitumens. To secure the\\nmost efficient binding action of the lime, it is slaked with\\nsufficient water to make a liquid mass of about the consist-\\nency of cream, and which is therefore known as cream", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0052.jp2"}, "53": {"fulltext": "PATENT FUEL. 47\\nof lime. This is intermixed with the combined dust and\\nbitumen while their mass is still hot, and this step of the\\nprocess is the most essential part of the method.\\nThe proportions of the ingredients are Coal-dust, about\\n1,870 pounds; bitumen, about 80 pounds and lime, about\\n50 pounds.\\nWhere natural asphaltum is employed, about 5 pounds\\nof the artificial or tempering agent is mixed with about\\n75 pounds of the asphaltum.\\nEither anthracite, bituminous, or lignite coal dust may\\nbe worked by this process but the best results have been\\nsecured by combining bituminous dust with the other.\\nThe process in detail is as follows The coal dust is\\nheated to the requisite temperature, the asphaltum melted\\nand the tempering oil mixed with it, and the mixture\\nheated to the requisite degree. These are then thorough-\\nly combined in a mixer, which requires usually about\\nthree minutes. The cream of lime is then added to the\\nhot mass, the mixing operation being continued until the\\nwater begins to vaporize. The mass is then delivered to\\na press while still hot and moist, and formed as quickly as\\npossible into briquettes under heavy pressure.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0053.jp2"}, "54": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER II.\\nSOME ELEMENTARY DATA.\\nPHYSICS.\\nQ. What is meant by the term work?\\nWork is done when resistance is overcome. If a force\\nacts upon a body and produces motion in that body, the\\nforce is said to have done work; but if the force applied\\nfails to produce motion in the body thus acted upon, no\\nwork has been done by that force. The work done by a\\nforce is measured by the product of the force into the dis-\\ntance through which that force moves in its own direction,\\nor work force X distance.\\nQ. What is unit of work?\\nThe unit of work adopted in this country is the foot-\\npound, or that quantity of work done if a body Weighing\\none pound be lifted one foot high against the action of\\ngravity. The foot-pound is a gravitation unit, and is\\nwholly independent of time.\\nQ. What is meant by lost work?\\nOf the work put into a machine a certain portion of it\\nmust be expended in merely keeping the different parts in\\nmotion, and the work thus absorbed is lost work. The\\nfriction diagram of a steam-engine, for example, represents\\nso much lost work, inasmuch as it is necessary to overcome\\nall the resistances represented by the diagram before any", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0054.jp2"}, "55": {"fulltext": "ELEMENTARY DATA. 49\\nuseful effect can be obtained. Lost work force absorbed\\nin overcoming internal resistances X the distance it acts.\\nQ. What is meant by useful work?\\nUseful work is the work given out by a machine after\\ndeducting the frictional and other resistances incident to\\nrunning the machine empty at its normal speed. Suppose\\na steam-engine should indicate 220 H. P. and the friction\\ndiagram of the engine at the same speed indicated 25 H.\\nP., the useful work of the engine would be 220 25 195\\nH. P., or, as it is sometimes expressed, the net horse\\npower. Useful work force given out X the distance it\\nacts.\\nQ. What is meant by the term power?\\nPower is the rate of doing work. It is not the same as\\nforce it is not the same as pressure, because force and\\npressure act independently of time but time is an essen-\\ntial element when estimating the quantity of work done by\\na man or by a machine.\\nQ. What is the unit of power?\\nThe unit of power in mechanical engineering is called\\nthe horse power. It is the rate of doing work at 33,000\\nfoot-pounds per minute.\\nQ. How did the horse-power unit originate\\nJames Watt ascertained by experiment that an average\\ncart horse could develop 22,000 foot-pounds of work per\\nminute and being anxious to give good value to the pur-\\nchasers of his engines, he added 50 per cent to this\\namount, thus obtaining (22,000 1 1,000) the 33,000 foot-\\npounds per minute unit, by which the power of steam and\\nother engines has ever since been estimated (Jamison).\\n4", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0055.jp2"}, "56": {"fulltext": "50 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nQ. What is meant by the term energy?\\nEnergy is commonly explained as the capability of do-\\ning work, and by doing work is meant overcoming resist-\\nance. Energy is of two types, known as kinetic and poten-\\ntial but more specifically we have\\ni. Kinetic energy.\\n2. Gravitation energy.\\n3. Heat.\\n4. Energy of elasticity.\\n5. Cohesion energy.\\n6. Chemical energy.\\n7. Electrical energy.\\n8. Magnetic energy.\\n9. Radiant energy.\\nThis list includes all known separate forms.\\nQ. What is potential energy?\\nPotential energy is the energy due to position, or that\\nform of energy which a body possesses in virtue of its\\ncondition. Energy due to position may be illustrated in\\nthe case of a weight, say 50 pounds raised 10 feet high.\\nThis would represent a potential energy of 50 X 10 500\\nfoot-pounds, because if liberated it would through proper\\nmeans accomplish that quantity of work. This can be\\nconsidered, in the case of falling bodies, as gravitation\\nenergy. Energy due to condition may be illustrated in\\nthe case of the coiled spring of a clock, which when wound\\nup can do work in driving the train of mechanism, an ex-\\nample of energy due to the elasticity of the steel spring.\\nCoal when burned under proper conditions gives out heat\\nwhich may be utilized for generating steam and doing;\\nwork through, the medium of a steam-engine.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0056.jp2"}, "57": {"fulltext": "ENERGY. 5 1\\nQ. What is kinetic energy?\\nKinetic energy is the energy due to motion. It is not\\neasy to conceive of energy apart from motion, and this has\\nled some physicists to the conclusion that all energy is\\nprobably kinetic.\\nQ. Are the two types of energy, kinetic and potential,\\nmutually independent?\\nThe energy of motion and the energy of position or con-\\ndition are being continually changed one into the other.\\nThe conversion of one form of energy to another is seen\\nin a head of water employed to turn a water wheel. The\\nwater possesses energy due to its height above the wheel.\\nThe weight of the water impinging against the buckets of\\nthe wheel gives it motion and is thus capable of doing\\nwork.\\nQ. What is the great characteristic of enegy?\\nThat it may be transformed or transmuted from one\\nkind of energy into another kind of energy; but through\\nall its transformations the quantity present always remains\\nthe same, though known by different names, which after\\nall are but those of convenience in classification. It has\\nbeen suggested that each form of energy arises from a\\nmode of motion of some portion or portions of substances\\nor of matter, and that therefore all energy is kinetic.\\nQ. What is meant by transmutation of energy?\\nBy transmutation of energy is meant the changing of\\none kind of energy into another. There are many varie-\\nties of visible energy, but there is energy which is invis-\\nible and the one may be converted into the other. The\\nmost common illustration of this is the conversion of work", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0057.jp2"}, "58": {"fulltext": "52 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\ninto heat. This occurs when motion is arrested, whether\\nby percussion or by friction. It is the conversion of vis-\\nible or actual energy into heat that is, into molecular or\\ninvisible energy.\\nQ. What is meant by energy of fuel?\\nIts capacity to do work. Taken altogether the heating\\npower of coals will range ordinarily from 13,000 to 14,300\\nheat units per pound. The energy of fuel or its power to\\ndo work may be easily computed thus\\nSuppose a sample of coal to equal 14,000 heat units per\\npound this multiplied by 772, the thermal unit known as\\nJoule s equivalent, we have: 14,000 X 772 10,808,000\\npounds raised one foot high in one minute, this represent-\\ning the potential energy of one pound of coal. It will be\\nunderstood that the above represents the maximum limit\\nof work done by the complete combustion of one pound of\\ncoal, an amount of energy expressed in foot-pounds of\\nwork, far beyond any means at our command for its com-\\nplete utilization.\\nQ. Can energy be transferred from one form into\\nanother without loss?\\nThis is quite impossible; and it must not be supposed\\nthat the various forms of energy may be transformed into\\nmechanical energy or made to do work without loss in-\\ncident to the absorption by the various other forms of\\nenergy which are contiguous, and which are constantly\\nseeking fresh supplies of energy from a higher source than\\ntheir own. If these processes were not only transformable\\nbut reversible, then perpetual motion would be a fact.\\nWe know that heat, as a form of visible mechanical\\nenergy, is available only as we use it from a higher to a", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0058.jp2"}, "59": {"fulltext": "DISSIPATION OF ENERGY. 53\\nlower temperature; and we know further that once the\\nheat has spent its energy or capacity for doing work, there\\nis no way by which it can be restored. Heat may be\\nmade to do work, and work may be transferred into heat,\\nbut the processes are not reversible.\\nQ. What is meant by dissipation of energy\\nThe principle of dissipation of energy is that as any\\noperation going on in nature involves a transformation of\\nenergy, and transformation involves a certain amount of\\ndegradation (degraded energy meaning energy less capable\\nof being transformed than before), energy is therefore con-\\ntinually becoming less and less transformable. As these\\nchanges are constantly going on in nature, the energy\\nmust of necessity be getting lower and lower in the scale,\\nso that its ultimate form must be that of heat so diffused\\nas to give all bodies the same temperature. In order to\\nget any work out of heat, it is absolutely necessary to have\\na hotter body and a colder one but if all the energy be\\ntransformed into heat, and if it be in all bodies at the\\nsame temperature, then it is impossible to raise the small-\\nest part of that energy into a more available form.\\nQ. What is a thermometer?\\nA thermometer is an instrument for measuring tempera-\\ntures constructed upon the principle of the expansion of\\nbodies by heat.\\nIt consists in its common form of a glass tube termi-\\nnating in a bulb containing mercury, which fills the bulb\\nand part of the tube and the rise or fall of the mercury\\nin the tube, according as the mass of it in the bulb ex-\\npands or contracts, indicates any change of temperature in\\nthe surrounding medium.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0059.jp2"}, "60": {"fulltext": "54 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nQ. Why is mercury commonly used for indicating\\ntemperatures in a thermometer\\nFor general purposes mercury is the most suitable sub-\\nstance for use in thermometers because the range between\\nits points of solidification and ebullition is greater than\\nthat of any known fluid. It is also a good conductor of\\nheat, and is consequently rapid in its indications and sen-\\nsitive to sudden changes of temperature. Liquids are\\nprogressively more expansive at higher than at lower tem-\\nperatures but in the case of mercury the higher expan-\\nsion at higher temperatures is less than in any other fluid\\nbody. Hence it is better adapted than any of them for\\nthe construction of thermometers.\\nQ. What are the limiting temperatures of a mercury\\nthermometer\\nMercury freezes at 40 F. and boils at 6oo\u00c2\u00b0 F. Re-\\nliable readings of temperature of a mercury thermometer\\nare therefore limited between 30 to 550 F.\\nQ. What constants are employed when fixing standards\\nof temperature?\\nIn order to measure temperature, certain fixed tempera-\\ntures must be determined upon. The constants generally\\nemployed are the melting point of ice and the boiling\\npoint of water at the average atmospheric pressure.\\nQ. What is absolute zero?\\nThe absolute zero of temperature may be defined as the\\ntemperature corresponding to the disappearance of gaseous\\nelasticity. It has been fixed by reasoning, and has never\\nbeen measured. The law of expansion of a perfect gas is\\nthat, the temperature remaining the same, its volume is\\ninversely proportional to the pressure of the gas so also,", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0060.jp2"}, "61": {"fulltext": "THERMOMETER. \u00c2\u00a35\\nthe pressure remaining the same, the volume of the gas\\nwill be proportional to the temperature.\\nThe rate of expansion of a perfect gas per degree is\\n0.00203 at 32 F., so that for each degree in rise of tem-\\nperature the gas increases ^l-g- in volume, therefore the\\nvolume of the gas would be doubled if its temperature be\\nraised 493 F. This law holds good above the freezing\\npoint, there is no reason for doubting that it holds equal-\\nly good for temperatures below freezing; we have then\\n493 less 32 46 1 F. as the absolute zero of tem-\\nperature.\\nQ. What are the two thermometric scales in common\\nuse\\nThe two thermometric scales in common use are the\\nFahrenheit and the Centigrade. The zero point in the\\nFahrenheit scale corresponds to that temperature obtained\\nby a mixture of snow and salt, which is marked 3 2\u00c2\u00b0 below\\nthe freezing point of water. The height of the mercury\\nat the boiling point of water at atmospheric pressure hav-\\ning been marked on the scale, the whole distance between\\nthe freezing and the boiling point of water is divided into\\n180 equal parts, called degrees, and this graduation is con-\\ntinued to the zero point, the whole number of degrees\\n180 -f- 32 212.\\nThe Centigrade scale has its zero at the freezing point\\nof water, and the interval between the freezing and the\\nboiling points of water at atmospheric pressure is divided\\ninto 100 equal parts called degrees.\\nThe freezing point of water is 3 2\u00c2\u00b0 on the Fahrenheit\\nscale, and o\u00c2\u00b0 on the Centigrade. The boiling point of\\nwater at atmospheric pressure is 21 2\u00c2\u00b0 on the Fahrenheit\\nscale and ioo\u00c2\u00b0 on the Centigrade.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0061.jp2"}, "62": {"fulltext": "56\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nTable\\n7. Centigrade Temperatures with Corresponding Tem-\\nperatures on the Fahrenheit Scale.\\nCent.\\nFahr.\\nCent.\\nFahr.\\nCent.\\nFahr.\\nCent.\\nFahr.\\n40\\n40\\n6\\n42.8\\n52\\n125.6\\n98\\n208.4\\n39\\n38.2\\n7\\n44-6\\n53\\n127.4\\n99\\n2I0.2\\n38\\n36.4\\n8\\n46.4\\n54\\n129.2\\n100\\n2I2.0\\n37\\n34-6\\n9\\n48.2\\n55\\n131.\\nIOI\\n213.8\\n-36\\n32.8\\n10\\n50.0\\n56\\nI32.8\\n102\\n215.6\\n35\\n31\\n11\\n51.8\\n57\\nI34.6\\n103\\n217.4\\n34\\n29.2\\n12\\n53-6\\n58\\n136.4\\n104\\n219.2\\n33\\n27.4\\n13\\n55-4\\n59\\n138.2\\n105\\n22I.O\\n32\\n25.6\\n14\\n57.2\\n60\\n140.O\\n106\\n222.8\\n3i\\n23.8\\n15\\n59-0\\n61\\n141. 8\\n107\\n224.6\\n30\\n22\\n16\\n60.8\\n62\\n143.6\\n108\\n226.4\\n29\\n20.2\\n17\\n62.6\\n63\\n145.4\\n109\\n228.2\\n28\\nI8.+\\n18\\n64.4\\n64\\n147.2\\nno\\n23O.O\\n27\\n16.6\\n19\\n66.2\\n65\\n149-0\\nIII\\n231.8\\n26\\n-14.8\\n20\\n68.0\\n66\\n150.8\\n112\\n233.6\\n25\\n13\\n21\\n69.8\\n67\\n152.6\\n113\\n235.4\\n24\\nII. 2\\n22\\n71.6\\n68\\n154-4\\n114\\n237.2\\n23\\n9-4\\n23\\n73.4\\n69\\n156.2\\n115\\n239.O\\n22\\n7-6\\n24\\n75-2\\n70\\n158.0\\nIl6\\n24O.8\\n21\\n5-8\\n25\\n77.o\\n7i\\n159.8\\n117\\n242.6\\n20\\n4\\n26\\n78.8\\n72\\n161. 6\\nIl8\\n244.4\\n19\\n2.2\\n27\\n80.6\\n73\\n163.4\\nII 9\\n246.2\\n18\\n0.4\\n28\\n82.4\\n74\\n165.2\\nI20\\n248.O\\n17\\n1.4\\n29\\n84.2\\n75\\n167.0\\n121\\n249.8\\n16\\n3-2\\n30\\n86.0\\n76\\n168.8\\n122\\n251.6\\n15\\n5.o\\n31\\n87.8\\n77\\n170.6\\n123\\n253.4\\n14\\n6.8\\n32\\n89.6\\n78\\n172.4\\n124\\n255.2\\n13\\n8.6\\n33\\n91.4\\n79\\n174.2\\n125\\n257.O\\n12\\n10.4\\n34\\n93-2\\n80\\n176.0\\n126\\n258.8\\n11\\n12.2\\n35\\n95.o\\n81\\n177.8\\n127\\n260.6\\n10\\n14.0\\n36\\n96.8\\n82\\n179.6\\n128\\n262.4\\n9\\n15.8\\n37\\n98.6\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a283\\n181. 4\\n129\\n264.2\\n8\\n17.6\\n38\\n100.4\\n84\\n183.2\\nI30\\n266.O\\n7\\n19.4\\n39\\n102.2\\n85\\n185.0\\n131\\n267.8\\n6\\n21.2\\n40\\n104.0\\n86\\n186.8\\n132\\n269.6\\n5\\n23.0\\n41\\n105.8\\n87\\n188.6\\n133\\n271.4\\n4\\n24.8\\n42\\n107.6\\n88\\n190.4\\n134\\n273.2\\n3\\n26.6\\n43\\n109.4\\n89\\n192.2\\n135\\n275.0\\n2\\n28.4\\n44\\nHi. 2\\n90\\n194.0\\nI36\\n276.8\\n1\\n30.2\\n45\\n113.0\\n9i\\n195.8\\n137\\n278.6\\n32.0\\n46\\n1 14. 8\\n92\\n197.6\\n138\\n280.4\\n1\\n33-8\\n47\\n116.6\\n93\\n199.4\\n139\\n282.2\\n2\\n35-6\\n48\\n118. 4\\n94\\n201.2\\nI40\\n284.O\\n3\\n37.4\\n49\\n120.2\\n95\\n203.0\\n141\\n285.8\\n4\\n39-2\\n50\\n122.0\\n96\\n204.8\\n142\\n287.6\\n5\\n41.0\\n5i\\n123.8\\n97\\n206.6\\n143\\n289.4\\nFor other\\nCent, -j- 32\\ntemperatures\\ndeg. Fahr.\\n(Deg. Fahr. 32)\\ndeg. Cent.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0062.jp2"}, "63": {"fulltext": "THERMOMETER. 57\\nQ. How may the temperature readings on the Fahren-\\nheit and Centigrade scales be interconverted\\nThe distance between the freezing and the boiling point\\nof water is, of course, the same for both thermometers, but\\nthe Fahrenheit scale contains 1 80 divisions while the Cen-\\ntigrade scale contains only 100 divisions between these two\\npoints. If these numbers are divided by 20, we have 9\\nand 5 respectively; smaller, therefore more convenient\\nnumbers to be used in the conversion of one scale into the\\nother. The zero point of the Fahrenheit scale is 3 2\u00c2\u00b0 be-\\nlow the freezing point of water.\\nTo convert one scale into the other is quite simple,\\nthus\\nFahr. 32 -f- f- Cent, degrees, or\\nCent. (Fahr. degrees 32).\\nthat is, add 32 to of the number indicated on the Cen-\\ntigrade scale and the result is the number which would be\\nindicated by the Fahrenheit scale. Subtract 3 2\u00c2\u00b0 from the\\nnumber indicated on the Fahrenheit scale, and f of the\\nremainder is the number which would be indicated by the\\nCentigrade scale.\\nExample 1. What would be the Fahrenheit temperature\\ncorresponding to 1 30 C.\\n32+f of 130 266 F.\\nExample 2. What would be the Centigrade tempera-\\nture corresponding to 266 F.\\nf of (266-32) 1 30 C.\\nQ. Does a thermometer indicate the quantity of heat in\\na substance\\nIt does not. The use of a thermometer is merely to\\nindicate the sensible heat, or that which is capable of be-", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0063.jp2"}, "64": {"fulltext": "58\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\ning radiated or communicated from one material to another.\\nIts indications are merely relative and do not express the\\nactual amount of heat which a substance contains.\\nCHEMISTRY.\\nQ. What is an atom\\nThe atomic theory affirms that every portion of matter\\nof sensible size is built up of a vast number of small par-\\nticles which are not themselves capable of further subdi-\\nvision. Each particle corresponding to this definition\\nwould be called an atom (a term borrowed from the Greek),\\nand means indivisible. In chemistry it means the small-\\nest quantity by weight of an element which is capable of\\nexisting in a chemical compound.\\nQ. What is meant by atomic weight\\nOne of the properties of matter is that it has weight\\natoms, therefore, have weight because an atom is a defi-\\nnite and fixed quantity of matter. Hydrogen, being the\\nlightest known substance, has by general consent been\\nmade the unit of comparison; the atomic weight of hydro-\\ngen is always represented by I.\\nTable 8. Atomic and Combining Weights of Gases.\\nElement.\\nHydrogen\\nNitrogen\\nOxygen\\nCarbon (diamond burnt to C0 2\\nCombining weight.\\n4|\\n8\\n3\\nBy combining weight is here meant the smallest mass\\nof the element which combines with eight parts by weight\\nof oxygen, or one part of hydrogen.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0064.jp2"}, "65": {"fulltext": "MOLECULE.\\nTable g. Atomic Weights.\\n59\\nName\\nCalcium\\nCarbon\\nHydrogen\\nNitrogen\\nOxygen\\nPhosphorus\\nPotassium\\nSilicon\\nSodium\\nSulphur\\nSymbol.\\nAtomic weights.\\nCa\\n40\\nC\\n12\\nH\\n1\\nN\\n14\\n16\\nP\\n3i\\nK\\n39\\nSi\\n28.5\\nNa\\n23\\nS\\n32\\nThe above list of elements are those commonly found in\\ncoal by elementary analysis. Aluminum and iron are also\\nfound in the analysis of coal ashes.\\nQ. What is a molecule\\nA molecule is the smallest possible portion of a particu-\\nlar substance, whether elementary or compound, which\\nexhibits the characteristic properties of that substance.\\nEvery substance, therefore, whether simple or compound,\\nhas its own molecule; and if this molecule be divided, its\\nparts are molecules of a different substance or substances\\nfrom that of which the whole is a molecule. An atom is\\nthe smallest particle of an element which enters into the\\ncomposition of molecules. In the case of the molecule of\\nan element the atoms are all of one kind in the case of\\nthe molecule of a compound the atoms are of two or more\\nthan two different kinds. As the properties of the mole-\\ncule of a compound are very different from the properties\\nof the atoms which compose it, so it is probable that the\\nproperties of the molecule of an element are different\\nfrom the properties of the atoms by the union of which\\nthe molecule is produced.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0065.jp2"}, "66": {"fulltext": "60 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nQ. What is one of the characteristics of molecules?\\nThat they are always in motion. These motions of\\nmolecules are, in the case of solid bodies, confined within\\nso narrow a range that even with our best microscopes we\\ncannot detect that they alter their places at all but in the\\ncase of liquids and of gases the molecules are not confined\\nwithin any definite limits, but work their way through the\\nwhole mass, even when that mass is not disturbed by any\\nvisible motion. This process of diffusion, as it is called,\\nwhich goes on in gases and liquids and even in some\\nsolids, can be subjected to experiment, and forms one of\\nthe most convincing proofs of the motion of molecules.\\nQ. What is meant by symbolic notation\\nSymbolic notation belongs to an agreed employment, as\\nfar as practicable, of the first letter of the Latin name of\\nan element, by which it may be recognized at sight, thus\\nfacilitating the representation of chemical changes, by\\nwhich reactions of a complicated character may be under-\\nstood at a glance. Thus carbon is represented by the let-\\nter C, oxygen by O, hydrogen by H, etc. Carbonic oxide\\nby the letters CO carbonic acid gas by the formula C0 2\\netc.\\nQ. Give some examples of the symbolic notation of com-\\npounds occurring in the process of combustion?\\nA combination of elements is represented by a combi-\\nnation of symbols placed side by side. If one atom of\\ncarbon and one atom of oxygen be united we have the\\nsymbol CO, carbonic oxide. It will be understood that\\none atom each of carbon and oxygen unite and form, not one\\natom, but one molecule of carbonic oxide. So also in the\\nprevious question the combination of one atom of carbon", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0066.jp2"}, "67": {"fulltext": "SYMBOLIC NOTATION. 6 1\\nwith two atoms of oxygen, written C0 2 is the symbolic\\nexpression of one molecule of carbonic-acid gas. Hydro-\\ngen is represented by H its atomic weight is i The\\nformula H..O means that two atoms of hydrogen have\\nunited with one atom of oxygen to form two molecules of\\nwater.\\nQ. Does this method of symbolic notation express other\\nthan an abbreviation of the name of an element?\\nYes, the symbols employed are not only abbreviations\\nof the Latin names of the elements, but they represent\\nthe atomic weights of the several elements for which they\\nstand. Thus carbon, represented by C, has an atomic\\nweight of 12 and as there is no other element having an\\natomic weight of 12, the letter C and figure 12 may al-\\nways be thus associated. It will be understood that C\\nalways stands for one atom of carbon, the atomic weight\\nof which is 12 and if more than one atom of an element\\nappears in a formula, the number of such atoms are ex-\\npressed by numerals, thus C0 2 for carbonic acid gas,\\nmeaning thereby that one atom of carbon and two atoms\\nof oxygen have entered into chemical union.\\nWhen two or more atoms of an element unite in the\\nformation of a molecule of a compound substance the writ-\\nten formula is simplified by writing a small figure to the\\nright of the symbolic letter and below the line. Thus C 3\\nindicates three atoms of carbon, H 8 indicates eight atoms\\nof hydrogen. The formula C 3 H 8 indicates one of the prod-\\nucts of coal occurring in the marsh gas series, and known\\nas propyl hydride and this formula is the symbolic ex-\\npression of one molecule.\\nSecondary compounds, such as salts, are expressed in\\nan analogous way, the metal being usually placed first,", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0067.jp2"}, "68": {"fulltext": "62 COMBUSTION OF COAL\\nCaC0 3 representing one molecule of carbonate of calcium,\\ncalcium being the metallic base.\\nQ. What is meant by the chemical properties of a\\nbody?\\nThose which relate to its action upon other bodies, and\\nto the permanent changes which it experiences in itself,\\nor which it effects upon them. When a body undergoes\\nchemical change it almost invariably destroys the physical\\nproperties held by it previous to this change but experi-\\nment has fully demonstrated that matter is indestructible,\\nso that whatever changes are made in the physical appear-\\nance or form of matter by any chemical process, none of\\nit is destroyed.\\nQ. What is meant by affinity?\\nBy affinity is commonly meant the unknown cause of the\\ncombination of atoms. Hydrogen and chlorine combine\\nvery readily. They have, as we say, a strong affinity for\\neach other; yet they are monovalent with reference to\\neach other. Carbon and chlorine do not combine readily.\\nThey do not have a strong affinity for each other, yet an\\natom of chlorine is capable of holding four atoms of car-\\nbon in combination. The two properties, valency and\\naffinity, are possessed by every atom, and exhibit, them-\\nselves whenever atoms act upon one another, the latter\\ndetermining the intensity of the reaction, the former the\\ncomplexity of the resulting molecule.\\nQ. What is meant by chemical affinity\\nChemical affinity is that property of bodies in virtue of\\nwhich, when brought in contact, they react on each other,\\nforming new bodies. It can be called a force, in so far as", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0068.jp2"}, "69": {"fulltext": "CHEMICAL ATTRACTION. 63\\nby its action energy is produced namely, heat, light,\\nelectrical or mechanical energy and vice versa, energy\\nmust be employed to reverse the action of chemical affinity\\nand to decompose the combined substances. Nothing is\\nknown as yet about the nature of chemical affinity, nor\\nhas a satisfactory hypothesis been suggested concerning it.\\nQ. What is meant by chemical attraction\\nChemical attraction is distinguished from other chemi-\\ncal forces which act within minute distances by the com-\\nplete change of characters which follows its exertion, and\\nmust from its very nature be exerted between dissimilar\\nsubstances. Hydrogen and oxygen are both gaseous and\\nare wholly dissimilar in their chemical properties; yet\\nunder proper conditions they will unite with great avidity,\\nthe combination forming gaseous steam, which upon cool-\\ning yields only pure water.\\nThe physical and other changes brought about as a re-\\nsult of chemical attraction do not destroy the combining\\nelements, but simply rearrange them in another form, and\\ngive to the new compound properties not held by any ele-\\nment singly.\\nQ. What is meant by the term equivalent\\nThe equivalent of an element is that mass of an element\\nwhich combines with one atom of hydrogen. In the case\\nof oxygen it corresponds to half an atom, in that of nitro-\\ngen to one-third the atom, and in that of carbon to one-\\nfourth the atom. With those elements which do not com-\\nbine with hydrogen some other element like hydrogen in\\nrespect to the ratio between the equivalent and atomic\\nweight is taken as the measure of the equivalent.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0069.jp2"}, "70": {"fulltext": "64 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nQ. What law governs the combining weights of the\\nelements\\nThe laws of chemical combination are all included in\\nthe two statements: i. The elements combine in the ra-\\ntios of their combining weights, or in ratios which bear a\\nsimple relation to these. 2. The gaseous elements com-\\nbine in the ratios of their combining volumes, or in ratios\\nwhich bear a simple relation to these.\\nBy combining weight is here meant the smallest mass\\nof an element which combines with unit mass of some\\nspecified element taken as a standard and by combining\\nvolume is meant the smallest volume of a gaseous element\\nwhich combines with unit volume of some specified gas-\\neous element taken as a standard. The first statement has\\nbeen amply verified by accurate experiment the second\\ndoes not yet stand on so firm an experimental basis.\\nQ. What is the law of definite proportions?\\nThe law of definite proportions may be stated thus In\\nany chemical compound the nature and the proportions of\\nits constituent elements are fixed, definite, and invariable.\\nFor example One hundred parts of water by weight con-\\ntain 88.9 of oxygen and 11.1 of hydrogen. These gases\\nwill combine in no other proportions to form water, and\\nany excess of either gas will remain unchanged.\\nThe law of definite proportion assumes that atoms have\\ndefinite weight that an atom is a fixed and definite quan-\\ntity; that atoms of the same substance are of the same\\nsize and weight. When the elements unite chemically,\\nthey invariably do so in the proportions by weight repre-\\nsented by the numbers attached to them, as in Table 9, or\\nin multiples of these numbers. Dalton accounted for this\\nlaw by supposing that the constituent particles of matter are", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0070.jp2"}, "71": {"fulltext": "MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS. 6$\\nindivisible, and believed that if it were, possible to place\\nsuch particles in the balance, their relative weights would\\nbe found to correspond with the numbers given in the table.\\nQ. What is the law of multiple proportions?\\nWhen two or more compounds are formed of the same\\nelements, there is no gradual blending of one into the\\nother, as in the case of mixtures, but each compound is\\nsharply defined and exhibits properties distinct from those\\nof the others, and of the elements of which the compounds\\nare composed. For example\\nThere are two compounds of carbon and oxygen\\nCarbon Oxygen Atomic\\nby weight, by weight. weight.\\nCarbonic oxide CO 12 16 28\\nCarbonic acid gas C0 2 12 32 44\\nIt will be observed that, the quantity of carbon remaining\\nthe same, the quantity of oxygen must be doubled in order\\nto form the other compound. These proportions consti-\\ntute the only two direct inorganic compounds of carbon and\\noxygen.\\nQ. Is the atomic value of an element changed by enter-\\ning into chemical combination with another element?\\nNo, the atomic value of each element in a compound\\nremains unchanged, and the aggregate weight of the atoms\\nforms the molecular weight of the compound thus\\nOne molecule of carbonic oxide equals\\n1 atom of carbon, C, at wt. 12 12\\nI atom of oxygen, O, at wt. 16 16\\nWeight of one molecule CO =28\\nOne molecule of carbonic-acid gas equals\\n1 atom of carbon, C, at wt. 12 12\\n2 atoms of oxygen, O, at wt. 16 32\\nWeight of one molecule CO a 44", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0071.jp2"}, "72": {"fulltext": "66 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nQ. Is chemical attraction influenced by temperature\\nIn all cases of ordinary combustion it is essential that\\nthe temperature of the uniting substances be raised to the\\npoint of ignition. A mixture of oxygen and hydrogen\\nmay be preserved unchanged at ordinary temperatures any\\nlength of time, but a mere spark, or the introduction of a\\nbody heated to redness, so completely alters their mutual\\nattraction that sudden combination attended with explosion\\nis the result. This is as pure a case of augmentation of\\nchemical attraction as can be met with, since both the\\ncomponents are thoroughly mixed and as both are perfect\\ngases, heat cannot in this case act by diminished cohesion,\\nand so bring their particles into more intimate contact.\\nQ. What is meant by energy of chemical separation\\nA combustible body like coal may be taken as a fair\\nrepresentative of potential energy because it occupies a\\nposition of advantage over a non-combustible body in this,\\nthat it will unite with another body for which it has\\nchemical affinity like oxygen, and this energy of position\\nleading, as it can in this case, to a process of chemical\\nseparation during the act of burning, in which we have\\npotential energy or the energy possessed by the coal be-\\nfore ignition, and the energy due to molecular activity by\\nreason of the act of combustion, or the energy of motion\\nchanged into another form of energy represented by heat.\\nThe energy of chemical separation when produced by\\nthe combustion of coal is always intense, and as the ob-\\nserved effects are so much below the theoretical value\\nascribed to the fuel, it would seem as if for once the law\\nof conservation of energy was at fault but this is not the\\ncase. Our methods of manipulation are wasteful and the", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0072.jp2"}, "73": {"fulltext": "ENERGY OF CHEMICAL SEPARATION. 6j\\nordinary construction of furnaces so faulty that a very\\nlarge proportion of the waste can be directly accounted\\nfor. One thing with reference to the energy of chemical\\nseparation is certain, and that is, that any given quantity\\nof carbon or other combustible under given conditions will\\nalways produce the same quantity of heat.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0073.jp2"}, "74": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER III.\\nTHE ATMOSPHERE.\\nQ. What is the composition of air?\\nThe composition of air free from water and carbonic\\nacid is found to be, by weight 77 per cent of nitrogen\\nand 23 per cent of oxygen; or by volume: 79 volumes of\\nnitrogen and 2 1 volumes of oxygen. In addition to these\\ntwo gases atmospheric air contains aqueous vapor, car-\\nbonic acid, ozone, ammonia, with traces of nitrous and ni-\\ntric acids, etc.\\nAir, owing to the oxygen it contains, is a magnetic sub-\\nstance.\\nQ. Is air a chemical compound?\\nIt is not. The union of these two gases in the propor-\\ntions of 79 volumes of nitrogen to 21 of oxygen gives\\ncommon air; and this union is distinguished by no proper-\\nties which may not be attributed individually to these\\ngases. All experiments made thus far have shown no in-\\ndication that the union is other than mechanical.\\nQ. What proofs sustain the statement that air is not a\\nchemical compound?\\nThat air is not a chemical compound of its component\\ngases is proven by the facts\\n1 That the gases nitrogen and oxygen are not present\\nin any constant ratio.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0074.jp2"}, "75": {"fulltext": "OXYGEN. 69\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a22. That air can be made by simply mixing its constitu-\\nents in the proportion indicated by the analysis of air,\\nwithout contraction or any thermal disturbance resulting.\\n3. That on treating air with water and expelling the\\ndissolved air by boiling, the proportion of the oxygen to\\nthe nitrogen is found to be increased, and in amount cor-\\nresponding with the law of partial pressures.\\n4. That the constituents of the air can be mechanically\\nseparated by processes of diffusion.\\n5. That the refractive power of the air is equal to the\\nmean of the refractive powers of its constituents, whereas\\nin compound gases the refractive power is either greater\\nor less than the refractive power of the elements in a state\\nof mixture (Thorpe).\\nQ. What is oxygen?\\nOxygen is present in the atmosphere in a free and un-\\ncombined state, forming 2 1 per cent of its total volume.\\nPriestly first obtained the gas in 1774, and gave it the\\nname depJilogisticated air. It was isolated independently\\nand almost simultaneously by Scheele, who termed it\\nempyreal, or fire air. Lavoisier regarded it as an essen-\\ntial constituent of all acids, and hence gave it its present\\nname oxygen. The discovery of oxygen was the means of\\nleading Lavoisier to the true theory of combustion.\\nOxygen is somewhat heavier than the air, it having a\\nspecific gravity of 1.1056, air 1.0000. One hundred\\ncubic inches of oxygen weigh 34. 206 grains. The specific\\nheat of oxygen for equal weights at constant pressure\\n0.2182; for constant volume 0.1559. When pure,\\noxygen is colorless, tasteless, and inodorous. It is spar-\\ningly soluble in water. As with all gases the quantity\\ndissolved depends on the tension of the oxygen in the at-", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0075.jp2"}, "76": {"fulltext": "JO COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nmosphere in contact with the water. Thus pure water\\nshaken up in contact with pure oxygen will absorb nearly\\nfive times as much oxygen as it would when shaken up, at\\nthe same temperature and under the same pressure, with\\nair, which only contains 21 per cent by volume of oxygen.\\nOxygen is the least refractive of all the gases. It is\\nslightly magnetic, but its susceptibility in this respect is\\ndiminished or temporarily suspended by elevation of tem-\\nperature.\\nThough long regarded as a permanent gas, oxygen was\\nliquefied in 1877 by Pictet, who attributed to liquid oxygen\\na density near that of water, about 0.9787. The critical\\ntemperature of oxygen is 113 C, the pressure needed\\nto liquefy it at that temperature being about 50 atmos-\\npheres. Liquid oxygen is a pale, steel-blue, transparent,\\nand very mobile liquid, boiling at 181 C. at ordinary\\npressures. When the pressure is reduced or removed,\\nevaporation takes place so rapidly that a part of the oxygen\\nis often frozen to a white solid. Liquid oxygen is a very\\nperfect insulator, and is also comparatively inert in its\\nchemical properties.\\nThere are only seven elements which do not unite di-\\nrectly with oxygen, viz., fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine,\\nsilver, gold, and platinum. All the non-metallic elements\\nwith two exceptions unite with oxygen to form anhydrous\\nacids. Of the exceptions hydrogen forms a neutral oxide\\n(water), while no oxide of fluorine has yet been obtained.\\nThe product of the union of oxygen with another ele-\\nment is called an oxide. Thus when lead is heated in\\ncontact with air it combines with oxygen, forming lead\\noxide, PbO. Carbon burns in oxygen, forming carbon di-\\noxide, C0 2\\nThe chemical activity of air depends upon the oxygen", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0076.jp2"}, "77": {"fulltext": "NITROGEN. 71\\nit contains, air being simply in its chemical relations\\noxygen diluted with nitrogen. Free oxygen, whether di-\\nluted with nitrogen or not, manifests considerable chemi-\\ncal activity, even at ordinary temperatures, this activity\\nincreasing with rise of temperature. With most sub-\\nstances an initial heating is necessary to start free oxida-\\ntion, the heat evolved being then sufficient to maintain it.\\nVarious substances which expose large surfaces to air (or\\noxygen) become gradually heated through slow oxidation\\nor combustion and if the heat cannot get away, ignition\\neventually occurs. Thus oily or greasy woollen and cot-\\nton waste or rags and refuse are capable of absorbing\\noxygen very rapidly, and if present in any considerable\\nquantity the heat produced may accumulate and cause\\nspontaneous combustion; and this action is a not infre-\\nquent cause of fires in factories.\\nQ. What is nitrogen?\\nNitrogen, one of the most widely diffused of the ele-\\nments, occurs free in the air, of which it constitutes about\\n79 per cent by volume. It is a colorless, inodorous, taste-\\nless, neutral gas, of 0.972 specific gravity (air 1) 100\\ncubic inches at 6o\u00c2\u00b0 F. and 30 inches barometer pressure,\\nweigh 30.052 grains. It is slightly soluble in water;\\n100 volumes of water dissolve 1.5 volumes of nitrogen at\\n1 5 C. The specific heat of nitrogen 0.244, at constant\\npressure. Nitrogen has been liquefied by the cold pro-\\nduced by its expansion from a compression of 300 atmos-\\npheres at I 3\u00c2\u00b0 C. Liquid nitrogen boils at 193 C.\\nunder atmospheric pressure.\\nQ. Is nitrogen a supporter of combustion\\nNitrogen is incombustible, and does not support com-\\nbustion. Its negative qualities are very pronounced it", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0077.jp2"}, "78": {"fulltext": "72 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nwill not take fire; it puts out the combustion of every-\\nthing, and there is nothing that will burn in it in ordinary\\ncircumstances. It is not a poisonous gas, but animal life\\ncannot be sustained in it for want of oxygen.\\nQ. Are the negative qualities of nitrogen a hindrance\\nin furnace combustion?\\nThe useful effect of nitrogen in combustion is that it\\nlowers the intensity of the fire and makes it moderate,\\nuseful, and easily controlled. An atmosphere of oxygen\\nwithout nitrogen would be wholly uncontrollable. The\\niron grate and furnace front would burn even more\\npowerfully than coal, because iron is more combustible\\nin oxygen than is carbon. The neutral qualities of ni-\\ntrogen then become of the greatest importance in com-\\nbustion.\\nQ. Is nitrogen then so inert that it will not combine\\nwith other substances?\\nWhile it is true that nitrogen in its free state is re-\\nmarkable for its inactivity in furnace combustion, it may\\nbe made to unite directly under certain conditions with\\nhydrogen, oxygen and carbon as, for example, when a\\nseries of electric sparks is passed through oxygen and ni-\\ntrogen gases, standing over a solution of caustic alkali,\\nwhen a nitrate of the metal is produced. Traces of nitric\\nacid and ammonium nitrate are produced by burning\\nhydrogen gas mixed with nitrogen in an atmosphere of\\nair and oxygen. Nitrogen can unite with hydrogen when\\none or both of the gases are in the nascent state, to form\\nammonia. Carbon and nitrogen unite directly when ni-\\ntrogen gas or atmospheric air is passed over an ignited\\nmixture of charcoal and potash.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0078.jp2"}, "79": {"fulltext": "CARBONIC ACID IN THE AIR. 73\\nQ. What economic quality does nitrogen display in\\nfurnace combustion\\nNitrogen in its ordinary state is an active element, not-\\nwithstanding its negative qualities in the furnace. No\\naction short of the most intense electric force, and then\\nin small degree, can cause the nitrogen to combine direct-\\nly with the other element of the atmosphere, or with\\nthings round about it. It is perfectly indifferent, and\\ntherefore to say a safe substance. The part which nitro-\\ngen plays in furnace combustion is analogous to that of a\\nvessel in which the oxygen is delivered into the body of\\nincandescent fuel. The oxygen then separates from the\\nnitrogen to combine with the carbon of the fuel. This\\ndelivery having been made, the vessel is no longer of any\\nvalue in that connection and passes on through the fire.\\nBy reason of its lighter gravity it assists in maintaining a\\ngood draught, a matter of prime importance in furnace\\ncombustion.\\nQ. What quantity of carbonic acid is present in the\\nair?\\nThere is in the air, besides the aqueous vapor, 3.36\\nparts in every 10,000 of carbonic-acid gas. Any circum-\\nstance which interferes with ready diffusion of the prod-\\nucts of respiration and the combustion of fuel will of\\ncourse tend to increase the relative amount of carbonic\\nacid of a town hence during fogs the amount may be as\\ngreat as o. 1 per cent. The pressure exerted by the car-\\nbonic acid in the air is so small that its amount is not per-\\nceptibly diminished by rain. The amount is also not\\nsensibly altered in the higher regions of the atmosphere.\\nQ. What quantity of ammonia is present in the air?\\nAmmonia is present in the air in minute quantities", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0079.jp2"}, "80": {"fulltext": "74 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nonly; it exists mainly as carbonate and is subject to very\\ngreat variations as to quantity. Rain water collected in\\ntowns always contains large quantities of ammonia, prob-\\nably due to the influence of animal life and to the constant\\npresence in greater proportion than in the country of read-\\nily decomposable nitrogenous organic matter in the air.\\nQ. What quantity of aqueous vapor is present in the\\nair?\\nAqueous vapor in the air varies in quantity with the\\ntemperature; but more of it can be sustained in warm air\\nthan in cold. Air at a temperature of 32 F. can sustain\\nthe T -jt 7 part of its own weight of aqueous vapor, but at\\n86\u00c2\u00b0 F. it can sustain yl-g- part of its own weight. The\\nhumidity of the air is usually estimated by means of\\nhygrometers. .The barometer gives the combined weight\\nof the oxygen, nitrogen, and gaseous vapor of the air, and\\nthe portion of this weight which is due to aqueous vapor\\nis called the elastic force of vapor. With a barometer\\nstanding at 30 inches, and with a hygrometer indicating\\nan elastic force of vapor of .45, very nearly one-fourth\\npound of the entire pressure of fifteen pounds is due to the\\nvapor. When more vapor is generated than can be at\\nonce carried away, the barometer necessarily rises when\\nvapor is condensed in the atmosphere the barometer falls\\nwhen the temperature of saturated air is reduced from 8o\u00c2\u00b0\\nto 6o\u00c2\u00b0, five grains of aqueous vapor are deposited from\\neach cubic foot. This is the effective cause of rain.\\nQ. Is ozone always present in the air?\\nOzone is always present in minute quantities in normal\\nair. Atmospheric ozone is probably formed by the action\\nof electricity on air and on the water contained in it, and\\nby the evaporation of water. It appears that the amount", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0080.jp2"}, "81": {"fulltext": "ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE. 75\\nof ozone varies with the seasons it is greatest in spring,\\nbecomes gradually less during summer and autumn, and is\\nleast in winter. Ozone is more frequently observed on\\nrainy days than in fine weather. Thunder storms, gales,\\nand hurricanes are frequently accompanied by relatively\\nstrong manifestations of it.\\nQ. What is the weight of air?\\nThe weight of one cubic foot of air at 32 F. is .080728\\npound, or 565. 1 grains; at 62 F. it is .076097 pound, or\\n532.7 grains. The volume of one pound of air at 32 F.\\nat ordinary atmospheric pressure (14.7 pounds) is 12.4\\ncubic feet.\\nQ. What is atmospheric pressure?\\nAir in common with other bodies possesses the property\\nof weight and as the pressure of water at the bottom of a\\ntank is greater than near its upper surface, so the pressure\\nof the atmosphere is greater at the level of the sea than at\\nthe top of a high mountain. We are not certain as to the\\nheight of the atmosphere, but it is commonly supposed to\\nbe not less than forty-five miles, measured from the sea\\nlevel. Whatever its height, we know that a vertical col-\\numn of this air produces an average pressure on the earth s\\nsurface of about 14.73 pounds per square inch; but the\\npressure even at the same place is continually varying\\nfrom a variety of causes. In steam engineering the press-\\nure of the atmosphere is commonly assumed to be fifteen\\npounds per square inch.\\nQ. What is the unit of pressure?\\nThe unit of pressure adopted by European engineers and\\nothers, and styled an atmosphere, is an amount equal to the\\naverage pressure at the level of the sea. In British meas-", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0081.jp2"}, "82": {"fulltext": "?6 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nures an atmosphere is the pressure equivalent to 29.905\\ninches of mercury at 32 F. at London, and is about 14.73\\npounds to the square inch. Steam engineers in this coun-\\ntry make their calculations for pressures in terms of pounds\\nper square inch, it being a more convenient unit than an\\natmosphere.\\nQ. How is the pressure of the atmosphere measured?\\nBy means of an instrument called a barometer; one\\nvariety of which consists of a vertical glass tube of uni-\\nform diameter, hermetically sealed at the top end, and of\\nabout 33 inches in length, into which mercury has been\\npoured until it has been completely filled and then in-\\nverted, its lower and open end being placed in a vessel\\nalso containing mercury. A graduated scale reading to\\ninches, and by means of a vernier to hundredths of an\\ninch is located near the top of the glass tube for read-\\ning the level of the mercury. The pressure of the\\natmosphere acting on the surface of the mercury in the\\nopen vessel causes a rise or fall of the mercury directly\\nproportional to the pressure of the atmosphere.\\nQ. Is the atmosphere of the same density throughout\\nits height?\\nThe density of the air rapidly diminishes with the\\nheight. For air of constant temperature its density, or\\nwhat comes to the same thing, the height of the baro-\\nmetric mercury column, should diminish in geometric pro-\\ngression, while the distance from the earth increases in\\narithmetic progression.\\nQ. How does the law of Mariotte and Boyle apply in\\ndetermining the density of the air?\\nMariotte and Boyle have established the law that every", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0082.jp2"}, "83": {"fulltext": "HEATING AND COOLING AIR. J7\\ntime the pressure upon air is doubled its volume is halved.\\nThis is the obvious reason why air is more rare and light,\\nbulk for bulk, at the higher regions of the atmosphere\\nthan it is near the surface of the earth. At a height of three\\nmiles the air has a doubled volume and half its original\\ndensity. It is again doubled in volume at about six miles\\nhigh and it is probable that no animal could continue to\\nlive and breathe at a height of eight miles.\\nQ. How may pounds of air be converted into an equiv-\\nalent volume in cubic feet?\\nAs we have no convenient means for weighing air in\\nbulk, and as air is known to weigh 532.7 grains per cubic\\nfoot at 62 F., it will be a near enough approximation as\\nbetween summer and winter temperatures to assume that\\none pound of air 12. 5 cubic feet.\\nQ. May air be readily heated and cooled?\\nThe difficulty in either heating or cooling air is its non-\\nconducting capacity or, more strictly speaking, the diffi-\\nculty in obtaining a sufficiently rapid convection of heat\\nto and from the mass of air employed. To heat or cool\\nair, very extensive surfaces, together with very great dif-\\nferences of temperature, are necessary. Siemen s regener-\\nators have about 1 7 pounds of fire brick for each increment\\nof gaseous fuels that can be developed from one pound of\\ncoal. As, however, only about one-fourth of the total re-\\ngenerative capacity is being heated to the full tempera-\\nture of the gases passing down through the ports, this\\namount has to be increased fourfold, so that nearly 70\\npounds of fire brick are probably used per pound of prod-\\nuct of combustion.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0083.jp2"}, "84": {"fulltext": "78 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nQ. Does the density of the air affect the passage of\\nheat through it\\nAn interesting phenomenon relating to the weight or\\ndensity of the air is the variation in what is known as its\\ndiathermancy, or heat passing through it without being\\napparently absorbed. The greater the tenuity of the air,\\nthe more nearly diathermanous is it. Pure air is virtually\\nquite pervious to heat none stops in the air, but all passes\\nthrough. The absolute diathermacy of dry air accounts\\nfor the scorching heat of mountain tops as the retentive\\npower of aqueous vapor does for the soft heat of low-lying\\nregions in the tropics.\\nQ. How is atmospheric air affected by heat?\\nAir is expanded by increase of temperature, the increase\\nin volume being T |~g part for each degree Fahrenheit. For\\nexample, 1,000 cubic inches at 32 F. would be increased\\nat 212 to 1,336 cubic inches.\\nQ. Why is it necessary to provide for a supply of air\\nthrough the fuel in furnace combustion?\\nAtmospheric air is the only available source of oxygen\\nfor supporting the combustion of fuels.\\nQ. What is the physical effect of heat upon the air\\nentering the fire\\nThe first physical effect of heat upon air is its expan-\\nsion, and this of necessity takes place in the most confined\\nspace, namely, in the interstices of the fuel, and acts\\nequally in all directions. Although all in motion upward\\nthrough the fire, its upward portion, being most greatly\\nexpanded, is moving more rapidly than its less expanded\\nlower portion and its expansive force, acting downward,", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0084.jp2"}, "85": {"fulltext": "HEATED AIR AND COMBUSTION. 79\\nsimply retards the upward flow of entering air. Lateral\\nexpansion aids in bringing fresh oxygen into contact with\\nunconsumed carbon. Upward expansion aids, and down-\\nward expansion retards the draught. Now it is plain that\\nthis effect must be the greater the greater the degree of ex-\\npansion which takes place within the interstices of the fuel.\\nWith air supply at 6o\u00c2\u00b0 F. it is 5.7-fold; with equal air\\nsupply, by weight, at 385 F. it is 3. 5 -fold, as shown on\\npage 80.\\nQ. What would be the physical effects if air at 6o\u00c2\u00b0\\nF. be heated to 385 F. and supplied a furnace at the\\nlatter temperature?\\nIf to the sensible temperatures 6o\u00c2\u00b0 and 385 we add\\n46 1 we shall have the corresponding absolute tempera-\\ntures of 52 1 and 846 respectively; and the volume of\\nthe heated air will be increased in the ratio of these two\\nnumbers, or J-||- 1.624. Therefore 8 cubic feet of air\\nat 6o\u00c2\u00b0 would occupy 8 X 1.624 12.992, say 13 cubic feet\\nat the higher temperature, at which we will suppose it to\\nbe conveyed to the fire. The density of the air will be\\nin the same inverse ratio that is, 1 3 cubic feet of air at\\n38 5 must be admitted to the fire and to contact with\\nglowing fuel in order to introduce as much oxygen as\\nwould be contained in 8 cubic feet of the- air at 6o\u00c2\u00b0 F.\\nEqually, of course, the entering velocity must be greater\\nin the same proportion, since the aggregate area of all the\\norifices through the grates and fuel may be regarded as\\nconstant. This has been urged as an objection to heating\\nair before its introduction to the fire.\\nQ. Is the increase in volume due to preheating air, as\\nsuggested above, a valid objection to its use\\nCold air in necessary quantity will enter the ash pit and", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0085.jp2"}, "86": {"fulltext": "80 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nwill pass through the openings in the grates with less\\nvelocity than will the same quantity of heated air. But\\nin these passages the area is amply large and the velocity\\nmoderate. It is also true that on entering the lower\\nstratum of fuel the velocity of the heated air will be the\\ngreater. The very first effect of the chemical union of\\nany part of the oxygen with any part of the carbon is to\\nheat the gases associated with such oxygen that is, its\\nassociated nitrogen and the atmospheric air yet containing\\nits oxygen, together with the carbonic-acid gas resulting\\nfrom such union or combustion, to the full extent to which\\nthe entire heat of combustion can raise the given mass of\\ngases. This will approximate the temperature of the fur-\\nnace, modified by the subsequent union of further portions\\nof oxygen with new portions of carbon encountered during\\nthe farther progress of the mixed gases through the fuel,\\nuntil they emerge at the surface of the fire.\\nIf their temperature be now 2500 F. or 2961 absolute,\\ntheir volume will be ^-\u00c2\u00a3\u00c2\u00b1=$.7 times that of the air tem-\\nperature, 6o\u00c2\u00b0 F., and ^^-=3.5 times that of air of\\ntemperature 385 F. Now it is this volume of the gases\\nat their final emergence from the interstices of the fuel\\nthat determines their flow; determines the force of\\ndraft or blower required to produce that flow. The\\ndifference between 3. 5 times, as against 5.7 times, is favor-\\nable and compensates, as far as it goes, for the greater\\nforce required to introduce the heated air with its greater\\nvolume and higher velocity.\\nQ. What are the combined physical and chemical effects\\nof heated air for furnace combustion?\\nCarbon and oxygen will unite at all temperatures usually\\nmet. Coals waste in the open air by slow combustion,", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0086.jp2"}, "87": {"fulltext": "QUANTITY OF AIR REQUIRED. 8 1\\nthe resulting heat being dissipated by radiation and the\\nconvection of the air. The rapidity of combustion is aug-\\nmented with the rise of temperature, and is very great at\\nhigh incandescence. The temperature of the oxygen is no\\nless important than that of the carbon; the higher the\\nsum of their temperatures, the more rapid is their union.\\nSo far as the associated gases are concerned, their higher\\ntemperature only serves to communicate more heat to the\\nmass, or, which amounts to the same thing, to abstract\\nless heat from it. With heated air the resulting temper-\\nature is higher and the combustion will be more rapid.\\nQ. How may the quantity of air required for the com-\\nbustion of any fuel be determined\\nThe quantity of oxygen required for the complete com-\\nbustion of any given quantity of carbon or hydrogen has\\nbeen experimentally determined and is well known the\\nquantity of oxygen in the atmosphere being practically\\nconstant, the process of determining the amount of air re-\\nquired for these two elements is quite simple, thus\\nOne pound of hydrogen requires 8 pounds of oxygen for\\nits complete combustion this requires about 36 pounds of\\nair.\\nOne pound of carbon requires 2^ pounds of oxygen for\\nits complete combustion (to C0 2 or about 12 pounds of\\nair.\\nOne pound of carbon incompletely burnt, or to carbonic\\noxide (CO), requires ij^ pounds of oxygen, or about 6\\npounds of air.