b'\n\n\n\' \n\n\n\nf \n\n\n\ni.*\xc2\xbbi \n\n\n\n*\xe2\x96\xa0 \n\n\n\nDigitized by the Internet Archive \nin 2011 with funding from \nThe Library of Congress \n\n\n\nhttp://www.archive.org/details/haydnsdictionary09hayd \n\n\n\nJ, 2 s3s3 6\' \n\n\n\n3 \n\n\n\nHAYDN\'S \n\nDICTIONARY OF DATES \n\nCOMPREHENDING \n\nREMARKABLE OCCURRENCES, ANCIENT AND MODERN, \n\nTHE FOUNDATION, LAWS, AND GOVERNMENTS OF COUNTRIES \xe2\x80\x94 THEIR PROGRESS IN ARTS, \n\nSCIENCE, AND LITERATURE \xe2\x80\x94 THEIR ACHIEVEMENTS IN ARMS\xe2\x80\x94 AND \n\nTHEIR CIVIL, MILITARY, RELIGIOUS, AND PHILANTHROPIC \n\nINSTITUTIONS, PARTICULARLY OF \n\nTHE BRITISH EMPIRE. \n\n\n\n* \n\n\n\n- \n\n\n\nHAYDN\'S \n\nDictionary of Dates \n\nAND \n\nUNIVERSAL INFORMATION \n\nRELATING TO ALL AGES AND NATIONS. \n\nTWENTIETH EDITION, \n\nCONTAINING THE HISTORY OF THE WORLD TO \nTHE AUTUMN OF 1892. \n\nBy BENJAMIN VINCENT, \n\nHON. LIBRARIAN OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN \nCOR. MEM. HIST. SOC. NEW YORK. \n\n\n\n" Indocti -d iseant-et-aroent meminissc. popiti. \n\n\n\nIfitA _ wU y \n\n2371 \n\nLidHaRY. \n\n\n\nNEW YORK \n\nG. P. PUTNAM\'S SONS \n\n27 and 29 West 23D St. \n\n1892 \n\nINSTITUTION \nLIBRARIES \n\n\n\nr \n\n\n\n5 \n\n\n\n\nNOV 1 7 1959 \n\n\n\nPREFACE TO THE TWENTIETH EDITION. \n\n\n\nThis book, when ifc first appeared in 1841, consisted of 568 pages of \nsmaller size and larger type than those of later editions. It was favourably \nreceived, as it in some degree supplied a public want. In 1855, Mr. Joseph \nHaydn, the compiler, was compelled by failing health to relinquish his \nlabours, and at the earnest request of the Publisher, Mr. Edward Moxou, \nthe present Editor undertook the continuation of the work, and the superin- \ntendence of the Seventh Edition, while passing through the press. This \nled eventually to his undertaking the thorough renovation of the book, \nwhich has been gradually effected by revision and correction and \ncopious additions. The new features include Chronological Tables at the \nbeginning of the volume, innumerable historical, literary, scientific, topo- \ngraphical, and geographical facts inserted in the body of the work, \nand a Dated Index. To make room for these additions the size of \nthe page has been enlarged, many articles have been condensed or printed \nin smaller type, and much useless matter has been expunged. \n\nThe Twentieth Edition continues the general history of the world \nduring the last three years, under the heads of the respective countries ; \nthe more important events being noticed in separate articles. Especial \nattention has been given to the affairs of the British Empire, political, \necclesiastical, social, commercial, and philanthropic. Details are given \nrelating to the political affairs of France, Germany and the United States \nof North America, to European progress throughout Africa, and to revo- \nlutions in South America. In the course of revision extra attention has \nbeen given to the articles connected with ancient history in relation to \nmodern researches. Many small articles have been inserted relating to \n\n\n\nV1 PREFACE. \n\ntopics liable to arise in general conversation. This edition contains \neighty-two pages more than the last published in 1889. \n\nThe Editor has endeavoured to make the book a dated Cyclopedia, a \ndigested summary of every department of human history, brought down to \nthe eve of publication. The kindness of those friends who have pointed \nout errors and omissions, which are almost unavoidable in a work of such \nscope and magnitude, is gratefully acknowledged. Much of the information \nin the book necessarily depends on varying statements often exceedingly \ndifficult to verify. \n\nThe more important events that have occurred during the printing of this \nedition, are noticed in the Addexda, at the end of the volume. \n\n\n\nBENJAMIN VINCENT. \n\n\n\nRoyal Institution, \n\nAlbemarle Street, London, W. \nOctober, 1892. \n\n\n\nPREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. \n\n\n\nThe design of the Author has been to attempt the compression of the \ngreatest body of general information that has ever appeared in a single \nTolume, and to produce a Book of Eeference whose extensive usefulness may \nrender its possession material to every individual \xe2\x80\x94 in the same manner \nthat a London Directory is indispensable, on business affairs, to a London \nmerchant \n\nThe Compiler persuades himself that the Dictionary of Dates will be \nreceived as a useful companion to all Biographical works, relating, as it does, \nto things as those do to persons, and affording information not included in the \nrange or design of such publications. \n\nJoseph Haydx. \n\nLondon, May, IS 11. [Died /an. 17, 1S56.] \n\n\n\nTABLE OF CONTEMPORARY \n\n\n\nGreat Britain. \n\n\nFrance. \n\n\n\n\nPeninsula. \n\n\n\n\nGermany. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nHungary. \n\n\n\n\nEngland. \n\n\nScotland. \n\n\n\n\nCastile and \nLeon. \n\n1066. SanchoII. \n\n\nArragon\'. \n\n\nPortugal. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1066 Will I \n\n\n1057. Male. 3. \n\n\n1060. Philip I. \n\n\n1065. Sancho. \n\n\n1065. Sancho of \n\n\n1056. Hen. 4, 1064. Solom. \n\n\n\n\n1093. Donald \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nCastile. \n\n\nemperor. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1087. Will. II. \n\n\n1094. Dune. \n1094. Donald \n\n\n\n\n1072. Alfonso VI. \n\n\n\n\n1072. AlfonsoVI. \n\n\n\n\n1075. Geisa. \n\n1076. Lad. 1. \n\n\n\n\n\n\nagain. \n1098. Edgar. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1094. Peter. \n\n\n1093. Henry, \ncount. \n\n\n1 106. Hen. 5. \n\n\n1098. Colo- \nman. \n\n\n\n\n1 too. Hen. I. \n\n\n1 107. Alex. I. \n\n\n1 108. Louis VI. \n\n\n1 109. Urracaand \n\n\n1 104. Alfonso I. \n\n\n1 1 12. Alfonso, as \n\n\n1 1 14. Step. 2. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nAlfonso VI I I \n\n\ncount. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1 1 24. Dav. I. \n\n\n\n\n1 1 26. Alfon.VII.! \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nt \n\n\n\n\nii25.Loth.2. 1131. Bela 2. \n\n\n\n\n1133. Steph. \n\n\n\n\n1 1 37. Louis VII. \n\n\n1134. Ramiro. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1137. Petronella \n\n\n1 1 39. Alfonso I., \n\n\n1138. Conr.3. \n\n\n1 141. Geisa 3. \n\n\n\n\n1154. Hen. 2. \n\n\n1 1 53. Mai. IV. \n\n\n\n\n1157. SanclioIII. andRaymond. \n1158.Alfon.YIIi. \n\n\nas king. \n\n\n1 1 52. Fred. 1. \n\n\n1161. Ste P 3 . \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1 165. Will. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1163. Alfonso II \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1 172. (Ireld. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nannexed.) \n\n\n\n\n1 180. Philip II. \n\n\n1 188. Alfon. IX. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1 1 73. Bela 3. \n\n\n\n\n1189. Rich. I. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n(Leon.) \n\n\n\n\n1 1 85. Sancho I. \n\n\nngo. Hen. 6. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1199. John. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1 196. Peter II. \n\n\n\n\n1 198. Philip. \n\n\n1196. Emeric \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1 214. Alex. 2. \n\n\n\n\n1214. Henry I. \n\n\n1213. James I. \n\n\n1212. Alfonso II. \n\n\n1208. Otho 4. \n\n\n1204. Ladis- \n\n\n\n\n1216. Hen. 3. \n\n\n1249. Alex. 3 \n\n\n1223. Louis VIII. \n1226. Louis IX. \n\n\n1217. Ferdin.III. \n\n(Castile.) \nt23o. (Leon.) \n\nr252. Alfonso X. \n\n\n\n\n1223. SanchoII. \n1248. Alfon. III. \n\n\n1215. Fred.2. \n\n1250. Con. 4. \n1254. Will. \n1257. Rich. \n\n\nlas II. \n1205. An- \ndrew II. \n\n1235. Bela 4. \n\n\n\n\n1272. Ed. I. \n\n\n\n\n1270. Philip III. \n\n\n\n\n1276. Peter III. \n\n\n1279. Dionysius \n\n\n1273. Ro- \n\n\n1270. Ste. 4. \n1272. Lad. 3. \n\n\n\n\n1282. (Wales \n\n\nInterregnum \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nor Denis. \n\n\ndolph. \n\n\n\n\n\n\nannexed.) \n\n\n1292. John \nBaliol. \n\n\n1285. Philip IV. \n\n\n^84. Sancho IV. 12S5. Alfons. HI \n1295. Ferdin.IV. 129T. James IT. \n\n\n\n\n1292. Adolp. \n1298. Alb. 1. \n\n\n1290. And. 3. \n\n\n\n\n1307. Ed. II. \n\n\n1306. Robert \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1308. Hen. 7 \n\n\n1301. Charo- \n\n\n\n\n\n\n(Bruce) I. \n\n\n1 314. Louis X. \n\n\n1312. AlfonsoXI. \n\n\n\n\n1314. Lou. 5. \n\n\nbert. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1316. John I. \n\n\n\n\n1327. Alfonso IV. \n\n\n1325. AlfonsoIV. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1327. Ed.HI. \n\n\n1329.Dav.II. \n1332.Ed.Bal. \n1342.Dav.II. \n\n\nPhil. V. \n1321. Chas. IV. \n1328. Phil. VI. \n\n\n\n\n1336. Peter IV. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1342. Louis. \n\n\n\n\n\n\nagain. \n\n\n1350. John IT. \n1364. Chas. V. \n\n\n1350. Peter. \n1369. Henry. \n\n\n\n\n1357. Peter. \n1367. Ferdinand. \n\n\n1347. Chas.4. \n\n\n\n\n1377. Rich. 2. \n\n\n1371.R0b.II. \n\n\n\n\n1379. John I. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1378. Wen- \n\n\n\n\n\n\n(Stuart). \n\n\n1380. Chas. VI. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1383. John I. \n\n\nceslas. I1332. Mary. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1390. Rob. 3. \n\n\n\n\n1390. Henry II. 1387. John I. \n\n\n\n\nI1387. Mary & \n\n\n\n\n1399. Hen. 4. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1395. Martin. \n\n\n\n\nt4co. Rupert Sigismund. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1406. Jas. I. \n\n\n\n\n1406. John II. 1410. Jntevregnm. \n\n\n\n\n1410. Sigismund. \n\n\n\n\n14T3 Hen. 5. \n\n\n\n\n1422. Chas. VII. \n\n\n1412. Ferdinand \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1422. Hen. 6. \n\n\n1437. Jas. II. \n1460.Jas.III. \n\n\n\n\nof Sicily. \n1416. Alfonso V. \n1454. Henry IV. \n\n1458. John II. \n\n\n1433. Edward. \n1438. Alfonso V. \n\n\n1438. Albert. \n1440. Fred. 3. 1440. Lad. 4. \n\n\n\n\nhGi. Ed. IV. \n\n\n\n\n1461. Louis XI. \n\n\n1474. Isabella. 1479. Ferdin. II. \n\n\n1481. John II. \n\n\n\n\n1445. Lad. 5. \n1458. Mat- \nthias. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSpain. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1483. Ed.V. \nRich. 3. \n\n\n\n\n1483. Chas. VIII. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1479. Ferdinand and Isabella. \n\n\n1495. Emanuel. \n\n\n1493. Max. 1. \n\n\n1400. Lad. 6. \n\n\n\n\n11485. Hen. 7. \n\n\n148S. Jas.IV. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1499. Switz. 1 \n\n\n\n\n| \n\n\n\n\n1498. Louis XII. \n\n\n\n\n\n\niiidepend. \\ \n\n\n\n\n\nEUROPEAN SOVEREIGNS. \n\n\n\nScandinavia. \n\n\n\nSweden". \n\n\n\nNorway\'. \n\n\n\nPoland. \n\n\n\nDenmark. \n\n\n\n:oo6. Halstan. \n\n\n\nioyo. Ingo. \n\n\n\n1112. Philip. \n1118. Ingo II. \n1129. Swerker. \n\n\n\n1155. Eric I. \n\n1 161. Char. VII. \n1 167. Canute. \n\n\n\n1 199. Swork. II. \n\n51210. Eric II. \nl\'itai6. John I. \n1222. Eric III. \n\n\n\n1250. Birger J.ir \n1266. Waldemar. \nU275. Magnus I. \n\n1290. Birger II. \n\n\n\n1 319. Magn. II. \n\n\n\n1069. Olaf. !047- Sweyn II. 1058. Boles- \n\n1076. Harold. I las. \n1080. Canute IV. 1082. Ladis- \n1086. Olaus IV. I las. \n\n1093. Magnus. 1095. Eric I. \n\n\n\n1 103. Sigurd I., \n\nand others. \n\n122. Sigurd I. \n\n1 1 30. MagnusIV \n\nand others. \n\n\n\nCivil war and \nanarcht/. \n\n\n\nti86. Swcrro. \n\n\n\n1 105. Eric II. \n\n\n\n"37> \n1 147, \n\n"57 \n\n\n\nEric III. \n\n\n\n1 102. Boles, a \n\n\n\n1 1 38. Lad. 2. \n\n\n\nSweyii III. \' 1145. Boles. ^ \nCanute V. \nWaldemar \n\n173. Miecis \nlas III. \n\n178. Ca- \nsimir II. \n\n\n\n1202. Ilako III. \n\nand others. \n1207. HakoIV. \n\n\n\n1263. MaguusVI. \n\n\n\n1280. Eric. \n\n\n\n1299. Hako V. \n\n\n\n:3i9. United to \nSweden. \n\n\n\n1350. Eric IV. \nj 359. Magnus II. \n1363. Albert. \n\n\n\n1389. Margaret. \n\n\n\n1389. United to \nDenmark. \n\n\n\n1412. Eric XIII. \n\n1440. Christopher III. \n1448. Chas.VIII. \n\n1457. Christian I. \n\n\n\n1241, \n1250. \n1252, \n1259, \n\n\n\n. Canute VI. \n, Walde. II. \n\n, Eric IV. \nAbel. \n\nChristoph. \nEricV. \n\n\n\nEastern \nEmpire. \n\n\n\nn94.Lesk.5- \n\n1200. Miec.3. \n1202. Lad. 3 \n\xe2\x96\xa0227.Boles.5. \n\n\n\n1320. Christo- \npher II. \n\n1334. Interregnm. \n\n1340. Wald. III. \n\n1375. Interregnm. \n\n1376. Olaus V. \n\n1387. Margaret. \n\n\n\n1448. Christian I \n\n\n\n14S3. John of Denmark. 1481. John. \n\n\n\n279. Lesk.6. \n\n\n\ni2%g. Anarch. \ni2go.Premis \nlas. \n\ni296.Ladis.4 \n\n1300. Win- \nceslas. \n\n\n\n1333. Cas. 3. \n\n\n\n1370. Louis. \n\n1382. Mary. \n1384. Hedw. \n1396. Lad. 5. \n\n\n\n1068. Rom. 4 \n\n1071. Mich. 7. \nio78.Nicep.3 \n1 08 1. Alexius \n\n\n\n1143. Manuel \nComnenus. \n\n\n\n180. Alex. 2. \n183. Andro- \nnicus C. \n185. Isaac 2. \n19S. Alex. 3. \n\n\n\nItaly. \n\n\n\nPopes. \n\n\n\n1061. Alex. II. \n\n1073. Greg. VII. \n1086. Victor III. \n1088. Urban II. \n1099. Tascal II. \n\n\n\n1118. \n1119. \n1 124. \n1 1 30. \n\nJI 43- \n1144. \n\n"45- \n"S3- \n1154. \n\n1159. \n1181. \n\n\n\n1187. \n\n\n\nNaples and Sicily. \n\n\n\n1 131. Roger \n\n\n\n\nGelas. II. \n\nCalixt. II. \n\nHonor. II. \n\nInnoc. II. \n\nCelest. II. \n\nLucius II. I \n\nEugen.III. \n\nAnasta.IV.1154. William I \n\nAdrian IV. \n\nAlex. III. \n\nLucius III. \n\nUrban III. \n\nGreg.VIII. \n\nClem. III. [1189. Tancred. \n. Celest. III. \' 1 194. William III. \n. Innoc. III. l1197.Fred.Il. of Germany \n\n\n\n1 166. William II. \n\n\n\n1332. And. 3. \n1341. Johns. \n\n\n\n1 39 1. Man- \nuel VI. \n\n\n\n1434. Lad. 6. \'i \n\n\n\n1445. Casi.4 \n\n\n\n1492. Albert \n\n\n\n25. John 6. \n48. Con- \nstant. 13. \n\n\n\nTurkey. \n\n\n\n1250. Conrad. \n\n1254. Conradin. \n\n1258. Manfred. \n\n1266. Charles of An jou \n\n\n\nSicily. \n\n1282. Peter \n\nof Arragon \n\n1285. Chas.2. 1285. James \n\n\n\n1295. Fred. 2 \n\n\n\n1303. Bened. XI. \n1305. Clement V. \n(Avignon). \n1314-15. Vacant. \ni 3 i6.JohnXXII. \n1334. Bene. XII. \n1342. Clem. VI. \n1352. Innoc. VI. \n1362. Urban V. \n(Rome). \n1370. Greg. XI. \n1378. Urban VI. \n\n\n\nRobt, \n\n\n\ni337.Petei - 2 \n\n1343- Joan 2, 1342. Louis. \n\n& Andrew 1355. Fred. 3 \n\nof Hung. \n\ni349.Louis 7376. Maria \n\n& Martin, \n\n1381. Chas. 3, \n\n\n\n1389. Bonif. IX. i 3 85.Ladislas \n\n\n\n1433. Ma- \nhomet II. \ni48i.Bajaz.2 \n\n\n\n1404. Innoc. VII. \n\n1406. Greg. XII. \n\n1409. Alex. V. \n\ni4io.JohnXXIIl \n\n1417. Martin V. \n\n1431. Eugen. IV. \n\n1447. NicholasV. \n\n1455. Calix. III. \n\n1458. Pius II. \n\n1464. Paul II. \n\n1471. SixtusIV. \n\n1484. Inno.VIII.r4g5.\' Ferd \n\n1492. Alex. VI. \'1496. Fred. 2. \n\n\n\n1402. Mart. 1 \n\n140Q. Mart. 2 \n\n1414. Joan 2. (United to \n\nArragon.) \n\n1410. Ferd. r, \n\n1416. Alfo. 1. \n\n1435. Alfonso I. \n\ni458.Ferd.i. i 45 8. John. \n\n1494. Alfo.2. J 479- Ferd. . \n\n\n\nTABLE OF CONTEMPORARY \n\n\n\nGreat Britain. \n\n\n\n\n\n\nPeninsula. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFrance. \n\n\n\n\n\n\nGermany. \n\n\nHungary. \n\n\nEngland. \n\n\nScotland. \n\n\nCastile and \nLeon. \n\n\nAre agon. \n\n\nrORTUGAL. \n\n\n1309. Hen. 8. \n\n\n1513. Jas. V. \n\n\n1515. Francis I. \n\n\n1504. Joanna & \nPhilip I. \n\n\nFerdinand II. \n\n\n1521. John III. \n\n\n|i S i6.Lou.II. \n\ni5i9.Chas.V. 1526. Jn. Za- \n\n(I. of Sp.) 1 polski and \n\n\n\n\n1542. Mary. \n\n\n\n\nSpain. \n\n\nst.)II. (Arragon). \n\n\n\n\nFerdin.ll. \n(Emperors \xe2\x80\x94 Kings of \n\n\n1512. Ferd.V.(Ca \n\n\ni S47 . Ed. vr. \n\n\n1547. Henry II. \n\n\n1516. Charles I. (V. of Germ. 1519). \n\n\n\n\nHungary.) \n\n\n1553- Mal T- \n1558. Eliz. \n\n\n\n\n1559. Francis TI. \n\n\n1556. Philip II. \n\n\nHolland. \n\n\n1557. Sebastian. \n\n\n1558. Ferdinand. \n\n\n\n\n1 567. Jas. VI. \n\n\n1560. Charles IX. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1564. Maximilian II. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1574. Henry III. \n\n\n\n\n1579. William of \nOrange, stadt- \nholder. \n\n\n1578. Henry. \n1580. Annexed to \nSpain. \n\n\n1576. llodolphll. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1539. Henry IV. \n\n\n159S. Philip III. \n\n\nT587. Maurice. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1603. Jas. I. (VI. of Scot.) \n\n\n1610. Loui.sXIII. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1612. Mathias. \n\n\n1625. Charles I. \n\n\n\n\n1621. Philip IV. \n\n\n1625. Fred. Hen. \n\n\nKingdom restored \n\n\n1619. Ferdinand II. \n1637. Ferdinand III. \n\n\n\n\n1643. Louis XIV. \n\n\n\n\nr647. William II. \n\n\n1640. John of \n\n\n\n\n1649. Commonwealth. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1650-72. No \n\n\nBraganza. \n\n\n\n\n1660. Charles II. \n\n\n\n\n1665. Charles II. \n\n\nstadt/wlder. \n\n\n1656. Alfonso VI. \n1667. Peter, \n\n\n1658. Leopold I. \n\n\n1685. James II. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1672. Will. Hen. \n\n\nregent. \n\n\n\n\n1689. William and Mary. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n(Will. III. oj \n\n\n1683. Peter II. \n\n\n\n\n1694. William III. \n\n\n\n\n1700. Philip V. \n\n\nEngland.) \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1702. Anne. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1702-47. No \n\n\n1706. John V. \n\n\n1705. Joseph \n\n\nPrussia. \n\n\n1714. George I. \n\n\nT715. Louis XV. \n\n\n1724. (abdicated). \n\xe2\x80\x9e Louis. \n\n\nstadtholder. \n\n\n\n\n1711. Chas.6. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1727. George II. \n\n\n\n\nPhilip V. \nagain. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1701. Fred. 1. \n\n171 3. Fred.- \n\nWilliam 1. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1746. Ferd. VI. \n\n\nr747. Will. Hen. \n\n\n1750. Joseph. \n\n\n1742. Chas. 7. \n\n\n1740. Fred.2. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1759. Chas. III. \n\n\n1757. Will. IV. \n\n\n\n\n1 745. Francis \n\n\n\n\n1760. George III. \n\n\n1774. Louis XVI. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1777. Maria and \nPeter III. \n\n\n1765. Jos. 2. \n\n\ni \n\n\n17S3. [United States in- \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1786. Maria, \n\n\n\n\n1786. Fred.- 1 \n\n\ndependent, j \n\n\nr/So Clias. IV. \n\n\n\n\nalone. \n\n\n\n\nWilliam 2. \n\n\n\n\n1793. Lou. XVII. \n\n\n(abdicated). \n\n\n1795. Annexed, to \n\n\n1791. John,regeni \n\n\n1790.Leop.2- \n\n\n1797. Fred. 1 \n\n\n\n\nRepublic I. \n\n\n\n\nFrance. \n\n\n\n\n1 792. Fran. 2. \n\n\nWilliam ?. \n\n\n\n\n1802. Consulate. \n\n\n1808. Ferd. VII. \n\n\n1806. Louis, Icing. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\ \n\n\n1811. (George, Frince of \n\n\n1804. Napoleon I. \n\n\n(dethroned). \n\n\n\n\n\n\nAustria. \n\n\n\n\nWales, regent ) \n\n\n1814.L0u.XVHI. \n\n\nJos. Bonap \n\n\nNetherlands. \n\n\n1816. John VI. \n\n1826. Peter IV. \n\nMaria II. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n(restored). \n\n\n1814. Will. Fred. \n\n\n1806. Fran.I. \n\n\n,| \n\n\n1820. George IV. \n\n\n1824. Charles X. \n\n\nking.* \n\n\n1828. Miguel. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1830. William IV. \n\n\n1S30. Lou. Philip. ; 1833. Isabella II. \n\n\n\n\n1833. Maria II. \n\n\n\n\n1840. Fred.- | \n\n\n1837. Victoria. \n\n\n1848. Republic 11. ! \xe2\x80\x9e,\xe2\x80\x9e , , ... \xe2\x80\x9e \n1 1 \\ 1868. (dethroned). \n\n\n1840. William II. \n\n\n\n\n1S35.Ferd.2- \n\n\nWilliam. 4. | \n\n\n\n\n1852. NapoL III. \n\n\n1870. Amadeus. \n[abdicated) 1873. \n\n\n1849. Will. III. \n\n\n1853. Peter V. \n1861. Luis I. \n\n\n1848. Francis \nJoseph. \n\n\n1S60. Will. 1. 1 \n\n1 \n\n\n\n\n1870. Republic \n\n\n1873. Rfpv.blic. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1871. Ger-I \n\n\n\n\nIII. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1871.L. A.Thiers \n\n\ndied 25 Nov. \n\n\n\n\n1889. Carlos I. \n\n\n\n\nror. \n\n\n\n\npresident. \n\n\n1885. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1888. Fred. \n\nIII. \n1888. William \n\n\n\n\n1873. Marshal \nMacMahon. \n\n\n1886. Alfons. \nXIII. \n\n\n1890. Wilhcl- \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\ni879.JulesGrevv. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nII. \n\n\n\n\ni887.SadiCaniot. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nBelgium. \xe2\x80\x94 1831. Leopold I. \n,, 1865. Leopold II. \n\n\n\nEUROPEAN SOVEREIGNS, continued. \n\n\n\nScandinavia. \n\n\n\nSwedem. \n\n\n\nNorway. \n\n\n\n1520. Christian II. \n\n\n\n1523. Gustavus \nYasa. \n\n\n\n1560. Eric XIV. \n1568. John III. \n\n1592. Sigismund \n\n\n\nDenmark. \n\n\n\nRussia.\' \n\n\n\n1604. Chas. IX. \n\n161 1. Gustavus \n\nAdolphus. \n\n1633. Christina. \n\n\n\n1533. Ivan IV. \n\n\n\n1584. Foodor I. \n\n\n\n1598. Boris. \n\n\n\n1606. Basil. \n161 3. Michael \n(Romanoff). \n\n\n\n1645. Alexis. \n\n\n\n1719. Ulrica and 1725. Gather. I. \nFrederick I. 1727. Peter II. \n1730. Anne. \n\n1740. Ivan VI. \n1741. Fred. I. 11741- Elizabeth. \n1751. Adolphus \nFrederick. \n\n|i762. Peter III. \nCather. II. \n1771.Gustav.III. \n\n\n\n1792. Gustav. IV. 1796. Paul I \n\n\n\n1809. Chas. XIII \n1814. Norway an \n\nvexed. \n1818. Chas. XIV. \n\n\n\n1844. Oscar I. \n\n\n\n1859. CLas. XV. \n\n\n\n1872. Oscar II. \n\n\n\n1 801. Alexand. I. \n1828. Nicholas. \n\n\n\n1855. Alex. II. \n\n\n\n1881. -Uex. III. \n\n\n\n1513. Christn.II. \n\n\n\n1523. Fredrick I. \nand Norway. \n\n1534. Christ. III. \n\n\n\n1359. Fred. II. \n\n\n\n1588.Christn.IV \n\n\n\nPoland. \n\n\n\n1654. Chas. X. \n\n1660. Chas. XL \'1676. Feodor. \n\n|i682. Ivan V. & \nPeter I. \n1S97. Chas. XII. 1689. Peter I. \n\n\n\n1648. Fred. III. \n1670. Christn. V. \n\n1699. Fred - 1V - \n\n\n\n1730.Christn.VI. \n1746. Fred. V. \n1766. Christ. VII. \n\ni784.PrinceFred, \n\nregent. \n\n\n\n1501. Alex. \n1506. Sig. I. \n\n\n\n1S48.Sig.II. \n\n\n\n1573. Henry. \n1575. Steph. \n7587. Sig. 3. \n\n\n\n1632. Lad. 7. \n\n1648. John C. \n1669. Mich. \n1674. John \n\nSobieski. \n1697. Fredk \n\nAugust. 1. \n\n\n\n1704. Stan. 1. \n\n1709. Fredk. \nAugustus, \nrestored. \n\n1733. Fredk. \nAugust. 2. \n\n1764. Stan. 2. \n\n\n\n1793. Parti- \ntion. \n\n\n\nTurkish \nEmpire. \n\n\n\n1512. Selim. \n\n1520. Soly- \nman II. \n\n\n\n1566. Sel. 2. \n\n1574. Ainu- \nrath III. \n\n\n\n1595. Mali. 3, \n\n\n\nItaly. \n\n\n\nPopes. \n\n\n\n1603. Ach. 1. \nr6i7. Mus. 1. \n1618. Osm 2. \n\n1622. Musta- \npha, again. \n\n1623. Am. 4. \n1640. I brali. \n1648. Mah. 4. \n1687. Sol. 3. \n1691. Ach. 2 \n1695. Mus. 2. \n\n\n\n1808. Fred. VI. \n1814. Norway \ntaken away. \n\n\n\n1839. Chris. VIII. \n1848. Fred. VII. \n\n\n\n1703. Ach. 3. \n1 730. Mah. 5. \n\n\n\n1754. Osm. 3. \n1757. Mus. 3, \n\n\n\n1774. Abdul- \nHamid I. \nor Ach. 4. \n78g.Selm. -3 \n\n\n\n1503. Pius III. \nJulius II. \n1513. Leo X. \n\n1522. Adrian VI. \n\n1523. Clem. VII. \n1534. Paul III. \n1550. Julius III. \n1555. Marcel. II. \n\nPaul IV. \n1559. Pius IV. \n1566. Pius V. \n1572. Greg.XIII. \n1585. SixtusV. \n\n1590. Urban VII. \nGreg. XIV. \n\n1591. Innoc.IX. \n\n1592. Cleni.VIII. \n\n\n\n1605. Leo. XL \nPaul V. \n1 62 1. Greg. XV. \ni62 3 .UrbanVIII. \n1644. InnocentX. \n1655. Alex. VII. \n1667. Clem. IX. \n1670. Clem. X. \n1676. Innoc. XL \n1689. Alex. VIII. \n1691. Innoc. XII. \n\n\n\nNaples and Si<jij_y. \n\n\n\n1501. United to Spain. \n\n\n\n1700. Clem. XL \n\n\xe2\x80\x9e Naples and \n1721. Inno.XIll. Qi^-itr \n1724. Bene.XIII \' \n\n\n\n1807. Mus. 4. \n\nGreece. c 8o8. Mah- \n\nmud 6. \n\n\n\n1832. Othol, \n\n\n\n1863. Chrisn. IX. \n\n\n\n1S63. Geo. I. \n\n\n\n1839. Abdul \nMedjid. \n\n\n\n1 86 1. Abdul \n\nAziz. \n1876. Amu- \nrath V. May \n1876. Abdul- \nHamid II. \nAua. \n\n\n\n1730. Clem. XII. I7I3 .Chas. 3 \n1740. Bene. XIV. Naples. \nVictor- \no m vtii Am - of Sa- \n1758. C em.XIIL XO j,Sicily. \n1769. Clem XIV. J720 Annexed \n1775. Puis VI. to Germany. \n1738. Chas.4. \n\nNaples. \n\n1759. Fred.4 \n\ntixily. \n\n\n\n1800. Pius VII. \n\n\n\n823. Leo XII. \n\n\n\nt82 9 . Pius VI 11. \n1831. Greg. XVI. \n\n\n\n1846. Pius IX. \n\n\n\nLeo XIII. \n\n\n\nSardinia.t \n\n\n\n1720. Victor- \nAmadeus \n\n1730 Charles \nEniman. 1 \n\n1773. Victor- \nAmadeus2 \n\n1 796. Charles \nEmman.2 \n\n\n\nNaples. \n\n\n\n1806. Joseph \nBonaparte \n\n1808. Joach. \nMurat. \n\n\n\nNaples and \nSicily. \n\n1815. Ferd.i. \n1825 Fran. 1. \n1830. Ford. 2. \n1859. Fran. 2. \ni860 Annexed \nto Italy. \n\n\n\n1802. Victor \nEniman. 1 \n\ni8o$Annexed \nto kingdom \nof Italy. \n\n1814. Victor- \nEmman.i. \n\n1821. Charles- \nFelix. \n\n1831. Charles \nAlbert. \n\n1849. Victor- \nEmman.o \n\n\n\nItaly. \n\n\n\n1861. Victor-Emmanuel. \n1878. Humbert. \n\n\n\n* See \n\\ See \n\n\n\nArticle Russia for preceding Rulers \nArticle Savoy. \n\n\n\nPOPULATION AND GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD. \n\n(According to the Almanack de Gotha ; see articles Population, and the countries throughout \n\nthe book. \n\n\n\nCOUNTRIES\xe2\x80\x94 RELIGIONS \n\n\n\nAnhalt, E. Population in Dec. \nArgentine Confederation, R.C. \n\nAustrian Emp. R.C. (after ces- \nsion 1866) Dec. \n\nBaden, R.C Dec. \n\nBavaria, R.C. (after cessions \n1866) \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x96\xa0 \n\nBelgium, R-C Dec. \n\nBolivia, R.C \n\nBrazil, R.C. \xe2\x96\xa0 \n\nBrunswick, L \n\nBulgaria \n\nChili, R.C. .. \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 : \xe2\x80\xa2 -..\xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x80\x9e\xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nChinese Empire (estimated), H. \n\nColombia, state, R.C. . \xe2\x96\xa0 . . \n\nCosta Rica, R.C. \xe2\x80\xa2.\xe2\x80\xa2\xe2\x80\xa2\xe2\x80\xa2\xe2\x96\xa0 \\ \n\nDenmark & colonies, L. (estm.) \n\nEgypt, &C..M-. \xe2\x96\xa0\xe2\x96\xa0\xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x96\xa0 \n\nEquator (Ecuador), R.C. . \xe2\x96\xa0 \n\' France alone, R.C \xe2\x80\xa2 . \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nGermany, R.C..L. and E. Dec. \n\nGt.Britain&colonies,P.(estm.) \n\nGreece & Ion. Is. G.C. (estim.) . \n\n: Guatemala, -R.C \n\n! Hayti (estimated) ..... \n! Hesse-Darmstadt, L. \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x96\xa0 \nI Holland, not colonies, C. . . \n\nHonduras, R.C \n\nItaly, R.C. \n\nJapan (estimated) \n\nLiberia, P. . . - \n\nLiechtenstein, R.C. . . . . \n\nLippe, C. . ..... -Dec. \n\nLuxemburg, R.C. \xe2\x96\xa0..\xe2\x96\xa0\xe2\x96\xa0\xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nMecklenburg-Schwenn,i.Dec. \n\n\n\n1890 \n1890 \n\n\n\n1890 \n1890 \n1890 \n\n\n\n1 89 1 \n\n\n\n1891 \n\n\n\ni8qo \n\n\n\n1890 \n\n\n\nPOPULA- \nTION. \n\n\n\nMecklenburg-Strelitz, L. \nMexico, R. C. (estimated) \xe2\x80\xa2 . <\xc2\xb0yo \nMonaco, P. C . . ... \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \'888 \nMontenegro, G.C. (estim.) . .1891 \n\nMorocco, M about \n\nNicaragua, R- C. ...... \xe2\x80\xa2 1888 \n\nOldenburg, P. (estimated) . . 1890 \nPapal States annexed to Italy. 1870 \nParaguay, R. C. . .. . . . 1887 \n\nPersia, M. (estimated) . . . . . \n\nPeru, P.O. (estimated) . . .1876 \n\nPortugal, PC 1881 \n\nPrussia. E l8 9o \n\nReuss, L \'899 \n\nRouinania . \xe2\x80\xa2 I \xc2\xb088 \n\nRussia. G.C, Poland, &c. (est. 1885 \nSandwich Islands (Hawa\'i, &c.) 1890 \n\nSan Marino, R.C. 1886 \n\nSan Salvador R.C. ... \xe2\x96\xa0 . 1885 \n\nSaxe-Altenburg, P 1890 \n\nSaxe-Coburg-Gotha, L. . . . 1890 \n\nSaxe-Meiningen, L 1890 \n\nSaxe-Weimar-Eisenach, L. . 1885 \n\nSaxony, P 1890 \n\nSchaumburg-Lippe, L. . \xe2\x96\xa0 . 1890 \nSchwartzburg-Rudolstadt, L. . 1890 \nSchwartzburg-Sondershaus. L. 1890 \n\nServia, G-.C 1890 \n\nSpain, R-C 1887 \n\nSt. Domingo, R. C. (estimated) 1887 \nSweden, Norway, L.(estmtd.) 1890-1 \nSwitzerland, R.C. and P. Dec. 1888 \nTransvaal, or South African \n\nRepublic, C 1890 \n\nTurkish Empire, M. (estimtd.) 1387 \n\nUruguay, R.C 1889 \n\nVenezuela, R. C. 1891 \n\n"Wiirtemberg, L 1890 \n\nUnited States of N. America.P. 1890 \n\n\n\n271,759 \n3,793,800 \n\n4i,34S,329 \n1,656,817 \n\n5,589,382 \n6,147,041 \n1,189,800 \n14,002,33s \n\n403,788 \n\n3,154,375 \n\n2,766,747 \n\n360,250,000 \n\n4,000,000 \n\n243,000 \n2,298,367 \n6,798,230 \n1,004,651 \n\n38,343,\'92 \n\n49,421,803 \n\n340,220,000 \n\n2,187,208 \n\n1,452,003 \n\n550,000 \n\n993,659 \n\n4,5",4i5 \n\n43i,9!7 \n\n30,158,408 \n\n40,072,020 \n\n1,068,000 \n\n9,124 \n\n12,814 \n\n211,088 \n\n578,565 \n\n97,978 \n",395,712 \n13,304 \n200,000 \n8,000,000 \n282,845 \n354,968 \n\n330,000 \n\n7,500,000 \n\n2,609,745 \n\n4,708,178 \n\n29,959,388 \n\n182,565 \n\n5,376,000 \n\n108,843,192 \n\n89,990 \n\n7,840 \n\n634,120 \n\n170,864 \n\n206,513 \n\n223,832 \n\n313,946 \n\n3,500,513 \n\n39,163 \n\n85,863 \n\n75,5io \n\n2,162,759 \n\n17,564,588 \n\n350,000 \n\n6,773,672 \n\n2,9\'7,7S4 \n\n119,128 \n32,978,100 \n683,943 \n2,323,527 \n2,035,443 \n62,981,000 \n\n\n\nFrederick, duke .... \nDr. Luis Saenz Pefia, pres. \n\n\n\nFrancis-Joseph, emperor . . \nFrederick, grand-duke . . . \n\nOtho, king \n\nLeopold II., king \n\nAniceto Arce, president . . \nGen. Floriano Peixoto - - \nPrince Albert of Prussia,re;/i. \nFerdinand, prince .... \n\nAdm. George Montt . . . \nKwang-su, emperor .... \n\nR. Nunez, president. . \xe2\x96\xa0 . \nJ. J. Rodriguez, president . \nChristian IX., king ...... \n\nAbbas Hilmi, khedive . . . \nLouis Cordero, president \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x96\xa0 \nSadi Carnot, president . \nWilliam II., emperor . . . \n\nVictoria, queen \n\nGeorge I., king \n\nGen. Barrios, president . - \nL. M. F. Hyppolite .... \nErnest Louis, grand-duke . \nWilhelmina, <iueen .... \nGen. Pariani Leista.preskJnt \nHumbert I., k ing .... \nMoutz Hito, mikado \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x96\xa0 \nH. R. W. Johnson, presidnt. \n\nJohn II., prince \n\nWaldemar, prince .... \nAdolphus, grand-duke. . \xe2\x96\xa0 \nFrederic Francis III. grand- \n\nFrederic William, grud-duke \nPorfirio Diaz, president . . \nAibertHonoreCharles,p)-nce \nNicholas I., prince . . . . \nMuley Hassan, sultan . \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x96\xa0 \nDr. Sacasa, president . . \xe2\x96\xa0 \nPeter, grand-duke .... \nLeo XIII., pope . \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x96\xa0 \n\xe2\x96\xa0Juan. G. Gonzalez, presidnt \nNassir-ed-Deen, shall . . . \nCol.RemigioM.Bermudez,i>s \n\nCarlos, king \n\nWilliam II., king \n\nHenry XXII., prince . . . \nChs. of Hohenzollern, king . \nAlexander IIP, c::ar. . \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x96\xa0 \n\nLilinokalani \n\nCapitanireggenti \n\nA. Azeta, president .... \n\nErnest, duke \n\nErnest II., duke \n\nGeorge II., duke . \n\nChas. Alexander, grnd.-duke \n\nAlbert, king \n\nAdolphus, prince \n\nGonthier, prince \n\nCharles, prince \n\nAlexander, ki ng \n\nAlfonso XIII., king \nUlises Heureaux, president. \nOscar II., king . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \nEmil Welti, president \xe2\x96\xa0 . \xe2\x96\xa0 \n\n\n\n29 April, 183 1 \n\n\n\n18 Aug. 1830 \n9 Sept. 1826 . \n\n\n\n27 April, 1848 \n9 April, 1835 \n\n\n\n8 May, 1837 . \n26 Feb. 1S61 \n\n\n\n1871 \n\n\n\n8 April, 1818 \n14 July, 1874 \n\n\n\n11 Aug., 1837 \n27 June, 1859 \n24 May, 1819 \n24 Dec. 1845 \n\n\n\n25 Nov. 1868 \n31 Aug. 1880 \n\n\n\n14 March, 1844- \n1852 \n\n\n\nACCESSION. \n\n\n\n5 Oct, 1840 . \n\n18 April, 1824 \n21 July, 1817 \n\n19 Mar. 1851 \n17 Oct. 1819 . \n\n\n\n13 Nov. 184 \n7 Oct. 184 1 \n\n\n\n8 July, 1827 . \n2 March, 1810 \n\n\n\n1830. \n\n\n\n28 Sept. 1863 . \n\n27 June, 1859 . \n\n28 March, 1846 . \n20 April, 1839 . \n10 March, 1845 \n2 Sept. 1838 . . \n\n\n\nS. J. P. Kriiger, president . \nAbdul-HamidII.,sK\xc2\xabCMi . \nDr. J. Herrera y Obes, pres. \n\nWilliam II., king \n\nGen. Ben. Harrison, presidt. \n\n\n\n16 Sept. 1826 \n21 June, 1818 \n2 April, 1826 \n24 June, 1818 \n23 April, 1828 \n1 Aug. 1817 . \n21 Aug. 1852 \n7 Aug. 1830 . \n14 Aug. 1876 \n\n17 May, 1886 \n\n\n\n21 Jan. 1829. \n\n\n\n21 Sept. 1842 \n\n\n\n25 Feb. 1848 \n20 Aug. 1833 \n\n\n\n22 May, 1871. \n\n12 June, 1892. \n\n2 Dec. 1848. \n5 Sep. 1856. \n\n13 June, 1886. \n10 Dec. 1865. \n\n1 June, 1888. \n\n23 Nov. 1891. \n21 Oct. 1885. \n\n7 July, 1887. \n\n4 Nov. 1891. \nJan. 1875. \n\n1 April, 18S4. \n\n8 May, 1890. \n15 Nov. 1863 \n7 Jan. 1892. \n18 June, 1892. \n\n3 Dec. 1887. \n\n15 June, 1888. \n20 June, 1837. \n\n5 June, 1863. \n\n16 March, 1892. \n15 May, 1890. \n\n13 March, 1892. \n23 Nov. 1890. \n10 Nov. 1891. \n\n9 Jan. 1878. \n1867. \n\n7 May, i88q. \n\n12 Nov. 1858. \n\n8 Dec. 1875. \n23 Nov. ifcgo. \n\n15 April, 1883. \n\n6 Sent. i860. \n1 Dec. 1884. \n\n10 Sept. 1889. \n\n14 Aug. i860. \n25 Sept. 1873. \n1880. \n\n27 Feb. 1853. \n\n20 Feb. 1878. \n\n1891. \n\n10 Sept. 1848. \n\nAug. 1890. \n\n19 Oct. 1889. \n\n15 June, 1^88. \n8 Nov. 1859. \n\n20 April, 1866. \n\n13 March, 1881 \n20 Jan. 1891. \n\n1 March, 1891. \n\n3 Aug. 1853. \n29 Jan. 1844. \n\n20 Sept. 1866. \n\n8 July, 1853. \n29 Oct. 1873. \n\n21 Nov. 186c \n19 Jan. 1890. \n17 July, 188c. \n6 March, 1^89. \n\n17 May, 1886. \n1 Sept. 1886. \n\n18 Sept. 1872. \nDec. 1891. \n\n9 May, 1883. \n3iAug. 1876. \n\n1 March, 1890. \n\n6 Oct. 1891. \n\n4 Mar. 1889. \n\n\n\nPredominant Religions.\xe2\x80\x94 R.C. Roman Catholic; G.C. Greek Church: P., Protestant; L., Lutheran; E., \nEvangelical Church\xe2\x80\x94 a combination of Calvinists and Lutherans ; C, Calvinist or Reformed ; M., Mahometan \nB., Buddhist. \n\n\n\nDICTIONARY OF DATES. \n\n\n\nAARGAU. \n\n\n\nABDICATIONS. \n\n\n\nAARGAU (Switzerland), formerly included in \nBerne, was made an independent canton in 1803, \nand settled as such in 1815. It was much disturbed \nby religious dissensions in 1841 ; and the expulsion \nof the Jesuits was demanded in 1844. \n\nABACUS, the tile on the capital of a column. \nThat on the Corinthian column is ascribed to Calli- \nniaehus, about 540 B.C. \xe2\x80\x94 This name is also given to \na frame traversed bj r stiff wires, on which beads were \nstrung, used for calculating by the Greeks, Romans, \nand Chinese. M. Lalanne published an abacus \nat Paris in 1845. \xe2\x80\x94 The multiplication table has been \ncalled the Pythagorean abacus. \n\nABANCAY, a river in Peru, on the banks \nof which the Spanish marshal Almagro defeated \nand took prisoner Alvarado, a partisan of Pizarro, \n12 July, 1537. \n\nABATTOIES, slaughter-houses for cattle. In \n1810 Napoleon decreed that five should be erected \nnear Paris, which were opened in 1818. One was \nerected at Edinburgh in 183 1, and they form part \nof the new London metropolitan cattle-market, \nopened on 13 June, 1855. \n\nABBASSIDES, descendants of Mahomet\'s \nuncle, Abbas-Ben-Abdul-Motalleb. Merwan II., \nthe last of the Ommiades, was defeated and slain by \nAbul Abbas in 750, and became caliph. Thirty- \nseven Abbasside caliphs (including Haroun al Ras- \nchid, 786-809) reigned from 750 to 1258. They \nsettled at Bagdad, built by Al-Mansour about 762. \nTheir colour was black ; that of the Fatimites being \ngreen, and that of the Ommiades white. \n\nABBAYE, a military prison near St. Germain \ndes Pres, Paris, where 164 prisoners were murdered \nby infuriated republicans led by Maillard, 2 and \n3 Sept. 1792. \n\nABBEVILLE, N. France. Here Henry III. \nmet Louis IX. of France and made peace, renoun- \ncing his right to Normandy and other provinces, \n20 May, 1259. \n\nABBEYS, monasteries for men or women ; see \nMonachism and Convents. The first abbey founded \nin England was at Bangor in 560 ; in France, at \nPoitiers, about 360 ; in Ireland in the fifth century ; \nin Scotland in the sixth century. no alien \npriories were suppressed in England, 2 Henry V. \n1414. Salmon. The gross disorders in these esta- \nblishments occasioned their destruction in Britain. \nAfter visitations of inquiry, king Henry VIII. com- \nmenced the suppression of small monasteries to raise \n\n\n\nrevenues for Wolsey\'s colleges at Oxford and Ips- \nwich, 7 June, 1525 ; many small monasteries were \nsuppressed in 1536; and all religious houses were \nsuppressed throughout the realm by parliament, \n1539-40: \xe2\x80\x94 186 large monasteries (revenue 104,919^. \n13s. %d.), 374 less monasteries (revenue 33,479^ \n13s. fid.), and 48 houses of the knights hosj itallers \n(revenue 2385/. 12s. 8d. ; total, houses, 608 ; esti- \nmated revenue, 140,784^. 19*. 6fd.) Tanner. Abbeys \nwere suppressed in Austria (by Joseph II.) in 1780, \nin France in 1790, in Portugal in 1834, in Sardinia \nin 1855, in Mexico in 1861, in Spain in 1837 and \n1868, and in Italy in July, 1866, and April, 1873. \n\nABBOT (from Ab, father), the head of an abbey. \nIn England, mitred abbots were lords of parliament ; \ntwenty-seven abbots and two priors thus distin- \nguished, 1329 ; the number reduced to twenty-five, \n1396. Coke. The abbots of Reading, Glastonbury, \nand St. John\'s, Colchester, were executed as traitors \nfor denying the king\'s supremacy, probably for not \nsurrendering their abbeys, 1539 ; see Glastonbury. \n\nABBOT\'S RIPTON, see Eaihvaij Accidents, \n1876. \n\nABC CLUB, a name adopted by certain \nrepublican enthusiasts in Paris, professing to re- \nlieve the abaisses, or depressed. Their insurrection \n5 June, 1832, was suppressed with bloodshed, 6 June. \nThese events are described by Victor Hugo in " Les \nMis e rabies" (1862). \n\nABDICATIONS of sovereigns, voluntary or \ncompulsory, have been numerous : \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nSylla, Roman dictator b. c. 79 \n\nDiocletian, Roman emperor .... a.d. 305 \n\nStephen II., of Hungary II3I \n\nAlbert, the Bear of Brandenburg 1I42 \n\nLescov V. of Poland I2 oc \n\nUlauislaus III. of Poland I2 o6 \n\nJohn Balliol, of Scotland I2 g6 \n\nOtho (of Bavaria), of Hungary I30 g \n\nEric IX., of Denmark, &e. 1439 \n\nPope Felix V M4g \n\nCharles V., as emperor .... 25 Oct. 1555 \n,, as king of Spain . . 16 Jan. i 55 6 \n\nChristina, of Sweden 16 June, 1654 \n\nJohn Casimir, of Poland x 669 \n\nJames II., of England . . . fled 11 Dec. 1688 \nFrederick Augustus II., of Poland . . . . 1704 \n\nPhilip V. of Spain (resumed) I7 2 4 \n\nVictor Amadeus, of Sardinia i-j-ko \n\nCharles, of Naples ....... 1759 \n\nStanislaus, of Poland I7 g 5 \n\nCharles Emmanuel II., of Sardinia . . 4 June, 1802 \nFrancis II., of Germany, who became emperor of \n\nAustria n Aug. 1804 \n\n\n\nABECEDARIANS. \n\n\n\nABERGELE. \n\n\n\nCharles IV. , of Spain, in favour of his son, 19 March ; \n\nin, favour of Bonaparte ; see Spain . . 1 May, 1808 \nJoseph Bonaparte, of Naples (for Spain) . 1 June. 1808 \n\nGustavus IV., of Sweden ." 1809 \n\nLouis, of Holland 1 July, 1810 \n\nJerome, of Westphalia 20 Oct. 1813 \n\nNapoleon I., of France .... 5 April, 18 14 \nVictor Emmanuel of Sardinia . . 13 March, 1821 \nPedro IV. , of Portugal .... 2 May, 1826 \n\nCharles X., of France 2 Aug. 1830 \n\nPedro I. , of Brazil 7 April, 1831 \n\nDom Miguel, of Portugal (by leaving it) 26 May, 1834 \n\n"William I., of Holland \' 8 Oct. 1840 \n\nLouis-Philippe, of France ... 24 Feb. 1S48 \n\nLouis Charles, of Bavaria ... 21 March, 1848 \nFerdinand, of Austria .... 2 Dec. 1848 \nCharles Albert, of Sardinia ... 23 March, 1849 \nLeopold II., of Tuscany .... July, 1859 \nBernhard, of Saxe-Meiningen . . 20 Sept. 1866 \nIsabella II., of Spain .... 25 June, 1870 \n\nAmadeus, of Spain 11 Feb. 1873 \n\nPrince Alexander of Bulgaria (compulsory) . 7 Sept. 1886 \n\nMilan, King of Servia 6 March, 1889 \n\nABECEDARIANS, followers of Storcb, an \nAnabaptist in the sixteenth century, derive their \nname from their rejection of all worldly knowledge, \neven of the alphabet. \n\nABECEDARIUM, a logical machine, con- \nstructed by Mr. William Stanley Jevons, and \ndescribed in his " Principles of Science," 1874. \nHe states that, by means of symbolic terms, it \ncan perform all the processes of analytic reason- \ning with infallible accuracy. \n\nABELARD, a celebrated teacher of theology \nand logic, in 11 18 fell in love with Heloise, the \nniece of Fulbert, a canon of Paris, became her tutor, \nand seduced her. After a compulsory marriage, he \nplaced her temporarily in a convent. Having been \ncruelly mutilated at the instigation of her relatives, \nhe entered the abbey of St. Denis, from which he \nwas compelled to depart, accused of heresy, on ac- \ncount of his censuring the dissoluteness of the monks. \nHe then built and lectured at the oratory of the \nParaclete (or comforter) which eventually he made \na convent, with Heloi\'se for the abbess. He died \nunder the charge of heresy, 21 April, 1 142, and was \nburied in the Paraclete, where also Heloi\'se was \nlaid, 17 May, 1164. Their ashes were removed to \nthe garden of the Museum Francjais in 1800, and to \nthe cemetery of Pere la Chaise in 1817. Their \nepistles, &c, were published in 1616. \n\nABENCERRAGES, a powerful Moorish tribe \nof Granada, opposed to the Zegris. From 1480 to \n1492 their quarrels deluged Granada with blood and \nhastened the fall of the kingdom. They were ex- \nterminated by Boabdil (Abu A\'bdallah), the last \nking, who was dethroned by Ferdinand and Isabella \nin 1492 ; his dominions were annexed to Castile. \n\nABENSBERG, Bavaria. The Austrians were \nhere defeated by Napoleon I. 20 April, 1809. \nABEOKUTA, see Dahomey. \nABERDEEN (N. Scotland), said to have been \nfounded in the third century after Christ, and erected \ninto a city about 893. Old Aberdeen was made a \nroyal burgh in 1 154 ; it was burnt by the English in \n1336 ; and soon after New Aberdeen was built. A \nstatue of the prince consort was inaugurated by the \nqueen 13 Oct. 1863 ; and one of queen Victoria by \nthe prince of Wales, 20 Sept. 1866. See Population. \nKing\'s college was founded by bishop William Elphin- \nstone, who had a bull from pope Alexander VI. in 1494. \nThe University was erected in 1500-6. Marischal eolleqe \nwas founded by George Keith, earl marischal of Scot- \nland, in 1593 ; rebuilt in 1837. In 1858 the university \nand colleges were united. By the reform act of 1868, \nthe universities of Aberdeen and Glasgow send one \nmember to .parliament. Sir Erasmus Wilson gives \n10,000?. to endow a chair of pathological anatomy, 1882. \n\n\n\nAbove 30 persons drowned by overcrowding a boat, \n\nApril, 1876. \nAberdeen farmers agitate for change in land laws ; abate- \nment of rent, &c, Sept. 1881. \nAberdeen market buildings destroyed by fire, 29 April, \n\n1882. \nDuthie-park, presented by Miss Dnthie, opened by \n\nprincess Beatrice, 27 Sept. 1883. \nThe British Association meet here, 14 Sept. 1859 \\ anc ^ \n\n9 Sept. 1885. \nThe marquis of Lome uncovers a colossal statue of \n\nWallace, 29 June, 1888. \nMr. John Gray Chambers, of Banchory, bequeaths \n\nio,ooo\xc2\xa3. to found a professorship of English literature \n\nin the university with other bequests ; announced, \n\nNov. 1890. \nMalcolm III. having gained a great victory over \nthe Danes in the year 1010, resolved to found anew \nBishopric, in token of his gratitude for his success, \nand pitched upon Mortlach in Banffshire, where \nSt. Beanus was first bishop, 1015. The see, re- \nmoved to Aberdeen early in the twelfth century, \nwas discontinued at the revolution, 1689, and is \nnow a post-revolution bishopric, instituted in 1721 ~ r \nsee Bishops in Scotland. \n\nABERDEEN ACT, introduced by the earl of \nAberdeen, and passed, 1845, to enforce the obser- \nvance of a convention made with Brazil in 1826 to \nput down the slave trade. Bepealed in April, 1869. \n\nABERDEEN ADMINISTRATION, called \nthe Coalition Ministry, as including Whigs, Radi- \ncals, and followers of sir R. Peel. Formed in con- \nsequence of the resignation of the first Derby ad- \nministration ; sworn in, 28 Dec. 1852; resigned \n30 Jan. 1855 ; succeeded by the Palmerston ad- \nministration, which see. \nEarl of Aberdeen,* first lord of the treasury. \nLord Cranworth, lord chancellor. \nEarl Granville, president of the council. \nDuke of Argyll, lord privy seal. \nLord John Russell, t foreign secretary. \nViscount Palmerston, home secretary. \n\xe2\x80\xa2Duke of Newcastle,:]: colonial and war secretary. \nWilliam Ewart Gladstone, chancellor of exchequer. \nSir James Graham, first lord of the admiralty. \nSir Charles Wood, president of the India hoard. \nEdward Cardwell, president of board of trade. \nHon. Sidney Herbert, secretary-at-war. \nSir William Molesworth, chief commissioner of ivories. \nMarquess of Lansdowne (without office). \nViscount Canning, lord Stanley of Alderley, right hon, \n\nEdward Strutt, &c. \n\nABERDEEN PEERAGE CASE. George, \nearl of Aberdeen, grandson of the premier, suc- \nceeded his father, 22 Mai\'ch, 1864. After travelling \nin a yacht, he became a merchant seaman, and chief \nmate of the Sera ; he was drowned 27 Jan. 1870. \nHis brother John\'s claim to the succession was \nallowed by the house of lords, 3 May, 1872. \n\nABER EDW, S. Radnorshire. Near here \nLlewelyn, the last independent prince of Wales, \nwas surprised and defeated by the lords marchers, \nn Dec. 1282. He escaped, but was betrayed and \nslain at Builtli. \n\nABERGELE (N. Wales), see Railway Acci- \ndents. 20 Aug. 1868. \n\n\n\n* Born in 1784 ; engaged in foreign diplomacy, 1813 ; \nbecame foreign secretary, Jan. 1828 ; joined the party of \nsir R. Peel, 1846 ; died 14 Dec. i860. \n\nf Lord John Russell was succeeded as foreign secre- \ntary by the earl of Clarendon (Feb. 1853), but continued \na member of the cabinet, without office ; he afterwards \nbecame president of the council, in the room of earl \nGranville, appointed to the duchy of Lancaster (June, \n1854)- \n\n% In June, 1854, the offices were separated ; the duke \nof Newcastle remained secretary of war, and sir George \nGrey was made colonial secretary. \n\n\n\nABERRATION. \n\n\n\nABSTINENCE. \n\n\n\nABERRATION of Light ; discovered by \n\nJames Bradley, through his observation of an ap- \nparent motion of the fixed stars, 1727. \n\nABHORRERS, a name given in 1679 (reign \nof Charles II.), to the court-party in England, the \nopponents of the Addressers (afterwards Whigs), \nso called from their address to the king praying \nfor the immediate assembly of the parliament, Avhich \nwas delayed on account of its being adverse to the \ncourt. The former (afterwards Tories) expressed \ntheir abhorrence of those who endeavoured to en- \ncroach on the royal prerogative, 1680. Hume. The \ncommons expelled several members for being Ab- \nhorrers, among them sir Francis "Withens (whom \nthey sent to the Tower), and prayed his majesty \nto remove others from places of trust. They also \nresolved, " that it is the undoubted right of the \nsubject to petition for the calling of a parliament, \nand that to traduce such petitions as tumultuous \nand seditious, is to contribute to the design of \naltering the constitution." Oct. 1680. \n\nABINGDON, BERKS- The ancient monas- \ntery, rebuilt about 955, was surrendered at the \nReformation, 1 538. The grammar school was founded \nin 1563. Population in 1881, 6,755 ; in 1891, 6,557. \nIn 1645, loi-d Essex and Waller held Abingdon \nagainst Charles I. The town was unsuccessfully \nattacked by sir Stephen Hawkins in 1644, and by \nprince Rupert in 1645. On these occasions the de- \nfenders put every Irish prisoner to death without \ntrial ; hence the term " Abingdon law." \n\nABIOGENESIS (a, not, bios, life), a term \ngiven to spontaneous generation by professor Hux- \nley in his British Association address, 1870. \n\nABJURATION of the pope was enjoined by \nstatute in the reigns of Henry VIII., Elizabeth, and \nJames I., and of certain doctrines of the church \nof Rome by stat. 25 Charles II. 1673. The oath \nof abjuration of the house of Stuart was enjoined by \nstat. 13 & 14 Will. III. 1702 ; the form was changed \nin after reigns. By 21 & 22 Vict. c. 48 (1858) one \noath for the three oaths of abjuration, allegiance, \nand supremacy was substituted. See Oaths. \n\nABKASIA, a province of the Caucasus, annexed \nby Russia, the last prince Michael Shervashiji being \ndeposed : an insurrection against the Russian au- \nthorities, 8 Aug. 1866, was quelled with much \nbloodshed. \n\nABNEY PARK, see Cemeteries. \n\nABO, a port of Russia, founded prior to 1 157, \nwas till 1809 capital of Swedish Finland. It has \nsuffered much by fire, especially in 1775 and 1827 ; \nwas seized by the Russians in Feb. 1808 ; ceded to \nthem, 17 Sept. 1809; and rebuilt by them after the \ngreat fire in 1827. The university erected by Gus- \ntavus Adolphus and Christina, 1640 et seq., was \nremoved to Helsingfors, 1827. The peace of Abo, \nby which Sweden ceded part of Finland to Russia, \nwas signed, 18 Aug. 1743. \n\nABOLITIONISTS, the party in the northern \npart of the United States, opposed to slavery. They \nformed a small society at Boston about 1832 ; which \nbecame the nucleus of a great political party, and \nultimately attained its object by the war of 1861-4. \nSee Slavery in United States. \n\nABORIGINES (without origin), a name given \nto the earliest known inhabitants of Italy (whence \ncame the Latini) ; now applied to the original in- \nhabitants of any country. \xe2\x80\x94 The Aborigines Protec- \ntion Society was established in 1838. Reports on \nthe condition of the aborigines in the British colo- \nnies were presented to parliament in 1834 and 1837. \n\n\n\nIt supported the case of the Queen of Amatonga \n{which sec) 13 Dec. 1887. \n\nABOUKIR (Egypt), the ancient Canopus. In \nthe bay Nelson defeated the French fleet, 1 Aug. \n1798; see Kile. A Turkish army of 15,000 was \ndefeated here by 5000 French under Bonaparte, 25 \nJ ui y> 1/99- A British expedition to Egypt under \ngeneial sir Ralph Abercromby landed here, and \nAboukir surrendered to them after an obstinate and \nsanguinary conflict with the French, 8 March, 1801 ; \nsee Alexandria. \n\nABRAHAM, Era OF, used by Eusebius; so \ncalled from the patriarch Abraham, who died 1822 \nB.C. The era began 1 Oct. 2016 B.C. To reduce \nthis era to the Christian, subtract 20W years and \nthree months. Nicolas. Abraham\'s \\ arrival in \nCanaan is dated 2866 by Bunsen, 1730- 1 700 by \nLepsius, 2153 by Hales. \n\nABRAHAM, HEIGHTS OF, near Quebec, \nLower Canada. The French were defeated and.^ \nMontcalm, their commander, killed here by general \nWolfe, who fell in the moment of victory, 13 Sept. \n1759 ; see Quebec. \n\nABRAHAMITES, a sect holding the errors of \nPaulus, was suppressed by Cyriacus, the patriarch \nof Antioch, early in the ninth century. A deistical \nsect of this name was banished from Bohemia by \nJoseph II. in 1783. \n\nABRANTES (Portugal) . By a treaty between \nFrance and Portugal, signed here 29 Sept. 1801, \nthe war was closed, and the French army withdrew; \na money compensation having been agreed to, and \nterritories in Guiana ceded to France. \n\nABSALOM\'S REBELLION and death \n(1024 \xe2\x80\x94 23 b. c.) is described 2 Saw. xv. \xe2\x80\x94 xix. \n\nABSCONDING DEBTORS ACT, passed \n9 Aug. 1870. \n\nABSENTEE TAX (45. in the pound), levied! \nin Ireland in 17 15 on the incomes and pensions \nof absentees (long complained of), ceased in 1753. \nA tax of 2S. in the pound was proposed in vain \nby Mr. Flood in 1773 and by Mr. Molyneux in 1783. \nABSOLUTION. Till the 3rd eentuiy, the- \nconsent of the congregation was necessary to abso- \nlution ; but soon after the power was reserved to- \nthe bishop ; and in the 12th century the form " 1 \nabsolve thee" had become general. See Holy \nCross. \n\nABSTINENCE. It is mythically said that \nSt. Anthony lived to the age of 105 on twelve ounces \nof bread and water daily, and James the hermit to- \nthe age of 104; that St. Epiphanius lived to 115 ;. \nSimeon the Stylite to 112. \n\nCicely de Ridgway, said to have fasted 40 days rather- \nthan plead when charged with the murder of her hus- \nband John ; discharged as miraculously saved, 1-47. \nAnn Moore, the fasting woman of Tutbury, Staffordshire, \nwas said to have lived twenty months without food \'; \nbut her imposture was detected by Dr. A. Henderscn\' \nNov. 1808. \nA man named Cavanagh at Newry, in Ireland, was \nreported to have lived two years without meat or \ndrink, Aug. 1840. His imposture was discovered in \nEngland, where lie was imprisoned as a cheat, Nov. 1841. \nSarah Jacobs, the Welsh fasting girl, aged 13, said by her \nfather to have lived for more than a year without food, \nafter being closely watched for a week, died from ex- \nhaustion 17 Dec. 1869. Her parents were sentenced at \nCarmarthen to imprisonment for fraudulent deception \n15 July, 1870. \nDr. Tanner, at New York, was stated to have fasted 40 \ndays and nights, drinking a little water occasionally ; \nlosing 36 lb. from 157^ lb. ; noon 2S June to noon \n7 Aug. 1S80. Fraud suspected. Still living, t8S6. \nMr. Griscom, of Chicago, said to have fasted 36 days, \n5 July, 1881. \n\ns 2 \n\n\n\nABU KLEA. \n\n\n\nABYSSINIA. \n\n\n\nLouise Lateau, Belgian fanatic, at Bois d\'Haine ; said to \nhave lived twelve years without food, died aged 33. \nAug. 1883. \n\n[She had remarkable wounds resembling the stigmata on \nthe crucifix.] \n\nSignor Succi, of Rome, said to have fasted 30 days, 1886; \nfast of 30 days, at Barcelona, 22 Sept.-23 Oct. 1888. \nFasted 40 days at Westminster Aquarium, 17 March- \n26 April, 1890. Fast of 42 days by M. Alexandre \nJacques at the same place, 21 June-2 Aug. 1890; \nagain 31 July-19 Sept. (50 days), 1891. Succi fasted \n45 days, at New York, concluded 20 Dec. 1890 ; at the \nWestminster Aquarium he engaged to fast 52 days, \nbut stopped on the 44th day, 29 Jan. 1892. \n\nSignor Merlatti, of Paris, alleged to have fasted 50 days \ndrinking water ; in good health but greatly emaciated, \n15 Dec. 1886. \n\nMany other cases of long abstinence have been recorded. \nSee Fasts, Teetotallers. \n\nAbstinents, an ascetic sect in Gaul and Spain : about \n288. \n\nABU KLEA, about 120 miles from Khartoum. \nHere General Sir Herbert Stewart defeated the \nMahdi\'s troops, 17 Jan. 1885. See under Soudan. \n\nABYDOS, see Hellespont. At Abydos in \nUpper Egypt a tablet was discovered dedicated to \nthe memory of his ancestors by Rameses II. (about \n1322 B.C.). It was bought for the British Museum, \n1837. Another tablet was discovered by Mariette \nin 1865. \n\nABYSSINIA, the country of the Habese, \nN. E. Africa. Its ancient history is very uncer- \ntain. The kingdom of the Auxumitae (its chief \ntown Auxume) flourished in the 1st and 2nd \ncenturies after Christ. The religion of the Abys- \nsinians is a corrupt form of the Christianity intro- \nduced about 329 by Frumentius. About 960, \nJudith, a Jewish princess, murdered a great part \nof the royal family, and reigned forty years. The \nyoung king escaped : and the royal house was \nrestored in 1268 in the person of his descendant \nIcon Amlac. In the middle ages it was said to \nbe ruled by Prester John or Prete Janni. The \nPortuguese missions, commenced in the 15th cen- \n\xe2\x80\xa2tury, after much struggling against opposition, \nwere expelled about 1633. The encroachments of \nthe Gallas and intestine disorders soon after broke \nup the empire into petty governments. From the \nvisits of James Bruce, 1768-73; Henry Salt, 1809- \n10; Edward Riippell, 1834-7 ; major Harris, 1841 ; \nMansfield Parkyns, 1844-7, much information \nrespecting Abyssinia has been gained. Several \nexpeditions into Abyssinia have been oi-ganised by \nthe French government. The brothers Antoine \nand Arnauld Abbadie visited the country 1837-45. \nAbyssinia was divided into four provinces, in \n1847 Ras Ali was ruler of Amhara ; Ras Ubie of \nTigre and Samien ; and Sahela Selassie of Shoa. \nPopulation between 3,000,000 and 4,000,000. The \nruler of Abyssinia is termed Negus, a title dating \nfrom the 13th century. The country is now some- \ntimes styled Ethiopia. \n\nTreaty of commerce with the king of Shoa con- \ncluded by captain Harris ... 16 Nov. 1841 \nMr. Plnwden (made British consul at Massowah^ \n1848), concludes treaty with Ras Ali, ruler of \n\nAmhara 2 Nov. 1840 \n\nRas Ali deposed by his son-in-law Theodore, who \nis crowned, and takes the title of negus, or kino- \n\nof kings \xe2\x80\x9e Feb? \n\nProtestant missionaries received, replacing Roman \n\ncatholics \n\nMr. Plowden (who had joined the party of Theo- \ndore) killed by rebels, Feb. ; his friend Bell \nkilled soon after, when avenging him ; Theodore \novercomes the rebels and massacres about 150 \nprisoners as a sacrifice to their manes \nCaptain C. D. Cameron appointed to succeed con- \nsul Plowden Nov. \n\n\n\n1855 \n\n\n\nHe arrived at Massowah 9 Feb. 1862, goes to Abys- \nsinia, May ; received by Theodore, 7 Oct. ; is \nsent away with a letter for the queen, desiring \nalliance against the Turks ; which arrived \n\n12 Feb. \nIt is decided that this letter is not to be answered ; \nCameron, ordered by earl Russell to remain at \nMassowah, returns to Abyssinia . . June, \nRev. H. Stern, missionary, beaten and imprisoned \nfor alleged intrusion upon Theodore . Oct. \nCameron, and all British subjects and missionaries, \nimprisoned for pretended insults, 3 Jan. ; report \nof imprisonment reached London 7 May ; pri- \nsoners sent to Magdala, and chained like crimi- \nnals Nov. \n\nMr. Hormuzd Rassam, a Chaldee Christian, first \nassistant British political resident at Aden, sent \non mission to Abyssinia ; arrives at Massowah, 24 \nJuly; lieut. Prideaux and Dr. Blanc appointed \n\nto accompany him \n\nMr. Rassam having negotiated without effect for a \nyear, Mr. Gifford Palgrave is appointed by earl \nRussell to go to Abyssinia, July ; but is stopped \non the intelligence\' that Theodore has invited \nRassam to come to him . . .12 Aug. \nMr. Rassam, lieut. Prideaux, and Dr. Blanc arrive \nat Matemma from Massowah, 21 Nov. 1865 ; and \nare well received by Theodore . . 28 Jan. \nPrisoners released, 12 March; all seized and im- \nprisoned .... about 13 April, \nMr. Flad sent to England by Theodore to obtain \nBritish workmen, April ; arrives, July ; intro- \nduced to queen Victoria, and receives from her \nan autograph letter, dated ... 4 Oct. \nMr. Flad returned with workmen to Massowah, \n29 Oct. ; Theodore received the queen\'s letter \nabout 19 Dec. \nLord Stanley\'s ultimatum to Theodore, demand- \ning release of the captives in three months (not \n\nreceived), sent 16 April, \n\nMr. Flad received by the king ; and made to join \n\nhis family in prison .... May, \n\nPreparations for war ; sir Robert Napier appointed \n\ncommander of an expedition ; pioneer force sails \n\nfrom Bombay 14 Sept. \n\nA formal letter from the British government sent \n\nto Theodore (never arrived) . . 9 Sept. \n\nAdvanced brigade (3500) sail from Bombay, 7, \n\n8 Oct. ; land at Zoulla .... 21 Oct. \n\nNapier\'s proclamation issued in Abyssinia, 26 Oct. \n\nCaptives at Magdala reported well . 11 Nov. \n\nReport that the Gallas have joined the revolt \n\nagainst Theodore .... 25 Nov. \n\nThe British parliament meets ; the queen\'s speech\' \n\nannounces the war, 19 Nov. ; 2,000,000?. voted, \n\n26, 27 Nov. \nThird ultimatum sent by sir R. Napier ; inter- \ncepted by a rebel chief and given to Mr. Rassam, \nwho suppressed it as likely to endanger the lives \n\nof the captives \n\nArrival of sir R. Napier at Annesley bay 4 Jan. \nThe captives relieved of their chains . 29 March, \nSir R. Napier arrives below Magdala . 2 April, \nTheodore massacres about 300 native prisoners \n\n9 April, \n\nBattle of Arogee ; Theodore\'s troops attack the \n\nBritish first brigade ; defeated with much \n\nslaughter (Good Friday) . . 10 April, \n\nTheodore requests Mr. Rassam to mediate ; lieut. \n\nPrideaux, sent to sir R. Napier, returns with a \n\nletter ; Theodore receives it indignantly, and \n\nsends an insulting reply . . . n April, \n\nTheodore sends a letter of apology offering a present \n\nof cattle ; Mr. Rassam understanding this present \n\nto have been accepted, tells the king\'s agents ; \n\nthe European artisans and families sent to the \n\nBritish camp 12 April, \n\nPart of the Abyssinian troops mutiny : Magdala \nbombarded and stormed ; Theodore kills him- \nself 13 April, \n\n[" I fail to discover a single point of view from \nwhich it is possible to regard his removal with re- \ngret." \xe2\x80\x94 Sir R. Napier .... 18 June,] \nMagdala burnt to the ground . . . 17 April, \nDeath of Theodore\'s queen . . .10 May, \n\nHenry Dufton of the " Intelligence department" \nshot by Shosho robbers . . . .28 May, \n\n\n\n1863 \n\n\n\nABYSSINIAN EEA. \n\n\n\nACADEMIES. \n\n\n\nImmediate return of the troops ; \xe2\x80\x94 all had embarked, \n\n2 June, 1868 \n\nTroops arrive at Plymouth, 21 June ; sir R. Napier \nat Dover 2 July, ,, \n\n[Cattle said to have been employed in the expedi- \ntion : 45 elephants, 7417 camels, 12,920 mules \nand ponies, 7033 bullocks, 827 donkeys. Natives \nlargely employed in the transport service.] \n\nTheodore\'s son Alamayou, aged 7, arrives at Ply- \nmouth, 14 July; presented to queen Victoria, \n\n16 July, ,, \n\nPension of 350?. to col. Cameron [he died 30 May, \n1870] ; 5000?. given to Mr. Rassam ; 2000?. to Dr. \nBlanc ; 2000Z. to lieut. Prideaux ; announced \n\n23 Dec. ,, \n\nPrince Alamayou sailed to India for education (re- \nturned to England end of 1871) . . 26 Jan. 1869 \n\nExpenses of the war : 5,000,000?. voted 18 Dec. \n1868 ; 3,300,000?. more voted . . 4 Mar. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n[Total: 8,977,500?. Feb. 1880.] \n\nReport of a commission on the expenses of the ex- \npedition disclosed much waste, attributed to \nurgency and divided authority . . Aug. 1870 \n\nWar between Gobazye, king of Amhara and Kassa, \nkingofTigre; Kassa victor . . . 21 June, 1871 \n\nGobazye beaten and taken prisoner . 11 July, ,, \n\nKassa proposes to be crowned emperor and negus \nof all Abyssinia, 21 Nov. ; punishes the Catholic \nmissionaries for partisanship ; and forms alliance \nwith Egypt July, ,, \n\nKassa crowned at Axum as Johanni II. 12 Jan. 1872 \n\nSaid to be ruling tyrannically .... 1873-4 \n\nWar with Egypt ; the khedive\'s troops enter Abys- \nsinia ; the natives retire, but surprise and defeat \nthe Egyptians at Kherad Iska(a massacre), and at \nGonda Gouddi (a desperate fight) . 16 Oct. 1875 \n\nAbyssinians defeated in three days\' conflict, \n\n17-19 Feb, 1876 \n\nCol. Gordon said to be negotiating peace for Egypt, \n\nJune, 1877 \n\nKing Johanni totally defeats Menelek, king of Shoa, \n\nmiddle of June, ,, \n\nMenelek submits, permitted to rule ; \xe2\x80\x94 reported great \nbattle ; Menelek said to be killed . 17 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCol. Gordon concludes peace ; Abyssinia to have a \nport Oct. 1879 \n\nPrince Alamayou dies at Leeds, 14 Nov., buried at \nWindsor \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nKing Johanni receives adm. Hewett from Souakim, \nand signs a treaty respecting Massowah, &c. about \n\n26 May 1884 \n\nTwo Abyssinian envoys arrive at Plymouth 19 Aug. ,, \n\nReceived by the queen .... 20 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nStart on return n Sept. ,, \n\nCaptain Harrison Smith, British agent, wellreceived \nby king Johanni 19 May, 1886 \n\nFor disputes with Italy see Massowah. \n\nMr. Portal, and a Mission from queen Victoria to \nmediate between Italy and Abyssinia (see Mas- \nsowah) received by the king, after much delay ; \nwithout effect 10-16 Dec. 1887 \n\nThe Italians march to Saati to form a camp, \nannounced 1 Feb. 1888 \n\nAbyssinians defeated in a skirmish . . 6 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSlight beginning of actual hostilities, 4 March ; \nslight firing near Saati, 28 March ; the Negus \nthrough deficiency in commissariat, &c, sues for \npeace ; two chiefs sent to general San Marzano \n\n29 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe negus refuses the terms and retires . 2 April ,, \n\nThe Italian troops return to Italy 13 April et seq. ,, \n\nRebellion of Menelek, king of Shoa, against king \nJohn Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Negus is stated to have been defeated in his \nattack on the dervishes, 10 March ; and to have \nbeen attacked and killed by them 12 March 1889 \n\nMission from Menelek, king of Shoa, with presents, \nreceived by king Humbert, 28 Aug. ; the treaty \nbetween Italy and Abyssinia (2 May> ratified, \n\n2 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMenelek crowned negus of Abyssinia . 3 Nov. ,, \n\nProtectorate of Italy over Abyssinia accepted and \nannounced i 4 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Italian National Bank agree to lend Menelek \n4,000,000 francs 26 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRas Mangaseia and other opponents of Menelek \ndefeated Nov.- Dec. ,, \n\n\n\nGen. Orero, on behalf of Menelek, marches on \n\nAdua, and is warmly received . . 27 Jan. 1890 \nSubmission of Degiac Mangaseia announced at \nAdowa, 17 March ; lie meets count Antonelli at \n\nAdowa 16 May ,, \n\nFriendly communications from the negus Mene- \nlek to king Humbert . . . about 1 Jan. 1891 \nCount Antonelli visits the negus in relation to the \ntreaty ; count leaves, n Feb. ; the negus writes \n\nto king Humbert March ,, \n\nThe chief Debeb defeated and killed by the chiefs \n\nMangaseia and Ras Alula . . -29 Sept. ,, \nKing Menelek\'s present of two tame lions and a \ndecoration received by president Carnot at Paris \n\nDec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nABYSSINIAN EEA is reckoned from the \ncreation, which the Abyssinians place in the 5493rd \nyear B.C., on 29 Aug. old style; their dates \nconsequently exceed ours by 5492 years, 125 days. \nTo reduce Abyssinian time to the Julian year, sub- \ntract 5492 years, 125 days. \n\nACACIANS- I- Followers of Acacius, bishop \nof Csesarea, in the fourth century, who held pe- \nculiar doctrines respecting the nature of Christ. \n2. Partisans of Acacius, patriarch of Constanti- \nnople, promoter of the Henoticon (which see), \n482-4. \n\nACADEMICAL STUDY, see Education > \n1872. \n\nACADEMIES- Academia, a shady grove \nwithout the walls of Athens, said to have belonged \nto the hero Academus, was adorned with statues by \nCimon, the son of Miltiades, and adapted for gym- \nnastic exercises. Here Plato, 428-389 B.C., first \ntaught philosophy, and his followers took the title \nof Academics. \xe2\x80\x94Rome had no academies^* \xe2\x80\x94 Ptolemy \nSoter is said to have founded an academy at Alex- \nandria, about 314 B.C. Abderahinan I., caliph of \nSpain, founded academies about a.d. 773- Theo- \ndosius the Younger, Charlemagne, and Alfred are \nalso named as founders of academies. Italy is \ncelebrated for its academies ; and Jarckius men- \ntions 550, of which 25 were in Milan. In 1874 \nGirolamo Ponti, of Milan, bequeathed about 35,000/. \nto the academies of science of London, Paris, and \nVienna. Many of the following dates are doubtful. \n\nPRINCIPAL ACADEMIES. \n\nAmerican Academy of Sciences, Boston, 1780. \n\nAncona, of the Caliginosi, 1642. \n\nBasil, 1460. \n\nBerlin, Royal, 1700 ; of Princes, 1703 ; Architecture, \n\n1799. \nBologna, Ecclesiastical, 1687 ; Mathematics, 1690 ; \n\nSciences and Arts, 1712. \nBrescia, of the Erranti, 1626. \nBrest and Toulon, Military, 1682. \nBrussels, Belles Lettres, 1773. \nCaen, Belles Lettres, 1705. \nCopenhagen, of Sciences, 1743. \nCortona, Antiquities, 1726. \n\nDublin, Arts, 1742 ; Painting, Sculpture, &c, 1823. \nErfurt, Saxony, Sciences, 1754. \nFaenza, the Philoponi, 1612. \nFlorence, Belles Lettres, 1272 ; Delia Crusca (now united \n\nwith the Florentine, and merged under that name), \n\n1582 ; Del Cimento, 1657 (by cardinal de\' Medici) \n\nAntiquities, 1807. \nGeneva, Medical, 1715. \nGenoa, Painting, <fco. , 1751 ; Sciences, 1783. \nGermany, Natu/rce Curiosi, now Leopoldine, 1662. \nGottingen, 1734-7. \nHaarlem, the Sciences, 1760. \nIrish Academy, Royal, Dublin, 1782. \nLisbon, History, 1720; Sciences, 1779. \nLondon ; see London and Societies. Royal Academy of \n\nFine Arts, 1768; of Music, 1734-43 and 1822. \nLyons, Sciences, 17 10 ; Physic and Mathematics added, \n\nI75S- \n\n* Cicero termed his villa " Academia," and here com- \nposed his "Academic Questions." \n\n\n\nACADIA. \n\n\n\nACEPHALI. \n\n\n\nmother (as a Protestant) iu the event of queen Anne \ndying without issue. \n\nACCESSORIES TO CRIMES. The law re- \nspecting them consolidated and amended in 1861. \n\nACCIDENTS, see under Coal, Fires, Railways, \n&e. For compensation for accidents, see Camp- \nbell\' s Acts and Passengers. In 1869, it was com- \nputed that, in one year, about 192 persons are \nkilled, and 1200 injured, in the streets of London ; \n231 were killed in 1875; 237 killed, 3185 injured, \n1 Jan. 1878 \xe2\x80\x94 31 Jan. 1879. 163 killed in 18795252 \nin 1881. \n\nAccident Relief Society, London, established 1836. \nSociety for Preventing Street Accidents and Dangerous \nDriving, formed in 1879 ; met at the Mansion House, \nLondon, 30 Jan. 1880; wound up, 1 July, 1881. \n\nACCIDENTAL DEATHS IN ENGLAND AND WALES. \n\n\n\nMadrid, the Royal Spanish, 1713 ; History, 1730 ; Paint- \ning and the Arts, 1753. \n\nManheim, Sciences, 1755 ; Sculpture, 1775. \n\nMantua, the Vigilanti, Sciences, 1704. \n\nMarseilles, Belles Lettres, 1726. \n\nMassachusetts, Arts* and Sciences, 1780. \n\nMilan, Architecture, 1380 ; Sciences, 1719. \n\nMunich, Arts and Sciences, 1759 ; Sciences, 1779. \n\nNaples, Rossana, 1540 ; Mathematics, 1560 ; Sciences, \n1695 ; Hermtlaneum, 1755. \n\nNew York, Literature and Philosophy, 1814. \n\nNismes, Royal Academy, 1682. \n\nPadua, for Poetry, 1613 ; Sciences, 1792. \n\nPalermo, Medical, 1645. \n\nParis, Sorbonne, 1253 ; Painting, 1391 ; Music, 1543 and \n1671 ; French (by Richelieu), 1635 ; Fine Arts, 1648 ; \nInscriptions et Belles Lettres (by Colbert), 1663; Sciences \n(by Colbert), 1666 ; Architecture, 1671 ; Surgery, 1731; \nMilitary, 1751 ; Natural Philosophy, 1796, see Institute. \n\nParma, the Innominati, 1550. \n\nPerousa, Insensati, 1561 ; Filigirti, 1574. \n\nPhiladelphia, Arts and Sciences, 1749. \n\nPortsmouth, Naval, 1722 ; enlarged, 1806. \n\nRome, Umoristi, 161 1 ; Fantasticl, 1625 ; Infecondi, 1653 \nPainting, 1665 ; Arcadi, 1690 ; English, 1752 ; Lincei, \nabout 1600 ; Nuovi Lincei, 1847. \n\nSandhurst, Military, 1822. \n\nSt. Petersburg, Sciences, 1725 ; Military, 1732 ; the School \nof Arts, 1764. \n\nStockholm, of Science, 1741 ; Belles Lettres, 1753 ; Agri- \nculture, 1 78 1 ; Royal Swedish, 1786. \n\nToulon, Military, 1682. \n\nTurin, Sciences, about 1759 ; Fine Arts, 1778. \n\nTurkey, Military School, 1775. \n\nUpsal, Royal Society, Sciences, 1720. \n\nVenice, Medical, <fec, 1701. \n\nVerona, Music, 1543 ; Sciences, 1780. \n\nVienna, Sculpture and the Arts, 1705 ; Surgery, 1783 ; \nOriental, 1810. \n\nWarsaw, Languages, and History, 1753. \n\nWashington, United States, America, 1863. \n\nWoolwich, Military, 1741. \n\nACADIA, see Nova Scotia. \n\nACANTHUS, the foliage forming the volutes \nof the Corinthian capital, ascribed to Callimachus, \nabout 540 B.C. \n\nACAPULCO, Mexico. A Spanish galleon, \njfrom Acapulco, laden with gold and precious wares \n(estimated at above 1,000,0001?. sterling), taken by \ncommodore Anson, who had previously acquired \nbooty in his voyage amounting to 600,000/., June, \n1743. He arrived at Spithead in the Centurion, \nhaving circumnavigated the globe, 15 June, 1744. \n\nACARNANIA, N. Greece. The people be- \ncame prominent in the Peloponnesian war, having \ninvited the help of the Athenians against the Am- \nbracians, 432 h.c. The Acarnanians were subdued \nl)y the Lacedaemonians in 390 ; they took part \n-with Macedon against the Romans in 200, by whom \nthey were defeated in 197, and subjugated in 145- \n\nACCADIANS, a name now given to the primi- \ntive inhabitants of baby Ion. The rev. A. H. \nSayco (1877) considers them to have been the earliest \n\xe2\x80\xa2civilisers of Eastern Asia, and the source of the phi- \nlosophy and arts of the Assyrians and Phoenicians, \nAnd hence of Greece. Their libraries are said to \niiave existed seventeen centuries B.C. \n\nACCENTS were first introduced in the Greek \nlanguage by Aristophanes of Byzantium, a gram- \nmarian and critic who taught at Alexandria about \n264 B.C. Accents were first used by the French in \nthe reign of Louis XIII. (about 1610). \n\nACCESSION, THE, i.e., that of the House of \nHanover to the throne of Great Britain, in the \nperson of George I., elector of Hanover, son of \nSophia, daughter of Elizabeth, daughter of James I. \nHe succeeded, I Aug. 1714, by virtue of the act of \nsettlement passed in the reign of William III., \n12 June, 1701, which limited the succession to his \n\n\n\n1856, 9716 \n\n1857, 8930 \n\n1858, 8947 \n\n1859, 9 2 4i \ni860, 9225 \n1861, 9213 \nT862, 9005 \nT863, 9952 \n\n864, 10,997 \n\n\n\n1865, 11,397 \n\n1866, 11,262 \n\n1867, 11,172 \n\n1868, 11,033 \n\n1869, 10,725 \n\n1870, 10,906 \n\n1871, 11,316 \n\n1872, n,435 \n\n1873, 11,284 \n\n\n\n1874, \n\n\n".783 \n\n\n187s. \n\n\n12,254 \n\n\n1876, \n\n\n11,681 \n\n\n1877, \n\n\n11,194 \n\n\n1878, \n\n\n12,108 \n\n\n1879, \n\n\n10,787 \n\n\n1880, \n\n\n10,807 \n\n\n1881, \n\n\nI I , 404 \n\n\n1882, \n\n\n11,269 \n\n\n\n",539 \n\nn>549 \n11,149 \n11,003 \n11,98-- \nn>556 \n10,513 \n11,322 \n\n\n\nACCLIMATISATION of Animals. This \nhas been prosecuted with great vigour since the \nestablishment of the Zoological society of London \nin 1829, and of the Societe d\'Aeclimatation in Paris. \nNumbers of European animals have been naturalised \nin Australia; the camel has been conveyed to Brazil \n(1859) ; alpacas are bred at Paris ; and ostriches in \nItaly (1859). On 6 Oct. i860, the Bois de Boulogne, \nnear Paris, was opened as a zoological garden, con- \ntaining only acclimatised animals. An English ac- \nclimatisation society was founded 10 June, i860, by \nhon. Grantley Berkeley, Mr. J. Crockford, Mr. F. \nBuckland, &c, and the prince of Wales became pre- \nsident in April, 1865. It was not successful. An \nacclimatising garden was established at Melbourne, \nAustralia, in Feb. 1861, and efforts made to natu- \nralise English birds, fishes, &c. See Fish. \n\nACCOLTELLATORI (gladiators), secret \nassassins, at Eavenna and other places in Italy, 1874. \n\nACCORDION, a small free-reed wind-instru- \nment with keys, invented at Vienna by Damian \nabout 1829, and soon after introduced into England. \n\nACCOUNTANT-GENERAL in Chan- \ncery, &c, an office instituted in 1726, and abolished \nby an act passed 6 Aug. 1872. In 1841, the office \nof accountant-general of the court of exchequer was \nabolished, and the duties transferred to the account- \nant in chancery. \n\nACCOUNTANTS\' Institute, established \n\nat a meeting, 30 July, 1870 ; the Accountants\' \nSociety in 1872. Five societies were incorporated \nas "The Chartered Institute of Accountants of \nEngland and Wales," in 1880. \n\nACCUSERS- By occult writers, such as \nAgrippa, accusers are the eighth order of devils, \nwhose chief is called Asteroth, or Spy. In Revela- \ntion, ch. xii. 10, the devil is called "the accuser of \nthe brethren." \xe2\x80\x94 False accusers were to be hanged, \nby 24 Henry VI. 1446 ; and burnt in the face with \nan F, by 37 Henry VIII. 1545. Stow. \n\nACEPHALI (Greek a , no ; cephale, head), a \nterm applied to certain sects who resisted their \nbishops and met privately, about 450; and also in \ncanon law applied to such bishops, clerks, monks, \n&c, as claim or enjoy independence of the jurisdic- \ntion of the ordinary or metropolitan. \n\n\n\nACETYLENE. \n\n\n\nACOUSTICS. \n\n\n\nACETYLENE, a luminous hydrocarbon gas \nresembling coal gas, discovered by Berthelot, and \nmade known in 1862. \n\nACHAIA (N. Peloponnesus), Greece, settled \nby the Achaei, reputed descendants of Achaeus, the \nson of Xuthus. The kingdom was united with Sicyon \nor subject to the ^Etolians until about 284 u.c. \nThe Acnaji originally inhabited the neighbourhood \nof Argos ; but when the HeraclidEe drove them \nthence, they retired among the lonians, expelled \nthe natives, and seized their thirteen cities, viz. \nPellene, JSgira, iEgium, Bura, Tritsea, Leontium, \nJthypes, Cerynea, Oleuos, Helice, Patne, Lyme, and \nPharse, forming the Achaean League. \n\nAchaia invaded by Epaminondas . . .B.C. 366 \nThe Ach^an league revived by four cities about \n\n280, and by others 275, 274 \n\nAratus male praetor 245 \n\nThe league joined by Corinth (captured 243), Megara, \n<&c. ........ 242 \xe2\x80\x94 228 \n\nSupported by Athens and Antigonus Doson . . 229 \nThe Achajans defeated at Laddcea, by the Spartans, \nunder Cleomenes III., 226 ; totally defeat them at \n\nSellasia 221 \n\nThe Social war begun ; battle of Caphyse in Arcadia ; \nAratus defeated ........ 220 \n\nThe Peloponnesus ravaged by the iEtolians . .219 \n\nPeace of Naupactus 217 \n\nAratus poisoned at iEgium 213 \n\nPhilopcemen, leader of the league, defeats the Spartan \n\ntyrant Maehanidas ." 208 \n\nAlliance of the league with the Romans . . . 198 \nPhilopoemen defeated by Nabis in a naval battle . 194 \nAll the Peloponnesus joins the league . . . 191 \nWar with Messene : Philopoemen made prison ir and \n\nslain \xe2\x96\xa0 183 \n\nThe Achseans overran Messeuia with fire and sword 182 \nThe Romans enter Achaia, and carry off numbers, \n\nincluding Polybius the historian .... 165 \nWar with Rome, 150 ; Metelius enters Greece . . 147 \nThe Aehwans defeated by Mummius at Leucopetra, \n\xe2\x96\xa0 147 ; the league dissolved ; Corinth taken ; Greece \nsubjected to Rome, and named the province of \n\nAchaia 146 \n\nAchaia made a Latin principality by William of \n\n. Champlitte a.d. 1205 \n\nObtained by Geoffrey Villehar louin, 1210 ; -by Geof- \nfrey II 1218 \n\nBy his brother William, 1246 ; who conquers the \nMoors, 1248; makes war with the emperor Michael, \n1259 ; and gains three fortresses .... 1262 \nSucceeded by Isabella, 1277 ; who marries Florenz of \n\nHainault 1291 \n\nTheir daughter Maud, princess, 13 1 1 ; thrice married ; \nforcibly married to John de Gravina, and dies in \n\nprison 1324 \n\nAchaia, a fief of Naples .... 1246 \xe2\x80\x94 1430 \nConquered by the Turks .... about 1540 \n\nACHEEN", capital of a kingdom N.W. of \n\nSumatra, was visited by the Portuguese about \n\n1509. Factories were set up here by the Dutch, \n\n1590; by the English, 1602; by the French, 1621. \n\nFor the war with the Dutch, see Sumatra. \n\nThe Nlsero of Sunderland, with sugar from Sourabaya, \nstranded on territory of the chief of Pangah, a Malay \ndependent of Tuku Imam Muda, the rajah of Tenom, \nsubject to the sultan of Acheen, 16 Nov. 1383. \n\nt8 British and 6 foreign sailors made prisoners ; the \ncaptain released to negotiate ; efforts to obtain their \nrelease, by warlike attacks and proffered ransom, \n\n. ineffectual; the Dutch storm Tenom, but prisoners \ncarried off, 7 Jan. 1884. \n\nH.M.S. Pegasus sent there. The rajah demands free \ntrade, and desires subjection to Great Britain. Earl \nGranville recommends conciliation to the Dutch \ngovernment, ami juueed May, 1884. See under Mansion \nHouse. \n\nEighteen prisoners released 11 Sept., arrived in the \nThames, 26 Oct. 1884. \n\n\'The natives attacking the Dutch garrison defeated ; 160 \nkilled, reported 15 May ; another engagement in which \nthe Dutch lose, 19 killed ; reported 2 Aug. 1889. \n\nThe Dutch repulsed at Benting, near Edi, 14 May, 1890; \n\n\n\nsuccessful in conflicts about 11-13 June. War con- \ntinues ; reported 1891-2. \n\nACHONRY, SLIGO (N. Ireland), a bishopric \nfounded by St. Finian, who erected the church of \nAchad, or Achonry, about 520, and conferred it on \nhis disciple Nathy (Lathy, or David), the first \nbishop. The see, held with Killala, since 1612, was \nunited with Tuam in 1834. \n\nACHROMATIC TELESCOPES, in which \ncolour is got rid of, were invented by John Dollond, \nand described in Phil. Trans, of the Royal Society, \nLondon, 1753-8. \n\nACIDS (now denned as salts of hydrogen) are \ngenerally soluble in water, redden organic blues, \ndecompose carbonates, and destroy the properties of \nalkalies, forming alkaline salts. The number of \nacids was increased by the Arabs ; Geber (8th cen- \ntury) knew nitric acid and sulphuric acid. Theories \nof the constitution of acids were put forth by Becher \n(1669), Lemery (1675), and Stahl (1723). Afterthe \ndiscovery of oxygen by Priestley, 1 Aug. 1774, \nLavoisier (1778), concluded that oxygen was a con- \nstituent of all acids; but about 1810 Davy, Gay- \nLussac, and others, proved the existence of acids \nfree from oxygen. In 1816 Dulong proposed the \nbinary or hydrogen theory of acids, and in 1837 \nLiebig applied the theories of Davy and Dulong to \nexplain the constitution of several organic acids. \nOxygen acids were termed anhydrides by Gerhardt \n(died 1856). Many acids have been discovered \nthrough tue advance of organic chemistry. Watts. \n\nACOLYTES, an inferior order of clergy in the \nLatin church, unknown to the Greek church for \nfour hundred years after Christ. \n\nACOUSTICS (from akouo, Greek, I hear), the \nscience of sound, so named by Sauveur in the 17th \ncentury. The formation of sound in the air by the \nvibrations of the atmosphere, strings, &c, was ex- \nplained by Pythagoras about 500 B.C., and by Aris- \ntotle, 330 B.C. See Telephone, Microphone, Mega- \nphone. \n\nThe speaking trumpet said to have been used by Alex- \nander the Great, 335 B.C. \n\nGalileo\'s discoveries, about a.d. 1600. \n\nHis theorem of the harmonic curve demonstrated by Dr. \nBrook Taylor, in 1714 ; further perfected by D\'Alembert, \nEuler, Bernouilli, and La Grange, at various periods of \nthe eighteenth century. \n\nHooke calculated the vibration of sounds by the striking \nof the teeth of brass wheels, 1681. \n\nSauveur determined the number of vibrations belonging \nto a given note, about 1700. \n\nVelocity of sound said to be 1473 feet in a second, by \nGassendi ; 1172 feet by Cassini, Reiner, and others ; \n968 feet by Newton ; 1090 feet, at the temperature of \n32\xc2\xb0 Fahrenheit, by Tyndall ; the velocity increases with \nthe rise of temperature. \n\nChladni (who raised acoustics to an independent science) \npublished his important discoveries on the figures pro- \nduced in layers of sand by harmonic chords, <fcc, in \n1787, and since. \n\nCagniard-Latour invented the Sirene (which see), 1S19. \n\nSavart determined the range of the perception of the \nhuman ear to be from 7 to 24,000 vibrations a second, \n1830. \n\nBiot, Savart, Wheatstone, Lissajous, Helmholtz, Tyndall, \nlord Rayleigh, and others in the present century have \ngreatly increased our knowledge of acoustics. \n\nOver-tones, harmonics, well investigated by Helmholtz ; \nunder-toues by Auerbaeh, 1878. \n\nTyndall\'s experiments off the South Foreland on fog- \nsignals and gun-cotton, detn mstrated that the trans- \nmission of sound is checked by the non-homogeneity \nof the air, independently of fog and rain, July, 1873. \n\nThe results of Tyndall\'s experiments showed, that the \nparabolic-muzzle gun with gun-cotton, and tint of \nsir Richard Collinson\'s Run-cotton roeket, are very- \neffective fog-signals. Fine-grain gunpowder with \n\n\n\nACEE. \n\n\n\nACTS OF PAELIAMENT. \n\n\n\nhowitzers is the best sound-producer ; pebble powder \nthe worst, 1874-7. \nSound produced by electricity, light, and from radiant \n\nheat, see Telephone and Photophone, 1881. \nMr. A. Stroh exhibits the attraction and repulsion \n(resembliug magnetic) produced by sonorous vibra- \ntions in tubes to the Telegraph Engineers, 27 April, \n1882. \n\nACEE, a land measure, formerly of uncertain \nquantity, and differing in various parts of the \ncountry, was reduced to a standard by Edward I., \nabout 1305. In 1824 the standard acre was ordered \nby statute to contain 4840 square yards. \n\nACEE, Acca, anciently Ptolemais, in Syria, was \ntaken by the Saracens in 638 ; by the crusaders \nunder Baldwin I. in 1104 ; by Saladin in 1187 ; and \nagain by Richard I. and other crusaders, 12 July, \n1 191, after a siege of 2 years, with a loss of 6 arch- \nbishops, 12 bishops, 40 earls, 500 barons, and 300,000 \nsoldiers. It was then named St. Jean d\' Acre. It \nwas retaken by the Saracens in 1291, when 60,000 \nChristians perished, and the nuns, who had mangled \ntheir faces, were put to death. Acre was gal- \nlantly defended by Djezzar Pacha against Bona- \nparte, till relieved by sir Sidney Smith, who \nresisted twelve attempts by the French, between \n16 March and 20 May, 1799, when Bonaparte \nretreated. Acre, as a Turkish pachalic, was seized \n27 May, 1832, by Ibrahim Pacha, who had revolted. \nOn 3 Nov. 1840, it was stormed by the allied fleet \nunder sir Robert Stopford, and taken after a bom- \nbardment of a few hours, the Egyptians losing up- \nwards of 2000 in killed and wounded, and 3000 \nprisoners, while the British had but 12 killed and \n42 wounded ; see Syria and Turkey. \n\nACEOPOLIS, the ancient citadel of Athens, \nbuilt on a rock. Near it stood the temple of \nMinerva, the Parthenon, which see. Other cities \nhad similar fortresses. \n\nACEOSTIC, a poem in which the first or last \nletters of each line, i~ead downwards, form a word \nor sentence, is said to have been invented by \nPorphyrius Optalianus in the 4th century. Double \nacrostics became very popular in 1867. \n\nACS OR ACZ (Hungary). The Hungarians \nunder Gorgey were defeated here by the Austrians \nand Russians, on 2 and 10 July, 1849. \n\nACT OF SETTLEMENT, &c. ; see Accession, \nSuccession, Supremacy, and Uniformity Acts. \nThe Act of Settlement passed in 1662, which secured to \nvarious persons the possession of forfeited estates of \nIrish rebels, was repealed by acclamation by the Parlia- \nment summoned by James II. in May, 1689, and much \nconfiscation of the property of Protestants ensued. \nThe act was restored by William III. 1690. \nACTA DIUENA ; see Newspapers. \nACTA SANCTOEUM ("acts of the saints"), \na work begun by the Jesuits. The first volume ap- \npeared in 1643 : the publication was interrupted in \n1794, when 54 volumes, bringing the work down to \n15 October, had been published. The work was re- \nsumed by the Jesuits in 1837, and 6 more volumes \nhad been published in 1867. The writers have \nbeen named Bollandists, from John Bolland, who \npublished the first two volumes. \n\nACTINOMETEE, an instrument to measure \nthe heating power of the solar rays, invented by \nsir John F. Herschel, and described by him in 1825. \nOthers have since been invented. See Sun. \n\nACTIUM, a promontory of Acarnania, W. \nGreece, near which was fought, 2 or 3 Sept. 31 B.C., \nthe battle between the fleet of Octavius Coesar, and \nthat of Marc Antony and Cleopatra, which decided \nthe fate of Antony ; 300 of his galleys going over to \n\n\n\nCeesar. This victory made Octavius master of the \nworld, and the Roman empire is commonly dated \nI Jan. 30 B.C. (the Actian Era). The conqueror \nbuilt Nicopolis (the city of victory), and instituted \nthe Actian games. \n\nACTON BITENEL, or Shrewsbury. At the \nparliament held here by Edward I., Oct. 1283, the \n"statute of merchants" against debtors was enacted. \n\nACTONIAN PEIZE, see under Royal \nInstitution. \n\nACTON MITEDEE, see Trials, 1880. \n\nACTEESSES appear to have been unknown to \nthe ancients, men or eunuchs performing the female \nparts. Charles II. is said to have first encouraged \nthe public appearance of women on the stage in \nEngland, in 1662; but Anne, queen of James 1., had \npreviously performed in a theatre at court. Theat. \nBiog. Mrs. Colman was the first English public \nactress ; she performed the part of Ianthe in Dave- \nnant\'s "Siege of Rhodes," in 1656. Victor. \n\nACTS OF THE APOSTLES, supposed to \nhave been written by Luke in continuation of his \nGospel. It terminates a.d. 63. \n\nACTS OF PAELIAMENT, or Statutes, \n\nsee .Parliament and Statutes. The following are \n\namong the most celebrated early statutes : \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nProvisions of Merton, 1235-6. \n\nStatute of Marlborough, 1267. \n\xe2\x80\x9e of Bigamy, 1275-6. \n\n,, of Gloucester, the earliest statute of which any re- \ncord exists, 6 Edw. I. 1278. \n\xe2\x80\x9e of Mortmain, 1279. \n\nQuo Warranto, Oct. 1280. \n\nStatute of Merchants or Acton-Burnel, 1283. \n\nStatutes of Wales, 1284. \n,, of Winchester, Oct. 1284. \n,, of Westminster, 1275, 1285, 1290. \n\nStatute forbidding the levying of taxes without the con- \nsent of parliament, 1297. \n,, of Praemunire, 1306. \n\nStatutes first printed in the reign of Richard III., 1483. \n\nStatutes of the Realm, from Magna Charta to George I. . \nprinted from the original records and MSS. in 12 vols, \nfolio, under the direction of commissioners appointed \nin 1801, 1811-28. \n\nThe statutes passed during each session were formerly \nprinted annually in 4to and 8vo, now in 8vo only. \nAbstracts are given in the Cabinet Lawyer. \n\nBetween 1823 and 1829, 1126 acts were wholly repealed, \nand 443 repealed in part, chiefly arising out of the con- \nsolidation of the laws by Mr. (afterwards sir Robert) \nPeel ; of these acts, 1344 related to the kingdom at \nlarge, and 225 to Ireland solely ; and in 1856 many \nobsolete statutes (enacted between 1285 and 1777) were \nrepealed. \n\nBy the Statute Law Revision Act of 1861, 770 acts were \nwholly repealed, and a great many partially. By \nsimilar acts since passed, a great number of enactments \nhave been repealed, commencing with the Provisions \nof Merton, 20 Henry III. (1235-6), and ending 1844. \n\n"Acts of parliament abbreviation bill" introduced by \nlord Brougham 12 Feb., passed 10 June, 1850. \n\nThe Interpretation Act passed, 30 Aug. 1889. \n\n1410 acts (passed between 16S9 and 1770) partially or \nwholly repealed, 1867. \n\n" Chronological Table and Index to the Statutes to the \nend of 1869,\'\' published 1870. Ninth Edition (1235- \n1883), published 1884. \n\nPublication of the revised edition of the statutes (1325- \n1878); 18 volumes jmblished, 1870-85. \n\nReport of select committee on acts of parliament, pub- \nlished July, 1875. \n\nNew edition of the revised statutes proposed 1888, see \nStatutes. \n\nShort Titles Act passed, 20 May, 1892. \n\nThe greatest number of acts passed in any one year \nsince 1800 was 570, in 1846 (the railway year); 402 \nwere local and personal, 51 private, and 117 public acts. \nIn 1841, only 13 were passed (the lowest number), \nof which two were private. The average number \nof the first ten years of the present century was 132 \n\n\n\nACTS. \n\n\n\nADMINISTRATIONS. \n\n\n\npublic acts. In the ten years ending 1850, the average \nnumber of acts, of public interest, was 112. \nThe number of public general acts passed in 1S51 was 106 ; \nin 1852, 88 ; in 1853, 137 ; in 1854, 125 ; in 1855, 134 ; in \n1856, 120 ; in 1857, 86 ; in 1858, 109 ; in 1859, 101 ; in \ni860, 154 ; in 1861, 134 ; in 1862, 114 ; in 1863, 125 ; in \n1864, 121 ; in 1865, 127 ; in 1866, 122 ; in 1867, 146 ; in \n1868, 130; in 1869, 117 ; in 1870, 112 ; in 1871, 117 ; in \n1872, 98 ; in 1873, 91 ; in 1874, 96 ; in 1875, 96 ; in \n1876, 81 ; in 1877, 69 ; in 1878, 79 ; in 1870, 78 ; in 1880, \n19 and 48 (new parliament); 1881, 72 ; 1882, 82 ; 18S3, \n62 : 1S84, 78 ; 1885, 80 ; 1886 (1st sess.), 59 ; 1887,, 73 ; \n1888, 66 ; 1889, 76 ; 1890, 72 ; 1891, 76. \nACTS, in dramatic poetry, first employed by \nthe Romans. Five acts are mentioned by Horace \n(Art of Poetry) as the rule (about 8 B.C.). \n\nACTUARY, ACTTJARIUS, the Roman ac- \ncountant. The Institute of Actuaries founded in \n1848, publishes its proceedings in the "Assurance \nMagazine." \n\nADAM AND EVE, ERA OF, in the English \nBible, 4004 B.C. ; see Creation. \n\nADAMITES, a sect said to have existed about \n130, and to have been quite naked in their re- \nligious assemblies, asserting that if Adam had not \nsinned there would have been no marriages. \nTheir chief was named Prodicus ; they defied the \nelements, rejected prayer, and said it was not ne- \ncessary to confess Christ. Fusebius. A sect with \nthis name arose at Antwerp in the 12th century, \nunder Tandemus or Tanchelin, whose followers, \n3000 soldiers and others, committed many crimes. \n"It became extinct soon after the death of its chief ; \nbut another of the same kind, named Turlupins, \nappeared shortly after in Savoy and Dauphiny. \nPicard, a Fleming, revived this sect in Bohemia, \nabout 1415 ; it was suppressed by Ziska, 1420. \n\nADDA, a river N. Italy, passed by Suwarrow \nafter defeating the French, 27 April, 1799. \n\nADDINGTON ADMINISTRATION. Mr. \n\nPitt, having engaged to procure Roman Catholic \n\nemancipation to promote the union with Ireland, \n\nand being unable to do so as a minister, resigned \n\n3 Feb. 1801. A new ministry was formed by Mr. \n\nAddington, March-July, 1801 ; after various changes \n\nit terminated about 10 May, 1804. \n\nHenry Addington,* first lord of the treasury and chan- \ncellor of the excliequer. \n\nLord Eldon, lord chancellor. \n\nDuke of Portland, lord president. \n\nEarl of Westmoreland, lord privy seal. \n\nLord Pelham, home secretary. \n\nMr. R. B. Jenkinson (lord Hawkesbury, 1803 ; and earl \nof Liverpool, 1808), foreign secretary. \n\nLord Hobart, colonial secretary. \n\nEarl St. Vincent, first lord of admiralty. \n\nEarl of Chatham, ordnance. \n\nCharles Yorke, secretary-at-war. \n\nViscount Lewisham, lord Auckland, <&e. \n\nADDISCOMBE COLLEGE, near Croydon, \nSurrey, purchased by the East India company in \n1809, for education of candidates for scientific \nbranches of the Indian army, was closed in 1861. \n\nADDISON\'S DISEASE, a dangerous affec- \ntion of the renal capsules, described by its dis- \ncoverer, Dr. Thomas Addison, in 1855. \n\nADDITIONAL CURATES, the society for \ntheir employment in populous places was fouitded \n1837 (High Church). \n\n* Born 1757; became viscount Sidmouth, . Jan. 1805 ; held \nvarious offices afterwards, and died in 1844. His eirriilur \nto the lords lieutenants, dated 27 March, 1817, directing \nthem to adopt severe measures against the authors of \nblasphemous and seditious pamphlets, was greatly cen- \nsured, and not carried into eftect. \n\n\n\nADDLED PARLIAMENT, see Parliament,. \n1614. \n\nADDRESSERS, see Abhorrers. \n\nADELAIDE, the capital of South Australia, \nwas founded in 1836. It contained 14,000 inha- \nbitants in 1850; about 30,000 in 1875; l %9 l > \n133.220. It was made a bishopric in 1847. Univer- \nsity founded, 1876. It was visited by the duke of \nEdinburgh, 1 March, i86g. \n\nThe Queen\'s Jubilee International Exhibition opened, \n21 June 1887 ; reported successful 17 Jan. 1888. \n\nADELPHI (Greek for brothers) several streets \non the south side of the Strand, London, erected \nabout 1768 by the brothers, John, Robert, James, \nand William Adam, after whom the streets are \nnamed. Adelphi Theatre, built 1806, rebuilt; \n1858; see under Theatres. \n\nADEN, a free port on the S. W. corner of \nArabia, where in Dec. 1836 a British ship was \nwrecked and plundered. The sultan promised \ncompensation, and agreed to cede the place to the \nEnglish. The sultan\'s son refusing to fulfil this \nagreement to captain Haynes, a naval and military \nforce, under captain H. Smith, of the Volage, was \ndispatched to Aden, which captured it, 19 Jan. \n1839. It is now a garrison and coal depot for \nIndian steamers, &c. \n\nADIAPHORISTS(from\xc2\xabtf\xc2\xabff^om,indifferent \nthings), a term applied to M elanchthon and others, \nwho were willing to give up certain things to the \nRomanists as indifferent, about 1548. \n\nADIGE, a river in N. Italy, near which the \nAustrians defeated the French on 26, 30 March, \nand 5 April, 1799. \n\nAD JUTATORS, see Agitators. \n\nADMINISTRATIONS of England and \n\nOF GREAT BRITAIN. Until the Restoration, 1660, \nthere was not any cabinet approaching to the modern \nsense. The sovereign was aided by privy councillors,, \nvarying in number, the men and offices being fre- \nquently changed. The separation of the cabinet from \nthe privy council became greater during the reign of \nWilliam III. His ministers included both Whigs \nand Tories, and their dissensions led to much mal- \nadministration, civil, military, and naval, and con- \nsequent popular discontent ; the king was therefore \ncompelled to have a united ministry, at first wholly \ncomposed of Whigs. The change was gradually \neffected, 1694-6. The control of the chief, now \ntermed the \'\xe2\x96\xa0\'\xe2\x96\xa0premier," began in the reign oj? \nAnne. " The era of ministries may most properly be \nreckoned from the day of the meeting of the parlia- \nment after the general election of 1698." Macau- \nlay.* For a fuller account of each administration, \n\n* Till 1850 the cabinet council usually consisted of the \nfollowing twelve members : First lord of the treasury ; \nlord chancellor ; lord president of the council ; chan- \ncellor of the exchequer ; lord privy seal ; home, foreign, \nand colonial secretaries ; first lord of the admiralty ; pre- \nsident of the board of trade ; president of the board of \ncontrol ; chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. Iu 1850 \nthe number was fifteen, and included the secretary-afc- \nwar, the postmaster-general, and the chief secretary for \nIreland. In the Palmerston-Russell cabinet (which see), \nthe president of the poor-law-board replaced the secre- \ntary for Ireland. In 1868 the Gladstone cabinet con- \nsisted of 15 ; that of Mr. Disraeli in Feb., 1874, of 12. \nThe average duration of a ministry lias been set down at \nfour, five, and six years ; but instances have occurred of \nthe duration of a ministry for much longer periods : sir \nRobert Walpole was minister from i72ito 1742(21 years); \nMr. Pitt, 1783 to 1801(18 years) : and lord Liverpool 1S12 \nto 1827 (15 years). Several ministries have not lasted \nbeyond a few months, as the Coalition Ministry in 1783^ \nand the " Talents " Ministry in 1806. The "Short-lived " \nAdministration lasted 10 to 12 Feb. 1746. \n\n\n\nADMINISTRATIONS. \n\n\n\n10 \n\n\n\nADMINISTRATIONS. \n\n\n\nsince 1 700, see separate articles headed with the \n\nname of the Premier, given below in italics. \n\nHenry VIII. \xe2\x80\x94 Abp. Warham ; bps. Fisher and \nFox ; earl of Surrey, <fec. . . . . a.d. 1509 \n\nCardinal Thomas Wolsey, &c 15 14 \n\nEarl of Surrey ; Tunstall, bishop of London, &e. . 1523 \n\nSir Thos. More ; bps. Tunstall and Gardiner, and \nCranmer (afterwards abp. of Canterbury) . -1529 \n\nAbp. Cranmer ; lord Cromwell, aft. earl of Essex ; \nThos. Boleyn, earl of Wiltshire, &c 1532 \n\nThomas, duke of Norfolk ; Henry, earl of Surrey ; \nThomas, lord Audley ; bishop Gardiner ; sir \nRalph Sadler, &c. 1540 \n\nILord Wriothesfey ; Thomas, duke of Norfolk ; lord \nLisle ; sir William Petre ; sir William Paget, &c. 1544 \n\nEdward VI. \xe2\x80\x94 Lord Wriothesiey, now earl of \nSouthampton, lord chancellor (expelled) ; Edward, \nearl of Hertford, lord protector, created duke of \n.Somerset ; John, lord Russell ; Henry, earl of \nArundel ; Thomas, lord Seymour ; sir Wm. Paget ; \nsir Wm. Petre, <fcc 1547 \n\nJohn Dudley, late lord Lisle and earl of Warwick, \ncreated duke of Northumberland ; John, earl \nof Bedford ; bishop Goodrich, sir William Cecil, \n&c 1551 \n\nMar v.\xe2\x80\x94 Stephen Gardiner, bp. of Winchester ; Ed- \nmund Bonner, bp. of London ; William, marq. of \nWinchester ; sir Edwd. Hastings, &c. . . . 1554 \n\nElizabeth. \xe2\x80\x94 Sir Nicholas Bacon ; Edward lord \nClinton ; sir Robert Dudley, aftds. earl of Lei- \ncester ; sir William Cecil, aftds. lord Burleigh . 1558 \n\nWilliam, lord Burleigh (minister during nearly all \nthe reign) ; sir N. Bacon, <fec. .... 1572 \n\nLord Burleigh ; sir Thomas Bromley ; Robert \nDevereux, earl of Essex (a favourite) ; earl of \nLeicester ; earl of Lincoln ; sir Walter Mildmay ; \nsir Francis Walsingham, &c 1579 \n\nEiord Burleigh ; Robert, earl of Essex ; sir Chris- \ntopher Hatton, &c. 1587 \n\nThomas Sackville, lord Buekhurst, afterwards earl \nof Dorset ; sir Thomas Egerton, afterwards lord \nEllesmere and viscount Brackley ; sir Robert \nCecil, <fec 1599 \n\nJames I. \xe2\x80\x94 Thomas, earl of Dorset : Thomas, lord \nEllesmere ; Charles, earl of Nottingham ; Thomas, \nearl of Suffolk ; Edward, earl of Worcester ; \nRobert Cecil, afterwards earl of Salisbury, &c. 1603 \n\nRobert Cecil, earl of Salisbury ; Thomas, lord \nEllesmere ; Henry, earl of Northampton ; Charles, \nearl of Nottingham ; Thomas, earl of Suffolk, &e. 1609 \n\nHenry, earl of Northampton ; Thomas, lord Elles- \nmere ; Edward, earl of Worcester ; sir Ralph Win- \nwood ; Charles, earl of Nottingham ; Robert, \nviscount Rochester, aftds. earl of Somerset, &c. 1612 \n\nThomas, lord Ellesmere ; Thomas, earl of Suffolk ; \nCharles, earl of Nottingham ; sir George Villiers \n(a favourite), afterwards viscount Villiers, and \nsuccessively earl, marquis, and duke of Buck- \ningham 1615 \n\nSir Henry Montagu, afterwards viscount Mande- \nville and earl of Manchester 1620 \n\nLionel, lord Crantield, afterwards earl of Middle- \nsex ; Edward, earl of Worcester ; John, earl of \nBristol ; John Williams, dean of Westminster ; \nGeorge Villiers, now marquis of Buckingham ; \nsir Edward Conway, &c 1621 \n\nCharles I. \xe2\x80\x94 Richard, lord Weston, afterwards earl \nof Portland ; sir Thomas Coventry, afterwards \nlord Coventry ; Henry, earl of Manchester (suc- \nceeded by James, earl of Marlborough, who, in \nturn, gave place to Edward, lord, afterwards \nviscount, Conway) ; William Laud, bp. of \n\nLondon ; sir Albert Morton, <fec 1628 \n\nWilliam Laud, now archbishop of Canterbury ; \nFrancis, lord Cottington ; James, marquis of \nHamilton : Edward, earl of Dorset ; sir John \nCoke; sir Francis Windebank, &c. . . . . 1635 \nWilliam Juxon, bishop of London ; sir John Finch, \nafterwards lord Finch ; Francis, lord Cottington ; \nWentworth, earl of Strafford ; Algernon, earl of \nNorthumberland ; James, marquis of Hamilton ; \nLaud, archbishop of Canterbury ; sir Francis \n\nWindebank ; sir Henry Vane, <&c 1640 \n\n[The king beheaded, 30 Jan. 1649.] \nCommonwealth. \xe2\x80\x94 Oliver Cromwell, protector, \n\xe2\x80\xa2 named a council, the number not to exceed 21 \nmembers, or be less than 13 1653 \n\n\n\nRichard Cromwell, son of Oliver, succeeded on the \ndeath of his father. A council of officers ruled at \nWallingford house 1658 \n\nCharles II.\xe2\x80\x94 Sir Edward Hyde, afterwards earl of \nClarendon ; George Monk, created duke of Albe- \nmarle ; Edward Montagu, created earl of Sand- \nwich ; lord Saye and Sele ; earl of Manchester ; \nlord Seymour ; sir Robert Long, <fec. . . . 1660 \n\nGeorge Monk, duke of Albemarle, made first com- \nmissioner of the treasury, &c 1667 \n\n" Cabal " Ministry ; Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham, \nArlington, Lauderdale (see Cabal) . . . . 1670 \n\nThomas, lord Clifford ; Anthony, earl of Shaftesbury ; \nHenry, earl of Arlington ; Arthur, earl of Angle- \nsey ; sir Thomas Osborne, created viscount \nLatimer ; Henry Coventry ; sir George Carteret ; \nEdward Seymour, <fec 1672 \n\nThomas, viscount Latimer, afterwards earl of Danby, \nmade lord high treasurer ... 26 June 1673 \n\nArthur, earl of Essex, (succeeded by Lawrence \nHyde, aft. earl of Rochester) ; Robert, earl of \nSunderland, <fcc 1679 \n\n[The king nominated a new council on 21 April, con- \nsisting of 30 members only, of whom the princi- \npal were the great officers of state and great \nofficers of the household. ] \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSidney, lord Godolphin ; Lawrence, earl of Ro- \nchester ; Daniel, earl of Nottingham ; Robert, \nearl of Sunderland ; sir Thomas Chicheley ; \nGeorge, lord Dartmouth ; Henry, earl of Claren- \ndon ; earls of Bath and Radnor .... 1684 \n\nJames II. \xe2\x80\x94 Lawrence, earl of Rochester ; George, \nmarquis of Halifax ; sir George Jeffreys, after- \nwards lord Jeffreys ; Henry, earl of Clarendon ; \nsir John Ernley ; viscount Preston, &c. . . . 1685 \n\nThe earl of Rochester was displaced, and John, lord \nBelasyse, made first commissioner of the treasury \nin his room, 4 Jan. ; the earl of Sunderland made \npresident of the council ; viscount Preston, sec- \nretary of state, <fec 1687-8 \n\n[The king left Whitehall in the night of 11 Dec, and \nquitting the kingdom, landed at Ambleteuse, in \nFrance, Dec. 1688.] \n\nWilliam III. and Mary. \xe2\x80\x94 Charles, viscount Mor- \ndaunt ; Thomas Osborne, earl of Danby, created \nmarquis of Carmarthen, afterwards duke of \nLeeds ; George, marquis of Halifax ; Arthur \nHerbert, afterwards lord Torrington ; earls of \nShrewsbury, Nottingham, and Sunderland ; earl \nof Dorset and Middlesex ; William, earl (after- \nwards duke) of Devonshire ; lord Godolphin ; lord \nMontagu ; lord De la Mere, <fec. . . . . 1689 \n\nSidney, lord Godolphin ; Thomas, earl of Danby ; \nRichard Hampden ; Thomas, earl of Pembroke ; \nHenry, viscount Sydney ; Daniel, earl of Notting- \nham, &c. 1690 \n\nSir John Somers became lord Somers in 1697, and \nlord chancellor ; Charles Montagu, afterwards \nlord Halifax, was made first commissioner of the \ntreasury, 1 May, 1698, succeeded by Ford, earl of \nTankerville 1699 \n\nAnne.\xe2\x80\x94 Sidney, lord (afterwards earl of) Godolphin; \nThomas, earl of Pembroke, &c. . . May, 1702 \n\nRobert Harley, earl of Oxford ; sir Simon Harcourt, \n&c 1 June, 1711 \n\nCharles, duke of Shrewsbury, made lord treasurer \nthree days before the queen\'s death, &e. 30 July, 1714 \n\nGeorge I. \xe2\x80\x94 Charles, earl of Halifax (succeeded on \nhis death by the earl of Carlisle), &c. . . . ,, \n\nRobert Walpole, first lord of the treasury, and chan- . \ncellor of the exchequer, &c 1715 \n\nJames (afterwards earl) Stanhope ; William lord \nCowper, &c. ........ 1717 \n\nCharles, earl of Sunderland, &c. . . . . 1718 \n\nRobert Walpole, afterwards sir Robert Walpole, and \n\nearl of Orford, &c 1721 \n\nGeorge II.\xe2\x80\x94 Robert Walpole continued . . . 1727 \n\n[Sir Robert remained prime minister twenty-one \n\nyears ; numerous changes occurring in the time; \n\nsee Walpole.] \n\nEarl of Wilmington;- lord Hardwicta, <fec. . . 1742 \n\nHenry Pelham, in the room of earl of Wilmington, \n\ndeceased Aug. 1743 \n\n"Broad-bottom" administration\xe2\x80\x94 Henry Pelham; \n\nlord Hardwicke, &c Nov. 1744 \n\n"Short-lived" administration\xe2\x80\x94 earl of Bath; lords \nWinchilsea and.Granyille . . . 10-12 Feb. 1746 \n\n\n\nADMINISTRATIONS. \n\n\n\n11 \n\n\n\nADMINISTRATIONS. \n\n\n\nHenry Pelham, &c, again . . . . 12 Feb. 1746 \nThos. H. Pelham, duke of Newcastle ; earl of Hol- \n\nderness, &c April, 1754 \n\nDuke of Devonshire; William Pitt, &c. . . Nov. 1756 \nDuke of Newcastle, and Sir. Pitt, afterwards earl of \n\nChatham, &c Juue, 1757 \n\nGeorge III.\xe2\x80\x94 Duke of Newcastle, Mr. Pitt\'s minis- \ntry, continued 1760 \n\nEarl of Bute; lord Henley, &c. . . . May, 1762 \nGeorge GrenviUe ; earls of Halifax and Sandwich, \n\n&c April, 1763 \n\nMarquis of Rockingham ; earl of Winchilsea, &c. J uly, 1765 \nEarl of Chatham; duke of Grafton, <fcc. . Aug. 1766 \nDuke of Grafton ; lord North, &c. . . .Dec. 1767 \nFrederick, lord North ; earl Gower, &c. . Jan. 1770 \n[Lord North was minister during the whole of \nthe American war. ] \nMarquis of Rockingham; lord Camden; C. J. Fox; \n\nEdmund Burke, &c. ... March, 1782 \n\nEarl of Shelburne (afterwards marquis of Lans- \n\ndowne) : William Pitt, <fcc. ... July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n" Coalition Ministry," duke of Portland ; lordNorth; \n\nC. J. Fox ; Edmund Burke, &c. . . April, 1783 \n\nWilliam Pitt; Henry Dundas, <fec. . . Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n[During Mr. Pitt\'s long administration, nu- \nmerous changes in the ministry took place.] \nHenry Addington ; duke of Portland ; lord Eldon, \n\n&c March, et seq. 1801 \n\nWilliam Pitt ; lord Eldon ; George Canning, &c. \n\nMay, et seq. 1804 \n[Mr. Pitt died 23 Jan. 1806.] \n"All the Talents"\xe2\x80\x94 lord GrenviUe; lord Henry \nPetty ; lord Erskine ; C. J. Fox ; sir Charles \nGrey (afterwards earl Grey). . . . Feb. 1806 \n\n[Mr. Fox\'s death, 13 Sept. 1806, led to nu- \nmerous changes.] \nDuke of P01 Hand ; lord Eldon, &c* . March, 1807 \nSpencer Perceval ; earl of Liverpool ; viscount Pal- \n\nmerston, &c Nov. and Dec. 1809 \n\nRegency. \xe2\x80\x94 Mr. Spencer Perceval (shot by Belling- \n\nham, 11 May, 1812), <fcc. ... 5 Feb. 1811 \nEarl of Liverpool ; lord Eldon ; Mr. Vansittart ; lord \nMelville ; viscounts Castlereagh, Palmerston, \n\n&c May, June, 1812 \n\nGeorge IV. \xe2\x80\x94 Earl of Liverpool, &c. . 29 Jan. 1820 \n\n[During lord Liverpool\'s long administration \nnumerous changes occurred.] \nGeorge Canning; lord Lyndhurst; viscount Gode- \nrich ; William Huskisson ; viscount Palmerston ; \n\n" duke of Clarence, &c April, 1827 \n\n[Mr. Canning died 8 August, 1827.] \nViscount Goderich ; viscount Palmerston ; marquis \n\nof Lansdowne ; W. Huskisson, <fcc. . -Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nDuke of Wellington ; Robert Peel ; Mr. Huskisson ; \n\n&e Jan. 1828 \n\n[The ministry reconstructed on the retirement \nof the earl of Dudley, lord Palmerston, Mr. Grant, \nMr. Huskisson.] . . . May and June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nWilliam IV. \xe2\x80\x94 Duke of Wellington, &c. 26 June, 1830 \nEarl Grey; marquis of Lansdowne ; lord Brougham; \nviscount Althorp ; earl of Durham ; viscounts \nMelbourne, Palmerston, and Goderich ; sir James \nGraham ; lord John Russell, &c. . . . Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nEarl Grey resigns, owing to a majority against \nhim in the lords, on the Reform Bill, 10 May ; but \n\nresumes his post 18 May, 1832 \n\nViscount Melbourne ; &c. .... July, 1834 \n[Melbourne administration dissolved, Nov. 1834. \nThe duke of Wellington held the seals of office till \nthe return of sir Robert Peel from Italy, Dec. \n1834.] \nSir Robert Peel ; lord Lyndhurst ; duke of Welling- \nton ; earl of Aberdeen ; &c. . Nov. and Dec. ,, \nViscount Melbourne, &c. .... April, 1835 \nVictoria. \xe2\x80\x94 Viscount Melbourne, &c. . 20 June, 1837 \nSubsequent accessions, F. T. Baring ; earl of \nClarendon ; T. B. Macaulay, <fcc. Viscount Mel- \nbourne resigned, and sir Robert Peel received \nthe queen\'s commands to form a new administra- \ntion, 8 May. This command was withdrawn, and \nlord Melbourne returned to power . . 10 May, 1839 \nSir Robert Peel ; duke of Wellington; lord Lynd- \nhurst ; sir James Graham ; earl of Aberdeen ; lord \nStanley, &c. ..... Aug. and Sept. 1841 \n\n*The duel between lord Castlereagh and Mr. Canning, \n22 Sept., 1809, led to the breaking up of this adminis- \ntration. \n\n\n\n[Accessions, Sidney Herbert ; W. E. Gladstone, \n&c] \n\nLord John Russell ; viscount Palmerston ; earl \n\nGrey, <fec "\xe2\x96\xa0 . - July, 1846 \n\n[Accessions : earl Granville ; Mr. Fox Maule ; \nearl of Carlisle ; sir Thomas Wilde, created lord \nTruro, <fcc] \n\nLord John Russell and the marquis of Lansdowne \non the 24 Feb. announced the resignation of \nministers, owing to their defeat on Mr. Locke \nKing\'s motion respecting the franchise ; they in- \nformed parliament, that it having been found im- \npossible to construct a coalition ministry, the \nqueen, by the advice of the duke of Wellington, \nhad called upon her late ministers to resume office. \nLord Stanley (since earl of Derby), in the interval, \nhad been unable to form a cabinet . . 3 March, 1851 \n\nEarl of Derby (late lord Stanley) ; lord St. Leo- \nnards ; Benjamin Disraeli ; Spencer H. Walpole ; \nearl of Malmesbury ; sir John Pakington ; duke \nof Northumberland, &c. . . 27 Feb. 1852 \n\nEarl of Aberdeen ; lord John Russell ; viscount Pal- \nmerston, <fec 28 Dec. ,, \n\nVarious changes of offices took place ; a fourth \nsecretary of state was appointed, by the separa- \ntion of the war from the colonial department ; see \xe2\x80\xa2 \nSecretaries of State. The retirement of lord J. Rus- \nsell, 24 Jan. 1855, and a majority in the commons \nagainst ministers of 157 (305 to 148), on Mr. Roe- \nbuck\'s motion respecting the conduct of the war, \nled to the resignation of lord Aberdeen and his \ncolleagues, 30 Jan. ; the cabinet was reconstructed \n\nfey \n\nViscount Palmerston ; lord Cranworth ; &c. 7 Feb. 1855 \n[Secession of sir J. Graham, Mr. Gladstone, and \nMr. S. Herbert. Accession of lord John Russell ; \nearl of Clarendon ; sir G. Grey ; sir G. C. Lewis ; \nsir W. Molesworth, &c] . . . 24 Feb. ,, \n\nOn the second reading of the Foreign Con- \nspiracy bill, the government (defeated by a vote \nof censure being passed by a majority of 19, on \nthe motion of Mr. Milner Gibson) resigned imme- \ndiately 19 Feb. 1858 \n\nEarl of Derby ; B. Disraeli ; Spencer Walpole ; lord \nStanley ; sir F. Thesiger (lord Chelmsford), <fec. \n\n26 Feb. ,, \n[The Derby administration, in consequence of a \nvote of want of confidence in it being carried by a \nmajority of 13, 10 June, 1859, resigned the next \nday. Earl Granville failed to form an adminis- \ntration. ] \nViscount Palmerston ; lord John (since earl) Russell, \n\n&c 18 Juue, 1859 \n\n[Lord Palmerston died 18 Oct. 1865.] \nEarl Russell ; W. E. Gladstone ; earl of Clarendon ; \n\n&c Oct. 1865 \n\n[Resigned, in consequence of a minority on the \nReform Bill, 19 June] . . . .26 Juue, 1866 \nEarl of Derby, B. Disraeli, lord Stanley, &c. ; for \nchanges see Derby Administrations. . 6 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n[Earl of Derby resigned through ill health] \n\nFeb. 25, 1868 \nB. Disraeli reconstituted the administration 29 Feb. ,, \nMr. Disraeli resigned in consequence of the \nelections in November giving a majority of about \n\nii4\'to the Liberals 2 Dec. ,, \n\nW. E. Gladstone; earl of Clarendon ; Robert Lowe ; \nJohn Bright, and others, received seals 9 Dee. \xe2\x80\x9e \nLost their majority by the general election, \n\nFeb. ; resigned 17 Feb. 1874 \n\nB. Disraeli (earl of Beaconsfield, 16 Aug. 1876), the \nearl of Derby, the marquis of Salisbury, and \nothers, received seals . . . . 21 Feb. ,, \n[For changes, see Disraeli Administrations.] \nLost their majority by elections in April ; re- \nsigned 22 April, 1S80 \n\nW. ti. Gladstone; earl Granville, marquis of Hal ting- \nton, duke of Argyll, sir Win. Harcourt, John \nBright, and others, received seals . 28 April, ,, \n\n[Resigned in consequence of a minority on the \n\nBudget Bill (264-252), 9 June, 1885.] \n\nMarquis of Sal isbury ; sir Stafford NorthcoteQord \n\nIddesleigh), sir Michael Hicks-Beach, lord \n\nRandolph Churchill and others received seals \n\n24 June, 18S5 \n[Resigned in consequence of a minority on tin \namendment to the address (329-250), 27 Jan. 1886.] \n\n\n\nADMINISTRATIVE . \n\n\n\n12 \n\n\n\nADMIEALTY OFFICE. \n\n\n\nW. E. Gladstone ; earl Granville, earl Spencer, earl \nof Rosebery, earl of Kimberley, marquis of Ripon, \nSir Parrer Herschel, H. C. E. Cliilders, John \nMorley, and others, received seals . . 2-6 Feb. 1886 \n\n[Resigned in consequence of a majority against \nhis Irish Home Rule Bill (343-313) 20 July, 1886.] \n\nMarquis of Salisbury; and former colleagues re- \nceived seals 26 July, 1886 ; resigns . 12 Aug. 1892 \n\nW. E. Gladstone; with former colleagues, 18 Aug. ,, \nFor details and changes, see separate articles under \nthe Premier\'s name. \n\nADMINISTRATIVE REFORM ASS.O- \n\nCIATION derived its origin from an opinion \nthat the disasters which occurred to the army in the \nCrimea in 1854-5 were attributable to the inefficient \nand irresponsible management of the various de- \npartments of the state. The association was \norganised in London, 5 May, 1855. A meeting \nwas held in Drury-lane theatre, on 13 June, and \nMr. Layard\'s motion on the subject in parliament \nwas negatived 18 June following. The association \nwas reorganised in 1856, Mr. Roebuck, M.P., be- \ncoming chairman, but soon became unimportant ; \nsee Civil Service. \n\nADMIRAL. The title, derived from the Arabic, \nemir-al-bahr, " Lord of the sea," which occurs in the \nChanson cle Roland, nth century, does not appear \nto have been adopted in England until about 1300. \nAlfred, Athelstan, Edgar, Harold, and other kings, \nwere commanders of their own fleets. The first \nFrench admiral is said to have been appointed 1284. \nThe rank of admiral of the English seas was first \ngiven to William de Ley bourne by Edward I. in \n1297. Spelman; Jtymer. The first Lord High \nAdmiral in England was created by Richard II. in \n1385 : there had been previously high admirals of \ndistricts \xe2\x80\x94 the north, west, and south. The duties \nhave generally been executed by lords commis- \nsioners; see Admiralty. A similar dignity existed \nin Scotland from the reign of Robert III. In 1673, \nCharles II.,bestowed it upon his natural son Charles \nLennox, afterwards duke of Richmond, then an \ninfant, who resigned the office to the crown in \n1703: after the union it was discontinued. \xe2\x80\x94 Ihe \ndignity of lord high admiral of Ireland (of brief \nexistence) was conferred upon James Butler by \nHenry VIII. , in May, 1534. The Admiral of the \nFleet is the highest rank in the Royal Navy, corre- \nsponding to that of field-marshal in the army. We \nhave now 7 admiralsof the fleet, 12 admirals, 20 vice- \nadmirals, 35 rear admirals, and 168 captains (April \n1892). Senior admiral of the fleet, Sir l\'rovo Wallis, \nborn 12 April, 1791, died 13 Feb. 1892. The first \nadmiral of the United States of America, David G. \nEarragut, was nominated in 1866. \n\nADMIRALTY, Court of, a court for the \n\ntrial of causes relating- to maritime afi\'airs, said to \nhave been erected by Edward III., in 1357. It was \nenacted in the reign of Henry VIII., that criminal \ncauses should be tried by witnesses and a jury, some \nof the judges at Westminster (or, as now, at the Old \nBailey) assisting. The judgeship of the admiralty \nwas constituted in 1514, and was filled by two or \nmore functionaries until the Revolution, when it \nwas restricted to one. Beatson. The judge has \nusually been an eminent doctor of the civil law. In \n1844 the criminal jurisdiction of this court was re- \nmoved, and by 20 & 21 Vict. c. 77 (1857), the judge \nof the Probate court was to be also judge of the \nAdmiralty court. The judge of the Admiralty \ncourt, Dr. Stephen Lushington (appointed \nin 1838), resigned 1 July, 1867, and was suc- \nceeded by sir Robert Phillimore, who retired March, \n1883. The jurisdiction of this court was extended \nin 1861. The very ancient gilt anchor set up in the \n\n\n\nAdmiialty Court of the Royal Courts of Justice. The \nancient silver oar is laid on (he Registrar\'s Table, \nOct. 1885. See Suprime Court and Probate Court. \n\nADMIRALTY OFFICE dates from 1512, \nwhen Henry VIII. appointed commissioners to in- \nspect his ships of war. During the Commonwealth \nthe admiralty affairs were managed by a committee \nof the parliament ; and at the restoration in 1660, \nJames, duke of York, became lord high admiral. In \n1662 the admiralty was first put into commission, \nthe great officers of state being the commissioners ; \nsee succeeding changes below. In 1688-9 the \nadmiralty was put into commission, and the board \nappears to have assembled at admiral Herbert\'s \nlodgings, in Channel-row, Westminster, he being \nat that time first lord. In 1830, 1832, and 1836 \nvarious changes were made in the civil depart- \nments, several offices being abolished or conso- \nlidated with others. In March, 1861, a royal com- \nmission recommended the abolition of the board of \nadmiralty and the appointment of a minister of the \nnavy department. The board was reconstituted 14 \nJan. 1869, and 4 May, 1872. The collective action \nof the board was taken away, and concentrated in \nthe person of the first lord. \nThe office removed from Somerset House to Whitehall, \n\n1874-5. \nNew buildings erected by virtue of the Public Offices \n\nSite Act passed 24 July, 1882. The designs of \n\nMessrs. Leeming & Deeming, of Halifax, selected for \n\napproval by parliament, July, 1884. \n\nFIRST LORDS OF THE ADMIRALTY. \n\n1660. James, duke of York, lord high admiral, 6 June. \n1673. King Charles II., 14 June. \n,, Prince Rupert, 9 July. \n\n1679. Sir Henry Capel, 14 Feb. \n\n1680. Daniel Finch, esq., 19 Feb. \n\n1681. Daniel, lord Finch, 20 Jan. \n\n1683. Daniel, earl of Nottingham, 17 April. \n\n1684. King Charles II. \n\n1685. King James II., 17 May. Office in commission. \n\n1689. Arthur Herbert, esq., 8 March. \n\n1690. Thomas, earl of Pembroke and Montgomery, 20 Jan. \n\n1692. Charles, lord Cornwallis, 10 March. \n\n1693. Anthony, viscount Falkland, 15 April. \n\n1694. Edward Russel, esq., (aft. earl of Orford), 2 May. \n1699. John, earl of Bridgewater, 2 June. \n\n1701. Thomas, earl of Pembroke, 4 April. \n\n1702. George, prince of Denmark, lord high admiral, \n\n20 May. \n\n1708. Thomas, earl of Pembroke, ditto, 29 Nov. \n\nOffice in commission. \n\n1709. Edward, earl of Orford, 8 Oct. \n\n1710. Sir John Leake, 4 Oct. \n\n1712. Thomas, earl of Strafford, 30 Sept. \n1714. Edward, earl of Orford, 14 Oct. \n1717. James, earl of Berkeley, 19 March. \n1727. George, viscount Torrington, 2 Aug. \n1733. Sir Charles Wager, knt., 25 June. \n1742. Daniel, earl of Winchilsea, 19 March. \n1744. John, duke of Bedford, 27 Dec. \n1748. John, earl of Sandwich, 10 Feb. \n1751. George, lord Anson, 22 June. \n\n1756. Richard, earl Temple, 19 Nov. \n\n1757. Daniel, earl of Winchilsea, 6 April. \n,, George, lord Anson, 2 July. \n\n1762. George M. Dunk, earl of Halifax, 19 June. \n\n1763. George Grenville, esq., 1 Jan. \n\n,, John, earl of Sandwich, 23 April. \n\n,, John, earl of Egmont, 10 Sept. \n1766. Sir Charles Saunders, 10 Sept. \n\n,, Sir Edward Hav/ke, 10 Dec. \n1771. John, earl of Sandwich, 12 Jan. \n\n1782. Hon. Augustus Keppel, 1 April. \n\n\xe2\x80\x9e Augustus, viscount Keppel, 18 July. \n\n1783. Richard, viscount Howe, 28 Jan. \n1788. John, earl of Chatham, 16 July. \n1794. George John, earl Spencer, 20 Dec. \n1801. John, earl St. Vincent, 19 Feb. \n\n1804. Henry, viscount Melville, 15 May. \n\n1805. Charles, lord Barham, 2 May. \n\n1806. Hon. Charles Grey, 10 Feb. \n\n\n\nADMIRALTY. \n\n\n\n13 \n\n\n\nADULTERY. \n\n\n\n1806. Thomas Grenville, esq., 23 Oct. \n807. Henry, lord Mulgrave, 6 April. \n809. Charles Yorke, esq. , 10 May. \n812. Robert, viscount Melville, 25 March. \n\n827. William Henry, duke of Clarence, lord high \n\nadmiral, 2 May, resigned 12 Aug. 1828. \n\n828. Robert, viscount Melville, 19 Sept. \n830. Sir James R. G. Graham, bart., 25 Nov. \n\n834. George, lord Auckland, 11 June. \n\n,, Thomas Philip, earl de Grey, 23 Dec. \n\n835. George, lord Auckland, 25 April. \n\xe2\x80\x9e Gilbert, earl of Minto, 19 Sept. \n\n841. Thomas, earl of Haddington, 8 Sept. \n846. Edward, earl of Bllenborough, 13 Jan. \n\xe2\x80\x9e George, earl of Auckland, 24 July. \n849. Sir Francis Thornhill Baring, 18 Jan. \n\n852. Algernon, duke of Northumberland, 28 Feb. \n\n853. Sir James Robert George Graham, 5 Jan. \n855. Sir Charles Wood, bart. , 24 Feb. \n\n858. Sir John Pakington, bart. , 26 Feb. \n\n859. Edward, duke of Somerset, June.- \n\n866. Sir John Pakington, bart. , 6 July. \n\n867. Henry Lowry Corry, 8 March. \n\n868. Hugh Culling Eardley Chiklers, 9 Dec. \n871. George Joachim Goschen, 9 March. \n\n874. George Ward Hunt, 21 Feb. ; died 29 July, 1877. \n\n877. Wm. Henry Smith, about 7 Aug. \n\n880. Thos. Geo. Baring, earl of Northbrook, 28 April. \n\n885. Lord George Francis Hamilton, 24 June. \n\n886. George Frederick Samuel Robinson, Marquis of \n\nRipon, about 6 Feb. \n,, Lord George Francis Hamilton, 26 July. \n1892. John Poyntz, earl Spencer, 18 Aug. \n\nADMIRALTY, Whitehall. "At the south \nend of Duke-street, Westminster, was seated a large \nhouse made use of for the admiralty office, until the \nbusiness was removed to Greenwich, and thence to \nWallingford -house, against Whitehall." It was re- \nbuilt by Ripley about 1726; the screen was erected, \nto conceal the ugliness of the building, by the \nbrothers Adam, in 1776. \xe2\x80\x94 Lord Nelson lay in state \nin one of the apartments on 8 Jan. 1806 ; and on the \nnext day was buried at St. Paul\'s. \nExplosion iu clerks\' room (ascribed to gunpowder in an \n\niron pot) ; Mr. Swainson much hurt; about 11 a.m. \n\n23 April, 1885. \n\nADMIRALTY and WAR OFFICE ACT, \n\nto facilitate improvements in the organisation of \nthese offices, by the retirement of clerks from certain \nof the civil departments by granting gratuities, Avas \npassed 10 Aug. 1878. \n\n"ADMONITION to the Parliament," \n\ncondemning all religious ceremonies but those com- \nmanded by the New Testament, was published by \ncertain Puritans in 1571. Its presumed authors, \nField and Wilcox, were imprisoned. A second Ad- \nmonition by Thomas Cartwright was answered by \narchbishop Whitgift. \n\nADORNO and FREGOSO, two families, of \nwhich the doges were frequently members, dis- \nturbed Genoa from the 14th to the 16th centuries, \nthe former favouring the emperor, the latter the \nFrench king. Their power was annihilated by \nAndrea Doria about 1528. \n\nADRIAN\'S or HADRIAN\'S WALL (to \n\nprevent the irruptions of the Scots and Piets \ninto the northern counties of England, then under \nthe Roman government) extended from the Tyne \nto Solway frith, and was eighty miles long, twelve \nfeet high, and eight feet in thickness, with watch- \ntowers ; built 121. It was repaired and strengthened \nby Severus, 207 \xe2\x80\x94 210. \n\nADRIANOPLE, in Turkey, so named after \nits restorer the emperor Adrian (who died 10 July, \n138). Near here Constantine defeated Licinius and \ngained the empire, 3 July, 323 ; also, near here the \nemperor Valcns was defeated and slain by the Goths, \n9 Aug. 378. Adrianople was taken by the Turks \n\n\n\nunder Amurath in 1361, and was their capital till \nthe capture of Constantinople in 1453. It was taken \nby the Russians on 20 Aug. 1829; and restored \n14 Sept. same year ; occupied by the Russians, with- \nout resistance, 20 Jan. 1878. Population 188?, \n70,886. See Turkey. \n\nADRIATIC. The ceremony of the doge of \nVenice wedding the Adriatic sea (instituted about \n1 1 73), took place annually on Ascension-day. The \ndoge dropped a ring into the sea from his bucentaur, \nor state barge, being attended by his nobility and \nforeign ambassadors. The ceremony was first \nomitted in 1797. \n\nADULLAM, a cave to which David fled from \nthe persecution of Saul about 1062 B.C. (1 Sam. \nxxii. 1, 2.) \n\nMr. Horsman, Mr. R. Lowe, earl Grosvenor, lord Elcho, \nand other liberals who opposed the Franchise Bill in \n1866 were termed " Adullamites." During a debate \non this bill on 13 March, 1866, Mr. Bright said of Mr. \nHorsman, that he " had retired into what may be called \nhis political cave of Adullam, to which he invited \nevery one who was in debt, and every one who was \ndiscontented," &c. On 19 April, lord Elcho said, " No \nimproper motive has driven us into this cave, where \nwe are a most happy family, daily \xe2\x80\x94 I may say, hourly \n\xe2\x80\x94 increasing in number and strength, where we shall \nremain until we go forth to deliver Israel from oppres- \nsion." Although their opposition led to the resig- \nnation of the Russell ministry, they declined to \ntake office under lord Derby in July, 1866. They d:\'d \nnot vote together uniformly in 1867, and (lord Elcho \nand Mr. Wyld excepted) voted with Mr. Gladstone, \nfor the disestablishment of the Irish church, 1 May, \n1868. \n\nADULTERATION. That of food was pro- \nhibited in England in 1267, and punishments for \nit enacted, 1581, 1604, 1836, 1851, &c. Much \nattention was drawn to it in 1822, through Mr. Ac- \ncum\'s book, culled " Death in the Pot," and in 1855 \nthrough Dr. HassalFs book, " Food and its Adulte- \nrations." By an act for preventing the adulteration \nof food, passed in i860, parochial chemical analysts \nmay be appointed. An act to prevent adulteration \nof seeds passed 16 Aug. 1869, amended 1878. An- \nother to prevent adulteration of food and drugs \npassed 10 Aug. 1872. Penalties for adulterating \nliquors were imposed by the new licensing act passed \nsame time. The report of a commission, issued in \nJuly, 1874, declared that the public " were cheated \nrather than poisoned." All the anti-adulteration \nacts were repealed by the Sale of Food and Drugs \nAct, passed 11 Aug. 1875; which was amended in \n1879 ; reported very effectual Dec. 1884. \n\nADULTERY was punished with death by the \nlaw of Moses (1490 B.C. ; Lev. xx. 10)\xe2\x80\x94 and by Ly- \ncurgus (884 B.C.). The early Saxons burnt the \nadulteress, and erected a gibbet over her ashes, \nwhereon they hanged the adulterer. The ears and \nnose were cut off under Canute, 1 03 1. Adultery \nwas ordained to be punished capitally by the parlia- \nment, May 14, 1650 : but there is no record of this \nlaw taking effect ; and it was repealed at the re- \nstoration. In New England the punishment for \nadultery was made capital to both parties, and \nseveral suffered for it, 1662. Hardie. Till 1857 the \nlegal redress against the male offender was by civil \naction for a money compensation; the female being \nliable to divorce. By 20 & 21 Vict. c. 85 (i8S7) \nthe "action for criminal conversation" was abolished, \nand the Court for Divorce and Matrimonial Causes \nestablished with power to grant divorces for adultery \nand ill usage ; see Divorce. An act was passed in \n1869 permitting parties to suits for adultery to give \nevidence. \n\n\n\nADVENT. 14 \n\nADVENT {adventus, arrival). The season \nincludes four Sundays, previous to Christmas, the \nfirst the nearest Sunday to St. Andrew\'s day \n(Nov. 30), before or after. Homilies respecting \nAdvent are mentioned prior to 378. Advent Sun- \nday, 1893, 3 Dec; 1894, 2 Dec; 1895, 1 Dec. ; \n1896, 29 Nov. \n\nADVENTISTS (Seventh-day), an American \nsect in Massachusetts, U. S. A. A large conference \nof delegates from 30 States of the Union, and from \nEurope, met at Michigan, 7 March 1891. The presi- \ndent Elson reported the building of a college at \nLincoln, Nebraska, and that the Pitcairn Islanders \nhad become Adventists. \n\nADVENTURE BAY, S.E. end of Van Die- \nmen\'s Land, discovered in 1773 by capt. Furneaux \nin his first voyage to the Pacific, and named from \nhis ship Adventure. It was visited by capt. Cook \n1777; by capt. Bligh in 1788 and 1792. \n\nADVENTURESS, see Merchant. \nADVERTISEMENTS m Newspapers, \n\nas now published, were not general in England till \nthe beginning of the eighteenth century. A penalty \nof 50A was inflicted on persons advertising a reward \nwith " No questions to be asked" for the return of \nthings stolen, and on the printer, 1754. The ad- \nvertisement duty, (first enacted, 1712,) formerly \ncharged according to the number of lines, was after- \nwards fixed, in England, at 3s. 6d., and in Ireland \nat 2s. 6d. each advertisement. The duty (further \nreduced, in England to is. 6d. and in Ireland to is. \neach, in 1833), was abolished in 1853. \nEarly advertisements are found in "Perfect Occur- \nrences of every Dale," 26 March to 2 April, 1647, \nand " Mercurius Elencticus 4 Oct. 1648 \nH. Sampson\'s " History of Advertising," pub- \nlished Nov. 1874 \n\nThe whole libretto of Maefarren\'s Opera, Robin \nHood inserted as an advertisement in the Times \n\n(4J columns) 16 Oct. i860 \n\nA debate in the Portuguese parliament, translated, \ninserted as advertisement in the Daily Neios (8 \n\ncolumns) 3 Ma J r , l8 77 \n\nAdvertising Vans, a great nuisance, prohibited . 1853 \nThe name of Mr. H. F. Partridge, surgeon-dentist, \nDublin, was struck off the registry of the General \nMedical Council for advertising as contrary to pro- \nfessional rules, June 1886 ; confirmed by the Court of \nAppeal, 22 March, 1892. \n\nADVOCATE, The King\'s, (always a doctor \nof the civil law,) was empowered to prosecute at his \ncwn instance certain crimes about 1597. The Lord \nAdvocate in Scotland is the same as the attorney- \ngeneral in England with judicial powers. \xe2\x80\x94 It was \ndecided in the parliament of Paris, in 1685, that \nthe king\'s advocate of France might at the same \ntime be a judge; and in Scotland sir William Oli- \nphant (1612) and sir John Nesbit (1666) were lord \nadvocates and lords of session at the same time, \nBeatson. \xe2\x80\x94 The powers were diminished in 188 1, \nwhen John Blair Balfour was made Lord Advo- \ncate ; the right lion. J. II. A. Macdonald, 1885-8 ; \nMr. J. P. B. Robertson, 1888-Sept. 1891, succeeded \nby sir Charles John Pearson, 1891, by Mr. J. B. \nBalfour, 1892. Mr. Geo. "VV. T. Omohd published \nhis work, " The Lord Advocates of Scotland," earhy \nin 1884. The Advocates\' library in Edinburgh was \nestablished by sir G. Mackenzie about 1682 ; see \nJudge Advocate. \n\nADVOWSONS, right of a presentation to a \nchurch living. See Benefice. \n\n.ZEDILES- Roman city officers of three degrees, \nsaid to owe their name to having had charge of the \ncedes or temple of Ceres. 1. Two plebeian aediles \n\n\n\nJEOLOPILE. \n\nwere appointed with the tribunes, to assist them iii \nlooking after buildings, weights and measures, the \nsupply of provisions and water, &c, 494 B.C. 2. \nThe cediles curules, at first patricians, were ap- \npointed 365 B.C. 3. Julius Caesar appointed cediles \ncereales for watching over the supply of corn. The \naediles became a kind of police under the emperors. \n^RDUI OK HEDUI, a Celtic people, N.E. \nFrance, who were delivered from subjection to the \nSequani, by Julius Caesar, B.C. 58 ; but afterwards, \nopposing him, were subjugated by him, 52. Their \ninsurrection headed by Julius Sacrovir, a.d. 21, was \nquelled by C. Silius. \n\nAGATES ISLES, W. of Sicily : near these, \nduring the first Punic war, the Roman consul, C. \nLutatins Catulus, gained a decisive victory over the \nCarthaginian fleet under Hanno, 10 March, 241 B.C. \nPeace ensued, the Romans obtaining Sicily and a \ntribute of 3200 talents. \n\n.ZEGINA, a Greek island, a rival of Athens, was \nhumbled by Themistocles, 485 B.C. ; and taken and \nits works destroyed 455. Its inhabitants, expelled, \n431, were restored by the Spartans, 404; they re- \nnewed war with Athens, 388, and made peace, 387. \n\n^GOSPOTAMI, (the Goat-rivers) in the \nChersonesus, where Lysander, the Lacedaemonian, \ndefeated the Athenian fieet, 405 B.C., and ended the \nPeloponnesian war. \n\nA. E. I. O. U., (for "Austria? est imperare \norbi universi," (German, alle Erde ist Oesterreichs \nunterthaii) "Austria is to rule all the world,") \nwas the motto of the weak and unfortunate emperor, \nFrederick III. 1440 \xe2\x80\x94 1493. \n\n^ELFRIC SOCIETY; founded 1842; closed \n1856; published " Homilies of ^Elfric, archbishop \nof Canterbury" and other Anglo-Saxon works. \n\nMIAA. CAPITOLINA, built on the ruins of \nJerusalem by the emperor Adrian, 130. \n\n-ZEMILIA, the name given to the provinces of \nParma, Modena, and the Romagna, united to Sar- \ndinia in i860, and now part of the kingdom of \nItaly. \n\n2ENEID, the great Latin epic poem, relating \nthe adventures of jEneas, written about 24 B.C. by \nVirgil, who died 22 Sept. 19 B.C., before he had \nfinally corrected the poem. It was first printed in \n1469, at Rome. \n\n.ZENIGMA. Samson\'s riddle (about 1 141 B.C. ; \nJudges xiv. 12) is the earliest on record. Gale at- \ntributes aenigmatical speeches to the Egyptians. \nThe ancient oracles frequently gave responses ad- \nmitting of perfectly contrary interpretations. In \nNero\'s time, the Romans had recourse to this \nmethod of concealing truth. The following epitaph \non Fair Rosamond (mistress of our Henry II. about \n1 173) is a mediaeval specimen: \xe2\x80\x94 "Hie jacet in \ntomba Rosa mundi, non Rosa munda ; Non redolet, \nsed olet, quae redolere solet." \n\n.ZEOLIA, in Asia Minor, was colonised by a \nprincipal branch of the Hellenic race about 1 124 B.C. \nThe jEolians built several large cities both on the \nmainland and the neighbouring islands ; Mitylene, \nin Lesbos, was considered the capital. \n\niEOLIAN HARP. Its invention is ascribed \nto Kircher, 1 650, who wrote on it, but it was known \nbefore. \n\nJEOLINA, a free-reed wind-instrument, in- \nvented by Wheatstone in 1829. \n\niEOLOPILE, a hollow ball with an orifice in \nwhich a tube might be screwed, was used in the \n\n\n\nAEQUI. \n\n\n\n15 \n\n\n\nAFGHANISTAN. \n\n\n\n17th century as a boiler for experimental steam- \nengines; a similar apparatus is described by Vi- \ntruvius, first century, a.d. \n\n-53QUI, an ancient Italian race, were subdued \nby the Romans, and their lauds annexed, after a \nsevere struggle, 471-302 B.C. \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 AERAS, see Eras. \n\nAERATED WATERS. Apparatus for com- \nbining gases with water were patented by Thomson \nin 1807; F. C. Bakewell in 1832 and 1847; Tylor \nin 1840, and by others. Aerated bread is made \nby processes patented bj\' Dr. Dauglish, 1856-7. \n\nAERIANS, followers of Aerius, a presbyter, in \nthe 4th century, who held that there was no dis- \ntinction between a bishop and a presbyter; that \nthere was no Paseh to be observed by Christians ; \nthat the Lent and other fasts should not be observed ; \nand that prayers should not be offered for the dead. \nEpiphanius. \n\nAEROLITES, see Meteors. \n\nAERONAUTICS and AEROSTATICS, \nsee -Balloons and Flying. The Aeronautical Society \nof Great Britain was established by the duke of \nArgyll and others, 12 Jan. 1866. \n\nAEROPHORE, an apparatus invented by M. \nDenayrouze, to enable persons to enter a noxious \ninflammable atmosphere. It comprises an air-pump, \nlamp, and flexible tubing. It was tried at Chat- \nham, 12-14 J an -5 1875, and reported successful. \nA gold medal was awarded to the inventor at the \nVienna Exhibition, 1873. \n\nThe name Aerophor was given to an apparatus, invented \nby a German engineer, to introduce a very fine water- \ncloud into textile factories to nullify the injurious \neffects of the frictional electricity generated by the \nmachinery. In 1890 the apparatus was reported suc- \ncessful in Germany and England. \n\nAERO-STEAM ENGINE, see under Air. \nAESCULAPIUS, god of medicine : his wor- \nship introduced at Rome, about 291 B.C. \n\nAESOP\'S FABLES, see Fables. \n\nAESTHETICS (from the Greek aisthesis, per- \nception), the science of the beautiful (especially in \nart) ; a term invented by Baumgarten, a German \nphilosopher, whose work " JEsthetica " was pub- \nlished in 1750. \n\n^ETHIOPIA, see Ethiopia. \n\n" AETHIOPICA," see Romances. \n\nAETIANS, followers of Aetius, an Arian heretic \nabout 351. \n\nAETNA, see Etna. \n\nAETOLTA, in Greece, a country named after \nJEtolus of Elis, who is said to have accidentally \nkilled a son of Pboroneus, king of Argos, left the \nPeloponnesus, and settled here. After the ruin of \nAthens and Sparta, the iEtolians became the rivals \nof the Aehoeans, and were alternately allies and \nenemies of Rome. \n\nThe iEtolians .join Sparta against Athens B.C. 455 \n\nThe iEtolian league of tribes opposes Macedon . . 323 \nInvaded by Antipater during the Lamian war . . 322 \nAid in the expulsion of the Gauls .... 279 \nInvade the Peloponnesus, and ravage Messenia (Social \n\nWar), and defeat the Aehajans at Caphyae . . 220 \nPhilip V., of Macedon, invades yEtolia, and takes \n\nThermum\xe2\x80\x94 Peace of Naupactus concluded . .217 \n\nAlliance wi tli Rome 211 \n\nDeserted by the Romans, the iEtolians make peace \n\nwith Philip 205 \n\nWar with Philip, 200 : lie is defeated at Cynoscephalse 197 \nThe iEtolians invite the kings of Macedon, Syria, and \n\nSparta, to coalesce against the Romans . . 193-2 \nDefeat of the allies near Thermopylae . . . 191 \n\n\n\nConquered by the Romans under Fulvius . b.c. 189. \n\nLeading patriots massacred by the Roman party . 167 \niEtolia made a province of Rome .... 146 \n\nAFFINITY. Marriage within certain degrees \nof kindred was prohibited in almost every age and \ncountry, but has yet taken place to a considerable- \nextent. The Jewish law is given in Leviticus xviiL \n(1490 B.C.) In the English prayer-book the table- \nrestricting marriage within certain degrees was set \nforth by authority, 1563. Prohibited marriages \nwere adjudged to be incestuous and unlawful by the- \n99th canon, in 1603. All marriages within the for- \nbidden degrees are declared to be absolutely void by \n5 & 6 Will. IV. e. 54, 1835 ; see Marriage (of \nWife\'s Sister). The prohibited degrees were set \nforth in 25 Hen. VIII. c. 22, 1 533-4. See Incest. \n\nAFFIRMATION ; see Quakers. The affirma- \ntion was altered in 1702, 1721, 1837, and in April,. \n1859. \xe2\x80\x94 The indulgence was granted to persons who- \nwere formerly Quakers, but who had seceded from \nthat sect, 2 Vict. 1838 ; and extended to other dis- \nsenters by 9 Geo. IV. c. 32 (1828), and 18 & 19 Vict- \nc. 2 (1855). For Mr. Bradlaugh\'s case, see Far- \nliament, 1880- 1, 1883, and Oaths. \nAffirmation Bill for M.P.\'s introduced, 1883 ; rejected in - \n\nthe commons (292-289) 3\xe2\x80\x944 May, 1883. Affirmations. \n\nwere substituted for oaths by an act passed 24 Dec. 1888. \n\nAFGHANISTAN (the Greek Ariana), a large \n\ncountry in central Asia, successively part of the- \n\nPersian and Greek empires. Chief cities, Cabul T . \n\nHerat, Candahar, Ghuznee. The tribes are ruled! \n\nby sirdars. Population 1891, about 4,000,000. \n\nEarly Afghan conquests in India . . 1200-1290. \n\nConquests of Genghis Khan about 1221, and by \nTamerlane \n\nBaber conquered Cabul \n\nOn his death Afghanistan divided between Persia \nand Hindostan. \n\nThe Afghans revolt in 1720 ; invade Persia and take \nIspahan ; repulsed by Nadir Shah in 1728, who \nsubdues the whole of the country \n\nOn his assassination, one of his officers, Ahmed \nShah, an Afghan, made Afghanistan indepen- \ndent, and reigned prosperously . . . 1747-73 \n\nTimur Shah (son), succeeds, 1773 ; rules cruelly ; \ndies leaving 23 sons \n\nZeman becomes ameer, 1793 ; cripples the power of \nthe sirdars ; blinded and dethroned \n\nMahmud Shah, son, ameer 1800 ; deposed for his \nbrother, Suja Shah, 1803 ; Mahmud restored, \nFuttih Khan the vizier predominant, 1809 ; \nFuttih blinded ; Mahmud flees from Cabul and \nbecomes ruler at Herat \n\nImpotent rulers at Cabul ; Dost Mohammed Khan \nbecomes ameer . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nHe is dethroned by the British, and sent to Cal- \ncutta ; Suja Shall restored jS-, \n\nBritish occupation of Cabul causes great discou- J \ntent ; insurrection ; sir Alexander Burnes and 23 \nothers killed ? l\\ov. \n\nAkbar Khan, son of Dost Mohammed, head of the \nrebels ; invites sir Win. Maenaghten to meet, and \nassassinates him and others . . 23 Dec. \n\nThe British army retires from Cabul, and is de- \nstroyed by the Ghilzais in the Kliyber pass ; of \n3849 soldiers, and about 12,000 camp followers, \nonly Dr. Brydone and four or five natives escaped \nmassacre ...... 6-13 Jan. \n\nSir George Pollock forces the Kliyber pass ; defeats \nAkbar Khan at Tezeen; captures Cabul and re- \nleases lady Sale and others, 16 Sept. ; destroys \nthe great bazaar ; retires . . . 12 (Jet. \n\nDost Mohammed becomes ameer \n\nHis treaty of friendship with lord Dalhousie (faith- \nfully kept) 3 o March t 8 SS \n\nHe dies leaving 16 sons; appointing as his suc- \ncessor Shere AH, the third son, 9 June : who is \nmuch opposed by his brothers, especially by \nUfzul, the eldest son (and his son Abdul-Rah- \nman, or Abdiir-Rahman), Azim, Ameen, and Shu- \nreef; yet is recognized by them . . Sept. 1863 \n\n\n\n1393. \n152s \n\n\n\n173S \n\n\n\n179? \n1S00 \n\n\n\n1816 \n1826 \n\n\n\n1843 \n\n\n\n1S42 \n\n\n\nAFGHANISTAN. \n\n\n\n16 \n\n\n\nAFGHANISTAN. \n\n\n\nUnsuccessful insurrection of Ufzul and Azim ; Azira \nflees to British territories, 16 May ; Ufzul recon- \nciled to Shere Ali 2 June 1864 \n\nInsurrection of Abdul-Rahman ; Ufzul imprisoned \n\nAug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nShere Ali enters Cabul . . . . 14 Nov. ,, \n\nAzim and his confederates defeated at Kujhboz, \nnear Khelat-i-Ghilzye, by Shere Ali (whose gal- \nJant son is killed), 6 June ; he enters Candahar, \n\n14 June, 1865 \n\nAzim joins his nephew Abdul-Rahman ; defection \nof Mahomed Rufeek from Ibrahim (Shere Ali\'s \nson) weakly ruling Cabul ; it surrenders to \nAzim 2 March, 1866 \n\nShere Ali rouses himself from his grief ; raises an \narmy ; some of his treacherous friends return to \n5iim ; he is defeated at Sheikhabad, and flees to \nCandahar .10 May, \n\nUfzul (sensual and easy), and Azim (cruel and \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 tyrannical) rule at Cabul . . . May, et seq. \n\nAzim and Abdul-Rahman defeat Shere Ali at \nKujhbaz, 17 Jan. ; he flees to Candahar : shut out, \nflees to Herat held by his son, Yakoob . Jan. \n\nHis army again defeated and his general and \nbrother, Fyz Mahommed, killed . . 17 Sept. \n\nUfzul dies ; Azim sole ruler at Cabul . Oct. \n\nHe quarrels with Abdul-Rahman ; who leaves him, \nand refuses to help him . . . March, \n\nYakoob defeats Azim\'s troops, and enters Canda- \nhar April, \n\nAzim leaves Cabul, July ; his army dissolves by \ndesertion ; Shere Ali enters Cabul . 8 Sept. \n\nSir John Lawrence helps Shere Ali with arms and \nmoney ; the attempts of Abdul-Rahman repulsed, \n\nNov., Dec. \n\nShere Ali totally defeats him and Azim (who dies \nsoon after) Jan. \n\nShere Ali honourably received at Umballah by the \n\nviceroy, the earl of Mayo, and receives a subsidy, \n\n27 March, et seq. \n\nThe limits of his territories defined, about June 1870 \n\nHis son, Yakoob, rebels ; captures Herat 6 May, \n\nFeramoz Khan, his father\'s general, assassinated, \n\nJune, \n\nYakoob reconciled to his father through lord Mayo, \nJuly ; made governor of Herat ; soon rebels, Sept. \n\nUslum, murderer of Feramoz, killed in prison, \n\nOct. \n\nShere Ali agrees to new boundaries, and receives \nanother British subsidy, Oct. ; nominates his \nyoungest son, Abdoola Jan, his successor, to the \ngreat dissatisfaction of his older son Yakoob, \n\nDec. 1873 \n\nYakoob Khan, imprisoned by his father \n\nabout Dec. 1874 \n\nShere Ali refusing to allow a British Resident, the \nsubsidy withheld ; he raises an army, and is said \nto promote disaffection to the British . . 1877-8 \n\nDeath of the heir Abdoola Jan . . . 17 Aug. 1878 \n\nStolietoff, a Russian envoy, favourably received at \nCabul, June ; a treaty signed ; Russia to be the \nguardian of the Ameer . . . Aug. ,, \n\nThe nawab Gholam Hussein Khan sent as envoy to \nthe ameer with letters from the viceroy (16 and \n24 Aug.), 30 Aug. ; dismissed with presents ; \nintercourse with the British declined . Sept. ,, \n\nA mission with military escort under sir Neville B. \nChamberlain, commander of the Madras army, \nstarts from Peshawur ... 21 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAt Ali Musjid, a fort in the Khyber pass, major \nCavagnari and an advance party are threatened \nwith attack if they proceed, 22 Sept. ; they retire \nto Peshawur, 23, 24 Sept. ; Gholam Hussein sent \n\xe2\x96\xa0with an ultimatum (answer required before 20 \nNov.) 28 Oct. \n\nBritish army formed in three divisions : at Quettah, \nPeshawur, and Kuram (34,730 natives, 12,740 \nEuropeans) .... about 16 Nov. \n\nDispatch from lord Cranbrook supporting the \nviceroy 18 Nov. \n\nNo answer received from the ameer ; the army ad- \nvances 21 Nov. \n\nAli Musjid shelled and occupied by the British ; 21 \nguns taken ; major Birch and lieut. Fitzgerald \nand about 35 men killed . . .22 Nov. \n\nThe viceroy\'s proclamation to the Afghans, issued \n\n23 Nov. \n\n\n\nOccupation of Dakka and Pisheen, 23 Nov. ; of \n\nKuram fort 25 Nov. \n\nKudduni burnt to punisli marauding hillmen, \n\n1 Dec. \nGen. Roberts victorious at Peiwar pass (which see) \n\n2 Dec. \nEvasive reply of the ameer dated 19 Nov., received \n\n3 Dec. \nThe British occupy Jellalabad . . 20 Dec. \nShere Ali flees from Cabul to Balkh, 13 Dec. ; \n\nYakoob Khan assumes command ; the Russian \nmission withdraws Dee. \n\nGen. Roberts proclaims annexation of Kuram \ndistrict, &c. 26 Dec. \n\nHe enters the Khoost territory 3 Jan. ; defeats the \nMangals near Matoon .... 7 Jan. \n\nCandahar abandoned, 6 Jan. ; entered by general \nStewart unopposed 7 Jan. \n\nWali Mahomed, a relative of Shere Ali, joins the \nBritish Jan. \n\nThe Alizais defeated in an attack . .16 Feb. \n\nDeath of Shere Ali, the ameer (announced) 20 Feb. \n\nAbout 46 of the 10th hussars drowned by current \nwhile crossing the Cabul river, 10 p.m. 31 March, \n\nGen. Gough, with the 10th hussars and others, \ndefeats about 5000 Khugianis near Futtehabad ; \ngallant major Wigram Batty killed . 2 April, \n\nYakoob Khan, son of the late ameer, arrives at \nGandamak to negotiate, 8 May ; recognised as \nameer 9 May \n\nTreaty of peace signed at Gandamak ; (the British \nto occupy Khyber pass, and the Kuram and \nPisheen valleys ; to have a Resident at Cabul ; and \nto pay an annual subsidy of 6o,oooi. to the ameer), \n26 May ; ratified 30 May ; the British troops retire \n\n8 June, \n\nSir Louis Cavagnari and escort honourably re- \nceived in Cabul .... 24 July, \n\nThanks of the house of lords voted to the viceroy, \nofficers, and men 4 Aug. \n\nSeveral regiments of Afghan soldiers arrive in \nCabul from Herat ; about 13 Aug. aided by the \npopulace they besiege the British residents, who \nafter a brave resistance are massacred (including \nsirL. Cavagnari, Mr. Jenkyns, his secretary, lieut. \nHamilton, and Dr. Ambrose Kelly), witli about \n26 native cavalry and 50 infantry ; a few natives \nescape 3, 4 Sept. \n\nGen. Roberts marches towards Cabul 6 Sept. et seq. \n\nMutiny at Herat ; military and civil governors killed \n\n5 Sept. \n\nRepulse of an attack on Baker\'s entrenchments at \nShutargardan 19 Sept. \n\nA British convoy attacked by Mongols, near \nShutargardan ; 8 sepoys and 15 muleteers killed ; \nmules taken 22 Sept. \n\nGen. Baker reaches Kushi 24 Sept. ; receives the \nameer Yakoob and his son, his general Daoud, \nand suite 27 Sept. \n\nGen. Roberts arrives at Cabul, 28 Sept. ; occu- \npies Dakka 29 Sept. \n\nAttack on British camp at Shutargardan repulsed \n\n2 Oct. \n\nBattle of Char-asiab ; severe conflict with Afghans \nbefore Cabul ; captain Young, Dr. Duncan, lieut. \nFergusson, and about 70 killed and wounded . \n\n6 Oct. \n\nThe enemy decamps ; about 98 guns abandoned ; \npursued by cavalry ; small parties only overtaken \n\n8-9 Oct. \n\nGen. Roberts visits the abandoned Bala Hissar, 11 \nOct ; enters Cabul, 12 Oct. ; Jellalabad occupied \nby Gough 14 Oct. \n\nGen. Roberts\' proclamation ; heavy fine ; martial \nlaw ; gen. Hills to be military governor, with \nGholab Hussein Khan ... 14 Oct. \n\nGreat explosions (supposed treacherous) in the Bala \nHissar ; destruction of much arms and ammuni- \ntion : capt. Shafto and about 20 others missing \n\n16 Oct. \n\nAbdication of Yakoob Khan announced 19 Oct. \n\n5 prisoners (mollahs and others) hanged as mur- \nderers of major Cavagnari and others 20-24 Oct. \n\nSahib Jan, a \' freebooter, with a strong force of \nTaraki Ghilzais, defeated and killed by general \nHughes at Shahjui, near Candahar . 24 Oct. \n\n\n\n187S \n\n\n\n1879 \n\n\n\nAFGHANISTAN. \n\n\n\n17 \n\n\n\nAFGHANISTAN. \n\n\n\nProclamation of gen. Roberts announcing British \noccupation of Cabul, &c. ... 30 Oct. \n\nJunction of columns of generals Macpherson and. \nBright at Katasang .... 6 Nov. \n\n163 Afghan mutineers, &c, tried ; 87 executed as \nmurderers ; 76 released . . . Oct. Nov. \n\nCombination of tribes under Mohammed Jan \nWardak Dec. \n\nContinued severe fighting, with heavy loss on both \nsides 11-14 Dec. \n\nGen. Roberts concentrates his forces in the \nSherpur cantonments . . . -14 Dec. \n\nMusa Khan, son of Yakoob, said to be proclaimed \nameer about 17 Dec. \n\nGen. Gough at Jugdulluk attacked ; retreats into \nthe fort, 16 Dec. ; indecisive conflicts 18, 19 Dec. \n\nThe Afghans (25,000) defeated with great loss near \nSherpur cantonments, by gens. Roberts and \nGough 23 Dec. \n\nCabul left by the enemy, 24 Dec. ; the city and \nBala Hissar reoccupied by the British 26 Dec. \n\nThe enemy dispersed .... 28 Dec. \n\nAttack of Afghan chiefs on col. Norman repulsed \nat Jagdalak 29 Dec. \n\nGhuznee seized and held for Musa Khan as the new \nameer, by Mohammed Jan . about 10 Jan. \n\nGen. Roberts proclaims an amnesty with few \n\nexceptions ; the hill tribes generally subdued, \n\nabout 6 Jan. \n\nMohmands and other tribes defeated in an attack \nnear Daka 15 Jan. \n\nCorrespondence with Russia ; papers found in \nCabul (to be kept secret) ... 6 Feb. \n\nMusa Khan and chiefs at Ghuznee submit 21 March, \n\nMohammed Jan defeated and killed, righting with \nHazaris . . . about 3 April, \n\nA camp at Duwai attacked by Pathans ; garrison \nkilled 16 April, \n\nShere Ali, cousin of the late ameer, made wali or \ngovernor of Candahar by the British (see \nCandahar) April, \n\nGen. sir Donald Stewart defeats a furious attack of \nGhilzais at Ahmad Khel, 19 April ; again near \nGhuznee 23 April, \n\nCol. Jenkins, at Char-asiab, attacked by 4000 \nLogaris ; resists till reinforced by gen. Mac- \npherson ; totally defeats them . 25 April, \n\nSir D. Stewart takes chief command at Cabul \n\n2 May, \n\nAlleged defeats of Safls and Ghazis near Jellalabad \n\n19, 22 May, \n\nGen. Burrows (with about 2400 men) sent from \nBombay towards Candahar . . 1 July, \n\nThe troops of the inefficient wali of Candahar, \nShere Ali, revolt and join Ayoob Khan, about \n\n14 July, \n\nGen. Burrows at Maiwand, near Kusck-i-Nakhud \n(which see) 17 July, \n\nAbdul-Rahman, or Abdur-Rahmau, born 1845 (see \nabove, 1863 et seq.), recognised as ameer at Cabul \nby the British, and proclaimed . . 22 July \n\nAyoob Khan (son of the late ameer, Shere Ali), \ngovernor of Herat, marches upon Candahar with \nabout 12,000 men and 20 guns ; defeats the attack \nof gen. Burrows after severe conflicts ; heavy loss \non both sides ; many officers of 66th regiment \nkilled 27 July, \n\nCandahar citadel held by British with about 4000 \nmen 28 July, \n\nAyoob encamped at Kokaran . . .9 Aug. \n\nGen. sir F. Roberts with about 10,000 men, &c, \nmarches from Cabul to relieve Candahar 9 Aug. \n\nSir D. Stewart, with all the troops, after an inter- \nview with the ameer Abdur-Rahman, withdraws \nfrom Cabul 11 Aug. \n\nAttack of Pathans (hill tribes) on the post at Kaeh \nAmadan firmly beaten off by sepoys ; 80 Pathans \nkilled 16 Aug \n\nIneffectual sortie from Candahar, under gen. \nPrimrose, against Deh Kwajee village, with heavy \nloss on both sides ; gen. Brooke, col. Newport, \nmajors Vandaleur and French, capt. Cruickshank, \nlieut. Marsh, and rev. Mr. Gordon, and 180 men \nkilled 16 Aug. \n\nAyoob Khan\'s army (strengthened by Ghilzais) \nabout 20,000 ; about 25 Aug. ; he retires from \nCandahar about 30 Aug. \n\n\n\n1879 \n\n\n\nGen. Roberts arrives at Candahar, 31 Aug. ; de- \nclines Ayoob\'s terms ; defeats and disperses his \narmy at Mazra near the Argandab ; and captures \nhis camp at Baba Wali Kotal (see Mazra) 1 Sept. 1880 \n\nAyoob Khan arrives in Herat ; reported 10 Oct. ,, \n\nTranquillity at Cabul, announced . . Nov. ,, \n\nShere Ali, wali of Candahar, resigns and retires to \nIndia Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAlleged expenses of the war, 1878-80, 23,494,480?., of \nwhich 5,000,000?. paid by British exchequer, Aug. 1881 \n\nRussian correspondence with the ameer Shere Ali \nin 1878, published ; explained by Russia as re- \nlating to probable war in the east . 9, 10 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThanks of parliament voted to gen. Roberts and \nthe army in both houses ... 5 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nProspect of war between Ayoob Khan of Herat and \nAbdur-Rahman of Cabul . . May, June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nConflicts between partisans of the ameer and Ayoob \nKhan ; the latter defeated . . 3 & 11 June ,, \n\nAyoob Khan defeats the ameer\'s army under \nGholam-Hyder at Karez-i-atta, 26 July ; enters \nCandahar 30 July, ,, \n\nGholam Hyder holding Kelat-i-Ghilzai, 6 Aug. ; \nreceives reinforcements from Cabul . 21 Aug. ,, \n\nAyoob prepares to march ; the ameer\'s troops at \nKelat-i-Ghilzai ; rejects Ayoob\'s proposals, 1-4 \nSept. ; marches to Candahar ; about 8 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAyoob defeated at Old Candahar chiefly through \ndesertion of his troops, flees to Herat . 22 Sept. ,, \n\nThe ameer enters Candahar . . .30 Sept. ,, \n\nHis army under Abdul-Kudus Khan twice defeats \nAyoob\'s adherents, Oct.; again . . . 2 Oct. ,, \n\nEnters Herat 4 Oct. ,, \n\nAyoob flees to Persia 4 Oct. ,, \n\nAbdur-Rahman now virtual ruler of all Afghanistan \n\nOct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAfzul Khan chosen by the ameer as British resi- \ndent in Cabul Feb. 1882 \n\nThe ameer defeats the Shinwarris about 27 April, 1883 \n\nPeace made about 21 June, ,, \n\nIndian government grants subsidy to the ameer ; \naccepted 21 July, ,, \n\nSlight insurrection of the Ghilzais under Mollah \nMushki Alum, announced . . .24 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe proposal of an Afghan frontier commission \naccepted by the ameer .... Aug. 1884 \n\nGen. Sir Peter Lumsden with staff proceeds, and \nsuccessful progress reported . . Oct., Dec. ,, \n\nPenjdeh assured to Afghanistan by Lord Auckland, \n1840 ; Russian advances resisted up to Nov. 1884. \nThe ameer visits Lord Dufferin, the viceroy, at \nRawul Pindi 2-12 April, who declares at a grand \ndurbar, England and Afghanistan will stand side \nby side 8 April 1885 \n\nSir Peter Lumsden arrives in London . 6 June, ,, \n\nDifference between England and Russia respecting \nthe Zulfikar Pass July, ,, \n\nStrong Russian garrison at Askabad . . July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Russians relinquish Zulfikar Pass, announced \n\n22 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAnglo-Russian Protocol, closing the dispute, signed \nin London 10 Sept. ,, \n\nConstruction of Quetta Railway begun Sept. 1879 ; \nstopped Oct. 1880 ; resumed April 1884. Lower \nBolan Railway joining India opened . 28 Oct. ,, \n\nPenjdeh given up to Russia, July, 1885, entered \n\n13 Feb. 1886 \n\nJoint Commission appointed ; First boundary pillar \nformally erected 12 Nov. 1885 ; the last, many \nperils and privations endured . . . July, ,, \n\nJoint Commission dissolved . . . . 6 Sept. ,, \n\nSir Joseph West Ridgeway, chief, and the Commis- \nsion warmly received at Cabul . . 15 Oct. ,, \n\nRising against taxation (treasure seized in transit) \nabout 30 Oct. ; rebellion said to be repressed \n\nNov. ,, \n\nThe ameer\'s troops defeated by the Ghilzais, \nannounced 19 April ; again at Khelat-i-Ghilzai, \nannounced . \xe2\x80\xa2 25 April, 1887 \n\nMeetings of Afghan Frontier Commission at St. \nPetersburg; temporarily closed 12 May ; resumed \n6 July ; question settled . . .20 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMutiny of Ghilzais at Herat, suppressed with much \nbloodshed 9 June, , \n\nGeneral Gholam reported that he defeated the \n\nGhilzais 13 & 16 June, \n\nC \n\n\n\nAFEICA. \n\n\n\n18 \n\n\n\nAFEICA. \n\n\n\nThe ameer proclaims peace, amnesty and remission \n\nof taxes for two years, announced . . 8 July, 1887 \nGreat defeat of the rebels at Mashakai, announced \n\n15 J ul y> .. \n\nKeported conflicting accounts of victory of Gholam \nHyder Khan at Kotaldab . . .26 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTaimar Shah, chief of the Herat mutineers, ex- \necuted at Cabul 13 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nEebellion said to have collapsed 21 Aug. ; several \ntribes return home 29 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nEscape of Ayoob Khan from Teheran, 14 Aug. ; \nenters Afghanistan with a few followers and is \ndriven out early Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSevere fighting at Mashakai between the ameer\'s \ntroops and the insurgents . . .31 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFighting near Mukur ; rebel leader, Jalander Khan \ncaptured 7 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nReported fighting with varying success Sept. -Oct. ,, \n\nAyoob Khan surrenders at Meshed to the Indian \ngovernment, announced .... 9 Nov. ,, \n\nSouthern Afghanistan quiet, announced . 13 Nov. ,, \n\nReported conflict between ameer\'s troops and the \ninsurgents, 60 killed 15 Nov. ,, \n\nAmnesty proclamation issued by the ameer \n\n10 Dec. ,, \n\nConflict between Afghans and Turcomans, Afghans \nvictorious 9 May, 1888 \n\nRevolt of Ishak Khan, governor of Afghan Turkestan, \nAug. ; defeated at Tash Kurgan 29 Sept. 1888; \nat Mazari Sherif 30 Sept. ; Ishak Khan a fugitive \nin Russian territory , , \n\nThe ameer narrowly escapes assassination. 26 Dec. ,, \n\nThe ameer\'s troops under Gholam Hyder defeat \nthe Shinwarris 3 Feb. 1889 \n\nGholam Hyder Khan, made Governor-General \n\n20 Feb. , , \n\nAbdur-Rahman (two years absent) returns to Cabul \nwith strengthened power . . . Aug. 1890 \n\nDisputes with the Russians respecting the Pamir \nfrontier Sept., Oct. 1891 \n\nMr. T. S. Pyne, engineer-in-chief to the ameer (55 \nyears), reports great prog] ess in arts and manu- \nfactures Feb. 1892 \n\nAFEICA, called Libya by the Greeks, one of \nthe three parts of the ancient world, and the great" \n\xe2\x96\xa0est peninsula of the globe. For its history, see \nEgypt, Ethiopia, Carthage, Cyrene, Abyssinia, \nCape, Algiers, Morocco, Ashantee, South Africa, \xc2\xa7-c. \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Carthage subdued by the Romans, 146 b.c. ; other pro- \nvinces gained by Pompey, 82. \n\nRevolts subdued by Diocletiau, a.d. 296 ; by Theodosius, \n373- \n\nN. Africa conquered by the Vandals under Genseric, \n429-35 ; re-conquered by Belisarius, 533-55. \n\nThe Saracens subdue the north of Africa, 637 \xe2\x80\x94 709. \n\nPortuguese settlements begun, 1450. \n\nCape of Good Hope discovered by Diaz, 1487. \n\nVasco de Gama doubles the Cape and explores the coast, \n19 Nov. 1497. \n\nEnglish merchants visit Guinea in 1550 ; and Elizabeth \ngranted a patent to an African company in 1588. \n\nDutch colony at the Cape founded, 1650. \n\nCapt. Stubbs sailed up the Gambia, 1723. \n\nBruce commenced his travels in 1768. \n\nSierra Leone settled by the English, 1787. \n\nMungo Park made his first voyage to Africa, 22 May, \n1795 ; his second, 30 January, 1804, and never returned \n(see Park). \n\nAfrica visited by Salt, 1805 and 1809 ; Burckhardt, 1812 ; \nCampbell, 1813 ; Hornemann, 1816 ; Denham and Clap- \nperton, 1822 ; Laing, 1826 ; the brothers Lander, \n1830. \n\nExpedition to the Niger originated by Mr. Macgregor, \nLaird of Liverpool ; he went out with Mr. Lauder and \nlieut. Win. Allen, and they made a reliable survey of \nthe river; July, et seq. 1832. \n\nThe great Niger expedition to start a colony in Central \nAfrica (for which parliament voted 6o,oooZ.), consisting \nof the Albert, Wilberforce, and Soudan steamships, \ncommenced the ascent of the Niger, 20 Aug. 1841 ; \nwhen they reached Iddah, fever broke out among the \ncrews, and they were successively obliged to return, \nthe Albert having ascended the river to Egga, 320 miles \nfrom the sea, 28 Sept. The expedition was relinquished \nowing to disease, heat, and hardships, and all the \n\n\n\nvessels had cast anchor at Clarence Cove, Fernando \nPo, 17 Oct. 1841. \nJames Richardson explored the great Sahara in 1845-6, \nand in 1849 (by direction of the Foreign Office) he left \nEngland to explore central Africa, accompanied by \nDrs. Barth and Overweg. Richardson died 4 March, \n1851 ; and Overweg died 27 Sept. 1852. \n\nDr. Vogel sent out with reinforcements to Dr. Barth, \n20 Feb. 1853 ; in April, 1857, said to have been assas- \nsinated. \n\nDr. Barth returned to England, and received the Royal \nGeographical Society\'s medal, 16 May, 1856. His \ntravels were published in 5 vols, in 1858. \n\nDr. David Livingstone, a missionary traveller, returned \nto England in Dec. 1856, after an absence of 16 years, \nduring which he traversed a large part of the heart of \nS. Africa, and walked about 11,000 miles, principally \nover country hitherto unexplored. His book was pub- \nlished in Nov. 1857. I 11 Feb. 1858, he was appointed \nBritish consul for the Portuguese possessions in Africa, \nand left England shortly after. \n\nDu Chaillu\'s travels in central Africa, 1856-59, created \nmuch controversy, 1861. \n\nSecond expedition of Dr. Livingstone, March, 1858. \n\nCaptains Speke and Grant announce the discovery of \na source of the Nile in Lake Victoria Nyanza, 23 Feb. \n1863. \n\n[Capt. Speke was accidentally shot by his own gun while \nalone near Bath, 15 Sept. 1864.] \n\nSome Dutch ladies unsuccessfully explore the White \nNile, and undergo many privations, July, 1863 \xe2\x80\x94 1864. \n(One Miss Tinne said to have been killed ; reported 5 \nSept. 1869.) \n\nThe " Universities Mission to east central Africa," con- \nsisting of Charles F. Mackenzie, bishop of central \nAfrica, and six clergymen and others, started Dec. \ni860, and arrived at the Zambesi, in Feb. 1861. All \ndied from privations and disease except two, who \nreturned in 1864. The bishop died 31 Jan. 1862 ; suc- \nceeded by Dr. Tozer. \n\nDu C\'haillu starts on a fresh expedition, 6 Aug. 1863 ; \nafter being robbed, and undergoing many privations, \nreturned to London near the end of 1865. He gave an \naccount of his journey at a meeting of the Royal \nGeographical Society, 8 Jan. 1866. \n\nDr. Livingstone returns, 23 July, 1864. \n\nDeath of Dr. W. B. Baikie, at Sierra Leone, 30 Nov. 1864. \n[He was sent as special envoy to the Negro tribes \nnear the Niger by the Foreign Office about 1854. He \nopened commercial relations with central Africa.] \n\nNational African company, 1864. \n\nMr. (afterwards sir) Samuel Baker discovered a lake, \nsupposed to be another source of the Nile, which he \nnamed Lake Albert Nyanza, 14 March, 1864. \n\nDr. Livingstone appointed British consul for inner Africa, \n24 March, 1865. \n\nNarrative of Livingstone\'s Zambesi expedition 1858-64, \npublished 1866. \n\nLivingstone left Zanzibar to continue his search for the \nsources of the Nile, March, 1866. \n[See his narrative beloiv.] \n\nReports of the murder of Livingstone near Lake Nyassa, \nin Sept. 1866 \xe2\x80\x94 March, 1867 ; doubted, July, 1867. \n\nExpedition of E. D. Young in search of Livingstone, \nsailed 9 July, 1867, returned and reported to the Royal \nGeographical Society his conviction that Livingstone \nwas alive, 27 Jan. 1868. \n\nLetter from Dr. Livingstone dated Bembo, 2 Mar. 1867 ; \nheard of down to Dec. 1867. \n\nHis despatch to lord Clarendon, dated 7 July, 1868 ; read \nto the Royal Geographical Society, 8 Nov. 1869. \n\nLetter dated 30 May, 1869, published Dec. 1869. \n\nUncredited reports of his murder by negroes, Jan. ; his \nprobable safety reported by Dr. Kirk, 22 June ; said \nto be at Mozambique, Nov. 1870. \n\nExpedition of sir Samuel Baker to put down slave trade \non the Upper Nile (see Egypt), Jan. 1870. \n\nExpedition in search of Livingstone under lieut. Dawson, \norganised by the Royal Geographical Society ; started \n9 Feb. 1872. \n\n[It returned on hearing that Stanley had found Living- \nstone.] \n\nDutch Guinea settlements purchased and transferred (see \nElmina), 6 April, 1872. \n\nReports current that Livingstone is alive, May, June, \n1872. \n\nExpedition sent in search of Livingstone by Mr. James \n\n\n\nAFKICA. \n\nGordon Bennett, proprietor of the New York Herald, \nat a cost of about 8,000?. : \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nMr. Henry M. Stanley, chief of the expedition, left \n^Zanzibar, and, after much opposition from the native \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \'Chiefs, accidentally fell in with Livingstone at Ujiji, \nnear Unyanyembe, 10 Nov. 1871, and remained with \nliim till 14 March, 1872, when he brought away his \ndiary and other documents. Mr. Stanley reported that \nLivingstone had arrived at Ujiji in bad condition, \nhaving been robbed and deserted by his attendants. \n\nMuch controversy ensued between Mr. Stanley, the \nmembers of lieut. Dawson\'s expedition, Dr. Living- \nstone, Dr. Kirk, the Royal Geographical Society, and \nothers, Aug.\xe2\x80\x94 Oct. 1872. \n\nLetter from Dr. Livingstone, at Ujiji, dated Nov. \n\n1871, to Mr. Bennett (printed in New York Herald, 26 \nJuly, and reprinted in the Times 27 July, 1872). He \n\xe2\x96\xa0describes his explorations and his painful journey to \nUjiji; his meeting with Mr. Stanley ; and he speaks of \nthe Nile springs being about 600 miles south of the \nmost southerly part of Lake Victoria Nyanza ; and also \nof about 700 miles of watershed in central Africa, of \nwhich he had explored about 600 ; and of the conver- \ngence of the watershed first into four, and then into \ntwo, mighty rivers in the great Nile valley (?) between \n10\xc2\xb0 and 12 south latitude. Second letter (dated FeV. \n1872) describes the horrors of the slave trade in eastern \nAfrica, printed in the Times 29 July, 1872. \n\nLivingstone\'s despatches, dated Nov. 1 and 15, 1871, \nreceived by the Foreign Office, 1 Aug. ; letter dated \n1 July, received 2 Oct. 1872. \n\nMr. Stanley described his discovery of Livingstone to the \nBritish Association at Brighton in presence of the \nex-emperor and empress of the French, 16 Aug., and re- \nceived a gold snuff-box from the queen about 30 Aug. 1872. \n\nLivingstone died of dysentery in Ilala, Central Africa ; \nhis pupil, Jacob Wainwright, a young negro mission- \nary, present, 1 May, 1873 ; his remains interred in \nWestminster Abbey, 18 April; his last journals pub- \nlished, Dec. 1874. \n\nNew Expedition, under sir Bartle Frere, to Zanzibar, to \nsuppress the east African slave trade ; lieut. Verney \nLovett Cameron\'s offer to aid in the furtherance of \nLivingstone\'s expedition was accepted ; sailed 20 Nov. \n\n1872, see Zanzibar. \nExpedition to explore the upper part of the Congo \n\n(Mr. Young, of Kelly, to subscribe 2000?. Royal Geo- \ngraphical Society to supplement it), proposed Nov. 1872. \n\nLieut. Verney Cameron, after the finding of Livingstone, \ncontinued his explorations, 1872-3. \n\nLeaving Ujiji, 14 May, 1874, he followed Livingstone\'s \nroute ; explored 1200 miles of fertile country ; arriving \nat Portuguese settlements, 4 Nov. 1875. \n\nHe was received by Royal Geographical Society, and \ngave account of his journey, n April, 1876. \n\nExpedition of Mr. H. M. Stanley (supported by Daily \nTelegraph and New York Herald) ; he surveyed Lake \nVictoria Nyanza (230 miles by 180), 1875 ; well andsuc- \ncessful, last letter dated 24 April, 1876. \n\nStanley reports survey of lake Tanganyika ; and states \nthat he left Ujiji and crossed Africa from east to west, \nand identified the Lualaba with the Congo river, which \nhas an uninterrupted course of over 1400 miles, 24 Aug. \n1876 \xe2\x80\x94 6 Aug. 1877. \n\nArrives at Cape Town, 21 Oct. 1877 ; in London, 22 \nJan. ; published "Through the Dark Continent," May, \n1878. \n\nItalian expedition under marchese Antinori, well re- \nceived by king of Seida ; announced 2 Dec. 1876 ; \nhis death reported, Nov. 1877. \n\nPortuguese government grant 20,000?. for expedition \ninto the interior, announced Dec. 1876. \n\nDr. Gussfeld, a German, after his exploration into S.W. \nCentral Africa, 1873, declared the difficulties insuper- \nable, 1875. \n\nMr. H. M. Stanley, with an international Belgian expedi- \ntion, explored the Congo, 1879-80. \n\nR. Geographical Society\'s successful expedition into \nEastern Africa under Mr. A. Keith Johnston leaves \nEngland 14 Nov. 1878, starts from Zanzibar about 14 \nMay, 1879 ; Mr. Johnston dies 28 June, succeeded \nT)y Joseph Thomson, who returns to England Aug. \n1880. \n\nThe Royal Geographical Society grants 2,600/. \nfor an expedition to Africa under Joseph Thom- \nson, which starts 13 Dec. 1882 ; after successful \nexploration arrives at Zanzibar in June ; describes \n\n\n\n19 AFRICA. \n\nto the R. Geo. \' Soc. his exceedingly perilous adven- \ntures, in beautifully varied country, with vicious \nescort, among savage tribes of different manners, \n3 Nov. 1884. See Morocco. \n\nDeath of Dr. Moffat, missionary, aged 87, 9 Aug. 1883. \nSee under Congo. \n\nCount Teleki\'s expedition into the Masai country, &c, \n23 Jan. 1887\xe2\x80\x9425 Oct. 1888. For Mr. H. M. Stanley\'s \nexpedition to relieve Emin pasha, see Soudan, Jan. \n1887-9. \n\nTrade route with 4 stations on the Congo reported to be \nestablished by Mr. Stanley (a. great work) announced, \n14 Aug. 1882. \n\nExpedition of Mr. J. T. Last, supported by the Royal \nGeographical Society, to S.W. Zanzibar, Sept. 1885. \n\nItalian scientific expedition under count Porro massacred, \nreported 26 April, 1886. \n\nDr. Junker reports to the Royal Geographical Society \nhis eventful travels in Central Africa in 1885-6, 9 May, \n1887. \n\nAssassination of M. Camille Douls, the explorer, while \ncrossing the Sahara, reported Sept. 1889. \n\nAustro-Hungarian expedition under count Samuel \nTeleki to relieve Emin pasha arrives near him, but is \nsuperseded by Mr. St.mley, 1886\xe2\x80\x949. See KUiriui- \nNjaro. \n\nMr. H. M. Stanley in his expedition to relieve Emin \npasha (see Soudan, 1887) at Wadelai, and during his \nreturn march, makes many discoveries, and re-names \nlake, South Nyanza (which he discovered in 1887), \nAlbert Edward Nyanza, 1889. \n\nMajor Casati publishes his book " Ten years in Equatoria \n\xe2\x80\x94the Heturn with Emin Pasha," translated by the \nHon. Mrs. J. Randolph Clay, March, 1891. \n\n[Gaetf\'ni Casati, scholar, born 1838 ; soldier 1859 ! ie ^ \nItaly for Africa 24 Dec. 1879 \'> a t Khartoum about \nMay, 1880 ; received by Emin pasha April, 1883 ; after \nmany perilous adventures with Emin pasha, 1889 ; \nreceived by the khedive at Cairo, 4 May, at Rome \n14 July, by the king 17 July, 1890.] \n\nFor a German exploring expedition, west, see Cameroons, \n1891. \n\nThe German government sends an exploring expedition \ninto S.W. African coast, Damaraland ; Mr. Luderitz \nacquires some lands at Angra Pequeiia from the chiefs ; \nDr. Nachtigal\'s official visit to this place in a German \nman-of-war failed ; after this Dr. Goering by some \nmeans obtained a treaty ceding land from the chief \nKamaherero, afterwards denied, having previously in \n1885 transferred all his rights to Mr. Robert Lewis, \na British subject, long known to the Damaras. Mr. \nLewis\' rights were set aside by the German Colonial \nCompany of S.W. Africa, and he and other English \nwere expelled ; the claims of Messrs. Lewis, Ford, and \nBam, set forth at Berlin by the British Government, \n1885\xe2\x80\x9491. \n\nThe Germans disallow Mr. Lewis\' claims, reported 3 \nApril, 1891. \n\nFrench expedition into the interior between the Central \nSoudan and the French Congo under M. Fourneau-, \nstarts from Ouassou, 7 March ; arrived at the con- \nfluence of the Massa Sangha and the Kalle, 15 April ; at \nthe Sodi, 1 May ; attacked by natives he burns the \nvillage ; encamped at a village, 10 May ; suddenly \nattacked, fighting began ; M. Fourneau wounded, \nmany of his men killed, the rest demoralized and some \nfled, retreat began under fire from the savages, nMay ; \nand the party reached Ouassou, 18 May, 1S91. \n\nMr. Joseph Thomson returns from an expedition in \nBritish South Africa, having visited the neighbour- \nhood of lakes Nyassa and Bangweolo and made treaties \nwith numerous chiefs, 18 Oct. 1891. \nSee Anglo-French Agreement and others. \n\nGERMAN EAST AFRICA. Dr. Carl Peters goes to \nAfrica as chief agent for the committee for German \ncolonization, concludes treaties with 10 sultans ; the \nGerman flag hoisted, Nov.-Dee. 1884. \n\nThe German East African Company, mainly founded by \nDr. Peters, at Berlin, chartered, 12 Feb. 1S86. \n\nSettlements founded in the valley of the Kingani, March, \nApril, 1886. \n\nTreaty with the sultan of Zanzibar comes into force 19 \nAug. 1886. \n\nDr. Peters, with a party of 23 engineers, medic ll men. \n&c, leaves Germany as the agent of the Gerii.au \nEmin Pasha Relief Society, April, 1887. \n\nc 2 \n\n\n\nAFEICA. 20 \n\nThe Germans attack Bagamoyo and kill natives, 23 Sept. \n\n1888. \nCollapse of the German settlement, attributed to the \n\nArab slave-dealers ; reported Oct. 1888. \nThe East African Bill passed by the Parliament, granting \nmoney for the defence of German interests, and the \nsuppression of the slave trade, 30 Jan. 1889. \nThe Germans defeat the Arabs at Bagamoyo, 6 March, \n\n1889. \nCapt., after major, Wissmann, appointed imperial com- \nmissioner in East Africa, 21 Feb. (dissension with Dr. \nPeters), 31 March, 1889. \nThe German flag hoisted at the consulate ; capt. Wiss- \nmann assumes the command, 5 April, 1889. \nDr. Peters organizing his Emin Relief Expedition ; men \n\nand camels engaged, March, April, 1889. \nCapt. Wissmann, aided by 200 German sailors, defeats \nBushiri, an Arab slave-d\'ealer, with little loss ; Bushiri \nloses 80 killed and 20 prisoners, his camp destroyed, 8 \nMay, 1889. \nCapt. Wissmann captures Pangani, 8 July, 1889. \nAdm. Freemantle seizes the steamship Neera, belonging \nto the Emin Relief Expedition at Lamu, and takes it \nto Zanzibar, June ; Dr. Peters remonstrates, 29 June ; \nafter a trial the ship is released, the owners paying \ncosts, 6 Aug. ; Dr. Peters directed by his committee \nto proceed no farther, 31 Oct. 1889. \nDifferences between the sultan of Zanzibar and the \n\nGermans respecting territory, about 8 Nov. 1889. \nMajor Wissmann receives Mr. H. M. Stanley, Emin pasha \n\nand party at Bagamoyo, 5 Dec. 1889. \nAfter tights, Bushiri captured and hanged, 16 Dec. 1889. \nMajor Wissmann, after severe fighting captures Bwana \n\nHeri\'s fortified position near Saadani, 5 Jan. 1890. \nArab tribes come to Bagamoyo and submit, about Jan. \n\n18, 1890. \nBwana Heri holds a considerable force against major \n\nWissmann, reported 16 Feb. 1890. \nEmin pasha, after a long illness, occasioned by a fall \nfrom a window at Bagamoyo, 5 Dec. 1889, arrives at \nZanzibar, 2 March ; accepts the offers of major Wiss- \nmann, enters the German service, and proceeds with a \nmilitary expedition to Victoria Nyanza, 31 March et \nseq. 1890. \nMajor Wissmann occupies Kilwa without resistance, 4 \nMay ; also Mikindani, 14 May ; letter from Dr. Peters \ndated Kapte in Kamassia, 16 Jan., stating that he was \n340 English miles from Wadelai in good health, received \nMay, 1890. \nMany losses by death and desertion ; reported 13 May, \n\n1890. \nMajor Wissmann leaves for Germany, lieut. Schmidt \n\nleft in command, 26 May, 1890. \nGerman forces : 207 officers, military and naval ; 1,200 \nSoudanese, 380 Zulus, 120 Askaris, a number of Sou- \nmalis as police, a medical staff and sanitary officers ; a \nfleet of 4 steamers, besides whale-boats ; reported May, \n1890. \nA letter from Dr. Peters dated Rubaga in Uganda, 2 \nMarch, received 28 May ; another dated Ukumi in \nUssukuma, 13 April, received 30 May, 1890. \nThe German Parliament votes 4,850,000 marks for East \n\nAfrican service, 24 June, 1890. \nMahomed Bin Cassim and three companions were hanged \nat Bagamoyo, after trial for murder of a German mer- \nchant about 8 years previously, 27 June, 1890. \nAnglo-German convention, which see, signed at Berlin \n\nby the Emperor, 1 July, 1890. \nMajor von Wissmann, ennobled and warmly received in \nBerlin and other places, June ; unwell, enjoined abso- \nlute rest, 14 July, 1890. \nDr. Peters and party arrive at Zanzibar about 10 July, \ntelegraphs to his company 18 July, 1890. \n\n[His treaty with the king of Uganda invalid ; he is \naccused of living by raids on the natives.] \nAdvance of Emin pasha, severe fighting with the Masai \n\nin Ugogo, reported 31 July, 1890. \nDr. Carl Peters arrives in Berlin, 25 Aug. 1890. \nThe German East Africa Company cedes all its territorial \nrights to the Imperial Government, reported 28 Oct. \n1890. \nThe emperor contributes 3,000 marks towards the build- \ning of the steamer Wissmann, to be placed on Lake \nVictoria Nyanza, about 5 Dec. 1890. \nThe Emin Pasha Relief Committee dissolves itself, 15 \nDec. 1890. \n\n\n\nAFEICA. \n\nEmin Pasha (refractory) recalled to the coast by major \nvon Wissmann, imperial commissary, reported 19 Dec. \n1890. \n\nThe German Imperial flag hoisted at Bagamoyo, 1 Jan. \nMajor von Wissmann established there, 26 Jan. 1891. \n\nBaron von Soden appointed governor of German East \nAfrica, Dr. Carl Peters his commissary, Feb., with a \npeaceful progressive programme, March, 1891. \n\nMajor von Wissmann severely punishes the Kishobco \ntribe for robbery, reported 6 March, 1891. \n\nReturns to Bagamoyo 15 March, recalled for rest, reported \n14 April, 1891. \n\nDr. Peters\' "New Light on Dark Africa," published, \nspring, 1891. \n\nThe German expeditionary colonial troops under lieut. \nvon Zelewski attacked by the natives (about 3,000^ \nS. of the Ruaha river, the lieut. and other officers, \nkilled, 10 Europeans, and about 300 native members \nof the expedition massacred near the station Mp wapwa, \nKondora ; large capture of arms and ammunition, 17 \nAug. 1891. \n\nCaptain Ruediger, appointed acting-governor of Germam \nEast Africa, about 1 Oct. 1891. \n\nMovements of Emin pasha about Albert Nyanza, repu- \ndiated by the German government, July ; resignation \nof major von Wissmann, Oct. 1891. \n\nRevolt of the Wadigoes against taxation ; the Germans \nunder captain Krenzler defeated 12 Dec, defeated \nagain 19 Dee. 1891. \n\nBaron von Soden pursues a peaceful policy in opposition \n\nto major von Wissmann, Jan. 1892. \nHe meets lieut. C. S. Smith and Dr. Peters, joint com- \nmissioners for the delimitation of the territories at \nWanga, Feb. 1S92. \nThe German parliament votes 2, 500,000 marks for German* \ninterests in E. Africa and the suppression of the slave \ntrade, 5 March, 1892. \nDr. Kayser sent to E. Africa to examine the state of the \ncolony, May, 1892. \n\nBRITISH E. AFRICA. -The Imperial British East Africai \nCompany, supported by Mr. Wm. Mackenzie, lord \nBrassey, gen. Donald Stewart, Mr. Burdett-Coutts, \nand others, sir Wm. Mackinnon, chairman ; charter \n3 Sept. 1888 ; large territories having been conceded \nto Mr. W. Mackenzie by the sultan of Zanzibar ; con- \ncession signed, 9 Oct. 1888 ; confirmed, 1 Sept. 1889. \n\nThe sultan of Zanzibar surrenders all control over the \nBritish East Africa Company\'s territory for an annual \npayment of 26,000 dollars ; reported 26 Dec. 1889. \n\nSuccessful tour of Mr. Mackenzie through the Company\'s \nterritory, April, 1890. \n\nSir Francis de Winton appointed administrator of the \ncompany\'s territories, May ; arrives at Zanzibar and \nproceeds to Mombasa, &c, 1890. \n\nAll slaves in the territory declared free by Mr. Mac- \nkenzie about 4 May ; his final departure for Europe, \nmuch regretted, 26 May, 1890. \n\nMr. George S. Mackenzie, administrator of the territory, \nreturns to England, July, 1890. \n\nAnglo-German Convention (which see), 1 July, 1890. \n\nSuccessful progress ; army recruited from India ; con- \ntinued peace with the natives, July, 1890. \n\nFirst general meeting of the company, London ; report \nand statement of accounts read, 25 July, 1890. \n\nInauguration of the railway between Mombasa and \nVictoria Nyanza, 26 Aug. 1890. \n\nResignation of sir Francis de Winton, Feb. 1891. \n\nMr. George Mackenzie, director of the company, wel- \ncomed by the sultan of Zanzibar ; the government of \nWitu assumed by the company ; the country quite \npacified, March, 1891. \n\nProtocol for the delimitation of the British and Italian \nspheres of influence in East Africa, signed at Rome \n24 March, 1891. \n\nGeneral Mathews, H.M.\'s commissioner, arrives at \nZanzibar, Sept. 1891. \n\nProposed withdrawal of representative from Uganda ; \nserious consequences apprehended ; great need of \na railway from coastline to Victoria Nyanza, Sept. \n1891. \n\nMr. Gerald H. Portal appointed commissioner and consul- \ngeneral in British East Africa, Feb. He suppresses a \nrevolt in Witu, April, 1892. \n\n\n\nAFRIKANDER BUND. \n\n\n\n21 \n\n\n\nAGINCOURT. \n\n\n\nBRITISH CENTRAL AFRICA (Nyassaland).\xe2\x80\x94 Mr. H. \nH. Johnston (see Kilima - Njaro) appointed commis- \nsioner of British Central Africa, the districts N. of \nthe South Africa Company\'s territories, March, 1891. \n\nHe and capt. Cecil Maguire attack the Arab slave-dealers, \nand release a large number of slaves, Oct., Nov. i8qi. \n\nCapt. Maguire with 30 sepoys, releases a number of \n.slaves in a caravan and burns dhows in presence of a \nlarge party of enemies, but is killed while swimming \nto his ship ; Dr. Boyce and Mr. M\'Ewan are treacher- \nously killed when about to treat for a truce, 15-17 \nDec. 1891. \n\nThe Arabs surprise Port Johnstone and capture a gun ; \nMr. H. H. Johnston has only 70 Sepoys and two gun- \nboats on the Shire; reported, April, 1892. \n\nMi. H. H. Johnston reports the pacification of the \ndistrict, about 4 April, 1892. \n\nMakanjila, and two other chiefs, slave-dealers, pre- \ndominant, Jan. 1892. \n\nThe British South Africa Company chartered (see \nunder Zambesi), 15 Oct. 1889. \n\nFor French Africa, see Africa, 1891, and Senegal. \n\nAfrican Association, for promoting the exploration of \ncentral Africa, was formed in June, 1788, principally \nby sir Joseph Banks ; and under its auspices many addi- \ntions were made to African geography by Ledyard, \nPark, Burckhardt, Hornemann, &c. It merged into the \nRoyal Geographical Society, July, 1831. \n\nAfrican Church. In 1866 Robert Gray, bishop of Cape- \ntown (in consequence of a decision of the privy council : \nsee Church of England), established synods of the \n\'\xe2\x80\xa2 Church of South Africa." \n\nAfrican Company (merchants trading to Africa), arose \nout of an association in London, formed in 1588. A \neharter was granted to a joint-stock company in 1618 ; \na second company was created in 1631 ; a third corpora- \ntion in 1662 ; another was formed in 1672 ; remodelled \nin 1695. In 1821 the company was abolished. \n\nAfrican Exploration Fund, founded by Royal Geo- \ngraphical Society, May, 1877. \n\nAfrican Institution, founded in London in 1807, for the \nabolition of the slave trade, and the civilization of \nAfrica. Many schools have been established with suc- \ncess, particularly at Sierra Leone. \n\nNational African Company incorporated in 1882; char- \ntered, 10 July, 1886, as the Royal Niger Company. See \nNiger. \n\nAFRIKANDER BUND. A confederation \nof the descendants of the Dutch settlers in South \nAfrica, formed to extend their influence, became \nprominent after the Transvaal war in 1881. See \nBoers and Transvaal, 1891. A congress of the \nBund opened at Burghersdorp, 4 Nov. 1891, ur- \ngently requested the high commissioner at Cape \nTown to get the land question settled. \n\nAGAP^E {agape, Greek for love, charity), \n" feasts of charity," referred to Jude 12, and de- \nscribed by Tertuflian, of which the first Christians \nof all ranks as one family partook, as Christ did with \nhis disciples. Disorders creeping in, these feasts \nwere forbidden to be celebrated in churches by the \ncouncils of Laodicea (366) and Carthage (390) . They \nare still recognised by the Greek church, and are \nheld in their original form weekly by the Glasites \nor Sandcmanians, and in some degree by the Mora- \nvians, Wesleyans, and others. \n\nAGAPEMONE (Greek, " the abode of love "), \nan establishment at Charlinch, near Bridgwater, \nSomersetshire, founded in i8<K, where Henry James \nPrince,* and his deluded followers, formerly per- \n\n* Prince was born in 181 1 ; educated for the medical \nprofession and licensed to practise, 1832 ; gave it up for \nthe church and entered St. David\'s college, Lampeter, \nand there commenced ultra-revivalist movements in 18^6 ; \nand finally claimed to be an incarnation of the Deity, \nwith corresponding authority over his followers. On 22 \nMay, 1850, Thomas Robinson sought to recover the pos- \nsession of his child from the care of its mother (from \nwhom he had separated); the application was refused by \n\n\n\nsons of property, lived in common, professing to \ndevote themselves to innocent recreation and to \nmaintain spiritual marriage. The Agapemone is \ndescribed by Mr. Hepworth Dixon in his" Spiritual \nWives," published in Jan. 1868. Meetings of the \nsect were held at Hamp, near Bridgwater, Dec, \n1872. \n\nAGAR-TOWN, the name given to a district \nin St. Pancras parish, N. London. It consisted of \nhovels, erected on the site of the grounds of coun- \ncillor Agar, after 1841, which, from their filthy and \nuncivilised condition, were termed by Charles \nDickens, in 185 1, the English Connemara. The \nentire district was cleared by the Midland Railway \nCompany. \n\nAGE. Chronologers have divided the time \nbetween the creation and the birth of Christ into \nages. Hesiod (735 B.C.) described the Golden, \nSilver, Brazen, and iron Ages ; see Dark Ages. \n\nFirst Age (from the Creation to the De- b.c. \n\nluge) . ..... 4004 \xe2\x80\x94 2349 \n\nSecond Age (to the coming c f Abraham into \n\nCanaan) 2348 \xe2\x80\x94 1922 \n\nThird Age (to the Exodus from Egypt) . 1921 \xe2\x80\x94 1491 \nFourth Age (to the founding of Solomon\'s \n\nTemple) 1490 \xe2\x80\x94 1014 \n\nFifth Age (to the capture of Jerusalem) . 1014 \xe2\x80\x94 588 \n\nSixth Age (to the birth of Christ) . . . 588 \xe2\x80\x94 4 \nSeventh Age (to the present time) \n\nAGE. In Greece and Rome twenty-five was \nfull age for both sexes, but a greater age was \nrequisite for the holding certain offices : e.g. thirty \nfor tribunes ; forty-three for consuls. In England \nthe minority of a male terminates at twenty-one, \nand of a female in some cases, as that of a queen, \nat eighteen. In 1547, the majority of Edward VI. \nwas, by the will of his father, fixed at eighteen \nyears ; previously to completing which age, his \nfather, Henry VIII., had assumed the reins of \ngovernment, in 1509. \xe2\x80\x94A male of twelve may take \nthe oath of allegiance ; at fourteen he may consent \nto a marriage, or -choose a guardian ; at seventeen \nhe may be an executor, and at twenty-one he is of \nage ; but according to the Statute of Wills, 7 Will. \nIV. & 1 Vict. c. 26, 1837, no will made by any \nperson under the age of twenty-one years shall be \nvalid. A female at twelve may consent to a mar- \nriage, at fourteen she may choose a guardian, and at \ntwenty-one she is of age. \n\nAGED PILGRIMS\' FRIEND SOCIETY, \n\nfounded 1807 ; asylums, 1826 and 1871. \n\nAGINCOURT, OR AziNCOTTR (N. France), \na village where Henry V. of England, with about \n9000 men, defeated about 60,000 French on St. \nCrispin\'s day, 25 Oct. 1415. Of the French, there \nwere, accoi\'ding to some accounts, 10,000 killed, in- \ncluding the dukes of Alen^\'on, Brabant, and Bar, \nthe archbishop of Sens, one marshal, thirteen earls, \nninety-two barons, and it,00 knights; and 14,000 \nprisoners, among whom were the dukes of Orleans \nand Bourbon, and 7000 barons, knights, and gentle- \nmen. The English lost the duke of York, the earl \n\nthe vice-chancellor, to " save the child from the pollution \nof the parent\'s teaching." \xe2\x80\x94 On 21 Aug. 1858, Miss Louisa \nJane Nottidge died, having transferred her property to \nMr. H. J. Prince. Her brother, Mr. Nottidge, by an \naction, recovered from Prince 5728^, as having been \nfraudulently obtained. Extraordinary disclosures were \nmade during the trial, 25 July, i860. In the autumn of \ni860, the Rev. Mr. Price, after several vain attempts, \nsucceeded in rescuing his wife from the Agapemone. \nThey had both been early supporters of it. \n\n\n\nAGINCOURT. \n\n\n\n22 \n\n\n\nAGRICULTURE. \n\n\n\nof Suffolk, and about 20 others. St. Remy asserts \nwith more probability that the English lost 1600 \nmen. Henry V. soon after obtained the kingdom \nof France. \n\nAGINCOURT, iron-clad. See Navy, 1871. \n\nAGITATORS (or Adjutators), officers appointed \nby the Parliamentary army in 1647, to take care of \nits interests : each troop or company had two. The \ngeneral Cromwell was eventually obliged to re- \npress their seditious power. At a review he seized \nthe ringleaders of a mutiny, shot one instantly, in \nthe presence of his companions and the forces on the \nground, and thus restored discipline. Hume. \xe2\x80\x94 \nDaniel O\'Connell, the agitator of Ireland, was born \nin 1775. He began to agitate at the elections in \n1820; was elected for Clare, 5 July, 1828; the \nelection being declared void, he was re-elected 30 \nJuly, 1829. Aft^r the passing of the Catholic \nemancipation bill, he agitated in vain for the repeal \nof the union, 1834 to 1843. He died 15 May, 1847. \n\xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x80\x94 Richard Cobden and John Bright were the chief \n-Anti-corn-law agitators, 1841-45. \xe2\x80\x94 Mr. Bright be- \ncame a Reform agitator in 1866. \n\nAGNADELLO (N.E.Italy). Here Louis XII. \nof France gained a great victory over the Venetians, \nsome of whose troops were accused of cowardice and \ntreachery; 14 May, 1509. The conflict is also \ntermed the battle of the Rivolta. \n\nAGNOIT^E (from agnoia, Greek, ignorance). \nI. A sect founded by Theophronius of Cappadocia \nabout 370 : said to have doubted the omniscience of \nGod. II. The followers of Themistius of Alexandria, \nabout 530, who held peculiar views as to the body \nof Christ, and doubted his divinity. \n\nAGNOSTICS) name given to philosophers who \nassert that we have no knowledge but what we \nacquire by means of our senses, about 1876. Mr. \nHerbert Spencer, Professor Huxley, and Mr. John \nFiske are said to be agnostics. \n\nAGONISTICI (from agon, Greek, a conflict), \nalso termed circutores, a branch of the Donatists \n{which see) in the 4th century. They preached \nwith great boldness, and incurred severe persecu- \ntion. \n\nAGRA (N. W. India), founded by Akbar in \n1566, was the capital of the Great Mogul; see \nMausoleums. In 1658 Aurungzebe removed to \nDelhi. \xe2\x80\x94 The fortress of Agra, " the key of Hindo- \nstan," in the war with the Mahrattas surrendered \nto the British forces, under general Lake, 17 Oct. \n1803, after one day\'s siege : 162 pieces of ordnance \nand 240,000/. were captured.\xe2\x80\x94 In June, 1857, the \ncity was abandoned to the mutineers by the Euro- \npeans, who took refuge in the fort, from which they \nwere rescued by major Montgomery and colonel \nGreathed. Visit of the prince of Wales, 25 Jan., \n1876. \xe2\x80\x94 Allahabad was made capital of the N.W. \njrovinces of India, instead of Agra, in 1861. \n\nAGRAM (formerly Zagrab), a city of Croatia, \nHungary, residence of the bau; suffered much by \nearthquakes, 9\xe2\x80\x9412 Nov. 1880. See Croatia. \n\nAGRARIAN LAW (Agraria lex), decreed \nan equal division among the Roman people of all \nthe lands acquired by conquest, limiting the acres \nwhich each person should enjoy. It was first pro- \nposed by the consul Spurius Cassius, 486 B.C., and \noccasioned his judicial murder when he went out of \noffice in 48^. \xe2\x80\x94 An agrarian law was passed by the \ntribune Licinius Stolo, 376; and for proposing fur- \nther amendments Tiberius Gracchus in 133, and \n\n\n\nhis brother Cornelius in 121, were murdered. Livius \nDrusus, a tribune, was murdered for the same cause, \n91. Julius Caesar propitiated the plebeians by pass- \ning an agrarian law in 59. \xe2\x80\x94 In modern times \nthe term has been misinterpreted to signify a divi- \nsion of the lands of the rich among the poor, fre- \nquently proposed by demagogues, such as Gracchus \nBabeuf, editor of the Tribun du Peuple, in 1794. \nIn 1 796 he conspired against the directory with the \nview of obtaining a division of property, was con- \ndemned, and killed himself, 27 May, 1797. \n\nAGRICOLA\'S WALL, see Roman Walls. \n\nAGRICULTURAL CHILDREN ACT, \n\nprohibits employment of children under eight years- \nof age, and provides for the education of older \nchildren, 5 Aug. 1873. \n\nAGRICULTURAL HALL, Islington, N. \nLondon, chiefly for the meetings of the Smithfield \nClub. The foundation stone was laid by the presi- \ndent, lord Berners, 5 Nov. 1861. The hall has- \nbeen much used for industrial exhibitions, public- \nmeetings, equestrian and pedestrian performances,, \nconcerts, &c. The hall was visited by the queen, \n5 March, 1891. See Horses. \n\nIt was opened for an exhibition of dogs, 24 June, 1862 j \nhorses and donkeys exhibited, July, 1864, and annually \nsince. \n\nFirst Smithfield annual cattle show here, 6 Dec. 1862. \n\nA great reform demonstration was made here, 30 July, \n1866. \n\nGrand ball to the Belgian visitors, volunteers and garde \ncivique ; prince of Wales present, 18 July, 1867. \n\nExcellent horse-shows held here, May, 1868, et seq. \n\nTheatrical bull-fights here stopped, on account of cruelty, \n28 Mar. 1870. \n\nWorkmen\'s International exhibition opened by the- \nprince of Wales, 16 July, 1870. \n\nNational Exhibition of machinery, appliances, manufac- \ntures, and produce, opened 20 Sept. 1879. \n\nExhibition by the building trades, opened 12 April, 1880. \n\nTournaments (which see) held here 21 June, 1880, et seq. \n\nInternational food exhibition, opened 13 Oct. 1880. \n\nMilling exhibition (under direction of National Associa- \ntion of British and Irish Millers), 10-18 May, 1881. \n\n" Arcadia," rural entertainment, July to Sept. 1887. \n\nNational Agricultural Hall, W. Kensington ; foun- \ndation laid by the carl of Zetland 21 July, 1885 ; main \nhall 440 feet long, 250 feet wide and 100 feet high ; \nwith a minor hall for offices, &c. ; the roof consists of \niron and glass ; designed by the late Mr. Henry E. \nCoe ; present architect Mr. James Edmeston ; con- \ntractors Messrs. Lucas and others ; cost of erection \nabout 131,000/. ; named Olympia. Opened with horse- \nracing and other diversions 27 Dec. 1886 ; horse show \nopened 14 May, 1887 ; (another 16 May, 1889) ; opened \nby the Paris Hippodrome Company 22 Oct. 1887. See \nIrish Exhibition. \n\nAGRICULTURAL HOLDINGS ACT, \n\npassed 13 Aug. 1875, relates to compensations of \nlandlords and tenants, for improvements, &c. Two \nother important acts : for England 46 & 47 Vict. c. \n61, for Scotland, c. 62, were passed 25 Aug. 1883, \nto begin 1 Jan. 1884. Another act, introduced by \nMr. H. Chaplin, 22 Feb., passed 27 June, 1892. \n\nAGRICULTURE. " Abel was a keeper of \nsheep, but Cain was a tiller of the ground," Genesis \niv. 2. \n\nCato the Censor (died 149 B.C.) and Varro (died 28 B.C.) \nwere eminent Roman writers on agriculture. \n\nVirgil\'s Georgics, 30 B.C. Agriculture in England im- \nproved by the Romans after a.d. 44. \n\nFitzherbert\'s " Book of Husbaudry," printed 1524. \n\nTusser\'s " Five Hundred Points of Husbandry," 1562. \n\nBlythe\'s "Improver," 1649. \n\nHaitlib\'s " Legacy," 1650. \n\nJethro Tull\'s " Horse-hoeing Husbandly," 1701. \n\n\n\nAGRICULTURE. \n\n\n\n23 \n\n\n\nAGRICULTURE. \n\n\n\nAbout the end of the 18th century, fallowing was gradu- \nally superseded by turnips and green crops. \n\nBoard of Agriculture, proposed by Sir John Sinclair, \nafterwards president, established 1793. Arthur Young \nmany years secretary. Communications published in \n7 vols., 1797 \xe2\x80\x94 1811. \n\nIn Aug. 1855, a committee presented a report on the best \nmode of obtaining accurate Agricultural Statistics. \nThere were, in 1831, 1,055,982 agricultural labourers \nin Great Britain, and in Ireland, 1,131,715. \n\nAcreage of crops, and number of cattle, sheep, and pigs \nin Great Britain and Ireland, beginning with 1866, \npublished in the annual " Statistical Abstract," since \n1869. See p. 22. \n\nIt was reckoned by the Agricultural Committee, that the \ncultivation of waste lands would yield above 20,000,000?. \na year. It was calculated in 1854 that there were in \nEngland 32,160,000 acres in cultivation, of the annual \nvalue of 37,412,000?. Since that time, much land has \nbeen brought into cultivation ; see Wheat. \n\n" History of Agriculture and Prices in England (1259- \n1702)," by Professor James T. Bogers, published, June, \n1866-1887. \n\nSir James Caird, eminent agriculturist and writer, die \n\n9 Feb. , 1892. \n\nAgricultural Societies. \xe2\x80\x94 The earliest mentioned in \nthe British Isles was the Society of Improvers of \nAgriculture in Scotland, instituted in 1723. A Dublin \nAgricultural Society (1749) gave a stimulus to agricul- \nture in Ireland ; its origin is attributed to Mr. Prior of \nRathdowney, Queen\'s County, in 1731. The Bath and \n"West of England Society established, 1777 ; and the \nHighland Society of Scotland, 1784. County Agricul- \ntural Societies are now numerous. \n\nLondon Board of Agriculture established by act of par- \nliament, 1793. \n\nFrancis, duke of Bedford, a great promoter of agricul- \nture, died 2 March, 1802. \n\nRoyal Agricultural Society of England established in \n1838, by noblemen and gentlemen, the chief landed \nproprietors in the kingdom, and incorporated by royal \ncharter, 26 March, 1840. It holds two meetings \nannually, one in London the other in the country. It \nawards prizes, and publishes a valuable journal. \n\n1839. Oxford. 1857. Salisbury. 1874. Bedford. \n\n1840. Cambridge. 1858. Chester. 1875. Taunton. \n\n1 84 1. Liverpool. 1859. Warwick. 1876. Birmingham \n\n1842. Bristol. i860. Canterbury. 1877. Liverpool. \n\n1843. Derby. 186 c. Leeds. 1878. Bristol. \n\n1844. Southamp- 1862. Battersea. 1879. London. \n\nton. 1863. Worcester. 1880. Carlisle. \n\n1845. Shrewsbury. 1864. Newcastle- 1881. Derby. \n\n1846. Newcastle. on-Tyne. 1882. Reading. \n\n1847. Northamp- 1865. Plymouth. 1883. York. \n\nton. 1866. Bury St. Ed- 1884. Shrewsbury. \n\n1848. York. munds. 1885. Preston. \n\n1849. Norwich. 1867. No meeting. 1886. Norwich. \n\n1850. Exeter. 1868. Leicester. 1887. Newcastle- \n\n1851. Windsor. 1869. Manchester. on-Tyne. \n\n1852. Lewes. 1870. Oxford. 1888. Nottingham \n\n1853. Gloucester. 1871. Wolver- 1889. Windsor. \n\n1854. Lincoln. hampton. 1890. Plymouth. \n\n1855. Carlisle. 1872. Cardiff. 1891. Doncaster. \n\n1856. Chelmsford. 1873. Hull. 1892. Warwick. \nJubilee state banquet at St. James\'s Palace, prince of \n\nWales in the chair, 26 March, 1889. \n\nInstitute of Agriculture ; South Kensington; courses \nof lectures given, Oct. 1883. \n\nInternational Agricultural Exhibition, promoted by the \nSociety, and held at Kilburn, London, N.W. Occupied \n106 acres. It was opened by the prince of Wales 30 \nJune, visited by the Queen in July, and closed finally, \n\n10 July, 1879. \n\nRoyal Agricultural Society of Ireland, instituted 1841. \n\nFarmers\' Club, 1843. \n\n" Chambers of Agriculture " were established in France in \n1851. In Great Britain, 1868, they had increased from \n36 to 70. A journal commenced early in 1868. \n\nRoyal Agricultural College at Cirencester organised, 1842; \nchartered, 1845. \n\nAgricultural College in Wiltshire ; its establishment pro- \nposed by the Mercers\' Company, London, by the gift \nof 6o,oooJ. Oct. 1888. \n\nSuffolk Agricultural College at Bury St. Edmunds \nopened 1874. Other colleges opened. \n\nBritish Dairy Fanners\' Association. \xe2\x80\x94 Inaugurated ; first \n\n\n\nshow opened at Agricultural Hall, London, 24-28 Oct. \n1876. \n\nRoyal Agricultural Benevolent Institution. \xe2\x80\x94 It relieves \nfarmers and their widows and orphans ; founded chiefly \nby Mr. Mechi, i860. \n\nThe Associated Agriculturists of Great Britain, a limited \ncompany, proposed April, 1881. \n\nAgricultural Chemistry. \xe2\x80\x94 Sir Humphry Davy de- \nlivered lectures on this subject (afterwards published), \nat the instance of the Board of Agriculture, in 1812 ; \nbut it excited little attention till the publication of \nLiebig\'s work in 1840, which made a powerful impres- \nsion. Liebig\'s " Letters on Agriculture " appeared in \n1859. Boussingault\'s " Economie Rurale " appeared in \n1844 ; his " Agronomie " in 1860-8. He died May, \n1887. Great progress made by the experiments of \nLawes, Gilbert, Pasteur, and others. \n\nAgricultural Gangs. \xe2\x80\x94 In the spring of 1867, most \npainful exposures were made of the prevalence of much \ncruelty and immorality in the gang system (in which \nboys and girls are employed) in several of the eastern \nand midland counties ; and in consequence an act was \npassed 20 Aug. for regulating these gangs, licensing \ngang-masters, &c. \n\nA Union of Agricultural Labourers, managed -chiefly by \nJoseph Arch, formerly a labourer, afterwards a Metho- \ndist preacher (M.P. 1885), was inaugurated at Leaming- \nton, Warwickshire, 29 March, 1872. The movement \nspread, being countenanced by Auberon Herbert, M.P. , \nand others. The Union met in London, Arch re-elected \npresident, 16, 17 May 1877 ; at Bedford, 16 Sept. 1881. \n\nLock-out of agricultural labourers belonging to the \nUnion (lasted 18 weeks, costing the Union much \nmoney), began at Alderton, Suffolk, March, 1872. \n\nDispute between Lincolnshire farmers and labourers \nsettled, 18-20 May ; Suffolk and Norfolk farmers \nrefuse compromise, about 25 May ; the Union ceased \nto support the loeked-out labourers, leaving them to \nemigration, or to seek employment, 27 July, 1872. \n\nThe agitation subsided ; the labourers were employed, \nautumn, 1875 ; agricultural return for Great Britain, \n1873 ; reported steady increase in prosperity, 1875. \n\nA partial strike and lock-out of labourers in Kent and \nSussex, Oct. \xe2\x80\x94 Dec. 1878. \n\nThe delegates of the National Agricultural Labourers\' \nUnion met, 26 Oct. 1875. \n\nVery great agricultural depression through bad seasons, \nand foreign importations ; many landlords remit large \npart of rents, 1877\xe2\x80\x949. \n\nRoyal Commission of Inquiry appointed 4 July, 1879. \n\nCommittee of Council on Agriculture appointed, Earl of \nRosebery president, about 27 April, 1883. \n\nThe Agricultural Returns of Great Britain were issued \nfor the first time by the newly constituted Agricul- \ntural Department, 1883. Second return presented, \n27 Oct. 1884, and continued annually. \n\nThe Departmental Committee recommend State aid for \nagricultural education, dairy schools, &c, March, \n1888. \n\nA new Board of Agriculture was established by Act \npassed 12 Aug. ; Henry Chaplin appointed president \nand cabinet minister, 5 Sept. The board assumed the \nduties previously fulfilled by a department of the privy \ncouncil, 1889. Herbert Gardner, president, Aug. 1892. \n\nAt Paris, 1889; at Vienna, 2 Sept., 1890; The Hague, \n7 Sept., 1891. \n\nTurnips, swedes and cabbages much injured in N.E. \nEngland and S.E. Scotland by the diamond-back \nmoth, summer, 1891, 1892. \n\nThe following table, drawn up by Mr. William Couling, \nC.E., in 1827, is extracted from the Third Report of \nthe Emigration Committee : \xe2\x80\x94 \n\n\n\nCountries. \n\n\n\nEngland . \nWales . \nScotland . \nIreland . \nBrit. Isles \n\n\n\nCulti- \nvated. \n\n\n\nACRES. \n\n25,632,000 \n\n3,117,000 \n\n5,265,000 \n\n12,125,280 \n\n383,690 \n\n\n\nWastes \ncapable of \nimprove- \nment. \n\n\n\nACRES. \n3,454,000 \n530,000 \n5,950,000 \n4,000,000 \nl66,OO0 \n\n\n\nUnpro- \nfitable. \n\n\n\nTotal. \n\n\n\nACRES. ACRES. \n\n3,256,400 32,342,400 \n1,105,000 I 4,752,000 \n8,523,930 !I9,738,930 \n2,416,664 19,441,944 \n569,469 1,119,159 \n\n\n\n46,522,970 15,000,000 15,871,463 \'77,394,433 \n\n\n\nAGEIGENTUM. \n\n\n\n24 \n\n\n\nAIE. \n\n\n\nAt that period it was comjmted that the soil of the \nUnited Kingdom was annually cropped in the following \nproportions : \n\nACRES. \n\nWheat 7,000,000 \n\nBarley and rye 1,950,000 \n\nPotatoes, oats and beans 6,500,000 \n\nTurnips, cabbages, and other vegetables . . 1,150,000 \n\nClover, rye-grass, &c. 1,7s . 000 \n\nFallow . 2,800,000 \n\nHop-grounds 60,000 \n\nNursery grounds 20,000 \n\nInclosed fruit, flower, kitchen and other gardens 1 10,000 \n\nPleasure grounds 100,000 \n\nLand depastured by cattle . . . 21,000,000 \n\nHedge-rows, copses, and woods . . . . 2,000,000 \nWays, water, &c 2,100,000 \n\nCultivated land \nCrops of Great Britain and Ireland :- \n\n\n\n1866. Great Britain . \n\nIreland . . \n1870. Great Britain . \n\nIreland . . \n1876. Great Britain . \n\nIreland . . \n1883. Great Britain . \n\nIreland . . \n1887. Great Britain . \n\nIreland . . \n\n1889. Great Britain . \n\nIreland . . \n\n1890. Great Britain . \nIreland . . \n\n\n\nCorn \n\n\nGreen \n\n\nCrops. \n\n\nCrops. \n\n\nAcres. \n\n\nAcres. \n\n\n9,252,784 \n\n\n3,562,434 \n\n\n2,174,033 \n\n\n1,481,525 \n\n\n9,548,041 \n\n\n3,586,730 \n\n\n2,173,109 \n\n\n1,498,719 \n\n\n9,194,669 \n\n\n3,571,874 \n\n\n1,848,487 \n\n\n1,363,224 \n\n\n8,618,675 \n\n\n3,454,579 \n\n\n1,678,125 \n\n\n1,230,253 \n\n\n8,145,894 \n\n\n3,463.706 \n\n\n1,562,463 \n\n\n1,229,092 \n\n\n8,075,172 \n\n\n3,299,647 \n\n\n1,535,102 \n\n\n1,219,549 \n\n\n8,033,133 \n\n\n3,297,528 \n\n\n1,514,607 \n\n\n1,214,396 \n\n\n\n46.540,000 \n\nGrasses, \n\nAcres. \n\n15,964,553 \n12,006,191 \n16,577,740 \n\n18,056,217 \n\n19,461,295 \n\n20,452,422 \n\n20,743,161 \n\n20,826,311 \n\n\n\nAGEIGENTUM (now Girgenti), a city of \nSicily, built about 582 B.C. It was governed by \ntyrants from 566 to 470; among: these were \xe2\x80\x94 \nPhalaris (see Brazen Bull) ; Alcamanes ; Theron \nwho, with his step-father Gelon, defeated the \nCarthaginians at Himera, 480 : and Thrasydseus, his \nson, expelled in 470; when a republic was estab- \nlished. It was taken by the Carthaginians in 405 \nB.C., and held, except during short intervals, till \ngained by the ltomans in 262 B.C. From a.d. 825 \ntill 1086 it was held by the Saracens. \n\nAHMEDNUGGUE (W. India), once capital \nof a state founded by Ahmed Shah, about 1493. \nAfter having fallen into the hands of the Moguls \nand the Mahrattas, it was taken from the latter by \nArthur Wellesley, 12 Aug. 1803, and restored to the \nBritish dominions, June, 18 1 7. \n\nAID, see Ayde. \n\nAID TO THE SICK AND WOUNDED, \n\nNational Society for. On 4 Aug. 1870, soon \n\nafter the breaking out of the Franco-German war, \na meeting was held in London, which established \nthis society under the rules of the Geneva Conven- \ntion, which see. \n\nThe Queen, patron ; the Prince of Wales, president ; \ncol. Loyd- Lindsay, chairman of committees ; ac- \ntive supporters, duke of Manchester, earl of Shaf- \ntesbury, lords Overstone and Bury, sir Harry Ver- \nney, general sir John Burgoyne, surgeon-general \nLonginore, and captain (aft. sir) Douglas Galton. \nThe operations were chiefly directed by capt. \nHenry Brackenbury, at the seat of war, and by \nMr. John Furley and general sir Vincent Eyre. \n\nA fruitless meeting to promote the incorporation of \nthe society. It was then reported that 296,298?. \nhad. been received ; together with stores valued at \n45,000?. 1 Aug. 1871 \n\nCol. Loyd Lindsay conveyed to Versailles and Paris \nfrom the society 40,000?. , equally divided between \nthe Germans and French (gratefully acknow- \nledged) ... . about 11 Oct. 1870 \n\n\n\nThe crown-prince of Prussia wrote to colonel Loyd \nLindsay: \xe2\x80\x94 "In this, as on other occasions of \ndistress, the help of the English public has been \npoured out with a liberal and an impartial hand. \nThe gifts which have been offered in a truly \nChristian spirit have excited a feeling of heartfelt \ngratitude among those on whose behalf I speak." \n\n2 Nov. \n\n\n\n1870 \n\n\n\nSubscription Lists published : \n\n3rd, 17 Aug. . 2,377?- 50th, 11 Oct. . 243,444?. \n10th, 25 Aug. . 33,339 60th, 26 Oct. . 260,849 \n20th, 6 Sept. . 68,677 70th, 3\xc2\xb0 Nov - \xe2\x80\xa2 280,598 \n30th, 17 Sept. . 153,214 78th, 7 Jan. (re- \n40th, 29 Sept. . 208,147 ceii>\xc2\xab? to 31 Dec. 289,674 \n\nThe society afforded much help during the Servian war, \nJuly\xe2\x80\x94 September, 1876, and the Russo-Turkish war, \n1877-8. \n\nThe Princess of Wales\' branch of the society closed with \na surplus of 6 417?. June, 1886. \n\nAILANTINE, see Silk. \n\nAIE or ATMOSPHERE. Anaximenes of Miletus \n(530 B.C.) declared air to be a self-existent deity, \nand the first cause of everything created. Posidonius \n(about 79 B.C.) calculated the height of the atmo- \nsphere to be 800 stadia. The pressure of air, about \n15 lbs. to the square inch, was discovered by Galileo, \n1 564, and demonstrated by Torricelli, (who invented \nthe barometer) about A. d. 1643, and was found by \nPascal, in 1647, to vary with the height. Halley, \nNewton, and others, up to the present time have \nillustrated the agency and influences of this great \npower by various experiments, and numerous inven- \ntions have followed; among others, the Air-Gun \nof Guter of Nuremberg about 1656; the Air-pump, \ninvented by Otto von Guericke of Magdeburg about \n1650; improved by Robert Boyle in 1657, by Robert \nHooke about 1659 ; * and the Air-pipe, invented by \nMr. Sutton, a brewer of London, about 1756. The \ndensity and elasticity of air were determined by \nBoyle ; and its relation to light and sound by Hooke, \nNewton, and Derham. The extension of our atmo- \nsphere above the surface of the earth, has been long \nconsidered as about 45 miles. \xe2\x80\x94 Its composition^ \nabout 77 parts of nitrogen, 21 of oxygen, and 2 of \nother matters (such as carbonic acid , watery vapour, \na trace of ammonia, &c.) was ascertained by Priestley \n(who discovered oxygen gas in 1774), Scheele \n(1775), Lavoisier, and Cavendish; and its laws of \nrefraction were investigated by Dr. Bradley, 1737. \nThe researches of Dr. Schonbein, a German chemist \nof Basel, between 1840 and 1859, led to his descrip- \ntion of two states of the oxygen in the air, which he \ncalls ozone and antozone. Dr. Stenhouse\'s Air-Jilters \n(in which powdered charcoal is used) were first set \nup at the Mansion-house, London, in 1854. In 1858, \nDr. R. Angus Smith made known a chemical \nmethod of ascertaining the amount of organic matter \nin the air, and published his "Air and Rain" in \n1872. See Oxygen, Nitrogen, Ozone, Atmospheric \nRailway, Balloons, and Pneumatic Despatch. \nThe Aero-steam Engine, the invention of George Warsop, \na mechanic of Nottingham, who, by employing com- \npressed air united with steam, is said to have effected \nthe saving of 47 per cent, of fuel. The plan was re- \nported to the British Association, at Exeter, in Aug. \n1869, and was said to act successfully in a tug steamer \n(for China) in the Thames, 26 March, 1870. Mr. Edward \n\n* Sprengel\'s excellent air-pump, in which water or \nmercury is employed, was invented in 1863. \n\nt Air, as well as its gaseous components, has been \ncompressed into the liquid state by means of great \npressure and intense cold, 1877-8, by Raoul Pictet of \nGeneva, and Cailletet of Paris, Dec. 1877, Jan. 1878. At \nthe Royal Institution, 5 June, 1885, professor James \nDewar exhibited Liquid Air obtained at the temperature \nof \xe2\x80\x94 192\xc2\xb0 cent. \n\n\n\nAIE-GAS. \n\n\n\n2-5 \n\n\n\nALABAMA. \n\n\n\nField, in his new motive power, introduced a small \nvolume of steam into a large volume of heated air, and \neffected an economy of 12^ to 20 per cent, of steam. \nThe system was exhibited in London, July, 1891. \nCol. Beaumont\'s air-engine for propelling railway car- \nriages, tried at Woolwich, reported successful (a little \nsteam is used), 6 Oct. 1880. His system largely em- \nployed in various ways by the Paris Compressed Air \ncompany, described to the British Association at \nNewcastle-upon-Tyne, Sept. 1889. \nVictor Popp applies compressed air as a motive power to \n\nclocks, 1881. \nAn air-telegraph, in which the waves of air in a tube are \nemployed instead of electricity, invented by sig. Guat- \ntari, was exhibited in London in 1870. It obtained a \ngold medal in Naples. \nIsaac Wilkinson patented a method of compressing air \nby a column of water in 1757, and William Mann pa- \ntented stage pumping by compressed air in 1829. The \nforce of compressed air was employed in boring the \nCenis tunnel (see under Alps). \nTram-cars driven by compressed air on the Mekarski \nsystem in N. London, for a time, June, 1883 ; resumed, \nafter improvements made, for a time, 1885 ; again for \na time, Feb. 1888. \n\nAIE-GAS-LlGHT-COMPANY: proposed to use \nhydro-carburetted air as a source of light ; estab- \nlished 1872. \n\n. AIX-LA-CHAPELLE (Aachen), a Roman \ncity, now in Rhenish Prussia. Several ecclesiastical \ncouncils held here (799-1165). Here Charlemagne \nwas born, 742, and died, 814 ; having built the mins- \nter (796-804), and conferred many privileges on the \ncity, in which fifty-five emperors have since been \ncrowned. The city was taken by the French in \nDec. 1792 ; retaken by the Austrians, March, 1793 ; \nby the French, Sept. 1794: ceded to Prussia, 1814. \nPopulation, 1890, 103,491. \n\nFirst Treaty of Peace signed here was between France and \nSpain, when France yielded Franche Comte, but re- \ntained her conquests in the Netherlands, 2 May, 1668. \n\nThe second celebrated treaty between Great Britain, \nFrance, Holland, Germany, Spain, and Genoa. (By it \nthe treaties of Westphalia in 1648, of Nimeguen in 1678 \nand 1679, of Byswiek in 1697, of Utrecht in 1713, of \nBaden in 1714, of the Triple Alliance in 1717, of the \nQuadruple Alliance in 1718, and of Vienna in 1738, \nwere renewed and confirmed.) Signed on the part of \nEngland by John, earl of Sandwich, and sir Thomas \nRobinson, 7 Oct. 1748. \n\nCongress of the sovereigns of Austria, Russia and Prussia, \nassisted by ministers from England and France, met \nat Aix-la-Chapelle, and a convention signed, 9 Oct. \n1818, which led to the withdrawal of the army of occu- \npation from France. \n\nAIX EOADS, see Rochefort. \n\nAIZNADIN or AJNADIN (Syria). Here \nthe Mahometans defeated the army of the emperor \nHeraclius, 13 July, 633. They took Damascus in 634. \n\nAJACCIO, see Corsica. \n\n, AKEEMAN (Bessarabia). After being several \ntimes taken, it was ceded to Russia in 1812. Here \nthe celebrated treaty between Russia and Turkey \nwas concluded, 4 Sept. 1826, which secured for the \nformer the navigation of the Black Sea, recognised \nthe Danubian principalities, &c. \n\nAKHALZIKH (Armenia). Near here prince \nPaskiewitch and the Russians defeated the Turks, \n24 Aug., and gained the city, 28 Aug. 1828. \n\nALABAMA, a Southern state, originally part \nof Georgia, N. America. The country was first \nsettled by the French, 1702, who built Mobile, 17 12 ; \npart of it was ceded to Great Britain, 1763. It \nwas gradually acquired by the United States, and \nwas made a state in 1819; commercial metropolis, \nMobile. It seceded from the union by an ordinance \n\n\n\npassed 11 Jan. 1861, was reunited in 1865 ; and re- \nadmitted to congress, 1868. \n\nMurder of about 26 negro miners at the Carbon Hill \ncoal mines, Walker county, by white strikers, \n30, 31 Jan.\xe2\x80\x94 rioting quelled by troops, i, 2 Feb. 1891. \nPopulation, 1890, 1,513,017. \n\nALABAMA, a steam vessel of 900 tons, with \nengines of 300 horse-power, constructed by Messrs. \nLaird at Birkenhead, for the confederate service ; \nlaunched 15 May, 1862. During the judicial en- \nquiries after her character, she sailed from the \nMersey, 28 July, the day before the British govern- \nment telegraphed to detain her. Under the command \nof capt. Semmes, she did great damage to the \nAmerican mercantile shipping, until her destruc- \ntion by the federal ironclad Kearsage, capt. "Wiuslow, \noff Cherbourg, 19 June, 1864. Several of his crew \nwere saved by Mr. John Lancaster, in his yacht. Ad- \nmiral Semmes died Sept. 1877. \nDiscussion between the two governments, respecting \n\nclaims for damage by the Alabama . . 1865 \n\nA fruitless convention for their settlement, by a \n\ncommission signed at London . . 10 Nov. 1868 \nAnother convention, signed by the earl of Clarendon \nand Mr. Reverdy Johnson, signed 14 Jan. ; re- \njected by the United States senate . 13 April, 1869 \nJoint commission (British, earl de Grey, sir Stafford \nNorthcote and others ; American, secretary Fisk, \ngeneral Schenk, and others) to settle fishery dis- \nputes, Alabama claims, &c. Announced, 9 Feb., \nmet at Washington, 27 Feb., signed a treaty at \n\nWashington 8 May, 1871 \n\nCommission for Anglo-American claims, met at \n\nWashington 25 Sept. ,, \n\nFormal meeting of the arbitration commission at \n\nGeneva ; (adjourns to 15 June) . 18 Dec. ,, \nThe British and American cases, presented 20 Dec. \nGreat excitement in England at the introduction \nof enormous claims for indirect losses into the \nAmerican case, loss by transfer of trade from \nAmerican to British ships, increased rates of \nmarine insurance, and losses incident to the pro- \nlongation of the war Jan. 1872 \n\nCorrespondence between the governments : British \ndespatch, 3 Feb. ; reply, 1 March ; continued ; \ncounter cases presented at Geneva . 15 April, ,, \nContinued correspondence, draft for a supplemen- \ntary treaty ; by which both nations agree in future \nto abstain from claims for indirect losses pre- \nsented to American senate ; approved 25 May, ,, \nThe British government object to certain modifica- \ntions ; further correspondence ; great excitement \nin parliament ; proposed adjournment of the \nmeeting of the arbitration commission ; differences \nabout the mode of procedure ; congress adjourns, \nleaving the affair unsettled . . 10 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe Arbitration tribunal; consisting of count Fred- \neric Sclopis for Italy, president, baron Staempil \nfor Switzerland ; vicomte d\'ltajuba for Brazil ; Mr. \nG. F. Adams for United States, and sir Alexander \nE. Cockburn for Great Britain, meet at Geneva ; \nThe British government presents a note of the ex- \nisting differences; the conference adjourns, 15 June, \nFurther adjournment, 17 June ; the arbitrators \nvoluntarily declare that the indirect claims are \ninvalid, and contrary to international law, 19 \nJune ; president Grant consents to their with- \ndrawal 25 June, \n\nThe British government withdraw their application \n\nfor adjournment of the conference . 27 June, , \nThe Arbitration commission records its decision \nagainst the indirect claims, and the proposed leng \nadjournment, and adjourns to 15 July 28 June, , \nFinal meeting ; all the arbitrators agree to award \ndamages for the injuries done by the Alabama: \nfour, for those done by the Florida : and three for \nthose done by the Shenandoah. The judgment \nnot signed by sir A. Cockburn, whose reasons \nwere published ; the damages awarded (including \ninterest), about 3,229,166?. 13s. 41/. ; those claimed \n9,476,166?. 13s. 4<1 (Decision based on the ad- \nmission of a new ex-post facto international law, \nby Great Britain by the treaty of Washington.) \n\n14 Sept. 11 \n\n\n\nALADJA DAGH. \n\n\n\n26 \n\n\n\nALBANY. \n\n\n\n1873 \n\n\n\n1876 \n1881 \n\n\n\nThe judgment of sir A. Coekbum (a powerful and \nindignant reply to unjust, aspersions, admitting \nthe award for the Alabama; opposing the other \nawards ; yet counselling submission to the judg- \nment), signed 14 Sept. aud published in London \nGazette with other documents . . 20 Sept. \n\nIt is stated, that about 1,250,000?. too much were \nawarded Feb. \n\n3,200,000?. were voted; the receipt of 3,196,874?. \nacknowledged by Mr. Secretary Fish 9 Sept. \n\nAll awards made ; about 8,000,000 dollars surplus, \n\n21 Dee. \n\nThe surplus increasing by interest .... \n\nAbout 9,500,000 dollars . . . -31 March, \n\nGrand historical picture of the International \nAlabama Commissioner s, painted by Mr. F. B. \nCarpenter, of New York, presented to the queen \nby Mrs. W.Carson, of Newburgh, on the Hudson, \narrived at Windsor .... 20 Feb. \n\n\n\nALADJA DAGH, near Kars, Armenia. Here \nthe Turks, under Ahmed Mukhtar, after severe con- \nflicts, were totally defeated by the Russians under \nthe grandduke Michael, and generals Loris Meli- \nkoff, Lazareff, and Heimann, 14, 15 Oct. 1877. \n\nThe Turkish army was divided and broken up, the strong \ncamp taken, with many prisoners, including 7 pashas \nand 38 guns. The Russian strategy was highly com- \nmended. This overwhelming disaster, which led to \nthe investment of Kars, was attributed to Mukhtar\'s \nmaintaining too extended lines which were turned (20 \nmiles with only 40,000 men ; when 200,000 were re- \nquired). \n\nALAND ISLES (Gulf of Bothnia), taken from \nSweden by Russia, 1809; see Bomarsund. \n\nALANI, a Tartar race, invaded Parthia, 75. \nThey joined the Huns in invading the Roman \nempire, and were defeated by Theodosius, 379-382. \nThey were subdued by the Visigoths, 452, and \neventually incorporated with them. \n\nALARCOS (Central Spain). Here the Spaniards \nunder Alfonso IX., king of Castile, were totally \ndefeated by the Moors, 19 July, 1195 \n\nALASKA, the name given to the Russian pos- \nsessions in North America, purchased by the United \nStates by treaty, 13 March, 1867, for 7,200,000 \ndollars, received 1 Aug. 1868, when it was made a \nterritory. Sitka is the principal station. Popu- \nlation, 1880, 33,426; 1890, 30,329. \n\nALBA LONGA, an ancient city of Italy, said \nto have been founded by Ascanius, son of jEneas, \n1052 B.C. Its history is mythical. \n\nAmulius, the brother of Numitor, seizes the throne, \n794 ; killed by Romulus, who restores his grand- \nfather Numitor 754 \n\nRomulus builds and fortif es Rome (see Rome) 753 \n\nAlba conquered by Tullus Hostilius, and incor- \nporated with Rome (see Horatii) . . . 665 \n\nALBANIA, a province in European Turkey, \nformerly part of the ancient Epirus. The Albanians \nbecame independent during the decline of the Greek \nempire. They were successfully attacked by the \nTurks in 1388. About 1443, under George Castriot \n(Scanderbeg), they baffled the efforts of Mahomet \nII. to subdue them till the siege of Scutari in 1478, \nwhen they submitted. Ali Pacha, of Janina, in \n1812, defeated the Turkish pachas, and governed \nAlbania ably, but cruelly and despotically, till Feb. \n1822, when he and his two sons were slain, after \nsurrendering under a solemn promise of safety. A \nrevolt in Albania was suppressed in 1843. \nAn Albanian league (favoured by the Turks) formed \nto resist the cession of any part of the country to \nAustria and Montenegro in April, said to have \ncaused the death of Mehemet Ali . . 7 Sept. 1878 \n\n\n\nThe country semi-independent . . . April, 1879 \n\nArmy formed rebels against Turkey . . April, 1880 \n\nThe league forces defeated in an attack on Dervish Pasha \nin Uskub between Pristina and Prisrend 19 April ; he \nreported the country settled, but asked for reinforce- \nments ; more fighting ; Albanians said to be defeated, \nand struggle almost over, 12 May, 1881. \n\nRevolt of chiefs, severe rights, 2, 3, June, 1883. Turks \ndefeated with loss ; reported dispersion of ,the chiefs \nabout 8 June. Continued fighting 12 June et seq. \nThe Turks successful in fight ; the Albanians submit, \nannounced 21 June. Unsettled 25 June. Insurrection \nsubsiding about 19 July. Albanians appeal to the \nPowers for annexation to Greece, about 3 Nov. \nGeneral disorder and much brigandage reported, Aug. \n1884. See Dulcigno. \n\nThe Albanian society established at Bucharest for the \npolitical, moral, and intellectural development of the \nAlbanians has been reorganized, and the sultan has \nbeen asked to accept the protectorate, May, 1889. \n\nAlbanian attacks on Montenegro, &c, checked by the \nTurks, July, Aug., 1890. \n\nNorth Albania reported to be in a state of sanguinary \nanarchy, middle Dec, 1890. \n\nOutrages committed by a band of 250. Arnauts, Jan., \n1891. \n\nLeague of Albanian chiefs formed to resist the Turks, \nNov., 1891. \n\nMartial law established on the confines of Montenegro, \nDec, 1891. \n\nALBANS, ST. (Hertfordshire), near the Roman \nVerulam, derived its name from Alban the British \nprotomartyr, said to have been beheaded during the \npersecution by Diocletian, 23 June, 286. A stately \nmonastery to his memory was erected about 795, \nby Off\'a, king of Mercia, who granted it many \nprivileges. Its superior sat as premier abbot in \nparliament till the dissolution in 1539. A meeting \nwas held 22 June, 1871, to raise a fund for the \nrestoration of the abbey, the earl of Verulam, chair- \nman. The results were favourable, and the work \nwas confided to Mr. G. Gilbert Scott, who issued a \nreport in June, 1872. The work was carried on \nunder the superintendence of Sir Edmund Beckett \n(afterwards Lord Grimthorpe), who contributed \n50,000/. towards it. Mr. H. Hucks Gibbs also con- \ntributed largely to the restoration (1889) . The nave \nwas opened 21 Oct. 1885. Verulam was built on the \nsite of the capital of Cassivclaunus, taken by Julius \nCassar, 54 B. c. It was retaken after much slaughter \nbyBoadiceaorBunduica, queen of the Iceni, A.n. 61. \nFirst Battle of St. Albans, when the Lancastrians were \n\ndefeated, their leader, Edmund duke of Somerset \n\nslain, and king Henry VI. taken prisoner, by the \n\nduke of York and his partisans, 22 or 23 May, 1455. \nSecond battle, queen Margaret totally defeated the Yorkists \n\nunder the earl of Warwick, and rescued the king, \n\nShrove Tuesday, 17 Feb. 1461. \nSt. Albans incorporated by Edward VI. 1553. \nDisfranchised for bribery, 17 June, 1852. \nSt. A/bans Raid, see United States, Oct. 1864. \nSt. Albans Murder, see Trials, 18S0. \nAct passed to make arrangements for erecting a bishopric \n\nof St. Albans, 2q June 1875. See constituted, 30 April ; \n\nmade a city, 28 Aug. 1877. Population, 1881, 10,031 ; \n\n1891, 12,895. \n\nBISHOPS. \n\n1877. Thomas Legh Claughton (trans, from Rochester) ; \n\nresigned 21 March, 1890; died 25 July, 1892. \n1890. John Wogan Festing, May. \n\nALBAN\' S, ST., CHURCH, Holborn, see \nunder Church of England, 1867. \n\nALBANY OR ALBAINN, the ancient name \nof the Scottish Highlands. Robert Stewart, the \nbrother of King Robert IIL, was created the first \nduke of Albany in 1398, aud the title has ever since \nbeen connected with the crown of Scotland. The \nyoung pretender, prince Charles Edward, and his \nwife took the title of count and countess of Albany. \nSee York. \n\n\n\nALBANY. \n\n\n\nALBERT UNIVERSITY. \n\n\n\nDQKES OF ALBANY. \n\n1398. Robert ; regent ; 1406 ; died 3 Sei/t. 1420. \n\n1420. Murdoch, son ; regent ; executed\' for treason by \n\nking James I., 1424. \n1452. [Alexander, brother of king James 11/; acted\' \n\ntreasonably ; exiled ; killed\' ~a*\xc2\xab4entaHy. at; \n\nParis, 1485. \' \xe2\x80\x94 -^~ \n\n1514. Johu, son; regent; went abroad ; died at Pan\xc2\xa77 \n\n1526. \n\nSee York and Albany, dukes. \n1881. Prince Leopold, fourth son of queen Victoria, was \n\ncreated duke of Albany 24 May, 1881 ; died \n\n8 March, 1884. \n1884. Leopold Charles, son, born 19 July. \nSee under England. \n\nALBANY, capital of the state of New York. \nThe Dutch erected a block-house near here in \n1614, and villages soon arose. The town took its \nname from James, duke of York and Albany, to \nwhom it had been given by his brother, King \nCharles II., after its cession to Great Britain in \n1664. Albany received a charter in 1686; the first \ngeneral congress met here in 1764, and in 1807 the \ncity became the capital of the state. Population, \n1800,5349; 1860,62,367; 1890,94,923. \n\nALBERT MEMORIALS. (See England, \nQueen.) The Prince Consort died on 14 Dec. 1861, \ndeeply lamented by the whole civilised world. His \nremains were transferred to the mausoleum of \nFrogmore, 18 Dec. 1862. The sarcophagus is com- \nposed of the largest known block of granite without \nflaw. A meeting to organise a method of receiving \ncontributions for a great national memorial was \nheld at the Mansion-house, 14 Jan. 1862 ; and a \nlarge sum was quickly subscribed. 36,000/. had \nbeen received on 1 March; 50,220/. on 11 June, \n1862 ; and parliament voted 50,000/., in addition \nto the 60,000/. received by voluntary contributions, \n23 April, 1863. \n\nThe nature of the memorial was referred to the queen \nherself. In a letter to the lord mayor, dated 19 P\'eb. \n1862, sir Charles Greysays, on behalf ofhermajesty, "It \nwould be more in accordance with her own feelings, \nand she believes with those of the country in general, \nthat the monument should be directly personal to its \nobject. After giving the subject her maturest considera- \ntion, her majesty has come to the conclusion, that \nnothing would be more appropriate, x>rovided it is on a \nscale of sufficient grandeur, than an obelisk to be erected \nin Hyde-park on the site of the Great Exhibition of \n1851, or on some spot immediately contiguous to it. \nNor would any proposal that could be made be more \ngratifying to the queen herself personally, for she can \nnever forget that the prince himself had highly ap- \nproved of the idea of a memorial of this character being \nraised on the same spot in remembrance of the Great \nExhibition." In a second letter the queen expressed \nher intention of personally contributing towards erect- \ning the memorial, that " it might be recorded in future \nages as raised by the queen and people of a grateful \ncountry to the memory of its benefactor." Shortly \nafter a committee was appointed to fulfil her majesty\'s \ndesire. As a suitable block of granite could not be \nobtained, the proposal for an obelisk was given up. \n\nThe queen approved of the design of Mr. Gilbert G. Scott \nfor an Eleanor Cross, with a spire 150 feet high, ac- \ncompanied by statues, &c, 22 April, 1863 ; work begun. \n13 May, 1864. \n\nThe sculptors employed were M\'Dowell, Foley, Theed, \nJohn Bell, and Armistead : material, Sicilian marble. \n(Jan. 1865.) \n\nThe memorial, complete, except the statue, by Foley \n(delayed through illness), was given up to her majesty \nprivately, 1 July, 1872. The gilt statue by Foley un- \ncovered 9 March, 1876. \n\nDoyne C. Bell\'s Descriptive and Illustrated Account of \nthis Monument, published by Mr. John Murray, 1873. \n\nInscription on the " Memorial Cairn" on a high mountain \noverlooking Balmoral Palace:\xe2\x80\x94 "To the beloved \nmemory of Albert the great and good Prince Consort, \nerected by his broken-hearted widow, Victoria R. \n\n\n\n1 Aug. 1862." Upc->u another dressed slab, a few inches, \nbelow the^ab\'pye. is trfis quotation v \xe2\x80\x94 " He being made \nperfect in a short time, fulfilled a long time : for his \nsuul pleased the Lord, therefore hasted he to take him \naway from among the wicked."\xe2\x80\x94 Wisdom of Solomon \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nj cnap. iv. 13, 14. \n\n\\ A^tifjei of the prince-consort (by Theed) inaugurated at \nRos\xc2\xabng\xc2\xab, his birta-place, in the presence of the queen \n<m*LtJie rbyal family, 19 Aug. 1865. \n\n" EarlyySa*s-Qf_tl)i Prince Consort ;" edited by the Hon. \nChas. Grey ; published 6 July, 1867. \n\nStatue by Theed at Balmoral, inaugurated 15 Oct. 1867. \n\nThe Statue at the Holborn Circus, uncovered by the \nPrince of Wales, 9 Jan. 1874. \n\nThe Albert Memorial Chapel at Windsor, opened to the \npublic, 1 Dec. 1875. \n\nLife, by Theodore Martin ; 5 vols, published, 1875-80. \n\nThe Scottish National Memorial to the Prince, Edin- \nburgh, inaugurated by the Queen, 17 Aug. 1876. \n\nStatue at Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, uncovered \nby the Prince of Wales, 22 Jan. 1878. \n\nA bronze equestrian statue of the prince set up near \nVirginia Water in the Great Park, Windsor, by means \nof the women\'s offering, see Jubilee, 1887-9; uncovered, \nby the queen, 12 May, 1890. \n\nMany other memorials of the prince have been set up \nthroughout the empire. \n\nRoyal Albert Hall op Arts and Sciences ; The \nerection of a great building for congresses, concerts,, \n&c. , was proposed by the prince-consort at the close \nof the exhibition of 1851, and an estate at Kensington \nwas purchased ; a committee, with the prince of Wales \n\n\' at the head, to erect the building, was appointed 6 \nJuly, 1865 ; circulars soliciting subscriptions were \nissued April, 1866 ; and the first stone was laid by the \nqueen, 20 May, 1867. \n\nThe building was erected by col. Scott, chiefly after de- \nsigns by capt. Fowke, and cost about 200,000^. The \norgan, by Willis, is said to be the largest in the world. \nAn experimental concert was given to the workmen 25 \nFeb., and the hall was opened by the queen 29 March, \n1871, when a grand concert was given, and many since. \n\nThe hall is said to contain seats for 10,000 persons, \n(orchestra 2,000, oval arena 1,000, balcony 2,300, and. \ngallery 2,000). \n\nAn International Ice Carnival for the West End Hospital \nfor Paralysis, &c, inaugurated by the Duchess of \nTeck, 14 March, 1889. \n\nState concert for the German emperor and empress, \n9 July, 1891. \n\nAlbert Bridge, Chelsea, opened 23 Aug. 1873 ; freed \nfrom toll 24 May 1879. \n\nAlbert Embankment, &e., see Thames, 1869 ; Docks. \n\nAlbert Institute, Windsor, opened by the prince of \nWales, 10 Jan. 1880. \n\nAlbert Medals, to be awarded to persons who endanger \ntheir lives by saving others from shipwreck, appointed \nby royal warrant, 3 March, 1866. The first was given \nto Samuel Popplestone on 14 May, 1866, for saving life \non 23 March previous .; medals awarded to Pontypridd \nminers and others for saving men imprisoned in a mine \nthrough inundation (see Coal: Accidents,) April, 1S77. \n\nAlbert Medal (Gold), founded in 1862, awarded by the \nSociety of Arts to sir Rowland Hill, 1864 ; Napoleon \nIII. 1865; Michael Faraday, 1866 ; Charles Wheatstone \nand William Fothergili Cooke, 1867 ; Joseph Whit- \nworth, 186S ; Justus Liebig, 1869 ; Ferdinand de \nLesseps, 1870 ; Henry Cole, C.B., 1871 ; Henry Besse- \nmer, 1872; Michel Eugene Chevreul, 1873; C. William \nSiemens, 1874; Michel Chevallier, 1875; sir G. B. Airy, \n1876; Jean Baptiste Dumas, 1877 ; sir Win. G. Arm- \nstrong, 1878 ; sir William Thomson, 1879 ; James. \nPrescott Joule, 1S80; Aug. Wm. Hofmann, 1881; Louis. \nPasteur, 1882 ; sir Joseph D. Hooker, 1883 ; capt. \nJames Buchanan Eads, 1884 ; Henry Doulton, 1885 ; \nSamuel Cunliffe Lister, 1886; the Queen, 1887 (6 June, \npresented 8 March, 1888); professor Hermann Louis. \nHelmholtz, 1888 ; John Percy, 1889 ; William Henry \nPerkin, 1890; sir Frederick Abel, 1891. \n\nAlbert Exhibition Falace, Batteksea, opened 6 \nJune, 1885, closed 1888. \n\nRoyal Albert Orphan Asylum, Bagshot; founded 1S64. \n\nALBERT NYANZA, sec Victoria Xyanza. \n\nALBERT UNIVERSITY, the name pro- \nposed for a new teaching university, in and for \n\n\n\nALBIGENSES. \n\n\n\n28 \n\n\n\nALDERMAN. \n\n\n\nLondon, advocated by University college and King\'s \ncollege in 1891. A draft charter was submitted to \nthe privy council and approved in July, 1891. In \nJan. 1892 the lord mayor proposed that the new \nuniversity should be combined with Gresham col- \nlege and called Gresham university. Much discus- \nsion ensued, and the subject was eventually referred \nto a royal commission in March following. See \nLondon University. \n\nALBIGENSES, a name given to various per- \nsons who opposed the doctrines and corruptions of \nthe church of Rome, living at Albi, in Languedoc, \nand at Toulouse in the 12th century. They were \npersecuted as alleged Manichseans, 1 1 63, and a crusade \n(proclaimed by pope Innocent III.) against them \ncommenced in 1207. Simon de Montfort commanded \n500,000 men, and at Beziers, 1209, he and the pope\'s \nlegate put friends and foes to the sword, saying, \n\xe2\x96\xa0" God will find his own ! " * At Minerba he burnt \n150 of the Albigenses alive ; and at La Vaur he \nhanged the governor, and beheaded the chief people, \ndrowning the governor\'s wife, and murdering other \nwomen. He defeated Raymond, count of Toulouse, \nbut was himself killed in 1218. Louis VIII. and \nIX., kings of France, patronised the crusade; \ncount Raymond was subdued, and abdicated in 1229; \nand the heretics were given up to the Inquisition. \nThey had little in common with the Waldenses, \nwhich see. \n\nALBION. Britain is said to have been so called \nbj Aristotle (died 322 B.C.). Julius Cassar and \nothers, are said to have given it the name (from \n\xe2\x96\xa0albus, white) on account of its chalky cliffs. \n\nALBUEBA OR AlBTJHERA, Estremadura, \nSpain. Here a battle was fought between the \nFrench, commanded by marshal Soult, and the \nBritish and Anglo-Spanish army, under marshal, \nafterwards lord Beresford, 16 May, 1811. The \nallies obtained a brilliant victory. The French loss \nexceeded 8000 men previously to their retreat ; but \nthe allies lost a large number. The chief brunt \nof the action fell on tlie British ; colonel Inglis, \n2.2 officers, and more than 400 men, out of 570 who \nhad mounted a hill, fell, \xe2\x80\x94 out of the 57th regiment \nalone ; the other regiments were scarcely better off, \nnot one-third being left standing ; " 1500 mi- \nwounded men, the remnant of 6000 unconquerable \nBritish soldiers, stood triumphant on this fatal \nhill." Napier. \n\nALBUFEEA (Spain, East Central), a lagoon, \nffiear which the French marshal Suchet (afterwards \nduke of Albufera) defeated the Spaniards under \nBlake, 4 Jan. 1812 : this led to his capture of \nValencia on 9 Jan. \n\nALCALA DE HEN ABES, Spain, near the \nRoman Complutum. At the university here was \nprinted the Complutensian Polyglott bible, at the \n\xe2\x80\xa2expense of cardinal Ximenes, 1502-15. \n\nALCANTABA, a town on the Tagus, W. Spain. \nA fine l.ridge was built here by Trajan about 104. \nThe duke of Alva acquired Portugal for Spain by \ndefeating the Portuguese army here, 24 June, 1580. \nThe Spanish military order of knighthood of Alcan- \ntara was established in 1 156. The sovereign of \nSpain has been grand master since 1495. \n\nALCAZAB-QTJIVEB, near Fez, N. W. \nAfrica, where the Moors totally defeated the Portu- \nguese, whose gallant king Sebastian was slain, 4 \nAug. 1578. The Portuguese disbelieved his death, \n\n* Now contradicted. \n\n\n\nand long expected his return ; this led to the ap- \npearance of five impostors. \n\nALCHEMY, the forerunner of chemistry ; its \nchief objects being the discovery of the philosopher\'s \nstone (which was to effect the transmutation of \nmetals into gold), an alkahest or universal men- \nstruum, and the elixir of life.* The alchemists \nassert that their founder was Hermes Trismegistus \n(thrice greatest), an ancient Egyptian king. \xe2\x80\x94 Pliny \nsays, the emperor Caligula was the first who pre- \npared natural arsenic, in order to make gold of it, \nbut left it off, because the charge exceeded the \nprofit. \n\nZosimus wrote on the subject about 410. \nThe Arabians cultivated alchemy and were followed (in \nthe 13th century) by Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus, \nAquinas, Raymond Lullius, Basil Valentine (born 1394), \nParacelsus (died 1541), and others. \nIn 1404 the craft of multiplying gold and silver was made \nfelony by 5 Hen. IV. c. 4, which act was repealed in 1689. \nA licence for practising alchemy with all kinds of metals \nand minerals was granted to one Richard Carter, 1476. \nRymer\'s Foedera. \nDr. Price, of Guildford, in 1782 published an account of \nhis experiments and brought specimens of gold to \nthe king, affirming that they were made by means of a \nred and white powder. Being a fellow of the Royal \nSociety, he was required, under pain of exxmlsion, to \nrepeat his experiments before Messrs. Kirwan and \nWolfe (some say Higgins) ; but after much equivoca- \ntion and delay he took poison and died, Aug. 1783. \n\nALCOHOL. Pure spirit of wine or hydrated \nalcohol is said to have been obtained by the dis- \ntillation of fermented liquors by Abucasis in the \n12th century; and the dehydration of this liquor \nto have been partially effected by Raymond Lul- \nlius in the 13th century by carbonate of potassium. \nIn 1820, Faraday and Hennell obtained traces of \nalcohol by passing olefiant gas (bi-carburetted hydro- \ngen) through sulphuric acid ; and in 1862 this \nprocess was examined and confirmed by Bertbelot. \nAlcohol has been artificially formed from its elements \nby chemists ; it was solidified by Prof. Dewar at \nthe Royal Institution, 1886; see Distillation, \n/Spirits, Brandt/, Gin, Hum. About 250 medical \nmen, including the president of the Royal College \nof Physicians, and many hospital officials, issued a \ncautionary declaration concerning the use of alcohol \nin medicine, Dec. 1871. See Temperance. \n\nALCOLEA (Andalusia, S. Spain). Near the \nbridge a sharp engagement took place between the \nroyalists under general Pavia y Lacy, marquis de \nNovaliches, and the insurgents under marshal Ser- \nrano, 27 Sept. 1868. The former was defeated, and, \nbeing severely wounded, surrendered 28 Sept. About \n600 were killed on both sides. \n\nAL-COBAN OR AL-KORAN, see Koran, Ma- \nhometanism, &c. \n\nALDEBMAN. The Saxon ealdorman was \nnext to the king and frequently a viceroy; but \nafter the settlement of the Danes the title was \ngradually displaced by that of earl. Aldermen in \ncorporations are next in dignity to the mayor. \nA curious list of aldermen and their wards is \nassigned to the year 1290. Loftie. Aldermen chosen \nfor life, instead of annually, 17 Rich. II. 1394. \nPresent mode of election established, 11 Geo. I. 1725. \nAldermen made justices of the peace, 15 Geo. II. \n1 741. \n\n* M. Martin Ziegler patented a method of producing a \n\xe2\x80\xa2\'vital fluid" by combining nitrogen and carbon in a \nporous cell containing ammonia, immersed in a vessel \nfilled with molasses. The current was to flow through \nsilk threads attached to the vessel ; about 1S68. \n\n\n\nALDERNEY. \n\n\n\n29 \n\n\n\nALEXANDRA PARK. \n\n\n\nThe 26 London aldermen are elected by the wards. In \n1877 the court of aldermen exercised their ancient right \nof veto against Sir John Bennett (thrice chosen alder- \nman for the ward of Cheap), and chose Mr. Edgar \nBreffitt, 23 Oct. 1877. \n\nAldermen form part of the County Councils established \nby the Local Government Act, 1888. \n\nALDERNEY (English Channel), with Jersey, \n&c, was acquired by William the Conqueror, 1066. \nThe " Eace " is celebrated for two fatal occur- \nrences; William of Normandy, son of Henry I. of \nEngland, and many young nobles (140 youths of \nthe principal families of France and Britain), were \novertaken by a storm, and all lost, 25 Nov. 1120. \nThe British man-of-war Victory, of 100 guns and \n1 160 men, was wrecked here, 5 Oct. 1744; the \nadmiral, sir John Balchen, and all his crew perished. \nThrough this strait the French escaped after their \ndefeat at La Hogue by admirals Russell and Rooke, \n19 May, 1692. The construction of a breakwater, \nin order to make Aldemey a naval station, was \nbegun in 1852, and after having cost 1,337,100^., \nwas suspended by parliament in 1871. In 1874 the \nharbour and lands were transferred from the control \nof the board of trade to that of the admiralty and \nthe war department. \n\nALDERSHOT CAMP, on a moor near Farn- \nham, about 35 miles from London. In April, 1854, \nthe War office, having obtained a grant of 100,000/., \npurchased 4000 acres of land for a permanent camp \nfor 20,000 men. \n\nAdditional land purchased in 1856. \n\nBarracks since erected for 4000 infantry, 1500 cavalry, \n\nand several batteries of artillery. Great improvements \n\nin military cookery introduced (see Cookery) under the \n\nsuperintendence of captain John Grant, 1857. \n\nVisited by the queen, 18, 19 April, 1856. \n\nThe troops returned from the Crimea, reviewed by her, \n\n7, 16 July, 1856. \nAbout 15,000 men were stationed here, 1859. \nCost of the camp, said to be 1,291, ^31^. up to Feb. i860. \nAn industrial and fine-art exhibition, furnished by officers \nand men and their wives, opened, 29 June ; closed 14 \nJuly, 1864. \nCamp set up for 40,000 men to execute military manoeu- \nvres, Aug. Sept. 1871. Many horses broke away \nthrough a fright, 30 Aug. 1871. \nReview of 14,000, &c. by the queen, 5 July, 1872. \nSummer Manoeuvres here, 1874, 1875, 1876, 1877. \nReview by the queen, 13 May, 1878 ; again (all branches \n\nof the service represented), 2 July, 1886. \nMarch of a force equipped for war, 17 Aug. 1886. \nReview and sham right, 23 June, 1887. \nThe Queen reviews about 60,000 men, about half volun- \nteers ; grand march past, 9 July, 1887. \nTheatre Royal burned down, 8 Feb. 1889. \nThe Queen reviews 11,945 of all ranks, 31 May, 1889. \nA sham fight and review, in which about 25,530 troops, \nregulars and volunteers, were engaged, took place \nhere in the presence of the Emperor William II., the \nPrincess of Wales, the Duke of Cambridge, and others \nof the royal family, 7 Aug. 1889. \nThe Queen reviews the troops, 16 July, 1891, 27 June, \n1892. \n\nALDINE PRESS, that of Aldo Manuzio \n(Aldus Manutius), at Venice, where were printed \nmany of the first editions of the Greek, Latin, and \nItalian classics, commencing in 1494 with Musaeus. \n\nALE, BEER, and Wine. Ale is said to have been \nknown as a beverage at least in 404 B.C. Herodotus \nascribes the first discovery of the art of brewing \nbarley- wine to Isis, the wife of Osiris, and a beverage \nof this kind is mentioned by Xenophon, 401 B.C. \nThe Romans and Germans very early learned from \nthe Egyptians the process of preparing a liquor from \ncorn by means of fermentation. Tacitus. Ale- \nhouses are mentioned in the laws of Ina, king of \nWessex. Booths were setup in England, 728, when \nlaws were passed for their regulation. None but \n\n\n\nfreemen were allowed to keep ale-houses in London, \n13 Edw. I. 1285. They were further subjected to \nregulation by 5 & 6 Edw. VI. c. 25 (1551). By \nI James I. c. 9 (1603), one full quart of the best,, \nand two quarts of small ale were to be sold for one \npenny. Excise duty on ale and beer was imposed by \nthe parliament in 1643, and continued by Charles II. \n(1660) ; repealed, 1 Will. IV. c. 51 (1830) ; see \nBeer, Porter, Wine, Victuallers. Michael Thomas \nBass, the eminent brewer of Burton, died 28 April, \n1884, aged 84. \n\nMr. John Bickerdyke\'s book on " The Curiosities of Ale \nand Beer " was published in 1886. \n\nALEMANNI, or All Men (i.e. men of all \nnations), hence Allemand, German. A body of \nSuevi, who took this name, were attacked by Cara- \ncalla, 214. After several repulses, they invaded the \nempire uuder Aurelian, who subdued them in three \nbattles, 271. They were again vanquished by Julian, \n356, 357; by Jovinus, 368. They were defeated and \nsubjugated by Clovis at Tolbiac (or Zulpich), 496. \nThe Suabians are their descendants. \n\nALENCON (N. France) gave title to a count \nand duke. \' \n\n1268-82. Peter, made Count by his father king Louis IX. \n1293. Charles I. of Valois, made Count by his brother \n\nking Philip the Fair. \n1325. Charles II. his son, killed at Crecy. \n1346. Charles III. (his son), became a priest. \n1361. Peter, his brother. \n1404. John (his son), made Duke in 1414, killed at \n\nAgincourt, 1415. \n1415. John II. (his son), prisoner in England, 1424-9 ; \n\nintrigued against the French king ; died in \n\nprison, 1470. \n1476. Charles IV. fled after the battle of Pavia in 1525, \n\nand died shortly after of chagrin. The duchy \n\nwas annexed by the crown. \n\nALEPPO, North Syria, a large town named \nBeroea by Seleucus Nicator, about 299 B.C. The \npachalic of Aleppo is one of the five governments of \nSyria. It was taken by the Saracens, a.d. 638, who \nrestored its ancient name Haleb or Chaleb ; by Sala- \ndin, 1 193; and sacked by Timour, Nov. 1400. Its de- \npopulation by the plague has been frequent ; 60,000 \npersons were computed to have perished by it in \n1797; many in 1827. The cholera raged here in \n1832. Aleppo suffered severely from the terrible \nearthquakes in 1822 and 1830; and has often been \nthe scene of fanatical massacres. On 16 Oct. 1850, \nthe Mahometans attacked the Christians, burning \neverything. Three churches were destroyed, five \nothers plundered, and thousands of persons slain. \nThe total loss of property amounted to about a mil- \nlion sterling ; no interference was attempted by the \npacha. Population in 1885, 110,000. \n\nALESSANDRIA, a city of Piedmont, built in \n1 168 under the name of Caesar by the Milanese and \nCremonese, to defend the Tanaro against the em- \nperor, and afterwards named after pope Alexander \nIII. It has been frequently besieged and taken. \nThe French took it in 1796, but were driven out by \nSuwarrow, 21 July, 1799. They recovered it after \nthe battle of Marengo, 14 June, 1800, and held it. \ntill 1814, when the strong fortifications erected by \nNapoleon were destroyed. These have been restored \nsince June, 1856. \n\nALEUTIAN ISLES, in the North Pacific \nOcean, discovered by Behring, 1 741, visited by \nCook, 1778, and settled by Russians, 1785. \n\n"ALEXANDRA CASE," see Trials, \n1862-64. \n\nALEXANDRA PARK, Muswell Hill, Lon- \ndon, N. purchased by a company, and named after \n\n\n\nALEXANDRA PARK. \n\n\n\n30 \n\n\n\nALEXANDRIAN SCHOOLS. \n\n\n\nthe princess of Wales, was opened with a flower \nshow, 23 July, 1863. A portion of the Exhibition \nbuilding of 1862 was erected here. The work \nproceeded rapidly in 1864, was suspended in 1865, \na-ecommenced in 1866, and completed in 1873. \nHorse-races first held here . . 30 June, 1 July, 1868 \nThe prospectus of a scheme to organise an institu- \ntion resembling the South Kensington Museum \nand the Crystal Palace, by means of a tontine (to \ncease 30 June, 1886), was issued . 22 July 1871 \nThe affairs were to he managed by " The Alexandra \nPalace and Muswell-hill Estate Management Com- \npany (limited). " Public lectures on the subject, \nAug. 1871 ; the company\'s affairs were wound up \n\nFeb. 1872 \nThe purchase of the land and buildings for the \n\npublic proposed by the lord mayor and others July , , \nThe palace was opened with a grand concert, &c. \n\n24 May ; destroyed by fire . . .9 June, 1873 \nTwo women, incautiously viewing the ruins, buried, \n\n25 June ; bodies found . . . 21 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe new building (^86 by 184 feet) ; opened 1 May, 1875 \n94,125 persons said to have entered the park, Whit- \nMonday 17 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBalfe memorial festival . . . .29 July, 1876 \nPetition for winding-up . . . . 24 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe estate taken over by the London Financial \n\nAssociation, creditors of the company . . 1876-7 \n\'The palace re-opened (annual subscription, 10s. 6d.), \n\n10 May, ,, \nArrival of Nubian hunters, with elephants, rhino- \nceroses, camels, dromedaries, buffaloes, zebras, \nostriches, &o. (imported by Carl Hagenbeck), \n\n7 Sept. \xe2\x80\x94 13 Oct. ,, \nOpened by new proprietors (Mr. Willing and others) \n\nwith new attractions . . . 17 May, 1880 \n\n1107,852 visitors (bank holiday) . . 2 Aug. ,, \n\nTaken by Jones and Barber . . Nov. ,, \n\nPut up for sale : unsold . ... 11 Feb. 188 1 \n\nVaried entertainments 1881-2 \n\nAct for relieving the London Financial Association \nfrom charge of the Palace (withdrawn March et \n\nseq.) 1883, again 1884 \n\nProposals for purchasing the land for recreation \n\nJune, 1883 \n\nPut up for sale ; no bidders . . . 20 July, ,, \n\nLondon Financial Association v. Sir John Kelk, \n\nLucas &Co. (contractors), and others (directors, \n\n&c.,)4oo,oooZ. claimed as misappropriated; about \n\n25 days\' trial ; Vice-Chancellor Bacon dismisses \n\ncase with costs 8 Mar. 1884 \n\nThe Palace let to Mr. George Collins Levy, for \n\nInternational Exhibition announced . 25 July, ,, \n\nTemporary Industrial Exhibition opened 31 March, 1885 \n\nPalace closed in 1886; re-opened for the season, \n\n11 April, 1887, Mr. H. W. Hayward, lessee ; 54,720 \n\n[ visitors on Whit Monday, 30 May, 1887 ; reported \n\nunsuccessful, Feb. 1888 ; re-opened with a grand \n\nconcert (1,000 performers), 12 May ; second grand \n\nconcert 9 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCelebration of the 23rd anniversary of the organi- \nzation of the Salvation Army . . 9 July, 1888 \nFor Professor Baldwin\'s ascents and descents see \n\nunder Balloons ,, \n\nThe park re-opened for the season ; exhibition of \nnearly 1,000 monkeys, balloons and parachutes, \n&a, professor Baldwin, Mr. Young, and others \n\n1 June, 1889 \nComic opera by Mr. C. Wibrow . 17 June, et seq. ,, \nFrench national fete, Gen. Boulanger present \n\n13 July ,, \nProfessor Baldwin, after 98 ascents and descents, \n\nretires with intention of returning to America, \nabout ....... 17 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe London Financial Association apply for the \nappointment of a provisional liquidator pending \nthe winding-up of the Alexandra Palace and park \ncompany, Mr. C. L. Nichols appointed 27 July, ,, \n\nThe palace closed Sept. ,, \n\nLicenses renewed to Mr. Charles James Hayter \n\n14 Nov. ,, \nHill for repealing the protective clauses of the Acts \n\nof 1866 and 1877, promoted by the association, \nwithdrawn from the Commons . . April, 1891 \nPurchase of the palace and grounds proposed to the \nMiddlesex county council by E. D. M. Littler, \n.chairman, Dec. 1891 ; proposal deferred May, 1892 \n\n\n\nALEXANDRIA .(Egypt), the walls whereof \nwere six miles in circuit, was founded by Alexander \nthe Great, 332 B.C. who was buried here, 322. It \nbecame the residence of the Greek sovereigns of \nEgypt, the Ptolemies, 323 ; seventeen councils were \nheld here, a.d. 231-633. Population, with its \nsuburbs, in 1883, 208,775. \n\nPtolemy Soter erects the Museum, the Serapeum, \nthe Pharos, and other edifices, and begins the \n\nlibrary about b. c. 298 \n\nThese works completed by his son P. Philadelphus \n\nand his grandson P. Euergetes . . . 283-222 \n\nAlexandria taken by Julius Csesar ; when a library \n\nis burnt 47 \n\nWhich Antony replaces by one brought from Per- \n\ngamus 36 \n\nThe city restored by Adrian .... a.d. 122 \nMassacre of the youth by Caracalla, in revenge for \n\nan insult 215 \n\nAlexandria supporting the usurper Achilleus is \n\ntaken by Diocletian after a long siege . . . 297 \nAlexandria disturbed by the feuds between the \n\nAthanasians and Arians 321 \n\nGeorge of Cappadocia was killed, 362, and Athan- \n\nasius finally restored 363 \n\n50,000 persons perish by an earthquake . . . 365 \nPaganism suppressed by Theodosius, when a second \n\nlibrary is burnt 390 \n\nAlexandria captured by Chosroes II. of Persia . 616 \nAnd by Amrou, the general of the caliph Omar,* who \nordered the library to be burnt, whereby the baths \nwere supplied with fuel for six months 22 Dec. 640 \nBecovered by the Greeks ; retaken by Amrou. . 644 \n\nCairo founded by the Saracens ; which tends to the \n\ndecay of Alexandria 969 \n\nAlexandria plundered by the Crusaders . . . 1365 \nThe French capture Alexandria . . July, 1798 \n\nBattle of Alexandria or Canopus : the British under \ngen. sir Ralph Abercromby defeat the French \n\nunder Menou 21 March, 1801 \n\nAbercromby dies of his wounds, 28 March ; Menou \nand io,coo French surrender it to Hutchinson \n\n2 Sept. ,, \nAlexandria taken by the British under Fraser, \n\n20 March ; evacuated by them . . 23 Sept. 1807 \nBy the convention of Alexandria, Egypt was guaran- \nteed to Mehemet Ali and his successors (and \n\ngreatly favoured by them) 1841 \n\nRailway to Cairo formed 1851 \n\nNew port, first stone laid by the khedive 15 May, 1871 \nFierce riots against Europeans (see Egypt) 11 June, 1882 \nPanic and great emigration of Eurorjeans . June, ,, \nBombardment of the forts, conflagration and aban- \ndonment of the city (see Egypt) . 11-13 July, ,, \n\nALEXANDRIAN CODEX, a MS. of the \n\nSeptuagint translation of the Bible in Greek, said \nto have been transcribed by a lady named Thecla, \nin the 6th century, and to have belonged to the \npatriarch of Alexandria in 1098. It was presented \nto Charles I. of England in 1628 by Cyrillus Leucaris, \npatriarch of Constantinople, and was placed in the \nBritish Museum in 1753. It was printed in fac- \nsimile, 1786-1821. \n\nALEXANDRIAN ERA, see Mundane. \n\nALEXANDRIAN SCHOOLS of Philo- \nsophy. The first school arose soon after the \nfoundation of Alexandria, 332 B.C. It flourished \nunder the patronage of the Ptolemies till about 100 \nB.C. It included Euclid (300), Archimedes (287- \n212), Apollonius (250), Hipparchus (150), and Hero \n(150). The second school arose about a.d. 140, and \nlasted till about 400. Its most eminent members \nwere Ptolemy, the author of the Ptolemaic system \n(150), Diophantus the arithmetician (200), and \nPappus the geometer (350) . \n\n* The saying of Omar \xe2\x80\x94 " That if the books agreed with \nthe book of God, they were useless; if they disagreed, \nthey were pernicious" \xe2\x80\x94 is denied by Mahometans. It is \nalso attributed to Theophilus, archbishop of Alexandria \n(390), and to cardinal Ximenes (1500). \n\n\n\nALEXANDRINES. \n\n\n\n31 \n\n\n\nALGIERS. \n\n\n\nALEXANDRINES, verses of twelve sylla- \nbles, first written by Alexander of Paris, about 1164, \nand since called after him. The last line of the \nSpenserian stanza is an Alexandrine. In Pope\'s \nEssay on Criticism, this verse is thus happily \nexemplified : \xe2\x80\x94 \n\n" A needless Alexandrine ends the song, \nThat, like a wounded snake, drags its slow length \nalong. " \n\nThe longest English poem wholly in Alexandrine \nverse is Drayton\'s Polyolbion, published 1612-22. \n\nALEXINATZ, a town in Servia. Severe fight- \ning took place here between the Turks and Servians, \nAug. -Sept. 1876. The town, head-quarters of the \nServians, was captured 31 Oct. This led to an \narmistice and peace. See Turkey. \n\nALFORD (N. Scotland), BATTLE OF. General \nBaillie, with a large body of covenanters, was de- \nfeated by the marquis of Montrose, 2 July, 1645. \n\nALGEBRA : Diophantus, said to be the in- \nventor, Avrote upon it probably between the 3rd and \n5th centuries. It was cultivated in the 9th century \nby the Arabs, who brought it into Spain ; and in \nItaly by Leonardo Bonaccio of Pisa, in 1220. In \n1494 Luca Paciolo published the first printed book \non Algebra in Europe. Serret. Some of the alge- \nbraic signs were introduced either by Christophe \nRudolph (1522-26) or Michael Stifelius of Nurem- \nberg, 1544, and others by Erancis Vieta, in 1590, \nwhen algebra came into general use. Moreri. Jerome \nCardan published his " Ars Magna," containing his \nrule, 1545. Thos. Harriot\'s important discoveries \nappeared in his " Artis Analytical Praxis," 1631. \nDescartes applied algebra to geometry about 1637. \nThe binomial theorem of Newton, the basis of the \ndoctrine of fluxions, and the new analysis, 1668. \nDean Peacock\'s "Algebra" is a first-class work. \n\nALGERIA, see Algiers. \n\nALGESIRAS,orOLDGlBRALTAE (S. Spain). \nHere the Moors entered Spain in 711, and held it \ntill taken by Alfonso XI. March, 1344. \xe2\x80\x94 Two en- \ngagements took place here between the English fleet \nunder sir James Saumarez and the United French \nand Spanish fleets, 6 and 12 July, 1801. In the first \nthe enemy was victorious ; but the British honour \nwas redeemed in the latter conflict, the San Antonio, \n74 guns, being captured. Two Spanish ships fired \non each other by mistake, and took fire ; of 2000 \nmen on board, 250 were saved by the English. \nAlison. \n\nALGIERS, now Algeria, N."W. Africa ; part \nof the ancient Mauritania, which was conquered by \nthe Eomans, 46 B.C.; by the Vandals, a.d 439; \nrecovered for the empire by Belisarius, 534; and \nsubdued by the Arabs about 690. Population of \nAlgeria in\' 1866, 2,921,146; 1872,2,146,225; 1875, \n2,448,691; 1886,3,910,399; 1891,4,124,732. \nThe town Algiers founded by the Arabs near the \n\nsite of Icosium about 935 \n\nBecoming the seat of the Barbary pirates captured \nby Ferdinand of Spain, 1509 ; retaken by Horuc \nBarbarossa, and made the capital of a state ; \ngoverned by a dey, nominally subject to Turkey, \n1516. Barbarossa was defeated and slain by the \n\nSpaniards . . 1513 \n\nThe emperor Charles V. loses a fine fleet and army \n\nin an expedition against Algiers . . . . 1541 \nAlgiers terrified into pacific measures by Blake, \n\n1655 ; by Du Quesne 1683-4 \n\nFor continued piracy, the city successfully bom- \nbarded by the British fleet, under lord Exmouth \n\n27 Aug. 1816 \nA new treaty followed, and Christian slavery was \nabolished \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nAlgiers surrendered to a French armament under \nBourmont and Duperre, after severe conflicts ; \nthe dey deposed, and the barbarian government \nwholly overthrown . . ... 5 July, 1830 \n\nThe Arab chief Abd-el-Kader preaches a holy war, \nbecomes powerful, and attacks the French, at first \nsuccessfully j833 \n\nHe is recognised as emir of Mascara, by treaty with \nthe French ^34 \n\nThe French ministry announce their intention to \nretain Algiers permanently . . .20 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nWar renewed 1835-6 \n\nThe French take Mascara ... 5 Dec. 1835 \n\nMarshal Clausel defeats the Arabs in two battles, \nand enters Mascara 8 Dec. 1836 \n\nGen. Damremont killed in taking Constantina \n\n13 Oct. 1837 \n\nAbd-el-Kader, thoroughly defeated, recognises the \nFrench supremacy 30 May, \n\nWar renewed ; French defeated . . . Dec. 1839 \n\nAlgeria annexed to France, and the emir declared a \nrebel . . Feb. 1842 \n\nHe is defeated by Bugeaud at Isly . . 14 Aug. 1844 \n\n500 Arabs in a cave at Khartani refuse to surren- \nder ; suffocated by smoke ; said to have been \nordered by general Pelissier . . .18 June, 1845 \n\nAfter a long struggle Abd-el-Kader surrenders to\' \nLamoriciere 23 Dec. 1847* \n\nFresh revolts, 1849 ! subdued .... 1850 \n\nAn insurrection of the Kabyles subdued by the \nFrench, after several sharp engagements . . 1851 \n\nAnother insurrection suppressed .... ^57 \n\nThe government entrusted (for a short time) to \nprince Napoleon ^-s \n\nThe Arab tribes attack the French ; defeated, \n\n31 Oct. and 6 Nov. 1859 \n\nAlgiers visited by Napoleon III. . . . Sept. 1S60 \n\nMarshal Pelissier, duke of Malakhoff, appointed \ngovernor-general of Algeria . . Nov. \n\nThe emperor promises a constitution securing the \nrights of the Arabs, saying : " I am as much \nemperor of the Arabs as of the French." . Feb. 1863 \n\nInsurrection of the Arabs, May ; submission, June, 1864 \n\nDeath of marshal Pelissier, 22 May ; M\'Mahon, duke\' \nof Magenta, succeeds him . . . g Sept. \n\nFresh revolts ; insurgents defeated by Jolivet 2 Oct! \n\nThe emperor well received during his visit, \n\n3 May\xe2\x80\x94 June, 1865 \n\nMore rights and privileges promised to the natives. \n\nJuly, \n\nThe emperor publishes his letter on the policy of \nFrance in Algeria (20 July) . . . Nov. \n\n4000 Arabs defeated by col. Sounis . 2 Feb. i860 \n\nAlgeria proclaimed in a state of siege . 15 Aug! 1870 \n\nState of siege raised .... 24 June,\' 187 1 \n\nGen. Chanzy accused of governing despotically ; his \nresignation not accepted by Marshal M\'Mahon \nJuly ; replaced by Albert Grevy . jg_jj \n\nAn insurrection soon quelled . . . June\' 1870 \n\nDispute with Tunis ; outrages of the savage tribes\' \nKroumirs, <&c. (see Tunis) . . . April\' 1881 \n\nArab insurrection, headed by Bou Ameema, June \'; \nhe is said to be defeated, and a fugitive 13 July\' \n\nInsurrection dreaded ; troops sent from France \n\nabout 26 Aug. \n\nBou Ameema defeated by the French, 13th July ; \n\nsaid to be preparing for a fresh revolt ; three\' \n\nFrench columns advancing against him,\' Aug. ; \n\nindecisive skirmishes .... Au"\\ \n\nResignation of the governor, A. Grevy, announced " \n\n6 Nov. ,, \n\n* He, with his suite, embarked at Oran, and landed at \nToulon on 28 Dec. following. He was removed to the \ncastle of Amboise, near Tours, 2 Nov. 1848, and released \nfrom his confinement by Louis Napoleon, 16 Oct. 1852, \nafter swearing on the Koran never to disturb Africa \nagain ; he was to reside henceforward at Broussa, in Asia \nMinor; but in consequence of the earthquake \'at that \nplace, 28 Feb. 1855, he removed to Constantinople. In \nJuly, i860, Abd-el-Kader held the citadel of Damascus, \nand there protected many of the Christians whom he \nhad rescued from the massacres then in perpetration by \nthe Turks. He received honours from the English", \nFrench, and Sardinian sovereigns. He visited Paris and \nLondon in Aug. 1865. He offered to serve in the French \narmy in July, 1870. He died May, 1S83, aged 76. \n\n\n\nALHAMA. \n\n\n\n32 \n\n\n\nALKMAER. \n\n\n\nM. Tirman appointed Dec. 1881 \n\nTopographical expedition attacked, 40 said to be \n\nkilled April, 1882 \n\nThe province Mzab annexed to Algeria, announced \n\nDec. ,, \nSubmission of insurgents announced . 13 June, 1883 \nPlague of locusts ... . July, 1888-91 \n\nThe chamber of deputies, Paris, direct the appoint- \nk ment to inquire respecting Algerian political \n\naffairs 5 March, 1891 \n\nResignation of M. Louis Tirman, ten years governor, \n\nMarch ; succeeded by M. Jules Cambon, arrived \n\n11 May, ,, \nRebellion of the Ameurs tribe at Ain Sefra, reported \n\n23 Dec. ,, \n\nALHAMA, a town of Granada, S. Spain, de- \nstroyed by an earthquake, 25 Dec. 1884 ; 5 churches, \n5 convents, and other buildings thrown down ; re- \nported deaths above 300. \n\nALHAMBEA, a Moorish palace and fortress \nnear Granada, S. Spain, founded by Mohammed I. \nof Granada about 1253. It was surrendered to the \nChristians aboutNov. 1491. The remains have been \ndescribed in a magnificent work by Owen Jones and \nJules Goury, published 1842-5. A fac-simile of a \npart of this palace in the Crystal Palace at Syden- \nham, was destroyed by the fire, 30 Dec. 1866. By \na fire at the Alhambra, near Granada, the roof of \nthe Sala de la Barca was destroyed ; except the court \nof the Albevca, other courts were uninjured \n15, 16 Sept. 1890.\xe2\x80\x94 The Panopticon (which see) was \nopened as a circus, &c, under the name of Alhambra, \nin March, 1858. The Alhambra Palace Company, \nincorporated in July 1863, applied for dissolution \nin Jan. 1865. The Royal Alhambra Theatre was \ndetroyed by fire, 7 Dec. 1882 : 2 firemen lost their \nlives ; reopened, 3 Dec. 1883. \n\nALI, SECT OF (Shiites, orFatimites). Ali, born \nabout 598,married Mahomet\' s daughter Fatima, about \n619; became vizier, 614; and caliph, 656. Ali was \ncalled by the prophet, " the lion of God, always \nvictorious ; " and the Pei-sians follow the interpre- \ntation of the Koran according to Ali, while other \nMahometans adhere to that of Abubeker and Omar. \nAli was assassinated 23 Jan. 661.* \n\nALIENS or FOREIGNERS, were banished in \n\n1 155, being thought too numerous. In 1343 they \n\nwere excluded from enjoying ecclesiastical benefices. \n\nBy 2 Rich. II. st. 1, 1378, they were much relieved. \n\nWhen they were to be tried criminally, the juries \n\nwere to be half foreigners, if they so desired, 1430. \n\nThey were restrained from exercising any trade of \n\nhandicraft by retail, 1483, a prohibition which was \n\nrelaxed in 1663. \n\nAlien priories (cells and estates belonging to foreign per- \nsons) suppressed in England, 1414. \n\nThe Alien Act passed, Jan. 1793. \n\nAct to register aliens, 1795. \n\nBaron Geramb, a fashionable foreigner, known at court, \nordered out of England, 6 April, 1812. \n\nBill to abolish naturalisation by the holding of stock in \nthe banks of Scotland, June, 1820. \n\nNew registration act, 7 George IV. 1826. This last act \nwas repealed and another statute passed, 6 Will. IV. \n\nThe rigour of the alien laws was mitigated by acts passed \nin 1844 and 1847. . \n\n" Foreigners have reclaimed our marshes, drained our \nfens, fished our seas, and built our bridges and har- \nbours." Smiles, 1861. \n\n\n\n* The first four successors of Mahomet\xe2\x80\x94 Abubeker, \nOmar, Othman, and Ali, his chief agents in establishing \nhis religion and extirpating unbelievers, and whom on \nthat account he styled the "cutting swords of God "\xe2\x80\x94all \ndied violent deaths ; and his family was wholly extir- \npated within thirty years after his own decease. \n\n\n\nTheir status defined by the Naturalisation Act, passed \n12 May, 1870. See under Law. \n\nThe votes of some Hanoverians at the Stepney Parlia- \nmentary Election disallowed by the judges 5 April, \n1886. \n\nThe prohibition of aliens holding land in the United \nStates of North America adopted by several western \nstates ; and also stringent restrictions on the employ- \nment of aliens in manufactures, 1885, et seq. \n\nA decree respecting aliens ana immigrants with restric- \ntions was issued in France by President Carnot 2 Oct. \n1888. \n\nALIWAL, a village N. W. India, the site of a \nbattle, 28 Jan. 1846, between the Sikh army under \nsirdar Runjoor Singh Majeethea, 19,000 strong, \nsupported by 68 pieces of cannon, and the Britii-h \nunder sir Harry Smith, 12,000 men with 32 guns. \nThe contest was obstinate, but ended in the defeat \nof the Sikhs, who lost nearly 6000 killed or \ndrowned. \n\nALIZARINE, a crystalline body, the colour- \ning principle of madder, discovered in it by Robi- \nquet and Colin in 1831. Schunck showed that all \nthe finest madder colours contained only alizarine \ncombined with alkalies and fatty acids. Graebe \nand Liebermann obtained anthracene from alizarine \nin 1868, and alizarine from anthracene in 1869. \nThe crystalline body anthracene was discovered in \ncoal oils by Dumas and Laurent in 1832. See \nMadder. \n\nALJUBARROTA, Portugal. Here John I. of \n\nPortugal defeated John I. of Castile, and secured \nhis country\'s independence, 14 Aug. 1385 ; see \nBatalka. \n\nALKAHEST, see Alchemy. \n\nALKALIES (from kali, the Arabic name for \nthe plant from which an alkaline substance was \nfirst procured) are ammonia, potash, soda, and \nlithia. Black discovered the nature of the differ- \nence between caustic and mild alkalies in 1736. \n\nThe fixed alkalies, potash and soda, decomposed, and the \nmetals potassium and sodium formed, by Humphry \nDavy at the Royal Institution, London, 1807. \n\nDr. Ure invented an alkalimeter, 1816. \n\nThe manufacture of alkalies, very extensive in Lanca- \nshire and Cheshire, is based on the decomposition of \ncommon salt (chloride of sodium), by a process in- \nvented by a Frenchman named Nicolas Le Blanc, \nabout 1792 ; his statue set up in Paris, summer, 1885. \n\nMr. Losh obtained crystals of soda from brine about 18 14. \nVarious modifications of these processes are now in \nuse. \n\n"Alkali works," are defined as works for the manufacture \nof alkali, sulphates of soda, sulphate of potash, and in \nwhich muriatic gas is evolved. \n\nMr. Wm. Gossage\'s process for condensing muriatic acid \ngas patented in 1836. \n\nThe " ammonia process " of making soda, invented by \nDyer and Hemming, in 1838 ; patents respecting it \ntaken out by Solvay, 1863, 1867, 1872 ; Gossage, 1854 ; \nSchloesing, 1854, 1858 ; Young, 1871, 1872 ; Weldon, \n1872, 1873 ; and by others. \n\nMr. Walter Weldon received the French Lavoisier medal \nfor his most important improvements in the alkali \nmanufacture, July, 1877. He died of overwork, 20 \nSept. 1885, aged 53. \n\nIn consequence of the injury to vegetation produced by \nthe alkali works in Lancashire and Cheshire, the \nAlkali Works act " for the more effectual condensation \n[of 95 per cent.] of muriatic acid gas " (or hydrochloric \nacid) was passed, 28 July, 1863. It came into opera- \ntion 1 Jan. 1864, proved successful; was re-enacted, \n1868 ; and amended, 1874 and 1881. Mr. James Green- \nwood\'s electrolytic process for the direct production \nof caustic soda and chlorine from common salt re- \nported successful, Jan. 1892. See Chemical Works and \nUnion. \n\nALKMAER, see Bergen. \n\n\n\nALLAHABAD. \n\n\n\nS3 \n\n\n\nALMANACS. \n\n\n\nALLAHABAD (N. W. Hindostan), the "holy \ncity" of the Indian Mahometans, situated at the \njunction of the rivers Jumna and Ganges. The \nprovince of Allahabad was successively subject to \nthe sovereigns of Delhi and Oude, but in 1801 was \npartially and in 1803 wholly incorporated with the \nBritish possessions. By treaty here, Bengal, &c, \nwas ceded to the English in 1765. \xe2\x80\x94 During the \nIndian mutiny several sepoy regiments rose and \nmassacred their officers, 4 June, 1857 ; colonel Neil \nmarched promptly from Benares and suppressed the \ninsurrection. In Nov. 1861, lord Canning made \nthis city the capital of the N. "W". provinces. Visit \nof the Prince of Wales, 7 March, 1874. Population, \n1891, 176,770. \n\nALLEGIANCE, see Oaths. \n\nALLEGORY abounds in the Bible and in \nHomer : see Jacob\'s blessing upon his sons, Genesis \nxlix. (1689 B.C.), Psalm lxxx., and all the prophets. \nSpenser\'s Faerie Queene (1590) and Bunyan\'s Pil- \ngrim\'s Progress (1678) are allegories throughout. \nThe Spectator {i"] 11), by Addison, Steele, and others, \nabounds in allegories. The allegorical interpretation \nof the scriptures is said to have begun with Origen \nin the 3rd century ; but see Gal. iv. 24. \n\nALLEYN, see Almshouses and Dulwich. \n\nALLIA (more correctly Alia), Italy, a small \nriver flowing into the Tiber, where Brennus and \nthe Gauls defeated the Romans, 16 July, 390 B.C. \nThe Gauls sacked Koine and committed so much \ninjury that the day was thereafter held to be un- \nlucky (piefastus), and no public business was per- \nmitted to be done thereon. \n\nALLIANCE, Treaties of, between the high \n\nEuropean powers. The following are the principal : \nsee Coalitions, Conventions, Treaties. \n\nALLIANCE. \n\nOf Leipsic .... 9 April, 1631 \n\nOf Vienna . 27 May, 1657 \n\nThe Triple 28 Jan. 1668 \n\nOf Warsaw 31 March, 1683 \n\nThe Grand 12 May, 1689 \n\nThe Hague 4 Jan. 1717 \n\nThe Quadruple 2 Aug. 1718 \n\nOf Vienna 16 March, 173 1 \n\nOf Versailles 1 May, 1756 \n\nGermanic 23 July, 1785 \n\nOf Paris 16 May, 1795 \n\nOf St. Petersburg 8 April, 1805 \n\nAustrian 14 March, 1812 \n\nOf Sweden 24 March, ,, \n\nOf Toplitz 9 Sept. 1813 \n\nHoly Alliance 26 Sept. 1815 \n\nOf England, France, and Turkey (at Constantinople) \n\n12 Mar. 1854 \nOf England and France ratified . . 3 April, ,, \nOf Sardinia with the Western Powers (at Turin) \n\n26 Jan. 1855 \nOf Sweden with the Western Powers . 19 Dec. ,, \nOf Prussia and Italy . . . . June, 1866 \n\nTriple (of Germany, Austria and Italy, which see) \n\n13 March, 1887 \n\n- ALLISON ISLAND, in the Pacific, dis- \ncovered e <rly in 1887. \n\nALL NIGHT SITTINGS, see Parliament, \n1877 and 1881. \n\nALL SAINTS\' DAY (Nov. 1), or All-Hal- \nlows, a festival said to have been begun by pope \nBoniface IV. about 607, celebrated in the Pan- \ntheon at Rome, and established by pope Gregory IV. \n(about 830) for the commemoration of all those \nsaints and martyrs in whose honour no particular \nday is assigned. The reformers of the English \n\n\n\nchurch, 1549, struck out of their calendar a great \nnumber of anniversaries, leaving only those which \nat their time were connected with popular feeling or \ntradition. \n\nALL SOULS\' COLLEGE, Oxford; see \nOxford. \n\nALL SOULS\' DAY (2 Nov.), a festival of \nthe Roman Catholic church to commemorate the \nsouls of the faithful, instituted, it is said, at Cluny \nabout 993 or iooo. \n\n"ALL THE TALENTS" ADMINIS- \nTRATION, see Grenvtlle Administrations. \n\nALLOBROGES, Gauls, defeated by Q. Fabius \nMaximus, near the confluence of the Rhone and \nSaone, 121 b.c. \n\nALLOTMENTS, see Land. \n\nALMA, a river in the Crimea, near which was \nfought a great battle on 20 Sept. 1854. (See \nRusso- Turkish War and Crimea.) The English, \nFrench, and Turkish army (about 57,000 men) \nmoved out of their first encampment in the Crimea \non 19 Sept., and bivouacked for the night on the \nleft bank of the Bulganac. The Russians (com- \nmanded by prince Menschikoff), mustering 40,000 \ninfantry, had 180 field-pieces on the heights, and on \nthe morning of 20 Sept. were joined by 6000 cavalry \nfrom Theodosia (or Kaffa). The English forces \nunder lord Raglan, consisted of 26,000 men; the \nFrench of 24,000, under marshal St. Arnaud. At \n12 o\'clock the signal to advance was made; the \nriver Alma was crossed, while prince Napoleon took \npossession of the village under the fire of the \nRussian batteries ; and at 4, after a sanguinary fight, \nthe allies were completely victorious. The enemy, \nutterly routed, threw away their arms and knap- \nsacks in their flight, having lost about 5000 men, of \nwhom 900 were made prisoners, mostly wounded. \nThe loss of the British was 26 officers and 327 men \nkilled, and 73 officers and 1539 men wounded \n(chiefly from the 23rd, 7th, and 33rd regiments) ; \nthat of the French, 3 officers and 233 men killed, \nand 54 officers and 1033 men wounded. Total loss \nof the allies about, 3400. \xc2\xbb \n\nALMACK\'S ASSEMBLY-ROOMS, King- \nstreet, St. James\'s, London, at first very exclusive, \nwere erected by a Scotchman named Almack or \nM\'Call, and opened 12 Feb. 1765. They have \nlong been termed Willis\'s rooms from the name \nof later proprietors ; they were offered for sale in \nApril and July, 1890. \n\nALMANACS (from the Arabic al manah, to \ncount ; or better, the Coptic al, computation, and \nmen, memory) . The Egyptians computed time by in- \nstruments ; the Alexandrians had almanacs, and log \ncalendars are ancient. In the British Museum and \nuniversities are specimens of early almanacs. Mi- \nchael Nostradamus, the astrologer, wrote an almanac \nin the style of Merlin, 1556. Dufresnoy. Profes- \nsor Augustus De Morgan\'s valuable " Book of \nAlmanacs, with an index of reference, by which the \nalmanac may be found for every year," was pub- \nlished in March, 185 1.* Among the earlier and \nmore remarkable almanacs were \n\n\n\nJohn Somer\'s Calendar, written in Oxford \nOne in Lambeth Palace, written in \n\n\n\n1380 \n1460 \n\n\n\n* Murphy\'s Almanack for 1838 predicted correctly a \nfrost on 7 Jan. ; thaw and frost 14th ; severe frost 2lst, \nand then thaw. A great sale of the almanac ensued. \nAfterwards the predictions failed. \n\nI> \n\n\n\nALMANZA. \n\n\n\n34 \n\n\n\nALPHABET. \n\n\n\nFirst printed one, published at Buda . . . 1472 \n1 Shepheard\'s Kalendar," (first printed in England) \n\nby Richard Pynson 1407 \n\nTybalt\'s Prognostications 1533 \n\nAlmanac Liegeois 1636 \n\nLilly\'s Ephemeris 1644 \n\nPoor Robin\'s Almanac 1652 \n\nBritish Merlin 1658 \n\nConnaissance des Temps (by Picard) . . . 1679 \n\nEdinburgh Almanac 1683 \n\nMoore\'s Almanac 1698 or 1713 \n\nLady\'s Diary . . . . . . . . 1705 \n\nSeason on the Seasons 1735 \n\nGentleman\'s Diary 1741 \n\nNautical Almanac, begun by Dr. Neville Maskelyne \n\n(materially improved, 1834) 1767 \n\nBritish Imperial Kalendar 1809 \n\nHone\'s Every Pay Book 1826 \n\nBritish Almanac and Companion .... 1828 \nAnniversary Calendar, published by W. Kidd . . 1832 \n\nChambers\' Book of Days 1862-63 \n\nWhitaker\'s Almanack 1869 \n\nMr. F. Mayer\'s International Almanac for- 1890, in \nfive languages, published . . . Dec. 1889 \nThe Stationers\' company claimed the exclusive right \nof publishing almanacs in virtue of letters patent from \nJames I., granting the privilege to them and the two \nUniversities ; but the monopoly was broken up by a \ndecision of the Court of Common Pleas in 1775. A bill \nto renew the privilege was lost in 1779. \n\nThe Stamp Duty on English almanacs first imposed in \n1 710, was abolished in August, 1834; since when alma- \nnacs have become innumerable, being issued by trades- \nmen with their goods. \n\nOf Moore\'s (under the management of Henry Andrews, \nthe able computer of the Nautical Ephemeris) at one \ntime upwards of 430,000 copies were annually sold. He \ndied in 1820. \n\nOf Foreign Almanacs, the principal are the " Alrnanaeh \nde Prance," first published in 1699, and the " Almanach \nde Gotha," 1764. \n\nALMANZA (S. E. Spain). Here on 25 April \n\n(o. s. 14), 1707, the English, Hutch, and Portuguese \nforces under the earl of Galwa}\', were totally de- \nfeated by the French and Spanish commanded by \nJames Fitzjames, duke of Berwick (illegitimate son \nof James II.). Most of the English were killed \nor made prisoners, having been abandoned by the \nPortuguese at the first charge. \n\nALMEIDA (Portugal), a frontier town, cap- \ntured by Massena, 27 Aug. 1810. The French \nentered Spain, leaving a garrison at Almeida, \nblockaded by the English, 6 April, 181 1. Almeida \nwas retaken by Wellington (11 May), and Massena \nretired from Portugal. \n\nALMENARA, a village N. E. Spain, whereon \n28 July, 1 7 10, an English and German army de- \nfeated the Spanish army supporting Philip V., the \ngrandson of Louis XIV. of France. Stanhope, the \nEnglish general, killed the Spanish general, Ame- \nzaga, in single conflict ; an act almost unexampled \nin modern warfare. \n\nALMOHADES, Mahometan partisans, fol- \nlowers of Mohammed ben Abdalla, surnamed El- \nMehedi, in Africa, about 1120. They subdued \nMorocco, 1 145; entered Spain and took Seville, \nCordova, and Granada, 1146-56; and founded a \ndynasty and ruled Spain till 1232, and Africa till \n\n\n\nALMONER, an office anciently allotted to a \ndignified clergyman who gave the first dish from the \nroyal table to the poor, or an alms in money. By an \nancient canon all bishops were required to keep \nalmoners. The grand almoner of France was the \nhighest ecclesiastical dignity in that kingdom before \nthe revolution, 1789. Queen Victoria\'s almoner \n(Very Bev . lord Alwyne Compton, dean of Worcester, \n\n\n\nappointed in 1882) or fhe sub-almoner distributes the \nqueen\'s gifts on Maundy Thursday (which see). \n\nALMQRAVIDES, Mahometan partisans in \nAfrica, rose about 1050 ; entered Spain by invita- \ntion, 1086; were overcome by the Almohades in \n1 147. \n\nALMSHOUSES for aged and infirm persons \nhave been erected by many public companies and \nbenevolent individuals, particularly since the- \nabolition of religious houses at the Reformation in \nthe 16th century. A list of them, with useful infor- \nmation, will be found in " Low\'s Charities of Lon- \ndon," 1862 ; frequently re-published. \n\nArmourers\' almshouses, Bishopsgate . . . 1553 \n\nCornelius Van Dun founded the Red Lion alms- \nhouses, Westminster 1577 \n\nEmmanuel College, Westminster, founded by Lady \nDacre 159* \n\nAlleyn\'s almshouses, near City road, founded by \nE. Alleyn 1620 \n\nWhittington\'s almshouses founded in 1621, were \nrebuilt near Highgate-hill by the Mercers\' com- \npany 1826 \n\nThe Fishmongers\' company founded almshouses \nin 1618, and rebuilt them on Wandsworth com- \nmon 1850 \n\nHaberdashers\' almshouses, Hoxton, founded by \nRobert Aske 1692 \n\nDame Owen\'s almshouses, Islington, built in 1613, \n(in gratitude for her escape from an arrow-shot), \nwere rebuilt by the Brewers\' company . . . 1839 \n\nBancroft\'s almshouses, Mile End, were erected . . 1735 \n\nThe London almshouses, in commemoration of the \npassing of the Reform Bill, built at Brixton . 1833 \n\nNumerous almshouses since erected for printers, \nbookbinders, &c. \n\nALNEY, an island in the Severn, near Glouces- \nter. Here a combat is asserted to have taken place \nbetween Edmund Ironside and Canute the Great, \nin sight of their armies, 1016. The latter was \nwounded, and proposed a division of the kingdom, \nthe south part falling to Edmund. Edmund was \nmurdered at Oxford shortly after, it is said by \niEdric Streon ; and Canute obtained possession oi \nthe whole kingdom. \n\nALNWICK (Saxon Ealnwic), on the river \nAlne in Northumberland, was given at the conquest \nto Ivo de Vesci. It has long belonged to the Percies. \nMalcolm, king of Scotland, besieged Alnwick, and \nhe and his sons were killed 13 Nov. 1093. It was \ntaken by David I. in 1136, and attempted in July, \n1 1 74, by William the Lion, who was defeated and \ntaken prisoner. It was burnt by king John in 1215, \nand by the Scots in 1448. Since 1854 the castle has \nbeen repaired and enlarged with great taste and at \nunsparing expense. \n\nALPACA (or Paco), a species of the S.Ameri- \ncan quadruped, the Llama, the soft hairy wool of \nwhich is now largely employed in the fabrication of \ncloths. It was introduced into this country about \n1836, by the earl of Derby. An alpaca factory \n(covering II acres), with a town, park, almshouses, \n&c, for the workpeople, was erected at Saltaire, \nnear Shipley, Yorkshire, by Mr. (afterwards sir) \nTitus Salt in 1852. A statue of him at Bradford \nwas unveiled 1 Aug. 1874. He died 29 Dec. 1876. \nSaltaire visited by the prince and princess of Wales \n22 June, 1882. \n\nThe Royal Yorkshire Jubilee Exhibition at Saltaire \nopened by the Princess Beatrice . . 6 May, 1887 \n\nALPHABET, so called from the first two \nGreek letters alpha, beta (Hebrew aleph, belli). \nThe statements- that Cadmus broughtthe Phoonecian \nletters from Egypt into Greece, and that Moses \n\n\n\nALPHONSINE TABLES. \n\n\n\n35 \n\n\n\nALUM. \n\n\n\nbrought them into Palestine are legendary. Dr. \nIsaac Taylor\'s learned work, " The Alphabet," was \npublished May, 1883. \n\nNearly 200 alphabets are known, of which about 50 are \nin use, mostly developed from the Phcenecian alphabet \nitself, said to have been derived from the Egyptian \nhieroglyphic picture writing ; the Roman alphabet \nwas based upon the Greek. The alphabets of the \ndifferent nations contain the following number of \nletters : \xe2\x80\x94 \n\n\n\nEnglish. \n\n\n. 26 \n\n\nArabic .... \n\n\n28 \n\n\nFrench . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x96\xa0 2 5 \n\n\nPersian . . . . \n\n\n32 \n\n\nItalian . \n\n\n22 \n\n\nTurkish \n\n\n28 \n\n\nSpanish . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 27 \n\n\nSanscrit . . . . \n\n\n44 \n\n\nGerman. \n\n\n. 26 \n\n\nChinese radical charac- \n\n\n\n\nSlavonic . \n\n\n. . 42 \n\n\nters .... \n\n\n214 \n\n\nRussian \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 35 \n\n\nChinese alphabet said \n\n\n\n\nLatin \n\n\n22 \n\n\nto be invented by \n\n\n\n\nGreek . \n\n\n. 24 \n\n\nbishop Eligius Cosi \n\n\n\n\nHebrew . \n\n\n22 \n\n\nof Canton (1 88c) \n\n\n33 \n\n\n\nALPHONSLSTE TABLES, astronomical \ntables, composed by Spanish and Arab astronomers, \nand collected in 1253 under the direction of Alphui.- \nso X. of Castile, surnamed the Wise, who is said \nto have expended upwards of 400,000. crowns in \ncompleting the work ; he himself wrote the preface. \nThe Spanish government ordered the work of Al- \nphonso to be reprinted from the best MSS. ; the \npublication began in 1863. \n\nALPS, European mountains. Those between \nFrance and Italy were passed b} r Hannibal, 218 \nB.C., by the Romans, 154 B.C., and by Napoleon I. \nMay, 1800. Roads over Mont Cenis and the \nSimplon, connecting France and Italy, were con- \nstructed by order of Napoleon, between 1801-6 ; see \nSimplon. The "Alpine Club," which consists \nof British travellers in the Alps, was founded \nin 1858, and published its first work, "Peaks, \nPasses, and Glaciers," 1859; and a journal since. \nMr. John Bali, F.R.S.,long the able first president, \nand author of excellenf\'Guides," died 21 Oct., 1889. \nSee Jungfrau, J\\[atterhom. An International Alpine \nCongress opened at Salzburg 14 Aug. 1882. \n\nMont Cenis or Col de Frejus Tunnel. \xe2\x80\x94 A tunnel, 7J miles \nlong through mont Cenis, connecting Savoy and \nPiedmont, was proposed by M. Medail, and, after long \nlying dormant, was discussed and plans drawn up in \n1848. The execution was prevented by the war of \n1849. \n\nThe work of excavation was begun by king Victor \nEmmanuel, 31 Aug. 1857. \n\nThe boring was at first effected by ordinary piercing \nmachinery ; steam power was employed in i860 ; and \nlatterly compressed air. \n\nEngineers \xe2\x80\x94 Grattoni, Grandis, and Somineiller ; the \nboring was completed, 25 Doc. 1870. \n\nThe total cost was about 2,6oo,oooL As the Italians had \nexecuted the work within the given time, the French \ngovernment bore the chief expense. \n\nThe first experimental trip was made in 40 minutes, 13 \nSept. , and the tunnel was solemnly inaugurated by the \npassage of 22 carriages in 20 minutes, 17 Sept. 1871 ; \nregular trains pass through, 16 Oct. 1871. \n\nA railway for locomotives over mont Cenis was con- \nstructed upon Mr. Fell\'s plan in 1867 (see Railways), \nand opened for traffic, 15 June, 1868. \n\nThe overland mail first travels tlrrough the tunnel to \nBriudisi, saving 24 hours, 5 Jan. 1872. \n\nSt. Gotlmrd Tunnel (part of a railway system to connect \nthe North Sea and the Mediterranean), about g\\ miles ; \ncompressed air employed in boring ; begun June, \n1872 ; completed 29 Feb. 1880 ; through failure in \nvaulting, May, 1880, opening deferred. \n\nThe first complete train, carrying one hundred passengers, \npassed through the St. Gothard Tunnel in 50 minutes, \n1 Nov. 1881 ; partially opened 1 Jan. 1882 ; completely \nopened June, 1882. \n\nALRESFORD, battle of, or Cheriton, which \nsee. \n\n\n\nALSACE, ELSASS, formerly part of the king- \ndom of Austrasia, afterwards the French depart- \nments of the Upper and Lower Rhine. It was \nincorporated with the German empire in the 10th \ncentury. A portion was restored to Franco, 1648, \nand the whole, including Strasburg, in 1697. Alsace \nwas re-conquered by the Germans, Aug. -Sept. 1870; \nand annexed to their empire, Ma}\', 1871; bylaw, \n9 June, 1871. The Alsatians were permitted to \nchoose their nationality, before 30 Sept. 1872. Many \nemigrated into France, with much regret. \xe2\x80\x94 Alsace- \nLobuaine was constituted a province of the Ger- \nman empire, having been ceded bv France by the \ntreaty of peace concluded 10 May, 1871, see Belfort. \nThe province sends 15 members to the German \nparliament. Administrators, prince Bismarck, 1871 ; \nfield-marshal Manteuffel, I Oct. 1879 ; prince \nHohenlohe, July, 1885. Population of Alsace- \nLorraine, 1885, 1,564,355; 1890, i,eo;,i07. See \nGermany, 1887, and Straslurg. The emperor \nWilliam II. visited the province 20 Aug. et seq. f \n1889. The stringent passport regulations greatly \nrelaxed 1 Oct. 1891. \n\nALSATIA, a name given to the precinct of \nWhitefriars, London, is described in Scott\'s " For- \ntunes of Nigel." its privilege of sanctuary was \nabolished in 1697. \n\nALSEN (Denmark), besieged by the Prussians, \nand heroically defended, 26 June; taken, 29 June, \n1864. \n\nALTAR. One was built by Noah, 2348 B.C. ; \n3154 Hales; 2481 Clinton {Gen. viii. 20) ; others \nby Abraham, 1921 {Gen. xii. 8). Directions for \nmaking an altar are given, Exod. xx. 14, 1491 B.C. \nThe erection of altars in Greece is n ythically \nassigned to Cecrops. The term " altar" was early \napplied to the table used in the celebration of the \nLord\'s Supper in Chiistian churches {Hcb. xiii. 10). \nSince the time of Elizabeth there has been much \ncontroversy on the subject, and the Puritans in the \ncivil war destroyed many of the ancient stone altars, \nsubstituting wooden tables. In Jan. 1845 it was \ndecided in the Arches Court that stone altars were \nnot to be erected in English churches. \n\nALTENKIRCHEN (Prussia). The French, \nwho had defeated the Austrians here, 4 June, 1796, \nwere themselves defeated, and their general, Mai- \nceau, killed, 19 Sept. following. \n\nALTER EGO {another or second J), a term \napplied to Spanish viceroys when exercising regal \npower; used at Naples when the crown prince was \nappointed vicar-general during an insurrection in \nJuly, 1820. \n\nALTONA (Holstein, N. Germany), acquired by \nthe Danes, 1660, and made a city, 1664. It was \noccupied first by the German federal troops, 24 Dec. \n1863, and then by the Prussians (the federal diet \nprotesting) 12 Feb. 1864. \n\nALT-RANSTADT (Prussia), where the treaty \nof peace dictated by Charles XII. of Sweden, to Frede- \nrick Augustus of Poland, was signed, 24 Sept. 1706, \no.s. Frederick, deposed in 1704, regained the throne \nof Poland after the defeat of Charles XII., in 1 709. \n\nALUM, a salt, is said to have been first dis- \ncovered at Roccha, in Syria, about 1300; it was \nfound in Tuscany about 1470; its manufacture was \nbrought to perfection in England by sir T. Chal- \nloner, who established large alum works near Whitby \nin 1608 ; it was discovered in Ireland in 1757 ; and \nin Anglesey in 1790. Alum is used as a mordant in \n\nD 2 \n\n\n\nALUMBAGH. \n\n\n\n36 \n\n\n\nAMBASSADOES. \n\n\n\ndyeing, to harden tallow, to whiten bread, and in \nthe paper manufacture. \n\nMessrs. Peter Spenee & Sons produced a colossal \ncrystal of alum weighing over eight tons . April, 1886 \n\nALUMBAGH, a palace with other buildings \nnear Lucknow, Oude, India, taken during the mu- \ntiny from the rebels, 23 Sept. 1857, and heroically \ndefended by the British under sir James Outram. \nHe defeated an attack of 30,000 sepoys on 12 Jan. \n1858, and of 20,000 on 21 Feb., and was relieved by \nsir Colin Campbell in March. \n\nALUMINIUM, a metal, the base of the earth \nalumina, which is combined with silica in clay, and \nwhich was shown to be a distinct earth by JVIarg- \ngraff in 1754, having been previously confounded \nwith lime. Oerstedt in 1826 obtained the chloride \nof aluminium ; and in 1827 the metal itself was got \nfrom it by F. Wohler, but was long a scientific \ncuriosity, the process being expensive. The mode \nof production was afterwards simplified by Bunsen \nand others, more especially by H. Ste. - Claire \nDeville, who in 1856 succeeded in procuring \nconsiderable quantities of this metal by the \naid of the metal sodium.* It is very light \n(sp. g. 2\'25), malleable, and sonorous; when pure \ndoes not rust, and is not acted on by sulphur or \nany acid except hydrochloric. In March, 1856, it \nwas 31?. the ounce; in June, 1857, us. or 12*., and \nit gradually became much cheaper. The eagles of \nthe French colours have been made of it, and many \notherornamental and useful articles. Deville\'swork, \n"De 1\' Aluminium," was published in 1859. An \naluminium manufactory was established at New- \ncastle in i860, by Messrs. Bell. They obtain the \nmetal from a French mineral, bauxite. Their alu- \nminium bronze, an alloy of copper and aluminium, \ninvented by Dr. John Percy, F.R.S., was made into \nwatch cases, &c, by Messrs. Keid of Newcastle, in \n1862. The production of aluminium has been very \ngreatly increased by the use of Mr. Eugene Cowles\' \nelectric furnace and the use of powerful dynamo- \nmachines: aluminium bronze is thus largely pro- \nduced, 1886-9. -A- company for the purpose was \nformed in the United States. \n\nMr. H. Y. Castner\'s aluminium works at Oldbury near \nBirmingham in successful operation, May 1889. Price \nof aluminium 20s. a pound (1889). See Sodium. \n\nAMADIS OF GAUL, a Spanish or Portuguese \nromance, stated to have been written about 1342 by \nVasco de Lobeira. It was enlarged by De Mont- \nalvo, about 1485 ; and first printed (in Spanish) \n1519; in French, 1540-56. \n\nAMALE KITES (descendants of Amalek, \ngrandson of Esau, brother of Jacob) attacked the \nIsraelites, 1491 B.C., when perpetual war was de- \nnounced against them. They were subdued by Saul \nabout 1079, by David, 1058 and 1056; and by the \nSimeonites about 715 B.C. \n\nAMALFI, a city on the gulf of Salerno, Naples, \nin the 8th century became the seat of a republic, \nand flourished by its commerce till 1075, when it \nwas taken by Roger Guiscard, and eventually incor- \nporated with Naples. The Pisans, in their sack of \nthe town in 1135, are said to have found a copy ot \nthe Pandects of Justinian, and thus to have induced \nthe revival of the study of Roman law in Western \nEurope ; the story is now doubted. Flavio Gioia, \na native of Amalfi, is the reputed discoverer of the \nmariner\'s compass, about 1302. \n\n\n\n* A cheaper method of procuring this metal was pa- \ntented by Mr. Webster, of Hollywood, near Birmingham, \nin 1882. \n\n\n\nAMATEUR MECHANICAL SOCIETY \n\n(89, Stamford Street), issued its first prospectus, \nI Jan. 1869. \n\nAMATONGALAND, between Zululand and \nthe Portuguese possessions, South Africa. A \ndeputation from Queen Zambila solicits protection \nof England from the Boers, and the prohibition of \nthe liquor traffic, Nov. -Dec. 1887. \n\nAMAZON, West India mail steam ship, left \nSouthampton on her first voyage, Friday, 2 Jan. \n1852, and on Sunday morning, Jan. 4, was destroyed \nby fire at sea, about no miles W.S.W. of Scilly \n(ascribed to the spontaneous ignition of combustible \nmatter placed near the engine-room). Out of 161 \npersons on board, 102 persons must have perished \nby fire or drowning. 21 persons were saved by the \nlife-boat of the ship ; 25 more were carried into \nBrest harbour by a Dutch vessel passing by; and \n13 others were picked up in the bay of Biscay, also \nby a Dutch galliot. Eliot Warburton, a distin- \nguished writer in general literature, was among \nthose lost. \n\nAMAZON, a river (S. America), was discovered \nby Pinzon, in 1500, and explored by Francisco Orel- \nlana, in 1540. Comingfrom Peru, he sailed down the \nAmazon te the Atlantic, and observing companies \nof women in arms on its bank, he called the country \nAmazonia, and gave the name of Amazon to the \nriver, previously called Marafion. \n\nAMAZONS- Three nations of Amazons have \nbeen mentioned \xe2\x80\x94 the Asiatic, Scythian, and African. \nThey are mythically said to have been the descend- \nants of Scythians inhabiting Cappadocia, where \ntheir husbands, having made incursions, were all \nslain, being surprised in ambuscades by their enemies. \nTheir widows formed a female state, and decreed \nthat matrimony was a shameful servitude. Quintus \nCurtius. They were said to have been conquered by \nTheseus. The Amazons were constantly employed \nin wars; and that they might throw the javelin \nwith more force, their right breasts were burned off, \nwhence their name from the Greek, a, no, mazos, \nbreast. Others derive the name from maza, the \nmoon, which they are supposed to have worshipped. \nAbout 330 B.C. their queen, Thalestris, visited Alex- \nander the Great, whilst he was pursuing his con- \nquests in Asia, with three hundred females in her \ntrain. Herodotus. For modern amazons, see Daho- \nmey. \n\nAMBASSADORS. Accredited agents, and \nrepresentatives from one court to another, are re- \nferred to in early ages. In most countries they have \ngreat privileges; and in England, they and their \nservants are secured against ai-rest. England has \nseven ambassadors (at Berlin, Constantinople, \nMadrid, Paris, Rome, St. Petersburg, Vienna), \ntwenty-six ministers, and about thirty chief \nconsuls, resident at foreign courts, exclusive of \ninferior agents ; the ambassadors and other chief \nagents from abroad at the court of London in 1865, \nwere 47 ; in 1868, 43 ; in 1872, 42 ; in 1878, 39 ; in \n1889, 43. \n\nThe Russian ambassador being imprisoned for debt by \na lace-merchant, 27 Jul}\', 1708, led to the passing the \nstatute of 7 Anne, for the protection of ambassadors, \n1708. \nTwo men, convicted of arresting the servant of an am- \nbassador, were sentenced to be conducted to the house \nof the ambassador, with a label on their breasts, to ask \nhis pardon, and then one of them to be imprisoned \nthree months, and the other fined, 12 May, 1780. \nThe first ambassador from the United States of America \nto England, John Adams, presented to the king, 1 June, \n1785 ; the first from Great Britain to America was \nMr. Hammond, in 1791. \n\n\n\nAMBER. \n\n\n\n37 \n\n\n\nAMERICA. \n\n\n\nA Japanese minister received by the queen, 3 March, \n\n1875. \nThe first accredited ambassador from China, Kus-ta-Jen, \n\nlanded at Southampton, 21 Jan. 1877. \nIn the case of Sir H. Macartney, secretary to the Chinese \n\nlegation v. the Vestry of Marylebone, the Queen\'s \n\nBench decided that the plaintiff was free from parish \n\nrates and taxes, 24 Feb. 1890. \n\nAMBER, a carbonaceous mineral,* principally \nfound in the northern parts of Europe, of great \nrepute in the world from the earliest time ; esteemed \nas a medicine before the Christian era : Theophrastus \nwrote upon it; 300 B.C. Upwards of 150 tons of \namber have been found in one year on the sands of \nthe shore near Pillau. Phillips. \n\nAMBLE F, near Cologne, Germany. Here \nCharles Martel defeated Chilperic II., and Ragen- \nfroi, mayor of the Neustrians, 716. \n\nAMBOISE (Central France). A conspiracy \nof the Huguenots against Francis II., Catherine de \nMedicis, and the Guises, w as suppressed at this \nplace in Jan. 1560. On 19 March, 1563, the Paci- \nfication of Amboise was published, granting tole- \nration to the Huguenots. The civil war was \nhowever soon renewed. \n\nAMBOYNA, chief of the Molucca isles, dis- \ncovered about 1512 by the Portuguese, but not \nwholly occupied by them till 1580. It was taken \nby the Dutch in 1605. \'1 he English factors at this \nsettlement were cruelly tortured and put to death, \n17 Feb. 1623-4, bv the Dutch, on an accusation of a \nconspiracy to expel them from the island, where the \ntwo nations jointly shared in the pepper trade of \nJava. Cromwell compelled the Dutch to give a sum \nof money to the descendants of the sufferers. Am- \nboyna was seized by the English, 16 Feb. 1796, but \nwas restored by the treaty of Amiens, in 1802. It \nwas again seized by the British, 17-19 Feb. 1810 ; \nand again restored at the peace of May, 1814. \n\nAMBROSIAL CHANT, see Chant, Liturgy, \n&c. \n\nAMBULANCE ASSOCIATION, see \nunder John\'s, St. \nFirst "ambulance ship "(for small-pox convalescents), \n\nBed Cross, constructed for Metropolitan Asylums Board, \n\nlaunched at Millwall, 8 Aug. 1883. \n\nAMEN, an ancient Hebrew word meaning true, \nfaithful, certain, is used in the Jewish and Chris- \ntian assemblies, at the conclusioa of prayer : see \n1 Cor. xiv., 16 (a.d. 59). It is translated "verily" \nin the Gospels. \n\nAMENDE HONORABLE, in France, in the \n9th century, was a punishment inflicted on traitors \nand sacrilegious persons : the offender was delivered \nto the hangman : his shirt was stripped off, a rope \nput round his neck, and a taper in his hand ; he \nwas then led into court, and was obliged to beg \npardon of God and the country. Death or banish- \nment sometimes followed. These words also denote \na recantation in open court, or in presence of the \ninjured person. \n\nAMERCEMENT, in Law, a fine assessed for \nan offence done, or pecuniary punishment at the \nmercy of the court : thus differing from a fine di- \nrected and fixed by a statute. By Magna Charta, \n1215, a freeman cannot be amerced for a small fault, \n\n* Much diversity of opinion still prevails among \nnaturalists and chemists respecting the origin of amber. \nIt is considered by Berzelius to have been a resin dis- \nsolved in volatile oil. It often contains delicately-formed \ninsects. Sir D. Brewster concludes it to be indurated \nvegetable juice. When rubbed it becomes electrical, and \nfrom its Greek name, elektron, the term Electricity is \nderived. \n\n\n\nbut in proportion to the offence he has committed; \nthe mode was determined by 9 Hen. III., 1225. \n\nAMERICA, * the great Western Continent, is \nabout 9000 miles long, with an area of about \n16,500,000 square miles. It is now believed to have \nbeen visited by the Norsemen or Vikings in the 10th \nand nth centuries; but the modern discovery is due \nto the sagacity and courage of the Genoese navigator, \nChristopher Columbus. -f See Chicago. \nColumbus sailed on his first expedition from Palos \nin Andalusia on Friday, with vessels supplied by \nthe sovereigns of Spain .... 3 Aug. 1492 \nHe lands on the island of Guanahani, one of the \nBahamas ; takes possession of it in the name of \nFerdinand and Isabella of Castile, and names it \nSan Salvador .... Friday, 12 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nHe discovers Cuba, 28 Oct. : and Hispaniola (now \nHayti), whe e hi builds a fort, Li Navidad, 6 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nHe returns to Spain 15 March, 1493 \n\nHe sails from Cadiz on his second expedition, \n25 Sept. ; discovers the Caribbee Isles, \xe2\x80\x94 Dominica, \n3 Nov. ; Guadaloupe, 4\' Nov. ; Antigua, 10 Nov. ; \nfounds Isabella in Hispaniola, the first Christian \ncity in the New World .... Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nHe discovers Jamaica, 3 May ; and Evangelista (now \nIsle of Pines), 13 June ; war with the natives of \n\nHispaniola 1494 \n\nHe visits the various isles, and explores their coasts \n\n1495-6 \nReturns to Spain to meet the charges of his enemies \n\n11 June, 1496 \n\nCabot (sent out by Henry VII. of England) discovers \n\nLabrador on the coast of North America [he is \n\nerroneously said to have discovered Florida, and \n\nalso Newfoundland, and to have named it Prima \n\nVista] 24 June, 1497 \n\nColumbus sails on his third voyage, 30 May ; dis- \ncovers Trinidad, 31 July ; lands on Terra Firma, \nwithout knowing it to be the new continent, \n\nnaming it Isla Santa 1 Aug. 1498 \n\nOjeda discovers Surinam, June ; and the gulf of \n\nVenezuela 1499 \n\nVicente Yaiiez Pinzon discovers Brazil, South Ame- \nrica, 26 Jan. ; and the river Marafion(the Amazon); \nCabral the Portuguese lands in Brazil (see Brazil) \n\n3 May, 1500 \n\nGaspar Cortereal discovers Labrador , \n\nColumbus is imprisoned in chains at San Domingo \nby Bobadilla, sent out to investigate into his con- \nduct, May ; conveyed to Spain, where he is honour- \nably received 17 Dec. ,, \n\n* The name is derived from Amerigo Vespucci, a Floren- \ntine merchant, who died in 1512. He accompanied Ojeda \nin his voyage on the eastern coast in 1498 ; and described \nthe country in letters sent to his friend\'s in Italy. He is \ncharged with presumptuously inserting " Tierra de Ame- \nrigo" in his maps. Irving discusses the question in the \nAppendix to the Life of. Columbus, but comes to no con- \nclusion. Humboldt asserts that the name was given to \nthe continent in the popular works of Waldseemuller,\' a \nGerman geographer, without the knowledge of Vespucci. \nTo America we are indebted, among other things, for \nmaize, the turkey, the potato, Peruvian bark, and \ntobacco. \n\nt Christophoro Columbo was born about 1445 : first \nwent to sea about 1460 ; settled at Lisbon in 1470, where \nhe married Felipa, the daughter of Perestrello, an Italian \nnavigator ; whereby he obtained much geographical know- \nledge. He is said to have laid the plans of his voyage of \ndiscovery before the republic of Genoa, in 1485, and \nother powers, and finally before the court of Spain, where \nat length the queen Isabella became his patron. After \nundergoing much ingratitude and cruel persecution from \nhis own followers and the Spanish court, he died on \n20 May, 1506 ; and was buried with much pomp at Valla- \ndolid. His remains were transferred, in 1513, to Seville ; \nin 1536 to San Domingo ; and in Jan. 1796 to the Havanna, \nCuba. The original inscription on his tomb is said to \nhave been : " A Castilla y a Leon Nuevo Mundo dio \nColon." "To Castile and Leon Colon gave a New World." \nHumboldt says beautifully, that the success of Columbus \nwas "a conquest of reflection!" It was stated in Nov. \n1890, that Columbus\' log-book had been fished up from \nthe sea. \n\n\n\nAMEEICA. \n\n\n\n38 \n\n\n\nAMERICANISMS. \n\n\n\nColumbus sails on his fourth voyage, g May ; dis- \ncovers various isles on the coast of Honduras, \nand explores the coast of the isthmus, July, \n<fcc. ; discovers and names Porto Bello . 2 Nov. 1502 \nNegro slaves imported into Hispaniola . . 1501-3 \nWorried by the machinations of his enemies, he re- \nturns to Spain, 7 Nov. ; his friend, queen Isabella, \n\ndies 20 Nov. 1504 \n\nHe dies while treated with base ingratitude by the \n\nSpanish government . . .20 May, 1506 \n\nSolis and Pinzon discover Yucatan . . . . \xe2\x80\x9e \nOjeda founds San Sebastian, the first colony on the \n\nmainland 15 10 \n\nSubjugation of Cuba by Velasquez . . . .1511 \nThe coast of Florida discovered by Ponce de Leon . 1512 \nVasco de Balboa crosses the isthmus of Darien, and \n\ndiscovers the South Pacific Ocean . . . . 1513 \nMexico discovered by Fernando de Cordova . . 1517 \nGrijalva penetrates into Yucatan, and names it New \n\nSpain 1518 \n\nPassage of Magellan\'s Straits by him . . . . 1520 \nConquest of Mexico by Fernando Cortes . . 15 19-21 \nPizarro discovers the coast of Quito . . . . 1526 \nHe invades and conquers Peru .... 1532-5 \nCarrier, a Frenchman, enters the Gulf of St. Law- \nrence, and sails up to Montreal . . . 1534-5 \nGrijalva\'s expedition, equipped by Cortes, discovers \n\nCalifornia 1535 \n\nMendoza founds Buenos Ayres, and conquers the \n\nadjacent country \n\nOrellana sails down the Amazon to the sea . 1540-1 \n\nLouisiana conquered by De Soto ,, \n\nChili conquered by Valdivia 1541 \n\nRebellion in Peru\xe2\x80\x94 tranquillity established by Gasca 1548 \nDavis\'s Straits discover jd by him .... 1585 \nRaleigh establishes the first English settlement \xe2\x80\x94 at \n\nRoanoke, Virginia , \n\nFalkland isles discovered by Davis .... 1592 \nDe Monts, a Frenchman, settles in Acadia, now \n\nNova Scotia 1604 \n\nJamestown, in Virginia, the first English settlement \non the mainland, founded by lord de la Warr . 1607 \n\nQuebec founded by the French 1608 \n\nHudson\'s bay discovered by him .... 1610 \nThe Dutch build Manhattan, or New Amsterdam \n\n(now New York) on the Hudson . . . . 1614 \nSettlement in New England begun by capt. Smith . ,, \nNew Plymouth built by the English nonconformist \n\nexiles 1620 \n\nNova Scoria settled by the Scotch under sir ffm. \n\nAlexander 1622 \n\nDelaware settled by the Swedes and Dutch . . 1627 \nMassachusetts, by sir H. Boswell . . . . 1628 \n\nMaryland, by lord Baltimore 1633 \n\nConnecticut granted to lords Say and Brooke in \n\n1630 ; but no English settlement was made here till 1635 \nRhode Island settled by Roger Williams and his \n\nbrethren, driven from Massachusetts . . . \xe2\x80\x9e \nNew Jersey settled by the Dutch, 1614, and Swedes, \n1627 ; gi anted to the duke of York, who sells it to \n\nlord Beikeley . ^64 \n\nNew York captured by the English ....,, \nSouth Carolina settled by the English . . . . 1669 \nPennsylvania settled by William Penn, the cele- \nbrated Quaker I 6S2 \n\nLouisiana settled by the French \n\nThe Mississippi explored x (,\'gg \n\nThe Scotch settlement at Darien (1698-9) abandoned 1700 \n\nNew Orleans built I7I7 \n\nGeorgia settled by general Oglethorpe . . . 1732 \n\nKentucky, by colonel Boon I? 5 4 \n\nCanada conquered by the English, 1759-60 ; ceded to \n\nGreat Britain -,.-63 \n\nAmerican war\xe2\x80\x94 declaration of independence by the \n\nUnited States, 1776 ; recognised by Great Britain 1783 \nLouisiana ceded to Spain, 1763 ; transferred to \n\nFrance, 1800 ; sold to the United States . . . 1S03 \nFlorida ceded to Great Britain, 1763 ; taken by \nSpain, 1781 ; to whom it is ceded, 1783 ; ceded to \n\nthe United States j3 20 \n\nRevolution in Mexico -declaration of independence 1821 \nRevolutions in Spanish America ; independence es- \ntablished by Chili, 1810; Paraguay, 1811; Buenos \nAyres, and other provinces, 1S16 ; Peru, 1826. \n[See United States, Mexico, and other states, through- \nout the volume. For the American Interna- \ntional Congress, see United States, Oct. 1889.] \n\n\n\nAMERICA, BRITISH, see British America. \n\nAMERICA, Central, Republics of, in- \ncludes Guatemala, San Salvador, Honduras, Nicara- \ngua, and Costa Rioa (which see) . They declared their \nindependence, Sept. 21, 1821, and separated from the \nMexican confederation, 21 July, 1823. The states \nmade atreaty of union between themselves, 21 March, \n1847. There has been amongthem since much anarchy \nand bloodshed, aggravated greatly by the irruption of \nAmerican filibusters under Kenny and Walker, \n1854-5. J- n J an - J 863, a war began between Guate- \nmala (afterwards joined by Nicaragua) and San \nSalvador (afterwards supported by Honduras\') . The \nlatter were defeated at Santa Rosa, 16 June, and San \nSalvador was taken, 26 Oct. ; the president of San \nSalvador, Barrios, tied; and Carrera, the dictator \nof Guatemala, became predominant over the con- \nfederacy. Gen. Barrios, president of Guatemala, \nattempts the union of the live states, himself to be \ndictator ; opposed by all except Honduras, Feb. \nHe is defeated and killed in a prolonged battle at \nChalchuapa, 2 April ; peace with the states signed \n16 April, 1885. The union of the states, under one \nprincipal president, was proposed at the Pan-Ameri- \ncan Congress, 1889-90. See Darien, and Panama.- \n\nAMERICA, Russian, sold to the United \n\nStates for about 400,000/., March, 1867. See Alaska. \n\nAMERICA, SOUTH, see Brazil, Argentine, \nTern, Paraguay, Uruguay, \xc2\xa7c. \n\n"AMERICA," see Yacht. \n\n"AMERICAN" steamer; see Wrecks, 1880. \n\nAMERICAN ASSOCIATION for the \n\nAdvancement of Science, resembling the \n\nBritish Association, held its first meeting at Phila- \ndelphia 20 Sept. 1848, 28th Saratoga, 27 Aug. 1879 ; \n29th at Boston, 23-28 Aug. 1880; met at Cin- \ncinnati, 17 Aug. 1881 ; at Montreal, 26 Aug. 1882 ; \nat Minneapolis, Minnesota, 15 Aug. 1883; Phila- \ndelphia, 4 Sept. 1884 ; Ann Arbor, 1885 ; Buffalo, \n1886; New York, 1887: Cleveland, 1888 ; Toronto, \nAug. 1889; Indianapolis, 19 Aug. 1890; Washing- \nton, 11 Aug. 1891 ; Rochester, N.Y., 18 Aug. 1892. \n\nAMERICAN BASEBALL, a game resem- \nbling cricket and rounders, introduced into this \ncountry by teams from Philadelphia aud Boston, in \n1875 without success. The American teams (Chi- \ncago and All America) after a tour round the world \nplayed a game at Kennington Oval in the presence \nof the Prinee . of Wales and many distinguished \nspectators 12 March, 1889, and since. \n\nAMERICAN CLUB, London, for Anglo- \nSaxons interested in the Western Hemisphere, es- \ntablished autumn 1887. \n\nAMERICAN EXHIBITION of the Arts, \nInventions, Manufactures, Products, and Resources \nof the United States\xe2\x80\x94 Earls\' Court, West Bromp- \nton, and West Kensington. (A private speculation.) \nIt included works of art, specimens of manufacture, a \n\n" Wild West " section, feats of horsemanship by Buffalo \n\nBill(col. thehon. Win. F. Cody), Red Shirt, a Sioux chief, \n\nand other Indians ; butt\'alo hunts, horse catching, &c. \nVisited by the prince and princess of Wales 5 May 1887. \nOpened by colonel Russell, the president, lord Ronald \n\nGower, archdeacon Farrar, aud others, 9 May. \nVisited by the Queen 11 May. \nClosed by a meeting advocating the establishment of an \n\nInternational Court of Arbitration, the marquis of \n\nLome in the chair, 31 Oct. 1887. \n\nAMERICANISMS i a dictionary of these ex- \npressions was compiled by John R. Bartlott, and \nfirst published in 1848 ; 4th edition, 1877, Another \nby John S. Farmer appeared in 1889. \n\n\n\nAMERICANISTS. \n\n\n\n3<J \n\n\n\nAMPUTATION. \n\n\n\nAMERICANISTS, a name assumed by some \npersons devoted to the study of the archaeology, \n\xe2\x96\xa0ethnology, &c, of North and South America, who \nheld their first international congress at Nancy in \nJuly 1875; one at Luxemburg, Sept. 1877; at \nISrussels, Sept. 1879; at Madrid, 27 Sept.\' 1881 ; \nCopenhagen, 21 Aug. 1883; Turin, 1886; Berlin, \n2 Oct. 1888; Paris, 14 Oct. 1890. \n\nAMERICAN ORGAN, a free-reed keyed wind \ninstrument, resembling the harmonium, with im- \nportant differences; the principle was discovered \nabout 1835 by a workman employed by Alexandre \nof Paris. The invention was taken to America, \nwhere instruments were made bj r Mason and Ham- \nlin, of Boston, about i860. \n\nAMETHYST, the ninth stone upon the breast- \nplate of the Jewish high priest, 1491 B.C. It is of a \nrich violet colour. One worth 200 rix-dollars, having \nbeen rendered colourless, equalled a diamond in \nZustre, valued at 18,000 gold crowns. De Boot. \xe2\x80\x94 \nAmethysts discovered at Kerry, in Ireland, in 1775. \n\nAMIENS, a city in Picardy (N. France) ; the \ncathedral was built in 1220. It was taken by the \nSpanish, 1 1 March, and retaken by the French, \n25 Sept. 1597. The preliminary articles of the \npeace between Great Britain, Holland, France, and \nSpain, were signed in Loudon by lord Hawkesbury \nand M. Otto, on the part of England and France, \nI Oct. 1801 ; and the definitive treaty was subscribed \nat Amiens, on 27 March, 1802, by the marquis of \nCornwallis for England, Joseph Bonaparte for \nFrance, Azara for Spain, and Schimmelpenninck \nfor Holland. War was declared again in 1803. \xe2\x80\x94 \nAfter a conflict, in which the French were defeated, \n27 Nov. 1870, the German general Von Gceben \nentered Amiens, 28 Nov. \n\nAMMERGAU PASSIOXPlAY, see Drama. \n\nAMMONIA, the volatile alkali, mainly pro- \nduced by the decomposition of organic substances. \nIts name is ascribed to its having been procured \nfrom heated camels\' dung near the temple of Jupiter \nAmnion in Libya. The discovery of its being a \ncompound of nitrogen and hydrogen is ascribed to \nJoseph Priestley in 1774. By the recent labours of \nchemists both the oxide of the hypothetical metal \nammonium, and ammonium amalgam, have been \nformed ; and specimens of each were shown at the \nRoyal Institution in 1856 by Dr. A. W. Hofmann, \nwho has done very much for the chemical histoiy of \nammonia. \n\nAmmoniaphone. An apparatus for the improvement of \nthe voice and lungs, by inhaling combinations of \nammonia, hydrogen, &c, invented by Dr. Carter \nMoffat, of Edinburgh, 1883. He asserted that this \nmixture resembles Italian air. The successful effects \nof inhaling the gas were shown at St. James\'s Hall, 6 \nNov. 1884. \n\nAmmonite. A new explosive for use in coal mines, said \nto be safer than those in use, composed of pure ammo- \nnium nitrate and nitro-naphthaline. Experiments with \nthis explosive exhibited by sir George Elliot at the \nworks of the Miners\' Safety Explosive Company, \nStanford-le-Hope, Essex, were considered very satis- \nfactory, 9 July, 1891. \n\nAMMONITES, descended from Ben-Ammi, \nthe son of Lot (1897 B.C.), invaded Canaan and \nmade the Israelites tributaries, but were defeated by \nJephthah, 1 143 B.C. They again invaded Canaan, \nintending to put out the right eye of all they sub- \ndued ; but Saul overthrew them, 1095 n.c Thev \nwere afterwards many times vanquished ; and \nAntiochus the Great took Kabbah their capital, \nand destroyed the walls, 198 B.C. JosepJms. \n\n\n\nAMNESTY (a general pardon after political \ndisturbances, &c.) was granted by Thrasybulus, the \nAthenian patriot, after expelling the thirty tyrants, \n403 B.C. Acts of amnesty were passed after the \ncivil war in 1651, and after the two rebellions in \nEngland in 1715 and 1745. \xe2\x80\x94 After his victorious \ncampaign in Italy, Napoleon III. of France granted \nan amnesty to all political offenders, 17 Aug. 1859. \nAn amnesty, with certain exemptions, was granted \nto the vanquished southern states of North America \nby president Johnson, 29 May, 1865. An amnesty \nfor political offences was granted by the emperor of \nAustria at his coronation as king of Hungary, \n8 June, 1867; a rather sweeping amnesty bill was \npassed in the United States regarding the rebellion, \n10 April, 1871. An amnesty association on behalf \nof the Fenians was active in Britain, Oct. 1873. \n2245 French communists pardoned by decree, pub- \nlished 17 Jan. 1879 ; many oihers during the year : \na general amnesty for political offences passed by the \nchamber (333-140) 21 June, 1880. An amnesty was \ngranted to the Cretans after the disturbances, by the \nSultan of Turkey, Dec. 1889. \n\nAMOAFUL, near Coomassie, "West Africa. \nAfter a severe conflict, 31 Jan. 1874, the Ashantees \nwere defeated at this place by Sir Garnet Wolseley. \nCaptain Buckle was killed, and about 20 officers \nand 200 men were wounded. The 42nd Highland \nRegiment was very energetic. \n\nAMOZBA, see Protoplasm. \n\nAMOY, see China, 1853-5. \n\nAMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL, asserted \ntraditionally to have been established at Ther- \nmopylae by Amphictyon, for the management of all \naffairs relative to Greece. This celebrated council, \ncomposed of twelve of the wisest and most virtuous \nmen of various cities of Greece, began 1498 [1 1 13, \nClinton\'] B.C., and existed 31 B.C. Its immediate \noffice was to attend to the temples and oracles of \nDelphi. Its calling on the Greek States to punish \nthe Phocians for plundering Delphi caused the \nSacred wars, 595-586, and 356-346. \n\nAMPHION, a British frigate, of 38 guns, blown \nup while riding at anchor in Plymouth Sound, and \nthe whole of her crew then on board, consisting of \nmore than two hundred and fifty persons, officers \nand men, perished, 22 Sept. 1796. \n\nAMPIIIPOLIS, Macedon (N. Greece). A city \nfounded here by the Athenians, 437 B.C. ; was seized \nby Brasidas the Spartan, 424; both he and the \nAthenian general, Cl\'eon, were killed in a fruitless \nattempt at the capture of the city by the Athenians, \n422. \n\nAMPHITHEATRES, round or oval buildings, \nsaid to have been first constructed by Curio, 76 B.C., \nand by Julius Caesar 46 B.C. In the Roman amphi- \ntheatres, the people witnessed the combats of gladia- \ntors with wild beasts, &c. They were generally \nbuilt of wood, but Statilius Taurus made one of \nstone, under Augustus Caesar; see Coliseum. The \namphitheatre of Vespasian (capable of holding \n87,000 persons) was built between a.d. 70 and 80; \nand is said to have been a fortress in 1312. The \namphitheatre at Verona was next in size, and then \nthat of Nismes. \n\nAMPHITRITE, The Sinr, see Wrecks \n30 Aug. 1833. \n\nAMPUTATION, in surgery was greatly aided \nby the invention of the tourniquet by Morel, a French \n\nsurgeon in 1674, and of the n.ip-niethod by Ijowd- \nham of Exeter in 1679. \n\n\n\nAMSTERDAM. \n\n\n\n40 \n\n\n\nANATOMY. \n\n\n\nAMSTERDAM (Holland) . The castle of Am- \nstel was commenced in noo; the building of the \ncity in 1203. Its commerce was greatly increased \nby the decay of that of Antwerp after 1 609. The \nexchange was built in 1634 ; and the noble stadt- \nhouse in 1648 ; the latter cost three millions of \nguilders, then a large sum. It was built upon \n13,659 piles. Amsterdam surrendered to the king \nof Prussia, when that prince invaded Holland, in \nfavour of the stadtholder, in 1787. The French \nwere admitted without resistance, 18 Jan. 1795. \nThe Dutch government was restored in Dec. 1813. \nA crystal palace for an industrial exhibition was \nopened by prince Frederick of the .Netherlands, 16 \nAug. 1864. The canal, from Amsterdam to the \nNorth Sea, was inaugurated by the king, 1 Nov. \n1876. A new university was opened, Dec. 1877. \nInternational exhibition opened by the king, 1 May, \n1883. International Agricultural exhibition opened \n26 Aug. 1884. The Grand theatre destroyed by fire \n20 Feb. 1890. Population, 1890,417,539. \nViolent rioting through prohibition of eel-baiting on the \n\ncanal ; 35 killed, 90 wounded ; suppressed 25-26 July, \n\n18S6. \n\nAMYL, a chemical alcohol radical (first isolated \nby professor Edward Frankland in 1849). \n\nAMYLENE, a colourless, very mobile liquid, \nfirst procured by M. Balard of Paris in 1844, DV \ndistilling fusel oil (potato-spirit) with chloride of \nzinc. The vapour was employed instead of chloro- \nform first by Dr. Snow in 1856. It has since been \ntried in many hospitals here and in France. The \nodour is more unpleasant than chloroform, and more \nvapour must be used. \n\nANABAPTISTS, those who baptize at full \nage, and reject infant baptism ; see Baptists. The \nname was first given to Thomas Miinzer, Storck, \nand other fanatics who preached in Saxony in 1521, \nand excited a rebellion of the lower orders in Ger- \nmany, which was quelled with bloodshed in 1525. \nA similar insurrection took place in Westphalia, \nheaded by Matthias, 1533, and, after his assassina- \ntion, by John Boccold of Leyden, who was crowned \n"king of Sion" in Minister, 24 June, 1534. Mini- \nster was taken in June, 1535; and John was executed \n13 Feb. 1536. Several anahaptists were executed in \nEngland in 1535, 1538, and 1540. On 6 Jan. 1661, \nabout 80 anabaptists in London appeared in arms, \nheaded by their preacher, Thomas Venner, a wine- \ncooper. They fought desperately, and killed many \nof the soldiers brought against them. Their leader \nand sixteen others were executed, 19 and 21 Jan. \nAnnals of England. \n\nANACHORETS, see Monachism. \n\nANACREONTIC VERSE, of the baccha- \nnalian strain, named after Anacreon of Teos, the \nGreek lyric poet, whose odes are much prized. He \ndied in his eighty-fifth year, about 478 b.c. His \nodes (many said to be spurious) have been frequently \ntranslated ; Thomas Moore\'s version was published \nin 1800. \n\nANADOLIA (Asia Minor), comprises the an- \ncient Lycia, Caria, Lydia, Mysia, Bithynia, Paph- \nlagonia and Phrygia {which see). \n\nANAESTHETICS, see Opium, Chloroform \nEther, Amylcne, Kerosolene, Nitrons oxide under \nnitric acid. Intense cold has been also employed in \ndeadening pain. \n\nANAGRAMS, formed by the transposition of \nthe letters of a word or sentence (as army from \nMary), are said to have been made by ancient \nJews, Greeks, &c. On the question put by Pilate \no Our Saviour, "Quid eU Veritas?" (what\' is \n\n\n\ntruth ?) we have the anagram, " Est vir qui adest. " \n(the man who is here); from "Horatio Nelson" \nis "Honor est a Nilo" (Honour from the Nile). \n\nANALYSTS, Society of Public, founded by \nProfessor Redwood, Dr. Dupre, and others, 7 Aug. \n1874. Dr. Charles Meymott Tidy, an eminent \nanalyst and toxicologist, died 15 March, 1892. See \nAdulteration. \n\nAN AM, see Annam. \n\nANARCHY (Greek an, no, archos, chief), de- \nscribed Judges xvii. 6, " In those days there was no \nking in Israel, but every man did that which was- \nright in his own eyes" about B.C. 1406. Anarchy \nfrequently prevailed in ancient times. Similar \nprinciples, now termed socialism, have been emi- \nnently advanced by P. J. Proudhon 1809 \xe2\x80\x94 65, to \nwhom is ascribed the maxim, "la propriete c\'est le- \nvol." See France, Oct. 1882. Many Anarchists \ntried and punished in Austria and other countries, \n1883 ct seq. Anarchists expelled from Switzerland, \n1885, but return, and cause much trouble ; they held \na congress at Ticino Jan. 1891. The modern anar- \nchies declare war against society and all its institu- \ntions, and frequently employ dynamite as a destruc- \ntive agent. See Dynamite, France, Spain, and \nTrials, 1892. \n\nANASTATIC PRINTING, see Printing, \n1 841. \n\nANATHEMA, the sentence of excommunica- \ntion (1 Cor. xvi. 22), used by the early churches, \n365 ; see Excommunication. Pope Pius IX. pro- \npounded a series of anathemas, Feb. 1870. \n\nANATOMY (Greek, cutting up) . The human \nbody was studied by Aristotle about 350 B.C., and \nbecame a branch of medical education under Hippo- \ncrates, about 420 B.C. Erasistratus and Herophilus \nfirst dissected the human form, having been previ- \nously confined to animals: it is said that they \npractised upon the bodies of living criminals, about \n300 and 293 B.C. Galen, who died a.d. 193, was a. \ngreat anatomist. In England, the schools were long \nsupplied with bodies unlawfully exhumed from \ngraves ; and until 1832, the bodies of executed \nmurderers were ordered for dissection.* Pope Boni- \nface VI II. forbade the dissection of dead bodies, \n1297. \xe2\x80\x94 The first anatomical plates, designed by \nTitian, were employed by Vesalius, about 1538. \nLeonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Michael Angek, \nstudied anatomy. The great discoveries of Harvey \nwere made in 1616. William and John Hunter \nwere great anatomists: William died 1783, and \nJohn, 1793. Quain\'s and Wilson\'s large anatomicaJ \nplates were published 1842, and Bourgery\'s greaS \nwork by Jacob, 1830-55. Comparative anatomy has, \nbeen treated systematically in the present century \nby Cuvier, Owen, Muller, Huxley, and others. \xe2\x80\x94 \nThe anatomy of plants has been studied since 1680 ; \nsee Botany. \nAnatomical Society of Great Britain founded 1887- \n\n\n\n* By 32 Hen. VIII. c. 42 (1540), surgeons were granted \nfour bodies of executed malefactors for " anathomyes," \nwhich privilege was extended in following reigns : but in \nconsequence of the crimes committed by resurrection- \nmen in order to supply the surgical schools (robbing \nchurchyards and even committing murder, see Burking), \na new statute was passed in 1832, which abated the \nignominy of dissection by prohibiting that of executed \nmurderers, and made provision for the wants of surgeons \nby pei mitting, under certain regulations, the dissection \nof persons dying in workhouses, &c. The act also ap- \npointed inspectors of anatomy, regulated the schools, \nand required persons practising anatomy to obtain a \nlicence. It repealed the clauses of the act of 1828, \nwhich directed the dissection of the body of an executed \nmurderer. \n\n\n\nANCHORITES. \n\n\n\n41 \n\n\n\nANDREW\'S, ST. \n\n\n\nANCHORITES, see Monachism. \n\nANCHORS were invented by the Tuscans. \nFliny. The second tooth, or fluke, was added by \nAnacharsis the Scythian (592 B.C.). Strabo. \nAnchors said to have been forged in England \nA.D. 578. The Admiralty anchor was introduced \nabout 1841. Improved anchors were made by Pering \nand Kodgers about 1828; by Porter, 1838; by Costell, \n1848 ; by Trotman, 1853 ; and by several other per- \nsons. Trotman\'s is attached to the Queen\'s yacht \nthe Fairy. The anchors of the Great Eastern were \nof enormous size. Acts for the proving and sale of \nchain cables and anchors were passed in 1864 and \n1871. \n\nANCIENT BUILDINGS : a society for their \nprotection from injudicious restoration, &c, was \nestablished in 1877 ; Lord Houghton, Professor S. \nColvin, Thomas Carlyle, and many eminent artists, \nmembers. It issued a report in Feb. 1888. \n\nANCIENT CONCERTS, or "King\'s Con- \ncerts," London. "The Concert of Anlient Music" \nwas established in 1776 by the earls of Sandwich \nand Exeter, and others. Sir Henry Bishop was \nsole conductor from 1843 to 1848, when the con- \ncerts ceased. \n\nANCIENT HISTORY commences in the \nHoly Scriptures 4004 B.C. and in the history of \nHerodotus about 1687 B.C., and is considered to end \nwith the destruction of the Roman empire in Italy, \nA.D. 476. Modern history begins with Mahomet \n(a.d. 622), or with Charlemagne (768). \n\nANCIENT MONUMENTS in Britain. Bills \nfor their preservation (especially of prehistoric) have \nbeen brought into parliament in vain. One by sir \nJohn Lubbock, read 2nd time, 7 March, 1877, was \nwithdrawn; again read 2nd time, 19 Feb. 1878; \nread 2nd time in the lords, 11 Mar. 1880. Acts \nfor their better preservation were passed in 1882 \nand 1892. \n\nANCIENTS, see Councils, French. \n\nANCONA, an ancient lioman port on the \nAdriatic. The mole was built by Trajan, 107. \nAfter many changes of rulers (Lombards, Saracens, \nGreeks, and Germans) Ancona was annexed to the \npapal states in 1532. It was taken by the French, \n1797 ; retaken by the Austrians, 1799; reoccupied \nby the French, 1801 ; restored to the pope, 1802. It \nwas occupied by the French in 1832 ; evacuated in \n1838, and after an insurrection was bombarded and \ncaptured by the Austrians, 18 June, 1849. The \nMarches (comprising this city) rebelled against the \nPapal government in Sept. i860. Lamoriciere, the \npapal general, fled to Ancona after his defeat at \nCastelfidardo, but was compelled to surrender him- \nself, the city, and the garrison, on 29 Sept. The \nking of Sardinia entered soon after. Population of \nthe city in 1881, 31,277. \n\nANCYRA, now Angora or Engour, a town in \nancient Galatia, Asia Minor. Councils were held \nhere, 314, 358, 375. It was taken by the Persians, \n616; by the Saracens, 1085 ; by the crusaders, 1102. \nNear this city, on 28 July, 1402, Timour or Tamer- \nlane defeated and took prisoner the sultan Bajazet, \nand is said to have conveyed him to Samarcand in \na cage. \n\nANDALUSIA (S. Spain), a province once \npart of the ancient Lusitania and Bsetica. The \nname is a corruption of Vandalitia, it having been \nheld by the Vandals from 419 to 429, when it was \nacquired by the Visigoths. The latter were expelled \nby the Mqors in 711, who established the kingdom \n\n\n\nof Cordova, and retained it till 1236. Andalusia \nsuffered much by the earthquakes of Dec. 1884. \n\nANDAMAN ISLANDS, in the Bay of Bengal. \nThe inhabitants are dwarfs, and in the lowest state \nof barbarism. At Port Blair, on South Island, made \na penal settlement for the Sepoy rebels in 1858, \nthe earl of Mayo, viceroy of India, was assassinated \nby Shere Alee, a convict, 8 Feb. 1872, when going \non board the Glasgow. Above 200 persons perished \non land through a cyclone ; see Wrecks, 2 Nov. 189 1. \n\nANDERNACH, Rhenish Prussia, once an im- \nperial city. Near here, the emperor Charles I., \nwhile attempting to deprive his nephews of theiy \ninheritance, was totally defeated by one of them, \nLouis of Saxony, 8 Oct. 876. \n\nANDES, Cordillera de Los, the greaS \n\nmountain system of South America. \n\nChimborazo, perpetually snowclad, was ascended by \nAlexander Von Humboldt to the height of 19,280 \nfeet, 23 June 1802 ; by Boussingault and Hall, \n19,695 feet, 16 Dec. 1831 ; by Edward Whymper, \n20,545 feet, 3 Jan. ; and 20,489 feet 3 July, 1880 \n\nCotopaxi, volcanic ; ascended by Edward Whymper, \n19,600 feet 18 Feb. ,, \n\nHe -also first ascended Antisana, 19,260 feet, 10 \nMarch ; and Cayambe, 19,200 feet . 4 April, ,, \n[All these mountains are in Ecuador.] \n\nMr. Whymper\'s work on the " Great Andes " was pub- \nlished in March, 1892. \n\nANDORRA, a small republic in the Pyrenees, \nbearing the title of " the valleys and sovereignties \nof Andorra," was made independent by Charlemagne \nabout 778, certain rights being reserved to the \nbishop of Urgel. The feudal sovereignty, which \nlong appertained to the counts of Foix, reverted to \nthe French king, Henry IV., in 1589; but was- \ngiven up in 1 790. On 27 March, 1806, an imperial \ndecree restored the old relations between Andorra \nand France. The republic is now governed by a \ncouncil elected for four years ; but the magistrates \nare appointed alternately by the French govern- \nment and the Spanish bishop of Urgel, to both of \nwhom tribute is paid. The population 1875 about \n5,800. Andorra, though neutral, was attacked by \nthe Carlists in Sept. 1874. Oisputes between the \nFrench government and the bishop, respecting \narrests, &c. made by him, March ; amicably settled. \nApril, 1884. \n\nANDRE\'S EXECUTION\', see United States, \n1780. \n\nANDREW, ST., said to have been martyred \nby crucifixion, 30 Nov. 69, at Patrae, in Achaia. \nHis festival was instituted about 359. The Royal \nSociety\'s anniversary is kept on St. Andrew\'s day. \nThe Russian order of St. Andrew was instituted in \n1698 by Peter I. For the British order, see Thistle. \nANDREW\'S, ST. (E. Scotland), made a royal \nburgh after 1140. Here Robert Bruce held his first \nparliament in 1309 ; and here Wishart was burnt \nby archbishop Beaton, 1545, who himself was mur- \ndered here in 1546. The university was founded in, \n1411 by bishop Wardlaw. The cathedral (built \n1 159-1318), was destroyed by a mob, excited by a \nsermon of John Knox, June, 1559. Sir R. Sibbald\'s \nlist of the bishops commences with Killach, 872. \nThe see became archiepiscopal in 1470, ceased soon \nafter 1689; was re-instituted in 1844; see Bishops. \nSir William Taylour Thomson bequeathed 30,000/. \nto the university, announced Oct. 1883. Population, \n1891, 6,853. \n\nMr. David Berry, an Australian colonist, a native of \nCupar in Fife, who died Sept. 1889, bequeathe -d \n\xc2\xa3100,000 to the University, in accordance with the \nunsigned will of his brother, Dr. Alexander Berry, \nwho died in 187^. \n\n\n\nANDRUSSOV. \n\n\n\n42 \n\n\n\nANGUILLA. \n\n\n\nThe Marquis of Dufferin was elected lord rector, 1889 ; \naddress 6 April, /Bgi. \n\nANDRUSSOV, Peace of (30 Jan. 1667), \n\nbetween ltussia and Poland, for 13 years, with mutual \nconcessions, although the latter had been generally \nvictorious. \n\nANEMOMETER (Greek, anemos, the wind), \na measurer of the strength and velocity of the wind, \nwas invented by Wolrius, in 1709. The extreme \nvelocity was found by Dr. Lind to be 93 miles per \nhour. Osier\'s and Whewell\'s anemometers were \nirigbly approved of in 1844. "Kobinson\'s anemo- \nmeter is the simplest and best,\'\' Buchan, 1867. \n\nANEROID, see Barometer. \n\nANGEL, a gold coin, impressed with an angel, \nweighing four pennyweights, valued at 6s. 8d. in \nthe reign of Henry VI., and at 10s. in the reign of \nElizabeth, 1562. The Angelot, a gold coin, value \nhalf an angel, was struck at Paris when held by the \nEnglish, 143 1. Wood. \n\nANGELIC KNIGHTS of St. George. \n\nThis order is said to have been instituted by Constan- \ntine, w r ho died 337. The Angelici were instituted by \nthe emperor Angelus Comnenus, 1191. \xe2\x80\x94 The Ange-- \niicm, an order of nuns, founded at Milan by Louisa \nTorelli, 1534. \n\nANGERS (W. Central France), the Roman \nJuliomagus, possessing an amphitheatre ; afterwards \nAndegavum, the capital of Anjou {tvhichsee). It \nwas frequently besieged, and many councils were \n\xe2\x80\xa2held in it between 453 and 1448, relating to ecclesi- \nastical discipline. \n\nANGERSTEIN GALLERY, see National \nGallery. \n\nANGLESEY, called by the Romans Mona \n(N. Wales), the seat of the Druids, who were \nmassacred in great numbers, when Suetonius \nPaulinus ravaged the isle, 61. It was conquered \nby Agricola in 78 ; occupied by the Normans, 1090 ; \nand with the rest of Wales annexed by Edward 1. \nin 1284. He built the fortress of Beaumaris in \nX295. The Menai suspension bridge was erected \n2818-25, and the Britannia. tubular bridge 1849-50. \n\nANGLICAN CHURCH, see Church of Eng- \nland. \n\nANGLING. Allusion is made to it in the \nBible ; Amos i-v. 2 (787 B.C.). \nOppian wrote his " Halieutics," a Greek epic poem on \n\nFishes and Fishing, about a.d. 198. \nJn the book on " Hawkyuge and Iluntynge," by Juliana \n\nBerners or Barnes, prioress of .Sopwell, near St. \n\nAlbans, " emprinted at Westmestre by Wynkyn de \n\nWorde," in 1496, is "The treatise of fysshyng with an \n\nAngle." \nIzaac Walton\'s " Compleat Angler" was first published in \n\n1653- \n\nANGLO-AMERICAN ASSOCIATION, \n\nto cultivate more cordial relations between Great \nBritain and the United States, established 25 Jan. \nI871. \n\nANGLO - CONTINENTAL SOCIETY \nfounded in 1S53 to diffuse the principles of the \nChurch of England abroad: 20th anniversary kept \nat St. Paul\'s, 27 Oct. 1874. \n\nANGLO-DANISH EXHIBITION, South \nKensington, opened by the Princess (and Prince) of \n"Wales, 14 May 1888, comprising theatrical and \nmusical entertainments. The profits of the exhibi- \ntion were to be devoted to the rebuilding of the \nBritish Home for Incurables. \n\nANGLO-FRENCH, ETC Agreements re- \nspecting Africa. \n\n\n\nAnglo-French Agreement respecting Africa signed by \nthe Marquis of Salisbury and M. Waddington, French \nambassador in London, 5 Aug. 1890. By this agree- \nment the British protectorate over Zanzibar and the \nFrench protectorate over Madagascar are recognized, \nand the delimitation of territories in Africa, subject to \nthe influence of France, was to be settled by two \ncommissioners at Paris. \n\nAnglo-German Agreement of 1890 determined the \nboundaries of the British and German proposed terri- \ntories in East Africa ; the protectorate of Zanzibar, \nWitu, Somaliland or Vitu, was given up to Great \nBritain ; Heligoland was ceded to Germany ; signed \nat Berlin by sir Edward ilalet and sir Henry Percy \nAnderson for England ; by gen. von Caprivi and Dr. \nKrauel for Germany, 1 July ; ratified by an act of par- \nliament which received the royal assent, 4 Aug. 1890. \n\nAnglo-Italian Agreement respecting Africa. Sir \nEvelyn Baring and gen. sir Francis Grenfell received \nat Borne by sig. Crispi, 24 Sept. 1890. Meeting of the \nconference at Naples, lord Dufferin and sig. Crispi \npresent ; no result, 4 \xe2\x80\x94 10 Oct. 1890. Treaty for the \ndelimitation of the British and Italian spheres of \ninfluence in East Africa ; signed at Borne, 15 April, \n1891. \n\nAnglo-Portuguese Agreement delimiting the terri- \ntories subject to the influence of Great Britain and \nPortugal in East Africa; the text of the agreement was \nsettled in London 20 Aug. and published in the Times. \nThe free navigation of the Zambezi, and uninterrupted \ncommunication between British territories ensured, \n26 Aug. 1890. Portugal gives up all claim to Zambezi \nand Nyassaland. The agreement was annulled, and \na modus Vivendi agreed to, 14 Nov. 1890. A new \nmodified treaty, signed at Lisbon, n June, 1891, \nand afterwards ratified. \n\nANGLO-SAXONS or ANGLES, derive their \nname from a village near Sleswiek, called Anglen, \nwhose population (called Angli by Tacitus) joined \nthe first Saxon freebooters. East Anglia was a \nkingdom of the heptarchy, founded by the Angles, \none of whose chiefs, Uffa, assumed the title of king, \n571 ; the kingdom ceased in 792. See Britain. \nCaedmon paraphrased part of the Bible in Anglo- \nSaxon about 680 ; a translation of the gospels was \nmade by abbot Egbert, of Iona, 721 ; of Boethius, \nOrosius, &c, by Alfred, 888. The Anglo-Saxon \nlaws were printed by order of government, in 1840. \nA professorship of Anglo-Saxon at Oxford was founded by \n\nDr. Richard Rawlinson in 1795 ; one at Cambridge by \n\nDr. Joseph Bos worth in 1867. \n\nANGLO-TURKISH CONVENTION, see \n\nTurkey, 4 June, 1878. \n\nANGOLA (S. W. Africa), settled by the Portu- \nguese soon after the discovery, by Diego Cam, \nabout 1484. Loando, their capital, was built 1578. \n\nANGORA, see Ancyra. \n\nANGOULEME, (the Roman Iculisma,) capi- \ntal of the province of Angoumois, Central France, \nW., was a bishopric in 260. Angouleme became \nan independent country about 856 ; was united to \nthe French crown in 1308 ; was held by the Eng- \nlish, 1360 to 1372, in the reign of Edward III. \nThe count of Angouleme became king of France as \nFrancis I. in 1 5 15. \n\nANGRA PEQUENA ; the German settle- \nment here, north of the Orange river, South Africa, \ndeclared by priuce Bismarck to be under the pro- \ntection of the empire, 24 April, 1884; after alleged \nvacillating British diplomacy, 1882-3. \n\nANGRIA\'S FORT, see India, 1756. \n\nANGUILLA, Snake Island, West Indies-, set- - \ntied by the British, 1666. Valuable deposits of \nphosphate of lime were found here in 1859. The \nisland suffered by a famine due to long drought and \nfailure of crops early iu 1891. \n\n\n\nANHALT. \n\n\n\n43 ANNAM. \n\n\n\nANHALT, HOUSE OF, in Germany, deduces \nits origin from Berenthobaldus, who made war upon \nthe Thuringians in the sixth century. In 1606, \nthe principality was divided among the four sons of \nJoachim Ernest, by the eldest, John-George. Thus \nbegan the four branches \xe2\x80\x94 Anhalt-Dessau (de- \nscended from John -George) ; Zerbst, extinct, 1793 ; \nPlotsgau or Coethen, extinct, 1847; and Bernburg, \nextinct, 1863 ; (the last duke died without issue, \n22 Aug. 1863.) The princes of Anhalt became \ndukes in 1809. Anhalt is an hereditary constitu- \ntional monarchy (by law 19 Feb. 1872) ; population \nin 1871, 203,437 ; in 1875, 213,565; in 1885, 248,166; \n1890, 271,759. \n\nAnhalt joined the North German Confederation, 18 Aug. \n1866. \n\nLeopold (born Oct. 1, 1794), became duke of Anhalt- \nDessau, g Aug. 1817, and of Anhalt-Bernburg, 30 Aug. \n1863 ; died 22 May, 1871. \n\nFrederic, duke of Anhalt ; born 29 April, 1831. \nHeir: Leopold; born 18 July \'185s. \n\nMarriage of prince Aribertto princess Louise, a daughter \nof prince and princess Christian, 6 July, 1891. \n\nANHOLT, ISLAND OF, Denmark, was taken \npossession of by England, 18 May, 1S09, in the \nFrench war, on account of Danish cruisers injuring \nBritish commerce. The Danes made a fruitless \nattempt to regain it, 27 March, 181 1. \n\nANILINE, an oily alkaline body, discovered \nin 1826 by Unverdorben among the products of \ndistillation of indigo. From benzole {which see) \nBechamp, in 1856, obtained it by successive treat- \nment with concentrated nitric acid and reducing \nagents. The scientific relations of aniline have \nbeen carefully examined by several chemists, \nespecially by Dr. A. W. Hofmann. It was long \nknown to yield a series of coloured compounds, but \nit was not till 1856 that Mr. W. II. Perkin showed \nhow a violet oxidation -product (mauve) could be \napplied in dyeing. Aniline is now manufactured on \na large scale lor the commercial production of \n"Mauve" and "Magenta" (rosaniline) (which \nsee), and several other colouring matters, aniline \nblue, 1861 ; violet, 1863; "night" green, &e. \nThe patent of Simpson, Maule, and Nicholson, for \naniline colours, was annulled by the house of lords, \n27 July, 1866. See Alizarine. \n\nANIMALCULES, Leeuwcnhoek\' s remarkable \nmicroscopical discoveries were published in the \nPhilosophical Transactions of the Itoyal Society, \nfor 1677, in his " Arcana Naturas," at Leyden, 1696. \nThe great works of Ehrenberg of Berlin on the \nInfusorial Animalculae, &c, were issued 1838-57. \nPritehard\'s Infusoria, ed. 1861, and Mr. W. Savile \nKent\'s Manual of Infusoria, 3 volumes, 1880-2, \nare valuable. The Rev. W. II. Dallinger and Dr. \nDrysdale, by their unwearied continuous micro- \nscopic il observations of bacteria and other low \nforms of life, have greatly increased our knowledge : \n1873-89. \n\nANIMAL MAGNETISM (to cure diseases \nby sympathetic affection) was introduced by father \nllehl, a Jesuit, at Vienna, about 1774, and had its \nbelievers in France and England about 1788-89. \nHehl for a short time associated with Mesriier, but \nthey soon quarrelled.\xe2\x80\x94 Mr. Perkins (who died in \n1799) invented " Metallic Tractors for collecting, \ncondensing, and applying animal magnetism;" \nbut Drs. Falconer and II ay garth put an end to his \npretentions by performing many wonders with a \npair of wooden tractors. Brande. See Mesmerism. \nAnimal magnetism disproved by commissions of the \nFrench Academy of Sciences, 1837-8 ; investigation \n\n\n\nclosed as of a " dead letter," 1840. Remarkable feats \nwere performed by Miss Abbott "the magnetic \nlady," at the Alhambra theatre, 14 Nov. et seq. 1891 . \n\nANIMALS, Cruelty to. Mr. Martin, \n\nM.P., as a senator, zealously laboured to repress \nit; and in 1824, the Royal Society for the Preven- \ntion of Cruelty to Animals was instituted. Its \nnew house in Jermyn-street, London, was founded \n4 May, 1869. It opposed vivisection in i860, in \nunison with a French society, and in Oct. 1873, \noffered premiums for improved trucks for conveying \ncattle. A jubilee congress of this and similar \nsocieties met in London 17 June, 1874. Convic- \ntions obtained by the society 1835 to June, 1876, \n28,209. The society prosecuted 4,618 grosser cases \nin 1887; 6,404 in 1892. See Vivisection. Mr. \nMartin\'s act was passed 1822, and similar acts were \npassed in 1827, 1835, 1837, 1849, and 1854. Dogs \nwere forbidden to be used for draught in 1839. \n\n"Fellowship of Animals\' Friends," organised about \n10 July, 1879 ; earl of Shaftesbury, president. With \nsimilar object Mr. Buskin founded St. George\'s Guild. \nThe Dicky Birds Society in the northern counties \nnumbered 8,000 members in 1883. \n\nThe Animals\' Institute, Knightsbridge, distributed \nprizes for inventions for the relief of horses and other \nanimals, 28 July, 1890. \n\nANIMISM, the doctrine that the soul is the \nonly cause of life, and that the functions of animals \nand plants depend upon vitality, and not on mere \nchemical and mechanical action, was opposed by \nDescartes (died 1650) and others ; see Materialism. \n\nANJOU, a province, W. France, was taken by \nHenry II. of England from his brother Geoffrey, \nin 1 156; their father Geoffrey Plantagenet, count of \nAnjou, having married the empress Matilda in 1127. \nIt was taken from king John by Philip of France \nin 1205 ; was reconquered by lid ward III. ; relin- \nquished by him at the peace of Bretigny in 1360, \nand given by Charles V. to his brother Louis with \nthe title of duke. The university was formed in \nL349- \n\n1360. Louis I. duke, invested by the pope with the \ndominions of Joanna of Naples, 1381 ; his invading \narmy destroyed by the plague, 1383 ; he dies, 1384. \n1384. Louis II. , his son, receives the same grant, but is \n\nalso unsuccessful. \nLouis III., adopted by Joanna ; dies 1434. \n1434. Begnier or Bene le bon (a prisoner) declared king \nof Naples, 1435 ; his daughter, Margaret, married \nHenry VI. of England, 1445 ; he was expelled from \nAnjou by Louis XL, 1474, and his estates confiscated. \nFrancis, duke of Alencon, brother to Henry III. of \nFrance, became duke \xe2\x96\xa0 of Anjou ; at one time he \nfavoured the Protestants, and vainly offered marriage to \nElizabeth of England, 1581-82 ; died 1584. \n\nANJOU or Beauge, Battle of, between \n\nthe English and French ; the latter commanded by \nthe dauphin of France, 22 March, 1421. The Eng- \nlish wore defeated : the duke of Clarence was slain \nby sir Allan Swinton, a Scotch knight, and 1500 \nmen perished on the held ; the earls of Somerset, \nDorset, and Huntingdon were taken prisoners. \nBeauge was the first battle that turned the tide of \nsuccess against the English. \n\nANNAM or An,VM, an empire of Asia, to the \neast of India, nominally subject to China, com- \nprising Toiiquin, Cochin China, part of Cambodia, \nand various islands in the Chinese Sea ; said to \nhave been conquered by the Chinese, 234 B.C., \nand held by them till A.n. 263. In 1406 they \nreconquered it, but abandoned it in 1428. After \nmuch anarchy, bishop Adran, a French missionary, \nobtained the friendship of Louis XVI. for his \npupil Gia-long, the sou of the nominally reign- \n\n\n\nANNAPOLIS. \n\n\n\n44 \n\n\n\nANTAGONISM. \n\n\n\ning monarch, and with the aid of a few of his \ncountrymen established Gia-long on the throne, \nwho reigned till his death in 182 1, when his son \nbecame king. In consequence of the persecution of \nthe Christians, war broke out with the French, \nwho defeated the army of Annam, 10,000 strong, \nabout 22 April, 1859, when 500 were killed. On 3 \nJune, 1862, peace was made ; three provinces were \nceded to the French, and toleration of the Christians \ngranted. An insurrection in these provinces against \nthe French, begun about 17 Dec. 1862, was sup- \npressed in Feb. 1863. Ambassadors sent from An- \nnam with the view of regaining the ceded provinces \narrived at Paris in Sept. 1863, had no success. Cochin \nChina and other provinces were annexed to the \nFrench empire by proclamation, 25 June, 1867. \nSeveral native Christians were massacred by order \nof a bonze, July, 1868. , \n\nBy a treaty concluded 15 March, 1874, at Saigon, the \nindependence of the king of Annam was recognised by \nFrance, the ports were opened to commerce, and toler- \nation of the Christian religion was secured. \nTu Due, emperor, 34 years, resists the French in Tonquin, \n(which see), 1883 ; dies aged 54, 17 July, 1883 ; \nHeiphma succeeds. \nThe French protectorate recognized by treaty signed \n\nat Hue 25 Aug. 1883 \n\nThe King assassinated by enemies of the French, \n\nDec, succeeded by Yoe-Duc . about 14 Dec ,, \nThe prince who promoted massacres of Christians \n\nin December and January executed about 26 Mar. 1884 \nThe king dies, succeeded by his brother Kienphuoc \n\n(a boy) ..... announced 2 Aug. ,, \nTreacherous attack of the Regent Thu-Hong, with \n30,000 men, on General de Courcy with 1,000 men \nat the French camp at Hue ; repulsed with heavy \nloss, and the Regent captured . . 5-6 July, 1885 \nSudden attack on the French in Hue citadel, \n\nannounced 8 Sept. ,, \n\nChaul Mong, adopted son of Tu Due, proclaimed \nking, 14 Sept. ; crowned 19 Sept. ; named Douck \n\nHanh 19 Sept. ,, \n\nReported great massacre of Christians . Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe king dies ; Buntmn, his son, 10 years old (called \n\nThan Khai), proclaimed ... 31 Jan. 1889 \nThe king a prisoner with the French in Algeria \n\nJune, 1892 \nANNAPOI IS, see Fort Royal. \n\nANNATES, see First Fruits. \n\nANNO DOMINI, A.D., the year of Our \nLord, of Grace, of the Incarnation, of the Circum- \ncision, and of the Crucifixion (Trabeationis) . The \nChristian era commenced 1 Jan. in the middle of \nthe 4th year of the 194th Olympiad, the 753rd year \nof the building of Home, and in 4714 of the \nJulian period. This era was invented by a \nmonk, Dionysius Exiguus, about 532. It was \nintroduced into Italy in the 6th century, and \nordered to be used by bishops by the council of \nChelsea, in 816, but was not generally employed \nfor several centuries. Charles III. of Germany was \nthe first who added " in the year of our Lord " to \nhis reign, in 879. It was formerly held that Christ \nwas born Friday, 5 April, 4 B.C. Mr. W. T. Lynn \nconsiders that probably Christ was born towards the \nend of the year 5. \n\nANNO MUNDI, see Creation. \n\n" ANNOYANCE JURIES," of Westmin- \nster, chosen from the householders in conformity \nwith 27 Eliz. c. 17 (1585), were abolished in 1861. \n\n.ANNUAL REGISTER, a summary of the \nhistory of each year (beginning with 1758, and \ncontinued to the present time), was commenced by \nK. & J. Dodsley. (Edmund Burke at first wrote \nthe whole work, but afterwards became only an \noccasional contributor. Prior.) A similar work, \n" Annuaire des Deux Mondes," began in 1\'aris 1850. \n\n\n\nANNUALS, a name given to richly bound \nvolumes, containing poetry, tales, and essays, by \neminent authors, illustrated by engravings, pub- \nlished annually, at first in Germany, and also in \nLondon in 1823. The duration of the chief of these \npublications is here given : \n\nForget-me-not (Ackerman\'s) .... 1823-48 \n\nFriendship\'s Offering 1824-44 \n\nLiterary Souvenir (first as " the Graces ") . . 1824-34 \n\nAmulet ... 1827-34 \n\nKeepsake 1828-56 \n\nHood\'s Comic Annual 1830-42. \n\nANNUITIES or Pensions. In 1512, 20/. a \n\nyear were given to a lady of the court for services \ndone ; and bl. 13s. 4^. for the maintenance of a \ngentleman, 1536. 13/. 6s. 8d. deemed competent \nto support a gentleman in the study of the law, \n1554. An act was passed empowering the govern- \nment to borrow one million sterling upon an an- \nnuity of fourteen per cent., 4-6 Will. & Mary,i69i-3- \nThis mode of borrowing soon afterwards became \ngeneral among governments. An annuity of \nll. 2s. lid. per annum, accumulatingat \\o per cent., \ncompound interest, amounts in 100 years to 20,000/. \nThe Government Annuities and Life Assurances \nAct was passed in 1864, for the benefit of the \nworking classes ; since it enables the government \nto grant deferred annuities for sums payable in \nsmall instalments. New system of government \nannuities came into operation 3 June, 1884. Works \non annuities were published by De AVitt, 1671 ; De \nMoivre, 1724; Simpson, 1742; Tables by Price, \n1792; Milne, 1815; Jones, 1843; Farre, 1864; In- \nstitute of Actuaries, 1872 and 1882-7. \n\nANNUITY TAX : a tax levied to provide \nstipends for ministers in Edinburgh and Montrose, \nand which caused much disaffection, was abolished \nin i860, and other provisions made for the pur- \npose. These, however, proved equally unpalatable, \nand their abolition was provided for by an act passed \n9 Aug. 1870. \n\nANNUNCIATION of the Yirgin Mary, \n\n25th of March, Lady-day (which see), a festival \ncommemorating the tidings brought to Mary by the \nangel Gabriel (Luke i. 26) : its origin is referred \nto the 4th or 5th century. The religious order of \nthe Annunciation was instituted in 1232, and the \nmilitary order, in Savoy, by Amadeus, count of \nSavoy about 1362, in memory of Amadeus I., who \nhad bravely defended Rhodes against the Turks, \n1355. New statutes, 1869. \n\nANOINTING, an ancient ceremony observed \nat the inauguration of priests, kings, and bishops. \nAaron was anointed as high priest, 1491 B.C. ; and \nSaul, as king, 1095 B - c - Alfred the Great is said \nto have been the first English king anointed, a.d. \n871 ; and Edgar of Scotland, 1098. \xe2\x80\x94 The religious- \nrite is derived from the epistle of James v. 14, about \nA.D. 60. Some authors assert that in 550, dying \npersons, and persons in extreme danger of death, \nwere anointed with consecrated oil, and that this \nwas the origin of Extreme Unction (one of the \nsacraments of the Roman Catholic Church). \n\nANONYMOUS LETTERS, see Threatening \n\nLetters. \n\nANORTHOSCOPE, a new optical apparatus, \ndescribed by Dr. Carpenter in 1868. In it distorted \nfigures lose their distortion when put into rapid \nmotion. \n\n" ANTAGONISM," was demonstrated to be a \nuniversal principle throughout Nature with bene- \n\n\n\nANTALCIDAS. \n\n\n\n45 \n\n\n\nANTILLES. \n\n\n\nficial results by Sir W. R. Grove in a discourse \nat the Royal Institution, London, 20 April 1888. \n\nANTALCIDAS, Peace of. In 387 b.c. \n\nAntalcidas the Lacedaemonian made peace with \nArtaxerxes of Persia, on behalf of Greece, but prin- \ncipally in favour of Sparta, giving up the cities of \nIonia to the king. \n\nANTAECTIC POLE, &c, the opposite to the \nnorth or arctic pole; see Southern Continent. \nAntarctic Expedition proposed by the Australian Colo- \nnies ; the support of the British Government invited \nby Sir Graham Berry. A committee of the Royal \nSociety formed, including Professor Stokes, president, \nLord Rayleigh, Mr. Christie, the Astronomer Royal, \nSir Joseph Hooker, Professor Huxley, and others. \nNov. 1887. \nBaron Oscar Dickson, of Gothenburg, in Sweden, under- \ntook to subscribe \xc2\xa35,000 and procure the remainder of \nthe expense from the Swedish government, if the \nAustralasian colonies should subscribe \xc2\xa35,000. Baron \nDickson was in London Feb. 1891, but the project \nappeared to be in abeyance, Dec. 1891. \n\nANTEDILUVIAN HISTOEY, Genesis vr., \n\nv., vi. According to the tables of Mr. Whiston, \nthe number of people in the ancient world, previous \nto the Flood, reached to 549, 755 millions in the year \nof the world 1482. \n\nANTHEMS were originally antiphons\xe2\x80\x94 short \npieces of plain-song sung before the psalms. Gene- \nrally responsive antiphonic music was used in Jewish \nand early christian worship. Hilary, bishop of \nPoictiers, and St. Ambrose composed such about the \nmiddle of the 4th century. Lena let. The modern \nanthem, a passage of scripture set to music, was \nintroduced into the Reformed churches in queen \nElizabeth\'s reign, about 1560. \nEnglish Anthem "Writers : 1520-1625, Tye, Tallis, \n\nByrd, Gibbons ; 1650-1720, Humphrey, Blow, Purcell, \n\nCroft, Clarke ; 1720-1845, Greene, Boyce, Hayes, Kent, \n\nBattishill, Attwood, Walmisley. \n\nANTHOLOGY, GEEEK, a collection of \npopular epigrams and small poems writteD by \nArchilochus, Sappho, Simonides, Aleleager, Plato, \nand others, between 680 and 95 B.C. They were \ncollected by Meleager, Philippus, Agathias, and \nothers, especially by Maximus Planudes, a monk \nin the 14th century A.D., and a MS. collection by \nConstantine Cephalas was found at Heidelberg by \nSalmasius in 1606; and published by Brunek \n1772-6. Translations have been made by Bland, \nMerivale, and others. \n\nANTHEACENE, see Alizarine. \n\nANTHEOPOLOGICAL SOCIETY {m- \n\nthmpos, Greek for man), for promoting the science \nof man and mankind, held its first meeting on 24 \nFeb. 1863 ; Dr. James Hunt, president, in the \nchair. The " Anthropological Review " first came \nout in May, 1863. The Anthropological and Ethno- \nlogical Societies were amalgamated 17 Jan. 187 1, \nand styled " The Anthropological Institute," Sir \nJohn Lubbock, president. The London Anthro- \npological Society established 1873, ceased 1875. An \nAnthropological congress at Paris was opened 16 \nAug. 1878; others since; at Moscow, 13 Aug. 1892. \nThe Anthropometrical Committee reported to the \nBritish Association the results of measuring about \n53,000 persons in the United Kingdom, Sept. 1883. \n\nANTHEOPOMOEPHITES, a name given \nto the Audiani, which see. \n\nANTHEOPOPHAGI (eaters of human flesh) , \nsee Cannibals. \n\n. ANTI-AGGEESSION LEAGUE (oppo- \nsing interference in foreign affairs) formed by Mr. \nJohn Morley and others, Feb. 1882. \n\n\n\nANTIBUEGHEES, see Burghers. \n\nANTICHRIST (opposed to Christ), 1 John ii. \n18, termed the "Man of sin," 2 Thess. ii. 3; of \nthese passages many interpretations have been given, \nand many myths were current in the middle ages, \nrespecting the incarnation of the devil, &c. The \nterm is applied to each other by Roman Catholics \nand Protestants. \n\nANTI-COEN-LAW LEAGUE (for pro- \ncuring the repeal of the laws charging duty on the \nimportation of corn), sprung from various metro- \npolitan and provincial associations, was founded at \nManchester, 18 Sept. 1838, and supported by Messrs. \nCharles Villiers, Richard Cobden, John Bright, &c; \nJohn Benjamin Smith, 1st chairman, d. 15 Sept. \n1879. See Corn Laws, and Protectionists. \nMeetings held in various places . March <& April, 1841 \nExcited meeting at Manchester . .18 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nA bazaar held at Manchester, at which the League \n\nrealised io,oooZ. 2 Feb. 1842 \n\nAbout 600 deputies connected with provincial asso- \nciations assemble in London. . Feb. -Aug. ,, \nThe League at Manchester proposed to raise \n5o,oooZ., to depute lecturers throughout the \ncountry, and to print pamphlets . 20 Oct. ,, \nFirst meeting at Drury-lane Theatre . 15 March, 1843 \nMonthly meetings at Covent-Garden, commenced \n28 Sept. ; great free-trade meetings at Manchester \n\n14 Nov. 1843, ar, d 22 Jan. 1845 \nBazaar at Covent-Garden opened . . 5 May, ,, \nGreat Manchester meeting, at which the League \n\nproposed to raise 250,000?. . . .23 Dec. ,, \nThe Corn Importation Bill having passed, 26 June, \nthe League is formally dissolved ; Mr. Cobden was \nrewarded by a national subscription, nearly \n\n8o,oooZ 2 July, 1846 \n\nOn the accession of the Derby ministry, a revival of \nthe Anti-Corn-Law League was proposed at Man- \nchester, and a subscription was opened, which \nproduced within half an hour 27,520k (soon proved \n\nunnecessary) 2 Mar. 1852 \n\nDeath of Richard Cobden, 2 April, 1865; John \nBright 27 Mar. 1889 \n\nANTIETAM CEEEK, near Sharpsburg, \nMaryland, U. S. Here was fought a terrible battle \non 17 Sept. 1862, between the Federals under gene- \nral M\'Clellan and the Confederates under Lee. \nAfter his victory at Bull Run or Manassas, 30 Aug., \nLee invaded Maryland, and was immediately fol- \nlowed by M\'Clellan. On 16 Sept. Lee was joined \nby Jackson, and at five o\'clock next morning the \nconflict began. About 100,000 men were engaged, \nand the battle raged till night. The Federals were \nrepeatedly repulsed; but eventually the Con- \nfederates retreated and repassed the Potomac on \n18 and 19 Sept. The loss of the Federals was \nestimated at 12,469 ; of the Confederates, 14,000. \nA national cemetery here, was dedicated 17 Sept. \n1867. \n\nANTIGUA, a "West Indian Island, discovered \nby Columbus in Nov. 1493 ; settled by the English in \n1632; made a bishopric, 1842. Population in 1861, \n36,412 ; 1881, 34,964. Governor, sir B. C. C. Pine, \n1869 ; hon. H. T. Irving, 1873 \'\xc2\xbb h \xc2\xb0n. Geo. Berkeley, \n1874-80; sir J. H. Glover, 1881. Antigua is the seat \nof government of the Leeward Isles, which see. \n\n" ANTI-JACOBIN or Weekly Examiner," a \n\nsatirical paper, opposed to revolutionary principles, \n\npublished by George Canning and his friends 1797- \n\n98; its poetry included the "Needy Knife Grinder." \n\nThe A nti- Jacobin, a miscellaneous weekly paper, price \n\n21/., edited by Mr. Frederick Greenwood, formerly \n\neditor of the Pall Mall Gazette and the St. James\'s \n\nGazette, which sec, first appeared, 31 Jan. 1891. \n\nANTILLES, or Caribbee Islands, an early \nname of the West Indies {which see). \n\n\n\nANTIIVIONY. \n\n\n\n46 \n\n\n\nANTWEEP. \n\n\n\nANTIMONY, a white brittle metal, com- \npounds of which were early known, it was, and \nis still, used to blacken both men\'s and women\'s \neyes in the east (2 Kings ix.30, and Jeremiahiv. \n30) . Mixed with lead it forms printing type metal. \nBasil Valentine wrote on antimony about 1410. \nPriestley. See Bravo Case. \n\nANTINOMIANS (from the Greek anti, \nagainst, and nomas, law), a name given by Luther \n(in 11538) to John Agricola, who is said to have \nheld \'"that it mattered not how wicked a man was \nif he had but faith." (Opposed to Rom. iii. 28, & \nv. I, 2.) He retracted these doctrines in 1540. The \nAntinomians were condemned by the British par- \nliament, 1648. \n\nANTIOCH, now ANTAKIEH, Syria, built by \nSeleucus, 300 B.C. after the battle of Ipsus, 301, \nacquired the name " Queen of the East." Here the \ndisciples were first called Christians, a.d. 42 {Acts \nxi. 26). Antioch was taken by the Persians, 540 ; \nby the Saracens about 638 ; recovered for the Eastei n \nemperor, 966 ; lost again in 1086 ; retaken by the \nCrusaders in June, 1098, and made capital of a \nprincipalitv, 1099 ; and held by them till June, \n1268, when it was captured by the sultan of Egypt. \nIt was taken from the Turks in the Syrian war, 1 \nAug. 1832, by Ibrahim Pacha, but restored at the \npeace. Antioch suffered much by an earthquake, \nand about 1600 persons were killed, 3 April, 1872. \n\nThe Cesarean Era of Antioch, 48 B.C., is much \n\nused by the early Christian writers of Antioch and \nAlexandria ; it placed the Creation 5492 years B.C. \n31 councils were held at Antioch, 252-1 161. \n\nANTI-PAENELLITES, see under Tarnell- \nitcs, 1890. \n\nANTIPHONS, see Anthems. \n\nANTIPODES. Plato is said to be the first \nwho thought it possible that antipodes existed \n(about 388 B.C.). Boniface, archbishop of Mentz, \nlegate of pope Zachary, is said to have denounced \na \xc2\xb0bishop as a heretic for maintaining this doc- \ntrine a.d. 741. The antipodes of England lie to the \nsouth-east of New Zealand, near Antipodes Island. \n\nANTI-POPES, rival popes elected at various \ntimes, especially by the French and Italian factions, \nfrom 1305 to 1439. In the article Popes, the Anti- \npopes are printed in italics. \n\nANTIPYELNE, an artificial alkaloid obtained \nfrom coal-tar, discovered in 1883 by Knorr, of \nErlangen, is said to be a remedy for sea sickness ; \na substitute for quinine and a source of aniline \ncolours. \n\nANTI-PYKOG-ENE, or Fire Preven- \ntive- A. chemical preparation tried at Berlin 30 \nDec. 1881. A company for its use has been formed. \nANTIQITAEIES. A college of antiquaries is \nsaid to have existed in Ireland, 700 B.C. The annual \nInternational Congress of Prehistoric Archaeology, \noriginated at La Spezzia in 1865 ; meetings have \nbeen held since at Paris, Norwich, &c. \nA society was founded by archbishop Parker, Camden, \n\nStow, and others in 1572. Spehnan. \nApplication was made to Elizabeth for a charter, her \ndeath ensued, and her successor, James I., was far \nfrom favouring the design. , \n\nThe "Antiquaries\' feast," mentioned by Ashmole, 2 \n\nJuly, 1659. \nThe Society of Antiquaries revived, 1707 ; received its \ncharter of incorporation from George II., 2 Nov. 1751 ; \nmet in Chancery Lane, 1753 ; apartments in Somerset- \nhouse (granted 1776 ;) occupied, 15 Feb., 1781 ; removed \nto Burlington House, 1874 ; first meeting 14 Jan., \n1875 Memoirs, entitled " Archaeologia," first pub- \n\n\n\nlished in 1770 ; president, earl Stanhope, elected, 1846; \ndied 24 Dec, 1875 : succeeded by Frederic Ouvry ; by \nthe earl of Carnarvon, 1878 ; Mr. John Evans, 1885. \n\nBritish Archaeological Association founded Dec. 1843. \n\nArchaeological Institute of Great Britain formed by a \nseceding part of the Association, 1845. Annual Meet- \nings held in the Provinces by both bodies. \n\nSociety of Antiquaries of Edinburgh founded in 1780. \n\nSince 1845 many county archaeological societies have \nbeen formed in the United Kingdom. The fourth \ncongress of these archaeological societies, 20 July, \n1892. \n\nThe Society of Antiquaries of France (1814) began in 1805 \nas the Celtic Academy. \n\n" The Antiquary," a magazine, began 1880. \n\nBritish School of Archaeology (first director, F. C. Pen- \nrose) opened at Athens Nov. 1886. \n\nANTISANA, see Andes. \nANTI-SLAVEEY SOCIETY. See under \nSlave Trade. \nANTI - TEINITAEIANS. Theodotus of \n\nByzantium, at the close of the 2nd century, is sup- \nposed to have been the first who advocated the sim- \nple humanity of Jesus. See Avians, Socinians, \nUnitarians. \n\nANTIITM, maritime city of Latium, now Porto \nd\'Anzio, near Bome, after a long struggle for inde- \npendence, became a Boman colony, at the end of the \ngreat Latin war, 340-338 b.c. It is mentioned by \nHorace, and was a favourite retreat of the emperors \nand wealthy llomans, who erected many villas in \nits vicinity. The treasures deposited in the temple \nof Fortune here were taken by Octavius Caesar during \nhis war with Antony, 41 B.C. \n\nANTIVAEI, a seaport on the Adriatic, ceded \nto Montenegro by the Berlin treaty^, 13 July, 1878. \n\nANTONELLI CASE, see Italy, 1877-9. \nANTONINUS\' WALL, see Roman Walls. \nANTWEEP (French, Anvers), the principal \nport of Belgium, is mentioned in history in 517. It \nwas a small republic in the nth century, and was \nthe first commercial city in Europe till the wars of \nthe 16th and 17th centuries. Population, 1890, \n227,225. \n\nIts fine exchange built 1531 \n\nTaken after 14 months\' siege by the prince of Parma \n\n17 Aug. 1585 \nTruce of Antwerp (between Spain and United Pro- \nvinces) for 12 years, concluded . . 29 Mar. 1609 \nAfter Marlborough\'s victory at Ramillies, Antwerp \n\nsurrenders at once .... 6 June, 1706 \n\nThe Barrier treaty concluded here . 16 Nov. 1715 \n\nTaken by marshal Saxe .... 9 May, 1746 \nOccupied by the French . . . 1792-3, 1794-1814. \nCivil war between the Belgians and the House of \n\nOrange: (See Belgium.) .... 1830-31 \nThe Belgian troops, having entered Antwerp, were \nopposed by the Dutch garrison, who, after a \ndreadful conflict, being driven into the citadel, \ncannonaded the town with red-hot balls 27 Oct. 1830 \nThe citadel bombarded by the French, 4 Dec. ; sur- \nrendered by gen. Chasse . . .23 Dec. 1832 \nExchange burnt ; archives, &c, destroyed 2 Aug. 1858 \nA fine-art fete held . . 17-20 Aug. 1861 \nGreat Napoleon wharf destroyed by fire ; loss 25 \n\nlives and about 400,000^ 2 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGreat fete at the opening of the port by the aboli- \ntion of the Scheldt dues . . . 3 Aug. 1863 \nFortifications constructed .... 1860-70 \nStatue of Leopold I. uncovered . . 2 Aug. 1868 \nTercentenary of Rubens\' birth, celebrated . 18 Aug. 1877 \nPlantin-Moretus Museum, containing collections of \nabout 300 years, viz.: 12,000 old letters, printing \ntypes, portraits, &c, made by the Plantins \n(descendants of Charles de Tiercelin, seigneur de \nla Roche du Maine), who were printers to the \nkings of Spain ; opened . . about 20 Aug. 1877 \nInternational Exhibition, opened by the king 2 \n\nMay, 1885; closed 15 Oct. 1885 \n\nNew quays opened by the King . . 26 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nANVAR-I-SUHAILI. \n\n\n\n47 \n\n\n\nAPOTHECARY. \n\n\n\nGreat explosion at M. Corvilain\'s cartridge factory, \nbehind the docks in the port ; large Russian \npetroleum warehouses take fire, causing great \ndestruction of propeity, 6 Sept., the shipping \nonly escaped by the direction of the wind ; the \nfire subdued ; visit of the king, 13 Sept. ; reported \ndeaths, 120 ; injured, 130 . . . 18 Sept. 1889 \n\nTrial of M. Corvilaiu and his engineer, M. Delauney, \nfor homijide, &c. ; M. Corvilaiu sentenced to si \nyears\' penal servitude, and his engineer, M. \nDelauney, to ij years, at Brussels, 14 \xe2\x80\x94 27 Nov. \n1889, and . .... 17 Feb. 1890 \n\nANVAR-I-SUHAILI, or the Lights of Cano- \npus, the ancient Persian version of the ancient \nfables of Pilpay, Bidpai, or Vishnu Sarma, made \nby liusain Vaiz, at the order of Nushirvan, king of \nPersia. The English translation by E. B. Eastwick, \npublished 1854. See Fables. \n\nANZIN COAL MINES, near Valenciennes, \nN.France: first tapped 24 June, 1734. The com- \npany formed has become immensely rich : cabinet \nministers generally directors. Output, in 1790, \n300,000 tons : in 1872, 2,200,000 tons. \n\nAPATITE, mineral phosphate of lime. About \n1856 it hegan to be largely employed as manure. It \nis abundant in Norway, and in Sombrero, a small \nWest India Island. \n\nAPOCALYPSE or Revelation, written by \n\nSt. John in the isle of Patmos about a.d. 95.* \n\nAPOCRYPHA. In the preface to the Apo- \ncrypha it is said, " These books are neyther found in \nthe Hebrue nor in the Chalde." Bible, 1539. The \nhistory of the Apocrypha ends 135 B.C. The books \nwere not in the Jewish canon, were rejected at the \ncouncil of Laodicea about a.d. 366, but were re- \nceived as canonical by the Boman Catholic church \nat the council of Trent on 8 April, 1546. Parts of \nthe Apocrypha were admitted to be read as lessons \nby the church of England, by the 6th article, 1563. \nMany of these were excluded by the act passed 1S71. \n\n1 Esdras .... from about b.c. 623-445 \n\n2 Esdras ,, * * \n\nTobit \xe2\x80\x9e 734-678 \n\nJudith \xe2\x80\x9e 656 \n\nEsther ,, 510 \n\nWisdom of Solomon * * \n\nEcclesiasticus B.C. 300 or 180 \n\nBarucli * * \n\nSong of the Three Children * * \n\nHistory of Susannah * * \n\nBel and the Dragon . . . * * \n\nPrayer of Manasses b.c. 676 \n\n1 Maccabees about 323-135 \n\n2 Maccabees from about 187-161 \n\nThere are also Apocryphal writings in connection with \n\nthe New Testament. \n\nAPOLLINARISTS, followers of Apollinaris, \na reader in the church of Laodicea, who taught \n(366) that the divinity of Christ was instead of a \nsoul to him ; that his flesh was pre-existent to his \nappearance upon earth, and was sent down from \nheaven, and conveyed through the Virgin ; that \nthere were two sons, one born of God, the other of \nthe Virgin, &c. These opinions were condemned \nby the council of Constantinople, 381. \n\n_ * Some ascribe the authorship to Cerinthus, the here- \ntic, and others to John, the presbyter, of Ephesus. In \nthe first centuries many churches disowned it, and in the \n4th century it was excluded from the sacred canon by \nthe council of Laodicea, but was again received by other \ncouncils, and confirmed by that of Trent, held in 1545, \net seq. Although the book had been rejected by Luther, \nMichaelis, and others, and its authority questioned in \nall ages, from the time of Justin Martyr (who wrote his \nfirst Apology for Christians in a.d. 139), yet its canonical \nauthority is still almost universally acknowledged. \n\n\n\nAPOLLO, the god of the fine arts, medicine, \nmusic, poetry, and eloquence, had many temples \nand statues, particularly in Greece and Italy. See- \nDelphi. The statue of Apollo Belvedere, discovered \nat Antium, in Italy, in 1503, was purchased by pope- \nJulius II., who placed it in the Vatican. \n\nAPOLLONICON, an elaborate musical in- \nstrument, constructed on the principle of the organ \n(keys and barrel), was invented by Messrs. Flight \nand Bobson, of St. Martin\'s lane, Westminster, and \nexhibited by them first in 181 7. Timbs. \n\nAPOLOGIES for Christianity were ad- \ndressed by Justin Martyr to the emperor Antoninus- \nPius about 139, and to the Boman senate about 164. \nOther apologies were written by Quadratus, Aris- \ntides, and other early fathers of the Church. \n\nAPOSTLES (Greek, apostolos, one sent forth). \nTwelve were appointed by Christ, a.d. 31 ; viz. \nSimon Peter and Andrew (brothers), James and) \nJohn (sons of Zebedee), Philip, Nathanael (or Bar- \ntholomew), Matthew (or Levi), Thomas, James the \nLess (son of Alphams), Simon the Canaanite and \nJude or Thaddeus (brothers), and Judas Iscariot. \nMatthias was elected in the room of Judas Iscariot,. \na.d. 33 (Acts i.) ; and Paul and Barnabas were \nappointed by the Holy Spirit, a.d. 45 (Acts xiii. 2). \n" The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles," a small velluia \nvolume in Greek, dated about 1056, discovered by \nPhilotheos Bryennios, metropolitan of Nicomedea, in \nthe library of the Holy Sepulchre monastery at Con- \nstantinople in 1873 ; and published by him in 187^. \nThe composition is ascribed to the first century. The \ntext, with English translation and introduction, was \npublished by R. D. Hitchcock and Francis Brown in \n1884 ; improved edition, spring, 1885. \n\nAPOSTLES\' CREED, erroneously attributed \nto the apostles, is mentioned as the Boman creed by \nBufinus, died about 410. Irenseus, bishop of Lyons,, \ndied 202, gives a creed resembling it. Its repetition \nin public worship was ordained in the Greek church \nat Antioch, and in the Boman church in the nth \ncentury, whence it passed to the church of England,. \n\nAPOSTOLICAL, see Canons and Fathers. \n\nAPOSTOLICI, a sect, at the end of the 2nd \ncentury, which renounced marriage, wine, flesh, Ac. \nA second sect, founded by Sagarelli about 1261L \nwandered about, clothed in white, with long beard \ndishevelled hair, and bare heads, accompanied by \nwomen called spiritual sisters, preaching against \nthe growing corruption of the church of Borne, and \npredicting its downfall. They renounced baptism, \nthe mass, purgatory, &c., and by their enemies" \nwere accused of gross licentiousness. Sagarelli was \nburnt alive at Parma in 1300, and his followers- \nwere dispersed in 1307, and extirpated about 1404. \n\nAPOTHECARY (literally, a keeper of a store- \nhouse). On 10 Oct. 1345, Edward III. settled six- \npence per diem for life on Coursus de Gangeland r \nApothecarius London\', for taking care of hini \nduring his severe illness in Scotland. lit/mer\'s \nFoidera; see Pharmacy and Medical Council. \nApothecaries exempted from serving on juries or \n\nother civil offices 1713: \n\nLondon Apothecaries\' Company separated from the \n\nGrocers\' and incorporated 1617 ; hall built . . 1670 \nTheir practice regulated and their authority ex- \ntended over all England, by the Apothecaries act \n55 Geo. III. c. 19 (1815), amended by 6 Geo. iv! \nc. 133, 1825 ; and by 37 & 3S Vict. c. 34 . . 1874 \nBotanical Garden at Chelsea left by sir Hans Sloane \nto the company, Jan. 1753, on condition of \ntheir introducing every year fifty new plants, \nuntil their number should amount to 2000 Jan.\' 175^ \nThe Dublin guild incorporated . jiyZ \n\n\n\nAPOTHEOSIS. \n\n\n\n48 \n\n\n\nAQUACULTUBE. \n\n\n\nAPOTHEOSIS, a ceremony of the ancient \nnutions of the world, by which they raised their \nkings and heroes to the rank of deities. The deify- \ning a deceased emperor wa3 begun at Rome by \nAugustus, in favour of Julius Caesar, 13 B.C. Tille- \nmofit. \n\nAPPEAL or Assize of Battle. By the \n\nold law of England, a man charged with murder \nmight fight with the appellant, thereby to make \nf>roof of his guilt or innocence. In 181 7, a young \nmaid, Mary Ashford, was believed to have been \nviolated and murdered by Abraham Thornton, who, \non trial, was acquitted. In an appeal, he claimed \nhis right by wager of battle, which the court \nallowed ; but the appellant (the brother of the \nmaid) refused the challenge, and the accused was \ndischarged, 16 April, 1818. This law was struck \noff the statute-book, by 59 Geo. III. c. 46 (1819). \nJn 1631 lord Rea impeached Mr. David Ramsey of \ntreason and offered battle in proof; a commission \nwas appointed, but the duel was prohibited by king \nJames I. \n\nAPPEALS. In the time of Alfred (869-901), \nappeals lay from courts of justice to the king in \n\xe2\x80\xa2council. Courts of appeal at the Exchequer Chamber, \nin error from the judgments of the superior and \ncriminal courts, were regulated by statutes in 1357, \n1559, 1830 and 1848. Appeals from English tribu- \nnals to the pope were first introduced about 1151, \nwere long vainly opposed, and were abolished by \nHenry VIII. 1534; restored by Mary, 1554; again \nabolished by Elizabeth, 1559. A proposition for \nestablishing an imperial court of appeal submitted \nto the house of lords by the lord chancellor Hather- \nlej, 15 April ; was referred to a select committee, \n30 April, 1872. A similar proposition by lord chan- \ncellor Selborne, 13 Feb. 1873. See Privy Council \nand Justices, Lords. \n\nThe jurisdiction of the House of Lords as a court of \nappeal was abolished by the Judicature Act, 1873. \nThe abolition was suspended in 1875 ; and a provi- \nsional court established, which first sat 8 Nov. 1875 : \npresent, the Lord Chancellor, Lord Coleridge, Baron \nBramwell, and Justice Brett. \nThe House of Lords was reconstructed as a court of \nfinal appeal by the Appellate Jurisdiction Act intro- \nduced by Lord Cairns, 11 Feb., and passed 11 Aug. \n1876 ; amended, 1887. Two Lords of Appeal were to \nbe appointed ; to be peers for life. Appeals may be \nlieard during prorogation or dissolution of Parliament. \nPresent lords: lord Watson, 1880, lord Macnaughten, \n1887, lord Morris, 1883, sir James Hannen, lord \nHannen, Jan. 1891. \nThe new Supreme Court of Appeal first sat 21 Nov. \n\n1876. \nA criminal appeal bill introduced ; withdrawn 21 Aug. \n\n1883. \n\nAPPELLATE JUBISDICTION, see under \n\nAppeals. \n\nAPPENZELL, a Swiss canton, threw off the \nsupremacy of the abbots of St. Gall early in the 15th \ncentury, and became the thirteenth member of the \nSwiss confederation, 1513. \n\nAPPIAN WAY, a Roman road to Capua, \nmade by Appius Claudius Caecus, while censor, 312- \n308 B.C. \n\nAPPLES. Several kinds are indigenous to \nEngland ; but those in general use have been \nbrought at various times from the continent. \nRichard Harris, fruiterer to Henry VIII,, is said to \nhave planted a great number of the orchards in \nKent, and lord Soudamore, ambassador to Fi-ance in \nthe reign of Charles I., planted many of those in \nHerefordshire. Ray reckons 78 varieties of apples \nin his day (1688) . In 1866 there were 1500 varieties \n\n\n\nin the collection of the Royal Horticultural Society, \nmany not worth cultivation. Grand Apple congress \nat Chiswick, 5-25 Oct. 1883. \n\nAPPOBTIONMENT ACT (for rents) passed \nI Aug. 1870. \n\nAPPBAISEBS. The valuation of goods for \nanother was an early business in England ; and so \nearly as 1283, by the statute of merchants, or of \nActon Burnel, \' \' it was enacted that if they valued \nthe goods of parties too high, the appraisers should \ntake them at such price as they have limited." In \n1845 their annual licence was raised from 10s. to 40s. \n\nAPPBENTICES. Those of London were \nobliged to wear blue cloaks in summer, and blue \ngowns in winter, in the reign of queen Elizabeth, \n1558. Ten pounds was then a great apprentice fee. \nFrom twenty to one hundred pounds were given in \nthe reign of James I. Stow\' s Survey. The appren- \ntice tax enacted 43 Geo. III. 1802. The term of \nseven years, not to expire till the apprentice was \n24 years old, required by the statute of Elizabeth \n(1563), was abolished in 1814. An act for the pro- \ntection of apprentices, &c, was passed in 1851. The \napprentices of London have been at times very riot- \nous ; they rose into insurrection against foreigners \non Evil May-day (ivhich see) 1 May, 1517. \n\nExhibition of apprentices\' work at the People\'s Palace \nopened by the prince of Wales 10 Dec. 1887. \n\nAPPBOPBIATION CLAUSE, of the Irish \nTithe Bill of 1835, brought forward by lord John \nRussell, whereby any surplus revenue that might \naccrue by the working of the act was to be appro- \npriated for the education of all classes of the people. \nThe principle was adopted by the commons, but \nrejected by the lords in 1835 and 1836, and was \nabandoned. \n\nAPPBOPBIATIONS (property taken from \nthe church), began in the time of William I. The \nparochial clergy, then commonly Saxons, were im- \npoverished by the bishops and higher clergy (gene - \nrally Normans) to enrich the monasteries possessed \nby the conqueror\'s friends. Where the tithes were \nso appropriated, the vicar had only such a compe- \ntency as the bishop or superior thought fit to allow. \nPope Alexander IV. complained of this as the bane \nof religion, the destruction of the church, and a \npoison that had infected the whole nation. Lay \nappropriations began after the dissolution of the \nmonasteries, 1536. \n\nAPBICOT (prceco.v, early ripe), Primus Arme- \nniaca, from Asia Minor, said to have been first \nplanted in England about 1540, by the gardener of \nHenry VIII. \n\nAPBIL, the fourth month of our year, the \nsecond of the ancient Romans. \n\nAPTEBYX (wingless), a bird, a native of New \nZealand, first brought to this country in 1813, and \ndeposited in the collection of the earl of Derby. \nFossil specimens of a gigantic species of this bird \n(named Dinornis) were discovered in New Zealand \nby Mr. Walter Mantell in 1843 and since, and \nmuch studied and many papers written on it by \nProfessor Owen. \n\nAPULIA, a province in S.E. Italy. The people \nfavoured Hannibal, and were severely punished by \nthe Romans at his retreat, 207 B.C. Apulia was con- \nquered by the Normans, whose leader Guiscard re- \nceived the title of duke of Apulia from pope Nicho- \nlas II. in 1059. After many changes of masters, it \nwas absorbed into the kingdom of Naples, in 1265. \n\nAQUACULTUBE, see undar Fisheries. \n\n\n\nAQUARII. \n\n\n\n49 \n\n\n\nAEABICI. \n\n\n\nAQUARII, a sect said to have been founded by \nTatian in the 2nd century, who forebore the use of \nwine even in the sacrament; during persecution \nthey met secretly at night. For this they were \ncensured by C3 r prian (martyred, 258) . \n\nAQUARIUM or Aqua vivarium, a vessel \n\ncontaining water (marine or fresh) in which animals \nand plants may co-exist, mutually supporting each \nother ; snails being introduced as scavengers. In \n1849, Mr. N. B. Ward succeeded in growing sea- \nweeds in \' artificial sea- water; in 1850, Mr. R. \nWarington demonstrated the conditions necessary \nfor the growth of animals and plants in jars of \nwater; and in 1853 the glass tanks in the Zoological \nGardens, Regent\'s Park, were set up by Mr. D. \nMitchell. In 1854, Mr. Gosse published "The \nAquarium." Mr. W. Alford Lloyd, late of Portland- \nroad, London, who by his enterprise in collecting \nspecimens did much to increase the value and inter- \nest of aquaria, has been much employed in erecting \naquaria. The great aquarium (50 yards long and \n12 wide) at the Jardin d\'Acclimatation at Paris, \nwas constructed under his direction in i860. He \nalso constructed the aquarium at Hamburg and \nothers. That at Brighton was inaugurated by prince \nArthur, 30 March, and publicly opened by the \nmayor, 10 Aug. 1872. That at the Crystal Palace \nwas opened, Jan. 1872. \n\nThe Royal A^uaricm and Summer and Winter Garden \nSociety w is established 1874; the building at Westmin- \nster, planned by Mr. Wybrow Robertson and Mr. A. \nBedborough, was opened by the duke of Edinburgh, \n22 Jan. 1876. \nA woman surnamed "Zaze.l" permitted herself to be \nsafely shot from a cannon (by a spring or other me- \nchanical contrivance) ; summer of 1877, et seq. \nLiving whales shown here soon died ; see Whale ; Sept., \n\n1877 ; June, 1878. \nThe Imperial theatre added, 1879. \n\nThe site of the Aquarium to be sold for building pur- \nposes, July, 1888. \n\nAQUATINT, see Engraving. \n\nAQUEDUCT, an artificial watercourse. Appius \nClaudius Csecus, while censor, advised and con- \nstructed the first Roman aqueduct, as well as the \nAppian way, about 312-308 B.C.* There are now \nsome remarkable aqueducts in Europe : thatat Lisbon \nis of great extent and beauty ; that at Segovia has \n129 arches; and that at Versailles is three miles \nlong, and of immense height, with 242 arches in \nthree stories. The stupendous aqueuuct on the \nEllesmere canal, in England (1007 feet in length, \nand 126 feet high) was completed by T. Telford, \nand opened 26 Dec. 1805. The Lisbon aqueduct \nwas completed in 1738, and the Croton aqueduct, \nnear New York, was constructed between 1837 and \n1842. The aqueduct to supply Marseilles with \nwater was commenced in 1830. An aqueduct to \nsupply London with water from the Welsh lakes \nwas proposed by Mr. J. F. Bateman in 1865. \n\nAQUIDABAN, Paraguay. Here the war \nwith Brazil was ended with the defeat and death of \npresident Lopez, 1 March, 1870. \n\nAQUILA, S. Italy. Near here the Arragonese \nunder the condottiere Braccio Forte-Braccio were \ndefeated by the allied Papal, Neapolitan, and \nMilanese army under Jacob Caldora, 2 June, 1424. \nBraccio, a wounded prisoner, refused to take food, \nand died, 5 June. \n\nAQUILEIA (Istria), made a Roman colony \nabout 180 b. c. and fortified a. d. 168. Constantine \n\n* Remains of these and other noble acuieducts, con- \nstructed by emperors, still remain, and some supply \nwater to the city. \n\n\n\nII. was slain in a battle with Constans, fought at \nAquileia towards the close of March, 340. Maximus \ndefeated and slain by Theodosius, near Aquileia, 28 \nJuly, 388. Theodosiu-s defeated Eugenius and \nArbogastes, the Gaul, near Aquileia, and remained \nsole emperor, 6 Sept. 394. Eugenius was put to \ndeath, and Arbogastes died by his own hand, mor- \ntified by his overthrow. St. Ambrose held a synod \nhere in 381. In 452 Aquileia was almost totally \ndestroyed by Attila the Hun, and near it in 489 \nTheodoric and the Ostrogoths totally defeated \nOdoacer, the king of Italy. Aquileia was an early \npatriarchal see. \n\nAQU1TAINE, the Roman province Aquitania \n(S. W. Fiance), conquered by the Romans 28 B.C.; \nby the Visigoths, a.d. 418 ; taken from them by \nClovis in 507. Henry II. of England obtained it \nwith his wife Eleanor, 1 152. It was erected into a \nprincipality for Edward the Black Prince in 1362; \nbut was annexed to France in 1370. The title of \nduke of Aquitaine was taken by the crown of \nEngland on the conquest of this duchy by Henry V. \nin 1418. The province was lost in the reign of \nHenry VI. \n\nARABIA (W.Asia). The terms Petrcea (stony), \nFelix (happy), and Desert a are said to have been \napplied to its divisions by Ptolemy, about A. D. 140. \nThe Arabs claim descent from Ishmael, the eldest \nson of Abraham, born 1910 B.C. Gen. xvi. Arabia \nwas unsuccessfully invaded by Gallus, the Roman \ngovernor of Egypt, 24 B.C. The Abyssians con- \nquered part of Arabia Felix, and retained it 76 \nyears. In a.d. 622, the Arabians under the name \nof Saracens, followers of Mahomet (born at Mecca, \n570), their general and prophet, commenced their \ncourse of conquest ; see Mahometanism. Arabia \nwas conquered by the Ottomans 1518-39. The \nArabs greatly favoured literature and the sciences, \nespecially mathematics, astronomy, and chemistry. \nThe Koran was written in Arabic (622-632). The \nBible was printed in Arabic in 167 1. SeelFahabees. \n\nThe aggression of the Turks on the South Arabs \nexcited jealousy in England, and was checked by \nthe sultan Nov. 1873 \n\nInsurrection in Yemen or Arabia Felix ; 5 Jan. \xe2\x80\x94 \n\n7 Feb. 1882 \n\nEgyptian commission for preservation of Arab \nmonuments appointed .... Jan. ,. \n\nRevolts in Yemen, announced . . 17 Mar. 1833 \n\nConflicts reported Sept. 1884 \n\nSeveral revolts against the Turkish government \nsuppressed June\xe2\x80\x94 Oct. i3qi \n\nRebellion headed by Iman Ahmed Eddin, reported, \n11 Jan.; reinforcements sent, successful, \n\nMay \xe2\x80\x94 July, 1892 \n\nARABIAN NIGHTS\' ENTERTAIN- \nMENTS (or IOOI Tales) were translated into \nFrench by Galland, and published in 1704; but \ntheir authenticity was not acknowledged till many- \nyears after. The best English translation from the \nArabic is that of Mr. E. W. Lane, published in \n1839, with valuable notes and beautiful illustra- \ntions. Sir Richard F. Burton\'s elaborate transla- \ntion in 10 vols, was printed at Benares for sub- \nscribers 1885-7. Lady Buiton\'s expurgated edition \nwas published in 1887 et seq. He died, aged 69, 20 \nOct. 1890. \n\nARABIC FIGURES (i, 2, 3, &c), see Arith- \nmetic. Arabic Newspaper, " Mar-Atu-l- \nAhw&P\' (" Mirror of Passing Events"), published \nin London end of 1876. \n\nARABICI, a sect which sprung up in Arabia, \nabout 207, whose distinguishing tenet was, that the \nsoul dies with the body, and will rise again with it , \n\n\n\nARAGON. \n\n\n\n50 \n\n\n\nAECH. \n\n\n\nARAGON, part of the Roman Tarraconensis, a \nkingdom, N.E. Spain, was conquered by the Car- \nthaginians, who were expelled by the Romans about \n200 B.C. It became an independent monarchy in \nA.D. 1035 ; see Spain. \n\nARAM. Aramsea, from the Hebrew Aram \n(signifying "high land" as distinguished from \nCanaan, "low land"), a name given to all the \ncountry N. E. of Palestine ; which included Syria, \nBabylonia and Mesopotamia. The people used two \ndialects, in the west Syriac, in the east Aramaic \n(improperly termed Chaldee), called Hebrew at the \ntime of Christ. \n\nARANJUEZ (Central Spain), contains a fine \nroyal palace, at which several important treaties \nwere concluded. On 17 March, 1808, an insurrec- \ntion broke out here against Charles IV. and his \nfavourite, Godo} r , the prince of the peace, who re- \nceived that title for concluding the treaty of Basle. \nThe former was compelled to abdicate in favour of \nhis son, Ferdinand VII., 19 March. \n\nARARAT, a mountain in Armenia (about \n17,112 feet above the sea-level), on which Noah\'s \nark is supposed to have rested, B.C. 2348, now \ntermed by the Persians, Koh-i-Nuh (Noah\'s moun- \ntain) ; by the Armenians, Masis ; by the Turks, \nAgri-Dagh. \n\nIt was ascended by Dr. Parrot, 27 Sept., 1829 ; by Major \nStuart, 1856, and by others since. Mr. James Bryce, \nwho ascended 11, 12 Sept., 1876, described the summit \nas a little plain of snow, silent and desolate, with a \nbright, green sky above ; the view stern, green, and \nmonotonous. Ascended by professor Mackoff and M. \nPopoff, Russians, Aug. 1888. \n\nARAUCANIA, a province in S. America. Its \ninhabitants maintained almost unceasing war with \nthe Spaniards from 1537 to 1773, when their inde- \npendence was recognised. They are now nominally \nsubject to Chili. \n\nABAUSIO (now Orange), S. E. France. \nThrough the jealousy of the Roman proconsul \nQ. Servilius Caspio, who would not wait for the \narrival of the army of the consul C. Manlius, both \nwere defeated here by the Cimbri with much \n\xe2\x96\xa0slaughter, 105 B. c. \n\nARBELA. The third and decisive battle be- \ntween Alexander the Great and Darius Codomanus \ndecided the fate of Persia, 1 Oct. 331 B.C., on a \nplain in Assyria, between Arbela and Gaugamela. \nThe army of Darius consisted of 1,000,000 foot and \n40,000 horse ; the Macedonian army amounted to \nonly 40,000 foot and 7000 horse. Arrian. The gold \nand silver found in the cities of Susa, Persepolis, \nand Babylon, which fell to Alexander from this \nvictory, amounted to thirty millions sterling ; and \nthe jewels and other precious spoil, belonging to \nDarius, sufficed to load 20,000 mules and 5000 \ncamels. Plutarch. \n\nARBITRATION. Submission to arbitration \nwas authorised and made equivalent in force to the \ndecision of a jury, by 9 & 10 "Will. III. (1698). \nFurther enforced by 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 42 (1833) ; \nsee Ouzel Galley. The Common Law Procedure Act \n(1854) authorises the judges of superior courts to \norder compulsory arbitration ; and, by an act passed \nin 1859, railway companies may settle disputes with \neach other by arbitration. The Arbitration (Masters \nand Workmen) Act was passed 6 Aug. 1872. See \nPncd\' homines. \n\nFor Arbitration between Nations, see under \nPeace. \n\n\n\nCodification of the Arbitration Acts was effected by the \n\nArbitration Act passed 26 Aug. 1889. \nAddress in favour of arbitration presented by eminent \n\nBritish M.P.s and politicians at Washington, U.S., \n\n1887. \n\nARBUTUS. The Arbutus Andrachne, oriental \nstrawberry-tree, was brought to England from the \nLevant about 1724. \n\nARC DE TRIOMPHE, Paris, begun in \n1806 in honour of the Grande Armee, continued in \n1823, and completed in 1836". The list of battles, \n&c. (158), begins with Volmy, 20 Sept. 1792, and \nthe last Ligny, 16 June, 18 15. The Arc de Tri- \nomphe is 165 feet high, 150 feet broad and 75 feet \nthick. \n\nARCADES, or walks arched over. The princi- \npal in London are the Burlington-arcade, opened \n20 March, 1819 ; the Lowther-arcade, Strand, \nopened 1831; between Old Bond- street and Albe- \nmarle-street, opened May, 1880; see Strand, and \nExeter Change. The Royal-arcade, Dublin, opened \nJune, 1820, was burnt to the ground, 25 April, 1837. \nThe Great Western-arcade, Birmingham, opened \n28 Sept. 1876. \n\nARCADIA, in the centre of the Peloponnesus, \nGreece, named after Areas, a king. The Arcadians \nregarded their nation as the most ancient of Greece. \nThe early history of Arcadia is fabulous. \nSir Philip Sidney\'s Arcadia, a i>astoral romance, was \n\npublished in 1590, the 8th edition in 1633. \nMagna Greecia, in S. Italy, said to have been \n\ncolonised by Arcadians under (Enotrus, about \n\n1710 B.C. ; and under Evander . . . B.C. 1240 \nAreas taught his subjects agriculture and to spin \n\nwool 1514 \n\nLycaean games instituted, in honour of Pan . . 1320 \nAgapenor appears at the head of the Arcadians at \n\nthe siege of Troy (H omer) 11 94 \n\nThe Lacedaemonians invade Arcadia, and are beaten \n\nby the women of the country in the absence of \n\ntheir husbands (?) 1102 \n\nAristocrates I. (of Orchomenus) put to death for \n\noffering violence to the priestess of Diana . . 715 \nAristocrates II. stoned ; a republic founded . . 681 \nSupremacy of Sparta (acknowledged 560) abolished \n\nby the Thebans ; Megalopolis founded by Epami- \n\nnondas 371 \n\nThe Arcadians make alliance with Athens, and are \n\ndefeated by Archidamus 367 \n\nArcadia, having joined the Achaean league, on its \n\nsuppression is annexed by Rome . . . .146 \n\nARCADIANS, an ultra-conservative French \npolitical club, composed of a section of the majority \nin the chambers, and opposed to liberal measures, \neven when emanating from the emperor (such as \nthe new press law). It derived its name from Rue \nde 1\' Arcade, where its meetings were held: Feb. \n1868. \n\nARCH. It appears in early Egyptian and As- \nsyrian architecture. The oldest arch in Europe is \nprobably in the Cloaca Maxima, at Rome, con- \nstructed under the early kings, about 588 B.C. \nThe Chinese bridges, which are very ancient, are of \ngreat magnitude, and are built with stone arches \nsimilar to those that have been considered a Roman \ninvention.* \xe2\x80\x94 The Triumphal arches of the Romans \nformed a leading feature in their architecture. The \narch of Titus (a.d. 80), that of Trajan (114), and \nthat of Constan tine (312), were magnificent. The \n\n* The bridge of Chester, whose span is 200 feet, was \ncommenced in 1829. The central arch of London Bridge \nis 152 feet ; and the three cast iron arches of Southwark \nBridge, which rest on massive stone piers and abutments \nare, the two side ones 210 feet each, and the centre 240 \nfeet : thus the centre arch exceeds the admired \nbridge of Sunderland by four feet in the span, and the \nlong-famed Rialto at Venice, by 167 feet ; see Bridges. \n\n\n\nARCHEOLOGY. \n\n\n\n51 \n\n\n\nARCHITECTURE. \n\n\n\narches in our parks in London were erected about \n1828. The Marble Arch, which formerly stood be- \nfore Buckingham Palace (whence it was removed \nto Cumberland-gate, Hyde Park, in 1851) was \nmodelled from the arch of Constantine ; see Hyde \nPark. \n\nARCHAEOLOGY, the science of antiquities ; \nsee Antiquaries. \n\nARCHEOPTERYX (ancient bird) ; the \nname given to the earliest known remains of a bird, \nfound in the lithographic slate of Solenhofen, by \nHerman von Meyer and Dr. Habeiiein in 1861. Its \nstructure approximated more to that of a reptile \nthan that of modern birds does. It was described \nby Owen in 1863. \n\nARCHANGEL (N. Russia), a city, is thus \nnamed from a monastery founded here, and dedi- \ncated to St. Michael in 1584. The passage to Arch- \nangel was discovered by the English navigator \nllichard Chancellor in 1553, and it was the only \nseaport of Russia till the formation of the docks at \nCronstadt, and foundation of St. Petersburg in 1703. \nThe dreadful fire here, by which the cathedral and \nupwards of 3000 houses were destroyed, occurred \nin June, 1793. Population of the province, 1886, \n328,819. \n\nARCHBISHOP (Greek archiepiscopos), a title \ngiven in the 4th and 5th centuries to the bishops \nof chief cities, such as Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, \nand Constantinople, who presided over the other \nmetropolitans and bishops in the districts attached \nto those places. The word is first found in the \nApology against the Arians by Athanasius, who \ndied 373. Four archbishops of the Eastern church \n\xe2\x80\xa2are styled patriarchs. Riddle. \n\nBefore the Saxons came to England, there were three \n\narchbishops : London, York, and Caerleon-upon-Usk ; \n\nbut soon after St. Augustin settled the metropolitan \n\nsee at Canterbury, 602 ; see Canterbury. \n\nYork continued archiepiscopal ; but London and Caerleon \n\nlost the dignity ; see St. David\'s. \nThe bishopries in Scotland were under the jurisdiction of \nthe archbishop of York until the erection of the archi- \nepiscopal sees of St. Andrew\'s and Glasgow in 1470 and \n1491 ; these last were discontinued at the Revolution ; \nsee Glasgow and St. Andrew\'s. \nThe bishop of Brechin was chosen Primus, 1886, the \ntitle being conferred on one of the bishops by \nelection. \nThe rank of archbishop was early in Ireland ; see Ferns. \nFour archbishops were constituted, Armagh, Cashel, \nDublin, and Tuani ; (until then the archbishop of \nCanterbury had jurisdiction over the Irish as well as \nEnglish bishops, in like manner as the archbishop of \nYork had jurisdiction over those of Scotland), 1151. \nOf these four archbishoprics two were reduced to \nbishoprics (Cashel and Tuam) conformably with the \nstat. 3 & 4 Will. IV. by which also the number of sees in \nIreland was to be reduced from twenty-two to twelve \n(see Bishops, Cashel, Tuam; Pallium, he), 1833. \n\nARCH-CHAMBERLAIN. The elector of \nBrandenburg was appointed the hereditary arch- \nchamberlain of the German empire by the golden \nbull of Charles IV. in 1356, and in that quality he \nbore the sceptre before the emperor. \n\nARCH-CHANCELLORS were appointed \nunder the two first races of the kings of France \n(418-986), and when then - territories were divided, \nthe archbishops of Mentz, Cologne, and Treves be- \ncame arch- chancellors of Germany, Italy, and \nAries. \n\nARCHDEACON, a name early given to the \nfirst or eldest deacon, who attended on the bishop \nwithout any power ; but since the council of Nice, \nhis function has become a dignity above a priest. \n\n\n\nThe appointment in these countries is referred to \nthe eighth century. There are seventy-five arch- \ndeacons in England (1878). The archdeacon\'s \ncourt is the lowest in ecclesiastical polity ; an \nappeal lies from it to the consistorial court, by \n24. Henry VIII. (1532). \n\nARCHERY is ascribed to Apollo, who com- \nmunicated it to the Cretans. \n\nIshmael "became an archer" (Gen. xxi. 20), B.C. 1892 \nThe Philistine archers overcame Saul (1 Sam. xxxi. 3). 1056 \nDavid commanded the use of the bow to be taught \n\n(2 Sam. i. 18) 1055 \n\nArchery introduced into England previous to a.d. 440 \nHarold and his two brothers were killed by arrows \nshot from the cross-bows of the Norman soldiers \n\nat the battle of Hastings 1066 \n\nRichard I. revived archery in England in 1190, and \n\nwas himself killed by an arrow . . . 1199 \n\nThe victories of Crecy (1346), Poictiers (1356), and \n\nAgincourt (1415), were won chiefly by archers \nFour thousand archers of the king surrounded the \nhouses of Parliament ready to shoot ; pacified by \nthe king, 21 Richard II. (Stow.) .... 1397 \nThe citizens of London formed into companies of \narchers in the reign of Edward III. ; and into a \ncorporate body by the style of " The Fraternity of \nSt. George." 29 Henry VIII. . ... 1538 \n\nRoger Ascham\'s " Toxophilus, the School of Shooting," \n\npublished 1571 \n\nScorton Annual Arrow Meetings \xe2\x80\x94 a silver arrow \n\nshot for ; articles agreed to . . -14 May, 1673 \nRoyal company of archers, instituted by the mar- \nquis of Athol, as the king\'s body guard for Scot- \nland 1676 \n\nThe long bow was six feet long, and the arrow three \nfeet ; the usual range from 300 to 500 yards. \nRobin Hood is said to have shot from 600 to 800 \nyards. The cross-bow was fixed to a stock, and \ndischarged with a trigger. \nSee Artillery Company, Toxophilites, &c. \n\nARCHES, COURT OF, the most ancient con- \nsistory court, chiefly a court of appeal from inferior \njurisdictions within the province of Canterbury ; it \nderives its name from the church of St. Mary-le- \nBow (Sancta Maria de Arcabus), London, where it \nwas formerly held, and whose top is raised on stone \npillars- built archwise. Cowell. Appeals from this \ncourt lie to the judicial committee of the privy \ncouncil, by statute, 1832. The Dean and Official \nPrincipal, Dr. Stephen Lushington, (appointed in \n1828) resigned 1 July, 1867 ; succeeded by sir \nRobert J. Phillimore, who resigned, 1875. Lord \nPenzance succeeded him. \n\nARCHIEPISCOPAL COURT, see under \nCanterbury . \n\nARCHITECTURE (from the Greek archi- \ntehtdn, chief artificer). The five great orders are, \n\xe2\x80\x94 the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian (Greek) ; \xe2\x80\x94 the \nTuscan and Composite (Roman). Gothic began to \nprevail in the 9th century. See the Orders and \nGothic. \n\nThe Pyramids of Egypt, begun . . about B.C. 1500 \nSolomon\'s Temple, begun .... . 1004 \n\nBirs Nimroud, in Assyria ... - about 900 \n\nThe Doric order begins about 650 \n\nDoric Temple at jEgina 550 \n\nTemple of Jupiter and Cloaca Maxima, at Rome \n\nfounded 616 \n\nBabylon built 600 \n\nThe Ionic order begins .... about 500-420 \n\nThe Corinthian order begins 335 \n\nChoragic Monument of Lysicrates . . . . 335 \nArchitecture flourishes at Athens . . . 480-320 \n\nErechtheum at Athens 450-420 \n\nThe Parthenon finished 438 \n\nThe Pantheon, &e. , built at Rome . . a.d. 13 \n\nThe Colosseum (or Coliseum) 70 \n\nHadrian builds temples at Rome, &c 117 \n\nDiocletian\'s palace at Spalatro 284 \n\nBasilicas at Rome 33\xc2\xb0"9\xc2\xb0\xc2\xb0 \n\nE 2 \n\n\n\nARCHONS- \n\n\n\n52 ARGENTINE CONFEDERATION. \n\n\n\nSt. Sophia, at Constantinople, "begun . . a.d. 532 \nBock-cut temples in India\xe2\x80\x94 Caves of Ellora . 500-800 \n\nCanterbury cathedral, founded 602 \n\nMosque of Omar at Jerusalem 637 \n\nYork Minster (present building) begun . about 11 71 \n\nSt. Peter\'s, Rome 1450-1626 \n\nSt. Paul\'s, London 1675-1710 \n\nEMINENT ARCHITECTS. \n\nBom. Died, \nVitruvius, about . . \xe2\x80\xa2 . b.c. 27 \n\nA.D. \n\nWilliam of Wickham . ... 1324\xe2\x80\x94 1405 \n\nMichael Angelo Buonarotti . . . \xe2\x80\xa2 1474 \xe2\x80\x94 !564 \n\nA. Palladio 1518\xe2\x80\x94 1580 \n\nInigo Jones 1572\xe2\x80\x94 1652 \n\nBernini 159 8 \xe2\x80\x94 l68 \xc2\xb0 \n\nChristopher Wren 1632\xe2\x80\x94 1723 \n\nJ. Vanbrugh . 1670\xe2\x80\x94 1726 \n\nJames Gibbs 1674 \xe2\x80\x94 I 7S4 \n\nB. and J. Adam 1728\xe2\x80\x94 1794 \n\nSir William Chambers 1726\xe2\x80\x94 1796 \n\nAugustus W. Pugin 1811 \xe2\x80\x94 1852 \n\nSir Charles Barry 1795\xe2\x80\x94 1860 \n\nC. R. Cockerell 1788\xe2\x80\x94 1863 \n\nJames Fergusson 1808 \xe2\x80\x94 1886 \n\nSir Geo. Gilbert Scott .... 1811\xe2\x80\x94 1878 \n\nGeorge Edmund Street 1824 \xe2\x80\x94 1881 \n\nE. Barry 1830 \xe2\x80\x94 1881 \n\nAn Architectural Club was formed in 1791. An Archi- \ntectural Society existed in London in 1806. The Royal \nInstitute of British Architects was founded in 1834 \xe2\x80\x94 \nEarl de Grey, president, 1835-61. The Architectural \nSociety, established in 1831, was united to the Institute \nin 1842. The Architectural Association began about \n1846. The Architectural Museum, Westminster, opened, \n21 July, 1869. \n\nMr. James Fergusson\'s " History of Architecture," \n(the best) 2nd ed., 1874-6. \n\nARCHONS. When royalty was abolished at \nAthens, in memory of king Codrus, killed in battle, \n1044 or 1068 B.C., the executive government was \nvested in elective magistrates called archons, whose \noffice continued for life. Medon, eldest son of \nCodrus, was tbe first archon. The office was limited \nto ten years, 752 B.C., and to one year 683 B.C. \n\nARCOLA (Lombardy), the site of battles be- \ntween the French under Bonaparte, and the Aus- \ntrians under field-marshal Alvinzi, fought 14-17 \nNov. 1796. The Austrians lost 18,000 men in \nkilled, wounded, and prisoners, four flags and \neighteen guns. The French lost about 15,000, and \nbecame masters of Italy. In one contest Bonaparte, \nin most imminent danger, was rescued by the \nimpetuosity of his troops. \n\nARCOT (East Indies). This city (founded 1716) \nwas taken by colonel\' Clive, 31 Aug. 1751; was \nretaken, 1758, but again surrendered to colone) \nCoote, 10 Feb. 1760; besieged and taken by Hyder \nAli, when the British under colonel Baillie suffered \nsevere defeat, 31 Oct. 1780. Arcot has been subject \nto Great Britain since 1801 ; see India. \n\nARCTIC EXPEDITIONS, see North West \nTassaye, and Franklin\'s Expedition. On the Ger- \nman Arctic society applying to the German govern- \nment, a committee of 13 professors was appointed, \nwho in their report recommended that no more \nexpeditions should be sent out ; but that stations \nshould be established for scientific observations: \n1876. \nLondon Central Arctic Comviittee; formed to promote \n\nanother expedition, 7 July, 1879. \n\nARDAGH, an ancient bishopric in Ireland, \nfounded by St. Patrick, who is said to have made his \nnephew, Mell, the first bishop, 454. This see, held \nwith Kilmore since 1742, was held in commendam \nwith Tuam {which see). It was united with Kilmore \nin 1839, and with Elphin in 1841. \n\n\n\nARDAHAN, a town in Turkish Armenia, \nceded to Russia by the Berlin treaty, 13 July, 1878. \n\nARDFERT and AGHADOE, bishoprics in \nIreland long united ; the former was called the \nbishopric of Kerry ; Ert presided in the 5th century; \nWilliam Fuller, appointed in 1663, became bishop \nof Limerick in 1667, since when Ardfert and Agha- \ndoe have been united to that prelacy. Near the \ncathedral an anchorite tower, 120 feet high, the \nloftiest and finest in the kingdom, suddenly fell, \n1770. \n\nARDOCH, see Grampian. \n\nARDRES, see Field of Cloth of Gold. \n\nAREIOPAGUS or Areopagus, a Greek \n\ntribunal, said to have heard causes in the dark, \nbecause the judges should be blind to all but facts, \ninstituted at Athens about 1507 B.C. ; also ascribed 1 \nto Cecrops, 1556. The name is derived from the \nGreek Areios pagos, the hill of Mars, through the \ntradition that Mars was the first who was tried \nthere for the murder of Halirrhotius, who had \nviolated his daughter Alcippe. The powers of this \ncourt were enlarged by Solon, about 594 B.C., and \ndiminished by Pericles, 461 B.C. Paul preached on \nMars\' hill a.d. 52. (Acts xvii.) See Press. \n\nAREOMETER or ARAEOMETER (from \nGreek araios, thin), an instrument for measuring \nthe density and specific gravity of fluids. Baume \ndescribed his areometer in 1768. Others have been \nmade by Nicholson and Mohr. \n\nAREQUIPA, Peru, founded by Pizarro, 1539; \nwas destroyed by an earthquake, 13 Aug. 1868; \nsurrendered to the Chilians 26 Oct. 1883. \n\nARETHUSA, see Naval Battles, 1778, and \nChichester. \n\nAREZZO, near the ancient Arretium or Areti- \nnum, an Etrurian city, which made peace with \nRome for 30 years, 308 B.C., was besieged by \ntheGalli Senones, about 283 B.C., who defeated the \nRoman army Metellus sent to its relief \xe2\x80\x94 a disgrace \navenged signally by Dolabella. Arezzo was an \nancient bishopric : the cathedral founded in 1277. \nIt is renowned as the birthplace of Maecenas, \nPetrarch, Vasari, and other eminent men. Michael \nAngelo was born in the vicinity. \n\nARGANDAB, a river in Afghanistan. See \nAfghanistan, 1880. \n\nARGAUM, in the Deccan, India, where sir \nArthur Wellesley, on 29th Nov. 1803, thoroughly \ndefeated and subjugated the rajah of Berar and the \nMahratta chief Scindiah. \n\nARGENTARIA, Alsace (now Colmak, N. E. \nFrance), where the Roman emperor Gratian totally \ndefeated the Alemanni, and secured the peace of \nGaul, May, 378. \n\nARGENTINE (or La Plata) CONFE- \nDERATION, S. America, 14 provinces (Buenos \nAyres, one). The city Buenos Ayres is the \ncapital. This country was discovered by the \nSpaniards in 1515, settled by them in 1553, and \nformed part of the vice-royalty of Peru till 1778, \nwhen it became that of Rio de la Plata. It joined \nthe insurrection in 181 1, and became independent \nin 1816. It was at war with Brazil from 1826 to \n1828, for the possession of Uruguay, which became \nindependent as Monte- Video ; and at war with \nFrance from 1838-40. \xe2\x80\x94 Population, in 1869, \n1,877,490; 1887,3,805,000. See Buenos Ayres. \nBuenos Ayres seceded in 1853 ; reunited . . . 1859 \nAn insurrection in San Juan in Nov. i860 ; sup- \npressed in . Jan. 1862 \n\n\n\nARGINUS^!. \n\n\n\n53 \n\n\n\nARGOS- \n\n\n\nJ. Urquiza, elected president, 20 Nov. 1853, was \nsucceeded by Dr. S. Derqui . . .8 Feb. \n\nGen. Bartholomew Mitre, elected for six years, as- \nsumed the president\'s office . . . 12 Oct. \n\nLopez, president of Paraguay, declared war against \nMitre, and invaded the Argentine, territories, \nMay. Mitre declared war against Paraguay, 16 \nApril ; and made alliance with Brazil and Uru- \nguay 4 May, \n\nSee Buenos Ayres for the disputes with that state, \nand Brazil for the war with Paraguay. \n\n\xe2\x82\xacol. Dominique P. Sarmiento elected president for \nsix years 12 Oct. \n\nHe suppresses the insurrection of Corrientes, Nov. \n\nUrquiza murdered 12 April, \n\nTreaty with Brazil Jan., \n\nDefeat of Lopez Jourdan, rebel,- announced Dec. \n\nDr. N. A velianeda inaugurated president (for 6 years) \n\n12 Oct. \n\nInsurrection of Mitre at Buenos Ayres, Sept. -Nov. \nsuppressed ; he submits ... 2 Dec. \n\nNational bank stops ; suspension of specie pay- \nments by government . . .16 May, \n\nEnd of rebellion ; capture of Jourdan ; announced \n\n12 Dec. \n\nDisputes with Buenos Ayres ; settled June-July, \n\nGeneral Boca (opposed to supremacy of Buenos \nAyres) nominated to become president in October, \nopposed by Dr. Tejedor . . June-July, \n\nGeneral Roca becomes president . . . Oct. \n\nTranquillity restored : Buenos Ayres to be definitive \ncapital of the Republic .... 7 Dec. \n\nThe Buenos Ayres Exhibition, under the patronage \nof the Government, opened . . 15 Feb. \n\nDr. M. Juarez Celman, President . . 12 Oct. \n\nNegotiations for a loan fail ; a panic on the \nBuenos Ayres bourse, 7 July ; the president and \nchambers authorize the issue of notes to the \namount of 100,000,000 dollars . 8 \xe2\x80\x94 12 July, \n\nDissensions in the army ; arrest of officers ; trials \n\nabout 22 July \n\nInsurrection in Buenos Ayres, instigated by the \nUnion Civiea, headed by sen. Aleru, Romero, and \nDel Valle, against president Celman and his \nministry, charged with corruption ; a provisional \ngovernment proclaimed ; the insurgents supported \n~by troops and artillery and many civilians ; the \ngovernment supported by infantry, armed police \nand part of t.ie navy ; the city bombarded ; severe \nfighting in the streets ... 26 July, \n\nThe president retires, leaving Dr. Pellegrini, vice- \npresident, in command ; brief armistice ; fighting \nresumed ; the government troops under gen. Roca \nvictorious ; surrender of the insurgents, general \namnesty (about 1,000 persons killed and much \nproperty destroyed) .... 28 July, \n\nResignation of Dr. Celman demanded, he refuses, \n30 July ; financial chaos, bourse closed 31 July, \n\nBoastful manifesto of president Celman, 31 July ; \nhe is compelled to resign, 5 Aug. ; succeeded by \nCarlos Pellegrini, 6 Aug. ; new ministry, sen. \nLopez, gen. Roca, and others ; business resumed, \ngreat rejoicings .... 7 \xe2\x80\x94 11 Aug. \n\nGreat preparations against a dreaded attempt at a \nrevolution about 6 Oct. \n\nCommission to inquire into reported corruptions in \ngovernment financial affairs appointed . Nov. \n\nFinancial crisis at Buenos Ayres, several credit \nhouses stop payment ; successful intervention of \nthe government 24 Nov. \n\nRe-organization of the finances, by a plan proposed \nby a committee in London (lord Rothschild and \nothers) about 4 Dec. \n\nCordova city flooded by the canal bursting its em- \nbankments, about 150 persons drowned, and \nmany houses destroyed ... 21 Dec. \n\nExcitement on account of proposed tax on deposits \nin private banks 15 Jan. \n\nThe officers implicated in the late rebellion exiled \n\nabout 19 Feb. \n\nA state of siege proclaimed in Buenos Ayres to \ncheck conspiracies .... 20 Feb. \n\nRiots at Cordova ; state of siege proclaimed, about \n\n22 Feb. \n\nFinancial panic, 4 March ; business suspended by \ndecree, 6 -11 March; panic ended; a national \nloan for 100,000,000 dollars at 6 per cent., well \ntaken up by the public . . 8 March, et seq. \n\n\n\ni860 \n\n\n\n:S6 5 \n\n\n\n1870 \n1873 \n\n\n\n1874 \n\n\n\nBanks re-opened 13 March, 1891 \n\nArrival of gen. Mitre, warmly received, 18 March ; \nhe joins gen. Roca . . . .24 March, ,, \n\nThe National and Provincial Banks suspend pay- \nment till 1 June by decree . . 7 April, ,, \n\nState of siege at Buenos Ayres raised, 17 April ; \nthe congress opened by president Pellegrini, with \na hopeful message .... 9 May, ,, \n\nRun on the banks at Buenos Ayres, 2 June ; panic \nabating through the firm conduct of the British \nresidents 4 June ,, \n\nThe "Bank of the Argentine Nation" created by \nvote of the Senate 12 Aug. ,, \n\nForced paper currency, premium on gold to be 150 \nper cent, and payment in gold suspended for two \nyears, authorized by the government to support \nthe national bank, 30 Sept. ; the scheme rejected \nby the senate, reported ... 14 Oct. ,, \n\nMinisterial crisis .... 16\xe2\x80\x9423 Oct. ,, \n\nConfidence in the ministry voted by the senate and \ndeputies 20 Oct. ,, \n\nElection riots with loss of life and state of siege at \nCordova and Tucuman, reported . 27 Oct. ,, \n\nDestructive tornado in Santa Fe, 10 persons killed \n\nmiddle Nov. ,, \n\nThe Bank of the Argentine Nation opened 1 Dec. ,, \n\nBaron Hirsch reports that the Jewish settlements \nin the republic are prospering . . . Jan. 1892 \n\nDisturbances at Mendoza ; assassinations ; govern- \nment intervention . . . .22 \xe2\x80\x94 24 Jan. ,, \n\nElections for senate and deputies favour the party \nof Mitre and Roca . . . about 8 Feb. ,, \n\nAttempt at revolution discovered ; a state of siege \nproclaimed ; the radical leaders arrested ; military \nprecautions adopted . . . 2, 3 April, ,, \n\nDr. Luiz Saenz Peila elected president, about \n\n12 June, ,, \n\nState of siege raised 7 July, ,, \n\nThe war-vessel, Rosales, founders off Uruguay, \n\n9 July. .. \n\nARGINUS^E, isles between Lesbos and \nAsia Minor; near these Conon and the Athenian \nfleet defeated the Spartan admiral Callicratidas, \n406 B.C. \n\nARGON AUTIC EXPEDITION, dated by \nHales 1225, by Clinton 1169, said to have been \nundertaken by Jason, to avenge the death of his \nkinsman Phryxus, and to recover the treasures seized \nby his murderer, j?\xc2\xa3etes, king of Colchis. The ship \nin which Phryxus had sailed to Colchis having been \nadorned with the figure of a ram, led to the fiction \nthat the journey was to recover the golden fleece. \nThis is the first naval expedition on record. Many \nkings and heroes accompanied Jason, whose ship \nwas called Argo, from its builder. \n\nARGONAUTS OF ST. NICHOLAS, mili- \ntary knights; an order founded by Charles III. of \nNaples, 1382. \n\nARGOS, the most ancient city of Greece, mythi- \ncally said to have been founded either by Inachus \nor his son, Phoroneus, received its name from Argus, \nthe fourth of the Inachidae. The early history is \nfabulous. \n\nReign of Triopas ; Polycaon seizes part of the king- B.C. \ndom and calls it after his wife, Messenia . . 1552 \n\nGelanor, last of the Inachidse, deposed by Danaus, \nan Egyptian 1475 \n\nFeast of the Flambeaux, instituted in honour of \nHypermnestra, who saved her husband, Lynceus, \nson of jEgyptus, on his nuptial night, while her \nforty-nine sisters sacrificed theirs, at the com- \nmand of their father, 1 )anaus .... 1425 \n\nLynceus dethrones Danaus 1425 \n\nThe kingdom divided by the brothers Acrisius and \nProjtus 1344 (1313 Clinton.) \n\nPerseus, grandson of Acrisius, leaves Argos and \nfounds Mycen* (which see) 1313 \n\nThe Heraclid* retake the Peloponnesus, and Teme- \nnus seizes Argos ... ... 1102 \n\nPheidon\'s prosperous rule 770-730 \n\nWar with Sparta : combat of 300 on each side . . 547 \n\n\n\nARGITIN. \n\n\n\n54 \n\n\n\nARKADI. \n\n\n\nThe Argives fine Sicyon and iEgina for helping their B.C. \n\nenemy, Cleomenes of Sparta 514 \n\nSparta becomes superior to Argos . . . 495-490 \n\nThemistocles an exile at Argos 471 \n\nThe Argives destroy Mycenae and regain their \n\nsuperiority 468 \n\nPeloponnesian war \xe2\x80\x94 Argos long neutral, joins \n\nAthens 420 \n\nThe aristocratical party makes peace with Sparta, \n\nand overthrows the democracy . . . -417 \nA reaction \xe2\x80\x94 alliance with Athens resumed . . . 395 \nPyrrhus of Macedon besieging Argos, slain . . 272 \nArgos governed by tyrants supported by Macedon ; \n\nfreed ; joins the Achfean league .... 229 \n\nSubjugated by the Romans 146 \n\nArgos taken from the Venetians . . . a.d. 1686 \nTaken by the Turks 1716, who held it until . . 1826 \n\nUnited to Greece under king Otho (see Greece) \n\n25 Jan. 1833 \n\nARGITIN, battle of, see Soudan, 2 July, 1889. \n\nARGYLE (W. Scotland), bishopric of, founded \nabout 1200, Evaldus being the first bishop ; the \ndiocese, previously united with Dunkeld, ended \n1688. Argyle and the Isles is a post-revolution \nbishopric, 1847 ; see Bishoprics. \n\nARGYLL ROOMS, near Oxford-street, Lon- \ndon, opened for musical and other entertainments \nearly in the 19th century ; re-erected by Nash, 1818 ; \nheld by the Philharmonic Society, 1813-30. Here \nappeared Spohr, 1820; "Weber, 3 April, 1826; and \nMendelssohn, 25 May, 1829. While held by M. \nChabert, the fire-king, the building was burnt \ndown, 5, 6 Feb. 1830. The new building was even- \ntually converted into shops. \n\nARIAN or ARYAN (in Sanskrit signifying \nnoble, warlike), a term now frequently applied to \nthe hypothetical Indo-Germanic family of nations, \nincluding the Greek, Iloman, and Teutonic races. \n\nARIANS, followers of Arius * of Alexandria, \n\xe2\x96\xa0who preached against the doctrine of the \nTrinity, about 315, and died in 336. The con- \ntroversy was taken up by Constantine, who pre- \nsided at the council of Nice, June to Aug. 325, \nwhen the Arians were condemned ; but their \ndoctrine long prevailed. It was favoured by \nCorjstantiiis II. 341 ; and carried into Africa by \nthe Vandals in the 5th century, and into Asia by \nthe Goths. Servetus published his treatise against \nthe Trinity, 1531, and was burnt, 1553. Leggatt, an \nArian, was burnt at Smithfield in 1614; see Atha- \nnasian Creed, Socinians, and Unitarians. \n\nARICA, Peru, destroyed by an earthquake, and \ninundated by waves of the sea, 13 Aug. 1868. \n\nARIKERA, near Seringapatam. Here lord \nCornwallis defeated Tippoo Sahib, 15 May, 1791. \n\nARISTOTELIAN PHILOSOPHY: the \n\nmost comprehensive ever devised by man. Aristotle \nwas born at Stageira (hence termed the Stageirite), \n384 B.C. ; was a pupil of Plato from 364 to 347 ; \nbecame preceptor of Alexander, son of Philip of \nMacedon, in 342 ; and died in 322. He divided the \ncircle of knowledge into metaphysics and logic, \nphysics (including part of the science of mind), and \nethics. His philosophy was too much exalted by \nthe schoolmen during the middle ages, and too \nmuch depreciated after the Eeformation. His works \non natural science contain a vast collection of facts \nand an extraordinary mixture of sound and chi- \nmerical opinions. To him is attributed the asser- \n\n* Arius maintained that the Son of God was a \nsecondary God created by the Father, who raised Him \nfar above all men, and consequently not equal with the \nFather. \n\n\n\ntion that nature abhors a vacuum, an opinion now \n\nmaintained by eminent modern philosophers. \n\nAn Aristotelian Society, for the systematic study of phi- \nlosophy, was founded in the spring of 1880 ; Dr. Shad- \nworth H. Hodgson, president. \n\nM. Barthelemy St. Hilaire\'s complete translation of \nAristotle, 35 vols., published early in 1891. \n\nA papyrus containing the lost treatise of Aristotle 011 \nthe "Constitution of Athens," discovered in Egypt \nand conveyed to the British Museum, was published \nby the trustees, with a preface and notes by Mr. F. G. \nKenyon, Jan. ; and photographs of the MS. were pub- \nlished March, 1891. The work was hitherto only known \nby extracts in ancient writers. The MS. was considered \ngenuine by M. Barthelemy St. Hilaire, March, 1891. \n\nA family tomb, discovered at Eretria, in the island of \nEubcea, by Dr. Charles Waldstein, early in 1891, was \nconsidered by him to be really that of Aristotle and \nhis family. \n\nARITHMETIC is said to have been intro- \nduced from Egypt into Greece by Thales, about \n600 B.C. The Chinese used the abacus, or swan- \npan, at an early period. It is asserted that the \nancient Hindus adopted a system having ten as a \nbasis. \n\nThe oldest treatise upon arithmetic is by Euclid \n(7th, 8th, and 9th books of his Elements), about \n\nB.C. 300 \nThe sexagesimal arithmetic of Ptolemy was used \n\na.d. 130 \nDiophantus, of Alexandria, was the author of thir- \nteen books of arithmetical questions (of which six \nare now extant) ..... about 156 \nNotation by nine digits and zero (Arabic figures), \nknown at least as early as the 6th century in Hin- \ndostan \xe2\x80\x94 introduced from thence into Arabia, \nabout 900 \xe2\x80\x94 into Spain, about 980 \xe2\x80\x94 into Fiance, \nby Gerbert, soon after\xe2\x80\x94 into England, probably in \n14th or 15th century. \nThe date in Caxton\'s Mirrour of the World, Arabic \n\ncharacters, is 1480 \n\nArithmetic of decimals invented .... 1482 \nJohn Sherwood, bishop of Durham\'s Lttdus Arithmo- \n\nMacliincB, printed at Rome \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFirst work printed in England on arithmetic (de \nArte Supputdndi) was by Tonstall, bishop of \n\nDurham 1522 \n\nThe theory of decimal fractions perfected by Napier \n\nin his Hhabdologia 161 7 \n\nCocker\'s Arithmetic appeared in ... . 1677 \nNystrom\'s Tonal system with 16 as a basis, pub- \nlished 1862 \n\nSawyer\'s "Automatic System," piublished . . 1878 \n\nARITHMOMETER, see Calculating Ma- \nchines. \n\nARIZONA, a territory of the United States, \noriginally part of New Mexico, was organised 24 \nFeb. 1863 ; admitted as a state by the house of \nrepresentatives, 6 June, 1892; capital, Tucson. It \nwas colonised by the Jesuits in the 17th century. \nPopulation, 1880,40,440; 1890,59,620. \nBy the bursting of the great dams at Prescott, Seymore \nand other mining villages are destroyed by the great \nrush of water and about 70 persons are said to have \nperished, 22 Feb. 1890. \nYuma nearly destroyed by floods ; about 100 lives lost, \n1,400 homeless, reported 2 March, 1891. \nARK. Mount Ararat {which see) is venerated \nfrom a belief of its being the place on which \nNoah\'s Ark rested, after the universal deluge, 234S \nB.C. ; see Gen. vi. vii. Some assert Apamea, in \nPhrygia, to be the spot; and medals have been \nstruck there with a chest on the waters, and the \nletters NOE, and two doves ; this place is 300 miles \nwest of Ararat. The Ark of the Covenant, made by \nMoses to contain the two tables of the \'law, 1491 \nB.C. (Exod. xxv.), was placed in Solomon\'s temple, \n1004 B.C. (1 Kings, viii.). \n\nARKADI, a Greek blockade-runner during the \nCretan insurrection, was destroyed by the Turldsh \n\n\n\nARKANSAS. \n\n\n\n5.5 \n\n\n\nARMENIA. \n\n\n\nvessel Izeddin, off Crete, 19 Aug. 1867, after at least \n22 successful voyages. \n\nARKANSAS, originally part of Louisiana, \nceded by Spain to France, 1763 ; and purchased by \nthe United States in 1803, was made a territory, \n1819; and a state, 1836; seceded from the union \n6 May, 1861 ; re-admitted, 1868. Several battles \nwere fought in this state in 1862. Capital, Little \nEock. Population, 1890, 1,128,179. \n\nARKLOW (in Wick low), where a battle was \nfought between the insurgent Irish, amounting to \n31,000, and a small regular force of British, which \nsignally defeated them, 10 June, 1798. The town \nwas nearly destroyed by the insurgents in May \nprevious. \xe2\x80\x94 Native gold was discovered in Arklow, \nin Sept. 1795. Phil. Trans, vol. 86. \n\nARLBERG, see under Tunnels. \n\nARLES (Arelatum, from the Celtic Ar-lait, \nnear the waters), S. France (said to have been \nfounded 2000 B.C.), a powerful Roman city, was \nmade capital of the kingdom of Provence by Boson \nin 879 a.d. ; and of the kingdom of Aries or Trans- \njurane Burgundy by Rodolph II. in 933. He was \nsucceeded by Conrad I. 937 ; and by Ridolph III. \n993 ; who in 1032, transmitted his king- \ndom to the emperor Conrad II. After various \nchanges it was annexed to France in i486. Many \ncouncils (314-1275) were held at Aries ; the most \ncelebrated in 314, when British bishops were \npresent. \n\nARMADA, THE INVINCIBLE, collected and \nequipped by Philip II. king of Spain, for the subju- \ngation of England. Morant\'s historical account \n(accompanying Pine\'s engravings of the tapestries \nformerly in the house of lords) was printed 1739. \nIt consisted of 130 ships (besides caravels), 3165 \ncannon, S050 sailors, 20S8 galley-slaves, 18,973 \nsoldiers, 1382 volunteers (noblemen, gentlemen, \nand their attendants), and 150 monks, with Martin \nAlarco, vicar of the Inquisition, \xe2\x80\x94 the whole under \nthe command of the duke of Medina-Sidonia . 1587 \nThe English fleet 80 vessels under lord Charles \nHoward, sir Francis Drake, and sir John Haw- \nkins, ready for sea, and three armies on land. Dec. ,, \nThe Armada sailed from Lisbon ; soon after dis- \npersed by a storm .... 19 May, 158S \nRe-collected, entered the Channel off Cornwall, \n\n19 July, ,, \nSuffered in a series of engagements (the sharpest \n\non 25 July) 21-27 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDispersed by fire-ships sent into the midst, 28 July, ,, \nMany vessels sunk or taken by the English, \n\n29 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe remainder retreat northward to Spain, suf- \nfering much loss by severe storms, Aug. and Sept. ,, \nComputed Spanish loss \xe2\x80\x94 35 ships ; 13,000 men. \nThe queen attended a most solemn thanksgiving \n\nat St. Paul\'s 24 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAn annual thanksgiving sermon was endowed by \nMr. Chapman, who died 1616 ; it was preached at \n\nSt. Mary-le-Bow 12 Aug. 1877 \n\nTercentenary at Plymouth celebrated with exhibi- \ntions, &c, 18 July, 1888 ; National memorial \n\nfounded 19 July, 1888 \n\nFund established at the Mansion House . 3 May, ,, \nRelics exhibited at Drury Lane Theatre 24 Oct. ,, \n" The Spanish Armada," a play at Drury Lane \n\nTheatre ; first performance . . 22 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nA bronze statue of Britannia, setup at Plymouth \nHoe, as a National Memorial of the defeat of the \nArmada, was unveiled by the duke of Edinburgh \non behalf of the queen . . . 21 Oct. 1890 \n" The Spanish story of the Armada," by Mr. J. A. \nFroude, published ... ... 1892 \n\nARMAGH, N. Ireland, of which it was the \nmetropolis from the 5th to the 9th century, the seat \nof the first ecclesiastical dignity in Ireland, founded \nby St. Patrick, its first bishop, about 444, and said \nto have built the first cathedral, 450. Six saints of \n\n\n\nthe Roman calendar have been bishops of this see. \nIn the king\'s book, by an extent taken 15 James I., \nit is valued at 400/. sterling a year ; and until lately \nwas estimated at 15,000^. per annum. The see was \nre-constituted (see Pallium) in 1151. Beatson. \nArmagh was ravaged by the Danes on Easter-day, \n852, and by O\'Neil in 1564. See Railway accidents, \n12 June, 1889. Population, 1871, 8,946; 1881, \n10,070. \n\nARMAGNACS, a political party in France, \nfollowers of the duke of Orleans, murdered by the \nBurgundians, 23 Nov. 1407, derived their name \nfrom his father-in-law, the count of Armagnac. \nAbout 3500 of this party were massacred at Paris \nin June, 1418, by their opponents, the followers of \nthe duke of Burgundy. \n\nARMED NEUTRALITY, the confederacy \nagainst England, formed by Russia, Sweden, and \nDenmark, 1 780; ended, 1781 ; renewed, and a treaty \nratified in order to cause their flags to be respected \nby the belligerent powers, 16 Dec. 1800. The prin- \nciple that neutral flags protect neutral- bottoms being \ncontrary to the maritime system of England, the \nBritish cabinet remonstrated, war ensued, and Nel- \nson and Parker destroyed the fleet of Denmark before \nCopenhagen, 2 April, 1801. This event and the \nmurder of the emperor Paul of Russia led to the \ndissolution of the Armed Neutrality. \n\nARMENIA, Asia Minor, after forming part \nof the Assyrian, Median, and Persian empires, \nbecame subject to the Greek kings of Syria, after \nthe defeat of Antiochus the Great, 190 B.C. The \nRomans established the kingdoms of Armenia \nMajor and Minor, but their influence over them \nwas frequently interrupted by the aggressions of \nthe Parthians. In all their political troubles the \nArmenians have maintained the profession of Chris- \ntianity, and their church is governed by patriarchs, \nnot subjectto Rome. Since 1715 an Armenian con- \nvent has existed at Venice, where books on all \nsubjects are printed in the Armenian language. \n\nCity of Artaxarta built B.C. 186 \n\nAntiochus Epiphanes invades Armenia . . . 165 \nTigranes the Great reigns in Armenia Major . . 95 \nBecomes King of Syria, and assumes the title of \n\n" King of Kings " 83 \n\nDefeated by Lucullus, 69 ; he lays his crown at the \n\nfeet of Pompey 66 \n\nHis son, Artavasdes, reigns, 54 ; he assists Pompey \n\nagainst Julius Cajsar, 48 ; and the Parthians \n\nagainst Marc Antony 36 \n\nAntony subdues, and sends him loaded with silver \n\nchains to Egypt . 34 \n\nArtaxias, his son, made king by the Parthians . 33 \nDeposed by the Romans, who enthrone Tigranes II. 20 \nArmenia subjected to Parthia . . . . a.d. 15 \nReconquered by Germanicus, grandson of Augustus 18 \nAfter many changes Tiridates is made king by the \n\nRomans 58 \n\nThe Parthian conquerors of Armenia are expelled \n\nby Trajan .115 \n\nSeverus makes Volagarses king of part of Armenia . 199 \nChristianity introduced, between . . . a.d. 100-300 \nArmenia added to the Persian empire . . . 232 \nTiridates obtains the throne through Diocletian, \n\n286 ; is expelled by Narses, 294 ; restored by \n\nGalerius 298 \n\nOn his death, Armenia becomes subject to Persia, \n\n342 ; is made neutral by Rome and Persia, 384 ; \n\nwho divide it by treaty .... 443 \n\nArmenia conquered and reconquered by the Greek \n\nand Persian sovereigns 577-68 \n\nAnd by the Greek emperors and Mahommeclans \n\n693-1065 \nThe Armenian church reconciled to Rome, about . 1330 \nLeon VI. , last king of Armenia, taken prisoner by \n\nthe Saracens, 1375 ; released : he dies at Paris . 139 \nOverrun by the Mongols, 1215 ; by Timour, 1383 ; \n\nby the Turks, 1516; by the Persians, 1534; by the \n\nTurks ... . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n\nARMENIAN ERA. \n\n\n\n56 \n\n\n\nARMY. \n\n\n\nShah Abbas, of Persia, surrenders Armenia to the \nTurks, but transports 22,000 Armenian families \n\n\' into his own states a.d. 1604 \n\nArmenia overrun by the Russians .... 1828 \n\nSurrender of Erzeroum . . . .9 July, 1829 \n\n(See Syria and Russo-Turkish Wars I. and II.) \n\nBy the Berlin treaty, Kars, Ardahan, and Batoum \nwere ceded to Russia, with other changes July, 1878 \n\nThe Turkish government charged with oppression \nand cruelty, Aug. ; doubted by some . Sept. 1889 \n\nMoussa Bey, a Kurdish chief, tried at Constanti- \nnople for alleged cruelties, 23 Nov. ; acquitted (a \nnew trial refused), 2 Dec. et seq. 1889 ; eventually \nexiled to Medina .... Sept. Oct. 1890 \n\nRiotous conflicts between Armenians and Mussul- \nmans at Erzeroum, 9 persons killed, reported \n\n27 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Armenians in Constantinople attack their \npatriarch, Aschikian, in a church during service, \nriot suppressed by the military with loss of life, \n27 July ; many arrested Aug., and punished, \nOct. ; the patriarch resigns, 31 July ; the chief \nrioter sentenced to death, others to imprisonment \n\n16 Aug. ,, \n\nThe sultan agrees to many reforms in Armenia, \nreported 20 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nArmed band of Armenians on the Turco-Russian \nfrontier dispersed by the Turks and Russians, \nreported 2 Nov. ,, \n\nFriendly negotiations with the Porte ; loyal address \nto the sultan, and gracious reply ; the patriarch \nwithdraws his resignation ... 28 Dec. ,, \n\nHe is received by the sultan, who announces a \ngeneral -amnesty, with great release of prisoners \n\n17 Jan. et seq. 1891 \n\nThe central committee for reforms, issue a procla- \nmation against the Turkish government, about \n\n25 Jan. ,, \n\nARMENIAN ERA, commenced on 9 July, \n552 ; the ecclesiastical year on 1 1 Aug. To reduce \nthis last to our time, add 551 years and 221 days; \nand in leap years subtract one day from 1 March to \n10 Aug. The Armenians used the old Julian style \nand months in their correspondence with Euro- \npeans. \n\nARMILLARY SPHERE, an astronomical \ninstrument composed of brass circles disposed in \nsuch a manner that the greater and lesser circles of \nthe sphere may be seen in their natural position and \nmotion. It is said to have been invented by Era- \ntosthenes, about 255 b c. ; and was employed by \nTj\'cho Brahe and others. \n\nARMINIANS, or Remonstrants, derive \n\ntheir former name from James Arminius (or Har- \nmensen), a Protestant divine of Leyden, Holland \n(died 19 Oct. 1609) ; the latter name from his fol- \nlowers having presented a Remonstrance to the \nstates-general in 1610. They separated from the \nCalvinists, objecting to their views respecting pre- \ndestination, &c. Their doctrines were condemned \nin 1619, at the synod of Dort {which see); they were \nexiled till 1625. The Calvinists were sometimes \nstyled Gomansts, from Gomar, the chief oppo- \nnent to Arminius. James I. and Charles I. favoured \nthe Arminian doctrine. \n\nARMORIAL BEARINGS became here- \nditary in families at the close of the 12th century. \nThey were employed by the crusaders, 1100. The \nlines to denote colours in arms, by their direction or \nintersection, were invented by Columbiere in 1639. \nThe armorial bearings of the English sovereigns are \ngiven under the article England. Armorial bearings \nwere taxed in 1798, and again in 1808. The tax \nproduced 64,515/. in the year ending 31 March, \n1868 ; 1872, 64,228/. ; 1876, 83,527/. ; 1878, 83,104/. ; \n1879, 81,854/. ; l88l > 79>oi4/. ; 1882, 79,196/. ; 1884, \n78,766/. The tax is now 2/. 2s. ; if not on carriages, \nit is ll. is. annually (1889). Sir Bernard Burke\'s \n\n\n\n" General Armory," 1883, contains the arms of \nabove 66,000 British families, &c. \n\nARMORICA, now Britanny, N. France, was \nconquered by Julius Caesar, 56 B.C. Many Gauls \nare said to have retired there and preserved the \nCeltic tongue, a.d. 584. A colony of West Britons \nsettled in Armorica in the latter part of the 4th \ncentury, hence the modern name Britanny, which \nsee. \n\nARMOUR. That of Goliath is described (about \n1063 B.C.) i Sam. xvii. 5. Skins and padded hides \nwere early used, and brass and iron armour, in \nplates or scales, followed. The body armour of the \nUiitons was skins of wild beasts, exchanged, after \nthe Roman conquest, for the well-tanned leathern \ncuirass. Tacitus. Hengist is said to have had \nscale armour, a.d. 449. \n\nThe Norman armour formed breeches and jacket 1066 \nThe hauberk had its hood of the same piece . . 1100 \nJohn wore a surtout over a hauberk of rings set \nedgeways . . . . . . . . 1199 \n\nIhe heavy cavalry covered with a coat of mail. \n\nSome horsemen had vizors and skull-caps, about . 1216 \nArmour exceedingly splendid, about . . . . 1350 \n\nBlack armour, used not only for battle, but for \n\nmourning, Henry V 1413 \n\nArmour of Henry VII. consisted of a cuirass of \n\nsteel, in the form of a pair of stays, about . . 1500 \nArmour ceased to reach below the knees, Charles I. 1625 \nIn the reign of Charles II. officers wore no other \narmour than a large gorget, which is commemo- \nrated in the diminutive ornament known at the \npresent day. Meyrick. \n\nARMOUR PLATES, see Iron, and IHavy of \nEngland. \n\nARMS. The club was the first offensive wea- \npon ; then followed the mace, battle-axe, pike, \nspear, javelin, sword and dagger, bows and arrows. \nPliny ascribes the invention of the sling to the \nPhoenicians; see Cannon, Firearms, Swords, \nBayonets, and other articles on the various \nweapons throughout the volume. \nCommittee to enquire into the arms (swords and \nbayonets) supplied by the War Office to the \nAdmiralty since 1871 appointed (Sir Hussey \nVivian chairman) . . . .14 Peb. et seq. 1887 \nReport these weapons to be badly designed and \nmanufactured and untrustworthy . 29 March, ,, \n\nARMS, see Armorial bearings, and Heraldry. \n\nARMS BILLS, for the repression of crime and \ninsurrection in Ireland, were passed 1807, 18 10, \n1823, 1829, and 15 Oct. 1831. The guns registered \nunder the last act at the close of the first year \nscarcely amounted to 3000, and the number was \nequally small of all other kinds of arms. The new \nArms bill, passed 22 Aug. 1843, has been since re- \nnewed, but was not rigidly enforced till 1867. An- \nother Arms bill brought into the Commons, " An \nact to amend the law relating to the carrying and \npossession of arms, and for the preservation of public \npeace in Ireland," to last till 1 June, 1886; Royal \nAssent, 21 March, 1881. Act renewed till 31 Dec. \n1887, 4 June, 1886. See Ireland. \n\nARMSTRONG GUN, see under Cannon. \n\nARMY. Minus and Semiramis had armies \namounting to nearly two millions of fighting men. \nDiodorus. The first guards and regular troops as a \nstanding army were formed by Saul, 1093 B.C. \nI Sam. 13, 2. The army of Xerxes invading Greece \nis said to have been 1,700,000 foot and 80,000 horse : \n480 B.C. One of the first standing armies of which \nwe have any account, is that of Philip of Macedon. \nThe army which Darius opposed to Alexander the \nGreat (332 B.C.) is set down as between 750,000 and \n\n\n\nARMY. \n\n\n\n57 \n\n\n\nARMY. \n\n\n\na million. The first standing army which existed \nas such, in modern times, was maintained in France \nby Charles VII. in 1445. The chief European \nnations have had in their service the following \narmies: Spain, 150,000 men; Great Britain, 3 10, 000; \nPrussia, 350,000 ; Turkey, 450,000; Austria, 500,000 ; \nRussia, 560,000 ; and France, 1,000,000. Estimated \nnumber in Europe in 1863, 6,000,000 soldiers, \n1,000,000 horses, 11,000 guns. The European \npowers are still increasing their armies. Estimated \nto consist of 12,000,000 men in Nov. 1888. \n\n-January, 1888 \xe2\x80\x94 Germany .... 2,650,000 \n\n,, ,, France . . . . . 3,750,000 \n\n,, ,, Russia ..... 5,210,000 \n\n,, ,, Great Britain . . . . 680,374 \n\nARMY, BRITISH, mainly arose in the reign of \nCharles II. in 1661, in consequence of the extinction \nof feudal tenures. The first five regiments of \nBritish infantry were established between 1633 and \n1680. James II. established several regiments of \ndragoon guards (1685-8). In 1685 the army con- \nsisted of 7000 foot and 1700 cavalry. The Militia \nthen consisted of about 130,000 men, horse and \nfoot. Standing armies were introduced by Charles I. \nin 1638; they were declared illegal in England, \n31 Car. II. 1679 ; but one was then gradually \nforming, which was maintained by William III. \n1689, when the Mutiny Act was passed. Grose\'s \n"History of the British Army" was published in \n1801. See Regiments, Recruiting, Militia, and \nVolunteers. \n\nBRITISH ARMY. \n\nMen. Sum voted. \n1780, Time of war : troops of the \n\nline ..... 110,000 \xc2\xa37,847,000 \n\n1800, War . . . . . 168,082 17,973,000 \n1810, War: army including foreign \n\ntroops .... 300,000 26,748,000 \n1815, Last year of the war . . 300,000 39,150,000 \n1820, Time of peace ; war incum- \nbrances .... 88,100 18,253,000 \n\n1830, Peace 89,300 6,991,000 \n\n1840, Peace 93,471 6,890,267 \n\n1850, Peace 99,118 6,763,488 \n\n1852, Peace (except Kaffir war) . 101,937 7,018,104 \n\n1854, War with Russia . . . 112,977 7,387,000 \n\nSum voted \n\nTotal In India* (including \n\nmen. men. ordnance, \n\n&c.) \n\n1855-6, t War with Russia. 223,224 29,629 \xc2\xa332,006,603 \n\n1856-57, War with Persia. 265,466 26,363 20,811,242 \n\n857-58, Indian Mutiny . 175,858 30,197 14, 40s, 850 \n\n858-59 222,874 9 2 >739 13,294,814 \n\n859-60, Chinese War . 229,551 91,897 14,915,243 \n\n860-61 . . ... 228,854 71,528 18,013,896 \n\n861-62 212,773 60,041 16,854,299 \n\n862-63 228,973 83,523 16,264,790 \n\n863-64 ..... 220,918 72,676 14,723,976 \n\n864-65 219,450 72,684 14,382,672 \n\n865-66 ... . . 213,521 71,044 14,569,279 \n\n866-67 203,404 65,827 14,675,540 \n\n867-68, Abyssinian War . 204,455 65,292 15,418,582 \n\n868-69 ... \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x80\xa2 203,157 64,466 15,000,000 \n\n869-70 i^WS 6 3,9\xc2\xb07 13,565,400 \n\n870-71, Franco - German \n\nWar . . . 178,000 62,963 13,430,400 \n\n871-72 197,911 62,864 15,521,580 \n\n872-73 .... . 196,606 62,957 14,729,700 \n\n873-74 187,928 62,924 14,426,990 \n\n874-75 224,835 62,840 14,591,434 \n\n875-76 225,931 62,850 \n\n876-77 132,884 62,849 15,281,600 \n\n877-78 133,720 62,652 15,919,492 \n\n879-80 135,^25 \xe2\x80\x94 13,019,900 \n\n"~ \'-81 131,859 62,588 12,797,900 \n\nTotal home and colonial establishments, 632,649 ; cost, \n16,641,300^. \n\n* Supported by the Indian government. \nf Ending March 31. \n\n\n\nExpended by army purchase commission :\xe2\x80\x94 \n\n1871-2 ....... \xc2\xa3340,000 \n\n1872-3 ....... 683,500 \n\n1873-4 7!3>974 \n\n1874-5 579,n5 \n\nRegular troops for home service :\xe2\x80\x94 \n\n1853 1875 1888 \n\nCavalry .... 7,606 12,945 12,633 \nArtillery . ... 8,710 18,853 18,089 \nEngineers . . . 1,039 4>\xc2\xb074 5, 018 \n\nInfantry . . . . 53,651 63,371 71,656 \n\n71,006 99,243 i\xc2\xb07)39\xc2\xb0" \nAverage strength of the army. \' Cost. \n\n1879 . . . 191,290 *\xc2\xa3i6,945,i53 \n\n1880 . . . iSS,9o6 15,025,145 \n\n1881 . . . 188,798 14,680,762 \n\n1882 . . . 189,229 15,738,002 \n\n1883 . . . 181,971 15,133,451 \n\n1884 . . . 183,004 16,095,326 \n\n1885 . . . 198,064 18,600,338 \n\n1886 . . . 203,805 17,027,084 \n\n1887 . . . 209,574 18,429,272 \n\n1888 . . . 211,105 18,167,196 \n1888-9 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x96\xa0 149,667 16,700,300 \n1889-90 . . . 1^2,282 17,384,732 \n1890-1 . . 1,3.483 17,897,900 \n1891-2 . . . 153, 6j6 17,545,300 \n1892-3 . . 154,073 17,631,200 \n\nVolunteers in Great Britain, in 1862, 367,921; in 1872, \n172,891 ; in 1875, 181,080; in 1878, 193,026, (with staff) \n245,648 ; 1S79, 206,265 ; 1880, 206,537 ; 1881, 208,308 ; \n1882, 207,336; 1883, 206,365; 1884, 215,015; 1885, \n224,012; 1886,226,752; 1887, 228,038; 1890,221,048. \n\nMilitia, 1872, 139,018 ; 1879, 127,749 ; 1880, 130,331 ; \ni88i,t 99,002 ; 1882, t 92,094 ; 1883, 116,642 ; 1884, \n113,787; 1885, 119,356; 1886,122,428; 1887,121,411; \n1890, 113,163. \n\nYe .manry, 1872, 15,455; 1879, 12,010; 1880, 11,598; \n1881, 10,617; 1882, 11,173; 1883, 11,204; l8 84, 11,488; \n1885, 11,590; 1886, 11,499; I 887, 11,267: 1890, 10,697. \n\nRecruits of all classes in 1871, 23,198. See Recruiting. \n\nArmy Reserves, 1 Jan. 1869, 17,948; 1874,31,046; 1879, \n37,512 ; 1881, 41,796; 18824 34,636; 1883,1 26,203 ; 1885, \n47,024 ; 1887, 52,553 ; 1888, 55,200 ; 1892, 68,421. \n\nThe Mutiny Act passed annually since 1689 ; al- \nterations made in this act and in the Articles of \nWar. (See below, 1879.) \xe2\x80\xa2 - \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 1855 \n\nArmy Service Acts : 12 &, 13 Vict. c. 37 (21 June, \n1847), and 18 Vict. c. 4 . . . .27 Feb. 1855 \n\nOfficers in the service of the East India Company \nto have the same rank and precedence as those in \nthe regular army 25 April ,, \n\nThe office of Master-General of the Ordnance abol- \nished, and the civil administration of the Army \nand Ordnance vested in the hands of lord \nPanmure, the Minister of War . . 25 May, ,, \n\nExamination of staff officers previous to their ap- \npointment ordered .... 9 April, 1857 \n\nThe army largely recruited for Indian war . . 1857-8 \n\nThe East India Company\'s army was transferred to \nthe Queen 1859 \n\nMuch dissatisfaction arose is that army in conse- \nquence of no bounty being g . anted ; and threaten- \nings of mutiny appeared, which subsided after an \narrangement was made granting discharge to those \nwho desired it ,, \n\nExamination of candidates for the Military Aca- \ndemy, previously confined to pupils from Sand- \nhurst, was thrown open, 1855 ; the principle of \nthis measure was affirmed by the house of com- \nmons by vote 26 April, 1858 \n\nBy 22 & 23 Vict. c. 42, provision made for a reserve \nforce, not to exceed 20,000 men, who had been in \nher majesty\'s service 1859 \n\nFlogging virtually abolished in the army : First \nclass soldiers to be degraded to second class be- \nfore being liable to it . . . -9 Nov. ,, \n\nA report of a commission in 1858 causes great sani- \ntary improvements in the army, barracks, &c, \nunder direction of Mr. Sidney Herbert . . 1859-60 \n\n* Extra on acconit of Russo-Turkish war. \n\n+ Exclusive of Irish. \n\nt Exclusive of aimy pensioners. \n\n\n\nAEMY. \n\n\n\nA commission recommend the establishment of a \nrecruiting department, increase of pensions, &c. \n\n31 Oct. 1866 \nFlogging restricted to insubordination (with vio- \nlence) and indecency . . . March (?) 1867 \nNew Army Enlistment Act (limiting period of \n\nenlistment to 12 years, &c.) passed . 20 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nIncreased pay to all soldiers (except to life-guards) \n\nfrom 1 April, 1867 ; by warrant, dated . 29 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nAct to form a reserve of men in the militia to join \n\nthe army in the event of war, passed . 20 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n" War Department Stores " Act passed . 20 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nSir Henry Storks appointed Controller-in-Chief \n\n1 Jan. 1868 \nHogging abolished in time of peace, by an amend- \nment in the Mutiny Act .... Mar. ,, \nEdward Cardwell, secretary for war . . 9 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nRoyal commission on military education appointed, \n23 June, 1868 ; report with recommendations \n\nissued about . Oct. 1869 \n\nArmy Service Corps, to be composed of volunteers \ncommanded by regular officers, established by \n\nroyal warrant 12 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRoyal commission on the purchase system, &c, \nappointed 5 April ; report recognises the " over \nregulation payments " hitherto ignored . Aug. 1870 \nRegulations under the new " Army Enlistment \n\nAct "issued 12 Aug. ,, \n\n2,ooo,ooo\xc2\xa3. voted to increase the army by 20,000 \n\nmen 1 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDeaths in the army reduced from 17 per 1000 to 9^, \nin consequence of sanitary improvements, &c, \n(out of 175,460 men, 33,797 under 20, 18,614 under \n\n19) ; Lord Norflibrook June, 1871 \n\nArmy Regulation bill (the abolition of the purchase \nsystem, <fcc\\) passed in the commons, 289-231, \nearly 4 July ; introduced in the lords, 13 July ; \nable speech of the duke of Cambridge in its \nfavour, 14 July ; rejected (155-130), 2 a.m., 18 July, ,, \nPurchase system abolished by royal warrant (in \npursuance of acts 5 & 6 Edw. VI. c. 16, and 49 \nGeo. III. c. 126) on and after 1 Nov. 1871. \n\n20 July, ,, \nRegulation of the Forces Act passed . . 17 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nAutumn Campaign in Hampshire; about 40,000 \nmen engaged ; the duke of Cambridge and others \numpires ; the prince of Wales and prince Arthur \nengaged ; foreign officers present. \nManoeuvres according to the Prussian system ; \n\nfield days, &c 8-12 Sept. ,, \n\nInvading force of 24,000, under Staveley and Carey; \nmarching towards London, opposed by sir Hope \n\nGrant 13 Sept. ,, \n\nSeries of battles near the Hog\'s Back, Aldershot ; \n\nGrant declared victor . . . . 16-19 Sept. \xc2\xbb \nBattle of Fox\'s-hill ; Carey defeats Staveley, 21 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n[Reported results : artillery magnificent ; cavalry \nsuperb ; infantry very good ; transport insuffi- \ncient ; greater distribution of responsibility \namong officers needed.] \nSham fight ; Chatham stormed . . .24 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nWarrant published, 30 Oct. , inaugurating the new \nsystem of promotion of officers (partly by senior- \nity and partly by select ioi.) on . . . 1 Nov. ,, \nNew organisation of the army proposed by Mr. \nCardwell : brigade districts, England, 49 ; Scot- \nland, 8 ; Ireland 8 = 65 . . . . Feb. 1S72 \nThe duke of Cambridge\'s favourable report was \n\nlaid before parliament early in . . March, \xe2\x80\x9e \nArmy estimates passed in commons (234-63) 12 Mar. ,, \nReview of 14,000 men by the queen at Aldershot, \n\n5 July. 11 \nAutumn Mancaivresm Wiltshire : 50,000 men com- \nmanded by sir John Mitchell supposed to land at \nWeymouth, and march towards London, opposed \nby sir R. Walpole ; campaign begins ; skirmishes \n\nnear Blandford 2t Aug. ., \n\nSir A. Horsford repulses gen. Brownrigg at Winch- \n\nampton 27 Aug. ,, \n\nPrince of Wales arrives at Salisbury . . 3 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nBattle of Wishford, 7 Sept. ; battle of the Avon, 10 \n\nSept. ; grand march past near Beacon Hill 12 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe new drill and tactics for the army were pub- \nlished 23 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMr. Cardwell\'s estimates ; proposes increasing pay \nof soldiers ; and establishment of a chief of the \nstaff 24 Feb. 1873 \n\n\n\n58 AEMY. \n\nThe Military Intelligence Department established \n\n1 April, 1873 \nReview of troops at Windsor, before the Shah, \n\n24 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nAutumn Manoeuvres at Dartmoor, Cannock Chase, \n\nand at the Curragh, Dublin . . July, Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nRoyal Commission on compensation to officers for \n\nchanges ; appointed . . . .11 Oct. ,, \nReport issued (admits cause for compensation ; and \nconsiders that officers will be satisfied with what- \never the nation chooses to decide for them) June, 1874 \nChange of ministry ; Mr. Gathorne Hardy (after- \nwards Lord Cranbrook), secretary for war 21 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe victorious troops from Ashantee reviewed by \n\nthe queen 30 March, ,, \n\nSummer Manoeuvres at Aldershot . . June, ,, \nNew regulations respecting first applications for \n\ncommissions ; issued Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRoyal commission on more rapid promotion ; ga- \nzetted 10 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nManoeuvres at Aldershot .... July, 1875 \nRoyal warrant respecting regimental exchanges, \n\ndated 6 Aug. ; issued .... 9 Aug. ,, \nScheme completed for - mobilisation of the army, \n\nannounced . . - . . . Dee. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n"Control" Department divided into "commissariat \nand transport departments," and " ordnance \nstore departments " .... 11 Dec. ,, \nMobilisation of the army and the reserve ; experi- \nment in Surrey reported successful . . July, 1876 \nNew cavalry regulations issued . . Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nReport of commission on promotion issued ; recom- \nmends compulsory retirement in some cases, and \n\nother changes Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNew organisation of the artillery proposed about \n\n26 Feb. 1877 \nManoeuvres on a small scale . - . . . July, ,, \nReview by the queen at Windsor . . 10 July, ,, \nArmy promotion and retiring scheme : royal war- \nrant published 28 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNew army medical warrant issued . . 1 Sept. ,, \nAbout 29,000 recruits in 1877 ; announced Mar. 187S \nCol. F. A. Stanley, war secretary . . 2 April, ,, \nReserves (about 35,000) called out, 2 April; com- \nmended ; disbanded 31 July \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe report of the commission on the mutiny acts \nrecommends consolidation of the mutiny acts and \nthe articles of war, and simplification of martial \n\nlaw, &c July, ,, \n\nWarrant establishing new warrant officers ("con- \nductors ") a grade between commissioned and non- \ncommissioned. 24 Jan. 1879 \n\nArmy Discipline and Regulation Acts, introduced \n\n27 Feb. ; passed 24 July, ,, \n\n[They relate to discipline, enlistment, billeting, \n\ncourt-martials, military law, &c] \nArmy Medical Department ; changes made by a \n\nnew warrant issued 2 Dec. 1S79 ; amended Jan. 1880 \nMr. Hugh E. Childers, war secretary, 28 April, ,, \n\nNew system of Military Examination for officers ; \n\nintroduced Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAlterations in officers\' dress, by orders . Nov. ,, \nSystem of compulsory retirement of officers came \ninto operation ...... 1 Jan. 1881 \n\nGreat army reform measures laid before the Com- \nmons by Mr. Childers ... 3 March, ,, \nAlterations made in the uniform and organisation \nof the infantry .... April et seq. ,, \n\nNew organization comes into effect . . 1 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nRegulation of the Forces and the Army Discipline \nAct (amending the Acts of 1879) passed 27 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nSee Flogging. \nArmy Act amended .... 28 April, 1882 \n\nReserves called out (for Egypt) . . 25 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nSuccess of the changes in the army system demon- \nstrated by the Egyptian campaign ; within 7 \nweeks a large well appointed army was conveyed \n3000 miles under most unfavourable conditions \nand achieved the object of the expedition \n\nJuly \xe2\x80\x94 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nReview of the return troops and Indian contingent \n\nby the queen in St. James\'s Park . . 18 Nov. ,, \nQueen\'s thanks published 21 Nov. ; she distributes \n\nmedals, &c, at Windsor . . .21 Nov. ,, \nFormation of" an Army Telegraph Corps ordered \n\nFeb. 1883 \n\n\n\nAEMY. \n\n\n\n59 \n\n\n\nAEREST. \n\n\n\nArmy Medical Service: system, &c, censured by \nreport of lord Morley\'s committee . . May, 1883 \n\nGreat increase of recruits ; above 33,000 . . in 1883 \n\nReport of committee on colour of uniform recom- \nmending change of red to grey, July, 1882 : issued \n29 March ,, \n\nEffective strength of the army reported 1 Dec. 1884, \n188,216; about 35,000 added . . . April, 1885 \n\nOrder prohibiting officers and soldiers from publish- \ning military information in the press, &c. 1 April, 1886 \n\nMilitary training of boys between 14 and 17; cir- \ncular issued sanctioning formation of battalions, \n&c June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCommittee to inquire into the organization and \nadministration of the manufacturing departments \nof the army appointed ; announced . 23 June, ,, \n\nSuspension of compulsory retirement of officers \n\nAug. ,, \n\nA force of all arms fully equipped as for war marches \nat Aldershot 17 Aug. ,, \n\nRoyal ordnance commission on military stores ap- \npointed (sir J. F. Stephen, sir A. Alison, Dr. \nPercy and others) about 16 Sept. ; first sat, 16 \nNov. 1886 ; they report the system to be bad and \ninefficient ; results bad, guns and weapons faulty ; \ncharge of corruption not proved ; the commis- \nsioners recommend revival of the office of Master \nof Ordnance with council, &c. May, 1887. \nChanges in discipline made ; courts-martial to be \nmuch discontinued ; summary powers given to \nofficers 1 Jan. 1887. \n\nIncluding the yeomanry, the general total of the \narmy, first class army reserve, and auxiliary \nforces, 577,740 in 1886; 595,159 . . .in 1887 \n\nReorganization of the War Office, civil and military, \nannounced in the Commons 8 Sept. 1887 ; new \narrangement announced .... Feb. 1888 \n\nRoyal commission on Naval and Military Adminis- \ntration (which see) appointed . . 7 June, ,, \n\nDiminution of severity leads to less crime and \nirregularities; reported .... Oct. ,, \n\nNew warrant for the removal of undesirable officers \n\n3 Jan. 1889 \n[Alterations made after complaints, Jan. 1890] \n\nNew arrangements of the military district proposed \nto be effected in April Jan. ,, \n\nIncreased vote 5,004,500?. for 152,282 men 12 March, ,, \n\nTotal estimate for 1889-90 17,335, 900L . March, ,, \n\nFirst report, containing various recommendations \nwith evidence, issued ... 20 March, 1890 \n\nMilitary exhibition (which see) opened . 7 May; ,, \n\nThe Jubilee ottering of the army presented to the \nqueen at Buckingham palace by the duke of \nCambridge (see Jubilee) ... 10 May, ,, \n\nInsubordination of some of the 2nd Battalion \nGrenadier Guards at Wellington barracks, S.W., \n7 July ; court martial on 6 of the oldest privates ; \nsentenced to imprisonment with hard labour (1 \nman to 2 years and dismissal with ignominy ; 3 \nmen, 2 years; 2 men, 18 months), 18-21 July \n[released, 24 Nov.]. Colonel Maitland superseded. \nThe battalion, under col. Eaton, sent to Bermuda \n\n23 July >, \n[Highly commended there, return to England 28 \nJuly, 1891.] \n\nViscount Wolseley, adjutant general (1882, et seq.), \nsucceeded by sir Redvers Buller . . 1 Oct. ,, \n\nThe duke of Connaught appointed commander of \nthe southern military district . . Aug. ,, \n\nArmy manoeuvres near Petersfiekl, Hants 10 Sept. 1891 \n\nReport of lord Wantage\'s committee on service in \nthe army (appointed April, 1891), issued Feb., \nevidence April, much discussed . . May, 1892 \nSee Barracks. \n\nARMY (ANNUAL) ACT, see Mutiny Act. \n\nARMY of Occupation. By treaty, signed \n\n20 Nov. 1815, the allied powers established the \nboundaries of France, and stipulated for the occu- \npation of certain fortresses by foreign troops for \nthree years. \xe2\x80\x94 The departure of the German army of \noccupation began about 20 Sept. 187 1 ; completed \n16 Sept. 1873. \n\n\n\nARNOLDISTS, followers of Arnold of Brescia, \nwho protested against the corruptions of the Papacy, \nand who was burnt alive by pope Adrian IV. 1 155. \n\nAROGEE, Abyssinia. Here sir Robert (after- \nwards lord) Napier defeated the Abyssinians, who \nlost about 700 killed and wounded, 10 April, 1868. \nThe British had 20 wounded. \n\nAROMATICS. Acron of Agrigentum is said \nto have been the first who caused great fires to be \nmade, and aromatics to be thrown into them, to \npurify the air, by which means he put a stop to the \nplague at Athens, 429 B.C. \n\nARPAD DYNASTY, see Hungary. \n\nARPINUM (now Arpino, S. Italy), the birth- \nplace of Cicero, 3 Jan. 106 B.C. ; many remains still \nbear his name. \n\nARQUEBUS, see Fire Arms. \n\nARQUES (N. France). Near here the league \narmy, commanded by the due de Mayenne, was de- \nfeated by Henry IV. 21 Sept. 1589. \n\nARRACAN, a province of N.E. India. Arracan, \nthe capital, captured by the Burmese, 1783, was \ntaken from them by general Morrison, 1 April, 1825, \nThe subjugation of the province followed, 1826. \n\nARRAIGNMENT consists in reading the \nindictment by the officer of the court, and calling \nupon the prisoner to say whether he is guilty or not \nguilty. Formerly, persons who refused to plead in \ncases of felony were pressed to death by weights \nplaced upon the breast. A person standing mute \nwas declared convicted by an act passed 1772 ; but \nin 1827, the court was directed to enter a plea of \n" not guilty" in such cases ; see Mute. \n\nARRAN MURDER, see Trials, Nov. 1889. \n\nARRAS (N. E. France), the country of the \nancient Atrebates, the seat of a bishop since 390. \nHere a treaty was concluded between the king of \nFrance and duke of Burgundy, when the latter \nabandoned his alliance with England, 21 Sept. 1435- \nAnother treaty was concluded by Maximilian of \nAustria with Louis XI. of France, whereby Bur- \ngundy and Artois were given to the dauphin as a \nmarriage portion, 23 Dec. 1482. Velly. Arras was \nheld by the Austrians from 1493 till 1640, when it \nwas taken by Louis XIII. \n\nARRAY. On 23 Dec. 1324, Edward II. directed \nthe bishop of Durham to make " arraier " his men \nof arms, horse and foot, and cause them to proceed \nto Portsmouth ; thence to proceed to the war in \nGascony. Rymer\'s Feeder a. Hallam says that \nthis was the earliest commission of array that he \ncould find, and that the latest was dated 1557. The \nattempt of Charles I. to revive commissions of array \nin 1642, founded on a statute of Henry IV., was \nstrenuously opposed as illegal. \n\nARREARS OF RENT ACT, Ireland, May, \n1882 ; 45 & 46 Vict. c. 47, passed 18 Aug. 1882. \n\nARREST FOR DEBT. The persons of peers, \nmembers of parliament, &c, are protected from \narrest ; see Ambassadors. Debt, Ferrars\' Arrest. \n\nClergyman performing divine service privileged, 50 \nEdw. III. 1375 \n\nSeamen privileged from debts under 20L, by 30 \nGeo. Ill 1756 \n\nBarristers are privileged from arrest while going to, \nattending upon, and returning from court, on the \nbusiness of their clients. \n\nBy stat. 29 Car. II. no arrest can be made, nor \nprocess served; upon a Sunday ; this law was ex- \ntended by Will. III. \n\n\n\nARRETIUM. \n\n\n\n60 \n\n\n\nAETICLES. \n\n\n\nVexatious arrests prevented by act, May, 1733. \nProhibited for less than 10Z. on process, 1779 ; and \nfor less than 20I. July, 1827 \n\nArrests for less than zol. were prohibited on mesne \nprocess in Ireland, in June 1829 \n\nStatute abolishing arrest for debt on mesne process, \nexcept in cases wherein there is ground to show \nthat the defendant designs to leave the country, \n2 Vict Aug. 1838 \n\nBy 7 & 8 Vict. c. 96, the power of imprisonment \neven ujion final process, that is judgment debts, \nis abolished if the sum does not exceed \xe2\x96\xa0zol. ex- \nclusive of costs, 1844 ; and by 9 & 10 Vict. c. 95, \nthe judge has no power to punish, except in case \nof fraud or contempt of court .... 1846 \n\' By the Absconding Debtors\' Arrest Act, absconding \ndebtors owing 20I. and upwards are liable to \narrest 1851 \n\nArrest for debt practically abolished, with certain \nexceptions, by 32 & 33 Vict. c. 62 . . . . 1869 \n(See DM.) \n\nARRETIUM, see Arezzo. \n\nARSACIDJE, a Parthian dynasty, began with \nArsaces about 250 B.C., and ended with Artabanus, \nkilled in battle with Artaxerxes, the founder of the \nSassanidse, a.d. 226. \n\nARSENAL, a great military or naval reposi- \ntory ; see Woolwich. \n\nARSENIANS, partisans of Arsenius, patriarch \nof Constantinople, who excommunicated the emperor \nMichael Palaiologus for blinding his colleague the \nyoung John Lascaris, 1261, and was deposed 1264. \n\nARSENIC, a steel-gray coloured brittle mine- \nral, extremely poisonous, known in early times. \nBrandt, in 1733, made the first accurate experiments \non its chemical nature. The heinous crimes com- \nniitted by its means induced the legislature to enact \nregulations for its sale, 1851. In 1858 Dr. A. S. \nTaylor asserted that green paper-hangings and \ndresses prepared from arsenic are injurious to health. \n\nARSON, punished with death by the Saxons, \nstill remained a capital crime on the consolidation \nof the laws in 1827 and 1837. By the act of 1861 it \nis punishable by penal servitude for life and minor \ndegrees of imprisonment. William Anthony was \nconvicted of arson, having set manj\' houses on fire, \nfor the sake of obtaining the reward for giving \nalarm, 13 Dee. 1871. There were many incendiary \nfires in Kent, Suffolk, and other counties in 1830. \nConvicted of arson in England and Wales in 1887-8, \n\n315; 1888-9, 4\xc2\xb0 2 - \nWin. Nash was convicted of murder for setting fire \nto his house at Notting-hill, and causing six \ndeaths, 30 May ; sentenced to death (but reprieved) \n\n3, 4 Aug. 1881 \nLeon Seme sentenced to twenty years\' penal servi- \ntude for arson, 274 Strand (property over-insured ; \nhis two boys burnt) .... 21 Jan. 1888 \nConspiracy to defraud insurance companies by \narson : George Cullmer sentenced to 12 years, \n\xe2\x80\x94 Trew and Mrs. Wheeler to 5 years\' penal \n\nservitude 16 Feb. 1891 \n\nWilliam Parsons sentenced to 20 years\' penal servi- \ntude for arson near Dorchester . . 18 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n(See Fires, 1887.) \n\nARSOUF (Syria). At a battle here Richard I. \nof England, commanding the Christian forces, re- \nduced to 30,000, defeated Saladin\'s army of 300,000 \nSaracens and other infidels, on 6 Sept. 1191. Ascalon \nsurrendered, and Bichard marched towards Jeru- \nsalem, 1 192. \n\nART ACT, facilitating the public exhibition of \nworks of art (lent to the president of the privy \ncouncil), passed April, 1866. See Arts, Exhibitions, \nand National Portrait Gallery. \n\nARTEMIS, a Greek goddess; called by the \nRomans, Diana, which see. \n\n\n\nARTEMISIUM, a promontory in Eubcea, \nnear which indecisive conflicts took place between \nthe Greek and Persian fleets for three days ; 480 \nB.C. The former retired on hearing of the battle of \nThermopylae. \n\nARTESIAN WELLS (from Artesia, now \nArtois, in France, where they frequently occur) are \nformed by boring through the upper soil to strata \ncontaining water which has percolated from a \nhigher level, and which rises to that level through \nthe boring tube. The fountains in Trafalgar-square \nand government offices near have been supplied \nsince 1844 by two of these wells (393 feet deep). \nAt Paris the Grenelle well (1798 feet deep), was \ncompleted in 1841, after eight years of exertion, by \nM. Mulot at an expense of about 12,000^., and the \nwell at Passy, which it is said will supply sufficient \nwater for nearly 500,000 persons, was begun in 1855, \nand completed in i860 by M. Kind. Messrs. Amos \nand Easton completed an Artesian well for the \nHorticultural Society\'s garden in 1862, which \nyielded 880,000 gallons of water, at the temperature \nof 81\xc2\xb0 Fahr., in twenty-four hours. The well at \nKissingen was completed in 1850. Artesian wells \nare now common. \n\nARTHUR, king of Britain, said, mythically, to \nhave lived a.d. 500 \xe2\x80\x94 532. \n\nThe events of his life and the conflicts of the \nknights of his round table, as sung by the Welsh \npoets Taliesin, Llywarch Hen, and Aneurin, \nwere incorporated into his Latin history by \nGeoffrey of Monmouth, about 1115, who died \n1154 ; put into French verse by Geoffrey Gaisnar, \nand by Wace soon after ; and set forth in an \nEnglish poem called Brut by Layamon, about . 1205 \n\nWalter Map by incorporating in his version the \nlegend of the Holy Graal, introduced the re- \nligious element about 1171 \n\nSir Thomas Malory\'s " Morte d\' Arthur," printed by \nWin. Caxton 1485 \n\nLord Lytton\'s " King Arthur," published . . 1848 \n\nTennyson\'s " Idylls of the King " . . . 1859-69 \n\nARTICHOKES are said to have been intro- \nduced from the East into Western Europe in the \n15th century, and to have reached England in the \n1 6th. \n\nARTICLES of Religion. On 8 June, 1536, \n\nafter much disputing, the English clergy in convo- \ncation published "Articles decreed by the king\'s \nhighness" Henry VIII., who published in 1539 the \n" Statute of Six Articles," decreeing the acknow- \nledgment of transubstantiation, communion in one \nkind, vows of chastity, private masses, celibacy of \nthe clergy, and auricular confession. Offenders \nwere punishable as heretics. In 1551 forty- two \nwere prepared, and published in 1553. These were \nmodified by the convocation, and reduced to Thirty- \nnine in Jan. 1563; and they received the royal \nauthority and the authority of parliament in 1571. \nThe Lambeth Articles, of a more Calvmistic charac- \nter, proposed by archbishop Whitgift, were with- \ndrawn in consequence of the displeasure of queen \nElizabeth, 1595. One hundred and four Articles \nwere drawn up for Ireland by archbishop Usher in \n1614 ; but in 1635 the Irish church adopted the \nEnglish articles. See Perth Articles. The 39 \nArticles were ordered to be removed from the \nstudies at Oxford in Nov. 1871. \n\nARTICLES OF "WAR were decreed in the time \nof Bichard I. and John. Those made by Bichard \nII. in 1385 appear in " Grose\'s Military Antiquities." \nThe articles of war now in force are based upon an \nact, passed by- William III. in 1689, to regulate the \narmy about to engage in his continental warfare. \n\n\n\nAETIFICEES. \n\n\n\n61 \n\n\n\nAETOIS. \n\n\n\nAETIFICEES and Manufacturers. \n\nTheir affairs were severely regulated by the statutes \nof labourers, 1349, 1350, 1360, 1549, and espe- \ncially of 1562. They were prohibited from leaving \nEngland, and those abroad were outlawed, if they \ndid not return within six months after the notice \ngiven them. A fine of 100^., and imprisonment for \nthree months, were the penalties for seducing them \nfrom these realms, by 9 Geo. II. (1736) and other \nstatutes. The law was modified in 1824; see Arti- \nsans, Workmen, kc. \n\nAETILLEEY, a term including properly all \nmissiles, now restricted to camion. A small piece \nwas contrived by Schwartz, a German cordelier, \nsoon after the invention of gunpowder, in 1330. \nArtillery was used, it is said, by the Moors of \nAlgesiras, in Spain, in 1343 ; and according to some \nhistorians, at the battle of Crecy, in 1346, when \nEdward III. had four pieces of cannon. We had \nartillery at the siege of Calais, 1347. The Venetians \nemployed artillery against the Genoese at sea, 1377. \nVoltaire. Said to have been cast, with mortars for \nbomb-shells, by Flemish artists, in Sussex, 1543. \nRymer\'s Feedera. Made of brass 1635; improve- \nments by Browne, 1728; see Gannon, Bombs, Car- \nronades (under Carron), Mortars, Howitzers, \nPetard, Rockets, Fire-arms. The Royal Artillery- \nregiment was established in the reign of Anne. See \nArchery. \n\nHonourable Artillery Company of London. \xe2\x80\x94The \ncompany incorporated by Henry VIII. for mili- \ntary exercise and better defence of the realm, \nwith special privileges, 25 Aug. 1537. Obtained \nlease of the Tessell ground, Bishopsgate, from \nthe last prior of the convent of St. Mary, Spittle, \nfor thrice 99 5\'ears \xe2\x80\x94 afterwards known as the old \nartillery ground, 3 Jan. 1540. Obtained lease of \nthe "new" artillery ground, Finsbury, their \npresent head-quarters, 1641. In the civil war, \n1642-8, the company, as a body, took no part, \nbut most of the officers of the Trained Bands \nwere also members of the company. James, duke \nof York, afterwards James II., appointed captain- \ngeneral, 1660. The company ordered to take \nprecedence next alter the regular forces, 1 June, \n1S83. The company numbered 1200 in 1803 \nand 800 in 1861. Since 1842 the officers have \nbeen appointed by the queen. On the decease \nof the duke of Sussex in 1843, the prince consort \nbecame captain-general and colonel. He died 14 \nDec. 1861, and the prince of Wales was appointed \nhis successor, 24 Aug. 1863. 350th anniversary \ncelebrated by a grand review, n July, 1887. \nOn the annual general court, officers and others \ndeclining to vote 500?. for the payment of Col. \nBorton the adjutant, and other expenses, the \nprince of Wales, the captain-general, resigns, and \nthe company is disarmed by the War Office \n\n18 Dec. 1888 \nThe drill of the company resumed . . 17 Jan. 1889 \nReorganisation as an independent force of 2,000 \nmen by Royal warrant 12 March ; promulgated \n\n16 March, ,, \nNew regulations issued by the War Office . 28 Jan. 1890 \nThe ancient and Hon. Artillery Company of \nMassachusetts, U.S.A., which was founded in \n1638 by Robert Keayne, who, with some other \nnumbers of the London company, had emigrated \nto New England, still maintains friendly relations \nwith the elder company. \nNational Volunteer Artillery Association \nheld its first annual meeting for shooting for prizes \ngiven by the queen and others : at Shoeburyness, \nJuly, 1865. Meetings wore held and prizes dis- \ntributed in July, 1866, and since, generally in \nAugust. \nRoyal Artillery Institution, established at Wool- \nwich, proposed by lieuts. F. Earilley-Wilmot, and \nJ. H. Lefroy, Feb. 1838 ; approved June, 1838 ; \nbuilding completed Sept. 1840. Proceedings, vol. \nI., published 1858 \n\n\n\nThe alleged great deficiency of artillery in the British \narmy, much discussed Sept. 1870 ; Artillery \nbrought to the camp at Aldershot, reported to \nbe very fine Sept. 1870 \n\nNew organisation of the artillery proposed about \n\n26 Feb. 1877 \n\nAETISANS\' AND LABOITEEES* \nDWELLINGS, Act "to provide better dwel- \nlings," passed 31 Jul}\', 1868; another Act was \npassed 29 June, 1875, " to facilitate the improve- \nment of the dwellings of the working classes in \nlarge towns ; " one for Scotland, 2 Aug. 1875 > other \nacts passed in 1879 ; amended 1882. \n\nArtisans\', Labourers\', and General Dwellings \nCompany, registered 31 Dec. 1866 ; purchased \nestates in various parts of the country. The \nShaftesbury estate (which see) was formally opened \n\n18 July, 1874 \n\nThe director (Dr. John Baxter Langley), secretary \n(Mr. Wm. Swindlehurst), were sentenced to be \nimprisoned 18 months ; and Mr. Edwd. Saffery, \nestate agent, 12 months, for conspiring to defraud \nthe company of about 24,312?. ; trial 23-26 Oct. 1877 \n\nRoyal commission to enquire into the condition of \nthe housing of the working classes, appointed, \nconsisting of sir Charles Dilke, chairman, the \nprince of Wales, the marquis of Salisbury, arch- \nbishop Manning, sir R. A. Cross, Mr. Goschen, \nMr. Samuel Morley, and ten others, gazetted 4 \nMarch. First met 6 March, 1884. 1st and 2nd \nReports attribute the evils chiefly to defective \nadministration of laws, and recommend appoint- \nment of competent inquirers, and due action of \nlocal authorities : \xe2\x80\x94 issued May, 1885. \n\nSir C. Dilke lays foundation stone of a large block \nof buildings on charity land in Hoxton 1 July, \n1885 ; and the prince of Wales opened them \n\n1 Julv. 1886 \n\nHousing of the Poor Act (introduced by the \nmarquis of Salisbury) passed . . .. 14 Aug. 1885 \n\nTwo of seven blocks of buildings opened in Seward \nSt., Goswell Rd. by the lord mayor about 10 June, 1S86 \n\nArtisans\' Institute, for promoting general and \ntechnical knowledge ; near St. Martin\'s Lane : \nestablished by aid of the duke of Bedford, lord \nLyttelton, Mr. S. Morley, and others ; opened \n\n14 Oct. 1S74 \n\nSir Edward Cecil Guinness, afterwards Baron \nIveagh, presents 250,000?. to trustees for the \nerection of dwellings for the labouring poor, \n200,000?. for London and 50,000?. for Dublin \nannounced 20 Nov! 1889 \n\n50,000?. to be lent to Dublin in addition by govern- \nment. Earl Cadogan presents to the trust an \nacre of land in Chelsea, valued at about 40,000? , \nannounced 2I March\' 1800 \n\nThe important Housing of the Working Classes act \npassed ...... 18 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAETISTS\' FUND, was established in 1810 to \nprovide allowances for sick, and annuities for in- \ncapacitated, members. Artists\' General Benevolent \nInstitution, established 1814. Artists\' Orphan \nFund, 1 87 1. \n\nAETOIS (N. France), a province once held by \nthe Atrebates, conquered by the Franks in the fifth \ncentury, given by Charles the Bold, with Flanders, \nas a dowry to his daughter Judith, on her murriao-e \nwith Baldwin Bras-de-fer in 863. Louis XV. created \nhis grandson, Charles Philippe, count of Artois, who \nbecame king as Charles X., 16 Sept. 1824. \nRe-united to the crown by Philip Augustus . . n8 \nFormed into a county for his brother Robert, by \n\nLouis IX I2 ., \n\nAcquired, with Flanders, through marriage, by the \n\nduke of Burgundy 1184. \n\nPassed, by marriage of Mary of Burgundy to Maxi- \nmilian, to the house of Austria .... i 477 \n\nRestored to France \' jY% z \n\nReverted to Austria " I4g , \n\nConquered for France 1640 \n\nFinally confirmed to it by the treaty of Ninieguen, \n\n10 Aug. 167S \n\n\n\nARTS. \n\n\n\nG2 \n\n\n\nASCENSION DAY. \n\n\n\n1760 \n\n\n\n1824 \n1850 \n\n\n\nARTS. In the 8th century, the circle of sciences \nwas composed of seven liberal arts \xe2\x80\x94 the trivium \n(grammar, rhetoric, logic), the quadrivium (arith- \nmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy). Harris. \nThe Royal Society of England {which see) obtained \nits charter, 2 April, 1663. \n\nThe Society of Arts, to promote the polite arts, com- \nmerce, manufactures, and mechanics, originated \nin the patriotic zeal of Mr. Wm. Shipley, and its \nfirst president, lord Folkestone . . March, 1754 \n\nFINE ARTS. \n\nFirst public exhibition by the artists of the British \nmetropolis took place at the rooms of the Society \nof Arts . . . - \n\nRepeated there for several years, till the Royal \nAcademy was founded \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Society of British Artists was instituted 21 May, \n1823 ; styled Royal by order . . 16 Aug. \n\nTheir first exhibition opened 19 April \n\nPre-Raphaelites (which see) became prominent about \n\nSociety for the Encouragement of the Fine Arts \nfounded in Dec \n\nArt Unions began in France and Germany early in \nthe present century. \n\nThe first in Britain was established at Edinburgh. \n\nThe Art Union of London, 112, Strand, was \nfounded (chiefly by the exertions of George God- \nwin, the architect, long hon. sec.) 14 Feb. 1837 ; \nand chartered 1 Dec. 1846. The Art Union in- \ndemnity act was passed 3 Aug. 1844. Subscrip- \ntion for 1876, 20,932?. ; 1877, 15,586?. (depression \nof trade); 1884, 9,634?. \n\nBurlington Fine Arts Club, for exhibition of works \nof art, &c, founded \n\nA memorial of a convention for promoting univer- \nsally reproductions of works of art for the bene- \nfit of museums of all countries, signed by the \nprince of Wales, and the crown princes of Prussia, \nRussia, Denmark, Sweden, Italy, Saxony, and \nothers, was sent to the duke of Marlborough, \n\n12 March, \n\n\xe2\x82\xacl The Grosvenor Gallery," Bond Street, W. opened \n\n1 May, \n\nMr. Hubert Herkomer\'s new School of Art, Bushey, \nHerts, opened 26 Nov. 1883 ; incorporated 1887. \n\nAnew Art Union established by the Royal Institute \nof Painters in Water Colours announced . Sept. 1887 \n\nThe Home Arts Association established early 1885 \nhas 73 "centres." \n\n"\' The New Gallery," Regent St., W., opened 9 May, 1888 \n\n"\'National Association for the Advancement of \nArt," president sir Frederick Leighton, estab- \nlished 8 June ; first meeting (at Liverpool) \n\n3-7 Dec. ,, \n\nSecond congress at Edinburgh, president, the Mar- \nquis of Lome . . . 28 Oct.\xe2\x80\x94 2 Nov. 1889 \n\nThird Birmingham, president Mr. J. E. Hodson, R. A. \n\n4\xe2\x80\x948 Nov. 1890 \n\nArts anal Crafts Society (Mr. Burne- Jones, Mr. Walter \nCrane, and others), begun 1888 \n\nArts and Letters, established by sir Edwin Arnold, \nMr. D\'Oyly Carte, and others . . 7 Nov. 1889 \n\nThe Home Arts and Industries Association, begun . 1885 \n\nSociety of Portrait Painters, founded . . July, 1891 \n\nSee British Institution ; National Gallery ; Boyal \nAcademy; Albert Hall. \n\nARUNDEL CASTLE (Sussex), built by the \nSaxons about 800. The duke of Norfolk enjoys the \nearldom of Arundel, as a feudal honour, by inherit- \nance and possession of the castle, without any other \ncreation. Philip Howard, son of the attainted \nduke of Norfolk, was made earl of Arundel, by \nsummons, as possessor of this castle, 1580. It was \nthoroughly repaired by a late duke at a vast ex- \npense. \n\nARUNDEL SOCIETY, for the promotion \no the knowledge of art, was established in 1848. It \npublishes fac-similes and photographs. \n\nARUNDELIAN MARBLES, called also \nOxford Marbles ; one containing- the chronology of \nancient history from 1582 to 355 B.C., and said to \n\n\n\n1877 \n\n\n\nhave been sculptured 264 B.C. They consist of 37 \nstatues, 128 busts, and 250 inscriptions, and were \nfound in the isle of Paros, in the reign of James I., \nabout 1610. They were collected by Mr. W. Petty, \npurchased by lord Arundel, and given by his grand- \nson Henry Howard, afterwards duke of Norfolk, to \nthe university of Oxford in 1667 ; and are therefore \ncalled also Oxford Marbles. The characters of \nthe inscriptions are Greek. A variorum edition of \nthe inscriptions, by Maittaire, appeared in 1732, \nand a fine one by Chandler in 1 763 ; and transla- \ntions by Selden, 1628 ; by Prideaux, 1676 ; see \nKicld\'s Tracts; and Porsoris Treatise, 1789. \n\nARUSPICES, see Haruspices. \n\nARYAN, see Avian, and Language. \n\nAS, a Roman weight and coin : as a weight, it \nwas a pound; as a coin, it had different weights, \nbut the same value. In the reign of Servius, the \nas weighed a pound of brass ; in the first Punic war, \nit weighed two ounces, 264 B.C.; in the second Punic \nwar, one ounce, 218 B.C. ; and afterwards half an \nounce ; its value about three farthings sterling. \n\nASAPH, St. (N. Wales), a bishopric said to \nhave been founded by Kentigern, bishop of Glasgow. \nOn returning into Scotland about 560, he left St. \nAsaph his successor, from whom the see is named. \nIt is valued in the king\'s books at 187?". us. bd. \nThe present cathedral was erected by bishop Red- \nman, 1472-95. By an order in council, 1838, the \nsees of St. Asaph and Bangor were to have been \nunited on the next vacancy in either, and the \nbishopric of Manchester created. This order was \nannulled in 1846. Present income 4,200?". ; see \nManchester. The cathedral, restored by sir Gilbert \nScott, re-opened 2 Sept., 1875. \n\nBISHOPS OF ST. ASAPH. \n\n1802. Samuel Horsley, died 4 Oct. 1806. \n\n1806. William Cleaver, died 15 May, 1815. \n\n1815. John Luxmoore, died 21 Jan. 1830. \n\n1830. William Carey, died 13 Sept. 1846. \n\n1846. Thomas Vowler Short, resigned Feb. 1870 ; died \n\n13 April, 1872. \n\n1870. Joshua Hughes, died 21 Jan. 1880. \n\n1889. Alfred George Edwards, elected 2 March. \n\nASBESTOS, a native fossil stone, which may \nbe split into threads and filaments, and which is \nendued with the property of remaining unconsumed \nby fire. Cloth was made of it by the Egyptians \n{Herodotus), and napkins in the time of Pliny, 74 ; \nand also paper. The spinning of asbestos known at \nVenice, about 1500. Porta. Asbestos non-inflam- \nmable paints tried in, and proposed for use in theatres, \n&c, 23 Dec. 1881. Asbestos proposed as an insu- \nlator for electric wires by M. H. Geoffrey, Paris, \nSept. 1882. \n\nASCALON (Syria), a city of the Philistines, \nshared the fate of Phoenicia and Judea. The \nEgyptian army was defeated here by the crusaders \nunder Godfrey of Bouillon, 12 Aug. 1099. Ascalon \nwas besieged by the latter in 1148, taken in 1153 ; \nand again in 1191. Its fortifications were de- \nstroyed for fear of the crusaders by the sultan, 1270. \n\nASCENSION, an island in the Atlantic ocean, \n800 miles N. "W. 01 St. Helena, discovered by the \nPortuguese on Ascension day, 20 May, 150 1 ; and \ntaken possession of by the English, Oct. 1815. \n\nASCENSION DAY, also called Holy Thurs- \nday, when the church celebrates the ascension of \nour Saviour, the fortieth day after his resurrection \nfrom the dead, 14 May, 33 ; first commemorated, it \nis said, 68. Ascension day, 1893, 11 May; 1894, \n3 May ; 1895, 23 May ; 1896, 14 May. \nSociety for the better observance of Ascension Day, \n\nformed June, 1869. \n\n\n\nASCHAFFENBURGr. \n\n\n\n63 \n\n\n\nASHTAROTH. \n\n\n\nASCHAFFENBURG, on the Maine, Bavaria, \nS. "W. Germany. liere, on 14 July, 1866, the Prus- \nsians defeated the German Federal army, captured \nthe town, and took 2000 prisoners. \n\nASCHAM SOCIETY, formed to promote \nsocial intercourse among gentlemen engaged in \neducation, and improve educational methods, &c. \n1880. First president, J. A. Froude ; honorary \nmembers, professors Huxley, Tyndall, Morley, &c, \nsirs F. Pollock, J. Lubbock, F. Leighton, and other \neminent men. \n\nASCOT RACES, see Races. \n\nASCULUM, now ASCOLI, Apulia, S. Italy. \nNear it, Pyrrhus of Epirus defeated the Romans, \n279 B.C. Asculum, a city of the Piceni, with all \ntheir country, was conquered by the consul Seni- \npronius, 268 B.C. Here Andrea, general of the em- \nperor Henry VI., endeavouring to wrest Naples \nfrom Tailored, was defeated and slain, a.d. iiqo. \n\nASHANTEES, warlike negroes of West Africa. \nIn 1807 they conquered Fantee, in which the \nBritish settlement Cape Coast Castle is situated. \n\nOn the death of their king, who had been friendly \nto the English, hostilities began ; the Ashantees \ndefeated about 1,000 British under sir Charles \nM\'Carthy at Acera, and brought away his skull \nwith others as trophies . . . .21 Jan. 1824 \n\nThey were totally defeated by col. Purdon, 7 Aug. 1826 \n\nTreaty of peace and commerce concluded by Mr. \nMaclean ; the independence of the Fantees re- \ncognised . . . . . 29 April, 1831 \n\nThe governor of Cape Coast Castle began war with \nAshantees early in 1863 ; suspended through \nsickness of our troops .... May, 1864 \n\nOffended at the British occupation of Elmina, the \nAshantees attacked the Fantees, our allies, with \nvarying success April, 1873 \n\nThey were severely repulsed, 13 June ; Elmina \npartially bombarded by the British for favouring \nthem 14 June ,, \n\nCommodore Commerell and his party, sailing up \nthe Prah, attacked and wounded ; 4 men killed \nby people of Chamah, which is bombarded \n\n14 Aug. ,, \nSir Garnet Wolseley (see Hudson Bay) appointed \n\ngovernor of the colonies on West Coast of Africa, \nsails with troops, &e. ... 12 Sept. ,, \n\nHe arrives at Cape Coast Castle, 2 Oct. ; addresses \nan assembly of friendly chiefs, urging them to \nfaithful action and promising rewards (the war \nto be defensive, if possible) . . 4 Oct. ,, \n\nAshantees defeated in a conflict in the bush, at \nEssaman, near Elmina ; villages burnt, 14 Oct. ; \nagain at Escabeo, near Dunquah, by col. Festing \n\n27 Oct. ,, \n\nDespatch from sir Garnet "Wolseley, declaring \nnative allies worthless, and more British troops \nneeded 31 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nIndecisive conflict at Dunquah ; lieut. Eardley \nWilmot killed, 3 Nov. ; Ashantees\' attack on \nAbrakampra totally defeated ; their camp taken ; \ndisorderly retreat . . . . 5, 6 Nov. ,, \n\nCol. Wood\'s indecisive attack at Faisorah 27 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Ashantees said to be retreating in disorder, \n\n15 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nSir Garnet Wolseley marches towards the Prah, \n\n27 Dec. ,, \nThe King Koffee Kalcalli pretends to accept the \n\nterms offered ; releases captives ; prepares for \n\nbattle Jan. 1874 \n\nSkirmish at Borborassie ; captain Nicol killed, \n\n29 Jan. ,, \nAshantees defeated by sir Garnet Wolseley at \n\nAmoaful 31 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBocquah captured by sir A. Alison . . 1 Feb. ,, \nAshantee attack at Fommanah repulsed 2 Feb. ,, \nThe king takes command ; defeated at Ordahsa, \n\n4 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nSir Garnet Wolseley enters Coomassie . 4 Feb. ,, \nThe king not acceding to proposals, his palace and \n\ncity burnt 6 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nDaring ride through Coomassie by capt. Sartorius, \n\n11 Feb. 1874 \n\nThe British retreat ; a treaty of peace (terms : \nperpetual peace ; indemnity of 50,000 oz. of gold ; \nsupremacy over Adansi and other tribes re- \nnounced ; free trade guaranteed ; human sacri- \nfices to be prohibited ;) signed . . 13 Feb. ,, \n\nThe king fearing attack from capt. Glover, sends \nfirst instalment of gold (1000 oz.) . 13 Feb. ,, \n\nSir Garnet Wolseley enters Cape Coast Castle, \n19 Feb. ; sails ; arrives at Portsmouth 21 March \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe courage, skill, and discipline of the troops and \nsadors highly commended ; expedition cost about \ngoo,oooL \n\nThe troops reviewed by the Queen at Windsor ; \nsir Garnet Wolseley, commodores Commerell and \nHewett, col. Festing, capt. Fremantle, sir A. \nAlison, and commander Glover thanked by par- \nliament . . . . . .30 March ,, \n\nThe deposed King Koffee Kalcalli, said to be \ndefeated in his attack on his brother, king \nWemsah Sept. 1876 \n\nThe king demands surrender of a fugitive prince by \nthe governor of Cape Coast Castle, 18 Jan. ; no \nresult ; professes desire of peace . . April, 1881 \n\nThe king sends the golden axe to the queen, who \nreceives it at Windsor Castle . . 30 June, ,, \n\nDeposition of king Mensah, and desire of British \nprotection announced . . . .28 June, 1883 \n\nFighting at Coomassie between partizans of king \nMensah and the ex-king Kofl\'ee Kalcalli 3 and 5 \n\nAug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nKing Bugay requests British intervention Aug. ,, \n\nKoffee Kalcalli\'s partizans totally defeated, an- \nnounced 31 Aug. ,, \n\nHe and Mensah prisoners . . . Aug. \xe2\x80\x94 Nov. ,, \n\nMassacre of Koffee\'s adherents . . . Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDeath of the king, and Koflee Kalcalli : civil war \nreported Aug. \xe2\x80\x94 Dec. 1884 \n\nASHBOURNE\'S (Lord) ACT, see Ireland, \n14 Aug. 1885, and Nov. 1888 ; new act passed 24 \nDec. 1888. Reported very successful, Dec. 1890-1. \n\nASHBURTON TREATY, concluded at \nWashington, 9 Aug. 1842, by Alexander lord Ash- \nburton, and John Tyler, president of the United \nStates : it defined the boundaries of the respective \ncountries between Canada and the state of Maine, \nsettled the extradition of criminals, &c. \n\nASHDOD, or AZOTUS, seat of the worship of \nthe Phoenician god, Dagon, which fell down before \nthe ark of the Lord, captured by the Philistines \nfrom the Israelites, about 1141 B.C. (1 Sam. v.) \nAshdod was taken by the Egyptians after 29 years\' \nsiege, the longest recorded, B.C. 630. Herodotus. \n\nASHDOWN, or ASSENDDNE, now thought \nto be Aston, Berks, where Ethelred and his brother \nAlfred defeated the Danes in 871. At Ashdown, \nnear Saffron- Walden, Essex, Canute defeated Ed- \nmund Ironside with great slaughter, 1016. \n\nTradition says that the day after the. battle in 871 \nAlfred caused his army to carve the figure of a white \nhorse, the standard of Hengist, in the vale. Mr. \nThomas Hughes ("Tom Brown"), in his book "The \nScouring of the White Horse " (1859), describes the \nwork and festival on 17 and 18 Sept. 1857, a ceremony \nperformed at intervals from time immemorial. Records \nare found of the "scouring" in 1755, 27 May, 1776, 15 \nMay, 1780, 1785, 1803, 1812 or 1813, 1825, 19, 20 Sept., \nSept. 1843. \n\nASHMOLEAN MUSEUM (books, manu- \nscripts, coins, &c), was presented to the university \nof Oxford by Elias Ashmole, the herald and anti- \nquary, and opened 1682. It included the collections \nof the Tradescants, to whom he was executor. He \ndied at Lambeth in 1692. The Ashmolean Society, \nOxford (scientific), was established in 1828. \n\nASHTAROTH, a Phoenician goddess, occa- \nsionally worshipped by the Israelites (see Judges \nii. 13) about 1406 B.C., and even by Solomon, about \n984 B.C. (1 Ki>igs xi. 5.) \n\n\n\nASH-WEDNESDAY. \n\n\n\n64 \n\n\n\nASSASSINS. \n\n\n\nASH- WEDNESDAY, the first day of Lent, \nwhich in early times began on the Sunday now \ncalled the first in Lent. It is said that pope \nFelix III., in 487, first added the four days pre- \nceding the old Lent Sunday, to raise the number of \nfasting days to forty ; that Gregory the Great (pope, \n590) introduced the sprinkling of ashes on the first \nof the four additional days, and hence the names of \nDies Cinerum, or Ash- Wednesday. At the Refor- \nmation this practice was abolished, "as being a \nmere shadow, or vain show." Ash- Wednesday, \n1893, 15 Feb. ; 1894, 7 Feb. ; 1895, 27 Feb. ; 1896, \n19 Feb. ; 1897, 3 Mar. \n\nASIA, the largest division of the globe ; part of \nit was so called by the Greeks. The area of Asia \nand its islands is estimated at 17,255,890 square- \nmiles. Asia was the first quarter of the world \npeopled : here the law of God was first promulgated ; \nhere many of the greatest monarchies of the earth \nhad their rise ; and hence most of the arts and \nsciences have been derived. Its early history is \nderived from the Bible and fiom Herodotus, who \nrelates the wars of Croesus, Cyrus, and others. The \nCentral Asian Eailway from the Caspian to Samar- \ncand constructed by general Annenkoff for Russia, \nwhich now possesses very great influence over the \ncountry, opened 1888. See Population, Jews, China, \nIndia, Persia, Turkey, and the other countries. \n\nASIA MINOE, now Anatolia, comprised \n\nthe Ionian colonies on the coast, the early seats of \nGreek civilisation, and the countries Mysia, Phrygia, \nLycia, Bithynia, Caria, Lydia, Cappadocia, Galatia, \n&c, with the cities Troy, Ephesus, Smyrna (all \nwhich see) . From the time of the rise of the As- \nsyrian monarchy, about 2000 B.C., to that of the \nTurks under Osman, Asia Minor was the battle- \nfield of the conquerors of the world. \n\nFirst settlement of the Ionian Greeks about B.C. 1043 \nAsiaMmorsubduedbytheMed.es . . about 711 \n\nConquered by Cyrus about 546 \n\nContest between the Greeks and Persians begins 544 \nAsia Minor conquered by Alexander . . . . 332 \n\nContended for by his successors ; separate king- \ndoms established . .... 321-278 \n\nGradually acquired by the Romans B.C. 188 to a.d. 15 \nPossessed by the Persians . . . . . . 609 \n\nPartially recovered by the emperor Basil. . . 874 \nInvaded by Timour ....... 1402 \n\nTaken from the Greek emperor, and established as \n- an empire by the Turks under Mahomet I. . . 1413 \n\nSee Turkey. \nThe Asia Minor Exploration Fund established, 1882, by \nsir Charles Wilson and others, enabled Mr. W. M. \nRamsay to continue his researches. Valuable results \nI were reported in 1884 from Lydia and the early home \nof the Greeks. In Jan. 3 890, the committee appeal for \npecuniary help. See Hittites. \nRailway from Mersina on the coast to Tarsas and \nAdana, 42 miles, constructing under sir T. Tanered, \nAug. 1884 ; first section opened 4 May, 1886, wholly \nopened Aug. 1886. \n\nASIATIC SOCIETIES. The " Asiatic So- \nciety of Bengal," at Calcutta, was established by \nsir William Jones in 1784, "the bounds of its in- \nvestigation to be the geographical limits of Asia." \nThe "Royal Asiatic Society," which has several \nbranches in India, was founded in 1823. It esta- \nblished the "Oriental Translation Fund," in 1828, \nwhich had published 83 volumes of Eastern litera- \nture in 1865. The " Literary Society of Madras," \n1845. The "Asiatic Quarterly Review," London, \nbegun 1886. \n\nASKESIAN SOCIETY (from the Greek aske- \nsis, exercise), instituted in March, 1796, by some \nyoung men for discussing philosophical subjects. Its \nfounders were Wm. Allen, Wm. Phillips, Alex. Til- \n\n\n\nloch, Luke Howard, W. II. Pepys and others. In \n1806 it merged into the Geological Society. \n\nASMONJEANS, the proper name of the \nfamily termed Maccabees (which see) . \n\nASPERN, GREAT, a town, and Essling, a \nvillage near the Danube and Vienna, where a series \nof desperate conflicts took place between the Austrian \narmy under the archduke Charles, and the French \nunder Napoleon, Massena, &c, on 21-22 May, 1809, \nending in the retreat of .Napoleon. The Austrian \nloss exceeded 20,000 men, and the French 30,000. \nMarshal Lannes, mortally wounded 22 May, died \n31 May. The bridge of the Danube was destroyed, \nand Napoleon\'s retreat endangered; but the success \nof the Austrians was fruitless to them, \n\nASPHALT, a solid bituminous substance, pro- \nbably derived from decayed vegetable matter. It \nwas used as a building material in ancient Babylon. \nIts application for this purpose was revived by \nEirinus, a Greek physician, who discovered beds of \nit near Neufchatel in 1712. Asphalt stone was \nfound at Seyssel near Geneva in 1802; and after \nseveral failures, count Sassenay brought it into use \nfor pavement about 1832. The artificial asphalt \nobtained from gas-works began to be used as pave- \nment about 1838. Claridge\'s patent asphalt was \nlaid down in Trafalgar-square, Jan. 1864. Various \nkinds of asphalt pavement have been since laid on \nin London. \n\nASPINWALL, or Colon, see Panama. \n\n^ ASPROMONTE, Naples. Here Garibaldi was \ndefeated, wounded, and taken prisoner 29 Aug. 1862, \nhaving injudiciously risen against the French occu- \npation of Rome. \n\nASSAM (N. E. India) acquired by the British \nin 1825, and surrendered by tlie king of Ava in \n1826. The tea-plant was discovered here by Mr. \nBruce in 1823. A superintendent of the tea-forests \nwas appointed in 1836, the cultivation of the plant \nhaving been recommended by lord William Ben- \ntinck in 1834. The Assam Tea Company, by whom \nChinese labourers and coolies were introduced, \nwas established in 1839. After several years, the \nplantations suffered severely, it is said through over \nspeculation and neglect of the labourers ; as a \nremedy a labour act was passed at Calcutta, about \nJuly, 1867. \nMr. James Wallace Quinton, chief commissioner, a \n\nvaluable officer, esteemed by three viceroys, \n\nkilled at Manipur {which see) . . 24 March, 1891 \nChief commissioner, William Ersldne Ward . . ,, \nPetroleum discovered ; large quantities obtained, \n\nreported . . . n Feb. 1S92 \n\nASSASSINATION PLOT to kill William \nIII., formed by some of the Jacobites, simultane- \nously with one for an insurrection to be aided by \nFrench invaders, in 1696. James II. and several \nnoblemen and others were said to be privy to it ; \nincluding the earl of Ailesbuiy. About forty \nruffians undertook to kill William near Tumham \nGreen, Middlesex, when returning from hunting, \n14 Feb. 1696. Information was given to William \nby Mr. Prendergast, a Roman Catholic, through \nhorror of the crime. The following were executed : \n\xe2\x80\x94 Charnock, King., and Keyes, 18 March ; sir John \nFriend and sir Wm. Parkyns, 3 April; Rookwood, \nLowick, and Cranbourne, 29 April, 1696 ; sir \nJohn Fen wick (by attainder), 28 January, 1697. \nSir George Barclay, a chief organiser of the plot, \nescaped to France. \n\nASSASSINS, or ASSASSINIANS, fanatical \nMahometans, collected by Hassan-ben-Sabah, and \n\n\n\nASSAY. \n\n\n\n65 \n\n\n\nASSEMBLY. \n\n\n\nsettled in Persia about 1090. In Syria they pos- \nsessed a large tract of land among the mountains of \nLebanon. They murdered the marquis of Mont- \nferrat in 1192, Lewis of Bavaria in 1213, and the \nkhan of Tartary in 1254. They were extirpated in \nPersia about 1258 and in Syria about 1272. The \nchief of the corps was named " Ancient of the \nMountain" and " Old Man of the Momitain." \nThey trained up young people to assassinate such \npersons as their chief had devoted to destruction. \nHenault. From them came the word assassin. \n\n\n\nREMARKABLE ASSASSINATIONS AND ATTEMPTS. \n\nSee Rome, Emperors, for many assassinations. \n\nAbdul Aziz, sultan (see Turkey, 1881) . 4 June, 1876 \nAbdurrahman, Ameer of Afghanistan ; attempt \n\n26 Dec. 1888 \nAlbert I., emperor of Germany, by his nephew \n\nJohn i May, 1308 \n\nAlexander II. of Russia ; attempts: by Karakozow at \nSt. Petersburg, 16 April, 1866 ; by Berezowski \nat Paris, 6 June, 1867 ; by Alexander SoloviefT, 14 \nApril, 1879 ; by undermining a railway train, 1 \nDec. 1879 i \xc2\xb0y explosion of Winter palace, St. \nPetersburg, 17 Feb. 1880 ; killed by explosion of \na bomb thrown by a man who is himself killed, \nSt. Petersburg . . .2 p.m. 13 March, 1881 \n\nAlexander III. ; attempts: 13 March, 1887 ; May, 1888 \nAlfonso XII. of Spain, attempts : by J. O. Moneasi, \n\n25 Oct. 1878 ; by Francisco Otero Gonzalez, 30 Dec. 1879 \nAmadeus, duke of Aosta, when king of Spain ; \n\nattempt 19 July, 1872 \n\nArtaxerxes III. of Persia ; by Bagoas . about B.C. 338 \nAurnale, due d\' ; attempt . . . -13 Sept. 1841 \nBeaton, David, cardinal ; by reformers . 29 May, 1546 \nBecket, Thomas a, abp. of Canterbury . 29 Dec. 1170 \nBerri, Charles due de (father of the comte de Cham- \nbord)\' .... . . 13 Feb. 1820 \n\nBismarck, prince ; attempt, by Blind, 7 May, 1866 ; \n\nby Kullniann 13 July, 1874 \n\nBra\'tiano, premier of Roumania ; attempt, by if. \n\nPietraro 14 Dec. 1880 \n\nBuckingham, George Villiers, duke of; by John \n\nFelton 23 Aug. 1628 \n\nBurgundy, John the Fearless, duke of ; by Orleanists, \n\n10 Sept. 1419 \nCsesar, Julius ; by Brutus and others 15 March, B.C. 44 \nCapo d\'Istria, count ; Greek statesman . 9 Oct. 1831 \nCavendish, lord Frederick, chief Secretary for Ire- \nlaud, and T. H. Burke, under Secretary, in Phoenix \n\nPark, Dublin, by 4 men 1882 \n\nDaniel, prince of Montenegro . . 13 Aug. i860 \nDarboy, Georges, abp. of Paris ; by communists, \n\n24 May, 1871 \nDarius III. of Persia ; by Bessus . . Jul} - , b.c. 330 \nEdmund the Elder, of England . 26 March, 946 \n\nEdward the Martyr ,,,,.. 18 March, 979 \nEdward II. \xe2\x80\x9e ,, . . 27 Sept. 1327 \n\nEdward V. ,,,,... July, 1483 \n\nEstrup, M. ; attempt 21 Oct. 1885 \n\nFerry, Jules, ex-French premier ; by Aubertin \n\n10 Dec. 1887 \nFrancis Joseph of Austria ; attempt, by Libenyi, \n\n18 Feb. 1853 ; by Overdank 18&2 \n\nFrederick William IV. of Prussia : attempt, by Sofe- \n\nlage 22 May, 1850 \n\nGarfield (Gen.) president of the United States \n(by Charles Jules Guiteau) : Washington, 2 July, \n\ndied 19 Sept. 1881 \n\nGeorge III. of England, mad attempts, by Margaret \n\nNicholson, 2 Aug. 1786; by James Hatfield, 15 May, 1800 \nGeorge IV. (when regent), attempt . . 28 Jan. 1817 \nGuise, Henry duke of ; by order of Henry III. of \n\nFrance 23 Dec. 1588 \n\nGustavus III. of Sweden; by Ankarstrom, 16 March, \n\ndied 29 March, 1792 \n\nHenry III. of France ; by Jacques Clement, 1 Aug. \n\ndied 2 Aug. 1589 \n\nHenry IV. of France; attempt, by Jean Chatel, 27 \n\nDec. 1594 ; killed by Ravaillac . . 14 May, 1610 \nHumbert I., king of Italy ; attempt, by John \n\nPassananti, at Naples ... 17 Nov. 1878 \nHussein Avni and other Turkish ministers ; by \nHassan, a Circassian officer . . 15 June, 1876 \n\n\n\nIsabella II. of Spain ; attempts, by La Riva, 4 May, \n\n1847 ; by Merino, 2 Feb. 1852 ; by Raymond \n\nFuentes 28 May, 1856 \n\nJames I. of Scotland ; by nobles . . 21 Feb. 1437 \n\nJames III. of Scotland ; by nobles . n June, 1488 \n\nKotzebue, August, German dramatist, for political \n\nmotives ; by Karl Sand ... 23 March, 1819 \nLincoln, Abraham, president of United States, N. A. ; \n\nby Wilkes Booth, 14 April ; died . 