\\nAll the above are based on the assumption that 4.5\\npounds of air are required to supply 1 pound of oxygen.\\nThe above applies only to such fuels as have undergone\\nanalysis, the elemental constituents being known.\\n6", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0087.jp2"}, "88": {"fulltext": "82\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nA table giving the theoretical quantity of air required\\nfor a variety of fuels was prepared by Rankine, and has\\nvery general acceptance. This table is here reproduced.\\nTable io. Am Required for Perfect Combustion.\\nFuel.\\nCarbon.\\nHydrogen.\\nOxygen.\\nAir\\nRequired.\\nI. Charcoal, from wood.\\nfrom peat\\nII. Coke, good\\nIII. Coal, anthracite\\ndry bituminous.\\ncaking\\ncaking\\ncannel\\ndry long flaming\\nlignite\\nIV. Peat, dry\\nV. Wood, dry\\nVI. Mineral oil\\no.93\\n0.80\\n0.94*\\n0.915\\n0.87\\n0.85\\no.75\\n0.84\\n0.77\\n0.70\\n0.58\\n0.50\\n0.85\\n0.035\\n0.026\\n0.05\\n0.04\\n0.05\\n0.06\\n0.05\\n0.05\\n0.06\\n0.08\\n0.05\\n0.15\\n0.05\\n0.20\\n0.06\\n0.31\\nII. 16\\n9.6\\n11.28\\n12.13\\n12.06\\nH-73\\n10.58\\n11.88\\n10.32\\n9-30\\n7.68\\n6.00\\n15.65\\nQ. What quantity of air is usually estimated per pound\\nof coal\\nThe theoretical quantity of air required for boiler fur-\\nnaces is assumed to be 12 pounds of air for each pound of\\ncoal, regardless of its composition. From 18 to 24\\npounds of air per pound of coal burnt is a common allow-\\nance when making up estimates 24 pounds of air is a\\nnear approximation to the average quantity supplied the\\nburning fuel per pound of coal.\\nQ. What is the specific heat of air?\\nThe specific heat of air at constant pressure is 0.2374\\n(Regnault).\\nQ. Under what conditions may air be liquified?\\nUnder the critical pressure of 39 atmospheres, and at\\nthe low temperature of 31 2\u00c2\u00b0 below the Fahrenheit zero\\n191 C), air may be liquefied.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0088.jp2"}, "89": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER IV.\\nCOMBUSTION.\\nQ. What is combustion\\nAny manifestation of chemical energy attended by com-\\nbination and accompanied by production of much heat is,\\nstrictly speaking, an instance of combustion. In steam\\nengineering it means the controlled chemical combination\\nof the elements carbon and hydrogen in the fuel with the\\noxygen of the atmosphere, by which an evolution of heat\\nis secured and maintained in a suitably constructed fur-\\nnace for the purpose of generating steam.\\nThe term combustion, as commonly used, carries with\\nit the idea of incandescence, or the glowing whiteness of\\na body caused by intense heat, which is quite character-\\nistic of burning carbon; the term also includes that of\\ninflammation, which is, however, best restricted to in-\\nstances of combustion in which the incandescent sub-\\nstances are gaseous. All phenomena of burning are in-\\nstances of combustion, and in the great majority of cases\\nthey consist in the union of the oxygen of the atmosphere\\nwith the substance which is being burnt, the visible signs\\nof combustion, i. e. the heat and light, being the result im-\\nmediate or proximate of the chemical energy so expended.\\nQ. What is the nature of combustion as applied par-\\nticularly to coal\\nCoal is mainly composed of the two elements, carbon\\nand hydrogen, both of which have an affinity for oxygen", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0089.jp2"}, "90": {"fulltext": "84 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nbut before they unite chemically to produce heat it is\\nnecessary that certain conditions be fulfilled, the first of\\nwhich is that a considerable mass of the coal must be\\nheated to the point of ignition before the oxygen in the\\nair will unite with it.\\nThe oxygen having a choice of two partners, as Profes-\\nsor Tyndall happily puts it, closes with that for which it\\nhas the strongest attraction. It first unites with the hy-\\ndrogen and sets the carbon free. Innumerable solid par-\\nticles of carbon thus scattered in the midst of burning\\nhydrogen are raised to a state of incandescence. The car-\\nbon, however, in due time, closes with the oxygen, and\\nbecomes, or ought to become, carbonic acid. The light\\nand heat produced by the burning of coal are due to the\\ncollision of atoms which have been urged together by their\\nmutual attractions.\\nAn isolated piece of coal will not burn in the open air,\\nbecause the temperature will soon fall below the point of\\nignition, consequently chemical action will cease; but an\\nignited mass of coal, as in a furnace or a stove, will give\\noff great heat, depending upon the quality and quantity of\\ncoal burned but once the hydrogen having united with\\nthe oxygen to form water, and the carbon with the oxygen\\nto form carbonic-acid gas, their mutual attractions are sat-\\nisfied, and all the heat has been given off that is possible\\nunder any conditions.\\nQ. In what proportion does oxygen unite with hydro-\\ngen and with carbon\\nOxygen and hydrogen unite in the ordinary processes\\nof combustion in one proportion only, viz., two atoms of\\nhydrogen unite with one atom of oxygen, the product of\\nthe combustion being aqueous vapor, or water, H 2 0.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0090.jp2"}, "91": {"fulltext": "OXYGEN A SUPPORTER OF COMBUSTION. 85\\nOxygen and carbon unite in the ordinary process of\\ncombustion in two proportions, viz., one atom of carbon\\nand two atoms of oxygen, the product being carbonic-acid\\ngas, C0 2 and one atom each of carbon and of oxygen, the\\nproduct being carbonic-oxide gas, CO.\\nQ. What are the ordinary combinations of hydrogen\\nwith carbon fuel?\\nHydrogen is rarely found in a free state, though it is\\nan essential element in all organic substances, from which\\nit may be separated by a process of destructive distilla-\\ntion. It occurs in nature in combination with carbon.\\nThe compound which contains it in greatest abundance is\\nmarsh gas, of which hydrogen forms one-fourth, CH 4\\nOlefiant gas consists of 2 atoms of carbon and 4 atoms of\\nhydrogen, C 2 H 4 These are the commonest proportions\\nin which the two elements, hydrogen and carbon, are\\nfound in coal. The complete series, however, of hydro-\\ncarbons is so extended that it cannot be reproduced here.\\nReference can only be made to the Marsh gas and Olefiant\\ngas series, which are given elsewhere in this volume.\\nQ. Is oxygen a supporter of combustion\\nOxygen is an active supporter of combustion. It will\\nunite chemically with the hydrogen and the carbon in the\\nfuel, the burning of the latter accompanied by characteris-\\ntic flames followed by a body of incandescent carbon on\\nthe grate, which will continue to burn at high temperature\\nand with great brilliancy, until entirely consumed, if a\\nproper supply of atmospheric oxygen is furnished.\\nOxygen will not unite with hydrogen and carbon at\\nordinary temperatures. A mixture of oxygen and hydro-\\ngen may be thus kept for any length of time, but if the", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0091.jp2"}, "92": {"fulltext": "86 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\ntemperature of any part of the mixture be raised to bright\\nredness either by an electric spark, by the presentation\\nof a flame, or by other means ignition at once takes\\nplace with explosive force throughout the whole mass.\\nQ. How may the volume of oxygen required for com-\\nbustion be estimated?\\nBy weight, air consists of 23 per cent of oxygen and J J\\nper cent of nitrogen; therefore, 77-^23 3.391 pounds of\\nnitrogen accompanies each pound of oxygen.\\nBy volume, one pound of air averages 12.5 cubic feet,\\nof which 21 per cent, or 2.625 cubic feet, is oxygen, and\\n79 per cent, or 9.875 cubic feet, is nitrogen.\\nOne pound of carbon requires for its complete combus-\\ntion to C0 2 about 12 pounds of air, or 150 cubic feet, of\\nwhich 21 per cent, or 31.5 cubic feet, is oxygen, and 79\\nper cent, or 118.5 cubic feet, is nitrogen.\\nOne pound of hydrogen requires for its complete com-\\nbustion to H 2 8 pounds of oxygen supplied by 3 1 pounds\\nof air, or 387.5 cubic feet, of which 21 per cent, or 81.375\\ncubic feet, is oxygen, and 79 per cent, or 306.125 cubic\\nfeet, is nitrogen.\\nQ. What is meant by the term ignition\\nIgnition is simply the incandescence of a body unat-\\ntended by chemical change, and must not be confused\\nwith combustion. The ignition of solids is a source of\\nlight, the combustion of solids is a source of heat. Every\\ncombustible must be heated to a certain definite temper-\\nature before it will combine with oxygen. This temper-\\nature is usually called the point of ignition, or its kindling\\ntemperature. In furnace combustion the temperature of\\nignition cannot be much less than dull red heat, say 8qo\u00c2\u00b0", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0092.jp2"}, "93": {"fulltext": "IGNITION TEMPERATURE OF GASES. 87\\nto 900 F., and maintain an active fire. For steam-boiler\\nfurnaces the combustion is quite active, even for moderate\\nfires, and the temperature of the incandescent bed of fuel\\nseldom if ever below 1 ioo\u00c2\u00b0 to 1200 F. and usually much\\nhigher than that, while the full furnace temperature may\\nrange from 2000 to 3000 F.\\nQ. What are the ignition temperatures of gases\\nWe have as yet no very exact information concerning\\nthe ignition temperatures of gases. The experimental\\ndifficulties in the way of carrying out such determinations\\nare very considerable. It is, however, certain that the\\nignition temperatures of gaseous mixtures are as a rule by\\nno means so high as is commonly supposed, and they lie\\nwithin extremes of temperature admitting of comparative-\\nly easy determination. When once initiated, the continu-\\nance of the combination of unlimited amounts of the con-\\nstituents of a combustible mixture, or, in other words, the\\ncontinued existence of a flame, depends primarily upon the\\ncondition that the combining gases are maintained at the\\ntemperature required to bring about their union. Any\\nagency or condition which lowers the temperature below\\nthis point will extinguish the flame.\\nQ. What is the effect upon combustion if too little air\\nis supplied the fire?\\nSo far as the carbon of the fuel is concerned the effect\\nis a serious one. One pound of carbon combining with\\ntwo pounds of oxygen results in perfect combustion, the\\nproduct being carbonic-acid gas, C0 2 developing 14,500\\nheat units; but if too little air, which means too little\\noxygen, is present at the instant and focus of combustion,\\nthe carbonic-acid gas already formed will take up addi-", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0093.jp2"}, "94": {"fulltext": "88 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\ntional carbon, thus changing the product to carbonic\\noxide, or from C0 2 to CO, the latter developing only 4,450\\nheat units, or 10,050 less than the first union. This\\nrepresents a loss approximating 69 per cent of the fuel,\\nmerely as a result of too little air in the fire at the right\\ntime and place.\\nQ. What is the effect upon combustion if too much air\\nis supplied the fire\\nThe effect of too much air in the fire is the mechanical\\none of cooling the furnace. The carbon having united\\nwith its full combining weight of oxygen to form C0 2 can\\ntake up no more oxygen, and any surplus air in the furnace\\nis merely a dilutant of the gases. Inasmuch as the free\\nair abstracts heat from the furnace and does no useful\\nwork, its presence acts against the economy of the furnace.\\nQ. Does so large an excess of air as 150 per cent over\\nthat necessary for complete combustion commonly occur\\nin steam boiler furnaces?\\nAn excess of air as large as 150 per cent in steam-boiler\\nfurnaces is by no means uncommon. There is a general\\ntendency to use a stronger draught than is necessary for\\nthe combustion of fuel. It so happens that 100 per cent\\nexcess of air in steam-boiler furnaces is an ordinary condi-\\ntion, and 1 50 per cent excess is much more common than\\nis generally supposed.\\nQ. What advantages accompany the heating of air re-\\nquired for furnace combustion?\\nA direct economical effect of heating the air is that of\\nraising the intensity of furnace combustion, and this may\\nbe explained on the probable hypothesis that the chemical", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0094.jp2"}, "95": {"fulltext": "HEATED AIR AND CHEMICAL ACTION. 89\\naffinity of heated air for carbon is much greater than that\\nof cold air one consequence of which is that, when heated\\nair is employed, it is deprived of its oxygen within a very\\nshort travel, the combustion is thereby more concentrated\\nand localized at the focus where the heat has to be applied\\nand to do its work. This is favorable to the economy of\\nfuel, for combustion and high temperature beyond the\\npoint where heat has to be applied are useless.\\nQ. How may the effect of heated air and chemical\\naction be estimated?\\nIt is known that one pound of carbon combined with 2-|\\npounds of oxygen will develop 14,500 heat units. This\\nwill require under theoretical conditions 12 pounds of air;\\nbut to place it under ordinary conditions, say 24 pounds\\nof air. We have then 25 pounds of gaseous product, of\\nwhich 3|- pounds will be carbonic-acid gas, and 2 im-\\npounds of inert waste gas. The more nitrogen there hap-\\npens to be mingled with the oxygen, the greater the\\nweight of matter that will have to be uselessly heated;\\nand the greater its capacity for absorbing heat the\\ngreater its specific heat the greater the amount of heat\\nthat would be taken up.\\nThe specific heat of carbonic acid gas o. 2 1 7, of nitro-\\ngen o. 245. The mean of 3 J pounds of the first and 21^\\npounds of the latter 0.237. Then ^o \u00e2\u0080\u00942,447\u00c2\u00b0\\nP 0.237x25\\nF. as the temperature of the products of combustion, in\\nthe form of about 1,800 cubic feet of fire gases.\\nPreheating the air facilitates the union of oxygen with\\nthe carbon, and the fourfold useless volume of nitrogen\\nshould not rob the furnace of heat at the very moment and\\nfocus of its combustion. A gain would also be effected", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0095.jp2"}, "96": {"fulltext": "90 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nthe more nearly the temperature of the nitrogen is raised\\nto that of the fire and whatever can be done by means of\\nthe escaping gases is pure saving.\\nQ. Is there an economical limit to the heating of air\\nfor combustion\\nIt has been found in practice that the greater the affinity\\nof any fuel for oxygen, the lower need be the temperature\\nof the air. It is hence used at a lower heat in charcoal\\nfurnaces than in coke furnaces, and less in the latter than\\nin anthracite blast furnaces. This explains the fact,\\nwhich has been found on trial, that a reverbatory furnace,\\nsupplied with hot air at the grate only, has actually been\\nfound to have its efficiency diminished and not increased.\\nThe gaseous combination or chemical union being thereby\\naccelerated, the combustion takes place more on the grate\\nand less in the body of the furnace, where the actual work\\nhas to be done.\\nQ. What is flame\\nFlame is the surface burning of an inflammable gas or\\nvapor, the surface of which is in contact with or receives\\nconstant supplies of atmospheric air. As all flames de-\\npending upon oxygen for their support are specifically\\nlighter than air, they naturally ascend in a stream from\\nburning bodies. Flames are usually, though not neces-\\nsarily, accompanied by luminosity at ordinary atmos-\\npheric pressure.\\nQ. What is known regarding the nature of the chemical\\nprocesses in flames?\\nAttempts have been made to study the nature of the\\nchemical processes in flames of candles and of coal gas by\\naspirating the gases from different parts of the flame and", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0096.jp2"}, "97": {"fulltext": "STRUCTURE OF FLAME. 9 1\\nanalyzing them. Such investigations can only give a very\\npartial conception of the changes which occur, or have\\noccurred, in the different areas of the flame, owing to the\\nintense molecular movements, due to the high temperature\\nand specific differences of diffusive power of the gaseous\\nconstituents. Nevertheless it is possible to obtain some\\nidea of the manner in which the several combustible gases\\nin such a complex mixture as that of coal gas, or of the\\ngas obtained by the distillation of wax or tallow, behave\\ntoward oxygen, and to trace the rates at which they are\\nseverally burnt, Thus, broadly speaking, it is found that\\nof these gases, the hydrogen up to a certain point is most\\nrapidly consumed, then the carbonic oxide, next the marsh\\ngas, while the heavy hydrocarbons burn comparatively\\nslowly. The amounts of these gases burnt, and especially\\nof the hydrogen and carbonic oxide, are, however, modified\\nby processes of dissociation and by the mutual action of\\nthe products of combustion at high temperatures. At the\\nvery high temperatures water vapor and carbonic-acid gas\\nare dissociated, while carbonic oxide is formed by the\\naction of separated carbon upon carbonic-acid gas.\\nQ. How is an isolated flame such as a candle built up\\nIt is usual to describe the structure of a flame as built\\nup of four zones, as sketched in Fig. 1, intended to illus-\\ntrate the main reaction taking place in the flame of a\\nburning candle, in which\\nA the inner zone of heavy vapor.\\nB the inner zone of lighter gas.\\nC the luminous zone.\\nD the outer or cooling zone.\\nThe inner zone A, nearest to and surrounding the wick,\\nis a vapor of the material of which the candle is composed.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0097.jp2"}, "98": {"fulltext": "9 2\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nThe zone B is an envelope of highly rarified vapor of A\\nheated to the point of ignition. The zone C is luminous,\\nand is that portion of the flame\\nwhere the chemical reactions occur,\\nbeginning along the surface of the\\nzone B and extending into the zone\\nD. The outer zone D is that in\\nwhich the cooling and diluting in-\\nfluence of the entering air renders a\\nthin layer non-luminous, and finally\\nextinguishes it.\\nIt will be understood that flame\\ndoes not consist of envelopes in such\\ncontrast as the engraving would seem\\nto indicate. This is for the purpose\\nof illustration only.\\ny Q. What are the successive devel-\\nopments of a luminous hydrocarbon\\nflame?\\nThe hydrocarbon issues from the\\nwick of the candle, Fig. i, let us\\nsuppose as a cylindrical column. This column is not\\nsharply marked off from the air, but is so penetrated\\nby the latter that we must suppose a gradual transition\\nfrom the pure hydrocarbon in the centre of the column\\nto the pure air outside. Take a thin, transverse slice\\nof the flame, near the lower part of the wick. At\\nwhat lateral distance from the centre will combustion be-\\ngin? Clearly where enough oxygen has penetrated the\\ncolumn to give such partial combustion as takes place in\\nthe inner cone of a Bunsen burner. This, then, defines\\nthe blue region.\\nFig.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0098.jp2"}, "99": {"fulltext": "STRUCTURE OF FLAME. 93\\nOutside this, the combustion of the carbonic oxide,\\nhydrogen, and any hydrocarbons which pass from the blue\\nregion takes place, and constitutes the faintly luminous\\nregion.\\nThese two layers form a sheath of active combustion,\\nsurrounding and intensely heating the hydrocarbons in the\\ncentral parts of the column. These heated hydrocarbons\\nrise, and are heated to a higher temperature as they as-\\ncend. They are accordingly decomposed with the separa-\\ntion of carbon in- the higher parts of the flame, giving us\\nthe yellow region but there remains a central cone in\\nwhich neither is there any oxygen for combustion nor a\\nsufficiently high temperature for decomposition. This\\nconstitutes the dark region of unburned gases.\\nA flame is, however, not cylindrical, but has in the case\\nof a candle an inverted peg-top shape. Again, the blue\\nregion only surrounds the lower part of the flame, while\\nthe faintly luminous part surrounds the whole.\\nJ Q. How will the processes outlined in the above question\\ndiffer in parts above the small section of the flame\\nLet us suppose that the changes have gone on in the\\nsmall section of the flame exactly as described above.\\nThe central cone of unburned gases will pass up-\\nward, and may be treated as a new cylindrical column,\\nwhich will undergo changes just as the original one, leav-\\ning, however, a smaller cone of unburned gases or, in\\nother words, each succeeding section of the flame will be\\nof smaller diameter. This is what gives the conical struc-\\nture to the flame. Again, the higher we go in the flame,\\nthe greater proportionally is the amount of separated car-\\nbon, for we have not only the heat of laterally outlying\\ncombustion to affect decomposition, but also that of the", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0099.jp2"}, "100": {"fulltext": "94 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nlower parts of the flame. The lower part of a luminous\\nflame is accordingly cooler, and contains less separated\\ncarbon than the upper.\\nQ. What chemical changes produce the blue region in\\na flame?\\nWhen the hydrocarbons are cool until admixed with\\nsufficient air for combustion, in the lower part of the\\nflame, there is every facility for the occurrence of the\\nchemical changes to which the existence of the blue re-\\ngion has been ascribed, and the blue region here is most\\nevident whereas in the upper parts of the flame, where\\nthe quantity of hydrocarbon decomposed (with separation\\nof carbon) by heat is relatively much greater, there is not\\nenough left to form outside the yellow part the mixture to\\nwhich the blue region of flame is due. The blue region,\\ntherefore, rapidly thins off as we ascend the flame.\\nQ. Are the several processes of flame development sup-\\nported by complete combustion?\\nWhether the first combustion taking place within the\\nflame is that of undecomposed hydrocarbon with limited\\noxygen, or of the decomposed hydrocarbon with limited\\noxygen, we may be sure that the products will contain\\ncarbonic oxide, and perhaps hydrogen and we shall there-\\nfore have all round the flame a faintly luminous region of\\ncompleted combustion.\\nQ. Is the flame of a candle characteristic of other steady\\nor continuous flames?\\nIn other steady, continuous flames these areas or zones,\\nas shown in the candle, are very different in character and\\nin number. In some the luminous cone is absent, and\\nothers have no mantle. All have, of course, the dark in-", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0100.jp2"}, "101": {"fulltext": "RATE OF PROPAGATION IN FLAME. 95\\nternal cone, and the majority have an area corresponding\\nto the blue zone in the candle flame. The flame of car-\\nbonic oxide consists of a dark internal cone of unburnt\\ngas surrounded by a yellowish-red mantle, somewhat ill-\\ndefined at its external edge, and at the base is a compara-\\ntively large blue zone.\\nQ. How can it be shown that the flame of a candle is\\nhollow\\nThe fact that the candle flame is hollow, and that the\\ninternal cone immediately surrounding the wick consists\\nof comparatively cold, unignited gas free from oxygen,\\nmay be demonstrated by thrusting a fragment of burning\\nphosphorus into the cone when its combustion ceases.\\nA piece of stiff thick paper thrust down on the flame to\\nthe level of the dark internal area is seen to be charred\\non the upper surface in the form of a ring. If the paper\\nbe placed simply across the luminous area and above the\\ndark cone, the charring is simply a circular patch.\\nQ. What is the rate of propagation of combustion in\\nflames of hydrogen and carbonic oxide\\nBunsen s investigations show that the rate of propaga-\\ntion of the combustion of a mixture of oxygen and hydro-\\ngen, and of carbonic oxide and oxygen, mixed in the exact\\nquantities for complete combustion to be\\nIn the oxyhydrogen mixture the velocity of the inflam-\\nmation was 111:5 f eet per second; in that of carbonic\\noxide and oxygen it was less than 40 inches per second.\\nBy adding to the mixture increasing amounts of an indif-\\nferent gas the rate is rapidly diminished until the progress\\nof the flame throughout the mass may be followed with\\nthe eye.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0101.jp2"}, "102": {"fulltext": "96 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nQ. Is combustion complete and the consequent high\\nflame temperature maintained in cases where the combus-\\ntible gases are mixed in their exact combining propor-\\ntions\\nAccording to Bunsen, in a mixture of carbonic oxide,\\nCO, or hydrogen, with oxygen in the exact quantity\\nneeded for complete combination, only one-third of the\\ncarbonic oxide, CO, or hydrogen, is burnt at the maximum\\ntemperature, the remaining two-thirds at the high tem-\\nperature (2558\u00c2\u00b0-3033\u00c2\u00b0) having lost the power of combina-\\ntion. If an indifferent gas is present the temperature of\\nthe flame is reduced, and larger quantities of the gases\\ncombine together, as much as half the amount of carbonic\\noxide, CO, or hydrogen combining within a range of tem-\\nperature between 247 1\u00c2\u00b0 and 1146\\nIt would appear therefore that gases in combining to-\\ngether with the production of such an amount of heat as\\nto produce flame unite, as it were, at a single leap, and\\nthat the combustion is not a continuous uninterrupted\\nprocess.\\nQ. What variations of temperature occur in flames in-\\ncident to the combustion of carbonic oxide, CO?\\nWhen two volumes of carbonic oxide, CO, are mixed\\nwith one volume of oxygen, both gases at o\u00c2\u00b0, and the\\nmixture is ignited, the temperature is raised to 303 3 and\\ntwo-thirds of the CO is left unburnt. By radiation and\\nconduction the temperature is lowered to 25 5 8\u00c2\u00b0 without\\nany combustion of the CO. At a little below this point\\ncombustion recommences, and the temperature is again\\nraised to 25 58 but not above this point. This temper-\\nature continues until half the CO is burnt, when combus-\\ntion ceases, until by cooling and radiation the gaseous", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0102.jp2"}, "103": {"fulltext": "LUMINOSITY OF FLAME. 97\\nmixture has cooled to 1146 and these alternate phases\\nof constant temperature and of decreasing temperature are\\nrepeated until the whole of the combustible gas is burnt.\\nQ. What is the cause of the luminosity of flame?\\nThe main cause of the luminosity of flame was first\\ntraced by Davy as the outcome of experiments which led\\nhim to the invention of the safety lamp. It is, to use his\\nown words, owing to the decomposition of a part of a gas\\ntoward the interior of the flame, where the air was in\\nsmallest quantity, and the decomposition of solid charcoal,\\nwhich first by its ignition and afterward by its combustion\\nincreases in a high degree the intensity of t he light^\\nThe proofs that solid carbon is present in luminous\\nhydrocarbon flames are the following\\n1. Chlorine causes an increase in the luminosity of\\nfeebly luminous or non-luminous hydrocarbon flames.\\nSince chlorine decomposes hydrocarbons at a red heat with\\nseparation of carbon, it follows that the increase in lumin-\\nosity is due to the production of solid carbon particles.\\n2. A rod held in the luminous flame soon becomes\\ncovered on its lower surface, i.e., the surface opposed to\\nthe issuing gas, with a deposit of soot. The solid soot is\\ndriven against the rod. If the soot existed as vapor within\\nthe luminous flame, its deposition would be due to a dimi-\\nnution of the temperature of the flame, and would there-\\nfore occur on all sides of the rod.\\n3. A strongly heated surface also becomes covered with\\na deposit of soot. This result could not occur if the de-\\nposit were due to the cooling action of the surface.\\n4. The carbon particles in the luminous flame are ren-\\ndered visible when the flame comes in contact with an-\\nother flame, or with a heated surface. The separated par-\\n7", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0103.jp2"}, "104": {"fulltext": "98 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\ntides are agglomerated into large masses, and the luminous\\nmantle becomes filled with a number of glowing points,\\ngiving a very coarse grained soot.\\n5. The transparency of a luminous flame is no greater\\nthan that of the approximately equally thick stratum of\\nsoot which rises from the flame of burning turpentine, and\\nwhich is generally allowed to contain solid particles. A\\nflame of hydrogen made luminous with solid chromic\\noxide, which is non-volatile, is as transparent as the hy-\\ndrocarbon flame.\\n6. Flames which undoubtedly owe their luminosity to\\nfinely divided solid matter produce shadows in sunlight.\\nThe only luminous flames incapable of producing shadows\\nare those consisting of glowing gases and vapors.\\n7. Luminous hydrocarbon flames produce strongly\\nmarked shadows in sunlight. These flames, therefore,\\ncontain finely divided solid matter. This solid matter\\nmust be carbon, since no other substance capable of re-\\nmaining solid at the temperature of these flames is present.\\nMoreover, if the soot in luminous flames is present as\\nvapor, a high temperature after condensation should again\\ncause it to assume the gaseous condition but soot is ab-\\nsolutely non- volatile, even at the highest temperatures.\\nQ. What conditions affect the color of flame?\\nThe conditions under which a flame is produced not only\\nmodify its temperature, but also, as an effect of temper-\\nature, its color. Thus the prevailing tint of sulphur burn-\\ning in air is blue, and the mantle is correspondingly small\\nand of a violet color. In oxygen the flame becomes hotter\\nand the violet color is more pronounced. Precisely the\\nsame change is produced by heating the air or by burning\\na jet of heated sulphur vapor. Cold carbonic oxide gives", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0104.jp2"}, "105": {"fulltext": "TEMPERATURE OF FLAME. 99\\na blue flame in air, but it becomes yellowish-red if the gas\\nbe previously heated.\\nThe flame of a candle, whether of wax, tallow, or para-\\nfin, is seen to consist of four distinct cones, which are\\ncomparatively sharply defined, and which are rendered evi-\\ndent by their different appearance. Immediately surround-\\ning the wick is a dark inner cone of unburnt gases or vap-\\nors. Adjoining the inner cone is a light blue zone of\\nsmall area consisting of combustible matter from the wick.\\nSurrounding the inner cone is a bright luminous area, from\\nwhich the greater part of the light emitted by the flame is\\nderived. Surrounding the luminous area, which seems to\\nconstitute the greater portion of the visible flame, is an\\nenvelope or mantle of a faint yellowish color and of feeble\\nluminosity. This consists of the final products of combus-\\ntion of the constituents of the luminous cone mixed with\\natmospheric air heated to incandescence.\\nOwing to the intense glare of the luminous cone the\\nfeebly luminous mantle is not readily perceived, but it\\nmay be rendered evident by holding a piece of card, of the\\nshape of the flame, in such a manner as to hide the lumi-\\nnous cone, when the mantle is seen lining the outer edge\\nof the cone.\\nQ. Upon what does the temperature of flame depend?\\nThe temperature of a flame depends mainly upon the\\nheats of combination of the constituents and the specific\\nheats of the products of combustion. Flames which de-\\npend upon the presence of oxygen are much hotter when\\nthe combustion takes place in an atmosphere of pure gas\\nthan in air. In the latter case the oxygen is mixed with\\nfour times its volume of nitrogen, which plays no part in\\nthe chemical reaction, and therefore contributes nothing\\nLofC,", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0105.jp2"}, "106": {"fulltext": "f\\nIOO COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nto the heating effect; but, on the contrary, abstracts a\\nconsiderable amount of heat from the products of combus-\\ntion, and thereby lowers the temperature of the glowing\\nmass of gas. Hence sulphur burning in oxygen gives a\\nmuch hotter flame than when burning in air, and the oxy-\\nhydrogen flame is much hotter than that of hydrogen in\\nair. The effect of the indifferent gas in lowering the\\ntemperature is well illustrated by the following numbers\\ngiven by Bunsen\\nCent. Fahr.\\nFlame of hydrogen burning in air 2,024\u00c2\u00b0 3.675\u00c2\u00b0\\noxygen 2,844 5,151\\ncarbonic oxide burning in air J.997 3,626\\noxygen 3,003 5,437\\nQ. Is flame in immediate contact with the orifice from\\nwhich the gas issues?\\nIf the flame of a candle or of coal gas be closely ex-\\namined it will be seen that the one does not touch the rim\\nof the burner nor the other the wick. The intermediate\\nspace in the case of the coal gas may be increased by mix-\\ning it with an indifferent gas, as nitrogen or carbonic-acid\\ngas, C0 2 These phenomena are due to the cooling effect\\nof the wick or the burner.\\n-v\\nQ. May flame be extinguished by a rapid absorption\\nof its heat?\\nA coal gas flame may be extinguished by a cold mass\\nof copper, and a candle flame by a helix of cold copper\\nwire. The metal abstracts sufficient heat from the gases\\nto lower their temperature below the point of combination.\\nIf the metal is heated prior to its introduction into the\\nflames, they are not extinguished.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0106.jp2"}, "107": {"fulltext": "X\\nFLAME OF ANTHRACITE COAL. IOI\\nQ. May not a flame be extinguished in other ways\\nthan by the cooling action of metals\\nA flame may be extinguished by mixing the combustible\\ngases with a sufficiently large quantity of an indifferent\\ngas, which will act by absorption of heat in the same way\\nas metal. The effect even of small quantities of indiffer-\\nent or chemically inactive gases in lowering the temper-\\nature of a flame is very marked, and is well illustrated in\\nthe different characters of the flame of hydrogen burning\\nin air and oxygen. In extinguishing a flame, say of a\\ncandle or coal gas, by blowing it out, the puff of air acts\\npartly by suddenly scattering the glowing gases from the\\narea of supply and partly by its cooling action.\\nQ. What are the flame characteristics in the burning\\nof anthracite coal?\\nIn burning, anthracite coal neither softens nor swells,\\nand does not give off smoke. The flame is quite short\\nand has a yellowish tinge when first thrown upon the fire,\\nwhich soon changes to a faint blue, with occasionally a\\nred tinge. The flame, being quite short and free from\\nparticles of solid carbon, has the appearance of being\\ntransparent.\\nQ. How is the rapidity of flow, or the volume of air\\nsupplied a furnace-fire, estimated, when employing natural\\ndraft?\\nBy means of an instrument contrived for measuring the\\nforce and velocity of currents of air, called an anemometer.\\nThose composed of a small light fan wheel, whose motion\\nis transmitted to a counter which registers the number of\\nturns, are most certain and convenient for use, though\\nthey must previously be tested, or the relation existing", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0107.jp2"}, "108": {"fulltext": "102 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nbetween the velocity of the wind and the number of turns\\nof the wings must be accurately determined.\\nThe anemometer shown in Fig. 2 is by Keuffel Esser\\nCompany, New York. Each instrument is tested and a\\nFig.\\nchart of corrections furnished with it, so that no calcula-\\ntions are necessary for obtaining the velocity of the cur-\\nrent in which it is placed.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0108.jp2"}, "109": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER V.\\nPRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION.\\nQ. What are the principal products in the furnace after\\nthe combustion of coal\\nThe principal products in the furnace after the combus-\\ntion of coal are carbonic-acid gas, carbonic oxide, nitro-\\ngen, air furnished in excess, and unconsumed, gaseous\\nsteam.\\nQ. What is the product of the combustion of hydrogen\\nHydrogen unites with oxygen, forming gaseous steam,\\nwhich, upon cooling, is condensed into water, H 2 0. This\\nchemical combination is complete, and the product incom-\\nbustible.\\nQ. What are the products of the combustion of carbon\\nThe products of the combustion of carbon in oxygen are\\ntwo in number, carbonic oxide, CO, and carbonic-acid gas,\\nC0 2 in which each compound is sharply defined and ex-\\nhibits properties distinct from each other, and of the ele-\\nments of which they are composed. The quantity of\\ncarbon remaining the same, the quantity of oxygen must\\nbe doubled in order to form the other compound. These\\nproportions constitute the only two direct inorganic com-\\npounds of carbon and oxygen.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0109.jp2"}, "110": {"fulltext": "104 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nQ. What are the properties of carbonic-acid gas?\\nCarbonic-acid gas, C0 2 is composed of one part or\\natom of carbon and two parts of oxygen, its atomic weight\\nbeing 12 -f- (16 X 2) 44. By percentage of volume:\\ncarbon 27.27, oxygen 72.73 100.00. Its specific\\ngravity is 1.53, air 1.00. It is a colorless, inodorous,\\nheavy gas, neither combustible nor a supporter of combus-\\ntion.\\nIt liquefies under a pressure of 36 atmospheres at o\u00c2\u00b0 C.\\nThe specific gravity of the liquid carbonic acid is 1.057 at\\n34 C. Liquid carbonic acid is colorless, very soluble\\nin alcohol, ether, and volatile oils, but does not mix with\\nwater. When the pressure is suddenly relieved, part of\\nthe carbonic acid immediately vaporizes, producing suffic-\\nient cold to solidify the remainder. Solid carbonic acid is\\na white flocculent, snowlike mass, and may be left exposed\\nto the air for some time without sensible evaporation. An\\nair or spirit thermometer immersed in it sinks to 78 C.\\nIt can, however, be placed on the hand without any acute\\nsensation of cold. By mixing with ether its refrigerating\\npower is greatly increased. The cold produced in this\\nmanner is sufficient to solidify mercury and to liquefy\\nseveral gases.\\nCarbonic-acid gas is a constant constituent of the atmos-\\nphere, which contains on an average about 0.034 per cent.\\nIn the combustion of coal, carbonic-acid gas is formed\\nby the combination of the carbon in the coal by the oxy-\\ngen of the air, and is thus a constant product of the ordi-\\nnary processes of combustion. The presence of moisture\\nis necessary for the burning of carbon in an atmosphere of\\npure oxygen. In furnace combustion the coal itself fur-\\nnishes all the moisture needed for intense combustion.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0110.jp2"}, "111": {"fulltext": "CARBONIC OXIDE. 105\\nQ. What are the properties of carbonic oxide\\nCarbonic oxide, CO, is composed of one part or atom\\neach of carbon and oxygen, its atomic weight being 1 2 -f-\\n16 28. By percentages of volume: carbon 42.86,\\noxygen 57.14 100.00. Its specific gravity is 0.9678,\\nair 1. 0000. It is a colorless, tasteless, combustible\\ngas. Pure carbonic oxide forms a colorless, transparent\\nliquid under 200 to 300 atmospheres pressure at 139\\nC, and solidifies to a snowy mass in vacuo at 21 1\u00c2\u00b0 C.\\nCarbonic oxide burns with a blue flame, which by pre-\\nvious heating becomes red, generating carbonic-acid gas,\\nC0 2 The temperature of its flame in air is about 1400 C.\\nWhen dry it is not changed by the electric current nor by\\nignited platinum wire, but when standing over water it is\\ndecomposed by a glowing platinum spiral when not abso-\\nlutely dry it may be exploded with oxygen by the electric\\nspark or by platinum wire heated to 300 C, or by spongy\\nplatinum at ordinary temperatures. Two molecules of\\ncarbonic oxide, CO, unite with 1 atom of oxygen, O, to\\nform 2 molecules of carbonic-acid gas, C0 2 The combina-\\ntion takes place very slowly in the presence of small quan-\\ntities of steam, and increases in rapidity with the quantity\\nof steam present. Hence the steam acts as the carrier of\\noxygen to the carbonic oxide. Small quantities of other\\ngases than steam have been tried. If the gas contained\\nno hydrogen, no explosion occurred. When a mixture of\\ncarbonic oxide and steam is heated to about 6oo\u00c2\u00b0 C. a\\nportion of carbonic oxide is oxidized. If the carbonic-\\nacid gas is removed as it is formed, the whole may be oxi-\\ndized.\\nCarbonic oxide is a highly poisonous gas, producing\\ngiddiness and ultimate asphyxia when inhaled.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0111.jp2"}, "112": {"fulltext": "106 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nQ. What is the product of the combustion of sulphur?\\nSulphur combines with oxygen to form sulphurous oxide,\\nS0 2 a colorless gas, with a suffocating odor. It is a non-\\nsupporter of combustion, instantly extinguishing flame\\nwhen brought within its influence. Sulphurous oxide, in\\nabsorbing vapor of water, changes from sulphurous oxide,\\nS0 2 to sulphurous acid, S0 2 H 2 0.\\nQ. What is the effect of sulphur in coal upon the sur-\\nfaces of steam boilers?\\nIf the sulphurous oxide generated by the combustion of\\nsulphur in the furnace simply passed off with the other\\nproducts of combustion, without lodging against the sur-\\nfaces of the boiler, no bad effects would follow but nu-\\nmerous instances are on record where sulphurous oxide\\nwas included in the deposits of soot in contact with por-\\ntions of a steam boiler, which oxide had been converted\\ninto acid by the subsequent absorption of moisture. The\\ntransformation of sulphurous into sulphuric acid, under\\nthe action of water, or steam and air, in presence of a\\nmetal, is well known, and exterior corrosion of boilers at-\\ntributed to the action of smoke is wholly confined to those\\nparts of the iron which were wetted by infiltration or by\\naccident.\\nQ. What quantity of nitrogen is present in the products\\nof combustion\\nWhatever the quantity of air required for the perfect\\ncombustion of carbon or hydrogen there will remain in the\\nfurnace 3.35 pounds of nitrogen for every pound of oxygen\\ncombined with the fuel or by volume 3.76 volumes re-\\nmain in the furnace for each volume of oxygen uniting\\nwith the fuel.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0112.jp2"}, "113": {"fulltext": "SURPLUS AIR IN FURNACE. 107\\nNitrogen is non-combustible, and so far as the other\\nproducts of combustion in the furnace are concerned it is\\nwholly inert.\\nQ. What is the effect of surplus air in the furnace in\\ncombination with the products of combustion\\nSurplus air, or air in excess of that necessary to supply\\noxygen to the burning fuel, acts as a dilutant of the fur-\\nnace gases. Inasmuch as this surplus air has to be heated\\nby the furnace to the temperature of the escaping gases, it\\noccasions loss by abstracting heat from the furnace gases,\\nwhich might otherwise be employed in doing useful work.\\nQ. What weight of gases commonly emerges from a\\nsteam-boiler furnace for the combustion of each pound of\\ncarbon\\nIt is not easy to carry on complete combustion by means\\nof natural draft with less than 100 per cent excess air;\\nand some experiments, made by Hoadley, to ascertain the\\ncomposition, volume, and temperature of the gases from\\nseventeen boilers, burning good anthracite coal at known\\nrate, with great care, and under most favorable conditions\\nof draft, grate area, rate of combustion, area of heating\\nsurface, and general management, gave by analysis car-\\nbonic-acid gas, C0 2 (no carbonic oxide, CO), nitrogen, and\\nfree atmospheric air, the latter being one-half the whole.\\nA check upon the accuracy of these results was found\\nin the temperature of the furnace. This should be, with\\ndouble supply of air, about 2600 F. It was found to be\\na little over 2400 F. It appears therefore that it is un-\\nderstating rather than overstating the matter to say that\\nthe average good practice would show a double supply of\\nair.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0113.jp2"}, "114": {"fulltext": "108 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nQ. What weight of gases emerges from the furnace for\\nperfect combustion of one pound of carbon also the ad-\\nditional weight occasioned by air in excess of that needed\\nfor combustion?\\nIn anthracite coal we may neglect all the constituents\\nexcept carbon, which, when perfectly burned, with just\\nsufficient air to supply the oxygen, will produce 12.6\\npounds of mixed gases for each pound of carbon. Thus\\nCarbon 1 o Carbon 1 00\\nAir 11. 6 Oxygen 2. 66\\n12.6 Product C0 2 3.60\\nNitrogen 8.94\\n12.60\\nlb. carbon burnt with 0% excess of air 12.6 lbs. gases.\\n50 18.4\\n100 24.2\\n125 27.1\\njg 30. o\\nQ. What is included in the term ashes?\\nThe term ashes includes all the mineral matter left on\\nthe grates after the complete combustion of fuel. Every\\nvariety of mineral fuel contains more or less incombustible\\nmatter called ashes. The presence of this incombustible\\nsubstance in coal is due in part to the inorganic matter\\ncontained in the plants of which the coal is formed, and\\npartly by the earthy matter in the drift of the coal period.\\nThe inorganic matter thus obtained frequently differs both\\nin amount and in proximate composition from that origi-\\nnally present in the unburnt substance. At the high tem-\\nperature of burning some of the mineral constituents may\\nbe volatilized, or be mechanically carried away by the", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0114.jp2"}, "115": {"fulltext": "COMPOSITION OF ASHES. IO9\\ngases which may be evolved, and changes in the proximate\\nnature may be induced either by the heat itself or by the\\naction of the heated carbonaceous substances.\\nQ. What is the specific heat of ashes?\\nThe specific heat of ashes may be assumed to be 0.215\\nwithout sensible error in engineering calculations.\\nQ. Of what do ashes principally consist?\\nCoal ashes are found to consist mainly of silica, alumina,\\nlime, and oxide and bisulphide of iron. As wood contains\\nfrom 1 to 3.5 per cent of ash, it is probable that much of\\nthe inorganic matter required to make up the five to ten\\nper cent in coal is principally earthy substances drifting\\ninto and incorporated in the coal during its formation.\\nThe nature and color of coal ashes are greatly modified by\\nthe proportions in which the above substances are united\\nin the composition. In all analyses of coal ashes, silica\\nand alumina predominate.\\nQ. What substances are found in analysis of ashes of\\nanthracite coal?\\nThe analysis of ashes of Pennsylvania anthracite coal,\\nby Professor Johnson, yielded\\nSilica 53. 60\\nAlumina 36. 69\\nSesquioxide of iron 5.59\\nLime 2. 86\\nMagnesia 1.08\\nOxide of magnesia 19\\n100.01", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0115.jp2"}, "116": {"fulltext": "IIO COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nQ. What substances are found in the analysis of ashes\\nfrom bituminous coal\\nOhio bituminous coal, containing 5.15 per cent of ash,\\nyielded upon analysis\\nSilica 58.75\\nAlumina 35. 30\\nSesquioxide of iron 2.09\\nLime c 1 20\\nMagnesia o. 68\\nPotash and soda 1.08\\nPhosphoric acid o. 13\\nSulphuric acid o. 24\\nSulphur combined 0.41\\n99.88\\nBlock coal is a non-caking, bituminous coal found in\\nIndiana. It occurs in thin laminae, separated by fibrous\\ncharcoal partings, with fractures occurring in the coal at\\nright angles to the bed. A sample of this coal yielded\\n2. 5 per cent of white ash, of which the composition was\\nAlumina 48. 00\\nSesquioxide of iron 32. 80\\nSilica, lime, magnesia, etc 19.20\\n100. 00\\nOf the sulphur present in this coal,\\n.947 per cent, was in combination with iron.\\n.483 with other constituents.\\n1.430 of sulphur in the sample.\\nQ. What does the color of coal ashes indicate?\\nCoal ashes are usually either white, brown, or variously\\ntinged with red. It is a common designation to say of\\ncoals that they are white-ash or red-ash. When the\\namount of iron is very small, or not sufficient to tinge the", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0116.jp2"}, "117": {"fulltext": "COLOR OF ASHES. Ill\\nashes, they are then usually white. A larger quantity of\\niron produces a red-ash. Thus the color enables one to\\njudge of the probable nature of the ashes, whether they\\nwill clinker in the fire or not. The intensity of the red\\ncolor, taken in connection with the amount of ashes in\\ncoal, may also serve as an indication of the proportion of\\nsulphur existing in the state of pyrites.\\nQ. Judging from the color of the ash alone, which\\ncoals will clinker least under high temperatures\\nThose coals are best, the ashes of which are of nearly\\npure white, and which with large amounts of silica and\\nalumina in their composition, contain little or no alkali,\\nnor any lime, nor oxide of iron. Of this character are the\\nearthy residue of the best white-ash anthracites of Penn-\\nsylvania, and in an eminent degree the ashes of some of\\nthe semi-anthracites. In general, it requires a high tem-\\nperature to fuse these ingredients when taken by them-\\nselves, but the presence of the oxide of iron tends to lower\\nthe point of fusion.\\nQ. Will not all coal ashes fuse, or clinker, under in-\\ntense heat\\nThere are, perhaps, no coals whose ashes, when exposed\\nto the extremest heats procurable by artificial blasts, will\\nnot soften to a cohering cinder, or even melt in part into\\na stony clinker but as the tendencies to these several de-\\ngrees of fusion are very various, it proves to be a distinc-\\ntion affecting the practical value of coals, which is of the\\nutmost importance. In domestic consumption, where the\\nheat of combustion is comparatively moderate, the quan-\\ntity rather than the quality or fusibility of the ashes is the\\npoint of greatest consideration; but where an excessive", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0117.jp2"}, "118": {"fulltext": "112 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nand melting heat is required, as in many modes of gener-\\nating steam, the practicability of employing a coal at all\\nwill oftentimes be determined by this one quality of\\nclinkering of the ashes.\\nQ. What is the effect of the presence of oxide of iron\\nin coal ashes?\\nThe amount of the oxide of iron present in coal ashes\\nis one of great importance, especially as it unites with pot-\\nash, soda, lime, and silica, also present, to form clinker.\\nThe presence of oxide of iron in ashes, when in any con-\\nsiderable quantity, may be detected without analysis by\\nthe red color imparted to them. The particular objection\\nto the combination and fusing of the silica, lime, potash,\\netc. in the ashes of the coal into a vitreous mass is that,\\nunless the greatest care is exercised, it will accumulate\\nupon the grate bars in sufficient quantity to exclude the\\npassage of the air needed for combustion, and thus lower\\nthe temperature of the furnace.\\nQ. How is the presence of the oxide of iron accounted\\nfor in coal ashes\\nNearly every variety of coal contains more or less iron\\npyrites. This is the probable source of the oxide of iron\\nin ashes. The greater part of the sulphur being expelled\\nby heat, its equivalent of oxygen unites with the iron,\\nwith which hydrogen also combines, forming the sesqui-\\noxide of iron occurring in the analysis of coal ashes.\\nQ. What is the effect of iron pyrites included in the\\nashes of coal?\\nCoal always contains more or less of sulphur in its com-\\nposition, and this sulphur occurs mainly as a native bisul-", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0118.jp2"}, "119": {"fulltext": "SIJLPHUR IN ASHES.\\n113\\nphide of iron, or iron pyrites, a mineral of bright yellow\\ncolor often mistaken for gold. Pyrites approximate equal\\nparts of iron and sulphur with a ten-per-cent variation on\\neither side. About one-half the sulphur may be driven\\noff by heat and if the fire is intense, the remaining por-\\ntion of the pyrite is present in the ashes as a black sul-\\nphuret of iron, which, in combination with other sub-\\nstances, may form a hard clinker, difficult to remove from\\nthe grates if once allowed to cool.\\nUnless the conditions are favorable a less percentage\\nof sulphur is distilled from the pyrites than that noted in\\nthe preceding paragraph, as indicated in tests made in\\nGermany, on coals of the carboniferous period\\nTable ii. Sulphur Evolved in the Burning of Coal and\\nRetained in the Ashes.\\nAsh in 100\\npounds of coal.\\nSulphur in 100\\npounds of coal.\\nSulphur in 100\\npounds of ash.\\nSulphur in the\\nash from 100\\npounds of coal.\\nSulphur evolved\\nin burning 100\\npounds of coal.\\nPounds.\\n7.360\\n5.760\\nI6.530\\nPounds.\\nO.789\\n0.973\\n3.264\\nPounds.\\n9.464\\n14.663\\n18.174\\nPounds.\\nO.696\\nO.844\\n2.424\\nPounds.\\nO.093\\nO.I29\\nO.84O\\nQ. Is sulphur always present in coal as iron pyrites?\\nThere is no doubt that sulphur is present in coal in\\ncombination with the organic elements of which it is com-\\nposed but what the definite compound may be which con-\\ntains it is unknown. For example, a coal from New\\nZealand containing 2. 50 per cent of sulphur yielded an\\nash remarkably white; the coke contained 2. 35 per cent of\\nsulphur. No sulphuric acid was detected in the hydro-\\nchloric acid in which the powder of the coal had been\\nboiled. It would appear that the sulphur was present in\\n8", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0119.jp2"}, "120": {"fulltext": "114 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nthe same state of combination in the coal as that in which\\nit exists in albumin, fibrine, etc. for it could not have\\nbeen combined with iron, as in this case the ash would\\nhave had a decided red color.\\nQ. What is clinker?\\nClinker is a product formed in the furnace by fusing\\ntogether the impurities in the coal, such as oxide of iron,\\nsilica, lime, etc. There are few colored ashes, and espec-\\nially red ashes, that will not soften under the action of in-\\ntense heat and form clinker; white-ash coals produce the\\nleast clinker.\\nQ. How is alumina present in ashes?\\nAlumina is the oxide of the metal aluminum it is the\\npure earth of clay. It is infusible in any temperature yet\\nobtained in furnaces. The alumina present in ashes is in\\nthe form of a clay or a mixture of the two simple earths,\\nalumina and silica, generally tinged with iron. The floor,\\nor pavement, immediately under the coal beds is, almost\\nwithout exception, a grayish slate-clay, which strongly re-\\nsists the fire. This clay varies in thickness from a frac-\\ntion of an inch to many feet, and is often disseminated\\nthrough the shale found in coal.\\nThe presence of alumina in analyses of wood ashes from\\ntrees, such as beech, pine, fir, etc., is not easily accounted\\nfor inasmuch as no inorganic substance can find its way\\ninto a plant except in a state of solution in water, when it\\nis absorbed by the roots and, certainly, neither rain water\\nnor ordinary mineral water contains any salt of alumina,\\nnor does water impregnated with carbonic acid, which dis-\\nsolves phosphate of lime or magnesia, dissolve even a trace\\nof phosphate of alumina.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0120.jp2"}, "121": {"fulltext": "SILICA IN ASHES. 115\\nAshes of lycopodium contain from 52 to 57 per cent of\\nalumina, 13 per cent of silica, and 12 per cent of potash.\\nThis species of plants has contributed largely to the pro-\\nduction of coal. It appears, therefore, that the inorganic\\nmatter in coal, of which alumina is a notable constituent,\\nmay have been in great measure derived from that origin-\\nally existing in the coal-forming plants, and the alumina\\noriginally present in these plants would be uniformly dif-\\nfused through the mass of coal.\\nQ. How is silica present in ashes\\nThe only known oxide of silicon [symbol, Si. atomic\\nweight 28.33] occurs abundantly in nature, pure, or\\nnearly so, in quartz, flint, etc. It enters largely into the\\nconstitution of sandstones, felspar, and many other rocks.\\nSilica, known also as silicic acid, silex (formula, Si0 2 is\\ninfusible except at very high temperatures it is non- vola-\\ntile; it decomposes fused sodium carbonate and melts to a\\ntransparent glass. It is insoluble in water and all acids\\nexcept hydrofluoric acid, which decomposes it into water\\nand silicon fluoride. Silica dissolves readily, as a rule, in\\ncaustic alkalies, forming solutions of alkaline silicate\\n(water-glass). Silica is decomposed at a red heat by car-\\nbon in presence of iron and at white heat by carbon mon-\\noxide, CO, a metallic silicide being formed.\\nSilica plays a very important part in the formation of\\nslags, and fusion is not necessarily required to produce\\ncombination. Thus, when certain mixtures of silica and\\nlime are strongly heated, there is not the slightest indica-\\ntion of fusion, yet it is certain that the silica has entered\\ninto combination. The bases which most frequently occur\\nin slags are lime, magnesia, protoxide of iron, potash in\\nsmall quantity, and alumina.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0121.jp2"}, "122": {"fulltext": "Il6 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nSilica is an abundant element in the ashes of straw, as\\nshown in the following\\nPer Cent.\\nPotassa 10.51\\nSoda 1 03\\nLime 5.91\\nMagnesia 1.25\\nSesquioxide of iron 0.07\\nSulphuric acid 2.14\\nSilica 73.57\\nPhosphoric acid 5.51\\nTotal 99. 99\\nQ. How is potash present in ashes\\nPotash occurring in ashes is in various states of combi-\\nnation, as carbonate, sulphate, and as chloride of potash.\\nThe percentage of potash is much greater in wood than in\\ncoal ashes. The following table (12) shows, according to\\nHoss, the proportions of ash and potash in some of the\\nleading woods\\nTable 12.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Potash Contained in Ashes of Several Woods.\\nWood.\\nAsh\\nPer Cent.\\nPotash\\nPer Cent.\\nPine\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a234\\n.58\\n1.22\\n1-35\\n2-55\\n2.80\\n.045\\n.127\\n.074\\n.150\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2390\\n.285\\nAsh\\nOak\\nElm\\nWillow\\nPure, dry carbonate of potash is a hard, white solid,\\nspecific gravity of 2.207, having a strong alkaline reaction\\nand taste. It melts at a full red heat, and at a higher\\ntemperature slowly volatilizes.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0122.jp2"}, "123": {"fulltext": "LIME PRESENT IN ASHES. 117\\nThe following, from Berthier s original analysis, shows\\nthe composition of pine-tree ash\\nSolution in water: Per Cent.\\nCarbonate of potash 1. 86\\nSulphate of potash 3. 63\\nChloride of potash 1.88\\nCarbonate of soda 6. 03\\nSilica 18\\nInsoluble in water\\nLime 38. 51\\nMagnesia 9-5\u00c2\u00b0\\nOxide of iron 09\\nOxide of manganese 36\\nCarbonic acid 32. 77\\nPhosphoric acid 91\\nSilicic acid 4. 19\\n99-97\\nQ. How is lime present in ashes?\\nLime occurring in ashes is a product of one of the car-\\nbonates present in the coal, in which its contained carbonic\\nacid is driven off by heat, leaving a white or pale gray\\nsubstance, acrid and caustic to the taste, and exhibits a\\npowerful alkaline reaction. Lime heated by itself is one\\nof the most refractory substances known, and no temper-\\nature has as yet been attained which has caused it to ex-\\nhibit the slightest indication of fusion but lime promotes\\nthe fusion of some other oxides in a remarkable manner,\\nand hence it is used as a flux. Carbonate of lime is an\\nessential ingredient in all fertile soils, and occurs in every\\nkind of rock.\\nQ. How do the substances which form clinker affect the*\\nefficiencies of coals\\nThe several substances, silica, lime, potash, etc., occur-\\nring in coal ashes are variable in their nature and thus", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0123.jp2"}, "124": {"fulltext": "Il8 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nby the forms they take under different intensities of com-\\nbustion much affect the efficiencies of the coals to which\\nthey belong. Being differently fusible themselves, and\\naffecting differently the fusion of each other, no two of the\\nearths, alkalies, or metallic oxides of the ashes but differ\\nin their agency when subjected to an elevated heat; and\\ntheir mutual reactions are moreover changed, as the tem-\\nperatures are changed to which they are exposed. It\\nhence arises that the residue from many coals melts to a\\nlarge extent, under no very intense combustion, into vari-\\nous descriptions of hard, semi-vitreous slags others yield\\na less stony clinker and some again at a far more elevated\\nheat result only in a partially agglutinated, spongy, open\\ncinder, or even in a pulverulent or flaky ash.\\nQ. What quantity of ash is present after the complete\\ncombustion of coal\\nThe percentage of ash varies considerably for different\\ncoals, but it is generally less in anthracite than in the bi-\\ntuminous varieties. Taking hard and soft coals as a whole,\\nthe average quantity of ash will lie between five and ten\\nper cent, with occasional variations on either side.\\nQ. What is smoke\\nSmoke is a general term often applied to all the prod-\\nucts of combustion escaping from the furnace, whether\\nvisible or invisible. In a more restricted application it\\ndenotes the sooty products of the furnace escaping with\\nthe waste gases. These sooty particles are solid carbon,\\nand usually very light and small. So far as mere weight\\nis concerned, the blackest smoke is not perceptibly heavier\\nthan if the products of combustion were transparent. The\\nobjection to black smoke, as such, is not the actual loss in", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0124.jp2"}, "125": {"fulltext": "SMOKE PREVENTION. II9\\nweight of carbon. It is rather that in cities and towns\\nthese sooty particles find their way through the ordinary\\ncurrents of air into business places, dwellings, etc., the\\nsooty deposit being practically constant in the neighbor-\\nhood of such a chimney, causing much annoyance to\\nhousekeepers, merchants, and others. Colored smoke is a\\nproduct of incomplete combustion.\\nQ. Is colored smoke then no indication of waste in\\nfurnace combustion?\\nColored smoke is sure evidence of wasteful combustion,\\nbecause it indicates a low temperature of furnace. An-\\nthracite coal and coke give off no sooty particles when\\nburning. In the case of bituminous coal the first effect\\nof the heat is to detach small particles of carbon from, the\\nsurfaces next the incandescent fuel on the grate. These\\nparticles are so light that they are easily carried out of the\\nfurnace and up the chimney by the mechanical agency\\nof the draft. If the furnace temperature was sufficiently\\nhigh, and there was enough free oxygen over the bed of\\nfuel to burn these soot particles, they would be converted\\ninto carbonic-acid gas and become wholly invisible.\\nBlack smoke is not a product of a high, but always that of\\na low furnace temperature.\\nQ. How may smoke prevention be accomplished\\nBituminous coals, rich in hydrocarbons, require a fur-\\nnace of much greater cubic content to render their com-\\nbustion complete and wholly smokeless, than is required\\nfor anthracite coal or coke. The combustion chamber for\\nbituminous coal ought always to be large and roomy. The\\ntemperature must always be high. Provision must be\\nmade for a controlled air admission above the fuel to sup-", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0125.jp2"}, "126": {"fulltext": "120 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nply the additional oxygen required for the conversion of\\nthe carbonic oxide into carbonic-acid gas. The fuel should\\nbe free from large lumps, and either frequently or con-\\ntinuously fed to the furnace.\\nIn admitting air above the fuel, unless it can be sup-\\nplied at the right place and time, and in the right quan-\\ntity, it may prove a worse evil than the smoke itself, by\\nlowering the temperature of the gases in the furnace to\\na point below which ignition is insured.\\nIn an ordinary boiler furnace, with flat grates, a nearly\\nsmokeless fire can be maintained by breaking up the coal\\nand banking it immediately inside the fire door, that the\\ngases may distill from the coal slowly. These gases pass-\\ning over the bed of incandescent coke, through which an\\nexcess of air is passing, will burn the volatile combustible\\nof the coal smokelessly. When the fuel is well coked, it\\ncan be broken up, distributed over the grates, and a fresh\\nsupply of raw coal banked up as before.\\nQ. What rule is there for measuring the shades of in-\\ntensity of smoke?\\nIn any thorough study of smoke a scale of intensity is\\nvery important. As to the number of shades of intensity\\nit has been proposed variously from three to ten. The lat-\\nter was adopted by the South Kensington and Manchester\\nSmoke Abatement Commissions (1881), and upon trial\\nwas found to be quite undesirable, as it was difficult to\\ndiscriminate between so many slightly differing shades.\\nThe second English Smoke Commission, in 1895, adopted\\na scale of only three shades faint, medium, and black;\\nbut three shades were found to be too few, as ten were\\nfound to be too many.\\nThe best scale to adopt, according to the view now held", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0126.jp2"}, "127": {"fulltext": "RINGLEMANN S SMOKE SCALE. 121\\nby most of the authorities, seems to be one having five\\nshades, viz.\\nI. White transparent vapor.\\n2. Light brown smoke.\\n3. Brownish-gray smoke.\\n4. Dense smoke.\\n5. Thick black smoke.\\nThe determining of the different shades is largely em-\\npirical, the shade varying with each observer according to\\nhis sight and sense of color.\\nProfessor Ringlemann s smoke scale adopts the five\\nshades, and his plan is to represent the different grays\\ninto which the shades of smoke are naturally divided by\\nblack cross lines on white paper. Seen at a given dis-\\ntance from the observer, these black and white diagrams\\nshow different shades of gray, representing the desired\\nsmoke tints. Variations in the shade can be obtained by\\nvarying the thickness of black lines or the size of the in-\\nterstices of white left between them. A given cross line\\narrangement will represent one shade of gray when seen\\nat a distance, say, of 80 to 100 feet from the observer,\\nwhile if the black lines be doubled in thickness and the\\nwhite intervals between them correspondingly diminished\\nby half, another and darker shade of gray will at the same\\ndistance be shown (see Fig. 3).\\nThe principles on which the Ringlemann smoke scales\\nare designed are as follows\\nNo. o. No smoke. All white.\\n1 Light gray smoke. Black lines 1 mm. thick, and\\nwhite spaces of 9 mm. between, all crossed at right angles\\nlike a chess board.\\n2. Darker gray smoke. Black lines 2.3 mm. thick, J.J\\nmm. apart.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0127.jp2"}, "128": {"fulltext": "122\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nNo\\n1.\\nNo. 2.\\nNo. 3. No. 4.\\nFig. 3.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Professor Ringlemann s Smoke Chart.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0128.jp2"}, "129": {"fulltext": "SMOKELESS FIRING IN LOCOMOTIVES. 123\\n3. Very dark gray smoke. Black lines 3.7 mm. thick,\\n6.3 mm. apart.\\n4. Black smoke. Black lines 5.5 mm. thick, 4.5 mm.\\napart.\\n5. Very black smoke. All black.\\nThis is probably the best smoke scale yet produced. It\\nis in use in portions of England, France, and in the United\\nStates.\\nQ. Can soft coal be burned without smoke in ordinary\\nlocomotive fire boxes\\nThat railway smoke nuisance can be almost, if not\\nwholly, abated, by simply exercising proper care and judg-\\nment in firing, is the expressed opinion of Mr. Angus\\nSinclair, an engineer of wide experience and excellent\\njudgment. His recommendations, based upon actual prac-\\ntice, consist merely in reducing the coal to small sizes, no\\nlarge lumps, and firing in what is known as the single-\\nshovelful method.\\nThe practical working of this method of firing has\\nshown, according to the records of the Burlington, Cedar\\nRapids Northern Railway, that bituminous coal burning\\nlocomotives, without any specially contrived fire box or fix-\\ntures (except the ordinary brick arch), can be operated in\\nany service from yard switching to heavy freight trains,\\nquite as smokeless as if anthracite coal were used. This\\nmethod of firing now permits passenger trains to be run\\ncomfortably over that road with the windows open. Fur-\\nther, an economy of about one-sixth of the money former-\\nly paid for coal is now saved to the company; the engines\\nsteam much more freely than under the old method of\\nheavy intermittent firing; the annoyance of leaky tubes\\nhas almost ceased; there is no filling up of smoke boxes", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0129.jp2"}, "130": {"fulltext": "124\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nwith cinders and there has been a decided reduction in\\nthe work of the boiler- maker and last, but not least, the\\nfireman has less work of coal- throwing to do, and he and\\nthe engineer are acting together to produce satisfactory\\nresults.\\nQ. What results have been accomplished on the Cin-\\ncinnati, New Orleans Texas Pacific Railway in smoke-\\nless firing with bituminous coal?\\nMr. J. W. Murphy, superintendent of the above road,\\nsays there is no detail in connection with the operation of\\nFig. 4.\\nthe road to which the management gives so much special\\nand continued attention as in the efforts to prevent the\\nemission of black smoke by locomotives on passenger\\ntrains.\\nTo secure these results, it was necessary, first, to equip\\nthe engines with brick arches, as indicated in Fig. 4.\\nFour holes are shown on each side of the fire box for the\\npurpose of admitting air. Four tubes run through the\\narch, and the outside air, passing through these tubes, is", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0130.jp2"}, "131": {"fulltext": "INSTRUCTIONS TO FIREMEN. 125\\nheated to a high temperature. This heated air supplies\\noxygen to the unconsumed gases and produces complete\\ncombustion. The four holes in each side of the fire box\\nare located twelve inches above the grates, and into these\\nopenings are inserted the Sharp patent deflecting air tubes,\\ndeflecting the air to the fire.\\nQ. What instructions were issued to engineers for firing\\npassenger locomotives on the Queen and Crescent Limited,\\nCin., N. 0. T. P. Ry.?\\nAfter firing each shovelful of coal, the door must be left\\nopen one or two inches for a few seconds, admitting enough\\nair to produce complete combustion of the gases driven off\\nfrom the coal. Care must be taken not to leave the door\\nopen longer than necessary to consume the gases.\\nFiremen must learn to work with as light a fire as pos-\\nsible. Great care must be taken that steam is not wasted\\nat the safety valve, either when the train is in motion or\\nwhen standing still.\\nBefore starting, the blower must be put on and a suffic-\\nient supply of coal put into the fire box to insure a good\\nsolid fire. After the coal has been put in, the door must\\nbe left partly open by placing the latch on the first notch\\nof the catch, so to remain until the smoke entirely disap-\\npears, when the door must be closed.\\nAfter starting the door must be left partly open after\\neach shovelful of coal is put into the fire box, by placing\\nthe latch on the first notch of the catch until such time as\\nthe smoke disappears, when the door must be closed.\\nOn approaching tunnels the fire must be replenished in\\nample time, obtaining sufficient fire to carry the train\\nthrough the tunnel without smoke, the door to be kept\\nclosed while passing through tunnels.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0131.jp2"}, "132": {"fulltext": "126 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nThe engineman should so arrange the water supply that\\nthe fireman may be able to fire the engine regularly and\\neconomically, and this can be done best when the water is\\nsupplied to the boiler continuously.\\nFiremen must pay particular attention to the manner\\nin which the engineman works the injector and handles\\nthe engine, in order to regulate the fire accordingly.\\nCare must be taken to have the blower applied and the\\ndoor partly open when approaching a station where a stop\\nis to be made, and no smoke must be allowed to show\\nfrom the stack at such times or when descending grades.\\nWhile the blower is being used, except when approach-\\ning a station where a stop is to be made, care should be\\ntaken to keep the door closed as much as possible, more\\nespecially when cleaning the fire, as the blower causes- the\\ncold air to be drawn into the flues.\\nWhile lying on side tracks, both dampers should be\\nclosed to save the fire.\\nGrates should be shaken only when absolutely neces-\\nsary, as too frequent shaking causes a loss of fuel by al-\\nlowing the unconsumed coal to fall into the ashpan, where\\nit ignites and causes the pan to heat and warp. Ashpans\\nshould be examined as frequently as stops will permit, and\\nunder no circumstances must they be allowed to become\\nfilled.\\nWhen possible to avoid it, the fire box must not be left\\nwide open. To leave the fire door wide open is especially\\nbad when using steam or blower.\\nIt is beneficial to wet the coal before firing, and firemen\\nshould, as far as possible, use wet coal.\\nIntelligent firing and economical results in the use of\\nfuel will be considered in the selection of firemen for pas-\\nsenger engines or for promotion to freight enginemen.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0132.jp2"}, "133": {"fulltext": "SMOKELESS COMBUSTION. \\\\2J\\nThese rules must be strictly observed on night as well\\nas on day passenger trains.\\nQ. How may smokeless combustion be best secured in\\nlocomotive practice?\\nThe best examples of smokeless firing occur in locomo-\\ntives using no device but the brick arch in connection\\nwith careful firing. A general sentiment, based upon ex-\\nperience on Western railroads, where soft coal only is used\\nfor fuel, is that a good fireman without a special device is\\nproductive of better results than any of the mechanical\\ndevices if poorly managed. The conclusion reached in\\nChicago, St. Louis, and other Western cities where efforts\\nhave been made to reduce the amount of smoke made by\\nlocomotives, is that steam jets and other similar devices\\nare not to be seriously considered as successful smoke\\npreventives; and, second, the most effectual method of\\npreventing smoke is by the use of the brick arch and skil-\\nful firing.\\nQ. What is the device for smoke prevention by the\\nLocomotive Smoke Preventer Company?\\nThis device as applied to a locomotive is shown in Fig.\\n5, and further illustrated in detail in Fig. 6, which shows\\nthe heating coil in the smoke-box extension; Fig. 6a,\\nwhich is another view of the heating coil Fig. 7, which\\nshows plan arrangement of the manifold, a group of three\\njets passing through the front end of the fire box; Fig. 8,\\nan enlarged section of the combined steam and air jet,\\nand the seamless water jacket. The elevation of a loco-\\nmotive (Fig. 5) shows the entire device when applied; it\\nconsists of a funnel-shaped pipe A, which is attached to\\nthe smoke box at B; this pipe continues to one end of a", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0133.jp2"}, "134": {"fulltext": "128\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0134.jp2"}, "135": {"fulltext": "LOCOMOTIVE SMOKE PREVENTER COMPANY.\\n2 9\\nseries of bends or coils of pipe called the heater C,\\nwhose axis is parallel with the axis of the boiler shell\\nFig. 6.\\nFig. 6a.\\nthe other end being attached to a pipe which leaves the\\nsmoke box at D on the opposite side from A. By means\\nof an elbow it connects to the pipe E extending along the\\nside of the boiler close under the running boards back to a\\nPIPE TO SMOKE BOX\\n^-iijjreQ\\nFig.\\npoint in front of the throat sheet where by 45 elbows it\\npasses under the barrel and enters at the centre of the\\n9", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0135.jp2"}, "136": {"fulltext": "130\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nmanifold F placed in front and close to the throat sheet.\\nThe three or more openings in the manifold exactly tally\\nwith the air ducts leading into the fire box. In the inside\\nof the fire box at the tube sheet and close to the under\\nside of the fire-brick arch are three or more cylindrical\\ntapered water-jackets, G, G, which screw into the tube\\nsheet and extend into the fire box a distance of about\\ntwelve or fourteen inches, their interior being open direct\\nto the water leg of the boiler; concentric with the jacket\\nFig. 9.\\nand extending from the throat sheet through the water leg\\nand jacket is the air tube H referred to, above, its ends\\nbeing expanded and beaded into the sheet and jacket re-\\nspectively. It will thus be seen that we have a contin-", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0136.jp2"}, "137": {"fulltext": "OBJECTION TO STEAM AND AIR JETS. I3I\\nuous air passage from the air funnel at the front of the\\nengine through the hot smoke box to the fire zone in the\\nfire box.\\nA side elevation and plan of manifold F, together with\\nthe method of attaching the steam jets, is shown in Figs.\\n7 and 8. The manifold is tapped for a one-fourth inch\\npipe terminating in an one-eighth inch opening in the air\\ntube H. The flow of steam through it is controlled by a\\nvalve J in the cab. The special function of this jet is to\\nforce hot air into the fire box when the engine is at rest,\\nor when running with the throttle shut. When an appli-\\ncation of coal is made, it is met by a large volume of air\\nheated to the point of ignition by previous contact with\\nthe incandescent fire-brick arch, thus furnishing oxygen\\nwhere it is most needed to produce smokeless combustion.\\nThe door sheet nozzles shown in Fig. 9 are used on en-\\ngines having long fire boxes and a comparatively short fire-\\nbrick arch.\\nQ. What is the objection to a combined steam and air\\njet in a locomotive furnace\\nSteam jets which introduce both steam and air above\\nthe fire have a temporary dampening effect when the en-\\ngine is standing, as they produce a pressure on the fire\\nbox equal to the draft, and the current of gas and smoke\\nthrough the stack is stopped. In other words, smoke is\\nprevented because combustion has almost ceased. When\\nthe engine is working, the effect of the steam jets is very\\nslight. The steam is condensed by contact with cold air,\\nand it enters the fire box as moisture, and its effect must\\nbe to lower the temperature of the gases, and it does not\\nsupport combustion. The air which is drawn in is also\\ncool, and there is no real combination with the gases until", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0137.jp2"}, "138": {"fulltext": "132 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nit is heated up to their temperature. From any point of\\nview, according to the committee of the Western Railway\\nClub on smoke prevention, the steam and air jet cannot be\\nconsidered as a promising device from which any success-\\nful smoke preventer may be evolved, and the committee\\nbelieve it to be important that this fact be emphasized for\\ntwo reasons first, because valuable time has been wasted\\nalready in continued and unsuccessful experiments with\\nsteam jets; and second, because their presence on the\\nengine and occasional use have the effect of relieving both\\nmaster mechanic and engineman of responsibility to a\\ncertain extent. If the steam jet is given up as hopeless,\\nthen more attention and effort will be directed toward\\nbetter proportions of fire box and other features in the\\noriginal construction of the locomotive.\\nQ. What is an econometer?\\nThe econometer, designed by Max Arndt, and shown\\nin Fig. 10, is a gas- weighing machine on an entirely new\\nprinciple, fixed in an air-tight case 7 with a plate of glass\\nin front. In the case 7 there are two connecting joints,\\n39 and 40, 40 is connected by a y\u00c2\u00a7 pipe to the flue of the\\nboiler about two feet from the damper, and 39 is con-\\nnected by a pipe to an aspirator in the main flue be-\\ntween the damper and the chimney, or the chimney itself,\\nand which constantly draws a sample of the gases from\\nthe boiler flue through filters, gas pipes, and balance, dis-\\ncharging it into the chimney. In the interior of the\\neconometer case 7, the joint 40 is connected with the as-\\ncending pipe 23, and the joint 39 with the descending\\npipe 22 by means of India rubber tubes 34 and 35.\\nThe gas-weighing machine itself consists of a very fine-\\nly adjusted, highly sensitive balance, to which is fixed the", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0138.jp2"}, "139": {"fulltext": "MAX ARNDT S ECONOMETER.\\n133\\npointer or index 17. On one end of the balance is sus-\\npended an open glass globe 18, with a capacity of about a\\npint, and on the opposite end a compensating rod 32, to\\nwhich is affixed a scale pan with a number of glass beads\\nand filings by which the gas holder can be balanced. The\\n11 Sa^", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0139.jp2"}, "140": {"fulltext": "134 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nknife-edges of the balance are steel gilded, and the caps\\nare agate. The whole balance works on a pillar screwed\\non a cast plate 28. The latter has adjusting screws by\\nwhich the balance is set, both horizontally and vertically.\\nFor this purpose a small pendulum is attached to the sup-\\nporting pillar. A frame 27 is fixed on the pillar in which\\nis inserted the scale.\\nThe gas-ascending pipe 23 reaches into the gas holder\\nor weighing globe 18, which has a neck 20 open below\\nand surrounded by cup 21 open above. The neck 20 has\\nfree play around glass tube 19, as well as cup 21, so that\\nthe gas holder can swing free from resistance.\\nThe combustion gases, having to pass through filters and\\ndrying chambers, enter the weighing globe thoroughly\\ncleaned and dried.\\nAs carbonic acid is about 50 per cent heavier than at-\\nmospheric air and the other gases contained in combustion\\ngases, so the gases which continually fill the weighing\\nglobe must be heavier in proportion to the amount of car-\\nbonic acid contained therein. The scale 27 is so divided\\nthat the movement of the pointer 17 of the gas balance\\nfrom one dividing line to another corresponds with the\\nvolume per cent of C0 2 in the gases to be weighed. The\\namount of carbonic acid in the gases can therefore be\\nread off at all times.\\nQ. What is the object of the econometer?\\nIn Europe, where coal economy has received the great-\\nest attention, it has long been the custom to provide en-\\ngineers with chemical apparatus, by which the percentage\\nof carbonic-acid gas could be determined at intervals.\\nThis determination, though irregular, proved of the great-\\nest value, and led to the invention of the econometer,", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0140.jp2"}, "141": {"fulltext": "max arndt s econometer. 135\\nwhich indicates continuously the exact percentage of\\ncarbonic acid contained in the escaping products of\\ncombustion. The value of having a continuous indication,\\nrather than one obtained at infrequent intervals, can hardly\\nbe overestimated, for a constant guide to firing is thus\\nobtained.\\nIn order to produce combustion, carbon, the vital ele-\\nment in the coal, must unite with oxygen, which it does\\nin certain unvarying proportions. In the first stage of\\ncombustion, one part of carbon unites with one part of\\noxygen, forming a combustible gas, known as carbon mon-\\noxide, and in this process about one-fourth of the heat is\\nliberated. In the second stage, the carbon monoxide ab-\\nsorbs another part of oxygen, forming a gas known as car-\\nbon dioxide or carbonic acid, and in this process the bal-\\nance of the heat is liberated.* As there is twenty-one per\\ncent of oxygen in the air that is conveyed to the carbon,\\nit is easily seen that perfect combustion would produce\\ntwenty-one per cent of carbonic acid, since all of the oxy-\\ngen would unite with all of the carbon and every heat unit\\ncontained in the coal would be liberated.\\nIt is next to impossible to obtain perfect combustion in\\nany steam-boiler furnace for many reasons, but it is pos-\\nsible to obtain and maintain good combustion, with proper\\nfiring and correct manipulation of the draughts and damp-\\ners. It is easy to see that the only test to be applied is\\nthat of determining the percentage of carbonic acid pres-\\nent in the escaping gases, and that the value received\\nfrom the burning of all coal is in exact proportion to this\\npercentage of gas. Chemistry has determined these\\nThis is from Arndt s point of view. The generally accepted theory is\\nthat C0 2 is first formed, which passing up through the bed of incandescent\\nfuel takes up another equivalent of carbon, resulting in CO. Ed.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0141.jp2"}, "142": {"fulltext": "136 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nvalues, so that when the per cent of carbonic acid is\\nknown, the value received from the burning of any coal\\ncan be ascertained. Table 13 shows the relative values,\\nfrom which the difference between burning coal properly\\nand improperly can be ascertained at a glance.\\nQ. How are the econometer percentages of carbonic-\\nacid gas affected by excessive air supply?\\nCarbonic acid is fifty per cent heavier than air, and thus\\nthe greater the percentage contained in any given volume\\nof flue gases the greater the weight of that volume. In\\nthe econometer, a sample of the escaping gas from the\\nboiler is drawn continuously through a balance scale, sus-\\npended in air, and the variations in weight that are pro-\\nduced by the different states of combustion are made to\\nrecord the percentage of carbonic acid. The weight of\\nthis gas varies with the temperature, but in the eco-\\nnometer, the sample to be weighed, and the air in which\\nthe weighing is done, assume the temperature of the room,\\nso that the proportion remains exact.\\nIt is plainly evident that for each pound of coal a\\nfixed amount of air is necessary for combustion, varying\\nas the percentage of carbon varies in the different coals.\\nFor a pound of average quality, about one hundred and\\ntwenty-five cubic feet of air is necessary, and it is the\\ninability to convey this precise amount to the furnace\\nthat prevents our obtaining and maintaining perfect com-\\nbustion.\\nIf too little air is admitted, combustion becomes imper-\\nfect because the carbon monpxide cannot find the neces-\\nsary oxygen to complete its transformation into carbon\\ndioxide, and this is the most wasteful condition of firing,\\nfor the largest part of the heat is given off in the second", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0142.jp2"}, "143": {"fulltext": "LOSS BY IMPERFECT COMBUSTION.\\n137\\n3 -if\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a25\\ni\\nV\\nPer cent\\ncarbonic\\nacid.\\nTimes the\\ntheoreti-\\nc a 1 re-\\nquire-\\nments.\\nCubic feet\\nof super-\\nflous air\\nheatedto\\na tem-\\nperature\\nof usual-\\nly 5 1 8\\nFahr.\\nq\\nvr\\nCO\\nd\\nW\\nrf\\nCO\\n00\\nco\\nto\\n10\\nO\\nIT)\\nn\\nCO\\nco\\n\\\\n\\nH\\nr-\\nco\\nM\\nO\\nO\\nco\\nM\\nO*\\nw\\nCO\\nO\\nOO\\nCO\\nco\\nCO\\nr^\\nvr\\nOS\\nCO\\nO\\nCO\\nco\\nvO\\nco\\nin\\nO\\nco\\n\\\\r\\n00\\nCO\\nco\\nO\\nO\\nCO\\nin\\nd\\nvO\\nCO\\nCO\\nID\\nO\\nO\\nw\\nIT)\\nvO\\nO\\nu\\nu\\na\\nc\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0Si\\n\u00c2\u00ab4H\\nThen the quantity\\nof air passing\\nthrough the flues\\nis\\nWith a surplus sup-\\nply of air of 30\\nper cent or about\\n166 cubic feet of\\nnecessary air per\\npound of fuel,\\nthere will still be\\na further excess\\nof about\\na*\\n\u00c2\u00b0Pn c\\nC/5\\n0\u00c2\u00b0\\n,-5 CO\\nc\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2A}iren\\n3\\n9SBJ9AB JO JBOD JO j[", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0143.jp2"}, "144": {"fulltext": "138 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nstage of combustion. This case is seldom met with in\\npractice, for most boiler furnaces are supplied with too\\nmuch air. Then the combustion is poor because there is\\na large amount of air passing through the fire, the oxygen\\nof which cannot be consumed. This surplus air must be\\nheated to the same temperature as the escaping gases,\\nthereby absorbing the heat already generated, which\\nshould pass instead into the water contained in the boiler.\\nQ. In what manner may loss of fuel through imperfect\\nfurnace detail or management be detected by the econom-\\neter\\nLoss of fuel calculated and shown in Table 1 3 can be\\ncaused in a variety of ways, and is to be sought for in all\\nof the accessories of the furnace. It may result from an\\nexcessive or defective draft, from faulty grates or wrong\\nproportion of grate surface, there may be defects in the\\nboiler setting or in the fire and ash-pit doors, that should\\nbe remedied. The proper thickness of fire is something\\nthat must be determined, varying as it does with the many\\ndifferent conditions surrounding all steam plants.\\nBy first obtaining the percentage of carbonic acid in the\\ngases produced with ordinary firing and then experiment-\\ning with the boiler in connection with the econometer, any\\nfireman can soon ascertain the proper thickness of fire and\\ndraft necessary to insure good combustion. If with a\\nhigh percentage of carbonic acid the gauges should show\\ntoo much steam, a case often experienced in practice, it is\\nevident that the grate surface should be reduced, which\\ncan be done by bricking up at the back end of the ashpit,\\nor at the back end or sides of grates over the bars.\\nA very common source of waste is the formation of\\nSee foot note on page 135.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0144.jp2"}, "145": {"fulltext": "LOSS BY IMPERFECT COMBUSTION. 1 39\\nholes in the fire, and of the presence of these, the econo-\\nmeter is a never-failing indicator. By drawing samples\\nof gas from the entrance and exit of the flues, and com-\\nparing the percentage of carbonic acid, any existing de-\\nfects in the setting and brickwork will be discovered.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0145.jp2"}, "146": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VI.\\nHEAT DEVELOPED BY COMBUSTION.\\nQ. What is heat?\\nIn steam engineering heat is regarded from the dynam-\\nical or mechanical theory only, on the supposition that\\nheat and mechanical force are convertible one into the\\nother. From the great number of experiments in the gen-\\neration of heat by mechanical processes, by friction, by\\nthe arrest of motion, either gradually or by percussion, by\\nthe change in the quantity of heat observed in the case of\\nexpansion, etc., has led investigators to the conclusion that\\nheat is simply a motion of ultimate particles, and that the\\nmolecular structure of bodies has much to do with their ca-\\npacities for heat and an increase or decrease of tempera-\\nture is simply an increase or decrease of molecular motion.\\nQ. What numerical value, in heat units, should be\\nused in estimating the calorific power of carbon in con-\\nnection with coal analysis\\nCarefully conducted experiments by the earlier as well\\nas the more recent investigators have yielded practically\\nthe same results. Three numerical values for carbon are\\nin common use, viz., 14,544, 14,540, 14,500 heat units.\\nThese are so nearly alike as to cause no confusion, and\\npractically no error in any calculations relating to the\\ncalorific value of fuel. The latter is the one in very gen-\\neral use.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0146.jp2"}, "147": {"fulltext": "HEAT GENERATED BY COMBUSTION. 141\\nIn the examples given in this book the writer has fol-\\nlowed as nearly as possible the numerical values given by\\ninvestigators, those used in geological reports, and in any\\ncorrespondence relating to the coal then under considera-\\ntion.\\nQ. What quantity of heat is generated by the con-\\nversion of carbonic oxide, CO, into carbonic-acid gas, C0 2\\nCalorimeter tests show that one pound of carbonic oxide\\nburnt to carbonic-acid gas develops 4,325 heat units.\\nIt will be seen that a loss of heat occurs even though all\\nthe carbonic oxide in the furnace be converted into car-\\nbonic-acid gas, because the chemical union which produces\\nthe latter gas yields 14,500 heat units, whereas burning\\ncarbon to carbonic oxide yields only 4,450 heat units, and\\nthe burning of CO into C0 2 yields 4,325 heat units, or a\\ntotal of 8,775 neat units. This is 5,725 heat units per\\npound less than the direct conversion of carbon into car-\\nbonic-acid gas, a loss of 39 per cent.\\nQ. Can the loss of heat occasioned by burning carbon\\nto carbonic oxide, CO, be recovered by its subsequent con-\\nversion into carbonic-acid gas, C0 2 before it leaves the\\nfurnace\\nThe burning of carbonic oxide, CO, in the combustion\\nchamber above the fire is a wholly distinct operation from\\nthe combustion of the coal on the grates, one result of\\nwhich is the formation of the CO.\\nThere are two methods by which this conversion from\\nCO to C0 2 may be accomplished first, by the admission\\nof surplus air through the bed of incandescent fuel sec-\\nond, by the admission of air through perforations in the\\nlining of the fire door, through the side walls of the fur-", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0147.jp2"}, "148": {"fulltext": "142 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nnace, through a perforated pipe in the furnace, through\\nperforations in or adjoining the bridge wall. All of the\\nabove connect in some manner with the atmosphere.\\nShortening the grates so as to leave a space at the end to\\nallow passage of air between the grates and the bridge\\nwall. All of these methods have been tried with more or\\nless success depending upon local conditions.\\nQ. Upon what is the temperature of fire conditioned?\\nThe temperature of combustion is conditioned upon the\\nnature of the fuel burned,; the nature of the products of\\ncombustion the quantity of the products of combustion\\nthe specific heat of the gases present in the furnace result-\\ning from combustion, including the quantity of air present\\nat the moment of combustion in order to render it com-\\nplete.\\nQ. How may the temperature of the combustion of\\ncarbon be estimated\\nIn the complete combustion of one pound of carbon we\\nhave:\\nCarbon I\\nOxygen 2.67\\n3-67\\npounds of carbonic-acid gas.\\nIn addition thereto we have 8.94 pounds of nitrogen left\\nafter the separation of the oxygen from the atmospheric air.\\nThe specific heat of carbonic-acid gas is 0.216, and that\\nof nitrogen 0.244. We have then\\n_ Specific Heat\\nProducts Pounds heat. units.\\nCarbonic-acid gas 3. 67 X 216 794\\nNitrogen 8.94 X .244 2. 181\\nTotal 2.975", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0148.jp2"}, "149": {"fulltext": "TEMPERATURE OF COMBUSTION. 143\\nheat units absorbed in raising the temperature of the prod-\\nucts of combustion of one pound of carbon, i\u00c2\u00b0F.\\nThe combined weight of the two products are 3.67 -f-\\nr^, Heat units 2.975\\n8.Q4 12.61 pounds. I hen: 0.236,\\nr Pounds 12.61 J\\ntheir mean specific heat.\\nThe total heat of the combustion of one pound of car-\\nbon in oxygen gas is 14,544 heat units; divide this by the\\n14,544\\n2.075 heat units absorbed, we have: 4880\u00c2\u00b0 F.\\n2.975\\nas the highest theoretical temperature attainable by\\nthe complete combustion of one pound of carbon, using\\n1 1. 6 1 pounds of air per pound of carbon, the minimum\\ntheoretical limit.\\nExample 2. Suppose that eighteen pounds of air are used\\ninstead of the theoretical quantity given above, and that the\\ncombustion is complete, we then have\\nCarbon 1\\nOxygen 2.67\\nNitrogen 8. 94\\nSurplus air 6. 39\\n19.00\\npounds of furnace products.\\nThe specific heat of air is 0.237, proceeding as before\\nProducts. Pounds. t\\nheat. units.\\nCarbonic-acid gas 3. 67 X 216 794\\nNitrogen 8.94 X -244 2. 181\\nAir, uncombined 6. 39 X 237 1 5 19\\nTotals 19.00 4-494\\n4.494 14,544\\nThen: =0.237, the mean specific heat.\\n19 0/ 4.494\\n32 36 F., the temperature of the fire under the above\\nconditions. It will be noted that a reduction of 1653 F.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0149.jp2"}, "150": {"fulltext": "144\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\noccurs through the admission of 50 per cent more air than\\nwas needed for combustion. Had double the quantity of\\nair passed through the fire, the temperature would be\\nabout 2450 F.\\n-Table 14. Weight and Specific Heat of the Products of Com-\\neustion, and the temperature of combustion.\\n(From D. K. Clark s Rules, Tables, and Data.)\\nOne pound of combustible.\\nHydrogen\\nOlefiant gas\\nCoal (average)\\nCarbon, or pure coke\\nAlcohol\\nLight carburetted hydrogen.\\nSulphur\\nCoal, with double supply of air\\nGaseous Products for One Pound of Com-\\nbustible.\\nWeight.\\nPounds.\\n35-8\\n15.9\\nII.94\\n12.6\\nIO.O9\\n18.4\\n5-35\\n22.64\\nMean\\nspecific\\nheat.\\nWater\\n.302\\n257\\n.246\\n.236\\n.270\\n.268\\n.211\\n.242\\nHeat to\\nraise\\ntempera-\\nture i\u00c2\u00b0 F.\\nUnits.\\nIO.814\\n4.089\\n2-935\\n2.973\\n2.680\\n4-933\\n1. 128\\n5.478\\nTemperature of\\ncombustion.\\nDeg. F.\\n5744\\n5219\\n4879\\n4877\\n4825\\n4766\\n3575\\n2614\\nRatio.\\nIOO\\n91\\n85\\n85\\n84\\n83\\n62\\n45\\nQ. How may the quantity of heat developed by com-\\nbustion be determined?\\nThe heat developed by chemical action or combustion\\nis best determined by the use of an apparatus known as a\\ncalorimeter, by means of which a combustible is burnt in\\noxygen gas, the heat liberated by combustion being ab-\\nsorbed by the water which surrounds the combustion\\nchamber. The weight of combustible, the oxygen, and\\nthe water being known, the quantity of heat evolved by\\nthe combustion of each substance can easily be calculated\\nby the rise in temperature of the water.\\nThe apparatus used by Favre and Silberman for meas-\\nuring the heat evolved by the combustion of various sub-", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0150.jp2"}, "151": {"fulltext": "FAVRE AND SILBERMANN S CALORIMETER. 145\\nstances in oxygen gas is represented, with the omission of\\nminor details, in Fig. 11, in which C is a vessel of gilt\\nbrass plate, immersed in a water calorimeter, A A, of sil-\\nvered copper plate, and the latter is enclosed in an outer\\nvessel, B B, the space between A and B being filled with\\nswandown to prevent the escape of heat from the water\\nA. The vessels A and B are\\nclosed with lids having aper-\\ntures for the insertion of tubes\\nand thermometers. The com-\\nbustions are performed in the\\nvessel C, into which oxygen is\\nintroduced through the tube\\nc d y and the gaseous products\\nof the combustion escape by\\nthe tube, e f g h, the lower\\npart of which is bent in nu-\\nmerous coils, to facilitate as\\nmuch as possible the trans-\\nmission of the heat of these\\ngases to the water in the cal-\\norimeter. The extremity, k\\nof this tube is connected with\\na gasometer or with an absorbing apparatus. To insure\\nuniformity of temperature in the water, a flat ring of metal,\\ni z, is moved up and down by means of the rod Ki. Com-\\nbustible gases were introduced into the vessel C, by means\\nof fine tubes, the gas being previously set on fire at the\\naperture. Solid bodies were attached to fine platinum\\nwires suspended from the lid of the calorimeter. The liq-\\nuids were burned in small capsules or in lamps with\\nasbestos wicks. Charcoal was disposed in a layer on a\\nsieve-formed bottom, through the openings of which the\\n10\\nFig. 11.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0151.jp2"}, "152": {"fulltext": "146\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\noxygen had access to it. The heat evolved was measured\\nby the rise of temperature of the known quantity of water\\nin the calorimeter.\\nTable 15. Quantities of Heat Evolved by the Combustion of\\nOne Pound of Combustible with Oxygen. (Favre and Silberman)\\nSubstances.\\nGases\\nHydrogen\\nCarbonic oxide\\nMarsh gas\\nOlefiant gas\\nLiquids\\nOil of turpentine,\\nAlcohol\\nSpermaceti (solid)\\nSulphate of carbon\\nSolids\\nCarbon (wood charcoal)\\nGas coke\\nGraphite from blast furnaces\\nNative graphite\\nSulphur (native)\\nPhosphorus (by Andrews)\\nFormula.\\nH\\nCO...\\nCH 4\\nC 2 H 4\\nC10 Hi6\\nC 2 H 6 0...\\nC32 H 6 4 O2.\\nCS 2\\nProduct.\\nH 2\\nco 2\\nC0 2 and H\\nC0 2 andH\\nC0 2 and H 2 O\\nC0 2 and H 2 O\\nC0 2 and H 2 O\\nC0 2 and S0 2\\nCO.\\nco 2\\nso 2\\nP205.\\nBritish\\nthermal units.\\n62,032\\n4,325\\n23,513\\n21,343\\n19,533\\n12,931\\n18,616\\n6,122\\n4,45i\\n14,544\\n14,485\\n13,972\\n14,035\\n4,048\\n10,715\\nQ. What are the relations between quantity of heat\\nand temperature developed in combustion\\nThe actual amount of heat given out during the com-\\nplete oxidation of any substance is the same whether the\\ncombination is slow or rapid, and is carried on in air or in\\noxygen. But it is quite different in regard to the temper-\\nature developed, this depending on the concentration of\\nthe heat and so being higher, the more rapid the com-\\nbustion and the less extraneous matter is present to absorb\\nthe heat. The temperature of a hydrogen or a coal-gas\\nflame burning in oxygen is very much higher than that of\\na similar flame burning in air.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0152.jp2"}, "153": {"fulltext": "WHERE THE COAL GOES.\\nIA7\\nHEAT\\nUNITS\\nWASTED, USED JJN EIRING UP, LEFT IN BOX, STANDING\\nIDLE ETC.\\nLOST IN HEATED AIR, GASES AND VAPOR\\nEVAPORATING MOISTURE IN COAL\\nHEATING COAL TO IGNITION\\nHEAT AND UNCONSUMED COAL IN ASHES\\nUNCONSUMED GASES\\nLOST .IN r SPA RKS\\nRADIATION FROM BOILER, FIRE BOX ETC.\\nHEAT LOST IN ENTRAINED WATER. .23 LB8.\\n8EAJIJN.G JjEED WAXER-(55\u00c2\u00b0 TO .212\u00c2\u00b0)\\nLATENT HEAT AT 361 (OF SEPARATION ONLY\\n775.8 H.U.\\nFRICTION IN PORTS, STEAM PASSAGES-ETC^\\nCLEARANCE O fc.\\nCYLINDER CONDENSATION --fliT Ct\\nBACK PRESSURE ABOVE ATMOSPHERE ---f^-O\\nBACK PRESSURE BELOW ATMOSPHERE *8,8- 2\\nPER COMPRESSION 2.-8\\nLOST EFFECTIVE .WORK BY INCOMPLETE EXPANSION, J\\nIN CYU ETC.\\nMACHINERY FRICTION AND HEAD RESISTANCE-^2-9--.\\nTRACTION OF ENGIN.B B9rS S-\\nTRACTION OF CARS __.\\nTRACTION OF LOAD (NET USEFUL EEFECfJ.\\nJ ASSUMED AT Wffi\\n-50% IN EXCESS OF THEORETICAL.AMQUN.T,\\n(9. LBS. AIR PER LB. COAL)\\n-ESTIMATED AVERAGE.\\n-THOS. BOX.\\n~2% EXCLUDING WASTE\\n_kENT LOSS 2% TO 30%. LOVELL S\\nEXPERIMENTS N.P. RY. 1896. \\\\3 f\u00e2\u0080\u009e.\\n-5$ ASSUMED, EXCLUDING WASTE.\\nASSUMED AT 5% OF APPARENT\\nEVAPORATION\\n-(BOILER EFFICIENCY 61. 79$, LOSSES\\n48.21$).\\nL_1 MEA N EVAPORATION 4. 66 LBS. WATER\\nLESS 5% PRIMAGE, MEAN OF FIVE TESTS)\\nDROP IN PRESSURE FROM BOILER TO CYL.\\n140* TO 125*\\nRATIO EXPANSION 1.83, CLEARANCE 1%,\\nV COMPRESSION 3%%\\nACTUAL\\n8 LBS. ABOVE ATMOSPHERE\\n,--14.7 LBS. ABSOLUTE\\n--kOF CLEARANCE\\n---INCLUDES EXPANSION AGAINST\\nATMOSPHERE\\nASSUMED AT 10% NET EFFECT VE\\n?B_TONS 15^ OF TOTAL; PRESSURE 0N\\n273\\n193\\n60%\\nPISTON\\nH.U.\\n423\\nThis item includes errors of assumption .as follows: That expansion is hyper-\\nbolic, that latent heat of separation is a constant at all temperature s, andithat no\\nlatent heat (of separation) Tsrfransformed into work. The net .error probably\\ndoes not exceed 25 h. u.\\nWhere the Coal Goe When Biinrred in a Locomotive Firebox.\\nFig. 12.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0153.jp2"}, "154": {"fulltext": "148 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nQ. What is the heating power of sulphur contained in coal\\nThe quantity of sulphur in good coal is so small that its\\ncalorific value is commonly neglected in any calculations\\nrelating to the heating power of coal.\\nThe quantity of heat evolved in the complete combus-\\ntion of one pound of sulphur in oxygen gas, as determined\\nby Favre and Silberman, is 4,048 heat units. The equiva-\\nlent evaporation from and at 21 2\u00c2\u00b0 F. would be 4048 -f- 966\\n4.19 pounds of water per pound of sulphur. The tem-\\nperature of the combustion of sulphur is about 3 5 75 F.\\nQ. How is the heat evolved from coal distributed in\\nlocomotive practice?\\nThe accompanying diagram (Fig. 12), by E. H. Mc-\\nHenry, chief engineer Northern Pacific Railway, shows\\nheat losses and net effective work of one pound of Red\\nLodge coal burned in a typical Mogul engine, in ordinary\\nservice, Northern Pacific Railway.\\nMogul engine; Class D2 cyl., iS^i in. by 24 in.\\nboiler pressure, 140 pounds; cut off, 12-f in.; ind. h. p.,\\n381 speed, 16 miles an hour; weight of engine and train,\\n550 tons. Red Lodge coal (by analysis), 10,000 heat\\nunits per pound.\\n1 pound coal =0.168 h. p. hour.\\n5.95 pounds coal per h. p. hour.\\n27.73 pounds water per h. p. hour.\\n[51 per cent of the theoretically available\\nheat in the steam by a non-condensing\\nengine.\\n36.2 per cent of the theoretically available\\nheat in the steam by a condensing engine.\\n7.4 per cent of the total heat in the steam.\\n3.8 per cent of the total heat in the coal.\\nThe motion\\nof the train\\nrepresents\\nthe conver-\\nsion into\\nwork of but", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0154.jp2"}, "155": {"fulltext": "CHEMICAL CHANGES. 149\\nThe chart was compiled from actual tests of a Mogul\\nengine on the Yellowstone Division of the Northern Pa-\\ncific Railway, in which the coal was weighed and the\\nwater measured, frequent indicator cards taken, and the\\nfinal net effective traction at the periphery of the drivers\\ndetermined by a dynamometer, thus affording an opportu-\\nnity of checking the calculations at several points in the\\nlength of the column, with the effect of localizing minor\\nerrors. The efficiency of some modern engines is consid-\\nerably higher than that shown, but the chart will closely\\napply to the great majority of the engines in present ser-\\nvice all over the United States.\\nQ. Is heat generated by chemical action convertible into\\nmechanical energy\\nChemical changes are either atomic or molecular, and\\nall differences in the temperature of bodies are due to the\\nchanges in their molecular condition therefore, chemical\\naction, heat, and mechanical energy should be mutually\\nconvertible. Chemical changes are always attended by a\\nchange in the thermal conditions of the bodies acted upon,\\nin which combinations as a rule produce heat, while de-\\ncompositions produce cold or a disappearance of heat.\\nThe amount of heat any particular body is capable of giv-\\ning off must be determined as yet experimentally. The\\nresearches of Favre and Silberman, Andrews, Thompson,\\nJoule, and others, have given us a very close approxima-\\ntion to the dynamic value of heat and the heating power\\nof different fuels.\\nQ. What is the effect of heat upon water?\\nWater within the range of its solidifying point and that\\nat which it becomes an elastic vapor is subject to very\\ngreat irregularities. If water be taken in a solid state, or", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0155.jp2"}, "156": {"fulltext": "i5o\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nat a temperature of 32 F. before it has solidified, and\\nheat be communicated to it, instead of expanding, it act-\\nually contracts until it marks about 39.4 F., at which it\\nhas attained its greatest density. Above this it expands\\nin the same ratio that the contraction took place for an\\nequal number of degrees, but beyond that point it obeys\\nthe general law.\\nQ. What is the effect of heat upon gases?\\nAll gases at ordinary temperatures are in a state in\\nwhich the atomical aggregation manifests a highly repul-\\nsive tendency. It is evident, therefore, that gases will be\\ninfluenced to a greater extent by heat than either solids or\\nliquids.\\nA remarkable coincidence or uniformity exists among\\nthe different gases and knowing the rate of expansion of\\none, the same may be taken as the expansive power of the\\nother permanent gases when subjected to an equal increase\\nof temperature. It was found, however, by Magnus and\\nRegnault, that the operation of this law is not perfectly\\nuniform, especially with reference to the easily liquefied\\ngases, which are more expansible than air when exposed to\\nequal increments of heat, as the following table will show\\nTable 16. Expansion of Gases Between 32 and 212\u00c2\u00b0 Fahr.\\nGases\\nAir\\nNitrogen\\nHydrogen\\nCarbonic oxide\\nCarbonic acid\\nNitrous oxide\\nCyanogen\\nSulphurous acid\\nConstant\\nvolume.\\nConstant\\npressure.\\nO.3665\\nO.3668\\nO.3667\\nO.3667\\nO.3688\\nO.3676\\nO.3829\\n0.3845\\nO.3670\\nO.3661\\nO.3669\\nO.3710\\nO.3720\\n0-3877\\nO.3903", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0156.jp2"}, "157": {"fulltext": "UNITS OF HEAT. I 5 I\\nA sensible increase in the rate of expansion is also\\nfound when the gas is submitted to pressure, compared\\nwith that which takes place when it is in a rarefied state.\\nThe expansion of perfect gases has been employed in the\\nenunciation and perfecting of a new scale of temperature,\\nknown as the absolute scale of temperature.\\nQ. What is the rate of expansion of air by the appli-\\ncation of heat\\nBy former investigations this was found to amount to\\nabout 375 parts in 1,000 of air when heated from the\\nfreezing to the boiling point of water. Later researches,\\nhowever, have shown that the true expansion of air within\\nthese limits is 365 parts, or of the whole for each\\n493-2\\ndegree of the Fahrenheit scale. Below the freezing and\\nabove the boiling point of water the expansion is in the\\nsame ratio..\\nQ. What is the British thermal unit\\nA British thermal unit is that quantity of heat neces-\\nsary to raise the temperature of one pound of water from\\n39 to 40 F., the former being the temperature of its\\ngreatest density. This is equivalent to 772 foot-pounds.\\nQ. What is a calorie?\\nA calorie is the metric unit of heat. It is that quantity\\nof heat required to raise one gram of water from 4 to 5\\nC. Some writers give the range of temperature from o\u00c2\u00b0\\nto i\u00c2\u00b0 C. which is in error, as the greatest density of\\nwater occurs at 3.94 C, or 39.4 F.\\n1 calorie 3.968 British thermal units.\\n1 British thermal unit .252 calorie.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0157.jp2"}, "158": {"fulltext": "152 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nQ. What is the relation of atomic weights to specific\\nheat?\\nIn regard to the atomic weights and their relation to\\nspecific heat, it is a noteworthy fact that as the specific\\nheat increases the atomic weight diminishes, and vice\\nversa so that the product of the atomic weight and spe-\\ncific heat is, in almost all cases, a sensible constant quan-\\ntity. For equal weights the specific heat of the several\\ngases entering into the problem of coal combustion ought\\nto bear a direct relation to each other, for example\\nThe specific heat, for equal weights, of the following\\ngases, were found by Regnault to be\\nAir, specific heat for equal weight o. 237\\nOxygen 0.218\\nNitrogen l 0.244\\nHydrogen 3. 409\\nOn the supposition that, for equal volumes, gases con-\\ntain the same number of atoms, we should expect the gases\\noxygen and nitrogen, as well as the mixture of the two lat-\\nter to form air, to have the specific heat of each practically\\nequal, according to their atomic weights. The atomic\\nweight of hydrogen is 1, and its specific heat is 3.409.\\nWe should then expect\\n3.409 -4- 14 0.243, specific heat nitrogen, N 14.\\n3.409 -7- 16 0.213, oxygen, O 16.\\n0.237, 23$ O 16, 77$ N 16 air.\\nA result which experimentally verifies the above con-\\nclusion so far as these two gases are concerned.\\nThe temperatures at which determinations were made\\nwere: Carbon, 980 C. sodium, 34 to 7\u00c2\u00b0 C. sili-\\ncon, 232 C. phosphorus, \u00e2\u0080\u0094yS\u00c2\u00b0 to io\u00c2\u00b0 C. potassium,\\n-78 to+ io\u00c2\u00b0 C. mercury, -78 to -40 C. For all", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0158.jp2"}, "159": {"fulltext": "SPECIFIC HEATS OF SOLIDS.\\n153\\nthe other elements the determinations were made some-\\nwhere between o\u00c2\u00b0 and ioo\u00c2\u00b0 C. The numbers in these\\ncases may be regarded as approximately representing the\\nmean specific heats for the temperature interval, 40 to\\n6o\u00c2\u00b0 C.\\nTable 17. Specific Heats of the Solid Elements.\\nElement.\\nCarbon\\nSodium\\nMagnesium\\nAluminum\\nSilicon\\nPhosphorus\\nSulphur\\nPotassium\\nCalcium\\nManganese\\nIron\\nNickel\\nCopper\\nZinc\\nSilver\\nTin\\nAntimony\\nPlatinum\\nGold\\nMercury (solid)\\nLead\\nBismuth\\nSpecific heat,\\n.463\\n.293\\n.25\\n.214\\n.203\\n.174\\n.178\\n.166\\n.170\\n.122\\n.114\\n.108\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2095\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2095\\n.057\\n.0562\\n.0508\\n.0324\\n.0324\\n.0319\\n.0307\\n.0308\\nAtomic\\nweight.\\n11.97\\n2 3\\n24\\n27.02\\n28\\n30.96\\n31.98\\n39.04\\n39-9\\n55\\n55-9\\n58.6\\n63-4\\n64.9\\n107.66\\n117. 8\\n120\\n195\\n197\\n199.8\\n206.4\\n208\\nSpecific heat\\nX atomic\\nweight.\\n5-5\\n6.7\\n6\\n5-8\\n5-7\\n5.4\\n5-7\\n6.5\\n6.8\\n6.7\\n6.4\\n6.3\\n6.1\\n6.2\\n6.1\\n6.6\\n6.0\\n6.3\\n6.4\\n6.4\\n6.3\\n6.3\\nObserver.\\nWeber.\\nRegnault.\\nWeber.\\nRegnault.\\nBunsen.\\nRegnault.\\nQ. What is the specific heat of water?\\nWater exists in three states solid, liquid, gaseous or\\nsteam. The specific heats of each are as follows Ice,\\n0.504; water, 1.000; gaseous steam, 0.622.\\nQ. What is meant by conduction of heat?\\nThis property of heat, although by many supposed to\\nbe due to radiation, owing to the particles of matter not", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0159.jp2"}, "160": {"fulltext": "154 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nbeing in absolute contact, is, however, generally acknowl-\\nedged to be due to a distinct action, that of conduction.\\nDense and heavy substances are generally good conduc-\\ntors; light and porous bodies have this property only\\nimperfectly.\\nTable 18. Thermal Conductivity of Metals.\\nSilver ioo. o\\nCopper 73.6\\nGold 53.2\\nBrass 23. 6\\nTin 14. 5\\nIron 11. 9\\nLead 8.5\\nPlatinum 6.4\\nGerman Silver 6.3\\nBismuth 1.8\\nLiquids in general are bad conductors of heat but liquids\\ndo conduct heat in some measure, subject to the same laws\\nas solids, although as regards water and other such mobile\\nliquids, very feebly.\\nQ. Do all bodies conduct heat alike?\\nThey do not. Good conductors are those bodies in\\nwhich any inequality of temperature is quickly equalized,\\nthe excess of heat being transmitted with great prompti-\\ntude and facility from particle to particle. The metals in\\ngeneral are good conductors, but different metals have dif-\\nferent degrees of conductivity.\\nImperfect conductors are those bodies in which the heat\\npasses more slowly and imperfectly through the dimensions\\nof a body, and in which, therefore, the equilibrium of tem-\\nperature is more slowly established.\\nNon-conductors are bodies in which the excess of heat\\nfails to be transmitted from particle to particle before it", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0160.jp2"}, "161": {"fulltext": "CONVECTION OF HEAT. I 55\\nhas been dissipated in other ways. Earths and woods are\\nbad conductors, and soft or spongy substances still worse.\\nQ. What is meant by convection of heat?\\nConvection means to carry or to convey. As applied to\\nthe transfer of heat to liquids and gases it means the car-\\nrying or conveying of heat from one particle to another by\\nan actual movement of each heated particle among those\\nof lower temperature, and as each colder particle with\\nwhich the heated particle comes in contact takes up a por-\\ntion of the heat, the movement of all the particles will\\ncontinue until all are of equal temperature.\\nQ. What is the practical or useful effect of the convec-\\ntion of heat in furnace gases?\\nThe application of currents of heated air is of great\\npractical importance; for example, the heat derived from\\nthe combustion of coal on the grate expands the air and\\ngases in the furnace and causes their ascent up the chim-\\nney, while an influx of air to the fire, through the ash pit,\\ntakes its place. The force of the current or draft thus\\nformed will be in proportion to the greater expansion of a\\ncolumn of air of the height of the chimney than that of an\\nequal column externally. Common air like other gases\\nincreases nearly ^L of its bulk for each degree Fahrenheit.\\nHence by ascertaining the internal temperature and height\\nof the chimney the force of the draft may be calculated.\\nQ. How do gases conduct heat?\\nGases resemble liquids in their mode of conducting heat\\nthat is to say, their power of actual conduction is inap-\\npreciable but by their property of convection currents are\\ninstituted by which the heat is disseminated throughout the", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0161.jp2"}, "162": {"fulltext": "156 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nmass. To observe this, hold the hand by the side of a\\nlighted candle and then at the same distance above it.\\nLittle heat is received by the hand in its first position,\\nwhile in the second the increase of temperature is immedi-\\nately obvious, the greater portion of the heat being carried\\noff by the ascending current, which in gases is more active\\nthan in liquids, owing to their power of expansion being\\nso much greater.\\nQ. What is radiation of heat?\\nWhen heat emanates, or is thrown off by a body, as from\\na bar of hot iron, heat is said to be radiated from it, and\\nis denominated radiant heat. The rate of cooling expresses\\nthe radiating power and the radiating power of bodies is\\nmore influenced by the state of their surface than by the\\nnature of the material. Bright or polished surfaces radi-\\nate heat much more slowly than rough or black ones.\\nQ. What is meant by the term latent heat?