15 April, 1865 \nLorraine, Louis of Guise, cardinal of ; by order of \n\nHenry III. of France ... 24 Dec. 1588 \nLouis XV. of France ; attempt, by Damiens, 5 Jan. 1757 \nLouis Philippe of France ; many a\'ttempts;\\>y Fieschi, \n\n28 July, 1835; by Alibaud, 25 June, 1836; by \n\nMeunier, 27 Dec. 1836 ; by Darmes, 15 Oct. 1840 ; \n\nby Lecomte, 14 April, 1846 ; by Henry. 29 July, 1846 \nLytton, lord, viceroy of India ; attempt, by Busa \n\n12 Dec. 1878 \nMarat ; by Charlotte Corday . . 13 July, 1793 \n\nMayo, Richard, earl of, gov. -gen. of India ; by Shere \n\nAli, a convict, in Andaman isles . . 8 Feb. 1872 \nMehemet Ali Pacha, by Albanians . 7 Sept. 1878 \n\nMelikoff, gen. Loris ; attempt (see Russia) 4 March, 1880 \nMichael, prince of Servia ... 10 June, 1868 \nMilan IV. of Servia, attempt . . . 23 Oct. 1882 \nMurray, James, earl of, regent of Scotland, 23 Jan. 1570 \nNapoleon I. ; attempit, by infernal machine, 24 Dec. 1800 \nNapoleon III. ; attempts, by Pianori, 28 April, 1855 ; \n\nby Bellemarre, 8 Sept. 1855 ; by Orsini and \n\nothers 14 Jan. 1858 \n\nOrange, William, prince cf ; by Balthasar Gerard \n\n10 July, 1584 \nOrleans, Louis Valois, duke of ; by Burgundians \n\n23 Nov. 1407 \nParma, Ferdinand Charles III., duke of; 26 March, \n\ndied 27 March, 1854 \n\nPaul, czar of Russia ; by nobles . 24 March, 1801 \nPedro II. of Brazil ; attempt, by Volti . 15 July, 1889 \nPercival, Spencer, premier ; by Bellingham, n May, 1812 \nPhilip II. of Macedon ; by Pausanias . . B.C. 336 \nPrim, marshal ; 28 Dec. died . . .30 Dec. 1870 \nRossi, conte Pellegrino, Roman statesman, 15 Nov. 1848 \nSibour, M. W. A., abp. of Paris, by Jean Verger, a \n\npriest 3 Jan. 1857 \n\nVictoria, queen, attempts (?). Edwd. Oxford, 10 \n\nJune, 1840 ; John Francis, 30 May, 1842; Bean, \n\n3 July, 1842 ; Wm. Hamilton, 19 May, 1849 : R. \n\nMaclean, at Windsor ... 2 March, 1882 \nWilliam I. of Prussia and Germany ; attempts, by \n\nOscar Becker, 14 July, 1861 ; by Hodel, 11 May, \n\n1878 ; by Dr. Nobiling . . . .2 June, 1878 \nWilliam III. of England see Assassination-plot . 1695-6 \nWilliam, prince of Wiirtemberg ; attempt, by M. \n\nMuller 20 Oct. 1889 \n\nASSAY of Gold and Silver, originated \n\nwith the bishop of Salisbury, a royal treasurer in \nthe reign of Henry I. Du Cange. But certainly \nsome species of assay was practised as early as the \nRoman conquest. Assay early established in Eng- \nland was regulated by statutes, 1238, 1700, and \n1705. Assay masters appointed at Newcastle, 1 701 ; \nSheffield and Birmingham, 1773. The laws re- \nspecting assay were amended in 1854 and 1855. \nThe alloy of gold is silver and copper, that of silver \nis copper. Standard gold is 2 carats of alloy to 22 of \nfine gold. Standard silver is 18 dwts. of copper \nto 11 ozs. 2 dwts. of fine silver; see Goldsmiths\' \nCompany and Pyx. \n\nASSAYE (E. Indies) . The British army, under \ngeneral Arthur Wellesley (afterwards duke of Wel- \nlington), entered the Mahratta states on the south ; \ntook the fort of Ahmednuggur, 12 Aug. ; and de- \nfeated Scindiah and the rajah of Berar at Assaye, \n23 Sept. 1803. This was Wellesley\'s first great \nbattle, in which he opposed 40,000 with only 9,600 \nmen. The enemy fled, leaving their artillery, &c. \n\nASSEMBLY of (130) Divines, held at \n\nWestminster, 1 July, 1643, convoked by order of \nparliament to consider the liturgy, government, and \ndoctrines of the church. Two members were elected \nfor each county. The presbyterian majority adopted \n\n\n\nASSENT. \n\n\n\n66 \n\n\n\nASSYRIA. \n\n\n\nthe Scottish covenant, and drew up the directory \nfor public worship, a confession, and the catechisms \nnow used by the church of Scotland. The last \n(1163rd) meeting was on 22 Feb. 1649; see Church \nof Scotland. \n\nASSENT, see Royal Assent. \n\nASSESSED TAXES. By some the date is re- \nferred to Ethelbert, in 991 ; to Henry VIII. 1522; \nand to William III. 1689, when a land-tax was4m- \nposed ; see Land Tax. The assessed taxes yielded \nin 1815 (the last year of the war), exclusively of the \nland-tax, 6,524,766?., their highest amount. These \nimposts have varied in their nature and amount, \naccording to the exigencies of the state. They were \nconsiderably advauced in 1797 and 1801, et seq., but \nreduced in 1816, and in subsequent years. An act \nfor the repeal of certain assessed taxes was passed \n16 & 17 Vict. c. 90, 20 Aug. 1853, explained and \namended by 17 & 18 Vict. c. 1, 17 Feb. 1854. \xe2\x80\x94 Acts \nfor the better securing and accounting for the As- \nsessed and Income Taxes, 10 Aug. 1854; see Taxes, \nand Income Tax. Changes were made in the as- \nsessed taxes, their time of collection, &c, by the \nRevenue act, passed 24 June, 1869. Licences for \nservants, dogs, and armorial bearings were also in- \ntroduced. An act to provide for uniformity in the \nassessment of rateable property in the metropolis \nwas passed 9 Aug. 1869. The "Court of General \nAssessment first met 19 May, 1870. See House \nDuty and Land Tax. Amount received, year \n1871-2, about 2,330,000?.; 1874-5, 2,440,000?.; \n1875-6, 2,496,000/. ; 1876-7, 2,532,000?. ; 1877-8, \n2,670,000?.; 1878-9, 2,720,000?.; 1879-80, \n2,670,000?.; 1882-3,2,800,000?.; 1883-4,2,875,000?.; \n1886-7, 2,980,000?. ; 1887-8, 2,970,000?. ; 1890-91, \n2,600,000?. \n\nASSIENTO, a contract between the king of \nSpain and other powers, for furnishing the Spanish \ndominions in America with negro slaves, began with \nthe Flemings. By the treaty of Utrecht, 13 July, \n1713, the British government engaged to furnish \n4800 negroes annually to Spanish America for thirty \nyears. The contract was renew ed in 1 748, but given \nup in 1750 ; see Guinea. \n\nASSIGN ATS, a forced paper currency, ordered \nby the National Assembly of France to support \npublic credit during the revolution, April, 1790. \nAt one period, eight milliards, or nearly 350 millions \nof pounds sterling, of this paper were in circulation \nin France and its dependencies. Alison. Assignats \nwere superseded by mandats in 1796. \n\nASSIZE of Battle, see Appeal. \n\nASSIZE of Bread, &c, see Bread, and Wool. \n\nASSIZE of Jerusalem, a valuable code of \nlaws compiled under the direction of Godfrey of \nBouillon, king of Jerusalem, in 1100. \n\nASSIZE COURTS (from assideo, I sit) are \nvery ancient in England, and in old law books are \ndefined to be an assembly of knights and other sub- \nstantial men, with the justice, to meet at a certain \ntime and place: regulated by Magna Charta, 1215. \nThe present justices of assize and Nisi Prius are \nderived from the statute of Westminster, 13 Edw. I. \n1284. Coke; Blaclcstone. "The king doth will \nthat no lord, or other of the country, shall sit upon \nthe bench with the justices to take assize in their \nsessions in the counties of England, upon great for- \nfeiture to the king." 20 Rich. II. 1396. Statutes, \nBrough Act. Assizes are general or special ; general \nwhen the judges go their circuits, and special when \na commission is issued to take cognisance of one or \nmore causes ; see Bloody Assize. \n\n\n\nASSOCIATIONS, see British, National Asso- \nciations, Christian, \xc2\xa7c. \n\nASSUMPTION, Feast of the, 15 Aug. \n\nIt is observed by the church of Rome in honour of \nthe Virgin Mary, said to have been taken up to \nheaven in her corporeal form, body and spirit, on \nthis day, a.d. 45, in her 75th year. The festival \nwas instituted in the 7th century, and enjoined by \nthe council of Mentz, 813. \nASSURANCE, see Insurance. \nASSYRIA, originally Assur, an Asiatic country \nbetween Mesopotamia and Media, was the seat of \nthe earliest recorded monarchy. Till recently its \nhistory was mainly derived from Greek historians, \nCtesias, Herodotus, and Diodorus Siculus, Berosus, \na Grseco-Chaldean priest, and the Holy Scriptures. \nThe discovery by Mr. (aft. sir) Austin Layard of \nthe Ninevite antiquities,nowin the British Museum, \nand the deciphering of many ancient cuneiform in- \nscriptions, by Grotefend, sir H. Rawlinson, and \nother scholars, have thrown much light upon Assy- \nrian history. The chronologers, Blair, Usher, Hales, \nand Clinton, differ much in the dates. The results \nof recent investigations are given in the rev. G. \nRawlinson\'s "Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient \nWorld," and in prof. A. Sace\'s "Assyria, its Princes, \nPriests, and People," 1885. Mr. W. Boscawen\'s \narticle " Assyria " in "Chambers\' Encyclopaedia," \n1888, has been used for much of the following sum- \nmary. \n\nNimrod or Belus reigns . . b.c. [2554 H. 2235 C] 2245 \n" Asshur buikled Nineveh" (Gen. x. 11) about . 2218 \nNinus, son of Belus, reigns in Assyria, and names \n\nhis capital Nineveh [2182 C] 2069 \n\nBabylon taken by Ninus, who, having subdued the \nArmenians, Persians, Bactrians, and all Asia \nMinor, establishes what is properly the Assyrian \nmonarchy, of which Nineveh was the seat of em- \npire. Blair ... . [2233 C.] 2059 \nNinyas, an infant, succeeds Ninus . ... 2017 \nSemiramis, mother of Ninyas, usurps the govern- \nment, enlarges and embellishes Babylon [2130 C] 2007 \nShe invades Libya, Ethiopia, and India . Lenglet 1975 \nShe is put to death by her son Ninyas . . . 1965 \nNinyas put to death, and Arius reigns . . . 1927 \n\nReign of Aralius 1897 \n\nBelochus, the last king of the race of Ninus . . 1446 \nHe makes his daughter Atossa, surnamed Semiramis \n\nII. , his associate on the throne .... 1433 \nAtossa procures the death of her father, and marries \nBelatores (or Belaperes) who reigns . . .1421 \n******* \n\nSardanapalus, luxurious and effeminate when at- \ntacked by Arbaces Satrap of Media, suddenly \nbecomes energetic and warlike, defends himself \nin Nineveh for two years, and when overcome \nburns himself in his palace, with his wives and \ntreasures, thus ending the first Assyrian Empire. \n\n(Ctesias) 876 \n\n[This story and most of what is given above, is \nnow considered mythical.] The following is \nbased upon the records in the ancient Assyrian \ntablets and the Bible. \n\nAssyria, a province of Babylonia, becomes indepen- \ndent ; first king, Bel-kapkapi, under his suc- \ncessors the kingdom is greatly enlarged ; Rim- \nmon-nirari I. becomes powerful about . b.c. 1320 \n\nHis son, Shalmaneser I, founds Calah, and his \ngrandson, Tiglath Adar I. captures Babylon . 1280 \n\nHis descendant, Tiglath-pileser I. a great con- \nqueror and the real founder of the Assyrian \nempire 1140 \n\nHis son, Assur-bel-Kala, a weak prince . . . 1110 \n\nThe empire falls into decay for nearly two centuries. \n\nThe empire revives under Assur-dan II., and is fully \nrestored by his successors, Rimmonnirari II. 911-889 \n\nand Assur-natsir-pal 883-858 \n\nHis son, Shalmaneser II. makes large conquests in \nW. Asia 858, et seq. \n\nAt Karkar he defeats Benhadad, king of Damascus, \nAhab, king of Israel, and Irkhuleni, king of \nHamath 854 \n\n\n\nASTEROIDS. \n\n\n\n67 \n\n\n\nASTRONOMY. \n\n\n\nThe empire enlarged by his son, Samas-Rimmon II. \n\nb.o. 823-810 \n\nThe Assyrian eponym canon records a solar eclipse, \nand is thereby the basis of Assyrian chronology . 763 \n\nAssur-nirari king ; many revolts . . . 753, et seq. \n\nPulu, or Pul, usurps the throne and styles himself \nTiglath Pileser. He consolidated the empire, \nreformed the government, quelled revolts and \nenlarged his dominions by the conquest of Baby- \nlon, &c 74S-7 2 7 \n\nHis weak son, Shalmaneser IV. king, 727 ; died, or \nwas murdered by Sargon the Tartan, who con- \ntinues the war in Assyria, captures Samaria and \nreplaces the inhabitants by colonists. 2 Kings \nxvii. 720 \n\nAt the battle of Raphia, he checks the advances of \nEgypt, and captures the rich Hittite capital, \nCarchemish "... 717 \n\nMerodach-baladan III. raises a revolt against Sar- \ngon, who, after a severe campaign, captures \nBabylon, and is proclaimed king .... 710 \n\n.\'Sargon is killed in his new palace . . July, 705 \n\nHis son, Sennacherib, succeeds him. \n\nBabylonia revolts ; Merodach-baladan returns, but \nis defeated at Kisu ; Sennacherib conquers \nPhoenicia, and having been offended by Hezi- \nkiah, he ravages Judaea, and besieges Jerusalem, \nwhich is saved by the sudden destruction of his \narmy, Isaiah xxxvii. 36-38 ; he is killed by his \nsons . . Dec. 681 \n\nHis son, Esar-haddon defeats his brothers, and be- \ncomes king at Nineveh, and reorganizes the \nempire 680, etseq. \n\nHe invades Judsea, makes Manasseh prisoner. \n\nHe invades Egypt and captures Memphis, and \nafter a long campaign, subdues the country and \nbecomes ruler of nearly all the ancient world \n\n675, et seq. \n\nDisturbed by a rising in Egypt and conspiracies at \nhome, he makes his son, Assur-bani-pal, king at \nNineveh, April, 669, and dies during a campaign, \nOct. 667. Assur-bani-pal, weak but ambitious, \ncontinues the war in Egypt, and captures Thebes, \ninvades Phoenicia and captures Tyre. \n\nHe appoints his brother, Samas-sum-yukin, viceroy \nof Babylon, who heads a groat revolt, which lasts \nfive years ; Babylon is taken and the rebel prince \nburns himself in his palace with many of his \nfollowers 647 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Gradual fall of the empire; new revolts; Egypt \nbecomes independent ; Kandanalu, viceroy of \nBabylon, and his successor, father of Nebuchad- \nnezzar, become independent ; Assur-bani-pal suc- \nceeded, by his son, Assur-etil-iliyukinni . \'. 640 \n\nJEssar-haddon II. (the Sarakos of Ctesias), the last \nking ; the N. E. provinces invaded by a vast eon- \nfederation under the command of Kazaril (Cyax- \nares the Mede). \n\nDisruption and anarchy closed by the siege and \ndestruction of Nineveh .... about 606 \n\nAssyria becomes a Median province. \n\nAssyria subdued by Alexander the Great . . . 332 \n\nIt subsequently formed part of the kingdoms of \nSyria, Parthia, and Persia. \n\nIt was conquered by the Turks . . . a.d. 1637 \n\nExplored by col. Chesney and the Euphrates ex- \nploring expedition 1835-37 \n\nLayard\'s Discoveries published (see Nineveh) . 1848-53 \n\nMr. George Smith, of British Museum, began to \nstudy inscriptions, 1866 ; (received aid from pro- \nprietors of Daily Telegraph), and started to explore \nAssyrian remains, 20 June, 1873 ; worked in 1873- \n74; published " Assyrian Discoveries " March, 1875 \n\nStarted to renew his explorations, Oct. 1875 ; died \nat Aleppo 19 Aug. 1876 \n\nThe explorations resumed by Mr. Hormusd Rassam, \nsee Nineveh. \n\nClasses for the study of Assyrian language formed ; \nrev. A. H. Sayce publishes an Assyrian gram- \nmar 1875 \n\n(See Nineveh.) \n\nASTEROIDS, a name improperly given to the \nrainor planets, see under Planets. \n\nASTLEY\'S AMPHITHEATRE, see under \nTheatres. \n\nASTON RIOTS, see Birmingham, 1884. \n\n\n\nASTORGA (N.W. Spain), the ancient Asturiea \nAugusta, was taken by the French, 22 April, 1810, \nand treated with great severity. \n\nASTRACAN (S. E. Eussia), a province ac- \nquired from the Mogul\'s empire in 1554; visited \nand settled by Peter the Great in 1722. Population, \n1886, 328,819. \n\nASTROLABE, an instrument for observing \nthe stars, said to have been employed by Hipparchus \nabout 130 B.C. ; and by Ptolemy about 140 a.d. \nThe modern astrolabe was described by Fabricius in \nI5I3- \n\nASTROLOGY. Judicial astrology was culti- \nvated by the Chaldeans, and transmitted to the \nEgyptians, Greeks, and Romans. It was much in \nvogue in Italy and France in the 1 6th century. \nIt is said that Bede, 673-735, was addicted \nto it; and Roger Bacon, 1214-1292. Lord Bur- \nleigh is said to have calculated the nativity of \nElizabeth, and she, and other princes, were dupes of \nDee, the astrologer. It is stated that Lilly was \nconsulted by Charles I. respecting his projected \nescape from Carisbrook castle in 1647. Ferguson. \nAstrological almanacs are still published in London. \nMichael Nostradamus, a French physician (1503-1566), \ncultivated astrology, published almanacs, and in 1555, \n" Centuries " and " Presages." His oracles, edited by \nMr. Chas. A. Ward, appeared in 1892. He was con- \nsulted by Catherine de Medici, Henry II. and \nCharles IX. of France. \nThe Astrological Society of Great Britain founded 19 \n\nFeb. 1879. \n" Neptune," an astrologer, fined for practising \n\n29 May, 1886 \n\nASTRONOMER-ROYAL, see Greenwich. \nASTRONOMY. The earliest astronomical \nobservations were made at Babylon it is said about \n2234 B. c. The study was much advanced in Chaldsea \nunder Nabonassar ; was known to the Chinese about \n1 100 B.C. ; some say many centuries before, see \nEclipses, Stars, Planets, Comets, Sun, Moon, Jupiter, \nVenus, Saturn, Neptune, Mars, Observatories, \xc2\xa7c: \nLunar eclipses observed at Babylon, and recorded b. c. \n\nby Ptolemy about 720 \n\nSpherical form of the earth, and the true cause of \n\nlunar eclipses, taught by Thales . . about 600 \n\nFurther discoveries by Pythagoras, who taught the \n\ndoctrine of celestial motions, and believed in the \n\nplurality of habitable worlds ; died . about \n\nMeton introduces the lunar-solar cycle . \n\nTreatises of Aristotle " concerning the heavens," \n\nand of Autolycus " on the motion of the sphere " \n\n(earliest extant works on astronomy) . about \n\nAratus writes a poem on astronomy . . . . \n\nArchimedes observes solstices, <&e 212 \n\nHipparchus, greatest of Greek astronomers, deter- \nmines mean motion of sun and moon ; discovers \n\nprecession of equinoxes, <fec 160-125 \n\nThe precession of the equinoxes confirmed, and the \nplaces and distances of the planets discovered, by \n\nPtolemy a.d. 139-161 \n\nAstronomy and geography cultivated by the Arabs \n\nabout 760 ; brought into Europe . . about 1200 \nAlphonsine tables {which see) composed . about 1253 \nClocks first used in astronomy . . . about 1500 \nTrue doctrine of the motions of the planetary bodies \nrevived by Copernicus, founder of modern astro- \nnomy ; his " Revolution of the Heavenly Bodies" \n\npublished 1543 \n\nAstronomy advanced by Tycho Brahe, who yet ad- \nheres to the Ptolemaic system . . . aboxit 1582 \nGalileo constructs a telescope, 1609 ; and discovers \n\nJupiter\'s satellites, &c 8 Jan. 1610 \n\nTrue laws of the planetary motions announced by \n\nKepler ; 1st and 2nd, 1609 ; 3rd .... 1618 \nVarious forms of telescopes and other instruments \n\nused in astronomy invented .... 1608-40 \nCartesian system published by Dos Cartes . . . 1637 \nThe transit of Venus over the sun\'s disc first ob- \nserved by Horrocks . . . .24 Nov. 1639 \n\nf 2 \n\n\n\n470 \n433 \n\n\n\n35o \n281 \n\n\n\nASTUEIAS. \n\n\n\nATHEISM. \n\n\n\nHuyghens completes the discovery of Saturn\'s ring 1654 \nCassini draws his meridian line, after Dante ; see \n\nBologna 165s \n\nThe aberration of the light of the fixed stars dis- \ncovered by Horrebow 1659 \n\nGregory invents a reflecting telescope . . . . 1663 \n\nDiscoveries of Picard 1669 \n\nCharts of the moon constructed by Scheiner, Lan- \n\ngrenus, Hevelius, Riccioli, &c. . . about 1670 \n\nDiscoveries of Romer on the velocity of light, and \nhis observation of Jupiter\'s satellites . . . 1675 \n\nGreenwich Observatory founded \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMotion of the sun round its own axis proved by \n\nHalley 1676 \n\nNewton\'s Principia published ; and the system, as \n\nnow taught, demonstrated 1687 \n\nCatalogue of the stars made by Flamsteed . . 1688 \nCassini\'s chart of the full moon executed . . . 1692 \nSatellites of Saturn, <fcc, discovered by Cassini . 1701 \nHalley predicts the return of the comet (of 1758) . 1705 \nFlamsteed\'s Historia Cmlestis published . . . 1723 \nAberration of the light of the stars discovered and \n\nexplained by Dr. Bradley 1727 \n\nJohn Harrison produces chronometers for deter- \nmining the longitude, 1735 et seq., and obtains the \n\nreward 1764 \n\n" Nautical Almanac " first published . . . . 1767 \nCelestial inequalities found by La Grange . . 1780 \nUranus and satellites discovered by Herschcl ; see \n\nGeorgium Sidus 13 March 1781 \n\nMecanique Celeste, by La Place, published . . 1796 \nRoyal Astronomical Society of London founded, \n\n1820 ; chartered 1831 \n\nBeer and Madler\'s map of the moon published . . 1834 \nLord Rosse\'s telescope constructed . . . 1828-45 \nThe planet Neptune (which see) discovered, 23 Sept. 1846 \nBond photographs the moon (see Photography, \n\ncelestial) 1851 \n\nHansen\'s table of the moon published at expense of \n\nthe British government 1857 \n\nTrustees of the rev. Richard Sheepshanks present \nio.oool stock to Trinity College, Cambridge, for \npromotion of the study of astronomy, meteorology, \n\nand magnetism 2 Dec. 1858 \n\nSpectrum analysis applied in astronomy (see Spec- \ntrum) . . . . 1861 \n\nLarge photograph of the moon by W. de la Rue . 1863 \nRoyal Astronomical Society removed from Somer- \nset-house to Burlington-house 1874 \n\nTwo satellites of Mars discovered by prof. Asaph \n\nHall, at Washington, U.S. . . 11, 18 Aug. 1877 \nAstronomical Congress opened at Paris ; arrange- \nments made for photographing charts of the \nheavens at different observatories 16-26 April, 1887 \nMet again, Sept. 1889 ; April, 1891 ; vol. ii. of the \n\ncharts begun 1892 \n\nMr. G. F. Chambers\' " Handbook of Astronomy," \n\nnew edition 1889-90 \n\nMr. C. H. F. Peters, of Hamilton college observa- \ntory, New York, discovered 48 minor planets and \nseveral comets ; born in Schleswig, 19 Sept. 1813 ; \n\ndied 19 July, 1890 \n\nBritish Astronomical society : first meeting 24 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nDr. Wm. Huggins, president, at the meeting of the \nBritish Association at Cardiff,describes the results \nof the application of spectrum analysis and photo- \ngraphy to astronomy . . . .19 Aug. 1891 \nAstronomical Society of France inaugurated \n\n12 Oct. ,, \nMr. Norman Lockyer announces his theory respect- \ning the constitution of the heavenly bodies (see \n\nunder Meteors) 17 Nov. ,, \n\nNew star discovered in Auriga (see Milky way) \n\n1 Feb. 1892 \n\nASTUEIAS (Oviedo, since 18.13), N. W. Spain, \nan ancient principality. Here Pelayo collected the \nGothic fugitives, about 713, founded a new kingdom, \nand by his victories checked Moorish conquest. For \nhis successors, see Spain. The heir-apparent of the \nmonarchy has borne the title " prince of Asturias" \nsince 1388, when it was assumed by Henry, son of \nJohn I. king of Leon, on his marriage with a de- \nscendant of Peter of Castile. In 1808, the junta of \nAsturias began the organised resistance to the French \nusurpation. \n\n\n\nASYLUMS, or Privileged Places, at \n\nfirst were places of refuge for those who by acci- \ndent or necessity had done things that rendered: \nthem obnoxious to the law. God commanded the \nJews to build cities of refuge, 1451 B.C., Numbers \nxxv. \xe2\x80\x94 Cadmus is mythically said to have built one \nat Thebes, and Romulus one at Mount Palatine, \n751 B.C. ; see Sanctuaries; Metropolitan District. \n\nATALANTA (formerly Juno), training-ship,, \nleft Bermuda on a trial voyage, under capt. Stirling, \n31 Jan. 1880. On board, 15 officers, and 265 petty \nofficers, seamen, marines, and boys; never heard \nof again. Many merchant vessels were wrecked \nduring a terrific gale, 12-16 Feb. 1880. See Man- \nsion House Funds. \n\nATCHINOFF INCIDENT, see under \nRussia, 1889. \n\nATELIEES NATION AUX (National Work- \nshops), were established by the French provisional \ngovernment in Feb. 1848. They interfered greatly \nwith private trade, as about 100,000 workmen threw \nthemselves upon the government for labour and \npayment. The breaking-up of the system led to \nthe fearful conflicts in June following ; and the- \nsystem was abolished in July. \n\nATHANASIAN CEEED. Athanasius, of \nAlexandria, was elected bishop, 326. He firmly op- \nposed the doctrines of Arius (who denied Christ\'s \ndivinity), was several times exiled, and died in \n\n373- -\' \n\nLumby, in " History of the Creeds " (1874), asserts that; \nthis creed, beginning " Quicunque wit," was not com- \nposed by Athanasius ; that it is made up of two dis- \ntinct parts, and was originally written in Latin and \nput into its present shape between 813 and 850 ; not \nconnected with Athanasius\'s name by any trustworthy- \nauthority before 809 ; set forth first in Gaul, about \n870 ; gradually extended into Italy, Britain, &c. ; ac- \ncepted by the Greek church about 1200. \n\nThis creed asserts the procession of the Holy Ghost \nfrom the Father and the Son, see Filioque. \n\nDr. Waterland\'s Critical History of this creed published \n\n\n\narisen in the Church of England among both clergy \nand laity, 1870-73. \n\nModifications approved by several bishops were negatived \nby the lower house in convocation (62-7) early in May, \n1872. The vote was rejected by the bishops, and the \nagitation continued. \n\nIn a letter to the earl of Shaftesbury, 22 July, 1872, the \narchbishops of Canterbury and York expressed their \nhope of devising a way for rendering the reading of the \ncreed during public worship not compulsory. \n\nGreat meeting of laity at St. James\'s Hall in defence of \nthe creed, 31 Jan. 1873. \n\nATHEISM (from the Greek a, without, \nTheos, God, see Psalm xiv. 1). It was professed by \nEpicurus, Lucretius, and other philosophers. \nSpinoza was the defender of a similar doctrine \n(1632-1677). Lucilio Vanini publicly taught athe- \nism in France, and was condemned to be burnt at \nToulouse in 1619. Mathias Knutzen, of Holstein, \nopenly professed, atheism, and had upwards of a \nthousand disciples in Germany about 1674 ; he tra- \nvelled to make proselytes, and his followers were \ncalled Oonscienciaries, because they held that there \nis no other deity than conscience. " Though a small \ndraught of philosophy may lead a man into atheism, \na deep draught will certainly bring him back again \nto the belief of a God." Lord Bacon. Atheism pre- \nvailed during the French republic, 1794 till 1801 ; \nsee Materialism. Bill to prevent Atheists sitting- \nin Parliament introduced by lord Bedesdale, read \nfirst time, 7 March, 1882 ; dropped. \n\n\n\nATHENJEA. \n\n\n\n69 \n\n\n\nATHENS. \n\n\n\nATHEN2EA were great festivals celebrated at \nAthens in honour of Minerva. One was called \nPanathenaea, the other Chalcea ; they are mythi- \ncally said to have been instituted by Erechtheus or \nOrpheus, 1397 or 1495 B.C. ; and revived by Theseus, \nwho caused them to be observed by all the Athenians, \nthe first every fifth year, 1234 B.C. Plutarch. \n\nATHENAEUM, a place at Athens, sacred to \nMinerva, where the poets and philosophers recited \ntheir compositions. That of Rome, of great beauty, \nwas erected by the emperor Adrian, 133. \xe2\x80\x94 The \nAthen^um Club of Loudon was formed i6Feb. 1824, \nfor the association of persons of scientific and literary \nattainments, and artists, and noblemen and gentle- \nmen, patrons of learning, &c, by the earls of Liver- \npool and Aberdeen, the marquis of Lansdowne, Dr. \nT. Young, Moore, Davy, Scott, Mackintosh, Fara- \nday, Croker, Chantrey, Lawrence, and seven future \npremiers. The clubhouse was erected in 1829-30 on \nthe site of the late Carlton palace ; it is of Grecian \n.architecture, and the frieze is an exact copy of \nthe Panathenaic procession which formed the frieze \nof the Parthenon. \xe2\x80\x94 The Liverpool Athenaeum was \nopened 1 Jan. 1799. \xe2\x80\x94 At Manchester, Bristol, and \nmany other places, buildings under this name, and \nfor a like purpose, have been founded. \xe2\x80\x94 The \nAthenaeum, a weekly literary and scientific journal \nin relation to literature, science, and the fine arts, \noriginated by James Silk Buckingham, first appeared \nin 1828. John Francis, publisher, 1831-82, died 6 \nApril, 1882. Rev. Henry Stebbing, first editor, died \n22 Sept. 1883, aged 84. The Athenmum became the \nproperty of Mr. C. W. Dilke in 1830, and speedily \nbecame an influential critical journal. See Trials, \n*8 7 S. \n\nATHENE, Y (Galway). Near here the Irish \nwere totally defeated, and a gallant young chief, \nFeidlim O\'Connor, slain 10 Aug. 1316. \n\nATHENS, the capital of ancient Attica, and of \nmodern Greece. The first sovereign mentioned is \nOgyges, who reigned in Boeotia, and was master of \nAttica, then called Ionia. Tradition states that in \nhis reign (about 1764 B.C.) a deluge laid waste the \ncountry, which so remained till the arrival of the \nEgyptian Cecrops and a colony, by whom the land \nwas re-peopled, and twelve cities founded, 1556 B.C. \nThe city, said to have been first called Cecropia, \nwas afterwards named Athens in honour of Minerva \n(Athene), her worship having been introduced by \nErechtheus, 1383 B.C. Athens was ruled by seven- \nteen successive kings (487 years), by thirteen \nperpetual archons (316 years), seven decennial ar- \nchons (70 years) , and lastly by annual archons (760 \nyears). It attained great power, and no other city \nhas had, in a short space of time, so great a number \nof illustrious citizens. The ancients called Athens \nAstu, the city, by eminence, and one of the eyes of \nGreece ; see Greece. The early history is mythical \nand the dates conjectural. \n\nPopulation of modern Athens, 1871, 48,107; 1879, \n63,374 ; 1889, 107,746. \n\nThe MS. text of the recovered work of Aristotle on \nthe Constitution of Athens, was published by the \n\nBritish Museum Jan. 1891 \n\n[See Aristotelian Philosophy.] \n\nArrival of Cecrops [1558 Hales, 1433 Clinton] b.c. \nUsher ......... 1556 \n\nThe Areopagus established 1507 \n\nDeucalion arrives in Attica 1502 \n\nReign of Amphictyon .... [1499 7/.] \'497 \nThe Panathentean Games . . . [1481 H.] 1495 \n\nErichthonius reigns 1487 \n\nErechtheus teaches husbandry I3 8 3 \n\nEleusiiiian mysteries introduced by Eumolpus . . 1356 \n\n\n\nErechtheus killed in battle with the Eleusinians b. c. 1347 \niEgeus invades Attica, and ascends the throne . . 1283 \nHe throws himself into the sea, and is drowned ; \n\nhence the name of the iEgeau Sea. Eusebius. . 1235 \nTheseus, his son, succeeds, and reigns 30 years . ,, \nHe collects his subjects into one cily, and names it \n\nAthens 1234 \n\nEeign of Mnestheus, 1205; of Demophoon . . . 1182 \n\nCourt of Ephetes established 11 79 \n\nThe Prianepsse instituted 1178 \n\nMelanthus conquers Xuthus in single combat and is \n\nchosen king 1128 \n\nReign of Codrus, his son, the last king . . . 1092 \nIn a battle with the Heraclidse, Codrus is killed : he \nhad resolved to perish ; the oracle having declared \nthat the victory should be with the side whose \n\nleader was killed 1070 \n\nRoyalty abolished ; \xe2\x80\x94 Athens governed by archons, \n\nMedon the first (1070 H.) 1044 \n\nAlcmeon, last perpetual archon, dies . . . . 753 \nCherops, first decennial archon .... 752 \n\nHippomenes deposed for his cruelty . . . . 713 \nErixias, 7th and last decennial archon, dies . . 684 \n\nCreon, first annual archon 683 \n\nDraco, the 12th annual archon, publishes his laws, \n\nsaid " to have been written in blood " . . . 621 \nSolon supersedes them by his excellent code . . 594 \nPisistratus, the " tyrant," seizes the supreme \npower, 560; flight of Solon, 559. Pisistratus \nestablishes his government, 537 ; collects a public \n\nlibrary, 531 ; dies 527 \n\nFirst tragedy acted at Athens, on a waggon, by \n\nThespis 535 \n\nHipparchus assassinated by Harmodius and Aristo- \n\ngeiton 514 \n\nThe law of ostracism established ; Hippias and the \n\nPisistratidte banished 510 \n\nLemuos taken by Miltiades 504 \n\nThe Persian invaders defeated at Marathon . . 490 \n\nDeath of Miltiades 489 \n\nAristides, surnamed the Just, banished . . . 483 \nAthens taken by the Persian Xerxes . . . 480 \nBurnt to the ground by Mardonius . . . . 479 \nRebuilt and fortified by Themistocles ; Piraeus \n\nbuilt 478 \n\nThemistocles banished 471 \n\nCimon, son of Miltiades, overruns all Thrace . . 469 \nPericles takes part in public affairs, 469 ; he and \n\nCimon adorn Athens, 464 ; the latter banished . 461 \nAthens begins to tyrannise over Greece . . . 459 \n\nThe long wall built 457 \n\nLiterature, philosophy, and art flourish . . . 448 \nThe first sacred (or social) war ; (which see) . . ,, \nTolmidas conducts an expedition into Bceotia, and \n\nis defeated and killed near Coronea . . . . 447 \nThe thirty years\' truce between the Athenians and \n\nLacedaemonians 445 \n\nHerodotus said to have read his history in the \n\ncouncil at Athens ,, \n\nPericles obtains the government .... 444 \n\nPericles subdues Samos 440 \n\nSatirical comedies prohibited at Athens . . ,, \n\nAlliance between Athens and Corcyra, then at war \nwith Corinth, 433 ; leads to the Peloponnesian war \n\n(lasted 27 years) ; it began 431 \n\nA dreadful plague, which had ravaged Ethiopia, \nLibya, Egypt, and Persia, extends to Athens, and \n\ncontinues for five years 430 \n\nDeath of Pericles of the plague . . ... 429 \nDisastrous expedition against Sicily ; death of the \ncommanders, Demosthenes and Nicias ; Athenian \nfleet destroyed by Gylippus .... 415-413 \n\nGovernment of the " four hundred " 411 \n\nAlcibiades defeats the Lacedaemonians at Cyzicus ; \n\n(ivhich see) 410 \n\nAlcibiades, accused of aspiring to sovereign power, \n\nbanished 407 \n\nAthens victorious in a sea fight at Arginusae . . 406 \nAthenian fleet destroyed by Lysander at iEgospo- \n\ntami 405 \n\nHe besieges Athens by land and sea ; its walls are \ndestroyed, and it capitulates, and the Pelopon- \nnesian war terminates 404 \n\nRule of the thirty tyrants, who are overthrown by \n\nThrasybulus 403 \n\nSocrates (aged 70) put to death 399 \n\nThe Corinthian war begins ... . . 395 \n\n\n\nATHLONE. \n\n\n\n70 \n\n\n\nATTAINDER. \n\n\n\nConon rebuilds the long walls, and fortifies the \n\nPiraeus b.c. 393 \n\nPlato founds the academy 3 g 8 \n\n"War against Sparta 378 \n\nThe Lacedaemonian fleet defeated at Naxus by \n\nChabrias 376 \n\nGeneral peace 37 1 \n\nPhilip, king of Macedon, opposes the Athenians ; \n\nsee Macedon 359 \n\nSecond sacred (or social) war .... 357"3S5 \n\nFirst Philippic of Demosthenes 352 \n\nPeace with Macedon 346 \n\nBattle of Cheronsea (which see) ; the Athenians and \n\nThebans defeated by Philip . . .7 Aug. 338 \nPhilip assassinated by Pausanias .... 336 \nAthens submits to Alexander, who spares the orators 335 \n\nDeath of Alexander \xe2\x80\xa2 3 2 3 \n\nThe Lamiau war ; the Athenians and others rise \nagainst Macedon, 323 : defeated at Cranon ; \n\nDemosthenes poisons himself 322 \n\nAthens surrenders to Cassander, who governs well, \n\n318; execution of Phocion 317 \n\nDemetrius Poliorcetes expels Demetrius Phalereus, \nand restores the Athenian democracy, 307 ; the \nlatter takes the chair of philosophy . . . , 296 \nA league between Athens, Sparta, and Egypt . . 277 \nAthens taken by Antigonus Gonatas, king of Mace- \ndon, 268 ; restored by Aratus . . . . . 256 \nThe Athenians join the Achaean league . . . 229 \nThey join the jEtolians against Macedon, and send \n\nfor assistance to Rome 215 \n\nA Roman fleet arrives at Athens . . . .211 \nThe Romans proclaim liberty at Athens . . . 196 \n\nSubjugation of Greece 144 \n\nThe Athenians implore assistance against the \nRomans from Mithridates, king of Pontus, whose \ngeneral, Archelaus, makes himself master of \n\nAthens 88 \n\nAthens besieged by Sylla, the Roman general ; it is \n\nreduced to surrender by famine- .... 86 \nCicero studies at Athens, 79 ; and Horace . . . 42 \nThe Athenians desert Pompey, to follow the inte- \nrests of Caesar 47 \n\nAthens visited by the apostle Paul . . a.d. 52 \nMany temples, &c. , erected by Hadrian . . 122-135 \nAthens taken by Alaric, and spared from slaughter 396 \nAcquired by Otho de la Roche, and afterwards \n\nmade a duchy 1205 \n\nSubjected by the Turks . . \' . . . . 1444 \n\nBy Mahomet II 1456 \n\nBy the Venetians 1466 \n\nRestored to the Turks 1479 \n\nAthens suffered much during the War of Indepen- \ndence, 1821-7. Taken by the Turks (see Greece) \n\n17 May, 1827 \nBecomes the capital of the kingdom of modern \n\nGreece 1833 \n\nBritish School of Archaeology (first director, \nF. C. Penrose), opened .... Nov. 1886 \nSee Greece. \n\nATHLONE, Koscommon, Ireland, -was burnt \nduring the civil war in 1641. After the battle of \nthe Boyne, colonel E. Grace held Athlone for \nJames II. against a besieging army, but was killed \nwhen it was taken by assault by Ginckel, 30 June, \n1691 ; see Aughrim. \n\nATHOS. A mountain in Roumelia, termed \nMonte Santo from its numerous monasteries whose \nlibraries contain many MSS. especially of the old \nand new testaments, of great antiquity. Professor \nLambros is preparing a catalogue, 1889. \nBy a great fire in the forests, many monasteries and \n\nhermitages were destroyed, and about 12 monks \n\nor hermits perished, reported about . 2 Aug. 1890 \nA monastery was burnt about . . 14 June 1891 \n\nATLANTA, Georgia, population, 1890, \n65,533, see United States, 1864. \n\nATLANTIC TELEGRAPH, see Electric \nTelegraph, under Electricity. \n\nATLAS, see Mm. \n\nATMOLYSIS, a method of separating the \n\n\n\nconstituent gases of a compound gas (such as at- \nmospheric air) by causing it to pass through a vessel \nof porous material (such as graphite) ; first made \nknown in Aug. 1863, by the discoverer, the late \nprofessor T. Graham, F.E.S., master of the mint. \n\nATMOSPHERE, see^V. \n\nATMOSPHERIC RAILWAYS. The idea \nof producing motion by atmospheric pressure was- \nconceived by Papin, the French engineer, about \n1680. Experiments were made on a line of rail,, \nlaid down across Wormwood Scrubs, London, be- \ntween Shepherd\'s Bush and the Great Western, \nrailroad, to test the efficacy of atmospheric tubes, \nthe working of the air-pump, and speed of carriages \nupon this new principle on railroads in June, 1840^ \nand then tried for a short time on a line between, \nCroydon and London, 1845. Atmospheric pressure \nwas also tried and abandoned, in 1848, on the South \nDevon line. An atmospheric railway was com- \nmenced between Dalkey and Killiney, in the vicinity \nof Dublin, in Sept. 1843; opened 29 March, 1844; \ndiscontinued in 1855. A similar railway was pro- \nposed to be laid down in the streets of London by Mr. \nT. \\V. llammell, in 1857. Mr. Rammell\'s Pneumatic \nRailway was put in action successfully at the Crystal \nPalace on 27 Aug. 1864, and following days. Art \nact for a pneumatic railway between the Waterloo \nrailway station and Whitehall was passed in July r \n1865. Atmospheric pressure was proposed for a \nsubmarine railway fromDover to Calais, in 1869 ; see \nPneumatic Despatch. \n\nATOMIC THEORY, in chemistry, deals with \nthe indivisible particles of all substances. The- \nsomewhat incoherent labours of his predecessors- \n(such as "Wenzel, in 1777) were reduced by John \nDalton to four laws of combining proportion, which \nhave received the name of "Atomic Theory." His- \n" Chemical Philosophy," containing the expositions \nof his views, appeared in 1808. Dr. C. Daubeny\'s \nwork on the Atomic Theory was published in 1850. \nIn his standard of Atomic ivcights Dalton takes- \nhydrogen as 1 . Berzelius, who commenced his elabo- \nrate researches on the subject in 1848, adopts oxygen \nas IOO. The former standard is used in this country,, \nthe latter on the continent. The theory is ac- \ncepted by some, and rejected by other chemists. In \n1855 Hinrichs propounded a new hypothetical \nscience, Atomechanics, in which pantogen, composed \nof panatoms, is regarded as the primary chemical \nprinciple. \n\nATOMS. Democritus (about 400 B.C.) held" \nthat the only existing things are innumerable in- \ndestructible atoms, varying in form, and combined \nin obedience to mechanical laws, and that the soul \nconsists of free, smooth, round atoms like those of \nfire ; and that nothing happens by chance. His \nphilosophy was adopted by Epicurus (about 306 \nB.C.), whose doctrines are luminously expounded! \nby Lucretius in his great poem, "De JRerum JS T a- \nturu" (On the Nature of Things), 57 B.C. The \natomic philosophy, in a modified form, was recog- \nnised by Gassendi, who died 1655 A.n. Sir Wm. \nThomson\'s discourse "On the Size of Atoms,\'\' at \nthe Royal Institution, 2 Feb. 1883, is printed in \nthe "Proceedings," vol. x. \n\nATREBATES, a Belgic people, subdued by \nCajsar, 57 B.C. ; see Artois. \n\nATTAINDER, Acts OF, whereby a person \nnot only forfeited his land, but his blood was at- \ntainted, have been numerous. Two witnesses in \npases of high treason are necessary where corruption \nof blood is incurred, unless the party accused shall \n\n\n\nATTICA. \n\n\n\n71 \n\n\n\nATWOOD\'S MACHINE. \n\n\n\nconfess, or stand mute, 7 & 8 Will. III. 1 694-5 . Black- \nstone. The attainder of lord Wm. Russell, who was \nbeheaded in Lincoln\' s-inn- fields, 21 July, 1683, was \nreversed under William, in 1689. The rolls and re- \ncords of the acts of attainder passed in the reign of \nJames II. were cancelled and publicly burnt, 2 Oct. \n1695. Sir John Fenwiek was the last person \nexecuted by act of attainder, 28 Jan. 1697. \nAmongst the last acts reversed was the attaint \nof the children of lord Edward Fitzgerald (who was \nimplicated in the rebellion in Ireland of 1798), \nI July, 1819. In 1814 and 1833 the severity of at- \ntainders was mitigated. Several attainders reversed \nabout 1827, and one in 1853 (the earl of Perth). \n\nATTICA, see Athens. \n\nATTILA, surnamed the "Scourge of God," and \nthus distinguished for his conquests and his crimes, \nhaving ravaged the eastern empire from 445 to 450, \nwhen he made peace with Theodosius. He invaded \nthe western empire, 450, and was defeated by Aetius \nat Chalons, 451; he then retired into Pannonia, \nwhere he died through the bursting of a blood vessel \non his nuptials with Ildico, a beautiful virgin, 453. \n\nATTORNEY (from tour, turn), a person quali- \nfied to act for another at law. The number in \nEdward III.\'s reign was under 400 for the whole \nkingdom. In the 32nd of Henry VI., 1454, a law \nreduced the practitioners in Norfolk, Norwich, and \nSuffolk, from eighty to fourteen, and restricted their \nincrease. The number of attorneys practising in \nthe United Kingdom was said to be 13,824 (1872). \nThe qualifications and practice of attorneys and \nsolicitors are now regulated by acts passed in 1843, \ni860, 1870, and 1874. By the Supreme Judicature \nAct all attorneys styled solicitors since Nov. 1875. \nSee Solicitors. \n\nATTORNEY- GENERAL, a law officer of \nthe crown, appointed by letters patent. He has to \nexhibit informations and prosecute for the king in \nmatters criminal, and to file bills in exchequer, for \nany claims concerning the crown in inheritance or \nprofit. Others may bring bills against the king\'s \nattorney. The first attorney-general was William \nBonneville, 1277. \n\n1660. Sir Jeffrey Palmer. \n\n1670. Sir Heneage Finch, afterwards earl of Nottingham. \n1673. Sir Francis North, knt., afterwards lord Guildford. \n1675. Sir William Jones. \n1679. Sir Cresvel Levinz, or Levinge, knt. \n1681. Sir Robert Sawyer, knt. \n1687. Sir Thomas Powis, knt. \n1689. Henry Pollexfen, esq. \n. \xe2\x80\x9e Sir George Treby, knt. \n\n1692. Sir John Summers, knt., afterwards lord Somers. \n\n1693. Edward Ward, esq. \n\n1695. Sir Thomas Trevor, knt. , afterwards lord Trevor. \n\n1701. Edward Northey, esq. \n\n1707. Sir Simon Harcourt, knt. \n\n1708. Sir James Montagu, knt. \n\n1710. Sir Simon Harcourt, again ; aft. lord Harcourt. \n\n,, Sir Edward Northey, knt. \n1718. Nicholas Lechmere, esq., aft. lord Lechmere. \n1720. Sir Robert Raymond, aft. lord Raymond. \n1724. Sir Philip Yorke, aft. carl of Hardwieke. \n1734. Sir John Willes, knt. \n1737. Sir Dudley Ryder, knt. \n1754. Hon. William Murray, aft. earl of Mansfield. \n\n1756. Sir Robert Henley, knt., aft. earl of Northiiigton. \n\n1757. Sir Charles Pratt, knt., afterwards lord Camden. \n\n1762. Hon. Charles Yorke. \n\n1763. Sir Fletcher Norton, knt., aft. lord Grantley. \n\n1765. Hon. Charles Yorke, again ; afterwards lord Morden, \n\nand lord chancellor; see Cha,ncellors. \n\n1766. William de Grey, afterwards lord Walsingliam. \n1771. Edward Thurlow, esq., afterwards lord Thurlow. \n1778. Alex. Wedderburn, aft. lord Loughborough. \n1780. James Wallace, esq. \n\n\n\n1782. Lloyd Kenyon, esq. \n\n1783. James Wallace, esq. \n,, John Lee, esq. \n\n\xe2\x80\x9e Lloyd Kenyon, again ; afterwards lord Kenyon. \n\n1784. Sir Richard P. Arden, aft. lord Alvanley. \n1788. Sir Archibald Macdonald. \n\n1793. Sir John Scott, afterwards lord Eldon. \n1799- Sir J. Mitford, afterwards lord Redesdale. \n\n1801. Sir Edward Law, aft. lord Ellenborough, 14 Feb. \n\n1802. Hon. Spencer Percival (murdered by Bellingham, \n\n11 May, 1812), 15 April. \n\n1806. Sir Arthur Pigott, 12 Feb. \n\n1807. Sir Vicary Gibbs, afterwards chief justice of the \n\ncommon pleas, 7 April. \n\n1812. Sir Thomas Plumer, afterwards first vice-chancellor \n\nof England, 26 June. \n\n1813. Sir William Garrow, 4 May. \n181 7. Sir Samuel Shepherd, 7 May. \n\n1819. Sir Robert Gifford, aft. lord Gifford, 24 July. \n1824. Sir John Singleton Copley, afterwards lord Lynd- \nhurst, 9 Jan. \n\n1826. Sir Charles Wetherell, 20 Sept. \n\n1827. Sir James Scarlett, 27 April. \n\n1828. Sir Charles Wetherell, again, 19 Feb. \n\n1829. Sir Jas. Scarlett, again ; aft. lord Abinger, 29 June. \n\n1830. SirThos. Denman, aft. lord Denman, 26 Nov. \n1832. Sir William Home, 26 Nov. \n\n1834. Sir John Campbell, 1 March. \n,, Sir Frederick Pollock, 17 Dec. \n\n1835. Sir John Campbell, again, afterwards lord Camp- \n\nbell (and, 1859, lord chancellor), 30 April. \n1841. Sir Thomas Wilde, 3 July. \n\n,, Sir F. Pollock, again ; aft. chief baron, 6 Sept. \n\n1844. Sir William W. Follett, 15 April. \n\n1845. Sir Frederick Thesiger, 4 July. \n\n1846. Sir Thomas Wilde, again ; afterwards lord Truro, \n\nand lord chancellor, 6 July. \n\xe2\x80\x9e Sir John Jervis, afterwards chief justice of the \ncommon pleas, 13 July. \n\n1850. Sir John Romilly, aft. master of the rolls, 11 July. \n\n1851. Sir Alex. James Edmund Cockburn, 28 March. \n\n1852. Sir Frederick Thesiger, again ; afterwards lord \n\nChelmsford, and lord chancellor, 2 March. \n,, Sir Alexander Cockburn, again ; aft. chief justice \nof common pleas and queen\'s bench, 28 Dec. \n1856. Sir Richard Bethell, 15 Nov. \n\n1858. Sir Fitzroy Kelly, 27 Feb., aft. chief baron, 1866 ; \n\nd. 1880. \n\n1859. Sir R. Bethell (since lord Westbury, and lord chan- \n\ncellor), 18 June. \n1S61. Sir William Atherton, 27 July. \n1863. Sir Roundell Palmer, aft. lord Selborne, and lord \n\nchancellor, 2 Oct. \n\n1866. Sir Hugh M. Cairns, aft. lord Cairns, and lord chan- \n\ncellor, 13 July. \n,, Sir John Rolt (made justice of appeal), 28 Oct. \n\n1867. Sir John Karslake, 1 July. \n\n868. Sir Robert Porrett Collier, 12 Dec. \n871. Sir John Duke Coleridge, aft. lord Coleridge, and \nlord chief justice, 10 Nov. \n\n873. Sir Henry James, Nov. \n\n874. Sir John Karslake, Feb. \n\n,, Sir Richard Baggallay, 22 April. \n\n875. Sir John Holker, 25 Nov. \n880. Sir Henry James, 13 May. \n\n885. Sir Richard E. Webster, June. \n\n886. Sir Charles Russell, about 6 Feb. \n\xe2\x80\x9e Sir Richard E. Webster, 26 July. \n\n1892. Sir Charles Russell, 18 Aug. \n\nATTORNEYS\' AND SOLICITORS\' \nACT, passed 14 July, 1870. \n\nATTRACTION, described by Copernicus, \nabout 1520, as an appetence or appetite which the \nCreator impressed upon all parts of matter; by \nKepleras a corporeal affection tendingto union, 1605. \nIn 1687, sir I. Newton published his " Principia," \ncontaining his important researches on this subject. \nSee Gravitation, Magnetism, and Electricity. Dr. \nC. William Siemens exhibited his attraction-meter \nat the lloyal Society, 1876. \n\nATWOOD\'S MACHINE, for proving the \nlaws of accelerated motion by the falling of weights, \ninvented by George Atwood ; described 1784: he \ndied 11 July, 1807. \n\n\n\nAUBAINE. \n\n\n\n72 \n\n\n\nAUGUSTIN. \n\n\n\nAUBAINE, a right of the French kings, which \nexisted from the beginning of the monarchy, where- \nby they claimed the property of every stranger who \ndied in their country, without having been na- \nturalised, was abolished by the national assembly \nin 1790-91; re-established by Napoleon in 1804, \nand finally annulled 14 July, 1819. \n\nAUBEROCHE, Guienne, S. France. The \nearl of Derby defeated the French, besieging this \nplace, 19 Aug. 1344. \n\nAUCKLAND, capital of North Island (New \nZealand), was founded Sept. 1840. The population \nof the district, in 1857, was estimated at 15,000 \nEuropeans, and 35,000 natives; in 1891, total 28,773. \nThe seat of government was removed to Wellington \non Cook\'s Strait, Dec. 1864; population in 1887, \n59,600. \n\nAUCTION, a kind of sale known to the Romans, \nmentioned by Cicero, Livy, and Petronius Arbiter \n(about a.d. 66). The first in Britain was about 1700, \nby Elisha Yale, a governor of Fort George, now \nMadras, in the East Indies, who thus sold the goods \nhe had brought home. Auction and sales\' tax \nbegan, 1779. Various acts of parliament have \nregulated auctions and imposed duties, in some \ncases as high as five per cent. By 8 Vict. c. 15 \n(1845), the duties were repealed, and a charge im- \nposed "on the licence to be taken out by all auc- \ntioneers in the United Kingdom, of 10/." In 1858 \nthere were 4358 licences granted, producing 43,580^. \nThe abuses at auctions, termed "knock-outs," \ncaused by combinations of brokers and others, ex- \ncited much attention in Sept. 1866. An act regu- \nlating sales of land by auction was passed 15 July, \n1867. Certain sales are now exempt from being con- \nducted by a licensed auctioneer, such as goods and \nchattels under a distress for rent, and sales under \nthe provisions of the Small Debts\' acts for Scotland \nand Ireland. \n\nAUDIANI, followers of Audssus of Mesopo- \ntamia, who, having been expelled from the Syrian \nchurch on account of his severely reproving the \nvices of the clergy, about 338, formed a sect and \nbecame its bishop. He was banished to Scythia, \nwhere he is said to have made many converts. His \nfollowers celebrated Easter at the time of the Jewish \npassover, attributed the human figure to the Deity, \nand had other peculiar tenets. \n\nAUDIOMETER (from audio, I hear), an in- \nstrument for the measurement of the faculty of \nhearing; invented by professor Hughes. It con- \nsists of a battery of two Leclanche\'s cells connected \nwith a simple microphone and telephone ; described \nto the Royal Society, 15 May, 1879. \n\nAUDIPHONE, an instrument to assist the \npartially deaf, invented by Mr. R. G. Rhodes of \nChicago, and modified by M. Colladon of Geneva, \nin 1880. It consists of a thin sheet of hard ebonite \nrubber or card-board. This should be placed \nagainst the teeth, through which and other bones \nthe vibrations are conveyed to the auditory nerve. \n\nAUDIT-OFFICE, Somerset House. Com- \nmissioners for auditing the public accounts were \nappointed in 1785, and many statutes regulating \ntheir duties have since been enacted. \n\nAUDLEY\'S REBELLION, see Rebellions, \nJ 497- \n\nAUERSTADT (Prussia) . Here on 14 Oct. 1806, \nthe French, under Davoust, signally defeated the \nPrussians, under Blucher ; see Jena. \n\nAUGHRIM, near Athlone, in Ireland, where \n\n\n\non 12 July, 1691, a battle was fought between the \nIrish, headed by the French general St. Ruth, and \nthe English under general Ginckel. The former \nwere defeated and lost 7000 men; the latter lost \nonly 600 killed and 960 wounded. St. Ruth was \nslain. This engagement proved decisively fatal to \nthe interest of James II., and Ginckel was created \nearl of Athlone. \n\nAUGMENTATION of Poor Livings\' \n\nOFFICE, established in 1704. 5597 clerical livings, \nnot exceeding 50^. per annum, were found by the \ncommissioners under the act of Anne capable of \naugmentation, by means of the bounty then \nestablished. \n\nAUGMENTATIONS COURT, established \nin 1535 by 27 Hen. VI 11. c. 27, in relation to cap. 28 \nsame session, which gave the king the property of \nall monasteries having 200/. a year. The court was \nabolished by Mary, 1553, and restored by Elizabeth, \nI5S8. \n\nAUGSBURG (Bavaria), originally a colony \nsettled by Augustus, about 12 B.C. ; became a free \ncity, and flourished during the middle ages. Here \nmany important diets of the empire have been held. \nIn a.d. 952, a council confirmed the order for the \ncelibacy of the priesthood. Augsburg has suffered \nmuch by war, having been frequently taken by \nsiege, \xe2\x80\x94 in 788, 1703, 1704, and, last, by the French, \n10 Oct. 1805, who restored it to Bavaria in March, \n1806. Population, 1890, 75,523. \nAugsburg Diet, summoned by the emperor Charles \nV., to settle the religious disputes of Germany, \nmet 20 June, and separated . . . Nov. 1530 \nConfession of Augsburg, compiled by Melanchthon, \nLuther and others, signed by the Protestant \nprinces, presented to the emperor Charles V., and \nread to the diet .... 25 June, 1530 \nInterim of Augsburg, a document issued by \nCharles V. : an attempt to reconcile the Catholics \nand Protestants : (it was fruitless and was with- \ndrawn) read 15 May, 1548 \n\n"Peace of Religion" signed at Augsburg, 25 Sept. 1555 \nLeague of Augsburg, for maintenance of the treaties \nof Minister, Nimeguen : a treaty between Holland \nand other powers against France, signed 9 July, 1686 \n\nAUGURY. Husbandry was in part regulated \nby the coming or going of birds, long before the \ntime of Hesiod. Three augurs, at Rome, with ves- \ntals and several orders of the priesthood, were \nformally constituted by Numa, about 710 B.C. The \nnumber increased, and was fifteen at the time of \nSylla, 81. The college of augurs was abolished by \nTheodosius about a.d. 390. \n\nAUGUST, the sixth month of the Roman \nyear (originally called Sextilis, or the sixth from \nMarch), by a decree of the senate received its pre- \nsent name in honour of Augustus Caesar, in the \nyear 8 B.C., because in this month he was created \nconsul, had thrice triumphed in Rome, added Egypt \nto the Roman empire, and made an end of the \ncivil wars. He added one day to the month, making \nit 31 days. The appearance of shooting stars on \nthe 10th of Aug. was observed in the middle ages, \nwhen they were termed " St. Lawrence\'s tears." \nTheir periodicity was noticed by Mr. Forster early \nin the present centuiy. See under France, 10 \nAugust, 1792. \n\nAUGUSTAN ERA began 14 Feb. 27 B.C., \nor 727 years after the foundation of Rome. \n\nAUGUSTIN or Austin Friars, a religious \norder, which ascribes its origin to St. Augustin,. \nbishop of Hippo, who died 430. They first appeared \nabout the nth century, and the order was consti- \ntuted by pope Alexander IV., 1256. The rule re- \n\n\n\nAULIC COUNCIL. \n\n\n\n73 \n\n\n\nAUSTEALASIA. \n\n\n\nquires poverty, humility, and chastity. Martin \nLuther was an Augustin monk. The Augustins \nheld the doctrine of free grace, and were rivals of \nthe Dominicans. The order appeared in England \nsoon after the conquest, and had 32 houses at the \nsuppression, 1536. One of their churches, at Austin \nFriars, London, erected 1354, and since the Be- \nformation used by Dutch pi-otestants, was partially \ndestroyed by fire, 22 Nov. 1862. It was restored, \nand reopened, 1 Oct. 1865. A religious house of \nthe order, dedicated to St. Monica, mother of \nAugustin, was founded in Hoxton-square, London, \n1864. \n\nAULIC COUNCIL, a sovereign court in \nGermany, established by the emperor Maximilian I., \nbeing one of the two courts, the first called the \nImperial Chamber civil and criminal, instituted at \n"Worms, 1495, and afterwards held at Spires and \nWetzler, and the other the Aulic council at Vienna, \n1506. These courts having concurrent jurisdiction, \nwere instituted for appeals in particular cases from \nthe courts of the Germanic states. \n\nAUEAT (N. W. France). Here, on 29 Sept. \n1364, the English, under John Chandos, defeated \nthe French and captured then- leader Du Guesclin. \nCharles of Blois, made duke of Brittany by the \nking of France, was slain, and a peace was made in \nApril, 1365. \n\nAUEICULAE CONFESSION. The con- \nfession of sin at the ear (Latin, auris) of the priest \nwas an early practice. It is incorrectly stated to have \nbeen forbidden in the 4th century by Nectarius, arch- \nbishop of Constantinople. It was enjoined by the \ncouncil of Lateran in 1215, and by the council of \nTrent in 1551. It was one of the six articles of \nfaith enacted by our Henry VIII. in 1539, but was \nabolished in England at the Beformation. Its re- \nvival here has been attempted by the church party \ncalled Puse)ites, Tractarians, or Bitualists. \nThe rev. Alfred Poole, a curate of St. Barnabas, Knights- \nbridge, was suspended by his bishop from his office for \npractising auricular confession in June, 1858, and the \nsuspension was confirmed in Jan. 1859. Much excite- \nment was created by a similar attempt by the rev. \nTemple West at Boyne Hill, in Sept. 1858. \nIn May, 1873, 483 clergymen of the Church of England \npresented a petition to convocation for the education, \nselection, and licensing of duly qualified confessors, in \naccordance with the provisions of canon law. Strongly \ndisapproved of by the bishops. \nLetter from the bishop of London asserting that confes- \nsion should be to God ; that to the minister optional, \n21 July, 1873. \nArchdeacon Denison (in a letter) declares war against all \n\nopposing auricular confession, 22 Aug. 1873. \n96 peers send an address against auricular confession to \nthe archbishop of Canterbury about 9 Aug. 1877. \nFor refusal of confessors to give evidence, see \n\nIreland March 1887 \n\nSee Holy Cross. \n\nAUEIFLAMMA orOBIFLAMME, thenational \nbanner mentioned in French history, belong- \ning to the abbey of St. Denis, and suspended over \nthe tomb of that saint. Louis le Gros was the first \nking who took this standard from the abbey to \nbattle, 1 124. Henault. It appeared for the last \ntime at Agincourt, 25 Oct. 1415. Tillet. Others \n6ay at Montlhery, 16 July, 1465. \n\nAUEOEA, FRIGATE, sailed from Britain in \n1771, to the East Indies, and was never again \nheard of. \xe2\x80\x94 Aurora, daily papal newspaper, ap- \npeared at Borne 1 June, 1880. \n\nAUEOE.E BOEEALES and AUS- \n\nTEALES (Northern and Southern Polar Lights), \nthough rarely seen in central Europe, are frequent \n\n\n\nin the ai-ctic and antarctic regions. In March, 1716, \nan aurora borealis extended from the west of Ire- \nland to the confines of Bussia. The whole horizon \nlat. 57\xc2\xb0 N. was overspread with continuous haze of \na dismal red during a whole night, Nov. 1765. \xe2\x80\x94 \nMr. Foster, the companion of captain Cook, saw \nthe aurora in lat. 58 S. The aurora is now attri- \nbuted to the passage of electric light through the \nrarefied air of the polar regions. In August and \nSeptember, 1859 (and about 24 Oct. 1870), when \nbrilliant aurorse were very frequent, the electric \ntelegraph wires were seriously affected, and com- \nmunications interrupted. Aurora? were seen at Borne \nand Basel, and also in Australia. A magnificent \naurora appeared in New York and other states, \nevening of 13 Feb. 1892. \n\nAUSCULTATION, see Stethoscope. \nAUSTEELITZ, a town in Moravia, where a \nbattle was fought between the French and the \nallied Austrian and Bussian armies, 2 Dec. 1805. \nThree emperors commanded : Alexander of Bussia, \nFrancis of Austria, and Napoleon of France. The \nkilled and wounded exceeded 30,000 on the side of \nthe allies, who lost forty standards, 150 pieces of \ncannon, and thousands of prisoners. The decisive \nvictory of the French led to the treaty of Presburg, \nsigned 26 Dec. 1805 ; see Presburg. \nAUSTIN FEIAES, see Augustin Friars. \nAUSTEALASIA, the fifth great division of \nthe world. This name, originitlly given it by De \nBrosses, includes Australia, Van Diemen\'s Land \n(or Tasmania), New Guinea, New Zealand, New \nBritain, New Caledonia, &c, mostly discovered \nwithin two centuries. Accidental discoveries were \nmade by the Spaniards as early as 1526 ; but the \nfirst accurate knowledge of these southern lands is \ndue to the Dutch, who in 1606 explored a part of \nthe coast of Papua or New Guinea. Torres, a \nSpaniard, passed through the straits which now bear \nhis name, between that island and Australia, and \ngave the first correct report of the latter, 1606. \nThe Dutch continued their discoveries. Grant in \n1800, and Hinders again (1801-5) completed the \nsurvey. M\'Culloch. Estimated population of the \nAustralasian colonies in 1891, 3,932,000. See \nAustralia, &c. \n\nGen. Edwardes having recommended the federal \naction of all the Australian troops for colonial \ndefence, Mr. D. Gillies, premier of Victoria, com- \nmunicates his approval to sir H. Parkes, premier \nof New South Wales, who in his reply considers \nthat the federal council act does not authorize \nthis combined action, and strongly recommends \nthe establishment of an Australian Federation \nwith a governor-general, with a constitution like \nthat of the Dominion of Canada, and desires a \nmeeting of delegates from each colony to consider \n\nthe matter 30 Oct. 1889 \n\nConference of delegates from all the Australian \ncolonies at Melbourne to consider a scheme of \nAustralasian federation and federal defence ; Mr. \nDuncan Gillies elected chief representative 6 Feb. 1890 \nSir H. Parkes\' motion for the union of the colonies \nunder one government unanimously adopted \n\n13 Feb. ,, \nLoyal address to the queen voted, and the meeting \n\nof a national convention in 1891 agreed to 14 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nMr. Goschen\'s plan for uniform colonial postage \n(zhd.) accepted by all the colonies, reported May- \nJune, 1890; to begin .... 1 Jan. 1891 \nThe federal council meets at Hobart ; Victoria, \nQueensland, and Tasmania represented; an ad- \ndress to the Queen respecting trade voted \n\n20-24 Jan. ,, \n\nNational Australasian Federation Convention, chief \n\ndelegates : New South Wales, sir Henry Parkes ; \n\nVictoria, hon. James Munro; Queensland, sir \n\nSamuel Griffith ; South Australia, hon. Thomas \n\n\n\nAUSTRALASIAN ASSOCIATION. 74 \n\n\n\nAUSTRALIA. \n\n\n\nPlayford ; Tasmania, hon. P. O. Fysh ; New \nZealand, sir George Grey ; Western Australia, \nhon. John Forrest ; sir Henry Parkes elected pre- \npresident ; sir Samuel Griffith, vice-president ; \nmeeting in the legislative chamber, Sydney, n \na.m. At the evening banquet, principal toast, \n" One people, one destiny " . . .2 March, 1891 \n\nThe title, the " Commonwealth of Australia," \nadopted by the convention (26 to 13) 1 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe federal constitution adopted, 9 April, to be \naccepted by the several colonies and confirmed by \nthe British parliament. The Victoria parliament \nrequires the title to be changed from " Common- \nwealth" to " Federation" . . . 2t July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAUSTRALASIAN ASSOCIATION, . for \n\nthe advancement of science, was founded mainly \nby the exertions of prof. Liversidge, 1886, held its \nfirst meeting in Sydney, Aug. 1888 ; the 2nd at \nMelbourne, 7 Jan. 1890, president baron von \nMueller, hon. sec. prof. W. B. Edwin Spencer; \n3rd Christchurch, New Zealand, 15 Jan. 1891 ; \n4th Hobart, Tasmania, 7 Jan. 1892. \n\nAUSTRALIA (formerly New Holland), the \nlargest island and smallest continent ; estimated \narea about 2,954,417 square miles, including \nfive provinces \xe2\x80\x94 New South Wales, Victoria (formerly \nPort Phillip) , South Australia, West Australia (or \nSwan River), and Queensland (all which see). \nPopulation, with Tasmania and New Zealand, in \n1871, about 1,958,650; 1874, 2,334,210; 1878, \n2,705,700; 1882,2,936,409; 1888,3,546,725. \n\nMr. R. H. Major, in 1872, alleged that Australia was \n\nknown to the French prior to ... . 1531 \nAlleged discovery by Manoel Godiuho de Eredia, a \n\nPortuguese 1601 \n\nThe Dutch also discover Australia . . March, 1606 \nThe coast surveyed by Dutch navigators ; north, by \nZeachen, 1618 ; west, by Edels, 1619 ; south, by \nNuyts, 1627 ; north, by Tasmnn .... 1627 \nTasman coasts S. Australia, and Van Diemen\'s \n\nLand 1642-4 \n\nTerra Australia (Western Australia) named New \n\nHolland by order of the States-General . . 1665 \nWm. Dampier explores the W. and N. W. coasts, \n\n1684-90 \nWilliam Dampier lands in Australia . . Jan. 1686 \nExplorations of Willis and Carteret . . . 1763-6 \nCapt. Cook, sir Joseph Banks, and others, land at \nBotany Bay, and name the country " New South \n\nWales" 28 April, 1770 \n\nExploration of Furneaux 1773 \n\nGovernor Arthur Phillip founds Sydney near Port \n\nJackson, with 1030 persons . . . 26 Jan. 1788 \n[The 82nd anniversary of this event was kept with \n\nmuch festivity, 26 Jan. 1870.] \nGreat distress in consequence of the loss of the \n\nstore-ship " Guardian," captain Biou . . . 1790 \nVoyages of Bligh . . . \xe2\x96\xa0 . . . . 1789-92 \n\nFirst church erected Aug. 1793 \n\nGovernment gazette first printed . . . . 1795 \n\nBass\'s straits discovered by Bass and Flinders . 1798 \n\nFirst brick church built 1802 \n\nColony of Van Diemen\'s land (now Tasmania) estab- \nlished 1S03 \n\nGrant, 1800, and Flinders survey the coasts of Aus- \ntralia 1801-5 \n\nInsurrection of Irish convicts quelled . . . 1804 \nGovernor Bligh for his tyranny deposed and sent \n\nhome . 1808 \n\nSuperseded by governor Macquarie . . . . 1809 \nExpeditions into the interior by Wentworth, Law- \nson, Bloxland, 181 3 ; Oxley, <fec. . . . 1817-1823 \nPopulation, 29,783 (three-fourths convicts) . . 1821 \nWest Australia formed into a province . . . 1829 \n\nLegislative council established ,, \n\nSturt\'s expeditions into South Australia . . 182S-31 \nSouth Australia erected into a province . Aug. 1834 \nSir T. Mitchell\'s expeditions into E. Australia . 1831-6 \nFirst Roman Catholic bishop (Polding) arrives, \n\nSept. 1835 \nPort Phillip (now Victoria) colonised . . Nov. ,, \nFirst Church of England bishop of Australia \n(Broughton) arrives June, 1836 \n\n\n\nColony of South Australia founded . -. . Dec. 1836 \nEyre\'s expedition overland from Adelaide to King \n\nGeorge\'s Sound 1836-7 \n\nMelbourne founded Nov. 1837 \n\nCapt. Grey explores N. W. Australia . . . 1837-9 \nCount Strzelecki explored New South Wales and \nTasmania, 1838-43; discovered gold-fields inBath- \nurst, Wellington, &c. (kept secret by sir George \n\nGipps) 1839 \n\nSuspension of transportation ,, \n\nStrzelecki explores the Australian Alps ; discovers \n\nGipps\' land ; Eyre explores west Australia . . 1840 \nGreat exertions of Mrs. Chisholm ; establishment \n\nof " Home for Female Emigrants " . . . 1841-6 \nCensus \xe2\x80\x94 87,200 males ; 43,700 females . . . 1841 \nVery numerous insolvencies .... 1841-2 \n\nIncorporation of city of Sydney .... 1842 \nLandor and Lefroy explore Western Australia . . 1843 \nSturt proceeds from South Australia to the middle \n\nof the continent 1845 \n\nCensus (including Port Phillip) \xe2\x80\x94 114,700 males ; \n74,800 females .... ... 1846 \n\nKennedy\'s 1st expedition 13 Aug. 1847 ; killed \n\n13 Nov. 184S \nDr. Leichhardt\'s expedition leaves Moreton bay, \nAug. 1844 ; arrives at Port Essington, 17 Dec. \n1845 ; starts again, not heard of after . 3 April, ,, \nGreat agitation against transportation, which had \n\nbeen revived by earl Grey- 1849 \n\nPort Phillip erected into a separate province as \n\nVictoria 1850 \n\nGold discovered by Mr. Hargreaves, &c* . _ . 1851 \nCensus \xe2\x80\x94 males, 106,000; females, 81,000 (exclusive \n\nof Victoria, 80,000) ,, \n\nMints established March, 1853 \n\nTransportation ceased . . . . . . ,, \n\nGregory\'s explorations of interior . . 1848,1855-8 \nDeatli of archdeacon Cowper (aged 80), after about \n\nfifty years\' residence July, 185S \n\nQueensland made a province . . . 4 Dec. 1859 \nJ. M\'Douall Stuart\'s expeditions . . . 1858-62 \nExpedition into the interior under Mr. Landells \n\norganised Aug. i860 \n\nRobert O\'Hara Burke, Wm. John Wills, and others, \n\nstart from Melbourne . . . .20 Aug. ,, \nBurke, Wills, and two others, cross the Australian \ncontinent to the gulf of Carpentaria ; all perish \non their return, except John King, who arrives \n\nat Melbourne Nov. 1861 \n\nStuart, M\'Kinlay, and Landsborough cross Aus- \ntralia from sea to sea . ... . . . 1861-2 \n\n\n\n* Gold Discovery. \xe2\x80\x94 Mr. Edward Hargreaves went to \nCalifornia in search of gold, and was struck with the \nsimilarity between the rocks and strata of California and \nthose of his own district of Conobolas, some thirty miles \nwest of Bathurst. On his return home, he examined the \nsoil, and after one or two months\' digging, found a \nquantity of gold, 12 Feb. 1851. He applied to the colonial \ngovernment for a reward, which he readily obtained, \nwith an appointment as commissioner of crown lands. \nThe excitement became intense throughout the colony of \nNew South Wales, rapidly spread to that of Victoria and \nother places; and in the first week of July, 1851, an \naboriginal inhabitant, formerly attached to the Welling- \nton mission, and then in the service of Dr. Kerr, of Wal- \nlawa, discovered, while tending his sheep, a mass of gold \namong a heap of quartz. Three blocks of quartz (from \ntwo to three hundred weight), found in the Murroo \nCreek, fifty miles to the north of Batliurst, contained \n112 lb. of pure gold, valued at 4000?. The "Victoria \nnugget," a magnificent mass of virgin gold, weighing 340 \nounces, was brought to England from the Bendigo dig- \ngings ; and a piece of pure gold of 106 lb. weight was also \nfound. From the gold fields of Mount Alexander and \nBallarat, in the district of Victoria, up to Oct. 1852, there \nwere found 2,532,422 ounces, or 105 tons 10 cwt. of gold ; \nand the gold exported up to the same date represented \n8,863,477?. sterling. In Nov. 1856, the "James Baines " \nand " Lightning " brought gold from Melbourne valued \nat 1,200,000?. The "Welcome nugget" weighed 2019I \nounces ; value, 8376?. 10s. iod ; found at Baker\'s Hill, \nBallarat, 11 June, 1858. Between May, 1851, and May, \ni86r, gold to the value of 96,000,000?. had been brought \nto England from New South Wales and Victoria. Mr. \nHargreaves died about 2 Nov. 189L \n\n\n\nAUSTRALIA. \n\n\n\n75 \n\n\n\nAUSTRIA. \n\n\n\nRemains of Burke and Wills recovered ; public \nfuneral 21 Jan. \n\nStrong and general resistance throughout Australia \nto the reception of British convicts in West Aus- \ntralia about June, \n\nCessation of transportation to Australia in three \nyears announced amid much rejoicing . 26 Jan. \n\nMorgan, a desperate bushranger and murderer, sur- \nrounded and shot April, \n\nBoundaiy disputes between New South Wales and \nVictoria, summer 1864 ; settled amicably 19 April, \n\nTotal population of Australia, exclusive of natives, \n1,298,667 Jan. \n\nRoyal Society of New South Wales (originally the \nPhilosophical Society of Australia, founded 1821), \nestablished May, \n\nMeeting of ministers from the Australian colonies \nat Melbourne to arrange postal communication \nwith Europe March, \n\nExploration of South Australia ; capt. Cadell dis- \ncovers mouth of the river Roper, and fine pas- \ntoral country, lat. 14\xc2\xb0 S Nov. \n\nDespatch from lord Kimberley objecting to the \ncomplex tariffs between the Australian colonies, \n\n13 July, \n\nMeeting of delegates from New South Wales, Vic- \ntoria, South Australia, and Tasmania ; they object \nto imperial interference with their mutual fiscal \narrangements , 27 Sept. \n\nSynod of the church of Australia and Tasmania \nheld at Sydney \'25 Gel. \n\nMr. Ernest Morrison walks across the continent \nfrom the Gulf of Carpentaria to Melbourne in 120 \ndays, starting .... about 18 Dec. \n\nCompletion of the direct railway between Mel- \nbourne and Sydne5" June, \n\nGradual formation of a defensive Australian fleet \nand army \n\nThe Intercolonial conference of delegates on pro- \nposed annexation of New Guinea, at Sydney, re- \ncommended, 6 Dec. ; and the formation of an \nAustralasian federal council 7 Dec; closes 8 Dec. \n\nCanon Barry consecrated bishop of Sydney and \nmetropolitan of Australia . . . 1 Jan. \n\nMr. Charles Winnicke\'s exploring party mapped \n40,000 miles of unknown country, announced Jan. \n\nVictoria, Tasmania, and Queensland accept the \nscheme of federation, Aug. ; opposed by New \nSouth Wales .... about 1 Nov. \n\nLord Derby\'s dispatch deferring consideration of \nthe federal scheme 11 Dec. \n\nSeveral states protest against the German annexa- \ntions in New Guinea, &c Dec. \n\nBritish flag hoisted on Woodlark and other islands \n\nJan. \n\nThe Australian colonies proffer military contingents \nfor the Soudan ; thanked by the queen . Feb. \n\nFederal council of Australasia act passed 14 Aug. \n\nFederation of the Australasian Colonies, except \nNew South Wales and New Zealand, completed \n9 Dec. 1885. The formal opening of the council \ntook place at Hobavt, 25 Jan. 1886. The Council \nmet at Hobarton 16-19 J an - J 888 ; again 29 Jan.- \n4 Feb \n\nAustralasian Conference requeststhe British Govern- \nment to treat with China for restriction of \nChinese immigration, but recommends immediate \n\nlocal action 14-16 June, \n\nSee Imperial Defence. \n\nMr. Ernest Favenc\'s " History of Australian Ex- \nploration from 1788 to 1888," published \n\nIrish home rule delegates (Mr. Dillon, sir Thomas \nEsmond, and Mr. Deasy, M.P.\'s, coolly received \nor opposed in Australia, Tasmania and\' New Zea- \nland April et acq. \n\nThe Australian colonies contribute about 31,000/. \nto the dock labourers of London, see Strikes \n\nSept.-Dec. \n\nAustralian warships launched at Newcastle-on- \nTyne ; Pelorus, 25 Nov. 1889, Persia . 5 Feb. \n\nMemorial of Mr. William Bede Dalley, Australian \nstatesman (1831\xe2\x80\x9488), erected in the crypt of St. \nPaul\'s, London, unveiled . . -17 July \n\nFormation of the National Association (of Austra- \nlia), proposed in Melbourne . . 3 July \n\nThe earl of Kintore, governor of South Australia\' \nand party, travel overland from Adelaide (26 Feb! \n\n\n\n1863 \n\n\n\n1865 \n\n\n\n1867 \n\n\n\n1871 \n\n\n\net seq.) to Brisbane, and thence by boat to Port \nDarwin in the extreme north, arriving 31 March, \nafter inspecting the town, &c, he commenced \nhis journey south (about 2,125 miles), 9 April, \nreaching Adelaide . . . -23 May, i8gr \n\nThe auxiliary squadron visits all the colonies, begin- \nning with Queensland . . . Aug. et seq. ,, \n\nMr. David Lindsay, commander of the exploring \nexpedition in N. and Central Australia, fitted out \nby sir Thomas Elder, arrives at Esperance bay, \n14 Oct. 1891 ; members resign; reported 13 Jan., \nand the expedition is suspended, reported \n\n14 March, 1892 \nFor the proposed Federation see Australasia, 1889^. \net seq. \n\nGOVERNORS. \n\nCaptain Arthur Phillip . . . . . . 178S \n\nCaptain Hunter 1795 \n\nCaptain Philip G. King ...... 1800 \n\nCaptain William Bligh 1806 \n\nColonel Lachlan Macquarie (able and successful \n\nadministration) 1809. \n\nGeneral sir Thomas Brisbane 182Z \n\nSir Richard Bourke 18311 \n\nSir George Gipps 183S \n\nSir Charles Fitzroy, governor-general of all the Aus- \ntralian colonies, with a certain jurisdiction over \nthe lieutenant-governors of Van Diemen\'s Land, \nVictoria, and South and Western Australia . . 1846 \n\nSir William T. Denison 1854 \n\nSir John Young, of New South Wales only . . i860 \n\nSee New South Wales. \nActs for the government of Australia, 10 Geo. IV. \nc. 22, 14 May (1829), 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 68, 13 Aug. \n(1836), 13 <fe 14 Viet. c. 59, 5 Aug. (1850). Act for \nregulating the sale of waste lands in the Austra- \nlian colonies, 5 & 6 Vict. c. 36, 22 June (1842). \n\nAUSTRASIA, (Esterreich (Eastern Kingdom),, \nalso called Metz, a French kingdom which lasted \nfrom the 6th to the 8th century. It began with the \ndivision of the territories of Clovis by his sons, 511, \nand ended by Carloman becoming a monk and sur- \nrendering his power to his brother Pepin, who thus \nbecame sole king of France, 747. \n\nAUSTRIA, a Hamburg company\'s steamship, \nsailed from Southampton to New York 4 Sept. 1858, \nwith 528 persons on board. On 13 Sept. in lat. \n45\xc2\xb0 N., long. 41 30\' \\V., it caught fire through the \ncarelessness of some one in burning some tar to> \nfumigate the steerage. Only 67 persons were saved: \n\xe2\x80\x94 upwards of 60 by the Maurice, a French barque ; \nthe rest by a Norwegian barque. A heartrending \naccount was given in the Times, 11 Oct. 1858, by \nMr. Charles Crews, an English survivor. \n\nAUSTRIA, (Esterreich (Eastern Kingdom), \nanciently Noricum and part of Pannoiiia, was an- \nnexed to the Roman empire about 33 ; was overrun \nby the Huns, Avars, &c, during the 5th and 6th \ncenturies, and taken from them by Charlemagne, \n791-796. He divided the government of the country, \nestablishing margraves of Eastern Bavaria and \nAustria. Louis the German, son of Louis le Debon- \nnaire, about 817, subjugated Radbod, margrave of \nAustria ; but in 883 the descendants of the latter \nraised a civil war in Bavaria against the emperor \nCharles the Fat, and eventually the margraves of \nAustria were declared immediate princes of the \nempire. In 1156 the margraviate was made ar\xc2\xbb \nhereditary duchy by the emperor Frederic I. ; and! \nin 1453 it was raised to an archduchy by the emperor \nFrederic III. Rodolph, count of Hapsburg, elected \nemperor of Germany in 1273, acquired Austria in \n1278; and from 149310 1804 his descendants were \nemperors. On 1 1 Aug. 1804, the emperor Francis II. \nrenounced the title of emperor of Rome and king of \nGermany (popularly termed emperor of Ger- \nmany), and became hereditary emperor of Austria. \nThe condition of Austria is now greatl} r improving \n\n\n\nAUSTEIA. \n\n\n\n76 \n\n\n\nAUSTRIA. \n\n\n\nunder the enlightened rule of the present emperor. \nThe political constitution of the empire is based \nupon \xe2\x80\x94 i. The pragmatic sanction of Charles VI., \n1734, which declares the indivisibility of the empire \nand rules ihe order of succession. 2. The pragmatic \nsanction of Francis II., I Aug. 1804, when he became \nemperor of Austria only. 3. The diploma of Francis \nJoseph, 20 Oct. i860, whereby he imparted legisla- \ntive power to the provincial states and the council \nof the empire (Reichsrath). 4. The law of 26 Feb. \n1861, on the national representation. Self-govern- \nment was granted to Hungary, 17 Feb. 1867. Each \ncountry has its parliament, and a controlling hody \ntermed the Delegations, consisting of 120 members, \nhalf elected by Austria and half by Hungary, was \nalso established in 1867. The empire was ordered \nto be named henceforth the Austro-Hungarian \nmonarchy, or Austria-Hungary, by decree, 14 Nov. \n1868. On 19 Oct. 1889, the army was ordered to \nhe styled \'\'Imperial and Royal.\'\' Population of \nthe empire* in Oct. 1857, 35,018,988; reduced \nto 32,530,000 by the loss of Venetia, &c, in \n1866 (about 16,000,000 Slavs of different dialects). \nPopulation, Austria and other Cis-T.eithan pro- \nvinces, 20,396,580 (31 Dec. 1869) ; Hungary and \nTrans-Leithan provinces, 15,509,455; the empire, \nin 1880, 37,882,712; in 1890.41,345,329: revenue, \n1890,1,025,927,00011.; expenditure, 1,003,870,0003. \n\nFrederic II. , the last male of the house of Bamberg, \nkilled in battle with the Hungarians . 15 June, 1246 \n\nDisputed succession : the emperor Frederic II. se- \nquestered the provinces, appointing Otto, count \nof Eberstein, governor in the name of the em- \nperor ; they are seized by Ladislaus, margrave of \nMoravia, in right of his wife, Frederic\'s niece, \nGertrude : he died childless 1247 \n\nHerman, margrave of Baden, marries Gertrude, and \nholds the provinces till his death . . . . 1250 \n\nPremislas Ottocar, of Bohemia, acquires the pro- \nvinces 1254 \n\nCompelled to cede Styria to Hungary, he makes war \nand recovers it, in consequence of a great victory 1260 \n\nHe inherits Carinthia, 1263 ; refuses to become em- \nperor of Germany, 1272 ; and to render homage to \nRodolph of Hapsburg, elected emperor . . . 1273 \n\nWar against Ottocar as a rebel : he is compelled to \ncede Austria, Carinthia, and Styria to Rodolph . 1274 \n\nThe war renewed : Ottocar perishes in the battle of \nMarchfeld 26 Aug. 1278 \n\nThe emperor Rodolph establishes the duchy of \nAustria, &c 27 Dec. 1282 \n\nAlbert I. assassinated by his nephew while attempt- \ning to enslave the Swiss . . . .1 May, 1308 \n\nSuccessful revolt of the Swiss .... 1307-9 \n\nThey totally defeat the Austrians under duke Leo- \npold, at Morgarten .... 16 Nov. 1315 \n\nThe Tyrol acquired 1363 \n\nThe duke Leopold imposes a toll on the Swiss ; \nwhich they resist with violence : lie makes war \non them, and is defeated and slain at Sempach \n\nJuly, 1386 \n\nDuke Albert V. obtains Bohemia and Hungary, and \nis elected emperor of Germany . . ., . . 1437 \n\nThe emperor Frederic III., as head of the house of \nHapsburg, creates the archduchy of Austria with \nsovereign power 6 Jan. 1453 \n\nAustria divided between him and his relatives, \n1457 ; war ensues between them till . . . . 1463 \n\nThe Low countries accrue to Austria by the mar- \nriage of Maximilian with Mary, the heiress of \nBurgundy 1477 \n\nAlso Spain, by the marriage of Philip I. of Austria, \nwith the heiress of Arragon and Castile . . 1496 \n\n* The empire is now divided into two parts, separated \nby the river Leithe. The Cis-Lcithan section comprises \n14 provincial diets : Galicia, Bohemia, Silesia, Moravia, \nlower and upper Austria, Styria, the Tyrol and Vorarl- \nberg, Salzburg, Carinthia, Carniola, Trieste, and Istria, \nDalmatia, and the Bukovina. The Trans-Leithan section \ncomprises Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia, Slavonia, and \nthe tity of Fiunie. \n\n\n\nBohemia and Hungary united to Austria under \n\nFerdinand I 1526 \n\nAustria harassed by Turkish invasions . . 1529-45 \nCharles V., reigning over Germany, Austria, Bo- \nhemia, Hungary, Spain, the Netherlands, and \ntheir dependencies, abdicates (see Spain) . . 1556 \nThe destructive 30 years\' war .... 1618-48 \n\nWar of Spanish succession 1701-14 \n\nMantua ceded to the emperor ... 3 Jan. 1708 \nBy treaty of Utrecht he obtains part of the duchy \n\nof Milan n April, 1713 \n\nBy treaty of Rastadt he acquires the Netherlands . 1714 \nNaples, &c. , added to his dominions . 15 Nov. 1715 \nFurther additions on the east (Temeswar, <fec.) by \n\nthe peace of Passarowitz 1718 \n\nNaples and Sicily given up to Spain . . . 1735 \nDeath of Charles VI. , the last sovereign of the male \nline of the house of Hapsburg ; his daughter, \nMaria Theresa, becomes queen of Hungary \n\n20 Oct. 1740 \n\nSilesian wars 1740-2 ; 1744-5 \n\nMaria Theresa is attacked by Prussia, France, Ba- \nvaria, and Saxony ; but supported by Great Britain 1741 \nFrancis, duke of Lorraine, who had married Maria \n\nTheresa in 1736, elected emperor . . . . 1745 \nPeace of Aix-la-Chapelle : Parma, Milan, &e. ceded \n\nto Spain 1748 \n\nSeven years\' war ; Silesia ceded to Prussia . . 1745-63 \nGalicia, &c. , acquired from Poland .... 1772 \nWar with France (see Battles) .... 1792-7 \nBy the treaty of Campo Formio, the emperor gives \nup Lombardy (which see) and obtains Venice \n\n15 Oct. 1797 \nTreaty of Luneville (more losses) .... 1801 \nFrancis II. , emperor of Germany, becomes Francis I. \xe2\x96\xa0 \nof Austria: declared hereditary emperor of Austria \n\n11 Aug. 1804 \nHis declaration against France . . .5 Aug. 1805 \nCapitulation of his army at Ulm . . 20 Oct. ,, \nWar : Napoleon enters Vienna . . 14 Nov. ,, \n\nAustrians and Russians defeated at Austerlitz, \n\n2 Dec. ,, \nBy treaty of Presburg, Austria loses Venice and the \n\nTyrol 1 Jan. 1806 \n\nVienna evacuated by the French . . .12 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \nDissolution of the Germanic confederation, and \n\nformal abdication of the emperor . . 6 Aug. ,, \nThe French again take Vienna . . .13 May, 1809 \nBut restore it at the peace ... 24 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nNapoleon marries the archduchess Maria Louisa, \nthe daughter of the emperor . . .1 April, 1810 \n\nCongress at Vienna 2 Oct. 1814 \n\nTreaty of Vienna 25 Feb. 1815 \n\n[Italian provinces restored with additions \xe2\x80\x94 Lom- \n\nbardo-Venetian kingdom established, 7 April.] \nFrancis I. dies ; Ferdinand I. succeeds . 2 March, 1835 \nNew treaty of commerce with England . 3 July, 1838 \nInsurrection at Vienna ; flight of Metternich, \n\n13 March, 1848 \nInsurrection in Italy, see Milan, Venice, and Sar- \ndinia . . . . . . .18 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAnother insurrection at Vienna ; the emperor flees \n\nto Inspruck 15-17 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nArchduke John appointed vioar-general of the \n\nempire 29 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nA constituent assembly meet at Vienna . 22 July, ,, \nRevolution in Hungary, see Hungary . 11 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nInsurrection of Vienna ; murder of count Latour, \n\n6 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe emperor abdicates in favour of his nephew, \n\nFrancis-Joseph 2 Dec. ,, \n\nConvention of Olmiitz . . . .29 Nov. 1850 \nThe emperor revokes the constitution of 4 March, \n\n1849 31 Dec. 1851 \n\nTrial by jury abolished in the empire . 15 Jan. 1852 \nDeath of prince Schwartzenburg, prime minister, \n\n4 April, ,, \nAttempted assassination of the emperor by Libenyi, \n\n18 Feb. ; who was executed . . . 28 Feb. 1853 \nCommercial treaty with Prussia . . 19 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nAustrians enter Danubian principalities . Aug. 1854 \nAlliance with England and France relative to \n\neastern question 2 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGreat reduction of the army . . -24 June, 1855 \nBy a concordat the pope acquires great power in the \nempire ... ... 18 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAmnesty for political offenders of 1848-9, 12 July, 1856 \n\n\n\nAUSTRIA. \n\n\n\n77 \n\n\n\nAUSTRIA. \n\n\n\nAustria remonstrates against the attacks of the free \nSardinian press 10 Feb. 1857 \n\nFirm reply of count Cavour . . .20 Feb. ,, \n\nAustrians quit the Danube principalities . March, ,, \n\nDiplomatic relations between Austria and Sardinia \nbroken off in consequence . . 23-30 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nEmperor and empress visit Hungary . May, ,, \n\nDeath of marshal Radetzky (aged 92) . . 5 Jan. 1858 \n\nExcitement throughout Europe, caused by the \naddress of the emperor Napoleon HI. to the \nAustrian ambassador : \xe2\x80\x94 "I regret that our rela- \ntions with your government are not as good as \nformerly, but I beg of you to tell the emperor \nthat my personal sentiments for him have not \nchanged" 1 Jan. 1859 \n\nThe emperor of Austria replied in almost the same \nwords ... ^ ... 4 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPrince Napoleon Bonaparte marries princess \nClotilde of Sardinia .... 30 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAustria prepares for war ; enlarges her armies in \nItaly ; and strongly fortifies the banks of the \nTicino, the boundary of her Italian provinces, and \nSardinia Feb. & March, ,, \n\nLord Cowley at Vienna on a " mission of peace," \n\n27 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nIntervention of Russia \xe2\x80\x94 proposal for a congress ; \ndisputes respecting the admission of Sardinia \n\xe2\x80\x94 Sardinia and France prepare for war, \n\nMarch <fc April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAustria demands the disarmament of Sardinia and \nthe dismissal of the volunteers from other states \nwithin three days .... 23 April, ,, \n\nThis demand rejected . . . .26 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Austrians cross the Ticino . . 26 April, ,, \n\nThe French troops enter Piedmont . . 27 April, ,, \n\nThe French emperor declares war (to expel the \nAustrians from Italy) . . . .3 May, ,, \n\nResignation of count Buol, foreign minister ; ap- \npointment of count Rechberg . 13-18 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Austrians defeated at Montebello, 20 May ; at \nPalestro, 30-31 May : at Magenta, 4 June ; at \nMalegnano (Marignano) . . . .8 June, ,, \n\nPrince Metternich dies, aged 86 (he had been \nactively engaged in the wars and negotiations of \nNapoleon I.) n June, ,, \n\nAustrians defeated at Solferino (near the Mincio) ; \nthe emperors of Austria and France and king of \nSardinia present .... 24 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nArmistice agreed upon, 6 July ; the emperors meet, \n\n11 July ; the preliminaries of peace signed at Villa \nFranca (Lombardy given up to Sardinia, and \nan Italian confederation proposed to be formed), \n\n12 July, ,, \nManifesto justifying the peace issued to the army, \n\n12 July ; to the people . . . .15 July, ,, \nPatent issued, granting greatly increased privileges \n\nto the Protestants, \xe2\x80\x94 announced . . Sept. ,, \n\nConference between the envoys of Austria and \nFrance at Zurich ... 8 Aug. to Sept. ,, \n\nMany national reforms proposed . . . Sept. ,, \n\nTreaty of Zurich, confirming the preliminaries cf \nVilla Franca, signed . . . .10 Nov. ,, \n\nDecrees removing Jewish disabilities, \n\n6, 10 Jan., 18 Feb. 1S60 \n\nPatent issued for the summoning the great imperial \ncouncil (Reichsrath), composed of representatives \nelected by the provincial diets . . 5 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDiscovery of great corruptions in the army financial \narrangements, a deficiency of about 1,700,000?. dis- \ncovered ; general Eynatten commits suicide ; 82 \npersons arrested March, ,, \n\nAustria protests against the annexation of Tuscany, \n&c, by Sardinia March, ,, \n\nBaron Briick, suspected of complicity in the army \nfrauds, dismissed 20 April ; commits suicide, \n\n23 April, ,, \n\nThe Reichsrath assembles, 30 May ; addressed by \nthe emperor 1 June, ,, \n\nLiberty of the press further restrained. . July, ,, \n\nUnsettled state of Hungary (which see) . July-Oct. ,, \n\nFriendly meeting of the emperor and the regent of \nPrussia at Tciplitz .... 26 July, ,, \n\nFree debates in the Reichsrath ; strictures on the \nconcordat, the finances, &c. ; proposals for sepa- \nrate constitutions for the provinces, Aug. &\xe2\x96\xa0 Sept. ,, \n\nThe Reichsrath adjourned ... 29 Sept. ,, \n\n\n\nDiploma conferring on the Reichsrath legislative \npowers, the control of the finances, <fec, a mani- \nfesto issued to the populations of the empire (not \nwell received) 20 Oct. i860 \n\nMeeting of the emperor with the emperor of Russia \nand prince regent of Prussia at Warsaw : no im- \nportant result 20-26 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe government professes non-intervention in \nItaly, but increases the army in Venetia, \n\nOct. & Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe empress goes to Madeira for health . Nov. \n\nSale of Venetia, publicly spoken of, is repudiated in \n\nDec. , y \n\nMinisterial crisis : M. Schmerling becomes minister \n\xe2\x80\x94 more political concessions . . .13 Dec. , r \n\nThe proscribed Hungarian, count Teleki, at Dres- \nden, is given up to Austria, which causes general \nindignation, about 20 Dec. ; he is released on parole \n\n31 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAmnesty for political offences in Hungary, Croatia, \nRepublished 7 j an . 1861 \n\nReactionary policy of the court leads to increased \ngeneral disaffection . . . Jan. &: Feb. , r \n\nThe statutes of the new constitution for the \nAustrian monarchy published . . .26 Feb. \n\nCivil and political rights granted to Protestants,\' \nthroughout the empire except in Hungary and \nVenice 8 April, ,, \n\nMeeting of Reichsrath\xe2\x80\x94 no deputies present from \nHungary, Croatia, Transylvania, Venetia, or Istria \n\n29 April, ,, \n\nMinistry of marine created .... Jan. 1862 \n\nInundation of the Danube, causing great distress, \n\n4 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nIncreased taxation proposed . . . March, \n\nAt an imperial council, the emperor present, the \nprinciple of ministerial responsibility is resolved \non 26 April, ,, \n\nDeficiency of 1,400,000?. in financial statement \xe2\x80\x94 \nindignation of the Reichsrath . . . June, \n\nAmnesty to condemned political offenders in Hun- \ngary proclaimed z g Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nReduction in the army assented to ; and a personal \nliberty law (resembling our habeas corpus act) \npassed Dec. \n\nInsurrection in Russian Poland, Jan. ; Austria joins \nin the intercession of England and France April 1863 \n\nMeeting of the German sovereigns (except kings of \nPrussia, Holland, and Denmark) with the emperor \nof Austria at Frankfort, by his invitation ; the \ndraft of a reform of the federal constitution \nagreed to X 6_ 3I Aug \n\nTransylvanian deputies accept the constitution, \nand take seats in the Reichsrath . . 20 Oct! \n\nAustria joins Prussia in war with Denmark (see \nDenmark) Jan . l86 \n\nGalicia and Cracow declared to be in a state of siege \n\n29 Feb. ,,. \n\nThe Archduke Maximilian becomes emperor of \nMexico (see Mexico) .... April \n\nThe emperor and theking of Prussia meet at Carlsbad \n\n22 June, ,\xe2\x80\x9e \n\nResignation of count Rechberg, foreign minister, \nsucceeded by count Mensdorfl\'-Pouilly 27 Oct! \n\nPeace with Denmark, signed at Vienna . 30 Oct! " \n\nEmperor opens Reichsrath, 14 Nov. ; great freedom " \nof debate ; the state of siege in Galicia censured \n\nDec. ,. \n\nAustria supports the confederation in the dispute \nrespecting the duchies Dec. \n\nApparent reunion between Austria and Prussia \n\nGreat financial difficulty ; proposed reduction in the \narmy by the chambers .... Jan. \n\nContest between the government and the chambers " \n\nApril, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nReported failure of Mr. Hutt\'s mission to Vienna \nto promote free trade .... June\' \n\nNew ministry formed ; count Mensdorffas nominal " \npremier; counts Belcredi and Esterhazyas minis- \nters: conciliatory measures towards Hungary \nproposed 2? July \n\nConvention of Gastein (see Gasteiri) signed i. ( Aug. \n\nEmperor\'s rescript suppressing the constitution, \nwith the view of giving autonomy to Hungary \n(which see) 20 y e ,,i \n\nRejoicings in Hungary, but dissatisfaction in Aus- \ntria, Croatia, &c Nov., Dec. \n\n\n\nAUSTRIA. \n\n\n\n78 \n\n\n\nAUSTRIA. \n\n\n\nTreaty of commerce with Great Britain, signed \n\n16 Dec. 18 \nAmnesty for Italy issued i Jan. 18 \n\nWarm disputes with Prussia (aggressive), respecting \n\nthe settlement of Holstein . . Jan., Mar. ,, \nPreparations for war begin . . . March, ,, \n\'The archduke Albrecht made commander of the \nsouthern army, 6 May ; Benedek of the Northern \n\n12 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nWar declared by Prussia, 18 June ; by Italy (which \n\nsee) 20 June, ,, \n\nThe Austrians enter Silesia, 18 June ; and the Prus- \nsians Bohemia 23 June \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\'The Italians defeated by the archduke Albrecht, at \n\nCustozza 24 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPrussian victories at Nachod, &c. . 27-29 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nBenedek totally defeated at Koniggratz or Sadowa \n\n3J ul Y. .. \n(For details of the war see Prussia and Italy.) \n\nThe emperor cedes Venetia to the emperor Napoleon, \nand requests intervention ... 4 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPreliminaries of peace signed at Nikolsburg, 26 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTreaty of peace with Prussia signed at Prague, \n\n23 Aug. \n\nTreaty of peace with Italy signed at Vienna ceding \nVenetia, 3 Oct. The iron crown given up n Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Quadrilateral and Venice surrendered to the \nItalians n-19 Oct. ,, \n\nBaron Ferdinand von Beust, late Saxon minister- \nof foreign affairs, made Austrian foreign minister \n\n30 Oct. ,, \n\nMeeting of the Reichsrath . . . 19 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCommercial treaty with France (to commence 1 Jan. \n1867), signed 11 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGreat dissension among the nationalities of the em- \npire Dec. ,, \n\nExtraordinary diet convoked (for 25 Feb.). 3 Jan. 181 \n\nEstablishment of autonomyfor Hungary announced, \nmainly the work of Von Beust ; resignation of \nBelcredi, 4 Feb. ; Von Beust made president of \nthe council 7 Feb. ,, \n\nRescript restoring a separate ministry for Hungary, \ncount Andrassy president . . . 17 Feb. ,. \n\nDeath of archduke Stephen (palatine of Hungary in \n1848) ... .... Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCommercial treaty with Italy, signed . 23 April, ,, \n\nReichsrath opened at Vienna . . .20 May, ,, \n\nThe Czechs (of Bohemia and Moravia), Croats, Sla- \nvonians, Serbs, Roumans (of Transylvania), and \nRussinians (of Galicia), protest against absorp- \ntion, and demand national legislative powers \n\nMay & July, ,, \n\nPainful death of the archduchess Matilda through \nburns 6 June, ,. \n\nThe emperor and empress crowned king and queen \nof Hungary at Buda . . . .8 June, ,, \n\nVon Beust made chancellor of the empire, 23 June, ,, \n\nThe sultan visits Vienna. . . 27 July \xe2\x80\x94 iAug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe emperors of Austria and France meet at Salzburg \n\n18-23 Aug. ,, \n\nArrangements for the dividing the financial affairs \nof Austria and Hungary, signed . . 13 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nChanges (respecting marriage and education) in the \nconcordat, proposed Sept. ,, \n\n28 bishops demand the maintenance of the concordat \n\n28 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLetter from the emperor to cardinal Rausch, de- \nclaring for complete liberty of conscience in oppo- \nsition to the concordat ; the concordat almost \nannulled by the lower house .... Oct. ,, \n\nEmperor of Austria and king of Prussia meet at \nOos, near Baden-Baden . . . .22 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nEmperor arrives at Paris, 23 Oct. ; leaves 5 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDualism accepted by the Reichsrath at Vienna \n\nNov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNew Austrian ministry under prince Auersperg \nconstituted 30 Dec. ,, \n\nCivil marriages bill (annulling clerical jurisdiction \nover them) passed by the upper house, after sharp \nresistance, 21-23 March ; received the emperor\'s \nassent * 25 May, i8( \n\nGerman sharp-shooting match, held at Vienna, \n\n26 Jxily, ,, \n\nVon Beust justifies the maintenance of an army of \n800,000, n Oct. ; is made a count . . Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nContinued opposition of the clergy to the government \n\nJan. i8\xc2\xa3 \n\n\n\nThe frigate Radetsky blown up, about 340 lives lost \n\n20 Feb. 1869 \nThe crown prince of Prussia visits Vienna 7 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe emperor visits the Bast ; \xe2\x80\x94 at Jerusalem, 10 \nNov. ; present at the opening of the Suez canal \n\n17 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nSuccessful insurrection against the conscription in \n\nDalmatia, Oct; ; ceased .... Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe Reichsrath opened by the emperor at Vienna \n\n13 Dec. ,, \nMinisterial crisis, Jan. : the Cis-Leithan ministry \nresigns ; count Potocki, prime minister \n\n4 April, 1870 \nNeutrality in the Franco-Prussian war announced \n\n18 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe concordat with Rome declared to be sus- \npended in consequence of the promulgation of \nthe doctrine of papal infallibility . . 30 July, ,, \n\nThe Reichsrath opened by the emperor ; no deputies \nfrom Bohemia 17 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDissension between the federal and national parties \n\n29 Sept., Oct. ,, \n\nThe Reichsrath adjourned . . . . 22 Nov. ,, \n\nThe ministry support Great Britain in opposing the \nRussian repudiation of the treaty of Paris (see \nRussia) Nov. , , \n\nAustrian army, 864,869 regulars ; 187,527 landwehr \n(militia) Dec. ,, \n\nThe new German empire recognised by the emperor \n\nJan. 1871 \n\nDismissal of Potocki ; count Hohenwart, minister \n\nFeb. ,, \n\nMeeting of the Reichsrath . . . . 20 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDeath of adm. Tegethoff, much lamented 7 April, ,, \n\nFirst meeting of " Old Catholics " at Vienna, \n\n26 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAn international exhibition at Vienna in 1873, pro- \nposed Sept. ,, \n\nMeeting of emperor with emperor William 6-8 Sept. ,, \n\nMeeting of 17 provincial diets ; struggle between \nthe (Slavonian) conservatives and the (German) \nconstitutionalists renewed . \xe2\x80\xa2 -14 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPolitical crisis : dissension between German and \nSlavonian parties, Oct. ; resignation of the Hohen- \nwart ministry 25 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nA ministry formed under baron Kellersperg 4 Nov. ,, \n\nResignation of count Beust, the arch-chancellor ; \nmuch excitement 6 Nov. ,, \n\nCount Andrassy (see Hungary, 1849 et seq.), having \nopposed von Beust\'s policy of alliance with \nFrance, succeeds him as minister of the imperial \nhousehold and of foreign affairs ; Von Beust to be \nambassador at London ; Bonyay, premier of Hun- \ngarian ministry 13-14 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNew Austrian ministry formed by prince Auer- ,, \nsperg about 25 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Reichsrath opened by the emperor with speech \nannouncing political and educational reforms \n\n28 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNew constitutional law promulgated, giving the \nemperor power to order new elections of the \nchambers 13 March, 1872 \n\nMeeting of the emperor with the emperor of Ger- \nmany and other sovereigns at Berlin 6-12 Sept. ,, \n\nReform bill passed changing the Reichsrath into a \nnational representative assembly . 10 March, 1873 \n\nGreat international exhibition at Vienna ; opening, \n\n1 May, ,, \n\nFinancial crisis through overtrading in 1872 ; \npanic in May, ,, \n\nVisits to Vienna ; the prince of Wales, 28 April ; \nthe czar of Russia, 1 June ; the shah of Persia, \n30 July ; the king of Italy, 17 Sept. ; the emperor \nof Germany 17 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nElections for the Reichsrath ; 228 constitutional- \nists ; 125 federals, 30 Oct. ; the Reichsrath opened \nby the emperor, 5 Nov. ; 25th anniversary of the \nemperor\'s accession celebrated throughout the \nempire ; amnesty for political offenders . 2 Dec. ,, \n\nThe emperor at St. Petersburg . . 13 Feb. 1874 \n\nEncyclical letter from the pope condemning the \nnew ecclesiastical laws, dated . 7 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nProtest of the Austrian bishops ; adoption by both \nparties of Cavour\'s cry, " A free church in a free \nstate " April, ,, \n\nThe empress at the Isle of Wight . July- Aug. ,, \n\n\n\nAUSTEIA. \n\n\n\nAUSTKIA. \n\n\n\nOfenheim, railway financier connected with Messrs. \nBrassey, after long trial for fraud, acquitted at \nVienna 27 Feb. 1875 \n\nThe emperor warmly received at Venice by the \nking of Italy 5 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\ninauguration of the new bed of the Danube by the \nemperor ...... 30 May, ,, \n\nThe czar meets the emperor at Bger . 28 June, ,, \n\nDeath of the ex-emperor Ferdinand . 29 June, ,, \n\nKoloman de Tisza, president of Hungarian ministry, \n\n20 Oct. ,, \n\nDeficiency in the budget for 1876 ; revenue about \n37,800,000?. ; expenditure, 40,300,000?. . Nov. ,, \n\nDeath of cardinal Rausoher, prince bishop of \nVienna 24 Nov. ,, \n\nThe czar and the emperor meet at Reichstadt ; \nagree to neutrality in the Servio-Turkish war, \n\n8 July, 1876 \n\nNew treaty of commerce with Great Britain, signed \n\n5 Dec. ,, \n\nDeclaration of neutrality in Russo- Turkish war by \nAustrian and Hungarian ministers ; foreign \npolicy to be for "the interest of the monarchy, \nto the exclusion of all antipathies and sym- \npathies," M. de Tisza (Hungarian) . 26 June, 1877 \n\nResignation of Austrian ministry, 26 Jan. ; with- \ndrawn 5 Feb. 1878 \n\nPrince Auersperg announces disagreement with \nthe proposed Russian conditions of peace, 19 Feb. ,, \n\nDeath of archduke Francis Charles, the emperor\'s \nfather 8 March, ,, \n\nThe Sphinx burnt at sea, near Cape St. Elie, 500 \nperish. 8 March, ,, \n\nResignation of ministry ; withdrawn . 6, 7 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCount Andrassy at the Berlin conference \n\n13 June \xe2\x80\x94 13 July ,, \n\nAustria to occupy and administer Bosnia and \nHerzegovina, by treaty of Berlin . . 13 July, ,, \n\nThe Austrians enter, and war ensues (see Bosnia) \n\n20 July, ,, \n\nResignation of Auersperg ministry announced to \nthe Reichsrath 22 Oct. ,, \n\nBosnia occupied (except Novi Bazar) . . Oct. ,, \n\nBaron de Pretis fails to form a ministry . 30 Oct. ,, \n\nNew ministry under Dr. Stremayr . 15 Feb. 1879 \n\nSilver wedding of the emperor and empress kept, \n\n24 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLiberal majority at elections . . \'. nJuly, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nResignation of count Andrassy, the premier ; \nministry formed by count Edw. Taaff\'e, 12 Aug. ; \nbaron von Haymerle, foreign minister 22 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBismarck\'s visit to Vienna ; warmly received \n\n21-24 Sept. ,, \n\nReichsrath opened ; the Czech deputies attend \n\n8 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAndrassy formally resigns : succeeded by baron \nHaymerle as foreign minister and president of \nthe council 8 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nOpening of all the diets of the empire . 8 June, 1880 \n\nSudden death of baron Haymerle . . 10 Oct. 1881 \n\nThe king and queen of Italy warmly received at \nVienna 28-31 Oct. ,, \n\nCount Gustav Kalnoky becomes foreign minister, \n\n20 Nov. , , \n\nTemporary rupture with Roumania respecting the \nDanube about 27 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nInsurrection in Herzegovina, &c. ; several small \nengagements with Austrians, 16-31 Jan. ; insur- \ngents defeated 1882 \n\nProvisional government said to have been formed \nby insurgents . \xe2\x80\xa2. . . . about 9 Feb. ,, \n\nAlleged defeat of insurgents at Glavalicevo and in \nother small engagements . . 16 Feb. et seq. ,, \n\nSevere conflict at Cettinje ; alleged great loss by \nAustrians ; small loss by insurgents . 25 Feb. ,, \n\nMahometans sympathise with Christian insurgents \n\nFeb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSuccessful advance of the Austrians ; capture of \nDragali announced .... 14 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nInsurgents adopting guerilla warfare about 12 May, ,, \n\n" New German People\'s party " formed, manifesto \npublished about 29 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFall of a railway bridge over the Drave ; about 27 \nsoldiers in a train drowned . . .23 Sept. , \n\nInsurrection suppressed, announced . 26 Oct. ,, \n\nExecution of Overdank, a soldier, for attempted \nassassination of emperor . . . 20 Dec. \n\n\n\n600th anniversary of the establishment of the \nHouse of Hapsburg celebrated throughout the \nempire 27 Dec. \n\nSlavonic agitation against Germans and the Mag- \nyars and taxation, see Croatia., Aug. \xe2\x80\x94 Sept. ; con- \nciliatory policy adopted by the government, Sept. \n\nMarriage of the archduke Rodolph and the princess \nStephanie of Belgium, 10 May, 1881 ; birth of \nPrincess 2 Sept. \n\nMuch social disaffection at Vienna ; two detective \npolicemen assassinated, Hlubek, Bloch . Jan. \n\n(Corporal Hermann Stellmacher, assassin of Bloch, \ncaptured), 25 Jan. ; a great conspiracy sus- \npected ; law decreed by count Taaffe repressing \npublic meetings, the press, trials by jury, <fec, \n30 Jan. ; many arrested or expelled . . Jan. \n\nAnother policeman murdered . . .9 Feb. \n\nGovernment measures adopted by the chambers \n\nIS Feb. \n\n700 expelled at Vienna . . about 15 March, \n\nThe crown prince and princess visit Constantinople \n17 April, et seq. \n\nHugo Schenk and Schlossarek executed for murder \nof several servant girls . . . 22 April, \n\nStellmacher executed .... 8 Aug. \n\nHans Makart, historical painter, died . 3 Oct. \n\nGrand funeral at Vienna .... 6 Oct. \n\nFor 1885; estimated revenue 504,800,0008.; ex- \npenditure 519,800,0008 Dec. \n\nHeavy bank frauds ; suicide of culprits . . Dec. \n\nPrince Adolph Auersperg, statesman, died . 5 Jan. \n\nDissolution of the Reichsrath, 22 April ; meeting of \nthe new Reichsrath .... 22 Sept. \n\nImperial assent given to the reform act of the upper \nhouse 30 April, \n\nCordial meeting of the Emperor and the Czar at \nKremsier in Moravia . . . 25-26 Aug. \n\nPolitical crisis relating to duties on Russian petro- \nleum, end of May, settled . . about 2 June, \n\nDeath of Count F. von Beust, great liberal states- \nman, ex-chancellor .... 24 Oct. \n\nIncreased army estimates voted . . 26 Feb. \n\nTreaty of alliance with Germany and Italy signed \n\n13 March, \n\nAnarchists sentenced to imprisonment for dynamite \nplot 28 March, \n\nSuccessful military manoeuvres in Transylvania \n\nSept. \n\nPanic at the Bourse at Vienna, through article in \nthe Involute Russe (see Russia) . 16-17 Dec. \n\nMoney granted for war preparations . 19 Dec. \n\nDefensive Treaty with Germany against Russian or \notheraggression, 7 Oct. 1879; first published 3 Feb. \n\nVisit of the German Emperor William II., at Vienna \n\n3 Oct. \n\nChanges in the Taaffe ministry . . . Oct. \n\nFortieth anniversary of the Emperor\'s accession \ncelebrated by charities .... 2 Dec. \n\nSuicide of the Archduke Rodolph, heir to the \nthrone, 30 Jan. ; solemn funeral . . 5 Feb. \n\nChanges in the cabinet, announced . . .March, \n\nNew army bill as amended by the Hungarian diet \nadopted by the upper house . . 8 April, \n\nCatholic congress of nobles and clergy met at \nVienna 29 April, \n\nDeath of count Alfred Potocki, statesman, aged 72, \nabout 20 May, \n\nThe emperor and his nephew visit Berlin \n\n12-15 Aug. \n\nTemporary reconciliation of the Czechs and Ger- \nmans in Bohemia in a conference, by the inter- \nvention of the emperor . . . 17-19 Jan. \n\nFormation of the Anglo- Austrian printing and pub- \nlishing company in Vienna (Lord Mayor Isaacs \nand others, directors), middle . . Feb. \n[Reported unsuccessful, March, 1891.] \n\nCount Julius Andrassy dies in Istria . iS Feb. \n\nThirty-two persons out of 62 charged, convicted of \ncriminal practices in Galicia connected with emi- \ngration ; four months trial ; sentence, 4A years \nand other terms of imprisonment 12 March, \n\nRiot of about 1,000 workmen at Biala on the Gali- \ncian frontier, suppressed by military ; 3 men \nkilled and about 14 died of wounds 23 April, \n\nLabour agitation, strikes with rioting in different \nprovinces (see Vienna), April, 1890, gradually sub- \nsides . .... May, \n\n\n\niS36 \n1887 \n\n\n\nAUSTRIA. \n\n\n\n80 \n\n\n\nAUXERRE DECLARATION. \n\n\n\nThe May day demonstration in favour of an eight \nhours labour day passes off tranquilly at Vienna, \n&c i May, 1890 \n\nMarriage of the emperor\'s youngest daughter, arch- \nduchess Marie Valerie, to her cousin, the arch- \nduke Francis Salvator ... 31 July, ,, \n\nEdward von Bauernfeld, poet and dramatist, dies, \naged 88 10 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAustrian fleet under archduke Stephen, reviewed \nby queen Victoria off Cowes, Isle of Wight \n\n11 Aug. ,, \n\nGreat loss of life and property through storms and \nfloods 12-14 Aug. \xc2\xbb \n\nCordial meeting of the Austrian and German em- \nperors at Rhonstock in Silesia, 17-20 Sept., at \nVienna I_ 8 Oct. ,, \n\nThe archduke John of the Tuscan branch, who \nresigned his dignities and took the name of \nJohann Orth, Oct. 1889, became captain of a mer- \nchant ship, the St. Margaret, supposed to have \nbeen lost off the coast of S. America Aug., re- \nported \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 Oct. ,, \n\nThe compromise between the Germans and the \nCzechs in Bohemia not effected, through the oppo- \nsition of the young Czechs ; see Bohemia 30 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCoal mine explosion at Polish Ostrau ; about 50 \nmen perish 3 Jan. 1891 \n\nDissolution of the reichsrath ; liberal manifesto \nissued by the government . . -24 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe archduke Franz Ferdinand d\'Bste, heir to the \nemperor, warmly received at St. Petersburg, Feb. ; \nat Moscow 14 Feb. ,, \n\nResult of elections : German Liberals, no; Poles, \n57 ; young Czechs, 36 ; Old Czechs, 10 ; Clericals, \n31; Bohemian Conservatives, 18; Miscellaneous, \n93 ; total, 353 ; reported . . 15 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe German Liberals and Poles support count \nTaaffe\'s ministry, about . . .26 March, ,, \n\nThe reichsrath opened .... n April, ,, \n\nNew treaty of commerce between Austria-Hungary \nand Germany, signed at Vienna . . 3 May, ,, \n\nThe triple alliance renewed ... 28 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMilitary manoeuvres at Horn, the emperor and the \nGerman erajjeror present . . 3 Sept. et seq. ,, \n\nNew commercial treaty with Germany, Italy, Bel- \ngium, and Switzerland, adopted \xe2\x96\xa0 by the lower \nhouse, 19 Jan., by the senate . . .25 Jan. 1892 \n\nConference of Austrian bishops at Vienna . March, ,, \n\nCurrency reform bill passed . . . 27 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n(See Germany, Hungary, Vienna, &c.) \n\nMargraves or Austria. \nLeopold I., 982; Albert I., 1018 ; Ernest, 1056; Leo- \npold II., 1075 ; Leopold III., 1096; Albert II. ,1136; Leo- \npold IV., 1136 ; Henry II., 1142 (made a duke, 1156). \n\nDukes. \n\n1 1 56. Henry II. \n\n1 1 77. Leopold V. He made prisoner Richard I. of Eng- \nland when returning incognito from the crusade, \nand was compelled to surrender him to the em- \nperor Henry VI. \n\n1 194. Frederic I., the catholic. \n\n1 198. Leopold VI., the glorious. Killed in battle. \n\n1230. Frederic II., the warlike. Killed in a battle with \nthe Hungarians, 15 June, 1246. \nInterregnum. \n\n1276. Rodolph I. \n\n1282. Albert I. and his brother Rodolph II. Albert \nbecomes emperor of Germany, 1298. \n\n1308. Frederic I. and Leopold I. \n\n1326. Frederic I. \n\n1330. Albert II. and Otho, his brother. \n\n1339. Albert II. \n\n1358. Rodolph IV. \n\n1365. Albert III. and Leopold II. or III. (killed at \nSempach). \n\n1395. William I. and brothers, and their cousin Albert IV. \n\n141 1. The same. The provinces divided into the duchies \nof Austria and Carinthia, and the county of \nTyrol. \n\n141 1. Albert V., duke of Austria; obtains Bohemia and \nMoravia ; elected king of Hungary and emperor, \n1437 ; dies, 1439 ; succeeded by his posthumous \nson, \n\n1439. Ladislaus, who dies childless, 1457. \n\n1457. The emperor Frederic III. and Albert VI. \n\n\n\n1493. Maximilian I., son of Frederick III. (archduke), \nemperor ; see Germany. \n\nEmperors. \n\n1804. Francis I. (late Francis II. of Germany), styled \nemperor of Austria only, n Aug. 1804 ; resigned \nempire of Germany, 6 Aug. 1806 ; died 2 Mar. 1835. \n\n1835. Ferdinand, his son, 2 March ; abdicated in favour \nof his nephew (his brother Francis-Charles having \nrenounced his rights), 2 Dec. 1848 ; died 29 June, \n1875. \n\n1848. Francis-Joseph (son of Francis-Charles), born 18 \nAug. 1830 ; succeeded, 2 Dec. 1848 ; married \n24 April, 1854, to Elizabeth of Bavaria ; crowned \nking of Hungary, 8 June, 1867 ; their son, the \narchduke Rodolph, born 21 Aug. 1858 ; married \nto princess Stephanie Clotilde of Belgium, 10 \nMay, 1881 ; suicide, 30 Jan. 1889. \n\nHeir presumptive, brother, archduke Charles Louis, \nborn 30 July, 1833 ; his son, archduke Francis \nFerdinand, born 18 Dec. 1863. \n\nAUTHORS. See Copyrights. The Society of \nAuthors established for self-defence, to maintain \ncopyrights, &c, by sir W". Frederick Pollock, cardi- \nnal Manning, and others, lord Tennyson, president, \nmet 18 Feb., incorporated May, 1884. Conferences \nheld in March, 1887. \nIt sent a deputation to the celebration of the 50th \n\nanniversary of the Societe des Gens de Lettres at \n\nParis, 10 Dec. 1887. \n\nAUTO DA FE (Act of faith), the term given \nto the punishment of a heretic, generally burning \nalive, inflicted by the Inquisition {which see). \n\nAUTOMATON FIGURES (or An- \nDROIDES), made to imitate living actions, are of \nearly invention. Archytas\' flying dove was formed \nabout 400 B.C. Friar Bacon is said to have made a \nbrazen head which spoke, a.d. 1264. Albertus \nMagnus spent thirty years in making another. A \ncoach and two horses, with a footman, a page, a \nlady inside, were made by Camus for Louis XIV. \nwhen a child ; the horses and figures moved na- \nturally, variously, and perfectly, 1649. Vaueanson, \nin 1738, made an artificial duck, which performed \nmany functions of a real one \xe2\x80\x94 eating, drinking, \nand quacking ; and he also made a flute-player. \nThe writing automaton, exhibited in 1769, was a \npentagraph worked by a confederate out of sight. \nThe automaton chess-player, exhibited the same \nyear, was also worked by a hidden person ; so \nwas the "invisible girl," 1800. Maelzel made a \ntrumpeter about 1809. Early in this century, an au- \ntomaton was exhibited in London which pronounced \nseveral sentences with tolerable distinctness. The \n" anthropoglossus," an alleged talking-machine, \nexhibited at St. James\'s hall, London, July 1864, \nwas proved to be a gross imposition. The exhi- \nbition of the talking-machine of professor Faber \nof Vienna, in London, began 27 Aug. 1870, at the \nPalais Uoyal, Argyll-street, W. The automatic \nchess-player at the Crystal Palace, 1873. Psycho, \nan automaton card-player, invented by J. N. Mas- \nkelyne and John Algernon Clarke, exhibited in \nLondon, Jan. 1875. An automaton hare was hunted \nat Hendon, near London, 9 Sept. 1876. \nAutomatic machine for producing photographic \n\nportraits on metal for id., exhibited by Messrs. \n\nSalter & Co. , West Bromwich . . March, 1890 \n\nAUTONOMISTS, a name assumed by a \nsocialist party in Paris (see Possibilists) , 1887. \n\nAUTOTYPOGrRAPHY, a process of pro- \nducing a metal plate from drawings, made known \nby Mr. Wallis, in April, 1863 ; it resembled Nature- \nprinting {which see). \n\nAUXERRE DECLARATION, see France, \nMay, 1 866. \xe2\x96\xa0 \n\n\n\nAVA. \n\n\n\n81 \n\n\n\nAZTECS. \n\n\n\nAVA, the capital of the Burmese empire from \n1364 to 1740, and from 1822 to 1838. Destroyed by \n\xe2\x80\xa2an earthquake in 1839. See Burmah. \n\nAVARS, barbarians who ravaged Fannonia, \nand annoyed the eastern empire in the 6th and 7th \ncenturies, subdued by Charlemagne about 799, after \nan eight years\' war. \n\nAVEBURY, or ABTTRY (Wiltshire). Here \nare the remains of the largest so-called Druidical \nwork in this country. They have been surveyed \nby Aubrey, 1648; Dr. Stukeley, 1720; and sirR. C. \nHoare, in 1812, and by others. Much information \nmay be obtained from Stukeley\'s " Abury " (1743), \nand Hoare\'s "Ancient Wiltshire" (1812-21). \nMany theories have been put forth, but the object \nof these remains is still unknown. They are con- \nsidered to have been set up during the " stone age," \ni.e., when weapons and implements were mainly \nformed of that material. \n\nAVEIN, or AvAIKTE (Luxemburg, Belgium). \nHere the French and Dutch defeated the Spaniards, \n\xe2\x80\xa220 May, 1635. \n\n" AVE MARIA ! " the salutation of the \nangel Gabriel to the Virgin {Luke i. 28), was made \na formula of devotion by pope John XXI. about \n1326. In the beginning of the 15th century Vin- \ncetitius Ferrerius used it before his discourses. \nBingham. \n\nAVENIN- The stimulating qualities of this \nnitrogenous alkaloid in oats were discovered by Mr. \n\'Sanson in 1882. \n\nAVENUE THEATRE, Thames Embank- \nment, opened 11 March, 1882. \n\nAVIGNON, a city, S. E. France, ceded by \nPhilip III. to the pope in 1273. The papal seat \nwas removed by Clement V. to Avignon, in 1309. \nIn 1348 Clement VI. purchased the sovereignty from \nJane, countess of Provence and queen of Naples. \nIn 1408, the French, wearied of the schism, ex- \npelled Benedict XIII. , and Avignon ceased to be \nthe seat of the papacy. Here were held nine \ncouncils (1080- 1 45 7). Avignon was seized and re- \nstored several times by the French kings ; the last \ntime restored, 1773. It was claimed by the national \nassembly, 1 791, and was confirmed to France by \nthe congress of sovereigns in 1815. In Oct. 1791, \nhorrible massacres took place here. See Popes, \n1309-94. \n\nAXE, WEDGE, LEVER, and various tools \nin common use, are said to have been invented by \nDaedalus, an artificer of Athens, to whom also is \nascribed the invention of masts and sails for ships, \n1240 B.C. Many tools are represented on the \nEgyptian monuments. \n\nAXUM, or AUXUME, a town in Abyssinia \nsaid to have been the capital of a kingdom whose \npeople were converted to Christianity by Frumen- \ntius about 330, and were allies of Justinian, 533. \n\nAYACTJCHO (Peru). Here the Peruvians \nfinally achieved their independence by defeating \nthe Spaniards, 9 Dec. 1824. \n\nAYDE, or AIDE, the tax paid by the vassal to \nthe chief lord upon urgent occasions. In France \nand England an aide was due for knighting the \nking\'s eldest son. One was demanded by Philip \nthe Fair, 13 13. The aide due upon the birth of a \nprince, ordained by the statute of Westminster \n(Edward I.) 1285, was not to be levied until he \nwas fifteen years of age, for the ease of the subject. \nThe aide for the marriage of the king\'s eldest \ndaughter could not be demanded in this country \nuntil her seventh year. In feudal tenures there \nwas an aide for ransoming the chief lord ; so when \n\n\n\nour Richard I. was kept a prisoner by the emperor \nof German)\', an aide of 20s., to redeem him, was \nenforced upon every knight\'s fee ; see Benevolence. \n\nAYLESBURY, Buckinghamshire, was reduced \nby the West Saxons in 571. Incorporated by charter \nin 1554; absorbed into the county 1889. The \nancient parish church was restored by sir G. G. \nScott, 1849-67. Visited by the queen 14 May, \n\n1890. Population 1881, 7,795; 1891,8,674. \nAYLESFORD (Kent). Here, it is said, the \n\nBritons were victorious over the Saxon invaders, \n455, and Horsa was killed. \n\nAYR, capital of Ayrshire, S. W. Scotland : char- \ntered and endowed by William the Lion, 12th \ncentury ; fortified by Oliver Cromwell. \xe2\x80\x94 By a sud- \nden fire at Templeton\'s carpet works, 29 persons \nperished, 16 June, 1876. Population, 1881, 20,821 ; \n\n1891, 24,800. \nAZINCOUR, see Agincourt. \n\nAZOFF, SEA OE, the Palus Mseotis of the \nancients, communicates by the strait of Yeni- \nkale (the Bosporus Cimmerius) with the Black \nSea, and is entirely surrounded by Russian terri- \ntory; Taganrog and Kertch being the principal \nplaces. An expedition, composed of British, French, \nand Turkish troops, commanded by sir G. Brown, \narrived at Kertch, 24 May, 1855, when the Russians \nretired, after blowing up the fortifications. On the \n25th the allies marched upon Yenikale, which also \noffered no resistance. On the same evening the \nallied fleet entered the Sea of Azoff\', and in a few \ndays completed their occupation of it, after captur- \ning a large number of merchant vessels, &c. An \nimmense amount of stores was destroyed by the \nRussians to prevent them falling into the hands of \nthe allies. \n\nAZOIMIDE, a compound of hydrogen and \nnitrogen (azote), a very explosive gas, obtained \nfrom organic sources, such as benzoyl-glycollic acid \nand hippuric acid, by prof. Curtius in 1890. It \nforms salts by combination with metals ; it is \ndescribed in Nature, 10 Dec. 1891. \n\nAZORES, or Western Isles (N. Atlantic), \n\nbelonging to Portugal, the supposed site of the \nancient Atlantis, are said to have been discovered \nin the 15th century by Vanderberg of Bruges, who \nwas driven on their coasts by the weather. Cabral, \nsent by the Portuguese court, fell in with St. Mary\'s \nin 1432, and in 1457 they were all discovered and \nnamed Azores from the number of goshawks found \non them. They were given by Alfonso V. to the \nduchess of Burgundy in 1466, and colonised by \nFlemings. They were subject to Spain 1580-1640. \nThe isle Terceira, during the usurpation of dom \nMiguel, declared for Donna Maria, 1829, and a \ngovernment was established at the capital Angra, \n1830-33. A volcano at St. George\'s destroyed the \ntown of Ursulina, May, 1808; and in 181 1 a volcano \nappeared near St. Michael\'s, in the sea, where the \nwater was eighty fathoms deep ; an island then \nformed gradually disappeared. A destructive earth- \nquake lasting 12 days, happened in St. Michael\'s, \n1591- \n\nAZOTE, the name given by French chemists \nto nitrogen {which see). \n\nAZOTUS, see Ashdod. \n\nAZTECS, the ruling tribe in Mexico at the time \nof the Spanish invasion (1519). In June, 1853, two \npretended Aztec children were exhibited in London. \nThey were considered by professor Owen to be \nmerely South American dwarfs. They were married \nin London, 1 April, 1867, and exhibited for some \ntime after. \n\n\n\nB. \n\n\n\nBAAL. \n\n\n\n82 \n\n\n\nBABI-ISM. \n\n\n\nBAAL (Lord), the male deity of the Phoenician \nnations, frequently worshipped by the Israelites, \nespecially by Ahab, 918 B.C. His priests and \nvotaries were massacred by Jehu, and his temple \ndefiled, 884 B.C. \n\nBAALBEO, HELIOPOLIS (both meaning \n"City of the Sun"), an ancient city of Syria, of \nwhich magnificent ruins remain, visited by "Wood \n(in 1751), and others. Its origin is lost in antiquity. \nHere Septimius Severus built a temple to the sun, \n200. The city was sacked by the Moslems, 748, and \nby Timour Beg, 1400. See Heliopolis. \n\nBABA WALL See Afghanistan, 1 Sept. \n1880 ; and Mazra. \nBABBAGE, see Calculating Machines. \n\nBABBICOMBE MURDER, see Trials, \n\nFeb. 1885. \n\nBABEL, TOWER of, built by Noah\'s posterity, \n2247 B.C. {Genesis, ch. xi.) The magnificent \ntemple of Belus, asserted to have been originally \nthis tower, is said to have had lofty spires, and \nmany statues of gold, one of them forty feet high. \nIn the upper part of this temple was the tomb of \nthe founder, Belus (the Nimrod of the sacred scrip- \ntures), who was deified after death. Blair. The \nBirs Nimroud, examined by Rich, Layard, and \nothers, is considered by some persons to be the \nremains of the tower of Babel. \n\nBABEUPS CONSPIRACY, see Agrarian \nLaw. \n\nBABY-FARMING, see Infanticide. \n\nBABYLONIA* (Babilu Assyrian, Babirush \nPersian, the Shinar, Babel, and land of the \nChaldees of the Old Testament), a vast plain \nwatered by the Tigris and Euphrates the seat of a \ngreat Asiatic empire, traditionally stated to have \nbeen founded by Belus, supposed to have been the \nNimrod of Gen. x. 1,8. See Assyria. According \n\n* The city of Babylon was at one time the most magni- \nficent in the world. The Hanging Gardens are described \nas having been of a square form, and in terraces one \nabove another until they rose as high as the walls of the \ncity, the ascent being from terrace to terrace by steps. \nThe whole pile was sustained by vast arches raised on \nother arches ; and on the top were flat stones closely \ncemented together with plaster of bitumen, and that \ncovered with sheets of lead, upon which lay the mould \nof the garden, where there were large trees, shrubs, and \nflowers, with various sorts of vegetables. There were \nfive of these gardens, each containing about four English \nacres, and disposed in the form of an amphitheatre. \nStrabo ; Diodorus. Pliny said that in his time it was \nbut a desolate wilderness. Mr. Rich visited the ruins in \n1811, and sir R. Ker Porter in 1818. The laborious re- \nsearches of Mr. Layard, sir PI. Rawlinson, M. Botta, and \nothers, and the interesting relics excavated and brought \nto this country between the years 1849 and 1855, have \ncaused very much attention to be given to the history of \nBabylon. Many of the inscriptions in the cuneiform or \nwedge-like character have been translated, principally by \ncol. (after, sir Henry) Rawlinson, and published in the \nJournal of the Royal Asiatic Society. In the spring of \n1855, he returned to England, bringing with him many \nvaluable relics, drawings, &c, which are now in the \nBritish Museum. He gave discourses on the subject at \nthe Royal Institution, London, in 1851, 1855, and 1865. \nThe Rev. A. Sayce lectured on Babylonian literature at \nthe same place in 1877., \n\n\n\nto the earliest existing history the country was. \ndivided between two races, the Sumir (Turanian), \nthe probable inventors of cuneiform writing; and \nthe Accad or Akkod (Semitic), which became pre- \ndominant. See Accaclians. "The fragmentary \nCanon of Kings," given by Berosus the Gra;co- \nChaldean priest 268 B.C., had been superseded by \nthe newly-discovered Babylonian canon inscrip- \ntions on tablets carefully dated from 2200 to- \n647 B.C., an unequalled chronological series. Sum- \nmaries are given by Mr. Boscawen in the articles \n" Assyria " and " Babylonia " in " Chambers\' Ency- \nclopaedia," 1888. \nEarliest astronomical observations at Babylon, \n\nB.C. 2234, [2230, H. ; 2233, CT.} \nNabonassar governor, 747 ; His son Nadinu, 734 ; \n\na revolt, Ukinziru, king, about .... 732 \nBabylonia conquered by Pul (Tiglath-Pileser) king \nof Assyria, 729 ; becomes independent ; Merodach- \n\nbaladan II. king about 722 \n\nSargon, king of Assyria, captures Babylon ; Mero- \ndach-baladan returns, but is soon expelled by \n\nSennacherib 705. \n\nBabylonia ruled by viceroys, see Assyria. \nNabu-abla-utzar (Nabopolassar), general, seizes \n\nthe power about 640 ; proclaimed king . . . 625, \nSucceeded by his son Nebuchadnezzar, very great \nand powerful, 604 ; he restores the empire, and \nrebuilds Babylon. \n\n[His acts are recorded on innumerable tablets \nand in the Bible ; 2 Kings, xxiv., xxv. ; 2 Chron. \nxxxvi. ; Jer., xxxvii. \xe2\x80\x94 xxxix. ; lii. ; Daniel, \xe2\x80\x9e \ni.-iv.] \nHe captures Jerusalem, 599 ; and destroys the city \nand carries most of the inhabitants captives to \n\nBabylon, 588 ; dies 561: \n\nEvil Merodach, 561 ; Neriglissar, king . . . 559, \nLabynetus, 556 ; Nabonadius, a great monarch, 551; \n\nBelshazzar king 535. \n\nBabylon taken by the Medes and Persians, under \n\nCyrus, and Belshazzar slain. Daniel v. . . 538 \nBabylon revolts, and is taken by Darius . . . 518 \nTaken by Alexander, 331 ; he dies here . . . 323 \nSeleucus Nicator, who died 280 b.c, transfers the \nseat of government to Seleucia, and Babylon is \ndeserted. Babylonia was conquered by the Par- \ntisans about 140 b.c, and became part of the \nPersian empire. On the overthrow of the Sassa- \nnides by the Mahometans 650 a.d., Babylonia \nbecame the seat of the califs till 1258. Since 1638 \nit has been subject to Turkey. \n\nBABYNGTON\'S CONSPIRACY, to as- \nsassinate queen Elizabeth, and make Mary of \nScotland queen, was devised by John Savage, a \nsoldier of Philip of Spain, and approved by Win, \nGilford and John Ballard, catholic priests. Anthony \nBabyngton and others joined in the scheme. They \nwere betrayed by Pooley, a spy, and fourteen were \nexecuted, 20, 21 Sept. 1586. \n\nBABI-ISM, a new sect in Persia, founded in \n1843 by Mirza Ali Mahomed, an enthusiast, at \nShiraz. He termed himself the "Bab," or "gate," \nof knowledge, and, giving a new exposition of the \nKoran, claimed to be the incarnate Holy Spirit. \nThe destruction of himself and the greater number \nof his followers was due to Hossein, one of his \ndisciples, who combined political and warlike prin- \nciples with spiritual dogmas. The sect was tolerated \nby the shah Mohammed, but nearly exterminated \nby his successor in 1848-9. The Bab himself \nwas executed 15 July, 1849. The head of the \nsect, Beheyah Allah, propounded a doctrine, termed \n\n\n\nBACCAEAT CASE. \n\n\n\n83 \n\n\n\nBAFFIN\'S BAY. \n\n\n\n"Bab el Huk," gate of truth. The persecuted sect \nhas been favoured by Turkey, and been settled \nlatterly at Bagdad. Mr. Edwd. G. Brown\'s \n" Narrative " respecting Babi-ism, was published \nin 1892. \n\nBACCAEAT CASE, see Trials, June, 1891. \n\nBACCHANALIA (games in honour of \nBacchus) arose in Egypt, and were brought into \nGreece by Melampos, and called Dionysia, about \n1415 B.C. Diodorus. In Rome the Bacchanalia \nwere suppressed, 186 B.C. The priests of Bacchus \nwere called Bacchanals. \n\nBACCON or BACON, see Orleans. \n\nBACH SOCIETY, instituted in London in \n1849, for the collection of the works of J. S. Bach, \nand the promotion of their public performance. \nThe original committee included W. Sterndale \nBennett, Sir G. Smart, J. Hullah, C. Potter, and \nother eminent musicians. The society was dis- \nsolved, 21 March, 1870, and the music given up to \nthe Royal Academy of Music. \n\nBACHELOES. The Roman censors frequently \nimposed tines on unmarried men ; and men of full \nage were obliged to marry. The Spartan women \nat certain games laid hold of old bachelors, dragged \nthem round their altars, and inflicted on them \nvarious marks of infamy and disgrace. Vossius. \nA tax laid upon bachelors in England, twenty-five \nyears of age (varying from 12I. 10s. for a duke, to is. \nfor a common person), lasted from 1695 to 1706. \nBachelors (Romanist piiests excepted) were sub- \njected to an extra tax on their male and female \nservants in 1785. A grand ball given by 84 bache- \nlors at Kensington House ; the prince and princess \nof Wales present, 22 July 1880. The Bachelors\' \nClub in London in 1891 consisted of 800 members. \n\nBACILLI, see Animalcules and Germ Theory. \n\nBACKGAMMON. Falamedes of Greece is the \nreputed inventor of this game, about 1224 B.C. \n\nBACONIAN PHILOSOPHY, propounded \nby Francis Bacon, specially in his " Novum Orga- \nnon," published in 1620. Its principles are Utility \nand Progress ; and its objects the alleviation of the \nsufferings and promotion of the comforts of man- \nkind. Macaulay, 1837. \n\nBacon Society, established in December, 1885, for the \nstudy of the works, character, genius and life of \nFrancis Bacon, and his influence on his own and \nsucceeding times, and to investigate claims for his \nsupposed authorship of certain works, including the \nShakespearian dramas and poems. A journal is \npublished. See under Shakespeare 1887. \n\nBACTEEIA (little rods), see Animalcules and \nGerm Theory. \nMr. Edgar M. Crookshank, author of "Bacteriology," \n\nwas appointed Professor of Bacteriology at King\'s \n\nCollege, London, in May, 1887. \n\nBACTEIANA, a province in Asia, was subju- \ngated by Cyrus and formed part of the Persian \nempire, when conquered by Alexander, 330 B.C. \nAbout 254 B.C., Theodotus or Diodotus, a Greek, \nthrew off the yoke of the Seleucida?, and became \nking. Eucratides I. reigned prosperously about \n181 B.C., and Menander about 126 B.C. The Greek \nkingdom appears to have been broken up by the \nirruption of the Scythians shortly after. \n\nBADAJOZ (S. VV. Spain). An important barrier \nfortress, surrendered to the French, under Soult, \nn March, 1811; invested by the British, under \nlord Wellington, on 16 March, 1812, and stormed \nand taken on 6 April following. The French re- \n\n\n\ntreated in haste. A short military insurrection, 5 \nand 6 Aug. 1883. Population, 1887, 27,279. \n\nBADDESDOWN HILL, or Mount Badon, \nnear Bath, where Bede says the Britons defeated \nthe Saxons in 493 ; others say in 511 or 520. \n\nBADEN (S. W. Germany). The house of \nBaden is descended from Hermann, regarded as the \nfirst margrave (1052), son of Berthold I., duke of \nZahringen; but Hermann II. assumed the title, \nFeb. 1 130. From Christopher, who died 1527, pro- \nceeded the branches Baden-Baden and Baden-Dour - \nlach, united in 1 771. Baden is a hereditary con- \nstitutional monarchy by charter, 26 May, 1818 ; it \njoined the German empire by treaty, 15 Nov. 1870. \nPopulation, 1 Dec. 1871, 1,461,562; Dec. 1875, \n1,507,179; 1885, 1,601,255; 1890, 1,656,817. \n\nLouis William, margrave of Baden-Baden, a great \ngeneral, born 1665 ; sallied out from Vienna and \ndefeated the Turks, 1683 ; died 1707. \n\nCharles William, margrave of Baden-Dourlach, born \n1679, died 1746 ; succeeded by his son, \n\nCharles Frederic, born 1728 ; margrave of Baden- \nDourlach, 1738 ; acquired Baden-Baden, 1771, \nmade grand-duke by Napoleon, 1806. \n\nTreaty of Baden .-\xe2\x80\x94Landau ceded to France, 7 Sept. 1714 \n\nBaden made a grand-duchy, with, enlarged terri- \ntories 1806 \n\nA representative constitution granted by charter, \n\n18 Aug. 1818 \n\nRepublican agitation ..... during 1848 \n\nInsurrection ; .joined by the free city Rastatt ; the \ngrand-duke flees May, 1849 \n\nThe Prussians enter Baden, 15 June ; defeat the in- \nsurgents commanded by Mierolawski ; Rastatt \nsurrenders, 23 July ; the grand-duke re-enters \nCarlsruhe 18 Aug. ,, \n\nArrests for political offences ... 9 July, 1857 \n\nConcordat with the pope signed . . .28 June, 1859 \n\nGreatly opposed by the chambers ; annulled by the \ngrand-duke by a manifesto, securing autonomy to \nthe Catholic and Protestant churches ; signed \n\n7 April, i860 \n\nInterview at Baden-Baden of the emperor Napo- \nleon III., the prince regent of Prussia, and the \nGerman kings and princes . . .16 June, ,, \n\nThe new ecclesiastical law (adopted by the cham- \nbers) promulgated 16 Oct. ,, \n\nOpposition of the archbishop of Friburg and the \nclerical party 1860-65 \n\nDisputes in the German diet ; the grand-duke \nvainly endeavours to obtain a reconciliation ; and \nremains neutral June, 1866 \n\nBaden joins the Zollverein (which see) . . July, 1867 \n\nMeeting of the chambers ; liberal measures pro- \nmised, 24 Sept. ; universal suffrage adopted by \nthe second chamber 29 Oct. 1869 \n\nCivil marriage made obligatory . . 17 Nov. ,, \n\nBaden joins Prussia in the war with France, about \n\n20 July, 1870 \n\nGambling houses suppressed ; finally closed 31 Oct. 1872 \n\nGRAND-DDKES. \n\n1806. Charles Frederic; dies 1811 ; succeeded by his \ngrandson, \n\nCharles Louis Frederic, who died without issue in \n1818 ; succeeded by his uncle, \nLouis William, died without issue in 1830 ; suc- \nceeded by his brother, \n\nLeopold, died in 1852 ; succeeded by his second \nson (the first being imbecile), \nFrederic (born 9 Sept. 1826), regent 24 April, 1852 ; \ndeclared grand-duke, 5 Sept. 1856 ; becomes ill, \nhis son appointed regent, 11 Nov. 1881. \nhis son Frederic William, born 9 July, 1857. \n\n\n\n1S11. \n1818. \n1830. \n1852. \n\nHeir \n\nBAFFIN\'S BAY (N. America), discovered by \nWilliam Baffin, an Englishman, 1616. The extent \nof this discovery was much doubted, until the \nexpeditions of Ross and Parry proved that Baffin \nwas substantially accurate in his statement. Parry \nentered Lancaster Sound, and discovei-ed the islands \nknown by his name, in 1818 ; see North- IFest \nPassage. \n\na 2 \n\n\n\nBAGDAD. \n\n\n\n81 \n\n\n\nBALEARIC ISLANDS. \n\n\n\nBAGrDAD, in Asiatic Turkey, built by Al \nMansour, and made the seat of the Saracen empire, \nabout 762. Taken by the Tartars, and a period \nput to the Saracen rule, 1258. Often taken by the \nPersians, and retaken by the Turks, with great \nslaughter : the latter have held it since 1638. Popu- \nlation, 1885, 100,000. \n\nBAGPIPE, an ancient Greek and Roman in- \nstrument. On a piece of ancient Grecian sculp- \nture, now in Rome, a bagpiper is represented \ndressed like a modern highlander. Nero is said \nto have played upon a bagpipe, 51. Our highland \nregiments retain their pipers. Patrick Bohan, the \ncelebrated Irish piper, died 9 April, 1884. \n\nBAHAMA ISLES (N. America) were the \nfirst points of discovery by Columbus. San Sal- \nvador was seen by him on the night of 1 r Oct. 1492 ; \nhe landed next clay. New Providence was settled \nby the English in 1629. They were expelled by \nthe Spaniards, 1641 ; returned, 1666 ; again expelled \nin 1703. The isles were formally ceded to the \nEnglish in 1783. Population in 1861, 35,287 (see \nCyclones, Oct. 1866); in 1871, 39,162; in 1881, \n43,521 ; in 1888, about 48,000. The Bahamas profited \nby blockade-running during the American civil war, \n1862-5. Governors, William Rawson, 1864; sir James \nWalker, 1868 ; John Pope Hennessy, 1871 ; Wm. \nRobinson, 1874; Thos. F. Callaghan, 1879; Charles \nCameron Lees, 5 Oct. 1881 ; H. A. Blake, Jan. 1884 ; \nSir Ambrose Shea, Oct. 1887. \n\nBAHAR (N. India), a province (conquered by \nBaber in 1530), with Bengal and Orissa, a princely \ndominion, became subject to the English East India \ncompany in 1765 by the treaty of Allahabad for a \nquit-rent of about 300,000/. \n\nBAIL. By ancient common law, before and \nsince the conquest, all felonies were bailable, till \nmurder was excepted by statute ; and by the \n3 Edward I. (1275) the power of bailing in trea- \nson, and in divers instances of felony, was taken \naway. Bail was further regulated in later reigns. \nIt is now accepted in all cases, except felony ; and \nwhere a magistrate refuses bail, it may be granted \nby a judge. Acts respecting bail passed 1826 and \n1852. \n\nBAILIFF, or Sheriff, said to be of Saxon \norigin. London had its shire-reve prior to the con- \nquest, and this officer was generally appointed for \ncounties in England in 1079. Hen. Cornehill and \nRich. Reynere were appointed bailiffs or sheriffs in \nLondon in 1 189. Stoiv. Sheriffs were appointed in \nDublin under the name of bailiffs, in 1308 ; and the \nname was changed to sheriff in 1548. There are \nstill places where the chief magistrate is called \nbailiff, as the high bailiff of Westminster. Bum- \nbailiff is a corruption of bound-bailiff, every bailiff \nbeing obliged to enter into bonds of security for his \ngood behaviour. Blackstone. \n\nB AIR AM, or BEIRAM, Mahometan festivals. \nThe Little Bairam, follows the fast of Ramadan \n{which see) ; the Great Bairam in 1885, began on \n14 July. \n\nBAIZE, a species of coarse woollen manufac- \nture, was brought into England by some Flemish \nor Dutch emigrants who settled at Colchester, in \nEssex, about 1568. \n\nBAKER AND BAKEnOTJSES ; see Bread. \n\nBAKERIAN LECTURES, Royal society, \noriginated in a bequest of 100/. by Henry Baker, \nF.K.S., the interest of which was to be given to \none of the fellows, for a scientific discourse to be \ndelivered annually. Peter Woulfe gave the first \n\n\n\nlecture in 1765. Latterly it has been the custom \nto nominate as the lecture a paper written by one \nof the fellows. Davy, Faraday, Tyndall, and other \neminent men have given the lecture. \n\nBAKU- See under Petroleum. \n\nBALAKLAVA, a small town in the Crimea, \n\nwith a fine harbour, 10 miles S. E. from Sebastopol. \n\nAfter the battle of the Alma, the allies advanced \n\nupon this place, 26 Sept. 1854. \n\nBattle of Balaklava : \xe2\x80\x94 About 12,000 Russians, com- \nmanded by general Liprandi, attacked and took \nsome redoubts in the vicinity, which had been \nentrusted to about 250 Turks. They next as- \nsaulted the English, by whom they were compel- \nled to retire, mainly through the charge of the \nheavy cavalry, led by brigadier Scarlett, under \nthe orders of lord Lucan. After this, from an \nunfortunate misconception of lord Raglan\'s order, \nlord Lucan ordered lord Cardigan, with the light \ncavalry, to charge the Russian army, which had \nreformed on its own ground with its artillery in \nfront. The order was most gallantly obeyed, and \ngreat havoc was made on the enemy ; but of 670 \nBritish horsemen, only 198 returned. (Termed \nby Tennyson " The Charge of the Six Hundred.") \nThe infantry engaged were termed a "thin red \nline " 25 Oct. 1854 \n\n[A banquet was given to the survivors at the Alex- \nandra Palace, 25 Oct. 187s] \n\n[A subscription for the relief of about 20 destitute \nout of 100 survivors of the Light Brigade was \nopened in April, 1890, by the agency of Mr. Her- \nbert and lieut. Wightman, two of their comrades, \nand supported by the St. James\'s Gazette, rt. hon. \nE. Stanhope, and sir W. Marriott, lords Tenny- \nson, Wolseley, Hartington, and others, May, 1890 ; \nabove 4,000?. received, 28 July, 1890.] \n\n[Total received, including sums from India and the \ncolonies, 6,753?. is. 4c?., 6 April, 1891.] \n\nA sortie from the garrison of Sebastopol led to a \ndesperate engagement here, in which the Russians \nwere vigorously repulsed, with the loss of 2000 \nmen killed and wounded ; the allies losing about \n600 \' 22 March, 1855 \n\nThe electric telegraph between London and Bala- \nklava completed April, \n\nA railway between Balaklava and the trenches \ncompleted June, \n\nBALAMBANGAN, an uninhabited island, \nN. coast of Borneo, about 50 miles in circum- \nference, conceded to Mr. Francis, a.c, in 1889. \n\nBALANCE OF POWER, to assure the inde- \npendency and integrity of states, and control the \nambition of sovereigns; a principle said to have \nbeen first laid down by the Italian politicians of \nthe 15th century, on the invasion of Charles VIII. \nof France, 1494. Robertson. It was recognised by \nthe treaty of Minister, 24 Oct. 1648. The arrange- \nments for the balance of power in Europe made in \n1815, without the consent of the people of the \ncountries concerned, have been nearly all set aside \nsince 1830. \n\nBALAWAT, see Nineveh. \n\nBALDACHIN, or BALDACHINO, more pro- \nperly ciborium {which see), a canopy placed over the \naltar in some ancient churches ; the practice, be- \nginning about 1 130, was introduced into England, \n1279. The proposal to erect one in St. Barnabas\' \nchurch, Pimlico, was opposed in the consistory \ncourt, Aug. 1873. The trial took place 23, 24 Oct. \nDr. Tristram decided against the erection of the \nbaldachin, 15 Dec. 1873. \n\nBALEARIC ISLANDS, in the Mediter- \nranean, called by the Greeks Balearides, and by \nthe Romans Baleares, from the dexterity of the \ninhabitants at slinging : they include Majorca, \nMinorca, IviQa, Formentera, Cabrera, Conejera, \nand other islets. They were conquered by the \n\n\n\nBALFOUE\'S ACTS. \n\n\n\n85 \n\n\n\nBALLOONS. \n\n\n\nRomans, 123 B.C. : by the Vandals, about a.d. 426, \nand formed part of Charlemagne\'s empire in \n799. Conquered by the Moors about 1005, and \nheld by them till about 1286, when they were \nannexed by Arragon ; see Majorca and Minorca. \n\nBALFOUE\'S ACTS, see Ireland, 1890-1. \n\nBALHAM MYSTEEY, see Bravo. \n\nBALIZE, see Honduras. \n\nBALEANS, the ancient Hsemus, a range of \nmountains extending from the Adriatic to the \nEuxine. The passage, deemed impracticable, was \ncompleted by the Russians under Diebitsch, during \nthe Russian and Turkish war, 26 July, 1829. An \narmistice was the consequence; and a treaty of \npeace was signed at Adrianople, 14 Sept. following. \nThe Balkans were crossed by the Russians under \nGourko, 13 July, 1877, see Busso- Turkish War \nII. By the treaty of Berlin, 13 July, 1878, the \nBalkans became the frontiers of the Sultan\'s Euro- \npean dominions. \n\nThe Balkan States are Servia, Bulgaria, and Roumelia \n(which see). In Sept. 1889, the Panslavist Committee \nat Moscow circulated leaflets termed " The Ten Com- \nmandments of Russia," proposing the enlargement \nof the Balkan States by the annexations from neigh- \nbouring territories. \n\nBALLADS maybe traced in the British history \nto the Anglo-Saxons. Turner. Adhelme, who died \n709, is mentioned as the first who introduced ballads \ninto England. "The harp was sent round, and \nthose might sing who could." Bede. Alfred sung \nballads. Malmesbury. Canute composed one. \nTurner. Minstrels were protected by a charter of \nEdward IV.; but by a statute of Elizabeth they \nwere made punishable among rogues and vaga- \nbonds, and sturdy beggars. Viner. Fletcher, of \nSaltoun (died 17 16) in a letter to Montrose ex- \npressed his opinion that making ballads was more \nimportant than law-making. The sea-ballads of \nDibdin were very popular in the French war ; he died \n20 Jan. 1833. Mr. John Boosey\'s " Ballad Con- \ncerts," St. James\'s Hall, began 1866. \n\nCollections.\xe2\x80\x94 Bishop Percy\'s "Reliques of Ancient \nEnglish Poetry," 1765 et seq. Publications of the Percy \nSociety, 1840-52 ; of the Ballad Society, 1868 etseq. \n\nProfessor Child\'s collection, 8 vols., Boston, U.S.A., \n1857-59 ; his greater work is in course of publication, \n1888 et seq. \n\nJohnson\'s Scots Musical Museum, 6 vols. 1787-1803. \n\nMany smaller collections. \n\nBALLABAT, an Australian town in Victoria, \nwhich arose after the discovery of gold in 1 85 1, see \nAustralia. It possesses many handsome buildings \nand churches, and has Protestant and R. C. bishops. \nPopulation 1881, 37,260; 1891, 46,033. \n\nBALLETS began through the meretricious taste \nof the Italian courts. One performed at the inter- \nview between our Henry VIII. and Francis I. of \nFrance in the Field of the Cloth of Gold, at Ardres, \n1520. Guicciardini. Ballets became popular in \nFrance, and Louis XIV. bore a part in one, 1664. \nThey were introduced here with operas early in the \n18th century. \n\nBALLINAMUCE, Longford. Here, on 8 Sept. \n1798, the Irish rebels and their French auxiliaries \nwere defeated and captured. \n\nBALLOONS.* A just idea of the principle of \nthe construction of balloons was formed by Albert \n\n\n\n" Astra Castra ; Experiments and Adventures in the \nAtmosphere ; by Hatton Tumor," a copious work, ap- \npeared in 1S65. \n\n\n\nof Saxony, an Augustine monk in the 14th century, \nand adopted by a Portuguese Jesuit, Francesco \nMendoza, who died at Lyons in 1626. The idea is \nalso attributed to Bartolomeo de Guzmao, who died \nin 1724. The principles of aeronautics include :\xe2\x80\x94 \nI, the power of a balloon to rise in the air; 2, the \nvelocity of its ascent ; and 3, the stability of its \nSuspension at any given height. In 1872 Helmholtz \nthought balloons might be steered, if moving slowly. \nFatal accidents to the voyagers have been estimated \nat 2 or 3 per cent. The Aeronautical Society of Great \nBritain, founded with the object of fostering and \ndeveloping aeronautics and aerology, by the duke \nof Argyll, Mr. James Glaisher, sir Charles Bright, \nand others, 12 Jan. 1866. \n\nFrancis Lana, a Jesuit, proposed to navigate the \nair by means .of a boat raised by four hollow balls \nmade of thin copper, from which the air had \nbeen exhausted 1670 \n\nJoseph Galien suggested the filling a bag with the \nfine diffuse air of the upper regions of the atmo- \nsphere 1755 \n\nHenry Cavendish discovered that hydrogen gas is \nio\'S times lighter than common air . . . 1766 \n\nAnd soon after Black of Edinburgh filled a bag \nwith hydrogen, which rose to the ceiling of the \nroom 1767 \n\nCavallo filled soap bubbles with hydrogen . . 1782 \n\nJoseph Montgolfier made a silken bag ascend with \nheated air (first fire balloon) . . . Nov. ,, \n\nJoseph and Stephen Montgolfier ascend and descend \nsafely by means of a fire balloon at Annonay, for \nwhich they received many honours . 5 June, 1783 \n\nFirst ascent in a balloon filled with hydrogen, at \nParis, by MM. Robert and Charles . 27 Aug. ,, \n\nJoseph Montgolfier ascends in a balloon inflated \nwith smoke of burnt straw and wool 19 Sept. ,, \n\nFirst aerial voyage in a fire balloon \xe2\x80\x94 Pilatre de \nRozier and the marquis d\'Arlandes . 21 Nov. ,, \n\nSecond ascent of Charles in a hydrogen balloon to \nthe height of 9770 feet .... 1 Dec. ,, \n\nMr. Tytler ascended in a Montgolfier balloon at \nEdinburgh 27 Aug. 1784 \n\nAscents become numerous : Andreani, 25 Feb. ; \nBlanchard, 2 March ; Guyton de Morveau, the \nchemist, 25 April and 12 June ; Fleurant and \nMadame Thible (the first female aeronaut), \n28 June; the duke of Chartres (Philip Egalite) \n\n19 Sept. ,, \n\nThe first ascent in England, made by Vincent Lu- \nnardi, at Moorfields, London . . 15 Sept. ,, \n[Centenary : three balloons ascend at same place, \n\none of them "The Colonel " containing col. Brine \n\nand M. L\'Hoste, from Finsbury, 15 Sept. 1884.] \n\nBlanchard and Jeffries ascend at Dover ; cross the \nChannel; alight near Calais . . . 7 Jan. 1785 \n\n[Centenary celebrated at Guines, 25 May, 1885.] \n\nThe first ascent in Ireland, from Ranelagh gardens, \nDublin 19 Jan ,, \n\nRozier and Romain killed in their descent near \nBoulogne ; the balloon took fire . . 15 June, ,, \n\nParachutes constructed and used by Blanchard, \n\nAug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGarnerin\'s narrow escape when descending in one \nin London 2 Sept. 1802 \n\nSadler, who made many previous expeditions in \nEngland, fell into the sea, near Holyhead, but \nwas taken up 9 Oct. 1812 \n\nMadame Blanchard ascended from Tivoli at night ; \nthe balloon, being surrounded by fireworks, took \nlire, and she was precipitated to the ground and \nkilled 6 July, 1819 \n\nMr. Charles Green\'s first ascent ; (lie introduced coal \ngas in ballooning) 19 July, 1821 \n\nLieut. Harris killed in a balloon descent 25 May, 1824 \n\nSadler, ,jun., killed, falling from a balloon . . 1825 \n\nThe great Nassau balloon, which had for some time \npreviously been exhibited to the inhabitants of \nLondon in repeated ascents from Vauxhall gar- \ndens, started from that place on an experimental \nvoyage, Mr. C. Green, Mr. R. Hollond, and Mr. \nMnuck-Mason in the car, and alter having been \neighteen hours in the air descended at Weuburg, \nin the duchy of Nassau . 7 Nov. 1836 \n\n\n\nBALLOONS. \n\n\n\nBALLOONS. \n\n\n\nMr. Cocking ascended from Vauxhall to try his \nparachute ; in its descent from the balloon it \ncollapsed, and he was thrown out and killed, \n\n24 July, 1837 \nAn Italian aeronaut ascended from Copenhagen, \n\nin Denmark ; his corpse was subsequently found \non the sea-shore in a contiguous island, dashed to \n\npieces 14 Sept. 1851 \n\nJ. B. Lassie\'s model of an " aerial ship," in which \nthe screw was used, was submitted to the academy \nof sciences at Paris, 1859 ; and exhibited at Wash- \nington, U.S 1859 \n\nMr. Wise and three others ascended from St. Louis \n(after travelling 1150 miles they descended in \nJefferson county, New York, nearly dead) \n\n23 June, ,, \nNadar\'s great balloon (largest ever made) when fully \ninflated contained 215,363 cubic feet of gas ; the \ncar, a cottage in wicker work, raised 35 soldiers \nat Paris ; Nadar hoped by means of a screw to \nsteer a balloon in the heavens ; his first ascent, \nwith 14 persons, successful . . 4 Oct. 1863 \n\nHis second ascent ; voyagers injured ; saved by \npresence of mind of M. Jules Godard ; descend \nat Nieuburg, Hanover . . . 12 Oct. ,, \n\nNadar and his balloon at the Crystal Palace, \n\n?\xe2\x96\xa0 Sydenham Nov. ,, \n\nSociety for promoting aerial navigation formed \nat M. Nadar\'s, at Paris ; president, M. Barral, \n\n15 Jan. 1864 \nGodard \'s great Montgolfier or fire balloon ascends, \n\n28 July and 3 Aug. ;, \nAscent of Nadar and others in his great balloon at \n\nBrussels 26 Sept. ,, \n\nMr. Coxwell ascends from Belfast in a new balloon; \nseveral persons are injured by the balloon be- \ncoming uncontrollable; it escapes . . 3 July, 1865 \nAscent of Nadar in his Geant balloon, Paris, \n\nJune 23, 1866 \nMr. Coxwell said to have made 550 successful \n\nascents up to April, 1867 \n\nAn aerial screw machine (helicopteric) suggested, \nin Paris, 1863 ; described by Dr. J. Bell Petti- \ngrew, in London, at the Royal Institution, \n\n22 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \nMr. Hodsman crossed the Channel from Dublin, \nand descended at Appleby, Westmoreland \n\n22 April, ,, \nA great balloon exhibited at Ashburnham-park, \nLondon, escaped, and was captured at Bouldon, \n\nBucks. 25 May, 1869 \n\nCharles Green, aeronaut, said to have made about \n\n600 ascents, died aged 84 . . -27 Mar. 1870 \nDupuy de Lome at Vincennes ascended with his \n"navigable" balloon, with 13 persons; experi- \nment reported to be successful . . 2 Feb. 1871 \nProfessor Wise proposed to cross the Atlantic from \nNew York to Liverpool in a balloon, 100 feet in \ndiameter, no feet perpendicular, with a supple- \nmentary balloon 36 feet in diameter; the two \ngiving a lifting power of i5,9oolbs., a carrying \npower of 9,500 lbs., and disposable ballast \n7,500 lbs., July; the balloon was reported in- \nadequate, Sept. ; a smaller balloon started (with \na life-boat) 9.19 a.m., 6 Oct., and descended dur- \ning a storm over Connecticut ; the men narrowly \n\nescaped 7 Oct. 1873 \n\nVincent de Groof, a Belgian (named the "flying \nman"), constructed a parachute to imitate the \nflight of a bird ; he brought it to London ; as- \ncended from Cremorne-gardens, and descended \nfrom a height between 300 and 400 feet in Essex, \n29 June ; at his next attempt, the parachute, \neither detached by himself or by accident, was \ndisarranged, and he was killed by falling, 9 July, 1874 \nUnder the Government Balloon Committee, Mr. \nCoxwell ascended at Woolwich to try C. A. \nBowdler\'s apparatus (based on the screw-propel- \nler) for steering balloons ; failure reported, \n\n25 July, ,, \n[It has been proved that a screw with a vertical \n\naxis can raise or depress a balloon, and thereby \n\nsave gas and ballast. ] \n\nM. and Mad. Duruof (see below, 1870), ascend from \n\nCalais to cross the channel, 31 Aug. ; carried out \n\nto sea ; the balloon fell into the water and \n\n\n\ndrifted towards Norway ; rescued by a smack \n(the Grand Charge) ; the aeronauts were landed \nat Grimsby 4 Sept. 1874 \n\nDuruof and others ascend from the Crystal-palace, \n\n14 Sept. ,, \n\nMenier\'s new hot-air balloon fails on trial, 5 Sept. \n\nand 16 Oct. ,, \n\nAscent of capt. Burnaby at the Crystal-palace to \ntry his machine for ascertaining the course of \nthe wind above the clouds ; reported successful, \n\n10 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMM. Tissandier, Croce-Spinelli, and Sivel ascend \nin the " Zenith "\xe2\x80\xa2 from La Villette, near Paris ; at \n26,160 feet Croce throws out ballast ; they ascend \nrapidly ; he and Sivel die through suffocation ; \nTissandier recovered . . . .15 April, 1875 \n\nWashington J. Donaldson, eminent aeronaut, \nperishes in Lake Michigan during a storm, \n\n18 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nReported failure of Carrol\'s directing apparatus at \nParis July, 1878 \n\nFrequent ascents in a " captive balloon " . Aug. ,, \n\nMr. Giffard\'s great captive balloon, Paris, burst. \n\n16 or 17 August, 1879 \n\nFive balloons start from various places near Lon- \ndon, competing for a silver medal given by the \nBalloon Society ; the " Owl," Mr. Wright and \nCommander Cheyne, travelled 48 miles in one \nhour (no medal awarded.) . . .4 Sept. 1880 \n\nInternational balloon contest at the Crystal Palace ; \nEngland (Eclipse), Mr. Wright ; France, M. de \nFonvielle ; both alighted near Portsmouth, 21 Oct. ,, \n\nGiffard and De Lome\'s aerial ship said to be success- \nful for direction, speed, <&c Jan. 1881 \n\nMr. Eugene (who had ascended about 2,000 times) \nnarrowly escapes destruction by a storm at \nVienna 21 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMr. Walter Powell, M.P., crossed the Bristol \nChannel in a balloon and descended at Dinges- \nton, and afterwards went on to Hereford, 3 Nov. ; \nMr. Walter Powell, M.P., capt. Templer, and Mr. \nAgg Gardner ascend at Bath in war-office balloon \nSaladin ; the balloon descends near Bridport ; \ntwo fell out ; the balloon ascends with Mr. Powell \nand drifts to sea ; not found . . 10 Dec. ,, \n\nCol. (aft. Gen.) Brine and Mr. Simmons\' attempt to \ncross the Channel from Canterbury ; they and the \nballoon picked up half-way. . . 4 Mar. 1882 \n\nCol. Burnaby crosses the Channel from Dover \nand lands near Dieppe . . . .23 Mar. ,, \n\nMr. Simmons goes from Maldon, Essex, to Arras (140 \nmiles) 2 h 10 June ,, \n\nMr. Simmons and sir Claude C. de Crespigny crossed \nthe Channel from Maldon, Essex, to Oudekerk, \nnear Flushing (140 miles in 6 hours) . 1 Aug. 1883 \n\nBy Mr. Simmons and Mr. Small from Hastings to \nCape La Hague (8 hours) . . . 13 Sept. ,, \n\nElectrical balloon constructed by Gaston and Albert \nTissandier, successful trial reported . 8 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBy M. Lhoste from Boulogne to Ashford, 15 Sept. \n1883 ; again from Boulogne to New Romney, \n2 hours 7 Aug. 1884 \n\nGen. Brine crosses from Hythe to Hervelinghen \n\n15 Aug. ,, \n\nBalloon navigation said to be effected by M. Renard \nat Meudon, by an electrical machine 9 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAnother trial, result uncertain . .12 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nReported success by M. Tissandier . 26 Sept. ,, \n\nBy Capt. Renard 8 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nM. Lhoste crosses from Cherbourg to Tottenham \nnear London ; attained height 3,600 feet, lowest \ntemperature 7 C. . . . . 29-30 July 1886 \n\nMr. Lorraine\'s attempt to propel and steer a \nballoon by boat apparatus at Oxbridge, Middlesex, \ncontaining three persons, fails . . 24 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMM. Jovis and Mallet report that they reached the \naltitude of 7,000 metres, in an ascent at Paris \n\n13 Aug. 1887 \n\nSuccessful voyage of Mr. Morton from Dover to \nLoon, near Dunkirk .... 13 Oct. ,, \n\nM. Lhoste and M. Mangot ascend at Mondidier \nnear Amiens, 6 Nov. ; Mr. Macdonald, master of \nthe steamer Prince Leopold, witnessed the falling \nof the balloon and the drowning of the aeronauts \n39 miles S.W- of the Isle of Wight, 13 Nov. ; \nreported Dec. ,, \n\nAeronautical Exhibition at Vienna, opened 1 April 1888 \n\n\n\nBALLOONS. \n\n\n\n87 \n\n\n\nBALLOT. \n\n\n\nProfessor Baldwin, at Rockaway, New York, said \nto have descended safely from a balloon a mile high \nby means of a parachute in 84 seconds, 9 Aug. 1887. \nHe did the same at Alexandra Park, London, N. \n28 July, 1888, and since. After the 10th time the \nballoon society gave him a gold medal, 1 Sept. \n1888 ; prevented in his attempt to descend from \nan altitude of two miles ; descends from between \n\xe2\x80\xa26,000 and 7,000 feet, 13 Sept., 16th ascent, 22 Sept. ; \nat Manchester, 24 Sept. ; (9,100 feet) 18 Oct. ; at \nSheffield (42nd descent) 22 Oct. ; final descent at \nAlexandra Palace, 5000 feet, the Prince of Wales \npresent 30 Oct. \n\nThe aeronaut, Mr. Joseph Simmons, descends from \nOlympia, London, W., and is killed on his descent \n\n27 Aug. \n\nGeorge Higgins, an Englishman, descends from a \nballoon in a parachute at Lea Bridge Road \n\n27 Oct. \n\nAscent of Mr. Percival Spencer, without his \nparachute, at Calcutta 19 March ; afterwards with \nhis parachute \n\nProf. Dale and five others ascend from Gibralter \n(2nd ascent there) 7 Dec. \n\nMr. Percival Spencer at Secunderabad, Central \nIndia, ascends in his patent asbestos (Montgolfier) \nballoon, the air being heated by burning methy- \nlated spirit inside the balloon ; he descended by \nhis parachute 13 Jan. \n\nDeath of Eugene Godard, aged 64, at Brussels, said \nto have made 2,000 ascents . . .11 Nov. \n\nMr. Higgins, aeronaut, killed at Kirkstall, near \nLeeds, through a parachute descent . . 8 Aug. \n\nMr. Logan ascends with a parachute at Detroit ; \nfalls and is killed .... 29 Aug. \n\nPrince and princess Henry of Prussia, the grand \nduke of Hesse and other personages ascend in a \nballoon at Frankfort 23 Sept. \n\nMr. Percival Spencer ascends in a very large bal- \nloon at Dover, and lands near Hastings 24 Nov. \n\nLieut. Mansfield, at Bombay, is killed by falling \nfrom his balloon, which burst . . 10 Dec. \n\nMiss Van Tassel, at Dacca, descending with her \nparachute, falls 16 March, and dies . 18 March, \nSee Addenda. \n\n\n\nMILITARY AND POSTAL APPLICATIONS. \n\nGuyton de Morveau ascended twice during the battle \nof Fleurus, and gave important information to \nJourdain 21 June, 1794 \n\nThe use of balloons for postal purposes invented by \nMr. G. Shepherd, C.E 1851 \n\nBalloons were used during the battle of Solferino, \n24 June, 1859 ; and by the Federal army near \nWashington July, 1861 \n\nM. Duruof conveyed the mail bags from Paris to \nTours during the siege . . . .23 Sept. 1870 \n\nPostal balloons from Metz and Paris . Sept. \xe2\x80\x94 Dec. ,, \n\nPostal balloon sent up from Crystal Palace, Syden- \nham (successfully) .... 6 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nM. Gambetta, with his secretary and aeronaut, es- \ncaped from Paris in a balloon, and fell in the \nForet d\'Epineuse (Somme) 7 Oct. ; he arrived at \nRouen 8 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSixty-six balloons with 168 persons despatched from \nParis and other places (Gen. Brine), 23 Sept. 1870- \n\n28 Jan. 1871. \n\nMilitary experiments ; ascent of Univers ; very \ncold weather ; valve burst ; several hurt ; near \nVincennes ; no deaths .... 8 Dec. 1875 \n\nMilitary ascents and balloon equipment for military \npurposes adopted at Woolwich, announced April, 1879 \n\nCaptive balloon at the volunteer review, Brighton, \n\n29 March, 1880 \n\nRoyal Engineers\' Balloon Corps arrives at Souakim, \n\n7 March, 1885 \n\nMr. F. A. Gower\'s experiments at Hythe, June, \n1885 ; ascended and not heard of since .July, ,, \n\nMr. Eric S. Bruce\'s mode, of electric signalling from \nballoons reported successful at Albert Palace \n\n20 July, ,, \n\nEQUESTRIAN ASCENTS. \n\nMr. Green affirmed that he ascended from London, \non a horse attached to a balloon . . May, 1828 \n\nHe did so from Vauxhall gardens with a very \ndiminutive pony July, 1850 \n\n\n\n1852 \n\n\n\nLieut. Gale, an Englishman, made an ascent with \na horse from the Hippodrome of Vincennes, near \nBordeaux. On descending and detaching the \nanimal from the balloon, the people who held its \nropes, from some misconception, prematurely let \nthem go, and the unfortunate aeronaut was rapidly \nborne in the air before he was quite ready to \nresume his voyage. (He was discovered next \nmorning dashed to pieces in a field a mile from \nwhere the balloon was found) . . 8 Sept. i8so> \n\nThe ascent of Madame Poitevin from Cremorne \ngardens, near London, as " Europa on a bull " \n(a feat she had often performed in France), and \nseveral ascents on horses, brought the parties \nconcerned before the police-courts on a charge of \ncruelty to animals, and put an end to experiments \nthat outraged public feeling .... Aug \n\nM. Poitevin ascended on a horse in the vicinity of \nParis, about the time just mentioned ; was nearly \ndrowned in the sea, near Malaga, while descending \nfrom his balloon (and died soon after) . \n\nSCIENTIFIC ASCENTS. \n\nGay-Lussac and Biot at Paris, 23 Aug. ; Gay-Lussac \n(to the height of 22,977 feet) . . 15 Sept. \n\nBixio and Barral at Paris (to the height of 19,000 \nfeet. They passed through a cloud 9000 feet \nthick) \n\nMr. Welsh ascends, 17, 26 Aug. 21 Oct., 10 Nov. \n\nScientific balloon ascents having been recom- \nmended by the British Association and funds \nprovided, Mr. James Glaisher commenced his \nseries of ascents, provided with suitable appa- \nratus, in Mr. Coxwell\'s great balloon, at Wolver- \nhampton: he reached the height of 5 miles, \n\n17 July, \n\nHe ascended to the height of about 7 miles at \nWolverhampton ; at 5 J miles high he became \ninsensible ; Mr. Coxwell lost the use of his hands, \nbut was able to open the valve with his teeth ; \nthe}\' thus descended in safety . . 5 Sept. \n\nHe ascended at the Crystal Palace 18 April, 11, 21 \nJuly ; at Wolverton, 26 June ; at Newcastle, during \nthe meeting of the British Association 31 Aug. \n\nHis 1 6th ascent ; surveys London . . 9 Oct. \n\nHis 17th ascent at Woolwich; descends at Mr. \nBrandon\'s, Suffolk (1st winter ascent this cen- \ntury) 12 Jan. \n\nHe ascends from Woolwich (24th time) . 30 Dec. \n\nHis 25th ascent 27 Feb. \n\nOther ascents 2 Oct., 2 Dee. 1865 ; and in May, \n\nGlaisher\'s " Travels in the Air" published Jan. \n\nMr. Coxwell\'s scientific ascent in the Nassau at \nHornsey 22 Sept. \n\n\n\n1850 \n\n\n\n1863 \n\n\n\n1865 \n1 866 \n1871 \n\n1873 \n\n\n\nBALLOON SOCIETIES. \n\nThe French Academie d\' Aerostation de Meteorolo- \ngique, authorised 20 Sept. 1872 \n\nBalloon Society of Great Britain, was formed \n2i July, 1880, by some members of the Aeronau- \ntical, Geographical, Astronomical, Chemical, and \nMeteorological societies, and other scientific bo- \ndies, to promote aeronautics and record and uti- \nlise observations made during ascents. Silver \nmedals were awarded for ascents made 4 Sept. 1880 \n\nGerman Aeronautical Society founded at Berlin \n\nSept. 1 88 1 \n\nBALLOT (French ballotfe, a little hall). \n\nSecret voting was practised by the ancient Greeks \n\nand Komans, and the modern Venetians, and is \n\nnow employed in France, in the United States of \n\nNorth America, and, since 1872, in Great Britain, \n\nand Colonies. See Scrutin. \n\nA ballot-box used in the election of aldermen of \nLondon 1526 \n\nIts use by the company of merchant adventurers, \nin electing an agent, prohibited by Charles I. \n\n17 Dec. 1637 \n\nThe ballot-box used by the " Rota," a political club \nat Miles\'s coffee-house, Westminster . . . 1659 \n\nA tract entitled " The Benefit of the Ballot," said \nto have been written by Andrew Marvell, was pub- \nlished in the " State Tracts " 1693 \n\nProposed, in a pamphlet, to be used in the election \nof members of parliament 1705 \n\nA bill authorising vote by ballot passed the com- \nmons, but rejected by the lords . . . . 1710 \n\n\n\nBALL\'S BLUFF. \n\n\n\nBAMBOROUGH. \n\n\n\nGeorge Grote introduced into the commons a ballot \nbill six times 1833-39 \n\nThe ballot an open question in whig governments \n\n1835-72 \n\nThe house of commons rejected the ballot \xe2\x80\x94 257 \nbeing against, and 189 for it . . 30 June, 1851 \n\nSecret voting existed in the chamber of deputies in \nFrance from 1840 to 1845. It has been employed \nsince the coup d\'etat in . . . Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe ballot authorised in the Metropolitan Manage- \nment act 1855 \n\nThe ballot adopted in Victoria, Australia . 1856 \n\nA test-ballot at Manchester ; Ernest Jones chosen \nas candidate for the city. He died the next day \n\n22, 23 Jan. 1869 \n\nFor many years it was annually proposed by Mr. \nHenry Berkeley ; it was rejected (by 161 to 112, \n12 July, 1867). He died . . .10 March, 1870 \n\nMr. E. Leatham introduced a ballot bill into par- \nliament, March ; and Mr. Gladstone spoke in \nfavour of the ballot ; bill withdrawn 27 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe ballot was employed in electing the London \nschool board in 9 districts . . . 29 Nov." ,, \n\nThe ballot recommended in the queen\'s speech, 9 \nFeb. ; a bill for it introduced, passed by the com- \nmons ; rejected by the lords (97 to 48) . 10 Aug. 1871 \n\nBill to amend the law relating to procedure at \nparliamentary and municipal elections, including \nthe ballot, read in the commons, 2nd time, 109-51, \n15 Feb. ; passed the commons, 271-216, 30 May ; \nread second time in the lords (86-56), important \namendments carried in committee, making secret \nvoting optional (162-91) ; read a third time, and \npassed, 25 June ; lords\' amendments mostly re- \njected by the commons ; the optional clause given \nup by the lords, 8 July ; royal assent ; (to continue \nin force till 31 Dec. 1880) . . .18 July, 1872 \n\nThe first election by ballot was at Pontefract, when \nMr. H. E. Childers was re-elected . .15 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMr. John Leighton makes known his system (in- \nvented in 1886), bf secret postal ballot \xe2\x80\x94 every \npost-box being used as a ballot box ; Mr. James \nWithers and Mr. John Imray describe voting \napparatus; Society of Arts . . . 18 Jan. 1888 \n\nBALL\'S BLUFF, Virginia, on the banks of \nthe Potomac, North America. On 21 Oct. 1 861, by \ndirection of the Federal general C. P. Stone the \nheroic col. Baker crossed the river to reconnoitre. \nHe attacked the Confederate camp at Leesburg, and \nwas defeated with great loss. The disaster was \nattributed to mismanagement, and in Feb. 1862, \ngeneral Stone was arrested on suspicion of treason. \n\nBALLYNAHINCH (Ireland), where a san- \nguinary engagement took place between a large \nbody of the insurgent Irish and the British troops, \nunder gen. Nugent, 13 June, 1798. A large part \nof the town was destroyed, and the royal army suf- \nfered very severely. \n\nBALMORAL CASTLE, Deeside, Aberdeen- \nshire; visited by her majesty in 1848, 1849, 1850. \nThe estate was purchased for 32,000^. by prince \nAlbert in 1852. In 1853 the present building, in the \nScotch baronial style, was commenced, from designs \nby Mr. W. Smith of Aberdeen. \n\nBALTIC SEA,* OsTSEE, or EASTERN SEA, \nseparates Sweden and the Danish isles from Russia, \nPrussia, and Germany. Declared neutral for com- \nmerce by treaty between Russia and Sweden, 1759, \nand Denmark, 1760. It is often partially frozen, \nCharles X. of Sweden, with an army, crossed the \nBelts in 1658, and the Russians passed from Finland \nto Sweden on the ice in 1809. \nA ship canal between the Baltic and the North Seas \n\nproposed Jan. 1884 ; adopted by the Reichstag, 25 Feb. \n\n18S6. First stone of opening lock laid by the Emperor \n\n* Baltic Provinces of Russia, a kind of provincial \nfederation since 1800, were incorporated with the empire \non the death of the governor-general Bagration, 29 Jan. \n1876. \n\n\n\nWilliam I. at Kiel, 3 June, 1887 ; the dam pierced and! \nthe water let in by the Emperor William II., who sails \non the canal to Rendsburg ... 6 April, 1891. \n\nBALTIC EXPEDITIONS. \n\nAgainst Denmark. See Armed Neutrality. \xe2\x80\x94 1. Under \nlord Nelson and admiral Parker, Copenhagen was \nbombarded, and twenty-eight sail of the Danish \nfleet taken or destroyed ... 2 April, 1801; \n\n2. Under admiral Gambier and lord Cathcart, \neighteen sail of the line, fifteen frigates, and thirty- \none brigs and gunboats surrendered to the British, \n\n26 July, 1807 \n\nAgainst Russia. \xe2\x80\x94 1. The British fleet, commanded \nby sir Charles Napier, sailed from Spithead in \npresence of the queen, who led it out to sea in her \nyacht, the Fairy 11 March, 1854; \n\nIt arrived in Wingo Sound, 15 March ; and in the \nBaltic 20 March, ,, \n\nThe gulf of Finland blockaded . . 12 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n10,000 French troops embarked at Calais for the \nBaltic in English ships, of war, in presence of the \nemperor 15 July, , r \n\nCapture of Bomarsund, one of the Aland islands, \nand surrender of the garrison ; see Bomarsund, \n\n16 Aug. ,, \n\nEnglish and French fleets begin to return homeward \nto winter 15 Oct. ,, \n\n2. Expedition sailed . . 20 March \xe2\x80\x94 4 April, 1855 \n\nIt consisted of 85 English ships (2098 guns), com- \nmanded by admiral R. S. Dundas ; 16 French \nships (408 guns), under admiral Pernand, joined it, \n\n- June, ,, \n\nThree vessels silenced the Russian batteries at \nHogland island 21 July, ,, \n\nThe fleet proceeded towards Cronstadt. Many in- \nfernal machines* were discovered. Sveaborgwas \nattacked (see Sveaborg) ... 9 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nShortly after the fleet returned to England. \n\nBALTIMORE, a maritime city in Maryland, \nUnited States, founded in 1729. On 12 Sept. 1814, \nthe British army under col. Ross advanced against \nthis place. He was killed in a skirmish ; and the \ncommand was assumed by col. Brooke, who attacked \nand routed the American army, which lost 600 \nkilled and wounded and 300 prisoners. The pi-o- \njected attack on the town was, however, abandoned, \nAlison. See United States, 1861. About 70 persons \ndrowned while on an excursion on the Patapsco \nriver, about 23 July, 1883. See Roman Catholics \nand Chili, 1891. Population, 1890, 434,439. \n\nBALTIMORE, fishing village, Cork, raised \nfrom penury to prosperity by the judicious benefi- \ncence of the Baroness Burdett-Coutts, aided by \nFather Davis, since i877- She opened an Indus- \ntrial Fishing School, 17 Aug. 1887. Prosperity- \nreported Oct. 1888. \n\nBAMBERG (Bavaria), said to have been \nfounded by Saxons, in 804, and endowed with a \nchurch by Charlemagne. It was made a bishopric \nin 1007, and the bishop was a prince of the empire \ntill the treaty of Luneville, 1801, when Bamberg \nwas secularised. It was incorporated with Bavaria \nin 1803. The noble cathedral, rebuilt in 11 10, ha3 \nbeen recently repaired. Bamberg was taken and \npillaged by the Prussians in 1 759. \n\nBAMBOROUGH, or Bamburg, Northumber- \nland, according to the " Saxon Chronicle," was \nbuilt by king Ida about 547, and named Bebban - \nburgh. The castle and estate, the property of the \nForsters, and forfeited to the crown, through their \ntaking part in the rebellion in 17 15, were purchased \nby Nathaniel lord Crewe, bishop of Durham, and \nbequeathed by him for various charitable purposes. \n\n* These were cones of galvanised iron, 16 inches in \ndiameter, and 20 inches long. Each contained 9 or 10 llx \nof powder, with apparatus for firing by sulphuric acid. \nLittle damage was done by them. They were said to be \nthe invention of the philosopher Jacobi. \n\n\n\nBAMPTON LECTUEES. \n\n\n\n89 \n\n\n\nBANK. \n\n\n\nThe valuable library was founded by the trustees \nin 1778. The books are lent to persons residing \nwithin 20 miles of the castle. \n\nBAMPTON LECTUEES (Theological), de- \nlivered at Oxford annually, began in 1780, with a \nlecture by James Bandinel, D.D. The lecturer is \npaid out of the proceeds of an estate bequeathed for \nthe purpose by the rev. John Bampton (died 1 751) \nand the lectures are published. Among the more \nremarkable lectures were those by White (1784), \nHeber (1815), Whately (1822), Milman (1827), \nHampden (1832), Mansel (1858), Liddon (1866), \nHatch (1880), Bigg (1886). \n\nBANBUBY, Oxfordshire, a Saxon town. The \ncastle, erected by Alexander de Blois, bishop of \nLincoln, 1 125, has been frequently besieged. In \n1646 it was taken by the parliamentarians and de- \nmolished. At Edgecot or Danesmore, near Ban- \nbury, during an insurrection, the army of Edward \nIV., under the earl of Pembroke was defeated by \nqueen Margaret and her adherents 26 July, 1469 ; \nthe earl and his brother were soon after taken \nprisoners and executed. Banbury cakes were re- \nnowned in the time of Ben Jonson, and Banbury \nCross was destroyed by the Puritans. Cakes were \npresented to the queen at Banbury 30 Nov. 1866. \n\nBAND OF GENTLEMEN PENSION- \nEES, see Gentlemen-at- Arms. \n\nBAND OF HOPE, see under Temperance, \n1855- \n\nB AND A ISLES (ten), Eastern Archipelago, \nvisited by the Portuguese in 1511, who settled on \nthem, 1521, but were expelled by the Dutch about \n1600. Kohun island was ceded to the English in \n1616. The Bandaswere taken by the latter in 1796 ; \nrestored in 1801 ; retaken in 1811 ; and restored in \nAug. 1816. \n\nBAND A OEIENTAL (South America), a \nportion of the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres, one part \nof which, in 1828, was incorporated with Brazil, \nwhile another part became independent, as the \nrepublic of Uruguay. \n\nBANGALOBE (S. India) was besieged by the \nBritish under lord Cornwallis, 6 March, and taken \nby storm, 21 March, 1791. Bangalore was restored \ntoTippoo in 1792, when he destroyed the strong fort, \ndeemed the bulwark of Mysore. \n\nBANGKOK, capital of Siam. Estimated popu- \nlation in 1891, 100,000. \n\nBANGOE (Banchor Iskoed, or Monachorum), \nFlintshire, the site of an ancient monastery, very \npopulous, if it be true that 1200 monks were slain \nby Ethelfrid, king of the Angles, for praying for \nthe Welsh in their conflict with him in 607. \nTanner. \n\nBANGOE (N. Caernarvonshire). The church \nis dedicated to St. Daniel, who was a bishop, 516. \nOwen Glendower greatly defaced the cathedral ; \nand the bishop Bulkeley alienated many of the \nlands, and even sold the bells of the church, 1553. \nThe see is valued in the king\'s books at 131^. 16s. \\d. \nAn order in council directing that the sees of Ban- \ngor and St. Asaph be united on the next vacancy in \neither, was issued in 1838; but rescinded in 1847. \nPresent income, 4200^. Bangor was incorporated \nin 1883. North Wales University College opened, \n18 Oct. 1884. Population, 1881, 9,005 ; 1891, \n9,892. \n\nBISHOPS OF BANGOR \n\n1800. Win, Cleaver, translated to St. Asaph, 1806. \n1806. John Randolph, translated to London, 1809. \n1809. Henry William Majendie, died 9 July, 1830. \n\n\n\n1830. Christopher Bethell, died 19 April, 1859. \n\n1859. James Colquhoun Campbell. Resigned April, 1890. \n\n1890. Daniel Lewis Lloyd, elected 27 May. \n\nThe cathedral was re-opened after restoration, 11 May r \n1880. \n\nBANGOEIAN CONTEOVEESY was oc- \ncasioned by Dr. Benjamin Hoadley, bishop of Ban- \ngor, preaching a sermon before George I., 31 March* \n1717, upon the text, " My kingdom is not of this- \nworld" {John, xviii.36), in which he demonstrated \nthe spiritual nature of the church and kingdom^ of \nChrist. He thereby drew upon himself the indig- \nnation of almost all the clergy, who published hun- \ndreds of pamphlets. \n\nBANISHMENT, an ancient punishment. By \n39 Eliz. c. 4 (1597) dangerous rogues were to be \nbanished out of the realm, and to be liable to death \nif they returned ; see Transportation. \n\nBANK. The name is derived from banco, a \nbench, erected in the market-place for the exchange \nof money, The first was established in Italy, 808, \nby the Lombard Jews, of whom some settled m \nLombard-street, London, where many bankers still \nreside. The Mint in the Tower of London was \nanciently the depository for merchants\' cash, until \nCharles I. seized the money as a loan, and in 1640 the \ntraders lodged their money with the goldsmiths ii* \nLombard-street. See Bank of England ; Bankers\' \nBooks ; Drafts ; Savings Banks. \n\nEgibe\'s bank at Babylon, mentioned about B.C. 700 \n\nThe Bank of England (1890) possesses a Chinese \nBank note, supposed to be of the 14th century, a.d. \nBarcelona bank (earliest existing bank) founded \n\nabout 1401 \n\nSamuel Lamb, a London banker, recommended the \nProtector Cromwell to establish a public bank, \n\n1656 and 165S \nFrancis Child, a goldsmith, established a bank \n\nabout 1663 ; he died .... 4 Oct. 1713 \nRun on the London bankers (said to be the first) . 1667 \nCharles II. arbitrarily suspends all payments to \nbankers out of the exchequer of monies deposited \nthere by them ; they lost intimately 3,321, 313?. \n\n2 Jan. 1672 \n\nHoare\'s bank began about 1680 \n\nBank of England established (see next article) . . 1694 \nWood\'s bank at Gloucester, the oldest county bank, \n\nestablished 1716 \n\nA list of bankers given in the " Royal Kalendar " . 1765 \nForgeries of Henry Fauntleroy, banker ; executed, \n\n30 Nov. 1824 \nAct passed permitting establishment of joint-stock \n\nbanks (which see) 1826 \n\nRowland Stephenson, M. P., banker and treasurer \nof St. Bartholomew\'s hospital, absconds ; defaulter \nto the amount of 200,000/. ; 70,000/. in exchequer \nbills ; (caused a great depression among bankers) \n\n27 Dec. 1828 \nEstablishment of joint-stock banks (see p. S5) . 1834 \nRogers\'s bank robbed of nearly 50,000/. (bank notes \n\nafterwards returned) . . . .24 Nov. 1844 \nFailure of Strahan, Paul, and Bates (securities \nunlawfully used) ; private banking much injured, \n\n11 June, 1855 \nCheque Bank (which see), opened iu Pall Mall, \n\n23 July, 1873 \n\nPrescott\'s, Dimsdale\'s (London) united with Tugwell\'s \n\n(Bath) and Miles\'s (Bristol) as a company, 1 Jan. 1891- \n\nA youth named Mackenzie, in the National Provincial \n\nBank of England, robbed of a bag containing 11,000/. \n\nin bank notes 16 Feb. 1891 \n\nBanks in 1855. Notes allowed to be issued. \n\nBank of England 1 14,000,000 \n\nEnglish private banks .... 196 4,999,444 \nEnglish joint-stock banks (see Banks, \n\nJoint Stock) 67 3,418,277 \n\nBanks in Scotland 18 3,087,200 \n\nBanks in Ireland 8 6,354,494 \n\n\n\n290 31,859,42-4 \n\n\n\nBANK. \n\n\n\n90 \n\n\n\nBANK. \n\n\n\nBatik of \n\nVenice formed 1157 \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Geneva 1345 \n\nBarcelona 1401 \n\nGenoa 1407 \n\n-Amsterdam 1607 \n\n^Hamburg 1619 \n\nRotterdam 1635 \n\nStockholm 1688 \n\nEngland 1694 \n\nScotland 1695 \n\nCopenhagen 1736 \n\nBerlin 1765 \n\nCaisse d\'Escompte, France 1776 \n\nIreland 1783 \n\nSt. Petersburg 1786 \n\nSn the East Indies 1787 \n\nIn North America 1791 \n\nFrance* 1803 \n\nItaly 1865 \n\nImperial Bank of Germany (formerly of Prussia) \n\n1 Jan. 1876 \n\nBANK OF ENGLAND was projected by William \nPaterson, a Scotch merchant (see Darien), to meet \nthe difficulty experienced by William III. in raising \nthe supplies for the war against France. By the \ninfluence of Paterson and Michael Godfrey, 40 mer- \nchants (aided by Charles Montague) subscribed \n500,000/. towards the sum of 1,200,000/. to be lent \nto the government at 8 per cent., in consideration \nof the subscribers being incorporated as a bank. \nThe scheme was violently opposed in parliament, \nbut the bill (a tonnage act), obtained the royal \nassent 25 April, 1694, and the charter was granted \n27 July following, appointing sir John Houblon \nthe first governor, and Michael Godfrey the first \n\xe2\x96\xa0deputy-governor. The bank commenced active \noperations on I Jan. 1695, at Grocers\' Hall, Poultry, t \nissuing notes for 20/. and upwards, and dis- \ncounting bills for 44 to 6 per cent. The charter \nwas renewed in 1697, 1708, 1713, 1716, 1721, 1724, \n1746, 1749, 1764, 1781, 1800, 1808, 1816, 1833, 1844. \nLawson. \n\nRun on the bank : its notes at 20 per cent, discount ; \n\ncapital raised to 2,201,171?. ios. . . Nov. 1696 \nThe bank monopoly established by the prohibition \nof any company exceeding six persons acting as \nbankers (Scotland not included in the act) . . 1708 \n\nCapital raised to 5,559,99s?. 10s 1710 \n\nBank post bills issued (1st record) . 14 Dec. 1738 \nHun for gold through rebellion in the North ; bank \n\nbills paid in silver ; the city support the bank, Sept. 1 745 \nRd. Vaughan hanged for forging notes . t May, 1758 \n\n10?. notes issued i 7 59 \n\nGordon riots ; since then the bank has been pro- \ntected by the military 1780 \n\n5?. notes issued 1793 \n\nCash payments suspended, in conformity with an \n\norder in council 26 Feb. 1797 \n\n1 J. and 2?. notes issued .... March, ,, \nBank restriction act passed ... 3 May, ,, \nVoluntary contribution of 200,000?. to the govern- \nment I7 o8 \n\nLoss by Aslett\'s frauds (see Exchequer) 342,697?. . 1803 \nResignation of Abraham Newland, 50 years cashier, \n\n18 Sept. 1807 \nBramah\'s machine for numbering notes adopted . 1809 \n\n* Instituted by laws passed 14 April, 1803, and 22 \nApril, 1806. The statutes were approved 16 Jan. 1808. \nIn 1 8 10 Napoleon said that its duty was to provide money \nat all times at 4 per cent, interest. \n\nf The foundation of the building in Threadneedle-street \nwas laid 1 Aug. 1732, by sir Edward Bellamy, governor, \nand the bank removed there 5 June, 1734 ; it was erected \nt>y G. Sampson, architect. Great additions have been \nmade from time to time by successive architects : sir \nRobert Taylor, sir John Soane, and Mr. C. R. Cockerell. \nIt now occupies the site of the church, and nearly all the \nparish of St. Christophef-le-Stocks. The churchyard is \nnow termed "the garden." Another entrance opened \nin Prinees Street, 1882. \n\n\n\nThe bank issues silver tokens for 3s. and is. 6c?. \n\n9 July, ?8ii \n\nPeel\'s act for the gradual resumption of cash pay- \nments July, 1819 \n\nCash payments for notes to be in bullion at the mint \nprice, 1 May, 1 82 1 ; in the current coin of the realm, \n\n1 May, 1823 \n\nGreat commercial panic \xe2\x80\x94 many 1?. notes (acciden- \ntally found in a box) issued with most beneficial \neffects Dec. 1823 \n\nThe act for the establishment of joint-stock banks \nbreaks up the monopoly 1826 \n\nBy the advice of the government, branch banks \nopened at Gloucester, 19 July ; Manchester, 21 \nSept.; Swansea, 23 Oct. . . . . . ,, \n\nAnd at Birmingham, 1 Jan. ; Liverpool, 2 July ; \xe2\x96\xa0 \nBristol, 12 July ; Leeds, 23 Aug. ; Exeter, 17 Dec. 1827 \n\nThe bank loses 360,000?. by Fauntleroy\'s forgeries : \nestimated in 1830 \n\nStatements of the bank affairs published quar- \nterly 1833 \n\nPeel\'s bank charter act, (7 & 8 Vict. c. 32) ; renews \ncharter till 1 Aug. 1855, and longer, if the debt \ndue from the public to the bank (11,015,100?.), \nwith interest, &c, be not paid after due notice ; \nestablished the issue department ; requires \nweekly returns to be published ; limited the issue \nof notes to 14,000,000?., &c. . . . 19 July, 1844 \n\nCommercial panic : lord John Russell authorises \nrelaxation of restriction of issuing notes (not acted \non) ; bank discount 8 per cent. Sunday, 24-25 Oct. 1847 \n\nGold bullion in the bank (consequent on discovery \nof gold in Australia), 21,845,390?. . . 10 July, 1852 \n\nBranch bank, Burlington-gardens, London, W. \nopened 1 Oct. 1856 \n\nCommittee on the bank acts appointed . 12 May, .1857 \n\nBank discount 9 per cent. ; lord Palmers ton autho- \nrises addition to issue of notes [to the amount of \n2,000,000?. were issued] . . . .12 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMuch alarm through the announcement of the bank \nsolicitor that a quantity of bank paper had been \nstolen from the makers (forged notes soon ap- \npeared) 16 Aug. 1862 \n\nThe culprits, soon detected, were tried and con- \nvicted (see Trials) .... 7-12 Jan. 1863 \nSee Bills oj Exchange, 1873. \nFor the Vagliano case, see Tri ds, 2 Nov. 1888. \n\nBranch bank, in Fleet Street, opened . 17 Dec. i838 \n\nThe Bank authorised (in accordance with the Act of \n1844) to increase their issue of notes by 250,000?. \nabout 11 Feb. 1890 \n\nThe Bank, aided by the Bank of France and others, \nassists Messrs. Baring, and thereby averts a \npanic 15 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nImportant changes in the management of the bank, \nproposed by the chancellor of the exchequer, \n\n4 April, approved by the directors and adopted \n\nby the proprietors . . . .16 June, 1892 \n\nBank Discount. \n\n1858, 3 per cent. Feb. 1. \n\ni860 (demand for gold in France), 6, Nov. 15. \n\n1861, 7, Jan. 7 ; 8 (demand for money in France, India, \nUnited States, &c), Feb. 14 ; 3, Nov. 7. \n\n1862, -2.\\, Jan. ; 3, April ; 2I, July ; 2, July 24 ; 3, Oct. \xe2\x80\x94 \nDec. \n\n1863, raised to 4 per cent., Jan. 16 ; to 5, Jan. 28; re- \nduced, to 4, Feb. ; to 3I and 3, April ; raised to 4, May ; \nraised to 5, 6, in Nov. ; to 7 and 8, and reduced to 7 in \nDec. \n\n1864, raised to 8, Jan. 20 ; reduced to 7, Feb. 12 ; to 6, \nFeb. 25 ; raised to 7, April 16 ; to 8, May 2 ; to 9, May \n\n5 ; reduced to 8, May 19 ; to 7, May 26 ; to 6, June 16 ; \nraised to 7, July 25 ; to 8, Aug. 4 ; to 9, Sept. 5 ; re- \nduced to 8, Nov. 10 ; to 7, Nov. 24. \n\n1865, reduced to 5^, Jan. 12 ; to 5, Jan. 20 ; raised to 5J, \nMarch 2 ; reduced to 4, March 30 ; raised to 4J, May \n4 ; reduced to 3J, June 1 ; to 3, June 15 ; raised to 3J-, \nJuly 27 ; to 4, Aug. 3 ; to 4^, Sept. 28 ; to 5, Oct. 2" ; \nto 6, Oct. 5 ; to 7, Oct. 7 ; (three times in one week) ; re- \nduced to 6, Nov. 23 ; raised to 7, Dec. 28. \n\n1866, raised to 8, Jan. 4 ; reduced to 7, Feb. 22 ; to 6, \nMarch 15 ; raised to 7, May 3 ; to 8, May 8 ; to 9, May \n11 (panic \xe2\x80\x94 suspension of Bank Act authorised by Go- \nvernment) ; to 10, May 12 ; reduced to 8, Aug. 16 ; to \n7, Aug. 23 ; to 6, Aug. 30 ; to 5, Sept. 6 ; to 4J, Sept. \n27 ; to 4, Nov. 8 ; to 3J, Dec. 20. \n\n\n\nBANK. \n\n\n\n91 BANK. \n\n\n\n1867, reduced to 3, Feb. 7 ; to 2J, May 30 ; to 2, July 25. \n\n1868, raised to 2J per cent. Nov. 19 ; to 3, Dec. 3. \n\n1869, raised- to 4, April 1 ; to 4J, May 6 ; reduced to 4, \nJune 10 ; to 3^, June 24 ; to 3, July 15 ; to 2J, Aug. 19 ; \nraised to 3, Nov. 4. \n\n1870, raised to 3J, July 21 ; to 4, July 23 ; to 5 (Franco- \nPrussian War), July 28 ; to 6, Aug. 4 : reduced to 5J, \nAug. 11 ; to 4 J, Aug. 18 ; to 4, Aug. 25 ; to 3^, Sept. 1 ; \nto 3, Sept. 15 ; to 2^, Sept. 29. \n\n1871, raised to 3, March 2 ; reduced to 2J, April 13 ; to \ni\\, June 15 ; to 2, July 13 ; raised to 3, Sept. 21 ; to 4, \nSept. 28 ; to s, Oct. 7 ; reduced to 4, Nov. 16 ; to 3^, \nNov. 30 ; to 3, Dec. 14. \n\n1872, raised to 3^, April 4 ; to 4, April 11 ; to 5, May 9 ; \nreduced to 4, May 30 ; to 3 J, June 13 ; to 3, June 20 ; \nraised to 3^, July 18 ; to 4, Sept. 18 ; to 4J, Sept. 26 ; \nto 5, Oct. 2"; to 6, Oct. 10 ; to 7, Nov. 9 ; reduced to 6, \nNov. 28 ; to 5, Dec. 12. \n\n1873, reduced to 4J, Jan. 9 ; to 4, Jan. 23 ; to 3J, Jan. 30 ; \nraised to 4, March 26 ; to 4J, May 7 ; to 5, May 10 ; to \n6, May 17 ; to 7, June 4 ; reduced to 6, June 12 ; to 5, \nJuly 10 ; to 4^-, July 17 ; to 4, July 24 ; to 3J, July 31 ; \nto 3, Aug. 21 ; raised to 4, Sept. 25 ; to 5 (panic in New \nYork), Sept. 29 ; to 6, Oct. 14 ; to 7, Oct. 18 ; to 8, Nov. \n1 ; to 9, Nov. 7 ; reduced to 8, Nov. 20 ; to 6, Nov. 27 ; \nto s, Dec. 4 ; to 4^, Dec. 11. \n\nE874, reduced to 4, Jan. 8 ; to 3J, Jan. 15 ; raised to 4, \nApril 30 ; reduced to 3^, May 28 ; to 3, June 4 ; to 2j, \nJune 18; raised to 3, July 30; to 4, Aug. 6; reduced \nto 3^, Aug. 20 ; to 3, Aug. 27 ; raised to 4, Oct. 15 ; to \n5, Nov. 16 ; to 6, Nov. 30. . \n\n1875, reduced to 5, Jan. 7; to 4, Jan. 14 ; to 3, Jan. 27 ; \nraised to 3J, Feb. 18 ; to 3, July 8 ; reduced to z\\, July \n29 ; to 2, Aug. 12 ; raised to 2J, Oct. 7 ; to 3A, Oct. 14 ; \nto 4, Oct. 21 ; reduced to 3, Nov. 18 ; raised to 4, Dec. 30. \n\n1876, raised to 5, Jan. 6 ; reduced to 4, Jan. 27 ; to 3J, \nMarch 23 ; to 3, April 6 ; to 2, April 20. \n\n1877, raised to 3, May 3 ; reduced to 2^, July 5 ; to 2, \nJuly 12 ; raised to 3, Aug. 28 ; to 4, Oct. 4 ; to 5, Oct. \n11 ; reduced to 4, Nov. 29. \n\n1878, reduced to 3, Jan. 10 ; to 2, Jan. 31 ; raised to 3, \nMarch 28 ; reduced to 2^, May 30 ; [minimum omitted \nin Bank notices, June] ; raised to 3, June 27 ; to 3J, \nJuly 4 ; to 4, Aug. 1 ; to 3, Aug. 12 ; to 6, Oct. 14 ; \nreduced to 5, Nov. 21. \n\n1879, reduced to 4, Jan. 16 ; to 3, Jan. 30; to 2 J, March \n13 ; to 2, April 10 ; raised to 3. Nov. 6. \n\n1880, reduced to 2^, June 17 ; raised to 3, Dec. 9. \n\n1881, raised to 3^, Jan. ; reduced to 3, Feb. 17; to i\\, \nApril 27 ; raised to 3, Aug. 3 : to 4, Aug. 25 ; 5, Oct. 6. \n\n1882 raised to 6, Jan. 30 ; reduced to 5, Feb. 23; to 4, \nMar. 9 ; to 3, Mar. 23 ; raised to 4, Aug. 17 ; to 5, \nSept. 14 \n\n1883, reduced to 4, Jan. 25 ; to 3J, Feb. 15 ; to 3, March 1 ; \nraised to 4, May 10; reduced to 3 J, Sept. 13; to 3, Sept. 27. \n\n\n\n1884, raised to 3!, Feb. 7 ; reduced to 3, Mar. 13 ; to 2^ \nApril 3 ; to 2, June 19 ; raised to 3, Oct. 9 ; to 4, Oct. \n30; to s, Nov. 6. \n\n1885, reduced to 4, Jan. 29 ; to 3J, March 19 ; to 3, May \n7 ; to 2\xc2\xa3, May 14 ; to 2, May 28 ; raised to 3, Nov. 12 ; \nto 4, Dec. 17. \n\n1886, reduced to 3, Jan. 21 ; to 2, Feb. 18 ; raised to 3, \nMay 6 ; reduced to 2J, June 10 ; raised to 3J, Aug. 26 ; \nto 4, Oct. 21 ; to s, Dec. 16. \n\n1887, reduced to 4, Feb. 3 ; to 3 J, March 10 ; to 3, March \n24 ; to 2j, April 14 ; to 2, April 28 ; raised to 3, Aug. \n4 ; to 4, Sept. 1. - \n\n1888, reduced to 3A, Jan. 12 ; to 3, Jan. 19 ; to 25, Feb. \n16 ; to 2, March 15 ; raised to 3, May 10 ; reduced to \n2j, June 7 ; ?-atsed to 3, Aug. 9 ; to 4, Sept. 13 ; to 5, \nOct. 4. \n\n1889, reduced to 4, Jan. 10 ; 3A, Jan. 24 ; to 3, Jan. 31 ; to \n2^, April 18 ; raised; to 3, Aug. 8 ; to 4, Aug. 29 ; to s. \nSept. 26 ; to 6, Dec. 30. \n\n1890, reduced to 5, Feb. 20 ; to 4J; March 6 ; to 4, March \n13 ; to 3^, April 10 ; to 3, April 17 ; raised to 4, June \n26 ; to 5, July 31 ; reduced to 4, Aug. 21 ; raised to 5, \nSept. 25 ; to 6, Nov. 7 ; reduced to 5, Dec. 4. \n\n1891, reduced to 4, Jan. 8 ; to 3^, Jan. 22 ; to 3, Jan. 29 ; \nraised to 3J-, April 16; to 4, May 7; to 5, May 14; \nreduced to 4, June 4 ; to 3, June 18 ; to 2^, July 2 ; \nraised to 3, Sept. 24 ; to 4, Oct. 29 ; reduced to 33-, \nDec. 10. ., \n\n1892, reduced to 3, Jan. 21 ; to 2J, April 7 ; to 2, April \n\n\n\nAVERAGE AMOUNT OF BANK OF ENG. NOTES IN CIRCULATION. \n\n\n\n1718 . \n1778 \n1790 . \n1800 \nl8lO . \n1815 \n1820 . \n1830 \n\n\n\n\xc2\xa31,829,930 \n7,030,680 \n\n10,217,000 \n" 15,450,000 \n\n23,Q04,000 \n\n26,803,520 \n27,174,000 \n20,620,000 \n\n\n\n1835 \n\n1840 \n\n1845 \n\ni8=;o \n1855 \n1857 \n\n\n\n\xc2\xa318,215,220 \n17,231,000 \n19,262,327 \n19,776,814 \n19,616,627 \n21,036,430 \n22,705,780 \n\n\n\nAssets \xe2\x80\x94 Securities \n\nBullion \nLiabilities \n\n\n\nNov, \nAssets \xe2\x80\x94 Securities \n\nBullion \nLiabilities \n\n\n\nDec. 27, 1856. \n\n. \xc2\xa329,484,000) \xc2\xa339s890OO \n. . 10,105,000 ) "\'\xe2\x80\xa2* \n\n36,329,000 \n\n\n\nBalance \xc2\xa33,250,000 \n\n11, 1857 (Time of Panic). \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x96\xa0 \xc2\xa335>48o,28i I \xc2\xa3 g 8 \n\n. 7,170,508 i * > ? >/. y \n39. 2 86.433 \n\n\n\nBalance or rest \xc2\xa33,364,356 \n\n\n\nSept. 14, 1859 \nAug. 30, 1862 \nAug. 9, 1865 \nMar. 14, 1866 . \nSept. 26, ,, \nJune 19, 1867 \nMarch 5, 1868 \nDee. 29, 1869 . \nJune 2, 1870 \nJan. 5, 1871 . \nJune 29, ,, \nJan. 3, 1872 \n\nJuly 3, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nJan. 8, 1873 \nJuly 9, ,, \nDec. 17, ,, \nJuly 1, 1874 . \nJan. 6, 1875 \nJune 30, ,, \nJan. 5, 1876 \nJuly 5, ,, \nJan. 3, 1877 \nJuly, ,, \nJan. 2, 1878 \nJune 26, ,, \nJan. 2, 1879 \nJuly 2, ,, . \nJan. 1, 1880 \nJuly 1, ,, . \nJan. 5, 1 88 1 \n\n\n\nAssets. \n\n\n\n-Securities. \n\n\xc2\xa330,090,179 \n30,106,295 \n31,823,066 \n\n29.4i5>oS9 \n34,418,382 \n31,849,662 \n31,226,793 \n34,040,941 \n32,402,200 \n32,274,967 \n34,100,342 \n36.393.7o8 \n37,090,281 \n32,138,990 \n\n33.395,344 \n30,922,266 \n36,596,872 \n33,985,823 \n39,660,166 \n38.398,98s \n32,247,018 \n35,998,482 \n35.865,522 \n34.335.978 \n37.366,472 \n44,286,663 \n34.95i.837 \n41,330,212 \n39,398,901 \n39,955.274 \n\n\n\nCoin and Bullion \n. \xc2\xa317,120,822 \n17,678,698 \n14,223,390 \n14,327,618 \n16,929,262 \n21,882,770 \n21,136,192 \n19,196,622 \n20,494,392 \n22,382,934 \n26,609,540 \n25,291,761 \n24,065,094 \n24,051,412 \n22,374.582 \n22,477,563 \n23,929,601 \n22,085,311 \n26,690,116 \n21,215,761 \n30,190,692 \n28,214,165 \n26,948,340 \n24,386,794 \n23,438,504 \n28,088,361 \n35,21-6,269 \n27,601,562 \n29,319,390 \n24,269,276 \n\n\n\nLiabilities. \n\xc2\xa343.503.214 \n44.453,778 \n42,528,577 \n39\',934,iSo \n47,039,390 \n50,612,342 \n48,752,291 \n50,134,262 \n49.799.528 \n51,512,339 \n\n57>594, I 33 \n58,497,293 \n57,894,811 \n52,772,403 \n52,338,203 \n50,248,577 \n57,315,010 \n52,786,516 \n63,252,111 \n56,362,426 \n60,186,939 \n61,091,620 \n59,682,894 \n55,560,422 \n57,726,813 \n69,062,479 \n67,067,079 \n65,866,659 \n65.634,195 \n61,006,233 \n\n\n\nBalance. \n\xc2\xa33,716,787 \n\n3,517,879 \n3,808,527 \n4,108,254 \n3,120,090 \n3,610,694 \n3,103,301 \n3,097,069 \n3,145,562 \n\n3. H5.749 \n3,188,176 \n3,250,564 \n3.4!7,999 \n3-43 I .7 2 3 \n3,151,252 \n3,211,463 \n3,302,618 \n\n3,252,320 \n\ni.^o,?? 1 \n3,121,027 \n3,130,968 \n3,162,350 \n3,078,163 \n3.3 I2 >545 \n3,171,027 \n3,065,115 \n3,084,096 \n3.2i3,3\'7 \n\n\n\nBANK OF IRELAND. \n\n\n\n92 \n\n\n\nBANKS. \n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\x9e\xe2\x80\x9e. -Securities. Coin and Bullion. Liabilities. \n\nJune 8, 1881 \xc2\xa335,890,517 . . . \xc2\xa325,902,159 . . . \xc2\xa358,721,068 . \n\nJan. 5, 1882 40,438,605 . . . 20,249,034 . . . 57>5\xc2\xb05,54\xc2\xb0 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nJune 28, \xe2\x80\x9e . . . . . 37,486,806 . . . 24,380,941 . . . 58,772,276 . \nJan. 3, 1883 .... 41,688,522 . . . 20,353,791 . . . 58,856,634 . \n\nJuty 4. , 391827,144 . . . 22,266,535 . . . 58,939.347 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nJan. 2,1884 41.217,256 . . . 21,437,365 . . . 59,531,153 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nJuly 2, ,, . . . . . 38,323,187 . . . 25,075,683 . . . 60,236,310 . \nJan. 1, 1885 .... 41,663,958 . . . 20,695,496 . . . 59,243,143 . \nJan. 6, 1886 ... . . 41,446,936 . . . 19,964,811 . . . 58,109,621 . \nJan. 29, 1887 .... 37,545.742 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x96\xa0 23,190,671 . . . 57,685,104 . \n\nJan. 4, 1888 38,133,062 . . . 20,164,214 . . . 55,175,337 . \n\nJuly 4, 1888. \xe2\x80\x94 Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,184,900?. Gold coin and bullion. \n\nNotes issued, 36,516,920?. Balance or rest, 3,140,748?. \nJan. 2, 1889. \xe2\x80\x94 Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,184,900?. Gold coin and bullion, \n\nNotes issued, 34,639,030?. Balance or rest, 3,217,808?. \nJuly 3, 1889. \xe2\x80\x94 Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,184,900?. Gold coin and bullion, \n\nNotes issued, 38,919,385?. Balance or rest, 3,148,924?. \nJan. 1, 1890. \xe2\x80\x94 Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,184,900?. Gold coin and bullion, \n\nNotes issued, 33,316,690?. Balance or rest, 3,177,007?. \nJuly 2, 1890. \xe2\x80\x94 Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,434,900?. Gold coin and bullion, \n\nNotes issued, 36,534,600?. Balance or rest, 3,184,670?. \nJan. 7, 1891. \xe2\x80\x94 Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,434,900?. Gold coin and bullion, \n\nNotes issued, 39,802,635?. Balance or rest, 3,462,192?. \nJuly 1, 1891. \xe2\x80\x94 Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,434,900?. Gold coin and bullion, \n\nNotes issued, 43,735,550?. Balance or rest, 3,226,321?. \nJan. 6, 1892. \xe2\x80\x94 Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,434,900?. Gold coin and bullion, \nNotes issued, 38,140,030?. Balance or rest, 3,408,148?. \n\nPUBLIC DEBT TO THE BANK OF ENGLAND. \n1694 . . . \xc2\xa3l,200,000 I 1716 . . \xc2\xa34,175,027 I 1742 . . . \xc2\xa310,700,000 I 1816 . \n\nI708 . . . 2,175,027 I 1721 . . . 9,100,000 I 1746 . . . 11,686,000 I 1844-1889 \n\n\n\nBalance. \n\n. \xc2\xa33,071,608 \n\n3,182,099 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 3. 95,47i \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 3,185,679 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 3, I 54,33 2 \n. 3,123,468 \n\n3,162,560 \n\n. 3,116,311 \n\n3,302,126 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 3,051,309 \n\xe2\x96\xa0 3, 121. 939 \n\n20,316,920?. \n\n18,439,030?. \n22,719,385?. \n17,116,690?. \n20,084,600?. \n23.352.635L \n27.285,550?- \n21,690,030?. \n\n\n\n. \xc2\xa314,686,000 \n. 11,015,100 \n\n\n\nBANK of Ireland. On 9 Dec. 1721, the \n\nIrish house of commons rejected a bill for establish- \ning a national bank. Important failures in Irish \nhanks occurred in 1727, 1733, and 1758: this led \ngradually to the establishment of the Bank of Ire- \nland at St. Mary\'s abbey, Dublin, 1 June, 1783. \nThe business was removed to the late parliament \nhouse, in College-green, in May, 1808. Branch \nbanks of this establishment have been formed in \nmost of the provincial towns in Ireland, all since \n1828. Irish Banking Act passed, 21 July, 1845. \n\nBANK OF SAYINGS, see Savings\' Banks. \n\nBANKEES\' BOOKS EVIDENCE ACT, \n\n39 & 40 Vict. c. 48, passed 11 Aug. 1876; repealed \nby a fresh act 23 May, 1879. \n\nBANKERS\' INSTITUTE, meeting to esta- \nblish it, 29 May, 1878; Sir John Lubbock; elected \npresident 11 March, 1879, 1st general meeting 23 \nMay, 1879. (1952 members, May, 1887.) \n\nBANKS OF SCOTLAND. The old bank of Scot- \nland was set up in 1695, at Edinburgh, and began \n1 Nov., the second institution of the kind in the \nempire : lending money to the crown was pro- \nhibited. \n\nRoyal bank of Scotland chartered . . 8 July, 1727 \n\nBritish Linen company bank \' ^46 \n\nFirst stone of present bank of Scotland laid 3 June", 1801 \n\nCommercial bank I 8 IO \n\nNational bank - _ \' [ jg 25 \n\nUnion bank \\ jg,,-, \n\nCity of Glasgow bank * . . . .\'..\'\'. 1839 \nScotch banking act passed . . . 21 Julyj 1845 \n\nWestern bank of Scotland and the Glasgow bank \nstopped, causing much distress . . . Nov. 1857 \n\n* City of Glasgow Bank (with unlimited liability) \xe2\x80\xa2 \nfounded 1839 , identified with Glasgow ; held Free Church \nSustentation Fund ; stopped for a few days during crisis, \nNov. 1857. In 1878 paid dividend 12 per cent. (100?. stock, \n236?.) ; 1272 shareholders, very many in humble circum- \nstances. The bank stopped 2 Oct. Investigation showed \ngreat fraud and false accounts. Estimated loss, 6,783,000?. \ncausing much calamity and ruin to many. The directors, \nJ. Stewart, Lewis Potter, R. Salmond, Win. Taylor, H.\' \nInglis, and J. I. Wright, and the manager, R. S. Stronach, \nwere committed for trial, 30 Oct. Stronach and Potter \nwere convicted of falsifying ^and fabricating balance \n\n\n\nBANKS, Joint Stock. Since the act of \n\n1826, a number of these banks have been estab- \nlished.! In Ireland similar banks have been in- \nstituted, the first being the Hibernian bank. By \nthe new Companies Act, passed 15 Aug. 1879, un- \nlimited companies may register as limited. The \n\nsheets (18 months\' imprisonment; the others of uttering \nthe same (8 months\' imprisonment), 1 Feb. 1S79. \n\nThe liquidators reported that about 1819 contributors \nhad paid about 4,500,000?. (13s. 4$. in the pound) 1 Dec. \n1879 ; 20s. in the pound paid to depositors, 2 March, 1880. \n\nMr. James N. Fleming was arrested 25 Jan. for em- \nbezzlement, and sentenced to 8 months\' imprisonment, \n3 July, 1882. \n\nClose of the liquidation ; 13,644,856?. paid, announced \nNov. 1882. \n\nThe receipts by subscription, &c, for the relief of the \nsufferers amounted to 380,000?. ; interest 47,000?., making \na total of 427,000?. \n\n+ The Royal British Bank was established in 1849, \nby Mr. John McGregor, M.P., and others, under sir R. \nPeel\'s joint-stock banking act, 7 & 8 Vict. c. 113 (1844) ; \nas an attempt to introduce the Scotch banking system of \ncash credits into England. On 3 Sept. 1856, it stopped \npayment, occasioning much distress and ruin to many \nsmall tradesmen and others. In consequence of strong \nevidence of the existence of fraud in the management of \nthe bank, elicited during the examination before the \ncourt of bankruptcy, the government instructed the at- \ntorney-general to file ex-officio informations against the \nmanager, Mr. H. Innes Cameron, and several of the \ndirectors. They were convicted 27 Feb. 1858, after 13 \ndays\' trial, and sentenced to various degrees of imprison- \nment. Attempts to mitigate the punishment failed \n(May, 1858) ; but all were released except Cameron and \nEsdaile, in July, 1858. In April, i860, dividends had \nbeen paid to the amount of 15s. in the pound. The at- \ntorney-general brought in a bill called the Fraudulent \nTrustees\' Act, 20 & 21 Vict. c. 54, to prevent the recur- \nrence of such transactions. \n\nOn 19 April, i860, adeficiency of 263,000?. was discovered \nin the Union Bank of London. Mr. George Pullinger, a \ncashier, confessed himself guilty of forgery and fraud, and \nwas sentenced to 20 years\' imprisonment. \n\nOn 18 Feb. 1861, it was discovered that John Durden, \na clerk of the Commercial Bank of London, had robbed \nhis employers of 67,000?., of which 46,000?. might be \nrecovered. \n\nIn Dec. 1864, J. W. Terry and Thomas Burch, manager \nand secretary of the Unity Bank, were committed on \na charge of conspiracy for fabricating accounts ; but \nacquitted on their trial. \n\n\n\nBANK HOLIDAYS ACT. \n\n\n\n93 \n\n\n\nBANNOCKBURN. \n\n\n\njoint-stock banks agreed to support the Bank of \nEngland, and to issue monthly balance sheets, May, \nJune, 1891. \n\nChief London Joint-Stock Banks. Founded. \n\nLondon and Westminster (becomes limited, 1879) . 1834 \n\nLondon Joint-Stock 1836 \n\nLondon and County (becomes limited, 1879) . \nUnion Bank of London .... \nCity Bank . . (ditto, 1880) \n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1839 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1855 \n\nA full list of joint-stock banks, with their date, capital, \n<fec, is given in Whitaker\'s Almanack. \n\nBANK HOLIDAYS ACT passed 25 May, \n187 1, chiefly by the instrumentality of sir John \nLubbock. \n\nBank Holidays. \xe2\x80\x94 England and Ireland: Easter Mon- \nday ; Monday in Whitsun-week ; first Monday in \nAugust; 26 December (if a week day). \xe2\x80\x94 Scotland: \nNew Year\'s day ; Christmas day (if either falls on Sun- \nday, the following Monday to be a bank holiday) ; Good \nFriday ; first Monday in May and August. \n\nBANKS, UPT (signifying either bank or bench \n\nbroken), a trader declared to be unable to pay his \n\njust debts. The laws on the subject (1543, 1571 et \n\nseq.) were consolidated and amended in 1825, 1849, \n\n1852, 1854,\' 1861, 1868, 1869, 1883. See Debtors. \n\nLord Chancellor Thurlow refused a bankrupt his \ncertificate, because he had lost five pounds at one \ntime in gaming 17 July, 1788 \n\nEnacted that members of the house of commons" \nbecoming bankrupt, and not paying their debts \nin full, should vacate their seats .... 1812 \n\nLord Eldon\'s Act appointing commissioners . . 1825 \n\nNew Bankruptcy Court, (including a court " of \nreview," 3 judges) erected by 2 Will. IV. c. 56 \n(Lord Brougham\'s Act) ; official assignees ap- \npointed, &c 1831 \n\nBills for reforming bankruptcy law were in vain \nbrought before parliament. . . . 1859, i860 \n\nBill by the lord chancellor Westbury (formerly sir \nK. Bethell), 24 & 25 Vict. c. 134, passed (1861) ; \ngreat changes made ; the court for relief of insol- \nvent debtors abolished, and increased powers \ngiven to the commissioners in bankruptcy, &c. ; \nthe new orders issued . . . .12 Oct. 1861 \n\nBy Lord Hatherley\'s Bankruptcy Act passed 9 Aug. \n1869, a new bankruptcy court was established in \nplace of the commissioners\', which sat last time, \nwhen above 300 petitions of bankruptcy were \nreceived, 31 Dec. 1869. "Paid trustee system," \nclauses 125, 126, termed "a gentlemanly way of \ngetting rid of debts." The new Judge, the hon. \nJames Bacon, sat 1 Jan. 1870 \n\nJustice Giffard, the judge of the Bankruptcy Appeal \nCourt, decided (in the case of the duke of New- \ncastle) that a peer can be made a bankrupt, Nov. \n1869, which decision was affirmed on appeal to \nthe house of lords in the following year ; other \npetitions against peers have been filed. It was \ndecided that bankrupts cannot sit in the house \nof peers 10 Feb. 1871 \n\nBankruptcy Disqualification Act disqualifies a \npeer from sitting or voting in parliament, passed \n\n13 July, ,, \n\nIrish bankruptcy laws consolidated in 1836, and \nfurther amended in 1857 \n\nScotch bankruptcy laws consolidated in 1856, and \nfurther amended in ,, \n\nNew Bankruptcy Act for Ireland, passed . 6 Aug. 1872 \n\nFour Bankruptcy Bills introduced by Lord Chan- \ncellor Cairns, and withdrawn . . . 1876 \xe2\x80\x94 80 \n\nBankruptcies have diminished through great num- \nber of liquidations by arranged compositions ; \nmany said to be fraudulent ; 3651 of these in \n1870 ; 11,976 in 1879 ; about 20,000,000^. wasted. \n\nNew bankruptcy bill brought in by Mr. Chamber- \nlain 8 April, 1881 (dropped) \n\nNew Bankruptcy Act passed 25 Aug., 1883, 46 & 47 \nVict. c. 52, places bankrupts assets in charge of \nBoard of Trade, and makes other important \nchanges. Reported to work well .... 1885 \n\nThe court in Portugal Street closed ; business trans- \nferred to High Court of Justice, Jan.; new judge \nfirst sat 18 Feb. 1884 \n\n\n\nBankruptcy (Discharge and Closure) Act passed . 1887 \nSir Albert Rollit\'s Bankruptcy Act, 1883-90, passed \n\n18 Aug. 1890 \n\n\n\nNUMBER OF BANKRUPTS IN GREAT BRITAIN. \n\n\n\n1700 \n1725 \nI 75\xc2\xb0 \n1775 \n1800 \n1810 \n1820 \n1825* \n\n\n\n1845 England \n1850 ditto . \n\n\n\n1857 \n\n\n\nditto \nditto \nditto \nditto \nditto \n\n\n\n416 \n432 \n\n520 \n\n\n\n. 2683 \n\xe2\x80\xa2 1467 \n\n\n\n. 8470 \n. 7224 \n\n\n\n1873 \n1876 \n1877 \n\n\n\n1887 \n\n\n\nEngland \ndittof . \nditto \nditto . \nditto \nditto . \nditto \nditto . \nditto \nditto . \nditto \nditto . \nditto \nditto . \nditto \nditto . \nditto \n\n\n\n10,396 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 915 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 976 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 967 \n\n. 1084 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1156 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 995 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1005 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 995 \n. 1046 \n. 2998 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 3963 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 4566 \n. 4681 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 4695 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 4415 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 39 2 4 \n\n\n\n1867 \n\nBankrupts in Scotland : i860, 445 ; 1876, 482 ; 1880, 5S2 ; \n1885, 362 ; 1890, 339. In Ireland : 1880, 312 ; 1885, 2I 6 ; \n1887, 204. \n\nBANNATYNE CLUB, named after George \nBannatyne (the publisher), was established in 1823 \nby sir Walter Scott and others, for printing works \nillustrative of the history, antiquities, and litera- \nture of Scotland, of which about 113 volumes were \nissued: dissolved, i860. \n\nBANNER CROSS MURDER. See Trials, \n\n1879. \n\nBANNERET, KNIGHT, a dignity between \nbaron and knight, anciently conferred by the king \nunder the royal standard on the field of battle. Its \norigin is of uncertain time : Edmondson dates it \n736; but it was probably created by Edward I. \nJohn Chandos is said to have been made a banneret \nby the Black Prince and the king of Castile at Na- \njara, 3 April, 1367. The dignity "was conferred on \nJohn Smith, who rescued the royal standard at \nEdgehill fight, 23 Oct. 1642. It fell into disuse, \nbut was revived by George III. for sir "William \nErskine, in 1764, and for admiral Pye and captains \nKnight, Bickerton, and Vernon, in 1773. \n\nBANNERS were common to all nations. The \nJewish tribes had standards or banners \xe2\x80\x94 Num. ii. \n(1490 B.C.). See Cross, Auriflamma, Standards, &c. \nThe magical banner of the Danes (said to have been \na black raven on a red ground) was taken by Alfred \nwhen he defeated Hubba, 878. \n\nBANNOCKBURN (Stirlingshire), the site of \ntwo battles: (1) between Robert Bruce of Scotland \nand Edward II. of England, 24 June, 1314. The \narmy of Bruce consisted of 30,000 ; that of Edward \nof 100,000 men, of whom 52,000 were archers. The \nEnglish crossed a rivulet to the attack, and Bruce \nhaving dug and covered pits, they fell into them, \nand were thrown into confusion. The rout was \ncomplete : the English king narrowly escaped, and \n50,000 were killed or taken prisoners. (2) At \nSauchieburn, near here, James III. was defeated \nand slain on 11 June, 1488, by his rebellious \nnobles. \n\n* According to a return to parliament made at the \nclose of Feb. 1826, there had become bankrupt in the \nfour months}) receding, 59 banking-houses, comprising 144 \npartners ; and 2oother banking establishments had been \ndeclared insolvent. Every succeeding week continued \nto adil from seventy to a hundred merchants, traders, \nand manufacturers to the bankrupt list. This was the \nperiod of bubble speculation, and of unprecedented com- \nmercial embarrassment and ruin. \n\nf Liquidations now preferred to bankruptcy. \n\n\n\nBANNS. \n\n\n\n94 \n\n\n\nBAEBUDA. \n\n\n\nBANNS, in the feudal law, were a solemn \nproclamation of any kind : hence arose the present \ncustom of asking banns, or giving notice before \nmarriage; said to have been introduced into the \nEnglish church about 1200. The proper time of \npublishing banns in the church was the subject of \nmuch discussion in 1867. \n\nBANQUETING-HOTTSE, Whitehall, Lon- \ndon, built by Inigo Jones, about 1619. \n\nBANTAM (Java). Here a British factory was \nestablished by captain Lancaster, in 1603. The \nEnglish and Danes were driven from their factories \nby the Dutch in 1683. Bantam surrendered to the \nBritish in 181 1, but was restored to the Dutch at \nthe peace in 1814. \n\nBANTINGISM, see Corpulence. \nBANTBY BAY (S. Ireland), where a French \nfleet, bringing succour to the adherents of James \nII., attacked the English under admiral Herbert, \n1 May, 1689 : the latter retired to form in line and \nwere not pursued. A French squadron of seven \nsail of the line and two frigates, armed en flute, \nand seventeen transports, anchored here for a few \ndays, without effect, Dec. 1796. Mutiny of the \nBantry Bay squadron under admiral Mitchell was \nin Dec. 1801. In Jan. 1802, twenty-two of the \nmutineers were tried on board the Gladiator, at \nPortsmouth, when seventeen were condemned to \ndeath, of whom eleven were executed ; the others \nwere sentenced to receive each 200 lashes. The \nexecutions took place on board the Majestic, Cen- \ntaur, Formidable, Temeraire, and L\' Achille, 8 to \n18 Jan. 1802. Mock battle here, 30 June, 1885. \n\nBAPATJME, N. FRANCE, the site of severe \nindecisive engagements between the French army \nof the north under Faidherbe, and the Germans \nunder Manteuft\'el ; the French retreated, 2, 3 Jan. \n187 1. \n\nBAPTISM, the ordinance of admission into \nthe church, practised by all Christian sects except \nQuakers. John the Baptist baptized Christ, 30. \n(Matt, iii.) Infant baptism is mentioned by Ire- \nnceus about 97. In the reign of Constantine, 319 \nbaptisteries were built and baptism was performed \nby dipping the person all over. In the west sprink- \nling was adopted. Much controversy has arisen \nsince 1831 (particularly in 1849 and 1850), in the \nchurch of England, respecting baptismal regenera- \ntion, which the Arches\' Court of Canterbury \ndecided to be a doctrine of the church of England. \nSee Trials, 1849, and note. Demanding fees for \nbaptisms was made unlawful by an act passed 18 \nJuly, 1872. \n\nBAPTISTS (see Anabatrtists). A sect dis- \ntinguished by their opinions respecting (i)_ the \nproper subjects, and (2) the proper mode of baptism : \nthe former they affirm to be those who are able to \nmake a profession of faith; the latter to be_ total \nimmersion. There are seven sections of Baptists\xe2\x80\x94 \nArminian, Calvinistic (or Particular), &c. The \nfirst Baptist church formed in London was about \n1608. They published their confession of faith in \n1643; revised in 1689. In 1851 they had 130 \nchapels in London and 2789 (with sittings for \n752,353 persons) in England and Wales. Rhode \nIsland, America, was settled by Baptists in 1635. \nParticular Baptist Fund established . . . . 1717 \n\nBaptist Missionary Society 1792 \n\nBaptist College, Regent\'s Park, founded . . . 1S10 \nMr. C. H. Spurgeon\'s great Baptist tabernacle, New- \n\nington Butts, opened . . . . 3 1 March, 1S61 \nA Baptist Pastors\' College near it, founded by Mr. \nSpurgeon 14 Oct. 1873 \n\n\n\n[Mr. Charles Haddon Spurgeon was born 19 June, \n1834, and when quite a youth became a powerful \npreacher, attracting large congregations. He \ndied at Mentone, 31 Jan. 1892. There was a very \ngreat concourse at his funeral in Norwood Ceme- \ntery, 11 Feb., on which day S. London appeared \nto be in mourning.] \n\nA great tabernacle at Shoreditch (rev. Wm. Cuff), \nopened \' 11 Nov. 1879 \n\nIn United Kingdom 3,738 chapels ; 304,802 baptised \n-members in 1883 \n\nIn British Empire 4,368 churches ; 413,140 members \n\n1886 \n\nBAE SUR Aube, N. E. France. Here the \nFrench, under Oudinot and Macdonald, were de- \nfeated by the allies, 27 Feb. 1814. \n\nBAEBADOES, a West India Island, one of the \nWindward isles discovered by the Portuguese about \n1600, taken possession of by the English 1605, and \nsettled by sir Wm. Courteen, who founded James- \ntown, 1625. As many royalists settled here, the \nisland was taken by the parliamentarians in 1652. \nPopulation, 1876, 162,042: white, 16,560; co- \nloured, 145,482; 1881, 173,522; 1891, 182,322. \nA dreadful hurricane, more than 4000 inhabitants \n\nperished 10 Oct. 1780 \n\nA large plantation with all its buildings destroyed, \nby the land removing from its original site to \nanother, and covering everything in its pieregrina- \n\ntion 17 Oct. 1784 \n\nAn inundation, Nov. 1795 ; and two great fires, \n\nMay and Dec. 1796 \n\nBishopric established 1824 \n\nAwful devastation, with the loss of thousands of \nlives, and of immense property, by a hurricane \n\nAug. i83r \nNearly 17,000 persons died of cholera . . . 1854 \nProperty to the amount of about 300,000;. destroyed \n\nby a fire at Bridgetown . . . .14 Feb. i860 \nGreat increase in growth of cotton, 1864-5. \n\nGovernor, James Walker i86r \n\n,, Rawson W. Rawson .... 186S \n\n,, John Pope Hennessy 1875 \n\nProposed confederation of the Windward Isles ; sup- \nported by the governor in a speech, 3 March ; op- \nposed by the planters .... March, 1876 \nThe coloured population ignorantly expecting ad- \nvantage from the confederation, rise, plundering \nand destroying much property and cattle ; negroes \nkilled and wounded by police . 21, 22 April, ,, \nGreat panic among the planters ; the governor and \nclergy said to have acted judiciously ; peace re- \nstored 24 April, ,, \n\nThe governor exonerated from serious blame July, ,, \nTrial of 450 rioters ; 82 punished (17 penal servi- \ntude ; others light sentences) . 12 \xe2\x80\x94 21 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nCapt. Geo. C. Strahan appointed governor Nov. ,, \n\nSir Henry Bulwer, governor 1880 \n\nSir William Robinson, governor . .\' . . i88r \nSir C. C. Lees, governor .... Aug. 1885 \n\nSir Walter J. Sendall Sept. 1889 \n\nSir James Hay Feb. 1892 \n\nBAEBAEY, in N. Africa, considered to com- \nprise Algeria, Morocco, Fez, Tunis, and Tripoli, \nwith their dependencies. Piratical states (nomi- \nnally subject to Turkey), were founded on the coast \nby Barbarossa, about 1518. \n\nBAEBEES lived in Greece in the 5th century T \nand at Rome in the 3rd century B.C. In England, \nformerly, the business of a surgeon was united to \nthe barber\'s, and he was denominated a Barber- \nSurgeon. A London company was formed in \n1308,\' and incorporated, 1462. This union was- \npartially dissolved in 1540, and wholly so in 1745. \n" No person using any shaving or barbery in Lon- \ndon shall occupy any surgery, letting of blood, or \nother matter, except only drawing of teeth." 32 \nHen. VIII. 1540. \n\nBAEBUDA, a small West India Isle, a de- \npendant of Antigua, which see. \n\n\n\nBAKCA. \n\n\n\n95 \n\n\n\nBARNABITES. \n\n\n\nBARCA (N. Africa), the Greek Barce, a colony \nof Cyrene. It was successively subjugated by the \nPersians, Egyptians, and Saracens. In 1550 the \nsultan Solyman combined Barca with the newly \nconquered pashalik of Tripoli. \n\nBARCELONA (N. E. Spain), an ancient \nmaritime city, said to have been rebuilt by Hamil- \ncar Barca, father of the great Hannibal, about 233 \nB.C. It was held by the Romans, Goths, Moors, \nand Franks, and, with the province of which it is \nthe capital, was made an independent country \nabout a.d. 864, and incorporated with Aragon, \n1 164, the last count becoming king. The city has \nsuffered much by war. The siege by the French \nin 1694, was relieved by the approach of the Eng- \nlish fleet, commanded by admiral Russell ; but the \ncity was taken by the earl of Peterborough in 1706. \nIt was bombarded and taken by the duke of Ber- \nwick and the French in 17 14, and was taken by \nNapoleon in 1808, and retained till 1814. It re- \nvolted against the queen in 1841, and was bom- \nbarded and taken in Dec. 1842, by Espartero. Fre- \nquent insurrections here ; one suppressed Jan. \n1874. A n exhibition opened by the king Alfonso \nXII. 4 March 1877. Barcelona very prosperous, \n1879. Violent riots on account of French treaty \nMar. ; Catalonia in a state of siege, 30 March, \n1882. Barcelona tranquil, 1 April, 1882. Popula- \ntion, 1887, 272,481. \n\nAn international exhibition opened 8 April, by the Queen \nof Spain, in the name of the infant king who was pre- \nsent, with the Duke and Duchess of Edinburgh and \nother royal personages 20 May ; there was also an un- \nexampled naval exhibition representing the fleets of \nten powers ; closed 9 Dec. 1888. For the disturbances \nhere and in Catalonia, see Spain, March et seg. 1890, \nand Feb. 1892. \n\nBARDESANISTS, followers of Bardesanes, \nof Mesopotamia, who embraced the errors of Valen- \ntinus, after refuting them, and added denial of the \nincarnation, resurrection, &c, about 175. \n\nBARDS. Demodocus is mentioned as a bard \nby Homer ; and we find bards, according to Strabo, \namong the Romans before the age of Augustus. \nThe Welsh bards formed an hereditary order, regu- \nlated, it is said, by laws, enacted about 940 and \n1078. They lost their privileges at the conquest \nby Edward I. in 1284. The institution was revived \nby the Tudor sovereigns ; and their Eisteddfods \n(properly Eisteddfodau), meetings of 4 days, have \nbeen and are still frequently held ; at Swansea, \nAug. 1863 ; at Llandudno, Aug. 1864 ; in the \nvale of Conway, 7 Aug. 1865 , at Chester, 4 Sept. \n1866; at Carmarthen, 3 Sept. 1867; at Ruthin, \n5-7 Aug. 1868; at Rhyl, 8-12 Aug. 1870; at Port- \nmadoc, Aug. 1872; at Mold, Aug. 1873; at various \nplaces in 1874-1876; at Carnarvon, 21 Aug. 1877 ; \nat Llanrwst, 1-3 Aug. ; at Menai Bridge, Aug. 1878; \nat Conway, 6 Aug. and at other places, 1879. The \nCymmrodorion Society held an Eisteddfod at \nCarnarvon, 2^ Aug. 1880. Royal National Eis- \nteddfod at Merthyr-Tydvil, 30 Aug. 1881; at \nDenbigh, 22 Aug. 1882; at Cardiff, 6 Aug. 1883; \nLiverpool, 16 Sept. 1884; Aberdare, Aug. 1885; \nCarnarvon, 14 Sept. 1886; Albert Hall, Londonj 9 \nAug. 1887 ; Wrexham, 4 Sept. 1888 ; at Brecon, 27 \nAug. 1889; Bangor (the queen of Roumania pre- \nsent), 2 Sept. 1890; Swansea, 18 Aug. 1891. The \nGwyneddigion Society of Bards was founded in 1770. \nTurlogh O\'Carolan, the last of the Irish bards, died \nin 1738. Chambers. Evan Davies, termed the \nArch-Druid of Wales, an eminent Welsh scholar, \naged 89, died at Pontypridd 23 February, 1888. In \n1880 the bards determined that the Annual National \n\n\n\nEisteddfod should be held alternately in North and \nSouth Wales. Above 100 Eisteddfodau are held, \nevery year. \n\nBAREBONE\'S PARLIAMENT. Crom- \nwell, supreme in the three kingdoms, summoned \n122 persons, such as he thought he could manage,, \nwho, with six from Scotland and five from Ireland, \nmet, as a parliament, 4 July, 1653. It obtained its- \nappellation from a nickname given to one of its \nmembers, a leather-seller, named " Praise-God \nBarbon." The majority evinced much sense and: \nspirit, proposing to reform abuses, improve the ad- \nministration of the law, &c. The parliament was. \nsuddenly dissolved, 13 Dec. 1653, and Cromwell \nmade lord protector. \n\nBAREILLY, province of Delhi (N. W. India) r \n\nceded to the East India company by the ruler of \n0udeini8oi. A mutiny at Bareilly, the capital, \nwas suppressed in April, 1816. On 7 May, 1858,, \nit was taken from the cruel sepoy rebels. \n\nBARFLEUR (N. France), where William, \nduke of Normandy, equipped the fleet by which he- \nconquered England, 1066. Near it, William, duke- \nof Normandy, son of Henry I., in his passage from \nNormandy, was shipwrecked, 25 Nov. 1120, when; \nthe prince, his bride, and many others perished. Bar- \nfleur was destroyed by the English in the campaign! \nin which they won the battle of Crecy, 1346. The- \nFrench navy was destroyed near the cape by \nadmiral Russell, after the victory of La Hogue, ig, \nMay, 1692. \n\nBARI (S. Italy), the Barium of Horace, was^ \nin the 9th century, a stronghold of the Saracens, \nand was captured by the emperor Louis II., a. \ndescendant of Charlemagne, in 871. In the 10th \ncentury it became subject to the eastern empire,, \nand remained so till it was taken by Robert Guis- \ncard, the Norman, about 1060. A great ecclesiastical \ncouncil was held here on 1 Oct. 1098, when the- \nfilioque article of the creed and the procession of the- \nHoly Spirit were the subjects of discussion. \n\nBARING ISLAND, Arctic Sea, discovered \nby captain Penny in 1850-1, and so named by hinn \nafter sir Francis Baring, first lord of the admiralty \nin 1849. \n\nBARIUM (Greek, barys, heavy), a metal found \nabundantly as carbonate and sulphate. The oxide \nbarj\'ta was first recognised as an earth distinct froms \nlime by Scheele, in 1774; and the metal was fii-st \nobtained by Humphry Davy, in 1808. Watts. \n\nBARK, see Jesuits\' Bark. \n\nBARLAAMITES, followers of Barlaam, a \nlearned Calabrian monk of the order of St. Basil,, \nwho maintained various peculiar tenets, attacked \nthe Greek monks, supported the Latin against the- \nGreek church in a controversy at Constantinople,, \n1337, and acted as the emperor\'s envoy in an attempt \nto reconcile the churches in 1339. He died about \n1348. \n\nBARMECIDES, a powerful Persian family, \ncelebrated for virtue and courage, were massacred \nthrough the jealousy of the caliph Haroun-al- \nRaschid, about 802. His visir Giafar was a Bar- \nmecide. The phrase Barmecide (or imaginary) \nfeast originated in the story of the barber\'s sixth \nbrother, in the Arabian Nights\' Entertainments. \n\nB ARNABITES, an order of monks, established \nin Milan about 1530, were much engaged in in- \nstructing youth, relieving the sick and aged, and \nconverting heretics. \n\n\n\nBARNARD\'S ACT. \n\n\n\n96 \n\n\n\nBARRACKS. \n\n\n\nBARNARD\'S, Sir John, Act (7 Geo. II., \n\ne. 8), entitled, "an act to prevent the infamous \npractice of stock-jobbing," was passed in 1734, and \nrepealed in i860. Sir John Barnard (born 1685, \n\xe2\x96\xa0died 1764) was an eminent lord mayor of London. \nBarnard Peerage case, see Trials, 30 May, 1892. \n\nBARNARDO HOMES. Dr. T. J. Barnardo, \n\xe2\x96\xa0of German extraction, born in Ireland, came to \nLondon, and in 1866 began energetically to pro- \nmote the welfare of homeless children. \nHis home for boys at Stepney, founded 1870, was fol- \nlowed by one for girls, at Barkingside, Essex, with \ninfirmary, schools, &c. ; all were reported successful \nin 1874. \nA Babies\' Castle at Hawkhurst, Kent, for 100 infants, \n\nopened 9 Aug. 1S86. \nHis disinterestedness and management having been im- \npugned he gave up the management to trustees, and \nInvited \'investigation. The arbiters (Canon Miller and \nMessrs. J. B. Maule and Wm. Graham) in their report, \nafter commenting on the imperfect evidence, com- \nmended the charities, and generally exonerated Dr. \nBarnardo, 15 Oct. 1877. \nSee Coffee Palaces and East End Juvenile Mission. \nSeveral legal decisions, requiring Br. Barnardo to pro- \nduce children who had been committed to his charge, \nwere pronounced, 1889-91. \nDr. Barnardo\'s appeal to the House of Lords was dis- \nmissed, 30 July, 1891 ; again, 25 July, 1892. \n\xe2\x80\xa2Occupants of the homes at Stepney, 3,785 boys and girls, \nJan. 1891. \n\nBARNET, Hertfordshire. Here, at Gladsmore \nheath, Edward IV. gained a decisive victory over \nthe Lancastrians, on Easter-day, 14 April, 1471, \nwhen the earl of Warwick and his brother the mar- \nquis of Montacute, or Montague, were killed. A \ncolumn commemorative of this battle has been \nerected at tbe meeting of the St. Alban\'s and \nHatfield roads. \n\nBARNUM\'S SHOW. The great show of \nMessrs. P. T. Barnum and Mr. J. A. Bailey, con- \nveyed from Brooklyn, New York, arrived at Olympia \n1 Nov., opened II Nov. 1889, closed Feb. 1890. \nThe show included a Roman hippodrome and a triple \nAmerican circus, a museum of living human curiosities \ntermed "freaks of nature, "a double menagerie, Jumbo\'s \nskeleton and stuffed skin, performing men and animals \nof many kinds (17 elephants) ; Imre Kiralfy\'s grand \nspectacle, " Nero ; or, the destruction of Rome " (1,200 \nRoman characters, wild beasts, &c). A great many \nsimultaneous performances. \nThe establishment included about 1,200 people and 380 \n\nhorses. \nVisited by the prince of Wales and family, 20 Nov. \n\n1889. \nGeorge Stevens, an attendant, accidentally killed by an \n\nelephant, 3 Dec. 1889. \nThe show closed 15 Feb. ; Mr. Barnum reported his \nsuccess, and thanked the British public, 17 Feb. 1890. \n[Phineas T. Barnum, born at Bethel, Connecticut, \nU.S.A., 5 July, 1810, died at Bridgeport, 7 April, 1891. \nBesides very different occupations, he specially de- \nvoted himself to catering for the amusement of the \npeople, by setting up museums, shows and other \nentertainments ; in 1842, he brought out Charles S. \nStratton, generally termed Tom Thumb (see Dwarfs), \nand in 1856 he engaged the celebrated vocalist, Jenny \nLind, afterwards Mde. Goldschmidt. In 1887, his \ngreat menagerie was destroyed by fire, but was speedily \nrenovated. His life, by himself, published 1888, and \n\xe2\x96\xa0other works since.] \n\nBARODA. See India, 1874\xe2\x80\x945, 1892. \nBAROMETERS. Torricelli, a Florentine, \nknowing that water did not rise in a pump through \nwhat was supposed to be nature\'s abhorrence of a \nvacuum, imitated the action of a pump with mer- \ncury, and made the first barometer, about 1643. \nPascal\'s experiments (1646) enhanced the value of \nthe discovery by applying it to the measurement of \nheights. Wheel barometers were contrived in 1668 ; \n\n\n\npendent barometers in 1695; marine in 1700 ; "and \n\nmany improvements have been made since. In the \n\naneroid barometer (from a, no, and neros, watery) \n\nno liquid is employed; the atmospheric pressure \n\nbeing exerted on a metallic spring. Its invention \n\n(attributed to Conte, in 1 798, but due to Vidi, who died \n\nin April, 1866), excited much attention in 1848-9. \n\nBarometers were placed at N.E. coast stations m \n\ni860, by the duke of Northumberland and others. \n\nMr. James B. Jordan\'s very delicate glycerine barometer, \n\nin which one inch is expanded to nearly eleven inches, \n\nwas described to the Royal Society 22 Jan., 1880, and. \n\nwas set up during the year at Kew and other places. \n\nThe publication of two-hourly variations of one at \n\nthe office begun in the Times 25 Oct. 1880. \n\nBARON, formerly the only title in our peerage, \nnow the lowest. Its original name in England, \nVavasour, was changed by the Saxons into Thane, \nand by the Normans into Baron. The council of \nthe realm was composed of the greater barons, the \nlesser barons were merely tenants of the crown. \nMany barons had undoubtedly assisted in, or been \nsummoned to parliament (in 1205) ; but the first pre- \ncept found is of no higher date than the 49 Hen. \nIII. 1265. The first raised to this dignity by patent \nwas John de Beauchamp, created baron of Kidder- \nminster, by Bichard II., 1387. The barons took \narms against king John, and compelled him to grant \nthe great charter of our liberties, and the charter of \nour forests, at Bunnymede, near Windsor, June, \n12 15. Charles II. granted a coronet to barons on \nhis restoration, 1660. \n\nBARONETS, the first in rank among the gen- \ntry, and the only knighthood that is hereditary, \nwere instituted by James I., 161 1. The rebellion \nin Ulster seems to have given rise to this order, it \nhaving been required of a baronet, on his creation, \nto pay into the exchequer as much as would main- \ntain "thirty soldiers three years at eightpence a \nday in the province of Ulster in Ireland." It was \nfurther required that a baronet should be a gentle- \nman bom, and have a clear estate of 100O1?. per \nannum. The first baronet was sir Nicholas Bacon \n(whose successor is therefore styled Primus Baronet- \ntorum Angliai), 22 May, 1611. The baronets of \nIreland were created in 1619; the first being sir \nFrancis Blundell. \xe2\x80\x94 Baronets of Nova Scotia were \ncreated, 1625 ; sir Bobert Gordon the first baronet. \n\xe2\x80\x94 All baronets created since the Irish union in 1801 \nare of the United Kingdom. Betham\'s " Baronet- \nage of England," 5 vols. 4to. 1801-5. \n\nBARONS\' WAR, arose in consequence of the \nfaithlessness of Henry III. and the oppression of his \nfavourites in 1258. The barons, headed by Simon de \nMontfort, earl of Leicester, and Gilbert de Clare, earl \nof Gloucester, met at Oxford in 1262, and enacted \nstatutes to which the king objected. In 1263 their \ndisputes were in vain referred to the decision of \nLouis IX. of France. War broke out, and on 14 May, \n1264, the king\'s party was total! y defeated at Lewes ; \nand De Montfort became the virtual ruler of the \nkingdom. The war was renewed ; and at the battle \nof Evesham, 4 Aug. 1265, De Montfort was slain, \nand the barons were defeated ; but they did not \nrender their final submission till 1268. A history \nof this war was published by Mr. W. H. Blaauw, \nin 1844; 2nd ed., 1871. \n\nBAROSSA, see Barrosa. \n\nBARRACKS (from " Ba raque \xe2\x80\x94 Suite que font \nles soldats en campagne pour se mettre a couvert ") \nwere not numerous in this country until about \n1789. A superintendent-general was appointed in \n1793, since when commodious barracks have been \nbuilt in the various garrison towns and central \n\n\n\nBAEEATBY. \n\n\n\n97 \n\n\n\nBARTHOLOMEW. \n\n\n\nSjpoints of the empire. \xe2\x80\x94 A report, censuring the con- \ndition of many barracks, was presented to parlia- \nment in 1858 ; and great improvements -were \neffected under the direction of Mr. Sidney (after- \nwards lord) Herbert; see Aldcrshot. Mr. E. Stan - \nflaope\'s scheme for increase and improvement of \nbarracks, camps, &e. (to cost about 4,100,000^.) \nsubmitted to the Commons, 27 Feb. ; the Barracks \nAct passed, 25 July, 1890. \n\nBAEEATEY,isageneral term for the stirringup \n.suits and quarrels among the people. Maintenance \nis an officious intermeddling in a quarrel or suit; by \nassisting either party with money or otherwise. It \nis punishable by old statutes (of Richard II., and \nothers), with fine and imprisonment. Champerty is \nan illegal bargain with either plaintiff or defendant \nto share in the profits of the matter in dispute. \n\nMr. Bradlaugh\'s action against Mr. Newdegate for main- \ntenance in the case of Clarke v. Bradlaugh (see Parlia- \nment, 1881) was dismissed, 20 Sept. 1881. \n\nBABBEL-OBGANS, see Organs. \n\nBAEEICADES, mounds formed of trees and \nearth, for military defence. During the wars of \nthe League in France, in 1588, the people made \nbarricades by means of chains, casks, &c, and com- \npelled the royal troops to retire. During the war \nof the Fronde, a barricade was erected in Paris on \n27 Aug. 1648. Barricades composed of overturned \nvehicles, &c, were erected in Paris in the insur- \nrections of 27-30 July, 1830, and 23-26 June, 1848, \nwhen sanguinary conflicts took place ; and also 2 \nDec. 1851. \n\nBAEEIEE TEEATIES. The first, between \nEngland and the Netherlands, was signed at the \nHague, 29 Oct. 1709, for mutual support ; annulled \n1712; another treaty was concluded at Utrecht, 29 \nJan. 1713. The third, by which the Low Countries \nwere ceded to the emperor Charles VI., was signed \nby the British, Imperial, and Dutch ministers, \n15 Nov. 1715. \n\nBAEEISTEES are said to have been first \nappointed by Edward I., about 1291, but there is \nearlier mention of professional advocates. They are of \nvarious ranks, as king\'s or queen\'s counsel, Serjeants, \n&c, which see. Students for the bar must keep a \ncertain number of terms at the inns of court, pre- \nviously to being called ; and by the regulations of \n1853 must pass a public examination. \n\nBABBOSA, or BAROSSA (S. Spain). The \nBritish army, commanded by major-general sir \nThomas Graham, afterwards lord Lynedoch, totally \ndefeated the French under marshal Victor, 5 March, \n181 1, the French leaving nearly 3000 dead, six \npieces of cannon, and an eagle, the first that the \nBritish had taken ; the loss of the British was 1 169 \nmen killed and wounded. \n\nBAEEOW ISLAND (Arctic Sea), discovered \nby Captain Penny in 1850-51, and named by him \nin honour of John Barrow, Esq., son of sir John. \n\nBABEOW-IN-FUENESS (Lancashire), in \n1847, was a village with a population of about 330, \nwhich, in 1867, had increased to above 17,000, and in \n1874 to 3c; ,000, in consequence of the large manu- \nfacture ot iron from the ore (haematite) found there. \nOn 19 Sept. 1867, new docks were opened in the \npresence of the dukes of Devonshire and Bucclcuch \n(proprietors of the land), Mr. Gladstone, and \nothers. Barrow was made a municipal borough in \n1867. Population in 1881, 47,259; 1891,51,712. \n\nBABBOW\'S STEAITS (N. Arctic Sea), ex- \nplored by Edwd. Parry, as far as Melville island, \n\n\n\nlat. 74 26\' N., and long. 113\xc2\xb0 47\' W. The strait, \nnamed after sir John Barrow, was entered on \n2 Aug., 1819. The thermometer was 55 below \nzero of Fahrenheit. \n\nBAEEOWISTS, a name given to the \nBrownists, which see. \n\nBAEEOWS, circular or oblong mounds, found \nin Britain and other countries, were ancient sepul- \nchres. Sir Richard Hoare caused several barrows \nnear Stonehenge to be opened ; in them were found \nCeltic ornaments, such as beads, buckles, and \nbrooches, in amber, wood, and gold : Nov. 1808. \n230 barrows were opened and discoveries made, \nchiefly in Yorkshire, 1866 et seq., under the super- \nintendence of the Rev. Canon Wm. Greenwell, who \npublished his elaborate work, "British Barrows," \nin December, 1877. \n\nBarrows at Aldbonrne, North Wilts, were opened by \ncanon Greenwell and Rev. Walter Money, Sept.-Oct. \n1878. \n\nCanon Greenwell gave urns and other results of his ex- \nplorations to the British Museum in 1879. He was \nstill engaged in his researches Oct. 1889. \n\nBABS in music appear in Agricola\'s " Musica \nInstrumentalis," 1529; and in Morley\'s " Practical \nMusic," 1597, for score music. Henry Lawes used \nthem in his " Ayres and Dialogues," 1653. \n\nBAETHOLOMEW, ST., the Apostle, \n\nmartyred 71. The festival (24 Aug. o. s., 3 Sept. \n\nn. s.) is said to have been instituted 1130. \n\nMonastery of St. Bartholomew (of Austin Friars) \nfounded by Rahere, a minstrel of Henry I. . 1 102 \n\nThe hospital founded by him .... about 1123 \n\nRefounded after the dissolution of monasteries (it \nthen contained 100 beds, with 1 physician and 3 \nsurgeons), 1544 ; incorporated .... 1546 \n\nWilliam Harvey, physiologist, physician here 1609-43 \n\nEarliest record of medical school . . . . 1662 \n\nHospital rebuilt by subscription .... 1729 \n\nMedical college founded 1843 \n\n5803 in-patients ; 160,520 out-patients treated, 653 \nbeds 1878 \n\nNew buildings for Medical School, museum, &c, \nopened by the prince of Wales . . 3 Nov. 1879 \n\nThe Convalescent Home at Swanley, Kent, for \nwhich C. T. Kettlewell gave io,oooZ. , was opened \nby the Prince of Wales ... 13 July, 1885 \n\nBartholomew the Great, St., near Smithtield. The \nbuilding of the church, said to have begun 1102, \nrestored by subscription and reopened 29 March, 1868 \nand 14 March, 1891 \n\nBartholomew Fair. The charter was granted by \nHenry I., 1133, and was long held in Smithtield, \nwhich see. The shows were discontinued in 1850, \nand the fair was proclaimed for the last time in \n1855. In 1858 Mr. H. Morley published his " His- \ntory of Bartholomew Fair," with many illustra- \ntions. \n\nThe Massacre of St. Bartholomew commenced \nat Paris on the night of the festival . 24 Aug. 1572 \n\nAccording to Sully, 70,000 Huguenots, or French \nProtestants, including women and children, were \nmurdered throughout the kingdom by secret orders \nfrom Charles IX., at the instigation of his mother, \nthe queen dowager, Catherine de Medicis. \n\nLa Popelionere calculates the victims at 20,000 ; \nAdriani, De Serres, and De Thou say 30,000 ; \nDavila states them at 40,000 ; and Perelixe makes \nthe number 1 00,000. Above 500 persons of rank, \nand 10,000 of inferior condition, perished in Paris \nalone, besides those slaughtered in the provinces. \nPope Gregory XIII. ordered a Te Deum to be per- \nformed, with other rejoicings. \n\nBAETHOLOMEW, ST., a West Indian \nisland, held by Sweden. It was colonised by the \nFrench in 1648; and has been several times taken \nand restored by the British. It was ceded to Sweden \nby France in 1785 ; captured by the English and \nrestored, 1801 ; ceded to France, 1877. \n\n\n\nBAETHOLOMITES. \n\n\n\n98 \n\n\n\nBASUTO LAND. \n\n\n\nBAETHOLOMITES, a religious order ex- \npelled from Armenia, settled at Genoa 1307, where \nis preserved in the Bartholomite church the image \nwhich Christ is said to have sent to king Abgarus. \nThe order suppressed by pope Innocent X. 1650. \n\nBABTON AQUEDUCT (near Manchester) \nwas constructed by James Brindley, to carry the \nBridgwater canal over the Irvvell, at a height of \n39 feet above the river ; completed in 1761. \n\nBASEBALL, see American Baseball. \n\nBASEL (Basle, French Bale), a rich city in \nSwitzerland. The 18th general council sat here \nfrom Dec. 1431 to May, 1443. Many important \nreforms in the church were proposed, but not \ncarried into effect : among others the union of the \nGreek and Roman churches. The university was \nfounded in 1460. Treaties of peace between France, \nSpain, and Prussia were concluded here in 1795. It \nwas made a free imperial city 1392, but joined the \nSwiss confederation 1 50 1. Population, 1888,69,809. \n\nB ASHI-B AZOUKS, irregular Turkish troops, \nemployed partially in the Crimean war, 1854-6. \n\nBASIENTELLO (S. Naples). Here the army \nof Otho II., in an ambuscade, was nearly cut to \npieces by the Greeks and Saracens 13 July, 982 ; \nthe emperor barely escaped. \n\nBASILIANS, an order of monks, which ob- \ntained its name from St. Basil (who died 380) ; was \nreformed by pope Gregory, in 1569. \xe2\x80\x94 A sect, founded \nby Basil, a physician of Bulgaria, which rejected \nthe books of Moses, the eucharist, and baptism, and \nare said to have had everything in common, 11 10. \nBasil was burnt alive in 11 18. \n\nBASILICA, a body of law, in Greek, in- \ncluding the Institutes of Justinian, the Pandects, \n&c, arranged by order of the emperor Basil the \nMacedonian, and his son Leo the Philosopher, \n875\xe2\x80\x94911. The term basilica (palace) was applied to \nplaces of worship by the early Christian emperors. \n\nBASILIKON DOEON (Royal Gift), pre- \ncepts on the art of government, composed by \nJames I. of England for his son Henry, and first \npublished at Edinburgh in 1599. The collected \nworks of this monarch were published at London, \n1616-20, in one vol. fol. \n\nBASQUE PBOVINCES, N. TV. Spain (Bis- \ncay, Guipuscoa, and Alava). The Basques, con- \nsidered to be descendants of the ancient Iberi, were \ntermed Vascones by the Romans, whom they suc- \ncessfully resisted. They were subdued with great \ndifficulty by the Goths about 580, and were united \nto Castile in the 13th and 14th centuries. Their \nlanguage is conjectured to be of Tartar origin. \n\nBASQUE EOADS (TV. France). Fourteen \nFrench ships of the line, riding at anchor here, \nwere attacked by lords Gambler and Cochrane (the \nlatter commanding the fireships), and all were \ndestroyed, 11 \xe2\x80\x94 29 April, 1809. Cochrane accused \nGambler of neglecting to support him. At a court- \nmartial, 26 July \xe2\x80\x94 4 Aug., lord Gambier was ac- \nquitted. \n\nBASSANO (N. Italy). Here the Austrians, \nunder Wurmser, were defeated by the French under \nMassena, 8 Sept. 1796. \n\nBASSEIN, Bombay ; a Mahratta town, taken \nby the British, 1774, 1780; finally annexed by \nthem, 1818. By treaty here, 31 Dec. 1802, they \nengaged to support the peishwa\'s rights. \n\nBASSETEEEE-EOADS, St. Christopher\'s, \n"West Indies. Here the French admiral, the comte \n\n\n\nde Grasse, was repulsed with loss in three desperate \nattacks on the British fleet, commanded by sir \nThomas Graves, 25, 26 Jan. 1782. \n\nBASSETT, or BASSETTE, or Pour et Contre, \na game at cards, said to have been invented by a \nnoble Venetian, in the 15th century ; introduced \ninto France, 1674. \n\nBASSOON", a wooden double-reed wind instru- \nment, said to have been invented by Afranio, a \ncanon of Ferrara, early in the sixteenth century. \n\nBASSOEAH, Bussorah, or Basrah (Asia \nMinor), a Turkish city, founded by the caliph \nOmar, about 635. It has been several times taken \nand retaken by the Persians and Turks. \n\nBASS EOCK, an isle in the Frith of Forth \n(S. Scotland), was granted to the Lauders, 1316; \npurchased for a state prison, 1671 ; taken by the \nJacobites, 1690 ; surrendered, 1694 ; granted to the \nDalrymples, 1706. \n\nBASS\'S STEAIT, Australia. Mr. Bass, \n\nsurgeon of the Reliance, in an open boat from Port \nJackson, in 1796, penetrated as far as Western \nPort, and affirmed that a strait existed between \nNew South "Wales and Van Diemen\'s Land. Lieu- \ntenant Flinders circumnavigated Van Diemen\'s \nLand, and named the strait after Mr. Bass, 1799. \n\nBASTAED, a child not born in lawful wedlock. \nAn attempt in England, in 1236, to legitimate bas- \ntard children by the subsequent marriage of the \nparents, failed. The barons assembled in the par- \nliament of Merton answered : Nolumus leges Anglice \nmutari ("We will not have the laws of England \nchanged"). Women concealing their children\'s \nbirth deemed guilty of murder, 21 James I., 1624. \nIn Scotland bastard children could not dispose of \ntheir movable estates by will until 1836. A new \nact, facilitating the claims of mothers, and making \nseveral provisions for proceeding in bastardy cases, \nwas passed 1845. The Bastardy Laws Amendment \nAct was passed 10 Aug. 1872. See Russia, 1891. \n\nBASTABNiE, a warlike tribe in Podolia and \nMoldavia, hired by Perseus, king of Macedon, in \nhis wars with Rome, 168 B.C. ; driven across the \nDanube by M. Crassus for their encroachments, 30. \n\nBASTILLE, Paris, a castle built by Charles \nV., king of France, in 1369, for the defence of Paris \nagainst the English ; completed in 1383, and after- \nwards used as a state prison. Henry IV. and his \nveteran army assailed it in vain in the siege of \nParis, during the war (1587 \xe2\x80\x94 1594). "The man \nwith the iron mask," the most mysterious prisoner \nknown, died here, 19 Nov. 1703 ; see IronMask. On \n14-15 July, 1789, the Bastille was pulled down \nby the populace ; the governor and other officers \nwere conducted to the Place- de Greve ; their hands \nand heads were cut off, and the heads carried on \npikes through the streets. A centenary was cele- \nbrated 14 July, 1889. \n\nBASUTO LAND, near Orange River, South \nAfrica, including the Transkei territory, was an- \nnexed to Cape Colony in 1871. Population in 1875, \nwhites, 469; natives, 127,707: in 1891, 218,324 \nnatives, and 578 Europeans. \nMoiroso, a warlike chief, entrenches himself on a \nmountain and makes predatory sallies, Feb. et \nseq. ; his stronghold captured and himself killed \nduring the fight .... 20 Nov. 1879 \nThe Basutos ordered to give up their arms ; many \nresist ; Letsi, Molappo, and others who sur- \nrender, attacked by Masupha, Lerothodi, and \nothers, June, July ; who make war on the colonist \nforces 13 Sept. 1880 \n\n\n\nBATALHA. \n\nLerothodi defeated in attack on Mafeteng by col. \n\nCarrington . . . . 21 Sept. 1880 \n\nMafeteng, besieged, relieved by col. Clarke, after \n\na severe conflict 19 Oct. ,, \n\nLerothodi\'s village stormed and his forces dispersed \n\n22 Oct. ,, \nMoletsane\'s stronghold stormed by colonel Clarke \n\n31 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nMr. Hope, magistrate, and others treacherously \nmurdered by Umhlouhlo, Oct. ; who is defeated \nby Mr. Hawthorn ; announced . . 12 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nUmhlonhlo totally defeated by Baker 21 Dec. ,, \n\nVictories of col. Carringtun about 10, 14 Jan. 1881 \n\nArmistice granted .... 18-24 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nHostilities resumed ; indecisive ; col. Carrington \n\nwounded 26 March, ,, \n\nBasutos severely defeated . . about 16 April, ,, \n\nPeace concluded May, ,, \n\nThe chief Masupha submits . . . Sept. ,, \n\nAgain troublesome Oct. 1882 \n\nGen. Gordon appointed to settle difficulties, resigns \nthrough disagreement with the Cape government, \n\nannounced autumn \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPeace restored Dec. ,, \n\nSelf-government granted Feb. 1883 \n\nMuch lighting among chiefs ; subsides . May, ,, \nThe British agree to resume the government as a \n\ncrown colony under conditions . . June, ,, \nThe Cape parliament assents . . .27 July, ,, \nThe Basuto chiefs accept conditions at a great meet- \ning ; Masupha stands aloof . announced 8 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nJonathan defeats Joel with great slaughter \n\n15-16 March, 1884 \nBattles between Khetisa, Masupha, and Lerothodi, \n\n23 March, ,, \nBasuto land reported quiet and prosperous . 1887-90 \n\nBATALHA, Portugal. The monastery here \nwas built by John I., of Portugal, as a token of gra- \ntitude for his victory over John I. of Castile, at \nAljubarrota, 14 Aug. 1385, securing the inde- \npendence of his kingdom. The restoration of the \nmonastery began in 1839. \n\nBATAVIA and Batavian Beptjblic, see \n\nHolland. \n\nBATAVIA, the capital of Java, and of all the \nDutch settlements in the East Indies, built by that \npeople about 1619. Taken from the French (who had \nseized it) by sir Samuel Auchmuty, 26 Aug. 1811 ; \nrestored to the Dutch in 1814. See Java. \n\nBATH (Somerset), named "Aguce solis" by \nthe .Romans, being remarkable for its hot springs. \nCoel, a British king, is said to have given this city \na charter, and the Saxon king Edgar was crowned \nhere, 973. See Population. \nBath plundered and burnt in the reign of William \n\nRufus, and again in 1137 \n\nThe abbey church commenced in 1405 ; finished . 1609 \nBeau (Richard) Nash,- ." king of Bath," who pro- \nmoted fame of the waters, and amusements, died \n\nFeb. 1 76 1 \nPresent assembly-rooms built . . . . 1771 \nPump-room erected 1704 ; rebuilt .... 1797 \nTheatre, Beaufort-square, opened . . . . 1805 \nBath philosophical society formed .... 1817 \nBath royal literary and scientific institution estab- \nlished 1825 \n\nVictoria park opened by Princess Victoria . . 1830 \n\nTheatre burnt 18 April, 1862 \n\nRestoration of the abbey by Sir G. G. Scott 1863 et seq. \nBritish association met here 14 Sept. 1864; andsSept. 1888 \nMuseum destroyed by fire ... 20 Jan. 1867 \n\nBath and West of England Society centenary cele- \nbrated, 4 June ; Fall of Widcombe bridge, 2 \npersons killed and many injured . . 6 June, 1877 \nRemains of Roman baths discovered . 1877, et seq. \n\nBATH and WELLS, Bishopric of. . The \n\nsee of Wells, whose cathedral church was built by \nIna, king of the West Saxons, in 704, was estab- \nlished in 905, Adeline first bishop. John de \nVillula, bishop, transferred his seat from Wells to \nBath in 1091. Tanner. Disputes between the \n\n\n\n<J\'J \n\n\n\nBATHS. \n\n\n\nmonks of Bath and the canons of Wells about the \nelection of a bishop, were compromised in 1135 \nHenceforward the bishop was to be styled from both \nplaces ; the precedency to be given to Bath. The \nsee is valued in the king\'s books at 53 1\xc2\xa3. is. 3^. per \nannum. Present income, 5000^. \n\nRecent Bishops. \n1802. Richard Beadon, died . . .21 April, 1824 \n1824. George Henry Law, died . . 22 Sept. 1845 \n1845. Richard Bagot, died . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 5 May, 1854 \n\n1854. Robert John, baron Auckland, resigned 6 Sept. 1869 \n1869. Lord Arthur Charles Hervey, elected 10 Nov. 1869 \n\nBATH ADMINISTRATION. Mr. Pelhani \n\nand his friends having tendered their resignation to \nking George II., 10 Feb. 1746, the formation of a \nnew ministry was undertaken by William Pulteney, \nearl of Bath. This expired on 12 Feb., while yet \nincomplete, and received the name of the "Short- \nlived" administration. The members of it were : \nthe earl of Bath, first lord of the treasury ; lord \nCarlisle, lord privy seal; lord Winchilsea, first \\ord \nof the admiralty ; and lord Granville, one of the \nsecretaries of state, with the seals of the other in his \npocket, " to be given to whom he might choose." \nMr. Pelham and his colleagues returned to power. \n\nBATH, ORDER OF THE, said to be of early \norigin, but formally constituted 11 Oct., 1399, by \nHenry IV., two days previous to his coronation in \nthe Tower ; when he conferred the order upon \nforty-six esquires, who had watched the night \nbefore, and bathed. After the coronation of Charles \nII. the order was neglected until 18 May, 1725, \nwhen it was revived by George I., who fixed the \nnumber of knights at 37. \n\nThe prince regent (afterwards George IV.) created \nclasses of knights grand crosses (72), knights com- \nmanders (180), with an unlimited number of com- \npanions 2 Jan. 1815 \n\nBy an order, the existing statutes of this order \nwere annulled ; and by new statutes, the order, \nhitherto exclusively military, was opened to \n\ncivilians 25 May, 1847 \n\nDr. Lyon Playfair and other promoters of the Great \nExhibition received this honour . . . 185 x \n\nConstitution. Military. Civil. \n\n1st Class. Knights grand cross, 50 25 \n\n2nd Class. Knights commanders, 100 50 \n\nyd Class. Companions, 525 200 \n\nThe Order was further enlarged, June, 1861. \n\nBATHOMETER (Greek, bathus, deep), an \napparatus invented by Dr. C. William Siemens to \nmeasure the depth of water without submerging a \nsounding-line, 1861-76. \n\nIts action depends on the diminution of the effect of \ngravitation on the surface of the water as compared \nwith its effect on the earth, owing to the mass of water \n(of less density) which replaces earth (of greater den- \nsity) : which is duly registered. \n\nBATHS were early used in Asia and Greece, \nand introduced by Agrippa into Rome, where many \nwere constructed by Augustus and his successors. \nThe thermae of the Romans and gymnasia of the \nGreeks (of which baths formed merely an appendage) \nwere sumptuous. The marble group of Laocoon \nwas found in 1506 in the baths of Titus, erected \nabout 80, and the Farnese Hercules in those of \nCaracalla, erected, 211. \nIn London, St. Agnes Le Clere, in Old-street-road, \n\nwas a spring of great antiquity ; baths said to \n\nhave been formed in 1502. \nSt. Chad\'s-well, Gray\'s-inn-road, derives its name \n\nfrom St. Chad, the firth bishop of Lichfield 667. \nA bath opened in Bagnio-court, now Bath-street, \n\nNewgate-street, London, is said to have been the \n\nfirst bath in England for hot bathing . . 1679 \n\nOld Bath-house, Coldbath-square, in use . . . 1697 \n\nH 2 \n\n\n\nBATHYBIUS H^CKELII. \n\n\n\n100 \n\n\n\nBATTLES. \n\n\n\nPeerless (Perilous) Pool, Baldwin-street, City-road, \nmentioned by Stow (died 1605) ; enclosed as a \n\nbathing place 1743 \n\nTurkish sweating baths became popular . . . i860 \nThe Oriental baths in Victoria-street, Westminster, \ncompleted 1862 \n\nPUBLIC BATHS AND WASH-HOUSES. \n\nThe first established by Mr. Bowie in the neighbour- \nhood of the London docks 1844 \n\nThe public baths and wash-houses in Liverpool \nfounded (through the instrumentality of Catherine \nWilkinson, who in 1832 began to lend her room \nand appliances to poor people for washing) . . 1844 \n\nActs passed to encourage the establishment of public \nbaths and wash-houses, "for the health, comfort, \nand welfare of the inhabitants of populous towns \nand districts," in England and Ireland . . . 1846 \n\n537,345 bathers availed themselves of the baths in \nLondon, and in this period there were 85,260 \nwashers in the quarter ending . . . Sept. 1854 \n\nPublic baths and wash-houses have since been estab- \nlished throughout the empire. \n\nBaths and Washhouses Act authorises establish- \nment of cheap swimming baths, &c, 27 May, 1878, \n\namended, 1882 \nSec Laundry. \n\nBATHYBIUS H^ECKELII (Greek, bathus, \ndeep ; bios, life), the name given byHuxley to a sup- \nposed low form of animal life, a gelatinous sub- \nstance found on stones at the bottom of the sea, in \nDeep Sea Soundings {which see). Its existence \ndoubted by many naturalists, 1879. \n\nBATON, a truncheon borne by generals in the \nFrench army, and afterwards by the marshals of \nother nations. Henry III. of France, before he \nascended the throne, was made generalissimo of the \narmy of his brother Charles IX., and received the \nbaton as the mark of the high command, 1569. \nHenault. The baton used by conductors of con- \ncerts is said to have been introduced into England \nby Spohr, in 1820. \n\nBATON ROUGE, Louisiana, United States, \nwas captured by the Federals, 5 Aug. 1862, after a \nfierce conflict; see United States, 1862. \n\nBATOUM, or BATUM, a seaport in Lazistan, \non the Black Sea. After having repulsed the Rus- \nsians in the war, 4 May, 1877, tbe place was ceded \nto Russia by the treaty of Berlin, 13 July, 1878, \nto become a free commercial port. The port was \nclosed by Russia on and after 17 July 1886. \n\nThe inhabitants at first resisted, but were persuaded \nto submit ; many emigrating, July-Sept. The Russians \nentered, 6 Sept. 1878 \n\nFoundation of a new cathedral laid by the Czar, 7 Oct. \n1888. \n\nBATTERIES along the coasts were constructed \nby Henry VIII. (who reigned 1509-47). The ten \nfloating batteries with which Gibraltar was attacked, \nin the siege of that fortress, were invented by \nD\'Arcon, a French engineer. They resisted the \nheavy shells and 32-pound shot, but ultimately \nyielded to red-hot shot, 13 Sept. 1782; see \nGibraltar. Formidable floating batteries are now \nerected. See Navy, Electricity. \n\nBATTERING-RAM, Testudo Arietaria, with \nother military implements, are said to have been \ninvented by Artemon, a Lacedaemonian, and em- \nployed by Pericles, about 441 b. c. Sir Christopher \nWren employed a battering-ram in demolishing the \nwalls of old St. Paul\'s cathedral, 1675. \n\nBATTERSEA PARK; an act of parliament \npassed in 1846, empowered her majesty\'s com- \nmissioners of woods to form a royal park in Battersea- \nfields. Acts to enlarge their powers were passed \nin 1848, 1851, and 1853. The park and the new \nbridge connecting it with Chelsea were opened in \n\n\n\nApril, 1858 ; the bridge freed from toll, 24 May, \n1879. Albert Exhibition Palace opened here, 6 \nJune, 1885 ; closed 1888. Battersea returns two \nM.P.\'s by Act passed 25 June 1885. New Batter- \nsea Bridge opened by the earl of Rosebery, 21 July, \nT890. See Parks. \nBattersea Training College, founded 1840. \n\nBATTLE, Trial by, or "Wager of, a trial \n\nby combat formerly allowed by our laws, where the \ndefendant in an appeal of murder might fight with \nthe appellant, and make proof thereby of his guilt \nor innocence; see Appeal. \n\nBATTLE-ABBEY, Sussex, founded by \nWilliam I., 1067, on the plain where the battle of \nHastings was fought, 14 Oct. 1066. It was dedica- \nted to St. Martin, and given to Benedictine monks, \nwho were to pray for the souls of the slain. The \noriginal name of the plain, was Hetheland; see \nHastings. After the battle of Hastings, a list was \ntaken of William\'s chiefs, amounting to 629, and \ncalled the " Battel-roll ; \' \' and among these chiefs \nthe lands and titles of the followers of the defeated \nHarold were distributed. " The Roll of Battle \nAbbey," edited by the duchess of Cleveland, was \npublished, with notes, &c, in 1889. \n\nBATTLE-AXE, a weapon of the Celts. The \nIrish were constantly armed with an axe. Burns. \nAt the battle of Bannockbum king Robert Bruce \nclove an English champion down to the chine at \none blow with a battle-axe, 1314. The battle-axe \nguards, or beaufetiers, vulgarly called beef-eaters, \nand whose arms are a sword and lance, were first \nraised by Henry VII. in 1485. They were originally \nattendants upon the king\'s buffet; see Yeoman of \nthe Guard. \n\nBATTLEFIELD, BATTLE OF, see Shrews- \nbury. \n\nBATTLES. Palamedes of Argos is mythically \nsaid to have been the first who ranged an army in a \nregular line of battle, placed sentinels round a camp, \nand excited the soldier\'s vigilance by giving him a \nwatchword, and to have been treacherously slain by \nthe Greeks before Troy. See Naval Battles, British. \nThe following are the most memorable battles, \narranged in chronological order ; further details of- \nthe greater part are given in separate articles ; \nn. signifies naval. \n\nThe following are the battles described by Professor \nCreasy in his " Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World": \xe2\x80\x94 \n\n\n\nB.C. \n\n490 \n413 \n33* \n207 \nA.D. \n9 \n45i \n732 \n\n\n\nA.D. \n\nHastings . 14 Oct. 1066 \n\nOrleans . 29 April, 1429 \n\nSpanish Armada July, 1588 \n\nBlenheim . 13 Aug. 1704 \n\n\n\nPultowa \nSaratoga \nValmy \nWaterloo \n\n\n\n8 July, 1709 \n\n17 Oct. 1777 \n\n20 Sept. 1792 \n\n18 June, 1815 \n\n\n\nMarathon . \nSyracuse . . . \nArbela . 1 Oct. \nMetaurus . . . \n\nTeutoburg . \nChalons . . . . \nTours . to Oct. \n\nB.C. \n\nAbraham defeats kings of Canaan (Gen. xiv.) . . 1913 \nJoshua subdues five kings of Canaan (Josh, x.) .1451 \n\nGideon defeats the Midianites (Judges vii.) . . 1245 \n\nTrojan war commenced 1103 \n\nTroy taken and destroyed 1184 \n\nJephthah defeats Ammonites 1143 \n\nEthiopians defeated by Asa (2 Chron. xiv.) . . . 941 \n\nHoratii vanquish Curiatii 669 \n\nHalys (Medes and. Lydians stop])ed by eclipse) 584 or 585 \n\nThymbra (Cyrus defeats Crcesus) 548 \n\nLake Regillus (Romans defeat Latins) . . . 499 \n\nMarathon (Greeks defeat Persians) . 28 or 29 Sept. 490 \n\nThermopylae (heroism of Leonidas) . 7-9 Aug. 480 \n\nSalamis n. (Greeks defeat Persians) . . 20 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nHimera (Gelon defeats Carthaginians) . . . . ,, \n\nMycale (Greeks defeat Persians) . . . 22 Sept. 479 \n\nPlattea (ditto: Fausanias) . . . 22 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nBATTLES. \n\n\n\n101 \n\n\n\nBATTLES. \n\n\n\nEurymedon n. (Greeks defeat Persians: Cimori) \n\nTanagra (Spartans defeat Athenians) . \n\nCBnophyta (Athenians defeat Boeotians). \n\nCoronea (Boeotians defeat Athenians). \n\nRomans totally defeat Veientes . . > \n\nTanagra (Athenians defeat Spartans)\'. \n\nDeliuni (Boeotians defeat Athenians) \n\nAmphipolis (Spartans repulse Athenians : Clean, and \n\nBrasidas killed) \n\nMantinea (Spartans defeat Athenians) . \nAthenians defeated before Syracuse . \nCyzicus a. (Alcibiades defeats Spartans) \nArginuste \xc2\xbb. (Co?ioft defeats Spartan fleet) . \nJEgospotamos n. (Athenian fleet destroyed) . \nCunaxa (Cyrus defeated and killed by Artaxerxes) \n\nCorinthian War 395 \n\nHaliartus (Lysander killed) \n\nCnidus n. (Conon defeats Spartans) \n\nCoronea (^4 rges ilaus defea ts At hen ia n s and a 11 ies) \n\nAllia (Brennus and the Gauls defeat Romans) 16 July \n\nVolsci defeated by Camillus \n\nVolsci defeat the Romans \n\nNaxus (Chabrias defeats Laeedcemonia-ns) . 376 or \n\nTegyra (Thebans defeat Spartans) \n\nLeuetra (Thebans defeat Spartans) \n\n" Tearless Victory " of Arehidamus over Argives \n\n<fec \n\nCamillus defeats the Gauls \n\nCynoscephahe (Thebans defeat Thessalians) \nMantinea (\'Thebans victors : Epaminondas slain) . \n\nTamynse (sEschines there) \n\nCrimisus (Tirnoleon defeats Carthaginians) . \nCha?ronea (Philip defeats Athenians, dc). . Aug \nThebes destroyed by Alexander . . . b.c \nGrauicus (Alexander defeats Darius) . 22 May. \n\nIssus (ditto) Oct. \n\nArbela (ditto) iOc\' \n\nPandosia (Alexander of Epirus defeated and killed) \n\nCranon (Antipater defeats Greeks) \n\nCaudine Porks (Roman army captured). \n\nGaza (Ptolemy defeats Demetrius) \n\nEcnomusor Himera (Carthaginians defeat Agathocles) \n\nFabius defeats the Tuscans .... \n\nVadimonian Lake (Etruscans defeated) . \n\nIpsus (Seleucus defeats Antigonus, who is slain) \n\nSentinum (Romans defeat Samnites) \n\nGauls defeat Romans at Arretium, 284 ; defeated by \n\nDolabella \n\nVadimonian Lake (Etruscans defeated) . \nCorus (Lysimachu-s defeated and killed). \nPandosia (Pyrrhus defeats Romans) \n\nAsculum (ditto) \n\nBeneventum (Romans defeat Pyrrhus) . \n\nFirst Punic War begins .... \n\nMylie n. (Romans defeat Carthaginians) \n\nXantippus defeats Regulus \n\nPanormus (Asdrubal defeated by Metellus) . \n\nDrepanum ft. (Carthaginians defeat Romans) \n\nLilybseum taken by Romans \n\njEgates n. (Romans defeat Cartha.ginians) . \n\nLadocea (Achatans defeated) . \n\nClusium or Pisae (Gauls defeated) \n\nSellasia (Macedonians defeat Spartans) . \n\nCaphya} (Achceans defeat /Etolians) . \n\nSaguntum (taken by Hannibal) \n\nSecond Punic War. \xe2\x80\x94 Ticinus (Hannibal defeats \n\nRomans) \n\nTicinus and Trebia (ditto) \n\nTrasimene (ditto) \n\nRaphia (Antiochus defeated by Ptol. Philopater) \nCannae (Victory of Hannibal) . . . 2 All; \n\nMunda (Seypio defeats Hasdrubal) \nMarcellus and Hannibal (former killed) \nMetaurus (Nero defeats Hasdrubal, who is killed) \nZama (Scipio defeats Hannibal) .... \n\nAbydos (siege of) \n\nPaaeas (Antiochus defeats Egyptians, Ac.) . \nCynoscephahe (Romans defeat Macedonians) \nBoii defeated at the Vadimonian lake . \nThermopylae (Greeks defeated) .... \nMagnesia (Scipio defeats Antiochus) \nPydna (Romans defeat Perseus) . . .22 June \nEleasa (Judas Maccaboeus killed) . \n\nThird Punic War \n\nLeucopetra (Mummius defeats Achcvoins) \nCarthage taken by Publius Scipio \nMuminius takes Corinth .... \nAllobroges defeated by Q. Fabius Maximus. \n\n\n\n379 \n377 \n375 \n37i \n\n367 \n\n364 \n362 \n358 \n339 \n338 \n335 \n334 \n333 \n33i \n326 \n322 \n321 \n312 \n310 \n\n3\xc2\xb09 \n301 \n\n295 \n283 \n\n\n\n279 \n275 \n264 \n260 \n255 \n250 \n\n249 \n241 \n\n226 \n225 \n221 \n220 \n219 \n\n\n\n- \'7 \n216 \n\n209 \n207 \n202 \n\n200 \n198 \n\n197 \n191 \n\n\n\nMetellus defeats Jugurtha b.c. 109 \n\nArausio (Cimbri defeat Romans) .... 105 \n\nAquas Sextiie (Aix ; Marius defeats the Teutones) . . 102 \n\nCimbri and Romans (defeated by Marius) . . . 101 \n\nChaeronea (Sylla defeats Mithridates\' army) . . . 86 \n\nSacriportus (Marius defeated by Sylla) ... 82 \n\nCabeira (I/ucullus defeats Mithridates) . . . . 71 \n\nPetelia (Spartacus defeated by Crassus) \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTigranocerta (Lucullus defeats Tigranes) . . . 69 \n\nPistoria (Catiline defeated) 62 \n\nCajsar defeats Cassivelaunus in Britain . . . 54 \n\nCarrhse (Cras&us defeated by Parthians) . 9 June, 53 \n\nPharsalia (Ccesar defeats Pompey) . . .9 Aug. 48 \nZela (Ccesar defeats Pharnaces ; writes, "Veni, vidi, \n\nvici") 47 \n\nThapsus (Coesar defeats Pompey\'s friends) . . . 46 \n\nMunda (ditto) 17 March, 45 \n\nMutina (Hirtius defeats Antony) . . 27 April, 43 \n\nPhilippi (Brutus and Cassius defeated) ... 42 \n\nMyhe, n. (Agrippa defeats Pompey the Younger) . . 36 \n\nActium ft. (Octavius defeats Antony) . . 2 Sept. 31 \n\nTeutoburg (Varus defeated by Herman) . a.d. 9 \n\nShropshire (Caractacus taken) 50 \n\nSunbury (?) (Romans defeat Boadicea) . . . . 61 \n\nJerusalem taken by Titus 70 \n\nAgricola conquers Mona or Anglesea . . . . 78 \n\nArdooh (he defeats Godgacus and Caledonians) . . 84 \n\nDacians defeated and Decebalus slain . . . . 106 \n\nIssus (Niger slain) 194 \n\nLyons (Severus defeats Albinus) 197 \n\nVerona (emperor Philip elefeated and killed) . . 249 \n\nDecius defeated and slain by Goths . . . . 251 \n\nValerian defeated and captured by Sapor . . . 260 \n\nNai\'ssus (Claudius defeats Goths, many slain) . . 269 \n\nChalons (Aurelvan victor over rivals) . . . . 274 \n\nAllectus defeated in Britain 296 \n\nConstantine def. Maxentius (see Cross) . 27 Oct. 312 \n\nAdrianople (Constantine defeats Licinius) . 3 July, 323 \n\nAquileia (Constantine If. slain) . . March, 340 \n\nJulian defeats Alemanni 356, 357 \n\nThyatira and Nacolea (Procopius defeated) . . 366 \n\nArgentaria (Gratian defeats Alemanni) . May, 378 \n\nAdrianople (Gauls defeat Vodens) . 9 Aug. ,, \n\nAquileia (Maximus slain) . . . .28 July, 388 \n\nAquileia (Eugenius slain) .... 6 Sept. 394 \n\nPollentia (Stilicho defeats Alaric) . . . 29 Mar. 403 \n\nRome taken by Alaric .... 24 Aug. 410 \n\nRavenna taken by Aspar 425 \n\nFranks defeated by Aetius 428 \n\nGenseric takes Carthage 439 \n\nChalons-sur-Marne (Attila defeated by Aetius) . . 451 \n\nAylesford (Britons defeat Saxons ; Horsa killed) . . 455 \n\nCrayford, Kent (Hengist defeats Britons) . . . 457 \n\nSoissons (Clovis defeats Syagrius and Romans) . . 486 \n\nVerona (Theodoric defeats Odoacer) . 27 Sept. 489 \n\nTolbiach or Zulpich (Clovis defeats Alemanni) . . 496 \n\nVougle (Clovis defeats Visigoths) 507 \n\nBaddesdown hill (Britons defeat Saxons) . ?493, sir \n\nVeseronce (Gondemar defeats Clodomir) . . . 524. \nVictories of Belisarius in Africa, &c. . . . 533-4 \nNarses defeats Totila, 552 ; and Teias . . -553 \n\nHeraclius defeats the Persians (Chosroes) . . . 622 \n\nBeder (first victory of Mahomet) 623 \n\nMuta (Mahometans defeat Christians) . . . . 629. \n\nHatfield (Heathtield ; Penda defeats Edwin) . . 633 \n\nA jnadin (Saracens defeat Heraclius) . 13 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nYermuk (Saracens victors) . . . 23 Aug. 634. \n\nYermuk (Saracens defeat Heraclius) . . Nov. 636 \n\nSaracens subdue Syria 636-8 \n\nKadseah (Arabs defeat Persians) 638 \n\nSaracens take Alexandria 640 \n\nNear Oswestry (Penda defeats Oswald of Northum- \nberland) 5 Au S- 642 \n\nLeeds (Oswy defeats Penda, who is slain) . . . 655 \n\nDay of the Camel (Ali victor) . . . 4 Nov. 656 \n\nSaracens defeated by Wamba, in Spain . . . 675 \n\nTestri (Pepin defeats Thierry) 687 \n\nXeres (Saracens defeat Roderic) . 19-26 July, 711 \nAmbler and Viney (Chas. Martel def Neustrians) 716-17 \n\nTours (Charles Martel defeats the Saracens) 10 Oct. 732 \n\nVictories of Charlemagne 775-S00 \n\n\n\nRoncesvalles (death of Roland) . \nHengestdown (Danes defeated J>y Egbert) . \nCharmouth (Ethelwolf defeated by the Danes) . . \nFontenaille or Fontaneta (Lothaire defeated by \nCharles and Louis) .... 25 June, \n\nClavyo (Moors defeated) \n\nAlbaida (Mum and Moors defeated) . \n\n\n\n778 \n83s \n840 \n\n\n\n844 \n852 \n\n\n\nBATTLES. \n\n\n\n102 \n\n\n\nBATTLES. \n\n\n\n870 \n\n\n\nDanes defeat King Edmund of East Anglia \n\nAssendon or Ashdown (Danes defeated) \n\nBasing and Merton (Danes victorious) \n\nHafsfwrd (Harold Hdrfager\'s final victory) \n\nWilton (Danes victorious over Alfred) \n\nAndernach (Charles the Bald defeated) . \n\nEthandun (Alfred defeats Danes) .... S7S \n\nFarnham (Danes defeated) 894 \n\nZamora (Alfonso defeats Moors) 901 \n\nBury (Edward defeats Ethelwald and Danes) . . 905 \nTettenhall (Danes defeated) . . . 6 Aug. 910 \n\n\n\n. . 872 \n8 Oct. 876 \n\n\n\nSoissons (king Robert, victor, killed) . . . \xe2\x96\xa0 923 \nMerseburg (Germans defeat Hungarians) . . -934 \nBrunanburg (Northmen defeated) .... 937 \nSimancas (Spaniards defeat Moors) . . 6 Aug. 939 \nNicephorus Phocas defeats Saracens . . . . 962 \nBasientello (Otho II. defeated by Greeks) . 13 July, 982 \n\n\n\nClontarf (Danes defeated in Ireland) . 23 April, 1014 \nZetunium (Bulgarians defeated) . . 29 July, ,, \nBrentford (Edmund defeats Danes) . . . May, 1016 \nAssingdon,\' Ashdon (Canute defeats Edmund) . . ,, \nSticklestadt (Olaf defeated by Swedes) . 29 July, 1030 \nCivitella (Normans defeat Leo IX.) . . . . 1053 \n\nDunsinane (Macbeth defeated) 1054 \n\nFulford (Norwegians defeat English) . 20 Sept. 1066 \nStamford Bridge (Harold defeats Tostig) . 25 Sept. ,, \nHastings (William I. defeats Harold) . . 14 Oct. ,, \nFladenheim (emperor Henry defeated) . . . 1080 \nCrusades commence ....... iogo \n\nAlnwick (Scots defeated, Malcolm slain) 13 Nov. 1093 \n\nDorylieum (Crusaders defeat Turks) . . 1 July, 1097 \nAscalon (Crusaders victorious) . . 12 Aug. 1099 \n\nTinChebray (Robert of Normandy defeated) . . . 1106 \nBrenneville (Henry I. defeated French) . .Aug. 1119 \nFraga (Moors defeat Spaniards) . . 17 July, 1134 \nNorthallerton, or Battle of the Standard (David I. \n\nand Scots defeated) 22 Aug. 1138 \n\nOurique (Portuguese defeat Moors) . . 25 July, 1139 \nLincoln (Stephen defeated) ... 2 Feb. 1141 \nJ aen (Moors defeated, by Spaniards) .... 1157 \nCarcano (Frederic I. defeated by Italians) g Aug. 1160 \nAlnwick (William the Lion defeated) . . 12 July, 1174 \nLegnano (Italians defeat emperor) . . 29 May, 1176 \nTiberias (Saladin defeats Crusaders) . 3, 4 July, 1187 \nAscoli(r<MicraZ defeats emperor Henry Vl.\'sarmy) . 1190 \nAcre taken by Crusaders . . . . 12 July, 1191 \nArsouf (Richard I. defeats Saracens) . . 6 Sept. ,, \nFreteville (Richard I. defeats Philip II.). 15 July, 1194 \nArcadiopolis (Bulgarians defeat emperor Isaac) . ,, \nAlarcos (Moors defeat Spaniards) . . . 19 July, 1195 \nGisors (Richard I. defeats French) . . 20 Sept. 1198 \n\nTolosa (Moors defeated) 16 July, 1212 \n\nMuret (Albigenses defeated) ... 12 Sept. 1213 \nBouvines (French defeat Germans) . .27 July, 1214 \nLincoln (French defeated) . . . . 20 May, 12 17 \nCorte Nuova (Frederick II. defeats Milanese) 2 7 Nov. 1237 \nTaillebourg (French defeat Henry III.) . 20 July, 1242 \n\nCarizmians defeated twice 1247 \n\nFossalta (Ghibelines defeated) ... 26 May, 1249 \nMansourah (Louis IX. and Crusaders defeated) . . 1250 \nLargs (Scots defeat Northmen) ... 3 Oct. 1263 \nLewes (English barons victorious) . . 14 May, 1264 \nEvesham (Barons defeated; De Montfort killed) \n\n4 Aug. 1265 \nBenevento (Chas. of A njou defeats Manfred) 26 Feb. 1266 \nTagliacozzo (Charles defeats Conradin) . 23 Aug. 1268 \nMarchfelil (Austrians defeat Bohemians) . 26 Aug. 1278 \nAber Edw (Llewellyn 0] Wales defeated) . n Dec. 1282 \nZagrab (defeat of Charles Martel) .... 1292 \nDunbar (Scots defeated) . . . . 27 April, 1296 \nCambuskenneth (Wallace defeats English) 10 Sept. 1297 \nGoelheim (Adblphus of Nassau defeated) . 2 July, 1298 \nFalkirk (Wallace defeated) . . . 22 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nCourtray (Flemings defeat count of Artois) n July\' 1302 \nRoslin, Scotland (Comyn defeats English) 24 Feb. 1303 \n\n\n\n(Jephisus (Brienne, duke of Athens defeated) March, 1311 \nBaimocklmrn (Bruce defeats English) . 24 June, 1314 \n\nMorgarten (Su\'iss defeat Austrians) . . 15 Nov.\' 1315 \nAthenry (Irish defeated) . . . . IO Aug! 1316 \nFoughard or Dundalk (Ed. Bruce defeated) 5 Oct. \nBoroughbridge (Edward II. defts. Barons) 16 Mar. \nMiihldort (Bavarians defeat Austrians) . 28 Sept. \nDuplin (Edward Baliol defeats M- ar) . n Aug. \nHalidon Hill (Edward III. defts. Scots) . 19 July, \nTarifa (Mobrs defeated) . . . 28 or 30 Oct! \n\nAuberoche (earl of Derby defeats French) . 19 Aug. \n\n\n\n1314 \n315 \n1316 \n1318 \n1322 \n\n1332 \n1333 \n1340 \n\n"344 \n\n\n\nCrecy (English defeat French) . . .26 Aug. 1346 \nDurham, Nevil\'s Cross (Scots defeated) . 17 Oct. ,, \nLa Roche Darien (Cliarles of Blois defeated) . . 1347 \nPoitiers (English defeat French) . . 19 Sept. 1356 \nCocherel (Du Guesclin defeats Navarre) . 16 May, 1364 \nAuray (Du Guesclin. defeated). . . 29 Sept. ,, \nNajara (Navarrete, Logrono) (Black Prince defeats \n\nHenry of Trastamare) .... 3 April, 1367 \nMontiel (Peter of Castile defeated) . 14 March, 1369 \nBosbecque (French defeat Flemings) . 27 Nov. 1382 \nAljubarrota (Portuguese defeat Spaniards) . 14 Aug. 1385 \nSempach (Swiss defeat Austrians) . . 9 July, 1386 \nOtterburn (Chevy Chase; Scots victors). . 10 Aug. 1388 \nNiifels (Swiss defeat Austrians) ... \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCossova (Turks defeat Albanians, and Amurath I. \n\nkilled) Sept. 1389 \n\nNicopolis (Turks defeat Christians) . . 28 Sept. 1396 \n\nNesbit (Scots defeated) 7 May, 1402 \n\nAncyra (Timour defeats Bajazet) . . . 28 July, ,, \nHomeldon Hill (English defeat Scots) . 14 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nShrewsbury (Percies, &c. defeated) . . 23 July, 1403 \nBramham moor (Henry IV. defeats rebels) . 19 Feb. 1408 \nTannenberg (Poles defeat Teuton kn ights). 15 July, 1410 \nHarlaw (Lord of the Isles defeated) . . 24 July, 141 1 \nAgincourt (English defeat French) . . 25 Oct. 1415 \nPrague (Hussites under Ziska victors) . . 14 July, 1420 \nAn.jou, Beauge (English deft, by Scots) . 22 March, 1421 \nCrevant (English deft. French and Scots) . n June, 1423 \nAquila (Arragonese defeated by Italians) . 2 June, 1424 \nVerneuil (English defeat French and Scots) . 17 Aug. ,, \nHerrings (English defeat French). . . 12 Feb. 1429 \nOrleans (siege relieved) . . . -29 April, ,, \nPatay (English defeated by Joan of Arc) a.d. 18 June, 1429 \nLippau, or Bohmischbrod (Hussites deftd.) 28 May, 1434 \nKunobitza (Hunniades defeats the Turks) 24 Dec. 1443 \nSt. Jacob (French defeat Swiss) . . 26 Aug. 1444 \nVarna (Turks defeat Hiingarians) . . 10 Nov. ,, \nCossova (Turks defeat Hunniades) . . 17 Oct. 1448 \nFormigni (English defeated by French) . 15 April, 1450 \nSevenoaks (Jack Cade defeats Stafford) . 27 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nAibar (Agramonts defeat Beaumonts) . . 23 Oct. 1452 \nBrechin, Scotland (Huntley defts. Crawford) 18 May, ,-, \nCastillon, Chatillon (French defeat Talbot) \n\n17 or 23 July, 1453 \n\nWAR OF THE ROSES \xe2\x80\x94 YORKISTS .WD LANCASTRIANS. \n\nSt. Albans (Yorkists victorious) . . 22 or 23 May, 1455 \nBloreheath (York :ists victors) . . . 23 Sept. 1459 \nNorthampton (ditto, Henry VI. taken) . 10 July, 1460 \nWakefield (Lancastrians victors) . . .31 Dec. ,, \nMortimer\'s Cross (Yorkists victorious) . . 2 Feb. 1461, \nSt. Albans (Lancastrians victors) . . 17 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nTowton (Yorkists victorious) . . .29 March, ,, \nHexham (Yorkists victors) . . . .15 May, 1464 \nEdgecote or Banbivry (Yorkists defeated) 26 July, 1469 \nStamford (Lancastrians defeated) . . 13 March, 1470 \n\nBarnet (ditto) 14 April, 1471 \n\nTewkesbury (ditto) 4 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nBelgrade (Mahomet II. repulsed) . . 4 Sept. 1456 \nMontlhery (Louis XI. and nobles ; indec.) 16 July, 1465 \nGranson (Swiss defeat Charles the Bold) 3 March, 1476 \n\nMorat (ditto) \xc2\xab 22 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNancy (Charles the Bold killed) . . . 5 Jan. 1477 \nBosworth (Richard III. defeated) . . 22 Aug. 1485 \nStoke (Lambert Simnel taken)\' . . 16 June, 1487 \nSt. Aubin (Orleans defeated) . . .28 July, 1488 \nSauchieburn, near Bannockburn (James III. deftd. \n\nby rebels) ,, \n\nFornovo (French defeat Italians) . . 6 July, 1495 \nSeminara (French defeat Spaniards) . . . \\ ,, \nBlackheath (Cornish rebels defeated) . . 22 June, 1497 \nSeminara (Gonsalvo defeats French) . 21 April, 1503 \nCerignola (Gonsalvo defeats French) . . 28 April, ,. \nGarigliano (Gonsalvo defeats French) . .27 Dec. ,, \nAgnadello (French defeat Venetians) . . 14 May, 1509 \nRavenna (Gasto7i de Foix, victor, killed) 11 April, 1512 \nNovara (Papal Swiss defeat French) . . 6 June, 1513 \nGuinegate (Spurs) (French defeated) . . 16 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nFlodden (English defeat Scots) . . . 9 Sept. ,, \nMarignano (French defeat Swiss) . 13-15 Sept. \nBieocca, near Milan (Lautrec defeated) . 29 April, \nPavia (Francis I. defeated). ... 24 Feb. \nFrankenhausen (Anabaptists defeated) . 15 May, \n\nMohacz (Turks defeat Hungarians) . . 29 Aug. \nCappel (Zwinglius slain) . . . . 11 Oct. \nLairffen (Hessians defeat Austrians) . . 13 May, \nAssens (Christian III. defeats Danish rebels) . \n\n\n\n1515 \n1522 \n1525 \n\n1526 \n1531 \n1534 \n1535 \n\n\n\nBATTLES. \n\n\n\n103 \n\n\n\nBATTLES. \n\n\n\nAbancay (Almagro defeated Alvarado) . 12 July, 1537 \nSolway Moss (English defeat Scots) . . 25 Nov. 1542 \nCeresuola (French defeat Imperialists) . 14 April, 1544 \nMiihlberg (Chas. V. defeats Protestants) . 24 April, 1547 \nPinkey (English defeat Scots) ... 10 Sept. ,, \nKet\'s rebellion suppressed by Warwick . Aug. 1549 \n\nMarciano (Florentines defeat French) . . 3 Aug. 1554 \nSt. Quentin (Spcui. & Eng. deft. French) . 10 Aug. 1557 \n\nCalais (taken) 7 Jan. 1558 \n\nGravelines n. (Span. & Eng. deft. French). 13 July, ,, \nDreux, in France (Huguenots defeated) . 19 Dec. 1562 \n\nCarberry Hill (Mary of Scotland defeated) 15 June, 1567 \nSt. Denis (Huguenots defeated) . . .10 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nLangside (Mary of Scotland defeated) . 13 May, 1568 \nJarnac (Huguenots defeated) . . 13 March, 1569 \nMoncontour (Coligny defeated) . . . 3 Oct. 1569 \nLepanto, n. (Don John defeats Turks) . 7 Oct. 1571 \nDormans (Guise defeats H uguenots) . . 10 Oct. 1575 \nAlcazar-quiver (Moors defeat Portuguese) . 4 Aug. 1578 \nAlcantara (Spaniards defeat Portuguese) . 24 June, 1580 \nZutphen (Butch & English def. Spaniards), 22 Sept. 1586 \n\n1587 \n\n\n\n20 Oct. \n\nJuly, Aug. \n\n. 21 Sept. 1589 \n\n14 March, 1590 \n\n26 July, 1592 \n\n\n\nOoutras (Henry IV. defeats League) \n\nSpanish Armada defeated, n. \n\nArques (Henry IV. defeats League) . \n\nIvry or Yvres (ditto) .... \n\nEpernay taken by Henry IV. of France \n\nFontaine Frangaise (Henry IV. beats Spaniards) \n\n5 June, 1595 \nBlackwater (Tyrone and rebels def. Bangal), 14 Aug. 1598 \nNieuport (Maurice defeats Austrians) \nKinsale (Tyrone reduced by Mountjoy) \nKirchholm (Poles defeat Swedes) . \nGibraltar (Dutch defeat Spaniards) . \nPrague (king of Bohemia defeated). \nDessau (Wallenstein defeats Mansfeld) \nRochelle (taken) .... \nStuhm (Gustavus defeats Poles) . \nLeipsic or Breitenfeld (irustavus def. Tilly), 7 Sept. 1631 \nLech (Imperialists defeated ; Tilly killed) 5 April. 1632 \nLippstadt, Lutzingen, or Lutzen (Swedes victorious ; \n\nGustavus slain) .... (n.s.) 16 Nov. ,, \nNordlingen (Swedes defeated) . . .27 Aug. 1634 \nArras (taken by the French) ... 10 Aug. 1640 \nLeipsic (Swedes defeat Austrians) . . 23 Oct. 1642 \nRoeroy (French defeat Spaniards) . . . May, 1643 \nFriedburg (Condi victor) .... Aug. 1644 \nSTordlingen (Turenne defeats Austrians) . . . 1645 \n\n\n\n. 8 Nov. \n25 April, \n. 28 Oct. \n\n\n\n1600 \n1601 \n1605 \n1607 \n1620 \n1626 \n162S \n\n\n\nCIVIL WAR IN ENGLAND. \n\n\n\nWorcester (prince Rupert victor) . . 23 Sept. \nEdgehill fight (issue doubtful) . . 23 Oct. \nBradock-down (Parliamentarians defeated) . Jan. \n\n\n\n1642 \n!643 \n\n\n\nBramham Moor (Fairfax defeated) . 29 March, \nStratton (Royalists victorious) . . 16 May, \nChalgrove (Hampden killed) . . .18 June, \nAtherton Moor (Royalists victorious) . 30 June, \nLandsdown (Royalists victorious) . . 5 July, \nDevizes or Roundway-down (ditto) . 13 July, \n\nGainsborough (Cromwell victor). . . 27 July, \nNewbury (fav. to Royalists) ... 20 Sept. \nCheriton or Alresford (ditto) . . 29 March, \nCropredy Bridge (Charles I. victor) . 29 June, \nMarston Moor (prince Rupert defeated) . 2 July, \nTippermuir (Montrose defeats Covenanters) . 1 Sept. \n\nNewbury (indecisive) 27 Oct. \n\nNnstihy (Charles I. totally defeated) . 14 June, \nAlford (Montrose defeats Covenanters) . . 2 July, \n\nKilsyth (ditto) 15 Aug. \n\nPMliphaugh (Covenanters defeat Montrose) 13 Sept. \nBenburb (O\'Neill defeats English) . . 5 June, \nDungan-hill (Irish defeated) ... 8 Aug. \nPreston (Cromwell victor) ... 17 Aug. \nEathmines (Irish Royalists defeated) . . 2 Aug. \nDrogheda (taken by storm) . . . 12 Sept. \nCor bies\'dale (Montrose defeat ed) . . . 27 April, \nDunbar (Cromwell defeats Scots) . . 3 Sept. \nWorcester (Cromwell defeats Charles II.) . 3 Sept. \n\nGalway (surrendered) \n\nDaventry (Lambert defeated by Monk) . 21 April, \n\nArras, France (Turenne defeats Condi) . . . . 1654 \n\nDunkirk (ditto) 14 June, 1658 \n\nEstremoz (Don John def. by Sehomberq) . 8 June, 1663 \n\nSt. Qotth&rd (Montccncnli\'dcfeats Tit rks) . 1 Aug. 1664 \n\nVilla Vicious. (J\'ortufiHrw defeat Spaniards) . . 1665 \n\nPentlatid hills (Covenanters defeated) . 28 Nov. 1666 \n\nCandia (taken by Turks) .... 6 Sept. 1669 \n\nChoczim (Sobieski defeats Turks) . . n Nov. 1673 \n\n\n\n1644 \n\n\n\n1645 \n\n\n\n1646 \n1647 \n1648 \n1649 \n\n1650 \n\n1651 \n1652 \n1660 \n\n\n\nSeneffe (French and Dutch, indecisi ve) . 11 Aug. \nEnsisheim (Turenne defeats Imperialists) . 4 Oct. \n\nMulhausen (ditto) 31 Dec. \n\nTurckheim (ditto) 5 Jan. \n\nSalzbach (Turenne killed) . . . -27 July, \nDrumclog (Covenanters defeat Claverhouse) 1 June. \nBothwell Brigg (Monmouth defeats Covena.nters) \n\n22 June, \nVienna (Turks defeated by Sobieski) \nSedgemoor (Monmouth defeated). \nMohaez (Turks defeated) \nKilliecrankie (Highlanders def. Mackay) \nNewtown-butler (Jacobites defeated) \nBoyue (William III. defeats James II.) \nFleurus (Charleroi, Luxembourg victor) \nAthlone taken by Ginckel . \nAughriin (James II.\' s cause ruined) \nSalenckemen (Louis of Baden def. Turks) \nEnghein or Steenkirk (William III. \n\n\n\nLanden (William III. defeated) \nMarsaglia (Pignerol) (French victors) \nZenta (prince Eugene defeats Turks) \nNarva (Charles XII. defeats Russians) \nCarpi, Modena (Allies defeat French) \nChiari (Austrians defeat French) . \nClissau (Charles XII. defeats Poles) . \nSanta Vittoria (French xrictors) \nFriedlingen (French defeat Germans) \nPultusk (Swedes defeat Poles) \nHochstadt (French defeat Austrians) \nDonauwerth (Marlborough victor) \nGibraltar (taken by Rooke) \n\nBlenheim or Hochstadt (Marlborough victor), (o. s.) \n\n2 Aug. \nTirlemont (Marlborough successful) . . 18 July, \nCassano (prince Eugene ; indecisive) . . 16 Aug. \nMittau (taken by Russians) ... 14 Sept. \nRamillies (Marlborough defeats French) . 23 May, \nTurin (French defeated by Eugene) . . 7 Sept. \nKalitsch (Russians defeat Swedes) . . 19 Nov. \n\n\n\n12 Sept. \n\n6 July, \n12 Aug. \n27 July, \n30 July, \n\n1 July, \n. 1 July \n30 June, \n12 July, \n19 Aug. \ndefeated) \n24 July, \n\n19 July, \n. 4 Oct. \n11 Sept. \n\n.30 Nov. \n\n9 July, \n\n. 1 Sept. \n\n20 July, \n26 July, \n\n14 Oct. \n\n. 1 May, \n\n20 Sept. \n\n. 2 July, \n\n24 July, \n\n\n\n1674 \n\n1673 \n1679 \n\n\n\n1683 \n1685 \n\n\n\n1690 \n\n\n\n1692 \n1693 \n\n1697 \n1700 \n1 701 \n\n\n\n1704 \n1704 \n\n\n\ni7 5 \n1 70S \n\n\n\nAlmanza (French defeat Allies) 14 (o. s. ) or 25 April, 1707 \n\n1708 \n\n\n\n. 11 July, \n\nautumn, \n\nDec. \n\n8 July, \n\n. 11 Sept. \n\n20 Sept. \n\n. 28 July, \n\n20 Aug. \n\n. 10 Dec. \n\n5 Aug. \n\n. 13 Sept. \n\n24 July, \n\n7 Nov. \n\n12, 13 Nov. \n\n. 13 Nov. \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 5 Aug. \n\n. 16 Aug. \n\n27 May, \n\n\n\nOudenarde (Marlborough victor) . \nLiesna, Lenzo (Russians defeat Swedes) . \nLisle (taken by the Allies) \nPultowa (Peter defeats Charles XII.) \nMalplaquet (Marlborough victor) \nDobro (Russians defeat Swed.es) \nAlmenara (Austrians defeat French) . \n\nSaragossa (ditto) \n\nVilla Viciosa (Austrians defeated) \nArleux (Marlborough forces French lines) \nBouchain (taken by Marlborough) \nDenain (Villars defeats Allies) \nFriburg (taken by French) . \nPreston (rebels defeated) . \nDumblans or Sherift\'-Muir (indecisive) \nPeterwardein (Eugene defeats Turks) \n\nBelgrade (ditto) \n\nBitonto (Spaniards defeat Germans) \nParma (Austrians and French, indecisive) . 29 June, \nGuastalla (Austrians defeated) . . 19 Sept. \nErivan (Nadir Shah defeats Turks) . . June, \nKro tzka (Turks defeat Austrians) . . 22 July, \nMolwitz (Prussians defeat Austrians) . 10 April, \nDettingen (George II. defeats French) . 16 June, \nFontenoy (Saxe defeats Cumberland) . . 30 April, \nHohenfreiburg (Prussians defeat Austrians) 4 June, \n\nscots\' rebellion. \nPreston Pans (rebels defeat, Cope) \nClifton Moor (rebels defeated) \nFalkirk (rebels defeat Hawley) . \nCulloden (Cumberland defeats rebels) \n\nSt. Lazaro (Sardinians defeat French) \nPlacentia (Austrians defeat French) \nRaucoux (Saxe defeats Allies) . \nLafl\'eldt (Saxe defeats Cumberland) \nExilles (Sardinians defeat French) \nBergen-op-Zoom (taJcen) \nFort du Quesne (Braddock killed) \nCalcutta (taken by Surajah Dowlah) \n\nSEVEN YEARS\' WAR, I756-63. \n\nPrague (Frederick defeats Allies) . . 6 May, \n\nKollin (Frederick defeated) . . . 18 June, \nNorMtten (Russians defeated) . . . 13 Aug. \n\n\n\n1712 \n1713 \n1715 \n\n1716 \n1717 \n1734 \n\n\n\n1735 \n1739 \n1741 \n1743 \n1745 \n\n\n\n21 Sept. 1745 \n\n18 Dec. ,, \n\n17 Jan. 1746 \n\n16 April, ,, \n\n\n\n4 June, \n\n16 June, \n\n11 Oct. \n\n2 July, \n\n. 19 July, \n\n15 Sept. \n\n. 9 July. \n\n20 June, \n\n\n\n1746 \n1747 \n\n\n\n1755 \n1756 \n\n\n\nBATTLES. \n\n\n\n104 \n\n\n\nBATTLES. \n\n\n\nRosbach (Frederick defeats French) . . 5 Nov. 1757 \nBreslau (Austrians victors) ... 22 Nov. ,, \n\nLissa (Frederick defeats Aiistrians) . . 5 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nCreveldt (Ferdinand defeats French) . 23 June, 1758 \nZorndorff (Frederick defeats Russians) 25, 26 Aug. ,, \nHochkirchen (Aiistrians defeat Prussians) 14 Oct. ,, \nBergen (French defeat Allies) . . .13 April, 1759 \nZullichau (Russians defeat Prussians) . 53 July, ,, \nMinden (Ferdinand defeats French) . 1 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nCunnersdorf (Russians defeat Prussians) 12 Aug. ,, \nWandewash (Coote defeats Lally) . . 22 Jan. 1760 \nLiandshut, Silesia (Prussians defeated) . 23 June, ,, \nWarburg (Ferdinand defeats French) . 31 July, ,, \nPfaffendorf (Frederick defeats Aiistrians) . 15 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nKloster Campen (English and Germans with French, \n\nindecisive) i5> *6 Oct. i> \n\nTorgau (Frederick defeats Austria/is) . . 3 Nov. ,, \nKirchdenkern (Allies defeat French) . 15 July, 1 761 \nSchweidnitz (Frederick II. def. Aiistrians) 16 May, 1762 \nJohannisberg (French defeat Prussians) 30 Aug. ,, \nFreiberg (Prussians defeat Austrians) . 29 Oct. ,, \n\nPlassey (dive\'s victory) . . . 23 June, 1757 \nNiagara (English take Fort) . . . 24 July, 1759 \nQuebec (Wolfe, victor, killed) . . . 13 Sept. ,, \nBuxar (Munro defeats army of Oude) . . 23 Oct. 1764 \nChoczim (Russians defeat Turks) 30 April <fe 13 July, 1769 \nGalatz (Russians defeat Turks) . . . Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nBender taken by Russians . . . 28 Sept. 1770 \nBrailow (Russians defeat Turks) . . 19 June, 1773 \nSilistria (taken) 1774 \n\n\n\n19 April, \n\n17 June, \n\n27 Aug. \n\n. 28 Oct. \n\n8 Dec. \n\n. 3 Jan. \n\n11 Sept. \n\n3, 4 Oct. \n\n7 Oct. \n\n3 March, \n\n16 Aug. \n\n15 March, \n\n25 April, \n\n\n\nAMERICAN WAR. \n\nLexington (Gage victor, with great loss) \nBunker\'s Hill (Americans repulsed) \nLong Island (Americans defeated) . \nWhite Plains (Howe defeats Americans) \nRhode Island (taken by Royalists) . \nPrinceton (Washington defeats British) \nBrandywine (Howe defeats Washington) \nGermanstown (Burgoyne\'s victory) \nSaratoga (he is compelled to surrender) \nBriar\'s Creek (Americans defeated) \nCamden (Cornwallis defeats Gates) . \nGuildford (Cornwallis defeats Gates) \nCamden (Americans defeated) \n\nEutaw Springs (Arnold defeats Americans) . 8 Sept. \nYork Town (Cornwallis surrenders) . 19 Oct. \n[Many inferior actions with various success.] \nArcot (Hyder defeats British) . . . 31 Oct. \nPorto Novo (Coote defeats Hyder) . . 1 July, \nRodney\'s victory over De Grasse, n. . 12 April, \nArnee (Coote defeats Hyder) ... 2 June, \nAttack on Gibraltar fails ... 13 Sept. \n\nBednore (taken by Tip-poo Sah lb) . . 30 April, \nMartinesti (Austrian^ defeat Turks) . . 22 Sept. \nIsmail (taken by storm by Suwarrow) . 22 Dec. \nBangalore (taken by storm) . . . 21 March, \nArikera (1\'ippoo defeated) . . . . 15 May, \nSeringapatam (ditto) 6 Feb. \n\nFRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WAR BEGINS. \n\nQuievrain (French repulsed) . . .28 April, \nValmy (French defeat Prussians) . . 20 Sept. \nJemappes (French victorious) ... 6 Nov. \nNeerwinden (French beaten by Austrians) 18 March, \nSt. Amand (French defeated by English). . 8 May, \nValenciennes (ditto) . . .23 May, 26 July, \nLincelles (Lake defeats French) . . .18 Aug. \nDunkirk (duke of York defeated) . . 7, 8 Sept. \nQuesnoy (reduced by Austrians) . . n Sept. \nPirmasens (Prussians defeat French) . 14 Sept. \nWattignies (French defeat Coburg) . 14, 15, 16 Oct. \nToulon (retaken by British) . 19 Dec. \n\nCambray (French defeated) . . .24 April, \nTroisville, Landrecy (taken by Allies) . 30 April, \nTourcoing (Moreau defeats Allies) . 18-22 May, \nEspierres (taken by Allies) ... 22 May, \nHowe\'s naval victory . . . . 1 June, \nCharleroi or Fleurus (French defeat. Allies) 26 June, \nMisdon (Vendeans defeated) . . . . 28 July, \nBois-le-Duc (duke of York defeated) . 14 Sept. \n\nBoxtel (ditto) 17 Sept. \n\nMaciejowice (Poles defeated) . . . .10 Oct. \nNimeguen (French victorious) 28 Oct., (def.) 4 May, \nPraga (Warsaw taken by Suwarrow) . . 4 Nov. \nBridport\'s victory off l\'Orient, n. . . 22 June, \nQuiberon (Emigrants defeated) . . 21 July, \n\n\n\n1775 \n\n776 \n\n\n\n1792 \nJ 793 \n\n\n\nMannheim (taken by Pichegru) . . 20 Sept. : \n\nLoano (French defeat Austrians) .. . 23, 24 Nov. \nMontenotte (Bonaparte victorious) . . 12 April, i \n\nMondovi (ditto) 22 April, \n\nLodi (ditto) 10 May, \n\nAltenkirchen (Austrians defeated) . . 4 June, \nRadstadt (Moreau defeats Austrians) . 5 July, \n\nAltenkirchen (Austrians victors) . .16 Sept. \nRoveredo (French defeat Austrians) . 4 Sept. \n\nBassano (ditto) 8 Sept. \n\nBiberach (ditto) 2 Oct. \n\nLonato and Castiglione (ditto) . . .3-5 Aug. \nNeresheim (Moreau def. archduke Charles) 10 Aug. \nAreola (Bonaparte victorious) . . 14-17 Nov. \n\nCastelnuovo (ditto) 21 Nov. \n\nR voli (ditto) 14, 15 Jan. \n\nCape St. Vincent, n. (Spaniards defeated) 14 Feb. \nTagliamento (Bonaparte def. Austrians) 16 March, \nCamperdown, n. (Duncan defeats Dutch) 11 Oct. \n\nIRISH REBELLION BEGINS . . . May, \n\nKilcullen (rebels successful) . . . 23 May, \nNaas (rebels defeated) .... 24 May, \n\nTara (rebels defeated) 26 May, \n\nOulart (rebels successful) ... 27 May, \n\nGorey or New Ross (rebels defeated) . . 4 June, \nAntrim (rebels defeated) .... 7 June, \n\nArklow (rebels beaJen) . . . .10 June, \nBallynahineh (Nugent defeats rebels) . 13 June, \nVinegar Hill (Lake defeats rebels) . . 21 June, \nCastlebar (French auxiliaries defeated) . 27 Aug. \n\nBallinamuok (French and rebels defeated) . 8 Sept. \nPyramids (Bonaparte def. Mamelu_kes) 13, 21 July, \nNile, n. (Nelson defeats French fleet) . . 1 Aug. \nEl Arisch (French defeat Turks) . .18 Feb. \nJaffa (stormed by Bonaparte) . . . 7-10 March, \nStokach (Austrians defeat French) . 25 March, \n\nVerona (Austrians defeat French) . 28-30 March, \n\nMagnano (Kray defeats French). . . 5 April, \nMount Thabor (Bonaparte defeats Turks) 16 April, \nCassano (Suwarrow defeats Moreau) . . 27 April, \nAdda (Suwarrow defeats French) . . ,, \n\nSeringapatam (Tippoo killed) ... 4 May, \nAcre (relieved by sir Sydney Smith) . . 20 May, \nZurich (French defeated) .... 5 June, \nTrebia (Suwarrow defeats French) . 17-19 June, \nAlessandria (taken from French) . . 21 July, \nAboukir (Turks defeated by Bonaparte) 25 July, \n\nNovi (Suwarrow defeats French) . . . 15 Aug. \nZuyper Sluys (French defeated) . . 9 Sept. \nBergen and Alkmaer (Allies defeated) . 19 Sept. \n\n26 Oct. \nZurich (Massena defeats Russians) . 25 Sept. \nHeliopolis (Kleber defeats Turks) . . 20 Mar. \nEngen (Moreau defeats Austrians) . . 3 May, \nMoeskirch (ditto) 5 May, \n\n\n\nBiberach (ditto) 9 May, ,, \n\nMontebello (Austrians defeated) . . 9 June, ,, \nMarengo (Bonaparte defeats Austrians) . 14 June, ,, \nHochstadt (Moreau defeats Austrians) . 19 June, ,, \n\nHohenlinden (ditto) 3 Dec. ,, \n\nMincio (French defeat Austrians) . . 25-27 Dec. ,, \nAboukir (French defeated) . . .8 March, 1803 \n\nAlexandria (Abercrombie\'s victory) . . 21 March, ,, \nCopenhagen (bombarded by Nelson) . . 2 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \nAhmednuggur (Wellesley victorious) . 12 Aug. 1803; \nAssaye (ditto, his first great victory) . . 23 Sept. ,, \nArgaum (Wellesley victor) . . 29 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFurruckabad (Lake defeats Holkar) . -17 Nov. 18041 \nBhurtpore (taken by Lake) ... 2 April, 1805 \nElchingen (Ney defeats Austrians) . . 14 Oct. ,, \nUlm surrenders (Ney defeats Austrians) 17-20 Oct. ,, \nTrafalgar (Nelson destroys Fren. fleet ; killed) 21 Oct. ,, \nAusterlitz (Napoleon defeats Austrians & Russ. ) 2 Dec. , , \nEuenas Ayres (taken by Popham) . . 27 June, 1806 \nMaida (Stuart defeats French) . . .4 July, ,,, \nSaalfeld (French defeat Prussians) . . 10 Oct. ,, \n\nJena Stadt } ( Frenclt de f eat Prussians) . 14 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nHalle stormed by French ... 17 Oct. ,, \n\nPultusk (French and Allies, indecUive) . 26 Dec. ,, \n\nMohrungen (French def. Russ. & Pruss.). 25 Jan. 1807 \n\nMontevideo (taken) 3 Feb. ,,. \n\nEylau (indecisive) 7, 8 Feb; ,, \n\nOstrolenka (French defeat Prussians) . . 16 Feb. ,, \n\nFriedland (French defeat Russians) . 14 June, ,, \n\nBuenos Ayres (lVhitelock defeated) . . 5 July, ,, \n\nCopenhagen (bombarded by Cathcarf) . 2-5 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e, \n\n\n\nBATTLES. \n\n\n\n105 \n\n\n\nBATTLES. \n\n\n\nMedina de Rio Seco {French defeat Spaniards) \n\n15 July, \nBaylen (Spaniards defeat French) . . 20 July, \n\nPENINSULAR CAMPAIGN BEGINS. \n\nVimiera (Wellesley defeats Junot) . . 21 Aug. \nTudela or Ebro (French defeat Spaniards) 23 Nov. \nCorunna (Moore defeats French) . . 16 Jan. \nAbenberg (Austrians defeated) . . .20 April, \n\nLandshut (ditto) 21 April, \n\nEckmiihl (Davoust defeats Austrians) . 22 April, \nEbersberg (French defeat Austrians) . . 4 May, \nOporto (taken). ... 29 March, 12 May, \n\n\n\n21, 22 May, \n\n5, 6 July, \n27, 28 July, \n\n26 Sept. \n19 Nov. \n\n27 Sept. \n. 5 March, \n\n11 March, \n\n\n\nEssUng } ( Na P oleon defeated) . \nWagram (Austrians defeated) \nTalavera (Wellesley defeats Victor) . \nSilistria (Turks defeat Russians) \nOcana (Mortier defeats Spaniards) . \nBusaco (Wellington repulses Massena) \nBarrosa (Graham defeats Victor) \nBadajoz (taken by the French) \n\nFuentes de Onoro (Wellington defeats Massena) \n\n3. 5 May, \nAlbuera (Bercsford defeats Soult) . \nXimena (Spaniards defeat French) \nMerida (Hill defeats French) . \nAlbufera (Suchet defeats Spaniards) . \nCiudad Rodrigo (stormed by English) \nBadajoz (taken by Wellington) . \nLlerena (Cotton defeats Soult) \nSalamanca (Wellington, defts. Marmont) \nMohilow (French defeat Russians) \nPolotzk (French and Russians) . \n\n\n\n16 May, \n10 Sept. \n. 28 Oct. \n4 Jan. \n19 Jan. \n6 April, \n11 April, \n\n22 July, \n\n23 July, \n30, 31 July, \n\n\n\nKrasnoy, Smolensko (French defeat Russians) \n\n15, 19 Aug. \n\nMoskwa ) , , ... . , \n\nBorodino [ <- dltto ) 7 Sept. \n\nMoscow (burnt by Russians) . . . 15 Sept. \nQueenstown (Americans defeated) . . 13 Oct. \n\nPolotzk (retaken by Russians) . . 19, 20 Oct. \nMalo-Jaroslawatz (French victors) . . 24 Oct. \n\nWitepsk (French defeated) ... 14 Nov. \n\nKrasnoi (ditto) 16-18 Nov. \n\nBeresina (ditto) ..... 25-29 Nov. \nFrench Town (taken by Americans) . 22 Jan. \nKalitsch (Saxons defeated) .... 13 Feb. \nMockern (Eugene defeats Russians) . 5 April, \nCastalla (sir J. Murray defeats Suchet) . 13 April, \nLutzen (Napoleon checks Allies) . . .2 May, \nBautzen (Nap. a nd Allies ; indecisive) . 20 May, \n\nWurschen (ditto) 21, 22 May, \n\nHochkirchen (French deft. Aust. and Russ.), 22 May, \nVittoria (Wellington defts. king Joseph) . 21 June, \nPyrenees (Wellington defeats Soult) 28 July, 2 Aug. \nKatzbach (Blucher defeats Ney) . . .26 Aug. \nDresden (Napoleon checks Allies) . . 26, 27 Aug. \nSt. Sebastian (stormed by Graham) . .31 Aug. \nDennewitz (Ncy defeated) ... 6 Sept. \n\nMockern (French defeated) .... 16 Oct. \nLeipzic (Napoleon defeated) . . . 16-18 Oct. \nHanau (Napoleon defeats Bavarians) . . 30 Oct. \nSt. Jean de Luz (Wellington defts. Soult) 10 Nov. \nPassage of the Nive, 9 Dec. ; several engagements \n\nbetween the Allies and French . 10 to 13 Dec. \nSt. Dizier, France (French victors) . . 26 Jan. \nBrienne (Allies defeated) .... 29 Jan. \nLa Rothiere (Napoleon defeats Allies). . 1 Feb. \nBar-sur-Aube (Allies victors) . . .7 Feb. \n\nMincio (pr. Eugene defeats Austrians) . 8 Feb \nChamp Aubert (French defeat Allies) . 10-12 Feb. \n\nMontmirail (ditto) n Feb. \n\nVauchamp (ditto) 14 Feb. \n\nFontainebleau (ditto) 17 Feb. \n\nMontereau (ditto) 18 Feb. \n\nOrthez (Wellington defeats Soult) . . 27 Feb. \nCraonne (French victors) ... 7 March, \nBergen-op-Zoom (Graham defeated) . . 8 March, \nLaon (French defeated) .... 9-10 March, \nRheims (Napoleon defeats St. Priest) . 13 March, \n\nTarbes (Wellington defeats Soult) . . 20 March, \nFere Champenoise (French defeated) . 25 March, \nSt. Dizier (French victors) . . .28 March, \nParis, Montmartre, Romainville (ditto) 30 March, \nBattle of the Barriers, 30 March ; (Marmont evacuates \n\nParis, and the Allies enter it) . . 31 March, \nToulouse (Wellington defeats Soult) . 10 April, \nTolentino (Murai defeated) . . . . 3 May, \n\n\n\nLigny (Blucher repulsed). \nQuatre Bras (Ney repulsed) . \n\nWaterloo (Napoleon finally beaten). \n\nAMERICAN WAR. \n\nFort George (taken by Americans) \nBurlington Heights (Americans routed) . \nChrystler\'s Point, Canada . \nBlack-rock, America .... \nLongwood (English defeated) \n\nChippawa j \\ B / itlsh defeat f) . . \n\n^ {(Americans defeated) \n\nFort Erie (British repulsed) . \nBladensburg (Americans defeated) \nBellair (British repulsed) \nBaltimore (British victors) . \nNew Orleans (British repxtlsed) . 8, 1: \n\n\n\n2 7\xc2\xbb \n\n\n\nAlgiers (bombarded by Exmouth) . \nOhacalmco (Chilians defeat Spaniards) . \nKirkee (Hastings defeats Pindarrees) . \nMehadpore (Hislop defeats Holkar) . \nValtezza (Turks defeated) . \nDragaschan (Ipsilanti defeated) \nTripolitza (stormed by Greeks) \nThermopyhe (Greeks defeat Turks) . \n\nCorinth (taken) \n\nAccra (Ashantees defeat sir C. Macarthy) \nAyacucho (Peruvians defeat Spaniards) \nBhurtpore (taken by Combermere) \nAccra (Ashantees defeated) \n\nAthens (taken) \n\nNavarino (Allies destroy Turkish fleet) . \nBrahilow (Russians a nd Turks) . \n\nAkhalzikh (ditto) \n\nVarna (surrenders to Russians) . \n\nSilistria (ditto) \n\nKainly (Russians defeat Turks) . \nBalkan (passed by Russians) . \nAdrianople (Russians enter) \nAlgiers (captured by French) . \nParis (Days of July) . \nGrochow (Poles defeat Russians) \nPraga (Poles defeat Russians) \nWawz (Skrzynecki defeats Russians) \nSeidliee (Poles defeat Russians) . \n\nOstrolenka (ditto) \n\nWilna (Poles and Russians) \n\nWarsaw (taken by Russians) . \n\nHorns (Egyptians defeat Turks) . \n\nBeylan (Ibrahim defeats Turks) \n\nKonieh (Egyptians defeat Turks) \n\nAntwerp citadel taken by Allies . \n\nHernani (Carlists defeated) . \n\nSt. Sebastian (ditto) . . . . \n\nBilboa (siege raised ; British Legion) . \n\nHernani (Carlists repulsed) \n\nIran (British Legion defeats Carlists) . \n\nValentia (Carlists attacked) \n\nHerera (Don Carlos defeats Buereno) . \n\nOonstantina (Algiers ; taken by French) \n\nSt. Eustace (Canadian rebels defeated) . \n\nPennecerrada (Carlists defeated) \n\nPrescott (Canadian rebels defeated) \n\nAden (taken) \n\nGhiznee (taken by Keane) \nSidon (taken by Napier) \nBey rout (Allies defeat Egyptians) . \nAfghan War. (See India.) \nAcre (stormed by Allies) \nKotriah (Scinde ; English victors) . \nChuen-pe (English victors) \nCanton (English take Bogue forts) . \n\nAmoy (taken) \n\nChin-hae, <fec. (taken) .... \nCandahar (Afghans defeated) \nNingpo (Chinese defeated) \nJellalabad (Khyber Pass forced) . \nChiu-keang (taken) .... \n\nGhiznee (Afghans defeated, by Nott) . \nMceanee (Napier defeats Ameers) . \n\nHyderabad \n\nMaharajpoor (Gough defeats Mahrattas) \nIsly (French defeat Abd-c!-Kader) . \nMoodkee (G<aigh defeats Sikhs) . \n\nFerozeshah (ditto) \n\nAliwal (Smith defeats Sikhs) \nSobraon (Gough defeats Sikhs) \n\n\n\n16 June, \n\n\n18115 \n\n\n. 16 June, \n\n\n\n\n18 June, \n\n\n" \n\n\n. 27 May, \n\n\n1813 \n\n\n6 June, \n\n\n,, \n\n\n. 11 Nov. \n\n\n\n\n28 Dec. \n\n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 4 May. \n\n\n1814 \n\n\n5 July, \n\n\n,, \n\n\n. 25 July, \n\n\n, r \n\n\n15 Aug. \n\n\n,, \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 24 Aug. \n\n\n, r \n\n\n30 Aug. \n\n\n,, \n\n\n. 12 Sept. \n\n\n,, \n\n\n& 13 Jan. \n\n\n181s \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 27 Aug. \n\n\n1816 \n\n\n12 Feb. \n\n\n1817 \n\n\n. 5 Nov. \n\n\n,, \n\n\n21 Dec. \n\n\n, r \n\n\n. 27 May, \n\n\n182s \n\n\n19 June, \n\n\n\n\n. 5 Oct. \n\n\n\n\n13 July, \n\n\n1822 \n\n\n. 16 Sept. \n\n\n,, \n\n\n21 Jan. \n\n\n1824 \n\n\n. 9 Dec. \n\n\n,, \n\n\n. 18 Jan. \n\n\n1826 \n\n\n7 Aug. \n\n\n,, \n\n\n. 17 May, \n\n\n1827* \n\n\n. 20 Oct. \n\n\n,, \n\n\n. 18 June, \n\n\n1828; \n\n\n24 Aug. \n\n\n,, \n\n\n. 11 Oct. \n\n\n,, \n\n\n30 June, \n\n\n1829, \n\n\n. 1 July, \n\n\n,, \n\n\n26 July, \n\n\n,, \n\n\n. 20 Aug. \n\n\n,, \n\n\n5 July, \n\n\n1830 \n\n\n8, 29 July, \n\n\n,, \n\n\n19, 20 Feb. \n\n\n183B \n\n\n. 25 Feb. \n\n\n,, \n\n\n31 March, \n\n\n\n\n. 10 April, \n\n\n,, \n\n\n26 May, \n\n\n,^ \n\n\n. 18 June, \n\n\n\n\n7 Sept. \n\n\n,, \n\n\n. 8 July, \n\n\n1832 \n\n\n29 July, \n\n\n,,. \n\n\n. 21 Dec. \n\n\n9y \n\n\n23 Dec. \n\n\n,, \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 5 May, \n\n\n1836 \n\n\n1 Oct. \n\n\n\n\n24 Dec. \n\n\n\n\n16 March, \n\n\n1837 \n\n\n. 17 May, \n\n\n\n\n15 July, \n\n\n,, \n\n\n. 24 Aug. \n\n\n, r \n\n\n13 Oct. \n\n\n, r \n\n\n. 14 Dec. \n\n\n\n\n. 22 June, \n\n\n183S \n\n\n17 Nov. \n\n\n\n\n19 Jan. \n\n\n1839. \n\n\n23 July, \n\n\n,, \n\n\n. 27 Sept. \n\n\n1840 \n\n\n. 10 Oct. \n\n\n.r \n\n\n3 Nov. \n\n\n\n\n. 1 Dec. \n\n\n,, \n\n\n7 Jan. \n\n\n1843 \n\n\n. 26 Feb. \n\n\n\n\n27 Aug. \n\n\n,, \n\n\n10, 13 Oct. \n\n\n,, \n\n\n. 10 March, \n\n\n1842 \n\n\n10 March, \n\n\n\n\n5. 6 April, \n\n\n,, \n\n\n21 July, \n\n\n,,. \n\n\n6 Sept. \n\n\n\n\n. 17 Frli. \n\n\n1843 \n\n\n24 March, \n\n\n\xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n29 Dec. \n\n\n,, \n\n\n. 14 Aug. \n\n\n(84+ \n\n\n1S Dec. \n\n\n1845 \n\n\n21, 22 Dec. \n\n\n,, \n\n\n28 Jan. \n\n\n1846 \n\n\n. 10 Feb. \n\n\n,, \n\n\n\nBATTLES. \n\n\n\n106 \n\n\n\nBATTLES. \n\n\n\nPalo Alto (Taylor defeats Mexicans) . . 8, 9 May, 1846 \n\nMontery (Mexicans def. by Americans) 21-23 Sept. ,, \n\nBueno Vista (Americans defeat Mexicans) . 22 Feb. 1847 \n\nSt. Ubes (Portugal) 9 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nOzontero (Americans defeat Mexicans) . 19, 20 Aug. ,, \n\nFlensborg (Danes defeat rebels) . . 9 April, 1848 \n\nDannawerke (Prussians defeat Danes) . 23 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCurtatone (Austrians defeat Italians) . 29 May, ,, \n\nCustozza (ditto) 23 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nVelencze (Croats and Hungarians) . . 29 Sept. ,, \n\nMooltan (Sikhs repulsed) . . . . 7 Nov. ,, \n\n"Chilian-wallah (Gougli defeats Sikhs) . . 13 Jan. 1849 \n\nGoojerat (ditto) 21 Feb. ,, \n\nGran (Hungarians victors) ... 27 Feb. ,, \n\nNovara (Radetzky defeats Sardinians) . 23 March, ,, \nVelletri (Roman Republicans defeat Neapolitans) \n\n19 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nPered (Russians defeat Hungarians) \nAcs (Hungarians repidsed) . \nWaitzen (taken by Russians) . \nSchiissberg (Russians defeat. Bern) \nTemeswar (Haynau defeats Hungarians) \nIdstedt (Danes defeat Holsteiners) \nNankin taken by Imperialists . \n\nRUSSO-TURKISH WAR. \n\nOlteuitza (Turks repulse Russians) \nSinope, n. (Turkish fleet destroyed) . \nCitate (Turks defeat Russians) \n\nSilistria (ditto) 13-15 June, ,, \n\nGyirgevo (ditto) 7 July, ,, \n\nBayazid (Russians defeat Turks) . 29, 30 July, ,, \n\nKuruk-Derek (ditto) 5 Aug. ,, \n\nAlma (English and French defeat Russians) 20 Sept. ,, \n\nBalaklava (ditto) 25 Oct. ,, \n\nInkermann (ditto) 5 Nov. ,, \n\nEupatoria (Turks defeat Russians) . . 17 Feb. 1855 \nMalakhoff tower (Allies and Russians; indec. night \n\ncombats) . . ... . 22, 23, 24 May, ,, \n\nCapture of the Mamelon, &c. . . . 7 June, ,, \n\nUnsuccessful attempt on Malakhoff tower, and \n\nRedan (Allies and Russians) . . 18 June, ,, \nTchernaya or Bridge of Traktir (Allies def. Russians) \n\n16 Aug. ,, \n\nMalakhoff taken by the French . . 8 Sept. ,, \n\nKngour (Turks defeat Russians) . . 6 Nov. - ,, \n\nBaidar (French defeat Russians) . . .8 Dec. ,, \n\nPERSIAN WAR. \n\nBushire (English defeat Persians) . . 10 Dec. 1856 \n\nKooshab (ditto) 8 Feb. 1857 \n\nMohammerah (ditto) .... 26 March, ,, \n\n\n\n21 June, \n\n\n\n\n10 July, \n17 July, \n31 July, \n10 Aug. \n\n\n\xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n25 July, \n19 July, \n\n\n185c \n1853 \n\n\n. 4 Nov. \n\n30 Nov. \n\n. 6 Jan. \n\n\n1853 \n1854 \n\n\n\n(See India.) \n31 May ; 8 June ; \n\n\n\nINDIAN MUTINY. \n\nConflicts before Delhi. 30 \n\n4, 9, 18, 23 July, 1857 \nVictories of General Havelock, near Futtehpore, \n\n11 July, Cawnpore, &c. 12 July to 16 Aug. \nPandoo Nucldee (victory ofNc\'dl) . . 15 Aug.- \nNujuffghur (death of Nicholson, victor) . 25 Aug. \nAssault and capture of Delhi . . 14-20 Sept. \nConflicts before Lucknow, 25, 26 Sept. ; 18, 25 Nov. \nVictories of Col. Greathed . 27 Sept ; 10 Oct. \nCawnpore (victory of Campbell) . . . 6 Dec. \n\nFutteghur (ditto) 2 Jan. \n\nCalpi(i) ictory of Inglis) .... 4 Feb. \nAlumbagh (victories ofOutram) 12 Jan. and 21 Feb. \nConflicts at Lucknow (taken) . . 14-19 March, \nJhansi (iilo.se victorioiis) . . . .4 April, \n\nKooneh (ditto) 11 May, \n\nGwalior (ditto) 17 June, \n\nBajghur (Mitchell defeats Tantia Topee) . 15 Sept. \nDlioodea Khera (Clyde defeats lieni Mahdo) 24 Nov. \nGen. Horsford defeats the Begum of Oucle and \n\nNana Sahib 10 Feb. 1859 \n\nItalian war. (See Italy.) \n\nAustrians cross the Ticino . . . 27 April, 1859 \n\nFrench troops enter Piedmont . . . May, ,, \n\nMontebello (Allies victorious) ... 20 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPalestro (ditto) 30, 31 May, ,, \n\nMagenta (ditto) . ..... 4 June, ,, \n\nMalegnano (ditto) 8 June, ,, \n\nSolferino (ditto) 24 June, ,, \n\n(Armistice agreed to, 6 July, 1850.) \n\n\n\nTaku, at the mouth of the Peiho or Tien-Tsin-ho \n(English attack on the Chinese Forts defeated) \n\n25 June, \n\nTaku forts taken (see China) . . . 21 Aug. \n\nChang-kia-wan, 18 Sept. ; and Pa-li-chiau (Chinese \ndefeated) 21 Sept. \n\n\n\nCastillejo (Spaniards defeat Moors) \n\nTetuan (ditto) \n\nGuad-el-Ras (ditto) \n\n\n\n. 1 Jan. \n\n4 Feb. \n\n23 March, \n\n\n\nCalatifimi (Garibaldi defeats Neapolitans) 15 May, \nMelazzo (Garibaldi defeats Neapolitans) 20, 21 July, \nCastel Fidardo (Sardinians defeat Papal troops), \n\n18 Sept. \nVolturno (Garibaldi, defeats Neapolitans) . 1 Oct. \nIsernia (Sardinians defeat Neapolitans) . 17 Oct. \nGarigliano (Sardinians defeat Neapolitans) 3 Nov. \nSardinians defeat Neapolitan re-actionists 22 Jan. \nGaeta taken by the Sardinians ... 13 Feb. \n\n\n\nInsurrection in New Zealand ; English repulsed, \n\n14, 28 March ; 27 June ; 10, 19 Sept. ; 9, 12 Oct. i860 \n\nMaohetia (Maories defeated) . . . 6 Nov. ,, \n\nCIVIL WAR IN UNITED STATES* \xe2\x80\x94 WAR IN MEXICO. \n\nBig Bethel (Federals repulsed) . . 10 June, 1861 \n\nBooneville (Lyon defeats Confederates) . 18 June, ,, \n\nCarthage (Federal victory) . . . .5 July, ,, \n\nRich Mountain (ditto) . . . .11 July, ,, \nBull Run or Manassas (Federal defeat and panic) \n\n21 July, ,, \n\nSpringfield or Wilson\'s Creek (Feds, victors) 10 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nCaruifex ferry (Rosencrans defeats Floyd, Confederate) \n\n10 Sept. ,, \n\nLexington (taken by Confederates) . . 20 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPavon, South America (Mitra def. Urquisa) 17 Sept. ,> \n\nTurks defeat Montenegrins . 19 Oct., 21 Nov. ,, \n\nBall\'s Bluff (Federals defeated) . . 21 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMill Springs, Kentucky (Confederates defeated and \n\ntheir general Zollicoffer killed) . . 19 Jan. 1862 \n\nRoanoke Island, N.C. (Federals victors) 7, 8 Feb. ,, \nSugar Creek, Arkansas (Confederates defeated) \n\n8 Feb. ,, \n\nFort Donnelson (taken by Federals) . 16 Feb. ,, \n\nPea Ridge, Arkansas (Federals victors) 6-8 March, ,-, \nHampton roads n. (Merrimac repulsed by Monitor) \n\n9 March, ,, \nPittsburg Landing, or Shiloh (favourable to Con- \nfederates) 6, 7 April, ,, \n\nWilliamsburg (Federals repulsed) . . 5 May. ,, \n\nPuebla (Mexicans defeat French) . . 5 May, ,, \n\nRichmond (successful sorties of Confederates) 14 May, ,, \n\nOrizaba (Mexicans defeat French) . . 18 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nWinchester (Federals repulsed) . . 18 May, ,, \n\nNear Orizaba (French defeat Mexicans) 13 June, ,, \n\nFairoaks (before Richmond, indecisive) . 31 May \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n1 June, ,, \nChickahominy (severe conflicts before Richmond; \n\nConfederates retreat.) . . 25 June to 1 July, ,, \n\nBaton Rouge (taken by Federals) . . 5 Aug. ,, \n\nCedar Mountain (favourable to Confederates) 9 Aug. ,, \n\nSevere conflicts on the Rappahannock 23-29 Aug. ,, \n\nBull Run (defeat of Federals) . . 29, 30 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nAspromonte (Garibaldi and Ms volunteers captured \n\nby Royal Italian Troops) . . . 29 Aug. ,, \nAntietam (severe ; Confederates retreat) 17 Sept. ,, \nPerryville (Confederates worsted) . . 8, 9 Oct. ,, \nFredericksburg (Federcds defeated by Lee) 13 Dec. 1863 \nMurfreesburgh (indecisive) 29 Dec. 1862 \xe2\x80\x94 3 Jan. ,, \nNashville (Confederates defeated) . . 2 Jan. ,, \nChancellorsville (Confederates victors) . 2-4 May, ,, \nWinchester (Ewell defeats Federals) . . 14 June, ,, \nGettysburg (severe but indecisive) . 1-3 July, ,, \nChicamauga (Confederates victorious) 19-20 Sept. ,, \nChattanooga (Confederates defeated) . 23-26 Nov. ,, \nSpottsylvania, <fec, in the Wilderness, near Chan- \ncellorsville (indecisive) . . . 10-12 May, 1864 \nPetersburg, near Richmond (indecisive, but Grant \n\nadvances) 15-18 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nWinchester (Confederates defeated) . . 19 Sept. ,, \n\nCedar Creek (ditto) 19 Oct. ,, \n\nFranklin (ditto) 3\xc2\xb0 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n* There were many smaller conflicts, of which the \naccounts were, very uncertain. \n\n\n\nBATTLES. \n\n\n\n107 \n\n\n\nNashville (Thomas, Federal, defeats Hood) 14-16 Dec. 1864 \nFive Forks (Lee totally defeated) . . 1 April, 1865 \nFa.imvi]le (Lee finally defeated) . . 6 April, ,, \n\n\n\nOeversee (Danes and Allies) ... 6 Feb. \n\nDiippel (taken by the Prussians) . . 18 April, \n\nAlsen (ditto) 29 June, \n\nRendsburg (ditto) 21 July, \n\nsouth American war. (See Brazil.) \nSantayuna (Allies defeat Paraguayans; Uruguyana \n\ntaken) \n\nPaso de la Patria (indecisive) \n\nParana (Allies victors) \n\nEstero Velhaco (ditto) \n\nluyaty (Allies defeated) . \n\nCurupai\'ti (ditto) .... 17, \n\nTuyuty (Allies victors) \n\nCorumba (taken by Brazilians) . \n\n\n\n18 Sept. \n\n. 25 Feb. \n\n. 16 April, \n\n. 2 May, \n\n16, 18 July, \n\n19, 22 Sept. \n\n30 Oct. \n\n. 13 June, \n\nseven weeks\' war (Austria and Prussia). \nCustozza (Austrians defeat Italians) . 24 June, \nLissa (ditto, naval battle) ... 20 July, \n\nPrussian victories (as inscribed on shield exhi- \nbited at Berlin, 20 Sept. 1866, see Prussia). \nLiebenau, Turnau, Podoll . . .26 June, \nNachod, Langensaiza (which see), Oswiecin, Htihner- \n\nwasser 27 June, \n\nMiinchengratz, Soor, Trautenau, Skalitz, 28 June, \nGitschin, Koniginhof, Jaromier, Schweinschadel, \n\n29 June, \nKoniggratz or Sadowa \nDermbach, 4 July ; Hunfeld \nWaldasehach, Hausen, Hammelburg \n\nhall, Kissingen .... \nLaufach, 13 July ; Asehaffenburg \nTobitsehau, 15 July ; Blumenau, 22 July ; Hof, \n\n23 July, \nTauber - Bischofsheim, Werbach, Hochhausen, \n\n24 July, \nNeubrunn, Helmstadt, Gerchsheim . 25 July, \nRoszbrunn, Wurzburg, Baireuth . . 28 July, \n\n\n\n1865 \n\n\n\n3 July, \n\n. 5 July, \n\nFriederics- \n\n. 10 July, \n\n14 July, \n\n\n\nMonte Rotondo (Garibaldians victors) . 27 Oct. \nMentana (Garibaldi defeated) . . . 3 Nov. \nArogee or Fahla (Abyssinians defeated) . 10 April, \nMagdala stormed .... 13 April, \n\nRussians defeat Bokharians and occupy Samarcand, \n\n25 May, \nAlcolea (Spanish royalists defeated) . 27, 28 Sept. \nVilleta (Lopez defeated by Brazilians), &c. 11 Dec. \nLopez defeated ... 12, 16, 18, 21 Aug. \nAquidaban (Lopez defeated and killed) . 1 March, \n\nFRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR (which See). \n\nSaarbruek, taken by the French, and Prussians re- \npulsed 2 Aug. \n\n\n\n1869 \n1870 \n\n\n\nWissembourg (French defeated) . . 4 Aug \n\nAVorth (ditto) 6 Aug. \n\nSaarbriick or Forbach (ditto) ... 6 Aug. \nCourcelles or Pange (ditto) . . . .14 Aug. \n\nStrasburg (ditto) 16 Aug. \n\nVionville or Mars-la-Tour (ditto). . . 16 Aug. \nGravelotte or Rezonville (ditto) . . 18 Aug. \n\nBeaumont (ditto) 30 Aug. \n\nCarignan (ditto) 31 Aug. \n\nMetz (ditto) 31 Aug. \n\nSedan (ditto) .... 31 Aug. , 1 Sept. \nBefore Paris (French defeated) . . .30 Sept. \nThorny (Germans surprised and repulsed) 5 Oct. \nSt. Remy (French defeated) ... 6 Oct. \n\nBefore Metz (ditto) 7 Oct. \n\nArtenay (ditto) 10 Oct. \n\nCherizy (Germans repulsed) . . . 10 Oct. \nOrleans (French defeated) .... n Oct. \n\nEcouis (indecisive) 14 Oct. \n\nChateaudun (French defeated) . . .18 Oct. \nCoulmiers, near Orleans (Germans defeated), \n\n9, 10 Nov. \nNear Amiens (French defeated) . \nVilliers, before Paris (French retreat) \n\n\n\n1870 \n\n\n\n27 Nov. \n30 Nov. \n\n2 Dec. \n\n4 Dec. \n\n\n\nBefore Orleans (French defeated) \n\nBeaugency (ditto) 7, 8 Dec. \n\nNuits (ditto) 18 Dee. \n\nPont a Noyelles (French claim a victory) 23 Dec. \n\nBapaume (indecisive) . . . . 2, 3 Jan. 1871 \n\n\n\nBATTLES. \n\nLe Mans (indecisive^ 6 Jan. 1871 \n\nLe Mans (Chanzy dcf. by pr. Fred. Chas.), 10-12 Jan. ,, \n\nBelfort (Bourbaki defeated) . . . 15-17 Jan. ,, \n\nSt. Quentin (Faidherbe defeated) . . 19 Jan. ,, \n\nParis (Trochu\'s grand sortie repulsed) . 19 Jan. ,, \n\n\n\n1872 \n1873 \n\n\n\n1874 \n\n\n\nOroquieta (Carlists defeated) ... 4 May, \nElmina (Ashantees defeated by British) . 13 June, \nElgueta (Carlists said to be victorious) . . 5, 6 Aug. \nMaiieru (Carlists and Republicans : indecisive) 6 Oct. \nAbrakampra (Ashantees defeated) . 5, 6 Nov. \n\nBorborassie (ditto) 29 Jan. \n\nAmoaful (ditto) . 3\' Jan. \n\nBocquah (ditto) 1 Feb. \n\nFommanah (ditto) 2 Feb. ,, \n\nOrdahsa (ditto) 4 Feb. ,, \n\nBefore Bilbao (several days; Carlists retreat ; Concha \n\nenters Bilbao) 2 May, ,, \n\nEstella (sharp conflicts; Carlists retreat; Concha \n\nkilled) 25, 27 June, ,, \n\nIran (Laserna defeats Carlists) . . .10 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nSorota, Peru (Pierota and insurgents defeated) 3 Dec. ,, \nNear Tolosa (Carlists repulse Lorna) . 7, 8 Dec. ,, \nKhokand (Russians under Kaufman defeat the Khan\'s \n\ntroops, &c.) 4. 21 Sept. 1875 \n\nAbyssinians defeat Egyptians . . . . Oct. ,, \nAssake (Khokand chiefs defeated) . . 30 Jan. 1876 \n\nServian war begins 1 July, ,, \n\nSaitschar (severe conflicts ; Servians retreat) 2, 3 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nUrbitza (Montenegrins defeat Turks) . . 28 July, ,, \nTurkish Wars with Servia, and Montenegro, de- \nclared 2 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nZaicar or Saitschar (Turks and Servians, indecisive) \n\n3 July, ,, \nNovi Bazar (Turks said to be victors) . 6 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nUrbitza (Montenegrins victors) . . 28 July, ,, \n\nGurgusovatz (Turks victors) . . . 5-7 Aug. ,, \nMedun (Montenegrins victors) . . 7 or 14 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nMorava valley near Alexinatz (severe conflicts, fa- \n\nvottrable to Turks) . . . 19-27 Aug. ,, \n\nPodgoritza (Montenegrins victors) . . 26 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nAlexinatz (Turks victors), 1, 2, 28, 29 Sept., captured \n\n31 Oct. ,, \nPeace between Turkey and Servia . 1 March, 1877 \n\nRusso-Turkish "War (which see), began . 24 April, ,, \n\nTahir (Turks defeated) . . . .16 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNicopolis (stormed by Russians, severe fights) \n\n15, 16 July, ,, \n\nPlevna (Russians defeated) 19, 20, & 30, 31 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nKurukdara or Kizil Tepe (ditto) . 24, 25 Aug. ,, \n\nValley of Lorn (ditto) .... 22-24 Aug. ,, \nSchipka Pass (dreadful conflicts, Turks under Sirtei- \n\nman repulsed) .... 20-27 Aug. ,, \n\nKarahassankoi, <fec, on the Lorn (severe; Russians \n\nretreat) 30 Aug. ,, \n\nLovatz or Luftcha (takeyi by Russians) . 3 Sept. ,, \nPlevna (held by Osman Pasha, severe conflicts, \n\nRussians defeated) . . . 11, 12 Sept. ,, \n\nSchipka Pass (Suleiman defeated). . 17 Sept. ,, \n\nNear Kars (Russians defeated) . . . 2-4 Oct. ,, \nAladja Dagh, near Kars(Titrfcs under Mukhtar totally \n\ndefeated) 14. I S 0ct - \xc2\xbb \n\nDeve-Boyun, Armenia (Turks under Mukhtar de- \nfeated after $ hours\' fighting) . . 4 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nAzizi, near Erzeroum (Russians defeated) . 9 Nov. ,, \nKars taken by storm by Russians . 17, 18 Nov. ,, \nElena (taken by Turks after sharp conflict) 4 Dec. ,, \nPlevna (Osman Pasha endeaimirs to break out ; \ntotally defeated; surrenders -unconditionally) \n\n9, 10 Dec. ,, \n\nSenova in the Balkans (Turks defeated) 9-10 Jan. 1878 \n\nNear Philippopolis (ditto) . . .14, 15 J ;1 \xc2\xbb- >> \n\nAfohan War (see Afghanistan). \nAli Musjid captured by British . . 22 Nov. 1878 \nPei war Pass ^victory of gen. Roberts) . 2 Dec ,, \nFuttehabad (victory of gen. Gough) . . 2 April, 1879 \nChar-aseab (Afghans defeated) . . . 6 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nSevere lighting near Cabul . Dec. 1879-Apnl, 1880 \nAhmed Khel (Stewart defeats Afglums) 19-23 Ai.nl, ,, \nKuschki-Nakhud or Maiwand (Ayodb Khan defeats \n\nBurrows) 27 July ,, \n\nMazraor Baba Wali (Hoberts totally defeats \n\nKhun) 1 Sept. ., \n\nZulu War fsee Zululand). \nIsandula (British surprised and defeated) 22 Jan. 1879 \n\n\n\nBATUM. \n\n\n\n108 \n\n\n\nBAVARIA. \n\n\n\nRorke\'s Drift (successfully defended by British) 22 Jan. 1879 \nUlundi (Cetewayo totally defeated by lord Chelms- \nford) 4 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nChilian and Peruvian War (see Chili). \nIquique (Chilians defeat Peruvians) . . Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nChoukos and Mirafiores (ditto) . . 17 Jan. 1881 \n\nRUSSIAN WAR. \n\nGeok or Denghli Tepe (Russians and Turkomans, in- \ndecisive) 9 Sept. 1879 \n\nGeok Tepe (besieged by Russians, severe conflicts), 24 \nDec. 1880, 4, 9, 10, Jan., taken . . 24 Jan. 1881 \n\nTransvaal war. \n\nLaing\'s Nek {British defeated) ... 28 Jan. 1881 \n\nIngogo River (ditto) 8 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMajuba Hill (ditto) .... 26 Feb. ,, \n\nWar in Egypt (see Egypt). \n\nBombardment of forts at Alexandria . 11 July 1882 \nTel-el-Mahuta and Masameh (rebels defeated by \n\nBritish) 24, 25 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nKassasin (ditto) . . . 28 Aug. and 9 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTel-el-Kebir (ditto\xe2\x80\x94 decisive) ... 13 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSee Soudan. \n\nRebels in the Soudan defeated by Hicks 29 April, 1883 \nEl Obeid or Kashgal (Hick-sand his army destroyed) \n\n3-5 Nov. ,, \n\nTokar (Egyptians defeated) .... 6 Nov. ,, \nNear Teb, Baker with Egyptians was defeated by \n\nrebels 4 Feb. 1884 \n\nTeb (Graham totally defeats rebels) . . 29 Feb. ,, \nFor Chinese and French war see under China \nand Tonquin. \n\nAbu Klea (Stewart defeats rebels) . . .17 Jan. 1885 \n\nGubat (rebels defeated) .... 19 Jan. ,, \n\nKerkeban (ditto, gen. Earle killed) . . 10 Feb. ,, \n\nHasheen (rebels defeated) . . .20 March ,, \n\nRebel attack near Souakim repulsed 22 March ,, \n\nAk Tapa (Russians defeat Afghans) . 30 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \nChalchuapa(itar/-iosde/<;a\xc2\xa3ed and killed) see America, \n\ncentred 2 April, ,, \n\nFish Creek (Canadians defeat rebels) . 24 April, ,, \n\nBattleford (ditto) .... 3 May, ,, \n\nBatoche (ditto) 9 May, ,, \n\n[See Bulgaria, Burmah, and Soudan.] \nDagoli near Massowah (Italians destroyed in heroic \n\nattack on Abyssinians) . . . 25-26 Jan. 1887 \n(See Abyssinia.) \n\nJelapla Pass (Tibetans defeated) . . 24 Sept. 1888 \nTaskkurgan and Mazari Sherif (Ishak Khan, rebel, \n\ndefeated) 29-30 Sept. ,, \n\nSuakim (defeat of the Arab Dervishes by gen. Grenfell) \n\n20 Dec. ,, \nDervishes repulsed, 19, 29, 30 April ; 2 June ; 4 \n\nJuly 1890 \n\nArguin (Col. Wodehouse defeats Dervishes) . 2 July, ,, \n\nAnabi (Dervishes defeated) ... 31 July, ,, \n\nToski (ditto by gen. Grenfell) . . . 3 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nWitu stormed, see Zanzibar ... 27 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nWounded Knee Creek, see Indians . . 29 Dec. ,, \n\nTokar, Soudan (Osman Digna defeated) . 19 Feb. 1891 \nPlacilla, Chili (Balmaceda defeated by congressists) \n\n28 Aug. ,, \n(For numerous small conflicts and skirmishes, see Franco- \nPrussian War, Herzegovina, Rvsso-Turkish Wars, Spain, \nSumatra, Turkey, United States, Kaffirs, Egypt, Zulu- \nland, Basutoland, Chili, Soudan, Tonquin, Salvador, \nIndia, Manipur, Lagos, Senegal, &c, and for details of \nimportant engagements see separate articles.) \n\nBATUM, see Batoum. \n\nBAUGE, see Anjou. \n\nBAUTZEN, a town in Saxony, near which \ndesperate battles were fought 20,21, and 22 May, \n1813, between the French, commanded by Napoleon, \nand the allies under the emperor of Russia and the \nking of Prussia. The struggle commenced on the \n19th, with a contest on the outposts, which cost \neach army a loss of above 2000 men. On the 20th \n(at Bautzen) the French were more successful ; and \non the 2 1st (at Wurschen) the allies were com- \npelled to retire ; but Napoleon obtained no perma- \nnent advantage. Duroc was killed at Reichenbach \nby a cannon-ball, on 22 May. \n\n\n\nBAVARIA (part of ancient Noricum and Vin- \ndelicia), a kingdom in South Germany, conquered \nfrom the Celtic Gauls (Boii) by the Franks between \n630 and 660. The country was afterwards governed \nby dukes subject to the French monarebs. Tasil- \nlon II. was deposed by Charlemagne, who established \nmargraves in 788. The margrave Leopold, 895, \nfather of Arnulph the Bad, is styled the first duke. \nBavaria made a kingdom from 1 Jan. 1806, was \nmade a constitutional monarchy, 26 May, 18 18. \nIt joined the German empire, 22 Nov. 1870. \nPopulation, 1 Dec. 1871, 4,863,450 ; Dec. 1875, \n5,022,390 ; 1885, 5,420,199 ; 1890, 5,589,382. See \nMunich. \n\nBavaria supports Austria in the contest with \nPrussia June, 1866 \n\nTook part in the war, and made peace with Prussia, \n\n22 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPopulation (after cessions, 1866), 4,824,421 . Dec. 1867 \n\nAn international exhibition in a crystal palace \nopened 20 July, 1869 \n\nThe chambersdissolved, as, through a party struggle, \nno president was elected . . . .6 Oct. ,, \n\nResignation of the ministry, 25 Nov. ; only partially \naccepted by the king .... 9 Dec. ,, \n\nVote of want of confidence in prince Hohenlohe \nthe president, 12 Feb. ; he resigns . 14 Feb. 1870 \n\nThe king announces his intention of joining Prussia \nin the war with France . . about 20 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Bavarian contingent highly distinguishes itself \nin the war ; Otho, duke of Bavaria, killed near \nBeglie 27 Jan. 1873 \n\nPresident of council, and foreign minister, A. de \n\nPfretzschner 22 Aug. ,., \n\n[See Franco-Prussian War.] \n\nThe king, in a letter to the king of Saxony, proposes \nthat the king of Prussia should be made emperor \nof Germany about 5 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDr. Dollinger excommunicated for opposing papal \ninfallibility, 18 April ; elected rector of the uni- \nversity of Munich .... 29 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGovernment protests against papal infallibility (see \nGermany) 27 Sept 1871 \n\n"Old Catholic" church opened at Munich, \n\nend of Sept. ,, \n\nThe king charges Von Gasser to form an Ultramon- \ntane ministry, opposed to German unity, 3 Sept- \nhe fails Sept. 1S72 \n\nQueen dowager, Mary of Prussia, received into the \nCatholic Church 12 Oct. 1874 \n\nNew Ultramontane party ("popular Catholic") \nformed 6 March, 1877 \n\nInternational exhibition at Munich opened 19 July, 1879 \n\nSeventh centenary of foundation of the dynasty \n(Otto of Wittelsbach made duke by Frederick \nBarbarossa) 25 Aug. 1880 \n\nPrince Luitpold proclaimed Regent on account of \nthe king\'s mental illness ... 10 June, 1886 \n\nThe king drowns himself in Starnberg Lake ; Dr. \nGudden drowned in attempting to save him, \n\n13 June, ,, \n\nThe emperor William II. present at the Bavarian \nmilitary manoeuvres near Munich 7 Sept. et seq. 1891 \n\n\n\n1071. Guelf I. , an illustrious warrior. \n\n1101. Guelf II. ; son ; married the countess Matilda, \n\n\n\nHenry the Black ; brother. \n\nHenry the Proud ; son. (He competed with Conract \nof Hohenstaufen for the empire, failed, and was \ndeprived of Bavaria.) \n\nLeopold, margrave of Austria ; d. 1142. \n\nHenry of Austria ; brother ; d. 11 77. \n\nHenry the Lion (son of Henry the Proud), an- \ncestor of the Brunswick family, restored by the \nemperor Frederick Barbarossa, but expelled by \nhim 1 180 ; (see Brunswick); d. 1195. \n\nOtho, count of Wittelsbach, made duke ; d. \n\n\n\n1 142. \n"54- \n\n\n\n1231. \n\n1253- \n\n\n\nLouis ; son. \n\nOtho II., the Illustrious ; son ; gained the palati- \nnate ; assassinated 1231. \nLouis II., the Severe ; son; d. 1294. \n\n\n\nBAVENO. \n\n\n\n109 \n\n\n\nBAZOCHE-DES-HAUTES. \n\n\n\n1294. Louis III. ; son (without tlie palatinate) emperor ; \nd. 1347. \n\n1347. Stephen I. ; son ; d. 1375. \n\n*375- John ; brother ; d. 1397. \n\n1397. Ernest ; brother ; d. 1438. \n\n1438. Albert I. ; son ; d. 1460. \n\n1460. John II. and Sigismund ; sons ; resigned to \n\n1465. Albert II. ; brother ; d. 1508. \n\n1508. William I. ; son; opposed the reformation, 1522; \nd. 1550. \n\n1550. Albert III. ; sou ; d. 1573. \n\n1579. William II. ; son ; abdicated, 1596 ; d. 1626. \n\n1596. Maximilian the Great ; son; the first Elector of \nBavaria, 25 Feb. 1623 ; the palatinate restored, \n1648 ; d. 27 Sept. 1651. \n\n1651. Ferdinand-Mary ; d. 26 May, 1679. \n\nE679. Maximilian Emanuel ; son ; allies with France, \n1702 ; defeated at Blenheim, 1704 ; restored to \nhis dominions, 1714 ; d. 26 Feb. 1726. \n\n1726. Charles Albert ; son ; elected emperor, 1742 ; de- \nfeated, 1744 ; d. 20 Jan. 1745. \n\n1745. Maximilian-Joseph I. ; son ; as elector ; d. 30 Dec. \n1777 ; end of younger line of Wittelsbach. \n\n1778. Charles Theodore (the elector palatine of the Rhine \nsince 1743). The French take Munich ; he treats \nwith them, 1796 ; d. 1799. \n\nE799. Maximilian-Joseph II. ; elector; territories changed \nby treaty of Luneville, 1801 ; enlarged when \nmade king, by treaty of Presburg, Dec. 1805. \n\nKINGS OF BAVARIA. \n\nc8o6. Maximilian-Joseph I. He deserted Napoleon, and \nhad his enlarged territories confirmed to him, \nOct. 18 13 ; grants a constitutional charter, 22 \nAug. 1818 ; d. 13 Oct. 1825. \n\n1825. Louis I., 13 Oct. ; abdicated 21 March, 1848 ;*died \n29 Feb, 1868. \n\nE848. Maximilian-Joseph II. ; son; born 28 Nov. 1811 ; \n\ndied 10 March, 1864. \n1864. Louis II. (son) amiable and eccentric : born 25 \n\nAug. 1845 ; deposed 10 June ; suicide 13 June, \n\n1886. \n1886. Otho William (brother of Louis II.) ; 13 June ; \n\nborn 27 April, 1848 (insane). \nEegent (heir) Prince Luitpold, uncle ; 10 June, 1886. \n\nBAVENO, a village of Piedmont, on the Lago \nMaggiore. At a villa here queen Victoria resided \nfrom 28 March to 23 April, 1879. \n\nBAY ISLANDS (the chief,_ Ruatan), in the \nbay of Honduras, central America, belonged to \nSpain till 1821 ; then to Great Britain, which \nformed them into a colony in 1852, but ceded \nthem to Honduras, 28 Nov. 1859 : see Honduras. \n\nBAYEUX TAPESTRY, mythically said to \nhave been wrought by Matilda, queen of William I., \nor to have been made under the direction of his \nbrother Odo, bishop of Bayeux. It is 19 inches wide, \n214 feet long, and is divided into compartments \nshowing the events from the visit of Harold to the \nNorman court to his death at Hastings ; it is now \npreserved in the public library of Bayeux near Caen. \nA copy, drawn by C. Stothard, and coloured after \nthe original, was published by the Society of \nAntiquaries in 1821-3. It was reproduced by auto- \ntype process by F. K. Fowke, with notes, 1875. \n\nBAYL.EN (S. Spain), where on 20 July, 1808, \nthe French, commanded by generals Dupont and \nWedel, were defeated by the Spaniards under Red\' \ning, Coupigny, and other generals. \n\nBAYONET, the short dagger fixed at the end \nof fire-arms, said to have been invented at Bayonne, \n\n* The abdication of Charles-Louis was mainly caused \nby his attachment to an intriguing woman, known \nthroughout Europe by the assumed name of Lola Montcs, \nwho, in the end, was expelled the kingdom for her inter- \nference in state affairs, and afterwards led a wandering \nlife. She delivered lectures in London, in 1859 : thence \nproceeded to the United States ; and died at New York, \n17 Jan. 1861. \n\n\n\nin France, about 1647, 1670, or 1690. It was used \nat Killiecrankie in 1689, aud at Marsaglia by the \nFrench, in 1693, " with great success, against the \nenemy unprepared for the encounter with so for- \nmidable a novelty." The ring-bayonet was adopted \nby the British, 24 Sept. 1693. \nNew pattern of bayonets adopted in 1876 ; asserted to be \n\ndefective in the Soudan campaign 1884-5. \nStrict examination ordered 1885. See under Arms. \n\nBAYONNE (S. France), an ancient city. It \nwas held by the English from 1295 till it was taken \nby Charles VII. The queens of Spain and France \nmet the cruel duke of Alva here, June, 1556, it \nis supposed to arrange the massacre of St. Bar- \ntholomew. Charles IV. of Spain abdicated here in \nfavour of " his friend and ally " the emperor Napo- \nleon, 4 May, and his sons, Ferdinand prince of \nAsturias, don Carlos, and don Antonio renounced \ntheir rights to the Spanish throne, 6 May, 1808. \nIn the neighbourhood of Bayonne was much des- \nperate fighting between the French and British \narmies, 9-13 Dec. 1813. Bayonne was invested by \nthe British, 14 Jan. 1814; on 14 April, the French \nmade a sally, and attacked the English with suc- \ncess, but were at length driven back. The loss of \nthe British was considerable, and lieut.-gen. sir \nJohn Hope was wounded and taken prisoner. \xe2\x80\x94 A \nFranco-Spanish industrial and fine arts exhibition \nwas opened at Bayonne in July, 1864. \n\nBAYBEUTH (N. Germany), a margraviate, \nheld formerly by a branch of the Brandenburg \nfamily, was with that of Anspach abdicated by the \nreigning prince iu favour of the king of Prussia, \n1790. The archives were brought (in 1783) from \nPlassenburg to the city of Bayreuth, which was \nincorporated with Bavaria by Napoleon in 1806. \n\nBAZAAR, or covered market, a word of Arabic \norigin. The magnificent bazaar of Ispahan was ex- \ncelled by that of Tauris, which has held 30,000 \nmen in order of battle. In London the Soho-square \nbazaar was opened by Mr. Trotter in 1816 to relieve \nthe relatives of persons killed in the war. The \nQueen\'s Bazaar, Oxford-street, a very extensive \none, was (with the Diorama) burnt down, and the \nloss estimated at 50,000^., 27 May, 1829. It was \nrebuilt, and converted into the Princess\'s Theatre, \nopened 30 Sept. 1841. The St. James\'s bazaar (built \nby Mr. Crockford) in 1832. The Pantheon, made a \nbazaar in 1834 ; see Pantheon. The London Crystal- \npalace bazaar, 1858. The most imposing sale termed \na bazaar was opened for the benefit of the Anti- \nCorn-Law League, in Covent-garden theatre, 5 May, \n1845 ; in six weeks 25,000^. were obtained, mostly \nby admission money. The Corinthian bazaar, \nArgyll-street, Oxford-street (to replace the bazaar \nat the Pantheon) opened 30 July, 1867 ; closed in \n1868. \n\nBAZAINE, Marshal, trial, &c, Dec. 1873, \n\nand Aug. 1874. See A\xc2\xa3etz and France. \n\nBAZEILLES, a village in the Ardennes, N.E. \nFrance. During the dreadful battle of Sedan, \nI Sept. 1870, Bazeilles was burnt by the Bavarians, \nand atrocious outrages were said to have been com- \nmitted. Of nearly 2000 inhabitants it was asserted \nscarcely fifty remained alive, and these indignantly \ndenied having given provocation. Much controversy \nensued, and in July, 1871, gen. Von der Tann as- \nserted correctly that the number of deaths had been \ngrossly exaggerated, that there had been much \nprovocation, and denied the alleged cruelties. \n\nBAZOCHE-DES-HAUTES, near Orleans, \ncentral France. Here a part of the army of the \nLoire, under gen. D\'Aurelle de Paladines, was \n\n\n\nBE ACHY HEAD. \n\n\n\nno \n\n\n\nBE AUNE-LA-ROLL ANDE . \n\n\n\ndefeated after a severe action, by the Germans \nunder the grand-duke of Mecklenburg, 2 Dec. 1870. \nSee Orleans. \n\nBEACHY HEAD, a promontory, S. E. Sussex, \nnear which the British and Dutch fleet, commanded \nby the earl of Torrington, was defeated by a supe- \nrior French force under admiral Tburville, 30 June, \n1690 ; the allies suffered very severely. The Dutch \nlost two admirals, 500 men, and several ships- \nsunk to prevent them from falling into the hands \nof the enemy ; the English lost two ships and 400 \nmen. The admirals on both sides were blamed; \nours, for not fighting ; the French for not pursuing \nthe victory, \n\nBEACONS, see Lighthouses, Jubilee, 188". \n\nBEACONSFIELD Administration, see \n\nDisraeli and People\'s Tribute. \n\nBEADS were early used in the east for reckon- \ning prayers. St. Augustin mentions them 366. \nAbout 1690, Peter the Hermit is said to have made \na series of 55 beads. To Dominic de Guzman is \nascribed the invention of the Rosary (a series of \n15 large and 150 small beads), in honour of the \nBlessed Virgin, about 1 202. Beads soon after were \nin general use. The Bead-roll was a list of de- \nceased persons, for the repose of whose souls a \ncertain number of prayers was recited. Beads have \nbeen found in British barrows. \n\nBEAM AND SCALES. The apparatus for \nweighing goods was so called, "as it weighs so \nmuch at the king\'s beam." A public beam was set \nup in London, and all commodities ordered to be \nweighed by the city officer, called the weigh- \nmaster, who was to do justice between buyer and \nseller, stat. 3 Edw. II. 1309. Stow. Beams and \nscales, with weights and measures, were ordered to \nbe examined by the justices at quarter sessions, \n35 Geo. III. 1794 ; see Weights and Measures. \n\nBEANS, Black and White, were used by \n\nthe ancients in gathering the votes of the people for \nthe election of magistrates. A white bean signified \nabsolution, and a black one condemnation. The \nprecept of Pythagoras to abstain from beans, abstine \na fabis, has been variously interpreted. " Beans \ndo not favour mental tranquillity." Cicero. The \nfiner kinds of beans were brought here with other \nvegetables, in Henry VIII.\' s reign. \n\nBEAR-BAITING, an ancient popular English \nsport, prohibited by parliament in 1835. \n\nBEARDS.* The Egyptians did not wear \nbeards ; the Assyrians did. They have been worn \nfor centuries by the Jews, who were forbidden to \nmar their beards, 1490 B.C. Lev. xix. 27. The \nTartars waged a long war with the Persians, de- \nclaring them infidels, because they would not cut \ntheir beards, after the custom of Tartary. The \nGreeks wore their beards till the time of Alexander, \nwho ordered the Macedonians to be shaved, lest \nthe beard should give a handle to their enemies, \n\n* A bearded woman was taken by the Russians at the \nbattle of Pultowa, and presented to the Czar, Peter I., \n1724 : her beard measured ii yard. A woman is said to \nhave been seen at Paris with a bushy beard, and her \nwhole body covered with hair. Diet. de. Trivoux. The \ngreat Margaret, governess of the Netherlands, had a very \nlon<* stiff beard. In Bavaria, in the time of Wolfms, a \nVirgin had a long black beard. Mdlle. Bois de Chene, \nborn at Geneva (it was said) in 1834, was exhibited in \nLondon, in 1852-3, when, consequently, eighteen years \nof age ; she had a profuse head of hair, a strong black \nbeard large whiskers, and thick hair on her arms and \ndown \'from her neck on her back, and masculine features. \n\n\n\n330 B.C. Beards were worn by the "Romans, 390 B.C. \nThe emperor Julian wrote a diatribe (entitled \n" Misopogon ") against wearing beards, a.d. 362. \xe2\x80\x94 \nIn England, they were not fashionable after the \nconquest, 1066, until the 13th century, and were \ndiscontinued at the Restoration. Peter the Great \nenjoined the Russians, even of rank, to shave, but \nwas obliged to keep officers on foot to cut off the \nbeard by force. Since 1851 the custom of wearing \nthe beard gradually increased in Great Britain. \n\nBEARN, S. France, the ancient Benecharnum, \nwas held successively by the Romans, Franks, Goths, \nand Gascons, and became a hereditary viscounty in \n819, under Centule I., son of Loup, duke of Gas- \ncony. From his family it passed to the houses \xe2\x80\x94 of \nGabaret, 1134; of Moncade, 1170; of Foix, 1290; \nand of Bourbon, 1550. Its annexation to France \nwas decreed by Henry IV., 1594 ; affirmed by Louis \nXIII., 1620. \n\nBEARS and BULLS, see Stocks. \nBEATJGE, seeAnjou. \n\nBEAULIETJ, ABBEY OF, (reformed Bene- \ndictines) founded by Icing John, in the New Forest, \nHampshire, in 1204, and dedicated to the Blessed \nVirgin, had the privilege of sanctuary. It afforded \nan asylum to Margaret, queen of Henry VI., after \nthe defeat of the earl of "Warwick at Barnet, \n14 April, 147 1 ; and to Perkin Warbeck, Sept. \n1497- \n\nBEAUMONT, a village near Sedan, depart- \nment of Ardennes, N.E. France. Near here a part \nof the army of marshal MacMahon under De Failly, \nwhich, after vainly endeavouring to reach Metz, \nwas retreating before the Germans under the crown \nprince of Prussia, was surprised, defeated, and \ndriven across the Meuse at Mouzon, 30 Aug. 1870. \nThe French loss included about 7000 prisoners, \nmany guns, and much camp equipage. The victory \nwas chiefly gained by the Bavarians. \n\nBEAUMONT TRUST. Mr. John Thomas \nBarber Beaumont, artist, financier, founder of the \nLondon and County Fire Office (born 1774, died \n1840), bequeathed 12,500^. to establish an institu- \ntion for the moral and intellectual improvement of \nthe working classes of east London, which was \nopened in Beaumont Square, Mile End. \nBy the munificence of the Drapers\' Company, the Royal \nFamily, the duke of Westminster, and many others, \nthe fund in June, 1S86 amounted to 75,0002. The \ntrustees proposed the erection of a "People\'s Palace," \nto include a public library and reading rooms, technical \nschools, summer and winter gardens, a concert hall, \nswimming baths and gymnasia. The Queen is patron of \nthe undertaking, which is partly supported by sub- \nscription. \nThe foundation stone of the "Queen\'s Hall" was laid \nby the prince of\'Wales 28 June, 1886; opened by the \nQueen (who also laid the foundation of the Technical \nschools) 14 May, 1887 ; Mr. John Rogers Jennings, \nMaster of the Drapers\' Company, knighted. \nThe undertaking greatly supported by Sir Edmund \n\nCurrie, and Mr. Walter Besant (novelist). \nExhibition of East London Industries opened in the \n\nQueen\'s Hall by Lady Rosebery 24 May, 1887. \nQueen\'s Jubilee ; 10,000 girls and 10,000 boys enter- \ntained by the Drapers\' Company 23, 24 June, 1887. \nEducational classes, &c, open 3 Oct. 1887. In Oct. 1888, \n\nthe Institution was reported to be highly successful. \nNew Technical School opened 5 Oct. 1888. \nThe palace opened on Sundays for reading and sacred \nmusic, 1889. About 3,000 persons attended 2 Oct. 1889. \n\nBEAUNE-LA-ROLLANDE, a village in \nthe Loiret, France. Here the French army of the \nLoire, under general D\'Aurelle de Paladines, was \ndefeated by the Germans, under prince Frederick \nCharles, in an attempt to march in the direction of \n\n\n\nBEAUTY SHOW. \n\n\n\nIll \n\n\n\nBEEF STEAKS. \n\n\n\nFontainebleau to relieve Paris, 28 Nov. 1870. The \nFrench loss was reported by the Germans to be \nIOOO dead, 4000 wounded; above 1 700 prisoners. \nTheir own loss was heavy. \n\nBEAUTY SHOW opened at Spa, Belgium, \n19 Sept. 1888. Of 350 candidates for the prize of \n10,000 francs who sent in their photographs, many \nwere excluded from competition, only 20 ladies were \npresent on the opening day, representing many \ncountries. M. Emile d\'Hainault, the director, pro- \nposed annual competitions. The first prize to \nMdlle. Berthe Soucaret, a Creole of Guadeloupe, \naged 18, 29 Sept. 1888. Another show at Turin, 2b \nJan. 1889 ; and other places since. \n\nBEAUVAIS (N. France), the ancient Bello- \nvacum, or Caesaroniagus, formerly capital of Picardy. \nWhen besieged by Charles the Bold, duke of Bur- \ngundy, with 80,000 men, the women under Jeanne \nFourquet or Laine, also de la Hachette, from her \nusing that weapon, particularly distinguished them- \nselves, and the duke raised the siege, 10 July, 1472. \nIn memory of this the women of Beauvais walk first \nin the procession on the anniversary of their \ndeliverance. \n\nBECHUANA LAND, South Africa, a large \nBritish colony (1885), see Transvaal. \nThe Bechuanas invade Griqualand West, and are \nrepulsed, and part of their territory subdued by \n\nBritish volunteers 1878 \n\nMr. Mackenzie appointed British resident, 13 \n\nMarch ; compelled to resign by the Dutch party, \n\nreplaced by Mr. Rhodes . . . Aug. 1884 \n\nSir Charles Warren made special commissioner Oct. ,, \n\nThe Boer filibusters seize and annex the territory \n\nof Montsioa, under British protection ; compelled \n\nto retire Sept., Oct. ,, \n\nMilitary expedition against Dutch freebooters Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n(Stellaland and Goshen republics) who accept allot- \nments of land, announced, 27 Nov. ; this policy of \nthe Cape Government strongly disapproved by \n\ncolony Dec. ,, \n\nSir Charles Warren meets president Kriiger, 24 Jan. \n\nand comes to an agreement . . -29 Jan. 1885 \nMilitary government established by sir C. Warren, \n\nannounced 24 Feb. ,, \n\nArrest of Mr. Van Niekirk, president of Stellaland \nrepublic, and others, on charge of murder of Mr. \nHoney, an Englishman, in 1S83. Announced 24" \nMarch, 1885 ; released about 27 May. Sir C. \nWarren thanks the volunteers . . . 8 July, ,, \nJudge Sheppard nominated administrator ; sir C. \n\nWarren after great success recalled . . Aug. , , \nBechuanaland proclaimed British territory 8 Oct. ,, \nA proposal to annex it to Cape Colony was opposed \nand negatived Autumn 1888 \n\nBECKET\'S MURDER.* Thomas Becket, \narchbishop of Canterbury, was murdered at the \naltar, 29 Dec. 11 70. The king was absolved of \nguilty knowledge of the crime in 1 172, and did \npenance at the tomb in 1 174. The bones of Becket \nwere enshrined in gold and jewels in 1220. They \nwere ordered to be burned in the reign of Henry \nVIII. 24 April, 1538. A stone coffin, supposed by \nsome persons to contain Becket\' s bones (?), dis- \n\n\n\n* Thomas Becket was bom in 11 19. His father Gilbert \nwas a London trader, and his mother is stated to have \nbeen a convert from Mahomedanism. He was educated \nat Oxford, and made archdeacon by Theobald, archbishop \nof Canterbury, who introduced him to the king, Henry II. \nHe became chancellor in 1155, but on being elected arch- \nbishop of Canterbury in 1162, he resigned the chancellor- \nship, to the great offence of the king. He opposed \nstrenuously the constitutions of Clarendon in 1164, and \nfied the country ; and in 1166, excommunicated all the \nclergy who agreed to abide by them. He and the king \nmet at Fretville, in Touraine, on 22 July, 1170, and were \nformally reconciled. On his return he re-commenced \nhis struggle with the king, which led to his tragical \ndeath, after which he was canonized. \n\n\n\ncovered in a crypt at Canterbury Cathedral, Jan. \n1888. The Merchant Adventurers were at one time \ntermed " the Brotherhood of St. Thomas a \nBecket." A Roman catholic church at Canter- \nbury, dedicated to him, was opened by cardinal \nManning, 13 April, 1875. \n\nBECKETT-DENISON ART COLLEC- \nTION, (including much of the Hamilton Collec- \ntion) sold for 92,231/., 6 June\xe2\x80\x94 15 July, 1S85. Mr- \nWilliam Beckett-Denison, brother of sir Edmund \nBeckett, died suddenly in Ireland 1884. \n\nBECKFOKD, see under Libraries. \n\nBED. The ancients slept on skins. Beds were \nafterwards made of loose rushes, heather, or straw. \nThe Romans are said to have first used feathers. \nAn air-cushion is said to have been used by Helio- \ngabalus, 218-222; air-beds were in use in the 16th \ncentury. Feather-beds were in use in England ira \nthe reign of Henry VIII. The bedsteads of the \nEgyptians and later Greeks, like modern couches, \nbecame common among the Roman upper classes. \nThe ancient great bed at Ware, Herts, capable of hold- \ning twelve persons, was sold, it is said, to Charles \nDickens, 6 Sept. 1864. \nA bedstead of gold was presented to the queen on 2 Nov. \n\n1859, by the Maharajah of Cashmere. \nAir-beds and water-beds have been made since the manu- \nfacture of india-rubber cloth by Clark in 1813 ; and by \nMacintosh in 1823. \nDr. Arnott\'s hydrostatic bed invented in 1830. \n\nBED OF JUSTICE, a French court presided \nover by the king, whose seat was termed a "bed."\' \nIt controlled the ordinances of the parliament. \nThe last was held by Louis XVI. at Versailles, \n19 Nov. 1787, to raise a loan. \n\nBEDER (Arabia) . Here Mahomet gained his \nfirst victory (over the Koreish of Mecca), 623. It \nwas considered to be miraculous. \n\nBEDFORD, a town, N.N.W. of London, re- \nnowned for its many free educational establish- \nments, endowed in 1561 by sir \xc2\xa5m. Harpur, a \nLondon alderman. Here John Bunyan preached, \nwas imprisoned, and wrote "The Pilgrim\'s Pro- \ngress." Population 1881, 19,533 ; 1891,28,023. \nA statue of Bunyan, the gift of the duke of Bedford, \nwas uncovered here, 10 June, 1874. Bronze gates for \nthe Bunyan church, given by the duke, were inaugu- \nrated by him 5 July, 1876. New extensive building of \nthe grammar school opened by the duke of Bedford. \n29 Oct. 1891. \n\nBEDFORD LEVEL, a portion of the great \nfen districts in the eastern counties, drained in the \nearly part of the 17th century by the earl of Bed- \nford, aided by the celebrated Dutch engineer, sir \nCornelius Vermuydcn, amid great opposition ; see \nLevels. \n\nBEDLAM, see Bethlehem. \n\nBEDOUINS, wandering tribes of Arabs, living \non the plunder of travellers, &c. They profess a \nform of Mahomedanism, and are governed by \nsheikhs. They are said to be descendants of Ish- \nmael, and appear to fulfil the prophecy respecting \nhim, Gen. xvi. 12, 1911 B.C. \n\nBEEF-EATERS, see Battle-axe. \n\n"BEEF STEAKS, the Sublime Society of," \nwas established in 1735 by Rich, an actor at Covent \nGarden Theatre, in the painting-room of which the \nmembers dined upon beef-steaks. The society \nbecame fashionable, and long included among its. \nmembers the prince of Wales, royal dukes, and \nother eminent persons, who submitted to its some- \nwhat ludicrous regulations. It became extinct in \n\n\n\nBEER. \n\n\n\n112 \n\n\n\nBEHRINGS STRAIT. \n\n\n\nE867, its last place of meeting being a room in the \nLyceum theatre. Its history was published by \nBrother Arnold in 1871. \n\nBEER, see Ale, Brewers, Porter, Victuallers. \nCondensed beer patented by P. E. Lockwood, 1875. \nCondensed wort patented by Hermann Mertens, of \nMargate, in 1853. .Beer and ale exported from the \nUnited Kingdom: 1876, 484,919 "barrels; 1880, \n412,192; 1884, 437,241; 1888, 447,940; 1890, \n503,221. \n\nBEER-HOUSES. Law respecting (11 Geo. \nIV. and 1 Will. IV., c. 64, 1830), &c, amended in \n1869. \n\nBEES. Mount Hybla, on account of its odori- \nferous flowers, thyme, and abundance of honey, has \nbeen poetically called the "empire of bees." Hy- \nanettus, in Attica, was also famous for its bees and \nhoney. The economy of bees was admired in the \n\xe2\x96\xa0earliest ages ; and Eumelus, of Corinth, wrote a \npoem on bees, 741 B.C. Bees were introduced \ninto Boston, New England, in 1670, and have \nsince spread over the continent. Mandeville\'s \nsatirical " Fable of the Bees " appeared in 1723. \nHuber published his observations on bees in 1792. \nThe Apiarian Society had an establishment at Mus- \nwell Hill, near London (1860-2). The Ligurian \nvariety of the honey-bee was successfully introduced \ninto England in i860. \nA British Beekeepers\' Association founded 16 May (sir \n\nJohn Lubbock became first president) ; first exhibition, \n\nin Crystal Palace, 8 Sept. 1874 \'\xe2\x80\xa2 a * other places since. \nSpelling bees, of American origin, introduced into London \n\nin autumn of 1875 ; first at Holloway. Geographical, \n\nmusical, and other bees began early in 1876. \nMr. F. R. Cheshire\'s " Bees and Beekeeping " published \n\nin 1886-8. \n\nBEES\', ST., Cumberland. A monastery was \nfounded here by St. Bega, 650 ; a grammar school \nby abp. Grindal, 1583 ; a clerical training college \nby bp. Law, 1817. \n\nBEET-ROOT is of recent cultivation in Eng- \nland. Beta vulgaris, red beet, is used for the table \nas a salad. Margraff first produced sugar from the \nwhite beet-root in 1747. M. Achard produced ex- \ncellent sugar from it in 1799 ; and the chemists of \nFrance, at the instance of Bonaparte, largely ex- \ntracted sugar from the beet-root in 1800. 60,000 \ntons of sugar, about half the consumption, are now \nmanufactured in France from beet. It is also \nlargely manufactured in other countries. A refinery \nof sugar from beet-root has been erected at the \nThames bank, Chelsea. The cultivation of beet- \nroot in England and Ireland much advocated, 1871, \nand again, in 1884, when great improvements were \nproposed, especially at Lavenham, Suffolk, by \nMessrs. Bolton, of Westminster. \n\nBEGGARS were tolerated in ancient times, \nbeing often musicians and ballad-singers. In 1388, \ni S3 \' 1535, 1547-50 severe laws were passed \n.against them. By 14 Eliz., c. 5, 1:72, sturdy \nbeggars were ordered to be " grievously whipped \nand burnt through the right ear;" pnnished capi- \ntally for the third offence, acts consolidated 1731. \nBy the Vagrant Act (1824), 5 Geo. IV. c. 83, all \npublic beggars are liable to a month\'s imprisonment. \nAbout 30,000 tramps in England and Wales. Judi- \ncial Statistics, 1865. See Poor Laws, Mendicity \n\xe2\x96\xa0Society, and Vagrants. The " Beggar\'s Opera," \nby John Gay, a satire against the government of \nsir Robert Walpole, was produced at the Lincoln\' s- \ninn -fields theatre, 29 Jan. 1727-8, and had a run of \n63 nights ; see Gueux. \n\nBEGUTNES, a congregation of nuns first \nestablished at Liege, and afterwards at Nivelle, in \n\n\n\n1207, some say 1226. The "Grand Beguinage " \nof Bruges was the most extensive. Some of these \nnuns imagined that they could become sinless. The \ncouncil of Vienne condemned this error, and \nabolished a branch of the order in 13 1 1. They still \nexist in Germany and Belgium, acting as nurses to \nthe sick and wounded, &c. \n\nBEHEADING, the Decollatio of the Romans, \nintroduced into England from Normandy (as a less \nignominious mode of putting high criminals to \ndeath), by William the Conqueror, 1076, when \nWaltheof, earl of Huntingdon, Northampton, and \nNorthumberland, was first so executed. Since then \nthis mode of execution became frequent, particu- \nlarly in the reigns of Henry VIII., Mary, and \nElizabeth, when even women of the noblest blood \nthus perished ; the aged countess of Salisbury, 27 \nMay, 1541 ; lady Jane Grey, 12 Feb. 1554. \n\nBEHISTUN, in Persia. At this place is a \nrock containing important inscriptions in three \nlanguages, in cuneiform (or wedge-shaped) cha- \nracters, which were deciphered and translated by sir \nH. Rawlinson in 1844-6, and published in the Jour- \nnal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Each paragraph \ncommences with "I am Darius the Great King." \n\nBEHRINGS STRAIT, discovered by captain \nVitus Behring, a Danish navigator in the service of \nRussia. He thus proved that the continents of \nAsia and America are distant from each other about \nthirty-nine miles, 1728. He died at Behring\'s \nisland in 1 74 1. In 1778 captain James Cook sur- \nveyed the coasts of both continents. See United \nStates, 1889-91. \n\nThe czar Alexander I., in 1821, declared the Behring \nseas closed to foreign fishing ; this was at once repu- \ndiated by Mr. J. Quincy Adams, secretary of the \nUnited States. Alaska was purchased in 1867 from \nRussia, by the States, who afterwards assumed the \nRussian claim upon the seas, and seized the British \nColumbia\'s sealing vessels. The seizure of the Black \nDiamond sealer by the U.S. revenue cutter Rush, 3 \nJuly, was declared legal by Mr. Secretary Blaine, \nU.S., 1 Aug. 1889; while the British government \nclaimed, as heretofore, the right of fishing in waters \nbeyond the territorial limits. The governments agreed \nto refer the question to arbitration, Feb. 1890. Presi- \ndent Harrison proclaimed the Behring sea closed to \nunlicensed seal fishing, 25 March. A Blue Book was \npublished, 15 Aug., containing the correspondence \nbetween the two governments from 1 Sept. 1886, to \n2 Aug. 1890. The marquis of Salisbury demanded \nthat, pending arbitration, British sealing vessels \nshould not be molested, adding that if so, they \nshould be protected, 2 Aug. 1890. \n\nNegotiations resumed, arbitration refused by Mr. \nBlaine end of Oct. 1890 \n\nCorrespondence referred to the U.S. congress, \n\n5 Jan. 1 89 1 \n\nThe owner of the British" sealing schooner, W. P. \nSayward (which was seized and condemned in \n1887), supported by the Canadian government, \nbrings the Behring sea difficulty before the U.S. \nSupreme Court at Washington, 12 Jan., case \nopens, 27 Jan. ; the court decides to hear the \nappeal on .... 13 Api\'il , 2 Feb. ,, \n[The case decided in favour of the United States, \n29 Feb. 1892.] \n\nFurther correspondence ; Lord Salisbury consents \nto the proposal to refer the matter to arbitration, \n\n21 Feb. ,, \n\nLetter from Mr. Blaine to Sir Julian Pauncefote, \nspecifying six points for arbitration. 14 April ,, \n\nA modus vivendi respecting the seal fishery agreed \non by Great Britain and the United States \n\n15 June ,, \n\nCatching of seals by British ships prohibited from \n24 June, 1891, to 1 May, 1892, London Gazette, \n\n24 June \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nBELFAST. \n\n\n\n113 \n\n\n\nBELGIUM. \n\n\n\nSir George Baden-Powell and Dr. G. M. Dawson, \ncommissioners respecting the seal-fishery, arrive \nat British Columbia. 15 July ; interviews with \nsealers, 16 July ; arrive at Ounalaska Island \n\n25 July 1891 \n\nThe Behring Sea blocked by 3 American and 3 \nBritish warships, announced . . 27 July ,, \n\nBehring Sea commission meets at Washington, 8 \nFeb. ; sign their report ... 4 March 1892 \n\nThe Governments agree to refer the question to \narbitration ; arbiters to be appointed by Italy, \nPrance, and Sweden Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe arbitration treaty signed at Washington, 29 \nFeb. ; ratified by the senate . . 29 March ,, \n\nMr. Blaine, after requiring the renewal of the \nmodus vivendi, accepts the arrangements pro- \nposed by Lord Salisbury . . 28 March ,, \n\nNew modus vivendi (to last till 31 Oct. 1893) ratified \n\n19 April and 4 May, ,, \n\nBELFAST, capital of Ulster, N. Ireland. Its \ncastle, supposed to have been built by John de \nCourey, was destroyed by the Scots under Edward \nBruce, 1315 ; see Orange. Belfast returns four \nM.P.\'s by Act passed 25 June, 1885. Population, \n1821,37,117; 185 1, about 100,000; 1881, 208,122; \n1891, 255,896. \n\nBelfast granted by James I. to sir Arthur Chichester, \nlord deputy, 1612 ; and erected into a corpo- \nration 1613 \n\nThe long bridge (21 arches, 2562 feet long) built . 1682-6 \nThe first edition of the Bible in Ireland, printed here 1704 \n\nThe castle burnt 4 April, 1708 \n\nThe bank built 1787 \n\nThe mechanics\' institute established . . . 1825 \nThe Queen\'s bridge (5 arches) built on site of the \n\nlong bridge 1841 \n\nOf three colleges established in Ireland in 1845, one \ninaugurated in Belfast (see Colleges) . . Oct. 1849 \n\nVictoria Channel opened ,, \n\nBritish Association met here ..... 1852 \nMuch rioting at Belfast through Mr. Hanna\'s open- \nair preaching July \xe2\x80\x94 Sept. 1857 \n\n"Victoria chambers" burnt down; the loss esti- \nmated at ioo.oooZ 1 July, 1859 \n\nExciting religious revivals . . . Sept. ,, \n\nFierce conflicts between Roman Catholics and Pro- \ntestants on account of the foundation of the \nO\'Connell monument at Dublin \xe2\x80\x94 9 lives lost and \n150 persons injured .... 10-27 Aug. 1864 \n\nRioting again 30 April, 1865 \n\nVisit of the lord lieutenant the marquis of Abercorn \n\n2-4 Oct. 1867 \nSevere rioting ; much destruction of property and \nmany persons injured. Civil war raging between \nCatholics and Protestants, 15-21 Aug. Peace re- \nstored 22 Aug. 1872 \n\nBritish Association here (2nd time) . 19 Aug. 1874 \nEnd of strike of linen manufacturers . 26 Aug. ,, \nRiots at W. Belfast between Catholic and Protestant \nworkmen, with loss of life ; suppressed by the \nmilitary and police 3-13 June ; more rioting ; the \ntown proclaimed 21 July ; violent conflicts be- \ntween the mobs and the military and police, 11 \nkilled many wounded ; order restored by addi- \ntional military . . .9 Aug. et seq. 1886 \nRenewed rioting suppressed . . 14, 15 Aug. ,, \nQuietness reported 18 Aug. ; occasional rioting \n\n1 Sept. el seq. ,, \nPart of Albert Bridge falls with loss of life 15 Sept. ,, \nRioting (2 deaths) 19-20 Sept. 26 Sept. and 29 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nA commission to inquire into the riots began to sit \n\n4 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nReport published ; Protestant attacks on the police \xe2\x96\xa0\xe2\x80\x9e \n\nweak magisterial action referred to about 25 Jan. 1887 \nRenewed rioting ; the police compelled to fire ; \n\nabout 50 arrests 29-30 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPrince Albert Victor of Wales opens the new \nAlexandra docks 20 May, and lays the founda- \ntion of Albert bridge .... 22 May 1889 \nVictoria channel extension opened for traffic \n\n7 July 1891 \nThe mayor ordered to be styled " lord " . May, 1892 \nMeeting of Ulster Convention (which see) against \nHome Rule [ 17 June ,, \n\n\n\nBELFOKT, or BEFOBT, a fortified town in \nAlsace, E. France, was invested by the Germans 3 \nNov. 1870; capitulated 16 Feb. 1871 ; reserved to \nFrance when Aisace was ceded 26 Feb. ; quitted by \nthe Germans Aug. 1873. \n\nBELGIUM, the southern portion of the Nether- \nlands, and anciently the territory of the Belgse, who \nwere finally conquered by Julius Caesar, 51 B.C. Its \nsize is about one-eighth of Great Britain. Its \ngovernment is a libenil constitutional monarchy, \nfounded in 1831. For previous history, see Flanders, \nNetherlands, and Holland. The population (31 Dec.) \n1862, 4,836,566; 1865, 4,984,451 ; 1866, 4,829,320 ; \n1870,5,087,105; 1879,5,536,146; 1887, 5,974,743! \n1890, 6,147,041. \n\nThe revolution commences at Brussels 25 Aug. 1830 \n\nThe provisional government declares Belgium inde- \npendent (M. Van de Weyer, active) . 4 Oct. ,, \nAntwerp taken (except the citadel) . . 23 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nBelgian independence acknowledged by the allied \n\npowers 26 Dec. ,, \n\nDue de Nemours elected king (his father, the \n\nFrench king, refused his consent) . 3 Feb. 1831 \nSurlet de Chokier is elected regent . . 24 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nLeopold, prince of Saxe-Coburg, accepted the \n\ncrown, 12 July ; enters Brussels . 19 July, ,, \nWar with the Netherlands commences . 3 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nFrance sends 50,000 troops to assist Belgium, and \n\nan armistice ensues ..... Aug. ,, \nConference of ministers of the five great powers held \n\nin London : acceptance of 24articles of pacification \n\n15 Nov. ,, \nConvention between England and France against \n\nHolland 22 Oct. 1832 \n\nAntwerp besieged, 30 Nov. ; the citadel taken by the \n\nFrench 23 Dec. ,, \n\nThe French army returns to France . . 27 Dec. ,, \nPreliminary convention with Holland signed 21 May 1833 \nRiot at Brussels (see Brussels) ... 6 April, 1834 \nTreaty* between Holland and Belgium signed in \n\nLondon 19 April, 1839 \n\nClerical education bill passed 1842 \n\nQueen of England visits Belgium . . . Aug. 1852 \nThe king and his son visit England . . Oct. ,, \nIncrease of army to 100,000 men voted . 10 May, 1853 \nOpposition to religious charities\' bill + . June, 1857 \nA new ministry under M. Charles Rogier 9 Nov. \nThe chambers dissolved ; re-assembled . 10 Dec. ,, \nThe king proclaims Belgium neutral in the Italian \n\nwar May, 1859 \n\nBirth of prince Leopold Ferdinand . 12 June, ,, \n\nDeath of M. Potter 22 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe king visits England June, i860 \n\nVague rumours of annexation to France produce \n\nwarm loyal addresses to the king . .13 June, ,, \nThe octrois abolished . 21 July, ,, \n\nSuccessful military volunteer movement . Aug ,, \nCommercial treaty with France signed . . 1 May, 1861 \nContinued illness of the king, with occasional \n\namendment . . . . . May, June, 1862 \nCommercial treaty with Great Britain adopted by \n\nthe chamber. . 22 Aug. ,, \n\nGreat distress through decay of trade . Aug. ,, \nFierce dissensions through Roman Catholics, Jan. ; \n\nthe ministry resigns, but resumes office, 4 Feb. ; \n\ndissolution of the chambers, 17 July; the Pro- \ntestants superior in the election . . . Aug. 1864 \n\nDeath of Leopold 1 10 Dec. 1865 \n\nThe new king and queen visit England, 5 July ; and \n\nGhent and other Belgian cities . . . July, 1866 \nNational rifle meeting (tir) . . 12-16 Oct. ,, \n\n* This treaty arose out of the conference held in London \non the Belgian question ; by the decision of which, the \ntreaty of 15 Nov. 1831, was maintained, and the pecu- \nniary compensation of sixty millions of francs offered bj \nBelgium for the territories adjudged to Holland was \ndeclared inadmissible. \n\n1- At the revolution in 1830, the Roman Catholic clergy \nlost the administration of the public 1 charities, which \nthey have struggled to recover ever since. In April, \n1857, M. Decker, the head of tin\' ministry, brought in a \nbill for this purpose, but was compelled to withdraw it, \nand eventually to resign. \n\n\n\nBELGIUM. \n\n\n\n114 \n\n\n\nBELGIUM. \n\n\n\nMr. Phillips, lord mayor of London, and noo English \nvolunteers visit Belgium under col. Loyd Lind- \nsay ; other foreigners attend ; grand banquet given \nby the king at Brussels . . . .20 Oct. 1866 \n\nOpening of the chambers, with a re-assuring speech \nfrom the king 13 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nViolent rioting in mining districts (Marchienne-au- \nPont) on account of reduction in wages ; sup- \npressed by the military . . . 1-2 Feb. 1867 \n\nAbout 2400 Belgians (of the garde civique and volun- \nteers) visit England ; arrive, 10 July ; received by \nlord mayor, 12 July ; by prince of Wales at Wim- \nbledon, 13 July ; dine at Windsor, 16 July ; at a \nball at Agricultural Hall, 18 July; received by \nMiss Burdett-Coutts, 19 July ; attend the review \nat Wimbledon, 20 July ; leave London 22 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNew ministry (under M. Frere-Orban) ; liberal ; \n\n3 Jan. 1868 \n\nSerious riots in the mining districts ; put down by \nthe military ; 10 lives lost . . 25-29 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMonument to Charlemagne at Liege, inaugurated \n\n26 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nInternational congress of workmen at Brussels \n\n6-13 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe crown prince Leopold Ferdinand, duke of Bra- \nbant, died . ... . . 22 Jan. 1869 \n\nConcession of a Luxembourg railway to a French \nrailway company, without the assent of the state, \nprohibited by the assembly, 13 Feb. ; dispute with \nthe French government arranged . . May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nInternational rifle meeting held at Liege 19 Sept. ,, \n\nResignation of Frere-Orban ministry, about 19 June, 1870 \n\nM. dAnethan\'s ministry announced . 3 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nWarm gratitude to Great Britain expressed by the \nking and people . . - . . 8 Aug. ,, \n\nTreaty for the neutrality of Belgium between Great \nBritain and Prussia, signed 9 Aug. ; and France, \nsigned 11 Aug. ,, \n\nAfter surrender of Sedan many French soldiers enter \nBelgium ; disarmed and interned . 1-2 Sept. ,, \n\nStrong opposition to the ministry by M. Barra and \nothers ; riots at Brussels . . . 22-25 Nov. ,, \n\nResignation of DAnethan ; M. Malou (a moderate) \nforms a ministry 7 Dec. 1871 \n\nThe comte de Chambord arrives at Antwerp, \n17 Feb. ; compelled to quit Belgium through popu- \nlar demonstrations 27 Feb. 1872 \n\nThe French government denounce the treaty of \ncommerce with Belgium . . .29 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTreaty of commerce with France signed . 5 Feb. 1873 \n\nThe czar at Brussels . . . . 22 May, ,, \n\nM. Van de Weyer, statesman ; active during the \nrevolution of 1830 ; ambassador to England 1831- \n67 ; died 23 May, \n\nInternational conference at Brussels respecting \nrights of neutrals during war \xe2\x80\x94 no results, \n\n27 July-28 Aug. \n\nNotes from the German government, complaining \nof publications favouring the censured German \necclesiastics, Feb. ; respecting the Duchesne\'s \nproposal to the archbishop of Paris to assassi- \nnate Bismarck ... . .15 April, \n\nDignified Belgian replies . . March and May, \n\nThe court at Liege cannot interfere, May ; modi- \nfication of the criminal law proposed . June, \n\nMuch popular opposition to religious processions : \nriots May, June, \n\nThe king visits England . . . .29 May, \n\nCatholic successes in the elections ; riots against \nthem at Brussels and Antwerp about 16, 17 June, \n\nStatue of Van de Weyer, at Louvain, inaugurated \nby the king x Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nInternational congress respecting hygiene, &c, \n\nheld at Brussels . . . 27 Sept.\xe2\x80\x94 2 Oct! ,, \nCatholic minority in elections ; the Malou ministry \nresign, 13, 14 June, M. Frere-Orban forms a \n\nliberal ministry 20 June, 1878 \n\nGigantic weir for water-distribution at La Gileppe, \nnear Venders, inaugurated by the king, 28 July\' \n\nThe king\'s silver wedding enthusiastically cele- \nbrated . ..... 22-25 Aug. ,, \n\nEugene T\'Kindt de Rooden Veke, a clerk, convicted \nof embezzlement of 20,000,000 francs of the Bank \nof Belgium (149 thefts) ; the governor Fortamps, \nof fraudulently repurchasing shares, &c. 3 Dec. ,, \n\nThe king sanctions the new law of public instruc- \ntion i July, 1879 \n\n\n\n1874 \n\n\n\n187S \n\n\n\n1876 \n\n\n\nPastoral of the R. C. hierarchy against the govern- \nment plan of mixed education (sacraments to be \nrefused to teachers and parents, &c.) published \nin Germany Sept. \n\nArchduke Rodolph of Austria betrothed to the \nprincess Stephanie .... March, \n\nPermanent international exhibition opened at \nBrussels 1 June, \n\nElections for parliament ; severe struggle between \nliberals and clerical party respecting education ; \nliberals retain moderate majority . . June, \n\nNational exhibition at Brussels opened by the king \nand queen "\\ \xe2\x96\xa0 16 June, \n\nRepresentative at the Vatican recalled through \necclesiastical disputes ; suspension of diplomatic \narrangements 28 June, \n\nJubilee to celebrate national independence 18 July, \n\nStatue of Leopold I. unveiled at Laeken 21 July, \n\nPatriotic fete in the Brussels exhibition 16 Aug. \n\nTrial of Armand and Leon Peltzer, for the murder \nof Wilhelm Bernays : (an injured husband, a \nfaithless wife and her accomplices) . 27 Nov. \n\nSentenced to death (commuted) . . 22 Dec. \n\nDynamite explosion at Ganshorten, near Brussels ; \n1 death (arrests made) ... 23 Feb. \n\nPar liamentary reform bill passed by representatives \n\n17 Aug. \n\nHenri Conscience, eminent national Flemish poet \nand novelist, died, aged 73 . . .9 Sept. \n\nDeath of cardinal Deschamps, abp. of Mechlin, the \nprimate 29 Sept. \n\nThe king and queen warmly received at Amsterdam \n18 Oct., et seq. \n\nKing and queen of Holland warmly received at \nBrussels 20-22 May, \n\nElections ; majority of clericals through dissension \nof moderate liberals and reformers, about \n10 June; resignation of M. Frere-Orban n June, \n\nM. Jules Malou forms a conservative catholic \nministry . . . . . 12, 13 June, \n\nSenate dissolved, June ; new senate clerical Jul}\'\', \n\nGreat meeting of burgomasters at Brussels to op- \npose M. Jacobs\' new reactionary education bill, \n9 Aug., which is accepted by the deputies (80-49), \n30 Aug. ; by the senate (40-25) . . 10 Sept. \n\nLiberal riots at Brussels and Antwerp . 7 Sept. \n\nRoyal assent to the bill . . . . 13 Sept. \n\nCommunal elections ; great liberal majority 19 Oct. \n\nMM. Malou, Jacobs, and Woeste (catholics) resign, \nM. Beernaert becomes premier . . 24 Oct. \n\nParliament meets 11 Nov. \n\nKing Leopold proclaimed sovereign of the new \nCongo state 2 May, \n\nUniversal exhibition opened at Antwerp by the king \n\n2 May, \n\nDeath of Charles Rogier (aged 85), member of the \nprovisional government in 1830, six times minister \n\n27 May, \n\nRiotous strikes in the coal districts between Namur \n\nand Liege and collision with the military, many \n\nkilled and wounded ; convents, country houses, \n\nfactories, &c, pillaged, works stopped about \n\n22-29 March, \n\nLiege quieted by vigorous action ; great disorder in \nCharleroi, Mons, &c 27-29 March, \n\nOutrages greatly attributed to the criminal classes ; \norder restored, reported 7 April \n\nM. Vandersmissen, a clerical member for Brussels, \nconvicted of killing his wife, a scandalous case ; \n15 years\' penal servitude . . . 2 June, \n\nIncreased army expenditure proposed . 8 Feb. \n\nRevival of strikes ; arrival of French dynamitards ; \nuniversal suffrage demanded ; the strikes subside \nabout 31 May, \n\nNew Army Bill rejected by the Chamber (69-62) \n\n14 July, \n\nState trials of 27 socialists at Mous, nearly all \nacquitted, 25 May ; the minister of justice was \ncensured for the prosecution . . . May \n\nGreat colliery strike at Charleroi, &c, about 20,000 \nmen out . . . . . 21 Dec. et seq. \n\nSettled by compromise .... 13 Jan. \n\nThe castle of Laeken, built 17S2, 4 miles from \nBrussels, a royal palace, destroyed by fire, the \ngoverness of princess Clementine, Madame de \nGrandcour, perished. Valuable works of art, \nfurniture, historical documents &c, lost. 1 Jan. \n\n\n\nBELGRADE. 115 \n\nThe king visits England . . . 10-26 May 189c \n\nLoan to Congo State, see Congo . . . July, ,, \n\nNational fete, 25th anniversary of the king\'s acces- \nsion ; grotesque procession of giants, &c, at \nBrussels 19 July et seq. ,, \n\nStrike of about 10,000 miners at Mons, 22 Aug. ; \nstrike over 1 Sept. ,, \n\nDeath of prince Baldwin, aged 21, greatly lamented, \n23 Jan. ; grand funeral . . . . 29 Jan. 1891 \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Great political strike of colliers at Mons, Charle- \nroi, and other places, with rioting, about 2 May ; \nstate of siege in the Liege district, about 100,000 \nmen out 7 May ,, \n\nStrike of the metallurgists in Charleroi district, the \nprogressist party demand the revision of the con- \nstitution . . . . about 10 May ,, \n\nStrike abating near Liege, &c. . . . 13 May ,, \n\nEnd of the coal-miners\' strike of 70 days . 9 July ,, \n\nCoal-mine explosion at Forchies in Hainault; 27 \ndeaths. . -. . . . . 19 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMeeting of the chambers . . . . 10 Nov. ,, \n\nThe hon. sir Edmund Monson succeeds lord Vivian \nas British minister Jan. 1892 \n\nDeath of M. Emile de Laveleye, eminent publicist \nand writer, aged 69 ... 3 Jan. ,, \n\nThe commercial treaties with Austria-Hungary and \nGermany adopted by the chamber, 28 Jan. ; by \nthe senate 1 Feb. ,, \n\nDiscussion in the chamber on the revision of the \nconstitution of 1831 2 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nElections : clerical majority, June ; the new senate \nand chamber unite to form a constituent assem- \nbly to consider the revision of the constitution \n\n12 July etseq. ,, \n\n1:889. Revenue, 346,667,000 francs ; expenditure, \n\n355\xc2\xbb593\xc2\xbb\xc2\xb0\xc2\xb0\xc2\xb0 francs. \n\xc2\xa3890. Imports, 3,189,160,016 francs ; exports, \n\n2,948,151,841 francs. \n\nKINGS. \n\n1831. Leopold,* first king of the Belgians ; born 16 Dee. \n\n1790 ; inaugurated 21 July, 1831, at Brussels ; \n\nmarried, 9 Aug. 1832, Louise, eldest daughter of \n\nLouis Philippe, king of the French (she died \n\n11 Oct. 1850). He died 10 Dec. 1865. \n5:865. Leopold II., son ; born 9 April, 1835 ; married \n- archduchess Maria Henrietta of Austria, 22 Aug. \n\n1853- \nDaughter. Princess Louise, born 18 Feb. 1858 ; married \n\nduke Philip of Saxony, 4 Feb. 1875. \nHeir, brother. Philip, count of Flanders ; born 24 March, \n\n1837; married Mary, princess of Hohenzollern- \n\nSigmaringen, 25 April, 1867 ; son, Baldwin, born \n\n3 June, 1869 ; died 23 Jan. 1891 ; Albert, born 8 \n\nApril, 1875. \n\nBELGRADE, an ancient city in Servia, on \nthe right bank of the Danube. It was taken from \nthe Greek emperor by Solomon, king of Hungary, \nin 1072 ; gallantly defended by John Huniades \nagainst the Turks, under Mahomet II., July to \nSept. 1456, when the latter was defeated, with the \nloss of 40,000 men. Belgrade was taken by sultan \nSolyman, Aug. 1521, and retaken by the Im- \nperialists in 1688, from whom it was again taken by \nthe Turks, 1690. It was besieged in May, 1716, by \nprince Eugene. In that year the Turkish army, \n200,000 strong, approached to relieve it, and on 5 \nAug. a sanguinary battle was fought at Poterwara- \ndein, in which the Turks lost 20,000 men. Eugene \ndefeated the Turks here, 16 Aug. 1717, and Bel- \ngrade surrendered 18 Aug. In 1739 it was ceded to \nthe Turks, after its fine fortifications had been de- \nmolished. It was retaken in 1789, and restored at \nthe peace of Reichenbach, in 1790. The Servian \ninsurgents had possession of it, 1806-13. In 1815 \nit was placed under prince Milosch, subject to \nTurkey. The fortifications were restored in 1820. \n\n* Leopold married, in May, 18 16, the princess Char- \nlotte of Wales, daughter of the prince regent, afterwards \nGeorge IV. of England ; she died in childbed, 6 Nov. 1817. \n\n\n\nBELLS. \n\nOn 19 June, 1862, the Turkish pasha was dismissed \nfor firing on the town during a riot. The university \nwas established by private munificence, 1863. The \nfortress was surrendered by the Turks to the Ser- \nvians, 18 April, 1867. The "independence of Servia \nproclaimed here, 22 Aug. 1878. The mayor of \nBelgrade received by the lord mayor of London, \n19 Dec. 1884. Population in 1890, 54,458. Sea Servia. \n\nBELGRAVIA, a south-western district of the \nmetropolis, built between 1826 and 1852 upon land \nbelonging to the marquis of Westminster, who is \nalso viscount Belgrave. \n\nBELIZE, see Honduras. \n\nBELL, Book, and Candle : in the Bomish \n\nceremony of excommunication {which see), the \nbell is rung, the book is closed, and candle extin- \nguished; the effect being to exclude the excom- \nmunicated from the society of the faithful, divine \nservice, and the sacraments. Its origin is ascribed \nto the 8th century. \n\nBELL ROCK LIGHTHOUSE, nearly in \n\nfront of the Frith of Tay, one of the finest in Great \nBritain; it is 115 feet high, is built upon a rock \nthat measures 427 feet in length, and 200 feet in \nbreadth, and is about 12 feet under water.* It was \nerected in 1806-10. It has two bells for hazy weather. \n\nBELLAIR, North America. The town was \nattacked by the British forces under sir Peter \nParker, who, after an obstinate engagement, was \nkilled, 30 Aug. 1814. \n\nBELLEISLE, an isle on the south coast of \nBrittany, France, erected into a duchy for marshal \nBelleisle, in 1742, in reward of his military and \ndiplomatic services, by Louis XV. Belleisle was \ntaken by the British forces under commodore \nKeppel and general Hodgson, after a desperate \nresistance, 7 June, 1761, but was restored to France \nin 1763. \n\nBELLES-LETTRES, or Polite Learn- \ning, see Academies, and Literature. \n\nBELLEVILLE, the red republican stronghold \nof Paris, defended by seven barricades, was cap- \ntured by. L\'Admirault and Vinoy, 27, 28 May, \n1871, when the insurrection was suppressed. \n\nBELLITE, a new Swedish explosive invented \nby Mr. Carl Lamm in 1885. \n\nBELLMEN, appointed in London to proclaim \nthe hour of the night before public clocks became \ngeneral, were numerous about 1556. They were to \nring a bell at night, and cry, "Take care of your \nfire and candle, be charitable to the poor, and pray \nfor the dead." \n\nBELLOWS. Anacharsis, the Scythian, is \nsaid to have been the inventor of them, about 569 \nB.C. ; and to him is ascribed the invention of tinder, \nthe potter\'s wheel, anchors for ships, &c. Bellows \nwere not used in the furnaces of the Romans. The \ngreat bellows of our foundries must have been early \nused ; see Blowing Machines. \n\nBELLS were used among the Jews, Greeks, and \nRomans. The responses of the Dodomrau oracle \nwere in part conveyed by bells. Strabo. The \nmonument of Porsenna was decorated with pin- \nnacles, each surmounted by bells. Pliny. Said to \nhave been introduced by Paulinus, bishop of Kola, \n\n* Upon this rock, it is said, the abbots of Aberbro \nthock fixed the Inchcape bell, so that it was rung by the \nimpulse of the sea, thus warning mariners. It is also \nsaid that a Dutchman, who took the apparatus away, \nwas here lost with his ship and crew. \n\n\n\nBELLS. \n\n\n\n116 \n\n\n\nBENCOOLEN. \n\n\n\nin Campagna, about 400; and first known in France \nin 550. The army of Clothaire II., king of France, \nwas frightened from the siege of Sens by the ringing \nof the bells of St. Stephen\'s church. The second \nexcerption of our king Egbert commands every \npriest, at the proper hours, to sound the bells of his \nchurch. Bells were used in churches by order of \npope John IX., about 900, as a defence, by ringing \nthem, against thunder and lightning. Bells are \nmythically said to have been cast by Turketul, \nabbot of England, about 941. The celebrated \n"Song of the Bell," by Schiller (died 1805), has \nbeen frequently translated. The following list is \nthat given by Mr. E. Beckett Denison (afterwards \nLord Grimthorpe) in his discourse on bells at the \nEoyal Institution, 6 March, 1857. The lecture of \nthe Eev. H. R. Haweis, at the same place, 7 Feb. , \n1879, was well illustrated. \n\n\n\nWeight. \nTons Cwt. \nMoscow, 1736;* \n\nbroken, 1737 . 250 ? \nAnother, 1817. . no ? \nThree others. 16 to 31 \n\n\n\nNovgorod \nOlmtitz \n\nVienna, 1711 . . \nWestminster, 1856, t \n\n" Big Ben " \nErfurt, 1497 . . \nWestminster, 18584 \n\n"St. Stephen" \nSens \n\nParis, 1680 . \nMontreal, 1847 \nCologne, 1448 \nBreslau, 1507 . . \nGorlitz . \n\n\n\n31 o \n\n17 18 \n17 14 \n\n15 8^ \n13 15 \n\n13 iof \n13 ? \n12 16 \n12 15 \n11 3 \n\n\n\n10 17 \n\nLondon, 1882 (St. Paul\'s). \nCologne, 1887 1] \n\n\n\nWeight. \nTons Cwt. \n10 15 \n\n5 \n\n\n\nYork, 1845 . . \nBruges, 1680 \nSt. Peter\'s, Rome \nOxford, 1680 . 7 12 \nLucerne, 1636. . 7 n \nHalberstadt, 1457 7 IO \nAntwerp . . 73 \nBrussels . . 7 ij \nDantzic, 1453 . 6 1 \nLincoln, 1834 \xe2\x80\xa2 5 8 \nSt. Paul\'s, i7i6\xc2\xa7 . 5 4 \nGhent . . . 4 18 \nBoulogne, new . 4 18 \nExeter, 1675 . 4 10 \nOld Lincoln, 1610 4 8 \nFourth quarter- \nbell, Westmin- \nster, 1857 . 4 o \n\nGreat Paul || about 17 J o \n\nabout 26 13 \n\n\n\nBaptism or Bells. \xe2\x80\x94 They were, anointed and baptized \nin churches, it is said, from the 10th century. Dv. \nFresnoy. The bells of the priory of Little Dunmow, in \nEssex, were baptized by the names of St. Michael, St. \nJohn, Virgin Mary, Holy Trinity, <fcc, in 1501. Weever. \nThe great bell of Notre Dame, of Paris, was baptized by \nthe name of duke of Angouleme, 1816. On the continent, \nin Roman Catholic states, they baptize bells as we do \nships, but with religious solemnity. Ashe. \n\n* The metal has been valued at the lowest estimate, at \n66,565^ Gold and silver are said to have been thrown in \nas votive offerings. \n\nt The largest bell in England (named Big Ben, after \nsir Benjamin Hall, the then chief commissioner of works), \ncast at Houghton-le-Spring, Durham, by Messrs. Warner, \nunder the superintendence of Mr. E. Beckett Denison, and \nthe Rev. W. Taylor, at an expense of 3343*. 14s. gd. The \ncomposition was 22 parts copper and 7 tin. The diameter \nwas 9 ft. sh in. ; the height, 7 ft. io\xc2\xa3 in. The clapper \nweighed 12 cwt. Rev. W. Taylor. \n\nX The bell \' \' Big Ben " having been found to be cracked \non 24 Oct. 1857, it was broken up and another bell cast \nwith the same metal, in May, 1858, by Messrs. Mears, \nWlutechapel. It is rather different in shape from its \npredecessor, " Big Ben," and about 2 tons lighter. Its \ndiameter is 9 ft. 6 in. ; the height 7 ft. 10 in. It was \nstruck for the first time, 18 Nov. 1858. The clapper \nweighs 6 cwt.\xe2\x80\x94 half that of the former bell. The note of \nthe bell is E natural ; the quarter-bells being G, B, E, P. \nOn 1 Oct. 1859, this bell was also found to be cracked. \n\n\xc2\xa7 The clapper of St. Paul\'s, bell weighs 180 lbs. \xe2\x80\xa2 the \ndiameter of the bell is 10 feet (Mr. Walesby says 6 ft. \n9^ in.), and its thickness 10 in. The hour strikes upon \nthis bell, the quarters upon two smaller ones ; see Clocks. \n\n|| Height, 8 feet 10 in. ; diameter, 9 feet 6| in. ; note \nEl7 ; materials tin and copper ; cost about 3000!. ; cast \nby Mr. Taylor, at Loughborough ; raised to its place 31 \nMay, dedicated 3 June, 1882. \n\nIf Height 14J feet; diameter at the mouth 11J feet; \nnote Of or D ; materials chiefly French cannon ; cast by \nAndreas Hamm of Frankenthal ; dedicated July 1887. \n\n\n\nRinging of Bells, in changes of regular peals, is \n\nalmost peculiar to the English. Stoiv. \n\n" Companie of the Schollers of Chepeside," 1603 ; " So- \nciety of College Youths," 1637 ; " Society of Cumber- \nlands," 1683 ; the "Society of Union Scholars," 1713 ; \nthe "Society of Eastern Scholars," 1733; "London. \nYouths," 1753; " Westminster Youths," 1776. \n\nFabian Stedman, about 1650, invented a system known \nas " Stedman\'s principle." Benjamin Anable soon \nafter invented "Grandsire Triples." \n\n720 changes can be rung in an hour upon 12 bells ;. \n479,001,600 changes rung upon them, require 75 years, \n10 months, and 10 days. \n\nNell Gwynne left the. ringers of the bells of St. Martin\'s-in- \nthe-fields money for a weekly entertainment, 1687, and \nmany others have done the same. \n\nA central council of Church Bell Ringers, representing; \nmany societies, was established at the Inns of Court \nhotel, London, 10 April, 1890. \n\nCarillons, a collection of bells, arranged in two or three \nchromatic scales, played by pedals or keyboards, oir \nby machinery. The first set is said to have been made? \nat Alost in Flanders, in 1487, and that country and \nHolland are renowned for carillons. Matthias van dera \nGheyn was an eminent maker (1721-85). Excellent \ncarillon machines are now made by Messrs. Gillet, \nBland & Co., Croydon. One at Manchester was started \n1 Jan. 1879. It plays 35 tunes on 20 bells. \n\nBELOOCHISTAN, the ancient Gedrosia \n(S. Asia). Khelat, the capital, was taken by the \nBritish in the Afghan war, 1839; abandoned, July, \n1840 ; taken and held a short time, Not. 1840. \nThe khan was subsidised in 1854, under certain con- \nditions, which were not observed ; the arrangement \nwas broken up in 1873 ; the negotiations of major \n(after sir Robert) Sandeman in 1875 were successful, \nand Quettah was occupied by the British in 1877, and\' \nhas since become a prosperous station. The khan \nproffered assistance after the defeat of gen. Burrows \nin July, 1880. \nQuettah, with districts of Pishin, Thai Chotiali, and. \nSibi, annexed to British territories, and placed under \na chief commissioner ; announced, Nov. 1887. \nCol. sir Robert G. Sandeman, the chief commissioner, \nbrave, amiable, and conciliatory, dies, 29 Jan. ; he 1 \nwas succeeded by gen. Browne, Feb. 1892. \n\nBELT CASE, see Trials, 1882-4. \n\nBELVEDERE EXPLOSION, see Gun- \npowder (note). \n\nBEN ABES, in India, a holy city of the Hin- \ndoos, abounding in temples. It was ceded by the \nnabob of Oude, Asoph-ud-Dowlah, to the English \nin 1775. An insurrection took place here, which \nhad nearly proved fatal to the British interests in \nHindostan, 1781. The rajah : Cheyt Sing, was de- \nposed in consequence of it, in 1783. Mr. Cherry, \ncapt. Conway, and others, were assassinated at \nBenares, by vizier Aly, 14 Jan. 1799. In June, \n1857, col. Neil succeeded in suppres^ng attempts \nof the native infantry to join the mutiny ; see \nIndia. Visit of prince of Wales, 5 Jan. 1876. \nNew water-works : foundation laid by prince Albert \nVictor, Jan. 1890 ; opposed by the Brahmins as inter- \nfering with the sacred waters and temples ; serious \nriots, with destruction of property, suppressed by \nthe military, 16, 17 April, 1891 ; peace restored by a \ncompromise. \n\nBENBURB, near Armagh (N. Ireland). Here \nO\'Neill totally defeated the English under Monroe, \n5 June, 1646. Moore says that it was " the only \ngreat victory since the days of Brian Boru, achieved \nby an Irish chieftain in the cause of Ireland." \n\nBENCOOLEN (Sumatra) . The English East \nIndia company made a settlement here which pre- \nserved to them the pepper trade after the Dutch had \ndispossessed them of Bantam, 1682. Anderson. York \nfort was erected by the East India company, 1690. \nIn 1693 a dreadful mortality raged here, occasioned \nby the town being built on a pestilent morass; \n\n\n\nBENDEE. \n\n\n\n117 \n\n\n\nBENWELL TOWEE. \n\n\n\namong others the governor and council perished. \nThe French, under count D\'Estaign, destroyed the \nEnglish settlement, 1760. Bencoolen was reduced \nto a residency under the government of Bengal, in \n1801, and was ceded to the Dutch, in 1824, in ex- \nchange for their possessions in Malacca ; see India. \n\nBENDEE, Bessarabia, European Russia. Near \nit was the asylum of Charles XII. of Sweden, after \nhis defeat at Puitowa by the czar Peter the Great, \n\xe2\x96\xa0S July, 1709. The peace of Bender was concluded \nin 1711. Bender was taken by storm, by the Russians, \n28 Sept. 1770; was taken by Potemkin in 1789, and \nagain in 1809. It was restored at the peace of \nJassy, but retained at the peace of 1812. \n\nBENEDICTINES, an order of monks founded \nby St. Benedict (lived 480-543), who iutroduced the \nmonastic life into Western Europe, in 529, when he \nfounded the monastery on Monte Casino in Cam- \npania, and eleven others afterwards. His Regula \nMonaehorum (rule of the monks) soon became the \n\xe2\x80\xa2common rule of western monachism. No religious \norder has been so remarkable for extent, wealth, \nand men of note and learning, as the Benedictine. \nAmong its branches the chief were the Cluniacs, \nfounded in 912 ; the Cistercians, founded in 1098, \nand reformed by St. Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux, in \n1 1 16; and the Carthusians, from the Chartreux \n.(hence Charter-house), founded by Bruno about \n1080. The Benedictine order was introduced into \nEngland by Augustin, in 596; and William I. built \nan abbey for it on the plain where the battle of \n(Hastings was fought, 1066; see Battle- Abbey. \nWilliam de Warrenne, earl of Warrenne, built a \n-convent at Lewes, in Sussex, in 1077. Of this \n\xe2\x80\xa2order it is reckoned that there have been 40 popes, \n200 cardinals, 50 patriarchs, 116 archbishops, 4600 \n\xe2\x96\xa0bishops, 4 emperors, 12 empresses, 46 kings, 41 \n\xe2\x96\xa0queens, and 3600 saints. Their founder was canon- \nised. Baronius. The Benedictines have taken \nlittle part in politics, but have produced many \nvaluable literary works. The congregation of St. \nMaur published the celebrated "l\'Ait de Verifier les \nDates," in 1750, and edited many ancient authors. \n\n\'The Benedictines with other orders were expelled \nfrom France by decree ... 29 March, 1880 \n\nThe 14th centenary of the birth of St. Benedict was \nkept at Monte Casino and other places April, ,, \n\nBENEFICE (literally a good deed or favour), \nor Fief. Clerical benefices originated in the 12th \ncentury, when the priesthood began to imitate the \nfeudal lay system of holding lands for performing \ncertain duties : till then the priests were supported \nhj alms and oblations at mass. Vicarages, rectories, \nperpetual curacies, and chaplaincies, are termed \nbenefices, in contradistinction to dignities, such as \n\'bishoprics, &c. A rector is entitled to all the tithes ; \na vicar, to a small part or to none. \xe2\x80\x94 All benefices that \nshould become vacant in the space of six months, \nwere given by pope Clement VII. to his nephew, in \n1534. Notitia Monastica. An act for the aug- \nmentation of poor benefices by the sale of some 01 \nthose in the presentation of the lord chancellor, was \npassed in 1863, and an act respecting the seques- \ntration of benefices and their union passed, 187 1. \nThe Commission on Ecclesiastical Benefices reported, \nrecommending amendments in sales of advow- \nsons, discontinuance of sale by auction, &c. \n\nabout 3 Nov. 1879 \n\nBENEFIT OF CLEEGY, see Clergy. \n\nBENEFIT SOCIETIES, see Friendly \nSocieties. \n\nBENEVENTUM (now Benevento), an ancient \ncity in South Italy, said to have been founded by \n\n\n\nDiomedes the Greek, after the fall of Troy. Pyr- \nrhus of Macedon, during his invasion of Italy, was \ntotally defeated near Beneventum, 275 u.c. Near \nit was erected the triumphal arch of Trajan, a.d. \n114. Benevento was formed into a duchy by the \nLombards, 571. At a battle fought here, 26 Feb. \n1266, Manfred, king of Sicily, was defeated andslain \nby Charles of Anj ou, who thus became virtually master \nof Italy. The castle was built 1323 ; the town was \nnearly destroyed by an earthquake, 1688, when the \narchbishop, afterwards pope Benedict XIII., was \ndug out of the ruins alive, and contributed to its sub- \nsequent rebuilding, 1703. It was seized by the \nking of Naples, but restored to the pope on the \nsuppression of the Jesuits, 1773. Talleyrand de \nPerigord, Bonaparte\'s arch-chancellor, was made \nprince of Benevento, 1806. Benevento was taken \nby the French, 1798, and restored to the pope in \n1815. \n\nBENEVOLENCES (Aids, Free Gifts, actually \nForced Loans) appear to have been claimed by our \nAnglo-Saxon sovereigns. Special ones were levied \nby Edward IV., 1473, by Richard III., 1485 (al- \nthough a statute forbidding them was enacted \nin 1484), by Henry VII., 1492; and by James \nI., in 1013, on occasion of the marriage of the \nprincess Elizabeth with Frederick, the elector \npalatine, afterwards king of Bohemia. In 1615 \nOliver St. John, M.P., was fined 5000/., and chief \njustice Coke disgraced, for severely censuring such \nmodes of raising money. Benevolences were de- \nclared illegal by the bill of rights, Feb. 1689. \n\nBENEVOLENT, or Strangers\' Friend So- \nciety, established 1785; Loan Society, 1817; So- \nciety of Blues, 1824; Society of St. Patrick, 1784. \n\nBENGAL, chief presidency of British India, \ncontaining Calcutta, the capital. Its governors \nwere appointed by the sovereigns of Delhi, till \nJ3J.0, when it became independent. It was added \nto the Mogul empire by liaber, about 1529; see \nIndia and Calcutta. Population 1881,66,589,553; \n1 89 1, 70,909,260. \n\nThe English first permitted to trade to Bengal. . 1534 \nThey establish a settlement at Hooghly . about 1652 \nFactories of the French and Danes set up . . 1664 \n\nBengal made a distinct agency 1680 \n\nMr. William Hedges appointed agent and governor 1681 \nThe English settlement removed to Fort William . 1698 \nImperial grant vesting the revenues of Bengal in the \ncompany, by which it gained the sovereignty of \n\nthe country 12 Aug. 1765 \n\nMr. Warren Hastings governor 1772 \n\nIndia Bill ; Bengal made chief presidency ; supreme \n\ncourt of judicature established . . 16 June, 1773 \nBishop of Calcutta appointed . . 21 July, 1813 \n\nRailway opened 15 Aug. 1854 \n\nAwful famine in Orissa (which sec) . . . 1865-66 \nLieut. -governor, lion. Win. Grey .... 1867 \n\n,, ,, Geo. Campbell 1871 \n\nDeficiency in rainfall; consequent famine (see \n\nIndia) Oct. 1873 \n\nCyclone : Mednapore destroyed ; about 2,000 perish \n\nOct. 1874 \nLieut. -governor, sir RichardTomple . . . ,, \n,, \' \xe2\x80\x9e hon. sir Ashley Eden . . . 1877 \n\n\xe2\x80\x9e Mr. (aft. Sir) Rivers Thompson . \n\nMarch, 1882 \n\nSir C. S. Bayley . . April, 1887 \n\n\xe2\x80\x9e ,, Sir Chas. A. Elliott . . 1890 \n\nBengal Tenancy Bill passed . . . 11 March, 1885 \n\nCyclone on the Orissa coast ; about 5,000 perish \n\n22 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBEN NEVIS, a mountain in Inverness-shire, \nthe loftiest in Britain, 4,406 feet above the sea; \nsee Meteorology, 1883-4. \n\nBENWELL TOWEE, about two miles "W. \nof Newcastle [value above 12,000/.], was presented \n\n\n\nBENZOLE. \n\n\n\n118 \n\n\n\nBERLIN. \n\n\n\nby Mr. John AVm. Pease to be the palace of the \nnew bishopric of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Nov. 1881. \n\nBENZOLE, or Benzine, a compound of \n\nhydrogen and carbon, discovered by Faraday in the \n\noils of portable gas (1825), obtained by Mitscherlich \n\nfrom benzoic acid (1834) and by C. B. Mansfield in \n\ncoal tar (1848), the latter of whom unfortunately \n\ndied in consequence of being severely burnt while \n\nexperimenting on it (26 Feb. 1855). Benzole has \n\nbecome useful in the arts. Chemical research has \n\nproduced from it aniline {which see), the source of \n\nthe celebrated modern dyes, mauve, magenta, and \n\nmany others ; see Alizarine and Indigo. \n\nAromatic essences and perfumes have been obtained \n\nfrom benzole by Perkin, Tiemann, Harrmann, and \n\nothers. Febrifuge medicines, by O. Fischer, Dewar, \n\nMcKendrick and others, in 1881. And saccharine, a \n\nprinciple 220 times sweeter than cane sugar, by Fahl- \n\nberg and Reinsert, patented in Britain in 1SS6 ; not \n\nnutritious and said to cause indigestion. \n\nBEOWULF, an ancient Anglo-Saxon epic \npoem, describing events which probably occurred \nin the middle of the 5th century, supposed to have \nbeen written subsequent to 597. An edition by \nKemble was published in 1833. It has been trans- \nlated by Kemble, Thorpe, and Wackerbarth. \n\nBEBBICE (S. America), settled by the Dutch, \n1626, who surrendered it to the British, 23 April, \n\n1796, and 22 Sept. 1803; and finally in 1814. It \nwas united to Demerara and named British Guiana, \n1831. \n\nBERDITSCHEFF, Kiev, S. Russia. At the \nburning of a circus here about 300 persons perish, \n13 Jan. 1883. \n\nBERENGARIANS, followers of Berengarius, \narchdeacon of Angers, who, about 1049, opposed the \nRomish doctrine of transubstantiation, or the real \npresence in the Lord\'s supper. Several councils \nof the church condemned his doctrine, 1050-79. \nAfter much controversy he recanted about 1079, and \ndied grieved and wearied in 6 Jan. 1088. \n\nBERESINA, a river in Russia, crossed by the \nFrench main army after its defeat by the Russians, \n25-29 Nov. 1812. The French lost upwards of \n20,000 men, and their retreat .was attended by \ngreat calamity and suffering. \n\n_ BERG (W. Germany), on the extinction of its \nline of counts, in 1348, was incorporated with \nJuliers. Napoleon I. made Murat grand-duke in \n1806. The principal part is now held by Prussia. \n\nBERGAMO (N. Italy), a Lombard duchy, was \nannexed to Venice, 1428 ; which chiefly held it till \nit revolted, and was joined to the Cisalpine republic, \n\n1797. It was awarded to Austria in 1814, and \nceded to Sardinia, 1859. \n\nBERGEN (Norway), founded 1070; was the \nroyal residence during the 12th and 13th centuries. \nPopulation 1891, 53,686. \n\nBERGEN (in Germany), BATTLE OF, be- \ntween the French and allies, the latter defeated, \n13 April, 175^2.\xe2\x80\x94 (In Holland) i. The allies under \nthe duke ot York were defeated by the French, \nunder gen. Brune, with great loss, 19 Sept. 1799. \n2. In another battle, fought 2 Oct. same year, the \nduke gained a victory over Brune; but on the \n6th, the duke was defeated before Alkmaer, and on \nthe 20th entered into a convention, by which his \narmy was exchanged for 6000 French and Dutch \nprisoners in England. \n\nBERGEN - OP - ZOOM, in Holland. This \nplace, whose works were deemed impregnable, was \ntaken by the French, 16 Sept. 1747, and again in \n\n\n\n1795- An attempt, made by the British under \ngeneral sirT. Graham (afterwards lord Lynedoch), \nto carry the fortress by storm, was defeated ; after \nforcing an entrance, their retreat was cut off, and \na dreadful slaughter ensued ; nearly all were cut to \npieces or made prisoners, 8 March, 1814. \n\nBERGERAC, France. Here John of Gaunt, \nthen earl of Derby, defeated the French, in 1344, \nand here a temporary treaty of peace between the \nCatholics and Protestants, establishing liberty of \nconscience, was signed 17 Sept. 1577. \n\nBERKELEY CASTLE, Gloucestershire, was \nbegun by Henry I. in 1 108, and finished in the next \nreign. Here Edward II. was cruelly murdered by \nthe contrivance of his queen Isabella (a princess of \nFrance), and her paramour, Mortimer, earl of \nMarch, 21 Sept. 1327. Mortimer was hanged at the \nElms, near London, 29 Nov. 1330; and Edward III. \nconfined his mother in her own house at Castle- \nRising, near Lynn, in Norfolk, till her death, 1357. \nThe Berkeley peerage suit in the court of Chancery, due \n\nto a disputed marriage, lasted from 1416 to 1609. \nIn another suit owing to a disputed marriage in iSir, \nThomas Moreton Fitz Hardinge Berkeley became 6th \nearl. Earl Fitz Hardinge died unmarried in 1857. His \nnext brother Maurice\'s claim for the barony of Berke- \nley was not granted, 23 July, 1858. The committee \nof privileges of the house of lords met to consider the \nclaims of earl Fitzhardinge and Mr. Randal Mowbray \nThomas Berkeley for the Berkeley Peerage, 23 April ; \ncommittee decided in favour of Mr. R. M. T. Berkeley,. \n31 July, 1891, thus confirming lord Eldon\'s decision id \n\'1811. \n\nBERLIN (capital of Prussia, in the province \nof Brandenburg), and since 187 1, of the German \nempire, alleged to have been founded by the \nmargrave Albert the Bear, about 1163. Its five \ndistricts were united under one magistracy, in 1714 ; \nand it was subsequently made the capital of Prussia \nand greatly improved by the sovereigns. It was- \ntaken and held by the Russians and Austrians, 9-13, \nOct. 1760. Establishment of the Academy of \nSciences, 1702; of the university, 1810. On 27 \nOct. 1806, after the battle of Jena (14 Oct.), the \nFrench entered Berlin ; and from this place Napo- \nleon issued the famous Berlin decree, an interdict \nagainst the commerce of England, 20 Nov. It de- \nclared the British islands to be in a state of block- \nade, and ordered all Englishmen found in countries \noccupied by French troops to be treated as prisoners \nof war. On 5 Nov. 1808, Napoleon entered into a \nconvention with Prussia, by which he remitted to \nPrussia the sum due on the war-debt, and withdrew \nmany of his troops to reinforce his armies in Spain. \nSee Prussia, 1866, 187 1. Population in 1890, \n\n1,579.244- \n\nThe railway to Magdeburg opened . . 10 Sept. 1843 \nThe first constituent assembly held here 21 June, 1842 \nAn insurrection commenced here . . March, 184.S \nBerlin was declared in a state of siege . 12 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe continuation of this state was declared to be \nillegal without its concurrence by the lower \n\nchamber 25 April, 1849. \n\nA treaty of peace between Prussia and Saxony was \n\nsigned 21 Oct. 1866 \n\nThe victorious army entered Berlin, 20 Sept. 1866 ; \n\nand 16 June. 1873 \nThe monument of Victory, in memory of the wars \nwith Denmark (1864), Austria (1866), and France \n(1870-1), solemnly uncovered . . 2 Sept. 1873 \nMeeting of chancellors of Germany ; Austria, and \nRussia, 11, 12 May ; they agree to an urgent note \nto Turkey on the eastern policy ; expressed in a \nnote dated 13 May ; accepted by Italy and France ; \nreceived iu London, 15 May; its acceptance by \nthe earl of Derby declined, as her majesty\'s \ngovernment had not been consulted, 19 May ; \nthis note not presented through the revolution \nin Turkey 30 May, 1876 \n\n\n\nBERLIN WORK. \n\n\n\n119 \n\n\n\nBERNE. \n\n\n\nThe "Berlin note" printed in the Times . 4 July, 1876 \n\nInternational fish and fishing exhibition opened by \nthe crown prince .... 20 April, 1880 \n\nInternational Hygienic exhibition burnt ; great loss \n12 May, 18S2 ; opened 12 May, closed 15 Oct. 1883 \n\nNational theatre burnt .... 4 April, ,, \n\nStatues of Wilhelm and Alexander von Humboldt \nuncovered in presence of the emperor . 28 May, ,, \n\nFoundation of New German parliament-house laid \nby the emperor in the presence of a grand as- \nsembly 9 June, 1884 \n\nInternational Art Exhibition opened by the emperor \n\n22 May, 1886 \n\nMonument to Frederick William IV. unveiled by \nthe emperor 10 June, ,, \n\nQueen Victoria warmly received here 24 April ; \nmeets prince Bismarck 25 April ; left . 26 April, 1888 \n\nNew museum of natural history opened by the \nemperor 2 Dec. 1889 \n\nVisit of the prince of Wales and prince George \n\n21-28 March 1890 \n\nAddress from 30,000 Berlin citizens presented to \nprince Bismarck 22 June ,, \n\nInternational arts exhibition opened by the empress \nFrederick 1 May 1891 \n\nBritain, Italy, Spain, well represented; a few \nFrench works sent. British artists and others \nreceive gold medals . . . . 20 July ,, \n\nBevolting murder of a woman, and other murders \n\n24 and 25 Oct. ,, \n\nSuspension of Messrs. Hirschfeld & Wolff, bankers ; \ngreat losses, about 4 Nov., suspension of Fried- \nlander, Felix, & Siegmund Sommerfeld (Felix \ncommits suicide) 7 Nov. ,, \n\nSocialist riots of the unemployed suppressed by the \narmed police, 25-27 Feb. ; rioters sentenced to \nvarious terms of imprisonment . 19 March 1892 \n\nBERLIN CONGRESS ON THE EASTERN QUESTION. \n\nRepresentatives (with resident ambassadors).: Ger- \nmany, prince Bismarck, president ; Russia, \nprince Gortschakoff ; Turkey, Alexander Cara- \ntheodori ; Great Britain, lord Beaconsfield and \nmarquis of Salisbury (lord Odo Russell ambas- \nsador) ; Austria, count Andrassy ; France, \nM. Waddington ; Italy, count Corti. \nFirst meeting, 13 June ; 20th and last meeting ; \n\ntreaty signed 13 July, 1878 \n\nArticles 1 \xe2\x80\x94 12. Bulgaria constituted an autonomous \nprincipality, tributary to the sultan ; the \nBalkans southern limit ; the prince, to be \nelected by the population, approved by the \nsultan and other powers ; public laws, and \nother details. \n,, 13\xe2\x80\x9422. New province of Eastern Roumelia \nconstituted ; partially autonomous ; boun- \ndaries defined ; Christian governor-general to \nbe appointed by the sultan ; to be organised \nby an Austrian commission ; a Russian army \nof occupation, to remain nine months. \n,, 23. Bosnia and Herzegovina to be occupied \n\nand administered by Austria-Hungary. \n,, 24\xe2\x80\x9430. Montenegro to be independent ; new \n\nfrontiers ; Antivari annexed. \n,, 31 \xe2\x80\x94 39. Servia to be independent, with new \n\nfrontiers. \n,, 40\xe2\x80\x9449. Roumania to be independent, losing \npart of Bessarabia to Russia, with compensation. \n, ,, 50 \xe2\x80\x94 54. Regulation of navigation of the \nDanube, &c. \n>> 55 \xe2\x80\x94 57- Legal reforms in Crete, &c. \n,, 58. The Porte cedes to Russia Ardahan, \n" Kars, and Batoum, and settles boundaries. \n,, 59. Batoum to be a free commercial port. \n,, 60. Alasgird and Bayazid restored to Turkey. \n,, 61 \xe2\x80\x94 62. The Porte engages to realise legal \n\nreforms, and to grant religious liberty, &c. \n,, 63. The. treaty of Paris (30 March, 1856), and \nof London (13 March, 1871), maintained when \nnot modified by this treaty. \n,, 64. Treaty to be ratified in three weeks\' time. \n\nRatified . 3 Aug. ,, \n\nCircular respecting delay in fulfilling the treaty \nfrom earl Granville, the British foreign secretary, \nto the foreign powers .... May, 1880 \n\n\n\nBerlin conference (16 June\xe2\x80\x94 i July, 1880). \n\nThe ambassadors : for Great Britain, lord Odo \nRussell (after, lord Ampthill) ; France, comte \nde St. Vallier, etc. president, prince Hohenlohe, \nGerman foreign minister. \n\nThey agree to a collective note presented to the \nsultan of Turkey- (urging the surrender of Dul- \ncigno and cession of provinces to Greece), which \nis presented 15 July, 1880 \n\nBerlin conference respecting the condition of \nthe working classes proposed by the German \nemperor, 4 Feb. The delegates (with the ambas- \nsadors and ministers) meet . . . 15 March 1890 \n\n[Delegates : Great Britain, sir John Gorst ; France, \nM. Jules Simon ; Italy, senator Boceardo, and \nothers. The conference opened by baron von \nBerlepsch, Prussian minister of commerce, \nelected president, 15 March, closed 29 March, \n1890. Subjects discussad : regulation of labour \nin mines, of Sunday labour, and of the labour of \nchildren and youths. Recommendations adopted \nreferred to the respective legislatures.] \n\nFor other Berlin conferences, see Samoa.n Isles, \n1889, West African Settlements, Dulcigno, Turkey \nand Greece, 1 880-1. \n\nBERLIN WORK, see Embroidery. \n\nBERMUDAS or Summers\' Isles, a group \n\nin the North Atlantic ocean, discovered by Juan \nBermudas, a Spaniard, in 1522, but not inhabited \nuntil 1609, when sir George Summers was cast \naway upon them. They were settled by stat. 9 \nJames I., 1612. Among the exiles from England \nduring the civil war was Waller, the poet, who \nwrote, while resident here, a poetical description of \nthe islands. There was an awful hurricane here, \n31 Oct. 1780, and by another, a third of the houses was \ndestroyed, and the shipping driven ashore, 20 July, \n1813. A large iron dry dock here, which cost \n250,000^., was towed from the Medway to the Ber- \nmudas, in June and July, 1869. Governors, sir Fred. \nE. Chapman, 1867; gen. J. H. Lefroy, March, \n1871 ; Sir Robert Michael Laffan, Feb. 1877 ; died \n22 March, 1882; lieut.-gen. T. L. J. Gallwey, 1882; \nlieut.-gen. N. Newdigate, July, 1888; lieut.-gen. \nT. C. Lyons, June, 1892. Visited by the princess \nLouise, Jan. 1883. Population, 1890, 15,013. \n\nBERNAL COLLECTION of articles of \ntaste and virtu, formed by lialph Bernal, Esq., many \nyears chairman of committees of ways and means \nin the house of commons. He died 26 Aug. 1854. \nThe sale in Maix-h, 1856, lasted 31 days, and enor- \nmous prices were given. The total sum realised was \n62,680;. 6s. U. \n\nBERNARD, MOUNT ST., so called from a \nmonastery founded on it by Bernardine Menthon in \n962. Velan, its highest peak, is about 8000 feet \nhigh, covered with perpetual snow. Hannibal, it is \nsaid, conducted the Carthaginians by this pass into \nItaly (218 B.C.) ; and by the same route, in May, \n1800, Bonaparte led his troops to Italy before the \nbattle of Marengo, 14 June. On the summit of \nGreat St. Bernard is the ancient monastery still \nheld by a community of monks, who entertain \ntravellers. \n\nBERNARDINES, or White Monks, a \n\nstrict order of Cistercian monks, established by St. \nBernard of Clairvaux, about 11 15. He founded \nmany monasteries. \n\nBERNE, the sovereign canton of Switzerland, \njoined the Swiss League, 1352; the town Berne was \nmade a free city by the emperor Frederick, May, \n1218 ; it successfully resisted Rudolph of Hapsburg, \n1288. It surrendered to the French under general \nBrune, 12 April, 1798. The town has bears for its \narms, and some of these animals are still maintained \non funds specially provided for the purpose. It was \n\n\n\nBEEEY. \n\n\n\n120 \n\n\n\nBHOPAL. \n\n\n\nmade capital of Switzerland, 1848. Population, \n1888: canton, 536,679 ; town, 46,009. \nThe 700th anniversary of the foundation of Berne \nby duke Berchtold V. of Zahnugen, celebrated \n\n14-17 Aug. 1891 \nMeeting of the International Geographical congress \n\n10-14 Aug. ,, \n\nBEEEY (the ancient Biturigum regis), central \nFrance, held by the Romans since the conquest by \nCsesar (58-50 B.C.) till it was subdued by the Visi- \ngoths ; from whom it was taken by Clovis in a.d. \n507. It was erected into a duchy by John II. in \n1360, and was not incorporated into the royal do- \nmains till 1601. The due de Berry, son of Charles, \nand father of comte de Chambord, was assassinated \n13 Feb. 1820. \n\nBEESAGLIEEI, the sharpshooters of the \nSardinian army, first employed about 1848. \n\nBEEWICK-ON-TWEED, a fortified town \non the north-east extremity of England, the theatre \nof many bloody contests while England and Scot- \nland were two kingdoms ; it was claimed by the \nScots because it stood on their side of the river. Here \nJohn Baliol did homage for Scotland, 30 Nov. 1292. \nIt was annexed to England in 1333 ; and after hav- \ning been taken and retaken many times, was finally \nceded to England in 1482. In 1551 it was made \nindependent of both kingdoms. The town sur- \nrendered to Cromwell in 1648, and to general Monk \nin 1659. Since the union of the crowns (James I. \n1603), the strong fortifications have been neglected. \nThe borough was absorbed into Northumberland in \n1885 in respect to parliamentary elections. Popula- \ntion 1881, 13,998; 1891, 13,378. \n\nBESSABABIA, afrontier province of European \nRussia, part of the ancient Dacia. After being \npossessed by the Goths, Huns, &c, it was conquered \nby the Turks, 1474, seized by the Russians, 1770, \nand ceded to them in 1812. The part annexed to \nRoumania in 1856, was restored to Russia at the \nclose of the war in 1878, in exchange for the \nDobrudscha, by the treaty of Berlin, 13 July, and \ngiven up, 21 Oct. 1878. Population 1886, 1,612,175. \n\nBESSEMEE, see Steel and Steam Navigation. \n\nBETHELL\'S ACT, see Fraudulent. \n\nBETHLEHEM now contains a large convent, \nenclosing, as is said, the very birthplace of Christ; \na church erected by the empress Helena in the form \nof a cross, about 325; a chapel, called the Chapel of \nthe Nativity, where they pretend to show the manger \nin which Christ was laid ; another, called the Chapel \nof Joseph ; and a third, of the Holy Innocents. \nBethlehem is much visited by pilgrims. \xe2\x80\x94 The Beth- \nlehemite monks existed in England in 1257. \n\nBETHLEHEM HOSPITAL (so called from \nhaving been originally the hospital of St. Mary of \nBethlehem), a royal foundation for the reception of \nlunatics, incorporated by Henry VIII. in 1547. The \nold Bethlehem Hospital, Moorfields, erected in 1676, \npulled down in 1814, was built in imitation of the \nTuileries at Paris. The present hospital in St. \nGeorge\' s-fields was begun April, 1812, and opened \nin 1815. In 1856 extensive improvements were \ncompleted under the direction of Mr. Sydney Smirke. \nIncome 1876, 25,184/. \n\nBETHNAL GEEEN, E. London, a poor, \n\npopulous parish ; said to have been the seat of Henry \nde Montfort, hero of the " Blind Beggar of Bethnal \nGreen" {Percy Ballads). Many churches have been \nrecently erected by the instrumentality of bishop \nBlomfield and others, and the district has been much \n\n\n\nfavoured by the baroness Burdett-Coutts. The East \nLondon Museum here, a branch of that at South \nKensington, was opened by the prince of Wales, 24 \nJune, 1872. Sir Richard Wallace lent to it for a \ntime a collection of fine pictures and valuable curio- \nsit ies collected by his father, the marquis of Hert- \nford. He died 20 July, 1890. The gardens opened \n19 May, 1875. See Parks. Returns two M.P.\'s \nby Act of 1885. Population 1881, 126,961 ; 1891, \n129,134. \n\nBETHUNE, France, an independent lordship \nsince the nth century, was annexed to the monarchy \nby the treaty of Utrecht, 17 13, after several changes. \n\nBETTEEMENT, is a term in American law, \napplied to the improvement of property in any \nlocality, by the expenditure of public money or \notherwise, and it is therefore held, that such pro- \nperty ought to be called upon to contribute more to \ntaxation. The question was much discussed in \n1889-90 in relation to the Strand Improvement \nbill. \n\nBETTING-HOUSES, affordingmuch tempta- \ntion to gaming, and consequent dishonesty, in the \nlower classes, were suppressed by an act passed in \n1853 (16 & 17 Vict. c. 119). A Pari-mutuel, or \nmutual betting machine, in Aug., and the " Knights- \nbridge Exchange," a betting company, 2 Nov. 1870, \nwere declared illegal, see Races. New Betting Act \npassed 8 June, 1874. \n\nIn 1874 this Act was applied to betting stations at races ; \nlegal proceedings against Mr. H. Chaplin, as steward \nof the Jockey Club, were quashed by the magistrates \nat Newmarket. \n\nBetting reported to have greatly increased, 1889, 1892. \n\nBEVEELEY, E. Yorkshire, the Saxon Bever- \nlac, or Beverlega. St. John of Beverley, arch- \nbishop of York, founded a stately monastery here, \nand died 721 ; and on his account the town received \nhonours from Athelstane, William I., and other \nsovereigns. It was disfranchised for corruption in \n1870, after a long investigation. Population 1881, \n11,425; 1 891, 12,539. \n\nBEYEOUT (the ancient Berytus), a seaport of \nSyria, colonised from Sidon. It was destroyed by \nan earthquake, 566; was rebuilt, and was alter- \nnately possessed by the Christians and Saracens ; \nand after many changes, fell into the power of Amu- \nrath IV. It was taken during the Egyptian revolt \nby Ibrahim Pacha, in 1832. The total defeat of the \nEgyptian army by the allied British, Turkish, and \nAustrian forces, and evacuation of Bey rout (the \nEgyptians losing 7000 in killed, wounded, and pri- \nsoners, and twenty pieces of cannon), took place 10 \nOct. 1840. Sir C. Napier was the English admiral \nengaged. Beyrout suffered greatly in consequence \nof the massacres in Syria in May, i860. In Nov. \ni860 above 27,000 persons were said to be in danger \nof starving. Population in 1885, 85,000. See Syria. \n\nBHOOTAN, a country north of Lower Bengal, \nwith whom a treaty was made 25 April, 1774. After \nfruitless negotiations, Bhootan was invaded by tho \nBritish in Dec. 1864, in consequence of injurious \ntreatment of an envoy. See India, 1864-5. \nBy an insurrection the Deb Rajah was deposed, Aug. 1885. \n\nBHOPAL, capital of a native state in Central \nIndia, founded in 1723 by Dost Mohammed Khan, \nand made dependent on the British government in \n1818. The able female sovereign, the begum \nShah Jahiin, received the grand cross of the Star \nof India in 1872. Bhopal was visited by the viceroy \nof India, Nov. 1891 ; when the begum welcomed \nhim with a very loyal address. \n\n\n\nBHURTPORE. \n\n\n\n121 \n\n\n\nBIBLE. \n\n\n\nBHURTPOBE (India), capital of Bhurtpore, \nwas besieged by the British, 3 Jan. 1805, and at- \ntacked live times up to 21 March, without success. \nAfter a desperate engagement with Holkar, the \nMahratta chief, 2 April, 1805, the fortress was sur- \nrendered to general Lake. By a treaty, the rajah \nof Bhurtpore agreed to pay twenty lacs of rupees, \nceded territories that had been granted to him, and \ndelivered his son as hostage, 17 April, 1805. On \nthe rajah\'s death, during a revolt against his son, \nBhurtpore was taken by storm, by lord Combermere, \n18 Jan. 1826 ; see India. \n\nBIANCHI (Whites), a political party at Flo- \nrence, in 1300, in favour of the Ghibelines or impe- \nrial party, headed by Vieri de\' Cerchi, opposed the \nNeri (or Blacks), headed by Corsode\' Donati. The \nlatter banished their opponents, among whom was \nthe poet Dante, in 1302. "Bianchi" were also \nmale and female penitents, clothed in white, who \ntravelled through Italy in Aug. 1399 ; and were \nsuppressed by pope Boniface IX. , 1400. \n\nBIARCH Y- When Aristodemus, king of Sparta, \ndied, he left two sons, twins, Eurysthenes and \nProcles ; and the people, not knowing to whom pre- \ncedence should be given, placed both upon the \nthrone, and thus established the first biarchy, 1102 \nB.C. The descendants of each reigned for about \n800 years. Herodotus. \n\nBIARRITZ, a bathing-place near Bayonne. \nHere resided the comtesse de Montijo and her \ndaughter Eugenie, empress of the French, till her \nmarriage, 29 Jan. 1853. It was frequently visited \nby the emperor and empress. \nVisited by Queen A\'ictoria. . 7 March \xe2\x80\x94 2 April, 1889 \n\nBIBERACH (Wuitemberg). Here Moreau \ntwice defeated the Austriar.s, \xe2\x80\x94 under Latour, 2 Oct. \n1796, and under Kray, 9 May, 1800. \n\nBIBLE (from the Greek biblos, a book), the \nname especially given to the Holy Scriptures. The \nOld Testament is said to have been collected and \narranged by Ezra between 458 and 450 B.C. The \nApocrypha are considered as inspired writings by \nthe Roman Catholics, but iiot by the Jews and Pro- \ntestants; * see Apocrypha. \n\nOLD TESTAMENT, f \n\nGenesis contains the history of the world \n\nfrom B.C. 4004 \xe2\x80\x94 1635 \n\nExodus 1635\xe2\x80\x94 1490 \n\nLeviticus ........ 1490 \n\nNumbers 1490\xe2\x80\x94 1451 \n\nDeuteronomy! 1451 \n\n* In April, 1865, was published a proposal for raising \na fund for exploring Palestine in order to illustrate the \nBible by antiquarian and scientific investigation. The \nfirst meeting was held 22 June, 1865, the archbishop of \nYork in the chair ; see Palestine. \n\nt The division of the Bible into chapters has been \nascribed to archbishop Lanfranc in the nth, and to arch- \nbishop Langton in the 13th century ; but T. Hartwell \nHome considers the real author to ha\\e been cardinal \nHugo de Sancto Caro, about the middle of the 13th cen- \ntury. The division into sections was commenced by \nRabbi Nathan (author of a Concordance), about 1445, and \ncompleted by Athras, a Jew, in 1661. The present divi- \nsion into verses was introduced by the celebrated printer, \nKobert Stephens, in his Greek Testament (1551) and in \nhis Latin Bible (1556-7). \n\nX Fragments of portions of this book, on leather, as- \nserted to have been written about the 8th century B.C., \nobtained from Arabs in Jerusalem by M. Shapira, were \nexhibited in the British Museum, Aug. 1883, and after a \ncritical examination by Dr. Ginsburg and others, de- \nclared to be forged. M. Shapira, probably insane, com- \nmitted suicide at Rotterdam, 9 March, 1884. Dr. \nHarkavy, of St. Petersburg, published a report, about \n\n\n\nabout B.C. \nfrom \n\n\n\nJob . . .\' \nJoshua .... \n\nJudges \n\nRuth .... \n\n1st and 2nd Samuel \n\n1st and 2nd Kings . \n\n1st and 2nd Chronicles \n\nBook of Psalms (principally by David) . \n\n\n\nProverbs written \n\nSong of Solomon \n\nEcclesiastes. \n\nJonah \n\nJoel \n\nHosea \n\nAmos . \n\nIsaiah \n\n\n\nabout \nabout \nabout \nabout \nabout \nabout \nabout \nabout \n\nMii-ali about \n\nNahum \xe2\x80\xa2 . about \n\nZephauiah about \n\nJeremiah about \n\nLamentations about \n\nHabakkuk about \n\nDaniel from \n\nEzekiel from \n\nObadiah about \n\nEzra about \n\nEsther about \n\nHaggai about \n\nZechariah about \n\nNehemiah about \n\nMalachi ...... about \n\n\n\n1520 \n\n1451\xe2\x80\x94 1420 \n14.25 \xe2\x80\x94 1 120 \n1322 \xe2\x80\x94 1312 \n1171 \xe2\x80\x94 1017 \n1015 \xe2\x80\x94 562 \n1004\xe2\x80\x94 536 \n1063 \xe2\x80\x94 1015 \n1000 \xe2\x80\x94 700 \n1014 \n\n977 \n\n862 \n\n800 \n\n785\xe2\x80\x94 725 \n\n787 \n\n760 \xe2\x80\x94 698 \n\n750 \xe2\x80\x94 710 \n\n713 \n\n630 \n\n629\xe2\x80\x94 588 \n\n588 \n\n626 \n\n607\xe2\x80\x94 534 \n\n595\xe2\x80\x94 574 \n\n587 \n\n536\xe2\x80\x94 456 \n\n521\xe2\x80\x94 49s \n\n520 \n\n520 \xe2\x80\x94 518 \n\n446\xe2\x80\x94 434 \n\n397 \n\n\n\nNSW TESTAMENT. \n\nGospels by Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, \n\nB.C. 5\xe2\x80\x94 a.d. 33 \n\nActs of the Apostles a.d. 33 \xe2\x80\x94 65 \n\nEpistles\xe2\x80\x94 1st and 2nd of Paul to Thessalonians abt. 54 \n\nTo Galatians 58 \n\n1st Corinthians. . . . - . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 59 \n\n2nd Corinthians 60 \n\nRomans 60 \n\nOf James 60 \n\n1st of Peter 60 \n\nTo Ephesians, Philipiiians, Colossians, Hebrews, \n\nPhilemon 64 \n\nTitus, and 1st to Timothy 65 \n\n2nd to Timothy 66 \n\n2nd of Peter 66 \n\nOf Jude 66 \n\n1st, 2nd, and 3rd of John after . . . .90 \n\nRevelation 96 \n\nThe most ancient copy of the Hebrew Scriptures existed \nat Toledo, called the Codex of Hillel ; it was of very- \nearly date, probably of the 4th century after Christ ; \nsome say about 60 years before Christ. The copy of \nBen Asher, of Jerusalem, was made about 1100. \nThe reputed oldest copy of the Old and New Testament \nin Greek, is that in the Vatican, which was written in \nthe 4th or 5th century. Mai\'s edition appeared in 1857. \nThe next in age is the Alexandrian Codex (referred to \nthe 5th century) in the British Museum, presented by \nthe Greek patriarch to Charles I. in 1628. It has been \nprinted in England, edited by Woide and Baber, 1786 \xe2\x80\x94 \n1821. \xe2\x80\x94 Codex Ephraemi, or Codex Regius, ascribed to \nthe 5th century, in the Royal Library, Paris : published \nby Tischendorf in 1843. \nThe Codex Sinaiticus, probably written in the 4th cen- \ntury, was discovered by M. Constautine Tischendorf, \nat St. Katherine\'s monastery in 1844 and 1859, and pre- \nsented to the czar of Russia, at whose cost a splendid \nedition was published in 1862. \nThe Hebrew Psalter was printed at Bologna in 1477. The \ncomplete Hebrew Bible was first printed by Soncinoin \nItaly in 1488, and the Greek Testament (edited by \nErasmus) at Rotterdam, in 1516. Aldus\'s edition was \nprinted in 1518 ; Stephens\' in 1546 ; and the text us rc- \nceptus (or received text) by the Elzevirs in 1624. \n\nTRANSLATIONS. \n\nThe Old Testament, in Greek, termed the Septuaghrt \n(which see), generally considered to have been made by \norder of Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt, aboul \n286 or 285 B.C.; of this many fabulous accounts are \ngiven. \n\nAug. 1884, describing some apparently ancient Hebrew \nMS. rolls of Lamentations and other books, said to \nhave been found by Jews in Rhodes about 1850. \n\n\n\nBIBLE. \n\n\n\n122 \n\n\n\nBIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. \n\n\n\nOrigen, after spending twenty-eight years in collating \nMSS., commenced his polyglot Bible at Ctesarea in a.d. \n231 ; it contained the Greek versions of Aquila, Sym- \nmaehus, and Tlieodotion, all made in or about the 2nd \ncentury after Christ. \n\nThe following are ancient versions : \xe2\x80\x94 Syriac, 1st or 2nd \ncentury ; the old Latin version, early in the 2nd cen- \ntury, revised by Jerome, in 384 ; who, however, com- \npleted a new version in 405, now called the Vulgate \n(which see) ; the first edition was printed (without date) \nabout 1456 ; the first dated 1462 ; \xe2\x80\x94 Coptic, 2nd or 3rd \ncentury ; Ethiopic ; Armenian, 4th or 5th century; \nSlavonic, 9th century ; and the Mmso-Gothic, by Ulttlas, \nthe apostle of the Goths, about 360, a manuscript copy \nof which, called the Codex Argenteus, is at Upsal. \nThe Psalms were translated into Saxon by bishop \nAldhelm, about 706 ; Casdmon\'s metrical paraphrase \nof a portion of the Bible, about 680 ; and the Gospels \nby bishop Egbert, about 721 : parts of the Bible by \nBede, in the 8th century. \n\nBible Translation Society, founded 1840. \n\nENGLISH VERSIONS AND EDITIONS. \n\nMS. paraphrase of the whole Bible at the Bodleian \nLibrary, Oxford, dated by Usher .... 1290 \n\nVersions (from the Vulgate) by Wickliffe and his \nfollowers (above 170 MS. copies extant) . . 1356-84 \n\n[Part published by Lewis, 1731 ; by Baber, 1810 ; \nthe whole by Madden and Forshall. atOxford 1850.] " \n\nWilliam Tyndale\'s version of Matthew and Mark- \nfrom the Greek printed, 1524 ; of the whole New \nTestament, 1525 ; 6 editions .... 1525-30 \n\nMiles Coverdale\'s version of the whole Bible ; print- \ning finished 4 Oct. 1535 \n\n[Ordered by Henry VIII. to be laid in the choir of \nevery church, "for every man that will to look \nand read therein. "] \n\nT. Matthews\' (said to be fictitious name for John \nRogers) version (partly by Tyndale* and Coverdale) 1537 \n\nCranmer\'s Great Bible (Matthews\' revised), the first \nprinted by authority 1539 \n\n[Bible reading prohibited] .... 1502-57 \n\nGeneva version, "Breeches Bible," (the first with \nfigured verses), 1540-1557 ; published . . . 1560 \n\nArchbishop Parker\'s called "The Bishops\' Bible " \n(eight of the fourteen persons employed being \nbishops) I5 68 \n\nKing James\'s Bible, the present authorised version \n\xe2\x80\x94revision began 1604 ; published . . . .1611 \n\n[Dr. Benjamin Blayney\'s revised edition, 1769.] \n\nRoman Catholic authorised version : New Testa- \nment, at Rheims, 1582 ; Old Testament, at Douay, \n\n1609-10 \n\nAuthorised Jewish English version . . . 1851-61 \n\nThe revision of the English version now in use was re- \ncommended by the bishops in convocation, 10 Feb. \n1870. The committee, including eminent scholars of \nvarious denominations, appointed in May, held their \nfirst meeting at Westminster Abbey 22 June, 1870. \n\nRevision of the New Testament completed (103 sessions, \nor 407 days), n Nov. 1880 ; various editions published \n17 May, 3881. Revision of the Old Testament com- \npleted, July, 1884. Published 19 May, 1885. \n\nParagraph Bibles published in England by John Reeve., \n1808 ; by the Tract Society, 1848 ; at Cambridge, Mas- \nsachusetts, by Dr. Coit, 1834. \n\nSmallest Bible known (4^X2Xj inches: weight under \n3i oz.), issued from Oxford University press, Oct. \n\nMODERN TRANSLATIONS, t \n_ N. TEST. BIBLE. \n\nFlemish I4 __ \n\nSpanish (Valencian) . . . . I47 g \n\nGerman I522 I530 \n\nEnglish . . .... I52 6 1535 \n\nFrench 4lf \n\nSwedish I526 I5 \n\nDanish . 1524 1550 \n\n* He was strangled at Antwerp, 6 Oct. 1536, at the \ninstigation of Henry VIII. and his council. His last \nwords were, " Lord, open the king of England\'s eyes !" \n14 editions of his Testament had then been published. \nHis statue on the Thames embankment was uncovered \n7 May, 1884. \n\nt " The BiMe of Every Land," ed. i860, published by \nMessrs. Bagsters, London, is full of information respect- \ning ancient and modern versions of the Bible. \n\n\n\nN.TEST. BIBLE. \n\nDutch ........ 1475 \n\nItalian 1471 \n\nSpanish 1543 1569 \n\nRussian (parts) 1519 1822 \n\nWelsh 1567 1588 \n\nHungarian 1574 1589 \n\nBohemian . . > 1488 \n\nPolish 1551 1561 \n\nVirginian Indians . . .... 1661 1663 \n\nIrish \\ 1602 1686 \n\nGeorgian 1743 \n\nPortuguese . . . . . . 1712 1748 \n\nManks 1748 1767 \n\nTurkish 1666 1814 \n\nSanscrit 1808 1822 \n\nModern Greek 1638 1821 \n\nChinese 1814 1823 \n\nJapanese \'. 1888 \n\nThe British and Foreign Bible Society continue to \nmake and print translations of the Bible in all the \ndialects of the world ; see Polyglot. \n\nBIBLE CHRISTIANS, a branch of the \nMethodists began in 1815 by "Win. O\'Bryan, a \nCornish lay preacher ; principally exist in the West \nof England. \n\nBIBLE DICTIONARIES. The most re- \nmarkable are Calmet\'s "Dictionary of the Bible," \n1722-8 ; Kitto\'s " Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature," \n1843 and 1851 ; and Smith\'s elaborate " Dictionary \nof the Bible," 1860-3 ; see Concordances* \n\nBIBLE SOCIETIES. Among the principal \nand oldest societies which have made the dissemina- \ntion of the Scriptures a collateral or an exclusive \nobject, are the following : \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nSociety for Promoting Christian Knowledge . . 1698 \nSociety for Propagating the Gospel in Foreign \n\nParts " . . . . 1701 \n\nSociety in Scotland, for Promoting Christian Know- \nledge 1709 \n\nSociety for Promoting Religious Knowledge among \n\nthe poor 1750 \n\nNaval and Military Bible Society .... 1780 \n\nSunday School Society 1785 \n\nFrench Bible Society. . ... . . . 1792 \n\nBritish and Foreign Bible Society, t begun 1803 ; or- \nganised 1804 \n\nHibernian Bible Society 1806 \n\nCity of London Auxiliary Bible Society . . . 1812 \nA bull from the pope, Pius VII., against Bible \nSocieties appeared in 1817 \n\nBIBLIA PAUPERUM (the Bible for the \n\npoor), consisting of engravings illustrating scripture \nhistory, with texts, carved in wood, a "block book," \nprinted early in the 15th century, was compiled by \nBonaventura, general of the Franciscans, about 1260. \nA fac-simile was published by J. R Smith, in 1859. \n\nBIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, Society \n\nfok, established by Dr. Samuel Birch, and others, \n1871. Besides a journal, it has published, " Re- \ncords of the Past," translations from the Assyrian, \nEgyptian, and other languages, 1873-80. \n\n* An " Index to the Persons, Places, and Subjects oc- \ncurring in the Holy Scriptures," compiled by B. Vincent, \neditor of the present work, was published by the queen\'s \nprinters in 1848 ; others published since. \n\nt This society had issued 24,247,667 copies of the \nBible or parts of it up to Jan. 1851 ; in May, 1863, the \nnumber had risen to 43,044,334 ; in 1S67 to 52,669,089 ; in \n1875 to 76,432,723 ; in March, 1881, to 91,014,448 ; in \n1884 to 100,035,933; in 1887 to 112,253,547; m 1890, \nto 123,929.046. The income of the year 1S76 was ^206,978 ; \nin the year 1,880-1, ,\xc2\xa3209,519; in 1886-7, ^116,761; in \n1889-90, 212,077. In 1857 the society published a cata- \nlogue of their library, which contains a large number of \nremarkable editions of the Bible. The foundation-stone \nof their new Central hall, Queen Victoria-street, London, \nwas laid by the prince of Wales, 11 June, 1866. The \nsociety has promoted translations of the Bible into 225 \nlanguages or dialects. \n\n\n\nBIBLICAL BROTHERHOOD. \n\n\n\n123 \n\n\n\nBILLS OF MORTALITY. \n\n\n\n. BIBLICAL BROTHERHOOD. A Rus- \nsian sect founded in 1880 by four Jews to reconcile \nHebraism with Christianity. \n\nBIBLIOGRAPHY, the Science of Books. \n\nGesner\'s " Bibliotheca Universale " appeared . . 1345 \nDe Bure\'s " Bibliographie Instructive " . . . 1763 \n\nPeignot, Manuel 1 \n\nHome, Introduction to the Study of Bibliography . 1814 \nBrunei\'s Manuel du Libraire, 1st edit. 1810 ; 5th ed. , \n\nwith supplements 1860-80 \n\nScriptural, Orme, Bibliotheca Biblica, 1824 ; Dar- \nling, Bibliographica 1854-8 \n\nClassical, the works of Fabricius, Clarke, and \n\nDibdin. \nEnglish, Watt\'s Bibliotheca Britannica . . . 1824 \nLowndes, Bibliographer\'s Manual, 1834 ; new ed. by \n\nBohn 1857-62 \n\nAllibone\'s Dictionary of English Literature, 1859-71 ; \n\nsupplement by John F. Kirk .... 1891 \nBritish Catalogues, by Sampson Low . . 1835-88 \nFrench, Querard 1828-64 \n\nBIBLIOMANIA (or book madness) very much \nprevailed in 181 1, when Dr. Dibdin\'s work with this \ntitle was published ; see Boccaccio, and Printing, \n1450-5- \n\nBICOCCA, N. Italy. Lautrec and the French \nwere here defeated by Colonna and the Imperialists, \n29 April, 1522, and Francis thereby lost his con- \nquests in Milan. \n\nBICYCLE, see Velocipede. \n\nBIDASSOA. The allied army under lord Wel- \nlington, having driven the French from Spain, \neffected the passage of this river 8 Oct. 1813, and \nentered France. \n\nBIDDENDEN MAIDS- A distribution of \nbread and cheese to the poor takes place at Bidden- \nden, Kent, on Easter Mondays, the expense being \ndefrayed from the rental of twenty acres of land, \nin 1875 yielding about 20I. a year, the reputed \nbequest of the Biddenden maids, two sisters named \nChulkhurst, said to have been joined together like \nthe Siamese twins, and to have died in the 12th \ncentury. In 1656, Wm. Horner, the rector, was \nnon-suited in an attempt to add the "Bread and \nCheese lands " to his glebe. \n\nBIGAMY. The Romans branded the guilty \nparty with an infamous mark ; and in England the \npunishment, formerly, was death. An act respect- \ning it was passed 5 Edw. T. 1276. Yinef s Statutes. \nDeclared to be felony, without benefit of clergy, 1 \nJames I. 1603. Punishable, by imprisonment or \ntransportation, 35 Geo. III. 1794; by imprisonment, \n24 & 25 Tict. c. 100 (1861). \n\nBIG BETHEL (Virginia, U.S.). On 10 June, \n1861, the Federals were defeated in an attack on \nsome Confederate batteries at this place. \n\nBILBAO (N.E. Spain), founded about 1300 ; \nwas taken by the French and held a few days, July, \n1795. It was delivered from the Carlists by Espar- \ntero, assisted by the British, 24 Dec. 1836." It was \nbesieged by Carlists from Feb. to May, 1874, when \nthe siege was raised by marshal Concha, who entered \nBilbao 2 May. Population, 1887, 50,772. \n\nStrike of ironworkers, riotous proceedings, conflict \nwith the police, state of siege, and military occu- \npation 14\xe2\x80\x94 16 May, 1890 \n\nGreat fire in the dockyard, estimated damage, \n2,500,000 pesetas 1 May, 1891 \n\nGreat strike of miners, middle Jan., disturbances; \nintervention of the military ; state of siege, 27 \nJan. ; work resumed, 8 Feb. ; quiet restored \n\n16 Feb. 1892 \n\n\n\nBILL OF EXCEPTIONS. The right of \ntendering such a bill to a judge, either to his charge, \nto his definition of the law, or to other errors of the \ncourt, at a trial between parties, provided by the \n2nd statute of Westminster, 13 Edw. I. 1284, was \nabolished by the Judicature Act, 1875. \n\n823 i BILL OF PAIN\'S, &c. ; see Queen Caroline. \n\nBILL OF RIGHTS, &c. ; see Rights. \n\nBILLIARDS. The French ascribe their inven- \ntion to Henrique Devigne, an artist, about 1571. \nSlate billiar.d tables were introduced in England in \n1827. \n\nBILLINGSGATE, the fish-marketin London, \nis said to have derived its name from Belinus Mag- \nnus, a British prince, the father of king Lud,400B.C, \nbut Stow thinks from a former owner. It was the \nold port of London, and the customs were paid here \nunder Ethelred II., a.d. 979. Stow. Billingsgate \nwas made a free market, 1699. Chamberlain. Fish \nby land-carriage, as well as sea-borne, now arrives \ndaily here. In 1849, the market was extended and \nimproved, and a new one was erected in 1852, Mr. \nBunning, architect. Another new one, erected by \nHorace Jones, founded 27 Oct. 1874 ! completed \nSept. 1876; lit by electric iight, 25 Nov. 1878. Bil- \nlingsgate market was declared to be insufficient for \nthe fish supply of the metropolis in the report of \nthe commission appointed by the city corporation, \npresented to the common council, II Aug. 1881. \n\nBILLS OF EXCHANGE were invented by \nthe Jews as a means of removing their property from \nnations where they were persecuted, 1 160. Anderson. \nBills are said to have been used in England, 1307. \nTheonlylegal modeof sending money from England, \n4 Richard II. 1381. Regulated, 1698 ; first stamped, \n1782; duty advanced, 1797; again, June 1801 ; and \nsince. It was made capital to counterfeit bills of \nexchange in 1734. In 1825, the year of disastrous \nspeculations in bubbles, it was computed that there \nwere 400 millions of pounds sterling represented by \nbills of exchange and promissory notes. The present \namount is not supposed to exceed 50 millions. The \nmany statutes regarding bills of exchange were con- \nsolidated by act 9 Geo. IV. 1828. An act regulating \nbills of exchange passed 3 Vict. July, 1839. Great \nalterations were made in the law on the subject by \n17 & 18 Vict. c. 83 (1854), and 18 & 19 Vict. c. 67 \n(1855). Days of grace were abolished in the case of \nbills of exchange payable on sight in Aug. 1871. \nForgery of bills to obtain discount was detected by \nthe bank of England, 28 Feb., after 102,217/. had \nbeen paid. The culprits (Americans) were tried \nand condemned to penal servitude for life, 26 Aug. \n1873. See Trials, Aug. 1873. \n\nA Bills of Exchange Act, declaring the law relating to \nacceptance, passed 16 April, 1878 ; new Act passed 18 \nAug. 1882. \n\n\n\nBILLS OF MORTALITY for Loxdox- \n\nThese bills were first compiled by order of Cromwell, \nabout 1538, 30 Hen. VIII., but in a more formal and \nrecognised manner in 1603, after the great plague \nof that year. No complete series of them has been \npreserved. They have besn superseded by the \nweekly returns of the registrar-general, since 1S37. \nSee Public Health. The following show the \nnumbers for London at decennial periods : \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nChrisleninga. Burials. I Christenings. Burials. \n\n1780 16,634 20,507 1820 26,158 19.348 \n\n1790 18,980 18,038 ! 1830 27,028 23,524 \n\n1800 19,176 23,068 I 1840 30.387 26.774 \n\n1810 19,930 19,892 I 1850 39,973 3 6 >947 \n\n\n\nBILLS OF SALE. \n\n\n\n124 \n\n\n\nBIRDS. \n\n\n\n1845 \n\n\n\n^853 \n1856 \n\n\n\nBirths. \n502.303 \n543.521 \n578,159 \n612,391 \n\n657.453 \n655,481 \n\n\n\nIN ENGLAND AND WALES. \n\nBirths. \n\n\n\n1-859 689,881 \n\nENGLAND AND \n\nBirths. \n748,069 \n753.870 \n768,349 \n\n\n\nDeaths. \n356,634 \n349.366 \n440,839 \n421,097 \n390,506 \n449,656 \n441,790 \n\n\n\n1863 \n1864 \n1865 \n\n\n\n684,048 \n696,406 \n712,684 \n7 2 7.4i7 \n740.275 \n748,069 \n\n\n\nDeaths. \n422,721 \n436,114 \n436,573 \n473.837 \n495.531 \n490,909 \n\n\n\n-S870. \n1871 \n1872 \n1873 \n1874 \n\n58 7 5: \n\n11876 \n3877 \n\n\n\n773.381 \n792,787 \n797,428 \n825,907 \n829,778 \n\n854.956 \n\n850,607 \n\n887,968 \n888,200 \n\n891,906 \n\n880,389 \n881,643 \n883,642 \n889,018 \n\n890,722 \n906,750 \n894,270 \n903,866 \n886,331 \n879,868 \n\n885,944 \n869,937 \n9*3,836 \n\n\n\nWALES. \n\nDeaths. \n490,909 \n500,689 \n471.073 \n480,622 \n494,828 \n515.329 \n514.879 \n492,265 \n492,520 \n526,632 \n546,453 \n510.315 \n500,496 \n539.872 \n526,255 \n528,624 \n491.935 \n516,654 \n522,997 \n530,828 \n522,750 \n537.276 \n530.758 \n5 IO >97i \n5i8,353 \n562,248 \n587,666 \n\n\n\nSCOTLAND. \n\nBirths. Deaths. \n113,126 70,821 \n\n\n\nIRELAND." \n\nBirths. Deaths. \n144,970 93,154 \n\n\n\n113,639 \n\n\n7 I > 2 73 \n\n\n146,237 \n\n\n93,598 \n\n\n"4>"5 \n\n\n69,024 \n\n\n144,318 \n\n\n93, 9 11 \n\n\n115,673 \n\n\n69,386 \n\n\n146,108 \n\n\n86,803 \n\n\nH3.395 \n\n\n75,789 \n\n\n145,659 \n\n\n89,573 \n\n\n"5.423 \n\n\n74,067 \n\n\n150,151 \n\n\n90,695 \n\n\n116,127 \n\n\n74,644 \n\n\n151,665 \n\n\n88,720 \n\n\n118,873 \n\n\n75,741 \n\n\n149,292 \n\n\n97,577 \n\n\n119,738 \n\n\n76,857 \n\n\n144,377 \n\n\n97,537 \n\n\n123.795 \n\n\n80,676 \n\n\n141,28s \n\n\n91,961 \n\n\n123,693 \n\n\n81,785 \n\n\n138,320 \n\n\n98,114 \n\n\n126,749 \n\n\n74,122 \n\n\n140,469 \n\n\n92,324 \n\n\n126,824 \n\n\n73.946 \n\n\n139,659 \n\n\n93.543 \n\n\n126,707 \n\n\n76,775 \n\n\ni34."7 \n\n\n99,629 \n\n\n125,736 \n\n\n73,329 \n\n\ni35,328 \n\n\n105,089 \n\n\n124,652 \n\n\n75,795 \n\n\n128,086 \n\n\n102,906 \n\n\n126,214 \n\n\n72,301 \n\n\n125,847 \n\n\n90,035 \n\n\n126,182 \n\n\n72.966 \n\n\n122,648 \n\n\n88,500 \n\n\n124,462 \n\n\n76,867 \n\n\n118,163 \n\n\n96,228 \n\n\n129,041 \n\n\n75,128 \n\n\n118,875 \n\n\n87> T 54 \n\n\n126,110 \n\n\n74,603 \n\n\nH5,95i \n\n\n90,712 \n\n\n127,927 \n\n\n73,622 \n\n\n113,927 \n\n\n87,292 \n\n\n124,418 \n\n\n74,546 \n\n\n112,400 \n\n\n88,585 \n\n\n123,269 \n\n\n7i,i74 \n\n\n109,557 \n\n\n85,868 \n\n\n122,783 \n\n\n73,238 \n\n\n107,841 \n\n\n82,908 \n\n\n121,530 \n\n\n78,978 \n\n\n105,254 \n\n\n85,850 \n\n\n125,965 \n\n\n83,548 \n\n\n107,883 \n\n\n86,053 \n\n\n\nIN LONDON AND SUBURBS, (52 OR 53 WEEKS). \n\nBirths. Deaths. \n\n*854 84,684 .... 73,697 \n\nT856 .... 86,833 . \xe2\x80\xa2 . . 57,786 \n^858 (Females, 43,400) . 88,620 (Females, 31,319) 63,882 \n\n1862 .... 97,114 . . . . 66,950 \n\n3864 102,187 .... 77.723 \n\n2867 (Females, 54,862) . 112,264 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 70.588 \n\na868 (53 weeks) . . 115,744. \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x96\xa0 74.908 \n\n1869 m,93o . . . \xe2\x80\xa2 77,933 \n\n1870 .... 113,449 .... 77,278 \n\n1871 112,535 \xe2\x96\xa0 ... 80,332 \n\n1872 .... 117,200. . . . 70,893 \n\n1873 (53 weeks) . . 121,100 . . . . 76,334 \n7874 .... 121,394 \xe2\x80\xa2\xe2\x80\xa2\xe2\x80\xa2\xe2\x80\xa2 76,606 \n\n1875 . . ... 122,871 . . . . 81,513 \n\n1876 (Females, 62,095) 127,015 .... 77,411 \n.1878 .... 129,184 .... 83,695 \n\n1879 i34,o9 6 \xe2\x80\xa2 ... 85,540 \n\n1880 (Females, 64,659) . 132,173 (Females, 39,426) 81,128 \n\n1882 . . . 133,200 . . . 82,905 \n\n3883 . . . 133,656. . . . 80,578 \n\n1885 . . . 132,952. . . . 80,946 \n\n1887 . . . 133,359 .... 82,449 \n\n1888 (52 weeks) . . 131,080 . . . 78,848 \n"1889 .... 132,223 .... 76,026 \n\n1890 128,161 87,689 \n\n-1891 .... 134,003 . . g ,216 \n\nBILLS OF SALE, an act to consolidate and \namend the law for preventing frauds upon creditors \nby secret bills of sale of personal chattels (41 & 42 \nTict. c. 31) passed 22 July, 1878, amended, 1882. \n\nBI-METALLISM, the system of having two \n\xe2\x96\xa0standard metallic currencies in a country, gold and \n\xe2\x96\xa0silver, much advocated by MM. H. Cernuschi and \nE. Lavellye, and others since 1867. By 56 Geo. \nIII. c. 68 "(1816), it was enacted that " gold coins \nonly should be legal tender in all payments of \nmore than 40,5." in this country; the tender of \nsilver being previously unlimited. A bi-metallic \ncurrency was established in France in 1803. It \nwas recommended for Germany in 1879, and was \n\n* Approximative : registration defective. \n\n\n\ndiscussed at the Monetary Conference at Paris, \n\nApril, 1881. The unrestricted coinage of silver was \n\nsuspended in the countries termed the Latin Union \n\nin 1873. \n\nThe Bimetallic League hold a conference at Man- \nchester 4 April, 1888 \n\nThe marquis of Salisbury and Mr. Goschen declare \ntheir neutrality to a deputation, 30 May, 1889 ; \n\n11 May, 1892 \n\nMr. Samuel Smith\'s resolution proposing an inter- \nnational conference on bi-metallism negatived by \nthe commons, 183\xe2\x80\x9487 . . . .18 April, 1890 \n\nThe Bimetallic League declare that their chief \nobject is to secure the opening of the mints of the \nleading nations, to the unrestricted coinage of \nsilver and gold at a fixed ratio, Nov. 1890 ; an- \nnual meeting 2 March, 1892 \n\nBINARY ARITHMETIC, that which counts \nby twos, for expeditiously ascertaining the property \nof numbers, and constructing tables, was invented \nby Leibnitz of Leipsic, about 1703. For the Binary \ntheory in chemistry, see Compound Radical. \n\nBINOMIAL ROOT, in Algebra, composed of \nonly two parts connected with the signs plus or \nminus; a term first used by Recorda, about 1550, \nwhen he published his Algebra. The celebrated \nbinomial theorem of Newton is said to have been \ndiscovered in 1663. \n\nBIOGRAPHY (from the Greek bios, life, and \ngrapho, I write), defined as "history teaching by \nexample." The book of Genesis contains the bio- \ngraphy of the patriarchs ; and the Gospels that of \nChrist. Plutarch wrote the Lives of Illustrious \nMen ; Cornelius Nepos, Lives of Military Com- \nmanders ; and Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve \nCaesars (all three in the first century after Christ) ; \nDiogenes Laertius, Lives of the Philosophers (about \n205). \xe2\x80\x94 Boswell\'s Life of Johnson (published in \n1790) is the most remarkable English biography. \nMr. John Wilson Croker\'s edition appeared in 1831. \nA magnificent edition, edited by Rev. Alex. Napier, \npublished by Messrs. Bell, Feb. 1884. An excel- \nlent edition by Dr. George Birkbeck Hill (Claren- \ndon Press), published June, 1887. \nImportant Dictionaries. \xe2\x80\x94 Biographie Universelle, 85 vols. , \n1811-62 ; Nouvelle Biographie Generate, 46 vols., \n1S52-66 ; General Biographical Dictionary, by Alex. \nChalmers, 32 vols., 1812-17 ; New General Biographi- \ncal Dictionary, by H. J. Rose, 12 vols., 1848 ; Bio- \ngraphia Britannica, 7 vols., 1747 ; Dictionary of \nNational Biography, by Leslie Stephen and Sidney \nLee, vol. i. published by Smith, Elder & Co., 1 Jan. \n1885 ; vol. xxxi. June, 1892. \n\nBIOLOGY, termed the science of life and living \nthings, by Treviranus, of Bremen, in his work on \nPhysiology, published 1802-22. Biology includes \nzoology, anthropology, and ethnology [which see). \nHerbert Spencer\'s " Principles of Biology," pub- \nlished 1865-67. T. H. Huxley, "Piactical in- \nstruction in Biology," 1875. In 1831 about 70,000 \nanimals were known and described ; in 1881, about \n320,000. Sir John Lubbock. \n\nA society for the Biological Investigation of the Coasts \nof the United Kingdom, established by the Royal \nSociety and others 31 March, 1884 ; president, professor \nHuxley ; incorporated as the Marine Biological Asso- \nciation ; patron the prince of Wales ; fine laboratory \nset up at Plymouth, cost 13,000^. ; opened 30 June, \n1888. See Naples, 1872. Annual reports issued. \n\nBIRCH TREE. The black {Betula nigra), \nbrought from North America, 1736. The birch tree \nknown as the Betula pumila, introduced into Kew \ngardens, England, by Mr. James Gordon, from \nNorth America, 1762. Hardy\'s Annals. \n\nBIRDS were divided by Linnaeus into six orders \n(1735) ! bv Blumenbach into eight (1805) ; and by \nCuvier, into six (1817). The most remarkable works \n\n\n\nBIEKBECK. \n\n\n\n125 \n\n\n\nBIRMINGHAM. \n\n\n\nare those published by John Gould, F.R.S. ; they \nconsist of 44 folio volumes of coloured plates, \n&e. They now include the birds of Europe, Asia, \nAustralia, Great Britain, and New Guinea, besides \nmonographs of the humming-birds, &c, 1889-92. \nJohn Gould died 3 Feb. 1881. Dr. John Latham\'s \n"Synopsis of Birds," 1781-90. John James \nAudubon\'s " Birds of America," 1826-40. See \nWild Birds. \nBritish Ornithologists\' Union" founded 1858; \npublished the " Ibis" 1859, et seq. \nA morphological classification of birds (based on \nHuxley\'s), put forth by professors Parker and \nNewton; Encyclopaedia Britannica, 9th ed. . 1875 \nThe Wild Birds Protection Act, 43 & 44 Vict. c. 35, \n\npassed 7 Sept. 1880 \n\nInternational Congress of Ornithologists, 1st meet- \ning, at Vienna, April 7-11, 1884 ; second congress \nmet at Budapest . , . . . May 17, 1891 \n\nA "Plumage League " formed by lady Mount- \nTemple, Rev. F. O. Morris and others to check \nthe destruction of wild birds, whose plumage is \n\nused for ornament Dec. 1885. \n\nTwenty-ninth annual bird show at the Crystal \n\nPalace 27 Feb. \xe2\x80\x94 2 March, 1892 \n\nSee Selborne Society. \n\nBIEKBECK Literary and Scientific \n\nINSTITUTION, Bream\'s buildings, W.C., the pre- \nsent name of the mechanics\' institution founded by \nDr. Birkbeck in 1823. Foundation stone of new \nbuilding laid by the Duke of Albany, 23 April, \n1883. New building opened with an address by \nDr. Tyndall, 22 Oct. 1884; formally by Prince of \n"Wales, 4 July, 1885. Room for 6,060 students. \n\nBIBKENHEAD (Cheshire), a modern town \non the Mersey, opposite to Liverpool. The great \ndock here was projected by Mr. John Laird, con- \nstructed by Mr. Rendell, and opened in Aug. 1847 \nby lord Morpeth. In 1861 Birkenhead was made a \nparliamentary borough, and Mr. Laird was elected \nfirst representative. He died 29 Oct. 1874. Bir- \nkenhead received a charter of incorporation in 1878. \nPopulation in 1831, 200; in 1861, 51,649; in 1871, \n65,971 ; ini88i, 84,006; 1891,99,184. See Wrecks, \n1852. \n\nBIEMAN EMPIEE or Empire of Ava, \n\nsee Burmah and India. \n\nBIRMINGHAM (Warwickshire) existed in \nthe reign of Alfred. There were "many smythes" \nhere in the time of Henry VIII. (Leland), but its \ngreat importance commenced in the reign of \nWilliam III. See Population. \n\nGrammar school founded by Edward VI. . . 1552 \n\nBesieged and taken by prince Rupert . . . . 1643 \nButton manufactures established . ... . 1689 \nSoho works established by Matthew Boulton about \n1764 ; and steam engine works about . . . 1774 \n\nBirmingham Canal originated 1767 \n\nDr. Ash\'s hospital founded, 1766 ; first Birmingham \n\nmusical festival for it 1768 \n\nRiots against Dr. Priestley and others commemo- \nrating the French Revolution, much property \ndestroyed ...... 14 July, 1791 \n\nTheatre destroyed by fire ... 7 Aug. 1792 \n\nTheatre burnt 7 Jan. 1820 \n\nPolitical Union, formed by T. Attwood . Feb. 183 1 \n\nBirmingham made a borough by Reform Act (2 \n\nmembers) 1832 \n\nTown-hall built 1833 \n\nPolitical Union dissolved itself . . 10 May, 1834 \n\nBirmingham and Liverpool railway opened as the \n\nGrand Junction 4 July, 1837 \n\nLondon and Birmingham railway opened its entire \n\nlength 17 Sept. 1838 \n\nGreat Chartist riot ; houses burnt . . 15 July, 1839 \nTown incorporated, and Police Act passed . . \xe2\x80\x9e \nMeeting of British Association . . 29 Aug. ,, \n\nQueen\'s College incorporated 1843 \n\nCorn Exchange opened .... 27 Oct. 1847 \nBritish Association (meet again) . . 12 Sept. 1849 \nQueen\'s College organised Jan. 1853 \n\n\n\nBirmingham and Midland Institute incorporated . 1854. \nPublic park opened (ground virtually given by \n\nMr. Adderley) 3 Aug. 1856 \n\nNew music-hall opened .... 3 Sept. ,, \nAnother park opened by the duke of Cambridge, \n100,000 persons present (ground given by lord \n\nCalthorpe) 1 June, 1857 \n\nDeath of G. F. Muntz, M.P. . . . 30 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nJohn Bright elected M. P. 10 Aug. 1857, and April, 1859, \nThe queen and prince consort visit Birmingham, \nWarwick, &c. , for the first time, and open Aston \n\npark 14-16 June, 185S \n\nThe Free Library opened . . . .4 April, 1861 \nFactory explosion : 9 killed ... 23 June, 1862. \nPeople\'s park purchased by corporation . Sept. 1864 \n\nNew Exchange opened 2 Jan. 1865 \n\nThe bank of Attwoods and Spooner stops payment \n\nand causes much distress . . 10 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMeeting of British Association (3rd) . 6 Sept. ,, \nStoppage of the " Banking Company " 13 July, 1866 \n\nFirst annual horse show , , \n\nGreat Reform meeting \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nViolent riots through the lectures of. Murphy, an \n\nanti-popery orator, at a tabernacle 17, 18 June, 1867 \nAn additional M.P. given to Birmingham by \n\nReform Act 15 Aug. ,, \n\nMeeting of Nat. Social Science Association, 7 Oct. 1868 \nFirst club house here opened . . .3 May, 1869, \nErdington orphan houses, endowed by Josiah \nMason, a manufacturer of steel-pens ; begun 1858 ; \n\nfinished July, ,, \n\nNational Education League meet . . 12, 13 Oct. ,, \nExplosion at Kynoch\'s cartridge-factory, Witton, \n\nmany deaths and injuries . . . 17 Nov. 1870 \n\nExplosions at Messrs. Ludlow\'s cartridge-factory at \nWitton, 17 killed and 53 injured, several dying \nsoon after: noon, 9 Dec. ; 33 dead up to 13 Dec. ; \n\n51 up to 26 Dec , f \n\nPrince Arthur opens Royal Horticultural Exhibi- \ntion 25 June, 1872; \n\nSir Josiah Mason (knighted 1872) endows a college \n\nfor practical science J 873, \n\nCannon-hill park (presented to the town by Miss \n\nRylands) opened 1 Sept. , r \n\nSpeech of Mr. Bright (after re-election on resuming \noffice as chancellor of duchy of Lancaster) to \nabout 16,000 persons in Bingley hall . 22 Oct. , r \nStatue of Priestley (in commemoration of his dis- \ncovery of oxygen) unveiled by prof. Huxley 1 Aug. 18741 \nVisit of the prince and princess of Wales, 3 Nov. ,, \nFoundation of sir Josiah Mason\'s college laid by \n\nhimself and Mr. Bright ... 23 Feb. 1875 \nBirmingham Philosophical Society founded 28 Feb. 1876 \nWm, Dudley bequeaths ioo,oooZ. for charitable pur- \nposes in Birmingham .... March, ,, \nAnnual meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society \n\n17-24 July, , r \nGreat Western arcade opened . . .28 Sept. ,, \nMr. W. E. Gladstone addresses about 30,000 persons \n\nin Bingley hall 31 May, 1877 \n\nBirmingham liberal federation formed . May, June, , \nFire at Mr. Denison\'s, confectioner ; Mrs. Denison \nand 3 others perish, 26 Aug. ; verdict at inquest, \narson, criminal unknown ... 30 Sept. 187S\' \nCentral library, comprising the chief free reference \nlibrary and the Shakspeare library, Cervantes \ncollection, &c, with priceless treasures, destroyed \n\nby fire 11 Jan. i87o> \n\nDeath of sir Josiah Mason . . . 16 June, 1881 \n\nDiscovery of nitre-glycerine manufacture carried \n\non by Alfred Whitehead (arrested) ; box conveyed \n\nto London seized 4 April ; a large quantity made \n\ninto dynamite, at great risk burnt in a field \n\n8 April, 1885 \n[See Dynamite April, 1884.] \nFestival in honour of John Bright, 25 years M.P. \nfor Birmingham ; silver dessert-service presented \n\nn-i5June, ,, \nStatue of the queen, by T. Woollier (to accompany \nthat of the Prince Consort, by Foley), in tin\' \nFree Library, uncovered . . . . 9 May, 1S84, \nGreat reform demonstration, Mr. Bright and Mr. \n\nChamberlain present .... 4 Aug. ,, \nGreat Conservative demonstration at Aston (sir \nStafford Northcote, lord Randolph Churchill, \nand others), prevented by brutal rioters; a free \nfight ; many wounded ami much damage of pro- \nperty 13 Oct. ,, \n\n\n\nBIETHS. 126 \n\n\n\nBISHOPS. \n\n\n\nStatue of sir Josiah Mason unveiled by sir John \n\nLubbock i Oct. 1885 \n\nThe prince of Wales opens a suburban hospital and \n\nnew art gallery . .. . . 27-28 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nAn industrial exhibition opened . . 26 Aug. 1886 \nMeeting of the British Association here (4th) 1 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nReturns seven M.P.s by act passed . . 25 June, 1885 \nThe Queen lays foundation stone of the "Victoria \n(Law) Courts ; " about 500,000 persons out ; no \ndisturbance or casualties, 23 March ; Mr. T. \nMartineau, the mayor, knighted . 25 March, 1887 \nMiss Rylands presents 2,000?. to enlarge Victoria \n\nPark Oct, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBirmingham Liberal Unionist Association ; Mr. \n\nChamberlain elected president . . 28 May, 1888 \nMr. Ph. Muntz, an eminent townsman, died 25 Dec. ,, \nBirmingham created a city . . -14 Jan. 1889 \nDeath of Miss Louisa Ann Rylands, great benefac- \ntress to the town, aged 75 . . : 28 Jan. ,, \nDeath of Mr. John Bright, M.P. . 27 March, ,, \nHis son, Mr. J. Albert Bright, elected his successor \n\nas M.P 15 April, ,, \n\nThe Victoria law courts opened by the prince of \nWales . . .... 21 July, 1891 \n\nBirmingham Water bill (supply to be brought from \nthe rivers Elan and Claerwan in Mid Wales) ; read \nsecond time 8 March, 1892 \n\nBIETHS. The births of children were taxed \nin England, viz. : birth of a duke, 30/. ; of a common \nperson, 2s., 7 Will. III. 1695. Taxed again, 1783. \nThe instances of four children at a birth are \nnumerous; but it is recorded that a woman of \nKonigsberg (3 Sept. 1784), and the wife of Nelson, a \ntailor, of Oxford-market, London (Oct. 1800), had \nfive children at a birth. The queen usually pre- \nsents a small sum of money to a poor woman giving \nbirth to three or more living children at one tune. \nSee Bills of Mortality and Registers. \n\nBISHOP (Greek episcopos, overseer), a name \ngiven by the Athenians to those who had the in- \nspection of the city. The Jews and Romans had \nalso like officers. \'St. Peter, styled the first bishop \nof Rome, was martyred 65. The presbyter was the \nsame as a bishop. \' Jerome. The episcopate became \nan object of contention about 144. The title of \npope was anciently assumed by all bishops, and \nwas exclusively claimed by Gregory VII. (1073-85). \n\nBISHOP OF LONDON\'S FUND, see \n\nunder Church of England, 1864, et seq. ; amount \n\nreceived up to 31 Dec. 1878, 603,718/. \n\nA special appeal was made by the bishop, 27 May, 1886 ; \n\n23,074?. 19s. 4<1 received in 1S88 ; 27.785?. 10s. 1889 ; \n\n17,000?. in 1890. \n\nBISHOPS IN ENGLAND* were coeval with \nthe introduction of Christianity. The see of London \nis mythically said to have been founded by Lucius, \nking of Britain, 179. Restitutus, bishop of London, \nis said to have been present at the council of Aries, \n314. The early dates given below are doubtful. \n\nBishops made barons 1072 \n\nIntervention of the pope in regard to bishops, 13th \n\ncentury \nThe Congi d\'Elire of the king to choose a bishop \n\noriginated in an arrangement by king John. \nBishops were elected by the king\'s Congi d\'Elire, \n\n25 Henry VIII 1534 \n\nBishops to rank as barons by stat. 31 Hen. VIII. . 1540 \nSeven were deprived for being married . . . 1554 \nJ3everal suffered martyrdom under queen Mary, see \n\nProtestants i555"6 \n\nBishops excluded from voting in the house of peers \n\non temporal concerns, 16 Charles I: 1641 \n\nSeveral protest against the legality of acts of parlia- \nment passed while they are deprived of votes, \n\n28 Dec. ; committed to the tower . 30 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nThe order of archbishops and bishops abolished by \nthe parliament 9 Oct. 1646 \n\nBishops regain their seats .... Nov. 1661 \n\nSeven bishops (Canterbury, Bath, Chichester, St. \nAsaph, Bristol, Ely, and Peterborough) sent to \nthe tower for not reading the king\'s declaration \nfor liberty of conscience (intended to bring the \nRoman Catholics into ecclesiastical and civil \npower), 8 June ; tried and acquitted, 29-30 June, 1688 \n\nThe archbishop of Canterbury (Dr. Sancroft) and \nfive bishops (Bath and Wells, Ely, Gloucester, \nNorwich, and Peterborough) suspended for refus- \ning to take the oaths to William and Mary, 1689 ; \ndeprived 1690 \n\nRetirement of bishops : The bishops of London and \nDurham retired on annuities 1856 \n\nThe bishop of Norwich resigned .... 1857 \n\nThe Bishops\' Resignation (for Infirmity) Act, (author- \nising the appointment of bishop coadjutors), \npassed, 11 Aug;. 1869; made perpetual by Act \npassed 14 June, 1875 \n\nBishopric of St. Albans created, and dioceses of \nLondon, Winchester, and Rochester re-arranged \n38 & 39 Vict. c. 34 ; passed . . .29 June, ,, \n\nBishopric of Truro founded, 39 & 40 Vict. c. 54 ; \npassed 11 Aug. 1876 \n\nThe Bishoprics Act, 41 & 42 Vict. c. 68, authorises \nthe endowment of four new bishoprics, Liver- \npool, Newcastle, and Wakefield (York), and \nSouthwell (Canterbury). The number of bishops \nin parliament is not to be increased . 16 Aug. 1878 \n\n\n\nENGLISH BISHOPRICS. \n\n\n\nSees. \n\nLondon (abpe.) \n\nYork (abpe.) \n\nSodor and Man \n\nLlandaff \n\nSt. David\'s \n\nBangor* \' \n\nSt. Asaph \n\nCanterbury (abpe.) \n\nRochester . \n\nLondon (see London) . \n\nEastAnglia(afterwards \nNorwich, 1091) . . \n\nLindisfarne, or Holy \nIsland (afterwards \nDurham, 995) . \n\nWest Saxons, (after- \nwards Winchester, \n705) .... \n\nMercia (afterwards \nLichfield, 669) . \n\nHereford \n\nWorcester . . \n\nLindisse (afterwards \nLincoln, 1067). \n\n\n\nFounded. \n\n(?) i79 \n4th cent. \n4th cent. \n5th cent. \n5th cent, \nabout 5 16 \nabout 560 \n598 \n\n\n\n630 \n\n\n\n634 \n\n\n\nSees. Founded. \n\nSherborne (afterwards \n\nSalisbury, 1042) . . 705 \nCornwall and Devon- \nshire (afterwards \nExeter, 1050) . . 909 \nWells . . . . \xe2\x80\x9e \nSelsey about 681 ; re- \nmoved to Chichester \n\nabout 1082 \nBath . ... 1088 \nEly .... 1108 \nCarlisle . . . . 1132 \nPeterborough . . 1541 \nGloucester t . . . ,, \n\n\n\nBristol t \n\nChester . \n\nOxford \n\nRipon \n\nManchester \n\nSt. Alban\'s \n\nTruro \n\nLiverpool \n\nNewcastle . \n\nSouthwell \n\nWakefield \n\n\n\n1542 \n\n\n\n1847 \n1876 \n1877 \n\n\n\n* Bishops have the titles of Lord and Right Rev. Father \nin God. The archbishops of Canterbury and York have \nthe title of tlrace. The bishops of London, Durham, and \nWinchester have precedence of all bishops ; the others \nrank according to seniority of consecration. \n\n\n\n. 18S8 \n\nBISHOPS IN IRELAND are said to have been \nconsecrated in the 2nd century ; see Church of Ireland. \nPrelacies were constituted, and divisions of the \nbishopries in Ireland made, by cardinal Paparo, \nlegate from pope Eugene III. .... 1151 \n\nSeveral prelates deprived by queen Mary . . . 1554 \nBp. Atherton suffered death ignominiously . . 1640 \nTwo bishops deprived for not taking the oaths to \n\nWilliam and Mary 1691 \n\nChurch Temporalities Act, for reducing the number \nof bishops in Ireland, 3 <& 4 Will. IV., c. 37, passed \n\n14 Aug. 1833 \n[By this statute, of the four archbishoprics of Armagh, \nDublin, Tuam, and Cashel, the last two were to be \nabolished on the decease of the then archprelates, \nwhich has since occurred ; and it was enacted that \neight of the then eighteen bishoprics should, as they \nbecame void, be henceforth unitedto other sees, which \nwas accomplished in 1850 ; so that the Irish church \nat present consists of two archbishops and ten \nbishops.] \n\n* An order in council, Oct. 1838, directed the sees of \nBangor and St. Asaph to be united on the next vacancy \nin either, and Manchester, a new see, to be created \nthereupon : this order, as regarded the union of the sees, \nwas rescinded 1846. \n\nt The sees of Bristol and Gloucester were united, \n1836, separated,. 1884. \n\n\n\nBISHOPS. \n\n\n\n127 \n\n\n\nBISHOPS. \n\n\n\nOssory \n\n\nfounded \n\n\n402 \n\n\nFerns . \n\n\nabout 598 \n\n\nTrim . \n\n\n\n\n432 \n\n\nCloyue . \n\n\nbefore 604 \n\n\nKillala . \n\n\n. about \n\n\n434 \n\n\nCork . \n\n\nabout 606 \n\n\nArmagh, 445 \n\n\n; abpc. . \n\n\n1152 \n\n\nGlandalough \n\n\nbefore 612 \n\n\nEmly \n\n\n. about \n\n\n448 \n\n\nDerry \n\n\nbefore 618 \n\n\nElphin \n\n\n\n\n45o \n\n\nKilmacduaeh \n\n\nabout 620 \n\n\nArdagh . \n\n\n\n\n454 \n\n\nLismore \n\n\nabout 631 \n\n\nClogher \n\n\nbefore \n\n\n493 \n\n\nLeiglilin \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 632 \n\n\nDown \n\n\n. about \n\n\n499 \n\n\nMayo \n\n\nabout 665 \n\n\nArdfert and \n\n\nAghadoe \n\n\n\n\nRaphoe \n\n\nbefore 885 \n\n\n\n\nbefore \n\n\n500 \n\n\nCashel, befoi \n\n\ne 901 ; \n\n\nConnor \n\n\nabout \n\n\n\n\nabj>c. \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 115 2 \n\n\nTuam, about 501 ; \n\n\n\n\nKillaloe, abpc. \n\n\n. . 1019 \n\n\nabpc. . \n\n\n\n\nIIS2 \n\n\nWaterford . \n\n\n. 1096 \n\n\nDroniore \n\n\nabout \n\n\nSio \n\n\nLimerick. \n\n\nbefore 1106 \n\n\nKildare . \n\n\n. before \n\n\n5*9 \n\n\nKilmore \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1136 \n\n\nMeath . \n\n\n\n\n520 \n\n\nDublin, abpc. . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 1152 \n\n\nAehonry \n\n\n\n\n5 30 \n\n\nKilfenora \n\n\nbefore 1254 \n\n\nLouth . \n\n\n\n\n534 \n\n\n(For the new combina- \n\n\nClonmacnois \n\n\n\n\n548 \n\n\ntions, see the sepa- \n\n\nClonfert \n\n\n\n\n5S3 \n\n\nrate articles.) \n\n\nRoss \n\n\n. about \n\n\n570 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nBISHOPS FN" SCOTLAND were probably \nnominated in the fourth century. \n\nThe Reformers, styling themselves "the Congrega- \ntion of the Lord," having taken up arms and \ndefeated the queen-mother, Mary of Guise, called a \nparliament, which set up a new form of church \npolity on the Genevese model, in which bishops \nwere replaced by " superintendents " . . . 1561 \nEpiscopacy restored by the regent Morton (see Tul- \n\nchan Bishops) 1572-3 \n\nThree prelates for Scottish sees consecrated at \nLambeth (John Spottiswood, Gawin Hamilton, \nand Andrew Lamb) for Glasgow, Galloway, and \n\nBrechin 21 Oct. 1610 \n\nEpiscopacy abolished, the bishops in a body de- \nposed, and four excommunicated, by a parliament, \nelected by the people (covenanters), which met \n\nat Glasgow Dec. 1638 \n\nEpiscopacy restored ; an archbishop (James Sharp) \nand three bishops consecrated by Sheldon, bishop \n\nof London 15 Dec. 1661 \n\nThe Scottish convention expelled the bishops ; \nabolished episcopacy ; declared the throne vacant ; \ndrew up a claim of right ; and proclaimed William \n\nand Mary 11 April, 1689 \n\nEpiscopacy formally abolished, and the bishops\' \n\nrevenues sequestrated .... 19 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe Episcopal church was thus reduced to the \ncondition of a Nonconformist body, at first barely \ntolerated. It opened its first congress, 19 May, 1874 \nBishop Rose connected the established episcopal \nchurch of Scotland with that form of it which is \nnow merely tolerated, he having been bishop of \nEdinburgh from 1687 till 1720, when, on his death, \nDr. Fullarton became the first post-revolution \nbishop of that see. Fife (now St. Andrews, so \ncalled in 1844) now unites the bishopric of \nDunkeld (re-instituted in 1727) and that of Dun- \nblane (re-instituted in 1731). Ross (of uncer- \ntain date) was united to Moray (re-instituted in \n1727) in 1838. Argyll and the Isles never existed \nindependently until 1847, having been conjoined \nto Moray and Ross, or to Ross alone, previously \nto that year. Galloway has been added to the see \nof Glasgow. \n\n\n\nOrkney, founded. \n\nUncertain. \nIsles . . . . 360 \nGalloway . before 50c \nSt. Andrews, 800 ; \n\nabpc. . . . . 1470 \nGlasgow, about 560 ; \n\nabpc. \n\n\n\nEdinburgh \n\n\n\n1633 \n\n\n\nPOST-REVOLUTION \nBISHOPS. \n\nEdinburgh . . . 1720 \nAberdeen and the \n\nIsles . . . . 1721 \nMoray (and Ross), 1727 \nBrechin {primus 1886). 1731 \nGlasgow (and Gallo- \nway) \nSt. Andrews (Dun- \nkeld, Dunblane, <fec.) 1733 \nArgyll and the. Isles . 1847 \n\n\n\nRomanist Bishojirics revived by Pope Leo XIII. \n\n4 March, 1878 \nScotch Protestant bishops protest . 13 April, ,, \n\n\n\nCaithness \n\n\n. about 1066 \n\n\nBrechin \n\n\nbefore 1155 \n\n\nMoray . \n\n\n. . 1115 \n\n\nRoss . \n\n\n. 1124 \n\n\nAberdeen \n\n\n. . 1125 \n\n\nDunkeld \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1130 \n\n\nDunblane \n\n\n. before 1153 \n\n\nArgyll . \n\n\n. 1200 \n\n\n\nBISHOPS, AMERICAN. The first was Samuel \n\nSeabury, consecrated bishop of Connecticut by four \n\n1 nonjuring prelates, at Aberdeen, in Scotland, 14 \n\nJ Nov., 1 784. The bishops of New York and Penn- \n\n! sylvania were consecrated in London, by the arch- \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 bishop of Canterbury, 4 Feb. 1787, and the bishop \n\n! of Virginia in 1790. Several American bishops \n\n; formed part of the Pan-Anglican synod, at Lambeth, \n\n24-27 Sept. 1867. The first \'Roman Catholic bishop \n\nj of the United States was Dr. Carroll, of Maryland, \n\nin 1780. : \n\nBISHOPS, Colonial, &c* By 15 & 16 \n\nVict. c. 52 (1852), and 16 & 17 Vict. c. 49 (1853), \nthe colonial bishops may perform all episcopal \nfunctions in the United Kingdom, but have no juris- \ndiction. \n\n\n\nNova Scotia . .1787 \nQuebec . . . . 1793 \nCalcutta . . .1813 \nBarbados . . . 1824 \nJamaica . . . ,, \nMadras . . . . 1835 \nAustralia (see Sydney) 1836 \nMontreal . . . ,, \nBombay . . . 1837 \nNewfoundland . . 1839 \nToronto . . . ,, \nGibraltar. . . . 1841 \nNew Zealand (see \n\nChristchurch) . ,, \n\nAntigua . . . . 1842 \nGuiana, S. America . ,, \nHuron, Canada . . ,, \nTasmania . . . ,, \nColombo, Ceylon . . 1845 \nFredericton, N. Brans. ,, \nAdelaide, S. Australia 1847 \nCape Town . . . ,, \nMelbourne . . . \xe2\x80\x9e \nNewcastle, N. S. W. . \xe2\x80\x9e \nSydney (Metropolis of \n\nAustralia) . . ,, \nRupert\'s Land . . 1849 \nVictoria, Hong Kong . ,, \nSierra Leone . . 1852 \nGraham\'s-town . . 1853 \nNatal, S. Africa . . ,, \nMauritius . . . 1S54 \nLabuan(joinedwithSing- \n\napore, and so-called) 1855 \nChristchurch, N. Z. . 1856 \nPerth, W. Australia . ,, \nWellington, N. Z. . 1858 \nNelson, N. Zealand . ,, \nBrisbane, Queensland. 1859 \nBritish Columbia . . ,, \nGoulbourn, N. S. W. . \xe2\x80\x9e \nSt. Helena . . . ,, \nWaiapu, N. Z. . . ,, \nOntario, Canada . . 1861 \nNassau, Bahamas . ,, \n\nBISHOPS, SUFFRAGAN, to assist metropoli- \ntans, existed in the eaiiy church. Twenty-six, \nappointed by Henry VIII. 1534, were abolished by \nMary, 1553, and restored by Elizabeth, 155S. The \nlast appointed is said to have been Sterne, bishop of \nColchester, 1606. The appointment of suffragan \nbishops was revived in 1869, and archdeacon Henry \nMackenzie, suffragan bishop of Nottingham (diocese \nof Lincoln) was consecrated 2 Peb. 1870, and arch- \n\n* Between 1847-59, Miss (now baroness) Burdett Coutts \ngave. 6o,oooZ. to endow colonial bishoprics. In 1866 she \npetitioned parliament, on account of some of the bishops \nprofessing independence of the church of England. \nSince then, colonial bishops have been appointed with- \nout intervention of the civil power. Much discussion \ntook place in 1867, through the deposition of Dr. Colcnso, \nbishop of Natal, by his metropolitan, Dr. Cray, bishop Of \nCapetown, and the attempts of the latter to consecrate a \nnew bishop, in opposition to the law; sec under .ifricc, \nand Church of England. \n\n\n\nGrafton, Australia. . 1863 \n\nDunedin, New Zealand 1866 \n\nMaritzburg, S. Africa. 1869 \n\nAuckland, NewZeald. ,, \n\nBathurst \n\nHuron . \n\nTrinidad \n\nBallarat . \n\nMoosonee . \n\nAlgoma . \n\nSt. John\'s, Kaffraria \n\nAthabasca . \n\nSaskatchewan \n\nNiagara \n\nRangoon \n\nTransvaal . \n\nLahore . \n\nPretoria . \n\nNorth Queensland \n\nTravancore and Cochin 1879 \n\nNew Caledonia(British \n\nColumbia) \nNew Westminster \nMid China . . . : \nRiverina . . . : \nMackenzie River . . : \nQuAppelle. \nChota Nagpur \nSelkirk \n\nMISSIONARY BISHOPS. \n\nJerusalem . . . ii \n\nMelanesia \n\nHonolulu \n\nZanzibar and Central \n\nAfrica \nNiger Territory \nFalkland Isles . \nMadagascar . \nBloemfontein \nZululand \nNorth China \nJapan \n\nE. Equatorial Africa \nCorea \n\n\n\n1871 \n1872 \n\n\n\n1873 \n1874 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 187s \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 J&77 \n\n\n\nJ878 \n\n\n\n1890 \n\n\n\ni860 \n\n\n\n1863 \n\n\n\n1870 \n1871 \n\n\n\n. 1889 \nTravancore and Cochin 1S90 \n\n\n\nBISLEY COMMON. \n\n\n\n128 \n\n\n\nBLACK-MAIL. \n\n\n\ndeacon Edward Parry, suffragan bishop of Dover \n(diocese of Canterbury), 23 March, 1870. Others \nhave been appointed since ; there were 9 in 1889 ; \n16 in 1892. \n\nBISLEY COMMON, Surrey, see Volunteers, \n1889. \n\nBISMUTH was recognised as a distinct metal \nby Agricola, in 1529. It is very fusible and brittle, \nand of a yellowish white colour. \n\nBISSEXTILE, see Calendar and Leap Year. \n\nBITHYNIA, an ancient province in Asia \nMinor, is said to have been invaded by Thracian \ntribes, some named Bithyni, who gave it the name \nof Bithynia. It was subject successively to the \nAssyrians, Lydians, Persians, and Macedonians. \nMost of the cities were rebuilt by Grecian colonists. \nDydalsus revolted and reigned, about . b. c. 430-440 \n\nBotyras, his son, succeeds 3 7 8 \n\nBas, or Bias, son of Botyras, 376 ; repulses the \n\nGreeks 328 \n\nZipaetes, son of Bias, resists Lysimachus . . . 326 \nHe dies, leaving four sons, of whom the eldest, \nNicomedes I., succeeds (he invites the Gauls into \n\nAsia) 278 \n\nHe rebuilds Astacus, and names it Nicomedia . . 264 \nZielas, son of Nicomedes, reigns . . . about 250 \nIntending to massacre the chiefs of the Gauls at a \nfeast, Zielas is detected in his design, and is him- \nself put to death, and his son Prusias I. made \n\nking, about 228 \n\nPrusias defeats the Gauls, and takes cities . . 223 \nPrusias allies with Philip of Macedon, and marries \n\nApamea, his daughter 208 \n\nHe receives and employs Hannibal, then a fugitive, \n187 ; who poisons himself to escape betrayal to \n\nthe Romans 183 \n\nPrusias II. succeeds 180 \n\nNicomedes II. kills his father Prusias and reigns . 149 \nNicomedes III., surnamed Philopator ... 91 \nDeposed by Mithridates, king of Pontus . . . 88 \n\nRestored by the Romans 84 \n\nBequeaths his kingdom to the Romans . . . 74 \nPliny, the younger, pro-consul . . -. . a.d. 103 \nThe Oghusian Tartars settle in Bithynia . . 1231 \nThe Othman Turks take Prusa, the capital (and \nmake it the seat of their empire till they possess \nConstantinople) 1327 \n\nBITONTO (Naples). Here Montemar and the \nSpaniards defeated the Germans, 27 May, 1734, and \nthereby acquired the kingdom of the Two Sicilies \nfor Don Carlos. \n\nBLACK ACT, 9 Geo. I. c. 22 (1722), was \npassed to punish armed persons termed blacks, going \nabout in disguise with their faces blacked, robbing \nwarrens and fish-ponds, cutting down plantations, \nkilling deer, &c. By this act, sending anonymous \nletters demanding money, &c, was made felony. \n\nBLACK AND WHITE, a weekly illustrated \npaper, first published 6 Feb. 1891, price 6d. Mr. \nAVilliamson, the managing director, has employed \nGerman methods of production. \n\nBLACK ART, see Alchemy, Witchcraft. \n\nBLACK ASSIZE, see under Oxford. \n\nBLACK BOOK {Liber Niger), a book kept in \nthe exchequer, which received the orders of that \ncourt. It was published by Hearne in 1728. \n\nA book doubtfully said to have been kept in monas- \nteries, wherein details of the enormities practised in reli- \ngious houses were entered for the inspection of visitors, \nunder Hen. VIII. 1535. The name was given to the list \nof pensioners, printed 1831 ; and to other books. See \nItaly, 1876. The title Black Book was given to a list of \nHabitual Criminals, 1869-76; published by lieut.-col. \nDuCane of Brixton, March, 1877. \n\nBLACKBURN, Lancashire, so called in \nDomesday-book. The manufacture of a cloth called \n\n\n\nBlackburn cheque, carried on in 1650, was super- \nseded by Blackburn greys. In 1767, James Har- \ngreaves, of this town, invented the spinning-jenny, \nfor which he was eventually expelled from the \ncounty. About 1810 or 1812, the townspeople \navailed themselves of his discoveries, and engaged \nlargely in the cotton manufacture, now their staple \ntrade. Blackburn murder, see Trials, July, 1876. \nSee Riots, 1878. Population, 1881,104,014; 1891, \n120,064. \n\nThe prince of Wales laid the foundation of a technical \n\nschool, 9 May, i388. \nDisastrous gas explosion in the market-place ; 5 \n\npersons killed 30 Nov. 1891 \n\nBLACK CABINET, see under Cabinet (note). \n\nBLACK DEATH, see Plagues, 1340 and 1866. \n\nBLACK FLAG, that adopted by pirates, see \nBuccaneers, Piracy, and Tonquin, 1883. \n\nBLACK FRIARS, see Dominicans. \n\nBLACKFRIARS BRIDGE, London. The \nfirst stone of the late bridge was laid 31 Oct. I76o> \nand it was completed by Mylne, in 1770. It was \nfrequently repaired, 1834-50, and began to sink. In \n1864 it was pulled down, and a temporary bridge \nerected. The foundation of a new five-arched \nbridge, designed by Mr. Joseph Cubitt, was laid by \nlord mayor Hale, 20 July, 1865, and tbe bridge was \nopened by the queen 6 Nov. 1869. The first railway \ntrain (London, Chatham, and Dover) entered the \ncity of London over the new railway bridge, Black - \nfriars, 6 Oct. 1864. Another railway bridge founded \n7 Jan. 1884. \n\nBLACK FRIDAY, n May, 1866, the height \nof the commercial panic in London, through the \nstoppage of Overend, Gurney, & Co. (limited), on 10 \nMay. Messrs. John Henry and Edmund Gurney, \nand their partners, committed for trial for conspiracy \nto defraud, 21 Jan. 1869, were tried and acquitted, \n13-23 Dec. 1869. On Friday, 21 Nov. 1890, a tem- \nporary panic was produced by the embarrassments \nof Messrs. Baring Brothers. \n\nBLACK HAND, see Spain, 1883. \n\nBLACKHEATH, Kent, near London. Here \nWat Tyler and his followers assembled 12 June, \n1381 ; and here also Jack Cade and his 20,000 \nKentish men encamped, 1 June, 1450 ; see Tyler \nand Cade. Here the Cornish rebels were defeated \nand Flammock\'s insurrection quelled, 22 June, \n1497. The ancient cavern, on the ascent to Black- \nheath, popularly termed "the retreat of Cade," and \nof banditti in the time of Cromwell, was re-dis- \ncovered in 1780. Several daring highway robberies \nwere committed near the heath, and the youthful \nculprits punished, in 1877. See Trials. \n\nBLACK-HOLE, see Calcutta, 1756. \n\nBLACK LEAD, see Graphite. \n\nBLACKLEGS. A name commonly given to \ncheating gambler-, was unjustly jjiven to non- \nunionist workmen by the unionists and others, \nduring the labour agitation in 1889 and 1890. \n\nBLACK LETTER, employed in the first \nprinted books in the middle of the 15th century. \nThe first printing types were Gothic ; but they were \nmodified into the present Roman type about 1469 : \nPliny\'s Natural History was then printed in the- \nnew characters. \n\nBLACK-MAIL, a compulsory payment for \nprotection of cattle, &c, made in the border counties, \nwas prohibited by Elizabeth in 1601. It was exacted \nin Scotland from the lowlanders by the highlanders, \n\n\n\nBLACK MONDAY. \n\n\n\n129 \n\n\n\nBLEACHING. \n\n\n\ntill 1745. It checked agricultural improvement. The \nterm black-mail has been applied to the payments of \nnew commercial companies for notices respecting \nthem in certain newspapers, 1889-90. \n\nBLACK MONDAY, Easter Monday, 14 April, \n1360, " so full dark of mist and hail, and so bitter \ncold that many men died on their horsebacks with \nthe cold." Stow. In Ireland, Black Monday was \nthe day on which a number of the English were \nslaughtered at a village near Dublin, in 1209. \n\nBLACK MONEY, base foreign coin so termed, \n*335- \n3LACK MONKS, see Dominicans. \n\nBLACK MOUNTAIN EXPEDITIONS, \n\nsee India, 1888 and 1891. \n\nBLACK MUSEUM, at Scotland Yard, is a \ncollection of relics connected with crime, begun in \n1874. \n\nBLACKPOOL, Lancashire, a watering place. \nThe foundation-stone of an Eiffel Tower was laid \nhere 25 Sep. 1891. Population in 1851, 1664; \n1881, 14,229; 1891,23,846. \n\nBLACK PEINCE, Edward, eldest son of \n\nking Edward III., born 15 June, 1330 ; victor at \nPoitiers, 19 Sept., 1356 ; at Najara, 3 April, 1367 ; \ndied 8 June, 1376. \n\nBLACK EEPUBLIC, see BZayti. \n\nBLACK POD has a gold lion at the top, and is \ncarried by the usher of the order of the knights of the \ngarter (instituted 1349), instead of the mace. He \nalso keeps the door when a chapter of the order is \nsitting, and during the sessions of parliament \nattends the house of lords and acts as their messen- \nger to the commons. \n\nBLACK SEA, THE Etjxfne (Pontics Euxinus \nof the ancients), a large internal sea between the \nS. W. provinces of Eussia and Asia Minor, con- \nnected with the seaof Azoff by the straits of Yenikale, \nand with the sea of Marmora by the channel of \nConstantinople. \n\nThis sea was much frequented "by the Greeks and \nItalians, till closed to all nations by the Turks \nafter the fall of Constantinople in 1453. \n\nThe Russians obtained admission by the treaty of \nKainardji. . . . . 10 July, 1774 \n\nIt was partially opened to British and other traders, \n(since which time the Russians gradually obtained \nthe preponderance). 1779 \n\nEntered by the British and French fleets, at the \nrequisition of the Porte, after the destruction of \nthe Turkish fleet at Sinope by the Russians, \n30 Nov. 1853 3 Jan. 1854 \n\nA dreadful storm in this sea raged, and caused \ngreat loss of life and shipping, and valuable stores \nfor the allied armies. See Russo-Tarkish War. \n\n13 to 16 Nov. ,, \n\nThe Black Sea was opened to the commerce of all \nnations by the treaty of 1856. \n\nThe article of the treaty of Paris, 30 March, 1856, \nby which the sea was opened to the commerce of \nall nations, and interdicted to any ships of war ; \nand the erection of military maritime arsenals for- \nbidden, was repudiated by a Russian circular, \ndated 31 (19) Oct. 1870 \n\nAfter some correspondence, the meeting of a con- \nference on the subject, in London, was agreed to \nby all the powers concerned in the treaty. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe conference met in London 17, Jan. 1871, and a \ntreaty was signed by which the neutralization of \nthe sea was abrogated ; but it was agreed by a \nspecial protocol, that no nation shall liberate itself \nfrom the obligations of a treaty without the con- \nsent of the others who signed it . 13 March, 1871 \n\nBlockade of the Black Sea declared by Turkey \nduring the war .... about 3 May, 1877 \n\n\n\nRevival of the Black Sea Fleet : Tcliesma, ironclad \nlaunched by the Czar at Sebastopol (others to \nfollow) 18 May, 1886 \n\nBLACKS or Neri ; see Bianchi. \n\nBLACKWALL (London), the site of fine \ncommercial docks and warehouses. See Docks. \nThe Blackwall railway was opened to the public, 4 \nJuly, 1840 ; the eastern terminus being at Black- \nwall wharf, and the western in Fenchurch street. \n\nBLACK WATCH, armed companies of the \nloyal clans (Campbells, Monros, &c.) employed to \nwatch the Highlands from about 1725 to 1739, \nwhen they were formed into the celebrated 42nd \nregiment, enrolled as "The Koyal Highland Black \nWatch." Their removal for foreign service probably \nfacilitated the outbreak in 1745. They wore dark \ntartans, and hence were called Black Watch. They \ndistinguished themselves in the Ashantee war, Jan. \nFeb. 1874, and in Egypt, 1882-5. \n\nBLACKWATER, BATTLE OF, in Ireland, \n\n14 Aug. 1598, when the Irish chief O\'Neil defeated \nthe English under sir Henry Bagnall. Pope \nClement VIII. sent O\'Neil a consecrated plume, \nand granted to his followers the same indulgence as \nto crusaders. \n\nBLACKWOOD\'S Edinburgh Magazine \nestablished, 1817. \n\nBLADENSBUEG, see Washington, 1814. \n\nBLANC, see Mont Blanc. \n\nBLAND ACT, see United States, Feb. 1878. \n\nBLANDFOPD\'S ACT, 19&20 Vict. c. 104, \nfor augmentation of benefices, &c. passed, 1856. \n\nBLANK VEPSE, see Verse. \n\nBLANKETEEPS. A number of operatives \nwho, on 10 March, 1817, met in St. Peter\'s field, \nnear Manchester, many of them having blankets, \nrugs, or great coats rolled up and fastened to their \nbacks. This was termed the Blanket meeting. \nThey proceeded to march towards London, but were \ndispersed by the magistracy. It is stated that their \nobject was to commence a general insurrection. \nSee Derby. Eventually the ringleaders had an \ninterview with the cabinet ministers, and a better \nunderstanding between the working classes and the \ngovernment ensued. \n\nBLANKETS are said to have been first made \nat Bristol by Thos. Blanket, in the 14th century. \nThis is doubtful. \n\nBLASPHEMY was punished with death by \nthe law of Moses {Lev. xxiv.) 1491 B.C. ; and by the \ncode of Justinian, A. d. 529. It is punishable by \nthe civil and canon law of England, regulated by 60 \nGeo. III. c. 8 (1819). Daniel Isaac Eaton was \ntried and convicted in London of blasphemy, 6 \nMarch, 1812. Robert Taylor, a protestant clergyman, \nwas tried twice for the same crime. He was sen- \ntenced to two years\' imprisonment, and largely \nfined, July, 1831. In Dec. 1840, two publishers of \nblasphemous writings were convicted. \n\nBLASTING GELATINE, (a mixture of \nnitro-glycerine and gun-cotton,) a violent explosive \nprepared by Alfred Nobel, and modified by professor \nAbel, 1879. \n\nBLAZONPY- Bearing coats-of-arms was in- \ntroduced and became hereditary in France and \nEngland about 1 192, owing to the knights painting \ntheir banners with different figures, thereby to dis- \ntinguish them in the crusades. Dug dale. \n\nBLEACHING was known in Egypt, Syria, \nIndia, and Gaul. Pliny. An improved chemical \n\n\n\nBLENHEIM. \n\n\n\n130 \n\n\n\nBLOOD. \n\n\n\nsystem was adopted by the Dutch, who introduced \nit into England and Scotland in 1768. There were \nlarge bleach-fields in Lancashire, Fife, Forfar, and \nEenfrew, and in the Tale of the Leven, in Dumbar- \nton. The application of the gas chlorine to bleaching \nis due to Berthollet\'s discovery, about 1785- Its \ncombination with lime (as chloride of lime) was \ndevised by Mr. Tennant, of Glasgow, who took out \na patent for the process in 1798, and by his firm it \nis still extensively manufactured. In 1822 Dr. Ure \npublished an elaborate series of experiments on this \nsubstance. A new more rapid process invented by \nMr. Jacob Baynes Thompson, tried at Bolton, and \nreported successful, April, 1884. Improvements \nmade by Mr. William Mather, I885. In i860 \nbleaching and dyeing works were placed under the \nregulations of the Factories Act. \n\nBLENHEIM (or Plintheim) a village in \nBavaria on the left bank of the Danube, near the \ntown of Hochstett, the site of a battle fought 2 Aug. \n(new style, 13), 1704, between the English and \nconfederates, commanded by the duke of Marl- \nborough, and the French and Bavarians, under \nmarshal Tallard and the elector of Bavaria. The \nlatter were defeated with the loss of about 12,000 \nkilled, and 13,000 prisoners (including Tallard). \nBavaria became the prize of the conquerors. The \nBritish parliament gave Marlborough the honour of \nWoodstock and hundred of Wotton, and erected for \nhim the house of Blenheim.* \n\nBLIND. The first public scbool for the blind \nwas established by Valentine Haiiy, at Paris in \n1784. The first in England was at Liverpool, in \n1 791 ; in Scotland, at Edinburgh, in 1792 ; and the \nfirst in London in 1799. Printing in raised or \nembossed characters for the use of the blind was \nbegun at Paris by Haiiy in 1786. The Avhole Bible \nwas printed at Glasgow in raised Boman characters \nabout 1848. A sixpenny magazine for the blind, \nedited by the late rev. W. Taylor, F.R.S., so \neminent for his forty years\' exertions on behalf of \nthese sufferers, was published in 1855-6. He aided \nthe establishment of a college for the blind of the \nupper classes at Worcester, in 1866. There is \nhardly any department of human knowledge in \nwhich blind persons have not obtained distinction. f \nLaura Bridgman, born in 1829, became dumb and \nblind two years after. She was so well taught by \nDr. Howe, of Boston, U.S., as to become an able \ninstructor of blind and dumb persons ; she died 24 \nMay, 1889. By the census of 1851, there were in \nGreat Britain, 21,487 blind persons; 11,273 males, \n10,214 females ; about one in 975 blind. The \nnumber of the blind in Great Britain has propor- \ntionally decreased since 185 1, according to the cen- \nsus, 22,800 in 1881. In 1 881 about one in 1138 \nblind. Boyal Normal College and Academy of \n\n* On 5 Feb. 1861, a fire broke out at this place, which \ndestroyed the "Titian Gallery" and the pictures; the \nlatter, a present from Victor Amadeus, king of Sardinia, \nto John, the great duke of Marlborough. Pictures, \nlibrary, and other valuables sold 18S5-6. \n\nt James Holman, the "blind traveller" (born 1786, \ndied 1857), visited almost every place of note in the \nworld. His travels were published in 1825. In April, \n1858, a blind clergyman, rev. J. Sparrow, was elected \nchaplain to the Mercers\' Company, London, and read the \nservice, &c. , from embossed books. \n\nViscount Cranborne (blind) was the author of many \ninteresting historical essays. He died in June, 1865. \nOn 13 July, 1865, Henry Pawcett, the blind professor of \npolitical economy at Cambridge, was elected M.P. for \nBrighton; for Hackney, 1874 and 1880; and was ap- \npointed postmaster-general, April, 1880, died 6 Nov. 1884. \nMr. P. J. Campbell (blind) ascended Mont Blanc in 1880. \n\n\n\nMusic for the Blind, established 1873. There are \n\n29 Societies for the blind in London (1889). \n\nRoyal Commission on the condition of the blind ; ex- \ntended to the deaf and dumb, Jan. 1886. \n\nAccording to the census of 1881, the number of blind \nin the United Kingdom was about 32,101, England and \nWales 22,832, Scotland 3,158, Ireland 6,111. Theroyal \ncommission, to enquire into their condition was \nappointed 28 July, 1885, and on the 20th Jan. 1886, \nadditional members were appointed, and its inquiries \nwere extended to the deaf, dumb, and imbeciles in the \nUnited Kingdom, Paris, Germany, Switzerland, and \nItaly. The commission, after 116 sittings, and many \nvisitations and examinations of witnesses, issued their \nfirst report July, 1889. The number of the deaf under \ninstruction in the United Kingdom was in 1851 1,300, \nin 1888 3,138. The commission met with great uncer- \ntainty in regard to idiots and imbeciles. \n\nBLINDING by consuming the eyeballs with \nlime or scalding vinegar, was a punishment inflicted \nanciently on adulterers, perjurers, and thieves. In \nthe middle ages the penalty was frequently changed \nfrom total blindness to a diminution of sight. A \nwhole army of Bulgarians was deprived of sight by \nthe emperor Basil, 104. Several of the eastern \nemperors had their eyes torn from their heads. \n\nBLISTEBS, used by Hippocrates (460-357 \nB.C.), made, it is said; of cantharides (which see). \n\nBLIZZABD, an old term applied in the Mid- \nland counties to the snow-blast, also signifying \nanything blazing, blinding, or stifling. Of late \nyears violent snow-storms have been termed blizzard \nin the United States of North America, as well as in \nBritain. See Storms, 11-13 Jan. ; and 11- 13 March, \n1888, and since. \n\nBLOCKADE is the closing an enemy\'s ports \nto all commerce; a practice introduced by the Dutch \nabout 1584. The principle recognized by the \nEuropean powers is that every blockade, in order to \nbe binding, must be effective. Cadiz blockaded \n1797-9 > the Elbe was blockaded by Great Britain, \n1803; the Baltic, by Denmark, 1848-49 and 1864; \nthe gulf of Finland by the Allies, 1854 ; and the \nports of the Southern States of North America by \npresident Lincoln, April 19, 1861. See Orders in \nCouncil, and Berlin. Part of the east coast of Africa \nwas blockaded by England and Germany on account \nof the slave trade, 2 Dec. 1888 \xe2\x80\x94 1 Oct. 1889 : see \nZanzibar. \n\nBLOCK BOOKS, see Printing. \n\nBLOCKS employed in the rigging of ships were \nmuch improved in their construction by Walter- \nTaylor, about 1781. In 1801, Mark I. Brunei in- \nvented a mode of making blocks by machinery, \nwhich was put into operation in 1808, and in 1815 \nwas said to have saved the country 20,000/. a year. \n\nBLOIS, France, the Boman Blesum. The \ncount Guy II. sold it with his domains to Louis \nduke of Orleans in 1391, and eventually it accrued \nto the crown. The states-general were held here \n1576 and 1588, on account of the religious wars; \nand here Henry duke of Guise was assassinated by \norder of the king, Henry III., 23 Dec. 1588. The \nempress Maria Louisa retired here in 1814. \n\nBLOOD- The circulation of the blood through \nthe lungs was known to Michael Servetus, a Spanish \nphysician, in 1553. Csesalpinus published an ac- \ncount of the general circulation, of which he had \nsome confused ideas, improved afterwards by \nexperiments, 1569. Paul of Venice, or Father \nPaolo (real name Peter Sarpi), discovered the valves \nwhich serve for the circulation ; but the honour of \nthe positive discovery of the circulation belongs to \nWilliam Harvej r , between 1619 and 1628. Freind. \n\n\n\nBLOOD\'S CONSPIRACY. \n\n\n\n131 \n\n\n\nBOATS. \n\n\n\nA memorial window in the church, at Folkestone, \nhis birthplace, was uncovered 9 April, 1874, and a \nstatue at the same place, 6 Aug. 1881. \n\nEating Blood was prohibited to Noah, Gen. ix. , to the \nJews, Lev. xvii., <fec, and to the Gentile converts by \nthe apostles at an assembly at Jerusalem, a.d. 52, \nActs xv. \n\nBlood-Drinkcng was anciently tried to give vigour to \nthe system. Louis XI. in his last illness, drank the \nwarm blood of infants, in the vain hope of restoring his \ndecayed strength, 1483. Henault. \n\nJn the 15th century an opinion prevailed that the de- \n-clining vigour of the aged might be repaired by trans- \nifusing into their veins the blood of young persons. \nIt was countenanced in France by the physicians \nabout 1668, and prevailed for many years, till the most \nfatal effects having ensued, it was suppressed by an \nedict. "An English physician (Louver, or Lower) \npractised in this way; he died in 1691." Freind. It \nwas attempted again in Prance in 1797, and more \nrecently there, in a few cases, with success ; and in \nEngland (but the instances are rare) since 1823. Tried \nat Philadelphia, U. S., April, 1877 ; in London, un- \nsuccessful, 10 May, 1877. \n\nBLOOD\'S CONSPIRACY. Blood, a dis- \ncarded officer of Oliver Cromwell\'s household, with \nhis confederates, seized the duke of Ormond in his \n\xe2\x96\xa0coach, intending to hang him, and had got him to \nTyburn, when he was rescued by his Mends, 6 Dec. \n1670. Blood afterwards, in the disguise of a clergy- \nman, attempted to steal the regal crown, from the \nJewel-office in the Tower, 9 May, 1671; yet, not- \nwithstanding these and other offences, he was not \nonly pardoned, but had a pension of 500/. per annum \nsettled on him by Charles II. 1671. He died 24 \nAug. 1680. \n\n"BLOODY ASSIZES," held by Jeffreys in \nthe west of England, in Aug. 1685, after the defeat \nof the duke of Monmouth in the battle of Sedgmoor. \nUpwards of 300 persons were executed after short \ntrials; very many were whipped, imprisoned, and \nfined; and nearly 1000 were sent as slaves to the \nAmerican plantations. \n\nBLOOMER COSTUME, see a note to article \nDress. \n\nBLOOMSBURY GANG, a cant term applied \nto an influential political party in the reign of \nGeorge III., who met at Bloomsbury House, the \nresidence of the duke of Bedford. The marqHis of \nStafford, the last survivor, died 26 Oct. 1803. \n\nBLOREHEATH (Staffordshire), where, 23 \nSept. 1459, the earl of Salisbury and the Yorkists \ndefeated the Lancastrians, whose leader, lord \nAudley, was slain with many Cheshire gentlemen. \nA cross commemorates this conflict. \n\nBLOWING-MACHINES, the large cylin- \nders, used in blowing machines, were erected by \nMr. Smeaton at the Carron iron works, 1760. One \nequal to the supply of air for forty forge fires was \nerected at the king\'s dockyard, Woolwich. The \nhot-air blast, a most important improvement, causing \ngreat economy of fuel, was invented by Mr. James \nB. Neilson, of Glasgow, and patented in. 1828. He \ndied 18 Jan. 1865. \n\nBLOW-PIPE. An Egyptian using one is \namong the paintings on the tombs at Thebes. It \nwas employed in mineralogy, by Antony Von Swab, \na Swede, about 1733, and improved by AVollaston \nand others. In 1802, professor Eobert Hare, of \nPhiladelphia, increased the action of the blow-pipe \nby the application of oxygen and hydrogen. By the \nagency of Newman\'s improved blow-pipes, in 1816, \nDr. E. D. Clarke fused the earths, alkalies, metals, \n&c. Works on the blow -pipe by Plattner and Mus- \npratt, 1854; G. Plympton, 1874, and W.A.Ross, \n1880-8. \n\n\n\nBLUE was the favourite colour of the Scotch \ncovenanters in the 17th century. Blue- and orange \nor yellow, became the whig colours after the revolu- \ntion in 1688 ; and were adopted on the cover of the \nwhig periodical, the "Edinburgh Review," first \npublished in 1802. The Prussian blue dye was dis- \ncovered by Diesbach, at Berlin, in 1710. Fine \nblues are now obtained from coal-tar ; see Aniline. \nBlue-coat Schools, so called in reference to the \ncostume of the children. The Blue-coat school in \nNewgate-street, London, was instituted by Edward \nVI. in 1552; see Christ\' s Hospital. Blue-stocking, \na term applied to literary ladies, was originally \nconferred on a society comprising both sexes (1760, \net seq.). Benjamin Stillingfleet, the naturalist, an \nactive member, wore blue worsted stockings ; hence \nthe name. The beautiful Mrs. Jerningham is said \nto have worn blue stockings at the conversaziones of \nMrs. Montague. Blue Ribbon Army, see Tempe- \nrance, 1882. \n\nBLUE-BOOKS, reports and other papers \nprinted by order of parliament, are so named on ac- \ncount of their wrappers ; 70 vols, were printed for \nthe lords, and 76 vols, for the commons in 1871. \nThe official colour of France is yellow, Spain red, \nGermany tvhite, Italy green, Portugal white, United \nStates, N.A., green. \n\nBLUMENAU, Lower Austria ; on 22 July, 1866, \nthe Austrians in possession of this place were \nattacked by the Prussians on their march towards \nVienna, a severe conflict was interrupted by the \nnews of the armistice agreed to at Nikolsburg ; and \nthe same evening Austrians and Prussians bivouacked \ntogether. \n\nBOARD OF ADMIRALTY, Agricul- \nture, Control, Green-Cloth, Health, \n\nTRADE, &c, see under Admiralty, &c. \n\nBOATS. Flat-bottomed boats brought into use \nby Barker, a Dutchman, about 1690 ; see Life-Boat. \nA mode of building boats by the help of the steam- \nengine was invented by Mr. Nathan Thompson of \nNew York in i860, and premises were erected for its \napplication at Bow, near London, in 1861. Charles \nClifford\'s valuable Boat-lowering apparatus was in- \nvented 1856. See Canal-Boats and Life-Boats. \nBoat Voyage. Alfred Johnson, a young man, \nstarted from America in the Centennial, a boat \n20 feet long, on 15 June, and landed at Aber- \ncastle, Pembrokeshire . . . . n Aug. 1876 \nTwo young sailors crossed the Atlantic in the City \nof Bath, a boat 14 feet long : arriving at Pal- \nmouth \xe2\x80\xa2 24 Aug. 1881 \n\nMr. Terry formed a boat on the framework of a \ntricycle, and on it went from London to Dover, \ncrossed the Channel to Calais and proceeded to \n\nParis July, 1883 \n\nSubmarine boats, one is said to have been invented \nabout 1578 ; and one tried in the Thames early in \nthe seventeenth century, and one at Plymouth \nin 1774. Robert Fulton\'s experiments in this \ndirection were not accepted (early nineteenth \ncentury). Unsuccessful attempts made by several \nEuropean powers in 1851, and since. Nordenfelt\'s \nsubmarine boat first constructed at Stockholm in \n1883, to be employed in naval warfare, exhibited \nat Landskrona in presence of officers sent by all \nthe great powers 23 Sept. 1885 ; the boat, made \nof steel, 64 feet long; motive power, steam; \ncrew of 3 or 4 men, breathe for six hours by \nmeans of sealed up compressed air ; the boat may \nbe raised or sunk at the will of the crew ; and by \nmeans of torpedoes may cause the destruction of \nany vessel. The boat was publicly tried in \nSouthampton water, and reported successful, \n\n19-20 Dec. 1S37 \nLieut. Isaac Peral\'s submarine boat, travelled for \none hour under water near Cadiz 7 June ; lie was \nennobled by the government , . 16 June 189a \n\nk2 \n\n\n\nBOAT-BACES. \n\n\n\n132 \n\n\n\nBOHEMIA. \n\n\n\nBOAT-BACES; see Dogget, and University. \nThe London rowing club beat the Atalanta rowing \nclub in a four-oared race on the Thames, 10 June, \n1872. Race on the Tyne ; championship of the \nworld won by Edward Hanlan of Toronto, 3 April, \n1882. \n\nBOCCACCIO\'S DECAMERONE, a col- \nlection of a hundred stories or novels (many very \nimmoral), severely satirising the clergy, feigned to \nhave been related in ten days, during the plague of \nFlorence in 1348. Boccaccio lived 1313-75. A copy \nof the first edition (that of Valdarfer, in 1471) was \nknocked down at the duke of Roxburgh\'s sale, \nto the duke of Marlborough, for 2260^., 17 June, \n1812. This copy was afterwards sold by public \nauction, for 875 guineas, 5 June, 1819. \n\n. BODLEIAN LIBRABY, Oxford, founded \nin 1598, and opened in 1602, by sir Thos. Bodley \n(died, 28 Jan. 161 2). It is open to the public, and \nclaims a copy of all works published in this country. \nIn 1868, it contained about 250,000 volumes ; in \n1885, 432,417 volumes (MSS. 26,598.) For rare \nworks and MSS. it is said to be second only to the \nVatican. Mr. Macray\'s "Annals of the Bodleian \nlibrary," published 1868. \n\nBCEOTIA, a division of Greece, north of Attica, \nknown previously as Aonia, Messapia, Hyantis, \nOgygia, and Cadmeis. Thebes, the capital, was \ncelebrated for the exploits and misfortunes of its \nkings and heroes. The term Boeotian was used by \nthe Athenians as a synonym for dulness ; but un- \njustly, \xe2\x80\x94 since Pindar, Hesiod, Plutarch, Democritus, \nEpaminondas, and Corinna, were Boeotians. The \nearly history and dates are mythical ; see Thebes. \nArrival of Cadmus, founder of Cadmea(.H"aZes, 1494 ; \n\nClinton, 1313) ...... b.c. 1493 \n\nReign of Polydore 1450 \n\nLabdachus ascends the throne 1430 \n\nAmphion and Zethus besiege Thebes, and dethrone \n\nLaius 1388 \n\nMyth of CEdipus ; he kills in an affray his father \n\nLams : confirming the oracle foretelling his death \n\nby the hands of his son, 1276 ; resolves the \n\nSphinx\'s enigmas 1266 \n\nWar of the Seven Captains 1225 \n\nThebes besieged and taken 12 13 \n\nThersander reigns 1198 ; slain 1193 \n\nThe Thebans abolish royalty (ages of obscurity \n\nfollow) about 1 1 20 \n\nThe Thebans fight with the Persians against the \n\nGreeks at Platsea 479 \n\nThe Spartans aiding the Thebans defeat the Athe- \nnians near Tanagra 457 \n\nBattle of Coronea, in which the Thebans defeat the \n\nAthenians 447 \n\nThe Thebans, under Epaminondas and Pelopidas, \n\nenrol their Sacred Band, and join Athens against \n\nSparta 377 \n\nEpaminondas defeats the Lacedaemonians at \n\nLeuctra, and restores Thebes to independence . 371 \nPelopidas killed at the battle of Cynosoephalse . 364 \nEpaminondas gains the victory of Mantinea, but is \n\nslain 362 \n\nPhilip, king of Macedon, defeats the Thebans and \n\nAthenians near Chseronea 338 \n\nAlexander destroys Thebes, but spares the house of \n\nPindar 335 \n\nThe Boeotian confederacy dissolved by the Romans 170 \nBoeotia henceforth partook of the fortunes of \n\nGreece; and was conquered by the Turks under a.d. \n\nMahomet II . 1456 \n\nBOEBS (peasants), a name given to the Dutch \nsettlers, in South Africa, since the\xc2\xbb.i6th century, \nwho still retain their national character. Discon- \ntented with the British rule iu the Cape since 1814, \nlarge bands of them in. 1835-7 trekked or emigrated \nnorthwards, and founded the Orange Free State \n(1836), and the Transvaal Republic (1848) , after much \nlighting with the natives. See Transvaal, 189 1. \n\n\n\nBOGOTA, SANTA Fe DE, capital of New- \nGrenada {which see), founded 1538. \n\nBOGS, probably the remains of forests, covered \nwith peat and loose soil. An act for the drainage \nof Irish bogs, passed March, 1830. The bog-land of \nIreland has been estimated at 3,000,000 acres ; that \nof Scotland at upwards of 2,000,000 ; and that of \nEngland at near 1,000,000 of acres. In Jan. 1849, \nMr. Rees Reece took out a patent for certain \nvaluable products from Irish peat. Candles and \nvarious other articles produced from peat have been \nsince sold in London. Fuel for railway engines and \nother purposes was made from peat (April, 1873) ; \nand a peat, coal, and charcoal company established. \n\nMuch destruction has been caused by the motion of \nbogs. Leland (about 1546) speaks of Chat Moss doing \nso. \n\nMischief was done at Enaghmore, Ireland, 3 Jan. 1853 ; \nand farm houses and fields near Dunmore were covered, \nOct. 1873. \n\nBOGrUE FOBTS, see China, 1841. \n\nBOHEMIA, formerly the Hercynian fores-t \n(Boiemum, Tacitus), derives its name from the Boii, \na Celtic tribe. It was governed by dukes (Borzivoi \nthe first, 891), till Ottocar assumed the title of king, \n1 198. The kings at first held their territory from \nthe empire : and the crown was elective till it came \nto the house of Austria, in which it is now here- \nditary. Prague, the capital, is famous for sieges \nand battles. Population in 1857, 4,705,525; in \n1870, 5,140,544; in 1890, 5,843,250; see Prague, \nFor Bohemians, see Gypsies. \n\nThe Czechs (Slavonians) conquer Bohemia about 5th \ncentury. \n\nCity of Prague founded 795 \n\nIntroduction of Christianity .... . 