\\nLatent heat is the quantity of heat which must be com-\\nmunicated to a body in a given state in order to convert\\nit into another state without changing its temperature or,\\nto put it in another form, it is that quantity of heat which\\ndisappears, or becomes concealed in a body, while produc-\\ning some change in it other than a rise in temperature.\\nBy exactly reversing the change, the quantity of heat\\nwhich had disappeared is reproduced. Latent heat is\\ncommonly divided into latent heat of fusion and latent\\nheat of evaporation.\\nQ. What is latent heat of fusion?\\nThe act of liquefaction, such as the melting of ice, con-\\nsists of interior work that is, of work expended in mov-\\ning the atoms into new positions. If a piece of ice, re-", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0162.jp2"}, "163": {"fulltext": "joule s equivalent.\\n157\\nduced in temperature to, say, o\u00c2\u00b0 F., is subjected to the\\ninfluence of heat, its temperature will rise progressively\\nfor each increment of heat received, until the temperature\\nof the ice reaches 32 F. when the melting of the ice will\\nbegin. It will also be observed that, continuing the ap-\\nplication of the heat to the ice, as before, there is no cor-\\nresponding rise in temperature either in the ice or in the\\nwater in contact with the ice so long as any of the latter\\nremains unmelted; and that during the process of melting\\nthe temperature of the water is constant, and at 32 F.\\nThis change of state from solid to liquid, in the melting\\nof one pound of ice, requires 143 units of heat, the tem-\\nperature being constant at 32 F. The heat does not\\nraise the temperature of the ice, but disappears in causing\\nits condition to change from the solid to the liquid state.\\nThis is called the latent heat of fusion.\\nQ. What is Joule s equivalent?\\nThe exact mechanical equivalent of heat was first demon-\\nstrated experimentally by Dr. Joule, of Manchester, Eng-\\nFlG. 13.\\nland, the apparatus employed by him being represented in\\nFig. 13. A known weight was connected by means of", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0163.jp2"}, "164": {"fulltext": "158 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\ncords to a shaft mounted on friction wheels not shown\\nin the illustration. On this shaft a pulley was secured,\\nwhich through the medium of another cord imparted motion\\nto the shaft r, and caused it to revolve. At the lower end\\nof this shaft r were fitted eight sets of paddles, which, when\\nconnected by means of a pin P, revolved with it. To the\\ninterior of the copper vessel B were attached four station-\\nary vanes, cut out in such manner as to permit the free\\nrevolution of the revolving paddles. Precautions were\\ntaken to prevent a transfer of heat from the vessel B,\\nwhich need not be described here. This vessel was filled\\nwith a known weight of water, at the temperature of its\\ngreatest density, 39 F. and a thermometer was inserted\\nin the vessel B, to mark the rise in the temperature of the\\nwater. The experiment consisted in allowing the weight\\nto descend by its own gravity, and, through the medium of\\nthe cords, to cause the paddles to revolve and agitate the\\nwater in the vessel B.\\nAfter many hundreds of experiments extending through\\nseveral years, Dr. Joule finally fixed upon 772 pounds,\\nraised one foot high against the action of gravity, as\\nthe mechanical equivalent of the quantity of heat neces-\\nsary to raise the temperature of one pound of water\\nthrough 1 F. at the maximum density of water, 39 to\\n40 F.\\nQ. Is the relation between heat and mechanical energy\\na fixed or definite one\\nHeat and mechanical energy are mutually convertible\\nand heat requires for its production, and produces by its\\ndisappearance, mechanical energy in the proportion of 772\\nfoot-pounds for each British unit of heat, the said unit\\nbeing the amount of heat required to raise the tempera-", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0164.jp2"}, "165": {"fulltext": "SPECIFIC HEAT. I 59\\nture of one pound of water by i\u00c2\u00b0 F., near the temperature\\nof its greatest density, 39 to 40 F.\\nQ. What is specific heat?\\nThe specific heat of a substance means the quantity of\\nheat which must be transferred to a unit of weight (such\\nas a pound) of a given substance, in order to raise its tem-\\nperature, by one degree, as compared with that quantity\\nof heat necessary to raise an equal weight of water through\\none degree at its greatest density, i.e., from 39 to 40 F.\\nThe specific heat of water is greater than that of any other\\nknown substance it thus becomes the standard for com-\\nparison.\\nFor ordinary calculations we may assume Woods aver-\\nage one-half the specific heat of water coal and coke, two-\\ntenths the specific heat of water wood charcoal, one-fourth\\nthe specific heat of water.\\nThe specific heat of gases varies as between specific\\nheat under constant volume, and specific heat under con-\\nstant pressure. Suppose one pound of gas to be heated\\nair, for example; a rise in temperature occurs, and if the\\nair is free to expand additional heat will be required to\\nperform the work thus done by expansion but if the air\\nis confined so that no expansion can occur, less heat will\\nbe required to raise its temperature through one degree.\\nThe specific heat of air for equal weights (water 1) at\\nconstant pressure is 0.2377, at constant volume it is\\n0.1688, the difference in quantity of heat is 0.2377 -7-\\n0.1688 1. 408 1 times.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0165.jp2"}, "166": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VII.\\nFUEL ANALYSIS.\\nQ. What is meant by the elementary analysis of coal\\nThe separation of coal into its constituent elements\\nmay be simply to know what elements compose it such a\\nprocess is called qualitative analysis. When the quantity\\nof each element is to be determined, it is then known as\\nquantitative analysis.\\nThe elementary analysis of coal shows it to be princi-\\npally composed of the following simple substances car-\\nbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, sulphur, ash. Ash is\\nnot a simple substance, but represents the incombustible\\nmatter of whatever composition remaining in the furnace\\nafter combustion.\\nThe elementary analysis of coal is not now the general\\npractice for all ordinary purposes the shorter method of\\ndetermining the moisture, volatile combustible matter, the\\nfixed carbon and ash by proximate analysis is employed in\\nfurnace work.\\nQ. What is carbon?\\nCarbon is one of the most widely diffused and abundant\\nof the elements. It occurs in nature in a free state and\\nin combination with other elements, notably in the form\\nof carbonates and as an essential constituent of organic\\nbodies.\\nCarbon in its free state is a solid, infusible, non-volatile", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0166.jp2"}, "167": {"fulltext": "CARBON.\\nI6l\\nsubstance, without taste or smell, exhibiting great diver-\\nsity in the physical characteristics of its three allotropic\\nforms diamond, graphite, and charcoal. It is the princi-\\npal constituent of anthracite coal. It constitutes about\\none-half of bituminous coal. It may be separated from\\nwood in the form of charcoal by distilling off the more\\nvolatile elements.\\nCarbon unites directly with oxygen, sulphur, nitrogen,\\nand a few of the metals, the latter at high temperatures\\nonly. The two direct inorganic compounds of carbon and\\noxygen are known as carbonic oxide, CO, and carbonic acid,\\nC0 2 The proportions are shown in the following table\\nTable 19.\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0Elementary Composition of Carbonic Oxide and\\nCarbonic Acid Gases.\\nComposition.\\nBy weight.\\nPercentage.\\nCarbon.\\nOxygen.\\nTotal.\\nCarbon.\\nOxygen.\\nTotal.\\nCarbonic oxide CO.\\nCarbonic acid C0 2\\n12\\n12\\n16\\n32\\n28\\n44\\n42.86\\n27.27\\n57.14\\n72.73\\nIOO\\nIOO\\nThese are the two principal gases formed in the furnace\\nby the combustion of the carbonaceous portions of the\\nfuel.\\nCarbon and hydrogen unite in the production of an ex-\\ntended series of hydrocarbons, the simpler ones being the\\nmarsh gas series, the olefiant gas series, and the benzole\\nseries. When carbon and hydrogen are further combined\\nwith the addition of nitrogen the hydrocarbon series is\\ngreatly extended, including aniline, pyridine, etc., all of\\nwhich may be obtained by the distillation of coal.\\nAlmost all the elementary substances of which the spe-\\n11", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0167.jp2"}, "168": {"fulltext": "1 62\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL,\\ncific heat and atomic weight are known, give, when these\\ntwo properties are multiplied into each other, a product\\naveraging not far from 6.34. Carbon is one of the excep-\\ntions, as shown in the accompanying table.\\nWeber, about 1872, made a careful series of determina-\\ntions of the specific heat of carbon, the results of which\\nare as follows\\nTable 20. Specific Heat of Carbon.\\nCarbon (diamond)\\nCarbon (graphite)\\nPorous wood carbon.\\nTemperature.\\n5o u C.\\n10\\n85\\n250\\n606\\n985\\n5o\\n10\\n61\\n201\\n250\\n641\\n978\\no\u00c2\u00b0\u00e2\u0080\u0094 23\u00c2\u00b0 C\\no\u00c2\u00b0\u00e2\u0080\u0094 99\\no\u00c2\u00b0 223\\nSpecific heat.\\n.0635\\n.1128\\n.1765\\n.3026\\n.4408\\n.4589\\n.1138\\n.1604\\n.1990\\n.2966\\n.325\\n4554\\n457\\n.1653\\n.1935\\n.2385\\nSpecific heat\\nX atomic weight.\\nO.76\\n1-35\\n2.12\\n3.63\\n5.29\\n5.51\\n1.37\\n1.93\\n2.39\\n3.56\\n3.88\\n5-35\\n5.50\\n1.95\\n2.07\\n2.84\\nThese numbers show that the specific heat of carbon in-\\ncreases as the temperature increases, and that the value of\\nthis increase for a given temperature is considerably less\\nat high than at low temperatures.\\nQ. What is meant by the allotropic states of carbon?\\nThe term allotropic merely expresses the several condi-\\ntions in which carbon exists, each condition having widely\\ndifferent physical properties, while the chemical properties\\nremain the same. Carbon occurs as diamond, graphite,\\nand charcoal. These three solids are wholly unlike in", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0168.jp2"}, "169": {"fulltext": "DIAMOND. 163\\nphysical properties, yet chemically they are the same\\nthat is, they yield upon analysis nothing but pure carbon.\\nInvestigations by Petersen, undertaken with a view to\\ndetermine, if possible, the relation between changes of\\nvolume and of energy in passing from one allotropic modi-\\nfication of an element to another, led him to the conclusion\\nthat true allotropic varieties differ in the variety of energy\\nthey contain, in specific gravity, in specific heat, and in\\nsolubility. Color and crystalline form he considers of\\nsecondary importance. His results are\\nCarbon. ^aSff (\u00c2\u00b0C0 2 Atomic volume\\nAmorphous 965.310969.8 6. 7 to 8.0\\nGraphite 933-6 5-3\\nDiamond 932.410945.5 3.4\\nQ. What are the physical properties of the diamond?\\nThe diamond is a natural form of carbon, crystallizing\\nin the cubic system. It was shown to be combustible in\\n1694, and Lavoisier proved that the sole product of its\\ncombustion was carbonic-acid gas, C0 2 The diamond is\\nnoted for its great hardness. Its specific gravity ranges\\nfrom 3.51 to 3. 55, averaging about 3.51. The purest\\nstones are practically colorless. The index of refraction\\nis higher in the diamond than in any other known trans-\\nparent substance.\\nOn exposure to the heat of the electric arc the diamond\\nswells up, cracks on the surface, and becomes coated with\\na substance resembling graphite. The study of the action\\nof heat upon the diamond, with and without the presence\\nof air, gave the earliest clew to its chemical composition.\\nOn the combustion of the diamond there remains a quan-\\ntity of a colorless or reddish ash, varying from to 2\\nof the original weight of the mineral. Microscopic ex-", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0169.jp2"}, "170": {"fulltext": "164 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\namination of this delicate spongy ash has led investiga-\\ntors to the belief that it shows traces of cellular tissue,\\nsuggestive of a vegetable origin. In its ordinary state the\\ndiamond does not conduct electricity, but the cokelike\\nmass obtained by exposure to the arc is a good conductor.\\nQ. What are the physical properties of graphite\\nGraphite is an impure variety of native carbon, known\\nalso as plumbago, and popularly known as black lead. It\\noccurs usually in compact and crystalline masses, but oc-\\ncasionally in six-sided tabular crystals which cleave into\\nflexible laminae parallel to the basal plane. Its color is\\niron black or steel gray, with metallic lustre. Its specific\\ngravity is 1.9 to 2.6.\\nGraphite is largely used in the manufacture of crucibles\\nand other objects required to withstand high temperatures.\\nIt is also used in the manufacture of lead pencils, as a\\nlubricating agent, as a stove polish, as a paint, etc.\\nGraphite is a good conductor of electricity, and is much\\nused in electrotyping, the moulds upon which the metal is\\nto be deposited receiving a conducting surface by being\\ncoated with finely divided graphite.\\nQ. What are the physical properties of charcoal?\\nCharcoal is the carbonaceous residue from wood or other\\nvegetable matter, partially burnt under circumstances which\\nexclude the air, and from which all watery and other vola-\\ntile matter has been expelled by heat.\\nThe composition of charcoal depends on the temperature\\nat which it is produced. At high temperatures all the\\noxygen and hydrogen are expelled and the black charcoal\\nconsists of carbon and the mineral matter (ash) originally\\npresent. When produced at lower temperatures the char-", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0170.jp2"}, "171": {"fulltext": "CHARCOAL.\\nI6 5\\nring is imperfect, and a reddish charcoal results, which\\ncontains both hydrogen and oxygen.\\nGood charcoal is black, gives a sonorous ring when\\nstruck, and breaks with more or less conchoidal fracture\\nand a ligneous texture. It is easily pulverizable, but does\\nnot crumble under moderate pressure. It burns without\\nsmoke and in separate pieces without flame. The specific\\ngravity of wood charcoal, exclusive of pores, is 1.5 to 2;\\ninclusive of pores, from 0.20 to 0.35 in soft charcoal, and\\nfrom 0.35 to 0.50 in hard charcoal.\\nQ. How is charcoal affected by the temperature at which\\nit is made\\nThe composition of charcoal produced at various tem-\\nperatures, as determined by Violette the wood experi-\\nmented on being that of black alder or alder buckthorn,\\nwhich furnishes a charcoal suitable for gunpowder is\\ngiven in the annexed table\\nTable 21. Composition of Charcoal. (Violette.)\\nTemperature\\nof carbonization.\\n3 02\u00c2\u00b0F\\n392\\n482\\n572\\n662\\n810\\n1873\\n2012\\n2282\\n2372\\n2732\\nComposition of the Solid Product.\\nOxygen,\\nCarbon.\\nHydrogen.\\nnitrogen\\nAsh.\\nPer cent.\\nPer cent.\\nand loss.\\nPer cent.\\nPer cent.\\n47.51\\n6.12\\n46.29\\nO.08\\n51.82\\n3-99\\n43.98\\nO.23\\n65.59\\n4.81\\n28.97\\nO.63\\n73-24\\n4.25\\n21.96\\n0.57\\n76.64\\n4.14\\n18.44\\nO.61\\n8T.64\\n4.96\\n15.24\\n1. 61\\n81.97\\n2.30\\n14.15\\nI.60\\n83.29\\nI.70\\n13-79\\n1.22\\n88.14\\nI.42\\n9.26\\nI.20\\n90.81\\n1.58\\n6.49\\nI- 15\\n94-57\\nO.74\\n3-84\\n0.66\\nCarbon\\nfor a given\\nweight\\nof wood.\\nPer cent.\\n47.51\\n39-88\\n32.98\\n24.61\\n22.42\\n15.40\\n15.30\\n15.32\\n15.80\\n15.85\\n16.36\\nThe products obtained at the first two temperatures, viz.,\\n302 392 F. cannot be properly termed charcoal.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0171.jp2"}, "172": {"fulltext": "l66 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nQ. How is the combustibility of charcoal affected by the\\ntemperature at which it is made\\nRegarding the combustibility of charcoal, that made at\\n500 F. burns most easily; and that made between 1832\\nand 2732 F. cannot be ignited like ordinary charcoal\\nthat made at a constant temperature of 572 F. takes fire\\nin the air when heated to between 68o\u00c2\u00b0 and 71 5 F., ac-\\ncording to the nature of the wood from which it has been\\nderived. Charcoal from light woods, other things being\\nequal, ignites most easily. Charcoal produces a greater\\nheat than an equal weight of wood.\\nCharcoal, not being decomposable by water or air, will\\nendure for any length of time without alteration.\\nQ. What elementary substances and compounds enter\\ninto the composition of charcoal\\nThe following analysis of charcoal shows the percent-\\nages of elements and compounds entering into its com-\\nposition, instead of reducing to elements alone\\nCarbon, C 85.10 per cent.\\nCarbonic acid gas, C0 2 3. 26\\nCarbonic oxide, CO 1.36\\nMarsh gas, CH 4 o. 70\\nHydrogen, H 0.07\\nNitrogen, N o. 5 1\\nWater, H 2 7.00\\nAsh 2. 00\\n100.00\\nQo What is the object of converting wood into charcoal\\nThe carbonization of wood is intended to remove those\\nconstituents which absorb heat, and to concentrate the\\ncarbon, which possesses great heating power. The sub-\\nstances absorbing heat are the hygroscopic water and oxy-\\ngen contained in the wood, which, on combustion, cause", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0172.jp2"}, "173": {"fulltext": "HEATING POWER OF CARBON. 167\\nthe formation of so much water that the temperature is\\ndecreased to a considerable degree. Slow charring and\\nlow heat will produce the largest amount of charcoal, but\\nit will be weak. A brisk heat, well conducted, will fur-\\nnish less, but will make a strong coal. This determines\\nwhich mode of charring is most profitable to maker and\\nuser. With a well-conducted operation in a pit contain-\\ning at least 50 cords of wood the yield for air-dried wood\\nought to be in the proportion here shown\\nKind of wood. Yield by weight. Yield by measure.\\nOak 23 per cent. 74 per cent.\\nBeech 22 73\\nPine 25 63\\nA cord of 128 cubic feet of oak ought to furnish 64 bushels\\nof 2,600 cubic inches each pine wood must yield 54 bush-\\nels. This measure is actually reached by good burners,\\nthough not by the average workman.\\nQ. Is the heating power of carbon affected by its den-\\nsity\\nGruner has shown that the less the density of any form\\nof carbon, the greater is its heating power. The tests he\\nrecords also show that the coals containing hydrogen give\\na greater heating power than that calculated by theory\\nfrom their elementary composition. It would naturally\\nbe inferred, therefore, that the coals which have the least\\ndensity, and which contain the largest percentage of dis-\\nposable hydrogen, would have the greatest heating power.\\nYet the reverse of this appears to be true, so that after\\nthe disposable hydrogen reaches four per cent its further\\nincrease seems to be actually accompanied by a decrease\\nof heating power, as determined by a calorimeter, and by\\na still greater decrease, as shown in the diminution of", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0173.jp2"}, "174": {"fulltext": "168 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nefficiency, from 65 to 55 per cent in the industrial or\\nsteaming power. It is difficult to explain the anomaly,\\nexcept upon the hypothesis that the calorimetric determi-\\nnations of the more volatile coals were inaccurate (Kent).\\nQ. What is sulphur?\\nSulphur is often found in coal in combination with iron,\\nand is known as iron pyrites. Sulphur is highly inflam-\\nmable, and when heated in the air to a temperature of\\nabout 482 F. it takes fire and burns with a clear blue,\\nfeebly luminous flame, being converted into sulphurous\\noxide, S0 2 In its chemical relations sulphur is the rep-\\nresentative of oxygen, to which it is equivalent, atom to\\natom. Oxygen gas and sulphur vapor alike support the\\ncombustion of hydrogen, charcoal, phosphorus, and the\\nmetals to form precisely analogous compounds. The\\natomic weight of sulphur is 32; symbol S; specific heat,\\n0.1776; specific gravity, 2.00.\\nQ. What is hydrogen\\nHydrogen is found free in nature among the gases\\nevolved from certain volcanoes; also in the gases given\\noff from the oil wells of Pennsylvania. It is one of the\\nmany gases of which coal gas is a mixture. It exists in\\nair in small quantities, in combination with nitrogen as\\nammonia.\\nHydrogen when pure is a colorless, invisible gas, with-\\nout smell or taste. It is the lightest body known, and\\nhas a specific gravity of 0.0693 (air 1.0000). It is but\\nslightly soluble in water. The specific heat of hydrogen\\nfor equal weights at constant pressure 3.4046; for con-\\nstant volume 2.4096.\\nHydrogen burns in the air with an almost colorless", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0174.jp2"}, "175": {"fulltext": "HYDROGEN. I 69\\nflame, but under certain conditions, even when pure, the\\ncentre of the flame is colored green while the external\\nportions are of a violet blue color. On reducing the press-\\nure the blue color is transferred to green, and from that\\nsuccessively to yellow, orange, and red. The refrangibil-\\nity of the emitted light becomes less when the intensity\\nof combustion is reduced by a diminution in the supply of\\noxygen or by a reduction of pressure. A lighted taper is\\nextinguished on being placed in a jar of hydrogen, and the\\ngas burns at the mouth of the jar, rapidly if the jar be\\nmouth upward, slowly if mouth downward.\\nWhen mix\u00c2\u00abed with air or oxygen, hydrogen burns with\\nexplosive rapidity. The loudest explosion is obtained by\\nmixing two volumes of hydrogen and one volume of oxy-\\ngen. The maximum explosive effect with air is obtained\\nby mixing one volume of hydrogen with two and a half\\nvolumes of air, but the explosion in this case is not so\\npowerful on account of the nitrogen present. In each of\\nthese cases the two gases are present in the proportion in\\nwhich they unite to form water. This mixture of hydro-\\ngen and oxygen is not explosive at greatly reduced press-\\nure. A rarefaction produced by diminution of pressure is\\nmore effective in weakening the force of an explosion than\\ndiluting the mixture with an indifferent gas.\\nFavre and Silbermann ascertained the heat of one pound\\nof hydrogen burned in oxygen to be sufficient to raise the\\ntemperature of 62,032 pounds of water i\u00c2\u00b0F. This is not\\nequalled by any other known substance.\\nThe liquefaction and solidifying of hydrogen was ac-\\ncomplished by Pictet in 1878. The melting point of\\nhydrogen ice as given by Dewar is 16 or 17 absolute\\n(\u00e2\u0080\u0094257\u00c2\u00b0 or 256 C). Solid hydrogen seems to possess\\nthe properties of the non-metallic elements rather than", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0175.jp2"}, "176": {"fulltext": "170 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nthat of the metals, among which it has been usual to class\\nhydrogen.\\nQ. What is carbureted hydrogen?\\nCarbureted hydrogen is obtained by the distillation of\\nthe volatile portions of bituminous coal. It has long been\\nemployed as an illuminating agent. Coal gas will vary\\naccording to the coal from which it is distilled, but the\\nfollowing fairly represents the average composition of car-\\nbureted hydrogen\\nHydrogen 41. 85\\nMarsh gas 39. 1 1\\nCarbonic oxide 5. 86\\nOlefines 7. 95\\nNitrogen 5.01\\nCarbonic acid 22\\n100.00\\nQ. What is marsh gas?\\nMarsh gas is emitted from the surface of the ground in\\nmany parts of the world, notably in Italy, North America,\\nand in the vicinity of the Caspian Sea. It is formed by\\nthe putrefaction of vegetable matter under water, and\\nhence occurs in marshy places. It also occurs in the coal\\nmeasures, where it is known as fire damp, being produced\\nby the destructive distillation of carbonaceous matter, oc-\\ncurring to the extent of about forty per cent by volume in\\ncoal gas.\\nMarsh gas (methyl hydride) is colorless and odorless,\\nand forms an explosive mixture with air. Its specific\\ngravity is 0.5596 (air 1.0000).\\nThe marsh gas series consists of\\nFormula. Specific gravity.\\nMethyl hydride CH 4 o. 5596\\nEthyl C 2 H 6 1.037\\nPropyl C 3 H 8 1.522", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0176.jp2"}, "177": {"fulltext": "OLEFIANT GAS. \\\\Jl\\nFormula. Specific gravity.\\nButyl hydride C 4 H 10 2.005\\nAmyl C 5 H 12 2.489\\nHexyl C 6 H 14 0.669\\nOctyl C H H 1H 0.726\\nDecyl C10H22\\nQ. What is olefiant gas?\\nThis gas occurs through the dry distillation of many\\norganic bodies hence occurs to the extent of four to five\\nper cent in coal gas.\\nIt is a colorless gas, and liquefies at a pressure of 42^\\natmospheres at 1.1 C. It forms an explosive mixture\\nwith oxygen.\\nThe olefiant gas series consists of\\nFormula. Specific gravity.\\nMethylene CH 2 o. 484\\nEthylene (olefiant gas) C 2 H 4 0.978\\nProphylene (tritylene) C3H6 1-452\\nButylene C 4 H 8 J -936\\nAmylene C5H10 2.419\\nCaproylene (hexylene) C 6 Hi 2 2.970\\nCEnanthylene C 7 Hi 4 3.320\\nAs a product of the dry distillation of coal it is largely\\nused because it is an abundant illuminating constituent in\\ncoal gas, its technical name being ethylene, C 2 H 4 Pure\\nethylene burnt at the rate of 5 cubic feet per hour emits\\na light equal to 68.5 standard candles. The illuminating\\npower of a given quantity of ethylene is increased by\\nmoderate admixture with hydrogen, carbonic oxide, or\\nmarsh gas, although the actual amount of light given per\\ncubic foot of the mixture is less than that given by pure\\nethylene. The intrinsic illuminating power is reduced by\\nadmixture with nitrogen, carbonic acid gas, water vapor,\\nbut increased by oxygen.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0177.jp2"}, "178": {"fulltext": "172 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nQ. What quantity of moisture or water is present in\\ncoal\\nAll coals contain a certain amount of water in their\\ncomposition. This water can be evaporated by the appli-\\ncation of heat, but coals thus deprived of moisture will\\nregain by absorption from the atmosphere the precise\\nquantity which had been previously expelled.\\nThe quantity of moisture in coal varies with the density\\nand structure, so that no averages can be given for ex-\\nample\\nLignites vary from 5 to 30 per cent.\\nBituminous coals from 1 to 12\\nSemi-bituminous coals from 1 to 5\\nAnthracite coals from 1 to 2\\nQ. What is meant by hygroscopic moisture?\\nThe hygroscopic moisture in fuel is that quantity which\\nis always held by the fuel when exposed to the atmosphere.\\nAll fuels contain a certain amount of moisture in their\\ncomposition, which may be expressed as water of condi-\\ntion. This moisture may be temporarily expelled by\\nheat, only to be reabsorbed from the atmosphere in the\\nexact amount thus driven off. The quantity of hygro-\\nscopic moisture thus held by any fuel is dependent upon\\nits structure and density the greater the density the less\\nthe contained moisture.\\nQ. What is the method employed for obtaining the\\nproximate analysis of coal?\\nIn order to estimate the value of a fuel, it is necessary\\nto determine the moisture, volatile matter, fixed carbon,\\nand sulphur. Professor Thorpe states that in the metal-\\nlurgical laboratory of the Normal School of Science and", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0178.jp2"}, "179": {"fulltext": "PROXIMATE ANALYSIS. 173\\nRoyal School of Mines these assays are performed in the\\nfollowing manner\\ni. Hygroscopic moisture. In a water bath heat for an\\nhour 20 grains of powdered sample placed in a watch\\nglass. Weigh repeatedly until the result is constant.\\n2. Coke. Heat 1,000 grains of finely powdered sample\\nin large covered earthen crucible in furnace until no\\nflame is evolved. Weigh when cold, or, better, heat 50\\ngrains in platinum crucible with lid on, the loss of weight\\ngiving volatile matter.\\n3. Ash. Heat 20 grains of finely powdered sample in\\nplatinum capsule until no trace of carbon is left.\\n4. Sulphur. Deflagrate in platinum crucible 20 grains\\nof powdered sample with 500 grains of a mixture of salt\\nand nitre (2:1), dissolve in water, dilute to one-half pint,\\nadd HC1 in slight excess, heat for twenty minutes, filter,\\nand to filtrate add BaCl 2 Allow to stand for twelve\\nhours, filter, weigh precipitate.\\nQ. Why does not the percentage of sulphur in coal ap-\\npear in statements accompanying proximate analyses\\nBecause the proximate analysis determines, first, the\\nvolatile and non-volatile quantities; and, second, the com-\\nbustible and non-combustible quantities of the coal.\\nNo sulphur is driven off in the heating of the coal to\\nexpel its moisture.\\nWhen heating the coal to distil off its volatile combus-\\ntible matter some of the sulphur passes off with the hydro-\\ncarbon gases. The sulphur is burnt to sulphurous acid,\\nthen a certain portion of this is oxidized to sulphuric\\nacid. The amount so oxidized will depend upon circum-\\nstances. If the sulphurous acid is kept hot in the presence\\nof moisture, then oxidation goes on more rapidly; but if", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0179.jp2"}, "180": {"fulltext": "174 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nit be cooled down almost immediately after it is formed,\\nthe action is very slow.\\nWhatever sulphur is not thus driven off remains in the\\nfixed carbon and burns during the ordinary progress of the\\nfire, a portion uniting with the earthy matters in the ash,\\nbecoming more or less inert.\\nQ. What is natural gas?\\nNatural gas is found locally in Western Pennsylvania,\\nNorthern Ohio, and Central Indiana in paying quantities\\nin lesser quantities it is found in many other localities.\\nThe composition of natural gas at Findlay, Ohio, is\\nBy weight. By volume.\\nHydrogen 0.27 2.18\\nMarsh gas 90. 38 92. 60\\nCarbonic oxide o. 86 o. 50\\nOlefiant gas 0.53 0.31\\nCarbonic acid o. 70 o. 26\\nNitrogen 6.18 3.61\\nOxygen o. 66 o. 34\\nSulphydric acid o. 42 o. 20\\n100.00 100.00\\nThe heat units in one pound of this gas 21,520; the\\nevaporative power of one pound of this gas from and at\\n212 F. 22.27 pounds of water.\\nTests of natural gas for steam-making conducted at\\nPittsburg, Pa., show that one pound of good bituminous\\ncoal equals from 7^ to 12^ cubic feet of natural gas.\\nOther experiments show that 1,000 cubic feet of natural\\ngas equal from 80 to 133 pounds of bituminous coal, a\\nvariation of more than 60 per cent between the two ex-\\ntremes. Quality of coal and manipulation of furnace ac-\\ncounts for much of this difference.\\nThe chemical composition of natural gas, as shown by\\nan average of four samples from Indiana and three from", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0180.jp2"}, "181": {"fulltext": "NATURAL GAS. 175\\nOhio, by Prof. C. C. Howard, for the eleventh annual re-\\nport of the U. S. Geological Survey, is as follows\\nMarsh gas, CH 4 93-36\\nNitrogen 3. 28\\nHydrogen 1.76\\nCarbon monoxide 53\\nOxygen 29\\nOlefiant gas 28\\nCarbon dioxide 25\\nHydrogen sulphide 18\\nTotal 99-93\\nThe heat-producing value of natural gas, as compared\\nwith other fuel gases per 1,000 cubic feet at 40 F. and\\nat atmospheric pressure, is given by Hosea Webster ap-\\nproximately as follows\\nNatural gas 1,103,300 heat units.\\nCoal gas 735,000\\nWater gas 322,000\\nProducer gas heated) 1 56,000\\nAssuming the generation of steam at 21 2\u00c2\u00b0 from water\\nat 6o\u00c2\u00b0, the comparative value of natural gas per 1,000\\ncubic feet at atmospheric pressure is approximately as\\nfollows\\n1,000 cubic feet natural gas evaporate 900 pounds.\\n1,000 coal 600\\n1,000 water 250\\n1,000 producer 115\\nNatural gas is an ideal fuel if used near the source of\\nsupply, as no labor is required in its use except to regu-\\nlate the supply in the furnace. It is not difficult to regu-\\nlate the supply of air to insure perfect combustion. There\\nis no soot, ashes, or other debris.\\nQ. What is producer gas?\\nProducer gas is a general name which covers any method\\nof generating gas from a fuel by a process resembling dis-", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0181.jp2"}, "182": {"fulltext": "iy6 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\ntillation, the gases generated being conducted to the place\\nwhere the heat of combustion is to be utilized, then mixed\\nwith air, ignited and consumed. This system offers a\\nremedy for the imperfections of the ordinary fire and of\\nvarious fuels. There is no cinder, no ashes, so that the\\nsurface of the bodies receiving the heat is not altered.\\nThe heating is effected by radiation as well as by conduc-\\ntion, and inferior classes of fuel may be used.\\nA higher calorific power may be obtained by producer\\ngas or gaseous fuel, generally on account of the smaller\\nquantity of air required for combustion and the conse-\\nquently lessened dilution of heat by inert nitrogen and\\ncarbonic acid. The gas from producers worked by inter-\\nnal combustion contains 25 to 45. per cent of combustible\\ningredients, and has a calorific intensity of 2867 to\\n3992 F.\\nWater gas and ordinary illuminating gas contain 86 to\\n97 per cent combustible matter. The waste gases from\\nfurnaces may be used instead of producer gas when very\\nhigh temperatures are not required, and where variations\\nin temperatures are permissible, as steam boilers, hot\\nblast, etc. Blast furnace gases rarely contain 30 per cent\\ncarbonic oxide, usually from 25 to 29 (Thorpe).\\nQ. What is the composition of water gas\\nA sample of water gas from Lowe s gas producers, after\\npassing through purifier at Novelties Exhibition, Philadel-\\nphia, 1885, analyzed as follows:\\nCarbonic oxide, CO 44-5 volume.\\nHydrogen, H 50-9\\nOxygen, O) j .7\\nNitrogen, N f alr 2. 8\\nUndetermined 1. 1\\n100. o", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0182.jp2"}, "183": {"fulltext": "GASEOUS FUELS. 177\\nOne cubic foot of water gas of the above composition will\\ndevelop in burning 327 heat units, including the latent\\nheat of evaporation of the superheated steam which es-\\ncapes in the chimney.\\nQ. What is Siemen s gas?\\nSiemen s gas is a fuel gas generated in a furnace con-\\nstructed upon principles developed by and named after its\\ninventor.\\nThe average composition of Siemen s gas, made at the\\nMidvale Steel Works, Philadelphia, Pa., is:\\nCarbonic acid gas, C0 2 1.5 volume.\\nCarbonic oxide, CO 23. 6\\nHydrogen, H 6. o\\nMarsh gas, CH 4 3.0\\nNitrogen, N 65.9\\n100. o\\nQ. What are the calorific values of the ordinary gase-\\nous fuels\\nThe comparative heating effects of the ordinary gaseous\\nfuels are given below, together with hydrogen\\nTable 22. Heating Power of Gaseous Fuels.\\nHeat units\\nyielded by i\\ncubic foot.\\n183. 1\\n153. 1\\n51.8\\n178.3\\n57I.O\\nCubic feet\\nneeded to\\nevaporate\\n100 lbs. water\\nat 212 Fahr.\\nHydrogen, H\\nWater gas (from coke)\\nBlast furnace gas\\nCarbonic oxide, CO.\\nMarsh gas, CH 4\\n12\\n293\\n351\\n1,038\\n313\\n93.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0183.jp2"}, "184": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VIII.\\nHEATING POWER OF FUEL.\\nQ. How may the calorific value of fuel be determined\\nIt may be closely estimated by calculation if the mois-\\nture, volatile matter, and fixed carbon have been previously\\nobtained by proximate analysis, or it may be determined\\ndirectly by means of a calorimeter. The total amount of\\nheat obtainable on combustion of various fuels has been\\ndetermined by Rumford, Lavoisier, Andrews, Favre and\\nSilbermann, and others. The general principle of their\\nmethods consisted in the use of an apparatus (calorimeter)\\nin which the entire heat of combustion was absorbed by a\\nknown weight of water, the increase in the temperature of\\nthe latter being ascertained by the indication of thermom-\\neters suspended in it.\\nQ. Knowing the calorific value of each of the con-\\nstituents of any fuel, may not the total calorific power of\\nfuel be determined by calculation\\nThe calorific power of a fuel may be calculated from the\\nresults of an organic analysis but in any such calculation\\nthe oxygen must be considered to be in combination with\\nsufficient hydrogen to form water, H 2 0. It is thus only\\nthe excess of carbon and hydrogen (disposable hydrogen)\\nafter this deduction that is available for the generation of\\nheat. Such calculations have been found only to approxi-\\nmate to the truth, coals, excluding lignite, giving a", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0184.jp2"}, "185": {"fulltext": "MOISTURE IN COAL. 1 79\\nhigher calorific power with the calorimeter than that ob-\\ntained by calculation.\\nQ. What is the effect of moisture in coal\\nWhatever moisture or water is contained in coal must\\nof necessity be evaporated in the fire before any useful\\neffect is obtained. Inasmuch as some of the poorer varie-\\nties of coal contain ten or even fifteen per cent of water,\\nthis evaporation is carried on at considerable loss in the\\nfurnace.\\nQ. How may the loss by evaporation of moisture in\\ncoal be estimated\\nSuppose a furnace requires 10,000 pounds of coal per\\nday, the coal containing 1 2 per cent moisture, we have\\n10,000 X I2 1,200 pounds of water to be evaporated.\\nIf the coal is 6o\u00c2\u00b0 F. it must be raised to 212 and the\\ncontained water then converted into steam at 21 2\u00c2\u00b0, after\\nwhich it abstracts heat from the furnace until the steam\\nand gases are of the same temperature, say 2,000\u00c2\u00b0 F. we\\nhave then\\n212 6o\u00c2\u00b0 152 difference in temp.\\nHeat units per pound of water re-\\nquired to effect the conversion\\nof water at 21 2\u00c2\u00b0 into steam at\\n212\u00c2\u00b0 966\\nTotal 1,118 heat units per pound of\\nwater, or, for 1,200 pounds of\\nwater 1,118 X 1,200 1,341,600\\nHeat units to be supplied 1,200\\npounds of steam at 21 2\u00c2\u00b0 to raise\\nit tO 2,000\u00c2\u00b0= 2,000\u00c2\u00b0 212\u00c2\u00b0 X\\n1,200 2,145,600\\nTotal 3.487, 200 heat units, representing\\nlost work in the furnace.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0185.jp2"}, "186": {"fulltext": "180 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nQ. How should the evaporation of the contained water\\nin coal be credited with reference to the furnace\\nNothing should be credited the furnace but heat avail-\\nable for useful work. The evaporation of water from\\ncoal in the furnace is not, in steam-making, useful work.\\nIt counts, therefore, against the coal, but not against the\\npossible efficiency of the boiler, for the reason that if a\\ndrier and better quality of coal were burnt, higher evapo-\\nrative results would naturally follow. Coals heavily\\ncharged with moisture are used only because drier coals\\nare not usually available at a price which would reduce the\\ncost of steam-making.\\nQ. How is the calorific power of fuel expressed\\nIn expressing the calorific power of fuel, the amount of\\nheat generated by the combustion of carbon to carbonic\\nacid gas, C0 2 is taken as the standard of comparison.\\nExperimental results vary only in slight degree, so that it\\nis generally agreed that 14,500 heat units are evolved by\\nthe complete combustion of one pound of carbon in oxygen\\nto C0 2 As the unit of heat varies with the thermometric\\nscale and the unit of weight employed, it will be understood\\nthat the above refers to the British thermal unit, or that\\namount of heat required to raise one pound of water\\nthrough i\u00c2\u00b0 F. (39 to 40\\nQ. What is the unit of horse power for steam boilers\\nThe standard unit of horse power is the equivalent of\\n33,000 pounds raised one foot high in one minute. It is\\napparent that no such standard can be applied to steam\\nboilers. The evaporation of 30 pounds of water from a\\ntemperature of ioo\u00c2\u00b0 F. into steam of 70 pounds pressure\\nabove the atmosphere was the standard adopted for steam", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0186.jp2"}, "187": {"fulltext": "EVAPORATIVE POWER OF COAL. l8l\\nboilers by the Centennial Committee, on the belief that\\n30 pounds of water evaporated per hour represented the\\naverage requirement of steam engines per indicated horse\\npower (1876). This is nearly equivalent to 34^ pounds\\nof water evaporated from and at 21 2\u00c2\u00b0 F., this latter re-\\nquiring 33,305 heat units.\\nQ. Is there any fixed relation between the quantity of\\nfuel burnt in a boiler furnace and the unit of horse\\npower\\nThe quantity of fuel required to evaporate the water in\\na boiler into steam has nothing whatever to do with the\\nhorse-power unit. But if we may assume as fair average\\npractice an evaporation of 8 pounds of water per pound of\\nfuel, and a consumption of 3.75 pounds of fuel per horse\\npower, we reach the figure of 30 pounds of steam per\\nhorse power per hour. For a horizontal tubular boiler set\\nin brick work, 1 5 square feet of heating surface per horse\\npower is a common allowance, and will develop a horse\\npower of steam under all ordinary conditions, the ratio of\\ngrate surface to heating surface being commonly 30 to 1.\\nQ. What is meant by the evaporative power of coal\\nBy evaporative power of coal is meant the number of\\npounds of water, which, under certain conditions, are capa-\\nble of being evaporated per pound of coal. In making a\\ncomplete evaporative test it is necessary to know the tem-\\nperature of the feed water, the pressure and temperature\\nof the steam, the number of pounds of coal burnt on the\\ngrate, and the number of pounds of water evaporated in a\\ngiven time. The simple evaporation is determined by\\ndividing the number of pounds of water evaporated in a\\ngiven time, say ten hours, by the number of pounds of\\ncoal actually burnt during the same time but when the", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0187.jp2"}, "188": {"fulltext": "1 82 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\ntemperatures of the feed water and of the steam are to be\\ntaken into account, it is then commonly referred to as\\nevaporation from and at 21 2\u00c2\u00b0.\\nQ. What quantity of heat is absorbed by the internal work\\ndone in liberating the volatile combustible from coal\\nThe investigations of E. T. Cox, formerly State geolo-\\ngist, Indiana, upon the coals of that State, showed that the\\naverage thermal value of the volatile combustible matter\\nliberated from bituminous coal by heat during its combus-\\ntion was 20, 1 1 5 heat units, and that to liberate one pound\\nof these gases 3,600 heat units were expended in over-\\ncoming the internal resistances in the coal. This latter\\namount, 3,600 heat units, should therefore be deducted\\nfrom the total heat evolved in any calculations based upon\\nproximate analyses, to get accurate thermal values.\\nThe calorific value of coal calculated in accordance with\\nthe above paragraph would be as follows\\nA sample of Indiana bituminous coal yielded by proxi-\\nmate analysis\\nFixed carbon 49-51 per cent.\\nVolatile combustible. 37. 64\\nMoisture 4. 30\\nAsh 8.55\\n100.00\\nThe theoretical calorific value with Professor Cox s de-\\nduction would be calculated thus\\nBritish\\nthermal units.\\nVolatile combustible .3764 X 20,115 7,571.29\\nLess 3764 X 3,6oo 1,355.04\\nNet value of volatile combustible 6,216. 25\\nCarbon 4951 X 14,544 7.200.73\\nTotal calorific value 13,416.98", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0188.jp2"}, "189": {"fulltext": "HEATING VALUE OF COAL.\\n183\\nQ. Knowing the quantity of fixed carbon in any coal,\\nmay the approximate heating value of such a coal be\\ndetermined by calculation\\nHaving the ultimate analysis of a coal, Kent states that\\nby the use of Dulong s law, it can be predicted what that\\ncoal will give in the calorimeter within three per cent.\\nHaving only the proximate analysis one can predict even\\nfrom that very closely what the heating value of the coal\\nis. Dulong s formula, as modified by Mahler, is\\n-i-r\\n100 L\\n8,140-)- 34, 500 H\\n(O N\\nin which O is quantity of heat in Centigrade units, and\\nH, O, and N the percentages of hydrogen, oxygen, and\\nnitrogen.\\nMahler s results indicate a law of relation between the\\ncomposition of the coal as determined by proximate analy-\\nsis and the heating value. The percentage of fixed carbon\\nin the dry coal, free from ash, may, in the case of all coals\\ncontaining over 58 percent of fixed carbon, have the heat-\\ning power predicted with a limit of error of 3 per cent.\\nTable 23. Approximate Heating Value of Coals Based upon\\nMahler s Tests.\\nCarbon, per\\nHeating Value.\\nCarbon, per\\ncent, dry and\\nfree from ash.\\nHeating Value.\\ncent, dry and\\nfree from ash.\\nCalories.\\nBritish\\nthermal units.\\nCalories.\\nBritish\\nthermal units.\\n07\\n8,200\\n8,400\\n8,600\\n8,700\\n8,800\\n8,700\\n8,600\\n14,760\\n15,120\\n15,480\\nI5,66o\\n15,840\\n15,660\\n15,840\\n63\\n60\\n8,400\\n8,IOO\\n7,800\\n7,400\\n7,000\\n6,800\\n15,120\\n14,580\\n14,040\\n13,320\\n04\\nQO\\n57\\n87\\n54\\n8O.\\n51\\n72\\n50\\n12,240\\n68\\nQ. What is Mahler s formula\\nMahler s formula for expressing the calorific power of", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0189.jp2"}, "190": {"fulltext": "1 84 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\ncoal and hydrocarbon fuels is a modification of Dulong s;\\nformula, and is thus given by William Kent\\nMahler s formula\\n_ 8,140 C -f- 34, 500 H\u00e2\u0080\u0094 3,000 (O -f- N)\\n100\\nThe maximum difference between Dulong s formula and\\nthe actual result in any single case is a little over three\\nper cent and between Mahler s formula and the actual,\\nfour per cent.\\nDulong s formula, Q ^.[8,080 34 5oo (H\\nhas the advantage of being more strictly a theoretical for-\\nmula, based merely upon the observed heating power of the\\ntwo elements, carbon and hydrogen, and the assumption\\nthat the oxygen renders unavailable for heating power yfa\\nof its weight of hydrogen, while Mahler s formula intro-\\nduces a coefficient, 3,000, which is entirely empirical, and\\nonly on his own observations.\\nThe figures given in the above formula are French and\\nnot British thermal units.\\nQ. What is Dulong s formula\\nDulong proposed the following formula as expressive of\\nthe calorific power of the elements carbon and hydrogen\\nwhen burnt to carbonic acid gas, C0 2 and steam, H 2\\nDulong s formula P 8,080 C -f- 34,462 (H\\nwhen P heating power C weight of carbon O\\nweight of oxygen; H free hydrogen, i.e. total hydrogen\\nless that already burnt to water by the oxygen which the\\nbased coal contains.\\nThe figures in the above formula are French and not\\nBritish thermal units.\\nIt is now established by the labors of Favre, Silbermann,\\nRegnault, Bertholet, and others, that the heat of combus-", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0190.jp2"}, "191": {"fulltext": "THOMPSON S CALORIMETER.\\n85\\ntion, like specific heat, varies with the density; for ex-\\nample\\nCalories.\\nCarbon from charcoal develops 8, 080\\nCarbon of gas retorts, more dense 8,047\\nNatural graphite 7, 797\\nDiamond 7, 770\\nBritish\\nthermal units.\\n15,544\\n14,484\\n14,034\\n13,986\\nQ. What are the details of construction of the Thomp-\\nson calorimeter?\\nReferring to Fig. 14, the Thompson calorimeter consists\\nof a glass cylinder A closed at the\\nlower end only, to contain a given\\nweight of water. B is a cylindrical\\ncopper vessel called the condenser,\\nclosed at one end with a copper cover,\\nin which is fixed a metal tube C, com-\\nmunicating with the interior of the ves-\\nsel B, and fitted at its upper extremity\\nwith a stopcock. The other end of B\\nis open, and it is perforated near the\\nopen end by a series of holes, b, b. D is\\na metal base upon which B is fixed by\\nmeans of three springs, which are at-\\ntached to D, and press against the in-\\nternal surface of B, but which are omit-\\nted from the engraving. A series of\\nholes is arranged round the circumfer-\\nence of D to facilitate raising the\\napparatus through the water. E is a\\ncopper cylinder, called the furnace,\\nclosed at the lower end only, which\\nfits into a metal ring or seat on the\\ncentre of D.\\nJ", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0191.jp2"}, "192": {"fulltext": "1 86 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nQ. In what manner are the results obtained in the\\nThompson calorimeter\\nA known weight of fuel is burnt by means of chlorate\\nof potash and nitre at the bottom of a vessel containing a\\nknown weight of water. The heat produced by the com-\\nbustion of the fuel is communicated to the water, and\\nfrom the rise in temperature of the latter is calculated the\\nnumber of parts of water which the combustion of one\\npart of the fuel will raise one degree in temperature.\\nThis number being divided by the latent heat of steam,\\n967 heat units, gives the evaporative power of the fuel,\\nwhich one pound of the fuel is theoretically capable of\\nevaporating.\\nIn the instrument described, it is intended that 30\\ngrains of the fuel should be burnt, and that 29,010 grains,\\nor 967 times this weight, of water should be employed.\\nHence the rise in the temperature of the water expressed\\nin degrees Fahrenheit is equal to the number of pounds of\\nwater which one pound of the fuel theoretically will evap-\\norate but ten per cent is directed to be added to this num-\\nber as a correction for the quantity of heat absorbed by the\\napparatus itself, and consequently not expended in raising\\nthe temperature of the water.\\nQ. In what manner are experiments conducted with the\\nThompson calorimeter\\nThirty grains of finely powdered fuel is intimately mixed\\nwith from ten to twelve times its weight of a perfectly dry\\nmixture of Chlorate of potash, 3 parts nitre, 1 part.\\nThe resulting mixture, which, for the sake of distinction,\\nmay be called the fuel mixture, is introduced into the fur-\\nnace E, and carefully pressed or shaken down. The end\\nof a slow fuse, about half an inch long, is next inserted in", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0192.jp2"}, "193": {"fulltext": "BARRUS CALORIMETER. 1 87\\na small hole made in the top of the fuel mixture, and is\\nfixed there by pressing the latter around it. The furnace\\nis then placed in its seat on the metal base D, and the\\nfuse lighted, and the condenser B with its stopcock shut\\nfixed over the furnace.\\nThe cylinder A is previously charged with 29,010 grains\\nof water, the temperature of which must be recorded, and\\nthe apparatus is now quickly submerged in it. The fuse\\nignites the fuel mixture, and when the combustion is fin-\\nished (indicated by the cessation of the bubbles of gas,\\nproduced by the combustion, which rise through the water),\\nthe stopcock is opened, and the water enters the condenser\\nby the holes b, b. By moving the condenser up and down,\\nthe water is thoroughly mixed and acquires a uniform tem-\\nperature, which is then recorded. By adding ten per cent\\nto the number of degrees Fahrenheit which the water has\\nrisen in temperature, the theoretical evaporative power of\\nthe coal is at once approximately determined.\\nThe furnace shown in Fig. 14 is intended to be used\\nwhen bituminous coals are to be operated upon but in\\nexperimenting on coke, anthracite, and other difficult com-\\nbustible fuels, a wider and shorter furnace is preferred,\\nand the fuel mixture should not be pressed down.\\nQ. What is the construction of the Barrus coal calorim-\\neter\\nThe Barms coal calorimeter, shown in Fig. 15, consists\\nof a glass beaker, 5 inches in diameter and 10 inches high,\\nwhich can be obtained of most dealers in chemical appa-\\nratus. The combustion chamber is of special form, and\\nconsists of a glass bell having a notched rib around the\\nlower edge, and a bead just above the top, with a tube pro-\\njecting a considerable distance above the upper end. The", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0193.jp2"}, "194": {"fulltext": "i88\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nS\\nbell is 2y 2 inches inside diameter, 5^ inches high, and the\\ntube above is $/q inch inside diameter, and extends be-\\nyond the bell a distance of 9 inches. The base consists\\nof a circular plate of brass, 4 inches in diameter, with\\nthree clips fastened on the up-\\nper side for holding down the\\ncombustion chamber. The base\\nis perforated, and the under side\\nhas three pieces of cork at-\\ntached, which serve as feet. To\\nthe centre of the upper side of\\nthe plate is attached a cup for\\nholding the platinum crucible,\\nin which the coal is burned. To\\nthe upper end of the bell be-\\nneath the bead, a hood is at-\\ntached, made of wire gauze,\\nwhich serves to intercept the\\nrising bubbles of gas and retard\\ntheir escape from the water.\\nThe top of the tube is fitted\\nwith a cork, and through this is\\ninserted a small glass tube which\\ncarries the oxygen to the lower\\npart of the combustion chamber.\\nThe tube is movable up and\\ndown, and to some extent sideways, so as to direct the\\ncurrent of oxygen to any part of the crucible, and adjust\\nit to a proper distance from the burning coal.\\nIn addition to the apparatus here shown there is. required\\na tank of oxygen, such as the calcium light companies\\nfurnish, scales for weighing water, and delicate balances\\nfor weighing coal, besides a delicate thermometer for tak-\\nFlG. 15.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0194.jp2"}, "195": {"fulltext": "BARRUS CALORIMETER. 1 89\\ning the temperature of the water, and another for show-\\ning the temperature of the atmosphere. The former\\nshould be graduated to tenths of a degree Fahrenheit.\\nThe quantity of coal used for a test is one gram, and of\\nwater 2,000 grams. The equivalent calorific value of the\\nmaterial of the instrument is 185 milligrams. One degree\\nrise of temperature of the water corresponds to a total\\nheat of combustion of 2,185 British thermal units. The\\nnumber of degrees rise of temperature for ordinary coals\\nvaries from 5^ to 6}4\u00c2\u00b0 F. Radiation is allowed for by\\ncommencing the test with a temperature as many degrees\\nbelow the atmosphere as the temperature rises above the\\natmosphere at the end of the test. When very smoky\\ncoals are used, the sample is mixed with a small propor-\\ntion of anthracite of known calorific value and when an-\\nthracite coal is used, a small percentage of bituminous coal\\nis likewise mixed with it.\\nQ. What is the process of making a test with the\\nBarrus calorimeter\\nHaving dried and pulverized the coal, and weighed out\\nthe desired quantities of coal and water, the combustion\\nchamber is immersed in the water for a short time, so as\\nto make the temperature of the whole instrument uniform\\nwith that of the water. On its removal, the initial tem-\\nperature of the water is observed, the top of the chamber\\nlifted, the gas turned on, and the coal quickly lighted, a\\nsmall paper fuse having previously been inserted in the\\ncrucible for this purpose. The top of the combustion\\nchamber is quickly replaced, and the whole returned to its\\nsubmerged position in the water. The combustion is care-\\nfully watched as the process goes on, and the current of\\noxygen is directed in such a way as to secure the desired", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0195.jp2"}, "196": {"fulltext": "190\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL\\nrate and conditions for satisfactory combustion. When\\nthe coal is entirely consumed, the interior chamber is\\nmoved up and down in the water until the temperature of\\nthe whole has become uniform, and finally it is withdrawn\\nand the crucible removed. The final temperature of the\\nwater is then observed, and the weight of the resulting ash.\\nThe initial temperature of the water is so fixed by suit-\\nably mixing warm and cold water that it stands at the\\nsame number of degrees below the temperature of the sur-\\nrounding atmosphere (or approximately the same), as it is\\nraised at the end of the process above the temperature of\\nthe air. In this way the effect of radiation from the ap-\\nparatus is overcome, so that no provision in the matter of\\ninsulation is required, and no allowance needs to be made\\nfor its effect.\\nQ. What are some of the results obtained by the use\\nof the Barrus calorimeter\\nA few results of tests with the Barrus coal calorimeter\\nare here given\\nTable 24.\\nTotal Heat of Combustion\\nKind of coal.\\nPer cent of\\nper Pound of\\nCoal.\\nCombustible.\\nGeorges Creek, bituminous.\\n5.0\\n13,487\\n14,196\\n6.5\\n12,921\\n13,819\\n7.0\\nI3,36o\\n14,365\\n8.6\\n12,874\\n14,085\\nPocahontas, bituminous\\n3.2\\n14,603\\n15,085\\nit\\n4.0\\n14,121\\n14,709\\n5.o\\n14,114\\n14,856\\n6.5\\n13,697\\n14,649\\nNew River, bituminous\\n1.0\\n14,455\\nI4,6oi\\n3-5\\n13,922\\n14,426\\n5.o\\n13,858\\n14,857\\nYoughiogheny, bituminous lump\\n5-9\\n12,941\\n13,752\\nslack\\n10.2\\n11,664\\n12,988\\n12,765\\nFrontenac, Kansas, bituminous.\\n17.7\\n10,506", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0196.jp2"}, "197": {"fulltext": "CARPENTER S CALORIMETER.\\nI 9 I\\nQ. What are the details of construc-\\ntion of the Carpenter calorimeter\\nReferring to Fig. 16, the appa-\\nratus consists of the combustion\\nchamber 15, which has a removable\\nbottom. The chamber is supplied\\nwith oxygen for combustion through\\ntube 23, the products of combustion\\nbeing conducted through spiral tube\\n28, 29, 31. The tube ends in a\\nhose nipple 30, from which a hose\\nconnection is made to a small cham-\\nber 39, attached\\nto the outer case\\nand provided\\nwith a siphon\\ngauge 40. A\\nplug, 41, with\\npinhole, is at-\\ntached to the\\nchamber for the\\ndischarge of\\ngases. The si-\\nphon gauge indi-\\ncates the press-\\nure of the gases.\\nSurrounding\\nthe combustion\\nchamber is a\\nlarger closed\\nchamber 1, filled\\nwith water and\\nconnected with an open glass tube with attached scale 9\\nFig. 16.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0197.jp2"}, "198": {"fulltext": "I92 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nand 10. Above the water chamber is a diaphragm 12,\\nwhich is used to adjust the zero level by means of screw\\n14 in the open glass tube at any desired point.\\nA glass for observing the process of combustion is in-\\nserted at 33 in top of the combustion chamber, at 34 in\\ntop of water chamber, and at 36 in top of outer case. An\\nopening for filling is provided by removing the plug screw\\nat 37, which can also be used for emptying if desired.\\nThe plug 17, which stops up the bottom of the combus-\\ntion chamber, carries a dish 22, in which the fuel for com-\\nbustion is placed, also two wires 26, 27, passing through\\ntubes of vulcanized fibre, which are adjustable in a verti-\\ncal direction and connected with a thin platinum wire at\\nthe ends. These wires are connected to an electric cur-\\nrent and used for firing the fuel. On the top part of this\\nplug is placed a silver mirror 38, to deflect any radiant\\nheat. Through the centre of this plug passes a tube 23,\\nthrough which oxygen passes to supply combustion. The\\nplug is made of alternate layers of rubber and asbestos\\nfibre, the outside only being of metal, which being in con-\\ntact with the wall of the water chamber can transfer little\\nor no heat to the outside. The instrument readily slips\\ninto an outer case, which is nickel-plated and polished on\\nthe inside so as to reduce radiation. It is supported on\\nstrips of felting, 5 and 6. The combustion chamber can\\nbe subjected to considerable pressure; however, 10 inches\\nwater pressure has usually been found sufficient. The ca-\\npacity of the instrument is about 5 pounds of water, and\\nis large enough for the combustion of 2 grams of coal.