894 \n\nBohemia conquered by the emperor Henry III. who \n\nspreads devastation through the country . . 1041 \nOttocar (Premislas) I., first king of Bohemia . 1198 \n\nOttocar II. rules over Austria, and obtains Styria, \n\n&c, 1253 ; refuses the imperial crown . . 1272 \n\nOttocar vanquished by the emperor Rudolph and \ndeprived of Austria, Styria, and Camiola, 1277 ; \nkilled at Marchfeld .... 26 Aug. 1278 \nKing John (blind), slain at the battle of Crecy . 1346 \n\nJohn Huss and Jerome of Prague, two of the first \nreformers, burnt for heresy ; which occasions an \ninsurrection . . . . ." 1415, 1416 \n\nZiska, leader of the Hussites, takes Prague, 1419 ; \n\ndies of the plague 1424 \n\nAlbert, duke of Austria, marries the daughter of the \nlate emperor and king, and receives the crowns of \nBohemia and Hungary ...... 1437 \n\nThe succession infringed by Ladislas, son of the \nking of Poland, and George Podiebrad, a protes- \n\ntant chief 1440-1458 \n\nLadislas, king of Poland, elected king of Bohemia, \n\non the death of Podiebrad 1471 \n\nThe emperor Ferdinand I. marries Anne, sister of \n\nLouis the late king, and obtains the crown . 152.7 \n\nThe emperor Ferdinand II. , oppressing the protes- \ntants, is deposed, and Frederic the elector-pala- \ntine, elected king .... 5 Sept. 1619 \nFrederic, totally defeated at Prague, flees to \n\nHolland 9 Nov. 1620 \n\nBohemia secured to Austria by treaty . . . 164S \nSilesia and Glatz ceded to Prussia . ... 1742 \nPrague taken by the Prussians .... 1744 \n\nPrussians defeat Austrians at Prague . 6 May, 1757 \n\nRevolt of the peasantry 1775 \n\nEdict of Toleration promulgated . . . .1781 \n\nThe French occupy Prague 1806 \n\nInsurrection at Prague, 12 June ; submission, state \n\nof siege raised 20 July, 1848 \n\nThe Prussians enter Bohemia, which becomes the \n\nseat of war (see Germany, 1866) . . 24 June, 1866 \nAgitation of the Czechs, who require the emperor \nto be crowned king of Bohemia with the crown of \nSt. Wenceslas at Prague . . . autumn, 1867 \nRiots at Prague ; habeas corpus act suspended, \n\n10 Oct. 186S \n\n\n\nBOHEMIAN BRETHREN. \n\n\n\n133 \n\n\n\nBOLIVIA. \n\n\n\nBohemian agitation for self-government ; addresses \nto the emperor . . 14 Sept. and 5 Oct. 1870 \n\nManifesto of the emperor . . . 14 Sept. 1871 \n\nBohemian deputies absent from the reichsrath, \n\nDee. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe " Young Czech " party defeated in the elections \n\nJuly, 1874 \n\nCzech deputies enter reichsrath . . . 8 Oct. 1879 \n\nThe motion of the Young Czechs in the assembly \nfor the coronation of the emperor as king of \nBohemia negatived, after several days\' warm \ndebate 9 Nov. 1889 \n\nPeaceful settlement of the disputes between Czechs \nand Germans, in a conference, by the intervention \nof the emperor 17 \xe2\x80\x94 19 Jan. 1890 \n\nPeace confirmed at a meeting of the diet 19 May, ,, \n\nStrike of about 6,000 miners at Niirschau ; fight \nwith military ; five men killed . 19\xe2\x80\x9429 May, ,, \n\nThe diet re-opened 14 Oct., the Young Czechs \nobstruct legislation Oct. ,, \n\nMeeting of the diet ; the Young Czech party ob- \nstructive ; the reconciliation of Germans and \nCzechs delayed Nov. ,, \n\nThe Brux mine inundated through heavy rains, 87 \ncolliers perish, announced . . 30 Nov. ,, \n\nThe emperor intervenes to promote the passing of \nthe compromised bill by the diet ; the Young \nCzechs require autonomy like Hungary \n\nmiddle Dec. ,, \n\nGradual dissolution of the Old Czech party (mode- \nrates) Dec. ,, \n\nTJie Austrian government determine to make no \nmore concessions to the Czechs ; announced to \nthe diet ....... 5 Jan. 1891 \n\nUseful legislation in the diet obstructed by the \nYoung Czechs, about . . . .16 Jan. ,, \n\nThe Young Czechs victorious in the elections ; Dr. \nRieger, the venerable leader of the Old Czechs, \nand his party, totally defeated, 2\xe2\x80\x94 4 March; he \nretires from public life . . . March, ,, \n\nThe emperor visits Prague to promote peace be- \ntween the Germans anil Czechs 26 Sept. \xe2\x80\x94 1 Oct. ,, \n\nExplosion of a bridge at Rosenthal, over which \nthe emperor was expected to pass . 30 Sept. , , \n\nThe government compromise discussed in the diet \nand strongly opposed ... 24 March, 1892 \n\nKINGS. \n\n1 198. Premislas Ottocar I. \n\n1230. Wenceslas III. \n\n1253. Premislas Ottocar II. \n\n1278. Wenceslas IV., king of Poland. \n\n1305. Wenceslas V. \n\n1306. Rudolph of Austria. \n\n1307. Henry of Carinthia. \n\n1310. John of Luxemburg (killed at Crecy). \n1346. Charles I., emperor (1347). \n1378. Wenceslas VI., emperor. \n1419. Sigismund I., emperor. \n1438. Albert of Austria, emperor. \n1440. Ladislas V. \n145S. George von Podiebrad. \n1471. Ladislas VI., king of Hungary (in 1490). \n1516. Louis, king of Hungary (killed at Mohatz). \n1526. Bohemia united to Austria under Ferdinand I. \nelected king. See Germany, emperors. \n\nBOHEMIAN BRETHREN, a body of \nChristians in Bohemia, appear to have separated \nfrom the Calixtines {which see), a branch of the \nHussites in 1467. Dupin says " They rejected the \nsacraments of the church, were governed by simple \nlaics, and held the scriptures for their only rule of \nfaith. They presented a confession of faith to king \nL-adislas in 1504 to justify themselves from errors \nlaid to their charge." They appear to have had \ncommunication with the Waldenses, but were dis- \ntinct from them. Luther, in 1533, testifies to their \npurity of doctrine, and Melanchthon commends \ntheir discipline. They were dispersed during the \nreligious wars of Germany in the 17th century. \n\nBOHN\'S LIBRARIES. Mr. H. G. Bolm \n\nbegan the publication of his " Standard Library " \nin 1846. This was followed by the classical, anti- \nquarian, scientific and illustrated libraries, above \n\n\n\n600 volumes. These were bought by Messrs. Bell \nand Daldy in 1864, who have added many otner \nvolumes. Mr. Bohn died 22 Aug. 188.J, aged go. \nHis pictures and works of art by sale, realised \n19,220/\'. March, 1885. \n\nBOH, a Celtic people of N. Italy, who emigrate- \ninto Italy, and were defeated at the Vadimonian \nlake, 283 B.C. They were finally subdued by Scipio \nNasica, 191 B.C. \n\nBOILERS, STEAM. Many lives have been \nlost by their explosions. 23 persons were killed at \nGlasgow iron- works, 5 March, 1879 ; and 21 killed \nat the Birchill ironworks, near Walsall, 15 May, \n1880. Boilers Explosion Act, passed 1882, amended \nin 1890. \nBy the explosion of a defective neglected boiler at Mr. \n\nMattison\'s bedding manufactory, Rhodeswell Road, \n\nStepney, 4 men were killed and 17 persons injured, \n\n31 May, 1886. \nThe animal average of explosions in six years ending \n\nJune, 1888, was 47 ; deaths 30. \n1871-1890, 1,005 persons killed. \n\nBOILING OF LIQUIDS. Dr. Hooke, about \n1683, ascertained that liquids were not increased in \nheat after they had once begun to boil, and that a \nfierce fire only made them boil more rapidly. The \nfollowing boiling points have been stated : \xe2\x80\x94 \n\n\n\n93 Fahr. \n173 ,, \n\n\n\nPhosphorus . 554\xc2\xb0Fahr. \nOil of turpentine 312 ,, \nSulphur . . 822 ,, \nMercury . . 662 ,, \n\n\n\nEther \n\nAlcohol \n\nWater \n\nNitric acid . .187 \n\nSulphuric acid . 600 \n\nBOILING TO DEATH, made a capital \npunishment in England, by stat. 22 Hen. VlLL, \n1 53 1 (repealed in 1547). This act was occasioned \nby seventeen persons having been poisoned by \nKichard Rosse, otherwise Coke, the bishop of \nRochester\'s cook, two of whom died. Margaret \nDavy, a young woman, suffered in the same manner \nfor a similar crime, 28 March, 1542. Stow. \n\nBOIS-LE-DUC, Dutch Brabant, the site of a \nbattle between the British and the French repub- \nlican army, in which the British were defeated, and \nforced to abandon their position and retreat to \nSchyndel, 14 Sept. 1794. This place was captured \nby the French, 10 Oct. following ; it surrendered \nto the Prussian army, under Bulow, in Jan. 1814. \n\nBOKHARA, the ancient Sogdiana, after suc- \ncessively forming part of the empires of Persia, of \nAlexander, and Bactriana, was conquered by the \nTurks in the 6th century, by the Chinese in the 7th, \nand by the Arabs about 705. After various changes \nof masters it was subdued by the Uzbek Tartars, its \npresent possessors, in 1505. The British envoys, \ncolonel Stoddart and captain Conolly, were mur- \ndered at Bokhara, the capital, by the khan, about \n17 June, 1842. Bokhara was visited by Dr. Joseph \nAVoltlin 1844. In the war with Russia, begun in \n1866, the emir\'s army was defeated several times in \nMay, ct seq. Peace was made II July, 1867. The \nRussians were again victors, 25 May, 1868, and \noccupied Samarcand the next day. Further con- \nquests were made by the Russians, and Samarcand \nwas secured by treaty, Nov. 1868. A new political \nand commercial treaty with Russia was published \nDec. 1873. The right of the present Khan, Said- \nAbd-oul-Ahad, since 1885, to the government being \ndisputed, he appealed to Russia for protection Dec \n1890. Population 1 891, estimated 1,250,000. \n\nBOLIVIA, a republic in South America, for- \nmerly part of Peru, population in 1875, about \n2,ooo",ooo; in 1880, 2,325,000 ; 1890, 1,189,800. \n\nThe insurrection of the ill-used Indians, headed by \nTupac Amaru Andres, took place- here . 1780-2 \n\n\n\nBOLLANDISTS. \n\n\n\n134 \n\n\n\nBOMBAY. \n\n\n\nThe country declared its independence . . 6 Aug. 1824 \nSecured by the victory of Ayaeucho . . 9 Dec. ,, \nTook the name of Bolivia, in honour of general \n\nBolivar n Aug. 1825 \n\nFirst congress met 25 May, 1826 \n\nGeneral Sucre governed ably .... 1826-8 \n\nSlavery abolished 1836 \n\nSanta Cruz ruled 1828-39 \n\nGen. Velasco, president 9 Feb. 1839 \n\nJose Ballivian, president in 1841 \n\nGen. Belzu until 1855 \n\nFree-trade proclaimed 1853 \n\nGeneral Cordova, president 1855-7 \n\nSucceeded by the dictator Jose Maria Linares \n\n31 March, 1859 \nGeorge Cordova, constitutional president. . . i860 \nSucceeded by Jose M. de Acha . . . May, 1861 \nGeneral Melgarejo defeats the troops of president \n\nDeAcha 28 Dec. 1864 \n\nBecomes dictator of the republic . . Feb. 1865 \n\nPuts down an insurrection under Belzu, March, ,, \nTotally defeats Arguedas at Viacha and publishes \n\nan amnesty -24 Jan. 1866 \n\nSuppresses a revolt 17 Oct. ,, \n\nProclaims an amnesty . . . .21 Dec. 1867 \n\nCivil war 1867-70 \n\nThe president, A. Morales, 1871 ; said to have been \n\nmurdered Jan. 1873 \n\nPresident, Dr. Tomas Frias . . . 14 Feb. 1874 \nCorral\'s insurrection suppressed . . . Sept. ,, \nGeneral Hilarion Daza, president . . 4 May, 1876 \nBolivia joins Peru in war against Chili, (see Chili) \n\nApril, 1879 \nRevolution ; Daza deposed ; flees ; Campero presi- \ndent 1 June, 1880 \n\nPeace with Chili ; conditions finally settled . Dec. 1883 \nAniceto Arce (president since 1 Aug.) suppresses a \nrevolution Oct. 18S8 \n\nBOLLANDISTS, see Acta Sanctorum. \n\nBOLOGNA (central Italy), the ancient Fel- \nsina, afterwards Bononia, a city distinguished for \nits architecture, made a Eoman colony, 189 B.C. \nPopulation 1890, 143,607. \nA university said to have been founded by Theo- \n\ndosius, about 433 ; really in 1116 \n\nBologna joins the Lombard League . . . . 1167 \nPope Julius II. takes Bologna ; enters in triumph \n\n11 Nov. 1506 \nIt becomes part of the states of the Church . . 1513 \nIn the church of St. Petronius, remarkable for its \npavement, Cassini drew his meridian line (over \none drawn by Father Ignatius Dante in 1575) . 1653 \nBologna was taken by the French, 1796 ; by the \nAustrians, 1799 ; again by the French, after the \nbattle of Marengo, in 1800 ; and restored to the \n\npope in ^15 \n\nA revolt suppressed by Austrian interference . . 183 1 \nRebellion, 1848 ; taken by Austrians . 16 May, 1849 \nThe Austrians evacuate Bologna : and cardinal Fer- \nretti departs : the citizens rise and form a pro- \nvisional government 12 June, 1859 \n\n"Which decrees that all public acts shall be headed \n" Under the reign of king Victor Emmanuel," &c. \n\n1 Oct. ,, \nHe enters Bologna as sovereign . . . 2 May, i860 \nExhibition opened by the king and queen . 6 May, 1888 \nThe king unveils statue of Victor Emmanuel, \n11 June; establishment of the University cele- \nbrated n-i6June, ,, \n\nSerious affray between the army and the populace \nthrough caricatures in a Bologna paper, 1, 2 Aug. 1891 \n\nBOLOMETER (Greek bolos, a throw or cast), \nan electrical instrument, invented by prof. S. P- \nLangley, of U.S., who also terms it an "actinic \nbalance. " It is much more sensitive to radiant \nheat than the thermopile (Nature, 3 Nov. 1881). \nBy its means he made discoveries in the ultra red \nrays of the spectrum. \n\nBOLTON, Lancashire, was stormed by prince \nEupert, 1644. It was an early seat of the cotton \nmanufacture. Cotton velvets were made here in \n1756, and muslins in 1782. Temple Opera-house \nburned 16 April, 1882. Bayley\'s cotton works \n\n\n\nburned, several persons killed, and many injured - \nabout 60,000/. worth damaged, 16 Aug. 1882. See- \nStrikes 1887, 1890. Population 1881, 105,414 ;. \n1891, 115,002. \n\nTheatre Royal burnt, 4 Jan. ; 100L reward for discovery \nof suspected incendiary, about 5 Jan. 1888. Robert \nPreston sentenced to twelve years\' penal servitude- \nfor arson, 7 Feb. 1888. \n\nBOMABSUND, a strong fortress on one of the \nAland isles in the Baltic sea, taken by sir Charles \nNapier, commander of the Baltic expedition, aided 1 \nby the French military contingent under general. \nBaraguay d\'Hilliers, 15 Aug. 1854. The governor \nBodisco, and the garrison, about 2000 men, became \nprisoners. The fortifications were destroyed. \n\nBOMBAY, the most westerly and smallest of \nour Indian presidencies, was visited by the Portu- \nguese in 1509, and acquired by them in 1530. It \nwas given (with Tangier in Africa, and 300,000?. in \nmoney) to Charles II. as the marriage portion of the- \ninfanta Catherine of Portugal, 1662. In 1668, it \nwas granted to the East India company, who had \nlong desired it, "in free and common socage," a& \nof the manor of East Greenwich, at an annual rent \nof 10/. Confirmed by William III. 1689. The \ntwo principal castes at Bombay are the Parsees- \n(descendants of the ancient Persian fire-worship- \npers) and the Borahs (sprung from early converts- \nto Islamism) . They are both remarkable for com- \nmercial activity. Population: presidency, 1881,. \n16,469,199; 1891, 18,825,080; city, 1891, 804,470. \n\nFirst British factory established at Ahmednuggur . 1612; \nMr. Gyfford, deputy-governor, 100 soldiers, and \n\nother English, perish through the climate, \n\nOct. 1675 \xe2\x80\x94 Feb. 1676 \nCaptain Keigwin usurps the government . . 1681-84. \nBombay made chief over the company\'s settlements 1687 \nThe whole island, except the fort, seized and held \n\nfor a time by the mogul\'s admiral . . . . 1690 \nBombay becomes a distinct presidency . . . 170s. \nAdditions to the Bombay territory : \xe2\x80\x94 Bancot river, \n\n1756 ; island of Salsette 1775. \n\nBishopric established 1837 \n\nLord Elphinstone governor . . . . . 1853, \nThe benevolent sir Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy, a Parsee \n\n(who erected several hospitals, &c.), diesis April, 1859. \nHis son sir Cursetjee, visits England . . . i860. \n\nSir G. R. Clerk, governor ,, \n\nRioting against the income-tax suppressed Nov. Dec. ,, \nSir Henry Bartle Frere, governor . . March, 1862 \nGreatly increased prosperity through the cotton \n\ntrade, leads to immense speculation. . . Nov. 1864. \nReported failure of Mr. Byramjee Cama, a Parsee, \n\nfor 3,300,000!. ; other failures, and great depres- \nsion ; the projected international exhibition in \n\n1867 abandoned May, 1865, \n\nRecovering from commercial crisis . . Aug. ,, \nMr. (after sir) W. R. Seymour Fitzgerald, appointed \n\ngovernor, Nov. 1866 ; arrived . . 28 Feb. 1867- \nHeld a durbar of native princes, at Poona . 6 Oct. 1868. \nGrand recejition of the duke of Edinburgh, 11 March, 1870. \nSir Philip Wodehouse, governor . . April, 1872 \nRiots : Mahometans attack Parsees for publishing \n\npart of Washington Irvmg\'s " Life of Mahomet "; \n\nlives lost and property destroyed . 13-15 Feb. 1874. \n\nCulprits punished by the British \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Prince of Wales warmly received, 8 Nov. 1875 ; \n\nsailed from here for home . . . 13 March, 1876 \nMeeting of loyal Mahometans to petition the queen \n\nin favour of the Sultan . . . 24 Sept. ,, \nDreadful famine, relieved by government and \n\nby British subscriptions 1877 \n\nStatue of the prince of Wales (given by sir Albert \n\nSassoon), uncovered . . 26 or 27 June, 1879 \nSir James Fergusson nominated governor . Feb. 1880 \nA patriotic fund to relieve sufferers by Afghan war, \n\nliberally subscribed to by natives and others, Aug. ,, \n62 persons drowned in the great tank . 17 April, 1883 \nLord Reay appointed governor . . . Dec. 1884 \nNative troops sail for the Soudan . . 23 Feb. 1885 \nFor the Crawford Case, see India .... 1889 \n\n\n\nBOMBS. \n\n\n\n135 \n\n\n\nBONNY RIVER. \n\n\n\nGeorge R. Canning, Lord Harris, appointed governor \n(Lord Reay having resigned), 18 Nov., 1889 ; \narrives 11 April, 1890 \n\nAn epidemic prevails resembling influenza \n\nFeb.-March, ,, \n\nThe duke of Connaught commander-in-chief of \nBombay, with the duchess, much esteemed, leaves \nfor home 13 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPrince Albert Victor of Wales lands at Bombay, 9 \nNov. 1889, after a tour in India ; departs for \nEngland 28 March, ,, \n\nLady Dulferin\'s hospital for women opened by the \nviceroy . \xe2\x96\xa0 24 Oct. ,, \n\nThe collapse of a large ill-built house in the city ; \nabout 30 persons killed . . . -17 Dec. ,, \n\nGreat fire at Poonah, over 200 houses destroyed \n\n12 Jan. 1891 \n\nDestructive floods through heavy rains about \n\n29 July, ,, \n\nThe viceroy opens the new Bombay waterworks, \ngreat undertaking, designed by major Tulloch \n\n31 March, 1892 \n\nBOMBS (iron shells filled with gunpowder), \nsaid to have been invented at Venlo, in 1495, and \nused by the Turks at the siege of Rhodes in 1522. \nThey came into general use in 1634, having been \npreviously used only by the Dutch and Spaniards. \nBomb- vessels were invented in France in 168 1. \nVoltaire. The shrapnel shell (invented by colonel \nHenry Shrapnel, who died in 1842) is a bomb filled \nwith balls, and a lighted fuse to make it explode \nbefore it reaches the enemy. \n\nBONA, Algeria ; an early station of the French \nAfrican company, till 1789. It was taken by the \nFrench from the Arabs, 6 May, 1832. \n\nBONAPARTE, or BUONAPARTE, \nFAMILY. The name appears at Florence and \nGenoa in the 13th century , in the 15th a branch \nsettled in Corsica. See Table in Vincent\'s " Dic- \ntionary of Biography." \n\nCharles Bonaparte, born 29 March, 1746, died 24 Feb., \n1785. He married in 1767, Letitia Kamolina (born \n24 Aug., 1750, died Feb. 1836) ; issue, \n\n1. Joseph, born 7 Jan. 1768, made king of Two Sicilies, \n1805 ; of Naples alone, 1806 ; of Spain, 1808 ; resides \nin United States, 1815 ; comes to England, 1832 ; \nsettles in Italy, 1841 ; dies at Florence, 28 July, 1844. \n\n2. Napoleon I. , emperor, born 15 Aug. 1769 (see France.) \n\n3. Lucien, prince of Canino, bom 1775; at first aided \nhis brother Napoleon, but opposed his progress towards \nuniversal monarchy. He was taken by the English on \nhis way to America, and resided in England till 1814. \nHe died at Viterbo, 30 June, 1840. His sou Charles \n(born 1803, died 1857) was an eminent naturalist. \nLouis Lucien, an eminent philologist, born in 1813 ; \nreceived a pension of 250?. from the British govern- \nment ; died 3 Nov. 1891. \n\n4. Louis, born 2 Sept. 1778 ; made king of Holland, 1806; \ndied 15 July, 1846. By his marriage with Hortense \nBeauharnais (daughter of the empress Josephine), in \n1802, he had three sons : 1. Napoleon Louis (born 1803, \ndied 1807) ; 2. Louis Napoleon (born 1804, died 1831) ; \nand \n\n3. Charles-Louis-Napoleon, born 20 April, 1808 ; \n\neducated under the care of his mother at Aremberg, \n\nSwitzerland, and at Thun, under general Dufour ; \n\ntook part in the Carbonari insurrection in the Papal \n\nStates in March, 1831 \nAttempted a revolt at Strasbourg, 30 Oct. 1836. \nSent to America, 13 Nov. 1836. \nRepairs to London, 14 Oct. 1838. \nLands at Boulogne with fifty followers, 6 Aug. 1840. \nCondemned to imprisonment for life, 6 Oct. 1840. \nEscapes from Ham, 25 May, 1846. \nArrives at Boulogne, 2 March, 1848. \nElected deputy, 8 June ; and takes his seat, 27 Aug. ; \nsee France 1 84S- 7 1 : died at Chislehurst, 9 Jan. 1873. \n\nSon: Napoleon Eugene Louis Jean Joseph; born \n\n16 March, 1856 ; educated at military academy, \n\nWoolwich ; killed in Zululand, June 1, 1879. \n\nBoth buried at Chislehurst ; removed to a mausoleum \n\nat Farnborough, 9 Jan. 1888. \n\n\n\n5. Jerome, born 15 Nov. 1784 ; king of Westphalia, \n1 Dec. 1807-1814 ; [married : I. Elizabeth Paterson, in \nAmerica, 24 Dec. 1803 ; son Jerome, born at Camber- \nwell, London, 7 July, 1805 (she died, aged 94, 4 April, \n1879). II. Princess Catherine, of Wiirtemberg, 12 Aug. \n1807.] Made governor of the Invalides, 1848 ; and \nmarshal, 1850 ; died 24 June, i860 ; his children \xe2\x80\x94 \nMathilde, born 27 May, 1820 ; married to prince \n\nA. Demidoff in 1841. \nNapoleon, born 9 Sept. 1822 ; married princess Clo- \ntilde of Savoy, 30 Jan. 1859, died 17 March, 1891 : \nissue, Victor, born 18 July, 1862 ; Louis, born 16 \nJuly, 1864 ; Marie, born 20 Dec. 1866 ; prince Victor \nseparates from his father ; accepted as chief by the \nBonapartists ; the father publishes painful corre- \nspondence. June, 18S4. Expelled from France \n(see France) May-June, i836 ; disinherited March, \n1 89 1 ; accepted as head of the family 31 March, \n1891. \n\nBOND, Dutch for league, a name adopted by \nthe Dutch-speaking population of Southern Africa, \nsee Afrikander and Boers. Bonds, see Foreign. \n\nBONDAGE, see Villanage. \n\nBONES. The art of softening bones was dis- \ncovered about 1688, and they were used in the \ncutlery manufacture, &c, immediately afterwards. \nThe declared value of the bones of cattle and of \nother animals, and of fish (exclusive of whale-fins) \nimported into the United Kingdom from Russia, \nPrussia, Holland, Denmark, &c, amounted to \n363,6131?. in 1851, to 659,416?. in 1871, to 741,899?. \nm 1877, to 617,748?. in 1883, to 313,765?. in 1887, \nto 449,526/. in 1890. Bone-dust has been extensively \nemployed in manure since the publication of Liebig\'s \nresearches in 1840. \n\nBONE-SETTINGr cannot he said to have \nbeen practised scientifically until 1620. Bell. \n\nThe ignorant "bone-setters" often did good and \noften harm ; the principle upon which they acted \nis now adopted by surgeons : and is set forth in \nDr. Wharton Hood\'s work on "The Setting and \nTreatment of Joints," 1871. \nMr. John Hutton, an eminent (unprofessional) \n" bone-setter," died July, 1887. \n\nBON MARCHE (cheap). Name given by \nsome shopkeepers in London to their mode of \nselling goods to the poor at very small profits. \nThe system was originated at Paris by Mad. \nBoucicault, originally a shop-girl ; about 1842, \nshe, with her husband, opened a shop in the \ntime of deep distress for meeting the wants \nof the poorest people. In time her business \ngreatly increased with enlarged premises, and she \nadopted the system of the division of profits with \nher employed. She realised a large fortune, and \nbecame a munificent benefactress of the city. She \ndied in Dec. 1887, worth it is said four \'million \npounds sterling. M. Crespin de Vidouville, a simi- \nlar eccentric character, died at Paris 20 Feb. 1888. \n\nBONN, atownon the Rhine (the Roman Bonna), \nwas in the electorate of Cologue. It has been \nfrequently besieged, and was assigned to Prussia \nin 1814. The academy founded by the elector in \n1777, made a university 1784 ; abolished by Napo- \nleon; re-established and enlarged, 1818. Here \nAlbert, our late prince consort, was entered as a \nstudent, May, 1837. Population 1890, 39,801. \n\nBONNY RIVER, Guinea, West Africa; a \nscat of the palm oil trade ; king George visited \nEngland in 1878. A sanguinary battle was fought \nbetween the king Oko Jumbo and the people of \nNew Calabar, who were defeated, 9 April, 1882. Peace \nmade by British intervention 011 Aug. 14, 1S82. \n\nKing Oko Jumbo visited London, summer 18S5 ; left \n\n15 July, 18S5 ; his death reported Aug. 1891. \n\n\n\nBONS HOMMES. \n\n\n\n136 \n\n\n\nBOOTHIA FELIX. \n\n\n\nBONS HOMMES, hermits of simple and \ngentle lives, appeared in France about 1257 ; in \nEngland about 1283. The prior of the order was \ncalled le bon homme by Louis VI. \n\nBOOK (Anglo-Saxon, hoc; German, buck). \nBooks were originally made of boards, or the inner \nbark of trees ; afterwards of skins and parchment. \nPapyrus, an indigenous plant, was adopted in \nEgypt. Books with leaves of vellum were invented \nby Attalus, king of Pergamus, about 198 b.c, at \nwhich time books were in volumes or rolls. The \nMSS. in Herculaneum consist of pap} r rus, rolled \nand charred and matted together by the fire, and \nare about nine inches long, and one, two, or three \ninches in diameter, each being a separate treatise. \nThe most ancient books are the Pentateuch of Moses \nand the poems of Homer and Hesiod. The first \nPrinted Books (see Printing) were printed on one \nside only, the leaves being pasted back to back. See \nLibraries. \n\nTitle pages to printed books in England were not \nintroduced till shortly before 1490, they were \nused by Wynkyn de Worde, but not by Caxton, \nin the 15th century. Mr. A. W. Pollard\'s " Last \nwords on Title pages," appeared in 1891. See \nPrinting. \nBooks of astronomy and geometry were ordered to \nbe destroyed in England as being infected with \n\nmagic, 6 Edw. VI. (Stow) 1552 \n\nAnne\'s act, 1709, relating to the price of books, \n\nrepealed 1739 \n\n12032 volumes of new works, and 773 of new editions, \n\nwere published in London in .... 1839 \n\n3359 new works, and 1159 new editions, and 908 \n\n\n\n1882 \n1883 \n\n\n\n:Sgo \n\n\n\n1852 \n\n\n\nNew New \n"Works. Editions. \n\xe2\x96\xa0 3978 "46 \n\n\n\n4732 \n4832 \n\n43\xc2\xb07 \n3984 \n4410 \n4960 \n4694 \n4414 \n4429 \n\n\n\n1413 \n1541 \n1333 \n1226 \n1276 \n1631 \n\n1373 \n1321 \n1277 \n\n\n\npamphlets, were published in \n3553 volumes were published in \nPublished in Great Britain : - \nNew New \nWorks. Editions. \n\n1870 . 4775 \n\n1871 . 3547 1288 \n\n1872 . 3419 1 100 \n\n1874 . 3351 961 \n\n1875 . 3573 1331 \n\n1876 . 2931 1957 \n3877 . 304.9 2046 \n\n1878 . 3730 1584 \n\n1879 . 4294 1540 \n\n1880 . 4293 1415 \n\n1881 . 4110 1296 \nThe production of a Universal Catalogue of books \n\nprinted in the United Kingdom, proposed by the \nSociety of Arts, in the Journal . n April, 1879 \nIn Paris, 6445 volumes were published in 1842 ; and \n7350 in 1851. See Bibliography. \n\nPrices of Books.\xe2\x80\x94 Jerome (who died 420) states that \nTie had ruined himself by buying a copy of the works of \nOrigen. A large estate was given by Alfred for a book \n\xe2\x80\xa2on cosmography, about 872. The Roman de la Rose was \nsold for about 30I. ; and a homily was exchanged for \n200 sheep and five quarters of wheat. Books frequently \nfetched double or treble their weight in gold. They sold \nat prices varying from 10I. to 40I. each in 1400. A copy \nof Maclclin\'s Bible, ornamented by Mr. Tomkins, was \ndeclared worth 500 guineas. Butler. A yet more superb \ncopy was insured in a London office for 3000Z. See \nBoccaccio\'s Decamerone. \n\nPetrareaby Bernardino di Novara, 1488, at the Sun- \nderland sale bought by B. Quaritch for 1950?., 11 \nNov. 1882; he gave for sir John Thorold\'s Mazarin \nbible, 3900Z. 13 Dec.; and his "Psabnorum Codex," \n\n4950? 19 Dec. 1S84 \n\nBook-Binding. \xe2\x80\x94 The book of St. Cuthbert, a very \nearly ornamental book, is supposed to have been \n\nbound about 650 \n\nA Latin Psalter was bound in oak boards, 9th \n\ncentury. \nA MS. copy of the four Evangelists, the book on \nwhich our kings from Henry I. to Edward VI. \ntook their coronation oath, was bound in oaken \n\nboards, nearly an inch thick \n\nVelvet was the covering in the 14th century ; and \nsilk soon after. Vellum was introduced early in \n\n\n\nthe 15th century ; it was stamped and orna- \nmented about 1 100 \n\nLeather came into use about the same time. \n\nThe rolling machine, invented by Mr. Win. Burr, \nwas substituted for the beating-hammer, and gas \nstoves began to take the place of the charcoal \nfires used to heat the gilder\'s finishing tools, \n\nabout 1830 \n\nCloth binding superseded the common boards \ngenerally about 1831 \n\nCaoutchouc or India-rubber backs to account-books \nand large volumes were introduced in . . . 1841 \n\nThe use of thin metal plates instead of paste- \nboard introduced by . . . . . . 1886 \n\nCheap Books. \xe2\x80\x94 Mrs. Brassey\'s "Voyage of the \nSunbeam," Nov. 1881, published for sixpence ; \nand Martin\'s " Life of the Prince Consort," for \n2s. 6d Autumn 1881 \n\nBook-Hawking Societies (already in Scotland) \nbegun in England in 1851 by archdeacon Wigram \n(afterwards bishop of Rochester). The hawkers \nvend moral and religious books in a similar mari- \nner to the French colporteurs. \n\nBOOK-KEEPING-. The system by_ double- \nentry, called originally Italian book-keeping, was \ntaken from the course of algebra published by \nBurgo, in the 15th century, at Venice. John \nGowghe, a printer, published a treatise " on the \nkepyng of the famouse reconynge . . . Debitor \nand Creditor," London, 1543. This is our earliest \nwork on book-keeping. James Peele published his \nBook-keeping in 1569. John Mellis published "A \nBriefe Instruction and Manner how to Keepe Bookes \nof Accompts," in 1588. Improved systems were \npublished by Benjamin Booth in 1789 and by Edw. \nThos. Jones in 1821 and 1831. \n\nBOOK OF COMMON PBAYEB, see \n\nCommon Prayer. " Book of the Dead," see Bead. \nBook of Sports, see Sports. Book Post, see Post. \n\nBOOK SOCIETY, 28, Paternoster-row, es- \ntablished for the gratuitous distribution of bibles \nand good books, 1750. \n\nBOOKS, National, Coloured. See under Blue- \nBooks. \n\nBOOKSELLERS, at first migratory like \nhawkers, became known as stationarii, from their \npractice of having booths or stalls at the corners of \nstreets and in markets. They were long subject to \nvexatious restrictions, from which they were freed \nin 1758. \n\nThe earliest bookseller\'s catalogue is said to be that \npublished by Andrew Maunsell, of Lothbury, dedicated \nto Queen Elizabeth, 1595. \n\n"Booksellers\' Provident Institution" founded 1837; \n" Retreat," Abbot\'s Langley, Herts, 1843. \n\nThe Bookseller, a monthly newspaper of British and \nforeign literature, published in 1858 ; with it was incor- \nporated Bent\'s Literary Advertiser, established in 1802. \n\nBOOKSELLERS\' ASSOCIATION. The \n\nchief publishers in London formed themselves into \nan association and fixed the amount of discount to \nbe allowed, 29 Dec. 1829, and for some years re- \nstricted the retail booksellers from selling copies of \nworks under the full publishing price. A dispute \narose as to the right of the latter to dispose of books \nwhich had become theirs by purchase, at such less \nprofit as they might deem sufficiently remunerative. \nThe dispute was referred to lord chief justice Camp- \nbell, at Stratheden House, 14 April, 1852. His \nlordship gave judgment against the association, \nwhich led to its dissolution, 19 May following. The \nLondon Booksellers\' society was formed in 1890 ; \nthe inaugural dinner took place 2 Oct. 1890. \n\nBOOTHIA FELIX, a large peninsula, N.W. \npoint of America, discovered by sir John Boss in \n1830, and named after sir Felix Booth, who had \n\n\n\nBOOTHISM. \n\n\n\n137 \n\n\n\nBOSCOBEL. \n\n\n\npresented him with 20,000^. to fit out his polar \nexpedition. Sir Felix died at Brighton in Feb. 1850. \n\nBOOTHISM, see Salvation Army. \n\nBOOTS, said to have been the invention of the \nCarians, were mentioned by Homer, 907 B.C., and \nfrequently by the Roman historians. A variety of \nforms may be seen in Fairholt\'s "Costume in Eng- \nland." An instrument of torture termed " the \nboot" was used in Scotland upon the covenanters \nabout 1666. \n\nA new system of boot-making introduced by Mr. M. \nL. Lion and Mr. P. Cutlan, reversing the ordinary \nmethod, July, 1887. \n\nBOB, AX (Boron), known to the ancients, used \nin soldering, brazing, and casting gold and other \nmetals, was called chrysocolla. Borax is produced \nnaturally in the mountains of Thibet, and was \nbrought to Europe from India about 1713. Hom- \nberg in 1702 discovered in borax boracic acid, which \nlatter in 1808 was decomposed by Gay-Lussac, \nThenard, and H. Davy, into oxygen and the pre- \nviously unknown element, boron. Borax has lately \nbeen found in Saxony. It is now largely manu- \nfactured from the boracic acid found by Hcefer to \nexist in the gas arising from certain lagoons in \nTuscany ; and an immense fortune has been made \nby their owner, M. Lardarel, since 1818. \n\n.BORDEAUX (W. France), the Roman Bur- \ndigalla, in Aquitania, was taken by the Goths, 412 ; \nby Clovis, 508. It was gained by Henry IE. on his \nmarriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine, 1151. Edward \nthe Black Prince brought John, king of France, \ncaptive to this city after the battle of Poictiers, \n19 Sept. 1356, and here held his court eleven \nyears: his son, our Richard II., was bom at Bor- \ndeaux, 1366. After several changes Bordeaux finally \nsurrendered to Charles VII. of France, 14 Oct. 1453. \nThe fine equestrian statue of Louis XV. was erected \nin 1743. Bordeaux was entered by the victorious \nBritish army after the battle of Orthez, fought \n27 Feb. 1814. \xe2\x80\x94 13 vessels were burnt and others \niujured in the port, through the ignition and \nexplosion of petroleum spirit, 28 Sept. 1869. The \nFrench delegate government and the represen- \ntatives of foreign powers removed here from Tours, \nII Dec. 1870. M. Gambetta remained for a time \nwith the army of the Loire. By the " pacte de \nBordeaux," between the different parties of the \nnational assembly, M. Thiers became chief of the \n\xe2\x96\xa0 executive power, 17 Feb. 1871. The French Asso- \nciation for the Advancement of Science held its \nfirst meeting here, 5 Sept. 1872 ; M. Quatrefages, \npresident. Great fire in the pine forests, 10 persons \nperish, about 28 Aug. 1891. Population, 1891, \n238,899. \n\nBORNEO, an island in the Indian Ocean, the \nlargest in the world except Australia and New \nGuinea, was early known to the Chinese. \nThe Dutch trade here in 1604 ; establish factories, \n\n1609 : abandon them, 1623 ; re-establish them . 1776 \nSarawak settled by sir James Brooke ; ai>pointed \n\nrajah 1841 \n\nThe pirates of Borneo chastised by the British iu \n\n1813, and by captain Keppel in . . March, 1843 \nBy a treaty with the sultan, through the instru- \nmentality of sir J. Brooke, the island of Labooan, \nor Labuan (N. W. of Borneo), and its dependen- \ncies, incorporated with the British empire, and \nformally taken possession of iu presence of the \n\nBornean chiefs 2 Dec. 1846 \n\nJames Brooke, rajah of Sarawak (1846), governor of \nLabuan and consul-general of Borneo, visits \nEngland and receives many honours . . Oct. 1847 \nHe destroys many of the Bornean pirates . . . 1849 \nLabuan made a bishopric ; the bishop (F. J. Mac- \nDougall) consecrated at Calcutta, the first English \nbishop consecrated out of England . 18 Oct. 1S55 \n\n\n\nThe Chinese in Sarawak rise iu insurrection and \nmassacre a number of Europeans ; sir J. Brooke \nescapes by swimming across a creek ; he speedily \nreturns with a force of Malays, &c., and chas- \ntises the insurgents, of whom 2000 are killed, \n\n17, 18 Feb. 1857 \n\nHe comes to England to seek help from the govern- \nment, without success 1858 \n\nHis health being broken up, an appeal for a sub- \nscription for him made \n\nDeputation of merchants waits on the earl of Derby \nrecommending the purchase of Sarawak, which \nis declined . . ... 30 Nov. \n\nSir J. Brooke returns to Borneo . . 20 Nov. i860 \n\nReturned to England ; died, succeeded by his \nnephew, sir Charles Johnson Brooke (born 3 \nJune, 1829) n June, 1868 \n\nThe rajah of Sarawak, with an expedition of Malays \nand Dyaks, defeats and punishes a marauding \ndecapitating tribe of Dyaks . . . June, 1870 \n\nBritish North Borneo Company gazetted, 8 Nov. ; \nthreatened protest of Spanish government Nov. 1881 \n\nMeeting of Committee in London . . 3 Oct. 1882 \n\nFreedom of trade in the Archipelago settled by \nGreat Britain, Germany, and Si>ain. 1877 ; further \nwith Spain . . . . . . . ^84 \n\nNorth Borneo reported prosperous . . May, 1885 \n\nRebels defeated . . 10 Feb., war over April, 1889 \n\nRajah Brooke, of Sarawak, annexes the Limbang \nregion of Brunei on .... 17 March, 1890 \n\nHe proclaims his son, aged 17, his heir, as Rajah \nMuda : announced .... 7 Aug. 1891 \n\nNorth Borneo, with Sarawak and Brunei consti- \ntuted a British protectorate, 1885 ; governor, \nCharles V. Creagh 1892 \n\nBORNOU, an extensive kingdom in central \nAfrica, explored by Denham and Clapperton (sent \nout by the British government), in 1822. The \npopulation is estimated by Denham at 5,000,000, \nby Barth at 9,000,000. \n\nBORODINO, a Russian village on the river \nMoskwa, near which a sanguinary battle was fought, \n7 Sept. 1812, between the French uuder Napoleon, \nand the Russians under Kutusoff; 210,000 men \nbeing engaged. Each party claimed tlie victor}\' ; \nbut the Russians retreated, leaving Moscow, which \nthe French entered, 14 Sept. ; see Moscow. \n\nBORON, see Borax. \n\nBOROUGH or BURGH, anciently a company \nof ten families living together, now such towns as \nsend members to parliament, since the election of \nburgesses in the reign of Henry III. 1265. Charters \nwere granted to towns by Henry I. 1 132; which \nwere remodelled by Charles II. in 1682-4, \xc2\xb0ut re " \nstored in 1688. 22 new English boroughs were \ncreated in 1553. Burgesses were first admitted into \nthe Scottish parliament by Robert Bruce, 1326; and \ninto the Irish, 1365. Acts to amend the Represen- \ntation of the People in England and "Wales passed \n7 June, 1832, and 15 Aug. 1867; and the Act for \nthe Regulation of Municipal Corporations, 9 Sept. \n1835 ; see Constituency. \n\nBOROUGH-BRIDGE (AV.R.of York). Here \nEdward II. defeated the earls of Hereford and Lan- \ncaster, 16 March, 1322. Lancaster was mounted on \na lean horse, led to an eminence near Pontefract, \nand beheaded. \n\nBOROUGH-ENGLISH, an ancient tenure \nby which the younger son inherits, is mentioned as \noccurring 834. It was abolished in Scotland by \nMalcolm III. in 1062. \n\nBOSCOBEL, near Donington, Shropshire \nCharles II. (after his defeat at Worcester, 3 Sept. \n1651), disguised in the clothes of the Pendrills, \nremained from 4 to 6 Sept. at White Ladies; on \n7 and 8 Sept. he lay at Boseobel house, near which \nexists an 0,1k, said to be the scion of the Royal Oak \nin which the king was part of the time hidden with \n\n\n\nBOSNIA. \n\n\n\n138 \n\n\n\nBOTANY. \n\n\n\ncol. Careless. ISharpe. The "Boscobel Tracts" \nwere first published in 1660. In 1861 Mr. F. Man- \nning published " Views," illustrating these tracts. \nW. H. Ainsworth\'s " Boscobel," a story with \nauthentic details, published 1872. \n\nBOSNIA, in European Turkey, formerly part of \nPannonia, was governed by chiefs till a brother-in- \nlaw of Louis king of Hungary was made king, 1376. \nHe was defeated by the Turks in 1389, and became \ntheir vassal. Bosnia was incorporated with Turkey \nin 1463. Many efforts have been made by the \nBosnians to recover their independence. A re- \nbellion, begun in 1849, was quelled by Omar Pasha \nin 1851. The Bosnians joined the insurgents in \nHerzegovina, Sept. 1875 ! revolt was subdued, Aug. \n1877. See Turkey. \nAbout 100,000 Bosnian fugitives said to be in \n\nAustrian territories .... July, 1878 \n\nProclamation of the emperor before his troops enter \nBosnia (in conformity with the treaty of Berlin, \n\n13 July) 27 July, ,, \n\nAdvance of the Austrians, 29 July, vigorously re- \nsisted by the Bosnian begs, aided by Turks \n\n4-6 Aug. ,, \nThe Bosnians defeated between Zepce and Maglai, \n\n7, 8 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe Austrians occupy Travnik, the old capital, 11 \n\nAug. ; slightly repulsed ... 16 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nVictories of Philippovich at Han Belalovijh, 16 \n\nAug. ; of Tegethotf .... 18 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nSerajevo, the capital, bombarded and taken by storm \n\n19 Aug. ; other successes . . 30 Aug., 5 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe fortress Trebinje voluntarily surrenders \n\n7 Sept. ,, \nBehacs firmly resists, 10 Sept. ; taken 19 Sejit. \xe2\x80\x9e \nSenkovics, a strong fortress, with arms and ammu- \nnition, taken 21 Sept. ,, \n\nZwornik, a stronghold, surrenders, about 25 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nLivno bombarded and taken . . 28 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nOther places surrender . . . about 12 Oct. ,, \nBesistance ended ; general amnesty issued \n\nabout 9 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nAustrian loss estimated 5000 killed, wounded, \n\nmissing Nov. ,, \n\nThe country settled, gradual political reforms Jan. 1880 \nPopulation, 1,504,091 ; announced . . Feb. 1889 \n\nBOSPHOBE EGYPTIEN, see Egypt, 1885. \n\nBOSPHOBUS, TheaciaN (now Channel of \nConstantinople). Darius Hystaspes threw a bridge \nof boats over this strait when about to invade \nGreece, 493 B.C. See Constantinople. \n\nBOSPOBUS (improperly BOSPHOBUS), now \ncalled Circassia, near the Bosphorus Cimmerius, \nthe straits of Kertch or Yenikale. The history of \nthe kingdom is involved in obscurity. It was \nnamed Cimmerian, from the Cimmeri. who dwelt \non its borders, about 750 B.C. \n\nThe Archienactidse from Mitylene rule . . B.C. 502-480 \nThey are dispossessed by Spartacus I. 438 \n\nSeleucus, 431 ; Satyrus 1 407 \n\nLeucon, 393 ; Spartacus II., 353 ; Parysades . . 348 \nEumelus, aiming to dethrone his brother Saty- \nrus II., is defeated ; but Satyrus is killed . . 310 \nPrytanis, his next brother, ascends the throne, but \n\nis murdered by Eumelus 309 \n\nEumelus puts to death all his relations, 309 ; and is \n\nkilled 304 \n\nThe Scythians conquer Bosporus .... 285 \nMithridates VI., of Pontus, conquers Bosporus . . 80 \nHe poisons himself ; and the Boiuans make his son, \n\nPharnac.es, king 63 \n\nBattle of Zela, gained by Julius Cresar over Phar- \nnaces II. (Ccesar writes home, Veni, vidi, vicl, " I \n\ncame, I saw, I conquered ") 47 \n\nAsander usurps the crown \n\nCsesar makes Mithridates of Pergamus king . . ,, \nPolemon conquers Bosporus, and favoured by \n\nAgrippa, reigns 14 \n\nPolemon killed by barbarians of the Palus Mreotis a.d. 33 \nPolemon II. reigns . . .... \n\n\n\nMithridates II. reigns a.d. 41 \n\nMithridates conducted a prisoner to Borne, by \n\norder of Claudius ; Cotys I. king . . . . 49 \nA list of kings given by some writers ends with \n\nSauromates VII 344 \n\nBOSTON, Lincolnshire ; a trading town, made \na staple for wool, 1357 ; St. Botolph\'s church with a \nlofty tower, was erected about 1309. Population \n1 88 1, 14,941 ; 1891, 14,953. \n\nBOSTON, Massachusetts, United States, built \nabout 1627. Here originated, that resistance to the \nBritish authorities which led to American inde- \npendence. The act of parliament laying duties on \ntea, papers, colours, &c. (passed June, 1767) so \nexcited the indignation of the citizens of Boston, \nthat they destroyed several hundreds of chests of \ntea, Dec. 1773. Population 1890, 448,477. \n" Boston News Letter," first American newspaper, \n\nappeared 24 April, 1704 \n\nBoston seaport shut by the English parliament, \nuntil restitution should be made to the East \nIndia Company for the tea lost . . 25 March, 1774 \nThe town besieged by the Americans, and 400 \n\nhouses destroyed 1775 \n\nBattle of Bunker\'s Hill, between the royalists and \nindependent troops ; the latter defeated, \n\n17 June, ,, \nThe city evacuated by the king\'s troops . April, 1776 \nIndustrial exhibition opened . . . Oct. 1856 \n\nGreat peace jubilee ; concert of about 10,371 voices \nand 1094 instruments, with anvils, bells, <fec, \n\nbegun 15 June, 1869 \n\nInternational peace jubilee ; chorus about 20,000 ; \norchestra, 1000 ; with military bands and other \nperformers of different natrons, including the \nBritish grenadier guards\' band ; a day allotted to \neach nation . . . -17 June \xe2\x80\x94 4 July, 1872 \nTremendous fire ; great loss of life and property ; \nabout 80 acres of buildings burnt ; 959 nouses \n(125 dwellings); 35 persons killed . 9, 10, 11 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nGreat fire ; many buildings destroyed ; estimated \nloss 5,000,000 dollars. Two firemen killed \n\n28 Nov. 1883 \n\nBOSWOBTH FIELD, Leicestershire, the \nsite of the thirteenth and last battle between the \nhouses of York and Lancaster, 22 Aug. 1485, when \nRichard III. was defeated by the earl of Richmond., \nafterwards Henry VII., and slain, through the \ndesertion of sir Wm. Stanley. It is said that \nHenry was crowned on the spot with the crown of \nRichard found in a hawthorn bush near the field. \n\nBOTANY. Aristotle is considered the founder \nof the science (about 347 B.C.) . Historia Plantarum \nof Theophrastus was written about 320 B.C. Authors \non botany became numerous at the close of the 15th \ncentury. Fuchsius, Bock, Bauhin, Cajsalpinus, and \nothers, wrote between 1535 and 1600. The system \nand arrangement of the great Linnaeus was made \nknown about 1735 ; and Jussieu\'s system, founded \non Tournefort\'s, and called "the natural system," \nin 1758. At Linnseus\'s death, 1778, the species of \nplants actually described amounted in number to- \nil, 800. The number of species now recorded cannot \nfall short of 100,000. J. C. Loudon\'s " Encyclo- \npaedia of Plants," a most comprehensive work, first \nappeared in 1829. De Candolle\'s "Prodromus \nSystematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis" (of which \nVol. I. appeared in 1818), was completed in 1876. \nAn International Botanical congress was opened in \nLondon, 23 May, 1866, professor A. De Candolle \npresident; another at Amsterdam, 13 April, 1877. \nRobert Brown, who accompanied Flinders in his \nsurvey of New Holland in 1803, died 10 June, \n1858, aged 85, was long acknowledged to be the \nchief of the bota nists of hisday (Jacile princeps). \nRoyal botanic society\'s jubilee fete, 15 July, 1889. \xc2\xbb I \nInternational botanical congress at Genoa, 5 Sept. \n\n\n\nBOTANY BAY. \n\n\n\n139 \n\n\n\nBOURBON. \n\n\n\nPadua \nMontpellier \nLeyden . \nLeipsic \nParis (Jardin \n\nPlantes) \nJena . \nOxford . \nUpsal . \nChelsea . \nEdinburgh . \nVienna . \nMadrid \n\n\n\nBOTANIC GARDENS \n\nEstablislied about \n\xe2\x96\xa0 1545 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1558 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1577 \n. 1580 \n\n\n\ndes \n\n\n\n. 1624 \n. 1629 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1632 \n\xe2\x96\xa0 1657 \n\n1673-86 \n. 1680 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1753 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 !755 \n\n\n\nEstablished about \nKew, 1760 ; greatly im- \n\n\n\nproved . . 1841-65 \nCambridge . . . 1763 \nCoimbra. . . .1773 \nSt. Petersburg . -1785 \nCalcutta. . . . 1793 \nDublin . . . 1800 \nHorticultural Society\'s, \n\nChiswick . . . 1821 \nRoyal Botanic Society\'s, \n\nRegent\'s Park. . 1839 \nRoyal Horticultural \nSociety\'s ; see Hor- \nticulture . . . i860 \n\n\n\nBOTANY BAY, Australia, discovered by \ncaptain Cook, 28 April, 1770, received its name \nfrom the great variety of plants growing on the \nshore. It was fixed on for a colony of convicts \nfrom Great Britain, which was however established \nat Sydney, near Port Jackson. The first governor, \ncaptain Arthur Phillip, who sailed from England in \nMay, 1787, arrived at the settlement in Jan. 1788. \nThe colony was eventually established at Port \nJackson, about thirteen miles to the north of the \nbay ; see New South IFales, and Transportation. \n\nBOTHWELL BRIDGE, Lanarkshire. The \nScotch covenanters, who took up arms against the \nintolerant government of Charles II., and defeated \nthe celebrated Claverhouse at Drumclog, 1 June, \n1679, were totally routed by the earl of Monmouth \nat Bothwell Bridge, 22 June, 1679, and many pri- \nsoners were tortured and executed. \n\nBOTTLE-CONJURER. In accordance with \na wager, a person having advertised that he would \njump into a quart bottle at the Haymarket theatre, \non 16 Jan. 1749, the house was densely crowded \nand besieged by thousands anxious to gain ad- \nmittance. The pickpockets had a rich harvest, and \nthe duped crowd nearly pulled down the edifice. \n\nBOTTLES in ancient times were made of \nleather. The art of making glass bottles and \ndrinking-glasses was known to the Romans at least \nbefore 79; for these articles and other vessels have \nbeen found in the ruins of Pompeii. Bottles were \nmade in England about 1558. A bottle which con- \ntained two hogsheads was blown, we are told, at \nLeith, in Scotland, in Jan. 1747-8; see Glass. \nAshley\'s patent for making glass bottles by auto- \nmatic machinery 13 Nov. 1886 \n\nBottles largely made of paper in America . . 1387 \n\nBOUILLON, Belgium, formerly a duchy, was \nsold by Godfrey its ruler, to Albert, bishop of Liege, \nto obtain funds for the crusade, 1095. It was \nseized by the French in 1672, and held by them till \n1815, when it was given to the king of the Nether- \nlands, as duke of Luxemburg. It was awarded to \nBelgium after the Bevolution of 1830. \n\nBOULANGISTS, see France, 1886-91. \n\nBOULEVARDS (Bulwarks), sites of old \nfortifications in Paris and other French towns, now \nplanted with rows of trees. The practice has been \nadopted in some London suburban roads, 1875, \net seq. See Playground. \n\nBOULOGNE, a seaport in Picnrdy, N. France, \nadded to Burgundy, 1435; to France," 1447. Here \nHenry VIII. and Francis I. concluded a treaty to \noppose the Turks, 28 Oct. 1532. Boulogne was \nbesieged by Henry VII. 2 Oct. 1492, for a few clays; \ntaken by Henry VIII. on 14 Sept. 1544, but restored \nfor a sum of money, 1 550. \nLord Nelson attacked a flotilla here, disabling ten \n\nvessels and sinking five ... 3 Aug. 1801 \n\n\n\nIn another attempt he was repulsed with great loss, \nand captain Parker of the Medusa and two-thirds \nof his crew were killed . . . 18 Aug. 1801 \n\nBonaparte assembled 160,000 men and 10,000 horses, \nand a flotilla of 1300 vessels and 17,000 sailors to \ninvade England in 1804 ; the coasts of Kent and \nSussex were covered with martello towers and \nlines of defence ; and nearly half the adult popu- \nlation of Britain was formed into volunteer corps ; \nsir\' Sidney Smith unsuccessfully attempted to \nburn the flotilla with fire machines called" cata- \nmarans 2 Oct. 1804 \n\nThe army removed on the breaking out of war with \nAustria 180s \n\nCongreve-rockets used in another attack, and set \nthe town on fire 8 Oct. 1806 \n\nLouis Napoleon (afterwards emperor) made a fruit- \nless descent here with about 50 followers, 6 Aug. 1840. \n\nAs emperor, he reviewed the French troops destined \nfor the Baltic, 10 July, 1854 >" an d entertained \nprince Albert and the king of the Belgians, 5 Sept. 1854, \n\nStatue of Edw. Jenuer here inaugurated n Sept. 1865, \n\nPilgrimages here to adore an image of the Virgin \nand Child, said to have been miraculously brought \nin a boat in 633 I 857-7S \n\nLaw authorising construction of a new deep-sea \nharbour, by M. Stcecklin (in 15 years), cost about \n68o,oooi. ; passed 19 June ; first stone laid, by \nM. Freyeinet 9 Sept. 1878; \n\nBOUNDARY ACTS. Commissioners were ap- \npointed by the Reform Bill, passed 15 Aug. 1867,. \nViscount Eversley, Russell Gurney, sir John T. B. \nDuckworth, sir Francis Crossley, and John Walter,, \nfirst sat 16 Aug. England and Wales were divided \ninto 18 districts, and other arrangements made. \nAnother boundary act was passed 13 July, 1868. \n\nBoundary commissioners appointed to carry out \nthe redistribution of seats bill Nov. 1884. Work \n\ncompleted 10 Feb. 1885. \n\n|Sir John Lambert (chairman), lion. T. H. W. Pelham, \n\nsir F. R. Sandford, Mr. J. T, Henley, lieut.-col. R. O. \n\nJones, and Major H. Tulloch. ] \n\nBoundaries commission appointed by the Local \nGovernment (Boundaries) Act passed 16 Sept. . 1887- \n[EarlBrownlow (chairman), Lord Edniond Fitzmaurice, \n\nLord Basing, sir Henry Selwyn IbbetsonandMr.Hibbcrt.J. \n\nBOUNTIES, premiums granted to the producer, \nexporter, or importer of certain articles ; a principle- \nintroduced into commerce by the British parliament. \nThe first granted on corn, in 1688, were repealed in \n1815. They were first legally granted in England \nfor raising naval stores in America, 1 703, and have \nbeen granted to the herring fishery, on sail-cloth., \nlinen, and otber goods. See under Sugar. \n\nBOUNTY MUTINY, took place on board the- \nBounty, an armed ship which quitted Otaheite, with \nbread-fruit trees, 7 April, 1789. The mutineers \nput then - captain, Bligh, and nineteen men into an \nopen boat, with a small stock of provisions, near \nAnnamooka, one of the Friendly isles, 28 April,. \n1 789 ; these reached the island of Timor, south of \nthe Moluccas, in June, after a voyage of nearly \n4000 miles. Some of the mutineers were tried \n15 Sept. 1792 ; six were condemned and three ex- \necuted. For the fate of others, see Titcaim\'s Island. \n\nBOURBON, House OF (from which came- \nthe royal houses of France, Spain, and Naples), \nderives" its origin from the Ai\'chambauds, lords of" \nBourbon in Berry. \n\nRobert, count of Clermont, son of Louis IX. of \nFrance, married the heiress Beatrice in 1272 ; died \n1317 ; and their sun Louis I. created duke of \nBourbon and peer of France by Charles IV. . . 1327 \nThe last of the descendants of their elder son Peter \nI., Susanna, married Charles, duke of Montpen- \nsier, constable of Bourbon, who, offended by his \nsovereign Francis 1.. entered into the service of \nthe emperor Charles V., and v. us killed at the \nsiege of Pome 6 May, 1527 \n\n\n\nBOURBON. \n\n\n\n140 \n\n\n\nBOYLE LECTURES. \n\n\n\nFrom James, the younger son of Louis I., descended \nAntony, duke of Vendome, who married (1548) \nJeanne d\'Albret, daughter of Henry, king of Na- \nvarre. Their son, Henry IV., horn at Pau, 14 \nDec. 1553, became king of P\'rance . 31 July, 1589 \n\nThe crown of Spain was settled on a younger \nbranch of this" family, 1700, and guaranteed by \nthe peace of Utrecht (Aapin) 1713 \n\nBourbon Family Compact (a defensive alliance \nbetween France, Spain, and the Two Sicilies \nconcluded by M. de Choiseul) . . 15 Aug. 1761 \n\nThe Bourbons expelled France, 1791 ; restored \n1814 ; again expelled on the return of Bonaparte \nfrom Elba, and again restored after the battle of \nWaterloo, 1815. The elder branch was expelled \nonce more, in the person of Charles X. and his \nfamily, in 1830, in consequence of the revolu- \ntion of the memorable days of July in that year. \n\nOrleans branch ascended the throne in the person \nof the late Louis Philippe, as "king of the \nFrench," 9 Aug. 1830 ; deposed, 24 Feb. 1848 ; and \nhis family also was expelled. \n\nThe Bourbon family fled from Naples (6 Sept. i860), \nand Francis II. lost his kingdom ; expelled from \nSpain, Sept. 1868 ; restored by Alfonso XII. 31 \nDec. 1874 ; see France, Spain, Naples, Orleans, \nParma,, Condi, and Legitimists. \n\nThe fusion of the parties supporting the comte de \nChambord with the Orleanists, said to be accom- \nplished, 5 Aug. 1873. The comte de Chambord, last \nof the elder branch, died aged nearly 63, 24 Aug. 1883. \nSee France. \n\nBOURBON, ISLE OF (in the Indian ocean), \ndiscovered by the Portuguese about 1542. The \nFrench are said to have first settled here in 1642. \nIt surrendered to the British, under admiral Rowley, \n21 Sept. 1809, and was restored to France in 1815. \nAlison. An awful hurricane in Feb. 1829, did \nmuch mischief. Bourbon was named " File de la \nReunion " in 1848 ; see Mauritius. \n\nBOURIGNONISTS, a sect founded by An- \ntoinette Bourignon, who, in 1658, took the Augus- \ntine habit and travelled in France, Holland, Eng- \nland, and Scotland ; in the last she made many \nconverts about 1670. She maintained that Chris- \ntianity does not consist in faith and practice, but in \ninward feelingand supernatural impulse. A disciple \nnamed Court left her a good estate. She died in \n1680, and her works, 21 volumes 8vo, were pub- \nlished 1686. \n\nBOURNOUS, the Arabic name of a hooded \ngarment worn in Algeria, which has been introduced \nin a modified form into England and France since \n1847. \n\nBOUVINES (N. France), the site of a\' despe- \nrate battle, 27 July, 1214, in which Philip Augustus \nof France was victorious over the emperor Othoand \nhis allies, consisting of more than 150,000 men. The \ncounts of Flanders and Boulogne were taken pri- \nsoners, and the earl of Salisbury, brother of king \nJohn. \n\nBOVILL\'S ACT, 23 & 24 Vict. c. 34, i860, \nrelates to petitions of right. \n\nBOWLS or BOWLING, an English game as \n\xe2\x80\xa2early as the 13th century. Henry VIII., Charles I. \nplayed at it, and also Charles II. at Tunbridge. \n\xe2\x80\xa2Grammont. \n\nBOW-STREET, see Magistrates. \n\nBoiv Street Runners, a name popularly given to the \nspecial officers attached to each police office of \nthe metropolis, commonly called " Kobin Red- \nbreasts " from their red waistcoats. They were \nfamous for the detection of hidden crimes, \nespecially Townsend, who was a favourite of \nKing George III. and his family, Limberham, \nMacmanus, Jealous, Forester and others. They \nwere superseded by the new police established in 1829 \n\n\n\nBOWS AND ARROWS, see Archery. \n\nBOXING, or Prize-Fighting, the \nlatus of the Romans, once a favourite sport with the \nBritish, who possess strong arms, giving them \nsuperiority in battles decided by the bayonet. \n\nBroughton\'s amphitheatre, behind Oxford-road, \nbuilt 1742 \n\nSchools opened in England to teach boxing. . 179c \n\nMendoza opened the Lyceum in the Strand in . 1791 \n\nBoxing was much patronised from about 1820 to 1830 \n\nTom Winter (nicknamed Spring), beside other vic- \ntories, beat Langan (for ioooi.) . . 8 June, 1824 \n\nJohn Gully, originally a butcher, afterwards a \nprize-tighter, acquired wealth, and became M.P. \nfor Pontefract in 1835, died . . .9 March, 1863 \n\nDesperate conflict at Farnborough between Thomas \nSayers, the Champion of England, a light Sussex \nman, about 5 feet 8 inches high, and John Heenan, \nthe "Benicia Boy," a huge American, in height \n6 feet 1 inch. Strength, however, was matched \nby skill ; and eventually the fight was interrupted, \n17 April. Both men received a silver belt \n\n31 May, i860 \n\nTom King beat Mace, and obtained the champion\'s \nbelt, &c. 26 Nov. 1862 \n\nHe beat Goss, 1 Sept., and Heenan (nearly to death) \n\n10 Dec. 1863 \n\nA trial, in consequence of the last fight, ensued : \nthe culprits were discharged, on promising not \nto offend again 5 April, 1864 \n\nWormald obtained the championship after a con- \ntest with Marsden 4 Jan. 1865 \n\nContest for championship between Mace and O\'Bald- \nwin, a giant ; prevented by the arrest of Mace, \n\n15 Oct. 1867 \n\nRailways prohibited carrying persons going to a \nprize-fight, 31 & 32 Vict. c. 119 . . . 1868 \n\nPrize-fight in St. Andrew\'s hall (formerly Tavistock \nchapel), London, W.C., stopped . 27 March, 1S82 \n\nAttempted revival of pugilism in London, 1889 \xe2\x80\x94 90 ; \na fight between Slavin and M\'Auliffe, pugilists \nfrom Australia, at the Ormonde club, Walworth, \nstopped, the gloves to be used being considered \ninsufficient, 23 Sept. ; fight took place 27 Sept. ; \nthe men committed for trial, 10 Oct. ; the jury \ndisagree 17 Nov. 1890 \n\nBOXTEL (in Dutch Brabant), where the \nBritish and allied army, commanded by the duke \nof York, was defeated bj\' the French republicans, \nwho took 2000 prisoners and eight pieces of cannon, \n17 Sept. 1794. \n\nBOX-TREE, indigenous to this country, and \nexceedingly valuable to wood-engravers. In 1815 \na large box-tree at Box-hill, Surrey, was cut down, \nand realised a large sum. Macculloch says, that \n"the trees were cut down in 1815, and produced \nupwards of 10,000^." About 1820 the cutting of \ntrees on the hill produced about boool. \n\nBOY-BISHOP. During the middle ages a \nchoir-boy was frequently elected on St. Nicholas\' \nday, 6 Dec, and held office till the 28th. The cus- \ntom was suppressed in England in July, 1542 ; but \nlingered for some time after. \n\nBOYCOTTING, see Ireland, 1880, et scq. \nCondemned by the Pope, 20 April, 1888. A Boy- \ncott fund to assist capt. Boycott in his trouble was \nsubscribed 1880-1. Boycotting very prevalent in \nTipperary, 1889-90. \n\nBOYDELL\'S LOTTERY for his Shak- \nspeare gallery of paintings got up (1786), by \nalderman Boydell, lord mayor of London. Every \nticket was sold at the time the alderman died, 12 \nDec. 1804, before the decision of the wheel. \n\nBOYLE LECTURES, instituted by his will \n(18 July, 1691), by Robert Boyle (son of the great \nearl of Cork), a philosopher, distinguished by his \ngenius, virtues, and benevolence, who died 30*Dec. \n\n\n\nBOYNE. \n\n1691. Eight lectures (in vindication of the Chris- \ntian religion) are to be delivered. The office of \nlecturer is tenable for three years. \n\nBOYNE, a river in Ireland, near which "Wil- \nliam III. defeated his father-in-law, James II., \nI July, 1690. The latter lost 1500 (out of 30,000) \nmen ; the Protestant army lost about a third of that \nnumber (out of 36,000). James fled to Dublin, \nthence to Waterford, and escaped to France. The \nduke of Schomberg was killed by mistake by his \nown soldiers as he was crossing the river, and here \nalso was killed the rev. George Walker, who de- \nfended Londonderry, in 1689. Near Drogheda is a \nsplendid obelisk, 150 feet in height, erected in 1736 \nby the Protestants of the empire in commemoration \nof this victory. \n\nBOYNE, man-of-war of 98 guns, destroyed by \nfire at Portsmouth, 4 May, 1795, by the explosion \nof the magazine ; numbers perished. Portions were \nrecovered June, 1840. \n\nBOYTON\'S Swimming Apparatus. See \n\nunder Life Boat, &c. \n\nBRABANT, part of Holland and Belgium, an \nancient duchy, part of Charlemagne\'s empire, fell \nto his son Charles, 806. It became a separate \nduchy (called at first Lower Lorraine) in 959. It \ndescended to Philip II. of Burgundy, 1429, and in \nregular succession to the emperor Charles V. In \nthe 17th century it was held by Holland and \nAustria, as Dutch Brabant and the Walloon pro- \nvinces, and underwent many changes through the \nwars of Europe. The Austrian division was taken \nby the French in 1746 and 1794. It was united to \nthe Netherlands in 1814, but South Brabant was \ngiven to Belgium, 1830. The heir of the throne of \nBelgium is styled duke of Brabant ; see Belgium. \n\nBRACELETS were worn by the ancients, and \nctrmillce were Boman military rewards. Those of \npearls and gold were worn by the Boman ladies. \n\nBRACHYGRAPHY, see Stenography. \n\nBRADFIELD RESERVOIR, see Sheffield, \n1864. \n\nBRADFORD, W r est Biding of Yorkshire, an \nancient seat of the woollen manufacture ; made a \nparliamentary borough in 1832 ; has thriven since \n1851. Bradford returns three M.P.\'s by Act passed \n25 June, 1885. See Poisoning. Population, 1881, \n194,495 ; 1891, 216,361. \n\nNew town-hall was opened . . . .9 Sept. 1873 \nBritish Association met here . . . 17 Sept. ,, \nStatue of sir Titus Salt unveiled . . 1 Aug. 1874 \nStatue of R. Cobden unveiled . . -25 July, 1877 \nNew technical school opened by the prince of Wales \n\n23 June, 1882 \nFall of chimney of New Land\'s mills ; 54 killed, \n\n250 injured, 28 Dec. 1882 ; verdict, accidental \n\ndeaths 31 Jan. 1883 \n\nStatue of Mr. W. B. Forster, long M. P. for Bradford, \n\nunveiled by the marquis of Ripon . 17 May 1890 \nStrike of about 15,000 operatives at the Manningham \n\nMills, Dec. 1890 ; ended ... 27 April 1891 \nRioting suppressed by military . 13, 14 April ,, \n\nBRADLAUGH CASE, see Parliament, \n1880-5. Ml - Charles Bradlaugh, M.P. for North- \nampton, died 30 Jan. 1891, aged 57. \n\nBRADSHAW S RAILWAY GUIDE was \n\nfirst published by Mr. G. Bradshaw, assisted by Mr. \n\nW. J. Adams, in Dec. 1841. The Continental \n\nBradshaw was established in 1848. \n\nThe beginning of railway guides is involved in \nobscurity. Mr. Bradshaw issued his first railway \ntime tables in two forms, one for the Liverpool \nand Manchester district, and one for London \n\n\n\n141 BRASS. \n\nand the Birmingham district, 19 and 25 Oct. 1839. \nHis Railway Companion appeared in 1840 ; (P. \nMadan, Athenwum) .... Dec. 24, 1887 \n\nBRAGANZA, a city in Portugal, gave title to \nAlfonso, natural son of John I. of Portugal (in \n1422), founder of the house of Braganza. When \nthe nation, in a bloodless revolution in 1640, threw \noff the Spanish yoke, John, duke of Braganza, was \ncalled to the throne as John IV., and his descen- \ndants have reigned over Portugal till the present \ntime, and over Brazil till Nov. 1889. \n\nBRAHMINS, Hindoo priests, the highest of \nthe four castes. Pythagoras is thought to have \nlearned from them his doctrine of the Metempsycho- \nsis ; and it is affirmed that some of the Greek philo- \nsophers went to India on purpose to converse with \nthem. The Brahmins derive their name from \nBrahmah, one of the three beings whom God, ac- \ncording to their theology, created, and with whose \nassistance he formed the world. See Vedas, \n\nBRAHMO SOMAJ, see Deism. \n\nBRAIN, see under Craniology and Nerves. \n\nBRAINTREE CASE (in Essex) was decided \nin 1842 by Dr. Lushington, who determined that a \nminority in a parish vestry cannot levy a church \nrate. \n\nBRAKES, see under Railways. \n\nBRAMHAM (W. B. York) : near here the earl \nof Northumberland and lord Bardolf were defeated \nand slain by sir Thomas Bokeby, the general of \nHenry IV., 19 Feb. 1408 ; and Fairfax was defeated \nby the royalists under the earl of Newcastle, 29 \nMarch, 164.3. \n\nBRANDENBURG, a city in Prussia, founded \nby the Slavonians, who gave it the name of Banber, \nwhich signified Guard of the Forest, according to \nsome ; others explain the name as Burg, or city, \nof the Brenns. Henry I., surnamed the Fowler, \nafter defeating the Slavonians, fortified "Bran- \nnibor," 926, as a rampart against the Huns, and \nbestowed the government on Sigefroi, count of \nBingelheim, with the tide of margrave, or protector \nof the marches or frontiers. The emperor Sigis- \nmund gave perpetual investiture to Frederick IV. \nof Nuremburg, of the house of Hohenzollern, \nancestor of the royal family of Prussia, made \nelector in 141 7. For a list of the margraves since \n1 134, see Prussia. Population, 1890,37,823. \n\nBRANDY (German Branntwein, burnt wine), \nthe spirit distilled from wine. Alcohol appears to. \nhave been known to Baymond Lully in the 13th \ncentury, and to have been manufactured in France \nearly in the 14th. It was at first used medicin- \nally, and miraculous cures were ascribed to its in- \nfluence. In 1852, 3,959,452; in 1866, 5,621,930; \nin 1870, 7,942,965; in 1874, 3,378,057; hi 1876, \n7,913,092 ; in 1877, 2,962,697 ; in 1879, 5,024,668 ; \nin 1883, 2,202,344; in 1887, 2,826,108; in 1888, \n2,655,004; in 1889,2,858,774; in 1890,3,100,450 \ngallons were imported into the United Kingdom. \nIt is now largely manufactured in Britain. Manu- \nfacture of genuine French brandy almost ceased, \nannounced 1885. \n\nBRANDYWINE, a river in N. America, near \nwhich a battle took place between the British, under \nHowe, and the Americans under Washington, in \nwhich the latter (after a day\'s fight) were defeated \nwith great loss, 11 Sept. 1777. Philadelphia fell \ninto the possession of the victors. \n\nBRASS. That mentioned in the Bible was \nmost probably bronze. When Lucius Mummius \n\n\n\nBEAVO CASE. \n\n\n\n142 \n\n\n\nBEAZIL. \n\n\n\nburnt Corinth to the ground, 146 B.C., he found \nimmense riches, and during the conflagration, it is \nsaid, all the metals in the city melted, and running \ntogether, formed the valuable composition described \nas Corinthian Brass. This is well doubted, for the \nCorinthian artists had long before obtained great \ncredit for their method of combining gold and \nsilver with copper. Du Fresnoy. Some_ of the \nEnglish sepulchral engraved brasses are said to be \nas old as 1277 ; a white brass produced by Mr. P. \nM. Parsons, about 1875. \n\nBRAVO CASE. Mr. Charles Delauney Turner \nBravo, barrister, died suddenly and mysteriously \n(at Balham, Surrey), suicide suspected, 18 April, \n1876 ; open verdict at inquest ; new inquest or- \ndered, 26 June, 1876 ; began 10 July. Verdict : \n*\' Wilful murder by administration of tartar emetic ; \n\'but not sufficient evidence to fix the guilt upon \nany person," 11 Aug. 1876. \n\nBBAY, Berks. Fuller says that its vicar, \nSymon Symonds, was twice a papist and twice a \nProtestant\xe2\x80\x94 in the reigns of Henry VIII., Ed- \nward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth (1533\xe2\x80\x94 1558). Upon \nbeing called a turn-coat, he said he kept to his \nprinciple, that of "living and dying the vicar of \nBray." The story is doubted. The modern song \nrefers to the political changes of the 17th and 18th \ncenturies. \n\nBRAY\'S ASSOCIATES for founding clerical \nlibraries and supporting negro schools. This so- \nciety began in 1723, by Dr. Thomas Bray, rector of \nSheldon, appointing trustees to expend 900?. be- \nqueathed by Mr. D\'Allone for the instruction of \nsnegroes. In 1733 these trustees received their pre- \nsent name, and their fund was increased by legacies \nin 1767 and 1768. \n\nDr. Bray, who was one of the founders of the Society \nfor Propagating the Gospel, and who had acted ener- \ngetically as commissary in Maryland for the bishop of \nLondon, about 1696, died 15 Feb. 1730, bequeathing \npart of his books to Sion College and part to found a \nparochial library, under certain conditions, complied \n\xe2\x96\xa0with at Maidstone ; and also money for other religious \npurposes. The associates assist schools and libraries in \nthe colonies, and parochial libraries at home. \n\nBRAZEN BULL, said to have been contrived \nby Perillus, at Athens, for Phalaris, tyrant of Agri- \ncentum, 570 B.C. It had an opening in the side to \nadmit the victims, and a fire was kindled under- \nneath to roast them to death. Phalaris ordered the \nartist to make the first experiment. Pindar (522- \n422 B.C.) speaks of the cruelties of Phalaris, but \nlater writers give him a different character. \n\nBRAZIL, an empire in South America, was dis- \ncovered by Vincent Pinzon, 26 Jan. 1500. Pedro \n- Alvarez de Cabral, a Portuguese, driven upon its \n\xe2\x80\xa2coasts by a tempest, April following, called it the \nland of the Holy Cross ; but it was subsequently \nnamed Brazil, on account of its red wood. The \nErench having seized on Portugal in 1807, the \nroyal family and nobles embarked for Brazil, and \nlanded 7 March, 1808. The dominant religion is \nRoman Catholic ; but others are tolerated. Consti- \ntution of 25 March, 1824; modified 12 Aug. 1834 and \n12 May, 1840. Population in 1888, 14,002,335, \nestimated. See Portugal. \n\nThe emperor was deposed and a Federal republic, styled \nThe United States of Brazil, proclaimed 15, .16 \nNov. 1889 (see bcloiv) ; a new constitution was promul- \ngated, 22 June, 1890 and 24 Feb. 1891. It consists of \n.a president, elected for 4 years, secretaries of state, a \n\xe2\x96\xa0senate and a house of representatives. \n\nBrazil explored by Amerigo Vespucci . . about 1504 \nDivided into captaincies by the king of Portugal . 1530 \n\n\n\nMartin de Souza discovers Rio, and founds the first \n\nEuropean colony at San Vineente . . . . 1531 \nJews banished from Portugal to Brazil . . . 1548 \nSan Salvador (Bahia) founded by Thome de Souza . 1549 \nFrench protestants occupy bay of Rio Janeiro . 1555-60 \n\nSebastian founded 1567 \n\nBrazil, with Portugal, becomes subject to Spain . 1580 \nJames Lancaster captures Pernambuco . . . 1593 \nThe French establish a colony at Maranham . . 1594 \n\nBelem founded by Calderia 1615 \n\nThe French expelled ,, \n\nThe Dutch seize the coast of Brazil, 1630 ; and hold \n\nPernambuco 1630 \n\nDefeated at Guararapes, 1646 ; give up Brazil . . 1661 \n\nGold mining commences 1693 \n\nDestruction of Palmares 1697 \n\nThe French assault and capture Rio Janeiro . 1710-11 \nDiamond mines discovered in Sezzo Frio . . . 1729 \n\nJesuits expelled 1758-60 \n\nCapital transferred from Bahia to Rio Janeiro . 1763 \nRoyal family of Portugal arrive at Brazil, 7 March, 1808 \nFirst printing-press established . . . . ,, \n\nBrazil becomes a kingdom 1815 \n\nKing John VI. returns to Portugal, and dom Pedro \n\nbecomes regent 1821 \n\nBrazil declares its independence . . .7 Sept. 1822 \nPedro I. crowned emperor . . . 1 Dec. ,, \nNew constitution ratified ... 25 March, 1824 \nIndependence recognised by Portugal . 29 Aug. 1825 \nRevolution at Rio Janeiro ; abdication of dom \n\nPedro 1 7 April, 1831 \n\nAbolition of slave trade decreed (not effected till \n\n1852) \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nReform of the constitution, 12 Aug. 1834 and 12 May, 1840 \nPedro II. declared of age . . . .23 July, ,, \nSteam-ship line to Europe commenced . . . 1850 \nSuppression of the slave-trade ; railways com- \nmenced 1852 \n\nRio Janeiro lit with gas 1854 \n\nThe British ship "Prince of "Wales" wrecked at \nAlbardas, on coast of Brazil, is plundered by \nsome of the natives, and some of the crew killed, \n\nabout 7 June, 1861 \nReparation long refused ; reprisals made ; five \nBrazilian merchant ships being seized by the \n\nBritish 31 Dee. 1862 \n\nThe Brazilian minister at London pays 3,200^. as an \n\nindemnity, under protest r. . .26 Feb. 1863 \nThe Brazilian government request the British to \nexpress their regret for reprisals ; declined ; diplo- \nmatic intercourse suspended . , 5-28 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nDispute between the governments respecting the \narrest of some British officers at Rio Janeiro (17 \nJune, 1862) referred to the arbitration of the king \nof the Belgians, who decides in favour of Brazil, \n\n18 June, ,, \nNew ministry formed ; F. J. Furtado, president \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nprospect of reconciliation with Gt. Biitain,3oAug. 1864 \nU. S. war-steamer "Waehusett" seizes the con- \nfederate steamer " Florida," in the port of Bahia, \nwhile under protection of Brazil, 7 Oct. ; after \nremonstrance, Mr. Seward, U. S. foreign minister, \napologises. [The " Florida" (inadvertently) sunk?] \n\n26 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nWar with Uruguay \xe2\x80\x94 the Brazilians take Paysandii, \n\nand inarch upon Monte Video . . .2 Feb. 1865 \nThe comte d\'Eu and princess Isabella (on marriage \n\ntour) land at Southampton ... 7 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nLopez, president of Paraguay, declares war against \n\nthe Argentine Republic . . . April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTreaty between Brazil, Uruguay, and the Argentine \nRepublic against Paraguay, governed by Lopez, \n\nsigned 1 May, , \n\nScientific expedition under Agassiz favoured bs T the \n\nemperor July, ,, \n\nAmicable relations with England restored . Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe emperor joins the army against Lopez Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe allies under Flores defeat the Paraguayans at \n\nSantayuna on the Uruguay . . 18 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nUruguayana surrenders to the allies . 18 Sept. ,, \nIndecisive battle between the allies and the Para- \nguayans, at Paso de la Patria . about 25 Feb. 1866 \nParaguayans defeated on the Parana 16, 17 April, ,, \nVictory of the allies at Estero Velhaco, 2 May ; in- \ndecisive battle there . . . .24 May, ,, \nBombardment of the allied camp on the Parana \n\n14 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nBEAZIL. \n\n\n\n143 \n\n\n\nBEAZIL. \n\n\n\nTwo days\' fight at Tuyuty ; allies defeated, \n\n16, i3 July, 1866 \n\nFruitless meeting of president Lopez with the chiefs \non proposals of peace .... 12 Sept. ,, \n\nThe allies attack the fortress of Curupaiti ; defeated \nwith severe loss .... 17-19, 22 Sept. ,, \n\nThe allies\' camp bombarded, 18 Oct. ; the Para- \nguayans repulsed at Tuyuty . . .30 Oct. ,, \n\nThe Brazilians take Corumba . . .13 June, 1867 \n\nThe duke of Edinburgh visits Rio de Janeiro \n\n15-22 July, ,, \n\nThe Paraguayans victors, 24 Sept. ; severely defeated \n\n3 and 21 Oct. ,, \n\nProposals for peace by Lopez declined . . Oct. ,, \n\nSevere defeat of Paraguayans before Tuyuty 3 Nov. ,, \n\nFreedom decreed to slaves belonging to the nation \nwho shall become soldiers ... 6 Nov. ,, \n\nThree monitors pass Curupaiti, on the Paraguay, \n17 Feb. ; 6 ironclads force the passage of Humaita ; \nthey find Asuncion abandoned . .21 Feb. 1868 \n\nFierce resistance of the Paraguayans ; Lopez said to \nhave armed 4000 women . . . June, ,, \n\nAfter several conflicts Lopez is totally defeated at \nVilleta, and flies n Dec. ,, \n\nThe comte d\'Eu appointed general of the allied army \n\n24 March, 1869 \n\nThe allies surprise and capture Rosorio and garrison \n\n8 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLopez defeated in severe conflicts, 12, 16, 18, 21 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLopez defeated and killed near the Aquidaban, \n\n1 March, 1870 \n\nTreaty of peace with Paraguay, quite subdued \n\n20* June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe count and countess d\'Eu arrive in England, \n\n13 Sept. ,, \n\nNew ministry under viscount St. Vincent, 29 Sept. ,, \n\nThe emperor and empress come to Europe, and visit \npublic and scientific institutions, manufactories \nin Great Britain and other countries, June \xe2\x80\x94 Aug. 1871 \n\nGradual slave emancipation bill passed by the \nsenate ; great rejoicings . . 27, 28 Sept. ,, \n\nThe emperor and empress, after visiting the conti- \nnent, return to Brazil . . .31 March, 1872 \n\n\'Treaty with the Argentine republic . . . Jan. 1873 \n\nProsecution of the archbishop of Pernambuco and \nother prelates, for infraction of the constitution \n\nSept. -Dec. ,, \n\n\xc2\xa3n a settlement of German emigrants at Porto \nAlegre, a number of fanatics, popularly termed \nMucker (hypocrites), headed by Jacobina Maurer, \na prophetess who claimed to be a female Christ, \nand her priest Hans Georg Maurer, attempt to \nconvert their neighbours by force, and desolate \nthe property of those who refuse. She and nearly \nall her band are killed after several conflicts with \ntheir neighbours, aided by the military \n\n21-26 July, 1874 \n\nGreat bank failures at Rio Janeiro . . May, 1875 \n\nDuke de Caixias president of ministry . 25 June, ,, \n\nEmperor and empress at opening of Philadelphia \nExhibition, 10 May, 1876 ; travelled in Europe, \n&c., returned to Rio Janeiro . . Sept. 1877 \n\nA ministerial crisis respecting emancipation of \nslaves (see under Slavery) .... Sept. 1884 \n\nThe emperor supports his minister Dantas; 1,200,000 \nslaves in Brazil \n\nResignation of Dantas, anti-slavery minister, on \naccount of minority in the chamber . . 5 May, 1885 \n\nThe new minister Seraiva introduces a gradual \nemancipation bill 12 May, ,, \n\nMinistry resigns, succeeded by Baron de Cotegipe, \n\nabout 20 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBill for gradual abolition of slavery passed by \nSenate and Deputies .... Sept. ,, \n\nNew ministry under Sen\', de Oliviera . March, 1888 \n\nBill for total abolition of slavery passed by the \nchambers, 10-14 May; decree issued (about 700,000 \npersons freed) May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe emperor visits Europe ; arrives at Paris, 20 \nJuly, 1887 ; returns to Rio Janeiro . 22 Aug. ,, \n\nThe emperor fired at by Adriano Valte, a Portuguese \nrepublican ; not injured . . 15 July 1889 \n\nRevolution at Rio de Janeiro, begun by the army ; \nbaron de Ladario, minister of marine, wounded ; \na republic proclaimed ; marshal Deodoro da Fon- \nseca, chief of a provisional government ; people \nquiet ; the emperor imprisoned, refuses to submit, \n\n\n\n15, 16 Nov. ; the emperor and family forcibly con- \nveyed to the Alagoas; sail for Europe . i3 Nov. \n\nThe emperor, at St. Vincent, refuses the offer of the \nprovisional government to give him 500,000/. a \nyear Nov. \n\nOfficial announcement that the republic will respect \nall state engagements . \' . 18 Nov. \n\nAll the provinces support the republic, separate \ngovernments organizing ; suffrage conferred on \nall who can read and write ; the republic blessed \nby the Abp. of Brazil, reported . . 23 Nov. \n\nThe republic recognized informally by France ; the \nUnited States of N.A. and Switzerland, about \n\n29 Nov. \n\nThe emperor and family arrive at Lisbon, received \nby the king 7 Dec. \n\nDecree fixing the general elections for 15 Sept. and \na meeting of the constituent assembly for 15 \nNov. 1890 20 Dec. \n\nDecree banishing the emperor and his family and \nviscount de Ouro Preto, the late premier, and \nrecalling the grant to the emperor and suspending \nhis annual allowance .... 20 Dec. \n\nMutiny of two artillery regiments at Rio suppressed \nwith much bloodshed ; about 20 ringleaders shot ; \nseveral citizens arrested . . 18 \xe2\x80\x94 20 Dec. \n\nSudden death of the empress at Oporto . 28 Dec. \n\nDecree for the separation of church and state \n\n7 Jan. \n\nThe emperor arrives at Cannes . . 16 Jan. \n\nThe republic formally recognized by the United \nStates N.A. 29 Jan. \n\nIssue Bank of the United States of Brazil, estab- \nlished 5 Feb. \n\nSerious disturbances in Rio Grande in opposition \nto government financial measures, 1 May, et seq. ; \nrioting checked by the police ; military govern- \nment appointed ... 13 May, et seq. \n\nNew constitution promulgated . . 22 June \n\nThe republic formally recognised by Great Britain, \n\nabout 20 Oct. \n\nThe first congress of the republic meets ; the pre- \nsident transfers to it the powers of the provisional \ngovernment "15 Nov. \n\nDecree rescinding the banishment of the late im- \nperial ministers 20 Nov. \n\nSecret decree to encourage immigration, 29 June, \npublished in Warsaw, 26 Dec. 1890, about 25,000 \nPolish emigrants said to be received . Jan. \n\nThe first republican ministry (sen. J. C. de Faria \nAlvim and others), resigns ... 20 Jan. \n\nNew cabinet formed by sen. Uchoa . . 22 Jan. \n\nReciprocal treaty of commerce with the United \nStates N. A 5 Feb. \n\nA new constitution passed by the Constituent \nAssembly, 23 Feb. \xe2\x80\x94 promulgated . . 24 Feb. \n\nMarshal Deodoro da Fonseca elected president for \nfour years, gen. Floriano Peixoto vice-president, \n25 Feb. , installed .... 26 Feb. \n\nThe legislative session opens ; cheerful speech of \nthe president 15 June, \n\nThe British Foreign office warns emigrants against \ninvitations to Brazil \' Aug. \n\nThe congress, having passed a law opposing the \nveto of president Fonseca, is dissolved by him, \nand martial law proclaimed, 3 Nov. ; he assumes \nthe dictatorship 4 Nov. \n\nThe provinces of Rio Grande do Sul and Grao Para \ndeclare their independence ... 10 Nov. \n\nInsurrection in Rio Grande spreading ; the gover- \nnor, sen. J. Castilho, deposed, 13 Nov. ; pro- \nvisional government established under sen. Assis \nBrazil, about 15 Nov. The junta holds all the pro- \nvince, and prepares to resist the dictator Fonseca, \nreported 17 Nov., about 30,000 men in arms ; \nFonseca\'s proposals rejected by the junta, 19 Nov. \n\nPresident Fonseca proclaims the election of a new \ncongress for 29 Feb. to meet on 3 May, 1892, \n\n21 Nov. \n\nInsurrection of the navy and others against pre- \nsident Fonseca; he resigns and is succeeded by \ngen. Floriano Peixoto ; no bloodshed, 23 Nov. ; \nhe issues a manifesto declaring the re-establish- \nment of legality 25 Nov. \n\nDeath of the ex-empemr Pedro II. at Paris 5 Dec. \n\nGen. Rocha Osorio appointed governor of BiO \nGrande 6 Doc. \n\n\n\n1889 \n\n\n\nBEEACH OF PEOMISE. \n\n\n\n144 \n\n\n\nBRECHIN. \n\n\n\nDisturbances in Rio de Janeiro province suppressed \nwith bloodshed 8 Dec. 1891 \n\nRevolution in Sao Paulo, "begun 13 Dec. , the gover- \nnor resigns 15 Dec. ,, \n\nMeeting of congress ; the president\'s message satis- \nfactory ;n8 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRevolution in Espiritu Santo ; vice-governor de- \nposed i 9 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSen. Silveira Martinez appointed governor of Rio \nGrande about 26 Dec. ,, \n\nCommercial treaty with Portugal signed . 15 Jan. 1892 \n\nMutiny at the fortress of Santa Cruz ; 2 forts cap- \ntured by the rebels, who demand the restoration \nof Deodoro da Fonseca ; the mutiny suppressed \nby government troops . . . 19 Jan. et seq. ,, \n\nThe chambers prorogued till May . . Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRevolt of the province of Matto Grosso, 12 April; \nsuppressed June, ,, \n\nThe Solimoes, armour-clad war-vessel, founders off \nCape Polonio, Uruguay, about 100 men drowned, \n\n21 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDeath of gen. Deodoro da Fonseca . 23 Aug. ,, \n\nEMPERORS OF BRAZIL. \n\n1822. Dom Pedro (of Portugal) ; abdicated in favour of his \ninfant son, 7 April, 1831 ; died 24 Sept. 1834. \n\n1831. Dom Pedro II. (born 2 Dec. 1825); assumed the \ngovernment, 23 July, 1840; crowned, 18 July. \n1841 ; married, 4 Sept. 1843, princess Theresa of \nNaples (born 14 March, 1822 ; died 28 Dec. 1889). \nPedro II. deposed 15 Nov. 1889, died at Paris 5 \nDec. ; buried in the cathedral at St. Vincent, \nLisbon, 12 Dec. 1891. \n\nHeiress. Isabella, born 29 July, 1846 ; married (15 Oct. \n1864) Louis comte d\'Eu, son of the due de \nNemours (born 29 April, 1842). \n\nHeir. Pedro, born 15 Oct. 1875. \n\nBEEACH OF PEOMISE of Marriage ; a \nresolution in favour of abolishing the action, was \nadopted in the Commons (106-65), 6 May, 1879. \n\nBEE AD. ChLng-Noung, the successor of Fohi, \nis reputed to have been the first who taught men \n(the Chinese) the art of husbandry, and the method \nof making bread from wheat, and wine from rice, \n1998 B.C. Univ. Hist. Baking of bread was known \nin the patriarchal ages: see Exodus xii. 15. It \nbecame a profession at Borne, 170 B.C. After the \nconquest of Macedon, 148 B.C., numbers of Greek \nbakers came to Borne, obtained special privileges, \nand soon obtained a monopoly. During the siege of \nParis by Henry IV., owing to famine, bread, which \nhad been sold whilst any remained for a crown a \npound, was at last made from the bones of the \ncharnel-house of the Holy Innocents, a.d. 1594. \nHenault. In the time of James I., barley bread was \nused by the poor; and now in Iceland, cod-fish, \nbeaten to powder, is made into bread ; potato-bread \nis used in Ireland. The London Bakers\' Company \nwas incorporated in 1307. Bread-street was once \nthe London market for bread. Until 1302, the \nLondon bakers were not allowed to sell any in their \nown shops. Stoiv. Bread was made with yeast by \nthe English bakers in 1634. In 1856 and 1857 Dr. \nDauglish patented a mode of making "aerated \nbread," in which carbonic acid gas is combined with \nwater and mixed with the flour, and which is said \nto possess the advantages of cleanliness, rapidity, \nand uniformity. In 1862 a company was formed to \nencourage Stevens\' bread-making machinery. An \nact for regulating bakehouses was passed in July, \n1863. A strike of the journeymen bakers of the \nmetropolis, 23 Sept., was settled by concessions, \n9 Oct. 1872. A Bread Reform League formed ; meet- \ning at the Mansion House, London, 17 Dec. 1880. \nThe Bread Union, limited, established in London, \nSept. 1889 ; failure, Oct. 1890. Delegated meeting \nof working bakers in London, demanding increased \npay and shorter time of labour, 5 Sept. ; strike \naverted by concessions, Nov. 1889. \n\n\n\nQuartern Loaf (4/6. sloz.) \n\n1735 . . Price shd. \n\nI74S \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 44 \n\n1755 .... 5 \n\n176s \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 7 \n\ni77S . 6J- \n\n1785 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 . . 6\\ \n\n1795 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x80\xa2 i2i \n\nFour-pound Loaf (best) \n\n\n\n1800 .. . Price 172C?. \n1800 . [For 4 weeks, 22 JcJ.] \n\n12^ \n\n\n\n1022 \n1825 \n\n\n\n1835 \n\n\n\n1855 \n1856 \n1857 \n1858 \n1859 \n\n\n\nIS66 \n1867 \n\n\n\niod. \n. . 11 \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 ioij \n\xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x80\xa2 7 \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 9 \nJune. Dec. \n\nl\\d. -j\\d. \n\n\n\n9\\ \n\n\n\niof \nioj- \n\n8\xc2\xa3 \n\n7 \n\nn \n\n9 \n\n9 \n\n\n\ndi \n\n\n\n1810 . \n\n1812 Aug \n1814 . \n1820 \n\n\n\n1871 \n1872 \n1873 \n1874 \n187S \n1876 \n1877 \n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 *5\xc2\xa3 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 2l\xc2\xa3 \n\n. 12^ \n\n. . II \n\nJune. Dec. \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 8 7 J \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 7a 8| \n\xe2\x96\xa0 9 9 \n\n. 9J 10 \n\n\n\n(medium\'). \n\n\n\nAssize of Bread. The first statute for the regulation \nof the sale of bread was 3 John, 1203. The chief justi- \nciary, and a baker commissioned by the king, had the \ninspection of the assize. Matthew Paris. The assize \nwas further regulated by statute in 51 Hen. III. 1266, \nand 8 Anne, 1710. Bread Act, Ireland, placing its sale \non the same footing as in England, 1 Vict. 1838. Bread \nwas directed to be sold by weight in London in 1822 ; the \nstatute " Assessa Panis " was repealed in 1824 ; and the \nsale of bread throughout the country was regulated hi \n1836. \n\nIn France the old laws were superseded, and a law \nenabling the municipalities to fix the price of bread \n(still unrepealed) was passed, July 1791. \n\nBEEAD-FEUIT TEEE, a native of the \nSouth Sea islands. A vessel under captain Bligh \nwas fitted out to convey some of these trees to> \nvarious British colonies in 1789 (see Bounty), and \nagain in 1 791. The number taken on board at \nOtaheite was 1151. Some were left at St. Helena, \n352 at Jamaica, and five were reserved for Kew \nGardens, 1793- The tree was successfully culti- \nvated in French Guiana, 1802. \n\nBEEAKWATEBS. The first stone of the \nPlymouth breakwater was lowered 12 August, 1812. \nIt stretches 5280 feet across the sound, is 360 feet \nin breadth at the bottom and more than 30 at the \ntop, and consumed 3,660,000 tons of granite blocks, \nfrom one to five tons each, up to April, 1841, and \ncost a million and a half sterling. The architects \nwere Mr. John Bennie and his son sir John. The \nfirst stone of the lighthouse on its western extremity \nwas laid 1 Feb. 1841. Breakwaters have been con- \nstructed at Holyhead, Portland, Dover, Middles- \nborough, &c. A great barrier, about two-thirds of \na mile long, erected to defend the hfematite iron \nmines near the Daddon estuary, was completed by \nMessrs. Lucas & Aird, sir John Coode being the \nengineer, Oct. 1890. \n\nBEE AST-PL ATE. One was worn by the \nJewish high priest, 1491 B.C. (Exod. xxxix.) \nGoliath "was armed with a coat of mail," 1063 \nB.C. (1 Sam. xvii.) Breast-plates dwindled to the \ndiminutive gorgets. Ancient breast-plates are men- \ntioned as made of gold and silver. \n\nBBECHEN", Scotland ; sustained a siege against \nthe army of Edward III., 1333. The battle of \n\n\n\nBREDA. \n\n\n\n145 \n\n\n\nBREVIARY. \n\n\n\nBrechin or Huntly-hill was fought between the \nearls of Huntly and Crawford, the latter defeated, \n18 May, 1452. The see of Brechin was founded by \nDavid I. in 1150. One of its bishops, Alexander \nCampbell, was made prelate when but a boy, 1556. \nThe bishopric, discontinued soon after the revolu- \ntion iu 1688, was revived in 1 731. \n\nBREDA, Holland, was taken from the \nSpaniards bj\' prince Maurice, of Nassau, in 1590 ; \nretaken by the Spaniards, under Spinola, June, \n1625 ; and by the Dutch, Oct. 1637. The " Com- \npromise of Breda" was a proposal to Philip II., de- \nprecating his harsh measures in the Netherlands, \npresented and refused in 1566. Our Charles II. \nresided here at the time of the restoration, and here \nhe issued his declaration of a free general pardon, \n4 April, 1660; see Restoration. Breda was taken \nSoy the French in 1793. The French garrison was \nexpelled by the burgesses in 1813. Population, \n1890, 22,536. \n\nBREECHES. Among the Greeks, this gar- \nment indicated slavery. It was worn by the \nDacians, Parthians, and other northern nations ; \nand in Ital) r , it is said, was worn in the time of \nAugustus Caesar. In the reign of Honorius, about \n394, the braccarii, or breeches-makers, were ex- \npelled from Rome. The " Geneva Bible," termed \n4he "Breeches Bible" (from the rendering in \nGen. iii. 7), published 1560. \n\nBREECH-LOADERS, see under Cannon \n\nand Firearms. \n\nBREED\'S HILL, see Bunker\'s Hill. \n\nBREHON LAWS, the ancient jurisprudence \nof Ireland, said to have been administered by here- \nditary judges called Brehons. It was enacted by \nthe statute of Kilkenny, that no English subject \nshould submit to the Brehon laws, 40 Edw. III., \n1366. These laws, however, were recognised by the \nnative Irish till 1650. A translation of them was \nproposed in 1852, and a commission appointed. The \npublication of the " Ancient Laws of Ireland" by \nthe government, began 1865. \n\nBREITENFELD, see Leipsic. \n\nBREMEN (N. Germany), said to have been \nfounded in 788, and long an archbishopric, and one \nof the leading towns of the Hanseatic League, was \nallowed a seat and a vote in the college of imperial \ncities in 1640. In 1648 it was secularised and \nerected into a duchy and held by Sweden till 1712, \nwhen it was taken possession of by Denmark, by \nwhom it was sold to Hanover in 1 731. It was \ntaken by the French in 1757, who were expelled \nfey the Hanoverians in 1758. Bremen was annexed \nby Napoleon to the French empire in 1810 ; but its \nindependence was restored in 1813, and all its old \nfranchises in 1815. It became a member of the \nNorth German Confederation in 1866. International \nagricultural exhibition opened 13 June, 1874. \nPopulation of the province, 187 1, 122,402 ; 1885, \n165,628; 1890, 180,443: of the city, 125,684; see \nHanse Towns. For the explosion at Bremerhafen, \n11 Dec. 1875, see Dynamite. \n\nBRENNEVILLE, N.W. France. Here \nHenry I. of England defeated Louis VI. of France, \nwho supported William Cliton, son of Robert, duke \nof Normandy, 20 Aug. 1 1 19. \n\nBRENTFORD, county town of Middlesex. \nHere Edmund Ironside defeated the Danes, May, \n1016. It was taken by Charles I., after a sharp \nfight, 12 Nov. 1642. Population, 1881, 11,805; \n1891, r3,73 6 - \n\n\n\nBRESCIA, N. Italy (the ancient Brixia), be- \ncame important under the Lombards, and suffered \nby the wars of the Italian Republics, being attached \nto Venice. It was taken by the French under \nGaston de Foix, Feb. 1512, when it is said 40,000 \nof the inhabitants were massacred. It was retaken \n26 May, 15 16. It surrendei-ed to the Austrian \ngeneral Haynau, 30 March, 1849, jq severe terms, \nit was annexed to Sardinia in 1859. \n\nBRESLAU, in Silesia, was burnt by the Mon- \ngols in 1 241, and conquered by Frederick II. of \nPrussia, Jan. 1741- A tierce battle took place here \nbetween the Austrians and Prussians, the latter \nunder prince Bevern, who was defeated 22 Nov. \n1757. Breslau was taken ; but was regained 21 Dec. \nsame year. It was besieged by the French, and \nsurrendered to them, Jan. 1807, and again in 1813. \nPopulation of the city, 1890, 125,684. \n\nBRESSA PRIZE. Dr. Cesare Antonio \nBressa, by will of 4 Sept. 1835, bequeathed property \nto the Royal Academy of Sciences, Turin, to give a \nprize every two years for some important discovery \nor valuable work published relating to physics, \nnatural history, geography, history, statistics, &c. \nThe first prize (about 1200V.) was to be awarded in \n1879 to a foreigner; the second to an Italian, and \nso on alternately. The prize awarded to M. L\'asteur \nin 1888. \n\nBREST, a seaport, N. W. France, possessed by \nthe English a.d. 1378. Lord Berkeley and a British \nfleet and army were repulsed here with dreadful loss \nin 1694. The magazine burnt, to the value of some \nmillions of pounds sterling, 1744. The marine hos- \npitals, with fifty galley slaves, burnt, 1766. The \nmagazine again destroyed by fire, 10 July, 1784. \nFrom this great depot of the French navy, numerous \nsquadrons were equipped against England, among \nthem the fleet which lord Howe defeated on I \nJune, 1794. England maintained a large block- \nading squadron off the harbour from 1793 to 1815 ; \nbut with little injury to France. It is now a chief \nnaval station, and is considered impregnable. The \nBritish fleet visited Brest, Aug. 1865. \n\nBRETAGNE, see Brittany. \n\nBRETHREN, see Bohemian and Plymouth \n\nBrethren. \n\nBRETIGNY, Peace OF, concluded with \n\nFrance, 8 May, 1360, by which England retained \nGascony and Guienne, and acquired other provinces ; \nrenounced her pretensions to Maine, Anjou, Tou- \nraine, and Normandy; was to receive 3,000,000 \ncrowns, and to release king John, long a prisoner. \nThe treaty not being carried out, the king remained \nand died in England. \n\nBRETON, see Gape Breton, and Brittany. \n\n- BRETWALDA (wide-ruling chief), one of \nthe kings of the Saxon heptarchy, chosen by the \nothers as a leader in war against then- common \nenemies. The title was bestowed upon Egbert, \n828 ; see Britain. Palgrave, Kemble, and Freeman \ndiffer in regard to this title. \n\nBREVIARY (so called as being an abridgment \nof the offices used in the Roman Catholic service), con- \ntains the seven canonical hours, viz., matins about \nmidnight; lauds (when not joined to matins, about \n3 a.m.), primes (about 6), tierce (about 9), sexts \n(about 12), nones (about 3 p.m.), vespers (4 or 6) \ncomplines (about 9). Lord Bate published a trans- \nlation of the Breviary, 1879. The breviary is \nascribed to pope Gelasius I. about 492. It was \n\n\n\nBEEWEES. \n\n\n\n143 \n\n\n\nBEIDGES. \n\n\n\nfirst called the custos, and afterwards the breviary ; \ncame into use among the ecclesiastical orders about \n1080 ; and was reformed by the councils of Trent \nand Cologne, and by Pius V., Urban VIII., and \nother popes. The quality of type in which _ the \nbreviary was first printed is said to have given \nthe name to the printing type called brevier. . \n\nBEEWEES are traced to Egypt. Brewing was \nknown to our Anglo-Saxon ancestors. Tindal. \n\' \' One "William Murle, a rich maltman or bruer, of \nDunstable, had two horses all trapped with gold, \n1414." Stow. In Oct. 1851, there were 2305 \nlicensed brewers in England, 146 in Scotland, and \n97 in Ireland ; total, 2548 : these are exclusive of \nretail and intermediate brewers. There were \n40,418 licensed brewers in the United Kingdom in \n1858 ; the revenue from Avhom to the state was in \nthat year 81,030^. In 1858 in England there were \n205 great brewers ; see Ale, Porter, and Vacuum. \n\nIn 1880 the brewers\' licence (for sale) was made iZ., \nnot for sale, 6s., a duty was laid upon beer calculated \nupon the specific gravity of the wort (43 & 44 Viet. c. 20). \n\nBrewers\' exhibition at the Agricultural Hall, London, \nbegan 1879. \n\nBEIAE\'S CEEEK (N. America), near which \nthe Americans, 2000 strong, under general Ashe, \nwere totally defeated by the English under general \nPrevost, 3 March, 1779. \n\nBEIBEE Y forbidden (Detit. xvi. 19) . Samuel\' s \nsons were guilty of it, 1112 B.C. (1 Sam. viii.3.) Thos. \nde "Weyland, a judge, was banished for bribery in \n1288; he was chief justice of the common pleas. \n"William de Thorpe, chief justice of the king\'s \nbench, was convicted of bribery in 1351. Another \njudge was fined 20,OOC7. for the like offence, 1616. \nMr. "Walpole, secretary-at-war, was sent to the \nTower for bribery in 1712. Lord Strangford was \nsuspended from voting in the Iiish house of lords, \nfor soliciting a bribe, Jan. 1784. \n\nBEIBEEY at Elections. In 1854 an im- \nportant act was passed consolidating and amending \nprevious acts relating to this offence, from 7 \nWill. III. (1695) to 5 & 6 Vict. c. 184. \nMessrs. Sykes and Rumbold fined and imprisoned \n\nfor bribery . . . . \'". - 14 March, 1776 \nMessrs. Davidson, Parsons, and Hopping, impri- \nsoned for bribery at Ilchester . . 28 April, 1804 \nMr. Swan, M.P. for Penryn, fined and imprisoned, \nand sir Manasseh Lopez sentenced to a fine of \nio,oooZ. and two years\' imprisonment for bribery \n\nat Grampound Oct. 1819 \n\nThe members for Liverpool and Dublin unseated 1831 \nThe friends of Mr. Knight, candidate for Cambridge, \n\nconvicted of bribery 20 Feb. 1835 \n\nElections for Ludlow and Cambridge made void . 1840 \nSudbury disfranchised, 1848 ; St. Albans also . . 1852 \nElections at Derby and other places declared void \n\nfor bribery 1853 \n\nCorrupt Practices Act passed 1854 \n\nIn the case of Cooper v. Slade, it was ruled that \nthe payment of travelling expenses was bribery, \n\n17 April, 1858 \nGross bribery practised at Gloucester, Wakefield, \n\nand Berwick 1859 \n\nMr. fin. H. Leatham convicted of bribery at Wake- \nfield 19 July, i860 \n\nGovernment commissions of inquiry respecting \nbribers, sat at Great Yarmouth, Totnes, Lancas- \nter, and Reigate ; and disgraceful disclosures \n\nwere made Aug.-Nov. 1866 \n\nThe boroughs were disfranchised by the Reform bill, \n\npassed 15 Aug. 1867 \n\nThe Parliamentary Elections Act enacted that elec- \ntion petitions should be tried by a court ap- \npointed for the purpose, passed . 31 July, 1868 \nEirst trials under this act ; Mr. Roger Eykyn (at \nWindsor) was declared duly elected, 15 Jan., and \nsir H. Stracey (at Norwich) was unseated, \n\n18 Jan. 1869 \n\n\n\nDr. Kinglake, Mr. Fenelly, and others, were sen- \ntenced to be fined for bribery in parliamentary \nelections 10 May, 1870 \n\nBeverley, Bridgewater, Sligo, and Cashel disfran- \nchised for bribery and corruption . . . ,\xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMuch corruption during the elections of April ; \nmembers for Oxford, Chester, Boston, and other \nplaces, unseated .... . 1880- \n\nStringent Act against it brought in by sir H. James, \nattorney-general, was passed in . . . . i88r \nSee Corrupt Practices. \n\nBBIC-A-BBACS (French), old curiosities: \nsuch as cabinets, pieces of ironwork, &c. The \ncollecting began about the time of queen Anne, \n1702-14. The publication of Brie-d-Brac, ffi \nmonthly price list, began in 1869. \n\nBBICKS were used in Babylon, Egypt, Greece,, \nand Rome; in England by the liomans. The size was \nregulated by order of Charles I., 1625. Taxed, 1784. \nThe number of bricks which paid duty in England in \n1820 was 949,000,000 ; in 1830, above 1,100,000,000 ;, \nin 1840, 1,400,000,000; and in 1850, 1.700,000,000^ \nThe duties and drawbacks of excise on bricks were \nrepealed in 1850. In 1839 Messrs. Cooke and Cun- \nningham brought out their machinery by which, \nit is said, 18,000 bricks may be made in ten hours, \nMessrs. Dixon and Corbett, near Newcastle, in 1861, \nwere making bricks by steam at the rate of 1500 \nper hour. The machinery is the invention of Clay- \nton & Co., London. \n\nBEIDEWELL, once a palace of king John,, \nnear Fleet-ditch, London, 1210, was given to the \ncity for a workhouse by Edward VI., 1553.* The \nNew Bridewell prison, erected in 1829, was pulled \ndown in 1864 ; that of Tothill-fields was rebuilt in> \n1831. \n\nBEIDGES were first of wood. There are \nancient stone bridges in China. Ab3^do3 is famous- \nfor the bridge of boats which Xerxes built across- \nthe Hellespont, 480 B.C. Trajan\'s magnificent \nstone bridge over the Danube, 4770 feet in length,, \nwas built in a.d. 105. Brotherhoods for building- \nbridges existed in S. France about 1 180. The Devil\'s- \nbridge in the Canton of Uri was built on two high \nrocks ; and many stories have been invented to ac- \ncount for it. At Schaffhausen an extraordinary \nbridge was built over the Rhine, 400 feet wide : there \nwas a pier in the middle of the river, but it is doubt- \nful whether the bridge rested upon it ; a man of \nthe lightest weight felt the bridge totter under him, \nyet waggons heavily laden passed over without \ndanger. The bridge was destroyed by the French \nin 1799. See Hammersmith, London, Waterloo, \nBlaclifriars, Southwark, Forth, Tag, Tower, and \nother bridges, in separate articles. The chief \nThames bridges were freed from toll 24 May, 1879, \nand 26 June, 1880. \n\nTriangular bridge at Croyland abbey referred to in \na charter dated 945 \n\nA stone bridge erected at Bow, near Stratford, by \nqueen Matilda about 1 100-18 \n\nBishop\'s bridge, Norwich 1295 \n\nLondon bridge : one existed about 978 ; one built \nof wood, 1014 ; one by Peter of Colechurch, 1176- \n1209 ; new bridge finished 1831 \n\nThe first large iron bridge erected over the Severn, \nShropshire 1777 \n\nSunderland bridge by Wilson, 100 feet high, an \narch with a span of 236 feet 1796 \n\nThe chain suspension bridge at Menai Strait . . 1825 \n\n* Of the old buildings little remains : merely offices \nand a few cells for refractory city apprentices. By the \nCharity Commissioners\' scheme (i860) the annual income \n(14,682/.. in 1876) is devoted to the maintenance of two \nindustrial schools : for boys, at Witley, Surrey; for girls, \nat St. George\'s fields. \n\n\n\nBRIDGEWATER. \n\n\n\n147 \n\n\n\nBRISTOL. \n\n\n\nOld Westminster, opened, 1750 ; old Blaekfriars, \n1769 ; Waterloo, 1817 ; Southwark, iSig ; Hunger- \nford, 1845 ; Chelsea, 1858 ; Vauxhall, 1816. \n\nA railway bridge 2j miles long projected over the \nFirth of Forth (not executed) . . . Dec. 1864 \n\nThe very wide Victoria bridge, over the Thames (by \nwhich the London, Chatham and Dover railway \nenters the Victoria station, Pimlico) ; founded by \nlord Harris 22 Feb. 1865 \n\nFor details see separate articles, and also Tubular \nbridge, Newcastle, Niagara, Victoria bridge, \xc2\xa3c. \n\nNew York and Brooklyn bridge, 5862 feet long; \n1600 central span ; 130 feet high ; July, 1872, etscq. \n\nTay bridge (which see) 1871-7 ; Forth bridge (see \nunder Forth) 1 8 79-8 9 \n\nThe great railway bridge over the Severn (above J \nmile long), connecting the Forest of Dean w r ith \nSharpness Point, the port of Gloucester (cost \n1,000,000?.), was formally opened . 17 Oct. 1879 \n\nGreat railway bridge over the Volga, near Syzlan, \nSaratoy government, built . . . . 1877-80 \n\nSuspension bridge from New York to Brooklyn \n(5989 feet long) opened . . . 24 May, 1883 \n\nBRIDGEWATER, Somersetshire, was incor- \nporated by king John, in 1200. In the civil war it \nwas taken by the parliamentary forces, 23 July, \n1645. Here stood an ancient castle in which the \nill-advised duke of Monmouth lodged when pro- \nclaimed king in 1685. The town was disfranchised \nfor bribery, 1870. Population, 1881, 12,007 ! 1891, \n12,429. \n\nBRLDGEWATER CANAL, the first great \nwork of the kind in England, was begun by the \nduke of Bridgewater, the father of canal navigation \nin this country, in 1759, and opened 17 July, 1761. \nJames Brindley was the engineer. It commences \nat Worsley, seven miles from Manchester; and at \nBarton Bridge is an aqueduct which, for upwards \nof 200 yardjs, conveys the canal across the river \nIrwell. The length of the canal is about twenty- \nnine miles. \n\nBRIDGEWATER TREATISES. The rev. \nFrancis, earl of Bridgewater, died in April, 1829, \nleaving by will 8,000\'. to be given to the author or \nauthors, appointed by the president of the Royal \nSociety, who should write an essay " on the power, \nwisdom, and goodness of God, as manifested in the \ncreation." The essays (by sir Charles Bell, Drs. T. \nChalmers, John Kidd, William Buckland, William \nProut, Peter M. Roget, and the revs. William \nWhewell and William Kirbv) were published 1833- \n35- \n\nBRIEFS are the letters of the pope despatched \nto princes and others on public affairs, and usually \nwritten short, without preface or preamble, and on \npaper; in which particulars they are distinguished \nfrom bulls. The latter are ample, and written on \nparchment. Briefs are sealed with red wax and \nthe seal of the fisherman, or St. Peter in a boat, \nand always in the presence of the pope. The queen\'s \nletters, called "briefs," authorising collections in \nchurches for charitable purposes, are now discon- \ntinued. A lawyer\'s brief is an abridgment of his \nclient\'s case. \n\nBRIENNE (N. E. France). Here the allied \narmies of Russia and Prussia, under Bliicher, were \ndefeated by the French, 29 Jan. 1814. \n\nBRIGANDAGE. See Italy, 1861 et seq.; \nGreece, 1870; Spabi, 1870, and Turkey. \n\n_ BRIGHT\'S DISEASE- a degeneration of the \nti-sues of the kidneys into fat, investigated about \n1830 by Richard Bright. \n\nBRIGHTON", formerly Brighthelmstone, a \nfishing town, Sussex, was made a place of fashion- \nable resort by the prince of Wales, afterwards \n\n\n\nGeorge IV. Brighton returns two M.P.\'s by Act of \n1885. See Population. \n\nAt Shoreham, near Brighton, Charles II. embarked \nfor France after the battle of Worcester . . 1651 \n\nVisit of the prince of Wales I7 8 2 \n\nHe founded the Pavilion 1784 ; it was greatly en- \nlarged and made to resemble the Kremlin at Mos- \ncow, 1784-1823 ; sold to the town for 53,000/. 1849. \nThe Block-house swept away . . .26 March, 1786 \nPart of the cliff fell ; great damage . . 16 Nov. 1807 \nChain-pier, 1134 feet long, 13 wide, completed . 1823 \nBrighton made a parliamentary borough . . 1832 \n\nThe railway to London opened . . . 21 Sept. 1841 \nCollision of trains in Clayton tunnel, 23 persons \n\nkilled and many injured ... 25 Aug. 1861 \nVolunteer reviews here on Easter Mondays, 1862 ; \n\nand often since, see under Volunteers. \nNew pier erected . . . ... . . 1865-6 \n\nGreat aquarium inaugurated by prince Arthur, 30 \n\nMar. ; and formally opened by the mayor, 10 Aug. 1872 \nBritish Association meet here . . 14 Aug. ,, \n\nFree library, museum, and picture gallery, opened \n\n12 Sept. 1873 \nInauguration of status of sir John Cordy Burrows, \n\ngreat benefactor to the town . . . 14 Feb. 1878 \nAbout 2000 French and Belgian singers and musi- \ncians meet ...... 5 Sept. 1881 \n\nGrand concert room, &c, burned . . 8 Oct. 1882 \nNew town hall, Hove, opened . . .13 Dec. ,, \nElectric railway tried . . . 4 April, 1S84 \n\nPreston park (purchased for 6o,cool. aided by legacy \n\nfrom W. E. Davis) opened by the mayor \' 8 Nov. ,, \nRailway to Devil\'s Dyke opened . . 1 Sept. 1887 \nInternational exhibition of arts and manufactures \n\nat Hove opened 21 Oct. 1889 \n\nNew terraces, sheltered walk, halls, &c, opened by \n\nthe mayor 25 May, 1890 \n\nMuseum of British birds, bequeathed to the town \nby Mr. E. T. Booth, opened by the mayor, 3 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBRILL or BRIEL, Holland. A seaport, seized \nby the expelled Dutch confederates, became the \nseat of their independence, 1572. Brill, given up \nto the English in 1585 as security for advances \nmade by queen Elizabeth to Holland, was restored \nin 1616. \n\nBRISBANE, capital of Queensland, on the \nriver Brisbane, Australia, was founded by Oxley, \nin 1823, settled as a penal station in 1825 by sir J. \nBrisbane, and made a bishopric in 1859, when the \ncolony was constituted. Spacious dry dock opened \nat S. Brisbane in 188I. Population \'in 1887 (with \nsuburbs), 73,649; 1891, 93,657. \n\nBRISSOTINS, see Girondists. \n\nBRISTOL (W. England) is mentioned in 430 \nas a fortihed city. It was called Caer Oder, a city m \nthe valley of Bath ; and, sometimes Caer Brito,\'the \nBritish city, and by the Saxons Brightstowe, plea- \nsant place. Gildas and Ncnnius speak of Bristol in \nthe 5th and 7th centuries. From the 12th to the \n1 8th century it was, next to London, the most \nflourishing port in England ; it has since been sur- \npassed by Liverpool. See under Orphan-houses. \nAn industrial and fine art exhibition for Somerset \nand Gloucester opened 2 Sept. 1884. See Population. \nBristol returns four M.P.\'s by Act of 1885. \nTaken by the earl of Gloucester, in his defence \nof his sister Maud, the empress, against king \n\nStephen 1118 \n\nEleanor of Brittany (daughter of Geoffrey, son of \nHenry II.) dies in the castle after 39 years\' im- \nprisonment 12 . x \n\nSt. Mary\'s church built \' I202 \n\nBristol made a distinct county by Edward III. 1 - \n\nBishopric founded by Henry VIII , 54 \' 2 \n\nTaken by prince Rupert, 26 July, 1643 i by Cromwell, \n\n10 Sept. 1645 \nEdwd. Colston\'s hospital, a free school, and other \ncharities established [Ins birthday, 13 Nov. kept \n\nannually] z oS \n\n[Annual dinners : the Dolphin Soeietv (conserva. \n\nL 2 \n\n\n\nBEISTOL. \n\n\n\n143 \n\n\n\nBRITAIN. \n\n\n\ntive) since 1749 ; the Anchor Society (liberal) \nsince 1768 ; Grateful Society (neutral) since 1757.] \n\nNew charter 1710 \n\nAct passed for new exchange, 1723 ; erected . . 1741 \n\nBread riots 1753 \n\nBridge built May, 1760 \n\nAttempt to set the shipping on fire . . 22 Jan. 1777 \nRiot on account of a toll ; the troops Are on the \npopulace, and many are wounded . 25 Oct. 1793 \n\nDocks built 1804-9 \n\nBiot on the entrance of sir Charles Wetherell, the \nrecorder, into the city, he being opposed to the \nreform bill ; the mansion house, the bishop\'s \npalace, several merchants\' stores, some of the \nprisons (the inmates liberated), nearly 100 houses \nburned, and above 500 persons killed by the mili- \ntary or perished .... 29-3100^-1831 \nTrial of rioters (four executed ; 22 transported), \n\n2 Jan. ; suicide of col. Brereton, during trial by \ncourt-martial 9 Jan. 1832 \n\nMeeting of British Association . . . Aug. 1836 \nRailway to London completed . . 30 June, 1841 \nClifton suspension-bridge opened . . 8 Dec. 1864 \nIndustrial Exhibition opened . . 19 Sept. 1865 \nBritish Association, 2nd meeting ... . . 1875 \nProposed foundation of a college for science and \nliterature here for the south and west of England ; \nmeeting, 13 June, 1874 ; opened as University \n\nCollege 10 Sept. 1876 \n\nGreat fire ; Clutterbuck\'s. drysalters, &c, loss be- \ntween 8o,ooo\xc2\xa3. and ioo,oooZ. . . 24-25 May, ,, \nAvonmouth dock opened ... 24 Feb. 1877 \nStatue of Mr. Samuel Morley, long M.P. for \n\nBristol, unveiled 22 Oct. 1887 \n\nDestructive explosion of 300 barrels of volatile \nnaphtha on board the Jersey ketch The United; \n\n3 deaths 21 Nov. 1888 \n\nGreat flood ; damage about ioo,oooL . 8-9 March, 1889 \nTrade paralyzed by strikes, dock labourers, work- \nmen, and workwomen, Oct. ; strike settled by \ncompromise Oct. -Dec. ,, \n\nAbout 10,000 of the boot trade locked out, 23 Dec, \n\n1889; settled by compromise . about 20 Jan. 1890 \nAnother great lock-out, Jan., closed by arbitration \n\n3 Feb. 1892 \n\nBRISTOL, SEE OF, one of the six bishoprics \nerected by Henry VIII. out of the spoils of the dis- \nsolved monasteries, 1542. The cathedral was the \nchurch, of the abbey of St. Austin, founded here by \nRobert Fitz-Harding, son to a king of Denmark, and \na citizen of Bristol, 1148. The see is valued in the \nking\'s books at 338^. 8s. \\d. Paul Bushe, provincial \nof the Bons-hommes, was the first bishop, in 1542 \xe2\x80\x94 \ndeprived for being married, 1554. The see of Bris- \ntol was united by an order in council with that of \nGloucester, in 1836, but in 1884 an act was passed \nto provide for their again becoming separate \nbishoprics. The cathedral (under repair since 1844) \nwas reopened in 1861 ; a new nave opened 23 Oct. \n1877. \n\nBISHOPS OF BRISTOL. \n\n-1803. Hon. G. Pelham, translated to Exeter, 1807. \n\n1807. John Luxmoore, translated to Hereford, 1808. \n\n1808. Win. Lort Mansell, died, 27 June, 1820. \n1820. John Kaye, translated to Lincoln, 1827. \n1827. Robert Gray, died 28 Sept. 1834. \n\n1834. Joseph Allen, the last bishop, translated to Ely \nin June, 1836. (In October the diocese was \nunited with Gloucester.) \n\nBRITAIN (called by the Romans Britannia,* \nfrom its Celtic name Prydain, Camden). The \nearliest records of the history of this island are the \nmanuscripts and poetry of the Cambrians. The \nCelts, the ancestors of the Britons and modern \nWelsh, were the first inhabitants of Britain. It is \nreferred to as the Cassiterides or tin-islands by \n\n\n\n* The Banians eventually divided Britain into Britan- \nnia Prima (country south of the Thames and Severn) ; \nBritannia Secunda (Wales) ; Flavia Ccesariensis (between \nthe Thames, Severn, and Humber) ; Maxima Cmsariensis \n(between the Humber and Tyne) ; and Valcntia (between \nthe Tyne and Firth of Forth). \n\n\n\nHerodotus, 450 B.C. ; as Albion and Ierne (England \nand Ireland) by Aristotle, 350 B.C., and Polybius, \n260 B.C. Britain, including England, Scotland, \nand "Wales, was anciently called Albion, the name \nof Britain being applied to all the islands collec- \ntively \xe2\x80\x94 Albion to only one. Flint/ ; see Albion, \nEngland, Scotland, and. Wales. Early history and \ndates doubtful. \n\nDivitiacus, king of the Suessones, in Gaul, said to b.c. \nhave supremacy over part of Britain- . . . 57 \nFirst invasion of Britain by the Romans, under \n\nJulius Caesar 26 Aug. 55 \n\nSecond invasion ; he defeats Cassivelaunus, British \n\ngeneral 54 \n\nCymbeline (Cunobelin), king of Britain . . . 4 \nAulus Plautius defeats the Britons . . . a.d. 43 \nHe and Vespasian reduce S. Britain . . . . 47 \nCaractacus defeated by Ostorius, 50 ; carried in \n\nchains to Rome 51 \n\nRomans defeated by Boadicea, queen of the Iceni ; \n70,000 slain, and London burnt : she is defeated \nby Suetonius ; 80,000 slain, place uncertain . 61 \nAgricola, governor, conquers Anglesey, and over- \nruns Britain in seven campaigns, and reforms the \n\ngovernment 78-84 \n\nHe defeats the Caledonians under Galgacus ; sur- \nrenders the islands . . . . . .84 \n\nThe emperor Adrian visits Britain, 120 ; and builds \n\na wall from the Tyne to the Solway . . .121 \nLucius, king of the Britons, said to have sent an \nembassy on religious affairs to pope Eleutherius, \n\nabout 181 \nThe Britons (allies of Albinus) defeated at Lyons by \n\nSeverus 197 \n\nSouthern Britain subdued and divided by the \n\nRomans into two provinces .... 204 \nSeverus keeps his court at York, then called Ebora- \ncum, 208 ; finishes his wall, and dies at York, \n\n4 Feb. 211 \nCarausius usurps the throne of Britain . . . 286 \nHe is killed by Allectus, another usurper . . 294 \nConstantius recovers Britain and kills Allectus . 296 \nSt. Alban and 17,000 Christians martyred (Bede) . 304 \nConstantius, emperor of Rome, dies at York, \n\n25 July, 306 \nBritish bishops at the council of Aries . . . 314 \nScots and Piets invade Britain, 360 ; routed by \n\nTheodosius 368 \n\nRomans gradually withdraw from Britain . 402-436 \n\nReign of Vortigern 425 \n\nThe Saxons and Angles aid in expelling the Picts \n\nand Scots 429 \n\nThe Romans quit Britain 436 \n\nThe Anglo-Saxon invaders drive the Britons into \n\nWales and Cornwall - . . . . 449-455 \nMany Britons settle in Armorica (Brittany) . 388-457 \nThe Saxon Heptarchy ; Britain divided into seven \n\nor more kingdoms 457 \n\nElla invades South Britain, 477 ; founds kingdom \n\nof Sussex 491 \n\nSupposed reigns of Vortimer, 464 ; Vortigern again, \n471 ; Aurelius Ambrosius, 481 ; and Arthur Pen- \ndragon 500 \n\nGreat Saxon invasion under Cerdie . . . . 495 \n\nThe renowned king Arthur said to reign . . 500-532 \nArrival of St. Augustin (or Austin), and re-establish- \nment of Christianity ....... 597 \n\nCadwallader, last king of the Britons, reigns . . 678 \nLindisfarne church destroyed by the Northmen . . 794 \nEgbert, king of Wessex, virtually king of England 827 \n\nkings of the heptarchv,* see Bretwalda. \n\nKent. [The shire of Kent.] \n454. Hengist. [473, Saxon Chronicle.] \n488. iEsc, Esca, or Escus, son of Hengist ; in honour of \n\nwhom the kings of Kent were for some time called \n\njEscings. \n512. Octa, son of jEsc. \n542. Hermenric, or Ermenric, son of Octa. \n560. St. Ethelbert ; first Christian Icing (styled Rex \n\nAngloruin). \n\n* The term "Octarchy" is sometimes used; North- \numbria being divided into Bernicia and Deira, separate \nkingdoms. \n\n\n\nBRITAIN. \n\n\n\n149 \n\n\n\nBRITAIN. \n\n\n\n616. Eadbald, son of Ethelbert. \n\n640. Ercenbert, or Ercombert, son of Eadbald. \n\n664. Ecbert, or Egbert, sou of Ercenbert. \n\n673. Lothar, or Lothair, brother of Ecbert. \n\n685. Edric ; slain in 687. [The kingdom now subject to \n\nvarious leaders.] \n694. Wihtred, or Wihgtred. \n\n72 i S^n\'^f tt I sons of Wihtred, succeeding \n\n748. Ethelbert II., V eacn th \n\n760. Alric, ; \n\n794. Edbert, or Ethelbert Pryn ; deposed. \n\n796. Cuthred, or Guthred. \n\n805. Baldred ; who lost his life and kingdom to \n\n823. Egbert, king of Wessex. \n\nSouth Saxons. [Sussex and Surrey.\'] \n\n491. Ella, a warlike prince, succeeded by \n\n514. Cissa, his son, whose reign was long and peaceful, \nexceeding 70 years. \n[The \'South Saxons then fell into an almost total de- \npendence on the kingdom of Wessex.] \n\n648. Edilwald, Edilwach, Adelwach, or Ethelwach. \n\n686. Authun and Berthun, brothers ; reigned jointly ; \n\nvanquished by Ina, king of Wessex, 689 ; kingdom \nconquered in 725. \n\nWest Saxons. [Berks, Hampshire, Wilts, Somerset, \n\nDorset, Devon, and part of Cornwall.] \n519. Cerdic. \n\n534. Cynrie, or Kenric, son of Cerdic. \n560. Ceawlin, son of Cynrie ; banished ; dies in 593. \n591. Ceolric, nephew to Ceawlin. \n597. Ceolwulf. \n611. |_Cynegils, and in \n614. ) Cwichelm, his son, reigned jointly. \n643. Cenwal, Cenwalh, or Cenwald. \n\n672. Sexburga, his queen, sister to Penda, king of Mer- \ncia ; of great qualities ; probably deposed. \n\n674. Escwine, with Centwine ; on his death, \n676. Centwine rules alone. \n\n685. Csedwallo : went to Rome, to expiate his deeds of \n\nblood, and died there. \n688. Ina or Inas, a brave and wise ruler ; journeyed to \n\nRome ; left an excellent code of laws. \n728. Ethelheard, or Ethelard, related to Ina. \n740. Cuthred, brother to Ethelheard. \n\n754. Sigebright, or Sigebert, having murdered his friend \n\nCumbran, governor of Hampshire, was slain by \none of his victim\'s retainers. \n\n755. Cynewulf, or Kenwulf, or Cenulpe, a noble youth \n\nof the line of Cerdic ; murdered. \n784. Bertric, or Beorhtric ; poisoned by drinking of a \n\ncup his queen had prepared for another. \n800. Egbert, afterwards sole monarch of England, and \n\nBretwalda. \n\nEast Saxons. [Essex, Middlesex, and part of Herts.] \n526, 527, or 530, Erchenwin, or Erchwine. \n587. Sledda ; his son. \n\n597. St. Sebert, or Sabert ; son ; first Christian king. \n614. Saxred or Sexted, or Serred, jointly with Sigebert \n\nand Seward ; all slain. \n623. Sigebert II. surnamed the little ; son of Seward. \n655. Sigebert III. surnamed the good ; brother of Sebert : \n\nput to death. \n661. Swithelm (or Suidhelm), son of Sexbald. \n663. Sigher, or Sigeric, jointly with Sebbi, or Sebba, who \nbecame a monk. \nSigenard, or Sigehard, and Suenfrid. \nOffa ; became a monk at Rome. \nSuebricht, or Selred. \nSwitlired, or Swithed ; a long reign. \nSigeric ; died in a pilgrimage to Rome. \nSigered, \n\n\n\n693. \n700 \n709. \n738. \n792 \n799 \n\n\n\n823. Kingdom seized by Egbert of Wessex. \n\nNorthumbria. [Lancaster, York, Cumberland, Westmore- \nland, Durham, and Northumberland.] \n\\* Northumbria was at first divided into two govern- \nments, Bernicia and Deira; the former stretching \nfrom the Tweed to the Tyne, and the latter from the \nTyne to the Humber. \n547. Ida, a valiant Saxon. \n560. Adda, his eldest son ; king of Bemicia. \n\xe2\x80\x9e Ella, king of Deira ; afterwards the sole king of \nNorthumbria (to 587). \n\n\n\n567- \n572- \n573- \n580. \n588. \n593- \n617. \n\n634- \n\n635- \n642. \n670. \n685. \n7\xc2\xb05- \n716. \n718. \n729. \n737- \n757- \n759- \n765- \n774- \n778. \n789. \n790. \n\n794\' \n806. \n\n\n\n841. \n\n\n\nGlappa, Clappa, or Elapea : Bernicia. \n\nHeodwulf ; Bernicia. \n\nFreodwulf ; Bernicia. \n\nTheodoric ; Bernicia. \n\nEthelric ; Bernicia. \n\nEthelfrith, surnamed the Fierce. \n\nEdwin, son of Ella, king of Deira in 590 ; a great \n\nprince. Slain in battle with Penda, of Mercia. \nEanfrid rules in Bemicia, and Osric in Deira ; both \n\nput to death. \nOswald slain in battle. \nOsweo, or Oswy ; a reign of great renown. \nEcfrid, or Egfrid, king of Northumbria. \nAlcfrid, or Ealdferth. \nOsred, or Ealdferth. \nCenric ; sprung from Ida. \nOsric, son of Alcfrid. \nCeolwulf ; died a monk. \nEadbert, or Egbert ; retired to a monastery. \nOswnlf, or Osulf ; slain in a sedition. \nEdilwald, or Mollo ; slain by Aired \nAired, Ailred, or Alured ; deposed \nEthelred, son of Mollo ; expelled. \nElwald, or Celwold ; deposed and slain. \nOsred, son of Aired ; fled. \nEthelred restored ; afterwards slain. \nErdulf, or Ardulf ; deposed. \nAlfwold. \nErdulf restored. \nEanred. \nKingdom annexed by Egbert. \n\nEast Angles. [Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridge, Ely.] \n\n526. Uffa lands. \n\n571 or 575. Uffa ; a German, said to be first king. \n\n578. Titilus, or Titulus ; son of Uffa. \n\n599. Redwald, son of Titilus ; the greatest prince of the \n\nEast Angles. \n624. Erpwald, Eorpwald, or Eordwald. \n627. Richbert. \n\n629. Sigebert, half-brother to Erpwald. \n632. Egfrid, or Egric ; cousin to Sigebert. \n635. Anna, or Annas ; a just ruler ; killed. \n\n654. Ethelric, or Ethelhere ; slain in battle. \n\n655. Ethelwald ; his brother. \n664. Aldulf, or Aldwulf. \n713. Selred, or Ethelred. \n746. Alphwuld. \n\n749. Beorna and Ethelred, jointly. \n\n758. Beorna alone. \n\n761. Ethelred. \n\n790. Ethelbert, or Ethelbryght ; treacherously put to \ndeath in Mercia in 792, when Offa, king of Mercia, \noverran the country, which was finally subdued by \nEgbert. \n\n870. St. Edmund (vassal king) slain by the Danes. \n\nMercia. [Gloucester, Hereford, Chester, Stafford, Worces- \nter, Oxford, Salop, Warwick, Derby, Leicester, \nBucks, Northampton, Notts, Lincoln, Bedford, Rut- \nland, Huntingdon, and part of Herts.] \n\n586. Crida, or Cridda, a noble chieftain. \n\n593. [Interregnum\xe2\x80\x94 Ceolric] \n\n597. Wibba, a valiant prince, his son. \n\n615. Ceorl, or Cheorl ; nephew of Wibba. \n\n626. Penda ; fierce and cruel ; killed in battle. \n\n655. Pcada, son of Penda ; killed to make way for \n\n656. Wulfhere (brother) ; slew his two sons. \n675. Ethelred ; became a monk. \n\n704. Cenred, or Cendred ; became a monk at Rome. \n709. Ceolred, Celred, or Chelred ; son of Ethelred. \n716. Ethelbald ; slain in a mutiny by his successor. \n755. Beornred, or Bernred ; himself slain. \n,, Offa ; formed the great dyke near Wales. \n794. Egfrid, or Egferth, son of Ofl\'a ; died suddenly. \n,, Cenulph Cenwulf, or Kenulph ; slain. \n819. Kenelm, or Cenelm, a minor : reigned five months ; \nkilled by his sister Quendreda. \nCeolwulf, uncle to Kenelm ; expelled. \nBeornwulf ; killed by his own subjects, \nLudecan ; a valiant ruler ; slain. ^ \nWithlafe, orWiglaf. \nBerthulf, or Bertulf. \n852. Burhred, or Burdred. \n874. Ceolwulph ; deposed by the Danes, 877. \n\n[The kingdom merged into that of England. \n\n\n\n823. \n825. \n\n\n\nBRITANNIA TUBULAR BRIDGE. 150 \n\n\n\nBRITISH COLUMBIA. \n\n\n\nBRITANNIA TUBULAR BRIDGE, see \n\nTubular Bridge. \n\nBRITANNY, or Bretagne (N. W. France), \nthe ancient Armorica (which see), formed part of \nthe kingdom of the Franks. The Bretons still \nretain much of their ancient Celtic language and \ncustoms (1891). \n\nNomenoe revolts and becomes the first count . . 841 \nBritanny ravaged by Northmen, 907 ; ceded to them 92 r \n\nGeoffroy I., the first duke . \xe2\x96\xa0 992 \n\nAlan V., 100S ; Conan II 1040 \n\nHoelV., 1066; Alan VI 1084 \n\nConan III 11 12 \n\nHoel VI. expelled ; Geoffroy of An jou duke . -1155 \nConan IV. duke, 1156 ; on the death of Geoffroy, \ncedes Britanny to Henry II. of England, and \nbetrothes his daughter, Constance, to Henry\'s son, \n\nGeoffroy (both infants) 11 59 \n\nGeoffroy succeeds, 1171 ; killed at a tournament . 1186 \nHis son, Arthur, dies mysteriously at Rouen, his \nuncle John suspected ; his daughter, Eleanor, \nimprisoned at Bristol (for 39 years) . April, 1203 \nAlice, . daughter of Constance by her second hus- \nband, Guy de Thours, proclaimed duchess, 1203 ; \nmarries Peter of Dreux, made duke . . . .1213 \n\nJohn I., duke, 1237 ; John II 1286 \n\nJohn III., 1312 ; dies without issue . . . . 1341 \nThe succession disputed between John of Montfort \n(John IV.) supported by Edward of England, and \nCharles of Blois, made duke by Philip VI. of \nPrance. John is made prisoner ; his wife, Jane, \nbesieged at Hennebonne, holds out, and is re- \nlieved by the English, 1343 ; John dies . . 1345 \nCharles of Blois defeated and slain at Auray, 29 Sept. ; \nJohn V, son of Montfort, duke . . . . 1364 \n\nJohn VI., duke, 1399 : Francis 1 1442 \n\nPeter II. , 1450 ; Arthur III 1457 \n\nFrancis II., 1458 ; takes part with the Orleanists in \n\nFrance ; defeated at St. Aubin, 28 July, 1488 ; dies 1488 \nAnne, his daughter, and heiress, marries 1st, \nCharles VIII. of France, 1491 ; 2nd, Louis XII., \nT499 \xe2\x96\xa0 ner eldest daughter, Claude (born 1499), \nmarries Francis, count of Angouleme, 1514 ; king \n\nof France 1 Jan. 1515 \n\nBritanny formally united to the monarchy . . . 1532 \nBritanny held by the Spaniards, 1591 ; recovered by \n\nHenry IV 1594 \n\nThe Bretons take part in the Vendean insurrection \n(see La Vendee) in 1791 \n\nBRITISH, see Architects; Antiquaries ; Banks, \nJoint Stock ; Guiana, Honduras, National, Medi- \ncal, Orphans, Societies. \n\nBRITISH AMERICA (see America) com- \nprises the dominion of Canada, Nova Scotia, New \nBrunswick, Newfoundland and Prince Edward\'s \nIsland, Labrador, British Columbia and Vancouver\'s \nIsland. \n\nDelegates from the first six provinces met at Quebec on \n10 Oct., and agreed to the basis of a Federal union, \nwith the queen as the executive (represented by the \ngovernor-general), a legislative council of 96 members \nfor life, and a house of commons of 194 members, 20 \nOct. 1864. \nThe secretary for the colonies, Mr. Cardwell, expressed \n\nhis approval of the plan, 3 Dec. 1864. \nThe plan opposed by New Brunswick, 7 March, 1865. \nMessrs. Cartier and Gait came to England to advocate it, \n\nApril, 1865. \nAct for the union of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New \nBrunswick, under the name of " the dominion of \nCanada," brought into parliament by the earl of Car- \nnarvon, 19 Feb., passed 29 March, 1867. \n(The British government guaranteed a subsidy of \n\n3,000,000/. to complete the intercolonial railway.) \nBy the British North America act, the parliament of \n\nCanada may establish new provinces, 29 June, 1871. \nBritish American, see George, St., Sons of. \n\nBRITISH AND FOREIGN\xe2\x80\x94 Bible Society, \nestablished 1804 (see under Bible) ;\xe2\x80\x94 Scliool Society, \n180S ;\xe2\x80\x94 Sailors\' Society, 1818. \n\n\n\nBRITISH ASSOCIATION for the Advance- \nment of Science, was established by sir David \nBrewster, sir R. I. Murchison, &c, in 1831. Pro- \nfessor John Phillips was secretary till 1863. It holds \nannual meetings; the -first of which was held at \nYork on 27 Sept. 1831. One of its main objects is \n" to promote the intercourse of those w r ho cultivate \nscience with eacli other." It appoints commissions \nand makes pecuniary grants for scientific research ; \nand publishes annually a volume containing Beports \nof the proceedings. Kew observatory presented to \nthe association by the queen in 1842. Superinten- \ndents, Francis fionalds, the first; John "Walsh, \n1852; Balfour Stewart, 1859. It was purchased for \nthe fioyal Society by Mr. J. P. Gassiot, in 1871. \n\n\n\nI. \n\n\nYork Meeting . . \n\n\n1831 \n\n\n34- \n\n\nBath . \n\n\n1864 \n\n\n2. \n\n\nOxford . \n\n\n1832 \n\n\n35- \n\n\nBirmingham (3rd) \n\n\n1865 \n\n\n3- \n\n\nCambridge . . \n\n\n1833 \n\n\n36. \n\n\nNottingham . \n\n\n1866 \n\n\n4- \n\n\nEdinburgh . \n\n\n1834 \n\n\n37- \n\n\nDundee . . . \n\n\n1867 \n\n\n5- \n\n\nDublin . . . \n\n\n1835 \n\n\n38. \n\n\nNorwich \n\n\n1868 \n\n\n6. \n\n\nBristol . \n\n\n1836 \n\n\n39- \n\n\nExeter . . . \n\n\n1869 \n\n\n7- \n\n\nLiverpool. . . \n\n\n1837 \n\n\n40. \n\n\nLiverpool (3rd) . \n\n\n1870 \n\n\n8. \n\n\nNewcastle . \n\n\n1S38 \n\n\n41. \n\n\nEdinburgh (3rd) . \n\n\n1871 \n\n\n9- \n\n\nBirmingham . . \n\n\n1839 \n\n\n42. \n\n\nBrighton \n\n\n1872 \n\n\n10. \n\n\nGlasgow \n\n\n1840 \n\n\n43- \n\n\nBradford . . . \n\n\n1873 \n\n\n11. \n\n\nPlymouth . . \n\n\n1841 \n\n\n44- \n\n\nBelfast (2nd) \n\n\n1874 \n\n\n12. \n\n\nManchester . \n\n\n1842 \n\n\n45- \n\n\nBristol (2nd) . . \n\n\n187s \n\n\n13. \n\n\nCork . . . \n\n\n1843 \n\n\n46. \n\n\nGlasgow (3rd) \n\n\n1876 \n\n\n14. \n\n\nYork (2nd time) . \n\n\n1844 \n\n\n47- \n\n\nPlymouth (2nd) . \n\n\n1877 \n\n\nIS- \n\n\nCambridge (2nd) . \n\n\n1845 \n\n\n4 8. \n\n\nDublin (3rd) . . \n\n\n1878 \n\n\n16. \n\n\nSouthampton \n\n\n1846 \n\n\n49- \n\n\nSheffield \n\n\n1879 \n\n\n17- \n\n\nOxford (2nd) . . \n\n\n1847 \n\n\nS\xc2\xb0- \n\n\nSwansea (2nd) \n\n\n1880 \n\n\n18. \n\n\nSwansea \n\n\n1848 \n\n\nSi- \n\n\nYork (3rd) Jubilee \n\n\n1881 \n\n\n19. \n\n\nBirmingham (2nd] \n\n\n1849 \n\n\nS 2 - \n\n\nSouthampton \n\n\n\n\n20. \n\n\nEdinburgh (2nd) . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa21850 \n\n\n\n\n(2nd) 23 Aug. \n\n\n1882 \n\n\n21. \n\n\nIpswich . . . \n\n\n1851 \n\n\n53- \n\n\nSouthport 19 Sept. \n\n\n1883 \n\n\n22. \n\n\nBelfast . \n\n\n1852 \n\n\n54- \n\n\nMontreal \n\n\n1884 \n\n\n23- \n\n\nHull . . . \n\n\n1853 \n\n\n55- \n\n\nAberdeen (2nd) \n\n\n? \n\n\n24. \n\n\nLiverpool (2nd) . \n\n\n1854 \n\n\n\n\nSept. \n\n\n1885 \n\n\n25- \n\n\nGlasgow (2nd) . . \n\n\n1855 \n\n\n5\xc2\xb0- \n\n\nBirmingham (4th). \n\n\n1886 \n\n\n26. \n\n\nCheltenham . \n\n\n1856 \n\n\n57- \n\n\nManchester (3rd) \n\n\n\n\n27. \n\n\nDublin (2nd) . . \n\n\n1857 \n\n\n\n\n(most successful) . \n\n\n1887 \n\n\n28. \n\n\nLeeds . \n\n\n1858 \n\n\n58- \n\n\nBath (2nd) 5 Sept. \n\n\n1888 \n\n\n29. \n\n\nAberdeen . . . \n\n\n1859 \n\n\n59- \n\n\nNewcastle (3rd) . \n\n\n1839 \n\n\n3\xc2\xb0- \n\n\nOxford (3rd) . \n\n\ni860 \n\n\n60. \n\n\nLeeds (2nd) 2 Sept. \n\n\n1890 \n\n\n3 1 - \n\n\nManchester (2nd). \n\n\n1861 \n\n\n61. \n\n\nCardiff. \n\n\n1891 \n\n\n3 2 - \n\n\nCambridge (3rd) . \n\n\n1862 \n\n\n62. \n\n\nEdinburgh (4th) . \n\n\n1892 \n\n\n33- \n\n\nNewcastle (2nd) . \n\n\n1863 \n\n\n\xc2\xb03- \n\n\nNottingham (2nd) \n\n\n1893 \n\n\n\nPresidents. \xe2\x80\x94 1. Viscount Milton ; 2. Dr. Buckland ; \n3. Prof. Sedgwick ; 4. Sir Thos. Brisbane ; 5. Provost \nBartholomew Lloyd ; 6. Marquis of Lansdowne ; 7. Earl \nof Burlington ; S. Duke of Northumberland ; 9. Rev. W. \nVernon Harcourt; 10. Marquis of Breadalbane ; 11. Pro- \nfessor Whewell ; 12. Lord Francis Egerton ; 13. Earl of \nRosse; 14. Dean Peacock; 15. Sir J. F. W. Hersehel ; \n16. Sir R. I. Murchison ; 17. Sir R. H. Inglis ; 18. Mar- \nquis of Northampton ; 19. Rev. Dr. T. R. Robinson ; 20. \nSir D. Brewster ; 21. Prof. G. B. Airy ; 22. Col. E. \nSabine ; 23. Mr. W. Hopkins ; 24. Earl of Harrowby ; \n25. Duke of Argyll ; 26. Dr. C. G. B. Daubeny; 27. Rev. \nDr. Humphry Lloyd ; 28. Prof. R. Owen ; 29. Prince \nAlbert; 30. Lord Wrottesley; 31. Wm. Fairbairn ; 32. \nProf. R. Willis ; 33. Sir Wm. Armstrong ; 34. Sir Charles \nLyell ; 35. Prof. John Phillips ; 36. W. R. Grove ; 37. \nDuke of Buccleueh ; 38. Dr. J. D. Hooker ; 39. Prof. \nG. G. Stokes; 40. Prof. T. H. Huxley; 41. Sir /Wm. \nThomson; 42. Dr. W. B. Carpenter; 43. Prof. A. W. \nWilliamson; 44. Prof. J. Tyndall; 45. Sir John Hawk- \nshaw ; 46. Prof. Thos. Andrews ; 47. Prof. Allen Thom- \nson ; 48. Dr. Wm. Spottiswoode ; 49 Dr. G. Allman ; \n50. Prof. A. C. Ramsay; 51. Sir J. Lubbock; 52. Dr. \n0. Wm. Siemens ; 53. A. Cayley ; 54. Lord Rayleigh ; 55. \nSir Lyon Playfair ; 56. Sir John William Dawson ; 57. \nSir Henry E. Roscoe, M.P. ; 58. Sir Frederick Bram well ; \n59. Professor W. H. Flower ; 60. Sir F. A. Abel ; 61. \nDr.W. Huggins ; 62. Sir A. Geikie ; 63. Dr. B. Sanderson. \n\nBRITISH CHURCH, see Church of Eng- \nland. \n\nBRITISH COLUMBIA (N. America). In \nJune, 1858, news came to California that in April \ngold had been found in abundance on the mainland \nof North America, a little to the north and east of \n\n\n\nBRITISH EAST AFRICA. \n\n\n\n151 \n\n\n\nBRITISH MUSEUM. \n\n\n\nVancouver\'s Island. A great influx of gold-diggers \n(in a few weeks above 50,000) from all parts was \nthe consequence ; and Mr. Douglas, governor of \nVancouver\'s Island, evinced much ability in pre- \nserving order. The territory with adjacent islands \nwas made a British colony with the above title, and \nplaced under Mr. Douglas. The colony was nomi- \nnated and the government settled by 21 & 22 Vict, \n\xe2\x80\xa2e. 99 (Aug. 1858), and a bishop nominated in 1859. \nVisited by the marquis of Lome and princess \nLouise, 20 Sept. 1882. \xe2\x80\x94 For a dispute in July, 1859, \nsee United States. Vancouver\'s Island was incor- \nporated with the colony in 1866, and Victoria was \nmade the capital, 24 May, 1868. Recent lieut.- \ngovernors : Frederick Seymour, 1864 ; Anthony \nMusgrave, 1869; J. W. Trutch, 1871 ; C. F. Corn- \nwall; Hugh Nelson, Feb. 1892. The colony was \n\xe2\x80\xa2annexed to Canada, 1871. Population, 1891,92,767. \nDisputes with Canada respecting the non-construc- \ntion of railways, middle of ... . 1876 \nVisit of lord Dutferin, gov. -gen. of Canada ; well \n\nreceived at Victoria .... 15 Aug. ,, \nAnti-Chinese legislation and oppression stopped by \n\nthe Privy Council in England . . . 1884-8 \nVisit of the governor-general, lord Stanley of \n\nPreston 26 Oct. et seq. 1889 \n\nVisit of the duke and duchess of Connaught \n\n21 May, 1890 \n\nBRITISH EAST AFRICA, see under \n-Africa. \n\nBRITISH ECONOMIC ASSOCIATION, \n\nsee Economy. \n\nBRITISH GUIANA AND HONDU- \nRAS, see Guiana and Honduras. \n\nBRITISH INSTITUTION (for the encour- \nagement of British artists, .Pall-mall, founded in \n1805) opened 18 Jan. 1S06, on a plan formed by sir \nThomas Bernard. In the gallery (erected by alder- \nman Boydell, to exhibit the paintings executed for \nhis edition of Shakspeare), were from time to time \nexhibited pictures by the old masters, deceased \nBritish artists and others, till 1867, when the lease \nof the premises expired. The fund of 16,200/. in the \nIhands of earl Powis and other trustees, to be devoted \nto the promotion of the --fine arts, had accumulated \nto \'24,610/. in 1884. Still unappropriated, Nov. \n1886. Various proposals for using the money have \nbeen negatived by the trustees. \n\nBRITISH LEGION, raised bylord John Hay, \n\xe2\x80\xa2col. De Lacy Evans, and others to assist queen Isa- \nbella of Spain agaiust the Carlists in 1835, defeated \nthem at Hernani, 5 May, 1836, andat St. Sebastian\'s, \n1 Oct. \n\nBRITISH MEDICAL ASSOCIATION, \n\neee Medical. \n\nBRITISH MUSEUM, originated with the \ngrant by parliament (5 April, 1753) of 20,000/. to the \ndaughters of sir Hans Sloane, in payment for his \nfine library, and vast colleetionof the productions of \nnature and art, which bad cost him 50,000/. The \nlibrary contained 50,000 volumes and valuable MSS., \nand 69,352 articles of virtu enumerated in the cata<% \nlogue. Montagu-house was obtained by government \nas a place for their reception. The museum (includ- \ning the Cottonian, Haiieian, and other collections) \nwas opened 15 Jan. 1759, and has since been enor- \nmously increased by gifts,. bequests, and purchases.* \n\n* The total expenditure by the government on the \nBritish Museum for the year ending 31 March, 1S60, was \n78,445?. ; 1861, 92,776/. ; 1864, 95,500/. : 1867, 110,756/. ; \n1877, 108,947/.; 1884, 152,133/. The number of visitors to \nthe general collection in 1051 (exhibition year), 2,524,754; \nin 1859, 5 I 7> 8 95 \'\xe2\x80\xa2 m l8 ^ 2 (exhibition year), 895,007 : in \nTS63, 440,801; in 1866, 510,550; 1 371, 418,094; 1875, 663,891 ; \n\n\n\nThe old royal library was given by George II. \n1757. A list of the mo re\' important additions is given \nbelow. \n\nNew buildings erected by sir R. Smirke . . 1823-47 \n\nIron railing completed 1852 \n\nThe great reading-room erected by Sydney Smirke, \naccording to a plan by Mr. Antonio Panizzi, the \nlibrarian (cost about 150,000/. ; height of dome, \n106 feet ; diameter, 140 feet ; contains about \n80,000 volumes, and accommodates 300 readers), \nopened to public .... 18 May, 1857 \n\nIncorporation of the four library catalogues into one \n\nalphabet begun ; three copies made . . . 1861 \nThe proposed separation of the antiquarian, literary, \nand scientific collections, was disapproved by a \ncommission in i860 ; and a bill to remove the \nnatural history collections to South Kensington \nrejected by the commons . . -19 May, 1862 \nA refreshment room for readers opened . 21 Nov. 1864 \nNumber of books (estimated) 1,600,000 . Jan. 1870 \n,, ,, ,, 1,350,000(50,000 MSS.) 1884 \n\n6000/. voted for a Natural History Museum at South \n\nKensington 2 Aug. 1870 \n\nPhotographs of above 5000 objects of antiquity \n(supplying evidence of man\'s progress in civilisa- \ntion), published for about 116/. . . .Aug. 1872 \nCastellani collection of gold ornaments, gems, \n\nbronzes, &c., purchased, for 52,000/ . . . . 1872-3 \nAct of Parliament authorising removal of natural \nhistory collections to South Kensington ; passed \n\n13 Aug. 187S \nThe Museum partly opened daily after 11 Feb. 1879 \n\nElectric light adopted in the reading-room for \nevenings in the winter months . . 20 Oct. ,, \n\nThe White bequest (60,000/.) 1880 \n\nThe new British Museum for Natural History, South \n\nKensington; building completed, Nov. 1880; \n\npart of the collection opened 18 April 1881 : \n\ndirectors, sir Richard Owen, 1856, professor W. \n\n- H. Flower, 1884 (K.C.B., 1892). \n\nJohn Gould\'s humming-birds, &c, bought April, ,, \n\nNew buildings in Montague-street, founded (by \n\nmeaus of Mr. Wm. White\'s legacy of 63,941/.) \n\n23 Sept. 1882 \nNew Assyrian room (including Mr. Rassam\'s col- \nlection) opened Jan. 1884 \n\nNew catalogue printing, 74 volumes ready Dec. 1884 \nThe Marquis of Tweeddalo\'s ornithological library \n\npresented by capt. Wardlaw Ramsay . Oct. 1887 \nNew galleries opened ; "glass and pottery, 188S ; \n\nGreek sculpture 1889 \n\nElectric light set up in the public galleries, opened \nin the evenings, 8 to 10 . . . .1 Feb. 1890 \n\n\n\nImportant Additions (bought or given). (Edwards.) \n\nThose marked * were gifts or bequests. \n"Solomon Da Costa, Hebrew Library . . . 1759 \n*G. Thomason, collection (political) from Geo. III. 1762 \n\n*Solander, fossils 1766 \n\n*Birch, library and MSS , \n\nHamilton vases, &c r 77 2 \n\n\'Musgrave library 1790-95 \n\n*Cracherode library 1799 \n\nHatchett minerals \n\n"Alexandrian collection (from Geo. III.) . . . 1802 \n\nTowuley marbles 1S05-17 \n\nLansdowne MSS 1804 \n\nGreville minerals 1810 \n\nRoberts, English coins \xe2\x96\xa0 . ,, \n\nHargrave binary 1813 \n\nPhigaleian marbles 1815 \n\nElgin marbles 1816 \n\nBurney library 1818 \n\n"Banks\' archaeological collections \n\n\n\nin 7878, 448,516: in 1879, 606,394; in 1880, 665,688; \nin 1882, 767,402 ; in 1S83, \xc2\xa360,557. The number of visi- \ntors to the collection in the Natural History Museum \nin 1S84, 375,231; at Bloomsbury in 1884,468,873; in \n1887, 501,256 ; in 1889, 504,537 ; in 1890, 463,833. Addi- \ntions to library in 1880, 27,543 volumes and pamphlets \n(including books of music and volumes of newspapers.) \nExpenditure on purchases, 1753 \xe2\x80\x94 1875, 1,070,934/. \nReaders in 1S83, 152,983. \n\n\n\nBEITISH OECHESTEAL SOCIETY. 152 \n\n\n\nBEOWNIAN MOTION. \n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 King George III. \'a library, given by George IV. 1823-5 \n\n*Payne Knight\'s collections 1824 \n\n*Sir J. Banks\' library and collections . . . . 1827 \n\n*Egerton MSS 1829 \n\n*Arundelian MSS 1831 \n\nMantell, fossils 1839 \n\nSyriac MSS 1841-7 \n\n*\xc2\xb1jyoian marbles (by sir C. Fellows) . . . 1845 \n\n*Grenville library, collected by right hon. Thos. \n\nGrenville (20,240 vols.) 1847 \n\nMorrison\'s Chinese library . . . . . ,, \nAssyrian collections (by A. Bayard) . . . 1851-60 \nHalicarnassian and Cnidian marbles (by C. T. Newton) \n\n1855-60 \nCarthaginian antiquities (by N. Davis) . . . 1859 \nCyrene marbles (by Smith and Porcher) . . . i860 \n\nCureton, Oriental MSS 1864 \n\nDuke of Blacas\' museum (bought for 48,000^.) . . 1S66 \n\n* Abyssinian antiquities . . . . . 1868 \n\n*Slade collection (glass, &c.) \' \n\n*Mr. George-Smith\'s (of Daily Telegraph) Assyrian \n\ncollections . i%j-i \n\n*Elamite antiquities, by col. Ross . . . . 1876 \n*Urns, implements, ornaments, &c, from 234 \nBritish barrows (see Barrows), by rev. canon \n\nGreenwell !8 7 q \n\nAbout 300 Babylonian tablets purchased . June 1882 \n*Osbert Salvin and P. du Cane Godman\'s collec- \ntion of American birds, &c 1885 \n\n*Indian birds and eggs from Mr. A. O. Hume . ,, \n*The marquis of Tweeddale\'s collection of birds \n\ngiven by capt. Wardlaw Ramsay . . . Oct. 1887 \n\n*Mr. Octavius Morgan\'s collection of watches, \n\nclocks, keys, rings &c, reported . . Oct. 1888 \n\nPrincipal Librarians. \n\nDr. Gowin Knight . . . I7 r, \n\nDr. Matthew Maty . . . .\'.\'.\'. i 17 % \n\nDr. Charles Morton \' ! 1776 \n\nJoseph Planta ... \' T7r , n \n\nHenry Ellis \' . \' \'. 1827 \n\nAntonio Panizzi j8 s 6 \n\nJ. Winter Jones .\' \' ^66 \n\nEdward Augustus Bond Aug. 1878 ; Resigned \n\nEdward Maunde Thompson \' ^SS \n\nBEITISH OECHESTEAL SOCIETY, \n\nestablished 1872. \n\nBEITTANY, see Britanny. \n\nBBITTON, an ancient treatise on English law \nwritten in French by or in the name of king Edward \nI. about 1291. Coke attributed the work to John le \nBreton, bishop of Hereford, who died in 1275. An \nedition of " Britton," with a translation in English \nby Mr. F. Nicholls, was published in 1865. \n\nBEOAD AEEOW. All attempts to ascertain \nthe origin of this mark have been fruitless. It is \nstated that timber trees fit for shipping in the \nforest of Dean in 1639 were marked with the crown \nand broad arrow. It is said to have been the device \nof viscount Sydney, earl of Eomney, master general \nof the ordnance, 1693-1702. Brewer. \n\n*\'BEOAD BOTTOM" ADMINISTEA- \n11UJN. I lie Pelham administration (ivhich see) \nwas socalled becauseformed by a coalition of parties, \nNov. 1744. e \' \n\nBEOAD CHITECH SCHOOL in the \n\nChurch of England, whose members reject tradi- \ntional beliefs and substitute what has been termed \nnegative theology." It became prominent about \n1836, through the lectures of Dr. Hampden, and \nstill more through the "Theological Essays" of \nMr. F. D. Maurice in 1853; the "Essays and \nReviews {which see) in i860; and the works of \nbishop Colenso on the Pentateuch, &c, 186\' et sea \xe2\x96\xa0 \nand of abp. Whately (1787-1863), Aug. Wm. and \nJulius C. Hare, Dr. Arnold, dean Stanley, canon \nKingsley, and others. \n\nBEOCADE, a silken stuff, variegated with gold \nor silver, and enriched with flowers and figures-, \n\n\n\noriginally made by the Chinese ; the manufacture \nwas established at Lyons in 1757. \n\nBEOCCOLI, said to have been brought to Eng- \nland from Italy in the 16th century. \n\nBEOKEES, both of money and merchandise, \nwere known early in England" See Appraisers. \nThey are licensed, and their dealings regulated by \nlaw in 1695-6, 1816, and 1826. The dealings of \nstockbrokers were regulated in 1719, 1733, and 1736, \nand subsequently ; see Pawnbroker, and Barnard\'s \nAct. Brokers in the city of London placed under \nthe supervision of the lord mayor and aldermen,, \nin 1707, were relieved from it by an act passed 9 \nAug. 1870. \n\nBBOMINE (from the Greek bromos-, a stink), \na poisonous volatile liquid element discovered in \nsalt water by M. Balard in 1826. It is found in \ncombination with metals and mineral waters. \n\nBEOMLEY COLLEGE, Kent, founded in, \n1666, for widows of clergy of the church of England ; \nresidence and pension. \n\nBEONTOMETEE, thunderstorm measurer,, \nan apparatus invtnted by M. M. Richard, of Paris, \nand commended by Mr. J. Symons, in Nature, \nJuly, 1890. \n\nBBONZE was known to the ancients, some of \nwhose bronze statues, vessels, &c, are in the British \nMuseum. The bronze equestrian statue of Louis \nXIV., 1699, in the Place Vendome at Paris (demol- \nished 10 Aug. 1792), the most colossal ever made ; \nit contained 60,000 lbs. Bronze is composed of \ncopper and tin, with sometimes a little zinc and \nlead. The present bronze coinage, penny, half- \npenny, and farthing (composed of 95 parts of copper, \n4 tin, 1 zinc), came into circulation Dec. i860. \n\nBBOOKLYN, a city on Long Island, in the \nstate of New York, first settled in 1636, organised! \nby the Dutch governor of New Amsterdam, and \nnamed Breukelen, after a place in Holland. It \nwas incorporated in 1834. Population in 1810, \n4402; in 1830, 15,396; in 1850, 96,838; in 1890, \n806,343. \n\nBrooklyn theatre burnt, about 300 perish 5 Dec. 1876 \nThe bridge lrom New York to Brooklyn (see Next) \n\nYorl), begun 3 Jan. 1870 ; opened . 24 May, 1883 \nSt. James\'s cathedral, destroyed by lightning \n\n11 or 12 June, 18S9 \n\nBEOOKS\'S CLUB, first a gaming club in \nPall Mall kept by Almack and afterwards by- \nBrooks in 1764, gradually^ became the Whig club, \nand was removed to St. James\'s Street in 1778. \n\nBEOTHEEHOODS, see Eermandad, Santa\xc2\xbb \nand Lay Brotherhood. \n\nBEOUGHAM, a popular vehicle said to have \nbeen invented in 1839, and so named in consequence \nof its adoption by lord Brougham. Broughani sAct^ \n13 & 14 Vict. c. 21 ; see Acts, and Bankrupt. \n\nBEOWN INSTITUTION, Battersea, with an \nhospital for quadrupeds and birds useful to man, esta- \nblished b} r means of a bequest of Thomas Brown of \nDublin; opened 2 Dec. 1871. First professor, Dr. \nBurdon-Sanderson ; Dr. Greenfield, professor, Dec. \n1878; Dr. C. S. Boy, professor, 1885; Professor \nVictor Horsley (1889) ; office vacant, 1892. \n\nBEOWN\'S INSUEEECTION, see United \nStates, 1859. \n\nBEOWNIAN MOTION. So called from \nRobert Brown, the celebrated botanist, who in 1827, \nby the aid of the microscope, observed in drops of \n\n\n\nBEOWNING SOCIETY. \n\n\n\n153 \n\n\n\nBEUNSWICK. \n\n\n\ndew a motion of minute particles which at fii st was \nattributed to rudimentary life, but was afterwards \ndecided to be due to currents occasioned by inequali- \nties of temperature and evaporation. \n\nBEOWNING SOCIETY, for the study and \ndiscussion of the works of Robert Browning, inau- \ngurated at University college, London, 28 Oct. \n1881. Mr. Browning died 12 Dec. 1889, aged 77. \n" The Browning Cyclopaedia," by Edward Berdoe, \npublished 19 Dec. 1891. \n\nBEOWNISTS or BARROWISTS, the first In- \ndependents {which see), named after Robert Brown, \na schoolmaster in Southwark, about 1580. Henry \nPenry, Henry Barrow, and other Brownists, were \ncruelly executed for alleged sedition, 29 May, 1593. \n\nBBUCE\'S TEAVELS. James Bruce, the \n" Abyssinian traveller," set out in June, 1768, to \ndiscover the source of the Nile. Proceeding first to \nCairo, he navigated the Mleto Syene, thence crossed \nthe desert to the Red Sea, and, arriving at Jedda, \npassed some months in Arabia Felix, and after \nvarious detentions reached Gondar, the capital of \nAbyssinia, in Feb. 1770. On 14 Nov. 1 770, he ob- \ntained a sight of the sources of the Blue Nile. He \nreturned to Englandin 1773, and died 27 April, 1794. \n\nBBUGES, Belgium, in the 7th century was \ncapital of Flanders, and in the 13th and 14th cen- \nturies almost the commercial metropolis of the world. \nIt suffered much through an insurrection in 1488, \nand the consequent repression. It was subjected to \nFrance in 1794, to the Netherlands in 1814, and to \nBelgium in 1830. Population, 1890, 47,331. \n\nBEUMAIEE EEVOLUTION, see Direc- \ntory, 1799. \n\nBEUNANBUBG (supposed by some to be near \nFord, Northumberland). Anlaf, with an army of \nNorthmen from Ireland, and Constantine III. king \nof Scots, landed at the mouth of the Humber, and \nwere defeated with very great slaughter at Brunan- \nburg by Athelstan, 937. \n\nBEUNDISIUM (now Brindisi), S. Italy, a \nGreek city, taken by the Romans, is.c. 267 ; and \nmade a colony, 244. Here Virgil died 22 Sept. \n\n19 B.C. \n\nBEUNN, capital of Moravia, since 1641 ; was \nentered by the French under Murat, 18 Nov. 1805, \nand by the Prussians, 13 July, 1866. Population, \n1890, 95>34 2 - \n\nBEUNSWICK CLUBS, established to main- \ntain the house of Hanover and the Protestant as- \ncendancy in church and state, began in England at \nMaidstone, 18 Sept. 1828; in Ireland at the Rotunda \nin Dublin, 4 Nov. same year. Other cities formed \nsimilar clubs. \n\nBEUNSWICK, House of. The duchy of \n\nBrunswick, in Lower Saxony, was conquered by \nCharlemagne, and governed afterwards by counts \nand dukes. Albert-Az/.o II. marquis of Italy and \nlord of Este, died in 1097, and left by his wife Cune- \ngonde (the heiress of Guelph duke of Carinthia in \nBavaria), a son, Guelph, who was invited into Ger- \nmany by Imitza, his mother-in-law, and invested \nwith all the possessions of his wife\'s step-father, \nGuelph of Bavaria; see Bavaria. His descendant, \nHenry the Lion, married Maud, daughter of Henry \nII. of England, and was the founder of the Bruns- \nwick family. His dominions were very extensive ; \nbut having refused to assist the emperor Frederick \nBarbarossa in a war against pope Alexander III., \nthrough the emperor\'s resentment he was proscribed \nat the diet at Wurtzburg, in 1180. The duchy of \n\n\n\nBavaria was given to Otho of Wittelsbaeh, ancestor \nof the family of Bavaria ; the duchy of Saxony to \nBernard Ascanius, founder of the house of Anhalt; \nand his other territories to different persons. On \nthis, he retired to England ; but at the intercession \nof our Henry II. Brunswick and Luneburg were \nrestored to him. The house of Brunswick in 1409. \ndivided into several branches. Brunswick was in- \ncluded by Napoleon in the kingdom of Westphalia \nin 1806, but was restored to the duke in 1815. \xe2\x80\x94 \nPopulation of the duchy of Brunswick in 187L, \n312,170; 1875, 327,493; 1880, 349,367; 1885, \n372,452; 1890, 403,788; of the city, 101,047- \nBrunswick joined the North German Confederation, \n18 Aug. 1866. \n\nDUKES OF BRUNSWICK. \n\n1 136. Henry, duke of Bavaria. \n\n1139. Henry the Lion (son). \n\n1195. Henry the hong and William (sons). \n\n1213. Otho I. (son of William). \n\n1252. Albert I. (son of preceding). \n\n1278. Albert II. (son). \n\n!ji8. Otho, Magnus I., and Ernest (sons). \n\n1368. Magnus II. (Torquatus) (son of Magnus I.) \n\nDUKES OF BRUNSWICK-WOLFENBUTTEL. \n\nFirst Branch. \n\n1409. Henry I. (son of Magnus II.) \n\n1416. William I. and Henry II. (sons). \n\n1482. Frederic and William II. j sous of Wimam r, \n\n1495. Henry III. and Eric ) \n\n1514. Henry IV. (son of Henry II.) \n\n1568. Julius (son of preceding). \n\n1589. Henry Julius (son). \n\n1613. Frederic-Ulric (son), died without issue. \nSecond Branch. \n\n1634. Augustus (son of Henry of Luneburg). \n\n1666. Rodolph- Augustus ; who associated his next brother, \nAnthony-Ulric, hi the government, from 1685 ; \ndied, 1704. \n\n1704. Anthoirr-Ulric now ruled alone; became a Roman \nCatholic in 1710 ; died in 1714. \n\n1 714. Augustus-William (son). \n\n1731. Lewis-Rodolph (brother). \n\n1735. Ferdinand-Albert, duke of Brunswick-Bevern, \nmarried Antoinette-Amelia, daughter of Lewis- \nRodolph, anil succeeded him. \n\n1735. Charles (son). \n\n1780. Charles-William-Ferdinand (son) ; a great general\' \n(served under his uncle Ferdinand in the Seven \nYears\' War, 1756-1763); married princess Augusta \nof England ; was mortally wounded at the battle \nof Auerstadt, 14 Oct., and died 10 Nov. 1806; suc- \nceeded by his fourth son (his elder sons being \nblind, abdicated). \n\n1806. William-Frederick, whose reign may be dated from \nthe battle of Leipsic in Oct. 1813 ; fell at Quatre- \nBras, commanding the avantgarde under the dukt? \nof Wellington, 16 June, 1815 ; succeeded by his \neldest son. \n\n1815. Charles-I\'rederick-William ; (very eccentric), as- \nsumed government 30 Oct. 1823. [Revolution at \nBrunswick ; the duke (declared incapable of \nreigning by the German diet) retired to England, \n7 Sept. 1830 ; died at Geneva, bequeathing his \nimmense property to that city, 18 Aug. 1873.J \n\n1830. William, brother; born 25 April, 1806; succeeded \nprovisionally, 7 Sept. 1830 ; and, on the demand \nof the Germanic diet, definitively, 20 April, 1831 ; \nunmarried; died, deeply lamented, 18 Oct. 1884. \n(His magnificent palace was destroyed by live. \n24 Feb. 1865.) His jubilee celebrated 25 April, \n1881. Succession claimed by the duke of Cum- \nberland (set aside by the diet, 30 June, & 2a \nOct. 1885); regency assumed, iS Oct. 1S84. \nPrince Albert, of Prussia, born 8 May, 1837. \nnephew of the emperor "I\' Germany, elected \n\nregent 21 Oct.; accepts about 24 Oct.; warmly \n\nreceived in Brunswick, 2 Nov. 1885. \nSee under ( \'urriberlcmd, 1892. \n\nDUKES OF BRUNSWICK- [.UNEBUBO. \n1409. Bernard (sou of Magnus II., duke of Brunswick. \n\nsee above). \n1434. Otho and Frederic (his sons). \n\n\n\nBRUNSWICK THEATRE. \n\n\n\n154 \n\n\n\nBUCKLES. \n\n\n\n1478. \n2532. \n2546. \n\n\n\n1592. \n11611. \n3633- \n^636. \nA 648. \nK665. \n\n\n\neigneu, viz. :\xe2\x80\x94 \nrnest II. "\\ \niristian. J \nigustus. j 1 \n\xe2\x80\xa2ederic II. ) \n\n\n\nHenry (son of Otho). \n\nErnest I. (son of Otho). His sons were \n\nHenry (founder of second branch of Brunswick- \nWolfenbuttel) and William, whose seven sons cast \nlots to deteimine who should marry. The lot fell \non George, sixth son. Four of the brothers \nreigned, viz. :- \n\nErnest II. \n\nChristii \n\nAu{_ \n\nFreder: \n\nChristian-Lewis (son of the George above-mentioned.) \n\nGeorge-William (brother of Christian-Lewis), dies \nin 1705 ; leaving as heiress Sophia-Dorothea, his \ndaughter, who married in 1682 her cousin, prince \nGeorge-Lewis of Hanover, afterwards George I. \nof England (son of Ernest of Hanover, youngest \nson of the above-mentioned. George). \n(See Hanover and England.) \n\nBRUNSWICK THEATRE, Well-street, \nEast London , built to replace the Royalty (burnt do wn \nII April, 1826), was opened 25 Feb. 1828. On the \n-29th the building was destroyed by the falling in of \nthe walls, too much weight being attached to the \nheavy iron roof. Fortunately the catastrophe hap- \npened in the day-time (during a rehearsal of " Guy \nMannering"), and only twelve persons perished. \n\nBRUSSELS, once capital of Austrian Brabant, \nmow of Belgium (since 1831), was founded by St. \nGery, of Cambray, in the 7th century. It is cele- \nbrated for its fine lace, carpets, and tapestry. The \nHotel de Ville was erected early in the 15th cen- \ntury; has a turret 364 feet in height ; and on its \nstop is a copper figure of St. Michael, 17 feet high, \nwhich turns with the wind ; see Belgium. Popula- \ntion, 1890, 182,305. \n\nCathedral of St. Gudule (begun 1010 ?) completed . 1273 \nMade capital of the Low Countries .... 1507 \n\nRuled tyrannically by Alva 1567 \n\n"" Union of Brussels " to expel the Spaniards . 1577-78 \n^Bombarded by marshal Villeroi ; 14 churches and \n\n10,000 houses destroyed Aug. 1695 \n\n\'Taken by the French, 1701 ; by Marlborough, 1706 ; \n\nby Saxe, 16 Feb. 1746; and by Dumouriez, Nov. 1792 \n\'The revolution commences . . .25 Aug. 1830 \nThe costly furniture of 16 houses demolished in con- \nsequence of a display of attachment to the house \n\nof Orange 5 April, 1834 \n\nMaritime conference to obtain uniform meteoro- \nlogical observations held here .... 1853 \ninternational philanthropic congress . . Sept. 1850 \nInternational association for social science meet \n\n22-25 Sept. 1862 \nBrussels Conference. The Society for the Ameliora- \ntion of the condition of prisoners of war sent \ncirculars (dated 28 March) to the great powers. \nOn 17 April Russia issued a programme for con- \nsideration at the conference, consisting of 71 \nia,rticles, embracing all the "usages of war." \nLord Derby (for Great Britain), in a despatch, de- \nclined the discussion of international law, 4 Julv. \n\xe2\x80\xa2General sir Alfred Horsford was sent delegate for \n\xe2\x96\xa0Great Britain without active powers : reserving \nliberty of action. The congress was opened \n:27 July ; baron Jomini (from Russia) president. \n\'The United States not represented. The sittings \nwere secret. The conference closed without im- \nportant results, 28 Aug. 1874. British Report \npublished in London Gazette . . .24 Oct, 1874 \nBelgian Industrial exhibition opened . 5 Sept. ,, \nInternational exhibition of objects relating to pub- \nlic health and safety, opened by the king, 26 June ; \na congress met . . . 27 Sept.\xe2\x80\x94 2 Oct. 1876 \nInternational congress of commerce and industry, \n\n6\xe2\x80\x94 10 Sept. 1880 \nCommercial Museum opened . . about 17 Dee. 1882 \n\'The magnificent new Palace of Justice opened by \n\nthe king IS Oct. 1883 \n\n\'The parliament houses burnt ; valuable library \n\ndestroyed, loss about 480,000^ . . 6 Dec. \n\nIndustrial exhibition opened ... 29 Dec, \n\nInternational Exhibition opened 19 May, by the \n\nking 7 June ; closed ... * n Nov. \n\n\n\nTheatre de la Bourse burnt . . .7 Jan. 1889 \n\nAnti-slavery conference meets . 18 Nov. et seq. ,, \nArrival of Mr. H. M. Stanley from Africa, enter- \ntainment by the king, &c. . . 19-25 April, 1890 \nGreat tire at the palace of the Due dArenberg, \nformerly the residence of the Egmont family, \nmany of whose relics are destroyed . 24 Jan. 1892 \n\nBRUTTIUM (now Calabria Olta), S. Italy. \nThe Bruttians and Lucanians defeated and slew \nAlexander of Epirus at Pandosia, 326 B.C. They \nwere conquered bv Borne, 277. \n\nBUBBLE COMPANIES, see Companies, \nLaw\' s Babble, and South-sea Bubble. \n\nBUCCANEERS, cruel piratical adventurers, \nFrench, English, and Dutch, who commenced their \ndepredations on the Spaniards of America soon after \nthe latter had taken possession of that continent and \nthe West Indies. Their numbers were much in- \ncreased by a twelve years\' truce between the Span- \niards and Dutch in 1609, when man y of the discharged \nsailors joined the buccaneers. The first levy of \nship-money in England in 1635 was to defray the \nexpense of chastising these pirates. The principal \ncommanders of the first buccaneers were Montbar, \nLolonois, Basco, and Morgan. Van Horn, of Ostend, \ncaptured Vera Cruz, 1603; Morgan took Panama, \n1670; Gramont seized Campeachy, 1685; andPointis \ntook Carthagena, 1697 ; all gained enormous booty. \nThe buccaneer confederacy was broken up through \nthe peace of Byswick, 10 Sept. 1697. \n\nBUCENTAUR, the vessel in which the doge of \nVenice used to proceed to wed the Adriatic, from the \n12th to the 1 8th century. \n\nBUCHANITES (in Scotland) : followers of \nMrs. Buchan, who about 1779 pretended to be the \nwoman of Rev* xii., and promised to conduct them \nto the new Jerusalem, &c. She died in 1791, and \nher followers dispersed. \n\nBUCHAREST (in Wallachia) . Preliminaries \nof peace were ratified at this place between Bussia \nand Turkey, it being stipulated that the Pruth \nshould be the frontier of the two empires ; signed \n28 Maj", 1812. The subsequent war between these \npowers altered many of the provisions of this treaty. \nBucharest was occupied by the Russians, Turks, and \nAustrians successively in the Crimean war. The \nlast quitted it in 1856. It is now capital of the \nkingdom of Rouroania, established 26 March, 1881. \nPopulation, 1885, 221,000. \n\nBUCKHURST PEERAGE, see Trials, 1876. \n\nBUCKINGHAM PALACE, the London \nresidence of the sovereign. Old Buckingbam-house \nwas built on the "Mulberry-gardens," by John \nSheffield, duke of Buckingham, in 1703. In 1761 it \nwas bought by George 111., who in 1775 settled it \non his queen, Charlotte. She made it her town \nresidence ; and here all her children, except the \neldest, were born. Here were married the duke of \nYork and princess Frederica of Prussia, in 1791 ; \ntne duke of Gloucester and princess Mary, 1816 ; \nthe prince of Hesse-Homburg and princess Eliza- \nbeth, 1818 ; and the duke of Cambridge and princess \nof Hesse the same year. The house was pulled down \nin 1825, and the present palace commenced on its \nsite. After an expenditure of nearly a million \nsterling, it was completed, and occupied by queen \nVictoria, 13 July, 1837. Further improvements \nwere made in 1853. The marble arch, taken down \nfrom the exterior of this palace, was re-erected at \nCumberland-gate, Hyde-park, 29 March, 1851. \n\nBUCKLES were worn instead of shoe-strings \nin the reign of Charles II. , and soon became fashion- \n\n\n\nBUDA. \n\n\n\nloo \n\n\n\nBUENOS AYRES. \n\n\n\nable and expensive ; about 1791 the}\' fell out of use. \nOrnamental buckles became fashionable, 1873. \n\nBUDA (or OFEN), the ancient Aquincum, on \nthe \\V. bank of the Danube opposite Pesth, and with \nIt (termed Buda-Pesth) the capital of Hungary. It \nwas taken by Charlemagne in 799 ; and sacked by \nSolyman II. after the battle of Mohatz, when the \nHungarian king, Louis, was killed, and 200,000 of \nhis subjects carried away captives, 1526. Buda was \nsacked a second time, when the inhabitants were put \nto the sword, and Hungary was annexed to the \nOttoman empire, 1541. Retaken by the Imperialists, \nunder the duke of Lorraine, and the Mahometans \ndelivered up to the fury of the- soldiers, 1686. It \nsuffered much in 1848 ; was entered without resist- \nance by the Austrians, 5 Jan. 1849 ; stormed, 20 May ; \ngiven up by Russians to Austrians, July, 1849. \nHere the emperor Francis Joseph was crowned king \nof Hungary, 8 June, 1867 ; see Hungary. Buda- \nPesth constituted the capital of Hungary, Nov. \n1873; equal to Vienna, June, 1892. Great loss of \nlife (about 120) and property by a storm, 26 June, \n1875; another storm, 11 Jul}\' following. Popula- \ntion of Buda-Pesth, 1890, 506,384. \nThe anniversary of the re-capture of the citadel of Buda \n\nfrom the Turks after ten weeks\' siege on 2 Sept. 1686, \n\nwas enthusiastically celebrated on 2 Sept. 1886. \nMany drowned in the Danube, through the breaking of \n\nthe ice, 4 Jan.; destructive inundations through rising \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0of the Danube, 13 March etteq., 1891. \n\nBUDDHISM, the chief religion in Asia beyond \nthe Ganges, and in China, Japan, and Ceylon, origi- \nnated with Gautama Siddartha, the Sakya Muni, \ngenerally termed Buddha, or "the enlightened," a \nprince of Kapalivastu in Central India, said to have \nbeen born 623, and to have died 543 B.C. \nIn July, 594 b.c, disgusted with the behaviour of the Brah- \nmins, he retired from the world for a time, and on com- \ning forth, preached a new religion so successfully that \nit predominated in India till the 10th century, a.d.* \nBuddhism inculcates strict morality ; it forbids killing, \nstealing, adultery, lying, and drunkenness, and every \nshade of these vices, and declares charity or love to be \nthe source of all virtues. Some writers assert that \nBuddhism includes belief in the transmigration of \nsouls, and the absorption of good souls into God him- \nself, from whom they have emanated ; others reckon \nannihilation or eternal sleep (the Nirvana) amongst \nBuddhist tenets. \nA form of Buddhism, termed the religion of Fo, exists in \nChina, besides the system of Confucius and Laot-se. \nItis said to have been introduced in the reign of Ming-ti, \na.d. 68-81. \n"" Le Bouddha et ses Religions," by M. J. B. St. Hilaire, \nwas published in i860. Mr. T. Rhys Davids\' " Bud- \ndhism," in 1878. \nThe Buddhists in the world are estimated at 455,000,000. \nBuddhism in Japan reported to be declining, 3,737 \ntemples in Kioto, the old capital, and 3,555 in 1889. \n\nBUDE LIGHT (so named from Bude in Corn- \nwall, the residence of Mr. (aft. sir) Goldsworthy Gur- \nney, its inventor), consists of two or more concentric \nargand gas-burners, one rising above another, which \nproduce a most brilliant flame, like the petals of a \nrose. The illuminating powers were increased by \nsubjecting manganese, &c., to the action of the \nflame, in order to produce oxygen and hydrogen \ngas. This light was patented 1839 and 1841. \n\nBUDGET (from the French bougetle, Latin \nbulga, a small bag), a term applied to the English \nchaneellorof the exchequer\'s annual statement of the \nfinances of the country, from the documents having \nbeen formerly presented in a leather bag. The \nbudgets of sir R. Peel in 1842 (including the income- \ntax) and 1846 (free trade), and of Mr. Gladstone in \n\n* Mi\\ Edwin Arnold\'s "Light of Asia," a poem, in \n1879- \n\n\n\ni860 (in connection with the treaty with France), \nwere very important. A surplus of about \n6,000,000^. was announced by sir Stafford \nNorthcote, 16 April, 1874; since then there has been \na deficiency. See Revenue. Mr. Childers in his \nbudget proposed the reduction of consols from 3 to \n2\\ per cent, for capital raised to 108/., and the \ncoinage of 10*. pieces worth 9s. to meet the loss by \nwear of gold coinage. Coinage bill withdrawn 10 \nJuly, 1884. \n\nBudget of Mr. Childers, 30 April, 1885, to provide for \nestimated expenditure of 88,872,600?., and a vote of \ncredit for 11,000,000?. on account of war in the \nSoudan, and probable war with Russia. \nIncome tax raised to id. Increase of duty on beer and \nspirits, succession duties, duty on property of corpo- \nrate bodies. \nBill rejected on second reading (264-252), 8-9 June ; \nmodified by Sir M. Hicks-Beach, new duties given up, \nand 4,000,000/. exchequer bills, 16 July, 1885. \nMr. Goschen\'s Budget introduced 21 April, 1887, included \nabstraction of 2,000,000?. from the sinking fund, \nreduction of income tax from Sd. to 7c?., and of \ntobacco duty from 3s. 6c7. to 3*. 2c?. ; a grant in aid of \nlocal rates, &c. \nMr. Goschen\'s Budget introduced 26 March ; aiming \nat a permanent equitable adjustment of imperial and \nlocal taxation ; income tax reduced to 6d. ; resolutions \nadopted 9 April ; Mr. Gladstone\'s amendment on the \nsuccession duties rejected (310-217) 23 April ; act \npassed 16 May, 1888. \nMr. Goschen\'s Budget introduced 15 April, 1889, pro- \nvided for the increased expenditure for the army and \nnavy, by dealing with the consolidated fund and \nslightly increasing the succession and beer duties. \nMr. Goschen\'s budget introduced 17 April, 1890 : surplus, \n\n3, 549,000?. \nGrants, barracks, 300,000?.; volunteer equipment, 100,000?.; \nfor colonial postage, 80,000?. ; house duty reduced to \n\xe2\x96\xa02d., 4c?., and 6c?., 540,000?. ; additional duty on spirits \n6c7. per gallon \xe2\x80\x94 resolutions carried 17-22 April, 1890. \nMr. Goschen\'s Budget introduced 23 April, 1891 : surplus, \n1,756,000?.; proposed grant for free (or assisted) educa- \ntion from 1 Sept. , about 2,000,000?. a year ; 500,000?. \nfor new barracks, &c. \xe2\x80\x94 resolutions agreed to, 27 April, \ni8qi. \nMr. Goschen\'s Budget introduced n April, 1892 : surplus, \n1,067,000!. ; greater part appropriated, leaving actual \nsurplus, 224,000?. ; the duties on sparkling wines \nequalised to 2s. a gallon, 16 May, 1892. \n\nBUENOS AYRES, a province of S. America, \nnow part of the Argentine republic. The country \nwas explored by Sebastian Cabot in 1526, and the \ncapital, Buenos Ayres, founded by don Pedro de \nMendoza in 1535. In 1585 the city was rebuilt and \nrecolonised ; and made a bishopric, 1620 ; and a \nviceroyalty, 1775. La Plata, the new capital, \nfounded by Dr. Rocha, the governor, 24 Nov. 1882 ; \nmade seat of government April, 1884. Population \nin 1888: province, 3,793,800; city, 500,000. See \nArgentine Confederation. \n\nA British fleet and army, under sir Home Popham \n\nand general Beresford, take the city with slight \n\nresistance, 27 June ; it is retaken by the Spaniards, \n\n12 Aug. ; by the British ... 29 Oct. 1806 \n\nMonte Video taken by storm by sir Samuel Auch- \n\nmuty, 3 Feb. ; evacuated . . . .7 July, 1S07 \nGeneral Whitelock and 8000 British enter Buenos \n\nAyres; severely repulsed . . . 5 July, ,, \nIndependence of the province declared 19 July, 1816 \nRecognised as forming part of the Argentine con- \nfederation Feb. 1S22 \n\nI A prey to civil war through the violent intrigues of \nRosas, Oribe, Urquiza, and others, for, many \nyears.] \nUrquiza overthrows Rosas, and is made provisional \n\ndictator 185 1 \n\nOribe defeated by general Urquiza, to whom Buenos \n\nAyres capitulates 3 Feb. 1852 \n\nRosas flees, arrives at Plymouth . . 25 April, ,, \nUrquiza deposed, to Sept.; invests the city; after \n\nsome successes he retires .... Dec. ,, \nConstitution voted 23 May, 1S53 \n\n\n\nBUFFALO. \n\n\n\n156 \n\n\n\nBULGARIA. \n\n\n\nBuenos Ayres secedes from the Argentine confede- \nration, and is recognised as an independent state ; \nthe first governor, Dr. D. Pastor Obligado, elected \n\n12 Oct. 1853 \nDr. Valentin Alsina elected governor . . May, 1857 \nWar breaks out ; Urquiza, general of the forces of the \nArgentine confederation, has an indecisive conflict \nwith the Buenos Ayres general Mitre 23 Oct. 1859 \n\nA treaty signed, by which Buenos Ayres is re-united \n\nwith the Argentine confederation . . n Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nFresh contests : Mitre defeats Urquiza in an almost \nbloodless contest at Pavon ; Urquiza retires \n\n17 Sept. 1861 \nNational congress at Buenos Ayres . 25 May, 1862 \nMitre installed president . . . .12 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nJesuits\' college and archbishop\'s palace burnt down, \nand several priests killed, by a great mob ; mar- \ntial law proclaimed . . . .28 Feb. 1875 \nGeneral amnesty bill passed . . . \xe2\x80\xa2 Aug. 1883 \nInternational exhibition ... 6 May et seq. 1890 \nSee Argentine Republic. \n\nBUFFALO, a city in New York state, founded \nin 1 801 ; incorporated 1832 ; burned by the British \nduring the war, 1813. Population, 1832, 15,000; \n1890, 255,664. \n\nBUFFOONS were originally mountebanks in \nthe .Roman theatres. Their shows were discouraged \nby Domitian, and abolished by Trajan, 98 ; see \nJesters. \n\nBUILDING. In early times men dwelt in \ncaves ; wood and clay were the first building mate- \nrials. Building with stone was early among the \nTyrians. In Ireland a castle was built of stone at \nTuam by the king of Connaught, in 1161 ; and it \nwas "so new and uncommon as to be called the \nWonderful Castle." Building with brick was intro- \nduced by the Romans into their provinces. Alfred \nencouraged it in England in 886. It was adopted \nby the earl of Arundel, about 1598, London being \nthen almost wholly built of wood; see Architecture. \nBuilding acts were passed by Elizabeth in 1562, 1580, \nand 1592 ; and by Charles II. in 1667. Recent \nacts are very numerous. The Building Act for \nthe Metropolis, 7 & 8 Vict. c. 84 (1844), was \namended in 1855, i860, 1869, 1871, 1878, and 1882. \nBuilding societies, formed *to enable a person to pur- \nchase a house by paying money periodically to a \nsociety for a certain number of years, instead of \npaying rent to a landlord, began about 1S36, when \nan act was passed for their regulation. Their \nnature and objects having been considerably \nchanged, a new act was passed 30 July, 1874. \nBuilding Societies in 1884, 2,290, with an asserted \ncapital of 48,000,0002. \nAt the end of 1887 the number of building societies \nincorporated was 2,052 \nmeeting of the Buildiu \n3 Feb. 1892. \n\nBULGARIA, theancient Moesia Inferior, aprin- \ncipality tributary to Turkey. The Bulgarians were a \nSlavonian tribe, who harassed the Eastern empire \nand Italy from 499 to 678, when they established a \nkingdom. They defeated Justinian II., 687; but \nwere subdued, after several conflicts, by the emperor \nBasil, in 1018. After defeating them in 1014, and \ntaking 15,000 Bulgarian prisoners, he caused their \neyes to be put out, leaving one eye only to every \nhundredth man, to enable him to conduct his \ncountrymen home. The kingdom was re-established \nin 1 186; but after several changes was conquered \nby Bajazet and annexed to the Ottoman empire, \n1396. Bulgaria was a chief site of the Russo- \nTurkish war (which see), 1877-8. Population of \nBulgaria and Eastern Roumelia, 3,154,375 in 1888. \nCapital, Sofia (which sec). \n\nThe Bulgarians said to support the revolt in Her- \nzegovina (which see) 1875-6 \n\nInsurrection in Bulgaria, quickly suppressed with \ngreat cruelty ("Bulgarian Horrors," see England, \n1876; Daily News) ; see Turkey . May-Sept. 1876 \n\n\n\n1890, 2,333. Annual \nSocieties Association, \n\n\n\nZancoff and Balabanow, Bulgarian delegates, re- \nceived in London 9 Oct. 1876 \n\nBulgaria constituted an autonomous principality, \ntributary to the sultan, by the Berlin treaty (which \nsee) 13 July, 1878 \n\nFirst parliament (or Sobranje) opened at Tirnova by \nprince Dondoukott Korsakoff; the new constitu- \ntion brought forward . . . .22 Feb. 1879 \n\nPrince Alexander of Hesse elected prince as Alex- \nander I. 29 April, ,, \n\nVisits the European courts ; received by queen \nVictoria 5 June, ,\xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTakes the oaths to the constitution at Tirnova \n\n9 J ul y> >* \n\nBulgaria said to be quitted by the Russians 17 July ,, \n\nMinisterial difficulties; parliamentdissolvedi8Dec. ,, \n\nThe prince announces the summoning a national \nassembly, and threatens to resign . 9 May 1881 \n\nZancoff and other liberal ministers arrested for in- \nsulting the prince in their election addresses \n(soon released) 21 June, ,\xe2\x80\x9e \n\nElections for national assembly ; voters said to be \ncoerced , ... 27 June et seq. ,, \n\nMeeting of the assembly ; the prince\'s proposals \nunanimously accepted ; he promises reforms and \nadherence to the constitution . . 13 July, ,\xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe late liberal ministers, Zancoff and Slaviekotf, \ntemporarily arrested . . about 23 July, ,, \n\nAmnesty for political offences proclaimed 12 Sept. ,, \n\nNew council of state established . about 28 Sept.\' ,, \n\nNew ministry under gen. Soboleff and M. Kypriak \n\n15 Mar. 1883 \n\nThe prince virtually dictator ; opposes Russia, \nunder whose influence a liberal reaction against \nthe prince takes place, and a new constitution is \nproposed ; the national assembly meets 16 Sept. ,\xe2\x80\x9e \n\nManifesto of the prince restoring the Tirnova con- \nstitution ; Zancoff minister . . .20 Sept. ,, \n\nCol. Redigher, war minister, and other Russian \nofficers summarily dismissed by the prince \n\n26 Oct. ,, \n\nPeaceful relations with Russia re-established about \n\n15 Nov. ,., \n\nChanges in the constitution proposed by govern- \nment adopted . . . . . 17 Dec. ,, \n\nDisputes with Servia respecting refugees and \nboundaries May, June 1884 \n\nM. Zaneoff\'s ministry resigns ; succeeded by Kara- \nvelotf - . . July ,, \n\nRaids of Servians repelled, the Bulgarian govern- \nment protests .... Sept., Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDisputes with Servia unsettled . . . Dee. ,, \n\nRe-union with Roumelia (termed South Bulgaria \nApril 1886) declared; about 18 Sept. ; all Bulgaria \narming ; action suspended on advice of the \npowers of Europe .... about 15 Oct. 1885 \n\nDeclaration of war by Servia 13 Nov. ; circular to \nthe powers alleging Bulgarian aggression; denied \nby prince Alexander, 14 Nov. ; Bulgaria invaded \nat four points ; skirmishes, several killed and \nwounded, and small places occupied by Servians ; \nprince Alexander appeals to Turkey for help, \n\n14 Nov. \n\nDesperate fighting : Servians take positions at \nRaptcha, Bulgarians retreat to Shvnitza ; 400 \nBulgarians captured ; 50 Servians killed 15 Nov. \n\nBattle of Trn : Servian attack repulsed, 16 Nov. ; \nrenewed with artillery with success, many \nBulgarian prisoners .... 17 Nov. \n\nBulgarians defeated between Kula (Adlie) and \nWiddin 17 Nov. \n\nThe Bulgarians bravely defend the Dragoman pass, \nattacked by 40,000 Servians, but retire at \nnight 15 Nov. \n\nPrince Alexander submits to the Porte and orders \nevacuation of East Roumelia . . .19 Nov. \n\nPrince Alexander and the Bulgarians attack the \nServians at Slivnitza ; severe fighting ; king \nMilan and the Servians retire leaving 400 prisoners \n\n17-19 Nov. \n\nBulgarians totally defeat the Servians near the \nDragoman pass 21-22 Nov. 1885 ; near Zaribrod \nwhich is occupied by prince Alexander . 23 Nov. \n\nEstimated Servian loss 6,000 killed and wounded, \n\n17-21 Nov. \n\nServians retreat to Pirot 24 Nov. ; prince Alexander \nenters Servia,, defeats Servians and occupies \n\n\n\nBTTLGABIA. \n\n\n\n157 \n\n\n\nBULGABIA. \n\n\n\nPirot after severe conflict, 26-27 Nov. ; siege of \nWidclin, Bulgarian sally repulsed . 27 Nov. iS \nCessation of hostilities through Austrian inter- \nvention . . ... . . .28 Nov. , \n\nServian proposals rejected . . about 2 Dec. , \nSir W. M. White at Constantinople supports the \nBulgarian union .... Nov.-Dec. , \n\nProtocol signed by International Commission ; \nPirot in Servia and Widclin in Bulgaria to be \nevacuated ; armistice to last till 1 March, 21 Dec. , \nThe Powers in a collective note call upon the \nBalkan rulers to disarm ; refused by Greece and \nServia ...... about 16 Jan. 18 \n\nVirtual (not nominal) union of Eastern Boumelia \nwith Bulgaria ; prince Alexander representing \nthe Sultan, his suzerain, for five years ; Jan. ; \nDecree promulgated . . . . .2 Feb. , \n\nPeace between Bulgaria and Servia signed at \nBucharest 3 March ; ratified 17 March ; by the \nSultan 13 March, , \n\nPrince Alexander demands governorship for life, \nabout 15 March, 1886 ; not agreed to . March, ,, \n\nThe conference of powers at Constantinople; \nTurco-Bulgarian convention protocol nominating \nprince Alexander governor of Eastern Boumelia \nfor five years signed 5 April, accepted with \nreservation by prince Alexander . 8 April, ,. \n\nBulgarian assembly opened ; Eastern Roumelian \ndeputies present 14 June ,, \n\nConspiracy at Sofia, prince Alexander carried off \na prisoner 21-23 Aug. ,. \n\nProvisional government formed by M. Zankoff \nand others 21 Aug. ,. \n\nTheir proclamation disavowed by the army and \npeople at Sofia, Philippopolis and other places . ,. \n\nA loyalist provisional government formed at \nTirnova by StamboulofT and others, which issues \nmanifesto in the prince\'s name . . 23 Dec. ,, \n\nThe prince landed at Keni Russi in Russian \nBessarabia ,, \n\nConflicts between the people and the rebel soldiers \nprotecting M. Zankoff \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe rebel government prisoners or fugitives \n\n25 Aug. ,, \n\nReturn of prince Alexander ; triumphant reception \nat Rustchuk : he issues a proclamation, 29 Aug. \n1886; arrives at Philippopolis, 1 Sept., at Sofia \n3 Sept. M. Zankoff and others released ; prince \nAlexander submits to Russia, announces his \nintention to abdicate, 4 Sept. ; regency appointed \nStambouloff, Mutkurott, and Karaveloff. 6 Sept. ,, \n\nPrince Alexander leaves Sofia with simple dignity, \n8 Sept. ; Sofia in a state of siege . . . . ,, \n\nThe revolting soldiers degraded and officers arrested, \n\nabout 8 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nArrival of gen. Kaulbars as Russian agent, intimi- \ndating policy 25 Sept. ,, \n\nM. Tisza, Hungarian Prime Minister, declares for \nmaintenance of the treaty of Berlin and Bulgarian \nindependence 30 Sept. ,, \n\nM. Radoslavoft, premier, and ministry, firmly resist \n.general Kaulbars, 4 Oct. ; his mission in the pro- \nvinces unsuccessful Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nElections for the Sobran.je (Parliament) ; majority \nfor the Regency (about 400 to 20), 78 Zankoffists \n\n10 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRussian policy semi-officially abandoned, about \n\n18 Oct. ,, \n\nGadban Effendi, Turkish Envoy, impugns the \nelections and requires delay of the meeting of the \nSobranje ; resisted by the Regency . 20 Oct. ,, \n\nRussian war ships at Varna ; state of siege renewed \nat Sofia 28 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Sobranje opened ; the rebel officers released \n\n1 Nov. ,, \n\nGen. Kaulbars threatens to retire if Russians are \nill-treated ; 100 Russian sailors land at Varna \n\n1, 2 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCaptain Nabokoffs attempt to create an insurrection \nin favour of the Czar at Bourgas quickly sup- \npressed 4 Nov. ,, \n\nPrince Waldemar of Denmark elected prince by the \nSobranje 10 Nov. (declined 13 Nov.) ; resignation \nof the regent M. Karavelofi" 10 Nov. ; succeeded \nby M. Zivkotf 13 Nov. ,, \n\nImportant speeches of the marquis of Salisbury \n(9 Nov.) and of count Kalnoky against Russian \n\xe2\x96\xa0\xe2\x96\xa0aggression 13 Nov. ,. \n\n\n\nGen. Kaulbars\' ultimatum unanswered ; he and \nRussian consuls quit Bulgaria . 20 Nov. et saj. \n\nPrince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg invited for \nelection as prince by Bulgarian delegates 15 Dec. ; \nprince Nicholas of Mingrelia recommended by \nRussia \n\nThe delegates (MM. StoilofT, Grekoff, and Caltcheff) \nvisit various courts ; not received at St. Peters- \nburg ; received unofficially at Vienna and \nBerlin Dec. ; London (favorably) 29 Dec. 1886 ; \nParis 9 Jan. ; Rome 18 Jan. ; Constantinople \n\n29 Jan. \n\nMilitary revolt at Silistria, col. Kristeff shot; \nquickly suppressed . . . I)2 March, \n\nMilitary insurrection at Rustchuk ; fighting, many \nkilled and wounded 3 March ; suppressed by the \nmilitia and people 4 March ; several ringleaders \nexecuted 6 March ; many imprisoned 8-9 March. \n\nSofia in a state of siege ; MM. Karaveloff, Nikoforoff \nand 22 others arrested 4 March ; released 6 April \n\nReported execution of 14 rebels at Rustchuk \n\n11 March, \n\nM. Mantoff, prefect of Rustchuk, shot at at \nBucharest , t March \n\nPrince Alexander definitively declines re-election \nabout 12 June, \n\nMeeting of the Sobranje at Tirnova, 4 July; unani- \nmous election of Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg \nand Gotha as Prince 7 July ; he accepts cemdt \ntionally 8 July ; the ministers.and regency resign \nannounced 9 July. M. Stoilotf forms a ministry \n12 July ; the regency on request withdraw resigna- \n\n\xe2\x80\x9e tion about 14 Julv, \n\nPrince Ferdinand arrives at Tirnova, and signs the \nconstitution, &c, and issues a proclamation; \n14 Aug. ; the Russian government protests\' \nagainst this . . . . - . .15 Au<*. \n\nThe prince well received at Philippopolis 21 Aug.* \nand at Sofia 22 Au<\'! \n\nThe Sultan declares prince Ferdinand\'s position \nillegal 22 Au \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nStambouloff forms a strong ministry . 1 Sept. \n\nProposed mission of general Ernroth (Russian) \nopposed by the powers early . . . Sept. \n\nState of siege closed ; the opposition to the govern! \nment active Sept. \n\nThe Bulgaria publishes a libellous statement re- \nspecting the German Consul, Herr Lijper, Au\xc2\xb0-. ; \ncontradiction published by intervention of the \nBulgarian government, and the paper suppressed \nSept. ; matter referred to the German govern- \nment about 14 Sept. ; pacific settlementannounced \n\nElections for the Sobranje ; majority for the \nministry (260\xe2\x80\x9432) ; riots at Plevna, suppressed \nwith bloodshed, 10 killed . . . q Oct. \n\nSobranje opened by the prince . . . \' 27 Oct\' \n\nInsurrection at Eski-Zagra suppressed, 17 soldiers \nkilled announced 16 Nov. \n\nRussian note to the Sultan and the powers declaring \nthe illegality of prince Ferdinand\'s position! \nRussia supported by France and- Germany ; \nAustria, England and Italy maintain reserve : \nmiddle Feb. -March 1888 ; the Porte telegraphs \nto M. Stainbouloffthat prince Ferdinand\'s position \nis illegal, 6 March ; no answer returned . March 1 \n\nTemporary resignation of the ministry, 13-24 June\' \n\nPrince Ferdinand\'s first anniversary . 14 Aii\xc2\xbb! \n\nM. Stambouloff reconstitutes his \'ministry, about \n\n22 DcC \n\nAbout 60 eminent men arrested by M. Stambouloff \nfor petitioning the Exarch at Constantinople as \nfavouring M. Zankoff . . . \xe2\x80\x9e_g p,^ } \n\nDeath of Zaeharia Stoianoff, president of the So! \nbranje, eminent patriot, at Paris . 15 Sept \n\nPrince Ferdinand visits Germany [M. Stambouloff \nappointed regent] 3 Qct \n\nThe Russian prince Dolgoroukoff visits Sofia, in! \ntrigues with the Zankoffists, and is expelled \n\n8-12 Oct. \n\nLoan of 25,000,000 francs at 6 per cent, obtained on \nthe railways announced . . . 2Q Oct. \n\nPrince Ferdinand, after a successful tour, during \nwhich he visited Paris, 16 Oct,, Vienna, 27 Oct. \' \nreturns to Sofia ; the parliament ope 1 3 Nov! \' \n\nRussian circular note to the powers stating that the \nterms of the loan are contrary to the treaty of \nBerlin ; this is denied by the Bulgarian govern- \n\n\n\nBULL. \n\n\n\n158 \n\n\n\nBULLION. \n\n\n\nment ; the loan fully subscribed for five or six \ntimes at Vienna, Berlin, &c Jan. 1890 \n\nMajor Panitza, a high army official, and six others \narrested on a charge of plotting against the prince \nand government (in 1887 et seq.) . . 1 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMore arrests ; M. Stambouloff acts as prefect of \npolice \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 -7 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTrial of major Panitza and 14 others, charged with \nconspiring to overthrow the government and \nassassinate prince Ferdinand and his ministers ; \n9 officers, 4 civilians, and capt. Kalobkoff, a \nRussian, also arraigned. Court martial opened \n15 May; sentences, major Panitza to be shot; \ncapt. Kalobkoff nine years\' imprisonment; lieut. \nRifoff and M. Arnodoff six years, 4 officers three \nyears, one man five months, the rest acquitted \n30 May ; sentences confirmed on appeal 19 June ,, \n\nMajor Panitza* shot at Sofia ... 28 June \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe government sends a courteous but firm note to \nthe Porte requesting the recognition of prince \nFerdinand and religious autonomy to the Mace- \ndonian Bulgarians 26 June ,, \n\n[Answer deferred, July, 1890.] \n\n3 Bulgarian bishops in Macedonia, appointed by the \nPorte about 3* Jlll Y >, \n\nDisapproved by the Greek patriarch, who resigns \nabout 5 Aug. ,. \n\nKalobkoff, the Russian intriguer, released and ex- \npelled from Bulgaria about . . 25 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nElections : great majority for the government, Sept. ,, \n\nThe prince opens the Sobranje with a firm\'speech \n\n27 Oct. ,. \n\nHe is partially recognized by the Porte . 5 Feb. 1-891 \n\nDetection of a plot by major Bendereff against the \ngovernment, reported ... 17 March \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nM. Beltcheff, minister of Finance, assassinated in \nthe street in the presence of M. Stambouloft (for \nwhom it was thought he was taken) about 8 p.m. \n27 March ; many arrests ... 28 March \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nConnection with major Bendereffs conspiracy sus- \npected, 28 March ; above 150 arrests up to April \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nArchiepiscopal palace at Sofia searched by order of \nM Stambouloft\'; documents and letters carried off \n\n30 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Sobranje votes by acclamation a pension of \n50,000 francs to prince Alexander of Battenberg \n(count Hartenau), reported . . 13 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRupture with France, on account of the expulsion \nof M. Chadourne, a journalist, accused of pub- \nlishing injurious intelligence . . is Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRupture with France settled by explanation and \napology, about ..... 21 Jan. 1895 \n\nDr. Vulkovitch, Bulgarian agent at Constantinople, \nstabbed 24 Feb. ; died . . . .26 Feb." \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGovernment note to the Porte complaining of plots, \netc., delivered 13 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPlot at Rustchuk; bombs discovered, 22 April; \nmany arrests .... April, May, ,, \n\nThe prince, during a tour, visits Britain, 30 May ; \nreceived by the queen at Balmoral, 6-8 June; \nleaves . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \' \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 " June > \xc2\xbb \n\nPRINCE. \n\nAlexander (Joseph) I. (son of prince Alexander, \nuncle of Louis IV., grandduke of Hesse), born \n5 April, 1857 ; elected 29 April 1879 ; deposed \n(see above) 4th Sept. 1886 ; declines re-election \n\n12 June, 1887 \n\nFerdinand, duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, born 26 \nFeb. 1861.; elected .... 7 July, ,, \n\nBULL, or Edict of the Pope. The bulla \n\nis properly the seal, either of gold, silver, lead, or \n-wax. On one side are the heads of Peter and Paul ; \nand on the other the name of the pope, and year of \nhis pontificate. A bull against heresy was issued \nby Gregory IX. in 1231. Pius V. published a bull \nagainst Elizabeth, 25 April, 1570; in 1571 bulls \nwere forbidden to be promulgated in England. The \nbull TJnigenitus (beginning with this word) against \nihe Jans\'enists was issued by Clement XL, 1713 ; \nconfirmed by Benedict XIII., 1725. The Golden \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0* He was born at Tirnova, 1852, became an advocate ; \nhe distinguished himself as leader of a volunteer band in \nthe Servo-Bulgarian war, was favoured by prince Alex- \nander and unwillingly submitted to prince Ferdinand. \n\n\n\nBull of the emperor Charles IV., so called from its \ngolden seal, was made the fundamental law of the \nGerman empire, at the diet of Nuremburg, 1356 ; \nsee Brazen Bull. Pius IX. published an encyclical \nletter censuring modern errors, 8 Dec. 1864; see \nunder Borne ; see Stocks. \n\nBULL-BAITING or Bull-Fighting, was \n\nan amusement at Stamford in the reign of John, \n1209; and at Tutbury, 1374. In the Sports of \nEngland, we read of the "Easter fierce hunts, when \nfoaming boars fought for their heads, and lusty bulls \nand huge-bears were baited with dogs;" and near \nthe Clink, London, was the Paris, or Bear Garden, \nso celebrated in the time of Elizabeth for the exhi- \nbition of bear-baiting, then a fashionable amuse- \nment. A bill to abolish bull-baiting was thrown \nout in the commons, chiefly through the influence \nof Mr. William Windham, who made a speech in \nfavour of the custom, 24 May, 1802. It was made \nillegal in 1835 ; see Cruelty to Animals. Bull- \nfights were introduced into Spain about 1260 : \nabolished there, " except for pious and patriotic \npurposes," in 1784. Bull-fights are very common in \nSpain. A bull- fight at Lisbon, attended by 10,000 \nspectators, on Sunday, 14 June, 1840; one took \nplace at Havre, 5 July, 1868. Somewhat theatrical \nfights with Spanish bulls, at the Agricultural Hall ? \nLondon, were stopped 28 March, 1870, for cruelty. \nAt a bull-fight at Marseilles about 17 persons were \nkilled, and 230 injured, by the fall of wooden stands, \nSunday, 14 Aug. 1881. A bull-fight at Mmes (since \nprohibited), 12 June, 1884. \n\nA bull-fight at the Hippodrome, Pails, for sufferers \nby inundations in S. France, very successful ; no \ncasualties, Spanish ambassador present . 16 Jan. 1887 \n\nBull-fights formed part of the entertainments at \nParis during the universal exhibition in 1889 ; \nrenewed with restrictions . . May et seq. 1890 \n\nBULLETS of stone were in use, 1514. Iron \nones are mentioned in the Fcedera, 1550. Leaden \nbullets were made before the close of the 16th \ncentury. The conoidal cup rifle-ball was invented by \ncapt. Minie, about 1833 ; a modification of this \n(conoidal but without cup), by Mr. Pritchett (1853),, \nis used with the Enfield rifle. Other bullets have \nbeen since devised. \n\nBULLION, uncoined gold and silver. The \n\'\' Bullion Beport" of a parliamentary committee in \n1810, principally guided by Mr. Horner and Mr. \n(afterwards sir R.) Peel, established the conclusion,, \nthat paper money is always liable to be over-issued, \nand consequently depreciated, unless it be at all \ntimes immediately convertible into gold. This prin- \nciple has been adopted in British mono tar j arrange- \nments, see Bank of England. \n\n\n\nVALUE OF BULLION IMPORTED \n\nGold. \n\n1858, \xc2\xa322,793,126 \n\n1868, 17,136,177 \n\n1870, 18,806,728 \n\n1874, 18,081,019 \n\n1876, 23,475,975 \n\n1877, 15,441,985 \n\n1878, 20,871,410 \n\n1879, 13,368,675 \n\n1880 9,454,861 \n\n1881 9,963,006 \n\n1882 14,376,559 \n\n1883 7,755,890 \n\n1884 10,744,408 \n\n1885 13,376,561 \n\n1886 13,392,256 \n\n1887 9>955>3 2 6 \n\n1888 15,787.588 \n\n1889 17,914,039 \n\n1890 23,568,049 \n\n\n\nINTO GREAT BRITAIN. \n\nSilver. \n\n\xc2\xa36,700,064 \n\n7,716,41s \n\n10,648,940 \n\n12,298,169 \n\n13,578,269 \n\n21,710,814 \n\n11,551,545 \n10,786,863 \n\n6,799,022 \n6,901,402 \n9,242,925 \n9,468,002 \n9,633,495 \n9,433,605 \n\n7,471,639 \n7,819,438 \n6,213,940 \n9,185,400 \n10,385,659 \n\n\n\nBULL-EUN BATTLES. \n\n\n\n159 \n\n\n\nBUKIALS. \n\n\n\nBULL-BUN BATTLES, see Manassas. \n\nBULWEB - CLAYTON TEEATY, con- \ncluded 19 April, ratified 4 July, 1850, by which sir \nHenry Lytton Bui wer for the British, and Mr. Clay- \nton for the American government, declared that \nneither should obtain exclusive control over the \nproposed ship canal through Central America, or \nerect any fortification on any part of the country. \nDisputes afterwards arose with respect to this \ntreaty, and the connection of Great Britain with \nthe Mosquito territory {which see), which were \nsettled in 1857. \n\nIts abrogation was proposed by the Americans in 1880, \n. on account of De Lesseps\' plan for a canal in Central \n\nAmerica. \n\nBUNDSCHUH, see Jacquerie. \n\nBUNHILL - FIELDS (originally Bonhill- \nField), a burial-ground near Finsbury-square, \nE. London, termed by Southey the " Campo Santo \nof the Dissenters ; " first used in 1665. Here were \ninterred Thomas Goodwin (1679), John Owen (1683), \nIsaac Watts (1748), John Bunyan (1688), George \nFox, the Quaker (1690), general Fleetwood, son-in- \n. law of Cromwell (1692), and Daniel De Foe (1731). \nCunningham. An act for the preservation of the \nground as an open space was passed, 15 July, 1867, \nand it was re-opened by the lord mayor, 14 Oct., \n1869 ; and a monument to De Foe, subscribed for \nhy boys and gills, was inaugurated, 16 Sept. 1870. \n\nBUNKER\'S HILL, more properly Breed\'s \nhill (near Boston, U.S.). Here the British (nearly \n3000), after severe loss, compelled the revolted \nAmericans (about 5000) to retreat, after a desperate \nconflict, 17 June, 1775. Kalph Faniham, who was \npresent at the battle, died on 28 Dec. i860, aged \n104J years. He was introduced to the prince of \n/Wales when in America. Centenary of the battle \ncelebrated June, 1875. \n\nBUONAPABTE, see Bonaparte. \n\nBUEFOED CLUB, the appellation given \n(according to Mr. Layer, the barrister, a conspira- \ntor, see Layer\') by the Pretender and his agents to a \npretended Jacobite club, of which lord Orrery was \nchairman, and lord Strafford, sir Henry Goring, \nearl Cowper, Mr. Hutcheson, the bishop of Rochester, \nsir Constantiue Phipps, general "Webb, lord Bingley, \nlord Craven, Mr. Dawkins, lord Scarsdale, lord \nBathurst, Mr. Shippen, and lord Gower, were mem- \nbers. This story was set aside by the solemn decla- \nrations of lord Cowper and lord Strafford. The list \nof this club was published in the Weekly Journal, \nprinted in "Whitefriars ; but when Eead, the printer, \nwas ordered to appear at the bar of the house, he \nabsconded. March, 1722. Salmon. \n\n.BUEGESSES, from the French Bourgeois, a \ndistinction coeval in England with corporations. \nThey were called to parliament in England, 1265 ; \nin Scotland in 1326 ; and in Ireland about 1365. \nBurgesses to be resident in the places they repre- \nsented in parliament, 1 Hen. V. (1413) ; see \nBorough. \n\nBUBGH, see Borough. Burgh Convention, \nsee under Home Rule. \n\nBUEGHEES asd Anti-Buhghers. In \n\n1732 Ebenezer Erskine and others seceded from the \nchurch of Scotland. Differing in regard to the in- \nterpretation of the burgess oath, they divided into \ntwo sections with the foregoing names in 1747. In \n1820 they were reunited as the United Associate \nSynod of the Secession church, which, on 13 May, \n1847, joined the Relief church, together forming the \nUnited Presbyterian church. \n\n\n\nBUEGLAEY was a capital offence till 1829. \nFormerly he who convicted a burglar was exempted \nfrom parish offices, 1699; Statute of Rewards, 5 Anne, \n1706 ; and 6 Geo. I. 1720. Receivers of stolen plate \nand other goods to be transported, 10 Geo. III. 1770. \nPersons having upon them picklock-keys, &c.,\'to be- \ndeemed rogues and vagabonds, 13 Geo. III. 1772-3.. \nThe laws with respect to burglary were amended by \nMr. (afterwards sir Robert) Peel\'s acts between 1823; \nand 1829, and by the criminal laws of 1861. \nBurglaries and housebreaking in England and Wales,. \n\n1885-6, 3.545; 1886-7, 31852; 1888-9, 3,620; 1889-90\'.! \n\n3.4\xc2\xb0i- \nCapture of a gang of burglars with a large amount of \n\nstolen property at the Queen\'s Head tavern, Wharf road,. \n\nCity road, London, 8 Nov. 1891. \nFrederick Clark and 7 others were convicted and sen- \ntenced to various terms of penal servitude, 18, 19 Jan.. \n\n1892. It was stated that they had been concerned in. \n\n86 burglaries. \n\nBUEGOS (Spain), the burial place of the Cid,. \n1099. Lord Wellington entered Burgos on 19 Sept- \nafter the battle of Salamanca (fought 22 July, 1812) _ \nThe castle was besieged by the British and allied \narmy, but the siege was abandoned 21 Oct. same- \nyear. The fortifications were blown up by the- \nFrench, 12 June, 1813. Population 1887, 31,301. , \n\nBUBGUNDY, a large province in France,, \nderives its name from the Burgundians, a Gothic- \ntribe who overran Gaul in 275, and were driven out \nby the emperor Probus : they returned in 287, and \nwere defeated by Maximin. In 413 they established \na Kingdom, comprising the present Burgundy,, \nlarge parts of Switzerland, with Alsace, Savoy, \nProvence, &e. Gondicar, their leader, the first \nking. It was conquered by the Franks, 534.\xe2\x80\x94 The- \nseconcl kingdom, consisting of a part ot the first,, \nbegan with Gontran, son of Clotaire I. of France, in, \n561. The kingdom of Aries, Provence, and Trans- \njurane Burgundy, were formed out of the old king- \ndom.\xe2\x80\x94 Duchy. In 877 Charles the Bald made his. \nbrother-in-law Richard the first duke of Burgundy. \nIn 938, Hugh the Great, count of Paris, founder of \nthe house of Capet, obtained the duchy. His de- \nscendant, Henry, on becoming king of France, con- \nferred it on his brother Robert, in whose family it \nremained till the death of Philippe de Rouvre, \nwithout issue, in 1361. In 1363, king John of \nFrance made his fourth son, Philip, duke ; see- \nAustria and Germany. \n\nDUKES. \n\n1363. Philip the Bold ; marries Margaret, heiress of \nFlanders, 1369. \n\n1404. John the Fearless (son) ; joined the English inva- \nders of France ; privy to the assassination of the- \nduke of Orleans in 1407 ; see Armagnac; himself \nassassinated at Montereau, in presence of the \ndauphin, Sept. 1419. \n\n1419. Philip the Good (son), the most powerful duke. \n\n1467. Charles the Bold ; married to Margaret of York \nsister to Edward IV., 9 July, 1468 ; invaded \nFrance, 1472 ; Switzerland, 1476 ; killed in an \nengagement with the Swiss, before Nancy, j. \nJan. 1477. \n\n1477. Mary (daughter) ; married, 19 Aug. 1477, to Maxi- \nmilian of Austria ; died, 27 March, 1482. \n\n1479. Louis XI. annexed Burgundy to France. The other- \ndominions fell to Austria. \n\nBUEIALS. Abraham buried Sarah at Mach- \npelah, i860 B.C., Gen. xxiii. Places of burial wen \nconsecrated under pope Calixtus I. in a.d. 210. \nEuscbius. The Greeks had their burial-places at a \ndistance from their towns; the Romans near the \nhighways; hence the necessity for inscriptions. \nThe first Christian burial-place", it is said, was in- \nstituted in 596 ; burial in cities, 742 ; in conse- \ncrated places, 750; in churchyards, 758. Many of \n\n\n\nBURKING. \n\n\n\n160 \n\n\n\nBURMAH. \n\n\n\nthe early Christians are buried in the catacombs at \nRome ; see Catacombs, Cemeteries, and Dissenters. \nVaults erected in chancels first at Canterbury . . 1075 \nWoollen shrouds only permitted to be used in Eng- \nland 1666 \n\nlainen scarfs introduced at funerals in Ireland, \n1729 ; and woollen shrouds used . . . . 1733 \n\nBurials taxed 1635 \n\nA tax enacted on burials in England \xe2\x80\x94 for the burial \n\xe2\x80\xa2of a duke $ol., and for that of a common person \n4s. \xe2\x80\x94 under Will. III. 1695, and Geo. III. . . . 1783 \nActs relating to Metropolitan burials passed . 1850-67 \nParochial registers of burials, births, and marriages, \ninstituted in England by Cromwell, lord Essex, \n\xe2\x80\xa2about 1538. Stow. \n" Earth to earth" system of burial advocated by Mr. \nSeymour Haden ; wicker-coffins exhibited at Staf- \nford-house . . .\xc2\xbb . . -17 June, 1875 \nConsecrated burial grounds in England, 13,673 ; \n\nclosed, 1411 1877 \n\n\'Burials Act (permitting any Christian service in a \njparish churchyard) passed . . .7 Sept. 1880 \nSee Dissenters. \n\nBURKING, a new species of murder, com- \nmitted in Britain, thus named from Burke, the first \nknown criminal by whom it was perpetrated. His \nvictims were killed by pressure or other modes of \nsuffocation, and the bodies, which exhibited no \nmarks of violence, were sold to the surgeons for \n\xe2\x80\xa2dissection. He was executed at Edinburgh, 28 \nJan. 1829. A monster named Bishop was appre- \nhended in Nov. 1 83 1, and executed in London \n5 Dec. with Williams, one of his accomplices, for \nthe murder of a poor friendless Italian boy, named \nCarlo Ferrari. They confessed to this and other \n\xe2\x96\xa0similar murders. \n\nBURLINGHAME TREATY, promoted by \nMr. Anson Burlinghame and a Chinese embassy, \nand signed at Washington 4 July, 1868. It autho- \nrised mutual immigration. California prospered \nthrough Chinese labour ; but depression in 1879-80 \nled to a demand for its expulsion and abrogation of \nthe treaty. \n\nBURLINGTON ARCADE, Piccadilly, \nopened 20 March, 1819. \n\nBURLINGTON FINE ARTS CLUB, for \n\nexhibiting works of art, and promoting intercourse \nbetween artists, amateurs, &c, founded 1867. \n\nBURLINGTON HEIGHTS. After a fierce \ncontest here between the British and the United \nStates American forces, 6 June, 1813, the British \ncarried the heights. \n\nBURLINGTON HOUSE, Piccadilly, Lon- \ndon, was built by Denham for lord Burlington, \nabout 1664 ; and rebuilt by lord Burlington, the \n.architect, about 1731. It was bought for 140,000^. \nby the government, authorised by vote of the house \nof commons, on 27 July, 1854. It became the home \nof the Royal, Linnean, and Chemical societies in \n1857 (who occupied new rooms in 1873), and of the \nAntiquaries, Geological, and Royal Astronomical \nsocieties in 1873. In 1866, sites for buildings for \nthe University of London and the Royal Academy \nwere granted in the grounds of Burlington House. \nThe entrance, colonnade, &c, were removed in \n1868, and the exhibition of the Royal Academy was \nfirst opened here 3 May, 1869. Burlington charity \nschool near here, founded 1699. \n\nBURMAH, or BURMESE EMPIRE, \n\nfounded in the middle of the 18th century by \nAlompra, the first sovereign of the last dynasty. \nOur first dispute with this formidable power in 1795 \nwas amicably adjusted by general Erskine. Hos- \ntilities were commenced by the British in 1824, and \nthey took Rangoon on May n. The fort and \n\n\n\npagoda of Syriam were taken in 1825. After a short \narmistice, hostilities were renewed, 1 Dec. same \nyear, and pursued until the successive victories \nof the British led to the cession of Arracan, \nand to the signature of peace, 24 Feb. 1826. For \nthe events of this war, and of the war in 1851, see \nIndia. Pegu was annexed to our Indian empire, \n20 Dec. 1852. The war ended 20 June, 1853. Popu- \nlation of Upper Burmah, reported in 1892, over \n3,000,000 ; Lower Burmah, nearly 4,750,000. \n\nRebellion against the king (of Upper Burmah) \nsuppressed by British aid . . about Sept. 1866 \n\nTreaties with Great Britain . . 1862 and 25 Oct. 1867 \n\nBurmese embassy in England, 6 June ; introduced \nto the queen 21 June, 1872 \n\nThe king Mindone suspected of inciting Chinese \nto attack British expedition to West China (see \nIndia) Feb. 1875 \n\nSir Douglas Forsyth\'s mission to the king ; arrives \nat Mandalay, 14 June ; submission of the king \nannounced about 18 June ; he refuses permission \nfor British troops to march as a convoy through \nhis territories to China; sir D. Forsyth retires, \n\nJune, ,, \n\nCol. Duncan sent to Mandalay . . about Aug. \n\nThe king eventually acceded to the British de- ,, \nmands : announced Oct. ,, \n\nThe king dies, about 5 Sept. ; announced 2 Oct. 1878 \n\nHis successor, Thebau (Wongyee prince of \nThebau) kills many of the royal family and \ntheir friends Feb. 1879 \n\nThe British resident and others quit Mandalay 8 Oct. , , \n\nThe king, attacked by small-pox, commits fresh \natrocities 12 April, 1880 \n\nPrince Nyoung\'s rebellion, May, June, suppressed ; \nhe enters British territory . . 27 June, ,, \n\nPolitical massacres at Mandalay recommence, an- \nnounced 21 April, 1882 \n\nDestructive fire at Mandalay, announced n April, 1883 \n\nAnother great fire 9 April, 1884 \n\nMisgovernment ; massacres at Mandalay, 21 Sept. ; \nprospect of British intervention . . Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTown of Bhamo violently captured by the Chinese \n\n8-10 Dec. ,, \n\nCaptain Terndrup of the steamer Kahbyor rescues \nmissionaries and others . . . 12-13 Dec. u \n\nTreaty between France and Burmah signed at Paris \n\n15 Jan. 1885 \n\nBhamo recaptured by the Burmese about 16 March, ,, \n\nFrench negotiations with the king . . Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDispute between the half mad king and the Bom- \nbay and Burmah Trading Association ; communi- \ncation from British commissioner dated 28 Aug. \ninsolently rejected ; envoy not received ; the \nking refuses the arbitration of the viceroy of \nIndia ; the commissioner of British Burmah asks \nfor 8,000 men .... about 13 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nUltimatum sent by lord Dufferin requiring equitable \nsettlement of the dispute ; reception of a British \nresident with a guard ; protection of British \nsubjects, &c. ; rejection ; proclamation of war \nabout 8 Nov. ; advance of the army under gen. \nHarry N. D. Prendergast . . .9 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBurmese war steamer captured 16 Nov. ; Minhla \nand Gurgyong forts taken, 3 hours attack, \nlieut. Robt. A. Dury killed and 3 others 17 Nov. ,, \n\nThe army advances ; Magwe captured 20 Nov. ; \nPagan and Myingyan ... 28 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe king sends flag of truce. ; agrees to surrender \nhimself, his army, and Mandalay ; Ava forts \noccupied 27 Nov. ; gen. Prendergast enter \nMandalay without resistance . . 28 Nov. ,, \n\nNative rioting with bloodshed quelled . Dec. ,, \n\nSharp engagement at Nyadan, stockades taken \n\n2 Dec. ,, \n\nGreat quietness in Mandalay . . . 9 Dec. ,, \n\nDacoit pillaging outside Mandalay, Dec. ; sharp \nconflicts with several bands, and some officers \nkilled Dec. 1885 ; Jan. 1886 \n\nThebau and court sent to Madras ; arrive 14 Dec. 1885 \n\nReported massacre of three servants of the Bombay \nand Burmah Co. at Kendat on the Chindwin \nriver ... .... Nov. ,, \n\nThebau\'s brother issues a proclamation against \nBritish rule ; arrival of Mr. Bernard establishing \nprovisional government . . .18 Dec. ,, \n\n\n\nBUEMAH. \n\n\n\n161 \n\n\n\nBUEMAH. * \n\n\n\nGeneral Prendergast warmly received at Bhamo \n\xe2\x96\xa0-"A 28 Dec. \nEebels defeated at Moutshobo by major William- \nson 29 Dec. \n\nTynedah Mengyle, Thebau\'s minister, accused of \nmurder, sent to Rangoon ; two pretenders to the \nthrone appear with the Dacoits . . . Jan. \n\nSurgeon Heath killed 9 Jan. ; Alompra, a pretender, \n\ncaptured, Jan. ; tried and shot . . Feb. \n\nBurmese defeated at Kadol, 16 Jan. ; and at Kunnah ; \n\n36 rebels killed ; the rebel princes flee . 19 Jan. \n\nInsurgents defeated by major Williamson on the \n\nMas river 27 Jan. \n\n.Lord Dufferin, the viceroy, arrives at Mandalay 12 \n\nFeb. ; well received 13 Feb. ; leaves about 23 Feb. \n\n400 rebels surprised and defeated at Yindawango ; \n\n68 killed 18 March,\' \n\n40 rebels killed near Zemethen. about 26 March, \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2General Prendergast leaves Mandalay . 31 March, \n\nRebels defeated 5 April ; British repulsed 17 April, \n\nThe Alompra pretender Myinzaing prince attempts \nto burn Mandalay ; the palace greatly injured \n\n15 April, \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Successful expedition of col. Fitzgerald ; insurgent \nchiefs surrender May, \n\nDefeat of insurgents at Ngape by Mr. Phayre 6-7 \nJune ; Mr. Phayre killed . . .8 June, \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Captain Dunsford killed in a conflict with 500 \nDacoits at Salen . . . . 12 June, \n\nMajor Hailes repulsed with loss by the Burmese \nnear Tummoo 19 June, \n\nBritish Burmah, including Aracan, Pegu, and \nTenasserim, constituted 1862. Sir Arthur Phayre, \n"the able first commissioner, died 15 Dec. 1885. \nUpper Burmah annexed by proclamation of the \nviceroy, lord Dufferin, 1 Jan. 1886 (the Shan states \npartially independent). Upper and Lower \nBurmah united in one province under Mr. C. \nBernard as chief commissioner Feb. 1886 ; he \nissues a pacific proclamation 6 March ; he assumes \noffice at Mandalay 12 March ; all Burmah included \nin British India by decree . . .15 May, ,, \n\nIncrease of dacoity in Upper and Lower Burmah ; \ntwo additional regiments and four commissioners \nordered to be sent to Burmah . . July, ,, \n\nThe Myentzeen prince offers 200I. for sir C. Bernard\'s \nhead 13 July, ,, \n\nGonvention with China ; many concessions ; signed \nat Pekin 24 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLieut. Huggins defeats insurgents who lose 150 \nkilled and wounded 26 July, ,, \n\nSeveral sharp engagements ; major Aitkinson \nkilled 1 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nReinforcements ordered from India . . Aug. ,, \n\nSharp engagement at Lazay near Isagain 9 Aug. ,, \n\nInundation of Mandalay by the Irrawaddy ; great \nloss of life and property 16 Aug. Subsiding \n\n25 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSerious fighting 16 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGeneral Macpherson, commander-in-chief, arrives \nat Mandalay 17 Sept. ; dies of fever on the Irra- \nwaddy near Prome 20 Oct. ; succeeded by general \nsir Frederick Roberts ... 21 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMinhla burnt by the rebels ... 2 Nov. ,, \n\nSeveral skirmishes ; British successful with some \nloss of officers .... .9-14, 21 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGeneral sir Frederick Roberts arrives at Mandalay \n\n18 Nov. ,, \n\nColonel Holt captures position at Puzan Myang ; \nleader of the rebels, Thamban, and his son killed \n\n23 Nov. ,, \nConflict near Pakoka ; col. Gatacre and Bombay \n\nlancers disperse the rebels . . .12 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nExpeditions against Boshway and Hla-Oo, dacoit \nchiefs ; their strongholds captured and bands \ndispersed by gen. Low and major Symonds \n\nNov. -Dec. ,, \nDacoits defeated in skirmishes . . 10-12 Dee. \xe2\x80\x9e \nIn a proclamation the Bhuddist archbishop re- \ncommends submission to Great Britain about \n\n31 Dec. ,, \nAttack on Boshway\'s camp ; he escapes ; announced \n\n24 Jan. 1887 \nGeneral Roberts after great success leaves Burmah ; \n\nsucceeded by general Arbutlmot . . Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBand of dacoits repulsed by Hyderabad cavalry \n\nafter hard fighting . . announced 8 Feb. ,, \nTheQueen\'sjubileecelebratedatManclalayi5-i6Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nWoontho Tsawbwa, an important chief, submits \nabout 5 March, \nDeath of Hla-Oo reported. . . . April, \nNumerous petty fights ; dacoits defeated . March, \nBoshway\'s party defeated, he escapes 9 March, \n\nCol. Dance defeats dacoits . . .22 March, \nSuccessful skirmishes with the dacoits . April, \nOctama defeated with loss of 23 men . 20 April, \nDacoits defeated by Madras lancers in Toundwingee \n\ndistrict 23 April, \n\nSkirmishes at Sidotia ; captain A. W. Rendle killed \n\n30 April ; renewed skirmishes . . 2-4 May, \n\nThe Limbin prince, the last legitimate Alaungpaa \n\nprince, surrenders .... 23 May, \n\nDesultory war with dacoits. . . . June, \n\nNew roads and a railway constructing . Sept. \n\nCamp near Chindwin captured ; major Kennedy \n\nand captain Beville killed, and about 50 dacoits \n\n16 Oct. \nDiscontent in Mandalay through taxation, &c. Nov. \n\n1887 ; quietness restored .... Jan. : \n\nAbout 20,000 effective military police established in \n\nBurmah ; renewed fighting . . . Jan. \n\nMr. Chan-Toon, a Burmese, as a law student in the \n\nMiddle Temple gains all the principal prizes, June \n\nBoh Sway and many followers killed, announced \n\n27 July, \nDacoits defeated and two of their chiefs killed \n\n25 Oct. \nVictorious conflicts of gen. Collett with native \n\nchiefs ; many of the enemy killed . 1 Jan. 1 \nThe dacoits defeated in several conflicts . Jan. \nSawlon captured by gen. Collett . . 9 Jan. \n\nRebel position near Popa stormed by the Rifle \nBrigade under major Francis Howard g Feb. \n\nRailway to Rangoon formally opened at Mandalay \n\n27 Feb. \nKhama, the capital of the Lepu Kachyens, and 17 \nvillages _ destroyed by the British troops, an- \nnounced" 9 March, \n\nGen. Wolseley\'s expedition against the Phunkan \nTsawbwa starts 13 April ; he captures a village, \n18 April ; returns to Bhamo, May ; Dacoits \nvery active, successful in some severe conflicts \n\nApril-May, \n\nA great fire at Mandalay, 450 houses burnt 11 May \n\nMr. Dyson, assistant commissioner, and others, \n\nkilled in an unsuccessful attack upon the Dacoits \n\nreported 2 June \n\nSavage tribes beyond the frontier of Burmah \nProper ; incited by rebel Burmese chiefs ; re- \nduced to submission by the police and military \n\nJan.-June, \nFrequent engagements with bands of Dacoits \n\nJune-July, \n\nRebel chief Boh Kyee Tha defeated and killed and \n\narms captured by Rifle Brigade Mounted Infantry \n\nunder lieuts. K. J. Mackenzie and H. G. Magendie \n\n23 July \nMr. C. A. MacDonnell appointed chief commis- \nsioner in the absence of sir C. Crosthwaite, an- \nnounced 3 Aug. \n\nGen. Gordon at Mandalay organizing an expedition \nagainst the Chins and other border tribes about \n\n22 Sept. \nImproved condition of the country under sir C. \nCrosthwaite\'s administration reported . Sept. \nSuccessful attacks on the Chins by capt. Gookhas \n16, 17, 19 Oct. \nThe Mingoon prince on the frontiers . . 3 Nov. \nInterned by the French at Saigon . Nov. \n\nPrince Albert Victor of Wales at Rangoon, 20 Dec. ; \n\nat Mandalay 24 Dec. \n\nThree Chin villages destroyed by British . Dec. \nMr. Mu\'Donnell retires after successful government \n\nDec. \nRepulse of the attack of the Chins on the British \nadvanced camp, a stockade captured and de- \nstroyed reported 30 Dec. \n\nLowsaing captured 15 Jan. 1 \n\nDacoits very troublesome; destructive attack of \nrebels on Sandoway, Arracan coast, repulsed by \n\npolice reported 22 Fell. \n\nThe Dacoits burn Kangyi, chastised by police, re- \nported 2 March, \n\nConspiracy to b n ni Mandalay and set Moungba, an \nAlompra pre<i>nder, on the throne, discovered, \n\nand arrests made 9 March, \n\nM \n\n\n\nBURMAH. \n\n\n\n162 \n\n\n\nBURNING THE DEAD. \n\n\n\nMajor Blundell\'s expedition from Bhamo, to punish \nKan Hlaing, chief of the Swesaing Tonhon Kach- \nyens, for raids on British territories, and for \nharbouring the Alhompra pretender Sawyauni. \nStarts 15 Dec, severe fighting 23 Dee., after \nfurther successes the expedition returned to \nBhamo April, 18 \n\nGen. Gordon (successful) relinquishes his command ; \nsucceeded by "brigadier Wolseley . . June, ,. \n\nMany Dacoit gangs surrender, two eminent chiefs \ncaptured, reported .... 21 June, , \n\nBoh Yanyun, a Dacoit leader, surrenders to Mr. \nM\'Donald, his life being assured . . July , \n\nMany intercessions for him, 9 Aug. ; transported \nfor life about 23 Aug. , \n\nGreat floods, Mandalay in danger, about . 9 Aug. , \n\nGen. "Wolseley concludes peace with the Sinyin \nChins ; tribute paid, and prisoners exchanged, \nreported 2 Sept. , \n\nMr. (aft. sir) Alex. Mackenzie appointed to succeed \nsir C. Crosthwaite as chief Commissioner, re- \nported 31 Oct. ; arrives at Rangoon . . 3 Dec. , \n\nIn Upper Burinah Kanlaing, a rebel chief with a \nlarge following, appears at Manwaing about 3 Dec. , \n\nMr. Wetherell, political officer, killed by the Chins \nin an ambush, at Yokwa ... 21 Dec. , \n\nDacoit raids and murders reported about 24 Dec. ,. \n\nA strong punitive force sent against the Chins and \nothers, reaches Thetta ; after a repulsed attack, \nThetta surrenders ; lieut. James and two men \nkilledabout 2 Jan. 18 \n\nExpedition against the Shan state, Momeik, to \npunish outrages, about 17 Jan. fighting ; a village \nburnt, many natives killed and wounded about \n\n28 Jan. ,, \n\nMajor Nixon, lieut. Jameson, adjutant and two \nSepoys killed by a mad Pathan at Fort Stedman \nin the Shan States . . . \'. . n Feb. ,, \n\nThe Kanhow chiefs chastised for raids ; submit ; \nrestore captives and pay fines to capt. Rundall ; \nfive villages attacked and destroyed, reported \n\n15 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nInsurrection in "Wuntho, a frontier state ; pretended \nobjections to the railway ; capt. Smith present \nwith 400 Europeans ; reinforcements ordered ; \narrive ...... 19 Feb. ,, \n\nProclamation issued, deposing the. Tsawbwa of \nWuntho for his attacks, and annexing his territory \n\n22 Feb. ,, \nGen. Wolseley takes the command in Wuntho, 26 \n\nFeb. ; the rebels at Okpho attacked, above 50 \nkilled, arms and ammunition captured . ,, \n\nBritish force at Kawlin, 600 men (200 Europeans) ; \ncapt. Hastings punishes the Panchaung Chins for \ntheir raids, destroying villages, &c, reported \n\n23 Feb. ,, \nWuntho occupied by Major Smyth, without oppo- \nsition, 25 Feb. ; the villagers lay down their arms ; \nthe Tsawbwa flies ; his palace burnt ; capt. Alex. \nHutchinson defeats rebels near Okhau, after five \nhours\' fighting [he died of his wounds] ; Kanhoco \nchiefs, raiders, submit about . . 25 Feb. ,, \n\nThe Tsawbwa solicits pardon, which is promised on \nspeedy surrender, but not re-instatement, about \n\n27 Feb. ,, \n\nMore villages surrender about . . . 27 Feb. ,, \n\nGen. Stedman leaves for England ; in four years he \ncreated an effective army of military police (about \n20,500) . 28 Feb. ,, \n\nThe Kanhow Chins subdued by capt. Rundall, \nsurrender captives and pay fine\'s . . 24 Feb. ,, \n\nGen. Wolseley holds a durbar at Wuntho, well \nattended, British flag hoisted . . 3 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAdvance of gen. Wolseley and col. Macgregor into \nthe Wuntho territory ; the two Tsawbwas retreat, \nreported 11 March \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSeveral fights with the Chins, with casualties re- \nported 6 April \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDisturbances on the trade route between Bahmo \nreported 9 April \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGen. Wolseley returns to Mandalay, the campaign \n\nended \'. 4 May \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAlarming deficiency of rain in Upper Burmah, Arig.\'; \nfall of rain in some places, Sept. ; investigation \nby sir A. Mackenzie ; his minute published 15 \nSept.; relief works begun, parly Sept ; prospects \nimproved Oct. ,, \n\n\n\nGen. Wolseley transferred to Belgaum . . Nov. 1891 \nBoh Le, a Dacoit leader, killed, and his band cap- \ntured or dispersed by lieut. Magrath, assistant- \ncommandant at Katha, reported . . 31 Dec. ,,. \nMajor Yule captures Sadon after two days\' lighting \n\n6 Jan. 189K \nSuccessful operations of lieut. Macnabb in the Chin \n\ncountry Jan. ,,, \n\nSevere fighting in Upper Burmah ; the Kachms \nrepulsed in their attack on Sadon by lieut. \nHarrison ; successful advance of major Yule \n\n19 Feb. et seq. , r \n[Sadon re-named Fort Harrison.] \nJoined by capt. Davies at Sadon, about 25 Feb; ,.. \nContinued fighting at Sadon . . 28 Feb. etseq. lr . \n\n[Kachins, a warlike but not intractable tribe, in- \nhabiting the hilly tracts east of head waters of the- \nIrrawaddy in Upper Burmah, adjoining Chinese- \nprovinces.] \n\nBoh Minlaung, famous Arracan Dacoit, captured at \nKudoung about 26 Feb. ; sentenced to death with \n\nothers about 14 March, ,. \n\nMr. Chan Toon, a Burmese barrister, made a judge \n\nabout 28 Feb. , P \n\nFalam, headquarters of the Tashons, occupied by \n\nthe British about . . 17 March, ,,. \n\nGreat fire at Mandalay, destroying the telegraph \noffice and a large part of the city ; estimated loss \ni,ooo,oooL ..... 30-31 March ,,. \nSentence of death upon the Minlaung prince and \n\nothers confirmed .... 30 March r \nSir A. Mackenzie ill, leaves for England ; Mr. F. W. \n\nFryer appointed deputy . . [ about May, ,,. \nFamine greatly relieved .... May, ,, \n\nBURNETT PRIZES, to be awarded every \n40 years to the authors of the two best essays on \n" The evidence that there is a Being all powerful,, \nwise, and good, by whom everything exists, &c," \nwere founded by Mr. Burnett, a "Scottish gentleman,, \nwho died 1784, bequeathing moneys for the pur- \npose. Various amounts have been paid to Dr> \nW. L. Brown, to rev. J. B. Sumner, afterwards- \narchbishop of Canterbury, 1815; to rev. R. A.- \nThompson, and to Dr. J. Tulloch, 1855; Prof_ \nG. G. Stokes, 1885. The establishment of a Bur- \nnett lectureship in Aberdeen by the trustees (the- \nlecturer to be chosen in 1883) was sanctioned Aug. \n1880. Prof. "VV. Robertson Smith\'s lectures on the \n" Eeligion of the Semites," were published in 1889-.. \n\nBURNHAM BEECHES, Bucks, the pictu- \nresque remains of an ancient forest, were purchased \nfor public use by the corporation of London in? \n1879. Dedicated 3 Oct. 1883. \n\nBURNING ALIVE was inflicted among the- \nRomans, Jews, and other nations, and was counte- \nnanced by bulls of the pope; see Witches. Many- \npersons have been burned alive as heretics. Sir \nWilliam Sawtre, priest of St. Osyth, London,, \nsuffered 12 Feb. 1401 . In the reign of Mary num- \nbers were burned ; see Protestants. Elizabeth \nGaunt, an Anabaptist, was burnt at Tyburn for \ntreason (concealing rebels under Monmouth), 23 \nOct. 1685. \n\nBURNING THE DEAD was practised \namong the Greeks and Romans, and Homer gives- \ndescriptions. It was very general about 1225 B.C.,. \nand was revived by Sylla about 78 B.C. It is still \npractised in parts of the East Indies, and has been \nadvocated in this country by the eminent surgeon, \nsir Henry Thompson, and others, 1873 ; see Sitttees T \nBarrows. \nProfessor L. Brunetti exhibited his plan and results \n\nat the Vienna exhibition \n\nCremation societies founded in London, Vienna, and \n\nBerlin, &c 13 Jan. \n\nThe corpse of the wife of sir Charles Dilke, with \n\ncoffin, burnt at Dresden : ashes about 61b. 10 Oct. \nA crematorium erected at Milan, Jan. 1883 ; in \n\nParis . . \n\n\n\ni873 \n1874 \n\n\n\nBURNING-GLASS. \n\n\n\n163 \n\n\n\nBUTE ADMINISTRATION. \n\n\n\nCremation increasing at Rome .... 1834 \n\nMr. Justice Stephen decides that it is legal, March, ,, \n\nThe erection of a crematorium at Woking stopped \nby authorities, summer 1879; afte.rvvf.rds per- \nmitted and first used, 26 March, 1885 ; again 21 \nOct. 1885 ; and 25 Jan. 1886 ; and others occa- \nsionally. \n\nDr. Cameron\'s bill for the regulation of cremation \nrejected by the commons (149-79), 3\xc2\xb0 April, \n1884. \n\nThe Cremation society of England in Feb. 1892, reported \nthat at Woking there had been 3 cremations in 1885 ; \n10 in 1886 ; 13 in 1887 ; 28 in 1888 ; 46 in 1889 ; 54 in \n1890 ; in 1S91, 99. Among these were that of the \nmarquis of Ely, 13 April, 1889; sir Tinlal Robertson, \nM.P., 10 Oct. 1889 ; baron Huddlestone, 11 Dec. 1S90 ; \nMr. A. W. Kinglake, 8 Jan. 1891 ; the duke of Bedford, \n16 Jan. 1891 ; lord Bramwell, 13 May, 1892. \n\nCremation said to be greatly increasing in France and \nItaly, 1890. \n\nInternational Cremation Conference at Berlin, 4 Aug. \n1890. \nSimilar societies formed in Great Britain. \n\nBURNING-GLASS and Concaye Mir- \nrors. Their power was known to Archimedes, \nand it is mythically stated that by their aid he burnt \na fleet in the harbour of Syracuse, 214 B.C. Their \npowers were increased by Settalla ; Tschimhausen, \n1680 ; Buffon, 1747 ; and Parker and others more re- \ncently. The following experiments were made about \n1800, with Mr. Parker\'s lens or burning mirror, \nwhich cost 700^., and is said to have been the \nlargest ever made. It was sold to capt. Mackenzie, \nwho took it to China, and left it at Pekin. \nSubstances fused. Weight. Time. \n\nPure gold 20 grains 4 seconds. \n\nSilver 20 ,, 3 ,, \n\nCopper . 33 \xe2\x80\x9e 20 ,, \n\nPlatina 10 \xe2\x80\x9e 3 ,, \n\nCast iron (a cube) - . . . 10 \xe2\x80\x9e 3 \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSteel 10 ,, 12 ,, \n\nA topaz 3 \xe2\x80\x9e 45 \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAn emerald 2 \xe2\x80\x9e 25 ,, \n\nA crystal pebble 7 \xe2\x80\x9e 6 ,, \n\nFlint 10 ,, 30 ,, \n\nCornelian 10 \xe2\x80\x9e 75 ,, \n\nPumice stone 10 ,, 24 \n\nGreen wood takes fire instantaneously ; water boils im- \nmediately ; bones are calcined ; and things not ca- \npable of melting at once become red-hot, like iron. \n\nBURSE, see Exchange. \n\nBURTON CRESCENT, London. Here Mrs. \nKachael Samuel, a widow living alone, was mur- \ndered in the night II Dec. 1878. No robbery. \nMary Donovan, a charwoman, was arrested and \ndischarged, 10 Jan. 1879. In a house here also, \nMary Ann Yates was found murdered, 9 March, \n1884. \n\nBURWELL FIRE. A number of persons \nassembled to see a puppet-show in a barn at Bur- \nwell, near Newmarket, 8 Sept. 1727. A candle \nhaving set fire to a heap of straw, seventy-six indi- \nviduals perished, and others died of their wounds. \n\nBURY ST. EDMUND\'S, Suffolk, named \nfrom St. Edmund, king of East Anglia, who was \nmurdered by the Danes on 20 Nov. 870, and buried \nhere, and to whose memory its maguiticent abbey \nwas founded. Magna Charta was prepared here by \nthe barons on 20 Nov. 12 14. Henry VI. summoned \na parliament in Feb. 1447, when Humphry, duke \nof Gloucester, was imprisoned, and- died here, it is \nsupposed by poison. It was almost consumed by \nfire in 1608, and was desolated by plague in 1630. \nPopulation 1881, 1 6, 1 1 1 ; 1891, 16,630. \n\nBURYING ALIVE. In Bccotia, Creon \nordered Antigone, the sister of Polyniccs, to be \nburied alive, 1225 B.C. The Roman vestals were \nsubjected to it for any levity that excited suspicion \n\n\n\nof their chastity. The vestals buried alive on a \ncharge of incontinence, were Minutia, 337 B.C. ; \nSextilla, 274 B.C. ; Cornelia, a.d. 92. Lord Bacon \ngives instances of the resurrection of persons who \nhad been buried alive ; Duns Scotus being of the \nnumber. The two assassins of Capo d\'Istria, presi- \ndent of Greece, were sentenced to be immured in \nbrick w r alls built around them up to their chins, \nand to be supplied with food in this species of tor- \nture until they died, Oct. 1831. \n\nBUSACO, or BlTZACO (Portugal). Here the \nBritish, under lord Wellington, repulsed the French \nunder Massena, 27 Sept. 1810. The latter lost one \ngeneral and 1000 men killed, two generals and about \n3000 men wounded, and several hundred prisoners; \nthe loss of the allies did not exceed 1300; the \nBritish retreated to the lines of Torres Vedras, too \nstrong for Massena to force, and the armies re- \nmained in sight of each other to the end of the \nyear. \n\nBUSHEL. This measure was ordered to con- \ntain eight gallons of wheat, 12 Henry VIII., 1520 ; \nthe legal Winchester bushel was regulated 9 Will. \nIII. 1697; the impeiial corn bushel of 22i8 - ig2 \ncubic inches is to the Winchester of 2150-42 as 32 \nto 31. Regulated by act 5 Geo. IV., June, 1824, \nwhich act came into operation r Jan. 1826. \n\nBUSHIRE (on the Persian Gulf) , attacked by sea \nby sir H. Leeke, and by land by general Stalker, was \ntaken 10 Dec. 1856. The place proved stronger than \nwas expected, and was braveby defended. Brigadier \nStopford and col. Malet were killed in a previous \nattack on the fort at lleshire, 9 Dec. The loss of \nthe British was four officers killed, and one \nwounded ; five men killed, and thirty-five wounded. \n\nBUSHRANGERS, Australian highwaymen, \nformerly escaped convicts. Morgan, a desperate \nrobber and murderer, was surrounded and shot \nApril, 1865. The "Kelly gang" seized and pillaged \nthe town of Jerilderie, New South Wales, 8-10 \nFeb. 1879. Ned Kelly and some of his gang were \ncaptured and taken to Melbourne, 27, 28 June. \n1880. \n\nBUSSORAH, see Bassorah. \n\nBUSTS. Lysistratus, the statuary, was the \ninventor of moulds, from which he cast wax \nfigures, about 328 B.C. Pliny. Busts fiom the face in \nplaster of paris, were first taken by Andrea Verrochi, \nabout a.d. 1466. Smaller busts and statuettes are \nnow accurately produced from larger ones by \nniachinery. \n\nBUTCHERS. Among the Romans there were \nthree classes : the Suarii provided hogs, the Boarii \nor Pccuarii oxen and sheep, which the Lanii or Carni- \nfices killed. The butchers\' company in London is \nancient, though not incorporated till 1606. \n\nBUTE ADMINISTRATION. John earl \nof Bute,* tutor of prince George (afterwards George \nIII.), formed an administration in May, 1762, \nwhich, after various changes, resigned 8 April, 1763. \nIt. was severely attacked by Junius and John \nAVilkes. \n\nJohn carl of Bute, first lord of the treasury. \nSir Francis Dashwood, chancellor of the exchequer. \nEarl Grenville, president of the council. \nDuke of Bedford, prwy seal. \nEarl of Halifax, admiralty. \nEarl of Egremont and George Granville, secretaries of \n\nstate. \n\n* John Stuart, carl of Bute, born 171^; secretary "f \nstate, March, 1761 ; prime minister, May, 1762; died \nio March, 1792. \n\nM 2 \n\n\n\nBITTTEK. \n\n\n\n164 \n\n\n\nBYZANTIUM. \n\n\n\nLord Ligonier, ordnance. \n\nHenry Fox, afterwards lord Holland, paymaster of the \n\nforces. \nViscount Barrington, treasurer of the navy. \nLord Sandys, first lord of trade. \nDuke of Marlborough, earl Talbot, lord Huntingdon, \n\nlord Anson, lord North, &c. \n\nBUTTER is said to have been used by the \nArabs in early times, but not by the Greeks and \nKomans, who had excellent oil. It is not men- \ntioned as food by Galen a.d. 130-200. It has long \nbeen used by northern nations. Various statutes \nhave passed respecting its package, weight, and sale; \nthe principal of which are the 36th & 38th Geo. III. \nand 10 Geo. IV. 1829. In Africa, vegetable butter \nis made from the fruit of the shea tree, and is of \nricher taste, at Kebba, than any butter made from \ncow\'s milk. Mungo Park. The import duties of \n5*. per cwt. on foreign butter (producing in 1859, \n104,587/. on 421,354 cwts.) was repealed in i860. \nButter imported, 1846, 257,385 cwt. ; 1856, 513,392 \ncwt.; 1866, 1,165,081 cwt.; 1870, 1,159,210 cwt.; \n1874, 1,619,808 cwt. ; 1876, 1,659,492 cwt. ; \n1877, 1,637,403 cwt. ; 1885. 2,401,373 cwt. ; 1887, \n(butter) 1,513,134 cwt.; (margarine) 1,276, I40cwt.; \n1888 (butter), 1,671,433 cwt. ; (margarine) 1,139,743 \ncwt. ; 1889 (butter), 1,927,842 cwt. ; (margarine) \n1,241,690 cwt.; 1890 (butter), 2,027,717 cwt.; \n(margarine) 1,079,856 cwt. \n\nButterine, a composition of fats as a substitute for \nbutter, sold in London 1885, and declared to be \nwholesome by eminent chemists. Bills to change \nthe name to oleomargarine, and check its sale, \nbrought in and withdrawn 1885-6. The Butterine \nDefence Association formed 1886. \n\nBy the Margarine Act, 1887, butterine and other sub- \nstances like butter must be termed margarine on and \nafter 1 Jan. 1888. The term "butter" is restricted to \nthe product of milk or cream or both by this Act. \n\nButter manufactured from cocoa-nuts in Mannheim, &c, \ncoming into use, 1888 ; much imported into India, \nfrom whence the nuts are largely brought, 1889 et seq. \n\nThe manufacture of Le Dansk, a new substitute for \nbutter, begun at Southampton 31 Oct., 1891. \n\nBUTTONS, an early manufacture in England ; \nthose covered with cloth were prohibited, to en- \ncourage the manufacture of metal buttons, 8 Geo. I. \n1 721. Buttons largely employed to ornament \nladies\' dresses, 1873 et seq. \n\nBUXAR, a town in Bengal, near which, on \n23 Oct. 1764, major, afterwards sir Hector Monro \n(with 857 Europeans and 6215 Sepoys) gained a \ngreat victory over the troops of the nabob of Oude, \n&c, 50,000 in number; 6000 of these were killed, \nand 130 pieces of cannon were taken. The loss of \nthe English was trifling. \n\nBY-LAWS, or Bye-Laws, private ordi- \nnances, made by subordinate communities, such as \ncorporations. These laws must not militate against \nthe law of the land. By 5 & 6 Will. IV. 1834, \nthose made by corporate bodies become valid, if net \n\n\n\ndisallowed by the king\'s council within forty days \nafter their enactment. \n\nBYE PLOT (also termed Surprise or Sur- \nprising Plot), planned by George Brooke, brother \nof lord Cobham, sir Griffin Markham, lord Grey of \nWilton and two Bomanist priests, to seize James I. \nto compel him to change his ministers and to grant \ntoleration of their religion, &c. The conspirators, \nwere apprehended July, 1603. This plot was con- \nnected with the " Main plot, which see. \n\nBYNG, Hon. Admiral John, was charged \n\nwith neglect of duty in an engagement with the \nenemy off Minorca, 20 May, 1756, condemned for \nan error of judgment, and shot on board the \nMonarch at Spithead, 14 March, 1757. \n\nBYRON\'S VOYAGE. Commodore Byron \nleft England on his voyage round the globe, 21 \nJune, 1764, and returned 9 May, 1 766. He dis- \ncovered the populous island in the Pacific Ocean \nwhich bears his name, 16 Aug. 1765. Though \nbrave and intrepid, such was his general ill-foi tune \nat sea, that he was called by the sailors of the fleet \n" Foulweather Jack." \n\nBYRON NATIONAL MEMORIAL. Its \n\nerection determined on, at a meeting in London, \n16 July, 1875; M 1 \'- Disraeli in the chair. Abcu v \' \n3,000/. were subscribed. \'J \'he statue by Richard \nClaude Belt, placed on a pedestal near Hamilton- \nplace, Hyde-park, was uncovered privately by lord \nHoughton, 24 May, 1880. A marble pedestal was \npromised by the Greeks. \n\nBYTOWN, Canada, was named after col. By, \nthe British surveyor, 1823-6. In 1854 its name \nwas changed to Ottawa, after the river on which it \nis situated, and in 1858 it was made the capital of \nthe Dominion. See Ottawa. \n\nBYZANTIUM, now Constantinople, and \nStamboid, in the ancient Thrace, founded by a \ncolony of Megarians, under Byzas, 667 B.C. ; but \nvarious dates and persons are given. It was taken \nsuccessively by the Medes, Athenians, and Spar- \ntans. In 340 B.C., in alliance with the Athenians, \nthe Byzantines defeated the fleet of Philip of \nMacedon. During the wars with Macedon, Syria, \n&c, it became an ally of the Romans, by whom it \nwas taken, a.d. 73. Rebelling, it was taken after \ntwo years\' siege, and laid in ruins b} r Severus in \n196. It was refounded by Constantine in 324, and \ndedicated on 22 May, 330, all the heathen temples \nbeing destroyed ; and from him it received its name ; \nsee Constantinople. Byzantine Art flourished \nfrom the time of Constantine to about 1204. The \nByzantine or Eastern empire really commenced \nin 395, when Theodosius divided the Roman em- \npire; see East. The "Byzantine Historians," \nfrom 325 to 1453, were published at Paris, 1645- \n1711 ; and at Venice, 1722-33. \n\n\n\nc. \n\n\n\n__ CAABA. \n\nCAABA, the shrine of the sacred black stoue, \nkept in a temple at Mecca, and venerated by the \nArabs, long before the Christian era. Its guardians, \nthe tribe of Koreish, were defeated by Mahomet, \nby whose followers it is still venerated. \n\nCABAL. In English history the term has \nbeen applied to the cabinet of Charles II. 1667-73 ; \nthe word Cabal being formed from the initials of \nthen- names : sir Thomas, afterwards lord Clifford \n(C) ; the lord Ashley (A), (afterwards earl of \nShaftesbury) ; George Villiers, duke of Bucking- \nham (B) ; Henry, lord Arlington (A) ; and John, \nduke of Lauderdale (L). The term had been pre- \nviously applied to a secret faction or cabinet. \n\nCABBAGES. Some new kinds were brought \nto England from Holland about 1510, it is said by \nsir Arthur Ashley of Dorset, and introduced into \nScotland by Cromwell\'s soldiers. \n\nCABBALA, a Jewish system of philosophy or \ntheosophy, deriving its name from a Hebrew word, \nsignifying reception or tradition, said to have been \ngiven by God to Adam, and transmitted from father, \nto son by his descendants. It is said to have been \nlost at the Babylonian captivity (587 B.C.), but to \nhave been revealed again to Ezra. Its supporters \nassert that the cabbalistic book " Sohar," or \n" Splendour," a mystic commentary on the Penta- \nteuch, was first committed to writing by Simon \nBen Jochai, a.d. 72-110. The true date of the books \ncontaining the cabbala is now considered to range \nfrom 9th to the 14th centuries, and their origin to \nbe the mingling of talmudism with the Greek \nphilosophy termed Neo-Platonism. Some of their \ndogmas are akin to Christian tenets, such as the \ntrinity, the incarnation, &c. The cabbala exercised \nmuch influence upon the mental development of \nthe Jews, and even captivated the greatest thinkers \nof the 1 6th and 17th centuries. \n\nCABEIRA (Asia Minor). Here Mithridates, \nking of Pontus, was defeated by Lucullus, 71 B.C. \n\nCABINET COUNCIL. There were councils \nin England as early as the reign of Ina, king of \nthe West Saxons, 690; Ori\'a, king of the Mercians, \n758 ; and in other reigns of the Heptarchy. State \ncouncils are referred to Alfred the Great. Spel- \nman ; see Administrations.* \n\nCABLES. A machine was invented in 1792 \nfor making them, by which human labour was re- \nduced nine-tenths. . Chain cables were introduced \ninto the British navy about 1812; directions for \ntesting them enacted, 1S64, and 1874. \n\nC ABOCHIENS, an armed Burgundian faction, \nincluding 500 butchers, named from their leader \nSimonet Caboche, a skinner, 1412. They ruled \nParis with violence, and constrained the doctors of \nthe Sorbonne to become their allies and the dau- \nphin to recognise them as the "White Hoods," and \nreformers. They were exterminated by the citizens, \nin 1418. \n\n* Cabinet Noir, or " Dark Closet," the chamber in \nwhich letters entrusted to the French post were opened \nfor state purposes. The system, which began with \nLouis XL, was organised under Louis XV. ; :iml is said \nto have been discontinued in 1868. The Spanish govern- \nment have a similar system \xe2\x80\x94 " Gabinete negro." \n\n\n\nCADDEE. \n\nCABEIOLETS {vulgo Cabs), one-horsed \nvehicles, were introduced into the streets of London \nin 1823, when the number plying was twelve. In \n1831 they had increased to 165, and then the \nlicences were thrown open. The number in 1862 \nrunning in the metropolis exceeded 6000 (of which \nabout 1800 only plied on Sunday). Previous to \nthrowing open the trade, the number of hackney \ncarriages was limited to 1200, when there were few \nomnibuses. Number in 1871 was 7818; in 1881, \n9652; 1891,11,129. See Hackney Coaches. \nMr. Joseph Aloysius Hansom, architect, invented \nhis patent safety cab about 1S33. He died 29 \nJune, 1882. \nCab Strike. \xe2\x80\x94 On 28 June, 1853, an act (called Mr. \nFitzRoy\'s act) was passed for " the better regula- \ntion of metropolitan stage and hackney carriages, \nand for prohibiting the use of advertising \nvehicles," by which the cab fares were reduced \nto 6d. a mile. It came into operation 11 July, \nand on the 27th a general strike of the London \ncabmen took place. Much inconvenience was \nfelt, and every kind of vehicle was employed to \nsupply the deficiency. Some alterations having \nbeen made in the act, the cabs re-appeared on the \nstands on the 30th. \nCabmen\'s clubs began at Paddington in . . Feb. 1S59 \nA London General Cab Company published its \n\nprospectus, professing a reformed system, July, 1862 \nCabs running in London : in 1855, 3296 ; in 1867, \n\n6149 : in 1874, 7864 ; in 1S77, about 8000. \nCab Tragedy.\xe2\x80\x94 H. H. Hunt, a servant of Butler and \nMcCulloeh\'s, seedsmen, Co vent-garden, London, \npoisoned his wife and children in a cab, on 7 Nov. \n1863 ; and himself on 9 Nov. at his own house, \njust before his apprehension. \nThe cabmen in Paris strike against a company ; \nabove 3000 vehicles stopped. 16 June ; tierce attack \non men who gi\\\xc2\xbbe in ; strike subsides 23 June, 1863 \nSecond Cab Strike. \xe2\x80\x94 Metropolitan Streets Act, 30 <fc \n31 Vict. c. 17 (passed 20 Aug.) required hackney \ncarriages to cany lamps ; and changed lowest \nfare, from 6d. to is. The cab-proprietors and \ndrivers struck at 4 p.m., 3 Dec. ; but by the \nintervention of lord Elcho, an arrangement was \nmade with Mr. Gathorne Hardy, the home secre- \ntary, and the strike ceased . . .4 Dec. 1S67 \nThird Cab Strike to compel railway companies to dis- \ncontinue privileged cabs : unsuccessful, 5-9 Sept. 1S68 \nLicences on cabs reduced from igl. and 17/. to 42s. \n\nby act of 1869 1 Jan. 1S70 \n\nCab-drivers\' Benevolent Association founded . . ,, \nFirst Cabmen\'s Shelter opened by hon. A. Kinnaird \nat St. John\'s Wood, 6 Feb. "1875 : others soon \nafter. Cabmen\'s Mission Hall, King\'s Cross, Lou- \ndon, N., opened 12 Nov. 187 = . Thirty-nine \n\nShelters in 1S88 \n\nDisputes about wages : lock-out of 100 drivers \n(Hansom), 27 June, 1882, closed ; proposed estab- \nlishment of Cab-drivers\' Co-operative Cab Com- \npany, about 29 July, 1882. \nStrike of the Shrewsbury Talbot cab company\'s \n\nmen . . . . \' . . . . April, 1891 \nStrike of about 300 other cabmen 14 April ; demon- \nstration in Hyde Park 19 April ; strike gradually \n\nsubsided ,, \n\nThe cab distance-recorder and fare-indicator of \nMessrs. W. C. Owen & W. Grimes described, \nTimes 29 Sept. ,, \n\nCABUL, or Cabool, on the river Cabul, \n\nabout 1774, by Timsur Shah, was made capital of \nAfghanistan {which sec). \nCACHET, see Lettres de Cachet. \n\nCADDEE, or League of God\'s House, \nthe league of independence in Switzerland, formed \n\n\n\nCADE\'S INSURRECTION. \n\n\n\n166 \n\n\n\nCALABEIA. \n\n\n\nby the Grisons to resist domestic tyranny, 1396 to \n1419. A second league of the Grisons was called \nthe Grise or Gray League, 1424. A third league, \nthe League of Ten Jurisdictions, was formed in \n1436; see Grisons. They united in 1471. \n\nCADE\'S INSURRECTION. In May, 1450, \nJack (Jade, an Irishman, assumed the name of \nMortimer, laid before the royal council the com- \nplaint of the commons of Kent. He headed about \n20,000 Kentish men, who armed " to punish evil \nministers, and procure a redress of grievances." \nHe defeated and slew sir Humphry Stafford, at \nSevenoaks, 27 June, entered London in triumph, \nand beheaded the lord treasurer, lord Saye, and \nseveral other persons of consequence, 3 July. When \nthe insurgents lost ground, a general pardon was \nproclaimed, and Cade, deserted by his followers, fled. \nA reward having been offered for his apprehension, \nhe was discovered, and refusing to surrender, was \nslain by Alexander Iden, sheriff of Kent, n July. \n\nCADET\'S COLLEGE, see Sandhurst. \n\nCADIZ (W. Spain), anciently Gadiz, the Ro- \nman Gades ; said to have been built by the Phoeni- \ncians, about 1 100 B.C. Population in 1887, 62,531. \nOne hundred vessels of the Spanish armada de- \nstroyed in the port by sir Francis Drake . . 1587 \nCadiz was taken by the English under the earl of \n\nEssex, and plundered . . . .15 Sept. 1596 \nVainly attacked by sir George Rooke . . . . 1 702 \nBombarded by the British . . . .July, 1797 \nBlockaded by lord St. Vincent for two years . 1797-9 \nAgain bombarded by the British . . . Oct. 1800 \nA French squadron of five ships of the line and a \n\nfrigate surrender to the Spanish and British, \n\n14 June, 1808 \nBesieged by the French, but the siege was raised \n\nafter the battle of Salamanca . . . July, 1812 \nInsurrection, 18 19 ; massacre of many inhabitants \n\nby the soldiery 9, 10 March, 1820 \n\nTaken by the French in Oct. 1823, and held till . 1828 \n\nDeclared a free port 1829 \n\nInsurrection against the queen began with the fleet \n\nhere (see Spain) 77 Sept. 1868 \n\nRepublican insurrection suppressed with bloodshed, \n\n5-13 Dec. ,, \nNaval Exhibition opened ... 15 Aug. 1887 \n\nCADMIUM, a metal, discovered by Stromeyer \nand Hermann in 181 8 \n\nCADOUDAL, see Georges." \n\nC^ECILIAN SOCIETY, instituted in Lon- \ndon, in 1785, for the performance of sacred music, \nespecially Handel\'s. At first it met at private \nhouses, afterwards at various city company halls, \nand finally at Albion hall, Moorfields, till its dis- \nsolution in 1861. Mr. Z. W. Vincent, the first \nconductor, held the office for upwards of thirty \nyears. Out of this society, which was the prede- \ncessor of the Sacred Harmonic Society, came many \neminent professional musicians. \n\nCAEN (N. France), a place of importance before \n912, when it became the capital of the possessions \nof the Normans, under whom it flourished. It was \ntaken by the English in 1346 and 1417 ; but was \nfinally recovered by the French 1 July, 1450. Here \nwere buried William the conqueror (1087), and his \nqueen (1083). \n\nCAERLEON, Monmouthshire, a Roman station, \nand made the seat of an archbishopric by Dubritius. \nHis disciple and successor, St. David (522), is said to \nhave removed it to Menevia, now St. David\'s, 577. \n\nCAERNARVON (N. Wales). In the castle \n(founded in 1282) Edward II. was born, 25 April, \n1284 ; and the town was then chartered by Edward I. \nThe town suffered by the civil w ar of Charles, but \n\n\n\nwas finally retained for the parliament. The North \nWales Training College destroyed by fire, 20 Dec. \n1891. Population, 1881, 10,258 ; 1891,9,804. \n\nCiESAREA, the Roman capital of Judea, built \nby Herod the Great, 10 B.C. Eusebius the historian \nwas bishop about 315. \n\nOZESARS, see Rome; Emperors. The. Era of \nthe Caesars or Spanish Era, is reckoned from 1 Jan. \n38 B.C., being the year following the conquest of \nSpain by Augustus. It was much used in Africa, \nSpain, and the south of France ; but by a synod \nheld in 1 180 its use was abolished in all the churches \ndependent on Barcelona. Pedro IV. of Arragon \nabolished the use of it in his dominions in 1350. \nJohn of Castile did the same in 1383. It was used \nin Portugal till 1415, if not till 1422. The months \nand days of this era are identical with the Julian \ncalendar ; and to turn the time into that of our era, \nsubtract thirty-eight from the year ; but if before \nthe Christian era, subtract thirty-nine. \n\nCiESIUM (Latin, bluish), a rare alkaline \nmetal, found in some mineral waters by Bunsen \nin 1861, by means of the " Spectrum analysis," \n\nwhich see. \n\nCAFEINE (English Caffeine), an alkaline \nbody, discovered in coffee by Runge in 1820, and \nin tea (and named theine) by Oudryin 1827. The \nidentity of the two was proved by Jobst and Mulder \nin 1828. \n\nCAFFRARIA, and Caffre War, see \nKaffir aria. \n\nCAGLIARI, see Naples, note. \n\nCAGOTS, an outcast race in the Pyrenees, sup- \nposed to be descendants of the ancient Groths. They \nhave been subjected to superstitious persecution so \nlately as 1755. \n\nCAI-FONG, the old capital of China, was be- \nsieged by 100,000 rebels, in 1642. The commander \nof the relieving forces, in order to drown the enemy, \nbroke down its embankments. All the besiegers \nand 300,000 of the citizens perished. \n\nCA IRA ! the burden of a popular song, during \nthe French revolution, first heard at Paris, 5 Oct. \n1789 : \n"Ah! ga ira, ga ira, ga ira ! Malgre les mutins, tout \n\nreussira." An after addition was " Les Aristocrates \n\na la lanterne ! " \n(" It will proceed ! &c. In spite of mutineers, all will \n\nsucceed." " Hang the aristocrats ! ") \n\nCAIRO, or GRAND CAIRO, the modem capital \nof Egypt, remarkable for its mosques, and the sepul- \nchres of its Fatimite caliphs ; see Egypt. \nPartially built by the Saracens .... 969 \n\nTaken by the Turks from the Egyptian sultans . . 1517 \nRuined by an earthquake and a great tire, when \n\n40,000 persons perished .... June, 1754 \nTaken by the French under Napoleon Bonaparte ; \n\nthey enter the city .... 23 July, 179S \nTaken by the British and Turks, when 6000 French \n\ncapitulated 27 June, 1801 \n\nMassacre of the Mamelukes . . . 1 March, 1811 \nVisit of the prince of Wales . . . March, 1862 \nRiots against Nubar Pasha and the British ministers \n\n18 Feb. 1879 \nAfter their victory at Tel-el-Kebir, 13 Sep. 1882, \n\nthe British entered Cairo the next day. \nPopulation 31 Dec. 1878, 327,462; 1883, 368,108. \nSee Cholera, 1883. \n\nCALABAR, Old and New, rivers in West \nAfrica, see Bonny. \n\nCALABRIA (the ancient Messapia of S. E. \nItaly), was conquered by the Romans, 266 B.C. It \nformed part of the kingdom of the Ostrogoths under \n\n\n\nCALAIS. \n\n\n\n167 \n\n\n\nCALEDONIAN CANAL. \n\n\n\nTheodoric, a. d. 493 ; was re-conquered (for the \nEastern empire) by Belisarius, 536 ; subdued by the \nLombards and joined to the duchy of Benevento, \n572. After various changes, it was conquered by \n[Robert Guiscard, the Norman, 1058, who obtained \nthe title of duke of Calabria, and eventually that of \nking of Naples. Population, 1890, 1,309,554; see \nNaples. \n\nCALAIS (N. W. France), fortified by Baldwin \nIV., count of Flanders, 997 ; taken by Edward III. \nafter a year\'s siege, 4 Aug. 1347. It was retaken by \n.the duke of Guise, in the reign of Mary, 7 Jan. \n1558, and its. loss so deeply touched the queen\'s \n3ieart, as to cause some to say it occasioned her death, \nwhich occurred soon afterwards, 17 Nov. same year. \n"" When I am dead," said the queen, " Calais will \nfoe found written on my heart." It was taken by \nthe Spaniards, April 1596, restored, 1598. About \n12 persons drowned in a house by bursting of a \nreservoir, 30 Jan. 1882. The new harbour and \n-docks were opened by president Carnot, 3 June 1889 ; \nsee Tunnels. \n<Great strike of lace-workers, Sept. 1890 ; ended by \n\nconcession of the masters . . . 30 Oct. 1890 \n\nCALATBAVA, see Knighthood. \n\nCALCIUM, the metallic base of lime, was dis- \ncovered at the Royal Institution, London, by Hum- \nphry Davy in 1808. \n\nCALCULATING MACHINES- . To avoid \n.errors in computing and printing logarithms and \ntables of figures, machines to calculate and print \nhave been devised. Pascal, when nineteen years of \nage, invented one about 1650. The construction of \nMr. C. Babbage\'s differential machine was com- \nmenced at the expense of government in 1823, and \n\xe2\x80\xa2continued till 1833, when the work was suspended \nafter an expenditure of 17,000/. The portion \n-completed was placed in the library of King\'s Col- \nlege, London ; it is now at South Kensington. Pro- \nfessor Clifford, in his lecture at the Royal Institu- \ntion, 24 May 1872, stated that -Babbage expended \n.20,000/. upon his machines, and that the analytical \nmachine was nearly finished, and would eventually \nbe much used. " Babbage\'s.CalculatingEngines : a \nCollection of Papers relating to them," was published \nby his son, Gen. Babbage, in 1889. C. Babbage died \nH871, aged 78. In 1857, Messrs. F. and G. Scheutz, \ntwo Swedish engineers, published in London speci- \nmen tables, calculated and printed by machinery \n-constructed between 1837 and 1843, after a study of \nthe account of Mr. Babbage\'s machine. Messrs. \nScheutz brought their machine to England in 1854. \nSt was bought for 1000I. by Mr. J. F. Rathbone, an \nAmerican merchant, to be presented to Dudley ob- \nservatory in his own town, Albany. In 1857, Messrs. \nScheutz were engaged to make one for the British \ngovernment, which was completed. Mr. Wiberg\'s \nmachine, exhibited at Paris, Feb. 1863, was much \n\xe2\x80\xa2commended. Tables constructed by means of \nScheutz\'s machine, and edited by Dr. W. Farr, were \npublished by the government in 1864. The arith- \nmometer, patented by M. Thomas (de Colmar) in \n5822 (?), exhibited at the International exhibitions, \n185 1 and 1862, is said to be in use in assurance \noffices. Geo. B. Grant described a simpler machine \nin the "American Journal of Science," Oct. 1874. \nOther machines have been constructed since. \n\nCALCUTTA, capital of Bengal and British \nIndia; the first settlement of the English here was \nmade in 1689. Population, 1881, 766,298; 1891, \n840,130. \n\nPurchased as a zemindary, and Fort William built 1698 \nMade the head of a separate presidency . . . 1707 \n\n\n\nThe fort attacked and taken by an army of 70,000 \nhorse and foot, and 400 elephants (146 of the \nBritish crammed into the " Black-hole prison," a \ndungeon, about 18 feet square, from whence \n23 only came forth the next morning alive) \n\n20 June. 1756 \nCalcutta retaken by Clive ... 2 Jan. 1757 \nSupreme court of judicature established . . . 1773 \n\nAsiatic Society founded 1784 \n\nCollege founded 1801 \n\nBishopric of Calcutta instituted by act, July, 1813 ; \nfirst bishop, Thomas F. Middleton . . . 1814 \n\nBishop\'s College founded 1820 \n\nCathedral founded 1840 \n\nAn industrial exhibition opened . . .25 Jan. 1855 \nGreat cyclone, followed by a " bore " or spring tide \nin the Hooghly ; water rises 30 feet high ; immense \ndamage done to shipping and houses ; about \n60,000 persons said to have perished . 5 Oct. 1864 \nAnother cyclone ; about 30,000 small houses un- \nroofed, much small shipping injured ; and the \ncrops in Lower Bengal destroyed (about 90,000 \npersons drowned ; 75,000 die of cholera), 1 Nov. 1867 \nVisited by the king of Siam . . . Jan. 1872 \nVisited by the prince of Wales, 25 Dec. 1875 \xe2\x80\x94 3 Jan. 1876 \nStatue of lord Mayo unveiled by him . 1 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \nStatue of the queen given by the maharajah of \n\nBurdwan, unveiled . . . . 1 Jan. 1878 \nInternational exhibition opened by the viceroy, \nthe marquis of Ripon, the duke and duchess of \nConnaught present, 4 Dec. 1883 ; closed 10 March, 1884 \nDestructive cyclone ; the sir John Lawrence and \nthe tug Retriever lost, about 700 lives lost, \n\n23 May et seq. 1887 \nAbout sixty persons killed by the collision of a \n\nferry steamer with a tug-boat near Calcutta 6 Nov. 1888 \nTrade paralyzed by strike of about 30,000 native \n\nbullock-carters for a few days . 30 June et seq. 1889 \nVisit of prince Albert Victor of Wales, great fes- \ntivities 3-13 Jan. 1890 \n\nFatal religious riot, May, 1891 ; trial of rioters, \n\n5 Aug. 1891 \nStatue of the marquis of Dufferin unveiled, 8 Dec. ,, \nSee Bengal and India. \nCALEDONIA, the Roman name for part of \nScotland, north of the wall of Antoninus, so termed \nby Tacitus, who died 99. Venerable Bede says \nthat it retained this name until 258, when it \nwas invaded by a tribe from Ireland, and called \nScotia. The ancient inhabitants appear to have been \nthe Caledonians and Picts, tribes of the Celts, who \npassed over from the opposite coast of Gaul. About \nthe beginning of the 4th century of the Christian \nera they were invaded (as stated by some authorities) \nby the Scuyths or Scy thins (since called Scots), who, \nhaving driven the Picts into the north, settled in the \nLowlands, and gave their name to the whole country ; \nsee Scotland. \n\nCaledonian monarchy, mythically said to have been \n\nfounded by Fergus I. . . . about B.C. 330 \nThe Picts from England settle in the south . . 140 \nAgrieola, the Roman, invades Caledonia . a.d. 79 \nHe defeats Galgacus, and builds a wall between the \n\nForth and Clyde 84 \n\nWall of Antoninus built 140 \n\nUlpius Marcellus repels their incursions . . . 184 \nChristianity introduced in the reign of Donald I. . 201 \nThe Caledonians invade South Britain, 207 ; repelled \nby the emperor Severus, who advances to the \n\nMoray Frith 209 \n\nCaledonia invaded by the Scuths, or Seotti, from \n\nIreland, about 3\xc2\xb0 6 \n\nCaledonian monarchy revived by Fergus II. . . 404 \nKenneth II., king of the Seotti, subdues the Cale- \ndonians and Picts, and founds one monarchy, \nnamed Scotland 838 to 843 \n\nCALEDONIAN ASYLUM, Eoyal, for \nchildren of indigent respectable Scotch parents, \nIslington, London, established in 1813. In 1892, \n166 children were maintained and educated. \n\nCALEDONIAN CANAL, from the North \nSea to the Atlantic Ocean. The act for its construe- \n\n\n\nCALENDAE. \n\n\n\n1C8 \n\n\n\nCALIPH. \n\n\n\ntion received the royal assent 27 July, 1803 ; and \nthe works were commenced same year. The nautical \nintercourse between the western ports of Oreat \nBritain and those also of Ireland to the North Sea \nand Baltic, is shortened in some instances 800, and \nin others 1000 miles. A sum exceeding a million \nsterling was granted by parliament from time to \ntime ; and safe navigation for ships was opened 1 \nNov. 1822. It has not been successful commercially. \nAnnual income from tonnage, 1 May, 1859, 5080/. ; \nexpenditure, 6951^.; annual income, April, 1866-7, \n6541Z. ; expenditure, bbg8l. ; receipts, April, 1890-91, \n7,530*\'. ; expenditure, 10,001/. \n\nCALENDAE, see Jewish Era and Calendar. \nThe .Roman calendar was introduced by liomulus, \nwho divided the year into ten months, comprising \n304 days, 738 B.C. This year was of fifty days\' less \nduration than the lunar year, and of sixty-one less \nthan the solar year, and its commencement did not \ncorrespond with any fixed season. Numa Pompilius, \n713 B.C., added two months ; and Julius Cresar, 45 \nB.C., to make it more correct, fixed the solar year at \n365 days 6 hours, every fourth year being bissextile \nor leap-year ; see Leap-year. This calendar was \ndefective, as the solar year consists of 365 days, 5 \nhours, 49 minutes, and not of 365 days 6 hours. \nThis being still erroneous Augustus Cresar reformed \nthe calendar still further, but not perfectly, B.C. 8, \nand the difference, in the 16th century amounted to \n10 entire days, the vernal equinox falling on nth \ninstead of 21st March. To obviate this error, pope \nGregory XIII. ordained, in 1582, that that year \nshould consist of 355 days only (5 Oct. became 15 \nOct.) ; and to prevent further irregularity, it was \ndetermined that a year ending a century should \nnot be bissextile, with the exception of that end- \ning each fourth century ; thus 1700 and 1800 have \nnot been bissextile, nor will 1900 be so : but the \nyear 2000 will be a leap-year. In this manner three \ndays are retrenched in 400 years, because the lapse\' \nof eleven minutes makes three days in about that \nperiod. The year of the calendar is thus made as \nnearly as possible to correspond with the true solar \nyear, and future errors of chronology are avoided. \nSee New Style and French Revolutionary Calendar. \n\nCORRESPONDENCE OF CALENDARS WITH A.D. 1889. \n\nJulian period 66 02 \n\n"Sear of the world (Jewish year) 6 Sept. 1888\xe2\x80\x94 \n\n25 Sept. 1889 5 6 49 \n\nHegira (8 Sept. 1888, to 27 Aug. 1889) . . . 1306 \n\nFoundation of Rome (Varro) 2642 \n\nOlympiads \\ 266s \n\nEra of Nabonassar 2 6 3 6 \n\nUnited States\' Independence .... 113-14 \n\nYear of Queen Victoria 52-53 \n\nComte, in his " Systeuie de Politique Positive," (insti- \ntuting the "Religion of Humanity"), published a ca- \nlendar of 13 months, dedicated successively to Moses, \nHomer, Aristotle, Archimedes, Caesar, Paul, Charle- \nmagne, Dante, Guttenberg, Shakespeare, Descartes, \nFrederic, and Bichat ; an eminent person was com- \nmemorated every day. \n\nCALENDEE, a machine used in glazing vari- \nous kinds of cloth, was introduced into England by \nthe Huguenots, who were driven by persecution \nfrom France, Holland, and the Netherlands to these \ncountries, about 1685. Anderson. \n\nCALENDS were the first days of the Roman \nmonths. The Nones of March, May, July, and Oct. \nfell on the 7th; and their Ides on the 15th. The \nother months had the Nones\' on the 5th and the Ides \non the 13th. As the Greeks had no Calends, "on \nthe Greek Calends," ad Grcccas Calendas, meant \nnever. \n\n\n\nCALICO, cotton cloth, named from Calicut, a \ncity of India, visited by the Portuguese in 1498, \nCalico was first brought to England by the East \nIndia Company in 1631. Calico-printing and the \nDutch loom engine were first used in 1676, when a \nFrenchman established a factory at Richmond, near \nLondon. Anderson. Calicoes were prohibited to \nbe printed or worn in 1700; and again in 1 721, a \npenalty of 5/. was laid on the wearer, and 20/. on the \nseller of calico. In 1831, by the exertions of Mr, \nPoulett Thompson, afterwards lord Sydenham, and \nothers, the consolidated duty of T,hd. on the square \nyard of printed calico was taken off. Since 1834, \nthe manufacture has been greatly increased by the- \napplications of science. Cylinders for printing are \nnow engraved by galvanism, and many new dyes- \nhave been introduced by the discoveries of Licbig,. \nHofmann, Perkin, &c. ; see Cotton and Dyeing. \n\nJohn Mercer, a great improver of calico-printing, dieiS \n30 Nov. 1866. \n\nCALICUT (nowKolikod), S.W.India, the first \nIndian port visited by Vasco da Gama, 20 May, 1498. \nIt was seized by Hyder Ali, 1766; taken bj r the \nEnglish, 1782; destroyed by Tippoo Saib, 1789;. \nceded to the English, 1792. \n\nCALIFOENIA (from the Spanish, Calienle \nFornalla, hot furnace, in allusion to the climate), \nwas discovered by Cortez in 1537; others say by \nCabrillo in 1542 ; and visited by sir Francis Drake, \nwho named it New Albion, in 1579. California was \nadmitted into the United States in 1850. The \npopulation in 1856 was 506,067 ; in 1880, 864,694 ; \nin 1890, 1,208,130. State capital, Sacramento. \nSan Francisco is the largest city. \nThe Spanish establish missionary and military \n\nstations 1698 \n\nCalifornia becomes subject to Mexico . . . 1823 \nAfter a bloodless revolution, it becomes virtually \n\nindependent 1836 \n\nOccupied by the army of the United States . . 1846 \nGold discovered in great abundance by capt. Sutter \n\nand Mr. Marshall Sept. 1847 \n\nCeded to the United States 1848 \n\nMade a sovereign state 1850 \n\nNumerous murders in San Francisco \xe2\x80\x94 Lynch law \n\nprevailing 1853-60 \n\nAdhered to the union during the war . . . 1 861-4 \nSuffered much damage by an earthquake, 21 Sept. 1868 \nBank of California, long very prosperous, stops \nthrough unsuccessful speculations, suspected \nsuicide of "the prince," Wm. C. Ralston, ma- \nnager about 25 Aug. 1S75 \n\nGreat opposition to increasing Chinese immigration, \n\nMarch, 1876 \nPolitical agitation caused by Dennis Kearney \n\nagainst cash payments .... Aug. 1878 \nNew constitution (excluding Chinese from citizen- \nship ; altering taxation to favour the working- \nclasses ; restricting companies, &c.) promoted by \nDennis Kearney, the agitator ; passed 8 May, 1879 \nPolitical disorders ; Mr. de Young, an editor, dan- \ngerously wounds rev. Mr. Kallock, the elected \n\nmayor Aug. ,, \n\nViolent reaction against Kearney, who flees for his \n\nlife July, 1880 \n\nAnti-Chinese bill passed ; resident Chinese may \n\nremain, immigrants prohibited . 13 March, 1893 \nTowns and villages in the Sacramento valley suffer \nby an earthquake . . . . 19 April, 1892. \n\nCALIPEE COMPASS, whereby the bore of \ncannon, small arms, &c. is measured, is said to have \nbeen invented by an artificer of Nuremberg in 1540. \n\nCALIPH (Arabic), Vicar, or Lieutenant, the \ntitle assumed by the sophi of Persia, as successor of \nAli, and, since 151 7, by the sultan of Turkey, as \nsuccessor of Mahomet, and sovereign of Mecca" and \nMedina. The caliphat began with Abubeker, the \n\n\n\nCALIPPIC PERIOD. \n\n\n\n169 \n\n\n\nCAMBIUM REGIS. \n\n\n\nfather of the prophet\'s second wife. Sir Wm. \nMuir\'s " Caliphate " published 1891. \n\nCALIPHS OF ARABIA. \n\n632. Abubeker. \n\n634. Omar I. \n\n644. Othman. \n\n655. Ali. \n\n661. Hassan. \n\nThe Ommiades ruled 661-750. \n\nThe Abbasides ruled 750-1258. \n\nIn 775 they were styled caliphs of Bagdad. \n\nHaroun-al-Raschid ruled 786-809. \n\nSee Ommiades and Abbasides. \n\nCALIPPIC PERIOD, invented by Calippus, \nabout 330 B.C., to correct the Metallic cycle, consists \nof four cycles, or of seventy-six years, at the expira- \ntion of which he incorrectly imagined the new and \nfull moons return to the same day of the solar year. \nThis period began about the end of June, third year \nof 1 1 2th Olympiad, year of Rome 424, and 330 B.C. \n\n_ CALIXTINS, 1. A sect derived from the Hus- \nsites, about I420demandedthecup (Greek, Kalix) in \nthe Lord\'s supper. They were also called Utraquists \nas partaking of both elements. They were recon- \nciled to the Roman church at the council of JJasle, \n1433. 2. The followers of George Calixtus, a Lu- \ntheran, who died in 1656. He wrote against the celi- \nbacy of the priesthood, andproposed a re-union of Ca- \ntholics and Protestants based on the Apostles\' creed. \n\nCALI YUGA, the Hindoo era of the Deluge, \ndates from 3101 B.C. (according to some, 3102), and \nbegins with the entrance of the sun into the Hindoo \nsign Aswin, now on 11 April, N.S. In 1600 the \nyear began on 7 April, N.S., from which it has now \nadvanced four days, and from the precession of the \nequinoxes, is still advancing at the rate of a day in \nsixty years. The number produced by subtracting \n3102 from any given year of the Cali Yuga era will \nbe the Christian year in which the given year \nbegins. \n\nCALLAO (Peru). After an earthquake, the \nsea retired from the shore, and returned in moun- \ntainous waves, which destroyed the city in 1687, and \non 28 Oct. 1746. The attempt of the Spanish ad- \nmiral Nunez to bombard Callao, 2 May, 1866, was \ndefeated, by the Peruvians ; blockaded by Chilians, \nApril 1880, see Chili. Population, 1876, 33,502. \n\nCALLIGRAPHY (beautiful writing). Calli- \ncrates is said to have written an elegant distich on \na sesamum seed, 472 B.C. In the 16th century \nPeter Bales wrote the Lord\'s Prayer, Creed, and \nDecalogue, two short Latin prayers, his own name, \nmotto, day of the month, year of our Lord, aud of \nthe reign of queen Elizabeth (to whom he presented \nthem at Hampton Court), all within the circle of a \nsilver penny, enchased in a ring and border of gold, \nand covered with crystal, so accurately done, as to \nbe plainly legible, "Holinshed. \n\nCALMAR, UlsriO^ OF. The treaty whereby \nDenmark, Sweden, and Norway, were united under \none sovereign, Margaret, queen of Sweden and Nor- \nway, " the Semiramisof the north;" June, 1397, see \nSweden. The union was dissolved by Gustavus \nVasa in 1523. \n\nCALMUCKS, see Tartar;/. \n\nCALOMEL ("beautiful black") a compound \nof mercury, sulphuric acid, and chloride of sodium, \nfirst mentioned by Crollius early in the 17th century. \nThe first directions given for its preparation were by \nBeguin in 1608. \n\nCALORESCENCE. In Jan. 1865 Professor \nTyndall rendered the ultra-red rays of the spectrum \nof the electric light visible by causing a focus of \n\n\n\nthem to impinse on a plate of platinum, which they \nraised to a white heat. He termed the phenomenon \nCalorescence ; see Fluorescence. \n\nCALORIC, see Heat. \n\nCALOTYPE PROCESS (from the Greek \nkalos beautiful), by which negative photographs 1 \nare produced on paper, is the invention of Mr. Henry \nFox Talbot about 1840. Also called Taleotyi-e, \nSee Photography. \n\nCALOYERS (meaning good old men). The \nmonks of the Greek church, of the order of St. Basil.. \nTheir most celebrated monastery in Asia is at Mount \nSinai, endowed by Justinian (died 565) ; the Eu- \nropean one is at Mount Athos. \n\nCALPEE, India. Sir Hugh Rose defeated the \nmutineers here, and took the town, 22, 23 May, 185S- \n\nCALVARY, MOUNT, the place where the Re- \ndeemer suffered death, 5 April, a.d. 30 ; (Hales, 31 ;, \nClinton, 29; others 38) ; see ZM/texxiii.33. Adrian, \nat the time of his persecution of the Christians, \nerected a temple of Jupiter on Mount Calvary, and \na temple of Adonis on the manger at Bethlehem, \n142. The empress Helena built a church heie about \n326 ; see Holy Places. \n\nCALVES\' HEAD CLUB, noblemen and \ngentlemen, Avho are said to have exposed raw calves* \nheads at the windows of a tavern, 30 Jan. 1735, * ne \nanniversary of the execution of Charles 1. An angry- \nmob was dispersed, and the club suppressed. \n\nCALVI (Corsica). The British forces besieged \nthe fortress of Calvi, 12 June, 1794. After fifty-nine? \ndays it surrendered on 10 Aug. It surrendered to \nthe French in 1796. \n\nCALVINISTS, named after John Calvin (or \nChauvin), who was born at Noyon, in Picardy, 10 \nJuly, 1509. Adopting the reformed doctrines he tied \nto Angouleme, where he composed his Instituiio \nChristiana Religionis in 1533; published in 1536. \nHe retired to Basle, and settled in Geneva, where \nhe died, 27 May, 1564. He was instrumental in \nburning Servetus for denying the Trinity in 1553- \nA formal separation between the Calvinists and \nLutherans took place after the conference of Poissy \nin 1 561, where the former expressly rejected the \ntenth and other articles of the confession of Augs- \nburg, and took the name of Calvinists. In France \n(see Huguenots) they took up arms against their \npersecutors. Henry IV., originally a Calvinist, on \nbecoming king, secured their liberty by the Edict of \nNantes in 1590 (which. see). Calvinistic doctrines \nappear in the articles of the Church of England aud \nin the confession of the Church of Scotland, and are. \nheld by many protestant sects. They include pre- \ndestination, particular redemption, total depravity, \nirresistible grace, and the certain perseverance of \nthe saints. \n\nCAMALDULES or CaMALDOLITES, a reli- \ngious order founded at Camaldoli near Florence, by \nRomuald about 1022. \n\nCAMBAY, see India, 1890. \n\nCAMBERWELL, Surrey, a southern suburb \nof London. The grammar school was established \nby the Kev. E. Wilson. 29 Sept. 1715. The am ienl \nchurch was burnt 7 Feb. [841. Caniberwell r< turns \n3 members to Parliament by the Acts of [884-85. \nThe Public Library presented by Mr. Ue< \nLivesey (cost nearly 8,000/.) opened by fir E. \nClarke, 18 Oct. 1890". Population, 1881, 186,593; \n1891, 235>3 12 - \n\nCAMBIUM REGIS ; see Royal Exchange. \n\n\n\nCAMBODIA. \n\n\n\n170 \n\n\n\nCAMBRIDGE. \n\n\n\nCAMBODIA, Central Asia; (capital, Penom- \njpein), a kingdom, divided between the emperor of \nAnn\'am and the king of Siam, 1820. The king, \njSTorodom, recognizes French protectorate by treaty, \nOct. 1883. Insurrection ; French posts at Sambaur, \n.12 Jan. ; governor of Cochin China marches there ; \nirebels attacked and dispersed 21 Jan. ; again April \n1885. \n\n\'.The French capture Fort Angko by assault, announced \n\n22 July 1885. \nJtebel Prince Si-Votha treats for peace April, 1889. \n\nCAMBRAY (N. France), the ancient Camara- \n\xe2\x80\xa2ciim, was in the middle ages the capital of a prince \nhishop subject to the emperor. It gives its name to \n\xe2\x80\xa2cambric Councils held here, 1064, 1303, 1383, \nJ 5 6 5- \nTIeld by Louis XI. of France .... 1477-8 \n\nTaken by Charles V 1544 \n\n-By the Spaniards 1595 \n\nJ3y the French and annexed ."\'\xe2\x80\xa2\'. . . . 1667 \n\nFenelon made archbishop 169s \n\nThe French were defeated at Csesar\'s camp, in the \nneighbourhood, by the allied army under the duke \n\nof York 24 April, 1794 \n\nSt was invested by the Austrians, 8 Aug. , when the \nrepublican general, Declay, replied to the sum- \nmons to surrender, that "he knew not how to do \nthat, but his soldiers knew how to fight." It \nwas taken by Clairfait, the Austrian general, \n\n10 Sept. 1798 \nCambray seized by the British, under sir Charles \n\nColville 24 June, 1815 \n\nJLeague of Cambray against the republic of Venice, \ncomprising pope Julius II., the emperor Maxi- \nmilian, and Louis XII. of France, and Ferdinand \nof Spain, entered into . . . 10 Dec. 1508 \n\nTreaty between Francis I. of France, and Charles V. \nof Germany, (called Palx ties Dames, because nego- \ntiated by Louisa of Savoy, mother of the French \nking, and Margaret of Austria, aunt of the \n\nemperor) I5 og \n\n\'Treaty between the emperor Charles VI. and \nPhilip V. of Spain 1724-5 \n\nCAMBRIA, ancient name of "Wales (which see). \n\nCAMBRIC first made at Cambray; worn in \nEngland, and accounted a great luxury, 1580. Stow. \nIts importation restricted in 1745; prohibited in \nH758; re-admitted, 1786; prohibited 1795. \n\nCAMBRIDGE, supposed to be the Roman \n\xe2\x96\xa0Camboricum and ttie Saxon Granta hricsir, fre- \nquently mentioned by the earliest British historians, \nwas burnt by the Danes in 870 and ioio. See \nlable in Population. \n\nfortified by William I. I07 o \n\nPlundered by the barons \' . IO S8 \n\nin Wat Tyler\'s and Jack Straw\'s rebellion, the \n\nrebels enter the town, seize the university records \n\nand burn them in the market-place . . . 1381 \n\n\'Garrisoned by Cromwell ^42 \n\n-Cambridge Philosophical Society established in 1819, \n\nand chartered x g 32 \n\nBailway to London opened . . . Junej 1845 \nMtzwilliam museum, endowed 1816 ; founded 1837 \'; \n\ncompleted j3 4 _ \n\nBritish Association met here . . 1833,1845,1862 \nVisit of prince and princess of Wales . 2-4 June.\' 1864 \n\nCAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY. \n\n\'The early history is traditional till the 12th century \nSigebert, king of the East Angles, is mythically \nsaid to have set up a school about 630. Scholar\'s \nare said to have collected here and \'to have been \nfavoured by Henry I., mo. Henry III. granted \nithe first charter in 1231, about which time the \nstudents began to live together in hostels which \nafterwards became colleges named after saints. \nIt is said that there were 27 hostels in 1280. The \n\xe2\x80\xa2university was incorporated in 1571, and sent \ntwo members to parliament in 1603. University \n\xe2\x96\xa0tests act passed, 16 June, 1870. University coni- \nanission respecting property was appointed 6 \nJim., 1872. Universities act, making many \nchanges, was passed .... 10 Aug. 1877 \n\n\n\nSt Paul\'s Hostelry for Indian students, chartered \n\n18 July, 1883 \n\nNew Museum of Classical Art and Archaeology \nopened 6 May, 1884 \n\nHenry Fawcett, M.P. , Postmaster-general, buried \nat Trumpington 10 Nov. ,, \n\nMiss A. F. Ramsay, of Girton, senior and alone in \nthe first division of the classical tripos. Miss B. \nM. Hervey, of Newnham, alone in the first division \nof the mediaeval and modern languages tripos \n\n18 June 1887 \n\nMiss G. P. Fawcett, Newnham (daughter of the late \nprofessor), above the senior wrangler in mathe- \nmatics 7 June, 1890 \n\nProfessor G. G. Stokes, P.R.S., elected M.P. forthe \nUniversity 17 Nov. 1887 \n\nThe senate supports the compulsory study of \nGreek (525-185) 29 Oct. 1891 \n\nEstablishment of an engineering school, proposed \n\nDec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCOLLEGES. \n\nPeterhouse College, by Hugo de Balsham, bishop of \n\nEly, founded 1257 \n\nPembroke College, founded by the countess of \n\nPembroke 1347 \n\nGonville and Caius, by Edmund Gonville . . . 1348 \n\nEnlarged by Dr. John Caius 1558 \n\nCorpus Christi, or Benet . . . . . . 1352 \n\nKing\'s College, by Henry VI. . . . . 1441 \n\nQueen\'s College, by Margaret of Anjou, 1448 ; and \n\nElizabeth Woodville 1449 \n\nJesus College, by John Alcock, bishop of Ely . . 1496 \nChrist\'s College, founded 1442 ; endowed by Mar- \ngaret, countess of Richmond, mother of Henry \n\nVII. 1505 \n\nSt. John\'s College, endowed by Margaret, countess \n\nof Richmond 1511 \n\nMagdalene College, by Thomas, baron Audley . . 1519 \nTrinity College, by Henry VIII. . . . 1546 \n\nEmmanuel College, by sir Walter Mildmay . . 1584 \n\nSidney Sussex College, founded by Frances Sidney, \n\ncountess of Sussex 1598 \n\nDowning College, by sir George Downing, by will, \n\nin 1717 ; its charter 1800 \n\nCavendish College . . ... 1873-6 \n\nRidley Hall (theological), foundation stone laid, \n\n17 Oct. 1879 \nSelwyn College, founded . . . . 1 June, 1881 \n\nTHREE HALLS. \n\nClare Hall, or College, first founded by Dr. Richard \nBaden in 1326 ; destroyed by fire and re-estab- \nlished by Elizabeth de Bourg, sister to Gilbert, \n\nearl of Clare about 1342 \n\nTrinity Hall, by Win, Bateman, bishop of Norwich, 1350 \n\nSt. Catherine\'s College or Hall, founded . . . 1473 \n\n[Cambridge University Calendar.] \n\nCHANCELLORS. \n\nCharles, duke of Somerset, elected . . . . 1688 \n\nThomas, duke of Newcastle 1748 \n\nAugustus Henry, duke of Grafton . . . . 1768 \nH. R. H. William Frederick, duke of Gloucester . 18 11 \n\nJohn, marquis Camden 1834 \n\nHugh, duke of Northumberland .... 1840 \nThe Prince Consort [died Dec. 14, 1861.] 28 Feb. 1847 \nWilliam, duke of Devonshire [died 21 Dec. 1891] \n\n31 Dec. 1861 \nSpencer C, duke of Devonshire . . 4 Jan. 1892 \n\nPRINCIPAL PROFESSORSHIPS. FOUNDED \n\nDivinity (Lady Margaret, mother of Henry VIII.) \n\n1502 ; Regius 1540 \n\nLaws, Hebrew, Greek, and Physic . . . . ,, \n\nArabic 1632 \n\nMathematics (Lucasian) 1663 \n\nMusic . 1684 \n\nChemistry . 1702 \n\nAstronomy 1704, 1749 \n\nAnatomy ..... s .. . 1707 \n\nModern History, Botany 1724 \n\nNatural and experimental Philosophy . . . . 1783 \n\nMineralogy 1808 \n\nPolitical Economy 1863 \n\nSlade (fine art) 1869 \n\nCambridge Union Society begun as a debating \nclub at the " Red Lion" in 181 1 ; settled in its \nnew building in 1S86. Dr. Whewell was president \n\n\n\nCAMBEIDGE. \n\n\n\n171 \n\n\n\nCAMOEEA. \n\n\n\nin 1817. Lord Houghton, sir Alex. Cockburn, \nlords Macaulay and Lytton, were early members. \n\nDUKES OF CAMBRIDGE. \n\nGeorge Augustus, electoral prince of Hanover, \ncreated duke 9 Nov., 1706 ; king as George II., \n11 June, 1727, see England. \n\nAdolphus Frederick, fifth son of George III., born \n24 Feb., 1774, created duke 27 Nov., 1801 ; viceroy \nof Hanover, 1816-37 ; died 8 July, 1850. \n\nGeorge William Frederick Charles, son, born 26 \nMarch, 1819 ; duke, 8 July, 1850 ; colonel, 3 \nNov., 1837 ; commanded the first division in the \nCrimean war ; general commanding in chief, 5 \nJuly, 1856; commander-in-chief by patent, 1887.. \n\nCAMBEIDGE, a city in Massachusetts ; first \nsettled in 1630. The "Bay Psalm-book," said to \nbe the first book printed in British America, was \npublished here in 1640. See Harvard College. \nPopulation in 1870, 39,364 ; 1890, 70,028. \n\nCAMBUSKENNETH, near Stirling (Cen- \ntral Scotland). Here Wallace defeated the English \nunder Warrenne and Cressingham, 10 Sept. 1297. \nThe abbey, one of the richest in Scotland, was founded \n\nby King David I. in 1147, was spoiled and the fabric \n\nnearly destroyed by the reformers in 1559. \n\nCAMDEN (S. Carolina). Here 16 Aug. 1780, \niord Cornwallis defeated the revolted Americans, \nunder Gates. At a second battle (also called Hob- \nkirk\'s hill), between general Greene and lord Raw- \ndon, the Americans were again defeated, 25 April, \n1 78 1. Camden was evacuated and burnt by the \nBritish, 13 May, 1781. \n\n. CAMDEN SOCIETY, established 1838, pub- \nlishes British historical documents. 155 volumes \nhad been issued, April, 1892. \n\nCAMDEN TOWN, N.W. London, begun by \nland let for building 1400 houses by earl Camden \nin 1791 ; received his name a few years after. \n\nCAMEL, DAY OF THE, 4 Nov. 656 (according \nto some 658 or 659) when Talha and Zobeif, rebel \nArab chiefs, were defeated and slain by the caliph \nAli, Ayesha, Mahomet\'s widow, friend of the \nchiefs, was present in a litter, on a camel, hence the \nname. \n\nA camel corps was raised during the Soudan campaigns \nof 1884-5. It consisted of about 1,000 camels, con- \ntrolled by British cavalry and marines. \n\nCAMEEA LUCID A, invented by Dr. Hooke \nabout 1674; another by Dr. Wollaston in 1807. \nCamera Ubscura, or dark chamber, constructed, \nit is said, by Roger Bacon in 1297 ; improved by \nBaptista Porta, about 1500; and remodelled by sir \nIsaac Newton. By the invention of M. Daguerre, \nin 1839, the pictures of the camera are fixed; see \nPhotography. The Camera Club (photographers), \nfounded 1885, holds annual meetings. \n\nCAMEEON\'S ACT, Dr., see Debt, 1880. \n\nCAMEEONIANS, a name frequently given \nto the Reformed Presbyterian church of Scotland, \nthe descendants of the covenanters of the 17th cen- \ntury, the established church, 1638-50.* Charles II. \nsigned the League and Covenant in 1650, in hopes \nof recovering his kingdoms, but renounced it in 1661. \n\n\n\n* They were frequently called Kill-men or mountain men, \nand society people(fTom the places and modes of worship \nto which they were frequently reduced), and McMillanites, \nfrom John McMillan, their first minister, after their \nsecession from the Church of Scotland on account of its \nsubserviency to the English government, and its declining \nfrom its original rigid principles. They assumed the \nname of the "Reformed Presbyterian Church," on May \n5, 1876, and soon after united with the Free Church of \n.Scotland. \n\n\n\nand revived episcopacy. A revolt ensued in 1666, \nwhen many covenanters were slain in battle (in the \nPentland hills, &c), and many refusing to take the \noaths required, and declining to accept the king\'s \nindulgence, died on the scaffold, after undergoing \ncruel\' tortures. The name Cameronian is derived \nfrom Richard Cameron, one of their ministers, who \nwas killed in a skirmish, in 1680. On 22 June in \nthat year he and others issued at Sanquhar a de- \nclaration for religious liberty. The bicentenary \nwas kept in 1880. In 1689 they raised a body of \nsoldiers to support William III., who enrolled \nthem under the command of lord Angus, as the \n26th regiment, since so famous. In 17 12 they re- \nnewed then- public covenants, and are described \nin one of their tracts as " the suffering anti-popish, \nand anti-prelatical, anti-erastian, true presbyterian \nchurch of Scotland." They have now between \nthirty and forty congregations in Scotland. \xe2\x80\x94 The \n79th regiment {Cameron Highlanders), raised in \n1793 by Allan Cameron, has no connection with the \nCameronians. \n\nCAMEEOONS. Mountains and river, West \nAfrica. Dr. Nachtigall founded a German colony \nhere, Aug., which was recognised Oct. 1884. He \ndied 24 April, 1885. To it was annexed the \nBritish colony Victoria, 28 March, 1887. \n\nA German expedition in 1889 left the Cameroons \nunder the command of lieut. Morgan with 250 \nmen, to investigate the inland district of the \nNiger tributaries ; after sutfering many priva- \ntions and troubles with the men, and losing \nover 100 men, lieut. Morgan and his party were \nbrought from the Benue river to Akassa by an \nagent of the royal Niger company, reported \n\n20 March, 1891 \n\nOccasional fighting with the natives, capt. von. \nGravenreutli killed, reported . . Nov. ,, \n\nCAMISAEDS (from chemise, Latin camisa, a \nshirt, which they frequently wore over their dress in \nnight attacks), a name given to the French Pro- \ntestants in the neighbourhood of the Cevennes \n(mountain chains in S. France), who after enduring \nmuch severe persecution in consequence of the \nrevocation of the edict of Nantes, 22 Oct. 1685, took \nup arms in July, 1702, to rescue some imprisoned \nbrethren. They revenged the cruelties of their \nenemies, and maintained an obstinate resistance \nagainst the royalist armies commanded by marshal \nMontrevel, and other distinguished generals, till \n1705, when the insurrection was suppressed by \nmarshal Villars. After futile conciliatory efforts, \nseveral of the heroic leaders suffered death rather \nthan surrender. Cavalier, an able general, unable \nto carry out a treaty made with Villars, seceded in \n1 704, entered the British service, and died governor \nof Jersey, 1740. \n\nCAMLET, formerly made of silk and camel\'s \nhair, but now of wool, hair, and silk. Oriental \ncamlet first came here from Portuguese India, in \n1660. Anderson. \n\nCAMOEEA, a secret society of plunderers and \nratteners, exacting money from shopkeepers and \ntraders, in Naples (said to have originated from \nthe extreme destitution of the lower classes);_ tole- \nrated under the Bourbons ; cheeked by the king of \nItaly; about 80 Camorristi seized and transported, \nScpt.-Oct. 1874. Many Camorristi seized in the \nmarkets at Naples, 30 Aug. and 1 Sept.,ei seq., 1877. \n179 of these tried at Bari, mid April, May, 1891. \nThe Camorristi are said to be the highest grade of \nthe society named "Mala Vita." \n159 members of the Mala \\\'it;i society arrested at \n\nTaranto March, 1392 \n\n\n\nCAMP. \n\n\n\n172 \n\n\n\nCANADA. \n\n\n\nCAMP- The Hebrew encampment was first j \nlaid out by divine direction, 1490 B.C. {Numbers ii.) I \nThe Eomans and Gauls had intrenched camps in \nopen plains ; and vestiges of such exist to this day \nin England and Scotland. A camp was formed in \nHyde Park in 1745 and 1814 ; see Chobham, Alder- \nshot, and Kildare. \n\nCAMPAGNA, near Rome. Its drainage and \nplanting were authorised by the Italian senate, 31 \nMay 1878. \n\nCAMPANIA (S. Italy), was occupied by Han- \nnibal and various cities declared in his favour 216 \nB.C. ; conquered by the Romans, 213. Its capital \nwas Capua {which see) . \n\nCAMPBELL\'S ACTS, introduced by John \nCampbell, lord chancellor. 1. Against libels and \nslanders, 6 & 7 Vict. c. 96 (1843), and 8 & 9 Vict. c. \n75 (1845). 2. To compel railway companies to make \ncompensation for injuries by culpable accidents, 9 & \n10 Vict. c. 93 (1846). 3. Against obscene publica- \ntions, prints, &c, 20 & 21 Vict. c. 83 (1857). In \naccordance with the second act, the family of a \ngentleman killed through the breaking of a rail, \nobtained a verdict for 13,0007. from the Great \nNorthern Railway Compau}\'. On appeal the sum \nwas reduced. \n\nCAMPBELLITES, or Rowites, a name given \nto the followers of the rev. John McLeod Campbell, \nminister of Row, Dumbartonshire, who, on 24 May, \n1831, was deposed by the general assembly of the \nchurch of Scotland for teaching the universality of \nthe atonement, and other doctrines contrary to the \nchurch\'s standard. Dr. Campbell established a \ncongregation in Glasgow in 1833. The " Disciples \nof Christ," which see, are also sometimes termed \nCampbellites. \n\nCAMPEACHY-BAY (Yucatan, Central \nAmerica), discovered about 151 7, and settled by \nSpaniards in 1540; taken by the English in 1659; \nby the buccaneers, in 1678; and by the freebooters \nof St. Domingo, in 1685. These last burnt the town \nand blew up the citadel. The English logwood- \ncutters made their settlement here about 1662. \n\nCAMPEBDOWN ; south of the Texel, Hol- \nland, nearwhich admiral Duncan defeated the Dutch \nfleet, commanded by admiral De Winter ; the latter \nlosing fifteen ships, either taken or destroyed, 11 \nOct. 1797. The British admiral was made lord Dun- \ncan of Camper-down. He died suddenly on his way \nto Edinburgh, 4 Aug. 1804. \n\nCAMPO FOEMIO (N. Italy). Here a treaty \nwas concluded between France and Austria ; the \nlatter yielding the Low Countries and the Ionian \nIslands to France, and Milan, Mantua, and Modena \nto the Cisalpine republic, 17 Oct. 1797. By a secret \narticle the emperor gained the Venetian dominions. \n\nCAMPO SANTO (Holy Field), a burial-place. \nThat at Pisa, surrounded by an arcade erected by \narchbishop Ubaldo, about 1300, is celebrated for \nthe frescoes painted on the walls by Giotto, Memmi, \nand others. \n\nCAMPUS EAUDITJS, near Verona, N. Italy. \nHere the Cimbri were defeated with great slaughter \nby Marius and Catulus, 101 B.C. \n\nCANAAN (Palestine), is considered to have \nbeen settled by the Canaanites, 1965 B.C. {Clinton, \n2088). Abram, by divine command, went into the \nland of Canaan, B.C. 1921, Gen. xii. The land was \ndivided among the Israelites by Joshua, 1445 {Hales, \n1602). \n\n\n\nCANADA (N. America), was discovered by John \nand Sebastian Cabot, 24 June, 1497. In 1524, a \nFrench expedition under Verazani formed a settle- \nment named New France, and in 1535 Jacques \nCartier (a Breton mariner), ascended the St. Law- \nrence as far as the site of Montreal; see Montreal \nand Quebec. Canada has been termed "the Do- \nminion," since its incorporation with the other \nAmerican colonies, I July, 1867. \nBesides the governor-general there are the lieut.- \ngovernors of Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, Cape \nBreton Island, New Brunswick, Manitoba, Prince \nEdward Island, British Columbia, and Western \n\nTerritories 1892 \n\nPopulation : 1857, Lower Canada, 1,220,514 ; Upper \nCanada, 1,350,923 ; of the Dominion, 1871, \n3,788,614 ; 1881, 4,359,933 ! 1891, nearly 5,000,000. \n1886-7, revenue, 7,364,916?.; expenditure, 7,326,920?. ; \n1890, revenue, 39,879,925 dollars ; expenditure, \n35,994,031 dollars. \n1886-7, imports, 23,197.0352. ; exports, 18,393,660?. ; \n1890, imports, 121,858,241 dollars ; exports, \n96,749,149 dollars. \n\nFirst permanent settlement : Quebec founded . . 1608 \nCanada taken by the English, 1629 ; restored . . 1632 \nWar begins in 1756 ; Canada conquered by the Eng- \nlish, 1759 (see Quebec), confirmed to them by the \ntreaty of Paris, signed ... 10 Feb. 1763 \n\nLegislative council established ; "the French laws \nconfirmed, and religious liberty given to Roman \n\nCatholics 1774 \n\nThe \'Americans under Montgomery invade Canada, \nand surprise Montreal, Nov. 1775 ; expelled by \n\nCarleton March, 1776 \n\nCanada divided into Upper and Lower . . . 1793 \nThe "clergy reserves" established by parliament \xe2\x80\x94 \none seventh of the waste lands of the colony ap- \npropriated for the maintenance of the Protestant \nclergy (during the debates on this bill the quarrel \nbetween Mr. Burke and Mr. Fox arose) . . . 1793 \nCanada made a bishopric ...... 1793. \n\nUnited States army, under general Hull, invade \nCanada ; defeated at Brownstown, near Toronto, \n8 Aug. ; surrender .... 16 Aug. 18 12 \n\nAmericans take York, 27 April ; Fort George, 27 \nMay ; defeated at Chippewa, 25 July ; peace \n\nsigned at Ghent 24 Dec. 1814 \n\nOpposition to Canada clergy reserves . . 1817 et seq. \nTreaty with United States respecting fisheries . t8i8 \nFirst railway in Canada opened . . July, 183.6 \n\nThe Papineau rebellion commences at Montreal by \n\n. a body called Fils de la Liberte 1837 \n\nThe rebels defeated at St. Eustace . . 14 Dec. ,, . \nRepulsed at Toronto by sir F. Head . . 5 Jan. 1838 \nEarl of Durham appointed govr-gen. . 16 Jan. ,, \nLount and Mathews (rebels) hanged . 12 April, ,,. \nLord Durham resigns his government . 9 Oct. ,, \nRebellion appears in Beauharnais, 3 Nov. ; the in- \nsurgents at Napierville, under Nelson, routed, \n6 Nov. ; rebellion suppressed . . .17 Nov. ,, \nSir John Colborne, governor .... Dec. ,, \nActs relating to government of Lower Canada, \n\npassed in Feb. 1838, and . . . Aug. 1839 \n\nChas. Poiolett Thompson (afterwards lord Sydenham), \n\ngovernor Sept \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nUpper and Lower Canada re-united . 10 Feb. 1840 \n\nSir Chas. Bagot, governor .... Oct. 1841 \nSir Chas. T. (aft. lord) Metcalfe, governor Feb. 1843 \n\nEarl Cathcart, governor . . . March, 1846 \n\nEarl ofElgi n, gov. -general .... Oct. ,, \nRiots in Montreal ; parliament house burnt \n\n26 April, 1850 \nCanada clergy reserves abolished by the British \n\nparliament 9 May, 1853 \n\nConcluded a reciprocity treaty with United States, \n\n7 June, 1854 \nThe grand trunk railroad of Canada (S50 miles), \n\nfrom Quebec to Toronto, opened . 12 Nov. 1856 \nOn reference made to the queen, Ottawa, formerly \nBytown, appointed the capital ; this decision \n\nunpopular Aug. 185S \n\nCanada raises a regiment of soldiers (made one of \n\nthe line, and called the 100th) . . . ,, \n\nThe prince of Wales presents the colours at Shorn- \ncliffe 10 Jan. 1859 \n\n\n\nCANADA. \n\n\n\n173 \n\n\n\nCANADA. \n\n\n\nThe prince of Wales, the duke of Newcastle, <fcc, \narrived at St. John\'s. Newfoundland, 24 July ; \nvisit Halifax, 30 July ; Quebec, 18 Aug. ; Montreal, \nand opens the Victoria railway bridge, 25 Aug. ; \nOttawa, 1 Sept. ; leave Canada, 20 Sept. ; after \n"visiting the United States embark at Portland, \n20 Oct. ; and arrive at Plymouth . 15 Nov. i860 \n\nLord Monck assumes office as gov. -gen. . 28 Nov. 1861 \n\nIn consequence of the " Trent " affair (see United \nStates, 1861), 3000 British troops sent to Canada ; \nwarlike preparations made . . . Dec. ,, \n\nBritish N. American Association founded in London \n\nJan. 1862 \n\nCartier\'s ministry defeated on Militia bill ; Mr. J. \nSandfield Macdonald, premier . 20-23 M a 5 r > >> \n\nThe assembly vote only 5000 militia and 5000 re- \nserve towards the defence of the country ; this \ncauses discontent in England . . . July, ,, \n\nMr. J. Macdonald again premier . . 20 May, 1863 \n\nNew militia bill passed ; . . . . Sept. ,, \n\nMilitary measures in progress . .\' - Sept. 1864 \n\nMeeting of about 20,000 volunteers ; delegates from \nN. American colonies at Quebec, to deliberate on \nthe formation of a confederation, 10 Oct. ; agree \non the bases 20 Oct. ,, \n\nBetween 20 and 30 armed confederates quit Canada \nand enter the little town of St. Alban\'s, Vermont ; \nrob the banks, steal horses and stores, fire, and \nkill one man, and wound others, and return to \nCanada, 19 Oct,; 13 are arrested, 21 Oct. ; but are \ndischarged, on account of some legal difficulty, \n"by Judge Coursol .... 14 Dec. ,, \n\nGreat excitement in United States, general Dix \nproclaims reprisals ; volunteers called out in \nCanada to defend the frontiers ; president Lin- \ncoln rescinds Dix\'s proclamation . . Dec. ,, \n\nThe confederation scheme rejected by New Bruns- \nwick 7 March, 1865 \n\nThe British parliament grant 50,000?. for defence of \nCanada 23 March, ,, \n\nThe St. Alban\'s raiders discharged, 30 March ; \nMr. Seward gives up claim for their extradition. \n\nApril, ,, \n\nMessrs. Gait and Cartier visit England to advocate \nconfederation April, ,, \n\nThe threatened invasion of the Fenians, 9 March ; \n10,000 volunteers called out . . 15 March, 1866 \n\nThe renewal of reciprocity treaty declined by \nUnited States 17 March, ,, \n\nThe Canadian parliament opened, for the first time, \nat Ottawa ; the Habeas Corpus act suspended ; \nmany Fenians flee ; 35,000- men under arms (see \nFenians) 8 June, ,, \n\nDiscovery of gold in Hastings county, Canada west, \n\nNov. ,, \n\nAct for the union of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New \nBrunswick under the name of the Dominion of \nCanada, with parliament, to consist of the Queen, \na senate of 72 members, and a house of commons \nof 181 members, passed . . .29 March, 1867 \n\nCanada Railway loan act passed . 12 April, ,, \n\nLord Monck sworn in as viceroy of Canada, by \nvirtue of the act for the union of the British \nprovinces in North America . . 2 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNew parliament meets at Ottawa (John Alex. Mac- \ndonald premier) 6 Nov. ,, \n\nReported agitation against the new confederation in \nNova Scotia Jan. 1868 \n\nMurder of Mr. Darcy McGhee . . . 7 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nA Fenian raid into Canada vigorously repelled by \nthe militia .... about 24 May, ,, \n\nVisit of prince Alfred . . . Sept. et seq. ,, \n\nSir John Young (aft. lord Lisgwr) appointed gover- \nnor-general in room of lord Monck (resigned), \narrives 27 Nov. 1868 \n\nHudson\'s Bay territories purchased, subject to \nconditions, for 300,000?. (aee Hudson\'s Bay) Nov. 1869 \n\nIn consequence of the resistance of some of the \nsettlers (see Rupert\'s land), an expedition, under \ncolonel Wolseley, arrived at Fort Garry, and \na conciliatory proclamation was issued 23 July, 1870 \n\nRupert\'s land formed into a province, named Mani- \ntoba ; Mr. Adams G. A. Archibald named the first \ngovernor . .... Aug. ,, \n\nCanada defences loan act passed . . 9 Aug. ,, \n\nDisputes with United States respecting fishing, Nov. ,, \n\nOpposition to the fishery clauses in the treaty of \nWashington ... . . June, 1871 \n\n\n\nBy the British North America act, the parliament \nof Canada may establish new provinces, 29 June, 1871 \n\nBritish Columbia united to the " Dominion " . . ,, \n\nDeparture of last battalion of royal troops . Nov. ,, \n\nA liberal ministry constituted under Mr. Edward \nBlake . 23 Dec. ,, \n\nLord (aft. earl of) Dufferin appointed governor- \ngeneral ; inaugurated . . . .25 June, 1872 \n\nSir George Cartier, statesman, died . . 20 May, 1873 \n\nMr. Arch, on behalf of British labourers, visits \nCanada autumn, ,, \n\nThe ministry of sir John Alexander Macdonald \ncharged with corruption connected with the Pa- \ncific railway ; the parliament suddenly prorogued \nby lord Dufferin 13 Aug. ,, \n\nCommission of inquiry Sept. ,, \n\nParliament meets, 23 Oct. ; the ministry resigns, \n5 Nov. ; Mr. Alex. Mackenzie forms a ministry, \n\n7 Nov. ,, \n\nNew reciprocity treaty rejected by the U.S. senate, \n\n4 Feb. 1875 \n\nThe Canadian and United States fishery commission \n(sir Alexander Gait for Canada, Mr. E. T. Kellogg \nfor United States, and M. Delfoss, Belgian U.S. \nminister) meet at Halifax, 15 June ; award \n5,500,000 dollars to Canada, Mr. Kellogg dissent- \ning 23, 24 Nov. 1877 \n\nAmerican fishermen in Fortune Bay .attacked for \nbreaking laws respecting fishing . . 6 Jan. 1878 \n\nElections : great majority against the government, \nabout 19 Sept. ,, \n\nThe marquis of Lome appointed governor-general, \n\n14 Oct. ,, \n\nResignation of ministry ; sir John Macdonald forms \na new one about 19 Oct. ,, \n\nHalifax award paid . . .21 Nov. ,, \n\nThe marquis of Lome and princess Louise land at \nHalifax 25 Nov. ,, \n\nThe Queen\'s telegram, "Deb\'ghted at reception, say \nso" 1 Dec. ,, \n\nA protectionist budget passed . . . 15 Mar. 1879 \n\nDominion industrial exhibition at Ottawa opened \nby the marquis of Lome. . . . 24 Sept. ,, \n\nFortune-bay affair (Jan. 1878), compensation refused \nby the earl of Salisbury, granted by lord Gran- \nville, but rules affirmed ... 26 Oct. 1880 \n\nReturn of Canadian prosperity affirmed by the mar- \nquis of Lome 9 Dec. ,, \n\nContract for new Pacific railway ratified by the \nassembly 1 Feb. ; work commenced . . May, 1881 \n\nVictoria steamer sunk on the Thames, great loss of \nlife (see Wrecks) 24 May, ,, \n\nFortune-bay affair ; 15,000?. awarded . 28 May, ,, \n\nSuccessful progress of the governor-general through \nthe dominion .... July \xe2\x80\x94 Oct. ,, \n\nThe marquis of Lome arrives at Birkenhead \n14 Nov. 1 88 1 ; returns to Canada . .21 Jan. 1882 \n\nPacific railway bill passed . . . 20 April, ,, \n\nSociety for the Advancement of Literature and \nScience fouuded in Ottawa by the marquis of \nLome 25 May ,, \n\nElections : a protectionist majority . . June, ,, \n\nWestern territory beyond Manitoba divided into \nfour new districts : Assiniboia, Saskatchewan, \nAlberta, and Athabasca : by order in council July, ,, \n\nMarquis of Lome returns to Ottawa from a visit to \nBritish Columbia, Washington, <fec. . 31 Jan. 1883 \n\nNew parliament meets .... 8 Feb. ,, \n\nThe marquis of Lansdowne arrives at Quebec as \ngovernor-general 22 Oct. 1884 \n\nCanada offers military assistance in the Soudan Feb. 1885 \n\nInsurrection in X. W. Territories (see Manitoba), \n\nMarch, ,, \n\nInsurrection in N. W. territories, headed by Louis \nRiel, of Batoche (sec Hudson\'s Bait, 1870), sup- \nported by French half-breeds and Indians, claim- \ning political and social rights alleged to have been \npromised in 1870; government stores seized, &c, \nabout 24 March. Capt. Crozier attacks and kills \nmany rebels, but retreats. Col. Irvine evacuates \nand burns Fort Carleton . . 25-27 March. \n\nTroops despatched from various parts of the \ndominion March, April, ,, \n\nBattleford besieged by Indians . . 1 April, ,, \n\nCol. Irvine at Prince Albert waiting help 1 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCol. Otter, after conflict with Indians, relieves \nHat tl. \xe2\x80\xa2ford 24 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nCANADA. \n\n\n\n174 \n\n\n\nCANADA. \n\n\n\nGen. Middleton defeats rebels at Fish Creek after \nsevere conflict, and suffering much by an ambush \n\nof sharpshooters 24 April, 1885 \n\nCol. Otter defeats the rebels after desperate resist- \nance near Battleford .... 3 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nGen. Middleton attacks Batoche on the Saskatche- \nwan river, well defended by Riel, with rifle-pits, \n&c. British success greatly due to the skill and \ncourage of capt. Howard, U.S., in using the \nGatling gun, which mowed down the enemy \n\n(Batoche captured) 9 May, \xc2\xbb \n\nThe Indian chief Poundmaker captures a supply \ntrain, 31 waggons ; defeated in an engagement \nbut supplies not recovered ... 14 May, ,, \nRiel surrenders to gen. Middleton\'s scouts ; many \n\nof his followers surrender . . - 15 May, ,, \n1,500 Indians under Big-Bear and Poundmaker \n\nhold out, reported 15 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSurrender of the Indian chiefs ; Poundmaker sur- \nrenders 26 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGeneral Strange attacks Big-Bear\'s entrenched \ncamp, about 20 miles from Fort Pitt, but retreats \nin good order . . . . 28, 29 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nBig-Bear\'s army divided, pursued by generals Mid- \ndleton and Strange ; his escape reported 7 June ; \ncaptured 3 July ; sentenced with others to im- \nprisonment 27 Sept. ,, \n\nCanadian Pacific Railway completed about 2,900 \nmiles ; first through train from Montreal to Van- \ncouver 8 Nov. ,, \n\n[First public daily train 28 June, 1886.] \nMessage of congratulation from the Queen to the \n\npeople of Canada 6 Nov. ,, \n\nTrial of Louis Riel at Regina 20 July ; convicted \n1 Aug. ; 28 prisoners plead guilty to treason \nfelony 5 Aug. ; appeal for Riel on ground of \ninsanity disallowed 10 Sept. ; appeal dismissed by \nprivy council, London, 22 Oct. ; Riel executed near \n\nRegina 16 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFrench demonstrations against the government at \n\nMontreal and Quebec without rioting 17 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nEight Indian murderers hanged at Battleford \n\n27 Nov. ,, \nSeizure of American vessel for illegal fishing in the \nBay of Fundy announced about 24 April ; released \n\nabout 27 April, 1S86 \nDavid J. Adams, U.S. fishing vessel, seized atDigby, \nNova Scotia, for alleged illegal practices, an- \nnounced 8 May (captain fined 19 July); the \nAmericans seize the Sisters, a Canadian smack, \nin retaliation (released 30 May) ; Mr. Bayard, \nU.S. minister, appeals to the British government \nfor release of David J. Adams ; Canadian armed \nfleet sent out ; new legislation at Ottawa May, ,, \nSeizure and counter-seizure of 35 vessels . . 1886-7 \nGeneral amnesty to all persons implicated in the \n\nrebellion, except murderers . . 9 Jvdy, 1886 \nDissolution of Parliament ... 17 Jan. 1887 \nSir Alexander Campbell appointed high com- \nmissioner for Canada in London in succession to \n\nsir Charles Tupper Feb. ,, \n\nElections, majority for government 49, 23 Feb. ; \n\nHouse opened 13 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFisheries Retaliation Bill passed by the United \n\nStates congress .... 3 March, ,, \n\nMr. Win. O\'Brien, editorof United Ireland, arrives \nat Montreal on a mission n May ; visits Ottawa, \nToronto, &c. ; generally unsuccessful, and fre- \nquently stoned ; left .... 28 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nJoint commission on fisheries dispute (3 British, \nincluding Mr. J. Chamberlain, and 3 United \nStates) appointed . . . about 30 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nBritish vessels seized by United States authorities \n\nin N. Pacific waters . . 2, 9, 12, 17 Aug. ,, \nGreat railway bridge over the St. Lawrence at \n\nLachine completed .... 30 July, ,, \nArrangements made for a fortnightly mail service, \n&c, from London to the East by the Pacific \nRailway by government subsidies . . Sept. ,, \nTreaty respecting fisheries signed at Washington, \n\nU.S. (see Fisheries) 15 Feb. 1888 \n\nThe senate refuses to ratify . . .21 Aug. ,, \nThe David J. Adams and Ella Doughty, the American \n\nfishing vessels, released ... 28 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe bill for trade reciprocity with United States \n\nnegatived after 15 days\' debate . . 7 April, , \nThe marquis of Lansdowne leaves Canada 23 May ; \n\n\n\nsucceeded by Lord Stanley of Preston (see Salisbury \nAdmin.) ; who took the oath . . 11 June, 1 \n\nCommissioners report the capability of the great \nMackenzie basin, &c. (about 1,260,000 square \nmiles) for colonization ; announced . . Sept. \n\nProposed extension by Manitoba of the Red River \nrailway across the Pacific railway ; opposed by \nthe Canadian Pacific Company as interfering \nwith their monopoly, and disallowed by the \nDominion parliament ; a compromise agreed to ; \nthe Manitoba government determine to proceed ; \nthe Canadian company resists, Oct. ; conflict \nbetween the men, the company successful, 26 \nOct. ; decision of the supreme court in favour of \nManitoba announced 23 Dec. ; leave given to cross \nthe line . 28 Jan. 1 \n\nProposal of a petition to the Queen to give the \ngovernor-general independent action in foreign \naffairs negatived by Parliament (94-66) 18 Feb. \n\nJesuits\' estate act, restoring property to them, \nmuch opposed by Protestants in Quebec ; their \npetition against the act disallowed by govern- \nment Aug. \n\nDestructive storm from Ontario to Quebec, 14 Jan. 1 \n\nParliament opened, general prosperity announced \n\n16 Jan. \n\nThe Commons of the Dominion unanimously vote \na resolution of adhesion to the mother country ; \na copy to be sent to the queen . . 29 Jan. \n\nThe Manitoba railway named the Great Northern \nrailway of Canada Jan. \n\nCrowfoot, the lawyer chief of the Blackfeet Indians \ndies, sending a message of thanks for kindness \nreceived from the government . . 26 April \n\nResignation of gen. Middleton, commander of \nmilitia (under censure) . . about 24 June, \n\nDavid Crockett, U.S. schooner, seized for illegal \nfishing, near Prince Edward Island, released on \nbond, reported 28 Sept. \n\nJohn Reginald Birchall, an educated Englishman, \ntried at Woodstock, Ontario, for the murder in \nNiagara swamp, of Mr. F. J. Benwell (whom he \nhad decoyed from England into a farming part- \nnership), 17 Feb. Birchall wrote a forged letter \nto Col. Benwell, requesting him to send 500Z. to \nhis son : evidence circumstantial ; eight days\' \ntrial; Birchall convicted 11.45 p.m.\', 29 Sept. ; \nexecuted ...... 14 Nov. \n\nThe Indians of Ontario and Quebec, at a meeting \non 21 Nov., agree to petition the government to \nrelease them from the political franchise, and to \npermit them to elect their own chiefs as formerly, \nstill remaining subject to the queen ; petition \npresented, and reserved for consideration, Dec. \n1890 ; parliament dissolved . . .4 Feb. 1 \n\nSir John Macdonald, the premier, and the con- \nservatives, propose reciprocity with the United \nStates, restricted to natural products ; Mr. \nLaurier and the liberals propose unrestricted \nreciprocity \n\nElections ; estimated result, for the government, \n124 ; for the opposition, 91 . . 5 March, \n\nThe Canadian Pacific railway completed by giving \nan entrance to New York over the New York \ncentral lines, by agreement between the com- \npanies . . . . . . .28 March \n\nThe new parliament opened by lord Stanley, \n\n30 April, \n\nDeath of sir John Macdonald, aged 76, greatly \n\nlamented, 6 June ; public funeral at Kingston, \n\n10, 11 June, \n\nThe lion. John Joseph C. Abbott becomes premier, \n\n14 June, \n[K.C.M.G. 24 May.] \n\nMotion in favour of unrestricted reciprocity with \nthe United States, after 15 days\' debate, rejected \nin the commons, by a government majority of 26, \n\n29 July, \n\nGreat strike in the lumber mills at Ottawa begins \n\n14 Sept. \n\nSir Hector Louis Langevin, minister of public \nworks, and his friend, the hon. Thomas \nMcGreevy, an active ministerialist M.P., and \nother officials, charged by Mr. Tarte, M.P., a jour- \nnalist, with corruption in relation to contracts \nfor government works in 1S90 ; the matter re- \nferred to the standing committee on privileges. \nand elections, which met 21 July ; sir H. \n\n\n\nCANAL BOATS. \n\n\n\n175 \n\n\n\nCANARY ISLANDS. \n\n\n\nLangevin makes his defence, u Aug. ; his re- \nsignation as minister accepted, 7 Sept. ; Mr. \nT. McGreevy makes damaging admissions, and \nretires to the United States ; the committee in \ntheir report exonerate sir H. Langevin from all \ncharges, except that of negligence ; they censure \nMr. T. McGreevy, and certain officials, 14 Sept. 1891 \n\nReport adopted by the house . . 25 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe St. Clair tunnel connecting the Canadian and \nthe United States railways running to Chicago \nopened by sir Henry Tyler, chairman of the \nGrand Trunk railway . . . .19 Sept. ,, \n\nLady Macdonald created a peeress as baroness \nMacdonald of Earnscliffe .... Oct. ,, \n\nVery large crop of wheat in the N.W. territories, \n\nend of Nov. ,, \n\nIn consequence of the restriction of Newfoundland \nin its supply of herring bait to Canadian fisher- \nmen, the Dominion government imposes a duty \non imported Newfoundland fish . . 8 Dec. ,, \n\nMr. Nicholas Conolly and Mr. Thomas McGreevy \ncommitted for trial .... 24 Dec. ,, \n\nLachute, on the Canadian Pacific line, burnt, \n\n7 Jan. 1892 \n\nMeeting at Washington of the representatives of \nCanada and the United States to consider reci- \nprocity, no result .... 10-15 F erj - >> \n\nNegotiations broken off . . . .20 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe dominion parliament opened by lord Stanley \nof Preston ... . . 24 Feb. ,, \n\nDifficulty with Newfoundland ended ; return to the \nstatiis of 1889 21 May, ,, \n\nThe hon. Alexander Mackenzie, originally a Scotch \nmason, came to Canada and gradually rose till he \nbecame liberal premier, 1873-8 ; he passed several \nimportant acts and promoted great public works ; \nvisited Great Britain and was received at Windsor, \n1875 ; died aged 70 . . . . 17 April, ,, \n\nMotion for a new reciprocity tariff with Great \nBritain, adopted by the commons at Ottawa \n(98 \xe2\x80\x94 64) , 25 April, ,, \n\nCANAL BOATS, used as dwellings; an act \npassed for their registration and regulation, 14 Aug. \n1877 (40 & 41 Vict. c. 60) ; amended, 1884. M. \nltigoni\'s application of mechanical traction to canal \nboats by means of an endless cable of Bessemer \nsteel, set in motion by fixed engines ; tried between \nAntwerp and Liege, Sep. 1882. \n\nCANALS (artificial watercourses). The im- \nperial canal in China, commenced in the 13th \ncentury, is said to pass over 2000 miles, and to 41 \ncities ; see Ganges, Suez, and Panama. \n\nThe canal of Languedoc (Canal du Midi) which joins \nthe Mediterranean with the Atlantic Ocean, was \n\ncompleted 1681 \n\nThat of Orleans from the Loire to the Seine com- \nmenced 1675 \n\nBurgundy canal 1775 \n\nThat between the Baltic and the North Sea, at Kiel, \n\nopened 1785 \n\nThat of Bourbon, between the Seine and Oise, \n\ncommenced 1790 \n\nSeine and Loire, opened 1791 \n\nThat from the Cattegat to the Baltic . . 1794-1800 \nThe great American Erie canal, 363 miles in length, \n\nwas commenced 1817 \n\nThat of Amsterdam to the sea .... 1819-25 \n\nGanges canal completed 1854 \n\nCanal between Amsterdam and the North Sea \n\nopened 1 Nov. 1876 \n\nGrand canal connecting the Atlantic and Medi- \nterranean (between Bordeaux and Narbonne) \n\nproposed May, 1884 \n\nBaltic and North Sea canal (61 miles long) proposed \n\nJan. 1884 ; completed (see Baltic) . . 6 April, 1891 \nInland navigation congress at Brussels opened \n\n25 May, 1885 \nManchester ship canal projected (see under Man- \nchester) \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRailway and Canal Traffic Act passed 10 Aug. 1888 \n\nFourth international congress on inland navigation, \nManchester, 28-31 July, 1890 ; fifth, Paris, 21 July, 1892 \n(See Ganges, Suez canal and 1 unja\'ib.) \n\n\n\nBfilTlSU CANALS. \n\nThe first was by Henry I., when the Trent was joined) \nto the Witham, 1134. \n\nFrancis Mathew in 1656, and Andrew Yarranton in 1677,. \nin vain strongly urged improvement in internal navi- \ngation. \n\nIn England there are said to be 2800 miles of canals, and. \n2500 miles of rivers, taking the length of those only- \nthat are navigable\xe2\x80\x94 total, 5300 miles. (Mr. Porter, iii_ \n1851, says 4000 miles.) \n\nIn Ireland there are 300 miles of canals ; 150 of navigable \nrivers ; and 60 miles of the Shannon, navigable below \nLimerick ; in all, 510 miles. Williams. \n\nThe prosperity of canals, for a time largely checked by \nthe formation of railways, is now greatly revived ; ancfc \nrailways are connected with them (1878-1889). \n\nINLAND NAVIGATION. \n\nNew river commenced \n\nBrought to London \n\nThames made navigable to Oxford \n\nKennett navigable to Reading \n\nCaermarthenshire canal \n\nDroitwich to the Severn \n\nDuke of Bridgewater\'s navigation (first great canal) \n\ncommenced (see Bridge water) \n\nNorthampton navigation \n\nDublin to the Shannon (the Grand) . . 1765. \n\nStafford and Worcester, commenced \n\nGrand Trunk (Trent and Mersey) commenced by \n\nBrindley \n\nForth to Clyde, commenced \n\nBirmingham to Bilston \n\nOxford to Coventry, commenced .... \nLea made navigable from Hertford to Ware, 1739 ; \n\nto London \n\nLeeds to Liverpool \n\nMoukland (Scotland), commenced . . . . \n\nEllesmere and Chester \n\nBasingstoke canal begun \n\nLiverpool to Wigan \n\nStroud to the Severn \n\nStaffordshire canal, begun \n\nStourbridge canal, completed \n\nRuncorn to Manchester \n\nMersey, opened \n\nChesterfield to the Trent \n\nBelfast to Lough Neagh \n\nSevern to the Thames, completed .... \n\nForth and Clyde, completed \n\nBradford, completed . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nGrand Junction, begun \n\nBirmingham and Coventry \n\nMonastereven to Athy \n\nWorcester and Birmingham . \xc2\xbb . \n\nManchester, Bolton, and Bury \n\nWarwick and Birmingham \n\nCrinan, Argyllshire, cut \n\n\n\n1609- \n1613. \n1624- \n1715- \ni75^ \n\n\n\n!759- \n1761: \n178S \n\n\n\ni 7 6\xc2\xa3 \n176E. \n\n1769. \n\n177c \n\n\n\n1774- \nI77S \n177*;. \n\n\n\n1789. \n1790 \n\n\n\n793\xe2\x80\x94 \n\n\n\n1793- \ni8oe \n179* \n\n\n\n179& \n\ni79 & \n1 799,. \n1800 \n\ni8or \n\n\n\nBarnsley, cut \nRochdale, act passed \nHuddersfield, act passed \nDerby, completed .... \nHereford and Gloucester \' \nPaddington Canal begmi . \nKen net and Avon, opened . \nPeak-forest canal, completed . \nThames to Fenny Stratford . \nBuckingham canal .... \nGrand Surrey, act passed \nBrecknock canal .... \nCaledonian canal begun \nEllesmere aqueduct .... \nAshby-de-la-Zouch, opened . \ni Royal Military canal, Hythe to Rye . \nAberdeen, completed . \nGlasgow and Ardrossan, opened \nLeeds and Liverpool, opened \n\nWye and Avon \n\nEdinburgh and Glasgow Union . \n\nSheffield, completed .... \n\nRegent\'s canal, opened \n\nCaledonian canal, completed \n\nBirmingham ami Liverpool, begun \n\nGloucester and Berkeley, ship-canal, completed \n\nNorwich and Lowestoft navigation opened . \n\nCANARY ISLANDS (N. W. Africa), known \nto the ancients as the Fortunate Isles. Thev were- \n\n\n\n1803. \n1805 \n\n\n\nxSoy- \n\n\n\n30 Oct. \n\n\n\ni8ir \n1816 \n\ni8i8\' \n1819 \n1820 \n1822 \n1826. \n1827 \n\n\n\nCANCER HOSPITAL. \n\n\n\n176 \n\n\n\nCANDIA. \n\n\n\nre-discovered by a Norman named Bethencourt, \nabout 1400 ; his descendants sold them to the \nSpaniards, who became masters, 1483. The canary- \nbird, a native of these isles, brought to England \n\xe2\x96\xa0about 1500. Teneriflf\'e is the largest island. Ferro, \nthe most south-western, was appointed the French \n\xe2\x80\xa2meridian by Louis XIII. in 1632. \n\nCANCER HOSPITAL (Free), Brompton, \nS.~W. London, was founded in 1851 by the late \n\xe2\x96\xa0Dr. William Marsden (born Aug. 1796), who actively \nsuperintended it till his death, 16 Jan. 1867. The \nfoundation stone of the building was laid by Miss \n,(afcerwards Baroness) Burdett Coutts, an early \nliberal benefactor, 30 May, 1859. See Free Hospital, \nfounded by Dr. Marsden in 1828. \n\nCANDAHAR, a province of Afghanistan held \n\'by Duranis and Ghilzais. Candahar, the capital, \nis said to have been founded by Alexander the \n\xe2\x80\xa2Great (334-323 B.C.) After being subject to suc- \ncessive rulers of India, it was made capital of \nAfghanistan by Ahmed Shah, 1747, but the seat of \n-\xe2\x80\xa2government was transferred to Cabul in 1774. \n\'Taken and held bythe British 7 Aug. 1839 to 22 May, 1842 \n<Jen. Nott (with major Rawlinson and major Lane) \n\ndefeated the Afghans near here. Jan. and June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe government of Candahar conferred on Shere \nAli (a cousin of the late ameer Shere Ali), with the \ntitle of Wali, by the viceroy of India . April, 1880 \nShere Ali resigned, and went to Calcutta in Dec. ,, \nAfter the disaster of Maiwand, 27 July, 1880, Can- \ndahar was held by British during the winter 1880-1 \nIn the house of lords on the earl of Lytton\'s mo- \ntion to retain Candahar, 165 voted for its reten- \ntion, 76 against 5 March, 1881 \n\n\'The house of commons, on Mr. Stanhope\'s motion \nfor retention, 336 voted against it ; 216 for it, \n\n24-26 March, ,, \n\xe2\x80\xa2Candahar evacuated by the British, 16-21 April, ,, \nSirdar Kashira Khan (on behalf of Abdur-rahman, \n\nameer of Cabul) enters Candahar . 16 April, ,, \nInvasion of Ayoob Khan ; he defeats the ameer\'s \narmy at Karez-i-Atta, 26 July ; enters Candahar. \n\n30 July, ,, \nAfter a severe conflict, 22 Sept., the ameer enters \n\nCandahar 30 Sept. ,, \n\nSee Afghanistan. \n\nCANDIA, the mediaeval name (now disused) of \nCrete, of which Candia is the capital, an island in \nthe Mediterranean Sea, mythically celebrated for \nits 100 cities, its centre Mount Ida, the laws of its \nMng Minos, and its labyrinth to secure the Mino- \ntaur. It was conquered by the Romans 68 B.C. \nPopulation -estimated 1889, 210,000. \n\nSeized by the Saracens a.d. \n\nRe-taken by the Greeks \n\nSold to the Venetians .... Aug. \n\nRebelled ; reduced \n\nGained by the Turks, after a twenty-four years\' \nsiege, during which more than 200,000 men \n\nperished 1669 \n\nCeded to the Egyptian pacha 1830 \n\n"Restored to Turkey 1840 \n\nInsurrections suppressed, 1841 ; by conciliation. . 1858 \n\xe2\x96\xa0persecution- of the Christians . . . 31 July, 1859 \nThe Christians demand redress of grievances, June, 1866 \n\'They establish a " sacred battalion " . 12 Aug. ,, \nPublish an address to the powers protecting Greece, \n\n21 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe Cretan general assembly proclaim the abolition \nof the Turkish authority in Candia, and union \n\nwith Greece 2 Sept. ,, \n\nCommencement of hostilities : the Turkish army \n\ncommanded by Mustapha Pacha . .11 Sept. ,, \n\xe2\x80\xa2Greeks victorious in several conflicts, Sept. and Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe Greek steamer Panhellenion begins to convey \n\nvolunteers, cfec. , to Candia . . . Oct. ,, \nMonastery of Arkadi besieged ; blown up by the \n\ndefenders ; great loss on both sides . 26N0V. ,, \nProposition of Austria, Prussia, Italy, and Switzer- \nland to the sultan to give up Candia, 28 March ; \n.declined . .... 31 March, 1S67 \n\n\n\n23 \n\n\n\n1204 \n1364 \n\n\n\nMany defenceless villages said to be burnt June, \n\nCollective note from Russia and other powers urging \nthe Porte to suspend hostilities . 15 June, \n\nIndecisive conflicts . . . . . . July, \n\nThe Arkadi Greek steamer, after running the block- \nade 22 times, landing Greek volunteers, and \nbringing away women and children, destroyed by \nthe Turkish vessel Izcddin . . . io Aug. \n\nAssembly of delegates meet the vizier . 22 Sept. \n\nInsurrection subsides ; the grand vizier arrives, 28 \nSept. ; proclaims an amnesty, and promises re- \nforms 5 Nov. \n\nSuccessful blockade running by the Greeks ; Omar \nPasha, the Turkish general, resigns his command \nin the island Nov. \n\nThe delegates\' demands granted . .11 Dec. \n\nThe war renewed (indecisive) . . . Feb. \n\nThe Petropaulakes landed about 2500 men on oppo- \nsite sides of the isle, 10 Dec. , but failed in their \nattempt to unite ; after several skirmishes, in \nwhich they lost about 650 men, all surrendered, \n(and were sent to Greece) . . .26 Dec. \n\nThe provisional government surrendered 30 Dec. \n\nThe new Turkish governor, Omer Fenizi, arrived, \nand the blockade ended . . .8 March, \n\nInsurrection announced, with provisional govern- \nment about 20 Dec. \n\nUnion with Greece proclaimed, 31 Jan. ; decreed \nby a general assembly . . . n Feb. \n\nInsurrection unsubdued ; anarchy ; Berlin treaty \ndeclares for enforcing legal and political reforms, \n\n13 July, \n\nPacification by Mukhtar Pasha\' through concession \nof self-government, &c. . . . . . Oct. \n\nInsurrection on account of religious difficulties \n\n8 Feb. \n\nThe christian notables appeal to the sultan for a \nchristian governor, and to Greece and other \npowers for mediation . . about 1 March, \n\nPhotiad\'es, reappointed governor for five years an- \nnounced 6 March, \n\nTemporary disturbances, order restored 1-6 May, \n\nAnarchy through party strife of Christians and \nMahometans, May-June ; Turkish troops sent to \nCrete, 13 June; provisional government formed \nto restore order 13 June, \n\nMahmoud Djellalledin pasha, Turkish com- \nmissioner, well received ; agitation calmed by his \ninquiries, June 14 etseq. An insurgent assembly \ndemands a constituent assembly, judicial reforms, \nand dismissal of the governor, the people neutral \nabout 1 July ; the sultan sends 20,000?. T. , 6 \nJuly ; Mahmoud Djellalledin pasha informs a \ndeputation that their demands must be referred \nto the sultan, 8 July ; he is suddenly recalled, \n\n8 July, \n\nAsserted influence of Greek agitators, 22 July ; \ninsurrection increasing ; call for annexation to \nGreece, or British protection, about 25 July ; \nDjavad pasha arrives to take command of the \ntroops . 1 Aug. \n\nRiza pasha appointed temporary governor, with \nextra powers for repressing disorder . 4 Aug. \n\nFighting going on, villages burnt, reported 5 Aug. \n\nNote from the Greek government to the powers, \nurging intervention in Crete, 6 Aug. ; they \ndecline, leaving the settlement to the Sultan, 9-12 \nAug. ; about 17,000 Turkish troops in Crete, \nreported 7 Aug. \n\nRiza Pasha, the governor, recalled ; replaced by \nShakir pasha, who arrives with plenary powers, \n13 Aug. ; proclaims martial law . . 14 Aug. \n\nPartial submission of the insurgents ; amnesty \npromised 17 Aug. \n\nTranquillity gradually restored by Turkish moderate \nfirmness ....... Sept. \n\nThe Notables address the sultan, thanking him for \nhis good government .... 28 Jan. \n\nTurkish circular to the great powers, reporting \nthe pacification of Crete, 6 March ; amnesty, \nexcept to 18 persons convicted of crimes, an- \nnounced 11 March, \n\nGreat return of refugees from Greece about 10 May, \n\nDjevad pasha appointed governor about 7 July, in \nroom of Shakir pasha \n\nMahmoud Djellalledin pasha appointed governor \n(Djevad pasha having been made grand vizier) \nabout 8 Sept. \n\n\n\n1S77 \n\n\n\nCANDLEMAS DAY. \n\n\n\n177 \n\n\n\nCANNON. \n\n\n\nCANDLEMAS DAY, 2 Feb. is kept in the \nchurch in memory of the purification of the Virgin, \nwho presented the infant Jesus in the Temple. \nFrom the number of candles lit (it is said in \nmemory of Simeon\'s song, Luke ii. , 32, " a Light to \nlighten the Gentiles," &c), this festival was called \nCandlemas, as well as the Purification. Its origin \nis ascribed by Bede to pope Gelasius in the 5th \ncentury. The practice of lighting the churches was \nforbidden by order of council, 2 \xc2\xa3dw. VI. 1548; but \nis still continued in the church of Rome. Candle- \nmas is a Scotch quarter-day. \n\nCANDLES. The Roman candles were com- \nposed of string surrounded by wax, or dipped in \npitch. Splinters of wood fatted were used for light \namong the lower classes in England, about 1300. \nWax candles were little used, and dipped candles \nwere usually burnt. The Wax Chandlers\' com- \npany was incorporated 1483. Mould candles are \nsaid to be the invention of the sieur Le Brez, of \nParis. Spermaceti candles are of modern manu- \nfacture. The Chinese make candles from wax ob- \ntained from the candleberry-tree (myrica cerifera) . \nThe duty upon candles made in England, imposed \nin 1709, amounted to about 500,000/. annually \nAvhen it was repealed in 1 831. Very great improve- \nments in the manufacture of candles are due to the \nresearches on oils and fats, carried on by "the \nfather of the fatty acids," Chevreul, since 1811, \nand published in 1823. He died 9 April, \n1889, aged 102. At Price\'s manufactory at \nLambeth, the principles involved in many patents \nare carried into execution ; including those of \nGwynne (1840), Jones and Price (1842), and Wil- \nson in 1844, for candles which require no snuffing \n(termed composite). Palm and cocoa-nut oils are \nnow extensively used. In i860, at the Belmont \nworks 900 persons were employed, and in winter \n100 tons (7000/. worth) of candles were manufactured \nweekly. Candles are manufactured at Belmont \nfrom the mineral oil of tar brought from Rangoon \nin the Burmese empire, and from Trinidad. In \n1870 the manufacture of candles from a mineral \nsubstance named ozokerit began. Electric candles \nof Jablochkoff and Jamin ; see under Electricity. \n\nCANDLESTICKS (or lamp-stands) with \nseven branches were regarded as emblematical of \nthe priest\'s office, and were engraven on their seals, \ncups, and tombs. Bezaleel made " a candlestick of \npure gold" for the tabernacle, B.C. 1491 {Exod. \nxxxvii. 17). Candlesticks were used in Britain in \nthe days of king Edgar, 959 ("silver candelabra \nand gilt candelabra well and honourably made "). \n\nCANDY (Ceylon), was taken by a British de- \ntachment, 20 Feb. 1803, who capitulated 23 June \nfollowing, on account of its unhealthiness, and \nmany were treacherously massacred at Colombo, \n26 June. The war was renewed in Oct. 1814; the \nking was made prisoner by general Brownrigg, \n19 Feb. 181 5; and the sovereignty was vested in \nGreat Britain, 2 March, 1815. \n\nCANICULAR PERIOD, see Boy-star. \n\nCANNZE (Apulia). Here, on 2 Aug. 216 B.C., \nHannibal with 50,000 Africans, Gauls, and Spaniards, \ndefeated iEmilius Paulus and Terentius VaiTO, with \n88,000 Romans, and their allies. This great army \nwas nearly annihilated, the far greater part being \nslain on the field, including the consul vEmilius \nPaulus, his chief officers, above 80 senators, with \nmany other persons of high rank. Hannibal is \nsaid to have lost about 6,000 men. The other con- \nsul, Vano, who had escaped with some cavalry, con- \nducted himself with so much discretion and firmness \n\n\n\nafter the battle, that the senate, instead oi blaming \nhim for the defeat, thanked him for not despairing \nof the Roman Commonwealth. \n\nCANNIBAL, an Indian term, thought to be \na form of Carribal ; as Columbus, in 1493, found \nthe Caribs of the West Indies gross cannibals. \nAnthropophagi (man- eaters) are mentioned by \nHomer and Herodotus ; and the practice still exists \nin some of the South Sea Islands and other savage \ncountries. For Mignonette case, see Wrecks, 1884. \nSuperstitious cannibalism practised in Hayti, 1884. \nA number of Melanesian labourers said to have \nkilled and eaten the entire crew of a ship convey- \ning them to Apia, Navigators Island . . Dec. 1886 \n\nCANNING ADMINISTRATION.* The \nillness of lord Liverpool, Feb., led to the formation \nof this administration, 24-30 April, 1827. Mr. \nCanning died 8 Aug. following : see Goderich. \nGeorge Canning, first lord of the treasury and chancellor \n\nof the exchequer. \nEarl of Harrowby, president of the council. \nDuke of Portland, lord privy seal. \nViscount Dudley, viscount Goderich, and Mr. Sturges \n\nBourne, foreign, colonial, and home secretaries. \nW. W. Wynn, president of the India board. \nWin. Huskisson, board of trade. \nLord Palmerston, secretary at ivar. \nLord Bexley, chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. \nDuke of Clarence, lord high admiral. \nLord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor, &c. \nMarquis of Lansdowne, without office; afterwards home \n\nsecretary. \nEarl of Carlisle, woods and forests. \n\nCANNON. Gibbon describes a cannon em- \nployed by Mahomet IT. at the siege of Adrianople, \n1453 ; see Artillery. \n\nThe first cannon cast in England was by Hugget, at \nUckfleld, Sussex, 1543. \n\nMons Meg, a large cannon (above 13 ft. long, 20 \ninches calibre) in Edinburgh castle, said to have \nbeen cast at Mons in Hainault, in i486, but more \nprobably forged at Castle Douglas, Galloway, by \nthree brothers named M\'Kim, and presented by \nthem to James II. at the siege of Thrieve castle, \n1455. It was removed to London, 1754 ; but, at \nthe request of sir Walter Scott, restored to Edin- \nburgh, 1829. \n\nA cannon of Mahomet II. , dated 1464, presented to \nthe British government by the sultan of Turkey, \nand placed in the Artillery Museum, Woolwich, \n1868. \n\nMoolk-e-Maedan, an Indian bronze gun of Beejapoor, \ncalibre 23 inches ; 17th century. \n\nAt Ehrenbreitstein castle, ox>posite Coblentz on the \nRhine, is a cannon, eighteen feet and a half long, \na foot and a half in diameter in the bore, and \nthree feet four inches in the breech ; the ball for \nit weighs i8olb., and its charge of powder 941b. \nIt was made by one Simon 1529 \n\nIn Dover castle is a brass gun (called queen Eliza- \nbeth\'s pocket pistol), 24 feet long, a present from \nCharles V. to Henry VIII. \n\nPine specimens in the. Tower of London. \n\nA leathern cannon fired three times in the King\'s \npark, Edinburgh. Phillips . . 23 Oct. 1788 \n\nThe Turkish piece, now in St. James\'s park, was \ntaken by the French at Alexandria ; but was re- \ntaken, and placed in the park . . March, 1803 \n\nMessrs. Horsfall\'s monster wrought-iron gun was \ncompleted in May, 1856, at Liverpool. Its length \nis 15 feet to inches, and its weight 21 tons 17 cwt. \n1 qr. 14ft. Its cost was 3500?. With a charge of \n25th. it struck a target 2000 yards\' distance. It \nhas been since presented to government. \n\n\n\n* George Canning was born 11 April, 1770 \nforeign secretary in the Portland administration, 1807; \nfought a duel with Id. Castlereagh and resigned, 1800 : \npresident of the India board in 1820 ; disapproved of the \nqueen\'s trial and resigned in 1821 ; appointed governor- \ngeneral of India in 1822, but became soon after 1\'i\'irign \nsecretary, and remained such till 1827, when he became \npremier. He died 8 Aug. same year. \n\nN \n\n\n\nCANNON. \n\n\n\n178 \n\n\n\nCANNON. \n\n\n\nRifled ordnance committee appointed . 20 Aug. \n\nRecently great improvements have been made in \nthe construction of cannon, by Messrs. Whit- \nworth, Mallet, Armstrong, and others. Mr. Wm. \nG. Armstrong knighted ... 18 Feb. \n\nHe had been working for four years on gun-making, \nand had succeeded in producing "a breech-load- \ning rifled wrought-iron gun of great durability \nand of extreme lightness, combining a great ex- \ntent of range and extraordinary accuracy." The \nrange of a 32-lb. gun, charged with 51b. of powder, \nwas a little more than 5 miles. The accuracy of \nthe Armstrong gun is said at equal distances to \nbe fifty-seven times more than that of our com- \nmon artillery, which it greatly exceeded also in \n\xe2\x80\xa2destructive effects. The government engaged the \nservices of sir W. Armstrong for ten years (com- \nmencing with 1855) for 2o,oooZ., as consulting \nengineer of rifled ordnance ... 22 Feb. \n\nA parliamentary committee on ordnance was ap- \npointed 20 Feb. , and reported . . 23 July, \n\nSir W. Armstrong resigned his appointment 5 Feb. \n\nHis gun said to be very effective, in the attack on \nthe Chinese forts at Taku . . .21 Aug. \n\nMr. Whitworth\'s guns and rifles greatly commended \n\n18\' \n\nAn American cannon, weighing 35 tons, stated to \nbe the largest in the world, cast . . . . \n\nCreat endeavours made to improve the construction \nof cannon, to counterbalance the strength given \nto ships of war by iron plates ; trials at Shoe- \nburyness, Essex \n\nTargets of the thickness of the iron sides of the \nWarrior, three 5-inch relates f wrought iron \n\'bolted together, pierced three times by 156ft. \n\xe2\x96\xa0shot from an Armstrong gun smooth bore, 300ft., \nmuzzle-loaded with charges of 40ft. of powder, \ntwice, and once of 50ft. ... 8 April, \n\nThe Horsfallgun, mentioned above, with a charge \nof 75ft. of powder and a shot of 270ft., smashed a \nWarrior target 16 Sept. \n\nMr. Whitworth\'s shells sent through si-inch iron \nplates and wood-work behind . . 12 Nov. \n\nClark\'s target destroyed . . . .7 July, \n\nArmstrong\'s gun " Big Will" tried and pronounced \nto be perfect ; weight, 22 tons ; length, 15 feet ; \nrange with shot weighing 510ft. , 748 to 4x87 yards \n\n19 Nov. \n\nReed\'s target tried successfully . .\'.\xe2\x96\xa0\xc2\xab\xe2\x96\xa0 8 Dec. \n\nThe competitive trial between the Armstrong and \nWhitworth guns began . . . 1 April, \n\nIron-plate commission experiments close 4 Aug. \n\nCapt. Palliser, afterwards sir W., by experiment, \nhas shown that iron shot cast in cold iron moulds \ninstead of hot sand, is much harder, and equals \nsteel ; he also suggested the lining cast-iron guns \nwith wrought-iron exits, which is stated to be \nsuccessful \n\nHe received 24,000?. from the government, besides \nother remuneration \n\n\'The competitive trials of Armstrong\'s and Whit- \nworth\'s cannon upon the Alfred target-ship at \nPortsmouth closed . . . .15 Nov. \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2" Hercules target," 4 ft. 2 in. thick, n\xc2\xa3 inches of \niron, resists 300 pounders . . . June, \n\nNational Artillery Association (see Artillery) . . \n\nDuel between the Bellerophon, with a 125-ton g-inch \nrifled naval service gun with steel bolts (250 ft.), \nand powder charge of 48ft., and the single gun \nturret of the Royal Sovereign by capt. Cowper \nColes : the equilibrium of the turret base undis- \nturbed by any amount of pounding . 15 June, \n\nAt Shoeburyness Palliser\'s chilled metal shot \n(250ft.) by 43 ft. of powder in a q-ineh muzzle- \nloading wrought-iron Woolwich rifle gun, is sent \nthrough a target of 8 inches rolled iron, 18 inches \nteak, and \\ inch iron, and about 20 feet beyond, \n\n13 Sept. \n\nJHis patent is dated 27 May, 1863. Mr. James \nNasmyth had previously suggested the use of \nchilled iron. ] \n\nMany experiments made with cannon and targets at \nShoeburyness \n\nThe American 15-inch naval gun, with a cast-iron \nspherical shot 453ft. , greatly damages an 8-inch \ntarget ; other experiments at Shoeburyness, \n\n23 J" 1 }". \n\n\n\n1859 \n\n\n\nDO-70 \ni860 \n\n\n\nContinued experiments at Shoeburyness ; Ply- \nmouth model fort, with 15-inch solid shield- \nplates, tried with 23-ton gun of 12-inch bore, \nbearing 600ft. Palliser shot ; exterior of fort de- \nstroyed ; interior intact ; \xe2\x80\x94 the 10-inch English \ngun shown to be superior to American and Prus- \nsian great guns .... 16-24 June, \n\nCapt. Moncrieffs protected barbette gun-carriage (in \nwhich the recoil is utilized for reloading), tried at \nShoeburyness and proved successful . 2 Oct. \n\nContest at Shoeburyness : the iron targets of Brown \nof Sheffield resist the Whitworth guns, 2 March, \n\nPalliser shot said to have failed in the Hercules, \n\n20 Jan. \n\n" Woolwich Infant," 35 tons ; largest gun then ever \nmade ; length 16 feet 3 inches ; formed of a steel \ntube with coiled breech piece ; designed to fire a \n700ft. projectile, with 120ft. charge ; made at \nWoolwich in 1870 ; when tried in Dec. 1871, the \ninner tube cracked ; others made .... \n\nDuel between the Hotspur (with 25-ton 12-inch rifle \ngun, heaviest afloat, with Palliser\'s 600ft. shot, \nand 85ft: of powder), and the Glatton iron-clad, \nwhose turret plates successfully resisted the \nattack (animals in the turret uninjured), 5 July, \n\nCol. Moncrieft\'s hydro-pneumatic carriage for artil- \nlery invented about April ; the principle claimed by \nsir Wm. Armstrong for hydraulic machine 1 1 Nov. \n\nWoolwich Infant. \xe2\x80\x94 Experimental gun constructing \nat Woolwich; 80 tons ; 27 feet long; for 1650 ft. \nshot ; 300 ft. of powder .... May, \n\n81-ton gun tried at Woolwich ; shot 1250 ft. ; 190 ft. \nof powder ; 12 men rammed in the charge ; shot \npenetrated 50 feet of sand ; tried successfully \n18 Sept. 1S75, 24-26 July, with 370 ft. of powder \n\n4 Aug. \n\nGen. von Uehatius\'s steel bronze cannon making at \nVienna, . Sept. 1875 ; reported successful, Sept. \n\nSir Wm. Armstrong\'s 100-ton gun for Italy tried \nsuccessfully at Spezzia, 2000 lb. shot and 330 ft. \npowder . . ... . . 21 Oct. \n\n81-ton (or 80-ton) gun tried at Shoeburyness for \nsea-range, with 1760 ft. Palliser shell \n\n27 Sept. et seq. 1876, and 1 Feb. \n\nFour 100-ton guns by Armstrong ordered by go- \nvernment March, \n\nA 100-ton gun tried at Woolwich, 13 June ; finally \nproved 16 July, \n\nGreat guns by Krnpp successfully tried at Meppen, \nHanover 5-8 Aug. \n\n[He has supplied thousands of cannon to different \ngovernments ; he died, aged 77, 14 July, 1887.] \n\nBreech-loading cannon ordered to be made Dec. \n\nExperiments with the 38-ton Thunderer gun (see \nNavy, 1879), 9 Dec. 1879 ; exploded when double- \ncharged 3 Feb. \n\nOne of Armstrong\'s 100-ton guns in the Duilio near \nNaples exploded .... 6 March, \n\nA Krupp gun, of 130 tons, cast for Italy . Oct. \n\nMr. Hiram Stevens Maxim\'s machine-gun, in which \nthe recoil is utilised for reloading and retiring \nuntil the store of ammunition is exhausted (de- \nscribed in " Nature," 5 March, 1885) . . . \n\nSir Wm. Armstrong\'s 1 1 i-ton gun tried at Woolwich, \nlength 43 ft. 8 in., charge 960 lbs. of gunpowder, \nweight of projectile 1800 lbs., range of about 8 \nmiles ; said to be the largest gun in the world \n\nJune \n\nManufacture of guns largely removed from Wool- \nwich ; about 56 per cent, transferred to private \nfirms announced Nov. \n\nZalinski gun for the projection of dynamite adopted \nby the United States for coast defence, Feb. 1889 ; \nby the British Government . . Feb. \n\nThe Graydon torpedo projector announced March \n\nMessrs. Krupp, of Essen, make a gun weighing \n270,000 lbs., for Cronstadt ; reported 10 March, \n\nThe Giffard gun, in which the propelling agent is \nliquified carbonic acid gas, the invention of M. \nPaul Giffard, a French engineer ; the gas is said \nto be cheaply manufactured, liquified, and stored ; \nmany experiments on the continent reported \nsuccessful, 1889-90 ; M. Giffard exhibited and \ndischarged rifles, illustrating his inventions in \nLondon before a number of distinguished \npersons 18 July \n\nLieut. James W. Graydon, late of U. S. Navy, \ninvents the Graydon dynamite gun, in which \n\n\n\n1870 \n\n\n\n187+ \n1876 \n\n1877 \n1878 \n1879 \n\n\n\nCANOE. \n\n\n\n179 \n\n\n\nCANTEEBUEY. \n\n\n\ndynamite shells are discharged by means of con- \ndensed air, the force of the dynamite being \nmoderated by means of non-conductors of heat ; \none of these guns manufactured by Messrs. \nTaunton & Co., of Birmingham . . . Jan. 1891 \n\nThe Hotchkiss Ordnance Company, registered 1887 ; \ntheir weapons were used with effect in sup- \npressing the Indian revolt in the United States \n\nDec. 1890 \n\nExplosion of 6-in. gun, No. 3,131,687, on H.M.S. \nCordelia in the Pacific ocean, killing 6 men \n(report from Sydney) . \xe2\x80\x9e . .29 June, 1891 \n\nCANOE. In the "Rob Roy" a very lightly \n\xe2\x80\xa2constructed canoe, " giving the pleasure of a yacht \nwithout the expense," Mr. J. Macgregor, in 1865, \ntravelled about a thousand miles on the rivers and \nJakes of Europe. His second cruise was on the \nBaltic. He explored the Suez canal, Nov., and the \n\xe2\x80\xa2rivers of Syria, Dec. 1868, and the canals and lakes \nof Holland in the summer of 187 1. The "Octoroon" \n(16 feet long, 23 inches broad) crossed the channel \nfrom Boulogne to Dover, in n hours, 19 Aug. \n1867. The Royal canoe club founded, 1866. The \nprince of Wales president, 1876. \njtfr. Fowler crossed from Boulogne to-Sandgate \nstanding in an india-rubber twin canoe (the Podo- \nscaplie), in 12 hours .... 19 Aug. 1878 \n\nCANON OF SCBIPTITBE, see Bible. \n\nCANON, a piece of music in two or more parts, \nimitating each other. " Non nobis, Domine," by \nBirde (died 1523) is an early specimen. \n\nCANONBUET TOWEE, Islington, N. \nLondon, relie of ancient priory, built by Prior \nBolton, of the order of St. John of Jerusalem, said \nio have been visited by queen Elizabeth. \n\nCANONICAL HOUES, see Breviary. \n\nCANONISATION of pious men and martyrs \nas saints, was instituted by pope Leo III., 800. \nTallent. Every day in the calendar is now a \nsaint\'s day. The first canonisation by papal autho- \nrity was of St. Udalricus, Ulric, in 993. Previously \ncanonisation was the act of the bishops and people. \nHenault. On 8 June, 1862, the pope canonised 27 \nJapanese, who had been put to death on 5 Feb. \nJ \xc2\xa397, near Nagasaki, and 25 others, on 29 June, \n1867. Among persons canonised by pope Pius IX. \nin Oct. 1872, was the late queen of Naples. Sir \nThomas More, Bishop John Fisher, and others were \n\xe2\x96\xa0canonised, Jan. 1887. See Bopes, 1881. \n\nCANONS, APOSTOLICAL, ascribed to the \nApostles by Bellarmin and Baronius, by others to \nSt. Clement, are certainly of much later date (since \n325). The Greek church allows 85, the Latin 50 of \nthem. The first Ecclesiastical Canon was promul- \ngated 380. Usher. Canon law of the church. \nGratian compiled a text-book of the canon law as \nIx existed in his time, about 1130-50; it was intro- \nduced into England about 1 154; see Decretals. The \npresent Canons and Constitutions of the Church of \nEngland, collected from former ordinances, were \nestablished in 1603 by the clergy in convocation, \nand ratified by king James I., 1604. A new body \nof canons formed by the convocation in 1640, were \n\xe2\x96\xa0declared unlawful by the commons, 16 Dee. 1641. \xe2\x80\x94 \nAn intermediate class of religious, between priests \nand monks, in the 8th century, were termed canons, \nas living by a rule. Canons in some of our cathedrals \nand collegiate churches resemble the prebendaries \nin others. The endowment of canonrics was facili- \ntated by the Cathedrals Act, 1873. \n\nCANOPUS, see Alexandria. \n\nCANOSSA, a castle in Modena. Here the \nemperor Henry IV. of Germany, submitted to \n\n\n\npenance imposed by his enemy, pope Gregory VII. \n(Hildebrand), then living at the castle, the resi- \ndence of the great countess Matilda. Henry was \nexposed for several days to the inclemency of \nwinter, Jan. 1077, till the pope admitted him, and \ngranted absolution. Matilda greatly inci e ised the \ntemporal power of the papacy by bequeathing to it \nher lai-ge estates, to the injury of her second hus- \nband, Guelph, duke of Bavaria. A Canossa monu- \nment, near Harzburg, against the papacy, was in- \naugurated 26 Aug. 1877. \n\nCANTEEBUEY (Kent), the Durovernum of \nthe Romans, and capital of Ethelbert, king of Kent, \nwho reigned 560-616. He was converted to Chris- \ntianity by Augustin, 596, upon whom he bestowed \nmany favours, giving him land for an abbey and \ncathedral, dedicated to Christ, 602. St. Martin\'s \nchurch is said to be the oldest Saxon church in \nBritain. The riot at Boughton, near Canterbury, \nproduced by a fanatic called Tom or Thorn, who \nassumed the name of sir "William Courtenav, oc- \ncurred 28-31 May, 1838; see Thomites. The rail- \nway to London was completed in 1846. \xe2\x80\x94 The Arch- \nbishop is primate and metropolitan of all England, \nand the first peer in the realm, having precedency \nof all officers of state, and of all dukes not of the \nblood royal. Canterbury had formerly jurisdiction \nover Ireland, and the archbishop was styled a \npatriarch. This see has yielded to the Church of \nRome 18 saints and 9 cardinals; and to the civil \nstate of England, 12 lord chancellors and 4 lord trea- \nsurers. This see was made superior to York, 1073 > \nsee York. The revenue is valued in the king\'s \nbooks at 2816/. ~s. gd. Beatson. Present income, \n15,000/. The Cathedral was sacked by the Danes, \nion, and burnt down 1067 ; rebuilt by Lanfranc \nand Anselm, and the choir completed by the prior \nConrad in 1 130, and in which Becket was mur- \ndered, 1 1 70, was burnt 11 74. It was rebuilt by \nWilliam of Sens (1174-78), and by "English \nWilliam," 1178-84. A new nave was built and \nother parts, 1378-1410. The great central tower \nwas erected by prior Goldstone about 1495. The \ngorgeous shrine of Becket was stripped at the \nreformation, and his bones burnt. Here were in- \nterred Edward the Black Prince, Henry IV., car- \ndinal Pole, and other distinguished persons. Part \nof the roof w r as destroyed by an accidental fire, \nand the edifice narrowly escaped, 3 Sept. 1872. The \nclock-tower was nearly on fire, 2 June, 1876. See \nHuguenots. Dr. Beaney, of Melbourne, bequeaths \n10,000/. to the city, announced July, 1891. Popu- \nlation, 1881, 21,848; 1891, 23,026. Great fire at \nthe banacks ; estimated damage about 13,000/., 16 \nNov., 1891. \n\nBy the Archbishop\'s court which existed before the \nReformation, Thos. Watson, bishop of St. David\'s, \nwas deprived for simony, 3 Aug. 1699. Dr. E. King, \nbishop of Lincoln, was cited before this court by \nRead and others, and appeared before the archbishop \nand the bishops of London, Winchester, Rochester, \nOxford, and Salisbury (he was prosecuted for ritualistic \npractices connected with the holy communion 4 Dec. \n1887 at scij.) 12 Feb. He protested against the juris- \ndiction of the court, and the case was adjourned 13 \nFeb.; court adjourns 27 March ; met and decided to \nuphold its jurisdiction, 13 May, 1889. \n\nThe trial of the bishop of Lincoln before the arch- \nbishop ami other bishops at Lambeth began (sir \nHorace Davey and others for the promoters of \nthe suit, Dr. Phillihiore and others for the bishop) \n\n4-7, 20-25 Feb. 1890 \n\nAll the charges against the bishop were dismissed \nexcept two ; his practices of breaking the bread \nand taking the cup "not before 1 1 1 \xc2\xab - people)" and \nmaking the sign of the cross while pronouncing \nabsolution and benediction, were declared to be \n\nN 2 \n\n\n\nCANTERBURY. \n\n\n\n180 \n\n\n\nCAOUTCHOUC. \n\n\n\nunjustifiable additions to the ceremonies of the \nchurch, and were ordered to he discontinued (no \ncosts allowed on either side) . . 21 Nov. \nAn appeal to the .judicial committee of the Privy \nCouncil, July, 1891 ; was dismissed . 2 Aug. \n\n\n\n602-605. \n\n605-619. \n\n619-624. \n\n624-630. \n\n631-653- \n\n655-664. \n\n668-690. \n\n693-731- \n\n731-734- \n\n735-741- \n\n741-758. \n\n759-762. \n\n763-790. \n\n790-803. \n\n803-829. \n\n829. \n\n830-870. \n\n870-889. \n\n891-923. \n\n923 (?) \n\n928-941. \n\n941-958. \n\n959-988. \n\n988-989. \n\n990-995. \n\n995-1006. \n1006-1011. \n1013-1020. \n1020-1038. \n1038-1050. \n1050-1052. \n1052-1070. \n1070-1089. \n1093-1109. \n\n1114-1122. \n1123-1136. \n1139-1161. \n1162-1170. \n\n1174-1184. \n1184-1190. \n1191; \n\n\n\n1206-1228. \n1229-1231. \n1233-1240. \n1240-1270. \n1272-1278. \n1279-1292. \n1293-1313. \n1313-1327. \n1327-1333- \nI333-I348- \n1348-1349. \n\n1349- \n\n1349-1366. \n\n1366-1368. \n\n1368-1374- \n\n1375-1381. \n\n1381-1396. \n\n1397-1398. \n\n1398. \n\n1399-1414. \n\n1414-1443. \n\n1443-1452. \n\n1452-1454. \n\n1454-1486. \n\n1486-1500. \n\n1501-1503. \n\n1503-1532- \n\n1533-1556. \n\nI556-I558- \n\nI559-I575- \n\n1576-1583- \n\n1583-1604. \n\n1604-1610. \n\n\n\nArchbisho2JS of Canterbury. \n\nSt. Augustine, or Austin, died 26 May. \n\nSt. Lawrence. \n\nSt. Mellitus. \n\nJustus. \n\nSt. Honorius. \n\nDeusdedit (Adeodatus). \n\nTheodore of Tarsus. \n\nBerhtuakl. \n\nTaetwine. \n\nNothelm. \n\nCuthbert. \n\nBreogwine. \n\nJaenbehrt, or Lambert. \n\niEthelheard. \n\nWulfred. \n\nFleogild. \n\nCeolnoth \n\njEthelred. \n\nPlegemund. \n\n^Ethelm. \n\nWulfelm. \n\nOdo. \n\nSt. Dunstan, d. 19 May. \n\njEthelgar. \n\nSigeric. \n\njElfric. \n\nSt. iElphage, murdered by the Danes, 19 April. \n\nLyfing, or iElfstun. \n\niEthelnoth. \n\nSt. Eadsige. \n\nRobert of Jumieges. \n\nStigand : deprived. \n\nSt. Lanfranc, d. 24 May. \n\nAnselm. \n[See vacant 5 years.] \n\nRadulphus de Turbine. \n\nWilliam de Curbellio. \n\nTheobald. \n\nThomas a Becket : murdered 29 Dee. \n[See vacant.] \n\nRichard. \n\nBaldwin. \n\nReginald Fitz-Joceline, died 26 Dec. \n[See vacant.] \n\nHubert Walter. [Reginald the sub-prior, and \nJohn Grey, bishop of Norwich, were suc- \ncessively chosen, but set aside.] \n\nStephen Langton, died 6 July. \n\nRichard Weathershed. \n\nEdmund de Abingdon. \n\nBoniface of Savoy. \n\nRobert Kilwarby (resigned). \n\nJohn Peckham. \n\nRobert Winchelsey. \n\nWalter Reynolds. \n\nSimon de Mepham. \n\nJohn Stratford. \n\nJohn de Ufford. \n\nThomas Bradwardin. \n\nSimon Islip. \n\nSimon Langham (resigned). \n\nWm. Whittelsey. \n\nSimon Sudbury, beheaded by the rebels, 14 \nJune. \n\nWilliam Courtenay. \n\nThos. Fitzalan or Arundel (attainted). \n\nRoger Walden (expelled). \n\nTho. Arundel (restored). \n\nHenry Chieheley. \n\nJohn Stafford. \n\nJohn Kemp. \n\nThomas Bouchier. \n\nJohn Morton. \n\nHenry Deane or Denny. \n\nWm. Warham. \n\nThos. Cranmer (burnt 21 March). \n\nReginald Pole, d. 17 Nov. \n\nMatt. Parker, d. 17 May. \n\nEdm. Grindal, d. 6 July. \n\nJohn Whitgift, d. 29 Feb. \n\nRd. Bancroft, d. 2 Nov. \n\n\n\n1611-1633. Geo. Abbot, d. 4 Aug. \n1633-1645. Wm. Laud (beheaded, 10 Jan.). \n\n[See vacant 16 years.] \n1660-1663. Wm. Juxon, d. 4 June. \n1663-1677. Gilb. Sheldon, d. 9 Nov. \n1678-T691. Wm. Sancroft (deprived 1 Feb.), d. 24 Not. \n\n1693. \n1691-1694. John Tillotson, d. 22 Nov. \n1695-1715. Thos. Tenison, d. 14 Dec. \n1 7 I 5 _I 737- Wm. Wake, d. 24 Jan. \n1737-1747. John Potter, d. 10 Oct. \n1747-1757. Thos. Herring, d. 13 Mar. \n1757-1758. Matt. Hutton, d. 19 Mar. \n1758-1768. Thos. Seeker, d. 3 Aug. \n1768-1783. Fred. Cornwallis, d. 19 Mar. \n1783-1805. John Moore, d. 18 Jan. \n1805-1828. Chas. Manners Sutton, d. 21 July. \n1828-1848. Wm. Howley, d. 11 Feb. \n1848-1862. John Bird Sumner, d. 6 Sept. \n1862-1868. Chas. Thos. Longley, d. 27 Oct. \n1868-1882. Archibald Campbell Tait, elected 4 Dec. ; <L \n\n3 Dec. 1882 \n1882. Edward White Benson (trans, from Truro).. \n\nDec, elected 29 Jan. 1883. \n\nCANTERBURY (New Zealand), a Church of \nEngland settlement founded in 1850. Population \nin 1854, 6000, in 1868, 54,000. During 1854-68, \n1,800,000^. expended on public works, principally \nfrom the current revenue ; in 1879, 89,268^. \n\nCANTERBURY TALES, by Geoffrey \nChaucer, were written about 1364; and first printed? \nabout 1475 or 1476 (by Caxton). Chaucer Society \nestablished 1867. \n\nCANTHARIDES, venomous green beetles \n(called Spanish flies), employed to raise blisters.. \nThis use is ascribed to Aretseus of Cappadocia, \nabout 50 B.C. \n\nCANTICLES, these are the Benedictus, Mag- \nnificat, Nunc dimittis, &c, in the Book of Common \nPrayer, and especially the " Song of Solomon." \n\nCANTILEVER, a large bracket used in archi- \ntecture and bridge building, primitively in Japan,, \nIndia, and China. It is defined as " a structure \noverhung from a fixed base." The principle was \nadopted in the Forth bridge and the Mississippi \nbridge, which see \n\nCANTON, founded about 200 B.C., the only \ncity in China with which Europeans were allowed \nto trade, till the treaty of 29 Aug. 1842. Merchants \narrived here in 1517. English factory established, \n1680. A fire destroying 15,000 houses, 1822. An \ninundation swept away 10,000 houses and rooo \npersons, Oct. 1833. Canton was taken by the British \nin 1857 ; restored, 1861. See China 1835, 1839, \n1856, 1861. Population estimated at 1,600,000 in- \n1890. \n\nCANTOR LECTURES, courses given an- \nnually at the rooms of the Society of Arts. The \nexpenses are defrayed by a legacy from Dr. Theo- \ndore Edward Cantor, of the Indian civil service ; who \ndied about 1859. The lectures began 7 Dec. 1863. \n\nCANULEIAN LAW, permitting the patri- \ncians and plebeians to intermarry, was passed at \nRome 445 B.C. \n\nCAOUTCHOUC or India Rubber, an \n\nelastic resinous substance that exudes by incisions \nfrom several trees that grow in South America, \nMexico, Africa, and Asia, especially Castillsa \nHevea or Siphonia elastica, and Ficus clastica. \nObserved at Hayti by Columbus (Herrera) . . . 1493 \n\nDescribed by Torquemada 161 5 \n\nDiscovered by La Condamine in Quito (termed by \n\nnatives cahout-chou) ; brought to Europe about 1735 \nDr. Priestley said that he had seen "a substance \nexcellently adapted to the purpose of wiping from \npaper the marks of a black lead pencil. " It was \nsold at the rate of 3s. the cubic half-inch . . 1 770 \n\n\n\nCAPE BRETON. \n\n\n\n181 \n\n\n\nCAPE OF GOOD HOPE. \n\n\n\nIndia-rubber cloth was made by Samuel Peal ami \npatented . . - . . . . . . 1791 \n\nCaoutchouc discovered in the Malay Archipelago, \n1798; in Assam 1810 \n\nVulcanised rubber formed by combining India rub- \nber with sulphur, which process removes the sus- \nceptibility of the rubber to change under atmo- \nspheric temperatures, was patented in America, \nby Mr. C. Goodyear 1839 \n\nInrented also by Mr. T. Hancock (of the firm of \nMacintosh & Co.), and patented . . . . 1843 \n\nMr. Goodyear invented the hard rubber (termed \nEbonite) as a substitute for horn and tortoise- \nshell 1849 \n\nA mode of retaining India rubber in its natural \nfluid state (by applying to it liquid ammonia) \npatented in England for the inventor, Mr. Henry \nLee Norris, of New York 1853 \n\nSee under Printing. \n\nAfrican caoutchouc imported into England . . 1856 \n\nCaoutchouc imported in 1850, 7617 cwts. ; in 1856, \n28,765 cwts. ; in 1864, 71,027 cwts. ; in 1866, \n72,176 cwts. ; in 1870, 152,118 cwts. ; in 1874, \n129,163 cwts.; in 1876, 158,692 cwts.; in 1877, \n7 59.7 2 3 cwts. ; in 1879, 150,601 cwts. ; in 1883, \n229,101 cwts. ; in 1887, 237,511 cwts. ; in 1888, \n220,350 cwts. ; in 1889, 236,310 cwts. ; in 1890, \n264,008 cwts. \n\nCAPE BRETON, a large island, E. coast of \nN. America, said to have been discovered by Cabot, \nJ497 ; by the English in 1584 ; taken by the French \n\xc2\xa311 1632, but was afterwards restored ; and again \ntaken in 1745, an( i re-taken in 1748. The fortress, \nLouisburg, was captured by the English 26 July, \n1758, when the garrison were made prisoners, and \neleven French ships were captured or destroyed. \nThe island was ceded to England, 10 Feb. 1763 ; in- \ncorporated with Nova Scotia 181Q. Population in \n1881, 84,262 ; 1891, 86,914. Lieut. -governor, lion. \nM. B. Daly (1891). Chief town, Sidney. \n\nCAPE -COAST CASTLE (S. W. Africa). \nSettled by the Portuguese in 1610 ; taken by the \nDutch 1643 ; demolished by admiral Holmes in \n1661. All the British factories and shipping along \nthe coast were destroyed by the Dutch admiral, \nDe Buyter, in 1665. It was confirmed to the \nEnglish by the treaty of Breda, in 1667. See \nA-sltantees. \n\nCAPE DE VERDE ISLANDS (N. At- \nlantic Ocean), belonging to Portugal, were known to \nthe ancients as Gorgades, but not to the modems till \ndiscovered by Antonio de Noli, a Genoese navigator \nin the service of Portugal, 1446, 1450, or 1460. \n\nCAPE FINISTERRE (N. W. Spain). Off \nthis cape admirals lord Anson and Warren de- \nfeated and captured a French fleet under De la \nJonquiere, 3 May, 1747. \n\nCAPE HORN, or HOORN, on the last island of \nthe Fuegian archipelago, the southernmost point of \nAmerica, was discovered and named by Schouten, \n1616, after his birth-place in the Netherlands. \n\nCAPE LA HOGUE, see LaHogue (correctly, \n\nHague) . \n\nCAPEL COURT, see under Stocks. \n\nCAPE OF GOOD HOPE, a promontory on \nthe S. W. point of Africa, called " Cabo Tormen- \ntoso " (the stormy cape), the " Lion of the Sea," \nand the \'\' Head of Africa," discovered by Bar- \ntholomew de Diaz in 1487. Its present name was \ngiven by John II. of Portugal, who augured favour- \nably of future discoveries from Diaz having reached \nthe extremity of Africa. Population of " Cape \nColony" in 1856, 267,096; in 1881, 720,984; in \n1 891, 1,525,739. For governors, see below. \nThe cape was doubled, and the passage to India \n\ndiscovered by Vasco da Gama . . 19 Nov. 1497 \n\n\n\nCape Town, the capital, founded by the Dutch . 1650 \nColony taken by the English under admiral Elphin- \n\nstone and general Clarke . . .16 Sept. 1795 \nRestored at the peace of Amiens . . 25 March, 1802 \nTaken by sir D. Eaird and sir H. Popham 9 Jan. 1806 \nFinally ceded to England ... 13 Aug. 1814 \nBritish emigrants arrive .... March, 1820 \nThe Kaffirs make irruptions on the British settle- \nments, and ravage Grahamstown ; see Kaffra/ria, \n\nOct. 1834 \nBishopric of Cape Town founded ; Dr. Robert Gray, \n\ntirst bishop 1847 \n\nThe inhabitants successfully resist the attempt to \n\nmake the cape a penal colony . . 19 May, 1849 \nTerritories north of Great Orange river placed under \n\xe2\x96\xa0 British authority, 3 Feb. 1848 ; annexed as the \n\nOrange river territory .... March, 1851 \nThe constitution granted to the colony promulgated \n\nand joyfully received .... 1 July, 1853 \n\nGeneral Praatorius, chief of the Transvaal republic, \n\ndied Aug. ,, \n\nThe British jurisdiction over the Orange river \nterritory abandoned, 30 Jan. ; a fr.ee state was \nformed ; see Orange river . . . March, 1854 \nThe first parliament meets at Cape Town 1 July, ,, \nThe Kaffirs much excited by a prophet named \nUmhla-kaza ; by the exertions of sir George Grey, \nthe governor, tranquillity maintained . Aug. 1856 \nThe cape visited by prince Alfred in . July, i860 \n\nThe first railway from Cape Tow n, about 58 miles \n\nlong, opened . . . . about Dec. ,, \n\nGovernor, sir Philip E. Wodehouse .... 1861 \nDisputes between bishops of Cape Town and Natal ; \n\nsee Church of England 1863-5 \n\nCape Town visited by the duke of Edinburgh, \n\n17 Aug. 1867 \nDiscovery of diamonds ; leads to disputes between \n\nthe free states and the tribes ; see Diamonds 1867-70 \nLarge tracts of territory devastated by fire Feb. 1869 \nDeath of Moshesh, an eminent chief of the Basutos, \n\nfriendly to the British . . .11 March, 1870 \nNew harbour, breakwater, and docks at Cape \nTown inaugurated by the duke of Edinburgh, \n\n12 July, ,, \nSir Henry Barkly appointed governor . Aug. ,, \n\nEnergy of sir Henry Barkly, in repressing \naggressions of the president of the Orange river \n\nterritory March, 187 1 \n\nColony of Griqualand constituted . 27 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe British flag erected amidst the diamond fields \n\nwith great acclamation . . . 17 Nov. ,, \n\nGreat success in the diamond fields ; robbery of \ndiamonds valued between 35,000^. and 40,000;. ; \noppression of the natives stopped by sir H. Barkly, \n\nAug. 1872 \nDeath of bishop Gray, deeply lamented . 1 Sept. ,, \nMacomo, an eminent Kaffir chief, died . 11 Sept. 1873 \nInsurrection of Langalibalele, a chief, suppressed \n\n(See Natal) Nov. Dec. ,, \n\nSouth African Confederation (ivhich see), proposed \nby earl of Carnarvon ; opposed by Mr. Molteno \nand his cabinet, May ; long debate commenced \non it in the Cape parliament . . . 11 Nov. 187s \nEarl of Carnarvon, in a despatch, proposes that the \nconference on the confederation shall be trans- \nferred to England, 22 Oct. ; much resented Nov. ,, \nEarl of Carnarvon\'s despatch expressing earnest \ndesire for the confederation, and proposing a \nmeeting of delegates in London, their decision \nnot to be conclusive, 15 Nov. ; parliament pro- \nrogued 26 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nConference of delegates in London began ; earl of \n\nCarnarvon, not Mr. Molteno, present . 5 Aug. 1876 \nSir H. Bartle E. Frere appointed governor and lord \n\nhigh commissioner for South Africa . . Nov. ,, \nHe opens a successful exhibition at Cape town \n\n5 April, 1877 \nTransvaal republic (which see) annexed 12 April, ,, \nTroublesome disputes between tribes (Fingoes and \n\nGalokas) ; lead to war (see Kaffraria) . Sent. ,, \nThe minister Molteno opposes employing im- \nperial troops in the Kaffir war . Jan., Feb. 1878 \nMr. Molteno\'s ministry dismissed ; one formed by \nMr. J. Gordon Sprigg, about 12 Feb.; reported \n\nsue SSful April, ,, \n\nKaffir war ended; amnesty to surrendering rebels \n\nannounced 2 July, ,, \n\nThanksgiving day for restoration of peace 1 Aug. ,, \n\n\n\nCAPE ST. VINCENT. \n\n\n\n182 \n\n\n\nCAPPADOCIA. \n\n\n\n.Zulu war begins (see Zululand) . . 12 Jan. 1879 \n\nInsurrection in the Transvaal {which see) Dec. ,, \n\nTelegraphic communication with Great Britain \ncompleted ; telegram from the queen to sir \nBartle Frere and others . . . .25 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGovernment proposition for conference of delegates \nto promote federation, rejected by the assembly \n\nabout 24 June, 1880 \n\nWar with Basutos June, ,, \n\nRecall of sir Bartle Frere, 1 Aug. ; announced in \nparliament 2 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSir Hercules G. R. Robinson appointed governor \nand Lord High Commissioner for South Africa \n\n21 Aug. ,, \n\nResignation of Mr. Sprigg\'s ministry, through \nnarrow escape of vote of censure ; succeeded by \nMr. Scanlen and Mr. Molteno . 6, 7 May, 1881 \n\nSettled difficulty with Transvaal (which see) . 1883-4 \n\nMinistry defeated, resigns ; Mr. Upington, new \nminister 7 May, 1884 \n\nThey agree to support the imperial government in \nrepressing the Boer-filibusters . . Oct. ,, \n\nRailway to Kimberley opened by sir H. Robinson \n\n28 Nov. 1885 \n\nThe Pondos invade Xesibeland 20 Oct. ; peace \nannounced 9 Dec. 1886 \n\nNew ministry ; sir J. Gordon Sprigg prime minister \n\nabout 25 Nov. ,, \n\nNew registration act disfranchising many natives \npassed ; much opposed Aug.-Sept. ; supported by \nthe home government Oct. 1887 \n\nThe South African Jubilee Exhibition opened at \nGrahamstown by sir Hercules Robinson 15 Dec. ,, \n\nConference of delegates from Cape Colony, Natal, \nand the Orange Free State held at Cape Town ; \na customs union and railway extension proposed ; \na movement towards S. African federation ; con- \nference closed 18 Feb. 1888 \n\nSir H. Brougham Loch appointed governor and high \ncommissioner for South Africa about 22 June, \n1889 ; arrives 13 Dec. He unveils a statue of \nthe Queen in front of the Houses of Parliament, \nCape Town . . ... . 21 Jan. 1890 \n\nDefeat of the ministry on the great railway schemes \nabout 5 July ; resignation of Sir J. Gordon \nSprigg, under whom the colony prospered \n\n10 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNew ministry formed by Mr. Cecil J. Rhodes, the \n" Diamond King," founder of the British South \nAfrica company . . . . . 17 July ,, \n\nFailure of the Cape of Good Hope Bank after long \nrun on it ; much alarm throughout the colony, \n24 Sept ; reported deficiency, 464,000/., 16 Oct. ,, \n\nSouth African Language Association, 1st Congress \nopened at Cape Town .... 31\' Oct. ,, \n\nSir Henry Loch and Mr. Rhodes visit London to \ndiscuss South African affairs with the govern- \nment, 2-27 Feb. Satisfactory results reported \n\n6 March, 1891 \n\nGreat fire at Cape Town ; the exhibition buildings \nand other places destroyed . . .21 Feb. 1892 \n\nSir H. B. Loch opens the junction railway between \nCape Colony and the Free State, 10 March, ,, \n\nRevenue, 3,160,658/., expenditure, 3,332,907/., \n1886-7 ! imports, 5,036,135/., exports, 7,719,385/., \n1887 ; 1889-90, actual revenue, 4,430,050/. ; ex- \npenditure, vote, 3,878,925. \n\nFor recent wars, see Basutoland, Zuhdand, and \nTransvaal. \n\n.CAPE ST. VINCENT (S. W. Portugal). \nSir George Rooke, with twenty-three ships of war, \nand the Turkish fleet, was attacked by Tourville, \nwith 160 ships, oft\' Cape St. Vincent, when twelve \nEnglish and Butch men of war, and eighty mer- \nchantmen, were captured or destroyed by the \nFrench, 16 Jun<;, 1693. \xe2\x80\x94 Sir John Jervis, with the \nMediterranean fleet of fifteen sail, defeated the \nSpanish fleet of twenty-seven ships of the line off \nthis cape, taking four ships and sinking others, \n14 Feb. 1797. For this victory sir John was raised \nto the peerage, as earl St. Vincent. Nelson was \nengaged in this battle. Near this cape the fleet of \ndom Pedro, under admiral Charles Napier, captured \ndom Miguel\'s fleet, 5 July, 1833. \n\n\n\nCAPETIANS, the third race of the kings of \nFrance, named from Hugo Capet, count of Paris \nand Orleans, who seized the throne 011 the death of \nLouis V., called the Indolent, 987. Henault. The \nfirst line of the house of Capet ended with Charles- \nIV., in 1328, when Philip VI. of Valois ascended \nthe throne ; see France. \n\nCAPILLARITY (the rising of liquids in, \nsmall tubes, and the ascent of the sap in plants) \nis said to have been first observed by Niccolo- \nAggiunti of Pisa, 1600-35. The theory has been \nexamined by Newton, La Place, and others. Dr. \n?T. Young\'s theory was put forth in 1805, and \nMr. Wertheim\'s researches in 1857. \n\nCAPITAL, estimated amount (E. Giffen) :\xe2\x80\x94 \nGreat Britain : beginning of century, 115,000,000/.; 1843,. \n\n251,000,000/.; 1853, 262,000,000/. \nUnited Kingdom : 1855, 308,000,000/. ; 1S65, 396,000,000/.; \nI 875, 571,000,000/. See Labour Commission and In- \ncome Tax. \n\nCAPITAL PUNISHMENT, see Death. \n\nCAPITATION TAX, see Poll-tax. \n\nCAPITOL, said to have been so called from \na human head (caput) found when digging the \nfoundations of the fortress of Rome, on Mons Tar- \npeius. Here a temple was built to Jupiter Capito- \niinus. The foundation was iaid by Tarquinius \nPriscus, 616 B.C.; the building was continued by \nServius Tullius ; completed by Tarquinius Super- \nbus, but not dedicated till 507 B.C. by the consul \nHoratius. It was destroyed by lightning 6 July,. \n183 ; burnt during the civil wars, 83 ; rebuilt by \nSylla, and dedicated again by Lutatlus Catulus, 69 - r \nagain burnt a.d. 69, 80 ; rebuilt 70, 82 ; sacked by \nGenseric, June, 455. The Roman consuls made- \nlarge donations to this temple, and the emperor \nAugustus bestowed on it 2000 pounds weight of \ngold, of which, metal the roof was composed : its- \nthresholds were of brass, and its interior was de- \ncorated with shields of solid silver. The Capitolino \ngames, instituted 387 B.C. to commemorate the de- \nliverance from the Gauls, were revived by Domitian,. \na.d. 86. The Campidoglio contains palaces of the- \nsenators, erected on the site of the Capitol by \nMichael Angelo soon after 1546. The comer-stone- \nof the capitol at Washington, U.S.A., was laid \n18 Sept. 1793. \n\nCAPITULARIES, laws of the Frankish kings,, \ncommencing with Charlemagne (801). Collections- \nhave been published by Baiuze (1677) and others. \n\nCAPITULATIONS: a name given to the- \njudicial rights granted by treaties to foreign consuls \nin Turkey. After many years\' opposition, the \nsultan addressed a memorial to the \'sovereigns of" \nEurope, in June, 1869; and modifications were \nagreed to, April, 1870. The sultan decided on the- \nabolition of the capitulations in Fgypt about July,. \n1872. \n\nCAPPADOCIA, Asia Minor. Its early history, \nis involved in obscurity. \n\nPharnaces said to have founded the kingdom B.C. 744. \nCappadocia conquered by Perdiccas, regent of \nMacedon ; the king, Ariarathes I., aged 82, \n\ncrucified , . . 322 \n\nRecovers its independence 315 \n\nConquered by Mithridates of Pontus . . . 291 \nHeld by Seleucus, 288 ; independent . \' . . 288 \n\nAriarathes V., Philopator, reigns, 162 ; dethroned \nby Holophernes, 158, but restored soon after by \nthe Romans ; killed with Crassus in the war \nagainst Aristonicus . . ... 13& \n\nHis queen, Laodice, poisons five of her sons : the \nsixth (Ariarathes VI.) is saved ; she is put to death ,, \n\n\n\nCAPPEL. \n\n\n\n183 \n\n\n\nCARDIFF. \n\n\n\nAriaratlies VI. murdered by Mithridates Eupator ; \nwho sets up various pretenders ; the Roman \nsenate declares the country free, and appoints \n\nAriobarzanes I. king B.C. 93 \n\nHe is several times expelled by Mithridates, &c, \n\nbut restored by the Romans ; dies ... 64 \nAriobarzanes II. supports Pompey, and is slain by \n\nCrassus. 42 \n\nAriarathes VII. deposed by Antony .... 36 \nArchelaus is favoured by Augustus, 20 b.c. ; but \naccused by Tiberius, he comes to Rome and dies \nthere oppressed with age . . . . a.d. 15 \n\nCappadocia becomes a Roman province ... 17 \n\nInvaded by the Huns 515 \n\nAnd by the Saracens 717 \n\nRecovered by the emperor Basil 1 876 \n\nConquered by Soliman and the Turks . . . 1074 \nAnnexed to Turkish Empire 1360 \n\nCAPPEL (Switzerland). Here the reformer \nUlric Zwinglius was slain in a conflict between \nthe catholics and the men of Zurich, 11 Oct. 1531. \n\nCAPRI (Capreae), an island near Naples, the \nsumptuous residence of Augustus, and particularly \nof Tiberius, memorable for the debaucheries he \ncommitted during his last years, 27-37. Capri was \ntaken by sir Sydney Smith, 12 May, 1806. \n\nCAPS, see Hats. \n\nCAPS AND HATS. About 1738, Sweden was \nmuch distracted by two factions thus named, the \nformer in the interest of the Russians, and the latter \nin that of the French. They were broken up and \nthe names prohibited by GustavuslII. in 177 1, who \ndesired to exclude foreign influence. His assassina- \ntion by Ankarstrom, 16 March, 1792, set aside all \nhis plans for the improvement of Sweden. \n\nCAPSTAN, used to work ships\' anchors, is \nsaid to have been invented, but more probably was \nonly improved, by sir Samuel Morland, who died \n30 Dec. 1695. \n\nCAPTAIN, H.M.\'s iron-clad turret ship, \ncapsized during a squall, 12.15 A - M -i 7 Sept., 1870. \nCapt. Hugh Burgoyne, capt. Cowper Coles, who \ndesigned the vessel, and 469 persons perished. See \nunder Navy of England. Subscriptions for relief \nof the widows and orphans of the lost up to 17 Nov., \n34,894/. ; 3 Dec, 38,004/. ; 31 Dec, about46,ooo/. ; \nMay, 1871, about 55,000/.; 25 June, 1871, about \n55,700/. Total, 57,824/. The fund was transferred \nto the Royal Commission of the Patriotic Fund. \n\nCAPUA, capital of Campania, took the part \nof Hannibal when his army wintered here after \nthe battle of Cannae, 216 B.C., and it is said be- \ncame enervated. In 21 1, when the Romans re- \ntook the city, they scourged and beheaded all the \nsurviving senators ; the others had poisoned them- \nselves after a banquet previous to the surrender of \nthe city. Only two persons escaped ; one woman \nwho had prayed for the success of the Romans, and \nanother who succoured some prisoners. During the \nmiddle ages Capua was successively subjugated by \nthe Greeks, Saracens, Normans, and Germans. It \nwas restored to Naples in 1424, and captured by \nCaesar Borgia, 24 July, 1501; was taken by Garibaldi \n2 Nov. i860. \n\nCAPUCHIN. FRIARS, Franciscans, so \nnamed from wearing a CapucJton, or cowl hanging \ndown upon their backs. The order was founded by \nMatthew Baschi, about 1525; and established by \nthe pope Clement VII. 1529. The capuchin con- \nfessors of the queen Henrietta introduced here 1630, \nwere imprisoned by the parliament, 1642. \n\nCAR. The invention is mythically ascribed to \nErichthonius of Athens. Covered cars (currus \narcuati) were used by the Romans. The kctica (a \n\n\n\nsoft cushioned car), next invented, gave place to the \ncarpentum, a two-wheeled car, with an arched \ncovering, hung with costly cloth. Still later were \nthe carrucce, in which the officers of state rode. \nTriumphal cars, introduced by Tarquin the Elder ? \nwere formed like a throne. \n\n_ CARACAS (S. America), part of Venezuela, \ndiscovered by Columbus 1498. It was reduced by \narms, and assigned as property to the Welsers, \nGerman merchants, by Charles V. ; but for their \ntyranny, they were dispossessed in 1550, and a \ncrown governor appointed. The province declared \nits independence, 9 May, 1810. In the city Leon \nde Caracas, on 26 March, 1812, nearly 12,000 per- \nsons perished by an earthquake. Population, 1883, \n70,509. See Venezuela. \n\nCARAITES, see Karaites. \n\nCARASMIA, see Khiva. \n\nCARBERRY HILL (S. Scotland). Here \nlord Hume and the confederate barons dispersed the \nroyal army under Bothwell, and took Mary queen \nof Scots prisoner, 15 June, 1567. Bothwell fled. \n\nCARBO-DYN AMITE, a powerful explosive \nof the nitro-glycerine class, invented by Messrs. \nReid and Borland, was tried in 1888, and in July,, \n1889 was said to be practically perfect. \n\nCARBOLIC ACID (or phenic acid), obtained \nby the distillation of pit-coal, by Laurent, 1846-7, \nis a powerful antiseptic. It is largely manufac- \ntured for medical purposes, and has been advan- \ntageously used at Carlisle and Exeter in the deodo- \nrisation of sewage (1860-1); and as a disinfectant \nduring the prevalence of cholera in London in 1866. \nIt was successfully used for embalming by profes- \nsor Seely in 1868. Professor F. Grace Calvert, a \ngreat manufacturer of this acid, died 1873. \n\nCARBON was shown to be a distinct element \nby Lavoisier in 1788. He proved the diamond to \nbe its purest form, and converted it into carbonic \nacid gas by combustion. \n\nCARBONARI (charcoal-burners), a powerful \nsecret society in Italy, which derived its origin, \naccording to some, from the Waldenses, and which \nbecame prominent early in the present century. It \naimed at the expulsion of foreigners from Italy, and \nthe establishment of civil and religious liberty. In \nMarch, 1820, it is said that 650,000 joined the so- \nciety, and an insurrection soon after broke out in \nNaples, general Pepe taking the command. The \nking Ferdinand made political concessions, but the \ninfluence of the allied sovereigns at Laybach led \nFerdinand to annul them and suppress the liberal \nparty, Jan. 1821, when the Carbonari were denounced \nas traitors. \n\nCARBONIC ACID GAS, a gaseous com- \npound of carbon and oxygen, found in the air, and a \nproduct of combustion, respiration, and fermentation. \nThe Grotto del Cane yields 200,000 lbs. per annum. \nNo animal can breathe this gas. The briskness of \nchampagne, beer, &c, is due to its presence. It \nwas liquefied by atmospheric pressure; by Faraday m \n1823. On expofiug the liquid to the air it becomes \nsolid, resembling snow, through vaporisation. See \nunder Cannon, 1889-90. \n\nCARCHEMISH, see Hittites. \n\nCARDIFF, S. Wales, here was an ancient \nWelsh and Norman castle founded in 1080, where \nBobert, duke of Normandy, eldest son of William I., \nis said to have been imprisoned from 1106 till his \ndeath 10 Feb. 1 135. The prosperity of the town \nhas been greatly increased by the construction of^a \n\n\n\nCARDIGAN BAY. \n\n\n\n184 \n\n\n\nCARLISLE. \n\n\n\ncanal (1794) and railroad, and by docks, &c, pro- \nmoted by the Marquis of Bute. Population, 1881, \n82,761 ; 1891, 128,849. \n\nStoppage of a savings bank (established in 1819) through \nthe embezzlements of the actuary, the late Mr. R. E. \nWilliams, effected through the neglect of the trustees ; \ndefalcations about 37,000?. April 1886. Report of the \nhon. E. Lyulph Stanley issued, Times, 22 Dec. 1887. \nMr. Peter Davies, a trustee, was declared to be \n\nliable for a part of the bank losses . 27 March, 1890 \nChurch Congress meets here . . . 1 Oct. 1889 \n\nSeamen\'s Congress 8 Oct. ,, \n\nCardiff building society, established 1865, defalca- \ntion of 37,000?., partly through the long-con- \ntinued embezzlement of the funds by Arthur J. \nRobbins, a clerk, the loss re-imbursed partly by \nthe defaulter and his family, the remainder by \n\xe2\x80\xa2the secretary and directors\xe2\x80\x94 reported January. \nRobbins sentenced to.fi ve years\' penal servitude. \n\n25 March, 1890 \nStrike of railway servants, see Strikes . 8 Aug. ,, \nNew bridge over the Tali opened by the Duke of \nClarence . . .... 17 Sept. ,, \n\nSee Shipping, Feb. 1891 ; and Strikes . . . ,, \nMeeting of British Association . . 19 Aug. ,, \nStrike of about 4,000 men of the building trades . \n\n30 April \xe2\x80\x94 3 June, 1892 \nCARDIGAN BAY, see Fishguard. \nCARDINALS, princes in the church of Eorae, \nthe council of the pope, and the conclave or \'\'sacred \ncollege," at first were the principal priests or in- \ncumbents of the parishes in Rome, and said to have \nbeen called cardinales in 853. They began to as- \nsume the exclusive power of electing the popes \nabout 1 179. They first wore the red hat to remind \nthem that they ought to shed their blood for re- \nligion, if required, and were declared princes of the \nchurch by Innocent IV., 1243 or 1245. Paul II. \ngave the scarlet habit, 1464 ; and Urban VIII. the \ntitle of Eminence in 1623 or 1630. In 1586 Sixtus V. \nfixed their number at 70; but there are generally \nvacancies. In i860 there were 69 cardinals. In \n\n1873, 5 of the order of bishops ; 34 priests; 6 dea- \ncons ; 45 in all. Nine cardinals (one a Bonaparte) \nwere made, 13 March, 1868.* Eleven new car- \ndinals appointed, 12 March, 1877. In 1885 6 car- \ndinal bishops, 35 priests, 11 deacons ; in all 52. In \nJan. 1892, there were 57 cardinals, 6 bishops, 45 \npriests and 6 deacons. \n\nCARDROSS CASE, see Trials, 1861. \n\nCARDS, PLAYING. The origin of the game \nis uncertain. It is said to have been brought to \nViterbo in 1379. Cards were illuminated for Charles \nVI. of France, 1392, then depressed in mind. W. \nA. Chatto\'s work on the "History of Playing \nCards," published, 1848. Piquet and all the early \nnames are French. \xe2\x80\x94 Cards first taxed in England \n1 7 10. 428,000 packs were stamped in 1775, and \n986,000 in 1800. In 1825, the duty being then \n2s. 6d. per pack, less than 150,000 packs were \nstamped ; but in 1827 the stamp duty was reduced \nto is., and 310,854 packs paid duty in 1830. Duty \nwas paid on 239,200 packs in the year ending 5 Jan. \n1840 ; and on near 300,000, year ending 5 Jan. \n1850. By an act passed in 1862 the duty on cards \nwas reduced to 3d. per pack, and the seilers were \nrequired to take out a licence. Duty received in \n\n1874, 13,131^. ; in 1875, 13,810/. See Christmas. \n\nCARIA (Asia Minor), was conquered by Cyrus, \n546 B.C. ; by Dercyllidas, a Lacedremonian, 397 ; \n\n* British Cardinals: Henry Stuart, created 1747; \nCharles Erskine, 1801 ; Thomas Weld, 1830 ; Charles \nActon, 1839 ; Nicholas Wiseman. 30 Sept. 1850\xe2\x80\x9465 ; \nHenry Edward Manning, 1875\xe2\x80\x9414 Jan. 1892 ; Edward \nHoward, 12 March, 1S77 ; John Henry Newman, 12 May, \n1879 \xe2\x80\x94 11 Aug. 1890; Ewd. McCabe, 27 March, 1S83 (d* \nti Feb. 1S85). \n\n\n\nhis successor Hecatomnus became king, 385 B.C. ; \nfor his son Mausolus the Mausoleum was erected \n{which see). Caria was annexed by the Romans, \n129 B.C. It is now part of the Turkish empire. \n\nCARIBBEE ISLANDS, see West Indies. \n\nCARICATURES were drawn by the ancient \nEgyptians, Greeks, and Romans. Bufalmaco, an \nItalian painter, about 1330, drew caricatures and put \nlabels to the mouths of his figures with sentences. \nThe modern caricatures of Gillray, Rowlandson, \n\nII. B. (John Doyle \xe2\x84\xa2 = B3), Richard Doyle, John \n\nLeech, and John Tenniel are justly celebrated. \nThe well-known "Punch" was first published in \n1841. See Charivari and Punch. Mr. T. Wright \npublished a " History of Caricature," 1865 ; and \n" the Life and Works of James Gillray," 1873. Mr. \nJ. Grego published T. Rowlandson\'s Works and \nLife, 1880. \n\nCARIGNAN, a small town about twelve miles \nfrom Sedan, department of Ardennes, N.E. France. \nAt the plain of Douzy near this place and the en- \ncampment of Vaux, a part of MacMahon\'s army, \nretreating before the Germans, turned round and \nmade a stand, 31 Aug. 1870. After a long, severe \nengagement, in which the same positions were \ntaken and retaken several times, the Germans \nturned the flank of their enemies, who were com- \npelled to fall back upon Sedan, where they were \nfinally overcome, 1 Sept. \xc2\xbb \n\nCARILLONS, see Sells. \n\nCARINTHIA, a Bavarian duchy, annexed to \nthe territories of the duke of Austria, 1336. Popu- \nlation, 1890, 361,008. \n\nCARISBROOKE CASTLE (Isle of Wight), \ns iid to have been a British and Roman fortress. \nIts Norman character has been ascribed to William \nEitz-Osbome, earl of Hereford in William I.\'s time. \nHere Charles I. was imprisoned Nov. 1647 to Nov. \n1648 ; and here his daughter Elizabeth, aged fifteen, \ndied, too probably of a broken heart, 8 Sept. 1650. \n\nCARIZMIANS (fierce shepherds living near \nthe Caspian), having been expelled by the Tartars, \ninvaded Syria in 1243. The union of the sultans \nof Aleppo, Hems, and Damascus was insufficient to \nstem the torrent, and the Christian military orders \nwere nearly exterminated in a single battle in 1244. \nIn Oct. they took Jerusalem. They were totally \ndefeated in two battles in 1247. \n\nCARLAVEROCK CASTLE (S. Scotland), \ntaken by Edward I., July, 1300, the subject of a \ncontemporary poem published, with illustrations, \nby sir Harris Nicolas in 1828. \n\nCARLISLE (Cumberland), a frontier town of \nEngland, wherein for many ages a strong garrison \nwas kept. Just below this town the famous Picts\' \nwall began, which crossed the whole island to New- \ncastle-upon-Tyne, and here also ended the great \nRoman highway. Of the great church, called St. \nMaiy\'s, a large part was built by David, king of \nScotland, who held Cumberland, Westmoreland, \nand Northumberland, from the crown of England. \nThe castle, destroyed by the Danes, 875, restored in \n1092 by William II., was the prison of Mary queen \nof Scots in 1568. \xe2\x80\x94 Taken by the parliamentary forces \nin 1645, and by the young Pretender, 15 Nov. 1745; \nretaken by the duke of Cumberland, 30 Dec. same \nyear; partly destroyed by tire, 18 Jan. 1890. \xe2\x80\x94 The \nsee was erected by Hei.ry I. in 1132, and made \nsuffragan to York. The cathedral had been founded \na short time previously, by Walter, deputy for \n\n\n\nCARLISLE ADMINISTRATION. \n\n\n\n185 \n\n\n\nCAROLINAS. \n\n\n\nWilliam Rufus. It was almost ruined by Crom- \nwell, 1648, and partially repaired alter the Restora- \ntion. It was reopened in 1856 after renovation, \ncosting 15,000^. The see lias been held by one lord \nchancellor and two lord treasurers ; it is valued in \nthe king\'s books at 530/. 45. lid. per annum. \nPresent income 4500/. Population of the city 1881, \n36,585; 1891,39,176. \n\nBISHOPS OF CARLISLE. \n\n1791. Edward Venables Vernon, trans, to York, 1807. \n\n1808. Samuel Goodenough, died 12 Aug. 1827. \n\n1827. Hugh Percy, died Feb. 1856. \n\n1856. Hon. H. Montagu Villiers, trans, to Durham, \n\nMay, i860. \ni860. Hon. Samuel Waldegrave, died 1 Oct. 1869. \n1869. Harvey Goodwin; consecrated Jan. 1870, died 25 \n\nNov. 1 89 1. \n1891. John W. Bardsley, translated from Sodor and \n\nMan, Dec. \n\nCARLISLE ADMINISTRATION, see \n\nHalifax. \n\nCARLISTS, see Spain, 1830-40 and 1872-6. \nThe legitimists of Europe subscribed to their cause \n1873-6. A committee in London supplied arms \nand money. \n\nCARLOVINGIANS, or CAROLIN- \n\nGIANS, \'he second dynasty of the French kings, \n752-987. Charles Martel (715-741) and Pepin his \nson (741-752) were mayors of the palace. The \nlatter became king 752 ; see France. \n\nCARLO W (S. E. Ireland). The castle, erected \nby John, 1 180, surrendered after a desperate siege to \nRory Oge O\'Moore, in 1577 ; again to the parlia- \nmentary forces, in 1650. Here the royal troops \nrouted the insurgents 24 May, 1798. \n\nCARLOWITZ, Austria. Here was concluded \na treaty of peace between Turkey and the allies, \nGermany, Russia, Poland, and Venice, 26 Jan. 1699, \nin consequence of the great defeat of the Turks by \nprince Eugene at Zenta, 11 Sept. 1697, by which \nHungary was finally secured to Austria. \n\nCARLSBAD (or Charles\'s Bath), in Bohemia, \nthe celebrated springs, said to have been discovered \nby the emperor Charles IV. in 1370. \xe2\x80\x94 On 1 Aug. \nZ819, a congress was held here, when the great \npowers decreed measures to repress the liberal \npress, &c. Destructive gale and inundations, esti- \nmated damage, 2,500,000 florins, 23-25 Nov. 1890. \n\nCARLSRUHE, capital of Baden, built by \nmargrave Charles William, 17 15. A revolution \nhere was suppressed by Prussian aid, June, 1849, \nand the grand-duke returned 18 Aug. Population, \nS890, 73,496. \n\nCARLTON CLUB, Pall Mall (Conservative), \nestablished by the duke of Wellington and others, \n\xc2\xa3831-2 ; present house opened 1855. \n\nCARLYLE CLUB. Formed in 1881 for the \npurpose of affording to disciples and students of \nThomas Carlyle a means of meeting together and \nof discussing the religious, political, and social pro- \nblems treated of in his writings. His statue 011 the \nThames Embankment, Chelsea, was unveiled by \nProf. Tyndall 26 Oct. 1882. \n\nCARLYLE SOCIETY, founded in 1879, con- \nsists of students and admirers of Carlyle\'s works, \ndesirous of extending his influence ; they meet \nmonthly to read papers, &c. They have a branch \nat Montreal. \n\nCARMAGNOLE, a Piedmontcse song and \ndance, written about Aug. 1792 ; popular in France \nduring the reign of terror, 1793-4. \'^\' le chorus was \n" Dansons la Carmagnole: vive le son du canon ! " \n\n\n\nCARMATHIANS, a Mahometan ssct. Car- \nmath, a Shiite, about 890, assumed the title of "the \nguide, the director," &c, including that of the \nrepresentative of Mahomet, St. John the Baptist, \nand the angel Gabriel. His followers subdued \nBahrein in 900, and devastated the east. Dissen- \nsions arose amongst themselves, and their power \nsoon passed away. \n\nCARMELITES, or White Friars, of \n\nMount Carmel, one of the four orders of mendi- \ncants with austere rules, founded by Berthold about \n1 156, and settled in France in 1252. Hmault. \nTheir rules were modified about 1 540. They claimed \nsuccession from Elijah. They had numerous mon- \nasteries in England, and a precinct in London \nwithout the Temple, west of Blaekfriars, is called \nWhitefriars to this day, after a community of their \norder, founded there in 1245. A Carmelite church \nat Kensington was founded by archbishop Manning, \nJuly, 1865. The Carmelites, as well as other orders, \nwere expelled from their houses in France in Oct. \n1880. \n\nCARNATIC, a dislrictof Southern Hindostan, \nextending along the whole coast of Coromandel. \nHyder Ali entered the Carnatic with 80,000 troops, \nin 1780, and was defeated by the British under \nsir Eyre Coote, 1 July, and 27 Aug. 1781 ; and de- \ncisively overthrown 2 June, 1782. The Carnatic \nwas oveiTun by Tippoo in 1790. The British ac- \nquired entire authority over the Carnatic by treaty, \n31 July, 1801 ; see India. \n\nCARNARVON, see Caernarvon. \n\nCARNATION, so called from the original \nspecies being of a flesh colour (carnis, of flesh). \nSeveral varieties were first planted in England by \nthe Flemings, about 1567. Stoiv. \n\nCARNEIAN GAMES, observed in many \nGrecian cities, particularly at Sparta (said to have \nbeen instituted in the 5th century B.C. in honour \nof Apollo, sumamed Carneus), lasted nine days. \n\nCARNIVAL, (Carni vale, Italian, i.e. Flesh \nfarewell .\'), a festival time in Italy and other \ncatholic countries before beginning Lent. \n\nCAROLINAS (N. America) . Said to have been \ndiscovered by Sebastian Cabot in 1498, or by De Leon \nin 1512. Raleigh formed a settlement at Roanoke \nin June, 1585, which was broken up in 1586. About \n850 English settled here about 1660 ; and Carolina \nwas granted to lord Clarendon and others in 1663. \nThe cultivation of rice was introduced by governor \nSmith in 1695, an ^ subsequently cotton. A con- \nstitution drawn up by John Locke was abandoned. \nThe province was divided into North and South in \n1729; see America. The Carolinas being slave \nstates, great excitement prevailed in them in Nov. \ni860, on account of Abraham Lincoln\'s election to \nthe presidency of the United States, he being \nstrongly opposed to slavery. South Carolina began \nthe secession from the United States, 20 Dec. i860 : \nNorth Carolina followed, 21 May, 1861 ; see United \nStates, 1861-5. Both readmitted to the Union \n25 June, 1868. Embezzlements of South Carolina \nu official ring " (state government) disclosed; pro- \nsecutions, Sept., Oct. 1877. Increasing disaffection \nbetween the whites and negroes, riots and fighting \nat Charlotte, N. Carolina, 15 April, 1891. Popula- \ntion 1880, N. Carolina, 1,399,750; S. Carolina \n995,577; 1890, N. Carolina, 1,617,947; S. Caro- \nlina, 1,151,149. Capital*, North, Kaleigh ; South; \nColumbia; chief city, Charleston, founded lb8o. \n\n\n\nCAEOLINE ISLANDS. \n\n\n\n186 \n\n\n\nCARTHAGE. \n\n\n\nCAEOLINE ISLANDS (S. Pacific), said \nto have been discovered by the Portuguese, 1525 ; \nalso by the Spaniard, Lopez de Villalobos, 1545, and \nnamed after Charles II. of Spain, 1686. The Jesuits \nlaboured in them in vain, 1710-33. The claims of \nSpain, uncontested till the protest of England in \n1875, were virtually given up by Spain in 1876. The \nGermans occupied some of the Islands, against \nwhich Spain protested in Aug. 1885. Spanish \nvessel arrived at the Island of Yap, 21 Aug. ; the \nGermans land and set up their flag without resist- \nance, 24 Aug. See Spain. The dispute referred \nto the Pope ; the sovereignty awarded to Spain, \nwith commercial concessions to Germany and Great \nBritain ; agreement signed, 25 Nov. ; confirmed at \nEome, 17 Dec. 1885. Anglo-Spanish protocol \nsigned, 8 Jan. 1886. Missionaries imprisoned ; \nnatives kill the governor, announced 28 Sept. 1887. \n\nMassacre of 28 Spanish soldiers at Yap, and defeat \nof others sent to punish . . . 10 Aug. 1890 \n\nThe natives were punished by a Spanish expedition ; \n150 were killed, and a village burnt. The Spanish \nlost 7 men killed ; reported . . 13 Oct. ,, \n\nDissensions between the Spaniards, the natives, \nand the American missionaries, reported Dec. \n1890 ; about 300 persons killed during the war \nup to . . . . . . . Jan. 1891 \n\nAfter several reverses, 500 Spaniards subdue the \nnatives, reported Feb. ,, \n\nCAEPENTAEIA, gulf of N. Australia, dis- \ncovered about 1627, and said to have been named in \nhonour of Pieter Carpentier, a retired governor of \nthe Dutch Indies. \n\nCAEP, a fresh-water or pond fish, was, it is \nsaid, first brought to these countries about 1525. \nWalton. It is mentioned by lady Juliana Berners \nin her book printed 1496. \n\nCAEPETS are of ancient use in the East. The \nmanufacture of woollen carpets was introduced into \nFrance from Persia, in the reign of Henry IV., \nbetween 1589 and 1610. Some artisans who had \nquitted France in disgust established the English \ncarpet manufacture, about 1750. A cork-carpet \ncompany was formed in 1862. \n\nCAEPET-BAGGEES, a name given to ad- \nventurers in the southern states of North America, \nwho, after the conclusion of the war, in 1865, en- \ndeavoured, from interested motives, to promote the \npolitical predominance of the negroes. Their in- \nfluence counteracted by the conciliatory measures \nof president Hayes, 1877-8. \n\nCAEPI (N. Italy). Here prince Eugene and \nthe Imperialists defeated the French 9 July, 1701. \n\nCAEPOCEATIANS, followers of Carpocrates, \na Gnostic, in the 2nd century. \n\nCAEEACK or KARRACK (Italian, Caracca), \na large ship in the middle ages. The Santa Anna, \nthe property of the knights of St. John, of about \n1700 tons, oheathed with lead, was built at Nice \nabout 1530. It was literally a floating fortress, and \naided Charles V. in taking Tunis in 1535. It con- \ntained a crew of 300 men and 50 pieces of artillery. \n\nCAEEIAGES, see Chariots. Kude carriages \nwere known in France in the reign of Henry II., \na.d. 1547 ; in England in 1555, Henry IV. of \nFrance had one without straps or springs. They \nwere made in England in the reign of Elizabeth, \nand then called whirlicotes. The duke of Buck- \ningham, in 1619, drove six horses ; and the \nearl of Northumberland, in rivalry, drove eight. \nCarriages were let for hire in Paris, in 1650, \nat the Hotel Fiacre: hence the name, fiacre ; see \nCar, Cabriolets, Coaches and Licence duty. \xe2\x80\x94 \n\n\n\nAnnual licence duty for carriages : 4 wheels, \n2l. 2s.; under 4 cwt. or less than 4 wheels, 15s. \nCarlo Bianconi successfully introduced cars \ninto Ireland about 1815 : he died, nearly 90, \n16 Sept. 1875. &\xe2\x96\xa0 A - Thrupp\'s "History of \nCoaches" published, 1877. The duties on carriages- \naltered by Customs Act, 1888. \n\nCAEEICKFEEGUS (Antrim, Ireland). Its \ncastle is supposed to have been built by Hugh de \nLacy in 1178. The town surrendered to the duke \nof Schomberg 28 Aug. 1689. The castle surrendered \nto the French admiral Thurot, Feb. 1760; see \nThurot. \n\nCAEEIEES\' ACT, n Geo. IV. & 1 Will. IV. \nc. 68, 1830. \n\nCAEEOCIUM, a vehicle containing a crucifix \nand a banner, usually accompanied Italian armies in \nthe middle ages. The Milanese lost theirs at Cor- \ntenuova, 27 Nov. 1237. \n\nCAEEON IEONWOEKS, on the banks of \nthe Carron, in Stirlingshire, established in 1760. \nThe works in 1852 employed about 1600 men. \nHere since 1776 have been made the pieces of ord- \nnance called carronades or smashers. \n\nCAEEOTS and other edible roots were im- \nported from Holland and Flanders, about 1510. \n\nCAES, see Carriages. \n\nCAETEL (challenge), a name given to the \npowerful coalition of the conservatives and national \nliberals, which for five years formed the govern- \nment majority, 23, in the German Imperial Parlia- \nment. The majority was lost by the elections, \nFeb., March, 1890. \n\nCAETES DE VISITE. The small photo- \ngraphic portraits thus termed are said to have been \nfirst taken at Nice, by M. Ferrier, in 1857. The \nduke of Parma had his portrait placed upon his. \nvisiting cards, and his example was soon followed in \nParis and London. \n\nCAETESIAN DOCTEINES, promulgated \nby Bene Descartes, the b\'rench philosopher, in \n1637. His metaphysical principle is, "1 think, \ntherefore I am ;" his physical principle, "Nothing; \nexists but substance. "\\ He accounts for all physi- \ncal phenomena on his theory of vortices, motions \nexcited by God, the source of all motion. He was \nborn 1596, and died at Stockholm, the guest of \nqueen Christina, in 1650. \n\nCAETHAGE (N. coast of Africa near Tunis), \nfounded by Dido or Elissa, according to the legend \nadopted by Virgil in the JEneid, some time in the \n9th century B.C. ; 878, 853, 826 are mentioned. \nShe fled from her brother Pygmalion, king of Tyre, \nwho had killed her husband, and took refuge in \nAfrica. Towns subject to Carthage were gradually \nfounded along the coast, and colonies in Spain and; \nSicily. Carthage disputed the empire of the world \nwith Rome, which occasioned the Punic wars. \nThe Carthaginians bore the character of a faithless \npeople, hence the term Punic faith. Cato the cen- \nsor ended his speeches in the senate with Delendm \nest Carthago I "Carthage must be destroyed!" \nMany councils were held here, A.r>. 200-535. \n\nFir^t alliance of Carthaginians and Romans . B.C. 509 \nThe Carthaginians in Sicily defeated at Himera by \n\nGelon ; the elder Hamilear perishes . . . 480. \nThey send 300,000 men into Sicily . . . . 407 \n\nTake Agrigentum 406 \n\nDefeated at the Siege of Syracuse, see Sicily . . 396 \nThe Carthaginians land in Italy .... 379 \n\nThejirst Punic war begins (lasts 23 years) . . . 264 \nThe Carthaginians defeated by the Roman consul \n\nDuilius in a naval engagement near Mylse , . 260 \n\n\n\nCARTHAGENA. \n\n\n\n187 \n\n\n\nCASHMERE. \n\n\n\nWar in Sicily ; Roman victories . . . 264 et seq. \nRegulus with an army crosses to Africa, and defeats \nthe Carthagenians ; his hard terms of peace re- \njected - 256 \n\nXanthippus defeats Regulus 255 \n\nHasdrubal defeated by Metellus at Panormus . . 250 \nRegulus, prisoner, accompanies an embassy to \nRome to propose peace, which he opposes ; he re- \nturns to Carthage, and dies there ....,, \nLong siege of Lilyba:um .... 250 et seq. \nHamilcar Barca, successful commander in Sicily . \n\n247 et seq. \nRoman naval victory near the iEgates ; treaty of \npeace ; Sicily lost by Carthage .... 241 \n\nThe great Hannibal born 247 \n\nHasdrubal founds New Carthage (Carthagena) . 242 \nWar between the Carthaginians and African merce- \nnaries 241 \n\nHamilcar Barcas sent into Spain : takes his son, \nHannibal, at the age of nine years, having first \nmade him swear an eternal enmity to the Romans 238 \n\nHamilcar killed 229 \n\nHasdrubal assassinated 221 \n\nHannibal conquers Spain, as far as the Iberus . .219 \nThe second Punic war begins (lasts 17 years) . . 218 \nHannibal crosses the Alps, and enters Italy . . ,, \nHe defeats the Roman consuls at the Ticinus and \nTrebia, 218 ; at the lake Trasimenus, 217 ; and at \nCannse {which see) . ... 2 Aug. 216 \nThe two Scipios in Spain, at first successful, de- \nfeated and slain by the young Hasdrubal, Hanni- \nbal\'s brother 212 \n\nThe Romans take Syracuse, 212 ; and expel the \n\nCarthagenians from Sicily 210 \n\nHannibal unable to relieve Capua, closely besieged, \nmarches to Koine, but does not attack it ; Capua \nsurrenders, and is severely punished . . . 211 \nPhilip, King of Macedon, prevented from joining \n\nHannibal ...\'... about 211 \nPublius Scipio carries war into Spain and takes New \n\nCarthage 210 \n\nHasdrubal arrives with an army ; defeated and slain \n\nat the Metaurus 207 \n\nCarthaginians expelled from Spain by Scipio . . 200 \nScipio arrives in Africa, and gains victories . . 204 \n\nHannibal recalled to Cartilage 203 \n\nTotally defeated at Zama {iijltich see) .... 202 \n\nEnd of the second Punic war 201 \n\nHannibal reforms the state, and prepares for a fresh \ncontest with Rome, but is exiled, and takes refuge \nwith Antiochus III., King of Syria, whom he in- \ncites against Rome, after whose defeat, 190, he re- \nsided at the court of Prusias, King of Bithynia, till \nhe took poison, when about to be surrendered to \n\nthe Romans about 183 \n\nThe third Punic war ; Scipio invades Africa . . 149 \nCarthage taken and burned, by order of the Senate \n\nJuly, 146 \n\nColony settled at Carthage by C. Gracchus about 116 \n\nIts rebuilding planned by Julius Cassar . . .46 \n\nAnd executed by his successors . . 19 et seq. \n\nThe new city becomes a Christian bishopric . a.d. 200 \n\nCyprian holds a council here 252 \n\nTaken by Genseric the Vandal . . .9 Oct. 439 \nRetaken by Belisarius ..... - 533 \n\nRavaged by the Arabs 647 \n\nTaken and destroyed by Hassan, the Saracenic \n\ngovernor of Egypt 698 \n\nCarthaginian antiquities (excavated by Mr. Nathan \n\nDavis) brought to the British Museum . . . 1861 \nHis excavations about to be renewed . Aug. 1876 \n\nMr. Bosworth Smith\'s " Carthage," published . 1878 \n\nCARTHAGENA, or New Carthage (S.E. \n\nSpain), built by Hasdrubal, the Carthaginian \ngeneral, 242 n.c. : taken by surpiise by Publius \nScipio Africanus, 210 or 209. 1 he modern Car- \nthagena was taken by a British force under sir \nJohn Leake, June, 1706; retaken by the duke \nof Berwick, Nov. It was the last place held by \nthe Intransigcntes and Internationalists of Spain ; \nwas besieged by general Martin Campos, about \n22 Aug. 1873. Bombardment begun 26 Nov., taken \nby general Lopez Dominguez, 12 Jan. 1874. See \nSpain. \xe2\x80\x94 Cakthagena, in Columbia, South Ame- \nrica, was taken by sir Francis Drake in 1585 ; \n\n\n\npillaged by the French buccaneers in 1697 ; \nbombarded by admiral Vernon in March, 1741 - r \nand unsuccessfully besieged, April, 1741. Popula- \ntion, 1884, 75,980. \n\nCARTHUSIANS, a religious order (springing- \nfrom the Benedictines) founded by Bruno of \nCologne, who retired with six companions about \n1084, to Chartreuse {which see), in the mountains- \nof Dauphine. Their austere rules were formed by \nBasil VII., their general. They appeared in Eng- \nland about 1 180, and a monaster} - was founded by \nsir William Manny, 1371, on the site of the present; \nCharter-house, London ; see Charter-house. The \nCarthusian powder, of father Simon, at Chartreuse^ \nwas first compounded about 1715. \n\nCARTOONS, large chalk drawings preparatory" \nto oil painting. Those of Raphael (twenty-five- \nin number) were designed (for tapestries) in the- \nchambers of the Vatican under Julius II. and, \nLeo X. about 1510 to 1516. The seven preserved \nwere purchased in Flanders by Rubens for Charles I., \nof England, for Hampton-court palace in 1629.. \nThey were removed to South Kensington 28 April,. \n1865. \xe2\x80\x94 The tapestries executed at Arras from these- \ndesigns are at Home. They were twice carried \naway by invaders, in 1526 and 1798, and were re- \nstored in 1815. \xe2\x80\x94 The Cartoons for the British \nHouses of Parliament were exhibited in July, 1843, \n\nRaphael\'s cartoons. \n\n1. The Miraculous Draught of Fishes. \n\n2. The Charge to Peter. \n\n3. Peter and John Healing the Lame at the Gate of the- \n\nTemple. \n\n4. The Death of Ananias. \n\n5. Elymas the Sorcerer Struck with Blindness. \n\n6. The Sacrifice to Paul and Barnabas, at Lystra. \n\n7. Paul Preaching at Athens. \n\nCARVING, see Sculpttires. \n\nCASAMICCIOLA, Ischia. See Lar:,- \nquahes, 4 March, 1881, and 28 July, 1883. \n\nCASH-PAYMENTS, see Batik ofEnglana. \n\nCASHEL (Tipperary, Ireland). Cormack Cuil- \nlinan, king and bishop of Cashel, was the reputed \nfounder or restorer of the cathedral, 901. In 1152: \nbishop P/onat O\'Danergan was invested with the \npall ; see Pallium. Cashel was valued in the \nking\'s books, 29 Henry VIII. at 661. 13s. 4^. Irish \nmoney. By the Church Temporalities Act, 1833, it \nceased to be archiepiscopal, and was joined to \nWaterford and Lismore. \n\nCASHMERE, in the valley of the Himalayas - r \nwas subdued by the Mahometans under Akbar, in. \n1586; by the Afghans in 1752 ; by the Sikhs, 1819 y. \nand by the treaty of Lahore, 9 March, 1846, ceded \nto the British, who gave it to the Maharajah \nGholab Singh, as tributary sovereign. The true \nCashmere shawls, first brought to England in 1666, \nare well imitated at Bradford and HuddersfiehL \nShawls of Thibetan wool, for the omrahs, cost \n150 rupees each, about 1650. Population, 1881,. \n\nI.534.972- \n\nGholab dies, succeeded by his son Runbeer, a \nfavourer of education, 1857 ; who assists in sup- \npressing the Indian mutiny and receives further \nguarantees\' March, 186c. \n\nThe prince of Wales warmly received by the maha- \nrajah at Jummoo 20 Jan. 1876- \n\nDreadful famine (partly due to continued de- \nstructive snowstorms, Oct. 1877\xe2\x80\x94 May, 1878) \n\nsummer, i875\' \n\nThe Maharajah dies 12 Sept. 1885 ; succeeded by his \nson Pertab Singh; the power of the British \nresident gn-atly increased; the country virtually \nsubject to the viceroy of India, through incom- \npetence and folly of the Maharajah . . i83S-s> \n\n\n\nCASSANO. \n\n\n\n18S \n\n\n\nCATANIA. \n\n\n\nThe Viceroy of India, informs the Maharajah that if \n\niie reform he may be restored to power . Aug. 1889 \nIncreased prosperity of the country reported Nov. 1890 \nVisit of the Viceroy of India, honourably received \n\nat Srinagar, the capital . . . .23 Oct. 1891 \nIncreased powers given to the Maharajah . Oct. ,, \n\nSee India, Dec. 1891. \n\nSee Earthquakes, 1885. \n\nCASSANO (N. Italy). Site of an indecisive \nconflict between prince Eugene of Savoy and the \nFrench, 16 Aug. 1705. \n\nCASSATION, Court of, the highest court \nof appeal in France, was established 10 Nov. 1790, \nfey the national assembly. \n\nCASSEL, formerly the capital of Hesse-Cassel, \nCentral Germany, acquired importance through be- \ncoming the refuge of French protestants after the \nrevocation of the edict of Nantes, 1685. It was the \ncapital of Jerome Bonaparte, king of "Westphalia, \n1807-13, and Wilhelmshohe, a neighbouring castle, \nbecame the residence of Napoleon III. after his \nsurrender to the king of Prussia, 2 Sept. 1870, ar- \nriving at 9.35 p.m. 5 Sept. He went to England \nin 1871. Population, 1890, 72,461. \n\nCASSITEEIDES, see Stilly Isles. \n\nCAST ALIA, see under Steam. \n\nCASTEL-ELDAEDO, near Ancona, Central \nItaly. Near here general Lamoriciere and the \npapal army of 1 1, ooo men were totally defeated by \nthe Sardinian general, Cialdini, 18 Sept. i860. \nLamoriciere with a few horsemen fled to Ancona, \nthen besieged. On 29 Sept. he and the garrison \nsurrendered, but were shortly after set at liberty. \n\nCASTES, distinct sections of society in India. \nIn the laws of Menu (see Menu), the Hindus are \ndivided into the Brahmans, or sacerdotal class; \nthe Kshatrya or Chuttree, military class; the \nVaisya, or commercial class ; and the JSudras, or \nsooders, servile class. \n\nCASTIGLIONE (N. Italy). Here the French \nunder A ugereau defeated the Austrians, commanded \nby Wurmser, with great loss, 5 Aug. 1796. \n\nCASTILE (Central Spain). A Gothic govern- \nment was established here about 800. \xe2\x80\x94 Koderiek, \ncount of Castile, 860 ; Ferdinand, a count, became \nking, 1035. Ferdinand, king of Arragon, married \nIsabella, queen of Castile, in 1474, and formed one \nmonarchy, 1479 ; see p. viii., and Spain. \n\nCASTILLEJOS (N. Africa). Here on 1 Jan. \ni860, was fought the first decisive action in the \nwar between Spain and Morocco. General Prim, \nafter a vigorous resistance, repulsed the Moors \nunder Muley Abbas, and advanced towards Tetuan. \n\nCASTILLON, Guienne (S. France). Here \nthe army of Henry VI. of England was defeated \nby that of Charles VII. of France, and an end put \nto the English dominion in France, Calais alone \nremaining, 17 or 23 July, 1453. Talbot, earl of \n\xe2\x96\xa0Shrewsbury, was killed. \n\nCASTLEBAE (Ireland). About 1 100 French \ntroops, under Humbert, landed at Killala, and as- \nsisted by Irish insurgents here, compelled the king\'s \n\xe2\x96\xa0troops under Lake to retreat, 27 Aug. 1798; but \n\xe2\x96\xa0were compelled to surrender at Ballinamuck, \n8 \'Sept. \n\nCASTLEPOLLAED (Ireland). At an affray \nat a fair here between some peasantry and a body \nof police, thirteen persons lost their lives, and many \nwere wounded, 23 May, 183 1. \n\nCASTLES. The _ castle of the Anglo-Saxon \nwas a tower keep, either round or square, and \n\n\n\nascended by a flight of steps in front. "William I. \nerected 48 strong castles. Several hundreds, built \nby permission of Stephen, between 1135 and 1154, \nwere demolished by Henry II., 1154. Many were \ndismantled in the civil wars, Richborough, Stud- \nfall, and Burgh are existing specimens of Boman \ncastles. \n\nCASUAL POOE ACT, 45 & 46 Vict. c. 36, \npassed 18 Aug. 1882 ; another bill withdrawn 23 \nJune, 1892. \n\nCAT. The generally received opinion that our \ndomestic cat is derived from the European wild cat \nis doubted by Mr. T. Bell (1827). Kiippell (died \n1794) found a wild cat in Nubia, whose conforma- \ntion agreed with that of the Egyptian cat mummies. \nSee Mummies. Cats fetched high prices in the \nmiddle ages, and were protected by law in Wales, \nabout 948. Great cat shows were held at the \nCrystal Palace, 13 July and 2 Dec. 1871 ; 2ist \nannual cat show at the Crystal Palace, 22 Oct. \n1889. A cat interrupted the debates in the com- \nmons, 9 July, 1874. A CR t asylum formed at Batter- \nsea, Dec. 1882. \nA discussion respecting the use of the "cat of nine \n\ntails " took place in the commons, and navy cats \n\nand others were inspected (see Flogging), 5 July, 1879 \n\nCATACLYSMISTS, see Continuity. \nCATACOMBS. The early depositories of the \ndead. The first Christians at Borne met for wor- \nship in the catacombs ; and here are said to have \nbeen the tombs of the apostles Peter and Paul. \nBelzoni in 1815-18 explored many Egyptian cata- \ncombs, built 3000 years ago. He brought to Eng- \nland the sarcophagus of Psammeticlius, formed of \noriental alabaster, exquisitely sculptured. In the \nParisian catacombs (formerly stone quarries), human \nremains from the cemetery of the Innocents were \ndeposited in 1785 ; and many of the victims of the \nrevolution in 1 792-4, are interred in them. \xe2\x80\x94 On \n31 May, 1578, some labourers digging on the Via \nSalaria, two miles from Rome, discovered the cele- \nbrated catacombs of which an account with engrav- \nings was published by Antonio Bosio, in his " Ronia \nSotteranea" (1632), and by.Aringhi (1659), and \nothers. John Evelyn saw them in 1645. Elaborate \naccounts have been published recently by I)e Rossi; \nan abstract of whose researches will be found in the \n" Roma Sotteranea " of the Rev. J. S. Northcote \nand W. R. Brownlow, 1869 and 1879. \n\nCATALOGUES, see Libraries, Books. \n\xe2\x96\xa0 CATALONIA (N.E. Spain), was settled by the \nGoths and Alani, about 409; conquered by the \nSaracens, 712; recovered by Pepin, and by Charle- \nmagne (788). It formed part of the Spanish marches \nand the territory of the count of Barcelona (ivhich \nsee). The natives were able seamen: being fre- \nquently unruly, their peculiar privileges were \nabolished in 1714. See Barcelona. \n\nCATALYTIC FOECE. The discovery in \n1819 by Thenard of the decomposition of peroxide \nof hydrogen by platinum, and by Dobereiner in \n1825 of its property to ignite a mixture of hydro- \ngen and oxygen, formed the groundwork of the \ndoctrine of catalytic force, also termed " action of \ncontact or presence," put forth by Berzelius and \nMitscherlich. Their view has not been adopted by \nLiebig and other chemists. \n\nCATAMAEANS (or carcases), fire-machines \nfor destroying ships ; tried in vain by sir Sydney \nSmith, 2 Oct. 1804,011 the Boulogne flotilla destined \nby Bonaparte to invade England. \n\nCATANIA (the ancient Catana), a town near \nEtna, Sicily, was founded by a colony from Chalcis, \n\n\n\nCATAPHRYGIANS. \n\n\n\n189 \n\n\n\nCATTLE. \n\n\n\nabout 730 B.C. Ceres had a temple here, open to \nnone but women. Catania was almost totally over- \nthrown by an eruption of Etna in 1669, and in 1693 \nwas nearly swallowed up by an earthquake : in a \nmoment more than 18,000 of its inhabitants were \nburied in the ruins. An earthquake did great \ndamage, 22 Feb. 1817. In Aug. 1862, the town \nwas held by Garibaldi and his volunteers, in op- \nposition to the Italian government. He was cap- \ntured on 29 Aug. Population in 1890, 109,687. \n\nCATAPHRYGIANS, heretics in the second \ncentury, who followed the errors of Montanus. \nThey are said to have baptized their dead, forbidden \nmarriage, and mingled the bread and wine in the \nLord\'s supper with the blood of young children. \n\nCATAPULTiE, military engines of the cross- \nbow kind, for throwing huge stones as well as \ndarts and arrows ; said to have been invented by \nDion3 T sius, the tyrant of Syracuse, 399 B.C. \n\nCATCH CLUB, Noblemen and Gen- \ntlemen\'s, formed in 1761, included eminent \nmusicians of the time. Prizes were given occa- \nsionally; sometimes, since 1821, for a composition, \na gold or silver cup. \n\nCATEAUCAMBRESIS (N.France), where, \non 2, 3 April, 1559, peace was concluded between \nHenry II. of France, Philip II. of Spain, and \nElizabeth of England. France ceded Savoy, Corsica, \nand nearly 200 forts in Italy and the Low Countries \nto Philip. \n\nCATECHISMS are said to have been com- \npiled in the 8th or 9th century. Luther\'s were \npublished 1520 and 1529. The catechism of the \nchurch of England in the first book of Edward VI., \n7 March, 1549, contained merely the baptismal \nvow, the creed, the ten commandments, and the \nLord\'s prayer, with explanations; but James I. \nordered the bishops to add an explication of the \nsacraments, 1612. The catechism of the council of \nTrent was published in 1566 ; those of the Assem- \nbly of Divines at Westminster (one termed the \nshorter catechism), 1647 and 1648. \n\nCATHARI (from the Greek katharos, pure), \na name given to the Novatians (about 251), Mon- \ntanists, and other early Christian sects. See Puri- \ntans. \n\nCATHAY, an old name for China. \n\nCATHEDRAL, the chief church of a diocese, \n\nas containing the cathedra, or seat of the bishop, \n\nobtained the name in the 10th century. \n\nA conference of the higher clergy to consider \ncathedral institutions held at Lambeth, 1 March, 1872 \n\nThe act 3 & 4 Vict. c. 113, for the regulation of \ncathedrals passed in 1840, amended and the en- \ndowment of canonries facilitated in . . 1873 \n\nA royal commission to inquire respecting cathedral \nchurches appointed (atop, of Canterbury, lord \nCranbrook, Mr. Beresford Hope, and others), \nJuly ; met in . . . . . . Aug. 1879 \n\nReport issued recommending more flexibility in \nservices, with use of nave, &c. . . Feb. 1882 \n\nFinal report issued April, 1885 \n\nCATHERINE. The order of knights of St. \nCatherine was instituted in Palestine, 1063. An \norder of ladies of the highest rank in Russia was \nfounded by Peter the Great, 17 14, in honour of the \nbravery of his empress Catherine. They were to \nbe distinguished, as the name implied (from \nkatharos, pure), for purity of life and manners; \nsee Docks and Katharine. \n\nCATHOLIC ASSOCIATION, see under \nRoman Catholics. \n\n\n\nCATHOLIC LEAGUE formed by English \nchurchmen more Romanistie than the English \nChurch Union, June, 1882. \n\nCATHOLIC MAJESTY. This title was \ngiven by pope Gregory III. to Alphonso I. of Spain, \n739, and to Ferdinand V. and his queen in 1474 by \nInnocent VIII. on account of their zeal for religion, \nand their establishment of the Inquisition. \n\nCATHOLICS, see Roman Catholics. \n\nCATHOLIC UNION, see Roman Catholics. \n\n.CATILINE\'S CONSPIRACY. Lucius Ser- \n\ngius Catiline, a dissolute Roman noble, having been \nrefused the consulship (65 B.C.), conspired to kill \nthe senate, plunder the treasury, and set Rome on \nfire. This conspiracy was timely discovered and \nfrustrated. A second plot (in 63), was detected bv \nthe consul Cicero, whom lie had resolved to murder. \nCatiline\'s daring appearance in the senate-house, \nafter his guilt was known, drew forth Cicero\'s cele- \nbrated^ invective, " Quousque tandem, Catilina!" \non 8 Nov. On seeing five of his accomplices ar- \nrested, Catiline fled to Gaul, where his partisans \nwere assembling an army. Cicero punished the \nconspirators at home, and Petreius routed their \nforces; Catiline being killed in the engagement,. \nJan. 62 B.C. \n\nCAT ISLE, see Salvador. \n\nCATO, SUICIDE OF. Considering freedom as \nthat which alone "sustains the dignity of man," \nand unable to survive the independence of his- \ncountry, Cato stabbed himself at Utica, 46 B.C. \n\nCATO-STREET CONSPIRACY : a gang \nof desperate men, headed by Arthur Thistlewood, \nassembled in Cato-street. Edgware-road, and pro- \nposed the assassination of the ministers of the \ncrown, at a cabinet dinner. They were betrayed \nand arrested, 23 Feb. 1820, and Thistlewood, Brunt, \nDavidson, Ings, and Tidd, were executed as traitors, \non 1 May. \n\nCATTI, a German tribe, attacked but not sub- \ndued by the Romans a.d. 15, and 84; absorbed by \nthe Franks, 3rd century. \n\nCATTLE. The importation of horned cattle \nfrom Ireland and Scotland into England was pro- \nhibited by a law, 1663; but the export of cattle \nfrom Ireland became very extensive. In 1842 the \nimportation of cattle into England from foreign \ncountries was subjected to a moderate duty, and in \n1846 they were made duty free ; and since then the \nnumbers imported have enormously increased.* \nHorned cattle imported into the United Kingdom \n1849,53,480; 1853, 125,523; 1855 (war), 97,527; \ni860, 104,569; 1865, 283,271 ; 1866, 237,739; 1867, \n177,948; 1868, 136,688; 1869, 220,190; 1870, \n202,172; 1874, 193,862; 1876, 271,576; 1877, \n201,193; ^79. 247,768 ; 1881, 319,374; 1883, \n474,750; 1887, 295,961; 1888, 377,088; l88q, \n555,222; 1890,642,596. See under Sheep, Smith- \nfield, Metropolitan Cattle-market, ami Foreign \nCattle-market. \nA cattle plague began in Hungary ; extended over \n\nWestern Europe, destroying iA- million cattle 1711-14 \nA severe cattle plague raged in England and wesJ \n\nEurope (about 3 million cattle perish) . . 1745-56 \nThe privy council ordered diseased beasts to he \nshot, and their skins destroyed ; granting mode- \nrate compensation . . . .12 March, 1746 \nGreat disease among foreign cattle ; excluded from \nthis country by prohibitions . . . April, 1857 \n\n* Sale of 30 of duke of Devonshire\'s shorthorn bulls \nfor 19,923?., about Sept. 1878. \n\n\n\nCATTLE. \n\n\n\n190 \n\n\n\nCAUDINE FOEKS. \n\n\n\nThe cattle plague appears at Laycoek\'s dairy, \nBarnsbury, London, N. ; rapidly spreads, about \n\n24 June, 1865 \n\n.27,432 beasts had been attacked ; 12,680 died ; \n8,998 slaughtered, up to . . . .21 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nA royal commission to inquire into the causes of \ncattle plague and suggest remedies met first, 10 \nOct. ; report of majority considered the disease \nto have been imported, and recommend slaughter \nof animals, and stringent prohibition of passage \nof cattle across public roads, &c, 31 Oct. 1865 ; \nsecond report, 6 Feb. ; 3rd report . 1 May, i366 \n\nOrders in council for regulating the cattle plague \n(in conformity with the act of 1850), 23 Nov. and \n16 Dec. 1865 ; and 20 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n(Disease raging ; official report ; cattle attacked, \n120,740 ; killed, 16,742 ; died, 73,750 ; recovered, \n14,162 ; unaccounted for, 16,086 . . 1 Feb. ,, \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Cattle Disease Acts passed 20 Feb. and 10 Aug. ,, \n\nOrders in council making uniform repressive mea- \nsures throughout the country . . 27 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\'The disease materially abates . . . April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nJPrivy council return : cattle attacked, 248,965 ; \nkilled, 80,597 : died, 124,187 ; recovered, 32,989 ; \nunaccounted for, 11,192 . . . .22 June, ,, \n\nThe disease nearly " stamped out " . 27 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nOrder in council directing that foreign cattle be \nlanded only at certain parts (after 13 Nov.), there \nto be subjected to quarantine . . .10 Nov. ,, \n\nOattle plague re-appears in Cheshire and Lanca- \nshire and Yorkshire Dec. ,, \n\nJBe-appears at Barnsbury (see 24 June, 1865), 46 \nanimals slaughtered .... 2 Feb. 1867 \n\nale-appearance in various places . . June, July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Contagious Diseases (Animals) Act amended Aug. ,, \n\n3STo case reported to the privy council . 3 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nOrder of council permitting cattle to be removed \nfrom the metropolis . . . .25 July, 1868 \n\nNew general orders issued .... Aug. 1869 \n\n^Prevalence of " foot and mouth disease " in \nEngland . Aug. 1869 \xe2\x80\x94 Dec. 1870; June, July, 1871 \n\n^Disease appears at Kaiserslautern, rear of the Ger- \nman army ; cautionary regulations promulgated \nby the privy council .... 9 Sept. 1870 \n\nNew foreign cattle market determined on, Nov. \n1870 ; opened Dec. 1871 ; suffers by great fire, \nabout io,ooo\xc2\xa3. lost . . . .18 Sept. 1883 \n\nFoot and mouth disease in England, . July, Aug. 1872 \n\nAppearance of the plague in German cattle ; further \nimportation suspended . . about 3 Aug. ,, \n\n-Cattle plague appears at Pocklington, Yorkshire ; \nvigorously treated, 3 Sept. ; stringent order from \nthe privy council 7 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nJLive cattle imported to Glasgow from America by \nMr. Bell July, 1873 \n\nIFoot and mouth disease in some English counties, \n\nAug. Sept. 1875 \n\nSte-appearance of cattle-plague in England ; restric- \ntions in London and other places ; much cattle \nkilled . . .:\xe2\x80\xa2\xe2\x80\xa2.\xe2\x96\xa0. . . Jan.\xe2\x80\x94 May, 1877 \n\nOattle-plague commission enlarged, 3 May ; plague \nsaid to be stamped out ; restrictions removed, 26 \nJune ; fresh cases in London ; restrictions re- \nsumed 1 3 July ; removed . . . 31 July, ,, \n\nNew Cattle Contagious Diseases Act passed 16 Aug. 1878 \n\nOrder in council prohibiting importation of living \ncattle from eastern half of Europe after 1 Jan. \n1879 ; imports permitted from some countries, \ncattle to be slaughtered ; (no restriction respect- \ning some countries) .... 6 Dec. ,, \n\njFoot and mouth disease in E. Lancashire, Aug. \n1881 ; in Staffordshire, Aug. 1882 ; Norfolk Oct, 1882 \n\nInternational cattle show at Hamburg . July, 1883 \n\niFoot and mouth disease prevailing in English mid- \nland counties, July ; in Kent . July, el seq. ,, \n\nSevere at Odessa . . . Oct. 1883\xe2\x80\x94 May, 1884 \n\nAbating in England through suspension of fairs, \n&c, announced April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\niCattle-men of United States ; above 12,000 delegates \nhold a convention at St. Louis, organize a \nnational live stock association, and recommend \nthe formation of a National trail ten miles wide \nfor the passage of cattle from the Red River to \nthe Northern boundary of the States 18-22 Nov. ,, \n\nNew Contagious Diseases Act passed . . . ,, \n\nFoot-and-mouth disease stamped out, Earl Spencer, \n28 May ; favourable reports . . . Dec. 1886 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Cattle disease in Leicestershire . June 1880 \n\n\n\nFoot and mouth disease in Germany; importation \ninto England checked Oct. 18: \n\nPleurc-pneumonia and anthrax in the United \nKingdom reported 6 Feb. 18 \n\nFoot and mouth disease at the Metropolitan cattle \nmarket detected in some Danish cattle ; all \nslaughtered, 4-6 Feb. The sale of live cattle \ntemporarily suspended, 8 Feb. The disease soon \nafter appeared in Kent, Surrey, W. R. Yorkshire, \nChester, Westmoreland also at Edinburgh, Glas- \ngow, Paisley, and was vigorously stamped out \nbv the action of the Board of Agriculture, \n\nFeb. -July, 18 \n\nCATTLE AND SHEEP IN THE UNITED KINGDOM AND \nISLANDS. \n\n\n\n1879 \n\n\n\nSheep. \n26,380,000 \n\n33,8i7>95i \n35,607,812 \n34,250,272 \n32,786,783 \n31,403,500 \n32,246,642 \n33,982,404 \n34,837,597 \n33,49 I ,948 \n32,252,579 \n32,220,067 \n32,571,018 \n\nSHOW, see Smithfield. \n, see Cabul. \n\n\n\nCattle. Sheep. \n\n9,961,536 32,237,958 \n9,871,153 30,239,620 \n\n\n\n1801 9,905,013 \n\n1882 9,832,417 \n\n1883 10,097,943 \n\n1884 10,422,762 \n\n1885 10,868,760 \n\n1886 10,872,811 \n\n1887 10,639,960 29,401,750 \n\n1888 10,268,600 28,938,716 \n\n1889 10,272,765 29,484,774 \n\n1890 10,789,858 31,667,195 \n\n\n\n27,090,273 \n27,448,220 \n28,347,560 \n29,376,787 \n30,086,200 \n28,955,240 \n\n\n\nCattle. \n\n1866 8,570,000 \n\n1867 8,731,473 \n\n1868 9,083,416 \n\n1869 9,078,282 \n\n1870 9,235,052 \n\n1871 9,346,216 \n\n1872 9,718,505 \n\n1873 10,153,670 \n\n1874 10,281,036 \n\n1875 10.162,787 \n\n1876 9,997,189 \n\n1877 9,731,537 \n\n1878 9,761,288 \n\nCATTLE \nCAUBUL \n\nCAUCASUS, a lofty mountain, a continuation \nof the ridge of Mount Taurus, between the Euxine \nand Caspian seas. The passes near the mountain \nwere called Caucasia Fortcc, and it is supposed that \nthrough them the Sarmatians or Huns invaded the \nprovinces of Rome, a.d. 447. Population of the \nprovince, 1885, 7,824,567; see Circassia. \nTwo explorers, Mr. W. F. Donkin and Mr. H. Fox, \n\nand their guides lost . . . about 1 Sept. 1888 \nAlpine Club search party find only some of their \n\nproperty 29 July, 1889 \n\nFirst agricultural exhibition opened at Tiflis . \n\n27 Sept. ,, \n\nCAUCUS. An American term applied to a \nprivate meeting of the leading politicians of a party \nto agree upon the plans to be pursued during an \nelection or session of congress. This institution is \nnow a very powerful antagonist to public opinion. \nThe word is said to be derived from \' \' ship \' \' -caulkers\' \nmeetings. A "caucus club" is mentioned by John \nAdams, in 1763. Bartlett. Similar meetings are \noccasionally held in London by conservatives and \nliberals ; one was held by Mr. Gladstone respecting \nthe ballot bill, 6 July, 1871. Jealousy respecting \nthe system was aroused in 1878. \nThe Birmingham Liberal Association began in 1868 \na powerful caucus, systematized by Mr. Schnad- \nhorst, very efficient 1873 et seq. ; a similar conser- \nvative association since formed ; a network of \nsimilar societies exist throughout the kingdom \n\nAutumn 1885 \nThe London Liberal and Radical Council, actually \n\na caucus, active in November, ,, \n\nio,5ooL presented to Mr. Schnadhorst by the \nLiberals .... .9 March, 1887 \n\nCAUDINE FOEKS, according to Livy, the \nFurcults Caudince (in Samnium, S. Italy), were two \nnarrow defiles or gorges, united by a range of moun- \ntains on each side. The Romans went through the \nfirst pass, but found the second blocked up ; on re- \nturning they found the first similarly obstructed. \nBeing thus hemmed in by the Samnites, under the \ncommand of C. Pontius, they surrendered at discre- \ntion, 321 B.C. (after a fruitless contest, according to \nCicero). The Roman senate broke the favourable \ntreaty. C. Pontius, taken prisoner in the third \nSamnite war, was executed at Rome, 290. \n\n\n\nCAULIFLOWEE. \n\n\n\n191 \n\n\n\nCELL THEOEY. \n\n\n\nCAULIFLOWEE, said to have been brought \nfrom Cyprus to England about 1603. \n\nCAUSTIC, IN PAINTING, a method of burn- \ning colours into wood or ivory, invented by Gausias \nof Sicyon. He painted his mistress Glycere sitting \non the ground making garlands with dowers ; the \npicture was hence named Stephanoplocon. It was \nbought by Lucullus for two talents, 335 B.C. Pliny. \n\nCAUTIONABY TOWNS (Holland), (the \nBriel, Flushing, Rammekins, and Walcheren), \n\xe2\x96\xa0were given to queen Elizabeth in 1585 as security \nfor their repaying her for assistance in their struggle \nwith Spain. They were restored to the Dutch \nrepublic by James I. in 16 16. \n\nCAVALIEB. The appellation given to the \nsupporters of the king during the civil war, from a \nnumber of gentlemen formiug themselves into a \nbody-guard for the king in 164 1. They were \nopposed to the Roundheads, or parliamentarians. \n\nCAVALBY. Used by the Canaanites in war, \n1450 B.C. {Josh. xi. 4). Attached to each Roman \nlegion was a body of 300 horse, in ten turmaj ; the \ncommander always a veteran. \xe2\x80\x94 The Persians had \n10,000 horse at Marathon, 490 B.C. ; and 10,000 \nPersian horse were slain at the battle of Issus, 333 \nB.C. Plutarch. In the wars with Napoleon I. the \nBritish cavalry reached to 31,000 men. Our cavalry \nforce, in 1840, was 10,733. In 1867, cavalry of the \nline, 10,023; in depots, 838 ; in India, 5421 ; total, \n1 7,599 ; m 1880, total 17,245 ; in i884, total 16,998 ; \nin Jan. 1889, 556 officers, 1406 non-commissioned, \n1 1,458 rank and file ; in India, total 5682. Cavalry \nManoeuvres on the Berkshire Downs, eight regi- \nments, director, sir Evelyn Wood ; general in \n\xe2\x80\xa2command, sir Baker Russell, Sept. 1890. The \nmanoeuvres repeated near Aldershot, Aug. 1891, \nand Aug. 1892 ; see Horse Guards, \xc2\xa7c. \n\nCAVENDISH EXPEEIMENT. In 1798 \nthe Hon. Henry Cavendish described his experi- \nment for determining the mean density of the \nearth, by comparing the force of terrestrial attrac- \ntion with that of the attraction of leaden spheres of \nknown magnitude and density, by means of the \ntorsion balance. Branch. The Cavendish. Society, \nfor the publication of chemical works, which ceased \nwith Gmelin\'s Chemistry (1848-72), was established \n1846. \n\nCAVENDISH COLLEGE, Cambridge \n(founded to give cheap university education to \nyouths younger than those admitted at other col- \nleges, and leaving earlier for business), was in- \naugurated by the duke of Devonshire, 26 Oct. 1876. \nNew buildings opened by the marquis of Harting- \nton, 16 Nov. 1889. \n\nCAVES are frequently mentioned in the Bible \nas dwellings, refuges, and burying-places. Mr. W. \nB. Dawkins\' "Cave-hunting; Researches on the \nevidence of caves respecting the early inhabitants \nof Europe," was published 1874. Oreston cave, \nDevon, discovered 1816; Kirkdale, Yorkshire, 1821 ; \nKent\'s Hole, Torquay, which see, 1825; Brixham \n\xe2\x96\xa0cave, 1858 ; Wookey Hole, Somerset, 1859 ; and \nmany others, have been well explored. \n\nCAWNPOEE, a town in India, on the Doab, \na peninsula between the Ganges and Jumna. During \nthe mutiny in June, 1857, it was garrisoned by na- \ntive troops under sir Hugh Wheeler. These broke \nout into revolt. An adopted son of the old Peishwa \nBajee Rao, Nana Sahib, who had long lived on \nfriendly terms with the British, came apparently to \ntheir assistance, but joined the rebels. He took the \n\n\n\nplace after three weeks\' siege, 26 June; and in \nspite of a treaty massacred great numbers of the \nBritish, without respect to age or sex, in the most \ncruel manner. General Havelock defeated Nana \nSahib, 16 July, at Futtehpore, and retook Cawn- \npore, 17 July. Sir Colin Campbell defeated the \nrebels here on 6 Dec. following. A column was \nerected here, in memory of the sufferers, by their \nrelatives of the 32nd regiment. In Dec. i860, \nNana was said to be living at Thibet ; and in Dec. \n1861 was incorrectly said to have been captured at \nKurrachee ; see India, 1857. \n\nCAXTON SOCIETY, established for the \npublication of chronicles and literature of the \nM iddle Ages, published sixteen volumes, 1844-54. \nCaxton Celebration, see under Printing, 1877. \n\nCAYENNE, French Guiana (S. America), \nsettled by the French, 1604-35. ^ afterwards came \nsuccessively into the hands of the English (1654), \nFrench, and Dutch. The last were expelled by the \nFrench in 1677. Cayenne was taken by the British, \n12 Jan. 1809, but was restored to the French in \n1814. Here is produced the Capsicum baccatum, or \ncay r enne pepper. Many French political prisoners \nwere sent here in 1848. \n\nCECIL CLUB, founded about 1889 to oppose \nrash, democratical and radical changes ; supported \nby conservatives. \n\nCECILIAN SOCIETY, see Ccecilian. \n\nCEDAE CEEEK and MOUNTAIN, \n\nVirginia, U.S. On 19 Oct. 1864, gen. Sheridan \nconverted the defeat of the Federals by the Con- \nfederates under Longstreet into a complete victory. \nAt Cedar Mountain gen. Stonewall Jackson \ndefeated Banks, 9 Aug. 1862. \n\nCEDAE TEEE. The red cedar (Junipcrus \nvirginiana) came from North America before \n1664; the Bermudas cedar from Bermudas before \n1683 ; the Cedar of Lebanon (Pinus Cedrus) from \nthe Levant before 1683. In 1850 a grove of vener- \nable cedars, about 40 feet high, remained on \nLebanon. The cedar of Goa (Cupressus lusitanica) \nwas brought to Europe by the Portuguese about \n1683 ; see Cypress. \n\nCELEEY is said to have been introduced into \nEngland by the French marshal, Tallard, during \nhis captivity r in England, after his defeat at Blen- \nheim by Marlborough, 2 Aug. 1704. \n\nCELESTIAL GLOBE, see Globes. \n\nCELIBACY (from ccelcbs, unmarried), was \npreached by St. Anthony in Egypt about 305. His \nearly converts lived in caves, &c, till monasteries \nwere founded. The doctrine was rejected in the \ncouncil of Nice, 325. Celibacy was enjoined on \nbishops only in 692. The decree was opposed in \nEngland, 958-978. The Romish clergy generally \nwere enjoined a vow of celibacy by pope Gregory \nVII. in 1073-85, and its observance was established \nby the council of Placentia, held in 1095. Mar- \nriage was restored to the English clergy in 1547. \nThe marriage of the clergy was proposed, but nega- \ntived at the council of Trent (1563); also at a con- \nference of the old catholics at Bonn, June, 1876. \nSir Bartle Frere termed the Zulu army " a celibate \nman-slaying machine," 1878. \n\nCELL THEOEY (propounded by Schwann \nin 1839) supposes that the ultimate particles of all \nanimal and vegetable tissues are small cells. Some \nof the lowest forms of animal and vegetable life \nare said to be composed of merely a single cell, as the \ngerminal vesicle in the egg and the red-snow plant. \n\n\n\nCELLULOID. \n\n\n\n192 \n\n\n\nCBRIGNOLA. \n\n\n\nCELLULOID, see Ivory. \nCELTIBERI, see Numantine War. \nCELTS, or KELTS, a group of the Aryan \nfamily; see Gauls. Above 8000/. subscribed to \nfound a Celtic professorship at the university of \nEdinburgh, Oct. 1876; 11,937^. subscribed April, \n1879. One was established at Oxford in 1876 ; see \nGaelic. \n\nCEMETERIES. The bur) ing-places of the \nJews, Greeks, Romans, were outside their towns \n{Matt, xxvii. 60). Many public cemeteries re- \nsembling " Pere La Chaise" * at Paris, have been \nopened in all parts of the kingdom since 1856; see \nCatacombs, Bun hill- fields. \n\nKensal-green cemetery, 53 acres ; consecrated, 2 Nov. 1832 \nSouth Metropolitan and Norwood cemetery, 40 \n\nacres ; consecrated 6 Dec. 1837 \n\nHighgate and Kentish-town cemetery, 22 acres; \n\nopened and consecrated ... 20 May, 1839 \nAbney Park cemetery, Stoke Newington, 30 acres ; \n\nopened by the lord mayor ... 20 May, 1840 \nWestminster, or West London cemetery, Kensing- \nton-road ; consecrated ... 15 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nNunhead cemetery, about 50 acres; consecrated \n\n29 July, ,, \nCity of London and Tower Hamlets cemetery, \n\n30 acres ; consecrated 1841 \n\nLondon Necropolis and National Mausoleum, at \nWoking, Surrey, 2000 acres ; the company incor- \nporated in July, 1852 ; opened . . Jan. 1855 \nCity of London cemetery, Ilford ; opened, 24 June, 1856 \nActs respecting burials passed .... 1850-57 \n\nCENIS, MOUNT, see under Alps. \n\nCENSORS, Roman magistrates, to survey \nand rate the property, and correct the manners of \nthe people. The two first censors were appointed, \n443 B.C. Plebeian censors were first appointed, 131 \nB.C. Cato, the censor, elected 184 B.C., strenuously \nendeavoured 1 o restrain the luxury and vice of the \npatricians. The office, abolished by the emperors, \nwas revived by Decius, a.d. 251 ; see Press. \n\nCENSUS. The Israelites were numbered by \nMoses, 1490 B.C.; and by David, 1017B.C; Deme- \ntrius Phalereus is said to have taken a census of \nAttica, 317 B.C. Servius Tullius is traditionally \nsaid to have enacted that a general estimate of \nevery Roman\'s estate and personal effects, should \nbe delivered to the government upon oath every \nfive years, 566 B.C. A census of the people is \nstated to have been taken at Florence in 1527 ; \nat Venice, 1584; in France, 1700; in Sweden, \n1749; and in the United States, N.A. 1790. In \nEngland the proposal for a census in 1753 was \nopposed as profane and subversive of liberty^ In \nthe United Kingdom the census is now taken at \ndecennial periods since 1801 ; 1811, 1821, 1831, \n1841, 1851, 1861 (7 April), 1871 (3 April), 1881 \n(3 April), 1891 (5 April) ; act passed 18 Aug. 1890. \nS\'ee Population. For the latest census of other \ncountries, see Table, facing page 1. \n\nCENTAL, a new name given to the ioolbs. \nWeight, London Gazette, 7 Feb. 1879. \n\nCENTENARIANS, see Longevity. \n\nCENTRAL AFRICA, see under Africa. \n\nCENTRAL AMERICA, &eeAmerica,Central. \nA laro-c American steamer of this name was wrecked \nduring a gale in the gulf of Mexico, 12 Sept. 1857. \n\n* Pere La Chaise was the favourite and confessor of \nLouis XIV. , who made him superior of a great establish- \nment of tiie Jesuits on this spot, then named Mont \nLouis. The house and grounds were bought for a national \ncemetery, which was laid out by M. Brongniart, and first \nused on 21 May, 1804. \n\n\n\nOf about 550 persons only 152 were saved; several \nof these after drifting on rafts above 600 miles. \nThe loss of about 2\\ million dollars in specie aggra- \nvated the commercial panic in New York shortly \nafter. The captain and crew behaved heroically. \n\nCENTRAL CRIMINAL COURT, estab- \nlished in 1834. Commissions are issued to the \nfifteen judges of England (of whom three attend in \nrotation at the Old Bailey) for the periodical de- \nlivery of the gaol of Newgate, and the trial of \noffences of greater degree, committed in Middlesex \nand parts of Essex, Kent, and Surrey; the new \ndistrict is considered as one county. \n\nCENTRAL HALL OF SCIENCES, see \nunder Albert. \n\nCENTRAL PROVINCES OF INDIA, \n\nconstituted out of territories from the North- West \nprovinces and Madras in 1861 and placed under a . \nchief commissioner. Population in 1881,9.838,791; \n1891, 10,761,630. Chief commissioner, Alex. Mac- \nkenzie (1889) ; A. Patrick MacDonnell (1891). " \n\nCENTURION, the captain, head, or com- \nmander of a subdivision of a Roman legion, which \nconsisted of 100 men, and was called a centuria. \nBy the Roman census each hundred of the people \nwas called a centuria, 556 b c \n\nCENTURY. The Greeks computed time by \nthe Olympiads, beginning 776 B.C., and the Roman \nchurch by Indictions, the first of which began 24 \nSept., a.d. 312. The method of computing time \nby centuries commenced from the incarnation 0? \nChrist, and was adopted in chronological history \nfirst in France. Dupin. See Dictionaries, 1889. \n\nCEPHALONIA, the ancient Cephallenia, one \nof the Ionian islands, was taken from the JEtolians \nby the Romans, 189 B.C., and given to the Athenians \nby Hadrian, a.d. 135; see Ionian Isles. \nIt was held successively by the eastern emperors, by \nthe Franks in the 12th century, by the Princes \nof Aehaia, 1224 ; by the Turks, 1479 ; by the \nVenetians 1500-1797 \n\nCEPHISUS, a river in Attica, near which \nWalter de Brienne, duke of Athens, was defeated \nand slain by the Catalans, 1311. \n\nCERBERE, a French gun-brig, with a crew \nof 87 men, and seven guns, in the harbour of \nL\' Orient, within pistol-shot of three batteries, was- \ncaptured in a most daring manner by lieut. Jeremiah \nCoghlan, in a cutter with 19 companions aided by \ntwo boats, one of which was commanded by mid- \nshipman Paddon. The prize was towed out under \na heavy but ineffectual fire from the batteries, \n26 July", 1800. Nicolas. \n\nCEREMONIES, Master of the, an office \ninstituted for the more honourable reception of \nambassadors and persons of quality at court, \n1 James I. 1603. The order maintained by the \nmaster of the ceremonies at Bath, "Beau Nash,"\' \nthe "King of Bath," led to the adoption of the \noffice in ordinary assemblies ; he died in his 88th \nyear, 1761! Ashe. \n\nCERES, a planet, 160 miles in diameter, was \ndiscovered by M. Piazzi, at Palermo, 1 Jan. 1801 ; \nhe named it after the goddess highly esteemed by \nthe ancient Sicilians. \n\nCERESUOLA (N. Italy). Here Francis de \nBourbon, count d\'Eughien, defeated the imperialists \nunder the marquis de Guasto, 14 April, 1544. \n\nCERIGNOLA (S. Italy). Here the great \ncaptain Gonsalvo de Cordova and the Spaniards \n\n\n\n^CERINTHIANS. \n\n\n\n193 \n\n\n\nCHAMBERS\' JOURNAL. \n\n\n\ndefeated the due de Nemours and the French, \n28 April, 1503. \n\nCERINTHIANS, followers of Cerinthus, a \nJew, who lived about a.d. 80, are said to have com- \nbined Judaism with pagan philosophy. \n\nCERIUM, a very rare metal, discovered by \nKlaproth and others in 1 803. \n\nCEUTA (the ancient Septa), a town on N. coast \nof Africa, stands on the site of the ancient Abyla, \nthe southern pillar of Hercules. It was taken \nfrom the Vandals by Belisarius for Justinian, 534 ; \nby the Goths, 618 ; by the Moors about 709, from \nwhom it was taken by the Portuguese, 1415. "With \nPortugal, it was annexed in 1580 to Spain, which \npower still retains it. \n\nCEYLON (the ancient Taprobane), an island \nin the Indian Ocean, called by the natives the seat \nof paradise. It became a seat of Buddhism, 307 \nB.C., and was known to the Romans about 41 a.d. \nPopulation 1873, 2,323,760; 1881,2,758,165; 1891, \n3,008,239. \n\nThe Mahavansa, a metrical chronicle in Pali, gives \nthe history of Ceylon from 543 B.C. down to 432 \na.d. which has been continued to 1756. Bud- \ndhism was established as the national religion \n\nB.C. 307 \n\nThe usurpation of the Malabars .... 237 \nWyjayo Balm re-establishes a native dynasty a.d. 1071 \nPrakrama Bahu, a great prince, reigns . 1153 etseq. \nWars with the Malabars, 12th and 13th centuries. \nInvaded by the Portuguese Almeyda . . . 1505 \nThe Dutch landed in Ceylon, 1602 ; and captured \n\nthe capital, Colombo 1603 \n\nFrequent conflicts ; peaceful commercial relations \n\nestablished (the Portuguese having been expelled) 1664 \nIntercourse with the British begun . . . . 1713 \nA large portion of the country taken by them in \n\n1782 ; was restored . 1783 \n\nThe Dutch settlements seized by the British : Trin- \n\ncomalee, 26 Aug. ; Jaffhapatam . . Sept. 1795 \nCeylon was ceded to Great Britain by the peace of \n\nAmiens 1802 \n\nBritish troops treacherously massacred or im- \nprisoned by the Adigar of Candy, at Colombo ; \n\nsee Candy 26 June, 1803 \n\nComplete sovereignty of the island assumed by \n\nEngland 1815 \n\nBishopric of Colombo founded 1845 \n\nThe governor, lord Torrington, absolved from a \ncharge, of undue severity in suppressing a rebel- \nlion May, 1851 \n\nProsperity of Ceylon greatly increased under the \n\nadministration of sir H. Ward . . . 1855-60 \n\nSir J. E. Tennent\'s work, "Ceylon," appeared . 1859 \nSir Hercules G. Robinson appointed governor, \n\n7 March, 1865 \nThe duke of Edinburgh visited Ceylon . April, 1870 \nWm. H. Gregory, M.P., appointed governor, 9 Jan. 1872 \nVisit of the prince of Wales . . .1 Dec. 1875 \nSir J. R. Longden appointed governor . Nov. 1876 \nSir Arthur Hamilton Gordon .... Feb. 1883 \nSir Arthur E. Havelock ... 12, March, 1890 \nNative industry reported very satisfactory . . 1884 \n\nCH^ERONEA (Bccotia). Here Greece was \nruined by Philip ; 32,000 Macedonians defeating \n30,000 Thebans, Athenians, &c, 6 or 7 Aug. 338 B.C. \nHere Archelaus, lieutenant of Mithridates, was \ndefeated by Sylla, and 1 10,000 Cappadocians were \nslain, 86 b.c. ; see Coronea. \n\nCHAIN BRIDGES, see Suspension Bridges. \n\nCHAIN-CABLES, Pumps, and SnoT. \n\nIron chain-cables were in use by the Veneti, a people \nintimately connected with the Belga? of Britain in \nthe time of Caesar, 57 b. c. These cables came into \nuse, generally in the navy of England, in 1812. \nActs for tbe proving and sale of chain-cables and \nanchors were passed in 1864, i87l,and 1874. \xe2\x80\x94 Chain \nShot, to destroy the rigging of an enemy\'s ship, \n\n\n\nwere invented by the Dutch admiral, De Witt, in \n1666. \xe2\x80\x94 Chain-Pumps were first used on board the \nFlora, British frigate, in 1787. \n\n_ CHALCEDON, Asia Minor, opposite Byzan- \ntium, colouised by Megarians, about 684 B.C. It \nwas taken by Darius, 505 B.C. ; by the Romans, \n74 b.c; plundered by the Goths, a.d. 259; taken by \nChosroes, the Persian, 609 ; by Orchan, the Turk, \n1338. Here was held the "Synod of the Oak," \n403 ; and the fourth general council, which annulled \nthe act of the "Robber Synod," 8 Oct. 451. \n\nCHALCIS, see Eubcea. \n\nCHALD^EA, the ancient name of Babylonia, \nbut afterwards restricted to the S. W. portion. The \nChaldaeans were devoted to astronomy and astrology ; \nsee Ban. ii. &c. \xe2\x80\x94 The Chaldjean Registers of \ncelestial observations, said to have commenced \n2234 B.C., were brought down to the taking of \nBabylon by Alexander, 331 b.c. (1903 years). \n\nCHALGROVE (Oxfordshire). At a skirmish \nhere with prince Rupert, 18 June, 1643, John \nHampden, of the parliament party, was wounded, \nand died 24 June. A column was erected to his \nmemory, 18 June, 1843. \n\nCHALLENGER, see Beep Sea Soundings. \n\nCHALONS-SUR-MARNE (N.E. France). \nHere the emperor Aurelian defeated Tetricus, the \nlast of the pretenders to the throne, termed the \nThirty Tyrants, 274; and here in 451 Aetius \ndefeated Attila the Hun, compelling him to retire \ninto Pannonia. \n\nCHAM, see Charivari. \n\nCHAMBERLAIN, early a high court officer \nin France, Germany, and England. The office of \nchamberlain of the exchequer ceased in 1834. \n\nHereditary Lord Great Chamberlain of England. \n\xe2\x80\x94The sixth great officer of state, whose duties, among \nothers, relate to coronations and public solemnities. \nThe office was long held by the De Veres, earls of Oxford, \ngranted by Henry I. in 1101. On the death of John De \nVere, the sixteenth earl, Mary, his sole daughter, \nmarrying lord Willoughby De Eresby, the right was \nestablished in that nobleman\'s family by a judgment of \nthe house of peers, 2 Charles I. 1625. On the death of \nhis descendant, unmarried, in July 1779, the house of \nlords and twelve judges concurred that the office de- \nvolved to lady Willoughby De Eresby, and her sister the \nlady Georgina Charlotta Bertie, as heirs to their brother \nRobert, duke of Ancaster, deceased ; and that they had \npowers to appoint a deputy to act for them, not under \nthe degree of a knight, who, if his majesty approved of \nhim, might officiate accordingly. Beatson. This dignity \nwas for some time held jointly by the lord Willoughby \nDe Eresby and the marquis of Cholmondeley, descendants \nof John de Vere, earl of Oxford. Lord Willoughby \nDe Eresby died without issue 27 Aug. 1870, and lord \nAveland, his sister\'s son, was appointed to act. The \nmarquis of Cholmondeley died 16 Dec. 1884, and was \nsucceeded by his grandson. Lady Willoughby De \nEresby died 13 Nov. 1888, and was succeeded by her son, \ncreated earl of Ancaster, Sept. 1892. \n\nLord Chamberlain of the Household.\xe2\x80\x94 An ancient \noffice. The title is from the French ChamheUan, in \nLatin Cumerurius. Sir William Stanley, knt., afterwards \nbeheaded, was lord chamberlain, 1 Henry VII. 1485. \nA vice-chamberlain acts in the absence of the chief; the \noffices are co-existent. Beatson. \n\nThe Chamberlain of London is an ancient office. \n\nCHAMBERS, see Commerce, Agriculture, \nShi }rping. \n\nCHAMBERS\' JOURNAL was first published \nat Edinburgh in Feb. 1832. Jubilee kept 4 Feb. \n1882. Robt. Chambers died 17 Mar. 1871. William \ndied 20 May, 1883. \n\no \n\n\n\nCHAMBEE AEDENTE. \n\n\n\n194 CHANCELLOE OF ENGLAND. \n\n\n\nCHAMBEE AEDENTE (fiery chamber), an \nextraordinary French tribunal so named from the \npunishment frequently awarded by it. Francis I. \nin 1535, and Henry II. in 1549, employed it for the \nextirpation of heresy, which led to the civil war \nwith the Huguenots in 1560; and in 1679 Louis \nXIV. appointed one to investigate the poisoning \neases which arose after the execution of the mar- \nchioness Brinvilliers. \n\nCHAMBEE INTEOUVABLE, a name \ngiven to the chamber of deputies, elected in France \nin 1815, on account of its ignorance, incapacity, and \nJbigoted reactionary spirit. \n\nCHAMPAGNE, an ancient province, N. E. \nFrance, once part of the kingdom of Burgundy, was \ngoverned by counts from the 10th century till it \n\xe2\x80\xa2was united to Navarre, count Thibaut becoming \nking, in 1234. The countess Joanna married \nPhilip IV. of France in 1284; and in 1361 Cham- \npagne was annexed by their descendant king John. \nThe effervescing wine termed Champagne, became \npopular in the latter part of the 18th century. \n\nCHAMP DE MAES, an open square in front \nof the Military school at Paris, with artificial \nembankments on each side, extending nearly to the \n\xe2\x80\xa2river Seine. The ancient assemblies of the Frankish \npeople, the germ of parliaments, held annually in \nMarch, received this name. In 747, Pepin changed \nthe month to May. Here was held, 14 July, 1790 \n(the anniversary of the capture of the Bastile), the \n^\'federation," or solemnity of swearing fidelity to \nthe "patriot king" and new constitution: great \nrejoicings followed. On 14 July, 1791, a second \ngreat meeting was held here, directed by the Jacobin \nclubs, to sign petitions on the " altar of the country," \npraying for the abdication of Louis XVI. A com- \nmemoration meeting took place, 14 July, 1792. \nAnother constitution was sworn to here, under the \neye of Napoleon I., 1 May, 1815, at a ceremony \ncalled the Champ de Mai. The prince president \n(afterwards Napoleon III.) had a grand review in \nthe Champ de Mars, and distributed eagles to the \narmy, 10 May, 1852. Here also was held the Inter- \nnational Exhibitions opened 1 April, 1867, and I \nMay, 1878, see Paris. \n\nCHAMPEETY, see Barretry. \n\nCHAMPION of the King of England, \n\n(most honourable), an ancient office, since 1377 has \nbeen attached to the manor of Scrivelsby, held by \n-the Marmion family. Their descendant, sir Henry \nDymoke, the seventeenth of his family who held \nthe office, died 28 April, 1865 ; succeeded by his \nbrother John ; he died, and his son Henry Lionel \nsucceeded, who died Dec. 1875. At the coro- \nnation of the English kings, the champion used to \nchallenge any one that should deny their title. \n\nCHAMPLAIN, see Lake Champlain. \n\nCHANCELLOE OF ENGLAND, Lord \n\nHlGH, the first lay subject after the princes of the \nhlood royal. Anciently the office was conferred \nupon some dignified ecclesiastic termed Cancel- \nlarius, or doorkeeper, who admitted suitors to the \nsovereign\'s presence. Arfastus or Herefast, chaplain \nto the king (William the Conqueror) and bishop of \nElmham, was lord chancellor in 1067. Hardy. \n\'Thomas a Becket was made chancellor in 1154. \nThe first person qualified by education, to decide \ncauses upon his own judgment, was sir Thomas \nMore, appointed in 1529, before which time the \nofficer was rather a state functionary than a judge. \nSir Christopher Hatton, appointed lord chancellor \nin 1587, was very ignorant, on w r hich account the \n\n\n\nfirst reference was made to a master in 1588. The \ngreat seal has been frequently put in commission ; \nin 1813 the office of Vice- Chancellor was estab- \nlished; see Keeper, and Vice- Chancellor. \xe2\x80\x94 Salary, \n6ooo\xc2\xa3. ; as speaker of house of lords, 4000^. \n\nLORD HIGH CHANCELLORS. \n\n14S7. John Moreton, archbishop of Canterburv. \n\n1504. William Warham, aft. archbshp. of Canterbury. \n\n1515. Thomas Wolsey, cardinal and abp. of York. \n\n1529. Sir Thomas More. \n\n1532. Sir Thomas Audley, keeper. \n\n1533. Sir Thomas Audley, chancellor, aft. lord Audley. \n1544. Thomas, lord Wriothesley. \n\n1547. William, lord St. John, keeper. \n,, Richard, lord Rich, lord chancellor. \n\n1551. Thomas Goodrich, bishop of Ely, keeper. \n\n1552. The same ; now lord chancellor. \n\n1553. Stephen Gardiner, bishop of Winchester. \n1556. Nicholas Heath, archbishop of York. \n1558. Sir Nicholas Bacon, keeper. \n\n1579. Sir Thomas Bromley, lord chancellor. \n1587. Sir Christopher Hatton. \n\n1591. The great seal in commission. \n\n1592. Sir John Puckering, lord keeper. \n1596. Sir Thomas Egerton, lord keeper. \n\n1603. Sir T. Egerton, lord Ellesmere, chancellor. \n\n161 7. Sir Francis Bacon, lord keeper \n\n1618. Sir Francis Bacon, cr. Id. Verulam, Id. chancellor. \n1621. The great seal in commission. \n\n1625. John, bishop of Lincoln, lord keeper. \n\xe2\x80\x9e Sir Thomas Coventry, afterwards lord Coventry, \nlord keeper. \n\n1640. Sir John Finch, afterwards lord Finch. \n\n1641. Sir Edward Lyttelton, afterwards lord Lytteltorj, \n\nlord keeper. \n1643. The great seal in the hands of commissioners. \n\n1645. Sir Richard Lane, royal keeper. \n\n1646. In the hands of commissioners. \n\n1649. I n commission for the commonwealth. \n\n1653. Sir Edward Herbert, king\'s lord keeper. \n\n1654. In commission during the commonwealth. \n\n1660. Sir Edward Hyde, lord chancellor, afterwards \n\ncreated lord Hyde, and earl of Clarendon. \n1667. Sir Orlando Bridgman, lord keeper. \n\n1672. Anthony Ashley, earl of Shaftesbury, lord chan- \n\ncellor. \n\n1673. Sir Heneage Finch, lord keeper. \n\n1675. Heneage, now lord Finch, lord chancellor, after- \nwards earl of Nottingham. \n1682. Sir Francis North, cr. lord Guilford, lord keeper. \n1685. Francis, lord Guilford ; succeeded by \n,, George, lord Jeffreys, lord chancellor. \n\n1689. In commission. \n\n1690. Sir John Trevor, knt., sir William Rawlinson, knt., \n\nand sir George Hutchins, knt., commissioners \nor keepers. \n\n1693. Sir John Somers, lord keeper. \n\n1697. Sir John Somers, cr. lord Somers, chancellor. \n\n1700. Lord chief justice Holt, sir George Treby, chief \njustice C. P. , and chief baron sir Edward Ward, \nlord keepers. \n,, Sir Nathan Wright, lord keeper. \n\n1705. Right hon. William Cowper, lord keeper, after- \nwards lord Cowper. \n\n1707. William, lord Cowper, lord chancellor. \n\n1710. In commission. \n\xe2\x80\x9e Sir Simon Harcourt, cr. lord Harcourt, keeper. \n\n1713. Simon, lord Harcourt, lord chancellor. \n\n1 7 14. William, lord Cowper, lord chancellor. \n1718. In commission. \n\n,, Thomas, lord Parker, lord chancellor; afterwards \nearl of Macclesfield. \n\n1725. In commission. \n\n,, Sir Peter King, cr. lord King, chancellor. \n\n1733. Charles Talbot, created lord Talbot, chancellor. \n\n1737. Philip Yorke, lord Hardwicke, lord chancellor. \n\n1756. In commission. \n\n1757. Sir Robert Henley, afterwards lord Henley, last lord \n\nkeeper. \n1761. Lord Henley, lord chancellor, afterwards earl of \n\nNorthington. \n1766. Charles, lord Camden, lord chancellor. \n1770. Hon. Charles Yorke, lord chancellor. \n\n[Created lord Morden ; died by suicide within \n\nthree clays, and before the seals were put to his \n\npatent of peerage.] \n\n\n\nCHANCELLOE OF IRELAND. \n\n\n\n193 \n\n\n\nCHANCEEY. \n\n\n\n1770. In commission. \n\n1771. Henry Batkurst, lord Apsley ; succeeded as earl \n\nBathurst. \n\nC77&. Edward Thurlow, created lord Thurlow. \n\n1783. Alexander, lord Loughborough, and others, com- \nmissioners. \n,, Edward, lord Thurlow, again. \n\n1792. In commission. \n\n3793. Alexander Wedderburne, lord Loughborough, lord \nchancellor. \n\n1801. John Scott, lord Eldon. \n\n1806. Hon. Thomas Erskine, created lord Erskine. \n\n1807. John, lord Eldon, again. \n\n1827. John Singleton Copley, created lord Lyndhurst. \n\n2830. Henry Brougham, created lord Brougham. \n\n\'1834. Lord Lyndhurst, again. \n\n\xe2\x80\xa21835. Sir Charles Christopher Pepys, master of the rolls, \nvice-chancellor Shadwell, and Mr. justice Bosan- \nquet, C. P., commissioners. \n\n\xc2\xa3836. Sir Charles Christopher Pepys, created lord Cot- \ntenham, lord chancellor. 16 Jan. \n\n2841. Lord Lyndhurst, a third time. 3 Sept. \n\n284.6. Lord Cottenham, again lord chancellor, 6 July. \n\n1850. Lord Langdale, master of the rolls, sir Launcelot \nShadwell, vice-chancellor of England, and sir \nRobert Monsey Rolfe, B.E., commissioners of \nthe great seal. 19 June. \n,, Sir Thomas Wilde, lord Truro. 15 July. \n\n1852. Sir Edward Sugden, lord St. Leonards. 27 Feb. \n\xe2\x80\x9e Robt. Monsey Rolfe, lord Cramvorth. 28 Dec. \n\n1858. Sir Frederic Thesiger, lord Chelmsford. 26 Feb. \n\n-1859. John, lord Campbell, 18 June ; died 23 June, 1861. \n\nu86i. Richard Bethel!, lord Westbury. 26 June. Re- \nsigned 4 July, 1865. \n\n1865. Robert Monsey Rolfe, lord Cranworth, again. \n6 July. Resigned June, 1866. \n\nj866. F. Thesiger, lord Chelmsford, again. 6 July. Re- \nsigned Feb. 1868. \n\n11868. Hugh Cairns, lord Cairns. 29 Feb. \n,, William Page Wood, lord Hatherley ; died 10 July, \n1881. \n\nJ1872. Roundell Palmer, lord Selborne. 15 Oct. \n\n1874. Hugh Cairns, lord Cairns. 21 Feb. ; died 2 April, \n1885. \n\na88o. Roundell Palmer, lord (afterwards earl) Selborne. \n28 April. \n\n1885. Sir Hardingc Giffard (lord Halsbury). 24 June. \n\n.1886. Sir Farrer Herschell (lord Herschell). 6 Feb. \n,, Hardinge Giffard, lord Halsbury. 26 July. \n\n1892. Lord Herschell, 18 Aug. \n\nCHANCELLOE OF IEELAND, Lord \n\nHlGH- The earliest nomination was by Richard \nI., 1 189, when Stephen Ridel was elevated to this \nrank. The office of\' vice-chancellor was known in \nIreland in 1232, Geoffrey Turvillo, archdeacon of \nDublin, being so named. The Chancery and Com- \nmon Law Offices (Ireland) act was passed 20 Aug. \n\n\n\nLORD HIGH CHANCELLORS OF IRELAND. \n\nPatent. \n\n1690. Sir Charles Porter. 29 Dec. \n\n1697. Sir John Jeffreyson, Thomas Coote, and Nehemiah \n\nDonellan, lords keepers. 12 Jan. \n.,, J. Methuen. n March. \n,, Edward, earl of Mcath, Francis, earl of Longford, \n\nand Murrough, viscount Blessington, lords \n\nkeepers. 21 Dec. \n1702. Lord Methuen, lord chancellor. 26 Aug. \n1705. Sir Richard Cox, bart., 6 Aug. ; resigned in 1707. \n1707. Richard Freeman. June. \n\n1710. Robert, earl of Kildare, archbishop (Hoadley) of \n\nDublin, and Thomas Keightley, commissioners. \n28 Nov. \n\n1711. Sir Constantine Phipps. 22 Jan. Resigned Sept. \n\n1714. \n1714- Alan Brodrick, afterwards viscount Middleton. \n11 Oct. Resigned May, 1725. \n\n1725. Richard West. June. \n\n1726. Thomas Wyndham, afterwards lord Wyndham of \n\nFinglas. 21 Dec. \n3739. Robert Jocelyn, afterwards lord Newport and visct. \n\nJocelyn. 7 Sept. ; died 25 Oct. 1756. \n1757. John Bowes, afterwards lord Bowes of Clonlyon. \n\n22 March ; died 1767. \n\n\n\n1768. James Hewitt, afterwards viscount Lifford. 9 Jan. \n\ndied 28 April, 1789. \n1789 John, baron Fitzgibbon, afterwards earl of Clare. \n\n20 June ; died 28 Jan. 1802. \n1802. John, baron Redesdale. 15 March. Resigned Feb. \n\n1806. \n\n1806. George Ponsonby. 25 March ; resigned April, 1807. \n\n1807. Thomas Manners Sutton, lord Manners, previously \n\nan English baron of the exchequer. May. Re- \nsigned Nov. 1827. \n1827. Sir Anthony Hart, previously vice-chancellor of \n\nEngland. 5 Nov. Resigned Nov. 1830. \n1830. William, baron Plunket. 23 Dec. Resigned Nov. \n\n1834. \n1835. Sir Edward Burtenshaw Sugden. 13 Jan. Resigned \n\nApril 1835. \n,, Wilbam, baron Plunket, a second time. 30 April. \n\nResigned June, 1841. \n1841. John Campbell. June. Resigned Sept. 1841. \n,, Sir Edward Sugden, afterwards lord St. Leonards, \n\na second time. Oct. Resigned July, 1846. \n1846. Maziere Brady. 16 July. Resigned Feb. 1852. \n\n1852. Francis Blackburne. March. Resigned Dec. \n\n1853. Maziere Brady, again. Jan. \n\n1858. Joseph Napier. Feb. \n\n1859. Maziere Brady, again. June. \n\n1866. Francis Blackburne. July. Resigned March, 1867. \n\n1867. Abraham Brewster. 24 March. \n\n1868. Thomas, lord O\'Hagan. Resigned, Feb. 1874. \n1874. In commission. \n\n\xe2\x80\x9e John T. Ball. 16 Dec. \n\n1880. Thomas, lord O\'Hagan. April. Resigned 9 Nov. \n\n1881. \n\n1881. Hugh Law, died 10 Sept., 3883. \n\n18S3. (in commission) 22 Sept., sir Edwd. Sullivan. 5 \nDec, 1883 ; died 13 April, 1885. \n\n1885. John Naish, about 25 April. \n\n,, Edward Gibson, lord Ashbourne. 24 June. \n\n1886. John Naish, about 2 Feb. \n\n,, Edward Gibson, lord Ashbourne, 26 July. \n1892. Samuel Walker, Aug. \n\nCHANCELLOE of the EXCHEQTJEE, \n\nsee Exchequer. \n\nCHANCELLOE OF SCOTLAND, Lord, \n\nThe laws of Malcolm II. (1004) say: \xe2\x80\x94 "The \nchancellar sail at al tymes assist the king in giving \nhim counsall mair secretly nor the rest of the \nnobility. . . The chancellar sail be. ludgit neir \nunto the kingis grace, for keiping of his bodie, and \nthe seill, and that he may be readie, baith day and \nnicht, at the kingis command." Sir James Balfour. \nEvan was lord chancellor to Malcolm III., Canmore, \n1057 ; and James, earl of Seafield, afterwards \nFindlater, was the last lord chancellor of Scotland, \nthe office having been abolished in 1708; see \nKeeper. \n\nCHANCELLOE\' S AUGMENTATION \nACT, passed 1863, enabled the lord chancellor to \nsell the advowson of certain livings in his gift for \naugmenting poor benefices. \n\nCHANCELLOESVILLE, Virginia, U.S., a \nlarge brick hotel, once kept by a Mr. Chancellor, \nwas the site of severe sanguinary conflicts between \nthe American federal army of the Potomac under \ngeneral Hooker, and the confederates under general \nLee. On 28 April, 1863, the federal army crossed the \nRappahannock; on 2 May, general "Stonewall" \nJackson furiously attacked and routed the right \nwing, but was mortally wounded by his own party \nfiring on him by mistake. Gen. Stuart took his \ncommand, and after a severe conflict on 3 and 4 \nMay, with. great loss to both parties, the federals \nwere compelled to recross the Rappahannock. The \nstruggle was compared to that at Hougomont \nduring the battle of AVaterloo. Jackson died 10 May. \n\nCHANCEEY, Court of, is mythically said \n\nto have originated with Alfred (S71-901) or Wil- \nliam I., (1066-1087). Its power was probably \n\no 2 \n\n\n\nCHANDOS CLAUSE. \n\n\n\n196 \n\n\n\nCHARING GROSS. \n\n\n\nderived from the council of state, under which it \nacted, and of which it became gradually indepen- \ndent. Its acts were frequently complained of by \nthe commons in the 14th and 15th centuries. Its \nprofessed object was to render justice complete, \nand to moderate the rigour of other courts \nthat are bound to the strict letter of the \nlaw. It gives relief to or against infants, not- \nwithstanding their minority; and to or against \nmarried women, notwithstanding their coverture ; \nand all frauds, deceits, breaches of trust and confi- \ndence, for which there is no redress at common \nlaw, are relievable here. Blackstone ; see Chan- \ncellors of England. The delays in chancery pro- \nceedings having long given dissatisfaction, the \nsubject was brought before parliament in 1825, and \nfrequently since ; which led to the passing of im- \nportant acts in 1852, 1853, 1855, 1858, and 1867, to \namend the practice in the court of chancery. See \nAccountant, County Courts, and Supreme Court, \nBerkeley. \n\nThe Chancery division of the high court of \njustice now consists of the lord chancellor and five \njudges. \nChancery forgery case (see under Trials) 4 Feb. 1888. \n\nCHANDOS CLAUSE, see Counties. \n\nCHANNEL ISLANDS, a group about 80 \nmiles South of England, see Jersey, \xc2\xa7c. \n\nCHANNEL STEAMERS, see under Steam. \n\nCHANNEL TUNNEL COMPANY, regis- \ntered, 15 Jan. 1872 ; see Tunnels. \nThe construction of a channel bridge from Dover to \nCalais, was proposed in Paris, 1889, by MM. \nSchneider and Hersent, and sir John Fowler and \nMr. (afterwards sir Benjamin) Baker, and dis- \ncussed in 1890. \nM. Bunau Varilla, of Paris, engineer, publishes his \nplans for a mode of communication between \nDover and Calais, consisting of a pier or viaduct \nhalf a mile long, on each side connected by a \ntunnel, and estimated cost io,ooo,oooZ. May, 1890 \n\nSir E. J. Reed proposed the construction of a \n\ntubular railway, above the bed of the sea . 1890-1 \n\nIn relation to a proposed Channel bridge, a new \nsurvey of the Straits of Dover was undertaken ; \na report on the scheme was published 26 Dec. . 1890 \n\nCHANTING is attributed to Ambrose, about \n386. About 602, Gregory the Great added tones to \nthe Ambrosian chant, and established singing \nschools. M. Gevaet, of Brussels, in Oct. 1889, \nasserted that this statement is legendary and that \nit was Gregory III. (731-741) who made the \nchange. Chanting was adopted by some dissenters \nabout 1859. \nJohn Marbeck\'s " Book of Common Praier noted" (1559) \n\nis the first adaptation of the ancient Latin music to \n\nthe .Reformed Church; Clifford\'s "Common Tunes" \n\nfor chanting, 1664. \nThe Plainsong and Mediaeval Music Society was founded \n\nin 1888. \n\nCHANTREY LEGACY, see Royal Aca- \ndemy. \n\nCHANTRY, a chapel endowed with revenue \nfor priests to sing mass for the souls of the donors ; \nsee Chanting. Chantries were abolished in England \nin 1545- \n\nCHAPEL. There are free chapels, chapels of \nease, the chapel royal, &c. Cowell. The gentlemen \npensioners (formerly poor knights of Windsor, who \nwere instituted by the direction of Henry VIII. in \nhis testament, 1546-7) were called knights of the \nchapel; see Poor Knights of Windsor. \xe2\x80\x94 The Private \nChapels act passed 14 Aug. 1871. The place of con- \nference among printers, and the conference itself, \nare by them called a chapel, it is said, because the \n\n\n\nfirst work printed in England by Caxton was exe- \ncuted in a ruined chapel in Westminster-abbey.. \n\nCHAPLAIN, a clergyman who performs divine \nservice in a chapel, for a prince or nobleman. About \nseventy chaplains are attached to the chapel royal. \nThe chief personages invested with the privilege of \nretaining chaplains are the following, with the* \nnumber that was originally allotted to each rank, \nby 21 Hen. VIII. c. 13 (1529) : \xe2\x80\x94 \nArchbishop . . . . 8 Knight of the Garter . 3 \nDuke . . . .6 Duchess . . . .2 \nBishop . . . . 6 Marchioness . . . 2 \nMarquis . . . .5 Countess . . . .2 \n\nEarl 5 Baroness . . . . 2; \n\nViscount ... 4 Master of the Rolls . 2 \n\nBaron 3 Royal Almoner . . 2 \n\nChancellor . . .3 Chief Justice . . . 1 \n\nCHAPLETS, the string of beads used by the \nRoman Catholics in reciting the Lord\'s prayer, Ave \nMaria, &c. ; see Beads. \n\nCHAPTER. Anciently the bishop and clergy \nlived in the cathedral, the latter to assist the former \nin performing holy offices and governing the churchy \nuntil the reign of Henry VIII. The chapter is now \nan assembly of the clergy of a collegiate church or \ncathedral. Cowell. The chapter-house of West- \nminster-abbey was built in 1250. By consent of \nthe abbot, the commoners of England held their \nparliaments there from 1377 until 1547, when \nEdward VI. granted them the chapel of St. Stephen- \n\nCHAR-ASIAB, the heights before Cabul: \nheld by Afghan mutineers, were gallantly carried \nby general Baker, with the 72nd Highlanders and \n5th Ghoorkas, 6 Oct. 1879. The enemy was totally \ndefeated with severe loss. Capt. Young, Dr. \nDuncan, and lieut. Fergusson were killed, and \nabout 70 of the British force killed and wounded. \nThe British were falsely accused of cruelty after the \nvictory. \n\nCHARCOAL AIR-FILTERS were devised \nby Dr. John Stenhouse, F.R.S., in 1853. About \nthe end of the last century Lowitz, a German \nchemist, discovered that charcoal (carbon) possessed \nthe property of deodorising putrid substances, by \nabsorbing and decomposing offensive gases. Air- \nfilters, based on this property, have been success- \nfully applied to public buildings, sewers, &c. Dr. \nStenhouse also invented charcoal respirators. See- \nFireman\' s Respirators. \n\nCHARING CROSS- At the village of Charing \nstood the last of the memorial crosses erected in \nmemory of Eleanor, queen of Edward I., in con- \nformity with her will. She died, 28 Nov. 1290. \nThe cross remained till 1647, when it was destroyed \nas a monument of popish superstition. The present \ncross was erected for the South Eastern Railway \nCompany in 1865 by Mr. E. M. Barry. The houses \nat Charing-cross were built about 1678 ; alterations \nbegan in 1829. The first stone of Charing-cross \nhospital was laid by the duke of Sussex, 15 Sept. \n1831. Hungerford-bridge (or Charing-cross bridge) \nwas opened 1 May, 1845 ; taken down July, 1862, \nand the materials employed in erecting Clifton sus- \npension bridge, beginning March, 1863; see Clifton. \nCharing-cross Railway. The first train passed \nover it, 2 Dec. 1863, and it was opened to the public \non II Jan. 1864. The new railway bridge, built \nof iron with brick piers, was constructed by Mr. \n(aft. sir John) Hawkshaw. The foot-bridge was \nopened toll free 5 Oct. 1878. Pleistocene fossils \nfound in excavations for Drummond\'s banking \nhouse : cave lion, mammoth, Irislrdeer, rhinoceros. \n&c. Autumn, 1882. \n\n\n\nCHAEIOTS. \n\n\n\n197 \n\n\n\nCHARLESTON. \n\n\n\n\'\xe2\x96\xa0Charing Cross Road, from Tottenham Court Road to \nCharing Cross, was opened by the Duke of Cambridge, \n26 Feb. 1887. \n\nCHARIOTS are frequently mentioned in the \nBible, those of Joseph are mentioned Gen. 1. 9, B.C. \n1689. Chariot-racing was a Greek exercise. War- \n\xe2\x80\xa2chariots were effectively used by the Gauls in Italy. \n\xe2\x80\xa2Caesar relates that Cassivelaunus, after dismissing \nhis other forces, retained no fewer than 4000 war- \n\xe2\x96\xa0chariots abou t his person ; see Carriages, &c. \n\nCHARITABLE BEQUESTS, &c. Boards \nfor their recovery were constituted in 1764 and \n1800, and a board for Ireland (chiefly prelates \nof the established church), in 1825. The Roman \nCatholic Charitable Bequests act passed in 1844, \nand an act for the better administration of Chari- \ntable Trusts in 1853, w hen commissioners were ap- \npointed, who have from time to time published \nvoluminous reports. Amendment acts were passed \n1855 and 1 87 1. \n\nCHARITABLE BRETHREN, an order \nfounded by St. John of God, and approved by pope \nPius V. 1572; introduced into France, 1601; settled \nat Paris, 1602. Henault. \n\nCHARITABLE FUNDS INVESTMENT \n\nACT passed, 1 Aug. 1870. \n\nCHARITABLE RELIEF, society for or- \nganizing, established 1869. There are 40 offices, \nwhere applications are received and inquiries made \n(1889). Reported successful, 1881, in which year \nabout 14,000 persons were assisted, and about 11,000 \nrefused. 20th annual meeting, 23 Jan. 1889. A \nconference of representatives of this and similar \nsocieties was held at Oxford on 1, 2 Oct. 1890. \n\nCHARITABLE TRUSTEES\' INCOR- \nPORATION ACT passed, 27 June, 1872. \n\nCHARITABLE TRUSTS ACTS, 1853-69, \namended in 1887. \n\nCHARITABLE USES, statute of, 43 Eliz. \nc. 4 (1601), passed " to redresse the misemployment \nof landes, goodes, and stockes of money, heretofore \ngiven to charitable uses." The law respecting the \nconveyance of land for charitable uses was amended \nin 1861. \n\nCHARITIES, and CHARITY SCHOOLS, \n\n6ee Education. The Charity Commission reported \nto parliament that the endowed charities alone of \nGreat Britain amounted to 1,500,0001?. annually, in \n1840. Charity schools were instituted in London to \nprevent the seduction of the infant poor into Roman \nCatholic seminaries, 3 James II., 1687-8. Mr. Low\'s \n" Charities of London" was published 1862. Newest \nedition, 1892. The house of lords, on appeal in a \nspecial case (the Moravian Brethren), decide that \nreligious and charitable societies are exempt from \nincome-tax, 20 July, 1891. \n\nFirst charity commission (originated by Mr. after- \nwards lord Brougham in 1816) appointed in \na8i8 ; issued reports in 38 vols, (income of chari- \nties, 1,209,395?.) 1819-40 \n\nNew commissioners appointed 1853 ; office, Gwy- \n\ndyr House, Whitehall ; powers increased . . i860 \nA meeting was held at the Mansion House, London, \nto consider objections to charity electioneering, \nwithout immediate result . . . .30 Oct. 1873 \nAdditional commissioners appointed through abo- \nlition of the Endowed Schools Commission . 1874 \nThe Charity Voting Association held its first \n\nannual meeting 18 Feb. 1875 \n\nThe Metropolitan charities received about 3, 195,181/. \nin 1874; 4,114,489/. in 1875; 4,447,436/. ill 1884; \n4,918,652/. in year 1889-90. \nThe Charily Commissioners\' scheme for the Camp- \n\xe2\x80\xa2 den estates, Kensington ; much opposed ; con- \nfirmed by Chancery ... 27 May, 1881 \n\n\n\nThe earl of Shaftesbury, who died 1 Oct. 1885, and \nlord Kinnaird, who died 26 April, 1887, were \neminent supporters of philantliropic institutions. \n\nThe City of London Parochial Charities Act, passed \n20 Aug. 1883, places the parochial charities at the \ndisposal of the Charity Commissioners ; they re- \ncommended the application of the funds of the City \nParochial Charities (about 50,000/. a year) to the \ngeneral benefit of the poor of London, announced \n\nSept. 1887 \n\nTheir scheme issued Sept., which was opposed by \nthe London County Council .... Dec. 1889 \n\nCharity Dispensing Society, proposed establish- \nment 7 Jan. 1888 \n\nMr. Henry Quinn bequeaths 50,000/. to London \ncharities \n\nGross income of parochial charities in 1879-80, \nLondon, 116,960/.; Westminster, 33,173/. \n\nCHARITY CHILDREN of London ; meet- \nings began at St. Andrew\'s, Holbom, 1704 ; held at \nother churches in following years ; in 1801 and \nsince at St. Paul\'s, with intermissions ; no meeting \nin 1878, and since, the erections interfering with the \nordinary services. \n\nCHARITY ORGANISATION SOCIETY, \n\nsee Charitable Relief. \n\nCHARIVARI (French for " clattering of pots \nand pans," &c, noise made to annoy obnoxious \npersons), the name assumed by the French illus- \ntrated satirical journal, first published 1 Dec. \n1832, edited by Louis Desnoyers, Altaroche, and \nAlbert Clerc. Among the artists were " Cham," a \nname taken by the comte de Noe, who contributed \nfrom 1842 till his death, 6 Sept. 1879. See Punch, \n" the London Charivari." \n\nCHARLEROI, in Belgium; fortified and \nnamed by the Spanish governor Rodrigo, 1666. \nSeveral great battles have been fought near this \ntown, especially in 1690 and 1794; see Fleurus. \nCharleroi was besieged by the prince of Orange, \n1672 and 1677; but he was soon obliged to retire. \nNear here, at Ligny, Napoleon attacked the Prus- \nsian line, making it fall back upon Wavres, 16 June, \n1815. \n\nCHARLES-ET-GEORGES, a French ves- \nsel, professedly conveying free African emigrants \n(but really slaves), seized by the Portuguese, in \nConducia bay, 29 Nov. 1857, sent to Lisbon, and \ncondemned as a slaver. The French government \nsent two ships of war to the Tagus, and the vessel \nwas surrendered under protest ; but the emperor of \nFrance gave up the free emigration scheme. \n\nCHARLESTON (South Carolina), founded by \npeople from old Charlestown, 1680. The English \nfleet here was repulsed with great loss, 28 June, \n1776. It was besieged by the British troops at the \nlatter end of March, 1780, and surrendered 13 May, \nfollowing, with 6000 prisoners; it was evacuated, \n14 Dec. 1782. Great commotion arose here in Nov. \ni860, through the election of Mr. Lincoln for the \npresidency, he being opposed to slavery. On \n12, 13 April, 1861, the war began by the confede- \nrates bombarding Fort Sumter; see United States. \nIn Dec. 1861, the federals sank a number of vessels \nladen with stone in order to choke up the entrance \nto Charleston harbour. Unsuccessful attacks were \nmade on Charleston by the federals between April, \n1863, and 17 Feb. 1865, when the confederates were \ncompelled to retire ; and the federals replaced their \nstandard on fort Sumter, 14 April, the day on which \npresident Lincoln was assassinated. \nAbout three-fourths of the city destroyed by an earth- \nquake, 10 p.m. 31 Aug. 18S6 ; 96 persons killed. \nPopulation, 1890, 54,955. \n\n\n\nCHARLESTOWN. \n\n\n\n198 \n\n\n\nCHATEAUDUN. \n\n\n\nCHARLESTOWN (Massachusetts) was burnt \nby the British forces under general Gage, 17 June, \n1775- Chaiiestown taken by the British, 7 May, 1779. \n\n"CHARTE CONSTITUTIONNELLE," \n\nthe French political constitution acknowledged by \nLouis XVIII., 4-10 June, 1814. The infraction of \nthis constitution led to the revolution of 1830. The \namended " Charte " was promulgated by Louis \nPhilippe, 14 Aug. 1830; and set aside by the revo- \nlution of 1848, \n\nCHARTER-HOUSE (a corruption of Chart- \nreuse, which see), London, formerly a Carthusian \nmonastery, founded in 1371 by sir Walter de Manny, \none of the knights of Edward III., now an extensive \ncharitable establishment. The last prior, John \nHoughton, was executed as a traitor, for denying \nthe king\'s supremacy, in May, 1535. After the \ndissolution of monasteries in 1539, the charter- \nhouse passed through various hands till 1 Nov. \n161 1, when it was sold by the earl of Suffolk to \nThomas Sutton for 13,000/., who obtained letters \npatent directing that it should be called " the hos- \npital of king James, founded in the Charter-house," \nand that " there should be for ever 16 governors," \n&c. On the foundation are 80 poor brothers and \n44 poor scholars. Sutton died, 12 Dec. 1611. The \nexpenditure for 1853-4 was 22,396/. ; the receipts, \n28,908/. ; receipts in 1885, 30,364/. This school \nwas affected by the Public Schools\' Act, 1868. In \nSept. 1872, the school was opened in new buildings, \nat Godalming, Surrey. The old buildings, adapted \nfor the Merchant Taylors\' (day) School, were \nopened by the prince of Wales, 6 April, 1875. \nThe buildings for the poor "brethren" were \nalso modified, and in Nov. entirely new arrange- \nments for them were proposed. Bill proposing \nremoval of the "brethren" (55), who are to \nbecome annuitants with additions ; and erection \nof buildings on the site of the old buildings \nand land (four acres), a total reversal of \nSutton\'s will; \xe2\x80\x94 introduced; opposed; withdrawn \n7 May, 1886. The " Charter-House past and pre- \nsent," by Dr. Wm. Haig Brown, head master, pub- \nlished 1879. \n\nCHARTER-PARTY, a covenant between \nmerchants and masters of ships relating to the ship \nand cargo, said to have been first used in England \nabout 1243. \n\nCHARTERS, granted to corporate towns to \nprotect their manufactures by Henry I. in 1132; \nmodified by Charles II. in 1683 ; the ancient charters \nrestored in 1698. Alterations were made by the \nMunicipal Reform Act in 1835. See Magna Charta \nand Boroughs. Ancient Anglo-Saxon charters are \nprinted in Kemble\'s "Codex Diplomatics, " 1829. \n\nCHARTISTS, the name assumed by large \nbodies of the lower classes, shortly after the passing \nof the Reform Bill in 1832, from their demanding \nthe people\'s Charter* the six points of which were \nUniversal Suffrage, Vote by Ballot, Annual Parlia- \nments, Payment of the Members, the abolition of the \nProperty Qualification (which was enacted, June, \n1858), and Equal Electoral Districts. In 1838 the \nchartists assembled in various parts of the country, \narmed with guns, pikes, and other weapons, and \ncarrying torches and flags. A proclamation was \nissued against them, 12 Dec. Their petition (agreed \nto at Birmingham, 6 Aug. 1838) was presented to \nparliament by Mr. T. Attwood, 14 June, 1839. \nThey committed great outrages at Birmingham \n15 July, 1839, and at Newport {which see), 4 Nov! \n\n* Wm. Lovett, its alleged author, died Aug. 1S77. \n\n\n\n1839. They held for some time & sort of parliament \ncalled the "National Convention," the leading \nmen being Feargus O\'Connor, Henry Vincent, Mr. \nStephens, &c. On 10 April, 1848, they proposed to- \nhold a meeting of 200,000 men on Kenningtonj \ncommon, London, to march thence in procession to \nWestminster, and present a petition to parliament ^ \nbut only about 20,000 came. The bank and other \nestablishments were fortified by military, preventive \nmeasures adopted, and not less than 150,000 persons- \nof all ranks (including Louis Napoleon, afterwards- \nemperor) were voluntarily sworn to act as special \nconstables. The chartists dispersed after slight en- \ncounters with the police, and the monster petition,, \nin detached rolls, was sent in cabs to the house off \ncommons. From this time the proceedings of the- \nchartists became insignificant. \n\nCHARTREUSE, La Gratoe, chief of the \nmonasteries of the Carthusian order, situated among \nthe rugged mountains near Grenoble, in France,, \nwas founded by Bruno of Cologne, about 1084. At \nthe revolution in 1792, the monks were expelled andi \ntheir valuable library destroyed. They returned to \nthe monastery after the restoration of 1815. lis \nNov. 1880 they declined to accept indulgence from \nthe decrees for expelling the religious orders from \nFrance. \n\nCHARTS AM) MAPS. Anaximander off \nMiletus is said to have been the inventor of geo- \ngraphical and celestial charts, about 570 B.C. \nModern sea-charts were brought to England by \nBartholomew Columbus to illustrate his brother\'s-- \ntheory respecting a western continent, 1489. The \nfirst tolerably accurate map of England was drawn \nby George Lilly, who died in 1559. Gerard Mer- \ncator published an atlas of maps in 1595 ; see \nMercator. The daily papers published in their \ncolumns maps illustrating the wars of 1870-1, \n1876-7, &c. \n\nAtlases. Ab.Ortelius, Epitome Theatri Pnecipuarum Orbis-- \nRegionum Delineationes, &c, 1595. J. Speed, "Pro- \nspect, &c, of the world and of Great Britain\'s Em- \npire," 1646. J. B. D\'Anville, Atlas, 1761-1807. AY. \nFaeden, " General Atlas," 1790. A. Arrowsmith, \n" Comparative Atlas," 1828. Maps of the Society for \nthe Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, 1844-56. A. K. \nJohnston, " Physical Atlas," 1849; "Royal Atlas," i86d. \nand 1878. " Black\'s General Atlas," 1S59, and many- \nothers. \n\nCHASSEPOT RIFLE, a modified needle, \ngun, and a breech-loader (named after its inventor,, \nAlphonse Chassepot), adopted by the French, \ngovernmentin 1866. In April, 1867, 10,000 had been \nissued to the troops. In his report on the battle of \nMentana (which see), 3 Nov. 1867, gen. De Failly \nsaid, "the chassepot has done wonders." It was- \ngenerally considered successful in the war, 1870-1. \n" The range of the chassepot being 1800 paces, and \nthat of the needle-gun only between 600 and 700, \nthe Germans in all their charges had to traverse \n1200 paces before their arms could be used to pur- \npose." Many Germans were armed with the chasse- \npot after the surrender of the French army at Sedan, \n2 Sept. 1870. \n\nCHATEAUDUN", an old city, N. C. France, \nthe residence of the heroic Dunois, who died 1468. \nHere were massacred, 20 July, 1183, about 7ooo> \nBrabanqons, fanatic mercenaries who had been hired \nto exterminate the Albigenses by the cardinal \nHenry, abbot of Clairvanx, in 1181. They had \nbecome the scourge of the country, and the " Capu- \nchons" were organised for their destruction. Cha- \nteaudun was captured by the Germans after a \nsevere conflict of about nine hours, 18 Oct. 1870. \nBarricades had been erected in the town, and the \n\n\n\nCHATHAM. \n\n\n\n199 \n\n\n\nCHELTENHAM. \n\n\n\nGarde Mobile fought bravely. The town was re- \noccupied by the French, 6 Nov. \n\nCHATHAM (Kent), a principal station of the \nroyal navy ; the dockyard, commenced by queen \nElizabeth, has been greatly extended. The \nChatham Chest, for the relief of the wounded and \ndecayed seamen, originally established here by \nthe queen and admirals Drake and Hawkins, in \n1588, was removed to Greenwich in 1803. On \n10 June, 1667, the Dutch fleet, under admiral De \nRuyter, sailed up to this town, and burnt several \nmen-of-war; but the entrance into the Medway is \nnow defended by Sheerness and other forts, and \nadditional fortifications were made at Chatham. \nOn 8-1 1 Feb. 1861, a violent outbreak of the convicts \nwas suppressed by the military, and many rioters \nflogged. About 1000/. worth of property was de- \nstroyed, and many persons were seriously hurt. New \ndocks and a basin, said to be the largest and finest \nin the world, opened by Mr. Goschen, 21 June, 1871. \nAdditional docks completed, 1883. Population in \n1881, 26,424; in 1891, 31,711. \n\nCHATHAM ADMINISTRATION,* suc- \nceeded the first Rockingham administration in Aug. \n1766: after several changes it terminated Dec. \n1767. See Grafton. \n\nEarl of Chatham, first minister and lord privy seal. \nDuke of Grafton, first lord of the treasury. \nLord Camden, lord chancellor. \nCharles Townshend, chancellor of the exchequer. \nEarl of Northington, lord president. \n\nEarl of Shelburne and general Conway, secretaries of state. \nSir Charles Saunders (succeeded by Sir Edward Hawke), \n\nadmiralty. \nMarquis of Granby, ordnaMce. \nLord Hillsborough, first lord of trade. \nViscount Barrington, secretary at war. \nLord North and sir George Cooke, joint paymasters. \nViscount Howe, treasurer of the navy. \nDuke of Ancaster, lord le Despencer, &c. \n\nCHATILLON (on the Seine, France). Here \na congress was held by the four great powers allied \nagainst France, at which Caulaincourt attended for \nNapoleon, 4 Feb. 1814: the negotiations for peace \nwere broken off on 19 March following. \n\nCHAT MOSS (Lancashire), a peat bog, twelve \nmiles square, in most places so soft as to be in- \ncapable of supporting a man or horse, over which \nGeorge Stephenson, the railway engineer, carried \nthe Liverpool and Manchester railway, after over- \ncoming difficulties considered invincible. The road \n(literally a floating one) was completed by 1 Jan. \n1830, when the first experimental train, drawn by \nthe Rocket locomotive, passed over it. See Bogs. \n\nCHATTANOOGA (Tennessee). Near here \nthe federal generals, Sherman and Thomas, de- \nfeated the confederate general Bragg, after storming \nthe entrenchments, 24-25 Nov. 1863. Bragg re- \ntreated into Georgia, and Longstreet into Virginia. \n\nCHAUMONT (on the Marne, France), Treaty \nof, entered into between Great Britain, Austria, \nRussia, and Prussia, 1 March, 1814. This treaty \nwas succeeded by that of Paris, n April, by which \nNapoleon renounced his sovereignty ; see Paris. \n\n\n\n* William Pitt, earl of Chatham (the \' \' great commoner" ) \nborn 15 Nov. 1708, entered parliament in 1735 ; became \nsecretary of state (virtually the premier) in the Devon- \nshire administration, Nov. 1756, secretary in the New- \ncastle administration, Jan. 1757. In 1766 he became \npremier, lord privy seal, and afterwards earl of Chatham, \nwhich lord Chesterfield called a fall upstairs. He opposed \nthe taxation of the American colonies, but protested \nagainst the recognition of their independence, 7 April, \n177S, and died n May following. \n\n\n\nCHAUVINISM, a term said to be derived \nfrom Chauvin, the principal character in Scribe\'s \n"Soldat Laboureur," a veteran soldier of the first \nempire, filled with intense admiration for Napoleon \nand for all that belonged to him. Scribe was born \n24 Dec. 1794, died 20 Feb. 1861. \n\nCHEAP TRAINS ACT, 7 & 8 Vict. c. 85, \n1844. Another act passed, Aug. 1883. See Bail- \nways. \n\nCHEATS were punishable by pillory, impri- \nsonment, and fine, and a rigorous statute was \nenacted against them in 1542. Persons cheating at \nplay, or winning at any time more than 10/. or any \nvaluable thing, were deemed infamous, and were \nto suffer punishment as in cases of perjury, 9 Anne,,. \n1 71 1. Blackstone. \n\nCHEE-FOO CONVENTION, see China, \n1876. \n\nCHEESE is mentioned by Aristotle, about \n350 B.C. It is supposed by Camden and others that \nthe English learned cheese-making from the Romans. \nWilts, Gloucester, and Cheshire make vast quantities. \nIn 1840 we imported from abroad about 10,000 tons :. \nin 1855, 384, 192 cwt. ; in 1866, 872,342 cwt. ; in 1870,. \n1,041,281 csvt. ; in 1876, 1,531,204 cwt.; in 1881,. \n1,840,090 cwt. ; in 1884, 1,927,139 cwt. ; in 1887^. \n1,836,789 cwt. ; in 1890, 2,144,047 cwt. Exported r \n1876, 17,411 cwt.; 1880, 11,903 cwt.; 1885, 12,708 \ncwt. ; 1890, 12,211 cwt. The duty on foreign \ncheese, producing annually about 50,000/., was \ntaken off in i860. Large quantities are imported, \nfrom the United States. \n\nThe Cheddar system of cheese-making, named after a~ \nvillage in Somersetshire, with recent improvements has \nbeen largely adopted in the British dominions and the \nUnited States during the present century. \n\nCHELSEA (Middlesex). A council held here \n27 July, 816. Nicolas. A theological college here - \nfounded bj\' James I. in 1609, was converted by \nCharles II. in 1682 to an asylum for wounded and\' \nsuperannuated soldiers. The erection was carried \non by James II., and completed by William III. \nin 1690. The projector was sir Stephen Fox, \ngrandfather of the orator C. J. Fox ; the architect \nwas sir Christopher Wren ; and the cost 150,000/. \nIn 1850 there were 70,000 out- and 539 in-pen- \nsioners. \xe2\x80\x94 The body of the duke of Wellington lay \nhere in state, 10-17 Nov. 1852. \xe2\x80\x94 The physic garden \nof sir Hans Sloane, at Chelsea, was given to the \nApothecaries\' company, 1721. \xe2\x80\x94 The Chelsea water- \nworks were incorporated, 1722. \xe2\x80\x94 The first stone ot \nthe Military Asylum, Chelsea, was laid by Frederick,, \nduke of York, 19 June, 1801. \xe2\x80\x94 The bridge, con- \nstructed by Mr. T. Page to connect Chelsea with \nBattersea-park, was opened March, 1858. The- \nChelsea embankment was opened by the duke audi \nduchess of Edinburgh, 9 May, 1874. See Trials r \nJuly, 1870 and 1872. Cremorne public gardens \nclosed, 1877. The Albert-bridge was opened 31 \nDec. 1872 ; both freed from toll, 24 May, 1879. \nThe parliamentary borough of Chelsea, created by \nthe Reform act, 15 Aug. 1867, consisted of Chelsea, \nKensington, Fulham, and Hammersmith. By the- \nact of 1885, Chelsea alone returns 1 member. The \nChelsea Savings Bank suspended payment ; lia- \nbilities to be sustained by trustees, 18 Jan. 1890. \nFree library opened by earl Cadogan, 21 Jan. 1891. \nPopulation, 1881, 88,1*28; 1891, 96,272. \n\nCHELTENHAM (Gloucestershire). Its cele- \nbrated mineral spring was discovered in 1718- \nThe king\'s-well was sunk in 1778 ; and other wells \nby Mr. P. Thompson in 1806. Magnesian salt was \nfirst found in the waters in 181 1. The theatre was \n\n\n\nCHEMICAL SOCIETIES. \n\n\n\n200 \n\n\n\nCHESHUNT COLLEGE. \n\n\n\nerected in 1804. Grammar school and almshouses, \nendowed by Eichard Pates, 1574. Cheltenham was \nincorporated, 1876. Population, 1881, 43,972; \n1891, 42,914. \n\nCheltenham College, was founded in 1841, mainly by \nMr. George Simon Harcourt, and Capt. James Slirubb \nTredell, for a classical, mathematical, and general \neducation in strict conformity with the principles of \nthe church of England ; among the pupils have been, \nLord Plunket, archbishop of Dublin, sir Henry James, \nQ.C., M.P., prince Alamayu, son of Theodore negus of \nAbyssinia, and prince Francis of Teck. \n\nCHEMICAL SOCIETIES. One formed in \nLondon in 1780, did not long continue. The \npresent Chemical society of London wos established \nin 1841 (jubilee celebrated at Burlington House, 24 \nFeb. 1891) ; that of Paris in 1857 ; that of Germany \nat Berlin, 1867. The Institute of Chemistry of Great \nBritain formed ; professor Edward Frankland first \npresident, 1877 ; firstmeeting, 1 Feb. 1878; chartered, \nOct. 1885. Chemical Industry Society founded 4 \nApril, 1881. \n\nCHEMICAL UNION of manufacturers of \nbleaching powders, alkalies, &c, was projected \nJuly 1890. The union, named the United Alkali \nCompany, advertised shares for sale to the amount \nof 1,250,000/., Feb. 1891. \n\nCHEMICAL WORKS. Royal commission \nappointed to inquire into the management of \nchemical works, to ascertain the effect of gases and \nvapours given off, and the means of prevention : \nthe commissioners were lord Aberdare, earl Percy, \nprofessors Abel, A. Williamson, Koscoe, and others, \n18 July, 1876. In their report, issued Aug. 1878, \nthey recommended increased inspection, and more \nstringent regulations. See Alkalies. \n\nCHEMISTRY was introduced into Spain by \nthe Moors, about 1 150. The Egyptians and Chinese \nclaim an early acquaintance with chemistry. The \nfirst chemists were the Alchemists (see Alchemy) ; \nbut chemistry was not a science till the 17th \ncentury ; during which its study was promoted by \nBacon, Hooke, Mayow, and Boyle. In the early \npart of the 18th century. Dr. Stephen Hales laid the \nfoundation of Pneumatic Chemistry, and his con- \ntemporary Boerhaave combined the study of \nchemistry with medicine. These were succeeded \nby Bergman, Stahl, Black, &c. In 1772, Priestley \npublished his researches on air, having discovered \nthe gases oxygen, ammonia, &c. ; and thus com- \nmenced anew chemical era. He was ably seconded \nby Cavendish, Scheele, Lavoisier, Chaptal, and \nothers. The 19th century opened with the brilliant \ndiscoveries of Davy, continued by Dalton, Faraday, \nThomson, &c. Organic Chemistry has been very \ngreatly advanced by Berzelius, Liebig, Dumas, \nLaurent,Hofmann,Oahours, Frankland, *and others, \nsince 1830 ; see Pharmacy, Electricity, Galvanism. \nFor the analytical processes termed " Spectrum \nanalysis, invented by Kirchhoff and Bunsen \n(1861), and \'Dialysis" (1861), and " Atmoli/sis" \n(1863), invented by Mr. T. Graham, see those \narticles.\xe2\x80\x94 The Royal College of Chemistry, Oxford- \nstreet, London, was established in 1845 (now at \nSouth Kensington)\xe2\x80\x94 Henry Watts\' great " Dic- \ntionary of Chemistry," begun 1863, has supple- \n\n* In 1828 Wohler produced artificially urea, a bodv \nhitherto known only as a product of the animal organ- \nism. Since then, acetic acid, alcohol, grape su^ar \nvarious essential oils, similar to those of the pine-apple\' \npear, garlic, &c, have been formed by combinations of \nthe gases, oxygen, hydrogen, and carbonic acid The \nbarrier formed by chemists between organic and inorganic \nbodies is thus broken down. Imligo artilic.iallv formed \nby Bayer, 1878. \n\n\n\nments ; new edition, 1888 et seq. ; he died 30 June, \n1884. M. Ad. Wurtz\'s equally great " Dictionnaire \nde Chimie," 1868-85. Trof. T. E. Thorpe\'s Dic- \ntionary of Applied Chemistry, 1890. \n\nCHEQUE BANK, opened in Pall Mall East, \n23 July, 1873. It issued cheques for fixed sums \n(down to il.) available for paying and transmitting \nsmall sums, and is suited for persons not having a \nbanker. The plan, due to Mr. James Hertz, a \ndirector, has been modified. He died 23 Feb. 1880. \n\nCHEQUES, see Drafts. \n\nCHERBOURG, the great naval fortress and \narsenal of France on the coast of Brittany, about \n60 or 70 miles equi-distant from Portsmouth and \nPlymouth. It was captured by our Henry V. in \n1418, and lost in 1450. Under the direction of \nLouis XIV., some works were erected here by the \ngreat Vauban, which with some shipping, &c, were \ndestroyed by the British, 6, 7 Aug. 1758. The \nworks resumed by Louis XVI., were interrupted by \nthe revolution. The breakwater, commenced in \n1783, resumed by Napoleon I. about 1803, and com- \npleted in 1813, forms a secure harbour, affording \nanchorage for nearly the whole navy of France, and \nprotected by strong fortifications. On 4, 5 Aug. \n1858, the railway and the Grand Napoleon docks \nwere opened, the latter in the presence of the \nqueen of England and court. The British fleet \nvisited Cherbourg, 15-17 Aug. 1865, receiving much \nhospitality. Presidents Grevy, Leon Say, and \nGambetta visit Cherbourg ; launch of a man-of- \nwar, &c, 8- ti Aug. 1880. \n\nCHERITONDOWN (Hants). Here sir Wm. \nWaller defeated the royalists under lord Hopton, \n29 March, 1644. \n\nCHERRY, the Prunus Cerasus (from Cerasus, \na city of Pontus, whence the tree was brought by \nLucullus to Rome, about 70 B.C.), first planted in \nBritain, it is said, about ioo. Fine kinds were \nbrought from Flanders, in 1540, and planted in \nKent. \n\nCHERSON, see Kherson. \n\nCHERSONESUS, see Crimea. \n\nCHESAPEAKE. At the mouth of this river \na contest took place between the British admiral \nGraves and the French admiral De Grasse aiding \nthe revolted states of America ; the former was \nobliged to retire, 5 Sept. 1781. The Chesapeake and \nDelaware were blockaded by the British fleet in the \nAmerican war of 1812, and the bay was, at that \nperiod, the scene of great hostilities of various \nresults. \n\nChesapeake, an American frigate, in Boston bay, com- \nmanded by capt. Lawrence (50 guns, 376 men), struck \nto the Shannon, British frigate (38 guns, 330 men) com- \nmanded by capt. Philip Vere Broke, after a severe \naction of eleven minutes, 1 June, 1813. Eleven minutes \nelapsed between the firing of the first gun and the \nboarding, and in foiu\' minutes more the Chesapeake was \nthe Shannon\'s prize. Capt. Lawrencedied of his wounds. \nAdm. sir Provo W. P. Wallis, who succeeded in the com- \nmand of the Shannon, when capt. Broke was disabled, \nborn 1791, died 13 Feb. 1892. \n\nCHESHUNT COLLEGE, Herts, founded \nby Seliua, countess of Huntingdon, for the educa- \ntion of ministers of her "connexion," Calvinistic \nmethodists. The college was first opened at Tre- \nvecca-house, Talgarth, near Brecon, by the countess \nand \'George Whitefield, 1768. It was removed to \nCheshunt in 1792. She died 17 June, 1791. Tre- \nvecca college is still used by the Calvinistic \nmethodists, 1890. \n\n\n\nCHESS. \n\n\n\n201 \n\n\n\nCHICHESTER. \n\n\n\nCHESS. An ancient game of eastern origin, \nprobably brought into Europe by the Arabs ; the \ninvention is doubtfully ascribed to India, China, \nPersia and Egypt. \n\nCaxton printed " the Game and Playe of the Chesse" 1474 \nA chess-club formed at Slaughter\'s coffee-house, St. \n\nMartin\'s-lane J747 \n\nThe automaton chess-player (a piece of machinery) \n\nexhibited in England 1769 \n\nM. F. A. Danican, known as Philidor, played three \n\nmatches blindfolded at the Salopian ; he died . 1795 \nThe London Chess-club founded in 1807, and St. \n\nGeorge\'s 1833 \n\nHerr Paulsen played ten games at once, of which \n\nhe won five, and lost one ; three were drawn, and \n\none not played out . . Dec. 1861 \n\nInternational chess congresses : 1, 2, London (winner, \n\nM. Anderssen, of Breslau), 1851, 1862 ; 3, Paris, \n\n(M. Kolisch), 1867 ; 4, Paris (M. Anderssen), 1870 ; \n\n5, Vienna (M. Steinmetz), Aug. 1873. \nAutomaton chess-player at the Crystal-palace (a \n\nyouth concealed in box perforated with holes) \n\nexhibited 1873 \n\nHoward Staunton, a great player, died . . June, 1874 \nJ. J. Lowenthal, eminent Hungarian player, died \n\n20 July, 1876 \nJ. H. Zukertort of Riga, gains first iH\'ize at the \n\nInternational Chess Congress, Paris, June, July, 1878 \n*\' Mephisto," a mechanical chess-player, exhibited \n\nat the Westminster Aquarium . . 2 Oct. ,, \n\nChess Congress at New York . . . Jan. 1880 \n\nChess tournament at Wiesbaden, 9 July, 1880; at \n\nBerlin, 30 Aug. 1881 (1st prize, Mr. Blackburne) ; \n\nat Vienna, first prize, M. Steinmetz . 24 June, 1882 \nIn London (M. Zukertort, 1st prize), 26 April \xe2\x80\x94 \n\n23 June 1883 \n\nM. J. H. Zukertort died aged 46 . . 20 June, 1888 \nInternational chess tournament, New York, closed ; \n\necpual prizes awarded to Herr Weiss (Vienna) and \n\nM. Tischigorin (Russia) . . . .27 May, 1889 \n\nOne at Amsterdam, 28 Aug. 1889 ; at Manchester, \n\n(1st prize, Dr. Tarrasch, of Nuremberg), 25 Aug.- \n\n8 Sept. 1890; at Dresden, Dr. Tarrasch \n\n18-29 J u iy> 1892 \n\nGames, in which the pieces were replaced by living \nmen, were played at St. Leonards, Sussex 14 Jan. i8qi \n\nCHESTER (England, N. W.), the British \nCaerleon and the Roman Leva, the station of the \ntwentieth legion, Valeria Viclrix, quitted by them \nabout 406. The city wall was first built by Edel- \nfieda, about 908 ; and Hugh de Abrinces, called \nLupus, the earl, nephew of William I., rebuilt \nthe Saxon castle in 1084, and the abbey of St. \nWerburgh. Chester was incorporated by Henry \nIII. and made a distinct county. The palatine \njurisdiction was abolished by parliament, 23 July, \n1830. The see, anciently part of Lichtield, one of \nwhose bishops, Peter, removing the seat hither in \n1075, occasioned his successors to be styled bishops \nof Chester ; but it was not made a distinct bishopric \nuntil Henry VIII. in 1541 raised it to this dignity, \nand allotted the church of the abbey of St. Wer- \nburgh for the cathedral. After extensive repairs, \nthe cathedral was re-opened, 25 Jan. 1872. This \nsee is valued in the king\'s books at 420/. is. 8d. \nper annum. Present income 4500^. Population, \n1881,36,794: 1891,37,105. \n\nTaken, after three months\' siege, for the parliament 1645 \n\nFatal gunpowder explosion 1772 \n\nExchange and town hall burnt . . 30 Dec. 1862 \n\nA projected attack of Fenians on Chester castle was \ndefeated by the vigilance of the authorities aud \nthe arrival of the military . . n, 12 Feb. 1867 \nNew town hall opened by the prince of Wales \n\n15 Oct. 1869 \nCathedral re-opened after restoration by sir Gilbert \n\nG. Scott 7 Aug. 1876 \n\nAncient tower of St. John\'s Church fell 15 April, 1881 \nFoundation stone of Grosvenor Museum and \nSchool of Art laid by the duke of Westminster \n3 Feb. 1885 opened 6 Aug. 18S6 \n\n\n\nRECENT BISHOPS OF CHESTER. \n\n1800. Henry Wm. Majendie, trans, to Bangor, 1809. \n\n1810. Bowyer Edward Sparkie, trans, to Ely, 1812. \n\n1812. George Henry Law, trans, to Bath, 1824. \n\n1824. Chas. J. Blomfield, trans, to London, Aug. 1828. \n\n1828. John Bird Sumner, trans, to Canterbury, 1848. \n\n1848. John Graham, died 15 June, 1865. \n\n1865. William Jacobson. Resigned Jan. ; died 13 July, \n\n1884. \n1884. Wm. Stubbs, Feb. ; translated to Oxford, July, \n\n1888. \n1888. Francis John Jayne, elected 26 Jan. \n\nCHESTER LE STREET. It is stated that \na bishopric founded in Holy Island was removed \nto this place in 875, and to Durham, 995; see \nDurham. \n\nCHEVY CHASE, see Otterhurne. \n\nCHICAGO, Illinois, United States, a flourish- \ning city settled in 1831 ; incorporated 1837; popu- \nlation, 1867, above 200,000; in 1880, 503,185 ; 1890, \n1,099,859. \nChicago was nearly destroyed by fire, occasioned by \n\nthe upsetting of a paraffin lamp . . 7-11 Oct. 1871 \nAbout 250 persons perished, and 98, 500 were rendered \ndestitute. The loss was reckoned at 290,000,000 \ndollars. Large sums were collected for relief of \nthe sufferers in London (10,000/. in a few hours)and \nother British cities, as well as in North America. \nThe area of the fire was computed at from three \nto five square miles, and about 25,000 buildings \nwere destroyed. The heart of the city was com- \nposed of old wooden buildings. The city was re- \nbuilt most energetically . ... 1872-3 \nAnother great fire ; many rendered homeless, \n\n14 July, 1874 \nA convention of Irish National Delegates met \n\n19-22 Aug. 1886 \nSocialist riots with bloodshed on 4 May, 1886. See \n\nUnited States uNov. 1887 \n\nThe World\'s Columbian Exposition, 1893 ; Chicago \n\nchosen as the site 25 Feb. 1890 \n\nMr. Thomas W. Palmer, of Michigan, chosen as the \n\npresident of the fair .... 27 June ,, \nSite selected, S. W. shore of lake Michigan ; \n\n2,000,000 dollars voted for expenses . . July ,, \nMr. George R. Davis elected director-general, 19 Sept. ,, \nPresident Harrison announces tne day of opening \n\nto be 1 May, to close 31 Oct. 1893. \nTo be dedicated 12 Oct. 1892. Congress votes \n2,500,000 dollars for expenses . . 5 Aug. 1892 \nSee America, 1492. \n\nCHICAMA UGA (" thestream of death"), near \n\nChattanooga, Tennessee, North America. Near \nhere the confederates under general Bragg, aided \nby Longstreet, totally defeated the federals under \nRosencrans, 19, 20 Sept. 1863. The loss was severe \non both sides. The credit of the victory was attri- \nbuted to Longstreet ; its fruitlessness to Bragg. \n\nCHICHESTER (Sussex), built by Cissa, \nabout 540. The cathedral was completed about \n1 108, burnt with the city in 11 14, and rebuilt by \nbi-hop Settrid about 1 187. The present cathedral \nwas erected during the 13th century. The spire \nfell 20 Feb. 1861 ; the foundation of a new one was \nlaid 2 May, 1865, completed June, 1866. The cathe- \ndral re-opened after repairs, 14 Nov. 1867. The \nbishopric originated thus : Wilfrid, archbishop of \nYork, compelled to flee by Egfrid, king of Northum- \nberland, preached the gospel in this country, and \nbuilt a church in the Isle of Selsey, about 673. In \n681 Selsey became a bishopric, and so continued \nuntil it was removed to Chichester, then called \nCissan-Cacster, from its builder, Cissa, by Stigand, \nabout 1082. This see has yielded to the church \ntwo saints, and to the nation three lord chancellors. \nIt is valued in the king\'s books at 677^ is. 3^. per \nannum. Present income, 4500/. The borough was \nabsorbed into Sussex, 1885. Population, 1SS1, \n8,114; 1891, 7,812. \n\n\n\nCHICHESTEE. \n\n\n\n202 \n\n\n\nCHILI. \n\n\n\nRECENT BISHOPS OF CHICHESTEE. \n\n1798. John Buckner, died 2 May, 1824. \n\n1824. Robert J. Can, trans, to Worcester, Sept. 1831. \n\n1831. Edward Maltby, translated to Durham, 1836. \n\n1836. Charles Otter, died 20 Aug. 1840. \n\n1840. Philip Nicholas Shuttleworth, died 7 Jan. 1842. \n\n1842. Ashurst Turner Gilbert, died 21 Feb. 1870. \n\n1870. Richard Durnford. \n\n" CHICHESTEE" training-ship for homeless \nLondon boys, established chiefly by the earl of \nShaftesbury and Mr. Williams, in connection with \nthe refuges lor destitute children, Great Queen- \nstreet. 50 boys placed in it, 18 Dec. 1866 ; reported \nhighly successful. The baroness Purdett-Coutts \ngave 5000^. in 1874. H.M.S. Arethusa was de- \nvoted to a similar object, through the instrumen- \ntality of the same persons, 3 Aug. 1874. The \nGoliath training-ship was burnt, 22 Dec. 1875 \'> \nseveral lives were lost. See Wrecks, 1875. \n\nCHICKAHOMINY BATTLES, see Fair- \noaks, and United States, June, 1862. \n\nCHICORY, the wild endive, or Cichorium \nIntybus of Linmeus, grows wild in calcareous soils. \nIt was for many years so largely mixed with coffee \nin England, that it became a matter of serious com- \nplaint, the loss of revenue being estimated at \n100,000^. a year. An excise order was issued, \ninterdicting the mixture of chicory with coffee, 3 \nAug. 1852. The admixture, however, has since been \npermitted, provided the word "chicory" be plainly \nprinted on each parcel sold. In i860 a duty of 3s. \nper cwt. was put upon English-grown chicory until \nApril, 1861 ; it is now 13s. yt. per cwt. (1889). \n\nCHIGNON", French for the "back-hair" of \nladies. In directions for full dress in 1783, it \nis said: "The hair large and the chignon low be- \nhind." Lady\'s Magazine. Large chignons began \nto be worn in England in 1866; discontinued 1875. \n\nCHILDERMAS DAY, 28 Dec, of ancient \nobservance by the Koman Church, in memory of \nthe slaughter of the Holy Innocents. {Matt, ii.) \n\nCHILDREN". Many ancient nations exposed \ntheir infants, \xe2\x80\x94 the Egyptians on the banks of \nrivers, and the Greeks on highways, \xe2\x80\x94 when they \ncould not support or educate them ; in such cases, \nthey were protected by the state. The old custom \nof English parents selling their children to the \nIrish for slaves, was prohibited by Canute, about \n1017. See Emigration, Foundling, Factory Acts, \nand Infanticide. \nChildren\'s Dangerous Performances Act (earl de la \n\n"Warr\'s act) passed ; much needed 24 July, 1879 \n\nLondon Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to \nChildren, founded 8 July, 1884, to protect them \nfrom neglect, ill-usage, and immorality. (A similar \nsociety established in Liverpool 19 April, 1883, \nhas been very efficient.) A shelter near Theobalds \nRd., London, opened by the baroness Burdett- \nCoutts and the lord mayor . . . 27 Oct. 1884 \nThe London society reported successful . Dec. 1887 \nPrevention of cruelty to, and protection of children \nact passed, 26 Aug. 1889. It restricts the employ- \nment in certain cases of boys under 14, and girls \nunder 16, but permits their employment above 7 \nin certain cases by special licence. \nBy the new factory act the age of child-labour was \nraised from 10 to ii .... 5 Aug. 1891 \n\nCHILI, OR CHILE, a republic of S. America, \ndiscovered by Magellan, who lauded at Chiloe, 1520. \nIt was explored by Diego de Almagro, one of the \nconquerors of Peru, 1536. Capital, Santiago, \nfounded 154 1. Chili was subdued, but not wholly, \nin 1546. Population in 1865, 1,068,447; 1885, \n2,527,320; 1889,2,766,747. \nChili declares its independence of Spain, 18 Sept. 1810 \n\n\n\nWar with varying success : decisive victory gained \nby San Martin over the royal forces at Chacabuce, \n12 Feb. 1817 ; the province declared independent, \n\n12 Feb. \n\nPeace with Spain \n\nPresent constitution established . . 22 May, \n\nManuel Montt elected president . . . 18 Oct. \n\nInsurrection headed by Pedro Gallo, Dec. 1858, sup- \npressed April, \n\nJose J. Perez, president .... 18 Sept. \n\nConflagration of the Jesuits\' church at Santiago \n(see Santiago), more than 2000 persons perished \n\n8 Dec. \n\nRupture between Chili and Bolivia respecting the \n*\' Guano " isles 1 March, \n\nDisputes with Spain respecting Peru settled by the \nSpanish minister, 20 May, disavowed by his \ngovernment 25 July, \n\nReligious toleration enacted . . . July, \n\nJ. J. Perez again proclaimed president ; vigorous \nprosecution of the war .... Oct. \n\nThe Spanisli admiral Pareja appears before Val- \nparaiso claiming satisfaction for Chilian inter- \nvention in the war with Peru, 17 Sept. ; refused 21 \nSept. ; he declares a blockade, 24 Sept. ; Chili \ndeclares war against Spain, 29 Sept. ; joins Peru, \n\n5 Dec. \n\nThe Spaniards bombard Valparaiso . 31 March, \n\nEnd of the blockade 14 April, \n\nJ. J. Perez re-elected president . . 18 Sept. \n\nF Errazuriz elected president . . .18 Sept. \n\nGold mines discovered near Iquique . . Oct. \n\nThe Tacna (capt. Hyde), overloaded, left Valpa- \nraiso, 7 March ; soon after sank ; 19 (some chil- \ndren) drowned ; captain and officers saved ; he \nwas reprimanded at Valparaiso, and set free ; \nafterwards seized by orders of the Chilian govern- \nment at Lota; eventually released, and compen- \nsated \n\nInternational exhibition provisionally opened at \nSantiago, 26 Sept. ; to the public . . 31 Oct. \n\nAnibal Pinto, president (till 1881) . . 18 Sept. \n\nBolivian forts seized by the Chilians . . Dec. \n\nChili refuses to recognise a treaty between Peru and \nBolivia (6 Feb. 1873) respecting boundaries ; they \ndeclare war against Chili . . . April, \n\nThe Chilian wooden vessels Esmeralda and Cova- \ndonga blockade Iquique ; the Peruvian ironclad \nturret ships (with rams) Huascar and Jndepen- \ndencia attempt relief ; Esmeralda, sunk by Huascar \n(about no perish) ; Indepcndencia runs ashore \nwhile chasing Covadonga ; capt. Pratt and 6 men \nclimb up Huascar and are killed fighting on the \ndeck . . ... 21, 23 May, \nHuascar enters port of Iquique, and captures 2 \nvessels 29 July, \n\nBlockade of Iquique raised ; announced 4 Aug. \n\nHuascar captured by Chilian fleet otf Mejillones, \nafter 6 hours\' gallant fight ; the admiral and \nmany officers killed .... 8 Oct. \n\nPisagua bombarded and captured by Chilians \n\n2 Nov. \n\nCombined Peruvian and Bolivian army defeated \nnear Iquique (which surrenders) Nov. ; again \nnear Tarapaca, which is taken about 27 Nov. \n\nNaval engagement ; dashing conduct of Peruvian \nvessels 27 Feb. \n\nCallao blockaded by Chilians ; alarm at Lima \n\nabout 18 April, \nBattle of Tacna ; it is captured by Chilians \n\n26 May, \n\nArica taken by the Chilians . . 8 June, \n\nPierola dictator of Peru ; declares for perseverance \nin the war ; excitement at Lima ; levy en masse \n\n28 June, \nChilian transport Loa sunk by torpedo, by a Peru- \nvian launch apparently laden with fruit ; Callao \n\ngreatly shaken 3 July, \n\nChilian vessel Covadonga bombarding town, sunk \nby Peruvian torpedoes off Chancay: about 115 \nperish ; (severe reprisals) ... 14 Sept. \nChilians storm Lurin, 4 Jan. ; defeat the Peruvians \nat Chorillos, 13 Jan. ; at Miraflores, 15 Jan. ; \noccupy Lima without resistance, Pierola flees, \nabout 17 Jan. ; Callao taken soon after . Jan. \nConditions of peace reported ; cession of territory ; \n750 million dollars indemnity ; occupation of \n\n\n\n1833 \n1851 \n\n1859 \n1861 \n\n\n\n1863 \n\n\n\n1S65 \n\n\n\n1874. \n\n187S \n1876 \n\n\n\nCHILI. \n\n\n\n203 \n\n\n\nCHILI. \n\n\n\nCallao ; working of mines till indemnity paid ; \nannounced 30 Jan. \n\nEngland and France requested to mediate by Peru \n\nFeb. \n\nTreaty of peace between Spain confirmed Sept. \n\nCalderon elected president, announced . 1 Sept. \n\nPresident ; Domingo Santa-Maria . . 18 Sept. \n\nTreaty of peace witli Bolivia . . .25 Jan. \n\nPeace protocol between Chili and Peru, agreed to \n\nMarch, \n\nWar resumed ; skirmishes ; Chilians generally suc- \ncessful July, \n\nPeruvians defeated by Chilians in several engage- \nments, 13, 15, and 16 July, also 8 Aug. \n\nConeepcion burned, announced . . 19 July, \n\nReported peace ; cession of Tarapaca and Tacna \n\n28 Sept. \n\nNegotiations fail, announced ... 8 Oct. \n\nPeace said to be signed ; Peru cedes Tacna and \nArica to Chili for 10 years, reported 25 May, \n\nSevere battle, Peruvians defeated with great Io.ns at \nHuamachuca 10 July, \n\nPeruvian leaders defeated at Huanchuco by col. \nGrostiago 19 July, \n\nPeace with Peru signed at Ancon . . 20 Oct. \n\nLima evacuated 23 Oct. \n\nSeiior Don Jose Manuel Balmaceda, president \n\n18 Sept. \n\nAfter much agitation, great electoral reforms carried \n\nOct. \n\nThe congress issues a declaration deposing the pre- \nsident for treason against the constitution, \ntyranny, and misuse of the public money, and \ndesignates sen. Jorge Montt as its assistant in \nrestoring the due observance of the constitution. \n\n1 Jan. \n\nThe navy (under capt. J. Montt) revolts against \n\nthe president ; the army remains faithful to him \n\nabout 7 Jan. \n\nValparaiso, held for the president, blockaded by \nthe navy ; frequent skirmishes ; contradictory \nreports 16 Jan. \n\nSmall British squadron sent to Chilian waters \n\n. about 17 Jan. \n\nThe navy blockades the coast ... 20 Jan. \n\nCoronel bombarded by the navy, reported 25 Jan. \n\nThe congressists take Pisagua . . .26 Jan. \n\nA French squadron ordered to the Chilian coast . \n\nabout 2S Jan. \n\nThe government troops re-take Pisagua ; the con- \ngressists occupy Talta . . . about 1 Feb. \n\nFighting at Castro ; congressists defeated ; 130 \nkilled reported 4 Feb. \n\nInsurrection confined to the chief harbours 5 Feb. \n\nPisagua and Iquique burned by bombardment \n\nreported 13 Feb. \n\nThe president\'s troops defeated at Dolores, 15 Feb., \nand Iquique, 19 Feb \n\nThe congressists defeated at Pisagua . 22 Feb. \n\nIquique bombarded by the congressists ; the British \nadmiral Hotham intervenes to save women and \nchildren ; capt. Lambton, of the IVarspite, passes \nthrough a heavy fire to obtain an armistice ; the \ntown and troops surrender to the congressists \n\n20 Feb. \n\nTarapaca taken by the congressists reported 27 Feb. \n\nConflicting news . . . Jan., Feb., March \n\nThe troops at Pisagua declare for the congressists. \nreported 3 March \n\nThe president\'s troops defeated at Pozo Almonte, \n4 March ; the province of Tarapaca held by the \ncongress party . . . about 8 March \n\nPart of the army joins the congress party, which \nholds all southern Chili . reported 12 March \n\nCol. Bobles, with the president\'s troops, totally de- \nfeated ; he is killed after the engagement at Pozo \nAlmonte, 4 March. The province of Tarapaca \nheld by the congress party . . .8 March \n\nThe port Antofagasta taken by the congressist \nfleet 18-23 March \n\nTacna and Arica occupied by the congressists \nwithout resistance .... 7 April \n\nA provisional government or junta established by \nthe congress party, at Iquique . . 10 April \n\nPart of the regular army (2,450) crosses the Argen- \ntine territory to reach Santiago, reported 14 April \n\nNewly elected congress (his nominees) opened by \n\n\n\nthe president ; his conduct reported very tyran- \nnical 21 April, \n\nThe congressist ironclad Blanco Encalada, in Cal- \ndera Bay, Atacama, sunk by Balmaceda\'s torpedo \nboats early ... .23 April, \n\nRevolt of troops at Coquimbo, to the congressists . \n\n25 April \n\nThe congressist cruiser Magellanes, in Valparaiso \nharbour, beats off a fierce attack of three govern- \nment torpedo boats . . . .28 April, \n\nCapiapo, the capital of Atacama, occupied by the \ncongressists . . . reported 29 April \n\nPresident Balmaceda invites foreign mediation \n\nreported 6 May \n\nNegotiations between the government and the con- \ngressists fail about 8 May \n\nThe 1 tata, and Robert and Minnie, private trans- \nports, supply the congress party with contra- \nband articles from New York, 15 April et seq. ; \nthey are chased by the U.S. cruiser Charleston . \n\nearly May \n\nAmicable arrangement between the congressists \n\nand the United States respecting the Rata \n\nreported 20 May, \n\nBalmaceda\'s ships, Condell and Imperial, bombard \nIquique 22 May \n\nThe officers and crew of Balmaceda\'s torpedo \nlaunch Giralda,~ shot for suspected desertion \n\n30 May, \n\nThe statements respecting the various conflicts \nand movements of the two parties very uncertain \nand frequently contradictoiy . . May, June, \n\nThe congressional provisional junta at Iquique \nissues decrees respecting the state finances \n\n22 May, \n\nThe Itata surrenders to the American cruisers at \nIquique 4 June, \n\nThe provisional junta at Iquique issues a circular \nnote to the powers denouncing president Balma- \nceda as a dictator, and asking to be recognised \nas a belligerent, 7 May . published n June, \n\nBalmaceda\'s squadron bombards Pisagua, 8 June ; \nIquique 9 June, \n\nReported reign of terror in Santiago through the \ntyranny of president Balmaceda . . 25 June, \n\nThe congressists occupy Huasco . . 2 July, \n\nSen. Pedro Montt and sen. Varas on behalf of the \ncongressists, declare that the financial dealings \nof president Balmaceda will not be recognised by \nthem 10 July, \n\nThe ten conspirators who attempted to blow up \nBalmaceda\'s ships at Valparaiso shot 14 July, \n\nThe judges and legal officers of the republic dis- \ncharged by Balmaceda and replaced by his \nignorant partisans ; no security for foreigners \nreported 21 July, \n\nThe congress party occupy the Atacama province \n\n25 July, \n\nThe congressist army, about 10,000, with batteries, \n&c, commanded by col. Canto, land at Quinteros \nBay, 20 Aug., and after a night\'s march, they \ncompletely defeat Balmaceda\'s army- at Colmo ;. \nthe congressists have about 300 killed; Bal- \nmaceda has about 1,000 killed, 21 Aug. ; tuey \nadvance and take Salto, 24 Aug. ; ai d Quilpue, \n25 Aug. ; inarch toward Valrjaraiso, receiving \nlarge numbers of deserters from the enemy, and \nencamp in a farm-house ... 27 Aug. \n\nBattle of Placilla : Balmaceda\'s army totally de- \nfeated ; about 1,000 killed and 3,000 prisoners ; \ncongressists, 400 killed ; the battle lasted from \n7.30 to 10.30, and the congressists took posses- \nsion of Valparaiso .at 1 p.m. . . . 28 Aug. \n\nSantiago occupied by the congressists, who restore \nconstitutional government . . 30 Aug. \n\nTemporal resistance at Coquimbo ; several of Bal- \nmaceda\'s officers shot . . reported 1 Sept. \n\nThe great powers recognise the congressist pro- \nvisional government . . about 16 Sept. \n\nBalmaceda concealed at the Argentine Legation in \nSantiago, commits suicide, leaving a justificatory \nletter, and is secretly buried . . 19 Sept. \n\nNational holiday with great rejoicings, 16-20 Sept. \n\nBalmaceda\'s funds being exhausted he issues state \nnotes to the amount of 12,000,000 pesos, lie also \nseizes bars of silver valued at 4,500,000 pesos, \nthe metallic reserve of the paper currency and \nillegally offers it lor sale, without effect Feb. et \n\n\n\nCHILLED SHOT. \n\n\n\n204 \n\n\n\nCHINA. \n\n\n\nseq. ; he then forms a new congress to support \nhim, April ; and negotiates for the purchase of \na steamer at Montevideo without effect ; Mr. \nKennedy, British minister at Santiago, places \n\xe2\x96\xa0at Balmaceda\'s disposal H.M.S. Espiegle to \nconvey the silver bars to Montevideo, June et \nse 9v 338 silver bars transferred to H.M.S. Moselle, \nwhich conveys them to Southampton 16 Sept. 1891 \n\nTwo iron-clad cruisers, the Presidente Pinto and \nPresidente Errazv.riz, constructed for Balmaceda \nat Bordeaux ; col. Villagran with 114 soldiers \nclaims them for him, 6 April ; an embargo on \nthese vessels raised by order of a French law \n\xe2\x96\xa0court, 8 July ; the vessels leave Bordeaux, and \nafter endeavouring to enlist men at several ports \nin Europe, July, Aug., are siven up at the end of \nthe war, to the new provisional government \n\nSept. et seq. ,, \n\nElection of senate and deputies . about 21 Oct. ,, \n\nMr. Patrick Egan, the U.S. minister, charged with \nbreach of neutrality by favouring Balmaceda\'s \nparty during the war Oct. ,, \n\nAt Valparaiso some of the populace assault the \nboats\' crews of the U.S. ship Baltimore; 2 of \nthe crew killed, 16 Oct. ; the U.S. government \n\xe2\x96\xa0demands reparation ; the Chilian government \npromises investigation . . . .29 Oct. ,, \n\nThe case against the Itata dismissed by the U.S. \n\xe2\x96\xa0court 3 Nov. ,, \n\nSenhor Jorge Montt elected president . 4 Nov. ,, \n\nAmnesty granted to the followers of Balmaceda \n\n24 Dec. ,, \n\nA liberal-conservative ministry constituted ; sen. \nBarros Luco premier . . . 31 Dec. ,, \n\nThe Chilian rioters sentenced (some to imprison- \nment and some to penal servitude), for assault- \ning the sailors of the Baltimore, 3 Jan. ; the \npresident apologises to the U.S.A. government \nlor the incident Jan. 1892 \n\nAfter further correspondence the Chilian govern- \nment accepts the stringent U.S.A. ultimatum, \nand the affair ends . . . 25-30 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe first congress closes after satisfactory progress \n\n30 Jan. ,, \n\nA new ministry constituted under sen. Edouardo \nMatte about 13 March, ,, \n\nNew ministry formed by sen. Barros Luco, 11 June, ,, \n\nMr. P. Egan concludes a convention between Chili \nand the United States .... Aug. ,, \n\nCHILLED SHOT, see Cannon, 1864-6. \n\nCHILLIANWALLAH, Battle of, India, \nbetween the Sikh forces in considerable strength, \nand the British commanded by lord (afterwards \nviscount) Gough, fought 13 Jan. 1849. The Sikhs \nwere completely routed, but the loss of the British \nwas very severe : 26 officers were killed and 66 \nwounded, and 731 rank and file killed, and 1446 \nwounded. The Sikh loss was 3000 killed and \n4000 wounded.* On 21 Feb. lord Gough attacked \nthe Sikh army, under Shere Singh, in its position \natGoojerat, with complete success ; and the whole of \nthe enemy\'s camp fell into the hands of the British. \n\nCHILTERN HUNDREDS (viz. Burnham, \nDesborough, and Stoke), an estate of the crown on \nthe chain of chalk hills that pass from east to west \nthrough the middle of Buckinghamshire. The \nstewardship is a nominal office, with a salary of 25s., \n\xe2\x80\xa2conferred on members of parliament when they wish \nto vacate their seats. The strict legality of the \npractice is questioned. The practice began in 1750. \n\nCHIMBOEAZO, highest point in the Andes, \nSouth America; (altitude 21,068 feet) was as- \ncended by Humboldt, 23 June, 1802, by Boussin- \ngault and Hall, 16 Dec. 1831 ; by Edward Whym- \nper, 3 July, 1880. See Andes. \n\n\n\n* The duke of Wellington (commander-in-chief) did \nnot think the victory complete. Gough was superseded, \nand sir Charles Napier sent out (March, 1849), who did \nnot arrive in India till Gough had redeemed his reputa- \ntion. \n\n\n\nCHIMNEY-TAX, see Hearth. \n\nCHIMNEYS. Chafing-dishes were in use \nprevious to the invention of chimneys which were \nfirst introduced into these countries about 1200. \nChimneys were general in domestic architecture \nin the 14th century. At the chemical works, \nGlasgow, is a chimney (there termed a stalk) \n420 feet in height ; the height of the monument \nin London being 202 feet; of St. Paul\'s, 404 feet. \nAct to regulate chimney-sweeping, 28 Geo. III. . . 1789 \nThe chimney-siveeping machine was invented by \n\nSmart 1805 \n\nA statute regulating the trade, the apprenticeship \nof children, the construction of flues, preventing \ncalling " sweep " in the streets, &c, passed . . 1834 \nBy 3 & 4 Vict. c. 85 (1840), it is not lawful for master \nsweeps to take apprentices under sixteen years \nof age ; and no individual under twenty-one to \nascend a chimney after . . . .1 July, 1842 \nEnforcement of this law made more stringent . . 1864 \nNew chimney-sweepers\' act passed . . 11 Aug. 1875 \nJoseph Glass, inventor of the sweeping machine \n\nnow in general use, not patented, died 29 Jan. 1868 \nBy the iall of a chimney at Marsh Mills, Cleck- \nheaton, Yorkshire, 15 persons were killed \n\n24 Feb. 1892 \n\nCHINA (TsiNG),the "Celestial Empire," in \nEastern Asia, for which the Chinese annals claim \nan antiquity of from 80,000 to 100,000 years B.C. \nThe three religions are Confucianism; Taoism, and \nBuddhism, which see. Mr, B. C. Boulger\'s " History \nof China," 3 vols., 1881-84. Professor Legge has \npublished "Chinese Classics" and a translation of \nthe Chinese " sacred books." Population (as stated \nat Pekin) in 1888, 303,241,969; 1890, 360,250,000. \n\nThe early condition of China was tribal, which \ngradually merged into a vast feudal system, \nnominally ruled by many contemporaneous \ndynasties, dated from 2205 b. c. The king of \nTs\'in put down all other rulers and assumed \nthe title of Hwang Ti, or emperor, declaring \nthat "as there is but one sun in the sky, there \nshould be but one ruler in the nation " 221 \n\nPrincipal dynasties : Han, 206 B.c-220 a.d. ; T\'ang, \n618-906 ; Sung, 960-1279 ; Yuan, the Mongol, 1280- \n1367 ; the Ming, 1368-1643 ; the Ch\'ing, or Ts\'ing, \nManchu Tartar, 1643 to the present date. Legge. \n\nSupposed age of Confucius (Kungfutze), the philo- \nsopher . . .... b.c. 551-479 \n\nStupendous wall of China completed . . . . 211 \n\nLiterature and the art of printing encouraged . 202 \n\nBattle between Phraates and the Scythians : the \nChinese aided the latter, and ravaged the coasts \nof the Caspian : their first appearance in history \n\n(Lenglet.) 129 \n\nThe religion of Laot-se begun 15 \n\nA form of Buddhism, or the religion of F6, intro- \nduced about a.d. 68-81 \n\nNankin becomes the capital 420 \n\nThe atheistical philosopher, San-Shin, flourishes . 449 \nThe Nestorian Christians permitted to preach . . 635 \nThey are proscribed and extirpated .... 845 \nChina ravaged by Tartars, 9th to nth centuries. \nSeat of government transferred to Pekin . . . 1 260 \nMarco Polo introduces missionaries .... 1275 \nKublai Khan establishes the Yuen or Mongol \n\ndynasty about ,, \n\nMing dynasty 1368 \n\nCanal, called the Yu Ho, completed . . about 1400 \nEuropeans first arrive at Canton .... 1517 \nMacao is granted to the Portuguese . . . . 1536 \nJesuit missionaries are sent from Rome . . . 1575 \nThe country is conquered by the eastern or Mant- \nchou Tartars, who establish the present reigning \n\nTsing dynasty 1616-43 \n\nTea brought to England 1660 \n\nAn earthquake throughout China, buries 300,000 \n\npersons at Pekin alone . . . 1662 \n\nGaldan, a prince of Jangaria, conquers Kashgaria \nand becomes supreme in Central Asia, 1678: \nchecked by Kang-hi, 1689 ; totally defeated . 1695 \nCommerce with East India Company begins . . 1680 \n\n\n\nCHINA. \n\n\n\n205 \n\n\n\nCHINA. \n\n\n\nJesuit missionaries preach 1692 \n\nCommercial relations with Russia . . . 1719-27 \n\nThe Jesuits expelled 1724-32 \n\nAnother general earthquake destroys 100,000 per- \nsons at Pekin, and 80,000 in a suburb . . -1731 \nSuccessful war in Central Asia ; Davatsi and his \nopponent Amursana, subdued by Keen-lung, \n1755, et seq. ; Kashgar, Khokand, the Khirgez, <fec. \n\nannexed 1760 \n\nIn a salute by one of our ships in China, a gun was \ninadvertently fired, which killed a native ; the \ngovernment demanded the gunner ; he was soon \n\nstrangled 1785 \n\nEarl Macartney\'s embassy arrives at Pekin ; his re- \nception by the emperor ... 14 Sept. 1793 \n[This embassy threw light on the empire ; it ap- \npeared to be divided into 15 provinces, containing \n4402 walled cities ; the population of the whole \nwas given at 333,000,000 : its annual revenues at \n66,ooo,ooo(. ; and the army, including the Tartars, \n1,000,000 of infantry and 800,000 cavalry ; the \nreligion Pagan, and the government absolute. \nLearning, and the arts and sciences, were encou- \nraged, and ethics studied.] \nHe is ordered to depart . . . . 7 Oct. ,, \nAnd arrives in England .... 6 Sept. 1794 \nThe affair of the Company\'s ship Neptune, when a \nChinaman was killed . . . . \' . . . 1807 \n\nEdict against Christianity 1812 \n\nChinese rule in Central Asia weakened . . . ,, \nLord Amherst\'s embassy ; lie leaves England, 8 Eeb. 1816 \n[His lordship failed in the objects of his mission, \nhaving refused to make the prostration of the \nkotou, lest he should thereby compromise the \nmajesty of England.] \nTemporary insurrections in Kashgar . . 1826, et seq. \nExclusive rights of the E. I. Co. cease . 22 April, 1834 \nFree-trade ships sail for England . . 25 April, ,, \nLord Napier arrives at Macao to superintend \n\nBritish commerce 15 July, ,, \n\nAffair between the natives and two British ships of \n\nwar ; several Chinese killed . . 5 Sept. ,, \n\nLord Napier dies, and is succeeded by Mr. (after- \nwards sir John) Davis .... 11 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nOpium dispute begins ; the trade prohibited by the \n\nemperor Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nChinese seize the Argyle and crew . . 31 Jan. 1835 \nOpium burnt at Canton by Chinese . . 23 Feb. ,, \nCaptain Elliot, chief British commissioner 14 Dec. 1836 \nA British commissioner settled at Canton, March, 1837 \nAdmiral Maitland arrives at Macao . . 12 July. 1838 \nCommissioner Lin orders seizure of opium, 18 \nMarch ; British and other residents forbidden to \nleave Canton, 19 March ; the factories surrounded, \nand outrages committed . . .24 March, 1839 \nCaptain Elliot requires British subjects to surrender \nto him all opium, promising them full value of it, \n27 March ; half of it is given up as contraband \nto the Chinese, 20 April ; the remainder (20,283 \nchests) surrendered, 21 May ; captain Elliot and \nthe British merchants leave Canton, 24 May ; the \nopium destroyed by the Chinese . . 3 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAffair between the British and American seamen \nand the Chinese ; a native killed . . 7 July, ,. \n\nHong-Kong taken 23 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe British boat Black Joke attacked, and the crew \nmurdered, 24 Aug. ; the British merchants re- \ntire from Macao 26 Aug. ,, \n\nAffair at Kow-lung between British boats and \n\nChinese junks 4 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAttack by 28 armed junks on the British frigates \n\nVolage and Hyacinth : severaljunks blown up 3 Nov. ,, \nThe British trade with China ceases, by an edict of \nthe emperor, and the last servant of the company \n\nleaves this day 6 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nEdict of the emperor interdicting all trade and \n\nintercourse with England for ever . . 5 Jan. 1840 \nThe Hellas ship attacked by armed junks, 22 May : \nblockade of Canton by a British fleet, by orders \nfrom sir Gordon Bremer, 28 June ; the Blonde \nwith a flag of truce fired on at Amoy, 2 July ; \nTing-hai, in Cliusan, surrenders, 5 July ; blockade \nestablished along the Chinese coast, 10 July ; Mr. \nStaunton carried off to Canton . . 6 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nCaptain Elliot, on board a British steam-ship, \n\nenters the Peiho river, near Pekin . 1 1 Aug. , \nThe ship Kite lost on a sand-bank, and the captain\'s \n\n\n\n- wife and a part of the crew are captured by the \nnatives, and confined in cages . . 15 Sept. \n\nLin finally degraded ; Keshiii appointed imperial \ncommissioner, 16 Sept. ; capt. Elliot\'s truce with \n\n\n\nhim \n\n\n\n6 Nov. \n\n. 20 Nov. , 7 \n29 Nov. , r \n12 Dec. , r \n\nfaith on \n6 Jan. 1841 \n\n\n\nBritish plenipotentiaries off Macao \n\nAdmiral Elliot\'s resignation announced . \n\nMr. Staunton released .... \n\nNegotiations cease, owing to breach of \nthe part of the Chinese emperor . \n\nChuen-pe and Tae-coc-tow, and 173 guns (some sent \nto England) captured . . . . 7 Jan. , \n\nHong-Kong ceded by Keshin to Great Britain, and \n6,000,000 dollars agreed to be paid within ten days- \nto the British authorities . . . 20 Jan. ,, \n\nHong-Kong taken possession of . . .26 Jan. ,, \n\nThe emperor rejects Keshin\'s treaty, n Feb. ; hos- \ntilities resumed, 23 Feb. ; Chusan evacuated, \n24 Feb. ; rewards proclaimed at Canton for the \nbodies of Englishmen, dead or alive ; 50,000 dollars \nto be given for chiefs .... 25 Feb. ,\xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBogue forts taken by sir G. Bremer ; admiral Kwan \nkilled ; 459 guns captured . . .26 Feb. ,, \n\nThe British squadron proceeds to Canton, 1 March ; \nsir H. Gough takes command of the army, \n2 March ; hostilities again suspended, 3 March ; \nand again resumed, 6 March ; Keshin degraded \nby the emperor 12 March, ,, \n\nFlotilla of boats destroyed, Canton threatened, the \nforeign factories seized, and 461 guns taken by \nthe British forces .... 18 March, ,,, \n\nNew commissioners from Pekin arrived at Canton \n\n14 April, ,, \n\nHong Kong Gazette first published . . 1 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCapt. Elliot prepares to attack Canton . 17 May, , r \n\nHeights behind Canton taken . . 25 May, ,, \n\nThe city ransomed for 6,000,000 dollars ; 5,000,000 \npaid down ; hostilities cease . . 31 May, ,. \n\nBritish forces withdrawn, 1 June ; and British trade \nre-opened 16 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nArrival at Macao of sir Henry Pottinger, who, as \nplenipotentiary, proclaims the objects of his \nmission ; capt. Elliot superseded . 10 Aug. ,,. \n\nAmoy taken, and 296 guns destroyed . 27 Aug. ,, \n\nThe Bogue forts destroyed ... 14 Sept. ,- \n\nTing-hae taken, 136 guns captured, and Chusan re- \noccupied by the British, 1 Oct. ; they take Chin- \nhae, 10 Oct. ; Ning-po, 13 Oct. ; Yu-yaou, Tsze- \nkee, and Foong-hua . . . .28 Dec. ,, \n\nChinese attack Ning-po and Chin-hae, and are re- \npulsed with great loss, 10 March ; 8000 Chinese \nare routed near Tze-kee . . .15 March, 184a \n\nCha-pou attacked ; defences destroyed . 18 May, ,, \n\nThe British squadron enters the river Kiang, \n13 June ; capture of Woosuug and of 230 guns \nand stores, 16 June; Shang-hae taken, 19 June, ,- \n\nThe British armament anchors near the " Golden \nIsle," 20 July ; Chiu-Keang taken ; the Tartar \ngeneral and many of the garrison commit suicide, \n21 July ; the advanced ships reach Nankin, \n4 Aug. ; the whole fleet arrives, and the disem- \nbarkation commences, 9 Aug. ; Keying arrives- \nat Nankin, with full powers to treat for peace \n\n12 Aug. ,. \n\nTreaty of peace signed before Nankin, on board the \nCormvallis by sir Henry Pottinger for England, \nand Keying Elepoo* and Neu-Kien on the part of \nthe Chinese emperor\xe2\x80\x94 [Conditions : lasting peace \nand friendship between the two empires ; China \nto pay 21,000,000 of dollars ; Canton, Amoy, Foo- \nchoofoo, Ningpo, and Shang-hae to be thrown \nopen to the British, and consuls to reside at these \ncities; Hong-Kong to be ceded in perpetuity to \nEngland, &c. ; Chusan and Ku-lang-su to be held \nby the British until the provisions are fulfilled t] \n\n29 Aug. ,, \n\nThe ratification signed by queen Victoria and the \nemperor formally exchanged . . .22 July, 1843. \n\nCanton opened to the. British . . 27 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAppointment of Mr. Davis in the room of sir Henry \nPottinger 16 Feb. 1844. \n\nBogue forts captured by the British . 5 April, 1S47 \n\n* He took part (it was said without authority) in \narranging the treaty of Tien-tsin in June, 185S. lie was \nin consequence condemned to death \xe2\x80\x94 by suicide. \n\nt The non-fulfilment of this treaty led gradually to the \nwar of 1856-7. \n\n\n\nCHINA. \n\n\n\n206 \n\n\n\nCHINA. \n\n\n\nJHong-Kong; and the neighbourhood visited by a - \nviolent typhoon ; immense damage done to the \nshipping ; upwards of 1000 boat-dwellers on the \n\nCanton river drowned Oct. 1848 \n\nH.M. steam-ship Medea destroys 13 pirate junks in \n\nthe Chinese seas 4 March, 1850 \n\n{Rebellion breaks out in Quang-si . . . Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nAppearance of the pretender, Tien-teh * March, 1851 \nDefeat of Leu, the imperial commissioner, and de- \nstruction of half the army ... 19 June, 1852 \n\'Successful progress of the rebels ; the emperor ap- \nplies to the Europeans for help, without success \n\nMarch and April, 1853 \nThe rebels take Nankin, 19, 20 March ; Amoy, \n\n19 May ; Shang-hae 7 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAnd besiege Canton without success Aug. -Nov. 1854 \nThe scanty accounts are unfavourable to the rebels, \nthe imperialists having retaken Shang-hae, Amoy, \n\nand many important places 1855 \n\nOutrage on the British lorcha Arrow, in Canton \n\nriver t 8 Oct. 1856 \n\nAfter vain negotiations with commissioner Yeh, \n\nCanton forts attacked and taken . 23 Oct. ,, \n\nA Chinese fleet destroyed and Canton bombarded, \n\nby sir- M. Seymour . . . . 3, 4 Nov. ,, \n\nImperialists defeated, quit Shang-hae . . 6 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe Americans revenge an attack by capturing three \n\nforts 21-23 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n-Rebels take Kuriking .... 25 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nOther forts taken by the British . . . Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe Chinese burn European factories . . 14 Dec. ,, \nAnd murder the crew of the Thistle . 30 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe Mahometans of Panthay, in Yunan, become \n\nindependent during Tae-ping rebellion . . \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nA-lum, a Chinese baker, acquitted of charge of \n\npoisoning the bread 2 Feb. 1857 \n\nTroops arrive from Madras and England ; and lord \n\nElgin appointed envoy .... March, ,, \n"No change on either side : Yeh said to be straitened \nfor money ; the imperialists seem to be gaining \nground upon the rebels .... May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nTotal destruction of the Chinese fleet by commodore \nElliot, 25, 27 May ; and sir M. Seymour and com- \nmodore Keppel 1 June, ,, \n\nBlockade of Canton Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n.\'Stagnation in the war\xe2\x80\x94 lord Elgin departs to Cal- \ncutta, with assistance to the English against the \nSepoys, 16 July ; returns to Hong-Kong 25 Sept. ,, \n\nx The emperor Taou-Kwang, who died 25 Feb. 1850, \n\xe2\x80\xa2during the latter part of his reign, became liberal in his \nviews, and favoured the introduction of European arts ; \nliut his son, the late emperor, a rash and narrow-minded \nprince, quickly departed from his father\'s wise policy, \n.and adopted reactionary measures, particularly against \nEnglish influence. An insurrection broke out in conse- \nquence, Aug. 1850, and quickly became of alarming im- \nportance. The insurgents at first proposed only to expel \nthe Tartars ; but in March, 1851, a pretender was an- \nnounced among them, first by the name of Tien-teh \n\'.(Celestial Virtue), but afterwards assuming other names. \nHe is stated to have been a native of Quang-si, of \nobscure origin, but to have obtained some literary know- \nledge at Canton about 1 83 5 , and to have become acquainted \nat that time with the principles of Christianity from a \nChinese Christian, named Leang-afa, and also from the \nmissionary Roberts in 1844. He announced himself as \nthe restorer of the worship of the true God, Shang-ti, \nand derived many of his dogmas from the Bible. He de- \nclared himself to be the monarch of all beneath the sky, \nthe true lord of China (and thus of all the world), the \n\xe2\x96\xa0brother of Jesus, and the second son of God, and de- \nmanded universal submission. He made overtures for \nalliance to lord Elgin in Nov. i860. His followers were \ntermed Taepings, "princes of peace," a title utterly \n"belied by their atrocious deeds. The rebellion was virtu- \nally terminated, 18 July, 1864, by the capture of Nankin, \nthe suicide of the Tien-Wang, and the execution of the \nmilitary leaders. \n\nt It was boarded by the Chinese officers, 12 men out of \nthe crew of 14 being carried off and the national ensign \ntaken down. Sir J. Bowring, governor of Hong-Kong, \nbeing compelled to resort to hostilities, applied to India \nand Ceylon for troops. On 3 March, 1857, the house of \ncommons, by a majority of 19, censured sir John for the \n" violent measures " he had pursued. The ministry (who \ntook his part) dissolved the parliament ; but obtained a \narge majority in the new one. \n\n\n\nGen. Ashburnham departs for India, and gen. Strau- \nbenzee assumes the command . . 19 Oct. \n\nCanton bombarded and taken by English and \nFrench, 28, 29 Dec. 1857 ; who enter it . 5 Jan. \n\nYeh* sent a prisoner to Calcutta . . . Jan. \n\nThe allies proceed towards Pekin, and take the Pei- \nho forts .20 May, \n\nThe expedition arrives at Tien-tsin . 20 May, \n\nNegotiations commence, 5 June ; treaty of peace \nsigned at Tien-tsin by lord Elgin, baron Gros, and \nKeying (who signed the treaty of 1842) \xe2\x80\x94 [Ambas- \nsadors to be at both courts ; freedom of trade ; \ntoleration of Christianity ; expenses of war to be \npaid by China ; a revised tariff ; term I (bar- \nbarian) to be no longer applied to Europeans] \n\n26, 28, 29 June, \n\nLord Elgin visits Japan, and concludes an im- \nportant treaty with the emperor . 28 Aug. \n\nThe British destroy about 130 piratical junks in the \nChinese seas .... Aug. and Sept. \n\nLord Elgin proceeds up the Yang-tse-Kiang to \nNankin, Jan. ; returns to England . May, \n\nMr. Bruce, the British envoy, on his way to Pekin, \nis stopped in the river Pei-ho (or Tien-tsin) ; ad- \nmiral Hope attempting to force a passage, is re- \npulsed with the loss of 81 killed, and about 390 \nwounded 25 June, \n\nThe American envoy Ward arrives at Pekin, and \nrefusing to submit to degrading ceremonies, does \nnot see the emperor . . . .29 July, \n\nCommercial treaty with America . . 24 Nov. \n\nThe English and French prepare an expedition \nagainst China . Oct. \n\nLord Elgin and baron Gros sail for China, April 26 ; \nwrecked near Point de Galle, Ceylon, 23 May ; \narrive at Shang-hae .... 29 June, \n\nThe war begins : the British commanded by sir Hope \nGrant, the French by general Montauban. The \nChinese defeated in a skirmish near the Pei-ho \n\n12 Aug. \n\nThe allies repulse the Taeping rebels attacking \nShang-hae, 18-20 Aug. ; and take the Taku forts, \nlosing 500 killed and wounded ; the Tartar general \nSan-ko-lin-sin retreats . . . .21 Aug. \n\nAfter vain negotiations, the allies advance towards \nPekin ; they defeat the Chinese at Chang-kia-wan \nand Pa-li-chiau . . . . 18 & 21 Sept. \n\nConsul Parkes, captains Anderson and Brabazon, \nMr. de Norman, Mr. Bowlby (the Times\' cor- \nrespondent), and 14 others (Europeans and \nSikhs), advance to Tung-chow, to arrange con- \nditions for a meeting of the ministers, and \nare captured by San-ko-lin-sin ; capt. Brabazon \nand abbe de Luc beheaded, and said to be \nthrown into the canal ; others carried into Pekin \n\n21 Sept. \n\nThe allies march towards Pekin ; the French ravage \nthe emperor\'s summer palace, 6 Oct. ; Mr. Parkes, \nMr. Loch, and others, restored alive, 8 Oct. ; capt. \nAnderson, Mr. De Norman, and others die of ill- \nusage 8-11 Oct. \n\nPekin invested ; surrenders, 12 Oct. ; severe pro- \nclamation of sir Hope Grant ... 15 Oct. \n\nThe bodies of Mr. De Norman and Mr. Bowlby \nsolemnly buried in the Russian cemetery, Pekin, \n17 Oct. ; the summer palace (Yuen-ming-yuen) \nburnt by the British, in memory of the outraged \nprisoners 18 Oct. \n\nConvention signed in Pekin by lord Elgin and the \nprince Kung, by which the treaty of Tien-tsin \nis ratified ; apology made for the attack at Pei-ho \n(25 June, 1859) ; a large indemnity to be paid im- \nmediately, and compensation in money given to \nthe families of the murdered prisoners, &c. ; Kow- \nloon ceded in exchange for Chusan, and the treaty \nand convention to be proclaimed throughout the \n\nempire 24 Oct. \n\nAllies quit Pekin 5 Nov. \n\nTreaty between Russia and China \xe2\x80\x94 the former ob- \ntaining free trade, territories, &e. . 14 Nov. \n\nFirst instalment of indemnity paid . . 30 Nov. \nPart of the allied troops settled at Tien-tsin ; con- \nsulate established 5 Jan. \n\nAdm. Hope examines Yang-tse-Kiang, &c. . Feb. \n\n\n\n1S57 \n\n\n\n* He died peacefully at Calcutta, 9 April, 1859. He is \nsaid to have ordered the beheading of about 100,000 \nrebels. \n\n\n\nCHINA. \n\n\n\n207 \n\n\n\nCHINA. \n\n\n\nEnglish and French embassies established at Pekin \n\nMarch, 1861 \nThe emperor Hienfung dies . . . . 21 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nCanton restored to the Chinese . . 21 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nMinisterial crisis ; several ministers put to death, \n\nNov. ; Kung appointed regent . . .13 Dec. ,, \nAdvance of the rebels ; they seize and desolate Ning- \n\npo and Hang-chow Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThey advance on Shang-hae, which is placed under \nprotection of the English and French, and fortified \n\nJan. 1862 \nRebels defeated in two engagements . . April, ,, \nEnglish and French assist the government against \n\nthe rebels \xe2\x80\x94 Ning-po re-taken . . 10 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nFrench admiral Protet killed in an attack on rebels \n\n17 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nCaptain Sherard Osborne permitted by the British \ngovernment to organise a small fleet of gunboats \nto aid the imperialists to establish order July, ,, \nimperialists gain ground, take Kah-sing, <fec. Oct. ,, \nTungani (Mahometan) revolt in Central Asia ; mas- \nsacre of Buddhists ,, \n\nCommercial treaty with Prussia ratified 14 Jan. 1863 \nThe imperialists under col. Charles Gordon defeat \n\nthe Taepings under Burgevine, <&c. . . Oct. ,, \nCordon captures Sow-chow (after a severe attack, \n27, 28 Nov.); the rebel chiefs treacherously \nbutchered by the Chinese . . . 4, 5 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nCapt. Osborne came to China ; but retired in conse- \nquence of the Chinese government departing from \n\nits engagements 31 Dec. ,, \n\nCordon\'s successes continue . . Jan. to April, 1864 \n\nRepulsed ; he takes Chang-chow-foo . 23 March, ,, \n\nHe takes Nankin (a heap of ruins) ; Hun-seu-tseun, \n\nthe Tien-wang, the rebel emperor, commits suicide \n\nby eating gold leaf, 30 June ; Chang- wang and \n\nKan-wang, the rebel generals, are " cut into a \n\nthousand pieces " 18 July, ,, \n\nGreat mortality among British troops at Kowloon \n\nJan. 1865 \nThe Taepings hold Ming-chow ; the Mahometan \nrebellion (Dounganes) progressing in Honan \n\nJan. -March, ,, \nTaepings evacuate Ming-chow . . 23 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nRebellion in the north advancing . . June, ,, \nA rebellion of the Nien-fei in the north ; Pekin in \n\ndanger July, ,, \n\nThe Chinese general San-ko-lin-sin defeated and \n\nslain ; his son more successful . . July, ,, \n\nPrince Kung chief of the regency again . 7 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nSir Rutherford Alcock, ambassador at Pekin, \n\n26 Nov. ,, \nChinese newspaper, " Messenger of the Flying \n\nDragon," appears in London . 14 Jan. 1866 \n\nGreat victory over the Nien-fei announced at Canton \n\n13 March, ,, \nChinese commissioners visit London . June, ,, \nRivalry of two great political chiefs in China, Li- \n\nhung-ching and Tsen-kwo-fan . . . July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nReported victory of the Nien-fei over the impe- \nrialists Dec. 1867 \n\nMahomed Yakoob Beg defeats the Tungaui, becomes \nsupreme in Kashgar, 1866 ; is recognised by \n\nEurope ,, \n\nThe rebels seize Ningpo .... Oct. 186S \nThe people at Yang-chow, incited by the "literati" \n(learned classes) destroy the Protestant mission- \nhouses, 22 Aug. ; redress not obtained ; a British \nsquadron proceeds to Nankin, 8 Nov. ; the vice- \nroy is superseded, and the British demands ac- \nceded to 14 Nov. ,, \n\nChinese embassy (Mr. Anson Burlinghame, Chin \nKang, and Sun Chia Su) received by president \nJohnson at Washington, 5 June ; they sign a \ntreaty (see Burlinghame), 4 July ; arrive in Lon- \ndon, Sept. ; received by the queen . 20 Nov. ,, \nChinese embassy received by the emperor at Paris, \n\n24 Jan. 1869 \nFekin visited by the duke of Edinburgh, incognito, \n\nOct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nSupplementary convention to the treaty of Tieu-tsin \n(June, 1858) for additional commercial freedom, \n\nsigned 24 Oct. ,, \n\nBurlinghame dies at St. Petersburg . 22 Feb. 1870 \nSuccessful rebellion of Mahometans in north-west \n\nprovinces reported May, ,, \n\nCruel massacre of the French consul at Tien-tsin, \nRoman Catholic priests, sisters of mercy (22 per- \n\n\n\nsons), besides many native converts, and above \n30 children in the orphanage, by a mob, with, it \nis said, the complicity of the authorities ; the \nmissionaries were accused of kidnapping children, \n\n21 June, 1870 \nIncreased hatred of the people to foreigners at Tien- \ntsin ; lukewarm proceedings of the government \nagainst the murderers .... July, \nMa, a viceroy of Nankin, favourable to Europeans\', \n\nassassinated about 22 Aug! \n\nChapels destroyed at Fatshan . . 21 Sept. \nThe French ultimatum refused ; the murderers of \nthe nuns unpunished ; Chinese warlike prepara- \ntions reported 2 6 Sept. \n\nJudicious mandate from the mandarin Tseng-kwo- \nfan, exculpating the missionaries, and condemn- \ning their massacre Oct. \n\n16 coolies beheaded, 15 Sept., and 23 exiled ; inl \ndemnity to the sufferers by the outrage ordered ; \n\nreported 2 6 Oct.\' \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nEnd of the difficulty announced . . 3 Nov. \n\nChung-How, an envoy, arrives in London Aug\'. 1871 \n\nMemorial addressed to the Chinese government by \n\nMr. Hart, inspector of customs, recommending \n\nchanges in civil and military administration^ \n\nautumn, ,, \nThe young emperor married . . .16 Oct. \nReceived at Paris ; apologizes for Tien-tsin massal \nores, and reports redress . . . .23 Nov. \n\nRussia annexes Kuldja \n\nWm. Armstrong Russell consecrated Anglican \n\nbishop of North China . . . . Dec. z.Znz \nThe emperor\'s majority; he assumes the govern- \nment 23 Feb. 1873 \n\nTalifoo capital of the insurgent Panthay Mahome- \ntans, captured ; thousauds massacred . Feb. \nForeign ministers for the first time received by the \' \n\nemperor 2g j uuej \n\nDispute with Japan, see Fmmosa, July-Aug \xe2\x96\xa0 \nsettled by treaty .... 3I Oct.\' 1874 \n\nThe Spark sails from Canton to Macao ; capt. Brady \nand Mr. Mundy, and a foreign crew and passen- \ngers ; pirates, who came on board secretly, kill \ncaptain and others, and carry off booty, while \non voyage ; the wounded crew manage to reach \nMacao ...... 22 Au\xc2\xb0-. \n\nDeath of the emperor .... I2 Jan. 187? \n\nProclamation of his successor, Tsai-tien, son of \nChun, 7th son of Taou-Twang (nephew of Kung), \n\n4 Feb! \xe2\x80\x9e \nExploring expedition under col. Horace Browne \nto open a passage from Burmah into S. W. China \nDec. 1874; Mr. Margary and 5 Chinese going \nbefore, killed at Manwyne, 21 Feb. ; col. Browne \nand his troops repulse an attack by Chinese, but \nretreat to Rangoon, 22 Feb. ; some of the party \n\nmissing 12 March, q \n\nThrough negotiation of Mr. Wade, the Chinese go- \nvernment promise due reparation; announced Sep. \nEdict permitting intercourse between chiefs of de- " \npartments and foreign ministers, about 4 Oct. \xe2\x96\xa0 \nenjoining proper treatment of foreigners, n Oct.\' \nTelegram from Mr. Wade : he has obtained necessary \' \nguarantees, satisfaction for the murder of Mr. Mar- \ngary, and concessions for foreign trade, 18 Oct. \nGen. Lee-see- ta-hee ordered for trial, ti Feb. ; Mar- " \n\ngary\'s murderers said to be executed, 5 May 1876 \n\nFirst railway in China, from Shang-hae to Oussooii \n(Woosung) (11 miles) ; trial trip, 16 March (at first \nopposed) ; publicly opened . . so June \n\nMr. Grosvenor and others sent to inquire respecting " \nthe murder of Mr. Margary arrive at the place \nand report the proposed punishment of the \n\nmurderers June \n\nChee-foo convention ; difficulties in the negotiations \' \nremoved (the government agree to compensation \nto Mr. Margary\'s family; removal of commercial \ngrievances ; opening of four ports ; proper official \nintercourse) ; said to be signed, 13 Sept. ; rati- \nfied . 17\' Sept. ., \n\nWar against the Tungani; Manas captured; great \nmassacre of rebels .... 6 Nov. \nAccredited Chinese envoy (Quo-ta-Zhan) lands at " \n\nSouthampton . . .21 Jan. 1877 \n\nDecree of equal rights to Chinese Christians, 1 Feb. \nDreadful famine in northern provinces \nFour more Chinese ports opened . , 1 April \n\n\n\nCHINA. \n\n\n\n208 \n\n\n\nCHINA. \n\n\n\nOpium smoking interdicted after 3 years ; an- \nnounced . . .... Aug. \n\nThe railway from Shang-liae bought to be stopped, \n31 Oct. ; resumed Dec. \n\nQuo-ta-Zhan (or Kuo-ta-Jen) first accredited minis- \nter at London ; Liu-ta-Jen at Berlin about Nov. \n\nYakoob Beg of Kashgaria totally defeated by the \nChinese general, Tso-tsung-tang ; is assassinated, \nMay ; Kashgar and other towns captured ; end \nof war Bee. \n\nThe Chinese minister\'s first grand evening reception \n\n19 June, \n\nDestruction of mission property at Wu-shih-shan \nby a fanatical mob, unrestrained by the mandarins \n\n30 Aug. \n\nFamine abating; 48,30s?. for relief collected in \nEngland . . . " . . . . Sept. \n\nThe Shang-hae railway plant removed to For- \nmosa \n\nChinese immigrants virtually excluded from Aus- \ntralia by a poll-tax \n\nRebellion in Kwang-si, announced . . Oct. \n\nChung-How, ambassador at St.Petersburg, demands \nthe surrender of Kuli Beg, a fugitive from Kash- \ngar, and restitution of the territory . Dec. \n\nRebellion in Hainan, in Canton province ; Li- \nYang-tsai, who invades Annam, claims the \nthrone by descent ; reported . . . Jan. \n\nMarquis Tsgng, the new Chinese ambassador, \narrives in London, 28 Feb. ; presents his cre- \ndentials to the queen ... 20 March, \n\nTreaty with Russia, who agrees to evacuate the \nKuldja territory, China to pay an indemnity \n\nabout June, \n\nLi-Yang-tsai, rebel chief, captured ; announced \n\n2 Dec. \n\nChung-How, the late Chinese ambassador at St. \nPetersburg, imprisoned and the treaty disavowed \n\nspring, \n\nChinese from Kashgar said to invade Russian \nterritory May, \n\nProspect of war ; col. Gordon goes to China from \nBombay June, \n\nLi-Hung-Chang, governor of metropolitan pro- \nvinces, fortifies approaches to the capital, June ; \nvisited by col. Gordon .... July, \n\nChung-How released ; proposed war with Russia \ngiven up ; announced . . . 15 July, \n\nThomas duke of Genoa sails up the Yang-tse-Kiang \nin an Italian vessel ". April, \n\nPeace with Russia, who makes concessions nego- \ntiated by marquis Tseng ; treaty signed 19 Aug. \n\nComplication with France respecting Tonquin (see \nTonquin) Sept. \n\nMr. Logan sentenced to seven years\' penal servi- \ntude for killing a coolie at Canton . . Sept. \n\nCanton greatly excited against foreigners . Oct. \n\nCorrespondence of France and China respecting Ton- \nquin published in the Times, both firm 29 Oct. \n\n"Warm reception of sir Henry Parkes as British \nambassador ....... Sept. \n\nChina issues a circular claiming Annam as a de- \npendency Nov. \n\nCoup d\'etat at Pekin effected by prince Chun, \nfather of the reigning emperor, who becomes \ndictator ; prince Kung, and the viceroy Li-Hung- \nChang, deposed . . . .11 April, et seq. \n\nThe marquis Tseng recalled from Paris, announced \n\n2 May, \n\nReplaced by Li-Fong-Pao . . about 8 May, \n\nTreaty with France, signed by capt. Fournier and \nLi-Hung-Chang, atTientsin ; French protectorate \nof Annam and Tonquin recognized ; three southern \nprovinces opened to commerce . . 11 May, \n\nThe Chinese break the treaty by attacking the \nFrench marching to occupy Langson (see Tonquin) \n\nThe French demand evacuation of the Tonquin \nfrontier forts, and 10,000,000?. indemnity . July, \n\nThe war party at Pekin oppose the empress and \nLi-Hung-Chang the viceroy . . . July, \n\nThe frontier towns to be surrendered, the indemnity \nrefused, announced . . . -3\xc2\xb0 Julv ! \n\nChina offers reduced indemnity . . . Aug. \n\nKelung in Formosa bombarded and forts destroyed \nby alleged treachery by adm. Lespes 5, 6 Aug. \n\nAdm. Courbet at Foochow . . .10 Aug. \n\nNegotiations at Shanghai .... Aug. \n\n\n\n1877 \n\n\n\n1879 \n\n\n\nFrance declines mediation of the powers ; France \nissues a circular to the powers . 17 Aug. \n\nIndemnity claimed by France, reduced to 3,200,000?. \n19 Aug. ; refused by China \n\nThe French ambassador, Semalle, leaves Pekin ; \nwar ensues 21 Aug. \n\nAdm. Courbet with his fleet sails up the Min river \nunattacked ; destroys the Chinese fleet with \nmuch slaughter, 23 Aug. ; bombards the arsenal \nat Foochow, and dismantles the forts ; destroys the \nforts and batteries, &c, at Mingan and Kinpai ; \nFrench killed, about 7 ; Chinese said to be about \n1000 26-28 Aug. \n\nLi-Hung-Chang deprived of his highest offices about \n\n28 Aug. \n\nChinese declaration of war, in a manifesto to the \npeople, announced .... 6 Sept. \n\nH.M. gun-boat Zephyr fired on by mistake, 6 Sept.; \nChinese apologise .... 18 Sept. \n\nChinese said to be defeated at Kinpai Pass, about \n\n16 Sept. \n\nEuropeans, at Shanghai and other places, protest \nagainst the war . ". . . . Sept. \n\nLi-Hung-Chang reappointed viceroy about 24 Sept. \n\nAdm. Courbet captures Kelung 1 Oct. ; adm. Lespes \nbombards Tamsui, 2 et seq. Oct. ; lands ; retires \n\n8 Oct. \n\nN. and W. Formosa blockaded . . 23 Oct. \n\nKelung occupied by French ; little resistance 8 Oct. \n\n1000 Chinese defeated near Tamsui, 2 Nov. ; re- \npulsed in attack on Kelung. announced 12 Nov. \n\nFruitless mediation of earl Granville with marquis \nTseng, announced .... 10 Dec. \n\nReported Chinese defeat near Kelung . .13 Dec. \n\nThe native press, originally official (Pekin Gazette, \nancient), becomes political and popular \n\nForeign Enlistment Act proclaimed at Hong Kong \n\n23 Jan. : \n\nFrench attack near Kelung, Chinese works carried \n\n25 Jan. \n\nChinese defeated with much loss . . 31 Jan. \n\nTwo Chinese junks sunk by French torpedoes, 15 Feb. \n\nBombardment of Chin-hae, at the mouth of the \nYung-Kiang river .... 2 March, \n\nSiege of Tuyen Quan, much slaughter 2-3 March, \n\nSeveral forts at Kelung captured \n\nSanguinary conflicts . . . 4-12 March, \n\nSir Henry Parkes, ambassador, dies . 22 March, \n\nPescadores Islands captured . . 30-31 March, \n\nPreliminaries of peace, through intervention of sir <\xe2\x96\xa0 \nRobt. Hart, signed at Pekin about 6 April ; treaty \nsigned 9 June ; ratified ... 28 Nov. \n\nSir Robert Hart, British ambassador, 23 June ; \nresigns about 31 Aug. \n\nFormosa evacuated about . - . -23 June, \n\nIntroduction of railways authorized \xe2\x80\x94 new policy \n\nabout Aug. \n\nDisputes with Japan settled ; reported . Aug. \n\nThe emperor agrees to receive a papal agent to \nprotect R. C. missionaries . . . July, \n\nDeath of Tso Tsung-Tang, a great statesman and \nguardian of the king .... 4 Sept. \n\nSir John Walsham British minister . 7 April, j \n\nLiu-shin-fun, ambassador for Great Britain, arrives \n\n28 April, \n\nM. Agliardi appointed Internuncio . 14 July, \n\nThe scheme suspended by the Pope through French \nopposition .... about 15 Sept. \n\nConvention with many concessions by the British \ngovernment respecting the Burmese frontiers \nand trade signed at Pekin ... 24 July, \n\nThe French consent to the transfer of the Pehtang \nCathedral from its contiguity with the palace \n\nNov. \n\nThe Chinese annul the French protectorate over \nall christians Nov. \n\nDecanville railway successfully opened 21 Noy. \n\nGeneral proclamations for protection of christian \nmissionaries and converts, excluding foreign \nprotection Jan. j \n\nRemarkable presents from the emperor to sir Halli- \nday Macartney, secretary of the British and other \nlegations (for good services to China) received in \nLondon Feb. \n\nThe emperor, aged 16, assumes the government \n\n7 Feb. \n\nConvention between Great Britain and China, \n\n\n\nCHINA. \n\n\n\n209 \n\n\n\nCHINA GRASS. \n\n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0respecting Burma!* and Thibet, signed 24 July, \nand ratiiied . . . . .25 Aug. \n\nChinese fleet of five ironclads (three constructed in \nBritain) at Spithead ; sail for China under \n.Admiral Lang with others lent by the Admiralty \n\nSept. \n\nCommercial treaty with France 1886 ; signed and \nratified ....... Aug. \n\nEeported convention of Li Hung-Chang, the viceroy, \nwith count Mitkiewicz and an American syndi- \ncate for introduction of railways, telegraphs, \ntelephones, &c, and a loan, Aug. ; repudiated by \nthe Chinese government .... Oct. \n\nOverflow of the Hoang Ho, or Yellow River, causing \nimmense destruction ; about 1500 populous \nvillages destroyed, and the important city \nChuhsien Chen narrowly escaped with loss of \nsuburbs; millionsof personssaid to have perished ; \nfamine imminent ; the government active in pro- \nviding relief Sept. -Oct. \n\nTreaty with United States to allow Chinese immigra- \ntion for 20 years with some exceptions (lawful \nmarriage and children, property worth 1000 \n\xe2\x80\xa2dollars, &e.) signed 14 March, 1888 ; China \nrefuses the ratification .... Sept. \n\nThe empress-mother announces her resignation \nof the administration of government, which is to \nbe assumed by the emperor . . 27 July, \n\nThe Chinese Exclusion Act vigorously carried out \nat San Francisco, and at other places middle Oct. \n\nRailway from Tientsin to Taku opened . Nov. \n\nConventions with Italy and Germany for them to \nprotect their missionaries . announced Dec. \n\nNew R.C. cathedral at Pekin consecrated . 8 Dec. \n\nGreat famine, in consequence of inundations of \nthe Yangtsze and Yellow River valleys announced \nJan. 1889 >\' relief money sent from London, above \n30,000^. (gratefully acknowledged) (see Mansion \nHouse Fund) ........ \n\nRiots at Chin-Kiang, the British consulate and \nforeigners\' houses burnt . . . 4, 5 Feb. \n\nMarriage of the Emperor . . . .25 Feb. \n\nHsieh Ta Jgn appointed minister for London, Paris, \nBrussels, and Rome, announced . 4 June, \n\nLuchow, in the province of Szechuen, destroyed by \nfire, about 1,200 persons perish . . 27 June, \n\nThe Yellow river bursts its banks at Shantung, and \ninundates the country, and countless lives are \nlost, reported 26 July, \n\nGreat inundations in North China through ty- \nphoons ; about 5,000 persons perish, reported \n\n30 Aug. \n\nThe Yellow river again burst its banks, causing \nmuch destruction about . . . .22 July, \n\nInsurrection in the province of Fuhkien ; sup- \npressed ; 100 insurgents killed ; announced 9 Sept. \n\nThe construction of a trunk railway from Pekin to \nHankow, 700 miles, proposed . . . Aug. \n\nThe project postponed through opposition, Dec. \n\nInsurrection in the Amour district of Manchuria ; \nreported success of the rebels ; they seize the \ntown Lan-pei-tuan ; imperialists defeated in \nbattles ; announced .... Dec. \n\nCollapse of a temple theatre at Hangting, near \nShantung ; about 250 persons killed . 13 Oct. \n\nImperial decree for reforms in the army and civil \nservices; promoted by the emperor, Jan. -Feb. \n\nConvention for the opening of the Chung-King to \ncommerce signed at Pekin . . .31 March \n\nDeath of the marquis Tseng, eminent statesman \n\n12 April, \n\nThe duke and duchess of Connaught honourably \nreceived in Canton and Shanghai . . May, \n\nGreat floods at Pekin, Tungchow and Tientsin ; \nbusiness stopped, 3 Aug. ; renewal of the Yellow \nriver inundations early Sept. ; also in the pro- \nvinces Shantung and Chihli ; great loss of life and \nprospect of famine reported ... 16 Oct. \n\nExplosion of the government powder magazine at \nCanton, killing many persons and destroying 200 \nhouses, 15 Aug. ; a similar explosion at Taiping- \nPu, 300 persons killed, reported . . 7 Nov. \n\nMassacre of many native Christians at Jong- \ntuytsin and other places by a fanatical society \nreported Dec. \n\nAn imperial decree, granting audience of the \nemperor to representatives of foreign powers \nissued r 12 Dec. \n\n\n\n1887 \n\n\n\nThe first audience 5 March 1891 \n\nDeath of prince Chun, father of the emperor, \nreported 2 Jan. ,, \n\nDisastrous floods in Shue-Chang, Wen-Chuan, and \nother districts, about 1,000 lives lost, early Feb. ,, \n\nAnti-European riots at Wuhu ; much destruction ; \nBritish consulate wrecked ; the consul and his \nwife escape ; quiet restored by force, 12, 13 May, ,, \n\nIncreased popular anti-foreign agitation throughout \nChina, June ; the diplomatic body appeal to the \ngovernment ; the emperor issues a decree for the \nprotection of foreigners and punishment of \naggressors about 15 June \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFrench church and orphanage at Woosieh destroyed \nby fire 9 June, ,, \n\nLoss of life and much destruction by the rising of \nthe Yang-tse-Kiang about . . .21 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nContinued persecution of foreigners ; the imperial \ndecree ineffectual ; the diplomatic body press the \ngovernment about 18 Aug. ,, \n\nThe Kolao Hui, a secret society, strongly opposed \nto foreigners and Christianity, active, summer, ,, \n\nThe American mission at Ishang destroyed, 11 Sept. ,, \n\nThe outrages against foreigners increase ; the diplo- \nmatic body report to their respective govern- \nments about 15 Sept. ,, \n\nGreat Britain, France, Germany and the United \nStates, N.A., unite for the common support of \ntheir people against Chinese violence, reported \n\n21 Sept. ,, \n\nCompensation paid to the sufferers in Wuhu by the \nviceroy about 23 Oct. ,, \n\nBritish squadron and other vessels at Nagasaki \nand other ports about. ... 23 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nA modus vivensli with the Chinese authorities \narranged by the European ministers, reported \n\n11 Nov. ,, \n\nInsurrection in Mongolia and N. China against \nforeigners and native Christians ; reported mas- \nsacres, Nov. ; suppressed by government troops \nafter battles, with much slaughter. 28, 29 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAgreement of the Hunan societies against Euro- \npeans, &c. , published at Shanghai about 7 Deo. ,, \n\nMemorials of the viceroys of Nanking and Hukuang \n(attributing the anti-foreign outrages to baseless \nrumours circulated by conspirators) issued Dec. ,, \n\nThe government pays indemnities amounting to \nioo,oooZ. to Christian missions and others, and \npunishes the Chinese officials and offenders, \nreported 27 Dec. ,, \n\nMr. Christopher Gardner, British consul, and Dr. \nGriffith John, missionary, assert that the anti- \nforeign outbreaks originated with the local man- \ndarins, aided by Chanhan, an eminent Hunan \nscholar and writer of offensive placards, &c, \nreported Dec. ,, \n\nThe rebels in the north, headed by Li Hung, \ndefeated by Yulu, reported . . .3 Jan. 1892 \n\nMr. Nicholas R. O\'Conor appointed British minister \nat Pekin about .... 4 March, ,, \n\nChanhan, the agitator, ordered to be arrested, 25 \nMarch ; not arrested ; the\' right of audience by \nthe emperor requested by the foreign ministers, \nrejected, early April, ,, \n\nCHINESE EMPERORS. \n\n1627. Chwang-lei. \n\n1643. Shun-che (first of the Tsing dynasty). \n\n1662. Kang-hi, an able sovereign ; consolidated, the \npire, compiled a great Chinese dictionary. \n\n1723. Yung-ching. \n\n1736. Keen-lung, warlike ; fond of art ; greatly embel- \nlished Pekin. \n\n1795. Kea-king. \n\n1820. Taou-Kwang. \n\n1850. Hieng-fung, 25 Feb. \n\n1861. Ki-tsiang (altered to Toung-chi) 21 Aug. ; born 27 \nApril, 1856 ; married 16 Oct. 1872 ; died 12 Jan. \n\n1875- \n1875. Tsai T\'ien (altered to Kwang Su), a^od 4. 12 Jan. \n[China was ruled by two empresses (Tsze An and Tsze \nChi), 1861-18S1 ; and\' by one (Tsze Chi), an able woman, \n1881-9.] \n1887. The emperor assumed the government, 7 Feb. \n\nCHINA GRASS, or Rhea; a prize of 5000/. \nwas offered by the Indian government for machinery \nto prepare and cleanse the fibre, 11 Jan. 1870. \n\n\n\nCHINA POECELAIN. \n\n\n\n210 \n\n\n\nCHOLEEA MOEBUS, \n\n\n\nMr. John Greig\'s machine was exhibited in Edin- \nburgh, Dec. 1871- \n\nCHINA POECELAIN, introduced into Eng- \nland about 153 1 ; see Pottery. \n\nCHINA EOSE, fee; The Rosa indica was \nbrought from China, and successfully planted in \nEngland, 1786; the Chinese apple-tree, or Pyrus \nspectabilis, about 1780. \n\nCHINCHA ISLES, see Pent, 1864-5. \nCHINCHONA, see Jesuits. \nCHINESE WALL, said to have been com- \npleted about 211 B.C. .Reported in 1879 to be 1728 \nmiles long, 18 feet wide, 15 feet thick at the top. \n\nCHINS and Lushais, savage tribes living in the \nmountainous region between Lower Bengal and \nUpper Burmah, of very primitive habits. \nFor their raids and chastisements, see Burmah, \n\n1889-92, and India, 1890-2. \nA conference of the authorities concerned at Cal- \ncutta, to consider the best means of keeping in \norder the Chins near Upper Burmah and the \nLushais near Assam and Bengal ; the transference \nof the southern Lushais from Bengal to Assam, \nrecommended Jan. 1892 \n\nCHIOS (now Scio), an isle in the Greek Archi- \npelago, revolted against Athens, 412 and .357 B.C. \nIt partook of the fortunes of Greece, being conquered \nby the Venetians, a.d. 1124 ; by the crusaders, 1204; \nby the Greek emperor, 1329 ; by the Genoese, 1346 ; \nand finally by the Turks in 1594. A dreadful mas- \nsacre of about 40,000 inhabitants by the Turks took \nplace n April, 1822, during the Greek insurrection. \nAbout 4000 perished by an earthquake ; the town \n\nOhio and many villages were destroyed, 3 April ; \n\nmany shocks since up to . 12 April, 1881 \n\nCHIPPAWA (N. America). Here the British \nunder Biall were defeated by the Americans under \nBrown, 5 July, 1814. The Americans were defeated \nby the British under Drummond and Biall, 2^ July \nfollowing ; Biall was wounded and taken prisoner. \n\nCHIEOPLAST, an apparatus for giving a \ncorrect position of the hands of pianoforte players ; \ninvented by J. B. Logier; patented, 1814. \n\nCHIVALEY arose out of the feudal system in \nthe latter part of the 8th century (chevalier, or \nknight, being derived from the caballarius, the \nequipped feudal tenant on horseback). From the \n12th to the 15th century it tended to refine manners. \nThe knight swore to accomplish the duties of his \nprofession, as the champion of God and the ladies, \nto speak the truth, to maintain the right, to protect \nthe distressed, to practise courtesy, to fulfil obliga- \ntions, and to vindicate in every perilous adventure \nhis honour and character. Chivalry expired with \nthe feudal system. See Knighthood and. Tourna- \nments. By letters patent of James I. the earl-mar- \nshal of England had "the like jurisdiction in the \ncourts of chivalry, when the office of lord high con- \nstable was vacant, as this latter and the marshal did \njointly exercise," 1623. \n\nCHLOEAL HYDEATE, a combination of \nchlorine and alcohol, discovered by Liebig, which, \nwhen inhaled, produces deep sleep, but not insen- \nsibility to pain. This property was discovered by \nOscar Liebreich, and reported to the French Aca- \ndemy of Sciences, 16 Aug. 1869. In Oct. 1874 it \nwas said to be sometimes deleterious. \n\nCHLOEALUM, or chloride of alumina, a com- \npound of chlorine and alumina, a new antiseptic \ndisinfectant, invented by Dr. Gamgee about 1870. \nIt is said to be safe and efficacious, and useful in \n.medicine for gargles, washing wounds, &c. \n\n\n\nCHLOEINE (Greek chloros, pale green), a gas \nfirst obtained by Scheelc in 1774, by treating man- \nganese with muriatic (hydrochloric) acid. Sir H. \nDavy, in 1810, stated this gas to be an element, and \nnamed it chlorine. Combined with sodium it forms- \ncommon salt (chloride of sodium), and combined* \nwith lime it forms the bleaching powder and disin- \nfectant, chloride of lime ; see Pleaching. In 1823, \nFaraday condensed chlorine into a liquid. \nThe supposed dissociation of oxygen from chlorine by \n\nheat by V. and H. Meyer of Zari\'eh, -was announced! \n\nAug. 1879. Afterwards chlorine was proved to exist \n\nin two similar states at high temperatures. \n\nCHLOEOFOEM (the ter-chloride of the hypo- \nthetical radical formyl) is a compound of carbon, \nhydrogen, and chlorine, and was made from alcohol,. \nAvater, and bleaching powder. It was discovered by \nSoubeiran in 1831, and independently by Liebig; \nin 1832 ; and its composition was determined by \nDumas in 1834. The term " chloric ether" was- \napplied in 1820 to a mixture of ehlorine and; \nolefiant gas. Chloroform was first applied as an, \nanaesthetic experimentally by Mr. Jacob Bell in \nLondon, in Feb., and Dr. Simpson of Edinburgh in. \nNov. 1847; an d was administered in England on 14. \nDec. 1848, by Mr. James Robinson, surgeon-dentist.. \nA committee of the Boyal Medical and ChirurgicaL \nSociety in July, 1864, after examining statistics,. \nreported that the use of anaesthetics had hi no degree- \nincreased the rate of mortality. \nBy the invitation of the Nizam through the Lancet,, \nDr. Lauder Brnnton arrived at Hyderabad, 21. \nOct., 1889 ; and there with other medical men \ninvestigated experimentally on the peculiar- \naction -of chloroform. They came to the con- \nclusion that the danger of its use, was not \nspecially due 10 its effect upon the heart, hut \nupon respiration, which could be easily obviated \nby proper caution. The Nizam remitted 1,000?. \nfor the expenses of the commission. Lancet \n\nJan. March, 189c* \nFull report issued (estimated cost io,oooZ.) Dec. 189E \n\nCHLOEOZONE, a new disinfectant, intro- \nduced 1873. \n\nCHOBHAM COMMON, in Surrey. A mili- \ntary camp was formed here on 14 June, 1853,\' by \na force between 8000 and 10,000 strong. Only one \nserious case of misconduct was reported during all \nthe time. \n\nCHOCOLATE, made of the cocoa berry, intro- \nduced into Europe (from Mexico and the Brazils) \nabout 1520, was sold in the London coffee-houses \nsoon after their establishment, 1650. \n\nCHOCZIM, Bessarabia, S. Bussia. Here th& \nTurks were totally defeated by John Sobieski, king \nof Poland, 11 Nov. 1673; and by the Bussians, 30 \nApril and 13 July, 1769. \n\nCHOIE. This was separated from the nave of \nthe church in the time of Constantine. The choral \nservice was first used in England at Canterbury,, \n677 ; see Chanting. \n\nCHOLEEA MOEBUS (Asiatic cholera) was \ndescribed by Garcia del Huerto, a physician of Goa, \nabout 1560. It appeared in India in 1774, an< ^ a ^ \nother times, and became endemic in Lower Bengal \nin 181 7, whence it gradually spread, till it reached \nBussia hi 1830, and Germany in 1831, carrying off" \nmore than 900,000 persons in 1829-30. In England \nand Wales in 1848-9, 53,293 persons died of cholera, \nand in 1854, 20,097; see Germ Theory of Disease.* \nCholera appears at Sunderland . . 26 Oct. 1831 \n\n* Dr. Ferran inoculates by microbes many persons; \nreported successful ; stopped June ; permitted 23 June ; \na commission reports it unsatisfactory, Oct. 1885. \n\n\n\nCHOLEEA MOEBUS. \n\n\n\n211 \n\n\n\nCHEIST\'S HOSPITAL. \n\n\n\nAnd at Edinburgh . . . . 6 Feb. \n\nFirst observed at Rotherhithe and Limehouse, \nLondon, 13 Feb. ; and in Dublin . 3 March, \n\nDeaths reported in England in 1S31-2, 52,547 \n\nMortality very great, but more so on the Continent ; \n18,000 deaths at Paris, between March and Aug. \n\nCholera rages in Rome, the Two Sicilies, Genoa, \nBerlin, &c, in .... July and Aug. \n\n24,014 deaths in Palermo in 17 weeks \n\nAnother visitation of cholera in England : the num- \nber of deaths in London, for the week ending 15 \nSept. i849,was3,i83 ; the ordinary average, 1,008 ; \nand the number of deaths by cholera from 17 \nJune to 2 Oct. in London aloneT 13,161. The \nmortality lessened and the distemper disappeared \nabout 13 Oct. \n\nNewcastle-upon-Tyne, Hexham, Tynemouth, and \nother northern towns, suffer much from cholera, \n\nSept. \n\nIt rages in Italy and Sicily ; above 10,000 are said \nto have died at Naples ; it was also very fatal to \nthe allied troopjs at Varna . autumn, \n\nCholera very severe for a short time in the southern \nparts of London, and in Soho and St. James\'s, \nWestminster .... Aug. and Sept. \n\nRaging in Alexandria, June ; abated . July, \n\nPrevailing in Ancona (843 deaths) Aug., subsiding, \n\nSept. \n\nVery severe in Constantinople, nearly 50,000 deaths, \nAug. ; subsides after the great fire . 6 Sept. \n\nCases at Marseilles, Toulon, and Southampton, \n\nend of Sept. \n\nCholera prevalent at Marseilles, Paris, Madrid, and \nNaples July-Oct. \n\nAn international meeting at Constantinople, to con- \nsider preventive measures, proposed, Oct. 1865, \nmet 18 Feb. 1866. At the last sitting the conclu- \nsions adopted were that cholera may be propa- \ngated, and from great distances ; and a num- \nber of preventive measures were recommended, \n\n26 Sept. \n\nCholera appears at Bristol, 24 April ; at Liverpool, \n13 May ; at Southampton . . . July, \n\nCholera severe in east of London : 346 deaths in \nweek ending 21 July, \n\nHouse to house visitation ; Metropolitan Relief \nAssociation formed ; large subscriptions received \n(Queen\'s 500?. ) . . July and Aug. \n\nCholera subsides .... . Sept. \n\nVery severe at Naples .... Sept. \n\nCholera Relief Committee closes . . 31 Oct. \n\nCholera declared to be extinct in London 1 Dec. \n\nCholera in Rome, Naples, and Sicily, Aug. -Sept. ; \nin Switzerland Oct. \n\nAlarm of approaching cholera, July ; said to be \nsevere in Konigsberg in Prussia . . Aug. \n\nCholera severe in Vienna, Aug. ; Paris . . Sept. \n\nEgypt, at Damietta, June ; at Cairo about 16 July ; \nAlexandria about 1 Aug. ; the disease abating, \nAug. ; deaths up to 31 Aug. \xe2\x80\x94 27,318, including \n140 among British troops ; cholera lingering at \nAlexandria, Sept. et seq. ; no cases . 31 Dec. \n\nFrance, June ; registered deaths : Toulon, 880, \n18 June \xe2\x80\x94 26 Oct. ; Marseilles, 1700, 27 June \xe2\x80\x94 26 \nOct. ; estimated total deaths in Paris, nearly 900, \nSept. \xe2\x80\x94 Nov. ; the disease appeared at Aries, \nNantes, Yport, and other places ; total deaths in \nFrance estimated 5000 up to . 15 Sept. \n\nItaly. Cholera severe at Turin, 7 Aug. ; spread- \ning 19 Aug., increasing at Spezzia, <fec, 23, \n24 Aug., and at Naples and Turin 2 Sept. ; very \nmany deaths at Genoa 24 Sept. \xe2\x80\x94 8 Oct. ; very \nsevere at Naples (visited by the king) 2 Sept. \xe2\x80\x94 \n2 Nov. \n\nSpain, 1884. Cholera appears in Alicante 1 Sept. \net seq. ; much panic : at Toledo, Madrid, and other \nplaces Sept., Oct \n\nSpain (Grenada, Malaga, Valencia, Murcia, &c), \n91,000 deaths (99S in Madrid) . May to 11 Sept. \n\nOfficial returns for all Spain, 12,337 deaths, March \nto 7 July \n\nTotal since outbreak 61,521 . . . 22 Aug. \n\nGibraltar, 191 deaths in .... Sept. \n\nPalermo, Sicily, 2,540 deaths . 7 Sept. to 31 Oct. \n\nMarseilles, 1,250 deaths, 1 Aug. to 1 Sept. ; gradually \n\ndiminished up to .... 16 Sept. \n\nToulon, slight outbreak, 6 deaths 20 Aug. ; 32, 26 \n\nAug. ; gradually diminished till . . 18 Sept. \n\n\n\n1S37 \n\n\n\n1849 \n1853 \n1854 \n\n1865 \n\n\n\nItaly, 1886, Brindisi province, 4 \xe2\x80\x94 31 July : Venice, \na few deaths, May-Aug. ; Ravenna, about 178 \ndeaths, Aug., Hume, about 55 deaths, July ; \nBologna, about 95 deaths, Aug. ; liarletta, total \n\nabout 611 deaths Aug. 1886 \n\nJapan. 37,000 deaths . . . Jan. -Sept. ,, \nHungary, principally Pesth and Szegedin. 966 \n\neases; 409 deaths .... Oct.-Dec. ,, \nTrieste. 882 cases, 544 deaths . . 7 June-Oct. ,, \nIstria. 671 cases, 374 deaths . . 13 July-Oct. ,, \nNaples, Brindisi, \xc2\xa3c. Temporary outbreak . Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nGreat epidemic of cholera in India 1887 ; N.W. \n\nProvinces, 30,780 deaths in Aug. 1887 \n\nSicily, provinces, July-Oct. 1887 ; deaths daily \n\nvaried from 1 to 27. \nMessina. Deaths daily rose from 1 to 63 ; Sept. \xe2\x80\x94 Oct. ,, \nPalermo, Sept. Deaths daily varied from 2 to 11 ; \n\nSept , \n\nMalta. Deaths daily varied from 4 to 10, Aug.-Sept. ,, \nCholera in Mesopotamia, 5,983 cases in autumn, \n1889 ; 3,000 fatal cases in Bussorah, reported 21 \nJan. ; it passed off in the spring, but returned iu \n\nJuly, Aug. 1890 \nCholera severe at Mecca, &c. (about 30,000 deaths), \n\nArabia, July- Aug. ; at Jeddah and in Syria, Aug. ,, \nCholera appears at Riebla de Rugal, a village in \nValentia, Spain, 13 May ; continues in the pro- \nvince and neighbourhood ; 2,840 deaths reported \n\nup to Sept. ,, \n\nCholera severe at Guatemala, S.A., 1,200 deaths in \n\nseven weeks . . . reported 14 Dec. ,, \n\nThe progress of cholera greatly checked by the \nexertions of the International Quarantine board \n\nat Tor in Egypt autumn, 1891 \n\nCholera severe at Damascus, Aleppo, &c.,in Syria ; \nat Mecca (about 11,000 deaths), Oct. et seq., 1891 ; \nat Benares, 130 deaths up to . . 23 April, 1892 \n\nCHOEAL HAEMONISTS\' SOCIETY, \n\nLoudon, existed 1833-51. \n\nCHOEUS, a band of singers which formed an \nimportant part of the Greek dramas, beginning in \nthe 6th century B.C., and has been continued in \nmodern oratorios and operas. \n\nCHOT7ANS, a name given to the Bretons \nduring the war of La Vendee in 1792, from their \nchief Jean Cottereau, using the cry of the Chat- \nhuant, or screech-owl, as a signal. He was killed \nin 1794. Georges Cadoudal, their last chief, was \nsaid to be connected with Pichegru in a conspiracy \nagainst Napoleon when first consul, and was executed \nin 1804. \n\nCHEISM, consecrated oil, was used early iu the \nceremonies of the Greek and Soman churches. \nMusk, saffron, cinnamon, roses, and frankincense, \nare mentioned as used with the oil, in 1541. It was \nordained that chrism should consist of oil and \nbalsam only ; the one representing the human \nnature of Christ, and the other his divine nature, \n1596. \n\nCHEIST, see Jesus Christ. \n\nCHEIST CHTJECH, see Lincoln Tower and \nNew Zealand. \n\nCHEIST\'S HOSPITAL (the Blue-Coat \nschool) was established in conformity with a grant \nmade by Henry VIII. in 1547, by Edward VI. 1553, \non the site of the Grey Friars\' monastery. A mathe- \nmatical ward was founded by Charles II. 1672. The \nTimes ward was founded in 1841 . Large portions of \nthe edifice having fallen intodecay, it was rebuilt : in \n1822 a new infirmary was completed, and in 1825 \n(25 April) the duke of York laid the first stone of \nthe magnificent new hall. On 24 Sept. 1854, the \nmastei-, Dr. Jacob, in a sermon in the church of the \nhospital, censured the system of education and the \ngeneral administration of the establishment, and \nman y improvements have since been made. Rev. G. \nC. Bell, successor of Dr. Jacob, 12 Aug. 186S-1876. \nThe subordinate school at Hertford, for 416 younger \n\nP 2 \' \n\n\n\nCHEISTIAN BEOTHEES. \n\n\n\n212 \n\n\n\nCHEISTMAS ISLAND. \n\n\n\nboys and 80 girls, was founded in 1683. \xe2\x80\x94 The annual \nincome varies : (1885) about 62,000*!. 800 boys in Lon- \ndon ; 200 boys and 20 girls at Hertford. The removal \nof the school to the country negatived by the \ngovernors, 26 April, 1870. The proposal that the \nbuildings and ground should be purchased by the \nMid- London Railway Company for 600,000/. was \nnot carried out. The Charity Commissioners\' \nscheme for the reformed administration of the hos- \npital published in the Times, 9 March, 1885. \nThe appeal of the governors against the charity \n\ncommissioners\' scheme, was submitted to the \n\njudicial committee of the privy council, iS Juue; \n\nthe appeal was disallowed ... 14 Dec. 1889 \nRoyal assent to the new scheme given 15 Aug. 1890 \n\nThe new governing body, the duke of Cambridge \n\npresident, first met, 1 Jan., 1891, when the \n\nscheme came into operation. \n\nCHEISTIAN BEOTHEES, an organised \nsecret society which existed in London, 1525, for \nthe distribution of English New Testaments and \ntracts. It mainly consisted of the middle and lower \nclasses, and produced martyrs. \n\nCHEISTIAN COMMUNITY, founded \nabout 1685, re-organized by John "Wesle}\' and \nothers in 1772, for visiting and preaching the gospel \nin workhouses, asylums, rooms, &c, and in the open \nair ; and for distribution of tracts. \n\nCHEISTIAN Era, see Anno Domini. Most \nChristian King ; Christianissimus Hex, a title \nconferred by pope Paul II. in 1469 on the crafty \nLouis XL of France. \n\nCHEISTIAN EVIDENCE SOCIETY \n\nestablished by eail Russell, the bishop of London, \nand others to counteract " the current forms of un- \nbelief among the educated classes," 1870. Lectures \nfor this purpose were given in St. George\'s Hall in \n187 1, beginning with the archbishop of York, 25 \nApril. A public meeting was held 6 June following. \nSix volumes of lectures and tracts for circulation \nhave been published. Annual meetings are held. \n\nCHEISTIAN KNOWLEDGE, Society \nfor Promoting, founded 1698, to promote \n\ncharity schools, and to disperse Bibles and religious \ntracts. 1877 : income, for charitable purposes (in- \ncluding legacies of 16,000/.), 52,581/.; 1892: \n41,000! Bibles, &c, given away; churches and \nschools helped ; bishoprics maintained, etc. \nOffices removed fiom Lincoln\'s Inn-Fields to Northum- \nberland Avenue, opened 3 Nov. 1879. \n\nCHEISTIAN MISSION, see Salvation \nArmy. \n\nCHEISTIAN SCIENTISTS, see Mind- \ncure. \n\nCHEISTIAN UNITY, Association for \n\nTHE PROMOTION OF, on the basis of the three \ncreeds, formed by thirty members of the Greek, \nRoman, and English Churches, 8 Sept. 1857 ; 20th \nanniversary kept in London, 8 Sept. 1877. A meet- \ning to promote the reunion of Christendom was held \nin London, 19 July, 1878, the bishop of Fredericton \nin the chair. \n\nCHEISTIANIA, the capital of Norway, built \nin 1624, by Christian IV. of Denmark, to "replace \nOpslo (the ancient capital founded by Harold Haard- \nrade, 1058), which had been destroyed by fire. On \n13 April, 1858, Christiania suffered by fire, the loss \nbeing about 250,000/. The university was established \nin 181 1. New Storthing (parliament house) built \n1861-2. Statue of Charles John XIV. unveiled, 7 \nSept. 1875. Population, 1891, 150,444. \nVisit of the German emperor . 1 July et seq. 1890 \n\n\n\nCHEISTIANITY. The name Christian was \nfirst given to the disciples of Christ at Antioch, in \nSyria, 43 (Acts xi. 26 ; 1 Peter iv. 6) . The first \nChristians were divided into episcopoi (bishops or \noverseers) or presbyteroi (elders), diaconoi (ministers \nor deacons), and pistoi (believers) ; afterwards were \nadded catechumens, or learners, and energumens, who \nwere to be exorcised ; see Persecutions. \n\nChristianity preached in Jerusalem, a.d. 33 ; Sa- \nmaria, 34 ; Damascus, 35 ; Asia Minor, 41 ; Cyprus, \n45 ; Macedonia, 53 ; Athens, Corinth, &c, 54 ; \nEphesus, 56 ; Troas, &c, 60 ; Rome ... 63 \nChristianity said to be taught in Britain, about \n\n64: and propagated with some success (Bede) . . 156 \nChristianity said to be introduced into Scotland in \n\nthe reign of Donald I. about 212 \n\nConstantine the Great professes the Christian \n\nreligion . . . . 312 \n\nFrumentius preaches in Abyssinia . . about 346 \nIntroduced among the Goths by Ulfilas . . . 376 \nInto Ireland in the second century, but with more \n\nsuccess after the arrival of St. Patrick . . . 432 \nChristianity established in France by Clovis . . 496 \nConversion of the Saxons* by Augustin . . . 597 \nIntroduced into Helvetia, by Irish missionaries . 643 \nInto Flanders in the 7th century. \nInto Saxony, by Charlemagne ..... 785 \n\nInto Denmark, under Harold 827 \n\nInto Bohemia, under Borsivoi 894 \n\nInto Russia, by Swiatoslaf .... about 940 \n\nInto Poland, under Meicislaiis 1 992 \n\nInto Hungary, under Geisa 994 \n\nInto Norway and Iceland, under Olaf I. . . . 998 \nInto Sweden, between 10th and nth centuries. \nInto Prussia, by the Teutonic knights, when they \n\nwere returning from the holy wars . . . 1227 \nInto Lithuania ; paganism was abolished about . . 1386 \nInto Guinea, Angola, and Congo, in the 15th \n\ncentury. \nInto China, where it made some progress (but was \nafterwards extirpated, and thousands of Chinese \nChristians were put to death) .... 1575 \nInto India and America, in the 16th century. \nInto Japan, by Xavier and the Jesuits, 1549; but \n\nthe Christians were exterminated . . . . 1638 \nChristianity re-established in Greece . . . 1628 \n\nCHEISTINOS, supporters of the queen-regent \nChristina against the Carlists in Spain during the \nwar, 1833-40. \n\nCHEISTMAS, a festival in commemoration of \nthe nativity of Christ, the exact time of which is \nquite unknown. Its observation appears to have \nbegun in the second century in different months, \nJanuary, April or May; for two or three centuries \nthe Eastern church kept the feast Jan. 6 (see Epi- \nphany), whilst the Latin church observed it 25 Dec. \nThe Armenians celebrate both feasts on 18 Jan. \nThe holly and mistletoe used at Christmas are said \nto be the remains of the religious observances of the \nDruids ; see Anno Domini. \n\nChristmas Cards. \xe2\x80\x94 About 1862 pictures of robins, holly, \n&c, on cards, designed by Mr. John Leighton, were \nissued by Messrs. Goodall of London, playing-card \nmakers. Artistic designs were introduced in 1865. \nGreat improvements were made in Germany, France, \nand in London by Messrs. de la Rue, Marcus Ward, and \nothers, 1879-88. \n\nCHEISTMAS ISLAND, in the Pacific Ocean, \nso named by captain Cook, who landed here 011 \nChristmas-day, 1777. He had passed Christmas- \nday at Christmas-sound, 1774. On the shore of \nChristmas Harbour, visited by him in 1776, a man \nfound a piece of parchment inscribed: " Ludovico \nX V. Galliarum rege, et d. Boynes regi a secretis ad \nres maritimas, annis 1772 et 1773." On the other \nside captain Cook wrote : " Naves Resolution et \nDiscovery de rege Magna Britannia, Dec. 1777," \nand placed it in a bottle. \nAnnexed to the Straits Settlements . . Jan. 1880 \n\n\n\nCHRISTOPHER\'S, ST. \n\n\n\n213 \n\n\n\nCHURCH OF ENGLAND. \n\n\n\nCHRISTOPHER\'S, St. (or St. Kitt\'s), a West \nIndia Island, discovered in 1493, by Columbus, who \ngave it his own name. Settled by the English and \nFrench, 1623 or 1626. Ceded to England by the \npeace of Utrecht, 1713. Taken by the French \nin 1782, but restored the next year. The town of \nBasseterre suffered from fires, 3 Sept. 1776; also \n3 and 4 July, 1867, when the cathedral and nearly \nall the town were destroyed. About 200 lives lost \nby inundations, 11, 12 Jan. 1880 ; hurricane, violent \nrains, &c. Population in 1891, 47,662. \n\nCHROMIUM (Greek, chroma, colour), a rare \nmetal, discovered by Vauquelin in 1797. It is found \ncombined with iron and lead, and forms the colour- \ning matter of the emerald. \n\n. CHROMO-LITHOGRAPHY, see Printing \nin Colours. \n\nCHRONICLES. The earliest are those of the \nJews, Chinese, and Hindoos. In Scripture there \nare two "Books of Chronicles" ; see Bible. Col- \nlections of the British chronicles have been pub- \nlished by Camden, Gale, &c, since 1602 ; in the \npresent century by the English Historical Society, \n&c. In 1858, the publication of "Chronicles and \nMemorials of Great Britain and Ireland during the \nMiddle Ages," commenced under the direction of \nthe Master of the Rolls (still going on, 1S89). \nIn 184? Macray\'s " Manual of British Historians" \nwas published. \n\nCHRONOGRAM, an inscription on tombs, \nbuildings, medals, &c. in which a date or epoch is \nexpressed by letters. A large collection of " Chro- \nnograms," with translations and explanations, was \npublished by Mr. James Hilton in 1882-5. \n\nCHRONOLOGY, the science of time ; see Eras \nand Epochs. Valuable works on the subject are V Art \nde Verifier les Dates, compiled by the Benedictines \n(1783-1820). Playfair\'s Chronology, 1784; Blair\'s \nChronology, 1753 (new editions by sir H. Ellis in 1844, \nand by Mr. Rosse, in 1856). The Oxford Chrono- \nlogical Tables, 1838. Sir Harris Nicolas\' Chronology \nof History, 1833 ; new edition, 1852. Hales\' Chron- \nology, 2nd edition, 1830 ; Woodward and Cates\' Ency- \nclopaedia of Chronology, 1872; Mr. H. Fynes-Clin- \nton\'s Fasti Hellenici and Fasti Romani (1824-50). \n\nCHRONOMETER, see Clocks, and Harrison. \n\nCHRONOSCOPE, an apparatus invented by \nprofessor Wheatstone in 1840, to measure small \nintervals of time. It has been applied to the velocity \nof projectiles and of the electric current. A chrono- \nscope was invented by Pouillet, in 1844, and by \nothers since. Capt. Andrew Noble (engaged by sir \nWilliam Armstrong) invented an apparatus for \ndetermining the velocity of a projectile in a gun ; \na second of time is divided into millionths, and the \nelectric spark is employed in recording the rate of the \npassage. The apparatus was exhibited at Newcastle- \non-Tyne in Aug. 1869, and in London in April, 1870. \n\nCHRYSANTHEMUMS were introduced \ninto England from China, about 1790; and many \nvarieties since. Centenary celebrated in London, \nII Nov. 1890. \n\nCHRYSOPOLIS, or Scutari {which see). \n\nCHUNAR, or Chtjnarghuk, N.W. India, \ntaken by the British, 1763, and ceded to them, 1768. \nHere was concluded a treaty between the nabob of \nOude and governor Hastings, by which the nabob \nwas relieved of his debts to the East India Company, \non condition of bis seizing the properly of the be- \ngums, his mother and grandmother, and delivering \nit up to the English, 19 Sept. 1781. This treaty \nenabled the nabob to take the lands of Fyzoola Khan, \n\n\n\na Rohilla chief, who had settled at Ilampoor, under \nguarantee of the English. The nabob presented to \nMr. Hastings 100,000^. ; see Hastings. \n\nCHURCH (probably derived from the Greek \nkyriakos, pertaining to the Lord, Kyrios), signifies \nboth a collected body of Christians, and the place \nwhere they meet. In the New Testament, it sig- \nnifies " congregation," in the original ekklesia. \nChristian architecture commenced with Constantine, \nwho erected at Pome churches called basilicas (from \nthe Greek basileus, a king) ; St. Peter\'s about 330. \nHis successors erected others, and adopted the \nheathen temples as places of worship. Several very \nancient churches exist in Britain and Ireland. See \nArchitecture ; Choir and Chanting ; Rome, Modern ; \nPopes. \n\nCHURCH AND STAGE GUILD, was \n\nformed in 1880 to promote morality and temperance \nby the agency of theatrical performances. \n\nCHURCH ARMY, constituted in 1882. \nFounder, Bev. W Carlyle. It is a working-man\'s \nmission to working-men, and includes evangelists\' \nand nurses training homes, and labour homes for \ntramps and inebriates. Above 13,000^. expended \nin 1891. Head-quarters, Edgware Road, Lon- \ndon, W. \n\nCHURCH ASSOCIATION, founded to \nmaintain Reformation principles, 1865. Frequent \nmeetings are held in London and the provinces. \n\nCHURCH BUILDING. The society for \npromoting the enlargement, building, and repairing \nof churches and chapels, was established 1818, and \nincorporated 1828. A commission for building \nchurches in populous places, appointed in 1820, was \nincorporated with the ecclesiastical commission \nabout 1856. \n\n. CHURCH CONGRESSES, meet annually, \nsince 1861. See under Church of England. \n\nCHURCH DEFENCE INSTITUTION; \n\nfounded in 1859 \xe2\x80\x94 the archbishop of Canterbury pre- \nsident. It does not meddle with doctrines. \nThe Oxford Laymen\'s League for defence of the \nnational church founded Aug. 18S6. Lord Sel- \nborne\'s "Defence of the Church of England \nagainst Disestablishment " published . 1 Dec. 1886 \n\nCHURCH DISCIPLINE ACT (3 & 4 \n\nVict. c. 86), passed 7 Aug. 1840, enables bishops to \nissue commissions of inquiry, and on conviction to \ninhibit clergymen from performing service, &c. \nA new bill brought in by the archbishop of Can- \nterbury, read second time . . 15 March, 1888 \n\nCHURCH of England.* The earliest \n\nhistory is legendary. See Bishops. The following \nare leading facts in her history : for details, refer \nto separate articles ; see Clergy and Free Church. \nIn Sept. 1880 the archbishop of Canterbury said \nthat he was in communion with 162 bishops. \nChristianity probably introduced into Britain by \n\nGaulish missionaries, and bishroprics founded \n\nin the 3rd and 4th centuries. \n\n\n\n* The church consists of three orders of clergy \xe2\x80\x94 bishops, \npriests and deacons ; 1892; two archbishops, thirty-two \nbishops, with thirteen suffragans, and about eighty-one \ncolonial and missionary bishops. The other dignitaries \nare chancellors, deans (of cathedrals and collegiate \nchurches), archdeacons, prebendaries, canons, minor \ncanons, and priest-vicars. In tSSG. tin\' number <\xc2\xbbi eei ], \nsia.stical parishes or districts with churches or chapels \nwas about 1400. Total revenue of the church, ancieul \nendowments, 5,469,171/. ; through private bountj (sine* \n1703), 284,336/. Estimated total revenue 01 the church \n7,250,000/., 1891. Benefices about 14,250\'., reported 1891 \n\n\n\nCHUECH OF ENGLAND. \n\n\n\n214 \n\n\n\nCHUECH OF ENGLAND. \n\n\n\n1 539 \n1549 \n\n\n\nI5S2 \n\n\n\nEestitutus, bishop of London, and Adelfius of \nCaerleon, said to have been present at the \ncouncil of Aries 314 \n\nRise and spread of the Pelagian heresy, 400 et seq. \n\nThe persecutions of the Saxon invaders, drive \nthe Christians into Wales and Cornwall \n\n5th and 6th centuries \n\nThe Saxons converted by Augustin and his com- \npanions 597 et seq. \n\nDuustan establishes the supremacy of the monastic \norders, about 960 \n\nThe aggrandising policy of the Church, fostered by \nEdward the Confessor, checked by William I. and \nhis successors 1066 et seq. \n\nContest between Henry II. and Becket respecting \n" Constitutions of Clarendon " . . . 1164-1170 \n\nContest between national or English party and \nRoman party (chiefly Norman) nth and. 12th centuries \n\nJohn surrenders his crown to the papal legate . 1213 \n\nRise of the Lollards \xe2\x80\x94 Wickliffe publishes tracts \nagainst the errors of the church of Rome, 1356 ; \nand a version of the Bible, about . . . . 1383 \n\nThe clergy regulated by parliament, 1529 ; they lose \nthe first fruits 1534 \n\nThe royal supremacy imposed on the clergy by \nHenry VIII., 1531 ; many suffer death for refusing \nto acknowledge it 1535 \n\nCoverdale\'s translation of the Bible commanded to \nbe read in churches , \n\n"" Six Articles of Religion " promulgated . . . \n\nFirst Book of Common Prayer issued \n\nThe clergy permitted to marry \n\n" Forty-two Articles of Religion " issued \n\nRestoration of the Roman forms, and fierce perse- \ncution of the Protestants by Mary . . . 1553-8 \n\nThe Protestant forms restored by Elizabeth ; the \nPuritan dissensions begin .... 1558-1603 \n\n" Thirty-nine " Articles published . . . . 1563 \n\nHampton Court conference with the Puritans . . 1604 \n\nNew translation of the Bible published . . . 161 1 \n\nBook of Common Prayer suppressed and Directory \nestablished by parliament 1644 \n\nPresbyterians established by the Commonwealth . 164Q \n\nAct of Uniformity (14 Chas. II. c. 4) passed \xe2\x80\x94 2000 \nnonconforming ministers resign their livings \n\nAttempts of James II. to revive Romanism; "De- \nclaration of Indulgence " published . . . . \n\nAcquittal of the seven bishops on a charge of \n" seditious libel " \n\nComprehension bill for dissenters introduced \n\nThe Non-juring bishops and others deprived ; (they \nformed a separate communion) . . 1 Feb. \n\n"Queen Anne\'s Bounty," for the augmentation of \npoor livings \n\nAct for building 50 new churches passed . . \n\nFierce disputes between the low church and the \nhigh church ; trial of Henry Sacheverell, for \nseditious sermons ; riots \n\nThe Bangorian controversy begins . . . . \n\nJohn Wesley and George Whitefield commence \npreaching ........ \n\nRise of the Evangelical party in the church, under \nNewton, Romaine, and others, latter part of \n\n1 8th century \n\nChurch of England united with that of Ireland at \nthe Union 1800 \n\nClergy Incapacitation Act passed .... 1801 \n\nIncorporated Church Building Society established, \n\n6 Feb. 1818 \n\nChurch Inquiry Commission, appointed 23 June, 1832 \n\nEcclesiastical Commissioners incorporated by act, \n\n13 Aug. 1836 \n\nActs for building and enlarging cnurches, 1828, 1838 \n\n200 new churches erected in the diocese of London \nunder bishop C. J. Blomlield . . . 1828-56 \n\n" Tracts for the Times " (No. 1-90) published (much \ncontroversy ensued) 1833-41 \n\n\n\n1662 \n\n\n\n1704 \n1710 \n\n\n\n1717 \n1738 \n\n\n\nChurch Pastoral Aid Society, founded \n\nAdditional curates\' society, founded . . . . \n\nNew Church Discipline Act (3 & 4 Vict. c. 86) . . \n\nFor the Gorham and Denison cases, see Trials, 1849, \n\nAnglo-Continental Society (which see), founded \n\nEnglish Church Union, established .... \n\n"Essays and Reviews " published, i860; numerous \n\nReplies issued (see Essays and Reviews) . il \n\n[The Church of England is now said to be divided \n\ninto High, Moderate, Low (or Evangelical), and \n\nBroad Church : the last including persons who \n\n\n\nhold the opinions of the late Dr. Arnold, the Rev. \nF. D. Maurice, dean Stanley, canon Kingsley, and \nothers.] \n\nChurch Congresses began at Cambridge, 1861 ; and \nat Oxford July, 1862 \n\nDr. Colenso, bishop of Natal, publishes his work \non " The Pentateuch," about Oct. 1862 ; the \nbishops, in convocation, declare that it contains \n\' \' errors of the gravest and most dangerous cha- \nracter " 20 May, 1863 \n\nA Church Congress at Manchester 13, 14, 15 Oct. ,, \n\nBishop Colenso deposed by his metropolitan, Dr. \nGray, bishop of Capetown. . . 16 April, 1864 \n\n" Oxford Declaration " (authorship ascribed to arch- \ndeacon Denison and Dr. Pusey), respecting belief \nin eternal punishment, drawn up and signed on \n25 Feb. , and sent by post to the clergy at large \nfor signature : about 3000 are said to have signed ; \nit was presented to the archbishop of Canterbury \n\n12 May, ,, \n\nBishop of London\'s Fund, for remedying spiritual \ndestitution in London, established 1863 ; the queen \nengages to give (in three years) 3000L, and prince \nof Wales ioooZ 7 March, ,, \n\n100,4562. received ; 72,0032. promised . 31 Dec. ,, \n\nThe queen engages to give 15,0002. in 10 years, \n\nApril, 1865 \n\nChurch Congress at Bristol .... Oct. 1864 \n\nChurch of England Education Society, founded . \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nChurch Association (against popery and ritualism) \nestablished. . 1865 \n\nDistrict Churches Tithes act passed (rectories con- \nstituted) . \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBishop Colenso\'s appeal came before the privy \ncouncil, which declared bishop Gray\'s proceed- \nings null and void (since a colonial bishop can \nhave no authority except what is granted by par- \nliament or by the colonial legislature), 21 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLondon Free and open Church Association, founded ,, \n\nNew form of clerical subscription proposed by a \ncommission in 1S64 ; adopted by parliament, July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nChurch Congress at Norwich . . .3-7 Oct. ,, \n\nMeeting in London of three English bishops, Dr. \nPusey, and nearly 80 of the clergy and laity with \ncounts Orloff and Tolstse, and the Russian chap- \nlain, to consider on the practicability of uniting \nthe English and Russian churches . 15 Nov. ,, \n\nBishop Colenso publicly excommunicated at Maritz- \nburg cathedral, by bishop Gray . . 5 Jan. 1866 \n\nBishop Gray declares himself independent, estab- \nlishes synods, and calls his see " The Church of \nSouth Africa " early in ,, \n\nThe Church Missionary Society refuses to support \ncolonial bishops, unless they keep within the for- \nmularies of the Church of England . early in ,, \n\nChurch Congress at York . . . .6 Oct. ,, \n\nMuch excitement caused by the progress of ritual- \nism {which see) .... Sept. -Nov. ,, \n\nBishop Colenso v. Gladstone and others (trustees of \nthe Colonial Bishopric Fund) for withholding his \nsalary. Verdict of master of the rolls, for plaintiff, \nwith costs 6 Nov. \n\nUnqualified condemnation of ritualism by the \nbishops in convocation, 13 Feb. ; the lower house \nconcurred 15 Feb. 1867 \n\nThe bishop of Salisbury (Dr. Hamilton) in a church \nasserts the doctrine of the supernatural gifts of \npriests, the Divine presence in the sacrament ; \npublic protest against it . .16 May, ,, \n\nTrial in Court of Arches, Martin v. Mackonochie, \nrespecting extreme ritualistic practices at St. \nAlban\'s, Holboru ; case deferred . 21 May, ,, \n\nRoyal Ritualistic Commission appointed to inquire \nrespecting rubrics in the Prayer-Book, table of \nlessons, <fcc. , 3 June ; first report, censuring in- \nnovation, signed 19 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPan-Anglican Synod {which see) meets at Lambeth, \n\n24-27 Sept. ,, \n\nChurch Congress at Wolverhampton . . 1 Oct. ,, \n\nMeeting of ritualists in St. James\'s Hall, claiming \nliberty 19 Nov. ,, \n\nCase of Martin v. Machonochie, begun 4 Dec, \nlasted 14 days ; resumed . . 16-1S Jan. 1868 \n\nProposal of bishop Gray of Capetown to consecrate \nMr. Macrorie bishop of Natal in opposition to \nbishop Colenso, disapproved of by the English, \nand Scotch bishops Jan. ,, \n\nBishop of London\'s Fund, received, 312,3094. 31 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nCHURCH OF ENGLAND. \n\n\n\n215 \n\n\n\nCHTJBCH OF ENGLAND. \n\n\n\nMartin v. Mackonooliie decided ; verdict for plain- \ntiff ; use of incense, mixing water with the wine, \nand elevation of the elements, in the sacrament, \nforbidden 28 March, \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Great meeting at St. James\'s hall, in defence of the \nIrish Church establishment ; 23 bishops present, \n\n6 May, \n\nDistrict Churches Act, constituting vicarages \n(Bishop of Oxford\'s Act), passed .... \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Church Congress at Dublin ... 29 Sept. \n\nSharp party contests at a special meeting of the \nChristian Knowledge Society . . 8 Dec. \n\nMartin v. Mackonochie : appeal case ; verdict for \nplaintiff, declaring certain ritualistic practices \nillegal 23 Dec. \n\nWarm meeting of ritualists at St. James\'s hall, \n\n12 Jan. \n\niFirst meeting of a Church Reform Society (since \nnamed " Liturgical Revision Society ") ; Lord \nEbury, chairman .... 13 May, \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Church conference at Sheffield . . 24 May, \n\nChurch Congress at Liverpool . . .5 Oct. \n\nMartin v. Mackonochie : defendant censured by \nprivy council for evading sentence . 4 Dec. \n\nSSishop of London\'s Fund: \xe2\x80\x94 411,839?. received, \n\n\n\nJuly, \nAug. \nt Oct. \n\n\n\n"" Clerical Disabilities Act " passed \n\nChurch Congress at Southampton \n\nChristian Knowledge Society votes 10,000?. to sup- \nport Church schools . . . .20 Oct. \n\nSev. Mr. Mackonochie suspended from duty for \nthree months by decree of privy council for \nevading former sentence ... 25 Nov. \n\nStev. C. Voysey sentenced to be deprived for heresy ; \nappeal to judicial committee of privy council \ndisallowed (see Voysey) . . . .10 Feb. \n\n-Hebbert v. Purchas, of Brighton ; verdict against \ndefendant for offences against ecclesiastical law ; \nconsidered a great defeat of the ritualists, and \ncaused much excitement ... 23 Feb. \n\n.Mr. MiaU\'s resolution for disestablishing the church \nof England defeated in the commons \xe2\x80\x94 374-89, \n\n9 May, \n\nJncumbents\' Resignation Act passed . 13 July, \n\nAgitation for revival of diocesan synods, Sept. -Oct. \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Church Congress at Nottingham ; closed 10 Oct. \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Sheppard v. Bennett (for teaching the divine pre- \nsence in the sacrament) ; appeal to privy council, \n28 Nov. ; judgment adjourned . . 2 Dec. \n\nBishop of London\'s Fund \xe2\x80\x94 received 441,199?. 31 Dec. \n\nThe convocation authorised to consider alterations \nin the Prayer Book Feb. \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Church reform meeting at St. James\'s hall ; paro- \nchial councils recommended . . 15 Feb. \n\nJRev. John Purchas, of Brighton, to be suspended \nfrom duties for one year, from . . 18 Feb. \n[He died 18 Oct.] \n\nConference of bishops, deans, and canons at Lam- \nbeth, to consider cathedral reform . 1 March, \n\n.Sheppard v. Bennett ; judgment for defendant, who \nis censured 8 June, \n\nMr. MiaU\'s motion for royal commission to in- \nquire into the property of "the church lost (295-94) \n\n2 July, \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0\xe2\x96\xa0Church Congress at Leeds . . . 8-1 1 Oct. \n\nMemorial (signed by 60,200 persons) against Ro- \nmanist te\'aching, Arc. in the church, presented at \nLambeth to the archbishop by the church asso- \nciation 5 Ma y. \n\nThe archbishops in reply admit the danger, and \nrecognize their duty, as well as the difficulties of \naction, saying, "We live in an age when all \nopinions and beliefs are keenly criticised, ami \nwhen there is less inclination than ever was \nbefore to respect authority in matters of opinion. \nIn every state, in every religious community, \nalmost in every family, the effect of this unsettled \ncondition may be traced." . . . 1 June, \n\nMr. MiaU\'s motion for disestablishing the church, \nlost (356-61) 16 May, \n\n.483 clergymen petition convocation for the licens- \ning of duly qualified sacramental confessors, May, \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Church Congress, at Bath .... 9 Oct. \n\nArchdeacon Denison, Dr. Pusey, canons Liddon \nand Liddell, and others, publish a declaration in \n/\'avour of confession and absolution in Times, \n\n6 Dec. \n\n\n\n1870 \n\n\n\n1872 \n\n\n\n1873 \n\n\n\nArchdeacon Denison attacks the bishops in a Latin \npamphlet, " Episcopatus Bilinguis" . Dec. 1873 \n\nPublic Worship Regulation Act (which see) brought \nin by the archbishops, 20 April ; royal assent, \n\n7 Aug. 1874 \n\nMeeting of lay and clerical delegates at Lambeth \npalace on church affairs \xe2\x80\xa2 . . 10 June, ,, \n\nAddresses to the archbishops largely signed for and \nagainst the sanction of a distinctive dress for the \nminister during the celebration of the holy com- \nmunion . . . . - . . . Sept. ,, \n\nChurch Congress at Brighton met . . 6 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNew society formed by bishops of Manchester, Car- \nlisle, and Edinburgh, and others, to x>romote union \nwith orthodox dissenters Oct. ,, \n\nBishop of London\'s Fund: \xe2\x80\x94 500,187?. received or \npromised . Nov. ,, \n\nMartin v. Mackonochie : new suit in court of arches \n(see 1870), 26 Nov. ; Mackonochie to be suspended \nfor 6 weeks and pay costs . . .7 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPastoral of the archbishops and bishops (bishops of \nSalisbury and Durham excepted) to the clergy \nand laity (counselling moderation and forbearance,) \n\ndated 1 March, 1875 \n\nMackonochie declines to appeal ; excitement at his \nchurch ; rev. A. Stanton and congregation cele- \nbrate holy communion at St. Vedast\'s, Foster- \nlane 27 June, et seq. ,, \n\nChurch Congress at Stoke-upon-Trent . 5-9 Oct. ,, \n\nSeveral clergymen secede to Rome . . Oct. ,, \n\nPublic Worship Regulation Act : new court, under \nlord Penzance, meet at Lambeth-palace ; first case \nthe Parish of Folkestone v. rev. Charles Joseph \nRidsdale, 4 Jan. ; verdict for plaintiffs . 3 Feb. 1876 \n\nReported negotiation of ritualistic ministers with \nRome disclaimed by Mr. Mackonochie and about \n100 others in Times 4 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nChurch of England Working Men\'s Society estab- \nlished at St. Alban\'s, Holborn . . 5 Aug. ,, \n\nChurch Congress at Plymouth . . .3-9 Oct. ,, \n\n"English Church Union" deny the authority of any \nsecular court in matters spiritual, at a meeting, \n\n16 Jan. 1877 \n\nAddress to the archbishops and bishops (signed by \nDr. Church, dean of St. Paul\'s, and other deans \nand canons) against the Public Worship Regula- \ntion act, &c, requiring legislation respecting \necclesiastical affairs to be made by church synods \nand adopted by parliament . . .3 April, ,, \n\nBoth archbishops vote for permitting dissenters\' \nfuneral service in churchyards. . 17 May, ,, \n\nBishop of London\'s Fund received 571,597?. .June, ,, \n\nDeclaration of above 41,000 (clergy and laity) and \nproposed petition to the queen against judgment \nin the Ridsdale case .... July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n96 peers (Duke of Westminster and others) address \nthe archbishop of Canterbury against auricular \nconfession, "Priest in Absolution," &c, about \n\n9 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n17th Church Congress at Croydon, the archbishop of \nCanterbury president ; very successful, 9-12 Oct. ,, \n\nPan-Anglican Congress (which see) meet at Lam- \nbeth, &c. 2-27 July. 187S \n\nBishoprics Act authorising establishment of four \nnew sees, passed . . 16 Aug. ,, \n\ni8tli Church Congress, at Sheffield, archbishop of \nYork president 1-4 Oct. ,, \n\nNew rubrics in Prayer-book agreed to by the con- \nvocation, 4 July ; act for them passed by convo- \ncation Aug. 1879 \n\n19th Church Congress at Swansea . . 7 Oct. ,, \n\nDr. Julius v. the bishop of Oxford (for not prose- \ncuting rev. Mr. Carter, of Clewer), queen\'s bench ; \nverdict against the bishop in 1079; reversed on \nappeal by house of lords ; (the bishop may but \nis not compelled to prosecute) . 22 March, 1880 \n\n20th Church Congress, at Leicester; friendly ad- \ndress from nonconformists . 28 Sept. \xe2\x80\x94 1 Oct. ,, \n\nRev. John Baghot de la Bere.jun., vicar of Prest- \nbury, Gloucestershire, deprived for disobedience \nrespecting ritualism, &c, by court of arches \n\n21 Dec. 1880, and 8 Jan. 1881 \n\nMemorial to the archbishop of Canterbury, from \n\nfive deans (Dr. Church, dean of St. raid\'s, and \n\nother clergymen) in favour of toleration of diver- \ngence in ritualistic practice . \xe2\x80\xa2 10 Jan. , \n\nCounter memorial from bishops Parry and Kyan, \n\n\n\nCHUKCH OF FRANCE. \n\n\n\n216 \n\n\n\nCHURCH OF SCOTLAND. \n\n\n\ndean Close, and other deans and clergymen, \nopposing toleration of unscriptural practices \n\n31 Jan. 1881 \n\nMr. Mackonochie\'s appeal to the house of lords \ndismissed ; sentence of 3 years\' suspension \naffirmed 7 April, ,, \n\n21st Church Congress at Newcastle-on-Tyne 4-10 Oct. ,, \n\nCatholic league formed .... June, 1882 \n\nDeath of Dr. E. B. Pusey ... 16 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n22nd Church Co tigress at Derby . . 3-6 Oct. ,, \n\nRev. A. Mackonochie resigns living of St. Alban\'s, \nHofborn, at the request of abp. of Canterbury 1 Dec. ,, \n\n23rd Church Congress at Reading . . 2 Oct. 1883 \n\n"Official Year-book of the Church of England" \nfirst published ,, \n\nChurch School Company formed, 1883 ; first annual \nmeeting 21 Feb. 1884 \n\n24th Church Congress at Carlisle . . . 30 Sept. ,, \n\nChurch of England Purity Society, see White Cross \nArmy . . . ,, \n\n25th Church Congress at Portsmouth . . 6 Oct. 1885 \n\nAgitation for disestablishment and disendowment \npreparatory to elections ,, \n\nAddress to \'the archbishops and bishops from \nimportant members of the university of Cam bridge \nadvocating church reform ... 30 Nov. , , \n\nSee Laymen, House of, which first met . 16 Feb. 1886 \n\nProposed disestablishment of the Church in Wales \nnegatived in the Commons (241-229) . 9 March, ,, \n\n26th Church Congress at Wakefield (Church Reform \ndiscussed) 5 Oct. ,, \n\nProposed erection of a Church House for general \nbusiness, meetings, &c. ; committee appointed \nat Lambeth Palace 18 Oct. ,, \n\nRev. H. R. Haweis of St. James\'s, Marylebone, \nprohibited from preaching in the City Temple on \n28 Oct. by his bishop . . . . 25 Oct. ,, \n\nChurch Patronage Bill introduced by the arch- \nbishop of Canterbury 13 May, 1886, again ; (to \ncheck sales, and give rights to parishioners, &e.) \npassed by the lords . . . . \xe2\x96\xa0 1 April, 1887 \n\n27th Church Congress at Wolverhampton began 3 Oct. ,, \n\nChurch House Corporation, first annual meeting \n\n21 July, 1888 \n\n28th Church Congress at Manchester ; disputed \nquestions boldly discussed . . . 1 Oct. ,, \n\nDeclaration and remonstrance of clergy and laity \nadopted at a large meeting . . . 13 Nov. ,, \n\nBishop of London\'s Fund received 15,500?. in 1887 ; \n23,000?. in 1888. \n\n29th Church Congress at Cardiff ; position of Welsh \nchurch discussed 1 Oct. 1889 \n\n"Churchmen in council," initiated in Zion college, \nMay, 1889. Large meeting in Westminster town- \nhall to promote the relief of the church by ob- \ntaining for it, from the state, the power of settling \nits differences in doctrine and ritual in a liberal \nspirit, by the agency of convocation . 6 Feb. 1890 \n\n" Protestant churchmen\'s alliance," lord Grimthorpe \npresident ; object, to promote the substitution \nof deprivation for imprisonment ; support of the \nbishops reported ; first general meeting 25 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n30th Church Congress at Hull . 30 Sept.~3 Oct. ,, \n\n31st Church Congress at Rhyl ; the bishop of St. \nAsaph president ; the abps. of Canterbury and \nYork present 6 Oct. 1891 \n\nA declaration of faith in the divine inspiration and \ntruth of the Holy Scriptures, on the testimony of \nthe universal church, independently of human \ncriticism, signed by dean E. M. Goulburn and 37 \nother eminent clergymen, published in the Times \n\n18 Dec. ,, \nSee Canterbury ; Public Worship Regulation Act; Trials. \n\nCHURCH of France. St. Pothinus is said to \n\nhave preached Christianity to the Gauls about 160; \nbecame bishop of Lyons, and suffered martyrdom \nwith others, 177. P\xc2\xb0r the reformed church see \nHuguenots and Protestants. \n\nA mission of seven bishops arrived in 245 ; followed \n\nby severe persecution 286-288 \n\nChristianity tolerated by Constantius Chlorus . 292 \nCouncil of Aries convoked by Constantine, about \n\n600 bishops present ; the Donatists condemned . 314 \nChristianity established by Clovis . . . . 496 \nPragmatic sanction of St. Louis restraining the \n\n\n\nimpositions of the pope ; and restoring the right \n\nof electing bishops, &c 1269. \n\nPragmatic sanction of Bourges, declaring a general \ncouncil superior to the pope, and prohibiting \nappeals to him I 438\' \n\nConcordat of Leo X. and Francis I. annulling the \npragmatic sanction .... 18 Aug. 1516 \n\nDisputes between the Jesuits and Jansenists . 1640. \n\nDeclaration of the clergy (drawn up by Bossuet) in \naccordauce with the pragmatic sanctions, con- \nfirmed by the king .... 23 March, 1682 \n\nThe Jansenists excommunicated by the Bull Uai- \ngenitus . 17/13 \n\nConcordat with Pius VII. and Napoleon 1801 and 1813 \n\nThe principles of the concordat of Leo X. restored \nby Pius VII. and Louis XVIII 1&17 \n\nThe archbishop of Paris and other prelates resist \ndogma of papal infallibility at the council at Rome 1 \xc2\xa370 \n\nThe clergy at first supported Napoleon III. ; but op- \nposed his Italian policy, 1852-70 ; energetically \nsupport MacMahon\'s ministry, in elections, Sept., \n\nOet. 1877; \n\n18 archbishops, 77 bishops ,, \n\nThe abbe Bougaud asserts that there are 2658 \nparishes without priests, and 3000 parishes \nwithout churches 187S \n\nCHURCH of Ireland, founded by St. \n\nPatrick in the 5th century ; accepted the Beforma- \ntion about 1550; united with that of England as \nthe United Church of England and Ireland in 1800 ;. \nsee Bishops and Ireland, 1868. \n" An act to put an end to the establishment of the- \nchurch of Ireland," introduced into the house of \ncommons by Mr. Gladstone, 1 Mar. ; vote for \nsecond reading, 368; against, 250; 2 a.m., 24 \nMarch ; for third reading, 361 ; against, 247, 31 May, 1869 \nIntroduced into the house of lords by earl Gran- \nville, 1 June; read third time, 12 July; some \namendments by the lords accepted, others re- \njected ; received royal assent [to come into effect, \n\n1 Jan. 1871J 26 July, ,\xc2\xbb \n\nAddress of bishops to the clergy and laity, dated, \n\n18 Aug. ,., \nMeeting of the general synod of the Irish church in \nSt. Patrick\'s cathedral, Dublin, for re-organisa- \ntion of the general council ... 14 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nConference of the laity ; duke of Abercorn chair- \nman 13 Oct. ,. \n\nChurch of Ireland disestablished . . 1 Jan. 187B \nA sustentaiinn fund established (well supported) \xe2\x80\x9e \nFirst elected bishop (Dr. Maurice Day, bishop of \nCashel) consecrated at St. Patrick\'s, Dublin, \n\n14 April, 187s \nThe new ecclesiastical court meets : tries a case of \n\nritual practices 26 June, ,, \n\nThe Irish Church Act amended . . June, ,., \nReceived for the sustentation fund, 33,573?. up to \n\n31 Dec. ,, \nThe first bishop elected by clergy and laity of Kil- \nmore, <fec, archdeacon Darley (12 candidates), \n\n23 Sept. 1874 \nAlleged migration of clergy to England . autumn, ,, \nWarm discussion upon the revision of the liturgy, \n\nMay, 1875 \n\nCHURCH of North America, was estab- \nlished in Nov. 1784, when bishop Seabury, chosen \nby the churches in Connecticut, was consecrated in \nScotland. The first convention was held at Phila- \ndelphia in 1785. On 4 Feb. 1787, bishops Provost and \nWhite were consecrated at Lambeth. The centenary \nwas celebrated at Lambeth, 4 Feb. 1887. Two \nAmerican bishops, Lyman and Potter, were present. \nIn 185 1 there were 37 bishops; in 1883 there were, \nin the United States, 48 dioceses, 68 bishops, and \n3)559 priests and deacons, see Tan- Anglican Synod, \n\nAfter much discussion, for several years, the chureto \nconvention passed a stringent canon against ritualism, \n27 Oct. 1847. \n\nCHURCH of Scotland, see Bishops in \n\nScotland. On the abolition of Episcopacy, in 1638, \nPresbyterianism became the established religion. \nIts formulary of faith, said to have been compiled \n\n\n\nCHURCH HOUSE. \n\n\n\n217 \n\n\n\nCINCINNATI. \n\n\n\nby John Knox, in 1560, was approved by the par- \nliament and ratified in 1567, finally settled by an \nact of the Scottish senate in 1696, and secured by \nthe treaty of union with England in 1 707 ; see \nDiscipline, Patronage, and Bishops. The church \nis regulated by four courts \xe2\x80\x94 the general assem- \nbly, the synod, the presbytery, and kirk ses- \nsions; see Presbyterians. For important secessions, \nsee Burghers (1732), and Free Church (1843). \n\nThe first general assembly of the church was held, \n20 Dec. 1560. \n\nThe general assembly constitutes the highest ecclesi- \nastical court in the kingdom ; it meets annually in Edin- \nburgh in May, and sits about ten days. It consists of a \ngrand commissioner, appointed by the sovereign, and \ndelegates from presbyteries, royal boroughs, and univer- \nsities, some being laymen. To this court all appeals \nfrom the inferior ecclesiastical courts lie, and its decision \nis final. \n\nPatronage was abolished after 1 Jan. 1875, by act \npassed 7 Aug. 1874. \n\nIn 1873, 1250 churches. \n\nProsecution of Rev. Wm. L. M\'Farlan of Lenzie for \nheresy in "Scotch Sermons" (published 1880) by the \nPresbytery of Glasgow, Oct. 18S0. Mr. Hastie, principal \nof the Church (Calcutta) Institution, 1878 ; dismissed for \nbad temper, &c, Nov. 1883; his appeal to the General \nAssembly, dismissed (193\xe2\x80\x9490), 29 May, 1884. \n\nAgitation for disestablishment preparatory to elec- \ntions, autumn, 1885. \n\nMr. Finlay\'s Bill for promoting re-union of Presby- \nterian churches negatived by the Commons (202 \xe2\x80\x94 177) \n17 March, 1886. \n\nDr. Cameron\'s resolution for disestablishment nega- \ntived in the Commons, 30 March, 1886 ; (260 \xe2\x80\x94 208) 22 June, \n1888 ; (256 \xe2\x80\x94 218) 2 May, 1890 ; (265-209) 24 May, 1892. \n\nCHURCH HOUSE. A corporation was esta- \nblished to commemorate the queen\'s jubilee of \n1887, by the erection of a building in London for \nthe general use of the clergy of England. \nOn 7 July, 1888, 65,853^ had been subscribed, by \nmeans of which a site, with useful buildings, in \nDean\'s Yard, Westminster, was purchased. A \nmeeting was held on 21 July, 1888 ; and what \nwas really the 1st general meeting of the cor- \nporation on their own premises was held on 26 \nJune, 1890, the archbishop of Canterbury being in \nthe chair. At a meeting at Norwich, 1 Feb., \n1890, it was reported that jo,oool. had been \nsubscribed. \nThe foundation stone of the great hall laid by the \nduke of Connaught .... 24 June, 1891 \n\nCHURCH LEAGUE, for separation of \nChurch and State, began at St. Alban\'s schools, \nHolborn, London, Rev. A. H. Mackonochie, presi- \ndent; 1876-7. \n\nCHURCH MISSIONARY SOCIETY, \nfounded 1799. Income, 1876, 195,1161?.; 1887, \n237,639/. ; 1890, 260,282/. \n\nCHURCH PASTORAL AID SOCIETY \n\n(Evangelical), instituted in 1836 to maintain curates \nand lay-agents in densely populated diotricts. \n\nCHURCH : RATES. The maintaining the \nchurch in repair belongs to the parishioners, who \nhave the sole power of taxing themselves lor the \nexpense when assembled in vestry. The enforce- \nment of payment, which is continually disputed by \ndissenters and others, belonged to the ecclesiastical \ncourts. Many attempts were made to abolish \nchurch-rates before Mr. Gladstone\'s \'\'Compulsory \nChurch-rate Abolition" Bill, passed 31 July, 1868. \nChurch Rate Abolition for Scotland repealed in the \n\nCommons (204-143) .... 11 July, 1877 \n\nCHURCH SERVICES were ordered by pope \nVitelianus to be read in Latin, 663 ; by queen \nElizabeth in 1558 to be read in English. \n\nCHURCH-WARDENS, officers of the \nchurch, appointed by the first canon of the synod of \n\n\n\nLondon in 1127. Overseers in every parish were \nalso appointed by the same body, and they continue \nnow nearly^ as then constituted. Johnson\'s Canons-. \nChurch-wardens, by the canons of 1603, are to be- \nchosen annually. \n\nCHURCHINO of Women is the act of \nreturning thanks in the church by women after \nchild-birth. It began about 214. Wheatleg ; see \nPurification. \n\nCHURCHYARDS, said to belong to the \nparson, who has power to prohibit the erection of \nmonuments, &c. See Consecration- and Burials. \n\nCHUSAN, a Chinese isle; see China, 1840-1, \ni860. \n\nCIBORIUM, in early Christian times, was a \nprotection to the altar-table, first a tabernacle, and \nafterwards a baldachin over the altar, and also a \ncanopy used at solemn processions. Ciborium also \nmeans the vessel in which the eucharist is received. \n\nCIDER {Zider, German), when first made in \nEngland, was called wine, about 1284. The earl \nof Manchester, when ambassador in France, is said \nto have passed oft\' cider for wine. It was subjected \nto the excise in 1763 et seq. The duty was taken \noff\' in 1830. Many orchards were planted in Here- \nfordshire by lord Scudamore, ambassador from \nCharles I. to France. John Philips published his \npoem "Cider" in 1706. \n\nCIGAR SHIP, see under Steam, 1866. \n\nCIGARS, see Tobacco. \n\nCILTCIA, in Asia Minor, partook of the fortunes \nof that country. It became a Roman province about \n64 B.C., aud was conquered by the Turks, a.d. 1387. \n\nCIMBRI, a Teutonic race from Jutland, in- \nvaded the Roman empire about 120 B.C. They \ndefeated the Romans, under Cneius Papirius Carboy \n113 B.C.; the consul Junius Silanus, 109; the \nconsul Cassius Longinus (who was killed) near the \nlake of Geneva, 107 ; and the united armies of the \nconsul Cn. Mallius and the proconsul Serviliirs \nCaspio near the Rhone, 105. Their allies, the \nTeutones, were defeated by Marius in two battles \nat Aquae Sexthe (Aix) in Gaul ; 200,000 were \nkilled, and 70,000 made prisoners, 102 B.C. The \nCimbri were defeated by r Marius and Catulus, at \nCampus Raudius, when about to enter Italy; \n120,000 were killed, and 60,000 taken prisoners, \nIOI B.C. They were afterwards absorbed into the \nTeutones or Saxons. \n\nCIMENTO (Italian, experiment) . The " Acca- \ndemia del Cimento," at Florence, held its first \nmeeting for making scientific experiments, 18 June, \n1657. It was patronised by Ferdinand, grand duke \nof Tuscany. The Royal Society of London was \nfounded in 1660, and the Academy of Sciences at \nParis in 1666. The Nuovo Cimento, a scientific \nperiodical, published at Pisa, began in 1855. \n\nCINCHONA, or ClllNCHONA, see Jesuits\'\' \nBaric. \n\nCINCINNATI. A society established by \nofficers of the American army soon after the peace \nof 1783, " to perpetuate friendship, and to raise a \nfund for relieving the widows and orphans of those \nwho had fallen during the war." On the badge \nwas a figure of Cincinnalus. The people dreaded \nmilitary influence, and the society dissolved itself. \n\nCINCINNATI, the chief city of the state of \nOhio, North America, founded 178"). This flourishing \ncity desolated by an inundation caused by the rising \nof the river Ohio, 13 Feb. 1883. Several lives were \nlost, and about 50,000 rendered homeless. Ample \n\n\n\nCINNAMON. \n\n\n\n218 \n\n\n\nCIRCULATING LIBRARY. \n\n\n\n3-elief afforded. About 50 persons killed and 150 \nwounded in an attack on the gaol to execute \nzaurderers (especially Wm. Berner) ; new court- \n-house burnt, 28-30 March, 1884; one regiment \nrefused to march. Ten persons killed by a tram- \nway accident, 15 Oct. 1889. Population in 1880, \n\'\xe2\x80\xa2255,139; in 1890, 296,908. \n\nCINNAMON, a species of laurel, is mentioned \namong the perfumes of the sanctuary {Exodus xxx. \n..23) 1491 B.C. It was found in the American forests \nJoy don Ulloa, 1736, was cultivated in Jamaica and \nDominica 1788, and is now grown in Ceylon. \n\nCINQUE-CENTO (five hundred) ; ter cento, \n.&c. ; see note to article Italy. \n\nCINQUE PORTS, on the south coast of \nEngland, were originally five (hence the name) \xe2\x80\x94 \n.Dover, Hastings, Hythe, Ronmey, and Sandwich ; \nWinchelsea and Rye were afterwards added. Jeake. \nTheir jurisdiction was vested in barons, called war- \n\xe2\x80\xa2dens. These ports, instituted by Saxon nionarchs, \nwere constituted by William. I. and succeeding king-*, \nwho required them to supply ships to defend the \n\'\xe2\x96\xa0coast. Nearly all the harbours, except Dover, have \nbeen destroyed by the action of the sea. The latest \nlord-wardens: the duke of Wellington, 1828-52; \nthe marquis of Dalhousie, 1852-60; lord Palmerston, \n3861-65; earl Granville, appointed Dec. 1865, died \n.31 March, 1891 ; W. H. Smith, May, died 6 Oct. ; \nthe Marquis of Dufferin and Ava, about 4 Nov. 1891. \nTheir peculiar jurisdiction was abolished in 1855. \n\nCINTRA (Portugal). Here was signed an \nagreement on 22 Aug. 1808, between the French \n;and English the day after the battle of Vimeira. \n.As it contained the bases of the convention signed \non 30 Aug. following, it has been termed the con- \nvention of Cintra. By it Junot and his army were \n.permitted to evacuate Portugal free, in British \n\xe2\x80\xa2ships. The convention was publicly condemned, \nand a court of inquiry was held at Chelsea, which \n\xe2\x80\xa2 exonerated the British commanders. Both Wel- \nlington and Napoleon justified sir Hew Dalrymple. \n\nCIPHER, a secret manner of writing. Julius \n\'Cajsar and Augustus when writing secret despatches \nare said to have employed the second or third letter \ninstead of the first, and the same sequence with \n.regard to the others. This cipher was in use till \nvthe reign of Sixtus IV. (1471-84), when the secret \nwas divulged by Leon Battista Albert!, and a new \n-sort of cipher sprang up. The father of Venetian \n\xe2\x80\xa2cipher was Zuan Soro, who flourished about 1516. \nJtawdon Brown. \xe2\x80\x94 See Cryptograph. \n\nCIRC ASSIA (Asia, on N. side of the Caucasus) . \nThe Circassians, said to be descended from the Al- . \n\'banians, were unsubdued, even by Timour. In the \n16th century they acknowledged the authority of \n;the czar Ivan II. of Russia, and about 1745,\' the \nprinces of Kabarda took oaths of fealty. Many \n-Circassians became Mahometans in the 18th century. \n"Circassia surrendered to Russia by Turkey by the \ntreaty of Adrianople (but the Circassians, under \nSchamyl, long resist) ... 14 Sept. 1829 \n\'Victories of Orbelliani over them, June, Nov., Dec. 1857 \nHe subdues much country, and expels the inhabi- \ntants April, 185S \n\nSchamyl, the great Circassian leader, captured, and \n\ntreated with much respect . . .7 Sept. 1859 \n.About 20,000 Circassians emigrate to Constanti- \nnople, suffer much distress, and are relieved. \n\n28 April, i860 \n\n"Vaidar, the last of the Circassian strongholds, \n\ncaptured, and the grand duke Michael declares \n\nthe war at an end .... 8 June, 1864 \n\nMany thousand Circassians emigrate into Turkey ; \n\npartially relieved by the sultan\'s government, \n\nJune, et seq. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nSchamyl and his son at the marriage of the czaro- \nwitch, 9 Nov. 1866; he dies . . . March, 1871 \n\nRevolt against Russia ; suppressed. Many Circas- \nsians flee to Turkey and join the army, July, Aug. 1877 \n\nCIRCENSIAN GAMES were combats in \nthe Roman circus (at first in honour of Consus, the \ngod of councils, but afterwards of Jupiter, Neptune, \nJuno, and Minerva), said to have been instituted by \nEvander, and established at Borne, 732 B.C. by \nBomulus. Tarquin named them Circensian ; their \ncelebration continued from 4 to 12 Sept. \n\nCIRCLE. The quadrature, or ratio of the \ndiameter of the circle to its circumference, has \nexercised the ingenuity of mathematicians of all \nages. Archimedes, about 221 B.C., gave it as 7 to \n22 ; Abraham Sharp (171 7) as 1 to 3 and 72 deci- \nmals ; and Lagny (1719) as 1 to 3 and 122 decimals. \n\nCIRCLES OF GERMANY (formed by Maxi- \nmilian I. about 1500, to distinguish the members of \nthe diet of the empire) were, iu 1512, Franconia, \nBavaria, Upper Rhine, Suabia, \\\\ estphalia, and \nLower Saxony; in 15 12, Austria, Burgundy, Lower \nRhine, the Palatinate, Upper Saxony and Bran- \ndenburg were added. In 1804 these divisions were \nannulled by the establishment of the Confedera- \ntion of the Rhine, in 1806 {ivhich see). \n\nCIRCUITS IN ENGLAND were divided into \nthree, and three justices were appointed to each, \nT176. They were afterwards divided into four, \nwith five justices to each division, 1180. Rapin. \nThey have been frequently altered. England and \nWales were formerly divided into eight \xe2\x80\x94 each \ntravelled in spring and summer for the trial of civil \nand criminal cases, the larger towns are visited in \nwinter for trials of criminals only ; this is called \n" going the circuit." The circuits were settled by \norder in council, 5 Feb. 1876. There are monthly \nsessions for the city of London and county of Mid- \ndlesex. \n\nThe circuit system was much modified by the council \nof judges, with the object of retaining more, judges in \nLondon, and economising their labour, 10 June, 1884. \n\nThe system was again changed, three circuits being \nadopted in place of four with a few exceptions ; (civil \nand criminal Feb., July ; criminal Oct.) Dec. 1887. \n\nCIRCULAR IRONCLADS. The design is \nattributed to the Russian admiral ropoff; one of \nthese, named after himself, was launched at the \nport of Nicolaieff, 7 Oct. 1875. The admiral stated \nthat he derived the idea from the works and views \nof Mr. E. J. Reed, late constructor of the British \nnavy, who has expressed his approbation of the \nadmiral\'s works. \n\nCIRCULATING LIBRARY. Stationers \nlent books on hire in the middle ages. The public \ncirculating library in England, opened by Samuel \nFancourt, a dissenting minister of Salisbury, about \n1740, failed; but similar institutions at Bath and \nin London succeeded, and others were established \nthroughout the kingdom. There was a circulating \nlibrary at Crane-court, London, in 1748, of which \na catalogue in two vols, was published.\xe2\x80\x94 No books \ncan be taken from the British Museum except for \njudicial purposes, but the libraries of the Royal \nSociety and the principal scientific societies, except \nthat of the Royal Institution, London, are circulat- \ning. \xe2\x80\x94 The London Library (circulating) which was \nfounded 24 June, 1840, is of great value to literary \nmen. \xe2\x80\x94 Of the subscription libraries belonging to \nindividuals, that founded by Mr. C. E. Mudie, in \nNew Oxford-street, is the most remarkable for the \nlarge quantity and good quality of the books : \nseveral hundreds, sometimes thousands, of copies \nof a new work beinjr in circulation. It began in \n\n\n\nCIRCULATION. \n\n\n\n219 CITY OF LONDON" COLLEGE. \n\n\n\n1842, and grew into celebrity in Dec. 1848, when \nthe first two volumes of Macaulay\'s History of Eng- \nland were published, for which there was an un- \nprecedented demand, supplied by this library. The \nhall, having the walls covered with shelves filled \nwith new books, was opened in Dec. i860. Mr. \nC. E. Mudie died 28 Oct. 1890, aged 72. The \n"Circulating Library Company" was founded in \nJan. 1862, and other companies since. The Liver- \npool library was established in 1757. \n\nCIRCULATION of the Blood, see Blood. \n\nCIRCUMCISION (instituted 1897 b.c.) was \nthe seal of the covenant made by God with Abra- \nham. It was practised by the ancient Egyptians, \n\xe2\x96\xa0and is still by the Copts and some oriental nations. \nThe Festival of the Circumcision (of Christ), origi- \nnally the octave of Christmas, is mentioned about \n487. It was introduced from the Koman missal \ninto the first English prayer-book in 1549. \n\nCIRCUMNAVIGATORS. Among the most \ndaring human enterprises at the period when it was \nfirst attempted, was the circumnavigation of the \nearth in 1519-22. \n\nMagellan or Magalhaens, a native of Portugal, in the \nservice of Spain, sailed from San Lucar, 20 Sept. \n1519 ; with three ships passed the Straits named \nafter him, 28 Nov. 1520; he was killed in a con- \nflict on the Philippine Isles, 17 April, 1521 : Juan \nSebastian del Cano ill the Vittoria, the only re- \nmaining ship of five, reached San Lucar 6 Sept. 1522 \n\n<Srijalva, Spaniard 1537 \n\nAlvaradi, Spaniard . ,, \n\nJVIendana, Spaniard 1567 \n\n.Sir Francis Drake, first English .... 1577-80 \n\nCavendish, first voyage 1586-88 \n\nLe Maire, Dutch 1615-17 \n\nCuiros, Spaniard 1625 \n\nTasman, Dutch 1642 \n\nCowley, British 1683 \n\nDampier, English 1689 \n\nCooke, English . 1708 \n\nClipperton, British 17 19 \n\nBoggewein, Dutch 1721-23 \n\nAnson (afterwards lord) 1740-44 \n\nByron, English 1764-66 \n\nWallis, British 1766-68 \n\nCarteret, English 1766-69 \n\nBougainville, French 1766-9 \n\nJames Cook ^1768-71 \n\nOn his death the voyage was continued by King . 1779 \n\nPortlocke, British 1788 \n\nKing and Fitzroy, British .... 1826-36 \nBelcher, British ... ... 1836-42 \n\n"Wilkes, American 1838-42 \n\nThe steamer Tonic sailed from New Zealand to \n\nPlymouth in 86 days . . . . 24 Aug. 1883 \nArawa sailed from Plymouth to New Zealand and \n\nback in 73 days, 5I1. 4111. . 28 March-12 July, 1885 \nLady Brassey published "Voyage in the Sunbeam " \n\n(yacht) in 1876, 1878 ; she died at sea . Sept. 1887 \n\'The Sunbeam, after voyage of 36,000 miles, arrived at \n\nPortsmouth 14 Dec. ,, \n\nSee North East and West Passage and Deep Sea Soundings. \n\nCIRCUS (Greek, Hippodrome). There were \neight (some say ten) buildings of this kind at \nRome ; the largest the Circus Maximus, was built \nby the elder Tarquin, 605 Jt.c. It was an oval \nfigure: length three stadia and a half, or more than \nthree English furlongs ; breadth 960 Koman feet. \nIt was enlarged by Julius Caesar so as to seat 150,000 \npersons, and was rebuilt by Augustus. Julius \nCresar introduced into it large canals of water, \nwhich could be quickly covered with vessels, and \nrepresent a sea fight. Pliny; see Amphitheatres, \nand Factions. \n\nCIRRHA, a town of Phocis (N. Greece), for \nsacrilege, razed to the ground in the Sacred War, \n586 B.C. \n\n\n\nCISALPINE REPUBLIC, including the \nterritories of Milan, Mantua, Modena, Bergamo, \nFerrara, Bologna, Bavenna, &c. (N. Italy), \nformed by the French in May, 1797, from the \nCispadane and Transpadane republics, acknow- \nledged by the emperor of Germany by the treat3 r \nof Campo Formio (which see), 17 Oct. following. \nIt received a new constitution in Sept. 1798 ; was \nremodelled, and named the Italian republic, with \nNapoleon Bonaparte president, 1802 ; and merged \ninto the kingdom of Italy in March, 1805 ; see \nItaly. \n\nCISPADANE REPUBLIC, with the \nTranspadane republic, merged into the Cisal- \npine republic, Oct. 1797. \n\nCISTERCIANS (the order of Citeaux), a \npowerful order of monks founded about 1098 by \nRobert, a Benedictine, abbot of Molesme, named \nfrom Citeaux, in France, the site of the first convent, \nnear the end of the nth century. The monks \nobserved silence, abstained from flesh, lay on straw, \nand wore neither shoes nor shirts. They were re- \nformed by St. Bernard ; see Bernardines. \n\nCITATE. The Russian general Gortschakoff, \nintending to storm Kalafat, threw up redoubts at \nCitate, close to the Danube, which were stormed by \nthe Turks under Omer Pacha, 6 Jan. 1854. The \nfighting continued on the 7th, 8th and 9th, when \nthe Russians were compelled to retire to their \nformer position at Krajowa, having lost 1500 \nkilled and 2000 wounded. The loss of the Turks \nwas estimated at 338 killed and 700 wounded. \n\nCITIZEN. It was not lawful to scourge a \ncitizen of Rome. Livy. In England a citizen is a \nperson who is free of a city, or who doth carry on \na trade therein. Camden. Various privileges have \nbeen conferred on citizens as freemen in several \nreigns. \xe2\x80\x94 The wives of citizens of London (not being \naldermen\'s wives, nor gentlewomen by descent) \nwere obliged to wear minever caps, being white \nwoollen knit three-cornered, with the peaks pro- \njecting three or four inches beyond their foreheads; \naldermen\'s wives made them of velvet, 1 Eliz. 1558. \nStow. \xe2\x80\x94 On 10 Oct. 1792, the convention decreed \nthat "citoyen" and "citoyenne" should be the \nonly titles in France. \n\nCITY. (Latin civitas, French cite, Italian \ncittd.) Originally signified a state. Cities were \nincorporated in Spain, France, and England in the \nnth and 12th centuries. A city has been usually, \nbut not always, the seat of a bishop. Truro and \nSt. Albans were made cities in 1877, Newcastle in \n1882, and Liverpool in 1883, having become \nbishoprics. Birmingham was made a city, Jan. \n1889. \n\nCITY AND GUILDS OF LONDON IN- \nSTITUTE (see Education, 1878-81). Foundation \nstone of Central Institution, South Kensington, laid \nby the prince of Wales, the president, 18 July, 1881. \n\nCITY CHURCH PROTECTION SO- \nCIETY, founded to preserve old churches, 1879. \n\nCITY GUILDS REFORM ASSOCIA- \nTION held fifth annual meeting, 2 Sept. 1880. It \nhad recommended the appointment of the royal \ncommission of inquiry of 1880. \n\nCITY LIBRARY and MUSEUM, see \nGuildhall. \n\nCITY OF GLASGOW BANK, see under \nHanks. \n\nCITY OF LONDON COLLEGE (for ycung \n111011) established 1861 ; began in [848 as Metro- \npolitan Evening Classe3. \n\n\n\nCITY OF LONDON COURT. \n\n\n\n220 \n\n\n\nCLANS. \n\n\n\nCITY OF LONDON COURT, the name \ngiven to the Sheriffs\' Court (established 151 7) by \nthe County Courts act of Aug. 186". \n\nCITY OF LONDON SCHOOL, established \nby parliament in 1834, (based on an endowment by \nJohn Carpenter in 1442) was opened first in Honey- \nlane. The foundation of the new buildings on the \nVictoria Embankment laid 14 Oct. 1880; opened, \n1883. \n\nCITY OF PARIS, Atlantic steamer, see \nWrecks, March 1890. \n\nCITY HO AD, from London to Islington, was \nprojected by Mr. Dingier, and cut out about 1760. \n\nCIUDAD RODRIGO, a strong fortified town \nin Spain invested by the French, 11 June, 1810, \nand surrendered to them 10 July. It remained in \ntheir possession until it was stormed by the British, \nunder Wellington, 19 Jan. 1812. \n\nCIVIL CLUB (at the New Corn Exchange \nTavern, Mark-lane), was established 19 Nov. \n1669, for the purpose of promoting fellowship, \nmutual assistance, and the revival of trade after \nthe interruption to business in consequence of the \ntire, Sept. 1666. \n\nOnly one person of the same trade or profession can be \na member of this club, and the members pledge them- \nselves to give "preference to each other in their re- \nspective callings." The club meets monthly, and the \nmembers dine together four times a year. Its officials \nare a treasurer, stewards, auditors, a secretary (all \nmerchants of London), and a chaplain. \n\nCIVIL ENGINEERS, see Engineers. \n\nCIVIL LAW. See Codes. Civil law was \nrestored in Italy, Germany, &c, 1127. Blair. It \nwas introduced into England by Theobald, a Nor- \nman abbot, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury, in \n1138. Itisnow used in the spiritual courts only, and \nin maritime affairs ; see Doctors\' Commons, and Laws. \n\nCIVIL LIST. This now comprehends the \nrevenue awarded to the kings of England in lieu of \ntheir ancient hereditary income. The entire revenue \nof Elizabeth was not more than 600,000/., and that \nof Charles I. was about 800,000/. After the revolu- \ntion a civil list revenue was settled on the new king \nand queen of 700,000/. (in 1660), the parliament \ntaking into its own hands the support of the forces \nboth maritime and military. The civil list of \nGeorge II. was increased to 800,000/. ; and that of \nGeorge III., in the 55th year of his reign, was \n1,030,000/. \n\nIn 1831, the civil list of the sovereign was fixed at \n510,000?., and in December, 1837, the civil list of \nthe queen was fixed at 385,000?. \nPrince Albert obtained an exclusive sum from par- \nliament of 30,000?. per an. ... 7 Feb. 1840 \nSir H. ParnelTs motion for inquiry into the civil list \nled to the resignation of the Wellington adminis- \ntration 15 Nov. 1830 \n\nA select committee was appointed by the house of \ncommons for the purpose ... 2 Feb. i860 \nSee Crown Lands. \n\nCIVIL PROCEDURE ACTS, 42 & 43 Vict, \nc. 59, passed 15 Aug. 1879 (it abolishes outlawry \nin civil proceedings); and 44 & 45 Vict. c. 59, passed \n27 Aug. 1881. \n\nCIVIL SERVICE. Nearly 17,000 persons \nwere employed in this service under the direction of \nthe treasury, and the home, foreign, colonial, post, \nand revenue offices, &c. In 1855, a commission re- \nported most unfavourably on the existing system \nof appointments, and on 21 May commissioners \nwere appointed to examine into the qualifications \nof the candidates, who report annually. By an \n\n\n\norder of council, 4 June, 1870, the system of compe- \ntitive examination was made general after 1 Oct. \n1870. The civil service superannuation act passed \nin April, 1859. Civil service for the year (ending \n31 March) 1855, 00317,735,515/. ; 1865, 10,205,413/. \n\n\n\n1867, 10,523,019/. ; it \nmate) 15,779,779*- \n\n\n\nI5>43 2 >442*. ; \n\n1 7,243,254*- ; \n\n18,008,691/. ; \nr 5,739.092*- ; \n\n17,535,547; \n\n\n\n\'I, 13,176,659/.; 1877 (esti- \n\n"81, \n\n-5\xc2\xbb \n\n\n\nll \n\n\n\n15,155,522/, \n\nI803-4, x 7,253,004/. \n\n1885-6, 17,678,149/. ; \n1888-9, !8,037,73o/. ; 1889 - 96, \n1890-91, 15,660,959; 1891-2, \n1892-3, 17,310,920 (estimate). A \nselect committee to inquire into this expenditure, \nvoted 18 Feb. 1873; issued its report, June, 1874. \nImportant changes made, by order in council, \n12 Feb. 1875. See Public Departments, Commission. \nFurther changes in the lower, now named second \ndivision ; salaries limited, to be from 70/. to 250/. \na year, 4 Feb. 1890. \'Ihe fourth and last report of \nthe Boyal Commission on Civil Establishments, \ndated 30 July, issued 28 Aug. 1890. \n\nCIVIL WARS, see England, France, United \nStates, Chili, &c. \n\nCIVILISATION. The opinion thatthecivili- \nsation of mankind was gradually developed from a \nlow savage state is advocated by sir John Lubbock \nin his "Origin of Civilisation," 1870, and by Mr. \nEdward B. Tylor.in his " Primitive Culture," 1871. \n\nCLAIM OF RIGHT. A document agreed \nto by the Scottish Convention parliament at Edin- \nburgh asserting the constitutional liberties of the \nkingdom, accepted bv King William III. and Queen \nMary II. at Whitehall, 11 May, 1689. \n\nCLAIMANT, The. See Trials, 1871-4; see \nFrance, 1874. \n\nCLAMEURS, see Haro. \n\nCLANS are said to have arisen in Scotland, in \nthe reign of king Malcolm II., about 1008. The \nlegal power of the chiefs and other remains of \nheritable jurisdiction were abolished in Scotland, \nand liberty was granted to clansmen in 1747, in \nconsequence of the rebellion of 1745. The following \nis a list of all the known clans of Scotland, with \nthe badge of distinction anciently worn by each. \nThe chief of each clan wears two eagle\'s feathers \nin his bonnet, in addition to the badge. Chambers. \nA history of the clans by Wm. Buchanan was pub- \nlished in 1775. \n\n\n\nName. \n\n\nBadge. \n\n\nName. \n\n\nBadge. \n\n\nBuchanan . \n\n\nBirch. \n\n\nM\'Farlane . \n\n\nCloud-berry \n\n\nCameron \n\n\nOak. \n\n\n\n\nbush. \n\n\nCampbell . \n\n\nMyrtle. \n\n\nM\'Gregor . \n\n\nPine. \n\n\nChisholm . \n\n\nAlder. \n\n\nM\'Intosli . \n\n\nBox-wood. \n\n\nColquhoun . \n\n\nHazel. \n\n\nM\'Kay . . \n\n\nBull-rush. \n\n\nGumming . \n\n\nCommon \n\n\nM\'Kenzie . \n\n\nDeer-grass. \n\n\n\n\nsallow. \n\n\nM\'Kinnon . \n\n\nSt. John\'s \n\n\nDrummond . \n\n\nHolly. \n\n\n\n\nwort. \n\n\n\n\n\n\nM\'Lachlan . \n\n\nMountain- \n\n\nFarquharson \n\n\nPurple fox- \n\n\n\n\nash. \n\n\n\n\nglove. \n\n\nM\'Lean . . \n\n\nBlackberry \n\n\nFerguson . \n\n\nPoplar. \n\n\n\n\nheath. \n\n\nForbes . . \n\n\nBroom. \n\n\nM\'Leod . \n\n\nRed whortle- \n\n\nFrazer . . \n\n\nYew. \n\n\n\n\nberries. \n\n\nGordon . . \n\n\nIvy. \n\n\nM\'Nab . . \n\n\nRose black- \n\n\nGraham . . \n\n\nLaurel. \n\n\n\n\nberries. \n\n\nGrant . . \n\n\nCranberry \n\n\nM\'Neil . . \n\n\nSea-ware. \n\n\n\n\nheath. \n\n\nM\'Pherson . \n\n\nVariegated \n\n\nGun . \n\n\nRosewort. \n\n\n\n\nbox-wood. \n\n\nLamont \n\n\nCrab-apple \n\n\nM \'Quarrie . \n\n\nBlackthorn. \n\n\n\n\ntree. \n\n\nM\'Rae . \n\n\nFir-club \n\n\nM\'Alister . \n\n\nFive-leaved \n\n\n\n\nmoss. \n\n\n\n\nheath. \n\n\nMenzies . . \n\n\nAsh. \n\n\nM \'Donald . \n\n\nBell-heath. \n\n\nMunro . . \n\n\nEagle\'s \n\n\nM\'Donnell . \n\n\nMountain- \n\n\n\n\nfeathers. \n\n\n\n\nheath. \n\n\nMurray . . \n\n\nJuniper. \n\n\nM\'Dougall . \n\n\n. Cypress. \n\n\nOgilvie. \n\n\nHawthorn. \n\n\n\nCLAN-NA-GAEL. \n\n\n\n221 \n\n\n\nCLAVECIN. \n\n\n\nName. \nOliphant \nRobertson \n\n\nBadge. \nGreat maple. \nFern, or bre- \nchans. \n\n\nName. \nSinclair . . \nStewart \nSutherland . \n\n\nBadge. \nClover. \nThistle. \nCat\'s-tail \n\n\nRose . \nRoss . \n\n\nBriar-rose. \nBear-berries. \n\n\n\n\ngrass. \n\n\n\nCLAN-NA-GAEL (brotherhood of Gaels), an \nIrish secret oath-bound society, originating out of \nthe Fenian brotherhood in 1870, it became the \nheart of the Irish National League in the United \nStates, of which it was the extreme violent part. \nIts action much restrained by the influence of \nMessrs. Pamell, Sexton, and other members of the \nIrish Parliamentary party who originated a " new \ndeparture." It obtained the support of the Irish \npeasantry by promising to obtain them their farms \nwithout rent. The ultimate object of the Clan-na- \nGael is said to be the establishment of Ireland as a \nperfectly independent state ; it is termed a dynamite \nparty (" Parnellism and Crime " series III., June, \n1887). \n\nFor murder of Dr. Cronin, &c, see United States, 1889. \nThe Clan-na-Gael at Chicago, declare against any \n\nform of violence . . . reported Feb. 1890 \n\nCLAPHAM SECT, a name given to the \nevangelical party in the Church of England, first \nby the rev. Sydney Smith, in the latter part of the \n18th century. The rev. Henry Venn was vicar of \nClapham, and several of its eminent members lived \nthere. The sect included Win. "Wilberforce, \nZachary Macaulay (father of the historian), and \nthe Rev. "W. Romaine. \n\nMemoirs of some appear in sir James Stephen\'s " Ec- \nclesiastical Biography," 1849. \n\nCLARE AND CLARENCE (Suffolk). Richard \nde Clare, earl of Gloucester, is said to have seated \nhere a monastery of the order of Friars Eremites, \nthe first of this kind of mendicants who came to \nEngland, 1248. Tanner. Lionel, third son of Ed- \nward III., becoming possessed of the honour of \nClare, by marriage, was created duke of Clarence. \nThe title has ever since belonged to a branch of the \nroyal family. \n\nDUKES OF CLARENCE. \n\n1362. Lionel, born 1338, died, 1369 ; see York. \n\nia.ii. Thomas (second son of Henry IV.), born 1389; \n\nkilled at Bauge, 1421. \n1461. George (brother of Edward IV.), murdered, 1478. \n1789. William (third son of George III.), afterwards king \n\nWilliam IV. \n1890. Albert Victor Christian Edward, eldest son of the \nprince of Wales, see under Wales, created duke \nof Clarence and Avondale and earl of Athlone, \nabout 23 May ; died 14 Jan., 1892. See \nEngland, 1892. \nCLARE was the first place in Ireland since \n1689 that elected a Roman Catholic M.P. ; see Roman \n\xe2\x96\xa0Catholics. At the election, held at Ennis, the \ncounty town, Mr. Daniel O\'Connell was returned, \n5 July, 1828. He did not sit till after the passing \nof the Catholic Emancipation Act, in 1829, being \nre-elected 30 July, 1829. \n\nCLARE, NUNS OF St., a sisterhood, called \nMinoresses, founded in Italy by St. Clare and St. \nFrancis d\'Assisi, about 1212. They were also called \nUrbanists ; their rule having been modified by pope \nUrban IV., who died 1264. This order settled in \nFrance about 1260, and in England, in the Minories \nwithout Aldgate, London, about 1293, by Blanche, \n\xe2\x96\xa0queen of Navarre, wife of Edmund, earl of Lan- \noaster, brother of Edward I. At the suppression, \nthe site was granted to the bishopric of Bath and \n"Wells, 1539. Tanner. \n\nCLAREMONT (Surrey), the residence of the \nprincess Charlotte (daughter of the prince-regent, \nafterwards George IV., married to prince Leopold \n\n\n\nof Saxe-Coburg, 2 May, 1816) : here she died in \nchildbirth, 6 Nov. 1817. The house was built by \nsir John Vanbrugh, and was the seat successively \nof the earl of Clare, of lord Clive, lord Galloway, \nand the earl of Tyroonnel. It was purchased of \nMr. Ellis by government for 65,000/. for the prince \nand princess of Saxe-Coburg ; and the former, the \nlate king of Belgium, assigned it to prince Albert \nin 1840. The exiled royal family of France took \nup their residence at Claremont, 4 March, 1848 ; \nand the king, Louis Philippe, died there, 29 Aug. \n1850. Bought by Queen Victoria March 1882. \n\nCLARENCIEUX, the second king-at-arms, \nsaid to have been nominated by Thomas, son of \nHenry IV., created duke of Clarence, 1411. His \nduty was to arrange the funerals of all the lower \nnobility, as baronets, knights, esquires, and gentle- \nmen, on the south side of the Trent, from whence \nhe is also called sur-roy or south-roy. \n\nCLARENDON, Constitutions of, were \n\nenacted at a council held 25 Jan. 1164, at Claren- \ndon, in Wiltshire, to retrench the power of the \nclergy. They led to Becket\'s quarrel with Henry II., \nwere annulled by the pope, and abandoned by the \nking, April, 1174. \n\nI. All suits coneeming advowsons to be determined in \ncivil courts. \n\nII. The clergy accused of any crime to be tried by civil \njudges. \n\nIII. No person of any rank whatever to be permitted to \nleave the realm without the royal licence. \n\nIV. Laics not to be accused in spiritual courts, except \nby legal and reputable promoters and witnesses. \n\nV. No chief tenant of the crown to be excommunicated, \nnor his lauds put under interdict. \n\nVI. Revenues of vacant sees to belong to the king. \n\nVII. Goods forfeited to the crown not to be protected \nin churches. \n\nVIII. Sons of villeins not to be ordained clerks with- \nout the consent of their lord. \n\nIX. Bishops to be regarded as barons, and be sub- \njected to the burthens belonging to that rank. \n\nX. Churches belonging to the king\'s see not to be \ngranted in perpetuity against his will. \n\nXI. Excommunicated persons not to be bound to <*ive \nsecurity for continuing in their abode. \n\nXII. No inhabitant in demesne to be excommunicated \nfor non-appearance in a spiritual court. \n\nXIII. If any tenant in capite should refuse submission \nto spiritual courts, the case to be referred to the king. \n\nXIV. The clergy no longer to pretend to the right of \nenforcing debts contracted by oath or promise. \n\nXV. Causes between laymen and ecclesiastics to be \ndetermined by a jury. \n\nXVI. Appeals to be ultimately carried to the king, and \nno further without his consent. \n\nCLARENDON PRESS, Oxford. The \nbuilding was erected by sir John Vanbru\xc2\xb0-h in \n1711-13, the expense being defrayed out of\'thc \nprofits of lord Clarendon\'s History of the Rebellion \nthe copyright of which was given to the universitv \nby his son. The original building was converted \ninto a museum, lecture-rooms, &c, and a new \nprinting-office erected by Blore and Robertson \n1825-30. \n\nCLARIONET, or CLARINET, a wind instru- \nment of the reed kind, said to have been invented \nby Johann Christopher Denner, in Nuremberg \nabout 1690. \n\nCLASSIS. The name was first used by Tullius \nServius (the sixth king of ancient Rome), in \nmaking divisions of the Roman people, 573 b.c. \nThe first of the six classes were called classici by \nway of eminence, and hence authors of the first \nrank (especially Greek and Latin) came to be \ncalled classics. \n\nCLAVECIN, French for harjyslchord. See \nPianoforte. \n\n\n\nCLAVICHOED. \n\n\n\n222 \n\n\n\nCLEEKENWELL. \n\n\n\nCLAVICHOED, a keyed-stringed musical in- \nstrument of various forms in use in France, Spain, \nand Germany, in the 16th and 17th centuries. See \nVirginals, Spinet, Harp and Piano. \n\nCLAVICYTHEEIUM, an upright musical \ninstrument, probably resembling the harpsichord \nused in the 16th century. \n\nCLAVIEE, German for pianoforte {which see). \n\nCLAY\'S ACT, Sir William, 14 & 15 Vict. \n\nc. 14 (1851), relates to the compound householders. \n\nCLAYTON -BULWEB TEEATY, see \nBuhner. \n\nCLEABING-HOUSE. In I77S, a building \nin Lombard-street was set apart for the use of \nbankers, in which they might, exchange drafts, \nbills, and securities, and thereby save labour and \ncurtail the amount of floating cash requisite to \nmeet the settlement of the different houses, if \neffected singly. By means of transfer tickets, trans- \nactions to the amount of millions daily are settled \nwithout the intervention of a bank note. In 1861, \nthe clearing-house was used by 117 companies, and \nin May, 1864, it was joined by the Bank of England. \nIn the year ending 30 April, 1868, 3,257,411,000/. \npassed through the clearing-house ; 30 April, 1873, \n6.003,335,000/. ; 1877-8, 5,066,533,000/. ; 1880-1, \n5^909,989,000/.; 31 Dec. 1887, 6,077,097,000*.; \n1890, 7,801,000,000/. Amount in the week ending \n27 Sept., 1875, about 105,867,000/. ; 27 Sept. 1876, \nabout 73,135,000/. The Railway clearing-house in \nSeymour-street, near Euston-square, established \n2 Jan. 1842, is regulated by an act passed in 1850. \nIn 1868, it regulated 13,000 miles of railways. The \njubilee was celebrated Jan. 1892. \n\nCLEMENTINES, apocryphal pieces, attri- \nbuted to Clemens Romanus, a contemporary of \nSt. Paul, and said to have succeeded St. Peter as \nbishop of Rome. He died 102. Niceron. Also the \ndecretals of pope Clement V. who died 1314, pub- \nlished by his successor. Bowyer. Also Augustine \nmonks, each of whom having been a superior nine \nyears, then merged into a common monk. \xe2\x80\x94 \nClementines were the adherents of Robert, son of \nthe count of Geneva, who took the title of Cle- \nment VII. on the death of Gregory XL, 1378, and \nUkbanists, those of pope Urban VI. Christendom \nwas divided by their claims : France, Castile, Scot- \nland, &c, adhering to Clement; Rome, Italy, and \nEngland, to Urban. The schism ended in 1409, \nwhen Alexander V. was elected pope, and his rivals \nresigned ; see Anti-Popes. \n\nCLEOPATEA\'S NEEDLE, see Obelisks. \n\nCLEPSYDEA, a water-clock ; see Clocks. \n\nCLEBGY (from the Greek kleros, a lot or in- \nheritance) in the first century were termed pres- \nbyters, elders, or bishops, and deacons. The bishops \n(episcopoi or overseers), elected from the presbyters, \nin the second century assumed higher functions \n(about 330), and, under Constantine, obtained the \nrecognition and protection of the secular power. \nUnder the Lombard and Norman-French kings in \nthe 7th and 8th centuries, the clergy began to pos- \nsess temporal power, as owners of lands ; and after \nthe establishment of monachism, a distinction was \nmade between the regular clergy, who lived apart \nfrom the world, in accordance with a regula or rule, \nand the secular (worldly) or beneficed clergy. The \nEnglish clergy write clerk after their names in \nlegal documents. See Church oj England (note) and \nBishops. \nThe clergy were first styled clerks, owing to the judges \n\nbeing chosen after the Norman custom from the sacred \n\n\n\norder, and the officers "being clergy : this gave then* \nthat denomination, which they keep to this day. Black- \nstone. \n\nAs the Druids kept the keys of their religion and of \nletters, so did the priests keep both these to themselves ; \nthey alone make profession of letters, and a man of \nletters was called a clerk, and hence learning went by \nthe name of clerkship. Pasquier. \n\nBenefit of Clergy, Privilegium Clericale, arose in the- \nregard paid by Christian princes to the church, and \nconsisted of : 1st, an exemption of places consecrated \nto religious duties from criminal arrests, which was \nthe foundation of sanctuaries ; 2nd, exemption of the \npersons of clergymen from criminal process before the \nsecular judge, in particular cases, which was the \noriginal meaning of the privilegium clericale. The \nbenefit of clergy was afterwards extended to everyone \nwho could read ; and it was enacted, that there should \nbe a prerogative allowed to the clergy, that if any man \nwho could read were to be condemned to death, the \nbishop of the diocese might, if he would, claim him as \na clerk, and dispose of him in some places of the clergy \nas he might deem meet. The ordinary gave the pri- \nsoner at the bar a Latin book, in a black Gothic \ncharacter, from which to read a verse or two ; and if \nthe ordinary said, "Legit ut Clericus" ("He reads- \nlike a clerk"), the offender was only burnt in the \nhand ; otherwise, he suffered death, 3 Edw. I. (1274). \n\nThe privilege was restricted by Henry VII. in 1489, and \nabolished, with respect to murderers and other great \ncriminals, by Henry VIII., 1512. Stow. \n\nThe reading was discontinued by 5 Anne, c. 6 (1706). \n\nBenefit of Clergy was wholly repealed by 7 & 8 Geo. IV. \nc. 25 (1827). \n\nCLERGY CHARITIES. \n\nWilliam Assheton, an eminent theological writer, was the \nfirst proposer of a plan to provide for the families of \ndeceased clergy. He died Sept. 171 1. Watts\' s Life of \nAssheton.- \n\nFestival of the " Sons of the Clergy," held annually at St. \nPaul\'s cathedral, instituted about 1655 ; from it sprang \nthe charity called the "Sons of the Clergy" (clergy- \norphan and widow corporation), incorporated 1 July,. \n1678. \n\nClergy Orphan corporation, 1749. \n\nFriend of the Clergy corporation, 1849. \n\nSt. John\'s foundation school for sons of poor clergy. \n1852. \n\nPoor Clergy Relief corporation, established 1856; incor- \nporated 1867. \n\nThere are several other charities for relatives of the \nclergy. See Bromley College. \n\nThe clergy prevented from being members of parliament \nby 41 Geo. III. e. 63, 1801. \n\nA bill to repeal this act was lost in the commons (no to- \n101), ti May, i88r. \n\nClergy discipline (immorality) bill introduced by the \narchbishop of Canterbury, 23 Feb. ; passed \n\n27 June, 1892; \n\nCLEEICAL DISABILITIES, an act passed \n9 Aug. 1870, relieves persons who have been ad- \nmitted priests or deacons of certain clerical dis- \nabilities upon their resigning their ecclesiastical \noffices and preferments, and declares them incapable \nof officiating henceforward. Up to 31 Dec. J873, 50 \nhad resigned. \n\nCLEEICAL SUBSCBIPTION. ACT, \n\n28 & 29 Vict. c. 122, passed 5 July, 1865, simplified \nand modified the oaths to be taken by the clergy \nwhen ordained. \nCLEEK, see Clergy. \n\nCLEEKENWELL, a parish, N. E. London, \nso called from a well (fons clericorum) in Ray- \nstreet, where the parish clerks occasionally acted \nmystery-plays : once before Richard II. in 1390. \nHunt\'s political meetings in 1817 were held in \nSpa-fields in this parish. In St. John\'s parish are \nthe remains of the priory of the knights of St. \nJohn of Jerusalem. Clerkenwell prison was built \nin 1615, in lieu of the noted prison called the Cage, \nwhich was taken down in 1614; the then Bride- \nwell having been found insufficient. The prison \n\n\n\nCLERMONT. \n\n\n\n223 \n\n\n\nCLOGHER. \n\n\n\ncalled the House of Detention, erected in 1775, was \nrebuilt in 1818; again 1844. For the explosion \nhere, see Fenians, Dec. 1867. At Clei-kenwell- \nclose formerly stood the house of Oliver Cromwell, \nwhere some suppose the death-warrant of Charles I. \nwas signed, Jan. 1649. \n\nFree library in. Skinner street (on site given by the \nSkinners\' company) opened by the lord mayor \nIsaacs . . . . . . .10 Oct. 1890 \n\nRosebery avenue opened by the earl of Rosebery \n\n21 July \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCLERMONT (France). Here was held the \ncouncil under pope Urban II. in 1095, ^ which the \nfirst crusade against the infidels was determined \nupon, and Godfrey of Bouillon appointed to com- \nmand it. Iu this council the name of pope is said \nto have been first given to the head of the Roman \nCatholic church, exclusively of the bishops who used \npreviously to assume the title. Philip I. of France \nwas (a second time) excommunicated by this \nassembly. Henault. \n\nCLEVEDON COURT, Somersetshire, the \nmediaeval seat of sir Arthur Hallam Elton ; de- \nstroyed by fire 27 Nov. 1882 \xe2\x80\x94 damage about 20,000/. \n\nCLEVELAND, see Steel, a town in Ohio, U.S., \npopulation in 1880, 160,146; 1890, 261,353. \n\nCLEVELAND IRON DISTRICT, see \n\nMiddlesborough . \n\nCLEVES (N.E. Germany). Rutger, count of \nCleves, lived at the beginning of the nth century. \nAdolphus, count of Mark, was made duke of Cleves \nby the emperor Sigismund, 141 7. John "William, \nduke of Cleves, Berg, Juliers, &c, died without \nissue, 25 March, 1609, which led to a war of suc- \ncession. Eventually Cleves was assigned to the \nelector of Brandenburg in 1666 ; seized by the \nFrench in 1757 ; restored at the peace in 1763, and \nnow forms part of the Prussian dominions. \n\nCLIFTON SUSPENSION - BRIDGE, \nover the Avon, connecting Gloucestershire and \nSomersetshire, constructed of the removed Hunger- \nford -bridge, was completed in Oct. and opened \n8 Dec. 1864. It is said to have the largest span \n(702 feet) of any chain bridge in the world. In \n1753 Alderman Vick, of Bristol, bequeathed \\oool. \nto accumulate for the erection of a bridge over the \nAvon. In 1831 Brunei began one, which was aban- \ndoned after the expenditure of 45,000/. \n\nCLIMACTERIC, the term applied to> certain \nperiods of time in a man\'s life (multiples of 7 or 9), \nin which it was affirmed notable alterations in the \nhealth and constitution of a person happen. The \ngrand climacteric is 63. \n\nCLIMATE. The condition of a place in regard \nto natural phenomena of the atmosphere as tem- \nperature, moisture, &c, see Meteorology. \nInternational Congresses on Climatology met at Paris \n\nOct. 1889, and to be at Rome in 1892. \n\nCLINICAL SOCIETY of London, for \n\nthe cultivation and promotion of practical medi- \ncine and surgery, established in Dec. 1867 ; first \npresident, sir Thomas Watson. See Lectures \n(clinical). \n\nCLIO. The initials C. L. I. 0., forming the \nname of the muse of history, were rendered famous \nfrom the most admired papers of Addison, in the \nSpectator, having been marked by one or other of \nthem, signed consecutively, in 1713. Cibber. \n\nCLISSOLD PARK, Stoke Newington, Lon- \ndon, N., purchased by the Charity Commissioners \nand the Metropolitan Board of Works, &c. , for public \nuse, 1887. \n\n\n\nCLITHEROE CASE, see Wives, 1891. \n\nCLOACA MAXIMA, the chief of the cele- \nbrated sewers at Rome, the construction of which is- \nattributed to king Tarquinius Priscus (600 B.C.) and \nhis successors. \n\nCLOCK. The clepsydra, or water-clock, was \nintroduced at Rome from the east about 158 B.C. by \nScipio Nasica. Toothed wheels were applied to them.- \nby Ctesibius, about 140 B.C. Clocks said to have- \nbeen found by Ca?sar on invading Britain, 55 B.C. \nThe only clock supposed to be then in the world was \nsent by pope Paul I. to Pepin, king of France, a.d. \n760. Pacificus, archdeacon of Genoa, invented one \nin the 9th century. Originally the wheels were- \nthree feet in diameter. The earliest complete clock \nof which there is any certain record was made by \na Saracen mechanic in the 13th century. Alfred \nis said to have measured time by wax tapers, and \nto have used lanterns to defend them from the \nwind, about 887. \n\nThe scapement ascribed to Gerbert .... 100c \nA great clock put up at Canterbury cathedral, cost \n\n30?. .......... 1292: \n\nA clock constructed by Richard, abbot of St. \n\nAlban\'s about 1326 \n\nJohn Visconti sets up a clock at Genoa . . . 1353 \nA striking clock in Westminster .... 1368. \nA perfect one made at Paris, by Vick . . . . 1370- \n\nThe first portable one made 153c- \n\nIn England no clock went accurately before that \n\nset up at Hampton-court (maker\'s initials N. O.) 154c \n\xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 "Like a German clock, \nStill a-repairing ; ever out of frame ; \nAnd never going aright." \n\nShakspeawe, " Love\'s Labour\'s Lost," 159S \nThe pendulum is said to have been applied to clocks \n\nby the younger Galileo, 1639 \xe2\x80\xa2 an\xc2\xa3 l by Richard \n\nHarris (who erected a clock at St. Paul\'s, Covent- \n\ngarden) 1641 \n\nChristian Huyghens said he made his pendulum \n\nclock previously to 165S \n\nFroinantil, a Dutchman, improved the pendulum \n\nabout 1659 \nRepeating clocks and watches invented by Barlow, \n\nabout 1675 \nSpiral pendulum spring invented by Robert Hooke, \n\nabout 1658 ; cylinder and escapement, by Thos. \n\nTompion 1695- \n\nThe dead beat, and horizontal escapements, by \n\nGraham, about 1700 ; compensating pendulum . 1715. \nThe spiral balance spring suggested, and the duplex \n\nscapement, invented by Dr. Hooke ; pivot holes \n\njewelled by Facio ; the detached-scapement, \n\ninvented by Mudge, and improved by Berthould, \n\nArnold, Earnshaw, and others in the 18th century. \nHarrison\'s time-piece (which sec) constructed . 1735? \nClocks and watches taxed, 1797 ; tax repealed . 179S\' \n\nChurch clocks illuminated : the first, St. Bride\'s, \n\nLondon 2 Dec 1826 \n\nThe Horological Institute established . . . 1S5S \nThe great Westminster clock set up . . 30 May, 1859. \n266,750 clocks and 88,621 watches imported into \n\nthe United Kingdom in 1857 ; 258,628 clocks ; \n\n372,420 watches iu 1870; 687,271 clocks in . . 1877 \n\nThe duty came off , . i86e \n\nMessrs. Barraud and Lund\'s electric system of \n\nsynchronising docks : city of London circuit of \n\n108 clocks in action .... Nov. 1878 \nVictor Popp of Vienna applies compressed air as a \n\nmotive power to clocks ; announced . March, 1881 \nSee Electric Clock, uuder Electricity. \n\nCLOGHER (Ireland). St. Macartin, a disciple- \nof St. Patrick, fixed a bishopric at Clogher, where \nhe also built an abbey "in the street before the \nroyal scat of the kings of Ergal." He died in 506. \nClogher takes its name from a golden stone, from \nwhich, in times of paganism, the devil used to> \npronounce juggling answers, like the oracles of \nApollo Pythias. Sir James Ware. In 1041 the \ncathedral was built anew, and dedicated to its \n\n\n\nCLONFEET. \n\n\n\n221 \n\n\n\nCLUBS. \n\n\n\nfounder. Clogher merged, on the death of its last \nprelate (Dr. Tottenham), into the archiepiscopal see \nof Armagh, by the act of 1833. \n\nCLONFEET (Ireland). St. Brendan founded \nan abbey at Clonfert in 558 : his life is extant in \njangling monkish metre in the Cottonian library at \nWestminster. In his time the cathedral, famous \nin ancient days for its seven altars, was erected ; \n,and Colgan makes St. Brendan its founder and the \nfirst bishop ; but it is said, in the Ulster Annals, \nunder the year 571, "Mcena, bishop of Clonfert- \nBrenain, went to rest." Clonfert, in Irisn, signifies \na wonderful den or retirement. In 1839 the see \nmerged into that of Killaloe ; see Bishops. \n\nCLONTABF (near Dublin), the site of a battle \nfought on Good Friday, 23 April, 1014, between \nthe Irish and Danes, the former headed by Bryan \nBoroimhe, monarch of Ireland, who defeated the \ninvaders, after a long and bloody engagement, was \nwounded, and soon afterwards died. His son Mur- \nehard also fell with many of the nobility ; 13,000 \nDanes are said to have perished in the battle. \n\nCLOSTEBSEVEN (Hanover) CONVENTION \nOF, was entered into 8 Sept. 1757, between the \nduke of Cumberland, third son of George II., \nhardly pressed, and the duke of Eichelieu, com- \nmander of the French. By it 38,000 Hanoverians \nlaid down their arms, and were dispersed. The \ntreaty was disavowed by the king, and soon broken ; \nthe duke resigned all his commands. \n\nCLOSUEE, see Cloture. \n\n\'CLOTH, see Woollen Cloth and Calico. \n\nCLOTURE, the power of closing a debate in \nthe French chamber of deputies, exercised by the \npresident. A similar power, termed Closure, was \ngiven to the speaker of the House of Commons, 11 \nNov. 1882 ; first enforced 24 Feb. 1884 ; the closure \nmade part of a standing order, 18, 19 March, 1887. \nBy a new rule the power of closure was given to a \nhouse of 100, 28 Feb. 1888; and was frequently \nexercised in 1888, and since. See Parliament. \n\nCLOUD, St., a palace near Paris, named from \nprince Clodoald or Cloud, who became a monk \nthere in 533, after the murder of his brothers, and \ndied in 560. The palace was built in the 16th \ncentury, and in it Henry III. was stabbed by Cle- \nment, 1 Aug. (died 2 Aug.) 1589. This palace, long \nthe property of the dukes of Orleans, was bought \nby Marie Antoinette in 1785. It was a favourite \nresidence of the empress Josephine, of Charles X. \n.and his family, and of the emperor Napoleon III. \nIt was burnt during the siege of Paris, having \nbeen fired upon by the French themselves, 13 Oct. \n1870. The ruins were cleared away, and the site \nsold, July, 1892. \n\nCLOUDS consist of minute particles of water, \noften in a frozen state, floating in the air. In 1803 \nMr. Luke Howard published his classification of \nclouds, now generally adopted, consisting of three \nprimary forms \xe2\x80\x94 cirrus, cumulus, and stratus ; three \ncompounds of these forms ; and the nimbus or \nblack rain clouds (cumulo-cirro-stratus.) A new \nedition of Howard\'s Essay on the Clouds appeared \nin 1865. \n\nCLOVESHOO (now Cliff), Kent. Here was \nheld an important council of nobility and clergy \nconcerning the government and discipline of the \nchurch, Sept. 747 ; and others were held here, 800, \n803, 822, S24. \n\nCLOYNE (S. Ireland), a bishopric, founded in \n\xc2\xa3he 6th. century by St. Coleman, was in 1431 united \n\n\n\nto that of Cork, and so continued for 200 years. It \nwas united with that of Cork and Ross, 1834 ; see \n\n\n\nCLUBMEN, associations founded in the \nsouthern and western counties of England, to re- \nstrain the excesses of the armies during the civil \nwars, 1642-9. They professed neutrality, but in- \nclined towards the king, and were considered ene- \nmies by his opponents. \n\nCLUBS, originally consisted of a small number \nof persons of kindred tastes and pursuits, who met \ntogether at stated times for social intercourse. The \nclub at the Mermaid tavern, established about the \nend of the 16th century, consisted of Raleigh, \nShakspeare, and others. Ben Jonson set up a club \nat the Devil tavern. Addison, Steele, and others, \nfrequently met at Button\'s coffee-house, as de- \nscribed in the Spectator. The present London \nclubs, some comprising 500, others about 6000 \nmembers, possess handsome luxuriously furnished \nedifices in or near Pall Mall. The members obtain \nchoice viands and wines at moderate charges, and \nmany clubs possess excellent libraries, particularly \nthe Athenseuni {which see). The annual payment \nvaries from 3/. 3*. to ill. lis.; the entrance fee from \n5^. 5s. to 421?. The following are the principal \nclubs ; several are described in separate articles : \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nRota (political) 1659 \n\nCivil Club (professional and commercial) 19 Nov. 1669 \nWhite\'s (Tory), at White\'s Coffee-house . . . 169S \n\nKit-Cat (literary) 1700 \n\nDilettanti (fine arts) 1734 \n\nBeefsteak 1735 \n\nRoyal Society (scientific) .... before 1743 \n\nCocoa Tree 1746 \n\nBoodle\'s 1762 \n\nLiterary Club (which see), termed also " The Club," \n\nand Johnson\'s Club 1764 \n\nBrooks\'s, originally Almack\'s (Whig) . . . ,, \n\nRoyal Naval 1765 \n\nArthur\'s , \n\nAlfred (literary) 1808-51 \n\nRoxburghe, London . 1812 \n\nGuards . , . 1813 \n\nUnited Service . .... 1815 \n\nTravellers\' ... ... 1819 \n\nUnion ... 1821 \n\nUnited University . 1822 \n\nBannatyne, Edinburgh . ... . . 1823 \n\nAthenaeum (which see) 1824 \n\nOriental . ,, \n\nUnited Service (Junior) 1827 \n\nWyndham . 1828 \n\nMaitland, Glasgow , \n\nOxford and Cambridge 1829 \n\nCarlton (Conservative), founded by the duke of Wel- \nlington and others 183 1 \n\nGarrick ... \n\nCity of London Club . . . . . 1832 \n\nAbbotsford, Edinburgh . . . 1835 \n\nReform (Liberal) . 1836 \n\nParthenon 1836 \n\nArmy and Navy ....... 1837 \n\nEtching, London 1838 \n\nSpalding, Aberdeen . 1839 \n\nConservative . . . , 1840 \n\nGresham 1843 \n\nNational 1845 \n\nWhittington (founded by Douglas Jerrold and \n\nothers) 1846 \n\nEast India United Service 1847 \n\nSavage 1857 \n\nSt. James\'s . \xe2\x96\xa0 ,, \n\nNaval and Military 1862 \n\nGrafton ..... ...... 1863 \n\nArts \xe2\x80\xa2 ", \n\nJunior Carlton 1864 \n\nThatched House 1S65 \n\nCobdenClub 1866 \n\nSavile \xe2\x80\xa2 1868 \n\nMarlborough 1869 \n\nLyric . ........ 1870 \n\n\n\nCLUBS. \n\n\n\n225 \n\n\n\nCOAL. \n\n\n\nSt. Stephen\'s 1870 \n\nUniversities 1871 \n\nScientific 1874 \n\nWanderers ........... \n\nDevonshire (Liberal) ,, \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2City Liberal Club ,, \n\nVerulam (Literary and Scientific) . . ." . ,, \n\nByron 1875 \n\nHanover Square 1876 \n\nNew Athenaeum Club 1878 \n\nEighty Club 1880 \n\nNational Liberal Club 1882 \n\nConstitutional 1883 \n\nGrosvenor, Bond Street ,, \n\nImperial and American ...... 1885 \n\nNational Conservative 1886 \n\nNational Union 1887 \n\nArts and Letters 1889 \n\nAmphitryon, Albemarle Street, W 1890 \n\nSee Working Men\'s Club. \n\nCLUBS, FRENCH. The first arose about 1782. \nThey were essentially political, and greatly con- \ncerned in the revolution. The Club Breton became \nthe celebrated Club des Jacobins, and the Club des \nCordeliers comprised among its members Danton \nand Camille Desmoulins. From these two came \nthe Mountain party which overthrew the Girondists \nfin 1793, and fell in its turn in 1794. The clubs \n\xe2\x80\xa2disappeared with the Directory in 1799. They were \nrevived in 1848 in considerable numbers, but did \nr.ot attain to their former eminence, and were sup- \npressed by decrees, 22 June, 1849, and 6 June, \n1850. Bouillet. \n\nCLUB-FOOT, a deformity due to the shorten- \ning of one or more of the muscles, although at- \ntempted to be relieved by Lorenz in 1784, by \n\xe2\x80\xa2cutting the tendo Achillis, was not effectually cured \nSill 1831, when Stromeyer of Erlangen cured Dr. \nLittle by dividing the tendons of the contracted \nmuscles with a very thin knife. \n\nCLUGJN\'Y or CLUNY, ABBEY OF, in France, \nformerly most magnificent, founded by Benedictines, \nunder the abbot Bern, about 910, and sustained \nafterwards by William, duke of Berry and Aqui- \ntaine. English foundations for Cluniac monks were \ninstituted soon after. \n\nCLYDE and FORTH WALL was built \nhy Agricola, 84. The Forth and Clyde Canal was \n\xe2\x80\xa2commenced by Mr. Smeaton, 10 July, 1768, and \nwas opened 28 July, 1790. It forms a communi- \ncation between the seas on the eastern and western \ncoasts of Scotland. \n\nCNLDUS, in Caria, Asia Minor: near here \nConon the Athenian defeated the Lacedaemonian \nfleet, under Peisander, 394 B.C. \n\nCOACH (from coche, Spanish). Beckmann \nstates that Charles of Anjou\'s queen entered Naples \nin a caretta (about 1282). Under Francis I. there \nwere but two in Paris, one belonging to the \nqueen, the other to Diana, the natural daughter of \nHenry II. There were but three in Paris in 1550; \nand Henry IV. had one without straps or springs. \nJohn de Laval de Bois-Dauphin set up a coach on \naccount of his enormous bulk. The first coach seen \nin England was about 1553. Coaches were intro- \nduced by Fitz- Alan, earl of Arundel, in 1580. Slow. \nA bill was brought into parliament to prevent the \neffeminacy of men riding in coaches, 43 Eliz. 1601. \nCarte. Repealed 1625. The coach of the duke of \nBuckingham had six horses, that of the earl of \nNorthumberland eight, 1619. The coach-tax com- \nmenced in 1747. Horace Walpole says that the \npresent royal state coach (first used 16 Nov. 1762), \ncost 7,528/. The lord mayor\'s old state coach was \nKot used 9 Nov. 1867 ; see Car, Carriages, Chariots, \n\xe2\x96\xa0Kae/oicu Coaches, Mail Coaches, &c. G. Thrupp\'s \n"* History of Coaches" published 1877. \n\n\n\nA coachmakers\' exhibition London, opened 2 June, 1879 \nA private university teacher is termed a " Coach." Dr. \nEdward John Routh, of Cambridge, out of 631 pupils \n. produced 27 senior wranglers, 1858-88. On his retire- \nment his old pupils presented his portrait to his \nwife, 3 Nov. 1888. \n\nCOAL.* It is contended, with much seeming \ntruth, that coal, although not mentioned by the \nRomans in their notices of Britain, was yet in use \nby the ancient Britons. .Brandt. Henry III. is \nsaid to have granted a licence to dig coals near \nNewcastle-upon-Tyne in 1234 ; some say earlier, \nand others in 1239. Sea-coal was prohibited from \nbeing used in and near London, as being "preju- \ndicial to human health;" and even smiths were \nobliged to burn wood, 1273. Stow. In 1306 the \ngentry petitioned against its use. Coal was first \nmade an article of trade from Newcastle to London, \n4 Rich H. 1 381. Rymer\'s Fcedera. Notwithstanding \nthe many previous complaints against coal as a \npublic nuisance, it was at length generally burned \nin London in 1400 ; but it was not in common use \nin England until the reign of Charles I. 1625. Coal \nwas brought to Dublin from Newry in 1742. \n1700 consumed in London . . . 317,000 chald. \n17s ........ 510,000 ,, \n\n1800 ....... 814,000 ,, \n\n1810 980,372 ,, \n\n1820 1,171,178 ,, \n\n1830 1,588,360 ,. \n\n1835 .>.... 2,299,816 tons. \n\n1840 2,638,256 ,, \n\n1850 3,638,883 \xe2\x80\x9e \n\ni86o_. \xe2\x80\x94 Coal brought to London, 3,573,377 tons coast- \nwise ; 1,499,899 tons by railways and canals. \n1861. \xe2\x80\x94 Coal brought to London, 5,232,082 tons ; in 1862, \n\n4,973,823 tons. \nCoal and fuel exported : value : 1856, 2,826,582?. ; 1869, \n5,165,668?. ; 1873, 13,188,511?. ; 1878. 7,330,474/. ; 1883, \n10,645,919?.; 1887, 10,169,991?.; 1888, 11,345,299?.; 1889, \n14,781,990?.; 1890, 19,020,269?. \nThe coal-fields of Great Britain are estimated at 5400 \nsquare miles ; of Durham and Northumberland, \n723 square miles. Bakewell. In 1857 about 65^ \nmillions of tons were extracted (value about \n16,348,676?.) from 2095 collieries ; about 25 millions \nare consumed annually in Great Britain. 1882, \ncollieries, 3,759. \nCoal obtained in Great Britain and Ireland : \xe2\x80\x94 \n1854. 64,661,401 tous. 1 1865. 98,150,587 tons. \n\n\n\n1862 \n\n\n\n83,635,214 \n81,638,338 \n86,292,215 \n92.787.873 \n\n\n\n1866. 101,630,544 \n\n1867. 104,500,480 \n\n1868. 103,141,157 \n~> 107,427,557 \n\n\n\n1870. 110,431,192 tons value. 27,607,798?. \n\n\n\n117.352,028 \n\n1872. 123 497,316 \n\n1873. 127,016,747 \n\n1874. 125,067,016 \n\n1875. 131,867,105 \n\n1876. 133,344,826 \n\n1877. 134,610,763 \n\n1878. 132,654,887 \n\n1879. 134,008,228 \n\n1880. 146,818,622 \n\n1881. 154,184,300 \n1882. t 156,499,977 \n\n1883. 163,737,327 \n\n1884. 160,757,779 \n\n1885. 159,351,418 \n\n1886. 157,^18,482 \n\n1887. 162,119,812 \n\n1888. 169,935,219 \n\n1889. 176,916,724 \n\n1890. 181,614,288 \n\n\n\n35,205,608?. \n46,311,143?. \n47,631,280?. \n45,849,194?. \n46,163,486?. \n46,670,668?. \n47. "S^\'- \n46,429,210?. \n46,902,879?. \n62,395,414/. \n65,528,327/. \n44,118,409/. \n46,054,143?. \n43,446,183/. \n41,139,408/. \n38,145,930/. \n39,092,830?. \n42,971,276. \n56,175,426. \n74.953.997- \n\n\n\n* There are five kinds of fossil fuel: anthracite, coal, \nlignite, bituminous shale, and bitumen. No satisfactory \ndefinition of coal has yet been given. The composition of \nH\'ood is 491 carbon, 63 hydrogen, 44 \'6 oxygen ; of coal \n82 "6 carbon, 56 hydrogen, 118 oxygen. \n\nt The plan adopted for obtaining the value of the \ncoal produced was changed in 1882. \n\n\n\nCOAL. \n\n\n\n226 \n\n\n\nCOAL. \n\n\n\nUnited States, 41,752,609 tons, obtained in . . 1872 \n\nMr. Sopwith, in 1855, computed the annual product \nof the coal-mines of Durham and Northumberland \nat 14 million tons : \xe2\x80\x94 6 millions for London, 23- \nmillions exported, 25 millions for coke, 1 million \nfor colliery engines," <fee. , and two millions for \nlocal consumption. \n\nBy a stipulation in the commercial treaty of i860, in \nconsequence of the French government greatly \nreducing the duty on imported coal, the British \ngovernment (it is thought by many imprudently) \nengaged to lay no duty on exported coal for ten \nyears. In 1859 about 7,000,000 tons of British \ncoals were exported, of which 1,391,009 tons went \nto France. \n\nA commission (consisting of the duke of Argyll, sir \nR. I. Murchison, Dr. John Percy, professor \nRamsay, and others) appointed to investigate into \nthe probable quantity of coal in the coal-fields of \nthe United Kingdom, &c. 28 June, 1866, reported \n27 July, 1871 : \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nAttainable quantity of coal in known tons \n\ncoal-fields 90,207,000,000 \n\nProbable available coal in other \nplaces 56,273,000,000 \n\n146,480,000,000 \n\n\n\nSale of Coal Regulation Act \n\nThe duties on the exportation of British coal, which \nhad existed since the 16th century, were prac- \ntically repealed \n\nSir R. Peel imposed a duty of 4s. a ton in 1842 ; \ncaused much dissatisfaction ; repealed . . . \n\nWomen were prohibited from working in English \ncollieries in \n\nThe consumption of coal in France in 1780, only \n400,000 tons, rises to 6,000,000 tons in . . . \n\nThe United States produced between 8 and 9 millions \nof tons : Belgium, 5,000,000 ; and France, 4,500,000, \n\nAn Act for the regulation and inspection of mines \npassed \n\nDuplicate shafts act passed . . . ... \n\nCoal-pitmen\'s strikes frequently occur ; a long and \nsevere one arose in Staffordshire in 1864 ; near St. \nHelen\'s, March, 1868 ; in S. Wales . Jan. -March, \n\nCoal-mines regulation act, tending to check the sup- \nply, passed 10 Aug. 1872 ; Act amended \n\nBy another act preceding acts were consolidated, \nthe employment of women and boys under 12 \nunderground was prohibited, the qualifications \nof managers is to be tested by examiners, and \nother regulations made ... 6 Sept. \n\nA coal-cutting machine at work, producing about \n70 tons in 8 hours (work of 40 men) ; requires \nattendance of 3 or 4 men . . Times, 6 Feb. \nreported successful in Northumberland . Nov. \n\nGreat dearth of coal in London (see Strikes), best \ncoal 52s. a ton 15 Feb. \n\nDuty on Coal brought to London, gd. a ton, and $d. \na ton for London improvements ; produced \n381,2492. \n\nParliamentary committee respecting coal first met \n\n24 March, \n\nExhibition of coal-raising machinery at Salford, \nManchester, opened .... 30 Jan. \n\nRoyal Commission on spontaneous combustion of \ncoal (Mr. H. C. Childers, professor Abel, &c.) met \n11 Nov. 1875 ; report issued ; alludes to danger \nof absorption of oxygen, need of ventilation, &c. \n\nAug. \n\nA commission to inquire into the causes and \nremedies for explosions was appointed (including \nMessrs. Warington W. Smyth, Tyndall, F. A.. \n\nAbel, and others) Feb. \n\n[Preliminary report issued Nov. 1881 ; final report \n\n15 March, 1886.] \n\nA great reduction of accidents through improved \n\nmanagement announced .... Nov. \n\nA new method of blasting by quick -lime-cartridges \n\ninvented by Smith and Moor much recommended \n\nIncrease of wages obtained in consequence of the \n\nminers\' conference at Manchester . Jan. -Feb. \n\nYorkshire Miners\' Association (Benjamin Pickard \nand others) demand diminution of time of labour, \nand decrease of output in order to raise the price \nof coal Feb. \n\n\n\n1842 \n1S45 \n185s \n\n\n\n1873 \n\n\n\n1873 \n\n\n\n1874 \n\n1876 \n1879 \n\n1881 \n\n1882 \n\n\n\nGovernment circular issued, recommending the \nuse of Fleus\'s apparatus for rendering foul air \nrespirable after explosions (see Diving) March 18S3 \n\nImportant meeting of delegates from about 17,000 \nminers requiring 15 per cent, increase of wages \nat A rd wick 6 Nov. ,, \n\nPit-brow women employed outside of coal mines in \nLancashire and South Wales ; an attempt to \nprohibit this negatived by the commons 23 June, 1887- \n\nMessrs. Ash worth and Kneen patent a furnace which \nsaves about 35 per cent, of coal and consumes \nsmoke, autumn 1887. \n\nProposed formation of " The Coal Owners and \nConsumers Co-operative Association " March, 1889. \n\nCoal-field discovered near Dover . . 15 Feb. 189c. \n\nFederation of colliery owners proposed (except \nS. Wales, Northumberland, and Durham) in \nopposition to strikes, &c. . 31 Jan., 11 Feb. ,, \n\nThe colliers\' demand for advance of 10 per cent, \npay, resisted 1 1 Feb. , .. \n\nThe miners\' delegates (40) at Westminster (repre- \nsenting 350,000) threaten a general strike if the \nadvance of 10 per cent, is not conceded before 15 \nMarch 15 Feb. ,,. \n\nThe strike begins 15 March ,,. \n\nMeeting of delegates from both parties ; and imme- \ndiate advance of 5 per cent, on Aug. 1 agreed to ; \nstrike closes 20 March ,,. \n\nRoyal commission appointed to inquire into the \neffect of coal dust in relation to explosions in \nmines (Mr. J. Chamberlain, lord Rayleigh, prof. \nDixon, and others) ; first meeting . 6 March, iSgir \n\nThe Northumberland coal-miners agree to a reduc- \ntion of 5 per cent, on their wages . 2 Jan. 1892- \n\nThe new " sliding scale" agreed to, 1 Jan., adopted \nat Cardiff and Aberdare . . . 4 Jan. ,,. \n\nThe representatives of the National Miners\' Federa- \ntion at Manchester, recommend a temporary sus- \npension of work (12-26 March), to raise the prices \nand maintain the rate of pay to miners ; gene- \nrally accepted, except in South Wales, Northum- \nberland, Durham, Worcestershire, Staffordshire, \nand Scotland . . . . . Feb. JS , \n\nPrices raised in London, &c, temporary panic \n\n29 Feb.ei seq. ,\xe2\x80\x9e \n\nStrike of the Durham coal-miners against the pro- \nposed 10 per cent, reduction of wages, 11 March ; \n92,588 said to be out, 16 March ; the men agree \nto accept j% or 10 per cent, reduction ; the coal- \nowners require 13^ per cent. ; compromise^ \neffected by the intervention of bishop Westcott \nat a meeting at Auckland Castle, 10 per cent, \naccepted by both parties, 1 June ; manufactures \non the Tyne and Wear much suspended \n\nMarch \xe2\x80\x94 June ,, \nAccidents. \xe2\x80\x94 About 1000 lives are lost annually by \n\nexplosion and accidents in mines. (1856-76). 1877,1208 \n\nlost: 1878, 1413 ; 1879, 973 lost; 1880, 1318 lost; 1881,- \n\n954 lost ; 1882, 1126 lost ; 1883, 1054 lost ; 1884, 942 lost ;. \n\n1885, 1150 lost; 1886, 953; 18S7, 995; 1888, 888; 1889.. \n\n1,110; 1890,1,206; 1891, 1,030. (1874-84, 11,165 deaths ;. \n\n2562 due to explosions; 8603 due to other causes. Sir \n\nF. A. Abel, 18 Nov. 1885.) \n\nMore men employed than formerly, consequently more- \ndeaths at explosions (1886). Pits deeper than formerly... \nDust as well as after-damp causes explosions. \nIn 1858, by explosions in coal-mines, 52 persons rjerisheOi \n\nat Bardsley ; 20 at Duffryn, near Newport ; 52 at \n\nTydesley, near Leeds ; and about 36 in different parts of \n\nthe country. \n\n1859 \xe2\x80\x94 5 April, 26 lives were lost at the chain colliery,. \n\nnear Neath, through the irruption of water. \n\ni860 \xe2\x80\x94 76 lives were lost on 2 March., at Burradon, near \n\nKillingworth ; 145 at the Risca mine, near Newport,. \n\nMon., 1 Dec. ; and 22 at the Hettou mine, Northumber- \nland, 20 Dec. \n\n1861\xe2\x80\x94 11 June, 21 lives were lost through an inundation; \n\nin the Claycross mines, Derbyshire. \n\n85 lives were lost at Lalle coal-mine, in France, in Oct. \n\n1861. \n1862 \xe2\x80\x94 47 lives were lost at Gethin mine, Merthyr \n\nTydvil, S. Wales, 19 Feb. ; at Walker, near Neweastle- \n\non-Tyne, 15 lives lost, 22 Nov. ; Edmund\'s Main, near \n\nBarnsley, 60 lives lost, 8 Dec. \n1863 \xe2\x80\x94 13 lives lost at Coxbridge, near Newcastle, \n\n6 March ; 39 lives lost at Margam, S. Wales, 17 Oct.j 14 \n\nlives lost at Maesteg, S. Wales, 26 Dec. \n1865\xe2\x80\x946 lives lost at Claycross, 3 May; 24 at New \n\n\n\nCOAL. \n\n\n\n227 \n\n\n\nCOAL. \n\n\n\nBedwellty pit, near Tredegar, 16 June ; explosion at \nGethin mine, Merthyr Tydvil, 30 lives lost, 20 Deo. \n\n1866 \xe2\x80\x94 Explosion at Highbrook colliery, near Wigan, \nLancashire, about 30 lives lost, 23 Jan. ; at Dukiulield, \nnear Ashton, 37 lives lost, 14 June ; at Pelton Fell \ncolliery, near Durham, about 24 lives lost, 31 Oct. ; at \nOaks colliery, Hoyle-mill, near Barnsley, about 360 \npersons killed, 12 Dec. ; 28 searchers killed (including \nMr. Parkin Jett\'cock, mining engineer) by fresh explosion, \n\n13 Dec. ; at Talke-of-the-hill, Staffordshire, about 80 \npersons perish, 13 Dec. \n\n1867 \xe2\x80\x94 Explosion at Garswood colliery, near St. Helen\'s, \n\n14 lives lost, 29 Aug. ; Shankhouse colliery, Cramlington, \nNorthumberland, flooded, 1 man drowned, 1 Nov. ; ex- \nplosionat Femdale colliery, Rhondda valley, Glamorgan- \nshire, about 178 lives lost : attributed tonaked lights, \n8 Nov. \n\n(For still more fatal accidents, see Lundhill and \nHartley.) \n\n47 lives lost in a mine near Jemmapes, Belgium, 6 \nAug. 1868. \n\n1868. Explosions : at Green pit, near Kuabon, 11 \npersons killed, 30 Sept. ; at Arley mine, Hindley-green, \nnear Wigan, 62 killed, 26 Nov. ; at Norley mine, near \nWigan, about 7 killed, 21 Dec. ; at Haydock collieries, \nnear St. Helen\'s, 26 deaths, 30 Dec. \n\n1869. Brierly pit, near Stourbridge, inundated 17 \nMarch, many lost ; \xe2\x80\x94 some rescued, 20, 21 March. \nExplosions at Highbrook colliery, near Wigan, about \n33 persons perished, 1 April ; at Ferndale colliery, \nGlamorganshire, about 60 lost, 10 June ; Haydock pit, \nSt. Helen\'s, about 58 lost, 21 July ; Moss Coal Company\'s \npit, near Hindley, about 30 lost, 22 Nov. \n\n1870. Explosions \xe2\x80\x94 at Silverdale colliery, Staffordshire, \n19 killed, 7 July ; Llansamlet, near Swansea, 19 killed, \n23 July ; Brynn-hall, near Wigan, about 19 killed, 16 \nAug. \n\n1871. Explosions, Renishaw park colliery, Eckington, \nnear Sheffield, 27 killed, 10 Jan. ; Pentre colliery, \nRhondda valley, 38 killed, 24 Feb. ; Victoria, near Ebbw \nVale, Monmouthshire, about 19 killed, 2 March ; Moss \nPits, near Wigan, 70 killed, 6 Sept. ; Grisons, Belgium, \n30 killed, 27 Sept. ; Gelly pit, Aberdare, 4 killed, 4 Oct. ; \nSeaham, 30 killed, 25 Oct. \n\n1872. Explosions \xe2\x80\x94 Llynvi valley near Bridgend, 11 \nkilled, 11 Jan. ; Black lake colliery, S. Staffordshire, 8 \nkilled, (through carelessness), 25 Jan. ; Morley main, near \nDewsbury and Leeds, 7 Oct. about 34 deaths : great \ncarelessness and bad discipline ; Rains mine, Pendlebury, \n6 killed, 6 Nov. ; Monceaux, department of Saone et Loire, \nabout 38 killed, 8 Nov. ; Pelsall-hall, Walsall, about 22 \ndrowned by influx of water from an old working, 14 Nov. \n\n1873. Explosion at Talke colliery, N. Staffordshire Coal \nand Iron Company\'s works, about 20 killed, 18 Feb. ; \nDrummond colliery, Nova Scotia, explosion and fire, \nabout 75 perished, 13 May ; Shamokin, Pennsylvania, \nU.S., 15 killed, 18 June ; Meshes colliery, near Wigan, \n\n6 killed, 21 Nov. \n\n1874. Explosions\xe2\x80\x94 Astley pit, Dukinfield, near Man- \nchester, 54 killed, (attributed to gross ignorance or cul- \npable carelessness), 14 April ; Saw-mills pit, near Wigan, \n\n15 killed, 18 July ; Rawmarsh colliery near Rotherham, \nexplosion through naked lights, about 23 killed, 20 Nov. ; \nBignall hall colliery, near Dudley, Staffordshire, 17 \nkilled, 24 Dec. \n\n1875. Explosions \xe2\x80\x94 Aldwarke Main, near Rotherham, \n\n7 killed, 5 Jan. ; Ruffery colliery, Dudley, 4 killed, 6 Jan.; \nBunker\'s Hill, North Staffordshire, (through a gun- \npowder fuze), 43 deaths, 30 April ; Donnington Wood, \nShropshire, 11 killed, n Sept. ; Ashton Vale, near Bed- \nminster, 4 killed, 7 Oct. ; Haigh, near Wigan, Alexandra \npit (accident with descending cages), 7 killed, 3 Dec. ; \nPowell Duffryn, New Tredegar, 22 killed, 4 Dec. ; Llan- \ncolly, Pentyrch, (naked light), 12 killed, 5 Dec. ; Swaithe \nmain, near Barnsley, about 140 killed, 6 Dec. ; Methley \njunction, near Leeds, 6 killed, 9 Dec. Explosion at a \ncolliery near Mons, Belgium, about no killed, 14 Dec. \n\n1876. Explosions\xe2\x80\x94 Talke, North Staffordshire, 5 killed, \nS Jan. ; St. Etienne, France, about 30 killed, 4 Feb. \nBirley, near Sheffield, 6 killed, 26 June ; Abertillery, \nMonmouthshire, 17 killed, 18 Dec. \n\n1877. Explosions, &c. \xe2\x80\x94 Stonehill, near Bolton, about \n18 killed, 23 Jan. ; Darcy Lever, near Bolton, about 10 \nkilled, 7 Feb. ; Tyldesley, near Bolton, 7 killed, 6 March ; \nNew Worcester pit, Swansea, 18 or 19 killed, 8 March. In- \nundation \xe2\x80\x94 Tynewydd mine, near Pontypridd, S. Wales, \nseveral drowned, 1 1 April, several rescued by excavation, \nafter ten days\' imprisonment ; great heroism shown, see \n\n\n\nAlbert Medals, 20 April ; Mr. Thomas, manager, accused of \nculpable negligence, after inquest on 5 deaths, 17 May. \xe2\x80\x94 \nKing Pit, Pemberton, near Wigan, about 33 perished \n(including Mr. Walker, the manager, and two overlookers \nattempting rescue) n Oct. ; High Blantyre, near Glasgow, \nMessrs. Dixon\'s pits, above 200 perished, 22 Oct. ; South \nKirby, near Barnsley, rope broke, 4 killed, 29 Oct. \n\n1878. Explosions, &c. \xe2\x80\x94 High Blantyre, 6 perished, 9 \nMarch; Kilsyth, Stirlingshire, Barnard Pit, 16 immured, \n8 March ; Kearsley, near Bolton, about 43 perished, 12 \nMarch ; Apedale, near Chesterton, N. Staffordshire, about \n30 perished, 27 March ; Wood Pits, Florida mine, Hay- \ndock, near Wigan, about 189 perished, 7 June ; Ebbw \nVale colliery, Abercarne, 12 miles from Newport, Mon- \nmouthshire, about 268 out of 3S7 perished, n Sept. \n\n1879. Explosions, &c\xe2\x80\x94 Dinas pit, Rhondda valley, \nGlamorganshire, about 63 perish, 13 Jan. ; " Deep \nDrop " pit, near Wakefield, 19 perish, 4 March ; Victoria \ncolliery, Snydale, near Wakefield ; rope of descending \ncage broke, 8 killed, 7 March ; Cwmavon, Glamorgan- \nshire ; chain broke, 6 killed, 24 June ; High Blantyre \ncollieries, Dixon & Co., 28 killed, 2 July; Lady pit, \nSilverdale, N. Staffordshire, 8 deaths, 12 Sept. ; Wann \nLlwyd, Ebbw Vale, Monmouth, 3 killed, 22 Sept. : \nShortheath, near Wolverhampton, 6 killed, 12 Nov. ; \nScowcrofts, Kearsley, near Bolton, 7 deaths, 25 Dec. \n\n1880. Explosions, &c. \xe2\x80\x94 Leycett, near Newcastle- \nunder-Lyme, about 73 deaths, 21 Jan. ; Anderlavs \n(France), about 20 deaths, 1 April ; Risea, 6 miles from \nNewport, Mon., about 120 deaths 15 July ; Seaham, \nnear Sunderland, Durham, 164 deaths, 8 Sept. ; Pen-y- \ngraig, S. Wales, 101 perished, 10 Dec. \n\n1881. Explosions.\xe2\x80\x94 Whitfield colliery, Chell, N. Staf- \nford, 20 killed, 7 Feb. ; Hanley, Staffordshire, about 5 \nkilled, 21 Nov. ; Cockerill colliery, Belgium, 66 perished, \nabout 9 Dec. ; Abram colliery, near Wigan, about 48 \nperished, 19 Dec. (13 explosions, with loss of 99 lives). \n\n1882. Explosions \xe2\x80\x94 Coedlae, Glamorganshire, 6 lives, \nn Feb. ; Trimdon Grange colliery, 74 perished, 16 Feb. ; \nBlaina, Monmouthshire, 5 deaths, 27 Feb. ; Lumley, near \nFencehouses, Durham, fall of shaft, about 100 imprisoned, \n14 March ; Tudhoe colliery, Weardale, Durham, 37 lives \nlost, 18 April; West Stanley, Durham, 13 lives \nlost, 19 April ; lord Lonsdale\'s colliery, near White- \nhaven, 4 killed, 25 April ; Baxterley mine, near Ather- \nstone, Warwickshire, about 32 lives lost, 2 May ; Vic- \ntoria colliery, Brantcliff, Morley, near Leeds, 7 killed, r \nMay ; Claycross, above 45 deaths, 7 Nov. \n\n1883. Explosions.\xe2\x80\x94 Wharnclifte colliery, near Barns- \nley, 17 deaths, 19 Oct. ; Fair Lady pit, near Leycett, \nNewcastle-under-Lyme, 22 Oct. ; Moor-fields colliery, \nnear Accrington, Lancashire, about 68 deaths, 7 Nov. \n\n1884. Explosions, &c\xe2\x80\x94 Gamant, Cwmamman, South \nWales; rope broke; cage fell; 11 killed, 16 Jan.; \nRhondda valley, Glamorganshire, explosion, about n \nperished, Jan. ; Pochin colliery, near Tredegar, 14 \ndeaths, 8 Nov. \n\n1885. Explosions, &c. \xe2\x80\x94 Usworth, near Newcastle-on- \nTyne ; about 42 deaths, 2 March ; Camphausen, near \nSaarbrtick. about 140 .perish, 17 March ; Dombrau, \nOstrau, Moravia, about 41 deaths, 27 March; Fenton \ncolliery, near Stoke-on-Trent, 8 deaths, 7 April ; Hough - \nton-le-Spring, about 12 perish, 3 June ; Clifton Hall, near \nPendlebury, Lancashire, about 177 perish, 9.30 a.m. 18 \nJune ; Burley, Apedale, N. Stafford, 9 killed, 20 June : \nManly colliery, Pontypridd, S. Wales, 200 entombed, Si \ndeaths, 23 Dec. (Explosions in Britain 16, deaths 322.) \n\n1886. Explosions, &c. \xe2\x80\x94 Easton colliery, Bristol, 4 \nkilled, 19 Feb. ; Werfa old pit, Abernant, near Aberdare, \n3 killed, 27 March ; Woodend or Bedford colliery, mar \nWest Leigh, S.W. Lancashire, explosion, 38 deaths, \n\n13 Aug.; Bedminster colliery, near Bristol, 10 killed, \n10 Sept. ; Braysdown colliery, near Radstock, 3 killed, \n\n14 Sept. ; Schalkc, in Westphalia, 45 perish, 24 Sept. : \nPope and Pearson\'s colliery, Altofts, near Wakefield, \n22 deaths, 2 Oct. ; Taunton colliery near Ashby-de-la- \nZoueh, Mr. Lakin, the owner, and three others* killed \nby choke-damp, 6 Oct. ; Albion colliery, near Ponty- \npridd, four killed, Nov. ; Elemore colliery, Durham, \n28 deaths, 2 Dec. ; Houghton Main colliery, near \nBarnsley, 10 men killed by fall of a cage, 30 Dec. \n\n1887. Explosions, &c. \xe2\x80\x94 Ynyshir colliery. Rhondda \nvalley, Wales, about 39 lives lost, 18 Feb. : Mons \ncolliery, Belgium, about 87 perish. 5 March ; I \'ill 1 i \n(Sydney), 85 perish, 23 March ; Victoria colliery, \nNanaimo, Vancouver Island, over 170 perish, 4 May : \nUdston colliery, near Glasgow, 73 perish, 28 May ; \n\nQ 2 \n\n\n\nCOAL DUES. \n\n\n\n228 \n\n\n\nCOCK-FIGHTING. \n\n\n\nGelsenkirchener, Prussia, above 60 perish, 8 June ; \nWalker, near Newcastle, 8 killed, 24 Oct. \n\n1888. St. Helen\'s colliery, Workington, about 30 lives \nlost, 19 April ; Aber colliery, Glamorgan, 5 lives lost, \n20 May ; Aveyron, France, 40 lives lost, 3 Nov. ; Dour, \nBelgium, 21 lives lost, 13 Nov. \n\n1889. Hyde colliery, Cheshire, 23 lives lost, 18 Jan. ; \nBrynnally colliery, near Wrexham, 20 lives lost, 13 \nMarch. Explosion of fire-damp in Verpilleux mine, near \nSt. Etienne, about 184 deaths, 3 July ; Shell colliery, \nN. Staffordshire, explosion, 3 deaths, 17 Aug. ; Peni- \ncuik colliery (Mauricewood pit), Midlothian, fire dis- \ncovered, 2 men escaped, 63 reported to have perished, \n5 Sept. ; Mossfield colliery, Adderley Green, Longton, \nN. Staffordshire, 59 deaths, 16 Oct. ; Hebburn colliery, \nnear Nevvcastle-on-Tyne, 6 deaths, 4 Nov. \n\n1890. Explosions, &c\xe2\x80\x94 Glynn Pit, near Pontypool, \n5 deaths, 23 Jan. ; Llanerch colliery, near Abersychan, \nMonmouthshire, 176 deaths (relief subscribed nearly \n26,000^.), 30 April ; colliery near Decize, Nievre, \nFrance, about 44 deaths, 18 Feb. ; Morfa colliery, Tar- \nbach, Glamorganshire, 87 deaths, 10 March ; Hill Farm \nmine, Pennsylvania, 34 perish, 16 June ; Pelissier mine, \nSt. Etienne, S. France, about 109 lives lost, 29 July ; \nMayback pit, near Wendel, 24 deaths, 15 Sept. \n\n1891. Explosions, &c. \xe2\x80\x94 Sladderhill pits, Apedale, near \nNewcastle-under-Lyme, about 10 lives lost, 2 April ; \nMalago Vale, Bedminster, 10 deaths, 31 Aug. ; Aber- \ngwynfi, Avon Valley, S. Wales, 7 men killed by accident \nto machinery, 30 Sept. ; St. Etienne, France, explosion \nthrough fire-damp, about 73 deaths, 6 Dec. \n\n1892. Explosions, &c. \xe2\x80\x94 Anderlues colliery, Mons, Bel- \ngium, about 153 killed, n March. \n\nSee Mansion-house Funds. \n\nCoal Exchange, London, established by 47 Geo. \nIII. c. 68 (1807). The present building (a most \ninteresting structure) was erected by Mr. J. B. \nBunning, and opened by prince Albert 30 Oct. 1849 \n\nCoal-wuippers\' Board, to protect the men em- \nployed in unloading coal-vessels from publicans, \nformed by an act of parliament in 1843, lasted \ntill 1856, when the coakowners themselves esta- \nblished a whipping office. \n\nCOAL DUES, on coal entering the port of \nLondon for metage are mentioned in 1444. The \nright of the Corporation to \\d. per chaldron was es- \ntablished in 1591. The amount of the tax and the \nterm of levying it have been frequently changed \nsince 1694. In 1831, the tax was directed to be \nlevied on all coals entering London by water or \nrailways, to be regulated by weight and not by \nmeasure. The tax of 13^. per ton by the act of \n1868 extended to 5 July, 1889. The receipts in \n1885 amounted to 449,343^. Latterly the money \nhas been expended on extensive City improvements. \nMuch discussion on the subject, 1887-9. \nAn act for the abolition of these dues received the \nroyal assent 9 July, 1889. Provision was made for the \ncontinuance of these dues another year to enable the \ncorporation to pay debts due for the Holborn Viaduct \nand various city improvements. They ceased 5 July, \n\n\n\nCOAL TAR, see Tar and Benzole. \n\nCOALITIONS AGAINST FRANCE generally \narose through England subsidising the great powers \nof the continent. See Treaties. \n\nAustria, Prussia and Great Britain .... 1793 \nGreat Britain, Germany, Russia, Naples, Portugal, \n\nand Turkey, signed .... 22 June, 1799 \nGreat Britain, Russia, Austria, and Naples, 5 Aug. 1805 \nGreat Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Saxony, 6 Oct. 1806 \nEngland and Austria .... 6 April, 1809 \nRussia and Prussia ; the treaty ratified at Kalisch \n\n17 March, 1813 \n\nCOALITION MINISTRIES, see Aberdeen, \nGrenville II., Pelham, and Portland. \n\nCOAST GUARD. In 1856, the raising and \ngoverning this body was transferred to the ad- \n\n\n\nmiralty. A coast brigade of artillery was established \nin Nov. 1859. \xe2\x80\x94 Coast Volunteers, see under \nNavy of England. The importance of electric coast \ncommunication in time of storms, &c, was much \ndiscussed in 1892. The government agreed to \nappoint a royal commission on the subject, 26 \nApril, 1892, which met 18 June, see Lighthouses. \n\nCOASTING TRADE of Great Britain thrown \nopen to all nations by 17 Vict. c. 5, 1854. \n\nCOBALT, a rare mineral found among the veins \nof ores, or in the fissures of stone, at an early date, \nin the mines of Cornwall, where the workmen call \nit mundic. Hill. It was distinguished as a metal \nby Brandt, in 1733. \n\nCOBDEN CLUB, instituted to spread and \ndevelop Cobden\'s principles; held first dinner, \n"W. E. Gladstone in the chair, 21 July, 1866. The \nstatue of Richard Cobden, at Camden Town, was \ninaugurated, 27 June, 1868. 12 out of 14 cabinet \nministers were members July, 1880. \nAt a meeting of the club, 12 May, 1890, earl Granville in \nthe chair, an address was presented to Mr. T. B. \nPotter, chairman for 24 years, and Mr. W. E. Glad- \nstone gave a discourse on free trade. \n\nCOBURG, see Saxe Coburg. \n\nCOCA, a powerful narcotic existing in the Ery- \nthoxy Ion Coca, aSouth American plantknown in 1580 ; \nmen taking a little of this are enabled to endure \nhard labour without any food for six or seven days \nand nights. Dr. Mantegazza\'s prize essay in \nGerman was published at Vienna in 1849. Cocaine, \nan anaesthetic obtained from this plant, said to be \nvery efficacious in ophthalmic and other delicate \nsurgical operations in 1884. \n\nCOCCEIANS, a small sect founded by John \nCocceius, of Bremen, in the seventeenth century. \nHe held, amongst other opinions, that of a visible \nreign of Christ in this world, after a general con- \nversion of the Jews and all other people to the \nChristian faith. He died in 1665. \n\nCOCHEREL (near Evreux, N. W. France) . \nHere Bertrand uu Guesclin defeated the king of \nNavarre, and took prisoner the captal de Buch, 16 \nMay, 1364. \n\nCOCHIN (India), held by the Portuguese, 1503; \nby the Dutch, 1663 ; by Hyder Ali, 1776 ; taken by \nthe British, 1796; ceded to them, 1814. \xe2\x80\x94 Cochix \nChina, see Annam. \n\nCOCHINEAL INSECT (Coccus cacti), de- \nriving its colour from feeding on the cactus, became \nknown to the Spaniards soon after their conquest of \nMexico in 1518. Cochineal was brought to Europe \nabout 1523, but was not known in Italy in 1548, \nalthough the art of dyeing then flourished there. \nIn 1858 it was cultivated successfully in Tenerifl\'e, \nthe vines having failed through disease. 260,000 lbs. \nof cochineal were imported into England in 1830 ; \n1,081,776 lbs. in 1845; 2,360,000 lbs. in 1850; \n3,034,976 lbs. in 1859; 47,790 cwt. in 1870; and \n32,094 cwt. in 1877; 27,952 cwt. in 1879; 3\xc2\xb0, OI 7 \ncwt. in 1881 ; 21,440 cwt. in 1883; 10,089 cwt - in \n1887 ; 7,808 cwt. in 1890. The use of cochineal has \nbeen much replaced by the coal tar colours. Duty \nrepealed 1845. \n\nCOCKER\' S ARITHMETIC \xe2\x96\xa0 Edward Cocker, \nan eminent penman, born 1631, died 1675, compiled \na book which first appeared in 1677, edited by John \nHawkins. \n\nCOCK-FIGHTING, practised by the Greeks, \nwas brought by the Romans into England. William \nFitz-Stephen, in the reign of Henry II., describes \n\n\n\nCOCK-LANE GHOST. \n\n\n\n229 \n\n\n\nCOIF. \n\n\n\ncock-fighting as the sport of school-boys on Shrove- \nTue?day. It was prohibited by Edward III. 1365 ; \nby Henry VIII. ; and by Cromwell, 1653, and \nlatterly in 1849. Part of the site of Drury-lane \ntheatre was a cock-pit in the reign of James I. ; and \nthe Cock-pit at Whitehall was erected by Charles II. \nFormerly there was a Cock-pit- Royal in St. James\'s \nPark; but the governors of Christ\'s Hospital would \nnot renew the lease for the building.* Cock-fighting \nis now forbidden by law. On 22 April, 1865, 34 \npersons were fined at Marlborough-street police- \noffice, for being present at a cock-fight. It was \npopular in New York, 1873. \n\nCOCK-LANE GHOST, an imposition prac- \ntised by William Parsons, his wife, and daughter, \nby means of a female ventriloquist, during 1760 and \n1761, at No. 33, Cock-lane, London, was at length \ndetected, and the parents were condemned to the \npillory and impriso anient, 10 July, 1762. \n\nCOCOA or CACAO, the kernel or seed of Theo- \nbroma cacao (Linn.), was introduced into this \ncountry shortly after the discovery of Mexico, where \nit is an article of diet. From cocoa is produced \nchocolate. The cocoa imported into the United \nKingdom, chiefly from the British West Indies and \nGuiana, was in 1849, 1,989,477 lbs.; in 1855, \n7,343,458 lbs. ; in 1861, 9,080,288 lbs. ; in 1866, \n10,308,298 lbs.; in 1870, 14, 793\', 950 lbs.; in 1876, \n20,443,591 lbs.; in 1877, 17,056,364 lbs.; in 1879, \n26,155,788 lbs. ; in 1883, 22,698,161 lbs. ; in 1887, \n27,352,568 lbs. ; in 1890, 28,112,210 lbs. \n\nCOCOA-NUT TREE {Cocos nucifera, Linn.), \nsupplies the Indians with almost all they need, as \nbread, water, wine, vinegar, brandy, milk, oil, \nhoney, sugar, needles, clothes, thread, cups, spoons, \nbasins, baskets, paper, masts for ships, sails, cord- \nage, nails, covering for their houses, &c. Ray. \nIn Sept. 1829, Mr. Soames patented his mode of \nprocuring stearine and elaine from cocoa-nut oil. \nIt is said that 32 tons of candles have been made \nin a month from these materials at the Belmont \nworks, Lambeth. \n\nCODES, see Laivs. Alfrenus Varus, the civilian, \nfirst collected the Roman laws about 66 B.C. ; and \nServius Sulpicius, the civilian, embodied them \nabout 53 B.C. The Gregorian and Hermoginian \ncodes were published a.d. 290 ; the Theodosian \ncode commenced by order of Theodosius II. in \n\nJ 29 ; and published for the eastern empire in 438. \nn 447 he transmitted to Valentinian his new con- \nstitutions promulgated as the law of the west in \n448. The celebrated code of the emperor Justinian \nin 529 \xe2\x80\x94 a digest from this last made in 533 ; see \nBasilica. Alfred\'s code, a selection from existing \nlaws, is the foundation of the common law of \nEngland, 887. \xe2\x80\x94 The Code Napoleon, the civil code \nof France, was promulgated from 1803 to 1810. \nThe emperor considered it his most enduring monu- \nment. It was prepared under Ms supervision by \nthe most eminent jurists, from the 400 systems \npreviously existing, and has been adopted by other \ncountries. \n\nA conference of jurists and publicists to consider \nan international code held at Brussels, July, Aug. 1874 \n\nCODEX, see under Bible, Alexandrian, &c. \n\n* Mr. Ardesoif, a gentleman of large fortune and great \nhospitality, who was almost unrivalled in the splendour \nof his equipages, had a favourite cock, upon which he \nhad won many profitable matches. The last wager \nhe laid upon this cock he lost, which so enraged him, \nthat in a tit of passion he thrust the bird into the fire. \nA delirious fever, the result of his rage and inebriety, in \nthree days put an end to his life. He died at Tottenham, \nnear London, 4 April, 1788. \n\n\n\nCODFISH, see Holland, 1347. \n\nCOD-LIVER OIL was recommended as a \nremedy for chronic rheumatism by Dr. Percival in \n1782, and for diseases of the lungs about 1833. De \nJongh\'s treatise on cod-liver oil was published in \nLatin, 1844; in English, 1849. \n\nCOERCION BILLS, see Ireland, 1881 and \n1887. \n\nC03UR DE LION or the Lion-Hearted, \na surname given to Richard I. of England, on ac- \ncount of his courage, about 1192 ; and also to Louis \nVIII. of France, who signalised himself in the cm-. \nsades, and in his wars against England, about 1223. \n\nCOFFEE. The tree was conveyed from Mocha \nin Arabia to Holland about 1616; and carried to \nthe West Indies in 1726. First cultivated at Suri- \nnam by the Dutch, 1718. The culture was encour- \naged in the plantations about 1 732, and the British \nand French colonies now grow coffee abundantly. \nIts use as a beverage is traced to the Persians. It \ncame into great repute in Arabia Felix, about 1454; \nand passed thence into Egypt and Syria, and thence \n(in 151 1) to Constantinople, where a coffee-house \nwas opened in 1551. M. Thevenot, the traveller, \nfirst brought it to France, 1662. Chambers. See \nCafeine. \n\nCoffee brought into England by Mr. Nathaniel \nCanopus, a Cretan, who made it his common \nbeverage at Balliol college, Oxford. Anderson . 1641 \nThe first coffee-house in England was kept by a \n\nJew, named Jacobs, in Oxford .... 1650 \nMr. Edwards, an English Turkey merchant, brought \nhome with him Pasquet, a Greek servant, who \nopened the first coffee-house in London, in George- \nyard, Lombard-street 1652 \n\nPasquet afterwards went to Holland, and opened \n\nthe first house in that country. Anderson. \nRainbow coffee-house, Temple-bar, represented as a \n\nnuisance 1657 \n\nCoffee-houses suppressed by proclamation, 1675 ; \n\nthe order revoked on petition of the traders . . 1676 \nLicences to sell coffee abolished .... 1869 \nDuty on coffee reduced to i^d. the pound from \n\n2 May, 137Z \nThe quantity of coffee imported into these realms \nin 1852, 54,935.510 lbs. ; in i860, 82,767,746 lbs. ; \nin 1866, 127,044,816 lbs. ; in 1873, 183, 35?, 576 lbs. ; \nin 1876, 1,361,6+2 cwts. ; in 1877, 1,608,282 cwts. ; \nin 1879, 1,609,386 cwts. ; in 1883, 1,407,134 cwts. ; \nin 1887, 1,045,698 cwts. ; in 1890, 864,454 cwts. \nCoffee Palaces, founded by Dr. Barnardo to replace \npublic-houses for working-men. The " Edinburgh \nCastle," Limehouse, the first opened, 1873 ; the \n\n"Dublin Castle," Mile End 1876 \n\nCoffee Taverns, many opened in London . 1877-1889 \nCoffee Public-house National Society, formed April, \n\n1879 ; opened a house at Shadwell . 28 June, 1879 \nCoffee disease prevalent in Ceylon, &c. autumn, 1882 \nM. Raoul reports the destructive, nearly uni- \nversal ravages of Hemilia Vastatrix . . June, 1888 \n\nCOFFERER of the Household, formerly \n\nan officer of state, and a member of the privy council, \nwho had special charge of the other officers of the \nhousehold. Sir Henry Cocks was cofferer to queen \nElizabeth. In 1782 the office was suppressed. \n\nCOFFINS. Athenian heroes were buried in \ncoffins of cedar; owing to its aromatic and incor- \nruptible qualities. Thucydidcs. Coffins of marble \nand stone were used by the Romans. Alexander is \nsaid to have been buried in one of gold ; and glass \ncoffins have been found in England. Gouyh. Patent \ncoffins were invented in I7<K>; air-tight metalli \xe2\x96\xa0 \ncoffins advertised at Birmingham in 1861. \n\nCOIF. The Serjeant\'s coif was introduced \nbefore 1259, to hide the tonsure of such clergy- \nmen as chose to remain advocates in the secular \ncourts, notwithstanding their prohibition by canon. \n\n\n\nCOIMBEA. \n\n\n\n230 \n\n\n\nCOIN. \n\n\n\nBlack-stone. The coif was at first a thin linen \ncover gathered together in the form of a skull \nor helmet, the material being afterwards changed \ninto white silk, and the form eventually into the \nblack patch at the top of the forensic wig, which \nis now the distinguishing mark of the degree of \nserjeant-at-law. Foss\'s Lives of the Judges. \n\nCOIMBEA was made the capital of Portugal \nby Alfonso, the first king, 1139. The only Portu- \nguese university was transferred from Lisbon to \nCoimbra in 1308; finally settled in 1527. In a \nconvent here, Alfonso IV. caused iCez de Castro, at \nfirst mistress and afterwards wife of his son Pedro, \nto be cruelly murdered in 1355. Population, 1878, \nI3.369- \n\nCOIN. Homer speaks of brass money, 1 184 \nB.C. The invention of coin is ascribed to the \nLydians, whose money was of gold and silver. \nBoth were coined by Pheidon, tyrant of Argos, about \n862 B.C. Money was corned at Home under Servius \nTullius, about 573 B.C. The most ancient known \ncoins are Macedonian of the 5th century B.C. Brass \nmoney only was in use at Rome previously to 269 \nB.C. (when Fabius Pictor coined silver). Gold was \ncoined 206 B.C. Iron money was used in Sparta, \nand iron and tin in Britain. Dufresnoy. In the \nearlier days of Rome the heads were those of deities, \nor of those who had received divine honours. \nJulius Caesar first obtained permission of the senate \nto place his portrait on the coins, and the example \nwas soon followed. The Britons and Saxons coined \nsilver. \xe2\x80\x94 Rev. Roger Ruding\'s "Annals of the Coin- \nage of Great Britain," published 1817-40. \xe2\x80\x94 The \ngold and silver coinage in the world is about \n250,000,000/. silver, and 150,000,000/. gold. Times, \n25 June, 1852. See Gold, Silver, Copper and Guineas, \nand other coins under names. An international \nconference relative to a universal system of coinage \nmet at Paris in 1867 ; and a royal commission was \nappointed in London, .Feb. 1868. \xc2\xa3 for librce, \nRoman pound of 12 ounces; s. for solidi (Auglo- \nSaxon scill or scilling) ; d. for denarii, the Roman \npenny. \n\nThe first coinage was at Camalodunum, or Col- \nchester. \n\nCoin was made sterling in 1216, before which time \nrents were mostly paid in kind, and money was \nfound only in the coffers of the barons. Stow. \n\nCoinage reformed by Edward VI. . . . 1547-53 \n\nQueen Elizabeth caused the base coin to be recalled \nand genuine issued 1560 \n\nDuring the reigns of the Stuarts the coinage was \ngreatly debased by clipping, &c. A commission \n(Charles Montague, lord Somers, sir Isaac Newton, \nand John Locke) was appointed by William III. \nto reform the coinage ; an act was passed, with- \ndrawing the debased coin from circulation, and \n1,200,00.0?. was raised by a window-tax duty to \ndefray the expense 1695-96 \n\nBroad-pieces called in, and re-coined into guineas . 1732 \n\nThe gold-coin brought into the Mint by proclama- \ntion, amounted to about 15, 563, 593L ; the expense \nof collecting, melting, and recoining it, was \n\n754.019* 1773-6 \n\nAct for weighing gold coin passed . . 13 June, 1774 \nThe coin of the realm valued at about 12,000,000?. \nin 1711. Davenant. At 16,000,000?. in 1762. An- \nderson. It was 20,000,000?. in 1786. Chalmers. \n37,000,000?. in 1800. Phillips. \n\nNew silver coinage 1816 \n\nEnglish and Irish money assimilated . . 1 Jan. 1S26 \nThe gold is 28,000,000?., and the rest of the metallic \n\ncurrency is 13,000,000?. Duke of Wellington . 1830 \nMetallic, currency calculated to reach 45,000,000?. . 1840 \nEstimated as approaching, in gold and silver, \n60,000,000?. ........ 1853 \n\nSilver coined in London, value 11,108,265?. 15s. 1816-40 \nDitto, value 2,440,614? 1837-47 \n\n\n\nLight gold called in 1842 \n\nNapier\'s coin-weighing machine at the bank of \n\nEngland constructed 1844 \n\nThe law respecting coinage offences consolidated . 1861 \nNew Coinage act, 4 April, 1870 ; amended 5 Aug. 1891 \n\nThe first gold coins on certain record, struck 42 \nHen. III. 1257 \n\nGold florin first struck, Edw. III. (Camden) . . 1337 \nHe introduced gold 6s. pieces, and nobles of 6s. Sd. \n(hence the lawyer\'s fee), afterwards half and \n\nquarter nobles 1344 \n\nEdw. IV. coined angels with a figure of Michael and \nthe dragon, the original of George and the dragon 1465 \n\nSovereigns first minted 1489 \n\nShillings first coined (Dr. Kelly) . . 1503 or 1504 \nCrowns and half-crowns coined . . ... 1553 \n\nIrish shillings struck 1560 \n\nMilled shilling of Elizabeth 1562 \n\nFirst large copper coinage, putting an end to the \ncirculation of private leaden pieces, &c. . . 1620 \n\nModern milling introduced 1631 \n\nHalfpence and farthings 1665 \n\nCopper coined by government 1672 \n\nGuineas (value 20s.), 2-guinea and 5 -guinea pieces, 1663-64 \nQuarter-guinea coined, 3 Geo. I. 1716 \n\nTwo-penny copper pieces 1797 \n\nGold 7s. -pieces authorised . . .29 Nov. ,, \nSovereigns, new coinage, St. George and dragon . 1817 \nFour-penny pieces (see Groat) coined . . 1836-56 \nThree-penny pieces : 3,290,208 coined . . . 1861 \n\nHalf-farthings coined 1843 \n\nSilver florin (2s.) 1849 \n\nNo crowns (184S-78) or half-crowns coined . 1848-73 \n\nBronze coinage issued 1 Dec, i860 \n\nSt. George and dragon sovereigns re-issued 14 Jan. 1871 \nHalf-crowns again coined; recommended by bankers 1874 \nNew die for gold coin finished . . March, 1882 \nThe bankers complain of great loss, by receiving \n\nlight goldcoins 1882-3 \n\nSee Budget, 1884. \nSale of Mr. Whittall\'s great collection of Greek and \n\nother coins, 1,668 lots realized 3,951?. . July, 1884 \nProclamation against importation of foreign bronze \ncoins [to be received with slight reduction at \npost offices up to May 31] . . . 25 March, 1887 \nProclamation respecting changes in coinage, viz., \nin pieces value of 5?., 2?., 1?., 10s., 5s., 2s. 6d., 2s., \nis., and 6d. ; also Maundy monies value of $d., 3c?., \n2d., & it?. New coin ordered, double florin 4s. ; \nnew effigy and designs 13 May ; new coinage issued \n\n20 June, ,, \nThe importation of imitation coins was prohibited \n\nby act passed 26 Aug. 1889 \n\nMr. Goschen introduces a bill for the withdrawal of \nlight gold coin issued before June, 1837, and the \nsubstitution of coin of full weight provisionally, \nat the expense of the mint, July ; passed 30 Aug. ,, \n[The offer expired 13 Jan., extended to 31 March, 1890.] \nThe coinage committee (sir John Lubbock, sir Frede- \nrick Leigh ton, the deputy-master of the mint, and \nothers) recommends that new designs by various \nartists be adopted for the sovereign and other \ncoins, gold and silver ; report presented, March, 1892 \n\nAMOUNT OF MONEY COINED. \n\nElizabeth ....... \xc2\xa35,832,00 \n\nJames I. ....... . 2,500,000 \n\nCharles I. .... >. 10,500,000 \n\nCromwell 1,000,000 \n\nCharles II 7,524,100 \n\nJames II 3,740,000 \n\nWilliam III. . 10,511,900 \n\nAnne 2,691,626 \n\nGeorge I. 8,725,920 \n\nGeorge II. 11,966,576 \n\nGeorge III. ... . gold 74,501,586 \n\nGeorge IV 41,782,815 \n\nWilliam IV 10,827,603 \n\n[The .quantity of gold that passed through the Mint, \nsince the accession of queen Elizabeth in 155S, to the \nbeginning of 1840, is 3,353,561 pounds weight, troy. \nOf this, nearly one-half was coined in the reign of \nGeorge III., namely, 1,593,078 pounds weight, troy.] \nVictoria, from 1837 to 1848, gold, 29,886,457?. ; weight, \n\n746,452 lbs. ; silver, 2,440,614?. ; copper? 43,743?. \n\n1848-1852, gold, silver, and copper, 19,838,377?. \n\n\n\nCOINING. \n\n\n\n231 \n\n\n\nCOLLEGES. \n\n\n\nGold coined in 1853 (when Australian gold came in), \n12,664,125/. ; in 1854, 4,354, 201I. ; in 1855, 9,245,264/. ; \nin 1856, 6,476,060/. \n\nCoined in 1859, 1,547,603 sovereigns ; 2,203,813 half-sov. \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Coined from 1 July, 1854, to 31 Dec. i860 : \'gold, \n27,632,039/. ; silver, 2,432,116/. \n\nCoined in 1861 : gold, 8,190,170/.; silver, 209,484/.; \ncopper (bronze), 273,578/. 13s. 4<Z. \n\nCoined in 1862: gold, 7,836,413/.; silver, 148,518/.; \ncopper, 352,800/. \n\nCoined, in 1866 : gold, 5,076,676/. ; silver, 493,416/. ; \ncopper, 50,624/. \n\nCoined in 1869 : gold, 7,372,204/. ; silver, 76,428/. ; \ncopper, 20,832/. \n\nCoined in 1873 (less than 1872) : gold, sovereigns, \n2,382,835; half-sovereigns, 1,001,733/. ; silver, (number \nof pieces) florins, 5,965,740; is., 6,486,480; 6</., 4,395,600; \n4ti., 4158; 3d., 4, 059,528 ; id., 7920. Copper: id., \n8,494,080 ; ^d., 3,584,000 ; \\d., 3,215,600. \n\nCoined in 1876 (work stopped five months through break- \ndown of machinery), gold, sovereigns, 3,318,705/.; half- \nsovereigns, 1,401,943/. 10s. ; silver, half-crowns, \n79,200/. ; florins, 60,786/. \n\n\'3u 1877, 30,131, 130 pieces ; value 1,567,936/. 15s. 6ld. \n\nValue of coinage in ten years (1867-76). Gold, 46,802,517/.; \nsilver, 5,642,406/. ; bronze, 401,309/. \n\n2:879: Gold, sovereigns, 17,525; half-sovereigns, 35,050; \ntotal value, 35,050/. 3s. o(Z. Silver, half-crowns, 901,296 ; \nflorins, 1,354,320 ; shillings, 3,611,520 ; sixpences, \n3,326,400 ; fourpences, 4,158 ; threepences, 2,966,568 ; \ntwopences, 4,752 ; pence, 7,920 ; total value, 549,054?. \nBronze : Fence, 7,848,964 ; halfpence, 3,584.000 ; far- \nthings, 4,300,800 ; total value, 44,650/. 13s. 4c/. \n\nJXet loss to the Mint in 1878, 51,543/. ; in 1879, 27,955/. \n\n1880 : Gold, 4,150,052/. Silver, 761,508/. Copper, \n19,264/. : total, 4,930,824/. \n\n3883 : Gold, 1,403,713/. Silver, 1,274,328/. Copper, \n33,450/. ; total, 2,711,491?. \n\n1886: Gold, 1,711,659/. Silver, 669,636/. \n\n2887 : Gold, 1,908,686/. Silver, 861,498/. Copper, 45,173/. \n\n1888 : Gold, 2,032,900/. Silver, 756,578/. Bronze, 39,499/. \n\n11889: Gold; 7,500,700/. Silver, 2,178,888/. Bronze, 66,950/. \n\n.1890 : Gold, 7,680, 156/. Silver, 1,694,688/. Bronze, 90,285/. \n\n1891 : Gold, 6,723,648/. Silver, 1,000,548/. Bronze, 89,536/. \n\nCOINING. Originally the metal was placed \n\'between two steel dies, and struck by a hammer. \nIn 1553, a mill, invented by Antoine Bnicher, in- \ntroduced into England, 1562. An engine invented \nby Bahmcier, 1617. Great improvements effected \n"by Boulton and Watt, at Soho, 1788. The erection \nof the Mint machinery, London, began 1811. The \nmachinery was re-organised in 1869. \n\nCOLCHESTER, (Essex), Camulodunum, a \nSoman station, obtained its first charter from \nRichard I., 1 189. Its sixteen churches and all its \n\'buildings sustained great damage at the ten weeks\' \n-siege, June-Aug. 1648. Two of its defenders, sir \nGeorge Lisle and sir Charles Lucas, were tried and \n\xe2\x96\xa0shot after surrendering. The baize manufacture was \nestablished here, 1660. Anderson. The railway to \nLondon was opened in 1843. A great fire ; several \nbusiness establishments destroyed, about 25,000/. \n^damage, 18 Aug. 1882. Population in 1881, 28,374; \n1891, 34<559- See Earthquakes, 22 April, 1S84. \n\nCOLCHIS, N.W. Asia, now Mingrelia. See \n-drgonautie Expedition. \n\nCOLD. On 3 Jan. 1854, the thermometer in \nLondon marked 8\xc2\xb0 below zero, Fahrenheit ; on 25 \nDec. i860, it fell (on the grass) at Nottingham, to \n13-8\xc2\xb0 Eahr. Mr. Lowe. From 23 to 30 Dec. the \ncold was excessive. On 4 Jan. 1867, the thermometer \n\xe2\x80\xa2stood at 3 below zero at Hammersmith and Hornsey, \nnear London ; on 7 Jan., at 55 above. \n"Very cold Nor. 1878\xe2\x80\x94 May 1879, and Nov. 1879\xe2\x80\x94 Feb. \n\n1880. \nThe December of 1879 said to be the coldest since 1796. \n:Severe frost, 13 Jan.\xe2\x80\x94 26 Jan. 1881 (many deaths of ex- \nposed persons). \n\'Temperature said to have been on 19 Jan. 13\xc2\xb0 Fahrt. at \n\n\n\nStepney, London, 1S81 ; Cambridge, 4 F. ; Oxford, \n9\xc2\xb0 F. ; London, 16 F. 21 Dec. 1890. \n\nVery cold throughout the continent ; the Danube, Elbe, \nRhine, Seine and other rivers frozen ; heavy falls of \nsnow, Jan. 1891. \n\nTemperature in London, night, 17-18 Feb. 1892, i7\'5\xc2\xb0 \nFahr. \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nThe summer of 1888 exceptionally cold in Europe ; \nLondon, n July, temperature from 42\xc2\xb0.8 to 55\xc2\xb0.7 (Jan. \n1, 1877, from 49^.3 to 54\xc2\xb0.o) \xe2\x80\x94 G. J. Symons. \n\nWhilst liquefying gases, at the Royal Institution, pro- \nfessor Dewar obtained the temperature of \xe2\x80\x94 2i3\xc2\xb0cent., \nJune, 1884. The liquefaction of carbonic acid obtained \nat a temperature of \xe2\x80\x94 180 cent. ; oxygen \xe2\x80\x94 184 cent. ; \nair \xe2\x80\x94 192 cent. ; nitrogen \xe2\x80\x94 198\xc2\xb0 cent. He stated the \nzero of absolute temperature to be about \xe2\x80\x94 273 cent. \nJune, 1885. \nSee Frosts, Ice, Congelation, Regelation and Provisions. \n\nCOLDINGHAM, near Berwick, is celebrated \nfor the heroism of its nuns, who, on the attack of \nthe Danes, to disfigure themselves, cut off their \nnoses and lips. The Danes burnt them all, with the \nabbess Ebba, in then- monastery, 870. \n\nCOLDSTREAM GUARDS.. General Monk, \nbefore marching from Scotland into England to \nrestore Charles II., raised this regiment at Cold- \nstream, at the confluence of the Leet and Tweed, \n1660. For its services in suppressing Venner\'s \ninsurrection in 1661, it was not disbanded, but \nconstituted the 2nd regiment of foot guards. \n\nCOLENSO CONTROVERSY, see Church \n\nof England, 1862-8. \n\nCOLIN, see Kolin. \n\nCOLISEUM or Colosseum, at Rome, an \n\nelliptical amphitheatre, of which the external dia- \nmeter is 1641 Italian feet, supposed to have been \nable to contain 80,000 spectators of the fights with \nwild beasts, and other sports in the arena. It was \nerected between 75 (some say 77) and 80, by the \nemperors Vespasian and Titus, at an expense suffi- \ncient to have built a metropolis. Its remains are very \nimposing. Excavations have been made since 1874. \n\nCOLLAR, a very ancient ornament. The \nRoman hero Titus Manlius slew a gigantic Gaul in \nsingle combat, and put his torques (twisted chain or \ncollar) on his own neck, and was hence surnamed \nTorquatus, 361 B.C. A collar is part of the ensigns \nof the order of knighthood. That of the order of the \ngarter is described, and its wearing enjoined, in the \nstatutes of Henry VIII., 24 April, 1522 ; but a collar \nhad been previously worn, jlshmole. The collar \nof SS. was adopted by Henry IV., and became a \nLancastrian badge ; some consider the letters stand \nfor " souveraigne," in reference to his claim to the \ncrown. Some writers consider SS. to be in honour \nof St. Simplicius, a martyr. The order of the Collar \nor Necklace (or Annonciada) was instituted by \nAmadeus VI. of Savoy, about 1360. \n\nCOLLECTIVISTS, a name adopted by some \nsocialists, who opened their fourth congress at \nCalais, 13 Oct., 1890. \n\nCOLLECTS, short prayers, very ancient, intro- \nduced into the Roman service by pope Gelasius, \nabout 493, and into the English liturgy in 1548. \nThe king of England coming into Normandy, ap- \npointed a collect for the relief of the Holy Land, \n1 166. Rap in. \n\nCOLLEGES, from the Latin collegium, as- \nsemblages of persons for sacred, civil, literary or \nscientific purposes. University education preceded \nthe erection of colleges, which were founda- \ntions to relieve the students from the expense of \nliving at lodging-houses and at inns. Collegiate \nor academic degrees are said to have been first \n\n\n\nCOLLIERY ACCIDENTS. \n\n\n\n2S2 \n\n\n\nCOLONIES. \n\n\n\nconferred at the university of Paris, 1 140 ; but some \nauthorities say not before 1215. In England, it is \ncontended (.hat the date is much higher, and some \nhold that Bede obtained a degree formally at Cam- \nbridge, and John de Beverley at Oxford, and that they \nwere the first doctors of these universities; see Cam- \nbridge, Oxford, Aberdeen, Queen\'s Colleges, Herald*. \nWorking Men\'s Colleges, Preceptors, &o. \' \n\n.Founded a.d. \nBirmingham, Queen\'s College .... 1853 \n\nCheshunt College 1792 \n\nDoctors\' Commons, civil law . . . . 1670 \n\nDulwich College .... . . 1619 \n\nEton College 1441 \n\nGlasgow College, now University . . . . 1451 \n\nGresham College 1581 \n\nHaileybury, or East India College . 1806 ; closed 1858 \n\nHighbury College 1826 \n\nHighgate I5 6 4 \n\nKing\'s College, London 1829 \n\nMaynooth College 1795 \n\nMilitary College, Sandhurst 1799 \n\nMusic, Royal College of ; see Music 1883 \n\nNaval College, Portsmouth 1722 \n\nNew College, St. John\'s Wood . . " . . . 1850 \n\nOwens College, Manchester 1870 \n\nPhysicians, London 1523 \n\nPhysicians, Lublin . . .... 1667 \n\nPhysicians, Edinburgh . , . . . . 1681 \n\nSt. Andrews, Scotland . ... 1410 \n\nSion College, incorporated 1630 \n\nSurgeons, London 1745 \n\nSurgeons, re-incorporated 1800 \n\nSurgeons, Dublin 1786 \n\nSurgeons. Edinburgh (new) 1803 \n\nTrinity College, Dublin 1591 \n\nUniversity, London 1826 \n\nWinchester College 1387 \n\nCOLLIEEY ACCIDENTS, see under Coal. \n\nCOLLISIONS, see Seas. \n\nCOLLODION, a film obtained from the solu- \ntion of gun-cotton in ether. The iodised collodion \nextensively employed in photography, was invented \nby Mr. F. Scott Archer, and announced in the \n" Chemist," in March, 1851. On the premature \ndeath of himself and wife, a pension of 50/. per \nannum was granted by government to ids three \norphan children. \n\nCOLLYEIDIANS, Arab heretics who offered \ncollyrides, little cakes, to the Virgin Mary as a goddess \nin the 4th century. \n\nCOLMAR, W. Germany; an imperial city \n13th century ; taken by the Swedes, 1632 ; by \nLouis XIV. of France, who destroyed the fortifica- \ntions, 1673 ; ceded to France, 1697 ; with Alsace, \nrestored to Germany, 187 r. \n\nCOLNEY HATCH, Middlesex. County \nlunatic asylum here erected, 1851. \n\nCOLOGNE (Colonia Agrippina), on the Rhine, \nthe site of a colony founded by the empress Agrip- \npina, about 50; an imperial town, 957; a member \nof the Hanseatic league, 1260. Many ecclesiastical \ncouncils held here, 782-1:536. The Jews were ex- \npelled from it in 1485, and the Protestants in 1618, \nand it then fell into decay. Cologne was taken by \nthe French under Jourdan, Oct. 1794. The arch- \nbishopric secularised, 1801 ; assigned to Prussia, \n1814. Population in 1885, 161,401 ; in 1890 \n281,273. \n\nThe cathedral, termed dom (containing many sup- \nposed relics, such as the heads of the magi or three \nkings, bones of the 11,000 virgins, <&c.) founded \nby abp. Conrad von Hochstade or Hoch- \nstettin ; architect Gerhard von Riehl or Rile \n\n15 Aug. 1248 \nBuilding intermittent ; suspended .... ^09 \n\n\n\nGreat collections made for resuming it by Prussia \n\n1814 et seq. \n\nRepairs completed ; new buildings founded \n\n4 Sept. 1842; \n\nThe body of the cathedral opened in the presence of \nthe king, 600th anniversary of the foundation \n\n15 Aug. 1848" \n\nInternational industrial exhibition opened by the \ncrown prince 2 June, 1865 \n\nDispute between the king and the chapter respect- \ning the electing an archbishop, settled ; the pope \nappoints Melchers Jan. 186S \n\nCongress of Old Catholics meet (which see) 20, 22 Sept. 1872 \n\nArchbishop Melchers arrested by government, \n\n30 March, 1874 \n\nA colossal statue of Frederick-William III., 22 feet \nhigh, with pedestrian figures at the base (Blucher, \nHumboldt, and others), the work of Blaser and \nCalendrelli, subscribed for by Rhinelanders ; un- \nveiled by the emperor William I. . 26 Sept. 187S \n\nThe building reported finished, 14 Aug. ; solemnly \nopened by the emperor and other German sove- \nreigns 15 Oct. i88\'o \n\nFor the new bell see Bells, 1887. \n\nCOLOMBIA, a republic of S. Ameriea, formed \nof states which declared their independence of \nSpain, 5 July, 181 1. A long war ensued. Esti- \nmated population of tire present state, in i888 y \n4,000,000. \n\nUnion of New Grenada and Venezuela . 17 Dec. 1 819. \nThe royalists defeated at Carabobo . 24 June, i82-u \nBolivar named dictator .... 10 Feb. 1824 \nAlliance between Colombia and Mexico 30 June ,, \nIndependence of Colombia recognised . . . . 1825 \nAlliance with Guatemala .... March, \xe2\x80\x9e \nCongress at Lima names Bolivar president, Aug. ; \n\ndictator 23 Nov. 182S \n\nPadilla\'s insurrection .... 9 April, 1828 \nConspiracy of Santander against the life of Bolivar, \n\n25 Sept. ,, \nVenezuela separates from Grenada . . Nov. 1829 \nBolivar resigns, 4 April ; dies ... 17 Dec. 1830 \nSantander dies . . . . . 26 May, 1840 \nThe republic now named Colombia instead of New \n\nGrenada ; president, general E. Salgar . . . 187a \nManuel Murillo Toro, president . . 1 April, 1872 \nSantiago Perez, president . . . .1 April, 1874 \nAquileo Parra, president 1 April, 1876 \n\nGeneral Tru.jillo, president, proclaimed, 1 April, 1878 \nGeneral R. Nunez, president, proclaimed, 1 April, 1883 \nPresident Zyaldua died .... Dec. 1882 \nT. E. Otalora, president . . . . 1 April, 1883 \nRafael Nunez elected president Sept. 1883 ; again \n\n7 Aug. 1886 \nInsurrection ; government troops defeated at Tun, ja \n\nannounced 9 Jan. 1885 ; peace restored 10 Jan. 1885 \nFresh insurrection ; government troops defeated \n\nat Barranquilla, announced . . 2 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRebels defeated about 13 July, , r \n\nRebellion over .... reported 31 July, , r \n(See New Grenada, and Venezuela.) \n\nCOLOMBO (Ceylon), fortified in 1638 by the \nPortuguese, who were expelled by the Dutch in \n1666; the latter surrendered it to the British, [5 \nFeb. 1796; see Ceylon, 1803, 1845. \n\nCOLON (:)\xe2\x80\xa2 The colon and period were adopted \nby Thrasymachus about 373 b. c. (Suidas), and \nknown to Aristotle. The colon and semicolon (;) \nfirst used in British literature in the 16th century. \nFor Colon, a S. American seaport, see Panama. \n\nCOLONEL (from Italian colonna, a column), \nthe highest regimental military officer. The term \nhad become common in England" in the 16th century. \n\nCOLONIAL, see under Colonies. \n\nCOLONIES. The Phoenician and Greek colo- \nnies, frequently founded by political exiles, soon \nbecame independent of the mother country. The \nRoman colonies, on the contrary, continued in close \nconnection with Rome itself ; being governed almost \n\n\n\nCOLONIES. \n\n\n\n233 \n\n\n\nCOLONIES. \n\n\n\nentirely by military law. \xe2\x80\x94 The Colonies of Great \nBritain partake of both these characters. The N. \nAmerican colonies revolted in consequence of the \nattempt at taxation without their consent in 1764. \nThe loyal condition of the present colonies now is \ndue to the gradual relaxation of the pressure of the \nhome government. The population of the British \ncolonies in all parts of the world was estimated, in \n1861, at 142,952,243; in 1888, 275,520,216. The \nrevenue of the colonies was estimated in 1865 to be \n51,492,000/., the expenditure, 59,353,000/. Ihe act \nfor the abolition of slavery in the British colonies, \nand for compensation to the owners of slaves \n(20,000,000/. sterling), was passed in 1833. All \nthe slaves throughout the British colonies were \nemancipated on 1 Aug. 1834. Germany and other \npowers showed great desire for colonization in \n1884-5. See Holland. \n\nE. J. Payne\'s "History of European Colonies" \n(1877) is good. \n\nResolution of House of Commons recognises the \nclaims of colonies to protection from conse- \nquences of imperial policy, but " is of opinion that \ncolonies exercising rights of self-government \nought to undertake the main responsibility of pro- \nviding for their own internal order and security, \nand ought to assist in their own external defence" 1862 \n\nChief Colony, or Possession. Date of Settlement, &c. \n\nAden 1838 \n\nAfrican Forts about 1618 \n\nAnguilla Settlement about 1666 \n\nAntigua .... Settlement . . . 1632 \nAscension . . . . Occupied . . . . 1815 \nAustralia, South . . Settlement . . . 1834 \nAustralia, W. (Swan river) . Settlement . . . 1829 \nBahama Island . . . Settlement 1629, et seq. \nBarbadoes . . . . Settlement . . . 1605 \n\nBasutoland 1871 \n\nBechuanaland . 1885 \n\nBengal .... Settlement . about 1652 \n\nBerbera 1884 \n\nBerbice Capitulation, . Sept. 1803 \n\nBermudas .... Settlements 1609, et seq. \n\nBombay See India . . . 1662 \n\nBritish Burmah (Upper . \n\nBurmali, 1885) . . . See. Pegu . . . 1862 \nBritish Columbia . . . Settlement . . . 1858 \n\nBrunei 1888 \n\nCanada .... Capitulation, Sept. 1759-60 \nCape Breton . . . . Ceded .... 1763 \nCape Coast Castle . . By cession . . . 1667 \nCape of Good Hope . . Capitulation . Jan. 1806 \nCeylon .... All acquired . . . 1815 \nCyprus . . . Ceded (underconditions) 1878 \n\nDemerara and Essequibo . Capitulation Sept. 1803 \n\nDominica .... Ceded by France . . 1763 \nElmina and Dutch Guinea . By cession . Feb. 1872 \nFalkland Islands . . See Falkland Islands . 1833 \n\nFiji Ceded . . . . 1874 \n\nGambia .... Settlement . . 1631 \n\nGibraltar . . . . Capitulation . Aug. 1704 \nGold Coast .... Settlement . about 1618 \n\nGozo Capitulation, . Sept. 1800 \n\nGrenada .... Ceded by France . . 1763 \nGriqualand, S. Africa . Settlement . 27 Oct. 1871 \nGuiana, British . . . Capitulation . . 1803 \nHeligoland .... Capitulation . . . 1807 \nHonduras . . . . By treaty . . 1670 \n\nHong-Kong (Victoria) . Ceded . . . . 1841 \n\nJamaica Capitulation . . 1655 \n\nKeeling Islands ... 1857 \n\nKermadec Islands 1886 \n\nLabuan .... See Borneo . . . 1846 \n\nLagos Ceded .... 1861 \n\nLeeward Isles ... ... 1626-1763 \n\nMadras See India . . . 1639 \n\nMalacca (under Bengal) \n\nMalta Capitulation Sept. 1800 \n\nMauritius .... Capitulation . Dec. 1810 \nMontserrat . . . . Settlement . . 1632 \n\nNatal ..... Settlement . 1823 \n\nNevis Settlement . . . 1628 \n\nNew Brunswick . . . Settlement . 1622-1713 \n\nNewfoundland . . . Settlement . about 1500 \n\n\n\nNew Guinea ... .... 1884. \n\nNew South Wales . . . Settlement . . . 1787 \nNew Zealand . . . Settlement . . . 1840 \n\nNiger districts 1885 \n\nNorfolk Islands 1787 \n\nNorth Borneo 1840. \n\nNova Scotia . . . . Settlement . . . 1622 \n\nPegu Conquered . . . 1852 \n\nPort Phillip . . . . See Victoria. \n\nPrince Edward Island . Capitulated . . . 1745 \n\nPrince of Wales Island \n\n(Penang) . . . . Settlement . . . 1786 \nQueensland, N. S. Wales . Settlement . . . i860 \n\nSarawak 188S \n\nSierra Leone . . . Settlement . . . 1787 \n[United with other settlements as West Africa, Feb. 1866.] \nSingapore . . . . Purchased . . . 1819 \n\nSocotra 1886 \n\nSt. Christopher\'s . . Settlement . . 1623 \n\nSt. Helena . . . . Capitulated . . . 1600 \nSt. Lucia .... Capitulation . June, 1803 \nSt. Vincent . . . . Ceded by France . . 1763 \nSwan River .... See West Australia. \nTasmania . . . See Van Diemen\'s Land. \nTobago .... Ceded by France . . 1763 \n\nTortola Settlement . . . 1666 \n\nTransvaal .... Annexed . . . 187/ \nTrinidad . . . . Capitulation . Feb. 1797 \n\nVan Diemen\'s Land . . Settlement . . . 1803 \nVancouver Island . . Settlement . . 1781 \n\nVictoria (Port Phillip) . Settlement . . . 1850 \nVictoria .... See Hong-Kong. \nVirgin Isles . . . . Settlement . . . 1666 \n\nWindward Isles 1605-1803, \n\nZululand 1886 \n\nColonial bishoprics fund, established . . . 1841 \nColonial Branch Army Act passed . . . . 1866 \nColonial Clergy Act, 37 & 38 Vict. c. 77, passed 7 \nAug. 1874, removes certain disabilities of persons \nnot ordained by bishops of the united church \nof England and Ireland. \nColonial and Continental Church Society (formerly \n"Colonial Church Society"), took its name 1 May, \n1861. It deals with colonial dioceses and British \nresidents on the continent. \nColonial Defences Commission (including the earl \nof Carnarvon, Mr. Childers, and others), appointed \n\nabout 12 Sept. 1879 \n\nWorks recommended by government ; expenditure \n\nimperial and local 1884 \n\nColonial Naval Defence Act, to enable the Colonies \nto take effectual measures for their defence against \nattacks by sea, was passed in .... 1865 \nColonial Society, established to promote the in- \nterests of the colonies, lord Bury, president, held \nits first meeting 26 June, 1868, and first annual \nmeeting 28 June, 1869, when it assumed the title \n" Royal." On 7 March, 1870, it became " The \nRoyal Colonial Institute ;" founded 1868, incorpo- \nrated 1882. The "Proceedings" are pub- \nlished. A colonial congress met at Amsterdam \n19 Sept. 1883. \nThe formation of a National and Colonial League \nwas resolved on at a meeting held at Cannon- \nstreet. London 5 Jan. 1870 \n\nColonial Exhibition. An Exhibition of the pro- \nducts, manufactures, and arts of India and the \ncolonies in London in 1886 ; Royal Commission \n8 Nov. 1884 ; great exertion of the prince of Wales \nand sir P. C. Owen ; opened with great splendour \nby the Queen ; ode by lord Tennyson, set to music \nby sir A. Sullivan, sung 4 May, 1886 ; visited by \n5,550,745 persons ; closed 10 Nov. A surplus \nof 35,235/., of which 5964/. supplied the deficit on \nthe Inventions exhibition, and 25,000?,. supplied to \nthe funds of the Imperial Institute, leaving a \nreserve of 4279!. ; meeting of confmission, 3oApril \n1887. Testimonial for his exertions was presented \nto sir Philip Cunlitl\'e Owen, 18 Dee. . . 1886 \n\nMr. E. Stanhope, colonial secretary, proposes .1 \nconference of agents-general on colonial defence \nand communication with Great Britain . Dec. ,,, \nColonial conference; first meeting of representatives \nof all the colonies ; president, sir H. T. Holland, \ncolonial secretary, the marquis of Salisbury and \nother ministers present; questions discussed, \ndefence of colonies, coaling stations, &c, cable \ncommunication, new harbours, employment of \n\n\n\nCOLOEADO. \n\n\n\n234 \n\n\n\nCOMBAT. \n\n\n\nImperial naval and military officers, relations \nwith foreign powers, postal regulations, legal \naffairs, census returns, &c, 4 April, 1887. Results \nof the conference successful ; closed g May. The \ndelegates received by the\' Queen at Windsor, \n\n4 May, 1887 \n\nXord George Hamilton\'s plan for colonial defence \naccepted by Australia, &c. . about 22 April, \xe2\x80\x9e. \n\nINaval Defence Act passed at Melbourne with \nroyal assent, 24, 25 Nov. ; accepted by Tasmania, \nNew South Wales, South Australia, and New \nZealand 1 Dec. ; deferred by Queensland . Dec. ,, \n\n^Canadian co-operative colonization company \nfounded 1889 \n\n"The committee of the commons on coloniza- \ntion appointed in 1889 ; sir James Fergusson, \nchairman, issued a report, with sensible recom- \nmendations, about . . . .18 March, 1891 \n\n^Burke\'s " Colonial Gentry," vol. I. first published \n\nSept. ,, \n\n;See Bishops (Colonial), Imperial Defence, Imperial \nInstitute, Secretaries and separate articles. \n\nCOLOEADO (so called from its coloured \n{ranges), a territory of the United States of N.orth \nAmerica, was organised 2 March, 1861 ; proclaimed \n;a state, Aug. 1876; capital, Denver City. Popula- \ntion in 1880, 194,327 ; 1890, 412,198. \n\n(Gold found here, 1858, yield up to 1878, nearly 80 tons \npure gold ; 770 tons silver; and much copper and lead. \n\nColorado Beetle, so called from its striped colouring, \nwas first found in Wisconsin, was described by Thomas \nSay, and named Doryphora decemlhieata, in 1824, when \nhe found it near the Upper Missouri. It soon took to \n.feeding on potatoes, as they were planted, and gradually \n^proceeded eastward through Nebraska, Iowa, Illinois, \n\'\xe2\x96\xa0Ohio, &c, to the New England states, destroying the \n\xe2\x80\xa2crops, 1859 et seq. In 1873 it reached New York, and \nTthe Atlantic seaboard in 1874, swarming there in 1876, \n.and attacking Canada. The fear of its invading Britain \nJed to an order in council respecting its destruction, \n-&c, 14 Aug. 1877. Very few specimens arrived. \n\nCOLOSSEUM, see Coliseum. The building in \nHegent\'s Park, London, was planned by Mr. Hornor, \nsa land surveyor, and commenced in 1824, by Peto \nand Grissell, from designs by Decimus Burton. The \n-chief portion was a polygon of 16 faces, 126 feet in \ndiameter externally : the walls were three feet thick \n.-at the ground: the height to the glazed dome 112 \nifeet. On the canvas walls of the dome was painted \nthe panoramic view of London, completed in 1829 \nfrom sketches by Mr. Homor taken from the summit \nof St. Paul\'s cathedral in 1821-2. The picture covered \n.above 46,000 square feet, more than an acre of can- \nTas. The different parts were combined by Mr. E. \nT. Parris, who in 1845 repainted the whole. In \n1848 a panorama of Paris was exhibited ; succeeded, \n-in 1850, by the lake of Thun m Switzerland; in \n1851 the panorama of London was reproduced. In \n5848 the theatre, with the panorama of Lisbon, was \nadded. In 183 1, when Mr. Hornor failed, the esta- \nblishment was sold for 40,000^. to Messrs. Braham \n-and Yates. In 1843 it was bought by Mr. D. Mon- \ntague for 23,000 guineas. Timbs. After having \nieen long closed, the building was opened to the \njpublic at Christmas, 1856, at one shilling. Under \ntthe charge of Dr. Bachhofther, it continued open till \nthe spring of 1864, when it was again closed. The \n.-sale of the site was announced 1870. It was announced \nin Dec. 1871, that a company was about to transform \nthe building and grounds into club-chambers, baths, \n.a winter garden, &c. In 1874, it was sold ; large \nsmansions have been erected on the site. \n\nCOLOSSUS OF EHODES, a brass statue of \nApollo, seventy eubits high, esteemed one of the \nwonders of the world, was erected at the port of \nRhodes in honour of the sun, by Chares of Lindus, \ndisciple of Lysippus, 290 or 288 B.C. It was thrown \ndown by an earthquake about 224 B.C. The figure \n\n\n\nis said mythically to have stood upon two moles, \na leg being extended on each side of the harbour, so \nthat a vessel in full sail could enter between. The \nstatue was in ruins-for nearly nine centuries, and \nhad never been repaired ; when the Saracens, taking \nRhodes, pulled it to pieces, and sold the metal, \nweighing 720,900 lbs., to a Jew, who is said to have \nloaded 900 camels in transporting it to Alexandria \nabout 653. Dufresnoy. \n\nCOLOUE is to light what pitch is to sound, \naccording to the undulatory theory of Huyghens \n(about 1678), established by Dr. T. Young, and \nothers. The shade varies according to the number \nof vibrations. 458 millions of millions of vibra- \ntions in a second attributed to the red end of the \nspectrum ; to the violet, 727 ; see Spectrum.* See \nBhte-Books for National official colours. \n\nCOLSTON DAY, Nov. 13, see Bristol. \n\nCOLUMBIA, a federal district round the city \nof Washington in Maryland; established 1800. \nSlavery was abolished in 1862 Population in 1880, \n177,624; 1890, 230,392; see British Columbia. \n\nCOLUMBIA MAEKET, Bethnal Green, E. \nLondon; erected by Mr. Darbishire, architect, in \nthe pointed Gothic style, and inaugurated by Miss \n(now lady) Burdett-Coutts, the proprietor, 28 April, \n1869. It cost her 200,000^. It was opened as a \nwholesale fish-market, 21 Feb. 1870, but was not \nsuccessful. On 3 Nov. 187 1, lady Burdett-Coutts \npresented the market to the corporation of London, \nand on 18 July, 1872, she received publicly the \nfreedom of that city. \nThe market did not succeed, and the buildings were \n\nrestored to the donor . . . . 4 Dec. 1874 \nAgain opened on liberal terms under superintend- \nence of Great Eastern, Great Northern, and Mid- \nland railway companies .. . . . 15 Dee. 1875 \nReported failure ; proposed use as a co-operative \n\nstore April, 1878 \n\nRe-opened as a fish-market ... 17 July, 1883 \nConnected with N. London Railway . . April, 1885 \n\nCOLUMBIUM, a metal discovered by C. \nHatchett, in a mineral named columbite, in 1801. \nIt is identical with niobium, and not with tantalum, \nas supposed by some chemists. Watts. \n\nCOLUMBUS, capital of Ohio, U.S.A., founded \nin 1812, is the seat of important manufactures. \nPopulation, 1870,31,274; 1890,88,150. \n\nCOMBAT, SINGLE. Trial by this commenced \nby the Lombards, 659. Baronius. It was intro- \nduced into England for accusations of treason, if \nneither the accuser nor the accused could produce \ngood evidence ; see Appeal of Battle. \n\nA battle by single combat was fought before the king, \nWilliam II., and the peers, between Geoffrey Bay- \nnard and William, earl of Eu, who was accused by \nBaynard of high treason ; and Baynard having con- \nquered, Eu was deemed convicted, and blinded and \nmutilated, 1096. \n\nA combat proposed between Henry of Bolingbroke, duke \nof Hereford (afterwards Henry IV.), and Thomas, duke \nof Norfolk, was forbidden by Richard II. Sept. 1398. \n\nA trial was appointed between the prior of Kilmainham \nand the earl of Ormond, the former having impeached \nthe latter of high treason, quarrel taken up by the \nking, decided without fighting, 1446. \n\n* Some persons (about 65 outof n54)cannotdistinguish \nbetween colours, and are termed Colour blind. The \ndefect said to have been first described by Priestley, \nPhil. Trans. 1777. In 1859, professor J. Clerk Maxwell \ninvented spectacles to remedy this defect, which is also \ncalled " Daltonism," after John Dalton, the chemist, to \nwhom scarlet appeared drab-colour. Dr. George Wilson, \n"Researches on Colour-Blindness," 1847; Dr. Joy \nJeffries, " Colour Blindness," 1879, \n\n\n\nCOMBINATION. \n\n\n\n235 \n\n\n\nCOMETS. \n\n\n\nA combat was proposed between lord Reay and Mr. \nDavid Ramsey, in 1631, but the king prevented it. \n\nIn a combat in Dublin castle, before the lords justices \nand council, between Connor MacCormack O\'Connor \nand Teig Mac-Gilpatrick O\'Connor, the former had his \nhead cut off, and presented to the lords, 1553. \n\nCOMBINATION. Laws were enacted from \nthe time of Edward I. downwards, regulating the \nprice of labour and the relations between masters \nand workmen, and prohibiting the latter from com- \nbining for their own protection. All these laws were \nrepealed, 6 Geo. IV. c. 129, in 1825, due protection \nbeing given to both partie-s. The act was amended \nin 1859 by 22 Vict. c. 34, when the subject was much \ndiscussed, in consequence of the strike in the build- \ning trades, see Sheffield and Strikes. \n\nCOMBS, found in Pompeii; Combmakers\' com- \npany incorporated, 1636 or 1650. \n\nCOMBUSTION, see Spontaneous. \n\nCOMEDIE FBANCAISE, Paris, established \n\ns68o. > \n\nAt the death of Moliere in 1673, his company of actors, \nat the Palais Royal, separated into two bodies. The \nfusion of these formed the French National Theatre, \nfounded by Louis XIV. by a decree 18 Aug., first \nperformance 25 Aug. 1680 ; the actors, 15 men, and 12 \nwomen, being the best of the time. The theatre was \nmuch depressed in the king\'s last years ; revived under \nLouis XV. ; ceased in 1799 ; restored in 1803. \n\nThe company visited London in 1879 ; first appearance \nat the Gaiety, 2 June, 1879 ; eminent actors, Madame \nSarah Bernhardt, MM. Got. Delaunay, and Coquelin, \nand Miles. Brohan and Favart. \n\nThe 200th anniversary of the establishment celebrated \n21 Oct., et scq. 1880. \n\nCOMEDY. Thalia is the muse of comedy and \nlyric poetry. Susarion and Dolon, the inventors of \ntheatrical exhibitions, 578 B.C., performed the first \ncomedy at Athens, on a waggon or movable stage, \non four wheels, for which they were rewarded with \na basket of figs and a cask of wine ; see Arundelian \nMarbles, and Dra?na. \n\nComedy, for libel, prohibited at Athens, 440 b. c. \nAristophanes called the prince of ancient comedy, 434 \n\nb.c, and Menander that of the new, 320 B.C. \nOf Plautus, 20 comedies are extant ; he nourished 220 B.C. \nStatius Cfecilius wrote upwards of 30 comedies ; flourished \n\nat Rome 180 B.C. \nComedies of Lrelius and Terence first acted 154 b.c. \nFirst regular comedy performed in England about a.d. \n\n1551- \nSt was said of Sheridan that he wrote the best comedy \n(the School for Scandal), the best opera (the Duenna), \nand the best afterpiece (the Critic), in the English lan- \nguage (i775-i779)- \n\nCOMETS (Greek come, a hair). It is recorded \nthat more than 600 have been seen. Mr. Hind, in \nhis little work on comets, gave a chronological list \n(1852). The identity and periodicity of comets are \nconsidered in Mr. G. F. Chambers\' Handbook of \nAstronomy, 1889-90, and in Mr. W. T. Lynn\'s \nCelestial Motions, 1891. The number of comets \nwithin the solar s} r stem, visible and invisible, is \n\xe2\x80\xa2believed to be enormous. Aristotle described the \nprobable course of a comet which appeared B.C. 370. \nApian described Halley\'s comet, 1 5 3 1 . Amedee \n\xe2\x80\xa2Guillemin\'s "World of Comets," by J. Glaisher, \npublished 1877. \n\nAt the birth of the great Mithridates two [probably only \none] large comets appeared, which were seen forseventy- \nt wo days together, whose splendour eclipsed that of \nthe mid-day sun, and occupied the fourth part of the \nheavens, about 135 b.c. Justin. \nA grand comet seen, 1264. Its tail is said to have ex- \ntended ioo\xc2\xb0. It is considered to have reappeared in \n1556, with diminished splendour ; and was expected to \nappear again about Aug. 1858 or Aug. i860. Hi ml. \nA remarkable one seen in England, June, 1337. Stow. \n\n\n\nTycho Brahe demonstrated that comets are extraneous \nto our atmosphere, about 1577. \n\nA comet which terrified the people from its near approach \nto the earth was visible from 3 Nov. 1679 to 9 March, \n1680. It enabled Newton to demonstrate that comets, \nas well as planets, are subject to the law of gravitation, \nand most probably move in elliptic orbits, 1704. \n\nA most brilliant comet appeared in 1769, which passed \nwithin two millions of miles of the earth. This beauti- \nful comet, moving with immense swiftness, was seen \nin London ; its tail stretched across the heavens like \na prodigious luminous arch, 36,000,000 miles in length. \n\nThe computed length of that which appeared in 181 1, and \nwhich was so remarkably conspicuous, was, on 15 \nOct. according to the late Dr. Herschel, upwards of \n100,000,000 miles, and its apparent greatest breadth, at \nthe same time, 15,000,000 miles. It was visible all the \nautumn to the naked eye. Philos. \'Trans. Royal Soc. \nfor 1812. Another comet, Dec. 1823. \n\nHalley\'s Comet, 1682. Named after one of the greatest \nastronomers of England. He first proved that many \nof the appearances of comets were but the periodical \nreturns of the same bodies, and he demonstrated that \nthe comet of 1682 was the same with the comet of 1456, \n1531, and 1607, deducing this fact from a minute obser- \nvation of the first-mentioned comet, and being struck \nby its wonderful resemblance to the comets described \nas having appeared in those years : Halley, therefore, \nfirst fixed the identity of comets, and predicted their \nperiodical returns. Vince\'s Astronomy. The revolution \nof Halley\'s comet is performed in about 75 years ; it \nappeared (as he had predicted) in 1759, and came to its \nperihelion on March 13 ; its last appearance was 1835 ; \nits next will be 1910 \n\nEncke\'s Comet. First discovered by M. Pons, 26 Nov. \n1818, but justly named by astronomers after professor \nEncke, for his success in detecting its orbit, motions, \nand perturbations ; it is, like the preceding, one of the \nthree comets which have appeared according to predic- \ntion, and its revolutions are made in 3 years and 15 \nweeks. Thirteenth return observed at Copenhagen by \nM. d\'Arrest, 20 July, 1863 ; observed in England, 14 \nOct. 1871 ; seen 13 April, 1875 ; in New South Wales, \n3 Aug. 1878 ; visible at Washington, &c, 18-21 Sept. \n1881. \n\nBiela\'s Comet has been an object of fear to many on \naccount of the nearness with which it has approached, \nnot the earth, but a point of the earth\'s path ; it was \nfirst discovered by M. Biela, an Austrian officer, 28 Feb. \n1826. It is one of the three comets whose re-appear- \nance was predicted, its revolution being performed in \n6 years and 38 weeks. Its second appearance was in \n1832, when the time of its perihelion passage was 27 \nNov. ; its third was in 1839 ; its fourth in 1845 ; and \nits fifth in 1852 ; it has since vanished. \n\nDonati\'s Comet, so called from its having been first ob- \nserved by Dr. Donati, of P\'lorence, 2 June, 1858, being \nthen calculated to be 228,000,000 miles from our earth. \nIt was very brilliant in England in the end of September \nand October following, when the tail was said to be \n40,000,000 miles long. On the 10th of October it was \nnearest to the earth: on the 18th it was near coming \ninto collision with Venus. Opinions varied as to this \ncomet\'s brilliancy compared with that of 181 1. \n\nThe Great Comet of 1861 was first seen by Mr. Tebbutt \nat Sydney, in Australia, 13 May ; by M. Goldschmidt \nand others in France and England on 29, 30 June. The \nnucleus was about 400 miles in diameter, with a long \nbush-like tail, travelling at the rate of 10,000,000 miles \nin 24 hours. On 30 June, it was suggested that we \nwere in the tail \xe2\x80\x94 there being " a phosphorescent auroral \nglare. " \n\nA tailless comet was discovered in the constellation Cas- \nsiopceia, by M. Seeling, at Athens, on 2 July, and by \nM. Tempel, at Marseilles, 2 and 3 July, 1862. \n\nA comet detected at Harvard by Mr. Tuttle, 18 July, and \nby Rosa, at Rome, on 25 July, 1S62. It was visible by \nthe naked eye in August and September. \n\nSix telescopic comets were observed in 1863, and several \nin 1864.- \n\nA fine comet appeared in the southern hemisphere, and \nwas visible in South America and Australia, in Jan.- \nFeb. 1865. \n\nM. Babinel considered that comets had so little density \nthat tlir earth might pass through the tail of one with- \nout our being aware of it, 4 May. 1857. \n\n\n\nCOMMANDER-IN-CHIEF. \n\n\n\n236 \n\n\n\nCOMMERCE. \n\n\n\nSchiaparelli, of Milan, discovered that the August meteors \n\nmove round the sun in an orbit almost identical with \n\nthe third comet of 1862. \nThe comet of 1866 is said to be connected with the \n\nNovember meteors. \nOne discovered at Carlsruhe bv Dr. Winnecke, 13 June, \n\n1868 ; a bright one by Paid Henry, 23 Aug. 1873. \nSeveral small comets discovered by various astronomers, \n\n1873-81. \nA bright comet appeared in the southern hemisphere, \n\nlarge nucleus, fan-shaped tail ; visible in the southern \n\nhemisphere, May ; in London, 22 June et seq. 1881. \nSch^eberle\'s comet visible to naked eye, N.W. 26 Aug. \n\n1881, and Jan. 1885. \nDenning\'s comet appears 4 Oct. 1881. \nNew comet discovered at Dudley, Boston, U.S. 18 Mar. \n\n1882. \nAnother at Madeira, at Ealing, near London, &c. (pro- \nbably that of 1843 and 1880) 17 Sept. 1882; at Paris, \n\n27 Sept. ; seen at Vienna, 29 Sept. 1882. \nAnother at Athens, 8 Oct. 1882. \nAnother in North America, 23-24 Feb. 1883. \nAnother in North America, 2 Sept. 1883. \nComet seen in S.W., 14 Jan. 1884. \nNew comet discovered at Strasburg, 20 Sept. 1884. \nNew comet seen in Tennessee about 7 July, 1885. \nAnother discovered by M. Fabry of Paris 3 Dec. 1885 ; \n\nby Mr. Brooks of New York Jan. 1886. \nThree comets visible, Brooks\', Fabry\'s, and Barnard\'s, \n\nJan. ; increasing in brightness, May, 1886. \nA comet visible in Britain and one in New York, \n\nApril, 1886. \nNew comet discovered by Dr. Hartwig of Strasburg \n\n6 Oct. 1886. \nNew comet discovered by Mr. Finlay of the Cape \n\nobservatory 26 Sept. 1886. \nNew comet discovered by Mr. Barnard of Nashville, \n\nTennessee, 13 May, 1887. \nNew comet observed at the Cape of Good Hope 18 Feb. \n\n1888. \nNew comet observed by Mr. Brooks, New York, 7 Aug. \n\n1888. \nNew comet observed by Mr. Barnard, sixth in 1888, \n\n31 Oct. \nNew comet discovered by Mr. Brooks 14 Jan. ; another \n\nby Mr. Barnard at Lick, California, 31 March ; one \n\nby Mr. Brooks at Geneva, New York, 6 July ; one in \n\nQueensland 19 July ; one by Mr. Barnard at Lick 23 \n\nJune ; one by Mr. Davidson in Algiers 26 July ; one \n\nby Prof. Lewis Swift at Rochester 16 Nov. ; one by \n\nM. Borrelly at Marseilles 12 Dec. 1889. \nA comet observed by Mr. Brooks at New York, 19 \n\nMarch ; one by prof. Denning at Bristol, 23 July ; one \n\nby prof. Zona at Palermo, 15 Nov. 1890. \nA comet observed by Mr. Barnard at Lick, 29 March, \n\nand by Mr. W. F. Denning at Bristol, 30 March ; \n\nTempel Swift\'s comet (1869 and 1880) seen by Mr. \n\nDenning, 30 Sept., 1 Oct. ; one by Mr. Barnard at \n\nLick, 3 Oct., 1891. \nA comet observed by prof. Swift, 6 March ; one by Mr. \n\nW. F. Denning near Bristol, 18 March ; one by M. \n\nWinnecke, 18 March, 1892. \nCoggia\'s Comet, discovered by him at Marseilles, \n18 April, became visible (near Polar star) in London \nabout 4 July ; gradually increased in brightness, and \npassed out of sight in a few weeks, in Europe ; and \nappeared brilliant at Melbourne, 1 Aug. 1874. \n\nCOMMANDER-IN-CHIEF, an office in the \nBritish army frequently vacant. When the duke \nof Wellington resigned the office, on becoming prime \nminister, in 1828, his successor, lord Hill, became \ncommander of the forces, or general commanding- \nin-chief. \n\nBy Order in Council the duties of the Commander-in- \nChief were denned and published . 2 Feb. 1888 \n\nCAPTAINS-GENERAL. \n\nDuke of Albemarle 1660 \n\nDuke of Monmouth 1678 \n\nDuke of Marlborough 1690 \n\nSchomberg, duke of Leinster . . . . . 1691 \n\nDukeofOrmond 1711 \n\nDuke of Marlborough, again 1714 \n\nDuke of Cumberland 1744 \n\nDuke of York 1799 \n\n\n\nCOMMANDERS-IN-CHIEF. \n\nDuke of Monmouth 1674 \n\nDuke of Marlborough 1690 \n\nDuke of Schomberg . . . . . . .1691 \n\nDukeofOrmond 1711 \n\nEarl of Stair 1744 \n\nField-Marshal Wade 1745 \n\nLord Ligonier \'. . . 1757 \n\nMarquis of Granby 1766 \n\nLord Amherst, general on the staff . . . -1778 \n\nGen. Seymour Conway 1782 \n\nLord Amherst, again 1793 \n\nFrederick, duke of York . . . . 11 Feb. 1795 \nSir David Dundas .... 25 March, 1809 \n\nFrederick, duke of York, again . . 29 May, 181 1 \n\nDuke of Wellington . 22 Jan. \xe2\x80\x945 May ; 27 Aug. 1827 \nLord Hill, general commanding-in-chief 25 Feb. 1828 \nDuke of Wellington, again . . . . 15 Aug. 1842 \nViscount Hardinge (died 24 Sept. 1856), general \n\ncommanding-in-chief 28 Sept. 1852 \n\nDuke of Cambridge, ditto 15 July, 1856; appointed com- \nmander-in-chief by patent 1887 \n\nCOMMEMORATION, see Enecenia. \n\nCOMMEND AM, "a benefice or church \nliving, which being void, is commended to the \ncharge of some sufficient clerk, to be supplied until \nit may be conveniently supplied with a pastor." \nBlount. By 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 77 (1836), future \nbishops were prohibited from holding in commendam \nthe livings they held when consecrated. \n\nCOMMERCE early flourished in Arabia;, \nEgypt, and among the Phoenicians, see the descrip- \ntion of Tyre, 588 B.C., Ezek. xxvii. In later times \nit was spread over Europe by a confederacy of \nmai-itime cities, 1241 (see Hanse Towns) ; by the \ndiscoveries of Columbus ; and by the enterprises of \nthe Dutch and Portuguese; see Exports, Im- \nports, and articles connected with this subject. \nThe first treaty of commerce made by England with \nany foreign nation was entered into with the \nFlemings, 1 Edw. I. 1272. The second was with \nPortugal and Spain, 2 Edw. II. 1308. Anderson ; \nsee Treaties. Hertslet\'s Collection, in 16 vols. \n8vo, published 1828-85, has a copious index. \nAn important commercial treaty was concluded with \n\nFrance (see French Treaty) i860 \n\nChambers of Commerce originated at Marseilles in \nthe 14th century, and similar chambers were \ninstituted in all the chief cities in France, about 1700 \nThese chambers suppressed in 1791 ; restored by \n\ndecrees 3 Sept. 1853 \n\nA chamber of commerce was started by John \n\nWeskett, merchant, he receiving payment, about 1782 \nThe chamber of commerce at Glasgow was esta- \nblished 1783 ; at Edinburgh, 1785 : Manchester, \n1820 ; Hull, 1837 ; at Liverpool (mainly through \nthe exertions of Professor Leone Levi) . . 1849 \nAssociated (twenty-seven) chambers of commerce \n(not including Liverpool, Manchester, and Glas- \ngow) met at Westminster for interchange of \nopinions on various questions . . 21 Feb. 1865 \nAnnual and other meetings held since : London, 26 \nMarch ; Hull, 19 Sept. 1889 ; London, 25 March, \n1890 ; 3 March, 1891 ; 8 March, 1892. \nCongress of chambers of the empire . 28 June, 1892 \nCommercial education : conference at the Mansion \nHouse to promote the scheme put forth by the \nLondon chamber of commerce . . 5 Feb. 1890 \nThe London chamber of commerce constituted, \nSept. issued prospectus, about 10 Oct. 1881 ; 600 \nmembers first general meeting ; Mr. Magniac, pre- \nsident 25 Jan. 1882 \n\nFirst annual meeting .... 24 Jan. 1883, \nInternational Congress of Commerce at Brussels \n\n6-10 Sept. ,, \nThe International Congress of Commercial Law \n\nmet at Antwerp, 1885 ; Brussels . . 30 Sept. 1888 \nA Minister of commerce in England proposed 1880, \n\ndropped i%S\\ \n\nCommercial Travellers\' schools, Pinner, founded \n\n1845 ; \xe2\x80\x94 Benevolent Institution, Finsbury . . 1849 \nCommercial Travellers\' Association founded in Man- \nchester, 1883, has many branches in the country. \n\n\n\nCOMMISSION. \n\n\n\n237 \n\n\n\nCOMMON PRAYER. \n\n\n\nCOMMISSION, see High Commission, Court of. \n\n_ COMMISSIONAIRES, street messengers \nin Paris. Those in London were originally pen- \nsioned soldiers wounded either in the Crimea or \nIndia, first employed in the west-end. They were \nappointed by a society, founded in Feb. 1859 by \ncapt. Edward "Walter, which is now under the \npatronage of the queen and the commander-in- \nchief. The charges are regulated by a tariff. In \nJan. 1861 the sociaty commenced the gratuitous \nissue of a Monthly Advertising Circular. In March, \n\n1864, there were 250 commissionnaires in London ; \nin Nov. 1866, about 340; in Oct. 1872, 500; in \nFeb. 1887, 1,650; 1 Jan. 1892, 1,880. On 17 June, \n\n1865, capt. Edward Walter resigned, and a perma- \nnent system of administration was formed. In 1865 \neommissionnaires were first engaged as private \nnight-watchmen. A testimonial (piece of plate) \nfrom the officers of the army and navy was pre- \nsented to Captain Walter, 14 June, 1884; knighted, \n1887. Commissionnaires have been introduced in \nthe colonies, beginning at Sydney, Feb. 1888. \n\nCOMMITTEES, Standing and Grand, were \n\ndirected to be appointed by the new rules for pro- \ncedure passed by the House of Commons in 1882, \nfor facilitating the progress of legislation. The first \ngrand committee (on trade, shipping, &c.) met 9 \nApril, 1883 ; another (on law, &c.) soon after. \nThese Committees were re-appointed by the new \nrule (13). March 1888, and since. \n\nCOMMON COUNCIL of London. The \n\ncity parliament, consists of 206 members elected \nannually on St. Thomas\' day, 21 Dec. by the \nfreemen householders of the 26 wards and their \naldermen. This court, which appears to have been \ngradually organized in the 12th century, is men- \ntioned in a charter granted by John, 12 14. See \nPlough Monday. A Common Sail is held occa- \nsionally. The common council supported the prince \nof Orange in 1688, and queen Caroline in 1820. \n\nCOMMON LAW of England, an ancient \n\ncollection of unwritten maxims and customs {leges \nnon scriptce) , of British, Saxon, and Danish origin, \n\xe2\x96\xa0which has subsisted immemorially in this kingdom ; \nand although somewhat impaired by the rude shock \nof the Norman conquest, has weathered the violence \nof the times. At the parliament of Merton, 1236, \n\xe2\x96\xa0"all the earls and barons," says the parliament \nroll, " with one voice answered, that they would \nnot change the laws of England, which have \nhitherto been used and approved ;" eminently the \nlaw of the land ; see Bastard. The process, prac- \ntice, and mode of pleading in the superior courts of \ncommon law, were amended in 1852 and 1854. \n\nCOMMON PLEAS, Court of, in Eng- \nland, in ancient times followed the king\'s person, \naud is distinct from that of the King\'s Bench ; but \non the grant of Magna Charta by king John, \nin 1215, it was fixed at Westminster. In 1833 the \nmode of procedure in all the superior courts was made \nuniform. In England, no barrister under the degree \nof serjeant could plead in the court of common pleas; \nbut in 1846 the privilege was extended to barristers \npractising in the superior courts at Westminster. \nSat last, July, 1875. The Common Pleas division of \nthe high court of justice now consists of the chief \njustice and four judges. See Supreme Court. \n\nchief justices. (England.) \n1558. Sir Anthony Browne. \n3559. Sir James Dyer. \n1582. Sir Edmund Anderson. \n1605. Sir Francis Gawdy. \n*6o6. Sir Edward Coke. \n\n\n\n613. Sir Henry Hobart. \n626. Sir Thomas Richardson. \n631. Sir Robert Heath. \n634. Sir John Finch. \n\n639. Sir Edward Lyttleton. \n\n640. Sir John Bankes. \n648. Oliver St. John. \n\n660. Sir Orlando Bridgman, afterwards lord keeper. \n\n668. Sir John Vaughau. \n\n675. Sir Francis North, afterwards lord keeper Guildford. \n\n683. Sir Francis Pemberton. \n\n,, Sir Thomas Jones. \n\n685. Sir Henry Bedingfield. \n\n687. Sir Robert Wright. \n\n,, Sir Edward Herbert. \n\n689. Sir Henry Pollexfen. \n\n692. Sir George Treby. \n\n701. Sir Thomas Trevor, afterwards lord Trevor. \n\n714. Sir Peter King, afterwards lord chancellor King. \n\n725. Sir Robert Eyre. \n\n736. Sir Thomas Reeve. \n\n737. Sir John Willes. \n\n761. SirCharles Pratt, afterwds. lord chancellor Camden. \n\n766. Sir John Eardley Wilniot. \n\n771. Sir William de Grey, afterwards lord Walsingham \n\n780. Alexander Wedderburne, aft. Id. ch. Loughborough. \n\n793. Sir James Eyre. \n\n799. Sir John Scott, afterwards lord chancellor Eldon \n\n801. Sir Richard Pepper Arden (lord Alvanley) 22 May. \n\n804. Sir James Manstield, 21 April. \n\n814. Sir Vicary Gibbs, 24 Feb. \n\n818. Sir Robert Dallas, 5 Nov. \n\n824. Sir Robert Gifford, 9 Jan. ; (lord Gifford) ; after- \nwards master of the rolls. \n\n\xe2\x80\x9e Sir William Draper Best, afterwards lord Wynford, \n15 April. \n\n829. Sir Nicolas C. Tindal, 9 June ; died July, 1846 \n\n846. Sir Thomas Wilde, n July ; afterwards lord chan- \ncellor Truro. \n\n850. Sir John Jervis, 16 July ; died 1 Nov. 1856. \n\n856. Sir Alex. Cockburn, Nov. ; ch. j. Q. B. June 1859 \n\n859. Sir William Erie, June ; retired Nov. 1866. \n\n866. Sir William Bovill, 29 Nov. ; died 1 Nov. 1873. \n\n873. John Duke Coleridge, Lord Coleridge, Nov.\'; re- \nmoved to queen\'s bench, Nov. 1880. \nThe abolition of the distinct divisions of common pleas \nand exchequer was recommended by the judges 30 Nov \nand ordered by the privy council 16 Dec. 1880. \' \' \n\nThe last Chief Justice of the common pleas (see \nSupreme Court 0/ Judicature Act, 1881). \n\nchief justices. (Ireland.) \n1691. Richard Pyne, 5 Jan. \n1695. Sir John Hely, 10 May. \n1 701. Sir Richard Cox, 4 May. \n1703. Robert Doyne, 27 Dec. \n1714. John Forster, 30 Sept. \n1720. Sir Richard Levinge, 13 Oct. \n1724. Thomas Wyndham, 27 Oct. \n\n1726. William Whitshed, 23 Jan. \n\n1727. James Reynolds, 8 Nov. \n1740. Henry Singleton, n May. \n1754. Sir William Yorke, 4 Sept. \n1761. William Aston, 5 May. \n1765. Richard Clayton, 21 Feb. \n1770. Marcus Patterson, 18 June \n1787. Hugh Carleton, afterwards \n\n30 April. \n\n1800. John Toler, afterwards lord Norbury 22 Oct \n1827. Lord Plunket, 18 June. \n1830. John Doherty, 23 Dec. \n1850. James Henry Monahan, 23 Sept. ; died 8 Dec. \n\n\n\nviscount Carleton \n\n\n\n1876. \n\n\n\nSir Michael Morris \njustices. \n\n\n\nJan. The last of the chief \n\n\n\nCOMMON PRAYER, Book of, was ordered \n\nby parliament to be printed in the English language \non 1 April, 1548. It was voted out of doors by parlia- \nment, and the Directory {which see) set "up in its \nroom in 1644, an d a proclamation was issued against \nit in 1647. With a few changes the English\xc2\xb0Com- \nmon Prayer-book is used by the episcopal churches \nin Scotland, Ireland, and North America. \n\n\n\nThe King\'s Primer published \nFirst book of Edward VI. printed \n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \'545 \n7 March, 1549 \n\n\n\nCOMMONS, HOUSE OF. \n\n\n\n238 \n\n\n\nCOMMONS. \n\n\n\nSecond book of Edward VI 1552 \n\nFirst book of Elizabeth (revised!) .... 1559 \n\nKing James\'s book . ditto 1604 \n\nScotch book of Charles 1 1637 \n\nCharles II. \'s book (Savoy Conference) now in use . 1662 \n[The original MS. of this book, signed by convocation \nin 1661, and annexed to the act of uniformity in 1662, \n-was in time detached and lost, and not found till 1867 ; \nphotographs were published by the queen\'s printers and \nthe universities early in 1891.] \n\nThe State services (which had never formed part of the \nPrayer-book, but were annexed to it at the beginning of \nevery reign) for 5 November (Gunpowder treason), 30 \nJan. (Charles I.\'s execution), and 29 May (Charles II. \'s re- \nstoration), were ordered to be discontinued ; 17 Jan. 1859. \nChanges in the Lectionary or calendar of lessons \nwere recommended in the third report of the \nRitual Commission, 12 Jan. 1870. A bill for \nsanctioning these changes passed the house of \nlords, but was dropped in the house of commons \nthrough want of time, Aug. ; passed . 13 July, 1871 \n[The old tables might be used till 1 Jan. 1879. J \nThe fourth report of the Ritual Commission dis- \nclosed great difference of opinion amongst the \n\ncommissioners Aug. 1870 \n\nShortened services and other changes were autho- \nrized by the New Uniformity Act, passed 18 July, 1872 \nPublic Worship Regulation Act (to check ritual- \nism) passed Aug. 1874 \n\nThe Wesleyan Methodists who had used the Prayer- \nbook appoint a committee to revise it . Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe Prayer Book revision society petition the Abp. \nof Canterbury for changes . . Jan. -Feb. 1883 \n\nCOMMONS, HOUSE OF, originated with \nSimon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, who by the \nProvisions of Oxford ordered returns to be made of \ntwo knights from every shire, and deputies from \n\n\n\ncertain boroughs, to meet such of the barons and \nclergy as were his friends, with a view ther-eby to \nstrengthen his own power in opposition to that of \nhis sovereign Henry III., 1258. Stoio ; see Parlia- \nment. In 1859 Mr. Newmarch estimated the con- \nstituency of England and Wales at 934,000. It waa \nlargely increased by the reform act of 1867 : \xe2\x80\x94 Regis- \ntered parliamentary electors, 1872 : England and \nWales, boroughs, 1,250,019; counties, 801,109. \nScotland, burghs, 49,025 ; counties, 79,919. Ire- \nland, boroughs, 171,912 ; counties, 175,439. Total, \n2,526,423. By the Franchise Act of 1884, the \nelectors of the United Kingdom were increased to \nabout 5,000,000, and many changes were made by \nthe Redistribution Act of 1885 (disqualified persons- \nabout 7,000,000), 1,911,955 voters in boroughs in \nEngland and Wales; and 2,579,403 in counties in \n1888. The present house of Commons (counties, \nboroughs, and universities): England, 465 ; Wales,, \n30; Scotland, 72; Ireland, 103 members (1892). \nSee under Reform. \nParliamentary electors : England and Wales : 1875, \n\n2,301,266 ; 1878, 2,416,222 ; 1883, 2,632,223. Scotland, \n\n1875,289,789; 1883, 226,511. Ireland, 1875, 230,436; \n\n1883. 322,967 ; total, 1878, 2,952,005. Electorate, 1889 : \n\nEngland and Wales, 4,501,851 ; Scotland, 571,911 ; \n\nIreland, 763,145 ; total, 5,836,907. Return in 1892, \n\n6,161,456. \n\nBy the reform Act of 1884, the county franchise was- \nmade uniform with that of the boroughs, and about \n2,000,000 voters were added \nBy the acts of 1884-5, 670 members : eleetions, July,. \n\n1892, reported: Liberals, 270, Parnellites, 9; anti- \n\nParnellites, 72 ; labour members, 4 ; Conservatives,. \n\n268 ; Liberal-Unionists, 47. \n\n\n\nOld House. \n\nENGLAND. \n\n202 Cities or boroughs \n40 Counties \n2 Universities . \n\n\n\nWALES. \n\n12 Cities or boroughs \n12 Counties \n\n\n\nSCOTLAND. \n\n15 Cities or burghs . \n\n\n\nMembers. \n\n\n\n33 Counties \n\n\n\nIRELAND. \n\n33 Cities or boroughs \n32 Counties \n1 University . \n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 4\xc2\xb03 \n\n. 82 \n\n. . 4 \n\n\n489 \n\n\n12 \n12 \n\n\n24 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 15 \n. . 3\xc2\xb0 \n\n\n45 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 35 \n\n. . - 64 \n\n1 \n\n\n100 \nTotal 658 \n\n\n\nBy the Reform Act 0/1832.* \nEngland. Members. \n\n187 Cities or boroughs . . . 323 \n40 Counties . . . 144 \n\n1 Isle of Wight . i . . 1 \n\n2 Universities .\' . 4 \n\n\n\n230 \n\nWALES. \n\n14 Cities or boroughs \n12 Counties \n\n\n\nSCOTLAND. \n\n21 Cities or burghs \n33 Counties \n\n\n\n54 \n\nIRELAND. \n\n33 Cities or boroughs . \n32 Counties \n1 University \n\n\n\n472 \n\n\n\nMembers. \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 23 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 3\xc2\xb0 \n\n\n\nBy the Acts of 1867 and 1868. \n\nEngland. Members. \n\n186 Cities or boroughs t . . 286 \n\n40 Counties 1731 \n\n1 Isle of Wight ... 1 \n3 Universities . . . . 5 \n\n\n\nWALES. \n\n14 Cities or boroughs \n12 Counties \n\n\n. is \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x96\xa0 is \n\n\n26 \n\n\n30 \n\n\nSCOTLAND. \n\n22 Cities or burghs . \n33 Counties \n4 Universities \n\n\nMembers. \n\n. 26 \n\n- \xe2\x80\xa2 33 \n\n\n59 \n\n\n60 \n\n\nIRELAND. \n\n33 Cities or boroughs f \n32 Counties \n1 University \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 39- \n\n. . 64 \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0z \n\n\n66 \n\n\n105 \n\n\n381 \n\n\nTotal 658; \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nCOMMONS. In 1685, of the 37,000,000 acres \nof land in England, about 18,000,000 were moor- \nland, forest, and fen. In 1727, about 3,000,000 \nacres more had been brought into cultivation ; and \nfrom that time to 1844, by means of 4000 private \n\n* In 1844 Sudbury, and in 1852 St. Alban\'s, were dis \nfranchised for bribery and corruption ; each having \npreviously returned two members ; the aggregate number \nof the house then became 654. In 1861, the forfeited \nseats were thus distributed by act of parliament \xe2\x80\x94 two \nadditional to the west riding of York, one additional to \nSouth Lancashire, and one to a newly-created borough, \nBirkenhead. \n\n\n\nacts of parliament, about 7,000,000 acres more \nwere enclosed. Since the Enclosure Act of 1845^ \nwhich established commissioners, another 1,000,000- \nacres have been enclosed. \nAct for improvement, protection, and management \n\nof commons near the metropolis, passed . Aug. 1866"- \nThe Commons Preservation Society established 1865 \n\nelected Win. Cowper, president . \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x96\xa0 Feb. 1867 \n\nt Disfranchised and replaced, 1867 : Lancaster, Tar- \nmouth, Totnes, and Reigate. \xe2\x80\x94 Disfranchised, 1870: Be- \nverley and Bridgwater, eacli two members ; Cashel and\' \nSligo.ench one member : 652 members, 1878 ; 12 members \nshort, through void elections, Aug. 1880. \n\n\n\nCOMMONWEALTH OF ENGLAND. 239 \n\n\n\nCOMPANIES. \n\n\n\n" Six Essays on Commons Preservation," were pub- \nlished . 1867 \n\nIt is stated that there are 900,000 acres of common \nland capable of cultivation in England and Wales, \n\nAug. 1874 \n\nAct for the regulation of commons, passed n Aug. 1876 \n\nMr. de Morgan, active opponent of enclosures, im- \nprisoned for contempt of court (The Rolls) . Jan. 1878 \n\nMetropolitan Board of Works authorised to secure \ncommons, &c. by act passed . . 16 Aug. ,, \n\nAbout 14,000 acres of land near London preserved \nby the agency of the Commons Preservation \nSociety reported at the annual meeting on \n\nio Dec. 18S6 \nBy the Ranges Act, passed in 1891, power was given to \n\nany lord of the manor to acquire possession of any part \n\nof any common over which his rights extend, in order \n\nthat the secretary of state for war may establish ranges \n\nfor rifle practice, &c, with regulations. \n\nCOMMONWEALTH of ENGLAND, the \n\nterm applied to the interregnum between the death \nof Charles I. and the restoration of Charles II. A \nrepublic was established at the execution of \nCharles I., 30 Jan. 1649, \xe2\x80\x94 a new oath called the \n"Engagement" was framed, which all officials \nwere obliged to take.* Salmon. Oliver Cromwell \nwas made protector, 16 Dec. 1653 ; succeeded by his \nson Richard, 3 Sept. 1658. Monarch}\' was restored \n8 May, and Charles II. entered London, 29 May, \n1660. For the Commonwealth of Australia, \nsee Australasia . \n\nCOMMUNALISTS, or Communists, pro- \npose to divide France into about a thousand small \nthoroughly independent states, with councils elected \nby all the population, Paris to be the ruling head. \nThey declare that capital and its holders must be \nadapted to nobler uses, or cease to exist. Their \ncreed is stated to be atheism and materialism. \nThey are intimately connected with the Interna- \ntional Society of workmen (see Workmen), and \nwith the communists or socialists (1871-3)^ \n\nCOMMUNES, in France, are territorial divi- \nsions under a mayor. In the nth century the \nname was given to combinations of citizens, favoured \nby the crown, against the exactions of the nobles. \nIn 1356 Stephen Marcel, during the English inva- \nsion, vainly endeavoured to establish a confederation \nof sovereign cities, having Paris as the governing \nhead ; and for six months it was really governed by \na commune in 1588. After the insurrection of July, \n1 789, the revolutionary committee whichreplaced the \ncity council took the name of " commune of Paris," \nPethion being mayor. It met at the Hotel de \nVille, and was definitively constituted, 21 May, \n1791- It had great power under Robespierre, and \nfell with him 17 July, 1794; being replaced by \ntwelve municipalities. The commune of Paris was \nproclaimed 28 March, 1871, during the insurrection, \nwhich began 18 March, and ended with the capture \nof the city by the government troops, 28 May follow- \ning. 2245 communists were pardoned by decree \nissued 17 Jan. 1879; and many others afterwards. \nA number re-entered Paris, 4 September following. \nFor the events of the communal rule in Paris, see \nFrance, 1871. See Socialism. \n\n* By this oath they swore to be true and faithful to \nthe Commonwealth, without king or house of lords. \nThe statues of Charles were next day demolished, par- \nticularly that at the Royal Exchange, and one at the \nwest end of St. Paul\'s ; and in their room the following \ninscription was conspicuously set up : \xe2\x80\x94"Exit Tyrannus \nJlegurn ultimus, Anno Libertatis Anglice Rcstltukc Primo, \nAnno Dom., 1648. Jan. 30." \n\n+ M. Dufaure, in opposing the amnesty, 17 May, 1876, \nasserted that the outbreak was organised by about 7000 \ncommunists and 1500 foreigners ; 40,000 persons were \ninculpated ; 10,000 tried ; 25,000 dismissed. See France. \n\n\n\nCOMMUNION, a name given to the ordinance- \nof the Lord\'s supper, 1 Cor. x. 16. Communicating \nunder the form of bread alone is said to have had \nits rise in the west, under pope Urban II., 1096. The \ncup was first denied to the laity by the council of \nConstance, 1414-18. The fourth Lateran council, \n1215, decreed that every believer should receive the- \ncommunion at least at Easter. The communion ser- \nvice of the church of England was set forth in 1549,. \n\nCOMMUTATION, see Tithes. \n\nCOMORN, see Komom. \n\nCOMORO ISLANDS, see Madagascar, 1891.. \n\nCOMPANIES.* The London trade com- \npanies were gradually formed out of the trade or \ncraft guilds, mainly by the exertions of "Walter- \nHarvey, mayor, in 1272, who is said to have- \nbeen very active in enlarging and maintaining the- \nliberties and privileges of the city. The originaL \nreligious element in the companies gradually \ndisappeared. Among the earliest commercial com- \npanies in England may be named the Steel- \nyard society, established 1232. The second com- \npany was the merchants of St. Thomas a. Beckett \nin 1248. Stow. The Merchant Adventurers,, \nincorporated by Elizabeth, 1564. The follow- \ning are the city companies of London ; the first \ntwelve are the chief, and are styled "the Honour- \nable." Many companies are extinct, and many dates \nare doubtful. An inquiry into their affairs was par- \ntially resisted by them in 1835. In 1869 the gross- \nincome of the endowed charities of the city com- \npanies was stated to be above 99,000/. A motion in. \nthe Commons for inquiry iuto the revenues and \nother affairs of 89 companies, by Mr. W. H. James, \nwithdrawn, 23 May, 1876. A commission of inquiry- \nwas appointed (the earl of Derbjr, duke of Bedford,, \nlords Coleridge and Sherbrooke, sir R. A. Cross,. \n&c), 14 July, 1880. Five reports issued with re- \ncommendations for reform, 1884-5. \n\nIn 1884, 7319 liverymen and about 10,000 freemen,, \nestimated annual income about 750,000?., expended in. \nmaintenance, education, and charities ; about 75,000?, \nspent in entertainments. \n\nGrants from the companies to the City Guilds of \nLondon Institute (Goldsmiths 46,000?., Drapers 43,000?., \nCloth workers 37,000?., Fishmongers 34,000?., Mercers \n22,000?., Grocers 10,000?.) ; for technical education, &e_ \n(Drapers 60,000?., Goldsmiths 85,000?., Mercers 60,000?.) \nand others promised 1878-88. \n\n\n\nI. \n\n\nMercers \n\n\n1393 \n\n\nIS- \n\n\nLeather-sellers . \n\n\n1444- \n\n\n2. \n\n\nGrocers - . . . \n\n\n1345 \n\n\n16. \n\n\nPewterers . . \n\n\nT 473 \n\n\n3- \n\n\nDrapers \n\n\n1438 \n\n\n17- \n\n\nBarber-Surgeons . \n\n\n1462: \n\n\n4- \n\n\nFishmongers (salt, \n\n\n\n\n18. \n\n\nCutlers . \n\n\n1415 \n\n\n\n\ni433;stock,i5o9) \n\n\n\n\niq. \n\n\nBakers . \n\n\n1509. \n\n\n\n\nunited . . . \n\n\n1537 \n\n\n20. \n\n\nWax-chandlers \n\n\n1483 \n\n\ns. \n\n\nGoldsmiths . \n\n\n1327 \n\n\n21. \n\n\nTallow-chandlers . \n\n\n1462- \n\n\n6. \n\n\nSkinners . . . \n\n\n\n\n22. \n\n\nArmourers and \n\n\n\n\n7- \n\n\nMerchant Taylors. \n\n\n1326 \n\n\n\n\nBraziers . . \n\n\n1453; \n\n\n8. \n\n\nHaberdashers \n\n\n1448 \n\n\n23. \n\n\nGirdlers \n\n\n1448 \n\n\ng- \n\n\nSalters . . . \n\n\nISS8 \n\n\n24. \n\n\nButchers . \n\n\n1606-- \n\n\n10. \n\n\nIronmongers \n\n\n1464 \n\n\n25. \n\n\nSaddlers \n\n\n1272^ \n\n\nII. \n\n\nVintners . . . \n\n\n1363 \n\n\n26. \n\n\nCarpenters . . \n\n\nJ477 \n\n\n12. \n\n\nCloth-workers \n\n\n1480 \n\n\n27. \n\n\nCordwainers \n\n\n1438- \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n28. \n\n\nPainter-stainers . \n\n\n1581 \n\n\nn- \n\n\nDyers . . . \n\n\n1471 \n\n\n2Q. \n\n\nCurriers \n\n\n1606- \n\n\n14. \n\n\nBrewers \n\n\n1438 \n\n\n3\xc2\xb0- \n\n\nMasons . . . \n\n\n1677- \n\n\n\n* Bubble companies have been formed, commonly by \ndesigning persons. Law\'s bubble, in 1720-1, was "per- \nhaps the most extraordinary of its kind, and the South \nSea Bubble, in the same year, was scarcely less memor- \nable for its ruin of thousands of families. Many com- \npanies were established in these countries in 1824 and \n1825, and turned out to be bubbles. Immense losses \nwere incurred by individuals, and the families of thou- \nsands of speculators were totally ruined. .Many v.iihvn \nenterprises (1844-5) were termed bubbles. See Law\'s; \nBubble; South Sea; Railways; Joint-Stock Companies. \n\n\n\nCOMPANIES\' ACTS. \n\n\n\n240 \n\n\n\nCONCHOLOGY. \n\n\n\n3i- \n\n\nPlumbers \n\n\nl6ri \n\n\n63- \n\n\nComb-makers \n\n\n1635 \n\n\n32. \n\n\nInn-holders . . \n\n\n1515 \n\n\n64. \n\n\nFelt-makers . . \n\n\n1604 \n\n\n33- \n\n\nFounders \n\n\n1614 \n\n\n65- \n\n\nFramework knit- \n\n\n\n\n34- \n\n\nPoulterers . . \n\n\n1504 \n\n\n\n\nters . \n\n\n1663 \n\n\n35- \n\n\nCooks . \n\n\n1482 \n\n\n66. \n\n\nSilk-throwsters . \n\n\n1629 \n\n\n36. \n\n\nCoopers . . . \n\n\n1501 \n\n\n67. \n\n\nSilk-men \n\n\n1608 \n\n\n37- \n\n\nTilers and brick- \n\n\n\n\n68. \n\n\nPin-makers . . \n\n\n1636 \n\n\n\n\nlayers \n\n\n1568 \n\n\n69. \n\n\nNeedle-makers \n\n\n1656 \n\n\n38. \n\n\nBowyers . . . \n\n\n1621 \n\n\n70. \n\n\nGardeners . . \n\n\n1605 \n\n\n39- \n\n\nFletchers \n\n\n1536 \n\n\n7 1 - \n\n\nSoap-makers \n\n\n1638 \n\n\n4\xc2\xb0- \n\n\nBlacksmiths . . \n\n\n1S71 \n\n\n72. \n\n\nTinplate-workers . \n\n\n1671 \n\n\n4i- \n\n\nJoiners . \n\n\n1571 \n\n\n73- \n\n\nWheelwrights \n\n\n1670 \n\n\n42. \n\n\nWeavers . . . \n\n\n1184 \n\n\n74- \n\n\nDistillers . . . \n\n\n1638 \n\n\n43- \n\n\nWoolmen \n\n\n1484 \n\n\n75- \n\n\nHatband-makers . \n\n\n1604 \n\n\n44- \n\n\nScriveners . . \n\n\n1617 \n\n\n76. \n\n\nPatten-makers \n\n\n1671 \n\n\n45- \n\n\nFruiterers . \n\n\n1606 \n\n\n77- \n\n\nGlass-sellers . \n\n\n1664 \n\n\n.46, \n\n\nPlasterers . . \n\n\n1 501 \n\n\n78. \n\n\nTobacco - pipe \n\n\n\n\n47- \n\n\nStationers . \n\n\n1556 \n\n\n\n\nmakers \n\n\nT619 \n\n\n48. \n\n\nBroderers . . \n\n\n1561 \n\n\n79- \n\n\nCoach and Har- \n\n\n\n\n49- \n\n\nUpholders . \n\n\n1626 \n\n\n\n\nness makers \n\n\n1677 \n\n\n3\xc2\xb0- \n\n\nMusicians . . \n\n\n1604 \n\n\n80. \n\n\nGunmakers . . \n\n\n1637 \n\n\n31- \n\n\nTurners \n\n\n,, \n\n\n81. \n\n\nGold and Silvei \n\n\n\n\n32. \n\n\nBasket-makers \n\n\n1569 \n\n\n\n\nwire-drawers . \n\n\n1693 \n\n\n53- \n\n\nGlaziers , \n\n\n1631 \n\n\n82. \n\n\nBowstring-makers \n\n\n1440 \n\n\n54- \n\n\nHomers . . . \n\n\n1638 \n\n\n83. \n\n\nCard-makers . \n\n\n1628 \n\n\n55- \n\n\nFarriers \n\n\n1684 \n\n\n84. \n\n\nFan-makers . . \n\n\n1709 \n\n\n56. \n\n\nPaviors . . . \n\n\n1479 \n\n\n85- \n\n\nWood-mongers \n\n\n1605 \n\n\n57- \n\n\nLoriners \n\n\n1712 \n\n\n86. \n\n\nStarch-makers \n\n\n1632 \n\n\n58. \n\n\nApothecaries . . \n\n\n1617 \n\n\n87. \n\n\nFishermen . . \n\n\n1687 \n\n\n59- \n\n\nShipwrights \n\n\n1605 \n\n\n88. \n\n\nParish clerks \n\n\n1223 \n\n\n60. \n\n\nSpectacle-makers \n\n\n1629 \n\n\n89. \n\n\nCarmen . . . \n\n\n1606 \n\n\n6i. \n\n\nClock-makers \n\n\n1631 \n\n\n90. \n\n\nPorters \n\n\n1154 \n\n\n62. \n\n\nGlovers . . . \n\n\n1639 \n\n\n91. \n\n\nWatermen . . \n\n\n1556 \n\n\n\nCOMPANIES\' ACTS : one passed 1862, was \namended and continued, 20 Aug. 1867; both \namended by acts, 2 July, 1877, and 15 Aug., 1879. \nThe important Companies Winding-up act was \npassed 18 Aug. 1890. \n\nBy the last act, unlimited banking companies were \nregulated in regard to their issue of notes, audit of \naccounts, <&c. The acts of 1862, 1867, 1877, and 1879 \nwere amended by 43 Vict. c. 19 (1880), in 1883 and 1886. \n\xe2\x96\xa0Companies registered 30,372 since 1862 ; nominal \n\xe2\x80\xa2capital 3,442,804,000?. ; reported 1889. Companies \n.registered in the United Kingdom in 1888, 2,346 ; in \n1889, 2,788; in 189a, 2,789. \n\nCOMPASS, MABINEE\'S, said to have \nbeen early known to the Chinese, n 15 B.C., and \nbrought to Europe by Marco J\'olo, a Venetian, \n1260, a.d. Flavio Gioja, of Amalfi, a navigator, of \nNaples,* is said to have introduced the suspension \nof the needle, 1302. The compass is also said to \nhave been known to the Swedes in the time of \nking Jarl Birger, 1250. Its variation was discovered \nfirst by Columbus, 1492 ; afterwards by Sebastian \nCabot, 1540. The compass box and hanging com- \npass used by navigators were invented by William \nBarlowe, an English divine and natural philosopher, \nin 1608 ; see Magnetism. The measuring compass \nwas invented by Jost Bing, of Hesse, in 1602. The \n\xe2\x96\xa0compass of sir William Thomson patented in 1876 \nis considered the best. \n\nCOMPETITIVE EXAMINATIONS, see \n\n\'Civil Service. \n\nCOMPIEGNE, a French city north of Paris, \nthe residence of the Carlovingian kings. During \nthe siege, Joan of Arc was captured by the Bur- \ngundians, 25 May, 1430, and given up to the English \nfor money. The emperor Napoleon III. and the king \nof Prussia met here on 6 Oct. 1861. \n\nCOMPLUTENSIAN BIBLE, see Polyglot. \n\nCOMPOSING-MACHINES, see Printing \nand Times. \n\n\n\n* The statement that the fleur-de-lis was made the \nornament of the northern point of the compass in com- \npliment to Charles, the king of Naples at the time of \nthe discovery, has been contradicted. \n\n\n\nCOMPOSITE OEDEB, a mixture of the \nCorinthian and Ionic, and also called the Roman \norder, is of uncertain date. \nComposite Portraits. By means of photography in 1877-8, \n\nMr. Francis Galton combined from 2 to 9 separate \n\nportraits ; the result was generally an improvement \n\non the features of the components. \n\nCOMPOUND HOUSEHOLDEES (in \n\nregard to the payment of rates) were constituted \nby the Small Tenements act of 1851. Their posi- \ntion, with regard to the suffrage, caused much \ndiscussion during the passing of the Reform act in \n1867 ; and their claims were rejected. \n\nCOMPOUND EADICAL, in organic chem- \nistry, is a substance which although containing \ntwo or more elements, in ordinary circumstances \nperforms the part of an element. The Iladical or \nBinary theory was propounded by Berzelius, 1833, \nand by Liebig, 1838 ; and modified in the nucleus \ntheory of Aug. Laurent, 1836. The first compound \nradical isolated was cyanogen (which see), by Gay- \nLussac, in 1815 ; see Amyl, Ethyl, and Methyl as \nother examples. \n\nCOMPEEHENSION BILL. Passed by \nthe House of Lords in 1689, it proposed changes \nlikely to induce Nonconformists to join the Church \nof England \xe2\x80\x94 it was dropped in the Commons, \nbeing unsatisfactory to all parties. \n\nCOMPEOMISE, see Breda. \n\nCOMTE PHILOSOPHY, see Positive \nPhilosophy. \n\nCONCEPTION, Immaculate. A festival \n\n(on 8 Dee.) appointed in 1389, observed in the \nRoman Catholic Church in honour of the Virgin \nMary\'s having been conceived and born immacu- \nlate, or without original sin. Opposition to this \ndoctrine was forbidden by decree of pope Paul V. \nin 161 7, confirmed by Gregory XV. and Alexander \nVII. Henault. On 8 Dec. 1854, pope Pius IX. \npromulgated a bull, declaring this dogma to be an \narticle of faith, and charging with heresy those who \nshould doubt it or speak against it. \xe2\x80\x94 The Concep- \ntionists were an order of nuns in Italy, esta- \nblished in 1488 ; see Santiago. \n\nCONCEETINA, a musical instrument in- \nvented by prof, afterwards sir Charles Wheatstone, \nabout 1825, and improved by Mr. G. Case. The \nsounds are produced by free vibrating metal springs. \n\nCONCEETS. The Filarmonia gave concerts \nat Vicenza in the 16th century. The first public \nsubscription concert was performed at Oxford in \n1665 ; the first in London is said to have been in \n1672, by John Banister, afterwards by Thomas \nBritton till his death, 1714. The Academy of \nAncient Music, which introduced concerts in Lon- \ndon, began in 1710; the Concerts of Ancient Music \nin 1776; and the present Philharmonic Society in \n1813; see others, under Music ; Crystal Palace; \nand Handel. Colossal peace concerts were held at \nBoston, U.S., 15 June, &c. 1869; 17 June to \n4 July, 1872 ; see Boston. \n\nConcerts Spirituels at Paris, organized by Anne Dannican \nPhilidor, began in Passion week, 18 March, 1725 : \nclosed in 1791 ; re-established, 1805 ; replaced by the \nConcerts du Conservatoire, begun 9 March, 1828. \nJullleris Popular Concerts, with monster quadrilles, began \nat Drury Lane Theatre 8 June, 1840 ; a farewell \nseries, 1859. He greatly promoted the taste for classi- \ncal music. \nPromenade Concerts revived at Covent Garden Theatre, \nautumn, 1880. \n\nCONCHOLOGY, the science of shells, is \nmentioned by Aristotle and Pliny. It was first \n\n\n\nCONCILIATION COUNCILS. \n\n\n\n241 \n\n\n\nCONFESSIONS. \n\n\n\nreduced to a system by John Daniel Major, of \nKiel, who published his classification of the Tes- \ntacea in 1675. Lister\'s system was published in \n1685; and that of Largius in 1722. Johnson\'s \nIntroduction (1850) and Sowerby\'s Manual of \nConcho logy (1842), are useful. Forbes and Han- \nley\'s " British Mollusca and their Shells " (1848-53) \nis a magnificent work. " British Conchology," by \nJ. G. Jeffreys, published in 1862-9. \n\nCONCILIATION COUNCILS, see \n\nCouncils. \n\nCONCLAVE. A range of small cells in the \nhall of the Vatican, or palace of the pope of Borne, \nwhere the cardinals usually meet to elect a pope, \nand also the assembly of the cardinals shut up for \nthe purpose. The practice is said to have been \ninstituted by Alexander III. in 11 79. Clement IV. \nhaving died at Viterbo in 1268, the cardinals were \nnearly three years unable to agree in the choice of \na successor, and were on the point of breaking up, \nwhen the magistrates, by the advice of St. Boua- \nventura, shut the gates of their city, and locked up \nthe cardinals till they agreed, 1271. \n\nCONCORD (Massachusetts, N. America) . Near \nhere was fought the battle of Lexington {which \nsee), 19 April, 1775. \n\nCONCORDANCE. An index or alphabetical \ncatalogue of all the words and also a chronological \naccount of all the transactions in the Bible. The \nfirst concordance was made under the direction of \nHugo de St. Caro, who employed as many as 500 \nmonks upon it, 1247. Abbe Leng let. It was based \non one compiled by Anthony of Padua. Thomas \nGibson\'s "Concordance of the New Testament" \npublished, 1535. John Marbeck\'s " Concordance " \n(for the whole Bible), 1550. Two Concordances (with \nroyal privileges), by Bob. F. Herrey, appeared in \n1578. Cruden\'s Concordance was published in \nLondon in 1737. Dr. Bobert Young\'s valuable \n"AnalyticalConcordance to the Bible," 1879-80. The \nIndex to the Bible, published by the Queen\'s prin- \nters, prepared by B. Vincent, 1848. \n\nVerbal indexes accompany good editions of the \nancient classics. An index to Shakspeare, by Ayscough, \nappeared in 1790; another by Twiss in 1805; and Mrs. \nCowden Clarke\'s (late Mary Novello) concordance to \nShakspeare\' s Plays (on which she spent 16 years\' labour) \nin 1847. Shakspeare-~Lexicon by Dr. A. Schmidt, 2 vols. \n1874-5. Mrs. Horace Furness\'s concordance to Shak- \nspeare\'s Poems, 1874. Todd\'s verbal index to Milton, 1809. \nCleveland\'s concordance to Milton, 1867. Brightwell\'s \nconcordance to Tennyson, 1869. Abbott\'s concordance \nto Pope, 1875. Dunbar\'s concordance to Homer, 1880. \nF. S. Ellis\'s concordance to Shelley, 1892. \n\nCONCORDAT. An instrument of agree- \nment between a prince and the pope, usually con- \ncerning benefices. The concordat between the em- \nperor Henry V. of Germany and pope Calixtus II., \nin 1 122, has been regarded as the fundamental law \nof the church in Germany. The concordat be- \ntween Napoleon Bonaparte and Pius VII., signed \nat Paris, 15 July, 1801, re-established the Catholic \nchurch and the papal authority in France. Napo- \nleon was made in effect the head of the Gallican \nchurch, as bishops were to have their appointments \nfrom him, and their investiture from the pope. \nAnother concordat between the same persons was \nsigned at Fontainebleau, 25 Jan. 1813. These were \nalmost nullified by another, 22 Nov. 181 7. A con- \ncordat, signed 18 Aug. 1855, between Austria and \nHome, by which a great ileal of the liberty of the \nAustrian church was given up to the papacy, \ncaused much dissatisfaction. In 1868 it was vir- \n\n\n\ntually abolished by the legislatures of Hungary \nand Austria. \n\nCONDENSATION, see Gas, Beer, Milk. \n\nCONDOTTIERI, conductors or leaders of \nmercenaries, termed free companies or lances, \nwhich became so troublesome in Italy, that the \ncities formed a league to suppress them in 1342. \nMany ravaged France after the peace of Bretigny, \nin 1360. \n\nCONDUITS. Two remarkable conduits, \namong a number of others in London, existed \nearly in Cheapside. The " great conduit" was the \nfirst cistern of lead erected in the city, and was \nbuilt in 1285. At the procession of Anna Boleyn, \non the occasion of her marriage, it ran with white \nand claret wine all the afternoon, 1 June, 1533. \nStow. \n\nCONFEDERATE STATES of North \n\nAmerica. The efforts of the Southern States for \nthe extension of slavery, and the zeal of the Northern \nStates for its abolition, with the consequent political \ndissensions, led to the great secession of 1860-1. On \n4 Nov. i860, Abraham Lincoln, the Bepublican or \nAbolitionist candidate, was elected president of the \nUnited States. Hitherto, a president in the interest \nof the South had been elected. On 20 Dec, South \nCarolina seceded from the Union; and soon after \nAlabama, Florida, Mississippi, Georgia, Louisiana, \nTexas, Virginia (except West Virginia), Arkansas, \nTennessee, and North Carolina also. Jefferson Davis \nwas inaugurated president of the Southern Con- \nfederacy at Montgomery in Alabama, 18 Feb. 1861. \nFor the events of the war which ensued, and the \nrestoration of the Southern States to the Union, \nsee United States, 1861-5. Jefferson Davis\'s " Bise \nand Fall of the Confederate Government," 2 vols., \npublished June, 1881 ; he died, aged 81, 6 Dec. 1889. \n\nCONFEDERATION at Paris, 14 July, \n\n1 790 ; see Champ de Mars, and Bastille. \n\nCONFEDERATION of the Rhine, the \n\nLeague of the Germanic States, formed by Napo- \nleon Bonaparte, 12 July, 1806, when he abolished \nthe Holy Boman Empire, and the emperor of Ger- \nmany became emperor of Austria. In Dec. it \nconsisted of France, Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Saxony, \nand Westphalia ; seven grand duchies ; six duchies ; \nand twenty principalities. The princes collectively \nengaged to raise 258,000 troops to serve in case of \nwar, and established a diet at Frankfort. This \nleague terminated with the career of Bonaparte in \n1814 ; and in 1815 it was replaced by the Germanic \nConfederation {which see, and Germany). \n\nCONFERENCES, Ecclesiastical. One \n\nwas held at Hampton Court palace, between the \nprelates of the church of England and the puritan \nministers, in order to effect a general union, at the \ninstance of the king, James I., 14,16, 18 Jan. 1604. \nIt led to the new translation of the Bible, now in \ngeneral use in England; executed in 1607- 1 1. \nSome alterations in the church liturgy were agreed \nupon ; but these not satisfying the dissenters, \nnothing more was done. \xe2\x80\x94 Another conference of the \nbishops and presbyterian ministers, with the same \nview, was held in the Savoy, 15 April to 25 July, \n1661. The dissenters\' objections were generally \ndisallowed, but some alterations were recommended \nin the Prayer-book. See Wesleyans and Congresses. \n\nCONFESSIONAL, see Auricular Confession. \n\nCONFESSIONS of Faith, or Creeds; \nsee Apostles\' , Nicene (325), and Athanasian (about \n\nK \n\n\n\nCONFIRMATION. \n\n\n\n242 \n\n\n\nCONGO RIVER. \n\n\n\nGreet \n\n\n\n1564 \n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 r 579 \n\n\n\n1647 \n\n\n\nJ. K. Lumby\'s " History of the \nbreeds," published 1874. \n\nThe confession of faith of the Greek church was \npresented to Mahommed II. in 1453. This gave \nway in 1643 to one composed by Mogila, metro- \npolitan of Kiev, which is the present standard \nof the Russo-Greek church. \n\nThe creed of Pius IV. , composed of the Nicene creed, \nwith additional articles which embody all the \npeculiar dogmas of the Roman Catholic church, \npublished by the council of Trent \n\nThe church of England retains the Apostles\', \nNicene, and Athanasian creeds, with articles : \xe2\x80\x94 \n42 in 1552 ; reduced to 39 1563 \n\nThe confession of Augsburg (that of the Lutherans) \nwas drawn up principally by Melancthon, in \n1530, and has since undergone modifications, the \nlast of which is called the " Form of Concord " \n\nThe Westminster confession was agreed to in 1643 \nand adopted by the presbyterian church of Soot- \nland ; see Westminster \n\nThe congregational dissenters published a declara- \ntion of faith !833 \n\nCONFIRMATION, or laying on hands, was \npractised by the Apostles in 34 and 56 (Acts viii. \n17; xix. 6), and was general, according to some \nchurch authorities, in 190. In the church of Eng- \nland it is the public profession of the Christian \nreligion by an adult person, who has been baptized \nin infancy. It is made a sacrament by the church \nof Rome. \n\nCONFLANS (near Paris), TREATY OE, \nbetween Louis XI. of France and the dukes of \nBourbon, Brittany, and Burgundy, 5 Oct. 1465. \nBy its provisions Normandy was ceded to the duke \nof Berry, and an end was put to the " War of the \nPublic Good." It was confirmed by the Treaty of \nPeronne, 1468. \n\nCONFUCIANISM, the doctrines or system \nof j morality taught by Confucius K\'ung FCt-tze, or \n"the Master K\'ung" (b.c. 551-479), which has \nbeen long adopted in China as the basis of juris- \nprudence and education. It inculcates no worship \nof a god, and doubts a future state. \n\n: CONGE D\'ELIRE (permission to elect), the \nlicence given by the sovereign as head of the church, \nto chapters and other bodies, to elect dignitaries, \nparticularly bishops ; the right asserted by Henry \nVIII., 1535. After the interdict of the pope upon \nEngland had been removed in 12 14, king John \nmade an arrangement with the clergy for the \nelection of bishops. \n\nCONGELATION, the act of freezing. Ice \nwas produced in summer by means of chemical \nmixtures, by Mr. Walker, in 1783. Quicksilver \nwas frozen without snow or ice, in 1787. In 1810 \nLeslie froze water in an air-pump by placing a \nvessel of sulphuric acid under it. Numerous freez- \ning mixtures have been discovered since. Intense \ncold is produced bv the aerification of liquefied \ncarbonic acid gas. Ice-making machines invented \nby Jacob Perkins 1834, John Gorrice 1848, and \nothers. In 1857 Mr. Harrison patented a \nmachine for manufacturing ice for commercial \npurposes, by means of ether and salt water, and \nmade large blocks. In i860, M. Carre devised a \nmethod of freezing to 60\xc2\xb0 below zero by making \nwater in a close vessel absorb and give off the gas \nammonia. Siebe\'s ice-making machine, exhibited \nat the International Exhibition of 1862, excited \nmuch admiration. \nIn R. Reece\'s ice-making machine (made known Dec. \n\n1868), liquefied ammonia is vaporised in a close vessei \n\nsurrounded by water to be frozen. \nMr. Harrison\'s method of freezing was applied to preser- \n\n\n\nvation of meat in Australia ; a cargo of carcases was \nshipped from Norfolk, Australia, 13 July, 1873. Not \nsuccessful. See Ice, Provisions. \n\nCONGESTED DISTRICTS BOARD \n\n(Ireland), constituted by the Purchase of Land \nAct, 5 Aug. 1891. \n\nCONGO RIVER, S.W. Africa. The mouths \nof the Congo were discovered by the Portuguese in \n1484, and they have ever since claimed territories \non its banks, having founded settlements, and sent \nmissionaries, with temporary success. Dr. Living- \nstone explored the Congo, 1867-71. The natives \non its bank and on the creeks having rifled the \nGeraldine, and committed other acts of piracy, \nwere chastised by an expedition under commodore \nsir Win. Hewett, 3-1 1 Sept. 1875. Several villages \nand chiefs\' houses were destroyed. \n\nFor Mr. H. M. Stanley\'s expeditions in connection \nwith the Belgian government, and his settle- \nments, see Africa, 1876, et seq. \n\nM. de Brazza\'s expedition ; his treaty with the \nking of Congo ratified by the French govern- \nment 21 Nov. 1882 \n\nColonies formed ; nationaljealousies excited ; regret \nof the disinterested king of the Belgians ; the \nBritish government partly recognize the rights of \nthe Portuguese, Jan., with certain modifications \n(afterwards set aside) .... March, 1883 \n\nSir F. Goldsmid, chief of an expedition connected \nwith the International African Association fa- \nvoured by Belgium, starts summer . . . ,, \n\nThe French seize fresh territories, 28 March, 1883 ; \nburn a village, March, et seq. \n\nMr. Stanley had peaceably founded 12 stations and \nopened up 4500 miles of rivers to trade and civi- \nlization, reported 12 July ; he advocates a British \nprotectorate, Sept. ; M. de Brazza\'s settlements \nreported unsuccessful .... Sept. ,, \n\nCircular from the Portuguese government assert- \ning rights over the mouth of the Congo, published \nin Times 5 Nov. ,, \n\nSir F. Goldsmid ill ; returns to England ; reports ; \nGen. (Chinese) Gordon appointed by the king of \nBelgium to act on behalf of the International \nAfrican Association on the Congo for the sup- \npression of slavery, and support of commerce, \nJan. ; but is sent by the British government to \nthe Soudan 18 Jan. 1884 \n\nMr. Stanley returns to Stanley Pool . 21 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBritish agreement with Congo, announced 5 Feb. ,, \n\nBritish interest secured by treaty with Portugal ; \nsigned Feb. ,, \n\nThe International African Association (captain \nStrauch, president), aiming at the suppression of \nslavery, has 30 stations, announced 9 April ; its \nflag recognized by United States, 22 April ; it \nformulates itself as a federal state, and is said to \nenter into engagements with France, regarded as . \npresumptuous, but justified by the Association, \n\nMay-June, ,, \n\nRecognized by Great Britain, Italy, and other \npowers, Dec. 1884, et seq. \n\nColonel sir Francis de Winton appointed adminis- \ntrator-general of the Congo territories June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFree trade in the Congo valley declared by the \nWest African conference (which see) . Dec. ,, \n\nThe Mouth of the Congo occupied by the Portuguese \n\n15 Jan. 1885 \n\nTreaty between the Association and France respect- \ning the delimitation of territory, signed 5 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nKing Leopold II. takes the title of Independent \nSovereign of the State about . . 30 April , , \n\nMr. H. M. Stanley\'s book \'\xe2\x96\xa0 Congo, and the Found- \ning of its Free State " published . . May ,. \n\nConference at Berlin (which met 1884-5) ratifying \nthe recognition of the Congo State by the Powers \n\n19 April, i386 \n\nStanley Falls Station evacuated . . . Dec. ,, \n\nLeopoldville, at Stanley Pool, founded by Mr. H. \nM. Stanley in 1881 reported prosperous . . 1887 \n\nStanley Falls Station re-occupied . . 4 June, 1888 \nThe state appeals to Belgium for an annual subsidy \nof 1,500,000 francs for ten years about 12 Aug. 1889 \n\n\n\nCONGREGATION. \n\n\n\n243 \n\n\n\nCONSCRIPTION. \n\n\n\nProsperity of the country reported (Mr. Janssen \ngovernor-general) Sept. 1889 \n\nSupreme council of the Congo State, king Leopold \npresident, held its first sitting at Brussels, 18 Dec. ,, \n\n\'The Belgian government agree to lend to the Congo \nState 5,000,000 francs at once, and 2,000,000 francs \nannually for the next 10 years without interest, \nJuly ; the bill passed by the chamber, 1 1 July, \nby the senate 30 July, 1890 \n\nThe budget shows a deficit of 7,000,000 francs \n\n17 April, 1892 \n\nCONGREGATION OF THE Lord, a name \nfallen by the Scotch reformers, headed by John \nKnox, about 1546. Their leaders (the earls of Glen- \n\xe2\x80\xa2eairn, Argyle, Morton, and others) called "lords of \n?the congregation," signed the first bond or covenant \nwhich united the protestants under one association, \n3 Dee. 1557. Tytler. \n\nCONGREGATIONALISTS, see Indepen- \ndents. \n\nCONGRESS. An assembly of princes or min- \nisters for the settlement of the affairs of nations or \n\xe2\x80\xa2of a people. The following are the most remark- \nable congresses of Europe : \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nMiinster 1643-8 \n\nNimeguen 1676-8 \n\nRyswiek . . . 1697 \n\nUtrecht 1713 \n\n"Soissons 1728 \n\nAntwerp . ..... 8 April, 1793 \n\nRastadt ...... 9 Dec. 1797-9 \n\n\'Chatillon 5 Feb. 1814 \n\nVienna 3 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAix-la-Chapelle 9 Oct. 1818 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Carlsbad 1 Aug. 18 19 \n\n"Troppau 20 Oct. 1820 \n\nLay bach 6 May, 182 1 \n\nVerona 25 Aug. 1822 \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Paris 16 Jan. \xe2\x80\x94 22 April, 1856 \n\nFrankfort (see Germany) . . . 16-31 Aug. 1863 \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Constantinople . . 23 Dec. 1876 \xe2\x80\x94 20 Jan. 1878 \n\nBerlin .... 13 June\xe2\x80\x94 13 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSee Alliances, Church, Conventions, &c. \n\nThe first general congress of the United States \nof America, preparatory to their declaration of \nindependence, when strong resolutions were \npassed, also a petition to the king, and an address \nto the people of England, was held, 5 Sept. 1774. \nThe second was held, 10 May, 1775 ; the third, \nwhen the independence was declared . 4 July, 1776 \n\nThe first federal American congress, under the con- \nstitution, was held at New York ; George Wash- \nington, president March, 1789 \n\nThe first congress of the seceding southern states \nwas held at Montgomery, Alabama, 4 Feb. ; it \nelected Jefferson Davis president of the con- \nfederate states on 9 Feb. For political reasons it \nadjourned on 24 May, to meet at Bichmond, in \nVirginia, on 20 July, 1861 \n\nEn 1863, the emperor Napoleon invited the sove- \nreigns of Europe to a congress ; which was de- \nclined by England 25 Nov., and only conditionally \nacceded to by other powers. He proposed a con- \ngress on the affairs of Italy and Rome in Nov. 1867, \nwithout effect. \n\nCONGREVE ROCKETS, see Sockets. \n\nCONIC SECTIONS. Their properties were \nprobably known to the Greeks, four or five centuries \nbefore the Christian era, and their study was culti- \nvated in the time of Plato, 390 B.C. The earliest \ntreatise on them was written "by Aristams, about 330 \nB.C. Apollonius\'s eight books were written about \n240 B.C. The parabola was applied to projectiles \nby Galileo, the ellipse to the orbit of planets by \nKepler, and to comets by Newton. \n\nCONJURATION, see Witchcraft. \n\nCONJURERS, see under Wizard. \n\nCONNAISSANCE DES TEMPS, the \n\n\n\nFrench nautical almanack, continuing Heoker\'s \nEphemerides, was first published by Picard, 1679. \n\n.CONN AUGHT, TV. Ireland; long a nominal \nkingdom, divided into counties, 1590. Prince \nArthur, third son of queen Victoria, bora 1 May, \n1850, was created duke of Connaught, 23 May,\' \n1874; being the first royal prince whose leading \ntitle was Irish. \n\nThe Duke of Connaught\' s Establishment Act, passed 8 Aug., \n1878, made the same provision for the duke, as for his \nbrother Alfred; see Edinburgh. The duke was mar- \nried to the princess Louise Margaret of Prussia, 13 \nMarch, 1879. See England (Boyal Family). \nThe condition of the peasantry was greatly bene- \nfited by the construction of light railways, \nintroduced by Mr. A. J. Balfour, the Irish chief \nsecretary 1890 ei SC2. \n\nCONNECTICUT a New England state of N. \nAmerica. The settlements of 1635 and 1638 were \nunited by charter in 1665. Capital Hartford. \nPopulation 1880, 622,700; 1890, 746,258. \n\nCONNOR, Ireland. The bishopric was united \nto that of Down, 1442. The first prelate, ^ngus \nMacnisius, died 507. The united sees were added to \nDromore on the death of its last bishop, 1 842, in accord- \nance with the Irish Church Temporalities act, 1833. \n\nCONQUEST, the era in British history, when \nWilliam duke of Normandy overcame Harold II. at \nthe battle of Hastings, 14 Oct. 1066, and obtained \nthe crown which he asserted had been bequeathed \nto him by Edward the Confessor (Edgar being the \nrightful heir) . "William has been erroneously styled \nthe Conqueror, for he succeeded to the crown of \nEngland by compact. He defeated Harold, who \nwas himself a usurper, but a large portion of the \nkingdom afterwards held out against him ; and he, \nunlike a conqueror, took an oath to observe the \nlaws and customs of the realm, in order to induce \nthe submission of the people. Formerly our judges \nwere accustomed to reprehend any gentleman at the \nbar who said casually William the Conqueror, \ninstead of William I. Selden. Maclise exhibited \nforty-two drawings on the events of the Norman \nconquest, in May, 1857. E. A. Freeman\'s "History \nof the Norman Conquest," 6 vols, 1870-9, is valued. \nHe died, aged 69, 16 March, 1892. \n\nCONSCIENCE CLAUSE, see Education. \n\nCONSCIENCE, Courts of, or of Re- \nquests for recovery of small debts, constituted by \na stat. of Hen. VII. 1493, and re-organised by stat. \n9 Hen. VIII. 1517. These courts were improved \nand amended by various acts ; their jurisdiction in \nLondon reached to 5^. and (until superseded by \ncounty-courts) to 405. in other towns. The practice \nwas by summons, and if the party did not appear, \nthe commissioners had power to apprehend and \ncommit ; see County Courts. \n\nCONSCIENCE, Liberty of, a principle \n\nof genuine Christianity (1 Cor. x. 29); repudiated \nby .Romanism, proclaimed by James II. for political \npurposes, 1687. \n\nCONSCIENCE MONEY. In the year \n\nending 31 March, 1873, 9,847/. were sent to the \nchancellor of the exchequer for unpaid income tax ; \n1874, 8,588/. ; 1877, 14,835/. ; 1S78, 5,572/. ; 1879, \n6,732/.; 1880,5,801/. /V \' \n\nCONSCRIPT FATHERS {patrcs con- \nscript?) the designation given to the Roman sena- \ntors, because their names were written in the regis- \nters of the senate. \n\nCONSCRIPTION, a mode (derived from the \nRomans) adopted for recruiting armies on the \n\n11 2 \n\n\n\nCONSECRATION. \n\n\n\n244 \n\n\n\nCONSPIRACIES. \n\n\n\ncontinent. On 5 Sept. 1 798, a military conscription \nwas ordained in France, comprehending all the \nyoung men from 20 to 25 years of age : from whom \nselections were made. A conscription for 350,000 \nmen took place in Jan. 1813, after the disastrous \nRussian campaign, and in Dec. same year, another \nfor 300,000 after the battle of Leipsic. Estimated \ninscription, 1793-1813, 4,103,000. The law of 1818 \n(modified in 1824, 1832, and 1868) required a certain \nannual contingent for each department. The con- \nscription was enlarged and modified by the army \nbill which was enacted in Feb. 1868. The re- \norganisation of the army began in 1871, after the \nfatal war with Germany. Substitutes were allowed \nunder certain conditions. Conscription for Great \nBritain was advocated and strongly opposed in 1875. \nCONSECEATION. Aaron and his sons were \nconsecrated priests, 1490 B.C. {Lev. viii.) The \nJewish tabernacle was dedicated, 1490 B.C., and \nSolomon\'s temple, 1004 B.C. (1 Kings viii.) The \nconsecration of churches began in the 2nd century. \nAnciently the consecration of popes was deferred \nuntil the emperor had given his assent to their \nelection. Gregory IV. desired to have his election \nconfirmed by the emperor Louis, in 828. Henault. \nThe consecration of churches, places of burial, &c, \nis admitted in the reformed religion. An act re- \nlating to the consecration of churchyards, passed \n20 Aug. 1867, was amended in 1868. A form of \nconsecration was adopted by convocation, but not \nsanctioned by the crown, April, 1712. It is gene- \nrally used but is not compulsory. \xe2\x80\x94 Burn. The form \nof consecrating bishops in the church of England \nis set forth in the prayer-book of 1549. \xe2\x80\x94 Stow. \n\nCONSERVATION OF FORCE. The doc- \ntrine that no physical force can be created or de- \nstroyed, but may be transferred, is maintained by \nFaraday, Grove, Helmholtz, Tyndall, and other \nphilosophers; see Correlation. \n\nCONSERVATIVES, a name said to have \nbeen invented by John Wilson Croker,* an earnest \nTory, in 1830, assumed by a party, whose leading \nprinciple is the preservation of our national institu- \ntions. It was termed a new cant word by T. B. Mac- \naulay in Edinburgh Revieiv, July, 1832. Sir Robert \nPeel acknowledged himself a conservative when \nreproached by the Irish party in parliament with \nbeing an Orangeman ; but the party that afterwards \nseparated from him called their principles conserva- \ntive in contradistinction to his, \xe2\x80\x94 his policy and \nmeasures being changed. \xe2\x80\x94 The Conservative Club \nwas founded in 1840 ; see Protectionists and Clubs. \nThe party in the north of the United States which \nsupported the president in his conciliatory efforts to \nre-establish the Union, Jan. 1866, were termed \n" Conservatives." A great meeting of the National \nUnion of Conservative Associations was held at the \nCrystal Palace, 24 June, 1872. The party in the \nminority at the elections in 1868 obtained a majority \nat those in Feb. 1874, and came into office. They \nwere again in a minority at the general election, \nand resigned 22 April, 1880. The\' marquis of \nSalisbury was elected leader of the party, 9 May, \n1 88 1, succeeding the earl of Beaconsfield, who died \n19 April previous. Constitutional club (central) \nformed in London, President, marquis of Salisbury. \nHouse opened 8 Aug. 1883. National Conserva- \ntive Clubs, established in 1866. See Derby and \nDisraeli, Fourth Party, Liberals (1886), National \nUnion. \nThe national union of conservative associations \n\nmet at Salisbury, 25 July, 1889 ; Liverpool, 1890 ; \n\nBirmingham 24 Nov. 1891 \n\n* Quarterly Review, vol. xlii. p. 276, Jan. 1830. \n\n\n\nThe marquis of Salisbury addresses 10,000 conser- \nvatives at Exeter 2 Feb. 189,2 \n\nCONSERVATOIRES, a name given to es- \ntablishments for the cultivation of music and the \narts on the continent. One was established at \nNaples in 1537- The singing school at Paris, \nfounded in 1784, and closed in 1789, was re-opened \nin 1793 as the " Institut National de Musique," and \nafter being reorganised, was re-named " Conserva- \ntoire de Musique" in 1795, and flourished under \nCherubini (1822-42). "The Conservatoire das \nArts et Metiers" was established in 1784. It in- \ncludes a museum and library, and lectures are given, \nto workmen there. \n\nCONSERVATORS of the Public Lib- \nerties. Officers chosen in England to inspect the- \ntreasury and correct abuses in administration, \n28 Hen. III. 1244. \xe2\x80\x94 Rapin. Conservators were \nappointed to see the king\'s peace kept. \xe2\x80\x94 Pardon. \nConservators were formerly appointed in every sea- \nport to take cognisance of all offences committed \nagainst the peace upon the main sea out of the \nliberty of the Cinque Ports. \xe2\x80\x94 Bailey. \n\nCONSISTORIES for regulating ecclesiastical \ndiscipline and divine worship in the Lutheran) \nchurch in Germany, were established at the refor- \nmation \xe2\x80\x94 the first at "Wittenberg in 1542 ; other \nconsistories were established after the peace of \nAugsburg in 1555. \n\nCONSISTORY COURT, anciently joined \nwith the hundred court ; and its original, as divided* \ntherefrom, is found in a law of William I., 1079,. \nquoted by lord justice Coke. The chief and most \nancient consistory court of the kingdom belongs to* \nthe see of Canterbury, and is called the Court of \nArches {which see) . \n\nCONSOLIDATED FUND was formed by \ncombining the "aggregate," "general," and \n"South Sea funds," 1786. On 5 Jan. 1816, the ex- \nchequers of Great Britain and Ireland, previously \nseparate, were amalgamated, forming "the consoli- \ndated fund of the United Kingdom." \n\nCONSOLS, see Stocks. \n\nCONSORZIO NAZIONALE, see Italy, \n1866. \n\nCONSPIRACIES. Among the recorded con- \nspiracies, real or supposed, the following are the most \nremarkable : see Rebellions. \n\nOf the duke of Gloucester against Richard II. . 1397 \nOf the earl of Cambridge and others against Henry V. 1415 \nOf Anthony Babington and others against Elizabeth. \n\n(See Babington) 15S6 \n\nOf Lopez, a Jew, and others 1594 \n\nOf Patrick York, an Irish fenoing-master hired by \n\nthe Spaniards to kill the queen . . . ,, \n\nOf Walpole, a Jesuit, and Edward Squyer to poison \n\nthe queen 159S \n\nTyrone\'s insurrection in Ireland .... 1599. \n\nThe Gunpowder plot {which see) 1605 \n\nTyrone\'s conspiracy to surprise the castle of Dublin. 1607 \nOf Penruddock (1655) and of Syndercombe and \n\nothers to assassinate Oliver Cromwell . Jan. 1657 \nInsurrection of the Fifth-monarchy men against \n\nCharles II 1661 \n\nOf Blood, who seized the duke of Ormond, wounded \n\nhim, and would have hanged him, Dec. 1670 ; and \n\nwho afterwards attempted to steal the regalia. \n\n9 May, 1671 \nThe pretended conspiracy of the French, Spanish, \n\nand English Jesuits to assassinate Charles II., \n\nrevealed by the infamous Titus Oates, Dr. Tongue, \n\nand others . .... Aug. 1678 \n\nThe Meal-tub plot {which see) 1679 \n\nThe Rye-house plot to assassinate the king on his \n\nway to Newmarket. (See Rye-house Plot). . . 1683 \n\n\n\nCONSPIRACY. \n\n\n\n245 \n\n\n\nCONSTITUENT. \n\n\n\nOf lord Preston, the bishop of Ely, and others to \n\nrestore James II. .... Jan. 1691 \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Of Granville, a French chevalier, to murder king \n\nWilliam in Flanders 1692 \n\n!Ehe Assassination plot (which sec) frustrated . . 1696 \nOf Simon Fraser, lord Lovat, against queen Anne. \n\n(See Rebellions) 1703 \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Of the marquis Guiscard . . . . March, 1711 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Of James Sheppard, an enthusiast, to assassinate \n\nGeorge 1 1718 \n\nOf counsellor Layer and others, to bring in the \n\nPretender 1722 \n\nOf the Corresponding Society, &c. (ivhich see) . 1796-8 \n\nOf colonel Despard 1802 \n\nOf Robert Emmett, in Dublin, when lord Kil- \n\nwarden was killed .... 23 July, 1803 \nOf Thistlewood and others, to assassinate the king\'s \n\nministers. (See Cato-street) 1820 \n\nOf the Sepoys in India. (See India) . 10 May, 1857 \nOf the Fenians ... . 1858-68 \nMajor Panitza against prince Ferdinand, see Bul- \ngaria Feb. et seq. 1890 \n\nSee Rebellious, Chartists, &c. \n\nCONSPIRACY AND PROTECTION \nTO PROPERTY ACT, passed 13 Aug. 1875 ; \nrelates to trade disputes, breaches of contract, &c. \n\nCONSTABLE of England, Lord High. \n\nThe seventh great officer of the crown, and, with the \n\xc2\xabarl marshal, formerly a judge of the court of \n^chivalry, called, in the time of Henry IV., curia \nmilitaris, and subsequently the court of honour. \nThe power of this officer was so great, that in 1389 \n\xe2\x96\xa0a. statute was passed for abridging it, and also the \npower of the earl marshal (ivhich see). The office \n\xe2\x80\xa2existed before the conquest, after which it went by \ninheritance to the earls of Hereford and Essex, and \nnext in the line of Stafford. In 1521 it was for- \nfeited by Edward Stafford, duke of Buckingham, \n.-attainted for high treason, and has never since been \ngranted to any person, otherwise than pro hue vice \n(for this occasion), to attend at a coronation or trial \nhy combat. The only instance of a trial by combat \nSbeing ordered since this office fell into the hands of \nthe crown, was that commanded between lord Reay \nand Mr. David Ramsey, in Nov. 1631 ; but the king \nprevented it. \n\nLORD HIGH CONSTABLES AT CORONATIONS \n\nQueen Anne, Wriothesly, duke of Bedford . . 1702 \n\nGeorge I., John, Duke of Montague . . . . 1714 \n\nGeorge II., Charles, duke of Richmond . . . 1727 \n\nGeorge III. , John, duke of Bedford . . . . 1761 \n\nGeorge IV. ) \xc2\xab ("1821 \n\nWilliam IV. [Arthur, duke of Wellington . \\ 1831 \n\nVictoria . j ( 1838 \n\nCONSTABLE of Scotland, Lord High. \n\nThe office was instituted by David I. about 1147. \nThe holder had the keeping of the king\'s sword, \nwhich the king, at his promotion, delivered to him \nnaked (and hence the badge of the lord high con- \nstable is a naked sword) ; and the absolute com- \nmand of the king\'s armies while in the field, in the \nabsence of the king. The office was conferred \nheritably in 13 14 on sir Gilbert Hay by Robert \nBruce. One of Hay\'s descendants was made Earl \nof Erroll, and with his family the office still re- \nmains, being expressly reserved by the treaty of \nunion in 1707. The present earl of Erroll is the \ntwenty-third lord high constable (1892). \n\nCONSTABLES of Hundreds and Franchises, \ninstituted in the reign of Edward I., 1285, are now \ncalled high constables. There are three kinds of \nconstables, high, petty, and special ; the high con- \nstable\'s jux-isdiction extends to the whole hundred ; \nthe petty constable\'s to the parish or liberty for \nwhich he is chosen ; and the special constable is \nappointed for particular emergencies (as in April, \n1848, on account of the Chartists). The general \n\n\n\nappointment of parish constables was made un- \nnecessary by an act passed Aug. 1872. See Special \nConstables and Tower. \n\nCONSTABULARY FORCE. For that of \nLondon, see Police. The Constabulary of Ireland \nact passed in 1823, when this species of force was \nembodied throughout the country. Several subse- \nquent acts were consolidated in 1836. \n\nCONSTANCE, a city in Baden (S. Germany). \nHere was held the seventeenth general council, 1414- \n18, which condemned John Huss; and here he was \nburnt, 6 July, 1415; see Hussites. \n\nCONSTANTINA, the ancient capital of \nNumidia, was taken by the French, 13 Oct. 1837. \nDuring the assault on 12 Oct. the French general \nDamremont was killed. Achmet Bey retired with \n12,000 men, as the victors entered Constantina. \n\nCONSTANTINOPLE (formerly Byzantium) \n(which see), now Stamboul, derives its name from \nConstantine the Great, who removed the seat of the \nEastern Empire here, dedicating it II May, 330. \nSee Eastern Empire. Population, 1885, 873,565. \nGeneral ecclesiastical councils against heresy were held \nhere in 381, 553, 680, and 869. \n\nSeized by Procopius 365 \n\nThe city suffered much from religious dissensions, \n\nand was burnt during the " Nika " conflicts . . 532 \nRebuilt by Justinian with great splendour . ,, \n\nSt. Sophia dedicated 537 \n\nResisted the Saracens successfully . . 675, 718 \n\nAnd the Russians .... 865, 904, 941, 1043 \n\nTaken by the Latins 1203, 1204 \n\nRecovered by the Greeks . . . . .1261 \n\nVainly besieged by Amurath the Ottoman, June \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nAug. 1422 \nTaken by Mahomet II. after 53 days\' siege, 29 May, 1453 \nConference on Turkish Affairs ; representatives : \nGreat Britain, marquis of Salisbury ; Russia, \ngeneral Ignatieff; France, Chaudordy ; Austria, \nZichy ; GernwMy, Von Werther ; Italy, Corti ; or- \ndinary meetings began . . . .23 Dec. 1876 \nTurkey rejected the propositions and the confer- \nence closed 20 Jan. 1S77 \n\nTreaty of peace with Russia: 12 articles ; Turkey ac- \ncepted modifications of treaty of San Stefano \n(ivhich see) ; an indemnity of about 802,500,000 \nfrancs to be paid by Turkey (settlement deferred); \nRussian troops to quit within 40 days, <fec. ; signed \n\n8 Feb. 1879 \nBy the falling down of a barracks at Beykoi about \n\n200 soldiers said to be killed, about . 9 Feb. 1880 \nConference of European powers respecting Egypt \n\nconstituted (see Egypt) . . . .23 June, 1882 \nGreat fire, thousands homeless . . .5 Oct. 1883 \nGreat fire, about 900 houses destroyed 12 July, 1890 \n\nGrand opening of the new station of the Orient \n(European Turkish) railway . . .4 Nov. ,, \nSee Turkey. \nEra of Constantinople has the creation placed 5508 \nyears b.o. It was used by the Russians until the time \nof Peter the Great, and is still used in the Greek church. \nThe civil year begins 1 Sept. , and the ecclesiastical year \nin March ; the day is not exactly determined. To \nreduce it to our era, subtract 5508 years from January \nto August, and 5509 from Sept. to the end. Nicolas. \n\nCONSTELLATIONS. Areturus, Orion, the \nPleiades, and Mazzaroth are mentioned in Job ix. \n9, and xxxviii. 31, about 1520 B.C. Homer and \nH.esiod notice constellations ; but our first direct \nknowledge was derived from Claudius Ptolemajus, \nabout a.d. 140. Hipparchus (about 147 B.C.) made a \ncatalogue of forty-eight constellations, and others \nwere added by Tycho Brahe, Hevclius, Hallev, and \nothers. The number at present acknowledged is 29 \nnorthern, 45 southern, and 12 zodiacal. \n\nCONSTITUENCIES, see Commons, House of. \n\nCONSTITUENT, see National Assembly. \n\n\n\nCONSTITUTION. \n\n\n\n246 CONVALESCENT INSTITUTION, \n\n\n\nCONSTITUTION or England. It com- \nprehends the whole body of laws by which the British \npeople are governed, and to which it is presump- \ntively held that every individual has assented. \nLord Somers. This assemblage of laws is distin- \nguished from the term government in this respect \xe2\x80\x94 \nthat the constitution is the rule by which the sove- \nreign ought to govern at all times ; and government \nis that by which he does govern at any particular \ntime. Lord Bolingbroke. The king of England is \nnot seated on a solitary eminence of power : on the \ncontrary, he sees his equals in the co-existing \ntranches of the legislature, and he recognises his \nsuperior in the law. Sheridan. Hallam\'s " Con- \nstitutional History of England" was first published \nin 1827; May\'s in 1861-3; Stubbs\' in 1875. \n\nCONSTITUTIONALIST PARTY, a name \nassumed by a combination of Conservatives and \nseceded "Whigs, Aug. 1867, and used during the \nseverely contested elections, Nov. 1868. The Con- \nstitutional Union held its first anniversary 20 June, \n1881. Dinner, i4 June, 1890. \n\nConstitutional Press Corporation. \xe2\x80\x94 An active conservative \n\nbody, autumn, 1881. \nConstitutional Club. \xe2\x80\x94 President marquis of Salisbury, \n\nestablished 1883. \n\nCONSTITUTIONS of France, enacted \n\n1789-91, 1795, 1799, (charter) 1814, 1848, 1852, \n1875- \n\nCONSUBSTANTIATION, see Trunsubstan- \ntiation. \n\nCONSULS (meaning colleagues), Roman: at \nthe expulsion of the Tarquins, a republic was esta- \nMished, to be ruled by two praters or consuls \nelected annually : the first being Lucius Junius \nBrutus and Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus, husband \nof the injured Lucretia, 509 B.C. The consular \npower was in emergencies superseded by dictators \nand tribunes. \n\nGovernment of the Decemviri . . B.C. 451 \xe2\x80\x94 449 \nThree Military Tribunes with consular power . . 444 \n\nA Plebeian elected consul 366 \n\n[In the reign of Tiberius the consuls were nomi- \nnated by the senate, and the appointment be- \ncaaie henceforth honorary.] \nThe French consulate established when the direc- \ntory was abolished : Bonaparte, Sieves, and Roger \nDucos made provisional consular commissioners, \n10 Nov. ; Bonaparte, Cambaceres, and Lebrun \n\nmade consuls 13 Dec. 1799 \n\nBonaparte was made first consul for 10 years, 6 May, \n\nand for life, 2 Aug. 1802 ; emperor . 18 May, 1804 \nCommercial agents were first distinguished by the \nname of consuls in Italy. Lorenzo Strozzi was ap- \npointed by Richard III. 1485 \n\nA British consul first appointed in Portugal . . 1633 \nThe Associations of Foreign Consuls in London held \na banquet at the Hotel Metropole . 22 Feb. 1890 \n\nCONTAGIOUS DISEASES ACT for naval \nand military stations passed June 1866; amended, \n1869-71 ; repealed 1886. One for animals passed \n1866 ; renewed 1867 ; amended 1869. Although \nthe operation of the first act was reported to be \nsuccessful, it has been much opposed. A royal com- \nmission appointed to inquire, reported, July, 1871 ; \nand alterations have been proposed. Its repeal \nnegatived in the Commons (308-126), 23 June, \n1875; (224-102), 19 July, 1876; 16 March, 1886. \nA new act for animals was passed 16 Aug. 1878 ; \namended, 1884 and 1886; amended in relation to \npleuro-pneumonia, 1890 and 1892. See Cattle. \n\nCONTEMPORARY REVIEW, first ap- \npeared Jan. 1866 ; editor Dean Alford. \n\n\n\nCONTINENTAL S YSTEM,the isarae given. \nto Napoleon\'s plan to exclude the British merchan- \ndise from the entire continent. It began publicly \nwith his Berlin decree in 1806, and occasioned the- \nOrders in Council (which see) . \n\nCONTINUITY, Mr. (after sir) W. R. Grove, in \nhis address as president of the British Association, on, \n22 Aug. 1866, at Nottingham, expounded the opinion \nheld by many philosophers, that all the past ebanges- \nin the world have been produced by the continuous \naction of the causes now in operation\xe2\x80\x94 that " con- \ntinuity is a law of nature, the true expression of the- \naction of Almighty Power." \nThose who hold this opinion are termed Uniformita- \n\nrians ; their opponents are termed Cataclysmists, who \n\nattribute the changes to the violent action of fire and \n\nwater. \n\nCONTRABAND of War, a term said to \nhave been first employed in the treaty of Southamp- \nton between England and Spain in 1625. During \nthe struggle between Spain and Holland, both \npowers acted with much rigour towards ships of \nneutrals conveying goods to the belligerents. This- \nprovoked the resistance of England. A milder policy \nwas adopted by the treaty of Pyrenees, 1650; and \nby the declaration of Paris, 26 April, 1856. The \nsubject was much discussed during the North Ameri- \ncan conflict, 1861-4. \n\nCONTRACTORS with Government, disquali- \nfied from sitting in parliament, 1782. \n\nCONTRE-DANSE (English, country-dance),, \na dance, so called from the dancers being opposite- \neach other, was introduced into France (probably \nfrom England) about 1715, et seq. \n\nCONTRIBUTIONS, Voluntary, to avast \n\namount have been several times made by the British- \npeople in aid of the government. One, in 1798, to- \nsupport the war against France, amounted to two- \nmillions and a half sterling. Several men of wealth,, \namong others sir Robert Peel, of Bury, Lancashire,, \nsubscribed each 10,000/. : and 200,006/. were trans- \nmitted from India in 1799; see Patriotic Fiend.. \nFor India, Qc, see Mansion House. \n\nCONTROL, BOARD OF. Mr. Pitt\'s bill, esta- \nblishing this board for the purpose of aiding and \ncontrolling the executive government of India, and, \nof superintending the territorial concerns of the \ncompany, was passed 18 May, 1784. Act amended: \nand the board remodelled, 1793. The president of \' \nthe board was a chief minister of the crown, and. \nnecessarily one of the members of the cabinet. This \nboard was abolished in 1858, when the government \nof India was transferred from the company to the- \ncrown ; see India Bills, and India. \n\nCONTROL DEPARTMENT, in the British, \narmy, was divided into the commissariat and trans- \nport department, and the ordnance store depart- \nment ; the old title was abolished ; order issued \nII Dec. 1875. \n\nCONVALESCENT INSTITUTION (Me- \ntropolitan), at Walton-on-Thames, with children\'s- \nbranches at Hendon and Mitcham, was established, \nin 1840 ; a branch at Bexhill, Sussex, was- \nfounded in 1880. A convalescent hospital for the \neast of London was founded at Snaresbrook in 1866, \ngreatly due to the exertions of Mr. and Mrs. Charles- \nworth, Mrs. Gladstone, and Miss Catherine Marsh. \nHomes at Eamsgate, 1866 ; Waltham, 1867 ; Mar- \ngate, 1875, &c. See Bartholomew, St., 1881. Con- \nvalescent Home for Middle Classes proposed by Mr. \nBurdett and others, Feb. 1885. There were 42; \nsuch institutions in 1888. 100,000/. for the esta- \n\n\n\nCONVENTICLES. \n\n\n\n247 \n\n\n\nCOOK\'S EXCURSIONS. \n\n\n\nblishment of a general hospital convalescent home \noffered by a secret benefactor (Peter Eeid), himself, \nsir W. IS. Savary, and W. H. Cross to be joint \ntrustees, 30 Dec. 1889; 50,000/. more presented, \nannounced 18 March, 1890. The Surrey Conva- \nlescent Home, erected through an anonymous gift of \n25,000/., opened by tbe duke of Cambridge, 27 \nJuly, 1891. \n\nCONVENTICLES, private assemblies for \nreligious worship, held by Dissenters from the esta- \nblished church ; but first applied to the schools of \nWickliffe. 35 Elizabeth, c. 1 (1593) passed " to pre- \nvent and suppress seditious conventicles," was re- \nenacted by 16 Charles II. c. 4 (1664) and by 22 \nCharles it. c. 1 (1670). Persons attending them \nwere liable to severe punishment. The statutes \nwere repealed by the toleration act, 24 May, 1689. \n\nCONVENTION PARLIAMENTS, as- \nsembled without the king\'s writ upon extraordinary \noccasions. One on 25 April, 1660, voted the restora- \ntion of Charles II. A second met 22 Jan. 1689 ; \noffered the crown to William and Mary 13 Feb. ; and \ndissolved in Feb. 1690 ; see National Convention. \n\nCONVENTIONS, see Treaties. \nCONVENTS were first founded, according to \nsome authorities, 270. The first in England was \nerected at Folkestone, by Eadbald, in 630. Camden. \nThe first in Scotland was at Coldingham, where \nEthelreda took the veil in 670. They were founded \nearlier in Ireland. They were, suppressed in Eng- \nland in various reigns, particularly in that of Henry \nVIII. A very great number have been suppressed \nin Europe in the present century. The king of \nPrussia secularised all the convents in the duchy of \nPosen. Dom Pedro put down 300 convents in Por- \ntugal in 1834 ; and Spain abolished 1800 convents. \nMany were abolished in Italy and Sicily in i860, \n1861, and 1866, and many in Russia 31 July, 1832, \nand Nov. 1864. \n\nIn 1597 lady Mary Percy founded a convent at Brussels, \nwhich flourished there till 1794, when the nuns were \ncompelled to remove to England. They were received \nby bishop Milner, and placed at Winchester, at which \nplace they remained till their removal to East Berg- \nholt, in Suffolk, June, 1857. This was the first English \nconventual establishment founded on the continent \nafter the Reformation. \nBy the Emancipation act of 1829, 10 Geo. IV., the \nestablishment of convents and other religious \ncommunities in the United Kingdom was prohi- \nbited, butthis enactment has been a dead letter . 1829 \nThere were in 1832, 16 convents in England ; in 1870% \n\n233 ; and 70 monasteries in Great Britain. \nA select committee to investigate into the revenues \nof British convents appointed by the commons, \n10 May, 1870 ; reappointed . . . Feb. 1871 \nThe committee reported the evidence heard . June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nMr. Newdegate\'s motion for an inquiry respecting \n\nthese institutions was negatived . . 12 June, 1874 \nLarge convent at Bournemouth, in connection \n\nwith Church of England, opened . 3 Oct. 1875 \n\nA Carmelite convent, specially patronised by the \nduke of Norfolk and family, at St. Charles\'s \nSquare, Notting Hill, London, \\V., opened by \nCardinal Manning .... 29 Sept. 1878 \nMany convents in France abolished, by decree \n\n29 March, 1880 \n\nCONVERSION, see National debt, 1888. \n\nCONVEYANCING ACT (Scotland) passed \n7 Aug. 1874. Tbe Conveyancing and Law of Pro- \nperty Act (England), 44 & 45 Vict. c. 41, passed 22 \nAug. 1 88 1. \n\nCONVICTS, see Transportation. \n\nCONVOCATION,theancientgeneralassembly \nof the clergy of the nation, convened by the sove- \nreign\'s writ, to consult on the affairs of the church; \n\n\n\nthe writ is directed to the archbishop of each provi nee \nrequiring him to summon all the bishops, arch- \ndeacons, &c. The convocation is divided into two \nhouses, the upper, consistingof bishops ; and lower, \nof deans, prebendaries, archdeacons, and members \n(termed proctors) elected from the inferior clergy. \nThe clergy were summoned to meet the king by \nwrit, 23 Edw. I. 1294. The power of the convoca- \ntion was limited by a statute of Henry VIII., in \nwhose reign the convocation was reorganised. The \ntwo houses of convocation were deprived of various \nprivileges in 17 18, and ceased to meet. The \nannual meetings of the clergy held during the \nsitting of parliament were revived in the province \nof Canterbury 1852, and York 1861, and fruitless at- \ntempts have been made to obtain the power of \ndealing summarily with ecclesiastical affairs ; but \nin Feb. 1872, convocation was authorised to deli- \nberate respecting alterations in the Liturgy ; upon \nwhich it acted, 5 March ; again in 1879. Petition \nto the queen for reform of convocation, Nov. 1882. \nConvocation relieved from the jurisdiction of the secular \ncourts by Richard III., 1484. The Archbishop of \nYork\'s claim for this in regard to elections (in the case \nof Canon Tristram) confirmed by the Queen\'s- Bench \nDivision, Nov. 1887. See Laymen, House of, which first \nmet 16 Feb. 1886. \n\nCONVOLVULUS. The Canary Convolvulus \n{Convolvulus canariensis) came to England from \nthe Canary Isles, 1690. The Many-flowered, 1779. \n\nCOOKERY, an art connected with civilised \nlife. Animals were granted as food to Noah, 2348 \nB.C., the eating of blood beiug expressly forbidden \n{Gen. ix. 3, 4). In 1898 B.C. a calf was cooked by \nAbraham to entertain his guests {Gen. xviii. 7, 8). \n" The Forme of Cury" {i.e. cookery) is dated 1390. \nAn English cookery-book was printed 1498; see \nCottager\'s Stove. \n\nThe Cooks\' Company, London, chartered 1482, celebrated \nthe anniversary Aug. 1882. Since 1877 the company \nhave given instruction to girls, and prizes for profi- \nciency. \nMilitary Cookery.\xe2\x80\x94 Capt. Grant devised a system of cook- \ning for the camp at Aldershot, which has continued in \nsuccessful operation for the service of between 12,000 \nand 14,000 men. From April to August, in 1857, the plan \nwas subjected to the severe test of cooking for 92,000 \nmen, who marched in and out of the encampment \nduring that period. The consumption of fuel requisite \nfor this system of cooking was one half-pound of coal \nper man per day, and the official report states the cost \nto be one halfpenny per man per week for the three \ndaily meals. \nSelf-supporting Cooking Depots for the working classes \nwere set up at Glasgow (by Mr. Thomas Corbett), 21 \nSept. i860 ; and proved successful in Manchester, \nLoudon, and other places soon after. \nThree medals were awarded to the Norwegian self-acting \ncooking apparatus (Soreuson\'s patent) at the Paris Ex- \nhibition, 1867. Cooking is effected by boiling water, \nthe heat of which is maintained by enclosing it in a \nnon-conducting substance. \nA Sclwol of Cookery was opened at the international ex- \nhibition, South Kensington, 14 April, 1873. \nA National Training School for Cookery, proposed \n17 July, 1873, was established in 1874. \n\nCOOK\'S EXCURSIONS. Mr. Thomas \nCook in 1841 began his tourist system by arranging \nwith the Midland railway company for the con- \nveyance of a party of 570 from Leicester to Lough- \nborough and back at is. a-head. \nHe gradually extended his scheme through the United \nKingdom, and thence to the continent. In 1856 1\xc2\xbb\' \nconducted his first touring party from Harwich In flu- \nRhine, returning home Did Paris, lie has since ap- \nplied his system to America, India, Egypt, and the \nHoly Land. Mr. Cook died 18 July, 1892, aged 83. \n\n\n\nCOOK\'S VOYAGES. \n\n\n\n248 \n\n\n\nCOPPER. \n\n\n\nCOOK\'S VOYAGES. James Cook, accom- \npanied by Mr. (afterwards sir) Joseph Banks, sailed \nfrom England in the Endeavour on his first voyage, \n30 July, 1 768 ; and returned home after having \ncircumnavigated the globe, arriving at Deal 12 June, \n1 77 1. The chief object of the expedition, at the \nrequest of the Royal Society, was the observation of \nthe transit of Venus over the sun\'s disk, which was \neffected, 3 June, 1769. Captain Cook sailed to ex- \nplore the southern hemisphere, 13 July, 1772, and \nreturned 30 July, 1775. In his last expedition \n(begun 12 July, 1776) he was killed by the savages \nof Owhyhee, 14 Feb. 1779. His ships, the Resolution \nand Discovery, arrived at Sheerness, 4 Oct. 1780. \n\nCOOLIES, the hill tribes of India, have been \nrecently much employed as labourers in Australia \nand California, especially since 1861 ; and about \n30,000 of them were conveyed by M. Kootmanschap, \nto assist in making the great Pacific railway. His \nproposal in 1869 to replace the negroes in the \nSouthern States of North America for the cultiva- \ntion of cotton, was not accepted. " The Coolie, his \nRights and Wrongs," by E. Jenkins, was published \n187 1. Coolie emigration has been the subject of \nnegotiation between the British and Chinese govern- \nments since 1855. \n\nCOOPERAGE, an ancient art, probably sug- \ngested for preserving wine. The coopers of London \nwere incorporated in 1501. \n\nCO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES are com- \nposed of working men, having for their object the \nsale of articles of daily consumption to the members \nat low prices. The Rochdale Equitable Pioneers \nSociety began in 1844, with a capital of 28/. In \ni860, the business done amounted to 152,063/., the \nprofits being 15,906/. These societies (332 in 1862) \nare registered pursuant to 13 & 14 Vict. c. 115 \n(1849). On 31 Dec. 1866, 749 industrial, provident, \nand co-operative societies were registered ; 1 153, \nMay 1885 ; 1,281 in 1888. By an act passed in 1867 \nthey are bound to make a return. The fourth con- \ngress of delegates from the Co-operative Societies of \nGreat Britain and Ireland, met at Bolton, April 1, \n1872 ; fifth at Newcastle, 12 April, 1873 > s i xt h at \nHalifax, 6 April, 1874; seventh in London, 29 \nMarch, 1875; eighth at Glasgow, 17 April, 1876; \nninth at Leicester, 2 April, 1877 ; twelfth, Newcastle, \n17 May, 1880; thirteenth, at Leeds, 6 June, 1881 ; \nfourteenth, Oxford, 29 May, 1882 ; fifteenth, Edin- \nburgh, 14 May, 1883 I sixteenth, Derby (co-opera- \ntion in production proposed), 2 June, 1884 ; seven- \nteenth at Oldham, May, 1885 : eighteenth at Ply- \nmouth, 14 June, 1886; at Carlisle, 28 May, 1887; \nat Dewsbury, 21 May, 1888; at Ipswich. 10 June, \n1889; at Glasgow, 26 May, 1890; at Lincoln, 18 \nMay, 1891 ; 24th at Rochdale, 4 June, 1892. A \nnational trade society in opposition to co-operation \nwas formed in 1872. \n\nCo-operative Cotton-mills in south Lancashire were \nreported successful in 187s. \n\nOuseburn Co-operative Engineering Works, esta- \nblished 1871, failed through want of capital : wound up \n1875- * \n\nMuch discontent among London tradesmen on account \nof the numerous co-operative stores, 1878\xe2\x80\x9480. \n\nCo-operative farming begun in Northamptonshire, 1886. \n\nEstablishment of a Co-operative Dwellings Association \nin London, proposed, 1887. \n\nThe Tenant Co-operators (Limited) started Jan. 1888. \n\nThe International Co-operative Congress opened at \nBologna, 1 Oct. 1888. \n\nThe Co-operative Union included 1,500 societies \nwith a share capital of 11,000,000^. . Nov. 1890 \n\nNational Co-operative Festival at the Crystal \nPalace \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 . . 15 Aug. 1891 I \n\n\n\nCOORG, a province, S. India. "War broke out \nbetween the rajah and the East India Company 1832, \nwhich ended by col. Lindsay defeating and deposing \nthe rajah, 10 April, 1834, and his territories were \nsoon after annexed by the British. In 1853 the \nrajah brought his daughter to be educated in Eng- \nland, where she was baptized. She married a col. \nCampbell, and died a few years after. \n\nCOPENHAGEN (Denmark), built by Walde- \nmar I., 1157, made the capital, 1443; the university \nfounded 1479. In 1728, more than seventy of its \nstreets and 3785 houses were burnt. Its palace, \nvalued at four millions sterling, was wholly burnt, \nFeb. 1794, when 100 persons lost their lives. In a \nfire which lasted forty-eight hours, the arsenal, \nadmiralty, and fifty streets were destroyed, June, \n1795- A new national theatre was founded by the \nking, 18 Oct. 1872. \xe2\x80\x94 Copenhagen was bombarded by \nthe English under lord Nelson and admiral Parker ; \nand in their engagement with the Danish fleet of \ntwenty-three ships of the line, eighteen were taken \nor destroyed by the British, 2 April, 1801. Again, \nafter a bombardment of three days, the city and \nDanish fleet surrendered to admiral Gam bier and \nlord Cathcart, 7 Sept. 1807. The capture consisted \nof eighteen sail of the line, fifteen frigates, six brigs, \nand twenty-five gun-boats, and immense naval \nstores. Population, with suburbs, 1880, 273,727 ; \n1890,375,251. See Denmark. \n\nThe czar and the kings of Denmark and Greece, and \nother royal persons, breakfast with Mr. Gladstone, \nMr. Tennyson, and others on board the Pembroke Castle, \n18 Sept. J883. \n\nThe royal castle of Christiansborg, burnt ; Thorwaldsen\'s \nworks saved, 3, 4 Oct. 1884. \n\nInternational Exhibition opened by the king, 18 May 1888. \n\nCOPENHAGEN FIELDS (N. London). \' \nHere the Corresponding Society met on 26 Oct. \n1796; and the Trades\' Union, 21 April, 1834. The \nfields are now chiefly occupied by the Metropolitan \nCattle-market, opened 13 June, 1855. \n\nCOPERNICAN SYSTEM, so called from \nits author Nicolas Copernicus, born at Thorn, 19 \nFeb. 1473, died 24 May, 1543. A few days before \nhis death, the printing of his book on the " Revolu- \ntion of the Celestial Bodies" was completed. The \nsystem, which resembles that attributed to Pytha- \ngoras, was condemned by a decree of pope Paul V. \nin 1616 ; not revoked till 1818 by Pius VII. \n\nCOPLEY MEDAL, see Royal Society. \n\nCOPOPHONE, a musical instrument, con- \nsisting of a series of glass tumblers, connected with \na sounding board. The sounds are produced by \nmoving wet fingers along the edge of the glasses. \nIt was played on at parties in London in June, \n1875, by Chevalier Furtado Coelho, the inventor. \n\nCOPPER. One of the six primitive metals, \nsaid to have been first discovered in Cyprus. Pliny. \nWe read in the Scriptures of two vessels of fine \ncopper (or brass), " precious as gold," 457 B.C. \n{Ezra viii. 27). The mines of Fahlun, in Sweden, \nare most surprising excavations. In England, cop- \nper-mines were discovered in 1561, and there are \nupwards of fifty mines in Cornwall, where mining \nhas been increasing since the reign of William III. \nIn 1857, 75,832 tons of copper ore were imported, \nand 25,241 tons extracted. In 1865, 198,298 tons of \ncopper ore were extracted from British mines, and \n11,888 tonssmelted : 82,562 tons were imported. In \n1856, 24,257 tons of pure copper (worth 2,983,611/.), \nin 1869, 8291 tons (worth 644,065/.) ; in 1875, 4593 \ntons (worth 413,284/.) ; in 1876, 4694 tons (worth \n\n\n\nCOPPERAS. \n\n\n\n249 \n\n\n\nCOPYRIGHT. \n\n\n\n391,130/.): in 1879, 346 2 tons (worth 222,507/.); \n1883, 2,620 tons (worth 181,067/.) ; 1887, 889 tons \n(worth 42,850/.); 1888, 1,456; 1889,905; 1890,936, \nwere produced in the United Kingdom. The \nBurra-Burra copper-mines, in S. Australia, dis- \ncovered 1842, brought great prosperity. \n\nCopper Money. The Romans, prior to the reign of Ser- \nvius Tnllius, used rude pieces of copper for money ; see \nCoin. \n\nIn England copper money was made at the instance of \nsir Robert Cotton, in 1609 ; but was first really coined \n(when Miss Stewart sat for the figure of Britannia) 1665 \n\nIts regular coinage began in 1672, and it was largely \nissued in 1689 \n\nIn Ireland, copper was coined as early as 1339 ; in \nScotland in 1406 ; in France in . . . . 1580 \n\nWood\'s coinage (which see) in Ireland commenced in 1723 \n\nThe copper coinage was largely manufactured at \nBirmingham, by Boulton and Watt, in . . . 1792 \n\nPenny and two-penny pieces were extensively issued 1797 \n\nThe half-farthing was coined, but disused (see \nFarthing) 1843 \n\nio,ooo?. voted towards replacingthe copper coinage, \n\nJuly, 1855 \n\nBronze coinage (which see) issued . . . Dec. i860 \n\nA French Syndicate formed to raise the price of \n\xe2\x96\xa0copper by a monopoly. Price of copper recently \nvery low . . Feb. 1888 ; continued March 1889 \n\nCollapse and financial panic (see France) March ,, \n\nCopper- Plate Printing was first invented in Ger- \nmany, about 1450 ; and rolling-presses for work- \ning the plates, about 1545 \n\nMessrs. Perkins, of Philadelphia, invented a mode \nof engraving on soft steel, which, when hardened, \nwill multiply copper-plates and fine impressions \nindefinitely (see Engraving) 1819 \n\nCopper Sheathing first applied to the bottom of \nH.M.S. Alarm, at Woolwich, 1761 ; all the navy \ncopper-bottomed by 1780 \n\nElectrotyping with copper printing types and casts \nfrom woodcuts, began .... about 1850 \n\nCopper-zino Couple, a Voltaic arrangement made by \nDr. J. H. Gladstone and Mr. A. Tribe in 1872, in \nwhich a mixture of the two metals is finely sub- \ndivided, with the points of junction exposed, so as to \npromote the decomposition of any binary liquid into \nwhich small pieces are immersed ; the resistance of \nthe liquid being greatly reduced. The couple is \nformed by immersing zinc foil in a solution of sul- \nphate of copper ; the copper being deposited on the \nzinc in minute particles. By this couple impurities \nin water are readily detected, many peculiar analyses \nhave been made, and new organic bodies formed. \n\nCOPPERAS, a mineral composed of copper or \niron combined with sulphuric acid (vitriol), found \nin copper-mines, commonly of a green or blue \ncolour ; said to have been first produced in England \nby Cornelius de Vos, a merchant, in 1587. \n\nCOPPERHEADS, a name given about 1863 \nto such members of the Democrat party in the \nUnited States as were in favour of peace with the \nSouth on any terms. \xe2\x80\x94 Copperhead is a poison- \nous serpent, also named dumb-rattle snake, red \nviper, &c. \n\nCOPTIC CALENDAR, see Diocletian. \n\nCOPTS, in Egypt, the supposed descendants of \nthe ancient Egyptians, mingled with Greeks and \nPersians. Their religion is a form of Christianity \nderived from the Eutychians. \n\nCOPYHOLDERS, who hold an estate by a \ncopy of the rolls of a manor made by a steward of \nthe lord\'s court. They were enfranchised by 5 Vict, \nc. 35, 1841. By the Beform act in 1832, copy- \nhomers to the amount of 10/. became entitled to \na vote for the county. The copyhold acts were \namended by 21 & 22 Vict. c. 94 (1858) and by \n.another act, 1887. \n\nCOPYING-MACHINES (for letters, &c.) \n\n\n\nwere invented by James "Watt in 1778 ; patented in \nMay, 1780; and 150 machines were sold before the \nend of the year. "Wedgwood\'s "manifold writer " \nwas patented in [806; and in 1855 Terry patented \na copying machine to be combined with the cover \nof a book. Other inventions patented since. \nZuccato\'s papyrograph is much esteemed. \n\nCOPYRIGHT. Decree of the Star-chamber \nregarding it, 1556. Every book and publication \nordered to be licensed, 1585. \n\nOrdinance forbidding the printing of any work with- \nout the consent of the owner .... 1649 \n\nThe first copyright act (for 14 years, and for the \nauthor\'s life if then living), 8 Anne . . . . 1709 \n\nThis act confirmed by a decision of the house of \nlords, and the claim of perpetual copyright over- \nruled 22 Feb. T774 \n\nLater acts extended the author\'s right to 28 years, \nand if living at the end of that time, then to the \nremainder of his life. \n\nProtection of copyright in prints and engravings, \n17 Geo. III. 1777 \n\nCopyright protection act (for 28 years, and the re- \nmainder of the author\'s life if then living), \n54 Geo. Ill 1814 \n\nDramatic authors\' protection act, 3 Will. IV. c. 15 . 1833 \n\nAct for preventing the publication of lectures with- \nout consent, 6 Will. IV. c. 65 1835 \n\nInternational copyright bill, 1 Vict. c. 59 . . 1838 \n\n5 & 6 Viet. c. 45 (Talfourd\'s or lord Mahon\'s act), \nto amend the copyright act passed . . . . 1842 \n\n(By this act, the right is to endure for the life of the \nauthor, and for seven years after his death ; but if \nthat time expire earlier than 42 years, the right is \nstill to endure for 42 years, for which term also any \nwork published after the author\'s death is to con- \ntinue the property of the owners of the manu- \nscript) \n\nThe colonies\' copyright act, 10 & n Vict. c. 95, \npassed 1847 \n\nCanada copyright act, passed ... 2 Aug. 1875 \n\nRoyal commission on copyright nominated : earl \nStanhope, chairman, 22 Sept., 1875 ; report \n(signed 24 May) issued .... autumn, 187S \n\nWarne & Co. v. Seebohm ; verdict for the plaintiffs \nprohibiting printing and the representation of a \ndramatised form of "Little Lord Fauntleroy," a \nstory by Mrs. F. Hodgson Burnett, . 10 May 1888 \n\nCopyright (Musical Compositions) act passed \n\n5 July \xc2\xbb \n\nCopyright for articles in newspapers affirmed, see \nTrials 2 June, 1892 \n\ncopyright for designs. \n\nProtection granting security for two months to new \ndesigns applied by printing to linens, calicoes, \nand. \'muslins, 1787 ; extended to three months . 1794 \n\nA copyright of 14 years conferred on sculpture, 1798 \n\nand 18 14 \n\nThe designs act of Geo. III. made to embrace printed \ndesigns on wool, silk, and hair ; and 1 2 mouths\' \ncopyright granted to designs applied to all tissues \nexcept lace and those already provided for ; for \nthe modelling, embossing, and engraving of any \nmanufacture not being a tissue ; and for the shape \nor configuration of any article .... 1839 \n\nBy 5 & 6 Vict. c. 100, all existing designs acts re- \npealed (except that for sculpture), and provision \nmade for including all ornamental designs under \nT3 classes, and conferring upon them terms \nof protection, varying from nine months to three \n\nyears 1842 \n\n[Fees on registration vary from is. to il.] \n\nThe\' "non-ornamental designs act," securing the \nconfiguration of articles of utility (fee 10?.), \npassed in 1843 \n\nBy the " designs act," the Board of Trade is em- \npowered to extend the copyright for an additional \nterm of three years 1850 \n\nCopyright of photographs secured by the act pro- \ntecting works of art, passed in . . July, 1862 \n\nAnother copyright of designs act passed 13 Aug. 1875 \n\nRegistration\' of designs and trade marks, amal- \ngamated with the patent office . . Sept. ,, \n\n\n\nCOEBIESDALE. \n\n\n\n250 \n\n\n\nCOEINTH. \n\n\n\nINTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT. \n\nActs passed to secure to authors, in certain cases, \nthe benefits of international copyright (i & 2 Vict, \nc. 59, and 15 Vict. c. 12), and conventions have, \nin consequence, been entered into with France, \nPrussia, &c 1838 and 1852 \n\nThe question of a foreigner possessing a copy- \nright in this country was finally decided in the \nnegative by the house of lords, who reversed the \ndecision of the court of exchequer, on an appeal \nby the defendant in the case of Boosey v. Jeffrey. \n(In 1831, Mr. Boosey purchased the copyright of \nBellini\'s opera, La Sonnambula, from which Mr. \nJeffrey published a cavatina. Six of the judges \nwere for protecting foreign copyrights, and seven \nof a contrary opinion.) Aug. 1854 \n\nInternational copyright bill introduced into Ameri- \ncan house of representatives . . . 21 Feb. 1868 \n\nIn the case of Routledge v. Low, the house of lords \non appeal decided in favour of the copyright of a \nforeign author 29 May, ,, \n\nCopyright Association of England, founded by emi- \nnent London booksellers . . 19 March, 1872 \n\nThe subject discussed at the Literary Congress, \nParis, opened 18 June, 1878 \n\nInternational copyright congress at Berne opened, \n\n8 Sept. 1884 \n\nAnother (artistic) Brussels 29 Sept. 1884 ; again at \nBerne 1886 \n\nInternational Copyright Act passed . . . 1886 \n\nInternational Copyright Convention signed at Berne \n9 Sept.,. 1886 ; ratified at Berne 5 Sept., 1887 ; \nby Great Britain, Germany, France, Italy, Spain, \nBelgium and Switzerland (not Austria), Holland, \nUnited States \n\nInternational Copyright Bill passed by the United \nStates : by the house, 3 Dec. 1890 ; by the \nsenate, 18 Feb. ; by the president . 4 March, 1891 \n\nFor books (which must be set up and printed in \nthe United States), works of art, such as pictures, \nengravings, photographs, etchings, lithographs, \n&c, musical compositions, statuary, models, or \ndesigns : the act came into effect . 1 July, ,, \n\nCOEBIESDALE, Caithness (N. Scotland). \nHere, on 27 April, 1650^ the gallant marquis of Mon- \ntrose was defeated by the Covenanters. He was \ntaken soon after, treated with great contumely, aud \nhanged at Edinburgh, on 21 May. \n\nCOECYEA (now Corfu, chief of the Ionian \nIsles), a colony founded by the Corinthians about \n734 B.C. It had frequent wars with the mother \ncountry ; one about the possession of Epidamnus \n(431 B.C.) led to the Peloponnesian war. It was \nsubdued by the Romans, 230. At the decline of the \neastern empire it fell into the hands of the Vene- \ntians about a.d. 1386. The Turks attacked Corfu \nin 1 716, but were gallantly repulsed, and retired, \n18 Aug. 1717. It was taken from the French by \nthe allied Eussian and Turkish fleets 3 March, \n1799, and formed (with the other isles) into the \nIonian republic ; see Ionian Isles. \n\nCOBDELIEES, friars: of the order of St. \nFrancis d\'Assisi (the Minorites) instituted about \n1223. They are clothed in coarse grey cloth, having \na girdle of cord, hence the name, first given to \nthem by St. Louis of France, about 1227. Several \nmembers of the French revolutionary party, termed \n"Cordeliers," established at Paris Dec. 1790 (He- \nbert, Cloots, &c), were executed 24 March, 1794. \n\nCOEDOVA, the Roman Corduba (S. Spain), \nfounded about 152 B.C., taken by the Goths A.n. \n572, aud made the capital of an Arab kingdom by \nAbderahman in 756, who founded the great mosque \n(now the cathedral) 786. It was the birthplace of \nSeneca and Lucan, and of the Arabian physician \nAverrhoes. It was rescued from the Arabs by \nFerdinand III. of Castile in 1236, was taken by \nthe French under Dupont and disgracefully ravaged \n7-9 June, 1808; surrendered to Joseph Bonaparte \n\n\n\nJan. 1810; abandoned by the French in 1813; \nplundered by the Carlists, Oct. 1836. Population} \n1887, 55,614. \n\nCOEEA, a peninsula, E. Asia, tributary to \nChina, and from which foreigners were rigidly ex- \ncluded, till June, 1882, when four ports were \nopened to commerce by the agency of the United \nStates of America and China by treaty. For the \ndispute with Americans see United States, June, \n1871. King, Li Hung, Jan. 1864. \n\nAnti-foreign insurrection ; outrages, n of the Ja- \npanese legation killed, 23 July ; Japanese prepa- \nrations for war with Corea on account of \ninjuries, announced .... Aug. 1882 \n\nWar averted by compensations, reparation, and \npeace Sept. ,, \n\nTreaty with Great Britain signed, 26 Nov. 1883 ; \nratified 1884 \n\nAnother insurrection; the king attacked in his \npalace, and his ministers massacred by Coreans \nand Chinese, 4-6 Dee. ; peace restored by inter- \nvention of Japanese . . . about 13 Dec. ,, \n\nDifficulty between Japan and China settled by \nEuropean mediation, Jan. ; Japan predominant \n\nFeb. 1885 \n\nBritish flag set up at Port Hamilton, as a station, \nannounced 13 May 1885 ; decided to be kept, \n\nNov. 1886 \n\nPort Hamilton restored to Corea, subject to China \n\nJan. 1887 \n\nChina reasserts by proclamation her suzerainty \nover Corea Dec. ,, \n\nCorea endeavours to enter into independent diplo- \nmatic relations with United States and European \nPowers May, 1888 \n\nTreaty with Eussia "..... 8 Aug. ,, \n\nThe Rev. Charles James Corfe consecrated bishop \nof Corea 1 Nov. i88g> \n\nCOEFU, see Corcyra. \n\nCOBINTH (Greece), a city said to have been \nbuilt 1520 B.C. and named Ephyra. It was de- \nfended by an elevated fortress called Acrocorinth,. \nsurrounded with strong walls, and Cicero named it \nthe Eye of Greece. \xe2\x80\x94 -For Corinth, in North America,, \nsee United States, 1862, 1863. \n\nThe Isthmian games, traditionally said to have \nbeen instituted by Sisyphus, who founded a king- \ndom B.C. 1326 \n\nReturn of the Heraclidas, or Dorians . . . . 1107 \nTheir dynasty established by Aletes . . . 1074. \nThe Corinthians invent ships called triremes (with \n\nthree benches of oars) .... 786 or 758. \nReign of Bacchis, 925 ; oligarchy of Bacchida? 747-657 \nThelestes deposed ; the government of Prytanes \n\ninstituted ; Automenes, the first, . . about 745 \nThe Gorinthian colonies of Syracuse and Corcyra \n\nfounded about 734 \n\nRevolt of the Corcyreans : they defeat the Corin- \nthians at sea 664 \n\nCypselus, a despot, sets aside the Prytanes . . 655 \nHis son Periander rules, and favours learning . 627-585 \nPsammetichus deposed, and a republic formed . 580 \nThe Corinthians engaged in the Persian war . . 480 \nDefeated in war with the Corcyreans . . .435 \n\nThe Corinthian war {which see) 395 \n\nTimoleon kills his usurping brother Timophanes . 344 \nAcf ocorinth (citadel) taken by Aratus, and annexed \n\nto the Achajan League 243 \n\nThe Roman ambassadors first appear at Corinth 228 \n\nGreeks defeated at CynoscephaUe . . . . 197 \nCorinth sacked by Lucius Mummius, who sends to \nItaly the first fine paintings there seen (Livy) B.C. 146 \n\nRebuilt by Julius Ctesar 46 \n\nVisited by St. Paul (Acts xviii.) . . . a.d. 54 \nHis two Epistles to the Corinthians . . about 59, 60 \n\nRavaged by Alaric 396 \n\nPlundered by Normans from Sicily .... 1146 \nTaken by Turks, 1446 ; by Venetians, 1687 ; by \nTurks, June, 1714 ; from whom it was finally \n\ntaken by the Greeks in 1823 \n\nNearly destroyed by an earthquake . . 21 Feb. 185S \n\n\n\nCOEINTHIAN OEDEE. \n\n\n\n251 \n\n\n\nCOEN. \n\n\n\nA concession granted for 99 years to a French com- \npany to cut the isthmus for a canal ; to be com- \npleted in six years, by MM. E. G: Piat and Chollet, \nApril, 1870 ; concession transferred to baron de \nLesseps and gen. Turr . . . .28 May, 1881 \n\nCutting begun in presence of the king and queen \n\n5 May, 1882 \n\nWork actively proceeding ; stopped through claims \nof a Paris company .... 1 April, 1889 \n\nThe company at Paris dissolved, 12 Feb., 1890 ; the \nscheme transferred to a Greek company, capital \nof 200,000?. ; agreement signed by M. Tricoupis, \nabout 18 March ; the work resumed, 22 June, \n1890 ; completion in 1893 expected. \n\nCOEINTHIAN OEDEE, the richest of the \norders of ancient architecture, called by Scamozzi \nthe virginal order, is attributed to Callitnachus, \n540 B.C. ; see Abacas. \n\nCOEINTHIAN WAE, began 395 b.c; re- \nceived this name because mostly in the neighbour- \nhood of Corinth ; waged by a confederacy of the \nAthenians, Thebans, Corinthians, and Argives, \nagainst the Lacedaemonians. It was closed by the \npeace of Antalcidas, 387 B.C. The most famous \nbattles were at Coronea and Leuetra {which see). \n\nCOEIOLI, a Latin city, capital of the Vol- \nscians, taken by the Romans, 493 B.C. The exploits \nof Caius Marcius or Coriolanus against it are deemed \nmythical. \n\nCOEK (S. Ireland), built in the 6th century. \nThe principality of the M\'Cartys was converted \ninto a shire by king John, as lord" of Ireland. The \nfoundation of the see is ascribed to St. Barr, or \nFinbarr, early in the 7th century. About 1431, \nthis see and Cloyne were united ; but in 1678 they \nwere separated, Ross having been added to Cork \n1582. Cork and Cloyne were reunited (by the act \nof 1833) 183^. Population of the city, 1881,80,124; \n1891, 75\xc2\xbb\xc2\xb070. \n\nGarrisoned by Henry II 11 72 \n\nFirst charter, from Henry II 1185 \n\nSupported Perkin Warbeck, who landed here . . 1492 \n\nA large part of the town burnt 1621 \n\nTaken by Cromwell 1649 \n\nMarlborough besieged and took Cork from king \nJames, when the duke of Grafton, a son of \n\nCharles II. , was slain 1690 \n\nThe cathedral was rebuilt by the produce of a coal \n\nduty, between the years . . . 1725 & 1735 \nExplosion of gunpowder here . . 10 Nov. 1810 \nOne of the three colleges, endowed by government \npursuant to act 8 & 9 Vict. c. 66, passed 31 July, \n1845, was inaugurated in this city (see Queen\'s \n\nColleges) 7 Nov. 1849 \n\nRailway to Dublin finished 1850 \n\nCork industrial exhibition opened, 10 June, and \n\nclosed 11 Sept. 1852 \n\nFor a seditious speech in favour of the Fenians \n(iu/iic/i see), on 27 April, 1869, the mayor was com- \npelled to resign (an act for his disability having \nbeen introduced into parliament) . n May, 1870 \n\nRiots, partially connected with a strike, suppressed \n\n26, 28 June, ,, \nNew protestant cathedral consecrated . 30 Nov. ,, \nIndustrial exhibition opened, 3 July ; closed \n\n13 Oct. 1883 \nCork Defence Union, against National League \n\nformed Oct. 1885 \n\nStrike of the employed, of the City of Cork Steam \nPacket Co. (14 weeks), ends with submission \n\n27 Jan. 1891 \n\nCOEK-TEEE, Quercus mber, a species of the \noak ; part of its bark used for stopping bottles. \nThe Egyptians made coffins of cork. The tree \ngrows in great abundance on the Pyrenean moun- \ntains, and in other parts of Spain, in France, and \nin the north of New England. It was brought to \nEngland about 1690. A cork carpet company was \nformed in 1862. \n\n\n\nLife-preserving clothes made of cloth into which \ncork is interwoven, invented by Win. Jackson, \ntried successfully on the Thames . . 3 Sept. 188& \n\nCOEN. The origin of its cultivation is attri- \nbuted to Ceres, who, having taught the art to the- \nEgyptians, was deified by them, 2409 B.C. Arun- \ndelian Marbles. The art of husbandry, and the- \nmethod of making bread from wheat, and wine- \nfrom rice, is attributed by the Chinese to Ching \nNoung, the successor of Fohi, and second monarch \nof China, 1998 B.C. Univ. Hist. Corn provided a \ncommon article of food from the earliest ages of the\' \nworld, and baking bread was known in the patri- \narchal ages; see Exodus xii. 15. The first impor- \ntation of corn, of which we have a note, was in \n1347. A law restricting it was made in 1361, andi \nsimilar legislation followed. Bounties were granted \non its importation into England in 1689. See- \nWheat. \n\nCORN LAWS. \n\nThe restrictions on the importation of corn felt, in \nconsequence of the increase of manufactures, \nabout 1770 ; relaxed . . . . . \xe2\x96\xa0 177S \n\nMr. Robinson\'s act passed, permitting importation \nwhen wheat is 80s. a quarter 1815; \n\nDuring the discussions on this bill, mobs assembled \nin London, and many of the houses of its sup- \nporters were damaged, 28 Jan. ; and a riot in \n"Westminster continued ... 6-9 March. ,,. \n\nA corn bill, after passing in the commons, defeated \nin the lords, by a clause proposed by the duke of \nWellington, carried by a majority of 4 .1 June, 182^ \n\nThe act (called the sliding scale) whereby wheat was \nallowed to be imported on payment of a duty of \nil. 5s. &d. per quarter, whenever the average price \nof all England was under 62s. ; from 62s. to 63s., \n1?. 4s. Sd. ; and so gradually reduced to is., when \n\xe2\x80\xa2the average price was 73s. and upwards, passed \n\n15 July. 1S2S: \n\nThe act 5 Vict. c. 14, the second " sliding scale act," \nregulating the duty on wheat as follows, with \nsliding duties, also, on other articles of corn, \npassed 29 April, 184-= \n\nAverage per quarter. Duty. \nShillings. Sliillings. \xc2\xa3, s. cL \nunder 51 100 \n\n51 and under 52 o 19 o \n\n52 and under 55 . . - . . . o 18 o \n\n55 and under 56 0170 \n\n56 and under 57 o 16 o \n\n57 and under 58 o 15 o \n\n58 and under 59 o 14 o- \n\n59 and under 60 0130- \n\n60 and under 61 o 12 o< \n\n61 and under 62 o 11 o> \n\n62 and under 63 o 10 o \n\n63 and under 64 . . . . ..090 \n\n64 and under 65 o 8 o \n\n65 and under 66 070 \n\n66 and under 69 o 6 o- \n\n69 and under 70 05c \n\n70 and under 71 . . . . .04c \n\n71 and under 72 . . . . ..030 \n\n72 and under 73 020 \n\n73 and upwards o 1 c- \n\nSee Anti-Corn Laiv Leagvtc. \n\nThe Corn Importation Bill (introduced by sir. \nRobert Peel), 9 & 10 Vict. c. 22 (by which the dutj \non wheat was reduced to 4s. when imported a1 oi \nabove 53s., until 1st Feb. 1849: after which day \nthe duty became is. per quarter only, on all kinds \nof grain imported into the United kingdom, at \nany prices), received the royal assent . 26 June, 1S46 \nThe Vs. duty repealed by act passed . 24 June, iS6q> \nCorn Exchange, Mark-lane. Loudon, erected at an \nexpense of 90,000\'. (replacing one established in \n\n1747), was opened 24 June, 1828 \n\nCorn Exchange Benevolent Society, founded . . 1864 \nThe Society of Arts gave a prize to Mr. W. A Gibbs \nfor his essay on harvesting corn in wet weather \n\n23 Nov. 1868 \n\n\n\nCORNELL UNIVERSITY. \n\n\n\n252 \n\n\n\nCORONETS. \n\n\n\nCORNELL UNIVERSITY, Ithaca, New \nYork : for the study of the applied sciences, agri- \nculture, engineering, &c. ; partially on a self-sup- \nporting system; founded by Ezra Cornell in 1868, \nthat "any person may find instruction in any study." \nHe had risen from poverty to wealth by patenting \nhis inventions. \n\nCORNER, a term applied in America to the \nparalysis of trade and manufactures, produced by \nspeculators purchasing in anticipation grain, petro- \nleum, cotton, &c. (termed futures). The cotton \nearner at Liverpool in Sept. 1881 led to the stopping \nof looms in Lancashire, &c., by way of counteraction. \nThe corner ended 30 Sept. 1881 . Mr. Morris Banger, \na great cotton speculator, failed 31 Oct. 1883, \ncausing much disaster. \n\nAnother "cotton corner" proposed in June 1887 was \nresisted by the joint action of the manufacturers and \noperatives. A cotton corner in Liverpool was suc- \ncessfully resisted and closed, 30 Sept. 1889. See \nTrusts. \n\nCORNWALL, S. W. extremity of England. \nOn the retreat of the ancient Britons after the \nSaxon conquest, Cornwall is said to have been \nformed into a kingdom, and to have existed many \nyears under different princes, among whom were \nAmbrosius Aurelius, and the celebrated Arthur. \nCornwall is said to have been made an earldom by \nAlfred. The eldest son of the British sovereign is \nborn duke of Cornwall. See Stannary Courts. \nBefore the reform of 1832, Cornwall sent 44 \nmembers to parliament, in 1886 it sent 7- \nBishopric of Cornwall, founded, 909 ; united to \n\nDevonshire, 1040 ; removed to Exeter . . . 1046 \nCornwall given by the conqueror to Robert de \n\nMortein, his half-brother, 1068 ; killed . . . 1087 \nWilliam, his son, dispossessed by Henry I. . . 1104 \nReginald de Dunstanville, natural son of Henry I., \n\nearl . . . . . \' . . . . . 1140 \nJohn Plantagenet, son of Henry II., earl, about . 1189 \nRichard Fitz-Count, son of Reginald, earl, 1215 ; \n\nresigned ......... 1220 \n\nRichard, son of king John, 1225 ; elected king of the \n\nRomans, 1256 ; died .... 2 April, 1272 \nEdmund, son, earl, 1272 ; died without issue . . 1300 \nPiers de Gaveston, earl, 1308 ; beheaded, 19 June, 1312 \nJohn, son of Edward II., earl, 1330 ; died with issue 1336 \n\xe2\x80\xa2Cornwall made a duchy, by Edward III. , for Edward \n\nhis eldest son, afterwards created prince of Wales \n\n17 March, 1337 \nInsurrection of Cornishmen under lord Audley, \n\nThomas Flammock, and others, against taxes ; \n\nthey march to London ; defeated at Blackheath \n\n22 June, 1497 \ninsurrection in Devon and Cornwall against the \n\nProtestant liturgy, defeated by lord Russell, Aug. 1549 \nDolly Pentreath, said to have been the last person \n\nwho spoke Cornish, died aged 102 [contradicted] 1778 \nRev. R. Polwhele\'s "History of Cornwall "published \n\n1803-8 \nPrince and princess of Wales visit Cornwall, July, 1865 \n.Stoppage of the Cornish Bank (Tweedy & Co.) es- \ntablished 1771 4 Jan. 1879 \n\nReceipts from the duchy, 1866, 77,7552. ; 1877, \n\n87,895?.; 1887,99,3152. \xe2\x80\x94 paid to the prince of Wales, \n\n1866, 53,403?.; 1877, 69,339?.; 1887,60,290?. Receipts \n\nfrom the duchy in 1888, 107,572?. ; 104,188?. for 1889 ; \n\n100,680?. for 1891. \n\nCORONATION. Leo I. , emperor of the East, \nwas crowned by Anatolius, patriarch of Constan- \ntinople, being the first instance of a Christian \nsovereign receiving his crown from the hands of a \npriest, 457. Majorian, emperor of the West, is said \nto have been crowned in the same year in a similar \nmanner. \n\nCharlemagne crowned emperor of the west by the \npope Leo III. (using the words " coronato a Deo," \n" crowned by God ") .... 25 Deo. 800 \nEdward I., son of Alfred, crowned . 16 May, 902 \n\n\n\nWilliam I. crowned at Westminster. . 25 Dec. 1066 \nAnointing at coronations introduced into England \n\n872, and Scotland 1097 \n\nCoronation of Henry III., in the first instance \nwithout a crown, at Gloucester. A plain circle \nwas used on this occasion in lieu of the crown, \nwhich had been lost with the other jewels and \nbaggage of king John, in passing the marshes of \nLynn, or the Wash, near Wisbeach . 28 Oct. 1216 \nWilliam and Mary crowned by Compton, bishop of \nLondon, as Sancroft, archbishop of Canterbury, \nwould not take the oaths . . . n April, 1689 \n\nAnne crowned 23 April, 1702 \n\nGeorge I. crowned 20 Oct. 1714 \n\nGeorge II. crowned n Oct- 1727 \n\nGeorge III. crowned with his queen . 22 Sept. 1761 \n\nGeorge IV. crowned 19 July, 1821 \n\nWilliam IV. crowned, with his queen . . 8 Sept. 1831 \n\nVictoria crowned 28 June, 1838 \n\nCoronation Chair. In the cathedral of Cashel, formerly \nthe metropolis of the kings of Minister, was deposited \nthe Lia Fail, or Fatal Stone, on which they were \ncrowned. Tradition says, that in 513 Fergus, a prince \nof the royal line, having obtained the Scottish throne, \nprocured the use of this stone for his coronation at \nDunstaffnage, where it continued until the time of \nKenneth II., who removed it to Scone ; and in 1296 it \nwas removed by Edward I. from Scone to West- \nminster ; the present chair being made to receive it. \nA Coronation Oath was administered by Dunstan, \narchbishop of Canterbury, to Ethelred II. , in 978. An \noath, neaidy corresponding with that now in use, was \nadministered in 1377. The oath prescribed by 1 Will. & \nMary, c. 6 (1689) was modified in 1706, and again in \n1821 on account of the union of the Churches of England \nand Ireland. \n\nCORONEA, Battles of. I. (orChajronea). \n\nThe Athenians were defeated and their general \nTolrnides slain in a battle with the Boeotians at \nCoronea near Chasronea, 447 B.C. II. The Athe- \nnians, Thebans, Argives, and Corinthians having \nentered into a league, offensive and defensive, \nagainst Sparta, Agesilaus, after diffusing the terror \nof his arms, from his many victories, even unto \nUpper Asia, engaged the allies at Coronea, a town \nof Boeotia, and achieved a great victory over them, \n394 B - c - \n\nCORONERS, officers of the realm, mentioned \nin a charter, 925. Coroners for every county in \nEngland were first appointed by statute of West- \nminster, 3 Edw. I. 1275. Stow. They are chosen \nfor life by the freeholders, and their duty is to \ninquire into the cause of unnatural death, upon \nview of the body. By an act passed in 1843, \ncoroners are enabled to appoint deputies to act for \nthem in case of illness. The act amended 1887. \nLaws respecting coroners amended i860. \xe2\x80\x94 20,315 \ncoroners\' inquests were held in England and Wales \nin 1859:\xe2\x80\x94 \n\n\n\ni860 . \n\n\n21,178 \n\n\n1874 . . 27,184 \n\n\n1884 . . 28,603 \n\n\n1861 . \n\n\n21,038 \n\n\n(18,875 males.) \n\n\n(19,280 males.) \n\n\n1862 . \n\n\n. 20,591 \n\n\n1875 . . 28,587 \n\n\n1885 . . 28,181 \n\n\n1863 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 22,757 \n\n\n1876 . . 26,845 \n\n\n(18,863 males.) \n\n\n1864 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 24,787 \n\n\n1877 . . 26,287 \n\n\n1886 . . 28,940 \n\n\n1865 . \n\n\n. 25,011 \n\n\n1878 . . 27,628 \n\n\n(19,329 males.) \n\n\n1866 . \n\n\n24,926 \n\n\n1879 . . 27,039 \n\n\n1887 . . 30,030 \n\n\n1867 . \n\n\n24,648 \n\n\n(18,233 males.) \n\n\n(19,814 males.) \n\n\n1868 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 24.774 \n\n\n1880 . . 26,569 \n\n\n1888 . . 29,057 \n\n\n1869 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 24,709 \n\n\n(18,131 males.) \n\n\n(19,120 males.) \n\n\n(i7> IQI \n\n\nmales.) \n\n\n1881 . . 27,451 \n\n\n1889 . . 29,675 \n\n\n1870 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 25,376 \n\n\n(18,548 males.) \n\n\n(19,700 males.) \n\n\n1871 . \n\n\n. 25,898 \n\n\n1882 . . 27,502 \n\n\n1890 . . 32,027 \n\n\n1872 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 25,705 \n\n\n(18,673 males.) \n\n\n(20,997 males.) \n\n\n1873 . \n\n\n. 26,427 \n\n\n1883 . . 28,725 \n\n\n\n\n\nCORONETS, caps or inferior crowns of the \nnobility. The coronets for earls were first allowed \nby Henry III. ; for viscounts by Henry VIII. ; and \nfor barons by Charles II. Baker. But authorities \nconflict. Sir Robert Cecil, earl of Salisbury, was \nthe first of the degree of earl who wore a coronet, \n\n\n\nCORPORATE REUNION. \n\n\n\n253 \n\n\n\nCORSICA. \n\n\n\n1604. It is uncertain when the coronets of dukes \nand marquises were settled. Beatson. \n\nCORPORATE REUNION. See Order. \n\nCORPORATIONS. Numa, in order to break \nthe force of the two rival factions of Sabines and \nKomans, is said to have instituted separate \nsocieties of manual trades. Plutarch. \xe2\x80\x94 Municipal \nCorporations in England. Bodies politic, \nauthorised by the king\'s charter to have a common \nseal, one head officer, or more, and members, who \nare able, by their common consent, to grant or \nreceive in law any matter within the compass of \ntheir charter. Cowell. Charters of rights were \ngranted by the kings of England to various towns ; \nby Edward the Confessor, Henry I., and succeed- \ning monarchs, subject to tests, oaths, and conditions. \nBlackstone. The Corporation and Test act, passed \nin 1661, was repealed in May, 1828. The Corpora- \ntion Reform act, for the regulation of municipal \ncorporations (London not included) in England \nand Wales, 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 76 (1835), was \namended in 1869. The Irish Municipal Corpora- \ntion act, 4 Vict. c. 108, passed in 1840, was amended \nin 1861. The Corrupt Practices (Municipal Elec- \ntions) act, was passed 6 Aug. 1872. The law re- \nlating to municipal elections amended by act passed \n19 July, 1875. Municipal Elections, Corrupt and \nIllegal Practices Act passed 14 Aug. 1884. Royal \ncommission on no unreformed municipal corpora- \ntions appointed in 1876; report issued 17 Feb. \n1880. Bill for their reform introduced by sir \nCharles Dilke, 21 Feb. 1883. A consolidation act \npassed 1882. Property qualification bill rejected in \ncommons (173 \xe2\x80\x94 167), 2 April, 1879. \nJubilee of the passing of the Act of 1835 celebrated \n\n9 Oct. 1885 \nThe association of municipal corporations met, 5 \nDec, 1884 ; it met at the Guildhall, London ; 219 \ntowns represented, 12 March, 1890 ; again, 13 \nMarch, 1891 ; again ... 10 March, 1892 \n\nCORPULENCE. \n\nMr. Edward Bright, a tallow-chandler and grocer, \nof Maldon, in Essex, who died in his 29th year, \nis said to have weighed 616 pounds. Seven per- \nsons of the common size were with ease enclosed \nin his waistcoat ; buried at All Saints, Maldon \n\n12 Nov. 1750 \n\nDaniel Lambert, supposed to have been the heaviest \nman that ever lived, died in his 40th year, at \nStamford, in \xe2\x80\xa2 Lincolnshire, weighing 52 stone \n11 pounds; (10 stone 4 pounds more than Mr. \nBright) 21 June, 1809 \n\nJames Mansfield, died at Debden, aged 82, weigh- \ning 34 stone 9 Nov. 1856 \n\nMr. Win. Banting published a letter on corpulence, \nrecommending, from his own experience, as a \nremedy, great moderation in the use of sugar and \nstarch in diet. 50,000 copies of this letter were \nspeedily sold or given away 1863 \n\nCORPUS CHRISTI {Fete Lieu in France) \na festival in the Roman church, in honour of the \nLord\'s supper, kept on the Thursday after Trinity \nSunday {which see). It was instituted by pope \nUrban IV. between 1262 and 1264, and confirmed \nby the council of Vienne in 1311. \n\nCORPUS JURIS CIVILIS, see Justinian \nCode. \n\n" CORRELATION of the PHYSICAL \nFORCES," a book by Mr. (afterwards sir) W. R. \nGrove, F.R.S., who in 1842 enunciated the theory \nof the correlation or mutual dependence and con- \nvertibility into each other of all the forces of nature \n(viz. heat, light, electricity, magnetism, chemical \naffinity, and motion). \n\n\n\nCORRESPONDING SOCIETY of \nLONDON, was formed about 1791, to spread \nliberal opinions and check the severity of the \nBritish government, then much alarmed by the \nFrench revolution. Home Tooke and other mem- \nbers were tried for treason and acquitted, Oct. 1794 \'r \nsee Trials, 1794. The meetings of the society at \nCopenhagen-fields and elsewhere, in 1795 and 1796,. \nwere termed treasonable. \xe2\x80\x94 On 21 April, 1798, Messrs. \nO\'Connor, O\'Coigley, and others, were tried for \ncorresponding with the French directory; and James- \nO\'Coigley was executed as a traitor (protesting hia \ninnocence) on 7 June. \n\nCORROSIVE SUBLIMATE, see Mercury, \n\nCORRUPT PRACTICES ACTS, respecting \nelections for members of parliament, were passed in \n1854, and continued in following years. An act \nrelating to Scotland was passed in 1890. See- \nBribery at Elections and Corporations. \n\nBy an act passed in 1881 elections at Boston, Can- \nterbury, Chester, Gloucester, Macclesfield, and \nOxford, were temporarily suspended ; and \nMessrs. May and Main (Macclesfield), Mr. Edwards \n(Deal), Mr. Olds (Sandwich), and others were \nsentenced to imprisonment varying from 2 to 9 \nmonths 2Q Nov. 188\'a \n\nPetition for their release signed (in vain) by 43,841 \npersons about 23 Dee. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe act 46 <fe 47 Vict. c. 51, passed 25 Aug. 1883, \nstrictly prohibits hiring carriages and illegal pay- \nments. It proved very effectual. In 1880 the \nelection by about 3,000,000 electors cost about \n3,ooo,oooL In 1885 the election by 5,670,000 \nelectors cost 780,0002. \n\nCORSICA, an island in the Mediterranean Sea \n(called by the Greeks Cyrnos), held by the French. \nThe ancient inhabitants had the character of \nrobbers, liars, and atheists, according to Seneca. \nCorsica was colonised by Phocaeans 564 B.C., and \nafterwards held by the Carthaginians, from whom \nit was taken by the Romans, 238 B.C. It has been \nheld by Vandals, a.d. 456 ; by Saracens 852 ; by \nPisans, 1077. I* wa s dependent upon Genoa from \n1559 till 1768, when it was ceded to France. \n\nDuring a revolt erected into a kingdom under Theo- \ndore Neuhoff, its first and only king . . . 1736 \n\nHe came to England, was imprisoned in the \xe2\x80\xa2 \nKing\'s Bench prison for debt, and long subsisted \non private friends, but released ; he gave in his \nschedule the kingdom of Corsica to his creditors, \nand died in Soho I75 5 \n\nThe earl of Orford wrote the following epitaph/for \na tablet near his grave in St. Anne\'s church, \nDean-street : \xe2\x80\x94 \n\n" The grave, great teacher ! to a level brings \nHeroes and beggars, galley-slaves and kings. \nBut Theodore this moral learn\'d ere dead ; \nFate pour\'d its lesson on his living head, \nBestow\'d a kingdom and denied him bread." \n\nPascal Paoli chosen for their general by the Cor- \n\nsicans \n\nDefeated by the count de Vaux, he fled to England \nNapoleon Bonaparte born at Ajaccio (5 Feb i 7 68 \n\nbaptismal register ; doubtful) . . 15 Aug. \nThe people acknowledge George III. of England for \n\nki\xc2\xbbS 17 Juno, \n\nSir Gilbert Eliott made viceroy, and opened a par- \n\n, liament \n\nA revolt suppressed, June ; the island relinquished \n\nby the British, 22 Oct. ; the people declare for (lie \n\nFrench \n\nA statue to Napoleon I. inaugurated by prince \n\nNapoleon Jerome . . . . \' 15 May, \nVisit by the empress and imperial prince . 4 Sept.\' \nGen. Paoli\'s remains buried at Old St. Pancras \n\ncemetery, London, exhumed and transferred .111,! \n\nre-interred in Corsica . . 31 Aug. et $eq. \nCorsica visited by president Carnot 21-23 April, \n\n\n\n1753 \n1769 \n\n\n\n1794 \n1795 \n\n1796 \n\n1865 \n1869 \n\n\n\nCOETE NUOVA. \n\n\n\n254 \n\n\n\nCOTTON. \n\n\n\nCOETE NUOVA, near Milan, N. Italy. Here \nthe emperor Frederic II. defeated the Milanese \nafter a severe conflict. 27 Nov. 1237. \n\nCOETES, the Spanish parliament, originating \nan the old Gothic councils. The cortes were as- \nsembled after a long interval of years, 24 Sept. \nj8io ; and settled the new constitution, 16 March, \n1812, which was set aside by Ferdinand VII., who \nVanished many members of the assembly in May, \n3814. The cortes were reopened by him March, \n3820, dissolved Oct. 1823; again assembled April, \n2834, and have since been regularly convened. The \ncortes of Portugal assembled by virtue of Dom \nPedro\'s charter, 30 Oct. 1826 ; they were sup- \npressed by Dom Miguel in 1828, and restored in 1833. \n\nCOEUNNA (N. W. Spain) . The British army, \nabout 15,000 men, under the command of sir John \nMoore, had just accomplished their retreat when \nthey were attacked by the French, whose force ex- \nceeded 20,000 : the enemy were completely re- \npulsed, but the loss of the British in the battle was \nimmense, 16 Jan. 1809. Sir John was struck by a \n\xe2\x80\xa2cannon-ball, which carried away his left shoulder \nand part of the collar-bone, and he died universally \nlamented. The remains of the army embarked at \n\xe2\x80\xa2Corunna, under sir David Baird, 17 Jan. \n\nCOEUS (Corupedion, or Cyropedium), a plain \nin Phrygia, Asia Minor, where the aged Lysi- \nmachus\' was defeated by Seleucus, and slain, 281 \nS.c. These two were the only survivors of Alexander \nthe Great\'s generals. \n\nCOEVEE, forced labour and service under the \nfeudal system in France, was partially reduced by \nLouis XVI., at the instigation of Turgot, 27 June, \n1787 ; by the constituent assembly, 18 March, 1790 ; \nand totally abolished by the convention, 1 7 July, 1 792 . \n.\xe2\x80\xa2See Egypt, Dec. 1889. \n\nCOEYPHiEUS, the principal person of the \nchorus in ancient tragedy. The name is said to \nhave been given to Tysias, or Stesichorus, who first \ninstructed the chorus to dance to the lyre, 556 B.C. \n\nCOSMOGEAPHY, see Astronomy and \n\xe2\x80\xa2Geography . \n\nCOSPATEICK, emigrant vessel, burnt, see \nWrecks, 1874. \n\nCOSSACKS, warlike people inhabiting the \nconfines of Poland, Kussia, Tartary, and Turkey. \nThey at first lived by plundering the Turkish \n\xe2\x80\xa2galleys and the people of Anatolia ; but were formed \ninto a regular army by Stephen Bathori, about \n1576, to defend the frontiers of Kussia from the \nTartars. They joined the Russians in 1654, and \nin the great war against France (1813-15) formed a \nvaluable portion of the Russian army. \n\nCOSSOVA, a plain in Servia. Here Amurathl. \ntotally defeated the Christian army (Servians, Hun- \ngarians, &c), 15 June, 1389; but was himself killed \nhy an expiring soldier. Here John Huniades was \ndefeated by a Turkish army four times larger than \nhis own, 17 Oct. 1448. \n\nCOSTA EICA, a republic in Central America, \npart of Guatemala, declared independent 15 Sept. \n1 82 1 . "With the other republics of Central America \nformed a single state 1 July, 1823; compact dis- \nsolved 1840; constitution of 22 Dec. 1871 adopted \n26 April, 1882. It has been much disturbed by the \nAmerican filibusters, see Nicaragua and America, \nCentral. Constitution, 27 Dec. 1859. On 14 Aug. \n1859, the president Juan Mora was suddenly de- \nposed, and Dr. Jose Montealegre made president; \nDr. J. Ximenes president 3 April, 1863, was suc- \n\n\n\nceeded by Dr. Joseph Castro, 8 May, 1866 \nJ. Jimenez, governor, Nov. 1868; Vicente Quadra \nproclaimed president 12 March, 1871 ; J. M. \nGuardia, 1871 for 1872-6 ; Aniceto Esquivel, 8 May \n1876; Vicente Herrera, 31 July, 1876, resigned: \nsucceeded by Thomas Guardia, Oct. 1877 > died \nJuly, 1882, succeeded by Prospero Fernandez ; died \nMarch, 1885, succeeded by Bernardo Soto 12 March, \n1885 ; by J. J. Rodiguez, 8 May, 1890. Population \n1885, estimated, 213,785. \n\nCOSTEEMONGEES, itinerant dealers in \nfruit, vegetables, fish, &c, deriving their name, it \nis said, from costard, a favourite apple. The Lon- \ndon costermongers are useful in relieving the \nmarkets when glutted; and it was said in i860, \nthat 3,000,000^. passed through their hands an- \nnually. Previous to fasting and thanksgiving days, \nthey sell the appointed forms of prayers in great \nnumbers. On 22 Nov. i860, they held a meeting \nin order to represent to the city authorities the \nhardships they felt by the police restricting their \nmeans of livelihood ; and the Metropolitan Streets \nAct was modified, 7 Dec. 1867. \n\nTheir moral and physical condition lias been much im- \nproved of late years, greatly through the instrumen- \ntality of the earl of Shaftesbury, who constituted \nhimself a costermonger, and owned a barrow in 1874. \n\nCOSTUME, see Dress. \nCOTOPAXI, see Ancles. \n\nCOTTAGE. The term was originally applied \nto a small house without land, 4 Edw. I. 1275. \n" No man may build a cottage, except in towns, \nunless he lay four acres of land thereto," &c, 31 \nEliz. 1589. This statute was repealed, 15 Geo. III. \n1775. By returns to the tax office, in 1786, the \nnumber of cottages was 284,459. The number in \n1800 was 428,214; the number in 1840 was about \n770,000. In i860 the public attention was much \ndrawn to the deplorable state of cottages in many \nparts of the country, and the law of settlement was \naltered in 1865. Mr. Disraeli (afterwards lord \nBeaconsfield) said that " every cottage should have \na tank, an oven, and a porch." \nCottage Improvement Society, founded 12 April, 1861, \n7, Adam-street, Strand. Some of the society\'s \nmodels appeared in the International Exhibitions \n\xe2\x80\x94 in London, 1862 ; in Paris .... 1867 \n\nSee Slwftesbury Park. \nThe Cottager\'s Stove, designed by captain John Grant, \nregistered and presented by him to the metropoli- \ntan association for improving the dwellings of the \n\nindustrious classes Dec. 1849 \n\nA Cottage Garden Society established about 1846 \nstill exists 1886 \n\nCOTTAGE HOSPITALS : much advocated \nby Dr. Horace Swete in 1870. Many since then \nhave been established : one by the baroness Bur- \ndett-Coutts, 1878. \n\nCOTTON, a vegetable wool, the produce of the \nGossypium, a shrub indigenous to the tropical \nregions of India and America. Indian cotton cloth \nis mentioned by Herodotus, was known in Arabia \nin the time of Mahomet, 627, and was brought into \nEurope by his followers. It does not appear to \nhave been in use among the Chinese till the 13th \ncentury ; to them we are indebted for the cotton \nfabric termed nankeen. Cotton was the material \nof the principal articles of clothing among the \nAmericans when visited by Columbus. It was \ngrown and manufactured in Spain in the 10th \ncentury; and in the 14th century was introduced \ninto Italy. Indian muslins, chintzes, and cottons \nwere so largely imported into England in the 17th \ncentury, that in 1700 an act of parliament was \n\n\n\nCOTTON". 255 \n\n\n\nprohibiting their introduction. Cotton \nbecame the staple commodity of England in the \npresent century. About 1841 the "cotton" or \n*\' Manchester " interest began to obtain political \ninfluence, which led to the repeal of the corn laws \nin 1846. Failure of Mr. Morris Ranger, a great \ncotton speculator, and others at Liverpool announced \n31 Oct. 1883. Cotton manufacture introduced into \nBombay about 1868 gradually becomes very success- \nful, reported Dec. 1889. See Calico, Muslin, Cor- \nner, Strikes. \n\nAct for collection of cotton statistics passed 25 June, \n1868. \n\nJohn Rylands, the head of the company of Rylands \n& Sons which employs 12,000 hands died aged 87 \n\n11 Dec. 1888 \n\nIn Lancashire and Cheshire the mills put on half \ntime, to limit the production and check specu- \nlations to raise the price of cotton, &c. \n\nabout 15 July, 1889 \n\nCotton mills fully engaged ... 5 Nov. ,, \n\nStrike and lock-out of cotton-spinners throughout \nLancashire (not Manchester), 16 April et seq. ; \ndispute settled by compromise . . 6 May, 1892 \n\nFustian and Velveteen made of cotton, about 1641. \n\nCalico sheeting, die.. The fly-shuttle was invented by \nJohn Kay, of Bury, 1738 ; the drop-box by Robert Kay, \n1760 ; spinning by rollers (also attributed to John \nWyatt) patented by Louis Paul, 1738 ; the spinning- \njenny, by Hargreaves, 1767 ; the water-frame, by Ark- \nwright, 1769 ; the power-loom, by Rev. Br. Edmund \nCartwright, 1785 ; the dressing machine, by Johnson \nand Radeliffe, 1802-4 : another power-loom, by Horrocks, \n1803-13. A eombing machine was patented by Joshua \nHeilmann, in 1845. \n\nBritish muslin (totally superseding that of India) is due \nmainly to the invention of the Mule (which see) by \nSamuel Crompton, 1774-9 ; and to the self-acting mule \nof Mr. Roberts, 1825. \n\nCalico Printing commenced 1764. \n\nThe Steam-Engine first applied to the cotton manufacture \n(by Boulton and Watt), 1785. \n\nBleaching by means of chloride of lime introduced by Mr. \nTennant, of Glasgow, 1798. \n\nStockings. The stocking-frame was invented by William \nLee, in 1589. Cotton stockings were first made by hand \nabout 1730 ; Jedediah Strutt obtained a patent for \nDerby ribbed stockings in 1759 ; and llorton patented \nhis knotter frame in 1776 ; Crompton\'s mule was em- \nployed in making thread for the stocking manufacture \nabout 1770. \n\nCotton-Lace \xe2\x80\x94 Bobbin-net. The stocking-frame of Lee was \napplied to lace-making by Hammond, about 1768 ; the \nprocess perfected by John Heathcoat, 1809. \n\nCOTTON FIBRE IMPORTED INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM. \n\nlb. lb. \n\n1.976,359 1866 . . . 1,377,514,096 \n\n715,008 1868 . . 1,328,761,616 \n\n1,545,472 1870 . . . 1,339,367,120 \n\n3> 8 7\xc2\xb0>39 2 l8 7 2 \xe2\x80\xa2 - i,4 oS > 8 37,47 2 \n\n. 11,828,039 1874 . . . 1,566,864,432 \n\n. 31,500,000 1875 . . 1,492,351,168 \n\n. 56,000,000 1876 . . . 1,487,858,848 \n\n. 132,500,000 1877 . . 1,355,281,200 \n\n. 151,500,000 1879 . . . 1,469,358,464 \n\n. 264,000,000 1881 . . 1,679,068,384 \n\n592,500,000 1883 . . . 1, 734, 333, 552 \n\n. 1,390,938,752 1885 . . 1,425,816,336 \n\n. 1,256,984,736 1887 . . . 1,791,437,312 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 523,973,296 1888 . . 1, 731, 755,088 \n\n670,084,128 1889 . . . 1,937,462,240 \n\n1864 . . . 894,102,384 1890 . . 1,793,495,200 \n\n1865 . . 978,502,000 \n\nAmerican Cotton. Previous to 1795, our cotton fibre \ncame from the East and West Indies, the Levant, and \nalittle from the United States. About 1786, the growth \nof cotton began in Georgia. In 1793, Eli Whitney, an \nAmerican, invented the saw-gin, a machine by which \ncotton wool is separated from the pod and cleaned with \ngreat ease and expedition.* This led to such increased \n\n\n\n1697. \n1710 \n\ni73\xc2\xb0- \n\n1765 \n1782 . \n1790 \n1800 . \n1810 \n1820 . \n1830 \n1840 \ni860 . \n\n\n\n1863 \n\n\n\n* A trial of various kinds of cotton gins, under the di- \nrection of Br. Forbes Watson, took place at Manchester, \n28 Nov. -23 Bee. 1871. \n\n\n\nCOTTON. \n\ncultivation that the United States soon exported \n1,500,000 lb. of cotton : \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nFrom the United States, N.A. \n\n\n\n*795 \n\n\n5,250,0001b. \n\n\n1874 \n\n\n874,926,864 lb \n\n\n1820 \n\n\n89,999,174 \n\n\n1875 \n\n\n841,333,472 \n\n\n1830 \n\n\n210,885,358 \n\n\n1876 \n\n\n932,800,176 \n\n\n1840 \n\n\n487,856,504 \n\n\n1877 \n\n\n912,244,592 \n\n\n1847 \n\n\n364,599,291 \n\n\n1879 \n\n\n1,082,462,080 \n\n\n18.59 \n\n\n961,707,264 \n\n\n1881 \n\n\n1,210,980,288 \n\n\ni860 \n\n\n1,115,890,608 \n\n\n1883 \n\n\n1,239,410,592 \n\n\n1861 \n\n\n819,500,528 \n\n\n1885 \n\n\n1,050,546,000 \n\n\n1866 \n\n\n520,057,440 \n\n\n1887 \n\n\n1,256,894,464 \n\n\n1870 \n\n\n716,248,848 \n\n\n1888 \n\n\nI >34 8 ,57 1 >84\xc2\xb0 \n\n\n1871 \n\n\n1,038,677,920 \n\n\n1889 \n\n\n1,423,811,872 \n\n\n1872 \n\n\n625,600,080 \n\n\n1890 \n\n\n1, 3^,75(1^96 \n\n\ni*73 \n\n\n832,573,616 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nCotton imported from India : 1856, 463,000 bales ; official \nvalue, 3,572,329?. ; in 1865, 1,266,520 bales ; value, \n25,025,856?. ; in 1866, 1,847,770 bales; value, 25,270,547?. ; \nin 1874, 412,025,0401b. ; in 1876, 275,856,3361b. ; in \n1877, 193,856,320 fb.; in 1879, 181,347,601 lb. ; 1881, \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 198,577,680ft.; 1883, 260,698,480ft.; 1885,145,130,048ft.; \n1887, 276,506,720 ft. ; 1888, 170.238,768 ft. ; 1889, \n273,810,880 ft, ; 1890, 238,746,704 ft. \n\nAustralian Cotton said by Manchester manufacturers to \nbe superior to the best American cotton, Jan. 1861. \n\nA company formed at Manchester to obtain cotton from \nIndia, Africa, and other places (arose out of the Cotton \nSupply Association, formed in 1857), Sept. i860. \n\nSince 1861, the cultivation of cotton in India, Egypt, \nItaly, &c. has greatly increased. \n\nCotton imported from Egypt in 1856, 34,399,008 ft. ; in \n1870, 143,710,448 ft. ; in 1876, 199,245,312 ft. ; in 1877, \n176,558,256 rb. ; in 1879, 158,232,032 ft. ; 1881, \n175,317,072ft.; 1883,170,685,200ft.; rS85, 177,515,520ft.; \n\n\n\n1887, 176,608,096 ft. \n\n\n\n147,191,184 ft. \n\n\n\n191,750,720 ft. ; 1890, 181,266,176 ft. \n\nEXPORTS OF COTTON GOODS, YARN, &C, FROM UNITED \nJDOM. \n\n\n\n1697 \n1 701 \n1751 \n1780 \n1790 \n1800 \n1820 \n1847 \n\n\n\n1866 \n1870 \n\n\n\nKINO \n\nOfficial Value. \n\xc2\xa35,9*5 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x96\xa0 23,253 \n\n45,986 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 355,ooo \n\n1,662,369 \n\n. . 5,406,501 \n\n. 20,509,926 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 23,333,225 \n. 52,012,430 \n\n. . 46,872,489 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 36,750,971 \n. . 54,882,329 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 74,565,426 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 71,416,345 \n\n\n\nOfficial Value. \n1874 . . \xc2\xa373,247,625 \n1876 . . . 67,641,286 \nl8 77 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x96\xa0 69,228,073 \n1879 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 63,974,053 \n\n11 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 72,744,531 \n\n1883 . . . 76,445,757 \n^85 . . . 66,976,887 \n\n1887 . . . 70,959,766 \n\n(including mixtures of \ncotton and wool.) \ni888(cotton only)6o,329,o5i \n\n1889 . . . 58,793,448 \n\n1890 . . . 62,089,442 \n\n\n\nCOTTON FAMINE. \n\nThe supply of cotton from North America nearly ceased, \nin consequence of the secession of the southern states \nfrom the union in 1860-61. In 1852, Mr. T Bazley \nwarned the country on the danger of trusting to this \nsource. In May, 1862, he stated that through its \nfailure the loss of the labouring classes was 12,000,000? \nsterling a year, and estimated the loss, including the \nemploying classes, at nearly 40,000,000?. a year. \n\nAt a meeting of noblemen and gentlemen, connected with \nthe cotton manufacturing districts, at Bridgewater- \nhouse, St. James\'s, on 19 July, 1862, the earl of Berby \nin the chair, 10,000?. were subscribed to the Cotton \nDistrict Relief Fund. The viceroy of Egypt, in London \nat the time, gave 1000?. , and the queen gave 2000?. on \n24 July. Liberal subscriptions flowed in from all \nparts. On 28 Aug.. the lord mayor had received \n41,902?. \n\nIn the Lancashire district (population about 4,000,000) \nthere were receiving parish relief, Sept. 1861, 43 50a \npersons ; in Sept. 1862, 163,498. Earl of Derby, 2 Bee. \n1862. \n\nIn July, 1863, about the value of 700,000?. remained of \nthe donations which had been received in money and \ngoods, amounting to about 1,900,000?. \n\nOn 9 Feb., 1863, the "George Griswold" arrived, con- \ntaining contributions of provisions, &c, from North \nAmerica, for the relief of the sufferers in Lancashire. \n\n\n\nCOTTONIAN LIBEAEY. \n\n\n\n256 \n\n\n\nCOUNCILS. \n\n\n\nThe Union Relief Act (passed Aug. 1862, and continued \nin 1863) gave much relief by enabling overseers to \nborrow money to be expended in public works to be \nexecuted by the unemployed workmen. \n\nIn Oct. 1864, much distress still existed, and fears were \nentertained for the approaching winter\xe2\x80\x94 90,000 more \npaupers than ordinary in cotton districts. Times, \n18 Jan. 1865. \n\nIn June, 1865, Mr. Farnall, the special commissioner, \n(appointed in May, 1862) was recalled by the poor-law \nboard and the famine was declared to be ended. \ni.ooo.oooJ. had been expended in two years. The \nexecutive of the Central Relief Fund held their last, \nmeeting, 4 Dec. 1865. \n\nThe account of the fund was made up in 1873. The \nbalance, above 130,000?., was proposed to be appro- \npriated to the foundation of a convalescent hospital for \n\nA memorial window (the gift of the cotton operatives of \nLancashire, who subscribed to commemorate the muni- \nficence of the metropolis to them during the cotton \nfamine, 1861-4) placed in Guildhall and uncovered, \n15 July, 1868. \n\nCotton Factories regulated by acts of parliament passed \nin 1825, 1831, 1833, 1844, and 1889. The hours of la- \nbour were limited, and the employment of children \nunder nine years of age prohibited. In 1846, 1724 \ncotton mills employed 197,500 persons. In 1862, the \npersons employed were stated to be 451,000 ; 315,000 \nin Lancashire. Excitement through 5 per cent, re- \nduction of wages in Lancashire, &c, Sept. 1883; \nstrike ; dispute settled, 27 Sept. 1883. \n\nCOTTONIAN LIBEAEY, formed by sir \nKobert Bruce Cotton, 1600, et seq. He died 6 May, \n1631. It was rescued from the republicans during \nthe protectorate, 1649-60, and was secured to the \npublic by a statute in 1700. It was removed to \nEssex-house in 1712; in 1730 to Dean\'s-yard, \nWestminster (where on 23 Oct. 1731, a part of the \nbooks sustained damage by fire) ; to the British \nMuseum in 1757. \n\nCOTTON OIL, largely manufactured from \nthe seeds in the south of the United States ; year \n1876-7, 3,316,000 gallons; 1878-9, 8,175,000 gallons. \n\nCOTTON-WOOL, see Respiration. Dr. \nPercy, in 1874, applied cotton-wool to purify the \nair for ventilating the houses of parliament. \n\nCOULMIEES, a village ten miles west of \nOrleans, central France. Here the Bavarians, \nunder general Von der Tann, were defeated by the \nFrench army of the Loire, under general d\'Aurelle \nde Paladines, who took about 2000 prisoners, 9 Nov. \n1870, and regained Orleans. \n\nCOUNANI, a territory between Brazil and \nFrench Guiana. The ridiculous attempt to found \nan independent Kepublic failed here (M. Jules \nGros, president), Aug. -Sept. 1887. An arrange- \nment respecting this territory was made between \nFrance and Brazil in 1862, for police purposes. \n\nCOUNCIL OF JUDGES. See Judges. \n\nCOUNCILS. King Alfred, in about 886, is \nsaid to have so arranged the business of the \nnation, that all resolutions passed through three \ncouncils. The first was a select council which con- \nsidered all affairs to be laid before the second council, \nbishops and nobles appointed by the king, like the \npresent privy council. The third was a general \nassembly of the nation, called, in Saxon, "Wittena- \ngemot, in which quality and offices gave a right to \nsit. In these three councils we behold the origin of \nthe cabinet, privy councils, and parliaments; see \nCabinet, Common and Privy Councils, &c. \n\nCOUNCILS of the Church. The follow- \nin 0- are among the most memorable. Those num- \nbered are the Oecumenical or General Councils. Sir \n\n\n\nKarris Nicolas in his "Chronology of History," \nenumerates 1604 councils, and gives an alphabetical \nlist. \n\nOf the church at Jerusalem (Acts xv.) . . .50 \nOf the western bishops at Aries, in France, to sup- \npress the Donatists ; three fathers of the English \nchurch attended . . . . . . . 314 \n\nI. First Oecumenical or General, at Nice (Constan- \ntine the Great presided), decreed the consubstan- \ntiality of the Son of God, condemned Arianism, \n\nand composed the Nicene creed .... 325 \n\nAt Tyre, against Athanasius 335 \n\nThe first at Constantinople, when the Arian heresy \n\ngained ground 337 \n\nAt Rome, in favour of Athanasius . . . . 342 \nAt Sardis : 370 bishops attended ; Arians con- \ndemned 347 \n\nAt Rimini : 400 bishops attended ; Constantine \nobliged them to sign a new confession . . . 359 \n\nII. Constantinople: oriental council ; 150 orthodox \nbishops present when it met ; presided over 1st \nby Meletius, 2nd by Gregory Nazianzen, 3rd by \nNeetarius ; added to the Nicene creed ; declared \nthe bishop of Constantinople next in rank to \nRome ; Constantinople being New Rome . . 381 \n\nIII. Ephesus : Cyril of Alexandria presided ; an- \nathematised and deposed Nestorius ; protested \nagainst any addition to the original Nicene creed 43s \n\nIV. Chalcedon : 520 bishops present ; declared the \ntwo natures of Christ, Divine and Human, as de- \nfined by Leo of Rome ; accepted and decreed \n\n. the Constantinopolitan addition to the Nicene \ncreed 45 3 \n\nV. Constantinople : Eutyches, patriarch of Con- \nstantinople, presided ; condemned the three \nchapters (written by Theodore of Mopsuestia, \nTheodoret, and others); Vigilius, bishop of Rome, \nprotested, but afterwards assented . . . 553 \n\nVI. Constantinople : pope Agatho presided ; against \nMono thelites . . 7 Nov. 680, to 16 Sept. 681 \n\nAuthority of the six general councils re-established \nby Theodosius 715 \n\nVII. Second Nicene : 350 bishops attended ; against \nIconoclasts ..." 24 Sept. to 23 Oct. 787 \n\nVIII. Constantinople : the emperor Basil attended ; \nagainst Iconoclasts and heresies \n\n5 Oct. 869, to 28 Feb. 870 \nAt Clermont, convened by Urban II. to autho- \nrise the crusades : 310 bishops attended . . 1095 \n\nIX. First Lateran : right of investiture settled by \ntreaty between pope Calixtus II. and the emperor \nHenry V. . . . 18 March to 5 April, 1123 \n\nX. Second Lateran : Innocent II. presided ; pre- \nservation of temporalities of ecclesiastics, the \nprincipal subject ; 1000 fathers of the church \nattended 20 April, 1139, \n\nXI. Third Lateran, against schismatics \n\n5 to 19 March, 11 79. \n\nXII. Fourth Lateran : 400 bishops and 1000 abbots \nattended ; Innocent III. presided ; against Albi- \ngenses, &c n to 30 Nov. 1215 \n\nXIII. Lyons ; under pope Innocent IV. : emperor \nFrederick II. deposed . 28 June to 17 July, 1245 \n\nXIV. Lyons ; under Gregory X. : temporary union \n\nof Greek and Latin churches 7 May to 17 June, 1274 \n\nXV. Vienne in Dauphine : Clement V. presided, and \nthe kings of France and Aragon attended ; order \nof Knights Templars suppressed \n\n16 Oct. 131 1 ; 3 April and 6 May, 1312 \n\nXVI. Pisa : Gregory XII. and Benedict XIII. de- \nposed ; Alexander elected 5 March to 7 Aug. 1409. \n\nXVII. Constance : Martin V. elected pope ; and \nJohn Huss and Jerome of Prague condemned to \n\nbe burnt 1414-1418 \n\nXVIII. Basel 1431-1443 \n\nXIX. Fifth Lateran : begun by Julius II. . . 1512 \nContinued under Leo X. for the suppression of the \n\npragmatic sanction of France, against the council \n\nof Pisa, &c, till 1517 \n\nXX. Trent : held to condemn the doctrines of the \nreformers, Luther, Zuinglius, and Calvin. (See \nTrent.) .... 13 Dec. 1545, to 3 Dec. 1563 \n\nXXI. Rome : summoned by an encyclical letter, \n\n8 Sept. 1868 ; met 8 Dec. 1869. \n\nPresent: 6 archbishop-princes, 49 cardinals, 11 \npatriarchs, 680 archbishops and bishops, 28 \nabbots, 29 generals of orders \xe2\x80\x94 803 in all . . \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nCOUNCILS. \n\n\n\n257 \n\n\n\nCOURIERS. \n\n\n\nU\'here were held four public sessions, and between \n90 and 100 congregations. New canons were \nissued 24 April, 1870, and after much discussion \nand opposition, the infallibility of the pope \nas head of the Church was affirmed by 547 \nplacets against 2 non-placets, and promulgated, \n\n18 July, 1870 \n\nMany bishops withdrew from the discussion. The \ncouncil then adjourned to 11 Nov. (see Rome.) \n\nCOUNCILS, FRENCH. The Council of \nAncients, consisting of 250 members, together \nwith the council of Five hundred, instituted at \nParis, 1 Nov. 1795: the executive was a Directory \n\xe2\x96\xa0of Five. Bonaparte dispersed the council of Five \nhundred at St. Cloud, 9 Nov. 1799, declaring him- \nself, Roger Dueos, and Sieves, consuls provisoires ; \nsee France. \n\nCOUNCILS of Conciliation, to adjust \n\ndifferences between masters and workmen, may be \nestablished by licence of the secretary of state, by \nvirtue of an act passed 15 Aug. 1867. \n\nThe labour conciliation board of the London cham- \nber of commerce, constituted to promote amic- \nable methods of settling labour disputes, &c. \n\n6 Feb. 1890 \n\nCirculars issued proposing the establishment of the \nLondon conciliation board with separate com- \nmittees of delegates . . about 6 March ,, \n\nMeeting of delegates of labour organisations at the \noffices of the chamber of commerce . 29 Oct. ,, \n\nSuccessful conciliation conferences in Yorkshire \nmining districts Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFirst meeting of the board . . . 12 Dec. ,, \n\nActive in 1891. First annual report issued 16 Jan. 1892 \n\nCOUNCIL OF OFFICERS, of the army, \nconstituted by Cromwell and termed " New Model" \n1642, abolished by Charles II. 1660. \n\nCOUNSEL are supposed to be coeval with the \ncuria regis. Advocates are referred to the time of \nEdward I., but are mentioned earlier. Counsel who \nwere guilty of deceit or collusion were punishable \nby the statute of Westminster, 13 Edw. I. 1285. \nCounsel were allowed to persons charged with \ntreason by act 8 Will. III. 1696. An act to enable \npersons indicted for felony to make their defence \nby counsel, passed Aug. 1836; see Barristers and \nKing\'s Counsel. \n\nCOUNT, Latin comes, a companion ; French \neomte ; equivalent to the English earl (whose wife \nis still termed a countess), and to the German graf ; \nsee Champagne and Toulouse. \n\nCOUNTERPOINT (in music), the art of \ncombining melodies in harmony. The earliest \nknown specimen of contrapuntal writing is by \nAdam de la Halle in the 12th century. \n\nCOUNTESS of HUNTINGDON\'S Con- \nnexion; see Whitejlcldites. \n\nCOUNTIES or Shires. . The division of this \n\nkingdom into counties began, it is said, with king \nAlfred; but some counties bore their present names \nabove a century before. The division of Ireland into \ncounties took place in 1562. Lord-lieutenants were \napp-iintedin 1549 in England, and in 183 1 in Ireland. \nCounties first sent members to parliament, before \nwhich period knights met in their own counties, \n1285. Chandos Clause, Sect. 20 of the Reform \nact, 2 Will. IV. c. 45 (1832), inserted by the motion \nof the marquis of Chandos. By it occupiers as \ntenants of land not situate in a borough, paying an \nannual rent of 50^., became entitled to a vote for \nthe knight of the shire. It increased the number \nof tory voters, and in consequence several attempts \n\n\n\nwere made to repeal it. It was superseded by the \n\nReform act of 15 Aug. 1867. \n\nBy the Winter Assizes Act, 1876, certain counties were \nunited (by order in council, first time, 23 Oct. 1876) \nto facilitate more speedy trials of prisoners. \n\nCOUNTRY DANCE, see Contre-Danse. \n\nCOUNTRY PARTY, see Court Party. \n\nCOUNTY CONVENTIONS, see Ireland \n1885. \n\nCOUNTY COUNCILS, see Local Govern- \nment Act. At the first elections in Jan. 1889, a \nlarge number of the nobility, gentry, and justices, \nwere elected. \n\nThe Councils assume their powers 1 April 1889 ; \nsee London County Councils. The time of elec- \ntion was changed from Jan. to March, by act \npassed 5 Aug. 1891. \nCounty Council Magazine started . . . Feb. 1889 \nCounty Councils Association held their first meet- \ning at Westminster . . . .23 May, 1890 \nOthers since. \n\nCOUNTY-COURTS or schyremotes, in the \ntime of the Saxons, were important tribunals. \nAlfred is said to have divided England into coun- \nties, and counties into hundreds ; but county-courts \nseem to have existed much earlier. \n\nCounty-Courts, for the recovery of debts under 20Z., \nsuperseding courts of requests, instituted by 9 & \n10 Vict. c. 95 26 Aug. 1846 \n\nThe counties of England and Wales are divided into \nsixty districts, each district having a county- \ncourt, with a barrister as judge, and juries when \nnecessary. Their jurisdiction extended by 13 & 14 \nVict. c. 61, to sums not exceeding 50?. . . 1850 \n\nTheir proceedings facilitated in 1852 and 1854 ; \n60 county-courts in England and Wales . . 1868-72 \n\nIn 1850 plaints entered at the courts of the sixty \ncircuits were 306,793, for 1,265, 115!. ; in 1857, \n744,652 plaints for 1,937,745?. ; of the 217,173 \ncauses tried, 4297 were for sums between 20Z. \nand $ol. \n\nProm 1847 to 1858 judgment was obtained in these \ncourts for 8,309,236!. \n\nEquity powers, like those of the court of chancery, \nin cases relating to sums under 500L, conferred on \nthese courts, to begin . . . . 1 Oct. 1865 \n\nTheir jurisdiction still further enlarged . 20 Aug. 18(57 \n\nAdmiralty jurisdiction conferred on them by act \npassed July, 1868, amended . . . Aug. 1869 \n\nCounty Court Acts amended by acts passed 2 Aug. \n1875 and 1S87 \n\nA County Boards Bill, withdrawn . . July, 1879 \n\nNew regulations, respecting procedure, &c, came \ninto operation 28 April, 1886 \n\nAmendment Act passed . . . . 13 Aug. 1888 \n\nCOUNTY FRANCHISE, a bill for giving \nvotes to labourers and others, annually brought in \nby Mr. (afterwards sir) G. 0. Trevelysin. The object \nwas effected by the reform acts of 1884-5. See \nHousehold Suffrage. \n\nCOUNTY OFFICERS AND COURTS, \n\nIreland : an act to amend the law respecting them \npassed 14 Aug. 1877. \n\nCOUP D\'ETAT, in France (see France, 2 Dec. \n1851); Pronunciamiento in Spain; changes in the \ngovernment effected by force, either by the ruler, \nthe army, or the populace. The Speaker\'s Coup \nd\'etat, see Parliament, 2 Feb., 1881. See Brazil, \nNov. 1889. \n\nCOURIERS. Xenophon attributes the first to \nCyrus ; and Herodotus says that they were common \namong the Persians; see Esther iii. 15, about 510 \nB.C. The Greeks and Romans had no regular \ncouriers till the time of Augustus, when they tra- \nvelled in cars, about 24 B.C. Couriers or posts are \n\n\n\nCOUELAND. \n\n\n\n258 COYENT GAEDEN THEATEE. \n\n\n\nsaid to have been instituted in France by Charle- \nmagne about a.d. 800. Couriers for letters were \nemployed by Louis XI. of France, 1463. Renault. \nSee Post-office. \n\nCOUELAND, a duchy of Livonia, conquered \nby Danes, 1218; by Teutonic knights, 1239; sub- \njected to Poland in 1561, conquered by Charles XII. \nof Sweden in 1701; Ernest Biren, duke, 1737; his \nson, Peter, 1769; annexed to Eussia, March, 1795. \nPopulation, 1886, 682,792. \n\nCOUET BAEON, an ancient court which \nevery lord of a manor may hold by prescription. In \nit duties, heriots, and customs are received, and \nestates and surrenders are passed. Its jurisdiction \nwas restricted in 1747 and 1833. By the Small \nDebts Act, 1856, lords of the manor may give up \nholding these courts. \n\nCOUET CIECULAE, conservative weekly \npaper; established 26 April,. 1856. \n\nCOUET DEESS, see Dress. \n\nCOUET JOURNAL, fashionable journal, \nestablished 1829. \n\nCOUET LEET, an ancient court of record, \nbelonging to a hundred, instituted for punishing \nencroachments, nuisances, fraudulent weights and \nmeasures, &c. The steward is judge, and all per- \nsons residing within the hundred (peers, clergymen, \n&c, excepted) are obliged to do suit within this \ncourt. \n\nCOUET PAETY-COUNTEY PAETY, \n\npoliticians in the parliaments of England, beginning \nabout 1620. At the end of the 17th century the \nlatter embodied toryism and high church principles, \nmaintained the rights of "the land," as opposed \nto whiggism and the trading interests. Its most \ndistinguished statesman was sir Thomas Hanmer \n(the Montalto of Pope\'s Satires), who died in 1746. \nAshe. \n\nCOUET OF HONOUE- In England the \ncourt of chivalry, of which the lord high constable \n\xe2\x96\xa0was a judge, was called Curia Militarise in the time \nof Henry IV., and subsequently the Court of Honour. \nIn Bavaria, to prevent duelling, a court of honour \nwas instituted in April, 1819. Mr. Joseph Hamil- \nton for many years ardently laboured to establish a \nsimilar institution in Britain. \n\nCOUET OF JUSTICIAEY, HIGH, in \n\nScotland, constituted by a commission under the \ngreat seal, 1671, ratified 1672. The procedure in \nthis court was amended by an act passed in 1868. \nSee Court of Session. \n\nCOUET OF EEQUESTS, see Conscience. \n\nCOUET OF EEVIEW, see Bankruptcy. \n\nCOUET OF SESSION, the highest civil \ntribunal in Scotland, was instituted by James V. by \nstatute, 17 May, 1532, its origin being ascribed to \nthe regent, duke of Albany. It consisted of 14 \njudges and a president, and replaced a committee \nof parliament. In 1830 the number of judges was \nreduced ; and the court now consists of the lord \npresident (termed lord justice general), the lord \njustice-clerk, and 11 ordinary judges. In 1867 the \nnecessity of renovating this court was asserted by \nhigh legal authority ; and an act to amend its \nprocedure was passed 31 July, 1868. The lord \npresident, the right hon. John Inglis, appointed, \n\n\n\nFeb. 1867 ; died 20 Aug., succeeded by James P. \nB. Robertson, Sept. 1891. \n\nCOUET THEATEE, Sloane-square, Chelsea., \nopened 25 Jan. 1871 ; Miss Litton first manager. \n\nCOUETEAI (Belgium). Here Robert, count \nof Artois, who had defeated the Flemings in 1297, \nwas defeated and slain by them, 11 July, 1302. The \nconflict was named the " Battle of Spurs," from the \nnumber of gilt spurs collected. \n\nCOUETS MAETIAL are regulated by the \nMutiny act, first passed in 1690. The powers of \nthese courts were much discussed in 1867, in conse- \nquence of the measures used to suppress the negro \ninsurrection in Jamaica, Oct. 1866. See Army y \n1 Jan. 1887. \n\nCOUETS OF JUSTICE were instituted at \nAthens, 1507 B.C. (see Areiopagus) ; by Moses, 1491 \nB.C. {Exod. xviii. 25), and in Rome. For these \nrealms, see Chancery, Common Pleas, Exchequer r \nKing\'s Bench, &c. The citizens of London were \nprivileged to plead their own cause in the courts of \njudicature, without employing lawyers, except in \npleas of the crown, 41 Hen. III. 1257. Stow. The \nrights of the Irish courts were established by the \nBritish parliament in April, 1783. See Supreme? \nCourt. \n\nCOUETS OF LAW FEES ACT, passed 20 \nAug. 1867, directs the application of surplus fees \ntowards providing new courts of justice. Acts for \nbuilding these courts were passed in 1865 and 1866, \nSee Law. Courts. \n\nCOUETS OF SUEYEY, consisting of a, \njudge and two assistants, for appeals respecting un- \nseaworthy ships, were directed to be appointed in- \ncertain ports and districts by the Merchant Ship- \nping Act, 39 & 40 Vict. c. 80 (15 Aug. 1876). They \nsat in 1877. \n\nCOUTEAS (S. "W. France). Here Henry of \nNavarre totally defeated the due de Joyeuse and the- \nroyalists, 20 Oct. 1587. \n\nCOVENANTEES, those persons who in the \nreign of Charles I. having signed the solemn league \nand covenant, engaged to stand by each other in \nopposition to the projects of the king in 1638. The \ncovenant or league between England and Scotland \n(the preceding one modified), solemnly adopted by \nthe parliament, 25 Sept. 1643 ; was accepted by \nCharles II. 16 Aug. 1650, but repudiated by him on \nhis restoration in 1661, when it was declared to be \nillegal by parliament, and copies of it ordered to be \nburnt. See Cameronians and Bothivell Bridge. \nThe covenant consisted of six articles : \n\n1. The preservation of the reformed church in Scotland \nand the reformation of religion in England and Ireland. \n\n2. The extirpation of popery, prelacy, schism, &c. \n\n3. The preservation of the liberties of parliament and the \nking\'s person and authority. \n\n4. The discovery and punishment of all malignants. <fcc. \n\n5. The preservation of "a blessed peace between these \nkingdoms ; " \n\n6. The assisting all who enter into the covenant : \n" This xuill we do as in the sight of God." \n\nCOYENT GAEDEN (London), corrupted \nfrom " Convent Garden," having been the garden \nof St. Peter\'s convent. The square was built about \n1633, and the piazza on the north side and the church \nwere designed by Inigo Jones. The fruit and vege- \ntable markets were rebuilt in 1829-30, from designs \nby Mr. Fowler (the ground belongmg to the duke \nof Bedford). \n\nCOYENT GAEDEN THEATEE sprang \nout of one in Lincoln\' s-inn-ficlds, through a patent \n\n\n\nCOVENTRY ACT. \n\n\n\n259 \n\n\n\nCRAYFORD. \n\n\n\ngranted 14 Chas. II. 1662, to sir William Davenant, \nwhose company was denominated the "duke\'s ser- \nvants," as a compliment to the duke of York, after- \nwards James II. ; see under Theatres. \xe2\x80\x94 The theatre \nwas hurnt down 5 March, 1856, during; a bal masque \nheld by Mr. Anderson, the wizard of the north. \nThe present theatre by E. Barry was opened 15 May, \n1858. The Floral Hall adjoining it was opened 7 \nMarch, i860, with the volunteers\' ball. \n\nCOVENTRY ACT passed, to prevent malicious \nmaiming and wounding, 6 March, 1671, in conse- \nquence of sir John Coventry, K.B., M.P., being \nmaimed in the streets of London, by sir Thomas \nSandys and others, adherents of the duke of Mon- \nmouth, 21 Dec. 1670. Repealed 1828. \n\nCOVENTRY (Warwickshire). Leofric, earl \nof Mercia, lord of Coventry, is said to have relieved \nit from heavy taxes, at the intercession of Ms wife \nGodiva, on condition of her riding naked through \nthe streets, about 1057. Processions in her memory \ntook place in 1851 ; 23 June, 1862 ; 4 June, 1866"; \n20 June, 1870; 4 June, 1877; 6 Aug. 1883; and \n2 Aug. 1892. The legend is probably fabulous. \nA parliament was held here in the reign of \nHenry IV. called parliamentum indoctum, or \nthe unlearned parliament, because lawyers were \nexcluded, 1404; and in the reign of Henry VI. \nanother met, called parliamentum diabolicum, from \nthe acts of attainder passed against the duke of York \nand others, 20 Nov. 1459. The town was sur- \nrounded with strong walls, three miles in circum- \nference, and twenty-six towers, which were de- \nmolished by order of Charles II. in 1662. The \nribbon-makers here suffered much from want of \nwork in the winter of 1810-6. An industrial exhi- \nbition here was opened by earl Granville, 19 June ; \nclosed by the earl of Clarendon, 21 Oct. 1867. \nThe prince and princess of Wales were warmly \nreceived 7 Nov. 1874. The Bishopric was \nfounded by Oswy, king of Mercia, 656, and had \nthe double name of Coventry and Lichfield, \nwhich was reversed by later bishops. It was \nso wealthy, that king Offa, by the favour of \npope Adrian, made it archiepiscopal ; but this title \nwas laid aside on the death of that king. In 1075 \nthe see was removed to Chester ; in 1 102 to Coventry ; \nand afterwards to its original foundation, Lichfield, \nbut with great opposition from the monks of Co- \nventry. Coventry merged into the bishopric of \nLichfield (which see). Population, 1881, 44,831 ; \n1891, 52,720. \n\nRioting on the levying of the "vicar\'s rate" \n\n11 Sept. 1882 \nNew park, gift of Mr. D. Spencer, opened 11 Oct. 1883 \n\nCOW-POCK INOCULATION; see Small \n\nPox and Vaccination. \n\nCRABS. The size at which they are to be sold \nis determined by the Fisheries Act, 1877. \n\nCRACOW, a city in Austrian Poland. The \nPoles elected Cracus for their duke, who built Cra- \ncow with thespoils taken from the Franks about 700. \nIt was their capital, 1320-1609. Cracow was taken \nby Charles XII. in 1 702, and taken and retaken \nseveral times by the Russians and other confede- \nrates. The sovereign was crowned at Cracow until \n1764. The Russians, who had taken it 1768, were \nexpelled by Kosciusko, 24 March, 1794 ; but it sur- \nrendered to the Prussians, 15 June same year, and \nin 1795 was awarded to Austria. Cracow was formed \ninto a republic, June, 1815. Occupied by 10,000 \nRussians, who followed here the defeated Poles, \nSept. 1831. Its independence was extinguished: \nand it was seized by the emperor of Austria, and \n\n\n\nincorporated with his empire, 16 Nov. 1846, which \nwas protested against by England, France, Sweden, \nand Turkey ; see Poland. A dreadful fire laid the \ngreater part of the city in ashes, 18 July, 1850. The \ndiscovery on 22 Jul)\', 1869, of Barbare Abryk, a nun, \nsecluded for 21 years in a convent cell, led to violent \nrioting. Population, 1890, 76,025. \nThe Bishop Albin Dunajewski, made a prince of the \n\nEmpire, and primate of Poland . . Jan. 1889 \nThe body of Adam Mickiewicz, the Polish poet, \n\nbrought from France, re-interred here . 4 July, 1890 \nPolish congress of natural science and medicine \n\nabout 19 July, 1891 \n\nCRANES are of very early date, for the engines \nof Arcliimedes maybe so called. In 1857 a crane \nhad been erected at Glasgow capable of lifting 50 \ntons. One in Woolwich arsenal in 1881 lifted 400 \n\ntons. See Derricks. \n\nCRANIOLOGY (or Phrenology), the \n\nstudy of the external form of the human skull, as \nindicative of mental powers and moral qualities. \nDr. Gall, the propounder, was a German physician, \nborn March, 1758, and his first observations were \namong his schoolfellows. Afterwards he studied \nthe heads of criminals and others, and eventually \nreduced his ideas to a system, marking out the skull \nlike a map. His first lecture was given at Vienna \nin 1796 ; but in 1802 the Austrian government pro- \nhibited his teaching. In 1800 he was joined by Dr. \nSpurzheim ; and in 1810-12 they published at Paris \ntheir work on the " Anatomy and Physiology of the \nNervous System, and of the Brain in particular." \nGall died in 1828. The researches of Gall and \nSpurzheim led to increased study of the brain. \nCombe\'s " Phrenology," first published in 1819, is \nthe popular English work on this subject. Phreno- \nlogical societies were formed early in London and \nEdinburgh. \n\nPhrenology was refuted by Lord Jeffrey in the Edinburgh \nReview, in 1826, and more recently by Dr. W. B. \nCarpenter. Professor David Ferrier reported the results \nof researches tending to prove localisation of certain \nfaculties in the brain to the British Association, Sept. \n1873. He published his work " The Functions of the \nBrain," 1876; 2nd edition 1887. \n\n" Brain," a quarterly journal, began in 1878. \n\nCRANMER, Latimer, and Ridley, mar- \ntyrdom of, see Protestants, note. \n\nCRANNOGES, see Lake-dwellings. \n\nCRANNON or CRANON, Thessaly, N. Greece. \nNear here the Macedonians under Antipater and \nCraterus defeated the confederated Greeks, twice by \nsea, and once by land, 322 B.C. The Athenians de- \nmanded peace, and Antipater put their orators to \ndeath, among whom was Hyperides, who, that he \nmight not betray the secrets of his country when \nunder torture, cut out his tongue, and Demosthenes \nis said to have taken poison shortly after. \n\nCRANWORTH\'S ACT, LORD, to simplify \nthe practice of conveyancers, 23 & 24 Vict. c. 145 \n(i860). \n\nCRAONNE (N. France). Here Victor and \nNcy defeated the Prussians under Blueher after \na severe contest, 7 March, 1814. \n\nCRAPE- It is said some crape was made by Ste. \nBadour, when queen of France, about 680. It is \nsaid to have been first made at Bologna. \n\nCRAVANT, see Orevant. \n\nCRAYFORD (Kent). Hengist the Saxon is \nsaid to have defeated the Britons here, 457. \n\nS 2 \n\n\n\nCEAYONS. \n\n\n\n260 \n\n\n\nCRICKET. \n\n\n\nCEAYONS, coloured substances made into \npaste, and dried into pencils, were known in France \nabout 1422 ; and improved by L\'Oriot, 1748. \n\nCEEASOTE, or KREASOTE (discovered by \nReichenbach about 1833), a powerful antiseptic and \ncoagulator of albuminous tissue, is obtained by tbe \ndestructive distillation of wood and other organic \nmatters. It has been used for the preservation of \nmeat, timber, &c. \n\n1 CEEATINE (from the Greek Jcreas, flesh), the \nchemical principle of flesh, was discovered in 1835 \nby E. Chevreul, and has been investigated byLiebig, \nGregory, and others. \n\nCEEATION of the Would. The date \ngiven by the English bible, and by Usher, Blair, \nand some others, is 4004 B.C. There are about 140 \ndifferent dates assigned to the Creation, varying \nfrom 3616 to 6984 b.c. Dr. Hales gives 5411 ; see \nEras, \n\nHaydn\'s Creation (oratorio), composed 1796\xe2\x80\x948; first \nperformed (in London, at Co vent Garden Theatre), \n28 March, 1800 ; in Paris, 24 Dec. same year. \n\nCEECHES, establishments for temporarily re- \nceiving the young children of working mothers; \nbegun at Paris, about 1844 ; in London (in Rath- \nbone-place, &c.) about 1863 ; others since. \n\nCEECY, or CRESSY (N. France), where Ed- \nward III. and his son, Edward the Black Prince, \nand an army of about 36,800, obtained a great victory \nover Philip, king of France, with about 130,000, 26 \nAug. 1346. John, king of Bohemia (nearly blind) ; \nJames, king of Majorca ; Ralph, duke of Lorraine \n(sovereign princes) ; and a number of French nobles, \ntogether with 30,000 private men, were slain, while \nthe loss of the English was very small. The crest \nof the king of Bohemia (three ostrich feathers, with \nthe motto Ich dim \xe2\x80\x94 in English, " I serve") has \nsince been adopted by princes of Wales. \n\nCEEDIT FONCIEE, &c. A plan of pro- \nviding loans to landowners was introduced by Frede- \nrick the Great of Prussia, in 1763, in some of the \nPrussian provinces, as the best method of alleviating \nthe distresses of the landed interest caused by his \nwars. The system consists of lending money to \nlandowners on the security of their estates, and pro- \nviding the loan capital by the issue of debentures \ncharged upon the aggregate mortgaged estates. \nThere are two modes of carrying out this scheme : \n(I) by means of an association of landowners ; (2) \nby means of a proprietary public company. The \nformer obtains iti Eastern Prussia, but the latter is \nexclusively found in Western Europe. \nCredit Fonder companies have been founded in Hamburg \n(1782), Western Prussia (1787), Belgium (1841), France \n(1852), England (1863). Similar companies were formed \nin all the states of Europe, in India, and in our colonies \nand dependencies. A. G. Heiiriques. See France, \nMay, 1890. \n\nCEEDIT MOBILIEE : a joint-stock com- \npany with this name was established at Paris by \nIsaac and Emile Pereire, and others, 18 Nov. 1852. \nIt took up or originated trading enterprises of all kinds, \napplying to them the principle of commandite, or \nlimited liabilities ; and was authorised to supersede or \n, buy in any other companies (replacing their shares or \nbonds witli its own scrip), and also to carry on the ordi- \nnary business of banking. The funds were to be ob- \ntained by a paid-up capital of 2! millions sterling, the \nissue of obligations at not less than 45 days\' date or \nsight, and the receipt of money on deposit or current \naccount. The society apparently prospered ; but was \nconsidered by experienced persons a near approach to \nLaw\'s bank of 1716. \n\n\n\nSeveral of the directors failed, Sept. 1857, no divi- \ndend paid May, 185 \n\nMany companies based on its principles established \nin London 1863 \n\nEmile and Isaac Pereire withdrew from the manage- \nment ; the company failed, and the capital was \nsaid to have disappeared .... Oct. 1867 \n\nThe high court of appeal decided that MM. Pereire \nand other directors were responsible for their acts, \nand that damages should be given to the share- \nholders 1 Aug. 1868 \n\nEmile Pereire died 6 Jan., 1875 ; Isaac died 12 July, 1880 \n\nCEEEDS, see Confessions of Faith. J. B. \nLumby\'s History of the Greeds appeared 1874. \n\nCEEMATION", see Burning the Bead. Cre- \nmation halls have been erected at Milan and Gotha. \n\nCEEMEEA, Battle of, see Fabii. \n\nCEEMONA (N. Italy), a city founded by the \nRomans, 221 b.c. It became an independent re- \npublic in 1 107, but was frequently subjugated by its \nneighbours, Milan and Venice, and partook of their \nfortunes. In Nov. 1859 it became part of the king- \ndom of Italy. Cremona was eminent for violin \nmakers from about 1550 to 1750. \n\nCEESCENT, a symbol of sovereignty among \nthe Greeks and Romans, and the device of Byzan- \ntium, now Constantinople, whence the Turks \nadopted it. The Crescent has given name to three \norders of knighthood ; founded by Charles I. of \nNaples, 1268 ; by Rene of Anjou, in 1448; by the \nsultan Selim, in 1801. \n\nCEESPY (N. France). Here was signed a \ntreaty between Charles V. of Germany and Francis \nI. of France, 18 Sept. 1544. The former renounced \nBurgundy, and the latter Italy. \n\nCEESTS are ascribed to the Carians. Richard \n\nI. (1189) had a crest on the helmet resembling a \nplume of feathers. The English kings had gene- \nrally crowns above their helmets; that of Richard \n\nII. 1377, was surmounted by a lion on a cap of dig- \nnity; see Crecy. Alexander III. of Scotland, 1249, \nhad a plume of feathers ; and the helmet of Robert \nI. was surmounted by a crown, 1306 ; and that of \nJames I. by a lion, 1424. In the 15th and 16th \ncenturies, the crest was described to be a figure \nplaced upon a wreath, coronet, or cap of mainten- \nance. Gwillim. \n\nCEETE, see Candia. \n\nCREVANT-SUE-YONNE (N. France), was \nbesieged by John Stuart, earl of Buchan, with a \nFrench army, July, 1423, and relieved by the earl of \nSalisbury with an army of English and Burgundians. \nAfter a severe contest, the French were totally de- \nfeated. \n\nCEEVELDT, near Cleves (W. Prussia). Here \non 23 June, 1758, prince Ferdinand of Brunswick \ndefeated the French under the count of Clermont. \n\nCEEWE, Cheshire, the site of a great junction \nand works of the London and North- Western rail- \nway since 1840. The company presented a beautiful \npark to the town in 1887-88. Crewe was incorpo- \npated in 1877. Great fire at the railway works; \nestimated damage under 3,000^., 28 March, 1892. \nPopulation, 1881, 24,385 ; 1891, 28,761. \n\nCEICKET, an ancient Euglish game, said to be \nidentical with the "club ball" of the 14th century ; \nmentioned in 1598. Rules were laid down in 1774 \nby a committee of noblemen and gentlemen, in- \ncluding the duke of Dorset and sir Horace Mann. \nIn 1861 the All England Eleven gained and lost \ngames in Australia ; in Sept. 1868, they beat the \n\n\n\nCRIME. \n\n\n\n261 CRIMINAL LAWS OF ENGLAND. \n\n\n\nNew York Twenty-two. In 1873-4 they were beaten \nat Melbourne. \n\nEleven Australians visited England, and after gain- \ning ten games and losing five, gained one against \n"Players of All England," . . . 3 Sept. 1878 \nThirteen Australians visited England in May 1880 ; \nthey won 21 out of 37 matches, and lost 4 ; the \nothers were drawn or indecisive ; they were vic- \ntors in a match with the " Players of England " \nat the Crystal Palace . . 27, 28, 2q Sept. 1880 \n\nThe Australians, previously victorious, were de- \nfeated at Manchester by the north of England \n\nteam 16 Sept. 1882 \n\nEngland beats Australia ... 23 July, 1884 \nAustralia wins 12 out of 20 matches in . . . \xe2\x80\x9e \nNorth of England beat Australians . . 3 Sept. ,, \nEnglish cricketers in Australia victorious . Jan. 1885 \nFrequent contests with the Australians with varied \n\nsuccess 1885 \xe2\x80\x94 8 \n\nLord Sheffield and his English eleven at Adelaide, \nin 26 matches, win 13, lose 2, 11 drawn . March, 1892 \n\nCRIME. About 1856 it was computed that a \nfifteenth part of the population of the United King- \ndom lived by crime. The increase in education and \nmanufactures is gradually reducing this proportion. \nFrom 1848 to 1865 there had been no commitment \nfor political offences, such as treason or sedition. \nThe returns of thirty-two years showed that crime \nabsolutely and relatively diminished (Sept. 1866). \n"Judicial Statistics," with abundant details, are \n\nEublished by the government annually, price 2s. \nee Murder, Executions, Trials, Poisoning, &c. \n\nCONVICTIONS (BY TRIAL) IN ENGLAND AND WALES. \n\n\n\n\n\nPersons. \n\n\nCap. Off. \n\n\n\n\nPersons. \n\n\nCap. C \n\n\n1847. \n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 21,542 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\x94 - \n\n\n1870. \n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 12,953 \n\n\n15 \n\n\n1849 \n\n\n. 21,001 \n\n\n66 \n\n\n1871 \n\n\n. 11,946 \n\n\n13 \n\n\n1850. \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 20,537 \n\n\n49 \n\n\n1872 . \n\n\n. 10,862 \n\n\n30 \n\n\n1851 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 21.579 \n\n\n70 \n\n\n1873 \n\n\n. 11,089 \n\n\n18 \n\n\n1852 . \n\n\n. 21,304 \n\n\n61 \n\n\n1874- \n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 11,509 \n\n\n2b \n\n\n1853 \n\n\n. 20,756 \n\n\n55 \n\n\n1875 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 10,954 \n\n\n33 \n\n\n1854. \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 23,047 \n\n\n49 \n\n\n1876. \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 12,19s \n\n\n32 \n\n\n1855 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 19.971 \n\n\n50 \n\n\n1877 \n\n\n. 11,942 \n\n\n34 \n\n\n1856. \n\n\n- 14.734 \n\n\n. 69 \n\n\n1878 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 12,473 \n\n\n20 \n\n\n1857 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 IS.307 \n\n\n54 \n\n\n1879 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 12,525 \n\n\n34 \n\n\n1858. \n\n\n. 13,246 \n\n\n53 \n\n\n1880. \n\n\n. 11,214 \n\n\n28 \n\n\n1859 \n\n\n. 12,470 \n\n\n\'52 \n\n\n1881 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 H.353 \n\n\n23 \n\n\ni860. \n\n\n. 12,068 \n\n\n48 \n\n\n1882. \n\n\n. 11,699 \n\n\n22 \n\n\n1861 \n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 13.879 \n\n\n5\xc2\xb0 \n\n\n1883 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 ii,347 \n\n\n23 \n\n\n1862 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 J5.3 12 \n\n\n29 \n\n\n1884 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 n,i34 \n\n\n38 \n\n\n1863 \n\n\n. 15.799 \n\n\n29 \n\n\n1885 \n\n\n. 10,500 \n\n\n-5 \n\n\n1864 . \n\n\n. 14.726 \n\n\n32 \n\n\n18S6 . \n\n\n. 10,686 \n\n\n35 \n\n\n1865 \n\n\n. . 14,740 \n\n\n20 \n\n\n1887 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 10338 \n\n\n35 \n\n\n1866. \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 i4. 2 54 \n\n\n26 \n\n\n1888 . \n\n\n. 10,561 \n\n\n36 \n\n\n1867 \n\n\n. . 14,207 \n\n\n27 \n\n\n1889 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 9,348 \n\n\n20 \n\n\n1868 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 15.033 \n\n\n21 \n\n\n1890 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 9,242 \n\n\n42 \n\n\n\n1869 . . 14,340 ia \n\nSee Executions. \n\nAct for improving the administration of criminal justice \npassed 7 Aug. 1851. \n\nThe Criminal Justice Act authorises justices, with the \nconsent of prisoners, to pass sentence for short periods, \ninstead of committing them to trial, 1855. \n\nCost of criminal prosecutions in England and Wales : \n1856, 194,9122.; 1878, 148,103?.; 1883, 144,026?.; 18S6, \n141,329?. ; year ending 31 March, 1890, 131,202?. Ticket- \nof-Uave system substituted by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 99, \npassed in 1853; see Transportation. 2666 persons \nwere liberated on tickets-of-leave in 1856. \n\nOn 17 Feb. 1857, of 126 persons thus liberated, 58 were \nbelieved to be living honestly. \n\nIn 1861, 1862, and 1863, the system was considered to \nhave failed through the numerous crimes committed \nby ticket-of-leavers ; it was modified by the Penal Ser- \nvitude act, in 1864. \n\nSentences to penal servitude, 1869, 2006; in 1870, 1788; \n1886, 910 ; 1887, 948 ; 1890, 729. \n\nCriminal classes in England and Wales : estimated num- \nber, 1869-70, 45,800; 1878-9, 35,469; 1886-7, 28,729; \n1887-8, 28,103 > 1888-9, 27,136 ; 1889-90, 26,406. \n\n*\' Statistical Criminal Act " passed . . n Aug. 1869 \n\n" Prevention of Crimes Act " passed . 21 Aug. 1871 \n\nGreat decrease in crimes in relation to the increase \nof population 1861-1891 \n\n\n\nConfirmed by lord Coleridge for 1874-84 19 Jan. 1885 \nThe number of female convicts fallen in ten years \n\nfrom 1477 to 706, announced . . .4 Nov. 1887 \nCrime\xe2\x80\x94 International Congress for the prevention \n\nand repression of crime met in the Middle Temple, \n\nLondon 3 July, 1872 \n\nThe third international congress on crime was \n\nopened on 25 Aug. 1891 \n\nPrevention of Crime Act (Ireland), passed 15 Aug. 18,-9 \nConvict Supervision Office, good results reported \n\nby Mr. J. Monro 1886 \n\nCRIMES ACTS, see Prevention. \n\nCRIMEA, or CbJM TARTARY, a peninsula in \nthe Kuxine or Black Sea, the ancient Taurica Cher- \nsonesus, colonised by the Greeks about 550 B.C. \nThe Milesians founded the kingdom of Bosporus, \nnow Kertch, which about 108 B.C. formed part of \nthe dominion of Mithridates, king of Pontus, whose \ndescendants continued to rule the country under \nltoman protection till the irruption of the Goths, \nHuus, &c. about a.d. 258. About 1237 it fell into \nthe hands of the Mongols under Genghis Khan ; \nsoon after the Venetians established commercial \nstations, with a lucrative trade, but were supplanted \nby the Genoese, who were permitted to rebuild and \nfortify Kaffa, about 1261. In 1475 Mahomet II. \nexpelled the Genoese, and subjected the peninsula \nto the Ottoman yoke ; permitting the government \nto remain in the hands of the native khans, but \nclosing the Black Sea to Western Europe. In 1774, \nby the intervention of the empress Catherine II., \nthe Crimea recovered its independence : but on the \nabdication of the khan in 1783, the Russians took \npossession of the country, after a war with Turkey, \nand retained it by the treaty of Jassy, 9 Jan. 1792. \nThe Crimea (now Taurida), was divided into eight \n[ governments in 1802. War having been declared \nagainst Russia by England and France, 28 March, \n1854, large masses of troops were sent to the East, \nwhich, after remaining some time at Gallipoli, and \nother places, sailed for Vama, where the}\' disem- \nbarked 29 May. An expedition against, the Crimea \nhaving been determined on, the allied British, \nFrench, and Turkish forces, amounting to 58,000 \nmen (25,000 British), commanded by lord Raglan \nand marshal St. Arnaud, sailed from Varna, 3 Sept. \nand landed on the 14th, 15th, and 16th, without \nopposition, at Old Fort, near Eupatoria, about 30 \nmiles from Sebastopol. On the 20th they attacked \nthe Russians, between 40,000 and 50,000 strong \n(under prince Menschikoff), entrenched on the \nheights of Alma, supposed to be unassailable. After \na sharp contest the Russians were totally routed. \nSee Alma and Russo- Turkish War. Peace was \nproclaimed in April, 1856, and the allies quitted the \nCrimea 12 July following. \n\nCRIMINAL LAW PROCEDURE \n(IRELAND) ACT, (see Ireland) 50 & 51 Vict. \nc. 20, passed 19 July, 1887, provides for summary \njurisdiction by magistrates, special juries, change \nof place of trial, proclamation of districts, prohibi- \ntion of dangerous associations, and continuance of \n44 & 45 Vict. c. 5, and 49 & 50 Vict. c. 24. \nAct for Scotland passed 16 Sept. 1887 to simplify and \n\namend the Criminal Law of Scotland. \n\nCRIMINAL LAWS of ENGLAND. Their \n\ngreat severity, pointed out by sir Samuel Romilly, \nsir James Mackintosh, and others, about 1818, was \nconsiderably mitigated by sir R. Peel\'s acts, passed \n1826-8. The criminal law acts were consolidated \nby 24 and 25 Vict. cc. 94-IOO, 1861. Some defects \nwere amended by an act passed in 1867. The pun- \nishment of death is now virtually restricted to \ntreason and wilful murder. \nSir J. F. Stephen\'s " Digest of the Criminal Laws " \n\n\n\nCRIMISUS. \n\n\n\n262 \n\n\n\nCROFTERS. \n\n\n\npublished, 1877 ; and " History of the Criminal \nLaw of England," published. .... 1883 \n\nBill for amending law relating to indictable offences \n(resembling a digest and code) brought in by sir \nJohn Holker, attorney-general . . 14 If ay, 1878 \n\nReferred to royal commission (justices Blackburn \nand Lush and. sir James F. Stephen) ; announced \n\n8 July, ,, \n\nThe bill brought in and withdrawn .... 1879 \n\nCriminal Law Amendment Act (relating to women) \npassed 14 Aug. 1885 \n\nCRIMISUS, a river in Sicily, near which Ti- \nmoleon defeated the Carthaginians, 339 B.C. \n\nCRIMPING-HOITSES were used to entrap \npersons into the army ; hence the name of " crimp \nsergeant." Some of them in London were destroyed \nby the populace, in consequence of a young man \nwho had been enticed into one being killed in en- \ndeavouring to escape, 16 Sept. 1794. \n\nCRINAN CANAL, Argyleshire, cut through \nKintyre peninsula, 1793-1801: 15 locks; saves about \n115 miles. \n\nCRINOLINE (a French word, meaning stuff \nmade of crin, hair) is the modern name of the " far- \ndingale" of the time of queen Elizabeth, hoop-like \npetticoats made of whalebone, &c, revived in France \nand England since 1855. They have frequently \noccasioned loss of life, by coming in contact with \nfire and machinery. In No. 116 of the Tatter, pub- \nlished 5 Jan. 1 7 10, is an amusing trial of the hoop- \npetticoat then in fashion. \n\nCRIPPLEGATE (London), was so-called \nfrom the lame beggars who sat there, so early as the \nyear 1010. The gate was new built by the brewers \nof London in 1244; and was pulled down and sold \nfor Qil. in July, 1760. The poet Milton was buried \nin the church near it, 12 Nov. 1674. See London. \n\nCRIPPLES\' HOME, Marylebone-road, es- \ntablished 1851, for crippled girls to be taught suit- \nable trades. The Cripples\' Nursery, Old Quebec- \nstreet and Margate, was established 1862. \n\nCRISPIN AND CriSPIANTTS are said to have \nbeen two saints, born at home, from whence they \ntravelled to Soissons, in France, to propagate the \nChristian religion. They worked as shoemakers ; \nbut the governor of the town discovering them to be \nChristians, ordered them to be beheaded, about 288. \nTheir day is 25 Oct. \n\nCRITERION THEATRE, Regent\'s Circus, \nPiccadilly, opened by Spiers and Poud, 21 March, \n1874. \n\nCRITH (from the Greek krithe, a barleycorn or \nsmall weight), a term suggested by Dr. A. W. Hof- \nmann (about 1864) to express the volume-weight of \ngases ; a cube containing 1 litre of hydrogen (0\'o896 \ngramme) to be the unit. Hydrogen being 1 crith, \noxygen will be 16, nitrogen 14 criths. \n\nCRITICS. The first society of them was formed \n276 B.C. Blair. Varro, Cicero, Apollonius, and \nAristarchus were ancient critics. In modern times \nthe Journal des Sgavans was the earliest periodical \ncritical work. It was originated by Denis de Sallo, \necclesiastical councillor in the parliament of France, \nand was first published at Paris, 30 May, 1655, and \nis still continued. Jean Le Clerc\'s " Ars Critica," \npublished 1696, is said to be the earliest systematic \ntreatise. The first work of this kind in England \nwas the Review of Daniel Defoe (the term being \ninvented by himself), published in Feb. 1703. The \nWorks of the Learned began 17 10, and the Wales of \nLiterature in 1714 ; discontinued in 1722. See \nReviews. \n\n\n\nThe legality of fair criticism was established in the Eng- \nlish courts, in Feb. 1794, when an action that excited \ngreat attention, brought by an author against a re- \nviewer for a severe critique upon his work, was deter- \nmined in favour of the defendant on the principle that \ncriticism is allowable, however sharp, if just, and not \nmalicious. See Trials, 1875. \n\nCROATIA, conquered by Coloman, king of \nHungary, in 1102, was with that country united to \nAustria in 1526. \n\nThe Croatian diet abolished . . . Nov. 1861 \nThe Croats protest against incorporation with \n\nHungary 25 May, 1867 \n\nTheir diet (including Croatia and Sclavonia), at \n\nAgram dissolved .... 27 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe union of Croatia with Hungary recognised by \n\na Croatian deputation .... 27 May, 1868 \nCroatian delegates enter the Hungarian diet 24 M ov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe emperor and empress visit Agram 9-10 March, 1869 \nRiots in Agram and other places against the Jews, \ncomplicated with SclavoniC.jealousy of Hungary, \nand desire for autonomy, Aug. ; the ban super- \nseded by gen. Ramberg, special commissioner \n\nabout 6 Sept. 1883 \nConflicts with the military, 8-10 Sept.; ten rioters \n\nkilled 20 Sept. ,, \n\nAgitation increasing ; demand for separation from \n\nHungary about 22 Sept. ,, \n\n38 rioters sentenced to imprisonment, &c. 30 Sept. ,, \nCount Khiin-Hedervary, appointed ban 4 Dec. ,, \n\nThe diet opened at Agram\xe2\x80\x94 important meeting \n\n17 Dec. ,, \nContinued political disagreements .... 1884 \n\nDiet dissolved 22 Jan. ,, \n\nAgain dissolved 27 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe separatist movement said to be totally quelled \nby the ban after much resistance . . Nov. 1887 \n\nCROCKERY- WARE, see Pottery. \nCROFTERS and Cottars, the holders of small \n\nportions of land, and the labourers in the high- \nlands and islands of Scotland. \n\nA royal commission appointed 22 March, 1883 \n(Francis baron Napier and others), to inquire \ninto their condition, issue their report and \ndescribe their state as not being worse than for- \nmerly, but acknowledge the existence of many \nstartling grievances relating to the tenure of \nland, high rents, the deficiency of education, of \npostal communication, of roads, &c. They \nrecommend, among other remedies, the revival \nof the ancient highland townships with common \nprivileges, limiting the power of the superior \nlords, &c. . ; . . . .28 April, 1884 \n\nHighland Land Law Reform Association began to \nwork March, 1883 \n\nAgitation begun at Dingwall by the Highland Land \nLaw Reform Association .... Sept. 1884 \n\nSeditious circulars threatening violence ; troops \nconveyed to Skye ; tranquillity restored by free \nchurch ministers .... 15 Nov. ,, \n\nMeeting at Inverness of chief landlords; concilia- \ntory favourable changes proposed . . 14 Jan. 1885 \n\nAct giving crofters fixity of tenure, enlargement of \nholdings, and state-aid to fisheries 25 June 1886 ; \namended 1888 \n\nRiotous resistance to ejectments at Greenhill Farm, \n&c, Isle of Tiree, Hebrides; 50 police repulsed \nby 300 men ; marines sent to the Isle 25 July ; \norder restored ; six crofters apprehended up to \n\n8 Aug. sentenced to three months\' imprisonment, \n\n14 Dec. 1 886 \nRaid of 2,000 cottars on Park and Aline deer forests \n\nin the Island of Lewis, 22 Nov. ; stopped 23 Nov. 1887 \nRiots at Stornoway, Lewis ; the fences of the sheep \nfarm of Mr. Samuel Newall destroyed and the \nsheep dispersed ; severe conflict, between the \ncrofters and the police and military ; many \nwounded ; the rioters dispersed with difficulty \n\n9 Jan. 1888, many arrested ; 16 sentenced to im- \nprisonment, 3 Feb. 1888 \n\nLewis reported quiet .... 28 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \nCrofters colonization commission appointed by \n\nImperial and Canada governments . .28 Dec. ,, \nThe Canadian settlements reported prosperous \n\nMarch 1891 \n\n\n\nCROIX, ST. \n\n\n\n263 \n\n\n\nCROZIER. \n\n\n\nCROIX, ST., a W. India Island, purchased \nfrom the French by Christian VI. king of Denmark, \nin 1733 ; taken by sir Alexander Cochrane, 22 Dec. \n1807 ; restored in 1814. \n\nCROMLECHS, ancient monuments, formerly \nconsidered to be Druidical altars, but novv believed \n<to be connected with burials. One still exists in \nAnglesey : similar structures have been found in \nIreland, India, Arabia, and other countries. \n\nCROXIX CASE. See United States, 1889. \n\nCROXSTADT, Russia, founded by Peter the \n<jreat, 1 7 10, and received its name (Crown-town) \nin 1 72 1. It was not attacked by the fleets in the \nwar with Russia, 1854-5. \n\nCROOK, a bishop\'s pastoral staff or crook, dis- \ntinct from the crosier. Nine pastoral staffs have \nheen recently presented to English bishops; one to \n\xe2\x96\xa0the bishop of Hereford, Dr. James Atlay, in Jan. \n1872. \n\nCROPREDY BRIDGE, near Banbury, Ox- \nfordshire. Here the royalists defeated sir William \nWaller and the army of the parliament, 29 June, \n1644. \n\nCROQUET. This game, which became common \nin Britain about 1850, is said to be a revival of the \nold Pall Mall {which see). It has been much \nsuperseded by Lawn Tennis, 1877-89. \n\nCROSIER, a staff surmounted by a cross, borne \nbefore an archbishop, was in use in the 4th century. \nThe bearing a crosier before ecclesiastics is mentioned \nin the life of St. Caesareus of Aries about 500. The \nterm "crozier " is also applied to the pastoral staff \nof a bishop, which terminates in an ornamental \n<curve or crook. \n\nCROSS. That on which the Redeemer suf- \nfered on Mount Calvary, was said to have been \nfound at Jerusalem, with two others, deep in the \n.ground, by the empress Helena, mother of Con- \n.stantine I., 3 May, 326 (termed the Invention of \nthe Cross) ; commemorated annually on that day. \nIt was carried away by Chosroes, king of Persia, \non the plundering of Jerusalem ; but was recovered \n>by the emperor Heraclius (who defeated him in \nbattle), 14 Sept. 615, and that day has since been \ncommemorated, as " the festival of the Exaltation \nof the Cross," established in 642. \n\nft is asserted by church writers that a great shining \ncross was seen in the heavens by Constantine, \nand that it led him to adopt it on his standard, \nwith the inscription "In hoc signo vinces ;" \n"Under this sign thou shalt conquer." With \nthis (Labarum) he advanced to Rome, where he \nvanquished Maxentius, 27 Oct. 312. Lenglet. \n\nSigning with tke Cross was first practised by Chris- \ntians to distinguish themselves from the Pagans, \n\nabout no \n\n5n the time of Tertullian, it was deemed efficacious \nagainst poison, witchcraft, &c. . . . . 260 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Crosses in churches and chambers were introduced \nabout 431 ; and set up on steeples about . . 568 \n\n"Crosses in honour of queen Eleanor were set up in \nthe places where her hearse rested, between 1296 \n(when she died) and 1307 \n\nCrosses and idolatrous pictures were removed from \nchurches, and crosses in the streets demolished \nby order of parliament 1641 \n\nMaids of the Cross were a community of young \nwomen who made vows of poverty, chastity, and \nobedience, instituted in 1625 \n\nThe order of Ladies of the Star of the Cross was \ninstituted by the empress Eleonora di Gonzaga, \nwife of Leopold I., in . . 1668 \n\nCROSSED CHEQUES, see Drafts. \n\n\n\nCROTOXA (S. Italy), a city founded by the \n\nAchaean Greeks about 710 B.C. Here Pythagoras \n\ntaught about 520. The Crotons destroyed Sybaris, \n\n510. \n\nCROWX. An Amalekite brought Saul\'s crown \n\nto David, 1056 B.C. (2 Sam. i.) The first Roman \n\nwho wore a crown was Tarquin the Elder, 616 B.C. \n\nThe crown was first a fillet tied round the head; \n\nafterwards it was formed of leaves and flowers, and \n\nalso of stuff\'s adorned with jewels. See Tiara. \n\nThe crown of Alfred had two little bells attached (872) ; \nit is said to have been long preserved at Westminster, \nand may have been that described in the parliamentary \ninventory taken in 1649. \n\nAthelstan\'s crown resembled an earl\'s coronet, 929. \n\nWilliam I. wore his crown on a cap, adorned with points, \n1066. \n\nRichard III. introduced the crosses, 1483. \n\nHenry VII. introduced the arches, 1485. \n\nThe crown and regalia of England were pledged to the \ncity of London by Richard II. for 2000/. in 1386 ; see \nthe king\'s receipt on redeeming them. Rymer. \n\nThe crown of Charles II., made in 1660, is the oldest ex- \nisting in England ; see Blood\'s Conspiracy. \n\nThe Imperial State Crown of England was made by Run- \ndell and Bridges, in 1838, principally with jewels taken \nfrom old crowns. It contains one large ruby, 1 large \nsapphire, 16 sapphires, 11 emeralds, 4 rubies, 1363 \nbrilliants, 1273 rose diamonds, 147 table diamonds, 4 \ndrop-shaped pearls, and 273 pearls. Professor Tennant. \n\nCROWX OF IXDIA, Imperial Order of, in- \nstituted by Queen Victoria (to commemorate the \nassumption of the title of empress, 1 Jan. 1877), for \nprincesses of the royal family, distinguished Indian \nand British ladies, and wives of viceroys and go- \nvernors and secretaries of state for India; 31 Dec. \n1877. Twelve ladies (the marchioness of Salisbury \nand others) invested, 29 April, 1878. \n\nCROWX LAXDS. The revenue arising from \nthose in England is now nearly all subject to par- \nliament, which annually provides for the support \nof the sovereign and government about 375,000/. \nThe revenue of the duchy of Cornwall belongs \nto the prince of Wales even during his minority. \nHenry VII. (1485) resumed those lands which \nhad been given to their followers by the sove- \nreigns of the house of York. The hereditary \nestates of the crown were largely bestowed on \ntheir courtiers by the sovereigns \xe2\x80\x94 especially by \nthe Stuarts. The income of the crown, formerly \nderived from lands, royalties, &c, now belongs to \nthe state exchequer, see Civil List. In the year \nending 31 March, 1891, the receipts were \n515,737/. $s. iod., the expenditure 87,121/. 19s. 6d. \n\nCROWXS in gold were coined by Henry VIII., \n1522. Crowns and half-crowns of silver were \ncoined in England by Edward VI. in 1553. None \nwere coined in 1861, and they were gradually with- \ndrawn from circulation. The coinage of half-crowns \nwas resumed in 1874, ^ ter an inquiry as to their \nutility. The coinage of silver crowns recommenced \nin 1887. \n\nCROWS. An act passed for their destruction \nin England, 24 Hen. VIII. 1532. Crows were \nanciently employed as letter-bearers, as carrier- \npigeons are now. \n\nCROYDOX, Surrey, granted to Lanfranc, \narchbishop of Canterbury, about 1070. Archbishop \nAVhitgift\'s hospital was founded in 1596. The fine \nold parish church was burnt, 5, 6 Jan. 1867. Croy- \ndon incorporated by charter, 15 Feb. 1883. Poly- \ntechnic institution opened by the archbishop of \nCanterbury, 22 Dec. 1891. Population, 1881, \n78,811 ; 1891, 102,697. \n\nCROZIER, see Crosier. \n\n\n\nCRUCIFIX. \n\n\n\n264 \n\n\n\nCRYSTAL PALACE. \n\n\n\nCRUCIFIX, the cross with the figure of Christ \nattached to it, first known in the fourth, came into \ngeneral use in the eighth century. \n\nCRUCIFIXION. A mode of execution com- \nmon among the Assyrians, Egyptians, Persians, \nCarthaginians, Greeks, and Romans. Ariarathes, \nof Cappadocia, aged 80, vanquished by Per- \ndiccas, and discovered among the prisoners, was \nflayed alive, and nailed to a cross, with his principal \nofficers, 322 B.C. Jesus Christ was crucified 3 April. \na.d. 33. Usher. (15 April, a.d. 29, Clinton; 28 \nMarch, a.d. 3r, Hales ; probably 7 April, a.d. 30, \nLynn). Crucifixion was ordered to be discontinued \nby Constantine, 330. Lengkt. \n\nCRUELTY TO ANIMALS, see Animals, \nChildren, and Vivisection. \n\nCRUSADES (French Croisades), wars under- \ntaken to drive the infidels from Jerusalem and the \n"Holy Land." Peter Gautier, the Hermit, an \nofficer of Amiens, on his return from pilgrimage in- \ncited pope Urban II. to expel infidels from the city \nwhere Christ had taught. Urban convened a \ncouncil of 310 bishops at Clermont in France, at \nwhich the ambassadors of the chief Christian \npotentates assisted, and gave Peter the commission \nto summon Europe to a general war, 1094. The \nfirst crusade was published ; an army of 300,000 men \nwas raised, of which Peter had the direction, and \nGodfrey de Bouillon the command, 1095. The \nwarriors wore a red cross upon the right shoulder : \nand their motto was Yolonte de Dieu, " God\'s will." \n\xe2\x80\x94 The French government have published some of \nthe Historians of the Crusades in a magnificent form \n(1844-86). \n\nI. Crusade (1095) ended by Jerusalem being taken by \nassault, 15 July, 1099, and Godfrey de Bouillon made \nking. \n\nII. Preached by St. Bernard in 11 46, headed by emperor \nConrad II., and Louis VII. of France. Crusaders de- \nfeated ; Jerusalem lost in 11 87. \n\nIII. Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, fee, in n88, joined \nby Philip II. of France and Richard I. of England, in \n1 190. Glorious, but fruitless. \n\nIV. 1 195, by emperor Henry VI. : successful till his \ndeath in 1197. \n\nV. Proclaimed by Innocent III., 1198. Baldwin, count \nof Flanders, attacked the Greeks, and took Constanti- \nnople in 1203. His companions returned. \n\nVI. In 1216. In 1229, emperor Frederick II. obtained \npossession of Jerusalem on a truce for ten years. In \n1240, Richard, earl of Cornwall, arrived at Palestine, \nbut soon departed. \n\nVII. By Louis IX. (St. Louis), 1248, who was defeated \nand taken prisoner at Mansourah, 5 April, 1250 ; re- \nleased by ransom ; truce of ten years. \n\nVIII. and last, in 1270, by the same prince, who died of \na contagious disease, at Carthage, in Africa, 2 Aug. \nPrince Edward, afterwards Edward I. of England, was \nat Acre, 1271. In 1291, the soldan took Acre, and the \nChristians were driven out of Syria. \n\nCRUTCHED FRIARS, who bore the figure \nof the cross on their back and breast ; an order \nfounded at Bologna about 1 169. They are also \ncalled Trinitarians. They had a monastery in \nLondon in a district still called Crutched Friars. \n\nCRUZ, see Santa Cruz. \n\nCRYOLITE, a Greenland mineral, a fluoride \nof aluminium and sodium, employed in procuring \nmetallic aluminium in 1855. \n\nCRYOPHORUS, an instrument (invented by \nDr. Wollaston about 18 12) to demonstrate the i-e- \nlation between evaporation at low temperatures \nand the production of cold. \n\nCRYPTOGRAPH, an apparatus for writing \nin cipher, invented by sir Charles Wheatstone, and \n\n\n\nmade known in 1868, in which different key-words \n\nmay be employed, and it is said, absolute secrecy \n\nensured. A cryptographic machine was patented, \n\ni860. See Cipher. \n\nA system of secret writing described in "Archiv \nder Mathematik " . 179s \n\nJoseph Ludwig Klnber published " Kryptographik " 1809, \n\nProfessor J. F. Lorenz published a system at Mag- \ndeburg 1806 \n\nMessrs. Thos. De la Rue published Mr. Wm. \nHenry Rochfort\'s system of secret writing \ntermed "Arcanography," resembling Lorenz\'s . 1836 \n\nMr. A. L. Flamm patented an improvement upon \nthis system about Oct. 1875 \n\nMr. Weir\'s cryptograph, an apparatus in which \ntype-writing is employed, exhibited at 9 Strand, \nLondon 19 Oct. i88oj \n\nCRYSTALLOGRAPHY is the science re- \nlating to the symmetrical forms assumed by sub- \nstances passing from the liquid to the solid state. \nRome de Lisle published his " Essai de Cristallo- \ngrapbie," in 1772; but Rene-Just Haiiy is regarded \nas the founder of the modern school of crystallo- \ngraphy (1801). Whewvll. Dana, Dufresnoy, and \nMiller, are eminent modern writers on this subject. \n\nCRYSTAL PALACE, Hyde Park, London ; \nsee Exhibition q/1851. \n\nCRYSTAL PALACE, Sydenham. The Ex- \nhibition building of 1851 having been surrendered \nto Messrs Fox and Henderson on 1 Dec. 1851, the? \nmaterials were sold for 70,000/. to a company, \nwho soon after commenced re-erecting the Crystal \nPalace on its present site, near Sydenham in Kent,, \nunder the direction of sir Joseph Paxton, Owen \nJones, Digby Wyatt, and others. The proposed \ncapital of 500,000/. (in 100,000 s-hares of 5/. each> \nwas increased in Jan. 1853 to a million pounds. In \nFeb. 1887, it was stated that the total expenditure \nhad been 3,004,737/. ; receipts, 4,409,969/. ; paid \nfor debentures, &c, 1,405,232/. ; number of visitors \nabove 50,000,000. Bill for new financial arrange- \nments passed. \n\nFirst column raised by S. Laing, M. P. . 5 Aug. 1852- \nDuring the progress of the works as many as 6400 \nmen were engaged at one time. By the fall of \nscaffolding, 12 men were killed . . 15 Aug. 1853 \nDinner given to professor Owen and others in the \ninterior of the model of the iguanodon, con- \nstructed by Mr. Waterhouse Hawkins 31 Dec. ,, \nThe palace opened by the queen . . 10 June, 1854 \nGrand musical fete on behalf of the Patriotic Fund, \n\n28 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe palace visited by the emperor and empress of \n\nthe French, &c 20 April, 1855 \n\nFirst grand display of the great fountains, before \n\nthe queen and 20,000 spectators . 18 June, 185.6 \n\nThe receipts were 115,627/. ; the expenditure, \n.87,872/., not including payments* for preference \n\nshares, &c. , in year ending . . . 30 April, 1857 \nThe preliminary Handel festivals (see Handel), 15, \n17, 19 June, 1857 ; and . . . .2 July, 1858; \n\nOn the Fast day (for the Indian mutiny) rev. C. \nSpurgeon preached here to 23,000 persons ; 4 76 J. \nwere collected, to which the C. P. company added \n200J. ........ 7 Oct. 1857 \n\nCentenary of the birth of Robert Burns celebrated : \nthe directors awarded 50/. to a prize poem on the \nsubject, which was obtained by Miss Isa Craig, \n\n25 Jan. 1859. \nThe Handel festival . . .20, 22, 24 June, ,, \nFestival kept in honour of Schiller, 10 Nov. 1859 ; \n\nof Mendelssohn 4 May, i860. \n\nLondon charity children sing here . 6 June, ,\xe2\x80\x9e \n3000 Orpheonistes (French musical amateurs) per- \nforin choral music, 25 June ; the Imperial band of \nGuides perforin, 26 June ; both dine in the palace, \n\n30 June, , r \n115 brass bands perform . . . .10 July, ,, \n\nAnnual rose show began , \n\nNorth wing injured by a gale of wind, 20, 21 Feb. . 1861 \n\n\n\nCEYSTAL PALACE. \n\n\n\n255 \n\n\n\nCUBA. \n\n\n\nHaydn\'s " Creation " performed (Costa, conductor) \n\ni May, 1 86 1 \nBlondin\'s performances on an elevated rope begin \nhere (he plays on violin, cooks, simulates falling, \n\n&c.) .1 June, ., \n\nSuccessful Handel festival : a new arched roof con- \nstructed for the orchestra ; about 4000 vocal \nand instrumental performers . 23, 25, 27 June, 1862 \nSuccessful Handel festival . . 26, 28, 30 June, 1865 \nNorth wing, containing tropical department, the \nAlhambra, and other courts, destroyed by fire \n(about 150,000^. damage) . 30 Dec. 1866 \n\nPrince of Wales present at a grand concert to raise \n\nfunds to restore the palace . . .26 June, 1867 \nVisit of the viceroy of Egypt (gives 500?.), July ; of \n\nthe sultan (gives 1000\'. j . . . xoJuly, \xe2\x80\x9e \nConservative working men\'s demonstration \n\n11 Nov. ,, \nMeeting of shareholders decide by ballot that free \ntickets shall not be issued to admit non-share- \nholders on Sundays . . . -31 Dec. ,, \nNorth wing restored and re-opened to the public, \n\n15 Feb. 1868 \nAn Aeronautical Exhibition opened . 25 June, ,, \nProtestant meeting to defend the Irish Church, \n\n17 Aug. ,, \nReception of the vicomte de Lesseps . . July, 1870 \nDeath of Mr. Robert K. Bowley, fourteen years \n\nmanager of the company . . . 25 Aug. ,, \nSuccessful Handel festival . . 19, 21, 23 June, 1871 \nThe grand duke Wladimir of Russia entertained \n\nhere by the prince of Wales . . 26 June, ,, \n\nCat show, native and foreign . . 13 July, 2 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nDividend on stock, i\xc2\xa3 per cent. . . . Dee. \xe2\x80\x9e \nInauguration of the great aquarium by professor \n\nOwen Jan. 1872 \n\nLecture by professor Flower . . .12 Jan. ,, \n\nBird show opens 10 Feb. ,, \n\nThanksgiving festival for the recovery of the prince \n\nof Wales 1 May, ,, \n\nDog show opens ..... 4 June, ,, \nMeeting of National Union of Conservative and Con- \nstitutional Associations . . . 24 June, ,, \nNational music meetings ; competition and concerts, \n\n27 June \xe2\x80\x94 6 July, ,. \nScottish southern gathering ; highland sports. \n\n25 July, ,, \nNational cat show .... 26 \xe2\x80\x94 29 Oct. ,, \n\nBird show 22 Feb. 1873 \n\nGrand commemoration of the opening of the palace; \n\nthe Paxton memorial unveiled . . 10 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nVisits of the shah of Persia . 30 June, 3 July, ,, \nNational music meetings . 3, 5, 8, 10, 12 July, ,, \nResignation of Mr. (aft. sir) George Grove, many \nyears secretary, announced Sept., succeeded by \ncapt. (aft. major) Flood Page . . . Dec. ,, \nVisit of the czar . . . . . 16 May, 1874 \nHandel festival ; successful . . 22, 24, 26 June, ,, \nVisit of the sultan of Zanzibar . . . 19 June, 1875 \nNational music meeting . . . i-ioJuly, ,, \n\nVisit of the king and queen of Greece and prince \n\nand princess of Wales . . . .19 July, 1876 \nGreat clock completed .... Nov. ,, \n\nHandel festival .... 25, 27, 29 June, 1877 \nHandel festival ; successful . 21, 23, 25 June, 1880 \n\nGreat damage done by bursting of a water tank, no \n\nlives lost 30 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nInternational Woollen exhibition, opened by the \n\nduke of Connaught .... 2 June, 1881 \n\nHandel festivals, 15, 18, 20, 22 June, 1883 ; 19, 22, \n24, 26 June, 1885 ; 22, 25, 27, 29 June, 1888 ; 19, \n\n22, 24 and 26 June, 1891 \n\nLondon International Universal Exhibition opened \n\nby the lord mayor .... 23 April 1884 \nInsolvency of the Company ; the chairman ap- \npointed receiver Feb. 1887 \n\nJubilee fetes 22 June et seq. ,, \n\nVisit of the Shah of Persia .... 6 July, 1889 \nGrand fete of the unionists of the metropolis ; Mr. \n\nGoschen, Mr. A. J. Balfour present 28 June, 1890 \nInternational exhibition of mining and metallurgy \n\n28 July-n Oct. ,, \nVisit of the German emperor and empress ; review \n\nof the lire-brigade (see Germany) . n July J 1891 \nTonic Sol-fa jubilee largely attended . 18 July ,, \nElectrical exhibition opened . . .9 Jan. 1892 \n\nSee Handel Festivals. \n\n\n\n^ CTESIPHON (afterwards Al Madayn), on the \nTigris, the splendid capital of Parthia, was taken by \nTrajan in 116; and by Septimius Severus (who \nmade 100,000 captives), 198. Its defences deterred \nJulian from the siege, 363. It was taken by \nOmar and the Saracens, 637, and utterly destroyed, \nand Cufa near it built with the remains. \n\nCUBA (its original name), an island (W. \n\nIndies) discovered by Columbus on his first voyage, \n\n28 Oct. 1492, settled by Velasquez, 1511-12. \n\nHavannah, the capital, settled 1519. Population, \n\n1880, 1,521,684. \n\nThe buccaneer Morgan rook the Havannah ; see \nBuccaneers 1669 \n\nA British expedition lands and remains, 20 July \xe2\x80\x94 \n\n20 Nov. 1743 \n\nThe Havannah taken by admiral Pocoeke and lord \nAlbemarle, 1762 ; restored at the peace of Paris, \n\n10 Feb. 1763. \n\nCuba opened to the trade of the world . . . 1818 \n\n\'* Lone Star" society (which see), for the acquisition \nof Cuba, &c. formed 1848 \n\nThe president of the United States (Taylor) pub- \nlished a strong proclamation, denouncing the \nobject of the invader\'s . . . 11 Aug. 1849; \n\nExjiedition of general Lopez and a large body of \nAmericans, with the view of wresting this island \nfrom the dominion of Spain, lauded at Cuba, (de- \nfeated) 17 May, 1850 \n\nCuba again invaded by Lopez and others 13 Aug. 1851 \n\nThey are defeated and taken ; 50 shot, and Lopez \ngarotted at Havannah . . . . 1 Sept. ,, \n\nThe president of the United States again issued a \nproclamation against an intended expedition \nagainst Cuba . . . . 31 May, 1854 \n\nMessrs. Buchanan, Mason, and Soule, United States \nenvoys, met at Ostend and Aix-la-Chapelle, and \nreported, recommending the purchase of Cuba, \n\nOct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Spanish minister in cortes declared that the \nsale of Cuba would be " the sale of Spanish \nhonour itself " 19 Dec. ,, \n\nInsurrection of Creoles, headed by Carlos Manuel de \nCespedes, for expulsion of Spaniards after the \nrevolution in Spain \xe2\x80\x94 Volunteer force raised to aid \nLersundi, the governor. . . Sept. \xe2\x80\x94 Nov. 186S \n\nA filibusters\' attack on Cuba repelled . 17 May, 1869. \n\nThe United States decide not to recognise the in- \nsurgents as belligerents .... June, 1870 \n\nAbout 2000 lives lost by a hurricane, about 14 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe captain-general De Rodas resigned, and left \nCuba 15 Dec. ,, \n\nInsurrection subdued, but enduring ; the volunteers \nvery insubordinate ; military despotism ; occa- \nsional reign of terror ; massacres . Jan. \xe2\x80\x94 Nov. 1871 \n\nDon Gonzalo Castaiion murdered by Cubans ; his \ntomb desecrated by medical students, 25 Nov. ; \neight tried and shot at Havannah . 27 Nov. ,, \n\nMr. F. Delano sent by the United States government \nto report on the state of Cuba . . 9 Dec. 1872 \n\nThe merciless war still continues ; no quarter given, \n\nDec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSuspended hostilities through the establishment of \nthe Spanish republic .... Feb. 1873 \n\nMuch fighting reported ..... June, ,, \n\nThe Virginias, American schooner, while conveying \nmen and arms from New York to the insurgents \nin Cuba, is captured by the Spanish gun-boat \nTornado, 31 Oct. ; conveyed to Cuba ; above 90 \ninsurgents and sailors (some British and Ameri- \ncans) tried ; many insurgents, and about 6 British \nand 30 Americans shot . . . 4-7 Nov. ,, \n\nAfter much correspondence the Vir gimius was sur- \nrendered to the Americans, 19 Dec. ; she foun- \ndered on her way to New York . about 26 Dec. ,, \n\nBascones defeats the marquis Santa Lucia and 5000 \ninsurgents at Naranjo .... Feb. 1874. \n\nGen. Martinez Campos appointed governor, with \nplenary powers Oct. 1876 \n\nThe struggle going on, but more subdued, summer 1877 \n\nA "Cuban league" in the United States, said to be \nformed to obtain recognition of the insurgents \nas belligerents, &c. .... Sept. ,, \n\nEstrada, the Cuban president, said to l>t captured \n\nOct. ,, \n\n\n\nCUBIT. \n\n\n\n266 \n\n\n\nCUMULATIVE VOTE. \n\n\n\nReported surrender of many insurgents 23, 24 Dee. 1877 \nSurrender of the insurgent government ; end of \n\nthe insurrection announced . . 21 Feb. 1878 \nAmnesty declared, with freedom to slaves present- \ning themselves before 31 March (slavery to be \nabolished gradually) .... March, ,, \n\xe2\x80\xa2Campos and Jovellar enter Havannah triumphantly \n\n14 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nInsurrection, state of siege ; amnesty promised, \n\n19 Sept. 1879 \nInsurgents totally defeated at Placeta ; announced \n\n* 3 Dec ,, \n\nUill for gradual emancipation of the slaves passed \nby the Spanish Senate, 21 Dec, 1879; by cham- \nbers of Deputies (230\xe2\x80\x94 ic, 21 Jan.) ; promulgated \n\n18 Feb. 1880 \n"Cuba reported tranquil .... Sept. ,, \nSurrender of gen. Maceo and other insurgents to \nthe Spaniards at Gibraltar (see Spain), Aug. and \n\nDec. 1882, and March, 1883 \nAguerro calls on Cubans to revolt about 26 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nUnsuccessful American filibustering expeditions \n\nSpring, 1884 \n\xe2\x96\xa0Gen. Aguerro at the head of forces in Cienfuegos \n\nApril, ,, \nSome insurgents defeated . . about 23 April, ,, \nEast vestige of slavery abolished by the queen\'s \n\ndecree 6 Oct. 1886 \n\n.Destructive cyclone, with great loss of life by in- \nundations, &c. ; about 1,000 lives lost . 4 Sept. 1888 \n"The governor-general Salamanca dies, succeeded by \n\nGen. Rodriguez Arias .... Feb. 1890 \n-Cuba suffers much by the M\'Kinley tariff bill, and \nappeals to the queen-regent for help . 7 Jan. 1891 \n\nCUBIT, a measure by which the ark of Noah \n\xe2\x96\xa0was measured (2448 B.C.). It was the distance \nfrom a man\'s elbow to the extremity of the middle \n"finger. According to Arbuthnot, the Hebrew cubit \nwas a little under 22 inches, the Koman cubit 17J \ninches, and the English cubit 18 inches. \n\nCUCKING-STOOL (or Ducking-stool), \n\nfor shrews : one at Kingston-on-Thames was used \nin April, 1745 ; and another at Cambridge in 1780. \nChambers. \n\nCUCUMBERS, noticed by Virgil and other \nancient poets, were brought to England from the \nNetherlands about 1538. \n\nCUDDALORE (India), on the coast of the \nCarnatie, was acquired by the English in 1681. It \nwas reduced by the French in 1 758, but recaptured \nin 1760 by sir Eyre Coote. Again lost in 1 781, it \n(underwent a destructive siege by the British under \ngeneral Stuart, in 1783, which was continued until \npeace was signed, when it reverted to them, 1784. \n\nCUENCA, New Castile, Spain, 80 miles from \nMadrid, attacked by the Carlists 13 July, and \ncaptured 14 July, 1874. The garrison and the \ninhabitants were barbarously used. General Lopez \nPinto rescued the prisoners, 19 July. \n\nCUIRASS, a part of Greek and Roman armour. \nThe skins of beasts, and afterwards tanned leather, \nformed the cuirass of the Britons until the Anglo- \nSaxon era. It was afterwards made of iron and \nforass. The cuirass was worn by cavalry in the \nreign of Henry III. 1216 et seq. Napoleon had \nseveral regiments of cavalry wearing cuirasses ; and \nmost European armies have picked corps of such. \n\nCULDEES, said to derive their name from \n4ultores Dei, worshippers of God, monks in Scotland \nand Ireland, who had their principal seat at St. \nAndrew\'s. It is said that in 1185 at Tipperary \nthere was a Culdean abbey whose monks were "at- \ntached to simple truth and pure Christian worship, \nand bad not yet conformed to the reigning super- \nstition." They were eventually subjected to the \npapal yoke. \n\n\n\nCULLEN\'S-WOOD (Ireland). An English \ncolony from Bristol inhabiting Dublin, went to \ndivert themselves at Cullen\'s-wood, when the \nO\'Byrnes and O\'Tooles fell upon them, and \ndestroyed 500 men, besides women and children, \n30 March, 1209 (on Easter, afterwards called Black, \nMonday) . \n\nCULLODEN, near Inverness, where the Eng- \nlish, under William, duke of Cumberland, defeated \nthe Scottish headed by the young Pretender, the \nlast of the Stuarts, 16 April, 1746. The Scots lost \n2500 men in killed upon the field, or in the slaughter \nwhich occurred in the pursuit, while the loss of \nthe English did not far exceed 200. Prince \nCharles, who wandered among the wilds of Scotland \nfor six months, while 30,000^. were offered for \ntaking him, at length escaped from TJist to Mor- \nlaix, and died at Pome, 3 March, 1788. \n\nCULTURE, according to Mr. Matthew Arnold \n("The Apostle of Culture, \'sweetness and \nlight,\' and the opponent of Philistinism") ; is the \nknowledge of " the best that has been thought and \nsaid in the world " (1880). The writings of John \nBuskin and Matthew Arnold are said to have \ngreatly promoted culture, and refinement in litera- \nture and art among all classes in Great Britain. \nCultur-Kampf, see Kultur-Kampf. \n\nCULVERIN, cannon so called from the French \ncouleuvrine, said to have been introduced into \nEngland from a French model in 1534. It was \noriginally five inches and a quarter diameter in the \nbore, and carried a ball of eighteen pounds. Bailey. \n\nCUMiE (S. Italy), a Greek colony, said to \nhave been founded 1050 B.C., probably too early, \nand to have been the residence of the ancient Sibyl. \nIt was taken by the Samnites 420 B.C., and was \nannexed by the Romans 338 B.C. \n\nCUMBERLAND, a N.W. county of England, \nwas granted to Malcolm I. of Scotland in 945, \nby king Edmund, " on condition that he should be \nhis fellow-worker." It was seized by William I., \nbut restored to Malcolm III., "who became his \nman," 1072. William the Lion, after his defeat at \nAlnwick, resigned Cumberland to Henry II., and it \nwas finally annexed to England in 1237. \n\nDUKES. \n\n1726. William Augustus, second son of George II., died \n\n13 Oct. 1765. \n1766. Henry Frederic, son of Frederic, prince of Wales, \n\ndied 18 Sept. 1790. \n1799. Ernest Augustus, fifth son of George III. ; became \nking of Hanover, 20 June, 1837 : died 18 Nov. \n1851. \n1851. George V., the ex-king of Hanover ; died 12 June, \n\n1878. \n1878. Ernest Augustus, son ; born 21 Sept. 1845, married \nprincess Thyra of Denmark. 21 Dec, 1878. Issue, \nGeorge William, born 28 Oct. 1880, and five other \nchildren. \nA rescript from the emperor William II. was issued 12 \nMarch, 1892, restoring the Guelph fund (the accumu- \nlated property of king George V.), which had been \nsequestrated in 2 March, 1868, to his son, the duke of \nCumberland, on certain conditions, the duke having \nstated in a letter to the emperor, dated 10 March, \n"that he had no intention of engaging in any under- \ntaking Which would threaten the peace of theGerman \nEmpire." The Guelph Fund bill for making the \nnecessary arrangements, was passed by the Prussian \ndiet, 31 March-6 April, 1892. \n\nSee Brunswick. \n\nCUMBERLAND, The, see Naval Battles, \n1S11. \n\nCUMULATIVE VOTE, in parliamentary \n\n\n\nCUNAXA. \n\n\n\n267 \n\n\n\nCUSTOMS. \n\n\n\nelections, proposed by Mr. Robert Lowe,* 4 July, \nduring the debates on the reform bill ; and rejected, \n5 July, 1867, by 314 to 173. By the act passed 15 \nAug. 1867 (30 & 31 Vict. c. 162), it v\\as enacted \nthat at a contested election for any county or \nborough represented by three members, no person \nshall vote for more than two candidates. The \ncumulative vote was used in 1he election of the \nLondon school board, 29 Nov. 1870. \n\nCUNAXA, in Mesopotamia, near the Euphrates, \nwhere Cyrus the younger was defeated and slain by \nhis brother Artaxerxes II., against whom he had \nconspired (401 B.C.), narrated in Xenophon\'s \nAnabasis. His Greek auxiliaries were successful; \nsee Retreat of the Greeks. \n\nCUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS (from \ncuneus, Latin for a wedge), in characters resembling \narrow-heads, inscribed on bricks or clay-tablets, \nfound at Babylon, Behistun, &c, have lately been \ndeciphered by English and foreign scholars, who \ndate some of them as far back as 2000 B.C. See \nAssyria, Babylon, Behistun. \n\nCUNNERSDORF (in Prussia). On 12 Aug. \n1759, Frederick II. king of Prussia, with 50,000 \nmen, attacked the Austrian and Russian army of \n90,000 in their camp near this place, and at first \ngained considerable advantages ; but pursuing them \ntoo far, the Austrians and Russians rallied, and \ngained a complete victory. The Prussians lost 200 \npieces of cannon and 30,000 men in killed and \nwounded. \n\nCUPOLA SHIPS, see Navy of England, 1861. \n\nCUPPING-, a mode of blood-letting. The skin \nis scarified by lancets, and a glass cup in which the \nair has been rarified by heat, is immediately applied \nto it, when the blood usually flows into the cup. \nThis operation was well known to the ancients, and \nis described by Hippocrates (413 B.C.) and Celsus \n(20 B.C.). It was common in England about 1820. \n\nCURACOA (correctly, Curasao), an island in \nthe Caribbean sea, settled by the Spaniards about \n1527, was seized by the Dutch in 1634. In 1800 \nthe French, settled on part of this island, quarrelled \nwith the Dutch, who surrendered it to a British \nfrigate. It was restored to the Dutch in 1802; \ntaken from them by the British in 1807, and again \nrestored in 1814. \n\nCURATES were of early appointment as coad- \njutors in the Romish church, and are mentioned in \nEngland in the 7th century. Among the acts \npassed for the relief of this laborious class of the \nclergy are the 12th Anne, 1713, and 36th, 53d, and \n58th Geo. III., and especially the beneficent act, 2 \n\nwill. IV. Oct. 183 1. It appeared by parliamentary \nreports on ecclesiastical revenues, that there were \nin 1831, 5230 curates in England and Wales, whose \nstipends amounted to 424,695/. The greatest num- \nber of curates in one diocese was Lincoln, 629 ; and \nthe smallest that of St. Asaph, 43. The Pastoral \nAid Society was established in 1836; the Society \nfor promoting the Employment of Additional \nCurates, in 1837 ; the Curates\' Augmentation Fund, \n\n1866. The Curates\' Alliance, a reforming body, \nissued its first annual report, Dec. 1882. \n\nCURFEW BELL (from the French couvrc \nfeu), was revived or introduced in England by \n\n* " At any contested election for a county or borough \nrepresented by more than two members, and having \nmore than one seat vacant, every voter shall be entitled \nto a number of votes equal to the number of vacant seats, \nand may give all such votes to one candidate, or may \ndistribute them among the candidates as he thinks fit." \n\n\n\n"Will. I. 1068. On the ringing of the curfew at \neight o\'clock in the evening all fires and candles \nwere to be extinguished under a severe penalty. \nBapin. The curfew was modified 1 Hen. I. 1 100. \nThe practice has been continued to the present time \nat Sandwich in Kent, and some other places (1891) . \n\nCURIATII, see Borne, 669 b.c \n\nCURLING, a Scotch national game with stones \non the ice, said to have been introduced from the \nLow Countries in the 16th century. The Dudding- \nstone curling club was instituted 1795. The royal \nCaledonian curling club, founded in 1838, owns a \nlarge artificial pond at Strathallan, Perthshire. \n\nCURRAGH, see Kildare. \n\nCURRANTS, from Corinth, whence, probably, \nthe tree was first brought to us about 1533. The \nname is also given to a small kind of dried grape, \nbrought from the Levant and Zante. The duty \non these currants (44s. \\d. per cwt. in 1834) has \nbeen reduced to 7s. ; reduced to 2s. 17 April, 1890. \nThe hawthorn currant (Bibes Oxyacanthoides) came \nfrom Canada in 1705. \n\nCURRENCY ACTS. See under Bank of \nEngland, 1797-1823, and Gold, 1816. Those of sir \nRobert Peel were passed in 1819 and in 1844. \nRoyal commission appointed to inquire into the depre- \nciation of silver, relative values of the precious metals, \n&c, Messrs. A. J. Balfour (chairman), (succeeded by \nlord Herschell), J. Chamberlain, L. Courtney, L. \nCohen, W. H. Houldsworth, Sir John Lubbock, D. M. \nBarbour, J. W. Birch (Bank of England), Sir T. \nFarrer, C. W. Fremant\'.e (deputy master of the mint) \nand J. R. Bullen Smith, about 7 Sept. 1886. \nIn their final report, issued 6 Nov. 1888, the commis- \nsioners were found to be greatly divided in opinion \nrespecting bi-metallism, a paper currency and other \nquestions. \nMr. H. Chap: in advocates his " thirty shilling " theory \nJan. 1889. \n\nCURSITOR BARON. This office, formerly \nattached to the court of exchequer, was abolished in \n1856, on the death of the right hon. George Bankes. \nCURTATONE, near Mantua, N, Italy. Here \nthe Austiians, under Radetzky, crossed the Mincio, \nand defeated the Italians after a severe conflict, 29 \nMay, 1848. \n\nCUSHEE PIECES, invented by Richard \nLeake, the master-gunner of the Boyal Prince man- \nof-war, renowned for bravery shown in the engage- \nment with the Dutch admiral Van Tromp, in 1673. \nCUSTOM is a law not written {lex non scripta), \nestablished by long usage and consent, and is dis- \ntinguished from lex scripta, or the written law. It \nis the rule of law when it is derived from 1 189 \ndownwards. Sixty years\' custom is binding in the \ncivil law, and forty years\' in ecclesiastical cases. \n\nCUSTOMS were collected upon merchandise in \nEngland, under Ethelred II. in 979. The king\'s \nclaim to them by grant of parliament was estab- \nlished 3 Edw. I. 1274. The customs were farmed \nto sir Thomas Smith for annual sums varying from \n14,000/. to 50,000/. in the reign of Elizabeth. Stow, \nThey were farmed by Charles II. for 390,000/. in \n1666. Bavcnant. In 1671 commissioners were \nappointed. The customs were consolidated by Mr. \nPitt in 1787. Between 1820 and 1830 so many \nreductions and consolidations were made in the \ncu-toms department, that above a quarter of a \nmillion was saved in salaries, though the work had \nenormously increased. \xe2\x80\x94 Acts consolidating the cus- \ntoms duties were passed in 1853, 1854, and i860, \nwhereby the number of articles in the tariff and the \namount of the customs were greatly reduced. Many \nchanges have been made since; by the Customs \n\n\n\nCUSTOMS PAELIAMENT. \n\n\n\n268 \n\n\n\nCYMBAL. \n\n\n\nCustoms \n\n\nin year ending \n\n\n31 \n\n\nMarch. \n\n\n1872 \n\n\n20,225,892 \n\n\n1873 . \n\n\n20,976,236 \n\n\n1874 . \n\n\n20,323,325 \n\n\n1875 - \n\n\n19.349.280 \n\n\n1876 \n\n\n20,196,691 \n\n\n1877 . \n\n\n19,896,386 \n\n\n1878 \n\n\n20,043,180 \n\n\n1879 . \n\n\n20,348,064 \n\n\n1880 \n\n\n19,169,605 \n\n\n1881 . \n\n\n19,210,466 \n\n\n1882 \n\n\n19,275,668 \n\n\n1883 . \n\n\n19,682,671 \n\n\n1884 \n\n\n19.653,352 \n\n\n7885 . \n\n\n20,557,819 \n\n\n1886 . . \n\n\n19,722,302 \n\n\n1887 . \n\n\n20,135,855 \n\n\n1888 . . \n\n\n19.579.476 \n\n\n1889 . \n\n\n20, 06,, 000 \n\n\n1890 \n\n\n20,424,000 \n\n\n1S91 . \n\n\n19,480,000 \n\n\n1892 \n\n\n19,736,000 \n\n\nck of wool \n\n\nyl. ; a last \n\n\n\nAct of 1890, the laws were amended and the duties \n\nmodified; see Revenue, The disqualification of \n\ncustom-house officers and officers of excise from \n\nvoting for the election of members of parliament \n\nin 1782, was removed in 1867-8. \n\nThe laws respecting the customs were amended by \n\nan act passed 21 Aug. 187 1, and consolidated \n\nby acts passed, 24 July, 1876 ; amended, . 1887 \n\nCustoms in \n\n1580 . . . \xc2\xa314,000 \n\n1592 . . . 50,000 \n\n1614 . . . 148,000 \n\n1622 . . . 168,000 \n\n1642 . . . 500,000 \n\n1684 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x80\xa2 530,000 \n\n1720 . . . 1,555,600 \n\n1748 . . . 2,000,000 \n\n1808 . . . 9,973,240 \n\n1823 . . 11,498,762 \n\n1830 . . 17,540,323 \n\n1835 . . 18,612,906 \n\n1840 . . 19,915,296 \n\n1845 . . 20,196,856 \n\n1850 . . 20,442,170 \n\n1855 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x96\xa0 21,630,081 \n\ni860 . . 24,391,084 \n\n1864 . . 23,234,356 \n\n1867 . . 22,299,306 \n\n1869 . . 22,434,737 \n\n1870 . . 21,449,843 \n\n1871 . . . 20,238,880 \nThe customs in Ireland, a s \n\nof hides, 6d. ; a barrel of wine, 2d. . . . 1224 \nThe Customs business of Ireland was transferred to \n\nthe London board 6 Jan. 1830 \n\nCustom-house. A custom-house was erected in \nLondon on a large scale, 1304 ; and a yet larger in \n1559 ; burnt down in 1666 ; a new one, built by \nCharles II., burnt down in 1718, again rebuilt; \nand once more burnt down, and immense property \nand valuable records destroyed . . 12 Feb. 1814 \nThe present edifice opened . . .12 May, 1817 \nDublin Custom-house commenced in 1781 ; opened \nin 1791. The eastern wing of its warehouse was \ndestroyed by fire, with property to the amount \nof4oo,oooL ...... 9 Aug. 1833 \n\nInternational conference on customs tariffs ac \nBrussels 1-5 July, 1890 \n\nCUSTOMS PAELIAMENT, see Zollverein. \n\nCUSTOS EOTULOEUM, keeper of the \nrolls or records of the sessions of the peace, pre- \nviously nominated by the lord chancellor, was in \n1545 directed to be appointed by a bill signed by the \nking. The act was confirmed in 1689. \n\nCUSTOZZA, near Verona, N. Italy. Here the \nItalians were defeated by marshal Kadetzky, 23 \nJuly, 1848 ; and here they were again defeated, 24 \nJune, 1866, after a series of desperate attacks on the \nAustrian army. The Italians were commanded by \ntheir king, Victor Emmanuel, and the Austrians by \nthe archduke Albrecht. The Italian loss was com- \nputed to be 720 killed, 31 12 wounded, and 4315 \nmissing; the Austrian loss, 960 killed, 3690 \nwounded, and nearly a thousand prisoners. The \nItalians soon recrossed the Mincio. \n\nCUTCH (Kachh), W. India, a principality \nunder the government of Bombay. In consequence \nof the depredations of the natives, the East India \ngovernment resorted to hostile measures, which \nresulted in a stringent treaty with the rao in Jan. \n1816. In 1819 he was deposed for misgovernment, \nand replaced by his infant son, supported by a \nBritish contingent. The traffic in children, detected \nin Dec. 1835, was suppressed by the British. Many \npersons perished by an earthquake in July, i8ig. \nThornton. \n\nCullers\' Feast, see \n\n\n\nCUTLEEY, see Steel. \nSheffield, 1889. \n\n\n\nCUTTACK (Katak), E. India, a British pro- \nvince ceded to theE. 1. company in 1803. Cuttack, \nthe capital, was taken by col. riarcouit, 14 Oct. \nsame year. The Mahrattas conquered it in 1750. \nThorn ton. \n\nCUTTING-OUT MACHINES. Wearing \napparel was first cut out by machinery in England \nby Messrs. Hyams in 1853. The machine, invented \nby Mr. Frederick Osbourn, consists of a recipro- \ncating vertical knife working through a slot in the \ntable that supports the pile of cloth to be cut. The \ncloth being pressed up to the edge of the knife by \nthe attendant, the knife will sever it in the direction \nof the lines marked on the upper layer. \n\nCUZCO, capital of Peru, was entered by Pizarre \nin Nov. 1533, and taken by him in Aug. 1536, after \nfive months\' siege. \n\nCYANOGEN, a colourless gas (composed of \nnitrogen and carbon), irritating to the nose and \neyes, derived from Prussian blue, was first obtained \nin the free state by Gay Lussac in 1815, being the \nfirst instance of the isolation of a compound radical. \n\nCYCLE of the sun, a period of twenty-eight \nyeais, which having elapsed, the dominical or \nbunday letters return to their former place, and \nproceed in the former order according to the Julian \nCalendar ; that of the moon is nineteen lunar yeais \nand seven intercalary months, or nineteen solar \nyears. The cycle of Jupiter is sixty yeais. The \nPasctial cycle, or the time of keeping Easter, was first \ncalculated for the period of 532 years by Victorius, \n463. Blair. See Metouic Cycle, Calippic Period. \n\nCYCLE, see Velocipede. \n\nCYCLONE PULVEEIZEE, an apparatus \ninvented by Messrs. Baymond, Bros., of America, \nin imitation of the violent action of air in cyclones, \nfor pulverizing various substances. It is said to \nhave been successfully applied in crushing gold \nquartz. Exhibited in London in May 1888. \n\nCYCLONES, circular whirlwinds, or hur- \nricanes, common in the East and West Indian and \nChinese seas, varying fiom 200 to 500 miles in \ndiameter. Many details respecting them will be \nfound in Reid\'s "Law of Storms," published 1838. \n\nGreat cyclone in India ; see Calcutta . 5 Oct. 1864 \n\nCaptain Watson, of the Clarence, observing the \nbarometer falling, and foretelling the approach of \nthe cyclone, saved his ship by steering out of its \nrange \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGreat cyclone in the Bahamas, at Nassau, New \nProvidence, above 600 houses and many churches \nand other buildings thrown down ; between 60 \nand 70 persons killed, and a great many ships dis- \nmantled 1,2 Oct. 1866 \n\nA cyclone desolated Antigua, St. Kitts, and other \nisles ; religious and manufacturing buildings de- \nstroyed, and thousands made homeless, 21 Aug. 1871 \n\nDestructive cyclone near Madras ; ships lost, 1 May, 1872 \n\nDestructive cyclone, S. E. Bengal ; Calcutta barely \nescapjed ; about 215,000 persons perished, 31 Oct. 1876 \n\nDestructive cyclone near Aden, about 50,000?. \ndamages reported ; ships sunk, &c, . 3 June, 1885 \n\nDestructive cyclone at Calcutta . 23 May et seq. 1887 \nSee Virgin Isles, Storms, %cMch see, Bengal, \nMadrid, 1886 et seq. \n\nCYCLOPAEDIA, see Enctjclopadia. \n\nCYCLOPEAN MASONEY, a term given \nto very ancient buildings in Greece, Italy, and Asia \nMinor, probably the work of the Pelasgi, more than \n\n1000 B.C. \n\nCYDEE, see Cider. \n\nCYMBAL, the oldest known musical instru- \nment, made of brass. Xenophon says the cymbal \nwas invented by Cybele, and used in her feasts \nabout 1580 B.C. Cymbals were used by the ancient \n\n\n\nCYMMRODORION SOCIETY. \n\n\n\n269 \n\n\n\nCZECHS. \n\n\n\nEgyptians, Assyrians, Hebrews and other nations, \n2 Sam. vi. 5, B.C. 1047. \n\nCYMMRODORION SOCIETY was estab- \nlished in Sept., 1 75 r, to instruct the ignorant and \nrelieve distressed Welsh. It was suspended in \n1781, and revived 24 June, 1820, for literary pur- \nposes. The society was re-established in 1877 f\xc2\xb0 r \npromotion of literature and the arts in Wales. \n\nCYMRI or KYMRI (hence Cambria), the great \nCeltic family to which the Britons belonged, and \nwhich came from Asia and occupied a large part of \nEurope about 1500 B.C. About a.d 640 Dyvnwal \nMoelmud reigned " King oj \'the Cymry ;" see Wales. \n\nCYNICS, a sect of philosophers founded by \nAntisthenes (about 396 B.C., Dioy. Laert., Clinton). \nwho professed to contemn all worldly things, even \nsciences, except morality ; and lived in public with \nlittle shame. Diogenes, the eminent cynic, died \n\n323 B.C. \n\nCYNOSCEPHAL^E {dogs\' heads, so named \nfrom the shape of the heights), in Thessaly, w r here \nPelopidas and the Thebans defeated Alexander \ntyrant of Pherse and the Thessalians, 364 B.C. \nPelopidas was slain. Here also the consul Flami- \nnius totally defeated Philip V. of Macedon, 197 B.C., \nand ended the war. \n\nCYPRESS, Capressus sempervirens, a tree \nfound in the isle of Cyprus. The Athenians buried \nheroes in coffins made of this wood, of which \nEgyptian mummy-chests were also fabricated. The \nancients planted it in cemeteries. The cypress was \nbrought to England about 1441. The deciduous \ncypress, C. disticha, came from North America before \n1640. \n\nCYPRUS, a large island in the Mediterranean, \nnear the coasts of Asia Minor and Syria ; present \ncapital, Levkosia or Nikosia ; sea-ports, Larnaka and \nFamagosta. Here the ancients found copper (ces \nCyprium), silver, and precious stones. The country \nwas fertile, and abounded with trees in ancient \ntimes ; and under Venice its commerce was im- \nportant. Population in 1881, 186,173; 1891, \n209,291. \n\nTlie Phoenician colonists introduced the worship of \nAshtaroth (the Greek Astarte or Aphrodite, the \n\nRoman Venus) \n\nConquered by Amasis, king of Egypt ; revolted at \nthe invasion of Cambyses, and submitted to \n\nPersia B.C. 525 \n\nRevolted, and subjected .... 500-499 \n\nPartly independent under Bvagoras and Nicocles, \n\nkings of Salamis 387 et seq. \n\nSupported Alexander the Great .... 333 \nT iken from Demetrius by Ptolemy of Egypt . . 295 \n\nBecame a Roman province 58 \n\nVisited by Paul and Barnabas (Acts xiii.) . a.d. 45 \n\nGreat revolt of the Jews 117 \n\nSeized by the Arabs, 646 ; recovered by Greeks . 648 \n\nIsaac Comnenus, king 1184 \n\nSeized by Richard I. of England, 1191 ; given by \n\nhim to Guy de Lusignan, as king . . . 1192 \n\n** Order of Jie Sword" established (ceased with 8th \n\nking) . .... 1195 \n\nGuy\'s descendant, Catherine de Cornaro, sold it to \n\nVenice 1487 \n\nCyprus conquered by the Turks with great barbarity 1570-1 \nInsurrections suppressed, 1764 ; with massacre . 1S23 \nGeneral di Cesnola, a Genoese, the American con- \nsul, by excavations, discovers many Babylonian, \nEgyptian, Phosnician, and Greek gold and silver \nornaments, and other relics (sold to the New \n\nYork museum) 1866 et seq. \n\nHis work, "Cyprus: its Ancient Cities, Tombs, \n\nand Temples," published in London . Dec. 1877 \nThe island given up to Great Britain for administra- \ntion by the Anglo-Turkish convention 4 June, 1878 \nPossession taken by admiral lord John Hay, i-> \nJuly: by sir Garnet J. Wolseley, as lord high \ncommissioner 22 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nMuch sickness, with deaths, reported Aug. \xe2\x80\x94 Sept. 1878 \nOrders for the government by a lord high commis- \nsioner, given at court .... 14 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nSir G. J. Wolseley\'s decree for compulsory labour \n\non public works, dated .... 16 Dec. ,, \nHe is sent to S. Africa ; succeeded by sir Robert \n\nBiddulph June, 1879 \n\nThe British buy the Government lands, except the \n\nSultan\'s estates, early in ..... ,, \nIncreased general prosperity reported (in Blue \n\nBook) Aug. 1880 \n\nSir R. Biddulph reports that the British govern- \nment is popular, but the finances depressed, \nAug. ; 78,000/. voted for Cyprus . . 28 Aug. 1881 \nNew pier at Limasol opened by Sir R. Biddulph \n\n6 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nNew constitution announced . . 24 March, 1882 \nElective legislative council opened by sir R. Bid- \ndulph July, 1883 \n\nLong continued destructive ravages of locusts, \ngreatly checked by the skill and energy of Mr. S. \n\nBrown, reported Sept. 1884 \n\nSir R. Biddulph reports great prosperity and in- \ncreased revenue (194, 051/., expenditure 111,685/.). \nGeneral health good ... 31 March, ,, \n\nSir H. E. Bulwer nominated as high commissioner, \n\nAug. 1885 ; arrived . . 9 March, 1886 \n\nCyprus Society, London, formed for the establish- \nment of a hospital at Kyrenia and other objects, \n\nJune, 1888 \nArchaeological excavations ; discoveries on the site \nof the temple of Aphrodite, inscriptions, &c. ; \n\nreported Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLong drought in 1887-8 ; bad harvest, great dis- \ntress, relieved by government . \' . July, 1889 \nAil excellent harvest, prosperity increasing, and re- \nduced taxation, reported by sir R. Biddulph \n\n18 Dec. ,, \nSir Walter Sendall appointed high commissioner . \n\nFeb 1892 \nCYR, St., near Versailles. Here a college for \nladies was founded by madame De Maintenon in \n1686, and here she died, 15 April, 1719. It was \nmade a military college in 1803 ; suppressed in 1886. \nCYRENAIC SECT, founded by Aristippus \nthe Elder, 365 B.C. They taught that the supreme \ngood of man is pleasure, particularly that of the \nsenses; and that even virtue ought to be com- \nmended only because it gave pleasure. \n\nCYRENE (N. W. Africa), a Greek colony, \nfounded by Battus about 630 B.C. Aristaeus, who \nwas chief of the colonists here, gave the city his \nmother\'s name. It was also called Pentapolis, on \naccount of its five towns ; namely, Cyrene, Ptole- \nmais, Berenice, Apollonia, and Arsinoe. It was \nconquered by Ptolemy Soter I., who placed many \nJews here (286 B.C.). Cyrene was left by Ptolemy \nApion to the Romans, 96 B.C. It is now a desert. \nSome Cyrenaic sculptures were placed in the \nBritish Museum in Jul}-, 1861. \nCYROPEDIUM, see Corns. \nCYZICUS (Asia Minor). In the Peloponnesian \nwar, the Lacedaemonian fleet under the command \nof Mindarus, assisted by Pharnabazus, the Persian, \nwas encountered by the Athenians under Alcibiades, \nand defeated with great slaughter, near Cyzicus; \nMindarus being slain : 410 B.C. Plutarch. \n\nCZAR, more properly tsar or tzar, the title of \nthe emperor of Russia, probably derived from Caesar, \na title said to have been assumed by Ivan Basi- \nlowitz after defeating the Tartars, about 1482. \nThe empress is termed czarina, and the eldest son \nczare witch. \n\nCZECHS, the most westerly branch of the \nSlavic family of nations, which about 4 So migrated \nto Bohemia and Moravia (which sec). The an- \ntagonism between the Germans and Czechs is milder \nin Moravia than iii Bohemia. Their representa- \ntives entered the rcichsrath at Vienna, 8 Oct., 1879. \n\n\n\nD. \n\n\n\nDACCA. \n\nDACCA, N. E. India, a province acquired by \nthe East India Company in 1765, and ruled under \nthem by a Nawab till its annexation in 1845. \nThornton. \n\nDACIA, a Roman province (included Temeswar \nand parts of Hungary, Transylvania, Wallachia, \nMoldavia, and Galicia), after many contests, was \nsubdued by Trajan, 106, when Decebalus, the \nDacian leader, was killed. Dacia was abandoned \nto the Goths by Aurelian, in 270 ; subdued by the \nHuns, 376; by Scythians, 566; by Charlemagne, \nand by the Magyars, in the 9th century. \n\nDACOITS, hereditary robbers of North India, \nformerly employed in war by native sovereigns. \n\nIt is stated that between 1818 and 1834, one tribe alone, \nin 118 "dacoitees," or expeditions, killed 172 persons, \nand obtained plunder valued at 115,000?. In 1838 lord \nAuckland did much to suppress the dacoits, and many \n\xe2\x80\xa2settlements were broken up, but they are not quite \nextinct in Bengal and Burmah. Several dacoitees were \nsuppressed in 1879. See Burmah. \n\nDAFOITR, see Soudan, 1884. \n\nDAGHESTAN (a mountain country S. W. \nAsia), was conquered by the czar Peter, 1723 ; re- \nstored to Persia, 1735 ; re-annexed to Russia by \nAlexander I., 1813. \n\nDAGUERREOTYPE PROCESS, invented \nby Daguerre, and published 1838 ; see Photo- \ngraphy. \n\nDAHLIA, a flower discovered in Mexico by \nVincent Cervantes in 1784, and brought to Europe \nabout 1787, and cultivated by the Swedish botanist, \nDahl. About 1814 it was introduced into France \nand England ; Andre Thouine suggested improve- \nments in its culture, and it soon became a favourite. \nGeorgi introduced it at St. Petersburg ; hence it is \nknown in Germany as the Georgina. \n\nDAHOMEY, a negro kingdom, West Africa, \nbecame known to Europeans early in the last \ncentury, when Trudo Andati or Guadjor Trudo, a \nman of energy and talent, was king. He died in \n1 732, and was succeeded by a series of cruel tyrants, \na large part of whose revenue was derived from the \nslave\xc2\xb0trade. Abbeokuta, a robbers\' haunt in 1825, \nhas, since 1829, become a strong- walled town, inha- \nbited by free blacks ; and was consequently opposed \nby the king of Dahomey. His army has been \nseverely defeated in its attacks on this place, and \nin one on 16 March, 1864, a great number of his \nAmazons (female celebates) were slain. During \nthe last few years Dahomey has been visited by \ncaptain Burton and other travellers, who have \ndescribed the royal sanguinary customs. Capital of \nDahomey, Abomey. \nTrade opened with Dahomey and settlements \n\nmade by M. Regis, of Marseilles . . . 