\\nQ. What advantages are possessed by the Carpenter\\ncalorimeter\\nThe calorimeter designed by R. C. Carpenter differs\\nfrom other calorimeters by the provision made in the appa-", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0198.jp2"}, "199": {"fulltext": "COPPER-BALL CALORIMETER. I93\\nratus itself, for giving the calorific power of fuels almost\\ndirect in British thermal units, dispensing also with some\\nof the objectionable features, such as the errors involved\\nin the thermometer, the determination of the water equiv-\\nalent of the calorimeter, correction for evaporation, radia-\\ntion, and specific heats, thus enabling the operator to do\\nhis work quickly and accurately. This apparatus, shown\\nin Fig. 16, is in principle a large thermometer, in the bulb\\nof which combustion takes place, the heat being absorbed\\nby the liquid which is within the bulb. The absorption\\nof heat is proportional to the height to which a column of\\nliquid rises in the attached glass tube.\\nQ. How may a copper -ball calorimeter, suitable for\\nascertaining smoke-box temperatures, be made\\nAt the Purdue University such a calorimeter is employed\\nin locomotive tests, and is constructed as follows\\nA piece of i-inch steam pipe, threaded at one end, is\\nscrewed through the shell from the inside of the smoke\\nbox. It is set radially about 4 inches from the front tube\\nsheet, and inclines from the centre of the smoke box down-\\nward. The threaded end passes through the shell a suffi-\\ncient distance to receive a cap. The cap serves to close\\nthe end of the pipe, and also to carry a light rod, to the\\nopposite end of which is attached a simple piston fitting\\nloosely to the bore of the pipe. A copper ball, T/% inch in\\ndiameter, and a copper vessel suitably enclosed to prevent\\nradiation, complete the outfit. In using the apparatus, the\\ncopper ball is inserted in the bore of the pipe, the piston\\napplied below it, and both are pushed up the pipe until the\\ncap at the lower extremity of the piston rod meets the\\nlower end of the pipe. The cap is then screwed in place,\\nclosing the pipe and retaining the ball at the centre of the\\n13", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0199.jp2"}, "200": {"fulltext": "194 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nsmoke box. Here it is allowed to remain from 40 to 60\\nminutes, after which interval it is assumed to have come\\nto the temperature of the smoke box. The cap is then\\nunscrewed and the piston quickly withdrawn, allowing the\\nball to roll down the pipe into the water contained in the\\ncopper vessel. From the known weight of the ball, the\\nwater, and the copper vessel, and from observed changes\\nin temperature, the original temperature of the ball is cal-\\nculated. The average result of three such determinations\\nis assumed to be the temperature of the smoke box for the\\ntest.\\nQ. Is the amount of heat evolved by combustion in\\nproportion to the amount of oxygen consumed?\\nIn the erroneous belief that the amount of heat evolved\\non combustion was in proportion to the amount of oxygen\\nconsumed, Berthier determined the calorific power of\\nfuel by burning it by the oxygen contained in oxide of\\nlead, PbO, and ascertaining the weight of the resulting\\nbutton of lead.\\nThe calorific powers of various fuels as thus determined\\nare as follows\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2Tories. he^tl.\\nAir-dried wood with 20% H 2 2,800 5.040\\nCharred wood 3 6oo 6,480\\nWood charcoal with 20$ H 2 6,000 10, 800\\nDry charcoal 7.050 12,690\\nPeat with 20$ H 2 3. 600 6,480\\nDried peat 4, 800 8,640\\nPeat charcoal 5 800 10,440\\nAverage bituminous coal 7, 500 13, 500\\nGood coke 7.050 12,690\\nCoke with 5$ ash 6,000 io, 800\\n4,360 7,848\\nAir-dried lignite to\\n6 5,4io 9,738\\nHydrogen 34, 462 62, 032\\nCarbon burnt to CO 2,473 4.451", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0200.jp2"}, "201": {"fulltext": "BERTHIER S CALORIMETER. I95\\nCarbon burnt to C0 2 8, 080 14, 544\\nCO, burnt to CO a 2,403 4, 325\\nMarsh gas 13,063 23,513\\ndefiant gas 11,858 21,344\\nQ. What is the Berthier method of coal calorimetry\\nThe apparatus consists of gas furnace and crucible\\nclearly shown in Fig. 17, which are so simple as to be self-\\nexplanatory. Berthier s method of coal calorimetry uses\\nFig\\noxide of lead, PbO, as the source of oxygen. It requires\\nonly accurate weighing of the sample of fuel and an easily\\ncontrollable fire for heating a clay crucible to a low red\\nheat. There are no corrections for radiation and no deli-\\ncate measurements of temperature to be made. These are\\napparently the great sources of error in the use of oxygen\\ngas.\\nThe heating power of fuels may be ascertained by mix-\\ning intimately 1 part by weight of the substance, in the\\nfinest state of division, with at least 20, but not more than", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0201.jp2"}, "202": {"fulltext": "196\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\n40, parts of litharge. Charcoal, coke, or coal may be\\nreadily pulverized but in the case of wood the sawdust\\nproduced by a fine saw or rasp must be employed. The\\nmixture is put into a close-grained conical clay crucible,\\nand covered with 20 or 30 times its weight of pure litharge.\\nThe crucible, which should not be more than half full, is\\ncovered and then heated gradually until the litharge is\\nmelted and evolution of gas has ceased. At first the mix-\\nture softens and froths. When the fusion is complete, the\\ncrucible should be heated more strongly for about ten min-\\nutes, so that the reduced lead may thoroughly subside and\\ncollect into one button at the bottom. Care must be taken\\nto prevent the reduction of any of the litharge by the gases\\nof the furnace. The crucible, while hot, should be taken\\nout of the fire and left to cool when cold, it is broken,\\nand the button of lead detached, cleaned, and weighed.\\nThe accuracy of the result should be tested by repetition.\\nTable 25. Comparison of Oxygen and Litharge Methods.\\nFuel.\\nr\\nCarbon from\\ngran u 1 a t e d J\\nsugar. Ash, j\\no.44^ I\\nI\\nf\\nBituminous\\nslack from^J\\nWest Vir- I\\nginia t\\nr\\nAnthracite coal\\nfrom Lehigh\\nValley\\nWeight of\\nFuel, Grams.\\nOxy. Lith.\\n310\\n377\\n468\\n204\\n812\\n328\\n372\\n394\\n538\\n262\\n2.18\\n882\\n879\\n767\\n919\\n937\\n197\\n306\\n453\\n502\\n877\\n4535\\n3165\\n0000\\n0000\\n9675\\nHeating\\nPower.\\nOxy.\\nu\\n14,720\\n14,090\\n14,520\\n14,320\\n15,460\\n12,660\\n12,370\\n12,520\\n12,230\\n14,000\\nLith.\\n14,64c\\n14,800\\n14,550\\n13,920\\n13,590\\n14,480\\n11,420\\n11,53^\\n11,460\\n11,520\\n11,420\\nI3,50O\\n13,650\\n13,604\\n13,622\\n13,643\\nResults.\\nOxy. Lith.\\n14,620\\n12,760\\nAll\\n14,330\\n1,2,3.6\\n14,617\\nH,470\\n13,616\\nProbable\\nError\\nPer Cent.\\nOxy.\\n9Det\\n2.6\\n1.:\\n\u00c2\u00b11.7\\nLith.\\n6 Bet.\\nO.76\\nO.14\\nO.08", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0202.jp2"}, "203": {"fulltext": "CALORIFIC VALUE OF WOOD. 1 97\\nThe purpose of covering the mixture of fuel and litharge\\nin the crucible with a quantity of pure litharge is not only\\nto prevent access of air to the fuel, but also to prevent the\\nescape unoxidized of the more volatile portions of the fuel.\\nAnd this covering of pure litharge must likewise be pro-\\ntected from the furnace gases. This apparatus is fully\\ndescribed in theoretical detail by C. V. Kerr, Trans. A.\\nS. M. E., i\\nQ. What is the calorific value of wood\\nThe large percentage of moisture in wood renders it un-\\nsuitable as fuel where high temperatures are required.\\nThe hydrogen present in wood is not available as fuel owing\\nto the presence of oxygen, these two gases uniting to form\\nwater. Carbon is the only combustible available in wood\\nfor generating heat. This element is present in all woods,\\naveraging about 50 per cent of the total weight when dry.\\nA cord of wood contains 128 cubic feet; its weight is\\nabout 2,700 pounds, or 21 pounds per cubic foot. 2.12\\ncords, or 2.55 tons of pine wood, were found to be equal to\\n1 ton Cumberland coal, 1 pound of the latter equalling\\n2.55 pounds of wood. In evaporative power the pine wood\\nhad but two- fifths of that of coal, equal to about 2^ pounds\\nof water evaporated per pound of pine. This is much less\\nthan the results obtained by Prof. W. R. Johnson in 1844,\\nwho found that 1 pound of dry pine would, by careful\\nmanagement, evaporate 4.69 pounds of water.\\nThe American Society of Mechanical Engineers, in their\\nrules for boiler tests, assume one pound of wood to equal\\n0.4 pound of coal.\\nQ. How does wood compare with cotton stalks, brush-\\nwood, or straw as a fuel?\\nThe evaporative values, given by John Head, for the", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0203.jp2"}, "204": {"fulltext": "igS COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nfollowing substances, when burnt in a tubular boiler, com-\\npare as follows\\nEight pounds of water evaporated by I pound good coal\\n2 pounds dry peat; 2.25 to 2.3 pounds dry wood; 2.5 to 3\\npounds cotton stalks or brushwood; 3.25 to 3.75 pounds\\nstraw.\\nQ. What is the calorific value of peat?\\nVery little use has been made of peat in this country,\\nowing to the abundance, cheapness, and superior heating\\npower of bituminous coal. Carefully conducted tests\\nabroad show that peat, air-dried, containing not more than\\n14 per cent of moisture, has about one-half the evaporative\\npower of good coal, and is superior to that of ordinary air-\\ndried wood.\\nThe calorific power of peat varies from 5,400 heat units\\nfor ordinary air-dried peat, to 9,400 heat units per pound\\nwhen thoroughly dry. This corresponds to an evaporation,\\nfrom and at 21 2\u00c2\u00b0 F., of 5.6 pounds of water for the for-\\nmer, and 9.79 pounds for the latter.\\nQ. What is the calorific value of lignite\\nFreshly mined lignite contains an excess of moisture, to\\nwhich is generally attributed its low heating power. The\\nlarge amount of volatile combustible matter contained in\\nlignite causes it to burn with a long smoky flame. The\\ncalorific value of lignites will vary from 6,500 to 11,000\\nheat units, and occasionally higher for the better qualities.\\nThis is equal to an equivalent evaporation from and at\\n212 F. of 6.73 pounds of water for the former, and 11.38\\npounds for the latter.\\nQ. What is the calorific value of bituminous coal\\nThe calorific value of bituminous coal for the lower\\ngrades depends almost wholly upon the amount of its fixed", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0204.jp2"}, "205": {"fulltext": "CALORIFIC VALUE OF COKE. 199\\ncarbon, the moisture and excess of oxygen operating\\nagainst the efficiency of the fire as a whole some of the\\nlower grades of coal developing not more than 8,000 heat\\nunits, corresponding to an equivalent evaporation of 8.28\\npounds of water from and at 21 2\u00c2\u00b0 F. per pound of coal.\\nThe better grades of bituminous coal develop from. 13,-\\n000 to 14,500 heat units per pound of coal, corresponding\\nto an equivalent evaporation of 13.45 pounds of water for\\nthe former, and 15.01 pounds for the latter, both from and\\nat 212 F.\\nA good average for the best varieties of bituminous coal\\nis 13,600 heat units, corresponding to an evaporation of\\n14.08 pounds of water from and at 212 F. per pound of\\ncoal.\\nQ. What is the calorific value of coke\\nThe calorific power of coke should be very high, inas-\\nmuch as it is nearly pure carbon. Deducting the ash and\\nother impurities, coke should yield 12,500 to 13,800 heat\\nunits per pound, which corresponds to an equivalent evap-\\noration of 12.94 pounds of water for the former, and 14.28\\npounds for the latter, from and at 21 2\u00c2\u00b0 F. per pound of\\ncoke.\\nD. K. Clark states that the best experience of the com-\\nbustion of coke has been derived from the practice of loco-\\nmotives. A rapid draught is required for effecting the\\ncomplete combustion of coke, preventing the reaction\\nwhich is likely to take place when currents of carbonic\\nacid traverse ignited coke, and convert it into carbonic\\noxide. He showed by a process of mechanical analysis\\nthat the combustion of coke in the fire box of the ordinary\\ncoal-burning locomotive was complete. The total heat of\\ncombustion of one pound of good sound coke was found", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0205.jp2"}, "206": {"fulltext": "200 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nordinarily to be disposed of as follows, when the tempera-\\nture in the smoke box did not exceed 6oo\u00c2\u00b0 F. 78.0 per\\ncent in the formation of steam; 16. 5 per cent by the heat\\nof burnt gases in smoke box; 5.5 per cent drawback by\\nash and waste.\\nQ. What is the calorific value of anthracite coal?\\nAnthracite coals are principally carbon and ash. Ex-\\ncluding the moisture, there is not enough available hydro-\\ngen in the volatile matter to be of any heating value, after\\ndeducting the energy required to dissociate the volatile\\ncombustible from the fixed carbon. The volatile combus-\\ntible may, therefore, be wholly neglected without sensible\\nloss, and the coal treated according to its percentage of\\ncarbon.\\nBeaver Meadow, Carbon County, Pa., anthracite coal\\n(Geol. Surv., Pa.).\\nSpecific gravity, 1.55 96.88 pounds per cubic foot.\\nFixed carbon 90. 20 per cent.\\nVolatile matter 2. 52\\nEarthy matter, ash 6. 13\\n98.85\\nNeglecting the 1.15 per cent loss in the analysis, we\\nhave as the calorific power of this fuel\\nCarbon 9020X14,544= 13, 119\\nVolatile matter 0252 X 20,115 507\\nLess 0252 X 3,600= 91= 416\\nTotal heat units 13, 535\\nThen: 14.01 pounds of water evaporated per\\npound of coal from and at 21 2\u00c2\u00b0 F.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0206.jp2"}, "207": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER IX.\\nSTEAM GENERATION.\\nQ. What is the nature of the heat problem in a steam\\nengine\\nIt is to convert the heat generated in the furnace by the\\ncombustion of fuel into the sensible motion of ponderable\\nmasses a piston, fly wheel, etc. and the degree in which\\nit is possible for it to accomplish this (every imperfection\\nand every source of loss eliminated) is the ratio which the\\ndifference of temperature of initial and exhaust steam (or\\nits range) bears to the absolute temperature of initial\\nT T\\nsteam that is, l where T is the absolute initial\\ntemperature, and T 1 the absolute final temperature.\\nExample Suppose a locomotive takes steam up to the\\npoint of cut off at 120 pounds gauge pressure, to which\\nwe add the pressure of the atmosphere, 14.7 pounds\u00e2\u0080\u0094 134.7\\npounds absolute pressure its sensible temperature would\\nbe 350 F. and its absolute temperature 46 1\u00c2\u00b0 more, or\\n350 -f- 46 1 81 1\u00c2\u00b0. If this steam be exhausted under\\npressure a little greater than that of the atmosphere, say\\n15 pounds absolute, its sensible temperature would be\\n2 1 3 F., and its absolute temperature 46 1\u00c2\u00b0 more, or\\n674. Now if T 81 1 and T, 674, we have:\\nTo-T, 811-674 137\\nT^= 811 =8l7 169\\nor say 16.9 per cent. That is, the range of temperature", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0207.jp2"}, "208": {"fulltext": "202 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nbetween initial and exhaust steam being 137 F., and the\\nabsolute initial temperature being 81 1\u00c2\u00b0 F., such a steam\\nengine, on account of being obliged to let the steam go\\nwhile it still has a temperature of 213 F. or 674 abso-\\nlute, has within its reach, if it could save it all, only 16.9\\nper cent of the whole work contained in the initial steam\\nin the form of heat. Such an engine will in fact yield\\nabout 6 per cent and dividing this 6 per cent by the 16.9\\nper cent we have \u00e2\u0080\u0094p\u00e2\u0080\u0094 .355, or 35.5 per cent, as the\\nratio of usual engine performance to perfect performance of\\nperfect heat engine under the above usual conditions.\\nAbout two-thirds, then, of the heat work that may at least\\nbe striven for is usually lost (Hoadley).\\nQ. What is meant by the range of temperature in a\\nsteam engine\\nIt is the difference between the temperature of the steam\\nentering the cylinder and the temperature of its exhaust.\\nThese temperatures should be expressed in terms of the\\nabsolute scale of temperatures, and not that of the ordinary\\nthermometer.\\nQ. Does water conduct heat readily\\nWater conducts heat very slowly from above downward.\\nThe effect observed is very different when, instead of ap-\\nplying heat at the upper surface, it is communicated to the\\nunder part, or to the bottom of a vessel in which liquid is\\ncontained. In this case the particles in immediate contact\\nwith the heat-giving body are expanded. This, by render-\\ning them lighter than the succeeding ones, causes them to\\nascend fresh particles succeed, and these rise in similar\\nmanner. Currents are thus determined in the liquid, and\\nthe whole mass is readily heated. This, however, is not", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0208.jp2"}, "209": {"fulltext": "LATENT HEAT OF EVAPORATION. 203\\na case of conduction from particle to particle neither is\\nit due to radiation, but it is the effect of convection that\\nis to say, the actual conveyance or distribution of the heated\\nportion throughout the mass.\\nQ. What is the limiting difference in temperature be-\\ntween the heated gases in contact with a steam boiler,\\nand the temperature of the steam within\\nA common steam pressure in stationary boilers is 80\\npounds by gauge, or 95 pounds absolute, the correspond-\\ning temperature being 324 F., which represents the cool-\\ning surface to which the hot furnace gases are exposed.\\nIt is probable that there can be no active transmission of\\nheat from the gases without to the water within a boiler,\\nwith less than 75 F. difference of temperature. Pyrom-\\neter observations made by Hoadley, in the smoke box of a\\nreturn tubular boiler, at all stages of the fire, satisfied him\\nthat in excellent boilers, well fired, having a ratio of heat-\\ning surface to grate area as large as 36, the temperature of\\nthe escaping gases rarely, if ever, falls lower than 75 F.\\nabove the temperature due to the steam pressure, except\\nwhen the fire doors are open and there is great and un-\\nusual excess of air admitted. Adding 75 to the tempera-\\nture corresponding to 80 pounds gauge pressure, 324 we\\nhave, say, 400 F. as the lowest practical temperature of\\nescaping gases. This will be confirmed by the best prac-\\ntice under favorable conditions and the actual tempera-\\nture will range through a low average of 500 F. and a\\nhigh average of 600 F. up to 8oo\u00c2\u00b0 F. or over.\\nQ. What is the latent heat of evaporation\\nWhen water has been raised to a temperature of 21 2\u00c2\u00b0 F.\\nin a vessel open to the atmosphere, the continued applica-\\ntion of heat does not cause a further rise in temperature.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0209.jp2"}, "210": {"fulltext": "204 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nIt will be observed that much more heat is required to\\nevaporate a given quantity of water from and at 21 2\u00c2\u00b0 than\\nwas necessary to bring its temperature up to the boiling\\npoint.\\nThe quantity of heat required to evaporate 1 pound of\\nwater from and at 21 2\u00c2\u00b0 has been experimentally shown to\\nbe equal to 966 British thermal units.\\nThe total heat in 1 pound of steam at 21 2\u00c2\u00b0 F. is 1146\\nunits, of which 212 32 180 are necessary to bring\\nthe water from the freezing to the boiling point and 966\\nunits of heat per pound of water are expended in doing the\\ninternal work of pulling the liquid molecules asunder, to\\nwhich must also be added the exterior work of forcing\\nback the atmosphere when the liquid becomes vapor.\\nThe heat thus expended in the conversion of water into\\nsteam from and at 21 2\u00c2\u00b0 F., viz., 966 heat units per pound\\nof water, and of which the thermometer gives no record, is\\nthe latent heat of evaporation.\\nQ. How may the latent heat in steam be proven by\\nthe quantity of water required for its condensation\\nIf the feed water and the water for condensation are 6o\u00c2\u00b0\\nF., the water leaving the condenser at 120 F., the steam\\nbeing condensed from 21 2\u00c2\u00b0 F. we have Total heat in\\none pound of steam from water at 32 1,146 heat units.\\nThe water entering the boiler at 6o\u00c2\u00b0 instead of 32\\nthere is a gain of 60 32 28 the heat expended being\\n1 146 28 1 1 18 heat units. Subtracting the tempera-\\nture of the injection from that of the discharge water\\nwe have 120 60 6o\u00c2\u00b0 difference. Then 1 1 14 60\\n18.63 times as much water required to condense the\\nsteam as was evaporated to make it. In practice, 25 times\\nis the usual allowance.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0210.jp2"}, "211": {"fulltext": "FACTOR OF EVAPORATION. 205\\nQ. Is the latent heat of evaporation wholly lost in\\nsteam engineering practice\\nIn the case of non-condensing engines exhausting di-\\nrectly into the atmosphere, the latent heat contained in\\nthe steam is lost and this is the principal loss which oc-\\ncurs in the steam engine when considered as a heat engine.\\nIn a condensing engine a partial recovery of this loss is\\nhad by the condensation of the exhaust steam, and conse-\\nquent utilization of the pressure of the atmosphere upon\\nthe engine piston corresponding to the vacuum obtained,\\nfrom which must be deducted the quantity of work ex-\\npended in operating the air pump.\\nQ. What is meant by factor of evaporation?\\nA factor of evaporation is found by subtracting the\\ntemperature of the feed water above 32 F. from the total\\nheat in steam above 3 2\u00c2\u00b0 F. at its pressure above vacuum,\\nand dividing the remainder by 966, or the latent heat of\\nsteam at atmospheric pressure. It is commonly expressed\\nby the formula\\nFactor of evaporation ^z~ i n which H and h are\\nrespectively the total heat in steam of the average observed\\npressure, and in water of the average observed temperature\\nof the feed.\\nIf we suppose water to enter a boiler at yo\u00c2\u00b0 F. the steam\\npressure to be 100 pounds by gauge or 1 15 pounds abso-\\nlute, the factor of evaporation would be found thus\\nThe total heat in steam above 32 F. at 115 pounds ab-\\nsolute 1 185.\\nTemperature of feed, yo\u00c2\u00b0 32 38.\\nH85 38\\nFactor of evaporation 1.187.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0211.jp2"}, "212": {"fulltext": "206\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nA table of factors of evaporation is here given for steam\\npressures by gauge from 60 to 200 pounds per square inch,\\nvarying by 10 pounds, together with feed water tempera-\\ntures from 32 to 210 varying by io\u00c2\u00b0 F.\\nThe use of the table will be illustrated in the solution\\nof the following example\\nSuppose a boiler to evaporate 9 pounds of water per\\npound of coal, the feed water entering at 70 F., the steam\\npressure to be 100 pounds by gauge, what is the equiva-\\nlent evaporation from and at 212\\nThe factor of evaporation corresponding to the steam\\npressure and temperature of feed water shown in Table 26\\nis 1. 1 87, which multiplied by the pounds of water evapo-\\nrated will be: 1.1 87 X9 10.683 pounds of water per\\npound of coal.\\nTable 26. Factors of Evaporation.\\nif*\\nSteam Pressure by Gauge.\\nw 3q\\n60\\n70\\n80\\n90\\n1.225\\n100\\nno\\n120\\n130\\n140\\n1.234\\n150\\n160\\n1.237\\n170\\n180\\n190\\n1. 241\\n200\\n32\\n1. 216\\n1.220\\n1.222\\n1.227\\n1.229\\n1.231\\n1.232\\n1.236\\n1.239\\n1.240\\n1.243\\n.40\\n1.209\\n1. 212\\n1.214\\n1. 216\\n1. 219\\n1.220\\n1.222\\n1.224\\n1.226\\n1.227\\n1.229\\n1.230\\n1.232\\nx .233\\n1.234\\n50\\n1. 197\\n1. 201\\n1.204\\n1.206\\n1.208\\n1. 210\\n1. 212\\n1. 214\\n1. 215\\n1. 217\\n1. 218\\n1.220\\n1.221\\n1.225\\n1.224\\n60\\n1. 188\\n1. 191\\n1. 193\\n1. 196\\n1. 198\\n1.200\\n1.202\\n1.203\\n1.205\\n1.207\\n1.208\\n1. 210\\n1. 211\\n1. 212\\n1.214\\n70\\n1. 178\\n1. 180\\n1.183\\n1. 185\\n1. 187\\n1. 189\\n1. 191\\nI- 193\\n1. 194\\n1.196\\n1. 197\\n1. 199\\n1.200\\n1.202\\n1.203\\n80\\n1.167\\n1. 170\\ni- 173\\ni- 175\\n1. 177\\n1. 179\\n1. 181\\n1. 183\\n1. 184\\n1. 186\\n1. 187\\n1. 189\\n1. 190\\n1. 192\\n1 -193\\n90\\n57\\n1. 160\\n1. 162\\n1. 165\\n1. 167\\n1. 169\\n1. 170\\n1. 172\\n1. 174\\n1. 176\\n1. 177\\n1. 179\\n1. 180\\n1. 181\\n1. 183\\n100\\n1. 147\\n1. 150\\n1.152\\n54\\n1.156\\n1. 158\\n1.160\\n1. 162\\nt.164\\n1.165\\n1. 167\\n1.168\\n1. 170\\n1. 171\\n1. 172\\nno\\n1. 136\\ni- 139\\n1. 142\\n1. 144\\n1. 146\\n1. 148\\n1. 150\\n1. 152\\n53\\n1. 155\\n1. 156\\n1. 158\\n1 -159\\n1. 160\\n1.162\\n120\\n1.126\\n1. 129\\n1.131\\ni- 1.33\\n1.13b\\ni.i3\u00c2\u00bb\\n1. 140\\n1. 141\\nI.I43\\n45\\n1. 146\\n1. 147\\n1. 149\\n1-150\\n1. 151\\n130\\n1. 116\\n1. 118\\n1. 121\\n1. 123\\n1. 125\\n1. 127\\n1. 129\\n1. 130\\n1. 132\\n34\\n1. 136\\nI-I37\\n1. 138\\n1. 140\\n1. 141\\n140\\n1. 105\\n1. 108\\n1. 100\\n1. 113\\n1,115\\n1.117\\n1.119\\n1.120\\n1. 122\\n1. 124\\n1. 125\\n1. 127\\nj. 128\\n1. 129\\n1. 131\\n150\\n1.095\\n1.098\\n1. 100\\n1. 102\\n1. 104\\n1. 106\\n1.108\\n1. no\\n1. in\\n1.113\\n1. 115\\n1. 116\\nI.118\\n1. 119\\n1. 120\\n160\\n1.084\\n1.087\\n1.090\\n1.092\\n1.094\\n1.096\\n1.098\\n1. 100\\nI.IOI\\n1. 103\\n1. 104\\n1. 106\\nJ. 107\\n1.108\\n1. no\\n170\\n1.074\\n1.077\\n1.079\\n1.081\\n1.083\\n1.085\\n1.087\\n1.089\\n1. 091\\n1.092\\n1.094\\n1.095\\nI.097\\n1.098\\n1.099\\n180\\n1.063\\n1.066\\n1.069\\n1. 071\\n1-073\\n1.075\\n1.077\\n1.079\\n1.080\\n1.082\\n1.083\\n1.085\\n1.086\\n1.088\\n1.089\\n190\\ni-\u00c2\u00b053\\n1.056\\n1.058\\n1.060\\n1.063\\n1.065\\n1.066\\n1.068\\n1.070\\n1.071\\n1-073\\n1.074\\n1.076\\n1.077\\n1.078\\n200\\n1.043\\n1.045\\ni.o 4 8\\n1.050\\n1.052\\n1.054\\n1.056\\n1.058\\n1.059\\n1. 061\\n1.063\\n1.064\\n1.065\\n1.067\\n1.068\\n210\\n1.032\\n1-035\\n1.037\\n1.040\\n1.042\\n1.044\\n1.046\\n1.047\\n1.049\\n1.051\\n1.052\\n1-053\\ni-\u00c2\u00b055\\n1.056\\n!-057\\nFactors of equivalent evaporation show the proportionate\\ncost in heat or fuel of producing steam at any given press-\\nure as compared with atmospheric pressure. To ascer-", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0212.jp2"}, "213": {"fulltext": "TOTAL HEAT IN STEAM.\\n207\\ntain the equivalent evaporation at any pressure, multiply\\nthe given evaporation by the factor of its pressure, and di-\\nvide the product by the factor of the desired pressure.\\nEach degree of difference in temperature of feed water\\nmakes a difference of .00104 in the amount of evaporation.\\nHence to ascertain the equivalent evaporation from any\\nother temperature of feed than 2 1 2\u00c2\u00b0, add to the factor given\\nas many times .00104 as the temperature of feed water in\\ndegrees below 2 1 2\u00c2\u00b0. For other pressures than those given\\nit will be practically correct to take the proportion of the\\ndifference between the nearest pressures in Table 27,\\nadapted from table published by Babcock Wilcox Com-\\npany.\\nTable 27. Factor of Equivalent Evaporation at 212 F.\\nTotal pressure above\\nvacuum in pounds per\\nsquare inch.\\n15\\n20\\n25\\n30\\n35\\n40\\n45\\n50\\n55\\n60\\n65\\n70\\n75\\nSo\\n85\\nFactor\\nof equivalent\\nevaporation at\\nI.OOO3\\n1. 0051\\nI.OO99\\nI. OI29\\n1. 0157\\nI. Ol82\\nI.0205\\n1.0225\\nI.0245\\nI.0263\\nI.O280\\nI.O295\\nI.O309\\nI.0323\\nI.0337\\nTotal pressure above\\n/acuum in pounds per\\nsquare inch.\\n90\\n95\\n100\\n105\\nno\\n5\\n120\\n125\\n130\\n140\\n150\\n160\\n170\\n180\\nFactor\\nof equivalent\\nevaporation at\\nI.O350\\nI.O362\\n1.0374\\nI.O385\\nI.0396\\nI.O406\\nI. O416\\nI.O426\\nI.0435\\n1.0453\\nI.O470\\nI.O486\\nI.0502\\n1. 0517\\nQ. What is meant by total heat in steam\\nThe total heat in steam includes the sensible tempera-\\nture of the steam above 3 2\u00c2\u00b0, plus the latent heat of evapo-\\nration corresponding to the pressure under which the steam\\nis generated.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0213.jp2"}, "214": {"fulltext": "208\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nTable 28.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Properties of Saturated Steam, Pressure, Tempera-\\nture, Volume and Density. (Haswell s Table.\\nPressure\\nPressure\\nTem-\\nTotal heat\\nVolume\\nDensity,\\nper\\nsquare inch,\\npounds.\\nin mercury,\\ninches.\\nperature,\\ndegrees.\\nfrom water at\\n32\u00c2\u00b0.\\nof one pound,\\ncubic feet.\\nor weight of\\none cubic foot,\\npounds.\\nI\\n2.04\\nI02. 1\\nIII2.5\\n330.36\\n.003\\n5\\nI0.I8\\n162.3\\nH30.9\\n72.66\\n.OI38\\n10\\n20.36\\n193-3\\n1 140. 3\\n37.84\\n.0264\\n14.7\\n29.92\\n212\\nII46.I\\n26.36\\n.03802\\n20\\n40.72\\n228\\nII50.9\\n19.72\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a20507\\n25\\n50.9\\n24O.I\\nII54.6\\n15-99\\n.0625\\n30\\n6I.08\\n25O.4\\nII57.8\\n13.46\\n.0743\\n35\\n71.26\\n259-3\\n1 160. 5\\nH.65\\n.0858\\n40\\n81.43\\n267.3\\n1162.9\\nIO.27\\n.0974\\n45\\n9I.61\\n274-4\\n1165.1\\n9.18\\n.IO89\\n50\\n101.8\\n281\\n1167.1\\n8.31\\n.1202\\n55\\nin. 98\\n287.1\\n1169\\n7.61\\n.1314\\n60\\n122.16\\n292.7\\n1170.7\\n7.0I\\n.1425\\n65\\n132.34\\n298\\n1172.3\\n6.49\\n.1538\\n70\\n142.52\\n302.9\\n1173.8\\n6.07\\n.1648\\n75\\n152.69\\n307.5\\n1175.2\\n5.68\\n-1759\\n80\\n162.87\\n312\\n1176.5\\n5-35\\n.1869\\n85\\n173.05\\n316. 1\\n1177.9\\n5.05\\n.I98\\n90\\n183.23\\n320.2\\n1179.1\\n4-79\\n.2089\\n95\\nI93-4I\\n324.1\\n1180.3\\n4.55\\n.2198\\n100\\n203.59\\n327.9\\n1181.4\\n4-33\\n.2307\\n105\\n213.77\\n331-3\\nT182.4\\n4.14\\n.2414\\n110\\n223.95\\n334-6\\n1183.5\\n3-97\\n.2521\\n115\\n234-13\\n338\\n1184.5\\n3.8\\n.2628\\n120\\n244.31\\n34i. 1\\n1185:4\\n3.65\\n.2738\\n125\\n254.49\\n344-2\\n1186.4\\n3.5i\\n.2845\\n130\\n264.67\\n347-2\\n1187.3\\n3.38\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a22955\\n135\\n274.85\\n350.1\\n1188.2\\n3.27\\n.306\\n140\\n285.03\\n352.9\\n1189\\n3.16\\n.3162\\n145\\n295.21\\n355-6\\n1189.9\\n3.06\\n.3273\\n149\\n303.35\\n357-8\\n1 190. 5\\n2.98\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a23357\\n150\\n305.39\\n358.3\\n1 190. 7\\n2.96\\n3377\\n155\\n315.57\\n361\\nngi-5\\n2.87\\n.3484\\n160\\n325.75\\n363-4\\n1192.2\\n2.79\\n359\\n165\\n335-93\\n366\\n1192.9\\n2.71\\n.3695\\n170\\n346.11\\n368.2\\nII93-7\\n2.63\\n.3798\\n175\\n356.29\\n370.8\\nII94-4\\n2.56\\n.3899\\n180\\n366.47\\n372.9\\n1195.1\\n2.49\\n.4009\\n185\\n376.65\\n375-3\\n1195.8\\n2.43\\n.4117\\n190\\n386.83\\n377-5\\n1196.5\\n2.37\\n.4222\\n195\\n397.01\\n379-7\\n1197.2\\n2.31\\n.4327\\n200\\n407.19\\n381.7\\n1197.8\\n2.26\\n.4431", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0214.jp2"}, "215": {"fulltext": "TOTAL HEAT IN STEAM. 2(X)\\nAt atmospheric pressure we have 21 2\u00c2\u00b0 F., the sensible\\ntemperature of steam 966 heat units, the latent heat of\\nevaporation. Then\\n212 32 180\\nLatent heat 966\\nTotal heat in one pound of steam 1146 heat units.\\nThe amount of heat absorbed in vaporization, or rendered\\nlatent by each pound of water in its conversion into steam,\\nvaries according to the pressure at which the steam is gen-\\nerated, being greatest at atmospheric pressure and de-\\ncreasing as the steam pressure increases. For example\\nAt 100 pounds gauge pressure or 115 pounds absolute\\nwe have a corresponding temperature of 338 F. The\\nlatent heat of vaporization at this temperature and pressure\\nis 876 units of heat per pound of water evaporated. We\\nhave then\\nTemperature of the steam 338 32 306\\nLatent heat of evaporization 876\\nTotal heat in steam 11 82 British thermal units.\\nA result which varies slightly from that given in Table\\n28. As the tabular numbers are those obtained by direct\\nexperiment, they are to be followed in all cases.\\nQ. What is the effect of the withdrawal of heat from\\nsteam\\nWhen heat is withdrawn from steam it condenses to\\nform water, and the same quantity of heat necessary to\\nproduce the steam reappears in the water used to condense\\nthe steam, and bring it back to the original temperature\\nof the feed water. This property is made use of in steam\\nheating, where steam of very low pressure is made to give\\nup its heat through the sides of the radiating coils, the\\n14", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0215.jp2"}, "216": {"fulltext": "210 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nwater of condensation returning to the boiler at a temper-\\nature approximating the boiling point, depending some-\\nwhat on the details of the piping.\\nQ. What is meant by evaporation per pound of com-\\nbustible\\nEvaporation per pound of combustible is the net evapo-\\nration per pound of coal after making due allowance for\\nthe ashes and the unburnt coal falling through the grates.\\nSuppose 1,000 pounds of coal be fed to the furnace and\\nevaporated 8,500 pounds of water, this would be an evapo-\\nration of 8.5 pounds of water per pound of coal. If 130\\npounds of ashes remain after the combustion of the coal,\\nwe have 1,000 1 30 870 pounds of combustible, evapo-\\nrating 8, 500 pounds of water. The evaporation would\\nthen be: 8,500 -f- 870 9.77 pounds of water per pound\\nof combustible.\\nQ. How may water evaporated per pound of coal be con-\\nverted into equivalent evaporation from and at 212 F.\\nper pound of combustible\\nTaking a case from actual practice in which Steam\\npressure by gauge, 95 pounds; feed water entering boiler,\\n138 F. bituminous coal; coal fed to the furnace deduct-\\ning moisture, 6,817 pounds; ashes, 859 pounds; total\\ncombustible, 5,958 pounds; water evaporated per pound\\nof coal, 9.04 pounds water evaporated per pound of com-\\nbustible, 10.34 pounds.\\nExample 1. What is the equivalent evaporation from\\nand at 21 2\u00c2\u00b0 per pound of coal?\\nNinety-five pounds gauge pressure =110 pounds abso-\\nlute.\\nHeat units in steam no pounds absolute pressure from\\nwater at 32 1 183.5 see Table 28).", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0216.jp2"}, "217": {"fulltext": "EQUIVALENT EVAPORATION. 2 I I\\nThe water entering the boiler at 138 instead of 32\\nthere is a gain of 138 32 106\\nThen 1 183. 5 106 1077. 5 units of heat.\\nHeat units in steam 1077.5\\nLatent heat of evap. 966 5 P\\n9.04 X 1 -II 5 10.08 pounds of water evaporated from\\nand at 21 2\u00c2\u00b0 per pound of coal.\\nExample 2. What is the equivalent evaporation from\\nand at 21 2\u00c2\u00b0 per pound of combustible?\\nProceed as above to obtain a multiplier, then the prod-\\nuct of the water evaporated per pound of combustible into\\nthe multiplier will be the answer, thus 10. 34 X 1. 1 1 5\\n11.54 pounds of water evaporated from and at 21 2\u00c2\u00b0 per\\npound of combustible.\\nQ. What is meant by an equivalent evaporation from\\nand at 212 F.?\\nEvaporation from and at 21 2\u00c2\u00b0 F. takes into account the\\nlatent heat of evaporation. The rise in temperature of\\nthe feed water in the boiler proceeds regularly with each\\nincrement of heat received by it, until the temperature\\n212 is reached, at which point the water continues to\\nreceive heat, but records no rise in temperature until 966\\nunits of heat have been absorbed per pound of water, after\\nwhich the thermometer begins to record higher tempera-\\ntures corresponding to the pressure of steam.\\nIn making computations from and at 21 2\u00c2\u00b0 the process\\nis divided into three parts\\n1. Heat required to bring feed water up to 212\\n2. Heat required to convert one pound of water at 21 2\u00c2\u00b0\\ninto steam at 21 2\u00c2\u00b0 966 units.\\n3. Heat in steam at 21 2\u00c2\u00b0 F., or 1,146 units, to that\\ncorresponding to the steam pressure.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0217.jp2"}, "218": {"fulltext": "212 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nAs water freezes at 32 F. this temperature is always\\nto be deducted from the temperature of the feed.\\nThe equivalent evaporation from and at 21 2\u00c2\u00b0 is found\\nby dividing the total heat in the steam by 966, which gives\\na multiplier by which the weight of water actually evapo-\\nrated per pound of coal is to be multiplied. For example\\nA boiler evaporates S}4 pounds of water per pound of\\ncoal from feed water at 75 F., the steam pressure being\\n100 pounds by gauge or 115 pounds absolute. What is\\nthe equivalent evaporation from and at 21 2\u00c2\u00b0 F.\\nReferring to Table 28 we find the total heat required\\nto generate one pound of steam from water at 32 under\\na pressure of 115 pounds absolute is 1 184.5 neat units.\\nThe water entering the boiler at 75 instead of 3 2\u00c2\u00b0, there\\nis a gain of 75 32 43 Then: 1 184.5 43 II 4 I -5\\n1184.5\\nunits of heat; 1. 182, the multiplier 8.5 x 1.182\\n10.05 pounds, the equivalent evaporation from and at\\n212 at atmospheric pressure.\\nQ. How may the equivalent evaporation from and at\\n212 be estimated, when only the total heat of combustion\\nof the fuel is known?\\nWhen the total heat of combustion of one pound of the\\ncombustible is known, the equivalent evaporation from and\\nat 212 may be determined by dividing the number of\\nheat units required to convert water at 21 2\u00c2\u00b0 into steam at\\natmospheric pressure.\\nExample Suppose a bituminous coal to have devel-\\noped by calorimeter test 13,200 heat units per pound,\\nwhat would be the equivalent evaporation from and at\\n1 3 200\\n212 13.67 pounds of water, at atmos-\\npheric pressure.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0218.jp2"}, "219": {"fulltext": "AVAILABLE HEAT OF COMBUSTION. 213\\nQ. What is the object in reducing evaporative results\\nto an equivalent evaporation from and at 212 at atmos-\\npheric pressure\\nEquivalent evaporation from and at 21 2\u00c2\u00b0 F. at atmos-\\npheric pressure, has been accepted by engineers as being\\nat once the readiest, most convenient, and most intelligible\\nbasis yet suggested for estimating the comparative evaporat-\\ning power of different kinds of fuel. It represents the\\nweight of water which would have been evaporated by each\\npound of fuel had the water been both supplied and evap-\\norated at the boiling point corresponding to the mean at-\\nmospheric pressure.\\nQ. What is the ordinary rate of evaporation per pound\\nof small anthracite coal when burnt in horizontal tubular\\nboiler furnaces\\nThe ordinary rate of evaporation per pound of small an-\\nthracite coal, from feed water at 6o\u00c2\u00b0 F., under 80 pounds\\ngauge pressure, say 324 F., is placed by Hoadley as be-\\ning in general below 8 pounds. Indeed, 8 pounds of dry\\nsteam is a fair result; 8.25 is a good result; 8.5 pounds\\nvery good and 9 pounds about the best attainable, being\\nrather over 10,000 thermal units, which corresponds to 69\\nper cent of the full calorific power of the carbon, and is\\nfor coal consisting of 83.33 P er cent oi carbon a high re-\\nsult.\\nQ. What is the available heat of combustion?\\nThe available heat of combustion of one pound of any\\nfuel is that part of the total heat of combustion which is\\ncommunicated to the body, to heat which the fuel is\\nburnt the water in a steam boiler, for example. The\\ntheoretical heat of any fuel is easily determined, its proxi-\\nmate or elementary analysis being known; but the actual", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0219.jp2"}, "220": {"fulltext": "214 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\navailable heat can be determined only by a series of more\\nor less elaborate experiments or trials in actual use.\\nThe disposition of the heat generated in the furnace of\\na steam boiler of the ordinary horizontal tubular form set\\nin brickwork, and provided with a special air-heating ar-\\nrangement which lowered the temperature of the flue gases\\nto about 2 1 3 F., and raised that of the air supplied to the\\nfurnace about 300 F. was ascertained by Hoadley to be\\nas follows\\nPer cent.\\nWaste in flue gases including evaporation of moisture in\\ncoal and heating vapor in air when these losses are not\\nseparately given 5.04\\nEvaporating moisture in coal 1.55\\nHeating vapor in air 18\\nImperfect combustion 1.44\\nRadiation and heat not otherwise accounted for 4.00\\nHeating and evaporation of water 87.79\\nThe high efficiency here given is due in great part to\\nthe recovery of heat from the escaping gases and the pre-\\nheating of air entering the furnace, as well as the unusual\\ncare and skill exercised during the test. These results\\nare in percentages of the total amount of heat accounted\\nfor in heating and evaporating water in the boiler, and\\nare fully one-third greater than obtains in good ordinary\\npractice.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0220.jp2"}, "221": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER X.\\nSTATIONARY FURNACE DETAILS.\\nQ. What is the efficiency of a furnace\\nThe efficiency of a furnace for a given sort of fuel is\\nthe proportion which the available heat bears to the total\\nheat generated in the furnace. By furnace is meant not\\nmerely the chamber in which the combustion takes place,\\nbut the whole apparatus for burning the fuel and transfer-\\nring heat to the body to be heated, including ash pit, com-\\nbustion chamber, flues, and chimney.\\nQ. What losses occur in a furnace by which its effi-\\nciency is lowered?\\nThe heat generated in a furnace can never be wholly\\nutilized. Heat, like water or steam, must flow from a\\nhigher to a lower level in order to become available, and\\nin any such transfer there are always losses, among which\\noccur\\nLoss due to radiation of heat from the sides of the fur-\\nnace.\\nLoss occasioned by difference of temperature between\\nthe escaping gases and that of the atmosphere necessary\\nto produce natural draught.\\nLoss by the waste of unburned fuel falling through\\ninto the ash pit.\\nLoss by imperfect combustion that is, by the forma-\\ntion of carbonic oxide instead of carbonic-acid gas.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0221.jp2"}, "222": {"fulltext": "2l6\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nLoss by excess of air passing through the furnace, doing\\nno useful work.\\nQ. How is the efficiency of a steam boiler measured?\\nIn steam boilers\\nthe efficiency of the\\nfurnace is measured\\nby the pounds of\\nwater evaporated\\nper pound of coal\\nburned on the grate,\\nunder known con-\\nditions. The effi-\\nciency is expressed\\nin a percentage in-\\ndicating how nearly\\nthe actual perform-\\nance attains to the\\ntheoretical. If the\\nlatter be expressed\\nby ioo, the effici-\\nency will always be\\na less number.\\nSuppose a coal is\\nknown to contain\\n13,100 heat units\\nby calorimeter test,\\nthe equivalent evap-\\noration from and\\nat 212 F. would\\nbe 13,100 -f- 966\\n13.56 pounds of\\nwater per pound of", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0222.jp2"}, "223": {"fulltext": "FURNACE DIMENSIONS.\\n217\\ncoal. By actual test 9.25 pounds of water are evaporated\\nper pound of coal. We then have\\nT^rc 9-25 X 100\\nEfficiency J 68.22 per cent.\\n13.56\\nThe loss of heat in this case amounts to 31.78 per cent\\nof the total heat generated in the furnace. This loss,\\nPLAN AT A B\\nHALF SECTION AND ELEVATIONTOF FRONT.\\nFig. 19.\\nwhich is largely unavoidable, may be accounted for as on\\npage 215.\\nGood boilers, properly set and well managed, will average\\nnearly the same efficiency, approximating 65 per cent.\\nQ. What are the ordinary furnace dimensions for a\\nhorizontal tubular boiler\\nThere are no standard dimensions for boiler settings or", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0223.jp2"}, "224": {"fulltext": "218\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0224.jp2"}, "225": {"fulltext": "FURNACE DIMENSIONS.\\n219\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a23UOJJ JO ippTjW\\nU\\nfa\\nO\\n7\\nO\\nin\\nO\\n1\\nin\\nO\\nvO\\n1\\nCO\\n1\\nCO\\n4 uojj jo iqSpH\\nc\\n0\\nCO\\n00\\nO\\n1\\nCI\\n1\\nO\\nCO\\n1\\n7\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2apis ye s\\\\\\\\-eA\\\\ pun\\njajioq uaaMjaq aandg\\ns\\ng\\n01\\nCI\\nCI\\nM\\nCI\\nCI\\nN\\nN\\nCI\\ncq cm\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2JIBM pUB iajIOq\\nuaaMjaq jb3j ui ao^dg\\nH\\n.G*\\na\\nCM\\n(N\\nO\\nCJ\\nCI\\nCI\\nCI\\nCI\\nCO\\nCI\\nCO\\nco co\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2jajioq jo apis japun\\n05 \\\\\\\\va\\\\ aSpuq jo doj^\\nH\\nJ3\\ng\\nc\\nO\\nO\\nO\\nCM\\nM\\nCI\\n-r-\\n-t\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2atuop uo aSuBg\\njo doj oj jooy jo doj,\\nc\\nfa\\nH\\na*\\nA\\n1\\nO\\nCM\\n1\\nO\\nCI\\nCO\\nCM\\nco\\n1\\n1\\n\\\\reai ye J 3I! o q jo apis\\njapun oj Jo oy jo doj,\\nc\\nCI\\nin\\nCI\\nin\\nin\\nin\\nin\\nin\\nO\\nCI\\nCO\\nco co\\n4UOJJ ye jajioq jo apis\\naapun 0} jooy jo doj.\\nM\\na\\nin\\nCO\\nin\\nco\\nXT}\\n10\\nCO\\nin\\ns\\nCO\\n1-\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2aoBiunj jo qjpiAV\\nH\\nO\\na\\nO\\nco\\nCI\\nCO\\nO\\nun\\nin\\nCI\\n00 ^r\\nt^ CO\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2aoBiunj jo q^Sua^\\na\\nCI\\nCO\\nCO\\n-t-\\nCO\\nin\\nO\\nO\\nCI\\nCO Tf\\n1^ co\\nuajioq jo apis\\njapun 01 sajBjS jo doj.\\nK\\n.G\\nG\\nO\\nCI\\nCM\\nvO\\nCI\\nCO\\nCM\\nO\\nCO\\nCO\\nen\\nco co\\n\\\\reaj ye saiBiS\\njo doj 0} auq jooj^j\\nOf\\nJ2\\nG\\nco m in\\nN N\\nCO\\nCI\\nCO\\nCI\\nCO\\nCI\\nCO\\nCI\\nCO\\nCI\\nCO\\nM CM\\nco co\\n*5uojj ye saiBjS\\njo doj 01 au;i Jocijj\\nh\\nJ3\\na\\nin\\nCI\\nCI\\nCI\\nen\\nCO\\nCO\\nCO\\nCO\\nco\\n-t-\\nCO\\n^1- rj-\\nco co\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2doj ye\\n]p3A\\\\ aSpijq jo ssaujpiq j,\\nc\\nl-O\\nin\\nin\\nin\\nin\\nin\\nin\\nin\\nin\\nin in\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2uioiioq ye\\njp3AV aSpuq jo ssau^oiq j^\\nfc\\nJ3\\na\\nCO\\nco\\nvO\\nCO\\nCO\\nCO\\nco\\nO\\n-t-\\n-1-\\nO\\nO O\\n3- ^f\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2joou jo doi\\nuiojj sipsAY jo jqgiajj\\nS\\n1\\n1\\nCO\\nCO\\nco\\nCO\\nCO\\n1\\nO\\n2 I\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2jp3 J3AO SftEM. JO qipjAi\\nri\\nc\\nfa\\n00\\n1\\nCI\\n-1-\\nCO\\n1\\nO\\nV\\nCI\\nCO\\n-1-\\nO\\n^c\\nA J.\\nM M\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2uiojioq ye\\n\\\\\\\\eA\\\\ iuojj jo ssaujpiqj.\\nh\\n.d\\nu\\nc\\n0^00 m m m co m r^ r^ 1^\\nMMMCMdMNCMCMCMN\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0s\\\\\\\\eM.\\napis apisui jo ssampiqx\\nG\\nCI\\nN\\nCI\\nCI\\nCI\\nCI\\nO\\nO O\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0s^bay apis\\napisjno jo ssaujpiqj,\\nfe\\nJ3\\nG\\nCO\\nco\\nCO\\nCO\\nco\\nco\\nCO\\nCO\\nCO\\nco co\\nJ-^aaqs mvysno jo qxSuaq\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2G*\\nc\\nH\\nCI\\nCM\\n-r\\n-r\\n-t\\nr^\\nCO\\nCO O\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2japoq jo aa;auiBiQ\\nG\\nCO\\nCI\\n-r\\n-c*\\nco\\n-t-\\nO\\nin\\n-t-\\nITi\\nCM\\nCO Tt\\nr* co", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0225.jp2"}, "226": {"fulltext": "220 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nfurnaces the practice varies as between East and West,\\nand between anthracite and bituminous fuels. A very-\\ngood design is shown in Fig. 20 in sectional elevation.\\nThis design is by the Bigelow Company, New Haven,\\nConn. A plan is shown in Fig. 1 8 and a half front eleva-\\ntion and half section is shown in Fig. 19.\\nThe bottom of the front should set up 5 inches (2\\nbricks) above the floor level. Front edge of moulding on\\nbottom of front should set back 2 inches from front edge\\nof brick work. Both of these details are shown in Fig.\\n20. All measurements given in Table 26 are based on\\nFig. 21.\\nthe front being set as stated above. Ash pits under the\\ngrates should slope down from bottom of ash door to floor\\nlevel. The front wing brackets on the boiler should rest\\ndirectly on the wall plates so that all the expansion will\\ngo to the rear, provision being made for this longitudinal\\nmovement by rollers placed between the rear wing brack-\\nets and the wall plate underneath.\\nThe inside walls in this design taper, beginning at the\\ntop of the grates and extending to a line 4 inches under\\nthe bracket, giving a space of 2 inches between the side\\nof boiler and inside of wall, as shown at Z in Fig. 19.\\nThe inside wall should close in to the boiler on a line 2\\\\\\ninches (1 brick) under the brackets. The outside and in-\\nside walls have a 2- inch air space between them. Head-\\ners should be run from wall to wall, say, every 18 inches,\\nbut not tied together. Fire brick in the furnace should\\nbe laid with a course of headers every five or six courses,", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0226.jp2"}, "227": {"fulltext": "RENTS BOILER SETTING. 22 1\\nso that portions of the wall can be easily taken out and\\nrepaired. Boilers should be covered on top with some\\nnon-conducting material if with a brick arch, an air\\nspace of 2 inches should be left between the boiler and\\nthe brick work. The arch tee bars for back connection\\nshould be lined with fire brick laid endwise before the\\nbars are placed in position, as in Fig. 21.\\nQ. What are the details of construction of Kent s fur-\\nnace for steam boilers\\nThis design of furnace, shown in longitudinal sectional\\nelevation in Fig. 22, is intended especially for furnaces\\nwhich use bituminous coal, lignite, peat, tan bark, or other\\nfuel which contains large quantities of tarry or gaseous\\nmatter, and which in burning distils a large amount of\\ncombustible gases.\\nThe fire chamber, built of brick, extends out in front of\\nthe boiler; in it the fuel is burned, either on the ordinary\\ngrate bars, or by any one of the numerous stokers now in\\nthe market. A bridge wall is provided at the end of the\\ngrates, over which the gaseous products of combustion pass\\non their way to the heating surfaces of the boiler. Two\\nwing walls are built parallel to and at some distance in the\\nrear of the bridge wall, as shown in Fig. 23. A gas-mix-\\ning chamber is thus formed between the bridge and wing\\nwalls. The combustion chamber is the next into which\\nthe gases travel from the passage between the wing walls.\\nIn this chamber are several piers of fire brick projecting\\nin front of the wall at the rear of the combustion chamber.\\nThe remaining details of the setting are those of the Bab-\\ncock and Wilcox boiler, and readily understood.\\nIn the operation of this furnace, with ordinary grates\\nand with bituminous coal or other gaseous fuel, the alter-", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0227.jp2"}, "228": {"fulltext": "222\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0228.jp2"}, "229": {"fulltext": "KENT S BOILER SETTING.\\n223\\nnate method of feeding coal is preferred that is, the fresh\\ncoal is spread alternately on the right and left sides of\\nthe grate, an interval of some minutes of time elapsing\\nbetween the feeding\\non the right and on\\nthe left side. Immedi-\\nately after fresh coal\\nis put on one side of\\nthe furnace dense\\nsmoky gases arise\\nfrom it, which in the\\nordinary boiler setting\\nwould pass out of the\\nchimney unburned,\\nsince in the ordinary\\nsetting there is no\\nmeans provided for\\nmixing with them an\\nabundant supply of\\nhighly heated air; but\\nin this furnace such\\nair is supplied through\\nthe bed of partially\\nburned and very hot\\ncoal and coke on the\\nother side of the\\ngrate. The two cur-\\nrents, one of cool\\nsmoky gas arising\\nfrom the fresh coal on\\none side of the grate\\nand the other of clear\\nand very hot gas con-\\nII\\nm]\\nbBaWVHO\\n3NIXIW SVO\\nH\\nr H\\nH\\n4 v l oy^^^", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0229.jp2"}, "230": {"fulltext": "224 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\ntaining a large excess of air, pass together over the bridge\\nwall and are compelled by the wing walls to change\\ntheir direction and to mix together in the gas-mixing\\nchamber and in the contracted vertical passage between\\nthe wing walls. The combustion of the unburned gas\\nis further rendered more certain and complete by passing\\nthrough the large combustion chamber, whose walls, to-\\ngether with the fire-brick piers, are in a highly heated\\nstate and perform the functions of a regenerative furnace\\nthat is, they absorb heat from the burned gases at such\\ntimes as they are most intensely heated, and radiate or\\ngive up heat at such times as the gases are not so hot, as\\nduring the first minute after feeding fresh coal, when\\nthere is a great excess of freshly distilled and rather cool\\ngases.\\nBy this means complete combustion of the smoky gases\\nis secured in the combustion chamber when reasonable\\ncare is used by the fireman, and the resulting thoroughly\\nburned products of combustion are then in the right con-\\ndition to be allowed to traverse the gas passages through\\nthe tubes and give up their heat to the boiler.\\nQ. What are the details of construction of the O Brien\\nand Pickles down-draft furnace\\nA longitudinal section of this furnace is shown in Fig.\\n24. It consists, in common with down-draft furnaces\\ngenerally, of two grates, an upper and a lower one the\\nraw fuel being fed to the upper grate where it burns,\\nthe draft passing in through openings in the upper fire\\ndoor, down through the fuel on the upper grate, and under\\nthe inner manifold shown immediately over the bridge\\nwall. This manifold has communication with the boiler\\nby the elbow and connections clearly shown. On top of", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0230.jp2"}, "231": {"fulltext": "DOWN-DRAFT FURNACE.\\n225\\nthe inner manifold is a fire-brick partition closing the\\nspace between it and the boiler, and compelling the\\ndraft to flow downward.\\nThe front manifold is placed directly under the front\\nend of the boiler, and between it and the inner manifold\\nBORMA.r k CO., EN5I\\nFig. 24.\\nare tubular grates, through which water circulates from\\none manifold to the other.\\nAny fuel that falls through the upper grate is caught\\nby the lower one, upon which it burns, the draft pass\\ning in through the lower or ash-pit door, up through\\nthe grate and beneath the inner manifold. The grate\\nbars for the lower series are of the ordinary pattern,\\nthe spaces being much finer than obtain in the upper\\nseries.\\ni5", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0231.jp2"}, "232": {"fulltext": "226\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nQ. What is the construction and operation of the Bab-\\ncock and Wilcox automatic stoker?\\nThis is an endless-chain grate stoker. It is shown in\\nperspective in Fig. 25, wholly withdrawn from the furnace.\\nThe grate is made up of a series of short cast-iron bars\\nlinked together and engaging sprockets at the front and\\nrear, by the movement of which the upper portion of the\\ngrate is carried constantly forward. The coal is fed\\nFig.\\nthrough a hopper of the full width of the grate, and the\\ndepth of the layer is regulated by a door which can be\\nlifted or lowered. The coal is ignited near the front and\\nis carried slowly backward, the speed of the grate being\\nadjusted so that the time of travel is sufficient for the\\ncomplete combustion of the fuel, the ash and refuse being\\ncarried over at the back end and falling into the ash pit.\\nA fire-brick arch at the front end of the furnace facilitates\\nthe coking of the fresh fuel as it enters, and the combus-", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0232.jp2"}, "233": {"fulltext": "RONEY S MECHANICAL STOKER.\\n227\\ntion of the volatile gases evolved. The apparatus as a\\nwhole is mounted on wheels running on rails placed on the\\nsides of the ash pit, and can be drawn out clear of the\\nboiler for inspection or repairs, or to give room when nec-\\nessary to replace furnace linings.\\nQ. What is the construction and operation of the Roney\\nmechanical stoker\\nThis stoker is shown in connection with a horizontal\\ntubular boiler setting in Fig. 26 and in detail in Fig. 27.\\nFig. 26.\\nIt consists of a hopper for receiving the coal, a set of\\nrocking stepped grate bars, inclined at an angle of 37\\nfrom the horizontal, and a dumping grate at the bottom of\\nthe incline for receiving and discharging the ash and\\nclinker.\\nThe coal is fed on to the inclined grates from the hop-\\nper by a reciprocating pusher, which is actuated by the\\nagitator and agitator sector. The grate bars rock through", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0233.jp2"}, "234": {"fulltext": "228\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nan arc of 30 assuming alternately the stepped and the\\ninclined position. They receive their motion from the\\nrocker bar and connecting rod, and these, with the pusher,\\nare actuated by the agitator, which receives its motion\\nthrough the eccentric from a shaft attached to the stoker\\nfront under the hopper. The range of motion of the\\nBOILER FRONT\\nTILE-CLAMP\\n-COKING-ARCH\\nAGITATOR\\nFEED-WHEEL\\nAG1TRTOR SECTOR\\nSHEATH-NUT\\nSHEATH\\nLOCK-NUTS\\nFig. 27.\\npusher is regulated by the feed wheel from no stroke to\\nfull stroke, and the amount of coal pushed into the fur-\\nnace adjusted, according to the demand for steam. The\\nmotion of the grate bars is similarly regulated and con-\\ntrolled by the position of the sheath-nut and lock-nuts on\\nthe connecting rod. Each grate bar is composed of two\\np^rts: a vertical web provided with trunnions at each\\nend, which rest in seats in the side bearers, and a fuel", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0234.jp2"}, "235": {"fulltext": "WILKINSON S MECHANICAL STOKER.\\n229\\nplate ribbed on its under side, which bolts to the web.\\nThese fuel plates carry the bed of burning coal, and be-\\ning wearing parts are made detachable to facilitate repairs.\\nThe webs are perforated with longitudinal slots, so placed\\nthat the condition of the fire can be seen at all times with-\\nout opening the doors and free access had to all parts of\\nthe grate to assist, when necessary, the removal of clinker.\\nFor bituminous coal a coking arch of fire brick is sprung\\nacross the furnace, covering the upper part of the grate\\nand forming a reverberatory furnace and gas producer,\\nwhose action is to coke the fresh fuel as it enters and re-\\nlease its gases. These, mingling with the heated air sup-\\nplied in small streams through the perforated tile above\\nthe dead plate, are quickly burned in the large combustion\\nchamber above the bed of incandescent coke on the lower\\npart of the grate.\\nQ. What is the construction of the Wilkinson auto-\\nmatic stoker\\nThree views are shown of this stoker, Fig. 28 being a\\nfront view, Fig. 29 the furnace view, Fig. 30 a sectional\\nFig. 28.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0235.jp2"}, "236": {"fulltext": "230\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nelevation, to which has been added a rtsumt of the process\\nof combustion. The grate bars are hollow, as shown in\\nFig. 29.\\nFig. 30. They are placed side by side and inclined toward\\nthe bottom of the furnace at an angle suited to the repose\\nSTEAM\\nOXYGEN\\nHYDROGEN\\nALL BURN AS GAS\\ny\\nAIR 6y cl L s\\nOXYGEN \u00c2\u00b0*OVX\\nnitrogen\\nonlyV b combustible\\nCOMPOSITION OF WATER GAS\\ncarbonic oxide, hydrogen\\nFig. 30.