1840-50 \nThe king ordered to pay a fine (for an outrage on \n\nMr Tumbull at Whydali, 23 Jan.) . March, 1876 \nHe refuses in insulting terms, April; the coast about \n\nto be blockaded July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe king threatens massacre of Europeans if at- \n\ntlCk-GCL \xe2\x80\x9e\xe2\x80\xa2\xe2\x96\xa0\xe2\x80\xa2\xe2\x80\xa2\xe2\x80\xa2 "-^S* it \n\nHemakes concessions ; blockade removed 12 May, 1877 \n\n\n\nDAKOTA. \n\nRenewed massacres of natives (" customs ") and \noutrages on foreigners at Whydah ; reported \n\n26 Sept. 1878 \nThe king attacks Lagos, kills many and takes about \n\n1000 prisoners 10 May, 188s \n\nDahomey placed under the prote iterate of Portu- \ngal at the request of the king . . 7 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe Dahomey troops repulsed in an attack upon \nthe French settlements at Zebo, on Lake Den- \xe2\x80\x9e \nham, by commandant Ferrillon, 100 killed . \n\nreported 24 Feb. 1890 \nThe king after losing about 1,000, retires with his \n\narmy reported 12 March ,, \n\nPorto Novo and Kotonou well held by the French *, \n\n5 April ,, \nThe Dahomey coast blockaded by the French \n\nfrom 4 April ,, \nThe French repulsed in a conflict with the king \n\nreported 22 April ,, \nThe king\'s army near Porto Novo ; French reinforce- \nments from Senegal landed, April ; his troops re- \ntreat after an engagement with severe loss 23April ,, \nThe king in a letter to president Carnot justifies \nhis retention of French merchants at Whydah for \nmeddling with politics . received about 28 April ,, \nWhydah bombarded by the French vessel Kerguelin \n29, 30 April ; Commander Fournier demands the \nsurrender of 13 Frenchmen, in prison since Feb., \n3 May; they are surrendered, and Dahomeyan \n\nprisoners released 5 May ,, \n\nThe new king Behanzin installed ; he writes to \n\npresident Carnot desiring a just peace . 12 May ,, \nPeace with France concluded . reported 6 Oct. ,, \nThe king\'s continued aggressions and threats lead \n\' to war, April ; the French chamber votes 3,000,000 \nfrancs for an expedition to protect Porto Novo \nand Kotonou, and avenge injuries . . n April, 1892 \nFrench reinforcements from Senegal arrive at \n\nKotonou 20 April, ,, \n\nPorto Novo and Kotonou besieged, reported 23 May, ,, \n\nDAHRA (Algeria). On 18 June, 1845, above \n500 Kabyles at war with the French were suffo- \ncated in a cave, a fire having been kindled by order \nof general Pelissier, afterwards duke of Malakoff. \nThey had fired on a messenger bearing an offer of \na truce. The massacre was condemned by marshal \nSoult, but justified by marshal Bugeaud. \n\nDAILY NEWS, liberal commercial news- \npaper, now id., established 21 Jan. 1846. In the \nnumber for 23 June. 1876, the letter from a \ncorrespondent at Constantinople first drew attention \nto the atrocities in Bulgaria. The first Bulgarian \nparliament expressed its gratitude for this, 4 April, \ni879- \n\nDAILY TELEGRAPH, penny paper, liberal, \nestablished 29 June, 1855. It became a conservative \npaper, 1876, but is often independent. \n\nDAIRY FARMERS\' ASSOCIATION", \n\nBritish, established 24 Oct. 1876. No. 1 of a \njournal published Sept. 1877. Dairy Shows, \nexhibitions at Agricultural Hall, 1S77 and following; \nyears. \n\nThe establishment of dairy schools in Great Britain \nrecommended by the Departmental Committee ; \nthese having produced successful results in \nFrance, Germany, and Denmark ; and many have \nbeen established 188S \n\nDAKOTA (North America), organised as a \nterritorv of the United States, 2 March, 1861. \n\n\n\nDALECAELIANS. \n\n\n\n271 \n\n\n\nDANE-GELD. \n\n\n\nCapital Yankton. North and South Dakota were \n\nmade States in 1889. \n\nAbout 100,000 persons destitute in North Dakota \nthrough failure of the crops . . .30 Oct. 1889 \n\nThe Sioux reserves in S. Dakota, about 9,000,000 \nacres, opened to settlers by proclamation ; imme- \ndiately occupied Feb. 1890 \n\nFor the rising of the Sioux, see Indians; 1890-91. \n\nPresident Harrison proclaims the opening of \n1,600,000 acres in the Fort Berthold Indian Re- \nservation, North Dakota . . .21 May, 1891 \n\nPopulation, 1890 : N. Dakota, 182,719 ; S. Dakota, 328,808. \n\nDALECAELIANS (Sweden), revolted against \nChristian of Denmark, 1521, and placed Gustavus \nVasa on the throne of Sweden. \n\nDALMATIA, an Austrian province, N. E. of \nthe Adriatic Sea, conquered and made a province \nby the Eomans, 34 B.C. The emperor Diocletian \nerected his palace at Spalato (erroneously written \nSpalatro), and retired there, a.d. 305. Dalmatia was \nheld in turns by the Goths, Hungarians, and Turks, \ntill its cession to Venice in 1699. By the treaty of \nCampo Formio in 1797 it was given to Austria, but in \n1805 it was incorporated with Italy, and gave the title \nof duke to marshal Soult. In 1814 it reverted to \nAustria. An insurrection opposed to the new mili- \ntary law broke out at Bocche di Cattaro, and a con- \nflict with the troops at Dragali took place, 10 Oct. \n1869. Several regiments were sent there, but the \ninsurgents obtained several successes during the \nmonth. A deputation offered submission, 2 Nov., \nand the operations against them were suspended \nabout the end of the month. Population, 1890, \n527,426. \n\nDALTONISM, see Colour, note. \n\nDAMAEALAND (S.W. Africa), a territory \nrich in minerals and pasture, occupied by German \nsettlers and missionaries since 1840. See Africa, \n1885-91. The native population is estimated at \n8o,ooo. \n\nDAMASCUS (Syria), a city in the time of \nAbraham ; 1913 B.C. (Gen. xiv.), now the capital \nof a Turkish pachalic. Population, 1885, 150,000. \n\nTaken by David (1040 b.c.), but retaken shortly \nafter ; made the capital of Syria under Benhadad \n\nand his successors b.c. 930 \n\nRecovered by Jeroboam II. about 822 \n\nTaken by Tiglath-Pileser. king of Assyria . . 740 \nFrom the Assyrians it passed to the Persians, and \nfrom them to the Greeks, under Alexander . 333 \n\nTo the Romans about 64 \n\nPaul, converted, preaches here (Acts ix.) . . a.d. 35 \nTaken by the Saracens, 633 ; by the Turks in 1075 \ndestroyed by Tamerlane .... Jan. 1401 \n\nTaken by Ibrahim Pacha 1832 \n\nThe disappearance of a Greek priest, named father \nTommaso, from here, 1 Feb. 1840, led to the \ntorture of a number of Jews, suspected of his mur- \nder, and to a cruel persecution of that people, \nwhich caused remonstrances from many states of \n\nEurope 1840 \n\nDamascus restored to Turkey 1841 \n\nIn consequence of a dispute between the Druses \nand Maronites, the Mahommedans massacred \nabove 3000 Christians and destroyed the houses, \nrendering vast numbers of persons homeless and \ndestitute ; a large number were rescued by Abd- \nel-Kader, who held the citadel . 9, 10, 11 July, i860 \nJustice executed for these crimes by Fuad Pacha : \n160 persons executed, including the Turkish gover- N \nnor ; and 11,000 persons made soldiers, Aug. -Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDAMASK LINENS and SILKS, first manu- \nfactured at Damascus, have been beautifully imi- \ntated by the Dutch and Flemish. The manufacture \nwas brought to England by artisans who fled from \nthe persecutions of Alva, 1571-3. The Damask \nRose was brought here from the south of Europe \n\n\n\nby Dr. Linacre, physician to Henry VIII., about \n1540, \n\nDAMIENS\' ATTEMPT. Louis XV. of \nFrance was stabbed with a knife in the right side- \nby Damiens, a native of Arras, 5 Jan. 1757. The \nculprit endured the most excruciating tortures, and \nwas then broken on the wheel, 28 March. \n\nDAMIETTA (Lower Egypt), was taken by \nthe crusaders, 5 Nov. 1219; lost 1221 ; retaken by \nLouis IX., 5 June, 1249; surrendered as his ran- \nsom when a prisoner, 6 May, 1250. The present town, \nwas built soon after. See Egypt, Sept. 1882. Popu- \nlation, 1888, 34,044. \n\nDAMON AND PYTHIAS (or Phintias)^ \nPythagorean philosophers. Damon was con- \ndemned to death by the tyrant Dionysius of Syra- \ncuse, about 387 b.c. He obtained leave to go and \nsettle some domestic affairs, promising to return at \nthe appointed time of execution, and Pythias be- \ncame his surety. When Damon did not appear, \nPythias surrendered, and was led to execution ; but \nat this critical moment Damon returned. Diony- \nsius remitted the sentence, and desired to share- \ntheir friendship. \n\n_ DANAI : an ancient name of the Greeks de- \nrived from Danaus, king of Argos, 1474 B.C. \n\nDANCE OF DEATH. The triumph of death \nover all ranks of men was a favourite subject with \nthe artists of the middle ages, and appears in rude- \ncarvings and pictures in various countries. \nThe Chorea Machabceorum or Dansc Macabre, the \nfirst printed representation, published by Guyot \nMarchand, a bookseller of Paris . . . . 1485 \nHolbein\'s Dance of Death (concerning the author- \nship of which there has been much controversy), \nprinted at Lyons in 1538, and at Basil . . . 1594. \nMany editions have since appeared ; one with an \nintroduction and notes published by Mr. Russell \n\nSmith l84g> . \n\nThe term Dance of Death was also applied to the \nfrenzied movements of the Flagellants, who had \nsometimes skeletons depicted on their clothing, \nabout the end of the 14th century. \nDancing mania, accompanied by aberration of \nmind and distortions of the body, was very- \nprevalent in Germany in 1374, and in the 16th \ncentury in Italy, where it was termed Tarantism r \nand erroneously supposed to be caused by the \nbite of the Tarantula spider. The music and \nsongs employed for its cure are still preserved. \n\nDANCING was practised by the Curetes, 15^ \nB.C. Eusebius. The Greeks combined the dance; \nwith their dramas, and pantomimic dances were \nintroduced on the Roman stage, 22 B.c. Usher. \nDancing by cinque paces was introduced into Eng- \nland from Italy, a.d. 1541. In modern times the- \nFrench introduc\'ed ballets analogues in their musical \ndramas. The country dance (contrc-clanse) is of \nFrench origin, but its date is not precisely known. \nSpelman. See Morice Dance, Quadrille, anc\xc2\xa3 \nWaltz. \n\nEstablishment of a national training school for \ndancing, by Mr. Mapleson ; second annual dis- \ntribution of prizes, &c. . . . 21 Sept. 187S \n\nDANE-GELD, or DANEGELT, a tribute paid \nto the Danes to stop their ravages in England ; \nfirst raised by Ethelred II. in 991, and again in \n1003 ; and levied after the expulsion of the Danes \nto pay fleets for clearing the seas of them. The \ntax was suppressed by Edward tin- Confessor in \n1051 ; revived by William I. 1068; and formed \npart of the revenue of the crown, until abolished \nby Stephen, 1136. Every hide of land, i.e. as much \nas one plough could plough, or as licde says, \n\n\n\nDANES. \n\n\n\n272 DANUBIAN PRINCIPALITIES. \n\n\n\nmuch as could maintain a family, was taxed at first \nis., afterwards as much as 7*. Camden says that \n\xe2\x80\xa2once 24,360/. was raised. \n\nDANES, or NORTHMEN ; see Denmark. \nDuring their attacks upon Britain and Ireland \nthey made a descent on France, where, in 895, \nunder Hollo, they received presents under the walls \nof Paris. They returned and ravaged the French \nterritories as far as Ostend in 896. They attacked \nItaly in 903. Neustria was granted by the king of \nFrance to Hollo and his Normans (North-men), \nhence Normandy, in 911. The invasions of Eng- \nland and Ireland were as follows: \xe2\x80\x94 \nFirst hostile appearance of the Danes . . . 783 \n\nThey land near Purbeck, Dorset 787 \n\nDescend in Northumberland : destroy the church \nat Lindisfarne ; are repelled, and perish by ship- \nwreck 8 Jan. 794 \n\nThey invade Scotland and Ireland . . 795, 796 \n\nThey enter Dublin with a fleet of 60 sail, and pos- \nsess themselves of Dublin, Fingal, &c. . . 798 \n\nThey take the Isle of Sheppey 832 \n\nDefeated at Hengeston, in Cornwall, by Egbert . 835 \nThey land in Kent from 350 vessels, and take Can- \nterbury and London 851 \n\nThey descend on the north, and take York . . 867 \nThey defeat the Saxons at Merton . . . . 871 \nThey take Wareham and Exeter .... 876 \nThey take Chippenham : but 120 of their ships are \n\nwrecked 877 \n\nDefeated : Guthrum, their leader, becomes Chris- \ntian, and many settle in England .... 878 \nAlfred enters into a treaty with them . . . . 882 \nTheir fleet destroyed by Alfred at Appledore . . 894 \n\nDefeated near Isle of Wight 897 \n\nThey invade and waste Wales 900 \n\nDefeated by Edward the Elder 922 \n\nThey defeat the people of Leinster .... 956 \nRavage Cornwall, Devon, and Dorset . . . . 985 \n\nAnd ravage Essex and Suffolk 990 \n\nSaid to assume the title lord dane about . . . 991 \nTheir fleet defeated after a breach of treaty, pur- \nchased by money 992 \n\nAnlaf and Sweyn ravage Kent and the south (erro- \nneously said to have been paid i6,oooZ. for peace) 994 \nA general massacre of the Danes, by order of \n\nEthelred II. 13 Nov. 1002 \n\nSweyn revenges it, and receives 36,000^. (as an \n\nannual tribute) to depart 1003 \n\nTheir fleet anchors at Isle of Wight .... 1006 \nThey make fresh inroads, and defeat the Saxons in \nSuffolk, 1010 ; sack Canterbury, and kill the in- \nhabitants, ion ; receive 48,000^. as tribute, and \n\nmurder Alphege, archbishop 1012 \n\nVanquished at Clontarf, Ireland (see Clontarf) . 1014 \nConquest of England completed ; Canute king . . 1017 \n\nThey settle in Scotland 1020 \n\nThey land again at Sandwich, carrying off much \nplunder to Flanders ....... 1047 \n\nDefeated by Harold II. at Stamford-bridge, 25 Sept. 1066 \nThey burn York, and kill 3000 Normans . . . 1069 \nOnce more invade England to aid a conspiracy ; \nbut compelled to depart 1074 \n\nDANGEROUS ASSOCIATIONS (IRE- \nLAND) BILL ; see Roman Catholic Association. \n\nDANGEROUS GOODS : act regulating \ntheir deposit and carriage passed 6 Aug. 1866. \n\nDANGEROUS PERFORMANCES, see \nChildren. \n\nD ANNE WERKE, or Dannawirke, a series \n-of earthworks, considered almost impregnable, \nstretching across the long narrow peninsula of \nSchleswig, Holstein, and Jutland \xe2\x80\x94 said to have \nbeen constructed during the " stone age," long-before \nthe art of metal-working. It was rebuilt in 937 \nby Thyra, queen of Gormo the Old, for which she \nwas named "Dannabod," the pride of the Danes. \nIt was repaired by Olaf Tryggveson between 995 \nand 1000. Near here the Prussians, helping the \n\n\n\nduchies, defeated the Danes, 23 April, 1848. The \nretreat of the Danes from it, 5 Feb. 1864, occa- \nsioned much dissatisfaction at Copenhagen. \n\nDANTE\'S DIVINA COMMEDIA was \n\nfirst printed in 1472. He was born 14 May, 1265, \ndied at Ravenna, 14 Sept, 1321. A festival in his \nhonour, at Florence, was opened by the king, 14 \nMay, 1865, when a large statue of Dante by Pazzi \nof Ravenna was uncovered. \n\nDANTZIC (N. German}\'), a commercial city in \n997 ; according to some authorities, built by \nWaldemar I. in 1165. Poland obtained the \nsovereignty of it in 1454. It was seized by the \nking of Prussia, and annexed in 1793. It sur- \nrendered to the French, May, 1807 ; and by the \ntreaty of Tilsitwas restored to independence, under \nthe protection of Prussia and Saxony, July, 1807. \nDantzic was besieged by the allies in 1812 ; and \nsurrendered 1 Jan. 1814. By the treaty of Paris it \nreverted to the king of Prussia. By the Vistula \nbreaking through its dykes, 10,000 head of cattle \nand 4000 houses were destroyed, and many lives \nlost, 9 April, 1829. Population, 1890, 120,459. \n\nDANUBE (German, Donau; anciently Ister \nand Danuvius), the largest river in Europe, except \nthe Wolga, rises in the Black Forest and falls into \nthe Black Sea. Trajan\'s bridge at Gladova was \ndestroyed by Adrian, to prevent the barbarians \nentering Dacia. Steam navigation was projected \non this river by count Szechenyi, in 1830, and in \nthat year the first steam-boat was launched at \nVienna, and the Austrian company was formed \nshortly after. The Bavarian company was formed \n1836. A canal between the Danube and the \nMaine was completed by Louis I. of Bavaria. \nCharlemagne, in the 8th century, contemplated \nuniting the Danube and Rhine by a canal. At the \npeace of 30 March, 1856, the free navigation of the \nDanube was secured, and an independent European \ncommission appointed to make it navigable from \nIsaktclii to the sea, which has worked with good \neffect. The British government, in 1868, lent \n135,000/. to complete the works. The treaty re- \nspecting the navigation of the Danube renewed for \ntwelve years, 13 March, 1871. The river suddenly \ntook possession of a new bed near Vienna, 17 April, \nwhich was formally opened 30 -May, 1875. \nIn the Russo-Turkish war the Russians crossed the \nDanube and entered Bulgaria. (See Russo-Turkish \n\nWar, II.) June, 1877 \n\nThe navigation of the Danube was regulated by \n\nArticles 50\xe2\x80\x9454 of Berlin treaty . . 13 July, 1878 \nA conference of the powers respecting the Danube \nheld in London, 8 Feb. et seq. ; treaty signed re- \nstoring rights to Russia, 10 March : ratified \n\n15 Aug. 1883 \nHuge rocks in that portion of the Lower Danube \ncalled the " Iron Gates " blown up ; M. Baross, \nthe Hungarian minister of communications, set \nfire to the first mine, 5 Sept., 1889 ; the explosion \nof the rocks recommenced . . 15 Sept. 1890 \nFoundation of a great bridge at Tchernavoda ; \nlaid by Charles, king of Roumania, 21 Oct. 1890.; \nwork going on 1S92 \n\nDANUBIAN PRINCIPALITIES; \n\nWALLACHIA and MOLDAVIA (capitals, Bucha- \nrest and Jassy) were united and named ROUMANIA, \n1859. Population of the two, i860, 3,864,848; 1866, \n4,424,961 ; 1887, 5,500,000. These provinces formed \npart of the ancient Dacia {which see). \nPart f Moldavia ceded to Russia . . . . 1812 \nThe provinces having participated in the Greek in- \nsurrection in 1821, were severely treated by the \nTurks ; but by the treaty of Adrianople were \nplaced under the protection of Russia . . . 1829 \n\n\n\nDARDANELLES. \n\n\n\n273 \n\n\n\nDAUPHINE. \n\n\n\nThe Porte appointed as hospodars prince Stirbey \nfor Wallachia, and prince Ghika for Moldavia, \n\nJune, 1849 \n\nThey retire from their governments when the Rus- \nsians enter Moldavia. See Iiusso-Turkish War. \n\n2 July, 1853 \n\nThe Russians quit the provinces and the Austriaus \nenter, Sept. 1854; retire . . . March, 1857 \n\nThe government of the principalities finally settled \nat the Paris conference : (there were to be two \nhospodars, elected by elective assemblages, and \nthe suzerainty of Turkey was to be preserved), \n\n19 Aug. 1S58 \n\nAlexander Coma elected hospodar of Moldavia, \n17 Jan. ; of Wallachia .... 5 Feb. 1859 \n\nThe election acknowledged by the allies 6 Sept. ,, \n\nThe definitive union of the provinces (under the \nname of Roumania) proclaimed and acknowledged \nby the Porte Dec. 1861 \n\n[For continuation, see Rournania.] \n\nDARDANELLES. Two castles (Sestos, in \nRoumania, and Abydos, in Auatolia), built by the \nsultan Mahomet IV. in 1659, commanding the \nentrance of the strait of Gallipoli, named Dar- \ndanelles from the contiguous town Dardanus. \xe2\x80\x94 The \npassage of the strait was achieved by the British \nsquadron under sir John Duckworth, 19 Feb. 1807 ; \nbut he repassed them with great loss, 3 March, the \ncastles of Sestos and Abydos hurling down stone- \nshot upon the British ships. The allied English \nand French fleets passed the Dardanelles at the \nsultan\'s request, Oct. 1853 ; see Hellespont and \nXerxes. \n\nDARIC, a. Persian gold coin, issued by Darius, \nhence its name, about 538 B.C. About 556 cents. \nKnowles. It weighed two grains more than the \nEnglish guinea. Dr. Bernard. \n\nDARIEN, ISTHMUS OF, central America, dis- \ncovered by Columbus, 1494. In 1694, William \nPaterson, founder of the Bank of England, pub- \nlished his plan for colonising Darien. A company \nwas formed in 1695, alM i n 1698-9, three expedi- \ntions sailed thither from Scotland, where 400,000^. \nhad been raised. The first consisted of 1200 young \nmen of all classes, besides women and children. \nThe enterprise not having been recognised by the \nEnglish government, the settlements were threat- \nened by the Spaniards, to whom they were finally \nsurrendered, 30 March, 1700. Paterson and a few \nsurvivors from famine and disease, had set off \nshortly before the arrival of the second expedition. \nSeveral years after, 398,085^. were voted by parlia- \nment to the survivors as "Equivalent money." \ni8,OOOi?. were also voted to Paterson ; but the bill \nwas rejected in the house of Lords. See Panama. \nThe average breadth, 40 miles; least breadth, 30 \nmiles . \n\nDARJEELING-, a British district in the Him- \nalayas, ceded about 1824. The capital Darjeeling, \nis used as a sani\'arium. The cultivation of tea is \nflourishing, and the population rapidly increasing \n(1889.) \n\nDARK AGES, a term applied to the Middle \nAges; according to Hallain, comprising about 1000 \nyears \xe2\x80\x94 from the invasion of France by Clovis, 486, \nto that of Naples by Charles VIII. , 1495. During \nthis time learning was at a low ebb. Hallam\'s \n"View of the State of Europe during the Middle \nAges," published 1818. Supplemental Notes, 1848. \nDarkest Africa, see Soudan, 1887 \xe2\x80\x94 90. " Darkest \nEngland," see Salvation Army, 1890. \n\nDARLINGTON, see under Railways, 1825 \nand 1875. \n\n\n\nDARMSTADT, capital of Hesse Darmsdadt, \nmade a city 1330, became the residence of the \nlandgraves, 1567. The grand ducal palace was \nbuilt 1568 et seq. Population, 1890, 56,503. \n\nDARTFORD (Kent). Here commenced the \ninsurrection of Wat Tyler, 1381. A convent of \nnuns, of the order of St. Augustin, endowed here \nby Edward III. 1355, was converted by Henry VIII. \ninto a royal palace. The first paper-mill in Eng- \nland was erected at Dartford by sir John Spielman, \na German, in 1590 (Stow), and ahout the same \nperiod was erected here the first mill for splitting \niron bars. The powder-mills here were blown up \nfour times between 1730 and 1738. Various ex- \nplosions have since occurred, in some cases with \nloss of life to many persons : 12 Oct. 1790; 1 Jan. \n1795; and others recently. Population, 1881, \n10,163 ; I \xc2\xb09i, 11,962. \n\nDARTMOOR, South Devm, a tract of land, \n20 miles long, 9 to 12 miles broad, subject to the \nduchy of Cornwall. The Dartmoor Preservation \nAssociation hold their annual meeting at Plymouth, \n26 Oct. 1885. Dartmoor Prison, founded Mar. 1806. \nSeven prisoners of war were shot 6 April, 1815, \nafter an insurrection. The autumn military ma- \nnoeuvres at Dartmoor, Aug. 1873, were unsuccessful \nthrough bad weather. \nA mutiny here was checked with loss of life of one \n\nprisoner 12 Nov. 1880 \n\nDARTMOUTH (Devon). Burnt by the \nFrench in the reigns of Richard I. and Henry IV. \nIn a third attempt (1404), the invaders were de- \nfeated by the inhabitants, assisted by the valour of \nthe women. The French commander, Du Chastel, \nthree lords, and thirty-two knights, were made \nprisoners. In the war of the parliament, Dart- \nmouth was taken after a siege of four weeks, by \nprince Maurice, who garrisoned the place for the \nking (1643) ; but it was retaken by general Fairfax \nby storm in 1646. Population, 1881,5,725; 1891, \n6,038. \n\nDARWINISM, see Devdopment and Species. \n\nDATES were affixed to grants and assignments \n18 Edw. I. 1290. Before this time it was usual at \nleast to pass lands without dating the deed of con- \nveyance. Lewis. Numerous instruments of assign- \nment enrolled among our early records establish \nthis fact. The date is determined by the names of \nthe parties, particularly that of the grantor : the \nposse-sion of land was proof of the title to it. \nHardie. A useful glossary of the dates given in old \ncharters and chronicles will be found in Nicolas\'s \n" Chronology of History." J. J. Bond\'s " Handy- \nBook for Verifying Dates," published 1866. \n\nDAUPHINE,* S.E. France, successively held \nby the Allobroges, Bmgundinns, and Lombards , \nwas, about 732-4, delivered from the invading \nSaracens by Charles Martel. After forming part of \nthe kingdom of Aries, it was much subdivided \namong counts. One of these, Humbert II., ceded \nDauphine and the Viennois to Philip VI., in 1343, \nfor his eldest son, on the condition that the prince \nshould be styled dauphin, which took effect in \n1349, when Humbert became a monk. Louis \nAntoine, duke of Angouleme, son of Charles X., \nthe last dauphin who assumed the title at his \nfather\'s accession, 16 Sept. 1824, died 3 June, \n1844. \n\n\n\n* One of the counts of Viennc placed a dolphin \n(dauphin) in his coat-of-arms, and assumed the title of \ndauphin. \n\n\n\nDAVENTEY. \n\n\n\n274 \n\n\n\nDEAF AND DUMB. \n\n\n\nDAVENTEY, Northamptonshire. Near here \nLambert, having escaped from the Tower, was de- \nfeated and retaken, in his attempt to enkindle the \n.war, by Monk, 21 April, 1660. The dissenting \nacademy removed here from Northampton in 1752, \nwas transferred to Wymondley in 1789, thence to \nLondon as Coward College, and finally united with \nHomerton and Highbury Colleges as New College, \nin 1850. \n\nDAVENPOET, see Plymouth. \n\nDAVID\'S, St. (S. W. Wales), the ancient \nMenapia, now a poor decayed place, but once the \nmetropolitan see of "Wales, and archiepiscopal. \nWhen Christianity was planted in Britain, three \narchbishops\' seats were appointed, viz. London, \nYork, and Caerleon upon Usk, in Monmouthshire. \nThat at Caerleon being too near the dominions of \nthe Saxons, was removed to Mynyw, and called \nSt. David\'s, in honour of the archbishop who re- \nmoved it, 522. St. Sampson was the last arch- \nbishop of the Welsh ; for he, withdrawing himself \non account of a pestilence to Dole, in Brittany, \ncarried the pall with him. In the reign of Henry I. \nthe archbishops submitted to the see of Canterbury. \nBeat son. Present income 4500^. \n\nBISHOPS. \n\n1800. Lord George Murray, died 3 June, 1803. \n\n1803. Thomas Burgess, trans, to Salisbury, June, 1825. \n\n1825. John Banks Jenkinson, died 7 July, 1840. \n\n1840. Connop Thirlwall ; resigned June, 1874 ; died \n\n27 July, 1875. \n1874. Win. Basil Jones, consecrated 24 Aug. \n\nDAVID\'S DAY, St., i March, is annually \ncommemorated by the Welsh, in honour of St. \nDavid. Tradition states that on St. David\'s birth- \nday, 540, a great victory was obtained by the \nWelsh over their Saxon invaders ; and that the \nWelsh soldiers were distinguished, by order of St. \nDavid, by a leek in their caps. \n\nDAVIS\'S STEAIT (N. America), discovered \nby John Davis, n Aug. 1585, on his voyage to find \na N. W. passage, 1585-87. He made two more \nvoyages for the same purpose, and five voyages to \nthe East Indies. In the last he was killed by \nJapanese pirates, on the coast of Malacca, 27 or 29 \nDec., 1605. \n\nDAVY LAMP, &c, see Safety Lamp. \n\nThe Davy Medal, furnished by the sale of Sir Humphry \nDavy\'s plate, was first awarded by the Royal Society \nto Professors Bunsen and Kirchhoff in 1877 for their \ndiscovery of spectrum analysis (which see). \n\nDAVYUM, a new metal, discovered by Sergius \nKern, 28 June, 1877, in the residuum of platinum \nore ; said to be hard, infusible, and rather ductile. \nIt has been suspected to be ruthenium. \n\nDAY. Day began at sunrise among most of the \nnorthern nations, at sunset among the Athenians \nand Jews ; and among the Romans at midnight as \nwith us. The Italians in some places, reckon the \nday from sunset to sunset, making their clocks \nstrike twenty-four hours round. The Chinese \ndivide the day into twelve parts of two hours each. \nThe astronomical day begins at noon, is divided \ninto twenty-four hours (instead of two parts of \ntwelve hours). Thus the astronomical day \n\n8 Dec. begins at noon of 8 Dec. and ends at noon \n\n9 Dec. At Greenwich, from 1 Jan. 1885, the day \nof 24 hours began at midnight ; the reckoning was \nrecommended for railways, &c. A system of uni- \nversal time for all countries was put forth by Mr. \nSandford Fleming, of Canada. The Washington \nPrime Meridian Conference adopted a resolution \n\n\n\ndeclaring the universal day to be the mean solar \nday, beginning, for all the world, at the moment of \nmean midnight of the initial meridian, coinciding \nwith the beginning of the civil day, and that \nmeridian to be counted from zero up to 24 hours, \n21 Oct. 1884. The scheme for universal time was \nadvocated by Mr. W. H. M. Christie, the Astro- \nnomer Royal, at the Royal Institution, 19 March, \n1886. \n\nDEACONS (literally servants), an order of \nChristian ministers, began with the Apostles, about \n53. {Acts vi.) Their qualifications are given by \nSt. Paul (65), 1st Timothy iii. 8 \xe2\x80\x94 14. Mr. John \nAndrews, master of Shrewsbury High School, was \nordained at Lichfield Cathedral a permanent deacon \nin conformity with a resolution passed in the \nUpper House of Convocation, Feb. 1884; his duties \nare to assist the priest in the communion service, \n&c, 18 Dec. 1887. \n\nDEACONESSES, or ministering widows, have \ntheir qualifications given in 1 Tim. v. 9, 10 (65). \nTheir duties were to visit the poor and sick, assist \nat the agapas or love feasts, admonish the young \nwomen, &c. The office was discontinued in the \nWestern church in the 5th and 6th centuries, and \nin the Greek church about the 12th, but has been \nrecently revived in Germany. The appointment of \ndeaconesses, subject to the parochial clergy, was \nadvocated by the bishop of Ely about 1853, aud \nsome were appointed. The Diocesan Deaconess \nInstitution, London, was established in 1861. \n\nDEAD. Prayers for their benefit were pro- \nbably offered up in the 2nd century, being referred \nto by Tertullian, who died 220: The practice was \nprotested against by Aerius, and defended by Epi- \nphanius, who died 403. It is generally objected to \nby the church of England, but is not expressly for- \nbidden ; so decided by sir Herbert Jenner in the \nCourt of Arches (PhiUimore, Peel. Law, 1873-6). \nBook of the Dead, a collection of prayers and exorcisms \nwritten in Egyptian hieroglyphic or hieratic charac- \nters, composed for the benefit of the pilgrim soul in \nhis journey through Anient! (the Egyptian Hades). \nPortions of these papyri were placed with the mummy \nin his tomb. They are said to form fully one half of \nthe thousands which are extant. The " Book of the \nDead " is dated from the 4th dynasty 3733-3566 B.C. \nAfter much toil a pure text with illustrations was \npublished by M. Edouard Naville, 1886. Translations \nin several European languages have appeared. A \nfacsimile of the Papyrus of Ani in the British Museum \nwas printed in 1890. \n\nDEAD WEIGHT LOAN acquired its name \nfrom its locking up the capital of the Bank of \nEngland, which in 1823 advanced 11,000,000^. to \nthe government (to construct new ordnance, &c). \nThe latter engaged to give an annuit} r of 585,740^. \nfor 44 years, which ceased in June, 1867. \n\nDEAF AND DUMB. The first systematic \nattempt to instruct the deaf and dumb was made \nby Pedro de Ponce, a Benedictine monk of Spain, \non Jerome Cardan\'s system, about 1570. See PI hid. \nBonet, a monk, published a system at Madrid . . 1620 \nDr. Wallis published a work in England on the \n\nsubject 1650 \n\nThe first regular academy for the deaf and dumb in \n\nBritain opened in Edinburgh 1773 \n\nIn modern times the abbe de l\'Epee (1712-89), and \n\nhis friend and pupil the abbe Sicardof Paris (1742 \xe2\x80\x94 \n\n1822) ; the rev. Mr. Townsend and Mr. Baker, of \n\nLondon ; Mr. Thos. Braidwood of Edinburgh ; \n\nand surgeon Orpen of Dublin, have laboured with \n\nmuch success in promoting the instruction of the \n\ndeaf and dumb. \nThe asylum for deaf and dumb children, opened in \n\nLondon through the exertions of Mr. Townsend \n\n\n\nDEAL. \n\n\n\nDEBTORS. \n\n\n\nrHis \n\n1816 \n\n\n\n1870 \n\n\n\n1S72 \n\n\n\nin 1792; one in Edinburgh by Mr. T. Braidwood, \nin 18 10 ; and one in Birmingham by Mr. T. Braid- \nwood \n\nThe asylum at Claremont, Dublin, opened . . . \n\nA deaf and dumb debating club (Walfis club) closed \nits third session April, \n\nThe foundation sfone of St. Saviour\'s church, near \nOxford street, London, for the deaf and dumb, laid \nby the prince of Wales . . . 5 July, \n\nIn 1851, there were in Great Britain, 12,553 deaf and \ndumb out of a population of 20,959,477. \n\nOral Teaching. \xe2\x80\x94 Mr. Wm. Van Praagh introduced \nthe so-called German system into this country in \nJul} 7 , 1867; published his "Plan for the Estab- \nlishment of Day Schools [in preference to board- \ning-houses] for the Deaf and Dumb" (in which \nthey are to be taught by speech and lip teaching \nonly; the finger alphabet and artificial signs \nbeing rigidly excluded), in 1871. By the help of \nthe baroness Meyer de Rothschild and others, the \n" Association for the Oral Instruction of the Deaf \nand Dumb" was founded in 1871, and a day- \nschool opened at 12, Fitzroy-square . 16 July, \n\nThe Royal Association for the Deaf and Dumb, \nLondon, founded. fn 1840, and re-organised 1854. \nIt provides instruction and entertainment under \nclerical direction. \n\nInternational congress at Milan ; great majority in \nfavour of oral teaching of deaf-mutes . Sept. 1880 \n\nInternational congress at Brussels. 13 Sept. et seg. 1883 \n\nDEAL, a cinque port with Sandwich, 1229 ; a \nfishing village in the reign of Henry VIII. ; its \nstrong castle built 1539 by Henry VIII. Deal was \nincorporated and made independent of Sandwich, \n1699. Population, 188 1, 8,500 ; 1891,8,898. \n\nDEAN, FOREST OF, Gloucestershire, an- \nciently wooded quite through, and in the last \ncentury, though much curtailed, was twenty miles \nin length and ten in breadth. It was famous for its \ncaks, the material of our ships of war. lliots in \nthis district, when more than 3000 persons as- \nsembled in the forest, and demolished upwards of \nfifty miles of wall and fence, throwing open 10,000 \nacres of plantation, took place on 8 June, 183 1. \nThe Dean forest (mines) act passed 16 Aug. 1871. \n\nDEAN (decanus), a name commonly given to \nthe arch-presbyter, or eldest presbyter, in the I2th \ncentury; originally a military title, an officer over \nten soldiers. In the church of England the dean \nand chapter of a cathedral nominally elect the \nbishop and form his council. By 13 & 14 Car. II. \n(1662), a dean must be in priest\'s orders; pre- \nviously the office had occasionally been held by a \nlayman, with special dispensation. The ancient \noffice of " rural dean " has been much revived since \n1850. The Deans\' and Canons\' resignation act \npassed 13 May, 1872. The Five Deans\' memorial, \nand counter memorial, see Church of England, 1881. \nSee Arches. \n\nDEATH, ordained as the punishment for mur- \nder, 2348 B.C. (Gen. ix. 6.) \n\nThe Jews generally stoned their criminals (Lev. \nxx. 2) B.C. 1490 \n\nDraco\'s code punished every offence with death . 621 \n\nIt was limited to murder by Solon .... 594 \n\nMithridates, a Persian soldier, who boasted that he \nhad killed Gyrus the Younger, at the battle of \nCunaxa, was by order of Artaxerxes exposed to \nthe sun for eighteen days .... . 401 \n\nMaurice, the son of a nobleman, was hanged, drawn, \nand quartered for piracy, the first execution in \nthat maimer in England, 25 Hen. III. . a.d. 1241 \n\nThe punishment of death was abolished in a great \nnumber of eases by sir Robert Peel\'s acts, 4 to 10 \nGeo. IV 1824-g \n\nBy the criminal law consolidation acts, death was \nconfined to treason and wilful murder . 1861 \n\nThe commission on capital punishment (appointed \n1864) issued their report (recommending that \n\n\n\npenal servitude be substituted for death in some \ncases where murder was unpremeditated, and . \nthat executions should not be public) . Dee. 1865 \n\nCapital punishment restricted in Italy . April, ,, \n\nIts proposed abolition in Belgium was negatived, \n\n18 Jan. 1867 \n\n"Capital Punishment within Prisons Bill" passed \nMay, 1868. First case, 13 Aug. 1868 : see Execu- \ntions: \n\nAbolition of the punishment of death in Great \nBritain proposed by Mr. Gilpin in the commons ; \nnegatived (127 to 23), 21 April, 1868 ; negatived \n(118 to 58), 29 July, 1869 ; negatived (167-54), 24 \nJuly, 1872; (155-5\xc2\xb0). I2 June, 1S77 ; (263-64), 13 \nMarch, 1878 ; proposed by Mr. (aft. sir j.) Pease, \nnegatived (175-79), 22 June, 1881; again 10 May, \n1S82; again (117-62) .... 11 May, 1886 \n\nCapital punishment abolished in Russia by Cathe- \nrine II., except for treason 1767 \n\nCapital punishment abolished in Tuscany, 1859, \nRomnania, 1864; Portugal, 1867; Saxony, i April, \n1868 ; Holland, 1870. In 17 out of 21 cantons of \nSwitzerland, 1874 ; Italy, 1888 ; New York . . 1890 \n\nPractically ceased in Belgium, Prussia, Bavaria, \nDenmark, and Sweden, though not abolished. \n\nIn France 126 convictions for murder \xe2\x80\x94 4 executed, \nin one year ; similar proportion in Italy. \n\nAbolished in some of United States. Maine, 1876 ; \nRhode Island, Michigan, and Wisconsin, since ; \nin others, virtually ceased. \n\nCapital punishment by electricity ordered to be \nadopted by the State of New York from . 1 Jan. 1889 \n\nThe execution of William Kemmler by electricity \nwas ordered, but deferred, on appeal" . 11 Oct. ,, \n\nExecution by electricity declared constitutional by \nthe court of appeals . . . 22 March, 1890 \n\nExecution stopped by habeas corpus . 29 April ,, \n\nEffected with some difficulty . . .6 Aug. ,, \n\nFour men executed by electricity at Sing-Sing, N. Y. \n\n7 July, 1891 \n\nOthers since. \n\nModes of execution (1889) : \xe2\x80\x94 Austria, gallows, public ; \nBavaria, guillotine, private ; Belgium, guillotine, \npublic ; Brunswick, axe, private ; China, sword or \ncord, public ; Denmark, guillotine, public ; Ecuador, \nmusket, public ; France, guillotine, public ; Great \nBritain, gallows, private ; Hanover, guillotine, pri- \nvate ; Italy, capital punishment abolished ; Nether- \nlands, gallows, public ; Oldenburg, musket, public ; \nPortugal, gallows, public ; Prussia, sword, private ; \n\n- Russia, musket, gallows, or sword, public ; Saxony, \nguillotine, private ; Spain, garotte, public ; Switzer- \nland, fifteen cantons, sword, public ; two cantons, \nguillotine, public ; two cantons, guillotine, private ; \nUnited States (other than New York), gallows, mostly \nprivate. \n\nSee Beheading, Ravaillac, Damiens. Boiling, Burn- \ning, Hanging, Forgery, and Campbell\'s Acts. \n\nDEATHS, Registers of, see Bills of Mor- \ntality, Public Health, and Registers. \n\nDEBATES IN PARLIAMENT. See \n\nReporting. \n\nDEBATING SOCIETIES ; several formed \nin the last century. The celebrated Oxford Union \nSociety was founded in 1823, and many orators \nhave been trained by it. \n\nDEBTORS have been subjected to imprison- \nment in almost all countries and times. In the \neighteen months subsequent to the panic of Dec. \n1825, as many as 101,000 writs for debt were issued \nin England. In the year ending 5 Jan. 1830, there \nwere 71 14 persons sent to the several prisons of \nLondon ; and on that day, 1547 of the number \nwere yet confined. On the 1st of Jan. 1840, the \nnumber of prisoners for debt in England and Wales \nwas 1732 ; in Ireland the number was under 1000 ; \nand in Scotland under 100. The operation of \nstatutes of relief, and othei causes, considerably \nreduced the number of imprisoned debtors. VVheii \nthe new Bankruptcy act (abolishing imprisonment \nfor debt except when fraudulently contracted) \ncame into operation in Nov. 1861, a number of \n\nt 2 \n\n\n\nDEBTTSSCOPE. \n\n\n\n276 \n\n\n\nDEEP-SEA SOUNDINGS. \n\n\n\ndebtors who had been confined were released. \nArrest of Absconding Debtors bill, 14 & 15 Vict. \nc. 52, 1852. In 1863 nearly 18,000 persons were \nimprisoned by order of the county courts : average \ntime, 15 days, amount of debt, 3Z. 10*. By an act \npassed 9 Aug. 1869, the imprisonment of fraudulent \ndebtors was abolished, with certain exceptions, and \nnearly a hundred debtors were released by a judge\'s \norder in Jan. 1870. An act to facilitate the arrest \nof absconding debtors, passed 9 Aug. 1870. Im- \nprisonment for debt in Ireland was abolished by an \nact passed 6 Aug. 1872, and in Scotland (after 31 \nDec.) by Dr. Cameron\'s Act, passed 7 Sept. 1880. \nSee Arrest, King\'s Bench, Bankrupts, Insolvents, \nand National Debt. \n\n7978 persons were committed to gaol by the county \ncourts in 1871 ; 4438 in 1874. Imprisonment for debt \nwas virtually abolished by the Bankruptcy Act of 1883, \nwhich relieved small debtors. \n\nDEBTTSSCOPE, an instrument of French \norigin, somewhat similar to the kaleidoscope, said \nto be useful for devising patterns for calico-printers, \n&c, made its appearance in i860. \n\nDECAMERONE (10 days), see Boccaccio. \n\nDECAPITATION, see Beheading. \n\nDECCAN (Dekhan or Dakhan), S. India, was \ninvaded by the Mahometans in 1294. The first \nindependent sultan was Alaudin. The natives re- \nvolted, and the dynasty of Bahmani was founded \nby Hasan Ganga in 1347. About 1686-90, Aurung- \nzebe I. recovered the Deccan, but soon lost great \npart of it to the Mahrattas. The Nizam al Mulk, \nhis viceroy, became independent in 171 7. A large \npart of the Deccan was ceded to the English in \n1818. \n\nDECEMBER (from decern, ten), the tenth \nmonth of the year of Romulus, commencing in \nMarch. In 713 B.C. Numa introduced January \nand February before March, and thenceforward \nDecember became the twelfth of the year. In the \nreign of Commodus, a.d. 181 \xe2\x80\x94 192, December wag \ncalled, by way of flattery, Amazonius, in honour \nof a courtesan whom that prince had loved, and had \nhad painted like an Amazon. The English com- \nmenced their year on the 25th December, until the \nreign of William I. ; see Year. For 2 Dec. revolu- \ntion see France, 185 1. \n\nDECEMVIRI, or Ten Men, appointed to \ndraw up a code of laws, to whom for a year the \nwhole government of Rome was committed, 451 B.C. \nThe laws they drew up were approved by_ the \nsenate and general assembly of the people, written \non ten metallic tables, and set up in the place where \nthe people met {comitium). Two more tables were \nadded by a second decemvirate, 450 B.C. The \ntyrannical conduct of Appius Claudius, one of the \nDecemviri, towards Virginia, who wa< stabbed by \nher father Virginius to save her from slavery, led \nto a revolution, and the re-eslablishment of the \nconsular government, 449 B.C. \n\nDECENNALIA, festivals instituted by Au- \ngustus, 17 B.C., celebrated by the Roman. emperors \nevery tenth year of their reign, with sacrifices, \ngames, and largesses. Livij. Celebrated by An- \ntoninus Pius, a.d. 148. \n\nDECIMAL SYSTEM or Coinage, \n\nWEIGHTS, &<\xe2\x80\xa2\xe2\x96\xa0, see ALetric System. \n\nDECIPIUM, a new metal found by M. Dela- \nfontaine in the same earth with Philippium {which \nsee); announced Nov., 1878. \n\n\n\nDECLARATION, see Independence and \nBights. \n\nDECORATED STYLE, see Gothic. \n\nDECORATIVE ART. Its principles, enun- \nciated by A. W. Pugin, in his " Designs," in 1835, \nhave been advanced by Owen Jones, Redgrave, and \nothers. Owen Jones\'s elaborate "Grammar of \nOrnament," was published in 1856. A Decorative \nArt society, founded in 1844, existed for a short \ntime only. \n\nDE COURCY\'S PRIVILEGE, that of \nstanding covered before the king, granted by king \nJohn to John de Courcy, baron of Kingsale, and \nhis successors, in 1203. He was the first Irish \nnobleman created by an English sovereign, 27 \nHen. II. 1 181, and was entrusted with the govern- \nment of Ireland, 1185. The privilege was allowed \nto the baron of Kingsale by Will. III., Geo. III., \nand by Geo. IV. at his court held in Dublin, in \nAug. 1821. The 31st baron, John Fitz-Roy de \nCnurcy, who succeeded 1874, died, aged 69, 20 Nov. \n1890. The present baron is the 32nd in suc- \ncession. \n\nDECRETALS. They formed the second part \nof the canon law, or collection of the pope\'s edicts \nand decrees and the decrees of councils. The first \nacknowledged to be genuine is a letter of Siricius \nto Himerus, a bishop of Spain, written in the firsfc \nyear of his pontificate, 385. Howel. Certain false \ndecretals were used by Gregory Iv. in 837. The de- \ncretals of Gratian, a Benedictine (a collection of \ncanons), were compiled in 1150. Henault. Five \nbooks were collected by Gregory IX. 1227 ; a sixth \nby Boniface VIII. 1297 ; the Clementines by Cle- \nment V. in 1313; employed by John XXII. in 1317 ; \nthe Extravagantes range from 1422 to 1483. \n\nDEDICATION of the Jewish tabernacle took \nplace 1490 B.C. ; of the temple, 1004 B.C.; of the \nsecond temple, 515 B.C. The Christians under Con- \nstantine built new churches and dedicated them \nwith great solemnity, in a.d. 331, et seq. The \ndedication of books (by authors to solicit patronage \nor testify respect) existed in the time of Maecenas, \n17 B.C., the friend and counsellor of Augustus, and \na patron of Horace {Ode I. 1). \n\nDEED, a written contract or agreement. The \nformula, " I deliver this as my act and deed/* \noccurs in a charter of 933. Fosbrooke. Deeds in \nEngland were formerly written in Latin or French ; \nthe earliest known instance in English is the in- \ndenture between the abbot of Whitby and Robert \nBustard, dated at York in 1343 ; see English Lan- \nguage. \n\n. DEEP-SEA SOUNDINGS. Much new and \ninteresting information respecting the animal life \nand temperature of the deep sea has been acquired \nby the dredgings on the coast of Norway by M. \nSars, and by those of Dr. W. B. Carpenter and \nprof. (aft. sir) Wyville Thomson on our own coasts, \nnear the Faroe isles, in 1868 and 1869, and in the \nMediterranean by Dr. Carpenter in 1870. Living \nanimals have been found at a depth of three miles. \nOn 21 Dec. 1872, Dr. Wyville Thomson and a party \nof scientific men sailed in H.M.S. Challenger \n(Capt. G. S. Nares), to examine into the physical \nand biological condition of the great ocean basins \nand the direction of their currents. Deepest sound- \ning then known was taken in the Atlantic, north \nof St. Thomas\'s, 3875 fathoms (4 miles, 710 yards), \n24 March, 1873. On 10 Dec. 1874, capt. Thompson \nsucceeded capt. Nares, who took the command of \nthe new Arctic expedition. The Challenger re- \n\n\n\nDEEE. \n\n\n\n277 \n\n\n\nDELAWARE. \n\n\n\nturned, with valuable collections, 25 May, 1876, \nlifter a voyage of above 80,000 miles. The " Voyage " \n\xe2\x96\xa0was published by sir C. Wyville Thomson in Dec. \n1877 ; and forty-eight volumes of reports had been \npublished, March, 1892. A Norwegian expedition \nexplored the northern seas 16 July \xe2\x80\x94 18 Aug. 1877 ; \nan Italian expedition in the Mediterranean started \n2 Aug. 1881. \n\nJn Sept., 1889, theSouth Atlantic Ocean, midway be- \ntween the island of Tristan d Ae.unha and the \nmouth of the Rio de la Plata, was stated to be \n40,236 feet, or 8 \\ miles. \nThe deep sea explorations, carried on in the eastern \nMediterranean for the academy of Vienna, re- \nported successful ; the greatest depth, i\\ miles, \nds between Molla and Cerigo . . . March, 1891 \n\nDEER are mentioned in a will of one Athel- \n6tau, dated 1045. Professor Owen thinks that fallow \ndeer are not native, but were introduced here at an \nwarly period. There are now in England 334 deer \nparks, the oldest being probably lord Abergavenny\'s \nat Eridge, Sussex. See Evelyn Shirley\'s " Account \nof Deer Parks," July, 1867. 1658 deer in the \nroyal parks, 1873. \n\nDEERHOUND, an English yacht, while \nconveying arms to the Carlists, seized by the \nSpanish government vessel Buenaventura, oft tfiar- \nritz, and captain and crew imprisoned, 13 Aug. ; \nreleased about 18 Sept. 1873. \n\nDEFAMATION is punishable by fine and \nImprisonment \\>y statute of 1S43. The jurisdiction \nof the ecclesiastical courts on this subject was \nabolished by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 41 (1855). See Libel. \n\nDEFENCE, see Church Defence, National \n\nDefence. \n\nDEFENCE ACT, a complete conscription act, \nauthorising a levy en masse, 1803, was unsuccessful; \nnew measures were taken in 1807-8. The Defence \nof the Jieulm Act passed 28 Aug. i860, in conse- \nquence of the unsettled state of Europe, and the \ndoubtful policy of the emperor Napoleon ; see For- \ntification and Colonics. \n\n" DEFENCE GOVERNMENT " in France, \nformed 011 4 Sept. 1870, when the emperor was \n\xe2\x96\xa0deposed and a republic proclaimed, gen. Trochu \npresident ; it included Gambetta, Simon, &c. It \nresigned, after Paris had capitulated, 5, 6 Feb. \n1 87 1. See France. \n\nDEFENDER of the Faith {Fidel De- \n\nJfensor), a title of the British sovereign, conferred \n.by Leo. X. on Henry VIII. of England, 11 Oct. \nS521, for the tract against Luther or. behalf of the \n\xe2\x80\xa2Church of Pome (then accounted Domicilium Jidei \nCatholicce). \n\nDEFENDERS, a faction in Ireland, which \n*irose out of a quarrel between two residents of \nMarket-hill, 4 July, 1784. Each was soon aided \nhy a large body of friends, and many battles ensued. \n"On Whit-Mondaj r , 1785, an armed assemblage of \n*one of the parties (700 men), called the Nappagh \nFleet, prepared to encounter the Baton Fleet, but \nthe engagement was prevented. They subsequently \n\xe2\x80\xa2became religious parties, Catholic and Presbyterian, \ndistinguished as Defenders and Peep-o\' \'-day-boys : \nthe latter were so named because they usually visited \nthe dwellings of the Defenders at daybreak in search \n\xe2\x80\xa2fif.arrus; see Diamond. \n\nDEGREES- Eratosthenes attempted to deter- \nmine the length of a geographical degree about 2C0 \nB.C. See Geodesy, Latitude, and Longitude. Col- \nlegiate degrees are coeval with universities. Master* \nand doctors existed, 826. See Lambeth Degrees. \n\n\n\nThose in law are traced up to 1 149 ; in medicine, \nto 1384; in music, 101463. Middle class exam- \ninations for degrees were instituted at Oxford, 18 \nJune, 1857 ; at Cambridge, 24 Nov. 1857 ; and \ngirls were allowed to compete for degrees, Oct. \n1863. Bill to enable Scotch universities to grant \ndegrees to women rejected by the Commons, 3 \nMarch, 1875. See Women. \n\nDEI GRATIA, see Grace of God. \n\nDEIRA, a part of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of \nNorthumbria ; see under Britain. \n\nDEISM, Theism, or Monotheism (Latin, \n\ndens ; Greek, theos, God), the belief in one God, in \nopposition to polytheism and to the doctrine of the \nTrinity. About the middle of the 16th century \nsome gentlemen of France and Italy termed them- \nselves deists, to disguise their opposition to Chris- \ntianity by a more honourable appellation than that \nof Atheism {which see). The most distinguished \ndeists were Herbert, baron of Cherbury, in 1624 ; \nHobbes, Tindal, Morgan, lord Bolingbroke, Gibbon, \nHume, Holcroft, Paine, and Godwin. \nA high-caste Brahmin, Raminohun Roy, founded a \nBrahmin monotheistic church in 1830, termed the \nBrahmo Somaj. He died at Bristol 27 Nov. 1833. \nHis reforming work was revived in 1842 by \nDebendra Nath Tangore. In 1858 Baboo Keshub \n(Jhunder Sen joined the society, and became a \nmost energetic propagandist, advocating also \nsocial reform ; being much opposed, he lormed \nthe new Brahmo Somaj of India in . . . 1866 \nKeshub Chunder Sen was received at a public \nmeeting in London as a reformer, 12 April, and \nsubsequently preached in a Unitarian chapel, \n\nFinsbury, London 1870 \n\nSchism in his church ; new church formed (Society \n\nof God) 1880 \n\nHe died at Calcutta 8 Jan. 1884 \n\nSee Unitarians and Voysey. \n\nDEITIES, see Mythology. \n\nDELAGOA BAY, S. E. Africa, claimed by \nGreat Britain and Portugal. Having been referred \nto arbitration, the southern portion was awarded to \nPortugal by marshal MacMahon, Aug. 1875. \n\nThe importance of the port was greatly increased \nby the discovery of gold in the Transvaal dis- \ntricts. The South African Republic promoted \na railway to be constructed by German and Dutch \ncapitalists. The acquisition of the bay by Great \nBritain strongly advocated . . . Dec. 1887 \n\nThe Portuguese government in 14 Dec. 1883, \ngranted a concession toa Portuguese company for \nthe construction of a railway from the bay to the \nTransvaal territory. The prospectus of the East \nAfrican railway company (capital 500,000?.) was \nissued 7 March, 1887. As the railway was not \ncompleted in the specified time, the works were \nconfiscated by the Portuguese government, 25 \nJune, et seq., who cancelled the concession (see \nFortuqal) 26 June, 1889 \n\nThe British and United States governments re- \nmonstrate with Portugal. . . . April, 1890 \n\nThe completed railway inaugurated . 28 April ,, \n\nThe Portuguese government accepts the principle \nof arbitration ; the governments request the \nSwissgovernment to appoint three .jurists to form \na court of arbitration . . reported 2 May \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Portuguese government pays 28,000?. to the \nBritish government for the railway company \nprovisionally reported July ,, \n\nThe court of arbitration meets at Berne . 8 Aug. ,, \n\nDELAWARE, one of the United States of \nNorth America, named after lord de la Warre, go- \nvernor of Virginia, who entered the bay 1610. It \nwas settled by Swedes, sent there by Oustavus in \n1627; acquired by the Dutch, 1655 ; ceded to the \n\n\n\nDELEGATES. \n\n\n\n278 \n\n\n\nDELTA. \n\n\n\nEnglish, 1664. Capital, Dover. Population, 1880, \n146,608 ; 1890, 168,493. \n\nBy an explosion at Messrs. Dupont\'s powder mills \nnear Wilmington 13 persons were killed 7 Oct. 1890 \n\nDELEGATES, Court of. Appeals to the \npope in ecclesiastical causes having been forbidden \n(see Appeals), such causes were for the future to be \nheard in this court, established by Henry YIII. \n1533. Stow. This court was abolished in 1832, \nand appeals now lie to the Judicial Committee of \nthe Privy Council, according to 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. \n41 (1833) ; and 6 & 7 Vict. c. 38 (1843). See Arches. \n\nDELEGATIONS, in the Austro-Hungarian \nMonarchy, established in 1867, composed of 60 \nAustrian and 60 Hungarian members. \n\nDELFT (S. Holland), a town founded by God- \nfrey le Bossu, about 1074 > famous for " Delft \nearthenware ;" first manufactured here about 1310. \nThe sale of delft greatly declined after the introduc- \ntion of potteries into Germany and England. Gro- \ntius, jurist, was bom here, 16 April, 1583 ; tercen- \ntenary celebrated 10 April, 1883. His statue \nerected, 17 Sept. 1886. And here "William, the \ngreat prince of Orange, was assassinated by \nGerard, 10 July, 1584 ; tercentenary celebrated 10 \nJuly, 1884. Population, 1890, 29,022. \n\nDELHI, the once great capital of the Mogul \nempire, and chief seat of the Mahometan power in \nIndia ; it was taken by Timour in 1398. It is how \nin decay, but contained a million of inhabitants in \n1700. In 1739, when Nadir Shah invaded Hiu- \ndostan, he entered Delhi ; 100,000 of the inhabitants \nperished by the sword, and plunder to the amount of \n62,000,000/. sterling is said to have been collected. \nSimilar calamities were endured in 1761, on the \ninvasion of Abdalla, king of Candahar. In 1803, \nthe Mahrattas, aided by the French, took Delhi ; \nbut were defeated by general Lake, n Sept., and \nthe aged Shah Aulum, emperor of Hindostan, was \nrestored to his throne with a pension ; see India, \n1803. On 10 May, 1857, a mutiny arose in the \nsepoy regiments at Meerut. It was soon checked; \nhut the fugitives fled to Delhi on 11 May, and, \ncombined with other troops here, seized the city ; \nproclaimed a descendant of the Mogul king, and \ncommitted frightful atrocities. The rebels were \nanxious to possess the chief magazine, but after a \ngallant defence it was exploded by order of lieut. \nW-illoughby, who died of his wounds shortly after, \nThe other heroes of this exploit were lieutenants \nForrest and Rayner, and the gunners Buckley and \nScully. Delhi was shortly after besieged by the \nBritish, but was not taken till 20 Sept. following. \nThe final struggle began on the 14th ; brigadier \n(aft. sir) Archdale Wilson being the commander. \nMuch heroism was shown; the gallant death of \nSalkeld at the explosion of the Cashmere gate \ncreated much enthusiasm. The old king and his \nsons were captured soon after: the latter were \nshot, and the former after a trial was sent for life to \nRangoon, where he died 11 Nov. 1862. See India, \n1857. A camp formed at Delhi by the earl of Mayo, \nthe viceroy, Dec. 1871, was visited bv the king of \nSiam, Jan. 1872. The prince of "Wales visited \nDelhi, II Jan. 1876. Queen Victoria was proclaimed \nempress of India here with much magnificence, many \nIndian princes being present, 1 Jan. 1877. Great \nfire, 2000 houses burnt, 19 April, 1883. \nFoundation-stone of Dufferin Hospital laid by lord \n\nDufferin 2 Nov. 1885 \n\nEiots by collisions at Hindoo and Mahoinnie.dan \n\nfestivals quelled by the military 5 Oct. et scq. 1886 \n\n\n\nGreat fire, 300 houses destroyed, much distress, \n\n11-12 May, 1889 \nFanatical riots quelled . . about 8 April, 1892 \n\n"DELICATE INVESTIGATION\'tntothe \nconduct of the princess of Wales (afterwards queen \nof England, as consort of George IV.), was com- \nmenced by a committee of the privy council, under \na warrant of inquiry, dated 29 May, 1806. The \nmembers were lord Grenville, lord Erskine, earl \nSpencer, and lord Ellenborough. The inquiry, of \nwhich the countess of Jersey, fcir J. and lady Doug- \nlas, and other persons of rank, were the prompters, \nled to the publication called "The Book;" after- \nwards suppressed. The charges a\xc2\xbbainst the princess- \nwere disproved in 1807 and in 181 3 ; but not being \npermitted to appear at court, she went on the conti- \nnent in 1814 ; see Queen Caroline. \n\nDELIUM, Bceotia, N. Greece, the site of a \ncelebrated temple of Apollo. Here, in a conflict \nbetween the Athenians and the Boeotians, in which \nthe former were defeated, Socrates the philosopher \nis said to have saved the life of his pupil Xenophon,. \n424 B.C. \n\nDELLA CKUSCA ACADEMY of Florence \nmerged into the Florentine in 1582. \xe2\x80\x94 The Della \nCrusca School, a term applied to some English \nresidents at Florence, who printed inferior senti- \nmental poetry and prose in 1785. They came to> \nEngland, where their works, popular for a short \ntime, were severely satirised by Gifford in his " Ba- \nviad" and "Maeviad" (1792-5). \n\nDELOS, a Greek isle in the .iEgean sea. Here \nthe Greeks, during the Persian war, 477 B.C., estab- \nlished their cummon tieasury, which was removed \nto Athens, 461. Excavations, resulting in inter- \nesting discoveries, were made in the island by the- \nFrench in 1883. \n\nDELPHI (N. Greece), celebrated for its enig- \nmatical oracles delivered by the Pythia or priestess- \nin the temple of Apollo, which was built, some say, \nby the council of the Amphictyons, 1263 B.C. The \nPythian games were first celebrated here 586 B.C. \nThe temple was burnt b} r the Pisistratidse, 548 B.C. \nA new temple was raised by the Aiemaeonida?. The \nPersians (480 B.C.) and the Gauls (279 B.C.) were \ndeterred from plundering the temple by awful por- \ntents. It was, however, robbed and seized by the \nPhocians 357 B.C., which led to the sacred war, and \nNero carried from it 300 costly statues, a.d. 67. \nThe oracle was consulted by Julian, but silenced by \nTheodosius. \n\nDELPHIN CLASSICS, a collection of thirty- \nnine Latin authors in sixty volumes, made for the \nuse of the dauphin (in usum Delphini) son of Louis \nXIV., and published in 1674-91. Ausonius was \nadded in 1730. The due de Montausier, the young \nprince\'s governor, proposed the plan to Huet, bishop \nof Avranches, the dauphin\'s preceptor ; and he, with \nother learned persons, including Madame Dacier,* \nedited all the Latin classics except Lucan. Each \nauthor is illustrated by notes and an index of words. \nAn edition of the Delphin classics, with additional \nnotes, &c, was published \\>y Mr. Valpy of London, \n1818, et seq. \n\nDELTA, the island formed by the alluvial de- \nposits between the mouths of the Nile, so named \n\n\n\n* This beautiful and gifted woman translated Calli- \nmaclms at the age of 23 ; and also Anacreon, Sappho, \nI\'lautus, Terence, .and Homer. She died in 1720. \n\n\n\nDELUGE. \n\n\n\n279 \n\n\n\nDENMARK. \n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 2352 \n\xe2\x96\xa0 2344 \n. 2329 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 2293 \n. 2288 \n. 2104 \n\n\n\nby the Greeks from its resemblance to their letter \n\nA (our D). \n\nDelta Metal, a modern bronze resembling gold, con- \ntaining a small proportion of iron, invented by Mr. A. \nDick : watch cases were made of it at Geneva in 1885. \n\nt DELUGE, THE UNIVERSAL, predicted by \nNoah, is described in Genesis vi.vii. viii.; dated by \nUsher and the English Bible 2348 B.C. The fol- \nlowing- are the epochs of the -deluge, according to \nDr. Hales :\xe2\x80\x94 \n\nSeptuagint . b.c. 3246 Clinton . . b.c. 2482 \n\nJackson . . .3170 Play fair . \n\nHales . . . . 33:55 Marsham \n\nJosephus . . . 3146 Petavius . \n\nPersian . . . . 3103 Strauchius \n\nHindoo . . .3102 Hebrew \n\nSamaritan . . . 299S Vulgar Jewish \n\nHoward . . . 2698 \n\nTraditional deluges described in the classics : in Bceotia \n\nand Attica in the reign of Ogyges, 18th century b.c. ; \n\nin Thessaly in the reign of Deucalion, 1503 B.C. ; the \n\ndates are conjectural. \n\nDEMERARA, Esseqdtbo, and Berbice, \n\ncolonies m British Guiana, South America, founded \nby the Dutch, 1580, were taken by the British, under \nmajor-general Whyte, 22 April, "1796, but were re- \nstored at the peace of Amiens, March, 1802. They \nagain surrendered to the British under general \nGrinfield and commodore Hood, Sept. 1803, and \nbecame English colonies in 1814. See Guiana, \nBritish. \n\nDEMOCRATIC FEDERALS, a political \nparty, proposed by Mr. Joseph Cowen, M.P. for \nNewcastle, opposed to the policy of the government \nof Mr. Gladstone, 5 April, 1881. \n\nDEMOCRATS, advocates for governmentby the \npeople themselves (demos, people, and kratein, to \ngovern), a term adopted by the French republicans \nin 1790 (who termed their opponents aristocrats, \nfrom aristos, bravest or best). The name Democrats \nwas adopted by the pro-slavery party in N. America \n(the southern states), and the abolitionists were \ncalled Republicans. Into these two great parties a \nnumber of smaller ones were absorbed at the presi- \ndential election in 1856. In i860, the Republicans \nformed \'\' Wide-awake" clubs for electioneering pur- \nposes, and succeeded in getting their candidate, \nAbraham Lincoln, elected president, 4 Nov., which \nled to civil war ; see United States, i860. \n\nIn the autumn of 1874, the democrats, free-traders, \nand opponents of negro-rule, once more obtained the \nmajority in the elections for the next congress ; a re- \naction in their favour against the republicans, protec- \ntionists, then powerful ; see United States, 1875-7. Go- \nvernor Cleveland, democrat, elected president, 4 Nov. \n1884 ; not re-elected, being replaced by general Benjamin \nHarrison, republican ... .5 Nov. 1888 \n\nDEMOGRAPHY. A modem term, signify- \ning "the natural history of sjcicty." Quetelet. \nSee Hygiene. \n\nDEMONOLOGY, see Devil Worship. \n\nDENAIN (N. France). Here marshal Villars \ndefeated the Imperialists, 24 July, 17 12. \n\nDENARIUS, the chief silver coin among the \nRomans, weighing the seventh part of a Roman \nounce, and value J%d. sterling, first coined about \n269 B.C., when it exchanged for ten ases (see As). \nIn 216 B.C. it exchanged for sixteen ases. A pound \nweight of silver was coined into ioo denarii. Digby. \nA pound weight of gold was coined into twenty \ndenarii aurei in 206 B.C. ; and in Nero\'s time into \nforty-five denarii aurei. Lemprierc. \n\nDENHAM MURDERS, see Trials, 1870. \n\n\n\nDENIS, St., an ancient town of France, near \nParis, famous for its abbey and church ; the former \nabolished at the revolution, the latter the place of \nsepulture of the French kings, from its foundation \nby Dagobert, about 630 ; the remains of the saint \nDenis were placed there in 636. On 6, 7, 8 Aug. \n1793, the republicans demolished most of the royal \ntombs, and in Uct. following, the bodies were taken \nfrom coffins and cast iuto a pit ; the lead was melted, \nand the gold and jewels taken to Paris. By a de- \ncreeof Bonaparte, dated 20 Feb. 1806, the church \n(which had been turned into a cattle-market) was \nordered to be cleansed out and redecorated as "the \nfuture burial-place of the emperors of France." On \nthe return of the Bourbons, more restorations were \neffected, and the due de Berri and Louis XVIII, \nwere buried here. The damage sustained in the \nwar of 1870-1 has been well "repaired. Near St. \nDenis the Catholics defeated the Huguenots, but \nlost their leader, the constable Montmorency, 10 \nNov. 1567. \n\nDENISON\'S ACT (18 & 19 Vict. c. 34), pro- \nvides "for the education of the children of persons \nin receipt of out-door relief: " passed 26 June, 1855. \n\nDENMAN\'S.Act, Lord, 6 & 7 Vict. c. 85 \n(1843), relates to juries and witnesses. \n\nDENMARK (N.Europe). The most ancient \ninhabitants were Cimbri and Teutones, who were \ndriven out by the Jutes or Goths. The Teutones \nsettled in Germany and Gaul ; the Cimbrians in- \nvaded Italy, where they were defeated byAlarius. \nThe peninsula of Jutland obtained its name from \nthe Jutes ; and the name of Denmark is supposed to \nbe derived from Ban, the founder of the Danish \nmonarchy, and mark, a German word signifying \ncountry. For their numerous invasions of Britain, \n&c, see Banes. Population of the kingdom of Den- \nmark in i860, 1,600,551 ; of the duchies of Schles- \nwig, Holstein, and Lauenburg, 1,004,473; of the colo- \nnics, 120,283. By the treaty of peace, signed 30 \nOct. 1864, the duchies were taken from Denmark ; \nSchleswig and Holstein were to be made indepen- \ndent, and Lauenburg was to be incorporated, by \nits desire, with Prussia. For the result, see Gastein \nand Prussia, 1866. Population of the monarchy, \n1870, 1,784,741; 1880, 1,969,039; of the colonies, \n1880, 127,200; 1890, 127,209. Revenue, 1889-90, \n3,192,009/.; expenditure, 3,462,732?. Imports, \n1890, 17,057,000?. ; exports, 12,990,000/. \n\n[The early dates are doubtful.] \nReign of Skiold, alleged-first king . . b.c. 60 \nThe Danish chronicles mention 18 kings to the time \nof Ragnar Lodbrog, killed in an attempt to invade \n\nEngland a.d. 794 \n\nCanute the Great conquers Norway . . 1016-28 \n\nBy the union of Calmar. Denmark, Norway, and \nSweden made one kingdom under Margaret, \n\n12 July, 1397 \n\nCopenhagen made the capital 1440 \n\nAccession of Christian I. (of Oldenburg), from whom \n\nthe late royal family sprang 1448 \n\nChristian II. deposed ; independence of Sweden \n\nunder Gustavus Vasa acknowledged . . . 1523 \nLutheranism introduced ill 1527 ; established by \n\nChristian III 1536 \n\nDanish East- India Company established . . . 1612 \nChristian IV. chosen head of the Protestant league \n\nagainst the emperor 1629 \n\nCharles Gustavus of Sweden invades Denmark, be- \nsieges Copenhagen, and makes conquests . . 1658 \nThe crown made hereditary and absolute . . 1665 \nFrederick IV. takes Holstein, Schleswig, Tonningen, \nand Stralsund ; reduces Weismar, and drives the \nSwedes from Norway .... 1716 tt scq. \nCopenhagen nearly destroyed by lire . . . 1728 \nThe peaceful reign of Christian VI. . 1730-46 \n\n\n\nDENMAEK. \n\n\n\n280 \n\n\n\nDENMAEK. \n\n\n\nPlot of the queen dowager against the ministers and \nMatilda (sister of our George III. and queen of \nChristian VII., a weak monarch). Matilda, en- \ntrapped into a confession of criminality to save the \nlife of her supposed lover, Struenzee, condemned \nto imprisonment for life in the castle of Zell, \n\n1 8 Jan. 1772 \nCount Struenzee and Brandt beheaded 28 April, ,, \n\nQueen Matilda dies, aged 24 1775 \n\nChristian VII. becomes deranged, and prince Frede- \nrick is appointed regent . . . . . . 1 784 \n\nOne-fourth of Copenhagen burnt . . 9 June, 1795 \nAdmirals Nelson and Parker bombard Copenhagen \n{which see). (Confederacy of the North, see Armed \nNeutrality, dissolved.) ... 2 April, 1801 \n\nAdmiral Gambierand lord Cath cart bombard Copen- \nhagen ; the Danish fleet surrenders . 7 Sept. 1807 \nPeace of Kiel : Pomerania and Riigen annexed to \nDenmark for Norway .... 14 Jan. 1814 \n\nPomerania and Riigen ceded to Prussia for Lauen- \n\nburg 1815 \n\nCommercial treaty with England .... 1824 \nFrederick VI. grants a new constitution . . . 1831 \nChristian VIII. declares the right of the crown to \n\nSchleswig, Holstein, &c. . . .11 July, 1846 \nAccession of Frederick VII. 20 Jan. ; he proclaims \na new constitution, uniting the duchies more \nclosely with Denmark .... 28 Jan. 1848 \nInsurrection in the duchies : a provisional govern- \nment founded 23 March, ,, \n\nThe rebels seize fortress of Rendsburg 24 March, ,, \nThey are defeated near Flensburg . 9 April, ,, \n\nThe Danes defeated by the Prussians (helping the \n\nduchies) near Dannawerke, Schleswig . 23 April, ,, \nThe North sea blockaded by Denmark . 1 Aug. ,, \nHostilities suspended : the European powers recom- \nmend peace 26 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nHostilities recommence ... 25 March, 1849 \nVictory of the Danes over the Holsteiners and Ger- \nmans 10 April, ,, \n\nSeveral conflicts with varying success . June, ,, \nThe king sanctions a new liberal constitution, \n\nS Juno, ,, \nArmistice renewed at Malmo . . . 10 July, ,, \nSeparate peace with Prussia ... 2 July, 1850 \nIntegrity of Denmark guaranteed by England, France, \n\nPrussia, and Sweden . . . . 4 July, ,, \n\nBattle of Idstedt, and defeat of the Schleswig-Hol- \n\nsteiners by the Danes . . . .25 July, ,, \nProtocol signed in London by the ministers of all \n\nthe great powers . . . . . 23 Aug. ,, \nBombardment of Friedrichstadt by the Holsteiners, \nand the town almost destroyed, but not taken, \n\n29 Sept. to 6 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nProclamation of the stadtholders of Schleswig-Hol- \nstein, placing the rights of the country under the \nprotection of the Germanic confederation 10 Jan. 1851 \nThe integrity of the Danish monarchy and the inde- \npendence of Schleswig and its old union with Hol- \nstein guaranteed by treaty . . . 18 Feb. 1852 \nAustrians evacuate Holstein, &c. . . 2 March, ,, \nTreaty of European powers. [The succession in \nthe line of Sonderburg-Gliicksburg settled, and \nthe integrity ot the Danish kingdom guaranteed. \nChristian, duke of Augustenburg-Holstein, re- \nnounced his rights for a compensation in money.] \n\n8 May, ,, \nThe king promulgates a new constitution, 29 July, \n\n1854 ; adopted .... 1 Oct. 1855 \n\nThe sound dues abolished for a compensation (see \n\nSound) 14 March, 1857 \n\nDissension between the government and theduchies, \n\nOct. 1857-62 \nFortification of Copenhagen decreed 27 March, 1858 \n\nNew ministry appointed 3 Dec. 1859 : resigns 9 Feb. ; \n\nbishop Monrad forms a ministry . . 24 Feb. i860 \nThe assembly of Schleswig complain that the pro- \nmise of equality of national rights in 1852 has not \nbeen kept, n Feb. ; protest against the annexa- \ntion to Denmark 1 March, ,, \n\nThe Prussian chamber of deputies receive a petition \nfrom Schleswig, and declare that they will aid the \nduchies, 4 May ; at which the Danish government \n\nprotests 16 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCorrespondence ensues between the Prussian, \nDanish, and British governments ; the Danish \ngovernment declare for war, if German forces \nenter the duchies . . Jan. 1861 \n\n\n\nWarlike preparations in Denmark . . . Feb. 1861 \nDecimal coinage adopted .... June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nAgitation in favour of union of Denmark with \nSweden, June ; the king of Sweden visits Den- \nmark, and is warmly received . . . 17 July, 1862 \nEarl Russell recommends the government to give \nto Holstein and Lauenburg all that the Germanic \nconfederation desire for them, and to give self- \ngovernment to Schleswig . . -24 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nM. Hall, the Danish minister, declines to accede ; \nstating that to do so would imperil the existence \nof the monarchy itself . . . . 20 Nov. ,, \nPrincess Alexandra of Denmark married to the \n\nPrince of Wales at Windsor . . 10 March, 1863 \n\nThe king grants, by patent, independent rights to \n\nHolstein, but annexes Schleswig . 30 March, ,, \nAustria and Prussia protest against it . 17 April, ,, \nFurther diplomatic correspondence . . May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe king accepts the crown of Greece for his rela- \ntive, prince William-George, and gives him sound \n\npolitical advice 6 June, ,, \n\nDeath of the crown prince Frederick-Ferdinand, \n\nthe king\'s Uncle 29 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe German diet demands annulment of the patent \nof 30 March ; (Holstein and Schleswig to be united \nwith the same right ; ) and threatens an army of \n\noccupation 9 July, ,, \n\nThe king replies that he will consider occupation to \n\nbe an act of war . . . . -27 Aug. ,, \nVain efforts for alliance with Sweden . . Aug. ,, \n\nExtra levy for the army decreed . . 1 Aug. ,, \nNew constitution (uniting Schleswig with Denmark) \n\nproposed in the rigsraad . . . . 29 Sept. ,, \nDeath of Frederick VII. and accession of Christian \n\nIX 15 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPrince Frederick of Augustenburg claims the \n\nduchies of Schleswig and Holstein . . 16 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nGreat excitement in Holstein ; many officials refuse \n\nto take oath to Christian . 21 Nov. et seq. ,. \n\nSaxony, Bavaria, Hesse, and other German powers \nresolve to support the prince of Augustenburg, \n\n26 Nov. et seq. \xe2\x80\x9e \nNew constitution affirmed by the rigsraad, 13 Nov. ; \n\nsigned by king, 18 Nov. ; published, . 1, 2 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe Austrian and Prussian ministers say that they \nwill quit Copenhagen if the constitution of 18 \nNov. is not annulled .... Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGreat excitement in Norway : proposals to support \n\nDenmark Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPrince Frederick\'s letter to the emperor Napoleon, \n\n2 Dec. ; an ambiguous reply ... 10 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nDenmark protests against federal occupation \n\n19 Dec. ,, \ngoo representatives of different German states meet \nat Frankfort, and resolve to support prince Frede- \nrick as duke of Schleswig and Holstein, and the \ninseparable union of those duchies . . 21 Dec. ,, \nThe federal execution takes place ; a Saxon regiment \nenters Altona, 24 Dec. ; and the federal commis- \nsioners assume administrative powers . 25 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe Danes retire from Holstein, to avoid collision \n\nwith federal troops . . .24 Dec. et seq. ,, \n\nPrince Frederick enters Kiel, as duke of Schleswig \n\nand Holstein 30 Dec. ,, \n\nThe Danes evacuate Rendsburg . -31 Dec. ,, \nMinisterial crisis : Hall retires, and bishop Monrad \n\nforms a cabinet 31 Dec. ,, \n\nDissension among Germans : the Austro-Prussian \n\nproposition rejected by the diet . . 14 Jan. 1864 \nAustria and Prussia demand abrogation of the con- \nstitution (of 18 Nov.) in two days, 16 Jan. ; the \nDanes require six weeks\' time . 18 Jan. ,, \n\nThe German troops under marshal Wrangel enter \n\nHolstein 21 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Prussians enter Schleswig, and take Eckenforde, \n\n1 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThey bombard Missunde, 2 Feb. ; which is burnt, \n\n3Fel. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe Danes abandon the Danncwerke to save their \narmy, 5 Feb. ; great discontent in Copenhagen, \n\n6 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe Danes defeated by Wrangel at Oever-see ; \n\nSchleswig taken ; pr. Frederick proclaimed, 6 Feb. ,, \nThe allies occupy Flensburg, 7 Feb. ; commence \n\ntheir attack on Dtippel ... 13 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe federal commissioners protest against the Prus- \nsian occupation of Altona . . . . 13 Feb. , \n\n\n\nDENMARK. \n\n\n\n281 \n\n\n\nDENMARK. \n\n\n\nThe Prussians enter Jutland ; take Kolding, 18 Feb. ; \nDanes fortify Alsen . . .18 Feb. et seq. \n\nA conference on Danish affairs proposed by Eng- \nland ; agreed to by allies . . . . 23 Feb. \n\nA subscription for the wounded Danes begun in \nLondon 24 Feb. \n\nDe Gertach, general of the Danes . . 1 Mar. \n\nDefeated at Sonderbygaard and Veill - 8 Mar. \n\nThe rigsraad vote a firm address to the king, 26 \nFeb. ; adjourned 22 Mar. \n\nThe Prussians bombard and take the village of Diip- \npel, or Dybbol, 16, 17 March, and bombard Fred- \nericia, 20 March ; repulsed in an attack on the \nfortress 28 Mar. \n\nThe opening of the conference adjourned from 12 \n\nto 20 April, \n\nThe Prussians take the fortress of Diippel, by assault. \nwith much slaughter 18 April, \n\nMeetings of the conference at London : result un- \nfavourable to Denmark . . 25 April, et seq. \n\nThe Danes retreat to Alsen ; evacuate Fredericia \nand fortresses of Jutland . . . . 29 April, \n\nAgreement for an armistice for one month from 12 \nMay 9 May, \n\nJutland subjected to pillage for not paying a war \ncontribution to Prussians . . 6 May, et seq. \n\nThe Danes defeat the allies in a naval battle off \nHeligoland 9 May, \n\nThe armistice prolonged a fortnight . 9 June, \n\nThe conference ends 22 June, \n\nHostilities resumed, 26 June ; the Prussians bom- \nbard Alsen ; take the batteries and 2400 prisoners, \n\n29 June, \n\nThe Monrad ministry resigns ; count Moltke \ncharged to form an administration . 8-10 July, \n\nAlsen taken ; \xe2\x80\x94 Jutland placed under Prussian ad- \nministration ; \xe2\x80\x94 Prince John of Denmark sent to \nnegotiate at Berlin .... 9 July, \n\nFormation of the Bluhme ministry . .11 July, \n\nArmistice agreed to . . . .18 July, \n\nConference for peace at Vienna . . .26 July, \n\nTreaty of peace signed at Vienna ; \xe2\x80\x94 the king of Den- \nmark resigns the duchies to the disposal of the \nallies, and agrees to a rectification of his frontier, \nand to pay a large sum of money to defray the \nexpenses of the war .... 30 Oct. \n\nProclamation of the king to the inhabitants of the \n\nduchies, releasing them from their allegiance, \n\n* 16 Nov. \n\nProject of a new constitution presented to the \nchambers, 21 Dec. ; rejected . . 25 Feb. \n\nNew ministry formed under count Frijsenborg, \n6 Nov. ; a new constitution proposed, 7 Nov. 1865 ; \napp roved by the two chambers, 19 and 27 July ; \nsanctioned by the king ... 28 July, \n\nPrincess Dagmar married to prince Alexander of \nRussia 9 Nov. \n\nNew rigsraad opened . . . . 12 Nov. \n\nThe king visited England .... March, \n\nThe Danish West Indies, St. Thomas and St. John, \nproposed to be sold to the United States for \ni,5oo,oooZ. \xe2\x80\x94 proclamation in the islands dated \n\n25 Oct. \n\nProposed sale of St. Thomas\'s to the United States \napproved by the assembly (not carried out), 30 Jan. \n\nMarriage of the crown prince Frederic to the prin- \ncess Louisa of Sweden ... 28 July, \n\nNew ministry formed by M. Holsteinborg, 20 May, \n\nDenmark remains neutral in the Franco-Prussian \nwar ; fruitless visit of the due de Cadore to \nCopenhagen 4- 11 Aug \n\nBirth of a son to the crown prince . . 27 Sept. \n\nDestructive hurricane over the kingdom ; loss of life \nand property 12, 13 Nov. \n\nParliament opened 1 Oct. \n\nWar budget reduced . . . . 18 Dec. \n\nMeeting of the International at Copenhagen forbid- \nden ; chiefs arrested .... 5 May, \n\nIndustrial exhibition opened . . 13 June, \n\nStatue of Frederick VII., at Copenhagen, solemnly \ninaugurated 6 Oct. \n\nA communistic party in the assembly (folkething) \ndefeat the ministry, 4 Dec. ; the king refuses to \ndismiss it 6 Dec. \n\nNew ministry under Fonnesbeck . . 14 July, \n\nThe king visits Iceland (which sec), July-Aug. ; \nEdinburgh 16 Aug. \n\nSeveral ministerial changes \n\n\n\n1865 \n\n\n\n\n\nA.D. \n\n\n,, \n\n\n794- \n\n\n,, \n\n\n803. \n\n\n1867 \n\n\n850. \n\n\n\n\n8S4- \n\n\n\n\n883. \n\n\n\n\n941. \n\n\n,, \n\n\n991. \n\n\n\n\n1014. \n\n\n1868 \n\n\n\n\n\n\ni\xc2\xb035- \n\n\n1869 \n\n\n1042. \n\n\n1870 \n\n\n1047. \n\n\n\n\nI \xc2\xb073- \n\n\n\n\n1076 \n\n\n\n\n1080. \n\n\n\n\n1086 \n\n\n\n\n1C95. \n\n\n,, \n\n\n1 103. \n\n\n1871 \n\n\n1 105. \n\n\n\xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n"35 \n\n\n\n\n"37 \n\n\n1872 \n\n\n"47 \n\n\n\n\n"57 \n\n\n1873 \n\n\n1182 \n\n\n\n\n1202. \n\n\n\n\n1241 \n\n\n,, \n\n\n1250. \n\n\n1874 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1252. \n\n\n,, \n\n\n1259 \n\n\n1875 \n\n\n1286 \n\n\n\n/. B. S. Estrup, president of the ministry, 11 June, 1875 \n\nThe folkething, defeating the government on the \nquestion of fortifications, is dissolved 29 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNew assembly meets, 15 May ; votes no confidence \nin the ministry, 12 June ; is adjourned, 24 June, 1876 \n\nContinued contest between the king and senate and \nthe lower house Oct. ,, \n\nCrisis respecting the supplies .... Dec. ,, \n\nThe session closed without settling the budget, \n\n4 April, 1877 \n\nProvision made by the king for it in accordance \nwith the constitution . . . .12 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPolitical crisis ; an armistice agreed to . 8 Nov. ,, \n\nMarriage of princess Thyra with the duke of Cum- \nberland 11 Dec. 1878 \n\nThe lower house dismissed by the king as incapable \nand idle about 10 May, 1881 \n\nAnna Kristiane Ludvigsen, author of patriotic \nsongs, dies, aged 90 .... 27 July, 1884 \n\nOpposition of the lower house continues ; legisla- \ntion greatly stopped 1881-4 \n\nElections : lower house, 82 liberals (opposition) ; \n20 conservatives June, 1884 \n\nThe king recommends unity in providing national \ndefence about 30 Oct. ,, \n\nThe king refuses to dismiss his ministry, 21 March ; \ncloses parliament ; decrees financial arrangement, \n\n1 April, 1885 \n\nImportation and possession of arms and drill pro- \nhibited 5 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nM. Estrup fired at by Julius Rasinussen 21 Oct. ,, \n\nThe parliament condemns the restrictive press laws \nby great majority 21 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nM. Berg, president of the assembly, sentenced to \nsix months\' imprisonment for obstructing the \npolice at a meeting Jan. 1886 \n\nDiscord in parliament, which is closed . 8 Feb. ,, \n\nFusion of two parties forming the left of the \nDiet about 26 Oct. ,, \n\nThe folkething dissolved .... 8 Jan. 18S7 \n\nAmnesty granted to political prisoners on the \nking\'s 70th birthday .... 8 April, 1888 \n\n25th anniversary of the king\'s accession celebrated \n\n15th Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Budget rejected 16 Oct. 1885 ; 26 Jan. 1886 ; \n1 April, 1887 ; 1 April, 1888 ; 1 April, 1889 ; 31 \nMarch, 1890 ; 1 April, 1891 \xe2\x80\x94 the revenue collected \nby royal decree \xe2\x96\xa0 1886-91 \n\nThe king decrees a provisional budget for 1892-3 \n\n1 April, 1892 \n\nElections for the folkething ; the moderates suc- \ncessful 20 April, ,, \n\nNational celebration of the king\'s golden wedding, \n\n26 Mav, ,, \n\n\n\nSOVEREIGNS. \n\nSigurd Snogoje. \n\nHardi Canute. \n\nEric I. \n\nEric II. \n\nGornio, the Old ; reigned 53 years. \n\nHarold, surnamed Blue Tooth. \n\nSuenon, or Sweyn, the Forked-beard. \n\nCanute II. the Great, king of Denmark and \n\nEngland. \nCanute III., son (Hardicanute of England). \nMagnus, surnamed the Good, of Norway. \nSuenon, or Sweyn II. (Denmark only). \n[Interregnum.] \nHarold, called the Simple. \nCanute IV. \n\nOlaus I V. the Hungry. \nEric I., styled the Good. \n[Interregnum.] \n\nNicholas I. killed at Sleswick. \nEric II., surnamed Harefoot. \nEric III. the Lamb. \n\nJ Suenon, or Sweyn III. : beheaded. \n\n1 Canute V. until 1157 (civil war). \nWaldemar, styled the Great. \nCanute VI., surnamed the Pious. \nWaldemar II. the Victorious. \nEric IV. \nAbel : assassinated his elder brother Eric ; killed \n\nin an expedition against the Frisons. \nChristopher I. : poisoned. \nEric V. \nEric VI. \n\n\n\nDENNEWITZ. \n\n\n\n282 \n\n\n\nDERBY. \n\n\n\n1320. Christopher II. \n\n1334. [Interregnum of seven years.] \n\n1340. Waldemar III. \n\nx 375- [Interregnum.] \n\n1376. Olaus V. \n\n1387. Margaret, styled the "Semiramis of the North," \n\nqueen of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark. \n1397. Margaret and Eric VII. (Eric XIII. of Sweden.) \n1412. Eric VII. reigns alone ; obliged to resign both \n\ncrowns. \n1438. [Interregnum.] \n1440. Christopher III. king of Sweden. \n1448. Christian I. count of Oldenburg ; elected king of \n\nDenmark, 1448 ; of Sweden, 1457 ; succeeded by \n\nhis son, \n1481. John ; succeeded by his son, \n1513. Christian II. called the Cruel, and the " Nero of \n\nthe North ; " he caused all the Swedish nobility \n\nto be massacred : dethroned for his tyranny in \n\n1523 ; died in a dungeon in 1559. \n[Sweden separated from Denmark.] \n\nDENMARK AND NORWAY. \n\n1523. Frederick I. duke of Holstein, son of Christian I. ; \n\na liberal ruler. \n1533. Christian III. son of Frederick ; established the \n\nLutheran religion ; esteemed the " Father of his \n\nPeople." \n1559. Frederick II. son of Christian III. \n1588. Christian IV. son. \n1648. Frederick III. ; changed the constitution from an \n\nelective to an hereditary monarchy, vested in \n\nhis own family, 1665. \n1670. Christian V., son of Frederick III. ; succeeded by \n\nhis son. \n1699. Frederick IV. ; leagued with the czar Peter and the \n\nking of Poland against Charles XII. of Sweden. \n1730. Christian VI. his son. \n1746. Frederick V. his son : married the princess Louisa \n\nof England, daughter of George II. \n1766. Christian VII. his son. See p. \n1784. Prince Frederick declared regent, in consequence \n\nof the mental derangement of his father. \n1808. Frederick VI. previously regent, now king. \n1814. Norway annexed to Sweden, 14 Jan. \n\nDENMARK. \n\n1839. Christian VIII. (son of Frederick, brother of \nChristian VII.) \n\n1848. Frederick VII. son of Christian VIII. ; 20 Jan. ; \nborn 6 Oct. 1808 ; separated from "his first wife, \nSept. 1837 ; from his second wife, Sept. 1846 ; \nmarried morganatioally Louisa, countess of \nDanner, 7 Aug. 1850 ; died 15 Nov. 1863. \n\n1863. Christian IX. son of William, duke of Schleswig- \nHolstein-Sonderburg-Gliicksburg ; 15 Nov. suc- \nceeded by virtue of the protocol of London, 8 \nMay, 1852, and of the law of the Danish succes- \nsion, 31 July, 1853.) He was born 8 April, 1818 ; \nmarried princess Louisa of Hesse-Cassel, 26 \nMay, 1842. [He is descended from Christian III. \nand she from Frederick V. ; both from George II. \nof England.] \n\nHeir : Frederick (his son), born 3 June, 1843 ; married \nprincess Louisa of Sweden, 28 July, 1869. Son : \nChristian, born 26 Sept., 1870. \n\nDENNEWITZ (P.ussia), here a victory was \nobtained by marshal Bernadotte (afterwards \nCharles XIV., king of Sweden), over marshal Ney, \n6 Sept. 1813. The loss of the French exceeded \n13.000 men, several eagles, and cannon; of the \nallies, 6000. The defeat of Napoleon at Leipsic, on \nthe 1 8th of October following, closed this disastrous \ncampaign. \n\nDENOMINATIONS, The Theee (pres- \n\nbyterians, congregationalists or independents, and \nbaptists), were organised in 1727 as an association, \nwith the privilege of direct appeal to the reigning \nsovereign of Great Britain. \n\nDENTISTS, an act for regulating their educa- \ntion and registration, passed, 22 July, 1878. \nThe Odontologieal Society (of Dentists), established 1856. \nThe Dental Hospital of London, Leicester-square, was \n\nestablished i8j8. See Odontology \xe2\x96\xa0. \n\n\n\nDEODAND (Latin, " to be given to Gfad") : \nformerly anything which had caused the death of \na human being became forfeit to the sovereign or \nlord of the manor, and was to be sold for the benefit \nof the poor. The forfeiture was abolished by 9 & \n10 Vict. c. 62 (1846). \n\nD\'EON, CHEVALIER, who had acted in a \ndiplomatic capacity in several countries, and been \nminister plenipotentiary from France in London, \nwas affirmed to be a female, at a trial at the King\'s \nBench in 1771, in an action to recover wagers as to \nhis sex. He subsequently wore female attire ; but \nat his death he was proved to be a male. \n\nDEONTOLOGY, the knowledge of what is \nright, or the science of dut5 r (from the Greek to deon, \nthat which is proper), an element of the Utilitarian \nphilosophy propounded by Jeremy Bentham in his \n" Deontology," published by Dr. Bowring in 1834. \n\nDEPARTMENTS, see France. \n\nDEPRESSION OF TRADE, see Trade, 1885. \n\nDEPTFOBD (near London). The hospital \nhere was incorporated by Henry VIII. about 1512, \nand called the Trinity-house of Deptford Strond ; \nthe brethren of Trinity-house hold their corporate \nrights by this hospital. The dockyard, founded \nabout 1513, was closed 31 March, 1869, having been \npurchased by Mr. T. P. Austin for 70,000/. He sold \npart of it to the corporation of London for 94,640/., \nfor a market for foreign cattle, which was opened \nfor use, 28 Dec. 1871. On 4 April, 15S1, Queen \nElizabeth dined at Deptford on board the Golden \nHind, the ship in which Drake had made his \nvoyage round the globe. The Deptford victualling- \noffice was burnt 16 Jan. 1748-9; the store-house, 2 \nSept. 1758; the red-house, 26 Feb. 1761; and the \nking\'s-mill, 1 Dec. 1755. Peter the Great of Kussia \nlived at Evelyn\'s house, Say\'s-court, while learning \nship-building, &c, in 1698. By the acts, 1884-5, \nDeptford returns one member to parliament, John \nEvelyn the first. - \n\nDEPUTIES,. Chamber of, the title borne \n\nby the French legislative assembly, from the resto- \nration of the Bourbons in 1814 till Jan. 1852, when \nit was named " Corps Legislatif." \n\nDERBY was made a royal burgh by Egbert \n(about 828) . Alfred expelled the Danes from it and \nplanted a colony in 8S0. His heroic daughter, \nEthelfleda, again expelled the Danes in 918. \nWilliam I. gave Derby to his illegitimate son \nWilliam Peveril. Lombe\'s silk-throwing machine \nwas set up in 1718; and in 175&, Jedediah Strutt \ninvented the Derby ribbed stocking-frame. The \nyoung Pretender reached Derby, 3 Dec. 1745, and \nretreated thence soon after. The new town-hall was \nopened 29 May, 1866. The midland counties fine \nart exhibition was held here, and was opened by the \nduke of Devonshire, 5 May, 1870. Mr. M. T. Bass \ngives 25,000/. for a museum and library, and an en- \ndowment of 3000/. for an art gallery announced, Jan. \n1882. Art gallery, the gift of Mr. M. Bass and others, \nopened 4 Nov. 1882. The Queen laid the founda- \ntion-stone of the Derbyshire Royal Infirmary, 21 \nMay, 1891. Population, 1881,81,168; 1891, 94,146. \nDerby Trials. Brandreth, Turner, Ludlam senior, \nLudlam junior, Weightman, and others, Luddites, con- \nvicted at a commission of high treason, 15 Oqt. 1817 ; \nand Brandreth, Turner, and the elder Ludlam exe- \ncuted, 7 Nov. following. 23 were tried, and 12 not \ntried. \n21 prisoners indicted at Derby for the murder of several \nminers in the Red-soil mine ; but were acquitted on the \nground that the mischief was not wilful, 23 March, \n1834. \nThe new Grand Theatre burnt ; 3 deaths, 6 May, 1886. \n\n\n\nDERBY ADMINISTRATIONS. \n\n\n\n283 \n\n\n\nDERVISH. \n\n\n\nDERBY ADMINISTRATIONS : the first \nformed after the resignation of lord John Russell, \n21 Feb. 1852. (facetiously termed the "who ivJw \nadministration ," from the duke of \'Wellington\'s \ninquiry) . \n\nFIRST ADMINISTRATION, 27 Feb. 1852. \n\nFirst lord of the treasury, Edward, earl of Derby.* \n\nLord chancellor, lord St. Leonards (previously sir Edward \n\nSugden). \nPresident of the council, earl of Lonsdale. \nLord privy seal, marquis of Salisbury. \nHome, foreign, and colonial secretaries, Spencer Horatio \n\nWalpole, earl of Malmesbury, and sir John Pakington. \nChancellor of the exchequer, Benjamin Disraeli. \nBoard of control, John Charles Hemes. \nBoard of trade, Joseph Warner Henley. \nPostmaster-general, earl of Hardwicke. \nSecretary-at-war, William Beresford. \nFirst commissioner of works and public buildings, lord \n\nJohn Manners. \nRobert Adam Christopher, lord Colchester, &c. \n[Defeated on the budget, 16 Dee. ; resigned 17 Dec. 1852 ; \n\nsucceeded by the Aberdeen administration.] \n\nSECOND ADMINISTRATION, 25 Feb. 1858. \n\nFirst lord of the treasury, earl of Derby. \n\nLord chancellor, lord Chelmsford (previously sir F. \nThesiger). \n\nChancellor of the exchequer, Benjamin Disraeli. \n\nSecretaries\xe2\x80\x94 foreign, earl of Malmesbury ; home, Spencer \nH. Walpole (resigned March, 1859), T. Sotheron Est- \ncourt ; colonies, lord Stanley; in June, 1858, sir E. \nBulwer Lytton ; war. col. Jonathan Peel. \n\nPresidents \xe2\x80\x94 of the council, marquis of Salisbury ; of board \nof control (India), 1, earl of Ellenborough (who resigned \nin May, 1858 ; he had sent a letter, on his own autho- \nrity, censuring the proclamation of lord Canning to the \nOude insurgents ; the government hardly escaped \'a \nvote of censure) ; 2, in June, 1858, lord Stanley; \xe2\x80\x94 \nboard of trade, Mr. Joseph W. Henley (resigned in \nMarch, 1859); earl of Donoughmore ; \xe2\x80\x94 board of ivories, \nlord John Manners. \n\nLord privy seal, earl of Hardwicke. \n\nFirst lord of the admiralty, sir John S. Pakington. \n\nPostmaster, lord Colchester. \n\nChancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, duke of Montrose. \n\n[This ministry resigned in consequence of a vote of want \nof confidence, 11 June, 1850 ; it was succeeded by the \nPalmerston-Bussell cabinet (which see).] \xe2\x96\xa0 \n\nTHIRD ADMINISTRATION, CONSTITUTED 6 July, 1866. \n\nFirst lord of the treasury, Edward, earl of Derby. \n\nLord chancellor, Frederick, lord Chelmsford. \n\nPresident of council, Richard, duke of Buckingham ; \nsucceeded by John, duke of Marlborough, 8 March, \n1867. \n\nLord privy seal, James, earl of Malmesbury. \n\nSecretaries \xe2\x80\x94 home, Spencer Horatio Walpole, resigned ; \nGathorne Hardy, 17 May, T867 ;\xe2\x80\x94 foreign, Edward, lord \nStanley ; \xe2\x80\x94 colonies, Henry, earl of Carnarvon, resigned ; \nRichard, duke of Buckingham and Chandos, 8 March, \n1867 ; \xe2\x80\x94 war, lieut.-gen. sir Jonathan Peel, resigned ; \nsir John Somerset Pakington, 8 March, 1867 ;\xe2\x80\x94 India, \nRobert, lord Cranborne, resigned ; sir Stafford Henry \nNorthcote, 8 March, 1867. \n\nChancellor of the exchequer, Benjamin Disraeli. \n\nFirst lord of admiralty, sir John S. Pakington ; suc- \nceeded by Henry Thomas Corry, 8 March, 1867. \n\nChief commissioner of works, &c, lord John Manners. \n\nPresident of board of trade, sir Stafford Northcote; suc- \nceeded by Charles Henry, duke of Richmond, March, \n1867. \n\nChief secretary for Ireland, Richard, lord Naas (afterwards \nearl of Mayo) \n\nPresident of poor-law board, Gathorne Hardy ; succeeded \nby Wm. Reginald, earl of Devon (not in cabinet), 17 \nMay, 1867. \n\nHoratio Spencer Walpole, without nfflce. \n\nThe above formed the cabinet, Feb. 1868. \n\nPostmaster-general, James, duke of Montrose. \n\nIjord chamberlain, Orlando, earl of Bradford. \n\n* Born 1799 ; M.P. for Stockbridge (as lion. E. G. S. \nStanley) in 1S20; chief secretary for Ireland, 1830-33; \nsecretary for the colonies, 1833-4, and 1841-5 ; termed the \n" Rupert of debate " by lord Lytton in "the New Timon," \n1845 ; succeeded his father as earl of Derby, 30 June, \n1851 ; resigned 25 Feb. 1868 ; died 23 Oct. 1869. \n\n\n\nChancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, William, earl of \nDevon ; succeeded by colonel John Wilson Patten, \nJune, 1867. \nLord-lieutenant of Ireland, James, earl (afterwards mar- \nquis) of Abercorn. \n[The earl of Derby resigned through ill-health, 25 Feb. \n1868 ; and Mr. Disraeli reconstituted the ministry, \nsee Disraeli.] \n\nDERBY DAY (see Races), generally (not \nalways) the "Wednesday in the week preceding \nWhitsunday, the second day of the grand spring \nmeeting at Epsom. Mr. Henry Hall, who painted \n43 consecutive winners of the Derby, died 22 April,, \n1882. \n\n\'THE DERBY" AT EPSOM. \n\n1876. Kisber, or Mineral \nColt (Hungarian, owner, \nAlex. Baltazzi), 3r May. \n\n1877. Silvio (30 May). \n\n\n\nRECENT WINNERS OF \n\n1846. Pyrrhus. \n\n1847. Cossaek. \n\n1848. Surplice. \n\n1849. Flying Dutchman. \n\n1850. Voltigeur. \n\n1851. Teddington. \n\n1852. Daniel O\'Rourke. \n\n1853. West Australian. \n\n1854. Andover. \n\n1855. Wild Dayrell. \n\n1856. Ellington. \n\n1857. Blink Bonny. \n\n1858. Beadsman. \n\n1859. Musjid. \ni860. Thormanby. \n1861. Kettledrum. \n1S62. Caractacus. \n\n1863. Macaroni. \n\n1864. Blair A.thc-1. \n\n1865. Gladiateur, 31 May \n(a horse reared in France, \nthe property of the comte \nde la Grange. He also \nwon the St. Legerat Don- \ncaster, 13 Sept.). \n\n1866. Lord Lyon (16 May). \n\n1867. Hermit (22 May). \n\n1868. Blue Gown (27 May). \n\n1869. Pretender (26 May). \n\n1870. Kingcraft (1 June). \n\n1871. Favouius (24 May). \n\n1872. Cremorne (29 May). \n\n1873. Doncaster (28 May). \n\n1874. George Frederick \n(3 June). \n\n1875. Galopin (26 May). \n\n\n\n1878. Sefton (5 June). \n\n1879. Sir Bevys (baron \nRothschild\'s) 28 May \n\n1880. Bend Or (duke of \nWestminster\'s) May 26. \n\n1881. Iroquois (Mr. Loril- \nlard\'s, au American), r \nJune. \n\n1882. Shotovei (duke of \nWestminster\'s), 24 May. \n\n1883. St. Blaise (sir Fredk. \nJohnstone\'s) 23 May. \n\n1884. St. Gatien (J. Ham- \nmond\'s), and Harvester \n(sir J. Willouguby\'s), 2S \nMay. \n\n1885. Melton (Id. Hastings)* \n3 June. \n\n1886. Ormonde (duke of \nWestminster) 26 May. \n\n1887. Merry Hampton (Mr. \nAbington) 25 May. \n\n1888. Ayrshire (duke of \nPortland) 30 May. \n\n1889. Donovan (duke of \nPortland), 5 June. \n\n1890. Sanfoin (sir James \nMiller), 4 June. \n\n1891. Common (sir F. John- \nstone), 27 May. \n\n1892. Sir Hugo "(lord Brad- \nford), 1 June. \n\n\n\nDERELICT LAND TRUST, formed by \nsubscription to promote the cultivation of farms in \nIreland from which the tenants have been evicted \nfor non-payment of rent. "Plantations" in County \nWexford were formed in 1889. \n\nDERRICKS are lofty, portable crane-like \nstructures, used on land and water for lifting enor- \nmous loads, and in some cases depositing them at am \nelevation. They are extensively used in the United \nStates, and were introduced into England as floating \nderricks for raising sunken vessels, by their inventor,. \nA. D. Bishop, in 1857. \n\nDERRY (N. Ireland), a bishopric first at Ard- \nfrath ; thence translated to Maghera ; and in 1158 \nto Deny. The cathedral, built in 1164, becoming \nruinous, was rebuilt by Londoners, who settled hero- \nin the reign of James I. The see is valued in the \nking\'s books at 250/. sterling ; but it has been one of \nthe richest sees in Ireland. Bcatson. The see was- \nunited to Derry, 1834 ; see Bishops ; Londonderry. \n\nDERVISH. Probably a corruption of der-pish \nor iler-bish, one in advance. The dervishes of the- \npresent time, fanatical enthusiasts, unrecognized by \northodoxy, originated in Persia, whence they spread \nover the Mahommedan world. Those now attack- \ning Egypt are said to be subject to Imam Mahomet \nel Manai, a successor of the late Mahdi of Obeid of \nKhartoum. The dervishes have great influence- \nover the ignorant masses. See Soudan. \n\n\n\nDESCENT OF MAN. \n\n\n\n284 \n\n\n\nDIADEM. \n\n\n\nDESCENT OF MAN, see Development. \n\n"DESERTED VILLAGE," a poem, by Dr. \nOliver Goldsmith, first published, May, 1770. \n\nDESICCATING APPARATUS, see under \nSay. \n\nDESIGN, SCHOOLS OF, established by go- \nvernment, began at Somerset-house, London, 1 Jan. \n1837. In 1852 the head school was removed to \nMarlborough-house, and became eventually " the \ndepartment of science and art," transferred to South \nKensington in 1857. It is under the direction of the \ncommittee of council on education. See Copyright. \n\nDESPAED\'S CONSPIRACY. Colonel Ed- \nward Marcus Despard, a native of Ireland, Brough- \nton, Francis, Graham, Macnamara, Wood, and \nWratten, conspired to kill the king, and establish a \nrepublic, on the day of opening parliament, 16 Nov. \n1802. Above 30 persons including soldiers were \ntaken in custody ; of those tried, 20 Jan. 1803, \nDespard and six others were executed, 21 Feb. He \nhad been a distinguished officer under Nelson. \n\nDESTITUTE CHILDREN\'S DINNER \nSOCIETY, established in 1867, to give weekly \nmeat dinners. 16,822 dinners given in 1869; \n147,858 dinners in 58 dining rooms in 1870 ; 1 14,000 \ndinners in 42 dining rooms, year 1876-7; 170,000 \ndinners in 49 rooms, 1878-9 ; now about 283,000 \nannually. In 1890, the co-operation of several \nsocieties was effected. \n\nDESTRUCTIVE INSECTS (to crops), an \nact passed to prevent their introduction and spread- \ning in Great -Britain, 14 Aug. 1877. See Colorado. \n\nDETECTIVE POLICE, see Police, and \n\nTrials, 1877. \n\nDETROIT, Michigan, N. America, the oldest \ncity in the west, was built by the French about 1670. \nIt is eminent for large metal works. Population in \n1880, 116,340; 1890, 205,876 \n\nDETTINGEN (Bavaria), BATTLE OP, 16 (or \n27 0. S.) June, 1743, between the British, Hano- \nverian, and Hessian army (52,000), commanded by \nking George II. of England and the earl of Stair, and \nthe French army (60,000), under marshal Noailles \nand the due de Grammont. The French passed a \ndefile, which they should have merely guarded. \nThe due de Grammont with his cavalry charged the \nBritish foot with great fury, but was so received \nthat he was obliged to give way, and to repass the \nMaine, losing 3000 men. Handel\'s " Dettingen Te \nDeum," first performed, 27 Nov. 1743. \n\nDEUTERONOMY. See Bible, note. \n\nDEVELOPMENT (or Evolution) . Wolff put \nforth a theory of epigenesis in 1759; Lamarck, the \nnaturalist, in 1809, propounded a theory that all \nanimals had been developed from "monads," living \nminute particles ; see Species and Vestiges. Buffon \nheld a similar doctrine. In 1827 Ernst von Baer of \nKbnigsberg demonstrated that all mammals are de- \nveloped from a minute egg not a hundredth of an \ninch in diameter. Mr. C. Darwin\'s views are given \nin his "Origin of Species," 1859; and "Descent \nof Man," 1871. He supposes that man was gradu- \nally evolved from the lowest created form of animal \nlife. Hoeckel, his most advanced follower, pub- \nlished in German a " History of Creation," 1873 ; a \ntranslation in English, 1875. Mr. Alfred Wallace \npublished his work on Natural Selection in 1870. \nSee Evolution. \nThe theory of the development of living beings out of \n\nthe substance of the earth was put forth by Lucretius \n\nin his " De Rerum Natur:e," about 57 B.C. \n\nWe cannot teach, we cannot pronounce it to be a con- \n\n\n\nquest of science, that man descends from the ape or \n\nfrom any other animal. We can only indicate it as a \n\nhypothesis." \xe2\x80\x94 Professor Virchow, 1877. \n" The primitive monads were born by spontaneous \n\ngeneration in the sea. " \xe2\x80\x94 Professor Hceckel, 1878. \nThe Royal Society\'s Darwin medal was first awarded to \n\nMr. Alfred Russel Wallace in 1890. \n\nDEVIL WORSHIP. Devil, Greek, diabolos, \nfalse accuser; Hebrew, satan, an adversary ; abad- \ndon, desti\'oyer, &c. The worship of devils is fre- \nquently mentioned in the Bible (Lev. xvii. 7 ; \n2 Citron, xi. 15 ; 1 Cor. x. 20 ; Rev. ix. 20, &c.) \nMr. Layard describes the Yezidees as recognising \none supreme being, yet reverencing the devil as a \nking or mighty angel, to be conciliated (1841). \nMr. Moncure Conway\'s " Demonology and Devil-Lore," \n\nfirst published Dec. 1878. \n\nDEVIZES, a borough, Wiltshire; the castle \nhere was founded by bp. Roger, about 1 107; and \nwas for some time royal property until Cromwell \nbesieged and ruined it. The remains were sold by \nthe executors of the last holder, Mr. R. V. Leach, \nfor 8,000/. in August, 1888. At Roundway Down, \nnear here, sir William Waller and the parliamenta- \nrians were defeated, 13 July, 1643. Population in \n1881,6,645; 1891,6,426. \n\nDEVOLUTION, a term applied in 1886-8 to \nthe transfer of business of minor importance in the \nparliament to grand or other committees (see Com- \nmittees). \n\nDEVONPORT, see Dockyards and Plymouth. \n\n\' DEVONSHIRE, the country of the Dam- \nnonii or Dumnonii. Odun, earl of Devon, in 878, \ndefeated the Danes, slew Ubbo or Hubba their chief, \nand captured his magic standard. A bishopric of \nDevonshire was founded in 909 ; see Exeter. \nRichard de Redvers, first earl of Devon, son of Baldwin, \n\nsheriff of Devonshire, died 1137. \n\nWilliam Courtenay, the present earl, is descended from \n\nRobert de Courtenay and Mary de Redvers, daughter \n\nof William de Redvers, earl of Devon in 1184. \n\nWilliam Cavendish, created first earl of Devonshire, 1618. \n\nWilliam Cavendish (his great grandson), created first duke \n\nof Devonshire, 1694. \nHis descendant, William Cavendish, born 27 April, \n1808 ; becaine earl of Burlington, 1834 ; and 7th duke \nof Devonshire, 1858 ; chancellor of the university of \nLondon, 1836 ; of the university of Cambridge, 1861. \nSee Barrow-in-Furness, Eastbourne, and Owens College. \nThe duke died 21 Dec, 1891. Spencer C. Cavendish, \nthe 8th duke, was born 23rd July, 1833. See Gladstone. \nAdministrations 1st and 2nd ; elected chancellor of the \nuniversity of Cambridge, 4 Jan., 1892. \n\nDEVONSHIRE and PITT ADMINIS- \nTRATION, formed 16 Nov. 1756; dismissed \n\n5 April, 1757. \n\nFirst lord of the treasury, William, duke of Devonshire. \n\nChancellor of the exchequer, hon. Henry Bilson Legge. \n\nLord president, earl Granville (lord Carteret). \n\nPrivy seal, earl Gower. \n\nSecretaries of state, earl of Holdernesse and Win. Pitt \n\n(afterwards earl of Chatham, the virtual premie?\'). \nGeorge Grenville, earl of Halifax, dukes of Rutland and \n\nGrafton, earl of Rochfort, viscount Barrington, &c. \n\nThe great seal in commission. \n\n" DEVOUT LIFE." " Introduction a la Vie \ndevote," written by St. Francois de Sales, and \npublished 1608. He was born 21 Aug. 1567; bishop \nof Geneva, 1602 ; died, 28 Dec. 1622. \n\nDEW, the modern theory respecting it was put \nforth by Dr. Wells in\'his book, 1814. \n\nDEWANGIRI, see India, 1865. \n\nDIADEM, the band or fillet worn by the \nancients instead of the crown, and consecrated to the \ngods. At first it was made of silk or wool, set with \n\n\n\nDIALECTICAL SOCIETY. \n\n\n\n28.3 \n\n\n\nDIAMONDS. \n\n\n\nprecious stones, and was tied round the temples and \nforehead, the two ends being knotted behind, and \nlet fall on the neck. Aurelian was the first Roman \nemperor who wore a diadem, 272. Tillcmont, \n\nDIALECTICAL SOCIETY, London, for \nthe philosophical consideration of all subjects, with \na view to the discover}^ and elucidation of truth, \nwas established in 1865. The report of their \ncommittee on spiritualism was published in Nov. \n1 87 1. The dissolution of the Society reported \nMay, 1888. See Wales, 1890. \n\nDIALS. "The sun-dial of Ahnz," 713 B.C. \n(Isa. xxxviii. 8). Adial invented by Anaximander, \nS50 B.C. Pliny. The first dial of the sun seen at \nRome was placed on the temple of Quirinus by L. \nPapirius Cursor, when time was divided into hours, \n293 B.C. Blair. Dials set up in churches about \na.d. 613. Lent/let. Mrs. Alfred Gatty\'s " Book of \nSun Dials " was published in 1872. \n\nDIALYSIS, an important method of chemical \nanalysis, depending on the different degrees of \ndiffusibility of substances in liquids, was made \nknown in 1861, by its discoverer, professor Thomas \nGraham, then master of the mint. \n\nDIA-MAGNETISM, the property possessed \nby nearly all bodies of behaving differently to iron, \nwhen placed between two magnets. The pheno- \nmena, previously little known, were reduced to a \nlaw by Faraday in 1845, and confirmed by Tyndall \nand others. \n\nDIAMOND, a hamlet, Armagh, N. Ireland, \nwhere was fought the " battle of the Diamond," 21 \nSept. 1795, between the " Peep-o\'-day -boys\'" and \nthe "Defenders," and many of the latter were killed. \nTo commemorate this conflict the first Orange \nLodge was formed immediately after. See De- \nfenders. \n\nDIAMONDS were first brought to Europe \nfrom the East, where the mine of Sumbulpoor was \nthe first known. Golconda, in India, now in ruins, \nAvas a celebrated diamond mart. The mines of \nBrazil were discovered in 1728. From these \nlast a diamond, weighing 1680 carats, or fourteen \nounces, was sent to the court of Portugal, and was \nvalued by Mr. Romeo de I\' Isle at 224 millions; \nby others at 56 millions, and at 35 millions ; its \ntrue value (not being brilliant) was 400,000/. \n\nThe great Russian diamond weighs 193 carats, or 1 oz. \n12 dwts. 4 gr. troy. The empress Catherine II. offered \nfor it 104,166?. 13s. 4c?., besides an annuity for life to \nthe owner of 1041?. 13s. 41?., which was refused ; but it \nwas afterwards sold to Catherine\'s favourite, count \nOrloff, for the first -mentioned sum, without the \nannuity, and was by him presented to the empress \non her birthday, 1772 ; it is now in the sceptre of \nRussia. \n\nThe Pitt (or Regent) diamond weighed 136 carats, and \nafter cutting, 106 carats : it was sold to the king of \nFrance for 125,000?. in 1720. \n\nThe Pigott diamond (bought by Mr. Pitt, grandfather \nof Win. Pitt) was sold for 9500 guineas, 10 May, 1802. \n\n\'The diamond called the Kohinoor, Koh-i-Nub, or \nMountain of Light, has a legendary history, and \nis said to have belonged in turn to Shah Jehan, \nAurungzcbe, Nadir Shah, the Afghan rulers, and after- \nwards to the Sikh chief Runjeet Singh. Upon the ab- \ndication of Dhuleep Singh, the last ruler of the Pun- \njab, and the annexation of his dominions to the British \nempire, in 1849, the Kohinoor was surrendered to the \nqueen. It was accordingly brought over and presi nted \nto her, 3 July, 1850. It was shown in the Great Exhi- \nbition, 1851. Its original weight was neaiTy 800 carats, \n\n\' but it was reduced by the unskilfulness of the artist, \nHortensio Borghese, a Venetian, to 279 carats. Its \nshape and size resembled the pointed half (rose cut) of \n\n\n\na small hen\'s egg. The value is scarcely computable, \nthough two millions sterling have been mentioned as a \njustifiable price, if calculated by the scale employed in \nthe trade. This diamond was re-cut in 1852, and now \nweighs 102J carats. \n\nThe Sanci diamond, which belonged to Charles the \nBold, duke of Burgundy, was bought by sir C. \nJejeebhoy from the Demidoff family for 20,000?. in \nFeb. 1865. \n\nMr. Porter Rhode\'s great diamond (weighing 150 carats; \nalleged value 60,000?.) found at Kimberlev 12 Feb\' \n1880, exhibited by Mr. Streeter, Bond-street, London \nNov. 1 88 1. \n\nAncient diamond said to have belonged to the Mogul \nemperors of India, date of engraved characters possibly \n1200, shown by Mr. Bryce Wright, Jan. 1882. \n\nA diamond, termed the Star of the South, was brought \nfrom Brazil in 1855, weighing 254^ carats, half of which, \nwas lost by cutting. \n\nDiamonds were discovered in Cape Colony, S. Africa, in \nMarch, 1867. A fine one, termed the \'"\'Star of South \nAfrica," brought to England in 1869, was purchased by \nMessrs. Hunt and Roskell. After cutting, it weighed \n46J carats, and was valued at 25,000?., in June, 1870. \n\nRich diamond fields recently discovered near the Vaal \nand Orange rivers, Sept. 1870. \n\nGreat influx of diggers, and many fine diamonds found,, \nNov. Value of 141 diamonds fe-ud in 1869, 7405?. ; oif \n5661 found in 1870, 124,910?. ; about 2,000,000?. said to \nbe exported in 1877. See GriquoAand, West. \n\nThe largest African diamond found, weighing 302 \ncarats, at Kimbcrley, named " Victoria," 27 March, \n1884. \n\nSeveral magnificent South African diamonds have since \nbeen discovered\xe2\x80\x94 one said to weigh 400 carats, reduced \nby cutting to 180. 1884-8. \n\nEstimated value of South African diamonds up to 1886, \n40,000,000?. \n\nBy a fire and panic in De Beer\'s mine, Kimberley, about \n220 perish, 11 July, 1888. \n\nDiamonds discovered in British Guiana by Mr. Kaufmann , \nspring, 1891. \n\nDiamond Necklace Affair.- In 1785, Boehmer, the \ncourt jeweller of France, ottered the queen Marie An- \ntoinette, a diamond necklace, for 56,000?. The queen \ndesired the necklace, but feared the expense. The \ncountess de la Motte (of the ancient house of Valois) \nforged the queen\'s signature, and by pretending that \nthe queen had an attachment for him, persuaded the \ncardinal de Rohan, the queen\'s almoner, to conclude a. \nbargain with the jeweller for the necklace for 56,000?. \nDe la Motte thus obtained the necklace and made away \nwith it. For this she was tried in 1786, and sentenced \nto be branded on the shoulders and imprisoned for life. \nShe accused in vain the celebrated Italian adventurer. \nCagliostro, of complicity in the affair, he being then \nintimate with the cardinal. She made her escape and \ncame to London, where she was killed by falling from \na window-sill, in attempting to escape an arrest for \ndebt.\xe2\x80\x94 De Rohan was tried and acquitted, 14 April. \n1786. The public in France at that time suspected the \nqueen of being a party to the fraud. Talleyrand wrote \nat the time, that he. should not be surprised if this \nmiserable affair overturned the throne. \n\nDiamond Robbery. See Trials, 1871. \n\nDiamonds valued\' at 50,000?. stolen from the post-office \nat Capetown about 20 March, 1880. \n\nArtificial Diamonds: those prepared by Mr. MacTcar of \nGlasgow, examined by Mr. Story Maskelyne, and de- \nclared not to be diamonds, 30 Dec. 1879 ; acknowledged \nby Mr. MacTear, Jan. 1880. \n\nDiamonds said to have been made by J. Ballantine \nHannay at Glasgow, announced in Tim s, 20 Feb. 1880. \n\nDiamonds said to have been made at Paris, 18S0. \n\nFor the " imperial diamond " case, see Trials, Dec. 1891. \n\nInflammability of Diamonds. \n\nBoetius de Boot conjectured that the diamond was in- \nflammable, 1609. When exposed to a high temperature \nit gave an acrid vapour, in which a part of it was dis- \nsipated, 1673. Boyle. \n\nSir Isaac Newton concluded from iis great refracting \npower, that it must be combustible, 1675. \n\nAverani demonstrated, by concentrating the rays or the \nsun upon it, that the diamond was exhaled in vapour, \nand entirely disappeared, while other precious stones \nmerely grow softer, 1605. \n\n\n\nDIANA. \n\n\n\n286 \n\n\n\n"DIEFJ-DONNE." \n\n\n\nSt has been ascertained by Guy ton, Davy, and others, \nthat diamonds contain nothing but pure charcoal, or \n\xe2\x96\xa0carbon. Diamonds were charred by the intense heat \nof the voltaic battery\xe2\x80\x94 by M. Dumas, in Paris, and by \nprofessor Faraday, in London, in 1848. \n\nDIANA, TEMPLE OF (at Ephesus), accounted \none of the seven wonders of the world, was built at \nthe common charge of all the Asiatic states, 552 \nB.C. ; the chief architect being Ctesiphon. Pliny \n\xe2\x96\xa0says that 220 years were employed in completing it. \nIt was 425 feet long, 225 broad, and was supported \nby 127 columns (60 feet high, each weighing 150 \ntons of Parian marble), furnished by so many \nkings. It was set on fire, on the night of the birth \nof Alexander the Great, by Herostratus or Erato- \nstratus, who confessed that his sole motive was the \n\xe2\x96\xa0desire of transmitting his name to future ages, 356 \nB.C. The temple was rebuilt, but again burnt by \nthe Goths, in their naval invasion, a.d. 256 or 262. \nIn April, 1869, Mr. J. T. Wood discovered the site \n\xe2\x80\xa2of the second temple ; and since then sculptured \nmarble columns have been removed to the British \nMuseum. Diana was the Koman name of the \nGreek Artemis. \n\nDIARY of the Crown Prince of Prussia, see \nPrussia, 188?. \n\nDICE. The invention of dice is mythically \nascribed to Palamede\xc2\xab, of Greece, about 1244. B.C. \nThe game of tali and tessera among the Eomans \nwas played with dice. Stow mentions two enter- \ntainments given by the city of London, at which \n-dice were played. Act to regulate the licences of \nmakers, and the sale of dice, 9 Geo. IV. 1828. \n\nDICHEOOSCOPE, an optical apparatus, de- \nscribed by the inventor, professor Dove of Berlin, \nin i860, who intended it to represent interferences, \nspectra in coloured lights, polarisation of light, &c. \n\nDICTATORS were supreme and absolute \nmagistrates of Rome, appointed to act in critical \ntimes. Titus Lartius, the first dictator, was ap- \npointed, 501 B.C. Cams Marcius Rutilus was the \nfirst plebeian dictator, 356 B.C. This office became \nodious by the usurpations of Sylla and Julius \n\xe2\x82\xaca?sar; and after the death of the latter, the Roman \nsenate, on the motion of the consul Antony, passed \na law forbidding a dictator to exist in Rome, 44 B.C. \nThe dictator was also called master of the people, \nand had under him a master of the horse. \n\nDICTIONARY. A standard dictionary of the \nChinese language, containing about 40,000 charac- \nters, most of them hieroglyphic, or rude representa- \ntions, somewhat like our signs of the zodiac, was \nperfected by Pa-out-she, who lived about 1100 B.C. \nMorrison; see Encyclopedias, Music, &c. \nA Latin one was compiled by Varro, born . B.C. 116 \nVarro\'s work " de Lingua Latina " ; he died . . 28 \nThe " Onomastieon," a collection of vocabularies \n\nin Greek, by Julius Pollux, was published about a. d. 177 \nThe " Catholicon," an attempt at a Latin Lexicon, \nby Friar Johannes Balbus Januensis, printed at \n\nMentz 1460 \n\nThe lirst noted polyglot dictionary, perhaps the \nfirst, is by Ambrose Calepiui, a Venetian friar, in \nLatin ; he wrote one in eight languages. Niceron. \n\nabout 1500 \nJohn E. Avenar\'s Dictionarium Hebraicwm was pub- \nlished at Wittenberg in 1589. Buxtorf\'s great \nwork, Lexicon Hebraicum, &c, appeared . .1621 \nThe Lexicon Heptaglotton was published by Edmund \n\nCastell, in 1669 \n\nThe great English dictionary by Samuel Johnson \n\nappeared in i75S \n\nFrancis Grose\'s Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue \n\n(or Slang) was compiled in 1768 \n\n" Slang Dictionary," by Albert Barrere and \nCharles G. Leland, 2 vols. .... 1889-90 \n\n\n\nThe following academies have published large dic- \ntionaries of their respective languages : the French \nacademy, (the first, edited by Vaugelas,) 1694; \nnew editions, 1718, 1740, 1762, 1835, and 1878 ; \nthe Spanish, 1726 ; the Italian academy (della \nCrusea) 1729 ; and the Russian . . . 1789-94 \n\nSchwan\'s great German-French dictionary appeared 1782 \n\nRichardson\'s English dictionary appeared . . 1836 \n\nLempriere\'s Classical Dictionary, which first ap- \npeared in 1788, is now superseded by Dr. W. \nSmith\'s classical series 1842-90 \n\nThe Philological Society of London issued "pro- \nposals for a New English dictionary," on the his- \ntorical method, 1859 ; after some delay the work \nwas vigorously revived ; editor, Dr. J. H. Murray 1879 \n\n[About 5000 authors, dating from 1150 to 18S3, have \nbeen read by about 13,000 persons (British and \nAmerican), who made about 3,000,000 extracts. \nPart I., published Feb. 1884, was considered \nhighly successful, and a specimen of the grandest \nlexicographical work ever produced. Vol. III. \npart I. 1892.] \n\nThe great German dictionary, by Jacob andWilhelm \nGrimm 1854 ci se( l- \n\nMr. Hensleigh Wedgwood\'s Dictionary of English \nEtymology 1859-67 \n\nSmith\'s Dictionary of the Bible was published . 1860-3 \n\nThe earliest known English- Latin dictionary is the \nPromptorium Parvulorum, compiled by Galfridus \nGrammaticus, a preaching friar of Norfolk, in \n1440 ; and printed by Pynson, as Promptorius \nPuerorum, in 1499. A new edition, carefully \nedited by Mr. Albert Way, from MSS. , was pub- \nlished by the Camden Society . . . 1843-65 \n\nThe great French dictionary, by E. Littre, 1863-72 ; \nsupplement 1877 \n\nThe "Bona Fide French and English Dictionary" \n(4J inches by 2J, weight 4 oz.), printed by Bellows, \n\n1873 et seg. \n\nThe Imperial Dictionary of the English Language, \nby John Ogilvie. New edition by Charles An- \nnandale, 4 vols, published 1882 \n\nRev. W. W. Skeat\'s "Etymological Dictionary of \nthe English language" published . . . 1882-4 \n\n" The Century Dictionary : " an encyclopedic \nlexicon of the English language, edited by Prof. \nW. D. Whitney, 6 vols 1889-91 \n\nDIDYMIUM, a rare metal, discovered by \nMosander in 1841. It appears to be always asso- \nciated with lanthanum and cerium. Declared to be \na compound by Mr. W. Crookes in 1888. \n\nDIEPPE (N. France). This town was bom- \nbarded by an English fleet, under admiral Russell, \nand laid in ashes, July, 1694. It was again bom- \nbarded in 1794 ; and again, together with the town \nof Granville, by the British, 14 Sept. 1803. \n\n"DIES IRJE" ("Day of Wrath"), a Latin \nmediaeval hymn on the day of judgment, is ascribed \nto various authors, amongst others to pope Gregory \nthe Great (died about 604) ; St. Bernard (died 1153) ; \nbut is generally considered to have been composed \nby Thomas of Celano (died 1255), and to have been \nused in the Roman service of tlie mass before 1385. \n\nDIET of the German Empire (in which \nthe supreme court of authority of the empire may \nbe said to have existed) was composed of three \ncolleges : one of electors, one of princes, and one of \nimperial towns, and commenced with the edict of \nCharles IV. 1356; see Golden Bull; Wurzburg \n(1180) ; Nuremberg (1467) ; Worms (1521) ; Spires \n(1529) ; Augsburg (1530) ; Batisbon (1541) ; Frank- \nfort (1806, et seq.) ; and Germany. \n\nDIETHEROSCOPE, an apparatus for \ngeodesy and teaching optics, constructed by G. \nLuvini, of Tunis, and announced, April, 1876. \n\n" D LEU-DONNE," the name given in his in- \nfancy to Louis le Grand, king of France, the queen, \nhis mother, having been barren for 23 years pre- \n\n\n\nDIEU ET MON DROIT. \n\n\n\n287 \n\n\n\nDIPLOMAS. \n\n\n\nviously,- 1638. Also to the comte de Chambord,son of \nthe duchess of Berri,born 29 Sept. 1820, died 24 Aug. \n1883. His father was assassinated, 14 Feb. 1820. One \nof the popes (672) was named Adeodat us or God\'s gift. \n\n.DIEU ET MON DROIT ("God and my \nright"), the royal motto of England, was the parole \nof the da) r , given by Richard I. of England to his \narmy at the battle of Gisors, in France, 20 Sept. \n1 198, when the French army was signally defeated. \n" Dicu et mon droit" appears to have been first \nassumed as a motto by Henry VI. (1422-1461) ; see \nSemper Eadem. \n\n, DIFFERENTIAL ENGINE, see Calcula- \nting Machine. \n\nDIFFUSION of Gases. In 1825, Dobereiner \nobserved the transmission of hydrogen gas through \na crack in a glass vessel, and professor Thomas \nGraham discovered the passage of gases through \nporous porcelain, graphite, and other substances, \nand established laws in 1832, and to him we are \nindebted for the discovery of Atmohjsis and Dia- \nlysis. He died 16 Sept. 1869. \n\nDIFFUSION of .Useful Ejstoweedge \n\nSOCIETY, which published a number of books \nrelating to history, science, and literature, and an \natlas, in a cheap form, ridiculed as the " Sixpenny \nSciences," was established by Lord Brougham, Mr. \nWilliam Tooke, Mr. Charles Knight, and others. \nIt published its " Library" 1827-48, and patronised \nthe publication of the Penny Magazine and the \nPenny Cyclopaedia. Its proceedings were suspended \nin 1846. The Royal Institution of Great Britain \nwas established in 1799, for "the Promotion, Dif- \nfusion, and Extension of Science and Useful Know- \nledge." \n\nDIGEST. The first collection of Roman laws \nunder this title was prepared by Alfrenus Varus, the \ncivilian, of Cremona, 66 B.C. Quintil. The "Di- \ngest," so called by way of eminence, was the \ncollection made by order of the emperor Justinian, \n529 : it made the first part of the Roman law and \nthe first volume of the civil law. Quotations from it \nare marked with a ff. Pardon. The "Digest of \nLaw " commissioners signed their first report \n13 May, 1867, recommending the immediate prepa- \nration of a digest of the English common law, statute \nlaw, and judicial decisions. \n\nDIGITS {digitus, finger), any whole number \nunder 10: 1, 2, &c, are the nine digits ; see Arith- \nmetic. In astronomy, the digit is a measure used in \nthe calculation of eclipses, and is the twelfth part of \nthe luminary eclipsed. \n\nDIJON, E. France, the ancient capital of Bur- \ngundy, is said to have been founded by Julius \nCaesar, fortified by the emperor Marcus Aurelius, \nand named Divio, about 274. It has been several \ntimes captured in Avar ; and a castle was erected \nhere by Louis XL Dijon became the capital of the \ndukes of Burgundy about 1 180. It was attacked by \nthe Germans, under general Beyer, 30 Oct. 1870. \nThe heights and suburbs were taken by prince \n"William of Baden, and the town surrendered on \n31 Oct. \n\nDILAPIDATIONS, see Ecclesiastical. \n\nDILETTANTI, Society of, established in \n* 734 by the viscount Harcourt, lord Middlesex, duke \nof Dorset, and others who had travelled and who \nwere desirous of encouraging a taste for the fine arts \nin Great Britain. The society published, or aided in \npublishing, Stuart\'s Athens (1762-1816), Chandler\'s \nTravels (1775-6), and several other finely illustrated \n\n\n\nworks. The members dine together from time to \ntime at the Thatched-house tavern, St. James\'s. \nMr. R. P. Pullan, on behalf of this society, exca- \nvated the temple of Bacchus at Teos, of Apollo \nSmintheus in the Troad, and of Minerva Polias at \nPriene, between 1861-70. Published "Antiquities \nof Ionia," 4 parts, 1 769- 188 1. \n\nDIMITY, the term is derived from the Greek, \n\ndis, twice, and mitos, thread. \n\nDINAS, see Accidents under Coal, and Mansion \nSouse. \n\nDINNERS, see Destitute. \n\nDIOCESE. The first division of the Roman \nempire into dioceses, at that period civil govern- \nments, is ascribed to Constantine, 323 ; but Strabo \nremarks that the Romans had the departments \ncalled dioceses long before. In England the princi- \npal dioceses are coeval with the establishment of \nChristianity ; of 28 dioceses, 20 are suffragan to the \ndiocese of Canterbury, and six to that of York ; see \nBishops, and the sees severally. Diocesan confer- \nences of the clergy and laity now frequent. \n\nDIOCLES\' CODE, drawn up by him for \nSyracuse, where he was a popular leader, 412 B.C. \nIt was highly approved, and copied by other nations, \nand remained in force till superseded by the Roman \nlaws, after the conquest, 212 B.C. \n\nDIOCLETIAN ERA (called also the era of \nMartyrs, on account of the persecution in his reign) \nwas used by Christian writers until the introduction \nof the Christian era in the 6th century, and is still \nemployed by the Abyssinians and Copts. It dates \nfrom the day on which Diocletian was proclaimed \nemperor at Chalcedon, 29 Aug. 284. \n\nDIOPTRIC SYSTEM (from the Greek, dia, \nthrough, and optomai, I see), an arrangement of \nlenses for refracting light in lighthouses, devised \nby Fresnel, about 1819, based on the discoveries of \nBuffon, Condorcet, Brewster, and others; see Light- \nhouses. \n\nDIORAMA. This admired exhibition was first \nopened by MM. Bouton and Daguerre in Paris, \nII July, 1822; in London, 29 Sept. 1823. It was \nnot successful commercially here, and was sold in \n1848. The building in Regent\'s-park was pur- \nchased by sir S. M. Peto, in 1855, to be used as a \nBaptist chapel. \n\nDIPHTHERIA (from the Greek diphthera, \nleather), a disease resembling croup which has \nthe essential character\' of developing a false mem- \nbrane on the mucous membrane connected with the \nthroat. It was named diphtheritis bv Bretonneau \nof Tours in 1820. From its prevalence" in Boulogne, \nit has been termed the Boulogne sore-throat ; many \npersons were affected with it in England at the be- \nginning of 1858. The princess Alice, grand-duchess \nof Hesse-Darmstadt, died of this disease, 14 Dec. \n1878, after nursing her husband and children. \n\n. DIPLOMACY, the art of managing the rela- \ntions of foreign states by means of ambassadors, \nenvoys, consuls, charges d\'affaires, &c. ; see Ambas- \nsadors and Consuls. New regulations for the British \ndiplomatic service were issued 5 Sept. 1862. \n\nDIPLOMAS. The wholesale fraudulent sale \nof diplomas of M.D., &c, for 10V., by a Dr. \nBuchanan, dean of the American University of \nPhiladelphia, and others, was detected in 1880. He \nattempted escape by a sham suicide, but was cap- \ntured, prosecuted, and imprisoned. \n\n\n\nDIPLOMATICS. \n\n\n\n288 DISRAELI ADMINISTRATIONS. \n\n\n\nDIPLOMATICS, the foreign term for^ the \nscience of palaeography or ancient writings. Valu- \nable works on this subject have been compiled by \nMabillon (1681), De Vaines (1774), Astle (1781), \nDe Wailly (1838), and other antiquaries. \n\n" DIRECTORY for the Public Worship \n\nOF GOD " was drawn up at the instance of the par- \nliament by an assembly of divines at Westminster \nin 1644, after the suppression of the Book of Common \nPrayer. The general hints given were to be man- \naged with discretion ; for the Directory prescribed \nno form of prayer or manner of external worship, \nand enjoined the people to make no responses except \nAmen. It was adopted by the parliament of Scot- \nland in 1645, and many of its regulations are still \nobserved by presbyterians. \n\nDIRECTORY, The French, established \nby the constitution of the 5th of Fructidor, an III. \n(22 Aug. 1795), and nominated 1 Nov., was com- \nposed of five members (MM. Lepeaux, Letourneur, \nEewbel, Barras, and Carnot). On 18 Fructidor, \n4 Sep. 1797, two directors (Carnot and Barthelemy) \nwere deposed, and afterwards, with other officials, \ntransported to Cayenne for favouring royalty. The \ndirectory ruled in conjunction with two chambers, \nthe Council of Ancients and Council of Five Hun- \ndred (which see), till the revolution of the 18th of \nBrumaire (9, 10 Nov. 1799). It was deposed by \nBonaparte, who, with Cambaceres and Lebrun, as- \nsumed the government as three consuls, himself the \nfirst, 13 Dec. 1799; see Consuls. \n\nDIRECTORY, the first London, is said to \nhave been printed in 1677. The "Post-office Direc- \ntory " first appeared in 1800. \n\nMessrs. Kelly\'s " Directory of the Merchants, Manu- \nfacturers, and Shippers of the United Kingdom," \nwas first published in 1877 ; at first triennially, now \nannually. \n\nDIRECTORS\' LIABILITY Act, relating \nto prospectuses, &c., of public companies, passed \n18 Aug. 1890. \n\n"DISCIPLES OF CHRIST" (also called \nCampkeli.ites)* profess adherence to pure Scrip- \ntural doctrine and practice, reject human creeds \nand formularies, and admit to their communion all \nwho recognise Christ\'s obedience and death, as \n" the only meritorious cause of the sinner\'s accept- \nance with God;" and are baptized (by immersion) \nin his name. \n\nDISCIPLINE, ecclesiastical, originally con- \nducted spiritually according to the divine commands \nin Matt, xviii. 15, 1 Cor. v., 2 Thess. iii. 6, and \nother texts, was gradually changed to a temporal \ncharacter, as it now appears in the Roman, Greek, \nand other churches. The " First Book of Disci- \npline" of the presbyterian church of Scotland was \ndrawn up by John Knox and four ministers in \nJan. 1560-1. The more important "Second Book" \nwas prepared with great care in 1578 by Andrew \nMelville and a committee of the leading members \nof the general assembly. It lays down a thoroughly \npresbyterian form of government, defines the posi- \ntion of the ecclesiastical and civil powers, &c. \n\n* The term Campbellite originated through their first \nchurch at Brush Run, in America, having been set up \nby a Scotch presbyterian preacher from Ireland, named \nThomas Campbell, and his son Alexander. In 1812 they \nrenounced infant baptism, and were rebaptized by im- \nmersion. Their number in America is said to be about \n600,000 ; and in the United Kingdom, where the move- \nment began independently and simultaneously, about \n5000. They have also churches in the British colonies. \n\n\n\nDISCOUNT, see under Bank of England. \n\nDISESTABLISHMENT. See Church of \nIreland. \n\nDISPENSARIES, to supply the poor with \nmedical advice and medicines, began in London. \nThe Royal General Dispensary, London, was estab- \nlished in St. Bartholomew\'s Close, in 1770. It \nrelieved about 20,000 persons in 1861 ; about 17,000 \nin 1866. Western Dispensary, 1789. Garth\'s satiric \npoem, " The Dispensary," published 1699. \n\nDISPENSATIONS, ecclesiastical, were first \ngranted by pope Innocent III. in 1200. These \nexemptions from the discipline of the church, with, \nindulgences, absolutions, &c, led eventually to the \nReformation in Germany in 1517. \n\nDISPENSING- POWER of the Crown \n\n(for setting aside laws or their power) asserted by \nsome of our sovereigns, especially by Charles II. \n(in 1672 for the relief of nonconformists) and by \nJames II. principally to enable Roman Catholics to- \nbold civil and military offices, in 1686-8, was \nabolished by the bill of rights, 1689. It has been \non certain occasions exercised, as in the case of \nembargoes upon ships, the Bank Charter act, &c. ; \nsee Indemnity. \n\nDISRAELI ADMINISTRATIONS. t On \n\nthe resignation of the earl of Derby through ill-health , \n25 Feb., 1868, Mr. Disraeli reconstituted the minis- \ntry, 29 Feb. (see Derby Administrations, III.). As. \nthe elections gave a large majority to the liberal \nparty, Mr. Disraeli\'s ministry resigned 2 Dec. He \ndeclined to take office with the then house of \ncommons when Mr. Gladstone resigned, 12 March, \n1873, and the latter resumed office. \n\nFIRST ADMINISTRATION, 29 Feb. 1868. \n\nFirst lord of treasury, Benjamin Disraeli. \n\nLord chancellor, Hugh MacCalmont, lord Cairns. \n\nLord president of the council, John, duke of Marlborough. \n\nLord privy seal, James, earl of Malmesbury. \n\nSecretaries\xe2\x80\x94 home, Gathorne Hardy ; \xe2\x80\x94 foreign, Edward, \nlord Stanley ; \xe2\x80\x94 colonies, Richard, duke of Buckingham \nand Chandos ; \xe2\x80\x94 war, sir John S. Pakington ; \xe2\x80\x94 India, \nsir Stafford Henry Northcote. \n\nChancellor of exchequer, George Ward Hunt. \n\nFirst lord of admircdt.y, Henry Thomas L. Corry. \n\nChief commissioner of works, lord John Manners. \n\nPresident of board of trade, Charles Henry, duke of Rich- \nmond. \n\nChief secretary for Ireland, Richard, earl of Mayo ; made \nviceroy of India, Oct. ; succeeded by col. J. Wilson \nPatten, 7 Nov. 1868. \n\nPresident of poor-law board, Wm. Reginald, earl of Devon. \nThe above formed the Cabinet. \n\nPostmaster-genercd, James, duke of Montrose. \n\nLord great chamberlain, Orlando, earl of Bradford. \n\nChancellor of duchy of Lancaster, col. John Wilson Patten ; \nsucceeded by col. Thos. E. Taylor, 7 Nov. 1868. \n\nLord lieutenant of Ireland, James, earl (afterwards mar- \nquis) of Abercorn. \n\n* Benjamin Disraeli (son of Isaac Disraeli, author of the \n"Curiosities of Literature," &c. ,) born 21 Dec. 1805; \npublished "Vivian Grey," 1825; M.P. for Maidstone, \n1837-41 ; Shrewsbury, 1841-7 ; Bucks, 1847-76. Chancel- \nlor of Exchequer (see Derby administrations), Feb. 1852 ; \nFeb. 1858 ; July, 1866 ; installed lord rector of Glasgow \nuniversity, 19 Nov. 1873 ; created earl of Beaeonsfield,. \nAug. 1876 ; plenipotentiary at the Berlin Congress, 13 \nJune \xe2\x80\x94 13 July, 1S78 ; KG. invested by the queen, 22- \nJuly, 1878 ; received freedom of London, 3 Aug. 1878 ; \n("at the pinnacle of ministerial renown; the favourite \nof his sovereign, and the idol of society," \xe2\x80\x94 Times, 8 Aug. \n1878); see People\'s Tribute; resigned (through liberal \nmajority in elections), 22 April, 1880 ; published "Endy- \nmion," Dec, 1880; died 19 April, 1881, buried at Hugh- \nenden ; prince of Wales and many present, 26 April ; \nmonument in Westminster abbey voted, 9 May, 1881. \nMrs. Disraeli created viscountess Beaeonsfield, 28 Nov. \n1868 ; died 15 Dec. 1872. \n\n\n\nDISSECTION. \n\n\n\n289 \n\n\n\nDIVINE EIGHT. \n\n\n\nMr. Disraeli\'s Letter of 30 Oct. 1873, to lord Grey de \nWilton, severely censuring the Gladstone ministry as \nhaving "harassed every trade, worried every profession, \nand assailed or menaeed every class, institution, and \nspecies of i>roperty in the country ;" and also stating \nthat the country has " made up its mind to close this \ncareer of plundering and blundering ;" was published \n7 Oct. 1873. (See Gladstone Administration.) \n\nvsecond administration, received seals, 21 Feb. 1874. \n\ntfirst lord of the treasury, Benjamin Disraeli (earl of \nBeaconsfield, 16 Aug. 1876),\xe2\x80\x94 and lord privy seal, Aug., \n1876 to Jan. 1878). \n\nLord chancellor, Hugh, lord Cairns. \n\nLord president 0/ the council, Charles Henry, duke of \nRichmond. \n\nLord privy seal, James, earl of Malmesbury ; resigned, \n12 Aug. 1876; earl of Beaconsfield, Aug. 1876; Alger- \nnon, duke of Northumberland, 4 Feb. 1878. \n\n^Secretary of state for foreign affairs, Edward, earl of \nDerby ; resigned ; \xe2\x80\x94 Robert, marquis of Salisbury, 28 \nMarch, 1878. \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Secretary of state for India, Robert, marquis of Salis- \nbury ; \xe2\x80\x94 Gathorne Hardy, created viscount Cranbrook, \n2 April, 1878. \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Secretary of state for the Colonies, Henry, earl of Carnar- \nvon ; resigned, 24 Jan. 1878 ; sir Michael Hicks-Beach, \n4 Feb. 1878. \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Secretary of state for war, Gathorne Hardy ; col. Fred. \nArthur Stanley, 2 April, 1878. \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Secretary of state for home department, Richard Assheton \nCross. \n\nFirst lord of the admiralty, George "Ward Hunt, died \n29 July, 1877 ; Wrn. Henry Smith, 7 Aug. 1877. \n\nTrendent of board of trade, sir Charles Adderley, re- \nsigned, created baron Norton, April, 1878 ; \xe2\x80\x94 Dudley \nRyder, viscount Sandon. \n\nChancellor of the exchequer, Sir Stafford Northcote. \n\njPostmaster-general, lord John Manners. \n\n(The above formed the Cabinet.) \n\nLord lieutenant of Ireland, James, duke of Abercorn, \nresigned Dee. 1876 ; John, duke of Marlborough, Dec. \n1876. \n\nChief secretary for Ireland, sir Michael Edward Hicks- \nBeach (entered the cabinet, Nov. 1876) : succeeded by \nJames Lowther, Feb. 1878. \n\nVice-president of council (education), Dudley, viscount \nSandon ; lord George Hamilton, April, 1878. \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Chancellor of duchy of Lancaster, col. Thos. E. Taylor. \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Commissioner of woods and forests, lord Henry Lennox, \nresigned July, 1876 ; Gerard James Noel, 14 Aug. 1876. \n\nDISSECTION, see Anatomy. \n\nDISSENTERS, the modern name of the \nPuritans and Nonconformists (which see). In \n1 85 1, in London, the number of chapels, meeting- \nlaouses, &\xe2\x82\xac., for all classes of dissenters amounted \nto more than 554. (The Church of England had \n458 ; Soman Catholics, 35.) The great act (9 Geo. \nIV. c. 17) for the relief of dissenters from civil and \nreligious disabilities was passed 9 May, 1828. By \nthis act, called the Corporation and Test Kepeal act, \nso much of the several acts of preceding reigns as \nimposed the necessity of receiving the sacrament of \nthe Lord\'s Supper as a qualification for certain \noffices, &c, was repealed. By 6 & 7 Will- IV. c. 85 \n(1836), dissenters acquired the right of solemnising \nmarriages at their own chapels, or at a registry \noffice ; see Worship in England. \n\nA Burials Bill to permit the ministers of dissenters to \nofficiate at funerals in churchyards several times re- \njected ; in the commons 248 to 234, 21 April, 1875 > \n279 to 248, 3 March, 1876 ; earl Granville\'s resolution \nin the lords rejected 148 to 92, 15 May, 1876. \n\nSl,ord Harrowby\'s additional clause to the government \nburials bill (permitting dissenters to have religious \n\xe2\x80\xa2services in churchyards), was supported by the arch- \nbishops, and carried against government, (127-m,) \n18 June ; the bill withdrawn, 25 June, 1877. \n\nMr. Osborne Morgan\'s resolution for reforming burial \nlaws (i.e. permitting other services), rejected (242-227), \n15 Feb. 1878. \n\nAct to amend the burial laws, permitting dissenters to \nhave their own service or no service in churchyards ; \n\n\n\npassed commons (258-79), 13 Aug., royal assent, 7 \nSept. 1880. \n\nThe Rev. W. H. Fremantle having proposed to preach \nat Dr. Parker\'s city temple, and the bishop of London \nhaving disapproved, the opinion of two counsel \n(Messrs. Fitzjames Stephen and Benjamin Shaw), \nwas taken. They declared it to be illegal for the \nclergy of the English church to take part in worship \nof dissenters, June, 1875. \n\nSeveral episcopal clergymen take part in the dedication \nservices of Christ church (formerly Surrey chapel) \nBlackfriars, middle of July, 1876. \n\nDISSOLVING VIEWS. Henry Langdon \nChilde, the alleged inventor, died 15 Oct. 1874, \naged 92. \n\nDISTAFF (or Eock), the staff to which flax or \nany substance to be spun is fastened. The art of \nspinning with it at the small wheel, first taught to \nEnglish women by Anthony Bonavisa, an Italian. \nStow. St. Distaff\'s or Rock day, was formerly the \nfirst free day after the Epiphany (6th Jan.") because \nthe Christmas holidays were over and women\'s work \nwas resumed. \n\nDISTILLATION, and the various processes \ndependent on it, are believed to have been intro- \nduced into Europe by the Moors about 1150; see \nAlcohol, Brandy. The distillation of spirituous \nliquors was in practice in Great Britain in the 16th \ncentury. Bums. The processes were improved by \nAdam of Montpellier in 1801. M. Payen\'s work \n(1861) contains recent improvements. An act to \nprevent the use of stills by unlicensed persons \nwas passed in 1846. 118 licences to distillers were \ngranted in the year ending 31 March, 1858, for the \nUnited Kingdom. \n\nM. Raoul Pictet announces a method of distillation by \nuse of ice made by the air-pump, April, 1881. \n\nDISTINGUISHED SERVICE ORDER, \n\nfor army and navy officers established 9 Nov. ; first \ninvestiture, 17 Deo. 1886. \n\nDISTRICT AUDITORS ACT, 42 Vict. c. \n6 (28 March, 1879), regulated then- appointment, \nduties, and payment. \n\nDISTRICT CHURCHES ACTS. By the \n\none passed in 1865 certain new churches were con- \nstituted rectories, and by another act, passed in 1868 \n(the Bishop of Oxford\'s act) the new parishes not \nrectories were ordered to be styled vicarages. \n\nDITCH, see Expedition. \n\n"DIVERSIONS OF PURLEY" (" Epea \nPteroenta " flying words) a collection of gramma- \ntical treatises by John Home Tooke, published in \n1786, named from the residence at Purley, near \nWandsworth, Surrey. \n\nDIVIDENDS of Public Stocks. By an \n\nact passed 11 Aug. 1869, these may be paid by post \nif the recipients desire it, as railway dividends are. \n\nDIVINATION was forbidden to the Jews, \nB.C. 14.51. (JDciit. xviii. 9.) It was common among \ntheir neighbours : and is described by Ezekiel \n(xxi. 21) 493 B.C. \n\nDIVINE RIGHT of Kings, the absolute \n\nand unqualified claim of hereditary sovereigns to the \nobedience of their subjects, a doctrine which is gene- \nrally considered to be foreign to the genius of the \nEnglish constitution, was defended by many persons \nof otherwise opposite opinions, e.g., by James I., \nby Hobbes the free-thinker (1642), by Salmasius \n(1640), by sir Robert Filmer (about 1653), in his \nPatriarcha, published in 1680, and by the High \nChurch party generally about 17 14, but opposed by \n\nV \n\n\n\nDIVING-BELL. \n\n\n\n290 \n\n\n\nDOCKS OF ENGLAND. \n\n\n\nMilton (1651), Algernon Sydney, and others. The \ncomte de Chambord, the last of "the elder branch of \nthe Bourbons, and the last consistent holder of the \ndivine right of kings, died 24 Aug. 1883. See \nFrance, 1872, ct seq. \n\nDIVING-BELL (first mentioned, though ob- \nscurely, by Aristotle, about 325 h.c.) was used in \nEurope about a.d. 1509. It is said to have been \nused on the coast of Mull, in searching for the \nwreck of part of the Spanish Armada, before 1662. \nHalley (about 17 16) greatly improved this machine, \nand was, it is said, the first who, by means of a \ndiving-bell, set his foot on the ground\'at the bottom \nof the sea. Smeaton made use of the diving-bell \nin improving Ramsgate harbour, 1779-88. Mr. \nSpalding and his assistants going down in a diving- \nhell in Ireland were drowned, 1 June, 1783. The \nRoyal George man-of-war, which was sunk off \nPortsmouth in 1782, was first surveyed by means of \na diving-bell in May, 1817. Latterly it has been \nemployed in submarine surveys and harbour works. \nThe " talpa marina," or sea-mole, a diving machine \nfor laying down torpedoes, &c, being a cylinder \nprovided with compressed air sufficient for two per- \nsons for 50 hours, was invented by Toselli, a \nVenetian, and was successfully tried in the bay of \nNaples, 26 Aug. 1871. Divine/ Dress, a close dress \nmade by Mr. Siebe about 1836; used by sir C. W. \nPasley in 1838. M. Cabirol, maker of one, died \nDec. 1874. \n\nMr. Fleuss invented a helmet with a mouthpiece, into \nwhich he introduced enough oxygen to fast five hours, \nand thus was enabled to remain under water several \nhours. He exhibited his method at the Polytechnic \nInstitution, London, Nov. 1879, and at the Society of \nArts, 6 May, 1880. \n\nDIVINING ROD {virgula divina, bacula- \ntorius), formed of wood or metal, was formerly be- \nlieved, even by educated persons, tohavethe property \nof indicating the position of minerals and springs of \nwater. Instances were alleged in 185 1 by Dr. H. \nMayo, in his work on "-Popular Superstitions." \n\nDIVINITY, see Theology and Mythology. \n\nDIVORCE was permitted by the law of Moses \n(Dent, xxiv. 1), 1451 b.c, but forbidden by Christ \nexcept for unchastity {Matt. v. 31, 32). It was put \nin practice by Spurius Carvilius Ruga at Rome, \n234 B.C. At this time morals were so debased that \n3000 prosecutions for adultery were enrolled. Di- \nvorces are of two kinds ; one, a vinculo matrimonii \n(total divorce) ; the other d mensu et thoro (from \nhoard and bed). Divorces were attempted to be made \nof more easy obtainment in England in 1539. The \nJudicature act, 1873, constituted the probate, divorce, \nand admiralty division of the High Court of Justice, \nwith two judges. See Supreme Court and Probate. \nBill to prevent women marrying their seducers \n\nbrought into parliament j8 oi \n\nThe commissioners on the law of divorce issued \n\ntheir first report April, 1857 \n\nIn 1S57 there had been in England, since the Re- \nformation, 317 divorces by act of parliament ; in \nScotland, by the law, 174 divorces since 1846 ; \n1858-67, 1279 dissolutions of marriage, 213 judicial \nseparations. In 1887, 7,321 applications for divorce \nor judicial separation were successful. \nFrom the establishment of the divorce court, to \nMarch, 1859, 37 divorces had been granted out \nof 288 petitions ; from Nov. i860 to July, 1861, 164. \nBy 20 & 21 Vict. c. 85, the .jurisdiction of the eccle- \nsiastical courts respecting divorce, &c, was \nabolished, and the Divorce and Matrimonial \nCauses court instituted, to consist of three \n.judges, the judge of the Probate court to be one \n\n(if possible) \n\nA full court sat\xe2\x80\x94 lord Campbell, chief baron Pollock\', \' \n\n\n\nsir Cresswell Cresswell (judge of the Probate court) \nwhen five marriages were dissolved . 10 May, 1858 \n\nThe act, amended by acts passed in consequence of \nthe increase of the business of the court . 1858-60 \n\nAn act respecting divorces in Scotland passed . . 1861 \n\nSir C. Cresswell died in July ; sir James P. Wilde \n(afterwards lord Penzance) successor . Sept. 1863: \n\nLord Penzance retired, Oct. ; succeeded by sir James \n\nHannen Nov. 1872 \n\nSee Probate Court and Supreme Court. \n\nThe Divorce Amendment act passed 21 July, 1868. \n\nBetween 1856 and 1867 1279 dissolutions of mar- \nriage and 213 judicial separations were decreed. \n\nDivorces 1858-87, 7321. In 1858, 200 ; 1868, 200 ; \n1878, 403 \',1887, 450; divorces in United States, \n1867-86, 328,716. \n\nOn appeal, the House of Lords decide that proceed- \nings may be taken foi divorce from a wife insane \n(see Mordaunt case, Trials, 1870) . 22 June, 1874: \n\nSebright case, 1886, see Trials. \n\nDivorce legalized by the French Republic ; about \n7000 divorces in Paris alone 1793-4 i prohibited by \nthe civil code, yet Napoleon I. divorced Josephine \n16 Dec. 1809 ; again prohibited 1816 ; again lega- \nlized (with conditions) by M. Naquet\'s bill, passed \nJuly ; many suits instituted . . . Aug. 1884. \n\nTotal up to end of 1889, 15,521. \n\nIn the United States of N.A. in twenty years (1867- \n86), there were 328,716 divorces. To check \ndivorce by reforming the law, the National \nDivorce League addressed congress . . . 1889 \n\nBills greatly facilitating divorce passed by the par- \nliaments of New South Wales and Victoria, \nvetoed by the colonial office .... 1888-9. \n\nA divorce bill for Victoria, having received the \nassent of the home government, the bishops of \nVictoria forbid their clergy marrying divorced \npersons ... ... May, 1890 \n\nDIZIER, ST. (N.E. France). Here a siege \nwas sustained for six weeks against the army of the \nemperor Charles V., 1544. The allies here defeated \nNapoleon, 27 Jan. and 26 March, 1814. \n\nDOBRUDSCHA, the N.E. corner of Bulgaria ; \nin 1854, the scene of the earlier incidents of the \nRusso-Turkish war (which see) . At the close of the \nwar of 1877-8 it was given to Roumania in ex- \nchange for the part of Bessarabia restored to Russia, \nand occupied 26 Dec. 1878. \n\nDOCE\'LZE, a sect of the 1st century, said to have \nheld that Jesus Christ was God, but that his body \nwas an appearance, not a reality. \n\nDOCKS OF ENGLAND. The following are \nthe principal commercial docks : \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nCommercial Docks, Rotherhithe, originated about 1660. \n\nWest India Docks commenced 3 Feb. 1800 ; opened \n27 Aug. 1802, when the "Henry Addingtou," West \nIndiaman, first entered them, decorated with the \ncolours of the different nations of Europe. \n\nLondon Docks were commenced 26 June, 1802, and \nopened 20 Jan. 1805. \n\nEast India Docks commenced 1803 ; opened 4 Aug. 1806. \n\nSt. Katharine\'s Docks began 3 May, 1827 ; and 2500 men \nwere daily employed on them until they were opened. \n25 Oct. 1828. \n\nRoyal Victoria Docks (in Plaistow marshes) completed \nand opened Nov. 1855 ; great enlargement proposed, \nJuly, 1876 ; completed and named Royal Albert Docks \nby the duke and duchess of Connaught, 24 June, i88u. \n\nMagnificent docks at Liverpool and Birkenhead erected \n1810-57. \n\nMillwall Docks.near London, formally opened, 14 March, \n1868. \n\nA great floating iron dry dock, which cost 250,000?., was \nlaunched at North Woolwich, 3 Sept. 1868 ; and \ntowed from the Medway by two ships of war, 23 June, \n1869, and arrived at the Bermudas (in thirty-six days), \n30 July. \n\nThe construction for floating docks for repairing ships \nadvocated by lord Brassey, Jan. 1887. \n\nErection of docks at Tilbury determined on 30 Sept. \n1881 ; begun 8 July, 1882 ; opened 17 April, 1886. \n\n\n\nDOCTOE. \n\n\n\n291 \n\n\n\nDOG-DAYS. \n\n\n\nNew Barry docks, 7 miles west of Cardiff, Bristol channel \n(which with breakwater, &c, cost 850,000/.), opened \niS July, 1889. \n\nFor the dock labourers\' strike, see Strikes, 15 Aug.-i4 \' \nSept., 1889. \n\nThe wharfingers and other employers of labour resolve \nto form a union, 4 Feb. 1890. \n\nThe Port of Loudon Docks, &c, Association, &c, resolve \nto employ any men they please, whether belonging to \nthe union or not, 12 Feb. 1890. \n\nThe dock companies employ free and union labour, with- \nout much resistance from the union and the men, 3 \nNov. et seq. 1890. \n\nA co-operative system working well, Nov., Dec, 1890. \n\nRenewal of strikes ; the unionists opposing the engage- \nment of federation men, see under Shipping, Feb. 1891. \n\nROYAL DOCK-YAEDS. \n\nWoolwich, an extensive one in 1509 ; closed 1 Oct. 1869. \n\nDeptford dock-yard founded about 1513, closed 31 March, \n1869. \n\nChatham dock-yard was founded by queen Elizabeth. \nThree grand docks constructed at a cost of about \n2,000,000/. independent of cost of convict labour, \n1866-83. \n\nPortsmouth dock-yard established by Henry VIII. \n\nPlymouth dock, now Devonport, about 1689. Great fire \nhere, by which the 1\'alavera, of 74 guns, the Imogene \nfrigate, of 28 guns, and immense, stores, were de- \nstroyed ; the relics and figure-heads of the favourite \nships of Boscawen, Rodney, Duncan, and other naval \nheroes, which were preserved in a naval museum, \nwere also burnt: the loss was estimated at 200,000/., \n27 Sept. 1840. Great fire, damage 20,000/. 8 Feb. 1882. \n\nSheerness dock-yard was built by Charles II. after the \ninsult of the Dutch, who burnt our men-of-war at \nChatham in 1667. A fire occurred at Sheerness dock- \nyard, on board the Camperdown, 9 Oct. 1840. \n\nMilford-Haven dock-yard, 1790; removed to Pembroke \nin 18 14. \xe2\x80\x94 See Hull. \n\nDOCTOE. Doctor of the Church, was a title \ngiven to Athanasius, Basil, Gregory Nazianzen, \nand Chrysostom in the Greek church ; and to \nJerome, Augustin, Ambrose, and Gregory the Great \nin the Latin church ; see Fathers. Afterwards the \ntitle of doctor only was conferred on certain persons \nwith distinguishing epithets, viz. : Thomas Aquinas \n(Angelicus), Bonaventura (Seraphicus), Alexander \nde Hales (Irrefragabilis), Duns Scotus (Subtilis), \nRoger Bacon (Mirabilis), William Occam (Singu- \nlaris), Joseph Gerson (Christianissimus), Thomas \nBradwardine (Profundus), and so on. Doctor of the \nLaw, was a title of honour among the Jews. The \ndegree of doctor was conferred in England, 8 John, \n1207. Spelman. Some give it an earlier date, \nreferring it to the time of the Venerable Bede and \nJohn de Beverley, the former of whom, it is said, \nwas the first that obtained the degree at Cam- \nbridge in the 8th century. \n\nDOCTOES\' COMMONS, the college for the \nprofessors of civil and canon law in the 8th century. \nIn February, 1568, Dr. Henry Hervie, dean of the \narches and master of Trinity -hall (a seminary \nfounded at Cambridge chiefly for the study of the \ncivil and canon laws), procured from the dean and \nchapter of the diocese of London a lease of Montjoy- \nhouse and buildings in the parish of St. Benet, \nPaul\'s wharf, for the accommodation of the society. \nOther courts being held here, the whole place re- \nceived the appellation of "Doctors\' Commons." \nThe original college was destroyed in the great \nfire of 1666; in 1672 it was rebuilt on the old \nsite. After the great fire, until 1672, the society \nheld its courts at Exeter-house in the Strand, ft \nwas incorporated by charter in June, 1768. Coote. \nThe buildings of the College of Advocates, which \nincluded all the courts of Doctors\' Commons, (arches, \nadmiralty, consistory, &e.) were purchased by the \nMetropolitan Board of Works, and were pulled down \n\n\n\nin April, 1867, for the new Queen Victoria Street ; \nsome new buildings were erected. Till 18^7 the \ncauses taken cognizance of here were blasphemy, \ndivorces, bastardy, adultery, penance, tithes, \nmortuaries, probate of wills, &c. ; see Ecclesiastical \nCourts, Civil Law, &c. \n\nThe building in Knightrider-street being dilapidated and \ntoo small, the wills were removed to Somerset-house, \nwhere the office was opened 24 Oct. 1874. \n\nDOCTEINAIEES, a name given since 1814 \nto a class of politicians in France (Guizot, Mole, \nthe due de Broglie and others), who upheld con- \nstitutional principles, in opposition to arbitrary \nmonarchical power. The party came into office in \n1830 under Louis-Philippe, and fell with him in \n1848. The term has been applied in this country \nto the writers in the " Westminster Review " (1824, \net seq.), Bentham, Molesworth, and others. \n\nDODONA, Epirus. The temple of Jupiter \nhere, renowned for its ancient oracle, delivered by \nthe sound of wiud in a grove of trees, was destroyed \nby the iEtolians, 219 B.C. \'I he foundations of the \ntemple, with other relics, were discovered in 1883, \nby the excavations of M. Carapanos. \n\nDODSON\'S ACT (brought forward by Mr. \nJohn G. Dodson, and passed 1 Aug. 1861) provides \nthat votes for electing members of parliament for \nthe universities may be recorded by means of polling \npapers. The act was amended in 1868. \n\nDOGS were worshipped by the Egyptians and \nhated by the Hebrews. The greyhound and mastiff \nare represented in the Assyrian sculptures in the \nBritish Museum. V. Shaw\'s "Book of the Dog" \n(new edition), 1881 ; J. H. WaL-h\'s "Dogs of the \nBritish Islands," (new edition), 1878. \n\nStatute against dog stealing, 10 Geo. III. . . 1770 \n\nDog-tax imposed, 1796 ; and again in 1808 ; 12s. a year \nrealised 219,313/., in 1866 \n\nAssessed taxes on dogs repealed, 29 Mar. 1867 ; an \nannual excise duty of 5s. imposed on all dogs \nmore than six months old, to begin on 5 April, \n1867 ; increased to 7s. 6d. . . . 1 June, 1878\' \n\nEmployment of dogs in drawing carts, <fec, abol- \nished in London, 1839 ; in the United Kingdom . 1854 \n\nSeveral clubs have been formed to improve the \nbreeds. \n\nDog shows held in London in 1861 ; since 1862 at \nthe Agricultural Hall, Islington, at the Crystal \nPalace, and other places. \n\n" Dogs\' temporary home " opened, Hollingsworth- \nstre.et, London, N. , 1861 ; removed to Battersea \nin 187 1 ; about 2200 animals have been sheltered in \na year ; adapted for cats, 1882. \n\nAs a nuisance, dogs at large unmuzzled in the \nmetropolis were ordered to be seized by the \npolice July to 27 Nov. 1868 \n\nA new act, more stringent, passed . 24 July, 1871 \n\nMaster McGrath, an excessively fleet hound, the \nproperty of Lord Lurgan, thrice won the Waterloo \ncup ; was sent for the queen to see, 1 Mar. , and \ndied 24 Dec. ., \n\n" Help," the railway dog (a colley), by mute appeals, \ncollected above 200?. lor the railway men\'s orphan \nfund Jan. \xe2\x80\x94 Sept. 1884 \n\nAbout 7,000 dogs sent to the home at Battersea, \n\nmid-Doc. 1SS5 \n\nThe muzzling of dogs in the metropolis ordered by \nthe police ceased, 31 Dec. 1886 ; a similar order \nmade in 1889 ; ceased, 31 Dec. 1890, rabies having \ngreatly diminished. \n\nDog licences issued in financial year 1S71-2, produced \n279,425\'- ; m 1875-6, 343> 2 57\'-; i\' 1 1876-7, 349.613\'- : \niu 1877-8, 372, 699?. ; in 1881-2, 342,836/.; 1111883-4, \n336,665/. ; 1887-8, 354,278/. \n\nNumber of dogs licensed in United Kingdom: in \n1866, 445,656; in 1876, 1,362,176. \n\nDOG-DAYS. The canicular or dog-days now \ncommence on 3 July and end II Aug; other dates \n\nv 2 \n\n\n\nDOGE. \n\n\n\n292 \n\n\n\nDONCASTER. \n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2were formerly given. The rising and setting of \nSirius or the dog-star with the sun has been \nerroneously regarded as the cause of excessive \nheat and of consequent calamities. \n\nDOGE or DtTKE : Venice was first governed by \na doge named Anafesto Paululio, or Paoluccio, 697 ; \nsee Venice. The Genoese chose their first doge, \nSimone Boccanegra, in 1339. Muratori. \n\nDOGGER-BANK (German Ocean). Here a \ngallant but indecisive battle was fought between \nthe British, under admiral sir Hyde Parker, and \nthe Dutch, 5 Aug. 1781. \n\nDOGGETT\'S COAT and BADGE. \n\nThomas Doggett, an eminent actor of Drury-lane, \nat the first anniversary of the accession to the \nthrone of George I., 1 Aug. 1715, gave a water- \nman\'s coat and silver badge to be rowed for by six \nyoung watermen in honour of the day, and be- \nqueathed at his death, in 1722, a sum of money to \ncontinue the custom. Bowed for 1 Aug. 1888 as \nusual. \n\nDOIT. The ancient silver Scottish penny, of \nwhich twelve were equal to a penny sterling. \nThe circulation of "doydekyns" (small Dutch \ncoins) was prohibited by statute in 1415. \n\nDOLLAR, the German thaler. Stamped \nSpanish dollars (value 4s. gd.) were issued fiom \nthe Mint in March, 1797, but called in Oct. fol- \nlowing. The dollar is the principal silver coin in \nthe United States of North America, value about \n4s. British money. \n\nDOLLY\'S BRAE, see Riots, 1849. \n\nDOM and DITOMO, see Cologne and Milan. \n\nDOM-BOC or Doom-Book (Liber Judicialis), \nthe code of law compiled by king Alfred from the \nWest-Saxon collection of In a and other sources. \nAlfred reigned from 871 to 901. \n\nDOME\'S-DAY BOOK orDOOM\'S-DAY \n\n[Domus Dei book, Stoiv] (Liber Censualis Angliai) , \na book of the general survey of England, com- \nmenced in the reign of William I., 1080 (some say \n1085), and completed in 1086. It was intended to \nbe a register to determine the right in the tenure \nof estates* ; and from it the question whether lands \nbe ancient demesne or not, is sometimes still de- \ncided. The book, formerly kept in the Chapter- \nhouse of Westminster, is now in the Public Record \nOffice. It consists of two volumes, a greater and less, \nwherein all the counties of England, except North- \numberland, Durham, Westmorland, and Cumber- \nland, are surveyed. " This Dome\'s-day book was \nthe tax-book of kinge William." Camden. The \ntaxes were levied according to this survey till \n13 Hen. VIII., 1522, when a more accurate survey \nwas taken, called by the people the New Doom\'s- \nDay-Book. It was printed in four vols, folio, with \nintroductions, &c, 1783-1816. Photo-zinco-graphic \ncopies of various counties have\' been published \nsince 1861. In Sept. 1872, government ordered a \nreturn of all the owners of land in England and \nWales \xe2\x80\x94 in fact, anew Dome\'s-Day-Book ; the work \nto be done by the Local Government Board. The \neighth centenary of the completion of the original \nDoomsday Book, celebrated in London, 25-29 Oct. \n1886. \n\nThe return for Scotland 1872-3, was published by go- \nvernment, April, 1874; for England and Wales (ex- \nclusive of the metropolis) in 1875 ; for Ireland, 1876. \n\n*Sir Martin Wright says, "to discover the quantity of \nevery man\'s fee, and to fix his homage," i.e., the question \nof military aid he was bound to furnish. \n\n\n\nDOMESTIC ECONOMY, or the study of \nfood and clothing, was introduced into the govern- \nment educational department in 1874; the congresses \nbegun at Birmingham, 16 July, 1877 ; and others \nsince. \n\nDOMINGO, St., see Hayti and Dominican \nRepublic. \n\nDOMINICA (W. Indies), discovered by \nColumbus in his second voyage, on Sunday, 3 Nov. \n\n1493. It was taken by the British in 1761, and \nconfirmed to them by the peace of Paris, Feb. 1763. \nThe French took Dominica in 1778, but restored it \nat the subsequent peace in 1783. Their admiral \nVilleneuve ineffectually attacked it in 1805. It \nsuffered great damage hy a hurricane in 1806, and \nalso 4-5 Sept. 1883. Population, 1881, 28,211. See \nLeeward Lsles. \n\nDOMINICAL LETTER, noting the Lord\'s \nday, or Sunday. The seven days of the week, \nreckoned as beginning on the 1 Jan., are desig- \nnated by the first seven letters of the alphabet, \nA (1 Jan.), B, C, D, E, F, G; and the one of these \nwhich denotes Sunday is the Dominical letter. If \nthe year begin on Sunday, A is the Dominical \nletter ; if on Monday, G ; on Tuesday, F ; and so \non. Generally to find the Dominical letter call \nNew Y ear\'s day A, the next B, and go on thus \nuntil you come to the first Sunday, and the letter \nthat answers to it is the Dominical letter ; in leap \nyears count two letters. The letters for 1893, A ; \n1894, G; 1895, F; 1896, E D. The letter or its \nnumber (figure of 1 for A, &c.) used in ancient \ncharters. \n\nDOMINICALS. See Exeter. \n\nDOMINICAN REPUBLIC or San Domin- \ngo, formerly the Spanish part of the island of \nHayti, the oldest European settlement, founded in \n\n1494, by Bartolomeo Columbus. The capital, San \nDomingo, contains the cathedral and Columbus\'s \nresidence. See Hayti, 1844, et seq. Population, \n1887, 504,000. President, Ulises Heureaux, 20 \nJuly, 1886. \n\nDOMINICANS, formerly a powerful religious \norder (called in France, Jacobins, and in England, \nBlack friars), founded to put down the Albigenses \nand other heretics by St. Dominic, approved by \nInnocent III. in 1215, and confirmed by Honorius \nIII. in 1216, under St. Augustin\'s rules and the \nfounder\'s particular constitution. In 1276 the \ncorporation of London gave the Dominicans two \nstreets near the Thames, where they erected a \nlarge convent, whence that part is still called \nBlackfriars. A Dominican establishment at Haver- \nstock hill, near London, was consecrated 10 Oct. \n1867. \n\nDOMINION OF CANADA, see Canada. \n\nDOMINOES, " a sport imported from France \na few years back." Strutt\'s Sports, 1801. \n\nDONATISTS, an ancient strict sect, formed \nabout 313-318, by an African bishop, Donatus, who \nwas jealous of Csecilian, bishop of Carthage : it \nbecame extinct in the 7th century. The Donatists \nheld that the Father was above the Son, and the \nSon above the Holy Ghost. Their discipline was \nsevere, and those who joined them were re- \nbaptized. \n\nDONAUWERTH (Bavaria). Here the \nFrench and Bavarians were defeated by the duke of \nMarlborough, after a severe conflict, 2 July, 1704. \n\nDONCASTER (Yorkshire), the Roman \nDanum, the Saxon Donne ceastre. The races here \n\n\n\nDONKEY SHOW. \n\n\n\n293 \n\n\n\nDOVER. \n\n\n\n(held annually in September) began about 1703; \nsee Races. Royal Agricultural Society met here \n22-26 June, 1891. Population, 1881, 21,139 ; 1891, \n25,936. \n\nDONKEY SHOW. An exhibition of donkeys \nand mules belonging to the upper and lower classes \ntook place at the Agricultural Hall, Islington, 9 \nAug. 1864; and since. One at the People\'s \nPalace, Aug. 1887. \n\nDON QUIXOTE, by Saavedra Miguel de \nCervantes (born 1547; died 1616). The first part \nof this work appeared in 1605, and the second part \nin 1608. It is said that upwards of 12,000 copies of \nthe first part were circulated before the secoud was \nprinted. Watts. \n\nDOOM\'S-DAY BOOK, see Dome\'s-day Book. \n\nDORADO, see El Dorado. \n\nDORCHESTER (Oxfordshire) was once a \nbishopric, founded about 636. The first bishop \nBirinus, the apostle of the West Saxons (ivhich see), \nwas succeeded in 650 by Agilbert. In 659 the \nsee was divided by the king. Dorchester remained \nwith Agilbert, and "Wina, established at Winchester, \nin 660 obtained the whole. The see of Dorchester \nwas revived about 764. In 1072 the bishop Remigius \nde Feschamp removed the see to Lincoln. \n\nDORCHESTER (Dorsetshire), the Roman \nDurnovaria-, the Saxon Dornccaster. Here are \nfound remains of a Roman theatre and of a British \ncamp. Here Jeft\'eries held his "bloody assize" \n(after Monmouth\'s rebellion) 3 Sept. 1685. Much \nexcitement was caused by six labourers of Dor- \nchester being sentenced to transportation 17 March, \n1834, for administering illegal oaths. Population, \n1881, 7,567 ; 1891, 7,946. \n\nDORIANS, Greeks, who claimed descent from \nDorus, son of Hellen ; see Greece. The return of \nthe Dorians, named Heraclida), to the Peloponnesus \nis dated 1104B. c. They sent out many colonies. \nTo them we owe the Doric architecture, the second \nof the five orders. \n\nDORKING, Surrey, an ancient town ; the \nmanor having been given by the Conqueror to earl \nFitzwarren. An imaginary battle of Dorkingin which \nthe German invaders totally defeat the British army \nis the subject of a clever article, attributed to \ncol. George Chesney, in Blackwood\'s Magazine for \nMay, 1871. It provoked much controversy, and \ncaused the publication of several pamphlets. Popu- \nlation, 1881,6,328; 1891,7,132. \n\nDORMANS (N. E. France). The Huguenots \nand their allies, under Montmorency, were here \ndefeated by the duke of Guise, 10 Oct. 1575. \n\nDORT, or DORDRECHT, an ancient town in \nHolland. Here happened an inundation of the \nMeuse in 1421, through the breaking down of the \ndykes. In the territory of Dordrecht 10,000 persons \nperished ; and more than 100,000 round Dollart, in \nFriesland, and in Zealand. The independence of \nthe thirteen provinces was declared here in 1572, \nwhen William Prince of Orange was made stadt- \nholder. A Protestant synod sat at Dort 13 Nov. \n1618, to 25 May 1619; to which deputies were sent \nfrom England, and from the reformed churches in \nEurope, to settle the difference between the doctrines \nof Luther, Calvin, and Arminius, principally upon \npoints of justification and grace. This synod con- \ndemned the tenets of Arminius. Population, 1890, \n2,934- \n\n\n\nDORYLiEUM (Phrygia). Soliman, the \nTurkish sultan of Iconium, having retired from the \ndefence of Nicoea his capital, was here defeated with \ngreat loss by the crusaders 1 July, 1097. Michaud. \n\nDOTEREL, H.M.S., destroyed by explosion, \n26 April, 1881. See under Navy. \n\nDOUAY (N. France), the Roman Duacum, was \ntaken from the Flemings by Philip the Fair in \n1297; restored by Charles V. "in 1368. It reverted \nto Spain, from which it was taken by Louis XIV. in \n1667. It was captured by the duke of Marlborough \nin June, 1710; and retaken by the French 8 Sept. \n1 712. This town gives its name to the Roman \nCatholic English version of the Bible authorised by \nthe pope, the text being explained by notes of \nRoman divines. The Old Testament was published \nby the English college at Douay in 1609 ; the New \nhad been published at Rheimsin 1582. The English \ncollege for Roman Catholics was founded in 1568 by \nWilliam Allen, afterwards cardinal. Bodcl. \n\nDOURO, a river (separating Spain and Portu- \ngal), which, after a desperate struggle between \nWellington\'s advanced guard under Hill, and the \nFrench under Soult, was successfully crossed by the \nformer on 12 May, 1809. So sudden was the move- \nment, that Wellington at 4 o\'clock sat down to the \ndinner prepared for the French general. Alison. \n\nDOVER (Kent), the Roman Dubris. Near \nhere Julius Caesar is said to have first landed in \nEngland, 26 Aug., 55 f. c, and its original castle to \nhave been built by him soon after; but this is \ndisputed. The works were strengthened by Alfred \nand succeeding kings, and rebuilt by Henry II. \nThe earliest named constable is Leopoldus de Bertie, \nin the reign of Ethelred II., followed by earl \nGodwin, Odo the brother of William I., &c. In \nmodern times, this office, and that of warden of the \nCinque Ports, have been frequently conferred on \nthe prime minister for the time being, \xe2\x80\x94 e.g., lord \nNorth, Mr. Pitt, lord Liverpool, and the duke of \nWellington. The earl of Dalhousie, late governor- \ngeneral for India, appointed in Jan. 1853, died 19 \nDec. i860. Lord Palmerston, appointed constable \nMarch, 1861, died 18 Oct. 1865. Earl Granville \nappointed Dec. 1865, died 31 March, 1891. W. H. \nSmith, appointed May, died 6 Oct. 1891. The \nmarquis of Dufferin and Ava, about 4 Nov. 1891. \nSee Tunnels. Population, 1881, 30,270 ; 1891, \n33\xc2\xbb4i8. \nThe priory was commenced by archbishop Corboyl, \n\nor Corbois, about 1130 \n\nAt Dover, king John resigned his kingdom to Pan- \n\ndolf, the pope\'s legate ... 13 May, 1213 \nThe pier projected by Henry VIII. . . . 1533 \n\nCharles II. landed here from his exile . 26>May, 1660 \nIniquitous secret treaty with France signed here \n\nMay, 1670 \nThe foot barracks burnt by accident . 30 July, 1800 \n\nAdmiralty pier commenced 1S44 \n\nRailway to London opened ... 7 Feb. ,, \nA submarine telegraph laid down between Dover \n\nand Calais by Brett . . . .28 Aug. 1850 \nA. telegraph between Dover and Calais opened, \n\n13 Nov. 1851 \nPart of the cliff fell, 27 Nov. 1810 ; and 13 Jan. 1853 \n\nFaster volunteer review here . . .22 April, 1867 \nSuffragan bishop, Edward Parry, D. D. . . . 1870 \nDover College inaugurated by earl Granville 4 Oct. 1871 \nDover and Deal railway begun by earl Granville, \n\n29 June, 1878; opened .... June, 1881 \nNew municipal buildings and park opened 14 July, 1883 \nCoal-field discovered under the cliffs . 15 Feb. 1890 \nConstruction of a new harbour proposed by the \n\nadmiralty, Oct. 1890; great works proceeding . 1892 \nDiscovery of closed-up caves and passages, under \n\nthe east cliff ; closed up again . early March, 1891 \nMr. W. F. Smith presents 1" the nation the valu- \nable relics of William Pitt, the duke of Wellington, \n\n\n\nDOWEB. \n\n\n\n294 \n\n\n\nDRAMA. \n\n\n\nand other lord wardens, which had become the \nproperty of his late father, Mr. W. H. Smith, and \nwhich were preserved in Walmer Castle April, 1892 \n\nDOWER, the gifts of a husband to a wife before \nmarriage (Genesis xxxiv. 12). The portion of \na man\'s lands or tenements which his wife enjoys \nfor life after her husband\'s death. By the law of \nking Edmund, a widow was entitled to a moiety of \nher husband\'s lands or tenements for her life, 941. \nThe widows of traitors, but not those of felons, are \ndebarred their dower by statute 5 Edw. VI. 1551. \nBy the Dower act passed in 1833, the power of the \nwife over her dower was much diminished. \n\nDOWN (N". E. Ireland). An ancient sec, first \nbishop St. Cailan, in 499. At the instance of \nJohn de Courcy, the conqueror of Ulster, the cathe- \ndral, consecrated to the Trinity, was re -dedicated to \nSt. Patrick about 1 1 83. The sepulchre of St. Patrick \n(buried here in 493, in the abbey of Saul, founded \nby himself) brought this place "into great repute. \nThe see was united with that of Connor in 1441 \n(see Connor) ; and the see of Dromore was united to \nboth by the Irish Church Temporalities act, 3 & 4 \nWill. IV. c. 37, Aug. 14, 1833. The cathedral of \nDownpitrick was destroyed by lord Grey, lord \ndeputy of Ireland ; for this and other crimes he was \nimpeached and beheaded in 1541. Beatson. \n\nDOWNS, see Naval Battles, 1652-3. \n\nDRACO\'S LAWS (enacted by him when \narchon of Athens, 621 e. a), on account of their \nseverity, were said to be written in blood. Idleness \nwas punished as severely as murder. This code was \nset aside by Solon\'s, 594 b. c. \n\nDRAFTS (or cheques). In 1856, drafts crossed \nwith a banker\'s name were made payable only to or \nthrough the same banker. This act was passed in \nconsequence of a decision to the contrary in the \ncase of Carlon v. Ireland, 12 Dec, 1855. In 1858 \nthe crossing was made a material part- of a cheque, \nbut bankers are not held responsible when the \ncrossing does not plainly appear, and a penny stamp \nwas ordered to be affixed to drafts on bankers, com- \nmencing 25 May. In the case of Simmonds v. Taylor, \nMay, 1858, it had been decided that the crossing \nformed no part of the draft. The crossing had been \nerased, and the money paid to the holder of the \ndraft, who had stolen it. \nThe " Cheque-barilc," established for issuing drafts for \n\nlimited amounts, opened 23 July, 1873. \nThe payment of a stolen draft crossed on one banker \n\nand presented by another banker declared legal ; Smith \n\nv. Union Bank of London : verdict for defendants, 20 \n\nNov. 1875. \nCrossed Cheques act passed, Aug. 15, 1876. \n\nDRAG-ONNADES. Tnefierce persecution of \nthe Protestants in the reign of Louis XIV. by \ndragoons, by the minister Louvois, 1684, was con- \nsummated by the revocation of Henry IV.\'s edict \nof Nantes, 22 Oct. 1685, which drove 50,000 families \nfrom France. Duruy. \n\nDRAGOON. A cavalry soldier with infantry \narms ; the name is of doubtful origin, the Roman \nDraconarii were horse soldiers, who bore dragons \nfor ensigns. Charles de Cosse, Marshal of Brisac, \ninstituted French dragoons about 1600. The oldest \nBritish regiment, the Scots Greys, was enrolled in \n1683. \n\nDRAINAGE OF LAND, in England, is of \nearly date \xe2\x80\x94 remains of British works being still \nextant in the Fens district. Cornelius Vermuyden, \nthe Dutch engineer, was invited to England in 1621, \nand amidst much opposition, he and his successors \ndrained the districts termed the Great Levels; see \n\n\n\nLevels. In the present century great progress has \nbeen made in drainage. In 1861 was passed "an \nact to amend the laws relative to the drainage of \nland for agricultural purposes ; " see Sewers. \n\nDRAKE\'S CIRCUMNAVIGATION. Sir \n\nFrancis Drake sailed from Falmouth 13 Dec. 1577, \ncircumnavigated the globe, and returned to England \nafter many perils, 3 Nov. 1580. He was vice-admiral \nunder lord Howard, high admiral of England, in the \nconflict with the Spanish Armada, 19 July, 1588. \nHe died at Panama, 28 Jan. 1596, during an \nexpedition against the Spaniards. \n\nDRAMA, ANCIENT. Both tragedy and comedy \n\nbegan with the Greeks. \n\nThe first comedy performed at Athens, by Susarion \nand Dolon, on a movable scaffold about . b. c. 562 \n\nThe chorus introduced 556 \n\nTragedy first represented at Athens by Thespis, on \na waggon (Arund. Marb.) 535 \n\nThespis of Icaria, the inventor of tragedy, performed \nat Athens "Alcestis," and was rewarded with a \ngoat (tragos). Pliny ,, \n\niEschylus introduced dresses and a stage . . . 486 \n\nThe drama was first introduced into Rome, on oc- \ncasion of a plague which raged during the consu- \nlate of C. Sulpieius Peticus and C. Licinius Stolo : \nthe magistrates, to appease the deities, instituted \ngames called the. " Scenici ;" actors from Etruria \ndanced, after the Tuscan manner, to the flute . 364 \n\nAnaxandrides, first dramatic poet who introduced \nintrigues upon the stage ; composed about 100 \nplays, of which 10 obtained the prize ; died . 340 \n\nPlays were represented by Livius Audronicus, who, \nabandoning satires, wrote plays with a regular \nand connected plot ; he gave singing and dancing \nto different performers 240 \n\nThe greatest ancient dramatic writers were \xe2\x80\x94 \nGreek, iEschylus, Sophocles, Euripides (tragedy), \nand Aristophanes (comedy), 525 -427 ; Latin, \nPlautus and Terence (comedy), 184\xe2\x80\x94 160 ; Seneca \n(tragedy) 7 b. c. \xe2\x80\x94 a. d. 65 \n\nActed in Greek at Cambridge; " Agamemnon " of \niEschylus and " Ajax " of Sophocles, Nov. 1882 ; \n" Birds " of Aristophanes, 28 Nov. 1883. The \n" Eumenides " of iEschylus 1 Dec. 1885 ; \n" CEdipus Tyrannus " of Sophocles^ 22 Nov. 1887 ; \n" Ion " of Euripides, 25 Nov. 1890 ; " The Frogs " \nof Aristophanes at Oxford about . 24 Feb. "1892 \n\nMr. Todhunter\'s " Helena in Troas," written in \nEnglish, and successfully performed in the Greek \nstyle at Hengler\'s circus near Oxford Street, W". \n\n, 17 May, 1886 \n\nDRAMA, MODERN, arose early in the rude \nattempts of minstrels and buffoons at fairs in France, \nItaly, and England, and also in the performance of \nclassical plays at the universities, still represented \nby the Westminster play. Stories from the Bible \n(Mystery Plays), represented by the priests, were \nthe origin of sacred comedy. Warton. \n\nGregory Nazianzen, father of the Church, is said to \nhave constructed a drama on the Passion of \nChrist, to counteract heathen profanities about 364 \n\nAncient Mahometan miracle-play of "Hasan and \nHusan," sons of Ali ; imblished by sir L. Pelly . 1879 \n\nFitzstephen, in his " Life of Thomas a Becket," \nasserts that \xe2\x80\x94 "London had for its theatrical \nexhibitions holy plays, and the representation of \nmiracles, wrought by holy confessors;" he died \n\nabout 1 190 \n\nThe Chester Mysteries performed . . about 1270 \n\nThe Coventry, Chester, Townley, York, and other \nmysteries have been printed during the present \ncentury. \n\nPlays performed at Clerkenwell by the parish clerks, \nand " miracles " represented in the fields . . 1397 \n\nThe "Passion of Christ," a miruelr-plny, still fre- \nquently performed at Ober-Ainmergnu in Bavaria, \nis said to have had its origin after a pestilence in 1633 \n\nThis play was witnessed by the prince of Wales and \nother distinguished persons in the summer and \nautumn ^71 \n\n\n\nDRAMATIC COLLEGE. \n\n\n\n295 \n\n\n\nDEESS. \n\n\n\nPerformance, 17-26 May, 25 Sept. 1S80 ; and fre- \nquently since . . . .28 Sept. et seq. 1890 \nIts proposed performance at the Westminster Aqua- \nrium, 4 Nov. , was stopped by the disapprobation \nof many Oct. 1878 \n\nIf_The " Passion-play " is still performed in Spain, \nwith painful realism.] \n\nAllegorical characters introduced in the 15th cen- \ntury. \n\nRkelton and others wrote " Moralities " . about 1500 \n\n"The first regular drama acted in Europe was the \n"Sophonisba" of Trissino, at Rome, in the pre- \nsence of pope Leo X. (Voltaire) . . . . 1515 \n\nFirst royal licence for the drama in England (to \nmaster Burbage, and four others, servants to the \nearl of Leicester) to act plays at the Globe, Bank- \nside 1574 \n\n^Shakespeare began to write . . . about 1590 \n\nA licence granted to Shakespeare and others . . 1603 \n\nPlays opposed by the Puritans in 1633, suspended \nduring the commonwealth, 1649 \'\xe2\x80\xa2 restored . . 1660 \n\n\'Two companies of regular performers were licensed \nby Charles II., Killigrew\'s and sir William Dave- \nnant\'s. The first was at the Bull, Vere-street, \nClare-market, which was immediately afterwards \nremoved to Drury-lane ; the other in Dorset- \ngardens, 1662. Till this time, boys performed \nwomen\'s parts ; but Mrs. Coleman (the first \nfemale on the stage) had performed Ianthe, in \nDavenant\'s " Siege of Rhodes," in . . . 1666 \n\n.Sir William Davenant introduced operas, and both \ncompanies united, 1684, and continued together \ntill 1694, when a schism under Betterton led to the \nopening of a theatre in Lincoln\'s-inn-fields, the \nparent of Covent-gardeu 1695 \n\nAct for the revision of plays and for licensing them \npreviously to being performed . . . 1737 \n\nAuthors\' Dramatic Copyright Protection act, 3 Will. \nIV. c. 15, 10 June, 1833 ; extended to operas, 1 July, 1842 \n\nSchool of Dramatic Art, Argyle-street, London, W., \nopened 4 Oct. 1882 \n\n:See Theatres, Govent-garden, Drury-lane, and Copyright. \n\nDEAMATIC COLLEGE, for the benefit of \n\xe2\x96\xa0distressed actors and their children, was proposed \n21 July, 1858, at the Princess\'s theatre, by Messrs. \nC. Dickens, Thackeray, C. Kean, B. Webster, and \n-others. Mr. Henry Dodd\'s offer of land and money, \n"with certain stipulations, was declined Jan. 1859. \nThe first stone of the buildings at Maybury, near \nWoking, was laid by the prince consort, 1 June, \ni860; and on 29 Sept. 1862, seven annuitants were \ninstalled. The central hall was opened by the \nprince of Wales, 5 June, 1865. The queen was the \npati\'on. The viceroy of Egypt was present at the \nannual fete at the Crystal Palace, July 1867, and \ngave 500^. to the college. The scheme was unsuc- \ncessful. On 12 Nov. 1877? it was determined to \nclose the college, and provide for the inmates. \nThe buildings were sold by private contract about \n23 July, 1880. \n\nDEAMATIC EEFOEM ASSOCIATION, \n\nstarted at Manchester, Jan. 1878. \n\nDEAPIEE\'S LETTEES, by dean Swift, \npublished in 1 723-4 against Wood\'s Halfpence \n{which see) . \n\nDEAWING SOCIETY (made Royal, 1892) \n\xe2\x80\xa2of Great Britain, formed in July, 1888, to promote \nthe teaching of drawing in schools. \n\nDEEADNOUGHT. In this ship, which was \n.engaged in the battle of Trafalgar, 21 Oct. 1805, \nwas established a hospital for the seamen of all \nnations (whose sovereigns are subscribers), by the \nSeamen\'s Hospital Society established 1821. The \n\xe2\x96\xa0old vessel was replaced hy others. The removal of \nthe men to Greenwich hospital was proposed in \n1867; effected, April, 1870. \n\nDEEAMS aire mentioned in Scripture, c. gr., \nJoseph\'s and Pharaoh\'s, 1715 b. C. {Gen. xxxvii. \n\n\n\nand xli.), and Nebuchadnezzar\'s, 603 and 570 B. c. \n{Daniel ii. and iv.). The first attempt to interpret \ndreams and omens is ascribed to Amphictyon of \nAthens, 1497 B. c. \n\nDEED SCOTT CASE; see United States, \nI857- \nDEEDGLSTG; Bee Deep Sea. \n\nDEEPANUM (Sicily). Near this place the \nCarthaginian admiral Adherbal totally defeated the \nRoman fleet under Publius Claudius, 249 b. c. \n\nDEESDEN", termed the German Florence, \n\nbecame the capital of Saxony in 1548.* Population \n\nin 1885, 246,086; 1890, 276,085. \n\nAlliance of Dresden between Saxony and Denmark \nand Russia \' . . . . . 28 June, 1709 \n\nPeace of Dresden between Hungary, Prussia, and \nSaxony 25 Dec. 1745 \n\nTaken by Frederick of Prussia in 1756 ; by the \nAustrians 1759 \n\nBombarded in vain by Frederick . . July, 1760 \n\nHeld by Austrians . . . June \xe2\x80\x94 July, 1809 \n\nSevere contests between the allied army under the \nprince of Schwarzenberg, and the French com- \nmanded by Napoleon .\xe2\x96\xa0 . 26, 27 Aug. 1813 \n\nThe allies, 200,000 strong, attacked Napoleon in Ins \nposition at Dresden, and the event had nearly \nproved fatal to them, but for an error in the con- \nduct of general Vandamme. They were defeated \nwith dreadful loss, and were obliged to retreat \ninto Bohemia ; but Vandamme pursuing them too \nfar, his division was cut to pieces, and himself \nand all his staff made prisoners. In this battle, \ngeneral Moreau received his mortal wound, while \nin conversation with the emperor of Russia 27 Aug. ,, \n\nMarshal St. Cyr, and 25,000 French troops, sur- \nrendered Dresden to the allies . n Nov. ,, \n\nDuring a political commotion the king abdicated, \nand prince Frederick, his nephew, was declared \nregent 9 Sept. et seq. 1830 \n\nAn insurrection 3 May ; suppressed . . 6 May, 1849 \n\nDEESS. The attire of the Hebrew Avomen is \ncensured in Isaiah iii., about 760 B.C. Excess in \ndress among the early Romans w r as restrained by \nsumptuary laws : and also in England by numerous \nstatutes, in 1363, 1465, 1570, &c. (see Cap). Stow. \nF. W. Fairholt\'s ."Costume in England" (1846) \ncontains a history of dress with numerous illustra- \ntions derived from MSS., the works of Strutt, &c. \nJ. R. Planche\'s elaborate "Cyclopaedia of Costume " \nfirst appeared in 1876. A "dress-making com- \npany" was established in London, 6 Feb. 1865, \nwith the view of improving the condition of the \nworkwomen. \n\nSir Walter Raleigh wore a white satin-pinked vest, close- \nsleeved to the wrist, and over the body a doublet finely \nflowered, and embroidered with pearls, and in the \nfeather of his hat a large ruby and pearl drop at the \nbottom of the sprig in place of a button. His breeches, \nwith his stockings and ribbon garters, fringed at the \nend, all white ; and buff shoes, which, on great court \ndays, were so gorgeously covered with precious stones \nas to have exceeded the value of 6600/. ; and he had a \nsuit of armour of solid silver, with sword and belt \nblazing with diamonds, rubies, and pearls. \n\nKing James\'s favourite, the duke of Buckingham, had his \ndiamonds tacked so loosely on, that when he chose to \nshake a few off on the ground, he obtained all the fame \nhe. desired from the pickers-up, who were generally les \nDamesde la Cour. \n\nThe court dress of civilians, previously that of the time of \nthe Georges, was modified by the lord chamberlain, \nlord Sydney, in 1869. \n\n* Dresden china was invented by John Frederick \nB6ttger(or Bottcher), an apotl ary\'s boy, about 1709. \n\nlie died 13 March. 1710. A cosily service, each piece \nexquisitely painted, with battles, &c., was presented to \nthe duke of Wellington by the king of Prussia, in 1816. \n\n\n\nDKEUX. \n\n\n\n296 \n\n\n\nDETTNKAEDS. \n\n\n\nThe Bloomer Costume, introduced into America in \n1849, by Mrs. Ann Bloomer, and worn there by many \nof the women. It resembled male attire, being an \nopen-fronted jacket and loose trowsers, the latter wide \nlike those of the Turk, but gathered in at the ankles. \nThe Bloomer dress was adopted by a few females in the \nwest of London, in August, 1851 ; but though recom- \nmended by some American ladies in popular lectures, \nit was soon totally discontinued. \n\nA dress exhibition opened in Piccadilly, London, 19 May, \n1883. \n\nRational Dress Association active, May, 1883. \n\nDEEUX (N. W. France). Here the Hugue- \nnots were defeated, and their general Conde taken \nprisoner ; and the catholic leader Montmorenci was \ncaptured by the protestants ; the slaughter was \ngreat on both sides, 19 Dec. 1562. Here is the \nburying-place of the Orleans family since 1816. \nThe duke of Guise, aged 18, the last surviving \nchild of the due d\'Aumale, was buried here 27 \nJuly, 1872. The bodies of king Louis Philippe \nand others of his family were brought here from \nEngland and buried, 9 June, 1876. \n\nDEILL EEVIEW of children ; see Educa- \ntion, 1870. \n\nDEILLING-MACHINES, in agriculture. \nOne was invented by Jethro Tull, early in the last \ncentury. \n\nDEINK, see Drunkards. \n\nDEINKING-FOUNTAINS. Several were \nerected in Liverpool in 1857. The Metropolitan \nDrinking Fountain Association was formed in Lon- \ndon in April, 1859, by lord John Russell, the earl \nof Carlisle, Mr. S. Gurney, and others. The first \nof the numerous fountains since erected is that near \nSt. Sepulchre\'s church, Skinner-street, 21 April, \n1859. The magnificent fountain in Victoria-park, \nLondon, was inaugurated by the donor, Miss (after- \nwards baroness) Burdett-Coutts, 28 June, 18&2. A \nremarkable drinking-fountain (the gift of the maha- \nrajah of Vizianagram) was inaugurated in IJyde- \npark, 29 Feb. 1868 ; another in Regent\' s-park, the \ngift of a Parsee, Aug. 1869. \xe2\x80\x94 324 in the metropolis, \nJune, 1877; 392 fountains, 404 cattle-troughs, July, \n1879; 437 fountains, 438 troughs, July, 1880; 672 \ndrinking fountains, 726 troughs, July, 1890. \nThe fountain at the Royal Exchange, with the statue of \n\nCharity (cost, by subscription, 1500?.), finished Oct. \n\n1879 ; many fountains erected since. \n\nDEOGHEDA (Ireland, E.), formerly Tre- \ndagh, a place of great importance, having the \nprivilege of coining money. Here was passed \nPoynings\' law {which see) in 1494. In the reign of \nEdward VI. an act was passed for the foundation \nof a university here. The town was besieged \nseveral times in the contests between 1641 and \n1691, and Cromwell took it by storm, and put the \ngovernor, sir A. Aston, and the whole of the garri- \nson, to the sword, 12 Sept. 1649. More than 30CO \nmen, most of them English, perished. It sur- \nrendered to William III. in 1690. \n\nDEOMOEE, Bishopric of (N. E. Ireland), \nfounded by St. Coleman, first bishop, about 556. \nBy an extent returned 15 James I., this see was \nvalued in the king\'s books at 50/. Jeremy Taylor \nwas bishop of Down and Connor in 1660, and of \nthis see in 1661. In 1842 Dromore was united to \nDown by the Irish Church Temporalities act of \n1833- \n\nDEONTHEIM, capital of Norway, founded by \nOlaf I. about 998. \n\nDEOWNING, an ancient punishment. The \nancient Britons are said to have inflicted death \n\n\n\nby drowning in a quagmire. Stoic. It is said to \nhave been inflicted on eighty intractable bishops- \nnear Nicomedia, a.d. 370 ; and to have been adopte d \nas a punishment in France by Louis XL The \nwholesale drownings of the royalists in the Loire\' \nat Nantes, by command of the brutal Carrier, Nov. \n\n1 793, were termed Noyades. 94 priests were drowned \nat one time. He was condemned to death in Dec \n\n1794. Societies for the recovery of drowning persons\' \nwere first instituted in Holland, in 1767. The second \nsociety is said to have been formed at Milan, in \n1768 ; the third in Hamburg, in 1771 ; the fourth \nat Paris, in 1772 ; and the fifth in London, in 1774. \nThe motto of the Royal Humane Society in England \nis: Lateat scintiUula forsan \xe2\x80\x94 "A small spark may \nperhaps lie hid." Francois Texier, of Dunkerque,. \nafter saving 50 lives at different times, was drowned \nin a storm, Oct. 1871. \n\nBrowned in inland waters in England and Wales, 1877,, \n266?. In United Kingdom in 1880, 4044. \n\nDEUGS, sales regulated by Sale of Food and \nDrugs Act, passed 11 Aug. 1875. See Pharmacy. \n\nDEUIDS. Priests, among the ancient Ger- \nmans, Gauls, and Britons, so Bamed from their \nveneration for the oak (Brit, dertv). They ad- \nministered sacred things, were the interpreters of \nthe gods, and supreme judges. They headed the- \nBritons who opposed Caesar\'s first landing, 55 B.C., \nand were exterminated by the Roman governor,, \nSuetonius Paulinus, a.d. 61. \n\nDEUM. It was used by the Egyptians and \nother ancient nations ; and brought by the Moors \ninto Spain. The drum, or drum capstan, for \nweighing anchors, was invented by sir S. Morland^ \nin 1685. Anderson. \n\nDEUMCLOG (W. Scotland). Here the \ncovenanters defeated Graham of Claverhouse, ow \n1 June, 1679. An account of the conflict is given, \nby Walter Scott, in "Old Mortality." \nDEUMCONDEA, see Roman Catholic. \nDEUMMOND LIGHT ; see Lime-light. \nDEUNKAEDS were to be excommunicated\' \nin the early church, 59 (1 Cor. v. 11). In England,, \na canon law forbade drunkenness in the clergy, 747. \nConstantine, king of Scots, punished it with death,. \n870. By 21 James I., c. 7, 1623, a drunkard was- \nhable to a penalty of Ave shillings, or six hours in. \nthe stocks. See Temperance and Tee-totaller. \nA commission to inquire into the prevalence of \nintemperance granted by the lords on the motion \nof the archbishop of Canterbury, 30 June, 1876; \nreport neutral respecting alcohol, recommends \ntrial of modified Gothenburg system (which see), \nissued .... .18 March, 1879 \n\nA society for promoting legislation for the control \n\nand cure of habitual drunkards formed . 22 Sept. 187& \nThe establishment of an industrial home for intem- \nperate females proposed at the Mansion house, \n\nLondon 29 Oct. 1877* \n\nHabitual Drunkards bill, read 2nd time in commons, \n\n3 July, 1878 ; passed 30 July, 1879 ; amended 1888. \nSociety for the study and cure of Inebriates, esta- \nblished 25 April, 1884, \n\nDrink Bill, Mr. Win. Hoyle computes that the \nnation in i860 spent in intoxicating liquors, \n85,276,870?. ; in 1876, 147,288,760?. ; in 1879, \n128,143,863?. In 188!, for beer, 67,881,673?.;, \nBritish spirits, 28,457,486?. ; foreign spirits,. \n10,173,014?. ; wine, 14,287,102?. ; British wines, &c.,. \nestimated 1,500,000?. ; total, 122,299,275?. \nTotal drink bill 1881,127,074,4^0?.; 1884, 126,349,256?.,-. \n1885, 123,268,906?. ; Dr. Dawson Burns computes \nin 1886, 122,389,045?. ; 1887, 124,347,369?. ; 1888, \n124,603,939?. ; 1889, about 132,103,000?. ; 1890, \n139,495,470?. ; 1891, 141,250,000?. \nOn comparison, it was asserted that our drink bill \ndoes not exceed that of France .... i88ir \n\n\n\nDBUEY-LANE THEATEE. \n\n\n\n297 \n\n\n\nDUBLIN. \n\n\n\nDEUEY-LANE THEATEE derives its \norigin from a cock-pit, which was converted into a \ntheatre in the reign of James I. It was rebuilt \nand called the Phoenix ; and Charles II. granted an \nexclusive patent to Thomas Killigrew, 25 April, \n1662. The actors were called " the king\'s servants," \nand ten of them, called gentlemen of the great \nchamber, had an annual allowance of ten yards cf \nscarlet cloth, with lace; see under Theatres. \nDrury-lane Theatrical Fund, established, 1766. \n\nDEUSES, a warlike people dwelling among the \nmountains of Lebanon, derive their origin from a \nfanatical Mahometan sect which arose in Egypt \nabout 996, and fled to Palestine to avoid persecution. \nThey now retain hardly any of the religion of their \nancestors : they eat pork and drink wine, and do \nnot practise circumcision, pray, or fast. In the \nmiddle of i860, in consequence of disputes (in \nwhich doubtless both parties were to blame), the \nDruses attacked their neighbours the Maronites \n{which see), whom they massacred, it was said, with- \nout regard to age or sex. Peace was made in July ; \nbut in the meantime a religious fury seized the \nMahometan population of the neighbouring cities, \nand a general massacre of Christians ensued. Fuad \nPacha with Turkish troops, and general Hautpoul \nwith French auxiliaries, invaded Lebanon in Aug. \nand Sept. The Druses surrendered, giving up their \nchiefs, Jan. 1861. See Damascus and Syria. \n\nDEYING MACHINES, see under Hay. \n\nDUALIN, an explosive substance (said to be \nfrom four to ten times more powerful than gun- \npowder), composed of varying proportions of cellu- \nlose (wood}\' fibre), nitro-srarch, nitro-mannite, and \nnitro-cellulose ; invented by Carl Ditmar, a Prus- \nsian, and made known in 1870. This name is also \ngiven to another explosive compound, invented by \nMr. Nobel, composed of ammonia and sawdust, acted \non by nitro-sulphuric acid. \n\nDUALISM, a term applied to the equally- \nmatched conflicting powers of good and evil in the \nPersian mythology, the Hormuzd and Ahriman \nof Zoroaster : is also applied to the principles \nof the advocates for a separate government of \nHungary under the emperor of Austria; effected in \n\ni86 7 r \n\nDUBLIN, capital of Ireland, anciently called \nAshcled, said to have been built 140. Auliana, \ndaughter of Alpinus, a lord or chief among the \nIrish, having been drowned at the ford where now \n"Whitworth-bridge is built, he changed the name to \nAuliana, by Ptolemy called Eblana (afterwards cor- \nrupted into Dublana). Alpinus is said to have \nbrought " the then rude hill into the form of a \ntown,\'\' about 155; see Ireland and Trinity Colleges. \nLublin returns 4 M.P.\'s by Act passed 25 June, 1885. \nPopulation in 1881, 249,602 ; in 1891, 254,709. \nChristianity introduced by St. Patrick . . . 448 \nDublin environed with walls by the Danes . . 798 \nNamed by king Edgar iujfche preface to his charter \n\n" Nobilissi/ma Civitas " 964 \n\nBattle of Clontarf (which see) . . . 23 April, 1014 \nDublin taken by Rainond leGros, 1 1 70, for Henry II. \n\nwho soon after arrives 1171 \n\nCharter granted by this king 1173 \n\nChrist church built by the Danes, 1038 ; rebuilt \n\nabout 1 180\xe2\x80\x94 1225 \n\nSlaughter of 500 British by the Irish citizens near \n\nDublin (see Cullens Wood) 1209 \n\nAssemblage of Irish princes, who swear allegiance \n\nto king John 1210 \n\nFoundation of Dublin castle laid by Henry de Loun- \n\ndres, 1205 ; finished ...... 1213 \n\nJohn de Deeer first provost ; Richard de St. Olave \n\nand John Stakebold first bailiffs (see Mayor) . . 1308 \n\n\n\nThomas Cusack, first mayor 1409 \n\nBesieged by the son of the earl of Kildare, lord \n\ndeputy 150G \n\nChrist church made a deanery and chapter by \n\nHenry VIII. (see Christ Church) .... 1541 \nBailiff changed to sheriffs ; John Ryan and Thomas \n\nComyu, first 154.8 \n\nTrinity college founded iSQ 1-2- \n\nCharter granted by James I. 1609 \n\nConvocation which established the Thirty-nine \n\narticles of religion 1614; \n\nBesieged by the marquis of Ormond, defeated at \n\nbattle of Rathmines (which sec) . . 2 Aug. 1649. \n\nCromwell arrives in Dublin with 9000 foot and 400 \n\nhorse Aug. ,, \n\nChief magistrate styled lord mayor . . . . 1665 \nBlue coat hospital incorporated .... 1676 \nEssex bridge built by sir H. Jervis . . . 1670 \n\nRoyal hospital, Kilmainham, founded . . . 1683, \nJames II. arrives in Dublin, 24 March ; proclaimed \n\n4 May, 1689, \n\nGreat gunpowder explosion 1693 \n\nLamps first erected in the city . . . . 1698 \n\nInfirmary, Jervis-street, founded 1728. \n\nParliament-house begun J 7 2 9 \n\nFoundling hospital incorporated . . . \xe2\x80\xa2\xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 1739 \nSt. Patrick\'s spire erected (see St. Patrick) . . 1749. \nRoyal Dublin Society originated, 173 1 ; ineorpd. . ,, \n\nHibernian society 1765 \n\nMarine society 176& \n\nQueen\'s bridge first erected, 1684 ; destroyed by a \n\nflood, 1763 ; rebuilt 1768 \n\nAct for a general pavement of the city . . . 1773 \nRoyal exchange begun, 1769 ; opened . . . 1779 \n\nOrder of St. Patrick instituted 1783 \n\nBank of Ireland instituted (see Bank) ,, \n\nPolice established by statute 1786 \n\nRoyal academy incorporated ,, \n\nCustom house begun, 1781 ; opened . . . . 17911 \n\nDublin library instituted ,, \n\nFire at the parliament house 179 2 \n\nCarlisle bridge erected 179+ \n\nCity armed association I 79 ( > \n\nNew Four law courts opened ,, \n\nThe rebellion ; arrest of lord Edward Fitzgerald, in \n\nThomas-street 19 May, 1798 \n\nUnion with England (see Union) . . 1 Jan. i8ot \nEmmett\'s insurrection .... 23 July, 1803. \n\nHibernian Bible society 1806 \n\nBank transferred to College-green . . . . 180S \n\nDublin institution founded 181 1 \n\nRiot at the theatre . . . . \xe2\x96\xa0 16 Dec. 1814, \n\nVisit of George IV 12 Aug. 1821 \n\nTheatre Royal opened , > \n\nThe " Bottle riot " 14 Dec. 1822 \n\nHibernian academy . . . . 16 Aug. 1823, \nDublin lighted with gas . . . 5 Oct. 1825 \nRd. Whately made archbishop (very active in edu- \ncation) 1831 \n\nGreat custom-house Are .... 9 Aug. 1833. \n\nRailroad to Kingstown 1834, \n\nBritish Association meet here . . .6 Aug. 1835 \nDublin new police act . \xe2\x80\xa2 . . . \xe2\x96\xa0 4 July, 1836. \nCemetery, Mount Jerome, consecrated 19 Sept. ,, \nRoyal arcade burnt .... 25 April, 1837 \nPoor-law bill passed .... 31 July, 1838 \n\nAwful storm raged 6 Jan. 1839 \n\nO\'Connell\'s arrest (see Trials) . . \xe2\x96\xa0 14 Oct. 1843. \nHe is found guilty, 12 Feb. ; liberated in Sept. 1844 \n\nHis death at Genoa 15 May, 184? \n\nArrest of Mitchell, of the " United Irishman " \n\nnewspaper 13 May, 184S \n\nState trial of Win. Smith O\'Brien and Meagher in \n\nDublin 15 May, ,\xe2\x80\x9e \n\n[These persons were afterwards tried at Cloiunel, \n\nand found guilty.] \nTrial of MitcheE; guilty . . . . 26 May, ,, \n"Irish Felon" newspaper first published, 1 July, ,, \n" Nation " and " Irish Felon\'\' suppressed, 29 July, , y \nConviction of O\'Doherty .... 1 Nov. ,, \nThe queen visits Dublin ... 6 Aug. 1849. \n\nRoyal exchange opened as a city hall . 30 Sept. 1852 \nDublin industrial exliihiliim, which owed its exis- \ntence to Mr. Dargan, who advanced 8o,oooi. for \nthe purpose, was erected by Mr. (afterwards sir) \nJohn Benson, in the Dublin society\'s grounds, \nnear Merrion-square. It consisted of one large \nand two smaller halls, lighted from above. It \n\n\n\nDUBLIN. \n\n\n\n298 \n\n\n\nDUDLEY GALLEEY. \n\n\n\nwas opened by earl St. Germains, the lord-lieu- \ntenant 12 May, \n\nVisited by the queen and prince Albert, 30 Aug. ; \nand closed on 1 Nov. \n\nActs passed to establish a national gallery, \nmuseum, &c. . . 10 Aug. 1854 ; and 2 July, \n\nBritish Association meet here (2nd time) . 26 Aug. \n\n-Arrival of lord Eglinton \xe2\x80\x94 disgraceful contest be- \ntween the Trinity college students and the police ; \nthe latter severely blamed . - . .12 March, \n\nWine art exhibition proposed, 20 July, i860 ; opened \nby the lord-lieutenant, the earl of Carlisle, 24 \nMay, 1861 ; visited by the prince of Wales, 1 July ; \nand by the queen and prince consort . 22 Aug. \n\n^National association for social science met, 14-22 Aug. \n\nDemonstration at the funeral of the rebel M\'Manus, \n\n10-12 Nov. \n\nSJord Rosse installed as chancellor of the university, \n\n17 Feb. \n\nAbp. Whately dies, 8 Oct. ; succeeded by Ed. \nChenevix Trench Nov. \n\n\'Statue of Oliver Goldsmith inaugurated by the \nlord-lieutenant, 5 Jan. ; who opens the national \ngallery of Ireland 30 Jan. \n\nINew Richmond hospital, to be called the " Carmi- \nchael School of Medicine," founded by lord Car- \nlisle (Mr. Carmichael, the surgeon, bequeathed \nio,ooo<. to it) 29 March, \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Industrial exhibition opened by the lord chancellor, \n\n25 May, \n\n\'The O\'Connell monument founded . . 8 Aug. \n\nSt. Patrick\'s cathedral restored by Mr. Benjamin \nL. Guinness ; re-opened ... 24 Fell. \n\nThe international exhibition opened by the prince \nof Wales g May, \n\nThe newspaper " The Irish People " seized, and \nseveral Fenians taken in custody. (See Fenians, \nand Ireland.) 15 Sept. \n\ninternational exhibition closed . . . 9 Nov. \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Great fire: Mrs. Delany and five others burnt ; fire- \nbrigade blamed 7 June, \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Great banquet to John Bright . . .30 Oct. \n\nMeeting of Royal Agricultural Society of Ireland, \n\n27 Aug. \nTwo policemen shot (probably by Fenians), 31 Oct. \nFuneral demonstration for Allen, Gould, and Larkin, \n\nthe Fenians 8 Dec. \n\nVisit of prince of Wales (see Ireland) . 15 April, \n\nSir Benjamin L. Guinness, benefactor, died 19 May, \n\nChurch congress held . . 29 Sept. \xe2\x80\x94 2 Oct. \n\nPublic entry of earl Spencer as lord-lieut. . 16 Jan. \n\nSmith O\'Brien\'s statue unveiled . . .26 Dec. \n\nState funeral of lord mayor Bulfin (died in office), \n\n16 June, \n\nFine art and industrial exhibition opened by the \nduke of Edinburgh 5 June, \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Closed by the lord-lieutenant, earl Spencer, 30 Nov. \n\nSpencer dock inaugurated by the 1 lord-lieutenant, \n\n15 April, \n\nGreat fire ; rioting suppressed by the military, \n\n7 June, \n\n"Conference on "Home Rule" in the Rotondo, \n\n18-21 Nov. \n\nInternational Rifle Match, Irish and Americans; \nAmericans won 29 June, \n\nStatue of Henry Grattan unveiled . . 6 Jan. \n\nEntry of the duke of Marlborough, new lord lieu- \ntenant 10 Jan. \n\nFreedom of city given to Mr. W. E. Gladstone, \n\n7 Nov. \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Christ church cathedral thoroughly restored by Mr. \nG. E. Street, at the expense of Mr. Henry Roe \n(above 250,000?.), re-opened . . . 1 May, \n\nBritish Association meet here (3rd time) . 14 Aug. \n\nDeath of cardinal Paul Cullen, r.c. abp. of Dublin \n(since 1851), 24 Oct. ; successor, monsignor \nMcCabe, elected 28 Nov. \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Centenary of birth of Thomas Moore celebrated, \n\n28 May, \nTheatre Royal burnt down, Mr. Egerton, the mana- \nger, and 5 others, perish ... 9 Feb. \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Great convention of the land league ; Mr. Parnell \ndeclares for abolition of landlordism 15 Sept. \nPhoenix park murders (see Ireland) . . 6 May, \nStatue of D. O\'Connell unveiled, and the Exhibition \nof Irish Arts and Manufactures (not patronised \nby the queen and loyalists) opened by the lord \nmayor Dawson, 15 Aug. 1S82, closed 6 Jan. 1883. \n\n\n\n1853 \n\n\n\n1855 \n1857 \n\n\n\nC865 \n\n\n\n1872 \n1873 \n\n\n\n1875 \n1S76 \n\n\n\n:8 7 7 \n\n\n\n187S \n\n\n\nDiscovery of the assassination plot (see Ireland) \n\nFeb. 18S3 \n\nA futile attempt to blow up Ship-street barracks \n\n25 April, 1884 \n\nVisit of the duke of Edinburgh with the Channel \nfleet warmly received end of Aug. ,, \n\nGrand review of the troops in the Phoenix park by \nthe duke of Cambridge . . . . 30 Sept. ,, \n\nArchbishop Trench retires, 28 Nov. [dies 28 March, \n1886]; lord Plunket elected archbishop about \n\n18 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDeath of cardinal M\'Cabe . . . n Feb. 1885 \n\nThe prince and princess of Wales enthusiastically \nreceived, 8 April ; he lays foundation of Museum \nof Science and Art, &c. . . .10 April, ,, \n\nDr. Wm. J. Walsh appointed R.C. archbishop by \nthe pope June, ,, \n\nEntry of the marquis of Londonderry, lord-lieut., \n\n18 Sept. 1886 \n\nFour Courts building much damaged by fire 10 Feb. 1887 \n\nPrinces Albert Victor and George of Wales arrive at \nDublin 27 June ; review in Phoenix Park 28 June ; \nreceived deputations, jubilee cathedral service \nand State banquet, &c, 29 June ; left 30 June, ,, \n\nThe lord mayor, T.D. Sullivan, appears in full state \nat the police court to answer- charge of offence \nagainst the Crimes Act by publication in his \npaper, the " Nation " ; discharged through in- \nsufficient evidence 6 Oct. ; on appeal the objection \nset aside by the Exchequer Division 10 Nov. ; \nsentenced to two months\' imprisonment as first- \nclass misdemeanant ..... 2 Dec. ,, \n\nGreat Unionist meeting in Leinster Hall to receive \nlord Harrington and Mr. Goschen . 29 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMr. T. Sexton, M\'.P., lord mayor . . 2 Jan. 1888 \n\nGreat meeting of Irish Nationalists to receive the \nmarquis of Ripon and Mr. John Morley, M.P., \namid great enthusiasm . . . . 2 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDublin barracks built about 1708 ; enteric fever \nlong prevalent, greatly increased in 1888; govern- \nment inspection, special inquiry by Mr. Rogers \nField, aided by Drs. Dupre and Klein, ordered \nNov. ; interim report with recommendations \ndated 25 Feb. ; issued .... April, 1889 \n\nThe earl of Zetland sworn in lord lieut. . 5 Oct. ,, \n\nMr. E. Kennedy, lord mayor . . .1 Jan. 1890 \n\nStrike of servants of Great S. and AV. railway com- \npany at Dublin, 25 April ; closed by the efforts \n. of Abp. Walsh and others . . . 3 May, ,, \n\nThe earl of Zetland opens the new museum of Science \nand Art and the National Library . . 29 Aug. ,, \n\nMr. C. S. Parnell dies at Brighton, 6 Oct., buried \nin Glasnevin cemetery ; solemn funeral 11 Oct. 1891 \n\nExplosion at Dublin castle attributed to nitro- \nglycerine ; much destruction but no one injured \n\n31 Dec. ,, \n\nTelephonic communication with Belfast opened \n\n5 April, 1892 \n\nGreat Unionist meeting . . . .23 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTercentenary of the foundation of Trinity college \ncelebrated 5-9 July, ,, \n\nDUBLIN", Archbishopric of. it is sup- \nposed that the bishopric of\' Dublin was founded by \nSt. Patrick, in 448. Gregory, bishop in 1121, be- \ncame archbishop in 1 152. It was united to Glan- \ndalagli in 1214. George Browne, an Augustine friar \nof London (deprived by queen Mary in 1554), was \nthe first Protestant archbishop. Dublin has two \ncathedrals, St. Patrick\'s, said to have been founded \n1 190, restored 1865; Christ Church, built about \n1038, made a cathedral in 1541. The revenue was \nvalued, in the king\'s books, 30 Henry YIII., at \n534/. 15s. 2d. Irish. Kildare, on its last avoidance, \nwas annexed to Dublin, 1846 ; see Bishops. \n\nDUCAT, a coin so called because struck by \ndukes. Johnson. First coined by Longinus, \ngovernor of Italy. Procopius. First struck in the \nduchy of Apulia, 1 140. Du C\'ange. Coined by \nRobert, king of Sicily, in 1240. \n\nDUCKING-STOOL ; see Cucking-stool. \n\nDUDLEY GALLEEY. The exhibition held \nsince 1865 in the Egyptian Kail was removed to a \n\n\n\nDUELLING. \n\n\n\n299 \n\n\n\nDUFFERIN FUND. \n\n\n\nnew building\' in Piccadilly, under the direction of \nthe Dudlej r Gallery Art Society, established in \n1883. \n\nDUELLING took its rise from the judicial \ncombats of the Celtic nations. The first formal \nduel in England, between William count of Eu and \nGodfrey Baynard, took place 1096. Duelling in \ncivil matters was forbidden in France, 1305. \nFrancis I. challenged the emperor Charles V. 1528 \nwithout effect. The fight with small swords was \nintroduced into England, 1587. Proclamation that \nno person should be pardoned who- killed another in \na duel, 1679.* Duelling was checked in the army, \n1792 ; and has been abolished in England, by the \ninfluence of public opinion, aided by the prince \nconsort. A society "for the discouraging of duel- \nling " was established in 1845. " The British Code \nof Duel," published in 1824, was approved by the \nduke of Wellington and others. See Battle, Wager \nof, Combat, and Jarnac. \n\n\n\nMEMORABLE DUELS. \n\nBetween the duke of Hamilton and lord Mohun, \nfought 15 Nov. \n\n[This duel was fought with small swords, in Hyde- \npark. Lord Mohun was killed upon the spot, \nand the duke expired of his wounds as he was \nbeing carried to his coach.] \n\nCapt. Peppard and Mr. Hayes ; latter killed \n\nMessrs. Hamilton and Morgan ; former killed \n\nS. Martin wounded Mr. Wilkes, M.P. . 16 Nov. \n\nLord Byron killed Mr. Chaworth . . 26 Jan. \n\nLord Townsend wounded lord Bellamont, 1 Feb. \n\nComte d\'Artois wounded by due de Bourbon, at \nParis 21 March, \n\nMr. Donovan and capt. Hanson ; the latter killed, \n\n13 Nov. \n\nCharles James Fox wounded by Mr. Adam, 30 Nov. \n\nCol. Fullerton wounded lord Shelburne, 22 March, \n\nRev. Mr. Allen killed Lloyd Dulany . . 18 June, \n\nCol. Thomas killed by col. Gordon . 4 Sept. \n\nLord Macartney wounded by major-general Stuart, \n\n8 June, \nMr. M\'Keon killed George N. Reynolds, 1787 ; exe- \ncuted \xe2\x96\xa0, 16 Feb. \n\nMr. Purefoy killed col. Roper .... Deo. \n\nDuke of York and col. Lennox, aft. duke of Rich- \nmond (for an insignificant cause) . 26 May, \n\nSir George Ramsay and cai:>tain Macrea : sir George \nkilled \n\nMr. G\'urran and major Hohart . . 1 April, \n\nMr. Macduff and Mr. Prince ; latter killed 4 June, \n\nMr. Harvey Aston and lieut. Fitzgerald ; the former \nseverely wounded .... 25 June, \n\nMr. Anderson killed Mr. Stevens . . 20 Sept. \n\nMr. Julius killed Mr. Graham . . 19 July, \n\nMr. John Kemble and Mr. Aiken ; no fatality, \n\n1 March, \n\nEarl of Lonsdale and captain Cuthbert ; no fatality \n\n9 Juue, \nM. de Chauvigny wounded Mr. Lameth . 8 Nov. \nWm, Pitt and Geo. Tierney . . .27 May, \nLord Valentia wounded by Mr. Gawler . 28 June, \nMr. Carpenter killed by Mr. Pride . 20 Aug. \nHenry G rat tan wounded Isaac Cony . 15 Jan. \nLieut. Willis killed major Impey . . 26 Aug. \nGeorge Ogle and Bernard Coyle : no fatality . . \nSir Richard Musgrave and Mr. Todd Jones ; sir \n\nRichard wounded .... 8 June, \nCapt. Mac Namara killed col. Montgomery, 6 April, \nGen. Hamilton and col. xVaron Burr (in America) ; \n\nthe general killed \n\nCapt. Best killed lord Camelford 6 (died 10) March, \nSurgeon Fisher killed lieut. Torrens . 22 March, \nBaron Hompesch wounded Mr. Richardson, 21 Sept. \nSir Francis Burdett and Ml\'. Paull ; both wounded \n\n5 May, \n\n\n\n1728 \n174S \n1763 \n1765 \n1773 \n\n1778 \n\n\n\n1782 \n1783 \n\n\n\n1791 \n1792 \n\n1796 \n\n\n\n1000 \n1801 \n1802 \n\n\n\n1803 \n1S04 \n1S06 \n\n1807 \n\n\n\n* " As many as 227 official and memorable duels were \nfought during my grand climacteric." \xe2\x80\x94 Sir J. Barrington. \nA single writer enumerates 172 duels, in which 63 indi- \nviduals were killed and 96 wounded : in three of these \ncases both the combatants were killed, and 18 of the \nsurvivors suffered the sentence of the law. Hamilton. \n\n\n\nMr. Alcock killed Mr. Colclough ; and lost his reason \n\n8 June, 1807 \nM. de Granpre and M. Le Pique, in balloons, near \n\nParis, and the latter killed ... 3 May, 1S08 \nMajor Campbell and captain Boyd ; latter killed \n\n(former hanged, 2 Oct. 1808) . . 23 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nLord Paget and captain Cadogan ; neither wounded \n\n30 May, 1809 \nLord Castlereagh wounded Geo. Canning 21 Sept. ,, \nMr. Clarke killed George Payne . . .6 Sept. 1810 \nEnsign de Balton kiUed capt. Boardman, 4 March, 1811 \nLieut. Stewart killed lieut. Bagnal . . 7 Oct. 1812 \nMr. Edward Maguire killed lieut. Blundell, 9 July, 1813 \nCaptain Stackpole (of " Statira " frigate) and lieut. \n\nCecil ; the captain killed (arose on account of \nwords spoken four years previously) . April, 1814 \nMr. D. O\'Connell killed Mr. D\'Esterre . 31 Jan. 1815 \nColonel Quentin and colonel Palmer . 7 Feb. ,, \nMr. O\'Connell and Mr. Peel ; an affair, no meeting \n\n31 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nMajor Greene and Mr. Price, in America ; the latter \n\nkilled, greatly lamented 1816 \n\nLieut. Conroy killed lieut. Hindes . 8 March, 1817 \nMajor Lockyer killed Mr. John Sutton . 10 Dec. ,, \nMr. O\'Callaghan killed lieut. Bayley . . 12 Jan. 1818 \nMr. Grattan and the earl of Clare . . 7 June, 1820 \nMr. Henshaw and Mr. Hartinger ; both desperately \n\nwounded 18 Sept. ,, \n\nMr. Christie killed Mr. Scott . \' . .16 Feb. 1821 \nM. Manuel and Mr. Beaumont . . 9 April, ,, \nMr. James Stuart killed sir Alexander Boswell, \n\n26 March, 1822 \nThe duke of Buckingham and the duke of Bedford ; \n\nno fatality 2 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGen. Pepe wounded gen. Carascosa . 28 Feb. 1823 \n\nMr. Westall killed capt. Gourlay 1824 \n\nMr. Beaumont and Mr. Lambton : no result 1 July, 1S26 \nMr. Hayes killed Mr. Brie ... 26 Dec. ,, \nRev. Mr. Hodson wounded Mr. Grady . Aug. 1827 \nDuke of Wellington and the earl of Winchelsea ; no \n\ninjury 21 March, 1829 \n\nCapt. Helsham killed lieut. Crowther . 1 April, ,, \nMr. W. Lambrecht killed Mr. O. Clayton . 8 Jan. 1830 \nCapt. Smith killed Mr. O\'Grady . . 18 March, ,, \nMr. Storey wounded Mr. Matthias . 22 Jan. 1833 \n\nSir John W. Jeffcott and Dr. Hennis ; the latter \n\nwounded, and died on the 18th . 10 May, ,, \n\nLord Alvanley and Mr. Morgan O\'Connell ; 2 shots \n\neach 4 May, 1835 \n\nSir Colquhoun Grant and lord Seymour ; no fatality \n\n29 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nMr. Roebuck, M.P., and Mr. Black, editor of the \n\n" Morning Chronicle ;" 2 shots each . 19 Nov. ,, \nCapt. Dickson wounded gen. Evans . . 8 April, 1836 \nMr. Ruthven and Mr. Scott ; and Mr. Ruthven and \n\nMr. Close (Mr. Scott\'s second) ; the latterwounded \n\n23 May, ,, \nEmile de Girardin killed Armand Carrel (both jour- \nnalists) 24 July, ,, \n\nThe earl of Cardigan and captain Tuekett ; 2 shots \n\neach; the latter wounded ; (the earl was tried in the \n\nhouse of lords and acquitted, 16 Feb. 1841) 12 Sept. 1S40 \nCaptain Boldero and hon. Craven Berkeley ; no \n\nfatality 15 July, 1842 \n\nLieut. Munroe killed col. Fawcett 1 (died 3) July, 1843 \nLieut. Hawker killed lieut. Seton . 20 May, 1845 \n\nDue de Grammont Caderousse kills Mr. Dillon at \n\nParis, for a newspaper attack . . . Oct. 1862 \nPaul de Cassagnac and M. Lissagaray, journalists ; \n\n(latter run through) .... 4 Sept. 1868 \nDon Enrique de Bourbon killed by the due de Montr \n\npensier, near Madrid, much provocation, 12 Mar. 1870 \nPaul de Cassagnac (wounded) and M. Ranc, Puis, \n\n7 July, 1S73 \nPrince Soutza kills N. Ghika at Fontainebleau, \n\n27 Nov. ,, \nMM. Gambetta and Dc Fortou; neither hit \n\n21 Nov. 1878 \nDuels (often nominal) still frequent in France 1S75-84 \nCapt. Fournier and H. Roehefort, for attack in \n\nIntransitjeant ; both slightly wounded 10 Oct. 1884 \nM. Hubert killed M. Felix Dupuis (artist), who \n\nresented satirical verses, Paris . . 29 April, i833 \nGen. Boulanger, seriously, ami M. Floquet slightly \n\nwounded (see France) . . . 13 July, ,, \nCapt. .Mayer killed by 111:1 rq. de Mores, Paris, 23 .lone 1892 \n\nDUFFERIN FUND, LADY,sce/^.w, 1S87. \n\n\n\nDUKE. \n\n\n\n300 \n\n\n\nDUN ECHT. \n\n\n\nDUKE, from Latin dux, a leader. In England, \nduring Saxon times, the commanders of armies \n\xe2\x80\xa2were _ called dukes, duces. Camden. In Genesis \nxxxvi. some of Esau\'s descendants are termed \ndukes, puke-duke was a title given to the house of \nSylvia, in Spain, on account of its possessing many \nduchies. \nEdward the. Black Prince made duke of Cornwall \n\n17 March, 1337 \nRobert de Vere was created marquis of Dublin and \n\nduke of Ireland, 9 Rich. II I3 8 s \n\nRobert III. created David, prince of Scotland, duke \n\nof Rothsay, a title which afterwards belonged to \n\nthe king\'s eldest son, 1398, and is now borne by \n\nthe prince of Wales. \nCosmo de\' Medici created grand-duke of Tuscany, \n\nthe first of the rank, by pope Pius V. . . . 1569 \nThe dukes of Buccleuch, Grafton, Richmond, and \n\nSt. Albans are descendants of Charles II. \n\nDULCIGNO, a port in Albania on the Adri- \natic. \n\nTaken by Turks I57I \n\nIn the 17th century a den of pirates, and the resi- \ndence of Sabbatai Zewi, a Smyrnese Jew, who \ndeclared himself to be the Messiah, became Maho- \nmetan ; and died ID70 \n\nTaken by Venetians ; and held for a short time \' \'. 1722 \nThe Montenegrins take it by storm ; butgiveitup 1878 \nAssigned to them by the Berlin conference June, \n\nJuly, 1880 \nSeized by 8000 Albanians, who expelled the Turks \n\nabout !8 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAfter much delay the Sultan signed the decree for \nits cession to Montenegro . . .12 Oct. \nAfter a slight conflict with Albanians 22 Nov., occu- \npied by Dervish Pasha 24 Nov., and surrendered \nto the Montenegrins . . .26, 27 Nov. \n\nDULWICH COLLEGE (Surrey) called \nGoci\'s-gift college, founded by Edward Alleyn, an \neminent comedian, was completed and solemnly \nopened 13 Sept. 1619. Alleyn was its first master, \nand died in 1626. In 1686 Win. Cartwright, an \nactor, gave a library and some portraits, and on \n\n20 Dec. 1810 sir Francis Bourgeois bequeathed his \ncollection of pictures, the gallery for which was \nerected by sir John Soane, and opened in 1812. Sir \nFrancis died 8 Jan. 181 1. In 1857, an act was \npassed by which the college was reconstituted. Two \nschools were established ; and the number of the \nalmspeople increased. In i860 the annual income \nwas 11,482^. The new school buildings, founded \n26 June, 1866, were opened by the prince of Wales, \n\n21 June, 1870. The Endowed Schools Commis- \nsioners put forth a draft scheme for remodelling the \ncharity about Oct. 1872 ; and another scheme was \napproved 18 Aug. 1882. Four parishes are bene- \nfited by the charity, St. Luke\'s, Middlesex ; St. \nBotolph\'s, JBishopsgate ; St. Saviour\'s, Southwark; \nand St. Giles\'s, Camberwell. Dulwich Park, 72 \nacres, presented to the public by the governors of \nthe college, opened by the earl of Eosebery, 26 June, \n1890. _ Mr. Win. Young\'s history of the college, \nincluding many documents, 2 vols. 4to, was pub- \nlished in 1890. \n\nDUMB, see Deaf and Dumb. \n\nDUMBLANE or Dunblane (Perth), an \n\nancient city, near which took place a conflict called \nthe battle of Sheriffmuir, between the royalist army \nunder the duke of Argyle, and the Scots rebels \nunder the earl of Mar, 13 Nov. 1715. Both claimed \nthe victory. \n\nDUNBAB (Haddington). Here the Scottish \narmy and king John Baliol were defeated by War- \nrenne, earl of Surrey, 27 April, 1296, and Scotland \nwas subdued. Near here also Cromwell obtained a \n\n\n\nsignal victory over the Scots, in arms for Charles II. \n3 Sept. 1650. \n\nDUNCIAD, the celebrated satirical poem by \nAlexander Pope, was published in 1728. \n\nDUNCOMBE PAEK, N. E. Yorkshire, the \nmagnificent mansion of the earl of Feversham, with \nvaluable treasures (really a museum open to the \npublic), was destroyed by fire, 11 Jan. 1879. \n\nDUNDALK (Louth, Ireland). On 5 Oct. 1318, \nat Foughard near this place, was defeated and slain \nEdward Bruce, who had invaded Ireland in 1315. \nThe walls and fortifications of Dundalk were de- \nstroyed in 1641. It was taken by Cromwell in \n1649. The first cambric manufacture in Ireland \nwas established in this town by artisans from \nFrance in 1727. \n\nDUNDEE (E. Scotland), on the Tay. The \nsite was given by William the Lion (reigned 1165 \xe2\x80\x94 \n1214) to his brother David, earl of Huntingdon, \nwho built or strengthened the rustle, and erected a \nlarge church, the tower of which, 156 feet high, \nstill remains. The town was taken by the English \nin 1385 ; pillaged by Mont ose, 1645 ; stormed by \nMonk in 165 1 ; and visited by queen Victoria in \n1844. It has thriven since 1815, through its \nextensive linen manufactories ; at one of these \n(Edwards\'s) a steam explosion took place on 15 April, \n1859, when twenty persons were killed. Claver- \nhouse, viscount Dundee (killed 1689), had a house \nhere. See Population. \nThe Baxter park, the gift of sir David Baxter, \n\nopened\' by earl Russell .... 9 Sept. 1863 \nThe British association met here . . 4 Sept. 1867 \nWhile preparing for building the great Tay bridge \nof the N. British railway six men were killed, \n\n27 Aug. 1873 \nThe Albert Institution opened by the earl of \n\nDalhousie 1 Nov. ,, \n\nThe Queen-street calendering works burnt, loss \n\nbetween 15,000?. and 20,000?. . . 20 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nNew wet dock (Victoria) opened by lord Strath- \nmore 16 Aug. 1875 \n\nThe Tay bridge {which see) completed Aug. 1S77 ; \nopened, 31 May, 1878 ; destroyed by a gale ; be- \ntween 80 and 90 lives lost, 7.15 p.m. 28 Dec. 1879 \nStatue of Burns unveiled . . . .16 Oct. 1880 \nArmistead\'s flax warehouse burnt, loss about \n\n10,000? 16 Jan. 1883 \n\nNew university founded by sir D. Baxter ; pro- \nfessor appointed Nov. 1882. Munificent addi- \ntions made to the funds by Miss Mary Ann \nBaxter, sister of sir David, 1882 [she died 19 Dec. \n1884]; college opened by earl of Dalhousie 5 Oct. ,, \nGreat demonstration in favour of the government \n\nand franchise bill .... 20 Sept. 1884 \nMr. T. H. Cox gives 12,000?. for the establishment \nof a medical school in connection with the \n\ncollege 13 Dec. 1886 \n\nMr. J. M. Keiller gives 10,500?. for the free library, \nmuseum and picture gallery as a jubilee offering \n\n24 Dec. ,, \nThe old theatre, newly renovated, burnt . 6 Oct. 18S& \nRt. Hon. C. T. Ritchie, a native, president of the \n\nLocal Government Board, made a burgess 13 Oct. ,,. \nDundee created a city .... Dee. ,, \n\nThe Victoria art galleries, opened by the marquis \n\nof Lome 26 Oct. 1889 \n\nThe freedom of the city given to Mr. H. M. Stanley \n\n14 June, 1890. \nRt. lion. E. Baxter, statesman and benefactor, dies \n\naged 65 10 Aug. ,, \n\nThe freedom of the city given to Mr. Gladstone \n\n29 Oct. ,, \nThe provost ordered to be styled "lord provost" \n\n11 Feb. 1892 \n\nDUN ECHT, Aberdeenshire, seat of the earl \nof Craw lord, who erected an observatory here. In \nthe autumn, 1888, he presented to the nation his. \nvaluable instruments, which will be set up in \n\n\n\nDUNES. \n\n\n\n301 \n\n\n\nDURHAM. \n\n\n\nEdinburgh. The earl issued the 179th, and last, \n\n" Dun Echt Circular," Feb. 1890. \n\nOn 3 Dec. 1881, it was discovered that the body \nof the late earl had been stolen from the mau- \nsoleum in the grounds ; it was found near the \nspot, 18 July, 1882, through information given \nby Chas. Soutar, who was convicted of stealing it. \n\n24 Oct. 1882 \nDUNES, see Dunkirk. \n\nDUNGAN-HILL (Ireland). Here the Eng- \nlish army, commanded by colonel Jones, signally \ndefeated the Irish, of whom 6000 are said to have \nbeen slain, while the loss on the side of the English \nwas inconsiderable, 8 Aug. 1647. \n\nDUNKELD (Perthshire) was made a bishopric \nby David I. in 1 127; the ancient Culdee church, \nfounded by king Constantine III., becoming the \ncathedral, The beautiful bridge over the Tay, \nerected by Thomas Telford, was opened in 1809. \n\nDUNKIRK (N. France), founded in the 7th \ncentury, was taken by the Spaniards, Sept. 1652, \nand retaken from them by the English and French \nafter Turenne\'s victory over them under Conde on \nthe dunes (or sands), 14 June, 1658, and put into \nthe hands of the English, 25 June following. It \nwas sold by Charles II. for 500,000/. to Louis XIV., \n17 Oct.; restored 1662, and was one of the best \nfortified ports in the kingdom ; but the works were \ndemolished in conformity with the treaty of Utrecht \nin 1713. The works were ordered to be demolished \nat the peace of 1763; but in 1783 tbey were again \nresumed. The English attempted to besiege Dun- \nkirk ; but the duke of York was defeated by Hoche, \nand forced to retire with loss, 7 Sept. 1793. It was \nmade a free port in 1816. \n\nDUNMOW (Essex), famous for the tenure of \nthe manor (made by Kobert Fitz- Walter, 1244), \n\xe2\x96\xa0"that whatever married couple will go to the \npriory and kneeling on two sharp-pointed stones, \nwill swear that they have not quarrelled nor repented \nof their marriage within a year and a day after its \ncelebration, shall receive a flitch of bacon." \nThe earliest recorded claim for the bacon was in 1445, \nsince when to 1855 it is said to have been demanded \nonly five times. \nThe last claimants previous to 1855 were John Shake- \nshanks and his wife, 20 June, 1751 ; they made a large \nsum by selling slices of the flitch to witnesses of the \nceremony (5000 persons). \nFlitches were awarded to Mr. and Mrs. Barlow, of Chip- \nping-Ongar, and the Chevalier Chatelaine and his lady, \n19 July, 1855. \nThe lord of the manor opposed the revival, but Mr. W. \nHarrison Ainsworth, the novelist, and some friends, \ndefrayed the expense, and superintended the cere- \nmonials. \nA flitch was awarded in i860 and 9 July, 1873 ; on 17 July, \n1876, to James Henry and Mary Boosey ; to others \n23 July, 1877. \n\nDUNSE (S. Scotland). Here on 18 June, \n1639, by treaty between the Scots commission and \nCharles I., their demands were acceded to, and they \nagreed to disband their army. Disputes arose, and \nthe treaty was not carried into effect. \n\nDUNSINANE (Perthshire). On the hill was \nfought the battle between king Macbeth formerly the \nthane of Glammis, and Siward, earl of Northum- \nberland, 27 July, 10^4- Edward the Confessor had \nsent Siward on behalf of Malcolm III., whose father \nDuncan, the usurper had murdered. Macbeth was \ndefeated, and it was said was pursued to Lumpha- \nsian, in Aberdeenshire, and there slain, 105601- 1057. \n\nDUOMO, see Milan, Florence. \n\nDUPES (day of), 11 Nov. 1 630, when Richelieu \nenergetically and adroitly frustrated the plan for \n\n\n\nhis ruin, formed by the queen Marie de Medicis and \nGaston, duke of Orleans, and others, during the \nking\'s illness. \n\nDUPLEX TELEGRAPHY. See Electric \n\nTelegraph under Electricity . \n\nDUPPELorDYBOL. See underDe?imark, 1864. \n\nDUPPLIN (Perthshire). Here Edward Balliol \nand his English allies totally defeated the Scots \nunder the earl of Mar, 1 1 Aug. 1332, and obtained \nthe crown for three months. \n\nDURBAR, an East Indian term for an audience- \nchamber or court. On 18 Oct. 1864, a durbar \nwas held at Lahore by the viceroy of India, sir John \nLawrence, at which 604 of the most illustrious \nprinces and chieftains of the north-west province \nwere present, magnificently clothed. Similar ones \nwere held in 1866, 1867, and on 27 March, 1869, at \nUmballah. \n\nSir Seymour Fitzgerald, governor of Bombay, held \na great durbar of the princes of Western India at \n\nPoona 6 Oct. 1868 \n\nThe earl of Mayo, the viceroy, held a solemn durbar \n\nat Ajmere in Rajpootana ... 22 Oct. 1870 \nThe marquis of Ripon\'s grand durbar (as viceroy) at \n\nLahore (after Afghan war) . . . 15 Nov. 1880 \nThe earl of Dufferin, viceroy, held a grand durbar \nat Rawul Pindi, at which the Ameer of Afghanis- \ntan and the Duke of Connaught were present, \n\n8 April, 1885 \nSir Auckland Colvin, lieut. -governor of the N.W. \n\nProvinces, held a grand durbar at Meerut 10 March, 1888 \nA durbar held at Quetta by the viceroy, 19 Nov., \n1889 ; at Agra 24 Nov. 1890 \n\nDURHAM, an ancient city, the Dunholme of \n\nthe Saxons, and Dureme of the Normans. The \nbishopric was removed to Durham from Chester- \nle -street in 995; whither it had been transferred \nfrom Lindisfarne, or Holy Island, on the coast \nof Northumberland, in 875, in consequence of the \ninvasion of the Danes. The bones of St. Cuth- \nbert, the sixth bishop, were brought from Lin- \ndisfarne, and interred in Durham cathedral. This \nsee, deemed the richest in England, was valued in \nthe king\'s books at 282 1\xc2\xa3. Present income 8ooo\xc2\xa3. \nPopulation, 1881, 14,932 ; 1891, 14,863. \nCollege founded (abolished at the Reformation) . 1290 \nNear Durham was fought the decisive battle of A T e- \n\nville\'s cross (see Strikes) . . . . 17 Oct. 1346 \nDurham ravaged by Malcolm of Scotland, 1070 ; oc- \ncupied by the Northern rebels .... 1569 \n\nBy the Scots ^40 \n\nCromwell quartered his Scotch prisoners in the ca- \nthedral r 65o \n\nCromwell established a college, 1657 ; which was \n\nsuppressed at the Restoration .... 1660 \nThe palatine privileges, granted to the bishop by \nthe Danish Northumbrian prince Guthmm, taken \n\nby the crown June, 1836 \n\nPresent University, located in the ancient castle, \nestablished in 1831, opened Oct. 1833 ; chartered \n\nJune, 1837 \nCertain new ordinances, recommended by a commis- \nsion, 1862, set aside 1863 \n\nCathedral renovated; re-opened . . 18 Oct. 1876 \n\nSee Coal (strike, 1892). \n\nRECENT BISHOPS. \n\n1791. Hon. Shute Barrington, died in 1826. \n\n1826. Wm. Van Mildert (the last prince bishop), died 21 \nFeb. 1836. \n\n1836. Edward Maltby, resigned in 1856 ; died 3 July, \n1859, aged 90. \n\n1856. Charles Thomas Longley ; became archb. of York, \nMay, i860. \n\ni860. Hon. H. Montagu Villiers (translated from Car- \nlisle) ; died 10 Aug. 1861. \n\n1861. Charles Baring, resigned 3 Feb., 1879 ; ( li e \'l idSept. \n187-j. \n\n1879. Joseph Barber Liglltfoot, died 21 Dec. 18S9. \n\n1890. Brooke loss Westcott, D.D., March, consecrated \n1 May. \n\n\n\nDUEHAM LETTEE. \n\n\n\n302 \n\n\n\nDYNAMITE. \n\n\n\nDUEHAM LETTEE, see Papal Aggression. \nDUST. A controversy respecting the connec- \ntion between dust and disease originated with \na lecture on the subject by professor Tyndall at \nthe Royal- Institution, 21 Jan. 1870, when he de- \nmonstrated the presence of organic matters in the \ndust of the atmosphere in conformity with the ex- \nperiments of Pasteur and other eminent; philosophers. \nSee Germ Theory and Vivisection. The agency of \ndust in promoting fires and explosions was asserted \nby Faraday in relation to coal mines in 1845, and \nby Rankine and Macadam in relation to flour mills \nin 1872. Professor F. A. Abel\' s discourse on Some \nof the Dangerous Properties of Dusts, 28 April, 1882. \nMr. Aitken\'s dust-counting apparatus was set up \non Ben Nevis, Feb. 1890. \n\nDUTCH PLAYS, "Annie Mie," by Rosier \nFaassen, and others, were performed at the Imperial \nTheatre, Westminster, 7 June et seq., 1880. Madame \nCatherine Beersman\'s acting was much approved. \nDUTCH EEPUBLIC, see Holland. \nDUTIES, see Customs, Excise, \xc2\xa7c. \nDUTY, see Whole and Deontology. \nDUUMVIEI, two Roman patricians appointed \nhy Tarquin the Proud 520 B.C. to take care of the \nbooks of the Sibyls, which were supposed to contain \nthe fate of the Roman empire. The books were \nplaced in the Capitol, arid secured in a chest under \nthe ground. The number of keepers was increased \nto ten (the Decemviri) 365 B.C., afterwards to fifteen, \nthe added five called quinque viri. \n\nDWAEFS, OR PIGMIES, are described by \nseveral ancient classical writers. Herodotus gives \nan account of a race of pigmies living in Libya and \nthe Sjnrtes, to which Aristotle and Pliny also refer. \nMr. H. M. Stanley, hi his journey across Africa \nin 1888, came upon a dwarfish race, which he \nthought might be descended from that men- \ntioned by Herodotus. Philetas of Cos, distinguished \nabout 330 B.C., as a poet and grammarian, was \njocularly said to have carried weights to prevent \nhis being blown away. He was preceptor to \nPtolemy Philadelphus. Lilian. Julia, niece of \nAugustus, had a dwarf named Coropas, two feet and \na hand\'s breadth high ; and Andromeda, a freed- \nmaid of Julia\'s, was of the same height. Pliny. \nModern Dwarfs.\xe2\x80\x94 John d\'Estrix, of Mechlin, was \nbrought to the duke of Parma, in 1592, when he was \n35 years of age, having a long beard. He was skilled \nin languages, and not more than three feet high. \nGeoffrey\'Hudson, an English dwarf, when a youth of 18 \ninches high, was served up to table in a cold pie, before \nthe kin\xc2\xb0- and queen, by the duchess of Buckingham, in \n1626 He challenged Mr. Crofts to tight a duel, but the \nlatter came armed" with a squirt. At another meeting \nthe dwarf shot his antagonist dead, 1653. \nCount Borowlaski, a Polish gentleman, of great accom- \nplishments and elegant manners, well known in Eng- \nland, where he resided for many years, was bom in \nNov\' 1739 His growth was at one year of age, 14 \ninches ; at six, 17 inches ; at twenty, 33 inches ; and \nat thirty, 39. He had a sister, named Anastasia, seven \nyears younger than himself, and so much shorter that \nshe could stand under his arm. He visited many of \nthe courts of Europe, and died in England in 1837. \nCharles Heywood Stratton (termed general Tom Thumb), \nan American, was exhibited in England, by Mr. P. T. \nBarnum, 1846. In Feb. 1863, in New York, when 25 \nyears old and 31 inches high, he married Lavinia \n"Warren, aged 21, 32 inches high. He, his wife and \nchild, and commodore Nutt, another dwarf, came to \nEngland in Pec. 1864, and remained there some time. \nDied 15 July, 1883. \nMr. Collard. aged 22, smaller than Stratton, sang at con- \ncerts in London, and was termed the "Pocket Sims \nReeves," May, June, 1873. - \n\nSeveral dwarfs (said to be smaller than the preceding) \nexhibited at the Westminster Aquarium, July, 1878. \n\n\n\nOhe-mah, a Chinese, 42 years old, 25 inches high, exhi- \nbited at the Westminster Aquarium, 11 June, 1880. \n\nLucia Zarate, born 2 Jan. 1863, in Mexico, height 20 \ninches, weight 4J lbs., and general Mite, Francis Joseph \nFlynn, born 2 Oct. 1864, in New York State, height 21 \ninches, weight 9 lbs., exhibited in Piccadilly. 22 Nov. \n1880, etseq. Milly Edwards exhibited in London, July, \n1882, 15 years of age, weighing 7 lbs. ; these two were \nmarried at Manchester, 28 May, 1884. \n\nDYEING is attributed to the Tyrians, about \n1500 B.C. The English are said to have sent fine \ngoods to be dyed in Holland, till the art was brought \nto them probably in 1608. " Two dyers of Exeter \nwere flogged for teaching their art in the north" (of \nEngland), 1628. A statute against abuses in dyeing \npassed in 1783. The art has been greatly improved \nby chemical research. A discovery of Dr. Stenhouse \nin 1848, led to M. Marnas procuring mauve from \nlichens; and Dr. Hofmann\'s production of aniline \nfrom coal-tar, has led to the invention of a number \nof beautiful dyes (mauve, magenta, red, green, \nblack, &c.) ; see Aniline. \n\nDYNAMICS is the science which treats of \nmatter and motion recently substituted for " mecha- \nnics," which see. Professor "W. Iv. Clifford\'s " Ele- \nments of Dynamics," 2 vols., 1878-87. \n\nDYNAMITE, a new explosive compound, con- \nsisting of 25 parts of silicious earth saturated with \n75 parts of nitro-glycerine {which see) . It is suitable \nfor mining purposes, and was tried and approved \nat Merstham 14 July, 1868. It was invented by \nAlfred Nobel to obviate danger. Its manufacture \nis very dangerous. A preparation called " Safety " \nDynamite, invented by Herr von Dahmen, who by \nthe addition of a simple substance renders dynamite \nuncongealable, thus avoiding the danger of thawing \nin cold weather, 1889. Dynamite which cannot be \nfrozen, invented by Herr Edward Liebert, of \nBerlin (very important, many deaths having been \ncaused by thawing frozen dynamite); reported \nAug. 1890. See Cannon, 1891. \n\nSnyder dynamite projectile ; experiments at Aberdare, \nS. Wales ; British and foreign officers present ; \nreported fairly successful 5 Oct. 1891. \nThirteen men killed by explosion of dynamite in a rail- \nway tunnel at Cymmer, S. Wales, 21 April, 1876. \nA man named Thomson, Thomassin, or Thomas, con- \nsigned a cask of dynamite to Bremerhafen, to be con- \nveyed by the North German Lloyd steamer Mosel. \nWith it he sent a clock-work machine, which would \nin eight days give the cask a blow powerful enough to \nexplode the dynamite and destroy the ship. From \nsome cause the machine went off and exploded in \nthe dock, killing above 80 and wounding about 200 \npersons, chiefly emigrants and their friends, 11 Dec. \n1875. Thomson committed suicide, dying 16 Dec. \n1875, after confessing his crime, his object being to \nobtain the paltry sum for which he had insured his \ngoods. It appears that similar machines were known \nin 1873. \nUse of dynamite for killing oxen tried and advocated, \n\nsummer, 1877. \nIts use in fisheries prohibited by parliament, 14 Aug. \n\n1877. \nA parcel containing 27 cartridges of dynamite placed on \nthe London and N. W. Railway, between Bushey and \nWatford (perpetrators not discovered), night 12-13 \nSept. 1880. \nFailure of attempt at explosion at the Times office, \n\n15 Mar. 1883. \nThomas Callan, alias Scott, of Lowell, Massachusetts, \nand Michael Harkins, of Philadelphia, both residing- \nin Islington, charged with conspiring together to cause \na dynamite explosion, a large quantity of dynamite \nhaving been found in their dwellings in Islington 21 \nNov. ; committed 19 Dec. (Cohen, a co-conspirator \ndied 19 Oct.) 1887 ; as secondaries sentenced to iifteeni \nyears\' penal servitude 1-3 Feb. 1888. \nZalinski gun for the projection of dynamite adopted! \nby the United States for coast defence Feb. 1889. \n\n\n\nDYNAMITE. \n\n\n\n303 \n\n\n\nDZOUNGAEIA. \n\n\n\nLieut. Graydon\'s safe dynamite for use in shells, &c, \n\nannounced April, 1889. \n\nSee Explosions and Glasgow, 1SS3. \nThe violent Irish party in America termed Dynamitards, \n\nApril, 1883. Many said to be settled in Paris. Report \n\nrefers to two associations \xe2\x80\x94 one under O\'Donovan \n\nRossa (failing), another named Clan-na-gael \xe2\x80\x94 2 men \n\nsaid to have been killed ; 25 convicted and imprisoned \n\nissued 1886. \nO\'Donovan Rossa said to have been succeeded by Dr. \n\nHamilton AVilliams at New York (see Fenians) 14 Dec. \n\n1887. \nPortmanteaus, containing dynamite, with clock-work of \n\nAmerican make, which had failed, found at Charing- \n\ncross and Paddington stations, 28 Feb., and at Lud- \n\ngate-hill station, 1 March, 1884. \nFitzGerald arrested in London, 10 April, 1884. \nDenman, or Daley, with three infernal machines, arrested \n\nat Birkenhead. \nJames Francis Egan and Patrick Hogan arrested at \n\nBirmingham, 11 April, 1884. \n\n[Treasonable papers about Irish republic, &c, dis- \ncovered in Egan\'s garden.] \n\n\n\nWm. M\'Donnell arrested at Wcdnesbury, 1 May, 1884. \nDaley sentenced to penal servitude for life ; Egan to \n\n20 years, for treason-felony ; M\'Donnell discharged on \n\nrecognizances, 1 Aug. 1884. \nExplosion at Nobel\'s dynamite factory near Stevenston, ; \n\nAyr ; ten lives lost, 8 May, 1S84. \n\nDZO UNGARIA, a region of Central Asia, N.. \nof China, with about 2,000,000 inhabitants, fierce,, \nwarlike Mahometans. After being long tributary \nto China, they rebelled in 1864, massacred the- \nChinese residents, and set up their countryman \nAbel Oghlan as sultan. As he was unable to re- \nstrain predatory attacks upon the Russians, tbe- \nczar declared war in April, 187 1. After a brief- \ncampaign in May and June, and several conflicts- \nin which the Russians were victors, the sultan \nsurrendered himself to general Kolpakoviski, q \nJuly, and the country was annexed to the Russian \nempire. \n\n\n\nE. \n\n\n\nEAGLE. \n\n\n\nE ARTHQUAKES. \n\nunder ground which have a communication \'with, \neach other, some of which abound with water, \nothers with exhalations, arising from inflammable \nsubstances, as nitre, bitumen, sulphur, &c. Dr. \nStukeley and Dr. Priestley attributed earthquakes \nto electricity. They are probably due to steam \ngenerated by subterraneous heat. An elaborate \nCatalogue of earthquakes (from B.C. 1606 to A.D. \n1842), with commentaries on the phenomena, by R. \nand J. W. Mallet, was published by the British \nAssociation in 1858. In i860 the velocity of their \npropagation was estimated by Mr. J. Brown at \nbetween 470 and 530 feet per second.* See \nSeismometer. \n\nOne which made Eubcea an island . . . b. c. 425 \nHelice and Bura in Peloponnesus swallowed up . 373 \nThe chasm in the Roman Forum into which Quintus \n\nCurtius leaped, was probably an earthquake . . 364 \nDuras, in Greece, buried with all its inhabitants ; \n\nand 12 cities in Campania also buried . . . 345 \nLysimachia and its inhabitants buried about . . 283 \nEphesus and other cities overturned . . a.d. 17 \nOne accompanied the eruption of Vesuvius when. \n\nPompeii and Herculaneum were buried . . 79 \nFour cities in Asia, two in Greece, and two in Ga- \n\nlatia overturned 105 or 106 \n\nAntioch destroyed 115 \n\nNicomedia, Cajsarea, and Nicea overturned . . 126 \n\nIn Asia, Pontus, and Macedonia, 150 cities and \n\ntowns damaged 157 \n\nNicomedia again demolished, and its inhabitants \n\nburied in its ruins 358 \n\nOne felt by nearly the whole world .... 543 \nAt Constantinople ; its edifices destroyed, and thou- \nsands perished 557 \n\nIn Africa ; many cities overturned .... 560 \nAwful one in Syria, Palestine, and Asia ; more than \n\n500 towns were destroyed, and the loss of life sur- \npassed all calculation 742 \n\nIn France, Germany, and Italy .... 801 \n\nConstantinople overturned ; all Greece shaken . . 936 \n\nOne felt throughout England 1089 \n\nOne at Antioch ; many towns destroyed . . .1114 \nCatania, in Sicily, overturned, and 15,000 persons \n\nburied in the ruins . 1137 \n\nOne severely felt at Lincoln 1142 \n\nIn Syria, <fec, 20,000 perished 1158 \n\nAt Calabria ; one of its cities and all its inhabitants \n\noverwhelmed in the Adriatic sea . . Sept. 1186 \n\nIn Cilicia, 60,000 perished 1268 \n\nOne again felt throughout England ; Glastonbury \n\ndestroyed 1274 \n\nIn England ; the greatest known there . 14 Nov. 1318 \nAt Naples ; 40,000 persons perished . 5 Dec. 1456 \nConstantinople ; thousands perished . . 14 Sept. 1509 \nAt Lisbon ; 1500 houses and 30,000 persons buried \n\nin the ruins ; several neighbouring towns engulfed, \n\n26 Feb. 1531 \nOne felt in London ; part of St. Paul\'s and the \n\nTemple churches fell . . . .6 April, 1580 \nIn Japan ; several cities made ruins, and thousands \n\nperish 2 July, 1596 \n\nIn Naples ; 30 towns or villages ruined ; 70,000 \n\nlives lost . . \xe2\x80\xa2 . . . . 30 July, 1626 \n\nAwful one at Calabria . . . .27 March, 1638 \nRagusa ruined ; 5000 perished . . 6 April, 1667 \n\nAt Schamaki, lasted 3 months ; 80,000 perished . ,, \nAt Rimini ; above 1500 perished . . 14 April, 1672 \nOne severely felt at Dublin, &c. .. . .17 Oct. 1690 \n\n* Mrs. Somerville states that about 25s earthquakes \nhave occurred in the British Isles ; all slight. To avoid \nthe effects of a shock predicted by a madman, for the 8th \nof April, 1750, thousands of persons, particular^ those \nof rank and fortune, passed the night on the 7th in their \ncarriages and in tents in Hyde-park. \n\n\n\nEAGLE, an ancient coin of Ireland, made of a \nbase metal, and current in the first years of Ed- \nward I. about 1272, was so named from the figure \nimpressed upon it. The American gold coinage of \n\xe2\x80\xa2eagles, half eagles, and quarter eagles, began 6 Dec. \n1792 ; an eagle is of the value of 10 dollars, or about \n"2.1. is. \xe2\x80\x94 The standard of the eagle was borne by the \nPersians, at Cunaxa, 401 B.C. The Romans carried \ngold and silver eagles as ensigns, and sometimes \n\xe2\x96\xa0represented them with a thunderbolt in their talons, \n\xe2\x96\xa0on the point of a spear, 102 B.C. Charlemagne \nadded the second head to the eagle for his arms, to \ndenote that the empires of Borne and Germany \nwere united in him, a.d. 802. The eagle was \nthe standard of Napoleon I. and Napoleon III. ; \nas well as of Austria, Eussia, and Prussia; see \nKnighthood. \n\nEARL (Latin, comes), introduced at the con- \nquest, superseded the Saxon ealdorman, and con- \ntinued the highest rank in England, until Ed- \nward III. created dukes in 1337 and 1351, and \nRichard II. created marquises (1385), both above \n\xe2\x96\xa0earls. Alfred used the title of earl as a substitute \nfor king. William Eitz-Osborn was made earl of \nHereford by William the Conqueror, 1066. Gil- \n\xe2\x80\xa2christ was created earl of Angus, in Scotland, by \nking Malcolm III. in 1037, and sir John de Coun-y \ncreated baron of Kingsale and earl of Ulster in Ire- \nland, by Henry II. 1181. \n\nEarl Marshal of England, the eighth great officer of \nstate. This office, until it was made hereditary, always \npassed by grant from the king. Gilbert de Clare was \ncreated lord marshal by king Stephen, 1135. The last \nlord marshal was John Fitz-Alan, lord Maltravers. \n\xe2\x96\xa0Camden. Richard II. in 1397 granted letters patent to \nthe earl of Nottingham by the style of earl marshal. In \n1672, Charles II. granted to Henry lord Howard the \ndignity of hereditary earl marshal. The earl marshal\'s \ncourt was abolished in 1641. (See Howard.) \n\nEarl Marischal of Scotland was an officer who com- \nmanded the cavalry, whereas the constable commanded \nthe whole army ; "but they seem to have had a joint \n\xe2\x96\xa0command, as all orders were addressed to "our con- \nstable and marischal." The office was never out of the \nKeith family. It was reserved at the Union, and when \nthe heritable jurisdictions were bought, it reverted to \nthe crown, being forfeited by the rebellion of George \nKeith, earl marischal, in 1715. \n\nEARL DE LA WARR\'S ACT, see Chil- \ndren. \n\nEARLY CLOSING ASSOCIATION esta- \nblished 1842, to abridge the hours of labour, and to \nabolish Simdaj r trading. \n\nFrequent meetings. Congress Feb. 1888. \n\nSir John Lubbock\'s Early Closing Bill for shops (8 p.m. \n\nand 10 p.m on Saturdays) rejected by the Commons \n\n(278-95), 2 May, 1888. \n\nEARLY ENGLISH TEXT SOCIETY \n\nbegan to publish in 1864. \n\nEARRINGS were worn by Jacob\'s family, \n1732 B.C. (CrCW. xxxv. 4). \n\nEARTH, see Globe. " Earth to Earth " discus- \nsion in 1875; advocacy of cremation, see Burials. \n\nEARTHENWARE, see Pottery. \n\nEARTHQUAKES. Kircher, Des Cartes, and \nothers, supposed that there were many vast cavities \n\n\n\nEARTHQUAKES. \n\n\n\n305 \n\n\n\nEARTHQUAKES. \n\n\n\nOne at Jamaica, which totally destroyed Port Royal, \nwhose houses were engulfed 40 fathoms deep, and \n3000 perished .....\' 7 June, \n\nOne in Sicily, which overturned 54 cities and towns, \nand 300 villages ; of Catania and its 18,000 inhabi- \ntants, not a trace remained ; more than 100,000 \nlives were lost Sept. \n\nAquila, in Italy, ruined ; 5000 perished 2 Feb. \n\nJeddo, Japan, ruined ; 200,000 perished . . . \n\nIn the Abruzzi ; 15,000 perished . . 3 Nov. \n\nAt Algiers ; 20,000 perished . . May & June, \n\nPalermo nearly destroyed ; nearly 6000 lives lost \n\nI Sept. \nAgain in China ; and 100,000 people swallowed up \n\nat Pekin 30 Nov. \n\nIn Naples, &c. ; 1940 perished . . .29 Nov. \n\nLima and Callao demolished ; 18,000 persons buried \nin the ruins 28 Oct. \n\nIn London, &c, a slight shock . . .19 Feb. \n\nPort-au-Prince, St. Domingo, ruined . 21 Nov. \n\nAdrianople nearly overwhelmed . . .29 July, \n\nAt Grand Cairo ; half of the houses and 40,000 \npersons swallowed up ... . Sept. \n\nQuito destroyed April, \n\nKaschan, N. Persia, destroyed ; 40,000 perished, \n\n7 June, \n\nGreat earthquake at Lisbon. In about eight minutes \nmost of the houses and upwards of 50,000 inhabi- \ntants were swallowed up, and whole streets \nburied. The cities of Coimbra, Oporto, and \nBraga, suffered dreadfully, and St. Ubes was \nwholly overturned. In Spain, a large part of \nMalaga became ruins. One half of Fez, in Mo- \nrocco, was destroyed, and more than 12,000 \nArabs perished there. The island of Madeira was \naffected ; and 2000 houses in the island of Mity- \nlene, in the Archipelago, were overthrown. This \nawful earthquake extended 5000 miles ; even to \nScotland 1 Nov. \n\nIn Syria, extended over 10,000 square miles ; Baalbec \ndestroyed ; here 20,000 perished . 30 Oct. \n\nComorn, Pestli, &e., much damaged . 28 June, \n\nAt Martinico ; 1600 persons perished . . Aug. \n\nAt Guatemala ; Santiago, with its inhabitants, \nswallowed up 7 June, \n\nA destructive one at Smyrna . . .3 July, \n\nAt Tauris ; 15,000 houses thrown down, and multi- \ntudes buried \n\nMessina and other towns in Italy and Sicily over- \nthrown : thousands perished ... 5 Feb. \n\nEzinghian, near Erzeroum, destroyed, and 5000 \npersons buried in its ruins . . 23 July, \n\nSt. Lucia, W. Indies ; 900 perished . . 12 Oct. \n\nAt Borgo di San Sepolcro ; many houses and 1000 \npersons swallowed up ... 30 Sept. \n\nIn Naples ; Vesuvius overwhelmed the city of \nTorre del Greco June, \n\nThe whole country between Santa Fe and Panama \ndestroyed, including Cuzco and Quito; 40,000 \npeople buried in one second . . 4 Feb. \n\nCumana, S. America, ruined . . .14 Dec. \n\nAt Constantinople, which destroyed the royal palace, \nand many buildings . . . .26 Sept. \n\nFrom Cronstadt to Constantinople . 26 Oct. \n\nA violent one felt in Holland . . end of Jan. \n\nAt Frosolone, Naples ; 6000 lives lost . 26 July, \n\nAt the Azores ; a village of St. Michael\'s sunk, \nand a lake of boiling water appeared in its place, \n\nII Aug. \nAwful one at Caracas (which see) . 26 March, \nSeveral throughout India ; district of Kutch sunk ; \n\n2000 persons buried .... 16 June, \nGenoa, Palermo, Rome, and many other towns \n\ngreatly damaged ; thousands perish \n\nAleppo destroyed ; above 20,000 perish ; shocks on \n\n10 & 13 Aug., and 5 Sept. \n\nCoast of Chili permanently raised . . 19 Nov. \n\nVery violent at Palermo and other parts of Sicily \n\n5 March, \nViolent shocks at Granada, in Spain ; buildings \n\ndestroyed 15-17 May \n\nIsland of Ischia ; 28 men killed in Casamicciola ; \n\nmany buildings destroyed ... 2 Feb. \nIn Spain ; Murcia and numerous villages devastated ; \n\n6000 persons perish . . . . 21 March, \nCa lton and neighbourhood; above 6000 perished, \n\n26 & 27 May, \n\n\n\n1693 \n1703 \n\n1706 \n1716 \n\n1726 \n\n1731 \ni73 2 \n\n1746 \n1750 \n1751 \n1752 \n\n1754 \nI7S5 \n\n\n\n1759 \n1763 \n1767 \n\n1773 \n1778 \n\n\n\n1783 \n1784 \n\n\n\n1800 \n1802 \n\n\n\n1805 \n\n\n\nibio \n1812 \n\n\n\n1B23 \n1826 \n1828 \n1829 \n1830 \n\n\n\nIn the duchy of Parma ; 40 shocks at Borgotaro ; and \nat Pontremoli many houses thrown down 14 Feb. 1834 \n\nConcepcion, &c, in Chili, destroyed . 20 Feb. 1835 \n\nIn Calabria, Cosenza and villages destroyed ; 1000 \npersons buried 29 April, ,, \n\nIn Calabria ; 100 perish at Castiglione . 12 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAt Martinique; nearly half of Port Royal destroyed ; \nnearly 700 persons killed, and the whole island \ndamaged n Jan. 1839 \n\nAt Ternate ; the island made a waste, and thousands \nof lives lost . . . . . .14 Feb. 1S40 \n\nAwful and destructive earthquake at mount Ararat, \nin one of the districts of Armenia ; 3137 houses \nwere overthrown, and several hundred persons \n])erished 27 July, ,, \n\nGreat earthquake at Zante, where many persons \nperished 30 Oct. ,, \n\nAt Cape Haytien, St. Domingo, which destroyed \nnearly two-thirds of the town ; between 4000 \nand 5000 lives were lost ... 7 May, 1842 \n\nAt Point a Pitre, Guadaloupe, which was entirely \ndestroyed 8 Feb. \n\nAt Rhodes and Macri, when a mountain fell in at \nthe latter place, crushing a village, and destroying \n600 persons .... 28 Feb. \xe2\x80\x94 7 March, \n\nAt Valparaiso, where more than 400 houses were \ndestroyed 2 April, \n\nIn South Italy ; Melfl almost laid in ruins ; 14,000 \nlives lost 14 Aug. \n\nPhilippine isles ; Manilla much injured 16-30 Sept. \n\nIn N.W. of England, slight . . . 9 Nov. \n\nThebes, in Greece, nearly destroyed . . 18 Aug. \n\nSt. Salvador, S. America, destroyed . 16 April, \n\nAnasaca, in Japan, and Simoda, in Niphon, de- \nstroyed ; Jeddo much injured . . .23 Dec. \n\nBroussa, in Turkey, nearly destroyed . 28 Feb. \n\nSeveral villages in Central Europe destroyed, \n\n25, 26 July, \n\nJeddo, Japan, nearly destroyed . . 11 Nov. \n\nAt the island of Great Sanger, one of the Moluccas, \nvolcanic eruption and earthquake ; nearly 3000 \nlives lost 2 March, \n\nIn the Mediterranean : at Candia, 500 lives lost ; \nRhodes, 100 ; and other islands, 150 . 12 Oct. \n\nIn Calabria,* Montemurro and other towns de- \nstroyed, and about 10,000 lives lost . 16 Dec. \n\nCorinth nearly destroyed . . . .21 Feb. \n\nAt Quito ; about 5000 persons killed, and an im- \nmense amount of property destroyed, 22 March, \n\nErzeroum, Asia Minor ; thousands perished, \n\n2 June\xe2\x80\x94 17 July, \n\nAt San Salvador ; many buildings destroyed, no \nlives lost 8 Dec. \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2In Cornwall, slight . . 21 Oct. 1859 ; 13 Jan. \n\nAt Mendoza, South America ; about two-thirds of \nthe city and 7000 lives lost . . 20 March, \n\nIn Perugia, Italy ; several lives lost . 8 May, \n\nIn Greece ; N. Morea, Corinth, and other places \ninjured 26 Dec. \n\nGuatemala ; 150 buildings and 14 churches de- \nstroyed 19 Dec. \n\nRhodes ; 13 villages destroyed, about 300 persons \nperished, and much cattle and property lost, \n\n22 April, \n\nManilla, Philippine isles ; immense destruction of \nproperty ; about 1000 persons perish 2, 3 July, \n\nCentral, west, and north-west of England, at \n3 h. 22 in. a.m. 6 Oct. \n\nAt Macchia, Bendinella, &c, Sicily; 200 houses \ndestroyed, 64 persons killed . . iS July, \n\nSlight earthquake near Tours and Blois, in France, \n\n14 Sept. \n\nArgostoli, Cephalonla ; above 50 perished 4 Feb. \n\nAt Mityiene ; about 1000 killed . 8, 9 March, \n\nDjocja, Java ; above 400 perished ; town destroyed \n\n10 Junp, \n\nThe cities of Arequipa, Iquique,Tacna, and Chencha, \nand many small towns in Peru and Ecuador \ndestroyed ; about 25,000 lives lost, and 30,000 \nrendered homeless ; loss of property estimated \nat 6o,ooo,oooi. .... 13-15 Aug \n\n[About n.oooJ. collected in London to relieve the \nsufferers.] \n\n\n\n1843 \n1851 \n\n\n\n1852 \n\n\n\n1853 \n1854 \n\n\n\n1855 \n\n1S56 \n1857 \n\n\n\n1S60 \n1861 \n\n\n\n1S65 \n\n\n\n1866 \n1867 \n\n\n\n1868 \n\n\n\n* In the course of 75 years, from 1783 to 1857, *\'"\' \nkingdom of Naples \'ost, at least, m.ooo inhabitants by \nthe effects nf earthqi akes, or more than 1500 per year, \nout of an averagepo] u ation of 6,000,000 ! \xe2\x80\x94 Lacuita. \n\n\n\nEARTHQUAKES. \n\n\n\n306 \n\n\n\nEARTHQUAKES. \n\n\n\nSlight earthquake in W. England and S. Wales ; \nfelt at Bath, Swansea, &c. . . . . 30 Oct \n\nIu Santa Maura, an Ionian isle, the town Santa \nMaura destroyed; about 17 persons perished, \n\n28 Dec. \n\nAt Quebec, not much damage . . .20 Oct. \n\nIn Calabria ; several villages destroyed, early in Oct. \n\nN. W. England ; houses shaken, crockery broken, \nevening, 17 March ; slight in Yorkshire, 22 March, \n\nCalifornia ; several small towns destroyed ; about \n30 killed 26, 27 March, \n\nLehree, Eastern Catchi, Sind frontier, India, de- \nstroyed ; about 500 killed . . 14, 15 Dec. \n\nSan Salvador nearly destroyed ; about 50 killed ; the \nrest escaped through timely warning 19 March, \n\nNorth of Italy : at Feletto, near Conegliano, Vene- \ntia, church destroyed ; about 50 killed ; lives \nlostatBelluno, &c. ; shock felt at Venice, Verona, \n&c 29 June, \n\nAzagra, Spain : 200 killed by a landslip 22 July, \n\nAntigua and other places in Guatemala destroyed ; \ngreat loss of life 3 Sept. \n\nKara Hissar and other places in Asia Minor ; great \ndestruction of life .... 3-5 May, \n\nSmyrna, and neighbourhood ; many perish, 12 May, \n\nSan Jose de Cucuta and other towns near San- \ntander on the boundary of Colombia, destroyed : \nabout 14,000 lives said to be lost . 16-18 May \n\nLahore and vicinity, India ; several killed 12 Dec. \n\nAt Scheibs on the Danube, felt throughout Austrian \nempire 17 July, \n\nEarthquake and great tidal wave near Callao ; went \nsouthward ; much shipping and several towns \ndestroyed ; not much mortality . . 9, 10 May, \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Cua, Venezuela, nearly destroyed, about 300 killed, \nloss about 30,000?. .... 14 April, \n\nShocks felt at Cologne and other parts of Germany ; \nand Holland ; houses much shaken ; bells rung, \n&c, q-11 a.m. 26 Aug. \n\nAci Reale, Catania, Sicily, 5 villages destroyed, 10 \npersons killed 17 June, \n\nSevere shock at Brieg in Switzerland, felt at Berne, \nZurich, Geneva, &c, several killed . 4 July, \n\nManilla, &c, Philippines, cathedral destroyed, seve- \nral killed, many hurt . . . 18-24 July, \n\nSmyrna and neighbourhood, many houses destroyed, \n2 persons killed . . . -29, 30, July, \n\nValparaiso ; at Illapel, Chili, about 200 perish, \n\n13 Sept. \n\nSouth Austria, much damage with loss of life, at \nAgram, &c. . . . 10-16 Nov.\xe2\x80\x94 8 Dec. \n\nSlight shocks at Inverary and other places W. Scot- \nland 28 Nov. \n\nBerne, and other places, Switzerland, houses split \nup, <fec 27 Jan. and 3 March, \n\nSevere shocks in South Italy, much destruction and \nloss of life at Casamicciola, a town in the Isle of \nIschia, 289 houses destroyed, 114 lives lost, about \n36,000?. loss, 4 March ; more destruction by \nanother shock 15 March,- \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0gcio\xe2\x80\x94 the town and several villages destroyed, about \n4000 perish, much destitution ensues, successive \nshocks, beginning 1.30 p.m. . . 3 April, \n\nPanama; railway partially destroyed 7, 9, 10 Sept. \n\nA slight shock iu Cornwall and Devon . 25 June, \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Casamicciola, and several villages in the island of \nIschia, almost entirely destroyed, 1990 lives lost, \n28 July ; slight shocks since ; one severe 3 Aug. \n[Great exertions of the military ; many remark- \nable preservations.] \n\nAnatolia, coast of Asia Minor ; Ischesne and about \n30 small towns and villages destroyed, about 100 \nlives lost and 30,000 destitute ; Smyrna much \nshaken about 16 Oct. \n\nShocks felt at Gibraltar . 20 Oct. et seq. \n\nSevere shocks in eastern counties of England, pro- \nceeding from N.E. to S.W., centre Colchester, \nwhere the congregational church steeple fell, as \nwell as many chimneys ; damage estimated at \nio.oooZ. ; much destruction in neighbouring vil- \nlages ; many inhabitants rendered homeless ; \nLange\'nhoe church wrecked; much damage at \nAbberton ; a child killed at Rowhedge; an invalid \ndied ; the shock felt more or less distinctly at \nCoggeshall, Sudbury, Ipswich, Cambridge, \nBishop\'s Stortford, Northampton, Leicester, \n\n\n\n1871 \n1872 \n\n\n\n1873 \n\n\n\n1875 \n\n\n\n1877 \n\n\n\nWoolwich, Sheerness, different parts of London, \n\nHampstead, Arc 22 April, \n\n[See Mansion house Funds.] \n\nSevere shocks for several days on Asiatic shore of \nsea of Marmora ; about " 20 deaths reported \n\n19 May, \n\nA violent shock on the Island of Kishm, near the \nmouth of the Persian Gulf ; 12 villages destroyed ; \nabout 200 people killed . . 19-20 May, \n\nSlight shocks in the Alban hills, near Rome 7 Aug. \n\nSlight shocks throughout United States, from \nWashington to New York . . .10, 11 Aug. \n\nAt Genoa, 27 Nov. ; at Marseilles, Lyons, <fec. \n\n29 Nov. \n\nSevere shocks in Andalusia, Malaga ; many houses \ndestroyed, about 266 persons killed ; felt at Madrid \n\n25 Dec. \n\nSeveral towns destroyed : Albania. Granada, many \nkilled ; Periana, about 900 killed . 26, 27 Dec. \n\nShocks, intermitting .... 26-31 Dec. \n\nSlight shocks in Carinthia and Styria . 28 Dec. \n\net seq. \n\nShocks, 1-27 Jan., much camping out \n\nSlight shocks in Styria ... 27, 28 Jan. \n\nSlight shocks at Alhama . . . 12 Feb. \n\nAlarming shocks at Malaga and other towns, \n\n27 Feb. \n\nStated number of victims in province of Granada, \n690 (see Spain, 1884-5) . . . . 28 Feb. \n\nSlight shocks at Rome 9 April ; in Granada 1 1 April, \n\nSevere shock at Srinagur, Cashmere ; 87 killed \n30-31 May ; successive shocks, 3081 deaths, \n70,000 dwellings destroyed, reported up to 20 \nJune ; slight shocks up to . . . 8 July, \n\nSikuch, in the Caucasus, destroyed about 12 June, \n\nShocks in Yorkshire . . . .18 June, \n\nThree shocks in Bengal ; a village near Nattore \nsunk ; announced 25 July, \n\nShocks in Central Asia, Vernoe, Tashkend, &c, \nabove 54 killed .... about 2 Aug. \n\nShocks in Algeria, about 30 killed at Msila 3-5 Dec. \n\nShocks at Amatitlan, Guatemala . . 18 Dec. \n\nSevere shock at Granada, &c. . . 14 March, \n\nSevere shocks in the Morea, Ionian Islands, Malta, \nand neighbourhood ; Filiatra, Gargaliano, and \nPyrgos on the mainland destroyed ; 300 lives lost \n\n27 Aug. \n\nShocks throughout United States, chiefly in South \nCarolina, Georgia, and Alabama ; three-fourths of \nCharleston destroyed, 96 persons perish ; Savan- \nnah, Washington ; 17 shocks at Charleston 31 \nAug. ; other shocks on Atlantic coast 2, 3 Sept. ; \nslight shocks occasionally 3-14 Sept. and 22 Oct. \n\nSevere shocks from Corsica to Lyons and Geneva, \nand from Milan to beyond Marseilles ; centre point \nNice and neighbourhood ; buildings thrown \ndown and much damage, 5.37 to 9 a.m. ; about 12 \ndeaths in French territory and 2,000 in Italy 23 \nFeb. ; San Remo district 300 killed ; slight \nshocks 24 Feb. \n\nSlight shocks near Mentone . . 11 March, \n\nViolent shocks at Montezuma, &c, San Francisco, \nabout 170 perish ; announced . . 8 May, \n\nViolent long-continued earthquake at Tokio, Japan \n\n15 Jan. \n\nEarthquake at Vernoe and Almatensky, Turkestan ; \nabout 140 perish ; announced . . 13 June, \n\nEarthquake shocks in Hawaii (Owhyhce); 167 persons \nperish 5 May, et seq. \n\nViolent earthquake shocks at Athens and neigh- \nbourhood 4 Oct. \n\nDestruction of Bisignano, Cosenza, Calabria, by \nearthquake ; about 25 lives lost, about 4,000 \nhomeless ....... 4 Dec. \n\nSlight shock all over Scotland . . 2 Feb. \n\nEarthquake at Yunnan, China, 4,000 persons killed \n\nMarch, \n\nSlight shocks in Annandale, Scotland . 19 July, \n\nSeveral severe shocks in New Zealand, without \nloss of life 1 Sept. \n\nShocks at Vostitza, Greece, damage estimated at \n2,000,000 drachmas .... 10 Sept. \n\nDestructive shocks at Costa Rica, with loss of \nlife, cathedral and palace destroyed 29, 30 Dec. \n\nSlight earthquake at Edinburgh, little damage \n\n18 Jan. \n\nEarthquake in Asia Minor . . .17 Jan \n\nSlight shock in East Lancashire . . 10 Feb. \n\n\n\n1887 \n\n\n\nEAST AFEICA. \n\n\n\n307 \n\n\n\nEASTERN EMPIRE. \n\n\n\nShock at Djarkend, government of Semiretehinsk ; \nhalf the town destroyed . reported 12 July, 1S89 \n\n^Earthquakes in Japan, wkicli see . . 28 July, ,, \n\nShocks at Inverness and Forres, buildings damaged \n\n15 Nov. ,, \n\nThe town of Joana, in Java, greatly injured, 12 lives \nlost 12 Dec. 1890 \n\nAlgeria \xe2\x80\x94 Gouraya and Villebourg villages nearly \ndestroyed, about 40 natives perish . 15 Jan. 1891 \n\nAdil-Djevas in Van, Armenia ; 146 houses destroyed \n\n3 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nViolent shocks in Italy, especially in the province \nof Verona, where there is much damage and some \nloss of life, 7 June, et seq. ; continued slighter \nshocks n-i4June, ,, \n\nSan Salvador, which see, Central America, great de- \nstruction of lil\'e and property . . 9 Sept. ,, \n\nVery destructive earthquake in Japan, which see \n\n28 Oct. ,, \n\nShocks of earthquake in New South Wales, Victoria, \nand Tasmania .... about 27 Jan. 1892 \n\nEAST AFRICA, see under Africa, Slave \nTrade and Zanzibar, \n\nEAST ANGLES, the sixth kingdom of the \nHeptarchy, commenced by Utfa, 526 ; ended with \nEthelbert in 792 ; see Britain. The bishop\'s see \nfounded by St. Felix, who converted the East \nAngles in 630, was eventually settled at Norwich \n{which see) about 1094. \n\nEASTBOURNE, a town on the coast of \n\xe2\x80\xa2Sussex. Koman remains found here. Incorporated \nJuly, 1883. Many buildings have been erected \nby the duke of Devonshire, who died 21 Dec. 1891. \nTown hall opened 9 Oct. 1884. Population 1881, \n22,014; 1891, 34i977- \n\nThe Sunday processions of the salvation army, which \nwere forbidden by a clause in the Eastbourne Improve- \nanent act of 18S5, continued, 1890-1. Elkanah Clark- \nson and 8 others of the army, convicted of holding an \nunlawful assembly, 3 Dec. 1891. The judgment set \naside, 23 Jan. 1892. Another act to repeal the clause, \npassed June, 1892. \n\nEAST END JUVENILE MISSION esta- \nblished 1866, to reclaim destitute children. It \nmaintains homes, schools, an infirmary, &c. Hon. \ndirector. Dr. T. J. Barnardo, see Earnardo\'s Homes. \nFor East-end murders, see Whitcchapel. \n\nEASTER, instituted about 68, the festival ob- \nserved by the church in commemoration of Gur \nSaviour\'s resurrection, so called in England from \nthe Saxon goddess Eostre, whose festival was in \nApril. After much contention between the eastern \nand western churches, it was ordained by the \ncouncil of Nice, 325, to be observed on the same \nday throughout the whole Christian world. But \nthe eastern and western churches generally differ ; \nthey coincided in 1882. " Easter-day is the \nSunday following that fourteenth day of the \ncalendar moon which happens upon or next after \nthe 2 1st March : so that, if the said fourteenth \nday be a Sunday, Easter-day is not that Sunday \nbut the next." Easter-day may be any day of \nthe five weeks which commence with March 22 \nand end with April 25. The dispute between the \nold British church and the new Anglo-Saxon \nchurch respecting Easter was settled about 664. \xe2\x80\x94 \nEaster Sunday, 1893, 2 April; 1894, 25 Mar.; 1895, \n14 April ; 1896, 5 April. \n\nEASTER ISLAND, in the Pacific Ocean, \nwas discovered by Davis in 1686; it was visited by \nRoggewein, April 1722, and from him obtained the \nname it now bears ; it was visited by captain Cook, \nMarch 1774. At the south-east extremity is the \ncrater of an extinguished volcano, about two miles \nin circuit and 800 feet deep. \n\nEASTERN (or GREEK) Church, see \nGreek Church. \n\n\n\nEASTERN EMPIRE. After the death of \nthe emperor Jovian, in Feb. 364, the generals at \nNice elected Valentinian as his successor, who, in \nJune, made his brother Valens emperor of the West; \nthe final division was in 395, between the son3 of \nTheodosius. The eastern empire ended with the \ncapture of Constantinople, and death of Constan- \ntine XILI., 29 Ma}\', 1453 ; see Tarlcey. \n\nNestorius, the bishop, nominated the first patriarch \n\nof Constantinople .... 9 July, 381 \n\nTheodosius the Great succours Valentinian H., the \nwestern emperor, and defeats the tyrant Maxi- \n\nmus, at Aquileia 388 \n\nValentinian II. slain by Arbogastes the Frank, who \n\nmakes Eugenius emperor 392 \n\nEugenius defeated and slain by Theodosius, who \n\nre-unites the two empires ... 6 Sept. 394 \nDea.th of Theodosius ; the empire finally divided \nbetween his sons \xe2\x80\x94 Arcadius receives the east, \n\nHonorius the west 17 Jan. 395 \n\nConstantinople walled by Theodosius II. . . 413 \n\nAlaric the Goth begins to ravage the empire . . ,, \nViolent religious dissensions : Theodosius II. estab- \nlishes schools, and revives learning . . . 425 \nThe Theodosian code promulgated . . . . 438 \nThe councils of Ephesus, 431, 449 ; of Chalcedon . 451 \nFrequent sanguinary conflicts between the Blues \n\nand Greens, circus factions at Constantinople, 498-520 \nThe Justinian code published . . . 529 \n\nWar with Persia ; beginning of the victorious career \n\nof Belisarius, the imperial general . . 529-531 \nHe suppresses the "Nika" ("conquer") insurrec- \ntion of the circus factions ; 30,000 Greeks slain, \n\nand Constantinople burnt 532 \n\nDedication of St. Sophia 537 \n\nVictories of Belisarius in Africa, Italy, and the East \n\n533-541 \nRecalled through Justinian\'s jealousy, 542 ; again, \n\n548 ; again, 549 ; disgraced . . 562 \n\nBeginning of the Turkish power in Asia . . . 545 \n\nThe Slavonians ravage Illyria 551 \n\nNarses defeats Totila and the Goths near Rome . . 552 \n\nDisaffection of Narses 561 \n\nDeath of Belisarius, aged 84 ; of Justinian (83) . 565 \nVictories of Maurice and Narses in the East, 579 et seq. \nSevere contests with the Avars .... 594-620 \nNarses burnt at Constantinople .... 60S \nThe flight(Hejira)of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina, \nwhere he establishes himself as a prophet and \n\nprince 16 July, 622 \n\nVictorious career of Heraclius II. . . . 622 et scq. \n\nHe recovers his lost territories 627 \n\nThe Saracens invade the empire, 632 ; defeat Hera- \nclius at Aiznadin, 633 ; at Yermuk, 636 ; take \nAlexandria, 640 ; and the Greek provinces in \n\nAfrica 648 \n\nConstans purchases peace with them . . . . 660 \nThey besiege Constantinople seven times . 672-677 \nThe Bulgarians establish a kingdom in Mcesia (now \nBulgaria), 678 ; they ravage the country up to \n\nConstantinople 7II \n\nThe Saracens vainly invest Constantinople, 716, 718 ; \n\ndefeated 72 o \n\nLeo III. tho Isaurian, forbids the worship of \nimages : (this leads to the Iconoclast contro- \nversy, and eventually to the separation of the \n\neastern and western churches) 72 6 \n\nA great invading Arab force (90,000) defeated by \n\nAeronius 73 g \n\nThe monasteries dissolved 770 \n\nDestruction of images throughout the empire de- \ncreed, 754 ; image-worship restored by the empress \nIrene (for which she was canonized) . . . 7 s 7 \nThe empire loses the exarchate of Italy, 752 ; Dal- \n\nmatia, 825 ; Sicily and Crete \xc2\xa3 27 \n\nImage-worship persecuted, 830 ; restored, 842 ; for- \nbidden at Constantinople by one council, 869 ; \n\nrestored by another 879 \n\nSouth Italy annexed to the empire . . . . 890 \nFive emperors reigning at one time .... 028 \n\nNaples added to the empire \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBasil subdues the Bulgarians .... 987, 1014 \n\nBulgaria annexed to the empire IO i8 \n\nThe Turks invade Asia Minor j 68 \n\nThe Normans conquer South Italy . . . . I0 8 o \nThe first crusade ; Alexis I. recovers Asia . . 1097 \n\nx 2 \n\n\n\nEASTERN EMPIEE. \n\n\n\n308 \n\n\n\nEASTERN EMPIRE. \n\n\n\nThe Venetians victorious over the Greeks . . . 1125 \nThe Hungarians repelled, 1152 ; peace made with \n\nthe Normans in Sicily 1156 \n\nWars with the Turks and the Venetians . . .1172 \n\nCyprus lost to the empire 1190 \n\nThe fourth crusade begins 1202 \n\nRevolt of Alexis against his brother Isaac ; the \ncrusaders take Constantinople, and restore Isaac \nand his son Alexis IV. 19 July, 1203 \n\nAlexis Ducas murders Alexis IV. and usurps the \nthrone ; the crusaders take Constantinople, kill \nAlexis, and establish the Latin empire, under \nBaldwin, count of Flanders ... 9 May, 1204 \n.Empire of Nice founded by Theodore Lascaris . ,, \nKingdom of Epirus and iEtolia established . . 1208 \nConstantinople recovered, and the empire re-estab- \nlished by Michael Pakeologus . . 25 July, 1261 \nEstablishment of the Turkish empire in Asia, under \n\nOthman 1 1299 \n\nThe Genoese trade in the Black sea .... 1303 \nThe Turks ravage Mysia, &c, 1340 and 1345; and \n\nsettle in the coast of Thrace 1353 \n\nThe sultan Amurath takes Adrianople, and makes \nit his capital, 1362 ; and, by treaty, greatly re- \nduces the emperor\'s territories .... 1373 \nAll the Greek possessions in Asia lost . . . 1390 \n\nSultan Bajazet defeats the Christians under Sigis- \n\nmund of Hungary, at Nicopolis . 28 Sept. 1396 \nThe emperor Manuel vainly solicits help from the \n\nwestern sovereigns 1400 \n\nA Turkish pacha established at Athens . . . 1401 \nThe Greek empire made tributary to Timour, 1402 ; \nwho subjugates the Turkish sultan, and dismem- \nbers his empire, 1403 ; death of Timour, on his \n\nway to China 1405 \n\nDissension amongst the Turks defers the fall of \nConstantinople, 1403-12 ; Mahomet I. aided by \nthe emperor Manuel, becomes sultan . . . 1413 \nAmurath II. in vain besieges Constantinople, 1422 ; \n\npeace made 1425 \n\nJohn Palseologus visits Rome and other places, \n\nsoliciting help in vain 1437-40 \n\nAccession of Constantine XIII., last emperor . 1448 \n\nAccession of Mahomet II. 1451 ; begins the siege of \n\nConstantinople, 6 April ; takes it . 29 May, 1453 \n(He granted the Christians personal security and \nfree exercise of their religion.) See Turkey. \n\n\n\n3\xc2\xb04- \n379- \n395- \n408. \n45o. \n457- \n474- \n\n491. \n518. \n527- \n565. \n578- \n582. \n\n602. \n\n\n\n610. \n641. \n\n\n\ncr.8. \n685, \n\n\n\n695 \n\n\n\n711. \n7*3 \n\n\n\n716. \n\n\n\nEMPERORS OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE. \n\nValens. \n\nTheodosius I. the Great. \n\nArcadius, the son of Theodosius. \n\nTheodosius II. succeeded his father. \n\nMarcian, a Thraeian of obscure family. \n\nLeo I. the Thraeian. \n\nLeo II. the Younger, died the same year. \n\nZeno, called the Isaurian. \n\nAnastasius I. an Illyrian, of mean birth. \n\nJustin I. originally a private soldier. \n\nJustinian I. founder of the Digest. \n\nJustin II. nephew of Justinian. \n\nTiberius II. renowned for his virtues. \n\nMaurice, the Cappadocian : murdered with all his \n\nchildren, by his successor, \nPhocas, the Usurper, a centurion, whose crimes \n\nand cruelties led to his own assassination in \n\n610. \nHeraclius, by whom Phocas was dethroned. \n(Heracleonas) Constantine III. reigned a few \n\nmonths ; poisaaied by his step-mother Martina. \nConstans II. ; assassinated in a bath. \nConstantine III. (or IV.) Pogonatus. \nJustinian II. son of the preceding ; abhorred for \n\nhis exactions, debaucheries, and cruelties : de- \nthroned and mutilated by his successor, \nLeontius : dethroned and mutilated by Tiberius \n\nAspimar. \nTiberius III. Aspimar. \nJustinian II. restored. Leontius and Tiberius \n\ndegraded in the Hippodrome, and put to death. \n\nJustinian slain in 711. \nPhilippicus-Bardanes : assassinated. \nAnastasius II. : fled on the election of Theodosius \n\nin 716 ; afterwards delivered up to Leo III. and \n\nput to death. \nTheodosius III \n\n\n\n718. Leo III. the Isaurian. \n\n[In this reign (726) commences the great Icono- \nclastic controversy ; the alternate prohibition and \nrestoration of images involves the peace of \nseveral reigns.] \n\n741. Constantine IV. (or V.) Copronymus, son of the \npreceding ; succeeded by his son. \n\n775. Leo IV. \n\n780. Constantine V. (or VI.) and his mother Irene. \n\n790. Constantine, alone, by the desire of the people, \nIrene having become unpopular. \n\n792. Irene again, jointly with her son, and afterwards \nalone, 797 ; deposed for her cruelties and mur- \nders, and exiled. \n\n802. Nicephorus I. Logothetes : slain. \n\n811. Stauracius : reigns a few days only. \n\xe2\x80\x9e Michael I. : defeated in battle, abdicates the \nthrone, and retires to a monastery. \n\n813. Leo V. the Armenian : killed in the temple at Con- \nstantinople on Christmas-day, 820, by conspira- \ntors in the interest of his successor, \n\n820. Michael II. the Stammerer. \n\n829. Theophilus, son of Michael. \n\n842. Michael III. Porphyrogenitus, and the Sot, son of \nthe preceding ; murdered by his successor, \n\n867. Basil I. the Macedonian. \n\n886. Leo VI. the Philosopher. \n\n911. Alexander and Constantine VI. (or VII.) Porphy- \nrogenitus, brother and son of Leo, the latter \nonly six years of age ; the former dying in 912, \nZoe, mother of Constantine, assumes the re- \ngency. \n\n919. Romanus Lecapenus, usurper, associates with \n\nhim his sons : \n\n920. Christopher, and \n\n928. Stephen and Constantine VII. (or VIII.) \n\n[Five emperors now reign : Christopher dies, \n931 ; Romanus exiled by his sons Constantine \nand Stephen, who are themselves banished the \nnext year. ] \n\n945. Constantine VII. (or VIII.) reigns alone : poisoned \nby his daughter-in-law, Theophania, 959. \n\n959. Romanus II. son of preceding: contrived his \nfather\'s death ; banished his mother, Helena. \n\n963. Nicephorus II. Phocas : married Theophania, his. \npredecessor\'s consort, who has him assassi- \nnated. \n\n969. John I. Zimisces, celebrated general ; takes \nBasil II. and Constantine VIII. (or IX.), sons of \nRomanus II. , as colleagues ; John dies, supposed \nby poison, and \n\n976. Basil II. and Constantine VIII. reign : the former \n\ndies in 1025 ; the latter in 1028. \n1028. Romanus III. Argyropulus : poisoned by his pro- \nfligate consort Zoe, who raises \n1034. Michael IV. the Paphlagonian, to the throne : on> \nhis death Zoe places \n\n1041. Michael V. Calaphates, as his successor: Zoe \n\ndethrones him, has his eyes put out, and! \nmarries \n\n1042. Constantine IX. (or X.) Monomachus, and Zoe \n\nreign jointly : Zoe dies, 1050. \n1054. Theodora, widow of Constantine. \n\n1056. Michael VI. Stratiotes, or Strato : deposed. \n\n1057. Isaac I. Comnenus : abdicates. \n1059. Constantine X. (or XI.) Ducas. \n\n1067. Eudocia, consort of the preceding, and Romanus \nIV. Diogenes, whom she marries, reign to the \nprejudice of Michael, Coustantine\'s son. \n\n1071. Michael VII. Parapinaces, recovers his throne, and \nreigns jointly with Constantine XI. (or XII.) \n\n1078. Nicephorus III. ; dethroned by \n\n1081. Alexis or Alexius I. Comnenus, succeeded by \n\n1 1 18. John Comnenus (Kalos), his son, died of a wound \nfrom a poisoned arrow. \n\n1143. Manuel I. Comnenus, son of John. \n\n1 180. Alexis II. Comnenus, son of the preceding, under \nthe regency of the empress Maria, his mother. \n\n1 183. Andronicus I. Comnenus, causes Alexis to be \nstrangled, and seizes the throne; put to \ndeath by \n\n1 185. Isaac II. Angelus-Comnenus, who is deposed, im- \nprisoned, and deprived of his eyes by his \nbrother, \n\n1195. Alexis III. Angelus, the Tyrant: deposed, and his \neyes put out ; died in a monastery. \n\n1203. Isaac II. again, with his son, Alexis IV. ; deposed. \n\n\n\nEASTERN QUESTION. \n\n\n\n309 \n\n\n\nECKMUHL. \n\n\n\nE204. Alexis V. Ducas, murders Alexis IV. ; is killed by \nthe crusaders. \n\nLATIN EMPERORS. \n\n\xc2\xa3204. Baldwin I. earl of Flanders, on the capture of \n\nConstantinople by the Latins, elected emperor ; \n\nmade a prisoner by the king of Bulgaria and \n\nnever heard of afterwards. \n3206. Henry I. his brother: dies in 1217. \n1216. Peter de Courtenay, his brother-in-law. \n1221. Robert de Courtenay, his son. \n1228. Baldwin II. his brother, a minor, and John de \n\nBrienne, of Jerusalem, regent and associate \n\nemperor. \nE261. [Constantinople recovered, and the empire of the \n\nFranks or Latins terminates.] \n\nGREEK EMPERORS AT NICE. \n\n1204. Theodore Lascaris I. \n11222. John Ducas Vataces. \n1255. Theodore Lascaris II., his son. \nJ259. John Lascaris, and (1260) Michael VIII. Palaeo- \nlogus. \n\nGREEK EMPERORS AT CONSTANTINOPLE. \n\n1261. Michael VIII. now at Constantinople: puts out \nthe eyes of John, and reigns alone. \n\n11282. Andronicus II. PaUeologus the Elder, son of pre- \nceding : deposed by \n\n1328. Andronicus III. the Younger, his grandson. \n\n1341. John Palieologus I. under the. guardianship of \nJohn Cantacuzenus : the latter proclaimed em- \nperor at Adrianople. \n\n5347. John Cantacuzenus abdicates. \n\nJ 355- John Palpeologus I. restored. \n\n1391. Manuel II. Palseologus, his son: succeeded by his \nson and colleague. \n\n1425. John Palieologus II. The throne claimed by his \nthree brothers. \n\n1448. Constantine Pakeologus XII. (XIII. or XIV. some \nof the other emperors being called Constantine \nby some writers) killed, when Constantinople \nwas taken, 20 May, 1453. \n\nEASTERN QUESTION. In the 19th \ncentury related especially to the ;. Hairs of the Turkish \n<empire and its connecti jn with its neighbours ; see \nTurkey and Basso- \'Turkish wars. An Eastern \n\xe2\x96\xa0Question Association was formed in London, Dec. \n1876, the duke of Westminster president. The \neastern question became again prominent through \nthe troubles in the I\'alkan, see Bulgaria and \nJServia, 1889-92. \n\nEASTERN ROUMELIA, see Roumelia. \n\nEAST INDIA ASSOCIATION, for the \n\nadvocacy of the interests of all the inhabitants of \nIndia, founded 7 .Nov. 1866. A journal is pub- \nlished. \n\nEAST INDIA STOCK DIVIDEND RE- \nDEMPTION ACT passed 15 May, 1873. It finally \nabolished the company on 1 June, 1874, and made \nneedful arrangements. \n\nEAST INDIES, see India. \n\nEAST LONDON MUSEUM, see Bethnal \nGreen. \n\nEAST SAXONS, see under Britain. \n\nEBELIANS, a German revivalist sect, which \nbegan at Ivonigsberg in Prussia, about 1836, its \nleaders being archdeacon Ebel and Dr. Diestel, \nwho were tried and condemned for unsound doc- \ntrine and impure lives in 1839. The sentence was \nannulled in 1842, it is said by royal influence. The \nsect is popularly termed "Mucker," German for \nhypocrites. Their theory and practice of spiritual \nmarriage is described by Mr. Hepworth Dixon in \nhis " Spiritual Wives," "1868. \n\nEBIONITES, heretics, in the 1st century, a \nbianch of the Nazarenes, were of two kinds : one \nbelieved that Our Saviour was born of a virgin, \n\n\n\nobserved all the precepts of the Christian religion, \nbut added the ceremonies of the Jews ; the other \nbelieved that Christ was born after the manner of \nall mankind, and denied his divinity. Photinus \nrevived the sect in 342. \n\nEBONITE (vulcanised india-rubber), see \nCaoutchouc. \n\nEBRO, a river in Spain \xe2\x80\x94 the scene of a signal \ndefeat of the Spaniards by the French, under \nLannes, near Tudela, 23 Nov. 1808 ; and also of \nseveral important movements of the allied British \nand Spanish armies during the Peninsular war \n(1809-1813). \n\nECBATANA, capital of Media ; the date of \nfoundation is unknown; Herodotus ascribes it to \nDeioces about 700 B.C. ; it was taken by C\\rus 549, \nand became the summer residence of himself and \nhis successors. \n\nECCLESIASTICAL COMMISSIONS: \nappointed by queen Elizabeth, 1559; by James I. \nin Scotland, 161 7; by the English parliament in \n1641 ; and by James II. to coerce the universities \nin 1687. A Church Inquiry Commission, appointed \n23 June, 1832, reported June, 1835. The present \nEcclesiastical Commissioners (bishops, deans, and \nlaymen) for the management of church property, \nwere appointed in Feb. 1835; incorporated in 1836; \nand their proceedings regulated in 1840 and 1841. \nThe law relating to them was amended in 1868. \n\nECCLESIASTICAL COURTS. There \n\nexisted no distinction between lay and ecclesiastical \ncourts in England until 1085, after the Norman con- \nquest ; see Arches and Consistory Courts. Till the \nestablishment of the Divorce and Prolnte courts \n{which see) in 1857, the following were the causes \ncognisable in ecclesiastical courts : blasphemy, \napostasy from Christianity, heresy, schism, ordina- \ntions, institutions to benefices, matrimony, divorces, \nbastardy, tithes, incest, fornication, adultery, pro- \nbate of wills, administrations, &c. \nA royal commission of inquiry respecting these courts \n\nagreed to, house of lords ; 7 March, 1881, appointed. \n\nReport issued, Aug. 1883. \n\nECCLESIASTICAL DILAPIDA- \nTIONS, law respecting, amended by acts passed \nin 187 1 and 1872. \n\nECCLESIASTICAL GAZETTE, Church \nof England semi-official journal ; sent gratuitously \nto all dignitaries and incumbents ; established 10 \nJuly, 1838. \n\nECCLESIASTICAL STATE, or States \nOF THE CHURCH, see Borne, Modern. \n\nECCLESIASTICAL TITLES ACT, 14 & \n\n15 Vict. c. 60(1851), repealed 24 July, 1871; see \nTapal Aggression. \n\nECCLESIOLOGICAL SOCIETY, formed \n\nin 1839, was originally the Cambridge Campden \nSociety, mainly established by the 2nd carl of \nGainsborough (Charles George Noel) for the proper \nrestoration of ancient churches. \n\nECHO. The time which elapses between the \nutterance of a sound and its return must be more \nthan one-twelfth of a second, to form an echo. \nThe whispering gallery of St. Paul\'s is a well- \nknown example. The Echo, independent evening \npaper, price \\d., established Dec. 1868. \n\nECKMUHL (Bavaria), the site of a battle \nbetween the main armies of France (75,000) and \nAustria (40,000); Napoleon and marshal Daroust \n(hence prince d\'Eckmiihl) defeated the archduke \nCharles, 22 April, 1809. \n\n\n\nECLECTICS. \n\n\n\n310 \n\n\n\nECOECHEUES. \n\n\n\nECLECTICS (from Greek, eklego, I choose), \nancient philosophers (called Analogetici, and also \nJPMlalethes, the lovers of truth), who, without \nattaching themselves to any sect, chose what \nthey judged good from each : of them was Potamon \nof Alexandria, about a.d. I. Also a Christian sect, \nwho considered the doctrine of Plato conformable \nto the spirit of Christianity. \n\nECLIPSE (the race-horse), see Races. \n\nECLIPSES. Their revolution was calculated \nhy Calippus, the Athenian, 336 B.C. The Egyptians \nsaid they had accurately observed 373 eclipses of \nthe sun, and 832 of the moon, in the period from \nVulcan to Alexander, who died 323 B.C. The \ntheory of eclipses is said to have been known to \nthe Chinese before 120 B.C. The first eclipse re- \ncorded in history happened 19 March, 721 B.C., at \n8/;. 4OOT. p.m., according to Ptolemy; it was lunar, \nand was observed with accuracy at 13abylon. \nA list of eclipses to the year 2000 is given in " L\'Art de \n\nVerifier leg Dates." \nThe Royal Astronomical Society published a volume of \n\n" Observations made during total solar eclipses," 1880. \n\nECLIPSES OF THE SUN. \n\nEclipse recorded in the Assyrian tablets B.C. . . 661 \nThe Nineveh eclipse (recorded, according to sir \nHenry Rawlinson, on a Nineveh tablet in the \nBritish Museum) .... 15 June, b.c. 763 \nThat predicted by Thales ; see Halys (Pliny, lib. \nii. 9), believed to have occurred . 28 May, 585 \n[Sir G. B. Airy thinks the date should be 610 ; \nothers say 603 or 584 b. c. It is the one recorded \nby Herodotus as interrupting a battle between \nthe Medes and Iydians.] \nThe alleged eclipse at. the time of Xerxes\' expedition \nagainst Greece, 480 B.C., is much disputed, and \nthe darkness was probably meteorological. \nOne at Athens (Thucydides, lib. iv.) . . b.c. 424 \nEclipse of Agathocles (Airy) . . .15 Aug. 310 \nTotal one: three days\' supplication decreed at \n\nRome (Livy) 188 \n\nOne observed at Constantinople . . . a.d. g68 \nAt the battle of Sticklestadt . . 29 July, 1030 \nIn France, when it was dark at noon-day (Du \nFresnoy) . . . . . . . 29 June, 1033 \n\nIn England: a total darkness (IV. Malmsb.), 20 Mar. 1140 \nAgain ; the stars visible at ten in the morning \n(Camden) ...... 23 June, 1191 \n\nThe true sun, and the appearance of another, so \nthat astronomers alone could distinguish the \ndifference by coloured glasses . . . . ,, \n\nObserved in Scotland; termed the "black hour" \n\n7 June, 1433 \nObserved in Scotland; termed "Mirk Monday" \n\n8 April, 1652 \nTotal eclipse, visible in England ; the darkness so \n\ngreat that the stars shone, and the birds went to \nroost at noon 3 May, 1715 \n\nLast total eclipse observed in England ; seen near \nSalisbury 22 May, 1724 \n\nRemarkable one, central and annular in the interior \nof Europe 7 Sept. 1802 \n\nTotal eclipses \xe2\x80\x94 17 July, 1833; 8 July, 1842; 28 \nJuly, 1851. \n\nAn annular eclipse ; it was seen and photographed \nat Oundle ; but not seen well at other places \n\n15 March, 1858 \n\nTotal eclipse of the sun ; well seen by sir G. B. \nAiry, astronomer royal, and others in Spain; \nMr. Warren de la Rue took photographs, 18 July, i860 \n\nTotal eclipse of the sun of the longest possible dura- \ntion; (the Royal Society provided means for its \nobservation in India, by col. Walker, Mr. Herschel, \nand others) . .... 18 Aug. 1868 \n\nDuring the solar eclipse, 18 Aug. 1868, as observed \nin India, M. Janssen invented a method of study- \ning the phenomena of the sun at any time, by \nemploying several spectroscopes, whereby the \nspectrum is lengthened and the dazzling bril- \nliancy diminished. Mr. Joseph Norman Lockyer \nhad suggested a similar method of observation \n11 1866, but did not use it till 20 Oct. 1868, being \nhen not aware of M. Janssen\'s discovery. \n\n\n\nThe solar eclipse well observed in North America, \n\n7 Aug. 1869 \n\nTwo expeditions to observe the solar eclipse of \n22 Bee. 1870, sent out by the British government, \nwere not successful .... 22 Dec. 1870- \n\nThe solar eclipse well observed at Ceylon and in \nsouthern India, 12 Dec. 1871 ; and in North \nAmerica, 29, 30 July, 1878 ; and in Egypt 17 May, 1882 \n[The same eclipses (about 70) recur in a period of \n18 years 105 days.] \n\nExcept the total eclipse, 12 Aug. 1999, there can be \nno total eclipse of the sun visible in England for \n250 years : July, 1871. Hind. \n\nGrand eclipse, well seen by astronomers at Caroline \nisland, &c, Pacific .... 6 May, 1883; \n\nEclipse of the sun well seen in North America, &c. \n\n16 March, 1885, \n\n8 Sept. seen in New Zealand \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAug. in Russia 1887- \n\nSolar eclipse 29 August, 1886 ; British expedition \nto island of Grenada (West Indies) authorized by \nGovernment April ; eclipse well observed and \nphotographed at Grenada 188S \n\nGreat solar eclipse observed in the U.S. Pacific \nStates 1 Jan. i88g> \n\nEclipse Dec. 22 observed, Saint isle, near Deme- \nrara, by Father Stephen J. Perry, who dies there ,, \n\nOF THE MOON. \n\nThe first, observed by the Chaldeans at Babylon \n\n(Ptolemy iv.) b.c. 7211 \n\nA total one observed at Sardis (Thucydides, vii.) . 415 \n\nAgain, in Asia Minor (Polybius) 219= \n\nOne at Rome, predicted by Q. Sulpitius Gallus \n\n(Livy, xliv.) 168I \n\nOne terrified the Roman troops and quelled their \nrevolt (Tacitus) a.d. 14. \n\nECNOMUS, see Himera. \n\nECOLE POLYTECHNIQUE, a military \nacademy at Paris, established in 1794, and reor- \nganised and given its present name on 1 Sept. 1795. \nThe " Journal" (which began in 1795) contains pro- \nfound mathematical papers. The school was reor- \nganised 4 Sept. 1816. The pupils helped to defend \nParis in 1 8 14 and 1830. \n\nECONOMIC. MUSEUM (or Museum of \nDomestic and Sanitary Economy), at Twickenham, \nopen free, was established chiefly by the agency \nof Mr. Thos. Twining, in i860. It originated from, \nthe Paris exhibition of 1855. Economic Revietv r \nNo. 1, published Jan. 1891. \n\nECONOMIST, London weekly journal, de- \nvoted to financial matters, first appeared 2 Sept. \n1843. \n\nECONOMISTES, a philosophical sect, founded* \nby Francois Quesnay (1694 \xe2\x80\x94 1774), who exalted \nagriculture above all other arts ; he asserted that it; \ngave two things, the support of the labourer and an \nexcess of value which belonged to the proprietor of \nthe land ("product net"), and which alone should \nbe taxed. He also favoured great freedom for in- \ndustry and trade. His " Pliysiocratie" (1768), and \nother works, were at the time very popular, even, \nat court, and are said to have influenced Adanii \nSmith, author of " The "Wealth of Nations." \n\nECONOMY, see Political Economy. \nThe British Association for the Advancement of \nEconomic Knowledge was founded 20 Nov. Mr. \nG. J. Goschen elected first president, 23 Nov. . 1890* \n\nECOECHEUES (Flayers), bands of armed \nadventurers who desolated France and Belgium \nduring the 15th centu^\', beginning about 1435. \nAmongst their leaders were Chabannes, comte de- \nDammartin, the bastard of Armagnac, and Vil- \nlandras ; and they at one time numbered 100,000;. \nThey are said to have stripped their victims to their \nshirts, and flayed the cattle. They were favoured \nby the English invasion and the civil wars*. \n\n\n\nECRASITE. \n\n\n\n311 \n\n\n\nEDINBURGH. \n\n\n\nECRASITE, an explosive invented by Siersch \nand Kubin, Austrian engineers, impervious to \ndamp, shock, or tire, Oct. 1889. \n\nECUADOR, see Equator. \n\nEDDAS (thought formerly to mean Oldemoder, \nor "mother of mothers," by others, "art,") two \nbooks of songs and sagas (prose and verse) contain- \ning the Scandinavian mythology (or history of Odin, \nThor, Frea, &c), written by skalds or bards about \nthe nth or 12th centuries. Translations have been \nmade into French, English, &c. MSS. of the \nEddas exist at Copenhagen and Upsal. \n\nEDDYSTONE (or Edystoxe) LIGHT- \nHOUSE, off the port of Plymouth, erected by \nthe Trinity-house to enable ships to avoid the \nEddystone\'rock. The first lighthouse was com- \nmenced under Mr. Winstanley, in 1696 ; finished \nin 1699; and destroyed in the dreadful tempest \nof 27 Nov. 1703, when Mr. Winstanley and others \nperished. A wooden one, by Rudyerd, was built by \norder of parliament, and all ships were ordered to \npay one penny per ton inwards and outwards towards \nsupporting it, 1708. This lighthouse was burnt 4 \nDec. 1755; and one on a better plan, erected by \nMr. Smeaton, finished 9 Oct. 1759. The woodwork \nof this, burnt in 1 770, was replaced by stone. \nThe foundation having given way, a new one was de- \nsigned by Mr. (aft. sir) James N. Douglass, engineer of \nthe Trinity House. The foundation-stone was laid by \nthe duke of Edinburgh in the presence of the prince of \nWales, 19 Aug., 1879. The corner-stone was placed by \nthe duke on 1 June, 1881. Successfully lit, 3 Feb. \n1882 ; opened by the duke, 18 May, 1882. \nSmeaton\'s light-house memorial tower erected at Ply- \nmouth ; founded by duke of Edinburgh, 20 Oct. 1882. \nInaugurated, 24 Sept. 1884. \n\nEDEN, ship burnt ; see Wrecks, 1873. \n\nEDESSA (now Orfah), a town in Mesopo- \ntamia, said by some, to have been built by Nimrod; \nby Appian, to have been built by Seleucus. It be- \ncame famous for its schools of theology in the 5th \ncentury. It was made a principality by the crusa- \nders, and was taken by the Saracens, 1145; \xc2\xb0y \nNur-ed-deen, in 1 144; and the Turks in 1184. Its \nancient kings or rulers were named Abgarus and \nMannus. \n\nEDGECOTE, see Banbury. \n\nEDGEHILL FIGHT (23 Oct. 1642), War- \nwickshire, between the royalists under prince Ru- \npert and the parliament army under the earl of \nEssex, was the first important engagement in the \ncivil war. Charles I. was present, and the earl of \nLindsay, who headed the royal foot, was mortally \nwounded. The king lost 5600 dead. The action \nwas indecisive, though the parliament claimed the \nvictory. \n\nEDICT OP NANTES, by which Henry IV. of \nFrance granted toleration to his protcstant subjects, \n13 April, 1598, was confirmed by Louis XIII. in \niblO, and by Louis XIV. in 1652. It was revoked \nby Louis XIV. 22 Oct. 1685. This act cost France \n50,000 Protestant families, and gave to England \nand Germany thousands of industrious artisans. \nIt also caused a fierce insurrection in Languedoc. \nSee Camisards. Some of the refugees settled in Spital- \nfields, where their descendants yet remain; others \nsettled in Solio and St. Giles\'s, and pursued the art \nof making crystal glasses, and carried on the silk \nmanufacture and jewellery, then little understood \nin England. \n\nEDICTS, public ordinances and decrees, \nusually set forth by sovereigns ; originated with \n\n\n\nthe Romans. The Perpetual Edict: Salvius \nJulianus, of Milan, a civilian at Rome (author of \nseveral treatises on public right), was employed by \nthe emperor Adrian to draw up this body of law\'s \nfor the praetors, promulgated 132. \n\nEDINBURGH, the metropolis of Scotland, \nderives its name \xe2\x80\x94 in ancient records Edinbure and \nHun Edin, "the bill of Edin" \xe2\x80\x94 from its castle, \nfounded or rebuilt by Edwin, king of Northum- \nbria, who, having greatly extended his dominions, \nerected it for the protection of his newly acquired \nterritories from the incursions of the Scots and \nPicts, 626. But it is said the castle was first built \nby Camelon, king of the Picts, 330 B.C. It makes \na conspicuous appearance, standing on a rock 300 \nfeet high at the west end of the old town, and, before \nthe use of great guns, was a fortification of con- \nsiderable strength. Edinburgh returns 4 M.P.\'sby \nact passed 25 June, 1885. See Population. \n\nChristianity introduced (reign of Donald I. ) . . 201 \nCity fortified, and castle rebuilt by Malcolm \n\nCanmore 1074 \n\nSt. Giles\'s church founded (845 ?) .... 1120 \n\nImproved by David 1 1124 to 1153 \n\nHolyrood abbey founded by David 1 1128 \n\nEdinburgh constituted a burgh . . about ,, \n\nCastle held by England 1174-S6 \n\nA parliament held here under Alexander II. . . 1215 \n\nCity taken by the English 1296 \n\nGrant of the town of Leith to Edinburgh . . 1329 \n\nSurrenders to Edward III 1355 \n\nSt. Giles\'s church destroyed 1385 \n\nRebuilt 1387 \n\nCity burnt by Richard II., 1385 ; and by Henry IV. 1401 \nThe parliament hall, Edinburgh castle, built by \n\nJames I. . about 1434 \n\nJames II. first king crowned here . . . . 1437 \n\nExecution of the earl of Athol \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAnnual fair granted by James II. . . . . 1447 \n\nCity strengthened by a wall 1450 \n\nCharter of James III 1477 \n\nEdinburgh made the metroxiolis by James III. . 1482 \nRoyal College of Surgeons incorporated . . . 1505 \n\nCharter of James IV. 1508 \n\n[The palace of Holyrood was built in the reign of \nJames IV.\'] \n\nHigh school founded, about 1518- \n\nA British force, landing from a fleet of 200 ships, \n\nburns both Edinburgh and Leith . . May, 1544 \nLeith is again burnt, but Edinburgh is spared . 1547 \n\nTolbooth built 1561 \n\nMarriage of queen Mary and lord Darnley . . 1565 \nDavid Rizzio murdered . . . . . . 1566 \n\nLord Darnley blown up in a private house by gun- \npowder 10 Feb. 1567 \n\nMary marries James, earl of Bothwell 15 May, ,, \n\nMary\'s forced resignation ; civil war . . . 1570 \n\nDeath of John Knox .- 1572 \n\nUniversity chartered ; see Ed. University 14 April, 1582 \nBothwell\'s attempt on Holyrood-house 27 Dec. 1591 \n\nRiot in the city ; the mob attacks the king . . 1596 \nJames VI. leaves Edinburgh as king of England, \n\nS April, 1603 ; he revisits it . . . 16 May, 1G17 \nGeorge Heriot\'s hospital founded by his will . . 1624 \nCharles I. crowned at Edinburgh . . . June, 1633 \n\nEdinburgh made a bishopric \n\nRiots in Greyfriars church at the reading of the \n\nEnglish Liturgy . . . _ . .23 July, 1637 \nParliament house finished ...... 1640 \n\nCharles again visits the city 1641 \n\nThe castle is surrendered to Cromwell . Dec. 1650 \n" MercuriusCuled-onius," first Edinburgh newspaper, \n\nappeared 1661 \n\nCoffee-houses first opened 1677 \n\nMerchants\' Company incorporated .... 16S1 \nCollege of Physicians incorporated . . . . ,, \nEarl of Argyll beheaded .... 30 June, 1685 \nAfrican and East India Company incorporated . 1605 \n\nBank of Scotland founded \n\nUnion of the kingdoms 1707 \n\nRoyal bank founded 1727 \n\nBoard of trustees of trade and manufactures \nappointed .... . \n\n\n\nEDINBURGH. \n\n\n\n312 \n\n\n\nEDINBURGH. \n\n\n\nRoyal Infirmary incorporated 1736 \n\nAffair of Captain Porteous (see Porteous) 7 Sept. ,, \n\nMedical Society instituted 1737 \n\nThe young Pretender occupies Holyrood 17 Sept. 1745 \nBattle of Preston Pans . . . .21 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nModern improvements, "New town," commenced . 1753 \n\nMagistrates assigned gold chains 1754 \n\nRoyal Exchange completed 1761 \n\nFoundation of the North Bridge . . . 21 Oct. 1763 \n\nTheatre Royal erected 1769 \n\nGreat fire in the Lawn-market 1771 \n\nRegister-office, Princes-street, commenced . . . 1774 \nUalton-hill observatory founded . . 25 July, 1776 \nGreat commotion against popery . . .2 Feb. 1779 \n\nSociety of Antiquaries 1780 \n\nRoyal Society of Edinburgh incorporated . . . 1783 \nSouth Bridge commenced ... 1 Aug. 1785 \n\nRoyal College of Surgeons incorporated . . . 1788 \nFirst stone of present university laid 16 Nov. 1789 \n\nRobertson, the historian, dies here . n June, 1793 \n\nBridewell, Calton-hill, erected 1796 \n\nHolyrood, an asylum to Louis XVIII. and his \n\nbrother, afterwards Charles X. . . 1795 to 1799 \nNew Bank of Scotland commenced . . 3 June, 1801 \n" Edinburgh Review " first published . 10 Oct. 1802 \nNew system of police established . . . . 1805 \n\nAlarming riots here 31 Dec. 1811 \n\nNelson\'s monument completed 1815 \n\nGas company incorporated 1818 \n\nWater convpany incorporated 1819 \n\nProfessor Play fair dies .... 20 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSociety of Arts instituted 1821 \n\nUnion Canal completed 1822 \n\nGeorge IV. \'s visit ; foundation of the national \n\nmonument 15-27 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRoyal Institution erected 1823 \n\nDestructive fires .... June and Nov. 1824 \n\nScottish Academy founded 1826 \n\nXord Melville\'s monument erected . . . . 1828 \nEdinburgh and Dalkeith railway opened . July, 1831 \n\n.Statue of George IV. erected 1832 \n\nT)eath of sir Walter Scott . . . 21 Sept. ,, \n\nChambers\'s Edinburgh Journal published . . . \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAssociation of the Fine Arts 1833 \n\nThe British Association meets here . . 8 Sept. 1834 \nEdinburgh and Grantou railway begun . . . 1836 \n\nArt-union of Scotland [S37 \n\nMen ur.ent to sir Walter Scott commenced . . . 1840 \nSociety of Arts, founded 1821 ; incorporated . . 1842 \nEdinburgh and Glasgow railway opened . Feb. ,, \nQueen Victoria visits Edinburgh, &c, 31 Aug. -15 Sept. ,, \nSecession, and formation of the Free Church, 18 May, 1843 \n\nNew College instituted \n\nNorth British railway commenced . . . . 1844 \nThe monument to the political martyrs of 1793-4 \n\nlaid by Mr. Hume . 21 Aug. ,, \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Granton pier, &c, constructed by the duke of Buc- \n\ncleuch 1835-44 \n\n.Sir Walter Scott\'s monument completed . . . 1845 \nEdinburgh Philosophical Association (established \n\n1832) re-organised as the Edinburgh Philosophi- \ncal Society t q 6 \n\nN. British railway opened . . . 18 June, ,, \nBritish Association (2nd time) meets . 31 July, 1850 \nThe queen again visits Edinburgh . 29 Aug. ,, \n\nPrince Albert lays the foundation-stone of the \n\nScotch national gallery . . . 30 Aug. \n\nMeeting to vindicate Scottish rights . 2 Nov. 1853 \nOld buildings near Lawn-market burnt . 5 Aug. 1S57 \nAct passed for building new Post-office . . July, 1858 \nNational gallery opened ... 21 March, 1859 \nAgitation against Ministers\' Annuity tax . Sept. \nLord Brougham elected chancellor of the university, \n\nEdinburgh x Nov.\' \n\nMinisters\' tax abolished, and other arrangements \n\nmade which did not give satisfaction : riots \n\nensued Nov. i860 \n\n20,000 volunteers reviewed by the queen in Queen\'s \n\nPark 7 Aug. \n\nIndustrial museum act passed . . .28 Augi \nEdinburgh visited by empress Eugenie, 20 Nov! \nThe prince consort lays foundation of new Post- \' \n\noffice and industrial museum . . .23 Oct. 1861 \nFall of a house in High-street, 35 persons killed, \n\n24 Nov. , \nAccident on Edinburgh and Glasgow railway \xe2\x80\x94 17 \n\nkilled; above 100 wounded . . . 13 Oct. 1862 \n\n\n\nLord Palmerston\'s visit . 31 March-4 April, \n\nTheatre royal burnt : George Loriiner, dean of \nguild, and seven persons, killed by fall of wall, \nwhile endeavouring to extricate others, 13 Jan. \n\nStatues of Allan Ramsay and John Wilson inaugu- \nrated 25 March, \n\nNew Post-office opened .... 7 May, \n\nNational museum of science and art opened by \nprince Alfred (who is created duke of Edinburgh, \n&c. , the first royal prince whose leading title was \nScotch, 24 May) 19 May, \n\nGreat reform demonstration ... 17 Nov. \n\nExplosion in the Canongate, at Hammond\'s, a fire- \nwork-maker\'s ; 5 killed, many injured . 9 Oct. \n\nVisit of Mr. Disraeli, chancellor of the exchequer, \nconservative demonstration . . 29, 30 Oct. \n\nMeeting to propose restoration of St. Giles\'s cathe- \ndral .1 Nov. \n\nVisit of John Bright, made freeman . 3 Nov. \n\nThe annuity-tax abolition act passed . 9 Aug. \n\nThe prince of Wales installed as patron of the \nFreemasons of Scotland, 12 Oct. ; laid the founda- \ntion of the new royal infirmary . . 13 Oct. \n\nMeeting of British Association (3rd) . . 2 Aug. \n\nScott centenary celebrated . (9 for 15) Aug. \n\nRestoration of St. Giles\'s cathedral begun, 17 June, \n\nLady Burdett-Coutts made a burgess . 15 Jan. \n\nThe earl of Derby elected lord rector of the uni- \nversity 14 Nov. \n\nTheatre Royal destroyed by fire . . 6 Feb. \n\nAdvocates\' library injured by fire . 3 March \n\nSouthminster theatre burnt . . .14 March \n\nFreedom of city given tort. hon.W. E. Forster, 5 Nov. \n\nEarl of Derby\'s address as lord rector, . 17 Dec. \n\nStatue of Dr. Livingstone unveiled . . 15 Aug. \n\nAlbert Memorial inaugurated by the queen, 17 Aug. \n\nFire at Leith Walk, 7 killed through fall of a house, \n\n20 Dec. \n\nMessrs. Nelson\'s printing-office burnt ; great loss, \n\n10 April, \n\nStatue of Dr. Chalmers, by Steell, unveiled 27 July \n\nMarquis of Hartington installed lord rector, 31 Jan. \n\nNew waterworks (Portmore reservoir at the Moor- \nfoot Hills) opened by the lord provost 13 June, \n\nSt. Mary\'s Cathedral (Episcopal) founded by the \nduke of Bucc.leueh, 1874 ; consecrated 30 Oct. \n\nNew dock at Leith opened by the duke of Edinburgh \n\n26 July, \n\nAbout 40,000 Scottish volunteers reviewed in the \nqueen\'s park by the queen ... 25 Aug. \n\nFishery Exhibition opened . . .11 April, \n\nAcademy of Music for Scotland (at Edinburgh) \nfounded Sept. \n\nFreedom of the city given to the marquis cf Salis- \nbury , . 27 Nov. \n\nA severe snow-storm ; locomotion stopped ; frost \n\n9-18 Dec. \n\nDeath of William Chambers, bookseller, restorer \nof St. Giles\'s [which is reopened 23 May] 20 May, \n\nSir Stafford Northeote lord rector of the university \n\n3 Nov. \n\nTheatre Royal again destroyed by fire . 30 June, \n\nMass-meeting to support the government and the \nfranchise bill 12 July, \n\nVisit of the prince and princess and family 22 Aug. \n\nDemonstration in favour of the government; \nspeeches of Mr. Gladstone . . 30 Aug. and \n\n1-2 Sept. \n\nThe ancient cross restored bv Mr. W. E. Gladstone, \n\nNov. \n\nInternational Industrial Exhibition opened by \nprince Albert Victor, 6 May ; visited by the \nqueen, grand civic demonstration 18 Aug. 1886 ; \n2,740,000 visitors ; closed . . . 31 Oct. \n\nJubilee gifts of Dr. R. H. Gunning for prizes, etc. \nto Royal Society of Edinburgh, Society of Anti- \nquaries of Scotland, University of Edinburgh, \nRoyal Colleges of Physicians and Surgeons, Edin- \nburgh, Ben Nevis observatory, &c. announced July, \n\nThe Heriot-Watt College inaugurated ; address by \nSir F. Bramwell .... 10 Jan. \n\nS\'ight earthquake 18 Jan. \n\nNaval and Military exhibition opened 18 June, \n\nFreedom of the city presented to Mr. C. S. Parnell \n(18,000 municipal electors protest against it) \n\n20 July, \n[His name erased from the roll, 1891.] \n\n\n\n1867 \n\n\n\n1870 \n\n\n\n1871 \n\n\n\n1872 \n1873 \n\n\n\n1874 \n1875 \n\n\n\n1877 \n\n\n\n1879 \n\n\n\nEDINBURGH. \n\n\n\n313 \n\n\n\nEDUCATION. \n\n\n\nNational Association for the advancement of Art- \ncongress meets . . - 28 Oct. \xe2\x80\x94 2 Nov. 1889 \n\nInternational Industrial exhibition, buildings \nerected at Merchiston and S.W. suburb ; nearly \n90 acres occupied ; the exhibition opened by the \nduke and duchess of Edinburgh, the duke of \nBuccleuch, lord Kingsburgh, the provosts of \nGlasgow, Leith, Perth, Aberdeen, Dundee, and \nManchester, and other eminent persons were pre- \nsent 1 May, 1890 \n\nVisited by the lord mayor of London in state \n\n20 June, ,, \n\nClosed 31 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe exhibition was not successful financially \n\n13 Nov. ,, \n\nThe free public library (for which Mr. Andrew Car- \nnegie gave 50,000/.) opened by the earl of Rose- \nbery 9 June, ,, \n\nMr. H. M. Stanley, the African explorer, receives \nthe freedom of the city .... n June, ,, \n\nThe parliament Hall restored ; see Parliament of \nScotland Feb. 1891 \n\nStatue of Win. Chambers (subscribed for) in \nChambers street : unveiled . . .5 March \xc2\xbb \n\nDr. James A. Russell elected lord provost 6 Nov. ,, \n\nBanquet to Mr. G. J. Goschen . . .20 Nov. ,, \n\nFire at the house of Prof. Copeland, astronomer \nroyal for Scotland, valuable instruments and \nbooks much damaged ... 8 March, 1892 \n\nMeeting of British Association (4th) . 3 Aug. ,, \n\nEDINBUKGH, Bishopric of, was created \n\nby Charles I. when in Scotland in 1633 ; and "Wil- \nliam Forbes, minister of Edinburgh, first bishop. \nThe king allotted the parishes of the shires of \nEdinburgh, Linlithgow, Haddington, and a part \nof Berwick and of Stirlingshire, to compose the see. \nThe sixth and last prelate was Alexander Ross, who \nwas ejected on the abolition of episcopacy, at the \nperiod of the revolution, in 1689. Edinburgh be- \ncame a post-revolution bishopric in 1720; see \nBishops. \n\nEDINBURGH, Duke OF, Alfred Ernest, \nsecond son of queen Victoria, born 6 Aug. 1844, \ncreated duke of Edinburgh and carl of Kent 24 \nMay, 1866. \n\nThe duke was married to Marie Alexandrovna, the grand \nduchess of Russia, 23 Jan. 1874. [The queen was \nempowered by parliament, 5 Aug. 1873, to grant \nan additional annuity of 10,000?. to the duke on \nliis marriage, and an annuity of 6,000?. to the grand \nduchess if she should survive the duke.] For Bio- \ngraphy and Issue, see England, present Royal Family. \n\nEDINBURGH REVIEW (by Francis Jef- \nfrey, rev. Sydney Smith, Henr} 7 Brougham, and \nother whigs) published first on 10 Oct. 1802. \n\nEDINBURGH UNIVERSITY. A college \nwas commenced by the town council of Edinburgh, \nin 1 58 1, for which queen Mary had given the site \nof ancient religious houses, and .Robert Reid, bishop \nof Orkney, the funds in 1558. The university was \nchartered 14 April, 1582. On 24 Oct. 1582 the \nuniversity was chartered by James VI., afterwards \nJames I. of England. The first principal was ap- \npointed in 1585. The foundation-stone of the new \nbuildings was laid by Francis, lord Napier, grand- \nmaster of the masons of Scotland, 16 Nov. 1789. \nThe constitution of the university was modified \nby Act of Parliament in 1858. In 18415, the \nlibrary contained upwards of 80,000 volumes, \nbesides numerous curious and rare MSS. and \ndocuments. Dr. Lyon Playfair elected the first \nM.P. for Edinburgh and St. Andrew\'s univer- \nsities in conformity with the act of 1868, 4 Dec. \n1868. Great movement to extend the university; \nmeeting in London: large subscriptions, 7 Dec. \n1874. The tercentenary of the university was cele- \nbrated by a distinguished assembly, 16\xe2\x80\x9418 April, \n1384. Students\' union formed to promote recrea- \n\n\n\ntion, discussion, comfort, &c. Fancy fair opened \nfor its support by the marquis of Lome, 30 Nov. \n1886. Miss Jane Jeffrey, of Portobello, bequeaths \n5000/. for scholarships, announced Nov. 1887. \nUniversity gathering to promote the University \nExtension Scheme, 24 Sept. et seq. 1889. Mr. A. \nJ. Balfour, m. p., elected chancellor of the university, \n30 Oct. 1891. Mr. G. J. Goschen\'s address (on \nImagination) as lord rector, 19 Nov. 1891. \n\nEDLINGHAM BURGLARY, see Trials, \n\n> ov. 1888. \n\nEDMUNDS\' CASE, see under Patents. \nEDOM, see Idumcea. \n\nEDUCATION, the art of developing the \nphysical, intellectual, and moral faculties of man, \nhas occupied the greatest minds in all ages : Socrates, \nPlato, Aristotle, Cicero, Ouintilian, Bacon, Milton, \nLocke, Rousseau, &c. In England the earliest \nschools for the lower classes were those attached to \nthe monasteries ; for the higher classes halls and \ncolleges were gradually founded ; see Arts, Colleges, \nSchools, Oxford, Cambridge, Endowed Schools, \njrischam Society, Technical Education, %c. \nWilliam of Wykeham planted the school at Win- \nchester, whence arose his colleges at that place \n\nand Oxford 137^ \n\nEtoii college founded by Henry VI 1443 \n\nAfter the reformation, education was greatly pro- \nmoted, and many grammar schools were erected \nand endowed by Edward VI. and Elizabeth . 1535-65 \nChrist\'s hospital, the bluecoat school, established, 1553 \nWestminster school founded by Elizabeth . . 1560 \nFoundation of Rugby school by Lawrence Sheriff, \n\n1567 ; of Harrow school by John Lyon . . . 1571 \nThe Charterhouse founded by Thomas Sutton . 161 1 \n\nMany charity schools founded in opposition to \n\nRomish ones about 1687 \n\nParish schools appointed by the parliament of Scot- \nland 1697 \n\nQueen Anne, a zealous friend of education, founded \nthe Greycoat school, Westminster, and cordially \nsupported parochial charity schools (one esta- \nblished at St. Margaret\'s, Westminster, 1688) . 1698 \nNearly 2000 of these schools established in Great \nBritain and Ireland, principally by the instru- \nmentality of the Society for the Promotion of \n\nChristian Knowledge 1698-1741 \n\nRobert Raikes set up Sunday Schools about . . . 1781 \nIn 1833 there were 16,828 of these schools, with \n\n1,548,890 scholars. \nJoseph Lancaster, a young Quaker, began to instruct \n\nthe children of the poor 1796 \n\nHe had 90 pupils before he was 18 years old, and \n\n1000 pupils in 1798 \n\nSunday School Union formed 1802 \n\nTo provide teachers, Lancaster invented the moni- \ntorial system. In consequence of his exertions \nthe present British and Foreign School Society \nwas founded with the name of the "Royal \n\nLaneasterian Institution," &e 1805 \n\nThis, being unexclusive, was followed by the insti- \ntution of the Church of England " National \nSociety for Educating the Poor," on Dr. Bell\'s \n\nsystem 1811 \n\nInjant Schools began about 1815 \n\nThe Charity Commission, appointed at the instance \nof Mr. (afterwards lord) Brougham, published \ntheir reports on Education, in 37 volumes folio, 1819-40 \nIrish National School System (to accommodate both \nRoman Catholics and Protestants) organised \nmainly by archbishop Whately and the Reman \n\nCatholic archbishop Murray 1831 \n\nCity of London School, Honey-lane, opened . . 1834 \nThe Home and Colonial School Society was insti- \ntuted 1836 \n\nIn 1834, the government began annual grants (the \nlirst 20,000/.), which continued till the Committee \nof the Privy Council on Education was con- \nstituted Cor the distribution of the money . 1839 \nThe Voluntary School Society and the Congrega- \ntional Board of Education formed . . about 1843 \n\n\n\nEDUCATION. \n\n\n\n314 \n\n\n\nEDUCATION. \n\n\n\nBagged School Union established .... 1844 \n\nEducational Times, monthly, established . Oct. 1847 \n\nOut of a population of 17,927,609, there were \n2,466,481 day scholars 1851 \n\nA great educational conference took place at \nWillis\'s Rooms, the prince consort iu the chair, \n\n22-24 June, 1857 \n\nThe Industrial Schools act passed in \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMiddle Class Examinations from the university of \nOxford began, June, 1858. The examiners granted \nthe degree of A.A. to many persons at Liverpool, \nLeeds, &c. ; similar examinations from Cam- \nbridge took place in the autumn, and are to be \ncontinued 1858 \n\nReport of commissioners on popular education (ap- \npointed 1858), published 18 March, 1861, led to \ntlie Minute of the Committee of the Privy Council \non Education, establishing a Revised Code of Regu- \nlations ; Mr. Lowe\'s adopted 21 July, 1861, to come \nintooperation.after 31 March, 1862. Itdecreedregu- \nlar examinations of the pupils, payment by results, \nevening schools for adults, and other changes, \nwhich raised a storm of opposition from the \nclergy and schoolmasters. The subject was much \ndiscussed in parliament (25, 28 March, 1862) ; but \neventually a compromise was effected, 5 May, 1862 \n\nOfficial instructions for the administration of the \nRevised Code issued Sept. ,, \n\n"Conscience-clause," founded on the Endowed \nSchools act, March, i860, introduced by the Com- \nmittee of Council on Education for parishes where \nonly one school is required. It provided for the \nadmission of children of dissenters, and exempted \nthem from religious teaching, and attendance at \n\npublic worship Nov. 1863 \n\n(Report, 10 June, 1865.) \n\nIt has been much opposed by the clergy ever since, \nand created much controversy ill . . . 1866-7 \n\nCollege and Public School Commission Report, \nsigned 16 Feb. 1864 \n\nRoyal Commission appointed, to inquire into the \nstate of education in Scotland. First meeting at \nEdinburgh 14 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMiss (aft. baroness) Burdett-Coutts proposes the \nestablishment of small village-schools, to be \ntaught by " ambulatory " teachers . . Jan. 1865 \n\nParliamentary committee appointed to inquire into \nthe best mode of benefiting schools unassisted by \nthe state 28 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTraining ship established for homeless boys of \nLondon ; 50 boys placed there by Boys\' Refuge \ncommittee. See Chichester . . .18 Be:;. 1866 \n\nFoundation of the London College of the Inter- \nnational Education Society laid by the prince of \n"Wales 10 July, 1867 \n\nFour establishments in England, France, Germany, \nand Italy proposed ; the idea is attributed to Mr. \nCobden and M. Michel Chevalier . . ... 1862 \n\nCommittee appointed at a meeting for establishment \nof higher schools for middle classes in Loudon, by \nmeans of funds of lapsed charities, &c. , 7 Nov. ; \nnearly 28,ooo(. subscribed by end of Bee. 1865 ; \n51,349?. received Oct. 1866 \n\nThe subscribers incorporated by charter ; their first \nschool opened by lord mayor and others in Bath- \nstreet, St. Luke\'s 1 Oct. ,, \n\nGreat prosperity reported at the annual meeting, \n\n18 March, 1867 \n\nResolutions moved in the lords by earl Russell (as- \nserting that every child has a right to education, \nand recommending appointment of a cabinet \nminister of education), withdrawn . . 2 Bee. ,, \n\nImportant report of schools inquiry commissioners \nsigned 2 Bee. ,, \n\nConference at Manchester recommend compulsory \neducation, to be paid for by rates . 15 Jan. 1868 \n\nPublic Schools bill brought into the commons 7 Feb. ,, \n\nPublic Elementary Education bill brought into the \nlords by duke of Marlborough, 24 March ; with- \n. drawn 18 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMr. (aft. sir Joseph) Whitworth\'s offer to found 30 \nscholarships of annual value of 100I. each, for in- \nstruction of young men in mechanics, &c, 18 \nMarch, accepted by the lords of the council 27 Mar. ,, \n\nFoundation of the first new building for a middle \nclass school in London laid by the lord mayor, \nLawrence {very successful, 1873) . . 15 Bee. ,, \n\n\n\nPublic Schools Act (modifying the government of \nEton, Winchester, Westminster, Charterhouse, \nHarrow, Rugby, and Shrewsbury schools) passed \n31 July, 1868 ; amendment acts . 9 Aug. 1869-70-73 \n\nNew statutes for them issued .* . Oct. -Nov. 1869 \n\nNational Education League (advocating compulsory \nsecular education by the state), first met at Bir- \nmingham (see below, 1877) . . 12, 13 Oct. 1869 \n\nNational Education Union for supplementing the \npresent denominational system, first met at \nManchester 3 Nov. ,, \n\nConference at the Society of Arts to reconcile the \nLeague and the Union 7 Feb. 1870 \n\nScientific instruction and advancement commission \nappointed 19 May, ,, \n\nFirst " drill-review " of London charity schools, and \nothers, at the Crystal Palace . .21 June, ,, \n\nElementary Education Bill introduced by Mr. W. E. \nForster, 17 Feb. ; after much discussion, and op- \nposition from the dissenters, it passed, and re- \nceived the royal assent ... 9 Aug. ,, \n[Amended in 1872, 1873, and 1876.] [Mr. Forster \ndied, aged 67, 5 April, 1886 ; his statue on the \nVictoria Embankment unveiled 1 Aug. 1890.] \n\nio.oooJ. voted by the Christian Knowledge Society \nin aid of Church of England schools . 20 Oct. ,, \n\nFirst election of Metropolitan school-board {which \nsee) (lord Lawrence, chairman) . . 29 Nov. ,, \n\nRegulations for school-boards issued . 21 Bee. ,, \n\nNew Revised Code discussed . . . March, 1873 \n\nLondon School-board Education Scheme proposed, \n\n23 June, ,, \n\nAt the London school-board, after sharp discussion, \nthe religious difficulty respecting payment for \npoor children at denominational schools settled \nfor a year - . .2 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nArrangements for erecting or adapting buildings for \nnew schools made by London school-board, Bee. ,, \n\nConference of masters of grammar schools at High- \ngate 28 Bee. ,, \n\nMr. Bixon\'s and the nonconformists\' censure on \nthe Elementary Education Act ; negatived in the \ncommons, 355-94 .... 5 March, 1872 \n\nScientific instruction : royal commission appointed, \nMay, 1870 ; reported . . April, 1871, April, ,, \n\nEducation (Scotland) Act passed . . 10 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe London school-board determine to open separate \nschools for dirty unruly children . . 20 Nov. ,, \n\n"Society for Organization of Academical Study" \nproposed by sir B. C. Brodie, Br. Carpenter, \nProf. Rolleston and others at a meeting, 16 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nIrish University Bill introduced by Mr. Gladstone, \n\n13 Feb. 1S73 \n\nFirst London board-school (at Whitechapel) opened, \n\n12 July, ,, \n\nCollege for northern counties at Knutsford ; foun- \ndation laid 24 Sept. ,, \n\nCollege for higher education of women, opened at \nGirton, which see Oct. ,, \n\nGreat meeting for religious denominational educa- \ntion at St. James\'s hall . . . . 6 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSecond Metropolitan school-board elected ; religious \nparty the strongest (Mr. (after sir) Charles \nReed, M. P. chairman) . . . 27 Nov. ,, \n\nThe universities nominate a board for the examina- \ntion of pupils from public schools . . Bee. ,, \n\nDomestic Economy. \xe2\x80\x94 Study of food and clothing in- \ntroduced into government educational depart- \nment 1S74 \n\nMr. Bixon\'s compulsory attendance bill rejected \n(320-156) 1 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nResult of first university examination of 221 schools : \nWinchester, 34 certificates ; Manchester, 27 ; \nMarlborough, 15; Eton, 13 ; Sherborne, 11 ; Wel- \nlington college, 10 ; Rugby, 6, &c. ; Christ\'s Hos- \npital and others, 1 published . . . Sept. ,, \n\nLondon school-board occupy their new building on \nVictoria Embankment . . . -30 Sept. ,, \n\nNew code of raised standards for schools issued, \n\nMarch, 1875 \n\nNewnham college at Cambridge for women opened, \n\n18 Oct. ,, \nFirst annual conference of teachers . . 14 Jan. 1876 \nMr. Bixon\'s bill for universal school-boards and \ncompulsory education rejected by the commons \n\n(281-260) April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAnother Elementary Education act introduced \n\n\n\nEDUCATION. \n\n\n\n315 \n\n\n\nEGYPT. \n\n\n\nby lord Sandon, 18 May ; a clause permitting un- \nnecessary school-boards to be suppressed, intro- \nduced by Mr. Pell, carried, 24 July ; 3rd reading \n(119-46), s Aug. (considered reactionary) royal \n\nassent 15 Aug. \n\nInternational congress on education at Philadelphia, \n\nJuly, \n\nThird Metropolitan school board elected ; majority \n\nagainst denominational school systems(sir Charles \n\nReed, chairman) .... 30 Nov. \n\nNational Education League dissolved . 2S March, \n\nElection of school attendance committees under \n\nthe new act . . . . . April, \n\nIntermediate Education act for Ireland passed \n\n16 Aug. \nEducation Act (Scotland) amended . 16 Aug. \nRevised Code, 7 Feb. 1877; 2 April, 1878; April, \n161st metropolitan board school opened by sir \nCharles Reed, at Portland town . 23 June, \nThe Queen v. sir Charles Reed ; the Queen\'s bench \ndecide that the school board has power to borrow \n\nmoney 27 June, \n\nFourth Metropolitan school board elected (sir \nCharles Reed, chairman) . . -27 Nov. \nImportant decision respecting. school fees and attend- \nance, see Trials 27 June, \n\nDeath of sir Charles Reed, 25 March ; succeeded by \n\nMr. Edward North Buxton \n\nChanges in the code ; circular issued . . Aug. \nEducation Society, formed in July, 1875, for ex- \namining and propounding the principles upon \nwhich the practice of education should be founded, \nby professor Alexander Bain, Dr. J. H. Gladstone, \nand others. Branches have been formed in Dublin, \nand other places. \n\nAscham Society (which see) formed \n\nLord Aberdare Mr. W. E. Forster sir John Lub- \nbock, and others form a committee to instruct \nelectors of school board ... 23 Oct. \nFifth Metropolitan school board elected (old policy \naffirmed ; E. N. Buxton, chairman) . 24 Nov. \nThe Boy\'s Public Day school company founded, \n5 Dec. 1882 ; first school opened . 12 Sept. \nArt for Schools, proposed Societies formed in \n\nLondon and the provinces \n\nNew education code (much attacked) comes into \noperation, 3 April, 1884 ; revised instructions \nissued .... . . June, \n\nInternational Educational Conference at South \nKensington opened .... 4 Aug. \n\nDr. (after sir) Crichton Browne\'s report on over- \npressure in primary and secondary schools, with \nMr. Fitch\'s memorandum against it published \nSept. 1884 ; denied after investigation report \n\n16 July, \n\nH. T. Holland (after lord Knutsford) appointed \n\nvice-president of council, about . 25 Aug. \n\nSixth Metropolitan school board elected, 2 Nov. \n\n(new economical policy), Rev. J. R. Diggle \n\nelected chairman 3 Dec. \n\nRoyal commission on elementary education in \nEngland and Wales, Sir R. A. Cross (chairman), \nEarl of Harrowby, Dr. Temple (bishop of \nLondon), cardinal Manning, Mr. A. J. Mundella, \nSir John Lubbock, Sir F. Sandford, and others. \nFirst report issued 4 Sept. 1886. Final report \n\nAug. \n\nMajority report for aiding voluntary schools from \n\nthe rates and development of moral and religious \n\neducation, June ; opposite opinions reported by \n\nthe minority July, \n\nThe government declines to interfere with the \n\nsettlement of 1870 Nov. \n\nNew scheme for enforcing payment of fees stated \nto be inquisitorial and partially ineffectual Oct. \nAbout 30,000 elementary scholars entertained in \nHyde Park, see Jubilee ... 22 June, \nSchool accommodation in the eleven divisions re- \nported sufficient Oct. \n\nSeventh Metropolitan school board elected, 26 Nov. ; \nRev. J. R. Diggle elected chairman . 4 Dec. \n\nNew code introducing many changes brought for- \nward . . . . . .19 March \n\nCommittee on relieving children coming to school \nunfed, 2 Nov. : London Schools Dinner Associa- \ntion formed, by combination of several societies \n\nDec. \n\n\n\n1877 \n\n\n\n1879 \n\n\n\nBill for enforcing new education code, withdrawn, \n22 July, 1889 ; new code with important changes \nbrought forward by sir William Hart-Dyke, \n_ March ; bill passed 25 Jnly, 1890 \n\nNumber of voluntary schools largely increased \nsince 1870 .... reported April, 1891 \n\nGrant for free, or assisted education, 2,000,000/. \nannually, proposed by Mr. Goschen 23 April, ,,. \n\nA new Elementary Education act (reducing or \nabolishing school fees) passed 5 Aug., comes into \noperation 1 Sept. , ,. \n\nEighth Metropolitan school board elected, 26 Nov. ,, \n\nMr. Joseph R. Diggle re-elected chairman 3 Dec. ,, \n\nIrish free education act passed . . 27 June, 1892 \n\nThe grant for Public Education in Great Britain, \'in 1851, \nwas 150,000/. ; 1856, 451,213/. ; i860, 798, 167/. ; 1861, \n803,794/. ; 1864, 705,404/. ; 1867, 705,865/.. England, \n1872, 1,554,560/. ; 1877, 1,910,000/. : 1882, 2,749,863/. :. \n\n1884, 3,016,167/. For Ireland, i860, 270,722/. ; 1861,. \n285,377/. : 1863, 316,770/. From 1839 to i860. 3,655,067/. \nwere granted for education. The grant for education, \nscience, and art, in 1861, was 1,358,996\'. ; for 1867-8, \n1,487,554/. ; 1874-5, 2,228,470/., (in addition, 3,060,566?., \nwere locally raised) ; 1876-7, England, 707,055/. ; Scot- \nland, 438,227/. ; Ireland, 649,949/. ; for year 1876-7 \n(United Kingdom), 3,349,397/.-; i879-8o(Great Britain), \n2,854,938/. ; United Kingdom, 1880-1, 3,730,329/.; 1882-3, \n3>955.737 z - > 1884-5, 4.4i\xc2\xb0,i95\'- ! 1886-7, 4,780,945\'. ;. \n1888-9,5,042,614/.; 1889-90,5,098,304/.; 1890-1,5,244,447/- \n\nPrimary schools in Great Britain : in 1854, 3825 ; in 1855, \n4800 ; in i860, 7272 ; in 1870, 10,949 ; in 1877, 18,118 ;. \n1111878,19,291; in 1879, 20, 169 ; in 1880, 20,670; in 1881, \n21,136; in 1882. 21,362; in 1883, 21,630; 1884, 21,892 ; \n\n1885, 21,976; 1886, 22,114; J 887, 22,265; 1888, 22,326;. \n1889, 22,426-; 1890, 22,495. \n\nAnnual grant for primary schools in Great Britain : in. \n1861, 813,442/. ; in 1865, 636,806/. ; in 1870, 840,330"/. ;. \nin 1878, 2,463,283/. ; in 1879, 2,732,067/. ; in 1880, \n2,854,067/. ; 1881, 2,978,224/. ; 1882, 3,101,028/. ; 1883, \n3,247,725/. ; 1884, 3,403,415/. ; 1885, 3,664,174/.; 1886, \n3,802,009/. ; 1887, 3,945,038/. ; 1888, 4,011,464/. ; 1889, \n4,167,884/.; 1890, 4,259,080/. ; 1891, 4,392,937/. \n\nMetropolitan school board children on the rolls : 1871, \n1,117; \'873, 50,606; 1876, 146,031; 1878 (Christmas), \n207,289 ; 1883, 293,811; 1888, 420,914; 1890, 443,143. \n\nEGALITE (Equality), see Orleans. \n\nEGGS. The duty 011 imported eggs was re- \npealed 111 i860, whereby the revenue lost about \n20,000^. a year. Number imported into Great \nBritain : in 1861, 203,313,360 ; in 1865, 364,013,040;. \nin 1869,442,172,640; in 1870,430,842,240; in 1876, \n753,026,640; 1877,751,185,600; 1879,766,707,840; \n1883, 940,436,160; 1887, 1,090,089,000; 1890,, \n1,234,949,000. Great quantities are now brought \nfrom Italy by the St. Gothard railway. \n\nEGLINTO UN TOUKNAMENT, see Tour- \nnament. \n\nEGYPT,* N.E. Africa, the earliest known seat \nof civilization, the hieroglyphic and Coptic Kemi,, \nHebrew iMazor (Lower Egypt), Mizraim (Upper \nand Lower Kgypt), Greek name Egypt, Arabic for \nall Egypt Misr or Masr. \n\nFor our present knowledge of the early history of Egypt \nwe are almost wholly indebted to discoveries in the \npresent century, and to the interpretation of monu- \nmental inscriptions, and the papyri found in the \ntombs. The most recent investigators are Brugsch, \nMaspero, Lepsius, De Rouge, Marietta, Cliabas, Lieb- \nlein, Birch, Naville, Le Page, Kenouf, and Petrie. \nwith some others; see Egypt exploration Fund mid \nRosetta stone, etc. \nManetho a high-priest of On or Eeliopolis in the second \ncentury B.C., at the request of king Ptolemy Philadel- \n\n\n\n* Three magnificent works mi Egypt have been pub- \nlished: in France (commenced by Napoleon, and tin \nsavans who accompanied" him to Egypt), Description at \nI\'Egypte, 1809-22 ; in Italy. Etosellim\'s Momimenti dell\' \nEgitto, 1832-44 ; and in Prussia, K. It Lepsius\' Denkmdkr \naus JEgypten, 1848-56. All these are in tin\' Library of tin- \nRoyal Institution of Great Britain, London, \n\n\n\nEGYPT. \n\n\n\n316 \n\n\n\nEGYPT. \n\n\n\npirns, wrote a history of Egypt, divided into 30 dynas- \nties from Menes to the Persian conquests ; of his work \nlists only have been preserved, by Julius Africanus, a \nwriter who lived about 300 a.d. Eusebius died about \n340, Georgius Syncellus, 800. \n\nThe fabulous god kings, including the sun god, Osiris god \nof Hades, and Isis his wife, Typhon, Horus the last, \nwere said to have reigned 13,900 years, the demi-gods \nand manes 4,000 years. \n\nThe following table of Dynasties, including the more \nimportant kings, is derived from various source!), the \nnames and dates vary. B. stands for Brugsch, and M. \nfor Mariette. \n\nI Thinite (from This, near Abydus) M. 5004 ; B. 4400B.C. \n\nMena or Menes ; hrst known king and law-giver, founder \nof Memphis. M. 5004 ; . B. 4455. Tola or Athothis\xe2\x80\x94 \nOuenephes I., conjectured to have built the Stepped \npyramid of Sakkarah. \n\nII. Memphite. M. 4751 ; B. 4133. \n\nKakaoo or Kaiechos. The worship of Apis the bull \nestablished at Memphis. B. 4100. \n\nIII. Memphite (monumental history properly begins). \nM. 4449 ; B. 3966. \n\nSeneferoo\xe2\x80\x94 soldier, architect and patron of literature and \nart. \n\nIV. Memphite. M. 4235 ; B. 3733. \n\nShoofoo or Khufa, the Cheops of Herodotus, built the \ngreat pyramid of Geezeh. M. 4235 ; B. 3733. The \ngreat limestone rock at the foot of the Libyan moun- \ntains was converted into a man-headed lion, termed by \nthe Greeks Sphinx. Khafra built the second Gizeh \npyramid. B. 3666. Menkaura (Mycerinus III.). \nB. 3633. High state of civilization and art, and the \nvast cemetery of Memphis erected. The book or ritual \nof the dead (papyri) found in tombs. \n\nV. Memphite. M. 3951 ; B. 3566. \n\nRaenooser. B. 3433. Katkara. B. 3366. Unas trun- \ncated pyramid near Sakkarah built. B. 3333 \n\nVI. Memphite (history nearly a blank to the nth dy- \nnasty). M. 3703 ; B. 3300. \n\nPepi I.\xe2\x80\x94 powerful\xe2\x80\x94 long reign. B. 3233. Romantic \nstory of queen Nitocris in Herodotus. \n\nVII. Memphite. B. 3100. \nPetty kings. \n\nVIII. Memphite. \n\nIX. Heracleopolite. M. 3358. \n\nX. Heracleopolite. M. 3249. \n\nXI. Theban. M. 3064. \n\nSankhkara, expedition to Ophir and Punt (S. Arabia ?). \nB. 2500. \n\nXII. Theban (Egypt very prosperous). B. 2466. \nAmenernhat I. M. 3064 ; B. 2466. \n\nOsirtasen I. (obelisk of On or Heliopolis erected). \nOsirtasen II. (memorial temple discovered in 1889). \nOsirtasen III., important national works, excavated the \n\nlake Moeris and made the labyrinth and theNilometer. \n\nB. 2300. \n\nXIII. Theban. M. 2851 ; B. 2233. \nSebekhotep, name of several kings. \n\nXIV. Xoite. M. 2398. \n\nXV. Hyksos or Shepherd kings. M. 2214. \n\nInvaders from Asia take Memphis and settle in Lower- \nEgypt. \n\nXVI. Hyksos or Shepherd kings. \n\nXVII. Hyksos or Shepherd kings. \nNub \xe2\x80\x94 arrival of Joseph. B. 1750. \n\nDynasties XIII.\xe2\x80\x94 XVII. history very obscure ; probably \nTheban kings reigned in southern, while the Hyksos \nreigned in Lower Egypt. \n\nXVIII. Theban. M. 1703 ; B. 1700. \n\nAchmes I. conquers the Hyksos. M. 1703 ; B. 1700. \nAmenhotep I. B. 1666. Thothmes I. B. 1633 \nThothmes II. and Hatasoo, sister. B. 1600. Thoth- \n,mes III., great king, victor in western Asia, &c, his \nexploits recorded in his temple at Karnak. B. 1600. \nAmenhotep II. B. 1566. Thothmes IV. B. 1533. \nAmenhotep III. victorious in Ethiopia ; the Colossi or \nvocal Memnon bear his name. B. 1500. Amenhotep \nIV. introduced Semetic worship. Two or three here- \ntical successors. Haremhebi or Horus restores the \nold worship. \n\nXIX. Theban. M. 1462 ; B. 1400. \n\nBarneses I. M. 1462 ; B. 1400. Seti or Sethos (Mene- \ntah I.) victorious in Asia ; made first canal from the \nRed sea to the Nile ; many monuments of him at \nKarnak, &c. B. 1333. Rameses II. son, the legendary \nSesostris, took Salem, conquered Ethiopia, and set up \na fleet, his epoch about 1322. Maneptah son, probably \n\n\n\nthe Pharoah of the Exodus, 1300 ; Seli II. and two or \nthree unimportant kings. \n\nXX. Theban. M. 1288 ; B. 1200. \n\nRameses III. (Rhampsinitus of Herodotus) victorious, \ncultivated navigation and commerce. M. 1288 ; \nB. 1200. Inglorious line of kings named Rameses. \n\nXXI. Tanite. M. mo ; B. 1100. \n\nHistory obscure \xe2\x80\x94 Hirhor, high priest of Amen, probably \n\nfirst of priest kings \xe2\x80\x94 Assyrian governors. \nXXH. Bubasite. M. 980; B. 966. Shashank or Shes- \n\nhonk L, Shishak, 1 Kings XIV., 25-28. \n\nXXIII. Tanite, probably only three petty kings. M. 810 ; \nB. 766. \n\nXXIV. Saite. M. 721 ; B. 733. \n\nBocchoris (Bokenranef), taken prisoner by Sabaco, king \nof Ethiopia, and burnt alive. During the last three \ndynasties, the Ethiopians appear to have ruled in the \nsouth. \n\nXXV. Karnak. Ethiopian. M. 715 ; B. 700. \n\nShabat or Sabaco. M. 715 ; B. 700. Takaraka or Tir- \nhakah (2 Kings XIX. 9). B. 693. Egypt frequently \ninvaded by the Assyrians ; subdued and divided into \n12 governments. \n\nXXVI. Saite. M. 665 ; B. 666. \n\nPsammetichus I. (Greek), one of the governors under the \nAssyrians, restored the monarchy and revived art. \nM. 665 ! E. 666. Necho II. son, attempted the con- \nstruction of a canal across the Isthmus of Suez, defeated \nJosiah king of Judah at Megiddo (II. Kings xxiii. 29); \ndefeated by Nebuchadnezzar at Carchemish, 612. \nrsammetichus II. ; inglorious. B. 596. Uahbra or \nHophra (Jer. xliv. 30) son ; went to help Zedekiah, \nbut deserted him. B. 591. Apries loses the conquests \nand is strangled by Amasis, who has a long prosperous \nreign and increased intercourse with the Greeks. \nB. 572. Psammetichus III. son (defeated by Cam- \nbyses, son of Cyrus, king of Persia). B. 528. \n\nXXVII. Persian. M. 527 ; B. 527. \n\nCambyses, conquers Egypt ; his army perished in an \nexpedition against Ethiopia. M. 527 ; B. 527. Darius I. \nHystaspes, greatly favoured Egypt, 521. Xerxes I. \nsevere (Egyptian revolt subdued), 486. Artaxerxes I. \nLongimanus(anotherrevolt),465. Darius II.Nothos, 424. \nEgypt regained its independence by Armyrtams, 424. \n\nXXVIII. Saite. M. 406. \nArmyrtajus, 406. \n\nXXIX. Mendesian. M. 399 ; B. 399. \nNepherches and Achoris maintain Greek alliance. \n\nXXX. Sebennyte. M. 378 ; B. 378. \n\nNectanebes I. Nectanebes II. conquered by Artaxerxes \nOchus, king of Persia. \n\nXXXI. Persia 340. \n\nDarius III. Codomanus \xe2\x80\x94 defeated by Alexander \n\nthe Great and killed. \nAlexander conquered Egyptand founded Alexandria, 332 \nThe empire divided, 323. One of Alexander\'s gene- \nrals, Ptolemy I. (the son of Lagus) Soter became \nking of Egypt, 323. \nPtolemy II. Philadelphus (with his father) 285 ; \nalone [the museum of Alexandria founded ; the \nSeptuagint version of the Hebrew Scriptures \nmade ; the Pharos completed] . . . 283-247 \n\nAmbassadors first sent to Rome .... 269 \nPtolemy III. Euergetes, 247 ; overruns Syria, and \n\nreturns laden with spoils 246 \n\nPtolemy IV. Philopator .... Nov. 222 \nBattle of Raphia ; Ptolemy defeats Antioclms, king \n\nof Syria 217 \n\nPtolemy V. Epiphanes Nov. \' 205 \n\nEmbassy to Rome ....... 200 \n\nPtolemy VI. Philometor .... Oct. 181 \n\nAt the death of Philometor, his brother Physcon \n\n(Ptolemy VII. Euergetes) marries his queen, and \n\non the day of his nuptials murders the infant son \n\nof Philometor in its mother\'s arms . . Nov. 146 \n\nHis subjects, wearied by his cruelties and crimes, \n\ncompel him to flee 130 \n\nHe defeats the Egyptians and recovers his throne, \n\n128 ; dies 117 \n\nPtolemy VIII. Soter II. and Cleopatra his mother, ,, \n\nAlexander I. and Cleopatra 107 \n\nPtolemy VIII. restored . . . . .89 \n\nRevolt in Upper Egypt ; Thebes destroyed after a \nsiege of three years (Diod. Siculus) . . . . 82 \n\nAlexander II. and Cleopatra 1 81 \n\nPtolemy IX. Auletes 80 \n\nBerenice and Tryphcena . . ... 58 \n\n\n\nEGYPT. \n\n\n\n317 \n\n\n\nEGYPT. \n\n\n\nAuletes restored, 55 : leaves his kingdom to Ptolemy \n\nand Cleopatra 51 \n\nDuring a civil war between Ptolemy and Cleopa- \ntra II., Alexandria is besieged by Caesar, and the \nlibrary nearly destroyed by fire (Blair) ... 47 \nCaesar defeats the king, who, in crossing the Nile, \nis drowned ; and the younger Ptolemy and Cleo- \npatra reign 46 \n\nCleopatra poisons her brother, and reigns alone . 43 \nShe appears before Marc Antony, to answer for this \ncrime ; fascinated by her beauty, he follows her \ninto Egypt . . \' \' . ." . . . . 41 \n\nCleopatra in Syria 36 \n\nAntony defeated by Octavius Caesar at the battle of \n\nActium (Blair) . . . .\xe2\x96\xa0 . .2 Sept. 31 \nOctavius enters Egypt ; Antony and Cleopatra kill \nthemselves ; and the kingdom becomes a Roman \n\nprovince Sept. 30 \n\nEgypt visited by Adrian, 122; by Severus . a.d. 200 \nMonachism begun in Egypt by Antony . . . 305 \nDestruction of the temple and worship of Serapis, 389 \nEgypt conquered by Chosroes II. of Persia. . . 616 \nInvasion of the Saracens under Ainrou . June, 638 \nConquest of Alexandria .... 22 Dec. 640 \n\nCairo founded by the Saracens 969 \n\nConquest by the Turks 1163-91 \n\nGovernment of the Mamelukes established . . 1250 \nSelim I., emperor of the Turks, conquers Egypt . 1567 \nIt is governed by beys till a great part of the \ncountry is conquered by the French, under Bona- \nparte (see Alexandria) 1798-99 \n\nThe invaders dispossessed by the British, and the \n\nTurkish government restored .... 1801 \nMehemet Ali massacres the Mamelukes, and obtains \n\nthe supreme power .... 1 March, 181 1 \nArrival of Belzoni, 1815 ; he removes statue of Meni- \n\nnon, 1816; explores temples, &c. . . . 1817 \nFormation of the Mahmoud canal, connecting Alex- \nandria with the Nile 1820 \n\nMehemet Pasha revolts and invades Syria . . 1831 \nHis son Ibrahim takes Acre, 27 May ; overruns \n\nSyria ; defeats the Turks at Konieh . 21 Dec. 1832 \nHe advances on Constantinople, which is entered \nby Russian auxiliaries, 3 April; war ends with \nconvention of Kutayah ... 4 May, 1833 \n\nMehemet again revolts, claiming hereditary power ; \n\nIbrahim defeats the Turks at Nezib 24 June, 1839 \n\nEngland, Austria, Russia, and Prussia undertake \nto expel Ibrahim from Syria ; Napier bombards \nBeyrout, 10 Oct. ; Acre taken by the British \nand Austrian fleets, under sir R. Stopford, 3 Nov. ; \nthe Egyptians quit Syria . 21 Nov. , ct seq. 1840 \n\nPeace restored by treaty ; Mehemet made hereditary \n\nviceroy of Egypt, but deprived of Syria 15 July, 1841 \nIbrahim Pacha dies (see Suez) . . 10 Nov. 1848 \n\nThe Suez canal begun 1858 \n\nCommercial treaty with Great Britain signed \n\n19 April, 1861 \nHereditary succession and right of coining money \ngranted ; but tribute raised from 400,000?. to \n\n750,000? 27 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMalta and Alexandria telegraph opened . 1 Nov. ,, \nThe viceroy Said visits Italy, France, and England, \n\nMay to Sept. ; returns to Alexandria . 1 Oct. 1862 \nSultan of Turkey visits Egypt . . 7 April, 1863 \n\nIncreased cultivation of cotton in Egypt . 1863-67 \n\nAt the demand of the sultan, the viceroy sends \n\ntroops to repress the insurgents in Arabia, May, 1864 \nOpening of part of the Suez canal (which see), \n\n15 Aug. 1865 \nDirect succession to the viceroyalty granted by the \n\nporte 21 May, 1866 \n\nEgyptian legislative chamber opened with a speech \n\nfrom the viceroy 27 Nov. ,, \n\nViceroy invested with Order of the Bath (as G.C.B. ) \n\nby lord Clarence Paget . . . -30 Jan. 1867 \nDesignated " sovereign " by the sultan 9 June, ,, \n\nThe viceroy visits Paris . . . 16 June-5 July, ,, \nHe arrives in London 6 July ; received by the queen \nat Windsor, 8 ; by lord Derby, 10 ; by the lord \nmayor, 11; departs .... 18 July, ,, \nThe viceroy (now termed the Khedive) visited \n\nEngland 22 June, 1869 \n\nPresent at the inauguration of the Suez canal, \n\n17 Nov. ,, \nThe differences between the sultan and himself \nrespecting prerogatives arranged, the viceroy \n\n\n\ngiving up the power of imposing taxes and of \ncontracting loans . . . Dec. 1869, \n\nSir Samuel Baker appointed sole commander of a \nmilitary expedition to suppress the slave-trade \nup the Nile, with absolute authority over the \ncountry south of Gondokoro (for four years from \n1 April, 1869) 10 May, ,, \n\nDeparture from Khartoum ... 8 Feb. 1870 \n\nMany delays and impediments ; proceeds to explore \nWhite Nile n Aug. ,, \n\nArrives at Gondokoro, 15 April ; names it Ismailia, \nand officially annexes it to Egypt . 26 May, 1873 \n\nWar with the warlike and treacherous Baris of \nBelinian ; beats them in several engagements, \n\nJuly-Sept. \n\nSupported by his model corps, "the forty thieves," \nhe quells disaffection and mutiny in his troops,Oct. ,, \n\nSends vessels with women, children, and sick, to \nKhartoum 3 Nov. ,, \n\nMakes peace with the Baris, and returns to Gondo- \nkoro 19 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAdvances south ; suffers much by negro treachery, \nand inefficiency of his Egyptian troops : heroism \nof lady Baker Jau.-Feb. 187a \n\nArrives at the African Paradise, Faliko ; meets \nthere his enemy, Abou Saoud, the slave-dealer, \n6 March ; at Masindi, in Unyoro . 25 April, ,, \n\nReceived by Kabba Rega, the young king ; who \nattempts to poison Baker\'s party, and attacks \nthem in the night ; he is defeated, and Masindi \nburnt 8 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBaker marches to Foweera ; received by Raongi, \nenemy of Kabba Rega, 18 July ; returns to Faliko, \nand suppresses an insurrection of slave-dealers, \nprobably incited by Abou Saoud . . 2 Aug. ,, \n\nSlave-trade apparently subdued; "peace and pro- \nspect of prosperity" .... 31 Dec. ,, \n\nBaker returns to Gondokoro, 1 April; receives \nhonours from the khedive at Cairo, 25 Aug. ; \narrives in London Oct. 1873 \n\nCol. Gordon appointed his successor ; Abou Saoud \nhis subordinate ,, \n\nBaker\'s work, " Ismailia," published . . Nov. 1874 \n\nThe first stone of the new port laid by the khedive, \n\n15 May, 187s \n\nThe khedive \'s son, prince Hassan, made D.C.L. at \nOxford I3 j lme , 1872 \n\nThe khedive visits the sultan; Constantinople \nrejoices . . ... . . . 25 j une , ,, \n\nThe sultan, by a firman, renders the khedive prac- \ntically independent ; (he must not coin money, \nmake treaties, or build ironclads) . 8 June, 1873. \n\nFirst Egyptian budget produced ; asserted revenue\', \n10,166,000?. ; expenditure, 9,040,000?. . Oct. \xc2\xbb, \n\nMr. Acton and Mr. Penned employed to arrange \nfinances of Egypt .... spring of 1875 \n\nInternational court of justice opened by the khedive, \n\n28 June, ,> \n\nThe khedive\'s shares of Suez canal (which see) pur- \nchased by the British government; announced, \n\nNov. ,, \n\nEgyptian expedition into Abyssinia surprised and \ndefeated with much slaughter . t 6 Oct. ,r \n\nRt. hon. Stephen Cave sent on special mission to \nEgypt Dec. ,. \n\nNew (Gregorian) style adopted ; mixed courts \nopened T Jan _ l8 6 \n\nResignation of Nubar Pasha, able minister of com- \nmerce, announced j a]1 \n\nWar with Abyssinia (which see) . \'1875*7 \n\nMr. Cave\'s report\xe2\x80\x94 (refers to waste and extaiva- \' \ngance ; great works undertaken with insufficient \nmeans ; loss by adventure] s ; military expenditure ; \nand necessity for intervention of superior power \nto restore credit and restrain expenditure) ; sent \n13 March ; published in \'l\'iuus . 4 April, 1876 \n\nThe khedive decrees consolidation of his debt\' \n91,000,000?., at 7 per cent., and a sinking fund,\' \n7 May ; decrees signed . . i 4 and 25 May \nHis son Hassan received by the queen . 27 June, \nDecisions of the international law court not ac- \ncepted by the government; the court closed by \nM. Haakman ; he is superseded July, \n\nMr. Goschen with M. Joubert (on behalf of the \' \nkhedive\'s creditors), arrive at Cairo, 14 Oct. ; their \nscheme accepted (debt of about 91,000,000/. to be \nreduced to about 59.ooo.oc-o/., interest ct 7 per \ncent, to be reduced to about 6 per cent.) ; agri \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x96\xa0- \n\n\n\nEGYPT. \n\nment signed about 10 Nov. announced (termed \nsince, " Goschen decree ") . . . 18 Nov. \n\nIsmail Sadyk, autocratic finance minister, suspected \nof conspiracy ; resigns insolently ; seized and \nbanished Nov. \n\nMr. Gosehen c s report approved by a meeting in \nLondon 28 Nov. \n\n\xc2\xabCol. Gordon, after successful administration, re- \nturns to England Feb. \n\nPeace with Abyssinia negotiating by col. Gordon, \nJune ; terms said to be accepted . . Oct. \n\n\'Bad report respecting Egyptian finances, Feb. ; \ncommission appointed .... March, \n\nEgypt at peace ; all soldiers at home . 20 April, \n\nConfidence restored by decree for payment of \nofficial salaries 12 May, \n\nNubar Pasha again minister ... 15 Aug. \n\n\'The khedive accepts the terms of the commission ; \nhe and his family give up landed property to the \nstate Aug. \n\nMr. Rivers Wilson appointed finance minister ; and \nM. de Blignieres, minister of works, soon after, \n\nSept. \n\nAttacks on them and Nubar Pasha by discontented \nofficers at Cairo dispersed . . .18 Feb. \n\nNubar Pasha resigns .... 19 Feb. \n\n.Definitive peace between the khedive and Abys- \nsinia, announced Feb. \n\nPrince Tewfik, president of the council, and Nubar \nPasha, foreign minister, about . . 5 March, \n\nMr. Rivers Wilson and M. de Blignieres remonstrate \nwith the khedive 6 April, \n\nHe puts forth a new financial scheme ; Tewfik Pa- \nsha, Mr. Rivers Wilson, and M. de Blignieres, dis- \nanissed : new ministry under Cherif Pasha formed \nabout 7 April, \n\nCoi. Gordon\'s lieutenant, Gessi (Nov. 1878) com- \npletely defeats the rebel slave-dealers in the Sou- \ndan, Central Africa .... 5 May, \n\nEngland and France in a note require the appoint- \nment of European ministers, a\'bout . 5 May, \n\nEngland, France, Germany, Austria, and Italy, re- \ncommend the khedive to abdicate, about 20 June, \n\nHe refers to the sultan, who declines to interfere, \nthe khedive offers to pay his debts in full 22 June \n\nThe khedive deposed by the sultan, prince Tewfik, \nhis son, proclaimed his successor . 26 June, \n\n; The khedive leaves for Naples . . . 30 June, \n\nTewfik succeeds as khedive ... 8 Aug. \n\nMr. Baring and M. de Blignieres appointed comp- \ntrollers-general .... 4 Sept. \n\nNew ministry, Riaz Pasha, &c, announced 9 Sept. \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Col. Gordon negotiating with Abyssinia to prevent \nwar, reported successful . . . Oct. \n\nHe resigns governorship of the Soudan, Oct., 1879 ; \naccepted Jan. \n\nPeace with Abyssinia announced . end of June, \n\nNew ministry appointed, the khedive president, \n\n18 Aug. \n\nPublic festivities at Cairo on anniversary of the \nkhedive\'s accession . . about 26 June, \n\nInternational committee on the debt appointed, \n4 April ; issue a report, on which is based a law \nof liquidation in 99 articles, approved by the \nkhedive * 7 July. \n\nGeneral prosperity reported .... Oct. \n\nMilitary revolt (for pay) at Cairo vigorously checked \nby Mr. E. Malet (British minister 1879) and baron \ndeRing , I "" F ? lD - \n\nDecree for abolition of slavery . . end of July, \n\n{Insurrection in the Soudan (which sec) . . July, \n\nBritish pacific interference . . about 11 Aug. \n\nMinisterial crisis ; the khedive calls for Riaz Pasha \n\nAug. \n\nAhmed Arabi Bey and about 4,000 soldiers surround \nthe khedive\'s palace, demanding increased pay- \nagreed to ; Cherif Pasha made minister 9 Sept. \n\nNegotiations of Cherif and the consuls with the \ntroops succeed ; tranquillity restored 11-13 Sept. \n\nEnvoys from the sultan received by the khedive \n\n7 Oct. \n\nJealousy of England and France, the envoys leave \n\nCairo l8 Oct. \n\nImportant letter from earl Granville to sir Edwd. \n\nMalet ,-,,-, 1 4 N ?X\' \n\nThe khedive opens the chamber of delegates with \n\nexcellent speech 26 Dec. \n\nArabi Bey appointed under-secretary of war Jan. \n\n\n\n318 \n\n\n\n1877 \n\n\n\n1879 \n\n\n\nEGYPT. \n\nEnglish and French note in support of the khedive \n\nabout 7 Jan. 3 \n\nDeputies demand entire control of the ministry, \nabout 19 Jan. ; dead lock . . -27 Jan. \n\nResignation of Cherif Pasha, 2 Feb. ; new ministry \nunder Mahmoud Pasha . . 3 Feb. et seq. \n\nM. Blignieres resigns March \n\nAlleged conspiracy of Circassian officers to assas- \nsinate Arabi Pasha . . . about 10 April, \n\n43 persons convicted of conspiracy to kill Arabi \nPasha, and dethrone the khedive ; exiled 28 April ; \nsentence confirmed by khedive . . 9 Slay \n\nPolitical crisis continues, 9-13 May; the khedive firm; \nministry submits, about 16 May ; English and \nFrench squadron arrive at Alexandria, 20 May ; \nArabi Pasha refuses to resign, 23 May ; ultimatum \nof English and French consuls ; Arabi Pasha to \nretire ; khedive\'s authority to be restored, &c. \n\n25 May, \n\nMinistry resigns ; Cherif Pasha appointed, May ; \nthe officers resist ; Arabi Pasha reinstated, \n27-28 May ; anarchy ; Europeans quitting the \ncountry, 29 May ; 6,000 Egyptian soldiers said \nto be massacred June, \n\nDervish Pasha and others sent to Cairo by the \nsultan, 4 June ; well received at Cairo 8 June \n\nCommencement of a rebellion ; riots at Alexandria ; \nArabs attack Europeans ; quelled by Egyptian \ntroops, with great loss of life (about 60 Euro- \npeans killed), town ravaged, and deserted \n\n11 June, \n\nPanic at Cairo and Alexandria; many arrests \n\n15, 16 June, \n\nAbout 37,000 Europeans in Egypt . . . . \n\nRagheb Pasha forms a ministry ; about 20,000 Eu- \nropeans said to be leaving Egypt . . June, \n\nThe powers agree to a conference at Constantinople ; \nTurkey objects 19 June, \n\nConference opened .... 24 June, \n\nGreat emigration from Alexandria to Malta June, \n\nDervish Pasha\'s favourable report . . 27 June, \n\n30,000 Arabs said to be starving at Alexandria \n\n29 June, \n\nArabi Pasha decorated by the sultan . . about \n\n28 June, \n\nThe English and French admirals protest against \nthe fortifying of Alexandria . about 4 July, \n\nBritish subjects warned to quit Egypt . about \n\n6 July, \n\nBombardment of forts of Alexandria threatened by \nadm. Seymour, if works threatening the British \nfleet are not stopped .... 9 July, \n\nShips entering Suez canal cautioned by adm. Sey- \nmour 10 July, \n\nBombardment begun by the Alexandra, 7.5 a.m.; \nvessels engaged : Monarch, Invincible, Penelope, \nTemeraire, and Inflexible ; gunboats, Condor, \nCygnet, Bittern, Decoy, &c, very effective ; forts \nMexs, Marabout, &c, silenced; 10 sailors from \nInvincible land and spike guns of fort Mexs ; \nobject of bombardment fully obtained ; the bom- \nbardment ceases 5.30 p.m. Egyptians fought \nwell; heavy loss in forts and part of the town, \nBritish loss, 6 killed, including lieut. Jackson of \nthe Inflexible, and 28 wounded . .11 July, \n\nDefiant "letter of Arabi Pasha to Mr. Gladstone, \n2 July, received . . . about 12 July, \n\nThe sultan protests against the bombardment ; \n\nAustria, Germany, and Russia said to approve \n\nabout 12 July, \n\n1,000 marines sent from Malta to Alexandria \nabout 12 July, \n\nGaining time by a flag of truce, Arabi Pasha and \npart of his army abandon Alexandria and retreat \ninto the interior ; he releases convicts, who with \nthe Arab mob plunder and set fire to the city, \nand massacre, it is said, many christians, 12 July, \n\nConflagration increasing (about a mile long) ; about \n800 marines land to maintain order as police \n\n13 July, \n\nEuropean portion entirely destroyed . 13 July, \n\nThe khedive escapes assassination, and gains over \npart of Arabi Pasha\'s army; views the city \n\n12, 13 July, \n\nEnglish marines active . . . .14 July, \n\nFire dying out ; order restored ; shops re-opened ; \nforeign marines enter city . . 15 July, \n\nThe khedive at his palace Ras-el-Tin guarded by \n\n\n\nEGYPT. \n\n\n\n319 \n\n\n\nEGYPT. \n\n\n\nBritish marines ; degrades Arabi Pasha from his \noffices ; sends for Ch\'erif Pasha, Riaz Pasha, and \nothers about 16 July, \n\nAbout 5,000 soldiers land at Alexandria . 17 July, \n\nIdentical note from the six powers inviting the \nPorte to intervene to support the khedive and \nrestore oi\'der iS July, \n\nArabi Pasha with his army said to be intrenched \nat Kafr-Douar 18 July, \n\nArabi Pasha attempts to exit off water supply ; \n\ndenounces the khedive, and calls on the people \n\nabout 20-21 July, \n\nProclamation of the khedive declaring Arabi a \nrebel, &c. ; reported anarchy at Cairo . about \n\n23 July, \nSkirmish with the Arabs by sir A. Alison ; he \n\ntakes about 60 prisoners, aud holds Bamleh \n\n24 July, \nArabi proclaims a Jihad or holy war, said to have \n\n30,000 men .... about 24 July, \n\nBritish troops landed at Alexandria . 24 July, \n\nTroops sent to Egypt from England and India \nabout 25 July, \n\nWithdrawal of French fleet ordered . 31 July, \n\nThe duke of Connaught sails in the Orient for \n\nEgypt 3 lJul y, \n\nIndecisive skirmish of outposts . . .2 Aug. \n\nSir Evelyn Wood sails for Egypt . . 3 Aug. \n\nTown of Suez occupied by British marines 3 Aug. \n\nReconnaissance ; sharp skirmish near Mahmoudieh \ncanal ; Gen. Sir A. Alison commanding ; British \nsuccess ; lieut. Howard Vyse and 3 others killed ; \nabout 30 wounded ; Egyptian loss about 300 \n\n5 Aug. \n\nProf. Palmer, capt. Gill, and lieut. Charrington \nstart from Suez to buy camels of the Bedouins, \n&e 7 Aug. \n\nArrival of duke of Connaught and officers at Alex- \nandria 10 Aug. \n\nThe conference agrees to the international protec- \ntion of the Suez canal, aud adjourns sine die, \n\n14 Aug. \n\nSir Garnet Wolseley lands at Alexandria and as- \nsumes the command ; the khedive gives up power \nto the British commanders to establish order \n\nTroops, &c, under gen. Willis embark as if for \nAboukir, but proceed eastward, and occupy Port \nSaid, Ismailia, and Kantara ; thus command the \ncanal, 19-20 Aug. ; skirmishes near Mahmoudieh \ncanal, sir Evelyn Wood successful ; the enemy \nshelled out of Neflche . . \' . .20 Aug. \n\nTotal British force in Egypt, 31,468 men of all \nranks 20 Aug. \n\nChaloux-el-Terraba captured by sailors, &c, great \nEgyptian loss 20 Aug. \n\nTwenty-six ironclads at Alexandria . 20 Aug. \n\nSuccessful skirmishes; gen. Hamley, &c, from \nBamleh ; capt. Hastings and maj. Kelsey repel \nEgyptians, who suffer heavy loss, 20 Aug.; sir \nG. Wolseley\'s proclamation to the Arabs \n\n21 Aug. \n\nArrival of gen. Macpherson with the Indian troops \nat Suez 21 Aug. \n\nAdvance from Ismailia of two squadrons of house- \nhold cavalry, with two guns, and detachment of \n19th hussars, mounted infantry, &c, on Nefiche \nmet by above 10,000 Egyptians with much \nartillery . .... 24 Aug. \n\nCavalry and artillery engagement ; enemy routed ; \ncapture of 5 Krupp guns, and train of ammunition \nand provisions, Egyptian camps at Tel-el-Mahuta \nand Mahsameh occupied ; British loss, 6 killed, \n30 wounded . . ... 25 Aug. \n\nSuez canal held by the British . . 26 Aug. \n\nKassassin occupied by Gen. Graham with above \n2,000 infantry 26 Aug. \n\nMustapha Fehmy, Arabi Pasha\'s second in com- \nmand, captured while reconnoitring (sent to the \nkhedive) 27 Aug. \n\nGen. Graham at Kassassin vigorously attacked by \n13,000 Egyptians ; signals for assistance, rendered \nby Gen. Drury Lowe with household cavalry ; \nbrilliant charge and capture of 11 guns (after- \nwards lost), rout of the enemy ; disorderly flight ; \nBritish loss, 7 killed, 70 wounded . 28 Aug. \n\nMilitary convention with Turkey about to be \nsigned 29 Aug. \n\nArabi Pasha strengthening his intrenchments near \n\n\n\nTel-el- Kebir (said to have about 28,000 men) \n\nabout 31 Aug. \n\nArtillery duel at Ramleh, little result . 4 Sept. \n\nArabi Pasha\'s estimated forces : infantry, 44,600 ; \n\ncavalry, 1802 ; guns, 143 ; Bedouins, 30,500 \nVigorous attack on the British camp at Kassassin \n\nrepelled with severe loss, 4 guns taken, 6 British \n\nkilled 9 Sept. \n\nSiege train sent in the Copia , . .9 Sept. \nCapture of Tel-el-Kebir, which see; total defeat of \n\nthe Egyptians ; flight of Arabi Pasha ; surrender \n\nof Zagazig with railway trains, &c. . 13 Sept. \nThe British enter Cairo ; Arabi Pasha aud his \n\nofficers surrender unconditionally ; about 10,000 \n\nEgyptian soldiers lay down their arms 14 Sept. \nSir Garnet Wi dseley and British troops enter Cairo ; \n\nwarmly received . . . . .15 Sept. \nSurrender of Kafr Douar; about 500 Egyptians \n\nmarch to Damietta ... 16, 17 Sept. \nThe khedive dissolves the Egyptian army 17 Sept. \nSurrender of Aboukir, 17 Sept. ; re-establishment \n\nof the khedive\'s authority . . 19 Sept. \n\nAbd-el-Al holding Damietta with about 7,000 men, \n\n21 Sept. ; British expedition sent against him, \n\n22 Sept. ; he surrenders to sir Evelyn Wood \n\n23 Sept. \nTriumphal entry of the khedive into Cairo, 25 Sept. \nValentine Baker Pasha nominated commander of \n\na new Egyptian army (10,900) . end of Sept. \n\nCairo railway station partly burned by explosion of \nshells, large amount of stores and ammunition \ndestroyed ; 4 persons killed, about 15 wounded \n\n28 Sept. \n\n18,000 British troops "march past" the khedive \nat the Abdin palace . . . .30 Sept. \n\n12,000 British to remain i:i Egypt, sir A. Alison \ncommander 30 Sept. \n\nReturn of the troops ; warmly received in London \n\n21 Oct. et seq. \n\nThe prophet said to hold all the country south of \nKhartoum \xe2\x96\xa0-.... 25 Oct. \n\nMurder of prof. Palmer, capt. Gill and lieut Char- \nrington . . about 10 Aug. announced 26 Oct. \n\nThanks of Parliament voted to army and navy : \n\nAdmiral John Miller Adye ; vice-admiral William \nMontagu Dowell ; lieutenant-generals George \nHarry Smith Willis, sir Edward Bruce Hamley ; \nmajor-general sir Archibald Alison ; rear-admirals \nsir William Nathan Wrighte Hewett, sir Francis \nWilliam Sullivan, Anthony Hiley Hoskins ; \nmajor-generals his royal highness Arthur duke \nof Connaught, William Earle, sir Henry Evelyn \nWood, Gerald Graham, George Bvng Harman. \nDrury Curzon Drury-Lowe, sir Herbert Taylor \nMacpherson 2 6 Oct. \n\nAn amnesty of officers signed by the khedive \n\n24 Oct. \nLord Dufferin arrives at Cairo . . 7 Nov. \nAnglo-French control abolished . . 9 Nov.\' \nBritish troops from Egypt with Indian contingent \n\nreviewed by the queen at St. James\'s Park \n\n18 Nov. \n\nQueen\'s thanks published 21 Nov. ; distributes \nmedals, &c, at Windsor . . . 21 Nov. \n\nTrial of Arabi Pasha ; secret examination of wit- \' \nnesses (his defence supported by Mr. Wilfred \nBlunt) jfov. \n\nPleads guilty of rebellion ; sentence of death com- \nmuted to banishment for life . . 3 Dec. \n\nGeneral amnesty aud release of political prisoners \n\nabout 1 Dec. \n\nLetter from Arabi Pasha to Mr. Wilfred Blunt, ex- \npressing gratitude to, and confidence in, England \n4 Dec. ; Times, 5 Dec. \n\nMahoud and other rebel leaders sentenced to \nbanishment 7 Dec. \n\nEiaz Pasha resigns ; succeeded by Nu\'bar Pasha \n\n. , . \xe2\x80\x9e 7> 8 Dec. \n\nArabi Pasha and others to be sent to Ceylon 9 Dec. \n\nSir Evelyn Wood, appointed commander of the uew \nEgyptian army, arrives at Cairo . 22 Dec. \n\nNine of the murderers of professor Palmer and \nothers captured . . . about 30 Dec. \n\nArabi and others sailed for Ceylon, 27 Dec. ; arrived \n\n10 Jan. i \n\nEnd of the dual control .... n Jan. \n\nBritish circular to the powers laid before the \nPorte, &c. (the Suez Canal to be free, with \n\n\n\nEGYPT \n\nrestrictions in time of war ; formation of Egyptian \narmy, &c.) . . ... n Jan. et seq. 18 \n\nAll trie powers accept proposals except France \nand Turkey .... about 27 Jan. ,, \n\nSir Auckland Colvin appointed financial adviser \n\n24 Jan. ,, \n\nTrial of professor Palmer\'s murderers ; several \nconfess ; 5 executed . . . .28 Feb. ,, \n\nLord Dufferm\'s report on reorganization of Egypt \npublished 20 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nConstitution signed by the khedive, 30 April ; pro- \nmulgated 1 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLieut. -gen. Alison replaced by gen. F. 0. Stephenson \n\nMay, ,, \n\nMajor Evelyn Baring nominated resident . May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSuleiman Sami convicted of the firing, massacre, \nand plundering at Alexandria (11 June, 1882), \nhanged 9 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGreatly improved condition of the country June, ,, \n\nThe ex-khedive Ismail in London . . 28 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nParliamentary grants to lord Alcester (Seymour,), \n25,000?., lord Wolseley, 30,000?. . 29 June, ,, \n\nEruption of cholera (see Cholera) . . . . ,, \n\nBritish force reduced to 6,763 . . . Aug. ,, \n\nCouncil of state nominated . . . 24 Sept. ,. \n\nThe khedive grants a general amnesty, about 10 Oct. ,, \n\nNew council of state opened by Cherif Pasha, 30 Oct. ,, \n\nDeparture of part of the British troops counter- \nmanded on account of the destruction of gen. \nHicks\' army (see Soudan) .... Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe khedive proposes reduction of his court ex- \npenses 1 Jan. 18 \n\nThe British government require a limitation of the \nline of defence in regard to the Soudan 6 Jan. ,, \n\nCherif Pasha and his ministry resign ; Nubar Pasha \n(an Armenian christian) becomes minister, \n\nabout 7 Jan. , \n\nLoan of 950,000?. to the khedive by Messrs. Roth- \nschild about 30 Jan. , \n\nDisorder in the government and finances reported, \n\n20 March, , \n\nBritish army : total killed, 255 ; July 1882 to March, , \n\nResignation of Nubar Pasha in opposition to Mr. \nClifford Lloyd, 6 April ; both remain in office, \n\n11 April, , \n\nChaos at Cairo ; sir Evelyn Baring comes to London , \n\nConference of the powers, respecting Egyptian \nfinance proposed by England, accepted by Ger- \nmany, Austria, Russia, Italy, France, and Turkey, \n\nMay, , \n\nNeed of loan of 8,000,000?. to meet several years\' \ndeficits, indemnification for damages at Alex- \nandria (3,950,000? ), civil and Soudan war ex- \npenses, (fee. May, ,. \n\nProposed relaxation of the international law of \nliquidation May, ,. \n\nMr. Clifford Lloyd leaves . . Maj and June, ,, \n\nSelect committee by examination discovers serious \ndefects in the commissariat and transport systems \nduring the war of 1882, announced . .June, ,. \n\nConference of six great powers on Egyptian affairs \nmeets (see London Conferences) . . 28 June, ,. \n\nConference adjourns, without result, sine die, 2 Aug. , \n\nCredit for 300,000?. voted to assist gen. Gordon, \n\n5 Aug. ,, \n\nLord Northbrook, as high commissioner, and lord \nWolseley as commander-in-chief, sail 31 Aug. \narrive at Cairo 9 Sept. , \n\nSuspension of the international law of liquidation \nin regard to the sinking fund, from 18 Sept. to \n2=; Oct. decreed, with consent of lord Northbrook \n\n20 Sept. , \n\nFrance, Germany, Austria, Russia, and Italy pro- \ntest, 25 Sept. et seq. but tacitly acquiesce Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLord John Hay and the fleet arrive at Alexandria, \n\n24 Sept. ,; \n\nEgyptian army reduced to 4000 men, announced, \n\n24 Oct. , \n\nLord Northbrook leaves Egypt . . 28 Oct. , \n\nArrives in London 3 Nov. , \n\nBritish force in Egypt and Soudan, about 16,000 men, \n\nNov. , \n\nAction of the caisse (commission) of the public, \ndebt against the Egyptian government for sus- \npension of the sinking fund ; the court condemns \nit to refund, 9 Dec. ; the khedive appeals Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nReply of France and other powers to the British \n\n\n\n320 \n\n\n\nEGYPT. \n\n\n\nproposals respecting the financial condition of \nEgypt, 17 Jan. ; English reply . . 24 Jan. 1885 \n\nPrince Hassan, brother of the khedive, appointed \nhigh commissioner in the Soudan about 15 Feb. ,, \n\nEgyptian financial scheme ; convention agreed to \nby the Powers signed, 18 March [reduction of \ninterest on debt, loan of 9,000,000?. on inter- \nnational guarantee, &c] ; adopted by the Com- \nmons on Mr. Gladstone\'s resolution (294-246), \n\n27-28 March, ,, \n\nGen. Grenfell succeeds sir E. Wood as com- \nmander-in-chief . . . about 1 April, ,, \n\nBosphore Egyptien, a Cairo newspaper, suppressed \nby decree, 29 Feb. 1884 ; carried into effect, for \npublication of a proclamation of the Madhi, on \n9 April, 1885 ; the French government much \noffended by the manner of suppression ; the dis- \npute settled by British intervention, announced, \n28 April, 1885 ; paper reappears, 20 May, 1885 ; \nstopped 5 Sept. ,, \n\nSir F. Stephenson, commander-in-chief of British \narmy 6 July, ,, \n\nLord Wolseley arrives in London . 13 July, ,, \n\nPayment of indemnity begins . . 16 Aug. ",, \n\nTelegraph system freed from Eastern company, \nthrough Mr. Floyer . . . about 12 Sept. ,, \n\nGreat improvements in irrigation, conducted by \ncol. Scott Moncrieff 1884-5 \n\nTurkish convention with sir H. D. Wolff on \nEgyptian affairs ; departure of the British de- \nferred till their work be accomplished, signed \n\n24 Oct. 1885 \n\nSir H. D. Wolff arrives at Cairo on commission \n\n29 Oct. ,, \n\nHigh commissioners, Ghazi-Mukhtar Pasha and sir \nH. D. Wolff Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBritish forces in Egypt, exclusive of Indians and \nEgyptians, 14,000 1 Dec. , 5 \n\nMukhtar arrives at Cairo .... 27 Dec. ,, \n\nAncient .necropolis discovered at Assouan by \ngeneral Grenfell Feb. 1886 \n\nDiscovery of petroleum at Jebel Zeit on the Red \nSea, March ; probable success reported about \n\n24 April, ,\xe2\x80\x9e \n\nIsmail Pasha claims 5,000,000?. arrears of annual \npayments for surrendered estates . . June ,> \n\nThe khedive\'s two sons presented to the queen at \nWindsor .... .6 July, ,, \n\nReduction of the British army begins . Jan. 1887 \n\nImprovement in the state of the country reported \n\nFeb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNeutralisation of Egypt and defence of the Suez \ncanal proposed to the sultan by sir H. Drum- \nmond Wolff (?) 9 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAnglo-Turkish convention respecting Egypt signed \nat Constantinople ; (British troops to leave in \nthree years ; Turkish troops to intervene or \nBritish to return ; Suez canal to be neutral, etc.,) \n28 May ; ratified by queen Victoria, June ; not \nratified by the Sultan ; sir H. D. Wolff leaves \nConstantinople 15 July, ,, \n\nImmense increase in postal communications . . 18S0-6 \n\nSudden death of general Valentine Baker Pasha, \naged 62 17 Nov. 1887 \n\nMajor Dormer appointed commander of the British \narmy Dec. ,, \n\nIsmail Pasha permitted to reside at Constantinople \n\nDec. , 7 \n\nGeneral prosperity of the country ; surplus in the \nbudget Jan. 188S \n\nThe exorbitant claims of the ex-khedive on the \nEgyptian government reduced and liberally \nsettled by the influence of sir Edgar Vincent \nand Mr. Marriott, Q.C., the judge advocate \ngeneral ; he receives 100,000?. with much laud \n\nJan. ,, \n\nDeath of prince Hassan . . . 22 March ,\xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMr. Limperopoulos\'s claim for 2,910? (Egyptian) on \nGordon bonds said to have been issued at \nKhartoum, disallowed .... May, ,, \n\nNubar Pasha dismissed ; Riaz Pasha succeeds \n(see Soudan) 8 June , E \n\nSir Edgar Vincent\'s proposal to convert the Egyp- \ntian preference debt of 22,000.000?. at 5 per cent, \nto a loan at 4 per cent, not accepted by the \nFrench government, unless a time be fixed for \nthe evacuation of Egypt by the British \n\n27 June, et seq. 1S89 \n\n\n\nEGYPT. \n\n\n\n321 \n\n\n\nEGYPTIAN ERA. \n\n\n\nSir Edgar Vincent resigns the office of financial \nadviser to the khedive, 21 Aug. ; succeeded by \nMr. Edwin Palmer, director-general of accounts . \n\nSept. 1889 \nThe prince of Wales and prince George received by \nthe khedive at Cairo, 1 Nov. ; review of the \nBritish and Egyptian armies ; the prince sud- \ndenly takes the command of the British ; during \nthe march past he salutes the Khedive, 2 Nov. ; \n\nleaves Egypt 5 Nov. ,, \n\nMr. Palmer\'s budget, surplus 150,000^. after re- \nduced taxation, announced, . . .18 Nov. ,, \nThe Equatorial province lostjby the retirement of \nEmin Pasha, through the mutiny of his officers \n\n18S8-89 \nAbolition of forced labour (corvee) of the peasantry \n(fellaheen), a tax proposed to thegeneral assembly, \n15 Dec, bill passed . . . .17 Dec. 1889 \nNegotiations with France respecting the conversion \n\nscheme (see June, 1889), again fails . Jan. 1890 \nNew commercial treaty with Great Britain (signed \n\n29 Oct. 1889) from 1 Jan. ,, \n\nNational accounts for 1889, declared surplus \n196,000?. . . . . . . .28 Jan. ,, \n\nPrince Albert Victor of Wales visits the Khedive \n\nat Cairo, reviews the army, &c. . 7-15 April ,, \nThe French government assents to the conversion \nof the preference debt, under conditions which \nare accepted by the Egyptians reported 7 May \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe first settlement was effected at Paris by \nTigrane pasha, Mr. Edwin Palmer, and M. Bi- \nbot, 21 May ; the assent of the other great powers \nreported 2 June, the khedive\'s decree authorizing \nthe conversion issued .... 7 June ,, \n\nMr. Justice Scott\'s plan for the decentralization of \njustice and creation of local courts, adopted by \n\ndecree reported 3 July ,, \n\nAnnual meeting of the society (formed in 1888) for \nthe preservation of the monuments of ancient \n\nEgypt; London 9 July ,, \n\nDeath of Hussein Bey, son of Ismail pasha, aged 50 \n\n27 July ,, \nThe corvee tax for 1890, not to be collected . \n\nreported 17 Aug. ,, \nHighly favourable report of the results of British \n\noccupation since 1882 .... Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nMuch needed judicial reforms recommended by Mr. \nJustice Scott, of Bombay, Jan., opposed by a \n\ncommission 2 Feb. 1891 \n\nReturn of the khedive from a successful five weeks\' \ntour (during which he visited Wady-Halfa) ; Cairo \n\nilluminated 8 Feb. ,, \n\nDiscovery of the vast tomb of a high priest of Am- \nnion, W. of Thebes, see under Mummies \n\nannounced Feb. ,, \nSir Evelyn Baring recommends to the khedive the \nnomination of Mr. Justice Scott as judicial ad- \nviser and president of a judicial committee of \nthree (one Italian and one Egyptian) for the \nsupervision of the local tribunals, about 11 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe khedive assents ; officially announced 16 Feb. ,, \nRevenue returns for 1890, about 10,250,000?., said to \n\nbe. the largest ever received . . 18 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe judicial changes disapproved by France, about \n\n20 Feb. ,, \nCount d\'Aubigny, the French minister, recalled, \n\nand disgraced, leaves . . . 1 March, ,, \nResignation of Riaz pasha, the premier, for ill-health \n\n12 May ,, \nNew ministry under Mustapha pasha Fehmy (influ- \nence of the khedive increased) . . 13 May ,, \nSir Colin Monerieff reports the beneficial results of \nthe great improvements in irrigation, 5 March ; \n\npublished June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe khedive\'s palace, the Abdin, greatly injured by \nfire, 22-23 July ; the British troops thanked for \n\ntheir help 24 July, ,, \n\nGreat increase in the crops of cotton and cereals, \nand in railway receipts ; large surplus revenue ; \nproposed reduction of taxation . end of Nov. ,, \n\nSudden death of the khedive Tewfik ; much \n\nlamented 7 Jan. 1892 \n\nHis eldest son, Abbas, recognised by the Porte, \n\n8 Jan. ; state reception at Cairo . . 16 Jan. ,, \nReduction of the salt tax, 40 per cent., ordered \n\nabout 28 Jan. ,, \nThe khedive opened the general assembly with a \n\xe2\x96\xa0cheerful speech 30 Jan. \n\n\n\nArrival of Ahmed Eyoub pasha at Cairo with the \nsultan\'s firman for the investiture of the khedive \n4 April ; the reading delayed through proposed \nchanges relating to Mount Sinai, which are settled \nsatisfactorily through British influence ; the fir- \nman read in public .... 14 April, 1892 \n\nNew railway bridge over the Nile, opened by the \nkhedive s May \n\nJustice Scott\'s judicial reforms, reported very \nsuccessful 22 May \n\nSir Evelyn Baring created a peer (baron Cromer) . ,, \n\nKHEDIVES OR HEREDITARY VICEROYS \n\n(nearly independent). \n\n1806. Mehemet Ali Pasha; abdicated Sept. 1848; dies \n2 Aug. 1849. \n\n1848. Ibrahim (adopted son), Sept. ; dies 9 or 10 Nov. 1848. \n,, Abbas (his son), 10 Nov. ; dies 14 July, 1854. \n\n1854. Said (brother), 14 July ; dies 18 Jan. 1863. \n\n1863. Ismail (nephew), 18 Jan. (born 31 Dec. 1830); de- \nposed by the sultan at the request of England, \nFrance and other powers, 26 June, 1879. \n\n1879. Mechmet Tewfik, bornNov., 185?, invested with the \nstar of India by the prince of Wales, 25 Oct. 1875 ; \nproclaimed 26 June, invested 14 Aug.; died 7 \nJan. 1892. \n\n1892. Abbas Hilmi, born 14 Julv, 1874. \n\n.EGYPT EXPLORATION FUND, ori- \nginated by Miss Amelia B. Edwards, and promoted \nby sir Erasmus Wilson, first president (died 8 Aug. \n1884), and Mr. E. S. Poole, secretary, 1881. Its \nobject is to promote excavations in order to eluci- \ndate the history and arts of ancient Egypt and \nbiblical history. Miss Edwards, a learned Egyp- \ntalogist, died 15 April, 1892. She bequeathed \nproperty to endow a professorship of Egyptology in \nUniversity College, London. \n\nM. Edouard Naville\'s explorations began 19 Jan. 1883. The \nexcavations conducted by M. Naville, 1883-4, led to \nmany important discoveries, including the site of \nGoshen. Mr. W. M. F. Petrie examined more than \ntwenty sites in 1884-5, and made remarkable dis- \ncoveries. Some of the results were given to British \nand foreign museums. Makes discoveries, including \nNaucratis, which was a flourishing Greek com- \nmercial and manufacturing city, on the Canopic arm \nof the Nile, about 550 b.c, and declined after the \nPersian invasion and the founding of Alexandria \n332 B.C. Explorations carried on by Mr. F. Llewellyn \nGriffith at Tanis, 1886 ; Mr. Petrie, in the mounds of \nTel-Defenneh, discovered the remains of "Pharaoh\'s \nhouse in Tahpanhes," (588 B.C. ; Jeremiah xliii., 8-11), \nMay, 1886. \nMr. Ernest A. Gardner reported the results of his \nexcavations in the spring at Naucratis, and exhibited \nrelics with statuettes, pottery, &c, obtained from the \nsites of temples, cemeteries, &c, 6 July, 1886. M. \nNaville\'s explorations at the city of Onia and the \n"Mound of the Jews," continued spring 1887. He \ndiscovers the great temple of Bubastis (about b.c. \n1300), granite monolithic columns, sculpture, &c, \nApril-June, 1887; resumes his excavations March, \n1888. \nExhibition of Egyptian antiquities at the Egyptian \nHall, Piccadilly ; by Mr. Flinders Petrie, of his \nexcavations at Fayoum, July, 1888. \nMr. Petrie forces an entrance into the sepulchral chamber \nof the pyramid of Anenemhat III. at Hawara, .Ian.; \nexhibits the results of his explorations, at the Oxford \nMansions, London, mummies, ornaments, implements, \n<fcc, Sept. 1889 et sey. \nA monograph on the results of M. Naville\'s excava- \ntions at Bubastis in 18S7-9, was published in the \n\n"Memoirs" Feb. 1891 \n\nMr. Petrie discovers fragments of a lost play of \nEuripides, of the Phsedo of Plato and other \nwriters, which have boon published by Professor \nMaha\'ffy after study by himself and Professor \nSayce, reported July, 1891. Mr.PetrieVTen Yens \nDigging in Egypt, 1881 to 1891," published . May 1892 \nEGYPTIAN ERA, &C The old Egyptian \nyear was identical with the era of Nabonassar, be- \nginning 26 Feb. 747 B.C., and consisted of 365 days \nonly. It was reformed 30 B.C., at which period \nthe commencement of the year had arrived, by \ncontinually receding to the 29th Aug., which was \n\n\n\nEGYPTIAN HALL. \n\n\n\n322 \n\n\n\nELECTORS. \n\n\n\ndetermined to be in future the first day of the year. \nTo reduce to the Christian era, subtract 746 years \n125 days. The canicular or heliacal period of the \nEgyptians and Ethiopians (1460 years) began when \nSirius or the dog star emerged from the rays of the \nsun, on 20 July, 2785 B.C., and extended to 1325 \nB.C. This year comprised 12 months of 30 days, \nwith 5 supplementary days. \n\nEGYPTIAN HALL, Piccadilly, erected in \nl8i2byG. F. Kobinson for "Bullock\'s natural history \ncollections, which were sold in 18 19 ; since used for \nexhibitions, concerts, &c. See Dudley Gallery. \n\nEHRENBREITSTEIN (Honour\'s broad- \nstone), a strong Prussian fortress on the Rhine, \nformerly belonged to the electors of Treves. It \nwas often besieged. It surrendered to the French \ngeneral Jourdain, 24 Jan. 1799. The fortifications \nAvere destroyed on its evacuation, 9 Feb. 1801, at \nthe peace of Luneville. The works have been \nrestored since 1814. \n\nEIDER, a river separating Schleswig from \nHolstein, was passed by the Austrians and Prussians, \n4 Feb. 1864. Eider, German steamer, see Wrecks, \n1892. \n\nEIDOGRAPH, see Pantograph. \n\nEIFFEL TOWER, see Paris, 1889. Re- \nopened 30 M arch, 1890. \n\nEIGHT HOURS. In 1889-92 there was much \nagitation among the working classes in Britain and \non the Continent, in favour of limiting the working \nday to eight hours, \'lhis was one of the objects of \nthe demonstrations in May, 1890-92, see Working \nMen. \n\nThe factories and shops act, which limits the work- \ning hours of women only to eight hours, passed \n\nat Melbourne 1890 \n\nThe limitation adopted by some trades in England ; \n\nby the bookbinders of London . . Nov. 1891 \nThe mines (eight hours) bill rejected by the com- \nmons (272-160) .... 23 March, 1892 \nGreat meeting in Hyde park to support the move- \nment 1 May, ,, \n\nThe marquis of Salisbury and Mr. A. J. Balfour \nreceive a deputation of workmen ; they deprecate \nlegislation as premature . . . .11 May, ,, \n\nEIGHTY CLUB. Established in 1879 and \n1880, to promote political education and to stimulate \nliberal organisation by Mr. Albert Grey, Sir Henry \nJames, and lord Richard Grosvenor. Mr. Glad- \nstone, president, 1887. The club adopted Home \nRule, and 80 Liberal Unionists seceded, 18 May, \n1887. \n\nEIKON BASILIKE ("the Portraiture of \nHis Sacred Majesty in his Solitudes and Suffer- \nings"), a book of devotion formerly attributed to \nking Charles I., but now generally believed to \nhave been written partially, if not wholly, by \nbishop Gauden, and possibly approved by the king : \nit was published in 1648, and sold quickly. \n\nEISENACH DECLARATION, see Ger- \nmany, 1859. \n\nEISTEDDFOD, see Bards. \n\nELAM, see Persia. \n\nEL ARISCH, Egypt, captured by the French \nunder Reynier, 18 Feb. 1799. A convention was \nsigned here between the grand vizier and Kleber \nfor the evacuation of Egypt by the French, 28 Jan. \n1800. He beat the Turks at HeHopolis on 20 March ; \nand was assassinated on 14 June following. \n\nELBA, ISLE OF (on the coast of Tuscany), \ntaken by admiral Nelson in 1796; but abandoned \n\n\n\n1797. Elba was conferred upon Napoleon (with \nthe title of emperor) 011 his relinquishing the \nthrone of France, 5 April, 1814. He s\xc2\xabcretly em- \nbarked hence with about 1200 men in hired feluccas^ \non the night of 25 Feb. 1815, landed in Proveneey \nI March, and soon after recovered the crown ; see \nFrance, 1815. Elba was resumed by the grand) \nduke of Tuscany, July, 1815. \n\nELCHINGEN, Bavaria. Here Ney beat the \nAustrians, 14 Oct. 1805, and was made duke of" \nElchingen. \n\nELCHO SHIELD, see under Volunteers. \n\nELDERS (in Greek, presbuteroi), in the early \nchurch equivalent with episvopoi, or bishops (see \nI Tim. iii. and Titus i.), who afterwards became a. \ndistinct and superior order. Elders in the presby- \nterian churches are laymen. \n\nElders\' Widows Fund, established by the East India Com- \npany, in 182c, to provide for widows and orphans of \nsome of its servants, was closed in i860. In 1878 am \nact was passed to transfer the surplus money to the- \nprovident fund, &c. \n\nELDON\'S ACT, see Bankrupts. \n\nEL DORADO (the " Gilded Man"). When- \nthe Spaniards had conquered Mexico and Peru, \nthey began to look for new sources of wealth, and \nhaving heard of a golden city ruled by a king or \npriest, smeared in oil and rolled in gold dust (which \nreport was founded on a merely annual custom of \nthe Indians), they organised vaiious expeditions \ninto the interior of South America, which were \naccompanied with disasters and crimes, about 1560. \nRaleigh\'s expeditions in search of gold in 1596 and \n161 7 led to his fall. \n\nELEASA, Palestine. Here Judas Maccabseus- \nwas defeated and slain by Bacchides and Alcinius,. \nand the Syrians, about 161 B.C. (1 Mace, ix.) \n\nELEATIC SECT, founded at Elea in Sicily^ \nby Xenophanes, of Colophon, about 535 B.C.,. \nwhither he had been banished on account of his. \nwild theory of God and nature. He supposed that \nthe stars were extinguished evety morning and; \nrekindled at night; that eclipses were occasioned \nby a partial extinction of the sun ; that there were \nseveral suns and moons for the convenience of the \ndifferent climates of the earth, &c. Strabo. Zeno- \n(about 364) was an Eleatic. \n\nELECTIONS PETITIONS. The laws \nrespecting them were consolidated in 1828, 1839,. \nand 1844. An act passed in 1848 was amended in \n1865. By the act of 1868, 3 new judges were ap- \npointed, and three to be selected from all the judges \nto try election cases; justices Willes and Blackburn, \nand baron Martin were first appointed, Nov. 1868. \n\nELECTOR PALATINE, see Palatinate. \n\nELECTORS for members of parliament for \ncounties were obliged to have forty shillings a-year \nin land, 8 Hen. VI. 1429. Among the acts relating \nto electors are the following : Act depriving excise \nand custom-house officers and contractors with \ngovernment of their votes, 1 782 ; see Customs. Act to \nregulate polling, 1828. Great changes were made \nby the Reform Acts of 1832, 1867, 1868, and 1885. \nCounty elections act, 1836 ; see Bribery. The \nforty-shilling freeholders in Ireland lost their \nprivilege in 1829. By Dodson\'s act, passed in \n1 86 1, university electors are permitted to vote \nby sending balloting papers. Hours of polling in \nmetropolitan boroughs extended (from 8 a.m. to \n8 p.m.) by act passed 25 Feb. 1878. \n\n\n\nELECTOES OF GEEMANY. \n\n\n\n323 \n\n\n\nELECTEICITY. \n\n\n\nMr. Shaw Lefevre\'s Plural Voting (Abolition) bill, \nbased on the principle, "one man, one vote," re- \njected by the commons (243-196) . . 18 May, 1892 \n\nMr. Stansfeld\'s Electors\' Qualification and Regis- \ntration bill (removing certain vexatious clauses), \nread a 2nd time 25 May ,, \n\nELECTOES of Germany. Tn the reign of \nConrad I. king 1 of Germany (912-918), the dukes \nand counts, from being merely officers, became \ngradually independent of the sovereign, and sub- \nsequently elected him. In 919 they confirmed the \nnomination of Henry I. duke of Saxony by Conrad \nas Ms successor. In the 13th century seven princes \n(the archbishops of Mentz, Treves, and Cologne, \nthe king of Bohemia, the electors of Brandenburg \nand Saxony, and the elector Palatine), assumed \nthe exclusive privilege of nominating the em- \nperor. Robertson. An eighth elector (Bavaria) was \nmade in 1648; and a ninth (Hanover) in 1692. \nThe number was reduced to eight in 1777 (by the \nelector palatine acquiring Bavaria) and increased \nto ten at the peace of Luneville, in 1801. On the \ndissolution of the German empire, the crown of \nAustria was made hereditary, 1804-1806; see Ger- \nmany. \n\nELECTEIC CLOCK; seep. 326. \n\nELECTEICAL ENGINEEES, see under \nTelegraphs. \n\nELECTEICITY, from the Greek elektros, \nelectrum, amber. The electrical properties of rubbed \namber are said to have been known to Thales, 600 \nB.C.; and Pliny, 70 a.d.; see Magnetism, Elec- \ntrical transmission of force, p. 328, and Niagara. \n\nElectrical measurements : the following terms (after \ngreat electricians) were adopted by the electrical \ncongress at Paris, 22 Sept. 1881 : ohm, volt, \nampere, coulomb, and farad. Important resolu- \ntions were passed by the international conference \non electrical units at Paris (the "congress ohm" \nagreed to) April-May, 1884 \n\nAn electrical standard committee (consisting of \nlord Raleigh, sir Win. Thomson and others) \nappointed, Bee. 1890 ; it was recommended that \nnew denominations of standards be made, and \ndetermined with reference to the centimetre, \ngramme, and second, of the Board of Trade ; the \nohm to be the standard of resistance ; the \nampere, the standard of electrical current ; the \nvolt, the standard of electrical pressure ; all \nbeing scientifically defined . . .20 Feb. 1891 \n\nThe committee\'s report printed . . . Aug. ,, \n\nCapital punishment by electricity adopted by the \nstate of New York . . . from 1 Jan. 1889 \n\nFRICTIONAL OB STATIC ELECTRICITY. \n\nGilbert records that other bodies besides amber \ngenerate electricity when rubbed, and that all \nsubstances may be attracted 1600 \n\nOtto von Guerieke constructed the first electric \nmachine (a globe of sulphur), about . . . 1647 \n\nBoyle published his electrical experiments . . 1676 \n\nStephen Gray, aided by Wheeler, discovered that \nthe human body conducts electricity, that elec- \ntricity acts at a distance (motion in light bodies \nbeing produced by frictional electricity at a dis- \ntance of 666 feet), the fact of electric induction, \nand other phenomena 1720-36 \n\nBufay originated his dual theory of two electric \nfluids: one vitreous, from rubbed glass, <fcc, the \nother resinous, from rubbed amber, resin, &c. ; \nand showed that two bodies similarly electrified \nrepel each other, and attract bodies oppositely \nelectrified, about 1733 \n\nThe Leyden jar (vial or bottle) discovered by Kleist, \n1745, and by Cuna-us and Muschenbroek, of Ley- \nden : Winckler constructed the Leyden battery . 1746 \n\nBesaguliers classified bodies as electrics and non- \nelectrics 1742 \n\nImportant researches of Watson, Canton, Beccaria \nand Nollet 1740-7 \n\nFranklin announced his theory of a single fluid, \nterming the vitreous electricity positive, and the \n\n\n\nresinous negative, 1747; and demonstrated the \nidentity of the electric spark and lightning, \ndrawing down electricity from a cloud by means \nof a kite June, 1752 \n\nAt a pie-nic, he " killed a turkey by the electric \nspark, and roasted it by an electric jack before \na fire kindled by the electric bottle " . . . 1748 \n\nProfessor Richman killed at St. Petersburg, \nwhile repeating Franklin\'s experiments Aug. 1753 \n\nBeccaria published his researches on atmospheric \nelectricity, 1758; and iEpiuus his mathematical \ntheory 1759 \n\nElectricity developed by fishes investigated by \nIngenhousz, Cavendish, and others, about . . 1773 \n\nLichtenberg produced his electrical figures . . 1777 \n\nElectro-Statics : Coulomb applied the torsion balance \nto the measurement of electric force . . . 1785 \n\nElectro-Chemistry\xe2\x80\x94 water decomposed by Caven- \ndish, Fourcroy, and others .... 1787-90 \n\nDiscoveries of Galvani and Volta (see Voltaic Elec- \ntricity, below) 1791-3. \n\nOersted, of Copenhagen, discovered electro-mag- \nnetic action (see Electro-Magnetism, next page) . 1819, \n\nThermo - Electricity (currents produced by heat), \ndiscovered by Seebeck : it was produced by \nheating pieces of copper and bismuth soldered \ntogether, 1821: the Thermo-electrometer invented \nby Wm. Snow Harris, 1827 ; theThermo-inultiplier \nconstructed by Melloni and Nobili, 1831. [Marcus \nconstructed a powerful thermo-electric battery in \n1865.] \n\nM. C. V. Boys exhibits his very sensitive quartz- \nfibre thermopile at the Royal Institution, see \nMoon 14 June, 1889 \n\nFaraday produced a spark by the sudden separation \nof a coiled keeper from a permanent magnet (see \nMagneto-Electricity, next page) .... 1831 \n\nWheatstone calculated the velocity of electricity, \non the double fluid theory, to be 288,000 miles \na second ; on the single fluid theory, 576,000 miles \na second ... 1834 \n\nArmstrong discovered, and Faraday explained, the \nelectricity of high pressure steam, which produces \nthe hydro-electric machine 1840 \n\nElectric Machines. Otto von Guerieke obtained \nsparks by rubbing a globe of sulphur, about 1647 ; \nNewton, Boyle, and others used glass, about 1675 ; \nHawksbee improved the machine, about 1709 ; \nBose introduced a metallic conductor, 1733 ; \nWinckler contrived the cushion for the rubber, \n1741 ; Gordon employed a glass cylinder, 1742; \nfor which a plate was substituted about 1770 ; \nCanton introduced amalgam for the rubber, 1751 ; \nVan Marum constructed an electric machine at \nHaarlem, said to have been the most powerful \never made, 1785 ; the Rev. A. Bennet invented \nthe "doubler of electricity," 17S6 ; Carvallo \ndiscovers that metals when insulated, acquire \nslight charges of electricity, 1787 ; Nicholson \nconstructs an influence machine, 1788; modified \nby Ronalds, 1823 ; Dr. H. M. Noad set up at the \nPanopticon, Leicester-square, London, a very \npowerful electric machine and Leyden battery [in \npossession of Mr. Edwin Clark, 1862] . . . 1855 \n\nThe Hydro-Electric machine, by Armstrong, was \nconstructed 1&40 \n\nHoltz\'s induction machine 1865. \n\nThe Electrophorus, a useful apparatus for ob- \ntaining frictional electricity, was invented by \nVolta in 1775, and improved by him in . . 17S2 \nC. F. Varley\'s "reciprocal electrophorus" invented 1862 \nSir William Thomson\'s "electric replenishcr" de- \nscribed Jan. 1868. \n\nThe Carre machine invented \n\nThe Voss machine introduced i\xc2\xa38o\xc2\xbb \n\nMr. Apps\'s great induetorium, or induction coil, \ngiving the largest sparks ever seen, exhibited at \nthe Royal Polytechnic Institution . 29 March, i86o> \nMr. James Wixnshurst invents a " continuous elec- \ntrophorus" (very successful), and an "influew \n\nmachine" \n\nElectroscope and Electrometer, as the terms \nsignify, an\' apparatus for ascertaining the presence \nand quantity of electrical excitation. Pith-balls \nwere employed in various ways as electroscopes \nby Gilbert, Canton, and others. Dr. Milnerin- \n\nvented an electrometer s\'milar tn Peltiers. 1 \n\nThe gold leaf electrometer was invented by rev. \n\ny 2 \n\n\n\nELECTRICITY. \n\n\n\n324 \n\n\n\nELECTRICITY. \n\n\n\nA. Bennet, 1789, and improved by Singer, about \n1810 ; Lane\'s discharging electrometer is dated \n1767 ; Henley\'s, 1772 ; Bohneuberger\'s electro- \nscope, 1820 : Peltier\'s induction electrometer, \n\nabout 1848 \n\nGALVANISM, OR VOLTAIC-ELECTRICITY, ELECTROLYSIS, \nAND ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. \n\n(See Electro-Physiology, p. 305.) \nSulzer noticed a peculiar sensation in the tongue \nwhen silver and lead were brought into contact \n\nwith it and each other 1762 \n\nMadame Galvani observed the convulsion in the \nmuscles of frogs when brought into contact with \ntwo metals, in 1789 ; and M. Galvani, after study- \ning the phenomena, laid the foundation of the \n\ngalvanic battery 179 1 \n\nVolta announced his discovery of the " Voltaic \npile," composed of discs of zinc and silver, and \n\nmoistened card 1800 \n\nMr. W. Cruikshank\'s experiments . . . . ,, \nBy the voltaic pile, Nicholson and Carlisle decom- \nposed water, and Dr. Henry decomposed nitric \n\nacid, ammonia, &c. . >> \n\nTransfer of acids and alkalies by Hisinger and \n\nBerzelius 1803 \n\nBehrens formed a dry pile of 80 pairs of zinc, \n\ncopper, and gilt paper 1805 \n\nBy means of a large voltaic battery in the Royal \nInstitution, London, Davy decomposed the \nalkali potash, and evolved the metal potassium, \n(soda and other substances soon after) . 6 Oct. 1807 \nZamboni constructed a dry pile of paper discs, \ncoated with tin on one side and peroxide of \nmanganese on the other . . \' . . . 1809 \n\nChildren\'s battery fused platinum, &c. . . . \xe2\x80\x9e \nJ. W. Bitter constructed his "secondary pile" \n\nabout 1 812 \nDavy exhibited the voltaic arc . . . . . 1813 \nWollaston\'s thimble battery ignited platinum wire, 1815 \nMultipliers or rheometers, popularly termed " gal- \nvanometers," invented by Ampere and by \nSchweigger, 1820 ; by Cumming, 1821 ; De la \nBive, 1824 ; Ritchie (torsion), 1830 ; Joule (mag- \nnetic), 1S43. Sir William Thomson has made \nmany improvements since 1856 ; he described his \nreflecting galvanometer, and similar apparatus in \nthe report of the British Association in 1867. \nVery large galvanometer made by prof. Win. A. \nCornell, of New York .... Aug. 1885 \nFaraday described his discovery of electro-magnetic \n\nrotation Jan. 1822 \n\nGeorg Simon Ohm enunciated his formulae relating \nto the galvanic current, 1827; proposed erection \nof a statue of Ohm, at Munich, on the centenary \nof his birth, 16 March, 1789 . . . Feb. 1889 \nImprovement in constructing the Voltaic battery \nmade by Wollaston, 1815 ; Becquerel, 1829 ; Stur- \ngeon, 1830 ; J. F. Daniell, 1836 ; Grove (nitric \nacid, &c), 1839 ; Jacobi, 1840 ; Smee, 1840 ; Bunsen \n(carbon, &c), 1842 ; Grove (gas battery), 1842. \nFaraday read the first series of his " Experimental \nResearches on Electricity " at the Royal Society, \n\n21 Nov. 1831 \nFaraday demonstrated the nature of electro-chemi- \ncal decomposition, and the principle that the \nquantity and intensity of electric action of a gal- \nvanic battery depend on the size and number of \n\nplates employed 1834 \n\nWheatstone invented his electro-magnetic chrono- \n\nscope 1840 \n\nCopper-Zinc Couple (which sec) constructed by \n\nDr. J. H. Gladstone and Mr. A. Tribe . . . 1872 \nBatteries ; Bichromate of potash battery ; a modifica- \ntion of Dr. Leeson\'s ; very powerful ; now much \n\xe2\x96\xa0 used. (Gaston Plante\'s lead battery, powerful, \ni860.) Chloride of silver battery (14,400 cells) \xe2\x80\x94 \nresults of its discharge published by Drs. Warren \nde la Rue and Hugo Muller. Powerful results \nexhibited at Royal Institution, London, 21 Jan., 1881 \nDr. Byrne\'s pneumatic battery (air blown in), very \n\neffective, announced 1878 \n\nSee under Electric Lir/hting. \nMr. Coad\'s primary battery, put forth in 1884, \ngreatly improved, exhibited in Soho square, \nLondon, W., Jan. ; Major Renard\'s primary bat- \ntery exhibited in London, Jan. ; Mr. Weymersch\'s \nprimary battery exhibited __ \' Feb. 1890 \n\n\n\nElectric Accumulator, or secondary battery, a \nmodification by M. Faure, of Gaston Plante\'s \npowerful lead battery of 1 860, was exhibited at \nParis, May, 1881. In June a box, one cubic foot \nin size, containing four cells, inclosing thin sheets \nof lead surrounded with felt saturated with \ndilute acid, &c. , was conveyed from Paris to \nLondon. Sir Win. Thomson found it to possess \nthe electric energy of one million foot-pounds ; \nand said, in a letter to The Times of 9 June, \n1881 : " This solves the problem of storing elec- \ntricity in a manner and in a state useful for \nmany important applications " . .6 June, 1881 \n\nElectro-Magnetism began with Oersted\'s discovery \nof the action of the electric current on the mag- \nnetic needle, 1819 ; proved by Ampere, who \nexhibited the action of the voltaic pile upon the \nmagnetic needle, and of terrestrial magnetism \nupon the voltaic current ; he also arranged the \nconducting wire in the form of a helix or spiral, \ninvented a galvanometer, and imitated the mag- \nnet by a spiral galvanic wire 1820 \n\nArago magnetised a needle by the electric current, \nand attracted iron filings by the connecting wire \nof a galvanic battery \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe first electro-magnet 1825 \n\nInduction of electric currents discovered by Fara- \nday and announced 1831 \n\nBecquerel invented an electro-magnetic balance . ,, \n\nFaraday discovered the electro-magnetic rotative \nforce developed in a magnet by voltaic electricity, \n\n1831 ; experiments on the induction of a voltaic \ncurrent, &c 1834-5 \n\nSturgeon made a bar of soft iron magnetic by sur- \nrounding it with coils of wire, and sending an \nelectric current through the wire . . . . 1837 \n\nInduction coil made by Professor G. C. Page of \nSalem, Mass ,, \n\nJoseph Henry announced his discovery of secondary \ncurrents 2 Nov. 1838 \n\nBreguet used electro-magnetic force to manufacture \nmathematical instruments, about . . . . 1854 \n\nMagneto-Electricity (the converse of Oersted\'s \ndiscovery of electro-magnetism), discovered by \nFaraday, who produced an electric spark by sud- \ndenly separating a coiled keeper from a perma- \nnent magnet ; and found that an electric current \nexisted in a copper disc rotated between the poles \nof a magnet 1831 \n\nThe Magneto-Electric machine arose out of Faraday\'s \ndiscovery, and was first made at Paris by Pixii, \n\n1832 ; and in London by Saxton . . . . 1833 \n"Faraday as a Discoverer," by Professor Tyndall, \n\npublished March, 1868 \n\nMagneto-electricity applied to electro-plating by \nWoolwich , 1842 \n\nRuhmkorffs magneto-electric induction coil con- \nstructed, about 1850 \n\nSiemens\' armature produced 1854 \n\nH. Wilde\'s description of his machine (a powerful \ngenerator of dynamic electricity, by means of \npermanent magnets) and the magneto-electric \nmachine (constructed in 1865) sent to the \nRoyal Society by professor Faraday and reported, \n\n26 April, 1866 \n\nThe light (resembling bright moon-light) exhibited \non the top of Burlington house . 2 March, 1867 \n\nPrinciple of accumulation by successive action dis- \ncovered by Wilde; 1865/by mutual action (by \nwhich permanent steel magnets are dispensed \nwith), independently by Wheatstone and Siemens, 1866 \n\nMr- W. Groves\' electro-induction balance . . 1879 \n\nDynamo-magueto-electric machines, by Wheatstone \nand Siemens, described at the Royal Society, \nI4 Feb. ; by Ladd . . . .14 March, 1867 \n\nTrial of Siemens\' dynamo-magneto electric light in \nthe torpedo service at Sheerness reported suc- \ncessful 18 Deo. 1871 \n\nTwo of Siemens\' machines ordered for the Lizards, \nannounced 1878 \n\nGramme\'s magneto-electric machine described . 1S75 \n\nInternational Electrical Congress at Paris with \n\nexhibition 15 Aug.-is Nov. 1881 \n\n[Medals and other honours awarded to England.] \n\nMi - . E. J. Atkins\' method of separating metals from \ntheir alloys by electrolysis, announced . Nov. 1883 \n\n\n\nELECTRICITY. \n\n\n\n325 \n\n\n\nELECTRICITY. \n\n\n\napplications \xe2\x80\x94 electric telegraph. See Telegraph. \n\nThe transmission of electricity by an insulated wire \nwas shown by Watson and others . . . . 1747 \n\nTelegraphic arrangements were devised by Lesarge, \n1744 ; Betancourt, 1787 ; Cavallo, 1795 ; Salva, \n1796 ; Soemmering, exhibited 29 Aug. 1809 : \nRonalds " . . . . 1816 \n\nAmpere invents his telegraphic arrangement, em- \nploying the magnetic needle and coil, and the \ngalvanic battery 1820 \n\nF. Ronalds publishes an account of his electric \ntelegraph (died, aged 85, 8 Aug. 1873) . . . 1823 \n\nProfessor Wheatstone constructs an electro-mag- \nnetic apparatus, by which 30 signals are conveyed \nthrough nearly four miles of wire . . June, 1836 \n\nTelegraphs invented by Schilling, Gauss, and Weber \n(magneto-electric), 1833 ; by Steinheil and by \nMasson, 1837 ; by Morse (died 1872). . . . 1837 \n\nThe magnetic needle telegraph patented by (aft. \nsir) Wm. F. Cooke and (aft. sir) Charles Wheat- \nstone. (The Society of Arts Albert gold medal \nwas awarded to them in June, 1867) . 12 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMr. Robert Stirling Newall, of Gateshead, patented \nhis wire rope used for submarine telegraphs . . 1840 \n\nMr. Cooke set up the telegraph line on the Great \nWestern Railway, from Paddington to West \nDrayton, 1838-9 ; on the Blackwall line, 1840 ; \nand in Glasgow 1841 \n\nWheatstone\'s alphabetical printing telegraph \npatented 1841 \n\nThe first telegraph line in America set up from \nWashington to Baltimore 1844 \n\nThe murderer Tawell apprehended by meaus of the \ntelegraph 1845 \n\nThe electric telegraph company established (having \npurchased Cooke and Wheatstone\'s telegraphic \ninventions) 1846 \n\nGutta-percha suggested as an insulator by Faraday 1847 \n\nProfessor Charles Wheatstone drew plans of a pro- \njected submarine telegraph between Dover and \nCalais 1S40 \n\nMr. John Watkins Brett (on behalf of his brother, \nJacob Brett, the iuventor and patentee), submit- \nted a similar plan to Louis Philippe without suc- \ncess 1847 \n\nHe obtained permission from Louis Napoleon to \nmake a trial, 1847 ; took place . . 28 Aug. 1850 \n\nThe connecting wires (27 miles long) were placed \non the government pier in Dover harbour, and in \nthe Goliath steamer were coiled about 30 miles in \nlength of telegraphic wire, enclosed in a covering \nof gutta-percha, half an inch in diameter. The \nGoliath started from Dover, unrolling the tele- \ngraphic wire as it proceeded, and allowing it to \ndrop to the bed of the sea. In the evening the \nsteamer arrived on the French coast, and the wire \nwas run up the cliff at cape Grisnez to its termi- \nnal station, and messages were sent to and fro \nbetween England and the French coast. But the \nwire, in settling into the sea-bottom, crossed a \nrocky ridge, and snapped in two, and thus the \nenterprise for that time failed. \n\nNew arrangements were soon made, and on a scale \nof greater magnitude ; and the telegraph was \nopened ; the opening and closing prices of the \nfunds in Paris were known on the London stock \nexchange within business hours, and guns were \nfired at Dover by communication from Calais, \n\n13 Nov. 1851 \n\nDuplex Telegraphy \xe2\x80\x94 two messages transmitted along \na single wire at the same time in opposite direc- \ntions first accomplished by Dr. Gintl, Austrian, \n1853 ; by Messrs. Siemens, 1857 ; in the same \ndirection, by Stark, of Vienna, 1855 ; apparatus \nperfected by Stearns, an American ; applied to \nBritish telegraphs 1873 \n\nQuadruplex Telegraphy \xe2\x80\x94 four messages along one \nwire ; successful experiments between London \nand Liverpool 25 Sept. 1877 \n\nMr. T. E. Edison\'s quadruplex instrument, by \nwhich four messages, two from each end, may be \ntransmitted upon one wire simultaneously, and \nprofessor Delaney\'s synchronous multiplex instru- \nment by which six messages may be so trans- \nmitted on one wire, were exhibited at the Post \nOffice Jubilee Fete 2 July, 1890 \n\n\n\nCommunications complete between Dover and Os- \ntend and between Portpatrick and Donaghadee, \n\nMay, 1853 \nHolyhead and Howth .... June, 1854 \n\nParis and Bastia Nov. ,, \n\nLondon and Constantinople . . May, 1858 \n\nCromer and Emden ,, \n\nAden and Suez May, 1859 \n\nMalta and Alexandria .... 28 Sept. 1861 \n\nEngland and Bombay, opened . . .1 March, 1865 \nMarsala, Sicily, and La Calle, Algeria . 21 June, ,. \n\n\n\nOver-house electric telegraphs (first erected at Paris) \nset up between their premises in the City and \nWest-end by Messrs. Waterlow, in 1857, extended \nthroughout Loudon 1859-73 \n\nHouse\'s printing telegraph, 1846 ; Bain\'s electro- \nchemical telegraph, 1846 ; Hughes\'s system, 1855; \nthe American combination system (of the pre- \nceding), which can convey 2000 words an hour, \nadopted by the American telegraph company, \n\nJan. 1859 \n\nWheatstone\'s automatic printing telegraph pa- \ntented i860 \n\nIt was stated that there were in work 15,000 miles of \nelectric telegraph wire in Great Britain ; 80,000 on \nthe continent of Europe ; and 48,000 in America ; \nand altogether about 150,000 miles laid down in \nthe world July, 1862 \n\nBonelli\'s typo-electric telegraph, made known and \ncompany established, i860 ; and tried between \nLiverpool and Manchester, 1863 ; promised revival, \n\nJune, 1864 \n\nAn "electric telegraph " conference, at which 16 \nstates (not Great Britain) were represented, met \nat Paris (16 states represented), see Telegraph \n\nMarch, 1865 \n\nThe Telegraph Act (see Telegraph) passed 31 July, 1868 \n\nIt enabled H.M.\'s postmaster-general to acquire, \nwork, and maintain electric telegraphs ; postal \ntelegraphy began 5 Feb. 1872 \n\nSociety of Telegraph Engineers established, 28 Feb. 1872 \n\nResult of the " Derby " race sent to Calcutta in five \nminutes 24 May, 1871 \n\nStatue of Morse at New York uncovered, 10 June, ,, \n\nMessages rise from 6,000,000 to 20,000,000 a year . 1875 \n\nThe " shilling telegraph " said not to pay . July, ,, \n\nA new international telegraphic convention came \ninto operation 1 Jan. 1876 \n\nDirect line between New Zealand and London, \ncompleted 18 Feb. ; communication between lord \nmayor and mayors of Wellington and Dunedin, \n\n23 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAtlantic Telegraph. A plan to unite Europe \nand America by telegraph was entered at the \ngovernment registration office in June, 1845, by \nMr. J. Watkins Brett and Mr. Jacob Brett, who \nmade proposals to the government, which were \nnot accepted. This plan was attempted to be \ncarried out by a company in 1857 and 1858, with \nthe concurrence of the British and American \ngovernments. \n\n2500 miles of wire were manufactured, and tested in \n\nMarch, 1857 \n\nThe laying it down commenced at Valentia, in \nIreland on 5 Aug. ,, \n\nThe vessels employed were the Niagara and Susque- \nhanna, (American vessels), and the Leopard and \nAgamemnon (British vessels). After sailing a few \nmiles the cable snapped. This was soon repaired ; \nbut on 11 Aug. after 300 miles of wire had been \npaid out, it snapped again (and the vessels \nreturned to Plymouth) . . . n Aug. ,, \n\nA second attempt to lay the cable failed through a \nviolent storm, .... 20-21 June, 1858 \n\nThe third voyage was successful. The junction \nbetween the two continents was completed by the \nlaying down of 2050 miles of wire from Valentia, \nin Ireland, to Newfoundland. The first two \nmessages, on 5 Aug., were from the queen of \nEngland to the president of the United St.-iles, \nand his reply 5 Aug. ,, \n\nThis event caused great rejoicing in both countries ; \nbut, unfortunately, the insulation of the wire \ngradually became more faulty, and the power \nof transmitting intelligence utterly ceased on \n\n4 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nELECTRICITY \n\n\n\n326 \n\n\n\nELECTRICITY. \n\n\n\nA new company was formed i860 \n\nThe Great Eastern steamer, engaged to lay down \n2300 miles of wire, with 25,000 tons burden, sailed \nfor Valentia, Ireland, from the Thames, com- \nmanded by capt. Anderson, accompanied by pro- \nfessor Wm. Thomson and Mr. Cromwell F. \nIfarley, to superintend the paying out the cable, \n\n15 July, 1865 \nAfter connecting the wire with the land, the Great \n\nEastern sailed from Valentia . . 23 July, ,, \nTelegraphic communication with the vessel (inter- \nrupted by two faults, clue to defective insulation, \ncaused by pieces of metal pressed into the gutta- \npercha coating, which were immediately repaired) \nfinally ceased on 2 Aug. The apparatus for \nraising the wire proving insufficient, the vessel \nreturned, and arrived at the Medway 19 Aug. ,, \nAtlantic telegraph company reconstituted as the \nAnglo-American telegraph company limited, \n\nMarch, 1866 \nThe Great Eastern, with a new cable, sailed from \nthe Medway, 30 June ; the shore-end at Valentia \nwas spliced with the main cable, and the Great \nEastern sailed, 13 July ; 1200 miles of cable had \nbeen laid, 22 July ; the cable was completely laid \nat Heart\'s Content, Newfoundland, and a message \nsent to lord Stanley, 27 July ; message from the \nqueen to president of the United States sent, 28 \nJuly, " From the queen, Osborne, to the presi- \ndent of the United States, Washington. The \nqueen congratulates the president on the success- \nful completion of an undertaking which she hopes \nmay serve as an additional bond of union between \nthe United States and England. " To which he \n\nreplied 30 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe lost cable of 1865 recovered, 2 Sept. ; and its \n\nlaying completed at Newfoundland . 8 Sept. ,, \nThe Great Eastern arrived at Liverpool . 19 Sept. ,, \nMessrs. Samuel Canning, Daniel Gooch, and capt. \n\nAnderson knighted Oct. ,, \n\n[It was stated (in Sept. 1866) that the engineer of \nthe cable passed signals through 3700 miles of \nwire by means of a battery formed in a lady\'s \nthimble.] \nThe U. S. congress voted a gold medal to Cyrus \nField, for his exertions connected with Atlantic \n\ntelegraphs 7 March, 1867 \n\nAt a dinner given to Cyrus Field at Willis\'s Rooms, \nLondon, telegraphic messages were exchanged \nbetween the company and lord Monck, viceroy \nof Canada and president Johnson . 1 July, 1S68 \nFrench Atlantic Telegraph company formed ; French \ngovernment grant concession for 20 years, from \n1 Sept. 1869, to Julius Renter and baron Emile \n\nd\'Erlangen 8 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAnglo-Danish telegraph (Newbiggin to Copenhagen) \n\ncompleted 31 Aug. ,, \n\nEuropean end of the French Atlantic cable laid at \nBrest, 17 June ; the American end at Duxbury, \n\nMassachusetts 23 July, 1869 \n\nReported union between the Anglo-American and \n\nFrench Atlantic telegraph companies . Jan. 1870 \nTelegraph between Bombay and Suez completed . ,, \nTelegraph between Adelaide and Port Darwin, \n\nAustralia, completed . . . .22 Aug. 1872 \nMessage from the mayor of Adelaide received by \nthe lord mayor of London, and replied to, \n\n21 Oct. ,, \nThe fourth Atlantic telegraph cable laid by the \nGreat Eastern, from Valentia, Ireland, to Heart\'s \nContent, Newfoundland . . 8 June-3 July, 1873 \nThe Brazil telegraph cable completely laid, 22 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n"Faraday," a great electric cable ship, built for \nSiemens Brothers, launched at Newcastle (see \nSteam), 17 Feb. ; sails to lay the " Direct United \nStates Company\'s" cable, 16 May; laid shore-end \' \nin Nova Scotia, 31 May ; in New Hampshire, \n8 June ; connected with Newfoundland, July . 1874 \nThe sixth Anglo-American telegraph laid by the \n\nGreat Eastern Aug. -Sept. ,, \n\nE. A. Gowper\'s Writing telegraph: quick plain writ- \ning (36 miles), exhibited at Royal Institution, &c. \n[an improved one by J. Hart Robertson exhibited \n\nin London, 1887] May, 1879 \n\nSouth African line laid between Mozambique and \nNatal, 23 Aug.; connected witli Capetown ; tele- \n\n\n\ngrams sent by the queen to sir Bartle Frere and \nothers, 25 Dec. ; opened to the public 29 Dec. 1879 \n\nThe new French Transatlantic Cable to be laicl from. \nBrest to St. Pierre by the Faraday, sailed June ; \nconnected with Halifax, Oct. 1879 ; line from \nParis to New York_opened . . .1 June, 1880 \n\nInternational Congress of Electricians opened at \nParis, 15 Sept. ; exhibition . 11 Aug. -20 Nov. 1881 \n\nNew Atlantic Cable laid by the Faraday 22 Aug. \n\nel seq. ,, \n\nTelegraph from England to Panama completed \n\nSept. 1882 \n\nInternational Sub-marine Conference, Paris, 16 Oct. ,, \n\nCromwell Fleetwood Varley, electrical engineer, \nwho patented many inventions, died . 2 Sept. 1883 \n\nInternational Conference for protection of sub- \nmarine cables, Paris, closed ; convention agreed \nto, 26 Oct. 1883; signed at London, 14 March ; \nsigned for 26 states at London, at Paris 26 March, \n1884; another conference .... 1 Dec. 1886 \n\nInternational Electro-Technical congress at Frank - \nfort-on-Maine, opened .... 8 Sept. 1891 \n\nElectrical exhibition at the Crystal Palace, near \nLondon, opened 9 Jan. 1892 \n\nElectrical Exhibition at St. Petersburg, opened \n\n23 Jan. ,, \n\nThe Volta, an electric launch (37 feet long, 7 feet \nbeam) built of steel, constructed by Messrs. \nStephens, Smith & Co. of Millwall, designed by \nMr. A. Rcckenzaun, crossed from Dover to Calais \nand back by means of one charge of the accumu- \nlators ; about 4 hours crossing . . 13 Sept. 1886 \n\nElectric boat for communicating light to powder \nhouses, &c. ; invented by Thomas Webb ; \nlaunched at Waltham Abbey ... . Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nArrangements invented for transmitting telegraphic \nmessages from railway trains in motion without \ncontact with the ordinary wires . . . 1S87 \n\nA central laboratory of electricity inaugurated at \nGrenelle, Paris, by the International society of \nelectricians 1888 \n\nElectric omnibus invented by Mr. Radcliffe Ward, \nrunning in London Feb. 1889 \n\nMessrs. Moore &, Wright announce their column \nprinting telegraph in which messages are pro- \nduced resembling type writing .- . . April \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Metropolitan electric supply company pro- \npose six central stations, W. & W.C. . April ,, \n\nElectric Clock, &c. Professor Wheatstone in- \nvented an electro-magnetic telegraph clock in \n1840. Clocks worked by electricity, invented by \nMr. Alexander Bain, Mr. Shepherd, and others, \nappeared in the exhibition of 1851. An electric \nclock, with four dials, illuminated at night, was \nset up for some time in front of the office of the \nelectric telegraph company, in the Strand, Lon- \ndon, July, 1852. A time-ball was set up by Mr. \nFrench, in Cornhill, in 1856. In i860, Mr. C. V. \nWalker so connected the clock of the Greenwich \nobservatory with that of the South-eastern station, \nLondon, that they could be controlled by elec- \ntricity. \n\nElectric Light. \n\nHumphry Davy produced electric light with carbon \npoints 1S00 \n\nApparatus for regulating the electric light were \ndevised in 1846, and shown by W. Staite\'s patents, \n1846, 1849 ; Staite (at Sunderland, 25 Oct. 1847), \nand Petrie in 1848 ; by Foucault soon after. \n\nJules Duboscq\'s Electric Lamp (the most perfect of \nthe kind) appeared at the Paris exhibition in \n1855 ; and was first employed by professor Tyn- \ndall, at the Royal Institution, London, for illus- \ntrating lectures on light and colours . . . 1856 \n\nThe works of new Westminster bridge were illumi- \nnated by Watson\'s electric, light . . . . 185S \n\nM. Serrin, of Paris, exhibited his improved electric \nlamp 1862 \n\nThe Magneto-Electric light (the most brilliant artifi- \ncial light yet produced), devised by Prof. Holmes, \nsuccessfully tried at the South Foreland light- \nhouse, Dover 1858 and 1859 \n\nThe French government ordered eight lighthouses \nto be illuminated by electric light . . April, 1861 \n\nElectric Candle, invented by Paul Jablochkoff (an \nelectric current passed through two carbons side \n\n\n\nELECTRICITY. \n\n\n\n327 \n\n\n\nELECTEICITY. \n\n\n\nby side with a slip of kaolin between them, pro- \n\xe2\x80\xa2duces a steady, soft, noiseless light ; the carbons \n\'burn like wax) ; reported to the. Academy of \nSciences, Paris, by M. Denayrouze . . Oct. \n\n\'-The electric light successfully employed for photo- \ngraphy by Mr. H. Van der Weyde \n\nlHead, Wrightson, & Co., of Stockton-on-Tees, use \nSiemens\' electric light for bridge building . \n\n.At the Magasin du Louvre, 8 electric lights replaced \nioo Carcel gas-burners ; as manageable as coal \ngas supply ; tried at West India docks 15 June, \n\n\'Tyndall\'s experiments at S. Foreland, demonstrate \n\nsuperiority of Siemens\' dynamo-electric machine, \n\nAug. 1 870- July, \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Gramme\'s machine (light equal to 758 candles) \n\n-\xe2\x96\xa0Serrin\'s and Jablochkoff\'s lights improved by Ra- \npieff, a Russian ; taken up by Mr. E. J. Reed, \nM.P. ; a small magneto-electric machine, worked \nby steam ; conducting wires replace the gasworks \nand pipes July, \n\n3Ir. Stayton reports, that the light is much dearer \nthan gas, and not suitable for street lighting in \nLondon Sept. \n\nElectric light tried at Westminster palace, 28 March, \n\nTwo of Siemens\' dynamo- magneto-electric machines \nordered for the Lizards lighthouses . . . \n\n\'The Gaiety theatre lit by light from Lontin\'s \nmachine and modification of Jablochkoff\'s Aug. \n\niHippolyte Fontaine\'s treatise on Electric Lighting, \n1877 ; translated by Paget Higgs, published \n\nMr. T. E. Edison announces at New York his dis- \ncovery of a method of producing a great number \nof lights and much mechanical power from a \nRitchie inductive coil, a dynamo-electric machine, \nwhich he terms " telemachon," which may be \nworked by water-power or steam ; this causes a \npanic among gas companies in London, and de- \npression in value of shares . . Sept., Oct. \n\nJEdison\'s plans of subdividing lights filed at patent \noffice 23 Oct. \n\nNational Electric Light company forming Nov. \n\nRichard Werdermann\'s electric light subdivided ; a \nnumber of jets lit simultaneously ; shown by \nBritish telegraph company . . .2 Nov. \n\n.Electric light used for large workshops at Woolwich, \n&c, throughout the country -. . . Nov. \n\nTimes machine-room lit by six lights from one cur- \nrent ; Rapieff system . . . . Oct. -Nov. \n\n\'Three systems trying at New York by Edison, \nSawyer, and Brush Nov. \n\nWallace lamp (American), introduced by Mr. Ladd, \n\nautumn, \n\n-Jabloehkoff candle tried at Westgate-on-Sea, by Mr. \nE. F. Davis, 2-26 Dec. ; light successful ; diffi- \nculty in practice ; given up . . . Dec. \n\n.Formation of nitric acid in the air by electric light ; \nannounced by Mr. T. Wills, 13 Dec. 1878 ; of \nhydro-cyanic or prussic acid by prof. J. Dewar, \n\nautumn, \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Machines of Fanner <fe Wallace, Lontin, De Meri- \ntens, Browning, Carre, and others in use in Lon- \ndon \n\n"Light given tip at Billingsgate market, about 30 Jan. \n\n.Siemens\' light successful at the Albert Hall, 13 Feb. \n\n.Edison obtains beautiful light from platinum which \nfuses ; used 600-horse power to obtain 20,000 \nlights at one station ; failure announced, March ; \nhis patent registered . . . -23 April, \n\nExhibition of lights at Royal Albert Hall opened \nby the prince of Wales .... 7 May, \n\nM. Jantin\'s electric candle exhibited at Academy of \nSciences, Paris . . . about 17 March, \n\nA continuous current dynamo -magneto-electric \nmachine patented by lord Elphinstone and C. W. \nVincent (since improved) \n\nA. committee of the House of Commons appointed \n" to consider whether it is desirable to authorize \nmunicipal corporations or other local authorities \nto adopt any schemes for lighting by electricity " \n(Dr. Lyon Playfair, chairman), reports : " The \nenergy of one-horse power may lie converted into \ngaslight, and yields a luminosity equal to 12-candle \npower. But the same amount of energy trans- \nformed into electric light produces 1,600-candle \npower. . . . Scientific witnesses considered that \nin the future the eleetric current might be exten- \nsively used to transmit power as well as light to \nconsiderable distances, so that the power applied \n\n\n\n1876 \n\n\n\n1877 \n\n\n\nto mechanical purposes during the day might lie \nmade available for light during the night. . . . \nThere seems to be no reason to doubt that the \nelectric light has established itself for lighthouse \nillumination, and is fitted to illumine large sym- \nmetrical places, such as squares, public halls, \nrailway stations, and workshops. . . . Compared \nwith gas, the economy for equal illumination does \nnot yet appear to be conclusively established. \n. . . Gas companies, in the opinion of your com- \nmittee, have no special claims to be considered \nas the future distributors of electric light . . . \nYour committee, however, do not consider that \nthe time has yet arrived to give general powers to \nprivate electric companies to break up the streets, \nunless by consent of the local authorities." \xe2\x80\x94 \nTimes 19 June, \n\nElectric light placed on Thames Embankment, in \nBritish Museum, at Victoria Station, &c. Dec. \n\nSystem of C. F. Brush (American), exhibited in Lon- \ndon, said to be simple and trustworthy 23 Dec. \n\nDr. C. William Siemens reports to Royal Society, \nthat electric light acts like solar light on vegeta- \ntion 2 March, \n\nElectric lights set up for trial on Thames Embank- \nment, north side (Jabloehkoff system), 13 Dec. \n1878 ; Waterloo Bridge, 10 Oct. 1879 ; continued, \n\nApril, \n\nMr. J. W. Swan exhibits his system of dividing light, \n&c, at Newcastle-on-Tyne (aft. in London) 20 Oct. \n\nTrial of three systems in London : Lontin\'s, South- \nwark bridge, <fee. ; Brush, Blackfriars\' bridge, &c. ; \nSiemens\', Guildhall, &c. . . 3iMarch, : \n\nSwan\'s incandescent lamp set up in Earnoek \ncolliery, Hamilton, Lanarkshire, 9 Aug.; also in \nthe Savoy Theatre, London, successfully, opened \n\n10 Oct. \n\nGodalming lit by electric light produced by water \nwheels driven by the Wey, Sept. ; reported suc- \ncessful 15 Dec. \n\nJunior Carlton Club first lit by the electric accu- \nmulator 16 Sept. \n\nNew lamp (the sun) by Louis Clerc, a combination \nof the arc and incandescent systems . June, i \n\nThe electric " sun " lamp and power company was \nformed July, \n\nEleetric lighting act passed . . . . 18 Aug. \n\nThe Ferranti system of electric lighting (invented \nby Sir William Thomson, Mr. S. Ziani de Ferranti, \nand Mr. Alfred Thomson) successfully tried, Dec. \n\nInternational electrical and gaslight exhibition at \nthe Crystal Palace opened . . -13 Dec. \n\nElectric light applied by Bell Brothers, Newcastle, \nto their mines Dec. \n\nElphinstone and Vincent machine advertised for \nsale \n\nMr. J. E. H. Gordon\'s great dynamo machine ex- \nhibited at Woolwich .... 25 Oct. \n\nMessrs. G. C. V. Holmes, F. E. Burke, and F \nCheesewright\'s invention for the use of the elec- \ntric light in railways tried on Great Northern line, \nreported successful .... 25 Oct. \n\nSt. Matthew\'s Church, Brixton, lit by electricity \n\n28 Oct. . \n\nGaulard-Gibbs\' system of secondary generators \nannounced April ; inaugurated on the Metro- \npolitan railway Nov. \n\nH. T. Baruett\'s secondary battery tried at the \nGreat Western station . . . Oct. et seq. \n\nMr. O. C. D. Ross\'s improved galvanic battery for \nlight and motion iS \n\nUp ward\'s primary battery (an advance) ; use of acid \ndispensed with July, \n\nSchanschieffs primary battery ; applicable to \nlighting, miners\' lamps &c. . . autumn \n\nDomestic electric Lighting by the Beemau, Taylor \nand King system tried at Colchester n June, \n\nElectric light employed in Liverpool and Man- \nchester trains Aug. \n\nElectric lighting successful at the Fisheries, 1883, \nand Health exhibitions. \n\nBrighton successfully lit by the Hammond-Wright \nsytsem ; described Nov. \n\nThe Ellison & Swan united electric lighl company \ny. Woodhouse & Rawson fur infringemenl of \npatent for carbon filaments; verdict fur plaintiffs \n\n20 May, \n\nAffirmed on appeal,judge Cotton dissentient 31 Jan. \n\n\n\n1887 \n\n\n\nELECTRICITY. \n\n\n\n328 \n\n\n\nELECTRICITY. \n\n\n\nKensington & Knightsbridge electric lighting \n\ncompany\'s first station opened . . . Jan. 1887 \nMr. Edison\'s " tyro-Magnetic " dynamo, in which \nheat is directly transformed into electricity \nwithout the intervention of steam-engine or \nother machinery, announced to the American \n\nassociation Sept ,, \n\nDue de Feltre\'s suggestion for the employment of \nwindmills to produce electric light by working \ndynamo machines ; experiments made at Cap de \n\nla Heve Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMr. Urquhart\'s new portable electric lamp, weighing \n4 lb. 2 oz., adapted for coal mines, &c. ; exhibited \n\nin London Dec. ,, \n\nProposal to light part of the city by the Anglo- \nAmerican Brush system submitted to the com- \nmissioners of sewers, deferred . . 21 Feb. 1888 \nElectric light only in theatres in Spain, ordered by \n\nroyal decree 31 March, ,, \n\nThe Edison & Swan united electric light company \nv. Holland and others ; 21 days\' trial ; divided \nverdict, Edison\'s patent of 1879 declared invalid. \nCheeseborough patent of 1878 maintained 16 July, \n1888. Edison\'s patent declared valid on appeal, \n\n18 Feb. 1889 \nErection by the London electric supply corporation \nof works at Deptford to supply the metropolis \n\nwith electric light, 1888 \n\nThe house-to-house electric supply company founded \n\n1888 ; the first station at West Brompton opened \n\n24 Jan., about nine stations established and \n\nothers in preparation .... Feb. 1889 \n\nThe city of London from Fleet street to Aldgate \n\nabout to be electrically lighted . . Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe electric light had been adopted at Milan, Rome, \nParis, Tours, Marseilles, New York and other \ngreat cities up to . . . . . June, 1890 \nFourteen companies have been established to \nsupply electricity in the Metropolis alone up to \n\nFeb. 1891 \nThe first permanent electric lights in the city of \nLondon set up in Queen Victoria street from \'the \nMansion-house to Blackfriars . . summer, ,, \nElectric light extension acts brought in, . . 1892 \n\nElectric Loom. M. Bonelli, of Turin, in 1854, de- \nvised a plan of employing magnets and electro- \nmagnets in weaving, thereby superseding the \ntedious and costly Jaequard system of cards. \nHis loom was set up in London in 1859, anc l ^ e0 " \ntured upon at the Royal Institution By professor \n\nFaraday 8 June, i860 \n\nElectric Pen (for copying, &c), invented by Mr. \nT. Edison, an American ; an electric writing com- \npany was established ; active in . . . 1877-8 \nLamp-lighting by Electricity. \xe2\x80\x94Mr. St. George Lane \nFox\'s invention tried at Fulham, and reported \nsuccessful, autumn 1S77 ; doubtful . . . 1879 \nElectrophone, nvented by Br. Strethill Wright, \nfor producing sound by electric currents of high \ntension: one laid before the Royal Scottish \nSociety of Arts. See Telephone . . 25 April, 1864 \nElectro-Tint. Mr. Palmer, of Newgate-street, \nLondon, patented inventions by which engravings \nmay be copied from engraved plates, and the \nengraving itself actually produced, by elec- \ntrical agency, and one process he termed gly- \n\nphography l84J \n\nElectro-Type or Beposit. Mr. W. Cruikshank\'s \nexperiments, 1800; Mr. Spencer, in England, \nand professor Jacobi, in Russia, made the \nfirst successful experiments in this art in 1837 \nand 1838. Since then, Mr. A. Smee and others \nhave perfected the processes. In 1840, Mr. Rob \nMurray applied black-lead to non-metallic bodies \nas a conducting surface. In 1840, Mr. Ruolz and \nMr. Elkington applied it to gilding and silver \nplating. Since 1850, printing types and wood- \ncuts, and casts from them, have been electrotyped \nwith copper, and the process is now largely \nadopted in the arts. \nMessrs. C. Wheatstone and F. A. Abel experiment on \n\nthe application of electricity to military purposes. 1861 \nAn Electric safety lamp made by MM. Dumas and \n\nBenoit ; exhibited at Paris . . .8 Sept. 1862 \nThe Electro-block company established, i860 ; by \ntheir processes the enlargement and reduction of \nengravings, obtained by india-rubber, can be \nimmediately transferred to a lithographic stone \n\n\n\nand multiplied. Leech\'s engravings, so enlarged,, \nwere coloured by himself, and exhibited in - rS.62: \n\nOzone, generated by a current produced by \nWild\'s magneto-electric machine, employed to \nbleach sugar, at Whitechapel (Edward Beaiae\'s \n\npatent) Aug. 1868; \n\nElectric furnace, formed in the electric arc, by C. \nffm. Siemens, fuses platinum, iridium, etc., shown \nat Royal Institution . . . .12 March, 1880 \nElectric light applied by him to grow vegetables \n\nand fruit in greenhouses ,, \n\nThe electric welding syndicate exhibit at Hoxton, \nProfessor Elihu Thomson\'s process of welding \nmetals by electricity (discovered in 1887, and \n\nshown in New York) Jan. 189a \n\nMachines at work at Crewe . . . April, ,, \nElectric Railway by Werner Siemens and \n\nHalske, opened near Berlin . . 12 May, 188s: \nSiemens\' motive machines 6 inches square, 2 inches \ndeep ; Tissandier\'s electr\'cally propelled balloon; \nMenier\'s ploughing machine, 11 Aug. ; electric \ntramway set up in Paris . . . Aug. ,\xe2\x80\x9e \nSiemens\' new electric railway tired at Berlin \n\nabout 7 Nov. ,,, \nIrternational electrical exhibition, Crystal Palace, \ncompleted, inaugurated by the duke of Edinburgh, \n25 Feb. ; closed .... 3 June, 1882 \n\nFirst electric tramway cars run at Leytoitstoiie, \n\nEssex 4 March ,, \n\nNew electric railway opened at Berlin . 1 May, ,,. \nElectric congress at Paris opened . .11 Oct. ,,. \nA boat (" Electricity ") with screw-propeller moved \nby power, provided by electric accumulators \n(built by the Electrical Storage Company), sails \nfrom Miilwall to London Bridge . 28 Sept. ,,. \nSiemens\' electrical tramway between Portrush and \nGiant\'s Causeway completed, Dec. 1882 ; opened \n\nby earl Spencer 28 Sept. 1883 \n\nElectric tramcars first run from Kew to Hammer- \nsmith 10 Mar. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nElectrical exhibition at Westminster Aquarium \n\nopened 14 Mar. ,\xe2\x80\x9e \n\nInternational electric exhibition at Vienna \n\n16 Aug.-3 Nov. ,, \n\nElectric exhibition at Philadelphia opened, 8 Sept. 1884 \n\nElectrical transmission of force ; M. Marcel Deprez \n\nexperiments at Creil (1876-86), supported by \n\nM. Rothschild, reported successful : \xe2\x80\x94 mechanical \n\npower transmitted 35 miles for industrial \n\npurposes 23 July, 1886 \n\nElieson company\'s electric engines reported suc- \ncessful at Stratford ; tramcars driven five miles \n\nOct. et seq. ,., \nElectrical traction on tramways at Northfleet ; \n\nsuccessful demonstration . . .14 March, ,, \nSuccessful trial of an electric trarncar on a new \n\nprinciple, at Birmingham ... 23 Oct. 1889 \nMr. M. Immisch\'s electric motors employed suc- \ncessfully in pumping and hauling at St. John\'s \ncolliery, Normanton and other places . Nov. ,, \nThe City & South London Electric Railway opened \nby the prince of Wales 4 Nov., to the public, \n\n18 Dec. 189a \nMr. Nickola Tesla, at the Royal Institution, ex- \nhibited his alternate-current electric motor, by \nwhich currents are transformed by rapidly chang- \ning their direction to and fro into mechanical \npower. It was stated that, with the increase of \nphysical power, the effect upon the human frame \n\nis diminished 3, 4 Feb. 1892 \n\n[By means of Mr. Tesla\'s apparatus, the force of \nabout 777 horse power was transmitted from the \nrapids of the Neckar to Frankfort-on-Maine, no. \nmiles, Sept. 1891.] See Niagara. \nElectro-Physiology. Aristotle and Pliny refer \nto the powers of the torpedo ; Walsh and \nIngenhouss, the discoveries of Galvani in 1790, \nand the researches of Matteucci about 1830, have \ngreatly advanced the science. \nFowler experimented on animals with galvanism, \n1793 ; and Aldini, 1796, who produced muscular \ncontractions ina criminal recently executed, 1803; \n\nUre did the same 181S \n\nDu Bois Reymond lectured on animal electricity at \nthe Royal Institution, and showed the existence \nof an electric current, developed by action of the \nhuman muscles, in May, 1.855 \n\n\n\nELECTRIC LIGHTING ACT. \n\n\n\n329 \n\n\n\nELEPHANT. \n\n\n\nDr. Burdon Sanderson announced his discovery of \nelectricity in plants to the British Association at \nBradford Sept. 1873 \n\nExecutions hy electricity, see under Death. \n\nELECTEIC LIGHTING ACT, 45 & 46 \n\nVict. c. 56, passed 18 Aug. 18S2. Amendment \nact passed 1888 (extending the monopoly of electric \nlight companies from 21 to 42 years). Regulations \nof the Board of Trade published 18 May, 1889. \n\nELECTEOLYSIS, see Electricity, p. 324. \n\nELEGY. Elegiac verse (consisting of a hexa- \nmeter and pentameter alternately) was the first \nvariation from the hexameter or epic measure, used \nby Tyrtaeus and other early poets. The elegies of \nOvid and Catullus are celebrated. Gray\'s " Elegy, \nwritten in a country churchyard," was published \nin 1749. \n\nELEMENTAEY EDUCATION ACT, \n\n33 & 34 Vict. c. 75, passed 9 Aug. 1870 ; amended \nin 1872. Clause 25, which authorizes payments to \nsupport denominational schools, much objected to \nby dissenters ; bill to repeal it rejected by the \ncommons (373-128), 10 June, 1874. Another act \n(for agricultural districts, &c.,) brought in by lord \nSandon, 18 May, 1876; royal assent, 15 Aug. 1876. \nAnother combining act passed 5 Aug. 1891. See \nEducation. \n\nELEMENTS were formerly reckoned as four: \nearth, air, lire and water. Lavoisier enunciated \nthe principle that all bodies which cannot be \nproved to be compounded are elements, and to be \ntreated as such. Mr. W. Crookes, F.R.S., in a \nlecture at the Royal Institution, London, by delicate \nexperiments demonstrated that yttrium is a com- \npound body, and expounded a theory that all the \nelements have been evolved from what he termed \nProtyle, 18 Feb. 1887. Above twelve new elements \nsaid to have been discovered in rare earths by MM. \nKriiss and Nilson by the spectroscope in 1887. \nMr. Crookes declared Didymium to be a compound \nbody. See Table, and separate articles. The \nchemical elements were stated to be about 77 \nin 1881.* \n\nLIST OF 63 ELEMENTS, 1872 {OillilWJ). \n\n\n\n._ \n\n\nGold . \n\n\n\xc2\xa9 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\x94 \n\n\nSilver . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 I) \n\n\n\xe2\x80\x94 \n\n\nMercury \n\n\n9 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\x94 \n\n\nCopper . \n\n\n. \xe2\x80\xa2 ? \n\n\n\xe2\x80\x94 \n\n\n\n\n. \xe2\x80\xa2 6 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\x94 \n\n\nTin \n\n\nH \n\n\n\xe2\x80\x94 \n\n\n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x96\xa0 h \n\n\n1490. \n\n\nAntimony \n\n\n. . B. Valentine. \n\n\n1530- \n\n\nBismuth . \n\n\n. Agricola ? \n\n\n1541- \n\n\nZinc \n\n\n. . Paracelsus. \n\n\n\n\nCarbon \n\n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\x94 \n\n\nSulphur. \n\n\n\n\n1669. \n\n\nPhosphorus \n\n\n. Brandt. \n\n\n1702. \n\n\nBorax, boron . \n\n\n. . Homberg. \n\n\nJ733- \n\n\n( Arsenic | \n\\ Cobalt ) \' \n\n\n. G. Brandt. \n\n\n1741. \n\n\nPlatinum \n\n\n. . Woods. \n\n\n175*- \n\n\nNickel \n\n\n. Cronstedt. \n\n\n\n\n1 Soda -ium \n\nPotash \nI Lime \n\n\n. . \\ Duhamel. \n\n\n1736 \nto \n1758 \n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 1 Marggraf. \n\n\n\n\n. /Bergmann, \n\n\nAlumina \n\n\n. . and \n\n\n\n\nMa.gnesia . \n\n\n.) Scheele. \n\n\n1766. \n\n\nHydrogen \n\n\n. . Cavendish. \n\n\n1771. \n\n\nFluor -ine . \n\n\n. Scheele. \n\n\nj 772. \n\n\nNitrogen \n\n\n. . Rutherford. \n\n\n\n1778. \n\n1 78 1. \n1782. \n\n\n\n1791. \n\nJ 793- \n1794. \n1797. \n1798. \n\n\n\n1811. \n1817, \n\ni8"8. \n1826. \n1828, \n1830. \n\n\n\n1843- \n\n\n\n* Mr. Joseph Norman Lockyer, in a paper read at \nthe Royal Society, 12 Dec. 1878, expressed doubts of the \nelementary character of some of the following substances \nbased on his spectroscopic experiments. His views \nwere not supported by the researches of professors Dewar \nand Liveing, 1880-81. See Chlorine. \n\n\n\nChlorine! (doubtful > see I \ncnioime-| chlorine) ) \n\nOxygen \n\n{Manganese \n\nBaryta -ium . . . . \nMolybdenum \n\nTungsten . . . . \n\nTellurium . \n\nf Uranium . . . . \n\n\\ Zirconia -ium . \n\nTitanium . . . . \n\nStrontia -ium \n\nYttria -ium . . . . \nj Chromium. \n\n( Gluclna -um . . . . \n\nTantalum . . . . \n\nCerium \n\n( Palladium . . . . \n\n\\ Rhodium . . . . \nI Iridium . \n\n( Osmium . . . . \n\nIodine . \n\nLithium . . . , \n\nSelenium . . . . \n\nCadmium . . . . \n\nBromine . . . . \n\nThorinum . . . . \n\nVanadium . \n\nLanthanum . . . . \n\nDidymium \n\nErbium \n\nRuthenium \n\nNiobium . . . . \n\nCsesium . . . . \n\nRubidium . . . . \n\nThallium . . . . \n\nIndium . . . . \n\nGallium . . . . \n\n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 Klaproth. \n\n\n\nScheele. \n\nPriestley. \nGahn. \n\nScheele. \n\nDelhuart. \nM tiller. \n\nGregor. \n\nHope. \n\nGadolin. \n\n\n\n> Vauquelin. \n\nHatchett. \nKlaproth. \n\nj- Wollaston. \n\n|_ Descotils & SmithsoR \nj Temiant. \n\nCourtois. \n\nAifwedson. \n\nBerzelius. \n\nStromeyer. \n\nBalard. \n\nBerzelius. \n\nSefstrom. \n\nVMosander. \n\nClaus. \nH. Rose. \n\n!\xe2\x96\xa0 Bunsen. \n\n\n\nCrookes. \nReich and Richter \nLecoq de Boisbau- \ndran. \n\n\n\n1877- \n\n\n\n1879. \n\n\n\nDavyum (?) . \n\n\n. . Kern. \n\n\nNeptunium \n\n\n. Hermann. \n\n\nIlmenium(V) \n\n\n\n\nPhilippium \n\n\n. Delafontaine. \n\n\nNorwegium \n\n\n. . Tellef Dahll. \n\n\nMosandruin (?) . \n\n\n. Lawrence Smith \n\n\nDecipium (?) \n\n\n. . Delafontaine. \n\n\nScandium (?) \n\n\n\n\nYtterbium (?) \n\n\n. . Marignac. \n\n\nHolmium \nThulium \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 j-Soret. \n\n\n\n\n\n\nVesbium \n\n\n. . Scacchi. \n\n\nGermanium \n\n\n\n\n\nELEPHANT, in the earliest times trained to> \nwar. The history of the Maccabees informs us r \nthat " to every elephant they appointed IOOO men \narmed with coats of mail, and 500 horse : and upon \nthe elephants were strong towers of wood, &c." The- \nelephants in the army of Antiochus were provoked \nto fight by showing them the "blood of grapes and \nmulberries." The first elephant said to have been \nseen in England was one of enormous size, presented \nby the king of France to our Henry III. in 1238. \nBaker\'s Chron. Polyaenus states that Caosar \nbrought one to Britain 54 B.C., which terrified the \ninhabitants greatly. See Knighthood. 13 elephants- \nin lord mayor\'s procession, 9 Nov. 1876. \n\nChunce, an elephant 13 feet high, in Cross\'s menagerie, \nExeter Change, London, becoming dangerous, was. \nshot, receiving 1S0 musket balls before he fell, 1 March, \n1826. \n\nA young elephant brought into Court of Exchequer to- \nshow his peaceful character, in a suit for damages for \nfrightening a pony at the Alexandra Palace, 18 July,. \n1879. \n\nBarnum, the American showman, bought, for 2,000.\'., \nthe large male African elephant Jumbo, 6 tons weight , \nof the" Zoological Society, Regent\'s Park, London. \nJumbo re (used to go iS Feb. After much trouble lie \nwas removed in the night, 22-23 March, and placed in \nthe Assyrian Monarch, 24 March ; arrived at New \nYork, 9 April, 1882 ; killed on the railway, 15 Sept. \n\n\n\nELETJ.SINIAN MYSTEEIES. \n\n\n\n330 \n\n\n\nEMANUEL HOSPITAL. \n\n\n\nA so-called white elephant (little differing from others), \nnamed Toung Taloung, bought by Mr. Barnum from \nthe king of Siam, arrived at Liverpool, 14 Jan., at \n.Zoological gardens, London, 17 Jan.; left 12 March, \n\ni -1884 ; burnt with Alice, "Jumbo\'s wife \' and others at \nthe destruction of Mr. Barnum\'s show and menagerie \nat Bridjport, U.S. by fire, 20 Nov. 1887. \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Joseph Merrick, deformed, termed the "elephant man," \nsupported at the London hospital, 1886 et seq. \n\n^ ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES- The insti- \ntution of these annual secret religious ceremonies \nin honour of Demeter (Ceres) at Athens, is tra- \nditionally attributed to Cadmus, 1550; to Erech- \nttheus, 1399; or to Kumolpus, 1356 B.C. If any one \n\xe2\x80\xa2revealed them, he was to be put to death. They \n\xe2\x80\xa2were introduced from Eleusis into Home, lasted \nabout 1800 years, and were abolished by Theodosius \n-A.d. 389. The laws were \xe2\x80\x94 1. To honour parents; \n-2. To honour the gods with the fruits of the earth; \n3. Not to treat brutes with cruelty. Cicero makes \nthe civilisation of mankind one of the beneficial \n\xe2\x80\xa2effects of the Eleusinian mysteries. \n\nELGIN" MARBLES, derived chiefly from the \nfarthenon, a temple of Minerva, on the Acropolis at \nAthens, of which they formed part of the frieze and \npediment, the work of Phidias, under the govern- \nment of Pericles, about 440 is.c. Thomas e irl of Elgin \n%egan the collection of these marbles during his \n\xe2\x80\xa2mission to the Ottoman Porte, in 1802 ; and from him \nthey were purchased by the British government for \n.35,000/. and placed in the British Museum, in 1816. \nThe ship conveying them was wrecked near Cerigo, \nand Mr. W. R. Hamilton, who was on board, re- \ntrained several months at Cerigo, and recovered \nthem from the sea. \n\nELGUETA, N. Spain ; near here the Carlists \n\xe2\x80\xa2defeated the republicans under gen. Soma, and \n\'took 600 prisoners, 5-6 Aug. 1873. \n\nELINGA, W. Spain. Here P. Scipio Africanus \ntotally defeated the Carthigehians under Hasdrubal \nGisco, which led to their expulsion from the country , \n206 B.C. \n\nELIS, a Greek state termed the " Hoi}\' Land," \nin the Peloponnesus, founded by the Heraclidse, \n1 103 B.C. Here Iphitus revived the Olympic games, \n584, which were regularly celebrated after Corcebus \nrgained the prize in 776. Elis surrendered many \ntowns to the Spartans in war, 400. After various \n\xe2\x96\xa0changes, Elis joined the Achaean league, 274; and \nwith the rest of Greece was subjugated by the \nHomans in 146. \n\nELL (so named from ulna, the arm) was fixed at \n45 inches, by king Henry I. in 1101. The old \nFrench ell, or aune, was 46790 inches. \n\nELLISON GALLERY. In April, i860, \nMrs. Elizabeth Ellison (in conformity with the wish \n\xe2\x96\xa0of her deceased husband, Richard), presented to the \nSouth Kensington Museum a series of 50 original \n\xe2\x96\xa0water-colour drawings, by the first masters. \n\nELLORA or ELORA, Central India ; remark- \nable for its very ancient rock-cut temple ; excavated \naccording to Hindoo legends nearly 7000 years ago ; \nbut more probably about 800 a.d. The town was \n\xe2\x96\xa0ceded to the British by Holkar in 1818, and trans- \nferred by them to the Nizam of the Deccan in 1822. \n\nELMINA, and Dutch Guinea, W. Africa, \nwere ceded by the Dutch government by treaty, \nsigned Feb. 1872, and consolidated with "the West \nAfrican settlements; first governor, Mr. Pope Hen- \nmessy, April, 1872. See Ashantecs. \n\nEL-OBEID, Battle of, 3-5 Nov. 1S84. See \nSoudan. \n\n\n\nELOPEMENT. A wife who departs from her \nhusband, loses her dower by the statute of Westm. \n1285 \xe2\x80\x94 unless her husband, without coercion of the \nchurch, be reconciled to her. Earlier laws punished \nelopement with death when adultery followed. \n\nELPHIN (Ireland) . St. Patrick founded a cathe- \ndral near Elphin, in the 5th century, and placed over \nit St. Asicus, whom he created bishop, and who \nsoon after filled it with monks. After many cen- \nturies, Roscommon, Ardcarn, Drumclive, and others \nof less note, were also annexed to Elphin, which \nbecame one of the richest sees in Ireland. It is \nvalued in the king\'s books, by an extent returned \n28 Eliz., at 103/. 18.5. sterling. The see was united \nto Kilmore in 1841, under the provisions of the \nChurch Temporalities act, passed Aug. 1833. \n\nELSINORE, Zealand, Denmark, formerly the \nstation for receiving the Sound dues {which see). \nPopulation, 1890, 1 1,082. \n\nEL-TEB, Battle of, 29 Feb. 1884. See Soudan. \n\nELY, an island in Cambridgeshire, on which a \nchurch was built about 673, by Etheldreda, queen \nof Egfrid, king of Northumberland ; she also founded \na religious house, tilled it with virgins, and became \nherself first abbess. The 1200th anniversary was \ncelebrated 17-21 Oct. 1873; about 60,000/. had \nthen been spent on the restoration of the cathedral. \nThe Danes ruined the convent about 870 ; but a \nmonastery was built in 879, on which king Edgar \nand succeeding monarchs bestowed great privileges \nand grants of land ; whereby it became the richest \nin England. Richard, the eleventh abbot, wishing \nto free himself from the bishop of Lincoln, made \ngreat interest with Henry I. to get Ely erected into \na bishopric, 1 108, and bis successor Hervseus was \nthe first prelate, 1 109. It is valued in the king\'s \nbooks at 2134/. 18*. 5^ ; present stated income, \n5500/. Population in 1881,8,171 ; 1891,8,017. \n\nKECENT BISHOPS. \n\n1781. James York, died 26 Aug. 1808. \n\n1808. Thomas Pampier, died 13 May, 1812. \n\n1812. Bowyer Edward Sparke, died 4 April, 1836. \n\n1836. Joseph Allen, died 20 March, 1845. \n\n1845. Thomas Turton, died 7 Jan. 1864. \n\n1864. Edward Harold Browne, translated to Winchester, \n\nAug. 1873. \n1873. James Russell Woodford, Aug. ; died 24 Oct. 1885. \n1385. Lord Alwyne Corr.pton. \n\nELY CHAPEL, Holborn, London, erected in \nthe 14th century, sold for 5250/., 29 Jan. 1874; \nacquired by the R. C. fathers of the order of Charity, \n1874; and finely restored at the expense of the \nduke of Norfolk and others, opened as St. Ethel- \ndreda\' s chapel, 23 June, 1876. \n\nELZEVIR, or ELSEVIER, a family of print- \ners, in Holland, whose reputation is based on fine \npocket editions of the classics. \n\nLouis, the founder, was born in 1540 ; began business at \nLeyden in 1580 ; he printed about 150 works, and died \n4 Feb. 1617. His sons (especially Bonaventure) and \ngrandsons, were celebrated for their work. \n\nEMANCIPATION, see Roman Catholics and \nSlavery. The Emancipation Society for slaves \nlasted 1862-5. \n\nEMANUEL HOSPITAL, Westminster, \nfounded in 1594 by lady Anne Dacre for aged people \nand children. Its original annual income had in- \ncreased from 360/. to about 4000/. in 1870, when \nchanges in the disposition of the funds were pro- \nposed by the Charity Commi-sioners, and some \neffected. Through reduction of income to about \n800/. the buildings decay, and the number of \ninmates decrease, reported Jan. 1890. The proposed \nchange of site much opposed, 1892. \n\n\n\nEMBALMING. \n\n\n\n331 \n\n\n\nEMIGRATION. \n\n\n\nEMBALMING. The ancient Egyptians be- \nlieving that their souls, after many thousand years, \nwould reinhabit their bodies, if preserved entire, \nembalmed the dead. Some of the bodies, called \nmummies, buried 3000 years ago, are still perfect. \n* l The physicians embalmed Israel," 1689 B.C. Gen. \ni. 2 ; see Mummies. Carbolic acid was successfully \nemployed by professor Seely in America, in 1868. \nThe most perfect specimens of modern embalming are pre- \nserved in the museum of the royal college of surgeons, \none being the body of the wife of Van Butchell, pre- \nserved by John Hunter by injecting camphorated \nspirits of wine, &c. , into the arteries and veins ; and \nthe other the body of a young woman, who died about \n1780 of consumption, in the Lock hospital. The method \nof embalming royal personages in modern times is fully \ndescribed in Hunter\'s " Posthumous Works." He died \nin 1793. \xe2\x80\x94During the American War (1861-5), many \nsoldiers\' bodies were embalmed and sent home. \nImprovements in embalming made by Prof. Laskowski \nof Geneva, 1885. \n\nEMBANKMENTS of earth were erected by \nthe ancients for preservation from their enemies \nand the inundations of the tide. Those of the \nEgyptians and Babylonians are described by Hero- \ndotus and Strabo. To the Komans are attributed \nthe first dykes of Holland, and the embankments of \nllomney Marsh, considered to be the oldestm Britain. \nIn 1250 Henry III. issued a writ enforcing the sup- \nport of these works ; and his successors followed his \nexample. James I. greatly encouraged the embank- \nment of the Thames. Sir W. Dugdale\'s " History \nof Embanking" first appeared in 1662 ; see Brain- \nage, Levels, and Thames. Since 1830, millions of \npounds have been expended in embankments for \nrailways. \n\nEMBARGO, from the Spanish embargar, to \ndetain, applied to the restraining ships from sailing. \nThis power is vested in the crown, but is rarely \nexercised except in extreme cases, and sometimes as \na prelude to war. The most memorable instances \nof embargo were those for the prevention of corn \ngoing out of the kingdom in 1766 ; and for the de- \ntention of all Russian, Danish, and Swedish ships \nin the several ports of the kingdom, owing to the \narmed neutrality, 14 Jan. 1801 ; see Armed Neu- \ntrality. \n\nEMBER WEEKS, instituted, it is said, by \npope CallLxtus I. (219-223), to implore the blessing \nof God on the produce of the earth by prayer and \nfasting, in which penitents used to sprinkle the \nashes (embers) of humiliation on their heads. In \nthe English church the Ember dags are the Wed- \nnesday, Friday, and Saturday, after the following \ndays \xe2\x80\x94 the first Sunday in Lent, Whit-sunday, 14 \nSept. (Holy Cross), and 13 Dec. (St. Lucia). \n\nEMBROIDERY is usually ascribed to the \nPhrygians ; but the Sidonians excelled in it, and it \nis mentioned in 1491 B.C. Exodus xxxv. 35 and \nxxxviii. 23. See Bageux Tapestry. Embroidery is \nnow done by machinery. The first embroidery ma- \nchine is said to have been invented by John Duncan \nof Glasgow in 1804. Heilman\'s embroidery machine \nwas patented by Kochlin. Berlin Wool-work lias \nbeen much improved of late years by the production \nof more elegant patterns, first published by Mr. \nWittich in Berlin, about 1810. \n\nEMERALD, a precious stone, of a green colour, \nfound in the East and in Peru. It has been er- \nroneously alleged that there were no true emeralds \nin Europe before the conquest of Peru ; but there is \none in the Paris Museum, taken from the mitre of \npope Julius II. who died in 1513, and Peru was not \nconquered till 1545. It is stated that there were \n\n\n\nmines at Gebel Zabara worked by Egyptians, 1800 \n\nB.C. \n\nEMERGENCY MEN, a name given to the \nmore energetic members of the Irish Defence As- \nsociation ; and especially to the men engaged in \ncarrying out evictions in Ireland. See Mansion \nHouse Funds, 1881. \n\nEMESA, now Hems, Syria, renowned for a \ntemple of the sun, the priest of which, Bassianus, \nwas proclaimed emperor with the name Heliogabalus \nor Elagabalus, 218. His atrocities led to his assas- \nsination, n March, 222. \n\nEMIGRANTS. The French aristocracy and \nclergy {emigres) began to leave their country in \nJuly, 1789, at the breaking out of the revolution: \ntheir estates were confiscated in Dec. A large num- \nber returned in 1802, by an amnesty granted after \nthe peace of Amiens. Many were indemnified after \nthe restoration in 1815. \n\nEMIGRATION. Phoenician and Greek emi- \ngrants colonised the coasts of the Mediterranean and \nthe Black Sea ; see Magna Grmcia, Marseilles, &c. \nThe discovery of America opened a vast field for \nemigration, which was restrained by Charles I. in \n1637. It has been greatly encouraged since 1819. \nRegulations for emigration were made in 1831, and \nin Jan. 1840, the Colonial Land and Emigration \nBoard was established. Emigration much promoted \nthrough want of employment in London, 1869-70 ; \nfrom Ireland, by act passed, 1 883. Much emigra- \ntion from Great Britain and Germany to America, \n1881-5. Fare of steerage passengers from Britain \nto America by steamers reduced to about $1. Jan. \n1883. \n\nThe "Order of the Sons of St. George," at Phil- \nadelphia, which was established to succour emi- \ngrants, still exists. (See under George, St.) It \npublished a letter dissuading unsuitable emigra- \ntion 31 July, 1874 \n\nMeetings at the Mansion House to promote State- \ndirected emigration of the unemployed 5 April, 1882 \nA tax of 2S. per head levied in United Slates on \nimmigrants ; act passed by congress in opposition \nto the government and steam ship companies \n\nAug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nAssociation formed to promote State-directed emi- \ngration and colonization ... 10 Aug. 1883 \nEmigrants\' Information Offlce, London, opened 7 \n\nOct. 1886 ; reported to be highly successful May, 1888 \nThe Self-Help Emigration Society, supported by \nthe earls of Aberdeen and Roden, lords Monks well \nand Dorchester and other gentlemen, established \nin 1884. Up to 1891, 3,666 emigrants had been \nassisted by the society. \nAbout 2,000 deserted children domesticated in \nLiverpool, and sent to Canada by the agency of \nMr. Samuel Smith and Mrs. Birt, reported Dec. 1886 \nIncreased emigration from Ireland to America, \n\nreported April, 1889 \n\nEmigration from the United Kingdom, in 1815, 2081 ; in \n1820, 25,729 ; in 1830, 56,907 ; in 1840, 90,743 ; in 1850, \n280,843 ; in i860, 128,469 ; in 1866, 204,882 ; in 1867, \n195,953 ; in 1868, 196,325 ; in 1869, 258,027 ; in 1870, \n256,940; 1111871,252,435; 1872,295,213; 1873,310,612; \n1874, 241,014; 1875, 173,809. Of British origin only, \n1876, 109,469 ; 1877, 95,195 ; 1878, 112,902 ; 1879, \n164,274 ; 1880, 227,542 ; 1881, 243,032 ; 1882, 279,366 ; \n1883, 320,118; 1884, 242,179; 1885, 207,644; 1886, \n232,900; 1887, 281,487; 1888, 279,928; 1889, 253.795; \n1890,218,116; 1891,218,507. See Immigration. \n\n1846. 1851. \n\nProm England 86,611 254.97\xc2\xb0 \n\n,, Scotland 3.427 18,646 \n\n,. Ireland 38,813 62,350 \n\n\n\n128,851 335, 966 \n\nEmigration to North American colonics, West Indies, \n\nCape of Good Hope, New Smith Wales, Swan Uivcr, \n\nVan Diomen\'s Land, &c. , in 1820-30, 154,291 : in 1830-40, \n\n277,695. \n\n\n\nEMILY ST. PIERRE. \n\n\n\n332 \n\n\n\nENCAENIA. \n\n\n\nTo North American Colonies, in 1842, 54,123 ; in 1847, \n109,680 ; in 1856, 16,378 ; in 1861, 12,707 ; in 1863, \n18,083 ; in 1864, 12,721 ; in 1866, 13,255 ; in 1867, 15,503 ; \nin 1868, 21,062 ; in 1869, 33,891 ; in 1870, 35,295 ; 1871, \n32,671 ; 1872, 32,205 ; 1873, 37,208 ; 1874, 25,450. Of \nBritish origin, 1876,9335; 1877, 7720; 1878, 10,652: \n1879, 17,952; 1880, 20,902 ; 1881, 23,912; 1882, 40.441 ; \n\n1883, 44,185 ; 1884, 31,134 ; 1885, 19,838 ; 1886, 24,745 ; \n1887, 32,025; 1888, 34,853 ; 1889, 28,269 \xe2\x96\xa0 1890, 22,520. \n\nTo United States, in 1842, 63,852 ; in 1847, 142,154 ; in \n1857, 126,905 ; in 1861, 49,764 ; in 1863, 146,813 ; in \n1864, 147,042; in 1866, 161,000; in 1867, 159,275; in \n1868, 155,532 ; in 1869, 203,001 ; in 1870, 196,075; 1871, \n198,843; 1872, 233,747; 1873, 233,073; 1874, 148,161. \nOf British origin, 1876, 54,554 ; 1877, 45,4 Sl : 1878, \n54,694; 1879, 91,806; 1880, 166,570; 1881, 176,104; \n1882, 181,903; 1883, 191,573; 1884, 155,280; 1885, \nI 37,687 ; 1886, 152,710; 1887, 201,526; 1888, 195,986; \n1889, 168,771 ; 1890,152,413. \n\nTo Australia and New Zealand, in 1842, 8534 ; in 1845, \n830 ; in 1850, 16,037 ; in 1852 (gold discovery), 87,881 ; \nin 1853, 61,401 ; in 1854, 83,237 ; in 1855, 52,309 ; in \n1856, 44,584 ; in 1857, 61,248 ; in 1861, 23,738 ; in 1863, \n53,054 ; in 1864, 40,942 ; in 1S66, 24,097 ; in 1867, 14,466 ; \nin t868, 12,809 \'\xe2\x80\xa2 m 1869, 14.001 ; in 1870, 17,065; in 1871, \n12,227; ^72, 15,876; 1873, 26,428; 1874, 53,958. Of \nBritish origin, 1876, 32,196 ; 1877,30,13s; 1878,36,479; \n1879, 40,959 ; 1880, 24,184 ; 1881, 22 682 ; 1882, 37,289 ; \n1883,71,264; 1884,44,255"; 1885,39,395; 1886, 43,076; \n\n1887, 34,183 ; 1888, 31,127 ; 1889, 28,294 ; 1890, 21,179. \nTo other places, in 1854, 3366 ; in 1859, 12,427 ; in 1868, \n\n6922; in 1870, 8505; 1871, 8694; 1872, 13,385; 1873, \n*3>9\xc2\xb03\'< T 874, 13.445; 1875,173,809. Of British origin, \n1876, 13,384; 1877, 11,856; 1S78, 11,077; 1879, 13,557; \n1880, 15,886 ; 1881, 20 304 ; 1882, 19,733 ; 1883, 13,096 ; \n\n1884, 11,510; 1885, 10,724; 1886, 12,369; 1887, 13,753; \n\n1888, 17,962 ; 1889, 28,461 ; 1890, 22,004. \n\nEMILY ST. PIERRE, see United States, \n1862. \n\nEMINENCE, a title conferred upon cardinals \nby pope Urb;in VIII. Jan. 10, 1631, as more honour- \nable than "Excellency." Previously cardinals had \nthe title of Illustrissimi. Ashe. The grand-master \nof Malta also obtained this title. Pardon. \n\nEMIN PASHA RELIEF. The committee \nfor the purpose appointed, 1887. \nSir William Mackinnon, chairman, lord Kinnaird, \n\nMr. W. Burdett-Coutts and others. See Soudan \n\n1886-7, all( l Africa (German East). \nThe German committee at Berlin, dissolved itself \n\nDec. 1890 \n\nEMIR, a title of the caliphs among the Turks \nand Persians, first awarded to the descendants of \nMahomet\'s daughter Fatima, about 650. To such \nonly was originally given the privilege of wearing \nthe green turban. \n\nEMISSION THEORY of Light (advo- \ncated by Newton, about 1672), supposes that indi- \nvidual particles pass from the luminous body to the \neye, and that each ray of light passes from the sun \nto the earth. It is opposed to the Undulatory \nTheory (which see) now generally received. \n\nEMLY, an Irish see, said to have been founded \nby St. Patrick. Emly was called Imelaca-Ibair : \nSt. Ailbe was the first bishop in 448. In 1568, the \nsee was united to Cashel (which see). It is now an \ninconsiderable village. \n\nEMPALEMENT. This mode of executing \ncriminals, mentioned by Juvenal, and often inflicted \nin Pome, is still used in Turkey and Arabia. In \nEngland the dead bodies of murderers were some- \ntimes staked in this manner, previously to being \nburied ; abolished, 1823. See Suicide. \n\nEMPEROR, from Imperator (ruler), a title j \nconferred on victorious Roman generals. \nAugustus Caesar the first Roman emperor . n.c. 27 \nValentinian I. first emperor of the west, and Valens, \n\nfirst emperor of the east . . . a.d. 364 \n\n\n\nCharlemagne first emperor of Germany, crowned by \nLeo. Ill 800 \n\nOthman I. founder of the Turkish empire, the first \nemperor of Turkey 1299 \n\nThe Czar the first emperor of Russia . 22 Oct. 1721 \n\nNapoleon Bonaparte first emperor of the French 1804. . \n\nNapoleon III., his nephew, founded the second \nFrench empire, Dec. 1852, deposed . 4 Sept. 1870 \n\nIturbide, emperor of Mexico, Feb. 1822 ; shot \n\n19 July, 1824, \n\nPom Pedro IV. of Portugal the first emperor of \nBrazil 1825 \n\nFaustin I. the first emperor of Hayti, in 1849 ; de- \nposed 1859 \n\nMaximilian I. emperor of Mexico, 10 April, 1864 ; \nshot 19 June, 1867 \n\nEMPEROR\'S HYMN (of Austria), words by \nL. L. Haschka, music by Joseph Haydn ; first sung, \n12 Feb., 1797. ^^aasssF- \n\nEMPIRE. Umpire City, a name given to- \nNew York. Empire Club, Constitutional, estab- \nlished 10 Oct. 1881, founded 1883; closed 1886. \nEmpire Route to the east, by the Canadian Pacific \nRailway ; term applied 1887. \n\nEMPIRICS, a sect of physicians, formed in the \n3rd century before Christ, who contended that all \nreasoning respecting the animal economy was use- \nless, and that experience and observation were the \nonly foundations of medicine. The sect adopted \nthe principles of Acron of Agrigentum, who flour- \nished about 430 B.C. \n\nEMPLOYERS OF LABOUR, National \nFederation of Associated, formed in London about \nro Dec. 1873. The founders were said to employ \nabout 2,000,000, principally in N.W. and N. Eng- \nland. Their object was to counteract the influence \nof trade unions. The first annual meeting held \n24 Feb. 1875. \n\nIron trades employers, association issued a circular pro- \nposing increase in hours of labour, Dec. i8;8. See \nCoal Strikes, 1890. \n\nEMPLOYERS\' LIABILITY ACT (to \n\nmake compensation for personal injuries suffered by \nworkmen), passed for 7 years, 7 Sept. 1880; effects- \nneutral (1884). New act passed 24 Dec. 1888. The \nstringent application of the spirit of these laws by \nthe decision of the house of lords in the case of \nSmith v. Charles Baker & Sons on appeal was \nstrongly enforced 21 July, 1891. \n\nEMPLOYERS AND WORKMEN ACT, \n\npassed 13 Aug. 1875, relates to legal settlement of \ndisputes, &c. \n\nEMPRESS OF INDIA (Imperatrix Indite), \naddition to the royal titles, proclaimed in London, \nI May, 1876. \n\nENAMELLING was practised by the Egyp- \ntians, Chinese, and other nations, and\' was known \nin England in the time of the Saxons. At Oxford \nis an enamelled jewel, which belonged to Alfred, \nand which, as appears by the inscription, was made \nby his order, in his reign, about 887. Limoges \nenamelled ware was popular in the 16th century. \nMagnificent specimens by Lepeo, Elkington, Eman- \nuel, and others, appeared at the exhibi ioa at Paris, \n1867. See Mosaic. On 19 June, 1862, madame \nRachel (Levison or Leverson) sued captain Carnegie \nfor 928A for enamelling his wife\'s face, and was \nnonsuited ; see Trials, 1868. She was convicted \nof fraud in 1878 ; and died in prison 12 Oct., 1880, \nSee Trials. \n\nENCAENIA. Greek festivals kept on days on \nwhich cities were built and temples consecrated; \nand in later times, as at Oxford, at the celebration \n\n\n\nENCAUSTIC PAINTING. \n\n\n\n333 \n\n\n\nENGINEEES. \n\n\n\nor commemoration of founders and benefactors. \nOldisworth. The public commemoration at Oxford \nsuspended in 1875; restored, 21 June, 1876. They \nwere the origin of church-wakes in England, about \n600. They were also feasts celebrated by the Jews \non the 25th of the ninth month, in commemoration \nof the Maccabees cleansing the temple, which bad \nbeen polluted by Antiochus Epiphanes, 131 B.C. \n\nENCAUSTIC PAINTING, enamelling by \nfire. Painting with burnt wax is said to have been \nknown to Praxiteles about 360 B.C. This art was \nrevived by M. Bachelier, 1749, by count Caylus, \n1765, and by Miss Greenland, 1785 and 1792. \n\nENCLOSUEE, see Inclosure. \n\nENCBATITES, followers of Tatian, about 170, \ndenounced marriage, and abstained from flesh, and \nfrom wine even at the Lord\'s supper. \n\nENCUMBEEED ESTATES ACT, passed \nJuly 1849, to enable owners of land or leases in \nIreland, subject to encumbrance, to apply to com- \nmissioners appointed under it to direct a sale of such \nproperty. These commissioners held their first \ncourt in Dublin, 24 Oct. 1849, and their last 28 July, \n1858, a new court being established under the \nLanded Estates act. The number of estates sold, up \nto 1858, was 2380, producing twenty-two millions of \npounds. In 1854 a similar act was passed for the \nWest Indies. \n\nENCYCLICAL Letter, see Rome, 1864, et \nseq. \nENCYCLOPAEDIA or Cyclopaedia, a \n\ngeneral dictionary of art, science, and literature. \nThis name has been given to a work by Abulphara- \ngius in the 13th century. \n\nAlsted\'s Encyclopaedia 1620 \n\nLouis Moreri\'s Dictionnaire Historique . . . 1673 \n\nHofmann\'s Lexicon Universale 1677 \n\nCorneille\'s Dictionnaire des Arts 1694 \n\nBayle\'s Dictionnaire 1696 \n\nLexicon Technicum of John Han-is (earliest English \n\nencyclopedia) 1704 ; supplements . 1710, 1741 \n\nEphraim Chambers\' Cyclopaedia 1728 \n\nZedler\'s Universal Lexicon .... 1732-50 \nEncyclopedie (by Diderot and D\'Alembert) . 1751-80 \nIThe contributors were termed Encyclopedistes, \n\nand their daring writings are believed to have \n\nhastened the French revolution in 1789.] \nEncyclopaedia Britannica (1st edition by William \n\nSmellie) 1771 \n\n[The 8th completed 1861, (sale 5,000) ; 9th (sale \n\n50,000) 1875-89.] \n\nEncyclopedie Methodique (by Pancoucke) . 1782-1832 \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Chambers\' Cyclopaedia (edited by Roes) . . . 1785 \n\nRees\' Cyclopaedia 1802-19 \n\nBrockhaus\'s Conversations Lexicon, 1st edition . 1818 \n\n[New editions frequent.] 13th, 1883 et seq. \nEncyclopaedia Metropolitana .... 1817-45 \nCabinet Cyclopaedia (a collection of treatises) . 1829-46 \n\nPenny Cyclopaedia 1833-46 \n\nK.night\'s English Cyclopaedia (4 divisions) . 1853-61-70 \nChambers\' Cyclopaedia 1859-68; 1874-5; 1888 et serj. \n\nErsch and Gniber\'s Allgemeine Encyclopadie, began \n\ni8i3 ; 164 vols, published 1889 \n\nChinese cyclopaedia, 6109 vols, (all the valuable \n\nbooks then existing), printed by order of the \n\nemperor between 1661-1721 \n\nA copy bought for British Museum . . . . 1877 \nAmerican cyclopaedia, by Geo. Ripley and Charles \n\nA. Dana, 17 vols 1873-8 \n\nGlobe encyclopaedia, completed .... 1879 \nEncyclopaedic Dictionary completed . . . . 1889 \nMeyer\'s Conversations Lexicon, 1840 (new edition), 1891 \n\nENDEEBY LAND, see Southern Continent. \n\nENDOSMOSIS. M. Dutrochct, about 1826, \nfound that if two fluids, gases or vapours, of unequal \ndensity, are separated by an animal or vegetable \nmembrane, the denser will attract the less de.isc \n\n\n\nthrough the medium. This property he called \nendosmose, when the attraction is from the outside \nto the inside, and exosmose when it operates from \nthe inside to the outside. Many natural phenomena \nare thus more clearly understood. Brande. \n\nENDOWED SCHOOLS ACT, containing \nthe " Conscience Clause," passed i860 ; another \nsimilar act passed 2 Aug. 1869. A committee re- \nported on the working of the act, June, 1887. \n\nENDOWED SCHOOL COMMISSION \n\n(consisting of lord Lyttelton, canon Robinson, and \nothers), was appointed under the act 32-33 Vict, \nc. 56 (2 Aug. 1869). It threw open many endow- \nments to the nation, and carried out reforms, being \nfrequently much opposed. By an act passed 7 Aug. \n[874, its duties were transferred to the charity \ncommissioners, two new commissioners (Mr. Long- \nley, lord Clinton), and canon Robinson being ap- \npointed. The commissioners had dealt_ with 74 \nschools; prepared schemes for 66; leaving about \n660 to be dealt with ; Aug. 1874. \n\nENEEGY. In an address to the British As- \nsociation at York, 1 Sept. 1881, sir William Thom- \nson described the sources of all the energy in nature \navailable to man for the production of mechanical \neffect, as tides, food, fuel, wind and rain, all except \nthe tides derived from the sun. \nENFIDA CASE, see Tunis. \nENFIELD, N. Middlesex ; a manor belonging \nto the duchy of Lancaster, is mentioned in Domes- \nday, and was given to De Mandeville by William I. \nafter 1066. After various changes it became the \nproperty of the crown by the marriage of Mary, \nheiress of the Bohuns, to Henry duke of Lancaster, \nafterwards king Henry IV. 1399. Edward VI. gave \nit to his sister Elizabeth, who resided here in 1552, \nin a palace, part of which still remains. The \ngrammar school was founded about 1586. The \nancient chase was dischased and enclosed, after \nI Jan. 1779. Population, 1881, 18,944; 1891, \n31.532. \nENFIELD MUSKET, see Fire-arms. \nENGEN, Baden. Here Moreau defeated the \nAustrians, 3 May, 1800. \n\nENGHIEN or STEENKIRK (S. W. Belgium). \nHere the British under William III. were defeated \nby the French under marshal Luxemburg, 24 July, \n1692. \xe2\x80\x94 The due d\'Enghien, a descendant of the \ngreat Conde, was seized in Baden by order of Bona- \nparte, conveyed to Vincennes, and, after a hasty \ntrial, &hot by torch-light, immediately after con- \ndemnation, 21 March, 1804. The body was ex- \nhumed, 20 March, 18 16. \n\nENGINEEES, Military, formerly called \nTrench-masters. Sir William Pelham officiated as \ntrench-master in 1622 ; the chief engineer was \ncalled camp-master-general in 1634. Capt. Thomas \nRudd had the rank of chief engineer to the king \nabout 1650. The corps of engineers was formerly \na civil corps, but was made a military force, and \ndirected to rank with the artillery, 25 April, 17S7. \nIt has a eolonel-in-chief, 16 colonels-commandant, \nand 16 colonels. Civil Engineering became im- \nportant in the middle of the last century, when \nSmeaton began the Eddystone lighthouse, ar.d. \nBrindley the Bridgewater canal. Since then the \nItennies, Telford, the Stephensons and Brunels, \nLocke, and others have constructed breakwaters, \ndocks, bridges, railways, tunnels, &c, which are \nthe marvel of our age. \n\n" Engineering is the art of directing tic great \nsources of power in nature lor tic us,\' and con- \nvenience of man." (Thos. Tredgold, died 1829.) \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\n331 \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\nThe first society of Civil Engineers formed by Smea- \nton and others, afterwards termed the Smeatonian \nSociety of Civil Engineers 1793 \n\nInstitution of Civil Engineers established 2 Jan. \n1818 ; obtained a charter ... 3 June, 1828 \n5728 members .... April, 1889 \n\nInstitution of Mechanical Engineers, which had its \nhead-quarters in Birmingham, moved to Loudon, \n1877 ; annual meetings are held ; established . 1847 \n\nCivil and Mechanical Engineers\' Society founded . 1859 \n\nIsambard Kingdom Brunei, projector of the Great \nEastern, aged 53, died 15 Sept. ; Robert Stephen- \nson, railway engineer, aged 59, died . 12 Oct. ,, \n\nEngineers\' Amalgamated Society, in 1867, consisted \nof above 30,000 members ; annual income, 86,oooL ; \ndisbursed to disabled workmen, &c, about 50,000^ ; \namassed capital, about 125,000^. \n\nEngineer, weekly journal, established . 4 Jan. 1856 \n\nEngineering, weekly journal, established . Jan. 1866 \n\nNewcastle strike (see Newcastle) . May\xe2\x80\x94 Oct. 1871 \n\nStrike of engineers in London (18 firms) 7 Feb.\xe2\x80\x94 \n\n4 Oct. 1879 \n\nCollege of Practical Engineers, Muswell hill, near \nLondon, opened by sir Henry Bessemer, sir \nJoseph Whitworth, Dr. C. Wm. Siemens, and \nothers Sept. 1881 \n\nEngineering exhibition, Agricultural Hall, London \n\n5-2i July, 1883 \n\nA party of American engineers entertained by the \nInstitution of Civil Engineers . . June, 1889 \n\nMr. T. A. Walker, contractor for the Manchester \nship canal and other great works, dies . 25 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSir John Hawkshaw, engineer of the Severn tunnel, \ndies aged 80 2 June, 1891 \n\nSir John Coode, eminent for breakwaters and other \nworks, born 1816, died. . . .2 March 1892 \n\nENGLAND (from Angles and lond, land), so \nnamed, it is said, by Egbert, first king of the \nEnglish, in a general council held at Winchester, \n829; or by Athelstan, 925. See Anglo-Saxons. \nEngland was united to Wales, 1283 ; to Scotland in \n1603; they have had the same legislature since 1707, \nwhen the three were styled Great Britain. James T. \nfirst adopted the title of king of England, Scotland, \nafterwards Great Britain, France, and Ireland. \nAfter the treaty of Amiens, signed 27 March, 1802, \nFrance was omitted from the royal style. Ireland \nwas incorporated with them, by the act of legis- \nlative union, I Jan. 1801, as the United Kingdom \nof Great Britain, France, and Ireland. The British \nempire is computed to contain about 7,000,000 square \nmiles of territory, with 340,220,000 inhabitants. \nStatistical details are given under the respective \nheadings ; Army, Navy, Revenue, Population, &c. \nPopulation of England and Wales, 1891, 29,001,018. \nFor previous history, see Britain. Histories of Eng- \nland, by Kapin (in English), 1725-31; Thomas Carte, \n1747-55; David Hume, 1755-62; Tobias Smollett, \n1757-65; John Lingard, 1819-30 ; Charles Knight, \n1856-62 ; J. B. Green, 1874-80. Parts by T. B. \nMacaulay, Earl Stanhope, J. A. Froude, Miss II. \nMartineau, and others. See Chronicles. \nEgbert, "king of the. English," 828; defeats the \n\nWelsh, Danes, &c, at Hengestdown . . . 835 \nAlfred, king, 871 ; after many vicissitudes, van- \nquishes the Danes 871-896 \n\nHe frames a code of laws, 890 ; forms a militia and \nnavy, surveys and subdivides the country, and \n\npromotes education 896 \n\nAthelstan\'s great victory over the Danes, Scots, &c. \n\nat Brananburg 937 \n\nPredominance of Dunstan ; he promotes monachism \n\nand the celibacy of the clergy, about . . . 952 \nEthelred compounds with the Danes for peace . 991 \n\nCauses their massacre 13 Nov. 1002 \n\nAvenged by Sweyn, king of Denmark: Ethelred \n\nflees to Normandy 1003 \n\nSweyn dies, and Ethelred returns, 1014 ; dies . . 1016 \n\nCanute the Dane sole monarch 1017 \n\nEdward the Confessor king ; Saxon dynasty restored 1042 \nHarold II. crowned, 6 Jan. ; defeats the Norwegians, \n25 Sept. ; defeated and slain at Hastings by Wil- \nliam of Normandy _ 14 Oct. 1066 \n\n\n\nWilliam I. crowned .... 25 Dec. 1066 \nThe northern counties rebel ; ravaged from the \n\nHumber to the Tyne 1069-70 \n\nIntroduction of the feudal system, about . . . 1070 \n\nJustices of peace appointed 1076 \n\nDomesday book compiled 1085-6 - \n\nWilliam II. crowned . . . .26 Sept. 1087 \nThe crusades begin . . . ... . . 1096 \n\nHenry I. crowned, restores Saxon laws, <fec \n\n5 Aug. 1 100 \nDefeats his brother Robert, and gains Normandy . 1106 \nPrince William and nobles drowned . 25 Nov. 1120 \n\nStephen crowned .... 26 Dec. 1135 \nCivil war between the empress Maud, Henry\'s \ndaughter, and Stephen ; her friends the Scots de- \nfeated at the battle of the Standard . 22 Aug. 1 138 \nShe lands in England, and is successful . . . 1139. \nCrowned at Winchester ... 3 March, 1141 \n\nDefeated ; retires to France 1147 \n\nConcludes a peace with Stephen 1153 \n\nHenry II. crowned .... 19 Dec. 1154. \nConstitutions of Clarendon enacted . . Jan. 1164 \nArrogance of Becket ; murdered . . 29 Dec. 11 70 \n\nConquest of Ireland 1171,1172 \n\nEngland divided into six circuits for the administra- \ntion of justice , 1176 \n\nEnglish laws digested by Glanville, about . . 1181 \n\nRichard I. crowned .... 3 Sept. 1189 \n\nHe joins the crusades 1191 \n\nDefeats Saladin 1192 \n\nMade prisoner by duke of Austria, and sold to \n\nHenry VI. of Germany .... Dec. ,, \nRansomed for about 300,000^. ..... 1194 \n\nJohn crowned May, 1199 \n\nNormandy lost to England 1204 \n\nEngland put under an interdict . . . . . 1208 \nMagna Charta granted . . . .15 June, 1215 \n\nHenry III. crowned . . . .28 Oct. 1216 \nThe Barons\' war (ivhich see) .... 1262-S \nSimon de Montford, earl of Leicester, summoned \ntwo parliaments ; one including knights of the \nshire, 1264 (the other first including burgesses) ; \nthe first regular parliament met . . Jan. 1265 \n\nEdward I. crowned . . . . 20 Nov. 1272 \n\nWales subdued, united to England . . . . 1283 \n\nDeath of Roger Bacon . . ... . . 1292 \n\nScotland subdued, 1296 ; revolts 1297 \n\nEdward II. crowned .... 8 July, 1307 \nDefeated by Bruce at Bannockburn . 24 June, 1314 \nInsurrection of the barons against his favourites 1308, \n\n1315, 1325 \n\nEdward III. crowned ... 25 Jan. 1327 \nDefeat of theScots at Hallidown-hill . . . . 1333 \nInvades France ; victorious at Creey . 26 Aug. 1346 \n\nTakes Calais 1347 \n\nOrder of the Garter instituted 1349 \n\nVictory at Poictiers .... 19 Sept. 1356 \n\nPeace of Bretigny 8 May, 1360 \n\nLaw pleadings in English 1362 \n\nRichard II. crowned . . . .22 June, 1377 \nInsurrection of Wat Tyler suppressed . 15 June, 13S1 \nDeath of Wickliffe 1385 \n\nHenry IV. crowned ... 30 Sept. 1399 \nOrder of the Bath instituted by Henry IV. . . ,, \nInsurrection of the Percies and the Welsh . . 1402-5 \n\nHenry V. crowned . . . 21 March, 1413 \n\nFrance invaded by Henry V. who gains the battle of \n\nAgmcourfc 25 Oct. 1415 \n\nTreaty of Troyes ; the French crown gained . . 1420 \n\nHenry VI. crowned at Paris . . . Dec. 1430 \nAppearance of the maid of Orleans ; the conquests in \nFrance lost, except Calais .... 1429-31 \n\nCade\'s insurrection June, 1450 \n\nWar of the Roses (see Roses and Battles) . . 1455-71 \n\nEdward IV. deposes Henry VI. . 4 March, 1461 \n\nPrinting introduced by Caxton . . ... 1471 \n\nEdward V. accession .... 9 April, 1483 \nMurdered in the Tower (soon after) . . . . ,, \n\nRichard III. deposes Edward V. . 25 June, ,, \nValuable statutes enacted 1484 \n\nHenry VII. accession ; Richard defeated and \nslain at Bosworth Field . . .22 Aug. 1485 \nYeomen of the guard, the. first appearance of a \n\nstanding army in England instituted . . ,, \n\nHenry marries Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV. . i486 \nInsurrection of Lambert Simnel quelled . . 1486-7 \nCourt of Star-Chamber instituted .... 1487 \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\n335 \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\nInsurrection of Perkin Warbeck quelled . . 1492-8 \nGardening introduced into England, principally from \n\nthe Netherlands, about 1302 \n\nDeath of prince Arthur .... 2 April, ,, \nHenry VIII. accession ... 22 April, 1509 \n\nEise of Wolsey 1514 \n\nHenry VIII. \'s interview with Francis I, at Ardres \n\n(see " Field of the Cloth of Gold") . 4-25 June, 1520 \nFirst map of England drawn by G. Lilly, about . ,, \nHenry VIII. becomes " Defender of the Faith " . . 1521 \nFall of Wolsey ; he dies . . -29 Nov. 1530 \n\nHenry VIII. marries Anne Boleyn privately, 14 Nov. \n1532 or January 1533 ; divorced from Catherine, \n\n23 May, 1533 \nHenry VITI. styled " Head of the Church " . . 1534 \nThe pope\'s authority in England is abolished . . ,, \nSir Thomas More beheaded ... 6 July, 153s \nQueen Anne Boleyn beheaded . . 19 May, 1536 \n\nQueen Jane Seymour dies ... 24 Oct. 1537 \n\nMonasteries suppressed 1538 \n\nStatute of Six Articles passed 1539 \n\nAbbots of Glastonbury, Reading, &c. executed . . ,, \nThe first authorised edition of the Bible (Cranmer\'s) \n\nprinted ,, \n\nCromwell, lord Essex, beheaded 1540 \n\nAnne of Cleves divorced .... 9 July, ,, \nQueen Catherine Howard beheaded .... 1542 \nThe title of \' \' king of Ireland " confirmed to the Eng- \nlish sovereigns 1543 \n\nHenry marries Catherine Parr . . .12 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nEdward VI. accession, 28 Jan. ; promotes the \nReformation (Somerset, protector) . . . 1547 \nBook of Common Prayer authorised . . . . 1548 \nSomerset deprived of power, 1549 ; beheaded . . 1552 \nMary, accession, 6 July ; restores popery . . 1553 \nExecution of lady Jane Grey and her friends . . 1554 \nMaiy marries Philip of Spain ; persecutes the Pro- \ntestants \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRidley, Latimer, and Cranmer burnt . 1555 and 1556 \nCalais re-taken by the French . . .7 Jan. 1558 \nElizabeth, accession ; the church of England \nre-established . ... . . 17 Nov. ,, \n\nMary, queen of Scots, lands in England, 1568 ; exe- \ncuted 8 Feb. 1587 \n\nThe Spanish armada repulsed .... July, 1588 \n\nDevereux, earl of Essex, beheaded . 25 Feb. 1601 \n\nJames I. accession ; union of the two crowns \n\n24 March, 1603 \nStyled " king of Great Britain " . -24 Oct. 1604 \n\nThe Gunpowder Plot Nov. 1605 \n\nThe present translation of the Bible completed . .1611 \n\nBaronets first created May, ,, \n\nThe Overbury murder . . . . 15 Sept. 1613 \n\nShakespeare dies 23 April, 1616 \n\nRaleigh beheaded ... . . 29 Oct. 1618 \n\nBook of Sports published . . 24 May, 1618 \n\nCharles I. accession ... 27 March, 1625 \n\nDeath of lord Bacon 9 April, 1626 \n\nDuke of Buckingham assassinated . 23 Aug. 1628 \n\nHampden\'s trial respecting " ship money " . . . 1637 \nContest between the king and parliament ; impeach- \nment and execution of lord Strafford . . . 1641 \nAttempted "arrest of the five members" (John \nHampden, John Pym, Sir Arthur Hasilrigge, \nDenzil Holies, and Win. Strode) . 4 Jan. 1642 \n\nCivil war begins ; see Battles . . . 23 Oct. ,, \nArchbishop Laud beheaded . . . .10 Jan. 1645 \nCharles defeated at Naseby . . . 14 June, \nHe flees to the Scotch, 5 May ; is given up, 21 Sept. 1646 \n\nExecution of Charles 1 30 Jan. 1649 \n\nCromwell\'s victory at Worcester . . 3 Sept. 1651 \nOliver Cromwell protector of the Common- \nwealth 16 Dec. 1653 \n\nNaval victories of Blake 1652-7 \n\nRichard Cromwell, protector . . 3 Sept. 1658 \n\nRichard resigns 25 May, 1659 \n\nCharles II. : monarchy re-established, 29 May, 1660 \nAct of uniformity passed ; church of England re- \nstored .... 1662 \n\nThe great plague 1665 \n\nThe great fire of London . . . . 2, 3 Sept. 1666 \nDisgrace of lord Clarendon .... Nov. 1667 \nSecret treaty with France signed at Dover May, 1670 \nDeatli of John Milton .... 8 Nov. 1674 \nOates\'s " popish plot " creates a panic . 13 Aug. 1678 \nSir Edmundbury Godfrey found murdered, 17 Oct. ,, \n\n\n\nMany Roman Catholics executed .... 1678-0 \nThe Habeas Corpus act, for protecting English sub- \njects against false arrest and imprisonment, passed \n,.. , . . 27 May, 1679. \nViolent reaction, many protestants executed ; Lon- \ndon humbled I g3 I \n\n"Rye-house plot ;" William, lord Russell (executed \n21 July), and Algernon Sydney executed . . 1683; \nJames II. accession .... 6 Feb. 168?! \nDuke of Monmouth\'s rebellion defeated at Sedge- \nmoor, 6 July ; he is beheaded . . 15 July, \nAcquittal of the seven bishops . . 30 June! 1688. \n\nAbdication of James II n Dee. \n\nWilliam III. and Mary proclaimed by the con- \nvention parliament ... 13 Feb. 1689. \n\nNational debt begins 1692- \n\nBank of England incorporated . . 27 July, 1694- \nDeath of the queen regnant, Mary . . 28 Dec. ,, \n\nPeace of Ryswick 1697- \n\nDeath of James II. in exile . . 6 (16) Sept. 1701 \n\nAnne, accession .... 8 March, 1702- \n\nVictory of Marlborough at Blenheim . 2 Aug. 1704. \n\nUni on of the two kingdoms .... 1 May, 1707- \n\nSacheverell riots 1710 \n\nTreaty of Utrecht, advantageous to Great Britain \n\n11 April, 1715; \nGeorge I. of Hanover, accession . . 1 Aug. 1714 \n\nThe Scots\' rebellion quelled 171c \n\nSouth-sea bubble 172c. \n\nDeath of the duke of Marlborough . 16 June, 172& \n\nOrder of the Bath revived (which see) \xe2\x80\x9e . , . 172=-. \n\nGeorge II. accession . . . . n June, 1727- \n\nDeath of Newton 20 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGeorge II. at the victory of Dettingen . 16 June, 1743; \nSecond Scots\' rebellion : prince Charles-Edward \ngains Edinburgh, 17 Sept. ; victor at Prestonpans, \n\n21 Sept. 174^-, \nVictory at Falkirk, 18 Jan. ; defeated totally at Cul- \n\nloden 16 April, i 74 6- \n\nDeath of prince Frederick Louis, son of George II. \n\nand father of George III. . . 20 March, 1751 \n\nNew style introduced into England, 3 Sept. (made 14) 1752- \nSeven years\' war begins .... May, 1756- \n\nConquest of India begins, under colonel (afterwards \n\nlord) Clive (see India) . 1757- \n\nVictory and death of general Wolfe (see Quebec) ! 1759. \nGeorge III. accession ... 25 Oct. 1760 \nHis marriage with Charlotte Sophia, of Mecklen- \nburg Strelitz, 8 Sept. ; crowned . . 22 Sept. 1761 \nPeace of Paris ; Canada gained . . . 10 Feb. 1763: \nIsle of Man annexed to Great Britain . . . 176c\' \nDeath of the Old Pretender, the " chevalier de St! \n\nGeorge" .\' 30 Dec. \n\nRoyal marriage act passed 1772- \n\nAmerican war begins (see United States) . . . 1775, \nDeath of earl of Chatham . . . 11 May, 1778 \n\n" No Popery " riots 2-7 June.\' 1780 \n\nSeparation of America from England . . 30 Nov. 17C2 \nMargaret Nicholson\'s attempt on the life of \n\nGeorge III 2 Aug. 1786- \n\nTrial of Warren Hastings begins . . 13 Feb. 178S. \nDeath of the Young Pretender, at Rome, 3 March, \nThe king\'s illness made known . . 12 Oct! \nHe recovers, and goes to St. Paul\'s to make thanks- \ngiving 23 April, i 7 8q, \n\nFirst coalition against France . . 26 June, 1792- \nHabeas Corpus act suspended . . .23 May, i 7 gl \n\nHowe\'s victory T June! \n\nMarriage of the prince of Wales with the princess \n\nCaroline of Brunswick .... 8 April, 1795; \nWarren Hastings acquitted ... 23 April, \nPrincess Charlotte of Wales born . . 7 Jan! 179& \nCash payments suspended ... 25 Feb. 1797- \nDeath of Edmund Burke .... 9 July, \n\nIrish rebellion May! 1798 \n\nHabeas Corpus act again suspended. \nBattle of the Nile; Nelson victor. . . 1 Aug! " \nHatfield\'s attempt On the king\'s life. . 15 May, 1800. \nUnion of Great Britain with Ireland . . 1 Jail! iSok \nNelson\'s victory at Copenhagen . . 2 April, \nHabeas Corpus act again suspended . 19 April\', ", \nPeace of Amiens concluded . . . 1 Oct! " \nWar against France under Bonaparte . . iS May, 1803: \nNelson\'s victory and death at Trafalgar . 21 Oct. 1805. \nDeatli of Mr. Pitt . . . . .23 Jan. 1806. \n\n"Delicate investigation" (which sec) . .May, \nLord Melville impeached, 29 April; acquitted 12 June, \', \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\n336 \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\nDeath of Charles James Fox ... 13 Sept. 1806 \nOrders in council against Berlin decree . 7 Jan. 1807 \nAbolition of the slave trade by parliament, 25 Mar. ,, \nVictory and death of sir J. Moore. (See Corunna) \n\n16 Jan. 1809 \nDuke of York impeached by col. Wardle . Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \nJubilee celebrating king\'s accession . . 25 Oct. ,, \nUnfortunate Walcheren expedition . Aug. -Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nDisappearance of Mr. Benjamin Bathurst, diplo- \nmatist at Perleberg, N. Germany ; suspected \nassassination by French . . .25 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nSir Francis Burdett\'s arrest, and riots . 6 April, 1810 \nDeath of princess Amelia ; king\'s malady returns, \n\n2 Nov. ,, \nGreat commercial embarrassment . . Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nRegent\xe2\x80\x94 The prince of Wales . . 5 Feb. 181 1 \n\nJLuddite riots Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAssassination of Mr. Perceval, premier 11 May, 1812 \nEarl of Liverpool premier ... 9 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nWar with America commenced . . . 18 June, ,, \n\nPeace with France, &c 14 April, 1814 \n\n"Visit of the emperor of Russia and king of Prussia \n\nto England 7 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCentenary of the house of Hanover . . 1 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nPeace with America (treaty of Ghent) . 24 Dec. ,, \nBattle of Waterloo (close of French war), 18 June, 1815 \nPrincess Charlotte marries prince Leopold, of Saxe- \n\nCoburg 2 May, 1816 \n\nDeath of R. B. Sheridan . . 9 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSpa-fields meeting {which see) . . 2 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGreen-bag inquiry (which see) ... 2 Feb. 1817 \nHabeas Corpus act suspended . . .24 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nCash payments resumed . . . .22 Sept. ,, \nPrincess Charlotte dies in childbirth . . 6 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\'\xe2\x96\xa0Queen Charlotte dies at Kew ... 17 Nov. 1818 \n\xe2\x80\xa2Queen Victoria born .... 24 May, 1819 \nManchester reform meeting (Peterloo) . 16 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDuke of Kent dies 23 Jan. 1820 \n\nGeorge IV. accession ... 29 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCato-street conspirators arrested, 23 Feb. executed, \n\n1 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nTrial of queen Caroline . . 19 Aug. to 10 Nov. ,, \n\nCoronation of George IV 19 July, 1821 \n\nQueen Caroline dies at Hammersmith . 7 Aug. ,, \n\nLord Byron dies 19 April, 1824 \n\nCommercial panic 1825-6 \n\nDuke of York dies 5 Jan. 1827 \n\nMr. Canning, premier, 30 April ; dies . 8 Aug. ,, \nBattle of Navarino .... 20 Oct. ,, \n\nRoman Catholic Relief bill passed . . 13 April, 1829 \nPolitical panic in London ; \xe2\x80\x94 riots . . Nov. ,, \n\nWilliam IV. accession ... 26 June, 1830 \nMi\'. Huskisson killed at the opening of the Liver- \npool and Manchester railway . . .15 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nGrey administration formed .... Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nKing opens new London bridge . . . Aug. 1831 \nThe cholera morbus in England . . .26 Oct. ,, \nReform bill rejected by the lords, 7 Oct. ; fatal \n\nBristol riots 29 Oct. ,, \n\nEnglish Reform act passed . . 7 June, 1832 \n\nAssault on William IV. by a discharged pensioner at \n\nAscot 19 June, ,, \n\nSir Walter Scott dies .... 21 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nS. T. Coleridge dies . .... 25 July, 1834 \n\nSlavery ceases in the colonies . . .1 Aug. ,, \nCorporation reform act passed ... 9 Sept. 1835 \nVictoria, accession ; Hanover separated from \nGreat Britain .... 20 June, 1837 \nCoronation of queen Victoria . . 28 June, 1838 \n\nBeginning of war with China . . . March, 1839 \nPenny postage begins .... 10 Jan. 1840 \nMarriage of the queen with prince Albert of Saxe- \n\nCoburg (see p. 299) . . . . 10 Feb. ,, \n\nOxford\'s assault on the queen . . . 10 June, ,, \nPrince of Wales born .... Nov. 1841 \n\nKing of Prussia visits England . . 24 Jan. 1842 \nJohn Francis fires at the queen . . .30 May, ,, \nBean presents a pistol at her ... 3 July, ,, \nIncome tax act passed . . . Aug. ,, \n\nQueen embarks for Scotland (1st visit) . 29 Aug. ,, \nPeace of Nankin (with China) . . . Dee. ,, \nDeath of duke of Sussex . . . 21 April, 1843 \nQueen\'s visit to the Orleans family at Chateau d\'Eu, \n\n2 Sept. ,, \nEmperor of Russia visits England . . 1 June, 1844 \nKim,\' Louis Philippe\'s visit (see France) . 6 Oct. ,, \nTractai\'ian or Puseyite controversy . . . 1S44-5 \n\n\n\nAnti-corn-law agitation 1845 \n\nQueen\'s visit to Germany . . . .9 Aug. ,, \nPeel\'s new tariff, 1845 ; railway mania . . Nov. ,, \nCommercial panic ..... March, 1846 \nCorn laws repealed . . .26 June, \xe2\x80\x9e - \n\nChartist demonstration in London . . 10 April, 1848 \nCholera re-appears in England in . . 1848 and 1849 \nQueen embarks on her visit to Ireland . 1 Aug. ,, \nAdelaide, queen dowager, dies . . .2 Dec. ,, \n" Exhibition of 1851 " announced . . 3 Jan. 1850 \nDeath of Wordsworth (aged 80) . . 23 April, ,, \nPate\'s assault on the queen . . .27 June, ,, \nDeath of Sir Robert Peel (aged 62) . .2 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nDuke of Cambridge dies .... 8 July, ,, \nQueen\'s visit to Belgium ... 21 Aug. ,, \nGreat excitement occasioned by the pope\'s establish- \nment of a Roman Catholic hierarchy in England, \n\nNov. ,, \nSixth census of United Kingdom (see Population) \n\n(27,637,761) 30 March, 1851 \n\nThe first " Great Exhibition " opened . 1 May, ,, \n\nAustralian gold arrives .... Dec. ,, \nDeath of the poet Thomas Moore . . 26 Feb. 1852 \nJohn Camden Neild, an eccentric miser, bequeathed \n\nabout 250,000?. to the queen ; he died 30 Aug. ,, \nSlight earthquake at Liverpool, &c. . .9 Nov. ,, \nDeath of Wellington (aged 83), Sept. 14 ; public \n\nfuneral 18 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCamp at Chobham ... 14 June-19 Aug. 1853 \nDeath of sir Charles Napier, conqueror of Scinde, \n\n29 Aug. ,, \nEnglish and French fleets enter Bosphorus, 22 Oct. ,, \nProtocol signed between England, France, Austria, \nand Prussia, for re-establishment of peace between \n\nRussia and Turkey 5 Dec. ,, \n\nMany meetings on eastern question, favourable to \n\nTurkey Sept. to Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGreat strike at Preston ; 14,972 hands unemployed \n\nat one time . . .15 Oct. 1853, to 1 May, 1854 \nQueen reviews Baltic fleet . . . 11 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \nTreaty of alliance between England, France, and \n\nTurkey signed 12 March, ,, \n\nWar declared against Russia (see Russo-Turkish War) \n\n28 March, ,, \nFast day on account of the war . . 26 April, ,, \nMarquis of Anglesey dies . . ... 28 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nKing of P6rtugal visits England . . . June, ,, \nCrystal Palace opened by the queen . 10 June, ,, \n\nCholera prevails in the south and west of London, \n\nAug. and Sept. ,, \nThanksgiving for abundant harvest . . 1 Oct. ,, \nGreat explosion and fire at Gateshead and Newcastle, \n\n6 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nMeeting of Parliament .... 12 Dec. ,, \nResignation of Aberdeen ministry . . 29 Jan. 1855 \nFormation of Palmerston ministry . . Feb. ,, \nDeath of Joseph Hume (aged 78) . . 20 Feb. ,, \nSebastopol inquiry committee named . 23 Feb. ,, \nVisit of emperor and empress of French, \n\n16 to 21 April, ,, \nLoan of 16 millions agreed to April, ,, \n\nDistribution of Crimean medals . . 18 May, ,, \nMetropolitan cattle market opened . . 13 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nAgitation and rioting concerning Sunday trading \n\nbill, which is withdrawn ... 2 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe queen and prince visit Paris . .18 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nPeace with Russia proclaimed, 19 April ; thanks- \ngiving day, 4 May ; illuminations, &c. 29 May, 1856 \nWar with China (which see) .... Oct. ,, \nWar with Persia (which see) . . . Nov. ,, \nMutiny of Indian army begins (see India) . March, 1857 \nDissolution of parliament, 21 March ; new parlia- \nment meets 30 April, ,, \n\nDeath of duchess of Gloucester (aged 81), the last of \n\nGeorge III. \'s children . . . 30 April, ,, \nOpening of the Fine Arts exhibition at Manchester, \n\n5 May, ,, \nEducational conference in London, prince Albert in \nthe chair ...... 22 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nVictoria crosses (which see) distributed by the queen \n\nin Hyde-park 26 June, ,, \n\nMeetings for relief of sufferers by the mutiny in \n\nIndia [by 15 Nov. 260,000?. raised] . 25 Aug. ,, \n\nGreat commercial panic ; relieved by susjiension of \n\nBank Charter Act of 1844 . . .12 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nParliament meets 3 Dec. ,, \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\n337 \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\nMarriage of princess royal to prince Frederick-Wil- \nliam of Prussia 25 Jan. 1858 \n\nExcitement respecting attempted assassination of \n\nLouis Napoleon, 14 Jan. ; indiscreet addresses of \n\nFrench colonels, published . . -27 Jan. ,, \n\n" Conspiracy to Mulder " bill (introduced by lord \n\nPahnerston, 8 Feb.) rejected, 19 Feb. ; Palmerston \n\nministry resigns 22 Feb. ,, \n\nDerby-Disraeli administration formed . 26 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nDr. Simon Bernard acquitted of conspiracy against \n\nthe life of Louis Napoleon . . . 17 April, ,, \nThe Jewish Disabilities bill passed . . 23 July, ,, \nThe India bill passed .... 2 Aug. ,, \n\nThe queen visits Birmingham, 15 June; Cherbourg, \n4, 5 Aug. ; the princess royal (at Potsdam), 12 \nAug. &e. ; and Leeds .... Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nExcitement about the confessional ; public meet- \nings held against it .12 July and 18 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe Association for the Promotion of Social Science \n\nmeet at Liverpool 12 Oct. ,, \n\nExcitement respecting the Italian war ; proclama- \ntion for manning the navy ... 30 April, 1859 \nThanksgivingfor suppression of Indian mutiny, 1 May, ,, \nDeclaration of neutrality of England . . 12 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nProclamation for the organisation of volunteer rifle \n\ncorps : many formed .... May-Oet. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe Derby ministry defeated on the Reform bill ; \ndissolve parliament, 23 April ; again defeated, \nthey resign n June ; the Pahnerston- Russell ad- \nministration formed . . . .18 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe Handel commemoration . . 20, 22, 24 June, ,, \nThe income-tax increased to provide for the defences \n\nof the country July, ,, \n\nLord Macaulay dies (aged 59) . 28 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCommercial treaty with France, signed 23 Jan. ; \n\napproved by parliament .... March, i860 \nSir Charles Barry dies (aged 65) . . 12 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe queen reviews 18,000 volunteers in Hyde-park, \n\n23 June. \xe2\x80\x9e \nNational rifle shooting match at Wimbledon (see \n\nVolunteers) 2-7 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe earl of Derby reviews about 11,000 Lancashire \n\nvolunteers at Knowsley . . . .1 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe queen and prince visit their daughter in Prussia \n\nSept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nPeace with China signed . . . .24 Oct. ,, \nThos. Cochrane, earl of Dundonald. dies (aged 82) \n\n31 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nPrince of Wales visits Canada and United States, \n\n24 July-20 Oct. ; returns . . .15 Nov. ,, \nSevere cold (see Cold) . . Dec. i860, and Jan. 1861 \nCharter granted for Exhibition of 1862 . 14 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nDeath of duchess of Kent (aged 75) . 16 March, ,, \nExcitement about " Essays and Reviews " . . ,, \nSeventh census taken (29,192,419) . . . 8 April, ,, \nKing of Sweden and his son visit London Aug. ,, \nGreat excitement through capt. Wilkes (of U.S. \nnavy) forcibly taking Messrs. Slidell and Mason \nfrom the Royal British Mail steamer Trent (see \n\nUnited States) 8 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDeath of the prince consort of "typhoid fever, \nduration 21 days," 14 Dec. ; buried (see Albert \n\nMemorial) 23 Dec. ,, \n\nThe United States\' government release Messrs. \n\nSlidell and Mason 28 Dec \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSecond great International Exhibition opened by the \n\nduke of Cambridge 1 May, 1862 \n\nInundations in Norfolk (see Levels) . . . May, ,, \nMarriage of princess Alice to Louis of Hesse, 1 July, ,, \nPrince Alfred declared king of Greece at Athens \n\n(throne declined) 23 Oct. ,, \n\nFinal closing of international exhibition . 15 Nov. ,, \nRemains of the prince consort transferred to the \n\nmausoleum at Frogmore ... 18 Dec. ,, \n\nGreat distress in the cotton manufacturing districts \nbegins, April : contributions received, central re- \nlief fund, 407,830/. ; Mansion-house fund, 236,926/. \n\n20 Dec. ,, \n\nRupture witli Brazil Jan. 1863 \n\nPrince Alfred elected king of Greece . . 3 Feb. ,, \nPrincess Alexandra of Denmark enters London, \n7 March ; married to the prince of Wales, \n\n10 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe British, French, and Austrian governments re- \nmonstrate with Russia on cruelties in Poland, \n\n7 April, ,, \nInauguration of the Great Exhibition memorial to \n\n\n\nthe prince consort in the Horticultural gardens, \n\nLondon tI June, 1863 \n\nArrival of captains Grant and Speke from exploring \n\nthe source of the Nile .... June, ,, \nGreat decrease of distress in cotton districts Oct. ,, \nEarthquake in central and N. W. England . 6 Oct. ,, \nThe government declines the French emperor\'s pro- \nposal for a congress of sovereigns . . Nov. ,, \nDeath of William Thackeray (aged 52) . 24 Dec. ,, \nBirth of prince Albert- Victor of Wales . 8 Jan. 1864 \nFinal judgment of the judicial committee of the \nprivy council that the government had no autho- \nrity to seize the Alexandra (Confederate) steamer \n\n8 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nGaribaldi\'s visit to England . . . 3-27 April, ,, \nThe Ionian isles made over to Greece . 1 June, ,, \nEuropean conference at London on the Schleswig- \n\nHolstein question ; no result, 24 April \xe2\x80\x94 25 June, ,, \nGreat excitement through the murder of Mr. Briggs \nin a first-class carriage on the North-London rail- \nway 9 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGreat explosion of gunpowder at the Belvedere \n\nmagazine, near Woolwich . . . .1 Oct. ,, \nDeath of John Leech (aged 47) . . . 29 Oct. ,, \nDeath of Richard Cobden (aged 61) . 2 April, 1865 \nPrince George of Wales born ... 3 June, ,, \nResignation of lord-chancellor Westbury . "4 July, ,, \nGeneral election ; majority for Palmerston adminis- \ntration 10 July, &e. ,, \n\nVisit of Abd-el-Kader ; departs . . 6 Aug. ,, \nPrevalence of a cattle plague, June-Oct. ; royal \n\ncommission appointed ; met . . .10 Oct. ,, \nEnglish fleet visits Cherbourg, 15 Aug. ; French fleet \n\nvisits Portsmouth . . . . 29, 30 Aug. ,, \nFine art and industrial exhibitions opened in Lon- \ndon and the provinces . . . July-Sept. ,, \nDeath of lord Pahnerston, 18 Oct. ; public funeral \n\n27 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nEarl Russell premier .... 3 Nov. ,, \nImportant commercial treaty with Austria signed \n\n16 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nNew parliament opened by the queen . . 6 Feb. 1866 \nNew reform bill introduced by Mr. Gladstone, \n\n12 Mar. ,, \nCommercial panic in London . . 11 May, et se<i. ,, \nInternational botanical congress opened . 22 May, ,, \nDefeat of the government on the reform bid, \n\n18 June ; resignation of ministers . 26 June, ,, \n\nMarriage of princess Helena to prince Christian of \nSchleswig-Holstein .... 5 July, ,, \n\nThe third Derby cabinet formed . . . 6 July\', ,, \n\nThe Atlantic telegraph completely laid, and mes- \nsages sent to lord Stanley ... 27 July, (> \n\nThe cable of 1865 recovered, and communication \nestablished with Valentia, 2 Sept. ; and with New- \nfoundland 8 Sept. \n\nProjected attack of Fenians on Chester prevented \nby the authorities . . . . 11, 12 Feb. 1867- \n\nThe queen laid foundation of the Albert hall of arts \nat S. Kensington 20 May, \n\nVisit of the viceroy of Egypt . . . 6-18 July, ,, \n\nVisit of the Belgian volunteers (see Belgium), \n\nto-22 July, ,, \n\nVisit of the Sultan (see T11 rkey) . . 12-23 July, \n\n"Early Years of the Prince Consort," published \nend of July, ,, \n\nNew Reform act passed (see Reform) . . 15 Aug. \n\nMichael Faraday, natural philosopher(nearly 76) died \n\n25 Aug. ,, \n\nPreparations for the expedition to Abyssinia (see \nAbyssinia) ....... Aug. \n\nFenian outrages ; rescue of prisoners at Manchester \n(see Fenians) 18 Sept \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSynod of bishops at Lambeth (see Pan-Anglican) \n\n24-27 Sept. ,, \n\nMeeting of parliament respecting Abyssinian war, \n\n19 Nov. ,, \n\nFenian explosion at Clcrkenwell prison, London, \n\n13 Dec \nSpecial constables called for ; 113,674 (in the U.K.) \n\nsworn in by 2 8 Jan. 186S \n\n" Leaves from our Journal in Scotland," &<\xe2\x80\xa2., by the \n\nqueen, published Jan. \n\nResignation of earl of Derby, 25 Feb. ; the Disraeli \n\nministry formed 29 Feb. \n\nThe queen holds a drawing-room again 12 March\', \nMr. Gladstone\'s resolution for disestablishing the \n\nIrish church ; adopted by the commons, 30 April, \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\n338 \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\nDeath of lord Brougham, aged 89 . . 7 May, 1 868 \nArrival of the duke of Edinburgh from Ausnalia \n\n26 June, ,, \nIrish and Scotch reform acts passed . 13 July, ,, \nNearly 21,000 extra deaths attributed to the hot \nsummer (23 July said to be the hottest) \n\ni July \xe2\x80\x94 30 Sept. ,, \nParliament dissolved 1 1 Nov. , new parliament meets \n\n10 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nResignation of Disraeli ministry, 2 Dec. ; Gladstone \n\nministry take office 9 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nConvention with the United States respecting the \nAlabama claim signed (afterwards rejected by the \n\nStates) 14 Jan. 1869 \n\nNew parliament meets for business . . 16 Feb. ,, \nIrish Church bill introduced into the commons, \n\n1 March ; royal assent. ... 26 July, ,, \nThe earl of Derby dies (aged 70) . . . 23 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nParliament meets 8 Feb. 1870 \n\nCharles Dickens dies (aged 58) . . .9 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nEarl of Clarendon dies (aged 70) . . 27 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nIrish land bill brought in, 15 Feb., received royal \n\nassent 8 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNeutrality in Franco-Prussian war (which see) pro- \nclaimed 19 Jlll y. i) \n\n2,ooo,oooZ. voted to increase the army by 20,000 men \n\n1 Aug. ,, \nForeign enlistment act passed, 1 Aug. ; stringent \n\nproclamation of neutrality issued . . 9 Aug. ,, \nParliament prorogued .... 10 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nTreaty with Prussia and France for neutrality ol \n\nBelgium signed .... 9, 11 Aug. ,, \nLong drought : bad hay harvest : good wheat har- \nvest Mar.