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0236.jp2"}, "237": {"fulltext": "AYRES AND RANGER STOKER. 23 1\\nof the fuel, and they are so constructed as to admit of suffi-\\ncient air through the fire to the combustion chamber.\\nThe lower ends of these grates slide upon and are sup-\\nported by a cast-iron box. This box has finger grates,\\nabout 1 5 inches long, secured to its rear face. Through-\\nout the inclined length of each grate is cast a succession\\nof steps. Through the rise of each step a vent of about\\nY\u00c2\u00b1 X 3 inches is provided to admit air through the fire to\\nthe combustion chamber. A continuous back and forth\\nmotion is given the grates for the purpose of maintaining\\na uniform thickness of fire by a gradual descent of the\\nfuel from the top to the bottom of the grate, depositing\\nthe clinker and ash on the stationary grate shown project-\\ning from the cast-iron box forming the lower bearing bar\\nat the ash pit. The accumulated ash is pushed off this\\nstationary grate into the ash pit by the reciprocating mo-\\ntion of the bars, to be removed in the usual manner.\\nThe blast is saturated steam through a nozzle of -J-g-inch\\ndiameter, giving an induced current of air controlled by a\\nregulating valve.\\nThe motor for operating the grates may be either hy-\\ndraulic or steam attached to each stoker, or a small engine\\nmay be employed for operating several stokers.\\nQ. What are the details of construction of the Ayres\\nand Ranger mechanical stoker\\nThis stoker is shown in connection with the flue of an\\ninternally fired boiler in Fig. 31; a front elevation is\\nshown in Fig. 32. This stoker belongs to the class known\\nas coking stokers. The coal is fed into the hopper shown\\nat the front end of boiler; at the bottom of this hopper is\\na series of propeller- shaped blades joined to and radiating\\nfrom a sleeve mounted on a shaft, which is caused to ro-", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0237.jp2"}, "238": {"fulltext": "232\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\ntate intermittently at any desired speed and by these the\\ncoal is propelled through an opening in the furnace, on to\\nan inclined guide plate, and from this upon a perforated\\ndead plate below, and by this means the coal is equally\\ndistributed across the front of the furnace, forming a bank\\nor ridge of coal to be there coked, and to be then carried\\nby moving fire bars to the back of the furnace. The fire\\nbars are so arranged that every other one is stationary\\nthe moving bars are actuated by a cam or other device by\\nwhich an up-and-down vertical movement may be imparted\\nto the front end of the bars. This cam in continuing its\\nmovement then engages the .end of the moving bar and\\nFig. 31.\\npushes it in the direction of the arrow, Fig. 31. The end\\nof the bar being tapered rides up on the roller at the rear\\nof the furnace, and thus raises that end of the bar. By\\nthe return motion of the cam the bar is brought back to\\nits normal position. This continual motion of the mova-", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0238.jp2"}, "239": {"fulltext": "THE MURPHY FURNACE.\\n233\\nble bars carries the fuel gradually from the front to the\\nrear of the furnace. It also serves to break up the clink-\\ners, clear the air spaces, ultimately depositing the ex-\\nhausted portion of the fuel\\ninto the ash or clinker pit at\\nP the end of the bars in the\\nIt N Jl usual way.\\nQ. What are the principal\\ndetails of the Murphy furnace\\nA cross-sectional elevation\\nof the Murphy self-feeding\\nfurnace is shown in Fig. 33.\\nThe grate bars are arranged\\non opposite sides of the fur-\\nnace chamber and incline\\ndownwardly toward the cen-\\ntre, the fuel being introduced\\nat the top and fed down tow-\\nard the middle, in which there\\nis a device for mechanically removing the clinkers. A fire-\\nbrick arch spans the combustion chamber. A coal maga-\\nzine is located at each side of the furnace and is provided\\nwith discharge openings and coal pushers. The latter\\nhave a reciprocating motion imparted to each by a rock\\nshaft, rack, and pinion.\\nThe inclined grate surface is composed of stationary and\\nmovable grate bars, alternately placed. The upper ends\\nof the stationary grate bars abut against a compensating\\nplate, which permits the bars to expand readily with the\\nheat. The movable grate bars are connected to vibrating\\nlevers, from whence they derive their motion. In connec-\\ntion with this motion the movement of the rock shaft im-", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0239.jp2"}, "240": {"fulltext": "234\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nparts motion to the coal pushers in a manner to feed the\\ncoal just in proportion to the requirements of the furnace.\\nThe crushing and removal of the ashes and clinkers is\\neffected by a clinker bar at the bottom of the grates. The\\nclinker bar is provided on the outside with teeth which\\n_L\u00e2\u0080\u009e_\\nw /xw y/ /W*\\nW/^^^V *\\\\v/W A^WMW W W^ *li\u00c2\u00bb\\nFig.\\nextend spirally around the bar, and the approximate inner\\nedges of the grate bearers are provided with similar teeth\\nto aid in crushing the clinkers when the clinker bar is\\nrocked.\\nThe furnace is especially adapted for the use of small\\nsized bituminous coal and slack, which is put into maga-\\nzines at the side of the combustion chamber. Air is ad-", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0240.jp2"}, "241": {"fulltext": "THE AMERICAN STOKER. 235\\nmitted through a register at the front, passes through flues\\nup over the arch, and there takes up heat from the front,\\narch, and arch plate, passing down through the small\\nopenings in the arch plate to the coking fuel. It is\\nclaimed that this furnace has a coking capacity sufficient\\nto feed 50 pounds of coal per square foot of grate per\\nhour.\\nOn the side of a battery of boilers is placed an engine\\nwith proper gearing for operating a reciprocating bar across\\nthe outside of the entire front, and to which all the work\\ning parts are attached by links.\\nQ. What is the construction and operation of the Ameri-\\ncan stoker?\\nThis stoker belongs to the not very numerous class of\\nunderfeeding devices. The illustration Fig. 34 shows it\\nin longitudinal section, and Fig. 35 in cross-sectional ele-\\nvation. The stoker consists of a coal hopper, a conveyor\\npipe, a screw conveyor, a coal magazine under the furnace\\nlevel, a wind box, and a reciprocating piston motor with a\\nratchet-feed attachment for operating the screw conveyor.\\nThe rate of feeding coal is controlled by the speed of the\\nmotor, this being effected by the simple means of throt-\\ntling the steam in the supply pipe to the motor.\\nThe coal is fed into the hopper either by hand or by\\noverhead conveyor mechanism. It descends of course into\\nthe receptacle below, in which is contained the screw\\nwhich conveys it into the magazine in the furnace proper.\\nThe continuous supply causes the coal thus fed to over-\\nflow on both sides, and spread upon the side grates, shown\\nin Fig. 35. As the fresh coal approaches the fire in its\\nupward course it is slowly roasted or coked. The gases\\nreleased from the coal mingle with the incoming air", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0241.jp2"}, "242": {"fulltext": "236\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nthrough the tuyeres and are burned, leaving only the in-\\ncandescent coke for delivery on the side grates.\\nThe non-combustible ash and clinker is deposited on the\\nside grates by the constant upward feeding of the coal.\\nOne open grate against each wall admits air mixed with\\nFig. 34.\\nthe exhaust steam from the motor, which serves to prevent\\nthe clinker sticking to the walls. To clean, a slice bar is\\nrun along over the grate, the clinker raised and drawn out\\nwith a hook. The central part of the fire is never dis-\\nturbed, as the constant feeding does all the stoking neces-\\nsary. The fire doors.are never opened except when clean-\\ning.\\nThis stoker requires a blower for supplying the air nee-", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0242.jp2"}, "243": {"fulltext": "THE JONES UNDERFEED STOKER.\\n237\\nessary for combustion, the air pressure varying from 1 to\\n1 Y? ounces, depending upon the quality of fuel and depth\\nof fire. The latter is ordinarily from 14 to 18 inches\\nthick above the tuyere blocks.\\n^s\\nQ. What is the construction and operation of the Jones\\nunderfeed mechanical stoker\\nThis stoker is shown in sectional elevation in Fig. 36,\\nand in cross section on the line A-B in Fig. 37. The\\nstoker consists of a steam cylinder or ram, with a coal hop-\\nper, outside of the furnace proper; a retort or fuel maga-\\nzine inside the furnace, on the sides of which are placed\\ntuyere blocks for the admission of air. The retort also\\ncontains at its lowest point an auxiliary ram or pusher", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0243.jp2"}, "244": {"fulltext": "2 3 8\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nwhich causes the coal to be evenly distributed. This\\npusher is in a position where the fire never reaches.\\nThe retort is first filled with coal, on a level or a little\\nabove the tuyere blocks. The fire is then started along\\neach side of the retort, the air chambers reaching to the\\ntuyere blocks being opened. As soon as the fire is well\\nunder way, the air chamber opening is closed and the\\nblower started the fire will then be built up very rapidly.\\nc\\nU_\u00e2\u0080\u009e -_^\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a1DQDDDDD\\nA\\nn\\nQNE BLOCK IN PLACE\\nBQQ\\nFig. 36.\\nCoal being in the hopper, and the ram plunger on its\\nforward stroke, when more coal is needed the plunger is\\nshifted back by moving the lever, coal then falls in front\\nof the plunger, steam is admitted to the cylinder and the\\nplunger forced forward, pushing the coal into the retort.\\nCoal is pushed into the retort as needed to replenish that\\nconsumed.\\nAir at low pressure is admitted into the air chamber\\nand through the tuyere blocks, over the top of the green\\nfuel in the retort, but under and through the burning fuel\\nthe result is that the heat from the burning fuel over the\\nretort slowly liberates the gas from the green fuel, this", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0244.jp2"}, "245": {"fulltext": "THE M 1 CLAVE GRATE.\\n239\\ngas being thoroughly mixed with the incoming air before\\nit passes through the burning fuel, resulting in a bright,\\nclear fire, free from smoke. The retort being air tight\\nfrom below, and the fuel being in a compact mass, the\\nair moves upward and combustion takes place only above\\nthe air slots. The retort is thus kept cool and not subject\\nto the action of the fire. The incoming fresh fuel from\\nthe retort forces the resulting ash and clinker over the top\\nof the tuyere blocks on to the side plates, from which they\\nCROSS SECTION\\nLINE A-B\\ncan be easily removed at any time without interfering\\nwith the fire in the centre of the furnace.\\nQ. What is the construction of the McClave grate\\nThis grate is shown in Fig. 38, which represents the\\nshaking movement, and Fig. 39, which represents the cut-\\noff movement. The shaking movement is adapted for\\nbreaking up a soft coal fire when it cakes, or to remove\\nfine ashes from a hard coal fire when there is but little or\\nno clinker formed. In this movement there is no increase\\nof openings during the operation, the bars keeping equi-\\ndistant from each other in their travel from the normal\\nposition downward and return.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0245.jp2"}, "246": {"fulltext": "240\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nThe cut-off movement is used principally for fine an-\\nthracite fuel, such as culm, buckwheat, and pea coal.\\nSmall anthracite fuels should not be shaken or stirred up\\nin any manner until it becomes necessary to give the fire a\\nthorough cleaning. It should then be cleaned as quickly\\nas possible. For all free-burning varieties of coal that do\\nnot produce large slabs of clinkers this movement removes\\nFig. 39.\\nthe clinkers and ashes from the bottom of the fire quickly\\nand thoroughly without opening the fire door.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0246.jp2"}, "247": {"fulltext": "THE FISHER BAGASSE FURNACE. 24I\\nSingle lever connections are used for grates less than 5\\nfeet in length, and the width of the grates is generally\\nmade in two or more rows. To clean a fire when the fuel\\nclinkers badly, the unconsumed fuel of one row can be\\nshoved over on the other row, and with the full cut-off\\nmovement the clinkers and ashes can be cut down into the\\nash pit then shove all the unconsumed fuel on to the\\nclean row of bars and cut the clinkers down the same as\\nbefore; then redistribute the unconsumed fuel over the\\nwhole grate.\\nQ. What are the details of construction of the Fisher\\napparatus for feeding bagasse to steam boiler furnaces?\\nThe feeding of bagasse to a boiler furnace by Fisher s\\nmethod is shown in Fig. 40, which consists of an inclined\\nchute down which the bagasse is fed. At the lower end\\nand near the furnace front is a roller having radial blades,\\nwhich roller is driven by any suitable mechanism. Be-\\ntween this roller and the furnace front is a perforated\\nsteam or air-blast pipe extending across the chute. There\\nis attached to the furnace front a pivoted door extending\\nover both the perforated blast pipe and bladed roller. A\\nsecond door is hinged to the one just referred to and is\\nadapted for closing the chute. These doors fit in between\\nthe sides of the chute, and thus being practically air tight\\nprevent the escape of any sparks which might otherwise\\nfly out from the mouth of the furnace.\\nThe bagasse after being discharged upon the chute\\nslides down to the bladed roller, which is constantly rotat-\\ning and which feeds the bagasse along over the perforated\\npipe, from which latter let it be supposed there is escaping\\na blast of air or steam under pressure. As the material\\n16", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0247.jp2"}, "248": {"fulltext": "242\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\npasses over this perforated pipe, the blast of air or steam\\nescaping therefrom lifts the material and scatters it in all di-\\nFlG. 40.\\nrections over the furnace grate, thus rendering it impossi-\\nble for any large mass of the material to fall in one spot\\nand there retard combustion. Besides the function of", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0248.jp2"}, "249": {"fulltext": "HEGGEM S FIRE BOX.\\n243\\nscattering the finely divided particles of the fuel over the\\ngrate bars the blast of steam or air will create a better\\ndraft in the furnace, and thus materially assist combus-\\ntion.\\nQ. What are the details of construction of Heggem s\\nboiler for burning straw\\nThis boiler is particularly adapted for agricultural use,\\nand is of the usual portable type; but the object of the\\nFIG. 4\\npresent design is that the boiler shall be capable of burn-\\ning alternately either straw or solid fuel, as may be desired,", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0249.jp2"}, "250": {"fulltext": "244\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nthe fire box being provided with a draft apparatus that may\\nbe made applicable in each case for the particular fuel\\nburned. This boiler is shown in sectional elevation in\\nFig. 41, and shows the arrangement of dampers when\\nusing straw as fuel, in which case a funnel is fitted to the\\nusual fire-door opening; this funnel being provided with a\\ntmmmsmmm\\nFig. 42.\\nhinged door, the free end of which is adapted to rest con-\\ntinually against the straw as it is forced into the fire box.\\nThe damper under the barrel of the boiler being raised,\\nas shown in the engraving, causes the draft to flow into\\nthe fire box, as indicated by the arrows, causing the", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0250.jp2"}, "251": {"fulltext": "ALLEN AND TIBBITTS FURNACE. 245\\nstraw to burn at the ends, as it is forced in through the\\nfunnel.\\nFig. 42 shows the same boiler with the straw-feeding\\nfunnel removed, the regular fire door in place, the closing\\nof the damper under the barrel of the boiler and the open-\\ning of the damper or ash-pit door under the fire door, and\\nthe use of coal as fuel.\\nQ. What are the details of construction of the Allen\\nand Tibbitts apparatus for feeding comminuted fuel to\\nfurnaces\\nA vertical section of a steam boiler furnace showing the\\napparatus in operation is given in Fig. 43. The operation\\nconsists in spraying the fine particles of fuel into the fur-\\nnace by means of rapidly revolving distributing rollers.\\nOn the circumference of the rollers are provided ribs,\\nwhich are fixed in diagonal lines from the middle to the\\nends of the rollers. These rollers are given rapid revolv-\\ning motion, and are designed for throwing the fine fuel\\ninto the furnace by their centrifugal force. There is a\\nrotary vertical spiral conveyor enclosed in a pipe and\\nstepped in the bottom of a coal supply pit in the floor in\\nfront of the furnace. At the top of this pipe are branch\\npipes leading from the head of the vertical pipe and ex-\\ntending over and communicating with the interior of the\\nboxes containing the revolving rollers, by which the fuel\\nis delivered into the furnace in a shower or spray in the\\nupper part of the combustion chamber, so that the parti-\\ncles will catch fire in transit and be consumed or partly\\nconsumed before falling upon the fire floor, the draft\\nbeing through the grated doors, thus avoiding the opening\\nof the doors for feeding purposes. In instances when the\\nfire dust is used no grate bars need be employed in the", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0251.jp2"}, "252": {"fulltext": "246\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nfloor; but as a general rule, when the coarser grades of\\nfuel are used, grate bars should be used for providing a\\ndraft upward into the fire.\\nFig. 43-", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0252.jp2"}, "253": {"fulltext": "THE ROGERS FURNACE FEEDER. 247\\nQ. What are the details of construction of the Rogers\\napparatus for feeding fine fuel\\nThis apparatus is designed for feeding fine fuels, such\\nas rice hulls, cotton hulls, sawdust, etc. A cross section-\\nal elevation of a boiler furnace with the apparatus also in\\nsection is shown in Fig. 44. This apparatus consists of a\\nhopper placed at the side of the furnace and near the front\\nend of the boiler, a steam blast pipe, and a nozzle for dis-\\ntributing the fuel over the grate. This nozzle is made with\\none straight side placed parallel to the boiler front the\\nopposite or rear side is formed obliquely toward the bridge\\nwall. A sliding gate opens or closes communication be-\\ntween the hopper and the furnace. For the purpose of\\nsuperheating the steam used in the blast nozzle, its supply\\npipe passes along the side of the boiler, to the rear and\\nreturn, thence into the discharging pipe.\\nThe fire may be started in the furnace in any approved\\nway and with any desired fuel. The sliding gate is then\\nopened, as is also the steam cock, whereupon the hulls or\\nsawdust resting in the hopper and chute are caused by the\\nsuction of the steam blasts to discharge through the nozzle\\ninto the furnace, over the fire bed in thin sheets, in the\\nmanner illustrated in the engraving. Should the supply\\nbecome excessive, the sliding gate and steam cocks are\\nclosed. When the gate is closed, no back blast through\\nthe hopper can occur, and danger from fire in the hopper\\nor chute will be prevented at such times as the feeder\\nmay not be in use.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0253.jp2"}, "254": {"fulltext": "248\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nFig.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0254.jp2"}, "255": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XL\\nLOCOMOTIVE FURNACE DETAILS.\\nQ. What are the ordinary limitations of a locomotive\\nfire box\\nThe width of the fire box is limited to the distance be-\\ntween the frames inside of the driving wheels the neces-\\nsary outside clearance and the thickness of the two water\\nlegs from out to out. The inside width will be about\\n41^2 inches. The length of the fire box will depend\\nsomewhat upon the size and type of the boiler and the\\narrangement of the axles for the driving wheels in gen-\\neral, this length is limited to about 10 feet.\\nQ. What are the objections to a long fire box?\\nMainly the inconvenience occasioned in firing, as the\\nproper distribution of coal by means of a hand shovel,\\nthrough an opening some 12 x 16 inches, to a point, 10\\nfeet distant, is one requiring great skill. In the case of\\ncaking coals, the longer the fire box the more difficult is\\nthe task of breaking up the fire through the fire door open-\\ning.\\nQ. What are the advantages of large grate area\\nIt lowers the rate of combustion, and thus permits the\\nuse of inferior grades of fuel which could not be economi-\\ncally employed in locomotives having a small ratio of grate\\narea to total heating surface.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0255.jp2"}, "256": {"fulltext": "2 50 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nFor locomotives of great power, a large grate surface is\\nessential, even under the highest economical rates of com-\\nbustion, and for this reason boilers with an extended grate\\nsurface, such as the Wootten, become more or less a\\nnecessity.\\nQ. What is the rate of combustion in locomotive boiler\\npractice\\nThe rate of combustion will vary with the type and size\\nof locomotive, the contour of the railroad, the weight and\\nspeed of trains, etc. From 80 to 125 pounds may fairly\\nrepresent ordinary practice, but the extreme limit to\\neconomical combustion appears to be about 150 pounds\\nper square foot of grate surface per hour a higher rate of\\ncombustion is apt to lift the coal from the grates and loss\\nof efficiency occurs.\\nQ. What is the special function of the fire-brick arch\\nin locomotive fire boxes\\nThe supplying of fuel in a locomotive fire box is an\\nintermittent operation; consequently, the temperature of\\nthe fire is constantly changing from high to low, depend-\\ning upon the quantity of fresh fuel laid upon the fire.\\nThe fire-brick arch gets white hot by reason of its posi\\ntion over the fire; this stored -up heat assists in driving\\nout the volatile combustible matter in the fuel as there\\nis almost always an excess of air passing through the fire,\\nthe gases driven off by the combined heat of the fire and\\nthe incandescent fire-brick arch are raised to a very high\\ntemperature while in intimate contact and mixture, com-\\nbustion ensues under the most favorable conditions for\\ncompleteness, economy, and high temperature. The prod-\\nucts of combustion are then diverted to the rear of the", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0256.jp2"}, "257": {"fulltext": "BRICK ARCH FOR LOCOMOTIVES.\\n251\\nfire box, where a change of direction is necessary before\\npassing forward toward the tubes.\\nBy its use the combustion of bituminous coal is im-\\nproved, smoke is prevented, cinder sparks are arrested, the\\nflame and gases from the fire are cleaner, that is, carry\\nless soot and impurity, the dragging of the fire is reduced,\\nand the fuel is, therefore, used in a more economical man-\\nner than in the ordinary fire box.\\nQ. What is the usual construction of the brick arch in\\nlocomotive fire boxes?\\nThe brick arch consists usually of fire-brick tiles laid on\\ntubular bearing bars. Fig. 45 shows one form of con-\\nstruction in which the tubular bearing bars are secured to\\nthe tube sheet at one end, the other end being secured to\\nthe crown sheet. There is a water circulation through\\nthese pipes which prevents their burning out in the fur-\\nnace. Another design is shown in Fig. 46, in which the\\ntubular bearing bars extend the whole length of the fire\\nbox, the water connection being such that a constant cir-\\nculation is had. The fire-brick tiles extend across the\\nfire box from side to side the arch is lowest next the tube", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0257.jp2"}, "258": {"fulltext": "252\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nsheet, and inclines upward as it approaches the rear end\\nof the fire box the length of the arch and angle of incli-\\nnation vary with the size of the fire box, but the rear end\\nmust always be high enough properly to feed and care for\\nthe fire.\\nAnother method of construction is to build a curved\\narch across the fire box from side to side, as shown in Figs.\\n68 and 69.\\nQ. Does the brick arch cause leaky flues?\\nThis question, raised by M. D. Corbus, in Locomotive\\nEngineering (January, 1900), is accompanied by the state-\\nFlG. 46.\\nment that practice has demonstrated positively in some\\nlocomotives that a brick arch in a fire box causes the flues\\nto leak, beginning directly after the arch is put in, and the\\nengine does hard labor. The arches as described by him\\nare in three pieces, placed lengthwise in the fire box and\\nresting on four plugs screwed into the side sheets. The\\nbrick is cut away next the flue sheet and side sheets, to\\nallow cinders and fine coal to drop down to the grates;", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0258.jp2"}, "259": {"fulltext": "FIRE-BRICK ARCHES. 253\\nonly about 6 inches of each corner of the arch rests against\\nflue sheet, from 6 to 10 inches below the flues.\\nIn replying to the above, George B. Nicholson, through\\nthe same journal, asks: What causes flues to leak? Is it\\nnot a too rapid expansion and contraction of the metals of\\nthe flue sheet and flues Then will a brick arch cause this\\nexpansion and contraction Suppose an engine with a\\nbrick arch to be fired up and gradually heated to the work-\\ning point, the heat of the fire box probably being between\\n2,000\u00c2\u00b0 and 2,500\u00c2\u00b0 F. The brick arch attains and will hold\\nthis temperature for a considerable time after the fire has\\nbeen knocked out of the engine. Now this brick arch,\\nrepresenting an almost fixed number of heat units, is\\nplaced within from 4 to 6 inches of the flues and flue\\nsheet; there is nothing about this that is likely to cause\\nan undue variation in the temperatures of either. The\\nreal reason is that the fire is not maintained under the\\nflues as it should be, quite frequently getting into such a\\ncondition that cold air is drawn rapidly through the grates\\nand up through the flues the flow may last but a few\\nseconds, still long enough considerably to reduce the tem-\\nperature of the metals it is then cut off by the applica-\\ntion of a shovelful of green coal when the great, almost\\npermanent heat of the arch will cause the temperature to\\nrise much more rapidly than would be the case in waiting\\nfor the coal to ignite, and the heat of the fire cause the\\nchange. This, being repeated from time to time, starts\\nthe flues to leak; the engine is brought in, the arch\\nknocked out and condemned, when the trouble was not the\\narch, but in the method of firing.\\nIf brick arches are put in with just enough space be-\\ntween the arch and flues to permit of the free circulation\\nof the gases, and at the same time not to allow the opening", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0259.jp2"}, "260": {"fulltext": "254\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nto become blocked with cinders, and high enough that a\\ngood fire can be kept under them with reasonable ease, a\\ndecided improvement in steaming qualities will be secured,\\nas well as lessened fuel consumption and increased life of\\nthe flues.\\nQ. What kind of grates are commonly supplied locomo-\\ntive fire boxes\\nThe present practice is confined almost wholly to shak-\\ning grates, because of the facility afforded for cleaning the\\nfire on the road, and for dumping the contents of the fire\\nbox at the end of the trip.\\nQ. What is the construction of the tubular water\\ngrate\\nThe water grate consists of tubes extending from the\\ntube sheet in the fire box to the opposite sheet at the rear,\\nFig, 47, A.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Plan.\\nas shown in Fig. 47. These water tubes are placed side by\\nside across the width of the fire box with such interval\\nbetween them, for air space, as shall best adapt them for\\nthe fuel to be used they usually incline slightly, to give", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0260.jp2"}, "261": {"fulltext": "PLAIN FIRE GRATE.\\n255\\nbetter circulation than when laid horizontally. The circu-\\nlation of water through these tubes prevents their burn-\\nWA\\nSB\\nOOOOOOO 00000\\n\\\\,/,/A\\nS2Z\\n000 00 000 0000\\n/mA\\nJ\u00e2\u0084\u00a2\\n.ijj.\\nOOOOOOOOUOO\\nit,\\nFig. 47, B.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Longitudinal Section.\\nCJ\\nOOOO\\nob oo\u00c2\u00b00(Po o o o o\\nOOOOO\\nOOOO\\nOOOOO\\nFig. 47. C\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Cross Section.\\ning out, unless they become filled with scale, which is a\\nnot infrequent occurrence.\\nQ. What are the ordinary details of a locomotive fire-\\nbox grate\\nFor coal-burning locomotives the grates in use include\\nthe plain grate bars with drop plate for the removal of\\nashes, etc. at the end of the run such a grate is shown\\nin Fig. 48, in which 1 represents the grate bars; 2, a\\ndead plate; 3, the end holder; 4, the drop plate; 5, the\\ndrop-plate handle; 6, the drop-plate handle supports; 7,\\nthe drop-plate shaft 8, the drop-plate shaft bearing.\\nShaking grates are now in very general use in locomo-\\ntive practice. The ordinary details are much the same\\nfor all grates, but there is a wide diversity in minor de-\\ntails. Fig. 49, from Grimshavv s Locomotive Catechism,\\nshows the salient points of shaking-grate mechanism as", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0261.jp2"}, "262": {"fulltext": "256\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nordinarily applied to locomotives, in which 1 represents a\\nseries of grates, each consisting of a central bar with fin-\\ngers passing each other, with suitable air space between,\\nsssssgssss\\ni_n_n\\n\u00c2\u00abv*\\n^TmT", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0262.jp2"}, "263": {"fulltext": "SHAKING GRATE,\\n257\\n-luo^jr\\nthe whole forming when in normal condition a flat surface\\nfor the fuel; 2, the frame carrying the rocking grates; 3,\\na connecting bar by which all the rocking-grate bars are\\n17", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0263.jp2"}, "264": {"fulltext": "258 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\noperated simultaneously; 4, a lever extending up into the\\ncab for operating the grates; 5, a connecting link; 6, a\\nlever handle, removable 7, a drop plate to facilitate clean-\\ning the fire box of unburned fuel, ashes, and clinkers 8,\\ndrop-plate rod; 9, drop-plate crank; 10, drop-plate crank\\nhandle 11, drop-plate crank bearing.\\nQ. How do anthracite and bituminous coals compare in\\nevaporative power in locomotive practice\\nIt would naturally be expected that as anthracite is\\nricher in carbon than the average quality of bituminous\\ncoal (82 and 58 per cent, respectively, being the mean of\\nseveral analyses), anthracite coal should yield a higher\\nevaporative duty. Service trials, however, prove that the\\ndifference existing is wholly in favor of bituminous coal,\\nfully bearing out the assertion frequently made by firemen,\\nthat a tender load of soft coal will go further than a like\\nquantity of hard coal.\\nRecent experiments on the N. Y., L. E. and W. R.R.,\\nwith high-class modern locomotives, gave evaporative rates\\nfrom and at 21 2\u00c2\u00b0 F. per pound of coal, of 5.68 for an-\\nthracite and 7.2 for bituminous.\\nThe theoretical evaporative power of anthracite coal con-\\ntaining 82 per cent of carbon and 7.4 per cent of volatile\\nmatter is 15.25 pounds, from and at 21 2\u00c2\u00b0 F. while that of\\nbituminous coal containing 58 per cent of carbon is about\\n1 2 pounds, due allowance being made for other component\\nparts (Dixon).\\nQ. Is the ordinary operation of a locomotive boiler\\nfavorable to high duty?\\nThe operation of a locomotive boiler militates against a\\nhigh duty; its exposure to constantly changing atmos-", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0264.jp2"}, "265": {"fulltext": "SINGLE-SHOVEL FIRING. 259\\npheric conditions cannot but be a fruitful source of loss,\\nand the remarkable differences of opinion with regard to\\nboiler proportions, grates, and draft appliances, prove that\\nsome boilers, at least, do not have a fair chance to per-\\nform their functions in an economical manner. The effi-\\nciency of a well-designed bituminous coal-burning boiler\\n7.2 X 100\\nmay be taken at 60 per cent, which, consid-\\nering the disadvantages under which it labors, is a cred-\\nitable figure (Dixon).\\nQ. What evaporative performances are had of locomotive\\nboilers in practice\\nFrom a number of locomotive tests made, rather to test\\nthe coal than to test the locomotive, evaporations are shown,\\naccording to W. O. Webber, from 6^ to 8}4 and 9 pounds\\nof water per pound of combustible, and the fuel consumed\\nper square foot of grate surface 90 pounds, and running\\nfrom there to 136 pounds. These engines were small;\\none on which most of the tests were made was an engine\\nwith a fire box only 3 feet wide by 5 feet long, with a\\nboiler 42 inches diameter, 114 2-inch flues, 2^ inch ex-\\nhaust nozzle. Engine 15* x 22 and only 740 total\\nsquare feet of heating surface. The standard American\\nlocomotive will develop on an average a horse-power for\\neach 27 pounds of water evaporated when not overloaded;\\nthe evaporation under ordinary conditions will run from\\n$}4 to 6}4 pounds of water per pound of coal.\\nQ. What are some of the practical results of single-\\nshovelful firing\\nMr. Angus Sinclair s observations while riding on loco-\\nmotives on the B., C. R. and N. Ry., where firing tests were", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0265.jp2"}, "266": {"fulltext": "260 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nbeing made, was that the coal was broken to small lumps,\\nand the fireman kept up the necessary supply of fuel in\\nthe fire box by putting on a single shovelful at a time.\\nWhen the engine with a long freight train was pulling\\nhard on a long grade, the coal thrown into the fire box\\naveraged 5 shovelfuls per mile, each containing about\\n18 pounds of coal, which was 90 pounds to the mile. On\\nthe level it was about 5 shovelfuls for every two miles.\\nThe fire always looked clear and bright, and all the en-\\ngines steamed admirably. The engineer always filled up\\nthe boiler well going into a station, and then shut off the\\ninjector for a few minutes in starting, to let the fireman\\nmake up a good fire. As soon as the train was going the\\nengineer hooked up the engine as far as he could to avoid\\ntearing the fresh fire to pieces. When the engine was\\nrunning for a grade, a fairly heavy fire was gradually put\\nupon the grates, and it was maintained during the heavy\\npull but was made up by single shovelfuls, or, at most,\\ntwo shovelfuls at one time. There were no special smoke-\\npreventing appliances used the fire boxes were supplied\\nwith a brick arch, but no means were employed to admit\\nair above the fire.\\nQ. Is there a saving in coal by light firing in loco-\\nmotive practice?\\nMr. Fred McArdle, an engineer on the B., C. R. and\\nN. Ry. writes that the single-shovelful method of firing\\nhas brought about a great saving in coal, making less work\\nfor the fireman, and more pleasant for the engineer. The\\nengine is not popping off continuously while standing at\\nstations. The cab and train are not smothered in dense\\nblack smoke from the time the engine is shut off until the\\ntrain is again started. Prior to the time that light firing", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0266.jp2"}, "267": {"fulltext": "BEST METHOD OF FIRING. 26 1\\nwas adopted passenger engines were fired with three to\\nfive shovels of coal to a fire the same engines are now\\nfired with one shovel of coal to a fire, and at no time ex-\\nceeding two, and they only when starting away from sta-\\ntions and going over heavy grades. At the present time\\nengines are running from 155 to 250 miles without taking\\ncoal, and savings of 2 to 3^2 tons of coal are now effected\\non each round trip. The trains are from 3 to 6 coaches\\nengines 15x24 to 17x24 inches. Through freight en-\\ngines on all divisions are 18x24 \u00e2\u0080\u00946 wheel connected,\\nfired with one and two shovels to a fire, rarely throwing\\nout black smoke between stations; they run 96 to 105\\nmiles with one tank of coal. These trains save 2 to 4\\ntons of coal each round trip over the former method of\\nfiring.\\nQ. What is the best method of firing a locomotive\\nReferring again to Mr. McArdle s communication, he\\nmade the excellent suggestion that to make a success of\\nlight firing the engineer and fireman must work together.\\nThe fireman should carry a clean, light fire, keeping the\\nfire thin enough for plenty of air to be admitted for com-\\nbustion. This he cannot do if his engineer, in starting,\\nallows his lever to remain at full stroke for a quarter of a\\nmile before he begins to cut it back. Under such condi-\\ntions the fireman with a light fire would have very little\\nfire left in his box by the time the train had moved half\\nits length.\\nUnder the old method of firing, a shovelful of coal was\\nput in each corner of the box, and one or two down in the\\ncentre that method of firing has been demonstrated to be\\na mistake, as they now fire the same engines with one or\\ntwo shovels of coal at a time.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0267.jp2"}, "268": {"fulltext": "262 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nQ. What are the noticable improvements in connection\\nwith light firing and boiler repairs?\\nMr. Henry Raps, foreman boilermaker for the B., C. R.\\nand N. Ry., reports freer steaming qualities; longer life\\nand more uniform wear of brick arches a decrease in the\\nnumber of burned and broken grates a decrease in the\\nnumber of bent and broken ash-pan dampers and their fas-\\ntenings a fewer number of stopped-up flues a longer life\\nof nettings and stacks the total absence of burned smoke\\narches and extensions, and the non-accumulation of cinders\\nin the front end,\\nQ What is the direct saving upon the brick arches by\\nlight firing\\nOn account of fires not being so thick in light firing,\\nthere is not as much liability to throw coal against the\\narch. As there is less fire to clean out at the end of the\\ntrip, there is less danger of the arch being struck by the\\nclinker bar for these reasons brick arches last longer, A\\ncomparison may be instituted thus 5 1 brick arches ap\\nplied to locomotives under the old method of firing aver-\\naged 7,863 miles per arch.\\nForty-five brick arches under the single-shovelful method\\nof firing averaged 9,703 miles per arch, a gain of more than\\n23 per cent.\\nThe average cost, including maintenance, of one arch\\nunder the old method of firing was $6.41 an average cost\\nof 8 T Yo cents per 100 miles. The average cost, including\\nmaintenance, of one arch under the light firing was $4.61\\nan average of 4^-0 cents per 100 miles.\\nQ. What are the principal furnace details of the Wootten\\nboiler\\nPreviously to the invention of the Wootten boiler by", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0268.jp2"}, "269": {"fulltext": "WOOTTEN FIRE BOX.\\n263\\nJohn E. Wootten, in 1877, it had been the general prac-\\ntice to make the fire boxes of locomotives of a width de-\\ntermined by the distance\\nbetween the inner faces\\nof the opposite driving\\nwheels; Wootten s in-\\nvention consisted in in-\\ncreasing the area of the\\ngrate by arranging the\\nfire box and grate above\\nand extending them\\nlaterally over the driving\\nwheels, without raising\\nthe body of the boiler\\nto any material extent.\\nFigs. 50 and 51 are\\nreproductions of the\\noriginal patent office\\ndrawing, in which it will be seen that the fire box A later-\\nally overhangs the driving wheels B, B the grate D also\\noverhangs the wheels and extends across the interior of\\nFig.\\nFig. si.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0269.jp2"}, "270": {"fulltext": "264 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nthe fire box. The ash pan G collects the ashes and di-\\nrects them into the receptacle h.\\nA bridge wall M extends across the fire box or combus-\\ntion chamber and may be either a water space or made of\\nfire brick this bridge wall plays an important part, for the\\ngrate being necessarily elevated, a corresponding elevation\\nof the body of the boiler would be demanded in the ab-\\nsence of the bridge, in order that the tubes m might be\\nat a proper height above the grate, to prevent the direct\\nescape of fuel through the tubes, and this elevation of the\\nbody of the boiler would render the boiler topheavy.\\nThe arrangement of the bridge wall, as shown, permits the\\nplacing of the tubes low down so that the body of the\\nboiler may be as low as usual, and, therefore, not top-\\nheavy.\\nQ. What advantages were attained by the fire box de-\\nsigned by Wootten\\nImportant advantages are attained by the increased\\ngrate-bar area due to the lateral extension of the fire box.\\nThe fuel can be consumed in comparatively thin layers\\nmore gently and economically, and with less injury to the\\nfire box than the thick mass of intensely heated fuel in an\\nordinary contracted fire box. The increased grate area\\ndispenses with the usual contracted exhaust opening for\\ncreating an artificial draft, a larger exhaust opening being\\nadopted, and, consequently, the tearing up of the fuel in\\nthe fire box is avoided, the forcible expulsion of hard par-\\nticles of fuel through the tubes, and the consequent waste\\nof fuel, is prevented, and the usual spark-arrester dis-\\npensed with these advantages are attained without ren-\\ndering the locomotive topheavy by the combination of the\\nlaterally extended fire box with the bridge M.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0270.jp2"}, "271": {"fulltext": "WOOTTEN FIRE BOX.\\n265\\nQ. Was the combination of bridge wall and combustion\\nchamber adhered to in the Wootten boiler\\nIn 1886, Wootten patented another firebox in which the\\ncombustion chamber, which formed so prominent a feature\\n^_\\n7=======^\\n11\\nOTJ\\n2\\nFig. 52.\\nin the original patent, was dispensed with, and a bridge\\nwall only employed this design in one of several forms\\nis shown in Figs. 52, 53, and 54, and consists of a fire\\nbridge located wholly within the fire box and supported\\nfig. 53.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0271.jp2"}, "272": {"fulltext": "266\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nabove the grate in such relation to the tube sheet as to\\nform a space or chamber in the rear, which is closed at the\\nbottom and open at the top, for the free passage of the\\nproducts of combustion from the fire box to the tubes.\\nThis later design, while retaining to a substantial de-\\ngree the advantageous features of wide fire-box boilers, by\\nthis time approved in practical service, affords the advan-\\ntages of a reduction in cost and an increased amount of\\nFig. s4-\\narea of tube-heating surface relatively thereto. The fire\\nbridge can be readily applied and fitted in position and is\\nconveniently accessible for renewal and repair, and the\\ngrate area attainable in boilers of this type is so ample\\nthat no objection results from such curtailment as is in-\\nvolved in locating the fire bridge and combustion space\\nwithin the fire box and above a portion of the grate.\\nQ. What are the disadvantages of a wide fire box?\\nFault has been found with wide fire boxes because of\\ntheir supposed greater liability to leakage by reason of ex-\\npansion and contraction; but the real reason for leaky\\njoints, broken stay bolts, etc., which caused much annoy-", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0272.jp2"}, "273": {"fulltext": "BARNES LOCOMOTIVE BOILER. 267\\nance with the earlier Wootten fire-box designs, was due\\nrather to the flat surfaces and other defects in the general\\ndesign, than is traceable to large grate area, apart from\\nother considerations.\\nQ. What advantages are claimed for the division of\\nthe wide fire box into two separate furnaces\\nIn many instances, especially where the fuel employed\\nis of low grade, free burning, and contains a considerable\\npercentage of hydrocarbons tending to evolve smoke, the\\nuse of two furnaces has been deemed desirable, provided\\nit can be accomplished without undue expense or compli-\\ncation of construction, or incidental curtailment of grate\\narea to any objectionable degree. Two furnaces permit of\\na better system of alternate firing, and thus reduce the in-\\ntensity of smoke when burning bituminous coals of low\\ngrade, than is the case with a single fire box under ordi-\\nnary conditions.\\nQ. What are the general details of the fire box of the\\nBarnes locomotive boiler\\nThis boiler is of the wide fire-box type, in which a\\nlaterally extended fire box and a combustion chamber are\\nprovided. At the rear end of the combustion chamber is\\na water wall, which is open at the bottom to the water\\nspace in the waist below the combustion chamber, and ex-\\ntends a sufficient distance above the bottom of the com-\\nbustion chamber to serve as the forward boundary wall of\\nthe bed of fuel on the grate (see Fig. 55). The interior of\\nthe fire box is divided into two separate and independent\\nfurnaces, by a central longitudinal water wall, which is\\nclosed at bottom by a water- space bar, and at its front end\\nis open at bottom to the waist of the boiler and to the", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0273.jp2"}, "274": {"fulltext": "268\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nt?_ o ^i ri\\nFig. 55.\\nwater wall above referred to, Fig. 56. In the case of a\\ndouble combustion chamber, as in Fig. 57, the central\\nFig. 56.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0274.jp2"}, "275": {"fulltext": "BARNES LOCOMOTIVE BOILER\\n269\\nwater wall is open to the waist at both top and bottom.\\nThe side sheets of the water wall, in the middle of the\\nfurnace, are connected at their upper ends to the crown\\nFig. 57.\\nsheets of the furnaces, or may be made integral with the\\ncrown sheets as shown in the engraving. Fig. 57 shows\\nin plan the double combustion chamber, and Fig. 58 a\\nsingle combustion chamber common to both furnaces. A", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0275.jp2"}, "276": {"fulltext": "270\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nmaterial increase of fire-box heating surface is provided\\nby the central water wall. By the use of the two independ-\\nent furnaces, the fire may be kept in better condition than\\nis practicable with a single and exceptionally large furnace.\\nnnnnnnnijinnnnnnn\\nFig. 58.\\nQ. What is the best modern practice in the means\\nadopted to increase the production of steam by increased\\ndraft in locomotives?", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0276.jp2"}, "277": {"fulltext": "EXHAUST PIPES AND TIPS. 27 I\\nMr. C. H. Quereau, Denver and Rio Grande R. R., ob-\\ntained data for the Sixth Session of the International\\nRailway Congress, from the Motive Power Departments\\nof railroads owning some 15,000 out of more than 36,000\\nlocomotives in use in the United States, Canada, and\\nMexico; these results are given in the following ten ques-\\ntions.\\nQ. What evaporative results are had in average loco-\\nmotive practice\\nCoal, with evaporative results varying from 10.76 to\\n3. 10 pounds of water per pound of coal, is the almost uni-\\nversal fuel, though in the West, where the quality of the\\ncoal is poor and the cost high, fuel oil is used success-\\nfully.\\nQ. What is the present tendency as between single or\\ndouble exhaust pipes\\nThe single exhaust pipe is evidently the preference of\\nmost roads and apparently is displacing the double pipe.\\nThere has been a very decided shortening of the length\\nof the pipe during the past ten years, notwithstanding\\nthat the average diameter of the smoke box must have\\nincreased in the same period. Because of the very gen-\\neral adoption of this change and the considerable amount\\nthe pipes have been shortened, it seems reasonable to as-\\nsume that it must have been noticeably beneficial.\\nQ. What is the most efficient form of exhaust tip?\\nThe tip shown at b, Fig. 59, is essentially that recom-\\nmended by the Master Mechanics committee. That 60\\nper cent of the roads reporting use this form as standard\\nis presumptive evidence that it is the most efficient form.\\nThe tips, c and d, vary but little from a in the shape of", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0277.jp2"}, "278": {"fulltext": "272\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nthe exhaust and the absence of a shoulder, which must\\nproduce back pressure. If these are classed with b, the\\nresult is that 84 per cent of the tips have no shoulder. A\\nreasonable interpretation of these facts is that tips with\\nshoulders are less efficient than those without. There is\\none advantage in the shouldered tip; namely, that it will\\nnot gum up by the accumulation of oil from the exhaust.\\nThere are good reasons for the extensive use of the sin-\\ngle exhaust tip, which presupposes the use of a single\\na b\\no\\nFig. 59.\\nexhaust pipe. The following table gives the areas in\\nsquare inches of different tips\\nAverage Exhaust Tips.\\nCylinders.\\nSingle.\\nDouble.\\nDiameter.\\nArea.\\nDiameter.\\nArea.\\n17 X 24 in\\n18 X 24\\n19 X 24\\n20 X 24\\n20 X 26\\n4X in-\\nA l A\\n4^\\n5\\n5\\n14.2 sq. in.\\n15.9\\n17.7\\n19.6\\nI9.6\\n3 l A in.\\n3 3 A\\n3tt\\n3 3 A\\n3Yz\\n7.7 sq. in.\\n8.9\\n8.9\\n8.9\\n9.6\\nThe area of the single exhaust tip is shown to be rough-\\nly twice that of the double tip. It is reasonable to as-\\nsume that each is as large as it can be made, and produces a", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0278.jp2"}, "279": {"fulltext": "BEST FORM OF STACK. 273\\nsatisfactory amount of steam under service conditions also\\nthat two cylinders exhausting alternately through a single\\ntip will meet less resistance, hence produce less back\\npressure, than the same cylinders exhausting each through\\na separate tip half the area of the single tip hence, that\\nthe single tip is more efficient than the double. This\\nconclusion would be unwarranted unless it had been shown\\nthat with the single exhaust pipe and tip and a partition of\\nthe proper height between the exhausts, the exhausts from\\none cylinder do not interfere with those from the other.\\nThe use of a bridge or bar in the exhaust tip is universally\\ncondemned, except as a temporary expedient.\\nQ. What is the best form of stack?\\nThe cast-iron choke, or tapered stack, is the choice\\nof 80 per cent of the roads reporting, and growing in\\nfavor.\\nThere is also an increasing tendency to reduce the di-\\nameter of the stack, the cylinders remaining the same.\\nThe diamond stack is standard on but one railroad\\nsystem, and it is a significant fact that two roads, which\\nat one time were under the control of the system on which\\nthe diamond stack is standard and inherited it, have begun\\nto discard the diamond stack for the tapered design. From\\nthese facts it seems reasonable to conclude that experience\\nhas shown the diamond stack to be less efficient than\\neither the straight or taper form. With the diamond\\nstack the exhaust steam cannot escape in a direct line be-\\ncause of the cone, and the netting area through which the\\ngases must escape is less than with either of the others.\\nThere appear to be no rules for varying the stack di-\\nmension for different sizes of cylinder. It is evident that\\nthe rule given by the Master Mechanics committee con-\\n18", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0279.jp2"}, "280": {"fulltext": "274 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\ncerning the best relation between the stack and the ex-\\nhaust tip has had considerable influence. See Fig. 66.\\nQ. What is the function of the diaphragm in the smoke\\nbox\\nThe chief function of the diaphragm, which is used only\\nwith straight or tapered stacks, is to regulate the distri-\\nbution of the draft through the flues and grates. They\\nare used incidentally to extinguish and break the sparks\\ncoming through the flues. The Michigan Central has\\nincreased their efficiency in this respect by lining the sur-\\nfaces of the baffle plates against which the sparks strike\\nwith steel netting, having 2^x2^ meshes per square\\ninch, and wire o. 109 inch in diameter. These functions\\napply both to the diaphragms wholly back of the exhaust\\npipe and to those extending in front of the exhaust pipe.\\nThe advantage claimed for the latter over the former is\\ntheir action in sweeping practically all the cinders from\\nthe smoke box. The Chicago Great Western has found\\nthat the diaphragm when extending forward of the exhaust\\npipe causes excessive wear to both this and the steam\\npipes.\\nQ. What advantages are to be gained by the use of\\ndraft pipes?\\nThe use of draft pipes with extension front ends has\\nincreased considerably during the past few years. There\\ncan be little reason for doubt, judging by the reports, that\\ntheir use materially increases the draft, which must result\\nin increasing the efficiency of the exhaust by allowing an\\nincrease in the diameter of the tip and the consequent re-\\nduction in back pressure. On the other hand, there is no\\ndoubt that this advantage is accompanied by occasional", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0280.jp2"}, "281": {"fulltext": "SMOKE-BOX EXTENSION. 275\\ndelays for lack of steam, due to the petticoat pipes work-\\ning out of adjustment or becoming warped by heat. Such\\ndelays are frequently due to poor designs, and more fre-\\nquently to carelessness on the part of roundhouse men\\nwhose duty it is to adjust these parts, but a certain amount\\nof such careless work can never be entirely obviated, be-\\ncause of the class of men to which this work must almost\\nnecessarily be intrusted. Again, it is entirely probable\\nthat a considerable number of these delays are not known\\nto the heads of the motive power departments.\\nQ. What is the object in the smoke-box extension of\\nlocomotives\\nThe original purpose for which the extended front end\\nwas designed was to serve as a receptacle for cinders (see\\nFig. 63). That it is not very efficient in accomplishing\\nthis end was shown by the results of a test with the\\nmounted locomotive at Purdue University. The locomo-\\ntive tested had 17.5 square feet of grate area, and a front\\nend 52 inches in diameter by 64 inches long, including the\\nextension cylinders, 17x24 inches exhaust tip double,\\neach 3 inches in diameter. The average speed in miles per\\nhour was 25, and the duration of the test six hours, mak-\\ning it equivalent to a run of 150 miles. As the locomo-\\ntive was mounted on wheels controlled by friction brakes,\\nand did not move in relation to the earth, the opportunities\\nfor making accurate observations and measurements were\\nall that could be desired. The results showed that 75\\npounds of sparks were retained in the front end at the end\\nof the run, while 294 pounds had passed through the\\nstack.\\nThe fact that sixteen out of twenty-five roads reporting\\nhave shortened their extensions an average of 1 7 inches in", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0281.jp2"}, "282": {"fulltext": "276 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nthe past ten years shows quite conclusively that experience\\nhas demonstrated it does not accomplish the end for which\\nit was designed, or that the gain in draft by shortening is\\nmore valuable than the original purpose.\\nQ. Does the efficiency of draft appliances in locomotives\\nvary with locality or with quality of fuel used?\\nThe statement has frequently been made that draft ap-\\npliances which have been proved by extended experience\\nand experiments to be the best adapted for a given quality\\nof coal or section of the country do not, and will not,\\nprove at all adapted for similar classes of coal in other\\nsections, and that it is necessary to use entirely different\\ndesigns. This seems an unreasonable proposition.\\nThe sole purpose of the draft appliances is to produce\\na vacuum by means of which the necessary oxygen for the\\ncombustion of the fuel is provided, and properly to distrib-\\nute this. The primary source of the forced draft neces-\\nsary with locomotives is the force of the exhaust steam,\\nand the most efficient design of draft arrangements is that\\nwhich will produce the required vacuum with the least\\nloss of power, that is, with the least back pressure. As-\\nsuming that such a design has been devised and its effi-\\nciency established, it follows that it must be the most\\nefficient whatever the locality in which it may be used,\\nand whatever the grade of coal, and the only reasonable\\nchange in the design which should be allowed is to in-\\ncrease or decrease the vacuum to meet the necessities of\\nthe case by increasing or decreasing the back pressure.\\nNo claim is made that this most efficient arrangement\\nhas been designed, but it seems reasonable to believe it is\\nwithin the range of possibility, and when designed should\\nbe universally the most efficient. For instance, it having\\nbeen shown that the shorter the front end, the more effi-", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0282.jp2"}, "283": {"fulltext": "DRAFT IN LOCOMOTIVES. 277\\ncient the exhaust jet is, this remains true the world over,\\nno matter what the fuel or other conditions may be as\\nthe most efficient method of regulating the back pressure\\nhas been shown to be by means of the tip, any design\\nwhich fails to make the area of the tip less than that of\\nevery section between it and the cylinder must be faulty,\\nwherever used.\\nQ. What conclusions were reached by Mr. Quereau re-\\ngarding the means adopted to increase the production of\\nsteam by increased draft\\nThis topic naturally falls under two heads. The pro-\\nducing of the vacuum, and the distribution of the draft\\nThe Production of the Vacuum.\\n1. The most efficient means of producing the vacuum\\nare evidently those which accomplish the result with the\\nleast back pressure in the cylinders.\\n2. These can best be determined with a locomotive on\\na testing plant where the conditions can be made those of\\nregular service.\\n3. The proper basis for determining efficiency is that\\nwhich compares the cause, back pressure, with the result,\\nvacuum, and conclusions drawn solely from the vacuum\\nobtained are of doubtful value.\\n4. The steam passages from the cylinder should be of\\nample proportions.