\xe2\x80\x94 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nEarl Granville repels the charge of violating neu- \ntralities made by the Prussian government, \n\n1-15 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\'The queen\'s consent to the marriage of the princess \nLouise to the marquis of Lome announced \n\n24 Oct. ,, \nFoot and mouth disease prevalent among cattle \n\nAug. \xe2\x80\x94Nov. ,, \nElection of elementary school-boards . . Nov. ,, \nExcitement through the Russian note respecting \n\nthe Black sea (see Russia) . . . Nov. ,, \nEoundation of new Post-office laid . 16 Dec. ,, \nResignation of Mr. Bright announced . 20 Dec. ,, \n\nParliament meets 9 Feb. 1871 \n\nMarriage of the princess Louise and the marquis of \n\nLome 21 March, ,, \n\nRoyal Albert Hall, Kensington, opened by the queen \n\n29 March, ,, \nEighth census taken (31,817.108) . . 3 April, ,, \nDeath of sir John F. Herschel, astronomer and \n\nphilosopher (aged 79) .... 11 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nDeath of George Grote, historian of Greece (aged 77) \n\n18 June, ,, \nFirst annual International Exhibition at South Ken- \nsington, opened 1 May, closed . . 30 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nBlack Sea conference met 17 Jan.. closed (neutrali- \nsation of Black Sea abrogated, &c) . 13 March, ,, \nDisestablishment of the Church of England bill re- \njected in the commons (374 \xe2\x80\x94 89), 1 May ; parlia- \nment prorogued . . . . \xe2\x96\xa0 . 21 Aug. ,, \nIllness of the queen at Balmoral, 4 Sept. ; recovery \n\n13 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nSerious illness of the prince of Wales from typhoid \n\nfever, Dec. ; began to recover . . 14 Dec. ,, \nLetter from the queen and princess to the people, \n\nthanking them for sympathy . . .26 Dec. ,, \nThanksgivings for recovery of prince of Wales \n\n21 Jan. 1872 \nExcitement respecting the American claims under \nthe treaty of Washington .... Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMeeting of parliament 6 Feb. \n\nThe queen, prince and princess of Wales, and court \nand parliament go in state to St. Paul\'s ; national \nthanksgiving for recovery of the prince of Wales ; \nLondon decorated ; illuminations, &e. ; a success- \nful day 27 Feb. \n\nThe queen in a public letter, gazetted 1 March, says, \n"Words are too weak for the queen to say how \nvery deeply touched and gratified she has been \nby the immense enthusiasm and affection ex- \nhibited towards her dear son and herself," dated \n\n29 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe " queen, while entering Buckingham Palace, \n\n\n\nthreatened by Arthur O\'Connor, aged about 18, \nwho presents an unloaded pistol, with a paper to \nbe signed ; immediately apprehended . 29 Feb. 1872 \nThe queen sailed for Germany, and stayed several \n\nweeks 23 March \xe2\x80\x94 7 April, ,, \n\nStrikes among agricultural labourers in Warwick- \nshire and other counties ; union formed, 29 March, ,, \nArthur O\'Connor pleads guilty (sentenced to im- \nprisonment and flogging) . . . .9 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \nCorrespondence between the British and American \ngovernments respecting the claims for indirect \nlosses, which the former rejects . 3 Feb.\xe2\x80\x94 May, ,, \nSupplemental treaty proposed ; accepted by U. S. \nsenate, 25 May ; further discussion in parliament ; \nunsatisfactory correspondence; the U.S. con- \ngress adjourns 10 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nStrikes among builders and other trades .June, ,, \nFinal meeting of arbitrators ; damages awarded ; \nsee Alabama ...... 14 Sept. ,, \n\nNew commercial treaty with France signed at \n\nLondon 5 Nov. , , \n\nContinued rain ; floods in Midland counties . Dec. ,, \nDeath of Edward Bulwer Lord Lytton, orator, poet, \n\nand novelist, aged 66 . . . .18 Jan. 1873 \nStrikes among colliers, Jan. ; great dearth of coal ; \n\nthe best, 52s. a ton in London . . 15 Feb. ,, \n\nResignation of Mr. Gladstone on account of a defeat \nin the Commons on the Dublin university bill \n(287 \xe2\x80\x94 284), 13 March; resumes office, 17 March, ,, \nVisit of the shah of Persia . 18 June \xe2\x80\x94 5 July, ,, \nProposed marriage of duke of Edinburgh to grand- \nduchess Marie of Russia announced by the queen, \n17 July ; Annuity bill for the duke passed, 5 Aug. ,, \n\nJudicature Act passed 5 Aug. ,, \n\nSeverely contested elections : conservative reaction, \n\nSept. -Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nMarriage of duke and duchess of Edinburgh, 23 Jan.\' 1874 \n\nParliament dissolved 26 Jan. ,, \n\nGeneral election ; conservative majority about 50, \nFeb. ; Gladstone ministry resigns, 17 Feb. ; Dis- \nraeli ministry formed . . . . 21 Feb. ,, \nClose of the Tiehborne trial (see Trials) . 28 Feb. ,, \nMeeting of parliament . . . 5 March, ,, \n\nThe duke and duchess of Edinburgh enter London, \n\n12 March, ,, \nSir Garnet Wolseley returns from his successful \n\nexpedition against the Ashautees . 21 March, ,, \nVisit of the czar of Russia . . . 13-21 May, ,, \nPublic worship regulation act passed . 7 Aug. ,, \nFruitful season ; excellent corn crop . Aug. -Sept. ,, \nThe queen receives a testimonial of gratitude from \nthe French nation for British assistance during \n\nthe war (see France) 3 Dec. ,, \n\nMeeting of parliament 5 Feb. 1875 \n\nMoody and Sankey, American revivalists, arrive in \nLondon, 9 March ; sail from Liverpool (see Re- \nvivals) 4 Aug. ,, \n\nParliament prorogued .... 13 Aug. ,, \nRailway jubilee at Darlington . . . 27 Sept. ,, \nDeparture of the prince of Wales for India, 11 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe khedive\'s shares in the Suez canal bought by \nthe British government (see Suez) 1 Nov., \n\nannounced 25 Nov. ,, \n\nParliament opened by the queen in person, 8 Feb. 1876 \nThe queen sails for Germany (all her sons abroad), \n\n28 March ; returns 22 April, ,, \n\nRoyal titles bill received royal assent . 27 April, ,, \nThe queen proclaimed "empress of India," 1 May, ,, \nArrival of prince of Wales at Portsmouth, 11 May, ,, \n\nParliament prorogued 15 Aug. ,, \n\nGreat heat ; failure in fruit crops ; harvest beneath \n\naverage middle Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGreat excitement and many public meetings respect- \ning the Turkish atrocities in Bulgaria, Aug. -Oct. ,, \nMr. Gladstone\'s " Horrors in Bulgaria " published, \n\n6 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nNational conference against war to defend Turkey, \n\nSt. James\'s hall 8 Dec. ,, \n\nParliament opened by the queen . . . 8 Feb. 1877 \nProclamation of neutrality in Russo-Turkish war, \n\n30 April, ,, \nDebate on Mr. Gladstone\'s resolutions :\xe2\x80\x94 1st. That \nthis house found much cause for dissatisfaction \nand complaint in the conduct of the Ottoman \nPorte, with regard to the despatch written by the \nearl of Derby, 21 Sept. 1876, and relating to the \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\n339 \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\nmassacres in Bulgaria, (for the resolution, 225 ; \nagainst, 354) 7-14 May, 1877 \n\nFleet sent to Besika bay .... 3 July, ,, \n\nStatue of king Alfred by count Gleiehen, at Wan- \ntage, unveiled by the prince of Wales, his de- \nscendant \' .14 Jul}", ,, \n\nEarly meeting of parliament on account of Russo- \nTurkish war 17 Jan. 1878 \n\n"Vote of 6,000,000?. asked for before entering into \nconference respecting eastern affairs, 24 Jan. ; \ndebate * . .31 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nJjiberal amendment withdrawn on report of Russian \nadvance on Constantinople, 7 Feb. ; vote passed \n(204-124) 8 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Warlike policy of the ministry ; resignation of lord \nCarnarvon, 24 Jan. ; and earl of Derby (seeDisraeli \nAdministration) .... 28 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMessage of the queen, respecting calling out the \nreserves, &c, 2 April ; adopted by parliament, \n\nApril, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n.Earl of Salisbury\'s circular, indicting the Treaty of \nSan Stefano, 2 April ; moderate reply of Gort- \nschakoff, printed 10 April, ,, \n\nIndian troops ordered to Malta, about . 17 April, ,, \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Censured by the opposition ; debate in commons ; \nfor government, 347 ; against, 226 . 20-23 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nEarl Russell died, aged 85 . . . .28 May \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe ministry announce the meeting of a European \ncongress on the eastern question, to meet on "13 \nJune ; the earl of Beaconsfield and the marquis \n<of Salisbury to attend for England. (See Berlin), \n\n3 June, ,, \nAnglo-Turkish convention (see Turkey) signed, \n\n4 June, ,, \nThe conference meets at Berlin (xuMcli see) 13 June ; \n\ntreaty signed 13 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n10,000?. a year voted for the duke of Connaught for \nhis proposed marriage with princess Louise Mar- \ngaret of Prussia 25 July, ,, \n\nDebate on the Berlin treaty, in the commons ; \ngreat speech of Mr. Gladstone, 30 July ; majority \nfor government (338 \xe2\x80\x94 195) . 29 July \xe2\x80\x94 3 Aug. ,, \n\n-Parliament prorogued ... .16 Aug. ,, \n\nMeeting of parliament on account of Afghan war, \n\n5 Dec. ,, \n\nMajority for ministers on vote of censure, lords (201- \n65), 10 Dec; commons (328-227) . 13-14 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDeath of princess Alice by diphtheria at Darmstadt, \nalter attendance on her husband, the grand-duke, \nand children, 7.30 a.m. ... 14 Dec. ,, \n\nSevere winter, many persons unemployed Dec. ,, \n\nParliament adjourned (to 13 Feb.) . . 17 Dec. ,, \n\n\'The Queen in a letter thanks her subjects for their \nsympathy with her loss of a dear child, who \nwas " a bright example of loving tenderness, cou- \nrageous devotion, and self-sacrifice to duty," dated \n\n26 Dec. ,, \n\nEdward Byrne Madden (? lunatic) arrested for \nthreatening to attack the Queen in letters to the \nHome Office, 12 Dec. 1878 ; judged insane, 13 Jan. 1879 \n\n2,500,000?. voted for Zulu war . . 27 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nExpedition sent (between 8,000 and 9,010 men, 1,800 \nhorses, &c), Feb., March, ,, \n\nMarriage of duke and duchess of Connaught at \nWindsor 13 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Queen at Paris, 26 March, arrives at Baveno, \non Lago Maggiore . . . .28 March, ,, \n\nProposed censure of government respecting Zulu \nwar, <fec, negatived, lords (156-61), 25 March; \ncommons (306-246) . . 31 March-i April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGreat depression of trade (attributed to bad har- \nvest, famine, pestilence, war, and over-trading) 1878-9 \n\nCommons debate on the budget, for government, \n303 ; against, 230 . . . . 28-29 April, >> \n\nCold and very wet summer, little sunshine, failure \nof corn and fruit crops . . . autumn, 1879 \n\nSevere weather, Nov. very cold, i-i2Dec. and Jan., \nmuch fog 1880 \n\nParliament opened by the Queen, 5 Feb., dissolved \n\n23 Feb. ,, \n\nGeneral election, great liberal majority, 30 March \xe2\x80\x94 \n16 April ; resignation of ministry . 22 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGladstone ministry formed . . .29 April, ,, \n\nNew parliament meets 29th April, Bradlaugh diffi- \nculty (see pa rlia vie nts) . . 3 May et scq. ,, \n\nFine autumn, good average harvest, improved trade, \n\nOct. , \n\n\n\nEarly meeting of parliament on account of Ireland, \n\n6 Jan. \n\nSuccessful review of about 52,000 volunteers by the \nqueen at Windsor 9 July, \n\nParliament prorogued .... 27 Aug. \n\nWet autumn ; deficient harvest ; much depression \n\nSept. \n\nCourt and general mourning for death of gen. \nGarfield, president of United States 21-27 Sept. \n\nGradual revival of trade . . .1 July-30 Oct. \n\nGreat hurricane throughout England, causing de- \nstruction of life, property, and shipping, 13-15 Oct. \n\nVery mild winter Nov. -Feb. \n\nMeeting of parliament .... 7 Feb. \n\nThe queen shot at, at Great Western railway station, \nWindsor, by Roderick Maclean, aged 27 ; 2nd \nMarch ; he is committed for trial for high treason \n\n10 March, \n\nThe queen\'s letter of thanks for general sympathy \ndated 12 March, \n\nShe sails for Mentone, 14 March ; arrives, 16 \nMarch ; leaves it, 12 April ; at Windsor, 14 April, \n\nThe queen dedicates Epping Forest to the use of \nthe people for all time . . . . 6 May, \n\nParliament adjourned, and meets on 24 Oct. ; pro- \nrogued 2 Dec. \n\nNew law courts, London, opened by the queen 4 Dec. \n\nGreat excitement through attempted explosion of \nLocal Government office . . 15 March, \n\nDetection of secret manufacture of explosives at \nBirmingham, 4 April; arrest of Alfred White- \nhead, Thos. Gallagher, phvsician, Win. Norman, \nH. H. Wilson. H. D. E. and Henry Dalton, other- \nwise John O\'Connor . . . .5-6 April, \n\nOther arrests in Liverpool, Glasgow, and London \nabout 6-7 April, \n\nParliament prorogued .... 25 Aug. \n\nThe queen publishes "More Leaves from my \nJournal in the Highlands" . . .11 Feb. \n\nEgypt and the Soudan: censare of the government \nfor its "vacillating and inconsistent policy," \nvoted by the lords (181-81) 12 Feb. ; rejected by \nthe commons (311-262) . . . 12-20 Feb. \n\nPrince Leopold, duke of Albany, dies, age nearly \n31, 28 March ; buried at Windsor . . 5 April, \n\nThe queen starts for Darmstadt . . 16 April, \n\nThe queen in a letter expresses her deep sense of \nthe loving sympathy of her subjects in all parts \nof her empire and also of foreign countries with \nherself and the duchess of Albany . 14 April, \n\nThe queen present at the marriage of her grand- \ndaughter princess Victoria of Hesse to prince \nLouis of Battenburg at Darmstadt, 30 April ; \nreturned to Windsor . . . .7 May, \n\nVote of censure of the government for not support- \ning Gordon negatived in the commons (303-275) \n\n12-14 May, \n\nParliament prorogued . . . .14 Aug. \n\nGood harvest, continued fine weather . July, Aug. \n\nParliament meets ... 23 Oct. \xe2\x80\x94 6 Dec. \n\nFranchise bill passed, see under Reform . 6 Dec. \n\nPrince Albert Victor Edward of Wales comes of \nage 8 Jan. \n\nParliament meets 19 Feb. \n\nOrdered that the militia be embodied and soldiers \nstopped from entering the reserve . 18 Feb. \n\nVote of censure on the government respecting \nEgypt, passed by the lords (189-58); negatived by \nthe commons (302-288) ... 27, 28 Feb. \n\nDay of mourning for general Gordon and the killed \nin the Soudan 13 March, \n\nReserves to be called out in prospect of war with \nRussia 27 March, \n\nThe queen visits Aix-les-Bains, &C. 1 April-2 May, \n(See Ireland, Parliament, and Revenue.) \n\nRedistribution of Seats Act (see under Reform) \npassed ." 25 June, \n\nVigorous preparations for war : vote of credit for \n11,000,000?. passed by the commons (see Russia) \n\n27 April, \n\nResignation of the Gladstone ministry on account \nof minority on the Budget bill (264-252) 8-9 June, \n\nMinistry of (be marquis of Salisbury formed 24 June, \n\nParliament prorogued . . . .14 Aug. \n\nVery dry summer, average harvest . . . . \n\nThe earl of Shaftesbury, a great philanthropist, \ndies, aged 84 1 Oct. \n\nz 2 \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\n340 \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\nAgitation for the disestablishment of the Church, &c. \n\nautumn, 1885 \nDissolution of parliament . . . 18 Nov. ,, \n\nElections : about 333 Liberals, 251 Conservatives, \n\n86 Parnellites .... 23 Nov-18 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe new parliament meets 12 Jan. ; opened by the \n\nqueen 21 Jan. 1886 \n\nResignation of the Salisbury administration (ivhich \n\nsee) 27 Jan - 11 \n\nGladstone\'s third administration formed 2-6 Feb. ,, \n\nLong winter ; severe cold, Feb. ; heavy snowstorms \n\nin N.E. counties ; railway trains snowed up \n\nseveral days . . . . 1, 2, 3 March, ,, \n\nMr. Gladstone introduces his bill to " make better \n\nprovision for the future government of Ireland " \n\n8 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \nColonial and Indian Exhibition (the first great \nnational exhibition) opened at South Kensington \n\nby the queen 4 Mav > n \n\nInternational exhibition of navigation, commerce, \n\n&c, at Liverpool opened by the queen 11 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nQueen Victoria\'s jubilee year begins . 20 June, ,, \nExcessively cold spring and summer .,..,, \n"Very hot part of June and July . . . . ,, \nParliamentary election on Mr. G\'adstone\'s Irish \npolicy (reported, 316 conservatives, 191 Glad- \nstonians, 78 unionists, 85 Parnellites) . July, ,, \nThe Gladstone administration resigns 20 July, ,, \n\nThe second Salisbury administration {which see) \nformed 26 July ; the marquis of Hartington and \nfriends decline to form a coalition ministry \n\n31 Deo. ,, \nRevival of trade and commerce, last half of \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMeeting of parliament .... 28 Jan. 188; \nThe queen starts for the Riviera 29 March ; visits \nCannes, Aix-les-Bains, &c. 1 April, ct seq. ; \nreturns to England . . . .29 April, ,, \nThe queen attends the jubilee service at "Westmin- \nster Abbey (see Jubilee) 21 June ; she issues a \nletter to the nation expressing her profound \ngratitude for the very kind reception by the vast \nmultitude during her progress to, and return \nfrom the Abbey, and her high admiration for the \nexcellent order preserved ... 24 June, ,, \nSevere drought ; 35 rainless days in some parts \n\n(11 weeks) .... June-mid. Aug. ,, \nVery early harvest .... summer, \xe2\x80\x9e \nParliament prorogued . . . .16 Sept. ,, \nAmicable conventions respecting Suez canal and \n\nNew Hebrides, signed at Paris . . 24 Oct. ,, \nMeeting of parliament .... 9 Feb. i88> \n\nThe queen starts for Florence 21 March ; at \nFlorence 24 March ; at Innsbruck 23 April ; at \nBerlin 24 April ; in London . . 27 April, ,, \n\nLocal Government Act (ivhich see) passed 13 Aug. ,, \nParliament adjourns till 6 Nov. . . 13 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe queen\'s visit to Glasgow . . 18, 19 Aug. ,, \nCold wet summer, very fine autumn 1888 ; very \nmild weather, London much warmer than at \nConstantinople, Paris, &c. . . .4 Dec. ,, \nParliament meets 6 Nov. ; adjourns . 24 Dec. ,, \nEpidemic of measles throughout the country \n\nwinter, 1888- \n\nParliament meets 21 Feb. 188 \n\nThe queen started for Biarritz 5 March : meets the \nqueen-regent of Spain at San Sebastian 27 March ; \n\nreturns 3 April, ,, \n\nDeath of Mr. John Bright, M.P. (aged 78), orator, \n" tribune of the people," free-trader (see Anti- \nCorn Law League) fearless, honest, independent \n27 March ; " one of the noblest figures that we \nhave ever known in Parliament " \xe2\x80\x94 Lord Har- \ntington 29 March, ,, \n\nGreat improvement in trade and revenue Jan-April, ,, \nWarren de la Rue, D.C.L., F.R.S., astronomer, \n\nchemist, and physicist, aged 74, died . 19 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe queen visits the prince of "Wales at Sandring- \n\nham 23-27 April, et seq. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nParliament prorogued .... 30 Aug. ,, \nThe tmperor "William II. visits the queen, see \n\nGermany . ... i--8Aug. ,, \n\nThe queen visits Wales (ivhich see) . 23 Aug. \n\nFine summer and autumn ; excellent hay and \n\nmoderate corn harvests ami good wool season . \n\nEnvoys from the sultan of Zanzibar, received by \n\nthe queen at Balmoral . ... 29 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nMany strikes, and much agitation respecting labour \n\n\n\nand wages in London and throughout the country \n\nAug.-Dec. 1883 \nGreat revival in trade . . . June-Dec. , , \nEpidemic of influenza (which see) . . . Jan. i8go \n\nParliament meets n Feb. ,\xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe queen visits Aix-les-Bains 26 March-22 April ; \nat Darmstadt receives the empress Frederick, the \nemperor William II. and others of her family \n\n23-29 April, , r \n\nAt Windsor 30 April, ,,, \n\nThe queen visits Aylesbury and baron Ferdinand \n\nde Rothschild at Waddesdon Manor . 14 May, ,, \nThe ex-queen Isabella of Spain visits the queen at \nWindsor, and attends the state Ball, Buckingham \nPalace, 20 May ; leaves England . . 29 May, , r \nAnglo-German Agreement (which see) respecting \n\nEast Africa, signed at Berlin . . . 1 July , r \nReturn of Mr. H. M. Stanley (see Soudan) \n\n26 April, 1887-90 \nThe queen inaugurates the Empress dock at South- \nhampton \xe2\x80\xa2 26 July, 18901 \n\nThe emperor William II. visits the queen at \n\nOsborne, inspects the fleet, &c. . 4-8 Aug. , r \nAnglo-French Agreement (which see) respecting \n\nAfrica, signed 5 Aug. ,, \n\nParliament prorogued .... 18 Aug. ,, \nAnglo Portuguese Agreement settled 20 Aug. ; not \n\nratified (see Portugal) .... Nov. ,,, \nMeeting of parliament .... 25 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e r \nParliament meets after the recess . . 22 Jan. iSgr \nThe queen present at the launch of the Royal \nSovereign, great battleship, and of the Royal \nArthur, first class cruiser ; Portsmouth 26 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe queen visits Grasse, a French town near Cannes, \n\nin the Alpes-Maritimes . 25 March-28 April, ,\xe2\x80\x9e \nDestructive snow - storm in the S. and S.W. \ncounties (see Storms) 9, 10 March ; close of nearly \nsix months\' winter (see Frosts) 25 March . . ,, \nDeath of earl Granville, eminent statesman, aged 75 \n\n31 March, , r \nThe empress Frederick visits England 27 Feb.- \n\n8 April. , r \nVisit of the German emperor and empress very- \nsuccessful (see Germany) . . 4-13 July, ,,. \nVisit of the prince of Naples (see Italy) 22 July- Aug. ,, \nThe queen receives Veldtman, a Fingoe chief, and \n\nhis presents 7 Aug. , r \n\nVisit of the French fleet to Portsmouth (see France) \n\n19 Aug. ,, \nPrince George of Wales attacked by typhoid fever, \n\n10 Nov., recovery 23 Dec. ,, \n\nThe duke of Clarence and Avondale attacked with \ninfluenza and pneumonia, 10 Jan., died at Sand- \nringham, 14 Jan. Universally lamented ; military \nfuneral at Windsor .... 20 Jan. 1892 \nLetter from the queen, to the empire \n\n(London Gazette, 2 Feb.) \n\n"Osborne, January 26, 1892. \n" I must once again give expression to my deep sense \nof the loyalty and affectionate sympathy evinced by \nmy subjects in every pai\'t of my empire on an occasion \nmore sad and tragical than any but one which has \nbefallen me and mine, as well as the nation. The over- \nwhelming misfortune of my dearly loved grandson having- \nbeen thus suddenly cut off in the flower of his age, full \nof promise for the future, amiable and gentle, and en- \ndearing himself to all, renders it hard for his sorely \nstricken parents, his dear young bride, and his fond\' \ngrandmother to bow in submission to the inscrutable \ndecrees of providence. \n\n"The sympathy of millions, which has been so \ntouchingly and visibly expressed, is deeply gratifying at \nsuch a time, and I wish, both in my own name and that \nof my children, to express from my heart, my warm. \ngratitude to all. \n\n" These testimonies of sympathy with us, and ap- \npreciation of my dear grandson, whom I loved as a son, \nand whose devotion to me was" as great as that of a son, \nwill be a help and consolation to me and mine in our \naffliction. \n\n" My bereavements during the last thirty years of my \nreign have indeed been heavy. Though the labours, \nanxieties, and responsibilities inseparable from my \nposition have been great, yet it is my earnest prayer that \nGod may continue to give me health and strength to \nwork for the good and happiness of my dear Country \nand Empire while life lasts. " Victoria, R.l." \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\n341 \n\n\n\nENGLAND, \n\n\n\nThe seventh session of the queen\'s twelfth parlia- \nment opened 9 Feb. 1892 \n\nThe queen visits Costebelle, a suburb of Hyeres, an \nancient town in Provence 13 miles from" Toulon, \n\xe2\x96\xa021 March-25 April ; at Darmstadt, 26 April-2 May, ,, \n\nKINGS AND QUEENS OF ENGLAND. \n\nBEFORE THE CONQUEST. \n\n827. Egbert, styled " king of England " in 828. \n\n\xc2\xa337. Ethelwolf ; his son. \n\n.857. Ethelbald ; his son. \n\n860. Ethelbert; brother. \n\n866. Ethelred; brother. \n\nS71. Alfred the Great ; brother ; died 21 or 2S Oct. 901. \n\n901. Edward the Elder ; son ; died 925. \n\n325. Athelstan ; eldest son ; died 17 Oct. 940. \n\n940. Edmund L , fifth son of Edward the Elder ; died \n\nfrom a wound received in an affray, 26 May, 946. \n.946. Edred ; brother ; died 955. \n\n955. Edwy, eldest son of Edmund ; died of grief in 958. \n957. Edgar the Peaceable ; brother ; died 1 July, 975. \n975. Edward the Martyr, his son, stabbed at Corfe \n\nCastle, at the instance of his step-mother Elfrida, \n\n18 March, 979. \n979. Ethelred II. ; half-brother ; retired. \n\n1013. Sweyn, proclaimed king ; died 3 Feb. 1014. \n\n1014. Canute the Great ; his son. \n\n1014. Ethelred restored in Canute\'s absence ; died 24 April, \n1016. \n\n1016. Edmund Ironside, his son, divided the kingdom \n\nwith Canute ; murdered at Oxford, 30 Nov. 1016 ; \nreigned seven months. \n\n1017. Canute sole king ; married Emma, widow of Ethel- \n\nred ; died 12 Nov. 1035. \n\n1035. Harold I. ; son; died 17 Mar. 1040. \n\n1039. Hardicanute, son of Canute and Emma ; died of re- \npletion at a marriage feast, 8 June, 1042. \n\n2042. Edward the Confessor, son of Ethelred and Emma ; \ndied 5 Jan. 1066. \n\n1066. Harold II.,- son of earl Godwin; reigned nine \nmouths ; killed near Hastings, 14 Oct. 1066. \n\nTHE NORMANS.* \n\nko66. William the Conqueror ; crowned 25 Dec. : died at \n\nKouen, 9 Sept. 1087. \nQueen, Matilda, daughter of Baldwin, earl of \n\nFlanders ; married in 1054 ; died in 1083. \n0087. William II. Rul\'us ; reign began 26 Sept. ; killed by \n\nan arrow, 2 Aug. 1100. \n\xc2\xabioo. Henry I. Beauclerc, his brother ; reign began \n\n5 Aug. ; died of a surfeit, 1 Dec. 1135. \nQueens, Matilda, daughter of Malcolm III. king of \n\nScotland; married 11 Nov. 1100 ; died 1 May, \n\n1119. 2. Adelais, daughter of Godfrey, earl of \n\nLouvaine ; married 29 Jan. 1129 ; died 1151. \n\n* The regnal dates are those given by sir H. Nicolas. \n\'The early Norman and Plantagenet kings reckoned their \nreigns from the day of their coronation ; the later Plan- \n<tagenets from the day after the death of their prede- \ncessor. With Edward VI. began the present custom of \nbeginning the reign on the. day of the death of the pre- \n\xe2\x80\xa2ceding sovereign. \n\nROYAL ARMS OF ENGLAND. \n\nWilliam I., William II., and Henry I.\xe2\x80\x94 two lions or \n\nleopards passant. \n.Stephen \xe2\x80\x94 Sagittarius, the archer, one of the signs of the \n\nzodiac (traditional). \nHenry II. to Edward II. Three lions passant. \nEdward III. and his successors quartered the preceding \n\nwith fleurs de lys, the aims of France. \nHenry V. used only 3 fleurs de lys. \nMary I. quartered the preceding with the arms of her \n\nhusband Philip II. of Srain. \n\nUNITED KINGDOM. \n\nJames I. and his successors combined the arms of Eng- \nland and France (1st and 4th quarter) ; 2nd, the lion \nrampant of Scotland ; 3rd, the harp of Ireland. He \nintroduced the unicorn as a supporter of the arms. \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0George I., George II. and George III. introduced the arms \nof Brunswick. \n\nIn 1801 the arms of France were omitted. In 1816 the \narms were modified through Hanover being made a \nkingdom. \n\nVictoria. In 1837 the arms of Hanover were omitted. \nThe arms are now: 1st and 4th quarters, 3 lions passant \nfor England ; 2nd, lion rampant for Scotland ; 3rd, harp \nfor Ireland. \n\n\n\n1 135. Stephen, earl of Blois, nephew of Henry; reign \nbegan 26 Dec. ; died 25 Oct. 1154. \n\nQueen, Matilda, daughter of Eustace, count of \nBoulogne ; married in 1128 ; died 3 May, 1151. \n\n[Maud, daughter of Henry I. and rightful heir to \nthe throne; born 1101 ; betrothed, in 1109, at \neight years of age, to Henry V. emperor of Ger- \nmany, who died 1125. She married, secondly, \nGeoffrey Plantagenet, earl of Anjou, 1130. Was \nset aside from the English succession by Stephen, \n1135 ; landed in England and claimed the crown, \n1139. Crowned, but soon after defeated at Win- \nchester, 1 141 ; concluded a peace with Stephen, \nwhich secured the succession to her son Henry, \n1153 ; died 1165.] \n\nTHE PLANTAGENETS. \n\n1154. Henry II. Plantagenet, grandson of Henry I. and son \nof Maud ; reign began 19 Dec. ; died 6 July, 1189. \nQueen, Eleanor, the repudiated queen of Louis VII. \nking of France, and heiress of Guienne and \nPoitou ; married to Henry, 1151 ; died 26 June, \n1202 ; see Rosamond. \n\n1 189. Richard I. Cosur de Lion, his son ; reign began \n3 Sept. ; died of a wound, 6 April, 1199. \nQueen, Berengaria, daughter of the king of Navarre ; \nmarried 12 May, 1191 ; survived the king. \n\n1199. John, the brother of Richard ; reign began 27 May ; \ndied 19 Oct. 1216. \nQueens, Avisa, daughter of the earl of Gloucester ; \nmarried in 1189 ; divorced. 2. Isabella, daughter \nof the count of Angouleme : she was the young \nand virgin wife of the count de la Marche : \nmarried to John in 1200. Survived the king, on \nwhose death she was re-married to the count de \nla Marche. \n\n1216. Henry III. son of John ; reign began 28 Oct. ; died \n16 Nov. 1272. \nQueen, Eleanor, daughter of the count de Pro- \nvence ; married 14 Jan. 1236 ; survived the king ; \nand died in 1291, in a monastery. \n\n1272. Edward I. son of Henry, surnamed LongslumJcs ; \nreign began 20 Nov. ; died 7 July, 1307. \nQueens, Eleanor of Castile ; married in 1253 ; died \nof a fever, on her journey to Scotland, at Grant- \nham, in Lincolnshire, 1290. 2. Margaret, sister \nof the king of France ; married 12 Sept. 1299, \nsurvived the king, dying in 1317. \n\n1307. Edward II. son of Edward I. ; reign began 8 July ; \n\ndethroned 20 Jan. 1327 ; murdered at Berkeley \n\ncastle, 21 Sept. following. \n\n[An inscription in the castle of Melazzo, Piedmont, states \n\nthat he escaped from Berkeley castle, was sheltered by \n\nPope John XXII. at Avignon. After long wandering, \n\nresided secretly in this castle 1330-33. Reported by \n\ncount Negra, Oct., 1890.] \n\nQueen, Isabella, daughter of the king of France ; \nmarried in 1308. On the death, by the gibbet, of \nher favourite Mortimer, she was confined for the \nrest of her life in her own house at Risings, near \nLynn, and died in 1357. \n1327. Edward III. his son ; reign began 25 Jan. ; died \n21 June, 1377. \nQueen, Philippa, daughter of the count of Hainault ; \nmarried in 1326 ; died 15 Aug. 1369. \n1377. Richard II. son of Edward the Black Prince, and \ngrandson of Edward III. ; reign began 22 June ; \ndethroned 29 Sept. 1399 ; said to have been mur- \ndered at Pomfret castle, 10 Feb. 1400. \nQueens, Anne of Bohemia, sister of the emperor \nWeneeslaus of Germany ; married in Jan. 1382 ; \ndied 7 June, 1394. 2. Isabella, daughter of \nCharles V. of France ; married when only seven \nyears old, 1 Nov. 1396. On the deposition of her \nhusband she returned to her father. \n\nHOUSE OF LANCASTER. \n\n1399. Henry IV. cousin of Richard II. ; reign began \n\n30 Sept. ; died 20 March, 1413. \n\nQueens, Mary, daughter of the earl of Hereford ; \nshe died before Henry obtained the crown, in \n1394. 2. Joan of Navarre, widow of the duke of \nBretagne ; married 1403 ; survived the king ; \ndied 1437. \n1413. Henry V. his son ; reign began 21 March died \n\n31 Aug. 1422. \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\n342 \n\n\n\nENGLAND. \n\n\n\nQueen, Catherine, daughter of the king of France ; \nmarried 30 May, 1420. She outlived Henry, and \nwas married to Owen Tudor, grandfather of \nHenry VII., in 1423 ; died 1437. \n1422. Henry VI. his son ; reign began 1 Sept. ; deposed \n4 March, 1461 ; said to have "been murdered by \nRichard, duke of Gloucester, in the Tower, 20 \nJune, 1471. \nQueen, Margaret, daughter of the duke ,of Anjou ; \nmarried 22 April, 1445 ; survived the king ; died \n\n25 Aug. 1481. \n\nHOUSE OF YOEK. \n\n1461. Edward IV. ; died 9 April, 1483. \n\nQueen, Elizabeth, daughter of sir Richard Wood- \nville, and widow of sir John Grey, of Groby ; \nmarried 1463 or 1464. Suspected of favouring \nthe insurrection of Lambert Simnel ; and closed \nher life in confinement, 8 June, 1492. > \n\n1483. Edward V. his son ; deposed 25 June, 1483, and \nsaid to have been murdered in the Tower ; reigned \ntwo months and thirteen days. \n\xe2\x80\x9e Richard III. brother of Edward IV. ; began to reign, \n\n26 June ; slain at Bosworth, 22 Aug. 1485. \nQueen, Anne, daughter of the earl of Warwick, and \n\nwidow of Edward, prince of Wales, murdered \n1471. She is said to have been poisoned by \nRichard (having died suddenly, 16 March, 1485), \nto make way for his intended marriage with prin- \ncess Elizabeth of York. \n\nHOUSE OF TUDOR. \n\n1485. Henry VII. (son of Edmund Tudor, earl of Rich- \nmond, and Margaret, daughter of John Beaufort, \nduke of Somerset, legitimated descendant of \nJohn of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster) ; began to \nreign 22 Aug. ; died 21 April, 1509. \nQueen, Elizabeth of York, princess of England, \ndaughter of Edward IV. ; married 18 Jan. i486 ; \ndied 11 Feb. 1503. \n\n1509. Henry VIII. his son ; began to reign, 22 April ; died \n28 Jan. 1547. \nQueens, Catherine of Aragon, widow of Henry\'s \nelder brother, Arthur, prince of Wales ; married \n\n11 June, 1509; mother of queen Mary; repudi- \nated, and afterwards formally divorced, 23 May, \n1533 ; died 7 Jan. 1536. \n\n2. Anne Boleyn, daughter of sir Thomas Boleyn, \nand maid of honour to Catherine ; privately \nmarried, before Catherine was divorced, 14 Nov. \n1532, or Jan. 1533 ; mother of queen Elizabeth ; \nbeheaded at the Tower, 19 May, 1536. \n\n3. Jane Seymour, daughter of sir John Seymour, \nand maid* of honour to Anne Boleyn ; married \n20 May, 1536, the day after Anne\'s execution ; \nmother of Edward VI. of whom she died in \nchildbirth, 24 Oct. 1537. \n\n4. Anne of Cleves, sister of William, duke of \nCleves ; married 6 Jan. 1540 ; divorced 10 July, \n1540 ; died 1557. \n\n5. Catherine Howard, niece of the duke of Nor- \nfolk ; married 28 July, 1540 ; beheaded, 12 Feb. \n1542. \n\n6. Catherine Parr, daughter of sir Thomas Parr, \nand widow of Nevill, lord Latimer ; married 12 \nJuly, 1543 ; survived the king, after whose death \nshe married sir Thomas Seymour, created lord \nSudley ; died 5 Sept. 1548. \n\n1547 Edward VI. son of Henry VIII. (by Jane Seymour) ; \ndied 6 July, 1553. \n\n1553. Jane, daughter of the duke of Suffolk, and wife of \nlord Guildford Dudley ; proclaimed queen on the \ndeath of Edward ; ten days afterwards returned \nto private life ; was tried 13 Nov. 1553 ; beheaded \n\n12 Feb. 1554, when but 17 years of age. \n\n1553. Mary, daughter of Henry (by Catherine of Aragon); \n\nmarried Philip of Spain, 25 July, 1554 ; died 17 \n\nNov. 1558. \n1558. Elizabeth, daughter of Henry (by Anne Boleyn), \n\ndied 24 March, 1603. \n\nHOUSE OF STUART. \n\n1603. James I. of England and VI. of Scotland, sen of \n\nMary, queen of Scots ; died 27 March, 1625. \nQueen, Anne, princess of Denmark, daughter of \n\nFrederick II. ; married 20 Aug. 1590 ; died \n\nMarch, 1619. \n3625. Charles I. his son ; beheaded at Whitehall, 30 Jan. \n\n1649. \n\n\n\nQueen, Henrietta-Maria, daughter of Henry IV- \nking of France ; married 13 June, 1625 ; sur- \nvived the king ; died in France 10 Aug. 1669. \n\n1649. Commonwealth. Oliver Cromwell made pro- \ntector, 16 Dec. 1653 ; died 3 Sept. 1658. \n\n1658. Richard Cromwell, his son, made protector, 4, \nSept. ; resigned 22 April, 1659. \n\n1660. Charles II. son of Charles I. ; died 6 Feb. 1685. \n\nQueen, Catherine of Braganza, infanta of Portugal, \ndaughter of John IV. and sister of Alfonso VI.; \nmarried 21 May, 1662; survived the king; re- \nturned to Portugal ; died 21 Dec. 1705. \n\n1685. James II. his brother; abdicated by flight, 11 Dec \n1688 ; died in exile, 6 (16) Sept. 1701. \n[1st Wife, Ann Hyde, daughter of Edward Hyde,, \nearl of Clarendon ; married Sept. 1660 ; died \n1671 ; mother of queens Mary II. and Anne.] \nQueen, Mary Beatrice, princess of Modena, daughter- \nof Alphonso d\'Este, duke ; married 21 Nov.. \n1673 ; in- 1688 retired with James to France ; \ndied at St. Germains, 1718. \n\n1689. William III. prince of Orange, king, and Mary, \nqueen, daughter of James II. ; married 4 Nov. \n1677 ; began their reign, 13 Feb. 1689 ; Mary died \n28 Dee. 1694. \n\n1694. William III. ; died of a fall from his horse, 8 March, \n1702. \n\n1702. Anne, daughter of James II. ; married George, \nprince of Denmark, 28 July, 1683 ; succeeded to \nthe throne, 8 March, 1 702 : had seventeen children, \nall of whom died young (William, duke of Glou- \ncester, born 24 July, 1689, died 30 July, 1700) ; \nlost her husband, 28 Oct. 1708 ; died 1 Aug. 1714- \nhouse of hanover. (See Brunswick and Este.) \n\n1714. George I. elector of Hanover and duke of Bruns- \nwick-Luneburg ; son of Sophia, who was daugh- \nter of Elizabeth, the daughter of James I. ; died \n11 June, 1727. \nQueen, Sophia-Dorothea, daughter of the duke of \nZell ; died in prison, 2 Nov. 1726. \n\n1727. George II. his son ; died 25 Oct. 1760. \n\nQueen, Wilhelmina Carolina Dorothea, of Branden- \nburg Anspach ; married 1705 ; died 20 Nov_ \n\n1737- \n1760. George III. grandson of George II. ; died 29 Jan_ \n\n1820. \nQueen, Charlotte Sophia, daughter of the duke of \n\nMecklenburg-Strelitz ; married 8 Sept. 1761 ; \n\ndied 17 Nov. 18 18. \n1820. George IV. his son ; died 26 June, 1830. \n\nQueen, Caroline Amelia Augusta, daughter of the- \n\nduke of Brunswick ; married 8 April, 1795 ; died \n\n7 Aug. 1821 (see article Queen Caroline) \n1830. William IV. brother of George IV. ; died 20 June, \n\n1837- \nQueen, Adelaide Amelia Louisa Theresa Caroline, \nsister of the duke of Saxe-Meiningen ; married \n11 July, 1818 ; died 2 Dec. 1849. \n1837. Victoria, the reigning queen, whom God pre- \nserve. \n\nthe present royal family of great britain. \n\nThe Queen,* Alexandrina Victoria, only daughter of \nEdward, duke of Kent, (fourth son of king George \nIII.)t bom 24 May, 1819 ; succeeded to the throne on \nthe decease of her uncle, William IV. 20 June, 1837 \xc2\xbb \ncrowned at Westminster, 28 June, 1838 ; married \n(10 Feb., 1S40) to her cousin, \n\nFrancis-ALBERT-Augustus-Charles-Emmanuel, duke of \nSaxony, prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha ; born 261 \n\n* On 1 Nov. 1858, the queen was proclaimed through- \nout India as " Victoria, by the grace of God, of the united \nkingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and of the colonies- \nand dependencies thereof, in Europe, Asia, Africa, \nAmerica, and Australasia, Queen, defender of the faith,"" \nSic. " Empress of India " added to the "royal style by \nproclamation, 28 April, 1876 (see Style, lioya.l). The \ncolonial conference in May, 1887, recommended that the- \ntitle of her majesty should, in recognition of the unity \nof the empire, be "Queen of the United Kingdom of \nGreat Britain and Ireland, and of the Colonies and \nDependencies thereof." \n\nt He was born 2 Nov. 1767; and died 23 Jan. 1820; \nhe married Victoria-Maria-Louisa (widow of the prince of \nLeiningen, sister of Leopold, king of the Belgians, and \naunt to the prince consort), 29 May, 1818. She was born \n17 Aug. 17S6 ; and died 16 March, 1861. \n\n\n\nENGLISH CHURCH UNION. \n\n\n\n343 \n\n\n\nENGLISH LANGUAGE. \n\n\n\nAug. 1819, naturalized, 24 Jan. 1840; (ordered to be \nstyled Prince Consort 25 June, 1857 ;) elected chan- \ncellor of the university of Cambridge, 28 Feb. 1847 ; \ndied 14 Dec. 1861. \n\nISSUE. \n\n1. ViCTORiA-Adelaide-Mary-Louisa, princess royal, born \n\n21 Nov. 1840; married to prince Frederick-William, \nof Prussia, 25 Jan. 1858 (dowry 40,000?. and annuity \nof 8000Z.). Issue: William, bom 27 Jan. 1859; and \n5 other children living. \n\n2. Albert-Edward, prince of Wales, duke of Saxony, \n\nduke of Cornwall and Rothsay, earl of Chester, \nCarrick, and Dublin, baron of Renfrew, and lord of \nthe Isles, born 9 Nov. 1841 ; married princess Alex- \nandra of Denmark (bom 1 Dec. 1844) IO March, \n1863. Issue: Albert Victor, born 8 Jan. 1864; \ndied 14 Jan. 1892 ; George, bom 3 June, 1865 ; Louise, \nbom 20 Feb. 1867 ; Victoria, born 6 July, 1868 ; \nMaud, 26 Nov. 1869 ; Alexander John, born 6 April, \ndied 7 April, 1871. (See Wales.) \n\n3. ALiCE-Maud-Mary, born 25 April, 1843 ; married \n\nprince Louis (since grand duke) of Hesse-Darmstadt \n(which see), 1 July, 1862 (dowry 30,000?., annuity \n6000?.); d. of diphtheria, 14 Dec. 1878. Issue: Vic- \ntoria, s April, 1863 ; and 6 other children. \n\n4. ALFRED-Ernest, born, 6 Aug. 1844 ; entered the En- \n\nryalus as midshipman, 31 Aug. 1858 ; created duke \nof Edinburgh, &c. 24 May, 1866 ; visited Cape of \nGood Hope, Aug. ; Australia, Nov. 1867 ; escaped \nassassination by a Fenian at Port Jackson, 12 \nMarch, 1868 ; visited Japan, China, and India, 1869 ; \nmarried archduchess Marie of Russia (bom 17 Oct. \n1853), 23 Jan. 1874 ; commander of the Channel fleet, \nNov. 1883 ; of the Mediterranean fleet, Feb. 1880 ; \nat Davenport, Aug. 1890. Issue: Alfred, born 15 Oct. \n1874 ; Mary, 29 Oct. 1875 ; Victoria, 25 Nov. 1876 ; \nAlexandria, 1 Sept. 1878 ; Beatrice, 20 April, 1S84. \n\n5. Helena- Augusta- Victoria, born 25 May, 1846 ; married \n\nto prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein, 5 July, \n1866. Issue: Christian Victor, bom 14 April, 1867; \nand 4 other children. \n\n6. LouiSE-C\'arolina-Alberta, bom 18 March, 1848 ; mar- \n\nried to John, marquis of Lome (60m. 6 Aug. 1845), \n21 March, 1871. \n\n7. ARTHUR-William-Patrick-Albert, born 1 May, 1850 ; \n\ncreated duke of Connaught, earl of Sussex and \nStrathearn, 23 May, 1874 ; married 13 March, \n1879, princess Louise Margaret of Prussia (born 25 \nJuly, i860). Issue : Margaret, born, 15 Jan. 1882 ; \nArthur Frederick, born 13 Jan. 1883 ; Victoria \nPatritia, 17 March, 1886. Commander-in-chief at \nBombay, 1886 et seq. ; commander of the S. Military \nDistrict, Aug. 1890. \n\n8. LEOPOLD-George-Duncan-Albert, bom 7 April, 1853 : \n\nvoted 15,000?. a year by parliament, 23 July, 1874 ; \ncreated baron Arklow, earl of Clarence, and duke of \nAlbany, 24 May, 1881 ; married, princess Helene, \n4th daughter of the prince of Waldeck-Pyrmont, 27 \nApril, 1882. 10.000/. additional income granted, 21 \nApril, 1882; died at Cannes, 28 March, 1884. Issue: \nAlice Mary, born 25 Feb., 1883; Leopold Charles, \nborn 19 July, 1884. \n\n9. BEATRiCE-Mary-Victoria-Feodore, born 14 April, 1857; \n\nmarried prince Henry of Battenberg, 23 July, 1885. \nIssue: Alexander Albert, born 23 Nov. 1886 ; Victoria \nEugenie, 1887; Leopold, 18S9 ; and Maurice, 1891. \n\nFirst greatgrandchild,; Feodore. bom 12 May, 1879; \ndaughter of Charlotte, daughter of princess royal \nVictoria, and prince Bernard of Saxe-Meiningen. See \nGermany, children of William II. \n\nThe Queen\'s Aunt and Cousins, Augusta, duchess \n(willow 8 July 1850, of duke) of Cambridge, bom 25 \nJuly, 1797 ; married 1 June, 1818 ; died 6 April, i38o. \nHer son, George, duke of Cambridge, commander-in- \nchief, born 26 March, 1819 ; [wife, Mis. Fitz-George, \naged 74, died 12 Jan. 1890]. \nHer daughters, Augusta, grand duchess of Mecklen- \nburg-Strelitz, born 19 July, 1822 ; married 28 June, \n1843 ; and the princess Mary of Cambridge, born 27 \nNov. 1833 ; married to the prince Francis, now duke, \nof Teek, 12 June, 1866. Isstic : Adolphus, and 3 \nother children. \n\nENGLISH CHURCH UNION, established \ni860, when it consisted of 2 10 members ; there were \n22,100 in 1888. Its object is to defend the \n\n\n\nChurch of England and its ancieut constitution, \ndoctrine and liturgy, and her right to regulate her \nown affairs; and has supported clergymen who have \nsuffered for so doing. Annual meetings are held, \n\nENGLISH LANGUAGE is traced from the \nFrisian variety of the Teutonic or Germanic branch \nof the great Indo-European family. " The English \ntongue possesses a veritable power of expression, \nsuch as, perhaps, never stood at the command of \nany other language of man." Grimm. \nCeltic prevailed in England . . . a.d. i \n\nLatin introduced about 1 \n\nSaxon prevails (Beowulf ; Csedmon ; Alfred) 450-1066 \nLatin re-introduced by missionaries . . . 596 \n\nNorman-French combining with English . 1066-1250 \nWilliam I. and his successors used English in their \nlaws, &c. ; it was superseded by Latin in the \nreign of Henry II. Norman- French was not used \nin law-deeds till the reign of Henry III. \nEarly English . .... 1250-1500. \n\nThe present English settled in the 16th century. \nLaw pleadings were made in English by order of \n\nEdward III. instead of in French . . . . 1362 \nThe English tongue and English apparel were or- \ndered to be used in Ireland, 28 Hen. VIII. . . 1536 \nThe English language was ordered to be used in all \n\nlaw-suits, and the Latin disused . . May, 1731 \nPer-centage of Anglo-Saxon words in the English \nbible, 97 ; Swift, 89 ; Shakspeare and Thomson, \n85 ; Addison, 83 ; Spenser and Milton, 81 ; Locke, \n80 ; Young, 79 ; Pope, 76 ; Johnson, 75 ; Robert- \' \nson, 68 ; Hume, 65 ; Gibbon, 58. Marsh. \nOf 100,000 English words, 60,000 are of Teutonic \norigin ; 30,000 Greek and Latin ; and 10,000 from \nother sources. \nEarly English Text Society began publishing . . 1864 \nEnglish Diakct Society, established to print old \n\nglossaries May, 1873, \n\nEnglish greatly used in the East, Japan, China, &c. \n\nDr. S. A. Allibone\'s great "Critical Dictionary of \n\nEnglish Literature," published in 1859 and 1871 ; \n\nhe died 12 Sept., 1889, supplement by John F. \n\nKirk i89r \n\nPRINCIPAL BRITISH AND AMERICAN AUTHORS. \n\nBorn. Died. \n\nJohn Wickliffe, t 1324 1384: \n\nGeoffrey Chaucer, p 132S J400 \n\nJohn Gower, p. ... about 1320 1402 \nPaston Letters, 1460-1482 \n\nWin, Caxton . . ... 1421 \xe2\x80\xa2 1491 \n\nSir Thomas More, h. p. . . . 1482 1535 \n\nSir Philip Sidney, n. p. . . 1554 1586 \nHolinshed\'s Chronicles, 1586 \n\nJohn Fox, t. h 1517 1587 \n\nEdmund Spenser, p. . 1553 159S \n\nRichard Hooker, t 1553 1600 \n\nWm, Shakspeare, d 1564 1616 \n\nWalter Raleigh, h. p 1552 1618 \n\nFrancis Bacon, ph " . 1561 1626 \n\nGeorge Herbert, p. . . . \xe2\x96\xa0 1593 1633: \n\nBen Jonson, d. 1574 1637 \n\nPhilip Massinger, d 1584 1640 \n\nJeremy Taylor, t 1613 1667 \n\nJohn Milton, p 1608 1674 \n\nIsaac Barrow, t 1630 1677 \n\nThomas Hobbes, phil 1588 1679 \n\nSamuel Butler, p \xe2\x80\xa2 1612 1680 \n\nJohn Bunyan, t 1628 1688- \n\nJohn Dryden, p 1631 1700. \n\nJohn Locke, ph 1632 1704 \n\nJoseph Addison, c 1672 1719 \n\nMatthew Prior, j>. 1664 1721 \n\nRichard Steele, e 1671 1729 \n\nDaniel De Foe, n. pol 1663 1731 \n\nJohn Gay, p. 1688 1732 \n\nAlexander Pope, j) 16S8 17.(4 \n\nJonathan Swift, n. p 1667 1745 \n\nJames Thomson, p 1700 1748 \n\nHenry Fielding, n. d 1707 1754 \n\nSam. Richardson, w. 1689 1761 \n\nEdward Young, ;> 16S1 1765 \n\nLaurence Sterne, n 1713 1768 \n\nMark Akenside, p 17 21 177\xc2\xb0 \n\nThomas Gray, p 1716 177* \n\n\n\nENGLISH LANGUAGE. \n\n\n\n344 \n\n\n\nENGRAVING. \n\n\n\nTobias Smollett, n. . \nOliver Goldsmith, n. p. \nDavid Hume, h. ph. . \nSamuel Johnson, e. n. p. \nBenjamin Franklin, ph. pol \nWilliam Robertson, h. \nEdward Gibbon, h. . \nRobert Burns, p. . \nEdmund Burke, pol. \nWilliam Cowper, p. \nJohn Keats p. . \nPercy B. Shelley, p. \nGeorge lord Byron, p. \nGeorge Crabbe, p. \nWalter Scott, n. p. \nSamuel T. Coleridge, p. pl< \nCharles Lamb, e. . \nWilliam Cobbett, pol. e. \nRobert Southey, p. h. . \nThomas Arnold, h. . \nThomas Campbell, p. . \nSidney Smith, e. pol. \nThomas Hood, hum. . \nEdgar Allan Poe, p. \nMaria Edgeworth, n. . \nWin, Wordsworth, p. \nJ. Fennimore Cooper, n. \nJoanna Baillie, p. \nThomas Moore, p. m. . \nJohn Wilson, p. e. . \nSamuel Rogers, p. \nCharlotte Bronte, n. \nE. T. Channing, m. . \nHenry Hallam, h. \nThomas de Quincey, e. \nLeigh Hunt, e. \n\nWilliam Prescott, h. \nWashington Irving, n. h. \nT. B. Macaulay, l>. p. \nEliz. (Barrett) Browning \nSir Francis Palgrave, h. \nAbp. Richd. Whately, yl \nWm. M. Thackeray, n. \nW. S. Landor, m. \n\nNathl. Hawthorne, n. . \nW. Whewell, m. . \n\nHenry lord Brougham, pol. h. \nCharles Dickens, n. \nSir J. Hersehel, ph. . \n\nGeorge Ticknor, h. \n\nG. Grote, h. \n\nEdwd. Bulwer-Lytton, lord Lytt \n\nJohn Stuart Mill, ph. \n\nBryan W. Procter (" Barry Cornwall \' \n\nArthur Helps, e. . \n\nCharles Kingsley, m. \n\nHarriet Martineau, m, \n\nMarian Evans ("George Eliot") n. p. \n\nBenjamin Disraeli, lord Beaeonsfield, n. \n\nThomas Carlyle, h. e. \n\nH. W. Longfellow-, p. \n\nDante Gabriel Rossetti, p. \n\nCharles Darwin, nat. . \n\nAnthony Trollope, a. \n\nR. W. Emerson, e. p. \n\nSir Henry Taylor, p.cl. \n\nMatthew Arnold, p. m. \n\nW. G. Palgrave, tr. \n\nGeorge Bancroft, h. \n\nW. E. Gladstone, m. \n\nO. W. Holmes, e. p. n. \n\nAlfred Tennyson (lord, 1883), p \n\nThomas Trollope, n. \n\nRobert Browning, p. . \n\nSir Theodore Martin, h. p. m. . \n\nMrs. M. Oliphant, n. . \n\nJames Anthony Froude, h. m. \n\nJ. R. Lowell, hum. p. pol. . \n\nJohn Ruskin, art critic . \n\nHerbert Spencer, ph. . \n\nJohn Tyndall, m. \n\nE. A. Freeman, h. \n\nFrancis Turner Palgrave, p. \n\nT. H. Huxley, m. \n\nLord Lytton, p. m. . \n\nEdwin Arnold, p. \n\nWm. Morris p \n\n\n\nBorn. \n1720 \n1728 \n1711 \n1709 \n1706 \n1721 \n1737 \n1759 \n1729 \n\n1731 \nI79S \n1792 \n1788 \n1754 \n1771 \n1772 \n\n1775 \n1762 \n\n1774 \n\nI79S \n1777 \n1771 \n\n1799 \n\n\n\n1769 \n1770 \n1798 \n1763 \n1780 \n1785 \n1763 \n1816 \n1790 \n1778 \n1786 \n1784 \n1796 \n1783 \n\n\n\n1787 \n1811 \n\n1775 \n1804 \n\nJ 794 \n1778 \n1812 \n1792 \n1791 \n\n!794 \n1805 \n1806 \n1790 \n1813 \n1819 \n1802 \n1820 \n1805 \n\n1795 \n1807 \n1828 \n\n\n\n1809 \n1810 \n1812 \n1816 \n1818 \n1818 \n1819 \n1819 \n1820 \n1820 \n1823 \n1824 \n1825 \n1831 \n1832 \n1834 \n\n\n\nDied. \n1771 \n1774 \n1776 \n1784 \n1790 \n1793 \n1794 \n1796 \n1797 \n1800 \n1821 \n1822 \n1824 \n1832 \n1832 \n1834 \n1834 \n1835 \n1842 \n1843 \n1844 \n1845 \n\n\n\n1854 \n1855 \n1855 \n1856 \n1859 \n1859 \n\n\n\n1866 \n1868 \n1870 \n\n\n\n1873 \n1873 \n1874 \n187s \n1875 \n\n\n\nBorn. Died. \n\nA. C. Swinburne p 1837 \n\nRobert Buchanan, p 1841 \n\nR. L. Stevenson, n 1850 \n\nWm. Wilkie Collins, n 1824 1889 \n\nA. W. Kinglake, h. . . . ... 1812 1891 \n\nWalter Whitman, Am., p. . . . 1819 1892 \n\nJohn Greenleaf Whittier, Am., p. . . 1807 1892 \n\nd. dramatist ; e. essayist ; h. historian ; hum, humourist ; \nm. miscellaneous ; n. novelist ; nat. naturalist ; p. poet ; \nt. theologian : tr. traveller ; pol. political ; ph. philo- \nsopher. \n\n\'\xe2\x96\xa0ENGLISHMAN," a newspaper edited by \nDr. Kenealy, published in April, 1874, soon after the \nconviction of the claimant of the Tichborne estates \n(see Trials, 1873-4). For its libellous character, \nthe editor was disbenched by the society of Gray\'s \nInn, 1 Aug. 1874 ; ordered to give up his chambers \nby vice-chancellor, 29 June, 1876. He died 16 \nApril, 1880. \n\nENGRAVING on signets is mentioned Exod. \nxxviii. 11 (b.c. 1491). Engraving on plates and \nwood began about the middle of the 15th century. \nEngraving on glass was perfected by Bourdier, of \nPans, 1799. The copyright to engravings has been \nprotected by several statutes ; among the principal \nare the acts 16 & 18 Geo. III. 1775 and 1777; and \nthe acts 7 & 8 Vict. 6 Aug. 1844, and 15 Vict. 28 \nMay, 1852. A process of enlarging and reducing \nengravings by means of sheets of vulcanised india- \nrubber, was shown by the electro-printing block \ncompany in i860 ; see Lithography and Photo- \nGalvanography. In " Lyra Germanica," published \nin 1861, are illustrations engraved upon blocks \nphotographed from negatives taken by John Leigh- \nton, F.S.A. \n\nEngraving on Copper. Prints from engraved copper- \nplates made their appearance about 1450, and were \nfirst produced in Germany. Masso, surnamed Fini- \nguerra, is considered to have been the first Italian \nengraver, about 1440. (See Niello.) \n\nThe earliest date known of a copper-plate engraving is \n1461. \n\nRolling-presses for working the plates inveuted in 1545. \n\nOf the art of etchi ng on copper by means of aqua-fortis, \nFrancis Mazzuoli, or Parmegiano, is the reputed in- \nventor, about 1532. De Piles. \n\nEtching was practised by Albert Diirer, and most espe- \ncially by Rembrandt. Its revival began about i860. \nEminent modern etchers : \xe2\x80\x94 Messrs Lalanne, P. G. \nHamerton, F. Seymour Haden, Bracquemond, Jacque- \nmart, Martial, and others. The Etching Club was \nestablished in 1838. \n\nMr. Lumb Stocks, R.A., line engraver, born 1812, died \nApril, 1892. \n\nRoyal Society of Painter-etchers formed ; opened an exhi- \nbition, April, 1881. \n\nEngraving on Wood, long known in China, began in \nEurope with the brief-mahlers or manufacturers of \nplaying-cards, about 1400 (see Printing). The art is \nreferred by some to a Florentine, and by others to \nReuss, a German ; it was greatly improved by Diirer \n(1471-1528) and Lucas van Leyden (1497). Itwas much \nimproved in England by Bewick and his brother, and \npupils, Nesbitt, Anderson, &c. . 1789, et seq. The \nearliest wood engraving which has reached our times \nis one representing St. Christopher carrying the infant \nJesus over the sea ; it bears date 1423. \n\nMr. W. J. Linton\'s " Masters of Wood Engraving," with \n250 fine examples, published July, 1890. \n\nEngraving on Soft Steel, to be hardened afterwards, \nwas introduced into England by Messrs. Perkins and \nHeath, of Philadelphia, 1819. \n\nJohn Pye, " father of English landscape engraving," born \n1782; died 6 Feb. 1874. \n\nMezzotinto is said to have been discovered by col. von \nSiegen, who engraved a portrait of princess Amelia of \nHesse in mezzotinto in 1643 ; it was improved by \nprince Rupert in 1648 ; and by sir Christopher Wren, \nabout 1662. \n\n\n\nENLISTMENT. \n\n\n\n345 \n\n\n\nEPICUREAN PHILOSOPHY. \n\n\n\nAquatinta, by which a soft and beautiful effect is pro- \nduced, was invented by the celebrated French artist, \nSt. Non, about 1662 ; he communicated his invention \nto Le Prince. Barabbe of Paris was distinguished for \nhis improvements in this kind of engraving, 1763. \nChiar\'-oscuro engraving originated with the Germans, \nand was first practised by Mair, one of whose prints \nbears date 1491 (see Zinc, &c.) \n\nENLISTMENT. No persons enlisting as \nsoldiers or sailors are to be sworn in before a magis- \ntrate in less than twenty-four hours after, and they \nare then at liberty to withdraw upon their return- \ning the enlistment or bounty money, and 21s. costs. \nEnlistment is now entirely voluntary. In 1847 the \nterm of enlistment was limited to ten years for the \ninfantry, and twelve years for the cavalry, artillery, \nand royal marines ; and in 1867, to twelve years ; \nsee Army, 1867 and 1879, and Foreign Enlistment. \n\nENNISKILLEN (N. W. Ireland). This \ntown made an obstinate defence against the army of \nElizabeth, 1595, and resisted James II., 1689. 1500 \nEnuiskilleners met his general M\'Carthy at Newton \nButler with 6000 men (of whom 3000 were slain, \nand nearly all the rest made prisoners), they losing \nbut twenty men, 30 July, 1689. The dragoon regi- \nment, the "Inniskillingers," was originally re- \ncruited here. \n\nENOCH, BOOK OF, an apocryphal work, \nquoted by the fathers, disappeared about the 8th \ncentury. A MS. Ethiopic version was found in \nAbyssinia by Bruce, and brought to England in \n1773. Of this, archbishop Lawrence published an \nEnglish translation in 1821, and the Ethiopic text \nin 1838. \n\nENSILAGE (from silo, a pit), a system of pre- \nserving com and green fodder for cattle in pits \nmade air and water tight, recently practised by \nFrench agriculturists ; described by M. Goffart and \nby professor Thorold Rogers, M.P., in his "Ensi- \nlage," published 1883. Ensilage reported successful \nat Peckforton, Cheshire, 27 Nov. 1883 ; commended \nby the prince of Wales and others at a meeting of \nthe Institute of Agriculture, 17 March, 1884; en- \nsilage has been found successful in India, 1884. \nFavourable reports of a private practical and scien- \ntific commission issued, 5 Aug. 1885 ; and\' 14 May, \n1886 ; opinions differ as to economy. Ensilage \nwith building silos practised in 188". \n\nENSISHEIM (E. France). Here Turenne \ndefeated the Imperial army, and expelled it from \nAlsace, 4 Oct. 1674. \n\nENTAIL of estates began with the statute of \nWestminster, 1285. Subsequent legislation broke \nthe entail incases of treason (1534), when the estate \nis to revert to the crown, and of bankruptcy (1833 \nand 1849), when it is to be sold. The law of entail \nin Scotland was amended in 1875. \n\nENTERTAINMENT of the People So- \nciety, for the very poor, held first concert at the \nboard school room, Saffron-hill, London, Saturday, \n12 April, 1879. \n\nENTOMOLOGY, the science of insects, now \nmainly based upon the arrangement of Linnanis, \n1739. Ray\'s " Methodus Insectorum," 1705 ; " In- \nsectorum Historia," 1 7 10. The Entomological \nSociety of London was instituted 3 May, 1833 ; was \nmade Royal Aug. 188$. A National Entomological \nExhibition at the Westminster Aquarium was \nopened 9 March, 1878. Miss Ormerod appointed \nhonorary consulting entomologist to the Royal \nAgricultural Society, 1882. \n\nENVELOPES for letters are mentioned by \nSwift, 1726. Stamped adhesive envelopei came \n\n\n\ninto general use shortly after the establishment of \nthe penny postal system, 10 Jan. 1840. Machinery \nfor tlieir manufacture was patented by Mr. George \nWilson in 1844 ; and by Messrs. E. Hill and Warren \nde la Rue, 17 March, 1845. \n\nENVOYS AT COURTS, in dignity below am- \nbassadors, enjoy the protection, but not the cere- \nmonies of ambassadors. Envoys extraordinary are \nof modern date. Wicquefort. \n\nEOZOON CANADENSE, asserted to he the \nearliest known form of life, is a species of foramini- \nfera, found by professor J. W. Dawson, of Montreal, \nin Laurentiau limestone in 1858. \n\nEPACT (Greek, added) is the excess of the \nsolar month above the lunar synodical month, \n1 day, 11 hours, 15 minutes, 57 seconds, the lunar \nmonth being only 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, 3 \nseconds ; and the excess of the solar year above the \nlunar synodical year (nearly 11 days), the lunar \nyear being 354 days. The epact of any year in- \ndicates the moon\'s age on the 1st Jan. in that year. \nThe number of the Gregorian epact for 1893, 12 ; \n1894, 23; 1895, 4 5 i&fi, 15. \n\nEPERNAY (N.E. France), seat of the trade \nin champagne, was taken from the League by \nHenry IV., 26 July, 1592, when marshal Annand \nBiron was killed. \n\nEPHESUS (in Asia Minor), a city said to have \nbeen founded by the Carians and Leleges, burnt by \nthe Amazons, rebuilt by the Ionians about 1043 B.C. \nIt was subdued by Cyrus in 544 b.c. ; revolted \nfrom the Persians, 501 B.C. and was destroyed by \nan earthquake in a.d. 17. See Diana, Temple \nof, and Seven Churches. Paul preached here \na.d. 55, 56 {Acts xviii. xix.) His epistle to \nthe Ephesians is dated a.d. 64. The third general \ncouncil was held here in 431. After investi- \ngation, begun in 1863, Mr. J. T. Wood dis- \ncovered the site of the temple of Diana in Apiil, \n1870; and about 60 tons of marble were shipped at \nSmyrna for the British Museum, Jan. 1872, part of \nwhich arrived in the summer. Mr. Wood published \nan illustrated account of his discoveries in 1876. \nThe site of the temple was purchased for the liritish \nMuseum. Mr. J . T. Wood resumed his excavations, \nsummer, 1883. \n\nEPIIORI, powerful magistrates of Sparta, five \nin number, said to have been first created by \nTheopompus to control the royal power, about \n757 B.C. \n\nEPIC POEMS (from Greek epos, a song), \nnarratives in verse. Eminent examples : \xe2\x80\x94 \nHomer\'s " Iliad " and " Odyssey " (Greek), between \n\n8th and 10th century B.C. (see Homer). \nMaha-barhata, Sanscrit, very ancient ; by several \n\nauthors ; the longest epic known (220,000 lines). \nVirgil\'s " iEneid " (Latin) about . . . b.c. 19 \nOvid\'s " Metamorphoses " (Latin), about . a.d. i \nDante (died 1321), " Divina Commedia " (Italian) \n\npublished 1472 \n\nAxiosto, " Orlando Furioso " (Italian) . . . 1516 \nCamoens\' " Lusiad " (Portuguese) .... 1569 \nTasso, " Jerusalem Delivered " (Italian) . . . 1581 \nSpenser\'s " Faery Queen " .... 1590-6 \n\nMilton\'s " Paradise Lost " 1667 \n\nVoltaire, " Henriade " (French) .... 1728 \nWalter Scott, " Lay of the Last Minstrel," &c. . . 1805 \n\nEPICUREAN PHILOSOPHY. Epicurus \nof Gargettus, near Athens, about 306 B.C., taught \nthat the greatest good consists in peace of mind \nspringing from virtue, as tending to prevent dis- \nquiet : but the name epicurean is frequently given \nto those who derive happiness from sensual plea- \nsure. (See Atoms.) \n\n\n\nEPIDAURUS. \n\n\n\n346 \n\n\n\nERAS. \n\n\n\nEPIDAURUS (Greece), celebrated for the \ntemple of Asclepius, or ./Esculapius, god of medicine, \nand enriched by gifts from persons healed. The \nRomans sent an embassy to seek the help of the \ngod during a pestilence, and his worship was in- \ntroduced at Rome, 293 B.C. The temple was visited \nby iEmilius Paulus, after his conquer of Mace- \ndonia, 167 B.C. \n\nEPIDEMIC PREVENTION ACT, 46 & \n\n47 Vict. c. 59, passed 25 Aug. 1883. \n\nEPIDEMIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF \n\nLONDON, established in 1850 ; has done valu- \nable work. \n\nEPIGENESIS, see Spontaneous Generation. \n\nEPIGRAMS. Marcus Valerius Martialis, the \nLatin epigrammatist, who flourished about a.d. 83, \nis allowed to have excelled all others, ancient or \nmodern. The following epigram on Christ\'s turning \nwater into wine {John hi.) is an example : \xe2\x80\x94 " Vidit \net erubuit lympha pudica Deum." " The modest \nwater saw its God, and blushed." Crashaw (died \n1650). \n\n" The Epigrammatists," a collection by rev. H. P. Dodd, \npublished 1870 and 1875. \n\nEPIPHANY (appearance), a feast (Jan. 6), \ntermed Twelfth Day, celebrates the manifestation \nof the Saviour, by the appearance of the star which \nconducted the Magi to the place where he was to be \nfound; early observed, but became a separate feast, \n813. Whately. \n\nEPIRUS (Northern Greece). Its early history \nis very obscure. \n\nThe first Pyrrhus (Neoptolemus) settled in Epirus, \nafter the Trojan war, 1 170 B.C., and was killed in \nthe temple of Delphi . . . . about B.C. 1165 \n\nAlexander the first king invades Italy to assist the \nTarentines, against the Lucanians, &c, is de- \nfeated and slain at Pandosia . . . B.C. 326 \n\nPyrrhus the Great reigns, 295 ; he takes Macedon \nfrom Demetrius ; is compelled to yield to Lysi- \nmachus 287 \n\nInvited by the Tarentines, invades Italy, see Rome, \n\n281-275 \n\nTemporary success in Sicily . 279 et seq. \n\nHe takes Macedon from Antigonus . . . 273 \n\nHe unsuccessfully invades Sparta; enters Argos, and \nis killed by a tile, thrown by a woman . . 272 \n\nPhilip unites Epirus to Macedon . . . 220 \n\nIts conquest by the Romans 167 \n\n******* \n\nEpirus annexed to the Ottoman empire . a.d. 1466 \nAn insurrection against the Turks put down . . 1854 \n\nEPISCOPACY, see Bishops. \n\nEPISTLES or LETTERS. An Egyptian letter \nabout 1300 B.C. is tran.-dated in " Records of the \nPast," vol. 6. A letter was sent to Joab by David \nby the hands of Uriah, about 1035 B.C. (2 Ham. xi. \n14); see under article Bible. Horace Walpole, re- \nnowned for his letters, was born 5 Oct. 1717 ; died \n2 March, 1797. The collection entitled \xe2\x80\xa2\' Elegant \nEpistles," commencing with Cicero, was published \nin 1790. It ends with an essay on letter writing by \nDr. Johnson. \n\nEPITAPHS were inscribed on tombs by the \nEgyptians, Jews, Greeks, and Romans. Mr. T. J. \nPettigrew published a collection entitled " Chroni- \ncles of the Tombs," in 1857. \n\nEPITHALAMIUM, a nuptial song at mar- \nriage. Tisias, the lyric poet, is said to have been \nthe first writer of one. He received the name of \nStc-sichorus, from the alterations made by him in \nmusic and dancing, about 536 B.C. Bossuet. \n\n\n\nEPOCHS, points of time made remarkable \nby some event, from which subsequent years are \nreckoned by historians and chronologers ; see Eras. \nSee Anno Domini, Hegira, &c. \n\nEPPING FOREST, see Forests, note. \n\nEPSOM (Surrey). The mineral springs were \ndiscovered in 1 61 8. The races began about 171 1, \nand have been held annually since 1730. Popula- \ntion, 1881, 6,916 ; 1891, 8,417. \n\nEQUATION OP TIME. See Geodesy. \n\nEQUATOR or ECUADOR, a South American \nrepublic, formerly Quito and other provinces, part \nof Columbia, 1821; independent in 1831, when the \nColumbian republic was divided into three; the \nother two being Venezuela and New Granada. The \npopulation of Equator in 1885, 1,004,651. \nPresidents: general Franco, 21 Aug. 1859; defeated \nin battle by general Flores, Aug. i860 ; G. G. \nMoreno, Jan. 1861 ; Geronimo Carrion, 4 Aug. \n1865 ; disputes with the chambers ; resigns Dec. 1867 \nDr. Xavier Espinosa was elected president, 13 Sept. ,, \nDr. Gabriel Garcia Moreno, president, . end of 1872 \nPresident Moreno assassinated, 6 Aug. ; state of \nsiege proclaimed, Sept. 1875 ; Yeintiinille, presi- \ndent Sept. 1876 \n\nRevolt ; constitutional army under Aparicio defeated \n\nat Galte 14 Dec. ,, \n\nEruption of Cotopaxi .... 25 June, 1877 \n\nAlfaro dictator Jan. 1883 \n\nJose Maria Plaoido Caamano, president 12 Feb. 1884 \nRevolution at Esmeraldas, headed by Eloy Alfaro \n\nwith military administration . . 4 Nov. i836 \nSeiior Antonio Flores, president, 30 June, 1888 ; \nSen. Louis Cordero, about . . .18 June, 1892 \nSee Earthquakes, 1868. \n\nEQUATORIAL AFRICA. See Soudan, \n\n1886. \n\nEQUESTRIAN ORDER in Rome was estab- \nlished with Romulus, about 750 B.C. ; see Knight- \nhood. \n\nEQUINOX. When the sun in his progress \npasses throug*h the equator in one of the equinoc- \ntial points, the day and night are equal all over \nthe globe. This occurs twice in the year: about \n21 March, the vernal equinox, and 22 Sept., the \nautumnal equinox. The equinoctial points move \nbackwards about 50 seconds yearly, requiring 25,000 \nyears to accomplish a complete revolution. This is \ncalled the precession of the equinoxes, which . is \nsaid to have been observed by the ancient astrono- \nmers. \n\nEQUITY, COURTS OF, are those of the lord \nchancellor, the vice-chancellors, and the master of \nthe rolls, their office being to correct the operations \nof the literal text of the law, and supply its defects \nby reasonable construction not admissible in a court \nof law. The supreme court of session in Scot- \nland combines the functions of law and equity. Ill \n1865 equity powers were conferred on the county \ncourts for cases respecting sums under 500/. See \nSupreme Court, in which law and equity are \ncombined. \n\nERAS. The principal are more fully noticed \nin their alphabetical order. \nCommon Era (English Bible, Usher, &c.) . B.C. 4004 \n\nEra of the Jews 37 6j \n\nEra of Constantinople, 1 Sept. 5508 ; of Antioch, \n\n1 Sept. 5492 \nAlexandrian or Mundane era . . 29 Aug. 5502 \n\nJulian era 1 Jan. 4713 \n\nEra of Abraham 1 Oct. 2015 \n\nEra of Nabonassar, after which the astronomical \n\nobservations made at Babylon were reckoned, \n\nbegan 26 Feb. 747 \n\n\n\nERASTIANISM. \n\n\n\n347 \n\n\n\nESSEN. \n\n\n\n753 i \n\n125 \n\n48 \n\n\n\nEra of the Seleucidce (used by the Maccabees), \n\ncommenced \nThe Olympiads belong to the Grecians, and date \n\nfrom 1 July, 776 b.c. \nThe Romans reckoned from the founding of their \n\ncity, a. u.c. (anno urbis conditce) .... \n\nEra of Tyre 19 Oct. \n\nCcesarean era of Antioch 1 Sept. \n\nSpanish Era (of the conquest of Spain), the 16th year \n\nof the emperor Augustus (see Ccesars), long used \n\nby the Spaniards . . . . a.d. 1 Jan. \n\nActian era b.c. i Jan. \n\nPontifical or Ecclesiastical Initiation, 25 Dec. or 1 Jan. \nVulgar Christian era .... a.d. i Jan. \nEra of Diocletian or Martyrs, began . . 29 Aug. \nThe Mahometans began their era from the Ilegira, \n\nor flight of their prophet from Mecca 16 July, \n\nArmenian era a.d. 7 July, \n\nEra of Yczdegird III. or Persian era a.d. 16 June, \nEra of Vicramadityo, used in India, began B.C. \n\nSee Creation, Cali Yvga, Anno Domini, Calendar. \n\nEEASTIANISM, the opinions of Thomas \nLieber (latinised Erastus), a German physician \nC1524-83), who taught that the church had no \nright to exclude any person from church ordi- \nnances, to inflict excommunication, &c. Persons \nwho acknowledge the jurisdiction of the civil power \nin spiritual matters and the law of patronage are \nnow termed Erastians. \n\nERASURES. By order of sir John Romilly, \nmaster of the rolls, in 1855, no document corrected \nhy erasure with the knife was to be henceforth \nreceived in his court. The errors must be corrected \nwith the pen. It is so in the army courts. \n\nERDINGTON ORPHANAGE, &c ; see \nOrphans\' -houses. \n\nERFURT (Central Germany), was founded in \n476 ; and its university established about 1390. \nErfurt was ceded to Prussia in 1802. It capitu- \nlated to Murat, when 14,000 Prussian troops surren- \ndered, 16 Oct. 1806. In this city Napoleon and \nAlexander met, and offered peace to England, 27 \nSept. 1808. The French retreated to Erfurt from \nLeipsic, 18 Oct. 1813. A German parliament met \nhere in March and April, 1850. Population, 1S90, \n72,371- \n\nERICSSON\'S CALORIC ENGINE, see \nHeat, note. \n\nERITREO, a new Italian colony on the Red \nSea, established by royal decree, 2 Jan. 1890. \n\nERIVAN (Armenia), in the 16th century the \nresidence of the shahs of Persia, was taken by the \nTurks in 1553 and 1582; but recovered by Abbas \nthe Great, 1604. After being several times cap- \ntured, it was ceded to Persia, 1769. It was taken \nby Paskiewitch in 1827, and annexed to Russia by \ntreaty in Feb. 1828. \n\nERZEROUM (Asiatic Turkey), a city built \nby Theodosius II., 415; taken by the Seljuk Turks \nin the 13th century, and by the Ottoman Turks in \n1517. It was captured by the Russian general \nPaskiewitch, June, 1829, but restored in 1830. It was \nalmost totally destroyed by earthquakes, 2 June to \n17 July, 1859. Population in 1885,60,000. \n\nESCHEAT, the reverting of any lam! or tene- \nments to the lord of the fee, or to the state, through \nfailure of heirs; formerly al>o through attainder of \nthe tenant, which last was abolished by the Felony \nAct, 1870. \n\nESCOMBRERA BAY, Battle of ; see \n\nSpain, II Oct. 1873. \n\nESCURIAL, properly ESCORIAL (25 miles \nN.W. of Madrid), the magnificent palace of the \n\n\n\nsovereigns of Spain, termed the eighth wonder of \nthe world, was commenced by Philip II. in 1563,. \nand completed in 1586, at a cost of about I0,000,ooo\'. \nIt is built in the form of a gridiron in honour of \nSt. Lawrence, on whose day (10 Aug. 1557) the \nSpaniards gained the victory of St. Ouentin. Ac- \ncording to Francisco de los Santos the total length \nof all its rooms and apartments is above 120 English \nmiles. The Escurial comprises a church, mauso- \nleum, monastery, palace, library, and museum. It \nwas struck by lightning and caught fire 11.30 p.nu \n1 Oct. 1872, and was much damaged; but the- \ngrand library and other treasures were preserved. \n\nESPARTO, from the Latin spartum, stipct \ntenacissima of Linnaeus, a Spanish grass used by \nRomans for whip-thongs, and now largely employed; \nin paper-making. In 1856 about 50 tons, in 187O1 \nabove 100,000 tons, and in 1890, 403,263 tons, were- \nimported into Britain. The price has risen front \n/\\l. to 10^. per ton. Living plants were received \nat Newcastle, July, 1867. \n\nESPIERRES (Belgium). At Pont-a-Chin y \nnear this village, the French, under Pichegru, \nattacked the allied English and Austrian army \n(100,000 men), commanded by the duke of York, \nand were repulsed after a long and desperate en- \ngagement, losing the advantages gained by the- \nvictory at Turcoing, 22 May, 1794. \n\nESPRIT, SAINT (or Holy Ghost), the title of \nan order of knighthood, founded by Henry III. of \nFrance in 1578, and abolished in 1791. \n\nESQUIRES, among the Greeks and Romans, \nwere armour-bearers to, or attendants on a knight. \nBlount. In England the king created esquires by \nputting about their necks the collars of SS, and \nbestowing upon them a pair of silver spurs. John/ \nde Kingston was created a squire by patent, 13, \nRichard II., 1389-90. There are now legally \nesquires by birth, by creation, and by holding some- \noffice, butthe title is very loosely given by courtesy. \n\n"ESSAYS AND REVIEWS," by six clergy- \nmen and one layman of the church of England (the \nRev. Drs. Fred. Temple and Rowland Williams,, \nprofessor Baden Powell, H. B. Wilson, Mark \nPattisou, and professor B. Jowett, and Mr. C. W. \nGoodwin) were published in an 8vo vol. in March, \ni860. The book did not excite much attention at \nfirst, but having been severely censured for hetero- \ndox views by nearly all the bishops and many of \nthe clergy, it created much excitement in 1861, \nand was condemned by convocation 24 June, 1864. \nThe ecclesiastical courts sentenced the revs. R. \nWilliams and H. B. Wilson to suspension for one \nyear, and costs, 15 Dec. 1862; but on appeal the \nsentence was reversed by the judicial committee of \nthe privy council, 8 Feb. 1864. The most remark- \nable amongst the works put forth in opposition (in \n1862) are the "Aids to Faith," edited by the bishop \nof Gloucester (W. Thomson, now abp. of York), \nand "Replies to Essays and Reviews," edited by \nthe bishop of Oxford (S. Wilberforce). The elec- \ntion of Dr. Temple to the see of Exeter was much \nopposed on account of his essay iu this collection; \nsee Church of England, 1869. \n\nESSENES, an ascetic, Jewish sect at the time \nof Christ. \n\nESSEN, a to > n in Rhenish Prussia, which \nbegan with\' the Benedictine nunnery, about 873. \nAmong the iron manufactories, the chief are thos \nof Erupp, in which were employed 74 men in 1S4S, \nand 20,960 in 1888, when the works contained 1. 195 \n\n\n\nESSEX. \n\n\n\n348 \n\n\n\nETON COLLEGE. \n\n\n\n-furnaces, 92 steam-hammers, 370 steam-engines, \nand other great apparatus. See Cannon. Popula- \ntion, 1890, 78,723. See Westphalia, 1889. \n\nESSEX, KINGDOM OF ; see under Britain. \n\nEARLS OF ESSEX (from Nicolas). \n\nGeoffrey de Mandeville, created earl of Essex by \n\nMatilda, was slain .... 14 Sept. 1144 \nHumphrey de Bohun, succeeded by right of his mo- \nther, Mary, sister of William, who died without heir 1189 \nHumphrey de Bohun, died without heir . . 1372 \nThomas of Woodstock, son of Edward III. 1372 ; \n\nmurdered 1397 \n\nHenry Bourchier (grandson) .... 1461 \n\nHenry Bourchier, grandson ; died without heir \n\n(earldom extinct) 1539 \n\nThomas Cromwell, 1539 ; beheaded . . . 1540 \nWilliam Parr, 1543 ; attainted .... 1543 \n\nWalter Devereux, 1572 ; died .... 1576 \nRobert Devereux, lord lieut. of Ireland, 1599 ; cen- \nsured for misgovernment ; conspired against the \ngovernment ; beheaded, 25 Feb. . . . 1601 \nRobert, son ; died without heir . . . 1646 \n\nArthur Capel,. ancestor of the present earl . . 1661 \n\nESSLING, Battle of, see Asperne. \n\nESTE, HOUSE OF. Boniface, count of Lucca \nand duke of Tuscany, about 811, is \xc2\xa3aid to have \ndescended from Odoacer, king of Italy. From \nBoniface sprang Albert Azzo II. marquis of Italy \n\xe2\x96\xa0and lord of Este, born about 996, who married \xe2\x80\x94 \nfirst, Cunegonda of the house of Guelf, by whom he \nhad Guelf, duke of Bavaria, the ancestor of the \nhouse of Brunswick (see Bavaria and Brunswick) ; \nand secondly, Gersonda, by whom he had Fulk, \nthe ancestor of the Estes, dukes of Ferrara and \nModena. \n\nESTELLA, N. Spain. In a conflict at Pcha \nMura, near this place, 25-28 June, 1874, the repub- \nlicans were repulsed, and their general, Manuel de \nConcha (aged 66), killed, by the Carlists, 27 June. \n\nES rHONIA or BEVEL, a Russian province, \nsaid to have been conquered by the Teutonic \nknights in the I2th century; after various changes \nit was ceded to Sweden by the treaty of Oliva, 3 \nMay, 1660, and finally to Russia by the peace of \nNystadt, 30 Aug. 1721, having been conquered by \nPeter in 1710. Population, 1886, 395,979. \n\nETATS, see States. \n\nETCHING, see Engraving. \n\nETHEB was known to the earliest chemists. \nNitric ether was first discovered by Kunkel, in \n1681 ; and muriatic ether, from the chloride of tin, \nhy Courtanvaux, in 1759. Acetic ether was dis- \ncovered by count Lauraguais, same year ; and \nhydriotic ether was first prepared by Gay-Lussac. \nThe phosphoric ether was obtained by M. Boullay. \nThe discovery that by inhaling ether the patient is \nrendered unconscious of pain, is due to Dr. C. \nT. Jackson, of Boston, U. S. Mr. Thomas Morton, \nof the same place, first introduced it into surgical \npractice, under Dr. Jackson\'s directions (1846) ; see \nChloroform, and Amylene. The drinking of ether \nas an intoxicant greatly increased in the north of \nIreland, was checked by the enforcement of the \nPoisons Act of 1870, in regard to its sule, Oct. 1891. \nThe term "ether" was applied to the transparent \ncelestial space by the German astronomer Encke, \nabout 1829, when studying the elements of Pons\' \n\xe2\x96\xa0comet, discovered in iSi-8. \n\nETHICS (Greek term for Morals). The works \nof Plato, Aristotle, and Confucius, contain heathen \nsystems ; the New Testament is that of Christianity. \nPaley\'s Moral Philosophy appeared in 1785, and \nWhewell\'s Elements of\' Morality in 1845. An \nEthical Society existed in London, 1890. \n\n\n\nETHIOPIA. The name was applied anciently \nrather vaguely to countries the inhabitants of \nwhich had sun-burnt complexions, in Asia and \nAfrica ; but is now considered to apply properly to \nthe modern Nubia, Sennaar, and Northern Abyssinia. \nMany pyramids exist at Napata, the capital of \nMeroe, the civilised part of ancient Ethiopia. \nThe Ethiopians settle near Egypt . . B.C. 1615 \n\nZerah, the Ethiopian, defeated by Asa . . . 941 \nA dynasty of Ethiopian kings reigned over Egypt \n\n765 to 715 \nTirhakah, king of Ethiopia, inarches against Senna- \ncherib 7 10 \n\nUnsuccessful invasion of Cambyses . . 525-522 \n\nPtolemy HI. Euergetes extended his conquests in \n\nEthiopia 225 \n\nCandace, queen of Meroe, advancing against the \nRoman settlement at Elephantine, defeated and \nsubdued by Petronius . . . . a.d. 22-23 \n\nETHNOLOGY, a branch of Anthropology, is \ndefined as the science "which determines the dis- \ntinctive characters of the persistent modifications of \nmankind, their distribution, and the causes of the \nmodifications and distribution." The study of the \nrelations of the different divisions of mankind to \neach other is of recent origin. Balbi\'s Ethnographic \nAtlas was published in 1826, and Dr. Prichard\'s \ngreat work, Researches on the Physical History of \nMankind, 1841-7. The Ethnological Society, \nestablished in 1843, published transactions. On 17 \nJan. 1871, it was amalgamated with the Anthropo- \nlogical Society, (which see) and named the Anthropo- \nlogical Institute. Dr. R. G. Latham\'s works, on \nthe Ethnology of the British Empire, appeared in \n1851-2. Professor T. H. Huxley gave lectures \non Ethnology at the Royal Institution, London, \nin 1866-7. Annual reports of the Bureau of Ethno- \nlogy, Washington, U.S., began to be published, 1879. \nThe International Congress of the Ethnographic \nSciences met at Paris Sept. 30, 1889. \n\nETHYL, a compound radicle, a colourless gas, \nwith a slightly ethereal odour, a compound of \ncarbon and hydrogen, first obtained in the free state \nby professor Edw. Frankland in 1849. Several of \nit= compounds with metals take fire in the air. \n\nETNA, MOUNT (Sicily). Here were the fabled \nforges of the Cyclops : and it is called by Pindar \nthe pillar of heaven. Eruptions are mentioned by \nDiodorus Siculus as happening 1693 B.C., and \nThucydides speaks of three eruptions as occurring \n734, 477, and 425 B.C. There were eruptions, 125, \n121, and 43 B.C. Livy. \nEruptions, a. d. 40, 254, and 420. Carrera. \nOne in 1312. Geoffrey de Viterbo. \nOne overwhelmed Catania, when 15,000 inhabitants \n\nperished in the burning ruins . . . 1169 \n\nEruptions, 1329, 1408, 1445, 1536, 1537, 1564, et seq. \nIn 1669, when tens of thousands of persons perished \n\nin the streams of lava which rolled over the whole \n\ncountry for forty days. \nEruptions in 1766, 1787, 1809, 1811, and in May, \n\n1830, when several villages were destroyed, and \n\nshowers of lava reached near to Rome. \nThe town of Bronte was destroyed . . 18 Nov. 1832 \nViolent eruption occurred in . . Aug. and Sept. 1852 \nAn eruption began on 1 Feb., and ceased in July 1865 \nViolent eruptions began 28 Nov. 1S68, and 29 Aug. 1874 \nViolent eruption . . .16 May \xe2\x80\x94 7 June, 1879 \n\nEruption 22 March \xe2\x80\x94 4 April, 1883 \n\nA violent eruption, with earthquakes ; much \n\ndamage 18 May \xe2\x80\x94 4 June, 1886 \n\nDestructive eruptions, with earthquake shocks, \n\n9 July \xe2\x80\x94 2 Sept. et seq. 1892 \n\nETON COLLEGE (Buckinghamshire), \nfounded by Henry VI. in 1440, and designed as a \nnursery to King\'s College, Cambridge. John \nStanbery, confessor to Henry VI. (bishop of Bangor, \n\n\n\nETRURIA. \n\n\n\n319 \n\n\n\nEURASIAN PLAIN. \n\n\n\nin 1448), was nominated the first provost. One of \nthe provosts, William Waynflete, (bishop of Win- \nchester, 1447) greatly promoted the erection of the \nbuildings. Besides about three hundred noblemen\'s \nand gentlemen\'s sons, there were seventy king\'s \nscholars on the foundation, who, when properly \nqualified, were formerly elected, on the first Tuesday \nin August, to King\'s College, Cambridge, and re- \nmoved there when there were vacancies, according \nto seniority. The establishment of the Moritem is \nnearly eoeval-with the college. It consisted in the \nprocession of the scholars, arrayed in fancy dresses, \nto Salt-hill once in three years ; the donations col- \nlected on the road (sometimes as much as 800^.) \nwere given to the senior or best scholar, their captain, \nfor his support while studying at Cambridge. The \nmontem was discontinued in 1847. The college \nsystem was modified by the Public Schools act, 1868. \nIn 1873 election Saturday ceased, the scholars to be \nstudents at Cambridge being chosen there. In 1880 \nthere were 853 students; in 1891, 1,007. \nThe Queen laid the comer stone of the new school \n\nbuildings 18 May, 1889 \n\nNinth jubilee of the foundation of the college \n\ncelebrated 24 June, 1891 \n\nPopulation of Eton in 1881, 3,464 ; 1891, 2,499. \n\nETRURIA (or TUSCIA, hence the modern \nname Tuscany), a province of Italy, whence the \nRomans, in a great measure, derived their laws, \ncustoms, and superstitions. Herodotus asserts that \nthe country was conquered by a colony of Lydians. \nThe subjugation of this country forms an important \npart of early Roman history. It was most powerful \nunder Porsena of Clusium, who attempted to rein- \nstate the Tarquins, 506 B.C. Veii was taken by \nCamillus, 396 B.C. A truce between the Romans \nand Etrurians for forty years was concluded. 351 B.C. \nThe latter and their allies were defeated at the \nVadimonian lake, 310, with the Boii their allies, \n283 B.C., and totally lost their independence about \n265 B.C. The vases and other works of the Etrus- \ncans still remaining show the degree of their \ncivilisation. Napoleon I. established a kingdom of \nEtruria, 1801, and suppressed it 1807, see Tuscany. \xe2\x80\x94 \n"The Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria," by George \nDennis, published 1848 and 1878. Etruria, Staf- \nfordshire, the site of Josiah Wedgwood\'s porcelain \nworks, &c, was founded in 1 77 1 . \n\nEUBCEA, the largest island in the .TEgean sea. \nTwo of its cities, Chalcis and Eretria, were very \nimportant, till the former was subdued by Athens, \n506 B.C. and the latter by the Persians, 490. After \nthe Persian war, Eubcea became wholly subject to \nAthens, and was its most valuable possession. It \nrevolted in 445, but was soon subdued by Pericles. \nAfter the battle of Chuerouea, 338, it became subject \nto Macedon. It was made independent by the \nRomans in 194; but was afterwards incorporated in \nthe province of Achaia. It now forms part of the \nkingdom of Greece. \n\nEUCALYPTUS GLOBULUS, or Blue \nGum Tree, a very last growing Tasmanian ever- \ngreen, of the order Mi/rtacrce. From the extraor- \ndinary power of its roots of absorbing moisture, and \nthe salutary aromatic odour of its leaves, it has \nbeen found highly beneficial in counteracting the \nmalaria of marshy districts of hot climates, and \nhence has been named the fever-destroying tree. \nM. Ramel first sent seeds from .Melbourne to Paris \nin 1854, and subsequently seeds were distributed \nover the south of Europe, the north and south of \nAfrica, and elsewhere. He died in 188 1. \n\nSo rapid is the growth of this tree, that a forest may \nbe formed in twenty years. It sometimes reaches the \n\n\n\nheight of ^50 feet, with a circumference of 100 feet, \nrivalling Wellingtonia gigantea, which see. \n\nThe timber, bark, and oils of the Eucalyptus are \nhighly valuable, and professor Bentley says that the \ngenus is one of the most important to man in the vege- \ntable kingdom. In 1874 its medicinal value was said to \nhave been exaggerated. \n\nEUCHARIST, thanksgiving, an early name \nfor the Lord\'s Supper; see Sacrament. \n\nEUCLID\'S ELEMENTS. Euclid, a native* \nof Alexandria, flourished about 323-283 B.C. The \nElements are not wholly his; for many of the \ndemonstrations were derived from Thales, Pytha- \ngoras, Eudoxus, and others ; Euclid reduced them \nto order, and probably inserted many theorems of \nhis own. The Elements were first printed at Basil \nby Simon Grynaeus, in 1533. Euclid is said to have \ntold king Ptolemy that there was no royal road lo> \ngeometry. \n\nEUDIOMETER, an apparatus to ascertain \nthe purity of atmospheric air, or the quantity of \noxygen gas or vital air contained in it ; one waa \ninvented by Dr. Priestley, in 1772. \n\nEUGENICS, see Heredity. \n\nEUGUBINE TABLES, seven tablets of \nbrass, probable date about 400 B.C., (with inscrip- \ntions relating to sacrifices, &c, four in Umbrian, two- \nLatin, and one partly in both dialects), we:e disco- \nvered in 1444 at Gubbio, the ancient Eugubium or \nIguviuin. The inscriptions are accurately given by \nLepsius, in his " Inscriptiones Umbricne et Oscas," \n184 1. \n\nEUNUCHS, first mentioned among the Egyp- \ntians and Assyrians, and said to have been first \nemployed by Semiramis, queen of Assyria, about \n2007 B.C. Eunuchs frequently attained" to political \npower iu the later Eastern empire. \n\nEUPATORIA (KOSLEFF), a sea-port on the \nwest coast of the Crimea. After the allied French, \nEnglish, and Turkish armies landed in the Crimea, \n14 Sept. 1854, a detachment under captain Brock \noccupied this place, which was afterwards reinforced \nby the Turks. It was attacked 17 Feb. 1855, by \n40,000 Russians under Liprandi. The latter were \nrepulsed with the loss of 500 men by the Turks, \nwhose loss was only 50, among which, however, \nwas Selim Pasha, the commander of the Egyptian \ncontingent. \n\nEUPHRATES, the largest river in Western \nAsia. It rises in Armenia, and has two branches. \nOn its banks are the remains of numerous ancient \ncities, such as Babylon and Birs Nnnrud. The \nEuphrates Valley Railway, as a speedy means of \nreaching India, has been much advocated, espe- \ncially by the late general Chesney, who published \nhis survey of the Euphrates and Tigris in 1850. \nA parliamentary commission reported on it, Aug. \n1872, when it was also considered at the meeting of \nthe British association at Brighton. The con- \nstruction would cost from five to ten millions \nsterling, and its advantages are considered rather \nhypothetical by the best judges. \n\nEUPHUISM, an affected style of language, \nprevalent in the time of Elizabeth, arose from \n" Kuphues; the Anatomy of Wit," by John Lyly, \npublished in 1581. \n\nEURASIAN PLAIN, the great central plain \n\nof Europe and Asia, so named by ethnologists \n\n(1865). The offspring of a European father and an \n\nAsiatic mother is termed Eurasian. The degraded \n\n| condition of the Eurasians, which has caused much \n\n\n\nEUROPE. \n\n\n\n350 \n\n\n\nEXAMINER OF PLAYS. \n\n\n\nanxiety, especially at Calcutta, was discussed early \nin 1891. The Marchioness of Dufferin was deeply \ninterested in the matter about 1884. \n\nEUROPE, the smallest of the three divisions \n<of the old continent, really an appendage of Asia ; \narea, nearly 3,800,000 square miles; population, \n301,700,000(1872); 310,675,966(1877) ; 330,321,680 \n,(1884) 333>0S4,908 ti888); 357,379,ooo (1891). \nFor the history, see Greece, Rome, and the modern \nkingdoms. \n\nEUROPEAN, ASSURANCE Company, \n\nsee Insurance. \n\nEURYDICE, H.M.S. frigate, foundered in a \nsquall off Dunnose, near Ventnor, Isle of Wight, \n24 March, 1878 ; see Navy and Wrecks, 1878. \n\nEURYMEDON, a river in Pamphylia, near \nwhich Cimon, son of Miltiades, destroyed the fleet \nof the Persians at Cyprus, and defeated their land \nforces, 469 B.C. \n\nEUSTACE, ST. (Lower Canada). The rebels \nwere defeated here, 14 Dec. 1837, and compelled \nto surrender their arms. Their chiefs fled. \n\nEUSTATIUS, ST., a West India island, set- \ntled by the Dutch, 1632 ; taken by the French in \n5689; by the British in 1690 ; again by the British \nforces under Bodney and Vaughan, 3 Feb. 1781. \nIt was recovered by the French under the marquis \nde Bouille, 26 Nov. same j\'ear; captured by the \nBritish, 1801, 1810; restored to the Dutch, 1814. \n\nEUSTON SQUARE Mystkby, see Trials, \nJuly, 1879. \n\nEUTAW SPRINGS (S. Carolina). Here the \nAmericans were defeated by the British under \nArnold, 8 Sept. 1781. \n\nEUTYCHIANS, so called from Eutyches, an \nabbot of Constantinople, who asserted in 446 that \nthere was but one nature in Christ, the human \nhaving been absorbed in the divine. This doctrine \nwas condemned by councils \xe2\x80\x94 at Constantinople in \n448, and at Chalcedon in 451. It has been also \ncalled Monophysite (of one nature), and Jacobite, \nfrom Jacobus Baradasus, its zealous defender in the \n6th century. It is the form of Christianity now \nexisting among the Copts and Armenians. \n\nEUXINE, see Black Sea. \n\nEVACUATION TREATY, see France, \nSept. 1871. \n\nEVANGELICAL, a term applied to a portion \nof the clergy of the church of England (also called \nthe low church), who profess to preach the gospel \nmore purely than their brethren termed the high \nchurch party; see Church of England. \n\nThe Evangelical Alliance was founded by sir Culling \nEardley Smith and others at Liverpool in 1845, with the \nview of promoting unity among all denominations of \nProtestant Christians against Romanism and infidelity. \n\nAt a general meeting held in London 19 Aug. 1846, 921 \nmembers were present from all parts of the world. \n\nSince 1845, annual meetings have been held in various \ntowns in the United Kingdom. \n\nGeneral international conferences have been held : \nLondon, 1851 ; Paris, 1855 ; Berlin (received by the \n"king), Sept., 1857; Geneva, t86i ; Amsterdam, 1867; \nHew York, Oct., 1873; Basle, 1879; Copenhagen, \nJ885 ; Florence, 4 April, 1891. \n\nA conference in connection with the Evangelical \nAlliance met at Washington, U.S. 9 Dec. 1887. \n\nThe "Evangelical Church" in Germany began with a \nfusion of the Lutherans and Calvinists in Nassau in \n181 7; followed by similar movements in different parts \nof Germany, 1818-22. \n\n\n\nEVANGELISTS, preachers of the "gospel," \nor good news ; see Gospels. \n\nEVELINA HOSPITAL, Southwark, esta- \nblished in 1869 by baron Ferdinand de Rothschild, \nin memory of his wife, and since maintained by \nhim. Its enlargement by public aid was proposed \n\n\n\nEVENING SCHOOLS for adults of the lower \nclasses were strongly recommended by bishop Hinds \nin 1839, and by the committee of the Privy Council \non Education in 1861. One was set up at Bala in \nWales by the rev. T. Charles in 1811. See under \nRecreation. \n\nEVESHAM (Worcestershire), where prince \nEdward, afterwards Edward I., defeated the barons \nheaded by Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, \n4 Aug. 1265, when the earl, his son Henry, and \nmost of his adherents were slain. Henry III. at \none period of the battle was on the point of being \ncut down by a soldier who did not know him, but \nwas saved by exclaiming, " Do not kill me, soldier; \nI am Henry of Winchester, thy king!" This vic- \ntory broke up the combination of the barons. \n\nEVICTIONS (in Ireland), 482,000 persons \nevicted from 1849-82, 119,000 reinstated as care- \ntakers, see Ireland, 1886 et seq. Many evicted \ntenants made terms with their landlords, and \nreturned to their farms, 1891-2. \n\nEVIDENCE, LAW OF, regulated by 14 & 15 \nVict., c. 99 (1851), 16 & 17 Vict., c. 83 (1853), 32 & \n33 Vict., c. 68 (1869). \n\nMr. Labouehere\'s application for a mandamus of \nthe Court of Queen\'s Bench to compel sir Robert \nCarden to hear irrelevant evidence, refused 20 Nov. 1879 \n\nEVIL MAY-DAY (1 May, 1517), thus called \non account of the violence of the apprentices and \npopulace, directed against foreigners, particularly \nthe French. The rioters were headed by one \nLincoln, who, with 15 others, was hanged; and \n400 more in their shirts, and bound with ropes, and \nhalters about their necks, were carried to West- \nminster ; but they crying \' \' mercy, mercy ! " were all \npardoned by the king, Henry VIII. \n\nEVOLUTION THEORY includes the \n\nnebular theory and Mr. Darwin\'s doctrine of natural \n\nselection ; see Developmient, and Progressionists. \n\nIn 1877 three forms of evolution were discussed : \xe2\x80\x94 \n\n1. That of all animals gradually from the lowest form, \n\nthe amoeba, up to man, in opposition to the Biblical \n\naccount of the creation ; 2. that of every animal from \n\nprotoplasm in a cell, or egg ; 3. that of all the parts \n\nof an animal from its blood. \n\nEXALTATION, see Cross. \n\nEXAMINATIONS of candidates for employ- \nment in the civil service has been enforced since \n1855. Mr. Gladstone in 1862 said that the present \nmight be termed the "age of examinations;" see \nCivil Service. \nA strong protest against the system, fully signed, \n\nNineteenth Century, Nov. 1888. \n\nEXAMINER, liberal weekly journal, estab- \nlished Jan. 1808; extinct; last number, 26 Feb. \n1881. \n\nEXAMINER OF STAGE PLAYS, an \n\noffice under the lord chamberlain, now held by \nMr. E. F. S. Pigott, appointed 25 Aug. 1874. \nHis more recent predecessors were, George Colman, \nChas. Kemble, and his son John Mitchell Kemble, \nand Mr. Wm. Bodham Donne (1857-74). \n\n\n\nEXAECHS. \n\n\n\n351 \n\n\n\nEXCHEQTTEK. \n\n\n\nEXAECHS, appointed by the Byzantine em- \nperors of the East, to govern central Italy after its \nconquest by Belisarius and Narses, 548-553. They \nrule Ravenna from 568 to 752, when Eutychus, the \nlast, was overcome by Astolphus the Lombard. The \nExarch in the churcli was next in dignity to the \npatriarch. \n\nEXCHANGE, formerly Bourse, the Royal \nExchange being " Britain\'s Burse;" that at Paris \nis still named ,l Za Bourse," from bursa, a purse. \nOne called Collegium Mercatorum existed at Rome, \n493 B.C. The Exchange at Amsterdam was reck- \noned the finest structure of the kind in the world. \nSee Royal Exchange, and Bills of Exchange. \n\nEXCHEQUEE, an ancient institution, con- \nsisting of officers with financial and judicial func- \ntions : the chancellor of the exchequer, the financial \nofficer, formerly sat in the court of exchequer above \nthe barons. The first chancellor was Eustace de \nFauconbridge, bishop of London, in the reign of \nHenry III. about 1221. Sir Robert Walpole was \nthe last chancellor of the exchequer who acted \njudicially (in 1735). The legal function of the \nchancellor was abolished by the Judicature act, \nAug. 1873. Charles II. seized on the Goldsmiths\' \nfunds in the exchequer to prepare for war, 2 Jan. \n1672. The English and Irish exchequers were \nconsolidated in 1816; see Chancellors of the Ex- \nchequers, and Tally Office. \n\nExchequer Bills. The government securities, so called, \nsaid to have been invented by Montague, afterwards \nearl of Halifax, were first issued in 1697, and first cir- \nculated by the bank in 1796. These bills, of which \nmore than twenty millions sterling are often in circu- \nlation, are in effect accommodation notes of govern- \nment, that are issued in anticipation of taxes, at daily \ninterest ; and being received for taxes, and paid by the \nbank in lieu of taxes, in its dealings with the exchequer, \nthey usually bear a premium. Amount in circulation, \n56,974,780?. in 1817; in 1854, 16,008,700/. \n\nRobert Aslett, a cashier of the bank of England, tried \nfor embezzling exchequer bills, and found not guilty, \non account of the invalidity of the bills, though the \nactual loss to the bank amounted to 342,697?., 18 July, \n1803. \n\nMr. Beaumont Smith tried for forging exchequer bills to \nthe amount of 350,000?. ; pleaded guilty; sentenced to \ntransportation, 4 Dec. 1841. \n\nExchequer Bonds, a species of public securities, intro- \nduced by Mr. W. E. Gladstone, in 1853, have not been \nwell received. \n\nTellers of the Exchequer. Besides chamberlains of \nthe exchequer, clerks of the pells, and auditor of the \nexchequer (offices which have all been discontinued \nsince their last avoidance in Oct. 1826, or by surrender \nor abolition, in Oct. 1834), there were the four lucrative \noffices of tellers of the exchequer, also abolished, 10 \nOct. 1834. \n\nJohn Jeffreys Pratt, earl, afterwards marquis Camden, \nwas appointed a teller of the exchequer, in 1780, and \nheld the appointment until his death, in 1840. During \nnearly half of this long term he relinquished the income \n(amounting in the whole to upwards of a quarter of a \nmillion sterling) and placed it at the service of the state, \nas it annually accrued. \n\nComptroller-General of the Exchequer. This office \nwas created on the abolition of the offices of the auditor \nand the four tellers of the exchequer, and the clerk of \nthe pells, mentioned in the preceding paragraph. The \nfirst comptroller-general was sir John Newport, ap- \npointed 11 Oct. 1834. \xe2\x80\x94 34,438?. per annum have been \nsaved to the state by the retrenchments in this depart- \nment of the government. \n\nCourt of Exchequer Chamber. Erected by Edward \nIII. in 1357. It was remodelled by Elizabeth, in 1584, \nand then made to comprise the judges of all the courts. \nThis court is for error from the judgments of the courts \nof queen\'s bench, common pleas, and exchequer of \npleas in actions commenced therein. Re-modelled by \nact 2 Geo. IV. & 1 Will. IV. c. 70(23 July, 1830). \n\n\n\nThe Exchequer office, Westminster, was instituted by \nHenry IV. in 1399. \n\nchancellors of the exchequer \nHenry Addington (aft. lord Sidmouth) 21 March, 1801 \n\nWm. Pitt .(premier) 16 May, 1804 \n\nLord Henry Petty (afterwards marquis of Lans- \n\ndowne) 10 Feb. 1806 \n\nSpencer Perceval .... 31 March, 1807 \n\nAnd premier 6 Dee. 1809 (assassinated 11 May, 1812) \nNicholas Vansittart (aft. lord Bexley) . 9 June, 1812 \nFred. J. Robinson (afterwards lord Goderich and \n\nearlofRipon) 31 Jan. 1823 \n\nGeorge Canning (premier) .... April, 1827 \nJohn C. Hemes ..... 17 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nHenry Goulburn 26 Jan. 1828 \n\nViscount Althorp (aft. earl Spencer) . 22 Nov. 1830 \n\nSir Robert Peel (premier) .... 10 Dee. 1834 \nThos. Spring Rice (aft. lord Monteagle) 18 April, 1835 \nFrancis T. Baring (afterwards baronet) . 26 Aug. 1839 \n\nHenry Goulburn ^ Sept. 1841 \n\nCharles AVood (afterwards baronet, lord Halifax, \n\n1866) 6 July, 1846 \n\nBenjamin Disraeli . . . .21 Feb. 1852 \n\nWilliam Ewart Gladstone . . . .28 Dec. ,, \nSir George Cornewall Lewis . . . 5 March, 1855 \nBenjamin. Disraeli, again . . . - 27 Feb. 1858 \nWilliam Ewart Gladstone, again . . June, 1859 \n\nBenjamin Disraeli, again .... 6 July, 1866 \nGeorge Ward Hunt .... 29 Feb. 1868 \n\nRobert Lowe 9 Dec. ,, \n\nWilliam Ewart Gladstone (and premier) . Aug. 1873 \nSir Stafford Northcote . . . .21 Feb. 1874 \nWilliam Ewart Gladstone (and premier) 28 April, 1880 \nHugh Culling Eardley Childers . . . Dec. 1882 \nSir Michael Hicks-Beach ... 24 June, 1885 \nSir William V. Harcomt . . . about 6 Feb. 1886 \nLord Randolph Henry Spencer-Churchill 26 July, \n\n(resigned) n \n\nGeorge Joachim Goschen . . . .3 Jan. 1887 \nSir William V. Harcourt . . . .18 Aug. 1892 \n\nEXCHEQUEE, Court OF (Curia Regis), \ninstituted by William I. on the model of the Trans- \nmarine Exchequer of Normandy, in 1079; according \nto some authorities, by Henry I. It included the \ncommon pleas until they were separated, 16 John, \n1215. Coke\'s Reports. The exchequer is so named \nfrom a chequered cloth which anciently covered the \ntable where the judges and chief officers sat.* Here \nare tried all causes relating to the king\'s revenue ; \nsuch as are concerning accounts, disbursements, \ncustoms, and fines imposed, as well as all matters at \ncommon law between subject and subject. The \njudges are styled barons, first appointed 1234. There \nwere a chief and four puisne barons : the fifth judge \nhaving been added 23 July, 1830. The office of \nCursitor Baron was abolished in 1856. For changes, \nsee Supreme Court. The ancient court sat for last \ntime, 10 July, 1875. The Exchequer division was \nabolished in 1881 ; in Ireland in 1887. See Supreme \nCourt Judicature Act, passed 27 Aug. 1881. \n\n\n\nCHIEF BARONS. \n\nRobert Atkins. 10 April. \nEdward Ward. 10 June. \nSamuel Dodd. 22 Nov. \nThomas Bury, u June. \nJames Montagu. 9 May. \nRobert Eyre. 5 Dec. \nGeoffrey Gilbert. 1 June. \nThomas Pengelly. 29 Oct. \nJames Reynolds. 30 April. \nJohn Comyn. 7 July. \nEdmund Probyn. 24 Nov. \n\n\n\n1689. \n\n\nSir \n\n\n1695. \n\n\nSir \n\n\n1714. \n\n\nSir \n\n\n1716. \n\n\nSir \n\n\n1722. \n\n\nSir \n\n\n1723- \n\n\nSir \n\n\n1725. \n\n\nSir \n\n\n1726. \n\n\nSir \n\n\n1730- \n\n\nSir \n\n\n1738- \n\n\nSir \n\n\n1740. \n\n\nSir \n\n\n\n* In process of time the court of exchequer became \ngradually enlarged in its jurisdiction, until at length it \nwas not merely a revenue court and one at common law \nbetween subject and subject, but one in which suits in \nequity were also instituted. In fact, until the act 5 Vict, \nc. 5 (1841), the court of exchequer possessed a triple \njurisdiction ; but by this statute ils equity business was \ntransferred to the court of chancery. \n\n\n\nEXCISE. \n\n\n\n352 \n\n\n\nEXECUTIONS. \n\n\n\nSir Thomas Parker. 29 Nov. \n\nSir Sidney Stafford Smytlie. 29 Oct. \n\nSir John Skynner. 17 Dec. \n\nSir James Eyre. 26 Jan. \n\nSir Archibald Macdonald. 12 Feb. \n\nSir Vicary Gibbs. 8 Nov. \n\nSir Alexander Thomson. 24 Feb. \n\nSir Richard Richards. 22 April. \n\nSir William Alexander. 9 Jan. \n\nJohn, lord Lyndhurst. 18 Jan. Previously lord \n\nchancellor ; again lord chancellor, 1834. \nSir James Scarlett. 24 Dec. Created lord Abinger, \n\nJan. 1835. \nSir Frederick Pollock. 15 April. \nSir FitzRoy Kelly. 16 July, [died 17 Sept. 1880.] \nThe ktst of the chief barons. \n\nCHIEF BARONS OF EXCHEQUER IN IRELAND. \n\nJohn Hely. 5 Dec. \n\nRobert Doyne. 10 May. \n\nNehemiah Donnellan. 27 Dec. \n\nRichard Freeman. 25 June. \n\nRobert Rochfort. 12 June. \n\nJoseph Deane. . 14 Oct. \n\nJeffrey Gilbert. 16 June. \n\nBernard Hale. 9 June. \n\nThomas Dalton. 2 Sept. \n\nThomas Marlay. 29 Sept. \n\nJohn Bowes. 21 Dec. \n\nEdward Willis. 11 March. \n\nAnthony Foster. 5 Sept. \n\nJames Dennis (aftds. baron Tracton). 3 July. \n\nWalter Hussey Burgh. 2 July. \n\nBarry Yelverton (afterwards viscount Avonmore). \n\n29 Nov. \nStandish O\'Grady (aft. viscount Guillamore) 5 Oct. \nHenry Joy. 6 Jan. \nStephen Woulfe. 20 July. \nMaziere Brady. 11 Feb. \n\nDavid Richard Pigott; 1 Sept., died 22 Dec. 1873. \nChristopher Palles. Jan. \n\nThe last of the chief barons. \n\nEXCISE. The system was established in \nEngland by the Long Parliament in 1643, duties \nbeing levied on wines, beer, &c, and tobacco, to \nsupport the army against Charles I. It was con- \ntinued under Charles II. The present system was \nsettled about 1733. The old excise office was built \non the site of Gresham college in 1774; the present \nis at Somerset-house. The officers of excise and \ncustoms were deprived of their votes for returning \nmembers to parliament in 1782 ; but received them \nagain in 1868. In 1849 the boards of excise, \nstamps and taxes, were united, as " the board of \ncommissioners of inland revenue.\'\'\' Notwithstand- \ning the abolition of the excise duty upon numerous \narticles, and the reduction of duty upon various \nothers, of late years, the total excise revenue, so far \nfrom having decreased, has progressively advanced \n(1847 and 1861 excepted) in its aggregate annual \namount. Additional excise duties were charged by \n17 & 18 Vict. c. 27, July 3, 1854. The excise duties \nwere further modified in i860 ; see Revenue. \n\n\n\n1742. \n1772. \n\n1777- \n1787. \n\n!793- \n1813. \n1814. \n1817. \n\n\n\n1834- \n\n\n\n1844. \ni860. \n\n\n\n1695. \ni7\xc2\xb03- \n1706. \n1707. \n1714. \ni7 I 5- \n1722. \n1725- \n1730. \n1741. \n1757. \n1766. \n1777. \n1782. \n1783- \n\n\n\n1874. \n\n\n\nREVENUE FROM EXCISE. \n\nGreat Britain. \n\n\n\n1744 \n\n1786 . . . \n\n1808. \n\n1820 . . . \n\n1827 (United \n\nKingdom) \n1830. \n\n1834 . \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n1837 \n\n1840 . . . \n1845. \n\n1847 . . . \n1848. \n\n1850 . . . \n1858 to Mar. 31. \ni860 \xe2\x80\x9e \xe2\x80\x9e \n1865 \n\n\n\n\xc2\xa33.754.072 \n\n5. 54\xc2\xb0."4 \n\n19,867,914 \n\n26,364,702 \n\n20,995,324 \n18,644.385 \n16,877,292 \n14,518,142 \n12,607,766 \n13,585,583 \n12,883,678 \ni3>9 IQ ,\xc2\xb05 2 \n15,278,208 \n17,901,545 \n20,240,467 \n19,428,324 \n\n\n\n1S70 \n1871 \n1872 \n1873 \n1874 \n1S75 \n1876 \n1S77 \n\n\n\ni\xc2\xa3S 4 \n\n\n\nto Mar. 31. \xc2\xa320,190,338 \n\n,, 20,475,740 \n\n,, ,. 21,879,238 \n\n,. ,, 22,833,907 \n\n,, ,, 23,386,064 \n\n,, ,, 25,904,450 \n\n.. ., 27,115,969 \n\n\xe2\x80\x9e \xe2\x80\x9e 27.254,132 \n\n,, 27,569,323 \n\n\xe2\x80\x9e ,, 27,681,523 \n\n,, \xe2\x80\x9e 27,710,514 \n\n,, \xe2\x80\x9e 27,186,021 \n\n,, ,, 25,218,303 \n\n,, ,, 25,372,183 \n\nn ,, 27,170,798 \n\n,, ,, 26,982,916 \n\n,, ,, 27,048,051 \n\n\n\n1885 to Mar. 31 \xc2\xa326,501,612 I 1889 to Mar. 31 \xc2\xa325,600,000- \n\n1886 ,, ,, 25,441,922 I 1890 ,, ,, 24,160,000 \n\n1887 ,, \xe2\x80\x9e 25,212,883 I 1891 ,, ,, 24,788,000 \n\n1888 ,, ,, 25,625,520 I 1892 ,, ,, 20,121,000 \n\n__ EXCLUSION BILL (to exclude the duke of \nYork, afterwards James II., from the throne), was \npassed by the commons, but rejected by the lords in \n1680. The revival of the question led to the disso- \nlution of parliament in 1681. \n\nEXCOMMUNICATION, or separation from \nChristian communion {Matt, xviii. 17; 1 Cor. v., \n&c), was instituted to preserve the purity of the \nchurch. The Roman church excommunicated by \nBell, Book, and Candle {which see). See Interdict. \n\nGregory VII. excommunicated the emperor \nHenry IV., and absolved his subjects from \ntheir allegiance 1077 \n\nInnocent III. excommunicated John of England, \nplacing the country under an interdict . 1208-14. \n\nGregory IX. excommunicated the emperor \nFrederick II. four times between . . . 1228-45 \n\nLouis XII. of France was excommunicated by \nJulius II. 1510 ; Luther by Leo X. 1521 ; Henry \nVIII. of England by Paul III. in 1535 ; and \nElizabeth by Pius V 25 April, 1570 \n\nThe emperor of France, the king of Sardinia, and \nothers, were virtually excommunicated (but not \nby name) on account of the annexation of the \nRomagna by Sardinia ... 29 March, i860. \n\nEXECUTIONS, see Crime. In the reign of \nHenry VIII. (38 years) it is said that no less a \nnumber than 72,000 criminals were executed. Stow. \nIn the ten years between 1820 and 1830, there were \nexecuted in England alone 797 criminals ; but as our \nlaws became less severe, the number of executions \ndecreased. In the three years ending 1820, the \nexecutions in England and Wales amounted to \n312 ; in the three years ending 1830, they were \n178 ; in the three years ending 1840, they were 62. \nThe place of execution in London (formed)\' gene- \nrally at Tyburn) was in front of Newgate from 1783 \nto 1868, when an act was passed directing execu- \ntions to take place within the walls of prisons. The \ndissection of the bodies of executed persons was- \nabolished in 1832, see Death, 1868. \n\nJohn Calcraft, born 1800, executioner for London, 1828- \n1871, died 13 Dec. 1879 ; his successor, Wm. Marwood. \ndied 4 Sept. 1883 ; he was succeeded by Berry ; said \nto have resigned March, 1892. \n\n\n\n1820, \n1837, 2; \n\xe2\x80\x94 1844, \n\n\n\n1847 \n\n\n\n1850 \n1S51 \n1852 \n1853 \n1854 \n1855 \n1S56 \n1857 \n1S58 \n1859 \ni860 \n\n\n\n1863 \n1S64 \n1865 \n1S66 \n1867 \n\n\n\nEXECUTIONS IN LONDON. \n\n: \xe2\x80\x94 1825, 17 ; \xe2\x80\x94 1830, 6 ; \xe2\x80\x94 1835, o ; \xe2\x80\x94 1836, o ; \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x96\xa0 \n338, o ; \xe2\x80\x94 1839, 2 ; \xe2\x80\x94 1840, 1 ; \xe2\x80\x94 1842, 2 ; \xe2\x80\x94 1843, o ; \n-1845, 3 ;\xe2\x80\x94 1846, 2. \n\n\n\nIN ENGLAND. \n\nrfand. London. \n\n\n\n1870 \n1871 \n1872 \n1873 \n1874 \n1875 \n1S76 \n1877 \n\n\n\nEngland. London. \n.10 . 3 \n.6.2 \n\xe2\x80\xa2 3 \xe2\x80\xa2 o- \n.15 . 1 \n\n\n\n10 \n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 23 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 15 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 17 \n\n\n\n1886 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 19 \n\n\n1887 . \n\n\n. 2T \n\n\nI8SS . \n\n\n. 16 \n\n\n1889 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 14 \n\n\n1890 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 15 \n\n\n\nEXECUTIONS. \n\n\n\n353 \n\n\n\nEXECUTIONS. \n\n\n\nEXECUTIONS OF REMARKABLE CRIMINALS.* \n\nGunpowder plot conspirators, Digby, R. Winter, \nGrant, and Bates, 30 Jan. ; T. Winter, Rookwood, \nKeys, and Fawkes, 31 Jan. ; Henry Garnett, Jesuit : \nat London 3 May, 1606 \n\nJohn Felton, murder of duke of Buckingham ; \nTyburn .... .28 Nov. 1628 \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0James, duke of Monmouth, treason; Tower-hill, \n\n15 July, 1685 \n\nCkarnock, King, and Keys, 18 March ; sir John \nFriend, and sir Wm. Perkins ("assassination \nplot ") 3 April, 1696 \n\n(Capt. Wm. Kidd and three others, piracy 23 May, 1701 \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0James, earl of Derwentwater, and William, earl of \nKenmure, rebellion ; Tower-hill . . 24 Feb. 1716 \n\nJelm Price, the hangman; murder, Bunhill-row, \n\n21 May, 1718 \n\nJack Sheppard, highwayman ; Tyburn 16 Nov. 1724 \n\n.Richard Turpin, highwayman ; York 7 or 10 April, 1739 \n\nLord Balmerino and others, rebellion ; Tower-hill, \n\n18 Aug. 1746 \n\nLord Lovat, rebellion ; Tower-hill . 9 April, 1747 \n\nRichard Wm. Vaughau, first forger of Bank of Eng- \nland notes 11 May, 1758 \n\nEugene Aram, murder ; York . . .6 Aug. 1759 \n\nEarl Ferrers, murderof his steward ; Tyburn, 5 May, 1760 \n\nTheodore Gardelle, murder ; Haymarket 4 April, 1761 \n\nJohn Perrott, fraudulent bankrupt ; Smithfield, \n\nn Nov. ,, \n\nJohn M\'Naughten, esq., murder of Miss Knox; \nStrabane 13 Dec. ,, \n\nElizabeth Brownrigg, murder of her apprentice ; \nTyburn 14 Sept. 1767 \n\nDaniel and Robert Perreau, wine merchants, forgery ; \nTyburn 17 Jan. 1776 \n\nRev. Dr. Dodd, found guilty of forging a bond, in \nthe name of lord Chesterfield for 4200Z. ; the \nhighest influence was exerted to save him, but \nwhen the case came before the council, the \n\xe2\x80\xa2minister of the day said to George III., "If \nyour majesty pardon Dr. Dodd, you will have \nmurdered the Perreaus ;" Tyburn . 27 June, 1777 \n\nSlev. Henry Hackman, murder of Miss Reay, mis- \ntress of earl of Sandwich ; Tyburn . 19 April, 1779 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Capt. John Donellan, murder of .sir Theodosius \nBoughton ; Warwick . . . .2 April, 1781 \n\nChristian Murphy (or Bowman), a woman ; strangled \nand burnt for coining ... 18 March, 1789 \n\nKichard Parker and others, mutiny at the Nore, \n\n30 June, 1797 \n\nMrs. Phepoe, celebrated murderess ; Old Bailey, \n\n11 Dec. ,, \n\nSir Edward Crosbie, high treason ; Ireland, 4 June, 1798 \n\nM-essrs. Sheares, high treason ; Dublin 12 July, 1799 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Galloping Dick, highwayman ; Aylesbury, 4 April, 1800 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Governor Joseph Wall, murder of Serjeant Arm- \nstrong ; Old Bailey .... 28 Jan. 1802 \n\nMr. Crawley, murder of two females ; Dublin, \n\n10 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGeorge Foster, murder of wife and child ; Old Bailey, \n\n18 Jan. 1803 \n\nColonel Despard and others, high treason ; Horse- \n\xe2\x80\xa2monger-lane 21 Feb. \n\nJohn Hatfield (a rank impostor, who married, by \nmsans of the most odious deceit, the celebrated \n"Beauty of Buttermere "), forgery; Carlisle, \n\n3 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRobert Emmett, high treason ; Dublin 20 Sept. ,, \n\nRichard Patch, murderof Mr. Bligh ; Horsemonger- \nlane 8 April, 1806 \n\nJohn Holloway, Owen Haggerty, murder of Mr. \nSteele ; Old Bailey (28 of the spectators of \nthis execution were trodden to death, and num- \nbers were pressed, maimed and wounded), 23 Feb. 1807 \n\nT. Simmons, the man of blood, murder; Hertford, \n\n7 March, 1808 \n\nMajor Campbell, murder of capt. Boyd in a duel ; \nArmagh 2 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCapt. Sutherland, murder ; Execution dock, \n\n29 June, 1809 \n\nRichard Armitage, forgery ; Old Bailey 24 June, \n\nJohn Bellingham, murder of Mr. Perceval ; Old \nBailey ,8 May, \n\nPhilip Nicholson, murder of Mr. and Mrs. Bonar ; \nPeunenden-heath .... 23 Au<*. \n\n\n\niSii \n1812 \n1813 \n\n\n\n* For some other executions, see England, 1535-6, \n16 1 8-4 1 -45-83 ; and Oates\'s Plot. \n\n\n\nFrancis Tuite, murder of Mr. Goulding ; Dublin. \n_. , _ ,, , 9 Oct. 1813 \nCharles Callaghan, murder of Mr. Merry \xe2\x80\xa2 Horse- \nmonger-lane 2 April, 1814 \n\nWilliam Sawyer, murder of JackHacket; Old Bailey, \n\n15 May, ,, \nEliza Fenning, administering poison ; Old Bailey, \n\n, TT . 26 July, 1815 \n\n[Universally believed to be innocent ; she denied \nher guilt on the scaffold ; and thousands accom- \npanied her funeral. In the "Annual Register" \nfor 1857, p. 143, it is stated on the authority of \nMr. Gnrney, that she confessed the crime to Mr. \nJames Upton, a baptist minister, shortly before \nher execution.] \n\nJohn Cashman, Spa-fields riots ; Skinner-street, \n\n12 March, 1817 \n\nMurderers of the Lynch family. Wild-goose Lodge \naffair ; Ireland t g July, \n\nThe three Ashcrofts, father and sons, murder; \nLancaster 8 Sept. ,, \n\nBrandreth and others, high treason ; Derby, 7 Nov. ,, \n\nCharles Hussey, murder of Mr. Bird and his house- \nkeeper ; Pennenden-heath . . .3 Aug. \n\nJohn Scanlan, esq., murder of Ellen Hanley ; Lime- \nrick 16 March, \n\nArthur Thistlewood, John Brunt, James Ings, John \nDavidson, Richard Tidd (see Cato-street) ; Old \nBailey \\ May, \n\nJohn Chennell, Thomas Calcraft, murder of Mr. \nChennell, senr. ; Godalming . . 17 Aug. \n\nJosiah Cadman, forgery ; Old Bailey . 21 Nov. \n\nSamuel Greenwood, highway robbery ; Old Bailey, \n\n27 Dec. \nJohn Thurtell, murder of Mr. Weare ; Hertford, \n\n9 Jan. \n\nJohn Wayte, forgery ; Old Bailey . . 24 Feb. \n\nHenry Fauutleroy, banker, forgery; Old Bailey, \n\n30 Nov. \n\nWm. Probert (an accomplice of Thurtell\'s in the \nmurder of Mr. Weare ; he became approver), \nhorse-stealing ; Old Bailey . . 20 June, \n\nSpitaltields\' gang, highway robbery; Old Bailey, \n\n29 Nov. \n\nChas. Thos. White, arson ; Old Bailey . 2 Jan. \n\nEdward Lowe, coining (the last coiner drawn on a \nsledge to the scaffold) ; Old Bailey 22 Nov. \n\nCatherine Walsh, murder of her child ; Old Bailey, \n\n14 April, 1828 \n\nWilliam Rea, highway robbery ; Old Bailey, 4 July, ,, \n\nCaptain Charles Montgomery was ordered for exe- \ncution this day for forgery ; but he took a close (an \nounce and a half) of prussic acid, to save himself \nfrom the ignominy of the gallows, and was found \ndead in his cell 4 July, \n\nWilliam Corder, murder of Maria Marten ; Bury St. \nEdmunds xl Aug. \n\nJoseph Hunton, quaker, forgery ; Old Bailey, 8 Dec. " \n\nWm. Burke, murderer (see Burking) ; Edinburgh, \n\n28 Jan. 1829 \nAnne Chapman, murder of her child ; Old Bailey, \n\n30 June, ,, \nStewart and wife, murder ; Glasgow . 24 July, ,, \nThomas Maynard, the last executed for forgery ; \n\nOld Bailey 31 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMr. Comyn, arson ; Ennis . . .18 March, 1830 \nJohn Any Bird Bell, a bny of 14 years of age, for \n\nthe murderof Richard Taylor, aged 13, Maidstone \n\n1 Aug. 1 83 1 \nJohn Bishop, Thomas Williams, murder of a poor \n\nItalian boy (see Bn/rking) ; Old Bailey, 5 Dec. ,, \nJohn Smith, James Pratt, unnatural crime ; Old \n\nBailey 8 April, 1835 \n\nMaryanne Burdock, remarkable case of poisoning ; \n\nBristol 15 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nJohn Pegsworth, murder ; Old Bailey 7 March, 1837 \n\nJames Greenacre, murder of Hannah Brown ; Old \n\nBailey 2 May, ,, \n\nWilliam Lees, murder of his wife ; Old Bailey, \n\n16 Dec. 1839 \nFrancois Benj. Courvoisier, murder of lord W. Rus- \nsell ; Old Bailey 6 July, 1840 \n\nJosiah Misters, wounding Mr. Mackreth; Shrews- \nbury 3 April. 1841 \n\nRobert Blakesley, murder of Mr. Burdon ; Old \n\nBailey 15 Nov. ,, \n\nJohn Delahunt, murder of ThomasMaguire ; Dublin, \n\n5 Feb. 1842 \nA A \n\n\n\n181S \n1820 \n\n\n\n1B21 \n1822 \n1824 \n\n\n\n1826 \n1827 \n\n\n\nEXECUTIONS. \n\n\n\n354 \n\n\n\nEXECUTIONS. \n\n\n\nDaniel Good, murder of Jane Jones ; Old Bailey, \n\n23 May, \n"William Crouch, murder of his wife ; Old Bailey, \n\n27 May, \nJames Tapping, murder of Emma Whiter ; Old \n\nBailey ?\'.\'"\'.. -24 March, \n\nJohn Tawell, murder of Sarah Hart ; Aylesbury, \n\n28 March, \nThomas Henry Hocker, murder of Mr. Delarue ; \n\nOld Bailey . . . . -28 April, \n\nJoseph Connor, murder of Mary Brothers ; Old \n\nBailey 2 June, \n\nJohn Platts, murder of Co] lis ; Derby . 1 April, \nCatherine Foster, murder of her husband ; Bury St. \n\nEdmunds 17 April, \n\nJames Bloomfield Rush, murder of Messrs. Jenny, \n\nsen. and jun. ; Norwich ... 21 April, \nFred. George Manning, and his wife, Maria Manning, \n\nmurder of O\'Connor ; Horsemonger-lane, \n\n13 Nov. \nJames Barbour, murder ; York . . 15 Jan. \nHy. Horler, murder of wife ; Old Bailey . 15 Jan. \nGrant, Quin, and Coomey, murder of Thomas Bate- \nson ; Monaghan 9 April, \n\nEmanuel Barthelemy, murder of Mr. Moore and \n\nC. Collard ; Old Bailey ... 22 Jan. \nWilliam Bousfleld, murder of his wife and three \n\nchildren ; Old Bailey ... 31 March, \nWilliam Palmer (of Rugeley), murder of J. P. Cook \n\nby poison ; Stafford 14 June, \n\nWilliam Dove, murder of his wife by poison ; York \n\n9 Aiijr. \nJoseph Jenkins, alias Robert Mar-ley, murder of \n\nCope, a shopman, in Westminster ; Old Bailey, \n\n15 Dec. \nWilliam Jackson, murder of two children ; Chester, \n\n20 Dec. \n\nLagava, Bartelano, and Pettrick, murder of two \n\nofficers and piracy ; Winchester . 23 Dec. \n\nDedea Redaines, murder of two girls at Dover ; \n\nMaidstone 1 Jan. \n\nThomas Mansell (after seven months\' respite), \n\nmurder of a soldier ; Maidstone . 6 July, \n\nCapt. H. Rogers, murder of A. Rose, a black, with \n\ngreat cruelty ; Liverpool . . .11 Sept. \nThomas Davis, murder of wife ; Old Bailey, 16 Nov. \nJohn William Beale, murder of Charlotte Pugsley, \n\nhis sweetheart ; Taunton . . .12 Jan. \nJohn Thomson, alias Peter Walker, murder of Agnes \n\nMontgomery by poison \xe2\x80\x94 discovered by a child ; \n\nPaisley 14 Jan. \n\nChristian Sattler, a German, murder of inspector \n\nThain ; Old Bailey .... 8 Feb. \nGiovanni Lani, murder of Heloise Thaubin ; Old \n\nBailey 26 April, \n\nJohn B. Bucknall, murder of his grandfather and \n\ngrandmother ; Taunton ... 24 Aug. \nWm. Burgess, murder of his daughter ; Taunton, \n\n4 Jan. \nJoseph Castle, murder of his wife ; Bedford, \n\n31 March, \nWilliam Youngman, murder of sweetheart, Mary \n\nStreeter, and mother and two brothers, on Aug. \n\n16 ; Horsemonger-lane ... 4 Sept. \n\nJames Mullins, murder of Mrs. Emsley, at Stepney ; \n\nOld Bailey 19 Nov. \n\nJames Johnson, murder of two non-commissioned \n\nofficers ; Winchester 1 Jan. \n\nMatthew and Charles Wedmore, murder of their \n\naunt ; Taunton 5 April, \n\nMartin Doyle, barbarous attempted murder (last \n\nexemition for this crime); Chester . 27 Aug. \nWm. Cogan, murder of wife ; Old Bailey, 14 Oct. \nThomas Jackson, a soldier, murder of sergeant \n\nJohn Dickson ; Winchester . . 27 Dec. \nWm. Charlton, engine-driver, murdered Jane Em- \n\nmerson, to obtain the money she had saved for \n\nher funeral ; Carlisle ... 15 March, \nG. J. Gilbert, brutal murder of Miss M. S. Hall, on \n\nher way to church ; Winchester . . 4 Aug. \nWilliam Taylor, murder of Mr. Meller from revenge ; \n\nhe previously killed his own children ; Kirkdale,\' \n\n13 Sept. \nCatherine Wilson, murder of Mrs. Soames by \'poison \n\n[and of several other persons] ; Old Bailey, \n\n20 Oct. \nWilliam Ockold (aged 70), murder of his wife, after \n\n50 years\' marriage ; Worcester . _ . 2 Jan. \n\n\n\n1845 \n\n\n\n1847 \n\n\n\n1853 \n\n1854 \n1855 \n1856 \n\n\n\n1857 \n\n\n\n1859 \n1 86c \n\n\n\n1863 \n\n\n\nNoah Austen, murder of Mr. Allen ; Oxford, \n\n24 March, \nBobert A. Burton, murder of a boy ; Maidstone, \n\n11 April, \nEdward Cooper, murder of his deformed son ; \n\nShrewsbury . . . . . ri April, \nDennis Delane, hired Beckham and Walsh to mur- \nder his landlord, F. Fitzgerald . . 13 April, \nJohn Ducker, murder of Tye, a policeman ; Ipswich, \n\n14 April, \nWm. Hope, violation and murder of Mary Corbett ; \n\nHereford 15 April, \n\nD. MacPhail and G. Woods, murder of Mrs. "Walne ; \n\nKirkdale 25 April, \n\nJoseph Brooks, murder of Davy, a policeman ; \n\nOld Bailey 27 April, \n\nJoseph Kelly, murder of Fitzheury, a schoolmaster ; \n\nWexford n Aug. \n\nThomas, Alvarez, Hughes, and O\'Brien, ferocious \n\nmurderers ; Liverpool . . . .11 Sept. \nAlice Holt, murder of her mother ; Chester, 28 Dec. \nSamuel Wright, murder of his paramour, 12 Jan. \nJohn Lyons and four others (foreigners); murder \n\nand piracy ; Old Bailey ... 22 Feb. \nCharles Brickuell, murder of his sweetheart, \n\n1 Aug. \nFranz Miiller, murder of Mr. Briggs in a railway \n\ncarriage (see Trials) ; Old Bailey . 14 Nov. \nFerdinand Kohl, murder of M. Fuhrkop ; Chelms- \nford 26 Jan. \n\nEdw. William Pritchard, M.D., murder of wife \n\nand her mother ; Giasgovv . . .28 July, \nJohn Currie, murder of major De Yere ; Maidstone, \n\n12 Oct. \nStephen Forward, alias Ernest Southey, murder of \n\nwife and four children ; Maidstone . 11 Jan. \nMary Ashford, murder of husband ; Exeter, \n\n28 March, \nJohn Wm. Leigh, murder of wife\'s sister ; Brighton, \n\n10 April, \nRobert Coe, murder of a young man for his wages, \n\n30s. ; Swansea 12 April, \n\nJohn Grant, a soldier, murder of a boy ; Exeter, \n\n15 Aug. \nJ. R. Jeffreys, murder of his son (aged 7); Old Bailey, \n\n9 Oct. \nJas. Langhurst, brutal murder of Harriet Sax \n\n(6 years old) - 16 April, \n\nHubbard Lingley, murder of his uncle, Benj. Black ; \n\nNorwich ...... 26 Aug. \n\nGeorge Britten, murder of his . wife ; Taunton, \n\n29 Aug. \nJohn Wiggins, murder of his concubine, Agues \n\nOakes ; Old Bailey .... 15 Oct. \nLouis Bordier, murder of his concubine, Mary Ann \n\nSnow ; Horsemonger-lane . . .15 Oct. \nWm. O\'Meara Allen, Wm. Gould (or O\'Brien), and \n\nMichael Larkin, Fenians, for murder of Brett, a \n\npoliceman ; Salford . . . .23 Nov! \nFrederick Baker, murder of a little girl, whom he \n\nafterwards cut up ; Winchester . . 24 Dec. \nWm. Worsley, murder of Wm. Bradbury ; Bedford, \n\n31 March, \nFrances Kidder, murder of her husband\'s child ; \n\nMaidstone 2 April, \n\nTimothy Faherty, for murder of his sweetheart, \n\nMary Hanmer (for rejecting him), and \nMiles Weatherill, murder of Rev. Mr. Plow, of Tod- \n\nmorden, and his maid (for revenge); Manchester ; \n\n4 April, \nFrederick Parker, murder of Daniel Driscoll ; York, \n\n4 April, \nJohn Mapp, murder of little girl ; Shrewsbury, \n\n9 April, \nO\'Farrell, for attempting to assassinate the duke of \n\nEdinburgh ; Sydney, N.S. Wales . 21 April, \nRichard Bishop; murder of Alfred Cartwright ; \n\nMaidstone 30 April, \n\nMichaelBarrett, Fenian; for Clerkenwell explosion; \n\nTHE LAST PUBLIC EXECUTION IN ENGLAND ; Old \n\nBailey 26 May, \n\nThomas Wells, murder of Mr. Walsh, station- \nmaster at Dover ; (the first private execution), \n\n1 3, Aug. \n\nWilliam Sherward, for murder of his wife, Norwich \n\n(see Norwich) . . - . . 20 April, \n\nJosiah Detheridge, murder of warder in Portland \n\nprison ; Dorchester 12 Aug. \n\n\n\n1863 \n\n\n\n1865; \n\n\n\nEXECUTIONS. \n\n\n\n355 \n\n\n\nEXECUTIONS. \n\n\n\n"Win. Taylor, soldier ; murder of his corporal ; Exeter, \n\nn Oct. 1869 \n\nFrederick Hinson, murder of his concubine, Maria \nDeath, and of Win. Douglas Boyd, her paramour, \nat Wood Green, Middlesex ; Old Bailey, 13 Dec. ,, \n\nWin. Mobbs, purposeless murder of a child ; Ayles- \nbury 28 March, 1870 \n\n"Walter Millar, murder of Rev. Elias Huelin and \nAnn Boss (at Chelsea) ; Old Bailey . 1 Aug. ,, \n\nJohn Owen or Jones, for murder of a family (7 \npersons) at Denham ; Aylesbury . . 8 Aug. ,, \n\nThomas Rateliffe ; murder of a warder in Portland \nprison ; Dorchester . . . .15 Aug. ,, \n\nMargaret Waters ; murder of infants ; baby-farming \ncase ; Horsemonger-lane ... 11 Oct. ,, \n\nPatrick Durr ; murder of his wife ; Manchester, \n\n26 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n"Wm. Bull ; brutal murder of an old woman ; Bed- \nford 3 April, 1871 \n\nMichael Campbell ; murder of Mr. Galloway at \nStratford ; Springfield gaol, Essex . 24 April, ,, \n\nRichard Addington ; murder of wife ; Northampton, \n\n31 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFrederic Jones ; murder of Emily Gardner, \nthrough jealousy ; Gloucester . 8 Jan. 1872 \n\nEdward Roberts ; murder of Ann Merrick, who re- \nfused to marry him ; Oxford . . 18 March, ,, \n\nWm. Fred. Horry; murder of wife ; Lincoln, 1 April, ,, \n\nCharles Holmes ; murder of wife ; Worcester, 12 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThomas Moore, murder of wife ; James Tooth, sol- \ndier, murder of drummer ; Francis Bradford, \nsoldier, murder of comrade ; Maidstone, 13 Aug. ,, \n\nChristopher Edwards ; murder of wife ; Stafford, \n\n13 Aug. ,, \n\nWm. Lace ; murder of wife ; Taunton . 26 Aug. ,, \n\nAugustus Elliott ; murder of paramour ; Old Bailey, \n\n9 Dec. ,, \n\nMich. Kennedy ; murder of wife ; Manchester, 30 Dec. ,, \n\nEdwd. Handcock; murder of wife; Warwick, 7 Jan. 1873 \n\nRichard Spencer; murder of paramour; Liverpool, \n\n8 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nHugh Slane and John Hayes ; murder of Joseph \nWaine ; Durham 13 Jan. ,, \n\nMary Ann Cotton ; murder of child (see Poisoning) ; \nDurham 24 March \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nHenry Evans, at Aylesbury ; and Benjamin Hud- \nson, at Derby, for murder of their wives 4 Aug. ,, \n\nThos. Hartley Montgomery, murder of Mr. Glasse, \nOmagh 26 Aug. ,, \n\nJames Connor ; murder of James Gaffney ; Liver- \npool 8 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCharles Dawson, William Thompson, and Edward \nGough ; murders ; Durham ; Thos. Corrigan ; m. \nof mother ; Liverpool .... 5 Jan. 1874 \n\nEdward C. Butt ; murder of Miss Phipp, through \njealousy ; Edwin Bailey and Ann Barry ; murder \nof child; Gloucester .... 12 Jan. ,, \n\nThos. Chamberlain ; murder ; Northampton \n\n30 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nJames Godwin ; murder of wife ; Newgate, 25 May, ,, \n\nFrances Stewart ; murder of grandchild ; Newgate, \n\n29 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThos. Macdonald ; murder of paramour ; Exeter, \n\n10 Aug. ,, \n\n"Wm. Jackson ; murder of sister ; York . 18 Aug. ,, \n\nJames H. Gibbs ; murder of wife ; Usk . 24 Aug. ,, \n\nHenry Flanigan ; murder of aunt ; Mary Williams ; \nmurder of Nicholas Manning ; Liverpool, 31 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nJohn W. Coppen ; murder of wife ; Horsemonger- \nlane 13 Oct. ,, \n\nPrivate Thos. Smith, 20th Hussars ; murder of \nCapt. Bird, in revenge for slight punishment ; \n"Winchester 16 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRobert Taylor ; 111. of Mrs. Kidd ; Stafford 29 Dec. ,, \n\nJames Cranwell ; murder of Emma Bellamy ; New- \ngate. Michael Mullen, John McCrave, and Wm. \nWorthington ; Liverpool. . . . 4 Jan. 1875 \n\nRichard Coates ; murder of girl, 10 years old ; \nChelmsford 29 March, ,, \n\nJohn Morgan; murder of comrade; Maidstone; \nJohn Stanton ; m. of uncle ; Station! 30 March, ,, \n\nAlfred T. Heap, quack ; murder of Margaret Mc- \nKivett ; Liverpool .... 19 April, ,, \n\nWm. Hole; murder of wife ; Bristol . 26 April, ,, \n\nJeremiah Corkery ; murder of policeman ; Warwick, \n\n27 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMcHugh, Gilligan, and Pearson (woman) ; murders ; \nDurham r> Aug. ,, \n\n\n\nPeter Blanchard ; murder of Louisa Hodgson ; \n\nLincolnshire 9 Aug. 1875 \n\nPhilip Lebrun ; murder of sister ; Jersey, 12 Aug. ,, \nWm. McCullogh ; murder of Wm. Watson ; and \n\nMark Fiddler ; murder of wife ; Lancaster, 16 Aug. ,, \nWm. Baker and Edward Cooper ; murders ; Liver- \npool 6 Sept. ,, \n\nHenry Wainwright ; murder of Harriet Lane, his \n\nmistress (see Whitccliapel) ; Newgate, . 21 Dec. ,, \nWm. Sinedley ; murder of Elizabeth Filth, his \n\nmistress ; Armley, near Leeds . . 21 Dec. ,, \nJohn William Anderson ; murder of wife ; New- \n\ncastle-on-Tyne 22 Dee. ,, \n\nRichard Charlton ; m. of wife ; Morpeth 23 Dec. ,, \nGeorge Hunter ; murder of fellow workman ; Mor- \npeth 28 March, 1876 \n\nThos. Fordred ; murder of Ann Bridger ; Maid- \nstone 4 April, ,, \n\nGeorge Hill ; murder of his illegitimate child, and \n\nnearly of its mother ; Hertford . . 10 April, ,, \nEdward Deacon ; murder of wife ; Bristol, 24 April, ,, \nJohn Webber ; murder ; Cardiff . . 26 April, ,, \nHenry Webster ; murder of wife ; Norwich, 1 May, ,, \n"Lennie" mutineers and murderers: Matteo Car- \ngalis, Pascalis Caludis, George Kaida, and \nGiovanni Carcaris ; Newgate . . 23 May, ,, \n\nJohn Williams ; shot his brother-in-law ; Durham, \n\n26 July, ,, \nJames Parris ; murder of a child ; Maidstone 1 Aug. ,, \nWm. Fish ; murder of a child (see Trials) ; Richard \nThompson, murder of J. H. Blundell ; Liverpool ; \n\n14 Aug. ,, \nC. E. Baumbos (see Mutinies) ; and Crowe (see \n\nIreland) : Cork . . . . .25 Aug. ,, \nJohn Ebelthrift ; murder of wife ; Newgate 26 Aug. ,, \nCharles O\'Donnell ; murder of wife ; Newgate 11 Dec. ,, \nRobert Browning; murder of Emma Rolfe, aged 16 ; \n\nCambridge 14 Dec. ,, \n\nSilas Barlow ; murder of Ellen Sloper, paramour ; \nHorsemonger-lane ; James Dalgleish ; murder of \nSarah Wright ; Carlisle .... 19 Dec. ,, \nJohn Thomas Green ; murder of wife ; Leicester, \n\n20 Dec. ,, \nWm. Flanagan ; murder of paramour ; Manchester \n\n21 Dec. ,, \nIsaac Marks, Jew ; murder of Fredk. Barnard, for \n\nrevenge; (Newington murder); Horsemonger-lane \n\n2 Jan. 1877 \n\nHenry & Francis George Tidbury ; murder of two \npolicemen ; Reading .... 12 March, ,, \n\nWm. Clark (or Slenderman) ; murder of Henry \nWalker, gamekeeper ; Lincoln . 26 March, ,, \n\nJohn McKenna ; murder of wife ; Manchester \n\n27 March, \n\nJames Bannister ; murder of wife ; Chester 2 April, ,, \n\nJohn Henry Johnson ; murder of Amos White ; \nthrough jealousy ; 3 April, ,, \n\nFrederick Baker ; murder of Mary Saunders ; \njealousy ; Warwick .... 17 April, ,, \n\nJohn Henry Starkey ; murder of wife; Leicester; \nHenry Rogers ; murder of wife ; Stafford 31 July, ,, \n\nHenry Leigh ; murder of child ; Chester 13 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCaleb Smith ; murder of nominal wife (Eliza \nOsborne) ; Horsemcmger-lane . . .14 Aug. ,, \n\nJohn Goulding and Patrick McGovern ; murders ; \nLiverpool 21 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nJohn Lynch ; murder of wife ; Newgate. . 15 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThos. Pratt ; murder of paramour ; Newgate 12 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nWm. Hussell ; murder of wife ; Exeter . 19 Nov. ,, \n\nHenry March ; murder of employer and fellow- \nworkman ; Norwich .... 20 Nov. ,, \n\nThos. Gray ; murder of Ann Mellors, who refused \nhim ; Nottingham 21 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCad wallader Jones; murder of paramour; Dolgelly, \n\n23 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nJames Sachwell, John Upton, and John Wm. Swift; \nbrutal murder of an old man ; Leicester 27 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGeo. Pigott; murder of Florence Galloway; Man- \nchester 4 Feb. 1878 \n\nJames Caffyn ; murder of Maria Barber ; Winches- \nter 11 Feb. ,, \n\nJames Trickett; murder of wife ; Liverpool 12 Feb. ,, \n\nJohn Brooks ; murder of Caroline Woodhead ; \nNottingham 13 Feb. ,, \n\nHarry Bowles ; murder of sweetheart ; Oxford \n\n1 A) ril, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nVincent Knowles Walker ; murder of woman ; Vol k, \n\n15 April, ., \nA A 2 \n\n\n\nEXECUTIONS. \n\n\n\n356 \n\n\n\nEXECUTIONS. \n\n\n\nCharles J. Revell ; murder of wife ; Chelmsford, \n\n29 July, if \n\nRobert Vest ; ship steward ; murder of Wm. Wal- \nlace, a pilot ; Durham ... 3\xc2\xb0 Jul Y, \n\nThos. Cholerton ; murder of paramour; Notting- \nham \xe2\x80\xa2 -,, I2 i u \xc2\xb0- \n\nSelina Wadge ; murder of illegitimate child ; Bod- \nmin ....\xe2\x80\xa2\xe2\x96\xa0\xe2\x96\xa0 I 5 Aug. \n\nThomas Smithers, murder of woman, Wandsworth, \n\n8 Oct. \n\nPatrick John Byrne ; murder of two brother ser- \ngeants ; Northampton . . \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x80\xa2 i 2 .,,. ^ \n\nJoseph Garcia, Spanish sailor, murder of William \nWatkins and his wife and three children, Usk, \n\n18 Nov. \nJames McGowan ; murder of wife ; Manchester ; \n\n19 Nov. \nHenry Gilbert ; murder of illegitimate child ; Hun- \ntingdon 2 5 Nov. \n\nStephen Gaiiibrill ; murder of Arthur Gillow while \ndefending his machinery (Wednesborough) Maid- \nstone ...\xe2\x96\xa0\xe2\x96\xa0\xe2\x80\xa2\xe2\x80\xa2 4 Feb. l8 79 \n\nEnoch Whist\'on ; murder of Alfred Meredith ; Wor- \ncester IO Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nWm McGuiness ; murder of wife ; Lancaster 11 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCharles Peace ; murder of A. Dyson ; Leeds ; (see \nTrials, 1878-9) 2 5 Feb \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nJames Simms ; American seaman ; murder of \nwoman ; Newgate . . \xe2\x96\xa0 -24 March \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nEdwd. Smart ; murder of woman ; Gloucester, 12 May \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n"Wm Cooper \xe2\x80\xa2 murder of Ellen Mather ; Manchester, \n\n20 May, ,, \nCatherine Churchill ; murder of husband ; Taunton, \n\n26 May, ,, \nJohn Darcy ; murder of Wm. Mitechalle ; York ; \n\n27 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThomas Johnson ; murder of Eliza Patten ; Liver- \npool 28 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCatherine Webster ; murder of Mrs. Julia Martha \nThomas ; Wandsworth ; (see Richmond), 29 July, ,, \n\nAnnie Took ; murder of nurse-child ; Exeter n Aug. ,, \n\nJames Dilley ; murder of illegitimate child ; New- \ngate 25 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nJohn Ralph ; murder of Sarah Vernon ; Birming- \nham 26 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nHenrv Bedingfield ; murder of Eliza Rudd ; Ipswich, \n\n3 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCharles Shurety ; murder of child ; Newgate, 5 Jan. 188c \n\nWm. Cassidy ; murder of wife ; Manchester, 17 Feb. ,, \n\nHugh Burns and Patrick Kearns ; murder of \nPatrick Tracey at Widnes ; Liverpool 2 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nJohn Wingfield; murder of his wife; Newgate, \n\n22 March, ,, \n\n"Wm. Dumbleton ; murder of John Edmunds ; \nAylesbury 10 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nJohn Henry Wood ; murder of John Coe ; York ; \n\n11 May, ,, \n\nJohn Wakefield ; murder of a child ; Derby 16 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nWm. Brownless ; murder of sweetheart ; Durham ; \n\n16 Nov. ,, \n"Wm. J. Distin ; murder of paramour ; Bristol ; \n\n22 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThos Wheeler ; murder of Edward Anstee, near St. \n\nAlbans 29 Nov. ,, \n\nGeorge Pavey ; murder of Ada Shepherd, aged 11 ; \nand Wm. "Herbert, murder of Jane Messenger, \nsister-in-law ; Newgate . . . -13 Dec. ,, \nWm. Stanway ; murder of Ann Mellor ; Chester ; \n\n21 Feb. 188 \nJames Williams ; murder of Eliz. Bagnall ; Stafford ; \n\n22 Feb. ,, \nAlbert Robinson ; murder of wife ; Derby 28 Feb. ,, \nAlbert Moore ; murder of old woman ; Maidstone ; \n\n17 May, ,, \nJames Hall ; murder of wife ; Leeds . 23 May, ,, \nJoseph P. McEntee ; murder of wife ; Liverpool ; \n\n31 May, ,, \nThos. Brown ; murder of Eliza Caldwell ; Notting- \nham iS Au g. 1.. \n\nGeorge Burling ; murder of Fanny Musson, Maid- \nstone 23 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nJohn Aspinal Simpson ; murder of girl ; Man- \nchester 28 Nov. ,, \n\nPercy Lefroy Mapleton ; murder of F. T. Gold in a \n\nBrighton railway carriage ; Lewes . 29 Nov. ,, \n\nAlfred Gough ; murder of a little girl ; Derby ,, \nRobert Templeton ; murder of landlady ; Man- \nchester . . \xe2\x80\xa2 13 Feb. 186 \n\n\n\nDr. G. H. Lamson ; murder of Percy M. John (see \n\nWimbledon) ; Wandsworth . . 28 April, 18S2 \nThos. Fury ; murder of Maria Fitzsimons in 1869 ; \n\nSunderland 16 May, ,, \n\nWm. Geo. Abigale ; murder of girl ; Norwich, \n\n22 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nOsmond Otto Brand ; murder of apprentice at sea ; \n\nLeeds 23 May, ,, \n\nCharles Gerrish ; murder of fellow pauper ; Wilts ,, \nWm. Tinner ; murder of wife ; Liverpool, 21 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nWm. Meager Bartlett; murdei\' of infant; Bodmin, \n\n13 Nov. ,, \nEdward Wheatfill ; cruel murder of Peter Hughes, \n\naged 16 ; York .\' . . . -27 Nov. ,, \nBernard Mullarkey ; murder of Thomas Cruise ; \n\nLiverpool 4 Dec. ,, \n\nCharles Taylor ; murder of wife ; Wandsworth, \n\n12 Dec. ,, \nLouisa Jane Taylor ; murder of Mrs. Tregiltis ; \n\nWandsworth 2 Jan. 1883 \n\nAbraham Thomas, a butler ; murder of Mrs. C. \n\nLeigh ; Manchester .... 12 Feb. ,, \n\nJames Anderson; murder of wife ; Lincoln, 19 Feb. ,, \nThomas Garry ; murder of John Newton ; Lincoln \n\n7 May \xe2\x80\x9e \nPatrick Carey, or John White ; murder of Thomas \n\nEastain and Mary Moran ; Chester . 8 May \xe2\x80\x9e \nGeorge White ; murder of wife; and Joseph Wedlake, \n\nmurder of Mark Cox ; Taunton . . 21 May, ,, \nJames Burton ; murder of Elizabeth Sharpe ; \n\nDurham 6 Aug. ,, \n\nHenry Powell ; murder of master\'s son, J. H. D. \n\nBruton ; Wandsworth . . . .6 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThomas Lyons ; murder of his child . 13 Nov. ,, \n\nPeter Bray ; murder of Thomas Pyle ; Durham, \n\n19 Nov. ,, \nThomas Riley : murder of Elizabeth Alston ; Man- \nchester 26 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nHenry Dutton ; murder of Hannah Henshaw ; \n\nLiverpool 3 Dec. ,, \n\nPatrick O\'Donnell ; murder of James Carey, the \n\ninformer ; Newgate .... 17 Dec. ,, \nCharles Kite ; murder of Albert Miles ; Taunton, \n\n25 Feb. 1884 \nMichael Maclean ; murder of Spanish sailor ; Liver- \npool 10 March ,, \n\nMary Leffley ; murder of husband ; Lincoln, \n\n26 May, ,, \nJoseph Lawson ; murder of sergeant Smith ; Durham \n\n27 May, ,, \nPeter Cassidy ; murder of wife; Liverpool, 19 Aug. ,, \nJoseph I.aycock ; murder of wife and 4 children ; \n\nLeeds 26 Aug. ,, \n\nThos. Henry Orrock ; murder of policeman Cole ; \n\nNewgate .... . . 6 Oct. ,, \n\nThomas Harris ; murder of wife ; Newgate 6 Oct. ,, \nKay Howarth and Henry Hammond ; Swindell\'s \n\nmurder ; Manchester . . . .24 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nErnest Ewerstadt and Arthur Shaw ; murder of \n\nwomen 8 Dec. ,, \n\nHorace Robert Jay ; murder of a girl ; Wandsworth \n\n13 Jan. 1885 \nHenry Kimberley; murder of Mrs. Palmer; Bir- \nmingham 17 March, ,, \n\nJohn Lee, murder of police-inspector Simmons \n\nChelmsford 18 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMoses Shrimpton, murder of policeman ; Worcester, \n\n25 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nHenry Alt, murder of C. Howard; Newgate, 13 July, ,, \nJoseph Tucker, murder of Elizabeth Williamson ; \n\nNottingham 3 Aug. ,, \n\nThomas Boulton, murder of niece ; Stafford, 17 Aug. ,, \nHenry Norman, murder of wife ; Newgate 5 Oct. ,, \nJohn Hill and John Williams, murder ol Arm \n\nDickson ; Hereford . . . -23 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nRobert Goodale, murder of wife ; head severed \n\nthrough long drop ; Norwich . . . 30 Nov. ,, \nDaniel Minahan, murder of wife ; Newgate 7 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nGeorge Thomas, murder of woman ; Liverpool 8 Dec. ,, \nJohn Horton, murder of his father ; Devizes 1 Feb. i88( \nAnthony Benjamin Rudge, John Martin, and James \n\nBaker, murder (see Trials) ; Carlisle 8 Feb. ,, \n\nJoseph Baines, murder of wife ; Lancaster 9 Feb. ,, \nJohn Thurston, murder of H. Springall ; Norwich \n\n10 Feb. ,, \nGeorge Saunders, murder of wife ; Ipswich 16 Feb. ,, \nOwen M\'Gill, murder of wife ; Cheshire 22 Feb. ,, \nThomas Nash, murder of child Swansea March, ,, \n\n\n\nEXECUTIONS. \n\n\n\n357 \n\n\n\nEXETER. \n\n\n\nDavid Roberts, murder of David Thomas ; Cardiff \n\n2 March, i \nAlbert Edward Brown, and James Whelan, for \nmurders ; Winchester ... 31 May, \nEdward Hewitt, murder of wife ; Gloucester \n\n15 June, \nWilliam Samuel, murder of Wm. Mabbott ; \n\nShrewsbury 26 July, \n\nMaiy Ann Britland, murder of Mrs. Dixon ; Man- \nchester 9 Aug. \n\nPatrick Judge, murder of wife ; Newcastle 16 Nov. \nJames Murphy, poacher, murder ; York 29 Nov. \nJames Banton, murder of police constable ; \n\nLeicester 30 Nov. \n\nGeorge Harmer, murder of an old man ; Is orwich \n\n13 Dec. \nThomas Leatherbarrow, murder of woman ; Man- \nchester 15 Feb. 1 \n\nThomas Bloxham, murder of wife ; Leicester 14 Feb. \nEdward Pritchard, murder of Allen ; Gloucester \n\n17 Feb. \nRichard Insole, murder of wife ; Lincoln 21 Feb. \nBenjamin Terry, murder of wife ; Nottingham \n\n22 Feb. \nElizabeth Berry, murder of daughter ; Liverpool \n\n14 March, \nJoseph King, murder of woman and child ; Newgate \n\n21 March, \n\nThomas William Carroll, murder of Lydia Green \n\n(see Trials) ; Newgate ... 18 April, \n\nCharles Smith, murder of wife ; Cowley near \n\nOxford 9 May, \n\nHenry William Young, murder of child ; Dor- \nchester 16 May, \n\nWalter Wood, murder of wife ; Manchester 31 May, \nAlfred Sowery, murder of sweetheart ; Lancaster \n\n1 Aug. \nIsrael Lipski, murder of woman ; Newgate 22 Aug. \nHenry Hobson, murder of Ada Stodhart ; Leeds \n\n22 Aug. \nThomas H. Bevan, murder of woman ; Chester \n\n17 Aug. \nWilliam Wilton, murder of wife ; Lewes 29 Aug. \nWilliam Hunter, murder of a child ; Carlisle 14 Nov. \nJoseph Walker, murder of wife ; Oxford 15 Nov. \nJoseph Morley, niurder of woman ; Chelmsford \n\n21 Nov. \nEnoch Wadley, murder of woman ; Gloucester \n\n28 Nov. \nThomas Payne, murder of his sister-in-law ; \n\nWarwick 6 Dec. \n\nDavid Rees, murder of Thomas Da vies ; Carmarthen \n\n13 March, 1 \nAlfred Scandrett and James Jones, murder of \nPhilip Ballard ; Hereford . . 20 March, \nGeorge Clarke, murder of stepdaughter ; Winchester \n\n27 March, \nWilliam Arrowsmith, murder of his uncle ; \n\nShrewsbury 28 March, \n\nJohn Alfred Gell, murder of Mrs. Mary Miller ; \n\nManchester ^ May, \n\nJames William Richardson, murder of Wm. \nBerridge ; Leeds. .... 22 May, \nRobert Upton, murder of wife ; Oxford 17 July, \nThomas Wyre, murder of son ; Worcester 18 July, \nJohn Jackson, murder of warder Webb ; Manchester, \n\n7 Aug. \nArthur T. Delaney, murder of wife ; Derby 10 Aug. \nGeorge Sargeant, murder of wife ; Chelmsford \n\n15 Aug. \nGeorge N. Daniels and Harry B. Jones, murders ; \n\nBirmingham 28 Aug. \n\nLevi Richard Bartlett, murder of wife; Newgate \n\n13 Nov. \nSamuel Crowther, murder of John Willis ; Worcesl er \n\n11 Dec. \nWilliam Waddell, murder of woman ; Durham \n\n18 Dec. \nCharles Bulmer, murder of wife ; Leeds . 1 Jan. 1 \nThomas Clews, murder of woman ; Stafford 1 Jan. \nGeorge Nicholson, murder of wife ; Warwick 8 Jan. \nWilliam Gower, aged 18, and Charles Joseph \n\nDobell, aged 19, confessed to murder of Bensley \nC. Lawrence, timekeeper at saw-mills at Tun- \nbridge Wells ; Maidstone . . . .2 Jan. \nEbenezer Samuel Jenkins, murder of his sweet- \nheart; Wandsworth. 6 March, \n\n\n\nSamuel Rylands, murder of little girl ; Shepton \nMallet gaol 13 March, 1889 \n\nThomas Allen, a Zulu ; murder of F. G. Kent ; \nSwansea 10 April, ,, \n\nJohn Witney, murder of wife ; Bristol n April, ,, \n\nGeorge Horton, murder of little daughter ;, Derby, \n\n21 Aug. ,, \nBenjamin Purnell, murder of wife ; Devises, 9 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nWilliam Dukes, murder of Mr. Gordon ; Bury, \n\n24 Dec. , , \nRobert West and Frederick Brett, wife murder ; \n\nLeeds 31 Dec. ,, \n\nWilliam Thomas Hook, wife murder ; Maidstone, \n\n31 Dec. ,, \nCharles Lister Higginbotham, murder of landlady, \n\n7 Jan. 189c \nJoseph Boswell and Samuel Boswell, for murder \n\nof Frank Stephens, gamekeeper ; Worcester, \n\nn March, ,, \nWilliam Row, for the murder of Lily McClarence ; \n\nNewcastle-on-Tyne . . . .12 March, ,, \nThomas Neal, murder of wife ; Newgate, 26 March, ,, \nRichard Davies, murder of father (see Trials), \n\nKnutsford, Cheshire .... 8 April, ,, \nWilliam Chadwick, murder of Walter Davies ; \n\nLiverpool 15 April, ,, \n\nDaniel Stewart Gorrie, murder of fellow-workman ; \n\nWandsworth 10 June, ,, \n\nGeorge Bowling, murder of Eliza Nightingale, with \n\nwhom he lived, Wandsworth . . 29 July, ,, \nFelix Spicer, murder of two children ; Knutsford, \n\n22 Aug. ,. \nJames Harrison, murder of wife ; Leeds 26 Aug. ,, \nFrederick Davis, murder of wife ; Birmingham, \n\n26 Aug. ,, \n\nFrancois Manteau, murder of Francois De Grave ; \nNewgate 27 Aug. ,, \n\nMary Eleanor Wheeler, otherwise Pearcey, for \nmurder of Mrs. Hogg (see Trials) ; Newgate, \n\n23 Dec. ,, \n\nThomas Macdonald, murder of Miss Alice Holt, \nschoolmistress, near Bolton ; Liverpool ; Robert \nKitching, murder of policeman Weedy ; York, \n\n30 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAlfred Turner, murder of sweetheart, Mary Moran ; \nManchester 19 May, 1891 \n\nFranz Joseph Munch, niurder ot James Hickey ; \nWandsworth 21 July, ,, \n\nArthur Spencer, murder of Mary Ann Garner ; \nLincoln 28 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nWalter Lewis Turner, murder of Barbara Water- \nhouse, 5 years old ; Leeds . . .18 Aug. ,, \n\nThomas Sadler, murder of Wm. Wass ; Chelms- \nford iS Aug. ,,. \n\nRobert Bradshaw, murder of wife ; Wandsworth, \n\n19 Aug. ,, \n\nJohn Conway, murder of Nicholas Martin, a youth ; \nLiverpool ...... 20 Aug. ,, \n\nEdward H. F. Watts, murder of wife ; Winchester, \n\n26 Aug. ,, \n\nHarry Dainton, murder of wife at Bath ; Shepton \nMallett 15 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nJohn William Johnson, murder of Margaret Addi- \nson ; Durham 22 Dec. ,, \n\nCharles Saunders, murder of child ; Hereford, \n\n23 Dec. ,, \nJames Stockwell, murder of Catherine Dennis ; \n\nArmley, Yorkshire .... 5 Jan. 1892- \n\nJames Muir, murder of Abigail Sullivan ; Newgate, \n\n1 March, ,, \nFrederick Eggleton and Charles Rayner, poachers, \nmurder of two gamekeepers, Joseph Crawley and \nWilliam Pimdlephat ; Oxford . 17 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nJoseph Wilson, murder of Marion Greaves Cross- \nman ; Carlisle .... 22 March, ,, \nGeorge H. Wood, murder of Edith Jeal ; Lewes, \n\n26 April, ,, \nEXETER (Devonshire), said to have been \nnamed Augusta from having been occupied by the \nsecond Augustan legion commanded by Vespasian : \nits present name is derived from Exccstrc. It was \nfor a considerable time the capital of the West \nSaxon kingdom. The BISHOPRIC anciently com- \nprised two sees: Devonshire (founded about 909) \nand Cornwall. The church of the former was at \nCrediton, of the latter at Bodmin, and afterwards at \n\n\n\nEXETEE. \n\n\n\n3-58 \n\n\n\nEXHIBITION. \n\n\n\nSt. German\'s. About 1040 the sees were united. \nSt. Petroc was the first bishop of Cornwall, before \n900 ; Eadulphus, the first bishop of Devonshire, 905 ; \nand Leofric, the first bishop of Exeter, in 1049. \nThe cathedral originally belonged to a monastciy \nfounded by Athelstan : Edward the Confessor re- \nmoved the monks to his new abbey of Westminster, \nand give their church for a cathedral to the united \nsee, 1049 ; the see was valued in the king\'s books at \nz,OOl. per annum. Present stated income, 4200^. \nPopulation, 1881,37,665; 1891,37,580. \n\nAlfred invested the city, held by the Danes, and \n\ncompelled them to capitulate . . . 877 & 894 \nExeter sacked by Sweyn ....... 1003 \n\nBesieged by William the Conqueror . . . . 1067 \n\nThe castle surrendered to king Stephen . . . 1136 \nThe city first governed by a mayor . . . . 1200 \n\nThe celebrated nunnery founded 1236 \n\nThe ancient bridge built 1250 \n\nEdward I. holds a parliament here .... 1286 \n\nThe Black Prince visits Exeter 1371 \n\nThe duchess of Clarence takes refuge in the city . 1469 \nBesieged by sir William Courtenay . . . . ,, \nCity assaulted by Perkin Warbeck . . . - 1497 \nExeter constituted a county of itself . . . . 1536 \nWelsh, the vicar of St. Thomas\'s, hanged on the \n\ntower of his church, as a Cornish rebel . 2 July, 1549 \nAnnual festival established .... 6 Aug. ,, \n\nThe guildhall built 1593 \n\nPrince Maurice takes Exeter for king Charles I. \n\nSept. 1643 \nIt surrenders to the parliamentarians . April, 1646 \n\nThe canal to Topsham cut 1675 \n\nA mint established by James II 1688 \n\nWater- works erected 1694 \n\nThe sessions-house built 1773 \n\nThe new bridge built 1778 \n\nThe theatre erected 1 783 \n\nLunatic asylum founded 1795 \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0County gaol built 1796 \n\nDevon and Exeter institution for the promotion \n\nof science established 1803 \n\nSubscription library founded 1807 \n\nNew city prison built 1818 \n\nThe last of the ancient gates removed . . . ,, \n\nThe subscription rooms opened 1820 \n\nThe public baths erected 1821 \n\nMechanics\' institution opened 1825 \n\nNew cemetery commenced , 1837 \n\nBailway to Bristol opened . . . .1 May, 1844 \nGreat fire, 20 houses burnt ... 2 Aug. ,, \n\nAnother great fire 26 April, 1847 \n\nInauguration of a statue of John Dinham, who \ndied June, 1864, bequeathing 24,000?. to charities, \n\n26 March, 1866 \nBread and meat riots ; suppressed . 4-5 Nov. 1867 \nAlbert Memorial Museum given up to the town \n\ncouncil 21 April, 1870 \n\nA new reredos, by sir Gilbert Scott (see Reredos), \nset up in the cathedral (1873): ordered to be. re- \nmoved by decision of the "bishop and justice \n\xe2\x80\xa2Keating, 15 April ; this decision rsversed by \nthe court of arches (sir R. Phillimore), 6 Aug. \n1874 ; the privy council decided that the reredos \n\nshould remain 24 Feb. 1875 \n\nThe church-tax " dominicals," or "sacrament- \nmoney," said to be of the nature of tithes ; dis- \ntraints for payment ; much excitement . Oct. ,, \nDestructive fire on the quay, of warehouses, &c. \n\n22 Dec. 1882 \nTheatre Royal burnt during first performance of \nRomany Rye ; panic and loss of about 127 lives ; \ngallery exit insufficient 5 Sept. ; (Percy S. M. \nGosset, M.A., assistant master of Bradford \ncollege, Berks, and Robert M. Tamplin, B.A., \nvictims) the coroner\'s jury censure the licensing \nmagistrates and Mr. Phipps the architect2i Sept. 1887 \nCaptain Shaw agrees, and points out twelve serious \n\ndefects in the construction, Times . 16 Nov. ,, \nA new theatre opened ... 7 Oct. 1889 \n\nVisit of the marquis of Salisbury ; he addresses \nabout 10,000 persons in a temporary building, \n\n2 Feb. 1P92 \n\nRECRNT BISHOPS. \n\n1803. John Fisher, translated to Salisbury in 1807. \n\n\n\n1807. Hon. George Pelham, translated to Lincoln, Sept. \n\n1820. \n1820. William Carey, translated to St. Asaph, March, 1830. \n1830. Christopher Bethell, translated to Bangor, 1830. \n\n1830. Henry Philpotts, died 18 Sept. 1869. \n\n1869. Frederick Temple, elected n Nov., and enthroned \n(after much opposition from some of the clergy) \n29 Dec. 1869 ; translated to London, Jan. 1S85. \n\n1885. E. H. Biekersteth. \n\nEXETER CHANGE (London), was built \nabout 1680, on part of the site of Exeter house, \nthe palace of Walter IStapleton, bishop of Exeter \nand lord treasurer in 1319, beheaded by order of the \nqueen- regent, Isabella, in 1326. It was entirely \ndemolished at the period of the Strand improve- \nments, in 1829. The new Exeter Change, built by \nthe marquis of Exeter near its site, opened in 1845, \nwas pulled down in 1862, for the Strand Music-hall, \nnow Gaiety theatre. \n\nEXETEE COLLEGE (Oxford) was founded \nby Walter Stapleton, bishop of\'Exeterin 1314. The \ncollege buildings mainly consist of a quadrangle in \nthe later Gothic style. \n\nEXETEE HALL (Strand, I ondon). erected \nin 1830- 1 for the meetings of religious and philan- \nthropic institutions, concerts, oratorios, and musical \nsocieties, a large and magnificent apartment with a \nsplendid orchestra and organ, and having rooms \nattached for committees, &c, opened 29 March, \n\n1831. See under Music. Religious services were \nheld here in 1856 by the Rev. C. Spurgeon, and \nin 1857 by ministers of the church of England, on \nSundays. \n\nThe Sacred Harmonic Society met here 1831-80 ; last \nconcert, " Israel in Egypt," 30 April, 1880. \n\nThe hall was purchased for the Young Men\'s Christian \nAssociation for 25,000?. July 1880 ; re-opened (jubilee), \n29 March, 1881. \n\nEXHIBITION of 1851 (the great ex- \nhibition). The original idea of a National Ex- \nhibition* is attributed to Mr. F. Whishaw, secretary \nof the Society of Arts in 1844. It was not taken up \ntill 1849, when prince Albert, president of the \nsociety, said, "Now is th\xc2\xab time to prepare for a \nGreat Exhibition, an exhibition worthy of the \ngreatness of this country ; not merely national in its \nscope and benefits, but comprehensive of the whole \nworld ; and I offer myself to the public as their \nleader, if they are willing to assist in the under- \ntaking." \n\nRoyal commission appointed . . .3 Jan. 1850 \nA subscription list opened, headed by the queen for \n\n1000?. \nCivic banquets in support of the plan, at London, \n\n21-22 March ; and at York . . .25 Oct. ,, \nThe building t commenced ... 26 Sept. ,, \n\n\n\n* Industrial exhibitions began with the French ; \nExpositions having been organised and opened at Paris \nin 1798, 1801, 1802, 1806, 1819, 1823, 1827, 1834, 1839, 1844, \nand 1849, the last, being the eleventh, exceeding all the \npreceding in extent and brilliancy. The first exhibition \nof the kind in this country was the National Repository, \nopened under royal patronage in 1828, near Charing- \ncross. It was not successful. Other exhibitions were \nopened at Manchester in 1837, at Leeds in 1839, and at \nBirmingham in 1849. Exhibitions have since been held \nat Cork, Dublin, Manchester, New York, Paris, Montreal, \nFlorence, Constantinople, Bayonne, Melbourne, Vienna, \nPhiladelphia, and many other places {which see). \n\n+ The palace, with the exception of the flooring and \njoists, was entirely of glass and iron. It was designed by \nMr. (aft. sir Joseph) Paxton (who died 8 June, 1865), \nand the contractors were Messrs. Fox and Henderson, to \nwhom it was agreed to pay 79,800?. , or 150,000?. if the \nbuilding were permanently retained. Itcosti76,o3o?. 13s. 8& \nIts length was 1851 feet, corresponding with the year ; \nthe width 408 feet, with an additional projection on the \n\n\n\nEXHIBITION. \n\n\n\n359 \n\n\n\nEXPEDITIONS. \n\n\n\nMany persons admitted into it in Jan. ; it is virtually \ntransferred to the royal commissioners by the \ncontractors, Messrs. Fox and Henderson, Feb. 1851 \nReception of goods began 12 Feb., and the sale of \n\nseason tickets 25 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Exhibition opened by her majesty . 1 May, ,, \nThe number of exhibitors exceeded 17,000, of whom \n2918 received prize medals and 170 council \nmedals. The articles exhibited in arts, manufac- \ntures, and the various produce of countries, defied \ncalculation. \nThe palace continued open above 23 weeks, alto- \ngether 144 days (1 May to 15 Oct.) within which \ntime it was visited by 6, 170,000 persons, averaging \n43,536 a day, whose admission at the respective \nprices of one pound, half-a-crown, and one shilling, \namounted to 505,107?. including season tickets, \nleaving a surplus, after payment of expenses, of \nabout 150,000?.* ....... 1851 \n\nThe greatest number of visitors in one day was \n109,760 (8 Oct.) ; and at one time (2 o\'clock, 7 Oct.) \nthere were 93,000 ; these persons were assembled \nat one time, not in an open area, like a Roman \namphitheatre, but within a windowed and floored \n.and roofed building. There is no like vast assem- \nblage recorded in either ancient or modern annals, \nas having been gathered together, it may be said, \nin one room. \nThe Exhibition was closed to the public . 11 Oct. ,, \nA memorial statue of the prince consort by Joseph \nDurham, placed in the gardens of the Royal Hor- \nticultural Society, uncovered in the presence of \n.the prince and princess of Wales . 10 June, 1863 \nSee Crystal Palace. \n\nEXHIBITION OF 1862 (INTERNATIONAL). \nA proposal in 1858 for another great exhibition, to \nbe held in 1861, was withdrawn in consequence of \n.the war in Italy in 1859, &c. The scheme was re- \nvived in ApriL i860, when the prince consort en- \ngaged to guarantee 10,000^. if 240,000^. should be \nsubscribed for by other persons. \nA charter granted to the following commissioners : \n\nearl Granville, the marquis of Chandos, C. W. \n\nDilke, jun. , and Thomas Fairbairn . 22 Feb. 1861 \nThe guarantee fund amounted to 349,000?. in Nov. \n\ni860, and to 452,300?. ... 22 Aug. 1862 \n\nThe building, t erected at South Kensington, by \n\nMessrs. Kelk and Lucas, according to a design by \n\ncapt. Fowke, made over to the commissioners, \n\n12 Feb. 1862 \nThe Exhibition opened by the duke of Cambridge \n\nand royal commissioners . . . 1 May, ,, \nThe fine arts department included a noble collec- \ntion of paintings and sculptures. \nThe jurors\' award of medals was announced in the \n\nbuilding 11 July, ,, \n\nThe Exhibition was closed 1 Nov., when the total \n\nnumber of visitors (exclusive of attendants) had \n\nbeen 6,117,450. \n\n.north side, 936 feet long, by 48 wide. The central por- \ntion was 120 feet wide and 64 feet high, anil the great \navenues ran east and west through the building ; the \ntransept near the centre was 72 feet wide and 108 feet \n.high. The entire area was 772,784 square feet, or about \n19 acres. Four galleries ran lengthways, and others \nround the transept. The ground-floor and galleries con- \ntained 1,000,000 square feet of flooring. There were \naltogether 4000 tons of iron in the structure, and 17 acres \n\xe2\x80\xa2of glass in the roof, besides about 1500 vertical glazed \n-sashes. \n\n* This was placed in the hands of commissioners, who \n.have promoted the South Kensington museum, and in \n1876 proposed the establishment of a science library. \n\nt The main building occupied about 16 acres of \n.ground, and the annexes 7 acres. The south front was \n.1150 feet long and 55 feet high, and over the east and \nwest fronts rose the two domes 260 feet high. The inte- \nrior was decorated by Mr. John G. Crace. The building \nwas given up to Messrs. Kelk and Lucas on 31 Dec. 1862, \nthe house of commons having refused to purchase it for \n.80,000?. 2 July, 1863 ; and the pulling down commenced \n\xe2\x80\xa2on 6 July. The domes and other parts of the structure \n\xe2\x96\xa0r.vere purchased fur erection in Alexandra-park, Muswell- \nSiill, near London (north), \n\n\n\nThe Exhibition reopened on 3 Nov. for the sale of \ngoods exhibited ; was finally closed 15 Nov. 1862 \n\nThe success of the Exhibition was much impaired \nby the decease of the prince consort, 14 Dec. 1861, \nand the breaking out of the civil war in the \nUnited States of America. The foreign exhibitors \nin 1851 were 6566 ; in 1862, 16,456. \n\nExhibitors at London, in 1851, 14,000 ; at Paris, in \n1855, 24,000 ; at London, in 1862, 29,000 ; at Paris, \nin 1867, 50,000. \n\nEXHIBITIONS, INTERNATIONAL. A \n\nmeeting was held 4 April, 1870, the prince of \nWales in the chair, to promote annual international \nexhibitions at South Kensington, to commence \nI May, 1871. \n\nI. 1871. Fine aits, pottery, woollen and worsted manu- \nfactures ; educational department ; opened by the \nprince of Wales, 1 May ; closed 30 Oct. \n\n[34 countries contributed ; total number of visitors, \n1,142,154 ; highest on one day (Whit-Monday, 29 May), \n21,946.] \n\nII. 1872. Fine arts, cotton, jewellery, stationery, with \nmachinery ; and raw materials ; opened by the duke \nof Edinburgh, 1 May ; closed 19 Oct. \n\nIII. 1873. Fine arts ; manufactures (silk, steel, surgical \ninstruments, &c. ; carriages for rails or tramways ; \nfood) ; scientific inventions and new discoveries ; \nopened 14 April ; closed 31 Oct. \n\nIV. Fine arts ; manufactures and raw materials, and \nengineering, and recent scientific inventions ; opened, \n6 April ; closed, 31 Oct. 1874. \n\n[The annual exhibitions having proved unsuccessful, the \nbuilding was appropriated by the East India Museum]. \n\nExhibition of 1884, held at the Crystal Palace, opened \non 23 April. \n\nSee Fisheries, Forests, and Sanitation. \n\nInternational Health Exhibition, 8 May-30 Oct. 1884 \n\nExhibition of the products, manufactures and arts \nof India and the colonies at South Kensington \n(See under Colonies) . .4 May-10 Nov. 1886 \n\nEXODUS (Greek, way out), a term applied to \nthe departure of the Israelites from Egypt, 1491 B.C. ; \nand described in the book of Exodus. Uhronologers \nvary in the date of this event : the LXX. give 1614; \nHales, 1648; Wilkinson, 1495; Bunsen, 1320 or \nI3I4- \n\nEX OFFICIO INFORMATIONS are \n\nthose hied by the attorney-general, by virtue of his \noffice, without applying to the court where they are \ntiled for leave, or giving the defendant an oppor- \ntunity of showing- cause why they should not be \ntiled. Cabinet Laivyer. They were used by the \nLiverpool administration about 1817-19. William \nHone was tried on criminal information, 18-20 Dec, \n1 81 7, and acquitted. The British bank directors \nwere thus tried, 1857. \n\nEXPEDITIONS. Many are described under \ntheir respective heads. \n\nExpedition of "the Nations" or "the Ditch"; the \nthird expedition of the Koreish (which sec) against \nMahomet, named from the nations who marched under \ntheir leader Abu Sophian, and from the ditch which was \ndrawn before the city. They were principally vanquished \nby the fury of the elements. Gibbon. 625. \n\n\n\nBRITISH EXPEDITIONS. \n\nFrance, near Port l\'Oricnt . . . 1 Oct. \n\nCherbourg 7 Aug. \n\nSt. Malo ; 4000 men lost .... Sept. \n\nQuiberon Bay (French emigrants) . . . . \nOstend (all mime prisoners) . . . May. \nHelder Point and Zuyder Zee . . . Sept. \n\nFerrol, in Spain Aug. \n\nEgypt (Abercrombie) March, \n\nCopenhagen Sept. \n\nWalcheren (unfortunate) July, \n\nBergen-op-Zoom 8 March, \n\nCrimea Sept. \n\nAbyssinia Oct. TS67-A )>ril. \n\nAgainst the Ashautees (which see) . . 12 Sept. \nSee Egypt, India, Soudan, &c. \n\n\n\n1746 \n1758 \n\n1796 \n1798 \n1799 \n\n\n\n1807 \n\n\n\n1814 \n1854 \n\n\n\n1873 \n\n\n\nEXPENDITURE. \n\n\n\n360 \n\n\n\nEXTRADITION TREATIES. \n\n\n\nEXPENDITURE, see under Revenue. \n\nEXPLOSIONS, see Boilers, Coal. \nCriminal Explosions, close to the local government office, \nCharles Street, Westminster ; great damage, no loss \nof life ; 9 p.m. ; 15 March, 1883. \n\nEx-plosions (by nitroglycerine 1) 30 Oct. 1883, on Metro- \npolitan District railway, between Charing Cross and \nWestminster stations ; some damage ; no persons \ninjured. Metropolitan railway, near Praed Street \nStation; two thiid class carriages shattered; above \n62 persons injured, 8.13 p.m. Capt. Majendie and \nprof. Abel consider it to have been caused "by \ndynamite thrown from a railway carriage. \n\nVictoria Station, Pimlico, building much injured, pro- \nperty destroyed, and two men hurt by an explosion \nin the cloak-room, 1.3 a.m., 27 Feb. 1884. \n\n9 20, 30 May, 1884. Detective department, Scotland \nYard, Whitehall ; wall blown down, windows broken ; \npublic house wrecked, many persons injured, two \nseriously. 9.20 p.m Junior Carlton club house and \nSir W. W. Wynne\'s, St. James\'s Square, much damage, \nsome persons injured. \n\nSixteen cakes of dynamite and fuse found at foot of \nNelson\'s monument, Trafalgar Square, 30 May, 1884. \n\nExplosion at Genoa, 10 June ; at Madrid, 18 June, 1884. \n\nFailure of attempt to explode S.W. end of London \nBridge, about 6 p.m., 13 Dec, 1884. \n\nExplosion in Metropolitan railway near Gower Street, \n(by a bomb shell), about 9 p.m., 2 Jan. 1885. \n\nThree explosions, see Parliament, Westminster Hall, and \nTower, 24 Jan. 1885. \n\nEXPLOSIVES : see Gunpowder, Gun Cotton, \nNitro-Glycerine, Dynamite, Dualine, Lithot\'racteur, \nGlyoxiline, Blasting, Gelatine, Bellite, Roburite, \nHelloffite, Melenite, Silotvor, \xc2\xa7c. A committee \nto examine into the nature and properties of various \nexplosives was appointed by government in 1871. \nExplosives have been much studied by sir F. A. \nAbel, of Woolwich since 1881. \n\nProfessor Osborne Reynolds produced a new explosive, \n75 parts chlorate of potash, 25 sulphuria, a product of \ncoal gas ; the ingredients kept apart till required ; \nannounced 1878. \nThe manufacture and use of explosives greatly increased \n\n1885-6. \nCarbo-dynamite, a new explosive, invented by Mr. W. \n\nF. Reid and Mr. W. D. Borland ; announced April, \n\n1888. \n\nEXPLOSIVES ACT, passed 14 June, 1875, \namends the law with respect to the manufacturing, \nkeeping, selling, carrying, and importing gun- \npowder, nitro-glycerine, and other explosive sub- \nstances. Amendment act passed, 1883. \nIn consequence of the attempt at explosion in London \nin March, a new act to watch over the manufacture of \nsxplosives and punish possessors for felonious purposes, \n&c, passed by both houses, 9 April ; royal assent, \n10 April, 1883. The authors of attempted explosions \nare punishable with penal servitude for life. \n\nEXPORTS. Edward III. by bis encourage- \nment of trade turned the scale so much in favour of \nEnglish merchandise, that, by a balance taken in \nhis time, the exported commodities amounted to \n294,000?". and the imported to only 38,000?". ; see \nRevenue. The declared value is of much less \namount than the official. \n\nOFFICIAL VALUE OF EXPORTS FROM GREAT BRITAIN \nTO ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD. VIZ. : \xe2\x80\x94 \n\n\n\ni860 . . \xc2\xa3135,891,227 1878 . . \xc2\xa3192,848,914 \n\n1861 . . 125,102,814 1879 - \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x96\xa0I9i,53i,75 8 \' \n\n1862 . . . 123,902,264 1880 . . 223,060,446\' \n\n1863 . . 146,602,342 1881 . . .234,022,678. \n\n1865 . . .165,835,725 I 1882 . . 241,467,162 \n\n1866 . . 188,917,536 I 1883 . . .239,799,473 \n\n1867 . . . 180,961,923 I 1884 . . 233,025,2421 \n\n1868 . . 179,677,812 I 1885 . . .213,115,114. \n\n1869 . . . 180,953,957 I 1886 . . 212,725,200. \n\n1870 . . 199,586,822 1887 . . .221,913,910 \n\n1875 . . 223,465,963 1888 . . 234,534,912 \n\n1876 - . 200,639.204 I 1889 . . .248,935,195-, \n\n1877 . . . 198,893,065 I 1890 " . . 263,530,585, \n\nExports of all kinds to foreign countries, in 1875 : \n152,373, 800?. ; in 1876, 135,779,980?. ; in 1877,. \n128,969,715?. ; 1878, 126,611,428?. ; 1879, 130,529,647?. ; \n1880, 147,806,267?. ; 1881,154,658,083?.; 1882,156,640,727?.; \n1883, 156,321,921?.; 1884, 152,149,296?.; 1885, 135,120,194?. ; \n1886, 137,053,799?. ; 1887, 146,543,654?. ; to British posses- \nsions in 1875, 71,092,163?.; in 1876, 64,859,224?. ; in 1877, \n69,923,350?.; 1878, 66, 23-, 486?. ; 1879, 61,002,111?.; 1880, \n75,254,179?. ; 1881, 79,364,595?. ; 1882, 84,826,435?. ; 1883^, \n83,477,552?. ; l88 4i 80,875,946?. ; 1885, 77,929,626?. ; 1886, \n\n75,506,637?. ; 1887, 75,135,849?. ; 1888, 150,293,399?. ;. \n1889, 165,656,205?. ; 1890, 176,160,202?. \n\n\n\n1700 \n\n\n,\xc2\xa36,097,120 \n\n\n1830 \n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 \xc2\xa366,735.445 \n\n\n1750 . \n\n\n. 10,130,991 \n\n\n1835 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 7 8 .376,732 \n\n\n1775 \n\n\n16,326,363 \n\n\n1840 \n\n\n97,402,726 \n\n\n1800 . \n\n\n. 38,120,120 \n\n\n1845 . \n\n\n. 131,564,503 \n\n\n1810 \n\n\n45,869.839 \n\n\n1850 \n\n\n175,126,706 \n\n\n1820 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 5i. 733. "3 \n\n\nl8 5 I . \n\n\n. 190,397,810 \n\n\nDECLARED \n\n\nVALUE OF BRITISH AND \nEXPORTED. \n\n\nIRISH PRODUCE \n\n\n1851 . \n\n\n^74,448,722 1 1856 \n\n\n\xc2\xa3115,826,948 \n\n\n1853 \n\n\n98,933,781 1857 . \n\n\n.122,155,237 \n\n\n1855 . \n\n\n. 95,688,085 \n\n\n1859 \n\n\n. 130,440,237 \n\n\n\nEXTENSION, see University. \n\nEXTINCTEUR, see Fire-Annihilator. \n\nEXTRACT OF MEAT, obtained by Liebig \nin 1847; a company was formed to manufacture it \nin South America in 1866. \n\nEXTRADITION TREATIES. The extra- \ndition of criminals formed part of the Ashburtott) \ntreaty {which see), 9 Aug. 1842. Between Great \nBritain and France, 1843. In Dec. 1865, the French \ngovernment gave notice of withdrawing from it \nin six months. It was renewed, wiih modifica- \ntions, for six months, 21 May, 1866. A new act \nwas passed, 9 Aug. 1870; amended in 1873- \nSimilar treaties have been concluded with other \npowers; with Austria, 3 Dec. 1873; Switzerland, \n4 April, 1874; Holland, Aug. 1874; with Spain, \n\n\n\nIn 1866, M. Lamirancl, charged with forgery and fraud \nagainst the Bank of France, fled to America. He was \npursued, and was arrested at Montreal, on 1 Aug., under \nthe governor-general\'s warrant. On 15 Aug., while his. \nexamination was still pending, he petitioned the gover- \nnor-general not to warrant his surrender before he could \napply for a writ of habeas corpus, and was assured on 17 \nAug. that ample time should be allowed for this purpose. \nOn 22 Aug. he was finally committed ; and on 24 Aug. \nhis petition for a writ of habeas corpus was presented to\xc2\xbb \njudge Drummond, twenty-four hours\' notice having been \ngiven to the representatives of the crown and the Bank \nof France. After arguments had been heard and the case \nadjourned until the following day, he was surreptitiously \ncarried off the same night by train to Quebec, and hurried \non board a steamer bound for Europe, by virtue of an \nextradition warrant, purporting to be signed by the \ngovernor-general at Ottawa, on 23 Aug. He was con- \nveyed to France, and on 5 Dec. was tried, found guilty, \nand condemned to ten years\' imprisonment. These cir- \ncumstances led to much discussion, and the Canadian \nauthorities were censured for irregularity and want of \ndiscretion. The discussion ended by Lamirand declining \nBritish intervention. \n\nDispute with United States respecting the \nsurrender of Ezra D. Winslow, a forger, by \nGreat Britain, which is refused unless it is \nagreed that the prisoner shall only be tried for \nthe offence for which he has been committed \n(according to the treaty) April, 187S \n\nMr. Hamilton Fish, the. American foreign secretary, \nstands on Ashburton treaty of 1842, wherein no \nstipulation is mentioned ; although it is found \nin other treaties with other governments. \nWinslow was discharged, 15 June; and Brent, \n\nanother fugitive, a few days after . . . 187S \n\nThe British Government yield, 27 Oct.; Brent recap- \ntured, Dec. 1876. Winslow, claimed by Swiss \n\n\n\nEXTRAVAGANTES. \n\n\n\n361 \n\n\n\nEYRE. \n\n\n\ngovernment, escapes through flaw in the treaty ; \ndecision of queen\'s bench . . . 2 Nov. 1877 \n\nStringent treaty, for anarchists and political \noffenders, between Russia and Prussia . 13 Jan. 1885 \n\nSimilar treaty between Germany and Russia pro- \nposed 12 Feb. 1885 ; accepted . . . April, ,, \n\nEnlarged treaty between United States and Great \nBritain proposed 1886 ; deferred till Dec. 1888 ; \nrejected by the senate (38-15) . .1 Feb. 1889 \n\nNew treaty ratified by the senate, 18 Feb. 1890 ; it \nis an enlargement of the Ashburton treaty of \n1842, proclaimed at Washington and gazetted in \nLondon 25 March, 1890 \n\nExtradition treaty between England and Russia \n\nApril, 1887 \n\nEXTRAVAGANTES, see Decretals. \n\nEXTREME UNCTION, see Anointing. \n\n\n\nEYLAU (Prussia), where, on 7-8 Feb. 1807, the \nFrench, defeated the Russians in one of the most \nbloody contests of the war. Napoleon commanded \nin person. Both armies by this and other battles \nwere so much reduced, that the French retired to, \nthe Vistula, and the Russians on the Pregel. \n\nEYRE (old P\'rench for ire, to go on), the itine- \nrant court of justices, the justices in eyre, was in- \nstituted by Henry II. 1 176; and when the forest \nlaws were in force, its chief-justice had great \ndignity. Thes-e justices were to go their ciicuit \nevery third year, and punish all abuses committed \nin the king\'s forests. The last instance of a court \nbeinsj held in any of the forests is said to have been \nin 1671. JBeatson. \n\n\n\nF. \n\n\n\nFS. \n\nF\'S, Three (that is, " fixity of tenure, fair rents, \n.and free sale"), term much used respecting Irish \nland question in 1880- 1. Sir Stafford Northcote \ntermed them "fraud, force, and folly," and they \nwere much opposed by lord Dufferin and others. \n\nFABII. A noble family at Rome, said to have \n\xe2\x96\xa0derived their name from f aba, a bean, because some \n\xe2\x96\xa0of their ancestors cultivated this pulse; or to have \n\xe2\x96\xa0descended from Fnbius, a son of Hercules. Accord- \ning to the legend, the whole family, on behalf of \nthe state carried on the war against the Veientes. \nDuiing a march to Rome, they were sin prised, and \n\xe2\x96\xa0all the grown up males (306) were slain 477 B.C. \nFrom a boy detained at Rome, arose the noble Fabii \n\xe2\x96\xa0of the following aues. Fabius Cunctator (the de- \nlayer) kept Hannibal in check for some time with- \nout coming to an engagement, 217-216 B.C. \n\nFABLES. "Jotham\'s fable of the trees \n\xe2\x96\xa0{Judges ix., about 1209 B.C.) is the oldest extant, \nand as beautiful as any made since." Addison. \nNathan\'s fable of the poor man (2 Sam. xii., about \n1034 B.C.) is next in antiquity. The earliest collec- \ntion of fables extant is of eastern origin, and pre- \nserved in the Sanscrit. The fables of Vishnoo \nSarma, or Filpay, are the most beautiful, if not the \nmost ancient in the world. Sir William Jones. \nProfessor Max M tiller traced La Fontaine\'s fable of \nthe Milkmaid to a very early Sanscrit collection. \nJEsop\'s fables {which see) supposed to have been \nwritten about 565 or 620 B.C., were versified by \nBabrius, a Greek poet, about 130 B.C. (Coray), and \n\xe2\x96\xa0turned into prose by Maximus Planudes, a Greek \nmonk, about 1320, who added other fables and ap- \npended a worthless life of iEsop. The fables of \nPhsedrus in elegant Latin-iambics (about a.t>. 8), of \nLa Fontaine (1700) and of (iay (1727) are justly \ncelebrated. \n\nFACIAL ANGLE (that contained by one \nline drawn horizontally from the middle of the ear \nto the edge of the nostrils, and another from the \nlatter point to the ridge of the frontal bone) was in- \nvented by Peter Camper to measure the elevation \nof the\'forehead. In negroes this angle is about 70\xc2\xb0 ; \nin Europeans varies from 75\xc2\xb0 1 \xc2\xb0 ^5\xc2\xb0- Camper died \n7 April, 1789. His book on \'\' Characteristic Marks \n\xe2\x80\xa2of Countenance " was published in 1791. \n\nFACTIONS of the Circus among the Romans, \nwere parties that fought on chariots in the circus, \n\xe2\x96\xa0and who were distinguished by colours, as green, \nblue, red, and white; Domitian added gold and \n\xe2\x96\xa0scarlet, about a.d. 90. \n\nN\'ika sedition. \xe2\x80\x94 In Jan. 532, a conflict took place at \n(Constantinople, lasting five days, when about 30,000 lives \nwere lost, and Justinian was mainly indebted for his life \nand throne to the heroism of his empress Theodora. The \nVjlues and greens united for a day or two against the em- \nperor, taking Nika ! (overcome) for a watchword. The \n"blues soon turned, and massacred nearly all the greens. \n\'The conflict was suppressed by Belisarius with difficulty, \nand the games were abolished for a time. \n\nFACTORIES, supplied with machinery for \nproducing manufactures, have immensely increased \nin this country since 1815. I\'he Factory act, regu- \nlating the hours of labour, &c, was passed in 1833 \nand amended 1834 and 1844. Similar acts have \n\n\n\nFAIRS. \n\nbeen passed since ; and an act for the extension of \nthe principles of the Factory acts was passed in \n1867 in relation to women and children employed \nin manual labour; short time on Saturdays was \nenacted. Other acts were passed in 1870-1878. \nThe Act of 1878 (like that of 14 July, 1874) relates to \nsanitary provisions, safety from machinery, hours of \nemployment, meal hours, women and children, holi- \ndays, education of children, accidents, &c, passed 27 \nMay, 1878. Consolidating act passed in 1883. \nThe earl of Shaftesbury, the energetic promoter of this \n\nlegislation, died 1 Oct. 1885, aged 84. \nNew Factories and Workshops Act passed 5 Aug. 1891. \nMr. Alexander Redgrave, chief inspector of factories in \n1851, retired, and was succeeded by Mr. F. H. \nWhymper, Sept. 1S91. \n\nFACULTIES, Court of, giving powers \n\nto the archbishops of Canterbury and York, 25 \nHen. VIII. cap. 21, 1534. \n\nFAENZA, central Italy, the ancient Faventia, \nsubmitted to the emperor Frederick I., 1 162; was \ntaken by Frederick II, 12 .April, 1241 ; held by the \npope, 1275 ; by the Bolognese, 1282 ; by Csesar \nBorgia, 1501 ; by Venice, 1504; by the papacy, \n1509; by the French, 1512. After various changes \nearly in the 16th century it was acquired by the \npapacy and retained till the annexation by Sardinia, \n1859. Faience pottery owes its name to this place, \nwhere it was invented. \n\n"FAERIE QUEEN," by Edmund Spenser; \na part was published in 1590; the whole, 1611. \n\nFAHRENHEIT, see Thermometer. \nFAINEANTS, see Mayors of the Palace. \n\nFAIRLOP OAK, with a trunk 48 feet in \ncircumference, the growth of five centuries, in \nHainault forest, Essex, was blown clown in Feb. 1820. \nBeneath its branches an annual fair was long held \non the first Friday in July, which originated with \nthe eccentric Mr. Day, a pump and block maker of \nWapping, who, having a small estate in the vicinity, \nannually repaired here with a party of friends, to \ndine on beans and bacon. \n\nFAIROAKS, near the Chickahominy, Virginia, \nthe site of two sanguinary indecisive battles between \nthe Confederates, under general Joseph Johnson, \nand the Federal army of the Potomac, under general \nM\'CLellan, 31 May and 1 June, 1862. \n\nFAIR TRADE LEAGUE, National, \n\nfounded by lord Dunraven, Mr. Sampson Lloyd, \nMr. David Macliver, and others, agriculturists and \n\nmerchants, who issued a circular in Aug. 1S81. It \nis opposed to what it considers unfair free trade. \nThey advocate recurrence to duties on foreign corn and \n\nmanufactures, but not on raw materials. \nUnsuccessful in the parliamentary election of 1885. \n\nMeeting of the league 28 April and 2 Nov. 1887. \nThe National Association for the Preservation of \n\nAgriculture and other industries held a meeting in \n\nLondon 8 Dec. 1887. \n\nFAIRS AND WAKES, of Saxon origin, were \ninstituted in Italy, about 500; in England by Alfred, \n886. Spclman. Wakes were established by order \nof Gregory VII. in 1078, and termed Fericc, at \nwhich the monks celebrated the festival of their \npatron saint : the vast resort of people occasioned \n\n\n\nFAITH. \n\n\n\n363 FAN. \n\n\n\na great demand for goods, wares, &c. Fairs were \nestablished in France about 800 by Charlemagne, \nand encouraged in England about 1071 by William \nthe Conqueror. Many statutes were made for the \nregulation of fairs (1328 \xe2\x80\x94 1868). The "Fairs Act," \npassed 25 May, 1871, provides for the abolition of \nfairs; in 1872, Charlton and Blackheath fairs, and \nin 1873 Clauham fair, were abolished as nuisances \nSee Frosts. \nAn "old English fair" was opened at the Royal Albert \n\nHall by princess Christian, to aid the Chelsea Hospital \n\nfor Women, 9 June, 1881. See Markets. \n\nFAITH, see Defender. \n\nFALCK LAWS, see Prussia, 1873. \n\nFALCONRY or Hawking in England \n\ncannot be (raced with certainty before the reign of \nking Etbelbert, ibe Saxon monarch, 858. Pennant. \nThe grand seignior at one time kept six thousand \nfalconers in his service. Juliana Berners\' book on \n" Hawkynge and Huntynge" was printed in 1496; \nsee Angling, Recent attempts have been made to \nrevive falconry. Hawking was practised in Thrace. \nAristotle. \n\nFALCZI, on the Pruth, Turkey. Here was \nconcluded a Peace between Russia and Turkey, \n21 July, 171 1, the Russians giving up Azof, and all \nthe possessions on the Black Sea to the Turks. The \nRussians were saved from imminent destruction by \nthe address of Catherine the empress. Tn 1712 the \nwar was renewed, and terminated by the peace of \nConstantinople, 16 April, 1712. \n\nFALERII, a city of the Falisci, an Etruscan \npeople who joined the Veientes against Rome, and \nwere beaten by Cornelius Cossus, 437 B.C. It is \nrecorded that when the city was besieged by Ca- \nmillus in 394, a schoolmaster offered to betray to \nhim the children of the principal citizens. On his \nrefusal, the citizens from gratitude surrendered. \nTbey opposed Rome during the first Punic war; \nand in 241 the city was taken and destroyed. \n\nFALERNIAN WINE, celebrated by Virgil \nand Horace, was the produce of Falernus, or, as \ncalled by Martial, Mons Massicus, in Campania. \nHorace in his Odes boasts of having drunk Falernian \nwine that had been, as it were, born with him, or \nwhich reckoned its age from the same consuls, \n14 B.C. \n\nFALKIRK (Stirlingshire, Scotland), the site \nof a victory by the English under Edward I. over \nthe Scots, commanded by Wallace, part of whose \nforces deserted him. It is said from 20,000 to 40,000 \nScots were slain, 22 July, 1298. A battle was fought \nat Falkiik Muir between the royal forces under \nHawley, and prince Charles Edward Stuart, in which \nthe former were defeated, 17 Jan. 1746. \n\nFALKLAND ISLANDS, a group in the \nSouth Atlantic, belonging to Great Britain, seen by \nAmericus Vespucius, 1 502, and visited by Davis, \n1592; explored by Hawkins, 1594; taken possession \nof by France, 1764. The French were expelled by \nthe Spaniards ; and in 1771, Spain resigned them to \nEngland. Not having been colonised by us, the \nrepublic of Buenos Ayres assumed a right to these \nislands, and a colony from that country settled at \nPort Louis ; but owing to a dispute with America, \nthe settlement was destroyed by the latter in 1831. \nIn 1833 the British flag was hoisted at Port Louis, \nand a British ofticer has since resided there. Popula- \ntion in 1888, 1,890. Governors, Wm. C. F. Robin- \nson, 1866; col. George A. K. D\'Arcy, 1870 ; Thos. \nF. Callaghan, 1876; Thos. Kerr, 1880; Sir Roger \nT. Goldsworthy, Feb. 1891. Falkland Islands \ncreated a crown colony, March, 1892. \n\n\n\nFALLING STARS, see Meteors. \n\nFAMILISTERE, see Fourierism. \n\nFAMILY COMPACT, see Bourbon. \n\nFAMILY OF LOVE, a society, called also \nPhlhuielphians, from the love they professed to bear \nto all men, assembled at Brew-house yard, Notting- \nham. Their founder, David George, an Anabaptist, \nof Holland, propagated his doctrines in Switzerland, \nwhere he died in 1556. The tenets of the society \nwere declared impious, and George\'s body and books \nordered to be burned by the hangman. In Eng- \nland a sect with a similar title was repressed by \nElizabeth, 1580 ; but existed in the following cen- \ntury. See Agapemone. \n\nFAMINES. The famine of the seven years in \nEgypt began 1708 B.C. Usher; Plait: \nFamine at Rome, when thousands of people threw \nthemselves into the Tiber . . . . b.c. 436 \n\nAwful famine in Egypt a.d. 42 \n\nAt Rome, attended by plague 262 \n\nIn Britain ; people ate the bark of trees . . . 272 \n\nIn Scotland ; thousands died 306 \n\nIn England ; 40,000 perished 310 \n\nAwful one in Phrygia 370 \n\nIn Italy, when parents ate their children (Dufresnoy) 450 \nIn England, Wales, and Scotland . . . . 739 \n\nAgain, when thousauds starve 823 \n\nAgain, which lasts four years . . . . 954 \n\nAwful one throughout Europe 1016 \n\nIn England, 21 William 1 1087 \n\nIn England and Prance : this famine leads to a pes- \ntilential fever, which lasts from . . 1 193 to 1 195 \nAnother famine in England .... 1251 \n\nAgain, so dreadful thai the people devoured the flesh \nof horses, dogs, cats, and vermin . . . . 1315 \n\nOne occasioned by long rains 1335 \n\nOne in England and France (Rapin) . . . 1353 \nAgain, one so great, that bread was made from fern- \nroots (Stow) 1:438 \n\nOne throughout these islands . . . . 1565 \n\nAwful one in France (Voltaire) .... 1603 \n\nOne general in these realms 1748 \n\nOne which devastates Bengal 1771 \n\nAt Cape de Verde ; 16,000 persons perish . . . 1775 \n\nOne grievously felt in France 1789 \n\nOne severely felt in England 1795 \n\nAgain, throughout the kingdom .... 1801 \nAt Drontheim, owing to Sweden intercepting the \n\nsupplies 1S13 \n\nScarcity of food severely felt by the Irish poor, 1814, \n1816, 1822, 1831, 1846, in consequence of the \nfailure of the potato crop. Grants by parliament, \nto relieve the suffering of the people, were made \nin the session of 1847, the whole amounting to ten \nmillions sterling. \nIn N.W. India ; above 800,000 perish . . 1S37-8 \n\nIn N.W. India ; thousands perish . . . 18S0-1 \nIn Bengal and Orissa ; about 1,000,000 perish . 1865-6 \nIn Rajpbotana, &c. ; about 1,500,000 perish . 1868-9 \nIn Persia very severe . . . . , . 1871-2 \n\nIn Bengal, through drought. (See India) . . 1874 \n\nIn Asia Minor . 1874-5 \n\nIn Bombay, Madras, Mysore, &c. ; about 500,000 \n\nperish (see India and Mansion-house) . . . 1S77 \nIn N. China; very severe ; 9,500,000 said to have \nperished (45, 503/. collected in England for relief) 1S77-8 \n\nrn Cashmere (which see) 1879 \n\nVery severe in Tauris, &c, Asia Minor . July, 1880 \n\nAsia Minor 1887 \n\nChina (which see) 1887-9 \n\nIn Madras 18S9-92 \n\nMontenegro \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nJapan 1890 \n\nVery severe throughout Russia .... 1891-2 \n\nFAN- Used by the ancients; Cape hoc fla hel- \nium, et ventulum hide sic faeito, " Take this tan, \nand give her thus a little air." Terence\'s Eunuchus, \n166 B.C. \xe2\x80\x94 Fans, together with muffs, masks, and \nfalse hair, were first devised by the harlots in Italy, \nand were brought to England from France. Stow. \nIn the British Museum are Egyptian fan-handles. \n\n\n\nFARADAY MEMORIALS, &c \n\n\n\n364 \n\n\n\nFAUGHARD. \n\n\n\nGreat competitive exhibition of fans at Drapers \n\nhall, London, opened . . . 2 July, 1878 \n\n\' English Fans and Fan Leaves, collected and \ndescribed," by lady Charlotte Schreiber ; a mag- \nnificent work was published by Mr. John Murray. \nIt includes historical, allegorical and satirical \npictures, Jan. 1889 ; her work on foreign fans was \npublished April, 1891. Lady Schreiber was granted \nthe freedom of the Fanmakers\' Company, London \n\n17 Dec. 1891 \n\nExhibition of fans at Drapers\' hall, London, opened \n8 May, 1889. Similar exhibitions . . 1890 et seq. \n\nFARADAY MEMORIALS, &c. Professor \n\nMichael f araday, natural philosopher and chemist \n(see Electricity), died 25 Aug-. 1867. A public meet- \ning was held at. the Koyal Institution, 21 June, 1869, \nthe prince of Wales in the chair, to take measures to \nprovide a public monument to him. A sufficient \nsum having been subscribed, the production of a \nstatue was entrusted to Mr. Foley. The statue was \nplaced at the Koyal Institution. London, in 1876. \nFrom the same fund a niaible bust was provided \nand placed in the National Portrait Gallery, 1886. \nThe " Faraday Medal," to be given to distinguished \nforeign philosophers by the Chemical society, was \nawarded to M. Dumas, June, 1869 ; to professor \nCannizzaro, May, 1872 ; to Dr. A. W. Hofmann, \nMarch, 1875 ! to professor A. Wurtz, and given to \nhim after his lecture, 12 Nov. 1878 ; to professor H. \nHelmholtz, April, 1881 ; professor Demetri \nMendeleef, June, 1889. For "Faraday," steamship, \nsee Steam. The centenary of the birth of Michael \nFaraday (22 Sept. 1791) was celebrated at the Koyal \nInstitution on 17 June, 1891 ; the prince of Wales, \nvice-patron R. I., in the chair; discour.-e by Pro- \nfessor lord Rayleigh ; on 26 June the duke of \nNorthumberland, president, in the chair; discourse \nby professor Janic s Dewar. \n\nFARADISATION, the medical application \n\nof the magneto- electric cm rents which Faraday \ndiscovered in 1837. Apparatus for this purpose was \nfirst made by M. Pixii, and employed by Dr. Neef \nof Frankfort. " Farad," name taken for a unit of \nelectric capacity, 1875. \n\nFARCE, a short comic drama, usually of one or \ntwo acts. One by Otway is dated 1677. \' The best \nEnglish farces (by Foote, Garrick, Biokerstaff, eve.) \nappeared from about 1740 to 1 780. This species \nof dramatic entertainment originated in the droll \nshows which were exhibited by charlatans and their \nbuffoons in the open streets ; see Drama. \n\nFARMERS\' ALLIANCE, an organization \nof agricultural reformers ; held a provisional meet- \ning 27 May, and a conference 2 July, 1879. ^ was \nactive during the elections of April, 1880. A \nFarmers\' Alliance for Sco\'land was founded at \nAberdeen, 1 Dec. 1881. The Farmers\' Alliance in the \nUnited States, N.A., begun about 1873, became \ninfluential and elected ah ut 2} representatives for \nCongress, Nov. 1890, see United States, N.A. \n\nThe Farmers\' Club was established in 1843 for discus- \nsions on agricultural subjects. \n\nFARMERS-GENERAL, see Fermiers. \n\nFARMERS\' UNION, National, established \nat Leamington, by lord Walsingham and others, to \noppose the Agricultural Labourers\' Union, June, \n1874. \n\nFARNESE FAMILY became important \nthrough the elevation of Alexander Farnese to the \npapacy as Paul III. He gave his natural son Peter \nthe duchy of Parma, and his descendants ruled till \nthe death of Antony without issue in 1 731 . Alex- \nander prince of Parma was governor of the Nether- \nlands in 1579. \n\n\n\nFARRINGDON-MARKET, erected by the \ncorporation of London, near the abolished Heet- \nmarket, was opened 20 Nov. 1829. After several \nchanges it was re-opened as a Fish Market in 1882. \nThe scheme was altogether unsuccessful, occasion- \ning great loss to the corporation ; abandoned, 1892. \n\nFARTHING, an early English coin. Farth- \nings in silver were coined by king John, in \ncopper by James I. and Charles I. ; the Irish \nfarthing of John\'s reign (1210) is rare. Farthings \nwere coined in England in silver by Henry VIII. \nFirst coined in copper by Charles II. 1665 ; and \nagain in 1672, when there was a large coinage of \ncopper money. Half-farthings were first coined in \n1843 ; see Queen Anne\'s Farthings. A single copy \nof the " Penny-a-week Country Daily Newspaper" \n(conservative), No. 1, sold for \\d., 25 June, 1873. \nThe Farthings Act, 21, 22 Vict. c. 75, 1858, relates \nto the payment for portions of a mile travelled by \nthird class railway trains. \n\nFARTHINGALE, see Crinoline. \n\nFASTI CAPITOLINI, marble tablets dug \nup in the forum at Rome, 1547, contain a list of the \nconsuls and other officers from the year cf Rome 250 \nto 765. Other fragments were found in 181 7 and \n1818. The "Fasti Consulares," from 509 ls.c. to \nA.D. 235, are given at the end of Smith\'s "Dictionary \nof Greek and Roman Antiquities." \n\nFASTS, observed by most nations from the re- \nmotest antiquity ; by the Jews (2 Chron. xx. 3) ; \nby the Ninevites (Jonah iii.) ; see Isai. lviii. A \nfast was observed by the Jews on the great clay cf \natonement. Lev. xxiii. 1490 B.C. Moses fasted 40 \ndays and nights on Sinai, Fxod. xxiv. 1491 B.C. \nThe first Christian ministers were ordained with \nfasting (a.d. 45) Acts xiii. 2. Annual fasts, as that \nof Lent, and at other stated times, and on particular \noccasions to appease the anger of God, began in the \nChristian church, in the second century, 138. The \nMahometan fast is termed Ramadan (which see). \nFast days are appointed by the Reformed churches \nin times of war and pestilence (as 21 March, 1855, \nfor the Russian war, and 7 Oct. 1857, for the Indian \nmutiny). The Jeynes, which see, have religious \nfasts of 30 to 40 days\' duration. See Abstinence. \n\n\n\nFATHERS of the CHURCH \n\nlowing are the principal : \xe2\x80\x94 \nfirst century. Greek. \nApostolical. \nHernias \n\nBarnabas . . \nClemens Romanus, d. 100 \nIgnatius . . . d. 115 \nPoly carp . d. abt. 169 \n\nsecond century. Greek. \nJustin Martyr, d. abt. 166 \nIrenaeus . d. abt. 200 \nAthenagoras. \n\n\n\nThe fol- \n\n\n\nGreek. \n\n\n\nFOURTH AND FIFTH CEN- \nTURIES. Greek. \nEusebius . d. abt. 340 \nAthanasius . d. 373 \n\nEphiem Syrus, d. abt. 378 \nBasil . . . d. 379 \nCyril of Jerusalem d. 386 \nGregory Nazianzen . d. 389 \nMacarius . d. abt. 391 \nGregory Nyssen d. abt. 394 \nEpiphanius . d. 403. \n\nJohn Chrysostom . rf. 407 \nCyril of Alexandria d. 444 \nTheodoret . . d. 457 \n\n\n\nTHIRD CENTURY. \n\nClemens Alexan- \n\ndrinus . d. abt. 217 1 \n\nHippolytus . . d. 230 Latin. \n\nOrigen . . d. abt. 253 Arnobius . . . fl. 303 \nLatin. ! Lactautius . d. abt. 330 \n\nTertullian . d. abt. 220 ! Ambrose . . . d. 397 \n\nMinutius Felix, fl. abt. 230 j Jerome . . d. 420 \n\nCyprian . . d. abt. 258 I Augustine . . d. 430 \n\nFATIMITES, see Ali and Mahometanism. \n\nFATS are oils solid at ordinary temperatures. \nThe researches of Chevreul since 181 1 on their \nchemical nature are very important; see Candles. \n\nFAUGHARD, see Foughard. \n\n\n\nFAUSTUS. \n\n\n\n365 \n\n\n\nFENIANS. \n\n\n\nFAUSTUS, a professor of magic, renowned in \neliiip books, flourished about the end of the 15th \ncentury. Christopher Marlowe\'s powerful trasedy \n"Dr. Faustus," was published in 1616. Goethe\'s \ndramatic poem, " Faust," appeared in 1790. \n\nFEASTS and Festivals. The " Feasts of \n\nthe Lord," viz., those of the Passover, Pentecost, \n\nTrumpets, and Tabernacles, were instituted 1490 B.C. \n\n{Leviticus xxiii.) \n\nFeast of Tabernacles, celebrated upon the dedication of \nthe Temple of Solomon, 1004 b.c. \n\nHezekiah (726 b.c.) and Josiah (623) kept the feast of \nPassover in a most solemn manner. \n\nIn the Christian Church the feasts of Christmas, Easter, \nAscension, and the Pentecost or Whitsuntide {which \nsee), are said to have been ordered to be observed by \nall Christians in the 1st century. \n\nRogation days appointed 469. \n\nJubilees in the Romish Church were instituted by Boni- \nface VIII. in 1300 ; see Jubilees. \n\nFor fixed festivals observed in the Church of England, as \nsettled at the Reformation, et seq., see Book of Common \nPrayer. \n\nFeasts of Charity ; see Agapce. \n\nFEBEUAEY (from Februus, an Italian di- \nvinity), the second month of the year, in which were \n< elebrated Februa, feasts on behalf of the manes of \ndeceased persons. This month, with January, was\' \nadded to the year by Numa, about 713 B.C. The \nFebruary of 1886, siid to be the coldest for 27 years \n\xe2\x80\x94continued frost. February 24, 25 Constitution, see \nFrance, 1875. \n\nFECIALES or FETLALES, twenty in number, \nheralds of Home, to denounce war or proclaim peace, \nappointed by Numa, about 712 B.C. \n\nFEDERAL STATES are those united by \ntreaty as one state, without giving up self-govern- \nment \xe2\x80\x94 as in Switzerland. The people of the \nNorthern United States of America during the great \nconflict in 1861-5 were styled Federals; their oppo- \nnents Confederates. See Imperial Federation. \nFederal council of Australasia Act introduced by the \n\nearl of Derby 23 April, passed 14 Aug. 1885. \nSee Australia, 1885 et seq., Argentine, Brazil, &c. \n\nFEEJEE, see Fiji. \n\nFELIBRIGE. A literary septennial festival \nheld in Provence by felibres, writers in prose and \nverse in the langue d\'oc, founded in 1854, in honour \nof seven eminent troubadours. \n\nFELO DE SE, see Suicide. \n\nFELONY, in English law (says Blackstone, in \n1765), comprises every species of crime which occa- \nsions the forfeiture of land and goods. An act to \nabolish forfeitures for treason and felony, and to \notherwise amend the law relating thereto, passed 4 \nJuly, 1870. \n\nFEMALE MEDICAL SCHOOL, London, \nheld its first session in 1865, when courses of lec- \ntures were given. Dr. Mary Walker attended Mid- \ndlesex hospital, in a modified female dress, in 1866. \nShe gave an autobiographical lecture at St. James\'s \nHall, 20 Nov. 1866. In 1869 the decision that \n"ladies should be admitted to study medicine in the \nuniversity of Edinburgh," led to disturbances. \nFemile Orphan Asylum, Beddington, Surrey, esta- \nblished 1758 \n\nFemale Orphans\' Home, Hampton, Middlesex . . 1855 \n\nFemale Servants\' Home Society 1836 \n\nFemale Aid Society 1836 \n\nFEMALE SUFFRAGE, &c, see Women. \n\nFENCIBLE LIGHT DRAGOONS, a body \n\nof cavalry raised voluntarily in various counties of \nEngland and Scotland in 1794, to serve during the \n\n\n\nwar in any part of Great Britain. This force (be- \ntween 14,000 and 15,000), which did its duty with \nmuch judgment during a period of intense popular \nexcitement, was disbanded in 1800. \n\nFENCING was introduced into England from \nFrance. F\'encing-schools having led to duelling in \nEngland, were prohibited in London by statute 13 \nEdw. I. 1285. In 1859 there were eight teachers of \nfencing in London ; in 1872, ten. \n\nFENIANS (the name of ancient Irish national \nheroes, Fionna), a "brotherhood" in the United \nStates and Ireland united to liberate Ireland and \nestablish a republic* The agitation was begun, it \nis said, by Stephens in March, 1858, and in 1864 \nenlistments and secret drillings took place. A con- \nvention was formed in 1863 in America. The \nmovement is opposed by the Koman Catholic clergy. \nSee Ireland^. \nRiot between the Fenians and their opponents at \n\nthe Rotondo, Dublin . . . .22 Feb. 1864 \n\n25 persons arrested in Dublin, and the newspaper \n\nthe Irish People (established Sept. 1863) seized, 15 \n\nSept. ; others arrested at Cork, &c. 16-30 Sept. 1865 \nThe Fenians in America publish an address, stating \n\nthat officers were going to Ireland to organise an \n\narmy of 200,000 men .... Sept. \nFenians arrested at Manchester . . 21 Sept. \',\', \nA ship with gunpowder seized at Liverpool Sept. ,\',\' \nAllocution of the pope, condemning secret societies \n\n30 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nEvidence that 5000L and 2000 pike-heads had been \n\nreceived from America in Sept. \n\nO\'Donovan and 5 others committed for high treason \n\n\xe2\x80\x9e . 2 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n33 Fenians committed for trial . up to 14 Oct. \nA Fenian provisional government at New York, and \n\na congress of 600 members held at Philadelphia \n\nx, \xe2\x80\xa2 \xc2\xb0ct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nI enians in United States said to have raised 200,000?. \n\nOct. ,, \nCapture of James Stephens, Irish head-centre, n \n\nNov. ; he escapes from gaol . . 24 Nov \nFierce disputes between the senate and O\'Mahony\', \' \n\nthe head-centre, who is charged with corruption \n\nand deposed ; Mr. Roberts appointed his successor \n\n\xe2\x80\x9e . Dec. ,, \n\n380,000 Fenians reported in the United States Jan. 1866 \nHabeas Corpus act suspended in Ireland ; about 250 \n\nsuspected persons arrested immediately 17 Feb. \nGreat mass meeting at New York, threatening to \' \n\ninvade Canada 4 March \n\nFenian schooner Friend captures British schooner \' \n\nWentworth, and scuttles her near Eastport, N. A. \n_ \xe2\x80\x9e. , 1 May, ,, \n\nJames Stephens arrives at New York . 10 May, \nCol. O\'Niel and Fenians cross the Niagara and enter \' \n\nCanada, 31 May; a conflict ensued with the volun- \nteers, with bloodshed .... 2 June \nThe American generals Grant and Meade capture \' \n\nmany retreating Fenians \xe2\x80\xa2 . . 2 June et seq. \nSweeny and others arrested . . 6, 7 June" \' \nPresident Johnson\'s proclamation against the Fe- \' \n\nnians ? j lme) \n\nSpear and others cross the boundary near Vermont \' \n\n7 June; the corps demoralised; many return \n\n. 9 June, ,, \n\nMuch dissension among the Fenians, July, et sen \nThey exercise much influence in the elections iii " \n\nAmerica in q c ^ \n\nTrials in Canada.\xe2\x80\x94 Col. Lynch and Rev.\'johii " \n\nMacMahon (sentenced to be hanged on 13 Dec ) \n\nreprieved 24-26 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nJames Stephens, "central organiser of the Irish \n\nrepublic," saiil to sail from America . 24 Nov \nThe British government offer 2000/. for his appre- " \n\nhension ^-,, v \n\nMeaney, a delegate, arrested in London . r Dee\' \nArms and ammunition seized in Dublin, Cork, and \' \n\nLimerick ; many arrests . D ec \n\n\xc2\xbb Fenian oath. " I promise by the divine law of God \nto do all in my power to obey the laws of the soeietj \nF B. , and to free and regenerate Ireland from the yoke \nof England. So help me God." \n\n\n\nFENIANS. \n\n\n\n366 \n\n\n\nFENIANS. \n\n\n\nGen. Millen, head of the Fenian military depart- \nment, denounces Stephens " as a cheat and a ras- \ncal," and declares the cause for the present hope- \nless, hut exhorts to watchfulness for an opportunity \n\n3 Dec. 1 8 \n\nSweeny (released) rejoins the U.S. army . . Jan. 18 \n\n22 convictions at Toronto .... Jan. , \n\n67 Fenians from Liverpool arrested in Dublin \n\n12 Feb. , \n\nIrruption of Fenians into Chester ; compelled to \nretire "> I2 Fel) - > \n\nOutbreak in Kerry; Killarney threatened; eapt. \nMoriarty and others captured . . .12 Feb. , \n\nAttack on coastguard station, Cahirciveen, 12 Feb. ; \nmovement collapsed .... 16 Feb. , \n\nKilmallock police barrack defended for three hours \nby 14 constables, who drove off 200 armed Fenians, \nwith loss, by a sally .... 5 March, , \n\nGeneral Massey captured . . 4 or 6 March, , \n\nRising at Midleton in Cork ; Daly, a leader, killed ; \nrails of South and Midland railway taken up \n\n6 March, . \nProclamation of the Irish republic sent to the Times \n\nand other papers .... 6 March, , \nFenian rising near Dublin ; telegraph destroyed ; \nattack on the police station at Tallaght repelled ; \nseveral shot, 208 prisoners taken into Dublin \n\n7 March, \n1000 Fenians hold market-place at Drogheda, but \n\nretreat at the approach of police . 7 March, \n\nCapt. Maclure captured . . . 31 March, \n\nSpecial commission to try 230 Fenians ; Whiteside, \n\nch.-just. ; Deasy and Fitzgerald, begin (Massey, \n\nKeogh, Corydon, and McGough, approvers) \n\n9 April, et seq. \nBurke and Doran sentenced to death, 1 May ; re- \nprieved 26 May, \n\nMany convictions of treason (M\'Afferty, M\'Clure, \nand others) and treason-felony, and many dis- \ncharged May, \n\nTrials at Limerick begin . . . 11 June, \nPresident Roberts retires ; the party in the United \nStates said to be demoralised . . . July, \nMany Fenians tried and convicted July and Aug. \nSeveral imprisoned Fenians released and sent to \n\nAmerica Aug. and Sept. \n\nFenian congress at Cleveland, Ohio . \xe2\x96\xa0 . Sept. \nKelly and Deasy, two Fenians, remanded for further \nexamination, rescued from the prisoners\' van, \nnear Manchester ; and Brett, a policeman, shot \nfor refusing to give up his keys . . 18 Sept. \n\nMany persons taken up ; 23 committed on charge \nof murder\xe2\x80\x94 tried, 5 condemned to death (2 re- \nprieved) ; 7 sentenced to 7 years\' imprisonment \n29 Oct-12 Nov. \nAllen, Gould, and Larkin executed at Salford, \n\n23 Nov. \nFuneral demonstration in London . . 24 Nov. \nTrials of Halpin and others at Dublin, Oct. -Nov. \nFuneral demonstrations for Allen, &c, at Cork, \n1 Dec. ; Dublin and Limerick . . 8 Dec. \nAddress of the president and senate of the Fenian \nbrotherhood of America to the "liberty-lov.ing \npeople of England," dated New York, 12 Dec. \nReunion of the Roberts and Stephens parties under \na new president . . . about 20 Dee. \nPremeditated explosion of Clerkenwell house of \ndetention, London, to release Burke and Casey, \nleading Fenians, at 3.45. (A cask of gunpowder \nwas fired close to the prison wall ; Timothy Des- \nmond, Jeremiah Allen, and Ann Justice captured \n\non suspicion) 13 Dec. \n\niConseqvences of the explosion. \xe2\x80\x94 "Six persons were \nkilled \' outright,\' six more died from its effects, \naccording to the coroner\'s inquests ; five, in \naddition, owed their deaths indirectly to this \nmeans ; one young woman is in a madhouse, 40 \nmothers were prematurely confined, and 20 of \ntheir babes died from the effects of the explosion \non the women ; others of the children are dwarfed \nand unhealthy. One mother is now a raving \nmaniac ; 120 persons were wounded ; 50 went \ninto St. Bartholomew\'s, Gray\'s Inn-lane, and \nKing\'s College Hospitals : 15 are permanently \ninjured, with loss of eyes, legs, arms, &e. ; besides \n20,000?. worth of damage to person and property." \n\xe2\x80\x94 Times, 29 April, 1868.] \n\n\n\nCapt. Mackay and others rifle a Martello tower, \n\n27 Dec. 1867 \nAudacious seizure of arms and ammunition in a \n\ngunsmith\'s shop in Cork ... 30 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n12 suspected Fenians captured at Merthyr Tydvil, \n\n31 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nMullany, a prisoner, -turns queen\'s evidence, and \naccuses Barrett or Jackson (captured at Glasgow, \n14 Jan.) of firing the barrel at Clerkenwell, \n\n28 Jan. 1868 \nAttack on Martello tower near Waterford 28 Jan. ,, \nCapt. Mackay arrested at Cork, 7 Feb. ; much riot- \ning there 11, 12 Feb. ,, \n\nConviction of Patrick Lennon, a leader, 12 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nHabeas corpus act susp. till 1 March, 1869 Feb. ,, \nMullany and Thompson convicted as accessories in \n\nmurder of Brett . . . .\' 18 March, ,, \nCapt. Mackay convicted ; sentenced to 12 years\' \n\nimprisonment 20 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nO\'Farrell, a Fenian, wounds the duke of Edinburgh \nat Port Jackson, 12 March; sentenced to death, \n\n31 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \nMr. Darcy M\'Gee, M.P., shot dead by a Fenian at \n\nOttawa 7 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTrial of Win. and Timothy Desmond, Nicholas Eng- \nlish, John O\'Keefe, Michael Barrett, and Ann \nJustice, for murder (Clerkenwell outrage) begun \n20 ; acquittal of Justice, 23 ; of O\'Keefe, 24 ; and \nof the two Desmonds and English, 27. Conviction \n\nof Barrett 27 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRichard Burke, a leader, convicted of treason-felony , \n\n30 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \nMichael Barrett (for causing the Clerkenwell ex- \nplosion) executed .... 26 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nO\'Donovan Rossa and others released, behave \n\nviolently March, 1869 \n\nThe government declines to release others, 18 Oct. ,, \nManifesto from John Savage, executive officer, Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nFenian raid into Canada vigorously repelled by the \nmilitia, and their general, O\'Neill, captured by the \n\nU. S. marshal 26 May, 1870 \n\nFormation of the Clan-na-Gael {which see) . . ,, \nMichael Davitt and John Wilson convicted of \ntreason-felony for endeavouring to transmit arms \nsecretly to Ireland (detected March) . 18 July, ,, \nCaptured Fenian generals (Thompson and Starr) in \nUnited States, sentenced to imprisonment for \nbreach of neutrality laws . . . July, ,, \nPresident Grant\'s proclamation against Fenian raids \ninto Canada . . . . . .13 Oct- \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLetter from Mr. Gladstone announcing early release \nof Fenian convicts .... 15 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe convicts released Jan. 1871 \n\nThe released convicts welcomed in the United \n\nStates Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Fenians favour the French in the war, \n\nAug. 1870-Feb. ,, \nFenian raid into Manitoba suppressed by United \nStates troops, and general Neill arrested ; see \n\nIreland about 12 Oct. ,, \n\nGen. Cluseret (a short time in the service of the \nFenians) publishes an account of them in Fraser\'s \nMagazine : he says, " Their insurrection was \nfoolishly planned and still more foolishly exe- \ncuted," and strongly advises reconciliation with \n\nEngland July, 1872 \n\nGreat demonstration near Drogheda . 20 Sept. 1874 \nEscape of Fenian prisoners from West Australia \nin the Catalpa, American ship, 17 April ; arrived \n\nat New York 19 Au S- iS 7 6 \n\nO\'Mahony, head-centre, dies at New York; grand \n\nfuneral service 6 Feb. 1877 \n\nDavitt and other Fenian convicts released Jan. to \n\nSept. 1878 \nDavitt prominent during the land league agitation, 1880-81 \nArrested and committed to prison . 3, 4 Feb. 1881 \nElected M. P. for co. Meath . . . 22 Feb. 1882 \nSeizure of arms and ammunition, St. John Street \nRoad, Clerkenwell ; Thomas Walsh arrested \n\n17 June ,, \nCommitted for trial, 17 July ; sentenced to 7 years\' \n\npenal servitude 9 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDetection of a murderous Fenian plot in Dublin, \ncarried out by a band termed the "Irish Invinci- \nbles," said to be connected with the Land League \n\n19 Jan.\xe2\x80\x94 17 Feb. 1883 \n\n\n\nFERE-CHAMPENOXSE. \n\n\n\n367 \n\n\n\nFETE de DIEU. \n\n\n\nPlot to explode public buildings in England con- \ncocted in New York, by O\'Donovan Rossa, a chief \nof The Fenian Brotherhood, Win. -J. Lynch (Nor- \nman) sent to England ; conveys explosives from \nBirmingham to London (see Birmingham), gives \nevidence at Bow-street 19 April, 1883 \n\nGreat convention at Philadelphia opened, 25 April ; \ndenounced by O\'Donovan Rossa, who revives the \nIrish Revolutionary Brotherhood . 6 May, ,, \nSee Dynamite and Explosions. \n\nCentre of Fenian organization discovered at Paris ; \nFrederick Allen apprehended . . . Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCapt. Thos. Phelan stabbed (not killed) as a sus- \npected traitor by Richard Short \xe2\x80\x94 in Rossa\'s \nhouse, in New York, 9 Jan. ; O\'Donovan Rossa \nshot in the street by Lucilla Y\'seult Dudley, an \nEnglish widow, 2 Feb. ; Phelan and he recover, \nin the same hospital, Feb. ; Short acquitted, \n6 May ; Mrs. Dudley declared insane . 30 June, 1885 \n\nThreatening Fenian manifesto sent to Mr. Glad- \nstone and others from Paris . about 19 Feb. ,, \n\nGreat Fenian congress held in Paris . 23 Feb. ,, \n\nJames Stephens expelled from France . March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFenianism becomes prominent in Ireland autumn 1887 \n\nThe brotherhood expels O\'Donovan Rossa about \n8 Dec. 1886 ; said to be succeeded by Dr. Hamil- \nton Williams at New York, having 200,000?. to \nbe employed in war against England by means \nof dynamite explosions, &c. ; statement in Times \n14 Dec. ; stated to be absurd . . 14 Dec. 1887 \n\nMeeting of the old Fenian Brotherhood at New \nYork ; they decide to discard Mr. Parnell and all \nleaders, and to maintain only military organisation \n\n14 July, 1891 \n\nMichael Davitt elected M.P. for N. Meath . July, 1892 \n\nFERE-CHAMPENOISE (France). Here \nthe French army under Marmont, Mortier, and \nArrighi, were surprised and defeated by the allies \nunder the prince of Schwarzenberg, 25 March, \n1814, after a heroic resistance. Paris surrender*, d \nsix days after. \n\nFERGHANA, see EJwkand. \n\nFERLE LATINJE, solemn Roman festivals, \nsaid to have been instituted by Tarquin the Proud, \nabout 534 B.C. The principal magistrates of forty- \nseven towns of Latium assembled on a mount near \nRome, and with the Roman authorities offered a \nbull to Jupiter Latialis. \n\nFERMENTATION, termed by Gay-Lussac \none of the most mysterious processes in nature : he \nshowed that in the process, 45 lbs. of sugar are \nresolved into 23 of alcohol and 22 of carbonic acid. \nHis memoir appeared in 1810. In 1861 Pasteur \nbrought forward evidence to show that fermenta- \ntion depends on the presence of minute organisms \nin the fermenting fluid, and that the source of all \nsuch organisms is the atmosphere. For his re- \nsearches he was awarded an annual pension of \n120,000 francs in 1874. \n\nFERMIERS GENERAUX, officers who \nfarmed the French revenues previous to 1789, fre- \nquently with much oppression. Lavoisier and 27 \nof these were executed 8 May, 1794. \n\nFERNDALE COLLIERY EXPLO- \nSION; 8 N.ov. 1867; about 178 lives lust. See \nunder Coal. \n\nFERNS (Ireland), an ancient bishopric, once \narchiepiscopal. St. Edsen was seated here in 598. \nLeigh tin and Ferns were united in 1600; and by \nthe Church Temporalities Act, passed Aug. 1833, \nboth were united to the bishopric of Ossory. See \nOssory. \xe2\x80\x94 Ferns, an order of cryptogamous plants, \nmuch cultivated in Wardian cases; which see, \nand also Nature-Printing. \n\nFEROZESHAH (India). The British, com- \nmanded by sir Hugh Gough, attacked the en- \ntrenchments of the Sikhs, and carried their first \n\n\n\nline of works, 21 Dec. 1845 ; but night coming on, \nthe operations were suspended till daybreak, when \ntheir second line was stormed by general Gilbert,, \nand 74 guns captured. The Sikhs advanced to re- \ntake their guns, but were repulsed with great loss, \nand retreated towards the Sutlej, 22 Dec. ; and re- \ncrossed that river unmolested, 27 Dec. The British \nloss was reckoned at 2415. \n\nFERRARA, formerly part of the exarchate of \nRavenna, under the emperors of the East. It was \nsubdued by the Lombards in the 8th century, and \ntaken from them about 752 by Pepin, who gave it \nto pope Stephen II. About 1208 it fell into the \nhands of the house of E;te (which see), and became \nthe principal seat of the literature and fine arts- \nin Italy. Pope Clement VIII. obtained the sove- \nreignty in 1598, on the death of the duke Alphonso- \nII., the last legitimate male of the Este family. - \nHis illegitimate nephew, Caesar, became duke of \nModena. The French under Massena took Ferrara \nin 1796; but it was restored to the pope in 1814. \nAn Austrian garrison held it from 1849 ; it retired \nin June, 1859, and the people rose and declared for \nannexation to Sardinia, which was accomplished in \nMarch, i860. The centenary of the university,, \nfounded in 1392, celebrated 18 April, 1892. \n\nFERRARS\' ARREST. In March, 1542, Mr. \nGeorge Ferrars, a member of parliament, while in \nattendance on the house was taken in execution; \nby a sheriff\' s officer for debt, and committed to the \nCompter prison. The house despatched their Ser- \njeant to require his release, which was resisted,, \nand an affray taking place, his mace was broken. \nThe house in a body repaired to the lords to com- \nplain, when the contempt was adjudged to be veiy \ngreat, and the punishment of the offenders was- \nreferred to the lower house. On another messenger \nbeing sent to the sheriffs by the commons, they \ndelivered up the senator, and the civil magistrates \nand the creditor were committed to the Tower, the \ninferior officers to Newgate, and an act was passed \nreleasing Mr. Ferrars from liability for the debt. \nThe king, Henry VEIL, highly approved of all \nthese proceedings, and the transaction became the \nbasis of that rule of parliament which exempts \nmembers from arrest. HoliusJted. \n\nFERRO, see Canary Isles. \n\nFERROL (N.W. Spain). Upwards of 10,000 \nBritish landed near Ferrol under the command of \nsir James Pulteney, in Aug. 1800. They gained \npossession of the heights ; but, despairing of suc- \ncess, on account of the strength of the works, sir \nJames re-embarked his troops. His conduct was \nmuch condemned. Soult captured Ferrol, 27 Jan. \n1809. An insurrection of about 1500 men in the \narsenal here broke out, headed by brigadier Pozas \nand cant. Montojo, who raised the red flag, 11 \nOct. Thev dispersed or surrendered when about \nto be attacked, 17 Oct. 1872. \n\nFESCENNINE VERSES were rude extem- \nporary dialogues, frequently licentious, in favour \namong the ancient Etruscans at weddings, and stil? \npopular in Italy. \n\nFESTIVALS, see under Feasts, Clergy, Music. \n\nFETE DE DIEU, a feast of the Roman church \nin honour of the real presence in the Lord\'s Sup- \nper, kept on the Thursday after Trinity Sunday. \nSee Corpus Chrisli. Berengaiius, archbishop of \nAngers, opposed the doctrine of transubstantia- \ntion, and to atone for his crime a yearly pro- \ncession was made at Angers, called la file de JDieu t \n1019. \n\n\n\nFETE de VERTU. \n\n\n\n^68 \n\n\n\nFILTERERS. \n\n\n\nFETE DE VERTU, an annual assemblage, \n\xe2\x96\xa0chiefly of young persons, to whom were adjudged \nrewards for industry and virtue. These fetes, held \nat Nuneham, in Oxfordshire, begun by lady Har- \ndcourt in 1789, were continued till her death. \n\nFEUDAL LAWS. The tenure of land by \n\xe2\x96\xa0suit and service to lord or owner, partly m use \nin England by the Saxons, was mainly esta- \nblished by William I. in 1066. The kingdom was \ndivided into baronies, which were given on condition \nof the holders furnishing the king with men and \nmoney. The vassalage, limited by Henry VII., \n149s, was abolished by statute, 1660. The feudal \nsystem was introduced into Scotland by Malcolm II. \nail 1008, and the hereditary j urisdictions were finally \nabolished in that kingdom, 1746-7- The feudal \niaws, established in France by Clovis I. about 486, \nwere discountenanced by Louis XL in 1470. \n\nFEUILLANTS, a religious order founded by \nJean de la Barriere in 1577 at the abbey of Feuil- \nlant, near Toulouse, and settled in Pans in 1587. \nThe Feuillant club, formed in Paris by La Fayette \nand others in 1789, to counteract the intrigues of \n\xe2\x80\xa2the Jacobins, was so named from the convent where \nthey met. A body of Jacobins burst into their hall \nand obliged them to separate, 25 Dec. 1791 ; and \n\xe2\x96\xa0the club was broken up in 1792. \n\nFEVER, see Scarlet Fever. Enteric and \nScarlet Fever prevalent in the metropolis, Aug. \nSept. 1887. Increasing 15 Sept. 1887. \n\nFEZ (in the ancient Mauritania, Africa), \nfounded by Edris, a descendant of Mahomet, about \n787, was long capital of the kingdom of Fez. \nAfter long-continued struggles, it was annexed to \nMorocco about 1550. Leo Africanus describes it as \n\xe2\x80\xa2containing more than 700 temples, mosques, and \nother public edifices, in the 12th century. \n\nFICTION\'S, see Romances.\xe2\x80\x94 Fictions in Law \nwere invented \'by the lawyers in the reign of \nEdward I. as a means of carrying cases from one \n\xe2\x96\xa0court to another, whereby the courts became checks \nto each other. Hume. Lord Mansfield, in the court \nof King\'s Bench, emphatically declared that "no \nfiction of law shall ever so far prevail against the \nreal truth, as to prevent the execution of justice : " \n31 May, 1784. They have been mostly abolished \nin the present century. \n\n"FIDELIO," Beethoven\'s single opera; com- \nposed in 1804, produced at Vienna, 20 Nov. 1805. \n\nFIDENiE, a Sabine city, frequently at war \nwith Rome. It was finally captured and the in- \nhabitants enslaved, 426 B.C., by the Romans, whose \nambassadors they had slain. \nFIEF, see Feudal Laws. \n\nFIELD. The country gentleman\'s weekly \npaper, devoted to natural history, sports, &c, first \nappeared I Jan. 1853. \n\nFIELD op March and May, see Champ.\xe2\x80\x94 \nField of the Cloth of Gold, a plain near \nA\'dres, near Calais, in France, on which Henry \nVIII. met Francis I. of France, 7-25 June, 1520. \nThe nobility of both kingdoms displayed their \nmagnificence, and many involved themselves^ in \ndebt. Paintings of the embarcation and interview \nare at Windsor castle. \n\nFIELD-MARSHAL, see Marshal. \n\nFIERY-CHAMBER, see Chambre Ardente. \n\nFIESCHI\'S ATTEMPT on Louis-Phi- \nXIPPE, see France, 1835. \n\n\n\nFIFTH-MONARCHY MEN, about 1645, \nsupposed the period of the Millennium to be just \nat hand, when Jesus Christ should descend from \nheaven, and erect the fifth universal monarchy. \nThey proceeded so far as to elect him king at \nLondon. Cromwelldispersedthem, 1653. Kearsley. \nAnother rising with loss of life was suppressed, \n6 Jan. 1661. Thos. Venner, a cooper, their leader, \nand 16 others, were executed soon after. \n\nFIFTH PARTY, a term applied to the ad- \nvocates of temperance in the House of Commons \n(about 60), Feb. 1884. \n\nFIG-TREE {Ficus carica) brought from the \nsouth of Europe, before 1548. The Botany-Bay \nfig, Ficus australis, brought from N. S. Wales in \n1789. \n\nFIGURES, see Arithmetic. \n\nFIJI or VlTI ISLES, in the Pacific Ocean, \nabout 1500 miles from Sydney. Discovered by \nTasman, Dutch navigator, in 1643. There are above \n200 isles ; 80 inhabited ; the largest about 360 miles \nin circumference. Capital Suva. \nPopulation in 1887, 124,658 ; including 2, 105 Europeans; \n1891, 121,180. 1890, revenue, 66,817?. ; expenditure, \n60,826?. ; imports, 206,757?. ; exports, 364 531?. \nThe islands offered by the king, Thakombau, and \nchiefs to the British government, but not accepted \n\nJuly, 1859 \nThe house of commons granted 1680Z. for expendi- \nture in them ; and European settlements made . i860 \nAnnexation to Great Britain proposed in parlia- \xe2\x80\xa2 \nment ; declined 25 June, 1872 ; but unconditional \ncession to the British government accepted by \nsir Hercules Robinson, July : and announced by \n\nhim .25 Oct. 1874 \n\nHis club sent as a present to the queen by the king \n\nThakombau ,, \n\nSir Arthur Hamilton Gordon, first governor . . 1875 \nAbout 50,000 deaths by epidemic measles early in ,, \nOutbreak of cannibal devil-worshippers suppressed \nby the military ; about 20 ringleaders executed \n\nabout June, 1876 \nSir George Wm. Des Voeux, governor . . Oct. 1880 \nKing Thakombau died .... Feb. 1883 \nSir Charles Bullen Hugh Mitchell, governor Sept. 1886 \nSir John Bates Thurston . . . Dec. 1887 \n\nFILES are mentioned (1 Sam. xiii. 21) 1093 B.C. \nThe manufacture of them has attained to great per- \nfection, by means of file-cutting machinery. That \nset up by Mr. T. Greenwood of Leeds, in 1859, was \ninvented by M. Bernot of Paris. It is said that \nthe price of files made by it is reduced from 32^. to \n4^. per dozen. \n\nFILIBUSTERS (properly Flibustiers) , a \nname given to the freebooters who plundered the \ncoasts of America in the 16th and 17th centuries; \nsee Buccaneers and Nicaragua. \n\nFILIOQUE, ("and from the Son"), inserted \nin the Nicene creed, in respect to the procession of \nthe Holy Ghost from the Father and the Son, by \nthe second council at Constantinople, 381 ; was re- \njected, by the Greek church, 431 ; accepted by the \nSpanish, 447, and by the Roman 883. The omission \nof the phrase was considered at the Old Catholic \nConference at Bonn, Aug. 1875. See Athanasitm \nCreed and Nice. \n\nFILTERERS. A plan for purifying corrupted \nwater was patented by Wm. Woolcott in 1675. \nOther modes followed. James Peacock\'s method of \nfiltration was patented in 1 791; and many others \nsince : Ransome\'s, 1856. \nApparatus for freshening salt water, brought forward \n\nby Grant, 1849 ; by Macbride, 1849 ; Gravely, 1858. \n\nDr. Normandy\'s greatly improved apparatus, 1859, \n\nmuch used in the royal navy. \n\n\n\nFINANCES. \n\n\n\n369 \n\n\n\nFIRE-BRIGADE. \n\n\n\nFINANCES of Great Britain, &c, see Revenue \n\nand other articles. \n\nA select committee of the commons consisting of Mr. \nGoschen, chancellor of the exchequer, Mr. J. Morley, \nMr. A. J. Balfour, Mr. Chiklers, lord E. Churchill, \nand others, was appointed to consider the present \nFinancial Relations between England, Scotland, and \nIreland, 13 Aug. 1890. \n\nThe "Statistical Abstract," published annually by the \ngovernment, contains much financial information. \n\nFINE ARTS, see Arts, Paintings, Sculpture, \nEngraving, &c. \n\nFINES and Recoveries, conferring the \n\npower of breaking ancient entails and alienating \nestates, began in the reign of Edward IV., but was \nnot, properly speaking, law, till Henry VII., by \ncorrecting some abuses that attended the practice, \ngave indirectly a sanction to it, 1487. Fines and \nrecoveries were abolished in 1833. \n\nFINISTERRE, see Cape Finisterre. \nFINLAND, a Russian grand duchy, in the \nmiddle of the 12th century was conquered by \nEric IX. of Sweden, who introduced Christianity. \nIt was several times taken by the Russians (1714, \n1742, and 1808), and restored (1721 and 1743) ; but \nin 1809 they retained it by treaty ; see Abo. Its \npolitical constitution was confirmed by the Czar in \n1800, 1825, and 1855. It was made nearly autono- \nmous in 1883. .Population in 1862, 1,746,229; \nin 1867, 1,830,853; 1875, i,9 T 2,647; 1889, 2,388,404. \nDuring a dreadful famine, whole villages were \nstarved. Elias Lonnten, editor of the ancient \nnational epic, "Kalevala" (1834-49), died 1884. \nTriennial Diet opened with constitutional speech \nsent by the Czar, 19 Jan. 1885. The Czar warmly \nreceived at Helsingfors, Aug. 1885. \nDiscontent of the chambers and people at expected \nchanges by the Russian government . reported \n\nJan. 1891 \nRescript of the czar to the governor-general, assur- \ning the people of the maintenance of their ancient \nrights and privileges . . about 18 March, ,, \nThe czar visits P\'inland, coolly received . July, ,, \nA new stringent press law enforced . 1 Oct. ,, \n\nFamine in N.W. Finland ; much suffering . Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFINNIAN, see Fenians. \n\nFINSBURY PARK, London, N. In 1866, \nland was purchased, and preparations for the park \nbegan ; and it was opened 7 Aug. 1869. \n\nFIRE. Heracleitus about 596 B.C. maintained \nthat the world was evolved from fire, which he \ndeemed to be a god omnipotent. Fire was wor- \nshipped by the Persians and other ancient nations, \nsee Guebres and Farsees. \n\nFIRE-ANNIHILATOR, an apparatus in- \nvented by Mr. T. Phillips, and made known by \nhim in 1849. When put in action, steam and car- \nbonic acid are formed, which extinguish flame. It \nwas not successful commercially. L\' Fxtincteur \nwas invented by Dr. F. Carlier, and patented by \nA. Vignon in July, 1862. It is an iron cylinder \nfilled with water and carbonic acid gas, generated \nby bicarbonate of soda and tartaric acid. The \napparatus was developed and improved by Mr. \nW. B. Dick, in his Manual and Chemical Fire- \nEngines, which give a continuous flow of water \nand gas, patented April, 1869. \n\nThe "Mata Fuego," or "Fire-killer," of M. Banolas of \nParis, was successfully exhibited at the Alexandra \nPalace, 16 Oct., 1880. Great bodies of flame were \nalmost instantaneously extinguished. \nThe Harden Grenade Fire Extinguisher tried success- \nfully near Farringdon-road, London, 24 July, 1884. \nThe Draper-Hetherington sprinkler reported success- \nful, Nov. 1888. \nSee Antipyrogene and Jsbestos. \n\n\n\nFIRE-ARMS, see Artillery, Cannon, Needle- \ngun, Chassepot, and Pistols. The first small fire- \narms were a species of cannon, borne by two men. \nFire-arms made at Perugia, in Italy . . . 1364 \n\nEmployed by the Burgundians at Arras . . . 1414 \nEdward IV. , when he landed at Ravenspur, is said \n\nto have been accompanied by 300 Flemings, \n\n\n\narmed with hand-guns . \n\n\n\n1471 \n\n\n\nAt Morat, the Swiss are said to have had 10,000 \n\narquebusiers (men armed with tire-arms) . . 1476 \nFire-arms said to have been used at the siege of \n\nBerwick : . . . 1521 \n\nThe petronel (from poUrine, the chest) or arquebus \ncame into use, 1480; and the musket employed \nin the armies of the emperor Charles V. about . ,, \nAll these were of very rude construction, being \nfirst discharged by a lighted match, afterwards, \nabout 1517, by a wheel-lock, then by the flint. \nThe match-lock and wheel-lock superseded by the \n\nflint-lock, about 160-2 \n\nThe rev. Mr. Forsythe patented the percussion \nprinciple of igniting gunpowder in muskets, by \nmeans of detonating powder . . April, 1807 \nPercussion caps came into use between . 1820 & 1830 \n\nPercussion musket ; pattern 1842 \n\nArtillery carbine ; pattern \n\nRegulation rifle musket ; pattern .... 1851 \nApplication of machinery in small arms factory \nestablished at Enfield (the old musket Brown Bess \n\nsuperseded) Jan. 1S57 \n\nMr. Jacob Snider\'s system of breech-loading in- \nvented in 1859 ; presented- to the British govern- \nment ; finally adopted, 1866. He received ioooZ. \n\nfor expenses in June ; died 25 Oct 1866 \n\n100,000 breech-loaders said to have been ordered by \n\nthe British government .... July, \n\nNew government advertises for propositions for \n\nconversion of Enfield rifles into breech-loaders, \n\nAug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n" Chassepot " guns in use in France . 1 Oct. ,, \nWar-office advertises for proposals for breech- \nloading rifles, to replace those in use 22 Oct. ,, \nNine systems selected for further trial ; ioooJ. to be \n\nawarded to the best .... June, 1867 \nSnider\'s rifle reported very successful at Wimbledon, \n\nJuly, ,, \n\n61,682 new arms had been made at Enfield ; 175,550 \n\nconverted to Sniders, up to . . . Dec. \n\nThe " Money-Walker " rifle (patented by Mr. Mow- \n\nbray-Money and lieut.-col. Walker), tried and \n\napproved z s j une> x q 6S \n\nA report in favour of the Martini and Henry rifle \n\nissued [adopted] March, 1869 \n\nAn act to grant a duty of excise on licences to use \n\nguns, passed Q Aug. 1870 \n\nComplaints respecting the Martini-Henry rifle (for \n\nweight and recoil) Aug. 1874. \n\nMagazine rifles came into use in Germany 1870-1 ; \nthe Mauser rifles used there in 1887, which \ncontain enough ammunition for five or more \nalmost simultaneous discharges, were coming into \ngeneral adoption in Europe in 1887 \n\nAn improved form (tiring from 6 to 9 shots succes- \nsively) determined upon by the small arms com- \nmittee, Dec. 1887 ; ordered to be made for general \nuse, announced (name, Lee-Metford) . Nov., 1888 \nThis magazine rifle censured in the Times, defended \nby Mr. Stanhope and the War office . Times, \n\n15 Nov. 1890 \nThe merits of the Lee-Speed magazine rirle dis- \ncussed, Feb. ; and also the French Berthier maga- \nzine rifle Nov. 1S91 \n\nSee Mitrailleuse and Gatling. \n\nFIRE-BRIGADE. The "London Fire-en- \ngine Establishment," an amalgamation of tho \nengines of the different companies, was established \nin London in 1832 by Mr. Charles Bell Ford, di- \nrector of the Sun Fire-office. It then had 80 men \nand 19 stations. In 1863 it had 130 men and 20 \nstations. In May, 1862, a commission recom- \nmended the establishment of a fire-brigade, which \nwas effected by the Metropolitan Fire-brigade Act, \nin 1865. The establishment then gave up its plant to \nthe Metropolitan Board of "Works. The fire-brigade \n\n\n\nFIRE DAMP INDICATOR. \n\n\n\n370 \n\n\n\nFIRES. \n\n\n\nis supported by a \\d. rate, and by contributions \nfrom government and from the insurance offices. It \ncame into action, and its energies were success- \nfully tested at the great fire at St. Katharine\'s \ndocks, I Jan. 1866. In 1889, 591 men and 55 land \nfire-engine stations. Captain* Eyre M. Shaw, re- \ncommends to the London County Council, a large \nincrease of the establishment, April, 1889; which \nwas carried into effect in 1 890. \nGreat fire-brigade exhibition at Oxford, with men \nand appliances representing the united kingdom \n\n31 May, 1887 \nThe success of a similar exhibition with the pre- \nsentation of medals by the prince and princess of \nWales at the Horse Guards Parade, Westminster, \nwas greatly marred by insufficient arrangements \nfor the preservation of order . . . 27 May, 1889 \nThe London County Council orders the appoint- \nment of 138 additional firemen and 4 new stations \nwith the usual appliances . . . early Aug. 1889 \nCapt. Byre M. Shaw, c.b., appointed chief officer of \nmetropolitan fire brigade in succession to Mr. \nJames Braidwood (see Fire.*, 1861) . . . ,, \nKeview of the brigade at Crystal Palace by the \n\nGerman Emperor .... 11 July, 1891 \n\nCapt. Shaw announces his intention to resign \n26 June; (made k.c.b.), 31 Oct. ; succeeded by \ncapt. J. S. Simonds (previously second in command) \n\n22 Dec. ,, \n\nFIRE-DAMP INDICATOR, a small appa- \nratus, about the size of a chronometer, invented by \nMr. G. F. Ansell, and patented by him in 1865, by \nwhich the presence of very small quantities of fire- \ndamp or light carburetted hydrogen gas may be \ndetected in mines. It is an application of the law \nof the diffusion of gases. \n\nFIRE-DETECTOR and ALARUM, a me- \nchanical and chemical apparatus invented by prof. \n\'Grechi, which causes a bell to be rung and exhibits \n\xe2\x80\xa2coloured light, when the temperature of a room is \ngreatly increased. It was tried at the Inter- \nnational exhibition, London, 4 June, 1873. \n\nFIRE-ENGINES are said to have been in- \nvented by Ctesibius, 250 B.C. They are mentioned \nby Pliny, a. d. 70. A "water-bow" was patented \nby Thos. Grent in 1632, one was constructed by \nJohn Van der Heyden, about 1663. Bramah\'s engine \nwas patented in 1793. Mr. John Braithwaite con- \nstructed a steam fire-engine in 1830. A trial of \nsteam fire-engines took place at the Crystal Palace, \nSydenham, on 1, 2, 3 July, 1863, when prizes were \nawarded to a large one by Merryweather and a \nsmall one by Shand and Mason. \nW. Dennis\'s portable self-acting pneumatic fire- \nengine was tried successfully at, gas-works near \nthe Thames 30 Nov. 1876 \n\nFIRE-ESCAPES were patented by David \nMarie (1766), and Joachim Smith (1773). The Koyal \nSociety for the Protection of Life from Fire was \nfirst established in 1836; its object was not fully \nattained till 1843, when it was re-organised, begin- \nning with six escape stations in London ; in March, \n1859, it possessed 67 ; in 1866, 85. In 1858, 504 \nfires had been attended, and 57 persons rescued. \nIn 1861 it was stated that 84 lives had been saved \nby the society\'s officers. In 1866, 695 fires had \nbeen attended, and 78 lives saved. In Aug. 1867, \nthe plant of the society was virtually presented to \nthe Board of "Works, in consequence of the passing \nof the Metropolitan Fire Brigade Act, 1865. Vers- \nmann\'s composition for rendering washing dresses \nfire-proof \'was published about i860. \n\nFIRE INSURANCE, see Insurance. \n\nFIREMAN\'S RESPIRATOR, the inven- \ntion of Dr. Tyndall (1870-71), is_ a combination of \nhis respirator of cotton-wool moistened with gly- \n\n\n\ncerine, and Dr. Stenhouse\'s charcoal respirator. \n\nArmed with this apparatus a man may remain a \n\nlong time in the densest smoke. \n\nThe Loeb respirator was tried in smoke and \npoisonous vapour, and was reported efficacious \nat Westminster July, 1888 \n\nFIRE, ROYAL SOCIETY FOR PRO- \nTECTION FROM. 86e Fire-Escapes. \n\nFIRE-SALVAGE CORPS formed, in 1865, \nby the London Fire Insurance Offices. \n\nFIRE-SHIPS. Among the most formidable \ncontrivances of this kind ever used, was an ex- \nplosion vessel to destroy a bridge of boats at the \nsiege of Antwerp, in 1585. The first use of them in \nthe British navy was by Charles lord Howard of \nEffingham, in the engagement with the Spanish \nArmada, July, 1588. Eapin. \n\nFIRE-WATCH or FlRE-GuARD, of Lon- \ndon, was instituted Nov. 1791. \n\nFIRE-WORKS are said to have been made \nby the Chinese in remote ages. They were invented \nin Europe at Florence about 1360 ; and were exhi- \nbited as a spectacle in 1588. \nMac.aulay states that the fire-works let off in England at \n\nthe peace of Kyswick, in 1697, cost 12,000^. \nVery grand fire-works were let off from a magnificent \nbuilding erected in the Green-park, London, at the \npeace of Aix-la-Chapelle, Nov. 1748. \nExhibition of fire-works in Paris, 31 May, 1770, in honour \nof the marriage of the dauphin, afterwards Louis XVI. ; \nnearly 1000 persons perished by pressure aud drown- \ning, through a panic. \nThe display of fire-works, under sir Wm. Congreve, at \nthe general peace, and the centenary of the accession \nof the Brunswick family to the throne, 1 Aug. 1814. \nAnother at the coronation of William IV., 8 Sept. 1831. \nA grand display of this kind (at a cost of io,oooZ.)to cele- \nbrate the peace with Russia, 29 May, 1856. \nIn consequence of explosions frequently occurring at \nfire-work makers (particularly one on 12 July, 1858, at \nMr. Bennett\'s in the Westminster-road, Lambeth, when \nfive lives were lost, and about 300 persons seriously \ninjured, and much property destroyed), it was deter- \nmined to enforce 9 & 10 Will. III. c. 7 (1697), an act to \nprevent the throwing and forming of squibs, serpents, \nand other fire-works. An act regulating the making of \nfire-works was passed in i860. \nRalph Fenwick, a maker, his wife, and six others, \nBroad-street, Lambeth, killed by explosion 4 Nov. 1873. \nMr. C. T. Brock, the greatest pyrotechnist of the time, \nhas a manufactory at Nunhead ; exhibits at the Crystal \nPalace, &c, and abroad, 1871, et seq. \n\nFIRES IN LONDON. The conflagration of a \ncity, with all its tumult of concomitant distress, is \none of the most dreadful spectacles which this \nworld can offer to human eyes. Dr. Johnson. \nA great part of the city destroyed, including St. \n\nPaul\'s cathedral 962 & 1087 \n\nOne at London-bridge, began on the Southwark \nside, and was communicated to the other side, \nand hemmed in a numerous crowd ; about 3000 \nwere drowned, and a great part of the city, north \n\nand south, bumed . 1212 \n\nThe Great Fire, whose ruins covered 396 acres, ex- \ntended from the Tower to the Temple-church, and \nfrom the north-east gate to Holborn-bridge. It \nbegan iu a baker\'s house in Pudding-lane, behind \nMonument-yard, and destroyed, in the space of \nfour days, 88 churches (including St. Paul\'s), the \ncity gates, the Royal Exchange, the Custom- \nhouse, Guildhall, Sion college, and many other \npublic buildings, besides 13,200 houses, laying \nwaste 400 streets. About 200,000 persons encamped \nin Islington andHighgate fields. (See Monument.) \n\n2-6 Sept. 1666 \nIn Southwark, 60 houses burnt .... 1676 \nIu Wapping, 150 houses burnt, 50 lives lost . . 1715 \n\nCustom-house burnt 1718 \n\nAt Shadwell, 50 houses burnt . , 10 Sept. 1736 \n\n\n\nFIRES. \n\n\n\n371 \n\n\n\nFIRES. \n\n\n\nJn Cornhill ward, 200 houses burnt ; this fire began \nin Change-alley, and was the most terrible since \nthe great fire of 1666 . . . \xe2\x96\xa0 25 March, 1748 \nAt Covent Garden, 50 houses burnt . . . . 1759 \nin Smithfield, 28 houses burnt . . . .1761 \n\nAt Shadwell, 30 houses burnt ,, \n\nIn Throgmorton-street, 20 houses .... 1774 \n\nAt Wapping, 20 houses 1775 \n\nAt Hermitage-stairs, 31 houses .... 1779 \nAt Horselydown, 30 houses, besides many ware- \nhouses and ships .... 30 April, 1780 \nNewgate, &c. , by the Gordon mob . . June, ,, \n\nIn the Strand, 40 houses burnt 1781 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2In Aldersgate-street, 40 houses ; the loss exceeding \n\n100,000? 5 Nov. 1783 \n\nThe Opera-house 17 June, 1789 \n\nAt Rotherhithe, 20 houses . . . 12 Oct. 1790 \nAgain, when many ships and 60 houses were con- \nsumed 14 Sept. 1791 \n\nPantheon, Oxford-street ... 14 June, 1792 \n\nAt Wapping, 630 houses, and an East India ware- \nhouse, in which 35,000 bags of saltpetre were \nstored : the loss 1,000,000?. (tents for thesufferers \nwere lent by the government) . . 21 July, 1794 \nAstley\'s amphitheatre .... 17 Sept. ,, \n\xe2\x96\xa0\'St. Paul\'s church, Covent-garden . 11 Sept. 1795 \n\nAt Shadwell, 20 houses burnt . . 1 Nov. 1796 \n\nIn the Minories, 30 houses ... 23 March, 1797 \nIn the King\'s Bench, 50 residences . 14 July, 1799 \n\nUNTear the Customs, three West India warehouses ; \n\nloss 300,000 J 11 Feb. 1800 \n\nAt Wapping, 30 houses .... 6 Oct. ,, \nIn Store-street, Tottenham-court-road, immense \n\nproperty destroyed .... 27 Sept. 1802 \n\nThe great tower over the choir of Westminster \n\nabbey burnt 9 July, 1803 \n\nAstley\'s again, and 40 houses . . 1 Sept. ,, \n\nFrith-street, Soho, lasted several days, many houses \n\ndestroyed 2 Dec. ,, \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Surrey Theatre 12 Aug. 1805 \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Covent-garden Theatre . . . .20 Sept. 1808 \n\nDrury-lane Theatre 24 Feb. 1809 \n\nIn Conduit-street ; Mr. Windham, in aiding to save \nMr. North\'s library, received an injury which \n\ncaused his death 9 July, ,, \n\nIn Bury-street, St. Mary-axe, half the street made \nruins . . . . . . .12 June, 181 1 \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Custom-house : warehouses, and public records \n\ndestroyed 12 Feb. 1814 \n\nAt Rotherhithe, 60 houses and several ships de- \n\ntroyed ; loss 80,000! 16 March, 1820 \n\nAt Mile-end ; loss 200,000?. . . . 22 Jan. 1821 \n\nIn Smithfield ; loss 100,000?. ... 14 Aug. 1822 \nRoyalty Theatre, Wellclose-sq., destroyed 11 April, 1826 \nIn Red Lion-street, 15 houses . . 6 June, 1828 \n\nArgyle rooms destroyed . . . .5 Feb. 1830 \nEnglish opera-house, &c. , burnt . . 16 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nHouses of parliament consumed . . 16 Oct. 1834 \n\nTenning\'s-wharf, London-bridge, &c. ; loss 250,000?. \n\n30 Aug. 1836 \nThe Royal Exchange destroyed . . 10 Jan. 1838 \nAt Wapping, 12 houses ... 16 June, 1840 \n\nOamberwell church 7 Feb. 1841 \n\nAstley\'s theatre again 8 June, ,, \n\nAt the Tower ; the armoury and 280,000 stand of \n\narms, &c. , destroyed . . . 30 Oct. ,, \n\nRaggett\'s hotel, Dover-street, Piccadilly ; several \n\neminent persons perished . . .27 May, 1845 \nSeveral houses in New-square, Lincoln\'s inn, \n\n14 Jan. 1849 \n\nOlympic Theatre 29 March, ,, \n\nOne in St. Martin\'s-lane (at a publican\'s named Ben \n\nCaunt), three lives lost . . . .15 Jan. 1851 \nFire at Duke-street, London-bridge ; property lost \n\nestimated at 60,000? 19 Feb. ,, \n\nAt the Rose and Crown, Love-lane, City, four lives \n\nlost 18 May, ,, \n\nFoot of London-bridge, four large hop warehouses \n\nburnt; loss 150,000? 23 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCollard and Co. , pianoforte makers, Camden-town ; \nloss 60,000?. ..... 19 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe warehouses of Messrs. Pawson, St. Paul\'s \n\nchurchyard, burnt 24 Feb. 1853 \n\nWorks of Gutta Percha Company, near City-road ; \n\nloss ioo.oooZ 5 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nKirkman\'s pianoforte manufactory . . 10 Aug. ,, \nMessrs. Scott Russell and Co.\'s works, M ill wall ; \nloss 100,000? 10 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nPremises of Messrs. Savill and Edwards, printers, \n\nChandos-street, destroyed . . .30 Sept. 1853 \nPremises of Townend and Co., Bread-street, de- \nstroyed ; loss about 100,000?. . . 31 Dec. ,, \nMessrs. Cubitt\'s premises, Pimlico . 17 Aug. 1854 \n\nWhittington club-house ... 3 Dec. ,, \n\nPremises of Messrs. Routledge, Messrs. Rennie, \n&c. , Blackfriars-road ; loss, one life and 150,000?., \n\n16 Fel). 1855 \nOf Etna steam battery at Messrs. Scott Russell\'s \n\xe2\x96\xa0 works ; loss about 120,000?. . . 3 May, ,, \n\nPavilion Theatre 13 Feb. 1856 \n\nCovent-garden Theatre .... 5 March, ,, \nMessrs. Scott Russell\'s (third fire), much valuable \n\nmachinery destroyed ... 12 March, ,, \nMessrs. Dobbs\' premises, Fleet-street . 1 April, ,, \nShad Thames flour-mill; loss about 100,000?., \n\n17 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nMessrs. Broadwood\'s, pianoforte makers, Westmin- \nster 12 Aug. ,, \n\nPremises of Messrs. Almond, army accoutrement \nmakers, and others, in St. Martin\'s-lane ; esti- \nmated loss 20,000? 9 Nov. ,, \n\nMessrs. Pickford\'s premises, at Chalk Farm station, \n\n9 June, 1857 \nGilbert-street, Bloomsbury ; 15 lives lost, 28 March, 1858 \nFresh-wharf; 25,000?. of silk . . 21 June, ,, \nLondon docks ; great explosion ; man killed by \n\nfright ; loss about 150,000?. . . 29 June, ,, \nLimehouse ; Messrs. Forest, Dixon\'s, &c. , premises \ndestroyed, and Blackwall railway arches ; insured, \n\n19-20 July, ,, \nGt. James-st. , Marylebone ; six lives lost, 26 Feb. 1859 \nMessrs. Hubbuck and Co. , Lime-street ; one life \n\nand a large amount of property . . 20 May, ,, \nWest Kent wharf and New Hibernia wharf; de- \nstroyed property valued at 200,000?. ; fire lasted \nnearly a month ; commenced . . 17 Aug. 186c \nSt. Martin\'s-hall, built for Mr. Hullah, and other \n\npremises, destroyed 26 Aug. ,, \n\nThames iron-works, Blackwall . . 31 Aug. ,, \nKilburn church, Maida-hill, destroyed 29 Nov. ,, \nSurrey music-hall destroyed . . 11 June, 1861 \nCotton\'s wharf and depot and other wharves near \nTooley-street, containing oil and other combust- \nible substances, took fire about half-past 4 p.m., \n22 June, and continued burning for a month. \n(Several persons were killed, including James \nBraidwood, the able superintendent of the Lon- \ndon fire-brigade ; the loss of property was esti- \nmated at 2,000,000?.) ,, \n\nDavis\'s wharf, Horselydown, burnt ; loss about \n\n15,000? 1 Aug. ,, \n\nNear Paternoster-row ; Messrs. Longman\'s, book- \nsellers, Messrs. Knight\'s, tallow-melters, and \nothers ; loss above 50,000?. ... 4 Sept. ,, \nMr. Price\'s, Fountain-court, Strand, three lives lost, \n\n3 Jan. 1862 \nAt Campden-house, Kensington, pictures and other \nvaluable property of Mr. Woolley destroyed (see \n\nTrials, 1863) 23 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMr. Dean\'s, Berkeley-street, Clerkenwell, three \nlives lost . . . . . 5 May, \n\nMr. Joel\'s, Fore-street, City, four lives lost, 21 May, \nMr. Boor\'s, druggist, Bishopsgate-street ; explo- \nsion ; two lives lost . . . . 7 J line, \n\nGreat Cumberland-street, Hyde-park ; Mr. S. Bar- \nrett and two daughters burnt . . 15 Aug. \nMessrs. Price\'s oil-mills, Blackfriars bridge, burnt ; \ngreat loss of property .... 20 Nov. \n\nAncient Austin-friars church, City, partially de- \nstroyed ....... 22 Nov. \n\nMr. Chard\'s, Portland-street, Soho ; six lives lost, \n\n26 Dee. \n\nMessrs. Capel\'s, Secthing-lane, City ; great destruc- \ntion of property . . \xe2\x80\xa2 18 April, 1863 \n\nWarehouses of Messrs. Grant and others, between \nWood-street and Milk-street ; property worth \nabout 100,000?. destroyed ... 19 Dec, ,, \n\nMeriton\'s wharf, Dockhead ; immense loss of pro- \nperty 7 June, 1864 \n\nRoyal Savoy chapel. Strand, destroyed 7 July, \n\nllalierdashers\'-hall and Messrs. Tapling and others\' \nwarehouses 19 Sept. ,, \n\nMessrs. Barry, Sufferance wharves, Dockhead ; \ngreat loss 25, 26 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSurrey Theatre destroyed . . . 3\xc2\xb0. 3 1 J\'\xe2\x84\xa2- \'865 \n\nb n 2 \n\n\n\nFIEES. 372 \n\n\n\nFIEES. \n\n\n\nSaville-house (where George III. was born), Leices- \nter-square 28 Feb. 1865 \n\nPoulterers\' arms, Leadenhall market ; two lives \n\nlost 13 June, ,, \n\nMessrs. Meeking and Co. , Holborn ; damage 30,000?. \n\n24 June, ,, \nMessrs. Sotheby and Co., auctioneers ; valuable \n\nlibrary destroyed .... 29 June, ,, \nGreat fire at Beale\'s wharf ; about 18,000?. damage, \n\n30 Oct. ,, \nImmense fire at St. Katharine\'s-docks . 1 Jan. 1866 \nHolland and Hennen\'s premises, Duke-street, \n\nBloomsbury, destroyed ... 26 Aug. ,, \nGreat fire in Haydon-square, Minories ; depot of \nN. W. Railway company, and other warehouses ; \n\ngreat loss 11 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nStandard Theatre, Shoreditch, burnt down, 21 Oct. ,, \nIn Hampstead-road, thirteen lives lost . 5 Nov. ,, \nNorth wing of the Crystal palace destroyed \n\n30 Dec. ,, \nQuebec-street, Oxford-street ; six lives lost, \n\n11 March, 1867 \nRotherhithe, 16 or 17 houses burnt ; about 100 \n\npersons destitute .... 12 Sept. ,, \nHer Majesty\'s theatre, Royal opera-house, de- \nstroyed: see Opera .... 6 Dec. ,, \nOxford music-hall, Oxford-street, partially de- \nstroyed 11 Feb. 1868 \n\nAbove 20 shops burnt in Portman-market, Maryle- \n\nbone 23 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nHubbard and Stutters\' hop-warehouses ; and many \n\nsmall houses destroyed ... 10 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nNorthumberland house, Strand ; valuable pictures, \n&c, injured ...... 19 Aug. ,, \n\nAdelaide rooms, Strand, destroyed . 14 March, 1869 \n\nAll Saints church, Walworth, destroyed 27 April, ,, \nMrs. Jago\'s, Pentonville-hill ; 3 perish 5 June, ,, \n\nMoscow-road, Bayswater ; through explosion of \n\nfireworks ; 7 persons perish . . .1 Oct. ,, \nMr. McMicken\'s, Newiugton-butts ; 4 lost 10 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nOld Star and Garter hotel, Richmond ; Wm. Lever, \nthe manager, killed .... 12 Jan. 1870 \n\nMr. Hill\'s, upholsterer\'s, Waterloo-road ; 6 children \n\nsuffocated 23 July, ,, \n\nChurch-street, Rotherhithe 3 lives lost, 23 Aug. ,, \nCecil-house, Cecil-street, Strand ; Mr. Forbes burnt; \narchitectural books, &c., of Mr. G. G. Scott de- \nstroyed 4 Sept, ,, \n\nMr. Bush\'s, manufacturing chemist, Liverpool- \nstreet, Bishopsgate ; 4 lives lost . 27 Sept. ,, \nChapel- street, Edgware-road, 4 lives lost ; Crouch- \nend, Hornsey, 3 lives lost . . .5 March, 1871 \nPavilion-road, Chelsea ; 5 deaths . 26 March, ,, \nGray\'s-inn-road ; James Ford, a fireman, lost his \n\nlife after saving 6 .... 7 Oct. ,, \n\nThames-street ; Nicholson\'s and other warehouses \n\ndestroyed ; great loss . . . .24 Oct. ,, \nOxford music-hall ; quite destroyed . 1 Nov. 1872 \nCity flour-mills, Upper Thames-street; 1 fireman \n\nkilled 10, 11, 12 Nov. ,, \n\nGrosvenor-mews, Bond-street, 6 killed . 27 May, 1873 \nAlexandra-palace, Muswell-hill, destroyed, 1 life \n\nlost 9 June, ,, \n\nSilver-street, Stepney ; 2 killed . .10 Sept. ,, \nLloyd\'s newspaper printing-office, Whitefriars, \n\ndestroyed .... 4 p.m. 29 Dec. ,, \nPantechnicon (which see), Knightsbridge ; much \n\nvaluable property destroyed . . 13, 14 Feb. 1874 \nCarnaby-street, W. ; 2 lives lost . . 15 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nLatta\'s great hop warehouse, Bermondsey, de- \nstroyed 28 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRimmel\'s perfumery manufactory, Beaufort-house, \n\nStrand, destroyed .... 19 March, 1875 \nW. Walker\'s cabinet manufactory, Bunhill-row, \n\nE.C., destroyed ; estimated loss 30,000?. 14 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nMr. H. A. Hankey\'s new mansion, near St. Anne\'s \ngate, St. James\'s park, destroyed ; about 60,000?. \n\ndamage 7 , 8 Oct. ,, \n\nEast London Rice and Flour Mills, Devonshire- \nstreet ; and 18 other buildings . . 3 Jan. 1876 \nChick\'s Great Western Pantechnicon . 2 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nMessrs. Warner\'s and other premises, Brook\'s- \n\nwharf, Upper Thames-street . . 15-18 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nLittle Windmill-street, Haymarket ; about 80,000?. \n\ndamage ; many poor sufferers . . 15 July, tt \nBridgman\'s saw-mills, St. Luke\'s, destroyed \n\n24-25 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nGrant & Co.\'s printing-office, <fec, Turnmill-street, \nClerkenwell ; about 100,000?. loss . 10, 11 Aug. \n\nMill-street, Hanover-square, W., three lives lost \n\n18 Sept. \n\nNew wharf flour-mills, &c, Rotherhithe, de- \nstroyed ; above 80,000?. loss . . 8 Oct. \n\nNear Old Kent-road, two lives lost ; susjiected \narson 2, Nov. \n\nHouse of Correction, Clerkenwell, mill-house, &c. ; \nno prisoners injured or escaped . 24 March, \n\nCharing-cross restaurant, one life lost 21 May, \n\nLittle Britain, E.G., a paraffin lamp upset; four \nlives lost 9 July, \n\n250, Mile End-road, two lives lost . . 23 Oct. \n\nScottish Corporation hall, Crane-court, Fleet-street \n(built by Wren), burnt many valuable portraits, \n&c 14 Nov. \n\nWatson\'s wharf, Wapping, lossabt. 30,000?. 31 Dec. \n\nManchester warehouses, Watling-street ; Crocker \n& Co. ; and others ; about 200,000?. loss 12 Jan. \n\nElephant and Castle theatre destroyed 26 March, \n\nPrice and Co., oil-merchants, &c. . . 3 Sept. \n\nMessrs. Tylor\'s, brass-founders, &c, Newgate-street, \ngreat loss 2-3 Jan. \n\nNew East London Theatre, Whitechapel-road, seve- \nral houses injured .... 16 March, \n\nWesley\'s chapel, City -road, nearly destroyed, caused \nby heating apparatus . . . . 7 Dec. \n\nHolborn, Roworth\'s printing office . . 19 April, \n\nMessrs. Hodgkinson\'s, chemists, and others, four \nperish 30 April, \n\nThe Duke\'s Theatre, Holborn, burnt. . 4 July, \n\nWhitechapel church, recently rebuilt, destroyed, \n\n26 Aug. \n\nTrinity -lane, Thames-street, large block of buildings, \nand much property destroyed . . 3 Feb. \n\nCooperative stores, Haymarket, destroyed ; loss \nabout 20,000? 23 April, \n\nMr. Allen\'s, stationer, 96, Walworth-road, 4 deaths, \n\n26 April, \n\n422, Portobello-road, Notting-hill, 6 deaths, 16 May; \n(Win, Nash, shopkeeper, charged with arson and \nmurder ; convicted, "but reprieved) . 30 May, \n\nMessrs. T. Foster and Co.\'s warehouses, Cheapside ; \nmuch property destroyed : checked by firemen \nand good building . . . . 1 Sept. \n\nDowgate dock warehouse ; aid. Breffit\'s 3 Sept. \n\nPark theatre, Camden Town, destroyed 10 Sept. \n\nMorson and Son, chemical works, explosion ; 2 killed \n\n17 Jan. \n\nPhilharmonic Theatre, Islington, interior destroyed \n\n6 Sept. \n\nWhiteley\'s great stores, Westbourne Grove, W., \nabout 100,000?. damage ... 17 Nov. \n\nThe Royal Alhambra Theatre destroyed; 3 men \nkilled 7 Dec. \n\nWood-street, &c, premises of Foster, Porter, and \nCo.,Rylands, Silber, and Fleming, and others. \nA large block of buildings destroyed, estimated \nloss nearly 2,000,000?. ; 1 death . 8-10 Dec. \n\nSt. Ann\'s restaurant and warehouses in Cheapside \ndestroyed 15 Dee. \n\nSt. John\'s Presbyterian church, Forest-hill, de- \nstroyed 17 Dec. \n\nAnother fire at Whiteley\'s ... 26 Dec. \n\nWindsor-street, E.C., 5 deaths . . 16 Jan. \n\nNewnham- street, Edgeware - road, 5 deaths \n\n14 April, \n\nMessrs. Kegan, Paul, and Co.\'s premises, and other \nbuildings (16 firms), Paternoster-square 17 April, \n\nFreemason\'s-hall much injured . . 3 May, \n\nLunatic asylum, Southall-park, W., Dr. Boyd and \n5 others perish 14 Aug. \n\nHay warehouses at Foreign-cattle-market, Dept- \nford ; damage, about 18,000?. . . 18 Sept. \n\nGreat fire at Haggerston, beginning at Messrs. \nLines, timber merchants, saw mills and eleven \nsmall houses destroyed ; 40 families homeless \n\n5-9 Nov. \n\nMessrs. Silver and Co., premises near Cornhill \n\n17 Jan. \n\nPremises of Messrs. Pardon, printers, &c, Messrs. \nWilliams, Faudel, and Phillips, Smith Brothers, \nand others, Lovell\'s-court, Paternoster-row, de- \nstroyed, 7.30 P.M. ; by great exertions fire quelled, \n11 p.m. 2 April, \n\nBell hotel, Old Bailey ; three young women lament- \nably perish, about 2.30 a.m. . . 23 April, \n\n\n\n1872 \n\n\n\n1879 \n\n\n\nFIEES. \n\nAnother Are at Whiteley\'s stores, loss about 150,000?. \n\n26 April, 18 \n\nEast End Aquarium, menagerie, and waxwork, \n\xe2\x96\xa0&c, Bishopsgate, <lestroyed ; lioness, bear, mon- \nkeys, and other animals perish, 8.30 a.m. \n\n4 June, ,, \n\nWappiimg, Messrs. B. H. Cousens and Co., ware- \nhouses and others ; damage about 100,000?. \n\n19-20 July, ,, \n\nMr. Abrahams, hatter, 33, Wilton-road, Pimlico, \n7.45 a.m , 4 deaths .... 12 Aug. ,, \n\nMessrs. Hodgson\'s envelope manufactory, Little \nTrinity- lane, destroyed, about 10,000?. loss, 9.45 \na.m 15 Aug. ,, \n\nJones\'s wharf; great destruction of timber 17 Dec. ,, \n\nHolies-street, Clare-market, 4 deaths . 31 Dec. ,, \n\nMr. H. Chandler\'s, 194, Union-st., Borough ; 5 \nlives lost, including Alice Ayres, who courageously \nsaved 3 children, .... 23-24 April, 18 \n\nJapanese village burnt ; 1 life lost . . 2 May, , \n\nJackson and Graham\'s upholstery workshops, near \nOxford-st., 6 May , \n\nMessrs. Groom\'s wood-yard at Camberwell de- \nstroyed, 9 May, , \n\nIndia Museum, South Kensington, much injured \n\n12 June, , \n\nMr. W. Whiteley\'s establishment at Westbourne- \ngrove, over 100,000?. damage, (? incendiary) \n\n17 June, , \n\nSt. John\'s-road, Hoxton ; 3 lives lost . 26 Aug. , \n\nCharterhouse buildings, &c , Clerkenwell ; 14 \n. houses destroyed ; loss 20,000?. . . 8 Oct. , \n\nAnton, Brenda & Co., Japanese merchants, Hounds- \n\xe2\x80\xa2ditch ; damage 25,000?. ... 15 Feb. 18 \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0" Three Compasses," Beak-street, W. ; 3 lives lost ; \n2. 20 a.m. ...... 28 April, , \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2\' Jacob\'s Well," Shoreditch ; 3 lives lost 12 May, , \n\nGrandison-road, Battersea ; 2 lives lost 30 Nov. , \n\nKnightrider-street, city ; several houses and St. \nMary Magdalene church destroyed . 2 Dec. , \n\n24, Grafton-street, W. , and adjoining buildings \n\n18-19 Dec. , \n\n303, 104, Wood-street, city . . . 1 Jan. 18 \n\n22, Newman-street, Oxford-street ; 4 lives lost \n\n26 June, , \n\nMr. W. Whiteley\'s establishment and neighbouring \nhouses destroyed by lire ; estimated damage \n500,000?. ; 3 lives lost ; 3,000?. reward for dis- \ncovery of incendiary . . . 6-9 Aug. , \n\nMessrs. Kindon & Powell\'s oil-cloth manufactory \nburnt, loss about 50,000?. ... 6 Dec. , \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Grand Theatre, Is ington, totally destroyed in an \nhour, 12.55 a - m 2 9 Dec. , \n\nNo. 274, Strand ; 2 boys perish ; Sunday, 18 Sept. ; \nLeon Serne, the father, and John Henry Gold- \nfinch tried for murder, 13 Dec. ; acquitted 15 \nDec. 1887. Leon Serne sentenced to twenty \nyears\' penal servitude ; Goldfinch acquitted 21 Jan. i3 \n\nHoundsditch, 4 persons (foreigners) perish, 20 Jan. , \n\nBay -tree tavern, No. 5, St. Swithin\'s-lane 12 May, , \n\nMessrs. Garrould\'s, drapers, &c, Edgware-road, 6 \nwomen perish ; 6 a.m. 30 May ; jury censures the \nkitchen-maid for carelessness with a lucifer- \nmatch, and two fire-brigade men for neglect \nof duty 11 June, , \n\nMessrs. Doulton\'s potteries, Lambeth ; great part \nof the works destroyed, damage 15,000?. 11 Dec. \n\nIFarringdon meat market, thirty shops destroyed \n\n6 Jan. 18 \n\nWard\'s Wharf, Commercial-rd., Lambeth; damage \nabout 20,000? 7-8 Feb. , \n\nMessrs. W. & D. Gibb\'s great soap-works, Milton- \nstreet and surrounding premises destroyed, \nestimated damage 250,000?. ... 6 May, , \n\nMessrs. W. H. & F. Croker, builders, and Messrs. \nBonsey, corn merchants, extensive buildings \nnear Great Dover-street, Borough . ."July, ,. \n\nMessrs. Burroughs and Wellcome, manufacturing \nchemists. Bell-lane, Wandsworth, fireman Jacobs \nsuffocated ; (long inquest) . . .11 Oct. , \n\nThe Salvation army offices, Queen Victoria-street, \nupper floors destroyed .... 3 Dec. , \n\nBlock of buildings in Charterhouse-square, W. \nSinithfield (Mr. Burgess, printer, Messrs. Rud- \ndiman, Johnston & Co.,publishers, & Mr. Ferranti, \nelectrical engineers) ; great destruction . 25 Dec. , \n\nForest-gate District Industrial school, London, E., \npartly destroyed ; 26 boys, aged between 7 and \n\n\n\n373 \n\n\n\nFIEES. \n\n\n\n12 years, suffocated ; many escaped through the \nenergy of Mr. Charles Duncan, the supermtend- \nant, and other officials, early 1 Jan.; inquest, \nverdict, accidental death with strong recommend- \nations 20 Jan. : \n\nPremises of Messrs. James & Pike, mantle manu- \nfacturers, back of the General Post-office, partly \ndestroyed, estimated loss 40,000/. . . 3 Feb. \n\nPremises of Messrs. Gay, Armstrong & Co., skin \nmerchants, Westminster-bridge-road, 2 lives lost \n\n18 Feb. \n\nSir W. A. Rose & Co.\'s great oil mills, Bankside, \nSouthwark, destroyed ; London illuminated by \nthe blazing oil ; no loss of life, two firemen in- \njured, horses rescued ... 24 April, \n\nOld Sun, coal wharf, Messrs. Ray, destroyed \n\n29 Aug. \nMessrs. Rowley & Brock, hat-makers, premises in \n\nCloth-fair destroyed, by the combustion of \nnaphtha; 8 deaths, 3 men and 5 women, about 1 p.m. \n\n13 Oct. \n\nMessrs. Vogan & Co.\'s granaries, &c, Mill-street, \nDockhead, destroyed ; great fire . . 9 Nov. \n\nWellington barracks, Westminster, much injured ; \nsix persons hurt ; no deaths through the gallant \nand orderly conduct of the soldiers [two children \ndied afterwards] . . . . 12 Nov. \n\nMessrs. Lever, Wright & Co., furriers, Bunhill- \nrow ; great loss . . . . 28 Nov. \n\nHerbert-passage, Strand ; four lives lost 21 Dec. \n\nMessrs. Davidson, paper manufacturers, Upper \nThames-street, Queen Victoria-street, &c, Messrs. \nFrankau, fancy goods importers, Revillon Freres, \nfurriers, and other firms in Upper Thames street, \nand Queen Victoria street ; a large block of build- \nings wholly or partially destroyed, tenanted by \nMessrs. C. Davidson, paper-makers, Messrs. Revii- \nlon, furriers, and 16 other firms ; St. Beliefs church, \ndamaged; estimated loss 500,000/. midday, 30 Dec. \n\nHope\'s chemical works, Hackney-wick, destroyed . \n\n30 Dec. \nMessrs. Morgan & Company, carriage builders, \n\nLong-acre, and others ; loss about 50,000/. 13 Feb. \n\nMessrs. J. Tylors, engineers, Newgate-street, and \notherpremises, workshops destroyed ; serious loss \nto workmen 21 March, \n\nMessrs. Pay ton & Co., tea dealers, Tower-hill, and \nother premises, greatly damaged . 11 April, \n\nM. C. Duffy & Son, saw-mills, Stork\'s-road, Ber- \n\nmondsey, destroyed and about 24 private houses \n\ndamaged ; inhabitants compelled to leave their \n\nhomes hastily ; much suffering ; 5 a.m. \xe2\x80\x94 6 p.m. \n\n29 April, et seq. \n\nHouse of John, Lord Romilly, 38, Egerton-gardens, \nBrompton, W., through the upsetting of a large \nspirit-lamp ; his lordship and two servants suffo- \ncated and others injured . . . .23 May \n\nMr. Louis Tussaud s waxwork exhibition, Regent- \nstreet, destroyed by fire .... 20 June, \n\n25, Duncan-square, Hackney ; 3 lives lost . \n\n20 Aug. \n\nTooley-street ; wharves, occupied by Messrs. Leach \nanil others, and several warehouses destroyed, \n4-5 Oct., enormous loss; lire still burning* 24 \nOct \n\n401, West Ferry-road, Millwall ; 5 deaths 16 Oct. \n\nSatcbwell-rents, Bethnal-green-road ; Mr. J. D. \nRawlins\' timber yard and other premises de- \nstroyed 12 Nov. \n\nPremises of Messrs. Everleigh and others in Fore- \nstreet, E.C 9, 10 Dec. \n\nMessrs. Rothschild and others, 11, Silk-street, \nCripplegate, City, E.C 14 Dec. \n\n3, Cheyne-row, Chelsea, 2 lives lost . 15 Dec. \n\nMr. Minnis and others, Lavender-hill, Battersea; \n2 lives lost 19 Dee. \n\nMessrs. Shoolbred\'s workshops and other premises, \nMitford-place, Tottenhani-court-road . 22 Dec. \n\nPremises of Bottle Seal company, Eagle-wharf- \nroad, N 23 Dec. \n\nPremises of A. Wicklow and others, Bermondsey- \nstreet, S.E 24 Dec. \n\nJIu 111 ford\'s Hour mills, Albert Embankment, near \nVauxhall-bridge ; nearly destroyed . 27 Jan. \n\nPremises of Messrs. Grindley & Co. and others, \nUpper North-street, Poplar . . 27-29 Jan. \n\nJ. Latham, timber-merchant, premises in Curtain- \n\n\n\nFIRE-WORSHIPPERS. \n\n\n\n374 \n\n\n\nFISH, FISHERIES. \n\n\n\nroad, E.C., many houses destroyed or injured, \ncausing much distress . . . 8-n March, 189: \nHouse of Mr. Weston, butcher, 10, Lillie-road, \nPnlhara ; his wife, 2 children and Miss Glover \n\nburnt to death 18 March, ,, \n\nMr. G. Odone\'s restaurant, 152, Victoria-street, \n\nWestminster, 3 lives lost . . 29 March, ,, \nMessrs. Eyre &, Spottiswoode, the queen\'s printers, \npremises at Little New-street-hill, Fetter-lane, \nmuch injured and property destroyed (about \n\n15,000/.) 4 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPremises of Page & Pratt and other firms, Great \nSaffron-hill, E.C., destroyed or much injured \n\n10 April, ,, \nScott\'s supper-rooms, Coventry-street, Haymarket, \n\n4 youths perish 9 May, ,, \n\nUnion-street, W.C., Mary Ann Flood, perishes in \n\nvainly endeavouring to save a child . 7 May, ,, \nThere were 953 fires in 1854 ; 1113 in 1857 .\' II:r 4 i n \n1858 (38 lives lost) ; 1183 in 1861. 1303 fires in \n1862 ; 1404 in 1863 ; and 1715 in 1864. In 1866, \n1338 fires (326 serious); in 1867, 1397 fires (245 \nserious) ; in 1868, 1668 fires (235 serious) ; in 1869, \n1572 fires (199 serious) ; in 1870, 1946 fires (276 \nserious) ; in 1871, 1842 (207 serious) ; in 1872, \n1494(120 serious); in 1873, 1548 (166 serious : 35 \nlives lost) ; in 1874, 1573 (154 serious : 23 lives \nlost); in 1875, 1529 (163 serious : 29 lives lost); \nin 1876, 1632 (166 serious : 35 lives lost) ; in 1877, \n2 S33 (!59 serious: 29 lives lost); in 1878, 1659 \n(170 serious); in 1879, 1718; 1880, 1871 (162 seri- \nous; 33 lives lost) ; in 1881, 1991 (167 serious: 40 \nlives lost) ; 1882, 1926 (164 serious : 36 lives \nlost); 1883, 2144 (184 serious: 39 lives lost) ; 1884, \n2,289 ( J 94 serious : 42 lives lost) ; 1885, 2,270 \n(160 serious ; 47 lives lost) ; 1886, 2,149 ^S 1 \nserious ; 49 lives lost) ; 1887. 2,363 (175 serious ; \n55 lives lost); 1888, 1,884(121 serious; 48 lives \nlost). In but few cases were the premises totally \ndestroyed. 1889, 2,338 (153 serious, 44 lives lost) ; \n1890, 2,555 (153 serious, 61 lives lost) ; 1891, 2,892 \n(193 serious, 47 lives lost): \nSeveral fires were occasioned by careless use of \ncoal oils in 1861-2. \n\nFIRE-WORSHIPPERS : see Parsees. \n\nFIRST-FRUITS were offerings which made \na large part of the revenues of the Hebrew priest- \nhood. First-fruits (called Annates, from annus, \na year), in the Roman church, originally the profits \nof one year of every vacant bishopric, afterwards of \nevery benefice, were first claimed by pope Clement V. \nin 1306, and were collected in England in 1316 ; but \nchronologers differ on this point. In the 26th of \nHenry VIII. 1534, the first-fruits were assigned, by \nparliament, to the king and his successors. Mary \ngave the Annates to the popes (1555); but Eliza- \nheth resumed them (1559). They were granted, \ntogether with the tenths, to the poor clergy, by \nqueen Anne, in 1703. The offices of First-fruits, \nTenths, and Queen Anne\'s Bounty were consoli- \ndated by 1 Vict. c. 20, 1838; see Augmentation of \nPoor Livings. Annates were long resisted in France, \nbut not totally suppressed till 1789. \n\nFIRST OFFENDERS\' PROBATION \nACT, permits the conditional release of First \nOffenders in certain cases, passed 8 Aug. 1887. \n\nFIRTH COLLEGE : see Sheffield, 1879. \n\nFISH, FISHERIES, &c Laws for the pro- \ntection of fisheries were enacted by Edward I in \n1284 and by his successors. The rights of the \nJlmgLish and I rench fishermen were defined by treaty \nin E8jA;jBee Ichthyology, Herring, Whale, New- \nfotmdlwnd Fisheries, Oysters, Trawling. Theknown \nspecies of fish are about 8525. Giinther, 1880. \nFishmongers\' company of London (salt) ia?? \xe2\x96\xa0 \n\n(stock) 1509 ; united .\'.\'..\' 1^6 \n\nFishing towns regulated by an act passed in \' \' i*!. \nFishing on our coast forbidden to strangers . \' .\' j&L \nThe Dutch paid 30,000/, for permission to fish on \n\nthe coasts of Britain _ l6 6 \n\n\n\nCorporation of Free British fisheries instituted . 1750 \nFish-machines, for conveying fish by land to Lon- \ndon, set up in 1761 ; and supported by parlia- \nment .......... 1764 \n\nThe British Society of Fisheries established m \n\nLondon in 1786 \n\nThe Irish Fishery Company formed in . Dec. 181S. \nIn 1849, two peasants, Remy and Gehin, obtained \nmedals for their exertions in cultivating fish in. \nFrance, and the government set up an establish- \nment for this purpose at Huningue, under M.. \nCoumes. \nIn i860 great progress had been made by M. Coste \n\nand others. \nCommission to examine into British fisheries was. \nappointed in i860, and acts to amend the law rev \nlating to fisheries in Great Britain and Ireland \n\nwere passed 1861-2-3-8-g:- \n\nIn April, Mr. Ponders placed in the Thames 76,000 \nyoung fish (salmon, trout, char, and grayling) : \nand on 17 April, Mr. Frank Buckland demon- \nstrated the importance of fish culture before the \nmembers of the Royal Institution, London . . 1863, \nIn 1853 Mr. Buist began the culture of fish at Stor- \nmontfield, Perthshire : reported highly successful, \n\nSept. 1866. \nAct for the protection of freshwater fish passed, \n\n8 Aug. 1878; \nInternational fish and fishing exhibition at Berlin, \n\nopened by the Crown Prince . . .20 April, i88o> \nNational fisheries exhibition at Norwich, opened \n\nby the prince of Wales . . . 18 \xe2\x80\x94 30 April, i88l \nInternational exhibition at Edinburgh opened \n\n11 April, 1882? \nFishery board for Scotland established . . . ,, \nNational Fish Culture Association established . 1883. \nLondon Central Fish Market, Smithfield, opened \n\n10 May, ,, \nInternational fisheries exhibition, South Kensing- \nton, London, opened and closed by prince of \nWales, 14 May \xe2\x80\x94 31 Oct. 1883. 335 gold medals \n(160 to Great Britain) awarded, and other testi- \nmonials. Receipts, 140,346/. 13s. ; surplus, \n15,243/. 2,703,051 persons admitted. \nSea Fisheries Act, 46 <fe 47 Vict. c. 22, relates to \ninternational convention concerning fisheries in \nNorth Sea. Sea Fisheries (Ireland) Act also \n\npassed 2 Aug. ,, \n\nInternational fisheries, Vienna, opened 29 Sept. 1884;- \nAquaculture. \xe2\x80\x94 Mr. W. Oldham Chambers (in Times, \n10 Nov.) advocated the formation of ponds in \nwaste lands for the cultivation of carp and other \nfish. Sir Lyon Playfair recommends the scheme \nto be taken up by government Times, 11 Nov. ,, \nA convention with France respecting sea fisheries, \nsigned at Paris, n Nov. 1867 ; ratified by the \n"Sea Fisheries Act," passed, 13 July, 1868; \namended 1884 ; convention signed . 14 Nov. 1885. \nIntroduction of American salmon-trout tried at \n\nBurghley park in ,, \n\nBoard of trade inquiry ordered concerning the in- \njuries done to British drift-net fishing by foreign \ntrawlers in the north seas (see Trawling) Nov. 1886"- \nFirst stone of a new fish market laid, Farringdon- \n\nstreet, London . . . . . 13 Dee. ,, \nConference at fishmongers\' hall respecting railway \n\ncharges, &c. 2 Feb. i8S;r \n\nFishing school established at Baltimore (which see) \n\nIreland 17 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMany attacks on British fishermen by foreigners \n\nAug.-Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e. \nOne by Belgians near Southwokl . . 8 Sept. ,, \nIntervention of the king of the Belgians . Sept. ,, \nConference on sea fisheries at fishmongers\' hall \n\nopened 20, 23 March, 1888". \n\nNew central fish market, Farringdon-street, opened \n\n7 Nov. ,, \nMr. Francis Day, the author of important works on \n\nBritish and foreign fishes, died . .10 July, 18891 \nThe Sea Fisheries of the United Kingdom, produce \nin 1889 : fish 12,678,000 cwt., value 5,608,000/., \nshell fish added make 6,000,000/. \nInternational conference called by the National \nSea Fisheries Protection Association opened at \' \nFishmongers\' hall, London . . .1 July, 1890- \nTJie Royal Provident Fund ft>r Sea Fishermen, \nfounded 1884, incorporated .... 1891 \n\n\n\nFISHGUARD. \n\n\n\n375 \n\n\n\nFLAX. \n\n\n\nInternational declaration respecting the North Sea \nfisheries, ratified by act passed . . 21 July, 1891 \n\nPiscatorial exhibition at the Royal Aquarium, \nWestminster .... middle Feb. 1892 \n\nFisheries Disputes, &c. The fisheries on the \nNorth American coast were settled by treaty, \nbetween Great Britain and the United States in \n1818, the privileges of the latter extended to 1866 \nby treaty in 1854, aiK l renewed for ten years, \n1871, and again to 1885. On the failure of \nnegociations, the restrictions of 1818 were \nrevived March 1886. A joint commission was \nappointed, Rt. hon. J. Chamberlain (chief), hon. \nsir Lionel S. West afterwards lord Sackville, \nBritish minister, and sir Charles fupper, Aug. \n1887, received at Washington 19 Nov., met 22 \nNov. et seq 1887 \n\nTreaty (with a modus Vivendi till ratified) was \nsigned at Washington, 15 Feb. 1888 ; passed by \nCanadian parliament, 2 May ; royal assent, 16 \nMay ; United States senate refuse to ratify \n\n21 Aug. 1SS8 \n\nFISHGUARD (Pembroke). On 22 Feb. 1797, \n1400 Frenchmen landed in Cardigan Bay. On the \n24 Feb. they surrendered to lord Cawdor with the \nCastlemartin yeomanry, and some countrymen, \narmed with scythes and pitchforks, near Fish- \nguard. \n\nFITZWILLIAM MUSEUM (Cambridge), I \nfounded by Richard viscount Fitzwilliam, who died \nin 18 16, and bequeathed his colleciion of books, \npictures, &c, to the university, with 100,000^. to \nerect a building to contain them. The building \nwas begun by G. Basevi in 1837, and finished by \nCockerell some years after. \n\nFIUME (meaning river) , the port of the king- \ndom of Hungary, on the Adriatic : a very ancient \ntown, built on the supposed site of Tersatica, de- \nstroyed by Charlemagne about 799, and afterwards \nknown as Vitopolis, Civita Sancti Viti ad Flumen, \nand finally Fiume. After being successively sub- \njected to the Greeks, Romans, the eastern emperors, \nand the pope, it was transferred to the house of \nAustria. It was captured by the French early in \nthe century, from whom it wa-* taken by the Eng- \nlish in 1813, and given to Austria in 1814. It was \ntransferred to Hungary in 1822 ; to the Croats in \n1848 ; restored to Hungary in 1868. A new port \nand railways have been recently constructed (1877). \nYisit of the emperor of Austria, entertained by \nadmiral Hoskins and the British fleet, 23 June et seq. \n1891. \n\nFIVE FORKS, near Richmond, Virginia. \nHere general Sheridan turned the front of the Con- \nfederates, and defeated them after a fierce struggle, \nI April, 1865. \n\nFIVE HUNDRED, Council of, esta- \nblished by the new French constitution, 22 Aug. \n1795, was unceremoniously dissolved by Napoleon \nBonaparte, 10 Nov. 1799. \n\nFIVE MEMBERS, see under England, 4 \nJan. 1642. \n\nFIVE MILE ACT, 17 Chas. II. c. 2 (Oct. \n\n1665), forbade Nonconformist teachers who refused \nto take the non-resistance oath, to come within five \nmiles of any corporation where they had preached \nsince the act of oblivion (unless they were travel- \nling\'), under the penalty of 40^. They were relieved \nby Will. III. in 1689. \n\nFLADENHEIM, or FlATCIIEIM, Saxony. \nHere Rodolph of Swabia defeated the emperor \nHenry IV., 27 Jan. 1080. \n\nFLAG. The flag acquired its present form in \nthe 6th century, in Spain ; it was previously small \n\n\n\nand square. Ashe. It is said to have been intro- \nduced there by the Saracens, before whose time \nthe ensigns of war were extended on cross pieces of \nwood; see Carrocium. The honour -of- the -flag \nsalute at sea was exacted by England from very \nearly times ; but it was formally yielded by the \nDutch in 1673. at which period they had been \ndefeated in many actions. Louis XIV. obliged the \nSpaniards to lower their flag to the French, 1680. \nRenault. After an engagement of three hours \nbetween Tourville and the Spanish admiral Papa- \nchin, the latter yielded by firing a salute of nine \nguns to the French flag, 2 June, 1688. Idem ; see \nSalute at Sea, and Union Jack. \nThe comte de Chambord definitively declined to give \n\nup the white flag for the tricolor (see France), 5 July, \n\n1871 and 27 Oct. 1873. \n\nFLAGELLANTS, at Perouse, about 1268, \nduring a plague, they maintained there was no \nremission of sins without flagellation, and publicly \nlashed themselves. Clement VI. declared them \nheretics in 1349 : and 90 of them and their leader, \nConrad Schmidt, were burnt, 1414. In 1574, \nHenry III. of France became a flagellant for a \nshort time. \n\nFLAGEOLET, a musical instrument said to \nhave been invented by Juvigny, about 1581 ; \ndouble flageolet patented by Wm. Bainbridge, 1803 ; \nimproved 1809 and 1819. \n\nFLAMBEAUX, Feast of, see Argos. \n\nFLAMINEAN WAY, the great road from \nRome to Ariminum in Umbria, made under the di- \nrection of C. Flaminius, when censor in 221 B.C., \nwhen he also constructed the Flaminium circus. In \n217 he was defeated and killed at the battle of the \nTrasimene lake, when resisting the march of \nHannibal. \n\nFLAMMOCK\'S REBELLION, see Rebel- \nlions, 1497. \n\nFLANDERS, the principal part of ancient \nBelgium, which was conquered by Julius Cresar, 51 \nB.C. It became part of the kingdom of France, a.d. \n843, and was governed by counts subject to the \nking, from 862 till 1369, the first being Baldwin, \nBras de Fer, who is said to have introduced the \ncloth manufacture. In 1204, Baldwin IX. became \nemperor at Constantinople. Iu 1369, Philip duke of \nBurgundy married Margaret, the heiress of count \nLouis II. After this, Flanders was subjected suc- \ncessively to Burgundy (1384), Austria (1477), and \nSpain (1555). In 1580 it declared its independence, \nbut afterwards returned to its allegiance to the house \nof Austria. In 17 13 it was included in the empire \nof Germany. France obtained a part of Flanders \nby treaty in 1659 and 1679. See Burgundy and \nBelgium. \n\nFLANNEL, see Woollen. \n\nFLASHING SIGNALS, see under Fog. \n\nFLATBUSH, BATTLE OF, see Long Island. \n\nFLATTERY, CAPE (W. roast of North \nAmerica), so named by captain Conk, because at a \ndistance it had the deceptive appearance of a har- \nbour, 1778. \n\nFLAVIAN CJESARS, the Roman emperors \nVespasian, Titus, and Domitian, 66-96. \n\nFLAX. The manufacture in Egypt in very \nearly times was carried thence to Tyre about 588 \nB.C., and to Gaul about I B.C. ; and thus reached \nBritain. It was ordered to be grown in England, by \n\n\n\nFLAYERS. \n\n\n\n376 \n\n\n\nFLORAL HALL. \n\n\n\nstatute, 24 Hen. VIII. 1533. For many ages the \ncore was separated from the flax, the bark of the \nplant, by the hand. A mallet was next used ; but \nthe old methods of breaking and scutching the flax \nyielded to a water-mill which was invented in \nScotland about 1750 ; see Hem]). The duty imposed \non imported flax, 1842, was repealed 1845. In 1851 \nchevalier Claussen patented a method of " cotton- \ning" flax. \n\nFLAYERS, see Ecorcheurs. \n\nFLEECE, see Golden Fleece. \n\nFLEET, see Navy. \n\nFLEET PRISON, MARKET, &c (London), \nwere built over ttie small river Fleta, now used as a \ncommon sewer. In the reign of Henry VII. this \nriver is said to have been navigable to Holborn- \nbridge. \n\nFleet Prison was founded in the first year of \nRichard I. , and was allotted for debtors, 1640 ; and \npersons were committed here who had incurred \nthe displeasure of the Star-Chamber, and for con- \ntempt of the court of Chancery. It was burnt \nduring the Gordon riots, 7 June, 1780, and re- \nbuilt 1781-2. It was pulled down in 1845 (and the \ndebtors removed to the Queen\'s Bench prison). \nThe site was sold to the London, Dover, and Chat- \nham railway company for 6o,ooo\xc2\xa3. on 2 June, 1864. \n\nLast vestige removed Feb. 1868 \n\nFleet-market, originally formed in 1737, was re- \nmoved, and the site named Farringdon-street in \n1829. A new (Farringdon) market was opened 20 \nNov. 1829. The granite obelisk in Fleet-street, to \nthe memory of alderman Waitlnnan was erected \n\n25 June, 1833 \nFleet Marriages. Between the 19th of October, \n1704, and 12 Feb. 1705, there were celebrated 295 \nmarriages in the Fleet without licence or certiii- \ncate of banns. 20 or 30 couples were sometimes \n. joined in one day, and their names concealed by \nprivate marks, if they chose to pay an extra fee. \nPennant says that in his youth he was often ac- \ncosted with, " Sir, will you please to walk in and \nbe married?" Painted signs, of male and female \nhands conjoined, with the inscription, "Mar- \nriages performed within," were common along \nthe building. \n\' This abuse abolished by the Marriage Act . . 1753 \n\nFLEETS, see Navy, Gr\'at Britain. In 1886, \nGreat Briiain, 20 turret-ships, 6 in progress, 29 \nbroadside ships, and numerous smaller vessels. \nFrance, 16 turret ships, 13 in progress, 12 other \nlarge vessels. Russia, 6 armour vessels, 1 in pro- \ngress (not formidable). Germany, 13 armoured \nships. Italy, 14 armoured vessels, 7 in progress. \nAustria, 10 armoured vessels, 2 in progress. Greece \n. 2 armoured vessels. \n1 891. Great Britain, 82 ships (see Navy) ; France, 75 ; \nRussia, 48 ; Germany, 31 ; Italy, 22 ; Austria, 14 ; \nGreece, 5. \n1891. First-class battle-ships : Great Britain, 32 ; \nFrance, 14 ; Russia, 6. Second class : Great Britain, \n13 ; France, 13 ; Russia, 4. Armoured cruisers : \nGreat Britain, 18 ; France, 12 ; Russia, 8. Protected \ncruisers: England, 46; France, 8; Russia, 2 (from \nthe Navy Annual, 1891). \n\nFLEETWOOD, see Hythe. \n\nFLENSBORG, N. Germany. Here the Danes \ndefeated the Slesingers and Germans, 9 April, 1848. \nIt was entered by the Germans, 7 Feb. 1864. \n\nFLETA, an ancient English law treatise, an \nabridgment of Bract on, dated about 1290, said to \nhave been composed in Fleta, in the Fleet prison, \nby some lawyer. \n\nFLEUR-DE-LIS, the emblem of France, said \nto have been brought from heaven by an angel to \nClovis, he having made a vow that if he proved vic- \n\n\n\ntorious in a pending battle with the Alemanni near \nCologne, he would embrace Christianity, 496. It \nwas the national emblem till the revolution in 1789, \nwhen the tricolor (white, red, and blue) was adopted. \nThe comte de Chambord declared his adherence to \nthe old national flag, 5 July, 1871 and 27 Oct. 1873. \n\nFLEURUS (Belgium), the site of several \n\nbittles. \n\nBetween the Catholic league under Gonzales de Cor- \ndova, and the Protestant union (indecisive) 30 Aug. 1622 \n\nThe prince of Waldeck defeated by marshal Luxem- \nburg 1 July, 1690 \n\nThe allies under the prince of Coburg, defeated by \nthe French revolutionary army commanded by \nJourdan, who was enabled to form a junction \nwith the armies of the Moselle, the Ardennes, and \nthe north. (The French used a balloon to recon- \nnoitre the enemy\'s army, which, it is said, contri- \nbuted to their success) ... 26 June, 1794 \n\nHere Napoleon defeated Blueher at the battle of \nLigny (which see) 16 June, 1815 \n\nFLIES- An extraordinary fall of these insects \nin London covered the clothes of passengers, 1707. \nChamberlain. In the United States of America the \nHessian fly, so called from the notion of its having \nbeen brought there by the Hessian troops in the \nservice of England in the War of Independence, \nravaged the wheat in 1777. Before and during the \nsevere attack of cholera at Newcastle in Sept. 1853, \nthe air was infested with small flies. \n\nFLINTS, see Man. \n\nFLOATING BATTERIES, see Batteries, \nand Gibraltar, 1781. \n\nFLOATING DOCKS, see Docks. \n\nFLODDEN FIELD (Northumberland). The \nsite of a battle on 9 Sept. 1513, between the English \nand Scots ; in consequence of James IV. of Scotland \nhaving taken part with Louis XII. cf France against \nHenry VIII. of England. James, many of his \nnobles, and upwards of 10,000 of his army, were \nslain ; while the English, who were commanded by \nthe earl of Surrey, lost only persons of small note. \n\nFLOGGING by the Jewish law was limited to \nforty stripes, "lest thy brother should seem vile \nunto thee," 1451 B.C. {Dent. xxv. 3). Win. Cobbett \nin 1810, and John Drakard in 181 1, were punished \nfor publishing severe censures on flogging in the \narmy. Flogging was made a punishment for at- \ntempts at garrotting in 1863 ; and for juvenile \ncriminals, 1847 and 1850; for burglars carrying \nrevolvers proposed; the bill enacting it was with- \ndrawn 2 Aug. 1889. \n\nFlogging in the army much diminished by orders \n\n9 Nov. 1859 \n\nFirst-class seamen not to be flogged, except after a \ntrial, Dec. 1859 > more diminished . March, 1867 \n\nBy an amendment on the clause in the mutiny bill, \nflogging abolished in the army in time of peace \n\nApril, 1868 \n\nNew regulations for the navy issued . 18 Dec. 1871 \n\nProposed total abolition negatived in commons \n(120-60), 20 June, 1876; (164-122), 10 April, 1877; \n(2*9-56) 20 May, 1879 \n\nBy the Army Discipline Act (42 & 43 Viet. c. 34), \nflogging reduced, and may be commuted by im- \nprisonment ,, \n\nTotal abolition of flogging by Army Discipline Act \n\nApril, 1881 \n\nSubstitutes for flogging (handcuffing, <fcc.) an- \nnounced Oct. 1881 \n\n21 soldiers flogged . 1869 I 41 soldiers flogged . 1878 \n\n61 sailors ,, . ,, | 8 sailors ,, ,, \n\nFLOODS, see Inundations. \n\nFLORAL HALL, adjoining Covent-garden \ntheatre, is a large conservatory, 220 feet long, 75 \n\n\n\nFLORALIA. \n\n\n\n377 \n\n\n\nFLOWERS. \n\n\n\nfeet wide, and 55 feet high, designed by Mr. E. M. \nBarry, and was opened with the volunteers\' ball, 7 \nMarch, i860. It was used as a flower-market, 22 \nHay-Aug. 1861. Hei-e was held the West London \nindustrial exhibition, 1 May to 2 Aug. 1865. \n\nFLORALIA, annual games at Rome in honour \nof Flora, early instituted but not celebrated with \nregularity till about 174 B.C. \n\nFLORENCE {Florentia), capital of Tuscany \n{which see), and from 1864 to 1871, of Italy, is said \nto have been founded by the soldiers of Svlla (80 \nB.C.), and enlarged by the Roman triumviri. In \nits palaces, universities, academies, churches, and \nlibraries, are to be found the rarest works of sculp- \nture and painting in the world. The Florentine \nacademy and Academia delta Crmca (established \n1582) were instituted to enrich literature and im- \nprove the language of Tuscany ; the latter was so \nnamed, because it rejects like bran all words not \npurely Tuscan : both are now united under the \nformer name. Population, 1890, 191,453. \nDestroyed by Totila .... about 541 \n\nRebuilt by Charlemagne .... about 800 \nBecomes an independent republic . . about 1198 \nWars of the Guelphs and Ghibellines . 1215 ct seq. \n\nDante born here 14 May, 1265 \n\nArti or guilds established 1266 \n\nFactions of the Bianchi and Neri 1300 \n\nGreat plague, the Black Death 1348 \n\nThe influence of the Medici begins with Cosmo de\' \n\nMedici, " the father of his country " . about 1420 \n\nDeath of Lorenzo de\' Medici ... 8 April, 1492 \nSavonarola strangled and burnt . . 23 May, 1498 \n\nAppointment of Alexander de\' Medici as perpetual \n\ngovernor 1530 \n\nCosmo de\' Medici created grand-duke of Tuscany ; \n\nmakes Florence his capital : see Tuscany . . 1569 \nRevolution at Florence . . . .27 April, 1859 \nAnnexation to Sardinia voted by people, 11, 12 \n\nMarch ; the king enters Florence . . 7 April, i860 \nThe king opens the exhibition of the industrial \n\nproducts of Italy . . 15 Sept. 1861 \nFlorence decreed the capital of Italy till the acqui- \nsition of Rome n Dec. 1864 \n\nThe king and court remove there . 13 May, 1865 \n\nThe Dante festival (the 600th anniversary of his \n\nbirth) opened by the king ... 14 May, ,, \n\nInauguration of a national rifle-meeting ; the king \n\nfires the first shot .... 18 June, ,, \nFirst assembly of Italian parliament here 18 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe government removes to Rome as capital of Italy \n\nJuly, 1871 \nFourth centenary of Michel Angelo Buonarroti \n\nkept 12 Sept. 1875 \n\nTorchlight procession ; shell thrown among crowd ; \n\n5 killed . . ... 18 Nov. 1878 \n\nThe brick duomo. begun by Arnulfo, 1294 ; dedi- \ncated by pope Eugenius IV., 1436 ; was completed \nby Brunelleschi, 1447 ; the facade was cased with \nmarble by the Italian government and uncovered \nin presence of the king ... 12 May, 1887 \nOther renovations of public buildings carried on 1883-6 \nSuccessful visit of the Queen of England, 24 Maich \n\n\xe2\x80\x94 22 April, 1888 \nEquestrian statue of king Victor Emmanuel un- \nveiled 2oSept.i89o \n\nFLORES, or Isle of Flowers (one of the Azores, \nwhich see), discovered by Vanderberg in 1439; and \nsettled by the Portuguese in 1448. \n\nFLORIDA, a peninsula, one of the southern \nstates of North America, first discovered by Sebastian \nCabot in 14.97. It was visited by Juan Ponce de \nLeon, the Spanish navigator, April 4, 1512, in a \nvoyage be had undertaken to discover a fountain \nwhose waters had the property of restoring youth to \nthe aged who tasted them ! Florida was conquered \nby the Spaniards under Ferdinand de Soto in 1539 ; \nbut the settlement was not fully established until \n1565. It was plundered by sir Francis Drake in \n\n\n\n1585 ; and by Davis, a buccaneer, in 1665. It was \ninvaded by the British in 1702; and again by gen. \nOglethorpe in 1740 ; ceded to the British crown in \n1763 ; taken by the Spaniards in 1781 ; and guaran- \nteed to them in 1783. Capital, Tallahassee. Popu- \nlation in 1880, 269,493; 1890, 391,422. \nThe Americans purchase Louisiana from the French \n\nand claim West Florida \xe2\x80\xa2 1801 \n\nThe Spaniards compelled to cede all Florida to the \n\nUnited States 24 Oct. 1820 \n\nFlorida admitted as a state 1845 \n\nSeceded from the Union, Dec. i860 ; readmitted \n\n(see United States) 1865 \n\nA ship canal proposed ; company organized May 1883 \nAlter long neglect, this beautiful and fertile wil- \nderness warmly taken up by British and Ameri- \ncan capitalists 1883-4 \n\nYellow fever prevailed here, especially in Jackson- \nville, in the autumn of 1888 \n\nFLORIN, a coin first made by the Florentines. \nA. florin was issued by Edward III. which was cur- \nrent in England at the value of 6*. in 1337. Cam- \nden. This English coin was called floren after the \nFlorentine coin, because the latter was of the best \ngold. Ashe. The florin of Germany is in value \n2s. \\d. ; that of Spain, 4s. $\\d. ; that of Palermo \nand Sicily, 2s. 6d. ; that of Holland, 2*. Ayliffe. \nSilver florins (value 2s.) were issued in England in \n1849. \n\nFLOWERS- Many of our present common \nflowers were introduced into England from the \nreign of Henry VII. to that of Elizabeth (1485- \n1603). The art of preserving flowers in sand was \ndiscovered in 1633. A mode of preserving them \nfrom the effects of frost in winter, and hastening \ntheir vegetation in summer, was invented in America, \nby Geo. Morris, in 1792. A very great number \nhave been introduced from America, Australia, the \nCape, &c, during the present century. Many of \nthe dates in the following list, given in botanical \nworks, are d\' ubtfuL \nLondon, Flotver-glrl Brigade formed by baroness \n\nBurdett-Coutts and others . . . autumn 1880 \n\nAcacia, N. America, before 1640 \n\nAllspice shrub, Carolina 1726 \n\nAniseed tree, Florida, about 1766 \n\nArbor Vitse, Canada, before 1596 \n\nArctopus, Cape of Good Hope 1774 \n\nAuricula, Switzerland 1567 \n\nAzarole, S. Europe, before 1640 \n\nBay, Royal, Madeira . 1665 \n\nBay, sweet, Italy, before 1548 \n\nCamellia, China 1811 \n\nCanary bell-flower, Canaries 1696 \n\nCanary Convolvulus, Canaries 1690 \n\nCarnation, Flanders 1567 \n\nCeanothus, blue, New Spain 1818 \n\nChaste tree, Sicily, before 1570 \n\nChrist\'s thorn, Africa, before 1596 \n\nChrysanthemums, China .... 1763 or 1790 \n\nConvolvulus, many flowered 1779 \n\nCoral tree, Cape 1816 \n\nCoral tree, bell-flowered, Cape 1791 \n\nCoral tree, tremulous, Cape 1789 \n\nCreeper, Virginian, N. America 1629 \n\nDahlia, China 1803 \n\nDryandria, New Holland ... . . ,, \n\nEvergreen Thorn, Italy ... . . 1629 \n\nEverlasting, giant-flowered, Cape . . . . 1781 \n\nEverlasting, giant, Cape 1793 \n\nFernbusli, sweet, N. America . ... 1714 \n\nFox-glove, Canaries 1698 \n\nFuchsia fulgens, Mexico, about 1835 \n\nGeranium, Flanders 1534 \n\nGillyflower, Flanders 1567 \n\nGold-plant, Japan 1783 \n\nGolden-bell-flower, Madeira 1777 \n\nBawthom, American, before 1683 \n\nI leal lis. Cape 1774-1803 \n\nHoneyflower, great, Cape 1688 \n\nHoneysuckle, Chinese, China 1806 \n\n\n\nFLUORESCENCE. \n\n\n\n378 \n\n\n\nFOG. \n\n\n\nHoneysuckle, fly, Cape 1752 \n\nHoneysuckle, trumpet, N. America . . . . 1656 \n\nHyssop, S. Europe, before 1548 \n\nJasmine, C\'ircassia, before . . . .\'\xe2\x80\xa2\'.. 1548 \nJasmine, Catalonia, East Indies .... 1629 \nJudas tree, S. Europe, before . . . . . 1596 \nLaburnum, Hungary . . . \' . . .1576 \n\nLaurel, Alexandrian, Portugal, before . . . 1713 \n\nLaurustine, S. Europe, before 1596 \n\nLavender, S. Europe, before 1568 \n\nLily, Italy, before 1460 \n\nLily, gigantic, N. South Wales 1800 \n\nLily, red coloured, S. America ..... 1623 \nLoblolly bay, N. America, before . . . . 1739 \n\nLupine tree, Cape, about 1793 \n\nMagnolia (see Magnolia), N. America . . . . 1688 \n\nMagnolia, dwarf, China 1786 \n\nMagnolia, laurel-leaved, N. America . . . . 1734 \n\nMaiden-hair, Japan 1714 \n\nMignonette, Italy . . 1528 \n\nMilk- wort, giant-flowered, Cape . . . .1713 \n\nMilk-wort, showy, Cape . . . . . . 1814 \n\nMock orange, S. Europe, before .... 1596 \n\nMountain tea, N. America, before . . . . 1758 \n\nMyrtle, candleberry, N. America . . . 1699 \n\nMyrtle, woolly-leaved, China 1776 \n\nNettle tree, S. Europe, before ..... 1596 \n\nOleander, red, S. Europe ,, \n\nOlive, Cape, Cape 1730 \n\nOlive, sweet-scented, China 1771 \n\nParaguay tea, Carolina, before 1724 \n\nPassion-flower, Brazil ^92 \n\nPassion-flower, orange, Carolina . . . .1792 \n\nPetunia, S. America 1823 \n\nPigeon-berry, N. America 1736 \n\nPink, from Italy I5 6 7 \n\nRanunculus, Alps 1528 \n\nRoses, Netherlands 1522 \n\nRose, China, China 1789 \n\nRose, damask, S. Europie, about 1543 \n\nRose, the Japan, China 1793 \n\nRose, the moss, before 1724 \n\nRose, the musk, Italy ...... 1522 \n\nRose, the Provence, Flanders 1567 \n\nRose, sweet-scented guelder, from China . . 1821 \n\nRose, tube, from Java and Ceylon . . . . 1629 \nRose without thorns, N. America, before . . 1726 \n\nRosemary, S. Europe 1548 \n\nSage, African, Cape i7 3I \n\nSage, Mexican, Mexico 17 24 \n\nSt. Peter\'s wort, N. America I73 o \n\nSassafras, N. America, before 1663 \n\nSavin, S. Europe, before 1584 \n\nSnowdrop, Carolina xj^b \n\nSorrel-tree, N. America, before 1752 \n\nSweet-bay, S. of Europe, before .... 1548 \n\nTamarisk plant, Germany I5 6o \n\nTea tree, China, about I7 68 \n\nTooth-ache tree, from Carolina, before . . 1739 \n\nTrumpet-flower, N. America . .... . 1640 \n\nTrumpet-flower, Cape 1823 \n\nTulip, Vienna I57 8 \n\nVerbena, S. America ^27 \n\nVictoria Regia, Guiana ^g \n\nVirginian creeper, N. America ^ig \n\nVirgin\'s bower, Japan I77 6 \n\nWax-tree, China I7 n, \n\nWeeping willow, Levant, before .... 1692 \n\nWinter-berry, Virginia I73 6 \n\nYoulan, China . . . . . .. xi&g \n\nFLUORESCENCE. When the invisible \nchemical rays of the blue end of the solar spectrum \nare sent through uranium glass or solutions of \nquinine, horse-chestnut bark, or stramonium datura, \nthey become luminous. This phenomenon was \ntermed " fluorescence" by its discoverer, professor \nStokes, in 1852. By means of fluorescence Drs. \nBence Jones and Dupre detected the presence of \nquinoidine in animal tissues; see Calorescence. \n\nFLUORINE, a gaseous element, obtained from \nfluor spur ; first collected over mercury by Priestley. \nIts property of corroding all vessels is so great that \nit is separated with great difficulty. It was named \nby Ampere in 1810. Its chemical history was \n\n\n\nfurther elucidated by Davy (1809), Berzelius (1824), \nand succeeding chemists. The corroding property \nof fluoric acid was employed in the arts in 1760, by \nSchwankhard of Nuremberg. Gmelin. \n\nFLUSHING-, a seaport of the Netherlands, on \nthe isle of VYahheren. For the siege, see Wal- \ncher -en Expedition. It was fortified by Napoleon I., \nbut the works were finally dismantled in 1867. The \nport improved, and new dock opened by the king \nof Holland, 8 Sept. 1873. \n\nFLUTE. The transverse flute, incorrectly \ntermed the "German" instead of the Swiss flute, \nwas known to the ancients. It was described by \nMichael Pretorius, of Wolfenbuttel, in 1620, and by \nMersenne of Paris, in 1636. It was much improved \nby the French in the 17th century, by Quantz, \nTacet, Florio, Potter, Miller, Nicholson, and others \nin the 18th. In the present century also the Nichol- \nsons, Boehm of Munich, Godfrey of Paris, Carter, \nRockstro, and Rudall and Hose of London, have \ngreatly contributed to the perfection of this instru- \nment. See Flageolet. \n\nFLUXIONS, a branch of the higher mathe- \nmatics, invented by Newton, 1665, similar to the \ndifferential calculus described by Leibnitz, 1684. \nA fierce controversy ensued as to the priority of the \ndiscovery. The finest applications of the calculus \nare by Newton, Euler, La Grange, and La Place. \nThe first elementary work on fluxions in England \nis a tract of twenty-two pages in A Neiv Short \nTreatise of Algebra, together with a Specimen of the \nNatwe and Algorithm of Fluxions, by John Harris, \nM.A. London, 1702. \n\nFLYING, Artificial. In Greek mythology, \n\nDnedalus is said to have attached wings of wax to \nthe body of his son Icarus, who, neglecting the \nadvice of his father, flew so high that the sun \nmelted his wings, and he fell into the Icarian sea. \nArchytas is said to have made a flying dove, about \n400 B.C. Friar Bacon maintained the possibility \nof the art of flying, and predicted it would be a \ngeneral practice, 1273. Bishop Wilkins says (1651), \nit will yet be as usual to hear a man call for his \nwings when he is going on a journey, as it is now \nto hear him call for his boots ! Borelli (about 1670) \nshowed the futility of these speculations. About \n1800 sir George Cayley experimented on the sub- \nject, and in 1843 Mr. Henson invented a flying: \nmachine ; but nothing has been devised capable of \nserving a practical purpose. The motion of birds. \nin relation to aeronautics was much discussed by \nscientific men in 1867-8. At a meeting of the \nAeronautical society, 26 March, 1868, it was stated \nthat a member had actually, by his muscular force, \naided by apparatus, risen from the ground and \nflown horizontally. Dr. James Pettigrew published \nhis elaborate researches on flying, 1867-71.- M. \nVon Groof, a Belgian, "the flying-man," descended \nfrom a balloon by means of a parachute resembling \nwings, in 1874 : but was killed by falling through \nfailure of his apparatus at Chelsea, 9 July. \nMr. Simmonds tried his flying-machine (combining an \n\numbrella and kite), at Chatham, and failed : it carried \n\nsand bags about 100 feet high ; and fell, 15 Dec. It \n\nfailed again 23 Dec. 1875. \nMr. H. C. Linfield tried his steam flying machine on the \n\nrailway near West Drayton, 29 Aug. 1883. \n\nFLY SHEETS, see under Wesleyans. \n\nFO, RELIGION OF, the form of Buddhism {ivhich \nsee) existing in China. \n\nFOG- In 1862 much attention was paid to the \nsubject of fog signals by the Royal commission on \n\n\n\nFOIX. \n\n\n\n379 FOREIGN CATTLE MARKET. \n\n\n\nLighthouses, &c. The use of bells, steam-trumpets, \na battery of whistles blown by steam, the trans- \nmission of sound through water, the siren, &c, \nwere considered. A fog horn blown by steam is in \nuse at Dungeness lighthouse (1869). For Dr. Tyn- \ndall\'s experiments, see Acoustics. \n\nContinued fogginess in London, Nov. 1879, to Feb. 1880, \ncaused much mortality ; very bad on 25 Dec. 1879. \n\nFatal fogs, Dec. 1881, Jan. 1882 ; Jan. 1888, general \nover the British Isles and N. W. Europe. \n\nMr. De Cordova\'s fog signals announced, March, 1883. \n\nProf. Holmes\' siren fog horn tried in the Zuyder \'Zee., \nreported successful, Sept. 1883. \n\nCapt. Barker\'s marine safety signal code for merchant \nvessels ; he indicates directions for sailing by combina- \ntions of short and long blasts of a fog horn, 1879\xe2\x80\x94 1884. \n\nImproved fog signalling by sound set up at Ailsa \nCraig, mouth of the Clyde . . . 17 July, 1886 \n\nAdin. Colomb\'s systems of signalling by flashing \nlights at night, or by spurts of sound in fogs, in- \nvented 1858 et seq., adopted 1868 ; these are con- \nsidered highly valuable for manoeuvring squad- \nrons of ships, and also for the army . . . 1890 \n\nLord Middleton\'s application in the house of lords \nfor the appointment of a royal commission re- \nspecting London fogs negatived . . 12 Feb. 1892 \n\nLittle fog m London, winter, 1801-2, except at \nChristmas ; very bad then throughout England. \n\nFOIX (S. France), a county established 1050, \nand united with Beam, 1290. About 1494 Catherine \nde Foix, the heiress, married Jean d\'Albret, whose \ndescendant, Henry IV., as king of France, united \nFoix to the monarchy, 1589. \n\nFOLK LOEE, a general name given by Mr. \n~W. J. Thorns, in 1846, to popular legends, fairy tales, \nlocal traditions, old outdying customs, superstitions, \nand similar matters. The formation of the Folk-lore \nsociety was advocated by Mr. W. J. Thorns in \n_" Notes and Queries" 1 Dec. 1877; established \nin 1878. National congresses are held. \n\nFOLKMOTE, or Folkmoot, Anglo-Saxon, a \ngeneral assembly of the people to deliberate on \ngeneral matters relating to the commonwealth, \nresembling the public meetings of later times. From \nthese meetings, parliaments and other elective \nassemblies were gradually developed. The name \nwas also given to local courts. \n\nFONT. Formerly the baptistery was a small \nplace partitioned off in a church, within which a \nlarge font was placed, where the persons to be \nbaptised (frequently adults) were submerged. \nPreviously, lakes and rivers were resorted to for \nimmersion. Fonts are said to have been set up in \nchurches in the sixth century. \n\nFONTAINEBLEAU, near the Seine, France. \nThe royal palace, founded by Robert le Pieux about \n999, enlarged and adorned by successive kings, was \ncompleted by Louis Philippe, 1837-40. Fontaine- \nbleau was entered by the Austrians, 17 Feb. 1814. \nHere Napoleon resigned his dignity, 4 April, and \nbade farewell to his army, 20 April, 1814. \nPeace between France, Denmark, ire. . 2 Sept. 1679 \nTreaty between Germany and Holland . 8 Nov. 1785 \nTreaty between Napoleon and Spain . 27 Oct. 1807 \nThe decree of FontaLnebleau for the destruction of \n\nBritish merchandise issued . . 19 Oct. 1810 \n\nConcordat between Napoleon and pope Pius VII. \n\n25 Jan. 1813 \n\nFONTENAILLE, or Fontenay {Fori, lane turn) , \na village in Burgundy. Near here Charles the \nBald and Louis the German totally defeated their \nbrother the emperor Lothaire I. 25 June, 841. \nThis victory, termed " the judgment of God," con- \nduced to the formation of the French monarchy. \n\nFONTENOY, near Tournay, in Belgium, the \nsite of an obstinate sanguinary battle on 30 April \n\n\n\n(11 May, n.s.), 1745, between the French, com- \nmanded by marshal Saxe, and the English, Hano- \nverians, Dutch, and Austrians, commanded by the \nduke of Cumberland. The king Louis XV. and the \ndauphin were present. The success of the British \nat the commencement is still quoted as an illustra- \ntion of the extraordinary power of a column ; and \nthe advance of the Austrians during several hours \nat Marengo (14 June, 1800) was compared to it by \nBonaparte. The allies lost 12,000 men, and the \nFrench nearly an equal number; but the allies \nwere compelled to retire. Marshal Saxe (ill of the \ndisordcr of which he afterwards died) was carried! \nabout to all the posts in a litter, assuring his troops- \nthat the day would be their own. \n\nFONTHILL ABBEY, Wiltshire, founded in \n1796, the mansion of William Beckford, author of \n" Vathek," and son of Alderman Beckford. He \ndied 2 May, 1844. Within this edifice (which alone \ncost 273,000/.) were collected costly articles of \nvirtu and art, and the rarest works of the old \nmasters. The sale of the abbey and its contents to \nMr. Farquhar took place in 1822 ; 7,200 catalogues- \nat a guinea each were sold in a few days. On 21 \nDec. 1825, the lofty tower fell, and in consequence \nthe remaining buildings were sold. \n\nFOOD, see Provisions. A Food Journal pub- \nlished 1870; continued several years. Sale of Food \nand Drugs Act passed 11 Aug. 1875. Dr. Arthur \nHill Hassall\'s "Food and its Adulterations" pub- \nlished 1854, and since. International food exhibi- \ntion at Agricultural Hall, Islington, 13-20 Oct. \n1880. Nasional food reform society, advocates- \nabstinence from animal food, 1883. "Foods: Com- \nposition and Analysis," by A. W. Blyth, published \n1882. \n\nFOOLS, FESTIVALS OF, were held at Paris on \nthe 1st of January, when, we are told, all sorts of \nabsurdities were committed, from 1198 to 1438. Fools- \nor licensed jesters were kept at court in England up \nto the time of Charles I. 1625. Ths "order of Fools " \nfounded by Adolphus, count of Cleves, for philan- \nthropic purposes, 138 1, existed in 1 520. \n\nFOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE, see \n\nCattle. \n\nFOOTPATH (National) Preservation Society, \nfounded under the patronage of the duke of \nWestminster and others, 1884. Annual meeting \nJan. 1890. \n\nFORBES MACKENZIE\'S ACT (16 & 17 \n\nVict. c. 67) "for the better regulation of public- \nhouses in Scotland," passed in 1853. It permits- \ngrocers to sell spirits, &c, as usual, but forbids- \ndrinking on the premises, which is to be confined to- \nplaces duly licensed. Much dram-drinking pre- \nviously took place in grocers\' shops. \n\nFORCE, see Conservation, and Correlation. \n\nFOREIGN BOND-HOLDERS, were in- \ncorporated by licence of the Itoard of Trade as art \nassociation 1 Aug. 1873. A fund was created for \nthe protection of the investing public. At the \nannual meeting, 2 March, 1891, a favourable report \nwas received. \n\nFOREIGN CATTLE MARKET. The city \n\nof London having been required to provide this- \nmarket before 1 Jan. 1872, by the Contagious- \nDiseases Act (for Animals), 1869, the Common \nCouncil, 7 Nov. 1870, agreed to the expenditure of \n160,000/. for the purpose. The site chosen, Dept- \nford dockyard, was much opposed. The requisite \nalterations were made by Mr. Horace Jones, and the \n\n\n\nFOREIGN ENLISTMENT ACT. \n\n\n\n380 \n\n\n\nFORGERY. \n\n\n\nmarket was formally opened by the lord mayor, 23 \nDec. 187 1 ; for use on 1 Jan. 1872. \n\nFOREIGN ENLISTMENT ACT, 59 Geo. \nIII. c. 69 (1819), forbids British subjects to enter \nthe service of a foreign state, without licence from \nthe king or privy council, and prohibits the fitting \nout or equipping ships for any foreign power to be \nemployed against any power with which our govern - \njnent is at peace ; see Trials, 1862, 1863. In 1606, \nEnglishmen were forbidden to enter foreign service, \nwithout taking an oath not to be reconciled to the \npope. The act was suspended in 1835 on behalf of \nthe British Legion [which see) . The act passed 9 \nAug. 1870, relates to illegal enlisting, shipbuilding, \nand expeditions. \n\nFOREIGNERS, see Alien and Law. \nFon-ignerj in the United Kingdom: 1871, 113,779; \nin 18S1, 135,640; the Germans being about one- \nthird. \n\nFOREIGN JURISDICTION ACTS, passed \nin 1843, 1865, and 1866, were extended and amended \nby 41 & 42 Vict. c. 67, passed 16 Aug. 1878 ; these \nacts were consolidated in 1890. \n\nFOREIGN LEGION. Foreigners have fre- \nquently been employed as auxiliaries in the pay of \nthe British government; see Hessians. An act \n(18 & 19 Vict. c. 2) for the formation of a foreign \nlegion as a contingent in the Russian war (1855), \nwas passed 23 Dec. 1854.* The queen and prince \nAlbert reviewed 3500 soldiers, principally Swiss \nand Germans, at Shorncliffe, 9 Aug. 1855. On the \npeace in 1856, many were sent to the Cape of Good \nHope ; but not prospering, returned. \n\nFOREIGN LOANS, see Loans. \n\nFOREIGN MISSIONS, see Missions. \n\nFOREIGN OFFICE was established at the \nre-arrangement of the duties of secretaries of state \nin 1782. It has the exclusive charge of British \ninterests and subjects in f reign countries. The \nsecretary for foreign affairs negotiates treaties, \nselects ambassadors, consuls, &c, for foreign \n\xe2\x80\xa2countries, and grants passports. The new foreign \noffice building in the Italian style (designed by \nSir Gilbert Scott), was begun in 1864. A portion of \nit was inaugurated by Mr. Disraeli\'s reception, 25 \nMarch, audit, was occupied by lord Stanley, 24 June, \ni868. See Administrations under separate heads, \nand Secretaries. \nForeign Office Circular warning travellers and others \n\nthat they will incur capture at their own risk Aug. 1881 \nImportant changes in the departments announced \n\nFeb. 1883 \n\nFOREIGN ORDERS. No British subject is \npermitted to accept a foreign order from the sovereign \nof any foreign country, or wear the insignia thereof, \nwithout her majesty\'s consent, by orders issued in \nu8i2 and 1834; \xe2\x80\x94 regulations published in London \nGazette, 10 May, 1855. \n\nFORESTALLING was forbidden by statutes \n(in 1350, 1552, &c), all repealed in 1844. \n\nFORESTS. There were in England, even in \nfhe last century, as many as 68 forests, 18 chases, \nand upwards of 780 parks. See New Forest.f \n\n\n\n* The endeavour to enlist for this legion, in 1854, in the \nUnited States, gave great offence to the American govern- \nment. Mr. Crampton, our envoy, was dismissed, 28 \nMay, 1856, in spite of all the judicious pacific efforts of \nlord Clarendon. Lord Napier was sent out as our repre- \nsentative in 1857. \n\nt The commissioners appointed to enquire into the \n\xe2\x96\xa0state of the woods and forests, between 1787 and 1793, \nreported the following as belonging to the crown, viz. :\xe2\x80\x94 \n\n\n\nInternational Forestry exhibition at Edinburgh, re- \ncommended by government, Nov. 1883 ; opened \non 1 July ; closed .... 11 Oct. 1884 \n" The Forester," by J. Brown ; new edition . . 1882 \nParliamentary committee on forestry appointed \n\nMay, 1885 " \n\nFORESTS, Charter of the, Charta de \nForesta, granted by Henry III. in 1217, was founded \non Magna Charta, granted by king John, 15 June \n1215. It was confirmed in 1225 and 1297. See \nWoods. \n\nFORESTERS, Ancient Order of, a species of \nbenefit society, founded on the principle that many \ncan help one ; all religious and political discussions \nare strictly avoided. The 54th High Court at Read- \ning ; number of members reported 690,000, 6 Aug. \n1888. At Bournemouth, 5 Aug. 1889. At Hull, \n4 Aug. 1890. At London ; 1 Aug. 1891. Number of \nmembers reported Dec. 1891, 830,720. Reported \ncapital, 3,670,114/. 31 Dec. 1887. At Ipswich, I \nAug. 1892. \n\nFOREST GATE, Essex, see Fires, 1 Jan. 1890. \n\nFORFARSHIRE STEAMER, on its passage \nfrom Hull to Dundee, on 6 Sept. 1838, was wrecked \nin a violent gale, and thirty-eight persons out of \nfifty-three perished. The Outer-Fern Lighthouse \nkeeper, James Darling, and his heroic daughter \nGrace, ventured out in a tremendous sea in a coble, \nand rescued several of the passengers. \nThe " journal of William Darling " from 1795 to i860 \npublished in 1887, states that forty -three persons out \nof sixty-one perished. \n\nFORGERY of deeds, or giving forged deeds in \nevidence, was made punishable by tine, by standing \nin the pillory, having both ears cut off", the nostrils \nslit up and seared, the forfeiture of land, and per- \npetual imprisonment, 5 Eliz. 1562. Since the \nestablishment of paper credit many statutes have \nbeen enacted ; the latest Forgery act passed 9 Aug. \n1870. The Forged Transfer acts were passed to pre- \nserve purchasers of stock from losses by forged \ntransfers, 1891 and 1892. Convictions for forgery and \noffences against the currency, 1887-8, 652 ; 1888-9, \n493 ; 1889-90, 420. \n\nForgery first made punishable by death . . 1634 \nForging letters of attorney made capital . 1722 \n\nMr. Ward, M.P. , a man of wealth, expelled the house \nof commons for forgery, 16 May, 1726; and con- \nsigned to the pillory : . . 17 March, 1727 \nThe first forger on the bank of England was Richard \nWilliam Vaughan, once a linen-draper of Stafford. \nHe employed a number of artists on different \nparts of the notes fabricated. He filled up \ntwenty of the notes and deposited them in the \nhands of a young lady whom he was on the point \nof marrying, as a proof of his being a man of sub- \nttance; no suspicion was entertained. One of \n\nIn Berkshire, Windsor Forest and Windsor Great and \nLittle Park. In Dorset, Cranburn Chase. In Essex, \nWaltham or Epping and Hainault Forest. In Gloucester- \nshire, Dean Forest. In Hampshire, the New Forest, \nAlice Holt, Woolmer Forest, and Bere Forest. In Kent, \nGreenwich Park. In Middlesex, St. James\'s, Hyde, \nBushey, and Hampton-court Parks. In Northampton- \nshire, the forests of Whittlebury, Salcey, and Rockingham. \nIn Nottingham, Sherwood Forest. In Oxford, Which- \nwood Forest. In Surrey. Richmond Park. Several of \nthese have been disforested since 1851, viz. Hainault, \nWhichwood, and Whittlebury. A committee of the \nhouse of commons respecting forests, sat in 1863. \nMotion in parliament to preserve Epping Forest, adopted \n14 Feb. 1870 ; and the decision of the Master of the Rolls, \n10 Nov. 1874, stopped the enclosures by the lords of \nmanors. The lord mayor Stone visited the forest in \nstate 14 Oct. 1875. The commissioners\' new schemewas \npublished July, 1876. Memorial trees were planted by the \nduke and duchess of Connaught, 16 Oct. 1880. The forest \nwas dedicated to the use of the people by the Queen, \n6 May, 1882. \n\n\n\nFOEKS. \n\n\n\n381 \n\n\n\nFOETH. \n\n\n\nthe artists informed, and Vaughan was executed \n\nat Tyburn i May, 1758 \n\nValue of forged notes presented to the bank 1801-10 \n\nnominally 101,661?. \nThe bank prosecuted 142 persons for forgery or the \n\nuttering of forged notes 1817 \n\nThos. Maynard, the last person executed for forgery, \n\n31 Dec. 1829 \nStatutes reducing into one act all such forgeries as \n\nshall henceforth be punished with death . . 1830 \nThe punishment of forgery with death ceases, except \nin eases of forging or altering wills or powers of \n\nattorney to transfer stock 1832 \n\nThese cases also reduced to transportable offences 1837 \nA barrister, Jem Saward, and others, tried for \n\nforging numerous drafts on bankers 5 March, 1857 \nThe law respecting forgery amended in . 1861 and 1870 \nFor TV. Roupell\'s ease, see Trials . Aug. Sept. 1862 \n\nAn elaborate system of bill forgery in London, dis- \ncovered by the Bank of England . 1 March, 1873 \nRalph Cooper, " king of the forgers," sentenced to \nfifteen years for forging a cheque of 3,670?. on the \nLondon & Westminster bank. . 24 March, 1888 \n\n[See Executions (for forgery), 1776, 1777, et seq.] \nFORKS were in use on the Continent in the 13th \nand 14th centuries. Voltaire. This is reasonably \ndisputed. In Fynes Moryson\'s Itinerary, reign of \nElizabeth, he says, "At Venice each person was \nserved (besides his knife and spoon) with a fork to \nhold the meat while he cuts it, for there they deem \nit ill manners that one should touch it with his \nhand." Thomas Coryate describes, with much \nsolemnity, the manner \'of using forks in Italy, and \nadds, " I myself have thought it good to imitate the \nItalian fashion since I came home to England," \n1608. Two-pronged forks were made at Sheffield \nsoon after. Three-pronged forks are more recent. \nSilver forks, previously only used by the highest \nclasses, came into more general use in England \nabout 1814. \n\nMr. G. Smith found a bronze fork with two prongs at \n\nKouyunjik, Assyria, 1873. \nA "flesh-hook of three teeth" mentioned 1 Sam. ii. 13, \n\nabout 1 165 b.c. \n\n. FOEMA PAUPERIS. A person having a \njust cause of suit, certified as such, yet so poor that \nhe cannot meet the cost of maintaining it, has an \nattorney and counsel assigned him on his swearing \nthathe is not worth 5;., by stat. 11 Hen. VII. 1495. \n\xe2\x80\x94 This act lias been remodelled, and now any per- \nson may plead in forma pauperis in the courts of \nlaw. \n\nFOEMIC ACID, the acid of ants (formica). \nIts artificial production by Pelouze in 183 1 was \nconsidered an event in the progress of organic \nchemistry. \n\nFOEMIGNI (N.W. France), Here the con- \nstable de Kichemont defeated the English, 15 April, \n1450. \n\nFOEMOSA, an island in the Pacific, 90 miles \nfrom the Chinese coast. In May, 1874, the Ja- \npanese, with the consent of a Chinese mandarin, \nchastised the savage tribes here for massacring \nJapanese sailors on their proposed settlement on \nthe isle. The Chinese threatened war if they did \nnot quit within 90 days, 18 Aug. 1874. By British \ninterposition the Japanese withdrew, an indemnity \nhaving been agreed on ; treaty between Japan and \nChina signed 31 Oct. 1874. Formosa flourished \nunder the rule of Ting ; removed in 1878. The \nplant of the Woosung railway brought here in 1878. \nC-eorge Psalmanazar published his fabricated de- \nscription of Formosa in 1704. See China, 1884-5. \nSevere fighting between the Chinese and the \n\nnatives Dec. 1889 ; Feb. 1890 \n\nNearly 200 Chinese soldiers massacred by an \n\nambush, reported .... 13 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \nGeneral rebellion May, ,, \n\n\n\nFOENOVO (Parma, Italy). Near here Charles \nVIII. of 1- ranee defeated the Italians, 6 July, \n1495- \n\nFOESTEE\'S ACT, see Education, 1870. \n\nFOET DU QUESNE, N. America. Near \nhere general Braddock was surprised by a party of \nFrench and Indians, his troops routed and himself \nkilled, 9 July, 1755. The fort was named Fori \nFitt after its capture by Forbes, 24 Nov. 1758. It \nis now Fittsburg. \n\nFOET EEIE (Upper Canada). This fortress \nwas taken by the American general Browne, 3 June, \n1814. After several conflicts it was evacuated by \nthe Americans, 5 Nov. 1814. \n\nFOET GEOEGE, Inverness, N.W. Scotland, \nwas erected in 1747, to restrain the Highlanders. \xe2\x80\x94 \nFORT WILLIAM, besieged by them in vain in 1 746, \nis now in ruins. \n\nFOETH, a great river of Scotland, rising In \nBen Lomond, and entering the North Sea as an \nestuary, termed the Firth of Forth. The Forth \nand Clyde Canal was commenced 10 July, 1768, \nunder the direction of Mr. Smeaton, and opened, 28 \nJuly, 1790. A communication was thus formed \nbetween the eastern and western seas on the coast \nof Scotland. \n\nThe Forth Railway-Bridge projected, and a raft \nlaunched in June, 1866. \n\nMr. (afterwards sir T.) Bouch, of Edinburgh, was en- \ngaged to prepare plans for a suspension-bridge, 1878. \n\nThe Forth bridge company accepted tenders from TVm. \nArrol <fc Co. (1,250,01,0?.) for constructing bridge and \nrailway, Oct. 1879; through Tay-bridge disaster, <fcc, \nthe scheme was suspended and eventually abandoned \nby the company, 13 Jan. 1S81. \n\nThe construction of the present Forth Bridge was \nundertaken by the company supported by the North \nBritish, North Eastern, Great Northern, and Midland \nrailway companies ; the act was passed, June, 1882 ; \nengineers, Mr. John Fowler and Mr. Benjamin Baker,. \nwhose plans were based on the cantilever or bracket \nprinciple ; Messrs. Wm. Arrol & Co. were the con- \ntractors. The rocky islet of Inchgarvie was of great \nimportance in the construction of the bridge ; the \nworks began by building the foundations, Jan.\' 1883. \n\nThe last bolt was driven, 6 Nov. 1889 ; the strength of the \nbridge was tested by the passage of nearly 2,000 tons, \nsteamed halfway across, 21 Jan. ; and officially testtd \nfor the board of trade, 20 Feb. 1890. \n\nThe first train which crossed the entire bridge was \ndriven by the marchioness of Tweeddale, carrying a \ndistinguished company, in five minutes, 24 Jan. 1890. \n\nThe prince of Wales after driving in the last rivet, in the \npresence of the duke of Edinburgh, the duke of Fife, \nprince George of Wales, the marquis of Tweeddale, \nthe earl of Rosebery, and other distinguished visitors, \nincluding M. Eiffel, and other eminent engineers, said \n" Ladies and gentlemen, I now declare the Forth \nbridge open," 1.30 p.m. 4 March, 1890. \n\nThe ceremony was followed by a banquet in a hall \nadjoining the works. \n\nThe length of the bridge (from North to South \nQueensferry), with the approaching viaducts, is \none mile 1,005 yards; the highest part of the bridge \nis 361 feet ; the clear headway under the centre of \nthe bridge is 152 feet above high water. The greatest \nnumber of men employed at one time was 5,000. 56 \nlives were lost during the construction, in spite of \ngreat precautions. \n\nEstimated cost 1,600,000?., actual cost about 2,500,000/. \n\nMr. Matthew William Thompson, chairman of the Forth \nbridge and Midland railway companies, and Mr. John \nFowler, were created baronets, Mr. Benjamin Baker, \nwas made K.C.M.G., and Mr. William Arrol was \nknighted, 1890. \n\nThe bridge was opened for the ordinary railway trains, \n2 June, 1890. \n\nThe bridge slowly crossed by the queen coming south, \n19 June, 1891. \n\n\n\nFORTIFICATION. \n\n\n\n382 \n\n\n\n"FOUK MASTERS." \n\n\n\nBy the fall of scaffolding through high wind, 3 painters \n\nkilled, 29 Sept. 1891. \nThe bridge firmly withstood a violent gale, 29 Jan. 1892. \n\nFORTIFICATION. The Phoenicians were \nthe first people to fortify cities. Apollodorus says \nthat Perseus fortified Mycenae, where statues were \nafterwards erected to him. The modern system \nwas introduced about 1500. Albert Diirer wrote on \nfortification in 1527 ; and great improvements were \nmade by Vauban, who fortified many places in \nFrance; he died 1707. The new fortifications of \nParis were completed in 1846 ; see Paris. In Aug. \ni860, the British parliament passed an act for the \n-expenditure of 2,000,000?. in one year upon the \nfortifications of Portsmouth, Plymouth, Pembroke, \nand Portland, the Thames, Medway, and Sheemess, \nChatham, Dover, and Cork, and on the purchase of \na central arsenal establishment ; the estimated ex- \npense being 9,500,000/. A committee to investigate \n\xe2\x80\xa2our fortifications was appointed, 16 April, 1868. \n\nFORTIS, a powerful explosive invented in \nBelgium about 1887, said to be well adapted for \nmining purposes. In May, 1890, it was manu- \nfactured by the Fortis Powder and Explosives Com- \npany. Successful experiments at Liege, 8 Sept. 1891 . \n\nFORTNIGHTLY REVIEW, first published \nin 1865, edited by G. H. Lewes, succeeded by John \nMorley in 1867 and others. It was afterwards \npublished monthly. \n\nFORTUNATE ISLES, see Canaries. \n\nFORTUNE BAY AFFAIR, see Canada, \nS878, 1880-1, and Neivfoundland. \n\nFORTUNE-TELLING is traced to the early | \n\nastrologers, by whom the planets Jupiter and Venus | \nwere supposed to betoken happiness. The Sibyllas \nwere women said to be inspired by Heaven; see \n\xe2\x96\xa0Sibyls and Gipsies. In England the laws against \nfortune -telling were at one time very severe. A \ndeclaration was published in France, II Jan. 1680, \nof exceeding severity against fortune-tellers and \npoisoners, under which several persons suffered \ndeath. Henaidt. Fortune-tellers, although liable \nby the acts of 1743 and 1824 to be imprisoned as \nrogues and vagabonds, still exist in England. \n\nFORTY-SHILLING FREEHOLDERS, \n\nsee Freeholders. \n\nFORUM, at Pome, originally a market-place, \nbecame about 472 B.C. the place of assembly of the \npeople in their tribes (the Comitia), and was \ngradually adorned with temples and public build- \nings. \xe2\x80\x94 Near Forum Trebronii, in Mcesia, the \nRomans were defeated by the Goths, Nov. 251. \nAfter a struggle in the morass, the emperor Dccius \nand his son were slain and their bodies not re- \ncovered. See Rome, 1885- \n\nFOSSALTA, near Bologna, central Italy. \nHere Enzo or Enrico, titular king of Sardinia, \nnatural son of the emperor Frederick II., was de- \nfeated and made prisoner, 26 May, 1249, and re- \ntained. He was kept in honourable captivity till \nhis death, 14 March, 1272. \n\nFOTHERINGHAY CASTLE (Northamp- \ntonshire), built about 1400. Here Richard III. of \nEngland was born in 1450 ; and here Mary queen \nof Scots was tried, 11- 14 Oct. 1586, and beheaded, 8 \nFeb. 1587. It was demolished by her son, James I. \nof England, in 1 604. \n\nFOUGHARD, near Dundalk, N. Ireland. \nHere Edward, brother of Robert Bruce, after \ninvading Ireland in 1315, w r as defeated by sir John \n\n\n\nBermingham, 5 Oct: 1318. Bruce was killed by \nRoger de Maupis, a burgess of Dundalk. \n\nFOUNDLING HOSPITALS are ancient. \nA species of foundling hospital was set up at Milan \nin 787, and in the middle ages most of the principal \ncities of the continent possessed one. The French \ngovernment in 1790 declared foundlings to be the \n" children of the state." \n\nNo Foundling hospital in England when Addison \nwrote in 1713 \n\nLondon foundling hospital, projected by Thomas \nCoram, a sea-captain, incorporated, Oct. 1739 ; \nopened 2 June, 1756 \n\nHandel gave an organ; opened it . .1 May, 1750 \n\nIt succours about 500 infant children ; Coram\'s \nstatue was put up in 1856 \n\nFoundling hospital in Dublin instituted in 1704. \nOwing to great mortality, and from moral con- \nsiderations, the internal department was closed \nby order of government . . . 31 March, 1835 \n\nFoundling hospital at Moscow, founded by Cathe- \nrine II. in 1772; about 12,000 children are re- \nceived annually. \n\nFOUNTAINE COLLECTION of Renais- \nsance works, Faience, Limoges, Raffaelle, and \nPalissy enamelled ware, &c. (unequalled) ; and \nalso a fine collection of coins, medals, carved ivory \nw r ork, &c, formed by sir Andrew Fountaine, in \nthe reigns of Anne and George I. ; placed in \nNarford Hall, Norfolk, about 1730; sold by Christie \nand Mans ui for 91,112/., 16-19 June, 1884; by \nthe sale of ancient drawings, on 11 July, the sum \nwas raised to 96,278/. Sir Andrew "Fountaine \ndied in 1873. \n\nFOUNTAINS. The fountain of Hero of \nAlexandria was invented about 150 B.C. Among \nthe remarkable fountains at Rome are the Fontana \ndi Trevi, constructed for pope Clement XII. in \n1735; the Fontana Paolina, erected for pope \nPaul V. in 1612 ; and Fontana dell\' Acqua Felice, \ncalled also the Fountain of Moses. The fountains \nin the palace gardens at Versailles, made for \nLouis XIV., and the Grand Jet d\'Eau, at St. Cloud, \nare exceedingly beautiful. There are above 100 \npublic fountains in Paris, the most striking being \nthe Chateau d\'Eau on the Boulevard St. Martin \n(by Girard, 181 1) and that at the Palais Royal. \nLondon is not remarkable for fountains ; the \nlargest are in Trafalgar-square, constructed in \n1845, after designs by sir Charles Barry. There \nare beautiful fountains at Chatsworth, in Derby- \nshire, the seat of the duke of Devonshire. The \nmagnificent fountains at the Crystal Palace, Syden- \nham, were first publicly exhibited on 18 June, \n1856, in the presence of the queen and 20,000 \nspectators. \nThe fountain at Park-lane, London, W., the gift of Mrs. \n\nBrown, was inaugurated and uncovered, 9 July, 1875. \n\nIt has statues of Chaucer, Shakspeare, and Milton, the \n\nwork of Mr. Thomas Croft, and cost 5000L \n\nFOURIERISM, a social system devised by \nM. Charles Fourier (who died in 1837). The \nPhalanstery (from phalanx), an association of 400 \nfamilies living in one edifice, was to be so arranged \nas to give the highest amount of happiness at the \nlowest cost. The system failed ; caused, it is said, \nby the smallness of the scale on which it was \ntried. \n\nhe Familistere, a somewhat similar system, established \n\nby M. Godin, a manufacturer of stoves &c, at Guise, N. \n\nFrance, was reported successful in Jan. 1886. \n\n."FOUR MASTERS," a name given to \nMichael, Conary, and Cucogry O\'Cleiy, and Fer- \nfeasa O\'Mulconry, who compiled from original \ndocuments the annals of Ireland from 2242 B.C. to \n\n\n\nFOURTH ESTATE. \n\n\n\n3?3 \n\n\n\nFRANCE. \n\n\n\na.d. 1616. An edition of these " Annals," printed \nfrom autograph MSS., with a translation edited by \nDr. John 0\' Donovan, was published at Dublin in \n1851. The " Four Masters " lived in the first half \nof the 17th century. \n\nFOUETH ESTATE. Thomas Carlyle states \nthat this term was applied to the newspaper press \nby Edmund Burke when speaking in the House of \nCommons. Burke died 9 July, 1797. \n\nFOURTH PARTY, a name facetiously given to \nlord Randolph Churchill, sir Henry Drummond \n"Wolff, Mr. (aft. sir) John Gorst, and a few other \nconservative members, active opponents of the gov- \nernment, also termed "free lances." The other \nparties were liberals, conservatives, and home-rulers \n(1880-5). \n\nLord Randolph Churchill and some of his friends \ndesire to imitate Radical organization (popular, \nresponsible, and representative), advocating \n" tory democracy " May, 1884 \n\nHe and some others took office under the \nSalisbury administration . . . June, 1885 \n\nFOX, see Reynard. \n\nFOX and GRENVILLE ADMINISTRA- \nTION, see Grenville Administration. \n\nFOX-GLOVE (folks\' or^ fairies* glove), a \nhandsome indigenous flower. The canary fox-glove \n{Digitalis canariensis) came from the Canary \ninlands, 1698. The Madeira fox-glove came here \nin 1777. The fox-grape shrub {Vitus Vulpina), \nfrom Virginia, before 1656. \n\nFRAGA, N.E. Spain. Near here the Christians, \nunder Alfonso I. of Aragon, were defeated by the \nMoors, 17 July, 1 134. \n\nFRANC, the current silver French coin (value \niOd.), superseded the Here tournois by law in \n1795- \n\nFRANCE, the Roman Gaul (ivhich see). In \nthe 5th century it was conquered by the Franks, a \npeople of Germany, then inhabiting Frauconia, \nwhere they became known about 240. The country \nwas gradually named Franhen-ric, Franks\' king- \ndom. For the dynastic changes, see list of sove- \nreigns, infra. Previous to the revolution, France \n\xe2\x96\xa0was divided into 40 governments. In 1790 it was \ndivided into 83 departments, and subsequently into \n130, including Corsica, Geneva, Savoy, and other \nplaces, chiefly conquests. In 1815 the departments \nwere reduced to 86 ; in i860 they were raised to 89 \nby the acquisition of Savoy and Nice,* re- \nduced to 87 by the loss of Alsace and Lorraine. The \npolitical constitution has been frequently changed \nsince 1789. For details of more important events, \n\n\n\n* Population of France in 1700, 19,669,320 ; in 1762, \n21,769,163 ; in 1801, 27,349,003 ; in 1820, 30,451,187 ; in \n1836, 33,540,910 ; in 1846, 35,401,761 ; in 1856, 36,039,364; \nin 1861, including the new departments, 37,382,225 ; in \n1872 (after the war), 36,102,921. Population 31 Dec. \n1876, 36,905,788 ; 18 Dec. 1881, 37,672,048 ; 1886 (May), \n38,218,903; 1891,38,343,192. Population of the colonies \n<i876) (in \'Asia, Pondicherry, &c. ; Africa, Algeria, &c. ; \nAmerica, Martinique, Guadaloupe, &c. ; Oceania, the \nMarquesas, &c), in 185S, 3,641,226, in 1872, about \n5,621,000 ; in 1877, about 6,440,660. [Alsace and Lorraine \nlost with population of 1,597,219 in 1871.] In May, 1862, \nthe Moniteur asserted the effective army to be 447,000, \nwith a reserve of 170,000 : virtually raised to 1,200,000 in \n1868 ; disposable force in 1869, about 1,350,000 ; in 1875, \n1,750,000; in 1880, 2,423,164 men, non-military adjuncts \nnbout 1,330,000. Revenue, 1890-1, 126,611,900\'.. ; ex- \npenditure, 126,595,261?. ; 1890, imports, 218,080,000?, ; \nexports, 193,600,000?. \n\n\n\nsee separate articles. The title of king of France, \nadopted by the English sovereigns from Edwd. 3rd, \n1340, was given up by Geo. 3 in 1802. \nThe Fianks settle in that part of Gaul, till late \n\ncalled Flanders about 418 \n\nClovis, 481 ; defeats Syagrius and the Gauls at \nSoissons, 486 ; and the Alemanni at Tolbiae, near \nCologne ; and embraces Christianity . . . 496 \nHe kills Alaric the Goth at the battle of Vougle, \nnear Poictiers, unites his conquests from the \nLoire to the Pyrenees, and makes Paris his \n\ncapital 507 \n\nHe X\'roclaims the Salique law ; and dies, leaving \n\nfour sons 511 \n\nFrequent invasions of the Avars and Lombards, 562-584 \nThe mayors of the palace now assume almost sove- \nreign authority 584 \n\nCharles Martel becomes mayor of the palace, and \n\nrules with despotic sway 714 \n\nInvasion of the Saracens, 720 ; defeated by Charles \nMartel, near Tours .... 10 Oct. 732 \n\nReign of Pepin the Short , 752 \n\nCharlemagne, king, 768 ; conquers Saxony and \nLombardy, 773-4 ; crowned emperor of the West, \n\n25 Dee. 800 \nThe Normans invade Neustria, 876 ; part of which \nis granted Rollo, as Normandy, by Charles the \n\nSimple 9 ir \n\nReign of Hugh Capet 987 \n\nParis made capital of all France 996 \n\nLetters of franchise granted to cities aud towns by \n\nLouis VI. 1135 \n\nLouis VII. joins in the Crusades 1146 \n\nPhilip Augustus defeats the Germans at Bouvines . 1214 \nLouis VIII. , Cmur de Lion, frees his serfs . . . 1224 \nLouis IX. conducts an army into Palestine ; takes \nDamietta, 1249 ; see Crusades; dies before Tunis, \n\n25 Aug. 1270 \nCharles of Anjou conquers Naples and Sicily . 1266 \nHis tyranny leads to the massacre called the Sicilian \n\nVespers (which see) 12S2 \n\nPhilip the Fair\'s quarrels with the Pope . . 1101-2 \nKnights Templars suppressed .... 1307-8 \n\nUnion of France and Navarre 13 14 \n\nEnglish invasion \xe2\x80\x94 Philip VI. defeated at Cressy, \n\n26 Aug. 1346 \nCalais taken by Edward III. . . .3 Aug. 1347 \n\nDauphiny annexed to France 1340 \n\nBattle of Poictiers (which sec) ; king John taken \n\n(brought prisoner to England) . . 19 Sept. 1356 \nFrance laid under an interdict by the pope . . 1407 \nBattle of Agincourt (which see) . . .25 Oct. 1415 \nMassacre of the Armaguacs by the Burgunilians, \n\nJune, 1418 \nHenry V. of England acknowledged heir to the \n\nthrone I420 \n\nHenry VI. crowned at Paris ; duke of Bedford re- \ngent . 1422 \n\nSiege of Orleans raised, by Joan of Arc, 8 May ; \n\nbattle of Patay ; the English defeated 18 June, 1429 \nJoan of Arc burnt at Rouen . . . 30 May, 1431 \nEngland lost all her possessions (but Calais) in \n\nFrance, between . \' . . . 1434 and 1450 \n\'\xe2\x80\xa2 League of the public good " against Louis XI. 1 ly 1 \n\nthe nobles Dec. 1464-Oct. 1465 \n\nEdward IV. of England invades France . . . 1475 \nCharles VIII. conquers Naples, 1494 ; loses it . . 1496 \nLeague of Cambray against Venice .... 1508 \nPope Julius II. forms the Holy League against \n\nFrance i 5II \n\nEnglish invasion \xe2\x80\x94 battle of Spurs . . 16 Aug. 1513 \nInterview on the Field of the Cloth of Gold between \n\nFrancis I. and Henry VIII. of England . . . 1520 \nFrancis I. defeated and taken at Pavia . 24 Feb. 1525 \n\nIYaee of Cambray 5 Aug. 1529 \n\nPersecution of protestants begins .... 1530 \nRoyal printing press established, 1531 ; Robert \n\nStephens prints his Latin Bible . . . . 1532 \nBrittany annexed to France . . ... \nLeague of England with the emperor Charles V. ; \n\nHenry VIII. invades France 1544 \n\nPeace with England .... 7 June, 1546 \n\nSuccessful defence "f Met/, by the duke of Liuise . 1552 \nHe takes Calais (which sec) . . ... 1558 \n\nReligious wars ; massacre of protestants at Vassy, \n\n1 March, 1562 \nGuise defeats the Huguenots at Dreux 19 Dee. ,, \n\n\n\nFEANCE. \n\n\n\n384 \n\n\n\nFEANCE. \n\n\n\nGuise killed at siege of Orleans, 18 Feb. ; temporary \n\npeace of Amboise .... 19 March, 1563 \nHuguenots defeated at St. Denis . . 10 Nov. 1567 \nAt Jarnae 13 March ; at Moncontour . . 3 Oct. 1569 \nMassacre of St. Bartholomew . . .24 Aug. 1572 \n" Holy Catholic League " established . . . . 1576 \nDuke of Guise assassinated by king\'s order, 23 \n\nDec. ; and his brother, the cardinal . 24 Dec. 1588. \nHenry III. stabbed by Jacques Clement, a friar, 1 \n\nAug. ; died 2 Aug. 1589 \n\nHenry IV. defeats the league at Ivry 14 March, 1590 \nHenry IV. becomes a Roman Catholic 25 July, 1593 \n\nThe league leaders submit to him . . Jan. 1596 \nHe promulgates the edict of Nantes . 13 April, 1598 \nSilk and other manufactures introduced by him and \n\nSully ....-.\xe2\x80\xa2\xe2\x80\xa2 1606-1610 \nQuebec in North America settled . . . . 1608 \nMurder of Henry IV. by Ravaillac . . 14 May, 1610 \n\nRegency of Mary de Medici 1610-14 \n\nThe states-general meet and complain of the \n\nmanagement of the finances . . -27 Oct. 1614 \nRise of the Concinis, 1610 ; their fall and death . 1617 \n\nNavarre annexed to France 1620 \n\nVigorous and successful administration of Richelieu, \n\nbegins with finance 1624 \n\nRochelle taken after a long siege .... 1628 \n\n"Day of Dupes;" Richelieu\'s energy defeats the \n\nmachinations of his enemies . . n Nov. 1630 \nRichelieu organises the Academic de France . 1634-5 \n\nHis death (aged 58) 4 Dec. 1642 \n\nAccession of Louis XIV., aged four years (Anne of \n\nAustria, regent) 14 Ma Y. 1643 \n\nAdministration of Mazarin ; victories of Turenne, \n\n1643-6 \nCivil wars of the Fronde .... 1648, &c. \nDeath of Mazarin, 9 March ; Colbert financial \n\nminister 1661 \n\nWar with Holland, &c. 1672 \n\nCanal of Languedoc constructed . . . 1664-81 \nPeace of Nimeguen .... 10 Aug. 1678 \n\nEdict of Nantes revoked . . .22 Oct. 1685 \n\nLouis marries Madame de Maintenon . . . . ,, \nWar with William III. of England . . . 1689, &c. \n\nPeace of Ryswick 20 Sept. 1697 \n\nWar of the Spanish succession . . Sept. 1701 \n\nFrench defeated at Blenheim . . .2 Aug. 1704 \n\nAt Ramillies 23 May, 1706 \n\nPeace of Utrecht (which see) . . 11 April, 1713 \nDissensions of Jesuits and Jansenists ; the bull \n\nUnigenitus ...... Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAccession of Louis XV. ; stormy regency of the duke \n\nof Orleans 1 Sept. 1715, &c. \n\nLaw\'s bubble in France (see Law) . . . . 1716 \nFrench defeated at Dettingen ... 16 June, 1743 \nSuccessful campaign of marshal Saxe . . . . 1746 \nPeace of Aix-la-Chapelle . . . . 18 Oct. 1748 \nSeven years\' war begun .... May, 1756 \nDamiens\' attempt on life of Louis XV. . 5 Jan. 1757 \nCanada lost\xe2\x80\x94 battle of Quebec . . 13 Sept. 1759 \n\nThe Jesuits banished from France, and their effects \n\nconflscateu I 7^ 2 \n\nPeace of Paris ; Canada ceded to England, 10 Feb. 1763 \nLouis XV. enslaved by madame du Barry . . . 1769 \n\nDeat.li of Louis XV 10 May, 1774 \n\nFamine riots at Versailles .... May, 1775 \nThe minister Turgot dismissed . . May, 1776 \n\nMinistry of Necker Nov. ,, \n\nLouis XVI. assists America to throw off its depen- \ndence on England, at first secretly . . . . 1778 \nTorture abolished in French judicature . . .3780 \nPeace of Versailles with England . . 3 Sept. 1783 \nThe diamond-necklace affair (which see) . . -1785 \nMeeting of the assembly of notables, 22 Feb. 1787 ; \n\nagain 6 Nov. 1788 \n\nOpening of states general (308 ecclesiastics, 285 \n\nnobles ; 621 deputies, tiers etat) . 5 May, 1789 \n\nThe tiers etat constitute themselves the National \n\nAssembly 17 June, ,, \n\nThe French revolution commences with the de- \nstruction of the Bastille (which see) . 14 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe National Assembly decrees that the title of the \n\n" king of France " shall be changed to that of the \n\n" king of the French " .... 16 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe property of the clergy confiscated . 2 Nov. ,, \n\nEmigration of nobles . . . . Oct. -Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nConfederation of the Champ de Mars ; France de- \nclared a limited monarchy ; Louis XVI. swears \nto maintain the constitution . 14 July, 1790 \n\n\n\nThe silver plate used in the churches transferred to \n\nthe mint and coined ... 3 March, i79r \n\nDeath of Mirabeau .... 2 April, ,, \n\nThe king, queen, ami royal family arrested at \n\nVarennes, in their flight . . . .21 June, ,, \nLouis (a prisoner) sanctions the National Constitu- \ntion 15 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nWar declared against the emperor . 20 April, 1792 \nThe Jacobin club declare their sittings permanent, \n\n18 June, ,, \nThe multitude, bearing the red bonnet of liberty, \n\nmarch to the Tuileries to make demands on the \nking . 20 June, ,, \n\nFirst coalition against France ; commencement of \nthe great French war .... June, ,, \n[See Battles, 1792 to 1815.] \nThe royal Swiss guards cut to pieces ; massacre of \n\n5000 persons ..... 10 Aug. ,, \nRevolutionary tribunal set up . . . 19 Aug. ,, \nDecreeof the National Assembly against the priests ; \n\n40,000 exiled ..... 26 Aug. ,, \nMassacre in Paris ; the prisons broken open, and \n\n1200 persons (100 priests) slain . 2-5 Sept. ,, \nMurder of the princess de Lamballe . 3 Sept. ,, \nThe National Convention opened . 17 Sept. ,, \nConvention establishes a republic, 20 Sept. ; pro- \nclaimed 22 Sept. ,, \n\nDuke of Brunswick defeated at Valmy 20 Sept. ,, \nThe French people declare their fraternity with \nall nations who desire to be free, and offer help, \n\n19 Nov. ,, \n\nFlanders conquered Dec. \n\nDecree for the perpetual banishment of the Bourbon \n\nfamily, those confined in the Temple excepted, \n\n20 Dec. ,, \nLouis imprisoned in the Temple distinct from the \n\nqueen, and brought to trial, 19 Jan. ; condemned \nto death, 20 Jan. Beheaded in the Flace de Louis \n\nOuinzp. .21 Jan. 1793 \n\nCommittee of public safety established 21 Jan. ,, \nWar with England and Holland declared 1 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nWar in La Vendee March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nReign of terror \xe2\x80\x94 proscription of Girondists, 31 \n\nMay; establishment of convention 23 June, ,, \n\nMarat stabbed by Charlotte Corday . 13 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe queen beheaded . ... 16 Oct. ,, \n\nExecution of the Girondists . . . 31 Oct. ,, \n\nPhilip Egalite, duke of Orleans, who had voted for \nthe king\'s death, guillotined at Paris (see Orleans), \n6 Nov. ; and madame Roland . . 8 Nov. ,, \nWorship of goddess of reason . . 10 Nov. ,, \n\nAdoption of new republican calendar . 24 Nov. ,, \nExecution of Danton and others, 5 April ; of madame \nElizabeth ... ... 12 May, 1794 \n\nRobespierre president, 4 June ; he and 71 others \n\nguillotined 28 July, ,, \n\nAbolition of the Revolutionary Tribunal 15 Dec. ,, \n\nPeace with Prussia 5 April, 1795 \n\nInsurrection of the Faubourgs . . 20, 21 May, ,, \nLouis XVII. dies in prison ... 8 June, ,, \nFrench directory chosen . . . .1 Nov. ,, \nBonaparte\'s successful campaigns in Italy, 1796, &c \nBabeuf s conspiracy suppressed . . 12 May, ,, \nPichegru\'s conspiracy fails . . . May, 1797 \n\nExpedition to Syria and Egypt (which see) July, 1798 \nEuropean coalition against France . . April, 1799 \nCouncil of live Hundred deposed by Bonaparte, \n\nwho is declared First Consul . . 10 Nov. ,, \nHe defeats the Austrians at Marengo . 14 June, 1800 \nHis life attempted by the infernal machine, 24 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nPeace of Amiens (with England, Spain, and Hol- \nland) signed .... 25-27 March, 1802 \nAmnesty to the emigrants . . . April, ,, \nLegion of Honour instituted . . .19 May, ,, \nBonaparte made consul for life . . \xe2\x80\xa2 2 Aug. ,, \nThe bank of France established . . 14 April, 1803 \nDeclaration of war against England . 22 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nConspiracy of Moreau and Pichegru against Bona- \nparte, 15 Feb. ; Pichegru found strangled in prison \n\n(see Georges) 6 April, 1804 \n\nDue d\'Enghien executed . . . .21 March, ,, \nFrance made an empire ; Napoleon proclaimed em- \nperor, 18 May ; crowned by the pope 2 Dec. ,, \nHe is crowned king of Italy . . .26 May, 1805 \nAnother coalition against France . . . Aug. ,, \nNapoleon defeats the allies at Austerlitz 2 Dee. \xe2\x80\x9e \nAnd the Prussians at Jena . . .14 Oct. 1806 \nAnd the Russians at Eylau ... 8 Feb. 1S07 \n\n\n\nFKANCE. \n\n\n\n385 \n\n\n\nFRANCE. \n\n\n\nHis interview with the czar at Tilsit, 26 June ; peace \n\nsigned 7 July, \n\nHis Milan decree against British commerce, \n\n17 Dec. \n\nNew nobility of France created . . 1 March, \n\nAbdication of Charles IV. of Spain and his son, in \n\nfavour of Napoleon, 5 May ; insurrection in Spain, \n\n27 May, \nCommencement of the Peninsular war (see Spain), \n\nJuly, \nAlliance of England and Austria against France, \n\nApril, \nVictories in Austria; Napoleon enters Vienna, May, \n\nPeace of Vienna 14 Oct. \n\nDivorce of the emperor and empress Josephine \n\ndecreed by the senate . . . .16 Dec. \n\nMarriage of Napoleon to Maria Louisa of Austria, \n\n1 April, \nHolland united to France ... 9 July, \nBirth of the king of Rome (since styled Napoleon II. ), \n\n20 March, 18 \nWar with Russia declared . . .22 June, 18 \n\nVictory at Borodino 7 Sept. , \n\nDisastrous retreat ; French army nearly destroyed, \n\nOct. , \nAlliance of Austria, Russia, and Prussia against \n\nFrance March, 18 \n\nThe British enter France . . . .7 Oct. , \nSurrender of Paris to the allies . . 31 March, 18 \nAbdication of Napoleon negotiated . 5 April, , \nBourbon dynasty restored, and Louis XVIII. arrives \n\nin Paris 3 May, , \n\nNapoleon arrives at Elba .... 4 May, , \nThe Constitutional Charter decreed . 4-10 June, , \nQuits Elba, and lands at Cannes . 1 March, 18 \n\nArrives at Fontainebleau (the 100 clays), 20 March, , \nJoined by all the army ... 22 March, , \nThe allies sign a treaty against him . March, , \nHe abolishes the slave trade . . 29 March, , \nLeaves Paris for the army ... 12 June, , \nDefeated at Waterloo . . . .18 June, , \nReturns to Paris, 20 June ; abdicates in favour of \n\nhis infant son 22 June, , \n\nIntending to embark for America, he arrives at \n\nRochefort 3 July, , \n\nLouis XVIII. enters Paris . . . .3 July, \n\nNapoleon surrenders to capt. Maitland, of the \n\nBellertrphon, at Rochefort . . .15 July, \n\nTransferred at Torbay to the Northumberland, and \n\nwith admiral sir George Cockburn sails for St. \n\nHelena 8 Aug. \n\nArrives at St. Helena to remain for life 15 Oct. \n\nExecution of marshal Ney ... 7 Dec. \nThe family of Bonaparte excluded for ever from \n\nFrance by the law of amnesty \nDuke of Berry murdered \nDeath of Napoleon I. (see Wills) \nLouis XVIII. dies ; Charles X. king , \nNational Guard disbanded \nWar with Algiers ; dey\'s fleet defeated \nSeventy-six new peers created \nElection riots at Paris ; barricades ; several per- \nsons killed 19-20 Nov. ,, \n\nThe Villele ministry replaced by the Martignac, \n\n4 Jan. 1828 \nBeranger imprisoned for political songs 10 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nPolignac administration formed . . 8 Aug. 1829 \nChamber of deputies dissolved . . 16 May, 1830 \n\nAlgiers taken 5 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe obnoxious ordinances regarding the press, \nand reconstruction of the chamber of deputies, \n\n26 July, ,, \nRevolution commences with barricades 27 July, ,, \nConflicts in Paris between the populace (ulti- \nmately aided by the national guard) and the army, \n\n28-30 July, ,, \nCharles X. retires to Rambouillet ; flight of his \n\nministry, 31 July ; he abdicates . . 2 Aug. ,, \nThe duke of Orleans accepts the crown as Louis- \nPhilippe 1 7 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe constitutional charter of July published, \n\n14 Aug. ,, \nCharles X. retires to England . . 17 Aug. ,, \nPolignac and other ministers tried and sentenced to \n\nperpetual imprisonment 21 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe abolition of the hereditary peerage decreed \nby both chambers ; the peers (36 new peers being \n\n\n\n12 Jan. \n\n\n1816 \n\n\n13 Feb. \n\n\n1820 \n\n\n5 May, \n\n\n1821 \n\n\n16 Sept. \n\n\n1824 \n\n\n30 April, \n\n\n1827 \n\n\n4 Nov. \n\n\n,, \n\n\n5 Nov. \n\n\n\xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\ncreated) concurring by a majority of 103 to 70, \n\n27 Dec. 1831 \nThe ABC (abaisses) insurrection in Paris sup- \npressed 5-6 June, 1832 \n\nCharles X. leaves Holyrood-house for the conti- \nnent 18 Sept. ,, \n\nMinistry of Soult, duke of Dalmatia . . 11 Oct. ,, \nBergeron and Benoit tried for an attempt on the \n\nlife of Louis-Philippe ; acquitted . 18 March, 1833 \nThe duchess of Berry, who has been delivered of a \nfemale child, and asserts her secret marriage \nwith an Italian nobleman, sent to Palermo, 9 June, , . \nDeath of La Fayette . . . .20 May, 1834 \nMarshal Gerard takes office . . .15 July, ,, \n\nM. Dupuytren dies 8 Feb. 1835 \n\nDue de Broglie, minister .... Feb. ,, \nFieschi attempts the king\'s life . . 28 July, ,, \n[He fired an infernal machine as the king and his \nsons rode along the lines of the national guard, \non the Boulevard du Temple. The machine \nconsisted of twenty-five barrels, charged with \nvarious missiles, and lighted simultaneously by a \ntrain of gunpowder. The king and his sons es- \ncaped ; but marshal Mortier, duke of Treviso, \nwas shot dead, many officers dangerously \nwounded, and upwards of forty persons killed \nor injured.] \n\nFieschi executed 19 Feb. 1836 \n\nLouis Alibaud fires at the king on his way from the \n\nTuileries, 25 June ; guillotined . . 11 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nMinistry of count Mole, vice M. Thiers . 6 Sept. ,, \n\nDeath of Charles X 6 Nov. ,, \n\nAttempted insurrection at Strasburg by Louis \nNapoleon (afterwards emperor), planned, it is \nsaid, by Filain de Persigny, 29-30 Oct. ; he is sent \n\nto America 13 Nov. ,, \n\nPrince Polignac and others set at liberty from Ham, \n\nand sent out of France . . . -23 Nov. ,, \nMeunier fires at the king on his way to open the \n\nFrench Chambers ... 27 Dec. ,, \nAmnesty for political offences ... 8 May 1837 \n" Idees Napoleoniennes," by prince Louis Napo- \nleon, published 1838" \n\nTalleyrand dies 20 May, ,, \n\nMarshal Soult at the coronation of the queen of \n\nEngland 28 June, ,, \n\nBirth of the count of Paris . . . 24 Aug. ,, \nDeath of the duchess of Wurtemberg (daughter of \n\nLouis Philippe), a good sculptor . . 2 Jan. 1839 \nInsurrection of Barbes and Blanqui at Paris, 12 May, ,, \nM. Thiers, minister of foreign affairs . 1 March, 1840 \nThe chambers decree the removal of Napoleon\'s re- \nmains from St. Helena to France . .12 May, ,, \n[By the permission of the British government these \nwere taken from the tomb at St. Helena (15 Oct. \n1840), and embarked on the next day on board \nthe Belle Poule French frigate, under the com- \nmand of the prince de Joinville ; the vessel \nreached Cherbourg on 30 November ; and on 15 \nDecember the body was deposited in the Hotel \ndes Invalides. The ceremony was witnessed by \n1,000,000 of persons ; 130,000 soldiers assisted in \nthe obsequies : and the royal family and all the \nhigh personages of the realm were present ; all \nthe relatives of the emperor were absent, being; \nproscribed, and in exile or in prison. The body- \nwas finally placed in its crypt on 31 March, \n1861.] \nDescent of prince Louis Napoleon, general Montho- \nlon, and 50 followers, at Vimereux, near Bou- \nlogne, 6 Aug. ; the prince sentenced to imprison- \nment for life 6 Oct. ,, \n\nDarines fires at the king ... 15 Oct. , y \n\nM. Guizot, minister of foreign affairs . 29 Oct. ,, \nProject of law for an extraordinary credit of 140,000,000 \nof francs, for erecting the fortifications of Paris, \n\n15 Dec. ,, \nThe duration of copyright to 30 years after the \n\nauthor\'s death, fixed . . . .30 March, 1S41 \nBronze statue of Napoleon placed on the column \nof the grande armee, Boulogne . 15 Aug. \n\nAttempt to assassinate the duke of Aumale (king\'s \n\nson) on return from Africa . . 13 Sept. ,, \n\nThe duke of Orleans, heir to the throne, killed by a \n\nfall from his carnage . . . .13 J lll y> 1842 \nThe queen of England visits the royal family at \n\nChateau d\'Eu 2 to 7 Sept 1843 \n\nAn extradition treaty with England signed . . \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nC O \n\n\n\nFKANCE. \n\n\n\n386 \n\n\n\nFRANCE. \n\n\n\nWar with Morocco, May ; peace . . 10 Sept. 1844 \nThe king visits England ; received by the queen 6 \n\nOct. ; installed k.g. 9 Oct. ; departs . 13 Oct \xe2\x80\x9e \nAttempt of Lecompte to assassinate the king at \n\nFontainebleau 16 April, 1846 \n\nLouis Napoleon escapes from Ham . 25 May, ,, \nThe seventh attempt on the life of the king : by \n\nJoseph Henri 29 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSpanish marriages : marriage of the queen of Spain \nwith her cousin, and of the due de Montpensier \nwith the infanta of Spain ... 10 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nDisastrous inundations in the south . . 18 Oct. ,, \nThe Praslin murder (see Praslin) . . 18 Aug. 1847 \nDeath of marshal Oudinot (duke of Reggio) at Paris, \nin his 91st year, 13 Sept. ; Soult made general of \nFrance, in his room .... 26 Sept. ,, \nJerome Bonaparte returns to France after an exile \n\nof 32 years 10 Oct. ,, \n\nSurrender of Abd-el-Kader . . . 23 Dec. ,* \nDeath of the ex-empress, Maria Louisa, 18 Dec. ; \n\nand of madame Adelaide . . . \xe2\x80\xa2 3\xc2\xb0 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe grand reform banquet at Paris prohibited, \n\n21 Feb. 1848 \nRevolutionary tumult in consequence; impeach- \nment and resignation of Guizot, 22 Feb. ; barri- \ncades thrown up, the Tuileries ransacked, the \nprisons opened, and frightful disorders committed, \n\n23-24 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nLouis Philippe abdicates in favour of his infant \ngrandson, the comte de Paris, who is not ac- \ncepted ; the royal family and ministers escape, \n\n24 Feb. ,, \nA republic proclaimed from the steps of the Hotel \n\ndeVille 26 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe ex-king and queen arrive at Newhaven in Eng- \nland 3 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGrand funeral procession in honour of the victims \n\nof the revolution 4 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe provisional government resigns to an executive \ncommission, elected by the National Assemblv of \nthe French Republic . \xe2\x96\xa0 - 7 Ma y> .. \n\n[The members of this new trovernment were : MM. \nDupont de l\'Eure, Arago, Garnier-Pages, Marie, \nLamartine Ledru-Rollin, and Cremieux. The \nsecretaries : Louis Blanc, Albert, Flocon, and \nMarrast.] \nThe people\'s attack on the assembly suppressed, \n\n15 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nPerpetual banishment of Louis Philippe and his \n\nfamily decreed 26 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nElection of Louis Napoleon (to the National As- \nsembly) for the department of the Seine and three \nother departments .... 13 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRise of the red Republicans : war against the troops \nand national guard ; more than 300 barricades \nthrown up, and firing continues in all parts of \nParis during the night ... 23 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe troops under Cavaignac and Lamoriciere, with \nimmense loss, drive the insurgents from the left \n\nbank of the Seine 24 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nParis declared in a state of siege . . 25 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe Faubourg du Temple carried with cannon, and \n\nthe insurgents surrender ... 26 June, ,, \n[The national losses caused by this outbreak esti- \nmated at 30,000,000 francs ; 16,000 persons killed \nand wounded, and 8000 prisoners were taken. The \narchbishop of Paris was killed while tending the \ndying, 26 June.] \nCavaignac, president of the council . . 28 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nLouis Napoleon takes his seat in the National As- \nsembly 26 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nParis relieved from a state of siege, which had con- \ntinued four months .... 20 Oct. ,, \nSolemn promulgation of the constitution of 4 Nov. , \n\nin front of the Tuileries . . . .12 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nLouis Napoleon elected president of the French \n\nrepublic, 11 Dec. ; proclaimed . . 20 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n[He had 5,587,759 votes ; Cavaignac, 1,474,687 ; Le- \ndru-Rollin, 381,026; Raspail, 37,121 ; Lamartine, \n21,032 ; and Changarnier, 4,975.] \nMilitary demonstration to stifle an anticipated in- \nsurrection of the reds . . . . "29 Jan. 1849 \nDeath of king Louis Philippe, at Claremont, in \n\nEngland 26 Aug. 1850 \n\nLiberty of the press restricted . . 26 Sept. ,, \nGen. Changarnier deprived of the command of the \nnational guard , - , 10 Jan. 185 1 \n\n\n\nDeath of the duchess of Angouleme, daughter of \n\nLouis XVI. , at Frohsdorf . . . 19 Oct. 1851 \n\nDeath of marshal Soult .... 26 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nElectric telegraph between England and France \n\nopened 13 Nov. ,, \n\nFactious oppositions in the chamber ; alleged plots \n\nNov. ,, \nCoup d\'etat planned by the prince-president, Per- \nsigny, and De Morny ; carried out by C. de \nMaupas, minister of police, St. Arnaud, and \nothers ; legislative assembly dissolved ; universal \nsuffrage established, and Paris declared in a state \nof siege ; the election of a president for ten years \nproposed, and a second chamber or senate, \n\n2 Dec. ,, \nMM. Thiers, Changarnier, Cavaignac, Bedeau, La- \nmoriciere, and Charres arrested, and sent to the \ncastle of Vincennes .... 2 Dec. ,, \n\nAbout 180 members of the assembly, with M. Ber- \nryer at their head, attempting to meet, are ar- \nrested, and Paris is occupied by troops. \n\n2 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nM. Charles Baudin, a deputy, shot dead while \n\nprotesting against the violation of the law 2 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nSanguinary conflicts in Paris ; the troops victorious, \n\n3-4 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nConsultative commission founded . . 12 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nVoting throughout France for the election of a \npresident of the republic for ten years ; affirma- \ntive votes 7,473,431, negative votes 641,351. \n\n21-22 Dec. ,, \nInstallation of the prince-president in the cathe- \ndral of Notre Dame ; the day observed as a \nnational holiday at Paris, and Louis Napoleon \ntakes up his residence at the Tuileries, \n\n1 Jan. 1852 \nGenerals Changarnier, Lamoriciere, and others, \n\nconducted to the Belgian frontier . . 9 Jan. ,, \n83 members of the legislative assembly banished ; \n575 persons arrested for resistance to the coup \nd\'etat Of 2 Dec. , and conveyed to Havre for trans- \nportation to Cayenne .... 10 Jan. ,, \n\n[The inscription " Lioerty, Fraternity, Equality," \nordered to be forthwith erased throughout France, \nand the old names of streets, public buildings, \nand places of resort to be restored. The trees \nof liberty are everywhere hewn down and \nburnt. ] \nThe national guard disbanded, reorganised anew, \nand placed under the control of the executive ; \nthe president appointing the officers . 10 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \nA new constitution published . . 14 Jan. ,, \n\nDecree obliging the Orleans family to sell all their \nreal and personal property in France within a \nyear ....... 22 Jan. ,, \n\nSecond decree, annulling the settlement made by \nLouis Philippe upon his family previous to his \naccession in 1830, and annexing the property to \nthe domain of the state . . . .22 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe birthday of Napoleon I. (15 Aug.) decreed to be \n\nthe only national holiday . . . 17 Feb. ,, \nThe departments of France released from a state of \nsiege ...... 27 March, ,, \n\nLegislative chambers installed . . 29 March, ,, \nA crystal palace authorised to be erected in the \n\nChamps Elysees at Paris . . -30 March, ,, \nPlot to assassinate the prince-president discovered \n\nat Paris 1 July, ,, \n\nPresident\'s visit to Strasburg . . ig July, ,, \nM. Thiers and others permitted to return to France, \n\n8 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe French senate prays " the re-establishment of \nthe hereditary sovereign power in the Bonaparte \n\nfamily " 13 Sept. ,, \n\nEnthusiastic reception of the prince-president at \n\nLyons . . \xe2\x96\xa0 19 Sept. ,, \n\nInfernal machine, to destroy the prince-president, \n\nseized at Marseilles .... 23 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nPrince-president visits Toulon, 27 Sept. ; and Bor- \ndeaux, where he says "the empire is peace" \n(L\'Empire e\'est lapaix) .... 7 Oct. ,, \nHe releases Abd-el-Kader (see Algiers) . 16 Oct. , \nHe convokes the senate for November to deliberate \non a change of government, when a senatus consul- \nturn, will be proposed for the ratification of the \n\nFrench people 19 Oct. -" \n\nProtest of comte de Chambord . . .25 Oct. \' \n\n\n\nFRANCE. \n\n\n\n387 \n\n\n\nFRANCE. \n\n\n\nJu his message to the senate, the prince-president \nannounces the contemplated restoration of the \nempire, and orders the people to he consulted \n\nupon this change 4 ~biov. 1852 \n\nVotes for the empire, 7,824,189; noes, 253,145; \n\nnull, 63,326 21 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe prince-president declared emperor ; assumes \nthe title of Napoleon III. . . . 2 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nHis marriage with Eugenie de Montijo, countess of \nTeba, at Notre-Dame .... 29 Jan. 1853 \n\n4312 political offenders pardoned . . .2 Feb. ,, \nBread riots . . . . . . Sept. ,, \n\nMilitary camp at Satory, near Paris . . Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nEmperor and empress visit the provinces (many \n\npolitical prisoners discharged) . . . Oct. ,, \nFrancis Arago, astronomer, &c. , died . . 2 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nAttempted assassination of the emperor \xe2\x80\x94 ten per- \nsons transported for life .... Nov. ,, \n\nReconciliation of the two branches of the Bourbons \nat Frohsdorf . . . . . .20 Nov. ,, \n\nMarshal Ney\'s statue inaugurated exactly 38 years \nafter his death on the spot where it occurred, \n\n7 Dec. ,, \nWar declared against Russia (see Russo-Turkish War) \n\n27 March, 1854 \nVisit of prince Albert at Boulogne . 5 Sept. ,, \nDeath of marshal St. Arnaud . . . 29 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nEmperor and empress visit London 16-21 April, 1855 \nIndustrial exhibition at Paris opened . 15 May ,, \n\xe2\x96\xa0Queen Victoria and prince Albert visit France, \n\n18-27 Aug. ,, \nAttempted assassination of the emperor by Pianort, \n28 April ; by Bellemarrc . ... 8 Sept. ,, \n\nDeath of count Mole 24 Nov. ,, \n\n. Birth of the imperial prince ; amnesty granted to \n\n1000 political prisoners ... 16 March, 1856 \nPeace with Russia signed . . 30 March, ,, \n\nAwful inundation in the south . . . June, ,, \n^Subscriptions in London to relieve the sufferers \namounted to 43,000^. Sir Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy, \nof Bombay, gave 500L for the same purpose.] \nDistress in money market .... 6 Oct. ,, \nSibour, archbishop of Paris, assassinated by Verger, \n\na priest 3 Jan. 1857 \n\nElections (3,000,000 voters to elect 257 deputies) : \ngen. Cavaignac elected deputy, but declines to \n\ntake the oath 21, 22 June, ,, \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Conspiracy to assassinate the emperor in Paris de- \ntected n July, ,, \n\nDeath of Beranger, popular poet . . 16 July, ,, \nLongwood, the residence of Napoleon I. at St. \n\nHelena, bought for 180,000 francs . . . . ,, \nThe conspirators Grilli, Bartolotti, and Tibaldi, \ntried, convicted, and sentenced to transportation, \n\n&c 6, 7 Aug. ,, \n\nEmperor and empress visit England . 6-10 Aug. ,, \nThe emperor meets the emperor of Russia at Stutt- \ngart 25 Sept. ,, \n\nDeath of Eugene Cavaignac (aged 55) . 28 Oct. ,, \n\xe2\x96\xa0Death of Mdlle. Rachel (aged 38) . . 4 Jan. 1858 \nAttempted assassination of the emperor by Orsini, \nPieri, Rudio, Gomez, &c, by the explosion of \nthree shells (two persons killed, many wounded) \n\n14 Jan. ,, \n.(Felix Orsini, a man of talent and energy, earnest to \nobtain Italian independence, was born Dec. 1819 ; \nstudied at Bologna in 1837 ; joined a secret society \nin 1843 ; was arrested and condemned to the gal- \nleys for life in 1844 ; was released in 1846 ; took \npart in the Roman revolution in 1848, when he \nwas elected a member of the assembly ; and on the \nfall of the republic, fled to Genoa in 1849, anil \ncame to England in 1853. Entering into fresh \nconspiracies, he was arrested in Hungary, Jan. \n1855, and sent to Mantua ; he escaped thence and \ncame to England in 1856, where he associated \nwith Kossuth, Mazzini, &c. ; delivered lectures, \nand where he devised the plot for which he suf- \nfered. In his will he acknowledged the justice of \nhis sentence.] \nPublic safety bill passed\xe2\x80\x94 bold protest against it by \n\nOllivier 18 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFrance divided into five military departments ; \ngeneral Espinasse becomes minister of the interior, \n\nFeb. , \n"Napoleon III. ct VAngktcrre" published n Mar. ,, \n\n\n\nIntemperate speeches in France against England- \nmisconceptions between the two countries par- \ntially removed in March, 1858 \n\nRepublican outbreak at Chalons suppressed \n\n9 March, ,, \nOrsmi and Pieri executed . . .13 March, \nSimon Bernard, tried in London as their accomplice^ \n\nacquitted I2 . I7 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMarshal Pelissier, ambassador to London, \n\n15 April, ,, \nEspinasse retires from ministry of the interior [he \nwas killed at the battle of Magenta, 4 June, 1859] \n\nJune, ,, \nQueen of England meets the emperor ; visits Cher- \n\n_, bo\'uig 4> 5 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nConference at Paris respecting the Danubian prin- \ncipalities closes IQ Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDispute with Portugal respecting the Charles et \n\nGeorges (lolnoh sec) settled ... 23 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTrial of comte de Montalembert . . 25 Nov. \n[In Oct. 1858, the comte published a pamphlet en- \ntitled " Un Debat sur I\'Inde," eulogising English \ninstitutions and depreciating those of France. \nHe was sentenced to six months\' imprisonment \nand a fine of 3000 francs, but was pardoned by the \nemperor, 2 Dec. The comte appealed against the \nsentence of the court, and was again condemned ; \nbut acquitted of a part of the charge. The sen- \ntence was once more remitted by the emperor \n(21 Dec). In Oct. 1859, the comte published a \npamphlet entitled *\' Fie IX. et la France en 1849 \net 1859," in which Ens-land is severely censured \nfor opposition to popery.] \nEmperor\'s address to the Austrian ambassador (see \n\nAustria) r j an . l8sg \n\nMarriage of prince Napoleon to princess Clotilde of \nSavoy . . . . . . . 30 Jan. ,, \n\nPublication of " Napoleon III. et I\'ltalie " . Feb. \n\nOn the Austrians invading Sardinian territories, \n\nFrance declares war, and the French enter ; the \n\nempress appointed regent ; the emperor arrives at \n\nGenoa 12 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLoan of 20,000,000 francs raised . . 21 May, ,, \nVictories of the allies (French and Sardinians) at \nMontebello, 20 May ; Palestro, 30, 31 May ; Ma- \ngenta, 4 June ; Melegnano (Marignano), 8 June ; \nNapoleon enters Milan, 8 June ; victory of allies \n\nat Solferino 24 June, \n\nArmistice agreed on 6 July, \n\nMeeting of emperors of France and Austria at Villa \n\nFranca \xe2\x80\x9e jxtly, \n\nPeace agreed on I2 July, \n\nLouis Napoleon returns to Paris 17 July, \n\nThe emperor addresses the senate, 19 July ; and the \n\ndiplomatic body 21 July, \n\nReduction of the army and navy ordered . Aug. \nConference of Austrian and French envoys at Zurich \n\n(see Zurich) 8 Aug. -No v. \n\nAmnesty to political offenders . 17-18 Aug. \nViolent attacks of the French press on England re- \npressed Nov. \n\n" he Pape et le Congres " published ; 50,000 sold in a \n\nfew days . Dec. \n\nCount Walewski, the foreign minister, resigns ; \n\nM. Thouvenel succeeds him . . Jan. i860 \n\nThe emperor announces a free trade policy ; Mr. \n\nCobden at Paris 5 Jan. \n\nCommercial treaty with England signed . 23 Jan. \nL\'Univcrs suppressed forpublishingthe pope\'sletter \n\nto the emperor. 29 Jan. \n\nTreaty for the annexation of Savoy and Nice signed \n\n24 March, \nThe press censured for attacking England, \n\n7 April, \nThe emperor meets the German sovereigns at Baden \n\n15-17 June, \nJerome Bonaparte, the emperor\'s uncle, dies \n\n(aged 76) 24 June, \n\nThe emperor, in a letter to count Persigny, dis- \nclaims hostility to England . . .25 July, \nThe emperor and empress visit Savoy, Corsica, and \n\nAlgiers i-i 7 Sept \n\nNew tariff comes into operation . . . 1 Oct. \n\nPublic levying of Peter\'s pence forbidden, and free \n\nissue of pastoral letters checked . . . Nov. \n\nThe empress visits London, Edinburgh, Glasgow, \n\n&c, privately Nov.-Dec \n\nc c 2 \n\n\n\nFBANCE. \n\n\n\nFKANCE. \n\n\n\nImportant ministerial changes ; greater liberty of \nspeech granted to the chambers ; two sets of \nministers appointed \xe2\x80\x94 speakers and administra- \ntors ; Pelissier made governor of Algeria ; Per- \nsigny, minister of the interior ; Flahault, English \nambassador.. .... Nov. & Dec. i860 \n\nPassports for Englishmen to cease after 1 Jan. 1861 \n\n16 Dec. ,, \n\nSix bishoprics vacant Dec. ,, \n\nPersigny relaxes the bondage of the press, Dec. 11 ; \n\n[but for a short time] .... 20 Dec. ,, \nThe emperor advises the pope to surrender his re- \nvolted provinces 31 Dec. ,, \n\n" Rome et les Eveques " published . . . 6 Jan. 1861 \nJerome (son of Jerome Bonaparte and Elizabeth \nPaterson, an American lady) claims his legitimate \nrights ; non-suited after a trial 25 Jan. -15 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n[The marriage took place in America, on 24 Dec. \n1803 ; but was annulled, and Jerome married the \nprincess Catherine of Wurtemberg, 12 Aug. 1807 ; \ntheir children are the prince Napoleon and the \nprincess Mathilde (see Bonaparte). ] \nPurchase of the principality of Monaco for 4,000,000 \n\nfrancs, Feb. 2; announced . . . 5 Feb., ,, \nMeeting of French chambers, 4 Feb. ; stormy de- \nbates in the chambers . . Feb. & March, ,, \n" La France, Rome, et Vltalie " published 15 Feb. ,, \nAngry reply to it by the bishop of Poitiers, who \n\ncompares the emperor to Pilate . . 27 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nFailure of Mires, a railway banker and loan con- \ntractor, &c. ; he is arrested . . .17 Feb. ,, \nMany influential persons suspected of participating \nin his frauds ; the government promise strict \n\njustice Feb. & March, ,, \n\nEugene Scribe, dramatist, dies (aged 80) 20 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nSpeech of prince Napoleon in favour of Italian \nunity, the English alliance, and against the pope\'s \ntemporal government . . . 1 March, ,, \n\nStrong advocacy of the temporal government of the \npope in the chambers ; the French army stated to \nconsist of 687,000 men . . . March, \xe2\x80\x9e \nCircularforbiddingthe priests to meddle withpolitics \n\n11 April, ,, \nLiberal commercial treaty with Belgium . 1 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nPublication in Paris of the due dAumale\'s severe \nletter to prince Napoleon, 13 April. Printer and \npublisher fined and imprisoned . . . May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nDeclaration of neutrality in the American conflict \n\n11 June, ,, \nOfficial recognition of kingdom of Italy . 24 June, ,, \n\nVisit of king of Sweden 6 Aug. ,, \n\nConflict between French and Swiss soldiers at Ville- \n\nla-Grande 18 Aug. ,, \n\nMires, the speculator, sentenced to five years\' im- \nprisonment 29 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCommercial treaty between France, Great Britain, \n\nand Belgium comes into operation . 1 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nMeeting of emperor and king of Prussia at Com- \n\npiegne, 6 Oct. ; and king of Holland . 12 Oct. ,, \nFrench troops enter the valley of Dappes (Switzer- \nland) to prevent an arrest ... 27 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nConvention between France, Great Britain, and \nSpain, respecting intervention in Mexico, signed \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n(see Mexico) 31 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nEmbarrassment in the government finances ; Achille \nFould becomes finance minister, 14 Nov. ; with \n\nenlarged powers 12 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe emperor reminds the clergy of their duty " to- \nwards Ctesar " z Jan. 1862 \n\nFrench army lands at Vera Cruz . . .7 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe French masters of the province of Bienhoa, in \n\nAnnam 20 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFruitless meeting of French and Swiss commis- \nsioners respecting the Ville-la-Grande conflict \n\n3 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nFould announces his finance scheme (reduction of \n4j per cent, stock to 3 per cent. , and additional \ntaxes and stamp duties) ... 24 Feb. ,. \nFierce debate in the legislative chamber, in which \n\nprince Napoleon takes part . . .27 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nFrench victories in Cochin-China (6 provinces ceded \n\nto France) 28 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Spanish and British plenipotentiaries decide to \nquit Mexico ; the French declare war against the \nMexican government (for the events see Mexico) \n\n16 April, ,, \n\n\n\nSentence against Mires examined and reversed at \n\nDouai ; he is released . . . .21 April, 1862: \nTreaty of peace between France and Annam signed \n\n3 June, \nDuke Pasquier dies (aged 96) . . 5 July, \n\nNew commercial treaty with Prussia . 2 Aug. \nNewspaper La France, opposed to Italian unity, set \n\nup by Lagueronniere Aug. \n\nShip Prince Jerome, with reinforcements for Mexico, \n\nburnt near Gibraltar ; crew saved . . Aug. \n\nCamp at Chalons formed on account of Garibaldi\'s \n\nmovements in Sicily ; broken, when he is taken \n\nprisoner 29 Aug. \n\nGreat sympathy for him in France . . Sept. \nTreaty of commerce with Madagascar . 12 Sept. \nDrouyn de Lhuys made foreign minister in room of \n\nThouvenel 15 Oct. \n\nBaron Gros, ambassador at London in room of \ncornte de Flahault, resigned . . 18 Nov. \nSerjeant Glover brings an action in the court of \nqueen\'s bench against the eomte de Persigny and \nM. Billault, claiming 14,000?. for subsidising the \nMorning Chronicle, and other newspapers 22 Nov. \nThe emperor inaugurates "Boulevard Prince Eu- \ngene," Paris 7 Dec. \n\nGreat distress in the manufacturing districts through \nthe cotton famine and the civil war in America \n\nDec. \nTreaty of commerce with Italy signed . 17 Jan. : \nRevolt in Annam suppressed . . .26 Feb. \nConvention regulating the French and Spanish fron- \ntiers concluded 27 Feb. \n\nResignation of Magne, the " speaking minister," in \n\nthe assembly 1 April, \n\nDissolution of the chambers ... 8 May, \nPersigny issues arbitrary injunctions to electors \n\nMay, \nThiers, Ollivier, Favre, and other opposition candi- \ndates elected in Paris . . 31 May- 15 June, \nChanges in the ministry \xe2\x80\x94 resignation of Persigny, \nWalewski, and Rouland ... 23 June, \nThe empress visits queen of Spain at Madrid Oct. \nBaron Gros resigns, prince Tourd\'Auvergne becomes \nambassador at London .... 14 Oct. \nDeath of Billault (born 1805) " speaking minister " \nin legislative assembly, 13 Oct. ; succeeded by \nRouher, as " minister of state " . . 18 Oct. \nThe emperor proposes the convocation of a European \ncongress, and invites the sovereigns or their de- \nputies by letter 4 Nov. \n\nThiers and his friends form a new opposition \n\n9 Nov. \nThe invitation to the congress declined by England \n\n25 Nov. \nThiers speaks in the chamber . . 24 Dec. \nArrest of Grego and other conspirators against the \nemperor\'s life, 3 Jan. ; tried and sentenced to \ntransportation and imprisonment . . 27 Feb. 18641 \nConvention between France, Brazil, Italy, Portugal, \nand Hayti, for establishing a telegraphic line be- \ntween Europe and America . . 16 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nDeath of marshal Pelissier, duke of Malakoff, \n\ngovernor of Algeria (born 1794) . . 22 May, ,, \nConvention between France and Japan signed by \n\nJapanese ambassadors at Paris . . 20 June, ,\xe2\x80\x9e \nConvention of commerce, &c. , between France and \n\nSwitzerland, signed . . . -30 June, ,, \nPrince Napoleon Victor, son of prince Napoleon \n\nJerome and princess Clotilde, born . 16 July, ,, \n\nConvention between France and Italy respecting \n\nevacuation of Rome, &c. . . -15 Sept. ,\xc2\xbb \nGarnier-Pages and 12 others who had met at his \nhouse for election purposes, convicted as mem- \nbers of a society " of more than 20 members " \n\n7 Dec. ,, \nDeath of the emperor\'s private secretary and old \n\nfriend, Mocquard 9 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDeath of Proudhon (born 1809), who said " la pro- \npriety e\'est le vol " .... 19 Jan. 1865 \nThe clergy prohibited from reading the pope\'s ency- \nclical letter of 8 Dec. in churches ; much, excite- \nment ; the archbishop of Besangon and other \n\nprelates disobey 5 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe prince Napoleon Jerome appointed vice-presi- \ndent of the privy council .... Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \nDecree for an international exhibition of the products \nof agriculture and industiy, and of the fine aits, \nat Paris, on 1 May, 1867 . . . . 1 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nFEANCE. \n\n\n\n389 \n\n\n\nFEANCE. \n\n\n\nTreaty with Sweden signed . . . 14 Feb. 1865 \n\nThe minister Duruy\'s plan of compulsory education \nrejected by the assembly . . 8 March, \n\nDeath of the due de Morny, said to be half-brother \nof the emperor 10 March, \n\n" Loi des suspects " (or of public safety) suffered to \nexpire 31 March, \n\nAttempted assassination of a secretary at the \nRussian embassy .... 24 April, \n\nThe emperor visits Algeria . . . 3-27 May, \n\nInauguration of the statue of Napoleon I. at \nAjaecio, with an imprudent speech by prince \nNapoleon Jerome, 15 May ; censured by the \nemperor, 23 May ; the prince resigns his offices \n\n9 June, ,, \n\nThe English fleet entertained at Cherbourg and \nBrest, 15 Aug. et seq. ; review of the fleets \n\n15 & 21 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe French fleet entertained at Portsmouth, \n\n29 Aug. -1 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nProtest of the United States against French inter- \nvention in Mexico \xe2\x80\x94 prolonged correspondence (see \nMexico) . . . . Aug. 1865-Feb. 1866. \n\nCount Walewski nominated president of the corps \nlegislatif 2 Sept. ,, \n\nDeath of general Lamoriciere . . . n Sept. ,, \n\nThe queen of Spain visits the emperor at Biarritz \n\n11 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNotice given of the abrogation of the extradition \ntreaty in six months 4 Dec. ,_. \n\nRiots of republican students at Paris (several ex- \npelled from the Academy of Medicine) . 18 Dec. ,, \n\nEmperor opens chambers with a pacific speech \n\n22 Jan. 1 866 \n\nAt Auxerre, Napoleon expresses his detestation of \nthe treaties of 18 15 6 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nIn a letter says that m regard to the German war, \n"France will observe an attentive neutrality" \n\n11 June, ,, \n\nThe emperor of Austria cedes Venetia to France, and \ninvites the emperor\'s intervention with Prussia \n\n4 J ul y\xc2\xbb \xc2\xbb \n\nEmpress of Mexico arrives at Paris . . 8 Aug. ,, \n\nNote to the Prussian government desiring rectifica- \ntion of the French frontier to what it was in \n1S14 ; declared by Prussia to be inadmissible \n\nAug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nResignation of M. Drouyn de Lhuys, foreign minis- \nter (succeeded by the marquis de Moustier) \n\n2 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\ninundations in the south ; railways destroyed, \n\nSept. ,, \n\nPacific circular of the emperor sent to foreign \ncourts 16 Sept. ,, \n\nDeath of M. Thouvenel, formerly foreign minister, \n\n18 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCommission appointed to inquire into the advisa- \nbility of modifying the organisation of the army; \nthe emperor president ; report . . 30 Oct. ,, \n\nThe French troops quit Rome . .3-11 Dec. ,, \n\nPublication of letter from the comte de Chambord \nto his adherents in favour of the pope\'s temporal \npower, dated 9 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCommercial treaty with Austria signed . n Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGeneral opposition to the army organisation plan \npublished 12 Dec. ,, \n\nRichelieu\'s head, after many removals, deposited in \nthe Sorbonne 17 Dec. ,, \n\nImperial decree announcing political reforms ; \ninterpellation in the chambers ; relaxation of the \nrestriction on the press ... 19 Jan. 1867 \n\nMinisterial changes ; Rouher becomes minister of \nfinance; Niel, of war, &c. . . . Jan. ,, \n\nThe chambers opened by the emperor . 14 Feb. ,, \n\nEmile Girardin fiued for libel in La Liberie, \n\n7 March, ,, \n\nSevere speech of Thiers on foreign policy, 18 March, ,, \n\nInternational exhibition opened (see Paris), \n\n1 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nResignation of Walewski, president of the chamber, \n29 Mar.; succeeded by M. Schneider 11 April, ,, \n\nScheme for organising the army rejected by com- \nmittee . , .... May, ,, \n\nParis visited by the czar, 1-12 June ; and the king \nof Prussia 5-14 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThree provinces in Annani annexed to the French \nempire 25 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nInternational conference at Paris respecting mone- \ntary currency . . . 17 June-9 July, 2?6j \n\nThe emperor distributes the prizes of the inter- \nnational exhibition 1 July, ,, \n\nProtectorate of France over Cambodia assured by \ntreaty 15 July \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLaw abolishing imprisonment for debt adopted by \nthe senate 18 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMeeting of the emperors of France and Austria at \nSalzburg 18-21 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe emperor\'s letter recommending money to \nbe expended in improving intercommunica- \ntion by means of railways, canals, and roads, \n\n15 Aug. ,, \n\nEmperor of Austria visits Paris . 23 Oct. -2 Nov. ,, \n\nFrench troops enter Rome (see Rome) . 30 Oct. ,, \n\nGaribaldians defeated at Mentana . . 3 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLord Lyons received as British ambassador 9 Nov. ,, \n\nPacific and liberal speech of the emperor on open- \ning the chambers .... 18 Nov. ,, \n\n" Napoleon III. et VEurope en 1867," published, \n\nNov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDuring a debate in the legislative assembly, Rouher, \nthe minister, says, " We declare that Italy shall \nnever seize upon Rome " (the government sup- \nported by 238 votes to 17) . . . 5 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n12 persons convicted for belonging to a secret \nseditious society .... about 24 Dec. ,, \n\nFriendly reception of foreign ministers . 1 Jan. 1868 \n\nNew army bill (allowing 100,000 men to be added \nto the army annually ; establishing a new national \nguard, &c. ; giving the empire virtually an army \nof 1,200,000 men), passed in the Corps Ugislatif \n(206 to 60) 1 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTen journals fined for printing comments on legis- \nlative debates end of Jan. ,, \n\nM. Magne announces a deficiency in the budget ; \nand a loan for 17,600,000^. . . .29 Jan. ,, \n\nThe army bill passes the senate \xe2\x80\x94 125 to 1 (Michel \nChevalier, who spoke warmly against it), 30 Jan. ; \nbecomes law 4 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe "Arcadians" (new ultra-conservative party) \noppose the new press law ; fierce debates on it, \n\nFeb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNew press law passed in legislative chamber, 240 \nto 1 (M. Berryer) March, ,, \n\n" Les Titres de la Dynastie imperiale " appeared, \n\nabout 20 March, ,, \n\nRiotous opposition to enlistments for "garde \nmobile" (new national guard) at Bordeaux, \nToulon, and other towns . 20 March, et seq. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDefeat of an attack on free trade in the chamber, \n\nMay, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNew press law put in force ; increasing facility for \npublishing new journals . . . June, ,, \n\nThe assembly closes .... 30 July, ,, \n\nRochefort\'s weekly satirical pamphlet La Lanterne. \nsuppressed ; he and his printer condemned to \nfine and imprisonment, escapes to Belgium, Aug. ,, \n\nM. Berryer, the advocate (born 1790) died, 29 Nov. ,, \n\nMinisterial changes ; marquis de la Valette, foreign \nminister, in room of De Moustier ; Forcade de la \nRoquette minister of the interior . . Dec. ,, \n\nThe Moniteur replaced by the Journal officiel, \n\n1 Jan. 1869 \n\nMeeting of the assembly .... iS Jan. ,, \n\nDe Moustier dies 5 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDeath of Lamartine (born Oct. 1792), 28 Feb. ; of \nTin] ilong, president of the senate . 1 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDissolution of the legislative assembly of 1863, \n\n26 April, ,, \n\nDifference with Belgium respecting the Luxem- \nbourg railway settled . . . 27 April, ,, \n\nFierce election riots at Paris, 9 June ; the emperor \nand empress ride boldly through the Boulevards, \n\n11 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe new legislative chamber meets ; the oppo- \nsition to the government more than trebled, \n\n26 June, ,, \n\nMessage from the emperor announcing important \npolitical changes ; introducing ministerial respon- \nsibility, &c.,read i2July ; resignation of ministers, \n\n13 July, ,, \n\nNew ministry: Forcade de la Roquette (interior); La \nTour d\'Auvergne (foreign) ; Chasseloup-Laubat, \npresident, &c 17 J"ly. .. \n\nM. Rouher made president of the senate 20 July, ,, \n\nFrench Atlantic telegraph completely laid 23 July, ,, \n\n\n\nFRANCE. \n\n\n\n390 \n\n\n\nFRANCE. \n\n\n\nMarquis de la Valette appointed ambassador in \n\nLondon \'-.\xe2\x96\xa0\'\xe2\x96\xa0\'\xe2\x96\xa0} .... July, 1869 \n\nThe political changes announced to the senate, \n\n5 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMarshal Niel, war minister, aged 66 dies, 13 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nCentenary of the birth of Napoleon I. ; amnesty \ngranted to political offenders ; increased pen- \nsions to survivors of the grand army ; troops re- \nviewed by the imperial prince (the emperor ill), \n\ni S Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nUltra-liberal speech of prince Napoleon Jerome in \nthe senate 1 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNew constitution promulgated . . 10 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPere Hyacinthe (name Loyson), popular Carmelite \npreacher at Paris, protests against papal infalli- \nbility and encroachments, and resigns by letter, \n\n20 Sept. ,, \n\nGreat excitement at Paris through discovery of \nTropmann\'s murder of the Kinck family at Pantin, \n\nabout 19 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nProposed meeting of republicans at Paris (did not \ntake place) 26 Oct. ,, \n\nAgitation against free trade . Oct., Nov., Dec. ,, \n\nJourney of the empress to the East ; arrival at \nConstantinople, 13 Oct. ; at Alexandria, 13 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPirm and temperate manifesto of the left (ultra \nrepublican opposition) issued . about 16 Nov. ,, \n\nHenri Rochefort (of La LatUerne) elected a deputy \nfor Paris 22 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe chambers opened by the emperor witli a liberal \nspeech -29 Nor. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nResignation of ministers announced . 27 Dec. ,, \n\nNew liberal ministry formed by Emile 011ivier(jus- \ntice); Daru (foreign); Le Bceuf (war) . 3 Jan. 1870 \n\nResignation of M. Haussmann \xe2\x80\x94 rebuilde.r of Paris \xe2\x80\x94 \nprefect of the Seine, . . . about 6 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nVictor Noir, a journalist, killed by Pierre Bona- \nparte during an interview at Auteuil respecting \na challenge sent to M. Rochefort . 10 Jan. ,, \n\nTropmann, the murderer, executed . . 19 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGreat excitement amongst lower orders ; prosecu- \ntion of Rochefort for libel in his paper, the Mar- \nseillaise; he is sentenced to fine and imprison- \nment 22 Jan. ,, \n\nBarricades erected in Paris, and riots after the ap- \nprehension of Rochefort, 7 Feb.; soon quelled, \n\n8, 9 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nJules Favre\'s attack on the ministry in the cham- \nber defeated (236 to 18) . . . 22 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCharles, comte de Montalembert, eminent author, \ndies (see 1858) 13 March, ,, \n\nTrial of Pierre Bonaparte at Tours ; acquitted \n(but ordered to pay 1000I. to Noir\'s family) ; \n\n21 \xe2\x80\x94 27 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nEmperor\'s letter to Ollivier, agreeing to modifica- \ntion of the constitution of the senate 22 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSenatus consultum communicated to the senate, \n28 March ; adopted . . . .20 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMinisterial crisis : resignation of Daru and other \nministers opposing the proposed plebiscite, \n\n10 April, ,, \n\nProclamation of the emperor respecting changes in \nthe constitution .... 24 April, ,, \n\nConspiracy against the emperor\'s life detected ; \nBaurie (aged 22) and others arrested, \n\nabout 30 April, ,, \n\nPlebiscite to ascertain whether the people approve \nof above changes,\xe2\x80\x94 yes, 7,527,379; no, 1,530,909, \n\n8 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nOllivier ministry reconstructed, 13 April; due de \nGrammont foreign minister . about 15 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRioting and barricades in Paris, 9, 10 May ; about \n100 arrested, many sentenced to imprisonment, \n\n14 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSpeech by the emperor on receiving result, of the \nplebiscite ...... 23 May, \n\nThe Orleans princes address the, legislative assem- \nbly, demanding their return to France, 19 June ; \nopposed by 173 to 31 .... 2 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDiscovery of a plot against the emperor\'s life, \n\n5 J\xc2\xabiy, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGreat excitement through the nomination of prince \nLeopold of Hohenzollern Sigmaringen for the \nSpanisli throne ; warlike speeches of the ministers, \n\n5, 6, 7 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe prince Leopold withdraws from candidature ; \nguarantees required by France from Prussia re- \n\n\n\nfused ; France decides to declare war against \nPrussia, 15 July; declaration signed 17 July, \n\n[For events of the war, see Franco-Prussian War.} \n\nThe empress appointed regent . . 23 July, \n\nThe emperor joins the army . . .28 July, \n\nPublication of the Marseillaise of Rochefort ceases, \n\nend of July, \n\nThe government declare that they are only "at war \nwith the policy of Bismarck " . . 2 Aug. \n\nGreat excitement in Paris through the false an- \nnouncement of a great victory \xe2\x96\xa0. . .6 Aug. \n\nState of siege proclaimed in Paris after the great \ndefeat of MacMahon at Wcerth . . 7 Aug. \n\nDecrees for the enlargement of the national guard, \nappealing to patriotism and deprecating discord, \n\n7, 8 Aug. \n\nAt Blois, the conspirators against the emperor\'s \nlife sentenced to Ions imprisonments . 8 Aug. \n\nEnergetic measures taken for the defence of Paris ; \nChangarnier offers his services to the emperor ; \nwell received 8 Aug. \n\nThe government appeals to France and Europe \nagainst Prussia 8 Aug. \n\nStormy debate in the Corps Ugislatif; (M. de Keratry \ncalled on the emperor to abdicate ; M. Guyot \nMontpeyroux said that the army were "lions led \nby asses"); resignation of Ollivier and his \nministry 9 Aug. \n\nNew ministry formed : General Cousin-Montauban \ncomte de Palikao (distinguished in the war with \nChina), minister of war, chief: M. Chevreau, \nminister of the interior : M. Magne, minister of \nfinance ; M. Clement Duvernois, minister of com- \nmerce and agriculture : admiral Rigault de \nGenouilly, minister of marine ; baron Jerome \nDavid, minister of public works ; prince dc la \nTour d\'Auvergne, minister of foreign affairs ; and \nothers 10 Aug. \n\nDecree for the great augmentation of the army \nduring the war, and appointing a "defence com- \nmittee " for Paris .... 10 Aug. \n\nThe Orleans princes (the due d\'Aumale, prince de \nJoinville, and due de Chavtres), proffer their \nservices in the army ; declined . . Aug. \n\nExtraordinary sitting of the Corps Ugislatif respect- \ning the new levies . . Sunday, 14 Aug. \n\nGreat disturbances at La Villette, a suburb of \nParis : about 200 armed men attack the police, \ncrying \'\xe2\x96\xa0 Vive la Republique ! " soon suppressed, \nand many arrested .... 14 Aug. \n\nThe government declare against any negotiations \nfor peace 34 Aug. \n\nAtrocious murder of M. Allain de Moneys, sus- \npected of republicanism and Germanism ; he was \nhalf killed by blows and then burnt to death by \ninfuriated peasants at Hautefaye, Dordogne, not \nfar from Bordeaux . . . . 16 Aug. \n\nGeneral Trochu (Orleanist), energetic and able \nauthor of "l\'Armee franchise en 1S67," appointed \ngovernor of Paris, 17 Aug. : issues a stirring pro- \nclamation 18 Aug. \n\nA loan of 750 million francs announced, 21 Aug. \n\nFrequent diplomatic conferences at the British \nembassy respecting mediation . about 22 Aug. \n\nConfident statement of the national position by \nthe ministry 23 Aug. \n\nM. Thiers placed on the defence committee, \n\nabout 26 Aug. \n\nDecree of M. Trochu for the expulsion from Paris \nof all foreigners not naturalized . 28 Aug. \n\nDeath of count Flahault de la Billarderie, chancellor \nof the legion of honour, aged 85 (served under \nNapoleon I., Louis Philippe, and Napoleon III.), \n\n31 Aug. \n\nDeputation from 10,000 persons call on Trochu \nto assume the government : he declines, \n\n8 p.m., 3 Sept. \nThe news of the final defeat of MacMahon near \nSedan, and the surrender of the emperor and the \nremainder of MacMahon\'s army (90,000), to the \nking of Prussia announced by comte de Palikao to. \nthe legislative assembly! Jules Favre declares \nfor defending France to the last gasp, attacks the- \nimperial dynasty, and proposes concentration of \nall power in the hands of general Trochu, amid \nprofound silence . . . 3.35 a. m. , 4 Sept. \nThe ruin of MacMahon\'s aimy announced in the \nJournal officicl .... 4 Sept. \n\n\n\n1870 \n\n\n\nFEANCE. \n\n\n\n391 \n\n\n\nFEANCE. \n\n\n\nOn the proposition of Thiers the chamber appoints \na commission of government and national de- \nfence, and orders the convocation of a constituent \nassembly, and adjourns . 3.10 p.m., 4 Sept. 1870 \n\nAt the resumption of the sitting of the assembly it \nis invaded by the crowd, demanding a republic ; \nmost of the deputies retire. Gambetta and other \nliberal members of the " left " proclaim the depo- \nsition of the imperial dynasty and the establish- \nment of a republic . . 4. 15 p.m., 4 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLast meeting of the senate ; it declares adhesion to \nthe emperor 4 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nProclamation of a "government of defence," gene- \nral Trochu, president; MM. Leon Gambetta (inte- \nrior), Jules Simon (public instruction), Jules \nFavre (foreign), Cremieux (justice), Jules Picard \n(finance), general LeFlo(war), Fourichon(marine), \nMagnin (agriculture), Dorian (public works), \nEtienne Arago (mayor of Paris), Keratry (police). \n\n4 Sept. ., \n\nAn informal meeting of the legislative assembly \nheld, M. Thiers, president. M. Jules Favre re- \nports to it the formation of the provisional \ngovernment ; some protest ; Thiers recommends \nmoderation, and the meeting retires, \n\nevening 4 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe empress, the comte de Palikao, and other minis- \nters secretly leave Paris and enter Belgium, \n\nevening, 4 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLegislative chamber dissolved ; senate abolished ; \nregular troops and national guard fraternize ; \n" perfect order reigns " . . . 5 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nM. Favre calls on the United States of America \nfor moral support 5 Sept. ,, \n\nThe emperor Napoleon arrives at Wilhelmshohe, \nnear Cassel . . . 9.35 p. m. 5 Sept. ,, \n\nThe republican deputies in the Spanish cortes greet \nthe republic 5 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nHenri Rochefort added to the government 5 Sept. ,, \n\nThe red republican flag raised at Lyons 5 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nVictor Hugo and Louis Blanc arrive in Paris, 6 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nJules Favre, in a circular to French diplomatic \nrepresentatives, while j.irofessing desire for peace, \nsays, " We will not cede either an inch of our \nterritories or a stone of our fortresses " 6 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nProclamation of general Trochu, saying that the \ndefence of the capital is assured . . 6 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe police replaced by national guards . 6 Sept. ,, \n\nProffered services of the Orleans princes again \ndeclined 6 Sept. ,, \n\nThe imperial cone spondence seized, about 7 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe government proclaim that to-day, as in 1792, \nthe republic signifies the hearty union of the army \nand people for the defence of the country 7 Sept. ,, \n\nThe republic recognised by the United States, \n\n8 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe defence committee summon the king of Prussia ,, \nto quit French territory without loss of time \n\n8 Sept. ,, \n\nReappearance of the Marseillaise : Rochefort resigns \neditorship, and disclaims connection on account \nof a violent article ; the paper ceases to appear \nsoon after 8 Sept. ,, \n\nDecree convoking the constituent assembly, to be \ncomposed of 750 members (to be elected on 16 \nOct.) 8 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe imperial prince at Hastings, 7 Sept., joined by \nthe empress . . . . . .8 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nVictor Hugo publishes an address to the Germans, \nappealing to their fraternal sentiments 9 Sept. ., \n\nCattle plague began in Alsace and Lorraine Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe republic recognised by Spain, 8 Sept. ; by \nSwitzerland 9 Sept. ,, \n\nM. Thiers arrives in London on a mission from the \ngovernment 13 Sept. ,, \n\nLyons said to be ruled by a " committee of safety ; " \nred flag raised ; reign of terror . . 13 Sept. ,, \n\nLetter from M. Pietri, private secretary to the \nemperor, stating that " his master has not a \ncentime in foreign funds " . . 15 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nElections for constituent assembly ordered to take \nplace on 2 Oct 16 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe academies of the institute protest against the \nbombardment of the monuments, museums, &e. , \nin Paris 16 Sept. ,, \n\nDiplomatic circular from M. Jules Favre : he admits \nlie has no claim on Prussia for disinterestedness ; \nurges that statesmen should hesitate to continue \n\n\n\na war in which more than 200,000 men have \nalready fallen ; announces that a freely elected \nassembly is summoned, and that the government \nwill abide by its judgment, and that France, left \nto her free action, immediately asks the cessation \nof the war, but prefers its disasters a thousand \ntimes to dishonour. He admits that France has \nbeen wrong, and acknowledges its obligation to \nrepair by a measure of justice the ill it has done \n\n17 Sept 1870 \n\nA government delegation at Tours under M. \nCremieux, the minister of justice ; the foreign \nambassadors proceed there . . 18 Sept. ,, \n\nManifesto of the red republicans signed by general \nCluseret, placarded in Paris . . about 1 3 Sept. \n\nBronze statues of Napoleon ordered to be made \ninto cannon .... about 19 Sept. ,, \n\nStern proclamation of Trochu respecting the cowar- \ndice of the Zouaves on 19 Sept. . 20 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nM. Duruof in a post-balloon quits Paris with mail- \nbags, arrives at Evreux, and reaches Tours \n\n23 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe Journal official replaced by the Moniteur \n\nuniversel as the organ of the government, \n\nabout 23 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nEsquiros struggles to maintain order at Marseilles \n\n24 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nFailure of the negotiations for peace between count \n\nBismarck and Jules Favre ; manifesto of thegovern- \nment at Tours, calling on the people to rise and \neither disavow the ministry or "fight to the \nbitter end ; " the elections for the assembly sus- \npended Sept. 24 ,, \n\nAll Frenchmen between 20 and 25 years of age pro- \nhibited leaving France . . about 26 Sept. ,, \n\nGreat enthusiasm in the provinces on the failure of \nthe negotiations ; " war to the knife " and levee en \nmasse proclaimed by the prefects ; efforts made to \nexcite warlike ardour in Brittany by M. Cathe- \nliiieau 26, 27 Sept. ,, \n\nThe due dAumale consents to become a candidate \nfor the representative assembly, and promises \nsubmission to the de facto government for defence \n\nabout 27 Sept. ,, \n\nAttempted insurrection of the red republicans at \nLyons ; order restored by national guards ; general \nCluseret disappears .... 28 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGreat order in Paris maintained by the national \nguard ; report from surgeon-major Wyatt, \n\n28 Sept. ,, \n\nAll between 21 and 40 to be organised as a national \ngarde mobile ; all men in arms placed at the dis- \nposal of the minister of war . . 30 Sept. ,, \n\nThe empress and her son residing at Camden-house, \nChiselhurst, Kent .... Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe elections for the constituent assembly (753 \nmembers) ordered by the delegates at Tours to \ntake place on 16 Oct. . . 29 Sept. \xe2\x80\x94 1 Oct. ,, \n\nProclamations of general Trochu for maintaining ,, \norder in Paris .... about 1 Oct. ,, \n\nMarseilles said to be unsettled : many arrested, \n\ni Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe elections deferred, till they can be carried out \nthroughout the whole extent of the republic, by \norder of the government at Paris . 1 Oct. ,, \n\nM. Cremieux becomes delegate minister of war at \nTours in room of admiral Fourichon, still minister \nof marine 3 Oct. \n\nGustave Flourens, heading five battalions of national \nguards, inarches to the Hotel de Ville and \ndemands chassepots (not to be had) . 5 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSuppression of the schools of the " brethren of the \nChristian doctrine " by the republicans : much \ndissatisfaction 8 Oct. ,, \n\nAll Frenchmen under 60 years of age forbidden to \nquit France 8 Oct. \n\nM. Gambetta escapes from Paris in a balloon, 7 Oct. ; \narrives at Rouen and declares for "a pact with \nvictory or death," 8 Oct. ; arrives at Tours and \nbecomes minister of war as well as of the interior \n\n9 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAddress from the comte de Chambord, saying that \nhis whole ambition is to found with the people a \nreally national government . . 9 Oct. ,, \n\nBattalions of amazons said to be forming in Paris \n\n12 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nBlanqui, Gustave Flourens, Ledru-Rollin, Felix \nPyat, and other red republicans defeated in their \n\n\n\nFRANCE. \n\n\n\n392 \n\n\n\nFRANCE. \n\n\n\nattempts to establish the commune at Paris to \nsupersede the government, 10, n Oct. : reconcilia- \ntion effected by Rochefort . about 14 Oct. \n\nRiots at Honfleur : the people oppose the embarka- \ntion of cattle to England, 12 Oct. ; similar riots at \nSt. Malo 15 Oct. \n\nM. Edmond Adam, prefect of police ; \xe2\x96\xa0 replacing \n\nM. de Keratry, sent on a foreign mission, \n\nabout 16 Oct. \n\nM. de Keratry quits Paris in a balloon, 12 Oct. ; at \nMadrid fails in obtaining assistance from Prim \n\n19, 20 Oct. \n\nMarseilles disturbed by red republicans ; Esquiros \nstill in office 19 Oct. \n\nPublication of the imperial correspondence seized \nin the Tuileries Oct. \n\nDecree for a loan of io,ooo,ooo\xc2\xa3. issued on behalf of \nthe French government ... 25 Oct. \n\nThe imperial guard suppressed . . 26 Oct. \n\nCircular of Gambetta stigmatising the surrender of \nMetz (on 27 Oct.) as a crime . . 28 Oct. \n\nDeath of M. Baroche in Jersey . . 30 Oct. \n\nM. Thiers arrives in Paris with news of the sur- \nrender of Metz and the proposals for an armistice \n\n30 Oct. \n\nRiots in Paris : general Trochu threatened ; the \nprincipal members of the defence government im- \nprisoned in the Hotel de Ville ; Ledru-Rollin, \nVictor Hugo, and Gustave Flourens, and others, \nestablished as a committee of public safety and \nof the commune of Paris, under the direction of \nM. Picard ; the national guard releases the \ngovernment, and order is restored . 31 Oct. \n\nGeneral Boyer, replying to Gambetta, says, " We \ncapitulated with hunger " . . . 31 Oct. \n\nThe empress arrives at Wilhelmshohe ; interview of \nBazaine with the emperor . . .31 Oct. \n\nEtienne Arago and other mayors of Paris resign, \n\n1 Nov. \n\nMarshals Canrobert and Le Boeuf and many generals \nat Wilhelmshohe . . . . 1 Nov. \n\nProclamation of Gambetta calling on the army to \navenge the dishonour at Metz . 1 Nov. \n\nThe government proclaim a plebiscite in Paris on 3 \nNov. to ascertain whether the people maintain \nthe power of the government of national defence \n\n1 Nov. \n\nM. Rochefort, member of the defence government, \nresigns 2 Nov. \n\nResult of the plebiscite: \xe2\x80\x94 for the defence govern- \nment, 557,976 ; against, 62,638 . 3 Nov. \n\nResignation of M. Esquiros at Marseilles, succeeded \n"by M. Alphonse Gent .... 3 Nov. \n\nThe ex-empress returned to Chiselhurst 3 Nov. \n\nMobilisation of all able-bodied men between 20 and \n40, ordered 4 Nov. \n\nFailure of the negotiations for an armistice 6 Nov. \n\nFelix Pyat and others arrested for the affair of 31 \nOct 6 Nov. \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0" France can do nothing now but carry on with \nsuch courage and strength as remain to her a war \na outrance." \xe2\x80\x94 Guizot. ... .8 Nov. \n\nDecree for melting some of the church-bells to make \ncannon 10 Nov. \n\nAlexander Dumas, novelist and dramatist, dies \n\n10 Dec. \n\nThe delegate government removed from Tours to \nBordeaux n Dec. \n\nMurder of lieut. Arnaud at Lyons by the people for \nresisting them 20 Dec. \n\nTrial of 21 peasants for murder of M. Moneys (see \n16 Aug.): 4 condemned to death; others to im- \nprisonment .... about 23 Dec. \n\nFirm proclamation of Trochu at Paris . 30 Dec. \n\nGambetta at Bordeaux declares that the govern- \nment only holds office for defence of the country; \ndemonstration in honour of the republic 1 Jan. \n\nForeigners not permitted to leave Paris by the \nGermans lg Jan. \n\nFierce speech of Gambetta at Lille, demanding con- \ntinuance of the war . . . .22 Jan. \n\nDisturbances at Paris suppressed by the army, \n\n23 Jan. \n\nResignation of Trochu ; Vinoy made governor of \nParis 24 Jan. \n\nCapitulation of Paris ; armistice signed by Favre \nand Bismarck 28 Jan. \n\nDisavowed by Gambetta at Bordeaux . 31 Jan. \n\n\n\n1870 \n\n\n\nManifesto of the due d\'Aumale in favour of a con- \nstitutional monarchy 1 Feb. \n\nArrival of food from London to relieve Paris (see \nMansion-house) 3 Feb. \n\nThe defence government publish their reasons for \ncapitulation (2,000,000 people in Paris with only \nten days\' provisions), 4 Feb. ; and annul Gam- \nbetta\'s decree, 4 Feb.; he and his ministry resign, \n\n5, 6 Feb. \n\nRailway accident between Bandoz and St. Nizaire ; \nexplosion of casks of gunpowder ; 60 killed ; \nabout 100 wounded .... 5 Feb. \n\nFour murderers of M. Moneys (16 Aug. 1870) exe- \ncuted 8 Feb. \n\nProclamation of Napoleon III. " Betrayed by \nfortune," he condemns the government of 4 Sept. ; \nstates that his government was four times con- \nfirmed in 20 years ; submits to the judgment of \ntime; saying "that a nation cannot long obey \nthose who have no right to command " 8 Feb. \n\nGeneral election of a national assembly . 8 Feb. \n\nM. F. P. J. Grevy elected president . . Feb. \n\nFirst meeting of the new national assembly, 12 Feb. \n\nSupplementary armistice signed . . 15 Feb. \n\nGaribaldi resigns his election, 13 Feb. ; Grevy \nelected president by 519 out of 538 . 16 Feb. \n\nTermination of the war ; the Belfort garrison \n(12,000) marches out with military honours, \n\n16 Feb. \n\n" Pact of Bordeaux : " M. Thiers made chief of the \nexecutive power, by agreement of the different \nparties in the assembly, 17 Feb. ; voted 18 Feb. \n\nThiers ministry; Dufaure (justice); Jules Favre, \n(foreign), Picard (interior), Jules Simon (public, \ninstruction), Lambrecht (commerce), gen. Leflo \n(war), admiral Pothuan (marine), De Larcy \n(public works) 17 Feb. \n\nThe French government recognised by the great \npowers of Europe 18 Feb. \n\nThe due de Broglie appointed French minister at \nLondon 21 Feb. \n\nNegotiations for peace between Thiers and Bis- \nmarck 22, 23, 24 Feb. \n\nPreliminaries of a treaty of peace accepted by MM. \nThiers and Favre, and 15 delegates of the national \nassembly at Versailles (cession of parts of Alsace \nand Lorraine, including Strasbourg and Metz, \nand payment of five milliards of francs \xe2\x80\x94 \n2oo,ooo,oooJ.), 25 Feb. ; signed . . 26 Feb. \n\nIntense excitement in Paris ... 27 Feb. \n\nPreliminaries of the treaty accepted by the assembly \n(546 to 107) ; the fall of the empire unanimously \nconfirmed ; and the emperor stigmatised 1 Mar. \n\nA strong party of the national guard seize some \ncannons and transport them to Montmartre and \nBelleville, to defend themselves against the \nGermans entering Paris . . .1 March, \n\nThe emperor of Germany reviews about 100,000 of \nhis troops at Longchamps near Paris, 1 March, \n\nAbout 30,000 Germans enter Paris, 1 March ; re- \nmain 48 hours ; depart ... 3 March, \n\nImpeachment of the defence government demanded \nby the party of the left (Victor Hugo, Louis \nBlanc, Quinet, and others) . . 6 March, \n\nThe ex-emperor jnotests against his deposition, \n\n6 March, \n\nThe army of the north and other special army corps \ndissolved 7-10 March, \n\nMeeting of national guard in Paris quelled, \n\n10 March, \n\nThe national assembly vote for removal to Ver- \nsailles (461-104) . * . . . 10 March, \n\nLe Vengeur and four other violent journals sup- \npressed in Paris by Vinoy . . 11 March, \n\nBlanqui, Flourens, and others condemned for \ninsurrection of 31 Oct. 1870 . . 12 March, \n\nCentral committee of republican confederation of \nnational guards (termed " the government of the \nButtes ") meet ; depose Vinoy and appoint Gari- \nbaldi general-in-chief ... 15 March, \n\nInsurrection at Paris : the regular troops take \npossession of the Buttes Montmartre and Belle- \nville, for the assembly ; the national guard \nattempt to recover them ; after a brief conflict \nthe troops fraternise with the insurgents, who \ncapture and shoot generals Lecomte and Clement \nThomas, and take possession of the Hotel de \nVille ; barricades erected in Belleville and \n\n\n\n1871 \n\n\n\nFRANCE. \n\n\n\n393 \n\n\n\nFRANCE. \n\n\n\nother places ; general Vinoy with the gendarmerie \nretire across the Seine . . . 18 March, 18 \nThe insurgents nominate a central committee of \nthe national guard, headed by Assy, a workman, \nwhich takes possession of public offices ; Thiers \nissues a circular, enjoining obedience to the \n\nassembly lg March, . \n\nThe central committee order communal election in \nParis, 19 March ; and liberate about 11,000 \npolitical prisoners in Paris . . 20 March, , \nThe national assembly meet at Versailles ; propose \nconciliatory measures ; and appoint a committee \nto support the government . . 20 March, \nNapoleon III. arrives at Dover . 20 March, \n\nThe Journal des Debuts and other papers renounce \nthe central committee . . .20 March, \nThe bank of France saved by the courage of the \ngovernor, marquis de Plceuc, and by the forbear- \nance of citizen Beslay ... 20 March, \nThe assembly appeal to the nation and the army, \n\n21 March, \nRequisitions levied on the Paris shop-keepers, \n\n21 March, \n\nUnarmed demonstration of the Friends of Order ; \n\nthey are fired on by the insurgents ; 10 killed, \n\n20 wounded 22 March, \n\nLullier arrested by the central committee, 22 March, \n\nAdmiral Saisset appointed commander of the \n\nnational guard for the assembly . . 23 March, \n\nThe 69th regiment of the line retire to Versailles, \n\n23 March, \nThe central committee appoint some of their dele- \ngates generals 24 March , \n\nThe insurgents hold central Paris ; Saisset returns \n\nto Versailles . ... 25 March, \n\nMunicipal elections at Paris ; 200,000 out of 500,000 \n\nvote ; majority of two-thirds in favour of the \n\ninsurgents 26 March, \n\nThe government of the commune proclaimed at the \n\nHotel de Ville 28 March, \n\nMeeting of the conference for the peace at Brussels, \n\n28 March, \n\nGustave Flourens, Blanqui, and Felix Pyat now at \n\nthe head of the movement : they propose revival \n\nof the system of the Italian republics of the middle \n\nages 29 March, \n\nThe remission of part of the rents due by tenants \n\nordered ; the standing army to be named the \n\nnational guard .... 29 March, \n\nReign of terror : " Paris has no longer liberty of the \n\npress, of public meeting, of conscience, or of \n\nperson." \xe2\x80\x94 LeSoir 1 April, \n\nMilitary operations commence 9 a.m. ; action at \nCourbevoie ; Flourens marches his troops to \nVersailles, via Rueil .... 2 April, \nThe corps d\'armee of general Bergeret at the Rond \nPoint, near Neuilly, stopped by the artillery of \nMont Valerien ; exchange of shot between Fort \nIssy and Fort Vanves, occupied by the insurgents, \n\nand Meudon 3 April, \n\nGeneral Duval made prisoner in the engagement at \nChatillon and shot ; death of Flourens at Cliatou ; \nDelescluze, Cournet, and Vermorel succeed Ber- \ngeret, Budes, and Duval on the executive com- \nmission ; Cluseret, delegate of war, and Bergeret, \ncommandant of Paris forces . . 4 April, \nCommunist insurrection at Marseilles suppressed, \n; _;_ ; ^ ~ ~~ 4 April, \n\nGeneral Cluseret commences active operations ; \nmilitary service compulsory for all citizens under \n40 ; the archbishop of Paris arrested 5 April, \nExtension of action to Neuilly and C< mrbevoie ; severe \ndecree concerning complicity with Versailles, and \narrest of hostages ; Dombrywski succeeds Berge- \nret as commandant of Paris ; the guillotine burnt \non the Place Voltaire .... 6 April, \nFederals abandon Neuilly ; commission of barri- \ncades created and presided over by Gaillard \nSenior ; military occupation of the railway ter- \nmini by the insurgents ... 8 April, \nInsurgents repulsed in an attempt to take Chatil- \nlon ; forts Vanves and Montrouge disabled ; \nMont Valerien shells the Avenue des Ternes ; \nBergeret arrested by order of the commune, \n\n9 April, \n\nMarshal MaeMahon, commander-in-chief for the \n\nassembly, distributes his forces, and commences \n\nthe investment of Fort Issy . . 11 April, \n\n\n\nVersailles batteries established on Chatillon ; the \nOrleans railway and telegraph cut ; communica- \ntions of the insurgents with the south inter- \ncepted ; decree ordering the fall of the column \n\nVendome I2 April, \n\nPublication of the reports of the sittings ot the \n\ncommune J 3 April, \n\nThe redoubt of Gennevilliers taken ; the troops ot \nVersailles advance to the Chateau de Becon, a \npost of importance ; Assy at the bar of the \n\ncommune J 4 April, \n\nThe national assembly pass the new municipal bill \n\n(419-18) 14 April, \n\nComplementary elections ; organisation of a court- \nmartial under the presidence of Rossel, chief \nofficer of the staff .... 16 April, \nCapture and fortification of the Chateau de Becon \nby the Versailles troops . . . 17 April, \nStation and houses at Asnieres taken by the army \n\nof Versailles 18 April, \n\nThe communists appeal to the nation 19 April, \nBagneux occupied by the Versaillais ; reorganisa- \ntion of commissions ; Eudes appointed inspector- \ngeneral of the southern forts ; transfers his quar- \nters from Montrouge to the palace of the Legion \n\nof Honour 20 April, \n\nThe Versailles batteries at Breteuil, Brimbonon, \nMeudon, and Moulin de Pierre trouble the federal \nfort Issy, and battery between Bagneux and \nChatillon shells fort Vanves ; truce at Neuilly \nfrom 9 a.m. to 5 p.ln. ; the inhabitants of \nNeuilly enter Paris by the Porte des Ternes, \n\n25 April, \nCapture of Les Moulineaux, outpost of the insur- \ngents, by the troops, who strongly fortify them- \nselves on the 27th and 28th . . 26 April, \nCemetery and park of Issy taken by the Versaillais \nin the night ; freemasons make a new attempt at \nreconciliation ; the commune levies a sum of \ntwo millions of francs from the railway companies, \n\n29 April. \nA flag of truce sent to fort Issy by the Versaillais, \ncalling upon the federals to surrender ; general \nElides puts fresh troops in the fort, and takes \nthe command ; Cluseret imprisoned at Mazas by \norder of the commune ; Rossel appointed provi- \nsional delegate of war . . . -3\xc2\xb0 April, \nThe Versaillais take the station of Clamart and the \nChateau of Issy ; creation of the committee of \npublic safety ; members : Antoine Arnauld, Leo \nMeillet, Ranvier, Felix Pyat, Charles Gerardm ; \naUeged massacre of communist prisoners, 1 May, \nLacretelie carries the redoubt of Moulin Saquet, \n\n3 May, \nColonel Rossel appointed to the direction of \nmilitary affairs, defines the military quarters of \nDombrowski, La Cecilia, Wroblewski, Bergeret, \nand Eudes \xe2\x80\xa2 S Mai- \nCentral committee of the national guard charged \nwith administration of war ; the Chapelle expia- \ntoire condemned to destruction\xe2\x80\x94 the materials to \n\nbe sold by auction 5 May, \n\nConcert at the Tuileries in aid of the ambulances. \n\nSuppression of newspapers ... 6 May, \n\nBattery of Moutretout (70 marine guns) opens lire ; \n\nThiers exhorts the Parisians to rise against the \n\ncommune 8 ""&\' \n\nMorning ; insurgents evacuate the fort Issy ; the \n\ncommittee of public safety renewed ; members : \n\nRanvier, Antoine Arnauld, Gaiubon, Eudes, \n\nDelescluze ; Rossel resigns . .8 May, \n\nTreaty of peace with Germany signed at Frankfort, \n\n10 .May, \n\nCannon from the fort Issy taken to Versailles ; \ndecree for the demolition of M. Thiers\' house ; \nDelescluze. appointed delegate of war 10 May, \n\nThiers opposed ; "tiers to resign ; the assembly vote \nconfidence in Mm (495-10) . . . n May, \n\nTroops take possession of the Convent des Oiseaux \nat Issy. and the Lyceum at Vanves ; Auber, the \ncomposer, dies, aged 89 . . . \xe2\x80\xa2 12 May, \n\nTriumphal entry of the troops into \\ ersailles w.th \nflags and cannon taken from the convenl : evacua- \ntion of the village of Issy completed ; fort Vanves \ntaken by the troops . . . . 13 May. \n\nVigorous cannonade from the batteries of Courbe- \nvoie, Becon, Asnieres, on Levallois ami Chchy \n\n\n\n1871 \n\n\n\nFRANCE. \n\n\n\n394 \n\n\n\nFRANCE. \n\n\n\nboth villages evacuated ; commencement of the \ndemolition of house of M. Thiers . . 14 May, \n\nReport of the re-armament of Montrnartre 15 May ; \n\nThe column Vendome overthrown . . 16 May, \n\nSecession from the communist government ; a \ncentral club formed ; a battalion of women formed, \n\n17 May, \n\nStringent conscription in Paris . about 17 May, \n\nSilver ornaments in churches seized ; explosion of \na cartridge factory near the Champ de Mars ; \nabove 100 killed 17 May, \n\nThe assembly adopt the treaty of peace 18 May, \n\nRochefort brought a prisoner to Versailles ; last \nsitting of the commune . . . 21 May, \n\nNoon, explosion of the powder magazine of the \nManege d\'Etat-Major (staff riding-school) ; the \nhostages transferred from Mazas to La Roquette ; \nAssy arrested in Paris by the Versaillais ; the \nassembly votes the re-erection of the column \nVendome ; M. Ducatel, at the risk of his life, \nhaving signalled that the way was clear, the \nVersailles troops enter Paris by the gates of St. \nCloud and Montrouge, 2 p.m., 21 May; take \npossession of the south and west, and about \n10,000 prisoners, after some conflicts . 22 May, \n\nMontrnartre taken by Douai and Ladmirault : \ndeath of Dombrowski. Morning : Assy arrives \nat Versailles ; execution of gendarmes and Gus- \ntave Chaudey at the prison of Sainte-Pelagie. \nNight : the Tuileries set on fire ; Delescluze and \nthe committee of public safety hold permanent \nsittings at the Hotel de Ville . . 23 May, \n\nMorning : Palais Royal, Ministry of Finance, \nH6tel de Ville, &c, set on fire. 1 p.m.. the \npowder magazine at the Palais du Luxembourg \nblown up ; the committee of public safety organ- \nise detachments of fusee-bearers ; petroleum \npumped into burning buildings ; Raoul Rigault \nshot in the afternoon by the soldiers. Evening: \nexecution in the prison of La Roquette of the \narchbishop, abbe Deguerry, president Bonjean, \nand 64 others, hostages . . . .24 May, \n\nThe forts Montrouge, Hautes-Bruyeres, Bicetre \nevacuated by the insurgents ; the death of Deles- \ncluze reported ; executions in the Avenue \ndTtalie of the Peres Dominicans of Arcueil, \n\n25 May, \n\n16 priests and 38 gendarmes shot at Belleville by \nthe insurgents ; many women fighting, and cast- \ning petroleum into fires, shot . 26, 27 May, \n\nThe Buttes Chaumont, the heights of Belleville, \nand the cemetery of Pere Lachaise carried by the \ntroops ; taking of the prison of La Roquette by \nthe marines ; deliverance of 169 hostages ; the \ninvestment of Belleville complete ; last position \ncaptured by MacMahon ; fighting ends, \n\n5 p.m., 28 May, \n\nFederal garrison of Vincennes surrendered at dis- \ncretion 29 May, \n\nReported results of seven days\' fighting in Paris : \nregular troojis, 877 killed, 645 wounded, 183 miss- \ning ; insurgents, about 50,000 dead, 25,000 pri- \nsoners ; nearly all the leaders killed or prisoners ; \nabout a fourth part of Paris destroyed 22-27 May, \n\nEstimated loss of property through the insurrection, \n32,000,000? April, May, \n\nThiers\' decree for disarming Paris and abolishing \nthe National Guard of the Seine . . . 29 May, \n\nVictor Hugo expelled from Belgium . 30 May, \n\nReported wholesale execution of prisoners by the \nmarquis de Gallifet ; Paris put under martial law ; \nabout 50,000 insurgents still at large . 30 May, \n\nSevere letter from prince Napoleon Jerome to Jules \nFavre, dated 3I May, \n\nChanges in the ministry ; resignation (and reappoint\' \nment of some) of those who had been members \nof the government of defence . . 6 June, \n\nSolemn funeral of Darboy, archbp. of Paris 7 June^ \n\nAbrogation of the laws of proscription by the as- \nsembly (484\xe2\x80\x94103) ; elections of the due d\'Aumale \nand the prince de Joiuville declared valid \n\n8 June, \n\nImportant speech of Thiers for maintaining the re- \npublic at present . 8 June \n\nImposition of new taxes (463,000,000 francs) and a \nloan proposed by M. Pouyer Quertier . 12 June \n\nGen. Trochu\'s powerful speech defending the "go- \nvernment of national defence " . 13, 14 June, \n\n\n\nArmy of reserve ordered to be dissolved 14 June, 1873 \n\nFinancial measures of M. Pouyer-Quertier opposed \nby Dufaure and the free-traders about 14 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTheatres and public places reopened in Paris about \n\n20 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLetter from M. Guizot to M. Grevy recommending \npolitical moderation to all parties, and main- \ntenance of the present government, published \n\n22 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe loan of 2 milliards francs (8o,ooo,oooZ.) decreed \n26 June ; subscription opened, 27 June ; about 4 \nmilliards subscribed for in France alone 28 June ,, \n\n132 members elected for the assembly ; includes \nGambetta, and a few legitimists and Bonapart- \nists ; the rest support the government . 2 July, ,, \n\nLetter from the comte de Chambord at Chambord, \nprofessing devotion to France, and adhesion to \nmodern policy and liberality ; but declining to \ngive up the white flag of Henry IV. ; he retires to \nGermany to avoid all pretext for agitation, dated \n\n5 J ul y. \xc2\xbb \n\nThe government said to have 500 votes in the \nassembly; bill for new taxes passed (483 to 5) \n\n8 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n2o,ooo,oooZ. part of the indemnity, paid to the Ger- \nmans about 14 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPrince Napoleon Jerome expelled from France (at \nHavre) 15 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nM. Devienne, president of the court of cassation, \nacquitted of blame for settling disputes relative \nto an imperial scandal (in Nov. i860) . 21 July, ,, \n\nJules Favre, foreign minister, resigns about 23 July ; \nsucceeded by Charles de Remusat about 3 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFull compensation for losses claimed by the invaded \nprovinces refused by Thiers, who acknowledges \nno debt, but proposes to act generously . Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTrial of communist prisoners at Paris, begun about \n\n8 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e . \n\nGreat dissensions in the assembly between the \nmonarchists and republican parties ; resignation \nof Thiers not accepted, 24 Aug. ; prolongation of his \npower and the sovereign and constituent authority \nof the assembly voted (443 to 227) about 25 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThiers\' powers prolonged, and nominated president \nof the French republic, by the assembly ; to con- \ntinue till the assembly shall terminate its \nlabours ; (the Rivet- Vitet proposition), 491-93 \n\n31 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFrench postage increased .... Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSociete de Prevoyance established to counteract the \nInternationale ; becomes permanent . Sept. -\xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFerre and Lullier sentenced to death, others to \ntransportation or imprisonment, 2 Sept. ; 3 women \n(petroleuses) sentenced to death for throwing \npetroleum on fires 5 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBill for making the whole nation bear the losses of \nthe invaded provinces adopted by the assembly \n\n6 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nRossel, communist general, sentenced to death \n\n8 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMessage from Thiers to the assembly ; consideration \nof the budget adjourned 12 Sept. ; read 13 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDisarmament of the national guard begun at Lyons, \n&c 14 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBill introduced concerning treaty with Germany \nrelating to tariff on goods from Alsace and Lor- \nraine, and the reducing German troops in France \nto 50,000 men, 14 Sept. ; adopted by the assembly \n(533-33) ; the session declared closed, 2 a.m. \n\n17 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCourts-martial on communists go on . . Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n" Permanent Committee" of 25 of different rjarties \nappointed by the assembly to watch over the \ncourse of the government during the recess (17 \nSept. -4 Dec.) 15 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n25,000 communists yet to be tried ; about half to be \nset free 15 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nEvacuation of Paris forts by the Germans begun \n\nabout 20 Sept. ,, \n\nRochefort(of " LaLanterne" and " LeMot d\'Ordre") \nsentenced to life-imprisonment . . 21 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDifficulty in settling the Alsace and Lorraine treaty \n\n21 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nM. Pouyer-Quertier, the French finance minister, \narrives at Berlin 8 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nM. Lambrecht, minister of the interior, dies sud- \ndenly, 8 Oct. ; succeeded by M. Casimir Perier \n\n10 Oct.. ,, \n\n\n\nFEANCE. \n\n\n\n395 \n\n\n\nFEANCE. \n\n\n\nTranquil election of above 2000 general councillors \n\nOct. \n\nConvention for evacuation of 6 departments, and \nfinance convention of Alsace and Lorraine signed, \n12 and 13 Oct. ; exchanged . . .21 Oct. \n\nCount Benedetti publishes an apology, attacking the \nPrussian government ; count Bismarck replies (in \n"Official Journal") disproving his assertions \n\n22 Oct. \n\nDispute with Tunis settled . . about 25 Oct. \n\nPrince Napoleon resigns his seat in the council- \ngeneral of Corsica ; and denounces intimidation \n\n28 Oct. \n\nInsurrection in Algeria ended . . . Nov. \n\nEight of the murderers of generals Lecomte and \nThomas condemned .... 18 Nov. \n\nEossel, Ferre, and Bourgeois, communist leaders, \nshot at Satory in presence of 3000 soldiers 28 Nov. \n\nGaston Cremieux executed at Marseilles . 30 Nov. \n\nTerritory held by Germans put into state of siege \n\n4 Dec. \n\nMeeting of the national assembly . . 4 Dec. \n\nSixteen political parties said to exist . . Dec. \n\nThiers reads his message to the assembly ; depre- \ncates free trade, but proposes moderate protec- \ntion of French manufactures . . 7 Dec. \n\nSharp despatch from count Bismarck in reference \nto the acquittal of murderers of Germans at \nMelim and Paris 7 Dec. \n\nAfter some discussion with M. Thiers, the due \nd\'Aumale and prince de Joinville take their seats \nin the assembly 19 Dec. \n\nA committee of the assembly decide against the \nassembly removing to Paris . . 22 Dec. \n\nJoseph Lemettre condemned to death for 27 crimes \n(chiefly atrocious murders) ... 23 Dec. \n\nIncome-tax proposed and negatived . . 28 Dec. \n\nVautram, a government candidate, elected deputy \nfor Paris, and not Victor Hugo . . 7 Jan. \n\nThe due de Persigny dies . . . 12 Jan. \n\nLong debate in the assembly ; opposition to the \n2U\'oposed taxes on raw materials ; government de- \nfeated (377-307) . . . -19 Jan. \n\nResignation of Thiers and the ministry opposed by \nthe assembly; M\'Mahon writes that the army will \nrespect the orders of a majority of the assembly, \nbut not obey dictatorship ; Thiers resumes office \n\n20 Jan. \n\nDeath of Aries Dufour, of Lyons, St. Simonian and \nfree-trader ..... about 22 Jan. \n\nThe government taxes voted . . .22 Jan. \n\nConviction of the assassins of archbishop Darboy \nand others (on 24 May, 1871), 1 to death 23 Jan. \n\nManifesto of the comte de Chambord ; his mind un- \nchanged ; he will not become a legitimate king by \nrevolution 29 Jan. \n\nAbrogation of the commercial treaties with Great \nBritain and Belgium determined on . Feb. \n\nSardou\'s play, " Rabagas," satirising the radicals ; \ncauses much excitement . . . .1 Feb. \n\nProposed return of the assembly to Paris negatived \n(377-318) ; resignation of Casimir Perie\'r, minister \nof the interior 2 Feb. \n\nLeague for commercial liberty formed . . Feb. \n\nFive communists sentenced to death for murder of \nthe Dominicans on 25 May . . . 17 Feb. \n\nBlanqui condemned to transportation to a fortified \nprison about 17 Feb. \n\nM. Rouher elected a member of the assembly about \n\n15 Feb. \n\nUniversal subscription to pay the indemnity to the \nGermans begins Feb. \n\nManifesto in favour of a constitutional monarchy \nsigned by about 280 of the " Right," about 21 Feb. \n\nAssassins of generals Lecomte and Clement Thomas \nexecuted 22 Feb. \n\nJanvier de la Motte, a prefect, prosecuted for forgery, \n&c. , by government, acquitted ; M. Pouyer-Quer- \ntier, who gives evidence in his favour, resigns, \nabout 5 March, \n\nJoseph Lemettre executed . . .5 March, \n\nThe treaty of commerce with Great Britain (i860), \ndenounced (to cease in 12 months) . 15 March, \n\nWar budget of 27,000,000/. (formerly 10,000, oool.) \nproposed ...... March, \n\nPublishers of "Figaro" convicted of libel against \ngeneral Trochu ; moderate punishment 2 April, \n\n\n\n1872 \n\n\n\nAbolition of passports for British subjects an- \nnounced 10 April, \n\nLaw against the International Society placarded \n\n22 April, \n\nIn a letter, the ex-emperor takes upon himself the \nwhole responsibility of the surrender at Sedan \n\n12 May, \n\nRouher in the assembly repels the due d\'Audiffret \nPasquier\'s severe attack on the empire 21 May, \n\nThree more condemned communists shot 25 May, \n\nThe due dAumale speaks in the chamber in favour \nof the army organisation bill . . .28 May, \n\nMarshal Yaillant dies 4 June, \n\nThiers threatens to resign at opposition in the \nchamber about 9 June, \n\nInterview of delegates of the majority (the right) in \nthe assembly with Thiers (respecting his policy) ; \nmuch censured 20 June, \n\nBudget for 1873 ; deficiency, 4,800,000?. ; 8,000,000/. \nto be raised ; Thiers advocates duty on raw mate- \nrials, and opposes income-tax 26 June, et seq. \n\nThe majority in the assembly propose MacMahonas \npresident in room of Thiers . . . July, \n\nNew convention between Germany and France re- \nspecting speedy payment of the indemnity and \nevacuation of territory, signed . . 29 June, \n\nAnniversary of the destruction of the Bastille cele- \nbrated by public dinners ; important moderate \nspeech by Gambetta at Ferte-sous-Jouarre, 14 July, \n\nAnnouncement of a public loan of 120,000,000/. at \n6 J per cent 26 July, \n\nThree communists (murderers of hostages) executed \nat Satory 25 July, \n\nThe loan subscribed for, nearly 12 times the amount, \nchiefly in France July, \n\nThiers\' financial measures carried (taxes on raw \nmaterials, &c.) ; the session of the assembly closed \n\n3 Aug. \n\nMeeting of Guizot and Thiers at Val Richer 11 Sept. \n\nThree more communist murderers shot at Satory \n\n15 Sept. \n\nArrest of Edmond About at Saverne, by the Ger- \nmans, on account of a newspaper article (written \nOct. 1871), 14 Sept. ; released . . 21 Sept. \n\nAttempted celebration of the anniversary of the \nestablishment of the first French republic ; ban- \nquet at Chambery stopped . . .22 Sept. \n\nM. Thiers and the ministry in Paris . . Sept. \n\nProgress of Gambetta in the south ; violent speech \nat Grenoble against Thiers ... 27 Sept. \n\nPilgrimage of about 20,000 persons to the grotto of \nthe Virgin Mary at Lourdes, on account of alleged \nmiracles (the Virgin was said to have appeared to \ntwo girls, 14 Feb. 1858) .... 6 Oct. \n\nReport that the Russian minister remonstrated on \nGambetta\'s speech at Grenoble . . Oct. \n\nThe supreme council of war constituted ; includes \nMacMahon, Canrobert, due d\'Aumale, and other \neminent generals ; first meeting, Thiers present \n\n9 Oct. \n\nPrince Napoleon and princess Clothilde come to \nParis ; expelled by order of the government (he \nprotests) . . 12 Oct. \n\nLetter from the comte de Chambord to M. de la \nRochette, protesting against a republic, and assert- \ning that France can be saved by a monarchy \nalone ; that she is catholic and monarchical, and \ncannot, therefore, perish ; dated . . 15 Oct. \n\nElections for vacancies in the assembly ; radical \nrepublicans mostly elected ... 20 Oct. \n\nThe Germans evacuate Haute Marne and other de- \npartments Oct., Nov. \n\nBanquet of the monarchical party at Bordeaux \n\n31 Oct. \n\nNew commercial treaty with Great Britain signed at \nLondon 5 Nov. \n\nRe-assembling of the national assembly, 11 Nov. ; \nThiers in his message declares that the republic is \nthe legal government ; and that to exist it must \nbe conservative ; and proposes changes 12 Nov. \n\nService of prayer on behalf of the assembly 17 Nov. \n\nFruitless attack of general Changarnier on Thiers\' \npolicy and Gambetta\'s Speech at Grenoble; mo- \ntion to pass to order of the day ; majority for \ngovernment, 150 ; (300 did not vote) . 18 Nov. \n\nThe result becomes the law of . . 10 Nov. \n\nM. Kerdrel proposes a commission to consider \nThiers\' proposals for changes ; adopted 19 Nor. \n\n\n\n1S72 \n\n\n\nFEANCE. \n\n\n\n396 \n\n\n\nFEANCE. \n\n\n\nThiers threatens to resign ; crisis . 19, 20 Nov. \nReport of the commission read by M. Batbie, claim- \ning the right of the assembly to frame a constitu- \ntion with a. responsible ministry ; the president \nnot to speak in the assembly, &c. ; he advocated \n" gouvernement de combat " . . 26 Nov. \nAmendment proposed by Dufaure, minister of jus- \ntice, accepting ministerial responsibility, rejected \nby the committee .... 28 Nov. \n\n3VL Thiers addresses the assembly ; declares he pre- \nfers the English to the American system ; but \nthat a monarchy in France is at present impos- \nsible ; that he is faithful to the republic ; and \nthat he wishes to render it conservative ; and that \nhe has for two years served his country with \nboundless devotion ; Dufaure\'s amendment car- \nried by 370-334 (union of royalists with Bonapart- \nists against the radicals) . . -29 Nov. \nVote of censure on the home minister (Lanfranc) \ncarried ; 305-299 ; he resigns . . 30 Nov. \nAgitation respecting the appointment of the com- \nmission of 30, proposed by Dufaure ; it consists \nof 19 for the right, 11 for the government, 6 Dec. ; \nchanges in the ministry announced . 8 Dec. \nManifesto of the left, proposing a dissolution of the \nassembly by legal means ... 10 Dec. \n\nNegatived by the assembly (490-201) . 14 Dec. \nPowerful si^eech of Thiers to the commission of 30 \n\n16 Dec. \n\nExecution of Poitevin, a traitor . . 23 Dec. \n\nDebt (before the war, about 460,500,000?.)\xe2\x80\x94 \n\n748,700,000?. ...... Dec. \n\nIllness of the ex-emperor .... 4 Jan. \n\nMeeting of the national assembly . . 6 Jan. \n\nDeath of Napoleon III. at Chiselhurst 9 Jan. \n\nBonapartist manifesto ; " the emperor is dead, but \nthe empire is living and indestructible " 15 Jan. \n\'The "30 committee" considering Tallon\'s project \n\nfor a constitution Jan. \n\n\'Three communist murderers shot at Satory 22 Jan. \nReported recognition of the comte de Chambord as \nking by the Orleans princes . . .26 Jan. \nPowerful speech of Thiers before the commission of \n30 against their proposed changes . . 2 Feb. \nThe commission of 30 close their meetings 8 Feb. \nLetter of the comte de Chambord published ; destroys \nall hopes of the fusion of the Bourbons . Feb. \nDebate begins on the report of the commission, \nwhich reserves the legislative rights of the present \nassembly, and the adherence to the provisional \nstate in accordance with the " pacte de Bor- \ndeaux," 27 Feb. ; powerful speech of Thiers in \nfavour of this "truce of parties," adopted (475- \n\n5:99) 4 March, \n\nConvention for the total evacuation of the depart- \nments in Sept. on payment of indemnity, signed \n\nat Berlin 15 March, \n\nDeclaration in the assembly " that M. Thiers has de- \nserved well of his country " . . 17 March, \nM. Grevy resigns the presidency on account of the \nconduct of the party of the right, b April ; \nM. Buffet, a liberal Bonapartist, elected in oppo- \nsition to Martel, the government candidate, 4 April, \nM. Barodet, radical, ex-mayor of Lyons, elected \nmember of the assembly for Paris by a large ma- \njority over the minister de Kemusat . 27 April, \nChanges in the ministry :\xe2\x80\x94 Casimir Perier, interior ; \nW. H. Waddington, of Cambridge, public in- \nstruction (in room of De Goulard and Jules \n\nSimon) ^ May, \n\nMeeting of the national assembly, 19 May ; the \ngovernment introduce their constitutional bills, \n21 May ; the due de Broglie leads an attack on \nthe government, 23 May ; speech of Thiers ; the \ngovernment defeated (362-34S) at a sitting, 2 p. m. , \n\n24 May, \nResignation of Thiers and his ministry accepted \n(368-339), 24 May ; marshal McMahon, due de \nMagenta (born 1808) elected president of the re- \npublic by 390 votes (the left did not vote); he \naccepts the office, declaring his independence of \nparty, 24 May ; in his message to the assembly \nhe says, " The post in which you have placed me \nis that of a sentinel, who has to watch over the \nintegrity of your sovereign power. " . 26 May, \nThe due de Broglie chief of the new ministry \n\n26 May, \n\n\n\n1872 \n\n\n\nGeneral Ladmirault succeeds MacMahon in the \ncommand of the army of Versailles . 3 June, 1873 \n\nPrivate circular of the minister to prefects re- \nquesting them to sound newspapers of his de- \npartment ; censured in the assembly . 11 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe assembly (by a large majority) order the prose- \ncution of Ranc, formerly a communist, now \ndeputy for Lyons .... 19 June, ,, \n\nVisit of the Shah 5 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGrand review of the renovated army at Paris, and. \nassembly prorogued . . . .10 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRenewal of the Anglo-French treaty of 23 Jan. \ni860 (till 30 June, 1877) ; signed 24 July ; ratified \n\n29 July, ,, \n\nEvacuation of all the French territories by the \nGermans, except Verdun, by . . .2 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFusion of the Legitimists and Orleanists ; after an \ninterview of the comte de Paris with the comte \nde Chambord; the latter recognised as chief \n\n5 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nOdilon-Barrot died 6 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe imperial prince Napoleon declares the policy \nof his family to be "Everything by the people \nfor the people " 15 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLast instalment of 10,000,000?. of the indemnity of \n200,000,000?. paid ..... 5 Sept. ,, \n\nAbout 2,700 communists yet to be disposed of \n\nSept.. ,, \n\nVerdun quitted by the Germans ._ . 13 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe last quitted the French territory . 16 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDue Decazes ambassador for London . . Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLetter from comte de Chambord to the vicomta \nde Rodez-Benavent ; not explicit ; shows ten- \ndency to concession ; says, "I want the co-opera- \ntion of all, and all have need of me " dated \n\n19 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPrince Napoleon Jerome joins the republican party, \n\n26 Sept. ,, \n\nLetter from Thiers to mayor of Nancy, censuring \nthe fusionists, who "without the consent of \nFrance pretend to decide upon her destinies" \n\n29 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFrance divided into 18 new military regions ; 18 \ngenerals appointed . . . -30 Sept. ,, \n\nTrial of marshal Bazaine, late commander of the army \nof the Rhine in 1870, for alleged treachery and \nmisconduct at Metz ; due d\'Aumale president of \nthe court ; begins 6 Oct. ,, \n\nChanges in the ministry ; due Decazes foreign and \nChangarnier war minister . . .6 Oct. ,, \n\nRouher\'s letter to the Bonapartists against the \nmonarchists 9 Oct. ,, \n\nM. Remusat and 3 other republicans elected de- \nputies ....... 12 Oct. ,, \n\nRanc condemned to death in contumaciam 13 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nM. Lemoinne (in the Journal des Debats) says "The \npartisans of an absolute monarchy make a tabula \nrasa of history ; for them nothing has occurred. \nIf that be so, nothing will return " . 15 Oct. \n\nManifesto of the monarchists proposing restoration \nof the monarchy, guaranteeing all necessary \nliberties, &c 18 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nM. Leon Say and the left centre decline negotia- \ntion with the monarchists ; who threaten absten- \ntion in the next elections, if successfully opposed \n\n23 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLetter from the comte de Chambord to M. \nChesnelong ; he says, " I retract nothing, and \ncurtail nothing of my previous declarations. I \ndo not wish to begin a reign of reparation by an \nact of weakness ; if enfeebled to-day, I should \nbe powerless to-morrow ; I am a necessary pilot ; \nthe only one capable of guiding the ship to port, \nbecause I have for it a mission of authority." \ndated 27 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nM. Leon Say and the left centre say the moment \nhas arrived for the organisation of a conservative \nrepublic 30 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMeeting of national assembly ; message from mar- \nshal MacMahon, requesting increased and pro- \nlonged power (ten years) ; this referred to a com- \nmittee of 15 ; voted urgent (by 360 to 350) 5 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nM. Buffet re-elected president . . 6 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nConspiracy at Autun to seize marchioness Mac- \nMahon ; offenders convicted . . . 7 Nov. ,, \n\nEight of the committee vote for prolongation of \nMacMahon\'s presidency for five years after date \nof meeting of the next legislature, under existing \n\n\n\nFRANCE. \n\n\n\n397 \n\n\n\nFRANCE. \n\n\n\nconditions till the passing of constitutional laws ; \nthe others vote for ten years\' prolongation with- \nout conditions 13 Nov. \n\nM. Laboulaye\'s report of the committee laid before \nthe assembly; MaeMahon\'s message suggesting \n7 years\' prolongation of his powers . 17 Nov. \n\nWarm debate in the assembly ; majority of 68 for \nministers, 18 Nov. ; 7 years\' power voted to \nmarshal MacMahon (383-317), jg Nov. ; decree \n\n20 Nov. \n\nIncognito visit of the comte de Chambord to Paris \nabout 20 Nov. \n\nMinistry resigns, 20 Nov. ; re-constituted ; due de \nBroglie, minister of interior ; due Decazes, \nforeign minister ; announced . . 26 Nov. \n\nCommittee of 30 for constitutional changes, com- \npleted 4 Dec. \n\nHolds its first meeting, Batbie, president 5 Dec. \n\nEmbassy to London declined by Guizot ; accepted \nby the due de la Rochefoucauld-Bisaecia Dec. \n\nBazaine\'s trial ends ; he is found guilty of capitu- \nlating with his army (of 170, 000 men) in the open \nfield ; of negotiating dishonourably with the \nenemy, and surrendering a fortified place ; sen- \ntence, death and degradation, 10 Dec. ; com- \nmuted to 20 years\' imprisonment . .12 Dec. \n\nPeaceful republican demonstration in Paris at the \nfuneral of Victor Hugo\'s second son, Frangois, \n\n28 Dec. \n\nMeeting of the assembly ; majority against the \nnomination of mayors bill, through the legiti- \nmists (268-226), 8 Jan. ; the ministry resign, 9 \nJan. ; vote of confidence in the ministry (379 to \n329), 12 Jan. ; the ministers resume office 13 Jan. \n\nVote for ministers on the nomination of mayors \nbill (341-336) 17 Jan. \n\nThe Ultramontane newspaper, L\'Unlvers (edited \nby M. L. Veuillot), suspended for 2 months for \nattacks on Italy and Germany, about 19 Jan. \n\nNomination of mayors bill passed, 21 Jan. ; many \nmayors replaced Feb. \n\nA person calls himself comte Albert de Bourbon, \nand claims to be son of Louis XVII. ; his claim \nrejected 27 Feb. \n\nLedru-Rollin and Lepetit elected members of \nthe national assembly . . . .1 March, \n\nNew electoral law presented by the committee ; \nabout 3 millions disfranchised . 11 March, \n\nDemonstration at Chiselhurst on prince Louis \nNapoleon\'s coming of age (at 18) ; 6000 French- \nmen present ; he says that he waits the result of \nthe 8th plebiscite .... 16 March, \n\nGabriel Hugelmann, political spy and swindler, \nconvicted and sentenced to 5 years\' imprison- \nment 25 March, \n\nFerrand, contractor (made about 8o,oooZ. during \nwar), fined and imprisoned, about . 25 March, \n\nProposal of Dahirel, legitimist, of a law enacting \nthat on 1 June the assembly should vote for \neither a monarchy or republic, negatived (330- \n256) 27 March, \n\nAssembly adjourns to 12 May . . 28 March, \n\nTwo republican deputies elected . 29 March, \n\nReported escape of Rochefort, the communist, from \nNew Caledonia . . announced 30 March, \n\nDeath of Beule", ex-minister . . .4 April, \n\nNewspapers warned not to attack the septennate \n\n12 April, \n\nClement Duvernois, ex-imperial minister, arrested \nfor suspected fraud .... 14 April, \n\nThe assembly meets, 12 May ; the ministry de- \nfeated on electoral law (381-317), resigns 16 May, \n\nM. Goulard failing to form a ministry, the presi- \ndent re-appoints the former without Broglie ; \nnominal head, gen. De Cissey . . 22 May, \n\nPrince Hohenlohe, the new German ambassador, \nreceived by the president ; mutual professions \nof peace 23 May, \n\nRochefort and other communists arrive at San \nFrancisco . . . announced 21 May, \n\nBourgoing, a Bonapartist, elected for Nievre (as- \nserted that he was devoted to the marshal) \n\n24 May, \n\nThiers addresses some Gironde friends ; refers to \nthe failure of his opponents ; and recommends \ndissolution of the assembly . . 24 May, \n\nElectoral bill; assembly pass to second reading \n(.393-3 18 ) 1 June, \n\n\n\n1873 \n\n\n\n1874 \n\n\n\nLedru-Rollin\'s speech a failure . . 3 June, 1874 \n\nHot disputes between republicans and Bonapar- \ntists ; left centre demand the establishment of \nthe republic, or dissolution of the assembly \n\n8, 9 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBonnard, communist, condemned for murder, 25 \nFeb., shot 6 June, ,, \n\nElectoral bill ; age of electors fixed at 21, not 25 \n(defeat of ministry) . . . .10 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGambetta having called the Bonapartists "misera- \nUes," is struck at a railway station by comte de \nSainte Croix, xi June, who is condemned to fine- \nand imprisonment . . . -13 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCasimir Perier (leader of left centre) moves for \nrecognition of the republic ; MacMahon president \ntil? 20 Nov. 1880, and revision of the constitu- \ntion ; voted "urgent " (345-341) . 14, 15 June, , T \n\nDue de Rochefoucauld-Bisaceia\'s motion for re- \nstoration of the legitimate monarchy negatived ; \nhe resigns British embassy . . .15 June, ,\xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRochefort in London .... 19 June, ,, \n\nThe " fusion " between legitimists and Orleanists \nended ; conflict now between republicans and \nBonapartists June, ,\xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGrand review of 60,000 men at Longchamps, near \nParis 28 June, , f \n\nIn his order of the day, marshal MacMahon de- \nclares that with the army he will maintain the \nauthority of the land for the seven years 29 June, ,, \n\nCasimir Perier\'s motion negatived by commission \nof thirty 29 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nManifesto from comte de Chambord, saying, \n" France has need of monarchy. My birth has \nmade me your king. . . The Christian and \nFrench monarchy is in its very essence limited \n(temperre). It admits of the existence of two \nchambers : one nominated by the sovereign, the- \nother by the nation. . I do not wish for \n\nthose barren parliamentary struggles, whence \nthe sovereign too frecpuently issues powerless, \nand enfeebled. . . I reject the formula of \nforeign importation, which all our national tradi- \ntions repudiate, with its king who reigns and \ndoes not govern." \xe2\x80\x94 Signed, Henri V. . 2 July, ,, \n\n" L\' Union," legitimist paper, suspended for pub- \nlishing the above 4 July, , y \n\nM. Goulard, ex-minister, dies . . 4 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDebate on the manifesto ; legitimists defeated ; \nministers defeated on a motion in favour of the \nseptennate, resign (368-331) ; their resignation \nnot accepted by the marshal . . 8 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nHe states, in a message to the assembly, his deter- \nmination to maintain the law of 20 Nov. , and ex- \nhorts them to pass the constitutional laws \n\n9 July, ,, \n\n"Figaro" suspended for 15 days for attacking the \nassembly 11 July, ,, \n\nReports of committee, by Ventavon (the bill pro- \nposes maintenance of the authority of the presi- \ndent of the republic ; ministerial responsibility ; \ntwo legislative assemblies ; dissolution of the \nchamber of deputies by the president ; &c), sus- \npended 16 July, ,, \n\nCasimir Perier\'s motion for a republic rejected \n(375-313) 23 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMalleville\'s motion for dissolution of the assembly \nrejected (374-332) > \n\nThe assembly adjourns (to 30 Nov.) . . 5 Aug. ,, \n\nMarshal Bazaine escapes from the isle of Ste. \nMarguerite (see Dec. 1873) 10 p.m. [His wife as- \nserted that he descended by an old gutter by \nmeans of a knotted rope ; was received into a> \nboat by her and her nephew, Alvarez de Rul, \nand conveyed to the steamer Baron Ricasola, \nwhich landed him at Genoa] . . .9 Aug. \n\nForcade de Roquette, a minister under the empire, \ndies, aged 53 16 Aug. \n\nMaeMahon\'s progress in the N.W. provinces ; well \nreceived 17 Aug. \n\nVendome column restored ... 31 Aug. \n\nComte de Jarnac, minister at London, arrives there \n\n4 Sept. \n\nDeath of M. Guizot . . . .12 Sept. \n\nBazaine\'s defence, sent by him to the New Yuri- \nHerald, dated 6 Sept., published in London \n\n14 Sept. \n\n\n\nFRANCE. \n\n\n\nFRANCE. \n\n\n\n\'Trials for complicity in Bazaine\'s escape ; col. \nVillette and others sentenced to imprisonment \n\n17 Sept. 1874 \n\n\'Thiers, at Vizille near Grenoble, in reply to an \naddress, says, " Since you cannot establish the \nmonarchy, establish the republic, and do it \nfrankly and sincerely " . . . . 27 Sept. ,, \n\nPoirier executed at Chartres for 5 murders 29 Sept. ,, \n\nSevere note from Spanish government complaining \nof French neglect in regard to the Carlists on \nthe Spanish frontier .... early Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nClement Duvernois, ex-imperial minister, con- \nvicted of fraud ; 2 years\' imprisonment 25 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPolitical Parties. \n\nExtreme right. Legitimists : adherents of Henry V. \nModerate right : monarchists. Bight centre: \nseptennates, Imperialists or Bonapartists. Left \ncentre : moderate republicans (chief, Thiers). \nLeft : more pronounced. Extreme left : radicals \n(chief, Gambetta) Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSt. Genest\'s pamphlet, " V Assembles et la France," \ninciting to a coup d\'etat . . . end of Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n<Comte de Chambord requests his friends not to \nvote so as to prevent or delay the restoration of \nthe monarchy Nov. ,, \n\nFour ornamented volumes of addresses from towns, \n&c. , in Prance, conveying thanks for relief during \nthe war 1870-1 (inscribed on the outside, "Bri- \ntannia grata Gallia") with about 12,000,000 \nsignatures, presented to the queen by M. D\'Agiout \nand the comte de S\'errurier [placed in the British \nMuseum for inspection] .... 3 Dec. ,, \n\nThe assembly meets ; firm moderate message from \nMacMahon 3 ^>ec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSudden death of M. Ledru-Bollin . 31 Dee. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPresident in his message having recommended the \npassing a bill for constituting a senate, motion \nagainst it passed (420 to 250), 6 Jan. ; ministers\' \nresignation not accepted .... 7 Jan. 1875 \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Cost of the war (395,400,000?.) announced Jan. \n\nEniile Pereire, financier . . . died 6 Jan. \n\nA Bonapartist elected deputy for Hautes-Pyrenees \n\n17 Jan. \n\nNine days\' debate on the new army bill . Jan. \n\nStormy debate on Ventavon\'s bid for organising \nMacMahon\'s powers, 1st reading passed (557 to \n146) 22 Jan. \n\nLaboulaye\'s amendment rejected (359-335) 29 Jan - \n\nWallon\'s amendment (the president of the republic \nto be elected by absolute majority of the two \nchambers for 7 years, and to be eligible for re- \nelection ; the republic virtually established) ; \npassed 1 a.m. 31 Jan. \n\nGreat satisfaction throughout the country Feb. \n\nDuprat\'s amendment carried (senate to be chosen \nby universal suffrage), 11 Feb. ; third reading of \nthe constitutional bill rejected (357-345) ; pro- \nposed dissolution of the assembly negatived \n1(407-266), 12 Feb. ; message from the marshal \ndisapproving of last votes ... 13 Feb. \n\nSenate bill (senate to consist of 300 ; 225 to be \nelected by the departments, 75 by national \nassembly) 22 Feb. \n\nLaws passed constituting French republic by union \nof moderate monarchists and republicans ; legiti- \nmists and Bonapartists defeated ; senate bill \npassed (448-244), 24 Feb. ; final vote for republic, \nconstitutional laws passed (436-262) \n\n5 p.m. 25 Feb., published 1 March, \n\nNew ministry under Buffet constituted ; Buffet, \ninterior; Dufaure, justice; Leon Say, finance; \nWallon, instruction ; De Meaux, agriculture and \ncommerce ; Cissey war ; Decazes, foreign ; Mon- \ntaignac, marine ; Caillaux, public works \n\n10 March, \n\nDue d\'Audiffret Pasquier elected president of the \nassembly almost unanimously . -15 March, \n\nDeath of M. Jarnac-Chabot, ambassador at London \n\n22 March, \n\nAssembly adjourns to 11 May . . 20 March, \n\nEdgar Quinet, author of " Les J6suites," a staunch \nrepublican, died . . . . 27 March, \n\nPowerful speech of Gambetta at Belleville, de- \nfending the new constitution . . 23 April, \n\nMeeting of the assembly, 11 May ; the ministry \npropose to refer a bill to the committee of 30 ; \n\n\n\ndefeated; part of the committee resign, 18 May; \nnew committee elected (republican majority) \n\n26 May, 1875 \n\nLouis Blanc\'s speech against the conservative re- \npublic, 21 June; self-denying resolution of the \nleft party (to avoid delaying the dissolution by \nspeaking, &c.) June, ,, \n\nDestructive inundations at Toulouse ; about 1000 \nlives lost, with much property . 23 June, ,, \n\nElection of baron de BoUrgoing, a Bonapartist, an- \nnulled by the assembly, 13 July ; warm defence \nof his party by Rouher (on the charge of there \nbeing a central committee of Bonapartists in \nParis with branches in the provinces, actively \nendeavouring to overthrow the republic in 1874) \n\n14 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFierce debate in assembly ; Buffet defends the \nimperialistic prefects, and gains vote of con- \nfidence ; the left not voting . . 15 July, ,, \n\nH. Roehefort, after challenging Paul de Cassagnac, \ndeclines accepting the conditions of the combat \nat Geneva Aug. ,, \n\nThe assembly adjourns .... 4 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNaquet, an "irreconcilable" republican, attacks \nGambetta for his moderation . end of Aug. ,, \n\nPlon having lost by publishing " Julius Csesar," \nby Napoleon III., sues the emperor\'s executors ; \nfails ; and is adjudged to pay costs . . Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nL\'Echo de Blois fined for libel on the due d\'Aumale \n\n28 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n"Les ResponsaJiilitcs," pamphlet recommending the \n\ncomte de Chambord to resign his rights to the \ncrown Aug. ,, \n\nBelgian and German pilgrimage to Lourdes (see \n1872) Sept. ,, \n\nAdmiral De la Ronciere Noury superseded for \nwriting a letter animadverting on the republic \n(2 Sept.) 8 Sept, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAlleged adhesion of the Orleanist party to the \nrepublic about 10 Sept. ,, \n\nImportant speeches ; M. Thiers at Arcachon de- \nfending his policy ; advocating a conservative \nrepublic, and censuring delay ; M. Rouher at \nAjaccio, advocating imperialism and universal \nsuffrage, and asserting that the nation will not \naccept the republic as a definite government \n\n17 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nImportant letter of Gambetta to his frier.ds at \nLyons (in favour of the conservative republic), \nsaid to be " too advanced for the moderate, and \ntoo moderate for the advanced." . . 25 Oct. ,, \n\nMeeting of the- assembly : due d\'Audiffret re- \nelected president 4 Nov. ,, \n\nThe assembly virtually votes its dissolution before \n31 March, 1876 ; 6 months\' residence in a com- \nmune to give right to vote, 9 Nov., majority for \nministers ; the scrutin d\'arrondissement adopted \ninstead of scrutin de list\'e (357-326) ; able speech \nof Gambetta for the latter . . 11 Nov. ,, \n\nNew Catholic University opened . .17 Nov. ,, \n\nBeginning of ballot for senators for life ; due \nd\'Audiffret Pasquier elected ; the result dis- \ncloses a breach between the legitimists and \nOrleanists ; government defeated . . 9 Dec ,, \n\nCommittees on the bills relating to the press and \nthe state of siege protest against them strongly \n\nabout 13 Dec. ,, \n\nSeventy-five senators for life (52 republicans) \nelected by the assembly . . 9 \xe2\x80\x94 21 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPowerful speech of Buffet in favour of rigid press \nlaw and state of siege, 23 Dec. ; much censured, \nbut approved in a letter by MacMahon 24 Dec. ,, \n\nMajority for ministers (376-303) . . 24 Dec. ,, \n\nSolemn funerals of generals Clement Thomas and \nLecomte, killed by the communists (18 March, \n1871); violent recrimination in the assembly \n\n27 Dec. ,, \n\nRe-election to the assembly declined by the due \nd\'Aumale, 27 Dec. ; by the prince de Joinville, \n\n29 Dec. ,, \nNew press law (abolishing interdiction) passed ; \n\nstate of siege raised excepit in Paris, Versailles, \nLyons, and Marseilles ; proposal to raise it at \nParis negatived (369-279) ... 29 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe assembly prorogued till 8 March, 1876 31 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nPowerful letter from Gambetta . . 31 Dec. ,, \nCommunist trials report : 9,596 convicted ; no \nsentenced to death Dec. ,, \n\n\n\nFEANCE. \n\n\n\n399 \n\n\n\nFEANCE. \n\n\n\nMinisterial crisis : difference between Buffet and \nSay respecting an electoral list ; resignation of \nSay ; withdrawn at MacMahon\'s request. 10 Jan. \net seq.; the marshal issues a proclamation, coun- \ntersigned by Buffet ; he says, " I think that the \nconstitution ought not to be revised before having \nbeen loyally worked. I shall fulfil to the end \nthe mission entrusted to me." . . 13 Jan. 1876 \nNew Catholic university inaugurated at Paris by \n\nthe archbishop . . . . .10 Jan. ,, \nCommencement of election of senators in depart- \nments 17 Jan. ,, \n\nGeneral prosperity ; revenue for 1875 estimated \n100,000, 000L, said to be the highest ever received \n\nby any government Jan. ,, \n\nElection of senators ; mostly moderate republicans ; \nThiers for Belfort nearly unanimous ; Buffet and \nLouis Blanc rejected ; Victor Hugo elected 30 Jan. ,, \nResignation of Leon Renault, prefect of police, \n\nopposed to Buffet .... 9 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nElection of deputies ; great majority of repub- \nlicans, 20 Feb. \xe2\x80\x94 5 March ; resignation of Buf- \nfet, about 22 Feb. ; Dufaure chief minister, with \n\na modified cabinet 24 Feb. ,, \n\nEstimated result of elections : moderate repub- \nlicans, 270 ; radicals, .60 ; Bonapartists, 92 ; Or- \nleanists, 58 ; legitimists, 36 . . 7 March, ,, \nDufaure\'s ministry complete (including Decazes, \n\nSay, Waddington, de Cissey, &c.) about 9 March, ,, \nSenate and assembly meet, 8 March ; due d\'Audif- \nfret Pasquier elected president of senate ; M. F. \nP. Jules Grevy, president of assembly 13 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \nAmnesty bill for communists introduced in the \nsenate by Victor Hugo ; in the assembly by \n\nRaspail 21 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nProposed international exhibition, Paris,for 1 May, \n\n1878 5 April, ,, \n\nArchbishop Guibe.rt, of Paris, declines to give \nevidence concerning the election of comte de \n\nMun as deputy April, ,, \n\nGambetta president of budget committee for 1877 \n\nabout 19 April, ,, \nQueen Victoria in Paris ; received by the president, \n\n21 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \nDeath of Ricard, popular liberal minister of the \ninterior, aged 48, 12 May; succeeded by M. De \nMercere, under-secretary . about 15 May, ,, \nDebate on the amnesty to communists, 14 May ; \nrejected (394-52), 17 May; Victor Hugo\'s speech \nin favour of amnesty ; proposal rejected almost \n\nunanimously 22 May, ,, \n\nFuneral procession of Michelet at Paris 18 May, ,, \nM. Buffet, ex-minister, elected life-senator 16 June, ,, \n87 communists pardoned . . .28 June, ,, \n\nCasimir Pe\'rier dies 6 July, ,, \n\nNearly 2,000,000?. voted for public instruction \n\n31 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nChambers prorogued . . . .12 Aug. ,, \n68 communists pardoned ... 17 Aug. ,, \nObservatory at Puy de D6me near Clermont in- \naugurated 22 Aug. ,, \n\nNew fortifications round Paris nearly completed, \n\nSept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe assembly reopened, 30 Oct. ; the due Decazes\' \n\nfirm pacific speech .... 3 Nov. ,, \nPrince Napoleon Jerome becomes prominent in the \n\nassembly Nov. ,, \n\nResignation of Dufaure\'s ministry through defeats \n\nin the senate, &c 2 Dec. ,, \n\nPardons and commutations granted to many com- \nmunist convicts 2 Dec. ,, \n\nNew ministry: Jules Simon, president of the \ncouncil and minister of interior; Martel, justice ; \nothers remain . . . . 12, 13 Dec. ,, \nEstimated revenue 109,000,000/. . . . Dec. ,, \n\nChambers opened 9 Jan. 1877 \n\nGambetta president of the budget . . 26 Jan. ,, \nAbove fifty prefects, hostile to the republic, re- \nmoved Jan. ,, \n\nGen. Changarnier died, aged 83 . -14 Feb. ,, \nPaul de Cassagnac fined ami imprisoned for libel \nagainst chamber of deputies in the "Pays," \n\n5 April, ,, \nRochefort\'s " Lantemc " re-published . April, ,, \nM. Jules Simon compelled to yield to Gambetta in \n\nthe chamber 4 May, ,, \n\nPeremptory letter of censure from marshal Mac- \n\n\n\nMahon to Jules Simon causes him and his \n\nministry to resign 16 May, \n\nThe due de Broglie forms a ministry (royalist and \nimperial), De Fourtou, interior ; Cailloux, finance ; \nParis, public works ; De Meaux, agriculture ; \nBrunet, public instruction ; (Decazes, foreign, \nand Berthaut, war, remain) . . 17 May, \nGambetta\'s resolution in chamber in favour of par- \nliamentary government carried, (355 - 154) 17 May ; \nprotest of 363 liberal deputies signed . 18 May, \nThe marshal prorogues the chambers for a month ; \na fim manifesto issued by the left . 18 May, \nMany changes made in the prefects . 20 May, \n\nThiers -accepted as leader by the republicans ; \nBrogtte\'s circular for repressing the press issued \nabout 29 May, \nBonnet Duverdier, chief of municipality of Paris ; \narrested for speaking against the marshal, 1 June ; \nsentenced to fine and imprisonment . 8 June, \nMeeting of chambers ; stormy debate in second \nchamber, 16 June ; vote against government \ncarried (363-158) .... 19 June, \nThe deputies vote the necessary supplies, but not \n\ndirect taxes 21 June, \n\nThe senate votes dissolution of the chambers (150- \n\n130) 22 June ; decreed ... 25 June, \n\nThe marshal, in an order of the day, after a review \n\nat Longehamps, says : " I appeal to the army to \n\ndefend the dearest interests of the country," \n\n2 July, \nQuarrels among Bonapartists (Rouher against \n\nCassagnac) July, Aug. \n\nRepressive measures towards the press, <fee. July.Aug. \nProsecution of Gambetta (and Murat, editor of the \n"Republique Franchise," in which it appeared) \nfor a speech at Lille (29 July) in which he said \nthe marshal must, if the elections be against \nhim, " submit or resign " (" se soumettre ou se \n\ndemettre") about 25 Aug. \n\nThiers dies, aged So ; 3 Sept. public funeral ; no \n\ndisorder 8 Sept. \n\nGambetta and Murat convicted ; sentence 3 months \nimprisonment and fine of 80I. 11 Sept. ; on appeal \nsentence affirmed .... 22 Sept. \n\nThe marshal\'s excursions to various places ; recep- \ntion differs . . . . \' . Aug. Sept. \nIn his manifesto respecting the elections, he refers \nto his successful government, and says : " I \ncannot obey the injunctions of the demagogy ; \nI can neither become the instrument of radical- \nism nor abandon the post in which the constitu- \ntion has placed me " . . -19 Sept. \nThiers\' manifesto to electors (an historical defence \nof the republic and late chamber) published \n\n24 Sept. \nThe clergy energetically support the government \n\nSept. Oct. \nTemperate manifesto of the left, 4 Oct. ; of Grevy \n\nand Gambetta 7 Oct. \n\nJustificatory manifesto of the marshal, appealing \n\nto voters IX Oct. \n\nGambetta convicted for placarding his address ; \nfine 150/. and 3 months\' imprisonment 12 Oct.\' \nM. de Fourtou interferes very energetically in \nelections ; foreign papers stopped\', &c. . Oct. \nGeneral election ; quiet and dignified ; results : \ndefeat of Bonapartist and clerical parties ; (of \n506 official candidates about 199 elected ; re- \npublicans, 320) I4 Oct. \n\nFinal result: 325 republicans; 112 Bonapartists; \n\n96 monarchists 2 s Oct. \n\nMinistry hold office till successors appointed ; M.\' \nPouyer-Quertier fails to form 11 ministry . Nov! \nElection of departmental councils who elect sena- \ntors ; majority for republicans . . 4 Nov. \nMeeting of chambers . . . . 7 Nov\'. \nCensus for 1876 announced ; 36,905,788 (increase of \n\n802,867 over 1872) 8 Nov. \n\nThe marshal determines not to resign ; his ministry \n\nagree to remain temporarily ; announced 8 Nov. \n\nF. P. Jules Grevy re-elected president of the \n\nchamber of deputies now constituted . 10 Nov. \n\nAlbert Greyy\'s resolution for the appointment of a \n\ncommission of 33 to inquire into the conduct of \n\nthe government respecting elections, 13 Nov. ; \n\ncarried after a warm debate (312-205) . 15 Nov. \n\nDebate in senate on M. Kerdiels motion respecting \n\n\n\n1S77 \n\n\n\nFRANCE. \n\n\n\n400 \n\n\n\nFRANCE. \n\n\n\nministers ; vote in their favour indirectly reflect- \ning on Grevy\'s resolution, <&c. (\'151-129) 19 Nov. 1877 \n\nEesignation of ministers announced . 20 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNew ministry formed under gen. Rochebouet, \npresident ; no member of it in the senate or \nassembly ; termed " ministry of affairs " 23 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNo confidence in the new ministry voted in the \nsecond chamber (323-208) ... 24 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nImportant meeting of commercial men at Paris ; \npetition to the marshal agreed on .2 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe chamber refuses to discuss the budget 4 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe ministry resign ; negotiations with Dufaure to \nform a parliamentary ministry fail ; Batbie (see \n26 Nov. 1872) also fails . . . 7-13 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe marshal submits unconditionally 13 Dec. A \nthorough republican ministry formed under M. \nDufaure, president of the council and minister \nof justice ; De Marcere, interior ; Waddington \n(protestant), foreign affairs ; Bardoux, public \ninstruction ; general Borel, war ; vice-admiral \nPothuau, marine ; Le\'on Say, finance ; Teisserenc \nde Bort, commerce ; De Freycinet, public works : \nannounced ; the marshal in his message accepts \nthe will of the country . . . 14 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRestrictions of the press removed ; many prefects \nresign and others are removed 15 Dec. et seq. ,, \n\nDeath of gen. Aurelle de Paladines . . 17 Dec. ,, \n\nBudget voted ; chambers adjourn. . 18 Dec. ,, \n\nLimoges affair ; gen. Rochebouet said to have \nissued orders to gen. de Bressoles for a military \nmovement which he issued 12 Dec. ; major Labor- \ndere denounces the orders as illegal, 13 Dec. ; \nthe orders nullified by the change of ministry, \n14 Dec. ; De Bressoles suspended for alleged \nmistake ; Labordere cashiered ; much excitement \nin Paris on account of suspected preparations for \na coup d\'etat Jan. 1878 \n\nLegislative assembly meets ... 8 Jan. \n\nGen. Ducrot dismissed from command for suspected \nconnection with projected coup d\'ttat 10, 11 Jan. ,, \n\nCommittee of 18 liberal deputies (formed in May) \nvirtually dissolve . . . . 13 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBreak up of combined reactionary parties ; the \nministry generally successful . . March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nInternational exhibition at Paris opened by the \nmarshal president (see Paris) . . 1 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nJoan of Arc and Voltaire centenaries celebrated, \n\n30 May, ,, \n\nM. Waddington, foreign minister, a plenipotentiary \nat the Berlin Conference . 13 June \xe2\x80\x94 13 July \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTemporary strikes of workmen . . July, Aug. ,, \n\nRepublican success in electing departmental coun- \ncils Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSolemn commemoration of death of Thiers at Notre \nDame, &c. 3 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nExecution of Barre, stockbroker, and Lebiez, \nmedical student, for murder of a milkwoman for \nher funded property .... 7 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nReview of 55,000 soldiers at Vincennes . 15 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPowerful speech of Gambetta at Romans (depart- \nment Drome), proposing abolition of the exemp- \ntion of theological students from military service, \n18 Sept., and at Grenoble . . . 10 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDupanloup, bishop of Orleans, dies suddenly, 11 Oct. ,, \n\nThe assembly meets 28 Oct. ,, \n\n12,000 national lottery tickets of 1 franc sold (see \nLotteries) .... . \\ip to Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nEnergetic manifesto of united Legitimists, Orlean- \nists, and Bonapartists against republicans re- \nspecting election of senators . .13 Nov. ,, \n\nElections of Paul de Cassagnac (7 Nov.) and M. \nFortou invalidated by the Chamber, 18 Nov. ; of \nDecazes 7 Dee. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLetter from comte de Chambord to M. de Mun \nmaintaining his rights ; published . 25 Nov. ,, \n\nAll foreign commercial treaties denounced in view \nof a new tariff 31 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nElections for Senate ; 64 republican, 16 opposition, \n\n5 Jan. 1879 \n\nCompulsory resignation of gen. Borel, war minister, \n13 Jan. ; succeeded by gen. Gresley . 13 Jan. ,, \n\nMeeting of chambers ; M. Martel elected president \nof the senate 15 Jan. ,, \n\nConfidence in the ministry voted in chamber of \ndeputies (223-121) .... 20 Jan. ,, \n\n2,245 communists pardoned by decree, issued 17 Jan. \' ,, \n\nMinisterial programme : pardons to communists ; \n\n\n\ncheck of clerical influence upon education ; dis- \nmissal of officials opposed to the republic, &c. \n\n16 Jan. 1879 \nDrawing of the national lottery begun . 26 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \nBudget: revenue, about 110,242, 812L; expenditure, \n\n110,177,304? Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMarshal MacMahon refuses to supersede military \nofficers, 28 Jan. resigns ; F. P. Jules Grevy elected \npresident by the senate, and deputies united as \n"The National Assembly" (536 for Grevy ; 99 \n\nfor gen. Chanzy) 30 Jan. ,, \n\nGambetta elected president of the chamber, 31 Jan. ,, \nResignation of Dufaure ; 1 Feb. new ministry formed \nby M. Waddington ; changes (see Nov. 1877) ; M. \nle Royer (keeper of seals and justice), Jules Ferry \n(public instruction), M. Lepere (agriculture), adtn. \nJaureguiberry (marine) ... 4 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nCommunist amnesty bill passed by chamber of depu- \nties 21 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nResignation of M. de Marcere, minister of the in- \nterior (police scandals), 3 March ; succeeded by \nM. Lepere . . ... 4 March, ,, \n\nAdmiral Pothuau, ambassador to England, March, ,, \nImpeachment of De Broglie and Rochebouet (late \nministers) recommended by a commission, . \n\n8 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \nImpeachment negatived by the chamber (317-159) ; \n\nvote of censure passed (240-154) . 13 March, ,, \nProposed return of the assemblies to Paris ; congress \n\nto be appointed (315-128) . . .22 March, ,, \nM. Ferry\'s education bills to check clerical influ- \nences, abolishing Jesuit colleges, &c. March, ,, \nPardon of 252 communists signed . 8 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \nBlanqui (a convict) elected for Bordeaux 20 April, ,, \nPardon of 400 communists signed . 24 May, ,, \nPrince Louis Napoleon killed while reconnoitering \n\nin Zululand . . . . . 1 June, ,, \n\nBlanqui\'s election annulled by the chamber (372-33), \n\n4 June ; pardoned and released . 11 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nPardon of 288 more communists signed . 5 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nViolent opposition of Paul de Cassagnac ; he is ex- \npelled the house for 3 days for abusing govern- \nment \'. 16 June, ,\xc2\xbb \n\nCongress of senate and deputies vote for their \n\nreturn to Paris (526-249) ... 20 June, (> \nM. Ferry\'s law of superior public instruction passed \n\nby the deputies 9 July, ,, \n\nPresident Grevy\'s first grand military review at \n\nLongchamps 13 July, ,, \n\nFete of the republic 14 July, ,, \n\nPrince Napoleon Jerome coldly accepted as chief of \n\nthe Bonapartists . . . . 20 July, ,, \nComte de Chambord\' s letter : " With the co-opera- \ntion of all honest men, and with the grace of God, \nI may save France, and will " . . 26 July, ,\xe2\x80\x9e \nChambers prorogued .... 2 Aug. ,, \n\nTreaties of commerce with England prolonged ; \n\nsigned 10 Oct. ,, \n\nHumbert, an amnestied communist, elected to the \nmunicipal council, Paris, n Oct.; imprisoned for \nseditious speeches, &c, 22 Oct. ; election an- \nnulled 4 Nov. ,, \n\nAbout 60 mayors in La Vendee dismissed for cele- \nbrating comte de Chambord\'s birthday . Nov. ,, \nThe senate and assembly meet again at Palis, \n\n27 Nov. ,\xe2\x80\x9e \nMichel Chevalier, political economist, dies, 28 Nov. , T \nM. Waddington demands a vote of confidence, 2 Dec. ,, \n[Republican sections : left centre, pure left, ad- \nvanced left, extreme left.] \nMinisterial majority (22 1-97); many abstainers, 4 Dec. ,, \nResignation of Lepere and Le Royer, ministers, \n\nn, 12 Dec. ,, \nResignation of the Waddington ministry . 21 Dec. ,, \nNew ministry (more republican left) formed by \nM. de Freycinet ; includes Jules Ferry (public \ninstruction) and Lepere (interior) ; not Wadding- \nton or Leon Say . . . . 28, 29 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nGen. Farre, new war minister, dismisses heads of \n\ndepartments in War office .... Jan. 1880 \nMeeting of the Chambers .... 13 Jan. , r \nM. de Freycinet\'s moderate programme 16 Jan. ,, \nDeath (ex-foreign ministers) : due de Gramont, 16 \n\nJan. ; Jules Fa vre .... 20 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \nBudget for 1881 announced : estimated revenue, \n110,935,000?. ; 960,000?. more than for 1880 ; sur- \nplus, 1,300,000/, Feb. ,, \n\nDeath of M. Cremieux ... 10 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nFRANCE \n\n\n\n401 \n\n\n\nFKANCE. \n\n\n\nPlenary amnesty for communists rejected toy the \nChambers 12 Feb. i\xc2\xa3 \n\nDebate in senate : 7th clause of Ferry\'s education \nbill (abolishing Jesuit schools, &c); Jules Simon \nspeaks against it ; rejected (148-129) 9 March, \n\nDecree dissolving order of Jesuits and other orders \nin France 29 March, \n\nLetter from prince Napoleon Jerome in favour of \nthe decree ; offends Bonapartists, about 5 April, \n\nMany bishops and others protest against the de- \ncree April, . \n\nPacific circular of M. de Freycinet respecting inter- \nnational relations 16 April, \n\nMinisterial defeat on public meetings bill ; M. Le- \npere resigns, 15 May ; M. Constans succeeds, \n\n18 May, . \nGeneral Martel, president of senate, resigns ; suc- \nceeded by M. Leon Say ... 20 May, \n\nAmnesty bill for political offences, 19 June ; pre- \nsented by M. de Freycinet, 19 June ; passed by \nthe chambers (333-140) . . . .21 June, \n\nOtaheite formally annexed to France . 29 June, , \n\nExpulsion of religious orders (much officially op- \nposed) carried into effect with Jesuits 30 June, \n\nAmnesty bill passed for all, except incendiaries and \nassassins, by senate (143-138) . . 3 July, , \n\nThe president, Grevy, grants a general amnesty, 10 \nJuly ; Rochefort warmly received in Paris, 12 July, \n\nFirst grand republican national fete . 14 July, \n\nChambers prorogued 15 July, \n\nElections of councils-general ; great majority for \nrepublicans (anti-clerical and anti-Bonapartist), \n\n1 Aug. , \n\nMM. Grevy, Gambetta, and Leon Say, witness the \nlaunch of a man-of-war at Cherbourg, &c, \n\n8\xe2\x80\x94 11 Aug. , \n\nM. de Freycinet, in a speech at Montauban, ex- \npresses disagreement with his colleagues respect- \ning decree against religious orders ; resigns, \n\n19 Sept. \nNew ministry : Jules Ferry (premier and public \n\ninstruction), adm. Clouet (marine), Sadi-Carnot \n(public works), Barthelemy St. Hilaire (foreign) ; \nother offices unchanged . . .20 Sept. , \n\nTwo important letters from Guibert, abp. of Paris, \nto the president, recommending suspension of \nexecution of the decree of 29 Marcli against reli- \ngious orders, delivered . . . 6, 15 Sept. , \n\nFelix Pyat, editor of the Commune, sentenced to im- \nprisonment and fine for justifyingregicide,i9 Oct. , \n\nCarmelites and other religious orders expelled, \n\n16 Oct. \xe2\x80\x94 Nov. , \n\nMeeting of the assembly : majority against the \nministry (who resign) (200-166) . . 9 Nov. , \n\nThe ministry withdraw their resignation on vote of \nconfidence (240-149) .... 12 Nov. , \n\nM. Baudry d\'Asson, deputy, excluded 9 Nov.; re- \nfuses to retire from the chamber ; forcibly ex- \npelled 11 Nov. , \n\nViolent attacks of Rochefort (in I\'Intransigeant) on \nGambetta ; crushing replies . . . Dec. , \n\nMunicipal council elections strongly in favour of \nthe government 9 Jan. 18 \n\nMeeting of the chambers .... 20 Jan. , \n\nBill greatly freeing the press brought in 26 Jan. , \n\nProjected loan of 40,000,000^ (public debt, about \n1,200,000^) immediately taken up for 30 times the \namount March, , \n\nDi-scussion respecting the scrutin de liste (which \nsee), advocated by Gambetta ; opposed by presi- \ndent Grevy, who yields . . -21, 22 March, , \n\nExpedition to N. Africa to chastise the Kroumirs ; \ninvasion of Tunis . . . March, April, , \n\nTreaty with the bey signed (see Tunis) 12 May, , \n\nExcitement at Marseilles and in Italy (which see), \n\n13 May, et seq. , \n\nM. Bardoux\'s bill for the scrutin dc liste adopted by \nthe chamber of deputies (243-235) . 18 May, , \n\nThe Tunis treaty ratified by the chamber (453-1), \n\n23 May, , \n\nWarm reception of Gambetta at Cahors and other \nplaces 25 May, , \n\nProposed revision of the constitution negatived in \nthe chambers 31 May, , \n\nThe scrutin de liste rejected by the senate (148-114), \n\n9 June, , \n\nAdjournment of the chambers . . . July, , \n\n\n\nElection addresses. M. Rouher retires from poli- \ntical life (virtual end of Bonapartism), about 31 \nJuly ; prince Napoleon Jerome advocates pro- \ngress \xe2\x80\x94 "everything for and by the people" \xe2\x80\x94 \nabout 31 July ; speeches of M. Gambetta at \nTours, Belleville, 12 Aug., advocating revision \nof the constitution, Aug. ; M. Jules Ferry at \nNancy deprecates division . about 11 Aug. : \n\nNegotiations for treaty of commerce broken off; \nannounced 16 Aug. \n\nElections ; triumph of Gambetta and moderate re- \npublicans ; gain of about 44 members ; hopeless \nminority of extremists of both kinds . 21 Aug. \n\nFrench treaty. French government propose meeting \nof the commissioners at Paris on 22 Aug.; England \nrequests 3 months\' extension of existing treaty; \nFrance declines ; negotiations stopped ; an- \nnounced 18 Aug. \n\nComplications respecting Tripoli cleared up about \n\n18 Aug. \n\nGeneral elections ; great republican majority; num- \nber of extremists on both sides much reduced \n21 Aug. et seq. \n\nNegotiations respecting the commercial treaty re- \nsumed (France agrees to 3 months\' extension of \nthe treaty from 8 Nov.) . . .19 Sept. \n\nCapuchins and other orders relieved from their \nmonastic vows by the pope . . . Oct. \n\nMeeting of new chamber of deputies . 28 Oct. \n\nM. Brisson elected president ... 3 Nov. \n\nTreaty with the bey of Tunis confirmed by the \nchamber. Vote of censure on the Ferry ministry \nrespecting Tunis war negatived by a great ma- \njority, 9 Nov. ; the ministry resign . 10 Nov. \n\nNew ministry gazetted ; M. Gambetta (minister of \nforeign affairs and premier), M. Cazot (justice), \nM. Waldeck-Rousseau (interior), M. Allain-Targe \n(finance), general Campenon (war), M. Gougeard \n(marine), M. Paul Bert (education and worship), \nM. Raynal (public works), M. Rouvier (com- \nmerce and colonies), M. Cochery (posts and tele- \ngraphs), M. Deves (agriculture), and M. Proust \n(Arts) 12 Nov. \n\nModerate declaration of Gambetta to the chambers \n(everything to be for France) . . . 15 Nov. \n\nM. H. Rochefort acquitted of bitter libel against \nM. Roustan in I\'Intransigeant ; a virtual censure \nof the Tunis affair 15 Dec. \n\nAnglo-French treaty negotiations stop ; French \nconcessions insufficient ... 30 Dec. \n\nElections for senators ; republicans gain 27 ; now \n207 \xe2\x80\x9493 ; opposition announced . . 9 Jan. \n\nMuch speculation ; panic on the bourse, 19 Jan. ; \nchecked by resolution \n\nThe League of Patriots established to support the \narmy by encouraging military spirit, and support \nM. Gambetta ... ... \n\nDefeat of the government; rejection of the scrutin \nde liste (305 \xe2\x80\x94 119) ; resignation of M. Gambetta, \n\n26 Jan. \n\nNew ministry : M. de Freycinet (president of the \ncouncil and minister for foreign affairs), M. Leon \nSay (finance), M. Jules Ferry (public instruction), \nM. Goblet (interior and public worship), M. Hum- \nbert (justice), general Billot (war), admiral Jau- \nreguiberry (marine), M. Varroy (public works), \nM. Tirard (commerce), M. Mahy (agriculture), \nM. Cochery (posts and telegraphs) 30, 31 Jan. \n\nFailure of the Union Generale company ; continu- \nance of panic 30 Jan. \n\nArrest of Bontoux, president, and Feder, manager \n\n2 Feb. \n\nProposed revision of constitution negatived, 287\xe2\x80\x9466 \n\n6 Feb. \n\nAnglo-French treaty renewed till 1 March, 6 Feb. ; \ntill 15 May 27 Feb. \n\nM. Tissot ambassador at London . . March, \n\nNew education bill passed; much government in- \nterference .... about 31 Marcli, \n\nCommercial convention with Great Britain for ten \nyears proposed April, \n\nVote of confidence in the government (298 \xe2\x80\x94 70) \n\n1 June, \n\nCrisis : confidence in the ministry respecting Egypt \nvoted (286 \xe2\x80\x94 105) .... 20 July, \n\nVote of credit lor protection of Suez canal negatived \non motion of M. Clemenceau (416 \xe2\x80\x94 75); resigna- \ntion of ministry 29 July \n\nD D \n\n\n\nFRANCE. \n\n\n\n402 \n\n\n\nFRANCE. \n\n\n\nThe New French ministry, composed as follows : \nM. Duclerc (president of the council and minister \nfor foreign affairs), M. Tirard (finance), M. Deves \n(justice) , M. Fallieres (interior) , M. Pierre Legrand \n(commerce, and ad interim public works) , general \nBillot (war), admiral Jaureguiberry (the navy), \nM. Cochery (post office and telegraphs), M. de \nMahy (agriculture), M. Duvaux (public instruc- \ntion) - \xe2\x80\xa2 i Aug. 188 \n\nGambetta advocates activity in foreign affairs, and \nabstention in domestic ; Clemenceau the reverse, \nJuly \xe2\x80\x94 Aug. ; chambers prorogued. . 9 Aug. ,, \nDisturbance amongst the miners of the Saone and \n\nLoire about 17 Aug. ,, \n\nThe Bonapartists select prince Victor as their chief \n\nabout 31 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe compulsory education act comes into operation \n\n2 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nDiscovery of an organisation of anarchists (alleged \norigin at Geneva, and prince Krapotkine, mem- \nber) ; tracts distributed by groups of young men \nthroughout the country ; attempted insurrection \nat Montceau-les-Mines suppressed . Aug. ,, \nMany arrested [9 convicted, 22 Dec] . 21 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nPlace of trial changed ; dynamite explosions threa- \ntened about 26 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDisturbances at Lyons ; anarchy and panic ; busi- \nness and amusements suspended ; the town said \nto be held by the mob ... 27 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGovernment official note promising public security \n\n27 Oct. ,, \nArrest connected with an explosion at a cafe (one \nman killed) on 23 Oct. ; railway station held by \n\ntroops 28 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMuch dynamite seized 29 Oct. ,, \n\nGreat distress in Lyons Oct. ,, \n\nPanic subsiding in Paris, &c. . . 8 Nov. ,, \n\nOpening of the chambers .... 9 Nov. ,, \nCrown jewels (value about 100,000?.) stolen from \n\nthe cathedral of St. Denis ... 23 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nTreaty with the king of Congo negotiated by M. \n\nBrazza ratified 21 Nov. ,, \n\nDeath of Louis Blanc 6 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMM. Bontoux & Feder, directors of the " Union \nGenerate" (a financial company established in \n1878, and patronised by the legitimists, clergy, \nand the middle classes), sentenced to imprison- \nment and tines for gross frauds, which caused \nvery great universal distress (it stopped 28 Jan.) \n\n20 Dec. ,, \nPrince Krapotkine, anarchist,arrested about 21 Dec. ,, \nDeath of M. Gambetta, aged 44. after several weeks \nillness through an accidental wound, midnight, \n\n31 Dec. ,, \nHis grand state funeral at Paris . . 6 Jan. 188 \n\nDeath of gen. Chanzy, aged about 60 . . 5 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDeath of gen. Vinoy Jan. ,, \n\nTrial of Krapotkine and about 50 anarchists begun \n\nat Lyons 8 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nHe sentenced to 5 years\' imprisonment and fine, \n\nothers to imprisonment ... 19 Jan. ,, \nGambetta\'s remains removed and re-buried at Nice \n\n13 Jan. ,, \nPrince Napoleon publishes a manifesto against the \n\ngovernment ; arrested ... 16 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nM. Floquet\'s bill for expulsion of Bourbons and \n\nBonapartes 16 Jan. ,, \n\nGovernment bill of M. de Fallieres for power to \n\nexpel the same 20 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMinisterial crisis 23 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nExpulsion bill adopted by committee . 25 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \nM. Duclere\'s ministry resigned . . .28 Jan. ,, \nMinistry re-constituted under M. Fallieres 29 Jan. ,, \nM. Fabre\'s bill permitting princes to remain with \ndeprival of civil rights, discussed, 29 Jan. ; passed \nby the chamber (343-163) . . . 1 Feb. ,, \nPrince Napoleon\'s indictment quashed ; released, \n\n9 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nExpulsion bill rejected by the senate ; amendment \nof MM. Say and Waddington adopted (165-127) ; \nprinces to\'be expelled only after trial . 12 Feb. ,, \nResignation of M. Fallieres and ministry 13 Feb. ,, \nM. Barbey\'s bill empowering the president to expel \nprinces when dangerous, adopted by the deputies, \n15 Feb. ; rejected by the senate . .17 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nM. Jules Ferry (opportunist) forms a ministry \n(Gambettist) ; M. Jules Ferry (premier and \nminister of public instruction), M. Challemel- \n\n\n\nLacour (foreign affairs), M. Waldeck-Rousseau \n(interior), M. Martin Feuille (justice), General \nThibaudin (war), M. Charles Brun (marine), \nM. Tirard (finance), M. Raynal (public works), \nM. Meline (agriculture), M. Cochery (posts and \ntelegraphs), M. Herisson (commerce) . 21 Feb. 1 \nDecree for retirement of the Orleanist princes from \nthe army in virtue of the law of 1834 (the due \nd\'Aumale, the due de Chartres, and the due \nd\'Alengon), approved by the deputies (295-103), \n\n24 Feb. \nM. Clemenceau\'s motion for revision of the Consti- \ntution rejected by the deputies . 6 March, \nOpen-air meeting of artisans out of work at Paris \nexcited to violence by Louise Michel the anar- \nchist and others ; bakers\' shops rifled ; checked \nby police, 9 March; many arrested 10 March, \nLouise Michel arrested ... 30 March, \nTrial of madame Monasterio and others for putting \nher daughter Fidelia in a mad-house, and ill- \nusage ; case referred back to public prosecutor, \n\nMarch, \nDeath of Louis Veuillot, ultramontane, editor of \n\nVUnivers 8 April, \n\nMarshal Bazaine publishes his defence at Madrid. \nConversion of Rentes bill (5 to 4J) passed 27 April, \nMuseum of revolution established at Versailles, \n\n20 June, \nLouise Michel sentenced to 6 years\' imprisonment, \nand others to different terms . . 23 June, \nNational fete ; colossal statue of the Republic un- \ncovered 14 July, \n\nM. Waddington, ambassador in London, appointed \nabout 16 July, arrives ... 23 July, \' \n\nThe chambers close 2 Aug. \n\nThe inauguration of the monument (byM. Barrias) \n\nerected atCourbevoie to commemorate the defence \n\nof Paris in 1870-1 .... 12 Aug. \n\nDeath of the comte de Chambord, aged nearly 63 \n\n24 Aug. \nStatue of Lafayette unveiled at Lepuy . 6 Sept. \nGreat royalist meeting at Paris; little excitement, \n\n20 Sept. \n\nThe king of Spain received by president Grevy at \n\nParis ; hooted by the mob . . 29 Sept. \n\nGen. Thibaudin, minister of war, resigns, 5 Oct. ; \n\nsucceeded by gen. Campenon . . 9 Oct. \n\nM. Jules Ferry declares for a Republic of \' \' common \n\nsense," and opposition to the extreme left at \n\nRouen, 13 Oct. ; and at Havre . . 14 Oct. \n\nThe government awards 1,000?. to Mr. Shaw (see \n\nMadagascar, 1883) . . . about 15 Oct. \n\nThe chambers meet 23 Oct. \n\nCorrespondence between France and China respect- \ning Tonquin published in Times; China firm in \nresisting French encroachments. . 29 Oct. \nDebate on Tonquin; votes of confidence in minis- \ntry (339-160) . . . 29-31 Oct.; 10, 18 Dec. \nM. Ferry becomes foreign minister on the retire- \nment of M. Challemel-Lacour ; other changes in \nthe ministry . . . about 17-20 Nov. \nGovernment defeated on Algerian colonisation (249- \n\n211) 28 Dec. \n\nDeath of M. Rouher, prime minister of Napoleon \n\nIII 3 Feb. : \n\nIndustrial crisis in Paris ; defeat of the government ; \n\na committee of investigation into the condition of \n\nthe working classes appointed (254-249) 4 Feb. \n\nProposals for loan of 14,000,000?. issued 12 Feb. \n\nGovernment defeated on its seditious meetings bill, \n\n16 Feb. \nDeath of Francois Mignet, French historian, aged \n\nabout 87 24 March, \n\nStatue of Gambetta (by Falquieres) at Cahors, un- \nveiled by M. Jules Ferry ... 14 April, \nMunicipal elections : radicals rather more than \nopportunists ; few of other parties . May, \n\nBill for revision of the Constitution (abolition of \nlife senators, &c.) brought in by M. Jules Ferry, \n\n24 May, \nPrince Victor acknowledged chief of the Bona- \npartists ; his father publishes painful correspon- \ndence . . . . . . June, \n\nCholera prevalent in the south, &c. (see Cholera) \n\nJune, ct seq. \n\nColossal statue of Liberty by Bartholde given to \n\nthe United States of America unveiled by M. \n\nJules Ferry at Paris . -4 Jnly \n\n\n\nFRANCE. \n\n\n\n403 \n\n\n\nFRANCE. \n\n\n\nRevision bill, modified by the senate, accepted by \nthe deputies 31 July, \n\nCongress of senate and deputies meet at Versailles, \nM. Le Royer, president ... 4 Aug. \n\nThe revision of the Constitution accepted by the \ncongress, 509-172 .... 13 Aug. \n\nExcitement about the price of bread at Paris and \nother places Oct., Dec. \n\nWife of M. Clovis Hugues, a deputy, shoots Morin, \na slanderous libeller, in the Palace of Justice ; he \ndies ; [she acquitted ! 8 Jan. 1885] . 27 Nov. \n\nCredit for Tonquin war adopted by the deputies, \n282-187, z8 Nov. ; by the senate . n Dec. \n\nResignation of gen. Campenon, war minister, 3 Jan. \nsucceeded by gen. Lewal ... 5 Jan. \n\nSenatorial elections (67 republicans and 20 con- \nservatives returned) . . . 25-26 Jan. \n\nThe Chamber votes for engagement of unemployed \nworkmen on public works ... 5 Feb. \n\nThe Ferry ministry resign in consequence of defeat \nin the chamber 30 March, \n\nNew ministry formed by M. Brisson . 6 April, \n\nPeace with China, announced . . 7 April, \n\nDuty on foreign corn voted by the senate 27 March, \n\nM. Ferry\'s ministry defeated on vote of credit for \n_ Chinese war (308-161) ; resigns . . 30 March, \n\nVote of credit for 2,000,000?., 31 March ; for \n6,000,000? 7 April, \n\nNew ministry ; H. Brisson (president and justice), \nD. E. Freycinet (foreign), Allain Targe (interior), \nGoblet (public instruction and worship), gen. \nCampenon (war), adm. Galiber (marine), Clama- \ngeran, afterwards Sadi-Carnot (finance), and others \n\n6 April, \n\nBosphore Egyptien Affair. See Egypt . May, \n\nAnarchist demonstration at Pere la Chaise ; many \nwounded by the police ... 24 May, \n\nDeath of Victor Hugo, poet, dramatist and novelist, \naged 83, 22 May ; buried in the Pantheon ; pro- \ncession 3 miles long, all Paris spectators 1 June, \n\nScrutin de liste bill passed with the senate\'s amend- \nments 8 June, \n\nDeath of admiral Courbet . . . 11 June, \n\nGreat excitement in Paris about Olivier Pain (see \nSoudan) Aug. \n\nChambers prorogued 6 Aug. ; parliamentary elec- \ntions, 200 conservatives, 230 moderates or oppor- \ntunists, 150 radicals .... 4 Oct. \n\nThe ministers not re-elected resign . 6 Oct. \n\nM. de Freycinet shot at in the Place de la Concorde \n\n29 Oct. \n\nNew chamber meets .... to Nov. \n\nRepublican party disorganised . . 10 Nov. \n\nThe ministry propose retrenchment in colonial war \nexpenditure, and consideration of church dis- \nestablishment ..... 16 Nov. \n\nReport of committee on Tonquin recommends vote \nof 19,000,000 francs instead of 75,000,000 proposed \nby government 16 Dec. \n\nGreat commercial depression, attributed to govern- \nment prodigality, &c Dec. \n\nv ote for government (274-270) . . 21-23 Dec. \n\nF. P. Jules Grevy elected president for seven years \n(457 for Grevy, 68 for M. Brisson) . 28 Dec. \n\nM. Brisson\'s ministry resigns . . .29 Dec. \n\nNew ministry ; M. de Freycinet (president and \nforeign affairs), M. Demole (justice), M. Sarrien \n(interior), M. Goblet (education), M. Sadi-Carnot \n(finance), general Boulanger (war), admiral Aube \n(marine and colonies), M. Ba\'ihaut (public works), \nM. Develle (agriculture), M. Lockroy (commerce), \nM. Granet (posts and telegraphs) . . 7 Jan. \n\nAmnesty for political offenders granted . 14 Jan. \n\nThe prefect of Eure (M. Barreme) assassinated in a \nrailway carriage 13 Jan. \n\nRiotous strike of 3,000 miners at Decazeville, in \nAveyron, murder of M. Watrin, manager, end of \n\nJan. \n\nNew elections increase the Republican members |i> \n400, the Right 184 . . . . about 16 Feb. \n\nM. Sadi-Carnot\'s budget ; proposed new loan of \nabout 58,500,000?. (70,000,000/. really wanted) 17 \nMarch ; the modified loari immediately sub- \nscribed for, 20,000,000?. passed by the deputies \n\n21 April, \n\nAbp. Gnibert of Paris, in a letter to president \nGrevy, protests against prohibiting monks anil \nnuns to teach in schools . . about 1 April, \n\n\n\nM. Barthelemy\'s book, " Avant la Bataille," advo- \ncating the re-conquest of Alsace and Lorraine, \npublished .... about 6 April, \n\nGrand reception of the comte de Paris on account \nof the marriage of his daughter with the duke of \nBraganza 15 May ; causes republican jealousy \n\nMay, \n\nBills for giving discretionary power to expel the \nOrleans princes and prince Napoleon and son \nfrom France and confiscating their property, \nintroduced in the chambers (M. Freycinet in- \nfluenced by M. Clemenceau) 27 May ; reported \ndisagreement in the cabinet on the subject 2, 3 . \nJune ; bill for immediate expulsion of heads of \nfamilies and heirs of dynasties who have reigned \nin France passed by the chamber n June ; and \nby the senate (137-122) 22 June ; promulgated ; \nthe Bonapartes quit France 23 June ; the comte \nde Paris and family leave ; at Dover he issues a \nprotest declaring monarchy to be the most \nsuitable government for France, and j)laees him- \nself as head of the royalists . . . 24 June, \n\nDeath of Guibert, abp. of Paris . . .8 July, \n\nThe due d\'Aumale remonstrates against the depri- \nvation of his rank in the army ; his expulsion \nfrom France voted 13 July ; rev. W. J. Drought, \nEnglish chaplain at Chantilly, expelled from \nFrance for delivering an address of sympathy \nto the duke Aug. \n\nSession closed 15 July, \n\nCelebration of the 100th birthday of M. Chevreul, \nchemist and physicist ... 31 Aug. \n\nEducation bill permitting lay teachers only passed \nby the chamber 28 Oct. \n\nMinistry defeated in the chamber (by 13 majority), \nresigns 3 Dee. \n\nNew ministry : M. Goblet (president and interior), \nM. Flourens (foreign), M. Dauphin (finance), M. \nBerthelot(publicinstruction), M. Sarrien (justice), \ngen. Boulanger (war), adm. Aube (marine), M. \nGranet (posts and telegraphs), M. Lockroy \n(commerce), M. Millaud (public works), M\xe2\x80\x9e \nDevelle (agriculture) .... Dee. \n\nContinued deficit ; budget rejected ; amended one \naccepted by government ... 22 Jan. \n\nPanic on the bourse through war rumours 1 Feb. \n\nBill for increasing duty on foreign corn adopted by \nthe chamber (318-248) 14 March ; by the senate \n25 March ; duty on foreign cattle and meat raised \n\nMarch \n\nM. Schnaebell, commissary of police, arrested near \nPagny-sur-Moselle, territory doubtful, and sent \nto Metz 20 April ; charged with treason 22 April ; \nstatements contradictory ; released by order of \nthe emperor William ... 29 April, \n\nSale of the crown jewels for 274,560?., diamonds \n289,000?. ; the diamonds distributed between the \nLouvre and other museums . . 12-23 May, \n\nThe Goblet ministry defeated on the budget bill \n(275-257) ; resigns t 7 May, \n\nMM. Freycinet, Floquet, Deves and Duclerc fail \n\nMay, \n\nM. Rouvier forms a moderate ministry, consisting \nof M. Rouvier (finances, posts and telegraphs), \nM. Flourens (foreign affairs), M. Mazeau (justice), \nM. Fallieres (interior), M. Spullcr (public instruc- \ntion and worship), M. Barbcy (marine and \ncolonies), gen. Ferron (war), M. Dautresme (com- \nmerce and public works), M. Barbe (agriculture) \n\n30 51 ay, \nGen. Boulanger, the late war minister, issues a \n\nmonitory order to the army . . 30 May, \nExemption of ecclesiastical students (seminarists) \n\nabolished in new army bill . . 25 June, \nGen. Boulanger warmly received in his progress \n\nto Clermont Ferrand .... 9 July. \nRadical attack on\' the ministry defeated (382-120) \n\n11 July, \nPranzini, a sordid profligate, convicted of the \n\nmurder of Marie Regnault and two other women \n\n13 July; executed 31 Aug. \n\nSession closed 22 .inly. \n\nGen. Boulanger challenges M. Ferry for remarks in \na speech about 29 July ; seconds differ ; no result \n\nAug. \nMobilization of 17th army corps, near Toulouse \n\n31 Aug. \n\nD D 2 \n\n\n\ni33 7 \n\n\n\nFRANCE. \n\n\n\n404 \n\n\n\nEKANCE. \n\n\n\nManifesto of the comte de Paris calling for the re- \nestablishment of a constitutional monarchy by \nuniversal suffrage as specially needful for France \n\n14 Sept. \n\nM. Brignon killed, and M. Wangen de Girolseck \n(French sportsmen) wounded by Kaufmann, a \nGerman soldier and gamekeeper, near the boun- \ndary in the Vosges 24 Sept. ; German redress given, \n2, 500L presented .to Mad. Brignon announced 7 Oct. \n\nMilitary scandal ; gen. Caffarel of the war office \nconvicted by a military tribunal of dishonourable \nconduct in trafficking with decorations 13 Oct. \n\nGen. Boulanger under arrest for thirty days for \nremarks respecting the scandal . . 14 Oct. \n\nAmicable conventions respecting Suez Canal and \nNew Hebrides signed at Paris . . 24 Oct. \n\nPrince Victor Napoleon issues a Bonapartist \nmanifesto 25 Oct. \n\nThe chambers meet 27 Oct. \n\nLord Lyons, British ambassador, retires (appointed \nin 1867) ; [died 5 Dec. ;] succeeded by the earl of \nLytton Oct. \n\nTrial of gen. Caffarel and others ; discharged 7 Nov. \n\nGen. count D\'Andlau and Madame Rattazzi sen- \ntenced to imprisonment and fines for trafficking \nin decorations 14 Nov. \n\nM. Wilson, son-in-law of the president, implicated ; \nalso charged with tampering with documents \n\nNov. \n\nThe old four-and-a-half per cent, rentes converted \nto three per cents, accepted ... . Nov. \n\nM. Rouvier defeated in the chamber on a motion of \nM. Clemenceau (317-227) ; the ministry resigns ; \nM. Grevy refuses to resign 19 Nov. ; but is com- \npelled by the combination of opposite parties ; \nthe Rouvier ministry retains office ; on their \n\n\' announcing that M. Grevy defers his resignation \nthe chamber immediately adjourns (531-3) 1 Dec. ; \nreceives M. Grevy\'s resignation . . 2 Dec. \n\nNational assembly at Versailles ; congress of \nsenators and deputies (833) ; M.. Sadi-Carnot \n("moderate independent") elected president \n(616) ; general Saussier, an unwilling candidate \n(148) ; (MM. Ferry and de Freycinet withdrawn) \n\n3 Dec. \n\nM. Goblet fails to form a ministry 9 Dec. ; M. \nFallieres fails 10 Dec. \n\nAttempted assassination of M. Ferry by Aubertin, \na lunatic, in the lobby of the chamber of deputies, \na narrow escape 10 Dec. \n\nThe tribunals find no case against M. Wilson \n\n13 Dec. \n\nNew ministry : M. Tirard (finance and premier), \nM. Flourens (foreign affairs), M. Fallieres (justice), \nM. Sarrien (interior), M. Faye (education and \nworship), M. de Mahy, afterwards adm. Krantz, \nJan. 1888 (marine and colonies) ; M. Loubet \n(public works), M. Dautresme (commerce), M. \nViette (agriculture), gen. Logerot (war) 13 Dec. \n\nThe session of the chambers closed . 18 Dec. \n\nMr. Archibald M\'Neill, journalist, wounded and \ndrowned (suspected murder) at Boulogne 20 Dec. \n1887 ; Vermersch arrested . . . Jan. \n\nGen. Boulanger deprived of his command for in- \nsubordination in visiting Paris against orders ; \nannounced 15 March, \n\nDeath of M. L. H. Carnot, father of the president, \naged 86 z (, March, \n\nTrial of M. Wilson for traffic in decorations ; \nsentenced to two years\' imprisonment, loss of \ncivil rights for five years, and fine of 3,000 francs, \n1 March ; sentence quashed by court of appeal \n\n26 March, \nGen. Boulanger tried by court of five generals ; \n\nsentenced to retirement 26 March; confirmed \n\n27 March, \nM. Tirard\'s ministry defeated when opposing \n\nurgency for revision of constitution (26S-234) ; \n\nresigns 30 March, \n\nM. Floquet forms a ministry : M. Charles Floquet \n(president of the council and minister of the \ninterior), M. de Freycinet (war), M. Goblet \n(foreign affairs), admiral Krantz (marine and the \ncolonies), M. Peytral (finance, posts, and tele- \ngraphs), M. Edouard Lockroy (public instruction, \nfine arts, and worship), M. Deluns Montaud \n(public works), M. Ferrouillat (justice), M. Pierre \n\n\n\n1887 \n\n\n\nLegrand (commerce and industry), M. Viette \n\n(agriculture) 3 April, \n\nGen. Boulanger begins to form a party ; elected \n\ndeputy for the Dordogne (59,500-35,750) 8 April ; \n\nfor the Nord (172,528-75,901) . . 15 April, \nRise of an anti-parliamentary party, a mixture of \n\nconservatives, radicals, &c. . . . April, \nAfter vote of confidence in the ministry (379-177), \n\nit is defeated on the revision question (340-215) \n\n19 April, \nA committee advises postponement of revision ; \n\nriots between students and Boulangists 20 April, \nGreat circulation of gen. Boulanger\'s (alleged) \n\n" German Invasion, no. 1 " 8 May ; soon fell off \n\n18 May, \nRoyalist banquet at the chateau de Mons, near St. \n\nEtienne ; powerful speech of general de Charette \n\n27 May, \n\nGen. Boulanger\'s motion in the chamber for \nurgency in the revision of the constitution \nrejected (377-186) .... 4 June, \n\nThe manifesto of the comte de Paris to the mayors \nof communes against the republic signed 6 July, \n\nGen. Boulanger in the chamber demands dissolu- \ntion, firmly resisted by M. Floquet ; the general \naccuses M. Floquet of falsehood, resigns his seat, \nand leaves the House in great excitement, 12 \nJuly ; duel, gen. Boulanger seriously, and M. \nFloquet slightly wounded, 13 July ; gen. Boulan- \nger reported convalescent . . .20 July, \n\nUnveiling of the Gambetta monument at Paris by \npresident Carnot . . . .13 July, \n\nNational fete passes quietly . . .14 July, \n\n67,000,000 francs voted for the defence of Brest, \nToulon and Cherbourg ... 17 July, \n\nSession of chambers closed . . . 18 July, \n\nGen. Boulanger defeated in elections for Ardeche, &c. \n\nJuly, \n\nFuneral of Eudes the communist ; rioting sup- \npressed ; no deaths 8 Aug. \n\nDiplomatic dispute with Italy respecting Massowah \n(MM. Goblet and Crispi). . . . Aug. \n\nGen. Boulanger elected for tire Nord, Somme, and \nCharente 19 Aug. \n\nDeath of marshal Bazaine, aged 77 . .23 Sept. \n\nDecree of president Carnot and M. Floquet respect- \ning resident foreigners and immigrants 2 Oct. ; \nregistration causes much annoyance ; time pro- \nlonged to 1 Jan. 1889 ... 