\\n5. The exhaust pipe passages should gradually contract\\nfrom the bottom to the tip, without abrupt curves.\\n6. The area of the opening through the tip should be\\nless than that of any section between it and the cylinder.\\n7. The exhaust pipe should be single, with a partition\\nbut little if any higher than 13 inches, and the total", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0283.jp2"}, "284": {"fulltext": "278 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nheight as short as possible consistent with easy curves in\\nthe pipe and a proper arrangement of the netting, provid-\\ning the height is not less than 19 inches.\\n8. The steam passage in the exhaust tip should be of\\nthe shape shown at b, Fig. 59.\\n9. Crossbars in the tip lessen the efficiency of the ex-\\nhaust jet.\\n10. The front end should be as short as possible.\\n11. With front ends more than 60 inches in diameter,\\ndouble draft pipes increase the efficiency, but careful de-\\nsigning and thorough workmanship are necessary to pre-\\nvent them from warping and working out of adjustment. If\\nthey become displaced they are worse than useless.\\n12. With properly designed draft pipes it is probable\\nthat the greater the distance from the exhaust tip to the\\nbase, or choke, of the stack the greater the efficiency.\\n13. Either the taper or straight stack is more efficient\\nthan the diamond stack.\\n14. Probably the taper stack is somewhat more efficient\\nthan the straight, when the proportions of each are the\\nbest for any given case, because of the more easy approach\\nand exit afforded the gases by the former.\\n15. The correct rules for the most efficient stack pro-\\nportions are still open to question.\\n16. The theory of the adjustable exhaust tip is admir-\\nable, but the results of experience have been that those\\ndesigns tried so far soon become inoperative. To be per-\\nmanently successful a design should be automatic and be-\\nyond the control of the engineman connected with the\\nreversing gear, for instance.\\n17. As far as practicable the plane of the netting should\\nbe at right angles to the currents of gases passing through\\nit, so as to offer as little resistance as possible.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0284.jp2"}, "285": {"fulltext": "PREVENTION OF FIRES CAUSED BY SPARKS. 279\\n18. The area of the openings through the netting should\\nbe greater than that through the flues, when possible.\\nThe Distribution of the Draft.\\nSo far as known there are no published results of the\\nmost efficient arrangement of diaphragm plates or draft\\npipes, so that conclusions concerning them are largely\\nmatters of opinion or personal experience.\\n19. With diamond stacks the distribution of the draft\\nis best accomplished by the use of draft, or petticoat,\\npipes.\\n20. With extended front ends and straight or taper\\nstacks the baffle plates are almost entirely depended on for\\nregulating the distribution.\\n21. It seems entirely probable that with the extended\\nfront end a design may be developed which will leave out\\nthe baffle plates and depend entirely on draft pipes for the\\ndistribution of the draft, and that such a design would be\\nmore efficient than those which depend on the baffle\\nplates.\\nQ. What conclusions were reached by Mr. Quereau re-\\ngarding the means for preventing fires caused by sparks\\nfrom the stack\\nThe following conclusions follow, in numerical order,\\nthe answers to the previous question\\n22. The extended front end is of little practical use as\\na receptacle for cinders.\\n23. The baffle plates and netting should be so designed\\nas to extinguish the sparks, break the cinders up, and then\\ndischarge them into the open air.\\n24. Systematic and competent inspection of front end\\narrangments, especially the netting, at regular intervals,", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0285.jp2"}, "286": {"fulltext": "280 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nin connection with a permanent record showing the condi-\\ntion at the time of inspection and the repairs made.\\n25. The use of fire guards made by ploughing two or\\nthree furrows as far from the track as possible, and then\\nburning over the ground between the tracks and furrows.\\nQ. What is the best method for utilizing the heat of\\nexhaust steam in locomotives?\\nMr. Quereau concludes that\\n26. American practice has not yet developed a success-\\nful design for this purpose, though two roads are making\\nthe attempt.\\n27. The exhaust from the air pump is being success-\\nfully used by a number of roads to heat the water in the\\ntender.\\n28. Because of the fact that most American locomo-\\ntives are equipped with injectors, instead of pumps, for\\nfeeding the boiler with water, and that the injectors will\\nnot work with feed water hotter than about 120 F., it\\nseems probable that the maximum benefits of heating the\\nfeed water by means of the air-pump exhaust will not be\\nderived till the control of the temperature of the feed\\nwater is made automatic. Experiments with this end in\\nview are being made.\\nQ. What are the details of construction of the Strong\\nlocomotive fire box\\nThe corrugated fire box adopted for the Strong locomo-\\ntive boilers is a somewhat radical departure from the de-\\nsigns which have long been employed in locomotive con-\\nstruction. By reference to Figs. 60, 61, 62, it will be\\nseen that there are two corrugated furnaces, which, by\\nmeans of a junction piece, lead into a single corrugated\\ncombustion chamber, the latter terminating in the back", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0286.jp2"}, "287": {"fulltext": "STRONG S LOCOMOTIVE FIRE BOX.\\n281\\ntube sheet, from which the tubes proceed forward, as in\\nthe ordinary locomotive, to the smoke box.\\nThe ordinary soft-coal burning boiler 52 inches in di-\\nameter has about 900 stay bolts, but this boiler has none\\nwhatever. There is not a rigid connection between the\\nv li iijp\\n^bT\\nFig. 60.\\ninner and outer parts of the boiler, and only two connec-\\ntions of any kind between the ends, the functions of which\\nare to support the inner shell; there is nothing whatever\\nto resist expansion and contraction, and thus hurtfully act\\nupon the material. The corrugations doubtless contribute\\nto freedom of movement, but even if they do not the", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0287.jp2"}, "288": {"fulltext": "282\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nplates of the outer shell have the usual opportunity to\\nbuckle.\\nThe crown sheet, being the upper half of a cylinder,\\neasily parts with scale which may form upon it, and in\\nthis respect is in direct contrast with the common, flat\\nFig. 6i.\\nhorizontal crown sheets covered with bolts and crown bars,\\nwhich are a sufficient means of anchoring all scale which\\nforms upon the sheet, and equally efficient means of pre-\\nventing inspection and cleaning. The crown sheet of this\\nboiler is accessible from end to end; an inspector can\\ncrawl all over it, examine every portion, and remove any\\nscale or dirt which may have lodged upon it. The cir-", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0288.jp2"}, "289": {"fulltext": "STRONG S LOCOMOTIVE FIRE BOX.\\n283\\ndilation of water is entirely unimpeded the water un-\\nder the fire box is free to rise without any obstruction\\nwhatever.\\nThe inner shell has no joint which is in contact with\\nthe fire, except that connecting the back tube plate and\\ncombustion chamber, which does not differ from common\\npractice. The life of this boiler, as shown by actual ex-\\nperience, is three to four times that of the ordinary stayed\\nFig. 62.\\nboiler with the same surface, proving that the construction\\nis not only theoretically correct, but practically in advance\\nof boilers of the ordinary type.\\nBy the system of double furnaces with alternate firing,\\nalmost absolute perfection in combustion is secured, with\\ntotal absence of smoke and almost total absence of fire\\nfrom the stack, as a very light draft can be used, steaming\\nfreely with 2^2 to 3 inches of vacuum, while the ordinary", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0289.jp2"}, "290": {"fulltext": "284 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nlocomotive would require under the same conditions of\\nworking from 8 to 12 inches.\\nQ. How is the smokeless combustion of bituminous coal\\ncarried out in practice\\nThe smokeless combustion of bituminous coal is being\\nvery successfully carried out in locomotives on the South-\\nern Pacific Railway, burning a coal known as Castle Gate,\\nmined in Utah, analzying as follows\\nMoisture 2.15 per cent.\\nVolatile combustible 39. 10\\nFixed carbon 50. 75\\nAsh 7.40\\nSulphur .60\\nMr. J. Snowden Bell, a locomotive expert, made a care-\\nful examination into all the conditions which obtain in that\\nroad, both as regards fire-box design and draft appliances,\\nand the method of firing. The engine on which Mr. Bell\\nmade his observations was a 10-wheeled Schenectady, of\\nthe 1800 class, having 20x26 inch cylinders. When rid-\\ning on the engine up a 108-foot grade, hauling 6 passenger\\ncoaches, the fire was kept clear and bright, without either\\nbeing heavy or having holes in it; steam was maintained\\nat 1 80 pounds, and the fire door was never closed. Mr.\\nBell says he never saw a soft- coal burning engine, either\\non a level or on a grade, which could be compared as to\\nfreedom from smoke the light and frequent firing which\\nwas practised was, in his opinion, the correct and intelli-\\ngent one, and involved less fatigue on the fireman than\\nthe ordinary heavy firing.\\nMr. H. T. Small, superintendent motive power of the\\nabove road, contributes detail drawings of all the mechani-\\ncal features which contribute to this result, as applied es-\\npecially to 12-wheel, 22x26 inch locomotives.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0290.jp2"}, "291": {"fulltext": "FRONT ENDS OF LOCOMOTIVES.\\n285\\nQ. What are the details of the front ends of locomo-\\ntives, Southern Pacific Railway\\nThe interior arrangement of front ends, shown in Figs.\\n63 and 64, is also practically the same as recommended\\nby the Master Mechanics Association in 1896, and is\\ngiving satisfactory results. It has been adopted as stand-\\nFlG. 63.\\nard by the Southern Pacific, notwithstanding that it is\\nnecessary to use 7x7 mesh netting, and during the dry\\nsummer months 8x8 mesh netting in engines running\\nthrough the valley district. The exhaust pipe and nozzle\\nfor the twelve-wheeler class are given in Fig. 65.\\nThe standard cast-iron stack and saddle (Fig. 66) are\\nused on several classes of engines, and the results obtained\\nin service are entirely satisfactory. Although incorrect in\\ntheory, it has been fully demonstrated that it is really un-", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0291.jp2"}, "292": {"fulltext": "286\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nFig. 6 4\\nthese have been used since\\n1890. It will be noted that\\nthe stack shown is practically\\nnecessary to incur\\nthe expense of\\nmaintaining a\\nspecial pattern of\\nstack for each\\nclass of engines,\\nand as a matter of\\nfact the Southern\\nPacific has only\\nthree patterns of\\nstacks for the en-\\ntire system, and\\nFig. 65.\\nFig. 66.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0292.jp2"}, "293": {"fulltext": "FURNACE DOOR FOR LOCOMOTIVES.\\n287\\nthe same as that recommended by the Master Mechanics\\nAssociation in 1896.\\nQ. What are the details of furnace door on locomotives,\\nSouthern Pacific Railway?\\nThe furnace door (Fig. 67) is used on all coal-burning\\nengines, the door proper being in two sections. The up-\\nper section, commonly called the trap, is left open con-\\nFlG. 67.\\ntinually while the engine is working, and through this\\nopening, which is 6 x 1 5 inches for the large engines, the\\nfireman charges coal into the fire box. It will be noted\\nthat the deflector, projecting through the door and opening\\ninto the fire box, is adjustable to any angle desired; it so\\nguides the air admitted through the trap as to best aid\\ncombustion, and its proper position is determined very\\nreadily by the enginemen. It also serves as a check on", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0293.jp2"}, "294": {"fulltext": "COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nfiring with large lumps of coal, or large amounts of coal\\nregardless of size.\\nThe small fire-door opening was a novelty to Mr. Bell,\\nas it will be to others, but is obviously an excellent fea-\\nture, and this, with the thorough and uniform distribution\\nof air and support of fuel by Mr. Heintselman s latest de-\\nsign of grate, an effective ash pan, and proper front-end\\narrangements, are clearly the factors to which, with good\\nfiring, the results are due.\\nQ. What are the details of brick arch used in locomo-\\ntives of Southern Pacific Railway?\\nThe arrangement of the brick arch which is of the ordi-\\nnary type and shown in Figs. 68 and 69 needs no special\\nFig. 69.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0294.jp2"}, "295": {"fulltext": "LOCOMOTIVE GRATE AND ASH PAN. 289\\nmention, excepting that it is considered an important fac-\\ntor, and helps to produce perfect combustion and economy\\nin fuel consumption.\\nQ. What are the details of grate used in locomotives\\non Southern Pacific Railway?\\nThe improved finger grates and bearings shown in de-\\ntail in Fig. 70 are novel, as is also the manner of hanging\\nthe grates from the fire-box sheets. It will be seen that\\nthe hanging of the side bars is so arranged as to compen-\\nsate for the expansion and contraction of the grate bars,\\nand by means of the collar at the end of each trunnion\\nbearing the grates are held central at all times, keeping\\nthe air spaces equally divided between the fingers. The\\nair spaces through the body of the grate bar and fingers\\nserve to distribute the air to the fire more evenly, and at\\nthe same time the thickness of the metal in the body and\\nfingers is reduced to a minimum. The fingers being de-\\ntachable, they can readily be removed and replaced when\\nchange of air openings or spaces between fingers is desired\\nto suit different kinds of coal or, in case any number of\\nfingers become damaged in any way they can be replaced,\\nthereby saving the remainder of the grate. The fingers\\nare applied to the grate bars in the rough, or just as re-\\nceived from the foundry.\\nQ. What are the details of ash pan used on locomotives\\nof the Southern Pacific Railway?\\nThe general arrangement of the self-dumping ash pan\\n(adapted to twelve-wheelers) operated by compressed air is\\nshown in Fig. 71, and the application of air valves to the\\nsides of the ash pan is shown in Fig. 72 these side valves\\nare also worked by compressed air. This style of ash pan\\nis considered an important improvement, and has resulted\\n19", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0295.jp2"}, "296": {"fulltext": "290\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0296.jp2"}, "297": {"fulltext": "TRAVELLING FIREMAN. 29 1\\nin a saving of fuel and a saving in labor and delays to\\ntrains on account of cleaning. The side dampers distrib-\\nute the draft through the grates evenly, whereas, in\\nformer arrangements with only end dampers, the draft was\\nexcessive through the centre of the grate and insufficient\\nat the sides and ends. Clinkers no longer form on the\\nsides of the fire box, and the fireman is always free to\\nshake the grates, knowing that the ash pan will not become\\nfilled up, as the new pans can be dumped in a few seconds\\nby a single movement of a valve. Therefore a light fire\\ncan always be carried, and there are no delays for clean-\\ning. With former styles of ash pans where the fireman re-\\nmoved the ashes with a hoe, trains were sometimes de-\\nlayed on this account as long as thirty minutes. The new\\nash pans are so arranged that there is no chance of sparks\\ndropping, and when drifting down grades all the dampers,\\nif required, can be closed with one movement of the air\\nvalve, or the openings can be partially closed to suit the\\nconditions.\\nQ. What facts are given in the daily report of the\\nTravelling Fireman on the Southern Pacific Railway?\\nOne thing contributing to the success of the Southern\\nPacific in burning bituminous coal is the daily report\\nmade by the Travelling Fireman. This is of value in\\nkeeping the head of the department posted as to whether\\nthe work of firing is being properly attended to. The\\nblank used for this report gives the number of the train,\\ndate, names of the enginemen, and between what stations\\nthe report covers. The questions are well designed to\\nbring out any failures of the men or machinery, and are as\\nfollows\\nKind of coal, and was it broken to suitable size", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0297.jp2"}, "298": {"fulltext": "292\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0298.jp2"}, "299": {"fulltext": "DETAILS OF ASH PAN.\\n293", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0299.jp2"}, "300": {"fulltext": "294 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nWas draft on fire properly equalized if not, what sug-\\ngestions have you to offer\\nWas there any trouble due to clinkers or dirty fire If\\nso, state cause.\\nHow many times was it necessary to clean fire over the\\ndivision and time consumed in each case\\nIf any trouble was experienced for want of steam, what,\\nin your opinion, was the cause of it\\nWhat was the condition of the fire and ash pan on arrival\\nat terminal\\nWas fireman disposed to comply with instructions and\\npractise economy, and prevent black smoke\\nWas the general condition of the engine such that would\\nindicate any neglect whatever on the part of the fireman?\\nWas engine slipped unnecessarily?\\nWere injectors handled so as to obtain the best results\\nin fuel economy\\nWas engine in good serviceable condition If not, state\\ndefects.\\nThe Travelling Fireman is also expected to note on the\\nreport or write a letter regarding any other things that may\\nbe noticed while travelling or at terminals, that in any way\\nwould better the engine service or effect a saving.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0300.jp2"}, "301": {"fulltext": "PART II.\\nHYDROCARBON OIL AS A FUEL FOR LOCO-\\nMOTIVES.\\nQ. Is oil used as fuel in locomotives\\nIt has long been in use in the Russian oil fields it has\\nbeen tested experimentally near the Pennsylvania and Ohio\\noil fields and has been used for fuel for several years past on\\nthe Pacific coast. The Southern California Railroad began\\nburning oil in 1894, and have used it more or less ever\\nsince. Various minor changes have been made with a\\nview to improve the process; but in the main the arrange-\\nment has been about the same for the last three or four\\nyears and according to Locomotive Engineering, about\\nall their engines burn oil now. The Southern Pacific\\nCompany also burn oil in some of their locomotives. The\\noil burners being easily removable, they burn either oil or\\ncoal according to the relative prices of the two fuels.\\nQ. What advantages are claimed for petroleum as a\\nfuel?\\nIt is claimed for petroleum\\n1. That its heating power is greater per pound than that\\nof any solid fuel.\\n2. That it permits of continuous firing in a closed fur-\\nnace, free from drafts of cold air.\\n3. That the quantity of heat required to maintain a con-\\nstant pressure of steam may be controlled by the simple\\nadjustment of a valve in the oil-supply pipe.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0301.jp2"}, "302": {"fulltext": "296 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\n4. Absence of debris; there being no ashes or clinkers\\nleft in the furnace.\\n5. That the fire is not only easily started, but can be\\ninstantly discontinued without loss of fuel.\\nQ. What is petroleum?\\nPetroleum is a natural hydrocarbon oil; in its widest\\napplication, the term covers all the mineral oils found in\\nthis country. It is of a dark-brown color, having a green-\\nish tinge. In specific gravity the crude oil averages about\\n0.8, with variations of .025 on either side; equivalent to\\n50 pounds per cubic foot.\\nThe composition of crude oil is by no means constant,\\nbut it will approximate closely\\nCarbon 84 per cent.\\nHydrogen 14\\nOxygen 2\\n100\\nThe theoretical heating power of oil by this analysis\\nwould be\\nHeat units.\\nCarbon 84 X 14,544 12,217\\nHydrogen (available) 1375X62,032\u00e2\u0080\u0094 8,529\\nTotal heat units =20, 746\\nThe evaporating equivalent of which would be 21.47\\npounds of water from and at 21 2\u00c2\u00b0 F. per pound of oil.\\nQ. What is the calorific value of petroleum?\\nThe heating power of crude oil is greater than the re-\\nfined oil, and when employed as a fuel it is the crude oil\\nthat is commonly used except locally, where the thick oily\\nresiduum from the refineries is used which is always with\\ngood effect, when the furnace details are properly adapted\\nfor burning it.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0302.jp2"}, "303": {"fulltext": "HEATING POWER OF OIL. 297\\nThe calorific power of crude oil approximates the fol-\\nlowing\\nBritish\\nthermal units.\\nPennsylvania, light 17, 933\\nOhio, heavy 18,718\\nWest Virginia, heavy 18, 324\\nWest Virginia, light 18,401\\nAn oil averaging 18,500 heat units per pound would\\nyield an equivalent evaporation of 19.15 pounds of water\\nfrom and at 21 2\u00c2\u00b0 F.\\nThe boiler plant at the World s Fair, Chicago, was sup-\\nplied with crude oil from the Lima, Ohio, district for fuel.\\nThe quantity of petroleum used for firing the main boiler\\nplant was upward of 31,000 tons, and the work done was\\nstated to have been 32,316,000 horse-power hours, or\\nabout 2.1 pounds of oil per horse power per hour.\\nQ. What is the calorific power of refined mineral oil?\\nA commercial product known as mineral seal yielded\\nupon analysis\\nCarbon 83. 3 per cent.\\nHydrogen 13.2\\nOxygen, nitrogen, and loss 3. 5\\n100. o\\nThis oil has a density of 40 Baume, which corresponds\\nto a specific gravity of .83. The flash test was 266 F.,\\nand the fire test 31 1\u00c2\u00b0 F. It is a pure mineral oil. The\\ncalculated heat units are\\nBritish\\nthermal units.\\nCarbon 14,500 X .833 12,079\\nHydrogen 52, 370 X- 132= 6,913\\n18,992\\nThe average result obtained by experiment is 18,790", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0303.jp2"}, "304": {"fulltext": "298 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nheat units, which is 1 1 per cent lower than the value cal-\\nculated from the analysis (Jacobus).\\nQ. What success has attended the use of liquid fuel as\\nauxiliary to coal for locomotive engines?\\nExperiments made in England, on the Great Eastern\\nRailway, have been quite successful in the use of liquid\\nfuel as an auxiliary to coal in locomotive engines. The\\nfluid used is tar, and to it is added a certain proportion of\\ngreen oil which was also obtained from the works where\\nthe tar was produced, the cost being about 3 cents per gal-\\nlon. Each of the 12 or 14 engines, ft appears, used about\\n1 2 pounds of coal and over a gallon of oil, which is equal\\nto about 1 1 pounds fluid fuel per train mile as against 34\\npounds of coal. The relative cost of the combined mate-\\nrial is rather less than coal, but the value of the oil injector\\nis seen to special advantage on gradients where an extra\\nsupply of steam is required.\\nQ. What success has attended the burning of the heavy\\nresiduum obtained by the distillation of bituminous shale\\nNot much attention has been given to the distillation of\\noil from bituminous shale in this country. Some lignites,\\nfor example those found in Ouachita County, Ark., have\\nbeen experimentally dealt with the lignite was soft enough\\nto be cut with a knife, solid, heavy, compact, of a bluish\\nbrown color, disintegrating by exposure to the atmosphere.\\nIt consisted of\\nFixed carbon 34. 50 per cent.\\nVolatile matter 60. 50\\nAsh 5.00\\n100.00\\nWhen distilled in an iron crucible, the first product that\\ncame over was gas having a feeble odor of sulphurous acid", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0304.jp2"}, "305": {"fulltext": "BURNING OIL IN LOCOMOTIVES. 299\\nand burning with a tolerably bright flame. The gas was\\nsoon accompanied by ammoniacal water, a yellowish oil,\\nand a waxy product which when condensed had the con-\\nsistency of lard and the color of beeswax. The last\\nproducts which came over were lubricating oil and par-\\naffin. The products of this distillation were\\nCoke 37. 83 per cent.\\nWatery solution containing sulphurous acid, or-\\nganic acids, and ammonia 34- 3 2\\nCrude oil 12.16\\nGas and loss 15-69\\n100.00\\nFrom this analysis 2,000 pounds of lignite would yield\\n35.40 gallons of crude oil.\\nCrude residue, not unlike the above, left after extract-\\ning oil from bituminous shale, was applied for heating\\npurposes at the Forth bridge. In appearance this residue\\nresembled butter, and would not burn upon the application\\nof a lighted match. By melting it and forcing it in jets\\nwith superheated steam against previously heated fire-clay\\nsurfaces with an induced current of air, it burned freely\\nand developed great heat.\\nQ. What changes are necessary to convert a coal into\\nan oil burning locomotive\\nTo change from coal to oil fuel on the Southern Califor-\\nnia Railroad the grates are taken out, and a cast-iron plate\\nis placed 4 to 6 inches below the mud ring, extending\\nover the entire space under the fire box. This plate has\\nthree openings for air to come up into the fire box, 9x15\\ninches, one of these air openings being in the middle of\\nthe fire box, one near the front end, and one near the back\\nend. The plate is protected from the heat of the fire\\nabove by a covering of fire brick. The ash pan and damp-", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0305.jp2"}, "306": {"fulltext": "300 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\ners are left the same as a coal burner. The sides of the\\nfire box are also protected from the direct force of the in-\\ntense heat by a fire-brick wall about 5 inches thick, which\\ncomes up to the flues in front, up above the flare of the\\nfire box on the sides and to the bottom of the door at the\\nback. There is a brick arch extending across the fire box\\nfrom side to side, reaching back pretty well toward the\\ndoor, just the same as in a soft-coal burner. Some of the\\nengines also have a narrow arch just under the door, which\\nserves to keep the intense heat from the door ring.\\nThe atomizer which separates the oil into a fine spray\\nand blows it into the fire box is located just under the\\nmud ring, pointed a little upward, so the stream of oil\\nspray and steam would strike the opposite wall a few\\ninches above the bottom, if it was to fly clear across the\\nbox. Deep fire boxes have the atomizer at the back end\\nof the box, while the shallow and long fire boxes have it\\nlocated at the front end, pointed back. The shallow boxes\\nhave the same arrangement of side walls that the deep ones\\nhave, but the arch is put in differently. Some of them\\nhave three small arches extending from side to side, but\\nclapping over each other from front to back, so as to di-\\nvide the current of flame and heat into several parts, and\\nthus distribute it over the long, shallow box more evenly.\\nA good deal depends on the size and position of the arch,\\nwhich has the same effect on the steaming of an oil burner\\nthat the diaphragm in the front end has on the draft of a\\ncoal burner. No air is admitted above the fire of the\\natomized oil.\\nQ. How are the atomizers constructed for burning oil on\\nthe Southern California Railroad?\\nThe atomizers, one for each engine, are of brass, 12\\ninches long, 4^ inches wide from side to side, and 2", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0306.jp2"}, "307": {"fulltext": "DETAILS OF OIL BURNER. 301\\ninches thick from top to bottom, divided into two parts\\nby a partition in the middle. Steam comes into the bot-\\ntom part, heats the atomizer, and issues through a slit\\nby 4 inches. The oil flows into the top part of the\\natomizer over the hot partition, and on running out of\\nthe front end is caught by the steam issuing from the\\nslit in the bottom part, and is sprayed into the fire, which,\\nwhen the engine is working, is a mass of flame, fitting\\nthe fire box under the arch, and most of the time the\\nwhole box.\\nThe supply of steam and oil to the atomizer is regulated\\nby the fireman from the cab, the handles for the steam and\\noil supply valves being placed where he can have his hands\\non them when on his seat box. Before the oil is fed into\\nthe atomizer it passes through a small heater made of\\nbrass, having a steam pipe through it; this steam pipe also\\nleads to a coil in the bottom of the oil tank to warm the\\noil so it will flow easily. The oil on the Pacific coast is not\\nat all like the fuel oil from the Indiana and Lima fields.\\nSome of the oil has a generous portion of thick stuff like\\nasphaltum in it, so it does not flow very easily while other\\nkinds are thin as water and almost as clear. The oil tank\\nis located in the pit of the water tank, usually assigned for\\ncoal.\\nQ. How is the oil supplied to the burner under pressure\\nAn air pipe leads from the main reservoir to the oil\\ntank, with a reducing valve similar to the one used in the\\nair-signal line, but with a different spring box, so as to\\nbring the air pressure down to 4 pounds, which is main-\\ntained in the oil tank, at which pressure the oil comes out\\nfreely. Self-closing valves are provided to shut off the\\nflow of oil in case of accident.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0307.jp2"}, "308": {"fulltext": "302 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nQ. What size of exhaust nozzle is used when burning\\noil?\\nIt is about the same size as is used when burning good\\ncoal. Frequently no changes are made in the front end\\nexcept to take out the netting; others have a low nozzle\\nand petticoat pipe put in instead of high nozzle and a dia-\\nphragm or apron.\\nQ. Are oil fires smokeless?\\nAn oil fire requires as careful attention as does soft coal\\nto render its combustion smokeless. The fireman and en-\\ngineer must work coincidently to get the best results.\\nEvery time the engineer changes his lever or throttle the\\nfireman must change his fire. He must keep his eye on the\\nwater in the boiler, must know the road, etc. in fact, a\\ngood fireman on an oil-burning locomotive must keep his\\neyes open, for he can make or waste more for the company\\nthan he could on a coal burner.\\nQ. What is the effect of the products of combustion of\\nan oil fire upon the tubes of the boiler?\\nThe products of combustion from an oil fire make a\\nsticky deposit in the flues, which soon coats them and in-\\nterferes with the steaming. To cure this difficulty, the\\nfireman sticks a long funnel through a hole in the fire-box\\ndoor, made for that purpose, and gives the flues a dose of\\nabout four quarts of sand, which is drawn through the flues\\nand scours them out.\\nQ. What is the relative cost of oil and coal as a fuel in\\nlocomotive practice\\nIn California coal is high priced good coal at Los An-\\ngeles costs $6.50 to $7.50 per ton; oil costs about $2 per\\nton less. With coal at $4.80 per ton it is profitable to", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0308.jp2"}, "309": {"fulltext": "PRESCOTT S OIL BURNER. 303\\nchange a locomotive into an oil burner, with oil at $1 per\\nbarrel. Engines do not steam as freely with coal, so they\\ncannot make as good time or handle as large a train at as\\nhigh a rate of speed. There is apparently no limit to the\\nsteaming power of an oil burner.\\nQ. What are the general details of construction of the\\nPrescott burner for liquid hydrocarbons\\nA locomotive fire box equipped with an oil burner by\\nGeorge W. Prescott is shown in Fig. 73. The fire box is\\nlined with fire brick, and fitted with front and back arches\\nas shown. An air-supply pipe with damper, adjustable\\nfrom the cab, is also shown. Fig. 74 is a plan sectional\\nview of a double burner provided with a central oil-receiv-\\ning chamber, also shown in Fig. 75. This oil chamber is\\nlocated inside a larger chamber in which water or steam\\nunder pressure may be used for the purpose of raising or\\nlowering the temperature of the oil. The casing of this\\nburner is rectangular in shape, and provided with exit\\npassages, into which the oil is fed from the oil chamber\\nbefore passing into the combustion chamber. These exit\\npassages are irregular in shape or larger at their induct\\nportions than at their outlets, so as to contract the supply\\nof oil at the outlet, so that when the burner is tilted at an\\nangle, as indicated in Fig. 75, the upper level of the oil\\nwill be above the upper surface of the contact opening and\\nform a trap, as it were, to prevent gas or heated products\\nfrom flowing back into the oil chamber to cause an explo-\\nsion therein.\\nThe casing of the burner at its lowest portion is pro-\\nvided with steam chambers having tapered, slotted open-\\nings, in which are movably mounted tapered slide valves.\\nThe exit openings of these chambers, in which these", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0309.jp2"}, "310": {"fulltext": "304\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0310.jp2"}, "311": {"fulltext": "prescott s oil burner.\\n305", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0311.jp2"}, "312": {"fulltext": "306 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\natomizing valves are arranged, are located immediately\\nunder the exit openings of the liquid hydrocarbons, and\\nthe steam chamber is connected with the source of steam", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0312.jp2"}, "313": {"fulltext": "PRESCOTT S OIL BURNER,\\n307\\nunder pressure, so that when the valves are opened steam\\nunder pressure contacts with the liquid hydrocarbon im-\\nmediately, atomizes the same, and drives it into the fuel\\nchamber with sufficient force to meet the incoming atmos-\\npheric air and promote combustion.\\nThe steam- supply chamber in which the valves are\\nrfifa\\nm\\ng ffi r lirfl M\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0R m\\nrn^mm\\nFig. 76.\\nlocated is connected by means of a pipe with the source\\nof steam supply, so that steam under pressure may be fur-\\nnished the casing to atomize the oil. The steam-supply\\npipe is fitted with a drip valve, the parts of which are so\\narranged that when steam under sufficient pressure is fur-\\nnished to the chamber the drip valve is kept closed but\\nas soon as the pressure is lowered sufficiently, the valve is\\nopened by means of the tension spring and the water of", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0313.jp2"}, "314": {"fulltext": "308 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\ncondensation allowed to drip out and empty the chamber\\nand the pipe.\\nThe plug valves shown in Fig. 76 govern the supply of\\noil to the burner, and can be operated from the cab, either\\nindependently or simultaneously.\\nEach atomizing valve in the burner is provided with a\\nstem that projects out of the rear end of the casing, and\\nfurther provided with screw threads, worm, and worm gear\\nfor adjustment.\\nThe steam or water chamber is provided with a steam\\npipe, leading to the source of supply for heating the oil\\nand another pipe connecting with the water tank, should\\ncooling instead of heating be desired.\\nAs shown in Fig. 73, the burner is arranged at a slight\\ninclination from the horizontal, so as to provide a trap and\\nprevent back flow of gas from entering, igniting, and ex-\\nploding in the oil reservoir.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0314.jp2"}, "315": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XII.\\nCHIMNEYS AND MECHANICAL DRAFT.\\nQ. What service does a chimney render in connection\\nwith a steam-boiler furnace\\nIt is the means generally employed for the purpose of\\nmaintaining a draft of air through the body of burning fuel\\nin the furnace. Its effectiveness is due to that quality\\nwhich it possesses of maintaining an unbalanced pressure\\nbetween the interior or combustion chamber of the fur-\\nnace and the atmospheric pressure without.\\nQ. What is the cause of draft in steam-boiler furnaces\\nFurnace draft is caused by the difference in weight or\\npressure of the column of cold air outside of the chimney,\\nand the weight of the column of heated gases within it.\\nAir and gases, when heated, expand in volume, and be-\\ncome less dense than for equal volumes at a lower tem-\\nperature this difference in density is the draft-producing\\nquality of heated gases.\\nQ. How does this unbalanced pressure originate in a\\nchimney, and how is it maintained?\\nThe unbalanced pressure originates in the fact that hot\\ngases occupy a larger volume for a given weight than cold\\ngases. As there is no exit for the hot gases generated in\\nthe furnace except through the chimney, a current is at\\nonce established in that direction. By reason of the\\nheight of the chimney above the furnace, and the fact that", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0315.jp2"}, "316": {"fulltext": "3io\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nit is filled with gases of higher temperature, and conse-\\nquently of less density than that of the air outside of the\\nchimney, an upward current of hot gases will be main-\\ntained so long as any unbalanced pressure exists between\\nthe outside and inside of the chimney.\\nQ. What is the rate of increase in volume for different\\ntemperatures of gases escaping by the chimney\\nLet us suppose that 18 pounds of air pass through the\\nfurnace per pound of coal we then have 1 8 I 19\\npounds of gases. If the temperature of the air flowing\\ninto the furnace is 68\u00c2\u00b0 F., its volume will be 241 cubic\\nfeet; if the temperature of the escaping gases be 572 F.\\nthe volume will have been increased to 471 cubic feet, a\\ndifference of 471 241 1.95 times increase in volume\\nof the hot gases over that of the cold air, a ratio approxi-\\nmately of 2 to 1.\\nTable 30. Volume of Escaping Gases in Cubic Feet per Pound\\nof Coal Burned. (Rankine.)\\nPounds of Air per Pound of Coal.\\nTemperature.\\nTwelve pounds,\\ncubic feet.\\nEighteen pounds,\\ncubic feet.\\nTwenty-four pounds,\\ncubic feet.\\n32\u00c2\u00b0 F\\nI50\\nI6l\\n172\\n205\\n259\\n314\\n369\\n479\\n588\\n697\\n906\\n225\\n241\\n258\\n3\u00c2\u00b07\\n389\\n471\\n553\\n718\\n882\\n1,046\\n1,359\\n300\\n322\\n344\\n409\\n519\\n628\\n68\\nI04\\n212\\n3Q2\\n572\\n752\\n1,112\\n738\\n957\\n1,176\\ni,395\\n1,812\\n1,472\\n1,832\\n2,500\\nAs the lighter gases are confined to the chimney they\\nrise to the top by reason of their lesser gravity, and within", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0316.jp2"}, "317": {"fulltext": "AREA OF CHIMNEY. $11\\ncertain limitations the higher the chimney and the higher\\nthe temperature of the escaping gases the stronger or\\nmore intense will be the draft.\\nQ. How is the area of a chimney determined for a\\ngiven boiler plant?\\nThis detail in steam engineering has been practically\\nfixed by Ishewood s experiments, and further corroborated\\nby observations extending over many years, including all\\nkinds of fuel, and in connection with almost every im-\\nmaginable furnace contrivance, grates, etc.\\nIt is a common practice to make the area of the chim-\\nney bear some relation to the grate surface, although the\\nlatter does not bear, in practice, a fixed relation to the\\nboiler-heating surface and not always to the quantity of\\nfuel to be burned, nor to the rate of combustion.\\nAfter a series of elaborate experiments Mr. Ishewood\\nfixed upon yi of the grate area as being the best propor-\\ntion for draft area, and this recommendation holds good\\nfor both hard and soft coal at ordinary rates of combustion.\\nIn practice the sectional areas of chimneys will be found\\nto vary between l and of the grate surfaces to which\\nthey may be attached; the latter proportions being for\\nvery large plants and in connection with unusual height\\nof chimney.\\nThe area of chimney may be based upon the quantity of\\ncoal burnt. Up to 1,000 horse power the most satisfactory\\nchimneys are those in which from I to 2 square inches\\nof chimney area are had for each pound of coal burnt per\\nhour. If, say, 600 pounds of coal are supplied a steam-\\nboiler furnace per hour, we have\\n600 X 1. 5 900 sq. in., or 34 in. diameter.\\n600 X 2 1,200 39", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0317.jp2"}, "318": {"fulltext": "312\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nIn which case\\nbe selected.\\na 36 or 40 inch chimney would probably\\nQ. How is the height of a chimney determined\\nIn the larger cities the height of a chimney is often\\ndetermined by the height of buildings in the immediate\\nvicinity city, chimneys are often, for this reason, much\\nhigher than necessary for the mere purpose of securing\\nproper draft.\\nWhere there are no local restrictions governing the\\nheight of a chimney, those for small powers, say 30 H.\\nP t and less, the height may be 50 to 60 feet; for 100 H.\\nP. the height may be 70 to 90 feet; and for 1,000 H. P.\\n1 50 feet in height will be found ample for draft purposes.\\nA rule sometimes met with would fix the height at 25\\ntimes the internal diameter of the chimney; this is a good\\nrule for a few sizes, but it will not apply to all diameters.\\nSmall chimneys must have a certain height to get sufficient\\ndraft to burn the fuel. The height of large chimneys is kept\\ndown to reduce cost of construction. The following heights\\ncome within the range of good practice\\nA 2-foot chimney 70 feet high 35 diameters.\\n90\\n100\\n120\\n130\\n140\\n150\\n30\\n25\\n24\\n21.67\\n20\\n-18.75\\nQ. In estimating chimney draft where should the chim-\\nney measurement begin?\\nDraft properly begins at the level where the air passes\\nthrough the fire, and not at the level of the ground at the\\nbase of the chimney.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0318.jp2"}, "319": {"fulltext": "INTENSITY OF DRAFT. 313\\nQ. What is the best temperature for chimney draft?\\nThe ordinary limit of temperature for escaping gases\\nfrom steam boilers is approximately ioo\u00c2\u00b0 F. above the\\ntemperature of the steam. If steam is being generated at\\n100 pounds pressure by gauge, the corresponding temper-\\nature would be 338\u00c2\u00b0+ ioo\u00c2\u00b0 438\u00c2\u00b0 F., the lowest tem-\\nperature for the escaping gases. On the other hand, the\\nmaximum temperature would be about 584 F., because\\nat that temperature the gases are about one-half the den-\\nsity of the atmospheric air. The best working temperature\\nwill be found to lie between these two limits.\\nQ. What is meant by intensity of draft?\\nIntensity of draft denotes the velocity of flow of air\\nthrough the furnace. Intensity is secured by height of\\nchimney, by high temperature of escaping gases, or both\\ncombined. Anthracite coal requires a greater intensity of\\ndraft than is necessary for bituminous coal, and it is for\\nthis reason chimneys for the latter coal can be 1 5 to 20\\nper cent lower than for anthracite. The intensity of\\ndraft for anthracite coal will vary from to 1 inch of\\nwater for bituminous coals, to inch of water will\\nsuffice.\\nQ. How may the intensity of chimney draft be esti-\\nmated\\nIntensity of chimney draft is usually measured in inches\\nof water. Suppose a chimney to be 150 feet high and the\\ntemperature of the escaping gases 6oo\u00c2\u00b0 F., the tempera-\\nture of the atmosphere 75 F., the draft in inches of water\\nmay be found thus To the sensible temperature 600 and\\n75\u00c2\u00b0 we must add the absolute temperature 460 F. then\\n460 600 159000\\n150 X r o o 2 97 feet 2 97 1 5\u00c2\u00b0\\nD 460\u00c2\u00b0+ 75 535 D", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0319.jp2"}, "320": {"fulltext": "314 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\n147 feet, the motive column. Water is 820 times heavier\\n820 X 297\\nthan air, we have then: 1656, which ex-\\npresses the relation of weight as compared with water.\\nIf we divide the motive column by this amount we have\\n147\\n\u00e2\u0080\u0094p\u00e2\u0080\u0094p .0887 foot. Then .0887 X 12 1.064 mcn say\\niyL- inches of water by draft gauge, or the height of a\\ncolumn of water lifted by the action of a chimney corre-\\nsponding to the height and temperature above given.\\nThe above example may be regarded as an extreme case\\na much lower set of conditions are here given\\nSuppose a chimney 100 feet high, escaping gases 500\u00c2\u00b0\\nF., atmosphere 6o\u00c2\u00b0 F., what will be the draft in inches\\nof water\\n460 500 96000 n\\n100 X o V- o 184 feet.\\n460 -f 6o\u00c2\u00b0 520\\n184 100 84 feet. The motive column.\\nT 820 X\\nThen jr-\\n84\\npared with water.\\n84\\nDividing the motive column by this ratio\\n.0467 foot.\\nThen .0467 X 12 .560 inch of water, or about inch.\\nQ. Why is maximum economical chimney temperature\\ntaken to be about 584 F.?\\nChimney temperature is for draft purposes only; draft\\nincreases with the temperature of the gases in the chim-\\nney; from 32 to 300 F. the draft augments very rapidly,\\nfrom 300 to 750 the draft varies but little, and then\\n820 X 184\\nThen 1 796, the ratio of weight as com-", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0320.jp2"}, "321": {"fulltext": "PROPORTIONS FOR CHIMNEYS. 315\\ngradually diminishes in intensity with higher tempera-\\ntures.\\nAn ordinary steam pressure for high-grade, triple-expan-\\nsion engine is 185 pounds by gauge, or 200 pounds abso-\\nlute; the temperature of which is 382\u00c2\u00b0 F., to which we\\nadd ioo\u00c2\u00b0 for excess temperature, difference of hot gases\\nover that of the steam 483 F.\\nThe best draft is had when the density of gases within\\nand without the chimney is as 2 to 1. Suppose an aver-\\nage air temperature of 62 F., the absolute temperature\\nwould be 62\u00c2\u00b0 460\u00c2\u00b0= 5 22 the best draft would be\\n522 X2= 1,044\u00c2\u00b0 absolute, or 1,044\u00c2\u00b0 4^0\u00c2\u00b0 584\u00c2\u00b0, the\\ntemperature of the gases in the chimney.\\nQ. What rule governs the proportions for chimneys as\\ngiven in Table 31\\nProportions for chimneys from 20 to 90 horse power are\\nfor a single boiler and furnace in which the grate area is\\nassumed to be 9 times that of the tube area for the small-\\nest horizontal tubular boiler, diminishing to 7 times the\\ntube area for the largest boiler. A commercial horse-\\npower rating approximating 1 5 square feet of heating sur-\\nface per horse power is assumed for all boilers included in\\nthe above grouping.\\nFor chimneys from 100 to 1,000 horse power, the di-\\nmensions are suited to two or more boilers set in a battery\\nand working together; a horse power in this portion of the\\ntable is based on 4 pounds of coal per horse power per\\nhour.\\nThe rate of combustion is assumed to be 12 pounds per\\nsquare foot of grate surface per hour. The proportion of\\ngrate to chimney area varies from l for the 100 horse-\\npower boiler to for the 1,000 horse-power boiler.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0321.jp2"}, "322": {"fulltext": "3i6\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nTable 31. Chimney Dimensions for Steam-Boiler Furnaces from\\n20 to 1,000 Horse Power.\\nDiameters\\nround\\nchimney,\\ninches.\\nHeight for\\nHorse\\npower.\\nGrate area,\\nsquare feet.\\nCoal\\nper hou\\npound\\nArea\\nr, of chimney,\\nsquare feet.\\nBituminous\\ncoal, free\\nburning,\\nfeet.\\nSmall\\nanthracite\\ncoal, feet.\\n20\\n12\\n2.02\\n20\\n50\\n60\\n30\\n14\\n2.28\\n20\\n55\\n65\\n40\\n17\\n2.9I\\n24\\n55\\n70\\n50\\n23\\n3-67\\n26\\n60\\n70\\n60\\n24\\n3.8o\\n27\\n60\\n75\\n70\\n29\\n4.35\\n28\\n65\\n80\\n80\\n34\\n4.88\\n30\\n65\\n85\\n90\\n38\\n5.00\\n30\\n70\\n90\\nIOO\\n40\\n40(\\n4-76\\n30\\n70\\n90\\nI50\\n50\\n6oc\\n6.82\\n36\\n75\\n95\\n200\\n67\\n8OC\\n8.69\\n40\\n80\\nIOO\\n250\\n83\\nI,OOC\\nIO.64\\n44\\n85\\n105\\n300\\nIOO\\nl,20(\\nI2.50\\n48\\n85\\n105\\n350\\n117\\n1,40c\\n14.18\\n5i\\n90\\nno\\n400\\n133\\n1, 60c\\n16.OO\\n55\\n90\\n115\\n450\\n150\\ni,8oc\\n17.65\\n57\\n90\\n115\\n500\\n167\\n2,OOC\\nj 19.25\\n60\\n95\\n120\\n550\\n183\\n2,20(\\n20.65\\n62\\n95\\n120\\n60O\\n200\\n2,40(\\n22.22\\n64\\nIOO\\n125\\n650\\n217\\n2,60(\\n23.65\\n66\\nIOO\\n125\\n700\\n233\\n2,80(\\n25.OI\\n68\\n105\\n130\\n750\\n250\\n3,ooc\\n26.32\\n70\\n105\\n135\\n800\\n267\\n3,20(\\n27.6l\\n72\\nno\\n135\\n850\\n283\\n3,40\\n3 28.82\\n73\\nno\\n140\\ngOO\\n300\\n3 6o(\\n3O.OO\\n74\\n115\\n145\\n95\u00c2\u00b0\\n317\\n3,8o(\\n5 3I-67\\n76\\n5\\n145\\n1,000\\n333\\n4, OCX\\n33-33\\n78\\n120\\n150\\nQ. How may the draft of a chimney be modified\\nIf the chimney draft is sluggish it may be increased by\\nmeans of a specially contrived blower exhausting upward\\nin the chimney as in Fig. yj. In small boiler plants, and\\nespecially where a sheet-iron stack is employed, the ex-\\nhaust pipe from a non-condensing engine is quite frequent-", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0322.jp2"}, "323": {"fulltext": "STEAM BLOWER.\\n317\\nly led into the stack, the pipe turned\\nnating in a contracted orifice the\\nbeing usually determined by\\nlocal conditions.\\nExcess of draft may be con-\\ntrolled by means of a damper,\\nplaced between the exit of the\\ngases from the boilers, and the\\nchimney. In small boiler plants,\\nand especially those having a\\nsheet-iron stack, the damper\\nis commonly placed either in\\nthe breeching or in the stack\\nitself.\\nQ. What is the construction of\\nthe argand steam blower\\nThis blower, as made by\\nJames Beggs Co., is shown\\nin section in Fig. 78, and one\\nmethod of applying it through\\na side wall of a boiler furnace\\nis shown in Fig. 79. The blast\\nis regulated to suit the require-\\nments of any furnace by means\\nof a globe valve in the steam-\\nsupply pipe. Should the small\\nholes in the argand ring become\\nclogged with loose scales from\\nthe steam pipe or other cause,\\nthey can be cleansed with a\\nbent wire (hook shaped), when\\nsteam is turned on full force.\\nupward, and termi-\\nsize of the latter\\nFig. 77.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0323.jp2"}, "324": {"fulltext": "3i8\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nFig. 78.\\nQ. What is the best location for a steam blower in\\nconnection with a boiler furnace?\\nIt is generally conceded by those who have given the\\nsubject special attention that a blast furnished by under-\\ngrate combined air and steam\\nblowers, properly proportioned,\\nis better adapted to burn the\\nsmaller anthracite fuels than\\neither a strong natural draft\\nor a draft produced by a jet or\\njets in the stack.\\nBoth of the latter methods\\nso relieve the pressure on the\\nupper surface of the fire that\\nthe unconsumed gases escape\\ninto the stack before they\\nhave time to ignite, whereas\\nwith the forced draft a pressure is produced between the\\nuptake and the upper surface of the fire which retards\\nthe gases long enough for them to ignite, whereby the\\nboiler can be heated more effectively than by the radiant\\nheat alone which is emitted from the incandescent carbon\\nand radiated against a small portion of the heating surface\\nFig. 79.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0324.jp2"}, "325": {"fulltext": "STEAM-JET BLOWER. 319\\nonly. Then, again, the steam has a mechanical effect, in\\nthat it keeps the clinkers soft and porous, so that the blast\\nwill readily pass up through the entire bed of fuel uni-\\nformly, instead of being forced to pass between solid\\nclinkers wherever it can find an opening, as is the usual\\ncase with a fan blast, for an all-air blast tends to form the\\nclinkers into compact slabs, through which the air cannot\\npass.\\nAnother mechanical effect of the steam is that it mois-\\ntens the fine ashes in the lower strata of the fire, which\\nkeeps them from being blown up into the burning surface\\nto choke it by filling the interstices between the particles\\nof fuel.\\nQ. What special preparation of fuel is recommended in\\nconnection with a steam-jet blower in the ash pit?\\nIn all cases where anthracite culm is used for fuel, it\\nshould be sprinkled with water before putting it on the\\nfire, not so as to make it sloppy and heavy, but just enough\\nto make the dust adhere to the particles of small coal.\\nAnthracite screenings from coal yards should be treated\\nin the same manner, and if they have lain out in the\\nweather for any considerable length of time, it will be\\nfound advantageous to mix them with about one-fifth their\\nbulk of bituminous slack, where it is available.\\nA very simple yet very important feature in burning\\nfine fuels successfully, where the argand blowers are used\\nto furnish blast, is to close the damper in the chimney, or\\nstack, to a point where the burning gases will not blow out\\nthrough the fire door when opened, for where there is a\\nstrong chimney or stack draft in connection with the under-\\ngrate blowers a large percentage of the gases escape with-\\nout igniting. Therefore one should not fail to so regulate", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0325.jp2"}, "326": {"fulltext": "320 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nthe damper that the largest possible volume of gaseous\\nflame may be produced in the furnace. Where the chim-\\nney draft is weak, it may be necessary to keep the damper\\nwide open, but it has been found that in the majority of cases\\nit is not only beneficial, but absolutely essential, to regu-\\nlate the dampers as described in order to produce the best\\nresults.\\nQ. What is mechanical draft\\nThis name is commonly applied to any system of press-\\nure or exhaust fans driven by a separate mechanism, by\\nwhich, in the case of a blower, a current of air is forced\\nthrough the fire or by exhaustion of the products of com-\\nbustion by means of a vacuum created by a revolving fan\\nplaced beyond the uptake or in the breeching leading to\\nthe chimney. In either case the air needed for combus-\\ntion is supplied the fire through mechanical means and\\nnot by natural draft.\\nQ. What are the ordinary methods of application of\\nmechanical draft?\\nThe commonest method is by means of a centrifugal\\nfan, or fan blower, by means of which the air needed for\\ncombustion is forced through the fire. The air supply in\\nstationary boiler practice is usually forced into an air-\\ntight ash pit, and as there is no other escape for the air it\\nis forced through the fuel, and thus becomes a forced\\ndraft. Another method, frequently employed on steam-\\nships, is to make the fire-room air tight and force the air\\ninto it at such pressure and in such volume as may be\\nneeded for the combustion of the fuel.\\nA typical arrangement of the B. F. Sturtevant Com-\\npany s steam fan for the production of under- grate-forced\\ndraft is shown in Fig. 80. The fan discharges the air", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0326.jp2"}, "327": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0327.jp2"}, "328": {"fulltext": "322\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\ninto an underground-brick duct extending along the front\\nof the battery of boilers. From this duct smaller\\nbranches, two to each boiler, extend to the ash pits, to\\nwhich the air is admitted in the requisite amount through\\nash-pit dampers of the type shown in Fig. 81. There is\\nFig. 8i.\\nthus maintained within the ducts and ash pits a pressure\\ngreater than that of the atmosphere by an amount depend-\\nent upon the speed of the fan, which may be regulated at\\nwill.\\nQ. What objections are there to the closed ash-pit\\nsystem\\nAn objection to the direct introduction of air under press-\\nure by means of a pipe in the bottom of or through one\\nside of a closed ash pit, is found in the failure properly to", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0328.jp2"}, "329": {"fulltext": "MECHANICAL DRAFT.\\n323\\ndistribute the air in\\nthe ash pit (see Fig.\\n82), resulting in un-\\nequal combustion, lo-\\ncalizing the heat in\\ncertain portions of\\nthe grate, and pro-\\nducing blow-holes in\\nothers.\\nThe air pressure in\\nthe ash pit, being in\\nexcess of that of the\\natmosphere, necessi-\\ntates keeping the ash-\\npit doors closed this\\npressure also causes\\nall leakage to be out-\\nward. The tendency\\nis, therefore, to blow\\nthe ashes out of the ash pit, and the flame, smoke,\\nfuel out of the fire doors.\\nFig. 82.\\nand\\nQ. How may the objections to the closed ash-pit system\\nbe overcome\\nSo far as the localization of the combustion is concerned\\nit may be overcome by deflecting the air entering, the ash\\npit by means of a damper as shown in Fig. 83. This de-\\nvice, by the B. F. Sturtevant Company, insures a thorough\\ndistribution of the air throughout the ash pit before it rises\\nto the grate. The air duct is in this case constructed with-\\nin the bridge wall, there being one or more dampers for\\neach boiler. The amount of opening is regulated by the\\nhandle shown in the engraving.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0329.jp2"}, "330": {"fulltext": "324\\nCOMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nA hollow-blast grate is one of the devices for equably\\ndistributing the air and stimulating draft in connection\\nFig. 83.\\nwith mechanical draft apparatus. The Gordon hollow-\\nblast grates in combination with a Sturtevant fan are\\nFig. 84.\\nshown in Fig. 84. The grate bars are cast hollow, and\\nhave suitable openings adapted for burning coal, coal ref-", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0330.jp2"}, "331": {"fulltext": "INDUCED DRAFT. 325\\nuse, bagasse, tanbark, etc. The main blast pipe enters\\nthe ash pit through one of the side walls suitable tubes\\nconnect the blast pipe, and the grate bars above, thus es-\\ntablishing an air connection between the two.\\nQ. What is the induced system of draft?\\nThe induced suction or vacuum method for obtaining\\na suitable draft for furnace combustion consists in the in-\\ntroduction of an exhausting fan in the place of a chimney.\\nThe fan serves to maintain the vacuum which would exist\\nif a chimney were employed, and its capacity can be made\\nsuch as to handle the gases which result from the proc-\\nesses of combustion. As the draft is thus rendered prac-\\ntically independent of all conditions except the speed of\\nthe fan, it is necessary to provide only a short outlet pipe\\nto carry the gases to a sufficient height to permit of their\\nharmless discharge to the atmosphere. In practice the\\ncapacity of an induced draft fan, as measured by the\\nweight of air or gases moved, necessarily varies with the\\ntemperature of the gases it is designed to handle. There-\\nfore the density, which varies inversely as the absolute\\ntemperature, should enter as a factor in all such calcula-\\ntions. The simplest arrangement for an ordinary boiler\\nplant consists in placing the fan immediately above the\\nboiler, leading the smoke flue directly to the fan-inlet\\nconnection, and discharging the gases upward through a\\nshort pipe extending just above the boiler-house roof.