28 Oct. \n\nThe League of the Rose formed to promote the re- \nestablishment of the monarchy . autumn, \n\nThe chambers re-open ; M. Floquet introduces a \n\nbill for the revision of the constitution, which is \n\ndeclared urgent 15 Oct. ; much dissatisfaction \n\n16 Oct. et seq. \n\nGraduated tax on incomes above 2,000 francs pro- \nposed by M. Peytral .... 22 Oct. \n\nIncrease of Boulangist demonstrations . Oct. \n\nPrado, alios count Linska de CasfTllon, and other \nnames, a daring unprincipled adventurer, the \nhusband and associate of many women, whom he \nhad robbed of jewelry, &c, and some of whom \nhe was strongly\' suspected to have murdered, is \nconvicted of the murder and robbery of diamonds \nof Marie Aguetant, an unfortunate, in Paris (14 \nJan. 1886) 14 Nov - \n\nM. Numa Gilly tried for defamation against the \nbudget committee ; acquitted for want of evidence \n\n17 Nov. \n\nFestival of the League of Patriots (Boulangists) \n\n25 Nov. \n\nDemonstration at Paris in honour of M. Baudin, a \ndeputy killed on the barricades 2 Dec. 1851, \n\n2 Dec. \n\nPowerful speech of M. Challemel-Lacour on the \ndemoralization of parliament by reckless faction \n\n19 Dec. \nPrado executed (see 14 Nov.) ... 28 Dec. \nWindfall of 1,218,000 francs to the government (see \n\nTontine) Dec. \n\nGen. Boulanger elected for the department of the \nSeine (244,000) ; M. Jacques, advanced republican, \n(162,000) 27 Jan. \n\nM. Floquet has majority of 62 in the chamber \n\n31 Jan. \n\nBill for replacing the scrutin de lute by the scrutin \nd\'arrondissement carried in the chamber (268-222) \n11 Feb. ; in the senate (228-54) \xe2\x80\xa2 *3 Feb. \n\n\n\n18S9 \n\n\n\nFEANCE. \n\n\n\n405 \n\n\n\nFEANCE. \n\n\n\nThe ministerial scheme for the revision of the \nconstitution rejected (307-218); they resign \n\n14 Feb. 1 \n\nDissension between the opportunists and the \nradicals ... ... Feb. \n\nM. Meline fails to form an opportunist ministry \n\n18 Feb. \n\nM. Tirard forms a mixed ministry, including several \nex-premiers : M. Tirard (premier and minister of \ncommerce), M. Constans (interior), M. Spiiller \n(foreign), M. de Freycinet (war), M. Eouvier \n(finance), M. Thevenet (justice), adm. Jaures \n(died 13 March ; succeeded by admiral Krantz) \n(marine), M*. Fallieres (education), M. Yves Guyot \n(public works), M. Faye (agriculture) 21, 22 Feb. \n\nThe League of Patriots, established in 1882, becoming \nseditious and connected with Boulangism, sup- \npressed by the government 28 Feb. ; alleged \nnumber 240,000 ; protest about 2 March ; MM. \nDeroulede, Laguerre, and others, committee \nof the League, prosecuted ; trial 2 April ; each \nlined 100 fr 6 April, \n\nFall in the shares of the Comptoir d\'Bscompte de \nParis through speculations in copper (which see), \nFeb. ; suicide of M. Denfert-Bochereau, the mana- \nger, 5 March ; panic ; checked by the intervention \nof government and bank of France, 9 March ; \nsupported by Messrs. Rothschild and other \nbankers, March ; reconstituted successfully \n\nMarch-May, \n\nDecree of expulsion of the due d\'Aumale revoked \n\xe2\x96\xa0 7 March; the due received by M. Carnot, 12 March, \n\nManifesto of gen. Boulanger to the Nord against \nthe government .... 18 March, \n\nHe escapes to Brussels 1, 2 April ; his trial for con- \nspiracy by the senate proposed ; issues manifesto \n5 April ; expects expulsion ; arrives in London \n\n24 April, \n\nThe senate meets as a high court for his trial \n\n12 April, \n\nM. Chevreul, chemist, dies aged 102 . 9 April, \n\nM. Carnot, the president, opens the "Revolution \nExhibition" of relics, at Paris . 18 April, \n\nGreat Royalist banquet at Paris . . 1 May, \n\nCentenary celebration of the meeting of the States \nGeneral (afterwards the Constituent Assembly) \n5 May, 1789 \xe2\x80\x94 president Carnot in the presence of \na grand assembly in the " Hall of Mirrors," \nVersailles, delivers a eulogium on the revolution \n\n5 Ma y. \n\n[On his way to Versailles, the president\'s carriage \n\nwas fired at by a semi-lunatic named Perrin \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nsentenced to four months\' imprisonment 28 May] \n\nThe Universal Exhibition opened by the president \n(see Paris) 6 May, \n\nNew army bill reducing the term of service from \nfive years with exemptions to three years, nomi- \nnally without exemptions, passed by the chamber \n\nJuly 9, \n\nM. Quesnay de Beaurepaire hands in the indictment \nagainst gen. Boulanger .... 7 July, \n\nSale (at Paris) of the pictures, tapestries, china, \n&c, of M. Secretan (ruined by speculations in \ncopper) ; enormous prices realised, 1-4 July ; 17 \nof M. Secretin\'s pictures were sold by Messrs. \nChristie in London for 27,824?.. 10s. . 13 July, \n\nAnniversary of the fall of the Bastille celebrated in \nFrance, the United States, <tc. . 14 July, \n\nBill prohibiting a man to be candidate for more \nthan one place in the chamber passed by the \nsenate 15 July, \n\nCantonal elections : republicans, 752 ; conserva- \ntives, 497 ; gen. Boulanger, 12 . . 28 July, \n\nThe chamber votes 2,400,000?. for the increase of \nthe navy (3 ironclads, &c.) ; the session closed \n\n15 July, \n\nIndictment against gen. Boulanger, charging him \nwhen director of infantry in 1882, with courting \npopularity by corruption, &c, and when minister \nof war in 1886 with malversation of public money, \nand plotting against the state, with count Dillon, \nH.Rochefort and other confederates; they are cited \nto appear before the High Court of Justice on 6 \nAug.; non-appearance to be followed by loss of civil \nrights and sequestration of property 17, 28 July, \n\nGen. Boulanger appeals to the people in reply to \nthe indictment 6 Aug. \n\n\n\nThe trial of gen. Boulanger, count Dillon, and H. \nRochefort begins 8 Aug. 1889 \n\nSentenced to deportation to a fortress, and payment \nof costs of the trial 14 Aug. ,, \n\nThe comte de Paris, prince Gerome Napoleon, his \nson Victor, and gen. Boulanger set forth their \nclaims for political power . . . Aug. ,, \n\nElections of the chamber of Deputies ; decisive \nvictory of the government . 22 Sept. and 6 Oct. ,, \n\n[112 Monarchists, 62 Bonapartists, 325 Re- \npublicans, 41 Bonlangists, 32 uncertain Liberals. \nGen. Boulanger\'s election was annulled.] \n\nThe universal exhibition closed . . .6 Nov. ,, \n\nThe new chamber opened, 12 Nov. ; M. Floquet \nelected president . . . . 18 Nov. ,, \n\nModerate statement by M. Tirard . . 19 Nov. ,, \n\nThe Boulangist demonstration easily quelled \n\n12 Nov. ,, \n\nSupreme naval council created by decree . 6 Dec. ,, \n\nGen. Boulanger\'s election, and that of several \nBoulangists, for Montmartre, annulled by the \nchamber (370 \xe2\x80\x94 123) .... 9 Dec. ,, \n\nThree Boulangist deputies expelled from the \nchamber for disorderly conduct . . 20 Jan. 1890 \n\nThe duke of Orleans (aged 21) comes to Paris, and \noffers to enter the army ; arrested , 7 Feb. ; sen- \ntenced to two years\' imprisonment for breaking \nthe exile law of 1886, 12 Feb. ; taken to Clairvaux \n\n25 Feb. ,, \n\nMiners\' strike at St. Etienne, 2,700 out . 20 Feb. ,, \n\nResignation of M. Constans, minister of the In- \nterior, succeeded by M. Leon Bourgeois 1 March, ,, \n\nM. Tirard and his cabinet defeated in the senate, \nresign . . . . . . 14 March, ,, \n\nNew ministry, M. de Freycinet (premier and war \nminister), M. Rouvier (finance), M. Constans \n(interior), M. Bourgeois (public instruction), M. \nRibot (foreign), M. Fallieres (justice and public, \nworship), M. Jules Roche (commerce), M. Deville \n(agriculture), M. Barbey (marine), M. Guyot \n(public works) March, ,, \n\nM. Camot\'s tour in S. France, Corsica, &c. 16 \xe2\x80\x94 27 \n\nApril ,, \n\nThe Boulangists totally defeated in the Paris muni- \ncipal elections 27 April, ., \n\nSuspected anarchist plot : the marquis de Mores, \nLouise Michel, and about 300 others arrested, \n28 April \xe2\x80\x94 2 May ; the marquis and others liberated \n\n3 May, et seq. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe labour day of the working classes passes off \ntranquilly at Paris, &c. . . . 1 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nStrike of thousands of workmen at Croix, Roubaix \nand Tourcoing, in the Nord ; serious rioting sup- \npressed by the military, 1, 2 May; strikes sub- \nsiding 8 May, ,, \n\nAVar with Dahomey, which see . . Feb. , May, ,, \n\nTrial of M. Secretan and other directors of the \nComptoir d\'Escompte for fraud, &c, see above \n\nFeb. 1889\xe2\x80\x945 May, ,, \n\nM. Secretan sentenced to 6 months\' imprisonment \nand fine of 10,000 francs ; the others received less \nsentences 28 May, ,, \n\nGen. Boulanger submits to the government ; the \nBoulangist committee dissolves . . 21 May ,,. \n\n17 Russian Anarchists or Nihilists, engaged in the \nmanufacture of explosives at Raincy, arrested \n\n29 May, et seq. ,, \n\nAll discharged except 8 ... 25 June, ,, \n\nThe duke of Orleans pardoned and expelled from \nFrance 3 June, , r \n\nRevelations respecting the affairs of the Credit \nFoncier ; investigation ordered by government, \n\n9 May, ,, \n\nExplanations given by M. Christophle, May ; the \ninspectors\' report stated that the establishment \nhad departed from its original object and gone \ninto banking, d\'e., without proper precautions, \nbut that it is stable .... 21 June, ,, \n\nTrial of 8 Russian Nihilists, 4 July ; 6 men con- \nvicted sentenced to 3 years\' imprisonment ; \nLandesen the instigator (absent) to 5 years\' \nimprisonment, two women acquitted . 5 July, ,, \n\nClose of the session .... 6 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAnglo-French agreement (which see) signed in \nLondon 5 Aug. \n\nViolent cyclone in the department of the Aude ; \ngreat destruction of vines, 15 Aug. also at \nDrcux 18 Aug. , \n\n\n\nFEANCE. \n\n\n\n406 \n\n\n\nFEANCE. \n\n\n\n" Les Coulisses du Boulangisme," by M. Mermeix, \npublished by liim in the Figaro, describing an \nalleged conspiracy of Royalists, early Sept. ; \ncauses much excitement and involves the author \nin several duels, in one of which he is wounded \n\n15 Sept. 181 \nDestructive storms and floods in the departments \nof Gard, Ardeche and Herault, with loss of life \n\n21 \xe2\x80\x94 24 Sept. , \nMeeting of chamber of deputies . . 20 Oct. , \nThe Union for the promotion of Free Trade in Raw \n\nMaterials, &c, formed in Paris . . Oct. , \nAssassination of gen. Michael Seliverskoff, aged 69, \nwealthy retired Russian general and formerly \na minister of secret police, at the Hotel de Bade, \nParis, 18 Nov. ; died .... 19 Nov. , \nMme. Due Quercy, MM. Labruyere and Gregoire \nsentenced to imprisonment for aiding the escape \nof Padlewski, the suspected murderer of gen. , \nSeliverskoff(i9 Nov.) . . . .23 Dec. , \nThe French Africa Committee formed ; expeditions \n\nrjroposed Nov. , \n\nThe government defeated in the chambers on a \n\nfinancial question (303 \xe2\x80\x94 248) . . 28 Nov. , \nCardinal Lavigerie and other prelates declare their \nadhesion t to the republic, with the approval of \n\nthe pope Dec. , \n\nParliamentary session opened . . . 13 Jan. i\xc2\xa3 \n\nVote of censure on the ministry relative to the loan \n\nof gold by the Bank of France to the Bank of \n\nEngland, during the Baring crisis (see London, \n\n15 Nov. 1890), negatived (419 \xe2\x80\x94 29) . 17 Jan. . \n\nCommunication between Paris and London by \n\ntelephone {which see) ... 18 March, . \nThe performance, of Sardou\'s new play Thermidor \n{which see), stopped by order of the ministry \n\n27 Jan. \nMichel Eyraud sentenced to death, and Gabrielle \nBompard sentenced to 20 years\' penal servitude, \nfor murder of Toussaint Gouffe, a process-server, \nwhom they had inveigled to their rooms, about \n25 July, 1889. His decomposed body was found \nat Millery (Rhone;, 13 Aug., to which place it \nhad been carried in a trunk. Gabrielle confessed \nto the police, Jan. 1890. Eventually, Eyraud \nwas brought from the Havanah, Cuba, to Paris \n(five days\' trial at Paris), 20 Djc. 1890 ; executed \n\n3 Feb. \nRoyalist demonstration in Par\'.s in honour of the \n\nduke of Orleans 7 Feb. \n\nThe empress Frederick visits Paris, chiefly on be- \nhalf of the Berlin International Exhibition of \nFine Arts ; many French works promised, after- \nwards withdrawn, through popular opposition, \nchiefly of the Boulangists and others 18 \xe2\x80\x94 27 Feb. \nFinancial panic in Paris, through embarrassment \nof the Societe des Depots et Comptes Courants, \nrelieved by the Bank of France and others \n\n12 March, \nDeath of prince Napoleon, son of Jerome (see \n\nBonaparte) 17 March, \n\nAnnual banquet of the Republican Association at \n\nthe Elysee 21 March, \n\nCensus of the population taken . . 12 April, \n\n"Labour day" generally quiet; some excitement \n\nat Paris \xe2\x80\x94 dynamite explosion, little damage ; \n\nfighting at Lyons, Marseilles and other places \n\n1 May, \nRiots at Fourmies (Nord) suppressed by the mili- \ntary ; 14 persons killed and about 40 wounded - \n\n1 May, \nMany strikes in the department of the Nord, about \n\n6 May, \nNational fete celebrated . . . -14 July, \nA protectionist customs tariff adopted by the \nchamber (385 \xe2\x80\x94 m) .... 18 July, \nA French naval squadron under admiral Gervais \nwarmly received at Cronstadt . . 23 July, \nVisited by the Czar, 25 July. The French officers \nreceived at St. Petersburg, 28 July. The fleet \nleaves Cronstadt, 4 Aug. The fleet {Marengo flag- \nship, with Admiral Gervais), 6 other vessels, \nand 2 torpedo boats arrive in Osborne Bay, near \nPortsmouth, 5 - 3o p.m., 19 Aug. Admiral Gervais \nand officers presented to the queen at Osborne, \nand dined with her, 20 Aug. The fleet inspected \nby the queen ; admiral Gervais and officers dine \n\n\n\nwith admiral the earl of Clanwilliam and officers \n\nat Portsmouth ..... 21 Aug. 1! \n\nDinner with the duke of Connaught, 24 Aug. ; \n\ndeparture of the fleet .... 26 Aug. \n\nDeath of ex-president M. Jules Grevy, aged about 84 \n\n9 Sept. \nSuicide of gen. Boulanger in a cemetery near \n\nBrussels\'- 3\xc2\xb0 Se Pt- \n\nM. de Giers, the Russian foreign minister, visits M. \nCarnot, M. de Freycinet, and M. Ribot . 20, \n\n21 Nov. \nDeath of Robert, earl of Lytton, British ambas- \nsador, much regretted, at Paris . 24 Nov. \nXavier Gouthe Soulard, archbishop of Aix, sen- \ntenced to a fine of 3,000 francs, for writing an \ninsulting protest against a circular of M. Fallieres \nthe minister of public worship, respecting pil- \ngrimages 24 Nov. \n\nNew customs bill issued ; it authorized the govern- \nment to. prolong or modify the treaties expiring \n\n15 Feb. 1892 3 J)ec - \n\nM. de Freycinet takes his seat as a member of the \nFrench Academy .... 10 Dec. \nStormy debate in the chamber on church and state ; \nthe government support the concordat {whicli see) ; \nmajority for government (243 \xe2\x80\x94 223) . 11-13 Dec. \nThe marquis of Dufferin and Ava appointed British \nambassador at Paris, announced . 12 Dec. \nDeath of Mons. Freppel, bishop of Angers, power- \nful champion of the French church . 22 Dec. \nWalter Bedwell and John S. Cooper convicted of \nacting as British spies in relation to the arsenal \nat St. Etienne ; sentenced to fine and imprison- \nment 26 Dec. \n\nThe new tariff bill passed by the senate . 26 Dec. \n\nBest vintage since 1884 ; reported . . Jan. j \n\nM. Constans, a minister, having been attacked by \n\nM. Laur, a Boulangist deputy strikes him as he \n\nleaves the tribune ; his apology accepted by the \n\nchamber 19 Jan. \n\nThe new" minimum" tariff comes into operation \nwith Great Britain and some other powers, 1 Feb. ; \nthe "maximum" tariff to be enforced in Spain, \nPortugal, Italy, Roumania, and the United States \n\nFeb. \n\nThe De Freycinet cabinet defeated in a debate on \n\nthe Associations bill (relating to church and \n\nstate), resign 18 Feb. \n\nEncyclical of the pope to the French bishops en- \njoining submission to the government of the \n\nrepublic 16 Feb. \n\n76 French bishops accept the declaration of car- \ndinal Lavigerie and four other cardinals, Dec. \n1890, recognizing the republic 26 Jan \xe2\x80\x94 19 Feb. \nMM. Rouvier and Bourgeois successively fail to \n\nform a ministry 23-26 Feb. \n\nNew ministry : M. Loubet (premier and minister \nof interior), M. de Freycinet (war), M. Ribot \n(foreign affairs), M. Rouvier (finance), M. Bour- \ngeois (public instruction), M. Ricard (justice and \npublic worship), M. Cavaignac (marine), M. De- \nvelle (agriculture), M. Jules Roche (commerce), \nM. Viette (public works) ... 28 Feb. \nThe ministerial declaration accepted by the cham- \nber (341 to 91) 3 March, \n\nDeath of Etienne Arago, statesman and dramatist \n(brother of the astronomer), aged 90 . 7 March, \nDynamite explosions in the Boulevard St. Ger- \nmain, in Paris, attributed to the anarchists \n\n11 March et seq. \nExplosion at the Lobau barracks, buildings injured, \n\n15 March, \n\nBill introduced to punish the authors of explosions \n\nwith death, 15 March ; several arrests 17 March, \n\nThe marquis of DufTerin received as ambassador by \n\npresident Carnot . . . .21 March, \n\nA bomb factory in Paris discovered, 23 March ; \n\nother explosions at the houses of legal officials \n\nin Rue de Clichy, 6 injured ." . 27 March, \n\nRavachol, otherwise Leon Leger (real name said to \n\nbe Francis Kbnigstein), a notorious anarchist, \n\n\n\n* Georges Ernest J. M. Boulanger, born at Rennes, \n29 April, 1837 ; entered the army 1856 ; served with dis- \ntinction in Algeria, Italy, Cochin China, and at Paris, \n1870-1 ; brigader-general, 1880 ; sent on a mission to \nAmerica, 1881 ; general of division at Tunis, 1884 ; \nminister of war, 7 Jan. 1886 {*ee above), 1887-1891. \n\n\n\nFRANCE. \n\n\n\n407 \n\n\n\nFRANCE. \n\n\n\narrested in the Cafe Very in the Boulevard Ma- \ngenta, through the agency of Lherot, a w liter, \nand M. Very 30 March, 181 \n\nThe anti-dynamite bill passed by the senate, \n\n31 March, ,, \n\nLouis Anastey, who murdered his benefactress, \nMadame Dellard, mother of baron Dellard, at \nParis, 4 Dec. 1891, executed . . 9 April, ,, \n\n\'The chamber votes 300,000,000 francs for an expedi- \ntion against Dahomey .... 11 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nOrder for the prosecution of the archbishop of Avig- \nnon and the bishops of Nimes, Montpellier, Va- \nlence, and Viviers, for their concerted addresses \nto the Catholic electors in opposition to the state, \n\nabout 22 April, ,, \n\nMany anarchists arrested at Paris, Lyons, and other \nplaces, 51 in Paris, reported . . 22 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe restaurant of M. Very wrecked by explosion : \nhe and 4 others seriously wounded (MM. Very \nand Hamonod died, May) . . . 25 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTrial of anarchists ; Ravaehol and Simon sentenced \nto penal servitude for life, 3 others acquitted, \n\n26, 27 April, ,, \n\n"\' Labour day " at Paris, &c, very orderly through \nprecautions 1 May, ,, \n\nThe stipends of several bishops stopped on account \nof their pastorals, &c. .... May, ,. \n\nMany suspected anarchists released 7 May, et seq. ,. \n\nPublic funeral of M. Very ; the premier, M. Loubet, \npresent 13 May, ,, \n\nThe proceedings of the government approved by \n\nthe chamber 21 May, , \n\n[See Tonquin.] \n\nSovereigns of France, \nmerovingian race. \nPharamond (his existence doubtful). \n\n428. Clodion the Hairy ; his supposed son ; king of the \nSalic Franks. \n\n447. Merovaeus, or Merovee ; son-in-law of Clodion. \n\n458. Childeric ; son of Merovee. \n\n481. Clovis the Great, his son, real founder of the mo- \nnarchy. His four sons divided the empire : \n\n511. Childebert ; Paris. \n\n,, Clodoinir; Orleans. \n\n,, Thierry ; Metz ; and \n\n,, Clotaire ; Soissons. \n\n534. Theodebert ; Metz. \n\n548. Theodebald ; succeeded in Metz. \n\n558. Clotaire I. ; sole ruler. Upon his death the king- \ndom divided between four sons : viz. , \n\n561. Charibert, ruled at Paris. \n\n,, Gontram, in Orleans and Burgundy. \n\n,, Sigebert, at Metz, and ) Both assassinated by \n\n,, Chilperic, at Soissons. J Fredegond. \n\n575. Childebert II. \n\n584. Clotaire IL ; Soissons. \n\n596. Thierry IL, sou of Childebert; in Orleans. \n,, Theodebert II. ; Metz. \n\n613. Clotaire IL ; became sole king. \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0628. Dagobert I. the Great, son of Clotaire II. ; divided \nLhe kingdom between his two sons : \n\n638. Clovis II. , Burgundy and Neustria. \n,, Sigebert IL, Austrasia. \n\n656. Clotaire III., son of Clovis II. \n\n670. Childeric II. ; sole king ; assassinated, with his \nqueen and his son Dagobert, in the forest of Livri. \n,, Thierry III. ; Burgundy and Neustria. \n\n674. Dagobert II. , son of Sigebert, in Austrasia; assas- \nsinated 679. \n\n691. Clovis IIL (Pepin, mayor of the palace, rules iu his \nname ; succeeded by his brother). \n\n695. Childebert III. , the Just ; Pepin supreme. \n\n711. Dagobert HI., son of Childebert. \n\n715. Clnlperic IL, deposed by Charles Martel, mayor of \nthe palace. \n\n717. Clotaire IV., of obscure origin, raised by Charles \nMartel to the throne ; dies soon after; Chilperic \nis recalled from Aquitaine. \n\n720. CtiUperie IL restored; shortly afterwards dies at \n\nNoyon ; succeeded by \n,, Thierry IV., son of Dagobert III,, surnamed de \nCkclles; died in 737. Charles Martel now reigns \nunder the new title of "duke of the French." \nlleuauU. \n\n737. Interregnum, till the death of Charles Martel, in 741. \n\n\n\n814. \n8 40. \n877. \n879. \n\n\n\n922. \n9 2 3- \n\n936. \n954\' \n\n\n\n742. Childeric III. , sou of Chilperic II. , surnamed the \nStupid Carloman and Pepin, the sons of Charles \nMartel, share the government. \n\nTHE CARLOV1NGIANS. \n\n752. Pepin the Short, son of Charles Martel ; he is suc- \nceeded by his two sons, \n768. Charles the Great (Charlemagne) and Carloman; \nCharles crowned Emperor of the West, by \nLeoIII.,800. Carloman reigned but three years. \n\nLouis I. le Dcbonnaire, Emperor ; dethroned, but \nrestored to his dominions. \n\nCharles, surnamed the Bald, King ; Emperor in \n875 ; poisoned by Zedechias, a Jewish physician. \n\nLouis II. , the Stammerer, son of Charles the Bald, \nKing. \n\nLouis III. and Carloman II. ; the former died in \n882, and Carloman reigned alone. \n\nCharles III. le Gros; a usurper, in prejudice to \nCharles the Simple. \n\nEudes, or Hugh, count of Paris. \n\nCharles III. (or IV.), the Simple; deposed, and \ndied in prison in 929; he married Edgiva, \ndaughter of Edward the Elder, of England, by \nwhom he had a son, King Louis IV. \n\nRobert, brother of Eudes ; crowned at Rheims ; \nCharles killed him in battle. Henault. \n\nRudolf or Raoul, duke of Burgundy ; elected king, \nbut never acknowledged by the southern pro- \nvinces. Henault. \n\nLouis IV. d\'Outremer, or Transmarine (from having \nbeen conveyed by his mother into England), son \nofCharlesIII. (or IV.); diedbyafallfromhishorse. \n\nLothaire, his son; reigned jointly with his father from \n952, and succeeds him at 15 years of age, under \nthe protection of Hugh the Great ; poisoned. \n\nLouis V., the Indolent, son of Lothaire; also \npoisoned, it is supposed by his queen, Blanche ; \nlast of the race of Charlemagne. \n\n\n\nTHE CAPETS. \n\nHugh Capet, the Great, count of Paris, &c. , eldest \nson of Hugh the Abbot, 3 July ; he seizes the \ncrown, in prejudice to Charles of Lorraine, uncle \nof Louis Transmarine. From him this race of \nkings is called Capevingians and Capetians. He. \ndied 24 Oct. \n\nRobert II. , surnamed the Sage ; son; died lamented, \n20 July. \n\nHenry I. , son ; died 29 Aug. \n\nPhilip I. the Fair, VAmoureux; son; succeeded at \n8 years of age ; ruled at 14 ; died 3 Aug. \n\nLouis VI. , surnamed the Lusty, or le Gros; son; \ndied 1 Aug. \n\nLouis VII. ; son ; surnamed the Young, to distin- \nguish him from his father, with whom he reigned \nfor some years ; died 18 Sept. \n\nPhilip II. (Augustus) ; son ; succeeds at 15 ; \ncrowned at Rheims in his father\'s lifetime ; died \n\n14 July. \n\nLouis VIII., Cceur de Lion; son ; died 8 Nov. \nLouis IX. ; son ; called St. Louis ; ascended the \n\nthrone at 15, under the guardianship of his \n\nmother, who was also regent ; died in his camp \n\nbefore Tunis 25 Aug. \nPhilip IIL, the Hardy; son; died at Terpignan, \n\n6 Oct. \nPhilip IV., the Fair; son; king in his 17th year \n\ndied 29 Nov. \nLouis X. ; son ; surnamed Hutin, an old word for \n\nheadstrong, or mutinous ; died 5 June. \nJohn I., posthumous sou of Louis X.; born \n\n15 Nov. ; died 19 Nov. \n\nPhilip V. the Long (on account of his stature); \n\nbrother of Louis ; died 3 Jan. \nCharles IV., the Handsome; brother; died 31 Jan. \n\n1328. \n\nHOUSE OF VALOIS. \n\nrhilip VI., de Valois, the Fortunate; grandson of \n\nPhilip III. ; died 23 Aug. \nJohn II. the Good; sou; died suddenly in the Savoy \n\nin London, 8 April. \nCharles V., the Wise; son; died 16 Sept. \nCharles VI. the Beloved; son; died 21 Oct. \nCharles VII., the Victorious ; son ; died 22 July. \nLouis XI. ; son; able but Cruel : died 30 Aug. \nCharles VIII., the Affable; son ; died 7 April. \n\n\n\n1031. \n1060. \n\n\n\n1223. \n1226. \n\n\n\n1270. \n1285. \n1314. \n1316. \n\n\n\n1328. \ni35\xc2\xb0- \n\n1364. \n1380. \n1422. \n1461. \n1483. \n\n\n\nFEANCE. \n\n\n\n408 \n\n\n\nFEANCE. \n\n\n\n1498. Louis XII., Duke of Orleans; the Father of his \n\nPeople ; great-grandson of Charles V. ; died 1 Jan. \n1515. Francis I. of Angouleme; called the Father of \n\nLetters ; great-great-grandson of Charles V. ; \n\ndied 31 March. \n1347. Henry. II. ; son ; died of a wound received at a \n\ntournament at the nuptials of his sister with the \n\nduke of Savoy, accidentally inflicted by the comte \n\nde Montmorency, 10 July. \n1539. Francis II. ; son ; married Mary Stuart, queen of \n\nScots ; died 5 Dec. \n1360. Charles IX. ; brother ; Catherine de Medicis, his \n\nmother, regent ; died 30 May. \n1574. Henry III. ; brother; elected king of Poland; last \n\nof the house of Valois ; stabbed by Jacques \n\nClement, a Dominican friar, 1 Aug. ; died 2 Aug. \n\n1589. \n\nHOUSE OF BOURBON. \n\n1589. Henry IV. , the Great, of Bourbon, king of Navarre ; \n\nson-in-law of Henry II. ; murdered by Francis \n\nRavaillac, 14 May. \n1610. Louis XIII., the Just; son; died 14 May. \n1643. Louis XIV., the Great, Dieudonne; son; died \n\n1 Sept. \n1715. Louis XV, the Well-beloved; great-grandson; died \n\n20 May, \n1774. Louis XVI., his grandson; ascended the throne in \n\nhis 20th year ; married the archduchess Marie \n\nAntoinette, of Austria, May, 1770 ; dethroned, \n\n14 July, 1789; guillotined, 21 Jan. 1793, and his \n\nqueen, 16 Oct. following. \n\n[Louis was executed Monday, 21 January, 1793, at \neight o\'clock a.m. On the scaffold he said, "French- \nmen, I die innocent of the offences imputed to me. I \npardon all my enemies, and I implore of Heaven that \n\nmy beloved France " At this instant Santerre \n\nordered the drums to beat, and the executioners to \nperform their office. When the guillotine descended, \nthe priest exclaimed: "Son of St. Louis! ascend to \nheaven." The bleeding head was then held up, and a \nfew of the populace shouted, " Vive la Republique ! " \nThe body was interred in a grave that was immediately \nafterwards filled up with quick lime, and a strong \nguard was placed around until it should be consumed. ] \n\n1793. Louis XVII. , son of Louis XVI. He never reigned ; \nand died in prison, supposed by poison, 8 June, \n1795, aged 10 years 2 months. It is believed \nby some that he escaped to England, and lived \nthere some time as Augustus Meves.* In 1874 \na person calling himself Auguste de Bourbon \nclaimed to be his son. In France also Albert de \nBourbon, son of one Naundorff, claimed to be \nson of Louis XVII. At a trial in Paris, when \nJules Favre was his counsel, the verdict was \nstrongly against his claim, 27 Feb. 1874. \n\nTHE FIRST REPUBLIC. \n\n1792. The National Convention (750 members), first \n\nsitting, 21 Sept. \n\n1793. The Directory (Lareveillere Lepaux, Letourneur, \n\nRewbell, Barras, and Carnot) nominated 1 Nov. ; \nabolished, and Bonaparte, Ducos,. and Sieyes \nappointed an executive commission, Nov. 1799. \n1799. The Consulate. Napoleon Bonaparte, Camba- \nceres, and Lebrun appointed consuls, 24 Dec. \nNapoleon appointed consul for 10 years, 6 May, \n1802 ; for life, 2 Aug. 1802. \n\nfirst empire. (See article Bonaparte Family.) \n\n[Established by the senate 18 May, 1804.] \n\n1804. Napoleon (Bonaparte) I. ; born 15 Aug. 1769. \n\nHe married, \n1st, Josephine, widow of Alexis, vicomte de \n\nBeauharnais, 8 March, 1796 (who was divorced \n\n16 Dec, 1809, and died 29 May, 1814) ; \n2nd, Maria-Louisa of Austria, 2 April, 1810 (she \n\ndied 17 Dec. 1847). Son, Napoleon Joseph, duke \n\nof Reichstadt, bom 20 March, 1811 ; died, 22 \n\nJuly, 1832. \nHe renounced the thrones of France and Italy, \n\nand accepted the isle of Elba for his retreat, 5 \n\nApril, 1814. \nAgain appeared in France, 1 March, 1815. \n\n* He died insane, Jan. 1880 \n\n\n\nWas defeated at Waterloo, 18 June, 1813. \nAbdicated in favour of his infant son, 22 June, \n\n1815. \nBanished to St. Helena, where he dies, 5 May, \n\n1821. (See France, 1840.) \n\nBOURBONS RESTORED. \n\n1814. Louis XVIII. (comte de Provence), brother of \nLouis XVI. ; born 17 Nov. 1755 ; married Marie- \nJosephine-Louise of Savoy ; entered Paris, and \ntook possession of the throne, 3 May, 18 14 ; \nobliged to flee, 20 March, 1815 ; returned 8 July, \nsame year ; died without issue, 16 Sept. 1824. \n\n1824. Charles X. (comte d\'Artois), his brother ; born 9 Oct. \n1757 ; married Marie-Therese of Savoy ; deposed \n30 July, 1830. He resided in Britain till 1832, \nand died at Gratz, in Hungary, 6 Nov. 1835. \n[His grandson, Henry, due de Bordeaux, called \ncomte de Chambord, son of the due de Berry ; \nborn 29 Sept. 1820 ; married princess Theresa of \nModena, Nov. 1846 ; no issue ; styled himself \nHenri V. See France, 1870, et seq.] \n\nhouse of Orleans. (See Orleans.) \n1830. Louis-Philippe, son of Louis-Philippe, duke of \nOrleans, called Egalite, descended from Philippe, \nduke of Orleans, son of Louis XIII. ; born 6 \nOct. 1773 ; married 25 Nov. 1809, Maria-Amelia, \ndaughter of Ferdinand I. (IV.) king of the Two \nSicilies ; (she died 24 March, 1866). Raised to the. \nthrone as king of the French, 9 Aug. 1830 ; abdi- \ncated 24 Feb. 1848. Died in exile, in England, \n26 Aug. 1850. \n[Heir : Louis-Philippe, count of Paris ; born 24 \nAug. 1838.] \n\nSECOND REPUBLIC, 1 848. \n\nThe revolution commenced in a popular insurrection at \nParis, 22 Feb. 1848. The royal family escaped by \nflight to England, a provisional government was estab- \nlished, monarchy abolished, and France declared a \nrepublic. \n\nCharles-Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte, declared by the \nNational Assembly (19 Dec.) president of the republic \nof France ; and proclaimed next day, 20 Dec. ; elected \nfor ten years, 22 Dec. 1851. \n\nFrench empire revived. (See Bonaparte.) \n[1821. Napoleon II. (decreed to be so termed by \nNapoleon III. on his accession). . Napoleon, \nJoseph, son of Napoleon I. and Maria-Louisa, \narchduchess of Austria ; born 20 March, 1811 : \ncreated king of Rome. On the abdication of his \nfather he was made duke of Reichstadt, ia \nAustria ; and died at the palace of Schoenbrium, \n22 July, 1832, aged 21.] \n1852. Napoleon III. formerly president of the French \nrepublic, elected emperor, 21, 22 Nov. 1852 ; \nproclaimed, 2 Dec. 1852 ; surrendered himself a \nprisoner to the king of Prussia at Sedan, 2 Sept. \n1870 : deposed at Paris, 4 Sept. ; arrives at Wil- \nhelmshohe, near Cassel, 5 Sept. ; deposition con- \nfirmed by the national assembly, 1 March ; he \nprotested against it, 6 March, 1871 ; diedat Chisel- \nhurst, England, 9 Jan. 1873; buried there 15 Jan. \n\nEmpress : Eugenie-Marie (a Spaniard, countess of \nTeba), born 5 May, 1826 ; married 29 Jan. 1853. \n\nHeir: Napoleon -Eugene -Louis-Jean -Joseph, son ; \nstyled Napoleon IV., born 16 March, 1856; killed \nin Zululand, 1 June, 1879 ; buried beside his \nfather at Chiselhurst (the prince of Wales and \nother princes present), 12 July, 1879 [both re- \nmoved to mausoleum, Farnborough, 9 Jail. \n1888]. See Wills. \n\nAt the celebration of the fdte Napoleon, 15 Aug., \n1873, the prince declared the policy of his. \nfamily to be "Everything by the people, for \nthe people." \n\n[On 18 Dec. 1852, the succession, in default of issue \nfrom the emperor, was determined in favour ot \nprince Jerome-Napoleon and his heirs male.] \n\nTHIRD REPUBLIC. \n\nI. Louis Adolphe Thiers (born 16 April, 1797) appointed \nchief of the executive power, 17 Feb., and president \nof the French republic, by the national assembly, 31 \nAug. 1871 ; resigned, 24 May, 1873 ; died, 3Se.pt. 1837. \n\n\n\nFRANCE, ISLE OF. \n\n\n\n409 \n\n\n\nFRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. \n\n\n\nII. Marshal M. E. Patrice Maurice MacMahon, due de \nMagenta, elected president, 24 May ; nominated for \nseven years, 20 Nov. 1873. \n\nIII.. Francois Paul Jules Grevy (born 15 Aug. 1813) ; \nelected 30 Jan. 1879 ; re-elected 28 Dec. 1885 ; re- \nsigned 2 Dec. 1887. \n\nIV. Marie-Frangois Sadi-Carnot (born 11 Aug. 1837); \nelected 3 Dec. 1887. \n\nFRANCE, ISLE OF, see Mauritius. \n\nFRANCHE COMTE, in upper Burgundy, E. \nFrance, was conquered by Julius Ca?sar, about 45 \nB.C. ; by the Burgundians, earl}\' in the fifth century, \na.d. ; and by the Franks about 534. It was made \na county for Hugh the Black in 915, and received \nits name from having been taken from Kenaud III. \n(1127-48), and restored to him. By marriage with \nthe count\'s daughter, Beatrice, the emperor \nFrederick I. acquired the county, 1156. Their \ndescendant, Mary of Burgundy, by marriage with \nthe archduke Maximilian, conveyed it to the house \nof Austria, 1477. It was conquered by the French, \n1668; restored by the treaty of Aix la Chapelle, \n2 May, 1668 ; again conquered ; and finally annexed \nto France by treaty, 1678. \n\nFRANCHISE. A privilege or exemption \nfrom ordinary jurisdiction, and anciently an asylum \nor sanctuary where the person was secure. In \nSpain, churches and monasteries were, until lately, \nfranchises for criminals, as formerly in England ; \nsee Sanctuaries. In 1420, the elective fkan- \nchise for counties was restricted to persons\'having \nat least 40*. a year in land, and resident ; for recent \nchanges, see Reform. \n\nFRANCIS\' Assault on the Queen. \n\nJohn Francis, a youth, fired a pistol at queen Vic- \ntoria as she was riding down Constitution-hill, in \nan open barouche, accompanied by prince Albert, 30 \nMay, 1842. The queen was uninjured. Previous \nintimation having reached the palace of the inten- \ntion of the criminal, her majesty had commanded \nthat none of the ladies of her court should attend \nher. Francis was condemned to death, 17 June \nfollowing, but was transported for life. He was \nliberated on ticket-of-leave in 1867. \n\nFRANCISCANS. Grey or Minor Friars, an \norder founded by St. Francis d\'Assisi, about 1209. \nTheir rules were chastity, poverty, obedience, and \nvery austere regimen. About 1220 they appeared in \nEngland, where, at the time of the dissolution of \nmonasteries by Henry VIII., they had fifty-five \nabbeys or other houses, 1536-38. \n\nFRANCISCO, SAN, the largest city in Cali- \nfornia, which see. The centenary of the foundation \nof the city by Franci-can monks, 8 Oct. 1776, was \ncelebrated in 1876. The city suffered by earth- \nquakes in 1868 and 1872. Population, 18S0, 233,959; \n1890, 298,997. \n\nFRANCONIA, or Feankenland (on the \nMaine), formerly a circle of the German empire, \npart of Thuringia, was conquered by Thierry, king \nof the Franks, 530, and colonized. Its count or duke, \nConrad, was elected king of Germany, 8 Nov. 911 ; \nand his descendant was the emperor Conrad III., \nelected 1 138, and another duke. Franconia was made \na distinct circle from Thuringia in 1512. At its sub- \ndivision in 1806 various German princes obtained \na part ; but in 1814 the largest share was awarded \nto Bavaria. \n\nFRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR originated in \nthe emperor of the French\'s jealousy of the greatly \nincreased power of Prussia, through the successful \nissue of the war with Denmark in 1864, and with \n\n\n\nAustria in 1866. The German Confederation was \nthereby annulled, and the North German Con- \nfederation established under the supremacy of \nthe king of Prussia, to whose territories were \nfurther annexed Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nas- \nsau, Frankfort, and other provinces. This great \naugmentation of the power of Prussia was mainly- \ndue to the energetic policy of count Bismarck- \nSchonhausen, prime minister since Sept. 1862. \n\nIn a draft treaty, secretly proposed to the Prussian \ngovernment by the French emperor in 1866 : " 1. \nThe emperor recognises the acquisitions which \nPrussia has made in the last war"; 2. The king of \nPrussia promises to facilitate the acquisition of \nLuxemburg by France ; 3. The emperor will not \noppose a federal union of the northern and \nsouthern states of Germany, excluding Austria ; \n4. The king of Prussia, in case the emperor should \nenter or conquer Belgium, will support him in \narms against any opposing power ; 5. They enter \ninto an alliance offensive and defensive. " \n\n[This draft treaty was published in the Times, 25 \nJuly, 1870. After some discussion, its authenti- \ncity was admitted ; count Bismarck asserting; \nthat it emanated entirely from the French em- \nperor, and that the scheme had never been \nseriously entertained by himself.] \n\nIn March, 1867, a dispute arose through the French \nemperor\'s proposal for purchasing Luxemburg \nfrom the king of Holland, which was strongly op- \nposed by Prussia, as that province had formed \npart of the dissolved Germanic Confederation ; \nand the affair was only settled by a conference of \nthe representatives of the great powers in London, \nat which the perfect neutrality of Luxemburg \nwas determined, together with the withdrawal of \nthe Prussian garrison and the destruction of the \nfortifications 7-11 May, 1867 \n\nPrince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (con- \nnected with the Prussian dynasty, and brother of \nCharles, prince of Roumania), consented to be- \ncome a candidate for the throne of Spain, 4 July, 1870 \n\nThis was denounced by the French government. \nThreatening speeches were made in the French \nchamber by the due de Grammont, the foreign \nminister, and eventually, after some negotiation \nand the intervention of Great Britain, prince Leo- \npold, with the consent of his sovereign, declined \nthe proffered crown . . . .12 July, ,, \n\nThe submission did not satisfy the French govern- \nment aud nation, and the demand for a guarantee \nagainst the repetition of such an acceptance \nirritated the Prussian government, and led to the \ntermination of the negotiations, the king refusing \nto receive the count Benedetti, the French \nminister 13 July, r , \n\nEnergetic but fruitless efforts to avert the war were \nmade by earl Granville, the British foreign \nminister about 15 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nWar was announced by the emperor, with the \nhearty consent of the great majority of the \nchambers. The left or-republiean party opposed the \nwar ; M. Thiers and a few others only protested \nagainst it as premature .... 15 July, ,, \n\n[After his surrender on 2 Sept. , the emperor told \ncount Bismarck that he did not desire war, but \nwas driven into it by public opinion. He appears \nto have been greatly deceived as to the numerical \nstrength of his army, and its state of preparation.] \n\n" The greatest national crime that we have had the \npain of recording since the days of the first \nFrench revolution has been consummated. War \nis declared \xe2\x80\x94 an unjust but premeditated war." \xe2\x80\x94 \nTimes, 16 July, 1870. \n\n(For details of the battles see separate articles.) \n\nFrench Army, about 300,000 : \xe2\x80\x94 \n\n1st corps, uuiler marshal MacMahon. \n2nd corps, under general Frossard. \n3rd corps, under marshal Bazaine. \n4th corps, under general Ladmirault. \n5t.l1 corps, under general De Fully. \n6th corps, under marshal Canrobert, \nImperial guard, under general Bouibaki. \nCommander-in-chief, the emperor : general Le Bceuf, \nsecond ; succeeded by marshal Bazaine. \n\n\n\nFRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. \n\n\n\n410 \n\n\n\nFRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. \n\n\n\nP .rcssian Army, about 640,000 : \xe2\x80\x94 \n\n1. Northern, under general Vogel von Falckenstein, \n\nabout 220,000, defending the Elbe, Hanover, &c. \n.2. Right, under prince Frederick Charles, about \n\n180,000. \n3. Centre, under generals Von Bittenfeld and Von \n\nSteinmetz, about 80,000. \n.4. The left, under the crown prince of Prussia, about \n\n166,000. \n\xe2\x80\xa2Commander-in-chief, king William ; second, general \nHelmuth Karl Bernhard von Moltke (born 26 Oct., \n1800 ; died 24 April, 1891). \n\nThe North German army, at the beginning of August, \nconsisted, firstly, of 550,000 line, with 1,200 guns and \n53,000 cavalry ; secondly, of 187,000 reserve, with 234 \n.guns and 18,000 cavalry ; and, thirdly, of 205,000 land- \nwehr or militia, with 10,000 cavalry, making a grand \ntotal of 944,000 men, with 1,680 mobilised guns and \n103,000 horses. \n\nTo these must be added, firstly, the Bavarians, 69,000 \nline, with 192 guns and 14,800 horses \xe2\x80\x94 25,000 reserve \nwith 2,400 horses, and 22,000 landwehr ; secondly, the \nWiirtembergers \xe2\x80\x94 22,000 line witli 54 guns and 6,200 \nhorses, 6,500 reserve, and 6,000 landwehr ; and, thirdly, \nthe Badenese \xe2\x80\x94 16,000 line with 54 guns, 4,000 reserve, \nand 9,600 landwehr. \n\nAll the German troops taken together as under arms at \npresent, 1,124,000 men. Aug. 1870. \n\nFour weeks previously, on the peace footing, they num- \nbered only 360,000. \n\nThe French and Germans in this war were considered to \nbe equally brave and efficient ; but the French generals \nappear to have acted greatly upon impulse. The Ger- \nmans seem to have been invariably guided by a well \nmatured plan, their tactics mainly consisting in bring- \ning vast masses to bear on the point where they were \nanxious to prevail. From Saarbriiek to Sedan, Moltke \nappears to have left nothing to chance ; and all his ar- \nrangements were ably carried out. \n\nThe causes of the early ruin of the French army were : \n" 1, the enormous superiority of the Germans in regard \nto numbers ; 2, the absolute unity of their command \nand concert of operation ; 3, their superior mechanism \nin equipment and supplies ; 4, the superior intelli- \ngence, steadiness and discipline of the soldiers ; 5, \nsuperior education of the officers, and the dash and \nintelligence of the cavalry." \xe2\x80\x94 Quarterly Review. \n\nEstimated cost of the war to France, 395,400,000/., Jan. \n1875- \n\n\n\nWar resolved on by the French government, 15 July ; \ndeclaration delivered at Berlin . . 19 July, 1870 \n\nThe north German parliament meet at Berlin, and \nengage to support Prussia in the war 19 July, ,, \n\nWiirtemberg, Bavaria, Baden, and Hesse Darm- \nstadt declare war against France, and send con- \ntingents to the army . . . . 20 July, ,, \n\nWar proclamation of the emperor Napoleon, de- \nclaring that the national honour, violently excited \n. . . alone takes in hand the destinies of the \ncountry 23 July, ,, \n\nPart of the bridge at Kehl blown up by the \nPrussians 23 July, ,, \n\nProclamation of the king that " love of the common \nfatherland, and the unanimous uprising of the \nGerman races, have conciliated all opinions, and \n.dissipated all disagreements .... The war will \nprocure for Germany a durable peace, and from \n\ni this bloody seed will arise a harvest blessed by \nGod \xe2\x80\x94 the liberty and unity of Germany," 25 July, ,, \n\nSkirmish at Niederbronn ; a Bavarian officer killed, \n\n26 July, ,, \n\nDay of general prayer observed in Prussia, 27 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe emperor Napoleon joins the army ; at Metz.as- \nsumes the chief command, and issues a proclama- \ntion declaring that the war will be long and severe, \n\n28, 29 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRepulse of a French attack at Saarbriiek, 30 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n20 Badenese enter France at Lauterburg ; Mr. \nWinsloe killed ; some captured ; others escape \nwith valuable information . . . 31 July, ,,, \n\nProclamation of the king of Prussia to his people, \ngranting an amnesty for political offences, and \n"resolving, like our forefathers, placing full \ntrust in God, to accept the battle for the defence \nof the fatherland " .... 31 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nHe leaves Berlin for the army, 1 Aug., and an- \nnounces that " all Germany stands united in arms" \n\n3 Aug. ] \n\nThe French government announce that \' \' they \nmake war, not against Germany, but against \nPrussia, or rather against the policy of count \nBismarck " 2 Aug. \n\nThe French under Frossard bombard and take Saar- \nbriiek in the presence of the emperor and his \nson ; the Prussians, dislodged, retire with little \nloss 2 Aug. \n\nThe due de Grammont, French foreign minister, pub- \nlishes a circular replying to Bismarck\'s charges \nagainst France 3 Aug. \n\nThe crown prince crosses the Lauter, the boundary \nof France, and defeats the French under Frossard, \nstorming the lines of Wissembourg and Geisberg ; \ngeneral Douay killed 4 Aug. \n\nBattle of Woerth : in a desperate, long-continued \nbattle the crown prince defeats marshal MacMa- \nhon and the army of the Rhine ; they retire to \nSaverne to cover Nancy .... 6 Aug. \n\nBattle of Forbach : Saarbriiek recaptured, and For- \nbach (in France) taken by generals Von Goeben \nand Von Steinmetz, after.a fierce contest; all the \nFrench retreat 6 Aug. \n\nGeneral Turr publishes, in a letter, statements of \nproposals by Bismarck for the annexation of Lux- \nembourg and Belgium by France, in 1866 and \n1867 6 Aug. \n\nThe emperor, reporting these defeats, says, "Tout \npeut se retablir " 7 Aug. \n\nThe Germans occupy Forbach, Haguenau, and Saar- \nguemines 7 Aug. \n\nMarshal Bazaine appointed to the chief command \nof the French army at Metz (about 130,000); \nMacMahon has about 50,000 near Saverne ; Can- \nrobert about 50,000 near Nancy . . 8 Aug. \n\nNine French iron-clads pass Dover for the Baltic, \n\n9 Aug. \n\nSt. Avoid occupied by the Germans . 9 Aug. \n\nMarshal Bazaine takes command of the army at \nMetz .9 Aug. \n\nPhalsburg invested 9 Aug. \n\nTreaty with Great Britain guaranteeing the neu- \ntrality of Belgium, signed on behalf of Prussia, \n9 Aug. ; of France .... 11 Aug. \n\nForced resignation of the Ollivier ministry 9 Aug. \n\nNew ministry constituted under general Cousin \nMontauban ; comte de Palikao, war minister, \n\n10 Aug. \nStrasburg invested by the Germans . . 10 Aug. \nThe king of Prussia, at Saarbriiek, proclaims that \n\n" he makes war against soldiers, not against \nFrench citizens " .... 10 Aug. \n\nLichtenburg capitulates to the Germans 10 Aug. \n\nMacMahon\'s army retreating upon the Moselle, \n\n11 Aug. \nThe little fortress, " La Petite Pierre," evacuated, \n\n11 Aug. \nCommunication with Strasburg cut off 11 Aug. \nNancy occupied by the Germans without resistance, \n\n12 Aug. \nThe Bavarians pass the Vosges . . . 12 Aug. \nThe king at St. Avoid forbids conscription for the \n\nFrench army in territories held by Germans, \n\n13 Aug. \nMarshal Bazaine made commander of the army ol \n\nthe Rhine . . 13 Aug. \n\nBombardment of Strasburg begun . 14 Aug. \n\nThe French government declare that " there can \n\nbe, for a moment, no question of negotiation of \n\npeace" 14 Aug. \n\nBlockade of the German ports on the Baltic, from \n\n15 Aug., announced by the French admiral, \n\n14 Aug. \nMany French volunteer sharp-shooters (francs- \n\ntireurs) take the field (not recognised as soldiers \nby the Germans) .... about 14 Aug. \nToul refuses to surrender ... 14 Aug. \n\nThe emperor retires to Verdun . . 14 Aug. \nMarshal Bazaine\'s army defeated in several long- \ncontinued sanguinary battles before Metz (see \nMetz) :\xe2\x80\x94 \n\n1. Battle of Courcelles (Pange or Longeville) \n\ngained by Von Steinmetz and the 1st army, \n\n14 Aug. \n\n\n\n870 \n\n\n\nFEANCO-PEUSSIAN WAE. \n\n\n\n411 \n\n\n\nFEANCO-PEUSSIAN WAE. \n\n\n\n2. Battle of Vionville or Mars-la-Tour, gained \n\nby prince Frederick Charles and the 2nd \narniy 16 Aug. \n\n3. Battles of Gravelotte and Rezonville, gained \n\nby the combined armies commanded by \nthe king 18 Aug. \n\nFrench sortie from Strasburg repulsed; German \nattack on Phalsburg repulsed . . 16 Aug. \n\nMacMahon reaches Chalons, 16 Aug. ; joined by the \nemperor; his army between 130,000 and 150,000, \n\n20 Aug. \n\nThe king appoints governors-general of Alsace and \nLorraine 17 Aug. \n\nEnergetic fortification of Paris by general Troehu, \nthe governor, and the "defence committee" \n\n18 Aug. \n\nEstimated German losses : killed, wounded, and \nmissing, 2088 officers, 46,480 men; up to 18 Aug. \n\nSevere bombardment of Strasburg . 19 Aug. \n\nMacMahon\'s army of the Rhine retreats as the \nPrussians under the king and crown prince \nadvance; prince Frederick Charles opposed to \nBazaine at Metz ; [German armies in France about \n500,000 ; the French armies about 300,000 ; com- \nmunications between marshals Bazaine and Mac- \nMahon very difficult] . . . about 20 Aug. \n\nLieut. Harth, a Prussian spy, tried and shot at \nParis 20 Aug. \n\nMacMahon raises his camp at Chalons 20 Aug. \n\nThe troops extended along the line of the Maine, \n\n21 Aug. \nExportation of food prohibited . . . 21 Aug. \nBazaine at Metz said to be completely isolated, \n\n22 Aug. \nMacMahon at Rheims with his army, including the \n\nremains of the corps of Failly and Canrobert ; he \nmarches in hope of joining Bazaine, 23 Aug. ; the \ncrown-prince and prince of Saxony start in pur- \nsuit, 23 Aug. ; march upon Chalons . 24 Aug. \nPrussian royal head-quarters removed from Pont a \nMousson to Bar-le-Duc (125 miles from Paris) \n\n24 Aug. \nThe alleged violation of the neutrality of Belgium \n\ndenied by its government ... 25 Aug. \nThe Germans enter the arrondissement of Vassy, \n\n25 Aug. \nGermans repulsed in an attack on Verdun, 25 Aug. \nSoo French national guards captured at St. Mene- \n\nhould 25 Aug. \n\nChalons occupied by the Germans . . 25 Aug. \n\nCapitulation of Vitry, a small fortress . 25 Aug. \n\nFormation of three German armies of reserve in \nGermany, and a fourth army in the field, under \nthe crown-prince of Saxony, to co-operate with \nthe crown-prince of Prussia against Paris, 26 Aug. \n\nStrasburg suffering much by bombardment, \n\n23-26 Aug. \n\nPowerful sortie of Bazaine from Metz repulsed, \n\n26 Aug. \nPhalsburg heroically resisting . . 26 Aug. \nThionville invested by the Germans . 27 Aug. \nEngagement at Busancy, between Vouziers and \n\nStenay : a regiment of French chasseurs nearly \nannihilated 27 Aug. \n\nTwo German armies (220,000) marching on Paris, \n\n28 Aug. \n\nContinued retreat of MacMahon\'s army; severe \nfighting at Dun, Stenay, and Mouzon 28 Aug. \n\nNicholas Schull, a German spy, shot atMetz 28 Aug. \n\nVrizy, between Vouziers and Attigny, stormed by \nthe Germans 29 Aug. \n\nMunicipal meetings at Berlin, Konigsberg, and \nother German cities, protest against foreign inter- \nvention for peace ... 30, 31 Aug. \n\nMacMahon\'s army, about 150,000, accompanied by \nthe emperor, retreating northwards ; part of it, \nunder De Failly, surprised and defeated near Beau- \nmont, between Mouzon and Moulins ; several other \nengagements, unfavourable to the French, oc- \ncurred during the day .... 30 Aug. \n\nCount Bismarck-Bohlen installed governor of Alsace \nat Haguenau 30 Aug. \n\nThe Germans enter Carignan ; attack the French in \nthe plain of Douzy ; the French, at first success- \nful, are defeated, and retreat to Sedan 31 Aug. \n\nA French army of old soldiers, about 100,000, are \nsaid to be forming near Lyons . .31 Aug. \n\n\n\n1870 \n\n\n\nBazaine defeated in his endeavour to escape from \n\nMetz ; after a fierce struggle, retreats into Metz, \n\n31 Aug. 1 Sept. \n\nBattle round Sedan: begun at 4 a. in. between \nSedan and Douzy ; the French at first successful ; \nafter a severe struggle and dreadful carnage, the \nGermans victorious; MacMahon wounded, 5.30 \np.m. ; general de Wimptt\'en refuses to accept the \nterms offered by the king of Prussia . 1 Sept. \n\nCapitulation of Sedan and the remainder of Mac- \nMahon\'s army ; the emperor surrenders to the \nking (see Sedan) 2 Sept. \n\nVigorous \'artillery action at Strasburg ; a sortie \nrepulsed 2 Sept. \n\nRevolution at Paris after the declaration of the \ncapture of MacMahon\'s army ; proclamation of a \nrepublic (see France) .... 4 Sept. \n\nRheims occupied by the Germans and the king, \n\n5 Sept. \nJules Favre, the French foreign minister, in a \n\ncircular to the French diplomatic representa- \ntives, says, " We will not cede either an inch of \nour territories or a stone of our fortresses " \n\n6 Sept. \nGeneral Vinoy and a corps sent too late to aid \n\nMacMahon ; retreat and arrive in Paris, 6, 7 Sept. \n\nSt. Dizier occupied by the Germans . . 7 Sept. \n\nStrasburg invested by 60,000 men . . 8 Sept. \n\nVerdun vigorously resisting ... 8 Sept. \n\nThe German army, in five corps, advancing on Paris, \n\n9 Sept. \n\nLaon surrendered to save the town from destruc- \ntion ; by the accidental or treacherous explosion \nof a magazine seme of the German staff and many \nFrench perish 9 Sept. \n\nMetz, Strasburg, Thionville, Phalsburg, Toul, \nBitsche, and other fortified places holding out, \n\n10 Sept. \n\nMessages between belligerents transmitted by lord \nLyons (at Paris) and count Bernstorff (Prussian \nminister) in London .... 9-10 Sept. \n\nGerman attack on Toul repulsed . . 10 Sept. \n\nBridge at Creil over the Oise blown up . 12 Sept. \n\nSeven German corps (about 300,000 men) approach- \ning Paris, which is said to contain 300,000 com- \nbatants 13 Sept. \n\nM. Thiers arrives in London on a mission from the \ngovernment 13 Sept. \n\nColmar occupied by the Germans . . 14 Sept. \n\nGeneral Troehu reviews the troops in Paris, 13 Sept. ; \ndelivers a stirring address ; the daily guard \nordered to be 70,000 ... 14 Sept. \n\nEstimated German loss : 60,000 killed and wounded ; \nbetween 20,000 and 30,000 sick; about 1,000 \nprisoners -15 Sept. \n\nFrench prisoners in Germany : 62 generals, 4,800 \nofficers, 140,000 privates, about . 15 Sept. \n\nCorrespondence between count Bernstorff and earl \nGranville respecting neutrality, said to have \nbeen broken ; denied by the earl 1-15 Sept. \n\nSiege of Paris begun ; ingress and egress prohibited \nwithout a permit .... 15 Sept. \n\nBlockade of the Elbe and Weser non - effective, \n\n15 Sept. \n\nImportant circular of M. Favre, condemning the war \nand recognising the obligations of the country, \n\n17 Sept. \nCircular letters of count Bismarck, recounting the \n\nhistory of French aggressions on Germany, and \nasserting the necessity of obtaining material \nguarantees for the future safety of Germany, and \nremoving the frontiers and point of attack further \n\nwest 13, 16 Sept. \n\nPrussian head-quarters at Mcux (20 miles from Paris) \n\n18 Sept. \n32 German merchant ships reported to have been \n\ncaptured by the French fleet up to . iS Sept. \n\nVessels sunk in the Seine and Marne, and other \nvigorous defensive measures adopted, 18, 19 Sept. \n\nParis said to be completely invested ; the fortifica- \ntions reconnoitred by the king, who has fixed his \nhead-quarters at Baron Rothschild\'s chateau at \nFerrieres, near Lagny . . . 19 Sept \n\nThree French divisions under general Vinoy attack \nthe Germans on the heights of Sceaux ; repulsed \nwith loss of 7 guns and 2500 prisoners : tin\' defeat \nattributed to the disorder of the Zouaves; the \nnational guard behave well . . . 19 Sept. \n\n\n\n1870 \n\n\n\nFRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAE. \n\n\n\n412 \n\n\n\nFRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. \n\n\n\nCount Bismarck consents to receive Jules Favre \n(about 16 Sept.); they meet at Chateau de la \nHaute Maison, 19 Sept. ; and at the king\'s head- \nquarters, Ferrieres, near Lagny . 20 Sept. \n\nJules Favre reports to the government the result \nof his interviews with count Bismarck : Prussia \ndemands the cession of the departments of the \nUpper and Lower Rhine and part of that of \nMoselle, with Metz, Chateau Salins and Soissons, \nand would agree to an armistice in order that a \nFrench constituent assembly might meet ; the \nFrench to surrender Strasburg, Toul and Verdun \n(or Phalsburg according to Favre), and Mont \nValerien, if the assembly meet at Paris ; these \nterms are positively rejected by the French \ngovernment 21 Sept. \n\nVersailles and the troops there surrender, 19 Sept. ; \nentered by the crown prince of Prussia 20 Sept. \n\nA lunette captured at Strasburg . . 20 Sept. \n\nGeneral von Steinmetz sent to Posen as governor- \ngeneral ; prince Frederick Charles sole commander \nbefore Metz 21 Sept. \n\nSevres surrenders 22 Sept. \n\nThe blockade of German ports raised; officially \nannounced in London . . . .22 Sept. \n\nThe French government issue a circular expressing \nreadiness to consent to an equitable peace, but \nrefusing "to cede an inch of our territory or a \nstone of our fortresses " . . -23 Sept. \n\nThree conflicts before Paris : at Drancy, Pierrefitte, \nand Villejuif ; the two last reported favourable to \nthe French 23 Sept. \n\nToul surrenders after a most vigorous resistance, \n\n23 Sept. \n\nLevee en masse of men under 25 ordered by the \nFrench government .... 23 Sept. \n\nGermans repulsed in conflicts before Paris ; said by \nthem to be unimportant ... 23 Sept. \n\nVerdun invested by the Germans . . 25 Sept. \n\nDesperate ineffective sallies from Metz, \n\n23, 24, 27 Sept. \n\nAll the departments of the Seine and Marne occu- \npied by Germans .... 26 Sept. \n\nThe iron cross given by the crown prince of Prussia \nto above 30 soldiers beneath the statue of Louis \nXIV. at Versailles 26 Sept. \n\nCircular of Von Thile, Prussian foreign minister, \nstating that as the ruling powers in France \ndecline an armistice, and as no recognised govern- \nment exists in Paris (the government de facto \nbeing removed to Tours), all communications \nwith and from Paris can only be carried on so far \nas the military events may permit . 27 Sept. \n\nClermont occupied by the Germans after a brief \nvigorous resistance, overcome by artillery, \n\n27 Sept. \n\nCommencement of attack on Soissons . 28 Sept. \n\nCapitulation of Strasburg, 27 Sept. ; formally sur- \nrendered 28\'Sept. \n\nSortie of general Vinoy\'s army (at Paris) ; repulsed, \nafter two hours\' fighting, crown prince present; \nabove 200 prisoners taken ; general Giulham \nkilled 30 Sept. \n\nAbove 375,000 national guards said to be in Paris, \n\n30 Sept. \n\nConflict near Rouen ; at first favourable to the \nFrench ; their loss 1,200 killed and wounded ; 300 \n\nprisoners 30 Sept. \n\nBeauvais captured by the Germans . 30 Sept. \nMantes occupied by the Germans . . 1 Oct. \nCircular from count Bismarck, disclaiming any in- \ntention of reducing France to a second-rate po wer, \n\n1 Oct. \nThe American general Burnside visits M. Favre, \n\n1 Oct. \nSurgeon-major Wyatt writes that Paris is well- \nprovisioned, and nearly inexpugnable . 1 Oct. \n\nM. Thiers\' fruitless visit to Vienna, 23 Sept. ; to \nSt. Petersburg, 27 Sept. ; dined with the czar, \n\n2 Oct. \nThe grand duke of Mecklenburg at Rheims ap- \npointed governor of the country conquered in ad- \ndition to Alsace and Lorraine . . .2 Oct. \n\nM. Favre, in the name of the diplomatic body, \nrequests count Bismarck to give notice before \nbombarding Paris, and to allow a weekly courier : \nthe count declines both requests, but permits the \npassage of open letters ; reported . . 3 Oct. \n\n\n\n1870 \n\n\n\nCount Bismarck in a circular corrects Favre\'s re- \nport of the negotiations, and accuses the French \ngovernment of keeping up the difficulties opposed \nto a conclusion of peace ; reported . . 3 Oct. \n\nEpernon and La Ferte occupied by the Germans \nafter an engagement .... 4 Oct. \n\nThe king\'s head-quarters removed to Versailles ; \narrival of the king, Bismarck, Moltke, and others, \n\n5 Oct. \n\nThe Germans victors in several small engagements, \n\n2-6 Oct. \n\nGeneral Treskow, in command of a German army, \nto advance into Southern France . . 5 Oct. \n\nColmar occupied by the Prussians for an hour, \n\n5 Oct. \nBattle at Thoury ; General Reyan, with the ad- \nvanced guard of the army of the Loire under \ngeneral La Motte Rouge, defeats the Germans \nbetween Chaussy and Thoury, and captures some \nprisoners and cattle . . . . .5 Oct. \n\nFictitious manifesto of the emperor Napoleon III., \nentitled " Les Idees de I\'Empereur," advocating \npeace on moderate terms, dated 26 Sept., pub- \nlished in the imperialist journal in London, La \nSituation, and in Daily News, 4 Oct. ; disclaimed \nby the emperor 6 Oct. \n\nM. Thiers\' mission to foreign courts reported to be \nquite abortive 6 Oct. \n\nPart of the army of Lyons, under general Dupre, \ndefeated by the Badenese under general Von \nGegenfeld, near St. Remy; French loss, about \n1,500, and 660 prisoners ; German loss, about 430, \n\n6 Oct. \nGeneral Burnside leaves Paris in order to meet \n\ncount Bismarck 7 Oct. \n\nGreat sortie from Metz ; the Germans surprised ; \n40,000 French engaged ; repulsed after severe con- \nflicts ; French loss, about 2,000 ; German, about \n600 ........ 7 Oct. \n\nEstimated number of French prisoners in Germany, \n3577 officers, and 123,700 men . . 8 Oct \n\nNeil Breisach bombarded .... 8 Oct. \n\nBreton volunteers organising by M. Cathelineau ; \nvolunteers in the west organising by general \nChare tte (from Rome) . . . . 8 Oct. \n\nGerman attack on St. Quintin vigorously repulsed, \n\n8 Oct. \nLong despatch, from count BernstorfF to earl Gran- \nville, complaining of the British supplying arms \nto France 8 Oct. \n\nM. Thiers again at Vienna ... 8 Oct. \nGaribaldi arrives at Tours ; enthusiastically re- \nceived ; reviews the national guard at Tours, \n\n9 Oct. \nDirect mediation declined by Russia, Great Britain, \n\nand Spain 10 Oct. \n\nPrussian circular to the European powers, regret- \nting the obstinate resistance of the French govern- \nment to peace, and foretelling the consequences \n\xe2\x80\x94 social disorganisation and much starvation, \n\n10 Oct. \n\nAblis, near Paris, burnt for alleged treachery \n(killing sleeping soldiers) . . . .10 Oct. \n\nM. Gambetta escapes from Paris by a balloon, 7 \nOct. ; in his proclamation at Tours, states that \nParis possesses 560,000 troops ; that cannon are \ncast daily, and that women are making cartridges ; \nhe urges unanimous devoted co-operation in \ncarrying on the war .... 10 Oct. \n\nPart of the army of the Loire defeated at Arthenay, \nnear Orleans, by Bavarians under Von der Tann ; \nabout 2,000 prisoners taken . . .10 Oct. \n\nPrussian attack on Cherizy repulsed . 10 Oct. \n\nFrench reply to Bismarck\'s circular on the negotia- \ntions 10 Oct. \n\nAbout 20 villages burnt, and 150 peasants shot for \nillicit warfare . . . up to n Oct. \n\nThe French fleet appears off Heligoland . ri Oct. \n\n3,000 national guard mobilised at Rouen . 11 Oct. \n\nThree first shots tired against Paris. . 11 Oct. \n\nOrleans captured by gen. Von der Tann after nine \nhours\' fighting ; the army of the Loire defeated \nretires behind the Loire . . . .11 Oct. \n\nStenay captured by a sortie from the French garri- \nson of Montmedy 11 Oct. \n\nGen. Bourbaki accepts the command at Tours; \ngen. La Motte Rouge superseded in the command \n\n\n\n1870 \n\n\n\nFEANCO-PEUSSIAN WAE. \n\n\n\n413 \n\n\n\nFEANCO-PEITSSIAN WAE. \n\n\n\nof the army of the Loire by gen. D\'Aurelle de \nPaladines 12 Oct. \n\nBattalions of Amazons said to be forming in Paris, \n\n12 Oct. \n\nFavourable intelligence from Paris by balloons re- \nceived . . . . . . .12 Oct. \n\nGaribaldi appointed commander of the French \nirregulars 12 Oct. \n\nEpinal captured by the Germans . . 12 Oct. \n\nM. Aries Dufour of Lyons appeals to the people of \nGreat Britain for active sympathy in endeavouring \nto obtain peace 12 Oct. \n\nBreteuil occupied by the Germans after a sharp \nresistance 12 Oct. \n\nSlight engagements (termed victories by the French) \nbefore Paris 13 Oct. \n\nAll the Vosges district in arms ; no regular army ; \nthe defiles occupied by the francs-tireurs, 13 Oct. \n\nReported successfu i sorties ; Neu Breisach com- \npletely invested 13 Oct. \n\nReported French success at Bagneux, near Paris \xe2\x80\x94 \nthe Prussians surprised . . . -13 Oct. \n\nSt. Cloud fired on by the French and burnt, \n\n13, 14 Oct. \n\nFrequent sorties from Metz . about 14 Oct. \n\nSharp fight at Ecouis ; the French escape from \nbeing surrounded 14 Oct. \n\nGambetta announces that the Germans are dis- \nlodged from their innermost belt round Paris, \n\n14 Oct. \n\nM. Thiers arrives at Florence ; Garibaldi at Besan- \nqou 14 Oct. \n\nGen. Boyer, aide-de-camp to marshal Bazaine, ar- \nrives at Versailles and meets count Bismarck, \n\n14 Oct. \n\nGen. Trochu\'s letter to the mayors of Paris, on re- \norganising the national guard and repressing the \nardent desire for immediate action . 15 Oct. \n\nSoissons surrenders after three weeks\' investment \nand four days\' bombardment . . .16 Oct. \n\nFrench successes before Paris denied by the Prus- \nsians, who hold the same position as on 19 Sept., \n\n16 Oct, \n\nM. Gambetta proceeds to the army of the Vosges ; \ngen. Bourbaki appointed commander of the army \nof the north ; gen. Maziere appointed to a com- \nmand in the army of the Loire . . 17 Oct. \n\nMontdidier attacked by the Germans : 150 mobile \nguards captured 17 Oct. \n\nThe emperor Napoleon declares that " there can be \nno prospect of peace, near or remote, on the basis \nof ceding to Prussia a single foot of French \nterritory ; and no government in France can \nattach its signature to such a treaty and remain \nin power a single day " .... 17 Oct. \n\n4,000 French attacked and defeated near Chateaudun \nafter ten hours\' fighting and the barricaded town \nstormed 18 Oct. \n\nCircular of Jules Favre, asserting that Prussia \n" coldly and systematically pursues her task of \nannihilating us. France has now no illusions \nleft. For her it is now a question of existence. \n. . . We prefer our present sufferings, our perils, \nand our sacrifices to the consequences of the \ninflexible and cruel ambition of our enemy. \nFrance needed, perhaps, to pass through a \nsupreme trial \xe2\x80\x94 she will issue from it transfigured," \n\n18 Oct. \n\nAsserted repulse of the Germans at Fort Issy before \nParis 18 Oct. \n\nDespatch from earl Granville to count Bismarck \nurging the negotiations for peace on terms lenient \nto the French 20 Oct. \n\nConclusive reply of earl Granville to count Bern- \nstorff\'s charge of breach of neutrality . 21 Oct. \n\nVigorous sortie from Mont Valerien against Ver- \nsailles ; an engagement at Malmaison ; the French \nretire after three hours\' fighting, losing about \n400 killed and wounded and 100 prisoners ; Ger- \nman loss about 230 killed and wounded, 21 Oct. \n\nChartres occupied by the Germans under Wittich, \n\n21 Oct. \n\nIntervention of the British government (supported \nby the neutral powers) to obtain an armistice for \nthe election of a national assembly . 21 Oct. \n\nVesoul occupied by the Germans . . 21 Oct. \n\nMany deserters from Metz . 20\xe2\x80\x9422 Oct. \n\nSchelestadt bombarded vigorously . 22 Oct. \n\n\n\n1870 \n\n\n\nEngagement near Evreux .... 22 Oct. \nFighting at Vouray, Cussey, &c. , in the Vosges ; \n\nFrench " army of the east " defeated 22 Oct. \n\nGerman attack on Chatillon le Due repulsed by gen. \n\nCambriels 22 Oct. \n\nM. de Keratry assumes command of the army in \n\nBrittany 23 Oct. \n\nSt. Quentin taken by the Germans after half-an- \n\nhour\'s cannonading, 21 Oct. ; evacuated by them, \n\n23 Oct. \nReported failure of the suggestions concerning an \n\narmistfee, through Prussia demanding that \nFrance should consent to a cession of territory, \n\n24 Oct. \nGambetta informs the mayors of towns that "re- \nsistance is more than ever the order of the day," \n\n24 Oct. \n\nReported negotiations for the surrender of Metz, \n\n24 Oct. \n\nThiers undertakes the mission to obtain an armistice, \n\nabout 24 Oct. \n\nCapitulation of Schelestadt (2,400 prisoners and 120 \nguns taken) 24 Oct. \n\nA girl calling herself a successor of Jeanne d\'Arc at \nTours 24 Oct. \n\nMarshal Bazaine surrenders Metz and his army, \n" conquered by famine " (see Metz and France, \nOct.-Dec. 1873) 27 Oct. \n\nThe French defeated near Gray (Haute Saone) by \nVon Werder 27 Oct. \n\nAbout 2000 sick and wounded of both nations in \nVersailles 27 Oct. \n\nLe Bourget, near Paris, recaptured by the French, \n\n28 Oct. \n\nA. safe-conduct given to M. Thiers to enter Paris for \nnegotiation 28 Oct. \n\nDespatch from count Bismarck to earl Granville, \nexpressing desire for the meeting of a French \nnational assembly to consider terms of peace ; but \nstatingthat overtures must come from the French, \n\n28 Oct. \n\nBadenese troops defeated near Besangon ; Prussian \nattack on Formerie on the Oise repulsed 28 Oct, \n\nGen. Von Moltke created a count on his 70th birth- \nday 28 Oct. \n\nVigorous proclamation of Bourbaki to the French \narmy of the north 29 Oct. \n\nThe crown prince and prince Frederick Charles \ncreated field-marshals .... 29 Oct. \n\nDijon captured after bombardment . . 29 Oct. \n\nThe francs-tireurs defeated by the Wurtembergers \nbetween Montereau and Nangis . . 29 Oct. \n\nEstimated : 856,000 Germans in France ; French \nprisoners in Germany, 223,000 . . 29 Oct. \n\nLe Bourget retaken by the Germans ; heavy losses \non both sides ; about 1200 French prisoners, \n\n30 Oct. \n\nProclamation of Gambetta, accusing Bazaine of \ntreason ; the war to go on . . . 30 Oct. \n\nM. Thiers enters Paris . . . .30 Oct. \n\nGaribaldi defending Dole (Jura) with about 7500 \nmen 31 Oct. \n\nM. Thiers receives powers from the French defence \ngovernment to treat for an armistice, and has in- \nterviews with count Bismarck, 31 Oct. and 1 Nov. \n\nGen. Bourbaki attempting to form an army of the \nnorth, near Lille .... Oct. \xe2\x80\x94 Nov. \n\nThionville invested 1 Nov. \n\nThe francs-tireurs dispersed in several slight en- \ngagements between Colmar and Belfort, 2, 3 Nov. \n\nLetter from marshal Bazaine repelling the charge \nof treason 2 Nov. \n\nCount Bismarck offers an armistice of 25 days \nfor the election of a French national assembly, \n\n3 Nov. \n\nDefeat of an attempted revolution in Paris : see \nFrance 3 Nov. \n\nM. Favre declares to the national guard that the \ngovernment has sworn not to yield an inch of \nterritory, and will remain faithful to this engage- \nment 3 Nov. \n\nProclamation of Garibaldi to the army of the \nVosges, and appealing to other nations, \n\nabout 3 Nov. \n\n" Campanile de 1S70 ; par tin, Offider attache 1 a \nVital major-general" (a pamphlet ascribed to \nthe emperor), appears in the Daily Telegraph, \n\nNov. \n\n\n\n1S70 \n\n\n\nFRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. \n\n\n\n414 \n\n\n\nFRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. \n\n\n\nFailure of the negotiation, as count Bismarck will \nnot permit food to enter Paris during the armis- \ntice without any military equivalent ; M. Thiers \nordered to break off negotiation . . 6 Nov. 1870 \n\nChateaudun recaptured by the French . 6 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Prussian semi-official journal says, " The \nFrench government having refused to listen to \nreason the cannon will be resorted to for giving \nthem a lesson" 7 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBombardment of Thionville . . . 7 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCirculars on the armistice negotiations\xe2\x80\x94 of M. \nFavre, 7 Nov. ; of Count Bismarck . 8 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe king\'s permission for the election of a French \nnational assembly declined by the French govern- \nment 7 Nov. \xc2\xbb \n\nOrders that no one shall enter or quit Paris, 7 Nov. ,, \n\nA Prussian column repulsed in an attack on the \narmy of the Loire at Marchenoir . 7 Nov. ,, \n\nCapitulation of Verdun .... 8 Nov. ,, \n\nSeven persons, captured in balloons from Paris, sent \nto German fortresses to be tried by court martial, \n\n8 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe French fleet off Heligoland . . 8 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGerman corps, under Manteuffel, advancing on \nAmiens and Rouen 8 Nov. ,, \n\nFirm circular from M. Favre to French diplomatic \nrepresentatives, about .... 8 Nov. ,, \n\nThe Germans enter Montbeliard (Doubs) 9 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Germans, under gen. Von der Tann, defeated \nbetween Cculmiers and Baccon, near Orieans, \nretire to Thoury . \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 9 Nov. \xc2\xbb\xc2\xbb \n\nM. Thiers\' report of the unsuccessful negotiations \nfor an armistice .... dated 9 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nReported naval victory of the Prussian steamer \nMeteor over the French steamer Bouvet off \nHavannah ...... 9 Nov. .. \n\nContinued fighting; Orleans retaken by general \nD\'Aurelle de Paladines : French losses, 2000; \nGermans about 700, and 2000 prisoners 10 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCapitulation of Neu Breisach, 5000 prisoners and \n100 guns taken 10 Nov. ,, \n\nThe French repulsed near Montbeliard on the Swiss \nfrontier \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x84\xa2 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nVon der Tann\'s army reinforced by 30,000, now \n70,000, the grand duke of Mecklenburg com- \nmander; the Loire army about 150,000, but only \n12,000 regulars \xe2\x80\xa2 * 2 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBankers at Berlin and Frankfort arrested for deal- \ning in French war loan . . . about 12 Nov. ,, \n\nDole, near Dijon, occupied by the Germans, \n\n13 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCalm, truthful proclamation of gen. Trochu, at \nParis \xe2\x96\xa0 J 4 Nov. ,, \n\nThe armies in central France have been placed \nunder prince Frederick Charles and the grand \nduke of Mecklenburg .... 14 Nov. ,, \n\nEleven French towns, 3653 guns, 155 mitrailleuses, \nnearly 500,000 chass\'epots, about 90 eagles and \nstandards, and nearly 4,000,000?. in money, taken \nby the Germans . . . . up to 14 Nov. ,, \n\nMontmedy completely invested . . 15 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFrench sorties from Mezieres repulsed, 15 Nov. ; \nfrom Belfort repulsed . . \xe2\x80\xa2 16 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe grand duke of Mecklenburg repulses the army \nof the Loire near Dreux, which is captured by \nVon Treskow 17 Nov. \xc2\xbb> \n\nSuccessful French sortie from Mezieres, 500 Ger- \nmans said to be killed ... 17 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGermans victorious in an engagement near Cha- \nteaudun ; French claim the success 18 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRicciotti Garibaldi said to have beaten 700 or 800 \nmen at Chatillon 19 Nov. >\xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nThe national guard at Evreux repulse a German \nattack 19 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe German army under prince Frederick Charles \nand the grand duke of Mecklenburg (135,000) \nsaid to be retreating towards Paris . 19 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nParis engirdled with a second line of investment, \n\n20 Nov. ,, \nFrench attempt to release La Fere repulsed with \n\nheavy loss 20 Nov. ,, \n\nSeveral balloons from Paris captured about 20 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nFrench mobile guard defeated at Bretoncelles, \n\n21 Nov. ,, \nBombardment of Thionville begun . . 22 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nHam occupied by the Prussians . . .22 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nPrince Frederick Charles takes up a position near \n\nOrleans 24 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nThionville, in flames, cajiitulates, with about 2000 \nprisoners 24 Nov. 16 \n\nThe Germans repulsed near Amiens and nearStagil, \n\n24 Nov. , \nLa Fere surrenders, after two clays\' bombardment, \nwith about 70 guns and 2000 men . 27 Nov. . \n\nThe Garibaldians defeated near Pasques (Cote d\'Or) \nby Von Werder 27 Nov. , \n\nThe French army of the north defeated by Man- \nteuffel between Villers Bretonneux and Soleur, \nnear Amiens 27 Nov. , \n\nAmiens occupied by Von Goeben after a severe en- \ngagement 28 Nov. , \n\nSevere engagement near Beaune la Rolande (Loiret) \nbetween part of the army of the Loire under \nD\'Aurelle de Paladines and the Germans under \nVoigts Rhetz ; prince Frederick Charles ar- \nrives and turns the day ; the French retire ; \nheavy loss on both sides . . . .28 Nov. \n\nM. de Keratry resigns his command, accusing M. \nGambetta of misconduct, 28 Nov. ; Bourbaki ap- \npointed to command an army corps . 29 Nov. \n\nFruitless endeavours of the army ii. Paris and the \narmy of the Loire to unite . 29 Nov. \xe2\x80\x94 4 Dec. \n\nSorties from various parts of Paris repulsed with \nloss 29 Nov. j \n\nGreat sortie of 120,000, under generals Trochu and \nDucrot, who cross the Marne ; severest conflict \nbetween Champigny-sur-Marne, Brie-sur-Marne, \nand Villiers-sur-Marne ; the French retain the \ntaken possessions, but their advance is checked ; \ngreat loss on both sides (chiefly Saxons and Wtir- \ntembergers engaged) . . . . 30 Nov. \n\nThe contest resumed at Avron ; the Germans retake \nChampigny and Brie ; the French retreat 2 Lee. \n\nThe army of the Loire : Chanzy defeated by the \ngrand duke of Mecklenburg at Bazoche des \nHautes, 2 Dec. ; near Chevilly (the French report \nthese engagements indecisive) . . .3 Dec. \n\nPrince Frederick Charles dislodges an encampment \nin the forest of Orleans. . . . 3 Dec. \n\nDucrot bivouacks in the woods of Vincennes, \n3 Dec. ; he issues a final order of the day, re- \nferring to two days\' glorious battles . 4 Dec. \n\nGeneral D\'Aurelle de Paladines entrenched before \nOrleans ; proposes to retreat ; the government \nopposes him, but yields ; he determines to await \nthe attack ; part of his army defeated by prince \nFrederick Charles, and the grand duke of Meck- \nlenburg ; he retreats with about 100,000 men ; \nOrleans threatened with bombardment; surrenders \nat midnight 4 Dec. \n\nThe Germans said to be in pursuit of D\'Aurelle de \nPaladines (superseded) .... 5 Dec. \n\n10,000 prisoners, 77 guns, and 4 gun-boats cap- \ntured at Orleans 5 Dec. \n\nRouen occupied by Manteuffel . . 6 Dec. \n\nGeneral order of the king of Prussia, " We enter \non a new phase of the war . . . Every attempt to \nbreak through the investment or relieve Paris has \nfailed" 6 Dec. \n\nThe grand duke of Mecklenburg attacks gen. \nChanzy and the army of the Loire near Beau- \ngency ; indecisive, 7 Dee. ; the Germans victo- \nrious, taking about 1 100 prisoners and six guns, \nand occupying Beaugency (severe loss to Germans), \n\n8 Dec. \nGen. Manteuffel\'s army in two parts, one occupies \n\nEvreux, and inarching to Cherbourg; the other \nmarching to Havre .... 8 Dec. \n\nContinued severe engagements between the Ger- \nmans and the army of the Loire ; the defeated \nFrench retreat (7 battles in 9 days) 9, 10 Dec. \n\nVigorous siege of Belfort ; obstinately defended, \n\n9 Dec. \nPamphlet (attributed to the emperor Napoleon) \n\npublished under the name of his friend, the mar- \nquis de Gricourt, throwing the blame of the war \nupon the French nation . . early in Dec. \n\nFighting along the whole line of the army of the \nLoire, under general Chanzy and others ; it re- \ntreats, but obstinately resists . 5 \xe2\x80\x94 10 Dee. \n\nBrilliant action by De Chanzy . . . 11 Dec. \n\nThe delegate government transferred from Tours to \nBordeaux ; Gambetta remains with the army of \nthe Loire ... ,11 Dee. \n\nDieppe occupied by the Germans . 12 Dec. \n\n\n\nFEANCO-PEUSSIAN WAE. \n\n\n\n41-5 \n\n\n\nFEANKFOET. \n\n\n\nLa Fere threatened by Faidherbe, commander of \n\nthe army of the north . . . 12 Dec. 1870 \n\nPhalsburg surrenders, subdued by famine ; com- \nmencement of bombardment of Montmedy, \n\n12 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nEvreux and Blois occupied by the Germans, 13 Dec. ,, \nMontmedy surrenders .... 14 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSharp engagement at Freteval ; which is taken and \n\nabandoned by the Germans . . 14 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNuits near Dijon captured by the Badenese under \n\nVon Werder, after a severe conflict . 18 Dec. , \nThe French government issue a circular against the \npropagation of false news . . . .20 Dec. , \n\nConflict at Monnaie : about 6000 French gardes \n\nmobiles driven back to Tours . . 20 Dec. , \nVigorous sortie from Paris repulsed \xe2\x80\x94 an artillery \naction . . .... 21 Dec. , \n\nTours partially shelled ; submits, but not occupied \n\nby Germans 21 Dec. , \n\nChanzy and part of the army of the Loire said to have \nreached Le Mans and joined the Bretons, about \n\n21 Dec. , \nSeven hours\' battle at Pont a Noyelles between \nManteuffel and the army of the north under Faid- \nherbe : both claim the victory ; Faidherbe re- \ntreats 23 Dec. , \n\nSix English colliers, said to have had Prussian per- \nmits, after delivering coal at Rouen, are sunk in \nthe Seine at Duclair near Havre by the Prussians \n\xe2\x80\xa2 for strategic reasons ... 21 Dec. , \n\nExplanation given by Bismarck and compensation \npromised . . .... 26 Dec. , \n\nhanzy, in a letter to the German commandant at \nVendome, accuses the Germans of cruelly pillag- \ning St. Calais, and, denying his defeat, says, " We \nhave foughtyou and held youin check since 4 Dec." \n\n26 Dec. , \nTrochu said to be making Mont Valerien a vast \n\ncitadel 27 Dec. , \n\nMont Avron, an outlying fort near Paris, after a \nday\'s bombardment, abandoned and occupied by \n\nthe Germans 29 Dec. , \n\nAlleged defeat of the Germans by detachment of \n\nChanzy\'s army near M\'ontoire . . 27 Dec. , \n\nSeveral small engagements in Normandy \xe2\x80\x94 reported \n\nsuccessful to the French . . 28 \xe2\x80\x94 31 Dec. , \nCapitulation of Mezieres with 2000 men and 106 \n\nguns 1,2 Jan. 18 \n\nSevere battles near Bapaume between the army of \nthe North under Faidherbe and the Germans under \nManteuffel and Von Gceben ; victory claimed by \nboth, the French retreat . . . 2, 3 Jan. , \nIndecisive conflict near Dijon le Mans : between \ngeneral Chanzy and prince Frederick Charles, \n\n6 Jan. , \nDaujoutin , S. of Belfort, stormed by Germans, 6 Jan. , \nBombardment of eastern front of Paris, and of the \nsouthern forts, 4 Jan. ; forts of Issy and Vanvres \n\nsilenced 6 Jan. , \n\nFortress of Rocroy taken by the Germans, 5, 6 Jan. , \nGeneral Roy defeated near Jumieges . 7 Jan. , \n\nVon Gceben in the north, Manteuffel sent to the east \n\nabout 7 Jan. , \nConflicts (in the east) between Von Werder and \n\nBourbaki at Villarais, south of Vesoul 9, 10 Jan. , \nBombardment of Paris, many buildings injured, \nand people killed : the French government appeal \nto foreign powers . . . . g, 10 Jan. , \nCapitulation of Peronne with garrison . 9 Jan. , \nChanzy retreating ; defeated near Le Mans by prince \nFrederick Charles and the grand duke of Mecklen- \nburg 11 Jan. , \n\nPrince Frederick Charles enters Le Mans ; after 6 \ndays\' fighting, (about 20,000 French prisoners \nmade ; German loss about 3400) . 12 Jan. , \n\nVigorous sorties from Paris repulsed . 13 Jan. , \nChanzy retreating, 14 Jan. ; defeated near Vosges, \n\n15, 16 Jan. , \nIndecisive conflicts between Bourbaki and Von \n\nWerder, near Belfort ... 15, 16 Jan. , \n\nSt. Quentin recaptured by Isnard under Faidherbe, \n\n16 Jan. , \nBourbaki defeated near Belfort after three days\' \n\nfighting, 15 \xe2\x80\x94 17 Jan. ; retreats south 18 Jan. , \n\nThe grand duke of Mecklenburg enters Aleneon, \n\n17 Jan. , \nBombardment of Longwy begun . . 17 Jan. , \nFaidherbe defeated near St. Quentin ; after seven \n\n\n\nhours\' fighting ; by Von Gceben, 4000 prisoners \ntaken 19 Jan. 187X \n\nGreat sortie from Paris of Trochu and 100,000 men \nrepulsed with loss of about 1000 dead and 50C0 \nwounded . ... . . .19 Jan. \n\nBourbaki hard pressed by Von Werder 19 Jan.\' \'* \n\nArmistice for two days at Paris refused 22 Jan. ,, \n\nBombardment of St Denis and Cambrai 22 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFaidherbe asserts that the German successes are \nexaggerated 22 Jan. ,, \n\nResignation of Trochu ; Vinoy, governor of Paris, \n\n23, 24 Jan. ,,. \n\nFavre opens negotiations with Bismarck 24 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e. \n\nLongwy capitulates ; 4000 prisoners, 200 guns, \n\n25 Jan. ,y. \n\nLetter from M. Guizot to Mr. Gladstone proposing \nthe demolition of fortresses on both sides of the \nRhine ; and the maintenance of the balance of \npower by congresses ; published . 26 Jan. , r \n\nCapitulation of Paris ; armistice for 21 days signed \nby count Bismarck and Jules Favre 28 Jan. ,,. \n\nThe forts round Paris occupied by the Germans, \n\n29 Jan. >y . \nAdvance of German troops into France suspended, \n\n30 Jan. ,,. \nBourbaki and his army, about 80,000, driven by \n\nManteuffel into Switzerland near Pontarlier, about \n6000 having been captured . 30 Jan. ,1 Feb. ,,. \nFrench loss about 350,000 men, 800 guns up to Jan. ,, \nDijon occupied by the Germans . 1 Feb. t> \n\nBelfort capitulates with military honours 13 Feb. \nNegotiations for peace between Thiers and Bismarck \n\n22 \xe2\x80\x94 24 Feb. ,j. \nPreliminaries of a treaty accepted by Thiers, Favre, \nand 15 delegates from the national assembly ; it \nincludes cession of parts of Lorraine, including \nMetz and ThionviHe and Alsace less Belfort ; and \npayment of 5 milliards of francs, 200,000,000?. , \n25 Feb. , signed 26 Feb. , accepted by the national \n\nassembly z March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGerman loss in battles throughout the war ; killed \n\nor died soon after, 17,570 ; died of wounds \n\neventually 10,707; total killed and wounded \n\n127,867. \n\nGerman troops enter Paris and remain 48 hours, \n\n\' , i \xe2\x80\x94 3 March, ,,. \n\nThey quit Versailles . . . .12 March, \nConference for peace open at Brussels, 28 March j* \nTreaty of peace signed at Frankfort, 10 May ; ratified \nby the French national assembly . 18 May, \n\nFEANCS-TIEEUES, free shooters, took an \nactive part in the Franco-Prussian war from about \n14 Aug. 1870; and more especially after the sur- \nrender of MacMahon\'s army at "Sedan, 2 Sept. \nTheir conduct was much censured. \n\nFEANKENHAUSEN, N. Germany: near \nthis place Philip, landgrave of Hesse, and his allies- \ndefeated the insurgent peasantry headed by Munzer \nthe anabaptist, 15 May, 1525. \n\nFEANKFOET-ON-THE-MAINE, central Ger- \nmany, founded in the 5th century; was the resi- \ndence of Charlemagne in 794 ; walled by Louis I. \n838; a capital city, 843; an imperial city, 1245. \nPopulation in 1885, 154,513; in 1S90, 179,550; see- \nGermain/. \n\nUnion of Frankfort : treaty between France, Sweden, \nPrussia, and other German states led to war with \nAustria \xe2\x80\xa2\xe2\x96\xa0.... 22 May 174A \n\nFrankfort captured by the French by a surprise,\' \n\n_, . ,. , _\xe2\x96\xa0 ,, 2 Jan. 175Q. \n\nCaptured by Custme, 28 Oct. ; retaken by the \nPrussians 2 D ec I7g2 \n\nBombarded by the French; surrendered to Kleber, \n\n16 July, 1796- \n\nMade part of the confederation of the Rhine . 1806 \n\nA grand duchy under Carl von Dalberg . . i 8 io . \n\nRepublic restored; appointed capital of the Ger- \nmanic confederation j3 ic - \n\nVain attempts at insurrection by students, April, \n1833 May, 1834: \n\nThe Frankfort diet publish a federative constitution, \n\n30 March, 1848 \n\n\n\nFKANKFOET. \n\n\n\n416 \n\n\n\nFEANKLIN. \n\n\n\nThe plenipotentiaries of Austria, Bavaria, Saxony, \nHanover, Wiirtemberg, Mecklenburg, &c, here \nconstitute themselves the council of the Germanic \ndiet i Sept. 1850 \n\nThe German sovereigns (excepting the king of \nPrussia) met at Frankfort (at the invitation of \nthe emperor of Austria), to consider a plan of \nfederal reform, 17 Aug. ; the plan was not \naccepted by Prussia .... 22 Sept. 1863 \n\nMeeting of diet of Germanic confederation; con- \ndemn the treaty of Gastein . . 1 Oct. 1865 \n\nThe diet adopts the Austrian motion, that Prussia \nhas broken the treaty ; the Prussian representative \ndeclares the confederation at an end, and proposes \na new confederation .... 14 June, 1866 \n\nEntered by the Prussians, who exact heavy supplies, \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 16 July, ,, \n\nAnnexed to Prussia by law of 20 Sept. ; promulgated \nat Frankfort ; (the legislative corps and 15,000 \ncitizens protest against it) . . . 8 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nVisited by the king of Prussia ; an ancient cathedral, \n\xe2\x80\xa2St. Bartholomew (founded 1315, completed 1512), \ndestroyed by fire . . . . 14. is Au 8- l86 7 \n\nFrankfort supported Prussia in the war July, 1870 \n\nTreaty of peace between France and Germany, signed \nhere 10 May, 1871 \n\nEiots through rise in price of beer ; suppressed \nby N. German soldiers : 37 of the people killed ; \nabout 100 wounded . . . 21, 22 April, 1873 \n\nInternational Electro-Technical congress opened \n\n8 Sept. et seq., 1891 \n\nFEANKFOET -ON -THE -ODER (N. Ger- \nmany) ; a member of the Hanseatie league ; suffered \nmuch from marauders in the middle ages, and in \nthe thirty years\' war. The university was founded \nin 1506, and incorporated with that of Breslau in \n181 1. Near Frankfort, 12 Aug. 1759, Frederick of \nPrussia was defeated by the Russians and Austrians \nsee Cunnersdorf. Population, 1890, 55,724. \n\nFEANKING LETTEES, passing letters free \nof postage, was claimed by parliament about 1660. \nThe privilege was restricted in 1839, and abolished \nafter the introduction of the uniform penny postage, \n10 Jan. 1840. The queen was amongst the first \nto relinquish her privilege. \n\nFEANKLIN, the English freeholder in the \nmiddle ages; see "the Franklin\'s Tale," in \nChaucer\'s Canterbury Tales (written about 1364). \n\nFEANKLIN, Search for. Sir John Frank- \nlin, with captains Cfozier and Fitzjames, in H. M. \nships Erebus and Terror (carrying in all 138 \npersons), sailed on his third arctic expedition of \ndiscovery and survey, from Greenhithe, on 24 May, \nJ 845; see North-west Passage. Their last des- \npatches were from the Whaletish islands, dated 12 \nJuly, 1845. Their protracted absence caused intense \nanxiety, and several expeditions were sent from \nEngland and elsewhere in search of them, and \ncoals, provisions, clothing, and other necessaries, \nwere deposited in various places in the Arctic seas \nby our own and by the American government, by \nlady Franklin, and numerous private persons. The \nTruelove, captain Parker, which arrived at Hull, \n4 Oct. 1849, from Davis\'s Straits, brought intelli- \ngence (not afterwards confirmed) that the natives \nhad seen sir John Franklin\'s ships in the previous \nMarch, frozen up by the ice in Prince Regent\'s \ninlet. Other accounts were equally illusory. Her \nmajesty\'s government, on 7 March, 1850, offered a \nreward of 20,000^. to any party of any country, that \nshould render efficient assistance to the crews of the \nmissing ships. Sir John\'s first winter quarters were \nfound at Beechy island by captains Ommanney and \nPenny. \n\n1. H.M.S. Plover, capt. Moore (afterwards under \ncapt. Maguire), sailed from Sheerness to Behring\'s \n.Straits, in search . . . . 1 Jan. 1848 \n\n\n\n2. Land expedition under sir John Richardson and \nDr. Rae, of the Hudson\'s Bay Company, left \nEngland 25 March, 1848 \n\nLSir John Richardson returned to England in \n1849, and Dr. Rae continued his search till 1851.] \n\n3. Sir James Boss, with the Enterprise and Investi- \ngator (12 June, 1848), having also sailed in search \nto Barrow\'s Straits, returned to England (Scar- \nborough) 3 Nov. 1849 \n\n4. The Enterprise, capt. Collinson, and Investigator, \ncommander M\'Clure, sailed from Plymouth for \nBehring\'s Straits .... 20 Jan. 1850 \n\n[Both ships proceeded through to the eastward.] \n\n5. Capt. Austin\'s expedition, viz. : Resolute, capt. \nAustin, C.B. ; Assistance, capt. Ommanney; \nIntrepid, lieut. Bertie Cator ; and Pioneer, lieut. \nSherard Osborn, sailed from England for Barrow\'s \nStraits 25 April, ,, \n\n[Returned Sept. 1851.] \n\n6. The Lady Franklin, capt. Penny ; and Sophia, \ncapt. Stewart, sailed from Aberdeen for Barrow\'s \nStraits 13 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n[Returned home Sept. 1851.] \n\n7. The American expedition in the Advance and \nRescue, under lieut. De Haven and Dr. Kane (son \nof the judge), towards which Mr. Grinned sub- \nscribed 30,000 dollars, sailed for Lancaster Sound \nand Barrow\'s Straits ; after drifting in the pack \ndown Baffin\'s Bay, the ships were released in \n1851 uninjured 25 May, ,, \n\n8. The Felix, sir John Ross, fitted out chiefly by the \nHudson Bay Company, sailed to the same locality, \n\n22 May, ,, \n[Returned in 1851.] \n\n9. H.M.S. North Star, commander Saunders, which \nhad sailed from England in 1849, wintered in \nWolstenholme Sound, and returned to Spithead, \n\n28 Sept. ,, \n\n10. H.M-S. Herald, captain Kellett, C.B., which \nhad sailed in 1848, made three voyages to \nBehring\'s Straits, and returned in . . 1851 \n\nLieut Pirn went to St. Petersburg with the intention \n\nof travelling through Siberia to the mouth of the \n\nriver Kolyma ; but was dissuaded from proceeding \n\nby the Russian government . . 18 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n[The Enterprise and Investigator (see No. 4 above) \n\nnot having been heard of for two years.] \n\n11. Sir Edward Belcher\'s expedition, consisting of \n\xe2\x80\x94 Assistance, sir Edward Belcher, C.B. ; Resolute, \ncaptain Kellett, C.B. ; North Star, capt. Pullen ; \nIntrepid, capt. M\'Clintock; and Pioneer, capt. \nSherard Osborn, sailed from Woolwich 15 April, 1852 \n\n[This expedition arrived at Beechy Island 14 \nAug. 1852. The Assistance and Pioneer pro- \nceeded through Wellington Channel, and the \nResolute and Intrepid to Melville Island ; the \nNorth Star remaining at Beechy Island.] \n\nLADY FRANKLIN\'S EQUIPMENTS. \n\nLady Franklin, aided by a few friends (and by the \n"Tasmanian Tribute" of 1500?.), equipped four \nexpeditions (Nos. 12, 13, 14, 16). \n\n12. Prince Albert, capt. Forsyth, sailed from Aber- \ndeen to Barrow Straits . . . 5 June, 1850 \n\n[Returned 1 Oct. 1850.] \n\n13. The Prince Albert, Mr. Kennedy, accompanied \nby lieut. Bellot, of the French navy, and John \nHepburn, sailed from Stromness to Prince \nRegent\'s Inlet 4 June, 1851 \n\n[Returned Oct. 1852.] \n\n14. The Isabel, commander Inglefield, sailed for the \nhead of Baffin\'s Bay, Jones\'s Sound, and the \nWellington Channel, 6 July ; and returned Nov. 1852 \n\n15. Mr. Kennedy sailed again in the Isabel, on a \nrenewed search to Behring\'s Straits . . 1853 \n\n16. H.M.S. Rattlesnake, commander Trollope, des- \npatched to assist the Plover, capt. Maguire (who \nsucceeded capt. Moore), at Point Barrow in April ; \nmet with it Aug. ,, \n\n17. The second American expedition, the Advance, \nunder Dr. Kane .... early in June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n18. The Pha\'nix (with the Breadalbane transport), \ncommander Inglefield, accompanied by lieut. \nBellot, sailed in May ; he returned, bringing des- \npatches from Sir E. Belcher, <fec. . . Oct. ,, \n\nThe Investigator and sir E. Belcher\'s squadron \nwere safe ; but no traces of Franklin\'s party had \n\n\n\nFRANKLIN. \n\n\n\n417 \n\n\n\nFREDERICKSBURG. \n\n\n\nbeen met with. Lieut. Bellot was unfortunately \ndrowned in August while voluntarily conveying \ndespatches for sir E. Belcher. Capt. M\'Clure had \nleft the Herald (10) at Cape Lisburne, 31 July, \n1850. On 8 Oct. the ship was frozen in, and so \ncontinued for nine months. On 26 Oct. 1850, \nwhile on an excursion party, the captain dis- \ncovered an entrance into Barrow\'s Straits, and \nthus established the existence of a N.E. \xe2\x80\x94 N.W. \npassage. In Sept. 1851, the ship was again fixed \nin ice, and so remained till lieut. Pirn and a party \nfrom capt. Kellett\'s ship, the Resolute (11), fell in \nwith them in April, 1853. Tne position of the \nEnterprise (4) was still unknown. \n\nA monument to Bellot\'s memory was erected at \nGreenwich. His " Journal " was published in 1854 \n\nDr. Rae, in the spring of 1853, again proceeded \ntowards the magnetic pole; and in July, 1854, \nhe reported to the Admiralty that he had pur- \nchased from a party of Esquimaux a number of \narticles which had belonged to sir J. Franklin \nand his party \xe2\x80\x94 namely, sir John\'s star or order, \npart of a watch, silver spoons, and forks with \ncrests, &c. He also reported the statement of \nthe natives, that they had met with a party of \nwhite men about four winters previous, and had \nsold them a seal ; and that four months later, in \nthe same season, they had found the bodies of \nthirty men (some buried), who had evidently \nperished by starvation ; the place appears, from \nthe description, to have been in the neighbour- \nhood of the Great Fish river of Back. Dr. Rae \narrived in England on 22 Oct. 1854, with the \nrelics, which have since been deposited in Green- \nwich hospital. He and his companions were \nawarded 10,000?. for their discovery. \n\n19. The Phainix, North Star, and Talbot, under the \ncommand of capt. Inglefield, sailed in May, and \nreturned in Oct. 1854 \n\nSir E. Belcher (No. 11), after mature deliberation, \nin April, 1854, determined to abandon his ships, \nand gave orders to that effect to all the captains \nunder his command ; and capt. Kellett gave \nsimilar orders to capt. M\'Clure, of the Investigator. \nThe vessels had been abandoned 15 May* when \nthe crews of the Phcen ix and Talbot (under capt. \nInglefield) arrived (19). On their return to \nEngland all the captains were tried by court \nmartial and honourably acquitted 17-19 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCapt. Collinson\'s fate was long uncertain, and \nanother expedition was in contemplation, when \nintelligence came, in Feb. 1855, that he had met \nthe Rattlesnake (16) at Fort Clarence on 21 Aug. \n1854, and had sailed immediately, in hopes of \ngetting up with capt. Maguire in the Plover (1), \nwhich had sailed two days previously. Capt. \nCollinson having failed in getting through the ice \nin 1850 with capt. M\'Clure, returned to Hong- \nKong to winter. In 1851 he passed through \nPrince of Wales\'s Straits, and remained in the \nArctic regions without obtaining any intelligence \nof Franklin till July, 1854, when, being once \nmore released from the ice, he sailed for Fort \nClarence, where he arrived as above mentioned. \nCaptains Collinson and Maguire arrived in England \ni" May, 1855 \n\n20. The third American expedition in search of \nDr. Kane, in the Advance, consisted of the \nRelease and the steamer Arctic, the barque Enngo, \nand another vessel under the command of lieut. \nH. J. Hartstene, accompanied by a brother of \nDr. Kane as surgeon, . . . 31 May, ,, \n\n[On 17 May, 1855, Dr. Kane and his party quitted \nthe Advance, and journeyed over the\' ice, 1300 \n\n\n\n* Capt. Kellett\'s ship, the Resolute, was found adrift \n1000 miles distant from where she was left, by a \nMr. George Henry, commanding an American whaler, \nwho brought her to New York. The British government \nhaving abandoned their claim on the vessel, it was \nbought by order of the American congress, thoroughly \nrepaired and equipped, and entrusted to capt. II. J. \nHartstene, to be presented to queen Victoria. It arrived \nat Southampton, 12 Dec. 1856 ; was visited by her majesty \non the t 6th ; and formallysurrendered on the 30th. When \nthe ship was broken up a desk was made of the wood, \nand presented by queen Victoria to the president of the \nUnited States, 29 Nov. t88o. \n\n\n\nmiles, to the Danish settlement ; on their way \nhome in a Danish vessel, they fell in with lieut. \nHartstene, 18 Sept. ; and arrived with him at \nNew York, n Oct. 1855. Dr. Kane visited \nEngland in 1856 ; he died in 1857.] \n\nThe Hudson\'s Bay Company, under advice of Dr. Rae \nand sir G. Back, sent out an overland expedition, \nJune 1855, which returned Sept. following. Some \nmore remains of Franklin\'s party were discovered. 1855 \n\n21. The 18th British expedition (equipped by lady \nFranklin and her friends, the government having \ndeclined to fit out another) \xe2\x80\x94 the Fox, screw \nsteamer, under capt. (since sir) F. L. M\'Olintock, \nR.N. (see No. 11) \xe2\x80\x94 sailed from Aberdeen 1 July, \n1857 ; returned .... 22 Sept. 1859 \n\nOn 6 May, 1859, lieut. Hobson found at Point \nVictory, near Cape Victoria, besides a cairn, a tin \ncase, containing a paper, signed 25 April, 1848, \nby capt. Fitzjames, which certified that the ships \nErebus and Terror, on 12 Sept. 1846, were beset in \nlat. 70 50\' N. , and long. 98 23\' W. ; that sir John \nFranklin died 11 June, 1847; and that the ships \nwere deserted 22 April, 1848. Captain M\'Clintock \ncontinued the search, and discovered skeletons \nand other relics. His Journal was published in \nDec. 1859 ; and on 28 May, i860, gold medals \nwere given to him and to lady Franklin by the \nRoyal Geographical Society. \n\nMr. Hall, the arctic explorer, reported, in Aug. 1865, \ncircumstances that led him to hope that capt. \nCrozier and others were surviving. \n\nA national monument by Noble, set up in Waterloo- \nplace, was inaugurated, 15 Nov. 1866. It is \ninscribed to " Franklin the great navigator and \nhis brave companions who sacrificed their lives \nin completing the discovery of the north-west \npassage, a.d. 1847-8." \n\nSir John Franklin discovered the north-west passage \nby sailing down Peel and Victoria Straits, now \nnamed Franklin Straits. \n\n" Franklin search expedition," under lieut. Sehwatka, \nof U.S. navy, in an overland expedition in summer \nand autumn of 1879, discovers some human \nremains of the crews of the ships and other \nthings ; he set up memorials, and brought away \nthe remains of lieut. John Irving, of the Terror ; \nand returned to Massachusetts about 23 Sept. 1880 \n\nRemains of lieut. John Irving buried at Edinburgh, \n\n7 Jan. 1 881 \n\nFRANKS (or freemen), a name given to a com- \nbination of the North-western German tribes about \n240, which invaded Gaul and other parts of the \nempire with various success in the 5th century ; \nsee Gaul and France ; see Franking. \n\nFRASER\'S MAGAZINE, first appeared, \nFeb. 1830 ; discontinued Oct. 1882. \n\nFRATRICELLI (Little Brethren), a sect of \nthe middle ages, originally strict Franciscan monks. \nTheir numbers increased, and they were condemned \nby a papal bull in 13 1 7 ; and suffered persecution ;. \nbut were not extinct till the 16th century. They \nresembled the " Brethren of the Free Spirit." \n\nFRAUDS, Statute of. 29 Charles II., c. 3,. \n\n1677. " An act for prevention of frauds and per- \njuryes." \n\nFRAUDULENT TRUSTEES ACT, 20 & \n\n21 Vict. c. 54, passed Aug. 1857, in consequence of \nthe delinquencies of sir John D. Paul, the British \nBank frauds, &c. It was brought in by sir R. \nBethell, then attorney-general (afterwards lord \nWestbury), and is very stringent. \n\nFRAUNHOFER\'S LINES, see Spectrum. \n\nFREDERICKSBURG (Virginia,N. America). \nOn 10 Dec. 1862, general Bumside and the federal \narmy of the Potomac crossed the small deep river \nRappahannock. On 1 1 Dec. Fredericksburg was \nbombarded by the federals and destroyed. On the \n13th commenced a scries of desperate unsuccessful \nattacks on the confederate works, defended by \n\nV, B \n\n\n\nFEEDEBICKSHALD. \n\n\n\n418 \n\n\n\nFEEEMASONBY. \n\n\n\ngenerals Lee, Jackson, Longstreet, and others. \nGeneral Hooker crossed the river with the reserves, \nand joined in the conflict, in vain. On 15 and 16 \nDec. the federal army recrossed the Rappahannock. \nThe battle was one of the most severe in the war. \n\nFEEDEBICKSHALD (Norway). Charles \nXII. of Sweden was killed by a cannon-shot before \nits walls, while examining the works. His hand \nwas on his sword, and a prayer-book in his pocket, \n11 Dec. 1718. \n\nFEEE CHUECH OF ENGLAND. An \n\nEpiscopal Church founded in 1844, and enrolled in \nher majesty\'s High Court of Chancery in 1863. \n\nThe bishops are Benjamin Price (bishop primus), who \nresides at Ilfracombe ; Frederick Newman, at Ashford, \nKent ; and a missionary bishop, Henry Orion Meyers, \nat Hounslow. \n\nThis church grew out of the Oxford traetarian move- \nment of 1830. The first church was planted at Bridge- \ntown, Devon, by the rev. James Shore, M.A., curate \nof the parish ; it was built by the duke of Somerset, \nand opened in 1844. Two other churches were esta- \nblished in the same year\xe2\x80\x94 one at Exeter, and the other at \nIlfracombe. But it was not till 1849 that much progress \nwas made, when an impetus was given to the movement \nby the late bishop of Exeter\'s (Philpott) prosecution \nof Mr. Shore, for preaching in his diocese without his \nlicence. The work spread, and the organization was \nenrolled under a deed poll as an " Episcopal Church." \nBut as " Consecration " could not be obtained a bishop \npresident was elected till 1876, when the secession of \nthe right rev. bishop Cummins from the "Protestant \nEpiscopal Church of America " (the first bishops of \nwhich church were consecrated by the archbishop of \nCanterbury at Lambeth Palace chapel, in 1787), af- \nforded an opportunity, which was embraced, of \nobtaining episcopal consecration for the bishops of \nthe Free Church of England in the Canterbury line of \nepiscopal succession. \n\nThe services of the F. C. E. are conducted exactly as \nthose of the evangelical section of the national church, \nexcepting the omission of some words in the offices \nwhich express doctrines opposed to the Protestant \nBeformation. \n\nFEEE CHUECH OF SCOTLAND was \n\nformed by an act of secession of nearly halt the body \nfrom the national church of Scotland, headed by Dr. \nThos. Chalmers and other eminent ministers, 18 May, \n1843. The difference arose on the question of the \nright of patrons to nominate to livings; see Patron- \nage. The Free Church claims for the parishioners \nthe right of a veto. Much distress was endured the \nfirst year by the ministers of the new church, \nalthough 366,719/. 14s. 3<\xc2\xa3- had been subscribed. \nIn 1853 there were 850 congregations ; in 1873, 954. \nA large college was founded in 1846. In 1856 the \nsustentation fund amounted to 108,638/. from which \nwas paid the sum of 138/. each to 700 ministers. \nThe Rev. Mr. Knight, censured for opinions re- \nspecting prayer, seceded ... 22 Oct. 1873 \nThe Reformed Presbyterian Church (see Came- \n\nronians), joined the Free Church . . 25 May, 1876 \nProfessor Robertson Smith, generally censured for \nhis article "Bible, &c," in the " Encyclopedia \nBritannica," 1875, after long consideration by the \nassembly, admonished only . . 27 May, 1880 \nProfessor Robertson Smith expelled from his pro- \nfessorship, but to retain salary, by the general \nassembly (394\xe2\x80\x94231) .... 26 May, 1881 \n\nFEEE CHUECH SOCIETY, or National \nAssociation for Freedom of Public Worship, esta- \nblished in 1857, to abolish the pew-rent system \nand revive the weekly offertory to defray the ex- \npenses of public worship. The Free and Open \nChurch Association was formed in 1866. \n\nFEEE COMPANIES and LANCES, see \nCondottieri. \n\n\n\nFEEEDMEN\'S BUREAUS, established in \nthe Southern States of North America in March, \n1865, to protect the freed negroes. Having the \nsupport of martial law, these bureaus became very \noppressive, and the act of congress making them \npermanent was vetoed by president Johnson in \nFeb. 1866. \n\nFEEE EDUCATION ACT. See under \nEducation, 1891. \n\nFEEEHOLDEES. Those under forty shil- \nlings per annum were not qualified to vote for \nmembers of parliament by 8 Hen. VI. c. 7, 1429. \nVarious acts have been passed for the regulation of \nthe franchise at different periods. The more recent \nwere, the act to regulate polling, 9 Geo. IV., 1828 ; \nact for the disqualification of freeholders in Ireland, \nwhich deprived those of forty shillings of this privi- \nlege, passed 13 April, 1829 ; Reform acts, 1832, \n1867, 1868. County elections act, 7 Will. IV., 1836. \nSee Chandos Clause. \n\nFEEE HOSPITAL, EOYAL, Gray\'s Inn- \nroad, founded in 1828 by Dr. William Marsden \n(born Aug. 1796), who actively superintended it till \nhis death, 16 Jan. 1867. In 1851, he founded the \nCancer Hospital (Brompton), which see. Patients \nadmitted without letters. In 1878 Mr. Wm. Birks \nRhodes, "the Hounslow miser," bequeathed to the \nhospital about 39,000/. \n\nFEEE LABOUE BEGISTEATION \n\nSOCIETY, established for the benefit, of em- \nployers and non-unionist workmen, in opposition \nto trades\' unions, about July, 1867. \n\nFEEE LAND LEAGUE, see Zand. \n\nFEEE LIBEAEIES, see Libraries. \n\nFEEEMASONEY. Writers on masonry, \nthemselves masons, affirm tfcat it has had a being \n" ever since symmetry began, and harmony dis- \nplayed her charms." It is traced by some to the \nbuilding of Solomon\'s temple; and it is said the \narchitects from the African coast, Mahometans, \nbrought it into Spain, about the 9th centuiy. A \nmodern speculative cosmopolitan freemasonry with \nsome analogies has essential differences from some \nearly secret societies, and is not earlier than \nthe seventeenth century. In 1717, the grand lodge \nof England was established ; that of Ireland in \n1730; and that of Scotland in 1736. Freemasons \nwere excommunicated by the pope in 1738; again \ncondemned, 30 Sept. 1865. Freemasons\' Hall, \nGreat Queen - street, London, built 1771 ; re- \nbuilt, and consecrated 14 April, 1869. Partly \nburnt, 3 May, 1883. The charity instituted, 1788. \nThe duke of Sussex and the earl of Zetland \nwere each twenty-five years grand-master of Eng- \nland. Earl de Grey, afterwards marquis of Ripon, \nwas installed grand-master of the English free- \nmasons in room of the earl of Zetland, 14 May, \n1870. The marquis (on becoming a Romanist) re- \nsigned 1 Sept. 1874. He was succeeded by the \nprince of Wales; installed in the Royal Albert \nHall, 28 April, 1875. The duke of Leinster, grand- \nmaster for Ireland for 60 years, died 10 Oct. 1874 \xe2\x80\xa2 \nsucceeded by the duke of Abercorn. The prince of \nWales was installed at Edinburgh as patron of tbe \nfreemasons of Scotland, 12 Oct. 1870. As grand- \nmaster past and present of the mark masons, \nLondon, 8 Dec. 1883. Installed as Grand Master of \nthe Grand Lodge, 1 July, 1886. Prince Leopold \ninstalled as master of the " lodge of antiquity" (at \none time held by sir Christopher Wren) , 25 June, \n1879. \nRoyal Masonic Institutions : for girls (Battersea), \n\nfounded 1788; for boys (Wood Green), 1798; for \n\nthe aged and widows 1842 \n\n\n\nFKEE POETS. \n\n\n\n419 \n\n\n\nFEENCH EEVOLUTIONS. \n\n\n\nFEEE POETS, see Hanse Towns. \n\nFEEE STATE, see Orange. \n\nFEEETHINKEES, professors of natural re- \nligion ; see JJeists. \n\nFEEE TEADE principles, advocated by Adam \nSmith in his " Wealth of Nations" (1776), tri- \nnrnphed in England when the corn laws were \nabolished in 1846, and the commercial treaty with \nFrance was adopted in i860. Richard Cobden, who \nwas very instrumental in passing these measures, \n\xe2\x96\xa0and termed " Apostle of Free Trade," died 2 April, \n3865. Since 1830 the exports have been tripled. \n\'See French Treaty. An agitation for free trade has \nbegun in the United States. A reform league was \nformed at Boston, 20 April, 1869; and the move- \nment became active in New York in Nov., and has \nsince continued. A free-trade budget was brought \nin by the ministiy in Sydney in 1873. A new free- \nirade league was inaugurated in London in Dec. \n1873 ; and one at Melbourne, Australia, Sept. 1876. \nFree trade warmly advocated in New South Wales, \nsupported in New Zealand; opposed in Canada and \nin Victoria, Australia, 1877-80. Much agitation \nagainst free-trade in 1880-2. See Anti-Corn Law \nLeague, and Fair Trade. American Free Trade \nLeague formed at Detroit, June, 1883. Protection, \n\xe2\x96\xa0which sec, dominant in Europe, Feb. 1885 et seq. \n\nPresident Cleveland\'s message strongly urges fiscal \nreform, large reduction of protective duties and other \ntaxation 6 Dec. 1887. \n\nReform elub at New York to support tariff reform ; first \nbanquet 21 Jan. t888. \n\nPowerful speech of M. Leon Say on behalf of free trade \nin the chamber of deputies, pointing out the dangers \nof retrogression 9 and 11 May, 1891. \n\nThe marquis of Salisbury, in a speech at Hastings, advo- \ncates duties on foreign luxuries r8 May, 1892. \n\nFEEEZING, see Congelation and Lee. \n\n"FEEIHEIT," German newspaper. See \nTrials, 18S1. \n\nFEENCH ASSOCIATION for the ad- \nvancement OF THE SCIENCES was established \nby the general assembly, 22 April, 1872, its chief \nfounders being Mil. Balard, Claude Bernard, De- \nlaunay, Dumas, Pasteur, Berthelot, Wurtz, and \nothers. It held its first meeting at Bordeaux, \n5 Sept. 1872, when many foreign scientific men \nwere present, M. De Quatrefages, president; second, \nLyons, 21 Aug. 1873; third, Lille, 20 Aug. 1874; \nfourth, Nantes, 19 Aug. 1875 \xc2\xbb fifth, Clermont \nFerrand, 19 Aug. 1876; sixth, Havre, 30 Aug. 1877; \nseventh, Paris, 22 Aug. 1878 ; eighth, Montpellier, \n28 Aug. 1879; ninth, Rheims, II Aug. 1880; \ntenth, Algiers, 14 April, 1881 ; La Rochelle, 23 \nAug. 1882; Rouen, 17 Aug. 1883; Blois, 3 Sept. \n1884 ; Grenoble, 12 Aug. 1885 ; Nancy, 12 Aug. \n1886 ; Toulouse, 22 Sept. 1887 ; Oran, Algeria, 29 \nMarch, 1888; Paris, 8-14 Aug. 1889; Limoges, \n7-14 Aug. 1890; Marseilles, 17 Sept. 1891 ; \nPau, 1892; Besanc,on, 1893. \n\nFEENCH CHUECH, see Church of France. \n\nFEENCH EXHIBITION, at Earl\'s Court, \nWest Brompton, London, W., was opened by the \nlord mayor Isaacs, 17 May, closed 1 Nov. 1890. \nThe exhibition principally consisted of objects which \nappeared in the Universal Exhibition at Paris, 1889. \nIt included works of art, manufactures, books, pano- \nramas of parts of Paris, and a hypodrome. In the \n\xe2\x80\xa2" Wild East grounds " appeared Algerian Arabs, with \ntheir families and steeds ; a chariot drawn by three \nAfrican lions was driven by their owner round the \narena. \n\n\n\nFEENCH LANGUAGE is mainly based on \nthe rude Latin of the western nations subjugated \nby the Romans. German was introduced by the \nFranks in the 8th century. In the 9th the Gallo- \nRomanic dialect became divided into the Langue \nd\'oc of the south and the Langue d\'oil of the north. \nThe dialect of the Isle of France became predomi- \nnant in the 12th century. The French language as \nwritten by\xc2\xabFroissart assimilates more to the modern \nFrench, and its development was almost completed \nwhen the Aeademie Franchise (established by Riche- \nlieu in 1634) published a dictionary of the language \nin 1674. The French language, laws, and customs \nwere introduced into England by William I., 1066. \nLaw pleadings were changed from French to English \nin the reign of Edward III., 1362. Stoiv. \n\n\n\nPRINCIPAL FEENCH AUTHORS. \n\nBorn Died \n\n\n\nChanson de \n\n\n\n\n\n\nRoland \n\n\nnth century. \n\n\nRoman d\' \n\n\n\n\n\n\nAlexandre \n\n\n12th century. \n\n\nR. Wace Ro- \n\n\n\n\n\n\nman de Brut \n\n\n12th century. \n\n\nRoman de la \n\n\n\n\n\n\nRose \n\n\n12th century. \n\n\nVillehardouin \n\n\n. 1 160 \n\n\n1213 \n\n\nJoin vi lie . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 122 3 \n\n\nI 3 I 9 \n\n\nFroissart \n\n\n- 1333 \n\n\n1410 \n\n\nMonstrelet about 1390 \n\n\n*453 \n\n\nComines . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1445 \n\n\n1509 \n\n\nMarot . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1495 \n\n\n1544 \n\n\nRabelais . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1483 \n\n\n!553 \n\n\nRonsard \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 J 5 2 4 \n\n\n1585 \n\n\nMontaigne \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1533 \n\n\n1592 \n\n\nBaza \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1519 \n\n\n1605 \n\n\nMalherbe . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 I55S \n\n\n1628 \n\n\nDes Cartes . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1596 \n\n\n1650 \n\n\nPascal \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1623 \n\n\n1662 \n\n\nMoliere \n\n\n. 1622 \n\n\n1673 \n\n\nLa Rochefou- \n\n\n\n\n\n\ncauld . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1613 \n\n\n1680 \n\n\nCorneille \n\n\n. 1606 \n\n\n1684 \n\n\nLa Fontaine \n\n\n. 1621 \n\n\n!695 \n\n\nMad. de Sevigi \n\n\nre 1626 \n\n\n1696 \n\n\nLa Bruyere \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1645 \n\n\n1696 \n\n\nRacine . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1639 \n\n\n1699 \n\n\nBossuet . \n\n\n. 1627 \n\n\n1704 \n\n\nBourdaloue . \n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 1632 \n\n\n1704 \n\n\nBayle \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 l6 47 \n\n\n1706 \n\n\nFlechier \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1 <532 \n\n\n1710 \n\n\nBoileau . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1636 \n\n\n1711 \n\n\nFenelon \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1651 \n\n\n17*5 \n\n\nVertot \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1655 \n\n\nJ 735 \n\n\nRollin . \n\n\n. 1661 \n\n\n1741 \n\n\nMassillon . \n\n\n. 1663 \n\n\n1742 \n\n\nLe Sage \n\n\n. 1668 \n\n\n*747 \n\n\nMontesquieu \n\n\n. 1689 \n\n\n1755 \n\n\nVoltaire . \n\n\n. 1604 \n\n\n1778 \n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0T. J. Rousseau. 1712 \n\n\n1778 \n\n\nDAlembert \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1717 \n\n\n1783 \n\n\nDiderot \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1713 \n\n\n1784 \n\n\nBuffon . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 *7\xc2\xb07 \n\n\n17S8 \n\n\nBeaumarchais \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 i73 2 \n\n\n1799 \n\n\nMarmontel \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 i7 2 3 \n\n\n1799 \n\n\nMad. Cottin \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1773 \n\n\n1807 \n\n\n\n\'Born \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 1738 \n\xe2\x80\xa2 1737 \n. 1766 \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 1746 \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 J 773 \n1793 \n\n\n\nI79S \n1780 \n1804 \n\n\n\nDelille . \nSt. Pierre . \nDe Stael . . \nDe Genlis . \nSismondi . . \n\nC. Delavigne . \nChateaubriand. \nBalzac \n\nD. F. Arago \nAugustin \n\nThierry . . \nBeranger . \nEugene Sue . . \nAlfred deMusset 1810 \nA. Eugene \n\nScribe . 1751 \n\nA. de Vigny . 1797 \nA. G. De Ba- \n\nrante . . 1782 \nA. F. Villemain 1790 \nVictor Cousin . 1792 \nA De la Martine 1790 \nSainte Beuve . 1804 \nAlexandre \n\nDumas . . 1803 \nC. F. Montalem- \n\nbert . .1810 \nP. Merimee . 1803 \nTheophile \n\nGautier . 181 1 \nAmedee Thierry 1797 \nF. Guizot . . 1787 \nJules Michelet. 1798 \n\nE. Quinet . . 1803 \nL. A. Thiers \nLanfrey . \nLouis Blanc \nL. H. Martin \n\nhist. . . . \nVictor Hugo \nE. About . \nE. Renan . \nH. A. Taine . \nErekmann \nChatrian . , \nAlphonse Karr. \nOctave Feuillet 1812 \n\n\n\nDied \n1813 \n1814 \n1817 \n\n1830 \n\n\n\n1799 1850 \n1786 1853 \n\n\n\n1797 \n1828 \n1811 \n\n1810 \n1802 \n182S \n1823 \n1828 \n1822 \n1826 \n\n\n\n1856 \n1857 \n1857 \n1857 \n\n\n\n1863 \n\n1866 \n1867 \n\n\n\n1870 \n\n1870 \n1870 \n\n1872 \n1873 \n1874 \n1874 \n\n1875 \n1877 \n1877 \n\n\n\nFEENCH NATIONAL SOCIETY, for \n\nsocial, commercial, and artistic purposes, founded \nin London 15 Jan. 1881. \n\nFEENCH NAVY, see Navy. \n\nFEENCH PEOTESTANT HOSPITAL, \n\nfounded in 1708 to maintain poor descendants of \nFrench protestant refugees, 40 females, 20 males. \n\nFEENCH EELIEF FUND, see Mansion- \nhouse Fund. The French peasant relief fund, \noriginated by the Daily News, in Sept. 1870, was \nclosed April, 1871. \n\nFEENCH EEVOLUTIONS, see France. \n\n1789, 1830, 1848, 1870. \n\n\n\nFRENCH RE VOL Y. CALENDAR. 420 \n\n\n\nFROBISHER\'S STRAITS. \n\n\n\nFRENCH REVOLUTIONARY CA- \nLENDAR. In 1792, the French nation adopted \na calendar professedly founded on philosophical \nprinciples. The first year of the era of the republic \nbegan at midnight, between 21 and 22 Sept. 1792; \nbut its establishment was not decreed until the \n4th Frimaire of the year II., 24 Nov. 1793. The \ncalendar existed until the 10th Nivose, year of the \nrepublic XIV., 31 Dec. 1805, when the Gregorian \nmode of calculation was restored by Napoleon I. \n1800 was not a leap year. \n\nAUTUMN. \n\nVendemiaire . . Vintage month, 22 Sept. to 21 Oct. \nBrumaire . . . Fog month . . 22 Oct. to 20 Nov. \nFrimaire . . . Sleet month . 21 Nov. to 20 Dec. \n\nWINTER. \n\nNivose . . . . Snow month . 21 Dec. to 19 Jan. \nPluviose . . . Rain month . 20 Jan. to 18 Feb. \nVentose . . . Wind month . 19 Feb. to 20 Mar. \n\nSPRING. \n\nGerminal . . . Sprouts\' month, 21 Mar. to 19 April. \nFloreal . . . . Flowers\' month, 20 April to 19 May. \nPrairial . . . Pasture month, 20 May to 18 June. \n\nSUMMER. \n\nMessidor . . . Harvestmonth, 19 June to 18 July \nFervidor, or \n\nThermidor . . Hot month . . 19 July to 17 Aug. \n\nFructidor . . Fruit month . 18 Aug. to 16 Sept. \n\nSAT5TSCUL0TIDES, OR FEASTS DEDICATED TO \n\nLes Vertus .... The Virtues . .17 Sept. \n\nLe Genie . . . . Genius . . . 18 Sept. \n\nLe Travail .... Labour . . .19 Sept. \n\nL\'Opinion . ... Opinion . . . 20 Sept. \n\nLes Recompenses . . Rewards . .21 Sept. \n\nFRENCHTOWN (Canada), was taken from \nthe British by the American general Winchester, \n22 Jan. 1813, during the second war with the \nUnited States of America. It was retaken by the \nBritish forces under general Proctor, 24 Jan., and \nthe American commander and his troops were made \nprisoners. \n\nFRENCH TREATY, the term given to the \ntreaty of commerce between Great Britain and \nFrance, signed 23 Jan. i860, at Paris, by lord \nCowley and Richard Cobden and by the ministers \nMM. Baroche and Bouher. The beneficial results \nof this treaty compensated for the depression of \ntrade occasioned by the civil war in North America \n(1861-5). The French assembly determined that \non 15 March, 1871, this treaty should cease in 12 \nmonths from that date. A fresh treaty was signed \nat Paris 29 Jan. 1873. Free trade was somewhat \nrestricted, but the new French navigation law was \nrelaxed. Negotiations for a new treaty began in \nLondon, 26 May, 1881. See France, 1881-2. \n\nFRESCO PAINTINGS are executed on \nplaster while fresh. Very ancient ones exist in \nEgypt, Italy, and England, and modern ones in the \nBritish houses of parliament, at Berlin, and other \nplaces. The fresco paintings by Giotto and others \nat the Campo Santo, a cemetery at Pisa, executed \nin the 13th century, are justly celebrated. Sse \nStereochromy. \n\nFRESHWATER FISH, see Fish. \n\nFRETEVAL (Central France). Here Richard \nI. of England defeated Philip II. of France, and \ncaptured his royal seal, archives, &c, 15 July, \n1 194. Freteval was taken by the Germans, 14 Deo., \n1870, and soon abandoned. \n\nFRIARS (from the French frere, a brother) ; \neee Minorites, Carmelites, Dominicans, Franciscans, \nCrutched Friars, and other orders. \n\nFRIDAY, the sixth day of the week ; so called \nfrom Friga, or Frea, the Scandinavian Venus, the \n\n\n\nwife of Thor, and goddess of peace, fertility, and \nriches, who with Thor and Odin composed the \nsupreme council of the gods. See Good Friday and \nBlack Friday. \n\nFRIEDLAND (Prussia). Here the allied \nRussians and Prussians were beaten by the French,, \ncommanded by Napoleon, on 14 June, 1807. The \nallies lost eighty pieces of cannon and about 18,000 \nmen ; the French about 10,000 men. The peace of \nTilsit followed, by which Prussia was obliged to \nsurrender nearly half her dominions. \n\nFRIENDLY ISLES, in the Southern Pacific, \nconsist of a group of more than 150 islands, form- \ning an archipelago of very considerable extent. \nThese islands were discovered by Tasman, in 1643 - T \nvisited by Wallis, who called them Keppel Isles, \n1767 ; and by captain Cook, who named them on \naccount of the friendly disposition of the natives, \n1773. Subsequent voyagers describe them as very \nferocious. \n\nFRIENDLY SOCIETIES, which originated \nin the clubs of the industrious classes, were sub- \njected to slight control in 1793, and have been \nregulated by various enactments. Other acts were- \npassed in 1855, 1858 and i860 ; important ones, \nII Aug. 1875, 24 July, 1876, 1882 and 1887. In \nLondon, the Defoe Friendly Society dates from \n1687; the Norman, 1 703; the Lintot, 1708. \nAn example of fraud, credulity, and mismanagement was. \ngiven on investigation by the registrar-general into the \naffairs of the \' \' Independent Mutual Brethren Friendly \nSociety," founded in 1873, and broken up in 18S6- \nMembers, 2,225,000 ; capital, about i6,ooo,oooJ. ; re- \nturn, July, 1891. \n\nFRIENDS, see Quakers, and under Clergy. \n\nFRIENDS OF THE PEOPLE, an association \nformed in London to obtain parliamentary reform, \n1792. \n\nFRIESLAND : EAST (N. Germany), the \nancient Frisia, formerly governed by its own counts. \nOn the death of its prince Charles Edward, in 1744, \nit became subject to the king of Prussia; Hanover \ndisputed its pos-ession, but Prussia prevailed. It was \nannexed to Holland by Bonaparte, in 1806, to the \nFrench empire, 1810 ; and awarded to Hanover in \n1815. The English language is said to be mainly \nderived from the old Frisian dialect. \xe2\x80\x94 Friesland, \nWest, in Holland, was part of Charlemagne\'s- \nempire in 800. It passed under the counts of \nHolland about 936, and was one of the seven pro- \nvinces which renounced the Spanish yoke in 1580. \nThe term Chevaux de Frise (or Cheval de Frise, a \nFriesland Horse) is derived from Friesland, where- \nit was invented. \n\nFRIULI (Venetia), made a duchy by Alboin \nthe Lombard, when he established his kingdom \nabout 570. It was conquered by Charlemagne. \nHenri, a Frenchman, made duke, was assassinated \nin 799, which was the fate of duke Berengarius, \nking of Italy and emperor, in 924. The emperor \nConrad gave the duchy to his chancellor Poppo, \npatriarch of Aquileia, in the nth century ; it was \nconquered by Venice in 1420 ; annexed to Austria, \n1797; to France, 1805; to Austria, 1814; to Italy, \n1866. \n\nFROBISHER\'S STRAITS, discovered by \nsir Martin Frobisher, who tried to find a north- \nwest passage to China, and after exploring the coast \nof New Greenland, entered this strait, n Aug. \n1576. He returned to England, bringing with him \na quantity of black ore, supposed to contain gold, \nwhich induced queen Elizabeth to patronise a second \nvoyage. This led to a third fruitless expedition. \nHe was mortally wounded at Brest, Nov. 1594. \n\n\n\nFECEBEL SOCIETY. \n\n\n\n421 \n\n\n\nFRUITS. \n\n\n\nFECEBEL SOCIETY, established to promote \nthe Kindergarten system {which see), 1874; annual \nmeeting, 17 Jan. 1889. \n\nFEOGMOEE, near Windsor, Berks. A house \nhere, built by IS\'ash, was the residence of queen \nCharlotte and afterwards of the duchess of Kent. \nHere is situate the mausoleum of the late prince \nconsort. See Albert. \n\nFEOHSDOEF, a village near Vienna, lately the \na-esidence of the comtedeChambord, seeFrance, 1873. \n\nFEOJSTDE, CIVIL WARS OF THE, in France, \nin the minority of Louis XIV. (1648-52), during \nthe government of queen Anne of Austria and \n\xe2\x96\xa0cardinal Mazarin, between the followers of the \ncourt and the nobility, and the parliament and \nthe citizens. The hitter were called Froncleurs \n{slingers), it is said, from an incident in a street \nquarrel. In a riot on 27 Aug. 1648, barricades were \n\xe2\x96\xa0erected in Paris. \n\nFEOSTS. The following are some of the most \nremarkable recorded : (see Gold.) \nThe Euxine Sea frozen over for 20 days 401 \n\nA frost at Constantinople, when the two seas there \n\nwere frozen a hundred miles from the shore, \n\nOct. 763 \xe2\x80\x94 Feb. 764 \nA frost in England on Midsummer-day is said to \n\nhave destroyed the fruits of the earth . . . 1035 \n\nThames frozen for 14 weeks 1063 \n\nDreadful frosts in England from Nov. to April . 1076 \n\nThe Cattegat entirely frozen 1294 \n\n.Baltic passable to travellers for six weeks . . 1323 \nThe Baltic frozen from Pomerania to Denmark . 1402 \nIn England, when all the small birds perished . 1407-8 \nThe ice bore riding upon it from Liibeck to Prussia, 1426 \nSevere frost , when large fowl of the air sought \n\nshelter in the towns of Germany . . . . 1433 \nThe river frozen below London-bridge to Gravesend, \n\nfrom 24 Nov. to Feb. 10 1434 \n\nThe Baltic frozen, and horse passengers crossed \n\nfrom Denmark to Sweden 1460 \n\nThe winter so severe in Flanders that the wine \n\ndistributed was cut by hatchets .... 1468 \nCarriages passed over from Lambeth to Westminster 1515 \nWine in Flanders frozen into solid lumps . . . 1544 \nSledges drawn by oxen travelled on the sea from \n\nRostock to Denmark 1548 \n\nDiversions on the Thames . . .21 Dec. &c. 1564 \nThe Scheldt frozen so hard as to sustain loaded \n\nwaggons 1565 \n\nThe Rhine, Scheldt, and sea at Venice frozen . . 1594 \nFires and diversions on the Thames . . . . 1607-8 \nThe rivers of Europe and the Zuyder Zee frozen ; \n\nice covers the Hellespont 1622 \n\nCharles X. of Sweden crossed the Little-Belt over \n\nthe ice from Holstein to Denmark, with his whole \n\narmy 1658 \n\nThe forest trees, and even the oaks in England, \n\nsplit by the frost ; most of the hollies were killed ; \n\nthe Thames covered witli ice eleven inches thick ; \n\nand nearly all the birds perished, Dec. 1683\xe2\x80\x94 Feb. 1684 \n" The people kept trades on the Thames as in a \n\nlair, till 4 Feb. 1684. About forty coaches daily \n\nplied on the Thames as on drye land. Bought \n\nthis book at a shop upon the ice in the middle of \n\nthe Thames." Entry in the memoranda of a \n\nCitizen. \nThe wolves, driven by the cold, entered Vienna, \n\nand attacked cattle and men 1691 \n\nThree months\' frost, with heavy snow, from Dec. \n\nto March 1709 \nA fair held on the Thames, and oxen roasted ; frost \n\ncontinued 24 Nov. to 9 Feb. 1716 \n\nOne lasted 9 weeks, when coaches plied upon the \n\nThames, and festivities and diversions of all \n\nkinds were enjoyed upon the ice. (The "hard \n\nwinter") 1740 \n\nFrom 25 Dec. to 16 Jan. and from 18 to 22 Jan. ; \n\nmost terrible 1766 \n\nOne general throughout Europe ; the Thames pass- \nable opposite the Custom House Nov. to Jan. . 1789 \nOne from 24 Dec. 1794, to 14 Feb. 1795, with the \n\nintermission of one day\'s thaw . . 23 Jan. 1795 \nIntense frosts ..... all Dec. 1796 \n\n\n\nSevere frost in Russia 1812 \n\nVery destructive to the French army in its retreat \nfrom Moscow. Napoleon commenced his retreat \non the 9th Nov. The men perished in battalions, \nand the horses fell by hundreds on the roads. \nFrance lost in the campaign of this year more \nthan 400,000 men. \nBooths erected on the Thames ; the winter very \n\nsevere in Ireland 1813-14 \n\nSevere frost (Thames blocked) . 7 Jan.-Feb., 1838 \n\nThe frosts so intense in parts of Norway, that \nquicksilver freezes, and persons exposed to the \natmosphere lose their breath . . 2 Jan. 1849 \nVery severe frost in London, 14 Jan. to 24 Feb. ; \n\nand very cold weather up to 26 June . . . 1855 \nOn 22 Feb. fires were made on the Serpentine, \nHyde Park. A traffic on the ice of 35 miles long, \nwas established in Lincolnshire ... ,, \n\nVery severe frost, 20 Dec. i860 ; to . 5 Jan. 1861 \n\nVery severe frosts Dec. 1874 \n\nLong frost with thaws . . 22 Nov. 1879-2 Feb. 1880 \nVery severe frost in Britain, begun 18 Jan. lasted \n\nabout 14 days 1881 \n\nFairs on the Thames recorded, 1564, 1607-8, 1620, \n1683-4 (special), 1688-9,1715-16, 1739-40, 1788-9, \n1813-14. \nA frost in Britain began 25 Nov. 1890, and con- \ntinued with intermissions till . . 22 Jan. 1891 \nA trap with a tandem team driven across the Serpen- \ntine . . . . . . . 16 Jan. ,, \n\nFEOST\'S INSUBBECTION, see Newport. \n\nFEUCTLDOB CONSTITUTION; that \npromulgated in France on the 5th Fructidor, \nyear 3, or 22 Aug. 1795. See Directory for \nchanges. \n\nFEUITS. Several varieties introduced into \nItaly, 70 B.C. etscq. Many exotic fruits and flowers, \npreviously unknown in England, were brought \nthither between 1500 and 1578, and very many in \nthe present century See Gardening, and Flowers. \nA conference of British fruit-growers was held at \nthe Crystal Palace, London, 7 Sept. ; association \nformed 11 Oct. 1888. Many donations were made \nto the fund for the encoimigement of fruit-culture, \nfounded by the lord mayor and the Fruiterers\' \nCompany, autumn, 1889. Successful fruit-growing \nreported, Dec. 1890. Many of the following dates \nare uncertain : \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nAlmond-tree, Barbary, about 1548 \n\nApples, Syria 1522 \n\nApple, custard, N. America 1736 \n\nApple, osage, ditto 1818 \n\nApricots, Epirus 154\xc2\xb0 \n\nCherry-trees, Pontus 100 \n\nCherries, Flanders 1540 \n\nCornelian cherry, Austria 1596 \n\nCurrant, the hawthorn, Canada 1705 \n\nFig-tree, S. Europe, before .... 1548 \n\nGooseberries, Flanders,, before 154\xc2\xb0 \n\nGrapes, Portugal 1528 \n\nLemons, Spain I5S4 \n\nLimes, Portugal, about 1554 \n\nLimes, American, before 175 2 \n\nMelons, before i54\xc2\xb0 \n\nMulberry, Italy 1520 \n\nMulberry, white, China, about .... 1596 \n\nMulberry, the red, N. America, before . . . 1629 \nMulberry, paper, Japan, before .... 1754 \n\nNectarine, Persia 1652 \n\nOlive, Cape 173\xc2\xb0 \n\nOlive, the sweet-scented China 177 1 \n\nOranges 1595 \n\nPeaches, Persia 1562 \n\nPears, uncertain * \n\nPine-apple, Brazils 1568 \n\nPippins, Netherlands i5 2 5 \n\nPlums, Italy 1522 \n\nPomegranate, Spain, before 1548 \n\nQuince, Austria J 573 \n\nQuince, Japan I79 6 \n\nRaspberry, the Virginian, before 1696 \n\nStrawberry, Flanders \'53\xc2\xb0 \n\nStrawberry, the Oriental, Levant . \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \'724 \nWalnut, the black, N. America, before . . \xe2\x80\xa2 i6?<\xc2\xbb \n\n\n\nFUCHSIA. \n\n\n\n422 \n\n\n\nFUTTEHGHUR. \n\n\n\nFUCHSIA, ail American plant named after the \nGerman botanist Leonard Fuchs, about 1542. The \nFuchsia fulgens, the most beautiful variety, was \nintroduced from Mexico, about 1830. \n\nFUEL, see Coal, Bogs. In the autumn of \n1873, it was announced that Louis Ravneckers, a \nFrench peasant, had discovered that earth mixed \nwith coal and a little soda made good fuel. \n\nFUENTES DE ONORO (central Spain). \nOn 2 May, 181 1, Massena crossed the Agueda with \n40,000 infantry, 5000 horse, and about 30 pieces of \nartillery, to relieve Almeida. He expected every \nday to be superseded in his command, and wished \nto make a last effort for his own military character. \n"Wellington could muster no more than 32,000 men, \nof which only 1200 were cavalry. He however de- \ntermined to fight rather than give up the blockade \nof Almeida. After much lighting, on 3 May, night \ncame on and stopped the conflict. Next day Mas- \nsena was joined by Bessieres with a body "of the \nImperial guard ; and on 5 May, made his grand \nattack. In all the war there was not a more dan- \ngerous hour for England. The tight lasted until \nevening, when the lower part of the town was \nabandoned by both parties\xe2\x80\x94 the British maintaining \nthe chapel and crags, and the French retiring a \ncannon-shot from the stream. Napier. \n\nFUESSEN, Bavaria. By a treaty signed here, \n22 April, 1745, peace was made between Maria \nTheresa, queen of Hungary, and the elector of \nBavaria, the latter renouncing his claim to the \nimperial crown and recovering his lost territories. \n\nFUGGEE, an illustrious German family (the \npresent head, prince Leopold Fugger Babenhausen, \nsince 28 May, 1836), derives its" origin from John \nFugger, a master weaver in Augsburg in 1370; \nand its wealth by trade, and by money-lending to \nmonarchs, especially the emperors. \n\nFUGITIVE OFFENDERS ACT passed, \n\n27 Aug. 1881. \' \n\nFUGITIVE SLAVE BILL passed by the \nAmerican legislature in 1850. It imposed a fine of \nIOOO dollars and six months\' imprisonment on any \nperson harbouring fugitive slaves or aiding in their \nescape. This law was declared to be unconsiitu- \ntional by the judges of the superior court on 3 Feb. \n1855, was carried into effect with great" diffi- \nculty, and was not received by Massachusetts. \nIt was repealed 13 June, 1864; see Slavery in \nAmerica. \n\nFUGITIVE SLAVE CIRCULARS, see \n\nSlavery. \n\nFUGUE in Music (in which one part seems to \nchase another), is described in Morley\'s " Introduc- \ntion to Practieall Mnsicke," 1597. Sebastian Bach \nand Handel were eminent fugue-writers. \n\nFULDA ("W. Germany), the seat of an abbey, \nfounded by St. Boniface, the apostle of Germain, \nin 744. It was made a bishopric in 1752, and\'a \nprincipality in 1803. Napoleon incorporated it with \nFrankfort m 1810; but in 1815 it was ceded to \nHesse-Cassel. \n\nFULFORD, Yorkshire. Here Harold Har- \ndrada of Norway, and Tostig, brother of Harold of \nEngland, defeated the eaiis Edwin and Morcar \n20 Sept. 1066 ; and the people near York submitted \nto them ; see Stamford-bridge. \n\nFULLER CASE, see India, 1876. \n\nFUMIGATION. Acron, a physician of Agri- \ngentum, is said to have first caused great fires to \nbe lighted and aromatics to be thrown into them \n\n\n\nto purify the air, and thus to have stopped the \nplague at Athens and other places in Greece, about \n473 B-c \n\nFUNDS, see Stocks, and Sinking Fund, and \nForeign Bondholders. \n\nFUNERALS. David lamented over Saul and \nJonathan, 1056 B.C., and over Abner, 1048 B.C. \n2 Sam. i. and iii. In Greece, Solon was the first \nwho pronounced a funeral oration, according to \nHerodotus, 580 B.C. The Bomans pronounced \nharangues over their illustrious dead. Theopompus- \nobtained a prize for the best Funeral Oration in \npraise of Mausolus, 353 B.C. Popilia was the first \nRoman lady who had an oration pronounced at her \nfuneral, which was done by her son, Crassus ; and \nit is observed by Cicero that Julius Caesar did. the- \nlike for his aunt Julia and his wife Cornelia. \xe2\x80\x94 \nFuneral Games, among the Greeks and Romans- \nincluded horse-races, dramatic representations, pro- \ncessions, and mortal combats of gladiators. These \ngames were abolished by the emperor Claudius,. \na.d. 47. A tax was laid on funerals in England, \n1793- \n\nChurch of England Funeral and Mourning Eeform \nAssociation, founded at Sheffield, by earl Nelson \n\nand others 5 Oct. 187S \n\nSee Burials and Windsor. \n\nPublic Funerals voted by parliament : \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nDuke of Rutland, in Ireland . . .17 Nov. 1787 \n\nLord Nelson (see Nelson) . . . .9 Jan. 1806 \n\nWin. Pitt 22 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nChas. Jas. Fox 10 Oct. ,, \n\nRichard Brinsley Sheridan . . .13 July, 181& \n\nGeorge Canning 16 Aug. 1827\' \n\nDuke of Wellington 18 Nov. 1852 \n\nViscount Palmerston (at her majesty\'s request), \n\n27 Oct. 1865 \n\nLord Napier of Magdala (by order) . 21 Jan. 1890 \n\nFURNACE, see Blowing-machines, Iron. \n\nFURNITURE. Specimens of Egyptian fur- \nniture, represented on the interior walls of the \npyramids, appear in Bosellini\'s " Monumenti dell\' \nFyitto," 1832-44, Vol. II. Mr. J. G. Pollen\'s- \n" Ancient and Modern Furniture and "Woodwork "\xe2\x96\xa0 \nin the South Kensington museum, 1874, illus- \ntrated by photographs and engravings, was pub- \nlished, July, 1874. Many interesting examples- \nwill be found in Fosbroke\'s " Encyclopedia of \nAntiquities" Vol. I. 1825. \n\nFURRUCKABAD (N. India), a province ac- \nquired by the East India company, in June, 1802. - \nNear the capital of the same name, 17 Nov. 1804, \nlord Lake defeated the Maharatta chief Holkar, and \nabout 60,000 cavalry, himself losing 2 killed and \nabout 20 wounded. \n\nFURS were worn by Henry I. about 1 125. \nEdward III. enacted that all persons who could not \nspend joo\xc2\xa3. a year should be prohibited this species \nof finery, 28 March, 1336-7, \n\nFUSILIERS. Foot soldiers, formerly armed \nwith fusees with slings to sling them. The 7th. \nregiment (or Royal English Fusiliers) was raised, \nII June, 1685; the 21st (or Royal North British), \n23 Sept. 1679; the 23rd (or Royal Welsh), 17 March, \n1688. Grose. \n\nFUSION of the French legitimists and Or- \nleanists into one monarchical party, 5 Aug. 1873. \nSee France. \n\nFUTTEHGHUR (India). Here Nana Sahib \nmassacred both the English defenders of the fort and \ntheir Sepoy assailants, July, 1857 ; and here the \nSepoy rebel\'s weie defeated by sir Colin Campbell, \n7. Jan. 1858. \n\n\n\nG. \n\n\n\nGABELLE. \n\n\n\nGALLEYS. \n\n\n\nGABELLE (from Gabe, a gift), a term applied \nto various taxes, but afterwards restricted to the \nduty upon salt, first imposed by Philip the Fair on \nthe French in 1286. Duruy. Uur Edward III. \ntermed Philip of Valois, who exacted the tax \nrigorously, the author of the Salic law (from sal, \nsalt), 1340. The assessments were unequal, being \nvery heavy in some provinces and light in others ; \nowing to exemptions purchased from the sovereigns. \nThe tax produced 38 millions of francs in the reign \nof Louis XVI. It was a giievous burden, and \ntended to hasten the revolution, during which it \nwas abolished (1790). \n\nGADES, S.W. Spain, an anc\'ent town suc- \ncessively subjected by the Phoenicians, Carthagi- \nnians, and Romans ; see Cadiz. \n\nGAELIC, the northern branch of the Celtic \nlanguages, Irish, Erse or Highland Scottish, and \nManx. The "Dean of Lismore\'s book" (written \n1511-51) contains Gaelic poetry; specimens were \npublished, with translations, in 1862, by rev. T. \nM\'Lachlan. See Celts, Clan-na-gael. \n\nGaelic Society 0/ London, founded 1777. \n\nGaelic speaking population of Scotland, 1881, 231,602. \n\nThe Gaelic Union, organised in Ireland, proposed the \n\npublication of a monthly journal, to be devoted to \n\nIrish literature, 1 Nov. 1882. \nA Gaelic athletic association existing in Ireland ; \n\nsaid to be infected with fenianism . . Dec. 1887 \n\nGAETA (the ancient Cajeta), a fortified Nea- \npolitan seaport, has undergone several remarkable \nsieges. It was taken by the French, 4 Jan. 1799; \nby the English, 31 Oct. T799; by the French, \n18 July, 1806; and by the Austriaus in 1815 and \n182 1. . Here pope Pius IX. took refuge, 24 Nov. \n1848, and resided more than a year. Here also \nFrancis II. of Naples, with his queen and court, \nfled, when Garibaldi entered Naples, 7 Sept. i860; \nand here he remained till the city was taken by \nthe Sardinian general Cialdini, 13 Feb. 1861, after \na severe siege, uselessly prolonged by a French fleet \nremaining in the harbour. Cialdini was created \nduke of Gaeta. \n\nGAGGING ACT, properly so called, meant \nto protect the king and government from the \nharangues of seditious meetings, was enacted 8 Dec. \n1 795\xc2\xbb when the popular mind was much excited. \nIn Dec. 1819, soon after the Manchester affray, an \nact was parsed for restraining public meetings and \ncheap periodical publications; it was popularly called \n"gagging bill." See Six Acts. Statutes coerc- \ning popular assemblies, particularly in Ireland, have \nbeen also so designated. See Germany, 1879. \n\nGAIETY THEATRE, Strand, opened 21 Dec. \n1808, Mr. John Hollingshead, manager. \n\nGAIKAS AND GALEKAS, see Kaffraria. \n\nGALAPAGOS, islands ceried to the United \nStates by Ecuador, 3 Nov. 1854, the British, French, \nand other powers protesting against it. \n\nGALATIA, a province of Asia Minor. In the \n3rd century B.C. the Gauls under Brennus invaded \nGreece, crossed the Hellespont, and conquered the \nTroas, 278 ; were checked by Attalus I. in a battle \n\n\n\nabout 241 ; and then settled in what was called \nafterwards GallograDcia and Galatia. The country \nwas ravaged by Cneius Manlius, 189 B.C., and was \nfinally annexed to the Roman empire, 25 B.C., on \nthe death of the king Amyntas. Paul\'s Epistle to \nthe Galatians was probably written a.d. 58. \n\nGALATZ (Moravia). The preliminaries of \npeace between Russia and Turkey signed here, \nII Aug. 1791, led to the treaty of Jassy, 9 Jan. \n1792. The site of several conflicts, in which the \nRussians defeated the Turks, Nov. 1769; 10 May, \n1828. \n\nGALAXY, see Milky Way. \n\nG ALICIA, a province, N.Vf. Spam, was con- \nquered by D. Junius Brutus, 136 B.C. and by the \nVandals a.d. 419; and was subdued by successive \ninvaders. In 1065, on the death of Ferdinand I. \nking of Castile and Leon, when his dominions were \ndivided, his son Garcia became king of Galicia. \nRuling tyrannically, he was expelled by his brother \nSancho ; returned at his death in 1072 ; was again \nexpelled by his brother Alfonso, 1073 > an( ^ died im- \nprison in 1091. Alfonso, son of Urraca, queen of \nCastile, was made king of Galicia by her in 1109. \nHe defended his mother, a dissolute woman, against \nher husband, Alfonso VIL, and at her death in \n1 126, acquired Castile, and once more re-united the \nkingdoms. \n\nGALICIA, Poland. East Galicia was acquired \nby the emperor of Germany at the partition \nin 1772; and West Galicia at that of 1795. \nThe latter was ceded to the grand duchy of Warsaw \nin 1809; but recovered by Austria in 1815. The- \nappointment of count Goluchowski, a Pole, as \ngovernor, in Oct. 1866, gave much satisfaction to \nthe Poles, about 2,000,000 in this province ; see \nPoland, note. \n\nStry, a prosperous town, destroyed by fire ; loss of life \nand great privation, 18 April ; above 100 deaths \nreported, 22 April, 1886. \n\nLisko (about 7,000 inhabitants) burnt, 27-28 April, 1886. \n\nFor emigration frauds, see Austria, March, 1890. \n\nG ALIGN ANT S WEEKLY MESSEN- \nGER, English newspaper, published in Paris ; \nbegan in 1814, at the restoration. William Galig- \nnani died Dec. 1882, aged 84. \n\nGALL, ST. (in Switzerland). The abbey, \nfounded in the 7th century, was surrounded by a \ntown in the 10th. St. Gall became a canton of the \nconfederation in 1815. \n\nGALLERIES, see National, Louvre, and \nVemailles. \n\nGALLEYS, long boats, sometimes with sails, \nwith seats for rowers, varj ing in number, much \nemployed by the Venetians and Genoese till the \n16th century. "Galley slaves" were condemned \ncriminals employed in navigation. In France they \nhad a general of galleys, of whom the baron de la \nGarde was the first, 1544. The punishment of the \ngalleys (aalires) was superseded by the " travaux \nforces," forced labour, regulated by a law of 1854, \nthe men being called "forgats." \n\n\n\nGALLICAN CHUECH. \n\n\n\n424 \n\n\n\nGANGES. \n\n\n\nGALLICAN CHUECH, see Church of \nFrance. \n\nA building for the Catholic Gallican church, was opened \nby father Hyacinthe Loyson, 9 Feb. 1879. \n\nGALLIPOLI, the ancient Callipolis, a sea- \nport in Turkey in Europe, 128 miles west of Con- \nstantinople. It was taken by the Turks in 1357, \nand fortified by Bajazet I. The first division of the \nFrench and English armies proceeding against the \nEussians landed here in March and April, 1854. \n\nGALLIUM, new elementary metal, discovered \nby Lecoq de Boisbaudran, by means of the spectro- \nscope : reported to French academy of sciences, \n20 Sept., and 6 Dec. 1875. \n\nGALOCHES, French for overshoes, formerly \nof leather ; but since 1843 made of vulcanised India \nrubber. The importation of Galoshes was prohibited \nby 3 Edw. IV. c. 4 (1463). \n\nGALVANISM and GALVANOPLAS- \n\nTICS, see under Electricity. \n\nGALWAY (W. Ireland). The ancient settlers \n\'here were divided into thirteen tribes, a distinction \n:not yet forgotten. It was conquered by Richard de \nBurgo in 1232. In 1690 Gal way city declared for \nking James, but was taken by general Ginckel soon \nafter the decisive battle of Aughrim, 12 July, 1691. \nHere is one of the new colleges, endowed by \ngovernment, pursuant to act 8 & 9 Vict. c. 66 \n(1845), inaugurated, 30 Oct. 1849, see Colleges and \nIreland, 1872-3. \n\nIn 1858 the sailing of mail steam packets from Galway to \nAmerica began ; but the subsidy ceased in May, 1861, \n.through the company\'s breach of contract, which \n\'\xe2\x96\xa0occasioned much discussion in parliament. In July, \n1863, the contract for the conveyance of mails from \nGalway to America was renewed, and 75,000^ voted for \nthe purpose. The scheme was not successful. On 9 \nNov. the steamer Anglia struck on the Black rock, and \nthe mails were taken to Dublin. The last packet sailed \nin Feb. 1864. \nThe Duke of Edinburgh warmly received here, middle \nof Aug. 1884. \n\n; GAMBIA, West Africa. The proposed ces- \nsion of Gambia to France in exchange for other \nterritories was opposed in Jan. 1876, and eventually- \ngiven up. Administrator, R. B. Llewelyn (1891). \nGambia separated from Sierra Leone and made an \n\nindependent colony, 22 Dec. 1888. \nChief town, Bathurst. Some villages of a marauding \n\nchief punished for aggressions, about 7 Jan. 1892. \nToniataba destroyed after a battle ; capt. A. S. Roberts \nkilled, 28 April ; successful British expedition, re- \nported 11 May, 1892. \n\nGAMBOGE, a medicine and pigment, brought \nfrom India by the Dutch, about 1600. Hermann \nin 1677 announced that it was derived from two \ntrees of Ceylon, since ascertained to belong to the \norder Guttifera. \n\nG AME LAWS are a remnant of the forest \nlaws imposed by William the Conqueror, who, to \npreserve his gamp, made it forfeiture of property \nto disable a wild beast, and loss of eyes, for a stag, \nbuck, or boar. The clergy protested against amelio- \nrations of these laws, under Henry III. The first \ngame act passed in 1496. Game certificates were \nfirst granted with a duty in 1784. The Game act \n(1 & 2 Will. IV. c. 32), greatly modifying all pre- \nvious laws, was passed in 183 1. By it the sale of \ngame is legalised at certain seasons. By the Game \nPoaching Preventive act, passed in 1862, greatly \nincreased powers were given to the couuty police. \nLicences to kill game (3/. a year) granted for the \nyear 1856-7, 28,950; for 1865-6, 43,231; for 1869, \n\n\n\n54,203 ; received for licences, 1877-8, 196,352/. ; \n\n1883-4, 177,834^. ; 1887-8, 179, 143/. Convictions \n\nunder the game laws in 1869, 10,345. \n\nMotions for abolition made annually in commons \nby Mr. P. Taylor, lost (160-87) . . 2 March, 1880 \n\nThe Ground Game act, to protect farmers from in- \njury to crops, 43 <fc 44 Vict. c. 47, passed 7 Sept. ,, \n\nProposed reduction of licence to shoot game to xl. \nfor short periods April, 1883 \n\nA gaming act relating to hares was passed in . . 1892. \n\nGAMES. Candidates for athletic games in \nGreece were dieted on new cheese, driea figs, and \nboiled grain, with warm water, and no meat. The \nsports were leaping, foot-races, quoits, wrestling, \nand boxing ; see Capitoline, Isthmian, Olympic, \nPythian, Secular Games, American Baseball, &c. \nGaming was introduced into England by the Saxons; \nthe loser was often made a slave to the winner, and \nsold in traffic like other merchandise. Camden. \nAct prohibiting gaming to all gentlemen (and inter- \ndicting tennis, cards, dice, bowls, &c. , to inferior \npeople, except at Christmas time) ... 1541 \n\nGaming-houses licensed in London . . . . 1620 \nAny person losing, by betting or playing, more than \n100L at any one time, not compellable to pay the \n\nsame, 16 Chas. II 1663 \n\nBonds or other securities given for money won at \nplay not recoverable ; and any person losing more \nthan 10/. may sue the winner to recover it back, \n\n9 Anne, c. 14 1710 \n\nAct to prevent excessive and fraudulent gaming, \nwhen all private lotteries and the games of faro, \nbasset, and hazard were suppressed . . . 1739 \nThe profits of a gaming-house in London for one \nseason have been estimated at 150,000^. In one \nnight a million of money is said to have changed \nhands at this place. Leigh. A bankrupt was \nrefused his certificate because he had lost 5/. at \none time in gaming .... 17 July, 1788 \nThree ladies of quality convicted in penalties of \n\n50L each for playing at faro . . March 11, 1797 \nGaming-houses were licensed in Paris until . . 1838 \nAmended laws respecting games and wagers, 8 & 9 \nVict. c. 109(1845); by 3 Geo. IV. c. 114 (1822), a \ngaming-house keeper is to be imprisoned with \nhard labour ; and by 2 & 3 Vict. c. 47, gaming- \nhouses may be entered by the police, and all per- \nsons present taken into custody . . . . 1839 \n\nBetting-houses suppressed 1853 \n\nPublic gaming-tables totally suppressed at Wies- \nbaden, Homburg, &c. See Monaco . 31 Dec. 1S72 \nMr. Jenks, proprietor of the Park Club house, and \nothers, heavily fined for gambling, 7 Feb. ; sen- \ntence confirmed .... 24 June, 1884 \nThe clock tower club and institute, Newington \nButts, a bad gambling house suppressed ; John \nJames Hunt, the proprietor, sentenced to six \nmonths\' penal servitude ... 23 Sept. 1887 \nThe proprietors of the Field Club (Mr. Seaton) and \nof the Adelphi Club (Mr. S. C. Cohen) fined each \n500Z. for keeping a gambling house, London, W., \nthe subordinates fined ; the players discharged \n\n20 & 23 May, 1889 \nSimilar prosecutions and penalties . . 1889-92 \nNational anti-gambling league begins work in \nGlasgow . \xe2\x80\xa2 April, 1891 \n\nGAMUT. The scale of musical intervals (com- \nmonly termed do or ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la, to which \nsi was added afterwards), for which the first seven \nletters of the alphabet are now employed, is men- \ntioned by Guido Aretino, a Tuscan monk, about \n1025. \n\nGANDAMAK (orGuNDAMTIK),N. India. A \ntreaty with Yakoob Khan, ameer of Afghanistan, \nwas signed here by major Cavagnari, 26 May, 1879, \nprincipal articles, British to hold Khyber Pass, &c. \na British Resident to be at Cabul, annual subsidy \nof 60,000/. to the ameer, &c. The treaty was not \ncarried out, see Afghanistan, Sept. 1879. \n\nGANGES, the great sacred river of N. India, \nwhich rises in the S. Himalayas, receives several \n\n\n\nGANGS. \n\n\n\n425 \n\n\n\nGAS. \n\n\n\ngreat rivers, divides into several brandies, ending in \nthe Bay of Bengal. The Ganges Canal, for irrigating \nthe country between the Ganges and ihe Jumna. \nThe main line (525 miles long) was opened 8 April, \n1854. The immense ditricu.ties in its execution \nwere overcome by the skill and perseverance of its \nengineer, sir Proby Cautley. In Oct. 1864, sir \nArthur Cotton asserted that the work was badly \ndone, and the investment only paid 3 per cent. \n\nGANGS, see Agricultural Gangs. \n\nGAOL DISTEMPEE, see Old Bailey. \n\nGAOLS, see Prisons. \n\nGAEDENEES\' CHEONICLE, a weekly \npaper, long edited by Dr. John Lindley, first ap- \npeared, 2 Jan. 1841. \n\nGAEDENING. The first garden, Eden, \nplanted by God. Gen. ii. The Scriptures abound \nwith allusions to gardens, particularly the Song of \nSolomon and the prophets ; and Christ\'s agony took \nplace in a garden. Xenophon describes the gardens \nat Sardis; and Epicurus and Plato taught in gardens. \nTheophrastus\'s History of Plants was written about \n322 B.C. Horace, Virgil, and Ovid derive many \nimages from the garden (50 B.C. to a.d. 50) ; and \nPliny\'s Tusculan villa is circumstantially described \n(about a.d. 100). The Romans introduced garden- \ning into Britain, the religious orders maintained it, \nand its cultivation increased in the 16th century, \nwhen many Flemings came here to escape the per- \nsecutions of Philip II. Miller\'s dictionary was pub- \nlished in 1724; the Horticultural Society {which \nsee) was established in 1804; Loudon\'s Encyclo- \npaedia of Gardening was first published in 1822, and \nliis Encyclopaedia of Plants in 1829; an act for the \nprotection of gardens and ornamental grounds in \ncities was passed in 1863. See Botany, Flowers, \nFruits. Gardeners\' Eoyal Benevolent Institution, \nfounded 1838. \n\nGAEIGLIANO, a river (S. W. Italy). After \nlong waiting and refusing to recede a step, the great \ncaptain Gonsalvo de Cordova made a bridge over \nthis river, 27 Dec. 1503, and surprised and totally \ndefeated the French army. Gaeta surrendered a \nfew days after. \n\nGAEOTTE, a machine for strangling criminals, \nused in Spain. After five years\' interval, a young \nwoman, her lover, and an accomplice thus executed \nin Madrid for murder, 11 April, 1888. Many at- \ntempts to strangle made by thieves (termed \n" garotters,") in the winter of 1862-3, l eu " to the \npassing of an act in July, 1863, termed the "Ga- \nrotting Act," to punish these acts by flogging, which \nproved effectual. \n\nGAETEE, Order of tiie. Edward III., \n\nwhen at war with France and eager to draw the \nbe~t soldiers of Europe into his interest, projected the \nrevival of king Arthur\'s round table, and proclaimed \na solemn tilting. On New Year\'s day 1343-4, ne \npublished letters of protection for the safe coining \nand returning of such foreign knights as would \nventure their reputation at the jousts and tourna- \nments about to be held. These took place 23rd \nApril, 1344. A table was erected in Windsor castle \nof 200 feet diameter, and the knights were enter- \ntained at the king\'s expense. In 1346 Edwaid gave \nhis garter for the signal of a battle that had been \ncrowned with success (supposed to be Cressy), and \nbeing victorious on sea and land, and having David, \nking of Scotland, a prisoner, he, in memory of these \nexploits, is said to have instituted this order, 23 \nApril, 1340. See below. \n\n\n\nEdward III. gave the garter pre-eminence among \nthe ensigns of the order ; it is of blue velvet bor- \ndered with gold, with the inscription in old \nFrench \xe2\x80\x94 " Hpni soit qui mnl y pense " (Evil be to \nhim who evil thinks) The knights are installed \nat Windsor, and styled Equites av/rece Periscelidis, \nknights of the golden garter. Beatson. \nThe order until king Edward VI. \'s time was called \nthe order of St. George, the patron saint of \nEngland. His figure on horseback, presented as \nholding a spear, and killing the dragon, was first \nworn by the knights of the institution. It is sus- \npended by a blue ribbon across the body from the \n\nshoulder. \n\nInstituted, according to Selden, 23 April, 1344 ; \n\naceoi ding to Nicolas, 1347; to Ashmole . . 1349 \n\nThe office of " Garter king of arms of Englishmen" \n\ninstituted . . . between May and July, 1417 \nAdditions to the statutes decreed . . . 1421, 1423 \nOrder of the Garter in Ireland instituted by \n\nEdward IV. , 1466; abolished ... . 1494 \n\nCollar and George of the order instituted by \n\nHenry VII about 1497 \n\nThe statutes reformed by order, 28 May, 1519; \n\nissued 23 April, 1522 \n\nThe ceremonies altered in consequence of the \n\nreformation 20 April, 1548 \n\nRevision of the statutes 1560 \n\nThe annual feast of St. George discontinued . . 1567 \nThe escocheon converted into a star . . . 1629 \nThe number of knights increased by seven . . 1786 \n\nThe order reconstituted ; to consist of the sovereign, \nthe prince of Wales, 25 knights companions, and \nlineal descendants of George III. , when elected, \n\n17 Jan. 1805 \nSeveral European sovereigns elected . . . 1813-14 \nAbdul Aziz, sultan of Turkey, invested with the \ngarter by the queen on board her yacht at the \n\nnaval review 17 July, 1867 \n\nThe shah of Persia invested by the queen at Wind- \nsor 20 June, 1873 \n\nAlphonso XII. of Spain invested with the order at \nMadrid 11 Oct. 1881 \n\nORIGINAL KNIGHTS. \n\nKing Edward III. , sovereign. \n\nEdward, prince of Wales (called the Black Prince). \n\nHenry, duke of Lancaster. \n\nThomas, earl of Warwick. \n\nJohn, captal de Buch. \n\nRalph, earl of Stafford. \n\nWilliam, earl of Salisbury. \n\nRoger, earl of Mortimer. \n\nSir John Lisle. \n\nBartholomew, lord Burghershe \n\nJohn, lord Beauchamp. \n\nJohn, lord Mohun, of Dunster. \n\nSir Hugh Courtenay. \n\nThomas, earl of Kent. \n\nJohn, lord Grey, of Rotherfield. \n\nSir Richard Fitz-Simon. \n\nSir Miles Stapleton. \n\nSir Thomas Wale. \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Sir Hugh Wrottesley. \n\nSir Nele Loryng. \n\nSir John Chandos. \n\nSir James Audeley. \n\nSirOtho Holand." \n\nSir Henry Earn. \n\nSir Sanchet d\'Abrichecourt. \n\nSir Walter Paveley. \n\nGAS, in chemistry, a permanently elastic aeri- \nform fluid; see Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Chlo- \nrine, &c. \n\nIt is stated that Monge and Clouet condensed sul- \nphurous acid before 1800, and Northmore lique- \nfied chlorine 1S05 \n\nFaraday determined a gas to be the vapour of a \nvolatile liquid existing at a temperature consider- \nably above the boiling point of the liquid ; and \nthat the condensing points of different gases are \nmerely the boiling points of the liquids producing \nthem ; he by pressure condensed chlorine gas into \n\na liquid 1823 \n\nOther gases liquefied by intense cold and great \npressure (as indicated by Faraday) ; oxygen by \n\n\n\nGASUONY \n\n\n\n426 \n\n\n\nGATESHEAD. \n\n\n\nCailletet, at Paris, 2 Dec, and independently by \nRaoul Pictet at Geneva . . . .22 Dec. 1877 \n\nNitrogen, hydrogen, and atmospheric air, liquefied \nby Cailletet, soon after 1877-8 \n\nThe process exhibited at the Royal Institution, \nLondon, by prof. James Dewar . 14 June, 1878 \n\nOzone liquefied by Hautefeuille and Chappuis, Paris, \n\nOct. 1880 \n\nLiquefied gases used by Krupp in casting guns, &c. 1884 \n\nSee Giffard\'s gun, in article Cannon.. \n\nProf. Thos. Graham\'s paper on the law of the \ndiffusion of gases appeared, 1834 ; he showed that \nplatinum and other metals can absorb gases . . 1866 \n\nFurnaces in which gases are used as fuel invented by \nC. W. Siemens, and employed in glass works, &c. 1861 \n\nGas engines. Barnett patented a plan for em- \nploying heated gas as a motive power . . . 1838 \n\nLenoir\'s gas-engine, in which the motive power is \nobtained by the ignition of combined gases by \nelectricity 1861 \n\n143 of these engines had been working in Paris ; \nand introduced into England . . . Deo. 1864 \n\nPierre Hugon\'s gas-engine (said to be superior to \nLenoir\'s, 1S71) exhibited 1867 \n\nThe Otto-Langen gas engine, exhibited in 1876, lias \nbeen superseded by the Otto Silent Gas Engine. \n\nGas engines have been greatly improved by Messrs. \nCrossley Bros., and are now so largely employed \nthat sir F. Bramweil foretold their eventually \nsuperseding steam engines ... 5 Sept. t8S8 \n\nMr. Purnell\'s gas engine, of simple construction, \ndriven by a mixture of gas and air, exhibited at \n"Webber Street, S.E Jan. 1890 \n\nKatural gas rising from the ground largely em- \nployed as fuel at Pittsburg, U.S. &c, 1884 et seq., \nlong known to the Persians, Chinese, and others. \n\nGASCONY (S. W. France), a duchy, part of \nAquitaine {which see). \n\nGAS INSTITUTE. _ The name assumed, 16 \nJune, 1881, by the British Association of Gas \nManagers, founded in 1863 for the advancing of gas \nengineering. \n\nGAS-LIGHTS; theinflammable aeriform fluid, \nearburetted hydrogen, evolved by the combu.-tion of \ncoal, was described by Dr. Clayton in 1739. \n\nApplication of coal gas to the purposes of illumina- \ntion tried by Mr. Murdoch, in Cornwall . . . 1792 \n\nGaslight introduced at Boulton and Watt\'s foundry \nin Birmingham 1798 \n\nLyceum Theatre lit with gas as an experiment by \nMr. Winsor 1803 \n\nPermanently used at the cotton-mills of Phillips \nand Lee, Manchester (1000 burners lighted) . 1805 \n\nIntroduced in London, at Golden-lane, 16 Aug. \n1807; Pall Mall, 1809 ; generally through LondoruSi4-2o \n\nMr. David Pollock, father of the late chief baron, \nwas governor of the first " chartered" gas com- \npany which began in 1810 (called " the gas light \nand coke company.") 1812 \n\nGas first used in Dublin, 1818 ; the streets generally \nlighted Oct. 1825 \n\nGas-lighting introduced in Paris, 1819 ; ten gas \ncompanies in Paris .... July, 1865 \n\nSydney, in Australia, was lit witli gas 25 May, 1841 \n\nThe sale of gas is regulated by acts passed in . . i8to \n\nThe gas-pipes in and round London extend upwards \nof 2000 miles, and are daily increasing. It was \nsaid in i860, that of the gas supply of London a \nleakage of 9 per cent, took place through the \nfaulty .joints of the pipes. \n\nProcesses to obtain illuminating gas from water \nhave been patented by Cruickshanks (1839), White \n(1849), ana others. Water-gas made by Buck\'s \nprocess mixed with ordinary gas tried and re- \nported successful at Chichester, Aug. 1873 ; at \nHarrogate Aug. 1890 \n\nWater-gas employed in metallurgy by Mr. Samson \nFox at Leeds, reported .... Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nA combination of various processes set up by Mr. \nSamson Fox at the Leeds forge works 29 Sept. \n1887, and reported successful . . . Jan. 1889 \n\nGas-meters patented by John Malam (1820), sir W. \nCongreve (1824), Samuel Clegg (1830), Nathan \nDefries (1838), and others \n\n\n\nExplosion of a large gasometer at the London Gas- \nlight Company\'s works at Nine-elms ; 10 persons \nkilled, and many injured (first accident of the \nkind) 31 Oct. 1863 \n\nMoscow first lit with gas ... 27 Dee. 1866 \n\nAn economical gas produced from bitumen at \nWoolwich arsenal Jan. 1868 \n\nCentral Gas Company, London, established . . 1S49 \n\nGas successfully tried as fuel for the generation of \nsteam by Jackson\'s patent . . . April, 1868 \n\nThe Central Gas company robbed of about 70,000?. \nby Benjamin Higgs, a clerk ; discovered, April, 1869 \n\nGas-light tried at Howth lighthouse, near Dublin, \n\nJuly, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGasworks clauses act passed . . 13 July, 1871 \n\nBy the London gas act, passed 13 July, 1868, ordi- \nnary gas charged 3s. gel. the 1000 cubic feet, after \n1 Jan. 1870. The charges raised on account of \ndearness of coal and labour, Jan. 1874 \n\nStrike of London gas-stokers, 2400 out, 2 Dec. ; the \ninconvenience met by great exertion, 2-6 Dec. ; \nseveral tried and imprisoned . . . Dec. 1872 \n\nGas supply of London : receipts 1872, 2,133,000?. ; \n1873, 2,544,000?. \n\nCapital of metropolitan companies, 12,681,818?. \n("Chartered Company," 9,096,771?.); total annual \nincome, 3,926,769?. (average profit, 9?. 3s. 51?. per \ncent.) J 879 \n\nStreet gas lit by electricity, by Mr. St. G. Lane \nFox\'s method ; a trial, partially successful, Pall \nMail, &c 13 April, 1878 \n\nDepression in gas companies through prospects of \nelectric light, Oct. 1878 ; recovery . . . 1879-80 \n\nExplosions of gas-mains near Bedford-street, Totten- \nham-eourt-road, London ; 2 killed ; others in- \njured ; much property destroyed . . 5 July, 1880 \n\n"Koh-i-noor Gas," produced from shale oil by \nMessrs. Rogers, of Watford, (said to be pure \nand cheap) 1881-3 \n\nMr. West\'s and Mr. Cooper\'s inventions for the \neconomical production of pure coal gas, with \nreduction of human labour, at Tunbridge wells \ngasworks Jan. et seq. 1884 \n\nThe Bower-lamp, a combination of the Grimstone \npatents, on the regenerative principle, (the pro- \nducts of combustion being burned), invented by \nMessrs. G. Bower and son, St. Neots, Hunts . i884 \n\nMr. Lawrence\'s gas economizer, professing to \nincrease light and diminish expense, exhibited \nby a company 29 Nov. 1888 \n\nStrikes of gas-stokers in Southwark and Manchester \nsuccessfully resisted . . . .12 Dec. 1889 \nSee Strikes, Feb. 1890. \n\nThe London Gas Light and Coke Company (which \nilluminates the metropolis the north of the \nThames) makes great preparations against a pos- \nsible strike. A conference with the Union ; no \nstrike or lockout ensues .... 3 Oct. 1890 \n\nGAS MUSIC, see PyropJwne. \n\nGASTEIN (Salzburg, Austria). The long dis- \ncussion between Austria and Prussia respecting the \ndisposal of the duchies conquered from Denmark, \nwas closed by a provisional convention signed here \nby their ministers (Blum for Austria and Bismarck \nfor Prussia) 14 Aug. 1865. This convention was \nseverely censured by the other powei\'s and abrogated \nin 1866. \n\nAustria was to have the temporary government of Hol- \nstein, and Prussia that of Sleswig ; the establishment \nof a German fleet was proposed, with Kiel as a Federal \nharbour, held by Prussia ; Lauenburg was absolutely \nceded to Prussia, and the king was to pay Austria as a \ncompensation 2,500,000 Danish dollai-s. \nEmperors of Austria arid Germany met at Gastein \n\nAug. 1886 \nGATE-MEETINGS, see Races. \n\nGATES, see London Gates. \n\nGATESHEAD, a borough in Durham, on the \nTyne, opposite Newcastle. At Gateshead-fell, \nWilliam I. defeated Edgar Atheling and his Scotch \nauxiliaries in 1068. Gateshead was made a par- \nliamentary borough by the reform act in 1832. Re- \n\n\n\nGATLING GUN. \n\n\n\n427 \n\n\n\nGEMS. \n\n\n\nturns one member (1885). Population, i88r, \n65,803; 1891,85,709. \n\nBetween twelve and one o\'clock, 5, 6 Oct. 1854, a fire \nbroke out in a worsted manufactory here, which set \nflre to a bond warehouse containing a great quantity of \nnitre, sulphur, &c. , causing a terrific explosion, felt at \nnearly twenty miles\' distance, and totally destroying \nmany buildings, and burying many persons in the \nruins. At the moment of the explosion, large masses \nof blazing materials flew over the Tyne and set fire to \nmany warehouses in Newcastle. About fifty lives were \nlost, and very many persons were seriously wounded. \nThe damage was estimated at about a million pounds. \n\nCollapse of chemical condensers through tire at the Friar \nGoose chemical works, on the Tyne, near Gateshead ; \nseven men killed, 26 July, 1891. Estimated loss \nabout 10,000/. \n\nAt the Theatre Royal, by a panic caused by an alarm of \nfire, 11 persons, chiefly young, are crushed to death ; \nthe exit from the gallery was insufficient, 26 Dec. 1891. \n\nGATLING GUN ox BATTERY. An \n\nAmerican invention exhibited at Paris in 1867. It \nis intended to discharge at once a number of pro- \njectiles smaller than the shells of field guns, and it \nhas as many locks as barrel-. It was tried at Shoe- \nburyness and rejected as inferior to a field gun firing \nshrapnel. A powder to be used in the Gatling. in- \nvented by 11. Pertuiset, was tried in Loudon, \nAug. 1870. \n\nGAUGAMELA, see Arbela. \n\nGAUGES (in railways). Much discussion \n(termed \'"the battle of the gauges") began among \nengineers about 1833. Mr. I. M. Brunei approved \nof the broad gauge, adopted on the Great Western \nRailway ; and Ai r. K. Stephenson, Joseph Locke, \nand others, chose the narrow*. A 2 foot gauge \nwas recommended in Feb. 1870, having Leon \nsuccessful on the Festiniog railway, Wales ; \n\xe2\x96\xa0with Robt. Fairlie\'s \'\'bogie" engine was much \nadopted at home and abroad. About 2CO miles of \nthe S.W. lines of the Great Western were altered \nfrom the broad to the narrow gauge in a few days, \nJune, 1874, and on 20-23 May, 1892, the broad \ngauge was totally superseded on the Great Western. \n\nGAUGING, -measuring I he contents of any \nvessel of capacity, with lespectto wine and other \nliquids, was established by a law, 27Edw. III. 1352. \n\nGAUL AND GAULS. Gallia, the ancient \nname of France and Belgium. The Gauls termed \nby the Greeks Galatie, by the-Romans, Galli or \nCeltse, came originally from Asia, and invading \nEastern Europe, were driven westward, and settled \nin Spain (in Gulicia), North Italy (Gallia Cisalpina), \nFrance and Belgium (Gallia Transalpina), and the \nBritish isles (the lands of the Cymry or Gaels). \n\nB.C. \n\nThe Phocseans found Massilia, now Marseilles . 600 \n\nThe Galli Senones under Brennus defeat the Romans \n\nat the river Allia, and sack Home, but are repulsed \n\nfrom the Capitol, accept a ransom and retire ; a \n\nfabulous legend asserts that they were defeated \n\nand expelled by Camillas 300 \n\nDefeated 360 \n\nThe Gauls defeated by the Romans at Sentinuni . 295 \nThe Senones defeat the Romans at Arretium ; \n\nnearly exterminated by Dolabella . . . . 2S3 \nThe Gauls overrun Northern Greece, 280 B.C. ; are \nbeaten at Delphi, 279 ; and by Antigonus, king of \n\nMacedon 2-/3 \n\nThe Gauls defeated with great slaughter near Pisa . 225 \nThe Insubres totally overthrown by Marcellus, and \ntheir king Viridomarus slain ..... 222 \n\nThey assist Hannibal 218, &e. \n\nThe Romans conquer Gallia Cisalpina, 220; invade \n\nGallia Transalpina, with varied success. . 121-58 \nThey colonise Aix, 123 B.C. ; and Narbonne . . 118 \n\n\n\nJulius Csesar subdues Gaul in 8 campaigns . . 58-50 \nLyons (Lugdununi) founded . . 41 \n\nA.V. \n\nDruids\' religion proscribed by Claudius ... 43, \nAdrian visits and favours Gaul, hence called Re- \nstorer of the Gauls 120 \n\nIntroduction of Christianity 160 \n\nChristians persecuted . . 177, 202, 257, 286, 288; \nThe Franks and others defeated by Aurelian . . 241 \nAnd by Probus, 275, 277 ; who introduces the cul- \nture of the vine 280 \n\nMaximian defeats the Franks 281 \n\nConstantine proclaimed emperor of Gaul . . . 306 \nJulian arrives to relieve Gaul, desolated by bar- \nbarians ; defeats the Alemanni at Strasburg . 357 \nJulian proclaimed emperor at Paris, 360; dies . . 363, \nGaul harassed by the Alemanni . . . 365-377 \nInvasion and settlement of the Burgundians, \n\nFranks, Visigoths, &e 378-450 \n\nClodion, chief of the Salian Franks, invades Gaul ; \n\nis defeated by Aetius 447 \n\nThe Iluns under Attila defeated by Aetius near \n\nChalons 451 \n\niEgidius, the Roman commander, murdered . . 464 \nChilderic the Frank takes Paris ....,, \nAll Gaul, west of the Rhone, ceded to the Visi- \ngoths 475 \n\nEnd of the Roman empire of the West, and estab- \nlishment of the kingdom of the Franks . . 476 \n(See France.) \n\nGAUNTLET, an iron glove, first introduced m \nthe 13th century, perhaps about 1225. It was- \ncommonly thrown down as a challenge to an \nadversary. \n\nGAUZE, a fabric much prized among the \nRoman people. " Brocades and damasks and tab- \nbies and gauzes ha\\ e been lately brought over " (to \nIreland). Lean Swift, in 1698. The manufacture \nof gauze and articles of a light fabric at Paisley-, in \nScotland, began about 1759. \n\nGAVEL-KIND (derived from the Saxon gif \neal ci/n, "give ail suitably;" or from gafolcynd, \nand yielding rent), the custom in Kent of dividing \npaternal estates in land, the wives to have half, the \nrest equally among male children, without any dis- \ntinction, 550. By the Irish law of gavel-kind, even \nbastards inherited. Davies. Not only the lands of \nthe father were equally divided among all his sons, \nbut the lands of the brother also among all his- \nbrethren, if he had no issue of his own. Law Lict. \n\nGAZA, a city of the Philistines, of which Sam- \nson carried off the gates about 1120 B.C. {Judges \nxvi.) It was taken by Alexander after a long siege, \n332; and near to it Ptolemy defeated Demetrius- \nl\'olioreetes, 312 B.C. It was taken by Saladin a.d. \n1170; by Bonaparte, March, 1799; and by the \nEgyptians under Ibrahim Pacha in 1831. \n\nGAZETTES, see Newspapers. \n\nGELHEIM, near Worms, central Germany. \nHere the emperor Adolphus of Nassau was de- \nfeated and slain by his rival Albert I. of Austria, \n2 July, 1298. \n\nGEMAEA or GHEMARA, see Talmud. \n\nGEMS. The Greeks excelled in cutting precious \nstones, and many ancient specimens remain. The \nart was revived in Italy in the 15th century. In \nFeb. 18G0, Ilerz\'s collection of gems was sold for \n10,000/. Rev. C. King\'s "Antique Gems" ap- \npeared in i860, and his "Natural History of Pre- \ncious Stones and Gems" in 1S65. Dr. A. Billing\'s \n" Science of Gems," 1868. Artificial gems have- \nbeen produced by chemists (Ebelmen, Deville, \nW\'ohler, and others), 1S58-65. \nThe duke of Marlborough\'s collection, valued at \n60,000/., sold by auction to -Mr. Bromilow for \n36,750/ 28 J une, 1875 \n\n\n\nGENEALOGY. \n\n\n\n428 \n\n\n\nGENOA. \n\n\n\nGENEALOGY, from the Greek genea, birth, \ndescent. The earliest pedigrees are contained in \nthe 5th, 10th, and nth chapters of Genesis. The \nfirst book of Chronicles contains many genealogies. \nThe pedigree of Christ is given in Matt. i. and \nLulce iii. Man} r books on the subject have been \npublished in all European countries ; one at Magde- \nburg, Theatrum Genealogicum, by Henninges, in \n1598. Anderson, Royal Genealogies, London, 1732. \nSims\' Manual for the Genealogist, &c, 1888. will \nbe found a useful guide. The works of Collins \n(1756 et &eq.), Edmondson (1764-84), and Nicolas \n(1825 and 1857), on the British peerage, are highly \nesteemed. The Genealogical society, London, estab- \nlished in 1853. " The Genealogist," published \nquarterly, began 1875. "The Genealogist\'s Guide to \nPrinted Pedigrees," by George W. Marshall, pub- \nlished in 1879. \n\nGENERAL ASSEMBLY, see Church of \nScotland. \n\nGENERAL COUNCILS, WARRANTS, \n\nsee Councils, Warrants. \n\nGENERALS. Matthew de Montmorency \nwas the first general of the French armies, 1203. \nHenault. Balzac states that cardinal Richelieu \ncoined the word Generalissimo, upon his taking the \nsupreme command of the French armies in Italy, \nin 1629. Ulysses Grant was the first general of the \narmy of the United States of America, so styled in \n1S66; see Commanders-in-Chief. \n\nGENERATION (in Chronology), the interval \nof time between the birth of a father and the birth \nof his child: ^ years are allowed for the average \nlength of a generation. Harvey\'s thesis " Oinne \nvivum ex ovo " (Every living being springs from an \negg), has been disproved by the researches of Von \nSebold and others. See Spontaneous. \n\nGENEVA, a town of the Allobroges, a Gallic \ntribe, 58 B.C. ; became part of the empire of Charle- \nmagne, about a.d. 800; and capital of the kingdom \nof Burgundy, 426. \n\nThe Republic founded in 1512 \n\nEmancipated from Savoy 1526 \n\nCalvin settled here, and obtaining much influence, \nGeneva was termed the " Rome of Calvinism " \n\nabout 1536 \nThrough him Servetus burnt for heresy, 27 Oct. 1553 \nGeneva allied to the Swiss Cantons . . . . 1584 \nInsurrection, Feb. 1781 ; about 1000 Genevcse, in \nconsequence, applied, in 1782, to earl Temple, \nlord-lieutenant of Ireland, for permission to settle \nin that country : the Irish parliament voted \n5o,oooZ. to defray the expenses of their journey, \nand to purchase them lands near Waterford. \nMany of the fugitives came to Ireland in July, \n1783 ; but they soon after abandoned it ; many \n\nGenevese settled in England 1784 \n\nA revolution ; executions and imprisonments, \n\nJuly, 1794 \nGeneva incorporated with France . 26 April, 1798 \nAdmitted into the Swiss Confederation, 30 Dec. 1813 \nThe constitution made more democratic . . . 1846 \nRevolution, through an endeavour of the Catholic \ncantons to introduce Jesuits as teachers ; a pro- \nvisional government set up ... 7 Oct. 1848 \n[The scheme was withdrawn.] \nAbout 50 persons from Geneva land at Thonon and \nEvian, to set up the Swiss flag; but are brought \nback by Swiss troops .... 30 Mar. i860 \nElection riots, with loss of life, through the indis- \ncretion of M. Fazy 22 Aug. 1864 \n\n49th annual meeting of the Helvetic Society of \n\nNational Sciences held . . . 21-23 Aug. 1865 \nViolent peace congress \xe2\x80\x94 Garibaldi present, \n\n12 Sept. 1867 \nThe Alabama arbitration commission met ; received \nthe cases and adjourned to 15 June, 1872, 18 Dec. 1871 \n\n\n\n1872 \n\n1873 \n\n1875 \n1878 \n\n1879 \n\n\n\nFormal meeting of the commission (see Alabama), \n\n15 June, \nMonsignor Mermillod, nominated bishop of Geneva \n\n(in the diocese of the bishop of Lausanne), and \n\nvicar apostolic ; his arrest proposed, 2 Feb. ; \n\nordered to quit, if he will not submit to the civil \n\ngovernment by 15 Feb. he is expelled 17 Feb. \nGeneva visited by the shah . . . July, \nThe ex-duke of Brunswick dies here and bequeaths \n\nhis vast property (above 764,0002.) to the city 18 Au; \nViolent hail storm ; great destruction of glass and \n\ncrops 7, 8 July, \n\nRousseau centenary celebrated . . 2 July, \nThe duke of Brunswick\'s remains placed in the \n\ngrand mausoleum .... 7 Sept. \n\nRiots through Salvation army . Jan. -Sept. \n\nCollision of steam boats on the lake, 20 persons \n\ndrowned 23 Nov. \n\nExplosion of a boiler on the steamer Mont Blanc \n\non the lake ; 26 pei sons perish . . q July, \nPopulation, 1888 : Canton, 105,509 ; City, &c., 71,8c \n\n\n\nGENEVA CONVENTION, for the succour \nof the wounded in time of active warfare. Having \nbeen a witness of the horrors of the battle-field of \nSolferino, 24 June, 1859, M. Henri Dunant, a \nS\xc2\xabiss, published his experiences, which induced \nthe Societe Genevoise d\' Utilite Publique in Feb. \n1863 to discuss the question whether relief societies \nmight not be formed in time of peace to help the \nwounded in time of war by means of qualified volun- \nteers. At an international conference held 26 Oct. \n1863, fourteen governments, including Great Britain, \nFrance, Austria, Prussia, Italy, and Kussia, were \nrepresented by delegates. The propositions then \ndrawn up were accepted as an international code by \na congress which met at Geneva, 8 Aug. 1864, and \non 22 Aug. a convention was signed by twelve of \nthe delegates, and it was eventually adopted by all \ncivilised powers except the United\' States. Inter- \nnational conferences were held at Paris in 1867 and \nat Berlin in 1869 for further developing in a practi- \ncal manner the objects of the Geneva conference. \nThe International Society (termed "the Red Cross \nSociety"), established in consequence of these pro- \nceedings was very energetic in relieving the wounded \nand sick during the Franco-Prussian war in 1870, \nits flag being recognised as neutral. See jLid to \nSick and Wounded. Above 13,000 volunteers said \nto be employed in attending the sick and wounded, \nSept.\xe2\x80\x94 Dec, 1870. At a meeting in London, 6 Aug., \n1872, M. Dunant proposed a plan for the uniform \ntreatment of prisoners of war. \n\nGENOA, the ancient Genua (N. Italy). Its \ninhabitants were the Ligures, who submitted to the \nRomans, 115 B.C. It partook of the revolutions of \nthe Roman empire. Population, 1890, 206,485. \n\nGenoa becomes a free commercial state . about 1000 \n\nFrequent wars with Pisa 1070- 1284 \n\nFrederick II. captures 22 galleys, and vainly be- \nsieges Genoa 1241 \n\nThe families of Doria and Spinola obtain ascendancy, \n\nabout 1270 \nThe Genoese destroy the naval power of Pisa at \n\nMelora (which see) .... 6 Aug. 1284 \nFrequent wars with Venice . . 1218-32 ; 1293-99 \nRafaele Doria and Galeotto Spinola, appointed \nitains \n\n\n\ncap\' \n\n\n\n1335 \n\n\n\nSimon Boecanegra made the first doge, 1339 : set \n\naside by the nobles, 1344; re-appointed . . . 1356 \nGreat discord ; many doges appointed . . . 1394 \nGenoa successively under protection of France, \n1396; of Naples, 1410; of Milan, 1419 ; losing and \n\n\n\nregaining freedom \n\n\n\n1421-1512 \n\n\n\nSacked by the Spaniards and Italians under Prosper \nColonna 1522 \n\nAndrew Doria deserts the French service, and \nrestores the independence of his country . . 1528 \n\nGenoa bombarded by the French . . May, 1684 \n\nBy the British Sept. 1745 \n\n\n\nGENS-D\'AEMES. \n\n\n\n429 \n\n\n\nGEOLOGY. \n\n\n\n1746 \n1747 \n1750 \n1797 \n\n\n\n1800 \n1805 \n1814 \n\n\n\n1849 \n\n\n\nTaken by the imperialists, who are soon after ex- \npelled Sept. \n\nAnother siege raised .... 10 June, \n\nThe celebrated bank failed \n\nGenoa made the Ligurian republic . . May, \n\nThe city, blockaded by a British fleet and Austrian \narmy, until literally starved, evacuated by capitu- \nlation, 5 June ; it was surrendered to the French, \nsoon after their victory at Marengo . 14 June, \nGenoa annexed to the French empire . 4 June, \n\nSurrenders to the English and Sicilians 18 April, \nUnited to the kingdom of Sardinia . . . Dec. \nThe city seized by insurgents, who, after a murder- \nous straggle, drove out the garrison and pro- \nclaimed the Ligurian republic, 3 April ; but sur- \nrendered to general La Marmora . . 11 April, \nColumbus\'s first voyage, 1492, celebrated . Sept. \n\nGENS-D\'AEMES were anciently the king\'s \nhorse-guards only, but afterwards the king\'s gardes- \ndu-corps ; the musqueteers and light horse were \nreckoned among them. There was also a company \nof gentlemen (whose number was about 250) bearing \nthis name. Scots guards were about the persons of \nthe kings of France from the time of St. Louis, \nwho reigned in 1226. They were organised as a \nroj r al corps by Charles VII. about 1441 ; the younger \nsons of Scottish nobles being usually the captains. \nThe name gens-d\' amies was afterwards given to the \npolice ; but becoming obnoxious, was changed to \n" municipal guard" in 1830. \n\nGENTLEMAN (from gentilis, of a. yens, a race \nor clan). The Gauls observing that during the \nempire of the Komans, the scutarii and gentiles had \nthe best appointments of all the soldiers, applied to \nthem the terms ecuyers and gentilshomines. This \ndistinction of gentlemen was much in use in Eng- \nland, and was given to the well-descended about \n1430. Sidney. Gentlemen by blood were those \nwho could show four descents from a gentleman \nwho had been created bj\' the king by letters patent. \n\nGENTLEMEN- AT-AEMS (formerly styled \nthe Band of Gentlemen Pensioners) is the oldest \ncorps in England, with the exception of the Yeomen \nof the Guard. The band was instituted by Henry \nVIII. in 1509, and was originally composed entirely \nof gentlemen of noble blood, whom he named his \npensioners or spears. William IV. commanded \nthat it should be called his majesty\'s honour- \nable corps of gentlemen-at-arms, 7 March, 1834. \nCurling. \n\nGENTLEWOMEN\'S SELF-HELP IN- \nSTITUTION, London, established by the earl of \nShaftesbury, duchess of Sutherland, and others, \nMay, 1870. \n\nGEODESY (from daio, I divide), the art of \nmeasuring the surface and determining the figure \nof the earth, &c. Col. A. Clarke\'s "Geodesy," \npublished 1880. See Latitude. \nThe 7th International Geodetic congress met at \nRome 15-24 Oct. 1883. It recommended the \ninternational unification of the hour, and longi- \ntude with Greenwich. An international con- \nference of 40 delegates met at Washington, 1 Oct., \npresident Adm. Rogers, agree to recommend \nGreenwich as prime meridian ; France and Brazil \n\nabstain 13 Oct. 1884 \n\nThe terms of a universal day were also agreed upon \n\nt Nov. ,, \nInternational geodetic conference met at Berlin \n27 Oct. 1886 ; met at Salzburg, 17 Sept. 1888 ; at \nParis 3 Oct. 1889 \n\nGEOGEAPHY. The first geographical re- \ncords are in the Pentateuch, and in the book of \nJoshua. Homer describes the shield of Achilles as \nrepresenting the earth surrounded by the sea, and \nalso the countries of Greece, islands of the Archi- \n\n\n\npelago, and site of Troy. Iliad. The priests taught \nthat the temple of Apollo at Dclphos was the centre \nof the world. Anaximander of Miletus was the \ninventor of geographical maps, about 568 B.C. \nHipparchus attempted to reduce geography to a \nmathematical basis, about 135 B.C. Strabo, the \ngreat Greek geographer, lived 71-14 B.C. Ptolemy \nflourished about 139 a.d. The science was brought \nto Europe by the Moors of Barbary and Spain, \nabout 1240. Lenglet.* Maps and charts were intro- \nduced into England by Bartholomew Columbus to \nillustrate his brother\'s theory respecting a western \ncontinent, 1489. Geography is now divided into \nmathematical, physical, and political, and its study \nhas been greatly promoted during the present \ncentury by expeditions at the expense of various \ngovernments and societies. The Royal Geographical \nSociety of London was established in 1830 ; that of \nParis in 182 1. The Geographical Society\'s exhi- \nbition opened by the marquis of Lome, 9 Dec. 1885. \nThe society issued a circular for promoting a more- \nuniform spelling of geographical names, Dec. 1891. \n\xe2\x80\x94 See Africa, North West 1\'assage, \xc2\xa7-c. \nAn international congress of geographers held at \nAntwerp in 1871 ; 2. at Paris, 3 Aug. 1875 ; 3. at \nVenice, 15 Sept. 1881 ; 4. Paris, 6-11 Aug. 1889 ; \n\n5. Berne 10-14 Aug. i8gr \n\nDr. August Heinrich Petermann, founder and edi- \ntor of the celebrated " Mittheilungen fiber wich- \ntige neue Erforsehungen auf der Gesamnitgebiete \nder Geographie" in 1855, and an eminent carto- \ngrapher, died 26 Sept. 1878 \n\nA congress on commercial geography met at Brussels, \n\nOct. 1879 \nMr. E. H. Bunbury\'s "History of Ancient Geo- \ngraphy among the Greeks and Romans," published \n1879. He refers especially to Hecatajus, Hero- \ndotus, Hanno, Pytheas (discoverer of Britain) ; \nEratosthenes (born B.C. 276) made a map ; and \nto Ptolemy, about a.d. 139. \nE A. Freeman\'s "Historical Geography of Europe," \n\npublished 1 S8\'i \n\n65 geographical societies in the world . . Jan. ,, \nBritish Commercial Geographical Society ; founded \nat the mansion house, London, 15 July, met \n\n27 Oct. 1884 \nScottish Geographical Society, Edinburgh, inaugu- \nrated 3 Dec. ,, \n\nManchester Geographical Society established Jan. 1885. \nSudden death of the great Russian explorer, gen. \nPrjevalsky at Vernoje in Asia, announced 2 Nov. 1888\' \n\nGEOK TEPE, a strong Turkoman fortress ;. \nsee Russia, 1879-81. \n\nGEOLOGY, the science of the earth, is said \nto have been cultivated in China before the Chris- \ntian era, and occupied the attention of Aristotle, \nTheophrastus, Pliny, Avicenna, and the Arabian \nwriters. \n\nIn T574 Mercati wrote concerning the fossils in the pope\'s. \nmuseum : Oesalpino Majoli, and others (1597), Steno \n(1669), Scilla (1670), Quirini (1676), Plot and Lister \n(1678), Leibnitz (16S0) recorded observations, and put \nforth theories on the various changes in the crust of \nthe earth. \nHooke (1668), in his work on Earthquakes, said that \nfossils, " as monuments of nature, were more certain \ntokens of antiquity than coins or medals, and though \ndifficult, it would not be impossible to raise a chrono- \nlogy out of them. " \nBurnet\'s "Theory of the Earth," appeared in 1690,. \n\nWinston\'s in 1696. \nButton\'s geological views (1749) Were censured by the \nSorbonne in 1751, and recanted inconsequence. The \nprinciple he renounced was that the present condition \nof the earth is due to secondary causes, and th.it these \nsame causes will produce further changes. His more \neminent fellow-labourers and successors were (icsnei \n(1758), Michell (1760), Raspe (1762-73), Pallas and \nSaussure (1793-1800). \nWerner (1775) ascribed all rocks to an aqueous origin, \nand even denied the existence of volcanoes in primitive \n\n\n\nGEOLOGY. \n\n\n\n430 \n\n\n\nGEOLOGY. \n\n\n\ngeological times, and had many followers, Kirwan, De \nLuc, &c\xe2\x80\x94 Hutton (1788) supported by Playfair (1801) \nwarmly opposed Werner\'s views, and asserted that the \nprincipal changes in the earth\'s crust are due to the \nenergy of fire. The rival parties were hence termed \nNeptunists and Vulcanists. \n\nJUr. A. Geikie and other eminent modern geologists \nascribed the origin of the landscape features of the \nearth chiefly to denudation by the action of water \n1865 et seq. \' \n\nWilliam Smith, the father of British geology (who had \nwalked over a large part of England) drew up a Tabular \nView of British Strata, in 1799, and published it and \nliis Geological Map of England and Wales, 1812-15 ; \ndied 28 Aug. 1839. The Rev. Adam Sedgwick, another \nfather, died 27 Jan. 1873, aged 87. Sir Charles Lyell, \ndied 22 Feb. 1875. \n\nIn 1803 the Royal Institution possessed the best geologi- \ncal collection in London, collected by H. Davy, C. \nHatchett, and others ; the proposal of sir John St. \nAubyn, sir Abraham Hume, and the right lion. C. F. \nGreville, to aid the government, in establishing a \nschool of mines there in 1804-7, was declined, 13 Nov. \n\nin 1807 the Geological Society of London was established. \nBy collecting a great mass of new facts, it greatly \ntended to check the disposition to theorise, and led to \nthe introduction of views midway between those of \nWerner and Hutton. \n\nThe Geological Society of Dublin, 1832 ; of Edinburgh, \n1834; of France, 1830; of Germany, 1848. \n\nIn 1835 Mr. (afterwards sir Henry) De la Beche suggested \nthe establishment of the present Museum of Geology, \nwhich began at Craig\'s-court, and which was removed \nto its present position in Jermyn-street. To him are \nalso due the valuable geological maps formed on the \nordnance survey. The building was erected by Mr. \nPennethorne, and formally opened by the prince con- \nsort, 14 May, 1851. Attached to the Museum are the \nMining Records office, a lecture theatre, laboratories, \n&c. Sir H. De la Beche, the first director, died 13 \nApril, 1855 ; succeeded by sir Roderick Murchison, \nwho died 22 Oct. 1871 ; succeeded by professor( after- \nwards sir) A. C. Ramsay, March, 1872, died 9 Dec. \n1891 ; by Archibald Geikie, 1881, knt., 1891. \n\nA great many maps have been published, with memoirs. \nThe survey of England on the scale of an inch to a \nmile, was completed in Jan. 1884. Some maps have \nbeen made on a scale of six inches to a mile. The \nsurveys of Scotland and Ireland are in progress \n\nA similar institution was established at Calcutta by the \n\nE. I. Company in 1840. . \n\nInternational geological congress originated at the \nBuffalo meeting of the American association for the \nadvancement of science in 1876 ; met at Paris 1878 ; \nBologna, 26 Sept. 1881 ; Berlin, 29 Sept. 1885 ; London, \n17 Sept. 1888. \nThe English standard works on geology at the present \ntime are those of Lyell, Murchison, Phillips, De la \nBeche, Mantell, Ansted, and Geikie. \nCuvier and Brongniart\'s work on Geology of Paris, 1808, \n\net seq. \nL. Agassiz, " Poissons Fossiles, 1833-45. ,..,-, \n\nThe strata composing the earth\'s crust may be divided \n\ninto two great classes : \nJ Those generally attributed to the agency of water ; \nII. To the action of tire : which may be subdivided as \nfollows :\xe2\x80\x94 \nAqueous formations, stratified, rarely crystalline :\xe2\x80\x94 \nSedimentary or fossiliferous rocks. \nMetamorphic or unfossiliferous. \nIgneous formations, unstratitied, crystalline :\xe2\x80\x94 \nVolcanic, as basalt, &c. \nPlutonic, as granite, &c. \nFossiliferous, or Sedimentary, rocks are divided into three \ngreat series : \xe2\x80\x94 .,..\xc2\xbb\xc2\xbb \n\nThe Palaeozoic (most ancient forms of life) or \n\nPrimary. \nThe Mesozoic (middle life period), or Secondary. \nThe Neozoic or Cainozoic (more recent forms of life), \nor Tertiary. \n\nTable of Strata {chiefly from Lyell). \nNEOZOIC : \nI. Post-Tertiary : \nA. Post-Pliocene: \n\nt Recent: Marino strata; with human re- \nmains; Danish peat; kitchen middens; \n\n\n\nbronze and stone implements ; Swiss lake- \ndwellings ; temple of Serapis at Puzzuoli. \n\n2. Post-Pliocene: Brixham cave, with flint \n\nknives, and bones of living and extinct \nquadrupeds ; ancient valley gravels ; glacial \ndrift ; ancient Nile mud ; post-glacial N. \nAmerican deposits : remains of mastodon; \nAustralian breccias. \n\nII. Tertiary or Cainozoic Series : \n\nB. Pliocene : \n\n3. Newer Pliocene (or Pleistocene) Mammalian \n\nbeds, Norwich Crag. [Marine Shells.] \n\n4. Older Pliocene: Red and Coralline Crag \n\n(Suffolk, Antwerp). \n\nC. 5, 6. Miocene: Upper and Lower; Bordeaux; \n\nVirginia sands and Touraine beds ; Pikerme \ndeposits near Athens ; volcanic tuff and \nlimestone of the Azores, &e. ; brown coal of \nGerman y, &c. [Mastodon, Gigantic \nElk, Salamander, &c] \n\nD. 7, 8, 9. Eocene : Upper, Middle, and Lower ; \n\nFreshwater and Marine beds ; Barton Clays ; \nBracklesham Sands; Paris Gypsum; Lon- \ndon Plastic, and Thanet Clays. [Palms, \nBirds, &c] \n\nIII. Secondary or Mesozoic Series : \n\nE. 10. Cretaceous: Upper ; British Chalk ; Maestri cht \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2beds. \xe2\x80\x94 Chalk with and without Flints, \nChalk Marl. Upper Green Sand, Gault, \nLower Green Sand. [M esosaurus; Fish, \nMollusks, &c] \n11. Lower (or Neocomian or Wealden) ; Kentish \nrag ; Weald Clay ; Hastings Sand. [Iguano- \nclon, Hylceosaurus, &c] \n\nF. 12. Oolite: Upper; Purbeck beds, Portland Stone \n\nand Sand, Kimmeridge Clay ; Lithographic \nStone of Solenhofen with Archwopteryx. \n[Fish.] \n,13. Middle: Calcareous Grit, Coral Rag, Oxford \nClay, Kelloway Rock. [Belemnites and . \nAmmonites. ] \n\n14. Lower: Cornbrash, Forest Marble, Bradford \n\nClay, Great Oolite, Stonesfield Slate, Fuller\'s \nEarth, Inferior Oolite. [Ichthyosaurus, \nPlesiosaurus, Pterodactyl.] \n\nG. 15. Lias: Lias Clay and Marl Stone. [Ammo- \n\nnites, Equisetum, Amphibia, Laby- \nrinthodon. ] \nH. 16. Trias : Upper ; White Lias, Red Clay, with \n\nSalt in Cheshire, Coal Fields in Virginia, \nN.A. [Fish, Dromatherium.] \n17. Middle or Muschelkalk (wanting in England). \n[Encrinus; Placodus gigas.] \n\n15. Lower : New Red Sandstone of Lancashire \n\nand Cheshire. [Labyrinthodon, Foot- \nprints of Birds and Reptiles.] \nIV. Primary or Palaeozoic Series : \n\nI. 19. Permian: Magnesian Limestone, Marl Slates, \n\nRed Sandstone and Shale, Dolomite : Kup- \nferschiefer. [Firs, Fishes, Amphibia.] \n\nK. 20, 21. Carboniferous, Upper and Lower: Coal \n\nMeasures, Millstone Grit, Mountain Lime- \nstone. [Ferns, Catamites, Coal.] \n\nL. 22, 23, 24. Devonian, Upper, Middle, and Lower: \n\nTilestones, Cornstones, and Marls, Quartz- \nose, Conglomerates. [Shells, Fish, Tri- \nlobites. ] \n\nM. 25, 26, 27. Silurian, Upper, Middle, and Lower: \n\nLudlow Shales, Aymestry Limestone, Wen- \nlock Limestone, Wenlock Shale, Caradoc \nSandstone, Llandeilo Flags ; Niagara Lime- \nstone. [Sponges, Corals, Trilobites, \nShells.] \n\nN. 28, 29. Cambrian, Upper and Lower : Bala \n\nLimestone, Festiniog Slates, Bangor Slates \nand Grits, Wicklow Rock, Hasleets Grits, \nHuronian Series of Canada. [Zoophytes, \nLingula, Ferns, Sigillaria, Stig- \nmaria, Catamites, and Cryptogamia.] \n\nO. 30. Laurentian, Upper Gneiss of the Heb- \n\nrides (?) : Labradorite Series, N. of the St. \nLawrence ; Adirondack Mountains, New \nYork. \n31. Lower: Gneiss and Quartzites, with Inter- \nstratified Limestones, in one of which, 1000 \nfeet thick, occurs a foraminifer, Eozobn \nCanadense, the oldest known fossil. \n\n\n\nGEOMETEY. \n\n\n\n431 \n\n\n\nGERMAIN", St. \n\n\n\nGEOMETEY, so termed from its original ap- \nplication to measuring the earth, is ascribed to the \nEgyptians ; the annual inundations of the Nile \nhaving given rise to it by carrying away the land- \nmarks and boundaries. \n\nThales introduced geometry into Greece, about 600 B.C. \nPythagoras cultivated the science about 580. \nThe doctrine of curves originally attracted the attention \n\nof geometricians from the conic sections, which were \n\nintroduced by Plato, about 390 b. c. \nEuclid\'s Elements compiled about 300 b. c. \nArchimedes, a discoverer in geometry, 287-212 B.C. \nThe conchoid curve invented by Nicomedes, 220 B.C. \nPtolemy, the astronomer, 2nd century a. d. \nGeometry taught in Europe in the 13th century. \nBooks on geometry and astronomy were destroyed in \n\nEngland as infected with magic, 7 Edw. VI., 1552. \n\nStow. \nDescartes published his Analytical Geometry , 1627. \nSir Isaac Newton (Arithmetica Universalis, &c), 1642- \n\n1727. \nSimson\'s edition of Euclid, first appeared, 1756. \nLa Place\'s Mecanique Celeste, 1799-1805. \n\nGEOEGE. A gold coin current at 65. 8d. in \nthe reign of Henry VIII. Leake. \n\nGEOEGE, ST., the tutelary saint of England, \n\nand adopted as patron of the order of the garter by \n\nEdward III. His day is 23 April ; see Garter, \n\nand Knighthood. \n\nSt. George was a tribune in the reign of Diocletian, and \nbeing a man of great courage, was a favourite ; but \ncomplaining to the emperor of his severities towards \nthe Christians, and arguing in their defence, he was \nput in prison, and beheaded, 23 April, 290. \xe2\x80\x94 On that \nday, in 1192, Richard I. defeated Saladin. \n\nSt. George\'s, Hanover-square, returns one M.P., by act \npassed 1885. Population, 1881, 149,748 ; 1891, 134,122. \n\nSt. George\'s in the East returns 1 member by the act \nof 1885. Population, 1881, 47,157 ; 1891, 45,546 \n\nThe Order of the Sons of St. George, established at \nPhiladelphia as a society to succour emigrants (see \nunder Emigration). It gradually acquired political \ninfluence, and many branches were formed in order \nto counteract the dominant aggressive policy of the \nIrish party. It works in unison with the " British \nAmerican association " which was formed to promote \nnaturalization \xe2\x80\x94 its organ being the British American, \na weekly newspaper, Dec. 1887. \n\nGEOEGES\' CONSPIEACY, in France. \nGeneral Moreau, general Pichegru, Georges Cadou- \ndal, who was commonly known by the name of \nGeorges, and others, were arrested at Paris, charged \nwith a conspiracy against the life of Bonaparte, and \nfor the restoration of Louis XVIII., Feb. 1804. \nPichegru was found strangled ih prison, 6 April. \nTwelve of the conspirators, including Georges, were \nexecuted 25 June, and others imprisoned. Moreau \nwas exiled, and went to America. In 1813 he w r as \nkilled before Dresden (which see). \n\nGEOEGIA, the ancient Iberia, now a province \nof S. Russia, near the Caucasus, submitted to Alex- \nander about 331 B.C., but threw off the yoke of his \nsuccessors. It was subjugated to Rome by 1\'ompey, \n\xe2\x96\xa065 B.C., but retained its own sovereigns. Chris- \ntianity was introduced into it in the 3rd century. \nIn the 8th century, after a severe struggle, Georgia \nwas subdued by the Arab caliphs ; by the Turkish \nsultan Alp-Arslan, 1068; and by the Tartar hordes, \n1235. From the 14th to the iStli centuries, Georgia \n\xe2\x96\xa0was successively held by the Persian and Turkish \nmonarchs. In 1 740 Nadir Shall established part of \nGeorgia as a principality, of which the last ruler \nHeraclius, surrendered his territories to the czar in \n1799; and in 1802 Georgia was declared to be a \nRussian province. \xe2\x80\x94 Georgia, in North America, \nwas settled by gen. Oglethorpe, in 1732. Separating \nfrom the congress of America, it surrendered to the \nBritish, Dec. 177^; find its possession was of vast \n\n\n\nimportance to the royalists in the war. Count \nd\'Estaing joined the American general Lincoln, and \nmade a desperate attack on Georgia, which failed, \nand the French fleet returned home ; the colony \nwas given up to the Union by the British in 1783. \nIt seceded from the Union, by ordinance, 18 Jan. \n1861, and was conquered by Sherman in 1864-5, an( l \nreadmitted as a state Jan. 1868. A ridiculous negro \ninsurrection suppressed Aug. 1875. Population \nin 1880, 1,542,180; 1890, 1,837,353; Atlanta, \n65,533; Savannah, 43,189. See United States. \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x96\xa0 \nGeorgia, in the Pacific, was visited by captain \nCook in 1775. Population 1880, 1,542,180; capital, \nAtlanta. \nRiots at Jessop : fight between whites and negroes ; \n\n22 negroes killed and 2 whites . 25, 26 Dec. 1889 \nDestructive cyclone with loss of life in many places. \n\n6 Jan. 1892 \n\nGEOEGIUM SLDTTS, the first name of the \nplanet Uranus (which see), discovered 13 March, \n1781. \n\nGEEBEEOI (Normandy, N. France). Here \nWilliam the Conqueror was wounded in battle by \nhis son Robert, who had joined the French kino- \nPhilip I., 1078. \n\nGEEM THEOEY OF DISEASE sup- \nposes "that many diseases are due to the presence \nand propagation in the animal system of minute \norganisms [termed microbes] having no part or \nshare in its normal economy." Maclagan, 1876. \nSee Animalcules and Bacteria. Dr. Cohn, of \nBreslau, whose work was published in 1872, \nclassifies bacteria as \xe2\x80\x94 I. Sphcero or micrococci; II. \nMicro-bacteria, or bacteria proper (rod-shaped) ; III. \nDesmo-baeteria, the same but longer; IV. Spiro- \nbacteria, spiral-shaped or curly. Translation of \nhis work, 1881. \n\nThe doctrine of conlaginm animatum was held in the \nmiddle ages and put forth in the 16th century, but \ncontagious organisms were not discovered till the 19th \nby professors Pasteur, Tynrlall, and others, 1875 et seq. \nAt the British Association, 14 Sept. 1870, professor \nHuxley expressed his concurrence with the ""erin \ntheory." See under Dust and Vivisection, 1882. \nDr. Robert Koch is said to have identified the micro- \nscopical germs of cattle disease, of consumption, of \ncholera, and other diseases, 1879 et seq., discredited in \nEngland, May, June, 1885. See Tuberculosis. \nDr. E. Klein in Feb. 1885 reported his investigations on \nthe relation of bacteria to cholera. At the Roval \nInstitution on May 27, 1887, he demonstrated the \npropagation of scarlet fever by microbes in cow\'s \nmilk. \nNumerous specimens of these germs were exhibited at the \nRoyal Institution in illustration of professor Tyndall\'s \ndiscourse on " Living contagia," 16 Jan. 1885. \nBy taking means to exclude these germs from wounds, \n<Sic, sir Joseph Lister introduced anti-septic surgery \nabout 1870. \n" Louis Pasteur," by M. Radot, his son-in-law, gives an \naccount of Pasteur\'s success in mitigating the virulence \nof some diseases by inoculation. A translation by lady \nClaud Hamilton was published in Feb. 1885. \nM. Engelmann demonstrated the action of microbes in \nthe development of vegetable cells from carbonic acid \nand moisture in the atmosphere. \nFur Pasteur institute see Hydrophobia, \nProfessors Behring and Kisasato of Berlin announce \ntheir method of treating tetanus and diphtheria Jan \n1891. \nDiscovery of the influenza bacillus by Dr. Richard \nPfeiffer, announced Jan. 1892. \n\nGEEMAIN, ST., near Paris. The palace \nhere was begun by Louis the Fat, 1124, and en- \nlarged and embellished by his successors, especially \nby Francis I., Henry IV., and Louis XIV. Here \nJames II. of England resided in state after his \nabdication, in 1689, and here he died, 16 Sept. 1701 ; \nsee Treaties. \n\n\n\nGERMAN ASSOCIATION. \n\n\n\n432 \n\n\n\nGERMAN UNION. \n\n\n\nGERMAN ASSOCIATION, see German \n\nUnion. \n\nGERMAN COLONIZATION SOCIETY, \n\nconstituted at Frankfort, 6 Dec. 1882. A Charter \nwas granted by the emperor to Dr. Carl Peters \nand others, whereby this society was authorised \nto acquire Usagara, N\'Gury, and other territories \nwest of Zanzibar, 27 Feb. 1885. \n\nGERMAN EAST AFRICA, see under \nAfrica. \n\nGERMAN EXHIBITION at Earl\'s Court, \n"West Brompton, London, W. Hon. President, \nduke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha ; hon. President of \ncommittee in Germany, prince Blucher von Wahl- \nstatt ; director-general, John J. B.. Whitley, assisted \nby lieut. F. Jaffe. Opened by the lord mayor, \nMr. Joseph Savory, in the presence of the marquis \nof Lome, and many eminent persons, 9 May ; closed \n10 Oct. 1891. Total number of visitors, 1,377,908. \nThe galleries contained specimens of arts classified \nin nine groups ; 300 artists were represented by 700 \npictures, and a gigantic trophy of Germania and \nmany interesting models. \n\nGERMANIA, colossal statue, see Germany, \nSept. 1883. \n\nGERMANIC CONFEDERATION, \n\nsuperseding the confederation of the Rhine {which \nsee), was constituted 8 June, 1815; held its first \ndiet at Frankfort, 16 Nov. 1816, and its last, 24 Aug. \n1866. See next article. It comprised \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nI. Austria 2. Prussia ; 3. Bavaria ; 4. Saxony ; \n\n5. Hanover ; 6. Wlirtemberg ; \n7. Baden; 8, 9. Hesse (electorate and grand duchy); \n10. Denmark (for Holstein and Lauenburg) ; \n\nII. Netherlands (for Luxemburg) ; \n\n12. Saxe-Weimar, Saxe-Coburg, Saxe-Meiningen, \n\nand Saxe-Altenburg ; \n\n13. Brunswick and Nassau ; \n\n14. Mecklenburg -Schwerin, and Mecklenburg - \n\nStrelitz ; \n\n15. Oldenburg, three Anhalts, and two Schwarz- \n\nburgs ; \n\n16. Two Hohenzollerns, Liechtenstein, two Reuss, \n\nSehaumburg-Lippe, Lippe, and Waldeck ; \n\n17. Free cities : \xe2\x80\x94 Liibeek, Frankfort, Bremen, and \n\nHamburg. \n\nThe diet declares for a constituent assembly, 30 \nMarch, which met .... 18 May, 1848 \n\nThe diet remits its functions to the archduke John, \nvicar of the empire (see Germany) . . 12 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe diet re-established, meets . . 30 May, 1851 \n\nThe emperor of Austria proposes a reform of the \nconfederation, 17 Aug. ; accepted by the diet, \n1 Sept. ; rejected by Prussia . . 22 Sept. 1863 \n\nThe diet celebrates the fiftieth anniversary of its \nestablishment 8 June, 1865 \n\nVote of the majority of the diet supports Austria in \nthe dispute respecting Sehleswig and Holstein ; \nPrussia announces her withdrawal from the con- \nfederation, and its dissolution ; the diet declares \nitself indissoluble, continues its functions, and \nprotests ...... 14 June, 1866 \n\nThe diet removes to Augsburg during the war, \n\n14 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe confederation renounced by Austria at Nikols- \nburg 26 July, ,, \n\nThe diet holds its last sitting . . 24 Aug. ,, \n\nGERMAN CONFEDERATION, North, \n\nestablished in room of the Germanic Confederation \n(which see) : population 1867, estimated 29.906,092. \nThe confederation ceased on the re-establishment \nof the German empire, 1 Jan. 187 1. \n\nThe king of Prussia invites the states of North \nGermany to form a new confederation 16 July, 18(36 \n\nTreaty of alliance, offensive and defensive, between \nPrussia and the following states : \xe2\x80\x94 Saxe-Weimar, \nOldenburg, Brunswick, Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe- \nCoburg-Gotha, Anhalt, two Sehwarzburgs, Wal- \n\n\n\ndeck, the younger Reuss, two Lippes, Liibeck, \n\nBremen, and Hamburg, signed . . 18 Aug. 1866 \n\nAnd two Mecklenburgs .... 21 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAnd Hesse (for country north of the Maine), 3 Sept. ,, \n\nAnd the elder Reuss .... 26 Sept. ,, \n\nAnd Saxe-Meiningen 8 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAnd Saxony 21 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMeeting of North German Parliament (295 deputies \n\nfrom the 22 states) at Berlin . . . 24 Feb. 1867 \nSee Germany. \n\nGERMAN HOSPITAL, Dalston, founded \n1845, for Germans, and English in cases of accident. \nGerman Society of Benevolence and Concord, esta- \nblished 1817. \n\nGERMANITES, a name given to a sect, of \nwhich members appeared in the British Mediter- \nranean fleet in 1867. They called themselves " non- \nfighting men," and hold no communion with other \nreligious bodies. \n\nGERMANIUM, a new metal discovered by \n"Winkler early in 1886. \n\nGERMAN LANGUAGE has two great \nbranches : hoch and platt Deutsch, high and low \nGerman. The former became the literary language, \nprincipally through its use by Luther in his trans- \nlation of the Bible and in other works, 1522-34. \nThe latter is that spoken by the lower classes. \nThere are many dialects : the satirical epic in low \nGerman, "Reineke Fuchs," appeared in 1498 ; see \nReynard. \n\nPRINCIPAL GERMAN AUTHORS. \n\nBom. Died. \nUlfilas (Gothic Bible) about a.d. 360 \n\nMartin Luther (German Bible, &c. 1522-34). 1483 1546 \n\nHan\'s Sachs 1494 I57 8 \n\nGodf. Leibnitz 1646 1716 \n\nG. F. Gellert 1715 I7 6 9 \n\nG. E. Lessing 1729 1783 \n\nG. A. Biirger 1748 1794 \n\nJ. G. von Herder 1744 -1803 \n\nFred. T. Klopstock 1724 1803 \n\nIm. Kant 1724 1804 \n\nJ. C. Fred, von Schiller .... 1759 ^05 \n\nCh. M. Wieland 1733 ^ij \n\nC. T. Korner 1791 1813 \n\nJean Paul Richter 1763 1825 \n\nJ. H. Voss ... ... 1751 1826 \n\nF. Schlegel . . ... 1772 1820 \n\nG. W. F. Hegel . . ... i 77 o 1831 \nB. G. Niebuhr ... . . 1776 1831 \nJ. W. von Goethe. . . . 1749 11832 \nWm. von Humboldt . . . . 1767 1835 \n\nA. Wm. Schlegel i 7 6 7 1845 \n\nL- Tieck i 773 ^53 \n\nH. Heine i 7Q7 z s 5 6 \n\nAlex, von Humboldt . . . . . 1769 1859 \n\nErnst M. Arndt 1769 1S60 \n\nChr. Carl J. Bunsen 1791 ;[86o \n\nF. C. Schlosser 1776 1861 \n\nJ. Hillebrand ...... 1788 1862 \n\nG. G. Gervinus 1805 1871 \n\nE. H. Fichte 1797 ^79 \n\nLeopold Ranke 1795 18S6 \n\nTheod. Mommsen 11817 \n\nGERMAN OCEAN, see North Sea. \n\nGERMANS, ST., was made the seat of the \nbishopric of Cornwall for a short time, about 905. \n\nGERMAN SILVER, an alloy of nickel, \ncopper, and zinc, first made at Hildburghausen in \nGermany. There are many patents ; Cutler\'s \n1838, Parkes\', 1844, &c. \n\nGERMAN UNION of Natural Phi- \nlosophers, the forerunner of the British Asso- \nciation, was founded by Oken, at Leipsic, in 1822 ; \npartly to promote political unity in Germany. It \nhas met annually, except in troubled years, such as \n1848, 1866, and 1870; 50th time, 17 Sept. 1877; \nmeeting at Dantzic, 18 Sept. 1880; Salzburg, \n\n\n\nGERMANY. \n\n\n\n433 \n\n\n\nGERMANY. \n\n\n\n18 Sept. 18S1 ; Eisenach, 18 Sept. 1882 ; Frei- \nburg, 17 Sept. 1883; Magdeburg, 18 Oct. 1884; \nStrasburg, 17 Sept. 1885 ; Berlin, 16 Sept. 1886 ; \nWiesbaden, 18 Sept. 1887; 61st at Cologne, 18 \nSept. 1888; 62nd at Heidelberg, 1889; 63rd at \nBremen, Sept. 1890; 64th at Halle, Sept. 1891. \nThe Union is now termed the " German Association \n"of Naturalists." \n\n" GERMANY ( Ger man ia,A leman i\xc2\xab), anciently, \nas now, divided inlo independent states. The Ger- \nmans long withstood the attempts of theKomans to \nsubdue them ; and although that people conquered \nsome parts of the country, they were expelled before \nthe clo.-e of the 3rd century. In the 5th century \nthe Huns and other tribes prevailed over the greater \nportion of Germany. In the latter part of the 8th \ncentury, Charlemagne subdued the Saxons and \nother tribes, and was crowned emperor at Rome, \n25 Dec. 800. A list of his successors is given in \nanother page. At the extinction of his family, the \nempire became elective, 911, and was subsequently \nobtained by members of the house of Hapsburg \n(from 1437 till 1804). Germany was divided into \ncireles, 1501-12. The confederation of the Rhine \nwas formed 12 July, 1806; the Germanic confede- \nration, 8 June, 1815 ; and the North German con- \nfederation, 18 Aug. 1866; the treaty ratified, 8 Sept. \n1866. The present German empire was established \nin 1871. The emperor is styled " German em- \nperor." {See that date below). See Franco- \nPrussian War, 1870-71. Population of the German \nempire 1880, 45,234,061 ; in 1885, 46,855,704; 1890, \n49,421,803. \n\nThe empire of Germany was established Jan. 1, 1871, \nfounded upon treaties concluded between the North \nGerman confederation (which see) and, 1. the grand \nduchies of Baden and Hesse, 15 Nov. 1870; 2. the \nkingdom of Bavaria, 23 Nov. 1870 ; 3. the kingdom of \nWiirtemberg, 25 Nov. 1870 ; ratified, 29 Jan. 1871. \nWilliam I., king of Prussia, was proclaimed German \nemperor at Versailles, 18 Jan. 1871, \n\nPopulation in 1871 (including Alsace-Lorraine, con- \nquered, 1870), 41,069,846. The parliament (reichstag) \nis elected by manhood suffrage and ballot. \n\nThe first chancellor of the empire, prince Otho von \nBismarck, May, 1871 ; resigned 18 March, 1890. \n\nThe Teutones, united with the Cymry, defeat the \n\nRomans at Noreia B.C. 113 \n\nAfter varying success are defeated by Marius . 102 \n\nDrusus invaded Germany 12-3 \n\nBattle of Teutoburg ; Hermann or Arminius de- \nstroys the Romans under Varus . . a.d. 9 \n\nHermann assassinated 19 \n\nThe Franks invade Gaul 238 \n\nGreat irruption of Germanic tribes into Gaul 450 et seq. \nCharlemagne after a long contest subdues the \n\nSaxons, who become Christians . . . 772-785 \nHe is crowned emperor of the West at Rome by the \n\npope 25 Dec. 800 \n\nHe adds a second head to the eagle, to denote that \nthe empires of Rome and Germany are united \n\nin him 802 \n\nLouis (la Dabonnaire) separates Germany from \n\nFrance 839-840 \n\nThe Germans under Arnold take Rome . . . 896 \nThe German princes assert their independence, and \n\nConrad I. of Franconia reigns . . 8 Nov. 911 \n(The electorate began about this time. See Electors.] \nReign of Henry I. [king], surnamed the Fowler ; \nlie vanquishes the Huns, Danes, Vandals, and \n\nBohemians 918-934 \n\nOtho I. extends his dominions, and is crowned \n\nemperor by the pope 962 \n\nOtho II. conquers Lorraine 978 \n\nHenry III. conquers Bohemia 1042 \n\nContest between Henry IV. and Gregory VII. (Hilde- \n\nbrand) 1075 \n\nHenry\'s humiliation at Canossa (which sec) . . 1077 \nHe takes Rome 1084 ; and Gregory dies in exile at \nSalerno 1085 \n\n\n\nDisputes with the pope relating to ecclesiastical \ninvestitures 1073-1123 \n\nThe Guelph and the Ghibeline feuds begin . . 1140 \n\nConrad III. leads an army to the holy wars ; it was \ndestroyed by Greek treachery .... 1147 \n\nFrederick Barbarossa emperor, 1152 ; wars in Italy, \n\nIX 54-77 \n\nHe destroys Milan 1162 \n\nRuins Henry the Lion (see Bavaria) . . . 1180 \nIs drowned during the crusade in Syria, 10 June, 1190 \n\nTeutonic order of knighthood \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nHanseatie league established . . . about 1245 \nReign of Rodolph, count of Hapsburg, chosen by \n\nthe electors 1273 \n\nThe edict, called the Golden Bull, by Charles IV. . 1356 \n\nThe Tyrol acquired 1363 \n\nSigismund, king of Bohemia, elected emperor. He \nbetrays John Huss and Jerome of Prague, who \nare burned alive (see Bohemia) . . . 1414-16 \nSigismund driven from the throne, Albert II., duke \n\nof Austria, succeeds 1437 \n\nThe Pragmatic Sanction confining the empire to the \n\nhouse of Austria 1439 \n\nPeasants\' wars 1502, 1514, 1524 \n\nEra of the Reformation (see Lutheranism) . . . 1517 \nGerman Bible and liturgy published by Luther, \n\n1522-46 \nLuther excommunicated by the diet at Worms, \n\n17 April, 1521 \nWar with the pope \xe2\x80\x94 the Germans storm Rome . 1527 \nDiet at Spires ; Protestants condemned, 13 March, 1529 \nConfession of Augsburg published . . 25 Jan. 1530 \nProtestant League of Smalcalde . . . 31 Dec. 1531 \nThe anabaptists seize Minister, 24 June, 1535 ; de- \nfeated, and John of Leyden slain .... 1536 \n\nDeath of Luther 18 Feb. 1546 \n\nWar with the Protestants . . .26 June, ,, \n\nWho are helped by Henry II. of France \xe2\x80\x94 Peace of \n\nReligion at Passau 31 July, 1552 \n\nAbdication of Charles V. announced . 25 Oct. 1555 \n\nHungary joined to the empire 1570 \n\nThe Thirty years\' war begins between the Evangelic \nunion under the elector palatine, and the Catholic \nleague under the duke of Bavaria .... 1618 \nBattle of Prague, which ruined the elector palatine, \n\n8 Nov. 1620 \nGustavus-Adolphus of Sweden invades Germany, \n\nJune, 163c \nGustavus-Adolphus, victor, killed at Lutzen, \n\n16 Nov. 1632 \nTreason of Wallenstein ; he is assassinated, 25 Feb. 1634 \nEnd of the Thirty years\' war : treaty of Westphalia, \nestablishing religious toleration . . 24 Oct. 1648 \n\nWar with France 1674 \n\nJohn Sobieski, king of Poland, after defeating the \nTurks, obliges them to raise the siege of Vienna, \n\n12 Sept. 1683 \n\nPeace of Ryswick (with France) . . 20 Sept. 1697 \n\nThe peace of Carlowitz (with the Turks) 26 Jan. 1699 \n\nWar with France, &c, 6 Oct. 1702 ; Marlborough\'s \n\nvictory at Blenheim . . . -13 Aug. 1704 \n\nPeace of Utrecht 11 April, 1713 \n\nThe Pragmatic Sanction (which see) . . . . 1722 \nFrancis I. , duke of Lorraine, marries the heiress of \nAustria, Maria-Theresa (1736) ; she succeeds her \nfather, and becomes queen of Hungary, 20 Oct. 1740 \nThe elector of Bavaria elected emperor as Charles \n\nVII 22 Jan. 1742 \n\nHe dies Jan. 20; Francis I., duke of Lorraine, \n\nelected emperor 15 Sept. 1745 \n\nThe Seven years\' war between Austria and Prussia \nand their respective allies begins Aug. 1756 ; ends \nwith the peace of Hubertsburg . . 15 Feb. 1763 \n\nLorraine ceded to France 1766 \n\nJoseph II. extends his dominions by the dismem- \nberment of Poland, 1772 ; many civil reforms and \n\nliberal changes 1782 \n\nWar with Turkey 17S8 \n\nVictory of the Austrians and Russians at Rininik, \n\n22 Sept. 17S9 \nJ. G. Basedow, educational reformer, dies 25 July, 1790 \n\nThe Rhenish provinces revolt 1793 \n\nFrancis I. joins in the second partition of Poland, 1795 \nIn the ruinous wars between Germany and Fiance, \nthe emperor loses th \xe2\x80\xa2 Netherlands, all his terri- \ntories west of the Rhine, and his states in Italy, \n\n1 793-1803 \nF P \n\n\n\nGERMANY. \n\n\n\n434 \n\n\n\nGERMANY. \n\n\n\nCessions of territory to France by the treaty of \n\nLuneville 9 Feb - l8cI \n\nFrancis II. assumes the title of Francis I. , emperor \n\nof Austria n Aug. 1804 \n\nNapoleon establishes the kingdoms of Bavaria and \n\nWiirtemberg, 1805 ; and of Westphalia, 1807 ; \n\ndissolution of the German empire ; formation of \n\nthe confederation of the Rhine . .12 July, 1806 \n\nNorth Germany annexed to France . 13 Dec. 1810-11 \n\nCommencement of the war of independence : the \n\norder of the iron cross instituted . . March, 1813 \nFinal defeat of the French at Leipsie 16-19 Oct. ,, \nCongress of Vienna . . 1 Nov. 1814 & 25 May, 1815 \nThe Germanic confederation (which see) formed \n\n8 June, 1818 \nThe Zollverein (which see) formed . . . ,, \n\n" Society for promoting the knowledge of ancient \n\nGerman history," founded by Stein . . . 1819 \nA German scientific association formed, "Naturfor- \nscher Vereine " (see German Union) . . Sept. 1822 \n\nGeneral depression in trade 1824 \n\nDeath of J. H. Voss, poet, &c. . . 29 March, 1826 \n\nRevolution at Brunswick (flight of the duke) 7 Sept. 1830 \nIn Saxony (abdication of the king) . 13 Sept. ,, \nDeath of Goethe, poet, novelist, and philosopher, \n\n22 Marth, 1832 \nBecker\'s song about the free German Rhine ; and \nAlfred de Musset\'s song in reply, " Le Rhin \nAliemand " (see Rhine) appear .... 1841 \nExcitement about Ronge, the Catholic reformer, \n\nand the holy coat of Treves 1844 \n\nInsurrection at Vienna and throughout Germany \n\n(see Austria, Hungary, &c.) 1848 \n\nRevolt in Schleswig and Holstein (see Denmark) \n\nMarch, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe king of Prussia takes the lead as an agitator, to \npromote the reconsolidation of the German em- \npire, by a proclamation ... 27 March, ,, \nGerman national assembly meet at Frankfort (see \n\nGermanic confederation) ... 18 May, ,, \nArchduke John of Austria elected vicar of the em- \npire 12 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe national assembly elects the king of Prussia \n\nemperor, 28 March ; he declines . . 3 April, 1849 \nHe recalls the Prussian members of the assembly, \n\n14 May, ,, \nThe Frankfort assembly transfers its sittings to \n\nStuttgardt ... . . 30 May, , , \n\nTreaty of Vienna between Austria and Prussia for \nthe formation of a new central power for a \nlimited time ; appeal to be made to the govern- \nments of Germany .... 30 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nProtest of Austria against the alliance of Prussia \n\nwith the smaller German states . 12 Nov. ,, \nTreaty of Munich between Bavaria, Saxony, and \nWiirtemberg, for a revision of the German con- \nfederation 27 Feb. 1850 \n\nParliament meets at Erfurt . . . March, ,, \nThe king of Wiirtemberg denounces the insidious \n\nambition of the king of Prussia . 15 March, ,, \nGerman diet meets at Frankfort . . 10 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nHesse-Cassel sends no representative to Erfurt, 7 \nJune ; Hesse-Darmstadt withdraws from the \nPrussian league .... 20 June, ,, \n\nAustria calls an assembly of the German confedera- \ntion, 19 July ; which meets at Frankfort, 2 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nAustrian, Bavarian, and Prussian forces enter \n\nHesse-Cassel (see Hesse-Cassel) . . 12 Nov. ,. \nConferences on German affairs at Dresden, \n\n23 Dec. 1850, to 15 May, 1851 \nMax Schneckenburger, author of the song " Die \n\nWacht am Rhein," died )t \n\nRe-establishment of the diet of the Germanic con- \nfederation at Frankfort ... 30 May, ,, \nConference at Nuremberg relative to a general code \n\nof commerce 15 Jan. 1857 \n\nGreat excitement in Germany at the French suc- \ncesses in Lombardy : warlike preparations in \nBavaria, &c. .... May and June, 1859 \nMeetings of new liberal party in Eisenach, Saxe \nWeimar, 17 July ; seven resolutions put forth \nrecommending that the imperfect federal consti- \ntution be changed ; that the German diet be re- \nplaced by a strong cent\'al government ; that a \nnational assembly be summoned ; and that Prus- \nsia be invited to take the initiative 14 Aug. ,, \nThis proposal not accepted by Prussia, and warmly \nopposedby Hanover Sept. ,, \n\n\n\nThe Austrian minister, Rechberg, severely censur- \ning the duke of Saxe Gotha, for a liberal speech, \n4 Sept. ; and accusing the Prussian government \nof favouring the liberals, meets with cutting \nretorts ... .... Sept. 1839. \n\nDeath of Ernst Moritz Arndt, patriot and poet, \n\n29 Jan. i860 \n\nThe federal diet maintains the Hesse-Cassel consti- \ntution of T852 against Prussia . 24 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMeeting of the French emperor and the German \nsovereigns at Baden, 16, 17 June ; and of the czar \nand the emperor of Austria and the regent of \nPrussia at Toplitz .... 26 July, &c. ,, \n\nMeeting at Coburg in favour of German unity \nagainst French aggression ... 5 Sept. ,, \n\nDispute with Denmark respecting the rights of \nHolstein and Schleswig .... Nov. ,, \n\nFirst meeting of a German national shooting match \nat Gotha 8-1 1 July, 1861 \n\nMeeting of German national association at Heidel- \nberg ; decides to form a fleet . . 23 Aug. , y \n\nSubscriptions received for fleet . Sept. and Oct. ., \n\nThe national association meet at Berlin ; they re- \ncommend the formation of a united federal \ngovernment with a central executive, under the \nleadership of Prussia . . . .13 March, 1862 \n\nMeetings of plenipotentiaries from German states \non federal reform . . .8 July \xe2\x80\x94 10 Aug. ,, \n\nDeputies from German states meet at Weimar, and \ndeclare that Germany wants formation into one \nfederal state 28, 29 Sept. , t \n\nCongress of deputies from German states declare \nin favour of unity .... 21 Aug. 1863 \n\nThe emperor of Austria invites the German \nsovereigns to a congress at Frankfort, 31 July ; \nking of Prussia declines, 4 Aug. ; nearly all the \nsovereigns meet, 16, 17 Aug. ; they approve the \nAustrian plan of federal reform, 1 Sept. ; which \nis rejected by Prussia . . . .22 Sept. ;l \n\nThe diet determines to have recourse to federal exe- \ncution in Holstein if Denmark does not fulfil her \n\nobligations 1 Oct. ,? \n\n50th anniversary of the battle of Leipsie celebrated \n\n18 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nDeath of Frederick VII. of Denmark . 15 Nov. ,, \nGerman troops enter Holstein for "federal execu- \ntion" (see Denmark for events) . . 23 Dec. ,, \n\nDeath of Maximilian II. of Bavaria . 10 March, 1864 \nPrussia retains the duchies ; discussion between \nAustria and Prussia ; the diet adopt the resolu- \ntion of Bavaria and Saxony, requesting Austria \nand Prussia to give up Holstein to the duke of \nAugustenburg ; rejected . . .6 April, 1865 \n50th anniversary of the establishment of the Ger- \nmanic coufederation . . . . \xe2\x80\xa2 8 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe Gastein convention (which see) . . 14 Aug. )r \nCondemned by the diet at Frankfort . . 1 Oct. ,, \nThe diet calls on Austria and Prussia to disarm, \n\n19 May, 1866 \nMeeting of deputies from smaller German states \n\ncondemn the impending war . . .20 May, ,, \nAustria declares that Prussia has broken the treaty \nby invading Holstein, 11 June; the diet adopts \nthis, by 9 votes ; the Prussian representative de- \nclares the Germanic confederation at an end, and \ninvites the members to form a new one, excluding \n\nAustria 14 June, \n\nThe Prussians enter Saxony, and the war begins, \n\n15 June, \nThe diet determines for war, 16 June ; proclaims \nprince Charles of Bavaria general of the confedera- \ntion troops 27 June, \n\n[For the war and its consequences, see Prussia, \nand German Confederation, North.] \nTreaty of alliance between Prussia and the northern \n\nstates ; ratified 8 Sept. \n\nContinued disputes between the diet and Austria \nand Prussia respecting Schleswig-Holstein, \n\nOct. and Nov. \nDraft of new constitution for North Germany \n\nsettled 9 Feb. \n\nElections commence .... 12 Feb. \n\nNorth German parliament opened at Berlin by the \n\nking of Prussia, 24 Feb. ; Dr. Simson elected \n\npresident 2 March, \n\nThe federal constitution adopted (printed in \nAlmanach de Gotha, 1868) ; the parliament closed, \n\n17 April, \n\n\n\nGERMANY. \n\n\n\n435 \n\n\n\nGERMANY. \n\n\n\nThe constitution put in action i Jul} 7 , \n\nMeeting of 50 deputies from parliaments of Bavaria, \n\nWlirtemberg, Baden, and Hesse Darmstadt, \n\ndeclare necessity of union with North Germany, \n\nAug. \nLuxemburg evacuated by the Prussian garrison, \n\n9 Sept. \nNew North German parliament meets, 10 Sept. ; \n\nclosed 26 Oct. \n\nOpened by king of Prussia, 23 March ; closed, \n\n20 June, \n\nDelegates from the Zollverein meet, April ; close \n\n23 May, \n\nInauguration of the Luther monument at Worms \nby the king of Prussia . . . .25 June, \n\nGerman rifle association meeting at Vienna, 26 \nJuly ; addressed by Von Beust at the close, giving \nas toast, " Peace and Reconciliation " . 6 Aug. \n\nAfter negotiations between Bavaria, Wlirtemberg, \nand Baden, July, a South German military com- \nmission appointed Oct. \n\nWilhelmshafen, at Hippens, bay of Jahde, Olden- \nburg, the first German military port, inaugurated \nby the king of Prussia . . . .17 June, \n\nCentenary of the birth of Alexander von Humboldt \ncelebrated 14 Sept. \n\nCount Arnim, German representative at Rome, \nprotests against the doctrine of papal infallibility \n\nMay, \n\nGerman parliament opened by the king, 14 Feb. ; \nclosed 26 May, \n\nCount Bismarck announces the declaration of war \nby France, and terms it groundless and presump- \ntuous 19 July, \n\nBavaria, Wurtemberg, Hesse Darmstadt, and \nBaden, support Prussia in the war declared by \nFrance (See Franco-Prussian War). 15 July, \n\nMunich, Stuttgart, and other cities, declare for \nunion with North Germany . . about 6 Sept. \n\nSocialists declare against annexation of Alsace, &e. \n\nSept. -Nov. \n\nBaden and Hesse Darmstadt join the North German \nConfederation by treaty, about 15 Nov. ; also \nWurtemberg, 25 Nov. ; and Bavaria, 23 Nov. ; re- \ntaining certain powers in military and diplomatic \naffairs Nov. \n\nThe North German parliament opened at Berlin by \nDr. Simson on behalf of the king . . 24 Nov. \n\nThe parliament vote 100,000,000 thalers to continue \nthe war 28 Nov. \n\nThe king of Bavaria, in a letter to the king of \nSaxony, proposes the king of Prussia to be \nnominated emperor of Germany about 4 Dec. \n\nThe parliament in an address request the king \nto become emperor (votes for, 188 ; against, 6), \n\n10 Dec. \nThe address solemnly presented to the king in an \n\nassembly of princes by Dr. Simson . . 18 Dec. \n\nRe-establishment of the German empire, 1 Jan. ; \nWilliam I. of Prussia proclaimed emperor at Ver- \nsailles 18 Jan. \n\nMr. Odo Russell (aft. Id. Ampthill) appointed am- \nbassador at Berlin \n\nSeveral German bankers condemned to imprison- \nment for subscribing to the French loan 3 Jan. \n\nPreliminaries of peace with France signed at Ver- \nsailles 26 Feb. \n\nThe emperor reviews part of his army at Long- \nchamps, near Paris 1 Mar. \n\nFirst Reichstag or imperial parliament opened at \nBerlin by the emperor, 397 members. 21 .Mar. \n\nThe new constitution of the empire comes into \nforce 4 May, \n\nChancery of the empire : prince Bismarck, chan- \ncellor 12 May, \n\nThe treaty of peace ratified . . . 16 May, \n\nDr. Dollinger, of Munich, excommunicated for \nopposing the dogma of papal infallibility, 18 \nApril ; made D.C.L. of Oxford . . June, \n\nTriumphal entry of the German armies into Berlin ; \nstatue of Frederick William IV. inaugurated, \n\n16 June, \n\nDr. Dollinger elected rector of the university of \nMunich 29 July, \n\nThe emperors of Austria and Germany meet at \nSalzburg, Bismarck and Beust present 6-8 Sept. \n\nThe Bavarian minister of public worship declares \n\n\n\n1870 \n\n\n\nagainst the dogma of papal infallibility in a letter \n\nto the archbishop of Munich . . 27 Sept. 1871 \n\nThe German parliament opened by the emperor; \nwho expresses his conviction " that the new Ger- \nman empire will be a reliable shield of peace," \n\n16 Oct. ,, \n\nReform in the coinage : introduction of a gold coin \napproved by the federal council about 6 Nov. ,, \n\nLaw forbidding the clergy to meddle with politics \nin the pulpit .... about 26 Nov. ,, \n\nTriennial war-budget voted ... 1 Dec. ,, \n\nSharp despatch from count Bismarck to the Ger- \nman ambassador at Paris respecting the acquittal \nof murderers of Germans at Melun and Paris, \n\n7 Dec. ,, \n\nUltramontane agitation against the government; \nexcitement amongst the Polish Romanists ; count \nBismarck carries his school inspection bill against \nthe Roman catholic clergy .... Mar. 1872 \n\nThe empress-queen visits England . . May, ,, \n\nBismarck reports to the parliament the pope\'s \nrefusal to receive cardinal Hohenlohe as ambas- \nsador 14 May, , r \n\nBill for the expulsion of the Jesuits passed in the \nGerman parliament (131-93); end of session, \n19 June ; the law published . . .5 July, .,, \n\nInauguration of a memorial to Von Stein, the pa- \ntriotic statesman at Nassau, by the emperor \n\n9 July, ,, \n\nImperial congress : the czar arrives at Berlin, \n5 Sept. ; the emperor of Austria, 6 Sept. ; both \nleave ; prince Bismarck declares the meeting t<> \nbe merely an act of friendship ; \' \' prince Gortscha- \nkoff thankful that nothing was written," about \n\n6 Sept. ,,. \n\nGreat emigration of young men to America to avoid \nthe conscription; forbidden by government, \n\nSept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe German parliament opened . . 12 Mar. 1873 \n\nTreaty with France settling the total evacuation of \nthe departments held by German troops on pay- \nment of the indemnity in Sept. signed 15 Mar. ,, \n\nThe emperor William warmly received at St. Peters- \nburg 27 April\xe2\x80\x94 11 May, ,, \n\nThe monetary reform law passed, 23 June ; the par- \nliament closed ..... 25 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLast payment of French war indemnity . 5 Sept. ,,, \n\nThe emperor\'s visit to Vienna . . 17 Oct. ,,. \n\nElections for the parliament \xe2\x80\x94 (397 members ; about \ntwo-thirds nationalist liberals ; about 100 ultra- \nmontauists) 10 Jan. 1S74 \n\nParliament opened 5 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLetter from earl Russell to the emperor, expressing \nsympathy of himself and others with the struggle \nagainst the pope, 28 Jan. ; the emperor replies \n\n18 Feb. ,, \n\nBismarck confined by illness . March, April, ,, \n\nConstitutional struggle in the parliament res- \npecting the army bill .... March, ,, \n\nThe government require 401,659 men (instead of \n360,000) permanently : \xe2\x80\x94 compromise ; the army \nto be settled for seven years . about 10 April, ,, \n\nThe parliament session closed by the emperor witli \na pacific speech .... 26 April , \n\nGerman Liberal Association, formed against Par- \nticularists and Ultramontanists . about June, \n\nCount Harry Arnim, formerly ambassador at Rome \nand Paris, suddenly arrested and imprisoned in \nBerlin : ostensibly for refusing to give up official \npapers, 4 Oct, ; released on bail . . 28 Oct. ,, \n\nParliament opened by the emperor ; declaration of \nfirm legislative and defensive policy . 29 Oct. ,, \n\nBismarck resigns the chancellorship after an ad- \nverse vote in the parliament, 16 Dec, on a vote \nof confidence (199-71) retains it . . 18 Dec. ,, \n\nImportant registration law for births, deaths, and \nmarriages passed Jan. 1875 \n\nCivil marriage bill passed ... 25 Jan. ,, \n\nInternational rifle meeting at Stuttgart . 1 Aug. ,, \n\nStatue of Hermann (or Arminius), by Von Bandel, \nat Detmold, uncovered by the emperor William \n\n16 Aug. ,, \n\nParliament meets; pacific speech of the emperor \nread 27 Oct. ,, \n\nThe imperial bank of Germany opens . 1 Jan. 187 \n\nProposal for purchase of all (lie railways by the \nimperial government (opposed in the south) \n\n20 March, ,, \nF F 2 \n\n\n\nGERMANY. \n\n\n\n436 \n\n\n\nGERMANY. \n\n\n\nThe czar at Berlin .... n May, 1876 \n\nParliament opened with a royal pacific speech, \n\n30 Oct. ,, \nElections : liberal majority ; socialist democrats \n\nelected for Berlin . . . . 10, 11 Jan. 1877 \nParliament opened by the emperor : he hopes for \n\npeace in the east . . . .22 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSupreme Court for Germany settled to be at Leipsic \n\nby parliament 21 March, ,, \n\nNew code of laws enacted ,, \n\nResignation of Bismarck as chancellor, 3 April ; \n\nwithdrawn 8 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nExportation of horses forbidden . . 7 July, ,, \nParliament re-opened .... 6 Feb. 1878 \nIn consequence of the attempted assassination of \nthe emperor by HOdel, 11 May, a stringent bill \nto repress socialism is brought into the parlia- \nment, and rejected (251\xe2\x80\x94 57) . . 24, 25 May, ,, \n\' Grosser Kurfiirst, ironclad, sunk by collision with \nKonig Wilhelm off Folkestone, about 300 lost \n\n31 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe emperor fired at and wounded by Dr. Karl \nEdouard Nobiling, a professor of philology and \n\nsocialist, at Berlin 2 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe tarown-prince authorised to direct public affairs, \n\n4, 5 June, ,, \nParliament dissolved . . . .12 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDeath of king George of Hanover . . 12 June, ,, \nEmil Heinrich Max Hftdel condemned 10 July, ,, \nElections held (severe struggle) . . 30 July, ,, \nThe Berlin conference (ivhinh see) 13 June \xe2\x80\x94 13 July, ,, \nHodel executed at Berlin ... 16 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nNew parliament opened : national liberals, 123 ; 119 \nimperialists and conservatives ; 105 centre (Ro- \nman Catholics, &c.) .... 9 Sept. ,, \nDr. Nobiling dies of self-inflicted wounds, 10 Sept. ,, \nThe emperor quite recovered ; announced 14 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe repressive Socialist Bill piassed (72 majority) \n\n19 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nDecree for expulsion of Socialists and others, issued \n\nNov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe emperor returns to Berlin and resumes govern- \nment 5 Dec. ,, \n\n174 clubs, 44 newspapers, and 157 other papers \n\nsuppressed by injunctions up to . . Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nParliamentary Discipline Bill (to "muzzle" \nspeakers); a "Gagging Bill" introduced about \n\n9 Jan. 1879 \nBismarck\'s negotiations with the Roman curia re- \n\nspectingtheFalklaws(CMMMW;:a?)i7i/) fruitless Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n" Gagging " Bill rejected by the parliament 7 March, ,, \nPrince Bismarck\'s protectionist tariff bill virtually \n\npassed, about 9 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nResignation of Von. Forckenbeck (liberal), presi- \ndent of the parliament, 20 May ; election of an \nultramontane, about . . . .22 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe emperor\'s golden wedding kept . n June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nResignation of Falk and other ministers ; an- \nnounced 30 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBismarck in the parliament disclaims connection \n\nwith the liberal party .... 9 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe customs bill finally passed (217-117) ; session \n\nclosed I2 July, ,, \n\nMinistry reconstituted about . . . 14 July, \nAdm. Batsch tried and sentenced to 6 months\' im- \nprisonment for loss of Grosser Kurfiirst (see 31 \n\nMay, 1878) July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGrand military manoeuvres at Konigsberg 5-9 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nMeeting of Bismarck and Jacobini, papal nuncio, at \n\nGastein, about j6 Sept. \n\nBismarck visits Vienna ; renews friendship with \n\nAndrassy, 21-24 Sept. ; supreme court for all \n\nGermany, opened at Leipsic . . . 1 Oct. \n\nNew code of laws made in 1877 come into operation\', \n\nNov. ,. \nBill for enlargement of the army (by 27,000 men), \n\nproposed j an .\' l88o \n\nGerman parliament opened ; pacific speech from the \n\nemperor I2 F e b. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nIn the Federal Council 22 small states out-vote \nPrussia, Saxony, and Bavaria, respecting new \n\nstamp duties 3 April \n\nBismarck\'s resignation not accepted by the em- \nperor ; the states give in. . . . . April, \nThe new army bill passed (186-96) . . 9 April\' \nThe parliament prorogued . . .10 May, \n" New Liberal " party formed by secession from the \nreactionary " National Liberals " . . Aug. \n\n\n\nGrand army manoeuvres in a plain 10 miles south \n\nof Berlin 10 Sept. et seq. 1880 \n\nGerman parliament opened . . .16 Feb. 1S81 \nGerman army manoeuvres near Hanover 30 Aug. \n\nand Sept. ,, \nG neral elections ; large liberal majority . 28 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe parliament opened by Prince Bismarck with \n\npacific message from the emperor . 17 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nBismarck says Germany is not to be ruled after \n\nEnglish fashion 29 Nov. ,, \n\nHe is defeated in a financial question 169-83 1 Dec. ,, \nImperial rescript against parliamentary government \n\npublished 7 Jan. 1882 \n\nViolent debates in the parliament . 24 Jan. et seq. ,, \nBismarck\'s tobacco tax bill rejected by his economic \ncouncil 21 March; rejected by Parliament 276-43 \n\n14 June \xe2\x80\x9e \nImportant autumn manoeuvres near Brcslau \n\n6 Sept. ,, \nGerman Colonization Society constituted at Frank- \nfort 6 Dec. ,, \n\nThe budget rejected by the chambers . 11 Dec. ,, \nDeath of Prince Charles, brother of the Emperor \n\n21 Jan. 1883 \nEnthusiastic commemoration of Luther\'s birth (see \n\nLutheranism) Aug. -Sept. ,, \n\nAutumn manoeuvres at Merseburg, 15 Sept., at \n\nHomburg 20 Sept. ,, \n\nGermonia, a colossal statue, &c, by Prof. Schilling, \na national memorial of German unity and victories \nof 1870-1 set up in the Niederwald at Rudesheim \non the Rhine, uncovered by the emperor William \nin the presence of German sovereigns and 5,000 \nspectators ; Von Moltke there but not Bismarck \n\n28 Sept. ,, \n\n[Plot to blow up the monument by dynamite and \n\ndestroy the royal and eminent persons present \n\nthis day, frustrated by bad weather ; discovered \n\nin 1884]. \n\nThe fourth centenary of Luther\'s birth (10 Nov. \n\n1483) celebrated at Erfurt, Halle, &c. 31 Oct., et s\xc2\xabq. \xe2\x80\x9e \nSuccessful visit of the Crown Prince to Spain and \n\nItaly 23 N0V.-22 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPrince Bismarck refuses to present to the chamber \n\na letter of condolence from the United States on \n\nthe death of the eloquent Dr. Lasker, formerly \n\nhis supporter, afterwards his opponent . Feb. 1884 \n\nGerman parliament opened; disputes respecting \n\nthe Lasker affair .... 6, 7 Mar. ,, \nMr. Sargent, the obnoxious U.S. minister, settled \nto be removed to St. Petersburg, 26 Mar. ; de- \nclined 27 Max - . ,, \n\nAnti-socialist lawprolonged fortwo years (189-157), \n10 May; trial of Kraszewski, Polish poet and \nnovelist, and captain Hentsch, ex-telegraph \nofficial at Leipsic, ior high treason in military \ncommunications to Austrian, French, and other \ngovernments in 1866-71 ; Kraszewski sentenced to \n32 years\' imprisonment [released on bail Nov. 1885]; \nHentsch to 9 years\' penal servitude . 12-19 May, >> \nFoundation of the new German parliament-house \n\nat Berlin laid by the emperor . . .9 June \xe2\x80\x9e \nAutumn manoeuvres at Diisseldorf, 15 Sept., et seq. \xe2\x80\x9e \nGerman colony founded at Cameroons, and \nBimbia, west coast of Africa, by HerrNachtigall ; \n\nAug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nDeath of Lord Ampthill, British ambassador, Aug. ; \n\nsucceeded by Sir Edward Malet . . Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nElections for the parliament ; number of liberals \n\ndiminished, social democrats increased 28 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nParliament opened by the emperor . 20 Nov. ,, \nBismarck defeated ; votes for payment of members, \n180-99, 2 6 Nov. ; parts of May ecclesiastical laws \n\nrepealed (217-93) 3 T)ec. ,, \n\nEight dynamitards, Friedrich A. Reinsdorf and \nothers for attempting to kill the emperor, 28 Sept., \n1883 (see above) : tried at Leipsic ; F. A. Reins- \ndorf, Rupsch, and Kiichler sentenced to death ; \ntwo to imprisonment ; three acquitted 15-22 Dec. ,, \nGerman flag said to be hoisted on N. coast of New \n\nGuinea, New Britain, and other islands, Dec. ,, \nGreat increase of emigration (fivefold) . . 1879-18S4 \n"Germany does not want colonies" \xe2\x80\x94 Bismarck, \n1871 \xe2\x80\x94 180,000 marks voted for protection of \n\ncolonies 10 Jan. 1885 \n\nSpeech of Prince Bismarck attacking the Gladstone \n\ncabinet 2 Mar. ,, \n\nDispute said to be settled . . . .9 Mar. ,, \n\n\n\nGEEMANY. \n\n\n\n437 \n\n\n\nGEEMANY. \n\n\n\nLieske convicted of murder of Rumpff at Frankfort \n\ni July, i \n\nParliament opened , . . . 19 Nov, \n\nPrince Bismarck\'s "Schnapps" (dram of spirits) \n\nmonopoly bill introduced 11 Jan. ; rejected by \n\ncommittee 12 March, \n\nSarauw sentenced to 12 years\' penal servitude for \nhigh treason (giving information respecting \nfortresses to the French government). 1 1 Feb. \n\nPrince Bismarck reproves parliament for opposing \ngovernment bills .... 26 March, \n\nThe " Schnapps " bill rejected (181-3) 27 March, \n\nSocialist law prolonged for two years 31 March, \n\nLeopold von Ranke, the historian, died (aged go) \n\n23 May, \n\nAutumn manoeuvres at Strasburg ; the army \nreported to be perfect . . about 15 Sept. . \n\nParliament opened 25 Nov. . \n\nBill for increase of the army (41,000) for seven \nyears brought in 3 Dec. ; much opposed by \nclericals, socialists, and others ; adjourned to \nJan. 1887, 17 Dec. 1886 ; amendment limiting \nincrease to three years carried (183-154) ; parlia- \nment immediately dissolved - . 14 Jan. i\xc2\xa3 \n\nElections : (efforts to make the army parliamentary \ninstead of imperial) ; majority for the govern- \nment 21 Feb. . \n\nParliament opened .... 3 March, . \n\nArmy bi.l passed (227-31) . . . 11 March, . \n\nTreaty of alliance with Austria and Italy signed \n\n13 March, . \n\nThe emperor\'s 90th birthday royally celebrated at \nBerlin 22 March, , \n\nArrest of M. Schnasbell (see under France) \n\n20-22 April, , \n\nFoundation stone of opening lock of a canal from \nthe Baltic to the North Sea, 61 miles long, laid \nat Holteuau near Kiel by the emperor ; (esti- \nmated cost 7,800,000/.) ... 3 June, . \n\nEight Alsatians, members of the " Ligue des \nPatriotes " formed for the reunion of Alsace- \nLorraine to France (advocated by M. Deroulede, \na fiery poet of " La Revanche ") tried at Leipsic \nfor high treason, 13 June ; four sentenced to one \nto two years\' imprisonment ; four acquitted 18 \nJune ; Klein and Grebert sentenced to six and five \nyears\' respectively - . . . . 8 July, \n\nParliament closed 18 June, \n\nThe emperor present at military manoeuvres at \nStettin 12 Sept. \n\nCelebration of 25th anniversary of Prince Bis- \nmarck\'s premiership of Prussia . 23 Sept. \n\nBorder disputes (see France) \n\nSignor Crispi, Italian premier, visits prince Bis- \nmarck .... . 2, 3 Oct. \n\nThe czar formally received in Berlin . 18 Nov. : \n\nMeeting of the parliament . , . . 24 Nov. \n\nStatement in the Cologne Gazette of the existence of \nletters &c, purporting to come from prince Bis- \nmarck sent to the czar tending to create dis- \naffection ; asserted to be forged ; attributed to \nOrleanists, especially princess Clementine of \nCoburg, daughter of king Louis Philippe . Nov. \n\nCabannes sentenced to ten years\' penal servitude for \nselling military secrets to the French government \n\n19 Dec. \n\nIndisposition of the crown prince, (since termed \nperichondritis), winters in Italy and S. France \nunder the care of sir Morell Mackenzie, 1887 ; \nstated to be malignant growth in the larynx ; \ntracheotomy performed (the German doctors ami \nsir Morell Mackenzie differ) . . . Feb. : \n\nHerr von Puttkamer\'s more stringent anti-socialist \nbill opposed by all parties ; revelations of govern- \nment detectives inciting socialists to violence in \nZurich: the bill committed 30 Jan. 1888 ; passed \n\n17 Feb. \n\nDefensive treaty with Austria against Russian or \nother aggression, 7 Oct. 1S79 ; first published \n\n3 Feb. \n\nPowerful speech of prince Bismarck, alike for peace \nand preparation for war ... 6 Feb. \n\nSerious illness of the emperor ; prince William \n(grandson) entrusted with official powers, 17 Nov. \n1887 ; this publicly announced . 8 March, \n\n" The great emperor who founded Germany\'s unity \nis dead." \xe2\x80\x94 Prince Bismurck . . 9 March, \n\n\n\nThe emperor Frederick III. arrives at Berlin \n\n11 March, \n\nSolemn German national funeral of the emperor at \nBerlin ; preseut the kings of Belgium, Saxony, \nand Roumania, the prince of Wales and the duke \nof Cambridge, the crown princes of Austria, \nRussia, Denmark, and other princes and nobles \n(not the emperor Frederick, prince Bismarck, \nand count Moltke) .... 16 March, \n\nParliament prorogued . . . .20 March, \n\nRescript empowering the crown prince to act for \nthe emperor in state affairs when required \n\n21 March, \n\nVisit of the queen of England. . 24-26 April, \n\nContinued improvement of the emperor\'s health \n\n15 May, \n\nThe emperor becomes much worse 11, 12 June ; dies \n(of cancer of the larynx) . . . 15 June, \n\nSimple, impressive funeral at Potsdam 18 June, \n\nThe imperial parliament opened by the emperor \nwith much pomp ; many princes present ; in his \nspeech the emperor said " I will follow the same \npath by which my deceased grandfather won the \nconfidence of his allies, the love of the German \npeople, and the goodwill of foreign countries," \n25 June. The house adjourns after voting a \ncordial address 26 June, \n\nHerr Dietz, a former railway official in Alsace- \nLorraine, his wife and Appel convicted of treason \nand giving railway information to the French \ngovernment, 5 July ; Dietz sentenced to ten \nyears\' penal servitude, his wife to four years, \nand Appel to ten years\' confinement. 9 July, \n\nThe emperor\'s visit to the czar at Peterhof, 19-23 \nJuly ; visited Stockholm and Copenhagen July, \n\nThe emperor arrives at Vienna, 3 Oct. ; at Rome, \n11 Oct. ; at Naples . . . . 16 Oct. \n\nSir Morell Mackenzie publishes " The Fatal Illness \nof Frederick the Noble " ; its sale temporarily \nprohibited in Germany ; he stops the sale in \nEngland of the German surgeon\'s report of the \ncase ; statements differ . . about 15 Oct. \n\nOpening of parliament by the emperor 22 Nov. \n\nThe East African bill passed, granting money for \nthe defence of German interests and the suppres- \nsion of the slave trade, 30 Jan. ; adopted by the \nfederal council (see Africa, German Fast Africa), \n\n1 Feb. : \n\nThe empress Frederick and her daughters visit \nEngland . . . .19 Nov. 1888-26 Feb. \n\nThree German war vessels lost ; nine officers and \n87 men drowned, in a storm off Samoa (which \nsee) 16 March, \n\nGreat strike of coal miners in Westphalia (which \nsee) May, \n\nThe King of Italy, his son and Signor Crispi \nwarinlv received at Berlin . . 21-26 May, \n\n33 Silesian miners engaged in the strikes ; sen- \ntenced to various terms of penal servitude ( En- \nkel, the ringleader, to 7 years for riotous con- \nduct) 24 July, \n\nPrince Bismarck\'s bill to compel the working \nclass, with the assistance of the state and \ntheir employes, to provide for sickness (passed \n1883), for accidents (passed 1884), for old age and \ninfirmity, passed .... 24 May, \n\nThe emperor with a fleet arrives at Spithead, 1 \nAug., and proceeds to the queen at Osborne, \n2 Aug. ; created a British admiral ; present at \nthe grand naval review, 5 Aug., and at a sham \nfight at Aldershot, 7 Aug. ; queen Victoria made \ncolonel of a German regiment to be called " The \nQueen of England\'s Own," about 3 Aug. ; the \nemperor leaves England .... 8 Aug. \n\nThe emperor of Austria and his heir at Berlin, \n\n12-15 Aug. \n\nThe emperor visits Strasburg, well received, 20 \nAug. ; at Metz. 24 Aug. \n\nThe -emperor present at the autumn army man- \noeuvres near Hanover .... Sept. \n\nPrince Bismarck declines to give state support to \nthe German colonial company in S.W. Africa, \n\nSept. \n\nTin 1 czar visits Berlin .... n-i3<>et. \n\nThe imperial parliament opened with a pacific \nspeech 22 Oct. \n\nBill for amending the socialist law of 1878, pro- \nlonging it indefinitely, introduced . . Oct. \n\n\n\nGERMANY. \n\n\n\n4S8 \n\n\n\nGERMANY. \n\n\n\nThe emperor and empress present at the marriage \nof his sister to the duke of Sparta, 27 Oct. ; warmly- \nreceived by the sultan at Constantinople \n\n2-6 Nov. \nVisit Venice . . .... 12 Nov. \n\nThe Austrian and German emperors meet at Inns- \nbruck I4 Nov. \n\n91 Socialists, members of a secret society, tried at \nElberfeld fur illegally promoting socialism, 20 \nNov. et seq. ; 47 acquitted, the rest sentenced to \nimprisonment(terms 18 months to 14 days) 30 Dec. \nThe stringent anti-socialist bill rejected (169\xe2\x80\x9498), \nthe parliament closed with a moderate speech by \n\nthe emperor 25 Jan. \n\nTwo rescripts issued by the emperor, urgently re- \ncommending action tor the improvement of the \ncondition of the working classes, and suggesting \nthe co-operation of France, England, Belgium, \nand Switzerland. See Berlin . . 4 Feb. \n\nElections for the new parliament, increased num- \nber of socialists elected. See Cartel. 20 Feb. et seq. \n\nResignation of prince Bismarck, chancellor of the \nempire 18 March, \n\nHe declines being created duke of Lauenburg, \n\nabout 23 March, \n\nHe is succeeded by gen. George von Caprivi de Ca- \nprera de Montecucculi . . about 20 March, \n\nCount Herbert Bismarck, secretary for foreign \naffairs, resigns, succeeded by baron Marschall von \nBiederstein about 1 April, \n\nNew colonial department formed, reported 16 April, \n\nAbout 25,000 workmen on strike in Germany re- \nported 30 April, \n\nThe demonstration in favour of an eight hours \nworking day passes off tranquilly . 1 May, \n\nThe new parliament opened by the emperor ; in his \nspeech, while professing ardent desire for peace, \nhe required supplies for the increase of the army \n(18,000,000 marks) 6 May, \n\nVote of 4,500,000 marks, and an annual subsidy of \n350,000 marks, for the suppression of slavery, \nand protection of German interests in East Africa \nproposed by gen. von Caprivi . . 12 May, \n\nFirst German national horse show (at Berlin) \n12 June, et seq. \n\nThe new army bill passed by the parliament \n\n28 June, \n\nAnglo-German convention (which see) respecting \nEast Africa, signed at Berlin . . 1 July, \n\nNewly created colonial department subjected to the \nchancellor in July \n\nThe emperor visits queen Victoria \' at Osborne \n4-8 Aug. ; visits Heligoland (which see) 10 Aug. \n\nThe emperor visits Russia ; met by the czar at \nNawa, 17 Aug. ; at Peterhof ; left . 23 Aug. \n\nNaval review at Kiel 3" Sept. \n\nMilitary manoeuvres in Silesia . . . Sept\'. \n\nCordial meeting of the German emperor and the \nemperor of Austria at Rhonstock in Silesia \n17-20 Sept. ; at Vienna &c. . . 1-8 Oct. \n\nThe socialist (or "muzzling ") law of 1878 expires ; \ngreat demonstration . . . .30 Sept. \n\nInternational socialist congress at Halle, Prussian \nSaxony 12-18 Oct. \n\nestablishment of a colonial council decreed 15 Oct. \n\nBirthday of field marshal count Hellmuth Moltke \n(born 26 Oct., 1800) celebrated at Berlin ; the \nemperor, the king of Saxony and other German \nsovereigns and the count himself present 26 Oct. \n\nMarriage of the princess Victoria, daughter of the \nempress Frederick II., to prince Adolphus of \nbchaumburg-Lippe, at Berlin . . IQ Nov. \n\nThe parliament (adjourned in July) meets 2 Dec \n\nThe emperor at a conference in Berlin, strongly \nadvocates reform in public education 4-17 Dec \n\nSudden death of Field-Marshal von Moltke, aged 90, \n24 April ; grand military funeral, accompanied by \nthe emperor, German sovereigns, state officers \nambassadors and a great multitude, Berlin \n28 April ; quiet interment at Kreisau in Silesia \n\n-\xe2\x80\x9e . _ , 29 April, \n\nPrince Bismarck elected deputy for the parliament \nat Geestemiinde x May \n\nThe parliament adjourns (the important Trades \nLaw Amendment Act passed) . . 9 May, \n\nThe triple alliance renewed . . .28 June\' \n\nTour of the emperor and empress; they land at \nHell oland 30 June ; arrive at Amsterdam (in \n\n\n\n1890 \n\n\n\nthe Hohenzollcrn) ; warmly received by the queens, \n1 July ; at the Hague and Rotterdam, 3 July ; re- \nceived at Port Victoria by a British squadron ; \narrive at Windsor (which see). 4 July ; at Bucking- \nham palace ; receptions and opera at Covent, \nGarden, 8 July ; garden party at Marlborough \nhouse ; state concert at Albert hall, 9 July ; visit \nthe Naval Exhibition ; state entry into the city ; \nbanquet at Guildhall ; speech of the emperor \n(" My aim is above all the maintenance of peace") \n10 July ; he reviews about 25,000 volunteers at \nWimbledon ; at Crystal palace ; review of National \nFire Brigade ; concerts ; dinner by the prince of \nWales; grand fireworks, 11 July; at St. Paul\'s; \nvisit to Hatfield (marquis of Salisbury), 12 July ; \nbanquet at Hatfield ; farewell to the queen at \nWindsor ; the empress goes to her five sons at \nFelixstowe, Suffolk, 13 July ; the emperor proceeds \nfrom London to Leith ; embarks on the Bohen- \nzollern, sails up the Forth to view the bridge, and \nthen proceeds to the coast of Norway, 13, 14 July; \nlands at various places, 18 July et .-.eg. ; at North \nCape, 21 July ; leaves Bergen, 4 Aug. ; arrives at \nKiel, 8 Aug. ; the empress and the princes leave \n\nFelixstowe 6 Aug. 1891 \n\nGreat rise in the price of grain, especially rye, \nthrough the prohibition of exportation by the \n\nczar Aug. ,, \n\nSocialist congress at Erfurt closed . . 21 Oct. ,, \nStrike of journeymen printers throughout Germany \n\nfor a 9 hours day begun at Berlin about 2 Nov. ,, \nThe WeUsenburrj, ironclad named by the emperor at \nStettin . . .... 14 Dec. ,, \n\nNew commercial treaty with Austria, Italy, and \n\nBelgium, adopted by the parliament . Dec. ,, \nGen. von Caprivi made a count . . . 18 Dec. ,, \nThe printers\' strike supported by above 3,oooL sent \nby English trade unions, 2 Jan. ; collapse of the \n\nstrike reported 15 Jan. 1892 \n\nThe emperor\'s speech at Brandenburg, in which he \nseverely censures the opponents of his political \npolicy, Styling them "grumblers," causes great \nsensation among all parties . 24 Feb. et seq. ,, \nSeveral newspapers at Berlin confiscated for re- \nprinting the Times leader on the emperor\'s speech \n\n3 March, ,, \nRioting at Berlin, Hanover, Dantzig and other \n\nplaces through distress . 25 Feb. et seq. ,, \n\nMinisterial crisis in Prussia (which see) 22 March, ,, \nThe government defeated in the parliament ; the \n\nvote for an imperial corvette negatived 29 March, ,, \nThe parliament prorogued . . 31 March, ,, \n\nSee Prussia. \nEmperors of Rome and Kings of Germany, \ncarlovingian race. \n800. Charles I. the Great, or Charlemagne. \n814. Louis I. le Debonnaire, king of France. \n840. Lothaire I. , or Lother, son of Louis ; died in a \n\nmonastery at Treves, Sept. 855. \n855. Louis II., son of Lothaire. \n875. Charles II., the Bald, king of France ; died 877. \n38i. Charles III., the Fat, crowned king of Italy; de- \nposed ; succeeded by \n387. Arnulf or Arnoul ; crowned emperor at Rome, 896. \n899. Louis III., the Blind. \n\xe2\x80\x9e Lou:s IV., the Child, son of Anmlf; the last of the \nCarlovingian race in Germany. \n\nSAXON DYNASTY. \n\n911. Otho, duke of Saxony; refuses the dignity on \n\naccount of his age. \n,, Conrad I., duke of Franconia, Icing. \n918. Henry I., the Fowler, son of Otho, duke of Saxony, \n\nking. \n936. Otho I. , the Great, son of Henry, crowned by pope \n\nJohn Xtl. , 2 Feb. 962, the beginning of the holy \n\nRoman empire. \n973. Otho II. , the Bloody : massacred his chief nobility \n\nat an entertainment, 981 ; wounded by a poisoned \n\narrow. \n983. Otho III. , the Red, his son, yet in his minority, \n\npoisoned. \n1002. Henry II., duke of Bavaria, surnamed the Holy \n\nand the Lame. \n\nHOUSE OF FRANCONIA. \n\n1024. Conrad II., surnamed the Salique. \n\n1039. Henry III., the Black, son. \n\n1056. Henry IV., son; a minor; Agnes, regent; deposed \n\n\n\nGEEMANY. \n\n\n\n439 \n\n\n\nGHENT. \n\n\n\nby his son and successor ; Rudolph (1077) and \n\nHerman (1082) nominated by the pope ; and \n\nConrad (1087). \n1106. Henry V. ; married Maud or Matilda, daughter of \n\nHemy I. of England. \nii2$. Lothaire II., surnamed the Saxon. \n\nHOUSE OF HOHENSTAUFEN, OR OF SUAB1A. \n\n1138. Conrad III., duke of Franconia. \n\n1152. Frederick I. Barbarossa ; drowned by his horse \n\nthrowing him into river Saleph, 10 June, 1190. \n1190. Henry VI. , son, surnamed Asper, or Sharp ; detained \nRichard I. of England a prisoner; died 1197. \n[Interregnum and contest for the throne between \nPhilip of Suabia and Otho of Brunswick.] \n2198. Philip, brother to Henry; assassinated at Bam- \nberg by Otto of Wittelsbaeh. \ni2c8. Otho IV., surnamed the Superb ; excommunicated \n\nand deposed ; died 1218. \n3215. Frederick II., king of Sicily, son of Henry VI. : \ndeposed by his subjects, who elected Henry, \nlandgrave of Thuringia, 1246; Frederick died in \n1250, naming his son Conrad his successor; but \nthe pope gave the imperial title to \n1247. William, earl of Holland (nominal). \n1250. Conrad IV., son of Frederick. \n[His son Conradin was proclaimed king of Sicily, \nwhich was, however, surrendered to his uncle \nManfred, 1254 ; on whose death it was given by the \npope to Charles of Anjou in 1263. Conradin, on the \ninvitation of the Ghibeline party, entered Italy with \na large army, was defeated at Tagliacozzo, 23 Aug. \n1268, and beheaded at Naples 29 Oct., thus ending \nthe Hohenstaufen family.] \nE256. [Interregnum.] \n\n1257. Richard, earl of Cornwall, and Alphonso, of Castile, \nmerely nominated. \n\nHOUSES OF HAPSBURG, LUXEMBURG, BAVARIA, ETC. \n\n1273. Rudolph, count of Haps burg. \n\n1291. [Interregnum.] \n\n1292. Adolphus, count of Nassau, to the exclusion of \n\nAlbert, son of Rodolph : deposed ; slain at the \n\nbattle of Gelheim, 2 July, 1298, by \n1298. Albert I., duke of Austria, Rodolph\'s son; killed \n\nby his nephew at Rheinfels, 1 May, 1308. \n1308. Henry VII. of Luxemburg. \n\n1313. [Interregnum.] \n\n1314. Louis IV. of Bavaria, and Frederick III. of Austria, \n\nson of Albert, rival emperors ; Frederick died in \n\nI 33\xc2\xb0- \n\n2330. Louis reigns alone. \n\nE347. Charles IV. of Luxemburg. (At Nuremberg, in \n\n1356, the Golden Bull became the fundamental \n\nlaw of the German empire.) \nE378. Wenceslas, king of Bohemia, son, twice impri- \nsoned ; forced to resign ; but continued to reign \n\nin Bohemia. \n1400. Frederick III. duke of Brunswick; assassinated \n\nimmediately after his election, and seldom placed \n\nin the list of emperors. \n,, Rupert, count palatine of the Rhine; crowned at \n\nCologne ; died 1410. \n1410. Jossus, marquess of Moravia ; chosen by a party of \n\nthe electors ; died next year. \n,, Sigismund, king of Hungary ; elected by another \n\nparty, on the death of Jossus recognised by all ; \n\nking of Bohemia in 1419. \n\nHOUSE OF AUSTRIA. \n\n1438. Albert II. the Great, duke of Austria, and king of \n\nHungary and Bohemia ; died 27 Oct. 1439. \n\n1439. [Interregnum.] \n\n1440. Frederick IV. (or III.) surnamed the Pacific; \n\nelected emperor 2 Feb., but not crowned until \nJune, 1442. \n\n1493. Maximilian I., son; died in 1519. In 1477 he \nmarried Mary of Burgundy. \nFrancis I. of France and Charles I. of Spain be- \ncame competitors for the empire. \n\n1519. Charles V. (I. of Spain) son of Joan of Castile and \nPhilip of Austria, elected ; resigned both crowns, \n1556; retired to a monastery, where he died \n21 Sept. T55S. \n\n1556. Ferdinand I., brother; succeeded by his son \n\n1564. Maximilian II. king of Hungary and Bohemia. \n\n1576. Rodolph II., son. \n\n11612. Matthias, brother. \n\n*6ig. Ferdinand II., cousin, king of Hungary. \n\n1637. Ferdinand III., son. \n\n\n\n1658. Leopold I. , son. \n\n1705. Joseph I. , son. \n\n1711. Charles VI., brother. \n\n1740. Maria-Theresa, daughter, queen of Hungary and. \n\nBohemia ; her right sustained by England. \n1742. Charles VII. elector of Bavaria, rival emperor, \n\nwhose claim was supported by France. \n[This competition gave rise to a general war. \n\nCharles VII. died Jan. 1745.] \n1745. Francis I. of Lorraine, grand-duke of Tuscany, \n\nconsort of Maria-Theresa. \n1765. Joseph II., son. \n1790. Leopold II., brother. \n1792. Francis II., son, became emperor of Austria only, \n\nas Francis I., 1804. \n\nSee Austria. \n\nhouse of hohenzollern (See Prussia). \n1871. William I. king of Prussia, 18 Jan. (born 22 \n\nMarch, 1797 ; died 9 March, 1888 ; empress, \n\nAugusta, born 30 Sept. 1811, died 7 Jan. 1890). \n1888. Frederick (William) III. "the Noble," son; born \n\n18 Oct. 1831 ; died 15 June, 1888 (married \n\nprincess Victoria, princess royal of England \n\n(born 21 Nov. 1840) 25 Jan. 1858). \n,, William II., son, born 27 Jan. 1859 (married \n\nprincess Auguste Victoria (born 22 Oct. 1858), \n\n27 Feb. 1881. \nHeir : William, born 6 May, 18S2 ; other children. \nSee Prussia. \n\nGERMINAL INSURRECTION, in the \n\nfaubourgs of Paris, suppressed on 12th Germinal, \nyear III. (1 April, 1795). \n\nGEEONA (N. E. Spain), an ancient city, fre- \nquently besieged and taken. In June, 1808, it \nsuccessfully resisted the French ; but after suffer- \ning much by famine, surrendered 12 Dec. 1809. \n\nGEEEYMANDEEING, an American slang \nterm, signifying the arranging the political divisions \nof a state, so that the minority may get the advan- \ntage over the majority. The name is derived from \nthe action of Elbridge Gerry, governor of Massa- \nchusetts, in 181 1. The Irish Party causelessly \napplied the term to earl Spencer, lord-lieutenant of \nIreland, in regard to electoral boundaries in 1885. \n\nGEESATJ, a Swiss valley, near the Rigi, \nabout 4 miles i>5 r 3, the site of a miniature republic, \nwhich bought its independence in 1359, maintained \nit till 1798, and still, every May, elects government \nofficers. \n\nGESTA EOMANOEUM; a collection of \npopular tales derived from Oriental and classical \nsources, written in Latin by an unknown author, \nabout the middle of the 14th century, and one of \nthe first books printed in the 15th. These tales \nhave been largely used by our early poets and \ndramatists, including Shakspeare. The English \ntranslation, by the Rev. C. Swan (from an edition \nprinted at Hagenau, 1508), appeared 1824. \n\nGETTYSBUEG (Philadelphia). Here severe \nfighting took place 1-3 July, 1803, between the in- \nvading confederate army under generals Lee, Long- \nstreet, and Ewe 11, and the federals under general \nGeorge Meade. The confederates were long suc- \ncessful, but eventually were compelled to retire \nfrom Pennsylvania and Maryland. The killed and \nwounded on each side estimated at about 15.000. \nGrand national and military demonstration held \nhere, 1-3 July, i838. \nGHEMAEA, see Talmud. \nGHENT (Belgium), an ancient city, built about \nthe 71I1 century, during the middle-ages became \nvery rich. John, third son of Edward III. of Eng- \nland, is said to have been born here in 1340 (hence \nnamed John of Gaunt) during the revolt under \nJacob Vi.n Artevelde. a brewer, whose son Philip \nrevived the insurrection against Louis, count of \nFlanders, 1379-82. Popu\'aton in 1887, 147,912 ; \nin 1890, 153,740. \n\n\n\nGHIBELINES. \n\n\n\n440 \n\n\n\nGIBRALTAR. \n\n\n\nGhent rebelled against Philip of Burgundy, 1451 ; against \nthe emperor Charles V., 1539; severely punished, 1540. \n\n"Pacification of Ghent" (when the north and south pro- \nvinces of the Netherlands united against Spain) pro- \nclaimed 8 Nov. 1576, broken up 1579. The 300th anni- \nversary celebrated 3-10 Sept. 1876. \n\nGhent taken by Louis XIV. of France, 9 March, 1678 ; and \nby the duke of Marlborough, 1706. \n\nGhent seized by the French, 1793 ; annexed to the \nNetherlands, 1814 ; made part of Belgium, 1830. \n\nPeace of Ghent, between Great Britain and America, \nsigned 24 Dec. 1814. \n\nNew docks opened at Ghent by the king, Sept. 1881. \n\nGHIBELINES, see Guelphs. \n\nGHIZNEE, or GHUZNEE (East Persia), the \nseat of the Gaznevides, who founded the city, 969. \nThey were expelled by the Seljuk Tartars in 1038. \nThe British under sir John Keane attacked the \nstrong citadel of Ghiznee at 2 a.m. 23 July, 1839. \nAt 3 o\'clock the gates were blown in by the artillery, \nand under cover of a heavy fire, the infantry forced \ntheir way into the place and at 5 fixed the British \ncolours on its towers. \xe2\x80\x94 It capitulated to the \nAfghans, 1 March, 1842, who were defeated 6 Sept. \nand general Nott re-entered Ghiznee 7 Sept. same \nvear. Seized for Musa Khan by Mahomed Jan in \nJan., retaken after a conflict, 19-20 April, 1880. \n\nGHOORKAS, see Goorkas. \n\nGHOSTS, produced by optical science. Mr. \nDircks described his method at the British Associa- \ntion meeting in 1858. Dr. John Taylor produced \nghosts scientifically in March; and Mr. Pepper ex- \nhibited the ghost illusion at the Royal Polytechnic \nInstitution, July, 1863. See Cock-lane Ghost. \n\nGIANTS are mentioned in Gen. vi. 4. The \nbones of reputed giants, 17, 18, 20, and 30 feet high, \nhave been proved to be remains of animals. \xe2\x80\x94 The \nbattle of Marignano (1515) has been termed the \n" battle of the Giants." See Dwarfs. \nOg, king of Bashan, of the remnant of the giants : his \n\nbedstead was 9 cubits long (about 16J feet). 1451 b.c. \n\n(Devi. iii. n.) \nGoliath of Gath\'s "height, was 6 cubits and a span." \n\nKilled by David about 1063 b.c. (i Sam. xvii. 4.) \nFour giants, sons of Goliath, killed (2 Sam. xxi. 15-22) \n\nabout 1018. \nThe emperor Maximin (a.d. 235) was 8} feet in height, \n\nand of great bulk. Some say between 7 and 8 feet ; \n\nothers above 8. \n*\' The tallest man that hath been seen in our age was \n\none named Gabara, who in the days of Claudius, the \n\nlate emperor, was brought out of Arabia. He was \n\n9 feet 9 inches high. " Pliny. \nJohn Middleton (born 1578), commonly called the child \n\nof Hale (Lancashire), whose hand, from the carpus to \n\nthe end of his middle linger, was 17 inches long; his \n\npalm 8i inches broad ; his whole height 9 feet 3 inches. \n\nPlot, Nat. Hist, of Staffordshire, p. 295. \nPatrick Cotter, Irish giant, born in 1761, was 8 feet \n\n7 inches in height ; his hand, from the commencement \n\nof the palm to the extremity of the middle finger, \n\nmeasureel 12 inches, and his shoe was 17 inches long ; \n\ndied Sept. 1806. \nCharles Byrne, called O\'Brien, 8 feet 4 inches high ; died \n\n1783 ; his skeleton is in the Museum, Royal College of \n\nSurgeons. \n\xe2\x96\xa0 Big Sam, porter of the prince of Wales, atCarlton-palace, \n\nnear 8 feet high, performed as a giant in " Cymon," \n\nat the Opera-house, 1809. \nM. Brice, a native of the Vosges, 7 feet 6 inches high. \n\nHe exhibited himself in London, Sept. 1862, and Nov. \n\n1863. \nRobert Hales, the Norfolk giant, died at Great Yarmouth, \n\n22 Nov. 1863 (aged 43). He was 7 feet 6 inches high, \n\nand weighed 452 lbs. \nChang-Woo-Gow, a Chinese, aged 19, 7 feet 8 inches \n\nhigh, exhibited himself in London in Sept., foe., \n\n1865. Grown to 8 feet, exhibited at Westminster \n\nAquarium ; with him Brustav, a Norwegian, 7 feet 9 \n\ninches, aged 35, 11 June, 1880. \nCapt. Martin Van Buren Bates, of Kentucky, and Miss \n\nAnn Hanen Swann, of Nova Scotia, both about 7 feet \n\n\n\nhigh ; exhibited themselves in London, in May ; and \nmarried at St. Martin\'s-in-the-Fields, 17 June, 1871. \nMarian, the amazon queen, 8 feet 2 inches high ; born \nat Benkeudorf, Thuringia, 21 Jan. 1866 ; exhibited in \nLondon, July, 1882. \nJosef Winkelinaier, an Austrian, 8 ft. 9 in. (born 1865), \nhealthy, exhibited in London, 10 Jan. 1887 ; died at \nLengau, 24 Aug. 1887. \nElizabeth Lyska, Russian, aged 12, height 6 ft. 8 in- \nexhibited at the Royal Aquarium, London, Nov. 1889. \nGIAOUR, Turkish for infidel, a term applied \nto all who do not believe in Mahomedanism. \xe2\x80\x94 \nByron\'s poem, " The Giaour," was published in \n1813. \n\nGIBRALTAR. The ancient Calpe (which, \nwith Abyla, on the opposite shore of Africa, ob- \ntained the name of the Pillars of Hercules), a town \non a rock in South Spain, on which is placed a \nBritish fortress, considered impregnable. The \nheight of the rock, according to Cuvier, is 1437 \nEnglish feet. It was taken by the Saracens under \nTank, whence its present name (derived from Gibel- \nel-Tarik), in 711. Population, 1891, civilians, \n19,100; troops, 5.896. \n\nTaken from the Moors, 1309 ; surrendered to them, \n1333; finally taken from them by Henry IV., of \nCastile, 1462 ; strengthened by Charles V. . . 1552 \nAttacked by the British under sir George Rooke, \nthe prince of Hesse-Darmstadt, sir John Leake, \nand admiral Byng, 21 July ; taken . 24 July, 1704 \nBesieged by the Spanish and French ; they 1 se \n10,000 men ; the victorious English but 400, \n\n11 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nSir John Leake captured several ships, and raised \n\nthe siege 10 March, 1705 \n\nCeded to England by treaty of Utrecht 11 April, 1713 \nThe Spaniards in an attack repulsed with great \n\nloss \' 1720 \n\nThey again attack it with a force of 20,000 men, \n\nand lose 5000 ; English loss, 300 . . 22 Feb. 1727 \nSiege by the Spaniartls and French, whose arma- \nments (the greatest brought against a fortress) \nwholly overthrown .... 16 July, 1779 \nIn one night their floating batteries were destroyeel \nwith red-hot balls, and their whole line of works \nannihilated by a sortie commanded by general \nEliott; the enemy\'s loss in munitions of war, on \nthis night, was estimated at upwards of2,ooo,ooo\xc2\xa3. \nsterling ; the army amounted to 40,000 men, \n\n27 Nov. 1781 \nGrand defeat by a garrison of only 7000 British, \n\n13 Sept. 1782 \nThe duke of Crillon commanded. 12,000 of the best \ntroops of France. 1000 pieces of artillery were \nbrought to bear against the fortress, besides \nwhich there were 47 sail of the line, all three- \ndeckers ; 10 great floating batteries, esteemed \ninvincible, carrying 212 guns; innumerablefrigates, \nxebeques, bomb-ketches, cutters, and gun and \nmortar-boats ; while small craft for disembarking \nthe forces covered the bay. For weeks together \n6000 shells were daily thrown into the town. \n\nBlockade ceased 5 Feb. 1783 \n\nRoyal battery destroyed by fire . . . Nov. 1800 \nEngagement between the French and English fleets \nin the bay; H.M.S. Hannibal, 74 guns, lost, \n\n6 July, 1803 \nThe Royal Carlos and St. Hermenigildo,Spajiish ships, \neach of 112 guns, blew up, with their crews, at \nnight-time, in the straits here, anil all on board \n\nperished 12 July, ,, \n\nA malignant disease caused great mortality Sept. 1804 \n\nA dreadful plague raged 1805 \n\nA malignant fever raged .... Aug. 1814 \n\nAgain : courts of justice and places of worship \n\nclosed by proclamation ... 5 Sept. 1828 \nThe fatal epidemic ceased . . . .12 Jan. 1829 \nDestructive storm ..... 17 Nov. i834 h \nBishopric of Gibraltar established .... 1842 \nGen. sir Richard Airey appointed governor Sept. 1S65 \nPopular eliscussion respecting its exchange for \n\nCeuta Dec. 1868 \xe2\x80\x94 Jan. 1869 \n\nDestructive fire 28 June, 1874 \n\nGen. sir Fenwick Williams of Kars, governor, \n\nAug. 1870\xe2\x80\x94 Nov. 1875 \n\n\n\nGIBSON GALLEEY. \n\n\n\n441 GLADSTONE ADMINISTRATIONS. \n\n\n\nDestructive storm and floods . . 23-24 Nov. 1875 \nLord Napier of Magdala, governor . . . Jan. 1876 \nVisit of prince of Wales . . . 15 April, ,, \nSir John Miller Adye, governor . . 1 Jan. 1883 \nGeneral sir Arthur Hardinge, governor . Nov. 1886 \nGen. hon. sir Leicester Smyth, Aug. 1890 ; died \n\n27 Jan. 1891 \nGen. sir Lothian Nicholson . . . April, ,, \nFor the loss of Utopia steamer (see Wrecks) 17 March, ,, \n\nGIBSON GALLERY, see Royal Academy. \n\nGIFFORD LECTURESHIPS, on Natural \nTheology in its widest sense -without reference to \ncreeds, i\'oundi d in the Universities of Edinburgh, \nGlasgow, Aberdeen, and St. Andrews, by bequest \nof 80,000/., by Adam Lord Gifibrd, a Scotch judge, \n21 Aug. 1885. \n\nGILBERT CLUB was established 28 Nov. \n1889, by sir Wm. Thomson (lord Kelvin in P\'eb. \n1892), president, sir F. Brumwell, professors D. E. \nHughes, G. Forbes, Silvanus Thompson, and other \nphysicists, to celebrate the tercentenary of William \nGilbert and his work, and to publish translations of \nhis "De Magnete," and other works connected \nwith magnetism and electricity. \n\nGILBERTINES, an order of canons and \nnuns established at Sempringham, Lincolnshire, \nby Gilbert of that place, 1131-1148. At the disso- \nlution there were 25 houses of the order in England \nand Wales. \n\nGILCHRIST TRUST. A fund of between \n3000/. and 4000/., left by Dr. John Gilehri-t in \n1841 to promote education. Office, 4, The Sanctuary, \nS.W. \n\nGILDING on wood formed part of the decora- \ntions of the Jewish tabernacle, 1490 B.C. {Exod. \nxxv. 11); was practised at Home, about 145 k.c. \nThe capitol was the first building on which this \nenrichment was bestowed. Pliny. Of gold leaf for \ngilding the Romans made but 750 leaves, four \nfingers square, out of a whole ounce. Pliny. Gild- \ning with leaf gold on bole ammoniac was first intro- \nduced by Margaritone in 1273. See Electrotype. \n\nGIN, ardent spirit, flavoured with the essential \noil of the juniper berry. The "gin act," 1735, \nlaying an excise of 5s. per gallon upon it, passed \n14 July, 1736. In London alone 7044 houses sold \ngin by retail; and a man could intoxicate himself \nfor one penny. Salmon. About 1700 gin-shops \nwere suppressed in London in 1750. Clarke. \n\nGIN (contracted from engine), a machine for \nseparating cotton wool from the seed ; see under \nCotton. \n\nGINGER, the root of the Amomum Zinziber, \na native of the East Indies and China, now culti- \nvated in the West Indies. In 1842 the duty was \nreduced from 53.S. to 10s. per cwt. of foreign ginger, \nand from us. to 5s. per cwt. of that from .British \ncolonies. \n\nGIPSIES, see Gypsies. \n\nGIRAFFE or Camelopaed, a native of the \ninterior of Africa, was well known to the ancients. \nIn 1827 one was brought to England for the first \ntime as a present to George IV. It died in 1829. \nOn 25 May, 1835, four giraffes, obtained by M. \nThibaut, were introduced into the Zoological gar- \ndens, Regent\'s park, where a young one was born \nin 1839. The last giraffa living at the Zoological \ngardens died 28 March, 1892. \n\nGIRLS, charities for. \nGirls\' Industrial Home, Stoekwell, established . . 1857 \nGirls\' Home, 22, Charlotte-street, Portland-place, \n\nestablished 1867 \n\nGirls\' Friendly Society, to provide homes, <fec, for \n\nworking girls, supported by the archbishops and \n\nbishops, founded 1878 \n\n\n\nGIRONDISTS, an important party during the \nFrench revolution, principally composed of deputies \nfrom the Gironde. They were ardent republicans, \nbut after the cruelties of Aug. and Sept. 1 792, laboured \nin vain to restrain the cruelties of Robespierre and \nthe Mountain party, and their leaders, Brissot, \nVergniand, and many others, were guillotined \n31 Oct. 1793. Lamartine\'s " Histoire des Giron- \ndins," published in 1847, tended to hasten the \nrevolution of 1848. \n\nGIRTON COLLEGE, Cambridge, for the \nhigher education of women. It began at Hitchin, \n1869; removed here, and was opened Oct. 1873. \nNewnham college, Cambridge, in connexion with \nit, was opened 18 Oct. 1875. Miss Anne Clough, \nwho ably managed the little hall from which the \ncollege rose in 1871, died 27 Feb. 1892. \nMiss Charlotte Angas Scott, aged about 22, attained the \n\nposition of "wrangler" (for mathematics), Jan. 1880. \nLady Margaret and Somerville halls, similar institutions \n\nestablished at Oxford, 1884. \nMiss Agneta Frances Ramsay, of Girtnn, and Miss B. \n\nM. Hervey of Newnham, obtained the highest honours, \n\nsee Cambridge, 18 June, 1887. \n\nGISORS, BATTLE OF (France), on 20 Sept. \nor 10 Oct, 1 198, when Richard I. of England defeated \nthe French. His parole for the day, " Dieu et \nmon droit" \xe2\x80\x94 "God and my right" \xe2\x80\x94 afterwards \nbecame the motto to the arms of England. \n\nGITSCHIN (Bohemia), was captured by the \nPrussians after a severe conflict with the Austrians, \n29 June, 1866. Near Gitschin, the same evening, \nthe crown prince of Prussia was victor in another \nengagement. \n\nGIURGEYO (Wallachia). Here the Russians \nwere defeated by the Turks, aided by some English \nofficers, 7 July, and repulsed in an attack, 23 July, \n1854. \n\nGLACIARIUM, at King\'s-road, Chelsea; \ncontaining a surface of artificially made ice for \nrinking, constructed by Dr. John Gamgee, and \nopened March, 1876. The freezing was accomplished \nby Raoul Pictet\'s process, and W. E. Ludlow\'s \nrotary engine and pump were employed. Dr. \nM\'Leod\'s newly invented skating surface, success- \nfully tried at Lillie Bridge, 10 May, 1884. \n\nGLADIATORS were originally malefactors, \nwho fought for their lives, or captives who fought \nfor freedom. They were first exhibited at the \nfuneral ceremonies of the Romans, 26^ B.C., and \nafterwards at festivals, about 215 B.C. Their revolt \nunder Spartacus, 73 B.C., was quelled by Crassus, \n71. When Dacia was reduced by Trajan, 1000 \ngladiators fought at Rome in celebration of his \ntriumph, for 123 days, a.b. 103. These combats \nwere suppressed in the East by Constantino the \nGreat, 325, and in the West by Theodoric in t;oo. \n\nGLADSTONE ADMINISTRATIONS.* \n\nMr. Disraeli resigned 2 Dec. and was succeeded by \n\n* William Ewart Gladstone, born 29 Dec. 1809 ; master \nof the mint, Sept. 1841; president of the board of trade, \nMay, 1843 \xe2\x80\x94 Feb. 1845 ; secretary for colonies, Dec. 1845 \n\xe2\x80\x94 July, 1846; chancellor of the exchequer, Jan. 1S53 \xe2\x80\x94 \nFeb. 1855, June, 1859 \xe2\x80\x94 June, 1866; lord high com- \nmissioner extraordinary to the Ionian Isles, Nov. 1858; \nM.P. for Newark, 13 Dec, 1832-46; for Oxford, 1847-65; \nfor South Lancashire, 1865-8; for Greenwich, Nov. 1868 ; \nannounced the dissolution of parliament, 2^ Jan. 1874; \nresigned, 17 Feb. 1874; temporarily resigned leadership of \nliberal party, 13 Jan. 1875; elected M.P. for Mid-Lothian \n(1579-1368)^ 5 April, 1880; his ministry resigned on \naccount of minority on the budget bill (264-252) \n9 June, 1885 ; he declines an earldom, 16 June, 1S85. \n\nAmong the measures carried by the Gladstone ministries \nare :\xe2\x80\x94 The Irish church act, the Irish land act of 1870, \nthe education act, the ballot act, the Irish land law act \n\n\n\nGLADSTONE ADMINISTRATIONS. 442 GLADSTONE ADMINISTRATIONS. \n\n\n\nItfr. Gladstone, whose ministry received the seals \n9 Dec. 1868. In consequence of a majority of three \nagainst the Irish University bill, early on 12 March, \n1873, Mr. Gladstone tendered his resignation, but \nwithdrew it a few days after, as Mr. Disraeli de- \nclined office with the existing house of commons. \nChanges were made Aug. -Sept. 1873 > t ne niinistry \nresigned 17 Feb. 1874. \n\nFIRST ADMINISTRATION (1868-74). \n\ndfirst lord of the treasury, Win. Ewart Gladstone (and \n\nchancellor of exchequer, Aug. 1873). \nZord chancellor, sir Wm. Page Wood, baron Hatherley, \n\nresigned; sir Roundell Palmer, baron Sel borne, \n\nOct. 1872. \nLord president of the council, Geo. Fred. Samuel Robinson, \n\nearl de Grey and Ripon (marquis of Ripon, 1871); \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0\xe2\x96\xa0succeeded by Mr. Austin Bruce, made lord Aberdare, \n\nAug. 1873. \nLord privy seal, John Wodehouse, earl of Kimberley ; \n\nsucceeded by viscount Halifax, July, 1870. \nChancellor of the exchequer, Robert Lowe; succeeded by \n\nMr. Gladstone, Aug. 1873. \nSecretaries \xe2\x80\x94 home, Henry Austin Bruce ; succeeded by \n\nMr. Lowe, Aug. 1873 ; foreign, Geo. Wm. Fred. Villiers, \n\nearl of Clarendon (died 27 June, 1870); succeeded by \n\nearl Granville ; colonies, Granville Geo. Leveson-Gower, \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0earl Granville ; succeeded by earl of Kimberley, July, \n\n1870; war, Edward Ca.d.vell; India, George Douglas \n\nCampbell, duke of Argyll. \nChancellor of duchy of Lancaster, Frederick lord Dufferin, \n\nappointed governor-general of Canada ; succeeded by \n\nH. E. Childers, Aug. 1872; by John Bright, Sept. 1873. \nFirst lord of admiralty, Hugh Culling Eardley Childers; \n\nsucceeded by G. Joachim Goschen, 9 March, 1871. \nChief secretary for Ireland, Chichester S. Fortescne ; \n\nsucceeded by the marquis of Hartington, 1 Jan. 1871. \nPresident of board of trade, John Bright; succeeded by \n\nChichester S. Fortescue, Dee. 1870. \nPresident of poor law {now local government) boa.rd, \n\nGeorge Joachim Goschen ; succeeded by James Stans- \n\nfeld, 9 March, 1871. \nWm. Edward Forster, vice-president of the committee \n\nof council on education ; admitted to the cabinet, \n\nJuly, 1870. \n\nThe above formed the cabinet. \nLord-lieutenant of Ireland, John Poyntz earl Spencer. \n\xe2\x96\xa0Office of works, Austen Layard ; succeeded by Acton S. \n\nAyrton, Nov. 1869 ; by Wm. Patrick Adam, Aug. 1873. \nPostmaster-general, Spencer C. Cavendish, marquis of \n\nHartington ; succeeded by Wm. Monsell (not in the \n\ncabinet), Jan. 1871 ; by Dr. Lyon Playfair, Nov. 1873. \n\nThis ministry carried \xe2\x80\x94 the disestablishment of the \nIrish church in 1869; the Irish tenant act in 1870; was \ncensured in the house of loids for advising the royal \nwarrant abolishing purchase in the army (162 \xe2\x80\x94 82), \n1 Aug. 1871 ; carried the ballot in 1872. See letter in \nnote, Disraeli Administration. \n\nSECOND ADMINISTRATION (28 April, 1880 \xe2\x80\x94 9 June, 1885). \n\nSee under England and Parliament. \n\nFirst lord of the treasury (and chancellor of the exchequer \ntill 16 Dec. 1882), Wm. Ewart Gladstone. \n\nLord chancellor, Roundell Palmer, baron Selborne. \n\nLord president of the council, John Poyntz, earl Spencer; \nsucceeded by Chichester S. Fortescue, lord Carlingford, \n9 March, 1883. \n\nLord privy seal, George Douglas Campbell, duke of Ar- \ngyll; resigned; succeeded by lord Carlingford, April, \n1S81 ; Archibald Philip Primrose, earl of Rosebery, \n11 Feb. 1885. \n\n\n\nof 1S81, the employers\' liability act, the agricultural \nholdings act, the burials act, the ground game act, the \nfranchise act. \n\nHe introduces his Irish bill, see Ireland, 8 April ; \n3-ejected (343-313), 7-8 June ; minority in general \n\xe2\x96\xa0election ; resigns 20 July, 1S86 ; opposes the government \ncrimes bill unsuccessfully Feb.-July, 1887 ; receives \nsilver trophy presented by the hon. Joseph Pulitzer, \neditor of New York World, the result of subscriptions \nand public entertainments, 9 July, 1887. \n\nThe term " grand old man" is said to have been first \napplied to Mr. Gladstone by Mr. Henry Labouchere, M.P., \nabout April, 1881, and sonn generally adopted. Mr. \n^Gladstone made many speeches in and out of parliament, \n1887 et seq. \n\n\n\nSecretaries \xe2\x80\x94home, sir Wm. Hareourt ; foreign affairs, \nGeorge Leveson-Gower, earl Granville ; the colonies, \nJohn Wodehouse, earl of Kimberley, succeeded by \nEdward, earl of Derby, 16 Dec. 1882 ; India, Spencer \nC. Cavendish, marquis of Hartington, succeeded by \nJohn Wodehouse, earl of Kimberley, 16 Dec. 1882 ; \nwar, Hugh C. E. Childers, succeeded by marquis of \nHartington, 16 Dec. 1882. \n\nFirst lord of tlie admiralty, Thos. Geo. Baring, earl of \nNorthbrook. \n\nChancellor of the exchequer, Hugh C. E. Childers, 16 Dec. \n1882. \n\nLord-lieutenant of Ireland, John Poyntz, earl Spencer, \nMay, 1882. \n\nChancellor of duchy of Lancaster, John Bright ; resigns \nabout 15 July, 1882 ; earl of Kimberley, 25 July ; John \nGeorge Dodson (afterwards lord Monk Bretton), 28 \nDec. 1882; George O. Trevelyan, about 20 Oct. 1884. \n\nPresident of local government board, John George Dodson, \nsucceeded by sir Charles Wentworth Dilke, 28 Dec. \n1882. \n\nPresident of board of trade, Joseph Chamberlain. \n\nPostmaster-general, George Shaw Letevre, entered the \ncabinet, n Feb. 1885. \n\nThe above formed the cabinet. \n\nLord -lieutenant of Ireland, Franeis Thomas de Grey, \nearl Cowper ; resigned, May, 1882 ; earl Spencer (see \nabove). \n\nPostmaster-general, Henry Fawcett, died 6 Nov. 1884 ; \nGeorge Shaw Lefevre, 18 Nov. 1884. \n\nChief secretary for Ireland, W. E. Forster ; resigned about \n2 May, 1882 ; lord Frederick Cavendish, 4 May ; assas- \nsinated, 6 May ; G. O. Trevelyan, 9 May, 1882 ; Henry \nCampbell Bannerman, about 20 Oct. 1S84. \n\nChief commissioner of works, W. P. Adam, succeeded by \nG. Shaw Lefevre till Nov. 1884. \n\nAttorney-general, sir Henry James. \n\nSolicitor-general, sir Farrer Herschell. \n\nGovernor-general of India, Geo. Fred. Samuel Robinson, \nmarquis of Ripon ; succeeded by Frederick Temple \nHamilton-Blackwood, earl of Dufferin, Nov. 1884. \n\nChairman of ways and means, Dr. Lyon Playfair. \n\nthird administration (2-6 Feb. resigned 20 July, 1886). \nSee under England and Parliament. \n\nFirst lord of the treasury, Wm. Ewart Gladstone. \n\nLord chancellor, sir Farrer Herschell (lord Herschell). \n\nLord president of the council, John Poyntz, earl Spencer. \nSecretaries \xe2\x80\x94 home, Hugh C. E. Childers ; \'foreign, \nArchibald Philip Primrose, earl" of Rosebery ; colonial, \nGeorge Leveson-Gower, earl Granville ; India, John \nWodehouse, earl of Kimberley ; war, Henry Campbell- \nBannerman. \n\nChancellor of the exchequer, sir William George Granville \nVernon -Hareourt. \n\nFirst lord of the admiralty, George Frederick Samuel \nRobinson, marquis of Ripon. \n\nPresident of the local government board, Joseph Chamber- \nlain, succeeded by James Stansfeld, 27 March, 1886. \n\nSecretary for Scotland, George Otto Trevelyan; suc- \nceeded by John William Ramsay, earl of Dalhousie ; \n(not in the cabinet), 27 March, 1886. \n\nPresident of the board of trade, Anthony John Mundella. \n\nChief secretary for Ireland, John Morley. \n\nThe above formed the cabinet. \n\nLord lieutenant of Ireland, John Campbell Hamilton- \nGordon, earl of Aberdeen. \n\nPostmaster-general, George Grenfell Glyn, lord Wolverton. \n\nFirst commissioner of works, Albert Edmund Parker, earl \nof Morley ; succeeded by Victor Alexander Bruce, earl \nof Elgin, 13 April. \n\nAttorney-general, sir Charles Russell, Q.C. \n\nSolicitor-general, sir Horace Davey, Q.C. \n\nChancellor of duchy of Lancaster, Edward Heneage ; suc- \nceeded by sir U. Kay-Shuttleworth, 10 April, 1886. \n\nFOURTH ADMINISTRATION. \n\n(Succeeded the second Salisbury Administration, \n\nwhich see, i3 Aug. et seq.). \n\nFirst lord of the treasury and lord privy seed, Win. Ewart \n\nGladstone. \nLord high chancellor, Lord Herschell. \nLord president of the council and secretary of state for \n\nIndia, Earl of Kimberley. \nSecretaries \xe2\x80\x94 home, Herbert Henry Asquith ; foreign, \n\nArchibald Philip Primrose, earl of Rosebery ; colonial, \n\nGeorge Frederick Samuel Robinson, marquis of Ripon ; \n\nWar, Henry Campbell-Bannerman. \n\n\n\nGLADSTONIANS. \n\n\n\n443 \n\n\n\nGLASGOW. \n\n\n\nFirst lord of the admiralty, John Poyntz, earl Spencer. \nChancellor of the exchequer, sir William George Granville \n\nVernon-Harcourt. \nChief secretary for Ireland, John Morley. \nSecretary for Scotland, sir George Trevelyan. \nPresident oj the board of trade, Anthony John Mundella. \nPresident of the local government board, Henry H. Fowler. \nFirst commissioner of works, George John Shaw-Lefevre. \nChancellor of duchy of Lancaster, James Bryce. \nPostmaster-general, Arnold Morley. \nVice-president of the committee of council on education, \n\nArthur Acland. \n\nThe above form the cabinet. \nLord-lieutenant of Ireland, Robert O. A. Milnes, baron \n\nHoughton. \nFinancial secretary to the treasury, Mr. Hibbert. \nAttorney-general, sir Charles Russell. \nSolicitor-general, John Rigby. \nLord advocate for Scotland, J. B. Balfour. \nAttorney-general for Ireland, the MacDermot. \nLord chancellor of Ireland, Samuel Walker. \nPresident of the board of agriculture, Herbert Gardner. \nLord chamberlain, Charles Robert, baron Carrington. \nSecretary to the admiralty, sirUghtred Kay-Shuttleworth. \nSecretary to the local government board, sir W. Foster. \n\nGLADSTONIANS. A name given to the ad- \nherents of Mr. Gladstone in his Irish policy; they \nincluded earl Granville, earl Spencer, marquis of \nKipoE, earl of Rosebery, sir W. Vernon-Harcourt, \nMr. John Morley, and other liberals, 1886; see \nLiberals. \n\nGLASGOW (Lanarkshire), the largest city in \nScotland. Its prosperity greatly increased after the \nunion in 1707, in consequence of its obtaining some \nof the American trade. Glasgow returns seven \nM.P.\'s by Act passed 25 June, 1885. See Population. \nThe cathedral or high church, dedicated to St. \n\nKentigern or Mungo, began about . . . 1136 \n\nErected into a burgh 1190 \n\nCharter was obtained from James II. . . . 1451 \nUniversity founded by Pope Nicholas V. and bishop \n\nTurnbull 1450 \n\nMade a royal burgh by James VI 1611 \n\nTown wasted by a great fire 1652 \n\nCharter of William and Mary 1690 \n\nGlasgow Courant, the first newspaper published . 1715 \nFirst vessel sailed to America for its still great \n\nimport, tobacco 1718 \n\nGreat Shawfield riot 1725 \n\nCalico printing begun, about 1742 \n\nPlundered by rebels 1745 \n\nTheatre opened 1764 \n\nPower-loom introduced 1773 \n\nTheatre burnt ; Glasgow Herald published . . . 1782 \n\nChamber of commerce formed 1783 \n\nTrades\' hall built 1791 \n\nWalter Stirling\'s public library founded, by will . ,, \n\n\n\nSpinning machinery by steam introduced . . 1795 \nAnderson\'s university founded . . 7 May, ,, \n\nNew College buildings erected 181 1 \n\nGreat popular commotion . . . April, ,, \n\nTrials for treason followed .... July, ,, \n\nTheatre again burnt Jan. 1829 \n\nThe loyal exchange opened . . . 3 Sept. ,, \n\nGreat fire, loss 150,000? 14 Jan. 1832 \n\nThe Glasgow lotteries, the last drawn in Britain, \nwere granted by licence of parliament to the \ncommissioners for the improvement of Glasgow. \nThe third and final Glasgow lottery was drawn in \nLoudon, at Coopers\' Hall, 28 Aug. 1834. Their \nrepetition was forbidden by 4 Will. IV., c. 37 . 1834 \nBritish Association meet here . . .24 Sept. 1840 \nWellington\'s statue erected . . . . 8 Oct. 1844 \nFalse alarm of lire at the theatre, when 70 persons \n\nare crushed to death .... 17 Feb. 1849 \nVisit of the queen and prince Albert . . 14 Aug. ,, \nBritish Association meet (2nd time) 12 Sept. 1855 \n\nFailure of Western Bank of Scotland, and City of \n\nGlasgow bank, and other (inns . . Nov. 1857 \n\nIn which great frauds were discovered . . Oct. 1858 \nNew water-works at Loch Katrine opened by the \n\nqueen 14 Oct. 1859 \n\n[Supplies 25,000,000 gallons daily, can supply \n50.000,000 ; engineer, J. F. Bateman ; cost about \n9iS,ooo/. independent of price paid for old works. ] \n\n\n\nSelf-supporting cooking establishments for work- \ning classes begun by Mr. Thos. Corbett, 21 Sept. i860 \nGlasgow visited by the empress of the French, \n\n27 Nov. \n\nTheatre burnt again 3 1 Jan - l86 3 \n\nVisited by lord Palmerston ; installed lord rector, \n\n29 March, ,. \nIndustrial exhibition opened . . 12 Dec. 1865 \n\nFine stained glass windows, by German artists, put \n\nup in the cathedral by private munificence 1859-66 \nSite of the old university sold to railway company; \n\nnew buildings to be erected near Western-park . 1866 \nGreat reform demonstration ; visit of John Bright, \n\n16 Oct. ,, \nThe duke of Edinburgh inaugurates the statue of \n\nthe prince consort, in George\'s-square 18 Oct. ,, \nGlasgow and Aberdeen universities to elect one \nM.P., and Glasgow to elect three instead of two \nM.P.\'s, by the Scotch reform act, passed 13 July, 1868 \nFoundation of the new university buildings laid by \n\nthe prince of Wales .... 8 Oct. ,, \nFoundation of Albert bridge laid . 3 June > l8 7\xc2\xb0 \n\nThe new university buildings opened . 7 Nov. ,, \n\n[The spire completed 14 Oct. 1887.] \nTechnical college established about . . . . ,, \nScott centenary celebrated ... 9 Aug. 1871 \nFraser and Maclaren\'s warehouse, Buchanan-street, \n\nburnt ; about 100,000?. lost . . 27 March, 1872 \nExplosion at Tradeston flour mills ; about 14 lulled ; \n\nloss -0,000? 9 J^y. \xc2\xbb \n\nMr. Disraeli installed lord rector . . 19 Nov. 1873 \nMr. Stephen Mitchell bequeaths 70,000?. to tound a \n\nfree library, &c - \xe2\x96\xa0 spring, 1874 \n\nGreat fire in Buchanan-street . . 22 April, 1876 \n\nBritish Association meeting (3rd) . . . . ,, \nRt lion. R. A. Cross receives freedom of the city \n\n2 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nFoundation of new post-office laid by the prince of \n\nWales J 7 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nStatue of Burns in George\'s square uncovered by \n\nlord Houghton . . . -. . . 25 Jan. 1877 \nNew stock exchange opened . . 3 April, ,, \nWeaving school opened .... 3 Sept. ,, \nFreedom of city presented to gen. U. Grant, ex- \npresident, U.S 13 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNew Queen\'s dock opened ... 18 Sept ,, \nFreedom of city presented to the marquis of \n\nHartington 5 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nStatue of Thos. Campbell, in George\'s square, un- \ncovered 28 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nApothecaries\' hall burnt, loss about 30,000?. 9 June, 187S \nStoppage of "City of Glasgow" bank, with many \n\nbranches, total ruin to many, see Banks 2 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nNational fund formed to relieve sufferers, 9 Nov. ; \n\namount received, about 118,000?. . . 12 Nov. ,, \nGlasgow relief bank founded, 321,423?. received, \n\n13 Dec. ,, \n" City of Glasgow" bank : Stronach and some direc- \ntors sentenced to 18 months\' imprisonment, others \nto 8 months, see Trials 1 Feb. 1879 \n\nTheatre Royal burnt . ... 2 Feb. ,, \n\nBoiler" explosion, Glasgow ironworks, 23 killed, \n\n5 March, ,, \nStatue of Livingstone,\' George\'s-square, unveiled, \n\n19 March, ,, \nSir Win. Harcourt, home secretary, receives freedom \n\nof the city 25 Oct. 1881 \n\nMr. Macdonakl, M. P., bequeaths a mining library \n\nand 1000/. to the university . . . Nov. ,, \nBlack and Wingate\'s weaving mills burnt 3 Dee. ,, \nGreat fires : Anchor line engine works on the Clyde \n\nand Parker\'s soap works; damage, about 50,000?. 18S2 \nDestmctive fire in the Trongate, 15,000?. estimated \n\ndamage r 7 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe duke of Albany receives the freedom of the city \n\n14 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nGalbraith\'s spinning mill burnt . . .14 Get. ,, \nRt lion. W. E. Forster receives the freedom of the \n\ncity 18 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMr. Bright installed as lord rector . 22 Marcn, 1003 \nThe Daphne steamer, during launch in the Clyde, \n\nheels over; 124 perish . . . . 3 July, ,, \n\nWylie and Lochhead\'s premises, near Buchanan- \nstreet, burnt. ; loss about 200,000?. . . 3 Nov. ,, \n"John Elder" professorship of naval architecture \nat the university endowed by Mrs. Elder, 12,500?. \n\nannounced Nov. ,, \nMr. Fawcett, M.P., elected lord rector . 15 Nov. ,, \n\n\n\nGLASGOW. \n\n\n\n444 \n\n\n\nGLASTONBURY. \n\n\n\nTrial of Terence M\'Dermott and nine other ribbon- \nmen at Edinburgh for conspiracy to blow up \nbuildings in Glasgow ; M\'Dermott and four sen- \ntenced to penal servitude for life, rive others to \nseven years ..... 17-21 Dec. 1883 \n\nThrough Glasgow Improvement Act, great numbers \nof horrible rookeries removed, 1866, and whole- \nsome houses erected . . . announced ,, \n\nGreat popular demonstration in favour of the \ngovernment and the Franchise bill ; Mr.Trevelyan \nthere 6 Sept. 1884 \n\nVisit of the marquis of Salisbury ; great conser- \nvative demonstration . . .30 Sept. et acq. ,, \n\nStar theatre : 15 persons killed through false panic \nof fire 1 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTempleton\'s carpet manufactory burnt, about \n30,000?. damages 28 Jan. 1886 \n\nUnderground railway opened . . 15 March, ,, \n\nThe Elderslie rock in the Clyde near Renfrew \nremoved by dynamite ; cost about 40,000?. . \n\nBailie Young, Councillor Duncan and five other \npersons killed and many injured by poisonous \ngases of ignited gunpowder rushing into the \nvacancy occasioned by the blasting of an \nenormous mass of rock near Loch Fyne 25 Sept. ifi \n\nGlasgow blind asylum burned down ; damage about \n10,000? 3 Dec - > \n\nJubilee fete of 30,000 school children . 10 Sept. ig \n\nGreat international exhibition, the largest in the \nempire since that in London in 1862 ; patron, the \nqueen; the buildings in the west end park \noccupied about 16 acres, cost about 70,000?. ; \nopened by the prince and princess of Wales ; the \nroute of the procession was five miles (fine day) 8 \nMay; visit of the. queen, magnificent reception, \nnew municipal buildings, George\'s-square, inaugu- \nrated ; the exhibition publicly visited 22 Aug. ; she \nvisited Paisley 23 Aug., privately, the exhibition, \nthe university, and queen Margaret\'s college, \n24 Aug. The queen was the guest of sir \nArchibald Campbell of Blytheswood 22-24 Aug. ; \nexhibition closed, 10 Nov. 1888; reported number \nof visitors, 5,748,379, surplus 40,000?. \n\nDestructive thunderstorm with loss of life 19 May, iE \n\nFire in Buchanan-street, 155,000?. damages 14 Oct. . \n\nDestructive storm, the exhibition and other \nbuildings much injured, and loss of life 16 Nov. . \n\nMr. Win. Stirling bequeaths 20,000?. to Glasgow \ncharities ; he died Sept. i\xc2\xa3 \n\nThe magnificent municipal buildings in George\'s- \nsquare, architect Mr. Wm. Young; cost about \n550,000?., opened by the lord provost, sir James \nKing 7 Oct. , \n\nMr. R. Ramsay\'s hide and wool mart burnt ; esti- \nmated loss, 30,000?. . . . . 27 Oct. , \n\nMessrs. Templeton\'s carpet-weaving mill, in the \ncourse of erection at Greenhead, during a gale \nfalls on the sheds where about 140 girls were at \nwork, about 29 killed 1 Nov. . \n\nCo-operative societies of the United Kingdom 22nd \nannual congress (the earl of Rosebery president), \n\n26 May, etseq., 1! \n\nThe freedom of the city given to Mr. H M. Stanley, \n\n12 June, \n\nMeeting of miners\' delegates from all parts of Scot- \nland demanding increase of wages, &c, \n\n15 Sept., et seq., . \n\nStrike and lock-out in the iron-works, respecting \nwages 4 Oct. , \n\nThe earl of R,osebery receives the freedom of the \ncity 10 Oct. \n\nGreat meeting of Scotch railway men ; a general \nstrike resolved on ; see under Railways 21 Dec. , \n\nEastern-end Industrial Exhibition opened by the \nmarquis of Lothian . . . .23 Dec. , \n\nFreedom of the city presented to the marquis of \nSalisbury 20 May, ii \n\nGreat strike of shipwrights on the Clyde, 5 July ; \n\nended 20 Aug. , \n\nVisit of the lord mayor of London and sheriffs, \n\n17-22 Aug. , \n\nMr. A. J. Balfour, lord rector of the university, \ndelivers his address on " Progress" 26 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMessrs. Wm. Primrose\'s flour mills burnt ; loss \nabout 10,000? 27 Feb. il \n\nErection of a new fine art gallery at the west-end \nproposed by a committee ... 13 April, \n\nProposed reduction of wages of seamen and fire- \n\n\n\nmen ; great meeting of the men, 28 April ; strike \nbegins 4 May, 1892 \n\nGLASGOW, Bishopric of. Kennet, in his \n\nAntiquities, says it was founded by St. Kentigern, \nalias Mungo, in 560; Dr. Heylin, speaking of the \nsee of St. Asaph, in Wales, sa} s that that see was \nfounded by St. Kentigern, a Scot, then bishop of \nGlasgow, in 583. This prelacy became archiepiscopal \nin 1491, ceased at the Kevolution, and is now a \npost-revolution bishopric. The cathedral, com- \nmenced in 1 121, has a noble crypt; see Bishops. \n\nGLASITES (in Scotland) and SANDEMANIANS \n(in England). In 1727, John Glas, a minister of \nthe church of Scotland, published "The Testimony \nof the King of Martyrs, concerning his Kingdom \n(John xviii. 36)," in which he opposed national \nchurches, and described the original constitution of \nthe Christian church, its doctrines, ordinances, \nofficers, and discipline, as given in the New Testa- \nment. Having been deposed in 1728, he and others \nestablished several churches formed upon the pri- \nmitive models. The publication of a series of letters \non Ilervey\'s " Theron and Aspasio," by Robert \nSandeman, in 1757, led to the establishment of \nchurches in London and other places in England, \nand also in North America. \n\nGLASS. The Egyptians are said to have \nknown the art of making glass 1150 B.C. The \ndiscovery of glass took place in Syria. Pliny. \nGlass-houses \\\\ ere erected in Tyre. It was in use \namong the Romans in the time of Tiberius; and \nwe know, from the ruins of Pompeii, that windows \nwere formed of glass before 79. \nGlass is said to have been brought to England by \n\nBenedict Biscop, abbot of Wearmouth, in . . 676 \nThe glass manufacture established in England at \n\nCrutched-friars, and in the Savoy (Stow) . . 1557 \nGreat improvements have been made in the manu- \nfacture, through the immense increase of chemical \nknowledge in the present century. Professor \nFaraday published his researches on the manu- \nfacture of glass for optical purposes in . . 1830 \nThe duties on glass, first imposed 1695 ; repealed, \n\n1698; re-enacted, 1745 ; finally remitted, 24 April, 1845 \nGlass- Painting was known to the ancient Egyp- \ntians. It was revived about the 10th century, \nand is described in the treatise by the monk \nTheophilus ; was practised at Marseilles in a \nbeautiful style, about 1500, and attained great \nperfection about 1530. Specimens of the 13th \ncentury exist in England ; C. Winston\'s work is \nthe best on the subject, 1846, new edition . . 1S6S \nGlass - Plate, for coach -windows, mirrors, &c, \nmade at Lambeth by Venetian artists, under the \npatronage of Villiers, duke of Buckingham . . 1673 \nThe manufacture was improved by the French, \nwho made very large plates ; and further im- \nprovements in it were made in Lancashire, when \nthe British Plate Glass company was established 1775 \nManufacture of British sheet glass introduced by \n\nMessrs. Chance, of Birmingham, about . . . 1832 \nTampered or Toughened glass: M. De laBastie\'s pro- \ncess (plunging heated glass into a hot bath of \noleaginous or alkaline compounds) announced, \nApril, 1875 ; largely manufactured in France, and \n\nsold cheap in London 1876 \n\nMr. Frederick Siemens described his process for pro- \nducing strong homogeneous tempered glass at the \n\nSociety of Arts 26 Feb. 1885 \n\nThe application of glass for rails proposed by Mr. \nH. Lindsay-Bucknalland for railway sleepers pro- \nposed by Mr. F. Siemens, 1885-6. This glass \nasserted to be much stronger than iron. \n\nGLASTONBURY (Somerset), traditionally \nsaid to have been the residence of Joseph of \nArimathea, and the site of the first Christian church \nin Britain, about 60. A church was built here \nby Ina about 708. The town and abbey were \nburnt, 1 184, and an earthquake did great damage \nin 1275. Richard Whiting, the last abbot, who \n\n\n\nGLEBE. \n\n\n\n445 \n\n\n\nGLOUCESTER. \n\n\n\nhad IOO monks and 400 domestics, was hanged on \nTor-hill in his pontificals for refusing to take the \noath of supremacy to Henry VIII., 14 Nov. 1539. \nThe monastery was suppressed 1540. \n\nGLEBE (glcba, a clod), the land belonging to a \nparish church, or ecclesiastical benefice. \nAn act to facilitate the sale of glebe land was passed in \n1888. \n\nGLEE, a piece of unaccompanied vocal music, \nin at least three parts. Their composition began \nearly in the 18th century. Eminent composers, \nSamuel "Webbe (1 740-1816), Stevens, Callcott, Hors- \nier, Danby, Paxton, Lord Momington, Spufibrth, \n&c. The Glee Club, founded by Dr. J. W. Callcott, \nDr. Arnold, and others, 1787. \n\nGLENALMOND, Perthshire. Trinity \nCollege here, projected in 1841, was opened in \n1847. It was lounded principally by the exertions \nof Mr. \\V. E. Gladstone and Mr. \'Hope Scott, aided \nby dean Ramsay, the duke of Buccleuch, the \nmarquis of Lothian, and o:her gentlemen, to sup- \nport the Scottish episcopal church. Toe site was \ngiven by Mr. George Patton, afterwards lord Glen- \nalmoud, 1846. The foundation stone of a new \nwing was laid by Mr. W. E. Gladstone, I Oct. 1891. \nGLENCOE MASSACRE of the Macdonalds, \na Jacobite clan, for not surrendering before 1 Jan. \n1692, the time stated in king William\'s proclama- \ntion. Sir John Dalrymple, master (afterwards \nearl) of Stair, their enemy, obtained a decree " to \nextirpate that set of thieves," which the king is \nsaid to have signed without perusing. Every man \nunder 70 was to be slain. This mandate was trea- \ncherously executed by 120 soldiers of a Campbell \nregiment, hospitably received by the Highlanders, \n13 Feb. 1692. About 60 men were slain ; and many \nwomen and children, turned out naked in a freez- \ning night, perished. This excited great indigna- \ntion ; and an inquiry was set on foot, May, 1695, \nbut no capital punishment followed. \n\nGLENDALOUGH, or " Seven Churches," an \nancient Irish bishopric, said to have been founded \nby St. Keven in 498; united with Dublin, 1214. \n\n" GLOBE. The globular form of the earth, the \nfive zones, some of the principal circles of the \nsphere, the opacity of the moon, and the true causes \nof lunar eclipses, were taught, and an eclipse pre- \ndicted, by Thales of Miletus, about 640 B.C. Pytha- \ngoras demonstrated, from the varying altitudes of \nthe stars by change of place, that the earth must \nbe round ; that there might be antipodes on the \nopposite part of the globe ; that Venus was the \nmorning and evening star ; that the universe con- \nsisted of twelve spheres \xe2\x80\x94 the sphere of the earth, \nthe sphere of the water, the sphere of the air, the \nsphere of fire, the spheres of the moon, the sun ; \nVenus, Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the \nspheres of the stars ; about 506 B.C. \xe2\x80\x94 Aristarchus \nof Samos maintained that the earth turned on its \nown axis, and revolved about the sun, which doc- \ntrine was held by his contemporaries as so absurd, \nthat the philosopher nearly lost his life, 280 B.C. ; \nsee Circumnavigators. \n\nTo determine the figure of the earth, a degree of latitude \n\nhas been measured in different parts of the world ; by \n\nBouguer and La Condamine in Peru, and by Mauper- \n\ntuis and others in Lapland, 1735. \n\nEstimated density s - 6 that of water; weight, 6,000,000, \n\n000,000,000,000,000 tons. \xe2\x80\x94 Proctor, 1875. \nFrance and Spain measured by Meehain, Delambre, \n\nBiot, and Arago, between 1792 and 1821. \nMeasurements made in India by col. (afterwards sir \n\nGeorge) Everest, published in 1830. \nExperiments made by pendulums to demonstrate the \nrotation of the earth by Foueault in 1851 ; and to \ndetermine its density by Maskelyne, Bailly, and \n\n\n\nothers ; and in 1826, 1828, and 1854, by Mr. (aft. sir) \nG. B. Airy, the astronomer royal. \nArtificial Globes. It is said that a celestial globe was \nbrought to Greece from Egypt, 368 B.C., and that \nArchimedes constructed a planetarium about 212 B.C. \nThe globe of Gottorp, a concave sphere, eleven feet in \ndiameter, containing a table and seats for twelve per- \nsous, and the inside representing the visible surface \nof the heavens, the stars and constellations, all dis- \ntinguished according to their respective magnitudes, \nand being turned by means of curious mechanism, \ntheir true position, rising and setting, are shown. \nThe outside is a terrestrial globe. The machine, called \nthe globe of Gottorp, from the original one of that \nname, which, at the expense of Frederick II. duke of \nHolstein, was erected at Gottorp, under the direction \nof Adam Olearius, and was planned after a design found \namong the papers of the celebrated Tycho Brahe. \nFrederick IV. of Denmark presented it to Peter the \nGreat in 1713. It was nearly destroyed by fire in \n1757 ; but it was afterwards reconstructed. Coxe. \nThe globe at Pembroke-hall, Cambridge, erected by Dr. \n\nLong (master, 1733), eighteen feet in diameter. \nIn 1 85 1 Mr. Abrahams erected in Leicester-square, for \nMr. Wyld, a globe 60 feet 4 inches in diameter, lit \nfrom the centre by day, and by gas at night. It was \nclosed in July, 1861 ; the models were sold, and the \nbuilding eventually taken down. \nMi. James Wyld, geographer to the queen, died 17 April \n1887. \' L \' \n\nGLOBE THEATRE, Backside (London), \n\nwas built by agreement dated 22nd Nov. 1593, \nand licensed to Shakespeare and others ; see \nTheatres, and Shakespeare\'s Theatre. \xe2\x80\x94 The Globe \n" Theatre," erected on the site of Lyon\'s-inn, \nStrand, was opened 28 Nov. 1868, Mr. Sefton Parry, \nmanager.\xe2\x80\x94 The Globe evening newspaper; formerly \nwhig, now conservative ; established 1803. \n\nGLOIRE, French steam frigate, see Wavy. \nFrench. \n\nGLORY, the nimbus drawn by painters round \nthe heads of saints, angels, and holy men, and the \ncircle of rays on images, adopted from the Ca?sars \nand their flatterers, were used in the 1st century. \nThe doxology, " Gloria Patri," is very ancient, \nand originally without the clause " as it was in \nthe beginning," &c. In the Greek it began with \n" doza," glory. \n\nGLOUCESTER (Roman Gleviim), submitted \nto the Romans about 45, and to the Saxons 577\'. \nThe statutes of Gloucester, passed at a parlia- \nment held by Edward I. 1278, relate to actions at \nlaw. This city was incorporated by Henry III. \xe2\x80\xa2 \nand was fortified by a strong wall, which was de- \nmolished after the Restoration, in 1660, by order of \nCharles II., as a punishment for the successful \nresistance of the city to Charles I., under col. \nMassey, Aug., Sept. 1643. The Gloucester and \nBerkeley canal was completed in April, 1827. \nGross bribery took place here at the election for the \nparliament in 1859.\xe2\x80\x94 The Bishopric was one of \nthe six erected by Henry VIII. in 1541, and was \nformerly part of\' Worcester. It was united to \nBristol in 1836, but in 1884 an act was passed to \nprovide for their again becoming separate bishoprics. \nThe church, which belonged to the abbey, and its \nrevenues, were appropriated to the maintenance of \nthe see. The abbey, which was founded by king \nWulphere about 700, was burnt in 1102, and again \nin 1 122. In it are the tombs of Kohert, duke of \nNormandy, and Edward II. In the king\'s books, this \nbishopric is valued at 315/. 17*. 2d. per annum. \nPresent income, 5000^. _ An act was passed in 1884 \nto provide for the disunion of the sees of Gloucester \nand Bristol. Population, 1881,36,542 ; 1891, 39,444. \n\nRECENT BISHOPS OF GLOUCESTER AND BRISTOL. \n\n1802. George Isaac Huntingford, translated to Hereford \n\nJune, 1815. \n1815. Hon. Hen. Ryder, translated to Lichfield, 1824. \n\n\n\nGLOVES. \n\n\n\n446 \n\n\n\nGOETHE SOCIETY. \n\n\n\n1824. Christopher Bethell, translated to Exeter, 1830. \n\n1830. James Henry Monk, died. \n\n1856. Charles Baring, translated to Durham, Sept. 1861. \n\n1861. Wm. Thomson, translated to York, 1862. \n\n1862. Charles John Ellicott (present bishop). \nGLOVES. Woodstock and Worcester leather \n\ngloves are of ancient celebrity. In the middle \nages, the giving a glove was a ceremony of inves- \ntiture in bestowing lands and dignities; and two \nbishops were put in possession of their sees by each \nreceiving a glove, 1002. In England, in the reign \nof Edward II. the deprivation of gloves was a \nceremony of degradation. The Glovers\' company \nof London was incorporated in 1556. Embroidered \ngloves are presented to judges at maiden assizes. \nThe importation of foreign gloves was not permitted \ntill 182s. "Gloves and their Annals," by S. W. \nlieck, published in 1883. \n\nGLUCINUM (from glukus, sweet). In 1798 \nYauquelin discovered the earth glucina (so termed \nfrom the sweet taste of its salts). It is found in \nthe beryl and other crystals. From glucina \\Y ohler \nand Bussy obtained the rare metal glucinum in \n1828. Gmelin. \nGLUCOSE, see Sugar. \n\nGLUTEN, an ingredient of gram, particularly \nwheat, termed the vegeto-animal principle (con- \ntaining nitrogen). Its discovery is attributed to \nBeccaria in the 18th century. \n\nGLYCEBTNE, discovered by Scheele, about \n1779, and termed by him the " sweet principle of \nfats," and further studied by Chevreul, termed the \n"father of the fatty acids." It is obtainedpure \nby saponifying olive oil or animal fat with oxide of \nlead, or litharge. Glycerine is now much employed \nin medicine and the arts. \n\nGLYOXYLINE (invented by Mr. (aft. sir) F. \nA. Abel, the chemist of the war department, in 1867) , \nan explosive mixture of gun-cotton, pulp and \nsaltpetre saturated with nitro-glycerine. it was \nabandoned for compressed gun-cotton. \n\nGNOMIUM, a new element recently discovered \nby Gerhard, Kruss, and F. W. Schmidt (1889). \n\nGNOSTICS (from the Greet gnosis, know- \nledge), a sect who, soon after the preaching of \nChristianity, endeavoured to combine its principles \n-with the Greek philosophy. Among their teachers \nwere Saturnius, in; Basi\'lides, 134; and Valentine, \n140. Priscillian, a Spaniard, was burnt at Treves \nas a heretic, in 384, for endeavouring to revive \nGnosticism. \n\nGOA (S.W. Hindostan), was taken by the Por- \ntuguese under Albuquerque in 1510, and made their \nIndian capital. It was visited by the prince of \nWales, 27 Nov. 1875. New harbour and railway \nworks inaugurated, 31 Oct. 1882. \nElection riots, conflict with the police and mili- \n: tary, 17 persons shot dead, accounts conflicting, \n\n22, 23 Sept. 1S90 \n\nOrder restored 26 Sept. ,, \n\nTreaty with Great Britain (1878) respecting customs \nduty, and an annual payment to Portugal of 2 \nlakhs of rupees, suffered to expire through dis- \nagreement 14 Jan. 1892 \n\nGOAT SHOW at Alexandra palace, 16-22 \nSept. 1880, supported by the British Goat Society, \nrecently established. A goat farm for the supply of \nmilk established near Dorking, 1882. \nAnnual shows of the British goat society have been \nheld ; one opened 8 June, 1886. \nGOBELIN-TAPESTBY, so called from a \nhouse at Paris, formerly possessed by wool-dyers, \nwhereof the chief (Jehan Gobelin), in the reign of \nFrancis I., is said to have found the secret of dyeing \nscarlet. This house was purchased by Louis XIV. \n\n\n\nabout 1662, for a manufactory of works for adorn- \ning palaces (under the direction of Colbert), espe- \ncially tapestry, designs for which were drawn by Le \nBrun, about 1666. Establishment (1878) cost about \n8000/. a year. \n\n" GOD BLESS YOU!" see Sneezing. \n\n" GOD SAVE THE KING" This melody \nis said to have been composed by John Bull, Mus. \nD., in 1606, for a dinner given to James I. at \nMerchant Taylors\' Hall ; others ascribe it to Henry \nCarey, author of " Sally in our alley," who died, \n4 Oct. 1743. It was much sung 1745-6. It has been \nclaimed by the French. The controversy on the \nsubject is summed up in Chappell\'s \xe2\x80\xa2\' i\'opular Music \nof the Olden Times" (1859). The melody has been \nadopted for the German national anthem (" Heil dir \nim Siegerkranz !"), and also for the Danish. \nThe words translated in 15 East Indian dialects . 1882 \nMeeting at the Mansion-house to promote their \n\nadoption 2 Nov. ,, \n\nGODEBICH ADMINISTBATION. Vis- \ncount Goderich * (afterwards earl of Ripon) became \nfirst minister on the death of Mr. Canning, 8 Aug. \n1827 ; he resigned 8 Jan. 1828. \nViscount Goderich, first lord of the treasury. \nDuke of Portland, president of the council. \nLord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor. \nEarl of Carlisle, lord privy seal. \nViscount Dudley, Mr. Huskisson, and the marquis of \n\nLansdowne, foreign, colonial, and home secretaries. \nLord Palmerston, secretary-at-war. \nMr. C. W. Wynn, president of the India board. \nMr. Charles Grant(aft.erwar<is lord Glenelg), board of trade, \nMr. Herries, chancellor of the exchequer. \nMr. Tierney, master of the mint, &c. \n\nGODFATHEBS and Godmothers, or \nsponsors. The Jews are said to have had theni at \ncircumcision ; but there is no mention of them in \nscripture. Tradition say r s that sponsors were first \nappointed by Hyginus, a Roman bishop, about 154, \nduring a time of persecution. In Roman Catholic \ncountries bells have godfathers and godmothers at \ntheir baptism. \n\nGODOLPHIN ADMINISTBATIONS \n(see Administrations), 1684 and 1690. Lord \nGodolphin became prime minister to queen Anne, \n8 May, 1702. The cabinet was notified in 1704. \nThe earl resigned 8 Aug. 1710, and died 1712. \nSidney, lord (afterwards earl) Godolphin, treasury. \nSir Nathan Wright, lord keeper. \n\nThomas, earl of Pembroke and Montgomery, lord pre- \nsident. \nJohn Sheffield, marquis of Normanby (afterwards duke \n\nof Normanby and Buckingham), privy seal. \nHon. Henry Boyle, chancellor of the exchequer. \nSir Charles Hedges and the earl of Nottingham (the latter \n\nsucceeded by Robert Harley, created earl of Oxford in \n\n1704), secretaries of state. \n\nGODS, Greek and Roman ; see under Mythology. \n\nGODWIN SANDS, sand-banks off the east \ncoast of Kent, occupy land which belonged to \nGodwin, earl of Kent, the father of king Harold II. \nEarl Godwin is said to have died suddenly\', 15 April, \n1053. This ground was afterwards given to the \nmouastery of St. Augustin at Canterbury; but \nthe abbot neglecting to keep in repair the wall that \ndefended it from the sea, the tract was submerged \nabout I IOO, leaving these sands, upon which many \nships have been wrecked. Salmon. \n\nGOETHE SOCIETY (ENGLISH), \nfounded in February, 1886, for making known and \n\n* Born 1782 ; held various inferior appointments from \n1809 to 1818, when he became president of the board of \ntrade ; was chancellor of the exchequer from 1818 to \nApril, 1827, when he became colonial secretary, which \nofhce he held in the Grey cabinet, Nov. 1830 ; created earl \nof Ripon, 1833 : died 28 Jan. 1859. \n\n\n\nGOG. \n\n\n\n447 \n\n\n\nGOLDEN FLEECE. \n\n\n\nillustrating German literature. Professor Max \nM tiller, president. Inaugural meeting, 28 May. \nGOG AND MAGOG, see Guildhall. \nGOLD (mentioned Gen. ii. 11), the purest, and \nmost ductile of all the metals, for which reason it \nhas been considered by almost all nations as the \nmost valuable. It is too soft to be used pure, and \nto harden it it is alloyed with copper or silver : our \ncoin consists of twenty-two carats of pure gold, and \ntwo of copper. By 17 & 18 Vict. c. 96 (1854), gold \nwares are allowed to be manufactured at a lower \nstandard than formerly ; \xe2\x80\x94 wedding rings excepted, \nby 18 & 19 Vict. c. 60 "(1855). Th* 3 present stated \nprice is 3^. 17*. iOj^. per oz. ; see Coin of England, \nand Guineas. In 1816, it was enacted by 56 Geo. III. \nc. 68, that " gold coins only should be legal tender \nin all payments of more than 40s," the tender of \nsilver being previously unlimited. \nEstimated amount of gold in the ivorld; value, 1848, \n\n560,000,000!. ; 1875, 1,000,000,000?. \nThe value of gold compared with silver is said to have \nbeen estimated in the time of Herodotus, b.c. 450, \nabout 10 to 1 ; of Plato, b.c. 38, 12 to 1 ; a.d. 1876, \nmore than 15 to 1. See Silver. \nThe weight of the maharajah of Travancore in gold \n\ngiven in charity (an old custom), May, 1885. \nThe Amalgamation of Gold is described by Pliny (about \n77) and Vitruvius (about 27 B.C.). The alchemist Basil \nValentine (in the 15th century) was acquainted with \nthe solution of the chloride of gold and. fulminating \ngold. Andreas Cassius, in 1685, described the pre- \nparation of gold purple, which was then adapted by \nKunkel to make red glass, and to other purposes. \nGmelin. Gold has been subjected to the researches of \neminent chemists, such as Berzelius and Faraday. \nMr. Rowland Jordan, of London devised a new and \nsuccessful method of preventing waste, in separating \ngold from its ore, announced Oct. 1884. \nH. R. Cassel\'s process for extraction of chlorine used in \n\nLondon, 1885. \nMr. B. C. Molloy\'s hydrogen-amalgam process for ex- \ntracting gold from the ores exhibited by Messrs. \nJohnson of Finsbury, London, Aug. 1887. \nMr. T. Rowland Jordan\'s method of extracting gold, \n\nexhibited in George Street, London, B.C., Oct. 1889. \nGold Mines. Gold was found most abundantly in \nAfrica, Japan, and South America. In the last it \nwas discovered by the Spaniards in 1492, from which \ntime to 1731 they imported into Europe 6000 millions \nof pieces of eight, in register gold and silver, exclu- \nsively of what were unregistered. \n\nPeter the Great re-opened ancient gold mines in \nRussia, 1699. \n\nThe Ural or Oural mountains of Russia long pro- \nduced gold in large quantity. \n\nA piece of gold weighing ninety marks, equal to \nsixty pounds troy (the mark being eight ounces), was \nfound near La Paz, a town of Peru, 1730. \n\nGold discovered in Malacca in 1731 ; in New Anda- \nlusia in 1785 ; in Cejdon, 1800; 2887 oz. of gold, value \n9991?., obtained from mines in Britain and Ireland in \n1864 ; it has been found in Cornwall, and in the county \nof Wicklow in Ireland (1797). \n\nGold discovered in California, Sept. 1847; and in \nAustralia, 1851. On 28 April, 1858, a nugget, said to \nweigh 146 pounds, was shown to the queen. It is \nestimated that between 1851 and 1859 gold to the value \nof 88,889,435!. was exported from Victoria alone (see \nCalifornia and Australia severally). \n\nGold discovered in what is now termed New Columbia \nin 1856 : much emigration there in 1858. \n\nGold discovered in New Zealand, and in Nova Scotia \nin 1861. \n\nGold discovered in South Africa (Transvaal republic, \n<&c), and discovered in Sutherlandshire ; much excite- \nment, Oct. 1868 ; in West Australia, reported Sept. 1870 ; \nin the Bendigo fields, Victoria, Nov. 1871 ; in Laud \nof Midian, by capt. R. Burton, announced, May, 1877. \nThe district of Witwatersrand, S. Africa, declared a \npublic goldfleld 20 Sept. 1886. \n\nThe prosperous town of Johannesburg erected, \nMarch 1887. \n\nProductive gold fields discovered in the valley of \nthe Djolgute river, opposite Ignachino on the Amoor, \n\n\n\nMay, 1884 ; a Russian colony with foreign adventurer* \nformed, January, 1885. \n\nGreat discovery of auriferous quartz, E. of the- \nTransvaal, 1886. \n\nDiscovery of alluvial gold at Waukaranga, South. \nAustralia, Oct. 1886. \n\nAlleged discovery of gold at mount Lyell in Tasmania, \nJuly, 1886. p\'w^ \n\n"Midas "gold nugget named "lady Loch," weight 617- \nozs ; value 2,537/.. ! found in the Midas gold companv\'s- \nclaim, 3 Aug. 1887 ; exhibited with other nuggets by \nMiss Alice Cornwall at Queen Victoria-street, London \n28 Oct. 1887. \n\nDiscovery of gold in large quantities in Mr. Pritchard \nMorgan\'s Gwynfynydd mines. Mawddach valley, \nMerionethshire, Wales, announced, Times, 7 Dec. 1887 ~ \ngreat success reported ; the crown claims heavy royall \nties, April, but makes concessions, May, 1888 ; work \ngoing on, April, 1889-90. Yield of gold valued at. \n50,000!., royalty paid to the state, reported March,. \n1890 ; legal decision by Mr. Justice North that the- \nmine is royal property ; working restrained till the \nroyalties are paid to the state, 6 Aug. 1890 ; the mine- \ntransferred to a company, which obtained a licence, \nand paid royalties. \n\nMr. Morgan\'s appeal against the decision of Aug. 6, dis- \nallowed, 21 Jan. 1891 ; his estate seized by the govern- \nment for the royalties due, 22 March ; the bailiffs \nwithdrawn, pending an arrangement ; work resumed,, \nearly April, 1892. \n\nImportant gold discoveries in Queensland, which see* \n1882-9. \n\nIn Malay Peninsula, announced Aug. 1889. \n\nGold mining greatly developed in the Transvaal district,. \nJohannesburg, founded in 1887. \n\nGold found in Western Australia, July, 1891. \n\nGold obtained in United Kingdom ; value in i86r^ \n10,816!. ; in 1862, 20,390!. ; in 1863, 1747!. ; in 1864, \n9991!. ; in 1865, 5894!. ; in 1868, 3522?. ; in - 1876, 1138!. ;, \nin 1878,2848?.; in 1880, 38!. ; in 1882,863!. ; in 1887, 210!.;. \nin 1888, 29,982!. ; in 1889, 13,227!. ; in 1890, 675?. \n\nGold Wire was first made in Italy about 1350. An \nounce of gold is sufficient to gild a silver wire above \n1300 miles in length ; and such is its tenacity that a \nwire the one-eighteenth part of an inch will bear the- \nweight of 500 lb. without breaking. Fourcroy. \n\nGold Leaf. A single grain of gold may be extended \ninto a leaf of fifty-six square inches, and gold leaf can \nbe reduced to the 300,000th part of an inch, and gilding \nto the ten-millionth part. Kelly\'s Cambist. \n\nGold Robbery. Three boxes, hooped and sealed, con- \ntaining gold in bars and coin to the value of between \n18,000?. and 20,000!. were sent from London, 15 Mav, \n1855. On their arrival in Paris, it was found that \ningots to the value of 12,000?. had been abstracted, \nand shot substituted, although the boxes bore no- \nmarks of violence. Many persons were apprehended \non suspicion; but the police obtained no trace till \nNov. 1856. Three men named Pierce, Burgess, and \nTester, were tried and convicted 13-15 Jan. 1857, om \nthe evidence of Edward Agar, an accomplice. They \nhad been preparing for the robbery for eighteen mouths- \nprevious to its perpetration. \n\nGOLD COAST, West Africa, discovered ancT \nnamed by Santarem and Escobar in 1471 ; settlements- \nmade by the Dutch ; transferred to Great Britain, \nby treaty, signed 2 Feb. 1872 ; joined with Lagos \nto form the "Gold Coast Colony," governor, capt. \nGeo. Cumine Strahan, appointed 1874 ; Sandfori \nFreeling, 1876; Herbert Taylor Ussher, 1879; sir- \nSamuel Rowe,2$ Jan. 1881 ; "William A. G. Toun"- \ndied 25 April, 1885 ; sir W. Bradford Griffith, 1886. \nPopulation of the colony and protectorate, estimated \nat 1.500,000. Capital Ghristiansburg. \n\nGOLD FISH (the golden carp, cyprinus \nauratus), brought to England from China in 1691 ; \nbut not common till about 1723. \n\nGOLDEN BULLS, EOSE, see Bulls, Rose, \nnote. \n\nGOLDEN FLEECE (see Argonauts). Philip, \nthe Good, duke of Burgundy, in 1429, at his mar- \nriage, instituted the military order of " Toison (For\'" \nor "golden fleece ; " it was said on account of the \n\n\n\nGOLDEN HORDE. \n\n\n\n418 \n\n\n\nGOEDON MEMOEIAL. \n\n\n\nprofit he made by wool. The number of knights \nwas thirty-one. The king of Spain, as duke of \nBurgundy, afterwards became grand master of the \norder. The knights wore a scarlet cloak lined with \nermine, with a collar opened, and the duke\'s cipher, \nin the form of a 13, to signify Burgundy, together \nwith flints striking tire, with the motto "\xe2\x96\xa0Ante \nferit, quarn jlamma micat." At the end of the \ncollar hung a golden fleece, with this device, \n" Pretium non vile laborum." The order afterwards \nbecame common to all the princes of the house of \nAustria, as descendants of Mary, daughter of \nCharles the Bold, last duke of Burgundy, who \nmarried Maximilian of Austria in 1477, and now \nbelongs to both Austria and Spain, in conformity \nwith a treaty made 30 April, 1725. P\'or the legend \nof the Gulden Fleece, see Argonauts. \n\nGOLDEN HOEDE, a name given to the \nMongolian Tartars, who established an empire in \nKaptchak (or Kibzak), now S.E. Russia, about \n1224, their ruler being Batou, grandson of Gengis \nKhan. They invaded Russia, and made Alexander \nNewski grand-duke, 1252. At the battle of Biela- \nwisch, in 1481, they were crushed by Ivan III. and \nthe Nogai Tartars. \n\nGOLDEN LEGEND, "Legenda Aurea." \nThe lives of our Lord and the saints, written by \nGiacomo Varaggio, or Jacobus de Voragine, a \nDominican monk about 1260; first printed 1470 ; \na translation printed by Caxton, 1483. \n\nGOLDEN NUMBEE, the cycle of nineteen \n\nyears, or the number that shows the years of the \n\nmoon\'s cvcle ; its invention is ascribed to Meton, of \n\nAthens, about 432 B.C. Pliny. To find the golden \n\nnumber or year of the lunar cycle, add one to the \n\n<iate, and divide by 19; the quotient is the number \n\nof cvcles since Christ, and the remainder the golden \n\nnumber. The golden number for 1 893, 13; 1894,14; \n\n1805, 15 ; 1896, [6. \n\nGOLDEN WEDDING, see Wedding. \n\nGOLDSMID FAMILY. Aaron Goldsmid, \n\na native of Holland, settled in London in 1763, and \n\nbrought with him wealth and important commercial \n\ninfluence. His son Asher joined in establishing \n\nthe firm of Mocatta and Goldsmid, bullion brokers \n\nto the Bank of England. The Goldsmids became at \n\nthe end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th \n\n.century most distinguished financiers of the realm. \n\nIsaac Lyon, the son of Asher Goldsmid, was conspicuous \n\nin the formation of the London Institution, the \n\nbuilding of the London Docks, the earliest attempts \n\nin the introduction of railways, the improvement of \n\nprisons, the establishment of the Society for the \n\nDiffusion of Useful Knowledge, and the founding of \n\nthe London University (afterwards called University \n\nCollege). In his numerous national and philanthropic \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0works he was aided by his sons, Francis Henry, and \n\nFrederick David. In 1844 the queen of Portugal \n\nconferred on him the title of Baron da Palmeira, in \n\nrecognition of his services in regulating the debt due \n\nt>y Brazil to Portugal. Regarding him and his son \n\nFrancis, see also "Jews." \n\nGOLDSMITHS\' COMPANY (London) \n\nheo-an about 1327, and incorporated 16 Rich. II., \n\n1392. The old hall was taken down in 1829, and \n\nthe present magnificent edifice by Philip Hardwick, \n\nwas opened 15 3u\\y, 1835 ; see Assay, and Standard. \n\nThe first bankers were goldsmiths. \n\nGoldsmiths\' hall marks on gold and silver plate are five :\xe2\x80\x94 \n\n1 The sovereign\'s head (after 1784) ; 2, lion passant (the \n\nstandard mark), probably introduced between 1538 and \n\nI5S 8 \xe2\x80\xa2 3, the standard mark, fixed 8 & 9 Will. III. \n\n11696-7; 4, leopard\'s head, the hall mark; 5, the \n\nmaker\'s mark (an old custom). \n\n[The date-letter is one of an alphabet of 20 letters ; A to \n\nU or V, J being omitted. The letter is changed on 30 \n\nMay annually, and the shape of the letter every 20 years ; \n\n\n\nthus 1716, A, &c. ; 1736, a, &e. ; 1756, % &c. ; 1776, \n\na, &c. ; 1796-1816, A, &c. ; 1816-36, a, &c. ; 1836-56, gl, \n\n&c. ; 1856-76, a, &c. ; 1876-1896, A, &c. The earliest \n\nknown alphabetical series began 1438-9.] \nA parliamentary commission on hall marking reported \n\nin favour of its continuance with modifications, May, \n\n1879. \nThe company offer about 85,000!. for the establishment of \n\nthe goldsmiths\' company\'s polytechnic institute, New \n\nCross, Surrey, Oct. 18S8 ; accepted by the Charity \n\nCommissioners, 1889. See Polytechnic Institutions. \nGoldsmiths\' exhibition at Vienna opened, 22 April, 1889. \n\nGOLIATH, training-ship, burnt, 22 Dec. 1875 \'\xe2\x96\xa0> \nsee under Wrecks. \n\nGOMAEISTS, see Arminians. \n\nGONFALONIEE, or Standard Bearer \nOF JUSTICE, originally a subordinate officer in \nFlorence; instituted 1292; became paramount in \nthe 15th century, and was suppressed, 27 April, \n1532, when the constitution was changed and Alex- \nander de Medicis made duke. \n\nGOOD FEIDAY (probably God\'s Friday), \nthe Friday before Faster day, on which a solemn \nfast has long been held, in remembrance of the \ncrucifixion of Christ on Friday, 3 April, ^, or \n15 April, 29 Its appellation of good appears to be \npeculiar to the church of England ; our Saxon foie- \nt\'athers denominated it Long Friday, on account of \nthe length of the offices and fastings enjoined on \nthis day. See Paster. \n\nGOODMAN\'S FIELDS THEATEE, \nLondon, opened 1729. Here David Garrick made \nhis debut as Richard III., 19 Oct. 1741. The new \ntheatre erected about 1746, was burnt down, June, \n1802. The Garrick Theatre here was opened in \n1830 ; burnt, 4 Nov. 1846 ; and since rebuilt. \n\nGOOD TEMPLAES (first lodges formed in \nAmerica) , pledge themselves not to make, buy, sell, \nfurnish, or cause to be furnished, intoxicating \nliquors to others as a beverage. The first English \nlodge was formed at Birmingham in May, 1868. \nThere were said to be 3743 lodges, and 210,255 \nmembers in the United Kingdom in 1874. Special \nsession of the Grand Lodge of England, 8, 9 Sept. \n1889. \n\nGOODWIN, see Godwin. \n\nGOODWOOD EACES, see Paces. \n\nGOOJEEAT (N. India), see Guzerat. \n\nGOOEKHAS, a warlike tribe of Nepaul, \nbecame prominent in the 17th century. Their in- \nvasions were defeated about 1791 by the Chinese, \nwhose vassals they became. In a war with the \nBritish in 1814 they were at first successful, but \nwere eventually subdued, and a treaty of peace was \nsigned in Feb. 1816. Since 1841 the native regi- \nments have been largely recruited by Goorkhas, \nwho have rendered valuable service in nearly all \nour Indian wars, and in Afghanistan, 1878-9. \n\nGOOSE, see Michaelmas. \n\nGOEDIAN KNOT, is said to have been made \nof the thongs that served as harness to the waggon \nof Gordius, a husbandman, afterwards king of \nPhrygia. Whosoever loosed this knot, the ends of \nwhich were not discoverable, the oracle declared \nshould be ruler of Persia. Alexander the Great cut \naway the knot with his sword until he found the \nends of it, and thus, in a military sense at least, \ninterpreted the oracle, 3^0 B.C. \n\nGOEDON MEMOEIAL ; proposed by lady \nBurdett-Coutts in the Times, 24 Feb. 1885. See \nKhartoum, and Mansion PLousc. \n\nCommittee formed : the prince of Wales, duke of Cam- \nbridge, archbishop of Canterbury, Mr. Gladstone, \n\nmarquis of Salisbury, cardinal Manning, Chinese \n\nminister, marquis of Lome, earl Granville and other \n\npersons, 24 Feb. et seq. 1885. \n\n\n\nGORDON RIOTS. \n\n\n\n419 \n\n\n\nGOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. \n\n\n\nProposed grant of 2o,oooL to the Gordon family, March, \n1885. \n\nGordon Memorial Hospital at Port Said proposed at \nMansion House, London, 14 March, 1885. \n\nSubscriptions 20,320^ 19 Oct. 1885 ; given to trustees of \nGordon boys\' home. Port Said hospital scheme given \nup, 30 May, 1885. \n\nOpening of penny subscription to establish a Gordon \ncamp at Aldershot for the military training of \ndestitute boys ; originated by Mr. Hallam Tennyson, \nMay, 1885. \n\nGordon league to provide entertainment for the very \npoor, instituted by the princess Louise and others, 19 \nMay, 1885 ; first meeting 18 Oct. 1885. \n\nA Gordon memorial boys\' home proposed 1 July, united \nwith memorial fund, 20 July, opened at Fareham near \nPortsmouth, 1 Oct. 1885. At the annual meeting it \nwas stated that 160 boys were sheltered ; an appeal was \nmade for means to increase the number, 21 May, 1889 ; \nagain 5 July, 1890. \n\nA statue proposed by government, about 14 July, 1885. \n\nStatue by Mr. Hamo Thornycroft set up in Trafalgar- \nsquare, 25 Sept. ; uncovered by Mr. D. R. Plunket, 16 \nOct. 1888. \n\nAnother statue, by Mr. Onslow Ford, at the school of \nmilitary engineering, Chatham, uncovered by the \nprince of Wales, 19 May, 1890. \n\nGORDON\'S "NO POPERY" RIOTS, \n\noccasioned by the zeal of lord George Gordon, \n\nJune 2-9, 1780. \n\nOn 4 Jan. 1780, he tendered the petition of the Protestant \nAssociation to lord North. \n\nOn P\'riday, 2 June, he headed the mob of 40,000 persons \nwho assembled in St. George\'s Fields, under the name \nof the Protestant Association, to carry up a petition to \nparliament for the repeal of the act which granted \ncertain indulgences to the Roman Catholics. The mob \nproceeded to pillage, burn, and pull down the chapels \nand houses of the Roman Catholics first, but after- \nwards of other persons, for nearly six days. The Bank \nwas attempted, the gaols opened (the King\'s Bench, \nNewgate, Fleet, and Bridewell prisons). On the 7th, \nthiity-six fires were seen blazing at one time. At \nlength by the aid of armed associations of the citizens, \nthe horse and foot guards, and the militia of several \ncounties, then embodied and marched to London, the \nriot was quelled on the 8th. \n\n210 rioters were killed and 248 wounded, of whom 75 \ndied afterwards in the hospitals, and many were tried, \nconvicted and executed. \n\nThe loss of property was estimated at i8o,oooZ. \n\nLord George was tried for high treason and acquitted, \n5 Feb. 1781. He died a prisoner for libel, 1 Nov. 1793. \n\nAlderman Kennett was found guilty of a dereliction of \nduty, 10 March, 1781. \n\nGOREE, a station near Cape Verd, W. coast \nof Africa, planted by the Dutch, 1617. It was \ntaken by the English admiral Holmes in 1663 ; \nseized by the French, 1677 ; and ceded to them by \nthe treaty of Nimeguen in 1678 ; taken by the \nBritish in 1758, 1779, 1800, and 1804; ceded to \nFrance, 1814. Governor Wall was hanged in Lon- \ndon, 28 Jan. 1802, for the murder of sergeant Arm- \nstrong, committed while governor at Goreein 1782. \n\nGOREY (S.E. Ireland). Near here the king\'s \ntroops under colonel Walpole were defeated, and \ntheir leader slain, by the Irish rebels, 4 June, 1798. \n\nGORGET, the ancient breast-plate, was very \nlarge, varying in size and weight. The present \ndiminutive breast-plate came into use about 1660, \nsee Armour. \n\nGORHAM CASE, see Trials, 1849-50. \n\nGORILLA, a powerful ape of W. Africa, about \nfive feet seven inches high. It is a match for the \nlion, and attacks the elephant with a club. It is \nconsidered to be identical with the hairy people \ncalled Gorullai by the navigator Hanno, in his \nPeriplus, about 400 B.C. In 1847 a sketch of a \ngorilla\'s cranium was sent to professor Owen by Dr. \nSavage, then at the Gaboon river, and preserved \nspecimens have been brought to Europe, and a \n\n\n\nliving one died on its voyage to France. In 185 1 \nprofessor Owen described specimens to the Zoolo- \ngical Society; in 1859 he gave a summary of our \nknowledge of this creature at the Royal Institution, \nLondon; and in 1861 several skins and skulls were \nthere exhibited by M. Du Chaillu, who stated that \nhe killed 21 of them in his travels in Central Africa. \nThe gorilla was not known to Cuvier. \nA young gorilla landed at Liverpool, 21 June, 1876 ; went \nto Berlin ; was exhibited at Westminster aquarium, \n23 July ; died at Berlin, 13 Nov. 1877 ; another brought \nto the Crystal palace, England, soon died, Aug. 1879. \nAn African gorilla landed at Liverpool, Sept. 1881. \nAnother Sept. 1885. \n\nOne placed in the zoological gardens, London, Oct. ; \ndied 9 Dec. 1887. \n\nGOSPELLERS, a name given to the followers \nof Wicklifl\'e, who attacked the errors of popery, \nabout 1377. "Wicklift\'e opposed the authority of the \npope, the temporal jurisdiction of bishops, &c., and \nis called the father of the Reformation. \n\nGOSPELS (Saxon god-spell, good story). Mat- \nthew\'s and Mark\'s are conjectured to have been \nwritten between a.d. 38 and 65 ; Luke\'s 55 or 65 ; \nJohn\'s, about 97. Irenaeus in the 2nd century \nrefers to each of the gospels by name. Dr. Robert \nBray was one of the authors of the Society for the \nPropagation of the Gospel in Foreign Countries, \nincorporated in 1701. A body termed "Bray\'s \nAssociates," still exists; its object being to assist in \nforming and supporting clerical parochial libraries. \nGOSPORT (Hampshire), contains the Royal \nClarence victualling yard. The great Haslar hos- \npital, near Gosport, was built in 1762. \n\nGOTHA, capital of the duchy of Saxe Coburg- \nGotha. Here is published the celebrated Almanack \nde Gotha, which first appeared in 1764, in German. \nPopulation, 1890, 29,134. \n\nGOTHARD, see Golthard and Alps. \nGOTHENBURG SYSTEM (in Sweden). \nBv this alcoholic drinks are dispensed by persons \nderiving no protit from the sale. It was advocated \nin England by Mr. Chamberlain, M.P., and much \ndiscussed, 1876-7. \n\nGOTHIC ARCHITECTURE began about \nthe 9th century after Christ, and spread over -Europe. \nIts great feature is the pointed arch ; hence it has \nbeen suggested to call it the pointed style. " Gothic" \nwas originally a term of reproach given to this style \nby the renaissance architects of the 16th century, \nits invention has been claimed for several nations, \nparticularly for the Saracens. The following list is \nfrom Godwin\'s Chronological Table of English \nArchitecture : \xe2\x80\x94 \nAnglo-Roman\xe2\x80\x94 b. c. 55 to about a.d. 250\xe2\x80\x94 St. Martin\'s \n\nchurch, Canterbury. \nAnglo-Saxon\xe2\x80\x94 a.d. 800 to 1066\xe2\x80\x94 Earl\'s Barton church \n\nSt. Peter\'s, Lincolnshire. \nGothic Anglo-Roman\xe2\x80\x94 a.d. 1066 to 1 135\xe2\x80\x94 Rochester \ncathedral nave ; St. Bartholomew\'s, Smithfield ; St. \nCross, Hants, &c. \nEarly English, or Pointed \xe2\x80\x94 a.d. ii35to 1272 \xe2\x80\x94 Temple- \nchurch, London ; parts of Winchester, Wells, Salis- \nbury, and Durham cathedrals, and Westminster Abbey. \nPointed, called Pure Gothic\xe2\x80\x94 a.d. 1272 to 1377\xe2\x80\x94 Exeter \ncathedral, Waltham Cross, &c, St. Stephen\'s, West- \nminster. \nFlorid Pointed\xe2\x80\x94 a.d. 1377 to 1509\xe2\x80\x94 Westminster Hall \nKing\'s College, Cambridge ; St. George\'s Chapel, Wind- \nsor ; Henry VII. \'s Chapel, Westminster. \nElizabethan \xe2\x80\x94 a.d. 1509 to 1625\xe2\x80\x94 Northumberland \nHouse, Strand, pulled down 1874 ; part of Windsor \nCastle ; Hatfield House, Schools at Oxford. \nRevival of Grecian architecture about 1625. Banqueting \n\nHouse, Whitehall, &o. \nThe revival of Gothic architecture commenced about \n1825, mainly through the exertions of A. W. Pugin. \nThe controversy as to its expediency was rife in 1860-1. \n\nG G \n\n\n\nGOTHLAND. \n\n\n\n450 \n\n\n\nGEAMMAEIANS. \n\n\n\nGOTHLAND, an isle in the Baltic sea, was \nconquered by the Teutonic knights, 1397-8 ; given \nup to the Danes, 1524; to Sweden, 1645; conquered \nby the Danes, 1677, and restored to Sweden, 1679. \n\nGOTHS, a warlike nation that inhabited the \ncountry between the Caspian, Pontus, Euxine, and \nBaltic seas. They entered Mcesia, took Philippo- \npolis, massacring thousands of its inhabitants ; de- \nfeated and killed the emperor Decius, 251 ; but were \ndefeated at Naissus by Claudius, hence surnamed \nGothicus, 320,000 being slain, 269. Aurelian ceded \nDacia to them in 272 ; but they long troubled the \nempire. After the destruction of the Roman western \nempire by the Heruli, the Ostrogoths, under Theo- \nderic, became masters of the greater part of Italy, \n\xe2\x80\xa2where they retained their dominion till JJ53, when \nthey were finally conquered by N arses, Justinian\'s \ngeneral. The Visigoths settled in Spain, and \nfounded a kingdom, which continued until the \n\xe2\x96\xa0country was subdued by the Saracens. \n\nGOTTHAED, ST., near the river Raab, Hun- \ngary. Here the Turks, under the grand vizier \nKupriuli, were totally defeated by the Imperialists \nand their allies, commanded by Montecuculi, 1 Aug. \n1664. Peace followed this great victory. See Alps. \n\nGOTTINGEN (Hanover), a member of the \nHanseatie league about 1360. The university \n"\' Georgia Augusta," founded by George II. of \nEngland in 1734, was opened 1737. It was seized \nhy the French, 1760, and held till 1762. In 1837 \nseveral of the most able professors were dismissed \nfor their political opinions. Population, 1890,23,693. \n\nGOVEENESSES\' BENEVOLENT IN- \nSTITUTION, was established in 1843, and incor- \nporated in 1848. It affords to aged governesses \n^annuities and an asylum ; and to governesses in \ndistress a temporary home and assistance. \n\nGOVEENMENT Annuities Act, see An- \nnuities. The building of the new Government \n\xe2\x80\xa2Offices began in 1861. \n\nGOVEENMENT OE IEELAND BILL, \n-see Ireland, 1886. \n\n"GOVEENOUE, The," a moral and educa- \ntional work, full of anecdotes, by sir Thomas Elyot, \nfirst published in 153 1 ; an annotated edition with \na glossary by Mr. H. H. S. Croft was published in \n1880. \n\nGOWEIE CONSEIEACY. John Ruthven, \nearl of Gowrie, in 1600, reckoning on the support of \nthe burghs and the kirk, conspired to dethrone James \nVI. of Scotland, and seize the government. For \nthis purpose the king was decoyed into Gowrie\' s \nhouse in Perth, on 5 Aug. 1600. The plot was frus- \ntrated, and the earl and his brother, Alexander, \n\xe2\x80\xa2were slain on the spot. At the time, many persons \nbelieved that the young men were rather the victims \nthan the authors of a plot. Their father, William, \n*was treacherously executed in 1584 for his share in \nthe raid of Ruthven, in 1582 ; and he and his father, \nPatrick, were among the assassins of Rizzio, 9 \nMarch, 1566. \n\nGEAAL, Holy (Sangreal). The publication \n\xe2\x80\xa2of Tennyson\'s poem with this title, Dec. 1869, led \nto much discussion. Tennyson treats it as the cup \nin which Christ drank at the Last Supper. The \nmediaeval romances treat it as the dish which held \nthe paschal-lamb. The word is probably old French, \ngrial, from the old Latin gradalis, a dish. \n\nGEACE, a title assumed by Henry IV. of Eng- \nland, on his accession, in 1399. Excellent Grace \nwas assumed by Henry VI. about 1425. Till the \ntime of James I. 1603, the king was addressed by \nthat title, but afterwards by the title of Majesty \n\n\n\nonly. " Your Grace " is the manner of addressing \nan archbishop and a duke in this realm. \xe2\x80\x94 The term. \n"Grace of God" is said to have been taken by \nbishops at Ephesus, 431 (probably from I Cor. xv. \n10), by the Carlovingian princes in the 9th century, \nby popes in the 13th century; and about 1440 it was \nassumed by kings as signifying their divine right. \n" Dei gratia" was put on his great seal by Wil- \nliam II. of England, and on his gold coin by \nEdward III. The king of Prussia\'s saying, that \nhe would reign " by the grace of God," gave much \noffence, 18 Oct. 1861. \n\nGEACE AT MEAT. The ancient Greeks \nwould not partake of any meat until they had first \noffered part of it, as the first fruits, to their gods. \nThe short prayer said before, and by some persons \nafter meat, in Christian countries, is in conformity \nwith Christ\'s example, John vi. 11, &c. \n\nGE^ECIA MAGNA, colonies planted by the \nGreeks, 974-748 B.C. ; see Italy. \n\nGEAFFITI, a term given to the scribblings \nfound on the walls of Pompeii and other Roman \nruins ; selections were published by Wordsworth in \n1837, and by Garrucci in i8<;6. \n\nGEAFTON ADMINISTEATION, suc- \nceeded that of lord Chatham, Dec. 1767. The duke \nresigned, and lord North became prime minister, \nJan. 1770; see North\'s Administration. \nAugustus Henry, duke of Grafton, first lord of the trea- \nsury [born, 1735 ; died 1S11]. \nFrederick, lord North, chancellor of the exchequer. \nEarl Gower, lord president. \nEarl of Chatham, lord privy seal. \nEarl of .Sherburne and Viscount Weymouth, secretaries of \n\nstate. \nSir Edward Hawke, first lord of the admiralty. \nMarquis of Granby, master-general of the ordnance. \nLords Sandwich and Le Despencer, joint postmasters- \ngeneral. \nLords Hertford, duke of Ancaster, Thomas Townshend, \n\nLord Camden, lord chancellor, succeeded by Charles \nYorke (created lord Mordeu), died (it is said by his own \nhand) 20 Jan. 1770. \n\nGEAHAM\'S DIKE (Scotland), a wall built in \n209 by Severus Septimus, the Roman emperor, or, \nas others say, by Antoninus Pius. It reached from \nthe Firth of Forth to the Clyde. Buchanan relates \nthat there were considerable remains of this wall in \nhis time, and vestiges of it are still to be seen. \n\nGEAIN. Henry III. is said to have ordered a \ngrain of wheat gathered from the middle of the ear \nto be the origiual standard of weight : 12 grains to \nbe a pennyweight ; 12 pennyweights one ounce, and \n12 ounces a pound Troy. Laicson. \nAn act for the safe carriage of grain (43 & 44 Vict. c. 43), \n\npassed 7 Sept. 1880. \n\nGEAMMAEIANS. A society of grammarians \nwas formed at Rome so early as 276 B.C. Blair. \nApollodorus of Athens, Varro, Cicero, Messala, \nJulius Caesar, Nicias, iElius Donatus, Remmius, \nPalemon, Tyrannion of Pontus, Athenaeus, and other \ndistinguished men, were of this class. A Greek \ngrammar was printed at Milan in 1476 ; Lily\'s \nLatin grammar (Brevis Institutio), 1513 ; Lindley \nMurray\'s English grammar, 1795 ; Cobbett\'s English \ngrammar, 1818. \xe2\x80\x94 Harris\'s Hermes was published in \n1750, Home Tooke\'s " Epea Pteroenta," or the \n"Diversions of Purley," in 1786, treatises on the \nphilosophy of language and grammar. Cobbett \ndeclared Mr. Canning to have been the only purely \ngrammatical orator of his time ; and Dr. Parr, \nspeaking of a speech of Mr. Pitt\'s, said, " We threw \nour whole grammatical mind upon it, and could not \ndiscover one error." The science of grammar has \nbeen recently much studied with excellent results. \n\n\n\nGEAMMAE SCHOOLS. \n\n\n\n451 \n\n\n\nGEATTAN\'S PAELIAMENT. \n\n\n\nGEAMMAE SCHOOLS, see Education. \n\nGEAMME, see Metrical System. Gramme \nmachine, see under Electricity. \n\nGEAMOPHONE and Graphophone, see \n\nunder Phonograph. \n\nGEAMPIAN HILLS (central Scotland). At \nArdoch, near Mons Grampius of Tacitus, the Scots \nand Picts under Galgacus were defeated by the \nRomans under Agricola, 84 or 85. \n\nGEAMPOUND (Cornwall) was disfranchised \nin 1 82 1, for bribery and corrupt practices in 18 19. \nSir Manasseh Lopez was sentenced by the court of \nking\'s beneh to a tine of 10,000^. and two years\' \nimprisonment. \n\nGEAN, (Hungary). Here the Hungarians \n\xe2\x96\xa0defeated the Austrians, 27 Feb. 1849. \n\nGEANADA, a city, S. Spain, was founded by \nthe Moors in the 8th century, and formed at first \npart of the kingdom of Cordova. In 1236, Mo- \nhammed-al-Hamar made it the capital of his new \nkingdom of Granada, which was highly prosperous \ntill its subjugation by the " great captain," Gonsalvo \nde Cordova, 2 Jan. 1492. In 1609 and 1610 the \nindustrious Moors were expelled from Spain, by the \nt)igoted Philip III., to the lasting injury of his \n\xe2\x80\xa2country. Granada was taken by marshal Soult in \n1810, and held till 1812. See New Granada. Popu- \nlation, 1887: province, 484,638 ; city, 73,006. \nIn the 2>rovi%ce of Granada, five towns were destroyed, \n914 persons killed, with an immense loss of property, \nthrough the earthquakes of 25 Dee. et seq. 1884. \n\nGEANAEIES were formed by Joseph in \nEgypt, 1715 b. c. (Genesis xli. 48.) There were \nthree hundred and twenty-seven granaries in Rome. \nUniv. Hist. Twelve new granaries were built at \nBridewell to hold 6000 quarters of corn, and two \nstore houses for sea-coal to hold 4000 loads, thereby \nto prevent the sudden dearness of these articles by \ngreat increase of inhabitants, 7 James I. 1610. \n\xe2\x96\xa0Stow. \n\nGEAND ALLIANCE between the emperor \nand the Dutch States- General (principally to \nprevent the uniou of the French and Spanish \nmonarchies in one person), signed at Vienna, 12 \nMay, 1689, to which England, Spain, and the duke \n\xe2\x96\xa0of Savoy afterwards acceded. \n\nGEAND COMMITTEES, see Committees. \n\nGEAND-DUKE, see Duke. \n\nGEANDEES, see Spanish Grandees. \n\nGEAND. JUNCTION" CANAL (central \nEngland), joins several others, and forms a water \ncommunication between London, Liverpool, Bristol, \nand Hull. The canal commences at Braunston, on \nthe west borders of Northamptonshire, and enters \nthe Thames near London. Executed 1793-1805. \n\nGEAND JUEIES, see Juries. \n\n. GEANDMONTINES, a monastic order estab- \nlished in Limousin, in France, by Stephen, a \ngentleman of Auvergne, about 1076. They came to \nEngland in the reign of Henry I. (1100-35). \nTanner. \n\nGEAND PENSIONAEY, a chief state \nfunctionary in Holland, in the 16th century. In \nthe Constitution given by France to the Batavian \nrepublic, previously to the erection of the kingdom \nof Holland, the title was revived and given to the \nhead of the government, 29 April, 1805, Rutger \nJan . Schimmelpenninck being made the grand \npensionary; see Holland. \n\n\n\nGEAND EEMONSTEANCE, see Remon- \nstrance. \n\nGEANICUS (a river 1ST. W. Asia Minor), near \nwhich, on 22 May, 334 b. c, Alexander the Great \nsignally defeated the Persians. The Macedonian \ntroops (30,000 foot and 5000 horse) crossed the \nGranicus in the face of the Persian army (600,000 \nfoot and 20,000 horse). Justin. The victors lost \nfifty-five foot soldiers and sixty horse. Sardis \ncapitulated, Miletus and Halicarnassus were taken \nby storm, and other great towns submitted to the \nconqueror. \n\nGEANSON, near the lake of Neufchatel, \nSwitzerland, where Charles the Bold, duke of \nBurgundy, was defeated by the Swiss, 3 March, \n1476. \n\nGEANTON PIEE, breakwater, &c. forming \na harbour, on the Forth, three miles from Edin- \nbui-gh, were constructed by Messrs. Stevenson, at \nthe cost of about 500,000^., given by Walter, duke \nof Buccleuch, 1835-44. \n\nGEAPES. Previously to the reign of Edward \nVI. grapes were brought to England in large quan- \ntities from Flanders, where they were first cultivated \nabout 1276. The vine was introduced into England \nin 1552 ; being first planted at Bloxhall, in Suft\'olk. \nIn the gardens of Hampton-court palace is a vine, \nstated to surpass any in Europe ; it is 72 feet by 20, \nand has in one season produced 2272 bunches of \ngrapes, weighing 18 cwt. ; the stem is 13 ineb.es in \ngirth; it was planted in 1769. Leigh. \n\nGEAPHIC, illustrated weekly journal, estab- \nlished 4 Dec. 1869. The Daily Graphic first \nappeared 4 Jan. 1890. \n\nGEAPHITE (from the Greek graphein, to \nwrite), a peculiar form of mineral carbon, with a \ntrace of iron, improperly termed black lead and \nplumbago. In 1809 sir Humphry Davy investi- \ngated into the relations of three forms of carbon, \nthe diamond, graphite, and charcoal. A rude kind \nof black lead pencil is mentioned by Gesner in 1565. \nIntei-esting results of sir B. C. Brodie\'s researches \non graphite appeared in the International Exhi- \nbition of 1862. Fresh discoveries were made in the \nnearly exhausted Borrowdale mines, Cumberland, \nin 1875. \n\nGEAPHOSCOPE, an optical apparatus for \nmagnifying and giving fine effects to engravings, \nphotographs, &c, invented by C. J. Rowsell; ex- \nhibited in 187 1. \n\nGEAPHOTYPE, a new process for obtaining \nblocks for surface-printing, the invention of Mr. De \nWitt Clinton Hitchcock in 1S60. It was described \nby Mr. Fitz-Cook at the Society of Arts, 6 Dec. \n1865. Drawings were made on blocks of chalk with \na silicious ink ; when dried, the soft parts were \nbrushed away, and the drawing remained in relief ; \nstereotypes were then taken from the block. \n\nGEATES. The Anglo-Saxons had arched \nhearths, and chafing-dishes were in use until the \nintroduction of chimneys about 1200 ; see Chimneys \nand Stoves. \n\nGEATTAN\'S PAELIAMENT, a name \npopularly given to the Irish parliament, after it \nhad been declared independent, mainly by the exer- \ntions of Henry Grattan, by an act passed in Eng- \nland, May, 1782. It came to an end by the passing \nof the Act of Union, 2 July, 1800. In 1806, Grattan \nsaid of his parliament " I have a parental recollec- \ntion. I sat by her cradle ; I followed her hearse." \nGrattan strongly urged the passing of an act for \nCatholic emancipation till his death 4 June, 1820. \n\nG G 2 \n\n\n\nGRAVELINES. \n\n\n\n452 \n\n\n\nGREECE. \n\n\n\nGEAVELINES (N. France^. Here the \nSpaniards, aided by an English fleet, defeated the \nFrench on 13 July, 1558. \n\nGRAVELOTTE, Battle of, 18 Aug. 187c \nSee Metz. \n\nGRAVESEND, Kent (Domesday Graveshaf), \non the Thames ; burned by the French, 1380 ; \nchartered by Elizabeth, 1562 ; fortified, 1588 ; de- \nstructive fire, 24 Aug. 1727; has one M.P. by act \nof 1867. Population, 1881,23,302; 1891,24,067. \n\nGRAVITATION, as a supposed innate power, \nwas noticed by the Greeks, and also by Seneca, who \nspeaks of the moon attracting the waters, about 38. \nKepler investigated the subject about 1615, and \nHooke devised a system of gravitation about 1674. \nThe principles of gravity were demonstrated by \nGalilep at Florence, about 1633 ; but the great law \non this subject, laid down by Newton in his \n"Principia," in 1687, is said to have been proved by \nhim in 1670. The fall of an apple from a tree in 1666 \nis said to have directed his attention to the subject, \nNewton says, "I do not anywhere take on me to define \nthe kind or manner of any action, the causes or physi- \ncal reasons thereof, or attribute forces in a true and \nphysical sense to certain centres, when I speak of \nthem as attracting, or endued with attractive powers. " \nOn 15 July, 1867, M. Chasles laid before the Paris \nAcademy of Sciences some letters alleged to be from \nNewton to Pascal and others tending to show that to \nPascal was due the theory of gravitation. The authen- \nticity of these letters was authoritatively denied, and \ntheir forgery and his own delusion were acknowledged \nby M. Chasles before the academy 13 Sept. 1869. \n\nGREAT BETHEL, see Big Bethel. \n\nGREAT BRITAIN, the name given in 1604 \nto England, Wales, and Scotland {which see). \nKing James I. styled himself king of Great Britain, \n1604. See Population. " Greater Britain," the title \nof sir Charles Dilke\'s book, describing his travels in \nthe British colonies, published in 1868 ; 8th edition, \nJune 1885. \n\nGREAT BRITAIN, EASTERN, &c, see \n\nunder Steam. \xe2\x80\x94 The Eastern Counties Railway \nassumed the name of Great Eastern in 1862, \nwhen it was incorporated. The Great Northern \nRailway Company, an amalgamation, was incor- \nporated in 1846. Their station at King\'s-cross, \nLondon, was opened in Oct. 1852. \xe2\x80\x94 The Great \nWestern Railway opened as far as Maidenhead, \n4 June, 1838; as Twyford, 1 July, 1839; between \nLondon and Bristol, 30 June, 1841 ; was re-modelled \nby acts of 1867 and 1869. \n\nGREAT EXHIBITION, see Exhibition. \n\nGREAT PAUL, see Bells. \n\nGREAT SEAL of ENGLAND. The first \nseal used by Edward the Confessor was called the \nbroad seal, and affixed to the grants of the crown, \n1048. Baker\'s Chron. The most ancient seal with \narms on it is that of Richard I. James II., when \nfleeing from London in 1688, dropped the great seal \nin the Thames. The great seal of England was \nstolen from the house of lord chancellor Thurlow, \nin Great Ormond-street, and carried away, with \nother property, 24 March, 1784, a day before the \ndissolution of parliament ; it was never recovered, \nand was replaced the next day. A new seal was \nbrought into use on the union with Ireland, 1 Jan. \n1801. A new seal for Ireland was brought, into use \nand the old one defaced, 21 Jan. 1832. The Great \nSeal Offices Act, passed 7 Aug. 1874, abolished \ncertain offices, transferred duties, &c. The Great \nSeal Act passed, 2 Aug. 1880, relates to appoint- \nment of judges, patents, &c. \n\n\n\nGREECE, anciently termed Hellas. The \nname of Gratia first occurs in the writings of Aris- \ntotle (b.c. 384-322). Greece was so called from an, \nancient king, Greecus, and Hellas from another king, \nHellen, the son of Deucalion. From Hellen\'s sons, \nDorus and iEolus, came the Dorians and jEolians;- \nanother son Xuthus was father of Achseus and Ion, \nthe progenitors of the Achaeans and Ionians. \nHomer calls the inhabitants indifferently Myrmi- \ndons, Hellenes, and Achaians. They were also- \ntermed Danai, from Danaus, king of Argos, 1474 B.C. \nGreece anciently consisted of the peninsula of the \nPeloponnesus, Greece outside of the Peloponnesus,, \nThessaly, and the islands. The principal states of \nGreece were Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Thebes,. \nArcadia, and afterwards Macedon (all which see). \nThe limits of Modern Greece are much more con- \nfined. Greece became subject to the Turkish empire- \nin the 15th century. The population of the kingdom, \nestablished in 1829, 96,810; in 1861, 1,096,810, with \nthe Ionian isles (added in 1864), about 1,348,522; \nin 1870, 1,457,894; in 1879, 1,979,147; in 1889,, \n2,187,208. "The early history is mythic, and the \ndates purely conjectural. \n\nSicyon founded (Eusebius) . . . . B.C. 2089* \nUranus arrives in Greece (Lenglet) . . . 2042- \n\nRevolt of the Titans ; War of the Giants . . . * * \n\nInachus king of the Argives 1910 \n\nKingdom of Argos begun by Inachus (Eusebius) . 1856 \nReign of Ogyges iD Boeotia (Eusebius) . . . . 1796 \nSacrifices to the gods introduced by Phoroneus . 1773; \n\nSicyon now begun (Lenglet) , \n\nDeluge of Ogyges (which see) ^764 \n\nA colony of Arcadians emigrate to Italy under \nCEnotrus : the country first called (Enotria, \nafterwards Magna Grcecia (Eusebius) . . . 1710. \nThe Pelasgi hold the Peloponnesus 1700-1550 ; suc- \nceeded by the Hellenes .... isso-isoo \nChronology of the Arundelian marbles commences \n\n(Eusebius) 1582 \n\nCecrops arrives from Egypt . . .about i<y;o, \n\nThe Areopagus established 1 \xc2\xa7\xc2\xa34 \n\nDeluge of Deucalion (Eusebius) .... 1503 \n\nPanathencean games instituted 149S \n\nCadmus with the Phoenician letters settles in Boeotia, \n\nand founds Thebes .... about, 1493 \n\nLelex, first king of Laconia, afterwards called \n\nSparta 1490 \n\nDanaus said to have brought the first ship into \nGreece, and to have introduced pumps (see Argos) 1485, \n\nReign of Hellen (Evsebius) 1459 \n\nFirst Olympic games at Elis, by the Idcei Dactyli . 1453 \nWho are said to have discovered iron . . . 140& \n\nCorinth re-built and so named 1384 \n\nEleusinian mysteries instituted by Eumolpus (1356) \n\nand Isthmian games . 1326 \n\nKingdom of Mycense created out of Argos . . . 1313 \nPelops, from Lydia, settles in south Greece, \n(Peloponnesus) .... about 1283 \n\n\n\n1263, \n\n\n\n1225 \n1213- \n\n\n\n1 193 \n\n\n\nArgonautic expedition (which see) \n\nThe Pythian games begun by Adrastus \n\nWar of the seven Greek captains against Thebes \n\nThe Amazonian war . . ... \n\nRape of Helen by Theseus . ... \n\nRape of Helen by Paris \n\nCommencement of the Trojan war \n\nTroy taken and destroyed on the night of the 7th of \n\nthe month Thargelion (27th of May, or nth June) 1184 \njEneas said to arrive in Italy . . . about 1182. \nMigration of iEolians who build Smyrna, <fcc. . . 1123 \nReturn of the Heraclidas .... about 1 103: \nSettlement of the Ionians in Asia Minor . . 1044 \n\nThe Rhodians begin navigation laws . . . . 916 \n\nLycurgus flourishes 884 \n\nOlympic games revived at Elis, 884 ; the first \n\nOlympiad . 776"- \n\nThe Messenian wars 743-669 \n\nSea-fight, the first on record, between the Corin- \nthians and the inhabitants of Corcyra . . . 664 \n\nByzantium built 657 \n\nSeven sages of Greece (Solon, Periander, Pittacus, \n\nChilo, Thales, Cleobulus, and Bias) flourish, about 590. \nPersian conquests in Ionia 544, \n\n\n\nGREECE. \n\n\n\n453 \n\n\n\nGREECE. \n\n\n\n.Sybaris in Magna Graecia destroyed : 100,000 Cro- \n\ntonians under Milo defeat 300,000 Sybarites . . 508 \nSardis burnt by the Greeks, which occasions the \n\nPersian invasion, 504 ; Thrace and Macedonia \n\nconquered 496 \n\nAthens and Sparta resist the demands of the king \n\nof Persia 491 \n\nThe Persians defeated at Marathon . 28 Sept. 490 \nXerxes invades Greece, but is checked at Thermo- \npylae by Leonidas Aug. 480 \n\nBattle of Salamis (lohich see) ... 20 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nMardonius defeated and slain at Plataea ; Persian \n\nfleet destroyed at Myeale ... 22 Sept. 479 \n\nBattle of Eurymedon (end of Persian war) . . . 469 \n\nAthens begins to tyrannise over Greece . . . 459 \n\nThe sacred war begun 448 \n\n"War between Corinth and its colony Corcyra . . 435 \nLeads to the Peloponuesian war . . . 431-404 \nDisastrous Athenian expedition to Syracuse 415-413 \n\nRetreat of the 10,000 under Xenophon . . . 400 \n\nDeath of Socrates 399 \n\nThe sea-fight at Cnidus 394 \n\nThe peace of Antalcidas 387 \n\nRise and fall of the Theban power in Greece . 370-360 \n\nBattle of Mantinea ; death of Epaminondas . . 362 \n\nAmbitious designs of Philip of Macedon . . . 353 \nSacred wars ended by Philip, who takes all the \n\ncities of the Phoceaiis 346 \n\nAthens and allies declare war against Philip, 340 ; \n\nwho totally defeats them at Chserjnea {which see) 338 \n\nPhilip assassinated by Pausanias . . . . 336 \n\nAlexander, his son, subdues the Athenians, and \n\ndestroys Thebes \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAlexander conquers the Persian empire, 334-331 ; \n\ndies 323 \n\nGreece harassed by his successors ; the iEtolian and \n\nAchaian leagues revived 284-280 \n\nGreece invaded by the Gauls, 280 ; they are defeated \n\nat Delphi, 279 ; and expelled .... 277 \n\nDissensions lead to Roman intirvention . . . 200 \n.Macedon made a Roman province, after the defeat \n\nof the last king, Perseus, at Pydna . . . . 168 \n\xe2\x96\xa0Greece conquered by Mummius and made a Roman \n\nprovince 147-146 \n\nGreece visited and favoured by Augustus, 21 b.c. ; \n\nand by Hadrian a.d. 122-133 \n\nInvaded by Alaric 396 \n\nPlundered by the Normans of Sicily . ... 1146 \nConquered by the Latins, and subdivided into \n\nsmall governments 1204 \n\nThe Turks under Mahomet II. conquer Athens and \n\npart of Greece 1456 \n\nThe Venetians hold Athens and the Morea . . 1466 \nGreece mainly subject to the Turks . . . . 1540 \nThe Morea held by Venice, 1687 ; till taken by the \n\nTurks 1715 \n\nGreat struggle for independence with Russian help ; \n\n1770 et seq., fruitless insurrection of the Suliotes 1803 \nSecret Society, the Hetairia, established . . . 1815 \nInsurrection in Moldavia ami Wallachia, in which \n\nthe Greeks .join, suppressed 1821 \n\nProclamation of prince Alexander to shake off the \nTurkish yoke, March, 1821 ; he raised the stan- \ndard of the cross against the crescent and the \nwar of independence began . . 6 April, ,, \nThe Greek patriarch put to death at Constantinople \n\n23 April, ,, \nThe Morea gained by the Greeks . . June, ,, \nMissolonghi taken by Greeks . . . . Nov. ,, \nIndependence of Greece proclaimed . . 27 Jan. 1822 \nSiege of Corinth by the Turks . . . Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \nBombardment of Scio ; its capture ; most horrible \nmassacre recorded in modern history (see Chios) \n\n11 April, ,, \nThe Greeks victors at Thermopylae, &c. 13 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMassacre at Cyprus July, ,, \n\nCorinth taken 16 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNational congress at Argos . . .10 April, 1823 \nVictories of Marco Botzaris, June ; killed 10 Aug. ,, \nLord Byron lands in Greece to devote himself to its \n\ncause Aug. ,, \n\nFirst Greek loan Feb. 1824 \n\nDeath of lord Byron at Missolonghi . . 19 April, ,, \nDefeat of the capitan pacha, at Samos . 16 Aug. ,, \nProvisional government of Greece set up 12 Oct. ,, \nIbrahim Pacha lands, 25 Feb. ; takes Navarino, 23 \nMay ; Tripolitza . . . . 30 June, 1825 \n\n\n\nThe Greek fleet defeats the capitan pacha June, 1825 \nThe provisional government invite the protection \n\nof England July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nIbrahim Pacha takes Missolonghi by assault, after a \n\nlong and heroic defence . . . . 23 April, 1826 \n70,000?. raised in Europe for the Greeks . . . ,, \nRescind Pacha takes Athens . . .2 June, 1827 \nEgypto-Turkish fleet destroyed at Navarino, 20 Oct. ,, \nTreaty of London, between Great Britain, Russia, \n\nand France, on behalf of Greece, signed 6 July, ,, \nCount Capo d\'Istria president of Greece 18 Jan. 1828 \nThe Panhellenion or Grand Council of State estab- \nlished 2 Feb. ,, \n\nNational bank founded . . . .14 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nConvention of the viceroy of Egypt with sir Edward \nCodrington, for the evacuation of the Morea, and \ndelivery of captives .... 6 Aug. ,, \nPatras, Navarino, and Modon surrender to the \n\nFrench 6 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Turks evacuate the Morea . . . Oct. ,, \nMissolonghi surrendered to Greece . .16 May, 1829 \nGreek National Assembly commences its sittings \n\nat Argos 23 July, ,, \n\nThe Porte acknowledges the independence of \n\nGreece by the treaty of Adrianople . 14 Sept. ,, \nPrince Leopold declines the sovereignty 21 May, 1830 \nCount Capo d\'Istria, president of Greece, assas- \nsinated by the brother and son of Mavromichaelis, \na Mainote chief whom he had imprisoned, 9 Oct. 1831 \nThe assassins immured within close brick walls, \nbuilt around them up to their chins, and sup- \njilied with food until they died . . 29 Oct. ,, \nOtho of Bavaria made king of Greece by a conven- \ntion signed 7 May, 1832 \n\nColocotroni\'s conspiracy .... Sept. ,, \n\nHe is condemned but spared . . .7 June, 1834 \nOtho I. assumes the government . . 1 June, 1835 \nUniversity at Athens established, 1837 \'\xe2\x80\xa2 building \n\ncommenced 1839 \n\nA bloodless revolution at Athens is consummated, \nestablishing a new constitution, enforcing minis- \nterial responsibility and national representation, \n\n14 Sept. 1843 \nThe king accepts the new constitution 16 March, 1844 \nAdmiral Parker, in command of the British Medi- \nterranean fleet, blockades the harbour of the \nPiraeus, the Greek government having refused the \npayment of moneys due to British subjects, and \nto surrender the islands of Sapienza and Caprera, \n\n18 Jan. 1850 \nFrance interposes her good offices, and the blockade \n\nis discontinued 1 March, ,, \n\nNegotiations terminate, and the blockade of Athens \n\nis renewed 25 April, ,, \n\nDispute with France accommodated 21 June, ,, \n\nInsurrections against Turkey in Thessaly and Epi- \nrus, favoured by the Greek court, Jan. and Feb. ; \nlead to a rupture between Greece and Turkey, \n\n28 March, 1854 \n\nAfter many remonstrances, the English and French \n\ngovernments send troops which arrive at the \n\nPiraeus ; change of ministry ensues, and the king \n\npromises to observe a strict neutrality, 25, 26 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nA newspaper in the modern Greek language printed \n\nin London, beginning .... 9 July, i860 \nGreat Britain, France, and Russia remonstrate \nwith the Greek government respecting its debts, \n\n18 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nAgitation in the Ionian isles for annexation to \n\nGreece ; the parliament prorogued . . March, 1861 \nThe king retires to Bavaria .... July, ,, \nAttempted assassination of the queen by Darios, an \n\ninsane student 18 Sept. ,, \n\nGreat earthquake in the Peloponnesus . 26 Dec. ,, \nLeopold of Bavaria proposed as heir to the throne, \n\nJan. 1862 \nMilitary revolt begins at Nauplia . . 13 Feb. ,, \nBlockade of the coast decreed . . 9 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe insurgents demand reforms and a new succes- \nsion to the throne April, ,, \n\nThe royal troops enter the citadel of Nauplia ; in- \nsurgents removed .... 25 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \nChange of ministry : Colocotroni becomes premier, \n\n7 June, ,, \n\nInsurrection begins at Patras and Missolonghi, 17 \n\nOct. ; a provisional government, established at \n\nAthens, deposes the king, 23 Oct. ; he and the \n\nqueen flee ; arrive at Corfu, 27 Oct. ; the Euroj \n\n\n\nGEEECE. \n\n\n\n454 \n\n\n\nGEEECE. \n\n\n\npean powers neutral ; general submission to pro- \nvisional government . . . . 31 Oct. 1862 \n\nGreat demonstrations in favour of prince Alfred of \nGreat Britain, who is proclaimed king at Lamia \nin Phthiotis, 22 Nov. ; great excitement in his \nfavour at Athei s 23 Nov. ,, \n\nThe provisional government establish universal \nsuffrage .4 Dec. ,, \n\nThe national assembly meets at Athens . 22 Dec. ,, \n\nThe national assembly elects M. Balbis president, \n29 Jan. ; and declares prince Alfred king of \nGreece by 230,016 out of 241,202 votes 3 Feb. 1863 \n\nMilitary revolt of lieut. Canaris against Bulgaris \nand others, who resign, 20 Feb. ; a new ministry \nappointed under Balbis . . . .23 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe assembly decides to offer the crown to prince \nWilliam of Schleswig-Holstein, 18 March ; pro- \nclaim him as king George I. . .30 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nProtocol between the three protecting powers, \nFrance, England, and Russia, signed at London, \nconsenting to the offer of the crown on condition \nof the annexation of the Ionian isles to Greece, \n\n5 June, ,, \nThe king of Denmark accepts from the aged admiral \n\nCanaris the Greek crown for prince William, \nwhom he advises to adhere to the constitution \nand gain the love of his people . . 6 June ,, \nMilitary revolt at Athens, suppressed 30 June \xe2\x80\x94 \n\n9 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe king arrives at Athens, 30 Oct. ; takes the oath \n\nto the constitution 31 Oct. ,, \n\nThe Balbis ministry formed . . .28 April, 1864 \nProtocol annexing the Ionian isles to Greece, signed \nby M. Zaimis and sir H. Storks, 28 May ; the \nGreek troops occupy Corfu, 2 June ; the king \n\narrives there 6 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNew ministry under Canaris formed . 7 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe assembly recognises the debt of 1824 5 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAfter much delay, and a remonstrance from the king, \n\n19 Oct. a new constitution (with no upper-house) \n\nis passed by the assembly, 1 Nov. ; and accepted \n\nby the king 28 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNew ministry under Coumoundouros 29 March, ,, \nThe anniversary of the beginning of the war of inde- \npendence (6 April, 1821) kept with enthusiasm, \n\n6 April, ,, \nThe king visits the eastern provinces ; general \n\ntranquillity 20 April, ,, \n\nThe king opens chamber of deputies . 9 June, ,, \n\nDeath of Alexander Mavroeordato, one of the early \npatriots 18 Aug. ,, \n\nThe king gives up one-third of his civil list to re- \nlieve the treasury . . .25 Sept. ,, \n\nAn economical financial policy proposed ; a new \nministry formed Nov. ,, \n\nBrigandage prevails ; frequent ministerial changes \nunder Deligeorges, Coumoundouros, Bulgaris, and \nBoufos Oct. 1865\xe2\x80\x94 June, 1866 \n\nNew ministry under Bulgaris and Roufos, 23 Jan. ,, \n\nChambers vote payments to themselves ; suddenly \ndissolved by the king . . . .3 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGreat agitation in favour of the Cretan insurrection \n(see Candia) Aug. -Dee. ,, \n\nNew ministry headed by Coumoundouros . Jan. 1867 \n\nManifesto of the so-named "Greek nation," issued \nat Paris 19 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGreat sympathy with the insurrection in Candia ; \nthe blockade run by Greek vessels with volun- \nteers, arms, and provisions . . April, et seq. ,, \n\nMarriage of the king with the grandduchess Olga \nof Russia 27 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTheir cordial reception at Athens . . 24 Nov. ,, \n\nNew ministry under Moraitinis, 1 Jan. ; under Bul- \ngaris Feb. 1868 \n\nConstantine, duke of Sparta, heir to the crown, \nbom 2 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGreek vessel Enosis fires on Turkish vessels and \nenters port of Syra .... 14 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRupture between Turkey and Greece in conse- \nquence of Greek armed intervention in Candia \n(which see) Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAfter a conference of representatives of the Western \npowers at Paris, Jan., their requisitions were \naccepted, and diplomatic relations between \nTurkey and Greece resumed . . .26 Feb. 1869 \n\nPrince and princess of Wales visit Athens, 19 April, ,, \n\nLaw authorising the cutting the isthmus of Corinth \n\n..... 7 Nov. ,, \n\n\n\nNew ministry under M. Zaimis . 9 Jan. 1870 \n\nConcession to cut a canal through the isthmus of \n\nCorinth granted to a French company . April, \xe2\x80\x9e, \' \nLord and lady Muncasterand a party of English \ntravellers seized by brigands at Oropos, near \nMarathon ; lord Muncaster and the ladies sent to \ntreat ; 25,000!. demanded as ransom, with free \npardon 11 April, ,\xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe brigands retreating, and surrounded by troops, \nkill Mr. Vyner, Mr. Lloyd, Mr. Herbert, and the \ncount de Boyl . . . . . 21 April, ,,, \n\nGreat excitement ; the king shows great liberality ; \nbut many influential persons are charged with \nconnivance at brigandage . . May, June, ,* \n\nSeveral brigands killed ; seven captured, tried and \ncondemned, 23 May ; five executed . 20 June, , y \n\nA new ministry under M. Deligeorges . 19 July, ,, \n\nGreek college opened at Bayswater, London,W. 1 Oct. , p \n\nDecree for suppression of brigandage issued Oct. ,, \n\nTwo gentlemen carried off . . . 11 Oct. ,, \n\nA new ministry under M. Coumoundouros 22 Dec. ,, \n\nCoumoundouros ministry resigns . . 6 Nov. 187a \n\nSucceeded by Zaimis 8 Nov. ,, \n\nBulgaris minister, 7 Jan. ; resigns ; Deligeorges \nagain minister 26 July, 1872; \n\nThe Laurium mines of lead, zinc, &c, were pur- \nchased by MM. Roux and Serpieri and a company, \n1863 ; and worked profitably ; roads being made \nand a village built. The mines having been heavily \ntaxed and scoria? claimed by the government, \nloss ensued ; the company\'s offer to sell the mines \nto the government was accepted, but payment \nevaded by the legislature. Hence arose disputes \nwith France and Italy, and ministerial changes \nin Greece autumn, ,\xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSpeech of the king to the legislature, announcing \nformation of roads and other improvements. \n[The Laurium mines had been purchased by M. \nSyngros, a Greek capitalist, supported by the \nbanks] 25 Feb. 1873 \n\n52nd anniversary of Greek independence kept in \nLondon 5 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe university at Athens closed, through insubor- \ndination of the students . . . . Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNew cabinet under Bulgaris, 22 Feb. ; resigns, 27 \nApril ; resumes office ... 7 May, 18745. \n\nTricoupi minister, 8 May; dissolves chambers, 31 \nMay ; meet Aug. 1875, \n\nGreece neutral in regard to insurrection in the \nHerzegovina .... July\xe2\x80\x94 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe prince of Wales warmly received at Athens, \n\n18 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNew ministry under Coumoundouros, about 27 Oct. ,, \n\nSeveral ex-ministers fined for extortion from bishops \nand others on appointment . . . April, 1876 \n\nThe king and queen travelling in England in July ; \nat the Crystal palace .... 19 July \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGreece neutral in the Servian war . . July \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDeligeorges forms a ministry, 8 Dec. ; replaced by \nZaimis and Coumoundouros . . 10 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDeligeorges prime minister, 10 March \xe2\x80\x94 28 May ; \nsucceeded by a coalition ministry, 29 May ; re- \nformed under the aged Canaris . . 3 June, 1877 \n\nNational excitement for war allayed by the king, \n\n29 May, ,, \n\nDiscovery of relics at Spata near Athens ; tombs \ncontaining bones, precious metal ornaments, &c. \n(removed to Athens by M. Stamataki) about 1 July, ,, \n\nRevival of the Theban "sacred band," instituted \nby Epaminondas (to be ioco instead of 300) about \n\nJuly, , r \n\nDeath of the aged Canaris, 1 4 Sept. ; the king takes \nhis place as president ... 14 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBritish and Turkish governments remonstrate with \nGreece for apparently arming against Turkey, \n\nSept., Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDeath of Bulgaris, statesman, about . 10 Jan. 1878? \n\nNew ministry under Coumoundouros . . 23 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nInsurrection in Thessaly against Turks, 28 Jan. ; \n10,000 Greeks enter the country, retire at the \narmistice early in Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nInsurrection struggling ; battles at Maerinitza, 28, 29 \nMarch ; Mr. C. Ogle, Times correspondent, killed \nby Turks (investigation led to no result) 29 March, ,,, \n\nInsurrection closed through British intervention ; \nannounced 6 May, ;> \n\nGreece disappointed by the Berlin treaty, 13 July : \n\n\n\nGEEECE. \n\n\n\n455 \n\n\n\nGEEEK CHUECH. \n\n\n\nrectification of the frontiers by the sultan, pro- \nposed about 24 July, 1878 \n\nSafvet Pacha\'s despatch resisting the claims for \n\nGreece 8 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNew ministry under Tricoupis . . -31 Oct. ,, \nDefeated in assembly, 4 Nov. ; Coumoundouros \n\nforms a ministry 7-10 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRecruiting law for the army (all men between 21 \n\nand 40 liable) Nov. ,, \n\nDeath of Deligeorges, late minister . . 26 May, 1879 \nMonument of Mr. Ogle set up at Athens . Aug. ,, \nRecruiting law came into force . . .1 Jan. 1880 \nCrisis ; Coumoundouros remains . . 28 Jan. ,, \nTricoupis ministry formed . . 22 March, ,, \n\nBerlin conference to propose settlement of the \n\nTurkish and Greek frontiers, meets . 16 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe king visits England ; receives freedom of Lon- \ndon, 16 June ; leaves .... 5 July, ,, \nOrder for mobilisation of the army signed, 5 Aug. ,, \nThe king and queen arrive at Athens after a long \nEuropean torn - ; national feeling warlike ; Thes- \nsaly and Epirus demanded . . .17 Oct. ,, \nKing\'s speech opening parliament ; moderate and \n\nfirm 21 Oct. ,, \n\nTricoupis ministry defeated ; resigns . 22 Oct. ,, \nCoumoundouros forms a ministry . . 25 Oct. ,, \nMuch discussion with negotiations respecting \nGreek and Turkish frontiers, (see Turkey), \n\nOct. 1880\xe2\x80\x94 May, 1881 \nConvention between Turkey and Greece agreed to \nat Constantinople ; Thessaly ceded to Greece, \n\n24 May ; signed 2 July, ,, \n\nCarried into effect ; Greek flag raised in Arta, 6 July, ,, \nThe parliament dissolved by the king . 4 Nov. ,, \nNew ministry under Tricoupis . . 15 March, 1882 \nCutting of the Isthmus of Corinth begun (see \n\nCorinth) 5 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFrontier disputes in Thessaly, between Greeks and \nTurks, at Navantyk, near Derbend, Bosnia, \n\nabout 26 Aug. ,, \n\nSettlement 9 Nov. ,, \n\nDeath of the statesman Coumoundouros, much \n\nlamented 9 March, 1883 \n\nImproved finances ; good budget, announced March, 1884 \nTricoupis ministry resigns, 17 Feb. ; M. Delyannis \nunsuccessful ; M. Tricoupis resumes office \n\n21 Feb. 1885 \n\nChamber dissolved 23 Feb. ,, \n\nRailway between Athens and Corinth opened \n\n15 April, ,, \nTricoupis ministry resigns through minority in \nelections about 20 April ; Delyannis ministry \n\nformed 1 May, ,, \n\nEnthusiastic military movements consequent upon \n\nthe coitp d\'etat in Roumelia . . . Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nVote for loan of 1,200,000/. ... 7 Nov. ,, \nIncreased warlike demonstration ; British inter- \nvention supported by the great powers, about \n23 Jan. ; foreign ironclads sent to Suda bay, \n\nCrete 30 Jan. et s&i. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGreat discovery of statuary, &c, near the Acropolis, \n\nAthens ,, \n\nNational fete to commemorate declaration of inde- \npendence in 1821, 6 April, 1884, and . 6 April, 1886 \nProposed loan of about 800, oool. to raise the army \nfrom 85,000 to 1 10,000, about 14 April ; and calling \n\nout of reserves 19 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nUltimatum of the powers calling upon Greece to \ndisarm, delivered 26 April; special intervention \nof the French minister, about 26 April ; inadequate \n\nreply of Greece 30 April, ,, \n\nThe British, Austrian, German, and Italian \n\nambassadors leave Athens ... 7 May, ,, \nGreek troops sent to the front . . 7-8 May, ,, \nBlockade of Greek ports notified and enforced, \n\n8 May, ,, \nResignation of M. Delyannis, 9 May ; M. Tricoupis \ndeclines to form a ministry, 10 May ; M. \nPapamichalopoulos also declines, n May ; pro- \nvisional one formed by M. Yalvis, 12 May ; \nsucceeded by M. Tricoupis . . 20 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe king signs a decree for disarmament, 24 May, \n\nannounced to the powers . . . 1 June ,, \nFighting at the outposts near Nezeres ; the origin \nuncertain ; 20-21 May ; about 200 killed and \nwounded ; armistice agreed on, 24 May ; formal \ndeclaration of the raising of the blockade 7 June ,, \nGreat electoral reform bill passed 17 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nNew chamber opened .... 3 Feb. 1887 \n\nThe 100th anniversary of the birth of Lord Byron, \ncelebrated at the Greek church, Bayswater, \nLondon, W 22 Jan. 1888 \n\nThe king returns to Athens after a foreign tour \n\n- 8 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCelebration of the 25th anniversary of the king\'s \naccession . \xe2\x80\xa2 31 Oct. ,, \n\nNational industrial exhibition at Athens opened by \nthe king 1 Nov. ,, \n\nMarriage of the princess Alexandra and the arch- \nduke Paul of Russia .... 17 June, 1889 \n\nThe king visits Paris . . . .22 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMarriage of the duke of Sparta and the princess \nSophie of Prussia, at Athens, in the presence of \nthe empress Frederick (her mother), the king \nand queen of Greece (his parents) ; the king and \nqueen of Denmark, the German emperor and \nempress, the prince and princess of Wales, the \nCzare witch of Russia, and other relatives, 27 Oct. ,, \n\nPrince Albert Victor of Wales at Athens, \n\n17 April, et seq. 1890- \n\nFormation of a " Young Greek party" at Athens, \nleader M. Ralli Aug. ,, \n\nStatues, &c, supposed to be the work of Phidias, \nat Rhamnus in Attica ; discovered during ex- \ncavations made for the Archaeological School of \nAthens; reported .9 c * i " " \n\nElections ; great majority for the opposition, \n\n26 Oct. ,, \n\nM. Tricoupis resigns, 28 Oct. ; M. Delyannis forms \na ministry, 3 Nov. ; the new chamber opened by \nthe king 10 Nov. ,, \n\nBy an avalanche near Trikkala, 25 persons are \nkilled 29 Jan. 1891 \n\nSeventieth anniversary of Greek Independence, \ncelebrated 6 April, \xe2\x80\x9eJ \n\nDeath of the grandduchess Paul (see abore, 1889), \n\n25 Sept. ,, \n\nA commission exonerates M. Tricoupis from charges \nagainst him, about .... 27 Dec. ,,. \n\nMr. Egerton, appointed British minister at Athens, \nin succession to the Hon. sir Edmund J. Monson, \nabout 21 Jan. 1892- \n\nA fanatical mob attack and destroy the new Pro- \ntestant church at the Piraeus and ill-use the \nministers and congregation ; the riots suppressed \n\nby the military 14 Feb. ,, \n\nThe proposed impeachment of M. Tricoupis \n\ndropped by the government . . .22 Feb. ,, \nThe king, for financial reasons, dismisses M. Del- \nyannis ; a new ministry formed by M. Constan- \ntopoulo, 1 March ; the king is supported by the \nparliament, large retrenchments to be made, \n\n5 March, , r \nDissolution of the chamber, 25 March ; new \nchamber elected ; majority for M Tricoupis, 15 \nMay ; he forms a new ministry . 22 June, ,, \n\nKINGS OF GREECE. \n\n1832. Otho I., prince of Bavaria; born, 1 June, 1815 ; \nelected king, 7 May, 1832 ; under a regency till \n1 June, 1835 ; married, 22 Nov. 1836, to Maria \nFrederica, daughter of the grand-duke of Olden- \nburg ; deposed, 23 Oct. 1862 ; died in Bavaria, 26. \nJuly, 1867. \n1863. George I. (son of Christian IX. of Denmark), king.- \nof the Hellenes ; born 24 Dec. 1845 ; made king 5 \nJune, takes the oath 31 Oct. 1863 ; declared of age, \n27 June, 1863 ; married grand-duchess Olga of \nRussia, 27 Oct. 1867. \nHeir: Coustantine. duke of Sparta, born 2 Aug. 1S68 : \nmarried to the princess Sophie of Prussia, 27 Oct., 1889. \nHeir, George, born 19 July, 1890. \n\nGEEEK AECHITECTUEE, see Architec- \nture. \n\nGEEEK CHUECH, or Eastern church, \nestablished in Russia and Greece, disowns the \nsupremacy of the pope, and is strongly opposed to \nmany of the doctrines and practices of the Roman \nchurch. The Greek orthodox confession of faith \nappeared in 1643 ; see Fathers of the Church. This \nchurch, in 1876, had 279 dignitaries, under the \npatriarch of Constantinople ; 136 bishops, 66 in \nRussia, 24 in Greece, 15 in Jerusalem, II in \nAustria, &c. \n\n\n\nGEEEK EMPIRE. \n\n\n\n456 \n\n\n\nGREENLAND. \n\n\n\nCatechetical school at Alexandria (Origen, Clemens, \n\n&c.) 180-254 \n\nRise of monachism about 300 \n\nFoundation of the churches of Armenia, about 300 ; \n\nof Georgia or Iberia 318 \n\nFirst council of Nice (see Councils) .... 325 \nRivalry between Rome and Constantinople begins \n\nabout 340 \n"Dlphilas preaches to the Goths . . . about 376 \nNestorius condemned at the council of Ephesus . 431 \nMonophysite controversy ; churches of Egypt, \nSyria, and Armenia, separate from the church of \n\nConstantinople 461 \n\nClose of the school of Athens ; extinction of the \n\nPlatonic theology 529 \n\nThe Jacobite sect established in Syria by Jacobus \n\nBaradseus . 541 \n\nThe struggle with the Mahometans begins . . 634 \nThe Maronite sect begins to x>revail . about 676 \nThe Paulicians severely persecuted . . . . 690 \nIconoclastic controversy begins . . about 726 \n\nPope Gregory II. excommunicates the emperor Leo, \nwhich leads to the separation of the Eastern \n(Greek) and Western (Roman) churches . . . 729 \n\nImage worship condemned 734 \n\nFoundation of the church in Russia : conversion of \n\nprincess Olga, 955 ; of Vladimir . . . . 988 \nThe Maronites join the Roman church . . . 1182 \nRe-union of Eastern and Western churches at the \n\ncouncil of Lyons, 1274 ; again separated . . . 1277 \nProposed union with the Church of England . . 1723 \nThe patriarchate of Moscow established, 1582 ; sup- \npressed in 1762 \n\nSuccessful drainage of lake Topolias (the ancient \nCephissis and Copais), much land reclaimed and \ndisease prevented .... t88i et seq. \nThe archimandrite Nilos, representing Constanti- \nnople and 4 patriarchates, visits London on be- \nhalf of the Greek clergy in the Danubian princi- \npalities 1863 \n\nThe pope\'s invitation to an oecumenical council, 8 \nDec. 1869, firmly declined by the patriarch of \n\nConstantinople about 3 Oct. 1868 \n\nLetter from the patriarch Gregory to the archbishop \nof Canterbury acknowledging receipt of English \nprayer-book, and objecting to some of "39 \n\nArticles," dated 8 Oct. 1869 \n\nGreek church at Liverpool consecrated by an arch- \nbishop 16 Jan. 1870 \n\nA new church of S. Sophia consecrated by the arch- \nbishop of Corfu 5 Feb. 1882 \n\nPolitical reforms in Turkey affect privileges of the \nGreek church ; see Turkey, 1883 ; new patriarch \nJoachim IV. (archbishop of Dercos) not elected \ntill 13 Oct.; ratified by the Porte 18 Oct. 1884; \n\nresigns Nov. 1886 \n\nDionysius, bishop of Adrianople, elected patriarch \n\n4 Feb. 1887 \nHe resigns through disapproval of the appointment \nof Bulgarian bishops in Macedonia by the \nTurkish government, about 5 Aug. ; after fruit- \nless negotiations, the Oecumenical Synod orders \nthe closure of a\'l the orthodox churches in \nTurkey, 15 Oct. ; the sultan renews and defines \nformer rights and privileges granted to the \nchurch, about 25 Oct. ; this not accepted by \nthe synod, 27 Oct. ; churches generally con- \ntinued closed Nov. 1890 \n\nDecision of the Turkish government respecting \nvarious disputed points, issued 2 Dec. 1890 ; \nthe disputes ended ; the patriarch remains, the \nchurches re-opened .... 6 Jan. 1891 \n\nNeophytos, archbishop of Nikopolis, elected pa- \ntriarch in succession to Dionysius V. 8 Nov. ,, \n\nGREEK EMPIRE, see Eastern Empire. \n\nGREEK FIRE, a combustible composition \n(now unknown, but thought to have been princi- \npally naphtha), thrown from engines, said to have \nbeen invented by Callinicus, an engineer of Helio- \npolis, in Syria, in the 7th century, to destroy the \nSaracens\' ships, which was effected by the general \nof the fleet of Constantine Fogonatus, and 30,000 \nmen were killed. A so-called "Greek fire, pro- \nbably a solution of phosphorus in bi-sulphide of \n\n\n\ncarbon, was employed at the siege of Charleston, \nU.S., in Sept. 1863. \n\nGREEK LANGUAGE. The study was re- \nvived in western Europe about 1450; in France, \n1473; William Grocjn, or Grokeyn, an English \nprulessor of this language, introduced it at Oxford, \nabout 1491, where he taught Erasmus, who himself \ntaught it at Cambridge in 1510. Wood\' s Athen. \nOxon. England has produced many eminent Greek \nscholars, of whom may be mentioned Richard Bent- \nley, died 1742 ; professor Richard Porson, died 1808; \nDr. Samuel Parr, died 1825 ; and Dr. Charles \nBurner, died 1817. " Society for promoting Helle- \nnic Studies,\'\' formed 16 June, 1879. Modem Greek \nliterature is now cultivated. See Aristotelian and \nEgyptian Exploration. \nHomer flourished . . . . about B.C. 962-927 \n\nHesiod about 850 \n\niEsop . 572 \n\nAuacreon about 559 \n\njEschylus 525-456 \n\nHerodotus about 443 \n\nPindar 522-439 \n\nAristophanes 427 \n\nEuripides 480-406 \n\nSophocles 495-405 \n\nThucydides 470-404 \n\nXenophon 443"359 \n\nPlato 429-347 \n\nIsocrates 436-338 \n\nAristotle . 384-322 \n\nDemosthenes 382-322 \n\nMenander about 321 \n\njEschines 389-314 \n\nTheocritus about 272 \n\nEpicurus 342-270 \n\nTlieophrastus 287 \n\nArchimedes . 287-212 \n\nPolybius 207-122 \n\nDiodorus B.C. 50\xe2\x80\x94 a. d. 13 \n\nStrabo 10 \n\nDionysius Halicarnassus .... about 30 \n\nPlutarch about 96 \n\nEjiictetus about 118 \n\nAppian . . . . . . about 147 \n\nA man . . . \'. . . . about 148 \n\nAthenasus about 194 \n\nLucian . about 120-200 \n\nHerodian about 204 \n\nLouginus dies 273 \n\nJulian, emperor 33J-363 \n\n(See Fathers, and Philosophy.) \n\nGREENBACKS, a name given, from the \npredominating colour of the ink, to notes, for a \ndollar and upwards, first issued by the United \nStates government, in 1862. Notes for lower sums \n(oven 3 cents) w r ere termed "fractional currency." \nFor Greenbachers see United States, 1878. \n\nGREEN-BAG INQUIRY took its name \nfrom a Green Bag, full of documents of alleged \nseditions, laid before parliament by lord Sidmouth, \n3 Feb. 1817. Secret committees presented their \nreports, 19 Feb. ; and bills were brought in on the \n21st to suspend the Habeas Corpus act, and prohibit \nseditious meetings then frequent. \n\nGREEN CLOTH, BOARD OF, in the depart- \nment of the lord-steward of the household, included \nan ancientcourt(abolished in 1849), with jurisdiction \nof all offences committed in the verge of the court. \n\nGREENLAND, an extensive Danish colony \nin North America, discovered by Icelanders, under \nEric Raude, about 980, and named from its verdure. \nIt was visited by Frobisher in 1576, and by Jobn \nDavis, 1585. The first t-hip from England to Green- \nland was sent for the whale-fishery by the Muscovy \ncompany, 2 James I. 1604. In a voyage performed \nin 1630, eight men were left behind by accident, \nwho suffered inn edible hardships till the following \n\n\n\nGREENOCK. \n\n\n\n457 GRENVILLE ADMINISTRATIONS. \n\n\n\nyear, when the company\'s ships brought them home. \nTindal. The Greenland Fishing company was in- \ncorporated in 1693. \xe2\x80\x94 Hans Egede, a Danish mission- \nary, founded a new colony, called Godhaab, or Good \nHope, in 1720-3 ; and other missionary stations have \nbeen since established. Scoresby surveyed Greenland \nin 1821 ; and captain Graah, by order of the king of \nDenmark, in 1829-30. Population in 1878, about \n9408; in 1888, 10,221. Nordenskjold and others \nadvanced into the interior, and found nothing but \nmountainous ice and snow, July-Sept. 1883. \n\nDr. Pridtjof Nansen, Mr. Sverdrup, and two other \nNorwegians and two Lapps wearing snow shoes crossed \nGreenland from E. to W., amid great hardships, 17 July \net seq. 1888, and arrived at Copenhagen, 21 May, 1889. \nImportant results to be published. \n\nDr. Nansen described his journey across Greenland at a \nmeeting of the Royal Geographical society, 24 June, \n1889. \n\nHis first crossing of Greenland was published in Dec. \n1890. \n\nGREENOCK (W. Scotland). Charters were \ngranted, in 1635 to John Shaw, and 1670 to his \nson sir John, of the barony of Greenock. It was a \nfishing station till 1697, when the Scottish Indian \nand African company resolved to erect salt-works \nin the Frith, and thus drew the aitention of sir \nJohn Shaw, its superior, to its maritime advan- \ntages. It was made a burgh of barony in 1757, \nand a parliamentary burgh in 1832. The erection \not the new quay was entrusted, about 1773, to James \nWatt, who was born here in 1736. The East India \nharbour was built 1805-19, and Victoria harbour \n1846-50. James Watt docks opened by provost \nShankland, 5 Aug. 1886. End of strike of iron \nshipbuilders {8 weeks), 24 Aug. 1891. Population, \n1891, 63,498. \n\nGREEN PARK (near Buckingham palace, \nLondon) forms a part of the ground enclosed by \nHenry VIII. in 1530, and is united to St. James\'s \nand Hyde-parks by the road named Constitution- \nhill. Over the arch at the entrance, the Wellington \nstatue was placed in 1846. On the north side was \na reservoir of the Chelsea water-works, rilled up in \n1856. \n\nGREENWICH (Kent), anciently Grenawic, \nan ancient manor, near which the Danes murdered \nthe archbishop Elphege, 1012. The Hospital \nstands on the site of a royal residence erected in the \nreign of Edward I. and "mu-h enlarged by his suc- \ncessors. Here were born Henry VIII., his daugh- \nters Mary and Elizabeth, and here his son Edward \nVI. died. Charles II. intended to build a new \npalace here, but. erected one wing only. Greenwich \nreturns one M.P. by act of 1885. Population, 18S1, \n131,233; 1891, 134,184. \n\nWilliam III. and Mary converted the palace into a \nRoyal hospital for seamen, 1694, and added new \n\nbuildings, erected by Wren 1696 \n\n100 disabled seamen admitted 1705 \n\nThe estates of the attainted earl of Derwentwater \n\n(beheaded in 1716) bestowed upon it . 1735 \n\nA charter granted to the commissioners 6 Dec. 1775 \n\nThe chapel, the great dining-hall, and a large portion \nof the buildings appropriated to the pensioners \n\ndestroyed by lire 2 Jan. 1779 \n\nThe chapel rebuilt 1789 \n\nSixpence per month to be contributed by every sea- \nman ; the payment advanced to one shilling, from \n\nJune, 1797 \nThe payment abolished in 1829, and that of "the \n\nmerchant seamen\'s " sixpence also in . . . 1834 \nThe hospital had lodging for 2710 seamen and a \n\nrevenue of about 1 50,000^. per annum . . . 1853 \nGreenwich Fair was discontinued . . April, 1857 \nThe office of the commissioners was abolished . . 1865 \nReported annual income, 155, 532Z., 1867 ; income \n168,305^., 1887-8. \n\n\n\nBy an act of parliament, about 900 indoor pensioners \nreceived additions to their pensions, quitted the \nhospital, 1 Oct. 1865 ; henceforth to be used as an \ninfirmary. All the remaining inmates, except 31 \nbedridden persons, had left the place . 1 Oct. 1869 \n\nThe patients of the Dreadnought seamen\'s hospital \nremoved here 13 April, 1870 \n\nActs for the application of the revenues were passed \n\nin 1869-1872 \n\nAmended by act passed 1883. \n\nA part of the buildings appropriated for a naval col- \nlege, opened 1 Feb. 1873 \n\nGreenwich Royal Hospital Schools (on the industrial \nplan), opened under the auspices of Mr. Childers, 1870 \n\nConstruction of great steam-ship ferry (on the \nAmerican system) over the Thames, authorised \nby the commons ; formally opened . 13 Feb. 1888 \n\nGREENWICH OBSERVATORY, built at \nthe S\'dicitation of sir Jonas Moore and sir Christo- \npher Wren, by Charles II., on the summit of Flam- \nsteed-hill, so called from the first astronomer-royal. \nThe building was founded, 10 Aug. 1675, and Flam- \nsteed commenced his residence, 10 July, 1676. In \n1852, an electric telegraph signal ball in the Strand \nwas completed, and put in connection with Green- \nwich observatory. Greenwich recommended as the \nuniversal meridian by the Geodetic Congress at \nRome, Oct. 1883, and at an international conference \nat Washington, 13 Oct. 1884. Telegraphic com- \nmunication completed between Greenwich and \nM\'Gill college observatory, Montreal, 1890. \n\nASTRONOMERS-ROYAL. \n\nJohn Flamsteed 1675 \n\nEdmund Halley 1719 \n\nJames Bradley 1742 \n\nNathaniel Bliss 1762 \n\nNevil Maskelyne 1765 \n\nJohn Pond 1811 \n\nGeorge Biddell Airy (knt. 1872) .... 1835 \n\n(Under whose superintendence the apparatus was \ngreatly increased and improved ; he died, 2 Jan. 1892.) \nWm. Henry Mahoney Christie . . . Aug. 1881 \n\nGREGORIAN CALENDAR, see Calendar, \nand New Style. \xe2\x80\x94 Gkegokian Chant received its \nname from pope Gregory I., who is siid to have \nimproved the Ambrosian chant, about 590. See \nChanting. \n\nGregorian Modes, musical scales as set in order by pope \nGregory the Great about 590. On these the ritual \nmusic of the western churches is founded. \n\nGRENADA, a West India island, discovered \nby Columbus in 1498 ; settled by the French, 1650; \ncaptured by the British, 5 April, 1762 ; re-taken by \nthe French, July, 1779 ; given up by them by treaty \nof Versailles, 3 Sept. 1783. Population in 1891, \n53,209. See Granada, New Granada, and Wind- \nward Isles. \n\nGRENADE, an explosive missile, so named \nfrom yranada, Spanish, invented in 1594. It is a \nsmall hollow globe, or ball, of iron, about two \ninches in diameter, which is tilled with tine powder, \nand set on tire by a fusee at a touchhole. \n\nGRENADIERS. The Grenadier corps was a \ncompany armed with a pouch of hand-grenades, \nestablished in France in 1667 ; and in England in \n1685. Brown. See Guards and Army, 1890. \n\nGRENELLE, see Artesian Wells. \n\nGRENOBLE (the Roman GratianopolU), \nS.E. France. Here Napoleon was received on his \nreturn from Elba, 8 March, 1815, and here he issued \nthree decrees. \n\nGRENVILLE ADMINISTRATIONS. \n\nThe first succeeded the Bute administration, 8 April, \n1763 ; and resigned in July, 1765. \n\n\n\nGEESHAM COLLEGE. \n\n\n\n458 \n\n\n\nGEISONS. \n\n\n\nGeorge Grenville (born 1712, died 1770), first lord of the \n\ntreasury and chancellor of the exchequer. \nEarl Granville (succeeded by the duke of Bedford), lord \n\n\n\nDuke of Marlborough, privy seal. \n\nEarls of Halifax and Sandwich, secretaries of state. \n\nEarl Gower, lord chamberlain. \n\nEarl of Egmont, admiralty. \n\nMarquis of Granby, ordnoMce. \n\nLord Holland (late Mr. Fox), -paymaster. \n\nWelbore Ellis, secretary-at-war. \n\nViscount Harrington, treasurer of the navy. \n\nLord Hillsborough, first lord of trade. \n\nLord Henley (afterwards earl of Northington), lord chan- \ncellor. \n\nDuke of Rutland, lords North, Trevor, Hyde, <&c. \n\nSecond Grenville administration, formed after the \ndeath of Mr. Pitt, on 23 Jan. 1806. From the ability \nof many of its members, their friends said it contained \n" all the talents, wisdom, and ability of the country," a \nterm applied to it derisively by its opponents. The \ndeath of Mr. Fox, 13 Sept. 1806, led to changes, and \neventually the cabinet resigned, 25 March, 1807 : \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x96\xa0 \n\nLord Grenville, first lord of the treasury. \n\nLord Henry Petty (afterwards marquis of Lansdowne), \nchancellor of the exchequer. \n\nEarl Fitzwilliam, lord president. \n\nViscount Sidmouth (late Mr. Addington), privy seal. \n\nCharles James Fox, foreign secretary. \n\nEarl Spencer, home secretary. \n\nWilliam Windham, colonial secretary. \n\nLord Erskine, lord chancellor. \n\nSir Charles Grey (afterwards viscount Howick and earl \nGrey), admiralty. \n\nLord Minto, board of control. \n\nLord Auckland, board of trade. \n\nLord Moira, master general of the ordnance. \n\nft. B. Sheridan, treasurer of the navy. \n\nRichard Fitzpatrick, &c. \n\nLord Ellenborough ( lord chief justice) had a seat in the \ncabinet. \n\nGEESHAM COLLEGE (London), esta- \nblished by sir Thomas Gresham in 1575, founder of \nthe Royal Exchange. He left a portion of his pro- \nperty in trust to the city and the Mercers\' company \nto endow this college for lectures in divinity, astro- \nnomy, music, geometry, civil law, physic, and \nrhetoric ; he died 21 Nov. 1579. The lectures \ncommenced in Gresham\'s house, near Broad-street, \nJune, 1597 (where the founders of the Royal Society \nfirst met in 1645). \'I he buildings were pulled down \nin 1768, and the Excise office erected on its site, \nthe property having been acquired by the crown \nfor an annuity of 500^. The lectures were then \nread in a room over the Royal Exchange for many \nyears. On the rebuilding of the exchange, the \nGresham committee erected the present building in \nBasinghall-street, which was designed by G. bmith, \nand opened for lectures. 2 Nov. 1843. It costabo-v e \n70002. In 1871 the college acquired a valuable col- \nlection of books and pictures, bequeathed by Mrs. \nIlollier. Changes respecting the lectures were \nadvocated in 1875, and some made in 1876. \nThe amalgamation of the university teaching ex- \ntension society advocated by Mr. Goschen, 15 Oct. 1888 \nThe proposal to make the college a teaching uni- \nversity for London was referred to a royal com- \nmission, March. Earl Cowper, chairman ; first \nmeeting . ..... 30 June, 1892 \n\nGEETNA GEEEN (Dumfries, S. Scotland, \nnear the boroer). Here runaway marriages were \ncontracted for many years, as Scotch law ruled that \nan acknowledgment before witnesses made a legal \nmarriage. John Paisley, a tobacconist, and termed \na blacksmith, who officiated from 1 760, died in 1814. \nHis first residence was at Megg\'s Hill, on the com- \nmon or green betwixt Gretna and Springfield, to \nthe last of which villages he removed in 1782. A man \nnamed Elliot was afterwards the principal officiating \nperson. The General Assembly, in 1826, in vain \n\n\n\nattempted to suppress this system ; but an act of \nparliament, passed in 1856, made these marriages \nillegal after that year, unless one of the persons \nmarried had lived in Scotland 21 days. \n\nGEEY ADMINISTRATION succeeded the \nWellington administration, which resigned 16 Nov. \n1830. It carried the Parliamentary and Corporation \nReform Acts {which see), and terminated 9 July, \n1834. \n\nEarl Grey,* first lord of the. treasury. \nLord Brougham, lord chancellor. \nViscount Althorpe, chancellor of the exchequer. \nMarquis of Lansdowne, president of the council. \nEarl of Durham, privy seal. \nViscounts Melbourne, Palmerston, and Goderich, home, \n\nforeign, and colonial secretaries. \nSir James Graham, admiralty. \nLord Auckland and Mr. Charles Grant (afterwards, 183c, \n\nlord Glenelg), boards of trade and control. \nLord Holland, cJiancellor of duchy of Lancaster. \nLord John Russell, paymaster of the forces. \nDuke of Richmond, earl of Carlisle, Mr. Wynne, &c. \nE. G. Stanley (afterwards earl of Derby), chief secretary \n\nfor Ireland, became colonial secretary, March, 1833. \n\nGEEY COAT HOSPITAL, Westminster, \nfounded (for girls) 1698 ; reconstituted 1873. \n\nGEEY FEIAES, see Christ\'s Hospital. \nGEEYTOWN, see Mosquito Coast. \n\nGEIFFITH\'S VALUATION of land in \nIreland; that calculated by Mr., afterwards sir \nRichard Griffith (appointed commissioner in 1828) \nand published about 1850 ; 4th edition, 1855 ; \nmuch discussed, 1880- 1. \n\nGEIMM\'S LAW of the transmutation of \nconsonants in the Aryan family of languages ; pro- \npounded by Jacob L. Grimm in his " History of \nthe German Languages," in 1848. \n\nLabials. Dentals. Gutturals \nGreek, Latin, Sanskrit p b f it d th k g ch \nGothic . . . . / p b \\ th t d k \n\nOld High German . . b (v) f p\\ d z t g ch k \nExamples : Sanskrit, pitri ; Greek and Latin, pater ; \nItalian, padre; Spanish, padre; French, pere; Gothic, \nfadrein (pi.); Old High German, vatar ; English, father. \n\nGEIQUALAND WEST and EAST, two dis- \ntricts in British South Africa, containing diamond \nfields. The first diamond was discovered in West \nGriqualand in March, 1867, and caused a great in- \nflux of immigrants from all nations, and the forma- \ntion of many settlements. Diamonds to the value \nof 12,000,000^. were found there between 1S71 and \n1880, and about 15,000,000/. between 1883 and 1887. \nThe district was annexed to Cape Colony 27 Oct. \n1871, and incorporated with it in 1880. Kimberley, \nthe capital, was founded in 1871; population in \n1890, about 6,000 Europeans and 10,000 natives. \nGinauALAND East, between the Kaffir border and. \nSouthern Ratal, was annexed to Cape Colony in \n1875 ; population in 1888, 98,000. \nBy a tremendous explosion of stored dynamite near \n\nKimberley, only two men were killed . Jan. 1884 \nKimberley was the site of the South African and \n\nInternational Exhibition, Opened by sir H. B. \n\nLoch 8 Sept. iSq2 \n\nGEISONS, a Swiss canton ; see Caddee. It \nwas overrun by the French in 1798 and 1799. The \nancient league was abolished, and the Grisons be- \ncame a member of the Helvetic confederation, 19 \nFeb. 1803. \n\n* Born 13 March, 1764 ; M.P. , as Charles Grey, in 1786 ; \nfirst lord of the admiralty and afterwards foreign secre- \ntary in 1S06 ; resigned in 1806 on account of his favouring \nRoman Catholic emancipation ; died 17 July, 1845. \n\n\n\nGEISSELL CASE. \n\n\n\n459 \n\n\n\nGUATEMALA. \n\n\n\nGEISSELL CASE, see Parliament, 1879-80. \n\nGRIST-TAX (imposta sul macinato). Prin- \nciple of the tax adopted by the Italian parliament, \nI April, 1868. \n\nGROAT, from the Dutch groat, value of four- \npence, was the largest silver coin in England until \nafter 135 1. Fourpenny pieces were coined in 1836 \nto the value of 70,884^. ; in 1837, 16,038/. ; discon- \ntinued since 1856. \n\nGROCERS anciently meant "ingrossers or \nmonopolisers," as appears by a statute 37 Kdw. III. \n1363 : " Les marchauntz nomez engrossent totes \nmaners de merchandises vendables." The Grocers\' \ncompany, one of the twelve chief companies of \nLondon, was established in 1345, and incorporated \nin 1429. \n\nThe Grocers\' and Shopkeepers\' Licensing Acts passed \nin i860 and 1861, authorises the sale by them of wine, \nspirits, and beer, in bottles. \n\nGROCHOW, near Praga, a suburb of Warsaw. \nHere took place a desperate contiiet between the \nPoles and Russians, 19, 20 Feb. 1831, the Poles re- \nmaining masters of the field of battle. The Rus- \nsians shortly after retreated, having been foiled in \ntheir attempt to take Warsaw. \'ihey are said to \nhave lost 7000 men, and the Poles 2000 ; see also \nPoland, 1 86 1. \n\nGROG, sea term for rum and water, derived its \nname from admiral Eclw. Vernon, who wore grogram \nbreeches, and was hence called " Uld Grog." About \n1 745, he ordered his sailors to dilute their rum with \nwater.* \n\nGROSSER KURFttRST, see Wrecks, 1878. \n\nGROSVENOR GALLERY, &c, Bond- \nstreet, London, W., for the exhibition of modern \npictures, erected by sir Coutts Lindsay, at a cost \nof about 100,000/., supported by eminent artists, \nAug. 1876; opened 1 Alay, 1877. The last regular \nexhibition in the Grosvenor Gallery was that of the \nsociety of British Pastellists, opened 18 Oct. 1890 ; \nthe building was afterwards solely occupied by the \nGrosvenor club, by whom pictures for sale were \nfrom time to time exhibited. \n\nDifferences in regard to management having arisen, \na secession of subscribers ensued, who, headed \nby Messrs. Halle and Comyns Carr, opened " The \nNew Gallery," {which see) Regent Street 9 May, 1888 \n\nGROSVENOR GALLERY LIBRARY, \n\nopened 25 March, 1880. \n\nGROUND GAME, see Game. \n\nGUADALOUPE, a West India Island, dis- \ncovered by Columbus in 1493. The French took \npossession of it in 1635, and colonised it in 1664. \nTaken by the English in 1759, and restored in 1763. \nAgain taken by the English m 1779, 1794, and 1810. \nThe allies, in order to allure the Swedes into the \ncoalition against France, gave them this island. \nIt was, however, by the consent of Sweden, restored \nto France at the peace in 1814. It was again taken \nby the British, 10 Aug. 1815, and restored to the \nFrench. July 1816. \n\nGUAD-EL-RAS (N. W. Africa). Here the \nSpaniards signally defeated the Moors, 23 March, \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0* He did great service in the West Indies, by taking \nPortobello, Chagre, &c. ; but by his disagreement with \nthe commander of the land forces, the expedition against \nCarthagena, in 1741, is said to have failed. He was dis- \nmissed the service for writing two pamphlets attacking \nthe admiralty ; he died 30 Oct. 1757. \n\n\n\ni860, after a severe conflict : general Prim mani- \nfested great braver}-, for which he was ennobled. \nThe preliminaries of peace were signed on the 25th, \n\nGUANO or HUANO (the Peruvian term for \nmanure), the excrement of sea-birds that swarm or* \nthe coasts of Peru and Bolivia, and of Africa and \nAustralia. It is mentioned by Herrera in 1601, and \nGarcilasso stated that the birds were protected by \nthe incas. Humboldt was one of the first by whom \nit was brought to Europe, in order to ascertain its \nvalue in agriculture. The importation of guano \ninto the United Kingdom appears to have commenced \nin 1839. 283,000 tons were imported in 1845 (of \nwhich 207,679 tons came from the western coast of \nAfrica); 243,016 tons in 1851 (of which 6522 tons- \ncame from Western Australia) ; 131,358 tons in \n1864; 237,393 tons in 1865 ; 135,697 tons in 1866; \n280,311 in 1870 ; 114,454 iu 1875 ; iS 2 -"?^ in 1877 ; \n177,793 i 11 ^78; 74,221 in 1883; 21,175 iu 1887; \n1888, 24,432 ; 1889, 28,604; 1890, 27,095. \n\nGUARANTEES. The " Guarantee by Com- \npanies ai-t," relating to the security by means of \nsureties required for persons employed in the public- \nservice, was passed 20 Aug. 1867 (30 & 31 Vict, \nc. 108). \n\nGUARDIAN, a moderate high-church weekly- \njournal, first published 21 Jan. 1846. \n\nGUARDS. The custom of having guards is- \n\nsaid to have been introduced by Saul, 1093 B.C. \n\nBody guards were appointed to attend the kings of Eng- \nland, 1 Henry VII. 1485. \n\nHorse Guards were raised 4 Edw. VI. 1550. \n\nThe royal regiment of guards was first raised by Charles \nII. in Flanders in 1656, colonel, lord Wentworth \xe2\x80\xa2 \nanother regiment was raised by colonel John Russell,. \n1660, under whom they were combined in 1665. The- \nColdstream Guards, raised by general Monk, were con- \nstituted the 2nd regiment in 1661 ; see Coldstream. \nThese guards were the beginning of our standing army. \n\nGen. sir F. Wm. Hamilton\'s " History of the Grenadier \nGuards," an elaborate work, appeared 1874. \n\nThe Horse Grenadier guards first troop, raised in 1693, \nwas commanded by general Cholmondeley ; the second \ntroop was raised in 1702, and was commanded by lord. \nForbes ; this corps was reduced in 1783, the officers- \nretiring on full pay. See Army, 1890. \n\nGuards\' Institute, Francis-street, Vauxhall-bridge road ;. \nreading and lecture rooms, &c, for all officers and \nsoldiers in the metropolis ; inaugurated by the duke of \nCambridge, 11 July, 1S67. \n\nSee Horse Guards, Yeomen, National, and Imperials \nGuards. \n\nGUASTALLA, N. Italy, a city, near which \nthe imperial army, commanded by the king of \nSardinia, was defeated by the French, 19 Sept. \n1734. The ancient duchy, long held by the dukes \nof Mantua, was seized by the emperor of Germany, \n1746, and ceded to Parma, 1748. After having: \nbeen comprised in the Italian republic, 1796, and \nsubjected to other changes, it was annexed to \nParma, 1815, and to Modena, 1847. \n\nGUATEMALA. A republic in Central Ame- \nrica, revolted from Spain, 1821, and declared inde- \npendent, 21 March, 1847. Constitution settled,. \n\n2 Oct. 1859. President (1862), general Raphael \nOarrera, elected 1851 ; appointed for life, 1854;. \ndied 14 April, 1865 ; succeeded by Vincent Cerna,. \n\n3 May, 1865-9. Manuel Garcia Granedos, Dec. \n1872 ; R. Barrios, 9 May, 1873 ; General Barillas, \nJan. 1886. A war between Guatemala and San \nSalvador broke out in Jan. 1863; and on 16 June- \nthe troops of the latter were totally defeated. An \ninsurrection became formidable, July, 1871. Alliance- \nwith Honduras against San Salvador, March, 1872. \n\n\n\nGUEBRES. \n\n\n\n460 \n\n\n\nGUILDHALL. \n\n\n\nPopulation, 1887, 1,394,233 ; 1891, 1,452,003. \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Capital Guatemala. \n\nCol. Gonzales, commandant of San Jose\' de Guatemala, \nimprisoned, flogged, and nearly killed Mr. John Magee, \nthe British consul, who was rescued by capt. Morse, \n\xe2\x96\xa0of the Pacific Mail Company\'s steamer, Arizona, about \n24 April, 1874. \n\nAnnounced, that Gonzales had been sentenced to five \nyears\' imprisonment, and that Mr. Magee had received \nio.oooZ. as compensation, Oct. 1874. \n\nPlot to kill the president and his ministry ; conspirators \nshot, 7 Nov. 1877. \n\n^General Barrios\'s i>roposal to re-unite the States of Central \nAmerica under himself, as dictator, March ; resisted ; \ndefeated and killed in a severe battle at Chalchuapa, \n2 April, 1885 ; succeeded by Barillas ; peace signed \n16 April, 1885. M. L. Barillas, president, 15 March, \n1886. \n\nWar with San Salvador, which see, July-27 Aug. 1890. \n\nRevolt against president Barillas, suppressed, July- \nAug. 1890. \n\nThe insurgent general and ex-minister Bunundia shot \nwhile resisting arrest on board the U.S. steamer \nAeapulco, 28 Aug.; his young daughter fails in her \nattempt to shoot the U.S. minister, Mizner, 1 Sept. \n1890. \n\nPeace with San Salvador signed ; announced 17 Nov. \n1890. \n\nGen. Barrios assumes office as president, 16 March, 1892. \n\nGUEBKES (from the Arabic Kafir, unbeliever), \na name given to the descendants of the fire- worship- \npers of Persia by their Arab conquerors, in the 7th \ncentury. They are now represented by the Parsees \n-of Bombay, whither they migrated, see Parsees. \n\nGUELPHIC ORDER of knighthood was \ninstituted for Hanover by the prince regent, after- \nwards George IV., 12 Aug. 1815. \n\nGUELPHS AND GHIBELINES, names \ngiven to the papal and imperial factions who de- \nstroyed the peace of Italy from the 12th to the end \n\xe2\x80\xa2of the 15th century (the invasion of Charles VIII. \nof France in 1495). The origin of the names is \nascribed to the contest for the imperial crown \nbetween Conrad of Hohenstaufen, duke of Swabia, \nlord of Wiblingen (hence Ghibelin), and Henry \nnephew of Well\', or Guelf, duke of Bavaria, in 1138. \nThe former was successful; but the popes and \nseveral Italian cities took the side of his rival. Hie \nGuelf and Hie Gibelin are said to have been used \nas war-cries in 1140, at a battle before Weinsberg, \nin Wurternberg, when Guelf of Bavaria was defeated \nby the emperor Conrad IV. who came to help the \nrival duke Leopold.* The Ghibelines were almost \ntotally expelled from Italy in 1267, when Conradin, \nthe last of the Hohenstaufens, was beheaded by \nCharles of .Anjou. Guelph (of uncertain origin), \nis the popular name of the present royal family of \nEngland ; see Brunswick. \n\nThe Guelph Exhibition of pictures and objects of \ninterest connected with the Royal House of Guelph, was \nopened in the New Gallery, Regent street, 31 JDec. 1890 ; \nclosed, 9 April, 1891. The queen contributed greatly to \n"the exhibition, and gave it its name. \n\nGuelph Fund, see under Cumberland. \n\nGUERNSEY, see Jersey. Major-gen. sir \nEdward Bulwer appointed governor of Guernsey in \n.succession to licut.-gen. Elkington, March, 1889. \n\nGUERRILLA, Spanish, "a little war"; a \nterm applied to the armed peasants who worried \nthe French armies during the Peninsular war, \n1808-14. The resistance of the dacoits to the \nBritish in Burmah was of guerrilla character. \n\n\n\n* It is stated, traditionally, that the emperor con- \ndemned all the men to death, but permitted the women \nto bring out whatever they most valued ; on which they \ncarried out their husbands on their shoulders. \n\n\n\nGUEUX (beggars), a name given by the comte \nde Barlaimont to the 300 Protestant deputies from \nthe Low Countries, headed by Henri of Brederode \nand Louis of Nassau, who petitioned Margaret, \ngoverness of the Low Countries, to abolish the \ninquisition, 5 April, 1566. The deputies at once \nassumed the name as honourable, and immediately \norganised armed resistance to the government ; see \nHolland. \n\nGUIANA (N.E. coast of South America), dis- \ncovered by Columbus in 1498, visited by the \nSpaniards in the 16th century ; and explored by sir \nWalter Raleigh in 1596 and 1617. The French \nsettlements here were formed in 1626-43 > an( ^ the \nDutch, 1627-67. Demerara, Essequibo, and Berbice \nwere ceded to Great Britain in 1814 ; see Demerara. \nGovernor of British Guiana, John Scott, 1868 ; \nJames Robert Longden, 1874 ; C. H. Kortright, 1876; \nsir Henry T. Irving, 1882; Viscount Gormanstown, \nDec. 1887. \nMr. Kaufmann discovered in the goldfields 633 valuable \n\ndiamonds early in 1891. \nRevolt in Dutch Guiana of the lower against the upper \n\nclasses ; much alarm, 13 May, 1891. \n\nGUIDE-BOOKS for travellers are an English \ninvention. Paterson\'s "British Itinerary," ap- \npeared in 1776; the last edition in 1840: when it \nwas superseded by railway guides. Galignani\'s \n" Picture of Paris," 1814. Murray\'s " Handbook \nfor Travellers on the Continent," the parent of the \nseries, appeared in 1836. The publication of Carl and \nFritz Ba\'deker\'s foreign guide-books began in 1828 \nwith a handbook for the Rhine in German-French. \nThis was followed by German handbooks for other \nparts of the continent, which owed much to Murray\'s \nhandbooks, and included much original matter. \nThe first English editions appeared in i860. See \nMurray. \n\nGUIDES, a corps in the French army, espe- \ncially charged with the protection of the person of \nthe general, was formed by Bessieres, under the \ndirection of Bonaparte, who had been nearly \ncarried off by the enemy, 30 May, 1796. Several \nsquadrons of "guides" were formed in 1848, to \nguard the ministers. They formed a portion of \nthe imperial guard till Sept. 1870. \n\nGUIENNE, a French province, was part of \nthe dominions of Henry II. in right of his wife \nEleanor, 1152. Philip of France seized it in 1293, \nwhich led to war. It was alternately held by \nEngland and France till 1453, when John Talbot, \nearl of Shrewsbury, in vain attempted to retake it \nfrom the latter. \n\nGUILDHALL (London) was built in 141 1. \nWhen it was rebuilt (in 1669), after the great fire \nof 1666, no part <>f the ancient building remained, \nexcept the interior of the porch and the walls of \nthe hall. The front was erected in 1789; and a \nnew roof built, 1864-5. Beneath the west window \nare the colossal figures of Gog and Magog, said to \nrepresent a Saxon and an ancient Briton ; replaced \nolder ones, 1708; renewed, 1837. The hall can con- \ntain 7000 persons. Here were entertained the allied \nsovereigns in 1814, and Napoleon III., 19 April, \n1855 ; and here the city industrial exhibition was \nheld, 6 March, 1866, and the International Botanical \nbanquet, 22 May, 1866. A memorial window, the \ngift of the cotton workers of Lancashire, to com- \nmemorate the munificence of the metropolis towards \nthem in the famine of 1862-4, waa uncovered, 15 \nJuly, 1868. The prince consort memorial window \nwas unveiled in the presence of prince Arthur, \n\n\n\nGUILDS. \n\n\n\n461 \n\n\n\nGUN- COTTON. \n\n\n\n3 Nov. 1870. A library existed in the Guildhall in \n1426, from which books were taken by the protector \nSomerset in the reign of Edward VI. A new \nlibrary was founded, 2 June, 1824. This library is \nopen to the public. The new handsome building by \nHorace Jones was opened by the lord chancellor \nSelbome, 5 Nov. 1872 ; seeLondon. The law sittings \nwhich had been removed to the Royal law courts, \nwere resumed in the Guildhall, 28 Oct. 1891, when \nthe lord chief justice was received by the lord mayor. \nArt gallery opened 24 June, 1886. \nMagnificent memorials by J. E. Price published Nov. \n\n1886. \nGuildhall School of Music founded (62 pupils) 1880 ; new \n\nbuilding on the Thames Embankment, 9 Dec. 1886 \n\n(2,053 pupils). \nVisit of the German emperor and empress, see Germany, \n\n10 July, 1891. \n\nGUILDS. Associations of men of the same \nclass or trade, formed for mutual aid and protection ; \nin England, of Saxon origin, about the 8th century. \nIn the middle ages there were religious, social, \nmercantile, and craft guilds. Some of the London \nlivery companies were formed out of the merchant \nand craft guilds in the 13th century. See Companies. \n\nThe guild of Corpus Christi, York, had 14,800 members \nwhen a return respecting these guilds was ordered to \nbe made, 1388. \n\nThe Early English Text Society published the "Ordi- \nnances " of more than 100 guilds, 1870. \n\n"The Gild Merchant," by Charles Gross, Ph.D., pub- \nlished in 1891, is a valuable work. \n\nThe " Guild of Literature and Art" (including sir E. B. \nLytton, C. Dickens, and others) founded an institu- \ntion (on ground given by sir E. B. Lytton, at Stevenage) \nconsisting of thirteen dwellings, retreats for artists, \nscholars, and men of letters, which were completed \nand inaugurated, 29 July, 1865. \n\nThe revival of religious guilds began in 1851, with \nthat of St. Alban, which held its 21st anniversary \n20 June, 1872. \n\nGuilds Inquiry Commission, see Comx>anies. \n\nGUILLOTINE, an instrument for causing \nimmediate and painless death, named after its sup- \nposed inventor, a physician named Joseph Ignatius \nGuillotin. In 1866 M. Dubois, of Amiens, stated \nthat the idea only was due to Guillotin, who at a \nmeeting of the legislative assembly in 1789 ex- \npressed an opinion that capital punishment should \nbe the same for all classes. Accordingly, at the \nrequest of the assembly, M. Louis, secretary of the \n"Academie de Chirurgie," submitted to it on 20 \nMarch, 1792, a mode of capital punishment, "sure, \nquick, and uniform," which, he had invented. The \nfirst person executed by it was a highway robber \nnamed Pelletier, on 25 April ; and Dangremont was \nits first political victim, 21 Aug. following. Guillotin \ndied in 1814. The guillotine at Paris was burnt \nby the communist insurgents, 7 April, 187 1. A \nsimilar instrument (called the Mannaia) is said to \nhave been used in Italy, at Halifax in England \n(see Halifax), and in Scotland, there called the \nMaiden and the Widow. \n\nGUINEA (W. coast of Africa) was discovered by \nthe Portuguese about 1446. From their trade with \nthe Moors originated the slave trade, sir John Haw- \nkins being the first Englishman who engaged in this \ntraffic. Assisted by English gentlemen with money \nfor the purpose, he sailed from England in Oct. 1562, \nwith three ships, proceeded to the coast of Guinea, \npurchased or forcibly seized 300 negroes, sold them \nprofitably at Hispaniola, and returned home richly \nladen with hides, sugar, ginger, and other mer- \nchandise, in Sept. 1563. This voyage led to similar \nenterprises. Hahlmjt. See Slave Trade. An African \ncompany to trade with Guinea was chartered 1588. \nThe Hutch settlements here were transferred to \n\n\n\nGreat Britain, 6 April, 1872. See Elmina, and \n\nAshantees. \n\nPortuguese settlement ; troops defeated with loss in an \n\nattack upon the natives at Inhim and Bandim ; 4. \n\nofficers and 71 men killed, reported 21 April, 1891. \n\nGUINEAS, English gold coin, so named from \nhaving been first coined of gold brought by the- \nAfrican company from the coast of Guinea in 1663, \nvalued then at 20s.; but worth 30s. in 169=5. Re- \nduced at various times; in 1717 to 21s. In 1810 \nguineas were sold for 22*. 6d. ; in 1816, for 27s. . In \n181 1 an act was passed forbidding their exportation^ \nand their sale at a price above the current value, 21s. \nThe first guineas bore the impression of an elephant, \nhaving been coined of this African gold. Since the \nissue of sovereigns, 1 July, 1817, guineas have not \nbeen coined. \n\nGUINEGATE, Battles op, h July, 1302, \n\nand 16 Aug. 1513. See Spurs. \n\nGUINNESS TEUST, see Artisans. \n\nGUISE, a French ducal family :\xe2\x80\x94 \nClaude of Lorraine, first duke, a brave warrior, \n\nfavoured by Francis 1. ; died . . . April, 1550 \nFrancis, the great general, born, 1519 ; assassinated, \n\n24 Feb. 1563 \nHenry, head of the Catholic, league ; born 1550 ; \n\nrevenged his father\'s death ; assassinated by order \n\nof Henry III. . ... 23 Dec. 1588 \n\nCharles, first opposed, and then submitted to, \n\nHenry IV. ; died 1640 \n\nHenry died without issue .... . 1664. \n\nGULLIVEE\'S TEAVELS, by Dean Swift, \nfirst published 1726-7. \n\nGUN, see Artillery, Cannon, Fire-arms. \xe2\x80\x94 Gun- \nCLTJB, for pigeon-shooting, founded by sir Gilbert \nEast, in 1862, had 200 members, noblemen and \ngentlemen, in July, 1867. \n\nGUN-COTTON, a highly explosive substance, \ninvented by professor Schonbein, of Basel, and \nmade known in 1846. It is purified cotton, steeped \nin a mixture of equal parts of nitric acid and sul- \nphuric acid, and afterwards dried, retaining the \nappearance of cotton wool. See Collodion. Its nature \nwas known to Braconuot and Pelouze. \nThe diet of Frankfort voted, 3 Oct. 1846, a recompense, \nof 100,000 florins to professor Schonbein and Dr. \nBoettger, as the inventors of the cotton powder, pro- \nvided the authorities of Mayence, after seeing it tried, \npronounced it superior to gunpowder as an explosive. \nImprovements were made in the manufacture of gun- \ncotton by an Austrian officer, Baron von Lenk, about. \n1852, and it was tried by a part of the Austrian army \nin 1855, but did not obtain favour. \nIn 1862 details of the manufacture were communicated \nby the Austrian government to our own government, \nand Mr. (late sir Frederick) Abel, our war-office, \nchemist, was directed to experiment on the constitu- \ntion and desirability of gun-cotton. The British Asso- \nciation also appointed a scientific committee to consider \nits merits. A complete decision was not arrived at. \nThe first trial of English-made gun-cotton was made in \nthe spring of 1864, at the manufactory at Stowmarket, \nSuffolk, by Messrs. Prentice. \nThere was manufactured, by a company, the " patent safety \ngun-cotton," according to Mr. Abel\'s patent (including \nthe pulping, compressing, and wet processes), based. \non researches commenced in 1866. The cotton was \nsaid to be explosive by detonation, and not by \nignition. A great explosion took place at Stowmarket; \n24 persons were killed (including A. E. II. and W. R. \nPrentice, managers) ; about 60 were dreadfullywounded, \nand nearly the whole town was destroyed as it\' by a \nbombardment, 11 Aug. 1871. \nThe verdict at the inquest attributed the explosion to \nthe culpable "addition of sulphuric acid to the gun- \ncotton subsequent to its passing the tests required by- \ngovernment," 6 Sept. 1871. \n\n\n\nGUNDAMUK. \n\n\n\n462 \n\n\n\nGUTTA PEECHA. \n\n\n\nA government commission, appointed in Sept. to con- \nsider the manufacture and use of gun-cotton, reported \nin favour of both, with special regard to compressed \ngun-cotton, 13 Dec. 1871. \n\nAnother report recommended this gun-cotton to be \nstored wet, with drying apparatus near ; and to be \nkept in slighter boxes, 25 July, 1872. \n\nMr. E. O. Brown, of the war department, Woolwich, dis- \ncovers that wet gun-cotton can be exploded by con- \ncussion by a detonating fuse, about Nov. 1872. \n\nIt is used as an explosive agent in mining, &c. \n\n<Gun-Cloth, made on a similar principle, was patented \nby Mr. W. A. Dixon, about 1866. \n\nCotton-Gunpowder, patented by Mr. R. Punshon, 1871. \n\nA modified form was tried and reported successful, near \nFaversham, 3 Feb. 1875. See Ivory. \n\nGUNDAMUK, see Gandamuk. \n\nGUN LICENCE ACT, passed 9 Aug. 1870 ; \nannual licence, 10s. Licences issued : year 1876-7, \n77,068; 1877-8, 75,571 ; 1880-1, 72,834; 1881-2, \n74,063. See under Game Laws, 1883. \n\nGUNPOWDEE. The invention of gunpowder \nas generally ascribed to Bertholdus or Michael \n\xe2\x80\xa2Schwartz, a Cordelier monk of Goslar, south of \n.Brunswick, in Germany, about 1320. But many \nwriters maintain that it was known much earlier \nin various parts of the world. Some say that the \nChinese and Hindoos possessed it centuries before. \nIts composition, moreover, is expressly mentioned \nby Roger Bacon, in his treatise l)e Nullitate \nJIagice. He died in 1292 or 1294. Various sub- \nstitutes for gunpowder have been recently invented, \nsuch as the white gunpowder of Mr. Horsley and \nDr. Ehrhardt, and gun-paper by Mr. Hochstodten. \nA new gunpowder by M. Newniayer, of Toy a, near \nleipsic, was discussed in Nov. 1866. " Pellet gun- \npowder" was ordered to be used in gun-charges in \nthe army, March, 1868. An act to amend the law \n\xe2\x80\xa2concerning the making, keeping, and carriage of \ngunpowder, &c. was passed 28 Aug. i860, and other \nacts since. See Birmingham, 1870. In May, 1872, \na company was formed to manufacture Mr. R. \nPunshon\'s patent cotton -gunpowder, asserted to be \nvery safe and controllable. The manufacture of the \nnew German " brown " or " cocoa" powder, set up \nat Chil worth in Surrey, 1886. See Chronoscope. \n\nThe use of gunpowder was denounced by Ariosto, 1516 ; \nby Jean Marot, 1532 ; by Cervantes, 1604 ; termed \n" villanous salt-petre " by Shakspeare, about 1598. \n\nEnglish War Gunpowder : 75 parts nitrate of potash \n(saltpetre) ; 10 sulphur ; 15 carbon. These proportions \nmay be slightly varied. \n\nW. Hunter, after a careful examination of the question, \nin 1847, thus states the result: \xe2\x80\x94 "July and August, \n1346, may be safely assumed to be the time when the \nexplosive force of gunpowder was first brought to bear \non the military operations of the English nation. " \n\nAbove 11 tons of gunpowder on board the Lottie Sleigh, \nin the Mersey, exploded ; much damage done in Liver- \npool and Birkenhead, but no lives lost, 16 Jan. 1864. \n\nAbout 104,000 lbs. of gunpowder exploded at the Belve- \ndere powder magazines of Messrs. Hall & Co., at \nPlumstead, near Woolwich ; 13 persons perished, and \nthe shock was felt at 50 miles\' distance, 1 Oct. 1864. \nSearching inquiries were made into the circumstances, \nand new regulations for the keeping and transmission \nof powder issued in November ; see Dartford. \n\nMr. Gale, a blind gentleman of Plymouth, on 22 June, \n1865, patented his method of rendering gunpowder \nuninflammable by combining with it finely powdered \nglass, which can be readily separated by a sieve when \nthe powder is required for use. Successful public \nexperiments were made. \n\nMr. Gale exhibited his process before the queen at \nWindsor, 10 Nov. 1865, and it was severely tested at a \nmartello tower, near Hastings, 20 June, 1866. The \nattainment of perfect security was still doubtful. \nGale\'s Protected Gunpowder Company was formed, \nOct. 1865, and wound up, March, 1867. \n\n\n\nGreat explosion at Messrs. Hall\'s powder-mills, near \n\nFaversham ; 11 men killed, much damage done ; shock \n\nfelt at Canterbury, 10 miles off, 28 Dec. 1867. Another \n\nexplosion about 21 Dec. 1868. \nDixon & Beck\'s works blown up ; 9 lives lost, 25 July, \n\n1868. \nExplosion at Hounslow mills, 3 lives lost. 6 Sept. 1872 ; \n\nagain one life lost and great destruction of property, 3 \n\nMay, 1887. \nMilner\'s powder-magazines placed in fire at Woolwich \n\narsenal and found secure, 8-9 Oct. 1872. \nAbout s tons of gunpowder in barrels exploded in the \n\nbarge Tilbury, on the Regent\'s Canal, near the North \n\nBridge-gate, Regent\'s-park, nearly 5 a.m. 2 Oct. 1874. \n\nThree men on the barge killed ; sh ock felt about 3omiles \n\noff ; destruction extended over about a square mile ; \n\nsome houses thrown down ; very many windows blown \n\nin ; the house of Mr. Alma Tadema, the artist, much. \n\ninjured. \nThe powder was sent by Pigou and Wilks to Derbyshire \n\nfor blasting purposes ; \xe2\x80\x94 order of the barges : Ready, \n\ntug steamer; Jane, Dee, Tilbury, Limehouse, and \n\nHaxokesbury. \n6333Z. had been subscribed for the sufferers up to 1 May \n\n1875. \nVerdict of Inquest \xe2\x80\x94 Explosion caused by ignition of \n\nvapour from benzoline by a fire or light in the cabin \n\nof the Tilbury. The Junction Canal Company guilty \n\nof gross negligence, and the present laws inadequate \n\nfor public safety, 19 Oct. 1874. \nThe company declared responsible on trial (by Capt. \n\nJackson), 14 May, 1875. \nOne thousand and fifty-four claims had been settled for \n\n63,660?., June, 1876. \nRecently smokeless gunpowder has been produced ; the \n\nDuttenhofer, the Stein, the Pallina, the Schultz and \n\nHengst, Chilworth and Lebel powders give very little \n\nsmoke, 1888-9. \nThe smokeless gunpowder of Herr Falkenstein tried \n\nat Berlin, reported efficient, Aug. 1889. \nSir F. A. Abel, in a discourse at the Royal Institution, \n\n31 Jan. 1890 (Proceedings, vol. XIII.), explained and \n\nillustrated the merits and demerits of "smokeless \n\nexplosives." Smokeless gunpowder much used in the \n\nautumn manoeuvres, 1890. \nSee Rome, 23 April, 1891. \nGunpowder exported : 1876, 14,268,672 lbs. ; 1880, \n\n14,927,500 lbs. ; 1885, 12,763,900 lbs. ; 1890, \n\n10,330,400 lbs. \n\nGUNPOWDEE PLOT, for springing a mine \nunder the houses of parliament, and destroying the \nthree estates of the realm \xe2\x80\x94 king, lords, and commons \n\xe2\x80\x94 there assembled, was discovered on 4 Nov. 1605. It \nwas projected by Robert Catesby early in 1604, and \nseveral Eoman Catholics of rank were in the plot. \nGuy Faux was detected in the vaults under the \nhouse of lords, hired for the purpose, preparing \nthe train for being fired on the next day. Catesby \nand Percy (of the family of Northumberland) were \nkilled at Holbeach house, whither they had fled, \n8 Nov. ; and Guy Faux, sir Everard Digby, Rook- \nwood, "Winter, and others, were executed, 30, 31 \nJan. 1606. Henry Garnet, a Jesuit, suffered as an \naccomplice, 3 May following. An anonymous letter \nsent to lord Monteagle led to the discovery. It \ncontained the following words, " Though there be \nno appearance of any stir, yet I say they shall \nreceive a terrible blow this parliament, and yet \nthey shall not see who hurts them." The vault \ncalled Guy Faux cellar, in which the conspirators \nlodged the barrels of gunpowder, remained till \n1825, when it was converted into offices. \n\nGUNTEE\'S CHAIN, used in measuring land, \ninvented by Edmund Gunter, in 1606. \n\nGUENEY\'S ACT, 31 & 32 Vict., c. 116 \\ \n(1868), amends the law relating to larceny and \nembezzlement. \n\nGUTTA PEECHA is procured from the sap \nof the Isonandra Gutta, a large forest tree, growing \nin the Malayan peninsula and on the islands near \n\n\n\nGUY\'S HOSPITAL. \n\n\n\n463 \n\n\n\nGYEOSCOPE. \n\n\n\nit. It was made known in England by Drs. De \nAlmeida and Montgomery, at the Society of Arts, \nin 1843. As a non-conductor of electricity it is in- \nvaluable in constructing submarine telegraphs, an \napplication suggested by Faraday and Werner Sie- \nmens independently, 1847. 70,176 cwts. were im- \nported into the United Kingdom in 1890. \n\nGUY\'S HOSPITAL (London). Thomas Guy, \na wealthy bookseller, after bestowing large sums on \nSt. Thomas\'s, determined to found a new hospital. \nAt the age of seventy-six, in 1721, he commenced \nthe present building, and lived to see it nearly \ncompleted. It cost him 18,793/., and, in addition, \nhe endowed it with 219,499/. In 1829, 196,115/. \nwere bequeathed to this hospital by Mr. Hunt, to \nprovide accommodation for 100 additional patients. \nIncome much reduced by agricultural depression ; \n\nioo,oooZ. proposed to be raised ; Mansion House, \n\nij,oool. received 20 Dec. 1886. \n\nGUZEEAT, a state in India, founded by Mah- \nmoud the Gaznevide, about 1020, was conquered by \nAkbar in 1572 ; and became subject to the Mahrattas \n1732 or 1752. At the battle of Guzerat, near the \nChenab, in the Punjab, 21 Feb. 1849, lord Gough \ntotally defeated the Sikhs and captured the town of \nGuzerat. \n\nGWALIOE, an ancient state in Central India \n\noccupied by the Mahrattas ; since 1803, under British \n\nprotection. Scindiah, the maharajah, remained \n\nfaithful during the revolt of 1857 ; visit of the \n\nprince of "Wales, 31 Jan. 1876. His present of \n\ncarved stone work of a gate, arrived in London in \n\nthe autumn of 1884. Population, 1881, 1,115,857. \n\nThe ancient citadel was taken by major Popham in the \n\nMahratta war in 1780 ; seized by the rebels during \n\nthe Indian mutiny, 13 June ; and retaken by sir Hugh \n\nRose, 19 June, 1858. Surrendered to the maharajah \n\nby lord Dunerin, the viceroy, 2 Dec. 1885, for 15 lakhs \n\nof rupees; actually surrendered, 10 March, 1886. The \n\nmaharajah Bhajeerut Rao Scindiah, aged 51, died 21 \n\nJune, 1886. Succeeded by his son, a boy, with a \n\nregency. \n\nGwalior visited by the marquis of Lansdowne, warmly \n\nreceived, 18 Nov. 1891. \n\nGYMNASIUM, a place where the Greeks \nperformed public exercises, and where philosophers, \npoets, and rhetoricians repeated their compositions. \nIn wrestling and boxing the athletes were often \nnaked (gymnos), whence the name. A London \ngymnastic society, formed in 1826, did not flourish. \nIn 1862, M. Ravenstein set up another gymnastic \nassociation. The German Gymnastic Institution, \nin St. Pancras-road, London, was opened on 29 Jan. \n1865, and a large and perfect gymnasium at Liver- \npool was inaugurated by lord Stanley, 6 Nov. 1865. \nA London athletic club existed in Nov. 1866. \n\n\n\nGYMNOSOPHIST^E, a set of naked philo- \nsophers in India. Alexander (about 324 B.C.) was \nastonished at the sight of men who seemed to \ndespise bodily pain, and endured tortures without \na groan. Pliny. \n\nGYPSIES, Gipsies, or Egyptians \n\n(French, Bohemiens ; Italian, Zingari; Spanish, \nGitanos ; German, Zlgeuner) ; vagrants, supposed \nto be descendants of low-caste Hindoos expelled by \nTimour, about 1399. They appeared in Germany \nand Italy early in the 15th century, and at Paris in \n1427. In England an act was made against their \nitinerancy, in 1530; and in the reign of Charles I. \nthirteen persons were executed at one assizes for \nhaving associated with gypsies for about a month. \nThe gypsy settlement at Norwood was broken up, \nand they were treated as vagrants, May, 1797. \nThere were in Spain alone, previously to 1800, \nmore than 120,000 gypsies, and many communities \nof them yet exist in England. Notwithstanding \ntheir intercourse with other nations, their manners, \ncustoms, visage, and appearance are almost wholly \nunchanged, and their pretended knowledge of \nfuturity gives them power over the superstitious. \nEsther Faa was crowned queen of the gypsies at \nBlyth, on 18 Nov. i860. The Bible has been trans- \nlated into gypsy dialects. Gypsy parliaments are \noccasionally held. Geoi-ge Smith, king of the \ngypsies, Falcoln hall, Edinburgh, protested against \nthe Movable Dwellings bill, 10 Jan. 1891. The \nGypsy Lore society, founded in 1888, had 70 mem- \nbers in 1891, and published a journal. \nGeorge Borrow fraternised with the gypsies and wrote \nseveral works describing his adventures, especially \n"TheZincali" (1841) ; "The Bible in Spain " (1842) ; \n" Lavengro" (1850); and a " Dictionary of the Gypsy \nLanguage " (1874). He was born in 1803, and died in \nAug. 1 88 1. \nA band of 89 gypsies from Corfu, with 500Z. bound for \nAmerica, landed at Millwall docks, July ; passage \nrefused them at Liverpool ; connection disclaimed by \nthe Greek government ; some remain at Liverpool \nand others at Hull, Aug.-Sept. 1886. Wandering in \nEngland, Oct. 1886 ; at Sunderland, April, 1887. \nSome of them conveyed to King\'s Cross station, \nLondon, 16 April, 1887 ; at Chester, April, 1887. \nMatilda II. crowned queen of the American gypsies near \nDayton, Ohio, Nov. 1888. \n\nGYEOSCOPE (from gyrere, to revolve), the \nname of a rotatory apparatus invented by Fessel of \nCologne (1852), and improved by professor Wheat- \nstone and M. Foucault of Paris. It is similar in \nprinciple to the rotatory apparatus of T3ohnen- \nberger of Tubingen (born 1765, died 1831). \xe2\x80\x94 The \ngyroscope, by exhibiting the combined effects of the \ncentrifugal and centripetal forces, and of the \ncessation of either, illustrates the great law of \ngravitation. \n\n\n\nH. \n\n\n\nHAARLEM. \n\n\n\nHAILEYBUEY COLLEGE. \n\n\n\nHAARLEM, an ancient town in Holland, once \nthe residence of the counts, was taken by the duke \nof Alva, in July, 1573, after a siege of seven \nmonths. He violated the capitulation by butcher- \ning half the inhabitants. The lake was drained, \n1 839-5 J. Population, 1890, 51,626. \n\nHABEAS CORPUS. The subjects\' Writ of \nRight, passed " for the better securing the liberty \nof the subject," 31 Charles II. c. 2, 27 May, 1679. \nIf any person be imprisoned by the order of any \ncourt, or of the queen herself, he may have a writ \nof habeas corpus, to bring him before the court of \nqueen\'s bench or common pleas, which shall deter- \nmine whether his committal be just. This act \n(founded on the old common law) is next in im- \nportance to Magna Charta. The Habeas Corpus act \ncan be suspended by parliament for a specified time \nwhen the emergency is extreme. In such a case \nthe nation parts with a portion of its liberty to \nsecure its own permanent welfare, and suspected \npersons may then be arrested without cause or \npurpose being assigned. Blackstone. \nAct suspended for a short time in . 1689, 1696, 1708 \nSuspended for Scots\' rebellion . . . 1715-6 \nSuspended for twelve months .... 1722 \nSuspended for Scots\' rebellion in . . 1745-6 \nSuspended for American war .... 1777-9 \nAgain by Mr. Pitt, owing to French revolution . 1794 \nSuspended in Ireland, on account of the great re- \nbellion 1798 \n\nSuspended in Eng\'.and, 28 Aug. 1799 ; and \n\n14 April, 1 801 \nAgain, on account of Irish insurrection . . . 1803 \nAgain, owing to alleged secret meetings (see Green \n\nBag) 21 Feb. 1817 \n\nBill to restore the Habeas Corpus brought into par- \nliament 28 Jan. 1818 \n\nSuspended in Ireland (insurrection) . 24 July, 1848 \n\nRestored there 1 March, 1849 \n\nSuspended again (see Fenians), 17 Feb. 1S66 ; \n26 Feb. and 31 May, 1867 ; and 28 Feb. 1868 till \n\n25 March, 1869, and virtually in 1881 \nThe constitution of the United States provides that \n"the privilege of habeas corpus shall not be sus- \npended, unless when, in cases of rebellion or \ninvasion, the public safety may require it ;" but \ndoes not specify the department of the govern- \nment having the power of suspension. A series \nof contests on this subject between the legal \nand military authorities began in Maryland, \n\nMay, 1861 \nIn consequence of the affair of John Anderson (see \nSlavery in England, note), an act was passed in \n1862, enacting that no writ of Habeas Corpus should \nissue out of England into any colony, &c, \nhaving a court with authority to grant such \nwrit. \n\nHABITUAL CRIMINALS ACT, for the \n\nmore effectual prevention of crime, giving powers \nfor the apprehension of habitual criminals on sus- \npicion, passed 11 Aug. 1869; 117,568 reported in \nthe metropolis, 1873. \nA black book, printed at Brixton prison, contained the \n\nnames and aliases of 12,164 criminals, selected from \n\n179,601 entered on the register, 1869-76 \n\nHABITUAL DRUNKARDS, see \n\nDrunkards. \n\nHABSBURG, see Hapsburg. \n\n\n\nHACKNEY, a parish N.E. of London ; by \nthe division of the Tower Hamlets, was made a \nmetropolitan borough by the Reform act, 15 Aug., \n1867. Two members were eleeted. The election \n4 Feb. 1876, void, through neglect of officers. Re- \nturns three members by the act of 1885. Popula- \ntion, 1881, 186,462 ; 1891,229,531. \n\nHACKNEY COACHES, probably from the \nFrench coche-d-haquenee, a vehicle with a hired \nhorse, haquenee. Their supposed origin in Hackney, \nnear London, is a vulgar error; see Cabriolets, and \nOmnibuses. \nFour were set up in London by a capt. Bailey ; \n\ntheir number soon increased .... 1625 \n\nThey were limited by the star-chamber in 1635; \n\nrestricted in 1637 and in 1652 \n\nThe number was raised to 400, in 1662 ; to 700, in \n\n1694 ; to 800, in 1715 ; to 1000, in 1771 ; to 1100, in \n\n1814; and finally, to 1300, in .... 1815 \n\nOne-horse hackney carriages (afterwards cabriolets) \n\npermitted to be licensed ,, \n\nAll restriction as to number ceased, by 2 Will. IV. \n\n(the original fare was is. a mile) .... 1831 \nTwo hundred Hackney Chairs were licensed . .1711 \nOffice removed to Somerset-house . . . . 1782 \nCoach-makers made subject to a licence . . . 1785 \nLost and Found Office for the recovery of property \n\nleft in hackney coaches, established by act 55 \n\nGeo. Ill 1815 \n\nAll public vehicles to be regulated by the act 16 & \n\n17 Vict. cc. 33, 127, by which they are placed \n\nunder the control of the commissioners of police, \n\nJune and Aug. 1853 \nBy the Metropolitan Carriages Act, passed 12 Aug. \n\n1869, various restrictions respecting the amount \n\nof fare, &c., were removed, commencing 1 Jan. 1870. \nFurther regulations for cabs issued by the home \n\nsecretary 10 March, 187 1 \n\nHADRIAN, see Adrian. \nHADRIANOPLE, see Adrianople. \n\nHAFSFIORD (Norway). Here Harold Hiir- \n\nfager, in a sea-fight, finally defeated his enemies ; \nand consolidated his kingdom, 872. A millenary \nfestival was held throughout .Norway, and a monu- \nment to his memory at Hangesund, inaugurated by \nprince Oscar of Sweden, 18 July, 1872. \n\nHAGUE, capital of the kingdom of Holland, \nonce called the finest village in Europe ; the place \nof meeting of the states-general, and residence of \nthe former earls of Holland since 1250, when \nWilliam II. built the palace here. Population in \n1887, 149,447 ; in 1890, 160,531. \nHere the states abjured the authority of Philip II. \n\nof Spain 1580 \n\nA conference upon the five articles of the remon- \nstrants, which occasioned the synod of Dort . . 161 o \nTreaty of the Hague, (to preserve the equilibrium \nof the North), signed by England, France, and \n\nHolland 21 May, 1659 \n\nThe De Witts torn in pieces here . . .4 Aug. 1672 \nThe French, favoured by a hard frost, took posses- \nsion of the Hague ; the inhabitants and troops \ndeclared in their favour ; general revolution en- \nsued, and the stadtholder and his family fled to \n\nEngland 19 Jan. 1795, \n\nThe Hague evacuated by the French . . Nov. 1813; \nThe stadtholder returned .... Dec. ,, \n\nHAILEYBURY COLLEGE (Herts), \nwherein students were prepared for service in India ; \n\n\n\nHAINAULT. \n\n\n\n465 \n\n\n\nHAMBURG. \n\n\n\nit was founded by the East India Company in 1806 : \n\nwas closed in 1858, and became a private educational \n\nestablishment. \n\nIn the case of " Hutt and another v. the Governors of \nthe College and others," Mr. Robertson, the head- \nmaster, and Mr. Fenning, assistant, were exonerated \nfrom the charges of unlawfully expelling Henry Hutt, \naged 15, on suspicion of stealing money ; and the boy \nwas declared innocent by the Queen\'s Bench Division, \n19 June ; 100I. awarded to the plaintiffs, 27 June, \n1888. \n\nHAINAULT, a province in Belgium, anciently \ngoverned by counts, hereditary after Regnier I., \nwho died in 916. The count John d\'Arsenes became \ncount of Holland in 1299. Hainault henceforth \npartook of the fortunes of Flanders. \n\nHAINAULT FOREST (Essex), disafforested \nin 1851. Here stood the Fairlop oak (which see). \n\nHAIR. In Gaul, hair was much esteemed, \nhence the appellation Gallia comata ; cutting olf \nthe hair was a punishment. The royal family of \nFrance held it as a privilege to wear long hair art- \nfully dressed and curled. " The clerical tonsure is of \napostolic institution ! " Isidorus Hispalensis. Pope \nAnicetus forbade the clergy to wear long hair, 155. \nLong hair was out of fashion during the pro- \ntectorate of Cromwell, and hence the term Sound- \nheads ; in 1795; and also 1 80 1. \xe2\x80\x94 Hair -powder came \ninto use in 1590; and in 1795 a tax of a guinea \nwas laid upon persons using it, which yielded at \none time 20,000^. per annum. The tax was repealed \n24 June, 1869, when it yielded about lOOQl. a year. \nSee Beard. \n\nSome members of a Burmese family totally covered with \nhair were exhibited in London in July, 1886. \n\nHAITI, see Hayti. \n\nHAKLUYT SOCIETY, established for the \npublication of rare voyages and travels, 15 Dec. \n1846, was named after Richard Hakluyt, who pub- \nlished his " Principal Navigations, Voyages, and \nDiscoveries made by the English Nation," in 1589; \nand died 23 Nov. 1616. \n\nHALF CROWNS, see under Coinage and \nCrowns. \n\nHALIARTUS, a town in Boeotia, near which \nLy sander the Spartan general was killed in battle \nwith the Thebans, 395 B.C. \n\nHALICARNASSUS, Caria (Asia Minor); the \nreputed birth-place of Herodotus, 484 B.C. ; the site \nof the tomb of Mausolus, erected 352; was taken by \nAlexander, 334; see Mausoleum. \n\nHALIDON HILL, near Berwick, where, on \n19 July, 1333, the English defeated the Scots, the \nlatter losing upwards of 14,000 slain, among whom \nwere the regent Douglas and a large number of the \nnobility ; a comparatively small number of the \nEnglish suffered. Edward Balliol thus became king \nof Scotland for a short time. \n\nHALIFAX (Yorkshire). The woollen manu- \nfactory was successfully established here in the \n15th century. The power of the town to punish \ncapitally (by a peculiar engine resembling the \nguillotine) anj r criminal convicted of stealing to \nthe value of upwards of thirteen pence halfpenny, \nwas used as late as 1650. In 1857, Mr. J. Cross- \nley announced his intention of founding a college \nhere, and Mr. F. Crossley presented the town with \na beautiful park. Boiler explosion at Batme and \nPritchard\'s ; Mr. Pritchard and 5 men killed, 9 \nOct. 1879. Public demonstration for the franchise \nbill, 9 Sept. 1884. Population, 1881, 73,630; i8gr, \n82,864. \n\n\n\nHalifax, the capital of Nova Scotia, was founded \nin 1749 by the hon. Edwd. Cornvvallis, and named \nafter the earl of Halifax. Population, 1881, 36,100; \n1891, 38,556. About 31 were burnt to death in \nan almshouse hospital here . . . Nov. 1882 \n\nLarge graving dock opened . . .20 Sept. 1880. \n\nGreat fire, 10 wharves and 35 warehouses destroyed \n\n1 Oct. 1891 \n\nHALIFAX ADMINISTRATION. \n\nCharles, earl of Halifax, was appointed first lord of \n\nthe treasury, 5 Oct. 1714. He died 19 May, 1715, \n\nand was succeeded by Charles, earl of Carlisle, on \n\n10 Oct. following; and Robert Walpole became \n\npremier. \n\nCharles, earl of Halifax, first lord of the treasury. \n\nWilliam, lord Cowper, aft. earl, lord chancellor. \n\nDaniel, earl of Nottingham, lord president. \n\nThomas, earl of Wharton, privy seal. \n\nEdward, earl of Oxford, admiralty. \n\nJames Stanhope, afterwards earl Stanhope, and Charles, \n\nviscount Townshend, secretaries of state. \nSir Richard Onslow, chancellor of the exchequer. \nDukes of Montrose and Marlborough, lord Berkeley, \n\nRobt. Walpole, Mr. Pulteney, &c. \n\nHALIFAX AWARD, see Canada, 1877. \n\nHALL, principal apartment in mediaeval man- \nsions. Westminster and Eltham halls are fine \nexamples ; see Westminster Hall. \n\nHALL MARK, see Goldsmiths and Standard. \n\nHALLE (Saxony, N. Germany), first men- \ntioned in 801, was made a city by the emperor \nOtho II. in 981. The orphan-house here was estab- \nlished by August Francke, 1698-9. Halle suffered \nmuch by the Thirty years\' and Seven years\' wars. \nIt was stormed by the French, 17 Oct. 1 806, and \nadded to the kingdom of Westphalia ; but given up \nto Prussia in 1814. Population, 1891, 101,401. \n\nHALLELUJAH and AMEN (Praise the \nLord, and So be it), expressions used in the \nHebrew hymns ; said to have been introduced by \nHaggai, the prophet, about 520 B.C. Their intro- \nduction into Christian worship is ascribed to St. \nJerome, about a.d. 390. \n\nHALLS in London, see Agricultural, Egyptian, \nExeter, Floral, Freemasons\' , Independents, James\'s, \nSt., Music and Westminster. \n\nHALYS, a river (Asia Minor), near which a \nbattle was fought between the Lydians and Medes. \nIt was interrupted by an almost total eclipse of the \nsun, which led to peace, 28 May, 585 b.c. (the \nfourth year of the 48th Olympiad). Plin. Nat. \nHist. ii. Others give as the date 584, 603, and \n610 B.C. This eclipse is said to have been predicted \nmany years before by Thales of Miletus. Hero- \ndotus, i. 75. \n\nHAM, on the Sonime, N. France. The castle \nwas built in 1470 by the constable Louis of Luxem- \nbourg, comte de St. Pol, beheaded by Louis XI. \n19 Dec. 1475- Here were imprisoned the ex- \nministers of Charles X., 1830 ; and Louis Napoleon \nBonaparte after his attempt at Boulogne, from Oct. \n1840 till 25 May, 1846, when he escaped. \n\nHAMBURG, formerly a free city, N. W. \nGermany, founded by Charlemagne, about 809. It \njoined the Hanseatic league in the 13th century, \nand became a flourishing commercial citv. Popu- \nlation of the State, 1875, 388,618 ; \'in 1880, \n453,869; in 1885, 518,620; [890,622,530; of the \ncity, 1885, 305,690; 1890, 323,923. Hamburg \nMassacre; see Massacres, 1876. \nA free imperial city by permission of the dukes of \nHolstein, 1296 ; subject to them tiil 1618 ; pur- \nchased its total exemption from their claims . 1768 \n\nII 11 \n\n\n\nHAMILTON. \n\n\n\n466 HANDEL\'S COMMEMORATIONS, \n\n\n\nFrench declared war upon Hamburg for its \ntreachery in giving up Napper Tandy ; see Tandy, \n\nOct. 1799 \nBritish property sequestrated . . March, 1801 \nHamburg taken by the French after the battle of \n\nJena, in 1806 \n\nIncorporated with France 1810 \n\nEvacuated by the French on the advance of the \n\nRussians into Germany 1813 \n\nRestored to independence by the allies . May, 18 14 \nAwful fire here, which destroyed numerous churches \nand public buildings, and 2000 houses ; it con- \ntinued for three days .... 4 May, 1842 \nHalf the city inundated by the Elbe . 1 Jan. 1855 \nNew constitution granted by the senate, July, i860; \n\nthe new assembly (of 191 members) first met, 6 Dec. i860 \nThe constitution began . . . . 1 Jan. 1861 \nHamburg joined the N. German confederation, \n\n21 Aug. 1866 \n\nJoined the German empire, Jan. ; its privileges as a \n\nfree port confirmed 16 April, 1871 ; these were \n\ngiven up, and Hamburg joined the Zollverein, \n\nbeing the last of the German free ports . 15 Oct. 1888 \n\nThe emperor William II. with a hammer completes \n\nthe new great harbour works . . 29 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nExhibition of Trade and Industry . 15 May\xe2\x80\x94 7 Oct. 1889 \nStrike of gas-workers, city some time in darkness ; \nviolent rioting, checked by armed police, with \nbloodshed .... about 13-15 May, 1890 \n\nVisitation of cholera, see Addenda . Aug. -Sept. 1892 \n\nHAMILTON, Ontario, the Birmingham of \nCanada, founded in 1813. Population, in 1861, \n19,096; 1886, 41,280. \n\nHAMILTON PALACE SALE. The total \nsum realised by the sale of the vast collection of \npictures and other works of art, cabinets, crystals, \n&c. amounted to 397,562/. 20 Julj r , 1882. \n\nThe MSS. purchased by the German government ; \nreported price about 70,000?., Oct. 1882. Part \nresold to the British Museum, soon after. The \ngreater part returned to London for sale ; the \nBritish Museum bought the most valuable part \nfor 15,189?. 15s. 6c? May, 1889 \n\nSale of the united Beckford and Hamilton libraries \nrealised 86,444? 1883-4 \n\nHAMMERSMITH, a parish in S. Middlesex, \nmade a parliamentary borough in 1885, returning \none member. A suspension bridge was erected \n1825-7 ; a new one was opened by Prince Albert \n"Victor, 18 June, 1887. \n\nHAMPDEN CLUBS, see Radicals, and \nChalgrove. \n\nHAMPSTEAD, N.W. of London; originally \na chapelry of Hendon, was made a parish after the \nEeformation. The ancient chapel was taken down \n1745; and a church was consecrated, 8 Oct. 1747. \nAn act authorising the Metropolitan Board of Works \nto purchase the heath, from sir John Maryon \n"Wilson, bart., passed 29 June, 1871, and the heath \nwas formally taken possession of by the Metropo- \nlitan Board of Works, 13 Jan. 1872, 45,000/. being \npaid. Hampstead returns one M. P. by act of 1885. \nPopulation, 1881,45,452; 1891,68,425. \n\nTemporary small-pox hospital established . . 1S71 \n\nCharges of mismanagement against the officers ; \nofficial inquiry (33 meetings, from 23 Sept. to \n3 Nov.); inquiry respecting disappearance of a \nchild, Elizabeth Bellue ; medical officers exone- \nrated from blame Dec. ,, \n\nA small-pox hospital erected here by Metropolitan \nDistrict Asylum Board was much opposed, and \nled to litigation, see Trials, 1878 ; the house of \nlords on appeal decided against the inhabitants \n\n7 March, 1881 \n\nFinally the board agreed to buy the property \naffected for 20,000? Dec. 1883 \n\nThe Board voted 152,500?. towards the purchase of \n" Parliament Hill " fields, about 261 acres, as an \naddition to the heath ; the parishes of Hampstead \nand St. Pancras having voted 50,000?. . 14 Oct. 1887 \n\n\n\n50,000?. given by the Charity Commissioners andi \nabove 46,000?. subscribed by the public ; final \nmeeting of the Hampstead Heath Extension \nCommittee, 23 March, 1889. The duke of West- \nminster, chairman, and Mr. Shaw Lefevre, vice- \nchairman. \n\nFor Hampstead, or rather Kentish town murder, \nsee Ti-ials Dec. 1890 \n\nOn Easter Monday, above 100,000 persons were on \nthe heath ; 2 women and 6 boys were suffocated \nby the dense crowd descending the stairs at the \nrailway station, 6 p.m. ... 18 April, 1892 \n\nHAMPTON COTJET PALACE (Middle- \nsex), built by cardinal Wolsey on the site of the- \nmanor-house of the knights-hospitallers, and in. \n1525 presented to Henry VIII. ; perhaps the most \nsplendid offering ever made by a subject to a \nsovereign. Here Edward VI. was born, 12 Oct. \n1537 ; here his mother, Jane Seymour, died, 24 Oct. \nfollowing ; and here Mary, Elizabeth, Charles, and \nothers of our sovereigns resided. Much was pulled \ndown, and the grand inner court built by William \nIII. in 1694, when the gardens, occupying 40 acres, \nwere laid out. The vine was planted 1769. Here? \nwas held, 14-16-18 Jan. 1604, the Conference \nbetween the Puritans and the Established church \nclergy, which led to a new translation of the Bible ; \nsee Conference. An alarming fire in apartments; \nover the picture gallery extinguished ; one woman, \nsuffocated, 14 Dec. 1882. \n\nBy another fire many apartments destroyed and in- \njured, 19 Nov. 1886 ; estimated damage 20,000?. \n\nHAN APES OFFICE (of the court of chan- \ncery), where writs relating to the business of the \nsubject, and their returns, were anciently kept in \nhanaperio (in a wicker hamper) ; and those relating- \nto the crown, in parva baga (a little bag) . Hence \nthe names Hanaper and Petty Bag Office. The- \noffice was abolished in 1842. \n\nHANAU (Hesse-Cassel), incorporated 1303. \nHere a division of the combined armies of Austria) \nand Bavaria, of 30,000 men, under general Wrede, \nencountered the French, 70,000 strong, under Na- \npoleon I., on their retreat from Leipsie, 30 Oct. \n1813. The French suffered very severely, though \nthe allies were compelled to retire. The county off \nHanau was made a principality in 1803 ; seized by \nthe French in 1806 ; incorporated with the -duchy \nof Frankfort in 1809 ; restored to Hesse in 1813^ \nwhich was annexed to Prussia in 1866. \n\nHANDEL\'S COMMEMORATIONS. \n\nThe first was held in Westminster abbey, 26 May,. \n1784; king George III. and queen Charlotte, and: \nabove 3000 persons being present. The band con- \ntained 268 vocal and 245 instrumental performers^ \nand the receipts of three successive days were \n12,746/. These concerts were repeated in 1785,. \n1786, 1787, and 1791. \n\nSecond great commemoration, in the presence of king \nWilliam IV. and queen Adelaide, when there were 644. \nperformers, 24, 26, 28 June, and 1 July, 1834. \nGreat Handel festival (at the Crystal Palace) on the \ncentenary of his death, projected by the Sacred \nHarmonic Society. Grand Rehearsal at the Crystal; \nPalace, 15, 17, 19 June, 1857, and 2 July, 1858. \nPerformances : Messiah, 20 June ; Selections, 22 June ; Is- \nrael in Egypt, 24 June, 1859, when the prince consort, the \nking of the Belgians, and 26,827 persons were present. \nThere were 2765 vocal and 393 instrumental performers, \nand the performance was highly successful. The re- \nceipts amounted to about 33,000?., from which there \nwere deducted 18,000?. for expenses ; of the residue \n(15,000?.), two parts accrued to the Crystal Palace Com- \npany, and one part to the Sacred Harmonic Society. \nHandel\'s harpsichord, original scores of his oratorios, \nand other interesting relics, were exhibited. \nHandel festivals (at the Crystal Palace) : 4000 performers \xe2\x80\xa2 \nhighly successful ; 23, 25, 27 June, 1862 ; again, 26, 2S* \n\n\n\nHANDEL SOCIETIES. \n\n\n\n467 \n\n\n\nHANSE TOWNS. \n\n\n\n30 June, 1865 ; again, 15, 17, 19 June, 1868 (about \n25,000 present) ; also, 19, 21, 23 June, 1871 (about \n84,000 persons subscribed) ; also, 22, 24, 26 June, 1874 \n(total present, 78,839) ; also, 25, 27, 29 June, 1877 \n(present, 74,124) ; 18, 21, 23, 25 June, 1880 (present, \n79,643) ; 15, 18, 20, 22 June, 1883 (present, 87,769) ; \n(centenary) 22, 24, 26 June, 1885 (present, 85,437) ! 2 5j \n27, 29 June, 1888, chorus above 3,000 (present 86,337) ; \n1891, 19, 22, 24, 26 June. \n\nHANDEL SOCIETIES ; for publication of \nHandel\'s works : \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nFounded in London, 1843 ; first volume issued, 1843-4; \nsociety dissolved, 1848 ; work continued by Cramer & \nCo. completed, 1855. \n\nFounded at Leipsic, in 1856 ; publications began, 1858. \n\nHandel and Haydn Society, Boston, U.S. for perfor- \nmances only; founded 181 5. \n\nHANDKERCHIEFS, wrought and edged \nwith gold, used to be worn in England by gentle- \nmen in their hats, as favours from young ladies, \nthe value of them being from five to twelve pence \nfor each in the reign of Elizabeth, 1558. Stoiv\' s \nChron. Paisley handkerchiefs were first made in \n1743- \n\nHANDS, imposition of, was performed by Moses \nin setting apart his successor Joshua (Num. xsvii. \n23); in reception into the church, and in ordination, \nby the apostles {Acts viii. 17 ; 1 Tim. iv. 14). \n\nHANG-IN G-, Drawing, and Quarter- \ning, said to have been first inflicted upon William \nMarise, a pirate, a nobleman\'s son, 25 Hen. III., \n1241. Five gentlemen attached to the duke of \nGloucester were arraigned and condemned for trea- \nson, and at the place of execution were hanged, cut \ndown alive instantly, stripped naked, and their \nbodies marked for quartering, and then pardoned, \n25 Hen. IV. 1447. Stotv. The Cato-street con- \nspirators (which see) were beheaded after death by \nhanging, 1 May, 1820. Hanging in chains (pirates, \nmurderers, and others), an old custom, was \nabolished in 1834; see Death. \n\nHANGO BAY (Finland). On 5 June, 1855, \na boat commanded by lieut. Geneste left the \nBritish steamer Cossack with, a flag of truce to \nland some Russian prisoners. They were fired on \nby a body of riflemen, and five were killed, several \nwounded, and the rest made prisoners. The Rus- \nsian account, asserting the irregularity to have \nbeen on the side of the English, was not sub- \nstantiated. \n\nHANOVER (N. W. Germany), successively an \nelectorate, and a kingdom, chiefly composed of \nterritories which once belonged to the dukes of \nBrunswick (which see). Population of the province \nin 1859, 1,850,000; in 1875, 2,017,393; in x 885, \n2,172,702; 1890, 2,230,491; of the city, 1885, \n139,731; 1890,165,499. It was annexed to Prussia, \nwhich see, at the close of the war, 20 Sept. 1866 ; \nsee Guelph. \n\nHanover became the ninth electorate . . 19 Dec. 1692 \nSuffered much during the seven years\' war . 1756-63 \nSeized by Prussia .... 3 April, 1801 \n\nOccupied and hardly used by the French, 5 June, 1803 \n\nDelivered to Prussia in 1805 \n\nRetaken by the French 1807 \n\nPart of it annexed to Westphalia . . . . 1810 \n\nRegained for England by Bemadotte . 6 Nov. 1813 \nErected into a kingdom . . . .12 Oct. 1814 \nThe duke of Cambridge appointed viceroy, \n\nand a representative government established, \n\nNov. 1816 \n\nVisited by George IV Oct. 1821 \n\nErnest, duke of Cumberland, king . 20 June, 1837 \nHe granted a constitution with electoral rights, \n\n1848 ; which was annulled in obedience to the \n\ndecree of the federal diet . . . 12 April, 1855 \n\n\n\nThe king claims from England crown jewels, which \nbelonged to George III. (value about 120,000?.), \n1857 : by arbitration, the jewels given up . Jan. 1858 \nStade dues given up for compensation, 12 June, 1861 \nIn the war the king takes the side of Austria ; and \nthe Prussians enter and occupy Hanover, \n\n13 June, et seq. 1866 \nThe Hanoverians defeat the Prussians at Langen- \nsalza, 27 June ; but are compelled to surrender, \n\n29 June, ,, \nHanover annexed to Prussia by law, 20 Sep ; pro- \nmulgated b Oct. ,, \n\nProtest of the king of Hanover addressed to Europe \n\n23 Sept. ,, \nArrangement with Prussia by a treaty ratified \n\n18 Oct. 1867 \nThe king celebrates his " silver wedding " at Hiet- \nzing, near Vienna, expressing hopes of recovering \n\nhis kingdom, &c 18 Feb. 1868 \n\nPart of his property sequestrated by Prussia, \n\nMarch, ,, \nStill further, in consequence of his maintaining a \nHanoverian legion (the king protested against it), \n\nFeb. 1869 \nTheemperorWilliam II. warmly received at Hanover, \nduring the autumn manoeuvres . .11 Sept. 1889 \n\nELECTORS. \n\n1692. Ernest- Augustus, youngest son of George, that son \nof William, duke of Brunswick-Luneburg, who \nobtained by lot the right to marry (see Bruns- \nwick). He became bishop of Osnaburg in 1662, \nand in 1679 inherited the possessions of his \nuncle John, duke of Calenberg ; created Elector \nof Hanover in 1692. \n[He married, in 1659, the princess Soxihia, daugh- \nter of Frederick, elector palatine, and of Eliza- \nbeth, the daughter of James I. of England. In \n1701, Sophia was declared next heir to the British \ncrown, after William III., Anne, and their de- \nscendants. ] \n\n1698. George-Lewis, son of the preceding ; married his \ncousin Sophia, the heiress of the duke of Bruns- \nwick-Zell ; became king of Great Britain, 1 Aug. \n1714, as George I. \n\n1727. George-Augustus, his son (George II. of England),. \n11 June. \n\n1760. George- William-Frederick, his grandson (George \nIII. of England), 25 Oct. \n\n\n\n1814. George-William-Frederick (the precedingsovereign), \nfirst king of Hanover, 12 Oct. \n\n1820. George-Augustus-Frederick, his son (George IV. \nof England), 29 Jan. \n\n1830. William-Henry, his brother (William IV. of Eng- \nland), 26 June ; died, 20 June, 1837. \n[Hanover separated from the crown of Great \nBritain.] \n\n1837. Ernest-Augustus, duke of Cumberland, brother to \nWilliam IV. of England, on whose death he \nsucceeded (as a distinct inheritance) to the \nthrone of Hanover, 20 June. \n\n1851. George V. (born 27 May, 1819), son of Ernest ; \nascended the throne on the death of his father, \n18 Nov. His states annexed to Prussia, 20 Sept. \n1866 ; visited England, May, June, 1 876 ; died, \n12 June, 1878. \n\n1878, Ernest-Augustus II., son, born 21 Sept. 1845 ; \nniaintamed his claims in a circular to the \nsovereigns of Europe, dated 11 July, 1878 ; \nmarried princess Thyra of Denmark, 21 Dec. \n1878. See Cumberland. \n\nHANOVER SQUARE, built about 1718; \nthe concert rooms opened by John Gallini, 1 Feb. \n1775; the house taken for a club, Dec. 1874; re- \nbuilt, 1875. \n\nHANSARD\'S DEBATES, see Reporting. \n\nHANSE TOWNS. The Hanseatic league \n(from Iiansa, association), formed by port towns in \nGermany against the piracies of the Swedes and \nDanes : "began about 1140; the league signed 1241. \nAt first it consisted only of towns situate on the \ncoasts of the Baltic sea, but iu 1370 it was composed \n\nH h 2 \n\n\n\nHANSOM. \n\n\n\n468 \n\n\n\nHAEP. \n\n\n\nof sixty-six cities and forty-four confederates. The \nleague proclaimed war against Waldemar, king of \nDenmark, about the year 1348, and against Eric in \n1428, with forty ships and 12,000 regular troops, \nbesides seamen. On this several princes ordered \nthe merchants of their respective kingdoms to with- \ndraw their effects. The Thirty years\' war in Ger- \nmany (1618-48) broke up the strength of the asso- \nciation, and in 1630 the only towns retaining the \nname were Liibeck, Hamburg, and Bremen. The \nleague suffered also by the rise of the commerce of \nthe Low Countries in the 15th century. Their \nprivileges by treaty in England were abolished by \nElizabeth in 1578. \n\nHANSOM, see Cabriolets. \n\nHANWELL LUNATIC ASYLUM, for \n\nMiddlesex, established 1831. \n\nHAPSBURG (Habsbtjbg or Habichts- \n\nBUKG), HOUSE OF, the family from which the \nimperial house of Austria sprang in the nth cen- \ntury, Werner being the first named count of Habs- \nburg, 1096. Hapsburg was an ancient castle of \nSwitzerland, on a lofty eminence near Schintznach. \nEodolph, count of Hapsburg, became archduke of \nAustria, and emperor of Germany, 1273 ; see \nAustria, and Germany. \n\nHARBOURS. England has many fine natural \niarbours; the Thames (harbour, dock, and depbt), \nPortsmouth, Plymouth, &c. Acts for the improve- \nment of harbours, &c, were passed in 1847, 1861, \nand 1862. \n\nHAEES AND EABBITS ACT. See \n\nGame. \n\nHAEFLEUE, seaport, N.W. France, taken \nby Henry V., 22 Sept. 1415. \n\nHAELAW (Aberdeenshire), the site of a \ndesperate indecisive battle between the earl of \nMar, with the royal army, and Donald, the lord of \nthe Isles, who aimed at independence, 24 July, 141 1. \nThis conflict was very disastrous to the nobility, \nsome houses losing all their males. \n\nHAELEIAN LIBEAEY, containing 7000 \nmanuscripts, besides rare printed books, bought by \nEdward Harley, afterwards earl of Oxford and \nMortimer, 1705, et seq., is now in the British \nMuseum. A large portion of his life and wealth \n\xe2\x96\xa0was spent on the collection. He died 21 May, \n1724. The Harleian Miscellany, a selection from \nthe MSS. and Tracts of his library, was published \nin 1744 and 1808. \nHaelbian Society, founded in 1869 for the publication \n\nof heraldic visitations, &c. \n\nHAELEY ADMINISTRATION, see Ox- \nford. \n\nHAELEY STEEET, London, W. At No. \n139, the house inhabited by Mr. Henriques, the de- \ncomposed body of a woman, stabbed in the breast \nand covered with chloride of lime, was found 3 \nJune ; verdict of coroner\'s inquest, wilful murder \nby person unknown, 14 June, 1880. \n\nHAEMONICA, or musical glasses (tuned by \nregulating the amount of water, and played by a \nmoistened finger on the rim), were played 011 by \nGluck in London, 23 April, 1746 ; "arranged" by \nPuckeridge and Delaval, and improved by Dr. \nFranklin in 1760; Mozart, Beethoven, and others \ncomposed for this instrument ; see Copophone. \n"Harmonicon," an excellent musical periodical, \nedited by "W. Ayrton, Jan. 1823 \xe2\x80\x94 Sept. 1833. \n\n\n\nHAEMONICHOED, a keyed instrument, in \nwhich sounds are produced by friction, invented by \nTh. Kauff\'mann in 18 10. \n\nHAEMONISTS, a sect, founded in Wiirtem- \nberg by George and Frederick Bapp, about 1780. \nNot much is known of their tenets, but they held \ntheir property in common, and considered marriage \na civil contract. They emigrated to America, and \nbuilt New Harmony in Indiana in 1815. Bobert \nOwen purchased this town about 1823 ; but failed \nin his scheme at establishing a "social" community \nand returned to England : see Socialists. The \nHarmonists removed to Pittsburg in Pennsylvania \nin 1822. \n\nHAEMONIUM, a keyed instrument, resem- \nbling the accordion, the tones being generated by \nthe action of wind upon metallic reeds. The \nChinese were well acquainted with the effects pro- \nduced by vibrating tongues of metal. M. Biot \nstated, in 1810, that they were used musically by \nM. Grenie ; and in 1827-29, free reed stops were \nemployed in organs at Beauvais and Paris. The \nbest known harmoniums in England are those of \nAlexandre and Debain, the latter claiming to be the \noriginal maker of the French instrument. In 1841, \nMr. W. E. Evans, of Cheltenham, produced his \nEnglish harmonium, then termed the Organ-Har- \nmonica, and by successive improvements he produced \na fine instrument, with diapason quality, and great \nrapidity of speech, without loss of power. \n\nHAEMON Y, the combination of musical notes \nof different pitch, appears not to have been practised \nby the Greeks. \nHucbald, a Flemish monk, published combinations in \n\nhis " Enchiridion Music*," 9th century. \nHarmony greatly promoted by Palestrina, and especially \n\nby Monteverde. \nJean de Muris wrote "Ars Contrapuncti " in 14th \n\ncentury. \nFrancis of Cologne described " descant," 1600. \nBeethoven greatly enlarged the range of harmonic bases. \n\nHAENESS, chariots and the leathern dress- \nings used for horses to draw them, are said to have \nbeen the invention of Erichthonius of Athens, who \nwas made a constellation after his death, under the \nname of Bootes (Greek for ploughman), about \n1487 B.C. \n\nHAEO, CRY OF {Clameur de Haro), tradition- \nally derived from Baoul, or Bollo, of Normandy, \nancestor of our Norman princes of England. Bollo \nadministered justice so well, that injured persons \nuttered the cry "7T\xc2\xab Rou ! Ha Rou ! A monaide, \nmon prince, on me fait tort." The cry was raised \nin a church in Jersey in 1859. It has now no legal \neffect. \n\nHAEP. Invented by Jubal, 387; B.C. {Gen. iv. \n\n2l). David played the harp before Saul, 1063 B.C. \n\n(1 Saw. xvi. 23.) The Cimbri, or English Saxons, \n\nhad this instrument. The celebrated Welsh harp \n\nwas strung with gut; and the Irish harp, like the \n\nmore ancient harps, with wire. Erard\'s improved \n\nharps were first patented in 1795. \n\nOne of the most ancient harps existing is that of Brian \n\nBoroimhe, monarch of Ireland : it was given by his \n\nson Donagh to pope John XVIII., together with the \n\ncrown and other regalia of his father, in order to obtain \n\nabsolution for the murder of his brother Teig. Adrian \n\nIV. alleged this as being one of his principal titles to \n\nthe kingdom of Ireland in his bull transferring it to \n\nHenry II. This harp was given by Leo X. to \n\nHenry VIII., who in\'esented it to the first earl of \n\nClanriearde : it then came into possession of the family \n\nof De Burgh ; next into that of MacMahon of Clenagh, \n\ncounty of Clare ; afterwards into that of MacNamara \n\nof Limerick; and was at length deposited by the right \n\n\n\nHARPER\'S FERRY. \n\n\n\n469 \n\n\n\nHATFIELD\'S ATTEMPT. \n\n\n\nhon. William Conyngham in tlie College Museum, \nDublin, in 1782. \nThe claviharp, fitted like the pianoforte with a keyboard, \nand played like the pianoforte, was introduced into \nBrussels and Antwerp by Mdlle. Dratz, and played on \nby her at Prince\'s Hall, London, 13 March, 1888. \n\nHARPER\'S FERRY (Virginia), see United \nStates, 1859-62. \n\nHARPSICHORD, see Pianoforte, note. \n\nHARRISON\'S TIME-PIECE, made by \nJohn Harrison, of Foulby, near Pontefract. In \n1714, the government offered rewards for methods \nof determining the longitude at sea ; Harrison came \nto London, and produced his first time-piece in \n1735 ; his second in 1739; his third in 1749; and \nhis fourth, which procured him the reward of \n20,000^. offered by the Board of longitude, a few years \nafter. He obtained 10,000/. of his reward in 1764, \nand other sums, more than 24,000/. in all, for fur- \nther improvements in following years. \nIn the patent museum at South Kensington is an eight- \nday clock made by Harrison in 171 5. It strikes the \nhour, indicates the day of the month, and with one \nexception (the escapement) its wheels are entirely \nmade of wood. The clock was going in 1871. \n\nHARROGATE (Yorkshire). The first or old \nspa in Rnaresborough forest was discovered by capt. \nSlingsby in 157 1 : a dome was erected over the well \nby lord Rosshn in 1786. Two other chalybeate \nsprings are the Alum well and the Towit spa. The \nsulphureous well was discovered in 1783. The \ntheatre was erected in 1788. The Bath hospital was \nerected by subscription in 1825. Population, 188 1, \n9,482 ; 1S91, 13,917. \n\nHARROW -ON -THE -HILL SCHOOL \n\n(Middlesex), founded and endowed by John Lyon \nin 1 57 1. To encourage archery, the founder . in- \nstituted a prize of a silver arrow to be shot for \nannually on the 4th of August ; but the custom has \nbeen abolished. Lord Palmerston, sir R. Peel, the \nstatesman, and lord Byron, the poet, were educated \nhere. The school building suffered b} r fire, 22 Oct. \n1 838. The school arrangements were modified by \nthe public schools act, 1868. Charles II. called \nHarrow church " the visible church." \n\nHARTLEPOOL, E. Durham, an ancient sea- \nport, said to have been burnt by the Danes, 800, \nfortified by the Braces and others, and chartered by \nJohn. The foundation of West Hartlepool, with \nits harbour, docks, churches, &c, is due to the \nsagacity, skill, and energy of Mr. Ralph Ward \nJackson. The work began in 1844, and the harbour \n\xe2\x96\xa0was opened 1 June, 1847. The population, about \n400 in 1840, was 16,998 in 1881 ; and 21,521 in \n1891. West Hartlepool, 1881,29,448; 1891,42,492. \nMr. R. W. Jackson, first M.P. for "The Hartle- \npool*" in 1868-74. died 6 Aug. 1880, muchhonoured \nat home and abroad. \n\nHARTLEY COAL MINE (Northumber- \nland). On 16 Jan. 1862, one of the iron beams, \nabout 20 tons weight, at the mouth of the ventilating \nshaft, broke and fell, destroyed the brattice, divided \nthe shaft, and carried down sufficient timber to kill \nfive men who were ascending the shaft, and buried \nalive 202 persons, men and boys. Several days \nelapsed before the bodies could be removed. Much \nsympathy w as shown by the queen and the public, \nand about 70,000/. were collected for the bereaved \nfamilies. The coroner\'s verdict asserted the neces- \nsity of two shafts to coal mines, and recommended \nthat the beams of colliery engines should be of \nmalleable instead of cast iron. \n\n\n\nHARTWELL (Buckinghamshire), the retreat \nof Louis XVIII. , king of France, 1807-14. He \nlanded in England at Yarmouth, 6 Oct. 1807, took \nup his residence at Gosfield-hall, in Essex, and \nafterwards came to Hartwell, as the count de Lille. \nHis consort died here in 1810. On his restoration, \nhe embarked at Dover for France, 24 April, 1814. \nSee France. \n\nHARUSPICES, priests or soothsayers, of \nEtruscan origin, who foretold events from observ- \ning entrails of animals. They were introduced to \nRome by Romulus (about 750 B.C.), and abolished \nby Constantiue, a.d. 337, at which time they were \nseventy in number. \n\nHARVARD COLLEGE, Cambridge (Mas- \nsachusetts, JS\'orth America), was founded by the \ngeneral court at Boston, on 28 Oct. 1636. It derived \nits name from John Harvard, of Emmanuel College, \nCambridge, who bequeathed to it his library and a \nsum of money in 1638. 250th anniversary of its \nfoundation kept 6-8 Nov. 1886. \n\nHARVEIAN ORATION. William Harvey \nbequeathed his property to the Royal College_ of \nPhysicians. The annual delivery of the oration \nbegan in 1656. See under Stood. \n\nHARWICH, a sea-port, Essex, a Roman \nstation, and the Saxon Harewic ; chartered by \nEdwd. 2nd ; absorbed into Essex, 1885. \n\nNear here Alfred defeated the Danish fleet. \nParkeston, the new port near Harwich, was constructed \nin 1882. \n\nHASTINGS, a cinque-port, Sussex; said to \nowe its name to the Danish pirate Hastinge, who \nbuilt forts here, about S93 ; but Mr. Kemble thinks \nit was the seat of a Saxou tribe named Hastingas- \nAt Senlac, now Battle, near Hastings, more than \n30,000 were slain in the conflict between Harold II> \nof England and William duke of Normandy, the \nformer losing his life and kingdom, 14 Oct. 1066, \nhis birthday. He and his two brothers were interred \nat Waltham abbey, Essex. The new town, St. \nLeonard\' s-on-sea, was begun in 1828. A new pier \nhere was inaugurated by earl Granville, 5 Aug. \n1872. New town-hall opened by the mayor, 7 \nSept. 1881. Convalescent home and Alexandra \nPark opened by the prince of Wales, 26 June, 1882. \nMarine parade much damaged by high tide, 24 Nov. \n1882. Great conservative meeting, powerful speech \nof the marquis of Salisbury, 18 May, 1892. Popu- \nlation, 1881,42,258; 1891,52,340. \n\nHASTINGS\' TRIAL. Warren Hastings, \ngovernor-general of India, was tried by the peers of \nGreat Britain for high crimes and misdemeanours. \nAmong other charges was his acceptance of a present \nof 100,000/. from the nabob of Oude ; see Chunar, \nTreaty of. The trial occupied 145 days, and lasted \nseven years and three months ; commencing 13 \nFeb. 1788, terminating in his acquittal, 23 April, \n1795. Mr. Sheridan\'s speech on the impeachment \nexcited great admiration. \n\nHastings was born in 1732 ; went to India as a writer in \n1750; became governor-general of Bengal in 1772 : of \nIndia, 177^ ; governed ably, but, it is said, unscrupu- \nlously and" tyrannically, till he resigned in 1785. The \nexpenses of his trial (70,000?.) were paid by the East \nIndia Company ; and a pension was granted to him. \nHe died a privy-councillor in 1818. \n\nHATELEY FIELD, see Shrewsbury. \n\nHATFIELD\'S ATTEMPT. On 15 May, \n1800, during a review in Hyde-park, a shot from an \nundiscovered hand was fired, which wounded a \nyoung gentleman who stood near king Geo. III. In \nthe evening, when his majesty was at Drury-lane \n\n\n\nHATHEELEY\'S ACT. \n\n\n\n470 \n\n\n\nHAYTI. \n\n\n\ntheatre, Hatfield fired a pistol at him. Hatfield \nwas confined as a lunatic till his death, 23 Jan. 1841, \naged 69 years : \n\nHATHEELEY\'S ACT, see Bankrupt. \nHATS, first made by a Swiss at Paris, 1404. \nWhen Charles VII. made his triumphal entry into \nEouen, in 1449, he wore a hat lined with red velvet, \nand surmounted with a rich plume of feathers. \nHenceforward, hats and caps, at least in France, \nbegan to take the place of chaperons and hoods. \nHenault. Hats were first manufactured in England \nby Spaniards in 1510. Stow. Very high-crowned \nhats were worn by queen Elizabeth\'s courtiers ; and \nhigh crowns were again introduced in 1783. A \nstamp-duty laid upon hats in 1784, and in 1796, \nwas repealed in 181 1. Silk hats began to supersede \nbeaver about 1820. \n\nNone allowed to sell any hat for above 20& nor cap for \nabove 2s. 8&, 5 Henry VII. 1489. Every person above \nseven years of age to wear on Sundays and holidays, a \ncap of wool, knit, made, thickened, and dressed in \nEngland by some of the trade of cappers, under the \nforfeiture of three farthings for every day\'s neglect, \n1571. Excepted : maids, ladies, and gentlewomen, and \nevery lord, knight, and gentleman, of twenty marks of \nland, and their heirs, and such as had borne office of \nworship, in any city, town, or place, and the wardens \nof London companies, 1571. \n\nHATTEEAS EXPEDITION, see United \nStates, Aug. 1861. \n\nHATTON GAEDEN, now covered by a mass \nof houses, was formerly the garden of a palace of \nthe bishop of Ely, demised to the crown and \ngiven by queen Elizabeth to sir Christopher Hatton, \nthe lord keeper, who died 20 Nov. 1591. See \nJewel Robberies. \n\nHAU-HAU FANATICS, see New Zealand, \n1865. \n\nHAVANNAH, capital of Cuba, West Indies, \nfounded by Velasquez, 15 1 1 19; taken by lord Albe- \nmarle, 14 Aug. 1762; restored, 1763; the remains \n\xe2\x96\xa0of Columbus were brought from St Domingo and \n-deposited in the Cathedral here, 1795. By an ex- \nplosion of gunpowder here, 34 persons were killed, \n=and about 100 injured, 17 May, 1890. \n\nHAVEE-DE-GEACE (N. W. France) was \ndefended for the Huguenots by the English in 1562 ; \nwho, however, were expelled in 1563. It was bom- \nbarded by Rodney, 6 to 9 July, 1759; by sir Richard \nStrachan, 25 May, 1798; and blockaded, 6 Sept. \n1803. The attempts of the British to burn the \nshipping here failed, 7 Aug. 1804. The Inter- \nnational Maritime Exhibition here opened, 1 June, \n1868; another exhibition, 7 May, 1887. The volun- \nteers visited Havre : began to shoot, 26 May ; 50 \nBritish received prizes, 29 June, 1874. The French \nAssociation for Science met here, 30 Aug. 1877. \nPopulation, 1891, 109,541. \n\nHAWAII, see Owhyhcc, and Sandwich Isles. \n\nHAWKEES AND PEDLARS were first \nlicensed in 1698. Licensing commissioners were \nappointed in 1810. The expense of licensing was \nreduced in 1861, and regulated by the Pedlars\' Act, \n1871. Exemptions from charges ou licences \ngranted by the Hawkers Act, 1888. \n\nHAWKING, see Falconry. \n\nHAY, average value of the produce of the United \nfiingdom in 1874, 48,000,000^, Hay-making ma- \nchinery exhibited at Taunton, July, 1875. Mr. \n\xc2\xa5m. A. Gibbs\'s apparatus, with artificial heat for \ndrying hay, corn, &c. : tried atGilwell Park. Ching- \nford, Essex, reported successful, 3 July, 1875 ; at other \n\n\n\nplaces in July, 1880. His drying machines used \nfor other purposes, such as gunpowder works (1885). \nSee Ensilage. \n\nHAYMAN CASE, see Rugby. \n\nHAYMAEKET (Westminster), opened in \n1664, was removed to Cumber laud-market, I Jan. \n1831. The Haymarket theatre was opened in 1702; \nsee Theatres. \n\nHAYTI or HAITI, Indian name of a West \nIndian island, discovered by Columbus in Dec. \n1492, and named Hispaniola, and afterwards St. \nDomingo. Before the Spaniards fully conquered \nit, thej r are said to have destroyed, in battle or cold \nblood, three million of its inhabitants, including \nwomen and children, 1495. The island now com- \nprises the Dominican republic {which see) in the \neast, and the republic of Hayti in the west. The \npopulation of Hayti in 1887 was about 550,000 ; \ncapital, Port-au-Prince. \n\nHayti seized by the filibusters and French bucca- \nneers 1630 \n\nThe French government took possession of the \n\nwhole colony 1677 \n\nThe negroes revolt against France . . 23 Aug. 1791 \nAnd massacre nearly all the whites 21-23 June, 1793 \nThe French directory recognise Toussaint l\'Ouver- \n\nture as general -in-chief 1794 \n\nThe eastern part of the island ceded to France by \n\nSpain 1795 \n\nToussaint establishes an independent republic in \n\nSt. Domingo 9 May, 1801 \n\nHe surrenders to the French ... 7 May, 1802 \nIs conducted to France, where he dies . . . 1803 \nA new insurrection, under the command of Dessa- \n\nlines; the French quit the island . . Nov. ,, \nDessalines proclaims the massacre of all the whites, \n29 March ; crowned emperor of Hayti, as Jacques I. , \n\nOct. 1804 \nHe is assassinated, and the isle divided 17 Oct. 1806 \nHenry Christophe, a man of colour, president in \nFeb. 1807 ; crowned emperor by the title of Henry \nI., while Pethion rules as president at Port-au- \nPrince March, 18 n \n\nNumerous black nobility and prelates created . ,, \nPethion dies ; Boyer elected president . May, 1818 \nChristophe commits suicide, Oct. 1820; the two \nstates united under Boyer as regent for life, Nov. \n1820; who is recognised by France . . . 1825 \n\nRevolution : Boyer deposed 1843 \n\nSt. Domingo and the eastern part of Hayti pro- \nclaim the "Dominican republic" Feb. 1844 ; recog- \nnised by France, 1848 ; Buenoventura Baez, \n\npresident 1849-53 \n\nHayti proclaimed an empire under its late president \nSolouque, who takes the title of Faustin I., \n26 Aug. 1849; crowned . . . 18 April, 1S52 \nSantana, president of the Dominican republic, \n\n1853-6; succeeded by B. Baez .... 1856-8 \nFaustin attacking the republic of St. Domingo, \n\nrepulsed 1 Feb. 1856 \n\nRevolution in Hayti: general Fabre Geffrard pro- \nclaims the republic of Hayti . . 22 Dec. 1858 \n\nFaustin abdicates 15 Jan. 1859 \n\nGeffrard takes oath as president of Hayti 23 Jan. ,, \nSixteen persons executed for a conspiracy against \n\nGeffrard Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nJose Valverde elected president of the republic of \n\nSt. Domingo, or Dominican republic . March, 1858 \nSpanish emigrants land : a declaration for reunion \nwith Spain signed 18 March, decreed by the \n\nqueen 20 May, 1861 \n\nInsurrection against Spain in St. Domingo, 18 Aug. 1863 \nA Spanish force sent; the insurgents generally \n\ndefeated 1864 \n\nGreat fire at Port-au-Prince; 600 houses destroyed, \n\n23 Feb. 1865 \nSt. Domingo renounced by Spain . . 5 May, ,, \nMilitary insurrection under Salnave against Gef- \nfrard, 7 May; Cape Hayti seized . . 9 May, ,, \nCabral provisional president of St. Domingo, Sept. \n1865 ; B. Baez proclaimed president . 14 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nHAYTI. \n\n\n\n471 \n\n\n\nHEAT. \n\n\n\nValdrogue, a rebel vessel, fires into British Jamaica \npacket, near Acul, St. Domingo, 22 Oct. ; C\'apt. \nWake, H. M. S. Bulldog, threatens Valdrogue ; \n.Salnave orders the removal of refugees from \nBritish consulate at Cape Hayti, shoots them, \nand destroys the building. The Bulldog, failing \nto obtain satisfaction, shells the fort, sinks the \nValdrogue, but gets on a reef; the crew is taken \nout, and she is blown up. H.M.S. Galatea and \nLily take the other forts and give them up to \nGerhard ; the rebels flee inland . . 9 Nov. \n\nCapt. Wake censured by court-martial for losing \nhis ship Jan. \n\nHayti \xe2\x80\x94 another revolt against Geffrard suppressed, \n\n5-1 1 July, \n\nRevolution ; Geffrard flies ; banished for ever ; \nSalnave president of Hayti . . 27 March, \n\n.New constitution June, \n\nRevolution caused by Pimentel ; Baez flies ; Cabral \nbecomes president of St. Domingo . . June, \n\nRevolt against Salnave .... Sept. \n\nThe ex-emperor Faustin (born a slave, 1791), died \n\nAug. \n\nCity of San Domingo nearly destroyed by the \nhurricane 30 Oct. \n\nB. Baez, president of Dominican republic, March, \n\nInsurrection against Salnave, 10 May ; said to be \nsuccessful, 26 May; English consul protecting \nforeigners June, \n\nSalnave defeats insurgents, and kills his prisoners, \n\n3 June, \n\nSalnave proclaims himself emperor, Aug. ; offers an \namnesty Oct. \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Civil war continued : Saget and Dominguez pro- \nclaimed president by their respective followers, \n\nOct. \n\nSalnave, finally defeated, flies to the woods, 18 Dec. \n1868 ; captured, tried, and shot . . 15 Jan. \n\nSale of Samana bay to the United States discussed, \n\nJan. \n\nGen. Nissage Saget elected president of Hayti for \nfour years (from 15 May) . . -19 March, \n\nBaez supports an insurrection against Hayti Aug. \n\nTranquillity of Hayti reported by Saget . 9 May, \n\nGen. Gaiiier d\'Aton, president of St. Domingo, \n\nOct. \n\nMichel Domingue elected president of Hayti (from \n15 May) 14 June, \n\nInsurrection in St. Domingo in favour of Baez, \n\n30 Aug. \n\nInsurrection headed by Louis Tanis about 7 March, \n\nCruel executions of suspected persons by presi- \ndent Domingue .... 20 March \n\nInsurrection successful, Domingue flies to St. \nThomas\'s middle of April \n\nElection of Boisrond Canal as president of Hayti, \n\n19 July, \n\nPeaceful revolution in St. Domingo; president \nEspaillat replaced by Gonzales . . . Oct. \n\nInsurrection in St. Domingo ; city surrounded by \n\nGuillermo aud Bellini ; Baez almost powerless, \n\nabout 22 Feb. \n\nGuillermo declared president . . March, \n\nRevolution ; hard fighting ; Boisrond Canal resigns ; \n\nabout 17 July, \n\nGen. Salomon elected president of Hayti 22 Oct. \n[re-elected 14 July, 1886] \n\nHayti reported tranquil . . . . 1 Jan. \n\nDon Fernando Arturo de Marino, a priest, president \nof San Domingo, Oct. 1880 ; said to become dic- \ntator June, \n\nRevolution broke out March 25, and government \ntroops defeated .... 31 March, \n\nBridge exploded by rebels, about 2000 killed May, \n\nInsurrection nearly quelled ; amnesty proclaimed \nend of June \n\nFresh insurrection ; battle at Jacmel indecisive \n\n3 Aug. \n\nNegro insurrection at Port-au-Prince, suppressed \nafter damage to persons and property 22 Sept. \n\nAlp, British steamer, fired on by the government Oct. \n\nDeath of the rebel leader Bazelais ; surrender of \nrebel town Jeremie, announced 26 Dec; collapse \nof the insurrection . . . about 10 Jan. \n\nGen. F. Bellini proclaimed president of San Domingo \n\n11 Aug. \n\nSir Spencer St. John in his Black Republic describes \n\n\n\n1870 \n\n\n\n1871 \n1872 \n\n1873 \n\n1874 \n\n1875 \n\n\n\n1877 \n\n\n\nthe degraded, profligate, cruelly savage condition \n\nof Hayti 1884 \n\nGeneral Ulises Heureaux elected president of San \nDoviingo for 1886-8 . . . 28 June, 1886 \n\nInsurrection ; rebels defeated : reported 14 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNational bank of Hayti ; mysterious disappearance \nof bonds and cheques ; M. Vouillon, the director, \ncharges Mr. D\'Almena (American), sub-manager, \nand Mr. Coles (British), accountant, with theft, \nand others with receiving, summer 1884 ; prisoners \ntried, at first acquitted, afterwards illegally \nconvicted and imprisoned ; the American, French, \nand British governments protest ; British squad- \nron at Port-au-Prince ; prisoners released 1885-6 \n\nRevolution in Hayti; gen. Salomon deposed ; arrives \nin Cuba 16 Aug. ; dies at Paris . . 19 Oct. 1888 \n\nInsurrection of gen. Telemaque ; in an attack on \nthe Palais National at Port-au-Prince killed with \n300 of his followers 29 Sept. ; civil war between \nnorth and south Hayti Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGen. Legitime elected president . . 22 Oct. ,, \n\nCape Haytien bombarded . ... 7 Dec. ,, \n\nGen. Hippolyte installed president at Haytien ; \nannounced 1 Jan. 1889 \n\nIndecisive conflict between gens. Hippolyte and \nLegitime .21 Dec. 188S \n\nGeneral Legitime recognised as president by Great \nBritain and France Feb. 1S89 \n\nPresident Legitime defeated by gen. Hippolyte ; \nreported 29 Jan. ,, \n\nGen. Hippolyte defeated about . . 20 Feb. ,, \n\nDessalines captured ; announced . 16 April, ,, \n\nReported advance of Gen. Hippolyte on Port-au- \nPrince 28 May ,, \n\nThe blockade of Haytian ports, of November last- \ndeclared to be non-effective, and the ports to be \nopen; London Gazette . . . 12 July, ,, \n\nUnsuccessful attacks of gen. Hippolyte on Port-au- \nPrince . . -ii, 12, and about 25 July ,, \n\nPort-au-Prince surrendered to gen. Hippolyte by \ngen. Legitime (who goes to France) . 24 Aug. ,, \n\nGen. Hippolyte elected president . . 16 Oct. ,, \n\nGen. Hippolyte confirmed as president . 15 May, 1890 \n\nAttempted revolution at Port-au-Prince suppressed \nwith bloodshed, about 30 killed . . 28 May, 1891 \n\nM. Rigaud, French citizen, shot; 80,000 francs paid \nto his widow by the Haytian government . \n\nreported 20 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe ministry censured by the chamber, then re- \nsigns 15 Aug. ,, \n\nNew cabinet formed . . . . 17 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBy an overflow of the river St. Marc, about 80 lives \nlost 14 Aug. ,, \n\nAn amnesty proclaimed .... 10 Dec. ,, \n\nHEAD ACT, see Ireland, 1465. \nHEALTH, General Board of, was \n\nappointed by the act for the promotion of the \npublic health, passed in 1848. This board was \nreconstructed in Aug. 1854, and sir Benjamin \nHall was placed at its head, with a salary of \n2000I. ; succeeded by "W. F. Cowper, Aug. 1855, \nand by Ch. B. Adderley in 1858. In 1858 this board \nwas incorporated into the privy council establish- \nment; Dr. Simon being retained as medical officer. \nSee Ilyqiene, Bi/r/eiojjolis, Sanitation, Exhibitions, \nPublic Health, &c. \n\nHEARTH, or Chimney, Tax, on every \nfire-place or hearth in England, was imposed by \nCharles II. in 1662, "when it produced about \n200,0001\'. a year. It was abolished by William and \nMary at the Revolution in 1689 ; imposed again, \nand again abolished. \n\nHEAT (called by French chemists Caloric). \nLittle progress had been made in the study of the \nphenomena of heat till about 1757, when Joseph \nBlack put forward his theory of latent heat (heat, \nbe said, being absorbed by melting ice), and of \nspecific heat. Cavendish, Lavoisier, and others, \ncontinued Black\'s researches. Sir John Leslie put \nforth his views on radiant heat in 1804. Count \nllumford put forth the theory that heat consists in \n\n\n\nHEBREWS. \n\n\n\n472 \n\n\n\nHELIGOLAND. \n\n\n\nmotion among the particles of matter, which view \nhe supported by experiments on friction (recorded \nin 1802). This theory (now called the dynamical \nor mechanical theory of heat, and used to explain \nall the phenomena of physics and chemistry) has \nheen further substantiated by the independent re- \nsearches of Dr. J. Meyer of Heilbronn and of Mr. \nJames P. Joule of Manchester, who assert that \nheat is the equiyalent of work done. Mr. Joule, \nin his papers published 1841-2, laid the foundation \nof the science of thermo-ds namics, on which he \nworked till his death, 11 Oct. 1889. The Joule \nMemorial fund proposed, 30 Nov. 1889, was insti- \ntuted by the Royal Society, Jan. 1890. In 1854, \nSir William Thomson, of Glasgow, published his \nresearches on the dynamical power of the sun\'s rays. \nThermo-electricity, produced by heating pieces of \ncopper and bismuth soldered together, was discovered \nby Seebeck in 1823. A powerful thermo-electric \nbattery was constructed by Marcus of Vienna, in \n1865. Professor Tyndall\'s "Heat, a Mode of \nMotion," first published Feb. 1863, third edition, \n1868, sixth edition, 1880. The researches of \nphilosophers are still devoted to this subject; see \nBoiling Colore seer/ ce. Greatest heat in the hot \nsummer of 1868 : at Nottingham, in sun, 122-4; m \nshade, 92-2, 22 July, I p.m. : 14 Aug. 18/6, 95-7 in \nthe shade; 147 m sun; 26 June, 1878, 95 in the shade. \nSir George Cayley invented a heated-air engine in 1807, \nand Mr. Stirling applied it to raising water in Ayr- \nshire in 1818. One invented by Mr. Wenham was \ndescribed in 1S73. Improvements have been made by \nC. Wm. Siemens. Coal gas is generally employed. \xe2\x80\x94 \nSee Gas Engines. \nCaptain JohnEricsson constructed a ship, in which caloric, \nor heat, was the motive power. On 4 Jan. 1853, it sailed \ndown the bay of New York, at the rate of 14 miles an \nhour, it is said at a cost of 80 per cent, less than steam. \nAlthough caloric engines were not successful, capt. \nEricsson continued his experiments, and patented an \nimproved engine in 1856. In 1868 he proposed con- \ndensation of the sun\'s rays, and their employment as \na motive power ; in March, 1889, he exhibited his \napparatus in New York shortly before his death, \naged 86. \nMr. C. Prince states that on 14 July, 1847, the temperature \nwas 98\xc2\xb0 in the shade at Uckfleld, Sussex. In London, \n94\xc2\xb0- 1 in the shade, 15 July, 1881. In London, W. \n11 Aug. 1884, in the shade, 92\'6. In Princetown, \nDartmoor, 94\xc2\xb0 in the shade, 24 July, 1885. London, \n91\xc2\xb0 in the shade, 31 Aug. 1885. See United States, 1892. \n\nHEBREWS; see Jews. The Epistle to the \nHebrews ascribed to St. Paul is dated 64. The \nchief classic authors of all nations, except Greece, \nhave been translated into Hebrew. \n\nHEBRIDES (the Ebuda of Ptolemy and the \nHebudes of Pliny), western isles of Scotland, long \nsubject to Norway ; ceded to Scotland in 1264 ; and \nannexed to the Scottish crown in 1540 by James V. \nThe heritable jurisdictions were abolished in \n1747- \n\nHEBRON (in Palestine). Here Abraham re- \nsided, i860 B.C. ; and here David was made king of \nJudah, 1048 B.C. On 7 April, 1862, the prince of \nWales visited the reputed cave of Machpelah, near \nHebron, said to contain the remains of Abraham \nand his descendants. \n\nHECATOMB, an ancient sacrifice of a hundred \noxen, particularly observed by the Lacedaemonians \nwhen they possessed a hun dred cities. The sacrifice \nwas subsequently reduced to twenty -three oxen, and \ngoats and lambs were substituted. \n\nHECLA, MOUNT (Iceland). Its first re- \ncorded eruption is 1004. About twenty-two erup- \ntions have taken place, according to Olasson and \nPaulson. Great convulsions of this mountain oc- \n\n\n\ncurred in 1766, since when a visit to the top in \nsummer is not attended with great difficulty. Per- \nhaps the most awful volcanic eruption on record \ntook place in 1784-5, when rivers were dried up, \nand many villages overwhelmed or destroyed. The- \nmount was in a state of violent eruption from 2 Sept. \n1845, to April, 1846. Three new craters were- \nformed, from which pillars of fire rose to the height \nof 14,000 English feet. The lava formed several \nhills, and pieces of pumice stone and scoriae of 2 \ncwt. were thrown to a distance of a league and a half - \nthe ice and snow which had covered the mountain \nfor centuries melted into prodigious floods. \n\nHEGIRA, EBA OF THE, dates from the flight \n(Arabic hejra) of Mahomet, from Mecca to Medina, \non the night of Thursday, 15 July, 622. The era \ncommences on the 16th. Some compute this era \nfrom the 15th, but Cantemir proves that the 16th \nwas the fir&t day. 33 of its lunar years are equal to \n32 of tho.