\\nThe induced draft system is, on the whole, better sub-\\nject to control than the other systems; its leakage is\\nalways inward, avoiding inconvenience from flame and\\nsmoke at the fire doors, it lends itself readily to control\\nby the dampers which may be introduced for the pur-\\npose.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0331.jp2"}, "332": {"fulltext": "326 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nAn induced- draft plant is shown in Fig. 85, consisting\\nof 4 Manning boilers, each boiler containing 180 tubes\\n2^/ 2 inches in diameter, 15 feet long; fire box 6 feet in\\ndiameter, 28.27 square feet of grate surface, and 1,823\\nsquare feet of total heating surface for each boiler. The\\neconomizer contains 192 tubes, 4^ inches in diameter;\\nthe square feet of heating surface is 2,304. The two\\nSturtevant fans have a somewhat novel arrangement,\\nwhereby a relay is provided and the floor area occupied is\\nreduced to a mimimum. Each fan has a wheel 7 feet in\\ndiameter, and driven by direct-connected engine. By\\nmeans of an arrangement of dampers, the gases may be\\ncaused to pass through the economizer, and thence to\\neither one or both fans, whence they are discharged\\nthrough a short, vertical stack. The experimental results\\nobtained furnish an interesting commentary upon the re-\\nlations between fan speed, volume moved, pressure cre-\\nated, and horse power required. Up to a certain speed\\nthe natural draft of the short stack is equal to, or actually\\nexceeds, that created by the operation of the fans; but\\nwhen the draft produced by the fans exceeds that which\\nthe stack is capable of creating, the additional work is\\nthrown upon the fans, and the power increases practically\\nas the cube of the number of revolutions.\\nQ. What is the proper kind of fan for use in connec-\\ntion with a mechanical draft apparatus\\nTwo types of fans exist. The first, known as the disc\\nor propeller wheel, is constructed on the order of a screw\\npropeller, and moves the air in lines parallel to its axis,\\nthe blades acting on the principle of the inclined plane.\\nThe second, or fan blower proper, consists in its simplest\\nform of a number of blades extending radially from the", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0332.jp2"}, "333": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0333.jp2"}, "334": {"fulltext": "328 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\naxis, and presenting practically flat surfaces to the air as\\nthey revolve. By the action of the wheel the air is drawn\\nin axially at the centre and delivered from the tips of the\\nblades in a tangential direction. This type may be sim-\\nply designated as the centrifugal fan, or, more properly, as\\nthe peripheral discharge fan.\\nThe propeller or disc fan is practically useless as a\\nmeans of draft production. The desired results can be\\nsecured only by the use of the peripheral discharge type.\\nTheoretically there should be a difference in the form\\nof wheels designed for creating pressure and creating a\\nvacuum practically the distinction between a blower and\\nan exhauster is one of adaptation rather than of construc-\\ntion.\\nQ. What are the advantages claimed for mechanical\\ndraft\\nThe advantages claimed may be summarized, for land\\nrequirements as distinguished from marine, in that by its\\nintroduction greater economy in the first cost or running\\nexpense of a steam plant may be secured.\\nAs compared with chimney draft, a chimney requires\\ncertain fixed and practically unalterable conditions for its\\nlocation and erection, and is only to a limited extent\\nadaptable to changes in its requirements. Mechanical\\ndraft apparatus may, on the contrary, be adapted to a great\\nvariety of conditions, such as accommodation to restricted\\nspace or it may be placed in any convenient location\\nand not necessarily in the fire or engine rooms.\\nPerfect control may always be maintained over the action\\nof mechanical draft. With a chimney the intensity of the\\ndraft is least when the fire is low with the fan it is pos-\\nsible instantly to produce the maximum draft under these\\nconditions.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0334.jp2"}, "335": {"fulltext": "MECHANICAL DRAFT. 329\\nClimatic conditions do not affect mechanical draft; it\\ncan be made as strong in summer as in winter, and on a\\nmuggy day as on one that is bright and clear.\\nIncreased rates of combustion are readily had by means\\nof mechanical draft, and the capacity of a boiler largely\\nincreased at any time to suit temporary or permanent con-\\nditions.\\nThe burning of cheap and low-grade fuels is best ac-\\ncomplished by means of a mechanical draft.\\nThe prevention of smoke, usually a mere incident to the\\napplication of mechanical draft, has sometimes been a\\npurpose sufficient in itself to warrant its installation, not\\nthat a direct saving in cost of fuel is had, but that cheap\\nand low-grade fuels may be used in localities where smoke-\\nprevention laws are enforced. This is on the assumption\\nthat the furnace is properly designed, and the introduction\\nof a fan blast merely insures rapid combustion:\\nThe utilization of waste heat in gases by the use of an\\neconomizer is practicable only in the case of a chimney\\nwhen the escaping gases are of a comparatively high tem-\\nperature. When the draft is produced by a fan, the draft\\nis independent of the temperature of the gases, the condi-\\ntions then are favorable for utilizing the heat which is un-\\navoidably lost in the case of a chimney. The saving in\\nfuel which may be accomplished under working conditions\\nby the combined use of mechanical draft and economizer\\nhas been experimentally shown to range between 10 and\\n20 per cent.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0335.jp2"}, "336": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XIII.\\nSPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION.\\nQ. What is meant by spontaneous combustion\\nSpontaneous combustion means self-ignition; it is a\\nname given to fires which have their origin in the heat\\ngenerated by chemical action, or by the rapid oxidation of\\nthe substances thus ignited. The spontaneous combus-\\ntion of coal is due to the chemical action set up between\\nthe carbon constituents and the atmospheric oxygen which\\nis absorbed by coal the volume of oxygen so absorbed de-\\npends upon the surface exposed and the porosity of the\\ncoal; the chemical action evolves heat, and when this heat\\nis confined it results in a constantly increasing tempera-\\nture, and this accelerates the process of oxidation.\\nQ. What is the probable action set up in spontaneous\\ncombustion between the coal and the oxygen of the at-\\nmosphere\\nThe surface of each particle of coal is active in attract-\\ning and condensing the atmospheric oxygen, and the oxygen\\nso absorbed is largely rid of the dilutent nitrogen and, there-\\nfore, is better fitted for the process of oxidation which be-\\ngins slowly, but at once. In this process two actions are\\nset up first the combination of oxygen with what is called\\nthe disposable hydrogen in the coal to form water; sec-\\nondly, the combination of oxygen with the carbon, forming\\ncarbonic acid gas, and heat is evolved as the result of both", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0336.jp2"}, "337": {"fulltext": "SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION. 33 I\\nactions. In the initial stage it is not sensible, nor is it\\napparent as in the case of iron, where visible rust indicates\\nthe process. When this heat is subjected to the cooling\\neffect of the atmosphere, or when it can be conducted from\\nits source, no danger is to be apprehended; but where the\\nevolved heat is not so conducted or cooled, as in the case\\nof a mass of fine coal, the temperature will rise and con-\\ntinue with accelerated rapidity as the ignition point is ap-\\nproached (Howard).\\nQ. How much oxygen will coal absorb\\nIt has been experimentally determined that certain\\nEnglish coals absorbed twice their own volume of oxygen,\\nand in a pulverized state this absorption equalled 2 per cent\\nof its own weight.\\nQ. What is Richter s theory regarding the spontaneous\\ncombustion of coal?\\nThe theory worked out by Richter is that two of the\\nconstituent elements of bituminous coal, viz., the carbon\\nand the hydrocarbons, have a strong attraction for atmos-\\npheric oxygen, and under ordinary conditions this absorp-\\ntion of oxygen will be in proportion to the surface exposed,\\nto the porosity of the coal, and to the temperature of the\\nmass.\\nQ. Have experiments been made to prove the correct-\\nness of Richter s theory?\\nThe absorption of oxygen by, and chemical combination\\nwith, pulverized bituminous coal is known to occur, and\\napproximately under the following conditions\\nAt a low temperature the action is slow; but it rapidly\\nincreased when ioo\u00c2\u00b0 F. was exceeded. Powdered coal\\nhas been known to fire in a few hours at a steady tempera-", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0337.jp2"}, "338": {"fulltext": "332 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nture of 250 F. Under ordinary conditions, however, the\\nabsorption was in proportion to the surface exposed, to the\\nporosity of the coal, and to its temperature.\\nQ. To what element in the coal is spontaneous com-\\nbustion generally attributed\\nSulphur was once believed to be the real cause of spon-\\ntaneous combustion in coal, for the reason, probably, that\\nif it is present in the coal it is in the form of pyrites, and\\nthis was associated with a well-known fact that heaped-up\\npyrites in shale, when wetted, often cause the combustion\\nof the pile. The sulphur theory received the support of\\nthe noted Swedish chemist Berzelius.\\nQ. What are the objections to the sulphur theory in\\nthe spontaneous combustion of coal\\nIt is objected to because it does not account for the\\nnumerous cases of the spontaneous combustion of coal in\\nwhich sulphur is not present. The investigations of Dr.\\nPercy in England and of Dr. Richter in Germany showed\\nthat the sulphur theory did not account for all the dis-\\ncovered facts.\\nCoals almost free from sulphur have been observed to\\nbe dangerous, and others heavily charged with it compara-\\ntively safe. Further the sulphur theory does not account\\nfor the ignition of charcoal, or of oily waste, nor of wool\\nwhen saturated with animal or vegetable oils and sub-\\njected to favoring temperatures.\\nIron pyrites, or disulphide of iron, is the only sulphur\\ncompound found in coal which by oxidizing under favor-\\nable conditions will gradually develop heat sufficient to\\nmake self-ignition a possibility. Sometimes, however,\\nthe pyrites will rapidly oxidize, and at others it will re-", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0338.jp2"}, "339": {"fulltext": "SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION. 333\\nmain unchanged for a long period. The recent conclu-\\nsions seem to point out that pyrite is merely accessory to\\nthe trouble, in that through oxidation it lowers the point\\nof ignition in the surrounding mass of coal, and in the\\nprocess it swells, causing disintegration of the lumps, and\\nconsequently increases the absorbing surface of the coal.\\nThe temperature of ignition of sulphur is 482 F., whereas\\ncoal requires from 700 to 900 F.\\nQ. Can the safety of coals as regards spontaneous com-\\nbustion be determined by analysis\\nThe difference between safe and unsafe coals cannot be\\ndetermined by proximate or ultimate analysis. It is the\\ndeep mass of small and fine coal that constitutes the dan-\\nger and coals of a firing tendency are dangerous, some at\\none depth of pile and some at another.\\nQ. How does carbon spontaneously ignite\\nCarbon in a finely divided state has the power of con-\\ndensing oxygen within its pores now, to condense a gas,\\nforce is consumed and heat is produced. In the fire\\nsyringe, a piece of tinder is set on fire by the heat\\nevolved by the condensation of the air. When charcoal\\ncondenses oxygen heat is liberated, and, if the charcoal is\\nfreshly burned, the rapidity of the action will produce\\nsuch an amount of heat as to cause the chemical combina-\\ntion of the oxygen and carbon, when, of course, combus-\\ntion takes place with evolution of light and heat. The\\ninitial temperature of the action is here due to the sudden\\nsqueezing together of the gaseous molecules, for if the air\\nbe admitted to the freshly burned charcoal by slow degrees\\nno combustion takes place.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0339.jp2"}, "340": {"fulltext": "334 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nQ. Is wood liable to spontaneous combustion when placed\\nagainst or in close proximity to hot surfaces\\nThe fact that a hot steam pipe will char and eventually\\nignite wood is well known to fire-insurance inspectors.\\nThe application of moderate heat to wood dries up its\\njuices, renders it brittle, and ultimately causes its com-\\nplete disintegration and combustion if air is supplied,\\nthough the process is exceedingly slow. At the ordinary\\ntemperature of the air, oxygen has so little action upon\\nwood that it is practically indestructible.\\nQ. How should permanent woodwork passing through\\nlarge masses of bituminous coal be protected?\\nBy covering the woodwork with sheet iron well painted\\nto protect it, as iron also suffers from oxidation.\\nQ. Does the presence of wood in a pile of coal affect\\nfavorably or otherwise the conditions leading to the\\nspontaneous combustion of coal\\nIt is a well-established fact that the presence of wood\\nin a pile of coal, whether present as loose chips or as\\nforming supports, contributes materially to the fire risk.\\nThe surfaces of the wood through a process analogous to\\ndry distillation become charred and converted into char-\\ncoal or tinder. The tendency to oxidation which carbon\\nand carbon compounds, existing in such a substance as\\ncharcoal, possess, is favored by the condensation of oxygen\\nwithin its pores, whereby the intimate contact between\\nthe carbon and oxygen particles is promoted. Hence the\\ndevelopment of heat and the establishment of oxidation\\noccur simultaneously, the latter is accelerated as the heat\\naccumulates, and chemical action is thus promoted, and\\nmay, in course of time, proceed so energetically that the", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0340.jp2"}, "341": {"fulltext": "SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION. 335\\ncarbon or carbo-hydrogen particles may be heated to the\\nigniting point.\\nQ. Does the height of a pile of coal contribute to spon-\\ntaneous combustion?\\nThe higher the pile of coal the greater is the fire risk,\\nespecially if the coal is very fine. It is a matter of gen-\\neral observation that when fires break out on shipboard,\\nthey originate directly under the main hatchways, or under\\nthe coaling chutes, or in the middle or near the bottom\\nof a deep cargo.\\nQ. Is coal liable to spontaneous combustion when placed\\nagainst or over hot surfaces\\nSo long ago as 1852 Graham pointed out that the ten-\\ndency of coals to spontaneous ignition is increased by a\\nmoderate heat. In one case coal had taken fire by being\\nheaped for a length of time against a heated wall, the tem-\\nperature of which could be easily borne by the hand. In\\nanother, coal ignited spontaneously after remaining for a\\nfew days upon stone flags covering a flue, of which the\\ntemperature never rose beyond 150 F. Examples are\\nsufficiently numerous to fully establish the fact that\\nmasses of coal exposed to even a moderate heat become\\nhazardous as a fire risk.\\nQ. Will small bodies of coal ignite spontaneously?\\nCoal in small quantity and in a cool place never ignites\\nspontaneously; it does not, therefore, follow that all the\\nconditions leading up to spontaneous combustion are absent,\\nonly that one of them, and that an all-important one, the\\nmeans of accumulating heat, is absent, since the barriers\\ninterposed to its escape are not sufficiently close-fitting.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0341.jp2"}, "342": {"fulltext": "336 COMBUSTION OF COAL.\\nQ. What would be the effect of forcing air into a body\\nof coal as a means of preventing spontaneous combustion\\nby forced ventilation?\\nWhen air is forced into a body of coal more or less\\noxidation occurs, followed by a rise in temperature, the\\nheat present or liberated by its increased oxidation is ab-\\nsorbed by the coal, fresh supplies of air being continually\\nforced in, passes over and around the oxidizing surfaces\\nof the coal becoming hotter and hotter, the air itself be-\\ncomes heated, and all the conditions for combustion ob-\\ntain, which, if once begun, continue more and more rapidly\\nwith each increment of air supply.\\nQ. Is wet coal more liable to spontaneous combustion\\nthan dry coal?\\nWater does not assist in the spontaneous combustion of\\ncoal except where pyrites are concerned. There is much\\nmisunderstanding as to the part played by water in the\\nchanges leading to spontaneous combustion. The water\\nitself is not decomposed, as some have imagined. The\\nheat evolved during the combustion of hydrogen and\\noxygen to form water (62,000 heat units) must be sup-\\nplied before they can be again torn apart, so that so far\\nfrom water being a producer of heat, it is likely to be a\\nconsumer.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0342.jp2"}, "343": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\nAbsolute zero, 54\\nAffinity, 62\\nAir, advantages of heated, 88\\nammonia in, 73\\nand steam jets for locomo-\\ntives, 129\\ncarbonic acid in, 73\\ncomposition of, 68\\nconversion of pounds into\\ncubic feet, 77\\ndensity and passage of heat,\\n78\\neconomical limit to heating,\\n90\\neffect of pre-heating, 79\\nsurplus, 107\\ntoo little, 87\\ntoo much, 88\\nexcess of, in combustion, 82\\nexpansion of, by heat, 78,\\n151\\nheated and chemical action,\\n89\\nphysical and chemical\\neffects, 80\\nheating and cooling of, 77\\ncoils for locomotives, 129\\nincrease in bulk by heat, 155\\nliquefaction of, 82\\nmeasuring flow of, 101\\nnon-admission of, over oil\\nfires, 300\\n22\\nAir not a chemical compound,\\n68\\nozone in, 74\\nphysical effects of heat upon,\\n78\\npre-heated, objections to, 79\\nquantity required for com-\\nbustion, 81\\nper pound of coal, 82\\nspecific heat of, 82, 143, 152\\nvapor in, 74\\nweight of, 75\\nAllen and Tibbitts furnace feed-\\ner, 245\\nAlumina in ashes, 114\\nAmerican stoker, 235\\nAnalysis, elementary, 160\\nproximate, 172\\nqualitative, 160\\nAnemometer, 102\\nAnthracite coal, 13\\nair required for, 108\\nashes from, 109\\nclassification of, 13\\ncomposition of, 14\\nphysical properties of, 11\\nsmall sizes, 14\\nAnthracite fire, cleaning of, 240\\nArch, brick, endurance of, 262\\nMurphy s, 124\\noil-burning locomotives, 300\\nPrescott s oil burner, 303", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0343.jp2"}, "344": {"fulltext": "338\\nINDEX.\\nArea of chimney, 311\\nArgand steam blower, 317\\nArkansas lignite, 33\\nArndt, Max, econometer, 132\\nArtificial fuel, advantages of, 44\\nAsh-forming constituents in coal,\\n12\\nAshes, alumina in, 114\\nBerthier s analysis, 117\\ncolor of, no\\ncomposition of, 109\\ndefinition of term, 108\\nfrom lignites, 34\\nfusing of, in\\niron pyrites in, 112\\nlime present in, 117\\noxide of iron in, 112\\npotash in, 116\\nquantity after combustion,\\n118\\nsilica in, 115\\nspecific heat of, 109\\nAsh-pit damper, 322\\nsystem of forced draft, 322\\nAsh pan operated by compressed\\nair, 289\\nSouthern Pacific Railway,\\n289\\nwhen to be examined, 126\\nwith side valves, 291\\nAtmosphere, 68\\ndensity and height, 76\\npressure of, 75\\nAtom, 58\\nAtomic value in compounds, 65\\nweight, 58\\nand specific heat, 152\\nand symbolic notation,\\n61\\nAtomizers for burning oil, 300\\nAttraction, chemical, 63\\nAvailable heat of combustion,\\n213\\nAyers and Ranger, stoker, 231\\nBabcock Wilcox Co., quoted,\\n207\\nstoker, 226\\nBaffle plates in locomotives, 279\\nBagasse, 36\\nFisher s furnace for, 241\\nBarnes locomotive boiler, 266\\nBarometer, 76\\nBarrus, G. H., calorimeter, 187\\nBeggs, James Co., blower, 317\\nBell, J. Snowden, quoted, 284\\nBerthier s calorimeter, 195\\nresults PbO tests, 194\\nBiglow Co. s boiler setting, 219\\nBitumen, no organic structure in,\\n18\\nBituminous coal, 18\\nashes from, no\\ncalorific value, 198\\nclassification of, 22\\ncomposition of, 19\\ntable of American, 20\\nBlock coal, 28\\nashes from, no\\nBlossburg, Pa., semi-bituminous\\ncoal, 18\\nBlower, steam, argand, 317\\nBoiler, Barnes locomotive, 266\\nefficiency, 216\\nfurnaces, stationary, 217\\nKent s, 221\\nhorse-power, 180\\nStrong s locomotive, 280\\ntubes and oil fires, 302\\nWootten s locomotive, 263\\nBoyle s law and density of air,\\n76", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0344.jp2"}, "345": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n339\\nBreckenridge, Ky., cannel coal,\\n26\\nBrick arches and light firing, 262\\nand soft coal, 127\\nconstruction of, 251\\nfor oil burning, 300\\nleaky flues, 252\\nlocomotive, 250\\nMurphy s, 124\\nSouthern Pacific Railway,\\n288\\nBridge wall, locomotive, 265\\nBriquettes of fuel, 42\\nBritish thermal unit, 151\\nBrown coal, 29\\nThorp s analysis, 30\\nBuck Mountain, Pa., coal, 15\\nBurlington, C, R. N smoke-\\nless firing, 123\\nBurning residuum from shale,\\n298\\nCaking coals, 22\\nCalorie, 151\\nCalorific value of fuel, 178, 182\\nCalorimeter, Barrus 187\\nBerthier s, 195\\nCarpenter s, 191\\ncopper-ball, 193\\nFavre Silberman s, 144\\nThompson s, 185\\nCannel coal, 25\\nCarbon, 160\\nair required for, 81\\nallotropic states of, 162\\nand hydrogen, 161\\ndioxide, see Carbonic Acid\\nestimating temperature of\\ncombustion, 142\\nheating power and density,\\n167\\nCarbon monoxide, see Carbonic\\nOxide\\nspecific heat of, 162\\nCarbonic acid, 161\\nheat units, 141\\nin the air, 73\\nCarbonic acid gas, liquefaction\\nof, 104\\nmeasurement of, 134\\nproperties of, 104\\nCarbonic oxide, 161\\ncombustion of, 105\\nheat units, 141\\nliquefaction of, 105\\nproperties of, 105\\nCarburetted hydrogen, 170\\nCarpenter, R. C, calorimeter,\\n191\\nCastle Gate, Utah, bituminous\\ncoal, 284\\nCharcoal, composition, 165\\nphysical properties, 164\\nChemical action and mechanical\\nenergy, 149\\naffinity, 62\\nattraction, 63\\nand temperature, 66\\nproperties of a body, 62\\nseparation, energy of, 66\\nChevandier, M., quoted, 35\\nChimney, 309\\narea of, 311\\ndraft, 313\\nheight, 312\\nincreasing draft in, 316\\nintensity of draft, 313\\nobject of, 309\\nproportions, 315\\ntable of dimensions, 316\\ntemperature, economical, 311\\nunbalanced pressure in, 309", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0345.jp2"}, "346": {"fulltext": "340\\nINDEX.\\nCentennial, boiler horse-power,\\n181\\nCentigrade and Fahrenheit ta-\\nble, 56\\nscale of. temperature, 5 5\\nCincinnati N. O. T. P. Rail-\\nway smokeless firing, 124\\nCinders, collecting in front end,\\n279\\nClark, D. K., quoted, 199\\nCleaning fires, 241\\nClinker, 114\\nand ashes, locomotive fire\\nbox, 291\\nand color of ashes, in\\nand efficiency of coal, 117\\nCoal, 10\\nabsorbs oxygen, 331\\nanalysis and spontaneous\\ncombustion, 333\\nand oil, relative cost, 302\\nash-forming constituents, 12\\ncommercial classification, 11\\nevaporation by, in locomo-\\ntives, 258\\nevaporative power of, 181\\nexposed to hot surface, 335\\nGruner s classification, 11\\nheight of pile, fire risk in,\\n335\\nmoisture in, 172\\nnet calorific value, 182\\nproximate analysis of, 172\\nsaved by light firing, 260\\ntheoretical calorific value,\\n182\\nvolume of gases from, 310\\nwet and spontaneous com-\\nbustion, 336\\nwhere it goes in a locomo-\\ntive, 147\\nCoke, 23\\ncalorific value of, 199\\ncoal for making the best,\\n25\\nfrom lignite, 34\\nproperties of, 24\\nColorado lignite, 32\\nCombining weight, 58, 64\\nCombustible, equivalent evapo-\\nration, 210\\nCombustion, 83\\navailable heat of, 213\\nchamber, locomotive, 265\\neffect of nitrogen, 72\\nheat developed by, 144\\nlocalization of, 323\\nnature of, 83\\nproducts of, 103\\nrate of, in locomotives, 250\\nspontaneous, 330\\nComposition of fuel, table, 10\\nCompounds, atomic value un-\\nchanged. 65\\nCompressed air, operating ash\\npan by, 289\\nCondensation and latent heat,\\n204\\nConduction of heat, 153\\nConductivity of metals, 154\\nConnellsville, Pa., coke, 23\\nConvection of heat, 155, 203\\nCopper-ball calorimeter, 193\\nCorbus, M. D., and brick arches,\\n252\\nComing s patent fuel, 460\\nCorrugated fire box, 281\\nCost of oil and coal compared,\\n302\\nCotton hulls, feeding to furnace,\\n247\\nstalks, evaporation by, 198", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0346.jp2"}, "347": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n341\\nCox, E. T. analysis of cannel\\ncoal, 27\\ncalorific value of coal, 182\\nCoxe Bros. Co. standards for\\nsmall coal, 14\\nCulm, 16\\npreparation for burning, 319\\nCumberland, Md., semi-bitumi-\\nnous coal, 17\\nDaily report, travelling fireman,\\n291\\nDamper, 317\\nash pit, 322\\nDefinite proportions, law of, 64\\nDensity of steam, 208\\nDiamond, physical properties,\\n163\\nDiaphragm in smoke box, 274\\nplates, 279\\nDimensions, boiler furnace, 217\\nchimneys, 316\\nDissipation of energy, 53\\nDouble furnaces, locomotive,\\nBarnes 267\\nlocomotive, Strong s, 281\\nDown-draft furnace, 224\\nDraft, advantages of mechani-\\ncal, 328\\nappliances, efficiency of, 276\\nbest variety of fan for, 328\\ncaused by expansion of\\ngases, 155\\nchimney, estimating, 312\\nhow modified, 316\\ndistribution of, 279\\nforced, 320\\nfurnace, how caused, 309\\ninduced system of, 325\\nlocomotive, 270, 283\\nmechanical, 320\\nDraft pipes, 274\\ndouble, 278\\nsluggish in chimneys, 316\\nDry coals, defined, 12\\nDulong s formula, 183\\nEconometer, Arndt s, 132\\nand air supply, 136\\ndetects fuel loss, 138\\nEfficiency, furnace, 215\\nhow measured, 216\\nlocomotive boiler, 259\\nElementary analysis, 160\\nEnergy, 50\\ncharacteristics of, 51\\nchemical separation, 66\\ndissipation of, 53\\nfuel, 52\\nkinetic, 51\\npotential, 50\\nEquivalent, 63\\nevaporation, factors of, 207\\nfrom and at 212 210\\nEscaping gases and temperature\\nof steam, 203\\nEvaporation and horse-power,\\n180\\nfactor of, 205\\nlatent heat of, 203\\nlocomotive, 258\\nmoisture in coal, 179\\nobject of reducing to, from\\nand at 212 213\\nordinary rate of, 213\\nper pound combustible, 210\\nEvaporative factor, defined, 12\\npower of coal, 181\\nresults in locomotives, 271\\nExhaust nozzle for oil, 302\\npipe and nozzle, S. P. Ry.,\\n285", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0347.jp2"}, "348": {"fulltext": "342\\nINDEX.\\nExhaust pipe passages, 277\\nsingle, 277\\nsingle and double, 271\\nsteam, heat lost in, 205\\nutilizing heat in, 280\\ntip, adjustable, 278\\nbest form, 271\\ncross bar in, 278\\nsize of, 272\\nExpansion of air by heat, 151\\nof gases, table of 150\\nFactor of evaporation, 205\\nFahrenheit scale of tempera-\\nture, 55\\nFan for forced draft, 326\\nFat coals, denned, 11\\nFavre and Silberman s calorim-\\neter, 145\\nFeed water, limit of temperature\\nin locomotives, 280\\nFindlay, O., natural gas, 174\\nFire, cleaning of, 241\\ntemperature of, 142\\nFire box, corrugated, Strong s,\\n280\\ndisadvantages of wide, 266\\nfor straw and coal, 243\\nlimitations, locomotive, 249\\nobjections to long, 249\\nwide, locomotive, 263\\nwith two furnaces, 266\\nFire door, instructions regard-\\ning, 126\\nFiring, best method, 261\\nintelligent, and promotion\\nfor, 126\\nlight and boiler repairs, 262\\nand brick arches, 262\\npractical suggestions, 261\\nsaving by light, 260\\nFiring, single shovel, 259\\nSouthern Pacific Railway,\\n284\\nFisher s bagasse furnace, 241\\nFlame, 90\\nanthracite coal, 10 1\\nblue region in, 94\\ncandle, hollow, 95\\ncarbonic oxide. 105\\ncause of luminosity in, 97\\nchemical processes in, 90\\ncolor in, 98\\ndark region in, 93\\nextinguished by cooling, 100\\nfaintly luminous region, 94\\nnot a continuous process, 96\\nnot in contact with orifice,\\n100\\nproof of solid carbon in, 97\\nrate of propagation, 95\\nstructure of, 91\\nsuccessive developments in,\\n92\\ntemperature of, 99\\nvariations of temperature in,\\n96\\nyellow region in, 93\\nFlues, leaky, and brick arch,\\n252\\ncause of, 253\\nForced draft, 320\\nbest fan for, 326\\nventilation of coal piles, 336\\nFrench unit of heat, 151\\nFrontenac, Kan., coal, 190\\nFront ends, Southern Pacific\\nRailway locomotive, 285\\nFuel, 9\\nanalysis, 160\\nand horse-power unit, 181\\ncalorific power of, 180", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0348.jp2"}, "349": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n343\\nFuel, elementary constitution, 9\\nenergy of, 52\\nfeeding fine, to furnace, 245\\nfine, preparation of, 319\\nRogers feeder, 247\\nliquid, advantages of, 295\\nloss with 2 to 15 per cent.\\nC0 2 in gases, 137\\npreparation of, for steam jet,\\n319\\nFurnace, boiler, dimensions of,\\n217\\nbagasse, 241\\ncoals, defined, 12\\ndoor, Southern Pacific Rail-\\nway, 287\\ndouble, locomotive, 281\\ndown-draft, 224\\n1 efficiency of, 215\\nfeeder for fine fuel, 245\\nKent s, boiler, 221\\nlocomotive, double, 266\\nlosses in, 215\\nMurphy s, 233\\nstationary, details of, 215\\nFusion, latent heat of 156\\nGas coals, 12\\nGas, compared with coal, 174\\neffects of heat upon, 150\\nevaporative power of, 175\\nnatural, 174\\nproducer, 176\\nrate of expansion, 55\\nSiemen s, 177\\nwater, 176\\nGaseous fuels, calorific values,\\n177\\nGases, conduction of heat in,\\n155\\nignition temperature of, 87\\nGases, rate of increase in vol-\\nume, 310\\nvolume of escaping, 310\\nweight of, from furnace, 107\\nGeorges Creek coal, 190\\nGordon s hollow blast grate, 324\\nGrant s patent fuel, 45\\nGraphite, physical properties,\\n164\\nGrate area, advantages of large,\\n249\\nincrease of, in locomo-\\ntives, 264\\nhollow-blast, 324\\nMcClave s, 239\\nplain, locomotive, 255\\nshaking, details of, 257\\nSouthern Pacific Rail-\\nway, 289\\nwater-tube, 254\\nwhen to be shaken, 126\\nGrimshaw, Robert, quoted, 255\\nGruner s classification of coals,\\nHaswell, C. H., table, proper-\\nties of steam, 208\\nHeat, 140\\nHeat and chemical action, 149\\nmechanical energy, 158\\nwater, 202\\nwork, 53\\ncombustion of carbon, 143\\nconduction of, 153\\nconvection of, 155, 203\\ndeveloped by combustion,\\n140, 144\\ndistribution of, in locomo-\\ntives. 147\\neffect upon gases, 150\\nupon water, 149", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0349.jp2"}, "350": {"fulltext": "344\\nINDEX.\\nHeat evolved by calorimeter\\ntests, 146\\nby combustion, 194\\ngood conductors of, 154\\nimperfect conductors of, 154\\nhow gases conduct, 155\\nin exhaust steam, utilizing,\\n280\\nin steam, 208\\nlatent, 156\\nlost, burning to carbonic ox-\\nide, 141\\nmechanical equivalent of,\\n157\\nnon-conductors of, 154\\nproblem in steam engine, 201\\nradiation of, 156\\nspecific, 159\\nHeat, unit of, 151\\ncarbon burned to CO and\\nC0 2 141\\nnatural gas, 174\\nHeating power of fuels, 178\\npetroleum, 296\\nsulphur, 148\\nHeggem s straw-burning fur-\\nnace, 243\\nHeight of chimney, 317\\nHeintselman s grate, 288\\nHoadley, J. C, quoted, 107\\ntemperature tests, 203\\nHorse-power of boilers, 180\\nunit of, 49\\nHot-steam pipes and wood igni-\\ntion, 334\\nHoward, C. C, analysis natural\\ngas, 175\\nHydrocarbon oil burner, 303\\nfrom shale, 298\\nfuel for locomotives, 295\\nHydrogen, 168\\nHydrogen, air for combustion of,\\n81\\nliquefaction of, 169\\nproduct of combustion of,\\n103\\nspecific heat of, 152\\nunion with carbon, 84\\nHygroscopic moisture, 172\\nIgnition, 86\\ntemperature of gases, 87\\nIndiana block coal, 28\\nInduced system of draft, 325\\nInjectors, limit of feed tempera-\\nture, 280\\nInstructions to locomotive fire-\\nmen, 125\\nInternal work in liberating gas\\nfrom bituminous coal, 182\\nIron pyrites and ashes, 112\\nand spontaneous com-\\nbustion, 332\\nJones underfeed stoker,\\nJoule s equivalent, 157\\n237\\nKent, William, quoted, 184\\nKent s boiler furnace, 221\\nKentucky brown coal, 30\\nKinetic energy, 51\\nLatent heat, 156\\nand condensation, 204\\nof evaporation, 203\\nof fusion, 156\\nLean coals defined, 11\\nLehigh anthracite coal, 14\\nLesley, J. P., on anthracite for-\\nmation, 13\\nLight firing, Southern Pacific\\nRailway, 291", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0350.jp2"}, "351": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n345\\nLignite, 30\\nashes from, 34\\ncalorific value of, 198\\ncoke from, 34\\ncomposition of, 32\\noccurrence, 31\\nproperties of, 30\\nLime, how present m ashes, 117\\nLiquefaction, interior work, 156\\nLiquids bad conductors of heat,\\n154\\nLocomotive, air and steam jets\\nfor, 129\\nboiler, Barnes 266\\nefficiency, 259\\nStrong s, 280\\nWootten s, 262\\nbrick arch, 250\\nchanging coal to oil, 299\\ncombustion chamber, 265, 280\\ndraft in, 270\\nevaporative performance, 259\\nfire boxes, smokeless, 123\\ndouble, 266, 280\\nlimitations, 249\\nwide, 263\\nfiring instructions, 125\\nfurnace details, 249\\nrate of combustion, 250\\nSmoke Preventer Co., 127\\nsmokeless combustion, 284\\nwhere the coal goes, 147\\nLosses in a furnace, 215\\nLost work, 48\\nMahler s formula, 184\\nMariotte s law and density of\\nair, 76\\nMarsh gas, 170\\nMaster Mechanics Association\\nfront ends, 285\\nMcArdle, Frederick, quoted, 260\\nMcClave, grate by James Beggs\\nCo., 239\\nMcHenry, E. H., diagram:\\nWhere the coal goes when\\nburned in a locomotive fire\\nbox, 148\\nMechanical draft, advantages of,\\n320, 328\\nenergy and heat, 158\\nequivalent of heat, 157\\nstoker, American, 235\\nAyers and Ranger, 231\\nBabcock Wilcox, 226\\nJones, 237\\nRoney, 227\\nWilkinson, 229\\nMercury, boiling point of, 54\\nfreezing point of, 54\\nMetals, thermal conductivity of,\\n154\\nMogul engine, 148\\nMoisture in coal, 172, 180\\nMolecule, 59\\nMultiple proportions, law of,\\n65\\nMurphy, J. W., locomotive fire\\nbox, 124\\nMurphy s furnace, 233\\nNagle, A. F., quoted, 29\\nNatural gas, 174\\nheat units in, 174\\nHoward s analysis, 175\\nNetting, area of openings, 279\\nlocation of, 278\\nNew River coal, 190\\nNicholson, George B., quoted,\\n253\\nNitrogen, 71\\neconomic qualities of, 73", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0351.jp2"}, "352": {"fulltext": "346\\nINDEX.\\nNitrogen in products of combus-\\ntion, 106\\nliquid and solid, 71\\nnegative qualities of, 72\\nnon-supporter of combus-\\ntion, 71\\nspecific heat of, 71, 152\\nNon-caking coals, burning of, 28\\nNon-condensing engine, heat lost\\nin, 205\\nNorthern Pacific Railway Mogul\\nengine, 148\\nNotation, symbolic, 60\\nO Brien Pickle s furnace, 224\\nOil, advantages of as fuel, 295\\nand coal, relative cost, 302\\nauxiliary to coal, 298\\nburner, Prescott s, 303\\nburning locomotive, change\\nfrom coal, 299\\nlocomotive, size of ex-\\nhaust nozzle, 302\\nOil fires and boiler tubes, 302\\nare they smokeless? 302\\nno air admitted above, 300\\nno limit to steaming capac-\\nity, 303\\nproducts of combustion, 302\\nOil of the Pacific coast, 301\\nOlefiant gas, 171\\nOxygen, 69\\nabsorbed by coal, 331\\nand litharge fuel tests, 196\\nand spontaneous combus-\\ntion, 71\\nchemical activity of, 71\\nestimation of volume, 86\\nliquid and solid, 70\\nspecific heat of, 69, 152\\nsupporter of combustion, 85\\nOxygen, union with carbon, 84\\nOxide, defined, 70\\nof iron in coal ashes, 112\\nof lead calorimeter tests, 194\\nOzone in the atmosphere, 74\\nParrot coal, 26\\nPatent fuels, 43\\nComing s, 46\\nGrant s, 45\\nStrong s, 45\\nWarleck s, 43\\nPeat, 37\\ncalorific value of, 198\\ncharcoal, 40\\nclassification, 41\\ncomposition, 38\\ndensity, 39\\noccurrence, 41\\npreparation for fuel, 40\\nPercy, John, definition of coal\\n(numerous quotations from)\\n10\\nPetroleum, analysis of, 296\\nheating power of, 296\\nPictet, Raoul, liquid oxygen, 70\\nPocahontas coal, 190\\nPotash, carbonate of, 116\\nin ashes of wood, 116\\nPotential energy, 50\\nPower, unit of, 49\\nPrescott, George W., oil burner,\\n303\\nPressure of atmosphere, 75\\nunit of, 75\\nProducer gas, 176\\nProducts of combustion, 103\\nof oil fires, 302\\nProperties of saturated steam,\\n208\\nProportions for chimneys, 315", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0352.jp2"}, "353": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n347\\nProximate analysis of coal, 172\\nPurdue University, calorimeter,\\n193\\nlocomotive test, 275\\nQuereau, C. H., quoted, 270 et\\nseq.\\nRadiation of heat, 156\\nRaps, Henry, quoted, 262\\nRate of combustion, locomotive,\\n250\\nRed Lodge coal, 148\\nRice hulls, feeding to furnace,\\n247\\nRichter s theory of spontaneous\\ncombustion, 331\\nRinglemann s smoke scale, 121\\nRogers furnace feeder, 247\\nRoney s mechanical stoker, 227\\nSawdust, feeding to furnace, 247\\nScale and corrugated furnace,\\n282\\nSchenectady locomotive, 284\\nSemi-anthracite coal, 16\\nSemi-bituminous coal, 17\\nShaking grate, 257\\nSouthern Pacific Railway,\\n289\\nShale, hydrocarbon residuum\\nfrom, 298\\nSieman s gas, 177\\nSilica in ashes, 115\\nSinclair, Angus, quoted, 123,\\n259\\nSmall, H. T., superintendent\\nSouthern Pacific Railway, 284\\nSmoke, defined, 118\\nfrom locomotives, 123\\noil fires, 302\\nSmoke, indication of waste, 119\\nintensity of, 120\\nprevention, 119, 127\\nRinglemann s scale, 121\\nSmoke box, diaphragm in, 274\\nextension, object of, 275\\nSmokeless combustion, 127, 284\\nfiring, 123, 260\\nSouthern Pacific Railway ash\\npan, 289\\nbrick arch, 288\\ndetails of grate, 289\\nexhaust pipe and nozzle, 285\\nfront end of locomotives, 285\\nfurnace door, 287\\noil for fuel, 295\\noil-burning device, 299\\nsmokeless combustion, 284\\ntravelling fireman, 291\\nSparks, baffle plates, and net-\\ntings, 279\\nSpecific heat, 159\\nair, 82, 143\\nand atomic weight, 152\\nashes, 109\\ncarbon, 162\\ngases, 152\\nnitrogen, 71\\nof oxygen, 69\\nsolids, table of, 153\\nwater, 153\\nSplint coal, 12\\nSpontaneous combustion, 330\\nand coal analysis, 333\\niron pyrites, 332\\nRichter s theory, 331\\nsulphur, 331\\nStack and baffle plates, 279\\ndiamond and draft pipe\\n279\\nlocomotive, best form, 273", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0353.jp2"}, "354": {"fulltext": "348\\nINDEX.\\nStack, taper better than dia-\\nmond, 278\\nStandards of temperature, 54\\nStationary furnace details, 215\\nStations, preparing fire for, 126\\nSteam and air jets in locomotive\\nfurnaces, objections -to, 131\\nSteam blower, best location, 318\\nSteam, condensation of, 204\\neffect of, in furnace, 319\\nengine, heat problem in, 201\\ngeneration of, 201\\nheat lost in exhaust, 205\\nneanng, 209\\njets for smoke prevention,\\n127\\nproperties of, 208\\ntotal heat in, 207\\nwithdrawal of heat from, 209\\nStokers, mechanical, Ayers\\nRanger, 231\\nBabcock Wilcox, 226\\nRoney, 227\\nWilkinson, 229\\nStraw-burning furnace, 243\\nevaporation by, 198\\nStrong, G. S., locomotive fire\\nbox, 280\\nStrong s patent fuel, 45\\nSturtevant, B. F. Co., ash-pit\\ndampers, 322, 324\\nforced-draft system, 320\\ninduced-draft system, 325\\nSulphur, 168\\nand spontaneous combus-\\ntion, 331\\ncombustion of, 106\\nheating power of, 148\\nin coal, 173\\neffects of, 106\\noccurrence, 113\\nSulphurous oxide, 106\\nSymbolic notation, 60\\nand atomic weight, 61\\nTamaqua, Pa., anthracite coal,\\n14\\nTan as a fuel, 37\\nTemperature best for chimney\\ndraft, 313\\nburning carbon, 142\\nchimney, economical, 314\\nfire, conditioned, 142\\ngases and steam, 203\\nrange in steam engine. 202\\nstandards for, 54\\nsteam, 208\\nTexas lignite, 34\\nThermal unit, British, 151\\nFrench, 151\\nThermometer, 53\\nand quantity of heat, 57\\nindicates sensible heat, 57\\nThompson s calorimeter, 185\\nThorpe, Professor (numerous\\nquotations follow), 42\\nTotal heat in steam, 207\\nTravelling fireman, Southern\\nPacific Railway, 291\\nTunnels, preparing fire for,\\n125\\nUnit of boiler horse-power,\\n180\\nBritish thermal, 151\\nFrench thermal. 151\\nhorse-power, 49\\npower, 49\\npressure, 75\\nwork, 48\\nUseful work, 49\\nUtah bituminous coal, 284", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0354.jp2"}, "355": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n349\\nVacuum in locomotive fire boxes,\\n277\\nVancouver s island lignite, 33\\nVapor of water in atmosphere,\\n74\\nVelna s fuel briquettes, 42\\nViolette, M., quoted, 36\\nVolume of one pound steam, 208\\nWashington lignite, 32\\nWater, boiling point, 55\\nconducts heat slowly down-\\nward, 202\\neffect of heat upon, 149\\nfreezing point of, 55\\nspecific heat of, 153\\nWebber, W. O., quoted, 259\\nWebster, Hosea, on natural gas,\\n175\\nWeight of the air, 75\\nof steam, 208\\nWilkesbarre, Pa., semi-anthra-\\ncite, 15\\nWilkinson s mechanical stoker,\\n229\\nWood as a fuel, 36\\ncalorific value of, 197\\nclassification of, 34\\ncomposition of, 35\\nin coal liable to self-ignition,\\n334\\nmoisture in, 35\\nspontaneous ignition of,\\n334\\nWootten, John E., boiler, 263\\nWork, 48\\nand heat, 53\\nlost, 48\\nunit of, 48\\nuseful, 49\\nYOUGHIOGHENY COal, I90\\nZero, absolute, 54\\nCentigrade, 55\\nFahrenheit, 55", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0355.jp2"}, "356": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0356.jp2"}, "357": {"fulltext": "RAINBOW PACKING.\\nThousands\\nof\\nImitators.\\nNo Equal.\\nWill Hold\\nHighest\\nPressure.\\nTHE COLOR OF RAINBOW PACKING IS RED.\\nNotice our Trade MarK of Three Bows of Diamonds extending throughout the\\nentire length of each and every roll of Rainbow Packing.\\nDon t have\\nto use\\n-^rl\\nWire and\\nJ\\nCloth\\nto hold\\n1 m\\nRainbow.\\nI\\n1 Can t blow\\n.iJ\\nit out.\\nTHE PEERLESS\\nPiston and Valve Rod Packing.\\nOnce Tried,\\nAlways Used.\\nWill Hold\\n400 lbs. Steam\\nSpiral, piston\\nAVM.VERQD.EACIU11\\nSOLE MANUFACTURERS OF THE WELL KNOWN\\nRainbow Eclipse Sectional Gasket, Hercules Combina-\\ntion, Honest John, Zero and Success\\nPackings.\\nA COMPLETE LINE OF FINE MECHANICAL RUBBER GOODS.\\nCopyrighted and Manufactured Exclusively by\\nPEERLESS RUBBER MANUFACTURING CO.\\n16 WARREN STREET, NEW YORK.\\n16-24 Woodward Ave., Detroit, Mich. 202-210 So. Water St., Chicago, 111.\\n1M9 Beale St. and 18-24 Main St., San Francisco, California.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0357.jp2"}, "358": {"fulltext": "Just Published. Twelfth Edition, Revised and Enlarged.\\nTHE 1900 EDITION OF UP-TO-DATE\\nAir=Brake Catechism\\nBY\\nROBERT H. BLACKALL,\\nAir-Brake Inspector and Instructor Westinghouse Air-Brake Co.\\nMember of Association of Railroad Air-Brake Men, Etc., Etc.\\nFOR FIREMEN, ENGINEERS, AIR-BRAKE INSTRUCTORS,\\nSHOP MEN, AND ALL BRANCHES OF\\nRAILROAD MEN.\\n264 Pages. Handsomely Bound in Cloth. PRICE, $1.50.\\nThis, the New Twelfth and 1900 Edition of Air-Brake Catechism,\\nhas been thoroughly revised, and enlarged by five additional chapters,\\nwith more illustrations, besides an additional folding plate\u00e2\u0080\u0094 showing\\nincreased Brake Efficiency for Heavy Freight Trains.\\nThis book has always been recognized as the standard work on the\\nAir-Brake, and the additional chapters now added bring the book\\nas its title indicates Up-to-Date.\\nIt has been endorsed and used by AIR-BRAKE INSTRUCTORS\\nAND EXAMINERS, on nearly every Eailroad in the United States.\\nThis book is a complete study of the air-brake equipment, in-\\ncluding the latest devices and inventions used. All parts of the air-\\nbrake, their troubles and peculiarities, and a practical way to find\\nand remedy them, are explained.\\nThe book is written in the familiar style of the class-room the\\nmethod used being that of the question and answer plan.\\nThe author has treated the subject in this manner as the one best\\nadapted to beginners he has taken up each topic in its simplest form,\\nand then by progressive work has covered the more intricate parts of\\nthe topic as well, thus making the book valuable to men already ad-\\nvanced in their knowledge of the air-brake. Trainmen and engine\\ncrews will find special and practical assistance to their work under\\nthe subjects Train-Handling and Train Inspection.\\nThe author s many years experience as Air-Brake Inspector and\\nInstructor enables him to know at once how to treat the subject in a\\npractical and plain way.\\nThis book contains over 1 ,000 Questions with their answers\\nand is completely illustrated by engravings besides three large fold-\\ning plates.\\nNORMAN W. HENLEY CO., Publishers,\\nJ 32 Nassau Street, New York.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0358.jp2"}, "359": {"fulltext": "JUST PUBLISHED.\\n17th EDITION, GREATLY ENLARGED,\\nOF\\nLocomotive Catechism,\\nby ROBERT GRIMSHAW.\\nJ7th EDITION. PRICE, $2,00.\\nEnlarged by Nearly wo Additional Pages, Many Illustrations,\\nand Three Large Folding Plates.\\nContaining in all Nearly 450 Pages, over 200 Illustrations, and\\nTwelve Large Folding Plates.\\nThis book commends itself at once to every Engineer and Fire-\\nman, and to all who are going in for examination or promotion.\\nIn plain language, with full, complete answers, not only all the\\nquestions asked by the examining engineer are given, but those\\nwhich the young and less experienced would ask the .veteran, and\\nwhich old hands ask as stickers.\\nIt is a veritable Encyclopaedia of the Locomotive, is entirely free\\nfrom mathematics, and thoroughly up to date.\\nIt contains Sixteen Hundred Questions with their Answers.\\nIt has been very highly endorsed by the Journal of the Brother-\\nhood of Locomotive Engineers, Brotherhood of Locomotive Fire-\\nmen s Magazine, Locomotive Engineering, and other railroad\\nmagazines, besides which we have thousands of testimonials from\\nEngineers and Firemen, all speaking in the very highest praise of it.\\nWHAT IS SAID OP IT BY THE RAILWAY JOURNALS.\\nThis book is worth the price asked many times over. Locomotive Engineering.\\nWe recommend the book to all Firemen and Engineers. Locomotive Firemen s\\nMagazine.\\nA most practical and useful book, which commends itself to all Locomotive Firemen\\nand Engineers. The book is a veritable encyclopedia of the Locomotive, and is free from\\ntheory and mathematics. We recommend it. Journal of the Brotherhood of Locomotive\\nEngineers.\\nThe book covers the ground in a very creditable manner, and is well worth the\\nprice. National Car and Locomotive Builder.\\nNearly 450 Pages, Bound in Extra Maroon Cloth, Gilt,\\nOver 200 Illustrations,\\nand 12 Large Folding Plates. Price, $2.00\\nNORMAN W. HENLEY CO., Publishers,\\n132 NASSAU STREET, NEW YORK.\\n*\u00c2\u00bb*Copie\u00c2\u00ab of this book prepaid to any address on receipt of price.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0359.jp2"}, "360": {"fulltext": "Eleventh and Enlarged Edition, Just Issued.\\nThe Steam Engine Catechism.\\nBy ROBERT GRIMSHAW, M. E.,\\nAuthor of Engine ^Runner s Catechism, Locomotive Catechism, Eleventh\\nEdition, Boiler Catechism, Shop Kinks, etc., etc., etc.\\nA Series of Direct Practical Answers to Direct Practical Questions,\\nMainly Intended for Young Engineers and for Examination\\nQuestions.\\nNEARLY 1000 QUESTIONS WITH THEIR ANSWERS.\\nTwo Volumes Bound in One Yolume, 113 Pages, Fully Illustrated.\\nPRICE, $2.00.\\nWhat is said of this book:\\nUnited States Government Endorsement.\\nnavy department,\\nbureau of steam engineering,\\nWashington, D. C.\\nlam of the opinion that for the practical instruction of students and young en-\\ngineers, Grimshaw s Steam Engine Catechism and Engine Runner s Cat cbism\\nare of great value, besides containing many points of use to tbose older in the profession.\\n(Signed) G. W. Melville, Engineer-in-Chief, U. S. A.\\nf\\nA valuable work, technically correct and up to date. Should be in every engineer s\\nhands. \u00e2\u0080\u0094Marine Journal.\\nti it will serve admirably as a guide to those about to be examined for a license\\nor for admission to engineering societies, etc. It is liberally illustrated and supplied\\nwith reference tables. The title of this book is so complete that its design may be\\ncomprehended at a glance. It is a practical work intended for practical men. \u00e2\u0080\u0094Age\\nof Steel.\\nIt is a handy volume to have about, in this day of Civil Service examinations.\\nEngineering News.\\nNot only young engineers, but all who desire rudimental and practical instruction\\nin the science of Steam Engineering, will find profit in reading the Steam Engine\\nCatechism by Eobt. Grimshaw. \u00e2\u0080\u0094Mechanical News.\\nLack of space prevents us from printing hundreds of testimonials\\nsimilar to the above.\\nNORMAN W.HENLEY CO., Publishers,\\n132 NASSAU STREET, NEW YORK.\\nCopies sent on receipt Qf price,,", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0360.jp2"}, "361": {"fulltext": "THIRD EDITION.\\nBY\\nROBERT GRIMSHAW, M. E.\\nAuthor of Steam Engine Catechism, etc.\\nTelling how to Erect, Adjust, and Run the Prin-\\ncipal Steam Engines in use in\\nthe United States.\\nCONTENTS t\\nPrincipal Features of Various Special Makes\\nof Engines, viz.:\\nArmington Sime, Atlas, Buckeye, Cummer, Eclipse- Corliss,\\nFitchburg, Fraser Chalmers Corliss, Frick -Corliss, Greene,\\nIde, Porter- Allen, Porter-Hamilton, Putnam, Russell, Straight-\\nLine Twiss, Watertown, Westinghouse, Wheelock.\\nTemper Cut-Off, Shipping and Receiving Foun-\\ndations, Erecting and Starting, Valve\\nSetting. Care and Use, Emer-\\ngencies, Erecting and Ad-\\njusting Special\\nEngines\\nArmington Sims, Atlas, Buckeye, Corliss, Fitchburg, Fraser\\nChalmers Corliss, Gardner, Harris-Corliss, Ide, New Economizer,\\nPhoenix, Porter-Allen, Porter- Hamilton, Putnam, Rollins, Russell,\\nStraight-Line, Watertown, Westinghouse, Wheelock, Whiting,\\nWoodbury-Booth.\\nThird Edition. 366 Pages. Fully Illustrated.\\nHandsomely Bound in Cloth, $2.00.\\nNORMAN W. HENLEY CO., Publishers.\\n132 NASSAU STREET,\\nNew York*\\n***Cot ies sent on receipt of the price.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0361.jp2"}, "362": {"fulltext": "JUST PUBLISHED.\\nThird Edition, Revised and Much Enlarged,\\nGas, Gasoline and Oil Engines.\\nBy Gardner D. Hiscox, M. B.\\nLARGE OCTAVO. 384 PAGES. PRICE, $2.50.\\nThe only American Book on the subject.\\nA book designed for the general information of every one inter,\\nested in this new and popular motive power, and its adaptation to the\\nincreasing demand for a cheap and easily managed motor requiring\\nno licensed engineer.\\nThe book treats of the theory and practice of Gas, Gasoline, and\\nOil Engines, as designed and manufactured in the United States. It\\nalso contains chapters on Horseless Vehicles, Electric-Lighting,\\nMarine Propulsion, etc.\\nThird Edition. Illustrated by 270 Engravings. Revised and Enlarged.\\nA FEW EXTRACTS OF NOTICES FROM THE PRESS.\\nThis book is written in a plain, concise style, which will commend it to practical men.\\nCoUiery Engineer.\\nIt is a very comprehensive and thoroughly up-to-date work. American Machinist.\\nMr. Hiscox s work, devoted to American practice, is practically unique in subject,\\nand this fact, superadded to its merits, and the authority of the widely known engineer who\\nwrites it, gives it a value all its own. \u00e2\u0080\u0094Scientific Amet ican\\nThe subjects treated in this book are timely and interesting, as there is no doubt as to\\nthe increasing use of Gas, Gasoline, and Oil Engines, particularly for small powers. It gives\\nsuch general information on the construction, operation and care of these engines, that\\nshould prove valuable to any one in need of such motors, as well as those already having\\nthem in we.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Machinery.\\nThe author has signally succeeded in his task. This work is one of the most valuable\\ncontributions to engineering literature that has come into existence for years.\\nEvery detail of the subject is considered, and the construction of nearly every known\\ngas and oil motor on the American market is given.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Scientific Machinist.\\nNORMAN W. HENLEY CO., Publishers,\\n132 NASSAU STREET, NEW YORK.\\n^\u00e2\u0080\u00a2Copies of above book prepaid to any address on receipt of prloe.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0362.jp2"}, "363": {"fulltext": "JUST PUBIilSHBD.\\nMECHANICAL MOVEMENTS,\\nPOWERS, DEVICES, AND APPLIANCES.\\nBy GARDNER D. HISCOX, n.E.,\\nAuthor of Gas, Gasoline, and Oil Engines.\\nSve. Over 400 Pages. 1649 Illustrations, with Descriptive Text.\\nPRICE $3.00.\\nA dictionary of Mechanical Movements, Powers, Devices, and Appliances, with\\n1649 illustrations and explanatory text. This is a new work on illustrated mechanics,\\nmechanical movements, devices, and appliances, covering nearly the whole range\\nof the practical and inventive field, for the use of Mechanics, Inventors, Engineers,\\nDraughtsmen, and all persons interested in mechanical contrivances.\\nSECTIONS.\\nSection I. Mechanical Powers.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Weights, Revolution of Forces, Pressures,\\nLevers, Pulleys, Tackle, etc.\\nSection II. Transmission of Power,- Ropes, Belts, Friction Gear, Spur,\\nBevel, and Screw Gear, etc.\\nSection III. Measurement of Power.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Speed, Pressure, Weight, Numbers,\\nQuantities, and Appliances.\\nSection IV. Steam Power- Boilers and Adjuncts.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Engines. Valves and\\nValve Gear, Parallel Motion Gear, Governors and Engine Devices, Rotary En-\\ngines, Oscillating Engines.\\nSection V. Steam Appliances.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Injectors, Steam Pumps, Condensers, Sepa-\\nrators, Traps, and Valves.\\nSection VI. Motive Power\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Gas and Gasoline Engines.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Valve Gear\\nand Appliances, Connecting Rods and Heads.\\nSection VII. Hydraulic Power and Devices.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Water Wheels, Turbines.\\nGovernors, Impact Wheels, Pumps, Rotary Pumps, Siphons, Water Lifts. Eject-\\nors. Water Rams, Meters, Indicators, Pressure Regulators, Valves, Pipe Joints,\\nFilters, etc.\\nSection VIII. Air Power Appliances.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Wind Mills, Bellows, Blowers, Air\\nCompressors, Compressed Air Tools, Motors, Air Water Lifts, Blow Pipes, etc.\\nSection IX. Electric Power and Construction. -Generators, Motors, Wir-\\ning, Controlling and Measuring, Lighting, Electric Furnaces, Fans, Search Light\\nand Electric Appliances.\\nSection X. Navigation and Roads.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Vessels, Sails, Rope Knots, Paddle\\nWheels, Propellers, Road Scraper and Roller, Vehicles, Motor Carriages, Tricy-\\ncles, Bicycles, and Motor Adjuncts.\\nSection XI. Gearing.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Racks and Pinions, Spiral, Elliptical, and Worm Gear,\\nDifferential and Stop-Motion Gear, Epicyclical and Planetary Trains, Fer-\\nguson s Paradox.\\nSection XII. Motion and Devices Controlling Motion.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Ratchets and\\nPawls, Cams, Cranks, Intermittent and Stop Motions, Wipers, Volute Cams,\\nVariable Cranks, Universal Shaft Couplings, Gyroscope, etc.\\nSection XIII. Horological.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Clock and Watch Movements and Devices.\\nSection XIV. Mining.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Quarrying:. Ventilation, Hoisting, Conveying, Pulver-\\nizing, Separating, Roasting, Excavating, and Dredging.\\nSection XV. Mill and Factory Appliances.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Hangers, Shaft Bearings. Ball\\nBearings, Steps, Couplings, Universal and Flexible Couplings, Clutches, Speed\\nGears, Shop Tools, Screw Threads, Hoists, Machines, Textile Appliances, etc.\\nSection XVI. Construction and Devices.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Mixing:, Testing. Stump and Pile\\nPulling, Tackle Hooks, Pile Driving. Dumping Cars, Stone Grips, Derricks, Con-\\nveyor, Timber Splicing, Roof and Bridge Trusses, Suspension Bridges.\\nSection XVII. Draughting Devices.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Parallel Rules, Curve Delineators,\\nTrammels, Eldpsographs, Pantographs, etc.\\nSection XVIII. Miscellaneous Devices.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Animal Power, Sheep Shears,\\nMovements and Devices. Elevators, Cranes, Sewing, Typewriting and Printing\\nMachines, Railway Devices, Trucks, Brakes, Turntables, Locomotives, Gas, Gas\\nFurnaces, Acetylene Generators, Gasoline Mantle Lamps, Fire Arms, etc.\\nPrepaid to any address on receipt of price.\\nNORMAN W. HENLEY CO., Publishers.\\n132 Nassau St., New York.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0363.jp2"}, "364": {"fulltext": "JUST PUBLISHED.\\nTHIRD EDITION\\nThe Modern machinist,\\nBy JOHN T. USHER, Machinist.\\nPRICE, S2.50.\\nSpecially Adapted to the Use of Machinists, Apprentices,\\nDesigners, Engineers and Constructors.\\nA practical treatise embracing the most approved methods of modern machine-shop practice,\\nembracing the applications of recent improved appliances, tools, and devices for facilitating, duplicating,\\nand expediting the construction of machines and their parts.\\nA NEW BOOK FROH COVER TO COVER.\\nEvery illustration in this book represents a new device in machine-shop\\npractice, and the engravings have been made specially for it.\\n8vo. 322 Pages. 257 Illustrations. Price, $2.50.\\nWhat is said of The Modern Machinist.\\nThis is anew work of merit. It is on Modern Machine Shop Methods, as its name implies.\\nIt is thoroughly up to date, was written by one of the best-known and progressive machinists of the. day,\\nis the modern exponent of the science, and all its subjects are treated according to latest developments.\\nIn short, the book is new from cover to to cover, and is one that every machinist, apprentice, designer,\\nengineer, or constructor should possess. Scientific Machinist.\\nThis book is the most complete treatise of its kind that has yet come under our observation, and\\ncontains all that is most modern and approved and of the highest efficiency in machine-shop practice,\\nete., etc.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Agb op Steel.\\nThere is nothing experimental or visionary about this book, all devices being in actual use and\\ngiving good results. It might perhaps be called a compendium of shop methods, showing a variety of\\nspecial tools and appliances which will give new ideas to many mechanics, from the superintendent to\\nthe man at the bench. It will be found a valuable addition to any library, and will be consulted\\nWhenever a new or difficult job is to be done.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Machinery,\\nNORMAN W. HENLEY 6k CO., pubushms,\\n132 NASSAU STREET, NEW YORK.\\nCopies of the above sent prepaid on receipt of price.", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0364.jp2"}, "365": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0365.jp2"}, "366": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0366.jp2"}, "367": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0367.jp2"}, "368": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0368.jp2"}, "369": {"fulltext": "ig\\nK\\nwit\\n1*1", "height": "3514", "width": "2261", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0369.jp2"}, "370": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3585", "width": "2348", "jp2-path": "catechismoncombu00barr_0370.jp2"}}