-e of the vulgar era. \n\nHEIDELBERG (Germany) was the capital \nof the Palatinate, 1362- 17 19. The protestant elec- \ntoral house becoming extinct in 1693, a war ensued, \nin which the castle was ruined, and the elector \nremoved his residence to Mannheim. It was an- \nnexed to Baden in 1802. Here was the celebrated \ntun, constructed in 1343, when it contained twenty- \none pipes of wine. Another was made in 1664, \nwhich held 600 hogsheads. It was destroyed by the \nFrench in 1688 ; but a larger one, fabricated in \n1 75 1, which held 800 hogsheads, and was formerly \nkept full of the best Khenish wine, is said to be \nmouldering in a damp vault, empty, since 1769. \nPopulation, 1890, 31,737. \n\nThe anniversary of the foundation of the university in \n13S6 was enthusiastically celebrated early in August! \n1886. \n\nHELDER POINT (Holland). The fort and \nthe Dutch fleet lying in the Texel surrendered to \nthe British under the duke of York and sir Ealph \nAbercromby, for the prince of Orange, after a con- \nflict. 540 British were killed, 30 Aug. 1799. The \nplace was left in Oct. ; see Bergen. \n\nHELENA, ST., an island in the South Atlantic \nOcean, discovered by the Portuguese under Juan d\xc2\xae \nNova Castilla, on St. Helena\'s day, 21 May, 1502.\' \nThe Dutch afterwards held it until 1600, when they \nwere expelled by the English. The British East \nIndia Company settled here in 165 1 ; and the \nisland was alternately possessed by the English ami \nDutch until 1673, when Charles II., on 12 Dec, \nassigned it to the company once more. St. Helena \nwas the place of Napoleon\'s captivity, 16 Oct. 18 15 ; \nand here he died, 5 May, 1821. His remains were \nremoved in 1840, and interred at the Hotel des In- \nvalides, Paris ; see France, 1840. The house and \ntomb have been purchased by the French govern- \nment. The bishopric was founded in 1859. \nGovernor, adm. sir Cha*. Elliot, 1863-9 > adm. \nCharles George Edward Patey, 1869 ; Hudson Ralph \nJanisch, 1873, died April, 1884; col. Grant Blunt; \nlion. Wm. Grey Wilson, 18S9. Population, 1871, \n6241; in 1883, 5,085 ; 1891, 4,116. Revenue, 1891, \n8,7281?. ; expenditure, 9,032,?. \nNo crime, debt or disease reported by the governor \n\nspring, 1S90 \nBy the fall of a rock near Jamestown, 9 persons \n\nkilled 1 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nHELIGOLAND, an island in the North Sea, \nformerly a dependence of the duchy of Holstein, \nsubject to Denmark, was taken from the Danes by \nthe British, 5 Sept. 1807 ; made a depot for British \n\n\n\nHELIOGEAPHY. \n\n\n\n473 \n\n\n\nHEPTAECHY. \n\n\n\nmerchandise ; confirmed to England by the treaty \nof Kiel. 14 Jan. 1814. In a naval engagement oil\' \nHeligoland, between \'he Danes and the Austrians \nand Prussians, the allies were compelled to retire, \n\n9 May, 1864. A fashionable bathing place for \nGermans. Governor, col. llenry F. B. Maxse, \n1863; lt.-col. J. T. N. O\'Brien, 1881 ; Mr. A. C. \nS. Barkley, Nov. 1888. Heligoland was ceded to \nGermany by the Anglo-German agreement, 18 \nJune ; given up by Mr. Barkley to the new Gernian \ngovernor, 9 Aug. ; visited by the emperor \nWilliam II., and proclaimed part of the empire, \n\n10 Aug. 1890. Population, 1881, about 2000. \n\nHELIOGEAPHY (from hellos, the sun). \nA system of telegraphing by mirrors flashing the rays of \n\nthe sun, said to have been employed by the ancients \n\nin the time of Alexander, about 333 B.C. \nA portable heliograph, invented by Mr. H. Mance, of the \n\nPersian telegraph department, was announced in 1875. \n\nIt was employed in India, 1877-78 ; and in the Afghan \n\nand Zulu campaigns, 1879-80. See also Photography. \n\nHELIOMETEE, an instrument for measur- \ning the diameters of the sun, moon, planets, and \nstars, invented by Savary, in 1743; applied by M. \nBouguer, in 1744. A fine heliometer, by Eepsold \nof Hamburg, was set up at the liadcliffe observatory, \nOct. 1849. \n\nHELIOPOLIS; see Baalbec (in Syria). The \nname was also given to a city in Lower Egypt (the \nbiblical On or Bethshemesh) in the earliest known \ntimes, a chief seat of the worship of the sun. It \nsuffered much by the Persian invasion, 525 B.C., \nand was in ruins in the time of Strabo, who died \nabout a.d. 24. \n\nHELIOSCOPE (a peculiar sort of telescope, \nprepared for observing the sun so as not to affect \nthe eye), was invented by Christopher Scheiner in \n1625. \n\nHELIOSTAT, an instrument invented to make \na sunbeam stationary, or apparently stationary, in- \nvented by s\'Gravesande about 1719, and greatly \nimproved by Malus and others. One constructed \nby MM. Foucault and Duboscq was exhibited at \nParis in Oct. 1862. \n\nHELLAS, in Thessaly, the home of the Hel- \nlenes and the Greek race, which supplanted the \nPelasgians from the 15th to the nth century B.C., \nderived its name from Hellen, king of Phthiotis, \nabout 1600 B.C. The Hellenes separated into the \nDorians, JEolLins, Ionians, and Achaians. The \npresent king of Greece is called \'" king of the \nHellenes :" see Greece. \n\nHELLENIC SOCIETY,to promote Hellenic \nstudies, formed at a meeting, 16 June, 1879, by Mr. \nC. T. Newton and others. Journal published 1881, \net seq. \n\nHELLESPONT (now the Strait of the Darda- \nnelles) was named after Helle, daughter of Atha- \nmas, king of Thebes, who was drowned here. \nAccording to the legendary story of the loves of \nHero of Sestus, and Leander of Abydos, Leander \n\xe2\x96\xa0was drowned in a tempestuous night as he was \nswimming across the Hellespont (about one mile), \nand Hero, in despair, threw herself into the sea, \ndated seventh century B.C. Lord Byron and lieut. \nEkenhead also swam across, 3 May, 1810. See \nXerxes. \n\nHELL-FIEE CLUBS- Three of these as- \nsociations were suppressed, 172 1. They met at \nSomerset-house, and at houses in "Westminster and \nin Conduit-street. \n\n\n\nHELLHOFFITE, a new powerful and safe \nexplosive, composed of nitrates, &c, invented by \nHellhoffand Gruson of St. Petersburg, announced \nAugust, 1885. \n\nHELMETS, among the Romans, were pro- \nvided with a vizor of grated bars, to raise above the \neyes, and beaver to lower for eating; the Greek \nhelmet was round, the Roman square. Richard I. \nof England wore a plain round helmet; but most \nof the English kings had crowns above their hel- \nmets. Alexander III. of Scotland, 1249, had a \nfiat helmet, with a square grated vizor, and the \nhelmet of Robeit I. was surmounted by a crown, \n1306. Gwilllm. \n\nHELOTS, captives, derived by some from the \nGreek helein, to take ; by others from Helos, a city \nwhich the Spartans hated for refusing to pay tri- \nbute. The Spartans, it is said, ruined the city, \nreduced the Helots to slavery, and called all their \nslaves and prisoners of war Hclotcc, 700 B.C. The \nnumber of the Helots was much enlarged by the \nconquest of Messenia, 668 B.C. ; and is considered \nto have formed four-fifths of the inhabitants of \nSparta. In the Peloponnesian war the Helots be- \nhaved with uncommon bravery, and were rewarded \nwith liberty, 431 B.C. ; but the sudden disappear- \nance of 2000 manumitted slaves was attributed to \nLacedaemonian treachery. Herodotus. The con- \nnection between the Helots and Helos, is now con- \nsidered mythical. \n\nHELVETIAN EEPTJBLIC Switzerland \nhaving been conquered by the French in 1797, a \nrepublic was established April, 1798, with this title; \nsee Switzerland. \n\nHELVETII, a Celto-Germanic people, who \ninhabited part of what is now called Switzerland. \nThey joined the Cimbri, were with them when the \nRomans were defeated near Geneva, and the consul \nLonginus killed, 107 B.C., and when they them- \nselves were defeated by Marius and Catulus, 101. \nInvading Gaul, 61 B.C., they were defeated and \nmassacred by Julius Caesar, 58 B.C., near Geneva. \n\nHEMP AKD Flax. Flax was first planted in \nEngland, when it was directed to be sown for fish- \ning-nets, 1532-3. " Bounties were paid to encourage \nits cultivation in 1783; and every exertion should \nbe made by the government and legislature to ac- \ncomplish such a national good. In 1785 there were \nimported from Russia, in British ships, 17,695 tons \nof hemp and flax." Sir John Sinclair. The im- \nportation of hemp and flax in 1870, was 3,^10,178 \ncwt. ; in 1877, 3,502,44.7 cwt. ; in 1879, 2,943,738 \ncwt. ; in 1883, 3,082,109 cwt. ; in 1887, 3,105,169 \ncwt.; in 1890, 3,777,364 cwt. The cultivation of flax \nwas revived at the dearth of cotton during the \nAmerican civil war, 186 1-4. \n\nHENGESTDOWN (Cornwall). Here Egbert \nis said to have defeated the Danes and West \nBritons, 835. \n\nHENOTICON (from the Greek henotes, unity), \nan edict of union for reconciling the Eutyehians with \nthe church, issued by the emperor Zeno at the in- \nstance of Acacius, patriarch of Constantinople, 482. \nIt was zealously opposed by the popes of Rome, and \nwas annulled by Justin I. in 518. The orthodox \nparty triumphed, and many heretic bishops were \nexpelled from their sees. \n\nHEPTAECHY (or government of seven rulers) \nin England was gradually formed from 4155, when \nHcngist became king of Kent. Ii terminated in \n828, when Egbert became sole monarch of England. \nThere were at first nine or ten Saxon kingdoms, but \n\n\n\nHEEACLEA. \n\n\n\n474 HEEITABLE JURISDICTIONS. \n\n\n\n-Middlesex soon ceased to exist, and Bernicia and \nDeira were generally governed by one ruler, as \nNorthumbria : see Britain. \n\nHEEACLEA, see Pcmdosia. \n\nHEBACLIDiE, descendants of Hercules, who \n\xe2\x80\xa2were expelled from the Peloponnesus about 1200 \n\xe2\x80\xa2B.C., but reconquered it in 1048, 1103-4 or n 09 B.C., \na noted epoch in chronology, all the history pre- \n\xe2\x80\xa2eedirjg being accounted fabulous. \n\nHEBALDBY- Marks of honour were used in \nthe first ages. Nisbet. The Phrygians had a sow ; \nthe Thracians, Mars; the Romans, an eagle; the \nGoths, a bear; the Flemings, a bull; the Saxons, \na hoi-se ; and the ancient French a lion, and after- \nwards the fleur-de-lis {which see). Heraldry, as an \n.art, is ascribed first to Charlemagne, about 800 ; and \nnext to Frederick Barbarossa, about 1152; it began \nand grew with the feudal law. Mackenzie. The great \nEnglish works on Heraldry are those of Barcham \n\xe2\x96\xa0or Barkham, published by Gwillim (1610) , Edmond- \n.-son (1780), and Burkes "Armory" (1842; new \n\xe2\x96\xa0ed. 1883, contains a history and the arms of above \n\xe2\x96\xa066,00a British families, &c). See Blazonry. \nJEdward III. appointed two heraldic kings-at-arms \n\nfor the south and north (Surroy, Norroy) . . 1340 \nHichard III. incorporated and endowed the \n\nHeralds\' College 1483-4 \n\nPhilip and Mary enlarged its privileges, and con- \nfirmed them by letters patent . . 15 July, 1554 \nformerly, in many ceremonies, the herald repre- \nsented the king\'s person, and therefore wore a \ncrown, and was always a knight. \nThe college has an earl marshal, 3 kings of arms \n(Garter, Clarencieux, and Norroy), 6 heralds \n(Richmond, Lancaster, Chester, Windsor, Somer- \nset, and York), 4 pursuivants, and 2 extra heralds; \nsee Earl Marshal, and Kings-of-Arms. \nThe building in Doctors\' Commons, London, was \nerected by sir Christopher Wren (after the great \n\nfire in 1666) 1683 \n\nHeralds\' Visitations were occasionally held in \nformer times, at which the landed gentry were \nrequired to attend to prove their pedigrees, which \nwere then entered in a book. The last is said to \nhave been held in 1687. Some of the records have \nbeen printed. \nA heraldic exhibition to which the queen contri- \nbuted was opened in Edinburgh, July \xe2\x80\x94 August, \n1891. The Treatise by the Rev. J. Woodward and \nthe late G. Burnett was completed in two vols. . 1892 \n\nHEBAT, on the confines of Khorasan, a strong \ncity, called the key of Afghanistan. It was con- \nquered by Persia, early in the 16th century ; by the \nAfghans, in 1715 ; by Nadir Shah, 1731 ; recovered \niby the Afghans, 1749. The Persians, baffled in an \nattempt in 1838 ; took it 25 Oct. 1856, in violation \n\xe2\x80\xa2of the treaty of 1853 ; and war ensued between \n\xe2\x96\xa0Great Britain and Persia. Peace was made in April, \n1857 ; and Herat was restored 27 July following. \nIt was seized again by Dost Mahommed, 26 May, \n1863 ; taken by Yakoob Khan, rebelling against his \n\xe2\x80\xa2father, 6 May, 1871. Yakoob, reconciled to his \nfather, was made governor, 16 Sept. 1871. \nAyoub governor for his brother Yakoob, ameer at \n\nCabul ........ May, 1879 \n\n3Iutiny, many officials killed . . .5 Sept. ,, \nAyoub invades Candahar {which see) ; defeated, \n\n1 Sept. ; returns to Herat .... Sept. 1880 \nHis troops defeated in several conflicts ; Ayoub \n\nflees to Persia ; and the Ameer\'s general enters \n\nHerat Oct. 1881 \n\nS\\>r following events, see Afghanistan. \n\nHEEBEET HOSPITAL for Soldiers, Wool- \nwich, erected 1866. \n\nHEBCULANEUM, an ancient city of Cam- \npania, overwhelmed, together with Pompeii, by an \neruption of lava from Vesuvius, 23 or 24 Aug. 79. \n\n\n\nSuccessive eruptions laid them still deeper under \nthe surface, and all traces of them were lost until \nexcavations began in 1711 ; andin 1713 many anti- \nquities were found. In 1738 excavations were re- \nsumed, and works of art, monuments, and memorials \nof civilized life were discovered. 150 rolls of \nMSS. papyri were found in a chest, in 1754 ; and \nmany antiquities were purchased by sir VVilliani \nHamilton, and sold to the British Museum, where \nthey are deposited ; but the principal relics are \npreserved in the museum of Portici. The " Anti- \nchita di Ercolano," 8 vols, folio, were published by \nthe Neapolitan government, 1757-92. \n\nHEEEDITY. The transmission of qualities \nof like kind of those of the parents has been \nspecially studied by Mr. Francis Galton, F.R.S. \nwho published " Hereditary Genius," 1869, and \n" Eecords of Family Faculties," containing tabular \nforms to be filled up, in order to obtain authentic \ndata for his new science of "Eugenics." Money \nprizes, 5^. and upwards, were offered for the best \nrecords. His "Inquiries into Human Faculty" \nwas published in 1883, and "Natural Inheritance" \nin 1889. \n\nHEBEFOBD was made the seat of a bishopric \nabout 676, Putta being first bishop. The cathedral \nwas founded by a nobleman named Milfride, in \nhonour of Ethelbert, king of the East Saxons, who \nwas treacherously slain by his intended mother-in- \nlaw, the queen of Mercia. The tower fell in 1786, \nand was rebuilt by Mr. Wyatt. The cathedral was \nre-opened after very extensive repairs, on 30 June, \n1863. The see is valued in the king\'s books at 768?. \nper annum. Present income, 4200/. Population, \n1881, 19,821 ; 1891, 20,267. \n\nBISHOPS. \n\n1803. Folliott H. W. Cornwall, translated to Worcester, \n\n1808. \n1808. John Luxmoore, translated to St. Asaph, 1815. \n1815. George Isaac Huntingford, died 29 April, 1832. \n1832. Hon. Edward Grey, died 24 June, 1837. \n1837. Thomas Musgrave, trans, to York, Dec. 1847. \n1847. Renn D. Hampden, died 23 April, 1S68. \n1868. James Atlay ; consecrated 24 June. \n\nHEEETICS (from the Greek hairesis, choice). \nPaul says, "After the way they call heresy, so wor- \nship I the God of my fathers," 60 (Acts xxiv. 14). \nHeresy was unknown to the Greek and Roman \nreligions. Simon Magus is said to have broached \nthe Gnostic heresy about 41. This was followed by \nthe Manichees, Nestorians, Arians, &c. ; see In- \nquisition. It is stated that the promulgation of \nlaws for prosecuting heretics was begun by the \nemperor\' Frederick II. in 1 220; and immediately \nadopted by pope Honorius III. \nEpiphanius chosen bishop of Constantius in Cyprus, \n367, wrote "Panarium," a discourse against here- \nsies, died 402 \n\nThirty heretics came from Germany to England to \npropagate their opinions, and were branded in \nthe forehead, whipped, and thrust naked into the \nstreets in the depth of winter, where, none daring \nto relieve them, they died of hunger and cold \n\n(Speed) 1160 \n\nLaws against heretics repealed, 25 Henry VIII. 1534-5 \nThe last person executed for heresy in Britain was \n\nThomas Aikenhead, at Edinburgh . . . 1696 \n[The orthodox Mahommedans are Sonnites ; the \nheretics \xe2\x80\x94 Shiites, Druses, &c.l \n\nHEEITABLE JUEISDICTIONS (i. e., \nfeudal rights) in Scotland, valued at 164,232^., were \nabolished by the act 20 Geo. II. c. 43 (1747), and \nrestored to the crown for money compensation after \n25 March, 174S. Heritable and Movable Bights, in \nthe Scottish law, denote what in England is meant by \nreal and personal property : real property in Eng- \n\n\n\nHEEMANDAD, SANTA. \n\n\n\n475 \n\n\n\nHESSE. \n\n\n\nland answering nearly to heritable rights in Scot- \nland, and personal property to the movable rights. \n\nHEEMANDAD, SANTA (Spanish for holy \nbrotherhood), associations of cities of Castile and \nArragon to defend their liberties, began about \nthe middle of the 13th century. The brotherhood \nwas disorganised in 1498, order having been firmly \nestablished. It is said to have been continued as a \nspecies of voluntary police. \n\nHEEMAS, author of "the Shepherd," a \nChristian apocryphal book, supposed to have been \nwritten about 131. Some believe Hernias to he \nmentioned in Romans xvi. 14. \n\n. HEEMETIC . SOCIETY, a mystical, spi- \nritual philanthropic association, based upon Chris- \ntianity, founded by Dr. Anna Kingsford, early in \n1884, * presumed author of "The Perfect Way" \n(lectures delivered in 188 1, and since published). \nMrs. Anna Kingsford died 22 Feb. 1888. See under \nTheosophists. \n\nHEEMITS, see Monacldsm. \n\nHEENE BAY, Kent, a watering-place, begun \n1830 ; the pier, five-eighths of a mile long, having \ndecayed, a new one was opened, 27 Aug. 1873, by \nlord mayor Waterlow. Population, 1881, 2,816; \n1891, 3,829. \n\nHEEO, British Man-of-War, see Wrecks, \n[811. \n\nHEEEEEA (Arragon). Here don Carlos, of \nSpain, in his struggle for his hereditary right to \nthe throne, at the head of 12,000 men, encountered \nand defeated general Buerens, who had not much \nabove half that number of the queen of Spain\'s \ntroops. Buerens lost about 1000 in lulled and \nwounded, 24 Aug. 1837. \n\nHEEEING-FISHEEY was largely en- \ncouraged by the English and Scotch in very early \ntimes. The " statute of herrings," passed in \n1357, placed the trade under government control. \nThe mode of preserving herrings by pickling was \ndiscovered about 1397. Anderson. The British \nHerring-Fishery company was instituted 2 Sept. \n1750. A scientific commission in relation to the \nfishery was appointed in 1862. \n\nHEEEINGS, Battle of the, fought \n\n12 Feb. 1429, obtained its name from the due de \nBourbon being defeated while attempting to inter- \ncept a convoy of salt fish, on the road to the English \nbesieging Orleans. \n\nHEEENHUTEES, see Moravians. \n\nHEESCHEL TELESCOPE, see Telescopes. \n\nHEETFOED, Hertfordshire, a Saxon town. \nCastles were erected here by Alfred and by Edward \nthe Elder. Charters were granted in 1588 and \n1680. All Saints\' church burnt, 21 Dec. 1891. \nPopulation, 1881, 7,747 ; 1891, 7,232. \n\nHEETFOED COLLEGE, Oxford ; founded \nin 1312; dissolved, 1 805; revived, and Magdalen \nhall incorporated with it, 1874. \n\nHEEULI, a German tribe, which ravaged \nGreece and Asia Minor in the 3rd century after \nChrist. Odoacer, their leader, overwhelmed the \nwestern empire and became king of Italy, 476. He \nwas defeated and put to death by Theodoric the \nOstrogoth, 491-3. \n\nHEEVEY ISLANDS (Pacific Ocean), \nRarotonga, &c. British protectorate proclaimed, ?o \nSept. 1888. \n\n\n\nHEEZEGOVINA or HeRTSEK (European \nTurkey), originally a part of Croatia, was united \nwith Bosnia in 1326, and made the duchy of St. \nSaba by the emperor Frederic III. in the following \ncentury. It was ceded to Turkey in 1699 at the \npeace of Carlowitz. In Dec. 1861 an insurrection \nagainst the Turks broke out, fostered by the prince \nof Montenegro. It was subdued; and on 23 Sept. \n1862, Vucatovitch, chief of the insurgents, surren- \ndered on behalf of his countrymen to Kurschid \nPasha, and an amnesty was granted. \n\nAn insurrection against the Turks breaks out, chief \nleader said to be Lazzaro Socica ; several conflicts \nwith varying results 1 July, 1875 \n\nTurks said to be defeated at Nevesinje . 12 July, ,, \n\nThe European Powers counsel to send a commis- \nsion to redress grievances ... 22 Aug. ,, \n\nServer Pacha unsuccessful; Turkish victories re- \nported Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe insurgents in a document describe their suffer- \nings, as Christians ; demand full and real free- \ndom, and declare that they will not be subject \nto the Turks again . . . . 12 Sept. ,, \n\nFutile intervention of foreign consuls . Sept. ,, \n\nSanguinary engagements ; various results; 29 Sept., \n\n13 Oct., 11 \xe2\x80\x94 14 Nov. ,, \n\nInsurgents defeated near Trebinje ; Bacevics, a \nleader, killed .... 18 \xe2\x80\x94 20 Jan. 1876 \n\nNegotiations of the Austrian gen. Rodich fail ; \nthe insurgents ask too much . . . April \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMukhtar Pasha said to have defeated insurgents, \nand revietualled Niksichs besieged . 29 April ,, \n\nOther engagements reported . . May, June, ,, \n\nThe new Sultan, Murad, grants an armistice for \nnegotiation June ,, \n\nAll intelligence very uncertain. July, 1875 \xe2\x80\x94 July, ,, \nSee Turkey. \n\nHerzegovina was occupied by the Austrians in \nAug. 1878, in conformity with the treaty of \nBerlin 13 July, 1878 \n\nFighting at Mostar, the capital . . .4 Aug. ,, \n\nNovi-Bazar quietly occupied by Austrians, 8 Sept. 1879 \n\nInsurrection (see Austria) .... Jan. 1882 \n\nHESSE ("W. Germany), the seat of the Catti, \nformed part of the empire of Charlemagne; from \nthe rulers of it in his time, the present are de- \nscended. It was joined to Thuringia till about \n1263, when Henry I. (son of a duke of Brabant and \nSophia, daughter of the landgrave of Thuringia) \nbecame landgrave of Hesse. The most remarkable \nof his successors was Philip the Magnanimous \n(1509), an eminent warrior and energetic supporter \nof the lieformation, who signed the Augsburg Con- \nfession in 1530 and the League of Smalcald in 1531. \nAt his death, in 1567, Hesse was divided into \nHesse-Cassel and Hesse-Darmstadt, under his \nsons William and George, and their descendants \nplayed an eminent part in the convulsions of Ger- \nmany during the 17th and 18th centuries.* In 1803 \nHesse-Cassel became an electorate, and in 1806 \nHesse-Darmstadt a grand duchy; which titles were \nretained in 1814. In 1807 Hesse-Cassel was incor- \nporated with the kingdom of Westphalia, but in \n1813 the electorate was re-established. Capital, \nDarmstadt. Population (1875), grand duchy, \n884,218; (1885), 956,611; (1890), 993,659. \n\nHesse-Cassel (made an electorate, 1803 ; incor- \nporated with Westphalia, 1807 ; restored, 1813). \n\n\n\n* Six thousand Hessian troops arrived in England, in \nconsequence of an invasion being expected in 1756. The \nsum of 471,000^. three per cent, stock was transferred to \ntin.\' landgrave of Hesse, for Hessian auxiliaries lost in \nthe American war, at 30^. per man, Nov. 1786. The \nHessian soldiers were again brought to this realm at the \nclose of the last century, and served in Ireland during \nthe rebellion in 1798. \n\n\n\nHESSIAN FLY. \n\n\n\n476 \n\n\n\nHIGH AND LOW CHITKCH. \n\n\n\nELECTORS. \n\n1803. William I. ; born 3 June, 1743 ; succeeded as land- \ngrave, 1785 ; made elector, 1803 ; deprived of his \nstates, 1806; restored, 1813; died 27 Feb. 1821. \n\n1821. William II. ; born 28 July, 1777; died 20 Nov. 1847. \n\n1847. Frederic William ; bom 20 Aug. 1802. \n\nTlie elector, in 1850, remodelled the constitution \ngiven in 1831 (by which the chamber had the \nexclusive right of voting the taxes), and did not \nconvene the chamber until the usual time for \nclosing the session had arrived, when his de- \nmand for money for 1851 was laid before it. The \nchamber called for a regular budget, that it \nmight discuss its items. The elector dissolved \nthe chamber, and declared his dominions in a \nstate of siege, 7 Sept. 1850. \n\nHe fled to Hanover, and subsequently to Frank- \nfort; and on 14 Oct. he formally applied to the \nFrankfort diet for assistance to re-establish his \nauthority in Hesse. On 6 Nov. an Austro- \nBavarian force of 10,000 men entered Hesse- \nCassel, under the command of Prince Thurn- \nund-Taxis, who fixed his head-quarters in Hanau ; \nand on the next day a Prussian force entered \nCassel. The elector returned to his capital, the \ntaxes having been collected under threats of \nimprisonment, 27 Dec. 1850. \n\nThe constitution of 1831 was abolished, and a new \none established, 1852. \n\nThe conflict was soon resumed, and continued \ntill, by law of 20 Sept. 1866, Hesse-Cassel was \nannexed to Prussia, 8 Oct. 1866. \n\nThe ex-elector\'s property sequestrated for intriguing \nagainst Prussia, 2 Nov. 1868 and Feb. 1869. He \ndied 6 Jan. 1875. \n\nThe landgrave of Hesse mysteriously drowned \nnear Batavia, 14 Oct. 1888. \n\nHesse -Darmstadt. (Population, Dec. 1885, \n956,611.) \n\nGRAND-DUKES. \n\n1806. Louis I. ; born 14 June, 1753 ; died 6 April, 1830. \n1830. Louis II. ; born 26 Dec. 1777 ; died 16 June, 1848. \n\n1848. Louis III. ; born 9 June, 1806. By treaty with \n\nPrussia, 15 Sept. 1866, he ceded the northern \npart of Hesse-Darmstadt, and paid a war con- \ntribution ; supported Prussia in the Franco- \nPrussian war, Aug. 1870 ; died 13 June, 1877. \n1877. Louis IV., nephew, born 12 Sept. 1837 ; married \nprincess Alice of Great Britain (born 25 April, \n1843), 1 July, 1862 ; died of diphtheria after \nnursing her husband and children, 14 Dec. 1878. \nThe grand-duke died 13 March, 1892. \n\nIssue: Ernest Louis ; Frederick- William, 2nd son, \nkilled by a fall, 29 May, 1873 ; and 5 other \nchildren. \n[Sisters married : Victoria to prince Louis of \nBattenberg, 30 April; Elizabeth to Grand- \nduke Sergius of Russia, 15 June, 1884.] \n1892. Ernest Louis ; born 25 Nov. 1868. \n\nHesse-Homburg, a landgraviate, established by \nFrederic, son of George of Hesse-Darmstadt, \nin 1596. His descendant, Augustus-Frederic, \nmarried 7 May, 1818, Elizabeth, daughter of \nGeorge III. of England, who had no issue. \n\nThe landgraviate was absorbed into the grand \nduchy of Hesse in 1806, but re-established in \n1815 with additional territories. The landgrave \nFerdinand succeeded his brother, 8 Sept. 1848, \nand died 24 March, 1866. \n\nHesse-Homburg annexed to Prussia, 8 Oct. 1866. \n\nHESSIAN FLY (Cecidomyia destructor), the \nAmerican wheat midge, very destructive to the \ncorn in the United States in 1786, whither it is \nsaid to have been brought by the Hessian soldiers \nin British pay \xe2\x80\x94 hence its name. \n\nThe crops suffered severely in New York state in 1846 \nand t886. It appeared in England in 1788, and was \ndescribed by sir Joseph Banks. Its appearance here in \n1887 occasioned much alarm throughout the country. \nIts action said to be checked by a parasite \xe2\x80\x94 Saw-fly \n(Ceraphron destructor) \xe2\x80\x94 W. Fream, Aug. 1887. Very \nprevalent in eastern coast of Britain, not much inland. \nOrmerod, Aug. 1887. \nIn twenty English and ten Scotch counties ; the alarm \n\nconsidered to be exaggerated. Pari. Rep. Sept. tt87- \nPresence of the insect reported in Lincoln, Suffolk, \nHerts, Perthshire 28 July, 1890 \n\n\n\nHETEROGENY, see Spontaneous Genera- \ntion. \n\nHEWLEY\'S CHARITY, see Unitarians. \n\nHEXAMETER, the most ancient form of \nGreek verse, six measures or feet, each containing \ntwo long syllables (a spondee), or a long one and \ntwo short (a dactyl), the form of verse in which \nHomer wrote his Iliad and Odyssey, and Virgil the \nJSneid. \n\nHEXHAM or HaGITLSTAD, Northumberland. \nThe see of Hexham was founded about 678; it had \nten bishops successively, but by reason of the rapine \nof the Danes it was discontinued; the last prelate \nappointed 810. At the Battle of Hexham the \nYorkist army of Edward IV. obtained a complete \nvictory over the Lancastrian army of Henry VI., \n15 May, 1464. Population, 1881, 5,919; 1891, \n5,945- \n\nHEXTHORPE, Yorkshire, see Railway Ac- \ncidents, 16 Sept. 1887. \n\nHIBBERT FUND. Bobert Hibbert on 19 \nJuly\', 1847, established a trust fund " for the pro- \nmotion of comprehensive learning and thorough \nresearch in relation to religion as it appears to the \neye of the scholar and philosopher, and wholly apart \nfrom the interest of any particular church or \nsystem." \n\nHibbert lectures ; first course of, seven by prof. \nMax Miiller (given at Westminster) "on the \nOrigin and Growth of Religion, as illustrated by \nthe Religions of India" . 25 April \xe2\x80\x94 30 May, 1878 \nSince given by M. Renouf, in 1879 ; M. Ernest Renan, \n6\xe2\x80\x9414 April, 1880 ; by Mr. T. W. Rhys Davids, \n26 April \xe2\x80\x94 24 May, 1881 ; by professor Kuenen, \n25 April\xe2\x80\x94 May, 1882 ; by Mr. C. Beard, 1883 ; by \nprofessor Albert Reville, 21 April et seq. 1884 ; by \nProfessor O. Pfleiderer, 1885 ; Mr. J. Rhys, 1886 ; \nby professor A. Sayce, .... April, 1887 \n\nHIBERNIA, Ibernia, Ivernia, and Ierne, a \n\nname given to Ireland by ancient writers (Aristotle, \nPtolemy, &c.) ; see Ireland, and Wrecks, 1833. \n\nHICKS\'S HALL,.Clerkenwell, London. The \nsessions-house of the justices of Middlesex was \nlong so named on account of its having been erected \nfor them by sir Baptist Hicks, at his own expense, \n1611-12. \n\nHIEROGLYPHICS, literally sacred sculp- \ntures or engravings, the representation of objects to \nexpress language, used by the ancient Egyptians, \nMexicans, and other nations. The Egyptians used \nabout 1700 hieroglyphs, engraved on stone, painted \non wood, and written on papyri. They were either \nphonetic or ideographic. Their invention is \nmythically ascribed to Athotes. See \' \' Book of the \nDead," in article Death. Young, Champollion, \nBosellini, Lepsius, Brugsch, Mariette, Ihabas, \nBirch, and others (in the present century) have \nmuch elucidated Egyptian hieroglyphics ; see \nEosetta Stone. \n\nHIGH and LOW CHURCH, sections in \nthe Church of England became prominent in the \nreign of Elizabeth. High church principles were \nmaintained by Abp. "Whitgift, and set forth by \nEichard Hooker " the judicious" in his Ecclesias- \ntical Polity, 1593-7. They were opposed by the \nPuritans. The contest, hot in the reign of Anne, \nhas continued since. Dr. Sacheverell, preacher at St. \nSaviour\'s, Southwark, was prosecuted for two sedi- \ntious sermons preached (14 Aug. and 9 Nov. 1709) \nto create apprehension for the safety of the church, \nand to excite hostility against dissenters. His \nfriends were called High Church and his opponents \nLow Church, or moderate men, 1720. The queen \n\n\n\nHIGH COMMISSION. \n\n\n\n477 \n\n\n\nHISTORY. \n\n\n\nfavoured Sacheverell, and presented him with the \nrectory of St. Andrew\'s, Holborn. He died in 1724. \n\nHIGH COMMISSION, Court of, an \necclesiastical court, erected by 1 Eliz. c. I, 1559, \nby which all spiritual jurisdiction was vested in \nthe crown. It originally had no power to fine or \nimprison; but under Charles I. and archbishop \nLaud it assumed illegal powers, was complained of \nby the parliament, and abolished in 1641. \n\nHIGH CONSTABLE, see Constable. \n\nHIGH COUET OF JUSTICE, see Supreme \nCourt. \n\nHIGH COUET OF JUSTICIAET, see \n\nSupreme Court and Law. \n\nHIGHGATE AECHWAY, over a road made \nto avoid the hill ; first stone laid by Edward Smith, \n31 Oct. 1812 ; toll through ceased, 1 May, 1876. \nSee London, Nov. 1889. \n\nHIGHGATE COLLEGE, founded by sir \nRoger Cholmeley, 1565. \n\nHIGHLANDS (of Scotland), long held by \nsemi-barbarous clans, were greatly improved by the \nconstruction of military roads by general Wade, \nabout 1725-6; by the abolition of heritable juris- \ndiction of feudal" rights in 1747, and by the esta- \nblishment of the Highland and Agricultural Society \nin 1784; centenary celebrated at Edinburgh, Julj^, \n1884. See Regiments, Crofters. \nHighland Society of London, founded 28 May, 1778. \n\nHighland Land League held fifth annual conference at \n\nOban, 15 Sept. 1887. \n\nHIGHNESS. The title of Highness was given \nto Henry VII. ; and this, and sometimes Your \nGrace, was the manner of addressing Henry VIII. ; \nbut about the close of the reign of the latter, the \ntitles of "Highness" and "Your Grace" were \nabsorbed in that of "Majesty." Louis XIII. of \nEranee gave the title of Highness to the prince of \nOrange, in 1644; this prince had previously only \nthe distinction of Excellency. Louis XIV". gave \nthe princes of Orange the title of High and Mighty \nLords, 1644. Henault. \n\nHIGH PEIEST, see Priest. \n\nHIGH TEEASON. To regulate the trials \nfor this crime the statute, so favourable to liberty, \nthe 25th of Edward III., 1352, was enacted, by \nwhich two living witnesses are required. By an act \nparsed 19 April, 1821, this provision was extended \nto Ireland, parliament having refused to sanction \nthe sentence of death against the duke of Somerset. \nIn 1800 it was enacted that when the overt act was \na direct attempt on the life of the sovereign, the \ntrial should be conducted in the same manner as in \nthe case of an indictment for murder; see Treason. \n\nThe last two cases of execution for high treason : \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nI. William Cundell alias Council, and John Smith; \ntried on a special commission, 6 Feb. 1812, being two of \nfourteen British subjects taken in the enemy\'s service in \nthe isles of France and Bourbon. Mr. Abbot, afterwards \nlord Tenterden and chief justice, and sir Vicary Gililis, \nattorney -general, conducted the prosecution, and Mr. \nBrougham, aft. lord Brougham, defended the prisoners. \nThe defence was, that they had assumed the French \nuniform to aid their escape to England. They were \nhanged and beheaded on the lodge of Horsemonger-lane \ngaol on 16 .March, 1812. \n\nAll the other convicts were pardoned, upon condition \nof serving in colonies beyond the seas. \n\nII. The Cato-street Conspirators (which see), executed \n1 May, 1820 \n\n\n\nHIGHWAYS, seeJRoads. \n\nHILL, EOWLAND, Memorial Fund, \n\nsee Mansion House. \n\nHILLSBOEOUGH (Down, N.E. Ireland), \nfounded by sir A. Hill, in the reign of Charles I. \nHere were held two great protestant meetings in \nfavour of the Irish church: (1.) on 30 Oct. 1834, \nto protest against the "appropriation clause;" \n(2.) 30 Oct. 1867, in consequence of a commission of \ninquiry into the Irish church establishment, and the \nagitation consequent thereon. \n\nHIMALAYA, a range of mountains between \nIndia and Tibet. Its loftiest peak is Mount Everest, \nheight 29,002 ft., the highest known in the world. \nMr. W. W. Graham, with two Swiss guides, ascended \n\nMount Kabru (height 24,000 feet) and three other \n\nmountains over 19.000 feet in the Sikkim group with \n\nmuch difficulty, Nov. 1883. \n\nHIMEEA (Sicily). Here (in 480 B.C.) Gelon \nof Syracuse and Theron of Agrigentum defeated \nthe Carthaginians; and at Ecnomus, near here, \nthe latter defeated Agathocles of Syracuse, 310 B.C. \n\nHINDOO EEA (see CWe\'-?/\xc2\xab^\xc2\xab)began3ioiB.c., \nor 756 before the Deluge, in 2348. The Hindoos \ncount their months by the progress of the sun \nthrough the zodiac. The Samoat era begins 56 B.C. ; \nthe Saca era a.d. 79. \n\nHINDOSTAN, see India. \n\nHIPPODEOME, a circus for horse-riding. \nOne opened by Mr. John Whyte, near Notting-hill, \nLondon, on 29 May, 1837, was closed in 1841 by the \nKensington vestry. See under Agricultural Hall. \n\nHIPPOPHAGY, see Horse. \n\nHIPPOPOTAMUS (Greek, river-horse), a \n\nnative of Africa, known to, but incorrectly described \nby, ancient writers. Hippopotami were exhibited \nat Rome by Antoninus, Commodus, and others, \nabout 138, 180, and 218. The first brought to \nEngland arrived 25 May, 1850, and was placed in \nthe Zoological Gardens, Regent\' s-park, London ; \n(died, 11 March, 1878;) another, a female, four \nmonths old, was placed there in 1854 (died, Dec. \n1882). One born here, 21 Feb. i87i,and another born \n1 Jan. 1872, lived a few days only; another born \n5 Nov. 1872. Two young ones born at Paris in May, \n1858, and June, 1859, were killed by their mother. \nOne born at Amsterdam, 29 July, 18615. \n\nHISPANIA, Latin name of Spain. \nHISPANIOLA, see Ha ,jti. \n\nHISTOLOGY (from hist os, a web), the science \nwhich treats of the tissues which enter into the \nformation of animals and vegetables; mainly prose- \ncuted by the aid of the microscope. Schwann \nValentin, Kolliker, Quekett, and Robin are cele- \nbrated for their researches. Professor Quekett\'s \n"Lectures on Histology" were published in 18152 \nand 1854. Important "Atlas of Histology," By \nDrs. E. Klein and E. N. Smith, published in 1SS0; \n" Elements of Histology," by Dr. E. Klein, third \nedition published in 1884. \n\nHISTOEY. The Bible, the Parian Chronicle, \nthe histories of Herodotus, " the father of history," \nand Ctesias, and the poems of Homer, are the \nfoundations of early ancient history. Later ancient \nhistory is considered as ending with the destruction \nof the Roman empire in Italy, 476. Modern history \ndates from the age of Charlemagne, about 800. \nThere was not a professorship of modern history in \neither of our universities until the years 1724 and \n1736, when Regius professorships were established \n\n\n\nHITTITES. \n\n\n\n478 \n\n\n\nHOLLAND. \n\n\n\nby George T. and George II. At Oxford pro- \nfessor E. A. Freeman, appointed 1884, died 16 March, \n1892, succeeded by Mr. J. A. Froude, April, 1892. \n\xe2\x80\x94 Royal Historical Society, London, established \n1868, Earl Russell president, 1872, incorporated \nby charter, Aug. 1889. A commission was appointed \n31 Aug. 1869, to examine historical MSS. in the pos- \nsession of institutions and private families, and to \npublish any considered desirable. It has issued \nseveral reports, 1870, et seq. New commission \nappointed, 18 June, 1883. \n\nHITTITES, descendants of Hetk, second son \n\nof Canaan, a commercial tribe, from whom Abraham \n\nbought a grave for his wife i860 B.C. Gen. xxiii. \n\nThey opposed Joshua, B.C. 1451 ; and the Egyp- \n\ntians, about 1340 B.C. \n\nThe castle of Jerablus, a mound and ruins, 20 miles \nbelow Beredjik on the Euphrates ; was visited by Henry \nMaundrell, 1699 ; by Dr. Pococke, 1745 ; and by J. H. \nSkene and Mr. Geo. \'Smith (died 1876), who agreed in \nconsidering the remains to be those of Carchemish, the \nancient capital of the Hittites, captured and annexed \nby Sargon, king of Assyria (about 721 B.C.) when the \nnation was thoroughly subdued. The site had been \nheld successively by Hittites, Assyrians, Babylonians, \nGreeks, Romans, and Arabs. \n\nA rich harvest may be expected from its exploration. \n\nCaptain C. R. Conder\'s discovery of a key to the \nlanguage of Hittite inscriptions on bas-reliefs, gems, \n&c, some of which were discovered by Burckhardt, \n1808, and re-discovered by Mr. Palmer in 1870, an- \nnounced 26 Feb. 1887 ; they consist of invocations, \nhymns, &c. to the sun, &c. His "Altaic Hieroglyphs \nand Hittite Inscriptions " published 1887. \n\nProf. A. Sayce, in 1879, considered the Hittites to have \nbeen in very early times the predominant power in \nAsia Minor and N. Syria. The investigations of \nMessrs. Ramsay, Hogarth and Headlam, in 1890, sup- \nported by the English Asia Minor Exploration Fund, \nlead to many discoveries which are described in the \nTimes of 25 July, 1891. \n\nHOBAET TOWN or HOBART, a sea-port \nand capital of Van Diemen\'s Land, was founded in \n1804 by col. Collins, the first lieutenant-governor, \nwho died here in 1810. Population in 1881, 21,118 ; \nin 1891, 24,905. \n\nHOBHOUSE\'S ACT, 1 & 2 Will. IV. c. 60, \n1831, relates to vestries and charities. \n\nHOCHKIRCHEN (Saxony). Here, on 14 \nOct. 1758, the Prussian army, commanded by \nFrederick II., was surprised and defeated by the \nAustrians commanded by count Daun. Marshal \nKeith, a Scotsman in the Prussian service, was \nkilled. The Austrian generals shed tears, and \nordered his interment with military honours. A \nconflict between the Russians and Prussians and the \nFrench, in which the last were victorious, took \nplace 21 May, 1813. \n\nHOCHSTADT, a city on the Danube, in \nBavaria, near which several important battles have \nbeen fought: (1.) 20 Sept. 1703, when the Im- \nperialists were defeated by the French and Bavarians, \nunder marshal Villars and the elector of Bavaria. \n(2.) 2 (N. S. 13) Aug. 1704, called the battle of \nBlenheim (which see). (3.) 19 June, 1800, when \nMoreau totally defeated the Austrians, and avenged \nthe defeat of the French at Blenheim. \n\nHOFWYL, see Pestalozzian System. \n\nHOGrUE, see La Hogue. \n\nHOHENLINDEN (Bavaria). Here the \nAustrians, commanded by archduke John, were \nbeaten by the French and Bavarians, commanded \nby Moreau, 3 Dec. 1800. The peace of Luneville \nfollowed. \n\n\n\nHOHENSTAUFEN, see Germany, and \n\nGuelphs. \n\nHOHENZOLLERN, the reigning family in \nPrussia. Its origin is referred to Thassilo, about \n800, who built the castle of Hohen-zollern. In \n141 7, Frederick of Nuremburg, his descendant, was \nmade elector of Brandenburg. The princes of \nHohenzollern-Hechingen and Hohenzollern-Sig- \nmaringen abdicated in favour of the king of Prussia, \n7 Deo. 1849. Charles, son of Charles Anthony, \nthe prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, was \nelected prince of Roumania, 20 April, 1866 (see \nDanuhian Principalities). His brother Leopold, \nnominated candidate for the throne of Spain, with- \ndrew July, 1870 ; their father Charles Anthony \ndied 2 June, 1885. See Brandenburg , and Prussia. \n\nHOLBEIN SOCIETY, for obtaining photo- \nlithographic representations of ancient wood en- \ngravings, established in 1868, sir William Stirling \nMaxwell president. \n\nHOLBORN (Holeborne, in Doomsday book), \nsaid to be identical with the river Fleet. Holborn- \nhill, in the time of Stow, 1600, was termed " heavy- \nhill." Gerard, the herbalist, speaks of his " house \nin Holborne," 1597. The Holborn-theatre was \nopened by Mr. Sefton Parry, 6 Oct. 1866, with \n"Flying Scud," a new jhece, by Mr. Dion \nBoucicault. The Holborn amphitheatre was opened \n25 Mav, 1867. The Holborn valley viaduct, founded \nby Mr. F. H. Fry, 3 June, 1867 (Mr. William \nHaywood, chief engineer), was opened for foot- \npassengers 14 Oct., and inaugurated by the queen, \n6 Nov. 1869. "Middle-row" was pulled down in \n1867. Western Approach-street opened 25 June, 1868. \nThe statue of prince Albert uncovered by the prince \nof Wales, 9 Jan. 1874. Holborn town-hall opened \nby the lord mayor, 18 Dec. 1879. \n\nHOLIDAYS, see Bank Holidays. \n\nHOLLAND (Hollow land, or, some say, \nWooded land), a kingdom, N.W. Europe, the chief \npart of the northern Netherlands, composed of land \nrescued from the sea, and defended by immense \ndykes. It was inhabited by the Batavi in the time \nof Cresar, who made a league with them. It became \npart of Gal lia Belgica, and afterwards of the kingdom \nof Austrasia. From the 10th to the 15th century it \nwas governed by counts under the German emperors. \nIn 1861, the population of the kingdom in Europe \nwas 3,521,416; of the colonies, 18,175,910; of both \nin 1863, 21,805,607; 1876, 3,865,456 ; colonies, \nabout 25,110,000; 1879, kingdom, 4,012,693 ; 1887, \n4,450,870. Revenue, 1889, 10,184,158^.; expendi- \nture, 11,256,249^. \n\nThe parties termed Hooks, (followers of Margaret, \ncountess of Holland,) and Cod-fish, (supporters of \nher son William, who endeavoured to supplant \nher,) create a civil war, which lasts many years . 1347 \nHolland united to Hainault, 1299 ; and Brabant . 1416 \nAnnexed to Burgundy by duke Philip, who wrests \nit from his niece Jaqueline, of Holland, daughter \n\nof the last count 1436 \n\nAnnexed to Austria through marriage of Mary of \n\nBurgundy with archduke Maximilian . . . 1477 \nGovernment of Philip of Austria . ... 1495 \n\nOf Margaret of Austria and Charles V. . . . 1506 \n\nOf Philip II i 5 s5 \n\nPhilip II. establishes the Inquisition ; the Hol- \nlanders ha.ving zealously embraced the reformed \ndoctrines ; severe persecution ; about 100,000 \npersons said to have perished 1555 et seq. ; the \nConfederacy of Gueux (Beggars) formed by the \n\nnobles 1566 \n\nCompromise of Breda presented . . . Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \nCommencement of the revolt under "William, prince \nof Orange 1572 \n\n\n\nHOLLAND. \n\n\n\n479 \n\n\n\nHOLLAND. \n\n\n\nElizabeth of England declines the offered sovereignty, \n\nbut promises help 1575 \n\nThe pacification of Ghent \xe2\x80\x94 union of the North and \n\nsouth provinces 1576 \n\nThe seven northern provinces contract the league of \n\nUtrecht 1579 \n\nAnd declare their independence . . 25 July, 1581 \nAssassination of William of Orange . 10 July, 1584 \nThe ten southern provinces conquered by the prince \n\nof Parma . . 1585 \n\nThe provinces solicit help from England and France ; \nexpedition of the earl of Leicester ; English and \n\nDutch disagree 1585-7 \n\nBattle of Zutphen\xe2\x80\x94 sir Philip Sidney mortally \n\nwounded 22 Sept. 1586 \n\nPrince Maurice appointed stadtholder . . . 1587 \nDeath of Philip II. His son Philip III. cedes the \nNetherlands to Albert of Austria, and the infanta \n\nIsabella 1598 \n\nCampaigns of Maurice and Spinola . . . 1599-1604 \nMaurice defeats the archduke at Nieuport 2 July, 1600 \nThe independence of the United Provinces recog- \nnised ; truce of Antwerp for twelve years, \n\n9 April (30 March), 1609 \n\nBatavia in Java built 1610 \n\nPierce religious dissensions between the Arminians \n\nand Gomarists 1610-19 \n\nMaurice favours the latter and intrigues for royal \n\npower 1616 \n\nSynod of Dort ; persecution of the Arminians T618-19 \nExecution of the illustrious Barneveldt 14 May, 1619 \nRenewal of the war ; Maurice saves Bergen-op-Zoom 1622 \nHis tyrannical government : plot against him, and \n\nsixteen persons executed 1623 \n\nHis death ; his brother Frederick succeeds him, and \n\nannuls the persecution 1625 \n\nManhattan, now New York, North America, founded ; \n\nmassacre of English at Amboyna, East Indies 1624 \n\nVictories of Van Tromp, who takes two Spanish fleets \n\noff the downs . . 16 Sept. and 21 Oct. 1639 \n\nPeace of Westphalia, the republic recognised by \n\nEurope 1648 \n\nWar with England \xe2\x80\x94 naval actions \xe2\x80\x94 Blake defeats \nDe Ruyter, 22 Oct. ; but is surprised by Van \nTromp, who takes some English ships, and sails \nthrough the channel with a broom at his mast- \nhead 29 Nov. 1652 \n\nIndecisive sea-fights, 12-14 June ; death of Van \nTromp, 21 July ; peace follows .... 1653 \n\nVictorious war with Sweden 1659 \n\nAnother war with England 1665 \n\nIndecisive sea-fights, 1-4 June ; victory of Monk \n\nover De Ruyter 25 July, 1666 \n\nTriple alliance of England, Holland, and Sweden \n\nagainst France 1668 \n\nCharles II. deserts Holland ; joins France . . 1670 \n\nThe French overran Holland 1671 \n\nDesperate condition of the States \xe2\x80\x94 the populace \nmassacre the De Witts \xe2\x80\x94 William III. made stadt- \nholder 1672 \n\nThe French repelled by the sluices being opened ,, \n\nIndecisive campaigns 1673-7 \n\nWilliam marries princess Mary of England . 1677 \n\nPeace with France (Nimeguen) .... 1678 \nWilliam becomes king of England . . . 1689 \n\nSanguinary war with France . . . 1689-96 \n\nPeace of Ryswick signed ... 20 Sept. 1697 \n\nDeath of William . .... 8 March, 1702 \n\nNo stadtholder appointed \xe2\x80\x94 administration of \n\nHeinsius ,, \n\nWar against France and Spain ; campaigns of Marl- \nborough 1702-13 \n\nPeace of Utrecht .... n April, 1713 \n\nHolland supports the empress Maria-Theresa . 1743-8 \nWilliam Henry hereditary stadtholder . . . 1747 \nPeace of Aix-la-Chapelle . . . 18 Oct. 1748 \n\nWar with England for naval supremacy \xe2\x80\x94 Holland \n\nloses colonies 1781-3 \n\nCivil wars in the Low Countries . . . 1787-9 \n\nThe French republicans inarch into Holland ; the \n\npeople declare in their favour .... 1793 \nUnsuccessful campaign of the duke of York . 1794 \n\nTlic Batavian republic established in alliance with \n\n\xe2\x80\x9e France 1795 \n\nBattle of Camperdown, Duncan signally defeats the \n\nDutch 11 Oct. 1797 \n\nThe Texel fleet, of twelve ships of the line, with \n\n\n\nthirteen Indiamen, surrenders to the British \n\nadmiral, without firing a gun . . 30 Aug. \n\nA new constitution is given to the Batavian republic ; \n\nthe chief officer (R. J. Schimmelpenninek) takes \n\nthe title of grand pensionary . . 26 April, \nHolland erected into a kingdom , and Louis Bonaparte, \n\nfather of Napoleon III. , declared king . 5 June, \nThe ill-fated Walcheren expedition . July, Sept. \n\nLouis abdicates 1 July, \n\nHolland united to France .... 9 July, \nRestored to the house of Orange, and Belgium \n\nannexed to its dominions . . -17 Nov. \nThe prince of Orange jiroclaimed sovereign prince of \n\nthe united Netherlands ... 6 Dec. \n\nReligious discord between Holland and the southern \n\nprovinces 1817 \n\nThe revolution in Belgium ... 25 Aug. \n\nBelgium separated from Holland . . 12 July, \nHolland makes war against Belgium . . 3 Aug. \nTreaty between Holland and Belgium, signed in \n\nLondon 19 April, \n\nAbdication of William 1 7-10 Oct. \n\nDeath of the ex-king William I. . . 12 Dec. \n\nLouis Bonaparte, count de St. Leu, ex-king of \n\nHolland, dies of apoplexy at Leghorn . 25 July, \nThe king agrees to political reform, March ; a new \n\nconstitution granted ... 17 April, \n\nDeath of William II. ... 17 March, \n\nRe-establishment of a Roman Catholic hierarchy \n\nannounced 12 March, \n\nGeneral van den Bosch\'s scheme carried out by the \n\nsociety of beneficence of home colonization in east \n\nHolland for destitute persons of all sorts, started \n\nabout 1815, having failed is modified ; free and \n\npenal colonies constituted ; (generally successful) \nInundations : 40,000 acres submerged ; nearly \n\n30,000 villagers made destitute Jan. and Feb. \nGreat fire at Endschede, the Manchester of Holland, \n\nloss about a million pounds . . 7 May, \n\nThe states-general pass a law for the abolition of \n\nslavery in the Dutch West Indies [after 1 July, \n\n1863] 6 Aug. \n\nTreaty for capitalising Scheldt dues signed 12 May, \nSlavery ceases in the Dutch West Indies 1 July, \n50th anniversary of deliverance from France, 17 Nov. \nCommencement of canal to connect Amsterdam with \n\nthe North sea 8 March, \n\nThe government undertake a canal to connect \n\nRotterdam with the sea . . . March, \n\nCommercial treaty with France . . 7 July, \nNew ministry (protectionist) . . .1 June, \nCorrespondence with Prussia respecting the \n\nPrussian garrison in Luxemburg . July-Aug. \nThe lower chamber barely passes a vote of censure \n\non the ministry respecting government of Java, \n\n<fec. ; the king dissolves the chamber . 10 Oct. \nAlleged treaty with France respecting cession of \n\nLuxemburg (which see) ... 22 March, \nThe fortifications of Luxemburg razed . May, \nLong struggle between the ministry and the cham- \nbers, Nov. iS67-May, 1868, the ministry resign ; a \n\nnew ministry formed by M. de Thorbecke, June, \nInternational exhibition opened at Amsterdam by \n\nprince Henry . . \' . . .15 July, \nMeeting of the chambers ; strict neutrality in the \n\nFranco-Prussian war to be maintained 19 Sept. \nCession of Dutch possessions in Guinea to Great \n\nBritain, voted 7 July, \n\nTercentenary celebration of the commencement of \n\nDutch independence by the capture of Briel, \n\n1 April, \nDeath of de Thorbecke, a great statesman 4 June, \nA new ministry formed by Devries . . 29 June, \nDiscussions respecting the war against the Sultan \n\nof Achin in Sumatra (which see) . . April, \nNew port at Flushing opened by the king . S Sept. \nExpedition against the Achinese (see Sumatra) \n\nembarks Dec. \n\nNew ministry, under Dr. Heemskirk . 2S July, \n\nNew penal code issued Aug. \n\nTercentenary of Pacification of Ghent celebrated, \n\nSept. \nCanal between North sea and Amsterdam, passed \n\nby a monitor (see 1865)4 Oct. ; inaugurated by \n\nthe king r Nov. \n\nNew ministry ; president, baron Kappeijne van de \n\nCoppello 3 Nov. \n\n\n\n1806. \n1809. \n\n\n\n1830 \n183= \n\n\n\n1840- \n\n\n\n1859. \ni86x \n\n\n\n1863 \n1865 \n\n1866 \n\n\n\n1S67- \n1S6S \n\n\n\n1S70 \n1871 \n\n187= \n\n\n\n1874 \n1S75 \n\n\n\n1S76 \n\n\n\niS 77 \n\n\n\nHOLLAND. \n\n\n\niSO HOLSTEIX AND SOHLESWIG. \n\n\n\nMarriag? Henry, the king\'s brothel \n\ness SI . th of Prussia . 24 Aug. i , c -. c \n\n... g s brother, aged 5 S \n\ni; Jan. tSyg \nIt. Van Lyndon . to Aug. \n". \xe2\x96\xa0 . a . .. l visit England . . .-.- April, *88s \n;..:.. . \xe2\x96\xa0 I \n\nstry resign . . 9 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n. I u ..-.. sa I .. s afcinet \n\ni Mar, tSS : \n>" . - Ler Dr. Heenisfeerk putei \n\n2S A", t \'.. .. \n\n. . .-,.:...-..- ... . \n\ni May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n....... a appointed \n\nis May, .. \nFBelg i . . . . : \n\nAmsterdam, 8sc iS > :. sis . .. \n\n..">- received at Brussels \n\n20-22 May, tS&i \nsi J ane, \xe2\x80\x9e \na bss1 be regent if \n\nI Aug. ,, \n\nResignai 3 13 April; dec! nedby \n\ng saAj : \n\n;\'s ass . \' : " V .\'.". i \xe2\x96\xa0\xe2\x96\xa0\xe2\x80\xa2 i \nc siitnt 3S : : . . . sed i \n\n3\xc2\xb0 SfoT. 1SS7 \n\nx tr minis \' \'" April, iSSS \n\nang; thequee \n\nx S3 . - \n\n_ . - - - --"-" \n\n. a ssu - - snent \n\nMay. iSSg \n:\\: jota anniversary of the king\'s \n\nsession . 1- May, \xe2\x80\xa2\xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n.... able of \n\na State tog \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 1S90 \na ntat s sitting af the \nj5 bakes the oath . 20 Xbv. .. \n\nK g lliani in., a real constitutional \n3 dang iter Wuhehuui _; \nN - grand al . . .4 Dec .. \n\nS \nVisit the < ss, see \n\n1-3 ^ ""\xe2\x80\xa2>"\xe2\x96\xa0 --"- \n\nstry,S July : v.. \n\xe2\x96\xa0"\xe2\x96\xa0.\'\xe2\x80\xa2\'...\xe2\x96\xa0 ;A \xc2\xa9 . \n\nstei . "- ctviiet \n\nr "-"- Aug. .. \n\nNe . . : \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x96\xa0 H \xc2\xab jueen-regent \n\nisSept .. \n\nMRAXOB [SW . . > \'- \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x96\xa0 U>ERS. \n\n130s P \n\n1530. K le5 ss m - \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x96\xa0 .\' \' i \n\n.: \\ (ss . s .-\xe2\x96\xa0 : . ms n fa \n\n: ge in 1539. \n\n\\ - . 1579 kail* 3 V an assas- \n\nDL of S 15^ \n\n,, - 3 son; steles \n\n. . I \n\ns \n\n... STABT- \n\no - junger son of Wil- \n\n\xc2\xbb)S JTHOIJDKB. \n\n- - \n_ - . be had a \n\n. -.- \n- d De Witt, grand pens \n\n. . - \n\n- . - . \n\n1 -- \n\n- S 5TA1 \n\nHam III., los - \n\ninexed to \n\n. - - - ITS \n\nSS \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nbv his s \n\nFrench \n\n- - \n\na re- \n\n\n\nKnras Asr> c" ass \niScc- Louis Bo ..-.- .. .. \\ g Bouans by his \n\nbrother Napoleon, 5 June, tSofi abdicated, 31 \nJuly. -.;-..- \n\xe2\x96\xa0 /..\'Hand again united to Prance,] \n-.-.:- stored. \'William-Frederick, \n\n177s), proclainie 1 S Pee. \n18x3 ; rook the oath of fidelity as sovereign \nprince, 30 March. 1S14; assumed the style of \nking of the NETHERfcASBS, 16 March, 1J15 : for- \nma:,, sd in favour of hiss -. \xe2\x96\xa0.>..- : \ndied 1 j Dec. 1843. \n.- \' . ".".. born 6 Dee. 170s ; succeeded on his \nfather\'s abdication; died 1- March, 1S49, sue- \n. . i by \n1S49. William I XL. son: bora 10 Fteb. 1S1-: married \nSophia : White berg, 18 Tune, tSso. (She \nLied, 3 June. 1877 ) Ess : W Uiani, | rinee of \n_ . m 4 Sept [S40; lied a June. 1879; \nAlexander (philosoj a . V rn .-5 Aug. 1851 : \ndied ai June. 1884. Married Emma of Waldeck- \nPyrr.: nt, - fan. -.;-; : Ess : Wilhehnina, born \n21 Aug. t8So. I\'.; Lv ng lied S3 Nov 1S90 \n1S90. v\\" I . pieeu-raothea reg laughter. \n\nHOLLAND . Xev, see A - and A.us- \n\nHOLLO\\YAY HOSPITALS and COL- \nLLJi E. rhos. Holloway, proprietor of the popu- \nlar oiutraenr. &c, ofiered the government 250,000^. \n:. erect, for : .. as* .: line middle classes, a Sana- \ntorium or asylum for the insane, and hospitals for \nincurables and eonyal scents. The asylum was \nere feed at 5:. Anne\'s Hill. Ecliam, near Virginia \nWater, 1873 \' -. ;. Opened by the prinee of \nTales t6 June. 1885. \n\nEOTAi HoiiOWiS Coixr";e fos the Higher EnrcA- \nligham. First liriek laid. ia Sept. \n\nr87o. Opened .. :.. ijneen, 30 June, iSSS. It in- \nles 1 iding-room. museum, and picture \n\ngallery. Estimated si 900,000 ; endowment \n\nsogsqodL The princely buildings are \n\nrenaissance sryle. temp. Francis 1. ^1515--.;.- \n\nrc;r. W. Grassland There is good 8 . ... ."...:. n \n\nfor s5\xc2\xab stud nts. H*e session apened 4 O^r. [887. \n\nMt. H: _ . 250,000! . and pi as* I too,ooo?. \n\nH\xc2\xab li I . \xe2\x80\xa2 Dec, 1SS3, \n\nsgedSs, leai ngan nunense -.:.:\xe2\x80\xa2\xe2\x80\xa2-.. .-.".thorrgh he was \nas during his lifetime ; he is said to \n\n". ..-_-..- arinad ::-:rseinents. \n\nHOLMFIKTH FLOOD. On 5 Feb. 1852, \n\nLlberry reservoir above Holmnrtli. nearHnd- \n\n. YorksMre, burst its banks, and levelled \n\nfour mills and many ranges of other buildings, \n\nkilling more than or persons, and devastating pro- \n\npertj estimated at above half a mill:;::. \n\nHOLOPHOTE. a form :: lamp in whi \' \nlight is converged and dire fee 1 : a particular spot \ncut collisions at sea. &e. 1\': . Is \n\nhave been invented by Stevenson, MSiedonald, \n. . . and ithers, ; v - \n\nHOLSTEIX axi> SCHLESWIG [N.W. \nGermany 3 once belonging to l>enmark. \n\nThe eountry, inhabited by Saxous. was subdued by \nCharlemagne in the beginning of the orh century, \n.::...::.. 3 . strtof the duchy of Saxony. \n\nLn 1106 x [HO, Adolphus of Schauenberg ) \n. ; mt of Holstein : his descendants ruled till 14^0, \nwhen Adolphus VII. died without issue, and the \nstates : Holstein and Schleswig elected Christian, \nkingof Denmark, bis nephew, as their duke, I . . \n:. ii if his arms. Da 1544. his grandson, Christian \n\n1 his states : ngst - tners, with \n\n- - wild remain s \nto Denmark. The eldest branch of the f;unily reigned \nin Denmark till the decease of Frederick VII., \n\n; > 1 1863. From a y _ ach v the dukes \n\nstein-boi 3 I thr ;": marriagt . \n\n:... % _- of Sweden from 1751-1818, and the \n\n\n\nHOLY ALLIANCE. \n\n\n\n481 \n\n\n\nH.OLYEOOD PALACE. \n\n\n\nreigning family in Russia since 170-2, when the \nduke, as the husband of Anne, became czar, In \n1773, Catherine II. of Rus.-.ia ceded Jfolst.ein-Got- \ntorp to Denmark in exchange for Oldenburg, &o. \nThednchiea irere occupied by the Swedes in [813, \nhut restored to Denmark in 1814, and on 28 May, \n1831, constituent assemblies were granted to them. \nSince 1844 disputes have been rife betwi en the \nduchies and Denmark, and in 1848 the states-general \nof the duchies voted their annexation to the German \nconfederacy, in which they were supported by \nPrussia; war ensued, which lasted till 1850, when \nthey submitted to Denmark. The agitation in the \nduchies, encouraged by Prussia, revived in 1857. \nThe Germans in Schleswig desired it to be made a \nmember of the German confederation, like Hol.-.tein ; \nbut both duchies demanded a local government more \nindependent of Denmark, which change- were re- \nsisted by that power. For the events of the war of \n1864, see Lenrnark. By the convention signed at \nGastein {which see), 14 Aug. 1865, the government \nof Holstein was left with Austria, and that of \nSchleswig with Prussia. The whole of Hol.-.tein \nand part of Schleswig were ceded to Prussia by the \ntreaty of Prague, signed 23 Aug. 1866. Population \nin i860, 1,004,473. I ne S tn clause, directing North \nSchleswig to be given to Denmark if the people \nvoted for it, was not acted on, although claimed ; \nand was abrogated, Feb, 1879. \n\nHOLY ALLIANCE was ratified at Paris, 26 \nSept. 1815, between the emperors of Russia (its \noriginator) and Austria, and the king of Prussia, by \nwhich they ostensibly bound themselves, among \nother things, to be governed by Christian principles \nin all their political transactions, with a view to \nperpetuating the peace they had achieved. The \ncompact was severely censured in this country as \nopposed to rational liberty. \n\nHOLY BEOTHEEHOOD, see Sermandad. \n\nHOLY CEOSS, Society of, formed in 1855, \nby several clergymen of the Church of England, \n"for deepening "spiritual life in their brethren;" \npresident, the Rev. A. H. ilackonochie. It favours \nauricular confession and other Eomanist practices. \nOne of its books " The Priest in Absolution," was \ncensured by the bishops in convocation, 6 July. \n1877, and caused much public excitement. See \nunder Winchester. \n\nHOLYDAYS ACT, see Bank Rolidays. \n\nHOLY GHOST, see Esprit. \n\nHOLYHEAD, W. Anglesea. A college was \nestablished here in the 12th century. The harbour \nwas improved by Rennie, and Holyhead was made \nthe chief packet station for Ireland. The break- \nwater, erected by Rondel and Hawkshaw (1846 et \nseq.) was inaugurated by the prince of Wales. 19 \nAug. 1873 ; and a new harbour and railway exten- \nsion inaugurated bv the prince, 17 June, 1880. \nPopulation, 1881, 8,680; 1891, 8,726. \n\nHOLY ISLAXD, see Lindisfarne. \n\nHOLY LEAGUE, see Leagues. \n\nHOLY "MATT) OF TTe.nt, Elizabeth Barton \nwas incited by the Roman Catholic party to oppose \nthe Reformation by pretending to inspirations from \nheaven. She foretold the speedy and violent death \nof Henry VIII. if he divorced Catherine of Spain, \nand married Anne Boleyn, and direful calamities to \nthe nation. She and her confederates were executed \nat Tyburn, 5 May, 1534. \n\nHOLYOKE, Massachusetts, U.S. A Roman \nCatholic church here took tire ; a panic ensued ; and \n\n\n\nftbontSc i . -.Tit or trampled to death, 2\' \'-\' \nMay, [875, \nHOLY PLACES IH Pales-tote. TL^e \n\n. .. ; I : .:.. i ..-\xe2\x96\xa0.: : .... r itlOn betWee.\' \n\n(jreek and L.- ... In \n\nthe reign of Francis I. they were placed under 1 \nmonk . . by the Pre:. ...tent; but \n\nthe Greeks from time to time obtained rlnnan.-. : \nthe Porte invalidating the rights of the Latins. :. 1 \nwere at last (in 175"; expell \nbuildings, which w^re coram, (be \n\nGreeks by a hatti-scheriff, or imperial ordi-o \nThe holy sepulchre partial I , lestt \'07 fire and \n\nrebuilt .\'-...-. ..0 claim additional 0.0 .- \n\nleges, an.fi ca ; ... iSofi \n\nThe Russian and French guveuuu - .0 1 .-..-. - 1 \nc.vr. Dashhofl and M. MareeHns) to adj . it "... \npute ; an. arrangement prevented by "... i Sbae \xe2\x80\x94-" \n\nrevolution 1^21 \n\nThe subject again agitated, and the Porte proposed \nthat 3 mixed eonmna I ... sateen \'.the \n\nrival claims. M. Titoff, the Ru.-. . . leting \n\non behalf of the Greeks, and M. Laralette B i \nFrench env\xc2\xab I the Latins, took tip the \n\nquestion, very warmly 1850 \n\nA firman issued by the Porte, confirm:\' g in ..."-- \nlating the rights p.-: - ated tc the \n\nGreek Christ, is, declaring thai the LaSms \n\nhad no right to claim, exclusive possession, of cer- \ntain holy pii . . "out permitting them, to \npossess a key of the church at Bethlehem, fee., as \n\nin former times g March, 1:5^ \n\nThe French government acquiesced with much dis- \nsatisfaction ; but the Russian envoy still d- \nthe key to be withheld from the Latin ro \n1L L> Ozeroff made a formal declare". 1 the \n. . t of Russia to protect the -".-. .lox in virtue \n\nthe treaty : i-i \xe2\x96\xa1 .---_ ...i demanded \n\nthat the firman of 5 Mare i read \n\nat Jerusalem, although it militated against his \nt oosions, which was accordingly done The \ndispute still continued, the Porte being exposed \nto the rttaehs : \'joth the Russian and French \n\ngovern m ents March. : \'. 5 -\xe2\x96\xa0 \n\nPrince Menschikoff arrives at Constantinople as \nenvoy extraordinary, and in addition to the claims \nrespecting the holy places, made demands respect- \ning the protection of the Greek Christians in \nTurkev which led to the war of 1854-6. (See Russa- \nTurkish War) 2 3 Feb. ,, \n\nHOLY EOAIAX EMPIRE. The German \nempire received, this title under the emperor Otho I. \nthe great, crowned at Rome by pope John XLL, 2 \nFeb. 962. See Rome, and Germany. \n\nHOLY EOOD or CROSS. A festival insti- \ntuted on account of the recovery of a large piece of \nthe cross by the emperor Heraclius, after it had \nbeen taken away, on the plundering of Jerusalem, \nabout 615. The feast of the invention (or finding) \nof the Cross is on 3 May ; that of the exaltation of \nthe Cross, 14 Sept. At Boxley abbey, in Ken:, \na crucifix, called the Rood of Grace ; at the di?; . 1 - \ntion it was broken in pieces as an imposture by \nHilsey, bishop of Rochester, at St. Paui\'s eross, \nLondon, 1536. \n\nHOLYEOOE PALACE (Edinburgh), \nmerly an abbey, was for several centuries the resi- \ndence of the monarchs of Scotland. The abbey, of \nwhich some vestiges remain, was founded by David \nI. in 1 128, and in the burial-place within its \xc2\xab \nare interred several of his successors. The palace \nis a large quadrangular edifice of hewn stone, with \na court within surrounded by piazzas. In the \nnorth-west tower is the bed-chamber which was \noccupied by queen Mary; and from an adjoining \ncabinet to it David Rizzio, her favourite, was dragged \nforth and murdered, 9 March, 1566. The north- \nwest towers were built by James V"., and the re- \nmaining part of the palace was added during the \n\n1 I \n\n\n\nHOLY SEPULCHRE. \n\n\n\n482 \n\n\n\nHOMICIDE. \n\n\n\nreign of Charles II. Mr. Pinkerton states that the \npalace was burnt in 1650, and rebuilt in 1659. \nGreat improvements were made in 1857. The \nqueen held her court here, 30 Aug. 1850. \n\nHOLY SEPULCHRE, a Byzantine church \nin modern Jerusalem. Fergusson, Eobinson, and \nothers, consider the true site of the holy sepulchre \nto be the mosque of Omar, the " dome of the Rock." \nThe question is still undecided. The order of the \nHoly Sepulchre was founded by Godfrey of Bouillon, \n1099 ; revived by pope Alexander YI. 1496 ; re-or- \nganised, 1847 and 1868. \n\nHOLY WARS, see Crusades. \n\nHOLY "WATER is said to have been used in \nchurches as early as a.d. 120. Ashe. \n\nHOLY WEEK, or the "Week of Indulgences," \nis the week before Easter. See Passion Week. \n\nHOME AND COLONIAL SCHOOL \nSOCIETY, Gray\'s Inn Road; founded 1836. \nGovernesses and teachers are trained. \n\nHOME HOSPITALS\' ASSOCIATION \n\nfor Paying Patients, founded in July, 1877. \nThe first home hospital, in Fitzroy-square, London, \nwas opened 28 June, 1880. Supported by the \nqueen, 1884. 7th annual meeting, 10 June, 1885. \n\nHOME MISSIONARY SOCIETY, \n\nfounded 1819. In 1878 it had 192 stations, and \nemployed 187 agents and 243 lay preachers. \n\nHOME RULE. The Home Government As- \nsociation (for Home Rule), established in Dublin \nin 1870; held its first anniversary meeting, 26 June, \n1871. It includes both catholics and protestants \namongst its members. \nMr. Isaac Butt, a leader of the movement, elected \n\nM. P. for Limerick .... 20 Sept. 1871 \nHome rule advocated by archbishop McHale and \n\nothers of the Romanist clergy in Ireland . . 1873 \nThe programme of the party requiring an Irish par- \nliament of queen, lords, and commons, and other \npowers, published .... 25 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nA. conference at the Rotondo, Dublin, reported a \n\nfailure* 18 \xe2\x80\x94 21 Nov. ,, \n\nA motion in the commons in favour of home rule \n\ndefeated (314 to 52) .... 20 March, 1874 \nMr. I. Butt\'s motion for a committee on the sub- \nject, 30 June ; was negatived (458 to 61), 2, 3 July, 1875 \nagain (291 to 61), 30 June, 1 July, 1876 ; again (417 \nto 67) ... .24 April, 1877 \n\nStormy convention at Dublin, Mr. Butt, chairman, \n\n21, 22 AUg. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe home rule party in the house of commons very \nobstructive (see Parliament) . . . . \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMeeting of home rule M.P.\'s at Dublin ; Mr. Butt \nstill leader 9 Oct. ,, \n\nHe virtually gives in to the obstructionists, Jan. ; \nresigns April, 1878 \n\nMeeting at Dublin, 14 Oct.; continued dissensions \nbetween moderate party (Mr. Butt and others) \nand obstructives (Mr. Charles Stewart Parnell \nand others) . ... Oct. \xe2\x80\x94 Nov. ,, \n\nDeath of Mr. Butt, 5 May ; succeeded as leader by \nMr. Win. Shaw ^g \n\nMr. Parnell proposes election of a convention to \nmeet at Dublin, 11 Sept. ; this is opposed by \nMr. W. Shaw, Mitchell Henry, and others Sept. ,, \n\nMeeting at Dublin ; pronounced opposition to \nBritish government . . . . 20, 21 Jan. 1880 \n\nAbout 65 home rulers in the new parliament, under \nMr. Shaw and Mr. Parnell . . . April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMr. Parnell chosen by 45 as parliamentary chair- \nman 17 May, ,, \n\n31 home rulers voted with the government ; 16 with \nMr. Parnell 13 July, ,, \n\nHome rule convention at Newcastle-on-Tyne, 9 Aug. ,, \n\nMeeting at Dublin ; Mr. Justin McCarthy appointed \nvice-president ; resolution to resist coercion in \nIreland adopted . ; . . \xe2\x80\x9e . 27 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nTrial of Mr. Parnell and others at Dublin (see \nTrials) . . . 28 Dec, 1880 \xe2\x80\x94 25 Jan. 1881 \n\nStrong manifesto of Mr. Parnell ; a counter one by \nMr Shaw Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nHome rule agitation revived ; meeting at Dublin \n\n8 Nov. ,, \n\nMr. Shaw, opposed to the separatists, secedes from \nthe party about 3 Dec. ,, \n\nHome rule movement in Scotland;^ first annual meet- \ning of the burgh convention at Edinburgh \npropose a representative assembly to legislate on \nScotch affairs, subject to the approval of parlia- \nment 4 April, 1882 \n\nProposal for Scotch home rule rejected by the \ncommons 20 Feb. 1890 \n\nAgain (no house) 6 March, 1891 \n\nHome rule conference at Dundee, 25 Sept. 1889 ; at \nEdinburgh, 24 Sept. 1890 ; again at Edinburgh, \n\n12 March, 1892 \n\nThe home rule league (closing meeting, 24 Nov. \n1882) merged into Irish national league; first \nmeeting 7 Feb. 1883 \n\nMr. A. M. Sullivan, an eminent nationalist \n\ndied 17 Oct. 1884 \n\nMr. Parnell and 85 followers elected for parliament \nDec. 1885, again, July 1886 \n\nFor Mr. Gladstone\'s Irish government (Home \nRule) bill see Ireland .... 8 April, ,, \n\nBritish home rule association started in London, \n10 Feb. ; United kingdom home rule league formed \n23 July ; these two combined as the home rule \nunion about 1 Dec. ,, \n\nAnnual meetings held 1891 \n\nIt publishes a new Home Rule bill differing from \nMr. Gladstone\'s Aug. ,, \n\nDr. Clarke\'s resolution for giving home rule \nseparately to England, Scotland, Ireland, Wales, \nrejected by the commons . . 29 April, 1892 \n\n(See Ireland, Parliament, and Pamelliles.) \n\nHOME SECEETAEY, see Secretaries, and \nall the administrations under the name of their \npremier. New Home Office, Westminster, occupied \n6 Aug. 1875. \n\n" HOME, Sweet Home." The words are \nattributed to John Howard Payne, an American \nactor, who died in 1852 ; the music is said to be \nSicilian, but it is probably by sir Henry Bishop, \nwho introduced the song into Clari, or the Maid of \nMilan, in 1823. \n\nHOMEE\'S ILIAD and ODYSSEY, the \n\nearliest and most perfect epic poems in the world. \nThe first begins with the wrath of Achilles, and \nends with the funeral of Hector; the second re- \ncounts the voyages and adventures of Ulysses, after \nthe destruction of Troy. Various dates are assigned \nto these works, from 962 to 915 B.C. Among the \nthousands of volumes burnt at Constantinople, \na.d. 477, are said to have been the works of Homer, \nwritten in golden letters on the great gut of a \ndragon, 120 feet long. \n\nF. A. Wolf, in his Prolegomena, in 1795, argued that the \nHomeric poems were composed of independent epic \nsongs, collected and arranged by Peisistratus about \n550 b. c. This theory occasioned much controversy. \n\nThe first English version of the Iliad, by Arthur Hall, \nappeared in 1581. The present text is attributed to the \ntime of Pericles, who died b. c. 429. The most cele- \nbrated versions of Homer\'s works are Chapman\'s, 1616 ; \nHobbes\', 1675 ; Pope\'s, 1715-25 ; Cowper\'s, 1791. The \ntranslation of the Iliad by the earl of Derby (1S64) is \nmuch commended. \n\nHOMICIDE is said to have been tried at Athens \nby the Areopagites. Among the Jews, wilful \nmurder was capital; but for chance-medley the \noffender was to tiee to one of the cities of refuge, and \nthere continue till the death of the high-priest, \n1451 B.C. (Num. xxxv.). 9 Geo. IV. c. 31 (1828), \ndistinguishes between justifiable homicide and \nhomicide in its various degrees of guilt, and cir- \n\n\n\nHOMILDON HILL. \n\n\n\n483 \n\n\n\nHORN; HORNPIPE. \n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2cumstances of provocation and wilfulness; see \nMurder. \n\nAnimals have been tried and punished for killing \nhuman beings. A bull was hanged for homicide \nnear the abbey of Beaupres . . . May, 1499 \n\nHOMILDON HILL (Northumberland), where \nthe Scots, headed by the earl of Douglas, were de- \nfeated by the Percies (among them Hotspur), 14 \nSept. 1402. Douglas and the earls of Angus, Mur- \nray, Orkney, and the earl of Fife, son of the duke \nof Albany, and nephew of the Scottish king, with \nmany of the nobility and gentry, were takeD pri- \nsoners. \n\nHOMILIES in early Christian times were dis- \ncourses delivered by the bishop or presbyter, in a \nhomely manner, for the common people. Charle- \nmagne\'s " Honiilarium" was issued 809. The Book \nof Homilies drawn up by abp. Cranmer, and pub- \nlished 1547, and another prepared by an order of \nconvocation, 1563, were ordered to be read in those \n\xe2\x80\xa2churches that had not a minister able to compose \niproper discourses. \n\nHOMOEOPATHY, a hypothesis promulgated \nin his \'"Organon of Medicine," 1810, and in other \nworks, by Dr. Samuel Hahnemann, of Leipsic (died \n2 July, 1843), according to which every medicine \nhas a specific power of inducing a certain diseased \nstate of the system {similia similibus curardur, likes \nare cured by likes) ; and if such medicine be given \nto a person suffering under the disease which it has \na tendency to induce, such disease disappears, be- \ncause two similar diseased actions cannot simul- \ntaneously subsist in the same organ. Branch. \nInfinitesimal doses of medicine, such as the mil- \nlionth of a grain of aloes, have been employed, it is \nsaid, with efficacy. The system requires the patient \nto regulate his diet and habits carefully. It has \nled to a more accurate study of the materia medica. \nIntroduced into England, 1827. The Hahnemann \nhospital was opened inBloomsbury-square, 16 Sept. \n1850. " The World\'s Convention of Homoeopathic \nPhysicians" opened at Philadelphia, 26 June, 1876, \nLondon School of Homoeopathy, founded 15 Dec. \n1876. Homoeopathic congress met at Liverpool, \n14 Sept. 1877. Under the heading Odium Medicum, \ninany controversial letters from allopaths and \nhomoeopaths appeared in the Times, Jan. 1888. \n\nHOMOUSION and HOMOIOUSION \n\n\'{Greek, same essence, and similar essence or being), \nterms employed with respect to the nature of the \nFather and the Son in the Trinity. The orthodox \nparty adopt i-d the former term as a party cry at the \ncouncil of Nice, 325 ; the Arians adopted the latter \nat Seleucia, 359. \n\nHOMS, Syria. Here Ibrahim Pacha and the \n\nEgyptians severely defeated the Turks, 8 July, 1832. \n\nHONDURAS, discovered by Columbus in \n1502, and conquered by the Spaniards 1523, is \none of the republics of Central America ; see \nAmerica. Great Britain ceded the Bay Islands \nto Honduras, 28 Nov. 1859. President, general \nJ. M. Medina, elected 1 Feb. 1864, and in 1869. \nProvisional president, C, Arias (Dec. 1872). P. \nLeiva, 1875; M . A. Soto, 29 May, 1877 ; general Louis \nBogran, 27 Nov. 1883 ; re-elected, 1887. Gen. \nPariano Leista elected 10 Nov. 1891. War with \nSan Salvador, May, 187 1, and May, 1872. The \ntown of Oni\'ia, Spanish Honduras, was bombarded \nby H.M.S. Niobe, to obtain redress for injuries to \nBritish subjects, 19 Aug. 1873. Population, 1889, \n43 I i9 I 7 ! capital, Comayagua. \nInsurrection ; Tegucigalpa besieged ; the president, \n\ngen. Bogran, surrounded ; reported 11 Nov. ; he \n\n\n\nescapes, gen. Sanchez holds the capital, 12 Nov. ; \ngen. Bogran recovers the capital ; gen. Sanchez \n\ncommits suicide 15 Nov. 1890 \n\nInsurrection, headed by sen. L. Sierra, reported \n12 Dee. ; sen. Bonilla proclaimed president \n\n12 Dec. 1891 \n\nBritish Honduras, Central America, was settled \nby English from Jamaica soon after a treaty with \nSpain in 1667. They were often disturbed by the \nSpaniards, and sometimes expelled, till 1783. Balize \nor Belize, the capital, is a great seat of the maho- \ngany trade. In 1861, the population was 25,635 ; \nin 1881, 27,452; 1891, 31,471- Governor, James \nK. Longden, 1867; Wm. VV. Cairns, 1870; major \nRobert Miller Mundy, 1874; r - p - Barlee, 1877; \nRoger Tuckfield G<dd"sworthy, 1884; sir Cornelius \nA. Moloney, Feb. 1891. \n\nHONG-KONGr, an island off the coast of \nChina, was taken by capt. Elliott, 23 Aug. 1839, \nand ceded to Great Britain, 20 Jan. 1841. Its \nchief town is Victoria, built in 1842, and erected \ninto a bishopric in 1849. Sir John Bowring, gover- \nnor from 1854 to 1859, was succeeded by sir Hercules \nRobinson: Governors, sir Rich. G. MacDonnell, \n1865 ; sir Arthur Edward Kennedy, 1872 ; John \nPope Hennessy, Nov. 1876; sir G. F. Bowen, Dec. \n1882 ; sir G. C. Strahan, appointed Jan. 1887 ; \ndied 17 Feb. 1887; sir George William des Voeux, \n1887; sir Wm. Robinson, July, 1891. Population \n200,99\xc2\xa9 (1886). \nThe queen\'s jubilee warmly celebrated by the British \n\nand Chinese, 9, 10 Nov. 1887. \nThe governor, sir Geo. W. des Vceux, reports the flourish- \ning state of the colony, Nov. 1889. \nVisit of the duke and duchess of Connaught, 1-4 April, \n1890. \n\nHONI SOIT QFI MAL Y PENSE, "Evil \nbe to him who evil thinks." It is mythically said \nthat the countess of Salisbury, at a ball at court, \nhappening to drop her garter, the king, Edward III. , \ntook it up, and presented it to her, with these words, \nwhich afterwards became the motto of the order of \nthe garter ; see Garter. \n\nHONOUR. Temples were erected to Honour by \nScipio Africanus, about 197 B.C. ; and by C. Marius, \nabout 102 B.C. \xe2\x80\x94 The Legion of Honour was created \nby Bonaparte in 1802. \n\nHONVEDS, the militia of Hungary. They \nsupported the rebellion against the emperor in 1849, \nbut on the completion of the changes whereby the \nindependence of Hungary was secured, in 1868, \nthey offered a loyal address to the emperor-king. \n\nHOOKS AND CODFISH, party names, see \nHolland, 1347. \n\nHOOP-PETTICOAT, see Crinoline. \n\nHOPS are said to have been introduced into \nEngland from Flanders in the early part of the \n1 6th century, and to have been much cultivated in \nKent by Reginald Scot in the 16th century. In \nthe year ending 5 Jan. 1853, there were 46,157! \nacres under hops in England and Wales, chiefly in \nHerefordshire, Kent, and Worcestershire, which \npaid 447,144^. duly; the quantity yielded was \n51, 102,494 lbs., whereof 955,855 luS- were ex P olted - \nThe duty on hops was repealed in 1862, after many \napplications. An act for preventing fraud in the \ntrade was passed in June, 1866.\xe2\x80\x94 The hop and malt \nexchange, Southwark, was opened in Oct. 1867. \n\nHORATII AND CURIATII, see Borne, \n\n669 B.C. \n\nHORN ; HORNPIPE. The horn is thought \nto be, next to the reed, the earliest wind instrument, \n\n\n\nHOENE TOOKE. \n\n\n\n484 \n\n\n\nHOETICULTUEE. \n\n\n\nand has been found among most savage nations. It \nwas first made of horn, hence the name ; afterwards \nof brass, with keys, for the semi-tones, in the last \ncentury. \xe2\x80\x94 The dance called the Hornpipe is sup- \nposed to be so named from its having been per- \nformed to the Welsh pib-com, that is hornpipe, \nabout 1300. Spencer. Many hornpipes were com- \nposed in the 1 8th century. The \' < College hornpipe \' \' \nwas very popular. \n\nHOENE TOOKE, &c. The trial of Messrs. \nHardy, Tooke, Joyce, Thelwall, and others, on a \ncharge of high treason, caused a great sensation. \nThey were taken into custody on 20 May, 1794. \nMr. Hardy was tried 29 Oct., and, after a trial of \neight days, was honourably acquitted. John Home \nTooke was tried and acquitted, 20 Nov. ; and Mr. \nThelwall was acquitted, 5 Dec; the others were \ndischarged. Acts were passed to prohibit Mr. Thel- \nwall\' s political lectures in 1795. \n\nHOEOLOGY, see Clocks. The British Horo- \nlogical institute, Clerkenwell, London, established \nin 1858, for the benefit of watchmakers, publishes a \nmonthly journal. \n\nHOESE. The people of Thessaly were excel- \nlent equestrians, and probably first among the \nGreeks who broke them in for service in war; \nwhence probablv arose the fable that Thessaly was \noriginally inhabited by centaurs. "Solomon had \n40,000 stalls of horses for his chariots, and 12,000 \nhorsemen," 1014 B.C. 1 Kings iv. 26. The Greeks \nand Komnns had some covering to secure their \nhorses\' hoofs from injury. In the 9th century \nhorses were only shod in time of frost. Shoeing \nwas introduced into England by William I., 1066. \n"The Horse," by W. Youatt, new edition, 1880. \nSee Races. \n\nBritish horses. Their great strength is described by \nJulius Csesar about 54 b.c. Henry VIII. estab- \nlished a royal stud, and enacted laws to promote \nthe breed of strong horses in certain shires, hence \nthe term shire horses ; these afterwards became \ndraught or cart horses. \nThe horse-tax was imposed in 1784. Its operation \nwas extended, and its amount increased, in 1796 ; \nand again in 1808. The existing duty upon \n"horses for riding" only, in England, amounts to \n\nabout 350,0002. per year 1862 \n\nAnnual licence duty on horses and mules, 10s. 6tf. \neach ; horse-dealers\' licence, 12Z. 10s. (act passed \n1869) . \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 . \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 l8 7\xc2\xb0 \n\nMr. J. S. Rarey, an American, made a great sensa- \ntion in London by taming vicious and wild horses, \nand even a zebra from the Zoological Gardens. \nHis system is founded on a profound study of the \ndisposition of the animal, and on kindness. He \ninitiated many illustrious persons in his method \n(on 20 March, lord Palmerston and twenty others) \nbinding them to secrecy ; from which they were \nreleased in June, when his book was reprinted in \nEngland without his consent . . 1858, 1859 \n\nHe was engaged to instruct cavalry officers and \n\nriding masters of the army . . . July, 1859 \nHe gave a lecture to the London cabmen, 12 Jan. \ni860 ; and in the same year he received a present \nof 20 guineas from the Society for the Prevention \nof Cruelty to Animals .... May, i860 \n\nMr. Sydney Galvayne, Australian horse-trainer, \nexhibited and taught his method of training \nat the Wellington Riding School, London, June, \n1890 ; his patrons included the queen with many \npeers and military officers. \nGreat annual horse-shows held at the Agricultural \nHall, Islington, began .... July, 1864 \n\nHorse-flesh. An establishment for the sale of it as \nhuman food was opened at Paris on 9 July, 1866, \nwith success, and its use as food strongly advo- \ncated. About 150 persons (including sir Henry \nThompson and sir John Lubbock) dined on horse- \nflesh at the Langhani hotel, London . . 6 Feb. 1868 \n\n\n\nA great Franco-Anglo-American horse, mule, and \n\ndonkey banquet was held at Paris . . 3 April, 1875. \nThe sale of horse-flesh, &c, regulation act, passed \n\n24 June, 1889 \nSubscriptions (of 100L each person for five years) \nto improve the breed of horses, proposed by earl \nCalthorpe, headed by the prince of Wales, many \nnobles and gentlemen, the London General Omni- \nbus Company, and others . . . June, 1875 \nHorse-shoes. Goodenough\'s American horse-shoes, \nmade by machinery, put on cold (patented i860), \nwere used by the London General Omnibus Com- \npany, Oct. -Dec. 1868. The international horse- \nshoe company for adopting the patent was estab- \nlished early in 187c* \n\nHorse epidemic (" epizootic "), from Canada, at New \nYork, Boston, &c. , caused much inconvenience, \n\nOct. 1872 \nScarcity of horses in Britain ; a commission of in- \nquiry appointed, Feb. , reported (no result) Aug. 1873; \n[Another commission issued its report Dec. 1887. \nThe queen\'s plate for races in Great Britain \nabolished, and the money to be devoted to the \nimprovement of the breed of horses.] \nStud Company, to improve the breed of horses, \nheld first annual meeting . . .20 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nHorse duty taken off . 1874 \n\nBritish Empire Horse-supply Association, esta- \nblished Spring 1878 \n\nEnglish Cart-horse Society (since named the Shire \nHorse Society), established, earl of Ellesmere, \npresident, 3 June, 1878. The shows are held at \nthe Agricultural hall, Islington. \nThe queen and some of the royal family, present at \nthe show of the Hunter and Hackney Horse Show \nat the Agricultural hall . . .5 March, i8gr \n13th annual Shire horse show at the Agricultural \n\nhall 23 Feb. 1892. \n\nThe English Horse Society\'s first show at Olympia, \n\nW. Kensington, 15 May, 1889 ; at Islington, 29 May, 1890 \nHorses imported 1862-1872, 79,000; 1873- 1882, \n197,000. Horses now exported, 1890, 12,192. \n\nHOESE GUAEDS. The regiment is said to \nhave been instituted in the reign of Edward VI. \n1550, and revived by Charles II. 1661. The first \ntroop of Horse Grenadier Guards was raised in 1693, \nand was commanded by general Cholmondeley; and \nthe second troop, commanded by lord Forbes, was \nraised in 1702. There was a reduction of the Horse \nand Grenadier Guards, and Life Guards, as now \nestablished, were raised in their room, 26 May, \n1788. Philips. The present edifice called the \nHorse Guards was erected about 1758. In the front \nare two small arches, where horse-soldiers, in full \nuniform, daily mount guard. In the building was \nformerly the office of the commander-in-chief, now \nin Pall Mall. \n\nHOESE-EACING, see Races. \n\nHOETENSIAN LAW, passed by Q. Hor- \ntensius, dictator, 286 B.C., after the secession of the \nplebeians to the Janiculum, affirmed the legislative \npower granted them by previous laws in 446 and \n336 B.C. \n\nHOETICULTUEE (from hortus and cultura) , \nthe art of cultivating gardens ; see Gardening. \n\nThe (now royal) Horticultural society of London \nfounded by sir Joseph Banks and others in 1804 ; \nincorporated, 17 April, 1809; transactions first \n\npublished 1812 \n\nPlanting the garden at Chiswick begun . . . 1822 \n\nAnnual exhibitions 1831 \n\nThe library sold 1859 \n\nProposal for laying out a garden for the society on \nthe Brompton estate, belonging to the Crystal \nPalace Commissioners, July, 1859 ; received the \nsupport of the queen, nobility, &c. , and Mr. \nNesfield\'s design was adopted, May, i860 ; the \nnew gardens opened by the prince consort, who \nplanted a Wellingtonia gigantea (which see) 5 June. \nThe queen planted one . . . .24 July i86r \n\n\n\nHOSIEEY. \n\n\n\n48-5 \n\n\n\nHOSPITALS. \n\n\n\nDr. John Lindley (who " raised horticulture from \nan empirical art to a developed science ") secre- \ntary, 1822-62 died 1 Nov. 1865 \n\nThe Albert memorial uncovered in the presence of \nthe prince and princess of Wales . . 10 June, 1863 \n\nAn International Horticultural exhibition was \nopened in the gardens. . . . 23-31 May, 1866 \n\nInternational horticultural exhibition opened \n\n24 Aug. 1881 \n\nThe society compelled to quit south Kensington, \nthe greater part of the ground being required for \nthe imperial institute. The council of the \nsociety proposes important alterations and \n.appeals for support, 9 Dec. 1887. At the \nannual meeting, 14 Feb. 1888, arrangements \nwere made for the maintenance of the society. \n.Shows to be held at the drill hall of the London \nScottish volunteers, James-street, Westminster ; \nfirst opened 27 March, 1888. The revival of the \nsociety reported at the meeting . . 12 Feb. 1889 \n\nInternational horticultural exhibition at Earl\'s \ncourt, Kensington, with extra attractions (in- \ncluding " the Wild West," by col. Cody), opened \nby the duke of Connaught ... 7 May, 1892 \n\nHorticultural societies established at Edinburgh, \n1809 ; at Dublin 1817 \n\nHOSIERY, see Stockings, and Cotton. \nHOSPITALLEES, see Malta. \nHOSPITAL SUNDAYS are said to have \niegun at Birmingham, 13 JSov. 1859. Glasgow \nbegan hospital Sundays about 1844. It is said the \npresent system of hospital Sunday began at Man- \nchester in 1870. Near the end of 1872, it was pro- \nposed that collections for the benefit of hospitals and \ndispensaries in London should be annually made on \n\xe2\x80\xa2one Sunday in the year at all places of worship. \nA committee for effecting this met at the Mansion- \nJhouse, 31 Jan. 1873; and soon after, 15 June was \nappointed as the day for the collection. \n\nHospital Sundays in London : \n1873. 15 June. About 25,511?., received on the day \nfrom about 1200 places of worship, including \nJews ; 1859?. received afterwards (July). \n24,571?. awarded to 54 hospitals; 2185?. to \n53 dispensaries. \n\n14 June. About 29,817?. received. \n13 June. About 26,703?. received. \n18 June. About 27,042?. received. \n\n(23,943?. awarded to 73 hospitals ; 2,336?. to \n\n45 dispensaries, 9 Aug. 1876.) \n17 June. 26,083?. received ; 25,870?. distributed. \n30 June. About 24,904?. received, 25 July. \n\n15 June. 26,501?. received ; 24,961?. distributed. \n13 June. 12,000?. received, 16 June ; 29,000?., \n\n5 July; 30,000?., 12 July; 30,411?., 31 Oct. ; \ntotal, 30,423?., Nov. \n\n1881. 19 June ; received up to 29 June, 25,000?. ; Nov. \n\n31,855\'- \n\n1882. 11 June ; total receipts (9 Dec.) 34,146?. \n\n1883. 10 June ; 26,000?. ; 19 June ; total, 33,935?.; 1 Dec. \n\n39.3 2 9\'- \n\n1884. 15 June ; 11 July; 32,000?. \n\n1885. 14 June ; total receipts, 34,320?. ; Dec. \n\n1886. 27 June ; total receipts, 40,399?. ; 30 Nov. \n\n1887. 19 June ; total receipts, 40,607?. ; 30 Nov. \n2888. 10 June ; total receipts, 40,379?. ; 10 Dec. \n\n1889. 23 June ; amount received up to 29 July, 41,107?. ; \n\nup to 31 Oct. 41,744?. \n2890. 8 June; amount received up to n June, about \n\n15,000?. ; 28 Nov. 42,814?. \nS891. 7 June ; amount received up to 2 July, 39,000?. ; \n\n24 Nov. 45,330?. (5,000?. from the duke of \n\nCleveland and 1,000?. from sir Savile \n\nCrossley). \n1892. 19 June ; received, 29 July, 40,228?. (sir Savile \n\nCrossley, 1,000?., 24 June). \nHospital Saturdays in London for work- \nmen, began 17 Oct. 1874, tae movement being \ngreatly promoted by capt. Charles Mercier and lord \nBrabazon ; about 6463/. said to have been collected : \n\n\n\n1874. \n\n\xc2\xa3\xe2\x96\xa0875. \nE876. \n\n\n\n2877. \n2878. \n1879. \n\n\n\n1875. \n\n\n31 July . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 5,343\'- \n\n\n1878. \n\n\n7 Sept. . \n\n\n. 6,528?. \n\n\nz8 7 6. \n\n\n2 Sept. . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 5,525\'- \n\n\n1879. \n\n\n6 Sept. . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 6,152?. \n\n\n1877. \n\n\n1 Sept. . \n\n\n4,500?. \n\n\n1S80. \n\n\n4 Sept. . \n\n\n. 6,604?. \n\n\n\n1881. 3 Sept. . . 8,372?. I 1883. 1 Sept. . . 9,497?. \n\n1882. 2 Sept. . . 8,861?. I 1884. 6 Sept. . . 10,173?. \n\n1885. 18 July ; total receipts, 11,192?. 8s. iokZ. ; 31 Dec. \n\n1886. 17 July ; total receipts, 12,213?. ! 3 1 Cec. \n\n1887. 11 June; total receipts, 11,300?.; Dec. \n\n1888. 14 July ; receipts, 9,069?. ; 11,426?. Dec. \n\n1889. 13 July ; outdoor receipts, 4,644?. ; workshop \n\ncollections, 8,800?. ; total, 14,090?. \n\n1890. 12 July ; outdoor receipts, 5,096?. ; workshop \n\ncollections, nearly 15,000?. ; total receiijts, \nJan. 1891, 20,333?. \n\n1891. 18 July ; receipts up to 4 Jan. 1892, 19,646?. \n\n1892. 16 July ; receipts up to 8 Sept., nearly 1,200?. \n\nHOSPITALS, originally Eospitia for the \nreception of travellers. That at Jerusalem, built \nby the knights of St. John, 11 12, was capable of \nreceiving 2000 guests, and included an infirmary \nfor the sick. The "five royal hospitals" under \n" the pious care of the lord-mayor of London," are \nSt. Bartholomew\'s, St. Thomas\'s, Bridewell, Beth- \nlehem, and Christ\'s ; see Infirmaries, and Dispen- \nsaries. Benjamin Attwood, who gave anonymously \nabout 250,000?". in cheques of 1000Z. to hospitals, \n&c, died in 1874. In April, 1890, the house of lords \nappointed a select committee to enquire into the \nmanagement of metropolitan hospitals and similar \ninstitutions, first sitting 5 May. Reports issued, \n1890, 1891, 1892. The Hospital, a weekly periodical, \nfirst appeared, 1886. \n\nIn 1 883 there were in the metropolis 24 general and \nno special hospitals ; described in Low\'s hand- \nbook to the charities of London. \nRoyal Commission respecting hospitals for in- \nfectious diseases (lord Blachford, sir James \nPaget, and others) appointed . . Nov. 1881 \n\nThe Hospitals Association for the consideration and \ndiscussion of hospital management, &c. , origin- \nated in the National Social Science Association, \n\n1881, et seq. ; founded 1884 \n\nBethlehem (oldest lunatic asylum in Europe except \n\none at Granada) founded 1547 \n\nCancer, Brompton 1851 \n\nCharing-cross, founded 1818 ; new hospital built . 1831 \n\nConsumption, Brompton 1841 \n\nDental 1858 \n\nDreadnought ship (seaman\'s) 1821 \n\nEvelina (baron Rothschild\'s) 1869 \n\nFever - . 1802 \n\nFree Royal, Gray\'s Inn-lane 1828 \n\nGerman, Dalston 1845 \n\nGreat Northern, 1856; New Central at Holloway . 1888 \n\nGuy\'s (see Guy\'s) 1721 \n\nHahnemann (homoeopathic) 1850 \n\nIdiots\' 1847 \n\nIncurables 1850 \n\nJews\' 1747 \n\nKing\'s College 1839 \n\nLock 1746 \n\nLondon 1740 \n\nLondon Ophthalmic, Royal, Finsbury . . . 1804 \nLondon Ophthalmic, Central, Gray\'s Inn-road . . 1843 \n\nLying-in, British 1749 \n\n,, City of London 1750 \n\n,, General, Lambeth 1765 \n\n,, Queen Charlotte\'s 1752 \n\n,, Queen Adelaide\'s 1824 \n\nMiddlesex 1745 \n\nNational Dental, Gt. Portland-street . . . 1861 \nNorth-west London hospital, Kentish-town-road. 1878 \n\nOrthopaedic 1838 \n\nSamaritan Kree, for women and children . 1847 and 1889 \n\nSmall Pox 1746 \n\nSt. Bartholomew\'s (see Bartholomew, St.) . 1102, 1546 \n\nSt. George\'s . . 1733 \n\nSt. John\'s, Leicester Square (skin) .... 1863 \n\nSt. Luke\'s (lunatics) 1751 \n\nSt. Mark\'s 1835 \n\nSt. Mary-le-bone 1871 \n\nSt. Mary\'s, Paddingtou 1843 \n\nSt. Thomas\'s (removed 1862 and 1871) . . . . 1553 \nSick Children, 1851 ; new building opened . Nov. 1875 \nTemperance Hospital, opened . . . Oct. 1873 \nThroat, Golden-square, founded by Dr. (after sir) \nMorell Mackenzie . .... 1863 \n\n\n\nHOST. \n\n\n\n486 \n\n\n\nHUDSON\'S BAY. \n\n\n\nThroat and Ear diseases, Gray\'s Inn-road March, 1874 \n\nUniversity College 1833 \n\n"Westminster 1719 \n\nWestminster Ophthalmic, Royal 1816 \n\n"Women\'s, Soho-square 1842 \n\n"Women and Children (superintended by women), \n\nCrawford-street 1866 \n\nHOST, ELEVATIOX OF THE, introduced into \nRoman Catholic worship, and prostration, said to \nhave been enjoined about 1201. Pope Gregory IX. \nwas the first pontiff who decreed a bell to be rung as \na signal for the people to adore the host, 1228. Pees. \nHOT BLAST, see Blowing Machine. \n\nHOTEL DE YILLE, Paris, the residence \nof the chief magistrate, the prefect of the Seine, was \nbegun in 1533, and completed, after his own design, \nby Dominico da Cortona, 1628. Here La Fayette \nintroduced Louis- Philippe, the citizen-king, to the \npeople, Aug. 1830 ; and here the republic was pro- \nclaimed, 26 Feb. 1848. The communists, who had \nestablished themselves here, set fire to the building, \n24 May, 1871, after their total defeat. The Hotel \nwas reopened 13 July, 1882. \n\nH6TEL DIEU see Pares, 656, 1S77. \n\nHOTEL METBOPOLE, Northumberland \n\nAvenue, London, an enormous building with highly \ndecorated suites of rooms,designed by F. & H. Francis, \nF. F. Sanders and others, completed May, 1885. \n\nHO UK. The early Egyptians divided the day \nand night each into twelve hours, a custom adopted \nby Jews or Greeks probably from the Babylonians. \nThe da3 - is said to have been first divided into hours \nfrom 293 B.C., when L. Papirius Cursor erected a \nsun-dial in the temple of Quirinus at Pome. Pre- \nviously to the invention of water-clocks (which see) \n158 B.C., the time was called at Rome by public \ncriers. In England, the measurement of time was. \nin early days, uncertain : one expedient was by \nwax caudles, three inches burning an hour, and sis \nwax candles burning twenty-four hours, said to \nhave been invented by Alfred, a.d 886 ; see Day. \nFor Hours of Prayer, see Breviary. The Hour, \ndaily conservative newspaper, first appeared, 24 \nMarch, 1873 ; last time, 11 Aug. 1876. \n\nHOUSE DUTY was imposed in 1695. Its \nrate was frequently changed till its repeal. It was \nre-imposed as a substitute for the window-tax, in \n1851. The duty was reduced for houses rented at \nfrom 20/. to 40/. to 2d., and for those rented at from \n40^. to 60/. to 4.0*. and bd., 17 April, 1890. In the \nyear 1872-3 it produced 1,243,818/. ; in 1875-6, \n1,421,052/. ; 1880, 1,623,000/. ; 1885, 1,885,000/. ; \n1891, 1,570,000/. See Taxes. House League, see \nIreland, 1886. \n\nHOUSEHOLD SUFFBAGE, after one \nyear\'s residence, was introduced into parliamentary \nelections for boroughs, by the reform act passed 15 \nAug. 1867. Attempts have been frequently made \nto extend household suffrage to counties, and have \nfailed ; Mr. (afterwards sir) G. 0. Trevelyan\'s pro- \nposal lost in the commons (287 to 173)*, 13 May, \n1874; (268 to 166), 7 July, 1875; (264 to 165), ^o \nMay, 1876; (276 to 220), 29 June, 1877; (271 to \n219), 22-23 FeD - 1878; (291 to 226), 4 March, \n1879. The object was effected by the act of 1884-5. \n\nHOUSELESS POOB ACT (Metropolitan) \npassed, 1864; made perpetual, 1865. See 1\'oor and \nArtisans\'. \n\nHOUSE of Commons, Lords, &c, see \n\nParliament, Lords, and Commons. \n\nHOUSING OF THE POOB ACT, rassed \n14 Aug. 1885 ; another important act passed, iS \nAug. 1890; Bee under Artisans. \n\n\n\nHOYAS, see Madagascar. \n\nHOWABD ASSOCIATION, instituted in \n1866, under the patronage of the late lord Brougham, \nfor the improvement of prison discipline and pre- \nvention of crime. See Prisons. The annual award \nof a Howard medal was determined on by the Sta- \ntistical Society of London, Dec. 1873. \n\nHOWABD FAMILY. John Howard, son, \nof Margaret, the heiress of the Mowbrays, was- \ncreated earl marshal and the 7th duke of Norfolk in. \n1483. He was slain with his master, Richard III.,. \nat Bosworth, 22 Aug. 1485. His son was restored \nto the earldom of Surrey in 1489 ; in reward for \nhaving gained the victory of Flodden, 9 Sept. 1513, \nhe was created the 8th duke of Norfolk, in 1514- \nThomas, the 10th duke, was beheaded for conspiracy \nagainst queen Elizabeth on behalf of Mary, queen- \nof Scots, in 1572. Henry Fitzalan Howard, now \nthe 2 1 st duke of Norfolk, and the 15th of the- \nHoward family, premier duke and earl of England \nand hereditary earl marshal, w r as born in 1847. \n\nHOWABD MEDAL. One was awarded by \nthe Statistical Society to the best essay " On the- \nImprovements in Education during the 18th and\' \n19th centuries," in Nov. 1S79. \n\nHOWITZEB, a German piece of ordnance, \nranking between a cannon and a mortar, came intc> \nuse early in the 18th century. \n\nHUASCAE, see Peru, 1877 and 1S79. \n\nHUBEBTSBUBG (Saxony). The treaty \nbetween the empress, the king of Prussia, and the- \nelector of Bavaria, signed here, 15 Feb. 1763, ended \nthe Seven years\' war, whereby Prussia gained \nSilesir, \n\nHUDDEBSFIELD, a manufacturing town,. \nW. R. Yorkshire, chiefly the property of the Rams- \nden family. Sir John Ramsden built the town- \nhall, 1765. The theatre was burnt, i5thFeb. 1880- \nthe new market hall opened, 31 March, 1880. Popu- \nlation, 1881, 86,502 ; 1891,95,422. \nFirst Musical Festival . . . 20-22 Oct. 18S1 \nFine art and industrial exhibition opened 1 July, 1883, \nBeaumont park opened by the duke of Albany \n\n13 Oct. ,, \n\nHUDIBBAS. The first three cantos of this \npolitical satire, by Samuel Butler, appeared in. \n1663 ; the other parts in 1664 and 1678. \n\nHUDSON\'S BAY, discovered by Sebastian \nCabot, 1512, and re-discovered by captain Henry \nHudson, when in search of a north-west passage to \nthe Pacific Ocean, 1610, had been visited by \nFrobisher. The "governor and company of adven- \nturers of England trading to Hudson\' s Bay ," obtained \na charter from Charles II. in 1670. The "fertile- \nbelt" was settled by lord Selkirk in 1812. For \nthese territories the bishopric of Rupert\'s Land \nwas founded, 1849. The charter having expired,, \nthe chief part of the company\'s territories, on the- \nproposition of earl Granville, the colonial secretary \n(9 March, 1869), were transferred to the Dominion \nof Canada for 300,000/., and a right to claim a cer- \ntain portion of land within fifty years, and other \nprivileges; the company having consented to this, \n9 April, 1869. A portion of the people resisted the \nannexation, and gen. Louis Riel proclaimed inde- \npendence and seized the company\'s treasury, Jam \n1870. On 3 or 4 March he tried and shot Thomas \nScott, a Canadian, who had escaped from his cus- \ntody. Col. (afterwards lord) Wolseley con- \nducted a Canadian expedition to the territories (now \nnamed Manitoba), and issued a proclamation to the \nloyal inhabitants, 23 July, saying "our mission \n\n\n\nHUE. \n\n\n\n487 \n\n\n\nHUNGARY. \n\n\n\nis one of peace." Kiel was unsupported and offered \nno resistance. The licut. -governor, Adams George \nArchibald, arrived 3 Sept. The Company had a \nlarge sale of furs in 1888. See Manitoba and \n\nWestern Territories. \n\nHUE, see Tonquin, 1883. \n\nHUE AND CRY, the old common-law pro- \ncess of pursuing " with horn and with voice," from \nhundred to hundred, and county to county, all \nrobbers and felons. Formerly, the hundred was \nbound to make good all loss occasioned by the rob- \nberies therein committed, unless the felon were \ntaken; but by subsequent laws it is made answer- \nable only for damage committed by riotous \nassemblies. Tbe pursuit of a felon was aided \nby a description of him in the Hue and Cry, a \ngazette established for advertising felons in 17 10. \nAshe. \n\nHUGSTETTEN, Baden; see Railway Acci- \ndents, 1882. \n\nHUGUENOT SOCIETY of London, estab- \nlished by sir H. Austen Layard and other descend- \nants of Huguenots, about 15 April, 1885. The \nsociety publishes historical works, 1888. \n\nHUGUENOTS, a term (derived by some from \nthe German Jiidgeuossen, confederates ; by others \nfrom Hugues, a Genevese Calvinist) applied to the \nReformed party in France, followers of Calvin. \nThey took up arms against their persecutors in \n1561. After a delusive edict of toleration, a great \nnumber were massacred at Vassy, 1 March, 1562, \nwhen the civil wars began, which lasted with some \nintermission till the edict of Nantes in 1598 (re- \nvoked in 1685). The massacre of St. Bartholomew\'s \nday, 24 Aug. 1572, occurred during a truce ; see \nCulvinists, Protestants, Bartholomew, Edict, and \nCamisard. S. Smiles\'s \'\' History of the Huguenots," \nappeared in 1867. The crypt in Canterbury cathe- \ndral, assigned to French protestants in 1550, is \nstill used by them for divine worship. \n\nHULL (E. Yorkshire), a rising commercial \nplace in 1200, was named Kingston-upon-Hull in \n1296 by Edward I., who purchased the town, \nformed the port, and granted a charter. Great fire ; \ndamage about 100,000^., 15 Aug. 1864. Royal \nAlbert dock opened by the prince of Wales, 21 \nJuly, 1869. Inauguration of the Alexandra dock, \nand the Hull and Bamsley railway, 23 Jan. 1883. \nDr. Hillmuth appointed Suffragan Bishop of Hull \n(under Ripon), March, 1883. Fire at Messrs. Stead\'s \ncrushing mills, about 80,000/. damage, 16 March, \n1885. il ull returns three M. P. \'s by act passed 25 \nJune, 1885. See under Population. Serious dis- \npute between the Shipping Federation and the \nDockers\' Union closed 31 Dec. 1890. \n\nHULSE\'S FOUNDATIONS. The rey. \nJohn Hulse, who died in 1790, bequeathed his \nestates in Cheshire to the university of Cambridge \nfor the advancement of religious learning : \xe2\x80\x94 by the \nmaintenance of two scholars; the payment of a \nprize of 40/. annually for a theological dissertation ; \nthe establishment of the office of Christian advocate \n(made a professorship of divinity, 1 Aug. i860) ; and \nthe payment of a lecturer, to be chosen annually. \nThe first Hulsean lectures were given by the rev. \nChristopher Benson, in 1820. \n\nHUMAITA, a strong post on the river Para- \nguay, fortified at a great cost with a battery of \n300 cannon, by Lopez, the president of Paraguay, \nand believed to be impregnable, was passed by the \nBrazilian ironclads, 17 Feb. 1868. On the 19th, \nCaxias, the Brazilian general, stormed a work to \n\n\n\nthe north of Humaita, and captured many stores. \nHumaita itself, after a severe siege, was abandoned, \n24 July, 1868. \n\nHUMANE SOCIETY, ROYAL (London), \nfor the recovery of persons apparently drowned, \nwas founded in 1774, by Dr\xc2\xbb. Goldsmith, Heberden, \nTowers, Lettsom, JIawes, and Cogan, but princi- \npally by the last three. The society has above 280 \ndepots supplied with apparatus. The principal one \nwas erected in 1794, on a spot of ground given by \nGeorge III. on the north side of the Serpentine \nriver, Hyde-park. The motto of this society is \nappropriate \xe2\x80\x94 " Latcat scintillula forsan" \xe2\x80\x94 "a \nsmall spark may perhaps lie hid." Nearly 500 \npersons were relieved in 1887; 544 in 1890; 536 \npersons rewarded for bravery. See Itrowning, and \nLisbon, Dec. 1890. \n\nHUMANISM, a name given to the philoso- \nphical study of man\'s personality as distinguished \nfrom a class, especially advanced by Petrarch and \nother energetic advocates of the revival of the study \nof ancient classic literature, termed the " new \nlearning," and (\'\' literal humaniures") the age of \nthe renaissance, in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centu- \nries, whereby freedom of thought and language \nwas greatly promoted. \n\nHUMANITARIANS, a small sect in London, \nfounded by Mr. Kaspary, a German Jew. Their \nmoral principles are set forth in "The Fifteen Doc- \ntrines of the Religion of God," written in 1866. \nThese include pantheism and transmigration of souls. \n\nHUMANITY, Religion or, see Positive \n\nPhilosophy \', and Secularism. \n\nHUMILIATI, a congregation of monks, said \nto have been formed by some Milanese nobles, who \nhad been imprisoned by Frederick I. 1162. The \norder had more than ninety monasteries ; but \nwas abolished for luxury and cruelty by pope \nPius V., and the houses were given to the \nDominicans, Cordeliers, and other communities in \n1570. \n\nHUMMING-BIRDS. Mr. Gould\'s beautiful \ncollection of the skins of these birds exhibited at \nthe Zoological Gardens, Loudon, in 1851, was bought \nwith other birds for the British museum for 3000/., \nApril, 1881. His elaborate work on them in five \nfolio volumes, with richly coloured plates, was com- \npleted in 1862. \n\nHUNDRED, a Danish institution, was a part \nof a shire, so called, as is supposed, from its having \nbeen composed of a hundred families, at the time \nthe counties were originally divided, about 897. \nThe hundred-court is a court-baron held for all the \ninhabitants of a hundred instead of a manor. \nHundred days ; a term given to Napoleon\'s resto- \nration, dating from his arrival in Paris, 20 March, \nto his departure on . . -29 June, 1815 \n\nHundred years\' war, in French history, com- \nmenced with the. English invasion in 1337. \n\nHUNGARY, part of the ancient Pannonia and \nDacia, was subjected to the Romans about 106, and \nretained by them till the 3rd century, when it was \nseized by the Goths, who were expelled about 376 \nby the Huns. See Huns, and Attila. After Attila\'s \ndeath, in 453, the Gepidao, and in 500 the Lombards \nheld the country. It was acquired by the Avars \nabout 568, and retained by them till their destruc- \ntion by Charlemagne in 799. About 890 the \ncountry was settled by a Scythian tribe, named \nVingours or Uhgri (whence the German name \nUngarn) and the Magyars of Finnish origin. The \nchief of the latter, Arpad (889), was the ancestor of \n\n\n\nHUNGAEY. \n\n\n\nHUNGAEY. \n\n\n\na line of kings (see below). The progress of the \nMagyars westward was checked by their defeat by \nthe emperor Henry the Fowler, 934. Population \nof the kingdom, including Transylvania, Fiume, \nCroatia, and Slavonia, 31 Dec. 1887, 16,901,023; \nin 1890, 17,449,705. Eevenue, 1890, 355,307,000 \nflorins ; expenditure 355,815,000 florins. See \nAustria. \n\nStephen, founder of the monarchy of Hungary, em- \nbraces and establishes Christianity and subdues \nthe Slaves, <fec. , receives the title of the Apostolic \n\nking from the pope 997 \n\nThe Poles overrun Hungary 1061 \n\nBela III. introduces the Greek civilisation 1174, &c. \n\nRavages of the Tartars under the sons of Genghis \nKhan, throughout Hungary, Bohemia, and Russia, \n\n1241 et seq. \nGolden Bull of Andrew II. granting personal \nrights ......... 1222 \n\nDeath of Andrew III. , end of the Arpad dynasty . 1301 \nVictories of Louis the Great in Bulgaria, Servia, \n\nand Dalmatia 1344-82 \n\nHe inarches into Italy and avenges the murder of \n\nhis brother, Andrew, king of Naples . . . 1348 \nSanguinary anarchy: Elizabeth, queen of Louis, \nis drowned : and King Mary, the daughter, mar- \nries Sigismond, of Brandenburg ; they govern with \n\ngreat severity 1382 \n\n[The Hungarians had an aversion to the name of \nqueen; and whenever a female succeeded to the \nthrone, she was termed ki?ig.] \nSigismond\'s atrocious cruelties compel his subjects \n\nto invite the assistance of the Turks . . . 1393 \nBattle of Nicopolis : Bajazet vanquishes Sigismond \n\nand a large army 28 Sept. 1396 \n\nSigismond obtains the crown of Bohemia, and is \n\nelected emperor of Germany 1410 \n\nAlbert of Austria succeeds to the throne of \n\nHungary 1437 \n\n"Victories of the great John Hunniades (reputed \nillegitimate son of Sigismond) over the Turks 1442-4 \n\n"Who obtain a truce of ten years 1444 \n\nBroken by Ladislas king of Hungary (at the pope\'s \ninstigation) ; he is defeated and slain, with the \npapal legate, at Varna . . . . 10 Nov. ,, \nJohn Hunniades escapes ; becomes regent . 1444-53 \n\nRaises siege of Belgrade, 14 July ; dies 10 Sept. . 1456 \nHungarians insult Turkish ambassadors; war en- \nsues : Solyman II. takes Buda .... 1526 \nDisastrous battle of Mohatz (which see) 29 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nHungary subject to Austria \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPeace of Vienna, granting toleration to Protestants, \n\n23 June, 1606 \nJohn Sobieski defeats the Turks in several battles, \n\nand raises the siege of Vienna . . 12 Nov. 1683 \nThe duke of Lorraine retakes Buda (which sec) 2 Sept. 1686 \nPrince Louis of Baden defeats the Turks at Salenc- \n\nkemen 19 Aug. 1691 \n\nPrince Eugene defeats them at Zenta 11 Sept. 1697 \n\nPeace of Carlowitz *. . 26 Jan. 1609 \n\nPragmatic sanction, autiiorising female succession \n\nto the throne . 1722-3 \n\nServia and Wallachia ceded to Turkey at the peace \n\nof Belgrade 1739 \n\nThe Hungarians enthusiastically support Maria- \nTheresa against France and Bavaria . . . 1740 \nThe protestants permitted to have churches . 1 784 \nIndependence of Hungary guaranteed . . 1790 \n\nThe diet meets ; Hungarian academy established . 1825 \nThe people, long discontented with the Austrian \n\nrule, break out into rebellion . . n Sept. 1848 \nMurder of the military governor, count Lamberg, \nby a mob at Pesth ; the Hungarian diet appoint \na provisional government under Kossuth and \nLouis Batthyany, 28 Sept. ; Hungarians defeat \n\n\' the ban of Croatia 29 Sept. ,, \n\nThe diet denounces as traitors all who acknowledge \nthe emperor of Austria as king of Hungary, \n\n8 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe insurgents defeated by the Austrians at \nSzaikszo, 21 Dec. ; at Mohr by the ban Jellachich, \n\n29 Dec. ,, \nBuda-Pesth taken by Windischgratz . 5 Jan. 1849 \nBern defeats the Austrians at Hermannstadt, \n\n21 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nHungary declares itself a free state, Kossuth \nsupreme governor . . . .14 April, \n\nThe Hungarians defeat the Imperialists before Gran, \n\n18 April, \n\nMarch of the Russian army through Gallicia to \nassist the Austrians 1 May, \n\nThe Austro-Russian troops defeat the Hungarians \nat Pered ... . . 20 June, \n\nBattles of Acs between the Hungarians and Aus- \ntrians ; former retire . . . . 2, 10 July, \n\nHungarians defeat Jellachich . . .14 July, \n\nThe Hungarians defeated by the Russians : Gorgey \nretreats after three days\' battle . . 15 July, \n\nBattle before Komorn, between the insurgents and \nthe Austro-Russian army . . . 16 July, \n\nInsurgents under Bern enter Moldavia, 23 July ; \ndefeated by the Russians at Schassberg 31 July, \n\nUtter defeat of the Hungarian army before Temes- \nwar, by gen. Haynau .... 10 Aug. \n\nGorgey and his army surrender to the Russians, \n\n13 Aug. \n\nKossuth, Andrassy, Bern, &c. , escape to the Turkish \nfrontiers, and are placed under protection at \nNew Orsova (see Turkey) . . . 21 Aug. \n\nKomorn surrenders to the Austrians ; close of the \nwar. 27 Sept. \n\nLouis Batthyany tried at Pesth, and shot ; many \nother insurgent chiefs put to death at Arad 6 Oct. \n\nAmnesty granted to the Hungarian insurgents, who \nreturn home 16 Oct. \n\nBern dies at Aleppo .... 10 Dec. \n\nCount Julius Andrassy, in exile, sentenced to death, \nas traitor ; announced ... 23 Feb. \n\nThe country remains in an unsettled state ; many \nexecutions ....... 1 \n\nCrown of St. Stephen and royal insignia discovered \nand sent to Vienna . . . 8 Sept. \n\nAmnesty for political offenders of 1848-9 12 July, \n\nThe emperor and empress visit Buda . 4 May, \n\nDuring the Italian war in 1859, an insurrection in \nHungary was in contemplation, and communica- \ntions took place between Louis Napoleon and \nKossuth ; which circumstances it is said led the \nemperor of Austria to accede to the peace of Villa- \nfranca so suddenly, and shortly afterwards to \npromise many reforms and to grant more liberty \nto the protestants in Hungary . Aug. -Oct. \n\nRecall of archduke Albert; general Benedek ap- \npointed governor April, \n\nDemand for restoration of the old constitution ; re- \nunion of the Banat and Voivodina with Hungary, \n&o Oct. \n\nRestoration of old constitution promised 20 Oct. \n\nSehmerling appointed minister . . 13 Dee. \n\nNational conference at Gran . . . Dec. \n\nDemand for the constitution of 1848 . Jan. \n\nThe emperor promulgates a new liberal constitu- \ntion for the empire 26 Feb. \n\nWhich does not satisfy the Hungarians March, \n\nHungarian diet opened .... 6 April, \n\nMeeting of the Reichsrath at Vienna : no deputies \npresent from Hungary or Croatia . 29 April, \n\nCount Teleki (see Austria, i860) found dead in his \nbed at Pesth : intense excitement . 8 May, \n\nThe diet votes an address to the emperor, desiring \nrestoration of the old constitution . . 5 July, \n\nThe military begin to levy the taxes . . July, \n\nImperial rescript refusing the entire independence \nof Hungary, 21 July: the diet protests, 20 Aug. ; \nand is dissolved .... 21 Aug. \n\nThe archbishop of Gran, the primate, indignantly \nprotests against the act of the imperial govern- \nment Sept. -Oct. \n\nSummoned to Vienna ; he stands firm 25 Oct. \n\nThe magistrates in the comitat of Pesth resign ; \nmilitary government established ; passive resist- \nance of the nobility Dec. \n\nAmnesty declared for political offences, and cessa- \ntion of prosecutions . . . .18 Nov. \n\nNewspapers confiscated for publishing seditious \nspeeches 29 March, \n\nThe emperor visits Buda-Pesth ; well received ; \ninauguration of a new policy ; the rights of Hun- \ngary to be restored .... 6-9 June, \n\nImperial rescript, abolishing the representative con- \nstitution of the empire, with the view of restoring \nindependence of Hungary, &e. . . 21 Sept. \n\n\n\n1851 \n\n853-5 \n\n1853 \n1856 \n1857 \n\n\n\n1859 \n\n\n\n1862 \n1863 \n\n1865 \n\n\n\nHUNGAEY. \n\n\n\n489 \n\n\n\nHUNGAEY. \n\n\n\nThe Deak or moderate party demand restoration of \nthe monarchy, with a responsible government, \n\nii Nov. 1865 \n\nThe emperor visits Pesth ; the diet opened, 14 Dec. ; \nCarl Szentivanyi elected president . 20 Dec. ,, \n\nEmperor and empress arrive at Pesth . 29 Jan. 1866 \n\nHungarian legions join the Prussian army, June : \n(after the peace, they were allowed to return to \ntheir allegiance) Oct. ,, \n\nProlonged political negotiations for autonomy; \nDeak and national party wearied, threaten to \nbreak off Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nHungarian diet opened by a conciliatory rescript, \n\n19 Nov. ,, \n\nDeak\'s address in reply, demanding the restoration \nof the constitution, adopted by the diet with a \nlarge majority 15 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMuch opposition to the convocation of the Reichs- \nrath Jan. 1867 \n\nRestoration of the constitution of 1848 ; an inde- \npendent ministry appointed, headed by count \nJulius Andrassy 17 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n[Andrassy carries freedom of the press, removal of \nJewish disabilities and promotes railways, &c, \n1867 et seq.] \n\nThe Croats protest against incorporation with \nHungary 25 May, ,, \n\nThe emperor and empress crowned at Buda with \nthe ancient ceremonies .... 8 June, ,, \n\nAmnesty granted for all political offences 9 June, ,, \n\nThe coronation gift to the emperor of 50,000 ducats \nbestowed on orphans and invalids . 10 June, ,, \n\nDiscussion between the Austrians and Hungarians \nrespecting the division of the liability for the \nnational debt Aug. -Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nA financial convention signed by deputations, \n\n23 Sept. ,, \n\nKossuth\'s letter to his constituents at Waitzen, \ncensuring Deak and the moderate party Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDeak joined by Klapka and other liberals Nov. ,, \n\nThe " Nazarenes," a sect resembling Quakers, be- \ncome prominent Nov. ,, \n\nBills for financial arrangement with Austria, and \nfor Jewish emancipation, received royal assent, \n\n29 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFirst trial by jury of press offences ; (fine and im- \nprisonment inflicted for publishing a letter of \nKossuth) 27 Feb. 1868 \n\nKossuth (elected a member of the legislature) \nresigns by letter 14 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nA Croatian deputation accepjts union with Hungary, \n\n27 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPrince Napoleon Jerome\'s visit ; warmly received, \n\nJune, ,, \n\nDispute respecting the apportionment of the army \nsettled 5 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe diet of 1865 closed with an address from the \neruperor 10 Dec. ,, \n\nCongress of Hungarian Jews opened ; Joseph Eotvos \nminister 14 Dee. ,, \n\nPowerful counter-addresses from Andrassy and \nKossuth published Jan. 1869 \n\nRoyal Hungarian guard organised . . 9 Feb. ,, \n\nChamber of deputies meet . . . 22 April, ,, \n\nRemains of Louis Batthyany (executed and pri- \nvately buried, Oct. 1849), re-interred solemnly in \nthe public cemetery, Pesth . . .9 June, 1870 \n\nCount Andrassy promotes the neutrality of Austria \nin the Franco-German war . . . July, ,, \n\nJoseph Eotvos, author, patriot, and minister, died, \ndeeply lamented, aged 58 . . .3 Feb. 1871 \n\nAutumn military manoeuvres, near Waitzen, 22 Sept. \n\net seq. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAndrassy succeeds count von Beust as foreign minis- \nter at Vienna ; count Lonyay, Hungarian premier, \n\n14 Nov. ,, \n\nThe diet, after sitting three years, dissolved, \n\n16 April, 1872 \n\nElections ; increased majority of the Deak or con- \nstitutional party, July ; diet opened 4 Sept. ,, \n\nResignation of the count Lonyay ministry, 2 Dec. ; \nSzlavy forms a ministry .... Dec. ,, \n\nThe Fiume railway partly opened . . 24 June, 1873 \n\nBuda-Pesth formally constituted the capital, Nov. ,, \n\nMinistry resigns ; crisis ; Bitto forms a cabinet, \n\n20 March, 1874 \n\nParliament closes 14 Aug. ,, \n\n\n\nMinistry resigns, n Feb. ; coalition ministry under \nbaron von Wenckheim formed, 26 Feb. \xe2\x80\x94 1 March, 1875 \n\nElections ; greatly fh favour of government July, ,, \n\nKoloman Tisza, chief of the ministry . 20 Oct. ,, \n\nDeath of the constitutional patriot, Francis Deak, \n28 Jan., state funeral .... 3 Feb. 1876 \n\nMinisterial crisis ; Tisza resigns ; remains in office \n\nFeb. 1877 \n\nProjected raid into Roumania to favour the Turks \ncheeked; censured by Klapka end of Sept. ,, \n\nMiskolcz nearly destroyed by a waterspout, 30 Aug. 1878 \n\nResignation of Szell, finance minister, 26 Sept. ; \nfollowed by that of the Tisza ministry . 4 Oct. ,, \n\nTisza ministry retained modified . . 5 Dec. ,, \n\nDistressing inundation at Szegedin ; great loss of \nlife and much property (see Inundations), \n\n12, 13, March, and 12 Dec. 1879 \n\nMurder of lord chief justice George von Majlath \nvon Szekhely, about .... 29 Mar. 1883 \n\nJoseph Scharf and nine other Jews tried at Nyireghy- \nhaza for alleged murder of a Christian maid, \nEsther Solymosi (on 1 April, 1882) . June, ,, \n\nAcquitted 3 Aug. ,, \n\nViolent auti-jewish riots Pesth, Zala, Egersseg, &c. \nJuly, Aug. ; martial law proclaimed 29-30 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThree men convicted of the murder of the chief \njustice 6 Oct. ,, \n\nThirty-six Socialists arrested at Pesth ; many ex- \npelled about 13 Mar. 1884 \n\nLiberal majority in the elections, about 13 June, ,, \n\nNational exhibition at Buda-Pesth opened by the \nemperor 2 May ; closed .... 4 Nov. 1885 \n\nBi-centenary of the recapture of Buda from the \nTurks celebrated 2 Sept. 1886 \n\nPanic in the Franciscan church in Kadna through \nignition of the altar cloth ; 15 persons crushed to \ndeath 12 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nM. Tisza declares for maintenance of the treaty of \nBerlin and Bulgarian independence . 30 Sept. ,, \n\nIncreased army estimates voted . . 5 March, 1887 \n\nAccident through explosion of dynamite at Jasz \nBereny near Pesth ; 27 persons killed 5 July, ,, \n\nBronze statue of Francis Deak unveiled by the \nemperor 29 Sept. ,, \n\nGreat opposition to M. Tisza\'s army bill ; demon- \nstration in Buda-Pesth .... Feb. 1889 \n\nThe small town of Paks totally destroyed by fire \n\n20 July, ,, \n\nThe army ordered to be styled "Imperial and Royal" \nby desire of the Hungarian ministry . 19 Oct. ,, \n\nCount Julius Andrassy dies in Istria, 18 Feb. ; \nfuneral service at Buda-Pesth ; the emperor and \nministry present, 21 Feb. ; buried in family vault \nat Terebes 22 Feb. 1890 \n\nM. Tisza, the premier, an earnest liberal, resigns, \nthrough opposition of his colleagues, 7 March, \nsucceeded by count Julius Szapary 13 March, ,, \n\nThe town of Moar burnt, estimated damage 2,000,000 \nflorins 7 Aug. ,, \n\nUnveiling at Arad of the national monument of the \n13 generals executed 6 Oct. 1849 . . 6 Oct. ,, \n\nAt Bistritz on the Waag, about 30 persons were \ndrowned by the upsetting of a ferry-boat, 10 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDeath of cardinal John Simor, archbishop of Gran, \nprimate of Hungary, who crowned the king and \nqueen in 1867, 23 Jan. ; succeeded by arch-abbot \nClaude Vaszara 1 Nov. 1891 \n\nCurrency reform bills (gold to be the basis) intro- \nduced into the diet 14 May, 1892 \n\nDeath of gen. Klapka, the hero of Komorn (buried \nat Buda-Pesth] . . . about 17 May, ,, \n\nSOVEREIGNS. \n\n997. St. Stephen, duke of Hungary (son of Geisa); es- \ntablished the Roman catholic religion (1000), \nand received from the pope the title of Apostolic \nKing, still borne by the emperor of Austria, as \nking of Hungary. \n\n1038. Peter, the German ; deposed. \n\n1041. Aba or Owen. \n\n1044. Peter, again : deposed ; and his eyes put out. \n\n1047. Andrew I. ; deposed. \n\n1061. Bela I. : killed by the fall of a ruinous tower. \n\n1064. Salamon, son of Andrew. \n\n1075. Geisa I. sou of Bela. \n\n1077. Ladislas I. the Pious. \n\n1095. Coloman, son of Geisa. \n\n1 1 14. Stephen II. named Thunder. \n\n\n\nHUNGEEFOED BEIDGE. \n\n\n\n490 \n\n\n\nHUTCHINSONIANS. \n\n\n\n1131. Bela II. : had his eyes put out. \n\n1141. Geisa II. : succeeded by his son, \n\n1 161. Stephen III.: and Stephen IV. (anarchy). \n\n1173. Bela III.: succeeded by his son, \n\n1 196. Emeric: succeeded by his son, \n\n1204. Ladislas II. ; reigned six months only. \n\n1205. Andrew II. son of Bela III. \n1235. Bela IV. \n\n1270. Stephen IV. (or V.) his son. \n\n1272. Ladislas III. : killed. \n\n1290. Andrew III. surnamed the Venetian, son-in-law of \nBodolph of Hapsburg, emperor of Germany (last \nof the house of Arpad), died 1301. \n\n1301. Wenceslas of Bohemia, and (1305) Otho of Bavaria, \nwho gave way to \n\n1309. Charobert, or Charles Robert of Anjou. \n\n1342. Louis I. the Great ; elected king of Poland, 1370. \n\n1382. Mary, called King Mary, daughter of Louis. \n\n1385-6. Charles Durazzo. \n\n1387. Mary and her consort Sigismond : the latter be- \ncame king of Bohemia, and was elected emperor \nin 1410. \n\n1392. Sigismond alone (on the death of Mary). \n\n1437. Albert, duke of Austria, married Elizabeth, daughter \nof Sigismond, and obtains the thrones of Hun- \ngary, Bohemia, and Germany ; dies suddenly. \n\n1439. Elizabeth alone : she marries \n\n1440. Ladislas IV. king of Poland, of which, kingdom he \n\nwas Ladislas VI. : slain at Varna. \n\n1444. [Interregnum.] \n\n1445. John Hunniades, regent. \n\n1458. Ladislas V. posthumous son of Albert : poisoned. \n\xe2\x80\x9e Matthias-Corvinus, son of Hunniades. \n\n1490. Ladislas VI. king of Bohemia: the emperor Maxi- \nmilian laid claim to both kingdoms. \n\n1516. Louis II. of Hungary (I. of Bohemia): loses his \n\nlife at the battle of Mohatz. \n\n/John Zapolski, waivode of Transylvania, elected \n\n1 by the Hungarians, and supported by the sul- \n\nI tan Solyman; by treaty with Ferdinand, he \n\n1526. { founds the principality of Transylvania, \n1536- \nFerdinand I. king of Bohemia, brother to the \nemperor Charles V. ; rival kings. \n\n1540. Ferdinand alone : elected emperor, 15-58. \n\n1563. Maximilian, son; emperor in 1564. \n\n1572. Rodolph, son; emperor in 1576. \n\n1608. Matthias II. brother; emperor in 1612. \n\n1618. Ferdinand II. cousin, emperor. \n\n1625. Ferdinand III. son ; emperor, 1637. \n\n1647. Ferdinand IV. son ; died in 1654, three years before \nhis father. \n\n1655. Leopold I. brother: emperor, 1657. \n\n1687. Joseph I. son: emperor in 1705. \n\n1712. Charles VI. (of Germany), brother, and nominal \nking of Spain. \n\n1 741. Maria-Theresa, daughter; empress; survived her \nconsort, emperor Francis I., from 1765 until \n1780; see Germany. \n\n1780. Joseph II. son, emperor in 1765: succeeded to \nHungary on the death of his mother. \n\n1790. Leopold II. brother; emperor; succeeded by his \nson, \n\n1792. Francis I. son (Francis II. as emperor of Ger- \nmany): in 1804 he became emperor of Austria \nonly. \n\n1835. Ferdinand V. son: Ferdinand I. as emperor of \nAustria. \n\n1848. Francis-Joseph, emperor of Austria, nephew; suc- \nceeded on the abdication of his uncle, 2 Dec. \n1848 ; crowned king of Hungary, 8 June, 1867. \nSee Austria. \n\nHUNGEEFOED BEIDGE, over the \nThames from Hungerford-stairs to the Belvedere- \nroad, Lambeth, opened I May, 1845, was taken \ndown in July, 1862, to make way for the Charing- \ncross railway-bridge, and transferred to Clifton \n{\xe2\x96\xa0which see). The market (opened in July, 1833), \nwas removed at the same time. \n\nHUNS, a race of warlike Asiaties, said to have \nconquered China, about 210 B.C., and to have been \nexpelled therefrom about a.d. 90. They invaded \nHungary, about 376, and drove out the Goths. \nMarching westward, under Attila, they were tho- \n\n\n\nroughly beaten at Chalons by the consul Aetius, \n451 ; see Attila. \n\nHUNTEEIAN OEATION, annually at the \nRoyal College of Surgeons, London, founded 1813. \n\nHUNTEEIAN SOCIETY (surgical) esta- \nblished Feb. 1819 ; first president, sir fm. Blizard. \nSee Surgeons, College of. \n\nHUNTING : an ancient pastime. The " Bokys \nof Hawking and Huntyng," by Lame Julyana \nBarnes, was printed at St. Alban\'s, i486. \n\nHUNTINGDON, Huntingdonshire ; a Saxon \ntown; a royal castle was erected here by Edward \nthe Elder, 917 ; the town was incorporated in 1189. \nOliver Cromwell, the protector, was born here \n25 April, 1599. Population, 1881, 4,228 ; 1891, \n4,349- \n\nHUNTINGDON CONNECTION, see \nWhite jitldites . \n\nHUEEICANES, see Cyclones and Storms. \n\nHUSSAES, Hungarian militia, provided by \nthe landholders ; instituted by Matthias Corvinus, \nabout 1359. (Hussar is derived from huss, 20 ; and \nat; price.) The British Hussars were enrolled in \n1759- \n\nHUSSITES. After the death of Huss,* many \nof his followers took up arms, in 1419, and formed a \npolitical party under John Ziska, and built the \ncity of Tabor. He defeated the emperor Sigismond, \n11 July, 1420, and a short truce followed. Ziska, \nblinded at the siege of Rabi, beat all the armies \nsent against him. He died of the plague, 18 Oct* \n1424, and is said to have ordered a drum to be made \nof his skin to terrify his enemies even after death. \nTwo Hussite generals, named Procopius, defeated \nthe imperialists in 1431 ; and a temporary peace \nensued. Divisions took place among the Hussites, \nand on 30 May, 1434, they were defeated, and Pro- \ncopius the elder slain at Bomischbrod or Lippau. \nToleration was granted by the treaty of Iglau, and \nSigismond entered Prague 23 Aug. 1436. The Hus- \nsites opposed his successor, Albert of Austria, and \ncalled Casimir of Poland to the throne ; but were \ndefeated in 1438. A portion of the Hussites existed \nin the time of Luther, and were called "Bohemian \nbrethren." \n\nHUSTINGS (said to be derived from house \ncourt, an assembly among the Anglo-Saxons), an \nancient court of London, being its supreme court of \njudicature, as the court of common council is of \nlegislature. The court of hust.yngs was granted to \nthe city of London, to be holden and kept weekly, \nby Edward the Confessor, 1052. One was held to out- \nlaw defaulters, 6 Dec. 1870. Winchester, Lincoln, \nYork, &c, were also granted hustings courts. \n\nHUTCHINSONIANS included many emi- \nneut clergy, who did not form any sect, bdt held \nthe opinions of John Hutchinson, of Yorkshire \n(1674-1737) ; they rejected the Newtonian system, \nand contended that the scriptures contain a complete \nsystem of natural philosophy. His work, " Moses\' \n\n* The clergy having instigated the pope to issue a bull \nagainst heretics, John Huss (born in Bohemia in 1373), a \nzealous preacher of the Reformation, was cited to appear \nbefore a council of divines at Constance, the emperor \nSigismond sending him a safe-conduct. He presented \nhimself accordingly, but was thrown into prison, and \nafter some months\' confinement was adjudged to be \nburned alive, which he endured with resignation, 6 or 7 \nJuly, 1415. Jerome of Prague, his intimate friend, who- \ncame to this council to support and second him, also \nsuffered death by fire, 30 May, 1416, although he also had \na safe-conduct. \n\n\n\nHYDASPES. \n\n\n\n491 \n\n\n\nHYDEOCHLOEIC ACID. \n\n\n\nPrincipia," was published in 1724. He derived all \nthings from the air, whence, he said, proceeded fire, \nlight, and spirit, types of the Trinity. In 17 12 he \ninvented a time-piece for finding the longitude. He \ndied in 1737. \n\nHYDASPES, a river in India, where Alex- \nander the Great defeated Porus, after a severely \ncontested engagement; 327 B.C. \n\nHYDE-PAEK (London, W.), the ancient \n\nmanor of Hyde, belonging to the abbey of West- \nminster, became crown property at the dissolution, \n\n1535. It was sold by parliament in 1652 ; but was \n\nresumed by the king at the restoration in 1660. \n\nThe Serpentine was formed 1730-33. \n\nColossal statue of Achilles, cast from cannon taken \nin the battles of Salamanca, Vittoria, Toulouse, \nand Waterloo, and inscribed to "Arthur, Duke of \nWellington, and his brave companions in arms, by \ntheir countrywomen, " erected on . .18 June, 1822 \n\nHyde Park corner entrance erected . . . . 1828 \n\nMarble arch from Buckingham Palace set up at \nCumberland Gate .... 29 March, 1850 \n\nCrystal palace erected for the great exhibition. . 185 1 \n\nDisturbances in consequence of a Sunday bill hav- \ning been brought before parliament by lord Robert \nGrosvenor, which was eventually withdrawn, \n\nSundays, 24 June, and 1 and 8 July, 1855 \n\nRiotous meetings held here, on account of the high \nprice of bread . . Sundays 14, 21, 28 Oct. ,, \n\nDemocratic meetings on the reform question, March, 1859 \n\nThe queen reviewed 18,450 volunteers . 23 June, i860 \n\nGreat meeting of admirers of Garibaldi, 28 Sept. ; who \nare violently attacked by the Irish ; many persons \nwounded 5 Oct. 1862 \n\nPublic meetings in the park henceforth prohibited, \n\n9 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n20,000 volunteers reviewed by the prince of Wales, \n\n28 May, 1864 \n\nProposed reform meeting in the piark opposed ; \ngreat rioting ; the palings broken down, and much \ndamage done ; fierce conflicts with the police, and \nmany hurt 23, 24 July, 1866 \n\nPeaceful reform demonstrations in the park, \n\n6 May and 5 Aug. 1867 \n\nRegulations with restrictions on public meeting in \nthe parks issued (afterwards modified) . Oct. 1872 \n\nMeeting of Fenian sympathisers in Hyde park con- \ntrary to the regulations . . . .3 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nOdger and others prosecuted and fined . . Nov. ,, \n\nThe convictions confirmed by the judges on appeal \n\n22 Jan. 1873 \n\nGreat meeting on behalf of the Tichborne claimant, \nDr. Kenealy and Mr. Guildford Onslow present, \n\nEaster Monday, 29 March, 1875 \n\nGreat meetings for and against government policy \non the eastern question \n\nSundays 24 Feb. and 10 March, 1878 \n\nGreat orderly meeting to protest against arrest of \nIrish agitators (Killen, Daly, and Davitt) \n\n30 Nov. 1879 \n\nAbout 40,000 persons meet to protest against \narrest of Mr. Parnell and others ; Mr. O\'Donnell \nchief speaker ; little sympathy . 23 Oct. 1881 \n\nMass meeting to support the London government \nbill 13 July, 1884 \n\nGreat demonstration ; seven meetings of trade dele- \ngates, political clubs, &c, about 40,000, to pro- \ntest against the peers\' rejection of the franchise \nbill and to support the Gladstone Ministry \n\n21 July, ,, \n\nDemonstration for abolition of house of lords ; nine \nmeetings, Sunday 26 Oct. ,, \n\nGreat meeting of the social democratic federation, \nSunday 21 Feb. 1886 \n\nGreat demonstration against the Irish coercion \nbill 11 April, 1887 \n\nJubilee entertainment of about 30,000 children of \nelementary schools, see Jiibilee . . 22 June ,, \n\nMeeting of the unemployed ; dispersed by the \npolice after a fight, 18-19 Oct. 1887 ; orderly \nmeetings . . .23 Oct., and 15, 20, 27 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nOrderly demonstration to meet the released Irish \nM.P.\'s, Mr. T. D. Sullivan and Mr. E. Harrington, \n\n13 Feb. 1888 \n\n\n\nDemonstration against proposed compensation to \npublicans dispossessed by local government bill, \n\n2 June, 1888; \n\nMeetings to protest against the treatment of Mr. \nW. O\'Brien, M.P., and others in prison (see \n\nIreland) ; 10 Feb. 1889. \n\nSee Strikes, 1889. \n\nMeeting of Postmen\'s union . . . 20 Oct. ,, \n\nDemonstrations in relation to the proposed bakers\' \nstrike and the Silverton strike . . 10 Nov. ,, \n\nGreat meeting of men employed on railways \n\n15 Dec. ,, \n\nMeeting of trades unions to support the gas-stokers\' \nunion 19 Jan. 1890 \n\n"Labour Day " demonstrations, see Working-men \n\n1, 4 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGreat meeting of railway workers and others \n\n11 May, , r \n\nDemonstration against government proposal to \ncompensate publicans and others for loss of \ndrink licences 7 June, ,\xe2\x80\x9e \n\n" Labour Day " demonstrations, orderly ; foreign \nanarchists, 1 May ; building trade unions, 2 May ; \ncombined trades unions, in favour of an eight \nhours working day ; present, Mr. Cunniughame \nGraham, M.P., Messrs. John Burns, Ben Tillet, \nTom Mann, and Dr. Aveling . . 3 May, 1891 \n\nMass meeting to support the omnibus strike \n\n7 June, , P \n\nGreat demonstration of the building trades in \nfavour of an eight hours day . . 27 Sept. ,, \n\nGreat meeting of the Salvation Army to welcome \ngen. Booth on his return from his long tour in \nEurope, Africa, Asia, and Australia . 13 Feb. 189a \n\nMass meeting of London anarchists . 10 April, ,, \n\nMass meeting of members of the National Union of \nClerks 24 April ,, \n\n" Labour Day ; " great orderly meeting to support \nand promote an international 8 hours working \nday 1 May, ,, \n\nHYDEEABAD (S. India), the territory of the- \nNizam (the greatest mahometan potentate in \nIndia), who derives his authority from Azof Jah, \na chief under Aurungzcbe, who made him viceroy as- \nNizam-ool-Moolk, regulator of the state. He died \nin 1748. Population in 1881, 9,845,594; in 1891, \n10,458,930. \n\nCivil war between his descendants ensues . 1748-65 \nNizam Ali dethroned his brother, 1761 ; ravaged \nthe Carnatic, 1765 ; made a treaty with the East \nIndia Company, 1766; he joined Hyder Ali ; left \nhim, 1768; acquired part of Tippoo Sultan\'s terri- \ntories ; and became feudatory of the British \n\nempire, 1799 et seq. ; died 1802* \n\nOne of his successors, Secunder Jah, ruled feebly; \n\ndied, succeeded by an illegitimate son . . 1829, \nThe Nizam died, leaving his young son in charge \nof Salar Jung ; enjoining him to support the \nBritish during the mutiny, which he did faith- \nfully i8 57 -S \n\nSir Salar Jung made K. C.S.I. ; visits Europe ; pre- \nsented to the Queen, 29 June ; returned to Bom- \nbay, 24 Aug. 1876 ; died .... 8 Feb. 1883 \nThe young Nizam Mir Mahbub Ali (aged 18) \ninstalled at Hyderabad by the viceroy of India, \nthe marquis of Ripon .... 5 Feb. 18S4. \nThe Nizam in a letter to lord Dufl\'erin, the viceroy, \nmakes an offer to present 20 lakhs of rupees \nfor three years, total 600,000/., for the defence of \nthe N.W. Indian territories, Sept.; acknowledged \nwith thanks by the viceroy, announced 10 Oct. ; \nand by the queen, about 26 Oct. 1887 ; the offer \nwith others declined (see India) . 18 Nov. 188S \nThe long-standing disputes between the Nizam\'s \ngovernment and the Decean company, settled on \nterms approved by the India office, signed at \n\nHyderabad 2 Jan. 1890. \n\nSee Chloroform, 1889-90. \nFor the "imperial diamond " case, see Trials, Dec. 1891- \n\nHYDEAULIC PEESS, see under Hydro- \nstatics. \n\nHYDEOCHLOEIC ACID or Chloriiyd-- \nRIC ACID, the only known compound of chlorine \nand hydrogen, was discovered by Dr. Priestley, 1772 ; \n\n\n\nHYPEOGEN. \n\n\n\n492 \n\n\n\nHYPNOTISM. \n\n\n\nits constitution determined by Davy, 1810. It is \nalso called muriatic acid and spirit of salt; see \nunder Alkalies. \n\nHYDEOGEN (from hydor, water). Paracelsus \nobserved a gas rise from a solution of iron in oil of \nvitriol, about 1500; Turquet de May erne discovered \nits inflammability, 1656; as did Boyle, 1672; Le- \nmery noticed its detonating power, 1700. In 1766 \nCavendish proved it to be an elementary body ; and \nin 1781, he and Watt first showed that in the com- \nbination of this gas with oxygen, which takes place \nwhen it is burnt, water is produced ; subsequently \nLavoisier decomposed water into its elements, and \ngave hydrogen its present name instead of "inflam- \nmable air." One volume of oxygen combines with \ntwo volumes of hydrogen to form water. Hydrogen \nis never found in the free state. It was liquefied \nby Eaoul Pictet and Cailletet, end of 1877. \n\nHYDEOGENIIJM, a hypothetical metal. \nIn a paper read before the Royal Society, 7 Jan. \n1869, Mr. Thomas Graham, master of the Mint, \nsuggested that a piece of the metal palladium, into \nwhich hydrogen had been pressed, became an " alloy \nof the volatile metal hydrogenium." \n\nHYDEOGEAPHY is the description of the \nsurface waters of the earth. The first sea-chart is \nattributed to Henry the Navigator, in the 16th cen- \ntury. There is a hydrographic department in the \nBritish admiralty, by which a series of charts has \nbeen issued. \n\nHYDEOMETEE, the instrument by which \nis measured the gravity, densitj-, and other pro- \nperties of liquids. The oldest mention of the \nhydrometer occurs in the 5th century, and may be \nfound in the letters of Synesius to Hypatia ; but it \nis not improbable that Archimedes was the inventor \nof it, though no proofs of it are to be found. Beck- \nmann. Archimedes was killed in 212 B.C., and \nHypatia was torn to pieces at Alexandria, a.d. 415. \nRobert Boyle described a hydrometer in 1675 : \nBaume\'s (1762) and Sykes\', about 1818, have been \nmuch employed. Modifications of the apparatus \nhave been invented. \n\nHYDEOPATHY, a term applied to the treat- \nment of diseases by cold water, practised by Hippo- \ncrates in the 4th century B.C., by the Arabs in the \n10th century a.d., and revived by Dr. Currie in \n1797. A system was suggested in 1825 by Vincenz \nPriessnitz, of Grafenberg, in Austrian Silesia. The \nrational part of the doctrine was understood and \nmaintained by Dr. Sydenham, before 1689. Priess- \nnitz died 26 Nov. 1851. \nA grand hydropathic establishment at Bushey. Herts, \n\nopened, 13 Feb. 1883. Many others exist throughout \n\nthe kingdom. \n\nHYDEOPHOBIA, in man, rabies in animals, \nM. Pasteur announced his discovery of a method of \nchecking this disease, analogous to vaccination. \nHe operates on monkeys and other animals suc- \ncessfully, May, on dogs, Aug. 1884 ; on 40 persons \n14 Dec. 1885. An international hospital, after- \nwards termed the Pasteur institute, founded \n(40,000?.. subscribed)May, 1886; opened by president \nCarnot, 14 Nov. 1888. Out of 726 cases treated, 4 \ndeaths reported 12 April, 1886 ; 1673 persons \ntreated, 1 May, 1888, to 1 May, 1889. The prin- \nciple much opposed 1886-7. A British commis- \nsion for inquiry (sir James Paget, Dr. Burdon \n.Sanderson, and others) appointed 12 April, 1886 ; \nvisits Paris, and reports confidence in M. Pas- \nteur\'s treatment, 27 June, 1887. M. Pasteur pro- \nposes and verifies other applications of his prin- \nciples, 1887-8. The book,"M. Pasteur, Histoire \n<l\'un Savant," was published in 1883 ; and an \nEnglish translation by lady Claud Hamilton in . 1885 \n\n\n\nReported number of patients by M. Pasteur since \n1885, 6,950, up to 28 June, 1889 ; 1,810 patients, \n13 deaths in the year, Oct. 1889. \n\nMeeting of eminent men at the mansion house, \nLondon, to establish a fund to support the \nPasteur institute, 1 July ; above 2,000?. sub- \nscribed 2 Oct. 1889 \n\nSee Mansion House Funds. \n\n1,546 patients (10 deaths) 1890 \n\nHYDEOSTATICS, &c, were probably first \nstudied in the Alexandrian school about 300 B.C. \nPressure of fluids discovered by Archimedes, \n\nabout b. c. 250 \nThe forcing pump and air fountain invented by Hero \n\nabout 120 \nWater mills were known . . . about a.d. i \nThe science revived by Galileo, Castellio, Torricelli, \nand Pascal (who suggested the principle of the \nhydraulic press) .... 17th century \nThe theory of rivers scientifically understood in . 1697 \nThe correct theory of fluids and oscillation of waves \n\nexplained by Newton 1714 \n\nA scientific form was given to hydro-dynamics, by \n\nBernouilli 1738 \n\nJoseph Bramah\'s hydrostatic or hydraulic press pa- \ntented first in 1785 \n\nSir Win. Armstrong\'s hydraulic crane patented . 1846 \n\nJohn Crowther\'s 1825 \n\nDr. Emil Fleischer\'s Hydromotor successfully ap- \nplied to the propulsion of ships on the Elbe, \nnear Dresden 11 Oct. 1883 \n\nHYGEIOPOLIS (city of health), planned by \nDr. B. Ward Richardson, in 1876. A company was \nproposed for its erection, Jan. 1877. No result. \n\nHYGIENE (Hygeia, goddess of health), see \n\nSanitation. \n\nInternational congresses on Hygiene and Demo- \ngraphy : 1. Brussels, 27 Sept. 1876 ; 2. Paris, 1 \nAug. 1878 ; 3. Turin, Aug. 1880 ; 4. Geneva, 4 \nSept. 1882 ; 5. Hague, 21 Aug. 1884 ; 6. Vienna, \n26 Sept. 1887 ; 7. London, the queen patron, the \nprince of Wales president ; met . 10-17 Aug. 1891 \n\nHYGEOMETEE, an instrument for measur- \ning the moisture in the atmosphere. That by \nSaussure (who died in 1799) is most employed. It \nconsists of a human hair boiled in caustic lye, and \nacts on the principle of absorption. Brande. \nDaniell\'s hygrometer (1820) is much esteemed. M. \nCrova\'s new hygrometer, said to be ver) r accurate, \ndescribed, June, 1882. \n\nHYMNS- The song of Moses is the most an- \ncient, 1491 B.C. (Exod. xv.) The Psalms date \nfrom about 1060 B.C. to about 444 B.C. (from David \nto Ezra). The hymns of the Jews were frequently \naccompanied by instrumental music. Paul (a.d. \n64) speaks of Christians admonishing one another \n" in psalms and hymns and spiritual songs" {Col. \niii. 16.) The composition of hymns for the \nChristian church is very ancient. The hymns \nof Dr. Watts (died 1784), of John Wesley (died \n1791), and of his brother Charles (died 1788), \nare used by English churchmen and dissenters. \n"Hymns, Ancient and Modem," edited hj rev. sir \nHenry Baker, first appeared in i860. "A Diction- \nary of Hymnology," edited by the rev. John Julian, \nwas published Jan. 1892. \n\nHYPNOTISM (Greek hi/pnos, sleep) or ner- \nvous sleep, terms given by Mr. Braid (in 1843) to a \nsleep-like condition, produced in a person by steadily \nfixing his mind on one particular object. Minor \nsurgical operations have, it is said, been performed \nwithout pain on persons in this state. Tbe lecture \nby R. Heidenhain, at Breslau 19 Jan. 1880, on \n"Hypnotism or Animal Magnetism" was trans- \nlated by L. C. Wooldridge; and published in 1888. \nSee Mesmerism. \n" The use of hypnotical suggestion " (the entire \n\nconcentration of the mind on one subject caused \n\n\n\nHYPOTHEC. \n\n\n\n493 \n\n\n\nHYTHE. \n\n\n\nby the suggestion of another person) in medical \npractice, has been advocated by Bernheim, \nBeaunis and other foreign physicians, Oct. 1889 ; \nbut strongly opposed by other eminent physi- \nologists, especially Du Bois Reymond . Oct. 1890 \n\nThe first meeting of the International Congress on \nHypnotism took place at Paris . . Aug. 1889 \n\nProf. Germane\'s experiments were exhibited at the \nAquarium, Westminster .... Nov. 1891 \n\nHYPOTHEC, LAW OF, in Scotland gives \nlandlords a preferential right to levy for rent and \nfollow and seize crops and cattle. A bill for its \nabolition was brought in annually since 1874. One \nwas read a second time 19 March, 1879, but did not \npass till 24 March, 1880 (43 Vict. c. 12) ; which \ncame into operation 11 Nov. 188 1. \n\n\n\nHYPSOMETEE, a thermometrical barometer \nfor measuring altitudes, invented by F. J. Wollaston \nin 1817, much improved by Kegnault, about 1847. \n\nHYRCANIA, Asia, near the Caspian, a pro- \nvince subject to Persia, B.C. 334; held by Par- \nthians, 244. It is now Mazenderan, a Persian \nprovince. \n\nHYTHE, Kent, a cinque-port. The haven has- \nbeen choked up with sand since the end of the \n16th century. A school of musketry was established \nhere in 1854, under the charge of major-gen. \nCharles Crawford Hay. He resigned in 1867. \nRailway to Sandgate opened. 9 Oct. 1874. Popula- \ntion, 1881,4,173; 1891,4,351. \n\n\n\nI. \n\n\n\nIAMBIC VEESE. \n\n\n\nIDAHO. \n\n\n\nIAMBIC VEESE, mythically named from \n6he poetical effusions of Iambe, an attendant of \nMetanira, wife of Celeus, king of Sparta. Archi- \nlochus is said to have been the first who wrote \nsatirical iambic verses B.C. 700. \n\nIBEEIA, see Georgia, and Spain. \n\nIBEEUS, a river in N.E. Spain, now called \nEbro, which see. It was very important during the \nsecond Punic war, 218 \xe2\x80\x94 201 B.C. \n\nICE. Galileo observed ice to be lighter than \n\xe2\x80\xa2water, about 1597. See Congelation, where is a \nnotice of the ice-making machines of Harrison and \nof Siebe. In 1841 there were sixteen companies in \nBoston, U.S., engaged in exporting ice, brought \nfrom Wenham lake and Fresh and Spy Ponds, \nabout 18 miles from that city. The trade was begun \nby Mr. Tudor in 1806. 156,540 tons -were sent \nfrom Boston alone in 1854. In New York, in 1855, \n305,000 tons were stored up, of which 20,000 were for \n"exportation. The Wenham lake company import ice \nlargely from their ponds near Christiania, Norway, \nfrom whence 43,359 tons were shipped to Great \nBritain in 1865. \n\nRegelation and other properties, exhibited by professor \nFaraday, in 1850, became the subject of investigation \nby eminent physicists of the day, especially J. D. Forbes, \nDr. Tyndall, and sir William Thomson. \n\n" ley night " or " silver thaw " in London, 22 Jan. 1867. \nAfter a severe frost came rain freezing as it fell. Many \naccidents occurred in consequence of the glassy pave- \nments and roads. \n\nICELAND (North Sea), discovered by Norwe- \ngian chiefs, about 861 ; according to some accounts, \nIt had been previously visited by a Scandinavian \npirate. Population, 1888, 69,224. \n\nColonised by Norwegians . . ... 874 \n\nHad a republican government, and a flourishing \nliterature, till it was subjected to Hakon, king of \nNorway 1264 \n\nChristianity introduced .... about 1000 \n\nThe annual general assembly was termed Althing : \nthere were four great schools, like universities, \nfounded in the nth century ; and education was \ngeneral . \n\nThe great warrior, statesman, and poet, Snorri Stur- \nluson, was murdered . . . .22 Sept. 1241 \n\nProtestantism introduced about . . . -1551 \n\nThousands perished by famine through failure of \nthe crops 1 753-4 \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 A new constitution signed by the king, 5 Jan. , \ncame into operation 1 Aug., when king Christian \nof Denmark visited Iceland, and the thousandth \nanniversary of the colonisation was celebrated at \nthe capital, Reykjavik . . . . 1 Aug. 1874 \n\nCleasby\'s great Icelandic-English Dictionary, pub- \nlished in England 1869-73 \n\nIceland has suffered much by volcanic eruptions, \nespecially in 1783 ; and on 29 March, 1875, whole \ndistricts of pasture land were devastated. \n\nA reported severe famine (see Mansion House funds). \n\nSummer, 1882 \n\nBelief was given by prof. Magnusson to many \nsufferers Oct. ,, \n\nA large emigration of Icelanders to west Canada, \n1872 et seq. \n\nAgitation for home-rule ; resisted by Denmark, \nNov. 1885 ; demanded by the diet July-Aug. 1886 \n\nDeath of Dr. Vigfusson, great Icelandic scholar \n\nFeb. 1889 \n\n\n\nExhibition of Icelandic handicraft at Kensington \n\n..May, 1889 \nMr. Frederick W. W. Howell ascended the Orsefa \nJbkull (about 6,550 feet) . . .17 Aug. 1891 \n\nSee Eddas and Hecla. \n\nICENI, a British tribe which inhabited chiefly \nSuffolk and Norfolk. In 61, while Suetonius Pau- \nlinus was reducing Mona (Anglesey) they marched \nsouthwards and destroyed Verulam, London, and \nother places, with great slaughter of the Romans ; \nbut were defeated by Suetonius near London, and \ntheir heroic queen Boadicea or Boudicca died or \ncommitted suicide. \n\n" ICH DIEN," / serve, the motto under the \nplume of ostrich feathers found in the helmet of \nthe king of Bohemia slain at the battle of Cressy, at \nwhich he served as a volunteer in the French army, \n26 Aug. 1346. Edward the Black Prince, in respect \nto his father, Edward III., who commanded that \nday, though the prince won the battle, adopted the \nmotto, which has since been borne with the feathers, \nby the heirs to the crown of England. \n\nICHNOLOGY, the science of footprints, treats \nof the impression made in mud or sand by the \nanimals of former ages. Dr. Duncan discovered the \nfootprints of a tortoise in the sandstone of Annan- \ndale, in 1828 ; since then numerous discoveries \nhave been made by Owen, Lyell, Huxley, and \nothers. \n\nICHTHYOLOGY, the science of fish. \nEminent authors are Aristotle (384 \xe2\x80\x94 322 B.C.), \nWilloughby, Ray, Valenciennes, Cuvier, Owen, \nAgassiz, &c. Yarrell\'s " British Fishes" (1836-59) \nis a classical work ; see Fish. \n\nICONIITM (Syria). Here Paul and Barnabas \npreached, 38. Soliman the Seljuk founded a king- \ndom here in 1074, which lasted till 1307, when it \nwas conquered by the Turks. It had been subdued \nby the Crusaders in 1097 and\' 1 190 ; see Konieh. \n\nICONOCLASTS (image-breakers). The con- \ntroversy respecting images (which had been intro- \nduced into churches for popular instruction about \n300) was begun about 726, and occasioned much \ndisturbance and loss of life in the Eastern Empire. \nLeo Isauricus published two edicts for demolishing \nimages in churches in that year, and enforced them \nwith great rigour in 736. The defenders of images \nwere again persecuted in 752 and 761, when Con- \nstautine forbade his subjects becoming monks. The \nworship of images was restored by Irene in 780. \nThis schism was the occasion of the second council \nof Nice, 787. Theophilus banished all the painters \nand statuaries from the Eastern Empire, 832. The \nIconoclasts were finally excommunicated at the \n8th general council at Constantinople, 869-870. \nThis controversy led to the separation of the Greek \nand Latin churches. Many images in churches \nwere destroyed in Scotland and the Netherlands in \nthe 16th century, and in England during the \nReformation and the civil war, 1641-8. \n\nIDAHO, a northern " territory" of the United \nStates of Nortli America, was organised in 1863 ; \nas a state, 1890. Capital Boisee. Population in \n1880, 32,610; 1890, 84,385. \n\n\n\nIDENTISCOPE. \n\n\n\n495 \n\n\n\nIMPEACHMENT. \n\n\n\nIDENTISCOPE, an optical apparatus for \ncombining two photograph portraits into one, sold \nin 1884. See Com2iosite Portraits. \n\nIDES (Latin Idus), were eight days in the \nRoman and church calendar, following the Nones. \nThey were reckoned backward. In March, May, \nJuly, and October, the 8th Idus was on the 8th of \nthe month, the 7th on the 9th, &c, the first, or Ide, \nbeing the 15th. In the other months the 8th Ide fell \non the 6th, and the first on the 13th. On the Idus \nof March (the 15th) 44 B.C., Julius Csesar was as- \nsassinated. \n\nIDIOTS. About 1855 there were in England, \nexclusive of lunatics, pauper idiots, or idiots pro- \ntected in national institutions, males, 3372 ; females, \n3893; total, 7265 ; see Lunacy. The Idiot Asylum \nat Earlswood, near Reigate, Surrey, began in 1847 ; \nwas chartered, 1862 ; additional buildings were \nfounded by the prince of Wales, 28 June, 1869. \nThe foundation of the Imbecile Asylum, Caterham, \nwas laid by Dr. Brewer, M.P., 17 April, 1869. \nIdiots Act passed, 1886. \n\nIDOLS. Images are mentioned in Gen. xxxi. \n19, 30, 1739 B.C. The Jews frequently deserted the \nworship of God for idols till their captivity, 588 B.C. \nEdict of Theodosius for the suppression of idolatry, \n392. Idolatry was revived in Britain by the Saxons \nabout 473, but it gave way in Britain, after the \ncoming of Augustin, about 597. See Iconoclasts, \nWeek. \n\nIDSTEDT (N. Germany). Here the insurgent \narmy of Holstein and Schleswig, commanded by \nWillisen, was defeated by the Danes, 25 July, 1 850. \n\nIDUMiEA, the country of the Edomites, the \n\ndescendants of Esau, the brother of Jacob : see Gen. \n\nxxxvi., Josh. xxiv. 4. \n\nThe Edomites prevent the Israelites from passing \nthrough their country b. c. 1453 \n\nThey are subjugated by David 1040 \n\nThey revolt against Ahaziah, 892 ; and are severely \ndefeated by Amaziah 827 \n\nThey join the Chaldseans against Judah, and are \nanathematised in Psalm cxxxvii. . . about 570 \n\nJohn Hyrcanus, the Maccabee, subjugates and en- \ndeavours to incorporate them with the Jews . . 125 \n\nHerod the Great, son of Antipater an Idumsean, \nking of Judsea 40 \n\nIEBNE, see Ireland. \n\nIGLAU, see Hussites. \n\nILBEBT BILL, see India, 1883. \n\nILDEFONSO, ST., Spain. Here was signed a \ntreaty between France and Spain, 19 Aug. 1796; \nand another by which France regained Louisiana, \nI Oct. 1800. \n\nILIUM (Asia Minor), see Troy. \n\nILLINOIS, a western state of North America, \nwas settled by the French in 1 749 ; acquired by \nthe British, 1763 ; made a territory, 1809 ; and ad- \nmitted into the Union as a state, 3 Dec. 1818. \nCapital, Springfield. Population, 1880, 3,077,871; \n1890, 3,826,351. \n\nBy flooding of a coal mine 75 men drowned 16 Feb. 1883 \nConvent and school at Belleville burnt, about \n\n27 young persons perish . . -5-6 Jan. 1884 \nSee Railway Accidents, 11 Aug. 1887. \n\nILLUMINATED BOOKS. The practice \nof adopting ornaments, drawings, and emblematical \nfigures, and even portraits, to enrich MSS., is of \ngreat antiquity. Varro wrote the lives of 700 \nillustrious Romans, which he embellished with \ntheir portraits, about 70 B.C. Plin. Nat. Hist. \n\n\n\nSome beautiful missals and other works were \nprinted in the 15th and 16th centuries, et seq. , and \nfine imitations have lately appeared. \n\nILLUMINATI, heretics who sprang up in \nSpain, where they were called Alombrados, about \n1575. After their suppression in Spain, they ap- \npeared in France. One of their leaders was" friar \nAnthony Buchet. They professed to obtain grace \nand perfection by their sublime manner of prayer. \nA secret society bearing this name, opposed to \ntyranny and priestcraft, was founded at Ingoldstadt, \nBavaria, by Dr. Adam Weishaupt, in May, 1776, \nand was suppressed in 1784-5. \n\nILLUSTEATED LONDON NEWS, the \nearliest publication of the kind, established by Mr. \nHerbert Ingram, M.P., first appeared on 14 "May, \n1842. Jubilee number published, 14 May, 1892. \nHe purchased the Illustrated Times, first published \n9 June, 1855, and incorporated it with the Penny \nIllustrated Paper, established by the Ingram \nfamily ; first number . . . . I2 Oct. 1861 \nMr. Ingram and his eldest son were accidentally \ndrowned in the Lady Elgin in Lake Michigan, \n\n(see Wrecks) 8 Sept. i860 \nIllustrated Sporting and Dramatic News, begun . 1874 \nEnglish Illustrated Magazine begun by Macmillaii \n\nOct. 1883 \nILLYBIA (now Dalmatia, Croatia, and Bosnia), \nafter several wars (from 230 B.C.) was made a \nRoman province, 167 B.C. In 1809 Napoleon I. \ngave the name of Illyrian provinces to Camiola, \nDalmatia, and other provinces, then part of the \nFrench empire, now Carinthia, Carniola, &c. \n\n. ILMENIUM, a metal of the tantalum group, \ndiscovered by R. Herrmann, about 1847, but re- \njected by chemists ; its claims were reasserted by \nhim in 1867. \n\nIMAGE WOESHLP, see Iconoclasts. \n\n"IMITATION OF JESUS CHEIST " \n(De Imitatione Christi). The author of this devo- \ntional work is unknown. It has been attributed to \nan abbot Gersen (whose very existence is doubtful) ; \nto Jean Gerson, the celebrated chancellor of Paris\' \nwho died in 1429 ; and to Thomas a. Kempis, said \nto have been merely a compiler and editor, who died \n25 July, 1471. \n\nIMMACULATE CONCEPTION, see Con- \nception. \n\nIMMIGEATION into the United Kingdom \nfirst estimated in the Emigration Report for 187c \nIn 1870, 49, 157; in 1874, 118,129; in 1875, 94,228\'; \nin 1876, 93,557; m 1877, 81,848; 1S79, 53,973 \n1881,77,105; 1883,100,503; 1884, 123,466; 188c \n113,549; 1886, 108,879; 1887, 119,013 (\xc2\xab,\xc2\xab8 \nforeigners); 1888, 128,879; 1889, 147,398; 1890, \n155,910. Compare this with Emigration. \n\nIMMOETALS (Greek, athanatot), the flower \nof the Persian army, limited to 10,000 in number \nand recruited from the nobility alone, about 500 \nB.C. The name was also given to the body-guard of \nthe emperors at Constantinople in the 4th and 5th \ncenturies. \n\nIMPEACHMENT. The first impeachment \nby the commons house of parliament, and the first \nof a lord chancellor, Michael de la Pole, earl of \nSuffolk, was in 1386. By statute 12 & 13 Will. \n& Mary, 1700, it was enacted that no pardon under \nthe great seal shall be pleaded to an impeachment \nby the commons in parliament. \n\nImpeachment of Warren Hastings, 13 Feb. 1788, to 25 \n\nApril, 1795 ; acquittal. \nImpeachment of lord Melville, 9 April ; acquittal 12 \n\nJune, 1806. \n\n\n\nIMPERIAL CHAMBER. \n\n\n\n496 \n\n\n\nIMPOSTORS. \n\n\n\nInquiry into the charges of colonel Wardle against the \nduke of York, 27 Jan. to 20 March, 1809 ; acquittal. \n\nTrial of Caroline, queen of George IV., by bill of pains \nand penalties, before the house of lords, commenced \n16 Aug. ; Mr. Brougham entered on her majesty\'s de- \nfence, 3 Oct. ; and the last debate on the bill took place \n10 Nov. 1820 ; see Queen Caroline. \n\nImpeachment of the president .; see United States, 1868. \n\nIMPERIAL CHAMBER, see Aulic Council. \n\nIMPERIAL DEFENCE : an act for de- \nfraying the expenses of carrying into effect an \nagreement for naval defence with the Australasian \ncolonies, and providing for the defence of certain \nports and coaling stations, and for making further \nprovision for imperial defence, passed 13 Aug. \n1888. See Colonies. \n\nIMPERIAL FEDERATION of Great Bri- \ntain and her colonies (for defence, &c.) , the principle \nwas affirmed, and a provisional committee of an \nassociation constituted at a great meeting of emi- \nnent politicians of all parties, and representatives \nof the colonies, held at Westminster Palace Hotel, \nMr. "W". E. Forster, M.P. in the chair, 29 July ; \na league constituted 18 Nov. 1884. The electric tele- \ngraph has now brought the colonies into closer com- \nmunication than Exeter and Newcastle were formerly. \nIn 1885 many of the colonies offered military assist- \nance in the Soudan ; which was accepted. \nConference at the Colonial and Indian Exhibition, \nLondon ; earl Rosebery, president, 1 July, 1886 ; \nrt. hon. Edward Stanhope, Sept. 1892. The report of \nsir Rawson Rawson discloses great difficulties through \nopposing tariffs, March, 1888. \nFourth annual meeting of the League held in London 23 \nMay, 1889 ; meeting at the Mansion-house 15 Nov. \n1889 ; meeting at Edinburgh 12 Feb. ; at People\'s \nPalace, E. London, duke of Cambridge in the chair, \n28 April, 1890 ; at Westminster, 18 June, 1891. \n\nIMPERIAL GUARD of France, was created \nby Napoleon from the guard of the convention, the \ndirectory, and the consulate, when he became \nemperor in 1804. It consisted at first of 9775 men, \nbut was afterwards enlarged. It was subdivided in \n1809 into the old and young guard. In Jan. 1814, \nit numbered 102,706. It was dissolved by \nLouis XVIII. in 1815 ; revived by Napoleon III. in \n1854. It surrendered with Metz to the Germans \n27 Oct. 1870; and was abolished by government \nsoon after. It took part in the Crimean war in 1855. \n\nIMPERIAL INSTITUTE of the colo- \nnies AND INDIA, to represent arts, manufac- \ntures, and commerce : established as a memorial of \nthe queen\'s jubilee, proposed by the prince of \n"Wales in a letter to the lord mayor of Loudon, 13 \nSept. 1886. \n\nPreliminary meeting at the Mansion House, 27 Sept. \nprince of Wales\'s committee meet 10 Nov. 1.886. \nSir Frederick Abel, organizing secretary . Nov. 1886 \nIssue of report recommending the constitution of \nthe Institute at South Kensington, consisting of \ntwo sections ; I. to illustrate the commercial and \nnatural resources of the Colonies and India ; II. \nthe condition of the natural products and manu- \nfactures of the United Kingdom ; with suitable \naccompaniments .... 23-24 Dec. ,, \nMeetings at St. James\'s Palace and Mansion House \n\n12 Jan. 1887 \nSir. F. Abel expounded the objects of the Institute \nat the Royal Institution with the approbation of \nthe prince of Wales, who was in the chair 22 April, ,, \n25,000/. awarded to the Institute out of the surplus \n\nof the Colonial Exhibition of 1886 . 30 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \nArchitect, Mr. T. E. Colcutt ; contractors, John \n\nMowlem and Co. \nMunificent donations from Indian princes ; the \nmaharajah of Jodhpore gave io,oool. June, 1887 ; \nmaharajah Holkar of Indore, 100,000 rupees, Feb. \n1889; the Maharajah of Jeypore, 20,000/. Nov \n\n\n\n1890 ; the Indian government grant 1,000/. annu- \nally for the museum . . beginning Nov. 1891 \n\nFoundation stone laid by the queen ; (ode by Mr. \nLewis Morris, music by sir Arthur Sullivan, \nsung ; addresses) 4 July, 1887 \n\n20,000?. received from Canada . . 24 Aug. ,, \n\nAmount received or definitely promised, 400,000?. \n\nOct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nReceipt of 310,000?. exclusive of the Indian contri- \nbution, reported 2 July, 1888 \n\nSee Oriental studies, 1890. \n\nThe premiers of the Australasian colonies, announce \ntheir hearty co-operation in the work of ;the Insti- \ntute, June, 1890; the constitution of the Imperial \nInstitute, published in the London Gazette, 28 \nApril, 1891 ; the prince of Wales nominated first \npresident ; governing body 18 governors, 12 nomi- \nnated by the queen, 6 by the president, and 8 \nex-officio officers, abp. of Canterbury, lord chan- \ncellor, and others. First meeting of the per- \nmanent governing body, Lord Herschell elected \nchairman, and the executive council constituted \n\n23 July, 1891 \n\nThe Institute was partly opened to the Fellows and \n\npublic 22 June, 1892 \n\nIMPERIAL PARLIAMENT, see Commons, \n\nLords, Parliament, and Reform. \n\nIMPERIAL THEATRE at the Aquarium, \nWestminster {which see). \n\nIMPERIALISM. The word was much used \nin 1878, to signify that which related to the welfare \nof the British empire as a whole, in contradistinc- \ntion to that of Great Britain itself or any other \nseparate part of the empire. \n\nIMPORTS of Merchandise. _ The vast \n\nprogressive increase of our commercial intercourse \nwith other countries is shown by our imports and \nexports {which see) : \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nVALUE OF IMPORTS INTO GREAT BRITAIN, FROM ALL \nPARTS OF THE WORLD. \n\n\n\n[n 1710 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \xc2\xa34,753.777 \n\n\nIn 1869 . \n\n\n\xc2\xa3295,460,214. \n\n\n1750 . \n\n\n7,289,582 \n\n\n1870 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 303,257,493 \n\n\n1775 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n. 14.815.855 \n\n\n1871 . \n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 33 I ,o I 5,4 8 \xc2\xbb \n\n\n1800 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 3\xc2\xb0>57\xc2\xb0>6\xc2\xb05 \n\n\n1875 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 373,939,577 \n\n\n1810 . \n\n\n. 41,136,135 \n\n\n1876 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 375,154,703 \n\n\n1820 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 36.514,564 \n\n\n1877 \xe2\x96\xa0 \n\n\n. 394,419,682: \n\n\n1830 . \n\n\n. 46,245,241 \n\n\n1878 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 368,77 ,742 \n\n\n1840 . \n\n\n62,004,000 \n\n\n1879 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 362,99 I > 8 75 \n\n\n1845 . \n\n\n. 85,281,958 \n\n\n1880 . \n\n\n. 411,229,565 \n\n\n1850 . \n\n\n. 95,252,084 \n\n\n1881 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 397,022,489 \n\n\n1851 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 103,579,582 \n\n\n1882 . \n\n\n. 413,019,608 \n\n\n1856 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 I72.544. I 54 \n\n\n1883 . \n\n\n. 426,891,579. \n\n\n1857 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n. 187,844,441 \n\n\n1884 . \n\n\n. 390,018,569 \n\n\n1859 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n. 179,182,355 \n\n\n1885 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 370,967,955 \n\n\n1861 . \n\n\n. 217,485,024 \n\n\n1886 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 349,863,472 \n\n\n1864 . \n\n\n. 274,952,172 \n\n\n1887 . \n\n\n. 362,227,564 \n\n\n1865 . \n\n\n. 271,072,285 \n\n\n1888 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 387,635, 743- \n\n\n1866 . \n\n\n. 295,290,274 \n\n\n1889 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 427> 6 37,59S \n\n\n1867 . \n\n\n. 275,183,137 \n\n\n1890 . \n\n\n. 420,691,997 \n\n\n1868 . \n\n\n. 294,693,608 \n\n\n1891 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 435,44i>264 \n\n\nFrom foreign counl \n\n\nries. \n\n\nExports to \n\n\n1871 \n\n\n1875 \n\n\n1877 \n\n\n1877 \n\n\n\xc2\xa3258,071,062 \n\n\n\xc2\xa3289,515,606 \n\n\n\xc2\xa3304,865,684 \n\n\n\xc2\xa3176,593,870\' \n\n\nFrom \n\n\nBritish posses \n\n\nsions. \n\n\n\n\n\xc2\xa372,944,418 \n\n\n84.423.97 1 \n\n\n89.553,99 8 \n\n\n75,752,i5\xc2\xbb \n\n\nIMPOSTORS. The \n\n\nfollowing are among the- \n\n\n\nmost extraordinary : \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nMahomet promulgated his creed, 604 : see Mahometan/ism. \n\nAldebert, a Gaul, in 743, pretended he had a letter from \nthe Redeemer, which fell from heaven at Jerusalem ; \nhe seduced multitudes to follow him into woods and \nforests, and to live in imitation of John the Baptist. \nHe was condemned by a council at Rome in 745. \n\nGonzalvo Martin, a Spaniard, pretended to be the angel \nMichael in 1359 : he was burnt by the inquisition in \nSpain in 1360. \n\nGeorge David, son of a waterman at Ghent, styled him- \nself the son of God, sent into the world to adopt \nchildren worthy of heaven : he denied the resurrection, \npreached in favour of a community of women, and \ntaught that the body only could be defiled by sin ; he \n\n\n\nIMPRESSIONISTES. \n\n\n\n497 \n\n\n\nINCOME TAX. \n\n\n\nhad many followers ; died at Basle, 1556, promising to \nrise again in three years. \n\nOtreflef, a monk, pretended to be Demetrius the son of \nIvan, czar of Muscovy, whom the usurper Boris had \nput to death ; he maintained that another child had \nbeen substituted in his place : he was supported by \nPoland ; his success led the Russians to invite him to \nthe throne, and deliver into his hands, Feodor, the \nreigning czar, aud all his family : his imposition dis- \ncovered, he was assassinated in his palace, 1606. \n\nSabbata Levi, a Jew of Smyrna, amused the Jews and \nTurks a long time at Constantinople and other places, \nby personating our Saviour, 1666. \n\nJoseph Smith, see Mormonites. \n\nApparition of our Lady of Salette ; the imposture ex- \nposed and several persons prosecuted, April, 1846. \nThe superstition revived and flourishing, Aug. 1872. \n\nPilgrimage of about 20,000 persons to Lourdes, in the \nPyrenees, on account of alleged miracles (the virg : n \nwas said to have appeared to two girls, 11 Feb. 1858), \n\xe2\x80\xa26 Oct. 1872 ; see France. \n\nInsurrection of the Mahdi, see Soudan, 1881 et seq. \n\nAn adventurer, who named himself " Comte Blanco," \nand " prince Louis Marie Cesar of Bourbon, grandson \nof Ferdinand VII. of Spain," was recognised at Paris \nin 1869 by queen Isabella and others. Detected by a \n.photographer as his son-in-law. Supported by a rich \nEnglish widow. Kept a small court at Jurangon near \nPau, as a king. Deposed and expelled by the police. \nHe afterwards went to Holland and England, and died \nin London. \n\nIN BRITISH HISTORY. \n\nA man pretending to be the Messiah, and a woman as- \nsuming to be the Virgin Mary, were burnt, 1222. \n\nJack Cade assumed the name of Mortimer ; see Cade, 1450. \n\nIn 1487, Lambert Simnel, tutored by Richard Simon, a \npriest, supported by the duke of Burgundy, personated \nthe earl of Warwick. Simnel\'s army was defeated by \nHenry VII. , and he was made a scullion in the king\'s \nkitchen. \n\nFor Warbeck\'s imposture in 1492, see Warbeck. \n\nElizabeth Barton, styled the Holy Maid of Kent, spirited \nup to hinder the Reformation by pretending to inspira- \ntions from heaven, foretelling that the king would \nhave an early and violent death if he divorced Cathe- \nrine of Spain and married Anne Boleyn. She and \nher confederates were executed at Tyburn, 21 April, 1534. \n\n& n !553 (first year of Mary\'s reign, after her marriage with \nPhilip of Spain), Elizabeth Croft, a girl 18 years of age, \nwas secreted in a wall, and with a whistle made for the \npurpose, uttered many seditious speeches against the \nqueen and the prince, and also against the mass and \nconfession, for which she did penance. \n\nWilliam Hacket, a fanatic, personated our Saviour, and \nwas executed for blasphemy, 1591. \n\nValentine Greatrix, an Irish impostor, who pretended to \ncure all diseases by stroking the patient : his imposture \ndeceived the credulous, and occasioned very warm dis- \nputes in Ireland and England about 1666. Boyle and \nFlanisteed believed in him. \n\nDr. Titus Oates, see Oates. \n\nRobert Young, a prisoner in Newgate, forged the hands \nof the earls of Marlborough, Salisbury, and other \nnobility, to a pretended association for restoring king \nJames : the lords were imprisoned, but the imposture \nbeing detected, Young was lined 1000?. , and put in the \npillory, 1692. He was afterwards hanged for coining. \n\nThree French refugees pretend to be prophets, and raise \ntumults ; convicted as impostors, Nov. 1707. \n\nMary Tofts of Godalming, by pretending she bred rabbits \nwithin her, so imposed upon many persons (among \nothers, Mr. St. Andre, surgeon to the king), that they \nespoused her cause, 1726. \n\nThe Cock-lane ghost impostures by William Parsons, his \nwife, and daughter, 1762 ; see Cock-lane Ghost. \n\nJohanna Southcote, who proclaimed her conception of \nthe Messiah, and had a multitude of followers ; she \ndied 27 Dec.1814. \n\nW. Thorn, see Thomites. \n\nLouis XVII., see France, list of sovereigns. \n[See Abstinence and Sugar.] \n\nIMPRESSIONISTES,. a name given to \nartists who aim at producing rapid unstudied \neffects independent of the canons of art, such as \nManet, Duez, and others in France. In England \nMr. Whistler exhibited such pictures in 1877, ^ n " \n\n\n\neluding moonlight scenes, &c, painted in two days, \nshowing great sense of colour. For Mr. Kuskin\'s \ncriticisms see Trials, 1878. The Inipressionistes \nare also characterized as illustrators of their own \ntimes by pure art ; MM. Manet, Durand, Euel, \nDegas, and Renoir, are French examples; they \nexhibited in London in June, 1882 and since, \nespecially in April, 1889. \n\n. IMPRESSMENT of Seamen, affirmed by \n\nsir M. Foster to be of ancient practice. The stat. \n2 Rich. II. speaks of impressment as a matter well \nknown, 1378. The first commission for it was \nissued 29 Edw. III. 1355. Pressing, either for the \nsea or land service, declared to be illegal by the \nparliament, Dec. 1641, but practised till present \ntimes. Impressment was not resorted to in the \nRussian war, 1854-5. \n\nIMPRISONMENT FOR DEBT, see Arrests, \nDebtors, and Ferrars\' Arrest. \n\nIMPROPRIATION (applying ecclesiastical \nproperty to lay purposes). On the suppression of \nabbeys in 1539, their incomes from the great tithes \nwere distributed among his courtiers by Henry \nVIII. ; and their successors constitute 7597 lay \nimpropriators. \n\nINCAS, see Peru. \n\nINCENDIARIES. See Arson. \n\nINCEST. Marriage with very near relations, \nalmost universally forbidden, took place in Egypt, \nPersia, and Greece. For recent cases see Portugal, \n1760, 1777, and 1826; Italy, 1888. The table of \nkindred in the book of common prayer was set forth \nin 1563. For the Hebrew law see Leviticus, chap, \nxviii. 1490 B.C. \n\nINCH. It was defined in 1824 by act of par- \nliament, that 39- 13929 inches is the length of a \nseconds pendulum in the latitude of London, vi- \nbrating in vacuo at the sea level, at the temperature \nof 62\xc2\xb0 Fahrenheit ; see Candle, and Standard. \n\nINCHCAPE BELL, see Bell Rock. \n\nINCLOSURE ACT, to facilitate the inclo- \nsure and improvement of commons, appointing \ncommissioners, etc., 8 & 9 Vict. c. 118, passed \n8 Aug. 1845 ; another act passed in 1876 ; see \nCommons. \n\nINCOME TAX. In 1512, parliament granted \na subsidy of two-fifteenths from the commons, and \ntwo-tenths from the clergy, to enable the king to \neater on a war with France. In Dec. 1798, Mr. \nPitt proposed and carried, amid great opposition, \nresolutions for increased taxes "as an aid for the \nprosecution of the war" with France. \nGraduated duties on income imposed, beginning with \n\n60?. per annum, by the act passed 9 Jan. 1799. \nThe " property tax " passed which levied a rate of 5 per \n\ncent, on all incomes above 150?. and lower rates on \n\nsmaller incomes, 11 Aug. 1803. \nIncreased to 6 J per cent. 1805 ; 10 per cent, embracing \n\nthe dividends at the bank, 1806. \nIn 1800 the tax produced 5,716,572?. ; in 1804, 4,650,000?. ; \n\nin 1806, 11,500,000?. ; in 1808, 16,548,985?. ; in 1S15, \n\nI4.978,557 ? - \nThe tax produced from lands, houses, reutages, &c, \n\n8,657,937?. : from funded and stock properties, \n\n2,885,505?. ; the profits and gains of trade, 3,831,088?. ; \n\nand salaries and pensions, 1,174,456?. Repealed 18 \n\nMarch, 1816, on motion of H. Brougham. \nSir Robert Peel\'s bill imposing the present tax at a rate \n\nof 7<?, in the pound (2?. 18s. 41/. per cent.) per aim. (for \n\nthree years) passed 22 June, 1842. \nIt produced about 5,350,000?. a-year ; and led to repeal of \n\nabout 12,000,000?. indirect taxes. \nRenewed for three years, 1845 : and 1848. \nLarge meetings assembled in Trafalgar-square, London \n\n(for the ostensible purpose of opposing the income tax) ; \n\nK K. \n\n\n\nINCOEPOEATED. \n\n\n\n498 \n\n\n\nINDEMNITY BILL. \n\n\n\nrioting ensued, which was soon quelled, S, 7 March, \n1848. \nTax continued for one year in 1851 and 1852. \nThe tax of jd. limited to seven years (till i860) ; to he \ngradually reduced in amount; but all incomes from \n100I. to 150I. made liable to scl. in the pound for all \nthat period : the tax also extended to Ireland, June, \n1853. \nIn consequence of the Crimean war, the rate was doubled, \n\n14&, 1854. \n\nzd. (making i6ii) added to the tax on incomes above \n\n150I., and ijci on those between 100I. and 150I. ; the \n\nformer being is. ^d. , the latter 1 1 Jcl in the pound, 1855. \n\nThe former assessment reduced to yd. , the latter to $d. , \n\n1857. Both became $d. , 1858. \nThe former raised to gd. , the latter to 6M. \xe2\x80\xa2 and the tax \non incomes, derived from lands, tenements, &c. , raised \nfrom 3^d to s^d. for England, and from i\\d. to i,d. for \nScotland and Ireland, July, 1859. \nThe assessment on incomes raised \xe2\x80\x94 on those above 100Z. \n\nto yd. ; on those above 150L to ioci \n[The object of the increase was to provide for a deficiency \noccasioned by extra expenditure for defending the \ncountry, April, i860.] \nA committee to inquire into the working of the income \n\ntax appointed, 14 Feb. 1861. \nReduction of the last assessment from yd. to 6d., and \nfrom iod. to gd. for three-quarters of the financial year \n1861-62. \nThe rates of 6d. and gd. to continue, April, 1862. \nThe rate of 7c?. on all chargeable incomes ; ^d. on \nfarms, &c. , in England ; and 2 JcZ. in Scotland and Ire- \nland. Incomes under 100I. a-year exempted ; those \nabove 100L and under 200I. allowed an abatement on \n60I. , 8 June, 1863. \nThe rate of 6d. on chargeable incomes, with some exemp- \ntions and abatement, 13 May, 1864. \nThe rate of $d. on chargeable incomes, with same exemp- \ntions and abatement, May, 1865 ; continued, 1866, and \n1867. \nRaised to $d. (for year ending 1 April, 1868), to provide \n\nfor Abyssinian war, Nov. 1867. \nRaised to 6d. (for 1868-9), Mav > l8 \xc2\xb08. \nReduced to 5c?. in the pound, April, 1869 ; to \\d., April, \n1870. Raised to 6d. on account of re-organisation of \narmy, abolishing purchase, 1871. Reduced to $d. , \nApril, 1872. \nRenewed agitation against the tax ; conference at Bir- \nmingham, 22 May ; at the Mansion-house, London, \nproposed formation of a National Anti-Income Tax \nLeague, 13 Dec. 1872. \nReduced to 3d from 6 April, 1873 ; to 2d. , 23 April, 1874. \nMr. C. Lewis\'s motion for reducing or abolishing the \n\ntax defeated (139-38), 3 July, 1874. \nRaised to 3d. ; incomes under 150J. to be exempt ; \n120I. of incomes under 400I. exempt, April, 1876. \n\n\n\nRaised to 5d. (through preparations for war), April, 1878. \n\nRaised to 6d. by Mr. Gladstone, June ; act passed, 12 \nAug. 1880. \n\nReduced to 5& by Mr. Gladstone ; budget 4 April, 1881. \n\nRaised to 6^d. for the year (in consequence of the \nEgyptian expedition) , Aug. 1882. \n\nReduced to 50!. April, 1883. \n\nRaised to 6d. 1 Dec. 1884 ; to Sd. 30 April, 1885 ; con- \ntinued, April, 1886 ; reduced to 7$. April, 1887 ; land,. \n&c, England 3^. ; Scotland and Ireland, 2.\\d. (act 23-. \nMay, 1887); reduced to 6d. 16 May, 1888; continued \nApril, 1889-92. \n\nMr. Bartley\'s motion for a committee to enquire \ninto the working and incidence of the income-tax \nnegatived by the commons (161-106) . 24 Feb. 189s \n\nThe house of lords decides on appeal that religious \nand charitable societies are exempt from income- \n\n\n\nPRODUCE OF THE INCOME TAX. \n\n\n\n\n1842 . \n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 \xc2\xa3571.055 \n\n\n1872(31 \n\n\nMarch) \xc2\xa39,084,000- \n\n\n1844 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 S.io^So? \n\n\n1873 \n\n\n,, \n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 7.403.73& \n\n\n1846 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 5.395.391 \n\n\n1874 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n- 5.641,791 \n\n\n1852 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 5.509,637 \n\n\n1875 \n\n\nrr \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 4,315, I 3 2 \' \n\n\n1855 (31 March) \n\n\n. 10,642,621 \n\n\n1876 \n\n\n,, \n\n\n4,109,000. \n\n\n1856 \n\n\n15,070,958 \n\n\n1877 \n\n\n,, \n\n\n5,284,091 \n\n\n1857 \n\n\n16,089,933 \n\n\n1878 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n. 5,820,000. \n\n\n1858 \n\n\n11,586,115 \n\n\n1879 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n8,710,000 \n\n\n1859 \n\n\n6,683,587 \n\n\n1880 \n\n\n,, \n\n\n9,230,000-- \n\n\ni860 \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n9,596,106 \n\n\n1881 \n\n\nTt \n\n\n. 10,650,000. \n\n\n1861 \n\n\n10,923,186 \n\n\n1882 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 9,945,\xc2\xb0\xc2\xb0\xc2\xb0\' \n\n\n1862 \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n10,365,000 \n\n\n1883 \n\n\nM \n\n\n. 11,900,000 \n\n\n1863 \n\n\n10,567,000 \n\n\n1884 \n\n\n,, \n\n\n- 10,718,00c- \n\n\n1864 \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n9,084,000 \n\n\n1885 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n- 12,000,000- \n\n\n1865 \n\n\n7,958,000 \n\n\n1886 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n. 15,160,000- \n\n\n1866 \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n6,390,000 \n\n\n1887 \n\n\n,, \n\n\n. 15,900,00c \n\n\n1867 \n\n\n5,700,000 \n\n\n1888 \n\n\n,, \n\n\n. 14,440,000- \n\n\n1868 \n\n\n6,177,000 \n\n\n1889 \n\n\n,, \n\n\n. 12,700,000 \n\n\n1869 \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n8,618,000 \n\n\n1890 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n. 12,770,000- \n\n\n1870 \n\n\n10,044,000 \n\n\n1891 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n. 13,250,000 \n\n\n1871 \n\n\n6,350,000 1 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n(Estimated thai \n\n\nid. in the \n\n\npound yields \n\n\n772,000?. a- \n\n\nyear, 1842 ; \n\n\n1, 727, 000 1. \n\n\n1876; \n\n\nI,0O0, \n\n\nxol., 1878 ". \n\n\n1,980,000, 188; \n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0) \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nTOTAL ANNUi \n\n\nL VALUE OF \n\n\nPROPERTY AND PROFITS \n\n\nAS \n\n\nSESSED, UNI\' \n\n\nCED KINGDOM. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\xc2\xa3430,368,976\' \n\n\n1873 . \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n513,807,284. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n5?8,294,97E \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n601,450,977 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n629,397,962. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n636,154,693. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n645,158,689. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n660,358,613. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n698,407,540s. \n\n\n\n\n\nESTIMATED ANNUAL INCOME. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nEngland and "Wales. \n\n\nScotland. \n\n\nIreland. \n\n\n\n\n1814 \n\n\n1891 \n\n165,956,061 \n306,854,829 \n\n\n1814 \n\n\n1891 \n\n19,682,692 \n33,772,698 \n\n\n1854 \n\n\n1891 \n\n\nReal property, land, &c. . . \nProfessions, trades, &c. . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa253,495,000 \n34,288,000 \n\n\n6,643,000 \n2,771,000 \n\n\n11,892,000 \n4,780,000 \n\n\n13,660,855 \n10,963,164 \n\n\n\n\n87,783,000 \n\n\n472,810,890 \n\n\n9,414,000 \n\n\n53,455,39\xc2\xb0 \n\n\n16,672,000 \n\n\n24,624,019 \n\n\n\nINCOEPOEATED, see Authors, Law. \n\nINCUMBENTS\' BESIGNATION ACT, \n\nwith provision for pensions, passed 13 July, 187 1, \namended 1887. \n\nINCUMBEEED ESTATES, see Encum- \nbered Estates. \n\nINCUEABLES. The royal hospital for in- \ncurables, founded by Dr. Andrew Heed, at Car- \nshalton in Surrey, in 1850, has since been removed \nto Putney. \n\nBritish Home for Incurables, Clapham-rise, esta- \nblished 1861 \n\nNational Hospital for Incurables, Oxford . . . 1874 \nHome for Incurable Children, Maida- vale . . 1875 \n\n\n\nINDEMNITY BILL, by which the minister \nof the crown or the government is relieved from \nthe responsibility of measures adopted in extreme- \nand urgent cases, without the previous sanction of \nparliament. One was passed 19 April, 1801 ; an- \nother to indemnify ministers against their acts \nduring the suspension of the Habeas Corpus act, \nwas carried in the commons (principal divisions, \n190 to 64) ; and in the lords (93 to 27), 10 March, \n1818. In 1848 and 1857, bills of indemnity were; \npassed for the suspension of the Bank Charter act \nby the ministry; see Oblivion. An indemnity bill \nis passed at the end of every session of parliament \nfor persons who transgress through ignorance of th& \nlaw. The practice began in 1715. \n\n\n\nINDEPENDENCE. \n\n\n\n499 \n\n\n\nINDIA. \n\n\n\nINDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION \n\nOF, by United States of North America, 4 July, \n1776, is annually celebrated. \n\n" INDEPENDENT THEATRE," a name \nassumed by a company conducted by Mr. J. T. \nGreen at the Royalty Theatre, providing entertain- \nments resembling those of the Thiutre-Libre of \nM. Antoine, to include the plays of Ibsen and \nTolstoi which could not be licensed in this country. \nAs the theatre is supported by subscription, and no \nmoney taken at the doors, it is considered inde- \npendent of the lord chamberlain\'s censorship in \nregard to the plays performed. Ibsen\'s " Romers- \nholm" was performed 23 Feb., and his " Ghosts" \n13 March, 1891. Other performances were given \nat the private theatre in the club-house erected on \nthe site of Evans\' hotel, Covent Garden, 22 May, \n1891 et seq. An EDglish version of Zola\'s " Therese \nRaquin" given at the Royalty, 9 Oct. 1891. Other \npieces licensed by the lord chamberlain, 4 March, \n1892. The censorship accepted, July, 1892. \n\nINDEPENDENTS or Congregational- \nISTS, hold that each church or congregation is \nindependent of all others in religious matters ; that \nthere is no absolute occasion for synods or councils, \nwhose resolutions may be taken for advice, but not \nas decisions to be peremptorily obeyed ; and that one \nchurch may advise or reprove another, but has \nno authority to excommunicate. Robert Brown \npreached these doctrines about 1585, but, after 32 \nimprisonments, he eventually conformed to the \nestablished church. A church was formed in Lon- \ndon in 1593, when there were 20,000 independents. \nThey were driven by persecution to Holland, where \nthey formed several churches ; that at Leyden was \nunder Mr. Robinson, often regarded as the author \nof Independency. In 1616 Henry Jacobs returned \nto England and founded a meeting-hous3. Crom- \nwell, himself an independent, obtained them tole- \nration, in opposition to the Presbyterians. The \nindependents published an epitome of their \nfaith, drawn up at a conference at the Savoy, in \n1658 ; and the congregational union of England \nand Wales formed in 1831, published their " de- \nclaration of faith, order, and discipline," in 1833. \nIn 1851 they had 3244 chapels for 1,067,760 per- \nsons in England and Wales; in 1887, the con- \ngregationalists had 4338 churches and mission \nstations; annual meetings are held; see Worship. \nThe first independents in Scotland were the Glasites \n{ivhich see). The first independent church in \nAmerica was founded by the followers of John \nRobinson, at Plymouth, New England, in 1620. \n\nCongregational Fund Board to assist poor minis- \nters, established 1695 \n\nCongregational Board of Education, Homerton . 1843 \n\nNonconformist Bicentenary fund begun . . 1862 \n\nThe Congregationalist Memorial-hall, Farringdon- \nstrect, London, erected in memory of the minis- \nters ejected in 1662, as a home for religious \nsocieties, was subscribed for and opened 19 Jan. 1875 \n\nAn important congregationalist synod, held in \nLondon i . early in Oct. ,, \n\nRev. John Waddington\'s "Congregational History, \n1200-1854," published .... 1869-78 \n\nSamuel Morley, a wealthy London merchant, a \nliberal supporter of the independent churches, \nand general philanthropist, died , . . 5 Sept. 1886 \n\nJames Spicer, a man of similar, qharacter, died \n\n23 Jan. 1888 \n\nThe first International Council of Congregational- \nists held at Memorial-hall, Lou-don, Rev. R. W. \nDale presiding . . . . 13\xe2\x80\x94 24 July, 1891 \n\nINDEXES OP PROHIBITED BOOKS. \n\nThe Index by which the reading of the Scriptures \nwas forbidden (with certain exceptions) to the laity, \n\n\n\nwas confirmed by a bull of pope Clement VIII. in \n1595- \n\nThe council of Nice (325) forbade magical books. \n\nPope Paul IV., 1555, began the "Index" published by- \nPius IV., 1559. The Talmud and heretical books were \nespecially prohibited, causing much dissatisfaction. \nThe Inquisition .was engaged in the work, which was \norganized by the Council of Trent. The Congregation \nof the Index was instituted and rules laid down. \n\nThe Indexes are\xe2\x80\x94 1. Prohibitoriits, of books absolutely \nforbidden to be read ; 2. Expiirgatorius, of books not \n\xe2\x80\xa2 to be licensed till purged from error. \n\nMany of the works, of the great authors of France- \nSpain, Germany, and England, are thus prohibited! \nOn 25 June, 1864, Hugo\'s " Les Miserables " and \nother books were added to the number and many- \nothers since. \n\nINDEX SOCIETY, established by the libra- \nrians of various London scientific and literary \ninstitutions and societies, and literary men, to form \na library of indexes, and to make indexes to rare \nserial works, important books, &c. 17 Dec. 1877. \n\nINDIA or HlNDOSTAN. The Hindoo his- \ntories ascribe their origin to a period ages before \nthe ordinary chronologies. The Tynans, Egyptians, \nand Romans carried on commerce with India. \nThe expansion, consolidation, and conciliation of \nIndia have been greatly effected during the reign of \nqueen Victoria, 1837 et seq. 117 native states 1888.* \n\nReligions : the pre-historic Hindu or Vedic system was \nreformed and superseded by Buddhism about b.c. \n500. The reformed and modified Vedic system, since \ntermed Brahmanism, was restored about a.d. 500, and \nprevailed till the introduction of Mahometanism, early \nin the nth century ; see Population in foot-note, \nbelow. \n\nProvinces, Bengal, Bombay, Madras, Punjaub, N.W. \nand central provinces, Assam, and Burmah. \n\nNorthern India is said to have been invaded and con- \nquered by an Arian race from central Asia, between \nb.c. 1500 and 1000. \n\nInvasion of Alexander the great ; king Porus is de- \nfeated, submits and retains his kingdom . . 327 \n\nIrruptions of the Mahometans, under Mahmud \nGhuzni, 100 [-24. He captured Somnath . a.d. 1024. \n\nExtinction of the house of Ghuzni, 1186 ; rule of the \nslave-kings of Delhi, 1206-1288 ; of the Kilghis and \nhouse of Toghlak, 1288-1412 ; of the Syuds, 1412-50; \nof the house of Lodi 1450-1526* \n\nPathan, or Afghan empire, founded . . . . 1205 \n\nInvasion of the Moguls under Genghis Khan, 1219 ; \nhe died . . . . . 1227- \n\nThe Mogul Tartars, under the conduct of Timour, \nor Tamerlane, invade Hindostan, and take Delhi ; \n\n\n\n* British India extends from 8" to 34" N. lat. and from \n70\xc2\xb0 to 90\xc2\xb0 E long, (exclusive of the Burmese additions), \nabout 1,500,000 square miles. The population in all \nIndia, 1881, 252,541,210 ; 1891, 286,696,960 ; British India,, \n221,356,187 ; Native States, 66,803,485. (Hindoos. \n207,654,407; Mussulmans, 57,365,204; Christians, \n2,284,191 ; Jains, 1,416,109; Sikhs, 1,907,836 ; Buddhists, \n7,101,057; Parsees, 89,887; Jews, 17,180; forest tribes, \nanimal worshippers, 9,302,083.) Cotton was planted in \n1839, and the tea-plant in 1S34. Railways (8545 miles in \n1879) and the electric telegraph are being rapidly con- \nstructed, and canals for irrigation ; see Ganges Canal ; \nrailways in 1890-1, 16,996 miles open. The Indian \nrevenue in 1854-5 was 20,371,450/. The expenditure, \n22,915, 160?. In 1858-9: revenue. 36,060, 788?. ; expenditure, \n49,642,350?. In 1869-70 : revenue, 52,942,482?. : expendi- \nture, 56,184,489/.. In 1875-6, revenue, 52,515,780?. ; ex- \npenditure, 55,117,536?. In 1877-8, revenue 58,969,301?. ; \nexpenditure, 66,917,000?. ; 1881-2, revenue 73,606,000?. ; \nexpenditure, 71,113,000?.; 1883-4, revenue, 67,274,000?. ; \nexpenditure, 66,617,000?. ; 1886-7, revenue, 77,337, 134RX. \n(ten rupees); expenditure, 77, 158, 707 Rx. ; revenue, \n1889-90, 85,085, 203RX. ; expenditure, 82,473, 170HX. \nExports and imports, 1837, about 21,000.000?.; 1856. \n53,000,000?.; 1885-6, 156,000,000?.; 1888-9, about \n8o,ooo,oooBx. ; 1890-1, ig6,26o,382Rx. \n\nK K 2 \n\n\n\nINDIA. \n\n\n\n500 \n\n\n\nINDIA. \n\n\n\ndefeat the Indian army, 1397 ; conquer Hindostan, \nand butcher 100,000 of its people . . . 1398-9 \nPassage to India discovered by Vasco da Gama . 1497 \nThe first European settlement (Portuguese) estab- \nlished by him at Cochin (S. Coast) . . . . 1502 \n\nAlbuquerque governor-general, 1508 ; dies at Goa, 1514 \nConquest of India completed by the sultan Baber, \nfounder of the Mogul empire .... 1519-26 \n\nReign of his son Humayun .... 1531-56 \n\nReign of Akbar, greatest sovereign of Hindostan \n\n1556-1605 \nThe Portuguese introduce tobacco . . . . 1600 \n\nThe Dutch first visit India, 1601 ; establish a United \nEast India Company . . . . . . 1602 \n\nTranquebar granted to the Danes . . . . 1619 \n\nReign of Jehanghir 1605-27 \n\nReign of Shah Jehan ; golden age of the Moguls, 1627-58 \nAurungzebe dethrones his father and murders his \n\nbrothers, 1658; reigns .... 1658-1707 \nFrench East India Company established . . . 1664 \nRise of the Mahratta power under Sevajee, 1659 ; he \n\nassumes royalty, 1674; dies . ... 1680 \n\nAurungzebe conquers Golconda, &c. . . . 1687 \n\nHis prosperity wanes, 1702 ; dies . . .22 Feb. 1707 \nBahadoor Shah succeeds, 1707; dies . . . 1712 \nJehander Shah, 1713 ; dethroned and killed . . 1718 \n\nAccession of Mahomed Shah 1719 \n\nIndependence of the Nizam of the Deccan . . . 1723 \nRise of the Mahratta families, Holkar and Scindiah 1730 \nInvasion of the Persian Nadir Shah or Kouli Khan : \nat Delhi he orders a general massacre, and 150,000 \npersons perish ; carries away treasure amounting \nto 125,000,000?. sterling ...... 1739 \n\nMahomed Shah dies 1748 \n\nThe Mogul empire now became merely nominal, in- \ndependent sovereignties being formed by petty \nprinces. In 1761, Shah Alum II. attacking the \nEnglish was defeated at Patna, 15 Jan. In 1764, \nafter the battle of Buxar, he was thrown upon the \nprotection of the English, who established him at \nAllahabad. After the victory at Delhi in 1803, \ngen. Lake restored the aged monarch to a nominal \nsovereignty, which descended at his death to his \nson, Akbar Shah. Akbar died in 1837, and was \nsucceeded by the last king of Delhi (Ms son), who \nreceived a pension of about 125,0002. per annum. \nHe joined the mutiny in 1857; was tried in 1858, \nand transported to Rangoon ; died there, 1 1 Nov. \n1862.] \n\nBRITISH POWER IN INDIA. \n\nAttempt made to reach India by the north-east and \n\nnorth-west passages 1528 \n\nSir Francis Drake\'s expedition 1579 \n\nLevant company\'s land expedition .... 1589 \nFirst commercial adventure from England . . . 1591 \nFirst charter to the London company of merchants \n\n(see India Company) 1600 \n\nFactories established at Surat, &c 1612 \n\nSir Thos. Roe, first English ambassador . . . 1615 \nMadras founded, 1640; made a presidency . . . 1652 \nBombay ceded to England as part of dowry of \n\nCatherine, queen of Charles II 1662 \n\nFrench company established 1664 \n\nThey settle at Pondicherry 1668 \n\nCalcutta purchased 1698 \n\n"War between the English and French in India 1746-9 \n\nEnglish besiege Pondicherry, the seat of the French \n\ngovernment, without success .... 1748 \n\nClive takes Arcot 1751 \n\nPeace made 1754 \n\nSeverndroog and other strongholds of the pirate \n\nAngria taken 11 Feb. 1756 \n\nCapture of Calcutta by Surajah Dowla ; suffocation \n\nof English in the Black hole (which see) 20 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nCalcutta retaken by Clive, 2 Jan. ; lie defeats the \n\nSoubah at Plassey .... 23 June, 1757 \nFort William, the strongest fort in India, built ,, \n\nFrench successful under Lally 1758 \n\nBut lose nearly all their power .... 1759 \n\nThe French under Lally defeated by sir Eyre Coote \n\nnear Wandewash .... 2 July, 1760 \n\nHyder Ali usurps the sovereignty of Mysore . 1763-4 \nConquest of Patna .... 6 Nov. 1763 \n\nBattle of Buxar (which see) . . . 23 Oct. 1764 \n\nThe nabob becomes subject to the English . . 1765 \nLord Clive obtains the Dewanny by an imperial \n\ngrant, which constitutes the company the receivers \n\n\n\nof the revenue of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa, and \ngives the British the virtual sovereignty of these \n\ncountries 12 Aug. 1765 \n\nTreaty with Nizam Ali : the English obtain the \n\nNorthern Circars .... 12 Nov. 1766 \n\nHyder Ali ravages the Carnatic . . Jan. 1769 \n\nFrightful famine in Bengal 1770 \n\nWarren Hastings governor of Bengal 13 April, 1772 \n\nIndia Bill ; supreme court established (see India \n\nBills) 1773 \n\nTreaty with Bhootan 1774 \n\nDeath of Clive ; ungratefully treated . . . . \xe2\x80\x9e \nAccusations commence against Warren Hastings ; \naccused of taking a bribe from a concubine of \nMeer Jaffier (see Hastings) . . 30 May, 1775 \n\nNuncomar, a Brahmin, accuses Warren Hastings of \n\nreceiving bribes .... 11 March, 1776 \nIs hanged for forgery \' . . . . 5 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n[Sir Elijah Impey, the judge, was censured at the \ntime, but afterwards vindicated] \n\nPondicherry taken 11 Oct. 1778 \n\nFortress of Gwalior taken by Popham . 4 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nHyder Ali overruns the Carnatic, and defeats the \n\nBritish, 10 Sept. ; takes Arcot . . 31 Oct. 1780 \n\nHyder Ali defeated by sir Eyre Coote . 1 July, 1781 \nWarren Hastings accused of taking more bribes (see \n\nChwnar) 19 Sept. ,, \n\nBussy lands with a French detachment March, 1782 \n\nWar with Hyder Ali aided by the French . ,, \n\nHyder Ali overthrown by Coote . . 2 June, ,, \nDeath of Hyder, and accession of his son, Tippoo \n\nSahib Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTippoo, who had taken Cuddalore, now takes \n\nBednore April, 1783 \n\nPondicherry restored to the French, and Trin- \n\ncomalee to the Dutch ,, \n\nFox\'s India bill thrown out ,, \n\nPitt\'s India bill establishing the board of control \n\n{which see) 1784 \n\nIgnoble peace with Tippoo . . . 11 March, ,, \nCharges against Warren Hastings .... 1786 \n\nHis trial begun 13 Feb. 1788 \n\nWar with Tippoo renewed 1790 \n\nBangalore taken (see Bangalore) . . 21 March, 1791 \nCornwallis defeats Tippoo at Arikera . 15 May, ,, \nFortress of Savandroog taken . . . 21 Dec. ,, \nDefinitive treaty with Tippoo ; his two sons hostages \n\n19 March, 1792 \nCivil and criminal courts erected .... 1793 \n\nPondicherry again taken ,, \n\nTippoo\'s sons restored ... 29 March, 1794 \nFirst dispute with the Burmese ; adjusted by \n\ngeneral Erskine . 1795 \n\nWarren Hastings acquitted . . 23 April, ,, \n\nGovernment of lord Mornington, afterwards mar- \nquis Wellesley .... 17 May, 1798 \nSeringapatam stormed by gen. Baird ; Tippoo Sahib \n\nkilled, 4 May ; Mysore divided . . 22 June, 1799 \nVictories of the British ; the Carnatic conquered 1800 \nThe nabob of Furruckabad cedes his territories to \n\nthe English for a pension . . .4 June, 1802 \nImportant treaty of Bassein (with Mahratta s) \n\n31 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nMahratta war. Victories of sir Arthur Wellesley \n\nand general Lake 1803 \n\nWellesley\'s great victory at Assaye . 23 Sept. ,, \nPondicherry (restored 1801) retaken . . Dec. ,, \nWar with Holkar \xe2\x96\xa0 .... 1804-5 \nCapture of Bhurtpore ... 2 April, 1805 \nLord Wellesley superseded by the marquis Corn- \nwallis, who dies 5 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Mahratta chief, Scindiah, defeated by the \n\nBritish; treaty of peace . . . 23 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nTreaty of peace with Holkar . . . 24 Dec. ,, \nSepoy mutiny at Vellore ; 800 executed . July, 1806 \nCumoona surrenders .... 21 Nov. 1807 \nMutiny at Seringapatam quelled . . 23 Aug. 1809 \nAct opening the trade to India . . . July, 1813 \n\nWar with Nepaul 1814-15 \n\nHolkar defeated by sir T. Hislop . . 21 Dec. 1817 \n\nPindaree war. English successful . . . 1817-18 \n\nPeace with Holkar 6 Jan. 1818 \n\nBurmese war. The. British take Rangoon 5 May, 1824 \nLord Combermere commands in India . . . ,, \n\nMalacca ceded, and Singapore purchased . ,, \n\nBarrackpore mutiny, many sepoys killed . Nov. ,, \nGeneral Campbell defeats the Burmese near Prome, \n\n25 Dec. 1825 \n\n\n\nINDIA. \n\n\n\n501 \n\n\n\nINDIA. \n\n\n\nBhurtpore stormed by Conibennere 18 Jan. 1826 \n\nPeace with the Burmese . . 24 Feb. ,, \n\n[They pay i,ooo,oooZ. sterling, and cede a great \n\nextent of territory. ] \nAbolition of suttees, or the burning of widows (see \n\nSuttee) , 7 Dec. 1829 \n\nAct opening the trade to India, and tea trade, &c, \nto China, forming a new era in British com- \nmerce 28 Aug. 1833 \n\nCoorg annexed ; Rajah deposed . . 10 April, 1834 \n\nThe natives admitted to the magistracy 1 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Nawab Shumsoodden put to death for the \nmurder of Mr. Frazer, British resident 8 Oct. 1835 \n\nSevere famine 1837-8 \n\nSlavery abolished ... .1 Aug. 1838 \n\nAfghan, war. Proclamation against Dost Mahomed \n\n1 Oct. ,, \nThe British occupy Candahar . . 21 April, 1839 \n\nBattle of Ghiznee ; victory of sir John (afterwards \n\nlord) Keane (see Ghiznee) ... 23 July, ,, \nWade forces the Khyber pass . . 26 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nEnglish defeat Dost Mahomed . . 18 Oct. 1840 \n\nKurrock Singh, king of Lahore, dies ; at his funeral \nhis successor is killed by accident, and Dost \nMahomed, next heir, surrenders to England 5 Nov. ,, \nRising against the British at Cabul ; sir Alex. \n\nBurnes and others murdered . . 2 Nov. 1841 \nSir Wm. Macnaghten assassinated . . 23 Dec. ,, \nJellalabad held by sir R. Sale . . . 1841-2 \n\nThe British under a convention evacuate Cabul, \nplacing lady Sale, (fee, as hostages with Akbar \nKhan ; a massacre ensues of about 16,000 men, \nwomen, and children . . . 6-13 Jan. 1842 \nThe British evacuate Ghiznee . . 1 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSortie from Jellalabad ; general Pollock forces the \n\nKhyber pass 5 April, ,, \n\nGhiznee retaken by general Nott . . 6 Sept. ,, \nGeneral Pollock enters Cabul . . 16 Sept. ,, \nLady Sale and other prisoners rescued by sir R. \n\nShakspeare : arrive at gen. Pollock\'s camp2i Sept. ,, \nCabul evacuated after destroying the fortifications \n\n12 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nScinde war. Ameers defeated by sir Charles Napier \n\nat Meanee 17 Feb. 1843 \n\nScinde annexed to the British empire ; sir Charles \n\nNapier governor June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGwalior war. Battles of Maharajpoor and Punniar : \nthe strong fort of Gwalior, the " Gibraltar of the \n\nEast," taken 29 Dec. ,, \n\nDanish possessions in India purchased . . . 1845 \nSikh war.* The Sikhs cross the Sutlej river and \n\nattack the British at Ferozepore . 14 Dec. ,, \n\nSir H. Hardinge, after a long rapid march, reaches \nMoodkee ; the Sikhs (20,000) make an attack ; \nafter a hard contest they retire, abandoning their \nguns (see Moodkee) .... 18 Dec. ,, \nBattle of Ferozeshah (which see) . 21, 22 Dec. ,, \nBattle of Aliwal ; the Sikhs defeated (see Aliwal \n\nand Sutlej) 28 Jan. 1846 \n\nGreat battle of Sobraon ; the enemy defeated with \n\nimmense loss (see Sobraon) . . 10 Feb. ,, \n\nCitadel of Lahore occupied by sir Hugh Gough, and \n\nthe war terminates . . . .20 Feb. ,, \n\nSir R. Sale dies of his wounds received at Moodkee \n\n(18 Dec. 1845) 23 Feb. ,, \n\nThe governor-general and sir Hugh Gough raised to \nthe peerage, as viscount Hardinge and baron \nGough ; receive the thanks of parliament and of \nthe E.I. company .... 2, 6 March, ,, \nTreaty of Lahore signed .... 9 March, ,, \nVizier Lall Singh deposed . . . 13 Jan. 1847 \n\nMr. Vans Agnew and lieut. Anderson killed by \n\nthe troops of the dewan Moolraj . 21 April, 1848 \nLieut. Edwardes joins general Courtland, and most \ngallantly engages the army of Moolraj, which he \ndefeats after a sanguinary battle of nine hours, at \n\nKennyree 18 June, ,, \n\nGeneral Whish raises the siege of Mooltan through \nthe desertion of Shere Singh . . 22 Sept. ,, \n\n* Runjeet Singh, long the ruler of the Sikhs and the \nPunjab, lived in amity with the British. After his death, \n27 June, 1839, several of his successors (children and \ngrandchildren) were in turn assassinated. During the \nminority of his grandson Dhuleep Singh, the favourite of \nthe Maharanee, Lall Singh, ruled ; and finding the \narmy ungovernable, sanctioned the unprovoked attack \non the British, as given above. \n\n\n\nCavalry skirmish at Ramnuggur . . 22 Nov. 1848 \nShere Singh, entrenched on the right bank of the \nChenab, with 40,000 men and 28 pieces of artil- \nlery ; gen. Thackwell crosses the river with 8 \ninfantry regiments, with cavalry and cannon, 1 \nDec, and attacks his left flauk at Sadoolapore, \n\n3 Dee. \xe2\x80\x9e \nLord Gough attacks the enemy\'s advanced position; \n\nvictory of Chillianwallah (which see) . 13 Jan. 1849 \n\nUnconditional surrender of the citadel of Mooltan \nby Moolraj (see Mooltan) ... 22 Jan. \n\nVictory of Guzerat (which see) . . 21 Feb. ,, \n\nSir Chas. Napier appointed comm. -in-chief, \n\n7 March, ,, \n\nThe Sikhs surrender unconditionally 14 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFormal annexation of the Punjab to the British \ndominions ; Dhuleep Singh obtains a pension of \n4o,oooZ 29 March, ,, \n\nMoolraj sentenced to death for the murder of Mr. \nAgnew and lieut. Anderson, Aug. ; commuted to \ntransportation for life .... Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSir Charles Napier disbands the 66th Bengal native \ninfantry, for mutiny . . . .27 Feb. 1850 \n\nDr. Healy, of the Bengal army, and his attendants, \nmurdered by the Aft\'reedis . . . 20 March. ,, \n\nEmbassy from the king of Nepaul to the queen \nof Great Britain arrives in England (see Nepaul) \n\n25 May, ,, \n\nResignation of his command in India by sir Charles \nNapier 2 July, ,, \n\nHis farewell address to the Indian army 15 Dec. ,, \n\nBurmese war. Death of Bajee Rao, ex-peishwa of \nthe Mahrattas. [His nephew Nana Sahib\'s claim \nfor continuance of the pension (8o,oooZ.) refused.] \n\n28 Jan. 1851 \n\nA British naval force arrives before Rangoon, in \nthe Burman empire, and commodore Lambert \nallows the viceroy thirty-five days to obtain in- \nstructions from Ava . . . 29 Oct. ,, \n\nThe viceroy of Rangoon interdicts communication \nbetween the shore and the British ships of war : \nand erects batteries to prevent their departure, \n\n4 Jan. 1852- \n[Commodore Lambert blockades the Irawaddy ; \n\nthe Fox, Hermes, <fec. , attacked by the batteries, \ndestroy the fortifications, and kill nearly 300 of \nthe enemy. ] \nMartahan (5 April), Rangoon (14 April), and Bassein \n\nstormed by the British ... 19 May, , r \nPegu captured, afterwards abandoned . 4 June, ,, \nProme captured by capt. Tarleton . 9 July, ,, \n\nPegu recaptured by general Godwin . 21 Nov. , r \n\nPegu annexed to our Indian empire by proclama- \ntion of the governor-general . . 20 Dec. ,, \nRevolution at Ava ; the king of Ava deposed by his \n\nyounger brother Jan. 1853 \n\nRangoon devastated by fire ... 14 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nCapt. Lock and many men killed in an attack on the \nstronghold of a robber chief, 3 Feb. ; which is \ntaken by sir J. Cheape . . -19 March, ,, \nFirst Indian railway opened (from Bombay to \n\nTannah) 16 April, ,, \n\nTermination of the war .... June, ,, \nNew India bill passed .... 20 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nDeath of general Godwin .... 26 Oct. ,, \nAssassination of capt. Latter . . 8 Dec. ,, \n\nRajah of Nagpoor dies, and his territories fall to \n\nthe E. I. Company n Dec. ,, \n\nOpening of Ganges Canal 1854 \n\nOpening of the Calcutta railway . . 3 Feb. 1855 \nTreaty of friendship with Dost Mahomed of Cabul \n\n30 March, ,, \nInsurrection of the Sonthals (whiSh see) . July ,, \nWhich is only finally suppressed . . May, 1856 \n\nOude annexed (see Oiulc) .... 7 Feb. ,, \n\nMUTINY OK THE NATIVE ARMY. \n\nMutinies in the Bengal army : at Barrackpore, &c, \n\nseveral regiments disbanded . . . March, 1857 \n"India is quiet throughout." \xe2\x80\x94 Bombay Gazette. \n\n1 May, ,, \nMutiny at Meerut* (near Delhi) 10 May. The \nmutineers seize Delhi, commit dreadful out- \nrages, and proclaim the king of Delhi emperor, \n\n11-12 May, &c. ,, \n\n* On the introduction of the improved (Enfield) mus- \nket in the Indian army, greased cartridges had been \n\n\n\nINDIA. \n\n\n\n502 \n\n\n\nINDIA. \n\n\n\nThree native regiments disbanded at Lahore by \nthe energy of Mr. Montgomery and brigadier \nCorbett, who save the Punjab . . 12 May, 1857 \n\nMartial law proclaimed by the British lieut. -gover- \nnor, J. ft. Colvin May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBritish troops under general Anson advance on \nDelhi : his death 27 May, ,, \n\nMutineers often defeated . . 30 May-23 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMutiny at Lucknow .-\'\xe2\x80\xa2... . . . 30 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNeill suppresses the mutiny at Benares, 3 June ;\xe2\x80\xa2 \nand recovers Allahabad . . . .4 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMutiny spreads throughout Bengal : fearful atroci- \nties committed * ....,, \n\nNative troops disbanded at Mooltan, which is \nsaved 11 June, ,, \n\n\'Ex-king of Oude arrested . . . 14 June, ,, \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0fiiiege of the residency at Lucknow by the rebels, \ncommences 1 July, ,, \n\n\'Sir H. Lawrence dies of his wounds at Lucknow, \n\n4 J ul y. .. \n\nThe liberty of the press restricted . .^4 July, ,, \n\nSir H. Barnard commanding before Delhi dies of \ncholera, succeeded by general Reed . 5 July, ,, \n\nGeneral Nicholson destroys a large body of rebels \nat Sealcote 12 July, ,, \n\nCawnpore surrenders to Nana Sahib, who kills the \ngarrison, &c. , 28 June ; he is defeated by general \nHavelock, 16 July : who re-captures Cawnpore \n(see Cawnpore) 17 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMutinies suppressed at Hyderabad, 18 July ; and at \nLahore 20 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\xe2\x99\xa6General Reed retires, and sir Archdale Wilson takes \nthe command before Delhi . . .22 July, ,, \n\nRevolt at Dinapore : the British repulsed with \nsevere loss at Arrah .... 25 July, ,, \n\nHeroic exertions and numerous victories of general \nHavelock and his army, although suffering from \ndisease 29 July, to 16 Aug. ,, \n\nLord Canning\'s so-called "clemency" proclama- \ntion 31 July, ,, \n\nVictory of Neill at Pandoo Nuddee . . 15 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\xe2\x96\xa0 General Nicholson\'s victory at Nujuffghur pie dies \n23 Sept.] 25 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAssault of Delhi, 14 Sept. ; taken, 20 Sept. ; the \nking captured, 21 Sept. ; his son and grandson \nslain by colonel Hodson ... 22 Sept. ,, \n\nSir James Outram joins Havelock and serves under \nhim 16 Sept. ,, \n\nMavelock marches to Lucknow and relieves the be- \nsieged residency ; retires and leaves Outram in \ncommand ; Neill killed . . 25, 26 Sept. ,, \n\nColonel Greathed defeats the rebels at Bolundsho- \nhur, 27 Sept. ; destroys a fort at Molaghur, 29 \n\n\n\nbrought from England. These were objected to by the \ni-native soldiers, and the issue of them was immediately \n\xe2\x96\xa0discontinued by orders in Jan. 1857. A mutinous spirit \n.however gradually arose in the Bengal native army. \nIn March several regiments were disbanded, followed by \nothers, till in June the army had lost by disbandment \nand desertion, about 30,000 men. On 5 April, a sepoy, \nand on 20 April, a jemadar, or native lieutenant, were \nexecuted. At the end of May 34 regiments were lost. \nIn April, 85 of the 3rd Bengal native cavalry at Meerut \nrefused to use their cartridges. On 9 May they were \ncommitted to gaol. On Sunday, the 10th, a mutiny in \nthe native troops broke out ; they fired on their officers, \nkilling col. Finnis and others. They then released their \ncomrades, massacred many Europeans, and tired the \npublic buildings. The European troops rallied and drove \n.them from their cantonments. The mutineers then fled \nrfco Delhi (which see). \n\n* At the end of June the native troops at the follow- \ning places were in open mutiny : Meerut, Delhi, Feroze- \n.porc, Allyghur, Roorkee, Murdaun, Lucknow, Cawnpore, \nNusseerabad, Neemuch, Hansi, Hissur, Jhansi, Mehidpore, \nJirllundur, Azimghur, Futtehghur, Jaunpore, Bareilly, \nShahjehanpore, Allahabad. At the stations printed in \nitalics, European women and children were massacred. \n\xe2\x80\x94 The Relief Fund for the sufferers in India was com- \nmenced 25 Aug. 1857. The Queen, the emperor Napo- \nleon, and the Sultan, gave each 1000J. In Nov. 1857, \n280,749^. had been collected ; in Nov. 1858, 433, 620Z. In \nDee. 1861, 140,000/. had been distributed to sufferers in \nIndia ; and 100,000/. to those at home ; 246,069/. re- \nmained for the benefit of widows and orphans. A fast \' \n\xe2\x96\xa0was observed on 7 Oct. \n\n\n\nSept. ; takes Allyghur, 5 Oct. ; and defeats rebels \n\nat Agra 10 Oct. 1857 \n\nSir Colin Campbell (afters, lord Clyde) appointed \ncommander-in-chief, 11 July ; arrives at Cawnpore \n\n3 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMarches to Ahimbagh, near Lucknow, 9 Nov. ; and \ntakes Secunderabagh .... 16 Nov. ,. \n\nJoined by Havelock, he attacks the rebels and \nrescues the besieged in the residency, 18-25 Nov. ,, \n\nHavelock * dies of dysentery at Alumbagh, 24 Nov. ,, \n\nGeneral Windham (at Cawnpore) repulsed with \nloss in an attack on the Gwalior contingent, who \ntake part of Cawnpore .... 27 Nov. ,, \n\nSir C. Campbell arrives at Cawnpore, which he re- \ntakes, 28 Nov. ; and defeats the Gwalior rebels, \n\n6 Dec. \xe2\x80\xa2 ,, \n\nThe rebels defeated by Seaton, 14, 17, and 27 Dec. ; \nat Goruckpore by Rowcroft, 27 Dec. ; and at Fut- \ntehghur by sir C. Campbell . . .2 Jan. 1858 \n\nLucknow strongly fortified by the rebels Jan. ,, \n\nGenerals Rose, Roberts, Inglis, and Grant, victo- \nrious in many encounters . . Jan. and Feb. ,, \n\nTrial of king of Delhi ; sentenced to transportation \n\n27 Jan. to 9 March, ,, \n\nSir C. Campbell marches to Lucknow, 11 Feb. ; the \nsiege commences, 8 March ; taken by successive \nassaults ; the enemy retreat ; Hodson killed, \n\n14-19 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSevere proclamation of the governor-general in \nOude t 14 March, ,, \n\nGeneral Roberts takes Kotah . . 30 March, ,, \n\nSir Hugh Rose beats the enemy severely, and takes \nJhansi . . . . . .4 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGeneral Whitelock takes Budaon . . 19 April, ,, \n\nDeath of capt. sir W. Peel, of small-pox, at Cawn- \npore 27 April, ,, \n\nGeneral Penny killed in Rohilcund . . 4 May, ,, \n\nBareilly recaptured 7 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSir Hugh Rose defeats the rebels several times \xe2\x80\x94 at \nKooneh, May 11, and near Calpee, which he re- \ntakes 23 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nVictory of sir E. Lugard at Jugdespore 29 May, ,, \n\nThe rebels seize Gwalior, the capital of Scindiah, \nwho escapes to Agra . . . .13 June, ,, \n\nThe rebels defeated by sir H. Rose (the heroic \nRanee of Jhansi killed), 1 7 June ; Gwalior retaken \nand Scindiah reinstated ... 19 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTantia Topee heads a division of the rebels . . ,, \n\nRajahs of Jeypore, &c. , surrender ; Rohilcund and \nother provinces tranquillised . . July, ,, \n\nGeneral Roberts destroys the remains of the \nGwalior rebels 14 Aug. ,, \n\nMany Oude chiefs surrender . . . Aug. ,, \n\nAn attempt of disbanded regiments to retake their \narms at Mooltan, suppressed by major Hamilton \n(300 killed on the spot, and 800 slain or captured \nafterwards) 31 Aug. ,, \n\nThe government of the East India Company ceases, \n\n1 Sept. ,, \n\nGeneral Mitchell defeats Tantia Topee, near Raj- \nghur 15 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe queen proclaimed throughout India \xe2\x80\x94 lord Can- \nning to be the first viceroy . . . 1 Nov. ,, \n\nCampaign in Oude begins ; several chiefs submit, \nothers subdued 1-30 Nov. ,, \n\nAt Dhooden Khera lord Clyde (formerly sir C. Camp- \nbell) defeats Beni Mahdo . . .24 Nov. ,, \n\nFlight of Tantia Topee \xe2\x80\x94 he is beaten in Guzerat by \nmajor Sutherland .... 25 Nov. ,, \n\nThe ex-king of Delhi sails for the Cape of Good \nHope, 4-1 1 Dec. ; the colonists refuse to receive \nhim ; he is sent to Rangoon ,, \n\nBrigadier John Jacob dies at Jacobabad (greatly \nlamented) ... . . 6 Dec. ,, \n\nIndecisive skirmishes with Ferozeshah , Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nWho joins Tantia Topee : they are defeated in \nseveral small engagements . . Jan. 1859 \n\n* Born 5 April, 1795 ; educated at the Charterhouse, \nLondon, where he was called " old Fhlos ;" went to India, \n1823 : served in the Burmese war, 1824 ; and in the \nSikh war, 1845. He was a Baptist. \n\nt Lord Ellenborough, the minister for India, sent, un- \nknown to his colleagues, a despatch severely censuring \nthis proclamation. This despatch became public and \nled to his resignation and very nearly to the defeat of \nthe ministry, a vote of censure being "moved for in both \nhouses of parliament, but not carried. \n\n\n\nINDIA. \n\nEnforcement of the Disarming Act in the north- \nwest provinces Jan. \n\nThe Punjab made a distinct presidency i Jan. \n\nRebels completely expelled from Oude ; enter Ne- \n\npaul Jan. \n\nGuerilla warfare continues in Rohilcund . Feb. \nTantia Topee hemmed in ; deserted by his troops, \n\nabout 25 Feb. \n\nDefeat of the Begum of Oude and Nana Sahib by \n\ngeneral Horsford .... 10 Feb. \n\nThe new Indian tariff creates much dissatisfaction, \n\nMarch, \nMaun Singh surrenders .... 2 April, \nTantia Topee taken, 7 April ; hanged . 18 April, \nThanksgiving in England for pacification of India \n\n1 May, \n\nMutinous conduct of British troops lately in the \n\ncompany\'s service at Meerut and other places, on \n\naccount of their transfer to the queen\'s service \n\nwithout bounty 5 May, \n\nSir Hope Grant defeats Nana Sahib in the Jorwah \n\npass 23 May, \n\nA court of inquiry appointed . . . June, \nSir Chas. Wood becomes sec. for India . 22 June, \nDissatisfaction among the troops at their transfer \nfrom the service of the company to that of the \ncrown, without a bounty, settled by discharge \noffered to them, which about 10,000 accept July, \nThanksgiving day observed in India . . 28 July, \nAn income tax bill (called " the Trades\' and Pro- \nfessions\' Licensing Bill ") passes the legislative \ncouncil ; great meetings at Calcutta and Madras \nprotesting against it . . . . Sept. \n\nRajah Jey-loll Singh hanged . . . 1 Oct. \nNana Sahib, in force, in Nepaul on the frontiers of \n\nOude Oct. \n\nInsurgents in Nepaul dispersed . . 24 Dee. \n\nImportant financial changes made by Mr. James \n\nWilson, new finance secretary . . . Feb. \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Company formed to obtain cotton, flax, <fec. , from \n\nIndia March, \n\nPaper currency determined on March, \n\nBahadoor Khan, ex-king of Bareilly, hanged for \nmurders caused by him . . . .2 March, \nSir Chas. Trevelyan recalled from Madras, for pub- \nlishing a government minute against Mr. Wilson\'s \n\ncommercial scheme May, \n\nSir Hugh Rose takes command of the Indian army, \namalgajnated with the British . . July, \n\nLord Clyde arrives in London . . 18 July, \n\nLord Canning\'s recommendation that the adopted \nsuccessors of Indian princes should be recognised \nagreed to by the home government . 21 July, \nDeath of sir H. Ward, new governor at Madras, \n3 Aug. ; and of Mr. James Wilson . .11 Aug. \nNana Sahib, supposed to have died of jungle fever \nin Aug. 1858, is said to be living in Tibet . Dec. \nMutiny of 5th European regiment at Dinapore, sup- \npressed ; breaks out again, 5 Oct. ; is again sup- \npressed, Wm. Johnson shot, and the regiment dis- \nbanded ...... 13 Nov. \n\nBritish troops repulsed in Sikkim . . Nov. \n\nAgitation against the income tax suppressed at \n\nBombay and other places .... Dec. \n\nExcitement against sir Chas. Wood\'s grant of \n\n520,000^. to descendants of Tippoo Sahib . Dec. \n\nMr. Samuel Laing, successor to Mr. James Wilson, \n\narrives 10 Jan. ] \n\nAwful famine in N.W. provinces through failure \nof the crops ; immense exertions of the govern- \nment and others to relieve the sufferers, \n\nJan. -June, \nExpedition marches against Sikkim ; natives retire \n\nFeb. \nDisturbances in the indigo districts . . March, \nKootoob-ood-deen, grandson of Tippoo Sahib, mur- \ndered by his servants . . . .31 March, \nBritish subscriptions for relief of the famine com- \nmence at the Mansion-house, London, with 4000?., \n28 March ; 52,000^ subscribed 20 April ; closes \n\nwith 114,807! Nov. \n\nOrder of the " Star of India" (ickich sec) constituted \n\n25 June, \n\nExc.itemcut through the printing and circulation of \n\n" Nil Darpan," a Hindu drama libelling the indigo \n\nplanters June, \n\nThe rev. James Long, the translator, sentenced to \ntine and imprisonment Aug. \n\n\n\n503 \n\n\n\nINDIA. \n\n\n\nNew Indian council and newhigh court of judicature \nestablished Aug. 1861 \n\nMr. J. P. Grant, lieut. -governor of Bengal (who had \nauthorised the translation of " Nil Darpan ") and \nMr. Seton Kerr, his secretary (who had, without \nauthority, distributed copies) are censured and \nresign Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLaw of property in India altered ; sale of waste \nlands authorised Oct. ,, \n\nLords Harris and Clyde, sir J. Lawrence, Dhuleep \nSingh, and others invested with the Star of India \nby the queen 1 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nReported prosperity of Indian finances ; licence tax \nnot to be reimposed 31 Dec. ,, \n\nFirst meeting of new legislative council ; includes \nseveral Indian princes .... 18 Jan. 1862 \n\nLord Elgin, new governor-general, installed at Cal- \ncutta 12 March, ,, \n\nLord Canning arrives at Southampton, 26 April ; \ndies 17 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMr. S. Laing returns to England through ill health ; \ncensured by sir C. Wood ; he justifies himself and \nresigns . July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nHigh court of judicature at Bengal inaugurated \n\n12 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nReported suspension of sale of waste lands Aug. ,, \n\nRao Sahib hanged for murders during the revolt \n\n8 Sept. ,, \n\nGreat increase in the cultivation of cotton in India, \nreported Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSir Charles Trevelyan, new finance minister, arrives \n\n8 Jan. 1863 \n\nFirst agricultural exhibition at Calcutta 19-30 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRise of Ram Singh, a fanatic, in N.W. provinces Oct. ,, \n\nWar with warlike hill-tribes on the N.W. frontiers, \nOct. ; severe conflict, gen. Chamberlain wounded, \n20 Nov. ; command assumed by major-gen. John \nGarvock, who totally defeated the enemy (about \n15,000) in Chamta pass, 15, 16 Dec. ; war ended \n\n29 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Hindu religion deprived of government support \n\nDec. ,. \n\nDeath of the viceroy, lord Elgin . . 20 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSir John Lawrence, his successor, assumes office \n\n12 Jan. 1864 \n\nExcitement amongst the Hindoos on account of go- \nvernment suppressing funeral rites on sanitary \ngrounds March, \n\nProsperous financial statement of sir Charles Tre- \nvelyan April, \n\nMr. Ashley Eden, envoy at Bhootan, seized and \ncompelled to sign a treaty giving up Assam \n\nabout April, \n\nGold currency (a sovereign = 10 rupees) ordered to \nbe introduced at Christmas . . . July, \n\nTerrific cyclone\xe2\x80\x94 immense loss of life, property, and \nships at Calcutta and elsewhere . . .5 Oct. \n\nGrand durbar, held by sir John Lawrence, at La- \nhore ; 604 native princes present . . 18 Oct. \n\nWar with the Bhootanese- -fortress of Dhalimcote \ntaken 12 Dec. \n\nMuch commercial speculation at Bombay . Dec. \n\nThe Bhootanese attack on Dewangiri repulsed \nwith severe loss, 29 Jan. , evacuated by the British \n\nFeb. 1865 \n\nOpening of the Indo-European telegraph \xe2\x80\x94 a tele- \ngram from Kurrachee received . . 1 March, \n\nW. Massey succeeds sir C. Trevelyan as finance \nminister; he arrives at Calcutta . 31 March, \n\nSir Charles Trevelyan declares a large deficit in the \nrevenue 1 April, \n\nDewangiri recaptured by gen. Tombs . 2 April, \n\nSir Hugh Rose retires from command of the army ; \nwhich is assumed by sir Win. Mansfield, 23 April, \n\nSir Charles Trevelyan\'s plans reversed by sir C. \nWood May, \n\nDentil of the able and beneficent hoi. Juggonath \nSunkersett, the recognised representative of the \nHindoo community . . . . 31 July, \n\nNegotiation with the Bhootanese . . July, \n\nShipwreck of the Eagle Speed near Calcutta; 265 \ncoolies perish through neglect . . 24 Aug. \n\nPeace with the Bhootanese signed . . 13 NoV. \n\nMuch dissatisfaction at mildewed cotton goods \nbeing received from England . . July-Oct. ,, \n\nSettlement of the question respecting marriage of \nHindoo converts April, 1866 \n\n"Simla Scandal." Trial of capt, E. Jervis ; ac- \n\n\n\nINDIA. \n\n\n\n504 \n\n\n\nINDIA. \n\n\n\nquitted on charge of peculation of stores belong- \ning to sir W. Mansfield, commander-in-chief, but \ncondemned for insubordination ; sentence (dis- \nmissal from the service) approved by sir "W. \n\nMansfield 17 Sept. 1866 \n\nAwful famine in Orissa, Bengal ; about 1,500,000 \n\nperished Aug. -Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRelief by Government Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDr. Cotton, bishop of Calcutta, accidentally drowned \n\n6 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nFamine abating ; official inquiry ordered . Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nGreat durbar held at Agra, by sir J. Lawrence \n\n10-20 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nSimla case ; sentence against capt. Jervis confirmed, \nand sir W. Mansfield censured by the duke of \nCambridge, by letter dated . . . 17 Jan. 1867 \nDeficiencies in the revenue ; Massey\'s proposed new \n\nlicence tax much opposed . \'. April & May, ,, \nFalse rumour of mutiny at Meerut . . 20 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nReport on Orissa famine ; authorities blamed, June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nDeficiency in revenue for 1867, 2,400,0002. reported \n\nAug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nMassacre of Hindoo chiefs by the nawab of Tonk \n\n(for which he was deposed) . . .1 Aug. ,, \nGrand durbar at Lucknow . . .9-17 Nov. ,, \nThe fierce Wagheers of Kattywar, in a night attack, \nare nearly exterminated ; cajits. Hibbert and La \n\nlouche killed 29 Dec. ,, \n\nMr. Massey\'s budget ; surplus of Soo.oocZ. ; licence \ntax abolished, tax on trades, &c. , substituted ; ex- \npenditure of 1,700,000?. on public works proposed \n\n14 March, 1868 \n\nWar on the N. W. frontier ; the Bazotees, fanatical \n\nMahometans, defeated by general Wilde; 30 killed \n\nand wounded ; all dispersed, 4 Oct. ; villages burnt \n\nas punishment for outrages . . . Oct. ,, \n\nDeath of the begum of Bhopal, who helped the \n\nBritish during the mutiny . . .30 Aug. ,, \nThe duke of Argyll secretary for India . 9 Dec. ,, \nArrival of the earl of Mayo, the new viceroy, at \n\nCalcutta 12 Jan. 1869 \n\nSevere famine 1868-9 \n\nSir R. Temple\'s budget ; deficiency of about \n\n2,750,000?. ; a 1 per cent, income tax put on \n\n(excessively opposed) .... March, 1869 \n\nMeeting of the viceroy and Shere Ali, the Afghan \n\nsovereign, who receives a subsidy and presents \n\n27 March, ,, \nNew divorce act in operation . . .1 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \nRise of a body of Indian religious reformers termed \n\nthe Brahmo Somaj (see Deism) . . . Aug. ,, \nAct for the better governing India and defining the \n\neovernor-general\'s powers passed . . n Aug. ,, \nIndia visited by the duke of Edinburgh, Dec. 1869- \n\nApril, 1870 \nRailway between Calcutta and Bombay completed \n\nMarch, \xe2\x80\x9e \nAnnounced deficiency in the revenue ; increased \ntaxation proposed; much opposition to the in- \ncome tax May, ,, \n\nGrand durbar at Bhurtpore ... 10 Oct. ,, \nLamented death of sir H. Durand, from fall from an \n\nelephant 1 Jan. 1871 \n\nSir Proby Cautley, designed Ganges canal works, \n\n&c. , died, aged 68 25 Jan. ,, \n\nVolunteer system proposed for India . . Jan. ,, \nIndian finance committee appointed . . Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nSir R. Temple\'s budget .... 9 March, ,, \nMoulvi Liakat Ali, a cruel rebel who in 1857 ruled \n\nas viceroy at Allahabad, apprehended . 5 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nIndian civil engineering college, Cooper\'s-hill, opened \n\nby the duke of Argyll, secretary for India, 5 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nJustice Norman stabbed at Calcutta, 20 Sept. ; dies \n21 Sept. ; assassin convicted, 28 Sept. ; executed \n\n4 Nov. ,, \nMuch corrupt opposition to the income tax reported \n\nNov. ,, \nLord Mayo visits Palumpore fair, and holds a rural \n\ndurbar 6 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMilitary expedition under generals Nutthall and \nBourchier, aided by the rajah of Munnipore, against \nthe Looshais, about 13 Nov. ; skirmishes, 1 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nDeath of the earl of Ellenborough, a late governor- \ngeneral (see Somnath) .... 22 Dec. ,, \nSkirmishes with the Looshais, 21, 23 Dec. ; they \n\nsue for peace 29 Dec. ,, \n\nThe king of Siam visits Calcutta . . 7-12 Jan. 1872 \nOutbreak of the Kookas, near Loodiana, severely \n\n\n\nsuppressed by commissioners Cowan and Forsyth \n\n(see Kookas) 15-17 Jan. 1872 \n\nCamp at Delhi ; military manoeuvres, by sir H. \n\nTombs and others .... 13-23 Jan. ,, \nLooshais repulsed and strongholds taken 28 Jan. )Jb \nThe viceroy arrives at Rangoon, 28 Jan. ; on his \nreturn he visits the convict establishment in the \nAndaman Islands, and is assassinated at Port \nBlair by Shere Ali, a convict, while about to \nembark in the Glasgow ... 8 Feb. ;> \n\nLord Napier acts as viceroy . . -23 Feb. , r \nLooshais surrender unconditionally ; army returning \n\n28 Feb. ,\xe2\x80\x9e \nThe Kamous tribe, while carrying off Looshai cap- \ntives, defeated, and captives rescued ; British re- \nturning to Calcutta .... 7 March, ,, \nShere Ali hanged, without confessing associates, \n\n12 March, ,, \nAnnual pension from Indian government to lady \nMayo, 1000Z. ; grant of 20,000?. for children, \n\nMarch, ,, \nSir Richard Temple\'s budget favourable ; income \n\ntax to be reduced April, , r \n\nLord Northbrook sworn in as viceroy . 3 May, ,\xe2\x80\x9e \nLiakat Ali, on confession, condemned to transporta- \ntion for life 27 July, ,, \n\nChristian marriage bill passed . . . July, ,, \n\nThe begum of Bhopal made a knight of the Star of \n\nIndia at Bombay .... 16 Nov. ,, \n\nChanges in criminal procedure ; compromise in ,, \nThe income tax not renewed . . .21 March, 1873 \nRiots of the Moplahs, Mahometan fanatics, on \ncoast of Malabar, suppressed by military ; about \n\n13, 14 Sept. ,\xe2\x80\x9e \nNew tax (road cess) reported successful . Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nMessrs. Bernard, Geddes, & Robinson appointed \ncommissioners in anticipation of famine in \n\nBengal Nov. ,, \n\nSir B. Temple appointed superintendent of relief \n\nin Behar Jan. 1874 \n\n15 districts (25,000,000 inhabitants) much dis- \ntressed ; 11 districts (14,000,000) affected \n\nmiddle of Jan. ,\xe2\x80\x9e \nSubscriptions at Mansion-house (which see), London \n\nbegun 24 Jan. ,, \n1,000?. given by the Queen . . . . 4 Feb. ,, \nThe marquis of Salisbury secretary for India, 21 Feb. ,, \nReport from Calcutta: " people well employed on \npublic works ; no adult should die now from \n\nstarvation " 25 March, ,,, \n\nA loan, not exceeding 10,000,000?. for India Govern- \nment authorised by parliament . . 30 March, , t \nSir R. Temple installed lieut.-gov. of Bengal in \nroom of sir George Campbell : about 500 deaths \nfrom disease and hunger reported, about 8 April, , \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe famine kept under ; estimated net expendi- \nture on relief, 6,500,000?. (see Mansimi-house) May, ,\xe2\x80\x9e \nCrisis of famine past ; reported declining ; much \n\nrain ; good prospects .... June, ,, \nOnly 24 deaths from famine alone ; 125,000?. raised \nfor relief in London . . . .27 July, ,,. \n\nAbundance of rain Sept. ,, \n\nSadun Khan, a cruel leader in the mutiny, sen- \ntenced to death Sept. ,, \n\nA person said to be Nana Sahib captured at Gwalior \nby the Maharajah Scindia (identity since dis- \nproved) 21 Oct. ,, \n\nAttempts to poison col. Phayre, resident at Baroda, \n\nNov. ; he is replaced by col. Pelly . . Dec. ,, \nOutrages of Dufflatribes on N. W. frontier (trouble- \nsome, 1838-9; 1852; Feb. 1873); expedition against \n\nthem Dec. ,, \n\nMulhar Rao, gaekwar of Baroda, carried to Calcutta \nfor trial for attempting to poison col. Phayre ; \nhis child recognised as his successor, provision- \nally 14 Jan. 1875 \n\nThe Duffla tribes surrender and pay line . 29 Jan. ,, \nThe gaekwar\'s trial begins, 3 native judges (Scin- \ndiah, the maharajah of Jeypore, and one other) \n\nand 3 British 23 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLieut. Holeombe and a surveying party (about 70) \nin Assam, massacred by Naga natives \n\nabout 24 Feb. ,, \n\nClose of inquiry into the conduct of the gaekwar \n\nof Baroda ; verdict of 3 British judges, guilty ; ol \n\n3 natives, not proved ; 30 March ; he is deposed \n\nfor misgovernment by the viceroy, and ordered \n\n\n\nINDIA. \n\n\n\n505 \n\n\n\nINDIA. \n\n\n\nto live in British India with suitable provision ; \nproclamation that a successor be appointed \n\n23 April, 1875 \n\nNaga tribes chastised severely ; the objects of the \nexpedition accomplished . . 15-25 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nEldest son of the gaekwar appointed successor \n\n22 May, ,, \n\nDifficulties with Burmah .... May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMission of sir Douglas Forsyth to Mandalay (see \nBurmah) June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNew gaekwar of Baroda installed . . 3 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nEstablishment of a new Mahometan college for the \nN. W. provinces (chiefly by Ahmed Khan) ; an- \nnounced July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDispatch from marquis of Salisbury on repeal of \ncotton duties Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Prince of Wales sails for India, 11 Oct., arrives \nat Bombay 8 Nov. ; warmly received at Baroda, \n9 Nov. ; at Goa, 27 Nov. ; in Ceylon, 1-8 Dec. ; \nat Madras, 13 Dec. ; at Calcutta, 23 Dec. ; grand \nreception of Indian potentates . . 24 Dec. ,, \n\nUnveiled statue of Lord Mayo at Calcutta . 1 Jan. 1876 \n\nAt Benares, Lucknow, (fee, 5 Jan. et seq.; in Nepaul, \n12 Feb. ; sails from Bombay . .13 March, ,, \n\nLord Lytton, new viceroy, takes oath at Calcutta, \n\n12 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Queen proclaimed Empress of India in London \n\n1 May, ,, \n\nIndian finances : deficiency through depreciation \nof silver currency; loss about 2,300,000?., pro- \nposed loan of 4,000, oool. . . . 11 Aug. ,, \n\nVice-regal proclamation of the Queen\'s title, \n"Empress of India ; " (to be proclaimed at Delhi, \n1 Jan., 1877) 19 Aug. ,, \n\nSir John Strachey appointed financial minister, \nabout 17 Oct. ; governor of N.W. Provinces Nov. ,, \n\nAt Agra Mr. Fuller slapped for neglect a native \nservant, 31 Oct. 1875, who died soon after ; he \nwas fined by a magistrate ; sentence considered \ntoo light by the high court; the viceroy in a \nminute censured all ; this caused much dissatis- \nfaction ; (lord Salisbury supported the viceroy, \n1877) July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFamine in Bombay, Madras, &c. . Nov., Dec. ,, \n\nProclamation of the queen as empress of India \nwith much magnificence at Delhi, by the viceroy; \nalso at Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay 1 Jan. 1877 \n\nCreation of the " Order of the Empire of India" an- \nnounced 1 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSir R. Temple removed from Bengal to Bombay \n\n19 Jan. ,, \n\nRelief works organizing, favourable reports an- \nnounced 29 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe raids of the Affreedis on N.W. frontiers sup- \npressed ; announced . . end of April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFamine formidable, but energetically met June, ,, \n\nMisery increasing; establishment of "Mansion- \nhouse relief fund " (which see) . 12 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe secretary for India authorised by parliament \nto raise a loan for 5,000,000?. . . 14 Aug. ,, \n\n919,771 employed by government; 1,326,971 relieved \ngratuitously ; reported . . \' 29 Aug. ,, \n\nDisturbances on N.W. frontier; raids of the Jawa- \nkies, or Jowakies, an Affreedi tribe ; chastised \nby expedition under sir Rd. Pollock, 29, 30 Aug. ; \nagain by gen. Keyes .... Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCopious rain in the south reported ; greatly im- \nproved prospects . . . Sept., Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFormation of a new N.W. government proposed \n\nOct., Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMansion-house Indian fund closed, by request of \nthe duke of Buckingham (by telegram) 5 Nov. ,, \n\nJummu, the Javvakies\' stronghold, taken ; they \nare defeated and dispersed . Nov., Dec. ,, \n\nSir John Strachey \'s budget ; 1,500,000?. to be \nraised annually for famines (they cost 16,000,000?. \n\nI in five years) ; taxation raised ; trade licences, \n&c. ....... Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n" Imperial Order of the Crown of India," for ladies ; \ninstituted 3 t Bee. ,, \n\nThe Jawakies defeated by cavalry, 15 Feb. ; sur- \nrender unconditionally ; announced 22 Feb. 1878 \n\nBill to restrain licence of the native press, passed \nby the council at Calcutta . . 14 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Indian press commission to help and control \nthe press, established \n\nBudget; cost of famine about 3,450,000?. March, ,, \n\n\n\nNative Indian troops sent to Malta, April; com- \nmended by the duke of Cambridge, June ; re- \nmoved to Cyprus .... Aug. 1873 \n\nWar with Afghanistan (which see) . . Sept. ,, \n\nEngland now holds the passes through which India \nis acsessible by land .... Feb. 1879 \n\nRevenue\xe2\x80\x94 Gross receipts, 65,207,694?. . . . 1878-9 \nExpenditure, 67,545,201?. . . ,, ,, \n\n8545 miles of railways opened (expenditure about \n120,000,000?.) up to . . . . 31 March, 1873 \n\nTreaty of peace signed at Gandamuk (rvhich see), \n\n26 May, ,,. \n\nIndian railways guarantee act passed . n Aug. , r \n\nLoan of sum under 5,000,000?. for India ; authorized \nby act 15 Aug. ,- \n\nDisaffection and plundering of the Rumpa hill tribes, \nAug. ; subdued Oct. ,, \n\nMutiny and massacres at Cabul (see Afghanistan), \n\nSept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMurder of Mr. Damant, commissioner, in Naga \nhills by natives, during an outbreak . 14 Oct. ,, \n\nNew stringent rules for newspaper correspondents \nwith army ; issued Oct. , r \n\nLord Lytton fired at by Busa, a half-mad, intoxi- \ncated East Indian ; no injury . . 12 Dec. ,, \n\nRumpa rebellion in Central India dying out ; several \ndefeats of rebels ,, \n\nNaga raids and murders .... Jan. i88o> \n\nIndian budget, by sir John Strachey, surplus of \n119,000?. reported 24 Feb. ,, \n\nMarquis of Ripon, new viceroy, arrives at Calcutta ; \ncol. Gordon, his secretary ,,, \n\nErrors in the budget, through mistakes in esti- \nmating. Afghan war expenses ; large deficiency ; \nannounced May ; sir John Strachey resigns (suc- \nceeded by major Baring) . . . June, ,, \n\nDeficiency stated to be about 900,000?. by marquis \nof Hartington 5 July, ,\xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBy a landslip the hill station Nynee Tal or Naini \nTal, in the Himalayas, destroyed ; many lives lost \n(see Landslips) 18 Sept. , r \n\nSir Donald Stewart appointed commander-in-chief \nof the Indian army .... Jan. 1883 \n\nDeath of Gholam Hussein Khan, able and faithful \nfriend to the British .... March, ,, \n\nWar declared against the Wazaris, 12 April ; ends \nwith their submission . . . about 8 May, ,, \n\nProposals for loan of 3,000,000?., issued, 27 June, , r \n\nBudget introduced by the marquis of Hartington ; \nrevenue, 68,484,666?. ; expenditure, 69,667,615?. ; \ndeficit, 1,182,949? 22 Aug. ,, \n\nThe budget for 1882-3 \xe2\x80\x94 Revenue, 66,439,000?. 9 Mar. 1882 \nExpenditure, 66,174,000?. . \n\nThe Indian contingent distinguished in Egyptian \nwar Aug.\xe2\x80\x94 Sept. ,, \n\nOfficers visit London .... Nov. ,,. \n\nThe Sirhind canal (502 miles, for irrigation) opened \nby the viceroy 24 Nov. ,, \n\nMr. llbert\'s Criminal Procedure Amendment bill \nstrongly opposed by all the non-official Europeans \nand the army throughout India ; very great \nmeeting at Calcutta .... 28 Feb. 1883 \n\nEuropean and Anglo-Indian defence association, \nCalcutta, formed ; first meeting . 29 March, ,, \n\nAn Anglo-Indian association for the natives formed \nin London April, \n\nMr. Banerjee, editor of the Bengalee, sentenced to \ntwo months\' imprisonment for gross libel against \njudge Norris ; great excitement of Hindoos, \nmonster meeting at Calcutta [appeal refused in \nEngland, July] . . . about 11 May, ,, \n\nDreadful inundation in Cachar, N.E. Calcutta, caus- \ning great distress ; prompt British help 16 May, ,\xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMajor Baring succeeded by sir Auckland Colvin as \nfinance minister July, ,, \n\nHigh courts of Bombay and Madras favour, that of \nCalcutta opposes, the Ilbert bill . July \xe2\x80\x94 Aug. ,, \n\nAbundant food supply and great prosperity Oct. ,, \n\nIlbert bill : compromise announced ; Europeans \nallowed to claim a jury wholly or partly European \n\n21 Dec. ,, \n\nAkha raids into Assam ; major Beresford\'s forces \nrepulsed 24 Dec. ,, \n\nBudget \xe2\x80\x94 revenue 71,727,000? 1883-4 \n\nexpenditure, 70,340,000?. . . . \xe2\x80\x9e ,, \n\nThe Akhas dispersed by gen. Hill . . 8 Jan. 1884 \n\nHe returns Jan. ,, \n\nIlbert bill amended and passed 25 Jan. \n\n\n\nINDIA. \n\n\n\n506 \n\n\n\nINDIA. \n\n\n\n"Great increase of cultivation and exports through \nrailways since 1848. \n\n^Exports: 25,000,0002. raised to 147,837,920?. in 1883 \n\nannounced 1 \n\nStndian budget: finances sound and improving, 8 Aug. \n\n.Expedition to the Zhob valley to punish the Kakar \n\nPathans for their raids into British territory \n\nabout 22 Sept. \n\n\'They are defeated by gen. Tanner ; 56 killed 23 Oct. \n\n.No resistance reported, 6 Nov.; troops return \n\n22 Nov. \n\n"Upwards of 1000 addresses from natives to the \nmarquis of Bipon on his leaving India . Nov. \n\nJEarl of Dufferin installed viceroy at Calcutta 13 Dec. \n\n^Budget \xe2\x80\x94 revenue, 70,690,681?. \' 188 \n\nexpenditure, 71,077,127/ ,, \n\nImportant Bengal tenancy bill passed 11 March, 1 \n\n.\xe2\x96\xa0Sir A. Colvin\'s budget ; combined surplus of 3 years \n(1882-5), 1,378,000?. ; lessened by depreciation of \nsilver currency; revenue for 1885-6, 73,508,100?. ; \nexpenditure, 1885-6, 76,488,960?. . . 17 March, \n\nSir Donald Stewart, with 50,000 men, ordered to \nadvance to Quetta March, \n\nMeeting of the Ameer of Afghanistan and the viceroy \nat Bawul Pindi conference and durbar 2-12 April, \n\n\'The na vvab of Moorshedabad and other princes offer \nto sell their jewels, &c, to provide money to aid \nthe British government in India against Bussia \n\nApril-May, \n\nThorough defence of India determined on by the \nBritish government, declared . . 12 May, \n\nProposed loan of 10,000,000?. 21 May, et seq. ; act \npassed 22 July, \n\n\'The formation of native volunteer corps under the \ncommander-in-chief .... May, \n\n\'Lord Bandolph Churchill appointed secretary for \nIndia 24 June, \n\nSir Frederick Roberts appointed commander-in- \nchief ; announced 30 July, \n\nNational congress of 71 delegates (principally law- \nyers, schoolmasters, and editors, not Mahometans) \nmeet at Bombay, express great loyalty to the \n\xe2\x96\xa0queen, and pass nine resolutions to endeavour \nto obtain a royal commission of inquiry and \nincreased political power . . end of Dec. ,, \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Grand military review at Delhi held by the viceroy \n(35,000 troops, 709 officers, &c.) . . 19 Jan. 1886 \n\nUpper Burmah annexed by proclamation of the \nviceroy, lord Dufferin . . . .1 Jan. ,, \n\nPowerful speech of lord Dufferin ; deficit of about \n2,000,000?. through war preparations, &c. ; pro- \nposed increase of income-tax . . 4 Jan. ,, \n\nSLady Dufferin\'s fund for providing female medical \npractitioners for the natives of India, highly \nsuccessful 1885-6 \n\nincome-tax bill passed .... 29 Jan. 1886 \n\nEarl of Kimberley appointed secretary for India, \n\nabout 6 Feb. ,, \n\nSir A. Colvin\'s budget, 1886-7 ; revenue, 75,798,700?. ; \nexpenditure 75,616,500? 24 March, ,, \n\n-Sir Richard, aft. viscount Cross, appointed secretary \nfor India July, ,, \n\nNational Indian congress at Calcutta, 400 delegates \n(Hindoos) to promote native advancement, 28 \nDec. 1886 ; and again early in ... 1887 \n\nThe queen\'s jubilee celebrated with great magnifi- \ncence ; honours distributed ; 25,000 prisoners of \ngood character released . . 16 Feb. et seq. ,, \n\nMaharajah of Indore and many Indian princes \npresent at the jubilee celebration in Westminster \nAbbey . , 2I j une , \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n53,390 miles of railway in India ; reported . . . ,, \n\nThe nizam of Hyderabad in a letter to lord Dufferin \nthe viceroy, offers to present 20 lakhs of \nrupees for three years, total 600,000?., for the \ndefence of the N.W. territories, Sept. ; acknow- \nledged with thanks ; announced . 10 Oct. ,, \n\nThe rajah of Kaparthala ofTers his army and five \nlakhs of rupees for the defence of India ; \nannounced ^ Oct. \n\nFour lakhs offered by rajah of Nabha . . Nov." " \n\nSimilar offers by other princes . . . Nov. ,] \n\nSubscriptions to lady Dufferin\'s jubilee fund in \nsupport of the national association for supplying \nfemale medical aid amounts to 478,465 rupees in \nIndia, and 1,770?. in England 15 Oct. ; amount \nreceived 50,000? 25 Oct. \n\n\n\nDistricts in Beloochistan annexed (which see) \nannounced Nov. 18 \n\nIndia 4 per cent, stock converted into 3J per cent, \nby act 23 May, , \n\nThe maharajah of Darbhanga in Bengal, establishes \na female medical hospital in aid of lady Dufferin\'s \nfund autumn, , \n\nMilitary demonstration against Sikkim (which see) \nordered .24 Jan. 18 \n\nBudget 1887-8 ; great deficit ; tax on petroleum \nand increase of salt duty proposed Jan. ; passed \n\n10 Feb. , \n\nLord Dufferin, the viceroy, announces his intention \nof resigning, for private reasons . . 9 Feb. \n\nModerate National Indian Congress at Madras \nrecommends representative institutions, &c. Feb. \n\nMajor L. R. Battye and captain H. B. Urmiston \nand five Sepoys killed by the Akozais during an \nexploration on British territory near Black \nMountain, N.W. frontier . . . 10 June, \n\nBlack Mountain expedition, or " The Hazara \nField Force " under general McQueen to avenge \nthe outrage of 19 June ; organized Sept. ; advance, \nseizure of Manakadana 4 Oct. ; the enemy defeated \nwith the loss of 200 men by gen. Galbraith ; \nguerrilla warfare ; British success at Kotkai with \nslight loss 5 Oct. ; villages burnt, enemy retiring ; \nBritish casualties, 59 killed and wounded 9 Oct. ; \ngen. McQueen advances 18 Oct. ; more villages \nburnt ; col. Crookshank dies of wounds 24 Oct. ; \nthe tribes submit and pay fines 21-30 Oct. ; \nGorapher peak of the Chaila mountains, 9,500 feet, \ntaken by gen. Channer 2 Nov. ; return com- \nmenced 5 Nov. ; final submission announced \n\n18 Nov. \n\nLord Dufferin at a durbar at Patiala announces \nthe decision of the government to decline the \nacceptance of money from the princes ; but \nrecommends to raise the character of their armies \nand so to fit them to combine with the British \nfor defence of India .... 18 Nov. \n\nFarewell address of 700 native ladies presented to \nlady Dufferin privately ... 4 Dec. \n\nInstallation of the marquis of Lansdowne as \nviceroy ; departure of lord Dufferin . 10 Dec. \n\nRaid of Lushais on the Chittagong border announced \n\n23 Dec. \n\nNative Indian congress at Allahabad (moderate \nand illogical) opened . . . .26 Dec. . \n\nFortress of Quetta, a bulwark of India, finished \n\nJan. 16 \n\nRaid of Chittagong hill tribes on British territory \nnear Tipperah, 24 villages destroyed, above 100 \nBritish subjects killed and 91 carried off prisoners, \nannounced 28 Jan. . \n\nSukkur bridge opened . . . .27 March, \n\nMr. Arthur Travels Crawford, an able commissioner \nfor 34 years in Bombay, after a long investiga- \ntion, was acquitted of serious charges of financial \nmisconduct, but was for indiscreet borrowing \ndismissed the service. After some correspondence \nthe sentence was confirmed by lord Cross, secre- \ntary for India, in a despatch . . 29 March, , \n\nMilitary expedition sent to chastise the hill tribes \nfor their raids and the murder of lieut. Steward ; \nobject effected ; reported . . . April, , \n\nProposal for a new 4 per cent, loan (20,000,000 \nrupees) issued 1 July, , \n\nSubscription list closed .... 30 July, , \n\nLord Reay\'s condoning the native Bombay officials, \nwho confessed themselves guilty of bribery and \ncorruption in relation to the Crawford case, much \ncensured, but eventually approved by the govern- \nment . . .... Sept. , \n\nTantia Bheel, robber chief of the central provinces, \na kind of Robin Hood, in the Holkar territory \nbegan his career about 1874 ; robbed the rich and \nhelped the poor ; lately suffered much, captured \nabout 18 Aug., convicted of murder (in 1879), \nabout 20 Oct., executed at Jubbulpore . 4 Dec. , \n\nTour of the viceroy in the N.W. provinces, Oct. ; \na durbar held at Quetta . . . .19 Nov. , \n\n5th native Indian Congress meets at Bombay (Mr. \nBradlaugh present) . . .26 Dec. et seq. , \n\nMilitary expedition of sir R. G. Sandeman to pro- \nmote commerce by opening a road through the \n\n\n\nINDIA. \n\nZhob districts, N.W. frontier, reported success- \nful without bloodshed .... 2 Feb. \nTreaty with China respecting Sikkim, which see, \n\nsigned i 7 March, \n\nSir David Barbour\'s budget presented ; a large \n\nsurplus 21 March, \n\nPrince Albert Victor of Wales received at Bombay \nby the duke of Connaught and lord Reay ; Hy- \nderabad, 15 Nov. ; Madras, 19 Nov. ; Mysore, 23 \nNov. ; Rangoon, 20 Dec. ; Mandalay, 24 Dec, \n1889 ; Calcutta, received by the viceroy, 3 Jan. \n1890 ; Benares, 14 Jan. ; Lucknow, 18 Jan. ; \nN.W. provinces, 20 Jan. et seq. ; Lahore, 25 Jan. ; \nKhyber pass, 31 Jan. ; Delhi, 9 Feb. ; Bombay, \n22 March ; embarked for home . 28 March, \nExpeditions (organised by gen. Gordon) to chas- \ntise the Chins and Lushais for their raids, and to \nform a road connecting Upper Burmah and Lower \nBengal ; gen. Symons proceeds from the east, \ngen. Tregear from the west, to form a junction, \nJan. ; the resistance generally feeble ; the troops \nat times suffered much by disease ; the Yokwa \nChins submit to gen. Symons, 10 Jan. ; peaceful \nsurrender of Mongpunga or Lienpunga, a Lushai \nchief ; construction of road proceeding ; recon- \nnaissances and skirmishes ; 200 Hakas submit, \ntwo villages burnt ; health of troops improved ; \njunction of the two parties reported, Feb. . \nGuerilla warfare ; Haka chiefs submit . about \n\n22 March, \nThe Tashon chiefs submit to gen. Symons and pay \nfine and tribute . . reported 24 March, \nMajor Gordon-Cumming on convoy duty, shot \ndead, from an ambuscade . about 24 March, \nTen days\' reconnaissance of gen. Symons south- \nward ; col. Tregear at Haka . 13-16 April \nThe new road to Haka completed connecting Bur- \nmah and India ; Haka and other posts garrisoned \nreported 20 April, \nGen. Symons and the expedition return to India . \n\n1 May et seq. \n\nSubmission of Malliam-pai chiefs to gen. Tregear; \n\nraiding to cease, roads to be made, &c. 20 May, \n\nIncreased agitation in India and England against \n\nHindoo child marriages .... Aug. \n\nRevolution at Manipur . . . . 21 Sept. \n\nInsurrection in Cambay with bloodshed, the nawab \n\nappeals to the British for help : they restore \n\norder reported 23 Sept. \n\n[Major Kennedy, a political officer, was autho- \nrised to redress grievances, reform the finances, \n&c, Jan. 1891.] \n\nInsurrection in Manipur in N.E. state ; the Maha- \nrajah abdicates in favour of his brother, who had \nseized the palace, &c. . . . 21-24 Sept. \nEruption of the Lushais near Dalleswary river ; \ncapt. Herbert Browne killed, reinforcements sent \nreported 12 Sept. \nLieut. Swinton killed in an attack . . 2 Oct. \nThe Black Mountain Expedition under gen. sir J. \nM. M\'Queen starts, 22 Oct. ; returns . 3 Nov. \nThe Zhob valley expedition under gen. White arrives \n\nat Fort Sandeman 30 Oct. \n\nUltimatum sent ; skirmish ... 30 Oct. \n\nThe tribes submit . . . reported 12 Nov. \n\nTlie Lushai party under capt. Shakespear and \n\nMr. Pughe advance to Jadunas village, 34 miles \n\nW. of Fort White, 6 Nov. ; returns successful . \n\n20 Nov. . \nTour of the viceroy in the N.W., he visits Delhi, \n&c, Nov.; holds a durbar at Agra, 24 Nov.; \n\nBenares 4 Dec. , \n\nIndian Factory commission ; report with recom- \nmendations issued .... early Dec. , \nThe principal Lushai chiefs surrender uncondi- \n\n, tionally o Dec. , \n\nThe 6th National Congress of mixed character, no \ngovernment officials present, 26-30 Dec, 1890; \nsir A. Scoble introduces a bill into the legislative \ncouncil to raise the age of consent to marriage by \n\ngirls from 10 to 12 9 Jan. 1! \n\nCapt. Rundall witli 200 rifles marches to Lushailand \n\nabout 22 Jan. , \n\nA strong force marches against the marauding \n\ntribes of the Miranzai valley on the N.W. frontier \n\nabout 30 Jan. \n\nSeveral tribes submit . about .16 Feb. et seq. \n\nMukkmudin, principal chief of the Rubbia Klieyl \' \n\n\n\n507 \n\n\n\nINDIA. \n\n\n\n1S90 \n\n\n\ntribe, surrenders, reported 19 Feb. ; the force re- \nt" rus about 24 Feb. 18 \n\nThe important factory bill for the protection of \nwomen and children passed . . 19 March, , \n\nAfter much public discussion, the "age of consent \nto marriage bill" is passed by the legislative \ncouncil 1Q March, ,, \n\nDisastrous expedition to Manipur, which see \n\nMarch , \n\nSir D. Barbour\'s financial statement ; reported sur- \nplus, 20 March ; he recommends a commission to \nconsider the currency and the introduction of a \ngold standard, &c March, , \n\nBlack Mountain Expedition, N.W., under gen. Elles, \ntwo columns under col. Williamson and col. \nHammond, starts about 15 Jan., crosses the \nfrontier about 15 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Ghazis attack the Pioneers, slight loss, 19 \nMarch ; successful movement forward 26 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSharp engagement, 9 soldiers killed . 5 April, ,, \n\nRoad-making party attacked, 14 sepoys killed \n\nreported 7 April, ,, \n\nBridge of boats over the Indus, broken up \n\nabout 20 April, ,, \n\nThe party ascend the Machai peak, 9,800 feet high, \na few shots exchanged, 18 April ; difficult travel- \nling, severe weather, April; huts to be con- \nstructed for the troops .... May ,, \n\nThe country evacuated by the British . . Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMiranzai Valley Expedition.\xe2\x80\x94 Sir W. Lockhart with \n7,000 men at Kohat preparing to resist the Orak- \nzais and other tribes (Panthans and Afreedes) ; \nsudden attack of the tribes repulsed by the Pun- \njaub infantry, reported 12 April ; the Samana \nheights held by Syed Mir Basha, a fanatical \npriest ; the Mollahs preaching a. jihad, which see \n\nreported 12 April ,, \n\nSir W. Lockhart with three columns captures some \noutposts, and clears the Samana ridge, col. \nCramer and major Egerton severely wounded, 17, \n18, April ; successful fighting; the enemy dis- \npersed and villages burnt, 19, 20 April ; about \n300 Orakzais killed, they disperse, and other \ntribes retreat . .- .21 April et seq. \n\nSir W. Lockhart advances against the very aggres- \nsive Akhel tribe ; severe fighting, several villages \ndestroyed 22 April, \n\nSamana range occupied ; several tribes submit \n\nApril, May, \n\nSir W. Lockhart advances to punish the Shekhans, \n29 April, their towers blown up ; various tribes \nsubmit, accepting conditions . . .3 May, \n\nThe tribes restore stolen property, and seek for \npeace ; all opposition ceases, reported 12 May ; \nthe troops ordered to return . . .17 May, \n\nA representative meeting of delegates agrees to re- \nsolution to be sent to the viceroy condemning \nsir Joseph Pease\'s resolution respecting opium, \nadopted by the commons, 12 April (see Opium) \n\n12 May \n\nAlarming deficiency of rain, especially in Madras, \n\nRajputana, the Punjaub, and the south, middle \n\nof July ; supply of rain in north and north-west \n\nabout 2 Aug. \n\nTrial of the Bangabasi newspaper for sedition con- \ncluded ; jury disagree ; no verdict, 24 Aug., the \ndefendants submit and apologise . . 23 Sept. \n\nA good supply of rain in Malabar and other \'places \nabout 27 Sept. \n\nThe N.W. provinces relieved . . . Sept. \n\nThe Hunza and Nagar tribes oppose British road- \nmaking ; fighting ensues near Gilgil, N. of Cash- \nmere ; a fort of Nilt, taken by lieut.-col. Durand \nwho is wounded ; several sepoys killed . 2 Dee. \n\nFurther successes of capt. Colin Mackenzie, lieut. \nManners Smith and others near Nilt ; about 70 \nnatives killed ; other places occupied ; Jafar \nKhan of Nagar submits ; end of the war \n\n20-22 Dec. \n\nSeventh Indian National congress opened at Nag- \npur with strong professions of loyalty 28-30 Dee. \n\nGen. sir Frederick Sleigh Roberts created a peer as \nBaron Roberts of Candahar . . . Feb. 1 \n\n\n\nINDIA. \n\n\n\n508 \n\n\n\nINDIA COMPANY, EAST. \n\n\n\nM. Clement Thomas, governor-general of French \nIndia, received by the viceroy at Calcutta \n\n8 Jan. et seq. \n\nGeneral mourning throughout India at the death of \nthe duke of Clarence and Avondale . 14 Jan. \n\nDeath of col. sir Robert Groves Sandeman, 29 Jan. ; \neulogised by the viceroy in council (see Beloo- \nchistan) Feb. \n\nIncreased gloom in the districts threatened by \nfamine through want of rain . Feb., March, \n\nTotal employed on relief works, 32,855 \n\nearly March, \n\nSir Juland Danvers, able government director of \nIndian guaranteed railway companies for fifty \nyears, retires 23 March, \n\nFamine relief works ; persons employed ; Madras, \n48,000 ; Bombay 2,000 ; Bengal, 17,000 ; Burma, \n28,000 ; Mysore, 13,000 ; Rajputana, 33,000 \n\nreported 2 April, \n\nThe Hunza-Nagar rising suppressed, and order re- \nstored reported 25 March, \n\nDesultory war with the Lushai tribes, the British \xe2\x80\xa2 \nunder Mr. M\'C\'abe generally successful \n\nMarch, April, \n\nThe Lushais attack the tea-estate at Boorooncherra \nand kill 52 coolies . . reported 4 April, \n\nAdvance of capt. Shakespeare . . . April, \n\nDeath of gen. sir Lewis Felly, M.P., an able official, \naged 67 22 April, \n\nReport of the Public service commission ; import- \nant changes recommended . about 24 April, \n\nExtensive rising of the Lushai tribes ; several con- \nflicts, villages destroyed, about 24 April ; several \nchiefs surrender to Mr. M\'Cabe, about 26 April ; \ntranquillity gradually restored . . 3-29 May \n\nRain in Bengal . . . end of April, May, \n\n71,000 total on relief works . . .12 May, \n\nThemaharajah of Ulwar, enlightened and loyal, dies \n\n22 May, \n\nHis heir 10 years old ; his minister assassinated \n\nreported 26 May, \n\nIndian Currency Association formed to promote \nthe abolition of silver as the sole standard in \nIndia May, \n\nThe maharajah gaekwar of Baroda dines with the \nqueen at Windsor (see above, 1874-5) . 4 July, \n\nGood monsoon ; famine averted ; relief woiks \ndiminished July, \n\nValue of the ru pee reduced to is. 3d. ; great anxiety, \n\nAug. \n\nGOVERNORS-GENERAL OF INDIA, (fee* \n\nWarren Hastings assumes the govt. . . 13 April, \n\nSir John Maepherson 1 Feb. \n\nLord Cornwallis 12 Sept. \n\nSir John Shore (afterwards lord Teignmouth) 28 Oct. \nLord (afterwards marquis) Cornwallis again : he \n\nrelinquished the appointment. \n\nSir Alured Clarke 6 April, \n\nLord Mornington (afterwards Marquis Wellesley) \n\n17 May, \nMarquis Cornwallis again . . . .30 July, \nSir George Hilaro Barlow . . . .10 Oct. \n\nLord Minto 3I July, \n\nEarl of Moira, afterwards marquis of Hastings, 4 Oct. \n\nHon. John Adam 13 Jan. \n\nGeorge Canning, relinquished the appointment \nWilliam, Lord (afterwards earl) Amherst. 1 Aug. \nHon. W. Butterworth Bayley . . 13 March, \nLord Win. Cavendish Bentinck . . 4 July, \n\n[This nobleman became the first governor-general \nof India, under the act 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 85 : \nAug 28, 1833.] \nSir Charles Theophilus Metcalfe (afterwards lord \n\nMetcalfe) 2Q March, \n\nWilliam, lord Heytesbury ; did not proceed . . \nGeorge, lord Auckland (afterwards earl of Auckland) \n\n4 March, \nEdward, lord Ellenborough . . 28 Feb \n\nWilliam Wilberforce Bird ... 15 June, \nSir Henry (afterwards viscount) Hardinge, 23 July, \nJames-Andrew, earl (afterwards marquis) of Dal- \n\nhousie 12 Jan. 1848 \n\n* Several of these appointments were provisional, as, \nfor instance, sir Alured Clarke, sir George Hilaro Barlow, \nhon. William Butterworth Bayley, William Wilberforce \nBird, &c. The appointments of governors-general were, \nof course, of earlier date than their assumption of office. \n\n\n\n1772 \n17S5 \n\n\n\n1805 \n\n1807 \n1813 \n1823 \n\n\n\n1835 \n\n\n\n1836 \n1842 \n1S44 \n\n\n\nCharles John, viscount Canning, appointed, July, 1855 \nProclaimed the first viceroy throughout India, 1 Nov. 1858 \nJames, earl of Elgin, appointed, Aug. 1861 ; died \n\n20 Nov. 1863 \nSir John Lawrence appointed . Dec. ,, \n\nRichard Southwell, earl of Mayo (see Mayo) ap- \npointed. [Assassinated 8 Feb. 1872.] . Oct. 1868 \nThomas George Baring, lord Northbrook . Feb. 1872 \n\nEdward Robert Bulwer Lytton, lord Lytton, took \n\noath at Calcutta 12 April, 1876 \n\nGeorge Frederick Samuel Robinson, marquis of \n\nRipon Maj\', 1880 \n\nFrederick Temple Hamilton-Blackwood, earl of \nDufferin, Sept. 1884 ; created marquis of Dufferin \nand Ava .... T2 Nov. 1888 \n\nHenry Charles Keith Fitz-maurice, marquis of \nLansdowne, installed . . . .10 Dec. ,, \n\nINDIA COMPANY, EAST. The first com- \nmercial intercourse of the English with the East \nIndies was a private adventure of three ships fitted \nout in 1591. Only one of them reached India; and, \nafter a voj age of three years, the commander, cap- \ntain Lancaster, was brought home in another ship, \nthe sailors having seized his own ; hut his in- \nformation gave rise to a mercantile voyage, and the \nestablishment of a company, whose first charter, im \nDec. 1600, was renewed in 1609, 1657, 1661, 1693, \nand 1744. Its stock in 1600 consisted of 72,000^., \nwhen it fitted out four ships. Meeting with success, \nit continued to trade, and India stock sold at 500^. \nfor a share of 100^. in 1683. \nA new company (the "English") was chartered 5 \nSept. 1698, and the old (the "London") suspended \nfrom trading for three years ; the two were united 1702 \nNew East India company established . . . . 1708 \nPrivileges of the company continued till 1783 . . 1744 \nAffairs of the company were brought before parlia- \nment, and a committee exposed a series of in- \ntrigues and crime Aug. 1772 \n\nAs remedial measures two acts passed, (one autho- \nrised a loan of i,ooo,oooZ. to the company; the \nother celebrated as the India bill) effected most \nimportant changes in the constitution of the \ncompany and its relations to India. A governor- \ngeneral was appointed to reside in Bengal, to \nwhich the other presidencies were then made \nsubordinate ; a supreme court of judicature was \ninstituted at Calcutta: the salary of the governor \nwas fixed at 25,000^. per year ; that of the council \nat io,oooZ. each ; and of the chief judge at 8000J. ; \nthe affairs of the company were controlled ; all the \ndepartments were re-organised, and all the terri- \ntorial correspondence was henceforth to be laid \nbefore the British ministry . . . June, 1773 \n\nMr. Pitt\'s bill appointing the Board of Control \n\n(tohich see), passed 18 May, 1784 \n\nThe company\'s charter was renewed for 20 years . 1793 \n\nTrade with India thrown open 18 13 \n\nTrade to China opened ; Charter renewed till 1854 . 1S33 \nThe government of India was continued in the \nhands of the company till parliament should \n\notherwise provide 1853 \n\nIn consequence of the mutiny of 1857, anc ^ the dis- \nappearance of the company\'s army, the govern- \nment of India was transferred to the crown, the \nBoard of Control was abolished, and a Council of \nState for India instituted by the act 21 & 22 Vict. \nc. 106, which received the royal assent, 2 Aug. * 1858 \nThe company\'s political power ceased on 1 Sept., \nand the queen was proclaimed as Queen of Great \nBritain and the Colonies, &c. , in the principal \nplaces in India, amid much enthusiasm 1 Nov. ,, \nThe company to be dissolved, 1 June, 1874, and \n\n\n\n* Lord Palmerston brought in a bill for the purpose on \n12 Feb., which was accepted by the house on 18 Feb. \nHe resigned on the following day, and the bill dropped. \nA similar bill was introduced by Mr. Disraeli on 12 March ; \nbut many of its details being objected to, it was with- \ndrawn. On lord John Russell\'s proposition, the house \nproceeded to consider the matter by way of resolutions ; \non 17 June, lord Stanley brought in the above mentioned \nbill, being the third on the subject introduced during the \nsession. \n\n\n\nINDIA, COUNCIL OF. \n\n\n\n509 \n\n\n\nINDIANS. \n\n\n\ndividends redeemed, bj\' the " East India Stock \nDividend Redemption Act," passed . 15 May, 1873 \nThe East India-House built 1726; enlarged and a \nnew front erected, 1799 ; sold with the furniture, \n1861 ; pulled down in Sept. and Oct. . . . 1862 \n\nINDIA, COUNCIL OF, established by act of \nparliament, 2 Aug. 1858, in the place of the board \nof control (which see). It consists of 15 members \n(salary 1200I. a year), eight of whom were appointed \nby the queen, and seven elected by the directors of \nthe East India company. The members may not \nsit in parliament. The council met first on 3 Sept. \n1858, when lord Stanley, secretary of state for India, \npresided. The members of the first council are \nrecorded below. Members were added to the \ncouncil by an act, passed 20 June, 1892. \n\n\n\nCharles Mills. \nJohn Shepherd. \nBoss D. Mangles. \nWilliam J. Eastwick, \n\n\n\nELECTED. \n\nSir J. Weir Hogg. \nElliot Macnaghten. \nHenry T. Prinsep. \n\n\n\nAPPOINTED. \n\n\n\nSir Frederick Carrie. \nSir Henry Rawlinson. \nSir R. Hussey Vivian. \nJ. Pollard Willoughby. \n\n\n\nSir John Lawrence. \nSir Henry Montgomery. \nSir Proby Cautley, and \nWin. Arbuthnot. \n\n\n\nqueen Victoria so pn> \n1876, in India, 1 Jan. \n\n\n\nINDIA, Empress of \n\nclaimed in London, 1 May \n\n1877. Order of the Indian Empire instituted, \n\n1 Jan. 1878. Enlarged, 15 Feb. 1887. \n\nINDIA MUSEUM, The, was proposed by \nsir Charles Wilkins and approved by the East India \ncompany in 1798. The valuable collections were \nremoved from Leadenhall-street to Fife house, \nbehind the chapel royal, Whitehall, and opened \n24 July, 1861 ; removed to the East India \nmuseum, which was opened to the public May, \n1869 ; removed to South Kensington, opened June, \n1875 ; closed 25 Oct. 1879, and the collections re- \nmoved to Kew Gardens Museum, there re-opened \n17 May, 1880. \n\nINDIAN ASSOCIATION (National), to \npromote social progress and education in India, was \nestablished under the patronage of the princess of \nWales in 1870. Annual meetings held 1892. \n\nINDIANA, a western state of North America. \nIt was included in Ohio till 1801; was constituted \na territory in 1809, and admitted into the Union \nII Dec. 1816. Capital, Indianapolis; popula\'ion, \n1890, 105,436. Population, 18S0, 1,978,301 ; 1890, \n2,192,404. \n\nAt a great fire at Indianapolis about 13 firemen \nwere killed and 19 injured \xe2\x80\x94 estimated loss 200,000 \ndollars \'17 March, 1890 \n\nBy the burning of an hospital at Indianapolis, 19 \npersons perish 22 Jan. 1892 \n\nINDIAN CIVIL SERVICE COLLEGE, \n\nestablished at Cooper\'s hill, Surrey, 1870. \n\nINDIAN INSTITUTE, Oxford; promoted \nby professor Monier Williams, 1875 et seq. ; \nestablished 1878 ; first stone of the building laid, \n\n2 May, 1883; opened, 14 Oct. 1884. \n\nThe Institute has received liberal donations from \nIndian princes ; reported .... Dec. 1891 \n\nINDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS, ad- \nvocating legislative and administrative changes in \nfavour of the natives, met at Bombay, end of Dec. \n1885, and annually since. Not favoured by Ma- \nhometans. See India, 1885 et seq. \n\nINDIANS occupying the south-western parts \nof the United States, termed Indian territory, in \ndirect connexion with the government, were num- \n\n\n\nbered at 239,506 in 1861; 261,912 in 1881 ; 244,704 \nin 1 89 1. The larger tribes are the Cherokees (22,000), \nthe Chocktaws (18,000), the Creeks (13,550), and \nthe Chickasaws (5000); the Sioux (30,600). A \nlarge proportion are in comfortable circum- \nstances, and have schools and churches ; other tribes \nare the Delawares, Sacs, Foxes, Shawnees, Sioux, \nand Ioways. During the American civil war in 1861, \nthe Choctaws joined the confederates, who per- \nmitted two Choctaw delegates to sit in congress ; \nthe first being Sampson Folsom and Eastman Lo- \nman ; but the principal chief of the Cherokees, on \n4 May, 1861, issued a proclamation of neutrality, \nwhich was maintained with great difficulty. In a war \nprovoked by outrages general Sheridan defeated the \nIndians, and they surrendered unconditionally Dec. \n1868. Negotiations undertaken by the Quakers had \nno effect, and the war was renewed June, 1869. \nAs a chastisement for murders and other outrages \nmajor Baker killed 173 Indians, including women \nand children, Jan. 1870. In June following a \ndeputation of eminent chiefs was received by the \npresident at Washington, and promises and presents \nwere made to them. On 1 Oct. 1869 prince Arthur \nvisited the villages of the Canadian Indians, and \nwas made a chief of the "Six Nations." A depu- \ntation of Indian chiefs were well received by the \npresident at Washington, Jan. 1870. A meeting of \ndelegates from various tribes met at Ocmulgee, 5-17 \nJune, 1871, and agreed to a constitution for the \ncommon government by means of a senate and par- \nliament representing 17 tribes of 60,000 people; see \nModoc. \n\nProfessor Marsh reports to the president of the \nUnited States the corruption and fraudulent \nconduct of the "Indian Ring," the officials em- \nployed to pay compensation, and deal with the \nIndians (this said to cause war of 1876) ; cor- \nroborated by gen. Custer .... July, 1875 \n[Bishop Butler, an American, said that if the In- \ndians were treated as fairly as they are in Canada \nthere would be no wars, 1878.] \nThirteen Iroquois and 14 Canadians performed the \nCanadian national game " La Crosse," before the \nQueen at Windsor ... 27 June, 1876 \n\nGen. Geo. A. Custer, a brave, able officer, attacks \nabout 2,500 Sioux Indians, led by Sitting Bull, an \nable chief, on Little Horn river, Montana, in a \nravine ; he and his family and nearly all his \nforce destroyed (275 killed, 60 wounded) 25 June, ,, \nUrgent measures taken by the United States govern- \nment, Sheridan put in command . . July, ,, \nSheridan unsuccessful ; commissioners arrange a \ntreaty with the Sioux Indians to remove for self- \n\nsustentation 7 \xe2\x80\x94 27 Oct. ,, \n\nWar going on ; gen. Howard opposed to an able \n\nchief, Joseph July, 1877 \n\nThe tribe "Nez Perces ". defeat the U.S. troops in \nIdaho, and kill about 33, during and after the \n\nbattle about 14 Sept. ,, \n\nGreat conference of Indian chiefs with president \nHayes, at Washington ; they accept terms \n\nend of Sept. ,, \n"Sitting Bull" and Sioux Indians defeated in a \nraid retire to Canada [when pardoned returned \n\nto his tribes] July, 1879 \n\nFighting witli Indians at Mill creek, near Rawlins, \nin Colorado ; 17 whites and major Thornbury \nkilled, 29 Sept. ; gen. Merritt entrenched ; said \nto be surrounded ; reinforced ; Indians retreat \n\n14 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n200 Apache Indians turn and kill 32 of the pursuing \n\nwhites 9 Nov. ,, \n\nIndians in Canada. In 1883, 110,505 ; in 1892, \n121,638 ; numbers increasing ; condition im- \nproving and prosperous 1892 \n\nThe Sioux sell to the United States 11,000,000 acres, \npart of their Dakota reservation, for 14,000,000 \ndollars ; the Chippewa agree to sell 4,000,000 \nacres of their lands .... Aug. 1889 \nA rising of the Sioux Indians, about 25,000, in Bad- \nLands (the Mauvaises Terres of the French pio- \n\n\n\nINDIANS. \n\n\n\n510 \n\n\n\nINDUCTION. \n\n\n\nneers), in South Dakota, stated to be suffering by- \nwant, in consequence of the reduced government \nrations ; they are incited by their fanatical medi- \ncine men, who predict the coming of a conquer- \ning Messiah, and begin their ghost war-dances ; \nthey attack the outlying white settlers and \nfriendly Indians ; marauding and outrages ensue, \ncausing great alarm ; troops and supplies of food \nsent to the Dakota frontier ; the Sioux are soon \njoined by other tribes, Nov. ; col. Wm. F. Cody, \n" Buffalo Bill " (see American Exhibition), sent to \nthe front ...... 23 Nov. 18c \n\nGen. Miles, chief, commanding in Dakota aided by \ngen. Brook ; the troops in Missouri, Nebraska, \nKansas, Dakota, Montana, and Wyoming, ordered \n\nfor active service 25 Nov. ,, \n\nRapid advance of troops and cannon into the reser- \nvations ; Little Wound and other Sioux chiefs \n\ntender submission 26 Nov. ,, \n\nFather Jule, a missionary, visits the Indian forti- \nfied camp, to dissuade them from war ; the older \nchiefs inclined to yield, the younger determined ; \n\nhe returned 6 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe hostile Indians said to be demoralised by a \n\ndisplay of troops and cannon . . . 12 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe old Sioux chief Sitting Bull (see above, 1876-7) \ncaptured by the police, 14 Dec, and in an \nattempt to rescue him, his son Crow Foot and \nhimself are killed with others, and his camp is \noccupied by the troops . . . .15 Dec. ,, \nGen. Miles\' head-quarters at Rapid city . 18 Dec. ,, \nRed Cloud, at a great council, recommends sur- \nrender, and warns resisters . . 19 Dec. ,, \nBattle of Wounded Knee Creek. \nDesiring to revenge Sitting Bull\'s death, the re- \nmains of his band join Big Foot\'s band on Chey- \nenne River ; they start lor Badlands, and are \njoined by other Indians, making about 160 war- \nriors in all ; they are met by the 7th cavalry \nunder lieut. Hawthorne, and artillery under \nmajor Whiteside, and made to surrender, 28 Dec. ; \nin the evening major Forsyth with other troops \narrives. While pretending to surrender their \narms, at the command of major Whiteside, the \nIndians suddenly attack the dismounted troopers, \nand a murderous hand-to-hand .light ensues ; the \nIndians are joined by others, and additional \ntroops arrive, the Indians flee to the ravines, are \npursued by the artillery, much slaughter ensues ; \nduring the confused fight, Big Foot and his \nband were nearly exterminated, together with \nmany women and children (about. 200). Capt. \nWallace, lieuts. Casey and Mann, and several \nnon-commissioned officers and privates were \n\nkilled 29 Dec. , \n\nVigorous attack on the Pine Ridge Agency, re- \npulsed, 29 Dec. et seq. ; sharp skirmish in which \nnearly 3,000 Indians are dispersed by major \n\nForsyth 29, 30 Dec. , \n\nThe great body of 3,000 Indians near Pine Ridge \nAgency, gradually surrounded by the 2nd In- \nfantry regiment under gen. Brook 2 Jan. et seq. i2 \nA sharp Indian attack on supply waggons repulsed \n\n5 Jan. , \nKansas and other states called on to supply troops \n\n7 Jan. , \nGen. Miles receives the submission of the rebel \nchiefs of the Brules ; provisions sent to the \n\nIndians 14 Jan. , \n\nAbout 4,000 Indians, nearly surrounded by the \ntroops, come in and surrender their arms . . , \n15 Jan. et seq. , \nGen. Miles, in an address, commends his troops, \n\nand declares the war at an end . . 19 Jan. , \nHe takes 40 Indians and also some friendly chiefs to \nWashington, Feb. ; they have a conference with \nMr. Noble, secretary of the Interior, 7 Feb., and \npresident Harrison . . . .12 Feb. , \n\nProposed enlistment of about 2,000 young Indians, \n\nas separate companies in the army about 10 Feb. , \nThe delegates return to Pine Ridge from Washing- \nton, much dissatisfied with their reception ; their \nloyal chief " American Horse," comi>lains bitterly \nof the injustice and harshness of the government \nand the officials, but speaks well of gen. Miles \n\n23 Feb. , \n\n\n\nRevolt of the Chippewa and other Indians in Min- \nnesota and Arizona, reported 12 July ; defensive \nmeasures ordered by government . July, 1891 \n\nGreat mining explosion at Krebs, in the Indian \nterritory ; about 70 men killed . . 7 Jan. 1892 \n\nINDIA RUBBER, see Caoutchouc. \n\nINDICTION, a Roman term original ly applied \nto a tribute of corn, paid every fifteen years, and to \nthe time at which it was paid. The first examples \nin the Theodosian code are of the reign of Con- \nstantius II., who died 361. \xe2\x80\x94 In memory of the great \nvictory obtained by Constantine over Maxentius, \n8 Cal. Oct. 312, the council of Nice ordained that \nthe accounts of years should be no longer kept by \nthe Olympiads, but by the Indiction, which has its \nepocha 1 Jan. 313. It was first used by the Lathi \nchurch in 342. \n\nINDIGO, the dye obtained from the woad \nplant, isatis linctoria, was used by the Egyptians, \nand other ancient nations ; and the processes are \ndescribed by Pliny. After the passage of the Cape of \nGood Hope, in 1497, it was gradually superseded by \nthe eastern indigo, got from the indigofera. The \nmention of indigo occurs in English statutes in 1581- \nIts cultivation was begun in Carolina in 1747. The \nquantity imported into Great Britain in 1840 was \n\n\n\n5,831, 269IDS.; in 1845, 10,127,488 lbs. \n\n\n\n1850, \n1861, \n1869, \n1871, \nin 1876, \n\n\n\n70,482 cwt. ; in 1859, 63,237 cwt. _ \n83,109 cwt.; in 1866, 74,256 cwt.; \n\n86.721 cwt.; in 1870, 79,255 cwt.; \n106,307 cwt. ; in 1874, 85,707 cwt. \n\n88.722 cwt. ; in 1877, 60,640 cwt. ; in 1879, 80,146 \ncwt.; in 1880, 58,283 cwt.; in 1881, 81,088 cwt.; \nin 1882, 95,272 cwt. ; in 18S3, 100,243 CVf *- \'\xe2\x96\xa0> i n \n1884, 104,423 cwt. ; in 1885, 94.314 cwt. ; in 1887, \n76,700 cwt. ; in 1888, 78,128 cwt.; in 1889, 90,238 \newt. ; in 1890, 81,854 cwt. \n\nAfter long continued experiments, especially by \nprof. A. Baeyer, the dye has been prepared artifi- \ncially from its chemical elements in coal tar 1869-80 \n\nProfessor H. E. Roscoe, at the Royal Institution, \nproved that the properties of the artificial and \nnatural indigo were identical . . 27 May, 1881 \n\nINDIRECT CLAIMS, see Alabama, Wash- \nington. \n\nINDIUM, a metal discovered in the arsenical \npyrites of Freiberg by F. Reich and T. Richter in \n1863. Its name is due to its giving an indigo blue \nray in its spectrum. \n\nINDIVIDUALIST CLUB, proposed to be \nformed for the physical and political benefit of the \nworking classes, on the principle of self-help, Feb. \n1885. \n\nINDORE, a province of British India; the \nprincipal native rulers have been the Mahratta \nchiefs, named Holkar, rivals of the Scindiahs at \nGwalior. Rao Holkar received a grant of territory \nfrom the British in 17^3. After severe conflicts the \nMahratta chiefs were finally quelled in 1818. The \ntown of Indore, founded in 1 767, was destroyed by \nScindiah after a battle on 14 Oct. 1801. The \nmaharajah Shivaja Rao Holkar died 17 June, 1886. \nSucceeded by his son, Tuckaji Rao Holkar, who was \npresent at the queen\'s jubilee in London in 1887. \nIndore was visited by the viceroy, the marquis of \nLansdowne, 24 Nov. 1891. Population, 1881, \ni,055> 21 7- \n\nINDUCTION of electric currents, discovered \nby Faraday, and announced in his "Experimental \nResearches," published in 1831-2. Ruhmkorff\'s \nmagneto-electric induction coil was constructed in \n1850; See under Electricity. \n\n\n\nINDUCTIVE PHILOSOPHY. \n\n\n\n511 \n\n\n\nINFIRMARIES. \n\n\n\nINDUCTIVE PHILOSOPHY, based on \nthe results of observations and experiments, really \ncommon sense, is especially expounded by Bacon in \nthe second book of his " Novum Organon" pub- \nlished 1620. Wm. Harvey (1578-1657) endeavoured \n"to search out the secrets of nature by the way of \nexperiment." See Blood. \n\nINDULGENCES in the early church were \nthe moderation of ecclesiastical punishment. The \npapal system for the absolute pardon of sin, com- \nmenced by Leo. III. about 800, were granted in \nthe nth century by Gregory VII., and by Urban \nII.,. and by others, in the 12th century as rewards \nto the crusaders. Clement V. was the first pope \nwho made public sale of indulgences, 1313. In \n1517, Leo X. published general indulgences \nthroughout Europe, and the resistance to them led \nto the Reformation. \n\nINDUSTRIAL DWELLINGS, see \n\nArtisans. \n\nINDUSTRIAL EXHIBITIONS, in Great \nBritain, are now frequent. One for South London \nwas opened at Lambeth, I March, 1864; for North \nLondon, by earl Russell, at the Agricultural hall, \nIslington, 17 Oct. 1864; for West London, at the \nFloral hall, Covent-garden, 1 May, 1865; for the \ncity of London, at Guildhall, 6 March, 1866; one \nwas opened at York, 24 July, 1866; and several \nsince. The "Workmen\'s International Exhibition, \nAgricultural Hall, London, was opened 16 July; \nclosed, 31 Oct. 1870. \n\nINDUSTRIAL PROPERTY; an inter- \nnational conference for its protection was opened at \nParis, 6 March, 1883 ; third, at Rome, 30 April, \n1886 ; at Madrid, 1890. \n\nINDUSTRIAL REMUNERATION \nCONFERENCES, at Prince\'s Hall, Piccadilly, \nLondon, held 28-30 Jan. 1885. Papers read on the \nrelation between Capital and Labour, &c. by lord \nBramwell, sir Thomas Brassey, and others. \n\nINDUSTRIAL AND PROVIDENT \nSOCIETIES ACTS, 1852 and 1862, were \namended by acts passed 1867, 1871, and 1876. \n\nINDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS ACT, 21 & 22 \n\nVict. c. 48 (1857) was enacted to make better pro- \nvision for the care and education of vagrant, desti- \ntute, and disorderly children. Another act was \npassed, 1861. These acts were consolidated by an \nact passed in Aug. 1866. Forty-seven of these \nschools had been certified under these acts up to \n29 Sept. 1864. The act was extended to Ireland, \n1868. England and Wales, 1872, 71 schools (4870 \nboys, 1516 girls) ; in 1890, 133 schools. \n\n.INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES, see Co-opera- \ntive Societies. \n\nINDUSTRIAL VILLAGES, the formation \nof these by the removal of workmen from towns, \nwas proposed at a meeting of the Society of Arts, \n26 June, 1885. Annual meeting, 26 July, 1888. \n\nINDUSTRY, see Scientific. \nINEBRIATES, see Drunkards. \n\nINFALLIBILITY OF THE POPE, in \n\nregard to faith and morals, was decreed by the Va- \ntican Council, and promulgated, 18 July, 1870. The \ndoctrine was much opposed in Germany, and led to \nthe constitution of the church named "Old Ca- \ntholics," which see. Mr. Gladstone\'s pamphlets, \n"The Vatican Decrees in their bearing on Civil \n\n\n\nAllegiance," published Nov. 1874, and "Vati- \ncanism," in Feb. 1875. \n\nINFANTICIDE, especially female, was very \nprevalent in barbarous countries. Lord Macartney \nstated that 20,000 infants were killed annually; it \nis now gradually decreasing in India. On 12 Nov_ \n185 1, Mr. Raikes induced the Chohan chiefs to \nagree to resolutions against it, and a great meeting; \nin the Punjab was held for the same purpose, \n14 Nov. 1853. Much suspicion was caused in Lon- \ndon in 1867 through the deaths of children farmed \nout to improper persons. The agitation revived,, \nJune, 1870. Margaret Waters was convicted of the- \nmurder of John Cowen, an illegitimate infant, by \npoison and neglect, 23 Sept. 1870. She had adopted) \nabout 40 children, receiving a few pounds as pre- \nmium; in four years, many had died. John and \nCatherine Barns, of Tranmere, near Birkenhead, \nconvicted of manslaughter 29 Oct. 1879 > a gross- \ncase. See Trials, 1879. The Infant Life Protec- \ntion act passed 25 July, 1872. Female infanticide- \nprohibited in China about June, 1873. \n\nINFANTRY, foot soldiers ; their organisations \nmuch improved during the wars of Charles V. and \nFrancis I., in the 16th century. The British army- \ncomprised 99 regiments of regular infantry in 1858,, \nwhen the Canadians raised a regiment which is \ntermed the 100th. The number, now 109, includes- \nthe nine regiments formerly in the pay of the East \nIndia company, and several colonial corps. Marshal \nSoult (or marshal Bugeaud) said, "The British \ninfantry is the finest in the world : happily there- \nis not much of it." In 1891, 69,274. \n\nINFANTS\' RELIEF ACT, passed 7 Aug, \n1874, to amend the law relating to contracts niade- \nby persons under age. \n\nThe powers of wives and widows in respect to the carfe \nand training of their children, were somewhat en- \nlarged in 1839, more so in 1873, and very much more; \nby a bill brought in by Mr. James Bryce, read "a second, \ntime 26 March, 1884. \n\nGuardianship of Infants Act passed, 1886. \n\nINFANT SCHOOLS began in New Lanark,, \nScotland, in 1815 ; in London in 1818. \n\nINFECTIOUS DISEASES. By an act. \npassed 30 Aug. 1889, notification of any person? \nsuffering from infectious disease is required to be? \ngiven by the nearest relative or any person in \ncharge, and also by the medical attendant to the- \nmedical officer of health of the district. An act to* \nprevent the spread of infectious disease was passed \n4 Aug. 1890. \n\nINFERNAL MACHINES, see France, 1800, \n1835, and 1858; Baltic, note; Dynamite ; Russia? \n1 880- 1 ; Liverpool, 1881 ; Uxplosives. \n\nINFIRMARIES. Ancient Rome had no- \nhouses for the cure of the sick ; diseased persons- \nwere carried to the temple of JEsculapius for cure- \nInstitutions for the accommodation of travellers,, \nthe indigent, and sick were founded by the em- \nperor Julian about 362; and infirmaries or hospitals- \nwere frequently built to cathedrals and monas- \nteries. The emperor Louis II. caused infirmaries \nsituated on mountains to be visited, 855. In Jeru- \nsalem the knights and brothers attended on the \nsick. There were hospitals for the sick at Constan- \ntinople, in the nth century. The oldest mention; \nof physicians and surgeons established in infirm- \naries occurs in 1437. Bcckmann ; see Hospitals, \nParish workhouse infirmaries established, 1867. \n\n\n\nINFLUENZA. \n\n\n\n512 \n\n\n\nINQUISITION. \n\n\n\nINFLUENZA, a name given in Italy about \n1741 to an epidemic febrile catarrh with variations, \nprobably known to the ancient*. \nIt prevailed in Europe in 1510, and has since frequently \nappeared, generally commencing in Russia and \n\xe2\x96\xa0.thence spreading over the continent. It appeared in \nJBritain in 1762 and frequently since, especially in \n1830-1, 1833, 1836-7, and 1847. It appeared at Paris in \n1866-7, and at Berlin, 1874-5. In Oct. 1889, it was \nsevere in St. Petersburg, and thence spread over \nEurope, reaching Great Britain, Canada and the \nUnited States N.A., Jan. 1890, causing indirectly the \n\xe2\x80\xa2deaths of several eminent persons. In the spring, the \n\xe2\x80\xa2disease was severe in India and Australia. In 1891 \nthe disease was severe in the west of the United States \nN.A., and in London and other parts of England, and \nalso on the continent. The disease reappeared in Jan. \n1892, in much the same localities. In London the \ngeneral mortality was much increased, all classes \nbeing attacked. The death of the duke of Clarence \n\xe2\x96\xa0and Avondale, 14 Jan. 1892, was attributed to pneu- \nmonia following influenza. Report of the epidemic of \n1889-90, by Dr. Parsons, issued by government, about \n.3 July, 1891. Special government inquiry into the \ndisease ordered, early Feb. 1892. \n\nINFOEMEES, upon penal statutes, com- \npounding with defendants without leave of the \n\xe2\x96\xa0court, were punishable with fine and pillory, by \n18 Eliz. c. 5 (1576). Their share of a penalty was \nregulated by 2 & 3 Vict. c. 71 (1839). \n\nINFUSOEIA, see Animalcules. \n\nINGESTEE HALL, Staffordshire, destroyed \nby fire 12 Oct. 1882. It was built in 1676. Many \nvaluable portraits, &c. were destroyed. \n\nINGOUE, a river rising in the Caucasus and \nfalling into the Black Sea. Omar Pasha, marching \nto the relief of Ears, crossed this river on 6 Nov. \n1855, with 10,000 men, and attacked the Russians, \n12,000 strong, who, after a struggle, retreated with \nthe loss of 400 men. The Turks had 68 killed and \n242 wounded. Kars, however, was not saved. \n\nINK. The ancient black inks were composed of \nsoot and ivory black, and Vitruvius and Pliny men- \ntion lamp-black; but they had ink of various \ncolours, as red, gold, silver, and purple. Red ink \nwas made of vermilion and gum. Indian ink was \nbrought from China, and must have been in use by \nthe people of the east from the earliest ages. Invis- \nible, or Sympathetic Inks, were known at early \nperiods. Ovid (a.d. 2) teaches young women to \nwrite with new milk. Receipts for preparing in- \nvisible ink were given by Peter Borel, in 1653, and \nby Le Mort, in 1669. Beckmann. \n\nINKEEMANN (Crimea) . The Russian army \n(about 40,000) having received reinforcements, and \nbeing encouraged by the presence of the granddukes \nMichael and Nicholas, attacked the British (8000) \nnear the old fort of Inkermann, before daybreak, \n5 Nov. 1854. They were kept at bay for six hours \ntill the arrival of 6000 French. The Russians were \nthen repulsed, leaving 9000 killed and wounded. \nThe loss of the allies was 462 killed, 1952 wounded, \nand 191 missing. Sir George Cathcart, and generals \nStrangways, Goldie, and Torrens, were among the \n6lain. On 15 Nov. 1855, an explosion of about \n100,000 lbs. of gunpowder occurred near Inker- \nmann, and caused great loss of life. \n\nINLAND NAVIGATION, see Canals. \n\nINLAND EEVENUE BOAED was con- \nstituted in Feb. 1849. It comprises the boards of \nExcise, Stamps, and Taxes {which see). The law \nrespecting the inland revenue amended 1871. \n\n\n\nINNOCENTS\' DAY, 28 Dec. in the western \nchurch ; 29 Dec. in the Greek or eastern church ; \nsee Childermas. \n\nINNS at Rome were regulated by laws ; and \nEdward III. enacted that they should be subjected \nto inquiry, 1353. See Taverns, and Victuallers. \n\nINNS OF COUET (London) were established \nat different periods, in some degree as colleges for \nteaching the law. Annual revenue in 1872 said to \nbe about 25,000^. \nThe Temple founded, and the church built by \n\nKnights Templars 1185 \n\nThe Inner and Middle Temple made inns of law \n\nabout 1340 ; the Outer about (Stow) . . . 1560 \nBarnard\'s Inn, an inn of Chancery (on sale, 49,400^. \n\nrefused 20 June, 1888, let to Art Workers\' Guild, \n\nOct. 1888) 1445 \n\nClement\'s Inn before 1478 \n\nClifford\'s Inn, 20 Edw. Ill 1345 \n\nFurnival\'s Inn, 5 Eliz 1563 \n\nGray\'s Inn, 32 Edw. Ill . 1357 \n\nLincoln\'s Inn, 4 Edw. II 1310 or 1312 \n\nLyon\'s Inn 1420 \n\nNew Inn, 1 Hen. VII 1485 \n\nSerjeants\' Inn, Fleet Street 1429 \n\nSerjeants\' Inn, Chancery-lane (sold for 57,000?. 23 \n\nFeb. 1877) 1666 \n\nStaples Inn, 4 Hen. V 1415 \n\nThavies\' Inn, 10 Hen. VIII. 1519 \n\nStaple Inn, Clement\'s Inn, and Clifford\'s Inn said \n\nto he sold to builders Dec. 1884 \n\nINNSBEUCK, capital of the Tyrol, captured \nby Maurice of Saxony in 1552 ; by the Bavarians \nin 1703 ; by the French and Bavarians, 1805. \nMuch fighting took place in 1809, and Innsbruck \nchanged masters several times, being finally taken \nby the Austrians, 12 Aug. The emperor Francis \nJoseph met queen Victoria here, 23 April, 1888. \n\nINOCULATION, see Small Fox. Lady Mary \nWortley Montagu introduced inoculation from \nsmallpox to England from Turkey. In 1 718 she \nhad her son inoculated at Adrianople with success. \nShe was allowed to have it first tried in England on \nseven condemned criminals, 1721 ; and in 1722 two \nof the royal family were inoculated. The practice \nwas preached against by many of the bishops and \nclergy until 1760. Dr. Mead practised inoculation \nvery successfully up to 1754, and Dr. Dimsdale of \nLondon, inoculated Catherine II., empress of \nRussia, in 1768. Of 5964 who were inoculated in \n1797-99, on ^y three died. An inoculation hospital \nwas established in 1746. Vaccine inoculation was \nintroduced by Dr. Jenner, 21 Jan. 1799; he had \ndiscovered its virtue in 1796, and had been making \nexperiments during the intermediate three years. \nInoculation was forbidden by law in 1840. See \nVaccination, Sheep, and Hydrophobia. \n\nINQUESTS, see Coroner. \n\nINQUISITION or Holy Office. Pre- \nvious to Constantine (306), heresy and spiritual \noffences were punished by excommunication only ; \nbut shortly after his death capital punishments \nwere added, and inquisitors were appointed by \nTheodosius, 382. Priscillian was put to death in 384 \nby the emperor Maximus. Justinian decreed the \ndoctrine of the four holy synods as to the holy scrip- \ntures and their canons to be observed as laws, 529 ; \nhence the penal code against heretics. About 800 \nthe power of the western bishops was enlarged, and \ncourts were established for trying and punishing spi- \nritual offenders,even with death; the punishment be- \ning termed in Spain auto-da-fe, " an act of faith." \nIn the 12th century many heresies arose, and during \nthe crusades against the Albigenses, Gregory IX., \n\n\n\nINSANITY. \n\n\n\n513 \n\n\n\nINTENDMENT OF CEIMES. \n\n\n\nin 1233, established by rules the inquisitorial \nmissions sent out by Innocent III., 1210-15, and \ncommitted them to the Dominicans. Pietro da \nVerona (styled Peter Martyr), the first inquisitor \nwho burnt heretics, assassinated by an accused gon- \nfalonier, 6 April, 1252, was canonized. \n\nPierre de Castelnau sent against the Albigenses, \n1210 ; St. Dominic made the first inquisitor- \ngeneral I2I5 \n\nThe Inquisition constituted by Gregory IX. , 1233 ; \nestablished in Aragon, 1233 ; Venice, 1249 ; \n\nFrance, 1255 ; Castile 1290 \n\nThe Inquisition revived by a bull . . 1 Nov. 1478 \nThe Holy Office was reinstituted in Spain by Ferdi- \nnand and Isabella ; Torquemada inquisitor- \ngeneral I4 8 \n\nNearly 3000 persons burnt in Andalusia, and 17,000 \n\nsuffer other penalties .... . 1481 \n\n" Instructions " of the new tribunal promulgated, \n\n29 Nov. 1484 \nNew articles were added . . . 1488 & 1498 \n\nEstablished in Portugal 152b \n\nThe establishment resisted in Naples, and only \nintroduced into other parts of Italy with jealous \nlimitations by the temporal power . . 1546-7 \nNew ordinances in 81 articles compiled by the \n\ninquisitor-general Valclez 1561 \n\nSuppressed in France by edict of Nantes . . . 1598 \nCarnesecchi executed at Rome, 1567, and Galileo \ncompelled to abjure his philosophical opinions . \nLouis XIV. revoked the edict of Nantes, but re- \nfused to introduce the Inquisition . . . . 1685 \n20 persons perish at an auto-da-fe at Goa . -1717 \n\nGabriel Malagrida, a Jesuit, burnt at Lisbon . . 1761 \nA woman accused of making a contract with the \n\ndevil burnt at Seville .... 7 Nov. 1781 \nThe tribunal abolished in Tuscany and Lombardy . 1787 \nSuppressed in Spain by Napoleon, 4 Dec. 1808, and \n\nby the Cortes , 12 Feb. 1813 \n\nRestored by Ferdinand VII. . . 21 July, 1814 \n\nFinally abolished by the Cortes .... 1820 \n[Llorente states that in 236 years the total number \nof persons put to death in Spain by the Inquisi- \ntion was about 32,000 ; 291,000 were subjected to \nother punishments.] \n\nINSANITY, see Lunatics. \n\nINSECTS. About 200,000 species known, Jan. \n1877. An exhibition of these creatures, illustrat- \ning their structure, food, and habits, was opened \nin the gardens of the Tuileries, at Paris, 7 Sept., \n1874; at the Westminster Aquarium, 9 March, 1878 ; \nand in the Zoological gardens, Regent\'s park, 1881. \nSee Entomology. \n\nINSOLVENCY. The first insolvent act was \npassed in 1649, but it was of limited operation ; a \nnumber of acts of more extensive operation were \npassed at various periods, and particularly in the \nreign of George III. The benefit of the act known \nas the Great Insolvent Act, was taken in England by \n50,733 insolvents from the time of its passing in \n1814, to March, 1827, a period of thirteen years. \nSince then the acts relating to insolvency\' have \nbeen several times amended. Persons not traders, \nor being traders whose debts are less than 300^., \nmight petition the court of bankruptcy, and pro- \npose compositions, and have pro tern, protection \nfrom all process against their persons and property, \nby 6 Vict. c. 116 (1842). In 1861, by a new bank- \nruptcy act, the business of the insolvent debtors\' \ncourt was transferred to the court of bankruptcy ; \nand a number of imprisoned debtors were released \nin Nov. 1861. See Bankrupts. \n\nINSTITUTE OF France, see Academies \n(Pans). On 25 Oct. 1795, all the Royal Academies, \nviz., the French academy, the academy of inscrip- \ntions and belles lettres, that of the mathematical \nand physical sciences, of the fine arts, and of the \nmoral and political sciences, were combined in one \n\n\n\nbody, under the title of "Institut National," after- \nwards Royal, Imperial, and again National. \n\nINSTITUTES, see Code, Actuaries, Agricul- \nture, Architects, Chemical, Inventors, $c. \n\nINSTITUTION, see Royal, London, Civil \nEngineers, &c. \n\nINSUEANCE on Ships and Merchan- \ndise. Suetonius conjectures that Claudius was \nthe first contriver of the insurance of ships, \na.d. 43. \n\nInsurance in general use in Italy, 1194, and in \nEngland 1560 \n\nInsurance policies first used in Florence . . . 1523 \n\nThe first law relating to insurance was enacted . 1601 \n\nInsurance of houses and goods against Fire, in \nLondon, began the year following the Great Fire \nof London 1667 \n\nAn office set up for insuring houses and buildings, \nchiefly on the plan of Dr. Barton, one of the first \nand most considerable builders of London . . \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe first regular office set up in London was the \nHand-in-Hand 1696 \n\nFirst Life Insurance Office (the Amicable), esta- \nblished 1706 \n\nSun fire-office established 1710 \n\nThe Sun introduces the double option system (in- \nvented by Mr. Harris Saunders) combining two \nforms of assurance against death and old age, \nannounced 1889 \n\nThe first Marine Insurance was the Royal Exchange \nInsurance, and the London Insurance . . . 1720 \n\nDuty first laid on insurances of is. 6c?. per 100I. in- \nsured, 1782 ; duty increased 1797 \n\nIn 1857, 1,451, 110J. were paid as duty for fire insur- \nances on property amounting to 72,136,585?. \n\nA new Commercial Union fire insurance, founded \nin consequence of the increased charges of the \ncompanies Sept. i86r \n\nRate of tax on insurance, reduced from 3s. to is. 6d. \nper cent, on stock in trade, from 13 May, 1864 ; \non household goods 1865. \n\nSea insurance duties reduced . . .31 May, 1867 \n\nPolicies of Assurance act (enabling assignees of \nassurances to sue in their own names for policy \nmonies), passed .... 20 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFire insurance duties totally repealed . 24 June, 1869 \n\nAlbert Assurance Company failfor about 8,000,000?. \n\nAug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nActs amending the law respecting life assurance \ncompanies passed 1870-1-2 \n\nThe " People\'s Provident Assurance Society," established \n2 Sept. 1854; named European Assurance Society , 1869; \nsaid to have absorbed 44 other societies ; brought \ninto chancery, 1871 ; subjected to arbitration by act \nof parliament, 1872 ; first meeting before lord West- \nbury, 22 Oct. 1872 ; successive arbitrators, lord \nRomilly, sir Win. James ; Mr. Francis Reilly (last) ; \nfinal award signed 2 Sept. 1879. Immense loss to \nshareholders. \n\nA scheme for the insurance of the lives of its \nsailors, and others, proposed by the Shipping \nFederation, see under Shipping . . April, 1891 \n\nAMOUNT INSURED. \n\n1782 \xc2\xa3130,000,000 \n\n1802. ..... . 220,000,000 \n\n1822. ...... 399,000,000 \n\n1842. ..... . 652,000,000 \n\n1862. ..... 1,007,000,000 \n\nSum insured in 125 offices, about 338,000,000?. ; ac- \ncumulated life-funds, 94,000,000/. ; premium income \nnearly 11,000,000?. \xe2\x80\x94 Board of Trade Report, 1874. \n\nINSUEEECTIONS, see Conspiracies, Mas- \nsacres, Rebellions, Riots, &c. \n\nINTELLIGENCE DEPARTMENTS, \n\nMilitary, see under Army, 1 April, 1873 ; Naval, \nsee under Navy, I Feb. 1887. \n\nINTENDMENT of Crimes, in cases of \n\ntreason, wounding, burglary, &c, intention proved \nwas made as punishable as crime completed, by 7 \n\nL L \n\n\n\nINTEEDICT. \n\n\n\n514 \n\n\n\nINUNDATIONS. \n\n\n\nGeo. II. 1734. The rigour was modified by sir \nEobert Peel\'s revision of the statutes, 4-10 Geo. IV. \n1823-29. \n\nINTEEDICT or Ecclesiastical Cen- \nsure, seldom decreed in Europe till the time of \nGregory VII. 1073, but often afterwards. "When a \nprince was excommunicated, all his subjects re- \ntaining their allegiance were excommunicated also, \nand the clergy were forbidden to perform any part \nof divine service, or any clerical duties, save the \nbaptism of infants, and taking the confessions of \ndying penitents. In 11 70, pope Alexander put all \nEngland under an interdict ; and when king John \nwas excommunicated in 1208, the kingdom lay \nunder a papal interdict for six years. England was \nput under an interdict, on Henry VIII. shaking off \nthe pope\'s supremacy, 1535 ; and pope Sixtus V. \npublished a crusade against queen Elizabeth of \nEngland in 1588 ; see Excommunication. \n\nINTEEEST, see Usury. The word interest \nwas first used in an act of parliament of the 21st \nJames I. 1623, wherein it was made to signify a \nlawful increase by way of compensation for the use \nof money lent. The rate fixed by the act was 8^. \nfor the use of 100?. for a year, in place of usury at \n10I. before taken. The Commonwealth lowered the \nrate to 61. in 1651 ; confirmed in 1660; and by an \nact of the 13th of queen Anne, 1713, it was reduced \nto 5^. The restraint being found prejudicial to \ncommerce was somewhat relaxed in 1839, and was \ntotally removed by 17 & 18 Vict. c. 90 (1854). \n\nINTEEIM OE AUGSBURG, a decree issued \nby the emperor Charles V. in 1548, with the view \nof attempting to reconcile the Catholics and Pro- \ntestants, in which it entirely failed. It was revoked \nin 1552. The term Interim has been applied to \nother decrees and treaties. \n\nINTEEMEDIATE EDUCATION ACT \n\nfor Ireland, passed 16 Aug. 1878. \n\nINTEEMEZZI, light dramatic entertain- \nments, introduced between the acts of a tragedy, \ncomedy, or grand opera ; of very ancient origin. \nThey became more important in the 16th century. \nThose connected with Bardi\'s " Amico JFido," \n1589, were very fine. \n\nINTEEMITTENT FILTEATION of \n\nSewage, a process much advocated by Professor E. \nFrankland and others, in 1875, and stated to have \nbeen successful at Merthyr Tydvil since 1872. \n\nINTEENATIONAL AFEICAN ASSO- \nCIATION, see Congo. \n\nINTEENATIONAL, see under Chess, \nCholera, Copyright, Education, Electricity, Exhi- \nbitions, Geneva, Havre, Horticulture, Literary, \nStatistics, Scientific, Working-men, and Wounded. \n\nINTEENATIONAL LAW. See Neutral \n\nPowers. \n\nThe professorship of international law, at Cambridge, \nendowed by bequest of Dr. Win. Whewell, master of \nTrinity College, 1867. \n\nThe Association for the Reform and Codification of the \nLaw of Nations first met at Brussels, 10 Oct. 1873 ; \nGeneva, 2-5 Sept. 1874 ; The Hague, Sept. 1875 ; \nBremen, 1876; Antwerp, 30 Aug.\xe2\x80\x94 3 Sept. 1877; \nFrankfort, about 20 Aug. 1878 ; London, n Aug. 1879 ; \nBerne, 24 xVug. 1880; Cologne, 16-19 Au S- 1881 ; Liver- \npool, about 15 Aug. 1882; Turin, 11 Sept. 1882; Milan, \n11 Sept. 1883 ; London, July, 1887 ; Liverpool, end of \nAug. 1890. \n\nThe Institute of International Law was organized at \nGhent by Dr. Lieber, M. Jaquemyns, and M Moy- \nnier, in 1873. It has since met at Geneva, 1874 ; \n\n\n\nthe Hague, 1875 ; Zurich, 1876 ; Paris, 1878 ; Brus- \nsels, Sept. 1879; Oxford, 6-10 Sept. 1880; Turin, 1882; \nMunich, 4 Sept. 1883 ; Hamburg, 9 Aug. 1885 ; Heidel- \nberg, 5 Sept. 1887 ; Lausanne, 8 Sept. 1888; Hamburg, \n7 Sept. 1891 ; 6 Sept. 1892. \n\nSee under Peace. \n\nINTEEOCEANIC CANAL between the \nAtlantic and Pacific. See Panama. \n\nINTEE-PAELIAMENTAEY CON- \nFEEENCES, held by members of different legis- \nlatures, when not in session, see under Peace. \n\nINTEEPEETATION ACT, " for consoli- \ndating enactments relating to the construction of \nacts of parliament and for further shortening the \nlanguage used in acts of parliament " was passed \n30 Aug. 1889. \n\nINTEEEEGNUM, see Commonwealth. \n\nINTESTATE. A person who dies without \nleaving a will. Intestates\' Estates act passed, 25 \nJuly, 1890. \n\nINTEANSIGENTES, or Irreconcileables, a \nparty of extreme republicans in Spain, who with- \ndrew from the Cortes and became very troublesome, \n1 July, 1873 ; joined by communists they held Car- \nthagena from August to 12 Jan. 1874. \n\nINUNDATIONS. The following are among \nthe most remarkable : \xe2\x80\x94 \nAn inundation of the sea in Lincolnshire laid under \n\nwater many thousand acres. Camden . a.d. 24s \nAnother in Cheshire, by which 3000 persons and \n\nan innumerable quantity of cattle perished . . 353 \n\nAn inundation at Glasgow, which drowned more \n\nthan 400 families. Fordv/n ..... 758 \nThe Tweed overflowed its banks, and laid waste \nthe countiy for 30 miles round . . . . 836 \n\nAn inundation on the English coasts, demolished a \nnumber of sea-port towns 1014 \n\nEarl Godwin\'s lands, exceeding 4000 acres, over- \nflowed by the sea, and an immense sand-bank \nformed on the coast of Kent, now known by the \nname of the Godwin sands. Camden. . . . 1100 \n\nFlanders inundated by the sea, and the town and \nharbour of Ostend totally immersed . . . 1108 \n\nMore than 300 houses overwhelmed at Winchelsea \nby an inundation of the sea . . 1280 \n\nAt the Texel, which first raised the commerce of \nAmsterdam .... - . 1400 \n\nThe sea broke in at Dort, and drowned 72 villages, \nand 100,000 people (see Dort) . . 17 April, 1421 \n\nThe Severn overflowed during ten days, and carried \naway men, women, and children, in their beds, \nand covered the tops of many hills ; the waters \nsettled upon the lands, and were called the \nGreat Waters for 100 years after, 1 Richard III. \nHollinshed. . . ... 1483 \n\nA general inundation by the failure of the dikes in \nHolland ; the number of drowned said to have \nbeen 400,000 ........ 1530 \n\nThe waters rose above the tops of the houses, and \nabove 100 persons perished in Somersetshire and \nGloucestershire 1607 \n\nAt Catalonia, where 50,000 persons perished . . 1617 \n\nAn inundation in Yorkshire, when a rock opened, \nand poured out water to the height of a church \nsteeple. Vide Phil. Trans. .... 1686 \n\nPart of Zealand overflowed, 1300 inhabitants were \ndrowned, and incredible damage was done at Ham- \nburg ... 1717 \n\nAt Madrid, several of the Spanish nobility and \nother persons of distinction perished . . 1723 \n\nIn Yorkshire, a dreadful inundation, called Ripon \nFlood - ... 1771 \n\nIn Navarre, where 2000 persons lost their lives by \nthe torrents from the mountains . Sept. 1787 \n\nInundation of the Liffey, which did immense \ndamage in Dublin, 12 Nov. 1787 ; again, 2-3 Dee. 1802 \n\nLorca, a city of Murcia, in Spain, destroyed by th \nbursting of a reservoir, which inundated mor a \nthan 20 leagues, and killed 1000 persons, besides \ncattle r r , 14 April ,, \n\n\n\nINUNDATIONS. \n\n\n\n515 \n\n\n\nINUNDATIONS. \n\n\n\nAt Pesth, near Presburg, the overflow of the \nDanube, by which. 24 villages and their inhabi- \ntants were swept away .... April, 1S11 \n\nIn the vicinity of Salop, by the bursting of a cloud \nduring a storm, many persons and much stock \nperished May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDreadful inundation in Hungary, Austria, and \nPoland, in the summer of 1813 \n\nOverflow of the Danube ; a Turkish corps of 2000 \nmen, on a small island near Widdin, surprised, \nand met instant death .... 14 Sept. ,, \n\nIn Silesia, 6000 inhabitants perished, and the ruin \nof the French army under Macdonald was accele- \nrated by the floods ; also in Poland 4000 lives \nwere supposed to have been lost . . . . \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAt Strabane, Ireland, by the melting of the snow \non the surrounding mountains, most destructive \nfloods were occasioned . . .2 Jan. 1816 \n\nIn Germany, the Vistula overflowed ; many villages \nwere laid under water, and great loss of life and \nproperty was sustained . . .21 March, ,, \n\nIn England, 5000 acres were deluged in the Fen \ncountries June, 18 19 \n\nEnundation at Dantzic, occasioned by the Vistula \nbreaking through some of its dikes, by which \n10,000 head of cattle and 4000 houses were de- \nstroyed, and numerous lives lost . . 9 April, 1829 \n\n\'The " Moray Floods," caused by rainfall, when the \nSpey and Findhorn rose in some places 50 feet \nabove their ordinary level, and caused great de- \nstruction of property. Many lives were lost, and \nwhole families who took refuge on elevated places \nwere with difficulty rescued. Sir T. Dick Lauder. \n\n3, 4, 27 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAt Vienna, the dwellings of so.ooo of its inhabitants \nlaid under water Feb. 1830 \n\nso, 000 houses swept away, and about 1000 persons \nperished, at Canton, in China, in consequence of \nan inundation, occasioned by incessant rains. \nEqual or greater calamity was produced by the \nsame cause in other ports of China . Oct. 1833 \n\nAwful inundation in France : the Saone poured its \nwaters into the Rhone, broke through its banks, \nand covered 60,000 acres ; Lyons was inundated ; \nin Avignon 100 houses were swept away; 218 \nhouses were earned away at La Guillotiere ; and \nupwards of 300 at Vaise, Marseilles, and Nismes ; \nthe Saone had not attained such a height for 238 \nyears . . . . .31 Oct. to 4 Nov. 1840 \n\nSJamentable inundation at Brentford and the sur- \nrounding country ; several lives lost, and im- \nmense property destroyed ... 16 Jan. 1841 \n\nDisastrous inundation in the centre, west, and \nsouth-west of France ; numerous bridges, with \nthe Orleans and Vierzon viaduct, swept away ; \nthe latter had cost 6,000,000 of francs. The \ndamage done exceeded 4,000,000?. sterling. The \nLoire rose twenty feet in one night . 22 Oct. 1846 \n\nLamentable catastrophe at Holmtirth (see Holm- \nfirth Flood) . . . 4 Feb. \n\nInundation of the valleys of the Severn and Teme \nafter a violent thunderstorm . . 5 Sept. \n\nInundations of the basins of the Rhine and the \nRhone, overflowing the country to a great extent, \n\n19 Sept. \n\nHamburg half-flooded by the Elbe . . 1 Jan. \n\nInundations in south of France, with immense \ndamage (see France) . . May and June, \n\nIn Holland, nearly 40,000 acres submerged, Jan. \n\nGreat inundation through the bursting of the out- \nfall sluice at St. Germain\'s, near King\'s Lynn \n(see Levels) .... 4-15 May, 1862 \n\nAnother marshland sluice bursts ; many acres \ninundated 4 Oct. ,, \n\nBursting of the Bradfield reservoir (see Sheffield) ; \nabout 250 persons drowned . . 11 March, 1864 \n\nGreat inundations in France . . 26 Sept. etscq. 1866 \n\nGreat floods in north of England, immense damage \nin Yorkshire, Lancashire, and Derbyshire ; farms \ndestroyed, mines flooded, mills thrown down, \nrailways stopped ; and much suffering at Leeds \n(about 20 drowned), Manchester, Preston, Wake- \nfield, &e 16-17 Nov. ,, \n\nInundations at Cork, Dublin, and other places, \n\nabout 30 Jan. 1869 \n\nInundation at Rome, causing great distress ; re- \nlieved by the king ... 28, 29 Dec. 1870 \n\n\n\n1852 \n\n\n\n1855 \n\n\n\n1856 \n1861 \n\n\n\nGreat inundations from the mountains in N. Italy ; \nthe Po and other rivers overflow ; thousands of \npeople unhoused ; Mantua, Ferrara, &c. , suffer \nmuch latter part of Oct. 1872 \n\nFloods on banks of the Thames through very high \ntide 20 March, 1874 \n\nMill River Valley, near Northampton, Massa- \nchusetts, U. S., several villages destroyed \nthrough the bursting of a reservoir, badly dam- \nmed ; above 144 perished . . 16 May, ,, \n\nEureka, Nevada ; through rain and a waterspout ; \nbetween 20 and 30 persons perish . 24 July \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPittsburg and Alleghany, W. Pennsylvania ; storm \nof rain ; the rivers overflow ; about 220 persons \ndrowned 26 July, ,, \n\nA large part of Toulouse destroyed by the rising of \nthe Garonne ; about 1000 lives lost and much \nproperty (St. Cyprien quarter, a sepulchre) \n\nJune, 1875 \n\nHeavy rains cause inundations in West of England \nand Wales ; destruction and loss of life at New- \nport and Monmouth, 15-16 July ; in the midland \nand western counties, especially near Notting- \nham, about 17-23 Oct. ; again . . 13-16 Nov. ,, \n\nGreat storms in India ; Ahmedabad inundated ; \nabout 20,000 homeless . . . 22-24 Sept. ,, \n\nSevere inundations in Holland and France Mar. 1876 \n\nSevere floods in England through heavy rain, \n\n25-31 Dec. ,, \n\nPiers at Folkestone, Dover, and Hastings much in- \njured 1 Jan. 1877 \n\nMuch damage through floods on banks of the \nThames, and throughout the country, middle of \n\nJune, ,, \n\nInundations in London through heavy rain, \n\n10, 11 April, 1878 \n\nSzegedin, Hungary ; through storms and rain, the \ndams of the river Theiss gave way ; the town was \nnearly destroyed ; out of 6566 houses, only 331 \nstocd ; many parsons drowned ; thousands home- \nless, 12-13 March, 1879. [Another inundation here \nnot quite so disastrous, about 3 June, 18S7 ; again \nMarch, 1888]. \n\nNorth Italy ; much damage through overflowing \nof the Po and Mincio .... June, ,, \n\nInundations in Murcia, Spain, through heavy rains ; \nprovinces of Andalusia, Alicante, Almeria, and \nMalaga ; about 1000 lives lost ; much damage to \nproperty ; about 2000 houses destroyed, \n\n16, 17 Oct. ,, \n\nAgain in Hungary .... about 10 Dec. ,, \n\nMidland counties of England ; much damage, \n\nabout 8-11 Oct. 1880 \n\nMuch rain; floods in Cheshire, Lancashire, &c. \n\nAug. 1881 \n\nGreat inundations in S.E. Europe through rains \n\nOct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nInundations by the rising of the Lossie and Spey, \nN. Scotland ; bridge is broken and other damage \n\nmid. Sept. 1882 \n\nInundations in the Tyrol ; much damage with loss \nof life in north Italy and Hungary, and south of \nFrance Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nIn Germany : great rise Of the Rhine and Danube, \nNov.\xe2\x80\x94 Dec. ; destruction of five villages with \nabove 250 houses, near Wiesbaden \' . Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGreat floods in the Thames valley and midland \ncounties of England Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMuch destruction near Worms ; about 60 drowned \n\nearly in Jan. 1883 \n\nRaab in Hivngary partly submerged . . 10 Jan. ,, \n\nIn Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Cincinnati . . Feb. ,, \n\nCachar in India in great distress . . 16 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nIn Silesia, the river Neisse rises ; much damage \n\nabout 21 June, ,, \n\nIn Thames valley, Ontario, Canada, much destruc- \ntion of property, about 30 lives lost \n\nabout 11-12 July, ,, \n\nOverflow of the river Peneus, Thessaly, Greece ; \nmuch damage . . . . announced 29 Oct. ,, \n\nGreat inundations in Ohio, Pennsylvania, <fec. ; \nabout 15 deaths and 5000 homeless about 7 Feb. 1884 \n\nDisastrous floods in E. Spain . end of May, ,, \n\nFloods in Galicia ; new railway bridge over the \nVistula destroyed ; 20 lives lost about 23 June, ,, \n\nGreat inundation through heavy rains in eastern \nSpain ; much distress in Alicante, Almeria and \nValencia ....... Not. ,, \n\nLl2 \n\n\n\nINVALIDES. \n\n\n\n516 \n\n\n\nIODINE. \n\n\n\nGreat inundation of lower town of Montreal ; \nabout 5oo,oooL damage ; much privation \n\n17-18 April, 1881 \n\nGreat inundation at Mandalay, Burmah . 18 Aug. ,, \n\nGreat floods in S. United States . . . July, 188; \n\nGreat overflow of the Hoang-Ho or Yellow River \n(see China), Sept.-Oct. 1887, and Sept. 1889. \n\nOverflow of the Elbe ; about 100 villages sub- \nmerged ; loss of life and destruction of property, \nabout 26 March ; also of the Vistula, about 77 \nvillages submerged . . . about 27 March, i88< \n\nGreat flood in the Canton river ; 3,000 people said \nto be drowned, announced ... 8 May, ,, \n\nDestructive freshet in the Mississippi ; Illinois \ncoast ; Quincy, Hannibal, Alexandria and other \ntowns overflowed . . . . 17 May, ,, \n\nInundations in Mexico through heavy rains ; great \nloss of life 17-20 June, ,, \n\nHeavy rains caused the rising of rivers in Essex \nand Kent ; form lakes navigable by boats ; stop \nrailways ; sweep away the crops from the soil, \ncreating much calamity 30-31 July, 1 Aug. 188! \n\nGreat floods also in Germany, July, Aug. ; France \nand Switzerland Oct. ,, \n\nDestructive floods in the midland and S.W. \nEngland ; Leicester, Bristol, Taunton and other \nplaces suffer much .... 8, 9 March, 1881 \n\nConemaugh Valley, &c. See Pennsylvania & United \nStates May, ,, \n\nDestructive floods in China and Japan (which see) \nJuly, Aug. 1889 ; and China . . . Aug. 1891 \n\nDisastrous floods on the upper Severn ; much \nsuffering early Feb. ,, \n\nDestructive floods through heavy rains in the Mis- \nsissippi valley and Southern States, U.S.A. (see \nMississippi) .... about 13 Marc ,, \n\nDestructive floods in Austria, Bohemia, central \nEurope and France. See Neiv South Wales \n\nAug. \xe2\x80\x94 Sept \n\nOverflow of the Orinoco and tributaries, S. America, \ncausing great destruction . . 16, 17 Sept. ,, \n\nDestructive inundations caused by violent gales \nthroughout Europe, especially in Germany, \nAustria, Mecklenburg, Baltic coast, Belgium, and \nDenmark 23-25 Nov. ,, \n\nSerious floods in Kent, &c. , through the thaw, after \nthe long frost ; also in many places on the Con- \ntinent Jan. 189: \n\nDestructive inundations in W. Virginia, Ohio, Alle- \nghany, &c, about 17 Feb. ; in Arizona (which \nsee) reported 2 March ; in Tennessee and Missis- \nsippi about 8 March \n\nDestructive floods by the rising of the Yang-tse- \nKiang ; great loss of life at Foochoo about 21 July \n\nGreat floods in Posen, loss of life and destruction \nof property about 26 July \n\nHeavy rains and destructive floods in E. Lancashire \n\n13, 14 Aug. \n\nHeavy rains and destructive inundations in Spain \n(ivhich see) 13 Sept. et seq. \n\nDisastrous floods in Spain, France, Italy, and \nEngland (especially S. and W.) about 22 Oct. et seq. \n\nCollapse of buildings through floods at Limoux, \nFrance ; about 20 persons killed, about 25 Oct. \n\nGreat floods in Somersetshire, with destruction of \nbuildings and crops ; travelling impeded, much \ndistress Nov. \n\nDisastrous floods in Andalusia, Murcia, and Estre- \nmadura, about 12 March, et seq., and in upper \nItaly ; railway communications stop \n\nabout 31 March, 1892 \n\nRise of the rivers in Illinois ; 15 towns flooded (see \nMississippi and Iowa) . . . about 6 May \xe2\x80\x9e \nSee Mansion House Funds. \n\nINVALIDES, H6TEL DES, Paris, founded \nin 167 1 by Louis XIV. Its chapel contains the \nbody of Napoleon I., deposited there 15 Dec. 1840. \n\nINVASIONS of the British Islands, \n\n8ee Britain, and Bancs. From the death of Edward \nthe Confessor, only the following invasions marked \n(s) have been successful : \xe2\x80\x94 \nWilliam of Normandy (s.) . . . . 29 Sept. 1066 \n\nThe Irish Io6g \n\nThe Scots, 1091 ; king Malcolm killed . . . Iogl \n\n\n\nRobert of Normandy 1103 \n\nThe Scots , . 1136 \n\nThe empress Maud . . .... 1139 \n\nIreland, by Fitz-Stephen (s.) 1169 \n\nIreland, by Edward Bruce 13 15 \n\nIsabel, queen of Edward II. (s.) .... 1326 \n\nDuke of Lancaster (s.) . 1399; \n\nQueen of Henry VI 1462 \n\nEarl of Warwick (s.) 1470 \n\nEdward IV. (s.) . 1471 \n\nQueen of Henry VI 147,1 \n\nEarl of Richmond (s.) . - . . . . . i4S"5 \n\nLambert Simnel ........ 1487 \n\nFerkin Warbeck 1495 \n\nSpaniards and Italians, Ireland 1580 \n\nIreland, Spaniards ....... i6ar \n\nDuke of Monmouth . 1685 \n\nWilliam of Orange (s.) ...... 1688. \n\nJames II. , Ireland . . .... 16S9- \n\nOld Pretender 1708 \n\nPretender again 171.5 \n\nYoung Pretender 1745 \n\nIreland (see Thurot) , 1760 \n\nWales, the French 1797 \n\nIreland : the French land at Killala (which see) . . 179S \n\nINVENTION. See Cross, Patents. An inter- \nnational exhibition of inventions and music at \nSouth Kensington in 1885; proposed, .Aug. 1884; \nopened by the prince of "Wales, 4 May, 1885 ; chair- \nman, sir F. J. Bramwell ; closed 9 Nov. 1885 ; \n3,760,581 persons admitted. The receipts were- \n214,403^. See Colonies. \n\nINVENTOES\' INSTITUTE, established in \nMay, 1862 ; first president, sir David Brewster. \n\nINVEBABY, Argyllshire, made a royal burgh, \n1648. The duke of Argyll\'s castle, rebuilt by Adam, \n1745-8, was greatly injured by fire, 12 Oct. 1877. \n\nINVEENESS (N.W. Scotland), a city of the \nPicts up to 843. It was taken by Edward I. ; re- \ntaken by Bruce, 13 13; burnt by the lord of the \nislea, 141 1 ; taken by Cromwell, 1649; and by \nprince Charles Edward in 1746. He was totally \ndefeated at Culloden, about five miles from Inver- \nness, 16 April, 1746. Population, 1S81, 17,365 ; \n1891, 19,214. \n\nINVESTIGATION. See Delicate. \nINVESTITUEE of Ecclesiastics, was a \n\ncause of discord between the pope and temporal \nsovereigns in the middle ages ; and led to actual \nwar between Gregory VII. and the emperor Henry \nIV. 1075-1085. The pope endeavoured to deprive \nthe sovereign of the right of nominating bishops \nand abbots, and of investing them with the cross \nand ring. Henry V. gave up the right, by treaty, \nFeb. 1 in ; but other sovereigns resolutely refused \nto concede it. \n\nINVINCIBLE AEMADA or Spanish \nARMADA, see Armada. \n\nINVINCIBLES, IEISH, see D-ish Invin- \ncibles, Fenians and Ireland, 1882-3. \n\nINVOCATION of the Virgin and \n\nSAINTS to intercede with God. This practice of \nthe Romish church has been traced to the time \nof Gregory the Great, 593. The Eastern church \nbegan (in the 5th century) by calling upon the \ndead, and demanding their suffrage as present in \nthe divine offices. \n\nIODINE (from the Greek iodes, violet-like), \nwas discovered by M. De Courtois, a manufacturer \nof saltpetre at Paris in 1812, and investigated by \nM. Clement, 1813. On the application of heat it \nrises in the form of a dense violet-coloured vapour, \neasily evaporates, and melts at 220 degrees : it \nchanges vegetable blues to yellow, and a seven- . \n\n\n\nIONA. \n\n\n\n517 \n\n\n\nIRELAND. \n\n\n\nthousandth part converts water to a deep yellow \ncolour, and starch into a purple. \n\nIONA, ICOLMKILL, or Hll, one of the \nHebrides. About 565 St. Columba founded a \nmonastery here, which flourished till the 8th and \n9th centuries, when it was frequently ravaged by \nthe Norsemen. Other religious bodies afterwards \nwere formed here, and the isle was long esteemed \nsacred. \n\nIONIA (Asia Minor). About 1040 B.C. the \nIones, a Pelasgic race, emigrated from Greece, and \nsettled here and on the adjoining islands. They built \nEphesus, Smyrna, and other noble cities. They \nwere conquered by the great Cyrus about 548 B.C. ; \nrevolted 504, but were again subdued. After the \nvictories of Cimon, Ionia became independent and \nremained so till 387, when it was once more sub- \njected to Persia. It formed part of the dominions \nof Alexander and his successors ; was annexed to \nthe Roman empire, 133, and conquered by the \nTurks. \xe2\x80\x94 Ionia was renowned for poets, historians, \nand philosophers. The "Antiquities of Ionia" \nwere published by Chandler, Revett, and Pars, \n1769-1840, and the Dilettanti Society, 1840-1881. \n\nIONIAN ISLANDS (on W. coast of Greece). \nCorfu, the capital, Cephalonia, Zante, Ithaca, Santa \nMaura, Cerigo, and Paxo. They were colonised by \nthe Iones, and partook of the fortunes of the Greek \npeople ; were subject to Naples in the 13th cen- \ntury, and in the 14th to Venice. \nThe islands ceded to France by the treaty of Campo \n\nFormio 17 Oct. 1797 \n\nFormed into the republic of the seven islands under \n\nRussia and Turkey ... 21 March, 1800 \n\nRestored to France by treaty of Tilsit . 7 July, 1807 \nTaken by the English .... 3-is Oct. 1809 \nFormed into an independent state under the protec- \ntion of Great Britain (sir Thomas Maitland, lord \n\nhigh commissioner) 5 Nov. 1815 \n\nA constitution ratified . . . .11 July, 1817 \nA university established at Corfu . . . . 1823 \nThe constitution liberalised during the government \n\nof lord Seaton . . ... 1848-9 \n\nIn consequence of complaints, Mr. W. E. Gladstone \n\nwent out on a commission of inquiry, <fec. . Nov. 1858 \nSir H. Storks, lord high commissioner . Feb. 1859 \nThe parliament declare for annexation to Greece, \n\nMarch, 1861, and April, 1862 \nThe islands annexed to Greece, 28 May ; the British \ntroops retired, 2 June, and king George I. arrived \nat Corfu (see Greece) .... 6 June, 1864 \n\nIONIC ORDER of Architecture, an \n\nimprovement on the Doric, was invented by the \nIonians about 1350 B.C. Vitruvius. Its distinguish- \ning characters are the slenderness and flutings of \nits columns, and the volutes of rams\' horns that \nadorn the capital. \n\nIONIC SECT of Philosophers, founded \n\nby Thales of Miletus about 600 B.C. distinguished \nfor its abstruse speculations under his successors \nand pupils, Anaximander, Anaximenes, Anaxa- \ngoras, and Archelaus, the master of Socrates. They \nheld that the world is a living being, and that water \nis the origin of all things. \n\nIOWA, a western state of North America, was \norganised as a territory 12 June, 1838; and ad- \nmitted into the Union, 28 Dec. 1846. Capital, Des \nMoines. Population, 1880, 1,624,615; 1890, \n1,911,896. \n\nSioux City suffered much by inundations, causing \ngreat loss of life . . . about 18 May, 1892 \nIPSUS (Phrygia), BATTLE OF, Aug. 301 B.C., \nwhen Seleucus was confirmed in his kingdom of \nSyria by the defeat and death of Antigonus, king \nof Asia. The latter led into the field an army of \nabout 70,000 foot, and 10,000 horse, with 75 ele- \n\n\n\nphants. The former had 64,000 infantry, besides \n10,500 horse, 400 elephants, and 120 armed chariots. \nPlutarch. \n\nIPSWICH (Suffolk), the Saxon Gippeswic, \nwas ravaged by the Danes, 991 and 1000. Wolsey \nwas born here, 1471 ; and founded a school in 1525. \nThe port was greatly improved by the erection of \nwet docks, 1837-42. The railway to London was \nopened 25 June, 1846; and the new town-hall, \n29 Jan. 1868. New corn exchange opened, 26 July, \n1882. \n\nIQUIQUE, see Chili, 1879. \n\nIRELAND, anciently named Eri or Erin, \nIerne and Hibernia, is said to have been first \ncolonised by Phoenicians. The early mythical \nhistory has many beautiful legends. The Irish \nlanguage is a branch of the Gaelic. See Church \nof Ireland, and Population, 1891, 4,706,162. " The \nAnnals of the Four Masters," edited by O\'Donovan, \nwere published in Irish and English, 1848. J. T. \nGilbert\'s " History of the Viceroys of Ireland," \npublished 1865. See foot-note p. 527. \n\nA.D. \n\nA rrival of St. Patrick . . probably 4th or 5th century \nChristianity established .... about 448 \nThe Danes and Normans, known by the name of \n\nEasterlings, or Ostmen, invade Ireland . . 795 \nThey build Dublin and other cities . . . about 800 \nBrian Boroimhe totally defeats the Danes at Clon- \n\ntarf ; and is killed . . . . 23 April, 1014 \nMagnus III. , king of Norway, defeated and slain \n\nduring an invasion 1103 \n\n[In the 12th century Ireland is divided into five \nkingdoms, viz. : Ulster, Leinster, Meath, Con- \nnaught, and Munster, besides a number of petty \nprincipalities, whose sovereigns continually warred \nwith each other.] \nAdrian IV. permitted Henry II. to invade Ireland, \non condition that he compelled every Irish family \nto pay a carolus to the holy see, and held it as a \n\nfief of the Church 1155 \n\nDermot MacMurrough, king of Leinster, driven from \n\nhis throne for his oppression 1166 \n\nFlees to England, where he takes an oath of fidelity \n\nto Henry II. who promises to restore him . . 1168 \nInvasion of the English under Fitz-Stephen . . 1169 \nLanding of Strongbow at Waterford . . ,, \n\nDermot dies 1171 \n\nHenry II. lands near Waterford, and receives the \nsubmission of the princes of the country, settles \nthe government, and makes his son John lord of \n\nIreland . May, 1177 \n\nInvasion of king John, English laws, &c, intro- \nduced 1210 \n\nInvasion of Edward Bruce, 1315 ; crowned king . 1316 \nDefeated and slain at Foughart, near Dundalk 1318 \n\nLionel, duke of Clarence, third son of Edward III., \n\nmarries Elizabeth de Burgh, heiress of Ulster . 1361 \nStatute of Kilkenny passed by him (which see) . . 1367 \nRichard II. lands at Waterford withatrain of nobles, \n4000 men-at-arms, and 30,000 archers ; gains the \naffection of the people by his munificence, and \nconfers the honour of knighthood on then chiefs 1394 \nRichard again lands in Ireland .... 1399 \n\nThe sanguinary Head act passed at Trim, by the \nearl of Desmond, deputy, to suppress robbery. \nMuch slaughter is said to have ensued . . . 1465 \nApparel and surname act (the Irish to dress like the \n\nEnglish, and to adopt surnames) ....,, \nSir Edward Poynings sent to punish the Anglo- \nIrish for supporting Perkin Warbeck ; he enacts \na law. subjecting the Irish parliament to the \n\nEnglish council 1494 \n\nGreat rebellion of the Fitzgeralds, or Geraldines \n\nsubdued 1534 \n\nHenry VIII. assumes the title of king, instead of \n\nlord of Ireland 1542 \n\nThe reformed religion embraced by some of the Eng- \nlish settlers in the reign of Edward VI. . . 1547 \nIreland finally divided into shires . . . . 1569 \nPrinting in Irish characters introduced by N. Walsh, \nchancellor of St. Patrick\'s . 1571 \n\n\n\nIEELAND. \n\n\n\n518 \n\n\n\nIEELAND. \n\n\n\n700 Italians, headed by Fitzmaurice, land in Kerry ; \nthey are treacherously butchered by the earl of \n\nOrmond 1580 \n\nInsurrection of Shan O\'Neill, earl of Tyrone, 1561 ; \npardoned and received in London, 1562 ; rebels \nand becomes dominant in Ulster, 1564 ; assassi- \nnated 2 June, 1567 \n\nGreat expedition of Walter Devereux, earl of Essex, \nto put down the O\'Neills, sanguinary, but un- \nsuccessful . . 1573 et seq. \n\nHugh or Shan O\'Neill, who had been brought up \nat the court of Elizabeth, returns to Ireland as \nearl of Tyrone ; revolts, 1597 ; defeats the English \nat Blackwater (which see) . . 14 Aug. 1598 \n\nUnsuccessful expedition of Robert, earl of Essex 1599 \nO\'Neill invites over the Spaniards, and settles them \nin Kinsale ; defeated by the lord depul y Mountjoy \n\n1601-2 \nFlight of the earls of Tyrone, Tyrconnel, and others, \n\nto join the Spaniards 1606 \n\nIn consequence of repeated rebellions and for- \nfeitures, 511,465 acres of land in the province of \nUlster became vested in the crown, and James I. \nafter removing the Irish from their hills and fast- \nnesses, divides the land among such of Ids English \nand Scottish protestant subjects as choose to \nsettle there. (See Irish Society) . . . 1609-12 \nUlster civil war : More and Maguire\'s rebellion : the \ncatholics said to conspire to expel the English, \nand massacre the protestant settlers in Ulster, \ncommenced on St. Ignatius\' day [some doubt the \n\nmassacre] 23 Oct. 1641 \n\nO\'Neill defeats the English under Monroe at Ben- \n\nburb 5 June, 1646 \n\nMassacre and capture of Drogheda by Cromwell \n\n11 Sept. 1649 \nCromwell and Ireton reduce the whole island and \n\nredivide it 1649-1656 \n\nLanding of James II 12 March, 1689 \n\n3000 protestants attainted . . . July, ,, \n\nWilliam III. lands at Carrickfergus . 14 June, 1690 \nBattle of the Boyne ; James defeated . 1 July, ,, \nTreaty of Limerick (see Limerick) . 3 Oct. 1691 \n\nLinen manufacture encouraged .... 1696 \n\nPopery act passed 1704 \n\nExcitement against Wood\'s halfpence (which see) . 1724 \n\nThurot\'s invasion (see Thurot) 1760 \n\nIndulgences granted to the catholics by the relief \n\nMl 1778 \n\nIreland admitted to a free trade .... 1779 \nHenry Grattan claims independence for the Irish \nparliament in speeches delivered 19 April, 1780, \n\nand 16 April, 1782 \nThe Irish parliament declared independent by an \nact passed in the English parliament, May 1782 ; \nconfirmed by another act passed .... 1783 \nGenevese refugees received in Ireland, and an asylum \n\ngiven them in Wateriord 1783 \n\nOrder of St. Patrick established \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSociety of United Irishmen founded . . . 1791 \n\nOrange clubs, <fcc, formed (see Diamond) . . . 1795 \nIrish rebellion commenced 4 May, 1798 ; cost 150,000 \n\nIrish lives, 20.000 English ; gradually suppressed 1799 \nLegislativeUnionofGreatBritainandlreland iJan. 1801 \nEmmett\'s insurrection .... 23 July, 1803 \n\nEnglish and Irish exchequers consolidated 5 Jan. 18 17 \nVisit to Ireland of George IV. . 11 Aug.-i6 Sept. 1821 \nThe Catholic Association organised by Daniel \n\nO\'Connell and others (see Roman Catholics) . 1823 \n\nThe currency assimilated . . . . 1 Jan. 1826 \nDaniel O\'Connell is elected M.P. for Clare, but does \n\nnot sit 5 July, ^28 \n\nRoman catholic emancipation act passed 13 April, 1829 \nCustoms consolidated .... 6 Jan. 1830 \n\nDr. Whately, supporter of Irish National School \n\nsystem, becomes abp. of Dublin .... 1831 \nIrish reform act passed ... 7 Aug. 18^2 \n\nPoor laws introduced : act passed . . 31 July, 1838 \n\xe2\x80\xa2\' Young Ireland" (which see) party formed . . 1840 \n\nPopulation by census, 8,196,597 .... 1841 \nGreat Repeal movement, lead by O\'Connell ; meet- \ning at Trim (see Repeal) ... 16 March, 1843 \nMolly Maguire, a secret society, formed . . . ,, \nO\'Connell\'s trial (for political conspiracy), found \n\nguilty (see Trials) ... 15 Jan.-i 2 Feb. 1844 \nAppointment of new commissioners of charitable \nbequests (rank of the R. C. bishops recognised) \n\n18 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nIrish National Education Board incorporated \n\n23 Sept. 1845 \nCommittal of William Smith O\'Brien to the custody \n\nof the serjeant-at-arms, for contempt in not obey- \ning an order of the bouse of commons to attend a \n\ncommittee 30 April, 1846 \n\nFailure of the potato crop throughout Ireland ; \n\nsufferers relieved by parliament . . . ,, \nWilliam Smith O\'Brien and the " Young Ireland," or \nphysical force party, secede from the Repeal Asso- \nciation 29 July, ,, \n\nO\'Connell\'s last speech in the commons 8 Feb. 1847 \n\nGrants from Parliament amounting to io,ooo,oooj. \nto relieve the people suffering from famine and \n\ndisease ,> \n\nDeath of O\'Connell at Genoa, on his way to Rome, \nin his 73rd year ; he bequeathed his heart to Rome \n\n15 May, , y \nDeputation from the Irish people (?) \xe2\x80\x94 Smith O\'Brien, \nMeagher, O\'Gorman, &c. \xe2\x80\x94 to Lamartine and \nothers, members of the provisional government at \n\nParis 3 April, 1848 \n\nGreat meeting of "Young Irelanders" at Dublin \n\n4 April, ,, \nArrest of Mitchell, editor of the " United Irishman" \n\n13th May, ,y. \nState trials in the Irish queen\'s bench 15-27 May, ,\xe2\x80\x9e \nMitchell found guilty and sentenced to transporta- \ntion for 14 years . . . . .26 May, , r \nArrest of Gavan Duffy, Martin, Meagher, Doheny, \n\n&c. , for felonious writings, speeches, &c. 8 July, ,, \nConfederate clubs prohibited . . .26 July, ,\xe2\x80\x9e \nThe Habeas Corpus act suspended . 26 July, ,, \nO\'Brien\'s rebellion suppressed . . . 2g July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nArrest of Smith O\'Brien at Thurles ; he is conveyed \n\nto Kilmainham gaol, Dublin . . 5 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e. \nArrest of Meagher, O\'Donoghue, <fcc. . . 12 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e. \nMartin sentenced to transportation . 14 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nEncumbered estates act passed . . Sept. ,, \n\nSmith O\'Brien, Meagher, and the other confederates \n\ntried and sentenced to death ... 9 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe Irish court of queen\'s bench gives judgment \non writs of error sued out by the prisoners con- \nvicted of high treason, and confirms the judgment \n\nof the court below 16 Jan. 1849; \n\nO\'Brien, Meagher, McManus, and O\'Donoghue trans- \nported 9 July, ,, \n\nOrange and catholic affray at Dolly\'s Brae ; several \n\nlives lost 12 July, ,, \n\nHer majesty visits Ireland, and holds her court at \n\nDublin castle 5 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFirst court under the encumbered estates act (which \n\nsee) held in Dublin .... 24 Oct. ,, \n\nQueen\'s university in Ireland established 15 Aug. 1850 \nSynod of Thurles condemns queen\'s colleges 22 Aug. ,\', \nCensus taken ; population, 6,574,278 . 30 March, 1851 \nRoman catholic university originated, aad large \n\nsums subscribed 5 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDeath of R. Lalor Sheil, at Florence . 25 May, ,, \nMcManus escapes from transportation, and arrives \n\nat San Francisco, in California . . 5 June, ,\xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Irish Tenant League hold a meeting on the site \n\nof the battle of the Boyne ... 14 July \xe2\x80\x9e \nFirst meeting of the " Catholic Defence Association" \n\n17 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nMeagher escapes from Van Diemen\'s Land and ar- \nrives at New York 24 May, 185a: \n\nCork National Exhibition opened . 10 June, ,, \n\nIrish Industrial Exhibition set on foot; Mr. Dargan, \narailway contractor, contributes towards it 26,000?. \n\n24 June, ,\xe2\x80\x9e \n"Tenant Right" demonstration at Warrenstown \n\ndispersed by the magistrates . . 3 July, ,\xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFierce religious riots at Belfast . . 14 July, ,,. \nFatal election riot at Six-Mile Bridge . 22 July, ,\xe2\x80\x9e \nIrish members of parliament found a "Religious \n\nEquality Association "... 10 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e. \nCork Industrial Exhibition closed . \'. 11 Sept. ,, \nIncome tax extended to Ireland . . . June, 1853; \nMitchell escapes from Hobart Town . 9 June, ,, \n\nDublin Exhibition opens . . . .12 May, ,, \nQueen visits Ireland .... 29 Aug. ,,. \nTenant Right League conference . . 4 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nDreadful railway accident near Dublin . 5 Oct.. ,,, \n\nDublin Exhibition closed 1 Nov. ,, \n\nTrain wilfully upset after an Orange demonstration \n\nat Londonderry, one person killed and many hurt \n\n15 Sept. 1854 \n\n\n\nIRELAND. \n\n\n\n519 \n\n\n\nIRELAND. \n\n\n\nA pardon granted to O\'Brien ; he shortly after re- \nturned to Ireland 3 May, \n\nReligious riots at Belfast .... Sept. \n\nProgress of cardinal Wiseman in Ireland Sept. \n\nA packet from Galway reaches N. America in six \ndays Sept. \n\nProclamation against secret societies . Nov. \n\nArrests of members of Phoenix Society . Dec. \n\nProposed demonstration of landlords (headed by \nmarquis of Downshire) given up . -27 Jan. \n\nNational Gallery founded .... Feb. \n\nAgitation against the Irish National School system, \n\nSept. \n\nReligious revival movement in the north, particu- \nlarly at Belfast Oct. \n\nGreat emigration to America in the spring \n\nMany Irishmen enlist in the service of the pope, \nMay, June ; many return dissatisfied . July, \n\nThe remainder taken prisoners by the Sardinians are \nreleased, and return to Dublin, where they receive \nan ovation Nov. \n\nAttempted revival of Repeal agitation . . Dec. \n\nAgrarian outrages ; alderman Sheehy murdered, \n\n23 Oct. \n\nCensus taken ; population, 5,798,967 . 8 April, \n\nSuspension of packet service between Galway and \nAmerica through the company\'s breach of contract, \n\n23 May, \n\nVisit of the prince of Wales, 29 June ; and the queen \nand prince consort . . . 24-31 Aug. \n\nIrish Law Court commission appointed 13 Dec. \n\nNumerous agrarian murders ; Gustav Thiebault, 28 \nApril ; Francis Fitzgerald, 16 May (and others) ; \nMichael Hayes shoots Mr. John Braddell, \n\n30 July, \n\nThe primate, J. G. Beresford, abp. of Armagh, dies, \naged 89 19 July, \n\nBuilding for the catholic university founded, \n\n20 July, \n\nAn Orange demonstration at Belfast leads to de- \nstructive riots 17 Sept. \n\nGreat agricultural distress ; many murders and out- \nrages, end of 1862, beginning of . \n\nGalway packet service restored by subsidy of 70,000?. \n(see Galway) Aug. \n\nInsignificant " Nationalist " meeting . 15 Aug. \n\nDeath of archbishop Whately . . .8 Oct. \n\nGreat emigration of able-bodied labourers in . \n\nAppearance of the Fenians (which see) . . Jan. \n\nDeath of Smith O\'Brien, descendant of king Brian \nBoroimhe 16 June, \n\nAddress of the " National Association " to liberate \ntenant capital, recover the property of the Catho- \nlic church, <&c 12 Jan. \n\nOpening of the International Exhibition at Dublin \nby the prince of Wales ... 9 May, \n\nGeneral election favourable to the government and \nliberal party July, \n\nImportation of cattle from England prohibited on \naccount of the plague ... 25 Aug. \n\nSeizure of the newspaper "Irish People" and 30 \nFenians (see Fenians) . 15-17 Sept. 14 Oct. \n\nInternational Exhibition closed . . 9 Nov. \n\nStephens escapes from gaol . . . 24-25 Nov. \n\nFenian trials began at Dublin, 27 Nov. ; Thomas \nClarke Luby convicted of treason felony ; sen- \ntenced to 20 years\' penal servitude . 1 Dec. \n\nO\'Leary and others convicted, Dec. ; O\'Donovan \nRossa sentenced to imprisonment for life, \n\n13 Dec. \n\nMore Fenians arrested and convicted at Cork and \nDublin Jan., Feb. \n\nDiscovery of an arms manufactory at Dublin ; the \ncity and county proclaimed as put under the pro- \nvisions of the Peace Preservation act, n Jan. \n\nHabeas Corpus act suspended ; many Fenians flee \n\n17 Feb. \n\nAgitation respecting Irish church ; debates in par- \nliament April, \n\nLord Abercorn made lord-lieutenant . July, \n\nAbout 320 suspected Fenians remain in prison, \n\n1 Sept. \n\nGreat seizure of fire-arms .... 15 Dec. \n\nClare and other counties proclaimed under Peace \nPreservation act Dec. \n\nElection riots at Dungarvan ; capt. Barthol-Kelly \nkilled 28 Dec. \n\n\n\n1856 \n1857 \n\n\n\n1859 \n\n\n\ni860 \n\n\n\n1863 \n\n\n\nDeath of Win. Dargan, promoter of Irish Exhibition, \n\n7 Feb. 1867 \n\nIrish college of science established atDublin early in ,, \n\nAnother Fenian outbreak (see Fenians), 5-13 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAppointment of commission respecting church of \nIreland agreed to .... 24 June, ,, \n\nChancery and Common-law Offices act passed, 20 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nIrish church commission appointed, earl Stanhope \nchairman 30 Oct. ,, \n\nMore trials of Fenians .... Nov. ,, \n\nExecution of Fenians (Allen, Gould, and Larkin) \nfor murder of Brett, a policeman, at Manchester, \n\n23 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFuneral demonstrations for them at Cork, 24 Nov. ; \nDublin and Limerick . . . . 1 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nParty funeral processions prohibited . . 12 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nProtest of Irish noblemen and gentlemen against \nIrish church establishment signed, about 12 Dec. ,, \n\nDeclaration of many Roman catholic clergy profes- \nsing loyalty, but claiming self-government for \nIreland 23 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBp. Moriarty, of Kerry, publishes a circular censur- \ning the funeral processions for Fenians 30 Dec. ,, \n\nProsecution of the "Irishman" newspaper for \nsedition 10 Jan. 1868 \n\nArrest of Geo. Francis Train on his arrival from \nAmerica, on suspicion of Fenianism ; soon dis- \ncharged (claimed 10,000?.) . . . 18 Jan. ,, \n\nPublication of facts proving the increased pro- \nsperity of the country . . . 28 Jan. ,, \n\nGreat protestant defence meeting at Dublin, many \npeers present . . . . . \xe2\x80\xa2 6 Feb. ,, \n\nHabeas Corpus act saspended till 1 March, 1869 (S3 \npersons detained on suspic.on) . . .Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMessrs. Sullivan and Pigott, convicted of seditious \nlibels in their newspapers (the " Weekly News " \nand "Irishman"), sentenced to imprisonment \nand fine 18, 19 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMr. Johnston, grand master of an Orange lodge, im- \nprisoned for infraction of Party Processions act, \n\nMarch, ,, \n\nTrain arrested for debt ... 3 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFour nights\' debate on Ireland in the Commons \nended (Mr. Gladstone declared for disestablish- \nment of the Irish protestant church) 16 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nIrish reform bill introduced into the Commons, \n\n19 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDebate on Mr. Gladstone\'s proposal for a committee \non his resolutions for the disestablishment of the \n\xe2\x80\xa2church (carried by 328 to 272), 30 March to early \nmorning of 4 April, ,, \n\nMr. Featherstonehaugh, J. P., a deputy-lieu t. , shot \ndead while returning from Dublin (he had re- \ncently raised the rent of his tenants) . 15 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nVisit of prince and princess of Wales ; arrive at \nDublin ; intense enthusiasm . . 15 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe prince and princess at Punchestown races, \n\n16 April, ,, \n\nThe prince installed as a knight of St. Patrick, \n\n18 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe prince and princess at review in Phcenix-park, \n20 April ; leave Dublin ... 24 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nIncreased emigration to United States . April, ,, \n\nMr. Gladstone\'s first resolution passed in the com- \nmons (by 330 to 265) early on 1 May ; second and \nthird resolutions passed ... 7 May, ,, \n\nIrish archbishops and bishops present address to \nthe queen at Windsor, on behalf of the Irish \nChurch establishment . . . .14 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nIrish Church commission recommend consolidation \nof dioceses and other reforms (1st report), 27 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nEarl Spencer lord lieutenant .... Dec. ,, \n\nVisit of prince Arthur . . .5 April e t seq. 1869 \n\nMany murders : Mr. Anketell, 3 March ; Mr. Brad- \nshaw, J. P., 24 April ; Capt. Tarleton 28 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMayor of Cork, for a speech eulogizing Fenians, 27 \nApril, compelled to resign . . . 11 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAddress of archbishop Leahy condemning agrarian \nmurders ... . . 16 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nIrish Church bill introduced into the commons, 1 \nMarch ; after much opposition passed, 26 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nIrish mixed schools denounced by abp. Cullen ; \nsupport for\'a Catholic university demanded in a \ncircular elated 18 Aug. ,, \n\nGreat agitation for amnesty to the Fenian jnvicts, \n\nOct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTenant-right \' agitation ; a conference at Cork, 10 \nSept. ; county meeting at Kilkenny . 18 Oct. , ,, \n\n\n\nIEELAND. \n\n\n\n520 \n\n\n\nIEELAND. \n\n\n\nJeremiah O\'Donovan Rossa, a Fenian convict, \n\nele*cted M. P. for Tipperary . . 25 Nov. 1869 \n\nMany agrarian outrages . . . Jan., Feb. 1870 \n\nO\'Donovan Rossa\'s election annulled . 10 Feb. ,, \nIrish Church convention met . about 21 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nIrish Land bill, read a second time in commons \n(442 against 11), 1 a;m., 12 March; read second \ntime in the lords . . . . 17 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNew "Irish Peace Preservation act" passed, \n\n4 April, ,, \nEight counties placed under this act . 29 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \nReported growth of a " Nationality " party among \n\nthe Protestants July, ,, \n\nIrish Land act passed . . . . 1 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe " Home Government Association," to include \n\nall parties, meet at Dublin . . . 1 Sept. ,, \nAggressive outrages and murders . . Nov. ,, \nSome Fenian convicts released from prison, Jan. 1871 \nJohn Martin, a nationalist, elected M. P. , for Meath, \n\n5 Jan. ,, \nCensus taken ; population, 5,402,759 . 3 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \nBill for protection of life and property in West- \nmeatli brought in (and passed 16 June) on account \n\nof ribandism 2 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nChief constable Talbot shot, night of 11 July ; died \n\n15 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nVisit of the prince of Wales to open the Royal \nAgricultural exhibition . . . . 1 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRiot through attempted repression of Fenian \n\nsympathisers ; several killed . . 7 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nFrench deputation (comte de Flavigny and others) \nto thank the Irish for the assistance of the Irish \nambulance during the war ; warmly received, \nwith seditious demonstrations against England, \n\n16-28 Aug. ,, \nMr. Isaac Butt, leader of Home-rule movement, \n\nelected M. P. for Limerick . . . 20 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe R. C. bishop of Deny, the O\'Donoghue, and \n0\'Bhers, declare against the movement, Jan. ; \nmembers in its favour elected for Galway and \nKerry ... .... Feb. 1872 \n\nPeaceful state of the south ; few prisoners for trial, \n\nMarch, \xe2\x80\x9e \nMrs. Neill murdered at her own door near Dublin, \n\n27 May, ,, \nCapt. Nolan, M. P. for Galway, unseated for intimi- \ndation by his agents ; the R. C. bishops and \nclergy severely censured by justice Keogh in \ngiving sentence .... about 27 May, ,, \n\nO\'Byrne v. Marquis of Hartington, and others \n(police) for exceeding duty in suppressing a \nmeeting in Phoenix-park, Dublin, in Aug. 1871 ; \nverdict for plaintiff, 25L damages . 11 July, ,, \nFathers Loftus and Quain tried for undue interfer- \nence inGalway election ; jury disagreed, 10-14 Feb. 1874 \nMr. Gladstone brings into the commons the Irish \n\nUniversity bill (rejected and withdrawn) 13 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe R. C. bishop of Clonfert, Dr. Duggan, tried \n\nand acquitted (see Dublin) . . 15-19 Feb. ,, \nTrial : O\'Keeffev. Cardinal Cullen ; begins (see Trials) \n\n12 May, ,, \nHome rule and amnesty associations active, Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nMotions in favour of Home-rule (which see) defeated \n\nin parliament . . . 20 March & 3 July, ,, \nIreland reported very prosperous . . Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nJohn Mitchell (see above, 1848, 1853), elected M.P. \nfor Tipperary, 16 Feb. ; election declared null by \nthe Commons ; he died 20 March ; his friends, \nJohn Martin, M.P., died 29 March ; and sir John \n\nGray, M.P. died 9 April, 1875 \n\nMitchell\'s election declared void . . 26 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nPeace Preservation Act renewed . . 28 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nCentenary of the birth of Daniel O\'Connell cele- \nbrated at Dublin, many foreign R. C. dignitaries \npresent ; much dissension at the banquet between \nthe Clerical and Home-rule parties . . 6 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nMr. McSwiney, lord mayor of Dublin, endeavours \nto form a new party for " faith and fatherland," \nopposed to Home-rule . . . Aug. -Sept. ,, \nCatholic synod at Maynooth ; mixed education \n\ncensured Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRiots at Callan, Mr. O\'Keeffe\'s chapel and house \n\nattacked (28 men committed for trial) . n Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nDissension between members of O\'Connell cen- \ntenary committee, which is dissolved . 26 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nAgrarian outrage, Mr. Bridges and party fired on in \ndaylight, the coachman killed ; several wounded \n\n\n\nat Mitchelstown, Cork (Crowe convicted of mur- \nder 25 July, executed 25 Aug.) . . 30 March, 1876 \n\nO\'Keeffe (see above, May, 1874) submits to cardinal \nCullen for compensation .... May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAn Irish university bill introduced by Mr. Butt \n\n(withdrawn) 16 May, ,, \n\nCounty officers and courts act passed . 14 Aug. 1877 \n\nSupreme court of judicature act for Ireland, passed \n\n14 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nTemporary strike of men on Great Southern and \n\nWestern railway, about . . . 14-22 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nDr. Moriarty, R.C., bp. of Kerry, patriotic, judi- \ncious died 1 Oct. ,, \n\nMr. Gladstone\'s private visit . 17 Oct. et seq. ,, \nThe judicature act comes into operation . 1 Jan. 1878 \nThe earl of Leitrim (eccentric), his clerk, and driver \nshot dead near his lodge, Manor Vaughan, Done- \ngal 2 April, ,, \n\nBill for reducing Irish borough suffrage to il. re- \njected in the commons (232-26) . 15 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nIrish Sunday closing (public houses) bill, much op- \nposed ; passed 16 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nIrish intermediate education act passed . 16 Aug. ,, \nIrish volunteer bill lost .... 7 Aug. 1879 \nBill to abolish the Queen\'s University, and to \nestablish a new university (for Roman catholics), \nintroduced by lord chancellor Cairns, 30 June ; \ncarried in commons (257-90), 25 July ; passed \n\n15 Aug. ,, \nPrevention of crime act passed . . 15 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nAn Trish national convention to meet at Dublin, \n\nproposed by Mr. Charles Stewart Parnell (see \nHome Rule) 11 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nProgresses of Mr. Parnell ; much anti-rent agitation \n\nautumn, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAppeal for the Irish national land league by Mr. \nParnell, soliciting subscriptions to buy the land \nfor the tenants 9 Oct. ,, \n\nExciting speeches of Mr. Parnell at Navan \n\n11, 13 Oct. ,, \n\nJames Bryce Killen, barrister, J. W. Daly, pro- \nprietor of " Connaught Telegraph," and Michael \nDavitt (ex- Fenian, on ticket of leave) arrested at \nDublin for sedition (at anti-rent meeting at \nGurteen, Sligo, 2 Nov.) ; [prosecution lapsed,] \n\n19 Nov. ,, \n\nGreat orderly meetings held at Dublin, Balla, &c. \n\n21 Nov. et seq. ,, \n\nGovernment arrangements for relieving distress \npublished in Dublin .... 22 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPastoral by abp. McCabe against the agitation ; \nread 23 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThos. Brennan arrested for seditious speech (at \nBalla, on 22 Nov.) 5 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe duchess of Marlborough (the viceroy\'s wife) \nappeals for help for distress in the west (Times). \n(See under Mansion House, 1879) . 18 Dec. ,, \n\nMr. Parnell arrives at New York to agitate for help \nto relieve Ireland politically and pecuniarily 2 Jan. 1880 \n\nRiots at Carraroe, Connemara, and other places in \nGalway, in consequence of notices of eviction \n\n2 Jan. et seq. ,, \n\nContributions to the famine funds arrive from \nCanada, Australia, India, United States, <fcc. \n\nJan. Feb. \n\nMr. Parnell\'s agitation said to be a dead failure Feb. \n\n2o,ooo\xc2\xa3. received from lord mayor of London ; \n(Dublin co. returns, 82,422^.) . . 28 Feb. \n\nSeed supply act passed 1 March, \n\nRelief of distress (Ireland) act passed 15 March, \n\nRelief fund : 129,000^ received up to 25 March ; \n141, 562Z up to 17 April, \n\nCharter for new Irish university signed by the queen \n\n19 April, \n\nRelief for Irish distress brought in the Constellation \nfrom United States ; arrives at Cork 20 April, \n\nReceived for Irish distress, 177,4012. ; distributed, \ni7\xc2\xb0>357* up to 23 July, \n\nCompensation for Disturbance bill (to check evic- \ntions, restrain landlords, and benefit tenants), \n2nd reading in commons (295-217), 5-6 July ; \npassed in commons (303-237), 27 July ; rejected \nby the lords (282-51) .... 3 Aug. \n\nMr. Thos. Boyd, crown solicitor, and sons fired at \nand wounded, Charles killed, at Shanlough, near \nNew Ross .... Sunday, Aug. 8, \n\n40 cases of arms (960 weapons), stolen from the \n\n\n\nIEELAND. \n\n\n\n521 \n\n\n\nIEELAND. \n\n\n\nJune, a Norwegian vessel, in the docks at Cork, \nii Aug. ; some found concealed . 13 Aug. \nRioting at Dungannon, Belfast . 15-18 Aug. \nViolent speech of Mr. Dillon, M.P., at Kildare, in \nfavour of the land league 15 Aug. ; termed \n"wicked and cowardly" by Mr. W. E. Forster, \nwho justifies the terms in parliament 23 Aug. \nMr. Parnell proposes that tenant should become \nowner of land after paying 35 years\' just rent Sept. \nThe duchess of Marlborough\'s relief fund ; total re- \nceived from all parts 135,2452., and ugl. interest \nfrom the Bank of Ireland ; reported 19 Sept. \n\nLord Mountmorres shot at Kutheen near Clonbar, \n\xe2\x96\xa0Gal way, about 8 p.m. . . . 25 Sept. \n\nProgress of agitation ; exciting speeches of Messrs. \nParnell, Redpath, Dillon, and others advocating \nthe principle of " boycotting " . Sept., Oct. \n105 leading landowners with agents wait on the \nlord lieutenant at Dublin, describing the terrorist \nstate of the south and west of the country and \n\nneed of protection 7 Oct. \n\nR. C. abp. McCabe\'s pastoral against agitation and \nmurders ; read in chapels . . .10 Oct. \nAgrarian outrages ; John Downing, a driver, killed \nby a shot aimed at his employer, Mr. Samuel \nHutchins, near Drimoleague, Cork . 16 Oct. \nArrest of Timothy M. Healy, Mr. Parnell\'s secre- \ntary, and Mr. Walsh, for intimidation of Mr. \nManning (on 16 Oct.) ... 26, 27 Oct. \nMessrs. Parnell and others arrested for conspiracy \nand intimidation to prevent tenants paying rent, \n<Sic. (19 counts) ; notices served 3 Nov. et seq. \nMr. Boycott of Lough Mask farm, near Ballinrobe, \nMayo, besieged ; his labourers threatened ; his \ntradesmen refuse to supply him ; \xe2\x80\x94 his crops \ngathered by immigrant labourers, protected by \n\nmilitary, &c 11, 12 Nov. \n\nMr. Henry Wheeler, land agent, murdered 12 Nov. \n\nMr. Forster, Irish Secretary, sends a circular to the \n\nmagistrates reminding them of their statutory \n\npowers about 8 Dec, \n\nMr. W. Bence Jones of Ballinascorthy, treated like \n\nMr. Boycott Dec. \n\nThree judges (Fitzgerald, Barry, and Dowse), de- \nliver alarming charges on state of country Dec. \nTrial of Mr. Parnell and others for conspiracy, \n\nbegins (see Trials) 28 Dec. \n\nJury disagree ; discharged ... 25 Jan. 1 \nAbout 25,000 soldiers in Ireland . . Jan. \n\nReport of Agricultural Commission (for Ireland) \nissued ; great distress, 1877-9 ! good harvest, \n1880 ; it opposes the three F\'s. ; recommends emi- \ngration in some districts .... Jan. \nBill for protection of life and property (termed \ncoercion bill) brought in by Mr. Forster, 24 Jan. ; \nlong debates ; much obstruction (see Parliament) ; \npassed commons, (281-36), 25, 26 Feb. ; passed \nlords, 1-3 March ; royal assent . . 3 March, \nPeace preservation bill (arms bill) ; introduced 1 \nMarch ; passed commons, 11, 12 March ; passed \nlords, 18 March ; royal assent . . 21 March, \nMany agitators arrested; 23 in Kilniainham gaol, \n\n10 March, \n" Clan-Na-Gael " secret society to replace Fenians \n\nsaid to be formed March, \n\nIrish land bill (" legalized confiscation" \xe2\x80\x94 Beacons- \nfield) introduced into the commons by Mr. Glad- \nstone ... ... 7 April, \n\nMore arrests (total about 40) up to 20 April, \n\nCruel outrages in different places ; Dublin city pro- \nclaimed under coercion act, 1 May ; John Dillon, \nM.P. arrested [released Aug.] . . 2 May, \n\nDivision in Irish parliamentary party ; Mr. Parnell \nand others oppose the land bill, about . 5 May, \nIncrease in amount of crime . . April, May, \nTotal arrests, 54 ; increase of evictions . May, \nIrish land bill read 2nd time (352-176); Mr. Parnell \nand about 20 retire, 19, 20 May ; 3rd time (220-14) \n\n29 July, , \n\nAgrarian outrages, 439, Jan. ; 170, Feb. ; 146, \n\nMarch ; 296, April ; 238 in three weeks . May, \n\nRiots connected with evictions at Scareff, co. Clare ; \n\nsome persons killed ; many injured . 2 June, \n\nRioting at various places in co. Cork., &c, \n\n5, 6, 7 June, \n\nPopulation diminished one ninth in ten years (by \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2census) ... ... June, \n\nFirst publication of United Ireland . . July, \n\n\n\nLand bill in house of lords ; read 2nd time, 2, 3 \nAug. ; 3rd time (with amendments), 8 Aug. ; the \ncommons reject some of the amendments, 12 \nAug. ; the lords resist, 13 Aug. ; the commons \nmodify the amendments, 15 Aug. ; the lords \nyield, 16 Aug. ; royal assent . . 22 Aug. iE \n\nIncreased boycotting of shop-keepers and others, \nand much cruelty Sept. , \n\nGreat meeting of delegates from the Land League, \ndenouncing the land act as a sham ; Mr. Parnell \npresent ... ... 17-19 Sept. , \n\nMr. Parnell arrested on charge of inciting to in- \ntimidation and for urging non-payment of rent ; \nput into Kilniainham gaol, Dublin (a-hich see) \n\n13 Oct. \n\nThis arrest "legal, merited, and expedient," Times \n\n15 Oct. , \n\nArrest of Messrs. Sexton, O\'Kelly, J. P. Quinn, \nsecretary of Land League, Dillon, O\'Brien, and \nothers 14-16 Oct. . \n\nViolent rioting at Dublin and Limerick ; about \n2000Z. damage ; soon suppressed ; more arrests \n\n15-18 Oct. . \n\nMore troops sent to Ii eland from Chatham, &c. ; \nmanifesto of the Land League denouncing the \ngovernment, and ordering non-payment of rent \n\n18 Oct. , \nThis manifesto censured by archbishop Croke \n\n19 Oct. \nFirst meeting of the Irish Land Commission court ; \n\naddressed by justice O\'Hagan . . 20 Oct. . \nGreat calm at Dublin and Limerick 20 Oct. ct seq. \nThe lord lieutenant on the responsibility of Mr. \nW. E. Forster proclaims the suppression of \nthe Land League as an illegal and criminal \norganization, 20 Oct. ; the leaders declare for \npassive resistance ; archbishop M\'Cabe\'s pastoral \nagainst the Land League manifesto read in R. C. \nchurches in Dublin . . . .30 Oct. , \n\nImportant decisions in favour of tenants by sub- \ncommissions at Belfast, &c. . . . Nov. , \n2448 persons in prison ; more arrests ; some released \n\nannounced 5 Nov. , \nHome rule meeting at Dublin . . .8 Nov. , \nDeath of Dr. M\'Hale, archbishop of Tuam, "Lion \n\nof the fold of Judah" .... 8 Nov. , \nAbove 40,000 applications to the land courts \n\n12 Nov. , \nContinuance of agrarian murders and outrages Nov. , \nStrike against payment of rent in Limerick ; evic- \ntions ordered 30 Nov. , \n\nIrish Property Defence association (formed Nov. \n1880) active and successful (see Mansion-house \n\nFund) Nov. \xe2\x80\x94 Dec. , \n\nGreat increase of crime in Munster announced Dec. , \nAn association formed to support the law \n\nabout 20 Dec. , \nProclamation against possession of arms iu Dublin, \n<fcc. ....... 27 Dec. , \n\nAppointment of five special magistrates, with extra \npowers, in disturbed districts ; 4439 agrarian \noutrages in the year . . . about 30 Dec. , \nSeveral lady land leaguers arrested 2 Jan. et seq. 18 \nDay of humiliation for Protestants . . 13 Jan. , \nAbout 40 suspects arrested . . 28 Jan. , \n\nFrequent murders reported .... Feb. , \n\nCommittee to enquire into working of land act \nvoted by lords (96 \xe2\x80\x94 53, 17 Feb.), earl Cairns, \nchairman . . . . . -23 Feb. , \n\nMichael Davitt, convict, elected M.P. for co. \nMeath, 22 Feb. ; annulled by the commons, \n\n28 Feb. ,, \nBailey, an informer against Land League, murdered \n\nat Dublin 25 Feb. ,, \n\nMr. Gladstone\'s resolution against the lords\' com- \nmittee, 27 Feb. ; carried (303 \xe2\x80\x94 235) 9-10 March, ,, \nThe lords\' committee sit .... March, ,, \nContinuance of murderous outrages . . March, ,, \nArchbishop M\'Cabe created cardinal 27 March, ,, \n\nMr. Forster confesses failure of government policy \nthrough influence of secret societies 27 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n511 suspects in prison 1 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMr. Parnell released en parole for ten days, \n\n10 April, ,, \nNew government policy ; resignation of Mr. W. E. \nForster [Mr. Forster narrowly escaped assassin- \nation several times] ; release of Mr. Parnell and \nother suspects ; earl Spencer appointed lord lieu- \n\n\n\nIRELAND. \n\n\n\n522 \n\n\n\nIEELAND. \n\n\n\ntenant about 2 May, 1882 ; release of Michael \nDavitt 6 May, ] \n\nEarl Spencer enters Dublin ; lord Frederick Caven- \ndish, new chief secretary, and Mr. T. H. Burke, \npermanent under-secretary, assassinated by stab- \nbing, by four men (" Invincibles ") about 7 p.m., \nin Phoenix-park, Dublin, 6 May ; manifesto ex- \npressing abhorrence of the deed signed by C. S. \nParnell, J. Dillon, and M. Davitt . . 7 May, \n\nGovernment offers io.oooZ. reward for discoveries \nof the murderers ; Mr. G. O. Trevelyan appointed \nchief secretary 9 May, \n\nBill for the prevention of crime in Ireland intro- \nduced by sir W. V. Harcourt (new tribunal of \nthree judges without jury for special occasions ; \npowers of police increased ; alien act to be \nrevived ; supervision of newspapers and of assem- \nblies, &c), 11 May, 1882 ; second reading \n(3 8 3\xe2\x80\x9445) i9- 2 \xc2\xb0 Ma y. \n\nMany arrests 12 May et seq. \n\nAlleged agreement of the government with Mr. Par- \nnell and party, early May, i882,sarcastically termed \nthe treaty of Kilmainham ; arrears of rent bill, \nsecond reading (269\xe2\x80\x94 157) . . 23-24 May, \n\nMr. Walter Bourke and corporal Wallace, his escort, \nshot dead by five men near Gort, Gal way 8 J une, \n\nMr. John Henry Blake, agent to the marquis of \nClanriearde, and his steward, Mr. Kane, shot \ndead near Loughrea . ... 29 June, \n\nA long discussion in the commons on the preven- \ntion of crime bill ; 23 Irish members suspended, \n30 June \xe2\x80\x94 1 July, \n\nMr. Parnell and home rulers withdraw, July, 1882 ; \n22 arrests at Loughrea, 4 July ; government de- \nfeated in an amendment checking domiciliary \nvisits of suspected persons at night, 207 \xe2\x80\x94 194 ; \nprevention of crime bill read third time, 7-8 July ; \npassed by the lords, 11 July; royal assent, \n\n12 July, \n\n17 counties proclaimed . . . about 13 July, \n\n170 suspects in custody . . . .2 Aug. \n\nThe Lords\' committee on the land act adjourns, \n\n15 Aug. \n\nMr. Edmund Dwyer Gray, M.P., high sheriff of \nDublin, ex-lord mayor, sentenced to three months\' \nimprisonment and a fine of 500L for contempt of \ncourt in articles in Freeman\'s Journal attacking \nthe jury on trial of Francis Hynes . 16 Aug. \n\nArrears bill passed in the commons (285 \xe2\x80\x94 177), 21 \nJuly; by the lords, with injurious amendments \n(169\xe2\x80\x9498), 31 July; which are modified or .nega- \ntived by the commons, 8, 9 Aug. ; the revision \naccepted by the lords, 10 Aug. ; royal assent, \n\n18 Aug. \n\n50 suspects released .... about 18 Aug. \n\nJohn Joyce and his wife, son, and daughter, shot \ndead by band of men near Maatntrasma, in \nOloncler district, Galway, for giving information \nto the police . . . 17-18 Aug. \n\nJohn Leahy, aged farmer, of Scarteen, Killarney, \nmurdered by a moonlight party . . 20 Aug. \n\nDiscontent and insubordination of the constabulary \n\nat Dublin, Cork, and especially at Limerick, \n\nsettled by firmness and judicious concessions \n\nend of Aug. \n\nDismissal of some police for holding a public meet- \ning in Dublin ; all the police of the city resign ; \norder maintained by the military, who charge on \nrioters in the evening, 1 Sept. ; special constables \nsworn in 2 Sept. ; resignation withdrawn peni- \ntently with respectful petition, 3 Sept. ; 208 re- \ninstated 6-7 Sept. \n\nExecution of Francis Hynes (for murder of John \nDoloughty)at Limerick, 1 1 Sept. ; of Patrick Walsh, \nfor murder of Martin Lyden, at Galway, 22 Sept. \n\nSuccessful progress of the lord lieutenant, earl \nSpencer, in the west . . . middle Sept. \n\nConviction of Michael Walsh, for murder of Kava- \nnagh, a policeman, 29 Sept. ; penal servitude for \nlife 19 Oct. \n\nMr. E. D. Gray released . . . .30 Sept. \n\nExpiration of coercion act ; all suspects released \n\n30 Sept. \n\nLand league fund in North America closed 6 Oct. \n\nNationalistic conference at Dublin constitutes a \nnew Irish National League (ultra) to obtain self- \ngovernment and land-law reform, Mr. C. Parnell \npresident 17 Oct. \n\n\n\nDiminution of agrarian crime . . April \xe2\x80\x94 Nov. 1 \n\nMurderous assault on justice Lawson at Dublin by \nPatrick Delany, a returned convict . 11 Nov. \n\nIrish land commission report issued about 13 Nov. \n\nThe land corporation of Ireland dissolved Nov. \n\nConviction of murderers of Joyce family ; Patrick \nJoyce, 15 Nov. ; Patrick Casey, 17 Nov. ; Myles \nJoyce, 18 Nov. [all executed, 15 Dec] ; Michael \nCasey, Thomas Joyce, John Casey, and Martin \nJoyce, confess ; sentence commuted ; Thomas \nCasey and Philbyn, approvers . . 21 Nov. \n\nMurderous assault on detectives in Dublin ; Cox \nkilled ; his murderer, Dowling, severely wounded \n\n25 Nov. \n\nMr. Field, a juryman, stabbed, 27 Nov. ; reward of \n5000Z. for assassin ; Dublin proclaimed under \nmartial law 28 Nov. \n\nPatrick and Thomas Higgins convicted of murder \nof Haddys at Lough Mask [executed 15-17 Jan. \n1883] . .\xe2\x80\xa2 . . . .13 and 16 Dec. \n\nAlso Michael Flyn 20 Dec. \n\nSylvester Poff, James Barrett, convicted of murder, \nat Cork 22 Dee. \n\nEmigration from Ireland, 89,566 in the year . . \n\nGreat distress in Donegal in the north-west ; 3433 \nagrarian outrages in the year . . Dec. 1882 \xe2\x80\x94 : \n\nArrest in Dublin of 21 persons, suspected of con- \nspiracy to murder . . . . 12, 13 Jan. \n\nRobert Farrell, approver, reveals plot for assassi- \nnation of the government ... 19 Jan. \n\nThe pope\'s letter to archbishop McCabe, exhorting \nthe clergy against secret societies, &c. about 20 Jan . \n\nExecution of Sylvester PofT and James Barrett, at \nTralee, for murder 23 Jan. \n\nM. Davitt, Thos. Healy, M.P., and P. Quinn bound \nover for seditious speeches, 24 Jan. ; elect to be \nimprisoned, 6 Feb. ; imprisoned . . 8 Feb. \n\nEight men charged with complicity in murder of \nlord Frederick Cavendish and Mr. Burke 3 Feb. \n\nIrish national league, first meeting . . 7 Feb. \n\nRevelations of James Carey, approver, implicating \nthe Land League (Thos. Brennan, sec, and P. J. \nSheridan) ; statement respecting the Irish Invin- \ncibles; arrest of Mrs. F.Byrne, charged with trans- \nmitting arms, &c, 17 Feb. ; discharged 20 Feb. \n\nAccused prisoners committed for trial . 20 Feb. \n\nMr. W. E. Forster\'s defence in the commons, and \ncharges against Mr. Parnell ; Mr. O\'Kelly sus- \npended for a week, for givinghim the lie 22-23 Feb. \n\nMr. Parnell\'s unsatisfactory reply . . 23 Feb. \n\nArrest of Mr. Byrne at Paris, 27 Feb. ; released, \nabout 9 March, \n\nFlight of Patrick Egan, treasurer of the Land \nLeague, from Dublin, 1 March; in New York \n\n12 March, \n\nMany thousand young forest trees for planting \ngiven by English, Scotch, and Irish nurserymen \n\nspring, \n\nK. C. bishops advocate government relief for dis- \ntress in Connaught, Jan. ; refused, poor-law relief \nreckoned sufficient March, \n\nTwelve members of the "Patriotic Brotherhood" \n(established at Crossmaglen, 1881) sentenced to \npenal servitude for conspiracy to murder land- \nlords . . . . . . 28 March, \n\nPhoenix-park murders ; Robt. Farrell, Jas. Carey, \nand others, approvers ; trial of Joseph Brady, \nconvicted, 11-13 April ; Timothy Kelly, third \ntrial, 7-0 May ; Thomas Caffrey pleads guilty, \n2 May ; Patrick Delany and Daniel Cm-ley, 16-18 \nApril ; Michael Fagan . . . 25-27 April, \n\nIrish convention at Philadelphia ; Parnell\'s policy \nadopted ; dynamiters defeated . 25-27 April, \n\nDetection of conspiracy of the "Vigilance" murder \norganization at Dublin; jirisoners examined, \n\nMay, \n\nPowerful circular from the pope, strictly enjoining \nthe bishops to abstain from favouring disaffection \nto the government, not to subscribe to testimo- \nnials, &c. [archbishop Croke, of Cashel, had given \n50Z. to the Parnell testimonial, &c] . 11 May, \n\nJames FitzHarris and others convicted of con- \nspiracy to murder ; sentenced to penal servitude \n16 May et seq. \n\nMessrs. Davitt, Healy, and Quinn released 4 June, \n\nExecuted : Joseph Brady (actual murderer), 14 \n\n\n\nIEELAKD. \n\n\n\n523 \n\n\n\nIEELAND. \n\n\n\nMay ; Daniel Curley, 18 May ; Michael Fagan, 28 \nMay ; Thomas Caff\'rey, 2 June ; Timothy Kelly, \n\n9 June, : \n\nIrish lace exhibition at the Mansion-house, London \n25 June\xe2\x80\x94 7 July, \n\nJames Carey, the approver, shot dead by Patrick \nO\'Donnell, 29 July, on board the Melrose Castle, \nnear Port Elizabeth, South Africa . 29 July, \n\nLoans amounting to 4,600,000?. for public works \nauthorised by parliament ... 25 Aug. \n\nNational League invade Ulster, strongly resisted \nby the Orangemen at Auchnacloy, Dungannon, \nand other places .... end of Sept. \n\nSir Stafford Northcote warmly received at Belfast, \nLondonderry, <fec 3 Oct. \n\nMeeting of National League at Ennis prohibited \n\nS Oct. \n\nMeetings of Orangemen and National Leaguers at \nGarrison, Fermanagh, prohibited . . 13 Nov. \n\nPatrick O\'Donnell convicted . . .1 Dee. \n\nMr. Trevelyan reports great diminution in agrarian \noutrage Oct. \xe2\x80\x94 Dec. \n\n38,000?. presented to Mr. Parnell ("as a national \ntribute " from the Irish pieople) at a banquet at \nthe Rotunda, Dublin . . . 11 Dec. \n\nExecution of Patrick O\'Donnell (see 29 July), at \nNewgate, 17 Dec. ; of James Poole, at Dublin, \nfor murder of John Kenny, informer . 18 Dec. \n\nA Parnellite land law amendment bill rejected by \nthe commons (as tending to confiscation), by \n235\xe2\x80\x9472 5 March, : \n\nEarl Spencer warmly received at Belfast 18 June, \n\nSerious libellous charges against Mr. Bolton, crown \nsolicitor ; subornation of witnesses, &c. \n\nJuly, Aug. \n\nCharges disproved ; letter from earl Spencer 23 Aug. \n\nIrish National League convention at Dublin, Mr. \nP. O\'Connor in the chair ; urges revival of agita- \ntion against the government ... 6 Sept. \n\nDeath of Mr. A. M. Sullivan, eminent Nationalist \n\n17 Oct. \n\nMr. H. Campbell-Bannerman, chief secretary, \nsworn in 24 Oct. \n\nMaamtrasma trial impugned ; their verdict sup- \nported by the commons \'219 \xe2\x80\x94 48) . 28 Oct. \n\nAttempted explosion of Edinburn-house (Samuel \nHussey, land agent) by dynamite, near Tralee, \nKerry ; no deaths .... 28 Nov. \n\nDeath of cardinal McCabe, pacific and loyal 11 Feb. \n\nParnellite manifesto directing Nationalist corpora- \ntions to maintain an attitude of reserve during the \nprince of Wales\' visit in April, issued about 16 Mar. \n\nThe prince of Wales arrives at Dublin, 8 April ; \nsails from Larue .... 27 April, \n\nThe Irish R. C. bishops summoned to Rome ; \narrive 21 April ; rebuked by the pope for \ndisloyalty, &c, in separate interviews, 27 April- \n15 May ; bishop Nulty\'s pastoral, foretelling \nsecession of Ireland from Rome, causes great \ndispleasure ; the bishops oppose projected reforms \nat Maynooth, but are said to submit, announced \n19 May ; dismissed about ... 25 May, \n\nThe earl of Carnarvon, lord lieutenant, arrives in \nDublin 30 June, \n\nSir William Hart-Dyke appointed chief Secretary \n\nJune \n\nStoppage of the Munster bank for about 70,000?. ; \nfraud disclosed July-Aug. 1885 ; reconstituted ; \nopened 19 Oct. \n\nLord Ashbourne\'s act, granting 5,000,000?. for the \npurchase of land by tenant to be paid by instal- \nments, passed 14 Aug. \n\nProgress of the earl of Carnarvon, lord lieut. in the \nwest ; well received ... 17 Aug. el seq. \n\nMr. Parnell\'s resolute declaration to the nationalists \nat Dublin 25 Aug. \n\nPrevention of crime act expires ; revival of boy- \ncotting and outrages .... Sept. \n\nThe first county con vention , for controlling elections, \nheld at Wicklow under Mr. Parnell . 5 Oct. \n\nCork defence union formed (the earl of Band on \npresident) against the tyranny of the national \nleague . Oct. \n\nThe Cork steam packet company threatened with \nboycotting by the league ; the company deter- \nmined on resistance .... 10 Oct. \n\n\n\nAghadoe house, Killarney (Mr. Hussey\'s), attacked \nby "moonlighters" and defended with fire-arms \n\n11 Oct. zl \n\nManifesto of Mr. Parnell claiming "home rule" \n&c, published n Nov. \n\nCastle farm, Molahiffe, in Kerry, attacked for arms \nby moonlighters ; Mr. John O\'Connell Curtain \nkilled, while his sons and daughters bravely \nresist ; one assailant killed . . 13 Nov. \n[S. Cassey and D. Daly convicted of burglary, \n&c. 21 Dec] \n\nElections : home-rule manifesto issued 21 Nov. \n\nIrish defence union formed to support local defence \nunions \n\nMr. W. H. Smith, M.P., chief secretary for a short \ntime \'\xe2\x80\xa2 Jan. 1 \n\nThe earl of Aberdeen, as lord lieut., and John \nMorley, as chief secretary, sworn in . 10 Feb. \n\nIrish loyal union, report to Mr. Gladstone, the \nsystematic cruel oppression of the national \nleague 27 March, \n\nMr. Gladstone in a long speech introduces a bill \n" to make better provision for the future govern- \nment of Ireland " ; it proposes to establish a \nlegislative body to sit in Dublin, to consist of \ntwo orders each with a veto ; I. twenty-eight \nrepresentative peers and seventy-five members \nelected for ten years ; II. the present 103 Irish \nmembers, and 101 additional : the lord lieutenant \nwith a privy council to be independent of Great \nBritain ; the new body empowered to enact laws \nand to impose and collect taxes, except the \ncustoms, but not to interfere with the army and \nnavy, or foreign and colonial affairs, and not to \nenact any religious endowment ; present legal \nand police arrangements to remain temporarily \nsubject to the crown ; no Irish members to sit at \nWestminster, 8-9 April ; read first time, 13-14 \nApril ; seeond reading rejected (343 [250 conser- \nvatives, 93 liberals]-3i3) ... 7-8 June, \n\nThe loyal and patriotic union formed May, 1885 ; \ngreat meeting at H. M.\'s theatre, London, earl \nCowper in the chair, the marquises of Salisbury \nand Harrington, and many leading eonservath e \nand liberal leaders present. Resolutions con- \ndemning Mr. Gladstone\'s Irish government bill \npassed ; petitions to be presented to parliament \n\n14 April, \n\nSale and purchase of land bill introduced by Mr. \nGladstone ; (proposed creation of 50,000,000?. 3 \nper cent, stock from 1887-90) read 1st time \n\n16 April, \n\n944 agrarian offences in 1885, reported . April, \n\nArchbishop Croke and his clergy express warm \ngratitude to Mr. Gladstone . about 30 April, \n\nImportant meetings of liberals and conservatives \nagainst Mr. Gladstone\'s policy . 14-15 May, \n\nIntimidation practised by the " house league " \nupon owners of houses in Kerry &c, to procure \nreduction of rent May, \n\nRiots at Belfast (which see) . 9, 10 June et seq. \n\nArmagh and Tyrone proclaimed under peace preser- \nvation act ...... 18 June, \n\nDissolution of parliament ; Mr. Gladstone being in \na minority, resigns 20 July ; Marquis of Salisbury \nsupported by unionists, resumes office 26 July, \n\nThe marquis of Londonderry as lord lieut., and \nsir Michael Hicks-Beach as chief secretary, \nappointed 26 July, \n\nConvention of about 1,000 delegates of Irish \nnational league of America meet at Chicago ; \nJohn Fitzgerald elected president 19-22 Aug. \n\nGen. sir Redvers Buller with civil plenary powers \nappointed to command in Kerry, Clare, and Cork ; \narrives at Killarney .... 30 Aug. \n\nMr. Parnell\'s amendment on the address negatived \n(304-181) 27, 28 Aug. \n\nMr. Parnell introduces tenants\' relief bill, n Sept. ; \nrejected (297-202) .... 21-22 Sept. \n\nCapture of moonlighters and arms at Castleisland, \nKerry 26 Sept. \n\nTwo women shot by moonlighters for refusing to \ncive ui) arms at a farm near Williamstown, Cork, \n6 l 4 Oct. \n\nPlans of organization (termed plan of campaign) of \ntenantry in ench estate against the landlords \nwith stringent measures proposed (probably \nby Mr. John Dillon, leader of the national \n\n\n\nIEELAND. \n\n\n\n524 \n\n\n\nIEELAND. \n\n\n\nparty, and Mr. William O\'Brien) in United \nInland, organ of the national league (the tenant \nwas to pay his rent to the league, and be sup- \nported by it if evicted) .... 21 Oct. 1886 \n\nSir Kobert Hamilton, under secretary (said to be \nhome ruler) resigns; (sir Red vers Buller temporary \nsuccessor) ; col. Turner acts in Kerry 30 Nov. ,, \n\nIncreased agrarian agitation . . . Nov. ,, \n\nOffices opened for the receipt of rents at Charleston, \nMayo (lord Dillon\'s estate), many deposits 2 Dec. ,, \n\nProsecution of Mr. Dillon ; the attorney-general \nterms the " plan of campaign " a combination of \ndebtors to coerce creditors n Dec. ; \'court of \nqueen\'s bench requires Mr. Dillon to find securi- \nties for good behaviour, or be imprisoned for six \nmonths I4 Dec. ,, \n\nMessrs. Dillon, Wm. O\'Brien, Matthew Harris, and \nSheehy arrested whilst receiving rents on lord \nClanricarde\'s estate, the books and money seized \n\n16 Dec. ,, \n\nProclamation against " plan of campaign " 18 Dec. ,, \n\nBents still illegally received by several M.P\'s. \n\nabout 18 Dec. et seq. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe seat of prosecution removed from Loughrea to \nDublin 20 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMr. Pamell states that he defers his opinion on the \nplan of campaign . . . about 18 Dec. ,, \n\nChief Baron Palles in sentencing 36 Irish rioters, \ncensures the "dispensing power" of the executive \nand the abstention of the police during riots at \nevictions 5 Jan. 1887 \n\nProsecution of Mr. Dillon, five other M.P\'s., and \nMr. O\'Brien (editor of United Ireland) begun at \nDublin, 23 Dec. ; committed and bailed n Jan. \n\nMr. Parnell\'s amendment on the address relating to \nIrish affairs negatived (352 [68 liberals]-246) \n\n11, 12 Feb. \n\nEvictions resisted by armed men ; an " emergency " \nman dies of wounds at Ballycar . 14, 15 Feb. \n\nResignation of sir M. Hicks-Beach, chief secretary, \nfor ill-health ; succeeded by Mr. Arthur J. \nBalfour 5 March, \n\nRiots at Youghal with bloodshed . 8 March, \n\nJustice O\'Brien at Kerry says : " Law is at an end. \nThere is a state of war with authority. " 10 March, \n\n*\' Parnellism and crime " (which see) published in \nthe Times 7 March, et seq. \n\nArrest of father Keller (supported by abp. Walsh) for \ncontempt of court in refusing to give evidence \n(as a confessor) in a bankruptcy case, 18 March ; \ncommitted to prison 19 March ; father Ryan \ncommitted for same cause . . 29 March, \n\nIncrease of crime and lawlessness in south and \nwest March, \n\nTrial of Messrs. Dillon and others, 14 Feb. ; jury \ndisagreeing, discharged 24 Feb. ; proceedings \nwithdrawn 1 April, \n\nFathers Keller and Ryan and others released \n\n21-24 May, \n\nLiberal unionist organization begins in Ireland \n\n24 May, \n\nNew criminal law procedure bill introduced by Mr. \nBalfour, 28 March ; much opposition, Irish \nmembers and others retire 17-30 June, read 3rd \ntime 8-9 July, passed by the lords 18 July ; \nroyal assent* 19 July, \n\n\n\n* Members of parliament sentenced to imprisonment \nunder the new act. 1887. Mr. W. O\'Brien 31 Oct. ; Mr. \nE. Harrington 1 Dec; Mr. T. Harrington 19 Dec; \nMr. Hooper 19 Dec. ; Mr. Sheehy 21 Dec. \n\n1888. Mr. J. R. Cox 25 Jan. ; Mr. P. O\'Brien 8 Feb. ; \nMr. Pyne 15 Feb. ; Mr. Flyn 25 Feb. ; Mr. Gilhooly 5 \nMarch ; Mr. W. O\'Brien 3 May, 20 June ; Mr. Condon 27 \nMay ; Mr. Dillon 20 June ; Mr. James O\'Kelly 10 Aug. ; \nMr. Redmond 26 Sept. \n\n1889. Mr. John O\'Connor 31 Jan. ; Mr. D. Sheehy 1 \nFeb. ; Mr. J. R. Cox 2 Feb. ; Mr. T. Condon 7 Feb. ; Mr. \nKilbride 8 Feb. ; Mr. W. O\'Brien 19 Feb. ; Mr. Carew \n21 Feb. ; Dr. Tanner 7 Match ; Mr. Condon, Mr. Connor, \nand Dr. Tanner 1 May ; Mr. Conybeare 3 May ; Mr. W. \nO\'Brien and Mr. Gilhooly 25 Aug. ; Mr. Redmond 22 \nSept. \n\n1890. Messrs. Wm. and Patrick O\'Brien and John \nDillon 19 Nov. \n\n1891. Mr. W. O\'Brien and J. Dillon, 13 Feb 31 July. \n\n\n\nEvictions at Bodyke in Clare, on property of \ncolonel O\'Callaghan; violently resisted early June, 1S87 \n\nLabourer shot by a gang near Killarney 13 June, ,, \n\nPrince Albert Victor and George of Wales visit \nIreland 27 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nJubilee address of unionist Roman catholics to the \nqueen 29 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGreat meeting at Cork to resist the operation of the \ncrimes act 19 July, ,, \n\nEighteen counties proclaimed under the crimes act ; \ntwelve counties partly proclaimed, together with \nDublin and nine other cities . . 23 July, ,, \n\nMonsignor Persico visits Ireland on behalf of the \npope July, ,, \n\nNew Irish land bill (favourable to the tenant) \npassed ; royal assent .... 23 Aug. ,, \n\nThe national league proclaimed as a " dangerous \nassociation " 19 Aug ; Mr. Gladstone\'s motion for \nan address to the queen against the proclamation \nnegatived (272-194) . . \xe2\x96\xa0 . 25-26 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNationalist meeting at Ballycoree in Clare pro- \nclaimed 31 Aug. ; attempted meeting dispersed \n\n4 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMeeting in support of Mr. W. O\'Brien, M.P., \nand Mr. Mandeville, who refuse to obey the \nmagistrates\' summons respecting speeches at \nMitchelstown on 9, 10 Aug. ; about 150 horse- \nmen and crowd, about 3,000, armed with \nbludgeons and stones ; Messrs. Labouchere, \nDillon, Brunner and other M.P\'s. present ; the \npolice with the government reporter (Conderon) \nattacked with stones and bludgeons, retreat to \nbarracks ; return reinforced ; compelled to fire ; \nMichael Lonergan and John Shinnery killed \nand many wounded ; town quieted by military \n\n9 Sept. ,, \n\nConstable Whelehan killed and three others \nwounded in defending T. Sexton\'s house near \nLisdoonvarna against moonlighters . 11 Sept. ,, \n\n[Leary and four others sentenced to penal servitude \n10 Dec] \n\nThe national league in Clare and several baronies \n(200 branches) suppressed by proclamation 20 Sept. , , \n\nMr. O\'Brien and Mr. Mandeville sentenced to three \nmonths\' imprisonment ... 24 Sept. ,, \n\nThe lord mayor of Dublin (Mr. T. D. Sullivan) \ncharged with offence against the crimes act (see \nDublin) 6 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMany meetings of suppressed branches of the \nnational league 9 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMr. Joseph Chamberlain, M.P., warmly received at \nBelfast and other places in Ulster by the liberal \nunionists and others . . . 11 Oct. et seq. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nVerdict of coroner\'s jury on deaths at Mitchelstown ; \nwilful murder against county inspector Brown- \nrigg, sergeants Ryder and Kirwan, and con- \nstables Gavan, Brennan, and Doran . 12 Oct. ,, \n\n[Verdict quashed by the queen\'s bench, Dublin, \n10 Feb. 1888.] \n\nCol. sir Joseph West Ridgeway succeeds sir \nRedvers Buller as under-secretary for Ireland \n\nabout 15 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMidnight meeting at Woodford ; Mr. O\'Brien \npresent 16 Oct. ,, \n\nCork county and city placed under the crimes act \n\n24 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAt a riotous meeting at Woodford which had been \nproclaimed, Mr. Wilfrid Blunt, the chairman, \nand others arrested, and the meeting dispersed, \n23 Oct; Mr. Blunt sentenced to two months\' \nimprisonment ; appeals ... 27 Oct. ,, \n\n[Sentence confirmed 7 Jan. i388.] \n\nMany evictions violently resisted, autumn . ,, \n\nMr. W. O\'Brien withdraws his appeal ; after \nresistance sent to prison for three months ; \nsentence confirmed against Mr. Mandeville, two \nmonths\' imprisonment, 31* Oct ; removed from \nCork to Tullamore gaol, King\'s county 2 Nov. ,, \n\nOther arrests and imprisonments . . Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLimerick city proclaimed . . about 14 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe national league suppressed in Kerry 22 Nov. ,, \n\nSerious riots at Limerick through attempted \nmeeting to inaugurate a memorial of the so- \ncalled martyrs executed at Manchester (which \nsee) in 1867 . . . . . 27 Nov. \n\nGreat unionist meeting at Leinster hall, Dublin, to \nreceive lord Harrington and Mr. Gbschen ; the \n\n\n\nIRELAND. \n\n\n\n525 \n\n\n\nIRELAND. \n\n\n\nmost eminent persons in professions, learning, \n\' commerce &c. present ... 29 Nov. 18 \nDeath of Dr. Daniel M\'Gettigan, R. C. archbishop \nof Armagh ; judicious, tolerant, and amiable \n\n3 Dec. , \nConvention of Irish landlords in Dublin to consider \ntheir prospects and conduct, 15 Sept. ; require \n\nlegislation 13-15 Dec. , \n\nFather Matthew Ryan, R. C, sentenced to one \n\nmonth\'s imprisonment for sedition . 22 Dec. , \nLarge reductions of rents ordered by the land \n\ncommission 27 Dec. , \n\nMany arrests under the crimes act, and imprison- \nments Dec. 1887-Jan. 18 \n\nVisit of the marquis of Ripon and Mr. John \n\nMorley, M.P., to Dublin ... 1-3 Feb. , \nMr. Parnell\'s amendment on the address attacking \nthe government Irish policy moved, 13 Feb. ; \nnegatived (317-229) . . . . 17 Feb. , \nMr. Parnell\'s land law amendment bill dealing with \narrears rejected (328-243) . . 21 March, \nAttempted proclaimed meetings dispersed by the \npolice and military at Loughrea, Ennis (by col. \nTurner), and other places ... 8 April, , \nThe plan of campaign and boycotting condemned \nby the pope on moral grounds, 18 April ; rescript \n\nissued 20 April, \n\nMr. Carew\'s county government bill rejected \n\n(282-195) 25 April, \n\nExecution of Daniel Hayes and Daniel Moriarty for \nthe murder of James Fitzmaurice, a farmer (on \n\n31 Jan.) 28 April, \n\nExecution of James Kirby at Tralee gaol for the \nmurder of Patrick Quirke at Liscahane, Kerry, \n\n(8 Nov. 1887) 7 Ma y. \n\nThe exchequer division affirms right of county \n\ncourt to increase sentences on appeal 17 May, \n\nMeeting of catholic M.P\'s. in Dublin, who \n\nresist the pope\'s interference in political affairs, \n\n17 May ; of others in Phoenix park . 20 May, \n\nThe R. C. bishops accept the papal rescript May, \n\nMr. John Morley\'s motion for vote of censure of the \n\ngovernment for its Irish policy negatived (366- \n\n273) 25-27 June, \n\nThe duke of Argyll\'s resolution in the lords \nwarmly commending the government\'s Irish \npolicy accepted nem. con. ... 12 July, \nEvictions on the Vandeleur estate violently but \nunsuccessfully resisted . . 19, 20, 24 July, \nCoroner\'s inquiry into the death of Mr. John \nMandeville (imprisoned Nov. 1887) ; 19 July ; \n[suicide of Dr. Ridley of Tullamore gaol, 20 July ; \n1888] verdict \xe2\x80\x94 disease caused by ill-usage in \n\nprison 28 July, \n\nMr. Parnell in the house of commons asserts the \nletters attributed to him in Parnellism and crime \nto be forgeries, and the charges against him to be \nfalse, 6 July ; Mr. Parnell\'srequestfor a select com- \nmittee to investigate the charges in the Times \nrefused by the government, 9 July ; Mr. W. H. \nSmith proposes the appointment of a royal \ncommission of judges to examine these charges, \n12 July ; bill read first time, 16-17 July ; names \nmentioned, sir James Hannen, president, Mr. \nJustice Day, and Mr. Justice A. L. Smith ; act \n\npassed 13 Aug. \n\nGreat diminution of crime ; boycotting reduced by . \n\nthree-fourths in twelve months . . Aug. \nMr. Parnell proceeds against the Times in the \n\nScotch courts Aug. \n\nSee Parnellite commission. \nNonconformist ministers of Ireland present an \naddress to the marquises of Salisbury and \nHartington, protesting against the separatist \n\npolicy 14 Nov. \n\nMr. E. Harrington fined 500L for contempt of \ncourt in his paper, the Kerry Sentinel . Nov. \nRenewal of lord Ashbourne\'s act of 1885, granting \n5,000,000?. proposed Nov. ; Mr. Gladstone\'s \namendment rejected (330-246), 20 Nov. ; 2nd read- \ning carried (299-224), 22 Nov. ; passed 24 Dec. \nVerdict for Mr. Joyce against lord Clanricarde for \n\nlibel on appeal Dec. \n\nLetter from pope to Irish people expressing \nsympathy and advice and gifts to the Irish \n\nchurches 1 Jan. \n\nMr. Win. O\'Brien, M.P., sentenced to four months\' \n\n\n\nimprisonment, 25 Jan. ; (escaped), arrested at a \nmeeting at Manchester .... 29 Jan. i\xc2\xa3 \nDeputy inspector Win. Limerick Martin killed \nwhile attempting to arrest father McFadden, P. P. , \nat Gweedore, Donegal .... 3 Feb. , \nThe court of session, Edinburgh, dismisses Mr. \nParnell\'s action against the Times with costs \n\n5 Feb. \n\nMr. Dillon, sir Thomas Esmonde, and Mr. Deasy, \n\nM.P.\'s, Home Rule delegates to Australia, &c, \n\narrive at Adelaide .... 11 April, \n\nMr. Parnell moves for a trial against the Times in \n\nthe exchequer division, Dublin 11 Feb. ; finally \n\nstopped April, \n\nGreat decrease of agrarian outrages (1881, 4,439 ; \n\n1888, 660) announced .... 21 Feb. \n\nLiberal subscription to support Mr. Olphert of \n\nGweedore, Donegal, in his conflict with the \n\nnational league and the plan of campaign May, \n\nThe negotiations between Sir. T. W. Russell and Mr. \n\nShaw to settle the dispute fail . . May, \n\nResisted evictions on the Vandeleur, Lansdowne, \n\nSmith-Barry, Ponsonby, and other estates \n\nMay-July, \nMr. A. J. Balfour explains his bills for the improve- \nment of Ireland (drainage of the Bann, Barrow, \nand Shannon, by grants of 383,000?., and the con- \nstruction of light railways was also proposed) \n\n31 May, \nMr. William O\'Brien arrested for speech at Clona- \n\nkilty 30 June, \n\nMr. W. O\'Brien and Mr. Parnell announce the \nformation of a New Tenants\' Defence League, \n{which see) . . . . . . 10, n July \n\nDr. Tanner sentenced to one month\'s imprisonment \nfor an assault, and to three months for contempt \n\nof court 29 July, \n\nThe light railways bill read scond time 19 July, \n\nThe mission of Mr. Dillon and other delegates to \n\nAustralia to obtain support for home rule, reported \n\nunsuccessful ; meetings at Sydney, Melbourne, \n\nand Brisbane, protest against them . . July, \n\nThe Suck drainage bill and the light railways bill \n\npassed 30 Aug. \n\nFather O\'Dwyerandg of his parishioners sentenced \nto 5 months and other terms of imprisonment for \nintimidation and conspiracy . . middle Sept. \nMr. William O\'Brien sentenced to two months\' im- \nprisonment and Mr. James Gilhooly to six weeks \n\n25 Aug. \nThe earl of Zetland sworn in as lord lieutenant 5 Oct. \nNational league proclaimed in Dnngarvan district \n7 Oct., and in places in county Tipperary, n Oct. \nMr. Justice Gibson at Maryborough tries persons \nimplicated in the murder of deputy-inspector \nMartin at Gweedore (3 Feb.) 17 Oct. Sentences \nfor manslaughter Wm. Coll, 10 years\' penal servi- \ntude : \xe2\x80\x94 pleaded guilty, Patrick Roarty and Domi- \nnick Rogers, 7 years\' ; Connell M\'Gee, 5 years\' ; 3 \nothers, 6 months\' imprisonment with hard labour ; \nfathei M\'Fadden reprimanded . . 30 Oct. \nThe mission of Mr. Dillon and other M.P.\'s to \nAustralia, said to have received 27,000?. ; proceeds \nto New Zealand .... about 31 Oct. \nMeeting of the Tenants\' Defence Association at \n\nThurles 28 Oct. \n\nThe tenants on the Ponsonby estate, who have paid \nno rent and refused very liberal terms, appeal \n\nagainst ejectment 5 Nov. \n\nFailure of Plan of Campaign through combination of \nlandlords ; the tenants of the Olphert estate \n\npay the rent due Nov. \n\nMr. Parnell speaks at Nottingham 17, 18 Dec. ; \nvisits Mr. Gladstone at Hawarden, 18 Dec. ; at \n\nLiverpool 19 Dec. \n\nFirst meeting of the Landlords\' convention at \n\nDublin 18 Dec. \n\nProclamations relaxing the stringency of the Crimes \n\nact in some counties . . . 24 Jan., 16 Feb. \n\nThe Irish Democratic Labour Association started \n\nat Cork by Michael Da vitt . . . 21 .tan. \n\nMr. Parnell\'s censure of the government policy in \n\nIreland (negatived 307-240) . . 14-18 Feb. \n\nMr. Joseph Gillis Biggar, M.P., eminent Parnellite, \n\ndies suddenly 19 Feb. \n\nNew Land Purchase bill introduced by Mr. A. J. \nBalfour 24 March, read 2nd time, 348-286 1 May, \n\n\n\nIRELAND. \n\n\n\n526 \n\n\n\nIRELAND. \n\n\n\n\'The new Land Purchase bill re-introduced by Mr. \nA. J. Balfour 28 Nov. \n\nPonsonby estate, Cork (237 tenants), plan of cam- \npaign adopted, Nov. 1886 ; evicted, 1887, 10 ; \n1888, 3 ; 1889, 32 ; the remainder without resist- \nances I 7 - 3\xc2\xb0 April, \n\nNationalist meeting at New Tipperary, held though \nproclaimed ; Messrs. Dillon, W. O\'Brien, J. \nO\'Connor, and others present . . . 25 May \n\n"General Viscount Wolseley appointed commander- \nin-chief in Ireland (beginning Oct., succeeding \nprince Edward of Saxe-Weimar) . . July, \n\nThomas Walsh and two others sentenced to seven \nyears\' penal servitude for moonlight outrages \n\n26 July \n\nThe National League issues a circular to its branches \n\nurging exertions to obtain subscriptions, &c, \n\nannounced 7 Aug. \n\n.\xe2\x80\xa2Strikes in Dublin, Belfast, and other places \n\nJuly, et seq. \n\nTour of Messrs. John Dillon and William O\'Brien \nin Tipperary, &c. ; arrested with three M.P.\'s and \nseven others, on charge of conspiring to induce \nMr. Smith Barry\'s tenants not to pay rent, and \nto intimidate them ; bailed, 18 Sept. ; prosecu- \ntion begun at Tipperary before Mr. J. B. Irwin \nand Mr. G. B. Shannon ... 25 Sept. \n\n{Mr. W. O\'Brien and Mr. Dillon do not appear, \n10 Oct. ; at Paris, 16 Oct. ; sail for America, 25 \nOct. ; at New York, 2 Nov.] \n\nSentences: W. O\'Brien, M. P., John Dillon, M. P., \nPatrick O\'Brien, M.P., and John Cullinane, 6 \nmonths\' imprisonment ; Michael O\'Brien, Dalton, \nPatrick Mockler, and Thos. Walsh, 4 months\' \n\n19 Nov. \n\nMr. A. J. Balfour visits Mayo and other western \ndistricts threatened with famine; warmly re- \nceived 24-3\xc2\xb0 Oct. \n\nBridget Flanagan, daughter of Patrick, shot dead \n\nin her bed by moonlighters, probably in mistake \n\nfor her father, who had taken a derelict farm \n\nabout 28 Oct. \n\nMr. Balfour visits Donegal, &c. . . 4-7 Nov. \n\nExtensive evictions on the Olphert\'s estate at Fal- \ncarragh 12 Nov. et seq. \n\nIntervention of the R. C. bishop of Raphoe, Dr. \nO\'Donnell : Mr. Olphert requires the total aban- \ndonment of the "plan of campaign" on the \nestate ; no agreement 12 Nov. ; evictions proceed \n\n15 Nov. \n\nThe National League suppressed in townlands in \nFermanagh, Monagan and Waterford . 14 Nov. \n\nMr. Balfour introduces new Land Purchase and \nCongested Districts bills, 27 Nov. ; and a bill to \nrelieve the congested districts by providing seed \npotatoes, and by the construction of railways, \nroads, &c, 4 Dec. ; royal assent given to the bills \n\n9 Dec. \n\nFor the division in the Irish Home Rule party see \nParnellites Dec. \n\nMr. Parnell warmly received at Dublin, Cork, &c. \n10 Dec. et seq. \n\nHe forcibly occupies the office of United Ireland at \nDublin, 9, 10 Dec. ; two rival editions issued \n\n12 Dec. \n\nNorth Kilkenny election ; Mr. Vincent Scully, Par- \nnellite, opposed by sir J. Pope Hennessy, anti- \nParnellite ; fierce conflicts ; Hennessy elected. \n\n23 Dec. \n\nMoonlighters of Clare and Leitrim, convicted of \noutrages, at Sligo : sentenced to penal servitude : \nTimothy Lalor for life ; seven others for 20 years ; \nfour for two years, and two for 1 year . 19 Dec. \n\n\'The construction of the light railways begun at \nValencia ; road-making begun . . . Dec. \n\n\'The anti-Parnellite newspaper named Insuppressible \nabout 24 Dec. \n\nThe earl of Zetland, lord lieutenant, and Mr. A. J. \nBalfour appeal to the public for assistance in the \nrelief of the distress in the congested districts \nof the western coast, 3 Jan. (see Irish Distress \nFund), published 5 Jan. 1 \n\nRelief works actively progressing ; several thou- \nsands employed \xe2\x80\x94 men, women, and children Jan. \n\nThe Inswppressiole stopped . . . . 24 Jan. \n\nMr. Shaw-Lefevre\'s resolution for the application \nof arbitration in disputes between landlord and \ntenant negatived (213-152) . . . 3oJaD. \n\n\n\nBartholomew Sullivan executed at Tralee for the \nmurder of Patrick Flahive (30 Aug. ^1886), who \nhad taken an evicted farm . . . . 2 Feb. 1 \n\nMen employed on light railways, 281 ; unskilled, \n7,412 2 Feb. \n\nMr. Parnell refuses to resign his leadership ; dis- \nruption of the party, 11 Feb. ; Messrs. W. O\'Brien \nand J. Dillon, after fruitless conferences with Mr. \nParnell at Boulogne, come to Folkestone, are \narrested and conveyed to Clonmel gaol, 13 Feb. ; \nto Galway 19 Feb. \n\nMr. John Morley\'s resolution, condemning the \nTipperary prosecutions, negatived by the com- \nmons (320-245) 16-17 Feb. \n\nMr. Parnell commences a long series of public meet- \nings on Sundays ; at Roscommon and other places \n\n22 Feb. \n\nThe National Press, anti-Parnellite paper, first pub- \nlished 7 March \n\nNational Federation {which see), anti-Parnellite, \ninaugurated at Dublin . . . . 10 March \n\nMr. A. J. Balfour reports to the commons the suc- \ncessful results of the efforts made to relieve Irish \ndistress ; 55,831?. voted for relief works, &c. ; \n136,200?. for construction of light railways (7,392 \npersons employed on 28 Feb.) . .12 March \n\nGreat decrease of crime in the south, reported by \njustice Monroe 18 March, \n\nThe countess of Zetland, Miss Balfour, and others \nvisit the relieved districts ; warmly received \n\n6-1 1 April \n\nThe lord lieutenant visits counties Cork, Kerry, \nClare, and Galway ; warmly received 5-14 May \n\nExplosion of a powder magazine by dynamite at \nDonaghadee, co. Down . . . -13 May \n\nThe crimes act suspended throughout Ireland, \nexcept in co. Clare and a few baronies . 13 June \n\nMr. A. J. Balfour in the commons reports the com- \nplete success of his remedial measures . 22 July \n\nMr. W. O\'Brien and Mr. Dillon liberated from gaol ; \ndeclare their opposition to Mr. Parnell . 31 July \n\nPurchase of Land and Congested Districts act \npassed . 5 Aug. \n\nThe Freeman\'s Journal proprietors determine to \nsupport the anti-Parnellites . . .28 Aug. \n\nVisit of the duke of Cambridge to inspect the forces ; \narrives in Dublin 26 Sept. \n\nNational League convention at Limerick . Oct. , \n\nMr. Parnell delivers an address at Greggs, Galway, \n27 Sept. ; dies of rheumatic fever near Brighton, \n6 Oct. ; public Nationalist funeral at Dublin, \norderly and impressive . . . .11 Oct. \n\nMr. Wm. L. Jackson becomes chief secretary \n\n9 Nov. \n\nRelief works closed as not required . . Nov. \n\nThe Independent, new Parnellite journal, published \n\n18 Dec. \n\nMr. J. E. Redmond, Parnellite, elected M.P. for \nWaterford, in opposition to Mr. Michael Davitt, \nthe clerical candidate . . . -23 Dec. . \n\nThe corporation of London, the Irish Society, and \n43 London companies, summoned to appear in \nDublin to answer charges respecting the manage- \nment of their Irish estates . . . 2 Jan. 18 \n\nLandowners\' convention, annual meeting 3, 4 Feb. , \n\nMr. Justin M\'Carthy elected by the anti-Parnellites \nsessional chairman 5 Feb. , \n\nAbove 150 tenants on the Ponsonby estate sign \nagreements to purchase their holdings under the \nAshbourne act Feb. , \n\nIrish Education bill introduced by Mr. Wm. L. \nJackson, 22 Feb., much opposed by the R. C. \nclergy early March , \n\nEvicted Tenants\' (relief) bill rejected by the com- \nmons (229-174) 2 March , \n\nThe National Press amalgamated with the Freeman\'s \nJournal (litigation ensued) . about 25 March , \n\nMeeting of Ulster men at Belfast to form a conven- , \ntion to oppose Home Rule (to be on 17 June) \n\n8 April , \n\nMeeting of Irish unionist alliance at Dublin \n\n28 April , \nLocal Government bill (which see) introduced by \nMr. Balfour, 18 Feb., read 2nd time, 24 May; \n\nwithdrawn 13 June, ,, \n\nThe education bill passed . . .27 June, ,, \n\nUlster convention (which see) at Belfast . 17 June, ,. \nGreat unionist meetings at Dublin . . 23 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nIRELAND. \n\n\n\n527 \n\n\n\nIRELAND. \n\n\n\n1014. \n\n\n\n1072. \n\n\n\n1132. \n\n\n\n1172. \n\n\n\nKINGS AND GOVERNORS OF IRELAND.* \nKINGS. \n\n979 or 980. Maol Ceachlin II. (Malachi) deposed, \nxooi or 1002. Brian Baromy or Boroimhe, king of Mini- \nster, slain after totally defeating the Danes at \nClontarf, 23 April, 1014. \n\nMaol Ceachlin II. restored ; dies 1022 or 1023. \n[Disputed succession.] \n\nDonough, or Denis, O\'Brian, son. \n\nTirloch, or Turlough, nephew ; dies 1086. \n-1132. The kingdom divided ; fierce contests for it. \n\nTordel Vach ; killed in battle. \n\nRoderic, or Roger, O\'Connor. \n\nHenry II. king of England. \n\n[The English monarchs were styled "Lords of \nIreland" until the reign of Henry VIII., who \nfirst styled himself king.] \n\ngovernors of Ireland (with various titles. )t \n\n172. Hugues de Lasci. 1 173, Rich. Fitz-Gislebert, earl of \nPembroke. 11 76, Raymond leGros. ii77,prince \nJohn (afterwards king), made lord of Ireland. \n\n1184 et seq. Justiciars. The changes were so frequent \nthat the more important officers only are given. \nSee "Gilbert\'s History of the Viceroys," 1865. \n\n1189, 1203, 1205. Hugues de Lasci. \n\n1199, 1204. Meiller Fitz-Henri (son of Henry II.) \n\n1215, 1226. Geoffrey de Marreis. \n\n1229-32-33. Maurice Fitzgerald. \n\n1308. Piers Gaveston, earl of Cornwall. 1312, Edmund \nle Botiller. 1316, Roger de Mortimer. 1320, \nThomas Fitzgerald. 1321, John de Bermingham. \n1327, earl of Kildare. 1328 and 1340, Prior \nRoger Utlagh. 1332, sir John d\'Arcy. 1337, \nsir John de Cherlton. 1344, sir Raoul d\'Ufford. \n1346, sir Roger d\'Arcy ; sir John Moriz. 1348, \nWalter de Bermingham. 135s, Maurice, earl of \nDesmond. 1356, Thomas de Rokeby. 1357, \nAlmeric de St. Amand. 1359, James, earl of \nOrmond. 1361, Lionel, duke of Clarence. 1367, \nGerald, earl of Desmond. 1369 and 1374, Wil- \nliam de Windsor. 1376, Maurice, earl of Kildare, \nand James, earl of Ormond. 1380, Edmund Mor- \ntimer, earl of March. 1385, Robert de Vere, \nearl of Oxford. 1389 and 139S, sir John Stanley. \n1391, James, earl of Ormond. 1393, Thomas, \nduke of Gloucester. 1395, Roger de Mortimer, \nearl of March, killed. 1398, Reginald Grey and \nThomas de Holland. \n\n1401 and 1408, Thomas, earl of Lancaster. 1413, sir John \nStanley and sir John Talbot. 1420, James, earl \nof Ormond. 1423, Edmund de Mortimer, earl of \nMarch. 1425, sir John Talbot. 1427, sir John \nde Grey. 1428, sir John Sutton, lord Dudley. \n1431 and 1435, sir Thomas Stanley. 1438, Leon, \nlord de Welles. 1446, John, earl of Shrewsbury. \n1449, Richard, duke of York. 1461, George, \nduke of Clarence. 1470, earl of Worcester. 1478, \nJohn de la Pole, earl of Suffolk. 1481, Richard, \nearl of Kildare. 1483, Gerald, earl of Kildare. \n1484, John de la Pole, earl of Lincoln. 1485, \nJasper, duke of Bedford. 1494, Henry, duke of \nYork, afterwards Henry VIII. (his deputy, sir \nE. Poynings). 1496, Gerald, earl of Kildare, \nand in 1504, 1513. 1521, Thomas Howard, earl \nof Surrey. 1529, Heniy, duke of Richmond. \n\n* The list of Irish sovereigns, printed in previous edi- \ntions, has been omitted. The Irish writers carry their \nsuccession of kings very high. The learned antiquary, \nThomas Innes, of the Scots\' College of Paris, expressed \nhis wonder that "the learned men of the Irish nation \nhave not, like those of other nations, yet published the \nvaluable remains of their ancient history whole and en- \ntire, with just translations, in order to separate what is \nfabulous, and only grounded on the traditions of their \npoets and bards, from what is certain history." "O\'Fla- \nherty, Keating, Toland, Kennedy, and other modern \nIrish historians, have rendered all uncertain, by deducing \ntheir history from the Deluge with as much assurance as \nthey deliver the transactions of Ireland from St. Patrick\'s \ntime. " \xe2\x80\x94 Anderson. \n\nt Lords justices and deputies, and latterly Lords \nLieutenant It has been several times proposed to \nabolish the viceroyalty of Ireland, but without success. \nThe last time 25 March, 1858, \n\n\n\nGerald, his son, 1556-61. Thomas, earl of \nSussex. [Among the lord deputies, 1560, &c, \nsir Wm. Fitzwilliam. 15S4, sir John Perrotj. \n1599, Robert, earl of Essex. \n\n1603. Sir Charles Blount, lord Mountjoy, made earl of \nDevonshire. 1640, Thos. , viscount Wentworth, \nearl of Strafford. 1643 and 1648, James, marquis \nof Ormond. 1647, Philip, lord Lisle. 1649, Oliver \nCromwell. 1657, Henry Cromwell. 1662, James \nButler, duke of Ormond. 1669, John Roberts, \nlord Roberts. 1670, John, lord Berkeley. 1672, \nArthur Capel, earl of Essex. 1677, James Butler, \nduke of Ormond. 1685, Henry Hyde, earl of \nClarendon. 1687, Richard Talbot, earl of Tyr- \nconnel. 1690, Henry Sydney, lord Sydney. 1695, \nHenry Capel, lord Capel. \n\n1700. Laurence Hyde, earl of Rochester. 1703, James \nButler, duke of Ormond. 1707, Thomas, earl of \nPembroke. 1709, Thomas, earl of Wharton. \n1710, James, duke of Ormond, again. 1713, \nCharles, duke of Shrewsbury. 1717, Charles, \nduke of Bolton. 1721, Charles, duke of Grafton. \n1724, John, lord Carteret. 1731, Lionel, duke of \nDorset. 1737, William, duke of Devonshire. \n1745, Philip, earl of Chesterfield. 1747, William, \nearl of Harrington. 1751, Lionel, duke of Dor- \nset, again. 1755, William, duke of Devonshire, \n1757, John, duke of Bedford. 1761, George, earl \nof Halifax. 1763, Hugh, earl of Northumberland. \n1765, Francis, earl of Hertford. \n\n1767. George, viscount Townshend, 14 Oct. \n\n1772. Simon, earl of Harcourt, 30 Nov. \n\n1777. John, earl of Buckinghamshire, 25 Jan. \n\n1780. Fred., earl of Carlisle, 23 Dec. \n\n1782. Win. Henry, duke of Portland, 14 April. \n,, George, earl Temple, 15 Sept. \n\n1783. Robert, earl of Northington, 3 June. \n\n1784. Charles, duke of Rutland, 24 Feb.; died 24 Oct. \n\n1787. \n1787. George, marquis of Buckingham (late earl Temple), \n\nagain, 2 Nov. \n1790. John, earl of Westmorland, 5 Jan. \n1794. William, earl Fitzwilliam, 10 Dec. \n\n,, John, earl Camden, n March. \n1798. Charles, marquis Cornwallis, 13 June. \n1801. Philip, earl of Hardwicke, 25 May. \n\n1806. John, duke of Bedford, 18 March. \n\n1807. Charles, duke of Richmond, ig April. \n1813. Charles, earl Whitworth, 26 Aug. \n1817. Charles, earl Talbot, 9 Oct. \n\n1821. Richard, marquis Wellesley, 29 Dec. \n\n1828. Henry, marquis of Anglesey, 1 March. \n\n1829. Hugh, duke of Northumberland, 6 March. \n\n1830. Henry, marquis of Anglesey, again, 23 Dec. \n\n1833. Marquis Wellesley, again, 26 Sept. \n\n1834. Thomas, earl of Haddington, 29 Dec \n\n1835. Henry, marquis of Normanby, 23 April \n\n1839. Hugh, viscount Ebrington, afterwards earl For \n\ntescue, 3 April. \n1841. Thomas Philip, earl de Grey, 15 Sept. \n1844. William, lord Heytesbury, 12 July. \n\n1846. John William, earl of Bessborough, 9 July ; died \n\n16 May, 1847. \n\n1847. George William Frederick, earl of Clarendon, 26 May. \n\n1852. Archibald William, earl of Eglinton, 28 Feb. \n\n1853. Edward Granville, earl of St. Germans, Jan. \n1855. George, earl of Carlisle, March. \n\n1858. Archibald, earl of Eglinton, again, Feb., resigned. \n\n1859. George, earl of Carlisle, again, June; died 5 Dec. 1864! \n1864. John, lord Wodehouse, aft. earl of Kimberley, 1 Nov. \n1866. James, marquis of Abercorn, July ; made duke, \n\n6 Aug. 1868. \n1868. John, earl Spencer, Dec. \n\n1874. James, duke of Abercorn, Feb. ; died 37 Oct. 1S85. \n1876. John, duke of Marlborough, 28 Nov. \n1880. Francis T. de Grey, earl Cowper, 5 May. Resigned \n\nApril, 1882. \n1882. John Poyntz, earl Spencer, May. \n\n1885. Henry Howard Molyueux Herbert, earl of Car- \n\nnarvon, 24 June, resigned Jan. 1886. \n\n1886. John Campbell Hamilton Gordon, earl of Aber- \n\ndeen, about 5 Feb. \n\n1886. Charles Stewart Vane-Tempest-Stewart, marquis of \nLondonderry, Aug. \n\n1889. Lawrence Dundas. Earl of Zetland, 29 May ; mar- \nquis, Aug. 1892. \n\n1892. Robert O. A. Milnes, baron Houghton, 18 Aug. \n\n\n\nIRELAND FORGERIES. \n\n\n\n528 \n\n\n\nIRON. \n\n\n\nIRELAND FORGERIES. In 1786 W. H. \nIreland made public the Shakspeare manuscripts \nwhich he had forged, and deceived many critics. \nThe play, " Vortigern," was performed at Drury- \nlane theatre on 2 April, 1796. He shortly after ac- \nknowledged the forgery, and published his "Con- \nfessions" in 1805. He died in 1835. \n\nIRELAND, YOUNG, a party (or rather \n"school"), formed for the regeneration of the \ncountry, founded by Thos. Oshorne, Charles Gavan \nDuffy (who established and conducted " The \nNation" from 1842 to 1855), Smith O\'Brien and \nothers in 1840. Some of their proceedings led to the \nstate trials of 1843 and 1848. Mr. Duffy (afterwards \npremier of Victoria, Australia, and K.C.M.G.) pub- \nlished "Young Ireland, a Fragment of Irish History, \n1840-50," in 1880. The formation of a "Young \nIreland league," was proposed at a meeting in \nDublin, 17 Sept. 1891. \n\nIRIDIUM AND OSMIUM. In i804Tennant \ndiscovered these two rare metals in the ore of \nplatinum, in which, in 1845, Claus discovered a \nthird, Ruthenium. Iridium is said to be the \nheaviest known metal, 1878. See Weights. \n\nIRISH CHURCH; see Church of Ireland. \nThe Irish Presbyterian Church act, passed 16 June, \n1871, regulates the management of certain trust \nproperties for that church. \n\nIRISH DISTRESS FUND, to relieve the \nsufferers by the failure of the potato crop in the \n\xe2\x96\xa0western coasts of Ireland, was started in Dublin by \nthe lord lieutenant, the earl of Zetland, and Mr. \nA. J. Balfour, the chief secretary, 3 Jan. 1891. \nEeceived, up to 26 Jan. 39,000/. ; up to 9 April, \n49,067/. The queen gave 200/. ; the mayor of Bel- \nfast 2,000/. ; sir Edward C. Guinness (lord Iveagh) \n2,000/. Large donations of clothing were also re- \nceived. \n\nIRISH EXHIBITION, in the Olympia, W. \n\nKensington, opened by the Lord Mayors of London \n\n(De Keyser), and Dublin (Sexton), 4 June, 1888. \n\nIt included natural products, manufactures of all \nkinds, valuable antiquities, fine works of art, \nfacsimiles of a castle, round towers, a village &c, \nhorses and cows. The amusements comprised \ntheatrical performances, concerts, races, &c. \nLord Arthur Hill, honorary secretary ; among \nthe patrons were the duke of Westminster, lord \nLeitrim, lord Charles Beresford, sir John \nLubbock, archbishop of Canterbury, cardinal \nManning, lord Hartington. The exhibition was \nclosed Oct. 1888 \n\nThe exhibition was financially unsuccessful, and \nan indemnity fund was started in . . July, 1891 \n\nIRISH INVINCIBLES, a secret society \nestablished in Dublin Nov., 1881, said by James \nCarey, a member, to have been formed by one Walsh \nand others, from England, to "make history" by \nkilling tyrants. Each member was bound to obey \norders, under pain of death. By some of its \nmembers the life of judge Lawson was attempted, \nand lord Frederick Cavendish and Mr. Burke \nmurdered, 6 May, 1882. Mr. W. E. Forster was \nfrequently watched with a similar intention. See \nunder Fenians, Ireland, 1S82-3. In Feb. 1883 \nthere were said to be 250 members in Great Britain \nand Ireland. " The general No. 1," was said to be \na wealthy man. "Murder leagues," and "assas- \nsination circles" were mentioned. \n\nIRISH LAND BILLS, see Ireland, 1870, \n1880-81, 1887, 1890. \n\nIRISH LAND LAW ACT (44 & 45 Vict. \nc. 49, passed 22 Aug. 1881. See Ireland, April- \n\n\n\nAug. 1 881). It settles the rights of landlords and \ntenants ; establishes a court of commission, which \nfirst met, 20 Oct. 1881, to try differences between \nthem, and determines the conditions by which \ntenants may become proprietors ; it affirms the \nvirtual ownership of tenants with the power of \nselling their rights, securing the payment of a just \nrent to the landlords to be settled by the court, and \nrestricting evictions. First court of commission, \nsergeant O\'Hagan, Edward Falconer Litton, and \nJohn Edward Vernon. Royal Assent, 22 Aug. \n1881. \nImportant decisions in favour of tenants by the \n\nsub-commissions at Belfast, &c. . . Nov. 1881 \n\nAbove 2500 applications to the land courts up to \n\n11 Nov. ,, \nBill for amending purchase clauses of land act; \nmeans of purchase greatly facilitated : not above \n5,ooo,ooo\xc2\xa3. to be advanced by the state in one \nyear, and not more than 20,000,000?. in all ; bill \nintroduced by Mr. Trevelyan, 27 May, withdrawn \n\n10 July, 1884 \n\n\' IRISH LANGUAGE, a branch of the\' Celtic \nor Gaelic, of which much literature exists in books \nand MSS. of early date. The New Testament was \npublished in Irish in 1603, and the Old in 1685. A \nsociety for the preservation of the Irish language \nhas been formed ; in its annual report for 1890, it \nwas stated that Irish is taught in 45 national \nschools. \n\nIRISH LOYAL AND PATRIOTIC \nUNION, see Ireland, 1886. Annual meetings, \nheld. \n\nIRISH NATIONAL LEAGUE. See Ire- \nland, 17 Oct. 1882. \n\nIRISH PROPERTY DEFENCE ASSO- \nCIATION, formed by landlords, Nov. 1880. \n\nIRISH REPUBLIC. Treasonable plans for \nits establishment dated 1869, were discovered in \nJames F. Egan\'s garden in Birmingham, April, \n1884. \n\nIRISH SOCIETY, The Honourable, \n\nthe name given to a committee of citizens of twelve \nLondon companies invited by king James I. to \ncolonize the confiscated lands in the north of \nIreland, termed the Ulster plantations, including \nLondonderry and Coleraine, 1609. The committee \nreceived a charter, 1613, which was taken away in \n1637, and restored after various changes 1670. The \naffairs of this company and its methods of business \nwere discussed in parliament in 1868 and 1869. \nThe sale of the companies\' estates under lord Ashbourne\'s \nact began in 1887. Receipts from the estates in 1887, \n9,o6iL besides receipts for fisheries and other rents. \nThe select committee respecting the Irish Society \n(sir Win. T. Marriott, Mr. John Morley, sir \nRichard Temple, and others), first met, 17 July, \n1889 ; met again 9 June et seq., 1890. Three \nreports adopted, 4 May, 1891 ; see Ireland Jan. 1892 \n\nIRISH UNIVERSITY BILL (to com- \nbine Trinity College and the Catholic College), in- \ntroduced by Mr. I. Butt, 16 May, 1876; withdrawn. \n\nIRON- The Greeks ascribed the discovery of \niron to themselves, and referred glass to the Phoe- \nnicians. Moses relates that iron was wrought by \nTubal- Cain (Gen. iv. 22). Swedish iron is very \ncelebrated, and Dannemora is the greatest mine of \nSweden. \xe2\x80\x94 The weekly publication " Iron" began \n18 Jan. 1873. See Stei I. \nBelgium, an early seat of the iron manufacture ; coal said \n\nto have beeu employed at Marehe-les-dames, 1340. \nBritish iron cast by Ralph Page and Peter Baude, in \n\nSussex, 1543. Rymer\'s Fcedcra. \nIron-mills used for slitting iron into bars for smiths, by \n\nGodfrey Bochs, 1590. \n\n\n\nIRON. \n\n\n\n529 \n\n\n\nIRRIGATION. \n\n\n\nTinning of iron introduced from Bohemia, 1681. Till \n\xe2\x96\xa0about 1730 iron ores were smelted entirely with wood \ncharcoal, which did not wholly give way to coal and \ncoke till 1788. \n\nThe operation termed puddling, and other very great \nimprovements in the manufacture, invented by Mr. \nHenry Cort, about 1781, who did not reap the due re- \nward of his ingenuity. He died in 1800. \n\nMr. James B. Neilson of Glasgow, patented his hot air \nblast in 1828 ; see under blowing machines. \n\nMr. Henry Bessemer patented his method of manufac- \nturing iron and steel, 17 Oct., 5 Dec, 185s; 12 Feb., \n1856. \n\nStrike of the puddlers and lock-out of the masters in \nStaffordshire, Northumberland, &c, lasted during \nMarch, April, and May, 1865. \n\nIronworkers of Great Britain determine to form one \ntrades\' union, with one executive, Oct. 1866. \n\nStrike of ironworkers in the north over, 31 Dec. 1866. \n\nMr. Win. Robinson announced a method of making \nwrought iron from cast iron by means of magnetism, \nJuly, 1867. \n\nMr. John Heaton\'s process for making steel announced \nabout Nov. 1867, discussed Oct. 1868. \n\nOne of the finest, thickest, and heaviest armour-plates \n\xe2\x80\xa2ever rolled in the world was pressed into the very per- \nfection of a manufactured armour-plate at the great \nAtlas Ironworks of sir John Brown and Co. , Sheffield. \nThe size of it when in the furnace was a little over 20 \nfeet long by about 4 feet broad and 21 inches thick. \nIts rough weight was over 21 tons. It was built up in \nthe furnace before being rolled by five mould plates, \neach 3 inches thick, and one solid plate of 6 inches. \nThis mass when reduced by intense heat to the con- \nsistency of dough, was withdrawn from the furnace, \nand in the course of less than a quarter of an hour was \npassed between the enormous rollers many times, was \nreduced to a compact slab of iron of a uniform thick- \nness of 15 inches, and then passed on to its bed to cool \ntill fit for having its rough edges planed down to the \nproper dimensions, 6 Sept. 1867. Armour-plate 24 \ninches thick rolled at same works, Oct. 1876. \n\niron forts (cost about i,ooo,ooo2. made by Whitworth and \nCo. at Manchester) put up at Spithead early in 1872. \n\nMr. Crampton\'s iron furnace, in which definite propor- \ntions of coal dust and air are introduced under pressure, \nwas tried at Woolwich and was reported successful, \nMay, 1873. \n\nIronstone miners in Yorkshire : great strike through \nreduction in wages, May, 1874. \n\nIron trades, see Employers. \n\nIron merchant vessels built in i860, 181 ; in 1877, 545. \n\nAlfred Newman, an eminent art iron-worker ; of the \n"smithy," Haymarket, London, dies aged 35, Jan. \n1887. \n\nIron Manufacture : between 1865-75 the capital invested \nrose from 7,ooo,oooL to 29,000,000?. Number of pud- \ndling furnaces rose from 3462 to 7159 ; also great \nincrease in blast furnaces. \n\nGreat depression since 1876 ; due to excessive production \nand increased and cheap manufacture of steel ; revival \n1889 et seq. \n\nIron and Steel congress at New York . Sept. -Oct. 1890 \n\nStrike or lock-out in the Scotch iron trade respect- \ning wages 4 Oct. ,, \n\nIRON PRODUCED IN GREAT BRITAIN. \n\n1740 . . 59 furnaces . . 17,350 tons. \n\n. . 61,920 ,, \n\n124,789 ,, \n\n227,000 ,, \n\n250,000 ,, \n\n400,000 ,, \n\n581,367 \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n. . 1,396,400 ,, \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 i,99 8 \xc2\xbbSS8 \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n. 2,701,000 ,, \n\nIn 1855, 3,217,154 tons of pig iron were produced; in \ni^Sl* 31659,447 tons ; in 1865, 4,819,254 tons ; in 1869, \n5-445.757 tons ; in 1873, 6,566,451 tons ; in 1876, 6,555,997 \ntons; in 1879, 5,995,337 tons; in 1882, pig, 8,586,680 \ntons ; in 1884, 7,811,727 tons; in 1886, 7,009,754 tons ; \nin 1887, 7,559>5i8 tons ; in 1888, 7,998,969 tons ; in 1889, \n8,322,824 tons ; in 1890, 7,904,214 tons. \nExports of Iron and Steel, from United Kingdom. \ni860, 1,502,500 tons; 1865, 1,687,071 tons; 1870, \n21825,575, tons ; 1875, 2,457,306 tons; 1879, 2,883,484 \n\n\n\n1788 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 77 \n\n\n1796 . \n\n\n. 121 \n\n\n1802 \n\n\n. 168 \n\n\n1806 . \n\n\n. 227 \n\n\n1820 \n\n\n. 260 \n\n\n1825 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 374 \n\n\n1840 \n\n\n. 402 \n\n\n1848 . \n\n\n. 623 \n\n\n1852 \n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 655 \n\n\n\ntons; 1883, 4,043,308 tons ; 1885, 3,130,682 tons; 1887, \n4,143,028 tons; 1888, 3,966,593 tons; 1889,4,186,182; \n1890, 4,001,430. \n\nIRON and STEEL INSTITUTE, the duke \nof Devonshire, president, held its first meeting in \nLondon 22 June, 1869, first provincial meeting at \nMerthyr-Tydvil, 6 Sept. 1870 ; first foreign meeting at \nLiege, 18 Aug. 1873; second at Paris, 16 Sept. 1878. \nFrequently at other places (Vienna, 19 Sept. 1882) ; \nat Ne\xc2\xbbv York, Sept., Oct., at Ottawa, Nov. 1890. \n\nIRONCLADS, see Circular, Navy, and United, \nStates, 1862; Germany, 1878. \n\nIRON CROSS, an order of knighthood esta- \nblished by Frederick William III. of Prussia, \n\n10 March, 1813, to honour patriotic bravery in the \nwar against France ; was revived by William I. in \nthe Franeo-Prussian war, and awarded by him to \nhis son for bis victory at Wissembourg, 4 Aug. \n1870. About 40,000 persons were decorated in \n1870-71. \n\nIRON CROWN (of Italy), of gold and pre- \ncious stones, set in a thin ring of iron, said to have \nbeen forged from a nail of Christ\'s cross, was made \nby order of Theudelinde for her husband, Agilulf, \nking of the Longobards, 591. She presented it (to \nbe kept) to the church at Monza. Charlemagne \nwas crowned with this crown, and after him all \nthe emperors who were kings of Lombardy; \nNapoleon I. at Milan, on 26 May, 1805, put it on \nhis head, saying, " Dleu me I\' a donnce ; gare a qui \ny touchera." (God has given it to me; woe to \nhim who touches it.) The crown was removed from \nMonza to Mantua by the Austrians, on 23 April, \n1859. After the peace of Vienna in 1866, the \ncrown was given up to general Menabrea on \n\n11 Oct., and presented to king Victor Emmanuel, \nat Turin, on 4 Nov. The order of the " Iron \nCrown of Italy," instituted by Napoleon 26 May, \n1805, was abolished in 1814, but revived by the \nemperor of Austria 12 Feb. 1816; see Gotha. The \norder of the Crown of Italy was instituted by king \nVictor Emmanuel 20 Feb. 1868. \n\nIRON-MASK, the Man with the.* A \n\nmysterious prisoner in France, wearing a mask and \nclosely confined under M. de St. Mars, at Pignerol \n(1679), Exilles(i68i), Sainte Marguerite (1687), and \nat the Bastille (1698), where he died 19 Nov. 1703. \nHe was of noble mien, and was treated with pro- \nfound respect ; but his keepers had orders to de- \nspatch him if he uncovered. M. de St. Mars himself \nalways placed the dishes on his table, and stood in \nhis presence. \n\nIRON-PLATED SHIPS, see Ironclads. \n\nIRREDENTISTS, see Italia Irredenta. \n\nIRRIGATION, practised in the east and in \nEgypt from the most remote ages. It was strenu- \n\n\n\n* The following conjectures have been made as to his \nidentity : \xe2\x80\x94 An Armenian patriarch forcibly carried from \nConstantinople (who died ten years before the mask) ; \nthe due de Vermandois, son of Louis XIV., reported to \nhave perished in the camp before Dixmude ; the due de \nBeaufort, whose head is reported to have been taken off \nbefore Candia ; James, duke of Monmouth, executed on \nTower-hill ; a son of Anne of Austria, queen of Louis \nXIII., either by cardinal Mazarine, or by the duke of \nBuckingham ; the twin brother of Louis XIV. (a conjec- \nture received by Voltaire and others) ; Foucquet, an \neminent statesman in the time of Louis XIV. ; and a \ncount Matthioli, secretary of state to Charles III., duke \nof Mantua. M. Delort and the right hon. Agar Ellis \n(afterwards lord Dover) endeavoured to prove Matthioli \nto have been the person. The mask, it seems, was not \nmade of iron ; but of black velvet, strengthened with \nwhalebone, and fastened behind the head with a padlock. \n\nM M \n\n\n\nIBUN. \n\n\n\n530 \n\n\n\nISTEIA. \n\n\n\nously advocated for India by sir A. Cotton and \nothers at the Social Science Congress at Manchester, \nOct. 1866. In 1865 acts were passed for utilising \nLondon sewage in the irrigation of grass land, and \nthe results are said to be generally favourable. The \nsubject was much discussed, Aug. 1873. A method \nof producing artificial rain from ponds by means of \nsteam-power, patented by Isaac Brown, of Edin- \nburgh, was tried by Mr. Coleman, at Stoke Park, \nand reported successful ; see Sewage, and Inter- \nmittent Filtration. \n\nIBUN (a frontier village of Spain) . On 16 May, \n1837, the British auxiliary legion under general \nEvans, marched from St. Sebastian to attack Irun \n(held by the Carlists), which after a desperate re- \nsistance was carried by assault, 1 7 May. \n\nIBVLNGITES, followers of Edward Irving,* \nnow called the " Holy Catholic Apostolic Church." \nThey use a liturgy (framed in 1842, and enlarged \n1853), and have church officers named apostles, \nangels, prophets, &c. In 1852 lighted candles were \nplaced on the magnificent altar, and burning of \nincense during prayers was prescribed. The Gothic \nchurch in Gordon-square was solemnly opened \nI Jan. 1854. It is said that all who join the church \noffer it a tenth of their income. They had 30 \nchapels in England in 1851. \n\nISANDULA, Isandlana, or Isandlwana, termed \nthe "English Cremera"; see Zululand, 22 Jan. \n1879. \n\nISATTBIA (a province in Asia Minor), con- \nquered by the Bomans B.C. 78, by the Saracens \na.d. 650; was retaken by the emperor Leo III., \nwho founded the Isaurian dynasty, 718, which \nended with Constantine YI. in 797. Isauria was \nincorporated with Turkey 1387. \n\nISCHIA, see Earthquakes, 1883. \n\nISEENIA (S. Italy). Here the Sardinian \ngeneral Cialdini defeated the Neapolitans, 17 Oct. \ni860. \n\nISLAM, or ESLAM, submission to God, the \nname given to Mahometanism {which see). \n\nISLE OF France, Man, &c, see Mauri- \ntius, Man, &c. \n\nISLES, BISHOPRIC OF. This see contained \nnot only the Hebrides, or Western Isles, but the \nIsle of Man, which for nearly 400 years had been a \nseparate bishopric. The first bishop of the Isles \nwas Amphibalus, 360 ; see lona. Since the revo- \nlution (when this bishopric was discontinued) the \nIsles have been joined to Moray and Boss, or to \nBoss alone. In 1847, however, Argyll and the Isles \nwere made a seventh post -revolution and distinct \nbishopric ; see Bishops. \n\nISLINGTON (anciently Isendone, Iseldone, \nand "Merrie"), a large suburban parish in N. \nLondon, still containing Boman and medieval \n\n\n\n* Edward Irving was born 15 Aug. 1792, and was en- \ngaged as assistant to Dr. Chalmers, at Glasgow, in \n1819. In 1823 he attracted immense crowds of distin- \nguished persons to his sermons at the Scotch church, \nHatton-garden. A new church was built for him in \nRegent-square in 1827. Soon after, he propounded new \ndoctrines on the human nature of Christ: and the " Ut- \nterances of Unknown Tongues," which began in his con- \ngregation with a Miss Hall and Mr. Taplin, 16 Oct. 1831, \nwere countenanced by him, as of divine inspiration. He \nwas expelled from the Scotch church, 15 March, 1833. \nHis church, " reconstituted with the threefold cord of a \nsevenfold ministry," was removed to Newman-street. \nHe died 8 Dec. 1834. \n\n\n\nremains, and old buildings, all gradually disap- \npearing. Four members were allotted to Islington \nby the Act of 1885. Population, 1801, 10,121; \n1881, 282,865 ; 1891, 319,433. Churches in 1837^ \n4 ; 1887, about 35. \nThe great northern central hospital, Holloway-road, \n\nopened by the prince of Wales . . 17 July, 1888; \nUnion Chapel, Compton-terrace, erected in 1802 \nby a union of Episcopalians and Nonconformists ; \nrebuilt, opened 5 Dec. 1877 ; completed and sur- \nmounted by a tower, Oct. 1889. The rev. Dr. \nHenry Allon, at first co-pastor (1843) with the \nfirst minister, the rev. Thomas Lewis, and after- \nwards sole pastor, an accomplished writer and \nactive administrator of schools, &c. , died, aged \n73 (colleague and successor, the rev. Wr Harwood) \n\n16 April, 1892: \n\nPublic baths and wash-houses opened by the lord \nmayor Evans . . , 21 May and 26 July ,, \n\nISLY (N.W. Africa). Here Abd-el-Kader, the \nArab chief, was totally defeated by the French,, \nunder Bugeaud, 14 Aug. 1844. \n\nISMAIL (Bessarabia) was taken by the Bus- \nsians, 6 Aug. 1770, after a long siege, when the \nBussians lost 20,000 men ; the town was taken by \nstorm, 22 Dec. 1790 ; when Suwarrow, the most \nmerciless warrior of modern times, put the brave- \nTurkish garrison (30,000 men) to the sword and \ndelivered up Ismail to pillage, and ordered the \nmassacre of 6000 women. It was again captured \nby the Bussians 26 Sept. 1809, and retained till \nthe treaty of Paris in 1856, when it was ceded to- \nMoldavia. \n\nISMAILIA, the half way station on the Suez \nCanal.\' It is supposed to occupy nearly the site of \nBarneses. Sir Samuel Baker named it Ismailia in- \nstead of Gondokoro, May, 1869. The rebel Egyp- \ntian army was defeated near here by the British, 25 \nAug. 1882. See Egypt. \n\nISPAHAN was made the capital of Persia by \nAbbas the Great, in 1 590. It lost its supremacy in \n1796, when Teheran became the capital. \n\nISRAEL, KINGDOM OP, see Jeivs.\xe2\x80\x94 Handel\'s \noratorio, " Israel in Egypt," first performed 4 April,. \n1739. \n\nISSTJS (Asia Minor), the site of Alexander\' s- \nsecond great battle with Darius, whose queen and \nfamily were captured, Oct. 333 B.C. The Persian \narmy, according to Justin, consisted of 400,000 \nfoot and 100,000 horse; 61,000 of the former and \n10,000 of the latter were left dead on the spot, \nand 40,000 were taken prisoners. Here the emperor \nSeptimius defeated his rival Niger, a.d. 194. \n\nISTAMBOUL, see Constantinople. \n\nISTEB, see Danube. \n\nISTHMIAN GAMES received their name \nfrom the isthmus of Corinth, where they were ob- \nserved: their institution is mythically attributed \nto Sisyphus of Corinth, 1326 B.C., and to Theseus- \nin honour of Neptune about 1234 The games, \nwhich were solemnly kept every third year, were \ndiscontinued at the destruction of Corinth by Lucius \nMummius, 146 B.C. The games were revived by \nJulius Ca3sar, 60 B.C. ; and by the emperor Julian, \na.d. 362, and ceased in 396, when Corinth was \nsacked by the Goths. \n\nISTBIA was finally subdued by the Bomans, \n177 B.C. After various changes it came under the \nrule of Venice in 1378, and was annexed 1420. It \nwas obtained by Austria 1796; by France 1806 ; \nby Austria 1814. Population in 1890, 317,610. \n\n\n\nITALIA IEBEDENTA. \n\n\n\n531 \n\n\n\nITALY. \n\n\n\nITALIA IRREDENTA (" unredeemed \nItaly"), a secret society which first appeared in \nItaly Not. 1877, and said to have 200 committees, \nthe chief at Naples. Its professed object is to add \nto the Italian kingdom Trieste, the Tyrol, and other \nAustrian provinces on the Adriatic. \n\nCry for Italia Irredenta : meetings at Rome, &c. \n\n21 July, 1878 \nIn 1879, col. Haymerle, an Austrian military resident \nat Rome, published "Beg Italicce," freely discussing the \nsubject. The Italians were much annoyed, and the pub- \nlication was disavowed by the Austrian government. \nSig. Crispi, in a speech at Florence, strongly de- \nclares against the Irredentists . . . 8 Oct. 1890 \n\nITALIAN ASSOCIATION FOE THE \n\nADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, first met at \nPisa, under the patronage of the grand duke of \nTuscany, in 1837. It met in Rome, 20 Oct. 1873, \nand at other places since. \n\nITALIAN BENEVOLENT SOCIETY, \n\nLondon, founded by the king of Italy and others, \n1861. \n\nITALIAN CATHOLIC CHUECH (be- \ntween two and three thousand persons) ; first \nbishop, Domenico Panelli ; a synod met at Naples \nin 1875. Great progress reported Feb. 1888. \n\nIts statute (of 62 articles) asserts that the Catholic \nchurch is nothing but the society of all believers in \nJesus Christ, and that he only is its supreme head and \npastor ; rejects all miracles since the death of the \nApostles ; declares that the Catholic faith is only that \nrevealed in the Holy Scriptures, &c. The congregation \nof St. Paul, of the Italian Catholic church headed by \nlions. Savarese, declared heretical, Oct. 1884. \n\nITALIAN EXHIBITION, West Brompton, \nLondon, opened by the Lord Mayor, 12 May, 1888. \n\nIt comprised models of the Roman forum, coliseum &c, \ndiorama of the bay of Naples &c, paintings, sculpture, \nmanufactures and natural products of Italy. The \ncelebrated sculptor, signor Focardi, had a studio \nthere and did work. Closed 31 Oct. 1888. \n\nITALIAN LANGUAGE, based on Latin, is \nsaid by Dante to be formed of a selection of the \nbest portions of the different dialects. Pure ele- \ngant poetry was written by Guido Cavalcanti, who \ndied 1301 ; and good prose by Malespini, about 1250. \n\nPRINCIPAL ITALIAN AUTHORS. \n\n\n\n\n\nBorn \n\n\nDied \n\n\n\n\nBom \n\n\nDied \n\n\nDante . \n\n\n1265 \n\n\n1321 \n\n\nParini \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1729 \n\n\n1799 \n\n\nPetrarca . . \n\n\n1304 \n\n\n1374 \n\n\nAlfieri . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 J 749 \n\n\n1803 \n\n\nBoccaccio . \n\n\n1313 \n\n\nJ 375 \n\n\nVolta . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 I 745 \n\n\n1826 \n\n\nMachiavelli . \n\n\n1469 \n\n\n1527 \n\n\nMonti \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1754 \n\n\n1828 \n\n\nAriosto \n\n\n1474 \n\n\nI 533 \n\n\nLeopardi \n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 1798 \n\n\n1837 \n\n\nGuicciardini \n\n\n1482 \n\n\n1540 \n\n\nGioberti \n\n\n. 1801 \n\n\n1852 \n\n\nTasso . . \n\n\n1544 \n\n\n1595 \n\n\nNicolini . \n\n\n. 1782 \n\n\n1861 \n\n\nGalileo \n\n\n1564 \n\n\n1642 \n\n\nManzoni \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1784 \n\n\n1873 \n\n\nMetastasio . \n\n\n1698 \n\n\n1782 \n\n\nAmari \n\n\n. 1806 \n\n\n1889 \n\n\nGoldoni \n\n\n1707 \n\n\n*795 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nThe following terms are often used with reference to \ncertain periods in the history of Italian literature and \nart. \n\n1. Trecento (three hundred), from the birth of Dante \n(1265) to the death of Boccaccio (1375), which two, \nwith Petrarca, are styled "the triumvirate of the \nTrecento." \n\n2. Quattrocento (four hundred), from 1375 to the revival \nof Italian literature by Lorenzo de\' Medici in the 15th \ncentury. During this period Latin was revived, to the \nprejudice of Italian. \n\n3. Cinquecento (five hundred), from about 1480 to 1590. \nA sensuous style of art, founded on the heathen my- \nthology, began to prevail. \n\n4. Seiccnto (six hundred), from 1590 to 1700. The bad \ntaste which prevailed (luring this period is ascribed to \nthe influence of the Spaniards and the Jesuits through- \nout Italy. Seicentisti is a term of reproach. \n\nThe Trecento and Cinquecento were the most flourishing \nperiods. \n\n\n\nITALIAN EEPUBLIC was the name given \nto the remodelled Cisalpine republic. Napoleon \nBonaparte, president, Jan. 1802. \n\nITALY, a name mythically derived either from \nItalus, an early king, or italics, a bull calf. The \ninvading Pelasgians from Greece, and the Abori- \ngines (Umbrians, Oscans, and Etruscans), com- \nbined, form the Latin race, still possessing the \nsouthern part of Europe. The history of Italy is \nsoon absorbed into that of Rome, founded 753 B.C. \nIn the middle ages it was desolated by intestin e \nwars and the interference of the German emperors ; \nsince then, Spain, France, and Germany struggled \nfor the possession of the country, which has \nbeen divided among them several times. Spain, \nwhich predominated in Italy during the 16th and \n17th centuries, yielded to the house of Austria at \nthe beginning of the 18th. The victories of Bona- \nparte in 1797-8 changed the government of Italy; \nbut the Austrian rule was re-established at the \npeace in 1814. In 1848 the Milanese and Venetians \nrevolted and joined Piedmont, but were subdued by \nRadetzky ; see below. The hostile feeling between \nAustria and Piedmont gradually increased till war \nbroke out in April, 1859. The Austrians were \ndefeated, and the kingdom of Italy, comprising \nPiedmont, Sardinia, Lombardy, Tuscany, Modena, \nParma, the Romagna, Naples, and Sicily was re- \nestablished, 17 March, 1861, by the Italian parlia- \nment (consisting of 443 deputies from 59 provinces). \nOn 29 Oct., 1 861, the internal government was re- \norganized ; the 59 provinces were placed under pre- \nfects, subject to four directors-general. War with \nAustria was declared 18 June, 1866; and on 3 Oct., \npeace was signed at Vienna, and Venetia was ceded \nto Italy ; see beloiv for the events. The settlement \nof the kingdom of Italy was consummated by the \noccupation of Rome as the capital, 1870. Esti- \nmated population of the kingdom, 1862, 25,003,635 \n(Rome was added in 1870). 1878, 28,209,620; \nJan. 1882, 28,452,639 ; 1890, 30,158,408. 1890-91, \nrevenue, 78,129,383/.; expenditure, 81,850,050/.; \nimports, 71,905,383/.; exports, 51,171,079/. For \nother details see Rome and the various Italian \ncities throughout the volume. \n\nEarly history mythical ; Italy (Saturnia) fabled to \nhave been ruled by Saturn during the golden age \n\nB.C. 2450 \nArrival of GSnotras from Arcadia, 1710 ; and of \n\nEvander ; reign of Latinus . . . about 1240 \niEneas the Trojan said to land in Italy, defeat and \nkill Tumus, marry Lavinia, daughter of king \nLatinus, and found Lavinium, in South Italy, 1182, &c. \nGreek colonies (see Magna Grcecia) founded . . 974-443 \n\nRomulus builds Rome 753 \n\n[For subsequent history, see Rome.] \nOdoacer, leader of the Heruli, establishes the king- a.d. \n\ndom of Italy 476 \n\nThe Ostrogoths invade Italy, 489, and retain it till 491 \nThey are expelled by the Imperial generals Narses \n\nand Belisarius 552 \n\n[See Kings of Italy, tm&Iron Croron.\'] \nNarses, governor of Italy, invites the Lombards \n\nfrom Germany, 568 ; wlio overrun Italy . . . 596 \nInvasion and defeat of Constans II. ... 662 \n\nVenice first governed by a doge ... . . 697 \nPepin gives Ravenna to the pope . . . 754 \n\nCharlemagne invades Italy, 774 ; overcomes the Lom- \nbards ; crowned emperor of the west at Rome by \n\npope Leo III 25 Dec. 800 \n\nThe Saracens invade Italy and settle at Bari . . 842 \nInvasion of Otho I. 951 ; crowned emperor, 2 Feb. 962 \n\nGenoa becomes important 1000 \n\nThe Saracens expelled by the. Normans . 1016-17 \n\nThe Normans acquire Naples from the pope . . 105 1 \nPope Gregory VII., Hildebrand, pretends to uni- \nversal sovereignty, in which lie is assisted by \nMatilda, countess of Tuscany, mistress of the \n\ngreater part of Italy 1073-85 \n\nM M 2 \n\n\n\nITALY. \n\n\n\n532 \n\n\n\nITALY. \n\n\n\nDisputes between the popes and emperors, relative \nto ecclesiastical investitures, begin (and long agi- \ntate Italy and Germany) .... about 1073 \nRise of the Lombard cities .... about 1120 \n\nWho war with each other 11 44 \n\nThe Venetians obtain many victories over the \n\nEastern emperors 1125 \n\nWars of the Guelfs and Ghibelines (which see) begin \n\nabout 1 161 \nFrederic I. (Barbarossa) interferes : his wars 1154-75 \n\nLombard league formed 1167 \n\nHis defeat at Legnano .... 29 May, 11 76 \n\nPeace of Constance 1183 \n\nCivil wars again "99. &c. \n\nRise of the Medici at Florence . . . about 1251 \nWars of Frederick II. and the Lombard league, 1236-50 \nHis natural son, Manfred, king of Sicily, defeated \nand killed at the battle of Benevento, by Charles \n\nofAnjou 26 Feb. 1266 \n\nWho defeats Conradin, at Tagliacozzo . 23 Aug. 1268 \n\nThe Visconti rule at Milan 1277 \n\nThe Sicilian vespers ; massacre of the French, who \n\nare expelled from Sicily . . 30 March, 1282 \nClement V. (pope, 1305), fixes his residence at Avig- \nnon in France 1309 \n\nLouis Gonzaga makes himself master of Mantua, \nwith the title of imperial vicar .... 1328 \n\nFirst doge of Genoa appointed 1339 \n\nLucca independent 1370 \n\nRome again the seat of the pope 1377 \n\nCharles VIII. of France invades Italy, 1494, and \n\nconquers Naples, 1495 ; loses it in . . . 1496 \nLouis XII. joins Venice and conquers Milan (soon \n\nlost) 1499 \n\nLeague of Cambray (1508) against Venice, which is \n\ndespoiled of its Italian possessions . . . 1509 \nLeo X. pope, patron of literature and art . . 1513-22 \nWars of Charles V. and Francis I. 1515-21 \n\nFrancis defeated and prisoner at Pa via 24 Feb. 1525 \n\nParma and Placentia made a duchy for his family \nby pope Paul III. (Alexander Farnese) . . . 1545 \n\nPeace of Cateau-Cambresis 1559 \n\nWar of the Mantuan succession . . . 1627-31 \nCatinat and the French defeat the duke of Savoy \n\nat Marsaglia 4 Oct. 1693 \n\nWar of Spanish succession commences in Italy . 1701 \n\nBattle of Turin 7 Sept. 1706 \n\nDivision of Italy at the peace of Utrecht, 11 April, 1713 \nThe duke of Savoy becomes king of Sardinia . . 1720 \nSuccessful French campaign in Italy . . . . 1745 \nMilan, &c, obtained by the house of Austria, 1706 ; \n\nconfirmed by treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle . . . 1 748 \nItaly overrun by the French . . . May\xe2\x80\x94 Dec. 1796 \nDivision of the Venetian states by France and \nAustria by the treaty of Campo Formio ; Cisal- \npine republic founded .... 17 Oct. 1797 \nPius VI. deposed by Bonaparte . . . Feb. 1798 \nThe Russians, under Suwarrow, defeat the French \n\nat Trebia, &c 1799 \n\nBonaparte crosses the Alps, 16-20 May ; defeats the \n\nAustrians at Marengo . . . -14 June, 1800 \nThe Cisalpine becomes the Italian republic (Bona- \nparte, president) Jan. 1802 \n\nNapoleon crowned king of Italy . . 26 May, 1805 \nEugene Beauharnois made viceroy of Italy . . . \xe2\x80\x9e \nAustria loses her Italian possessions by the treaty \n\nof Presburg ; ratified .... 1 Jan. 1806 \nThe kingdom ceases on the overthrow of Napoleon, \n1814 ; the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom esta- \nblished for Austria 7 April, 1815 \n\nFormation of the young Italy party by Mazzini ; in- \nsurrections 1831-33 \n\nItalian Association for Science first met (at Pisa) . 1837 \nInsurrection in Lombardy and Venice, March ; sup- \nported by the king of Sardinia and by the pope, \n\nApril, 1848 \nThe king defeated at Novara, abdicates, 23 March ; \nand Lombardy reverts to Austria . . May, 1849 \n[See Sardinia and Austria.} \n\n" Napoleon III. et l\'ltalie " published . . Feb. 1859 \nThe Austrian ultimatum, rejected by Sardinia, \n\n26 April, , \nThe Austrians cross the Ticino, 27 April ; and the \n\nFrench enter Genoa 3 May, , \n\nPeaceful revolution at Florence, 27 April ; Parma, \n\n3 May ; Modena 15 June, , \n\nThe Austrians defeated at Montebello, 20 May ; \n\n\n\nPalestro, 30-31 May ; Magenta, 4 June ; Marig- \nnano, 8 June ; Solferino ... 24 June, \n\nProvisional governments established at Florence, \n27 April ; Parma, May ; and Modena [the sove- \nreigns retire] 15 June, \n\nInsurrection in the papal states Bologna, Fer- \nrara, &e 13-15 June, \n\nMassacre of the insurgents at Perugia by the Swiss \ntroops . .... 20 June, \n\nThe allies cross the Mincio . . . 1 July, \nArmistice between Austria and France 8 July, \n\nPreliminaries of r?eace signed at Villafranca ; Lom- \nbardy surrendered to Sardinia . .11 July, \n\nItaly dismayed at the peace ; agitation at Milan, \nFlorence, Modena, Parma, &c. ; resignation of \ncount Cavour as minister . . . July, \n\nThe pope appeals to Europe against the king of \nSardinia 12 July, \n\nGaribaldi exhorts the Italians to arm . 19 July, \n\nGrand duke of Tuscany abdicates . 21 July, \n\nConstitutional assemblies meet at Florence, 1 1 Aug. ; \nand at Modena 16 Aug. \n\nTuscany, Modena, Parma, and the Romagna enter \ninto a defensive alliance, and declare for annexa- \ntion to Piedmont, 20 Aug. -10 Sept. ; fiscal restric- \ntions between them and Piedmont abolished, \n\n10 Oct. \n\nAssassination of col. An viti at Parma . 5 Oct. \n\nGaribaldi appeals to the Neapolitans ; subscriptions \nin Italy and elsewhere to supply arms for the \nItalians Oct. \n\nTuscany, &c. , choose the prince Eugene of Carignan- \nSavoy, as regent of central Italy, 5 Nov. ;. the king \nof Sardinia refusing his consent, the prince de- \nclines the office, but recommends the chevalier \nBuoncampagni 14 Nov. \n\nTreaty of Zurich (establishing Italian confederacy, \n&c. ), signed 10 Nov. \n\nGaribaldi retires from Sardinian service . 18 Nov. \n\nNew Sardinian constitution proclaimed 7 Dec. \n\nThe pope condemns the pamphlet " Le Pape et le \nCongres" ...... 31 Dec. \n\nThe emperor Napoleon recommends the pope to \ngive up the legations . . . .31 Dec. \n\nThe pope refuses and denounces the emperor, \n\n8 Jan. \n\nCount Cavour charged with the formation of a \nministry ..... 16 Jan. \n\nAnnexation to Sardinia voted for (by universal suf- \nfrage) in Parma, Modena, and the Romagna, 13 \nMarch ; Tuscany, 16 March ; accepted by the king, \n18-22 March, \n\nTreaty ceding Savoy and Nice to France signed, 24 \nMarch ; approved by the Sardinian parliament, \n\n29 May, \nThe French troops retire from Italy . . May, \nVain insurrections in Sicily . 4 April ; 2 May, \nGaribaldi lands at Marsala in Sicily, 11 May; as- \nsumes the office of dictator, 14 May ; defeats \nthe Neapolitans at Calatifimi, 15 May ; and \nat Melazzo, 20 July; by .a convention the \nNeapolitans agree to evacuate Sicily (see Sicily), \n\n30 July, \nGaribaldi lands at Reggio in Calabria, 18 Aug. ; \n\nenters Naples ; king Francis retires . 7 Sept. \n\nInsurrection in Papal States, 8 Sept. ; the Sardi- \nnians enter, n Sept. ; defeat the papal troops \nat Castel-fidardo, 18 Sept. ; take Ancona, \n\n17-29 Sept. \n\nVictor-Emmanuel takes the command of his army, \n\n4 Oct. \n\nThe Sardinians enter kingdom of Naples, 15 Oct. ; \ndefeat Neapolitans at Isernia . . 17 Oct. \n\nGaribaldi defeats Neapolitans attheVolturno, 1 Oct. \n1860 ; meets Victor-Emmanuel, and says, " King \nof Italy ! " the latter replies, " I thank you ! " \n\n26 Oct. \n\nBy universal suffrage (plebiscitum), Sicily and \nNaples vote for annexation to Sardinia 21 Oct. \n\nCapua bombarded ; the Neapolitans retire, 2 Nov. ; \nand are defeated at the Garigliano . . 3 Nov. \n\nVictor-Emmanuel enters Naples as king, 7 Nov. ; \nGaribaldi resigns the dictatorship and retires to \nCaprera 9 Nov. \n\nVictor-Emmanuel receives homage from the Neapo- \nlitan clergy, &c. ; gives money to encourage educa- \ntion ; appoints a ministry, including Poerio, <&c. , \n\nNov \n\n\n\n1859 \n\n\n\nITALY. \n\n\n\n533 \n\n\n\nITALY. \n\n\n\nSiege of Gaeta commences ; attack by sea pre- \nvented by the presence of the French fleet, \n\n3 Nov. &c. i860 \n\nTreaty of Zurich signed (see Zurich) . 10 Nov. ,, \n\nDecree in honour of Garibaldi\'s army . 16 Nov. ,, \n\nReactionary movements suppressed . Nov. -Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPrince of Carignan-Savoy appointed lieutenant of \nNaples Jan. 1S61 \n\nThe French fleet retires from Gaeta, 19 Jan. ; after \nsevere bombardment it surrenders ; Francis II. \nretires to Rome 13 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMonastic establishments in Naples abolished, with \ncompensation to the inmates ; schools established, \n\nFeb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAssembly of the first Italian parliament, 18 Feb., \nwhich decrees Victor-Emmanuel king of Italy, \n\n26 Feb. and 14 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNaples unsettled through reactionary intrigues of \nthe papal party . . . March and April, ,, \n\nItaly recognised by Great Britain . 31 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nOrder for the levy of 70,000 soldiers . April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCavour forms a new ministry, including members \nfrom all parts of Italy .... April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe pope protests against the kingdom, 15 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAltercation in parliament between Cavour and \nGaribaldi, 18 April ; reconciled . 25 April, ,, \n\nBourbouist bands defeated . . 7 May, &c. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPrince of Carignan resigns ; San Martino appointed \nlieutenant at Naples ... 13 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDeath of count Cavour, aged 52 . .6 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRicasoli forms a ministry to continue Cavour\'s policy, \n\n11 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe kingdom recognised by France . 24 June, ,, \n\nSan Martino resigns the government of Naples ; \nactive measures taken against the insurgents and \nbrigands by Cialdini, his successor, appointed, \n\n16 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe king opens the exhibition of Italian industry \nat Florence 14 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe kingdom recognised by Portugal and Belgium, \n1 Oct. ; divided into fifty-nine prefectures, &c, \n\n13 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSkirmishes in the south with brigands and foreign \nemissaries in the cause of Francis II. . . Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCialdini retires, and La Marmora becomes lieu- \ntenant-general of Naples ... 2 Nov. ,, \n\nBrigandage still prevailing in the south, aided by \nthe king of Naples ; insurgents defeated ; and \nmany killed 19 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nJose Borges, a Spaniard, lands in Calabria, 15 \nSept. ; calls on the people to rise for Francis II., \nSept. ; taken and shot .... 8 Dec. ,, \n\nThe reactionist warfare continues ; cruelties of \nthe brigands lead to reprisals, \n\nDec. 1861, Jan. and Feb. 1862 \n\nRicasoli compelled to resign by court influence, \n1 March ; Rattazzi forms an administration, \n\n3 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe kingdom recognised by Prussia . 1 March, ,, \n\nSurrender of Civatella del Tronto, the last Bourbon \nfortress in Sicily .... 14 March, ,, \n\nTriumphant progress of Garibaldi through Italy, \nestablishing rifle clubs . March and April, ,, \n\nMr. J. F. Bishop, an active English Bourbonist \npropagandist, captured . . . .2 April, ,, \n\nConspiracy among the Neapolitan soldiers at Milan \nsuppressed 19 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe king received at Naples with great enthusiasm, \n\n28 April, ,, \n\nThe French general Guyon aids in the suppression \nof the Bourbonist brigands . . . April, ,, \n\nThe kingdom recognised by Russia . . 3 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGaribaldi proceeds to Sicily ; at Marsala he calls \nfor volunteers, giving as his watchword, " Rome \nor death ! " 19 July, ,, \n\nCalls on the Hungarians to rise . . 26 July, ,, \n\nThe king issues a proclamation against his proceed- \nings, as tending to rebellion ... 3 Aug. ,, \n\nGaribaldi enters Catania, and organises a provisional \ngovernment 19 Aug. ,, \n\nSicily proclaimed to be in a state of siege, 21 Aug. ; \nand put under general Cialdini . . 22 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGaribaldi issues his last proclamation ; embarks at \nCatania ; lands at Melito, in Calabria, and marches \ntowards Reggio, 25 Aug. ; La Marmora proclaims \na state of siege, 26 Aug. ; Garibaldi and his fol- \nlowers fall in with the royalists under Pallavicmi, \nat Aspromonte, where, after a short skirmish, he \n\n\n\nis wounded and taken prisoner, 29 Aug. ; removed \n\nto Varignano, near Spezzia . . .1 Sept. 1862 \n\nMr. J. F. Bishop sentenced to 10 years\' imprison- \nment 6 Sept. ,, \n\nGeneral Durando issues a diplomatic circular con- \ndemning Garibaldi\'s proceedings, yet asserting \nthe necessity of the Italian government possess- \ning Rome 10 Sept. ,, \n\nA subscription in England enables professor Part- \nridge, of King\'s College, London, to go to Garibaldi, \n\n19 Sept. ,. \n\nPrincess Maria Pia married by proxy to the king of \nPortugal 27 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGaribaldi issues a rhetorical appeal to the English \nnation, urging its intervention for the cause of \nliberty 28 Sept. ,, \n\nInflammatory manifesto addressed to the people of \nItaly by Joseph Mazzini .... Sept. ,, \n\nAmnesty granted to Garibaldi and his followers, \n\n5 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nSharp reply of M. Drouyn de Lhuys to Durando\'s \n\nnote 8 Oct. ,, \n\nEnd of state of siege in Naples and Sicily . 17 Oct. ,, \nDisorderly encounter between Italians and Austrians \n\non the banks of the Po . . . .1 Nov. ,, \nFather Passaglia and 10,000 (out of 80,000) Italian \n\npriests sign a declaration against the temporal \n\nauthority of the pope Nov. ,, \n\nGaribaldi removed to Pisa, 9 Nov. ; ball extracted \n\nfrom his foot by Zanetti . . . .23 Nov. ,, \nMeeting of parliament ; determined opposition to \n\nRattazzi, 18 Nov. ; he resigns . . 30 Nov. ,, \nNew ministry formed by Farina . . 9 Dec. ,, \nIt declines further negotiations with France on the \n\nRoman question 18 Dec. ,, \n\nCommercial treaty with France signed . 17 Jan. 1863 \nFarina resigns ; Minghetti succeeds . 24 March, ,, \nGrand Cavour canal for irrigation of Piedmont \n\nopened 1 June, ,, \n\nIncome tax bill passed July, ,, \n\nTristany and other bandits captured . . July, ,, \nCommercial treaty with Great Britain signed, \n\n6 Aug. ,, \n\nDeath of Farina 5 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSeveral bandits captured on board the French ship \n\nAunis ; given up to France, July ; restored to Italy, \n\n12 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe army of Piedmont (50,000) consolidated by La \nMarmora and expanded into the "army of Italy" \n(250,000) ....... Oct. ,, \n\nThe king visits Naples ; reviews National Guard, &c. \n\n11-17 Nov. ,, \n\nMr. (after sir) James Hudson, British minister, \ngreatly assisted Cavour in the unification of \nItaly 1852-63 \n\nGeneral election ; triumph of the moderate party, \n\nJan. 1864 \n\nGaribaldi\'s visit to England amidst much enthusiasm, \n\nApril, ,, \n\nFranco-Italian convention signed (French troops to \nquit Rome in two years [from 6 Feb. 1865], \nFlorence to be the capital of Italy, &c), \n\n15 Sept. ,, \n\nRiots at Turin in consequence ; many persons killed \nby the military 21-22 Sept. ,, \n\nMinghetti and his colleagues blamed ; resigned ; a \nministry formed by La Marmora . . 24 Sept. ,, \n\nGaribaldi denounces the convention . 10 Oct. ,, \n\nDesperate state of the finances announced by Sella, \nthe minister ; he proposes stringent remedies, \n\nNov. ,, \n\nRailway from Turin to Florence opened . 4 Nov. ,, \n\nThe convention approved by the chamber of depu- \nties, 19 Nov. ; by the senate (after an able speech \nby Cialdini, 6 Dec.) 9 Dec. ,, \n\nDecree for transfer of the capital published, 11 Dec. ,, \n\nPrince Humbert resides at Naples . . . Dec. ,, \n\nStated that 346 brigands had been killed in action ; \n453 taken in action, and 732 surrendered ; about \n300 remain to be tracked ; many pretend to be \nsubjects of the ex-king Francis II. of Naples, \n\nDec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDemonstration against the king at Turin, 30 Jan. ; \nhe goes to Florence 3 Feb. 1865 \n\nAmnesty for political offences published ; brigandage \nin the Neapolitan and Roman states increasing, \n\nMarch, ,, \n\n\n\nITALY. \n\n\n\n534 \n\n\n\nITALY. \n\n\n\nFruitless negotiations with the pope by Vegezzi \n\nrespecting the position of bishops, April to July, 1865 \nThe king and court proceed to Florence, 13 May ; \nhe opens the Dante festival, the 600th anniversary \n\nof the poet\'s birth 14 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMr. Moens, a British subject, seized and retained \n\nby brigands 15 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n45 monks and others arrested at Salerno on charge \n\nof a Bourbonist conspiracy . . . 12 June, M \nInauguration of a national rifle meeting at Florence ; \n\nthe king fires the first shot . . 18 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nNumerous atrocities committed by brigands ; Giar- \n\ndullo and 8 brigands captured . . 19 June, ,, \nThe kingdom recognised by Spain . . J une, ,. \nMr. Moens released after a ransom of 5000Z. had \n\nbeen paid 26 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBank of Italy established . . . .7 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nFrench troops leaving Italy ; general election, the \n\nmoderate party predominate . . . Nov. ,, \n\nThe new parliament meets at Florence . 18 Nov. ,, \nSerious financial deficiency ; heavy taxation pro- \nposed, 13 Dec. ; much dissatisfaction ; the minis- \nters resign, 21 Dec. ; a new ministry formed under \n\nLa Marmora 31 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDeath of the patriot and soldier, Massimo D\'Azeglio, \n\n15 Jan. i86( \nFormation of the "Consorzio Nazionale," a public \nsubscription for reducing the national debt, \n\n27 Feb. ,, \nMassacre of Protestants at Barletta, Naples ; attri- \nbuted to priests .... 19 March, ,, \nAlliance with Prussia .... 12 May, ,, \nVolunteers numerously enlisted . 7 June, et seq. ,, \nWar declared against Austria . . 18 June, ,, \nNew ministry formed under Ricasoli . 20 June, ,, \nRoyal manifesto to the people . . 20 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe army, headed by the king, crosses the Mincio, \n\n23 June ; defeated at Custozza . . 24 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n"Venetia ceded to France by the emperor of Austria, \n\n3 July, ,, \nFruitless conflicts ; the volunteers under Gari- \nbaldi defeated at Monte Suello . . 4 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nBill for suppression of monasteries and confiscation \n\nof property passed .... 7 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nCialdini crosses the Po, and enters Venetia, 8 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nNaval battle near Lissa ; Italians defeated by Aus- \n\ntrians (Re d\'ltalia and Palestro blown up), 20 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe Italians beaten at Versa ; the last conflict, \n\n26 July, ,, \nArmistice for four weeks signed . . .12 Aug. ,, \nVolunteers disbanded ; Garibaldi retires to Caprera, \n\n15 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nTreaty of peace with Austria signed at Vienna, \n\n3 Oct. ; ratified 12 Oct. ,, \n\nCourt constituted at Florence to try admiral Persano \n\nfor neglect of duty at battle of Lissa . n Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe Austrians retire from Peschiera, 9 Oct. ; \nMantua, 10 Oct ; Verona, 16 Oct. ; Venice, \n\n17 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nGeneral Menabrea pays to count Mensdorff a sum \nof money, and receives the iron crown of Italy, \n\n11 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nNational loan freely subscribed . . Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPlebiscitum in Venetia ; for annexation with Italy, \n\n641,758 ; against, 69 . . . . 21 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThis result reported, and the iron crown presented \n\nto the king at Turin .... 4 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe king enters Venice, 7 Nov. ; visits Verona, \n\nMantua, &c. Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCircular of Ricasoli to the prefects, recommending \nindustrial development and commerce, forbidding \nagitation, and enjoining neutrality regarding Rome, \n\nis Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nLetter from Ricasoli to the clergy recommending a \n\nfree church in a free state . . .26 Nov. ,, \nPersano committed for trial ; examination begins, \n\n1 Dec. ,, \nParliament opened by the king, who declares that \n\n" Italy is now restored to herself" . 15 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nSig. Tonello received by the pope, 15 Dec. ; many \n\nbishops return to their dioceses . . Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nPersano acquitted of cowardice at Lissa . 30 Jan. 1S67 \nGovernment proposal for investing part of the \nproperty of the religious bodies for support of \nclergy (" Free Church and Ecclesiastical Liquida- \ntion bill ") brought forward . . . Jan. ,, \nreat reduction in the army (to 146,000) ordered, \n\nJan. ,, \n\n\n\nDefeat of the ministry on question of the right of \npublic meetings in Venetia, 11 Feb. ; parliament \n\ndissolved 13 Feb. 1867 \n\nRicasoli reconstructs his ministry . 17 Feb. ,, \n\nThe pope accepts Italian help to suppress brigandage, \n\nMarch, ,, ; \n\nElections give a majority for government March, ,, \n\nResignation of Ricasoli, 5 April ; a ministry formed \nby Rattazzi 8 April, ,, \n\nPersano condemned ; degraded and dismissed the \nservice for disobedience, incapacity, and negli- \ngence . . . . . . 15 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTreaty of commerce with Austria signed at Florence, \n\n23 April, ,, \n\nPublic funeral of the patriot Carlo Poerio 1 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nItaly joins in the conference at London respecting \n\nthe Luxemburg question . . 7-1 1 May, ,, \n\nNational financial embarrassments ; the king \ngives up part of his civil list ; proposed sale \nof church lands, and reduction of expenditure, \n\nMay, et seq. ,, \' \n17,200,000^. advanced for church lands by Fould \n\nand others of Paris May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nChurch property bill passed . . . Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nGaribaldi, about to enter the Roman territory with \nvolunteers, captured by Italian government at \nSinalunga (or Asinalunga)and sent to Alessandria, \n\n23 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nSent to Caprera, 27 Sept. ; escapes to Leghorn, \n\nand is sent back 2 Oct. ,, \n\nBands of Garibaldians invade Roman territories, \n\nSept. -Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nGaribaldi escapes from Caprera . . 15 Oct. ,, \nEmbarkation of French troops at Toulon, suspended \nby the resignation of Rattazzi and his ministry, \n\n20 Oct. ,, \nCialdini tries to form a ministry in vain, 21-25 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nGaribaldi at Florence announces an expedition \n\nagainst. Rome 22 Oct. ,, \n\nThe French minister Moustier\'s circular against \n\nthe invasion 25 Oct. ,, \n\nGaribaldians defeated at Viterbo . . 25 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nEnter Roman territories ; defeat papal troops, and \n\ntake Monte Rotondo . . .26, 27 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nMenabrea\'s ministry formed ; proclamation of Vic- \ntor-Emmanuel against the Garibaldian invasion, \n\n27 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nRiots at Naples", Turin, Pavia, and other places, \n\nsuppressed .... 26-28 Oct. et seq, ,, \nFrench army arrives at Civita Vecchia, 28 Oct. ; two \n\nbrigades enter Rome .... 30 Oct. ,, \nRoyal Italian troops enter papal territory ; Mena- \nbrea\'s justificatory circular ; suppression of insur- \nrectional committees in Italy . . 30 Oct. ,, \nDe Moustier\'s reply .... 1 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nGaribaldi defeated at Mentana, 3 Nov. ; retreats into \nItaly with his son ; captured and sent to Var- \nignano, gulf of Spezzia .... 4 Nov. ,, \nFiery manifesto of Mazzini ... 8 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nGaribaldi sent to Caprera . . . .25 Nov. ,, \nFrench proposal of a European conference on \n\nRoman question discussed . . 9 Nov. -Dec. ,, \nFrench troops left Rome for Civita Vecchia, 3 Dec. ,, \nMeeting of parliament ; judicious firmness ; an \n\namnesty for Garibaldians proclaimed . 5 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nLong army debate ; vote against the ministry (201 \n\nto 199) ; Menabrea resigns . . .22 Dec. ,, \nHis ministry reconstituted ... 5 Jan. iS6\xc2\xa3 \n\nM. Cambray Digny\'s financial statement : great \n\ndeficit ; a grist tax proposed . . .21 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \nExculpatory letter of La Marmora issued . Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nGovernment financial measures announced Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nNew order of knighthood, the "Crown of Italy," \n\nconstituted 20 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGrist tax adopted after 21 days\' debate . 1 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \nEnthusiastic reception of the crown prince of Prussia, \n\n20, 21 April, ,, \nMarriage of prince Humbert to his cousin Mar- \n\ngherita at Turin .... 22 April, ,, \nFrightful atrocities committed by brigands in \n\nsouth Italy April, May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGrist tax adopted by the senate . . Juue, ,, \nArrangement made for debt of the late papal pro- \nvinces 3\xc2\xb0 July. i> \n\nGovernment tobacco monopoly ordered to be farmed ; \nresignation of the ministers, Lanza and Sella, \n\n8 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nITALY. \n\n\n\n535 \n\n\n\nITALY. \n\n\n\nLong continued rain ; dreadful inundations in the \nK Alpine regions ; great storm . . 27 Sept. 1S68 \nMeeting of chamber of deputies ; Garibaldi with- \ndraws 24 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMinisterial victory respecting the grist tax in the \n\nchambers 26 Jan. 1869 \n\nThomas, duke of Genoa, entered a pupil at Harrow \n\n(see Spain, 1870) April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCircular of Menabrea against the council at Rome, \n\n5 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nVictor-Emmanuel Ferdinand, son of prince Hum- \nbert, born at Naples . . . .11 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nSerious illness and recovery of the king, 6-20 Nov. ,, \nOffered resignation of Menabrea, about 19 Nov. ; ,, \n\nCialdini and Sella unable to form a ministiy, 10 \n\nDec. ; Lanza and Sella succeed . 13 Dec. \n\n<Ecumenical council at Borne (see Rome, Councils) \n\nopened 8 Dec. ,, \n\nRepublican risings in Pavia and otherplaces quelled, \n\nabout 24 March, 1870 \n^Neutrality in the Franco-Prussian war announced, \n\n18 July, additional armaments ordered . 4 Aug. ,, \nMazzini arrested at Palermo and sent to Gaeta, \n\n14 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nFruitless mission of prince Napoleon to obtain help \n\nfor France 21-25 Aug. ,, \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Circular note from the government recounting the \n\nfailure of all attempts to conciliate the pope since \n\ni860 ; and proposing favourable terms 29 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nFrench vessel Orenoque placed at Civita Vecchia on \n\nbehalf of the pope . . . . Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n.Respectful letter from the king to the pope, \n\nannouncing the occupation of Rome necessary to \n\norder 8 Sept. ,, \n\nThe Italian troops enter the papal territories (see \n\nRome); occupy Viterbo and other places, 12 Sept. ,, \nGeneral Bixio marches towards Rome, 18, 19 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nAfter a short resistance, the Italians under General \n\nCadorna enter Rome. [FordetailsseeEo?re\xc2\xab.]2oSept. ,, \nPlebiscite in papal territories : for union with the \n\nkingdom of Italy (out of 167,548 voters) 133,681 ; \n\nagainst 1507 2 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0The king receives the result of the plebiscite, 8 Oct. ,, \nRome incorporated with Italy by royal decree, \n\ngeneral La Marmora governor . . 9 Oct. ,, \nArrival of La Marmora at Rome as viceroy ; reported \n\nagitation in Nice for reunion with Italy or \n\nautonomy Oct. ,, \n\nCapture and death of Pilone, a great Bourbonist \n\nbrigand chief 14 Oct. ,, \n\nMazzini arrives at Florence . . . 15 Oct. ,, \nAmnesty to political offenders proclaimed, 10 Oct. ; \n\nincluding Mazzini .... 16 Oct. ,, \nDiplomatic circular announcing the occupation of \n\nRome as the capital of Italy . . .18 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nSoman provinces united into one, with five sub- \nprefectures 19 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMinisterial changes completed . 30 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRicasoli retires into private life ; about 14 Nov. ,, \nAmadeus, duke of Aosta, the king\'s second son, \n\nelected king by the Spanish cortes . 16 Nov. ,, \nElections favourable to the government ; all the \n\nministers elected . . . about 28 Nov. ,, \nParliament meets ; the king declares Rome to be \n\nthe capital of Italy .... 5 Dec. ,, \n\nBills introduced for the transfer of the capital and \n\nthe preservation of the pope\'s rights, about \n\n10 Dec. ,, \nThe Cenis tunnel completed . . 25 Dec. ,, \n\nGreat inundation ; the king visits Rome 31 Dec. ,, \nThe senate vote the transfer of the capital from \n\nFlorence to Rome (94 \xe2\x80\x94 39) . . 26 Jan. 1871 \n\nThe king and ministers remove to Rome, 1, 2 July, \n\nwhich is inaugurated as the capital . 3 July, ,, \nThe parliament opened there by the king 27 Nov. ,, \nTelegraphic conference at Rome . 18 Dec. ,, \n\n-Joseph Mazzini dies at Pisa . . 10 March, 1872 \n\nElections favourable to the liberals . . Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nGreat inundations in the valley of the Po, &c, loss \nof life and of much property ; much saved by the \nexertions of the military . . . Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nOpposition to the income-tax in the assembly ; \n\nmajority for government (144 \xe2\x80\x94 116) . . Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nGreat sorrow at the death of Napoleon III., 9 Jan. \n\nproposals for monument in Milan . . Jan. 1873 \nBill dealing with the religious establishments at \nRome introduced April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nThe Lanza-Sella ministry resign; but resume office at \n\nthe request of the king . . about 4 May, 1873 \nDeath of Alessandro Manzoni . . .22 May, ,, \nDeath of Urbano Rattazzi . . .5 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nLaw for expulsion of Jesuits passed . 25 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSee Jesuits. \nLanza and Sella resign, 26 June ; a ministry formed \n\nby Minghetti 10 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe king\'s visit to Vienna, 17 Sept. ; to Berlin, \n\n22-26 Sept. ,, \nMonuments to Cavour at Turin inaugurated by the \n\nking 8 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe king opens parliament with congratulatory \n\nspeech 15 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAcademy of San Luca replaced by a new academy, \n\nJan. 1874 \nNational festival on the 25th anniversary of the \n\nking\'s accession . ... 23 March, ,, \n\nMinghetti ministry defeated on a finance bill ; their \n\nresignation not accepted by the king . 24 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nAccoltellatori (secret assassinating societies) re- \nported in Ravenna and other places, Sept.-Oct. ,, \nAbout 80 secret extortioners (see Canwrra) in \n\nNaples seized and transported . . Sept.-Oct. ,, \nTeodali, a papal chamberlain, seized by brigands, \n\nransomed for 2000?. . . . about 8, 9 Oct. ,, \nThe Orenoque (French) sails from Civita Vecchia \n\n13 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nJesuits ordered to quit their establishments \n\n15 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nResult of elections in support of government, Nov. ,, \n\nThe Camorra, Maffei, and Brigantaggio (terrorist \nsecret societies) prevalent in south Italy . 1874-5 \n\nGaribaldi declines a sum of money (3500J.) voted to \nhim\' 31 Dec. 1874 \n\nHe enters Rome amid great excitement, takes his \nseat in the chamber of deputies, and takes the \noath to the king 24 Jan. 1875 \n\nAccepts the sum voted and devotes it to improve- \nment of the Tiber, &c 12 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe emperor of Austria and king of Italy meet at \nVenice 5-7 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTreaty of commerce with Great Britain, to expire \n26 June, 1876, announced . . . June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSynod of Italian Catholic church (which see) held \nat Naples Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nElections of parish priests declared valid in opposi- \ntion to the bishops .... July-Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMichel-Angelo fete at Florence . . 12 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nItalian Catholic congress, blessed by the pope, \nmeets at Florence; scanty attendance, 22-25 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nVisit of the emperor of Germany to Milan; warmly \nreceived by the king and people . . 18-23 Oct. ,, \n\nMinghetti ministry defeated on the budget, 18 Mar. ; \nresign 19 March, 1876 \n\nAgostino Depretis forms a cabinet . . March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Diulio, great iron-clad, launched at Castella- \nmare, in presence of the king . . .8 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDiscovery of a " black book" in the home-office, re- \ncording misdeeds of many officials, &c. ; gives \nmuch offence .... . June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nItalian geographical society\'s expedition in Africa ; \nill-treated at Zeila ; the khedive informed July, ,, \n\nMarchese Mantegazza tried for forging the signa- \ntures of the king and prince Humbert on bills \nand letters to obtain money ; confessed, but re- \nfused to disclose name of associate or instigator, \n18 Aug. ; sentence, 8 years\' penal servitude \n\n31 Aug. ,, \n\nElections ; great majority for Depretis ministry, \n\nabout 6 Nov. ,, \n\nMaria Vittoria, duchess of Aosta, ex-queen of Spain, \naged 28, dies, greatly lamented . . 8 Nov. ,, \n\nParliament opened by the king . . 20 Nov. ,, \n\nDiscovery near Verona of above 50,000 coins of Gal- \nlienus and others, eliieliy bronze . . Jan. 1877 \n\nBill for repressing clerical abuses adopted by the \ndeputies ; the pope expresses j^reat displeasure in \nhis circular to foreign powers, 21 March ; the \nbill rejected by the senate . . - 7 May, ,, \n\nAntonelli Case\xe2\x80\x94 Countess Loreta Lambertini claims \nproperty of her alleged father, cardinal Antonelli ; \nresisted\' by his brothers, 30 June; trial; her case \n\nnot proved 6 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMinisterial changes . . . about 12 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nMonument at, Montana (which sec) inaugurated, \n\n25 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nITALY. \n\n\n\n533 \n\n\n\nITALY. \n\n\n\nResignation of the ministry, 15 Dec. ; Depretis \nre-forms his ministry (Nicotera replaced by \nCrispi) 16-26 Dec. 1877 \n\nFather Curci (see Jesuits) publishes "Dissidio Mo- \ndemo fra la Chiesa e l\'ltalia," against the pope\'s \ntemporal power Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDeath of La Marmora, aged 74, 5 Jan. ; death of \nking Victor Emmanuel II., 9 Jan. ; his funeral ; \nprocession 2 miles long ; buried in the Pantheon, \nRome 17 Jan. 1878 \n\nDeath of pope Pius IX. 7 Feb. ; election of Leo \nXIII 20 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAntonelli Case\xe2\x80\x94 the countess permitted to appear in \ncourt: the case deferred . . . . Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nResignation of the Depretis ministry . 10 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCairoli forms a liberal ministry, Corti foreign mi- \nnister ; new men . . . .23 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSeismet Doda, finance minister, announces probable \nsurplus June, ,,\'\' \n\nDandnlo, largest Italian ironclad, launched at \nSpezzia, in presence of the king . . 10 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPopular discontent at the Berlin treaty ; desire for \nacquiring Trent and Trieste ; cry of " Italia irre- \ndenta!" (vhich see) meetings at Rome, &c. \n\nabout 21 July, ,, \n\nDeath of Giorgio Pallavicino, senator, patriot, friend \nof Cavour, aged 84 3 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDavid Lazzaretti, " the saint," a peasant, aged 48, \nfounder of a religious socialistic sect in 1868, with \n12 apostles, &c, and creed somewhat protestant ; \nproposed to erect seven hermitages ; marched to- \nwards Arcidosso, in Tuscany, with between two \nand three thousand followers ; David, clad in a \nhalf-regal, half-pontifical costume, proclaiming \nthe Christian republic, resisted dispersion by the \npolice, who, when fired on, fired and killed David \nand one of his followers ; these retired, carrying \noff David\'s body 18 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMinisterial crisis ; resignation of Corti and others, \n19 Oct. ; of all the Cairoli ministry . 22 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSig. Cairoli reconstitutes the ministry . 25 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAttempted assassination of the king at Naples by \nGiovanni Passanante,an internationalist, aged 29 ; \nthe king and Cairoli, the minister, slightly \nwounded 17 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n" Pietro Barsanti " Clubs (in memory of a sergeant \nexecuted for gross insubordination a few years \nago) become prominent ; oppose ministry, autumn, ,, \n\nThe Cairoli ministry defeated on vote of confidence \n(263-189), 11 Dec. ; resign . . .12 Dec. ,, \n\nSig. Depretis\'s ministry takes office . 19 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPassanante condemned to death at Naples, 7 March ; \nto perpetual imprisonment (by the king), 29 March, 1879 \n\nAntonelli case : the countess Lambertini\'s appeal \nrejected 3 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGovernment defeated on the grist bill (251-159); re- \nsigns 3 July, ,, \n\nSig. Cairoli forms a ministry . . 8-12 July, ,, \n\nNew clerical conservative party issues a manifesto, \n\niE Aug. ,, \n\n" Res Italicce" pamphlet (see Italia Irredenta), Aug. ,, \n\nThe followers of Lazzaretti tried and acquitted, \n\n12 Nov. ,, \n\nCairoli ministry reconstructed . 18-24 Nov. >> \n\nFirst publication of " Aurora," a papal daily news- \npaper, at Rome 1 Jan. 1880 \n\nParliament opened by the king ; relief of taxation \npromised 17 Feb. ,, \n\nMajority in chamber against ministers, 17 Feb.; its \nresignation not accepted by the king, 29 April ; \ndissolution of the chamber . . 2 May, ,, \n\nElections : absolute majority for the Cairoli minis- \ntry ; parliament meets . . . .26 May, ,, \n\nCordigliani, a half-mad tailor, condemned to im- \nprisonment for throwing paving-stones at a group \n>f deputies (25 June) .... 26 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nCelebration of capture of Rome by Italians in 1870, \n\n20 Sept. ,, \n\nItalia, great ironclad, launched at Castellamare, \n\n29 Sept. ,, \n\nGaribaldi (and his son Menotti) resign as deputies \non account of the imprisonment of his son-in-law, \ngen. Canzio, for republican manifestations, 27 \nSept. ; Garibaldi goes to Genoa, Oct. ; Canzio re- \nleased 10 Oct. ,, \n\nCol. John Whitehead, " Garibaldi\'s Englishman," \ndies, aged 69 21 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nResignation of Cairoli and his cabinet, 8 April ; re- \n\n\n\nturn to office ; censured 011 account of the Tunis \n\naffair 18 April, 1 \n\nThe Cairoli ministry again resign . 14 May, \n\nM. Depretis forms a ministry . . 28 May, \n\nFather Curci publishes "New Italy and Old Zealots ," \n\nJune, \nThe king and queen warmly received at Vienna, \n\n28-31 Oct. \n\nThe government complain of Vatican intrigues \n\nabout 28 Dec. \n\nDeath of Lanza, General Medici patriot, died 9 Mar. \n\nOpening of St. Gothard railway from Lucerne to \n\nMilan 20, 21 May, j \n\nDeath of Garibaldi at Caprera deeply lamented \n\n2 June, \nBuried there in the presence of thousands 8 June, \nParliament dissolved .... 4 Oct. \n\nDestructive floods in North Italy . Sept., Oct. \nElections in favour of the ministry about 28 Oct. \nFirst reform parliament opened by King Humbert \n\n22 Nov \nDeath of the duke of Sermoneta . . . 12 Dec. \nDemonstrations against Austria on account of \n\nexecution of Oberdank for threatening the \n\nemperor\'s life .... 20-22 Dec. \n\nInternational fine art exhibition opened at Rome \n\n21 Jan. : \nSpecie payments resumed ... 12 April, \nLepanto, Italian built iron-clad launched at Leg- \nhorn ; the king present .... 17 Mar. \nThe four-hundredth anniversary of Raphael\'s birth \n\ncelebrated at Rome .... 28 Mar. \n\nConfidence in the Depretis ministry voted (348-29) ; \n\nit resigns, and returns . . 25, 26 May, \n\nNew important treaty with Great Britain signed, \n\n15 June, \nAbout 50 persons perish by fire in a theatre at \n\nDervio, near Como .... 24 June, \nKing Victor Emmanuel\'s body removed to the Pan- \ntheon 5 Jan. ; thousands of pilgrims visit his tomb \n\nup to 21 Jan. \n\nDeath of Sig. Sella, great financial minister, 14 Mar. \nResignation of the Depretis ministry, 20 Mar. ; \n\nreconstituted ... 22 Mar.-io April, \nDiscussion respecting the sale of the Propaganda \n\nproperty at Rome April, \n\nNational exhibition at Turin opened by the king, \n\n26 April, closed 20 Nov. \n\nFifth ironclad launched at Castellamare . \nTwenty-one new members added to the Senate \n\n28 Nov. \nTotal number of soldiers in the army, 2,113,969 \n\n1 Jan. \nNavy consisted of 112 vessels afloat or building \n\n1 Jan. \nHeavy snow storms in Piedmont, near Mont Cenis ; \n\nmany avalanches ; many villages destroyed ; very \n\ngreat loss of life .... 16-28 Jan. \nExpedition to Assab to avenge the massacre of \n\nGuiletti and Bianchi \n\nIronclad Cattclfidardo arrived at Beilul . 25 Jan. \nThe ministry determine to assist Great Britain in \n\nthe Soudan .... .6 Feb. \n\nItalian flag hoisted at Massowah (which see) 6 Feb. \nResignation of the Depretis ministry on account of \n\nMancini\'s foreign policy, 18 June ; reconstituted \n\nabout 24 June, \n\nIronclad Francisco Morosini launched at Venice \n\n30 July, \nElections : ministerial majority about 55, about \n\n" 24 May, \nDeath of Marco Minghetti (prime minister in 1864 \n\net seq.), aged 70 10 Dec. \n\nDepretis ministry resigns ... 8 Feb. \nDestructive earthquakes (which see) 23, 24 Feb. \nSeveral statesmen having declined office, the \n\nDepretis ministry resumes office . 5 March, \nDefensive treaty of alliance with Austria-Hungary \n\nand Germany signed ... 13 March, \nCoalition cabinet formed, Depretis, foreign minister, \n\npremier 3 April, \n\nDepretis dies, aged 74, 29 July ; M. Crispi becomes \n\npremier Aug. \n\nSignor Crispi visits prince Bismarck . 2, 3 Oct. \nSignor Crispi at Turin declares his policy to be \n\nthorough peace 25 Oct. \n\nParliament opened . . . . .16 Nov. \n\n\n\nITALY. \n\n\n\n537 \n\n\n\nITALY. \n\n\n\nIncreased formation of workman, socialistic, and \nrepublican leagues 1882-87 \n\nDuke Torlonia, syndic of Rome, dismissed for \ncongratulating the pope on his jubilee 2 Jan. 1888 \n\nThe progress of the Italian catholic church \nopposed to the papacy, reported . . Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFall of vast avalanches in north Italy ; 23 persons \nkilled at Valtorta, 23 Feb. ; 30 persons killed at \nSparone, 29 Feb. 1888 ; above 200 persons \nsaid to have perished in the Alps Feb.-March ,, \n\nItalian exhibition (which see), London, 12 May,- \n\n31 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe abolition of capital punishment passed by the \nchambers June, ,, \n\nCheap popular edition of the Italian bible (with \nCassell\'s illustrations) issued by signor Sonzogno, \neditor of the Secolo, Milan . . . July, ,, \n\nFor war with Abyssinia, see Massowah . . 1887-88 \n\nMarriage of the duke of Aosta, ex-king of Spain, \nwith his niece princess Loetitia, daughter of his \nsister Clotilde and prince Napoleon Jerome, \n\n11 Sept. 1888 \n\nThe emperor William II. warmly received at Rome, \n11 Oct. ; 32,000 troops reviewed at Centocelle, 13 \nOct. at Naples ; (launch of the great ironclad \nRe Umberto at Castellamare) . . 16 Oct. ,, \n\nLandslip between Salandra and Graseano ; de- \nstruction of an excursion train, about 22 persons \nkilled 20 Oct. ,, \n\nMarquis of Dufferin, British ambassador, received \nby the king 7 Jan. 1889 \n\nDeath of Father Gavazzi, church reformer, aged 80 \n\n9 Jan. ,, \n\nOpening of parliament by the king . 28 Jan. ,, \n\nSignor Crispi resigns 28 Feb. but reconstitutes his \nministry 7 March, ,, \n\nThe king, his son and Signor Crispi warmly re- \nceived at Berlin .... 21-26 Mar. ,, \n\nDeath of Benedetto Cairoli, aged 63, patriot and \nstatesman, associated with Victor Emanuel, \nCavour and Garibaldi, in the unification of Italy, \ndeeply lamented 8 Aug. ,, \n\nSig. Cr.spi injured by a stone thrown at him during \na carriage drive by Emilio Caporali, a silly youth \n\n13 Sept. ,, \n\nThe king ratifies treaty of 2 May with Abyssinia . \n\n2 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nItalian protectorate over Abyssinia announced \n\n14 Oct. ,, \n\nThe parliament opened with a cheerful speech by \nthe king 25 Nov. ,, \n\nDeath of the duke of Aosta, aged 44 . 18 Jan. 1890 \n\nMinistry defeated in the senate on a minor ques- \ntion, 5 May ; the crisis passes over 9 May, et seq. ,, \n\nDemocratic congress at Rome, 470 associations re- \npresented 11 May, et st>q. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRiots at Conselice, in the Romagna, 3 or 4 rioters \nkilled by the military . . . about 24 May ,, \n\nConfidence in Signor Crispi\'s ministry voted (329-61) \n\n31 May, ,, \n\nThe prince of Naples visits St. Petersburg, Berlin \n\nMay, June, ,, \n\nMajor Gaetani Casati returns from his expedition \nto Bmin pasha (see Africa) ; received at Rome, 14 \nJuly ; by the king 17 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSig. Filonanli becomes director of the Italian East \nAfrica company . . . announced 12 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAnglo-Italian steamer line (Naples, Palermo, and \nLondon), inaugurated ... 22 Aug. ,, \n\nDestructive cyclone\xe2\x80\x94 San Marino, Turin, Como, \nNaples, Sardinia, &c. ... 26 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGreat ironclad, Sardegna, launched at Spezia \n\n20 Sept. ,, \n\nConference at Naples, of representatives of Great \nBritain and Italy, respecting the limits of the \nterritories in East Africa ; sig. Crispi and lord \nDufferin present ; disagreement respecting \nKassala, &c. ; the conference closes without \nresult 4-10 Oct. ,, \n\nThe parliament dissolved ... 24 Oct. ,, \n\nParliamentary elections held, great majority for \nthe government 23 Nov. ,, \n\nMinisterial changes .... 8-9 Dec. ,, \n\nParliament opened 10 Dec. ; confidence in the \nministry voted 19 Dec. ,, \n\nSignor Crispi defeated on a financial question (186- \n123), and resigns 31 Jan. 1891 \n\nNew Ministry ; marquis di Rudini (president and \n\n\n\nforeign minister), and others, 6 Feb. et seq. ; they \npropose maintenance of peace, and reduced ex- \npenditure, &c. 11 Feb. : \n\nVote of confidence in the ministry adopted . \n\n21 March, \n\nTreaty for the delimitation of the British and \nItalian spheres of influence in East Africa, signed \nat Rome 15 April \n\nFinancial difficulties ; opposition to reduction of \nthe army expenditure . . about 31 March \n\nTrial of 179 persons connected with the Mala Vita \nconspiracy at Bari, see Cainorra . . April \n\nThe triple alliance renewed ... 28 June, \n\nTour of the prince of Naples ; arrives in London, \nreceived by the prince of Wales, 22 July ; dined \nwith the queen at Osborne, 24 July ; visited the \nmarquis of Salisbury at Hatfield, 25 July ; other- \nvisits ; with lord Mayor, 28 July ; made E.G. at \nOsborne, 3 Aug. ; visits Edinburgh and other \nplaces in Scotland, 7 Aug. et seq. ; at Newcastle, \n14 Aug. ; leaves for Bergen, &c. . 15 Aug. \n\nThe mail steamer Taormina sunk by collision with \nthe Greek steamer Thessalia, off Cape Sunium, \nabout 60 lives lost, 2 a.m. . . 12 Sept. \n\nThe Russian foreign minister, M. de Giers, meets \nthe Marquis di Rudini, the Italian premier, at \nMilan, 12 Oct. ; they visit the king at Monza (no \npolitical results) . . . 13 and 17 Oct. \n\nTrial of 60 anarchists .... 14 Oct. \n\nNew commercial treaty with Austria and Germany \nsigned at Rome . . . . . 16 Dec. \n\nLord Vivian succeeds lord Duflerin as British \nminister about 22 Jan. \n\nDeath of count de Launay, minister at Berlin suc- \ncessively for Sardinia and Italy for 37 years \n\n7 Feb. \n\nSignor Crispi retires from public affairs . \n\nabout 15 Feb. \n\nCipriani Palla and other anarchists sentenced to \ndifferent terms of imprisonment . 24 March \n\nResignation of the cabinet through differences re- \nspecting finance, 14 April ; most of the resigna- \ntions withdrawn .... 21 April, \n\nDifficulty with the United States settled, see New \nOrleans about 14 April, \n\nAnarchist leaders arrested in Rome and other \nplaces, 25 April, et seq. ; 48 arrested up to 29 \nApril ; 42 arrests on ... 30 April, \n\nThe Rudini ministry, defeated in the Chamber \n(193-185), resign . . . . 5 May, \n\nA new ministry formed by sig. Giolitti n-15 May, \n\nResignation of the ministry not accepted by the \nking 27 May, \n\n\n\n476. \n\n\n\n526. \nS34- \n536. \n54\xc2\xb0- \n\n54i- \n\n\n\n573- \n575- \n59\'- \n615. \n625. \n636. \n\n652. \n\n653- \n661. \n662. \n671. \n686. \n700. \n701. \n\n\n\nKINGS OF ITALY. \n\nOdoacer, king of the Heruli, invades Italy, ami \nbecomes king, conquered and slain by \n\nTheodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, an able prince. \nHe put to death the philosophers Boethius and \nSymmaehus, falsely accused, about 525. \n\nAthalaric, his grandson, dies of the plague. \n\nTheodatus elected ; assassinated. \n\nVitiges elected. \n\nTheodebald (Hildibald) elected ; assassinated. \n\nTotila, or Badiula, a great prince ; killed in battle \nagainst the imperial army under Narses. \n\nTheias falls in battle. \n\nItaly subject to the eastern empire till \n\nAlboin, king of the Lombards, with a huge mixed \narmy, conquers Italy ; poisoned by his wife \nRosamond, for compelling her to drink wine out \nof a cup formed of her father\'s skull. \n\nCleoph ; assassinated. \n\nAutharis ; poisoned. \n\nAgilulph. \n\nAdaloald ; poisoned. \n\nArioakl. \n\nRotharis ; married the widow of Arioald ; pub- \nlished a code of laws. \n\nRodoald (son); assassinated. \n\nAribert I. (uncle) \n\nBertharit and Godebert (sons) ; dethroned by \n\nGrimoald, duke of Benevento. \n\nBertharit re-established. \n\nCunibert (son). \n\nLuitbert , dethroned by \n\nRagimbert. \n\nAribert II. (son). \n\n\n\nITALY. \n\n\n\n538 \n\n\n\nIVET. \n\n\n\n712. Ansprand elected. \n\xe2\x80\x9e Luitprand (son), a great prince, and a favourite of \n\nthe churcli. \n744. Hildebrand (nephew) ; deposed. \n\n\xe2\x80\x9e Eaehis, duke of Friuli, elected ; became a monk. \n\xe2\x80\xa2749. Astolph (brother). \n\xe2\x80\xa2756. Desiderius (Didier), quarrelled with the pope \n\nAdrian, who invited Charlemagne into Italy, by \n\nwhom Desiderius was deposed, and an end. put \n\nto the Lombard kingdom. \n-781. Pepin er Carloman (son of Charlemagne). \n:Si2. Bernard. \n.820. Lothaire (son of Louis le De\'bonnaire) \n\nEMPERORS. \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2875. Charles the Bald. \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2877. Carloman. \n\n$79. Charles the Fat \n\n888. Berenger L \n\n889. ,, and Guy. \n\xe2\x96\xa0894. ,, and Lambert. \n\n\xe2\x80\xa29 21 - .* and Rudolph of Burgundy. \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2526. Hugh of Provence. \n\n<94S. Lothaire II. \n\n.950. Berenger II. and Adalbert his son ; deposed in 96) \n\nby the emperor Otho the Great, who added Italy \n\nto the German empire. \n\nMODERN KINGS OV ITALY. \n\n3805. Napoleon I. proclaimed king of Italy, 18 March ; \ncrowned at Milan, 26 May ; abdicated, 1814. \n\n2861. Victor-Emmanuel II. (of Sardinia, which see), born \n14 March, 1820 ; declared king of Italy by the \nparliament, 17 March, 1861 ; died 9 Jan. 1878. \n\n1878. Humbert (son), born 14 March, 1844; married his \n\n\n\ncousin Margherita (born 20 Nov. 1851), 22 April, \n1868. \nHeir : Victor-Emmanuel (son), prince of Naples, \nborn 11 Nov. 1869. \n\nITHACA, kingdom of Ulysses, see Ionian \nIsles. It was explored by Dr. Schliemann, in 1878 ; \nfew discoveries being made. \n\nITINEBAKIES. The Eoman Itinerarium \nwas a table of the stages between important places. \nThe "Itineraria Antonini," embracing the whole \nEoman empire, usually ascribed to the emperor \nAurelius Antonius, and his successors, a.d. 138-180, \nwas probably based upon the survey made by order \nof Julius Caesar, 44 B.C. The "Itinerarium \nHierosolymitanum " was drawn up for the use of \nthe pilgrims about a.d. 333. \n\nIVOBY was brought to Solomon from Tarshish, \nabout 992 B.C. (1 Kings x. 22). The colossal statues \nof Jupiter, Minerva, &c, by Phidias, were formed \nof ivory and gold, 444 B.C. Ivory tusk, 7 feet long, \nsent by the Zulu king Cetywayo to lord Chelms- \nford, as a token of peace, summer, 1879. Celluloid, \nan imitation of ivory, tortoiseshell, etc., composed \nof guncotton and camphor, used for the manufacture \nof buttons, billiard balls, and various ornaments, \nreported dangerous as being inflammable at low \ntemperatures, Feb. 1892. \n\nIVKY (near Evreux, N.\'W. France). Here \nHenry IV. totally defeated the due de Mayenne, \nand the League army, 14 March, 1590. \n\n\n\nJ. \n\n\n\nJACOBINS. \n\n\n\nJAMAICA. \n\n\n\nJ was distinguished from I by the Dutch scholars \nof the 16th century, and introduced into the alphabet \nby Giles Beys, printer, of Paris, 1550. Dufresnoy. \n\nJACOBINS, a name given to the Dominicans \nin France, because their first convent was the \nhospital of the pilgrims of St. James (Jacobus), \nat Paris, at the request of pope Honorius III. \n(1216-27). The Jacobin club (first called "club \nBreton " ) consisted of about forty gentlemen \nand men of letters, who met in the hall of the \nJacobin friars, at Paris, in Oct. 1789, to discuss \npolitical and other questions. Similar societies \nwere instituted in all the principal towns of the \nkingdom. The club was closed 11 Nov. 1794. \n\nJACOBITES* a Christian sect, so called from \nJacob Baradaeus, a Syrian, about 541 ; see Euty- \nchians. \xe2\x80\x94 The partisans of James II. (Latin, \nJacobus II.) were so named after his expulsion from \nEngland in 1688-9. \n\nA sentimental revival of Jacobitism appeared in Eng- \nland in 1891, the "White Hose League" having been \nformed. The marquis de Ruvigny and other members \nof the " Legitimist Jacobite League " were stopped in \ntheir attempt to place a large floral wreath on the \ntomb of Mary, queen of Scots, in Westminster Abbey, \n8 Feb. 1892. \n\nJACOBUS, a gold coin, so called from king \nJames I. of England, in whose reign it was struck, \n1603-25. \n\nJACQUAED LOOM, for figured fabrics, in- \nvented by Joseph Marie Jacquard, of Lyons, and \npatented 23 Dec. 1801. \n\nJACQUEBIE, a term applied to bands of \nrevolted peasants (headed by one Caillot, called \nJacques Bonhomme), who ravaged France during \nthe captivity of king John in 1358, and were quelled \nwith much bloodshed. Similar insurrections oc- \ncurred in Germany. One was termed the Bundschuh, \nfrom the large shoe especially worn by peasants, in \n1502 ; and another termed the Bund (or league) of \nthe Poor Conrad, 1514 and 1524, which also cost \nabout 100,000 lives, and led to the insurrection of \nthe anabaptists. \n\nJAFFA, a seaport of Syria, celebrated in scrip- \nture as Joppa, whence Jonah embarked (about 862 \nB.C.), and where Peter raised Tabitha from the dead \n(a.d. 38) ; in mythology the place whence Perseus \ndelivered Andromeda. Jafla was taken by the \ncaliph Omar, in 636 ; by the Crusaders, 1099 ; by \nSaladin, 1 193; byLouisIX., 1252; and by Bonaparte, \n7 March, 1 799 ; the French were driven out by the \nBritish in J une, the same year. Here, according to \nsir Robert Wilson, were massacred 3800 prisoners \nby Bonaparte ; but this is doubted. Jaffa suffered \nby an earthqdake in Jan. 1837, when it is said that \n13,000 persons were killed. \n\nJAGELLONS, a dynasty whichat times reigned \nover Lithuania, Poland, Hungary, and Bohemia, \nbeginning with Jagellon, duke of Lithuania \n(husband of Hedwig, daughter of Louis of Hungary, \n1384), who became king of Poland as Ladislas III. \nor V. in 1399, and ending with Sigismund II., who \ndied in 1572. \n\nJAINS, see Jeynes. \n\n\n\nJAMAICA, a W. India island, discovered by \nColumbus, 3 May, 1494, and named St. Jago. It \nwas conquered from the Spaniards by admiral \nPenn, with land forces commanded by Venables, \n3 May, 1655, and settled soon after. Population in \n1861, 13,816 whites; 81,074 coloured; 346,374 \nblacks; "in 1871, 506,154; whites, 13,101 ; coloured, \n100,346; blacks, 392,707; in 1881, 585,582; 1891, \n639,491. Revenue, 1890-1, 764,045/. ; expenditure, \n510,058/. The government of Jamaica includes \nTurks and Caicos islands. \n\nAn awful earthquake here . . .2 June, 1692 \n\nThe Maroons (runaway slaves) permitted to settle \n\nin the north of the island 1738 \n\nDesolating hurricanes in . . . 1722, 1734, & 1751 \nIn June, 179s, the Maroons rose against the English, \n\nand were not quelled till .... March, 1796 \nMany transported to Sierra Leone .... 1800 \n\nSlave trade abolished 1 May, 1807 \n\nTremendous hurricane, by which the whole island \nwas deluged, hundreds of houses washed away, \nvessels wrecked, and 1000 persons drowned, Oct. 1815 \n\nBishopric .established 1824 \n\nInsurrection of the negro slaves ; numerous planta- \ntions burnt ; the governor, lord Belmore, declared \n\nmartial law 22 Dec. 1831 \n\nEmancipation of the slaves . . . 1 Aug. 1834 \n\nAbout 50,000 die. of cholera in 1850 \n\nIn May, 1853, the dissension between the colonial \nlegislature and sir Charles Grey, the governor, \noccasioned his recall ; his successor, sir H. Barkly, \n\narrived Oct. 1853 \n\nBishopric of Kingston established . . . . 1856 \nCharles Henry Darling appointed governor . . 1857 \nEdward John Eyre appointed governor . July, 1864 \nNegro insurrection begins at Mo rant-bay, by resist- \ning the capture of a negro criminal, 7 Oct. ; the \ncourt-house fired on ; baron Ketelholdt, rev. V. \nHerschell, and others cruelly murdered, and many \n\nwounded n Oct. 1865 \n\nRebellion spreads, and many atrocities are com- \nmitted ; it is suppressed by the energy of the \ngovernor, the military and naval officers, volun- \nteers, the Maroons, and the loyal negroes, \n\n13-24 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nGeorge Wm. Gordon, a coloured member of the \nlegislature, convicted of encouraging the rebel- \nlion, 21 Oct. ; executed . . . .23 Oct. ,, \n\nPaul Bogle executed 24 Oct. ,, \n\nNumerous executions .... Oct. <fe Nov. ,, \nSir Henry Storks summoned from Malta, and sent \nto Jamaica, with Messrs. Russell Gurney and John \nB. Maule, as commissioners, to inquire respecting \nthe disturbances, and the measures taken in sup- \npressing them .... 11 Dec. et seq. ,, \nGovernor Eyre temporarily suspended ; sir Henry \n\nStorks arrives in Jamaica . . . .6 Jan. 1866 \nThe legislative assembly of Jamaica dissolves itself, \nand abrogates the constitution (which had existed \n\n200 years) 17 Jan. ,, \n\n1600Z. subscribed at Jamaica for defence of gov. \n\nEyre Feb. ,, \n\nCommission ojiened 23 Jan. ; closed . 21 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThey receive evidence of the existence of widely \nspread discontent during 1S65; they reported that \n439 persons had suffered by martial law ; that about \n1000 dwellings had been burnt ; that about 600 \n(many women) had been flogged ; that they con- \nsidered the punishments inflicted excessive, the \nexecutions unnecessarily frequent, the burning \nthe houses wanton ; and that they saw no proof \nof Gordon\'s complicity in the outbreak, or in \nan organised conspiracy against government, \n\n9 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe " Jamaica Government act " passed in England \n\n23 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nJAMES\'S GAZETTE, ST. \n\n\n\n540 \n\n\n\nJAPAN. \n\n\n\nSir J. P. Grant gazetted governor in room of governor \n\n. Eyre 16 July, 1866 \n\nA " Jamaica Committee," J. S. Mill, chairman, pro- \npose prosecution of governor Eyre . . 27 July, ,, \nHe arrives at Southampton, 12 Aug. ; welcomed by \n\na banquet 21 Aug. ,, \n\nA committee for his defence formed . . Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe governor, sir J. P. Grant, promulgates the new \nconstitution ; opening of the legislative council \n(consisting of the governor and six members), \n\n16 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nG. D. Ramsay, accused of murder, discharged oy \n\ngrand jury 18 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nWarrants issued against gov. Eyre, col. Nelson, and \nlieut. Brand, Feb. ; the grand jury discharges \nthe bills against Eyre, 29 March, and the others, \n\n11 April, 1S67 \nA bill of indictment for misdemeanor against \ngovernor Eyre brought in, 15 May ; discharged by \n\ngrand jury 2 June, 1868 \n\nChief-justice Cockburn disclaimed agreement with \npart of justice Blackburn\'s charge on the occasion ; \nan almost unexampled case ... 8 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nTrial of Phillips v. Eyre (for beating and imprison- \nment during the rebellion of 1866) ; Eyre pleaded \nact of indemnity ; verdict for defendant 29 Jan. 1869 \nEpiscopal church disestablished . . .31 Dec. ,, \nAppeals in England for its support . . July, 1870 \n\nLegal expenses of Mr. Eyre ordered to be paid, after \n\ndiscussion in the commons . . .8 July, 1872 \nMany estates in Jamaica offered for sale in the \n\nLondon papers July, ,, \n\nReturning prosperity reported . . . May, 1873 \nSir Win. Grey appointed governor . . March, 1874 \nSir Anthony Musgrave, appointed governor . Nov. 1876 \nEdward Everard Rushworth, governor, April, 1877 ; \n\ngen. sir Henry Wylie Norman . . . Oct. 1883 \nDestructive Are at Port Antonio . . 18 Oct. ,, \n\nIntroduction of representative government pro- \nposed ; Sir Henry W. Norman arrives 21 Dec. ,, \nGreat public dissatisfaction at the proposals, Feb. 1884 \nThe legislature rejects proposed confederation \n\nwith Canada 11 Nov. ,, \n\nSir Henry Arthur Blake appointed governor Dec. 1888 \nRioting of the 1st West India regiment at the races \nat Kingston ; severe conflict with the police, \nwho are badly injured ; the rioting quelled by \npickets from the camp . reported 28 Jan. 1891 \n\nThe International exhibition at Kingston was sug- \ngested by Mr. Win. Fawcett, director of public \ngardens, 9 July 1889 ; 15,000^. subscribed by the \npublic, and 15,000/. given by the government, \nMr. S. Lee Banty, general manager ; the exhi- \nbition was opened by prince George of Wales, \nwho was in the harbour with a squadron, 27 Jan., \nand closed by the governor . . 2 May, ,, \n\nJamaica made the head-quarters of the Imperial \nforces in the West Indies announced . March, ,, \n\nJAMES\'S GAZETTE, ST., anti-radical \nevening paper, edited by Fred. Greenwood, formerly \neditor of Pall Mall Gazette, first appeared, 31 May, \n1880. Price 2d., reduced to id. 2 Jan. 1882. \n\nJAMES\'S HALL, ST., near Piccadilly, \nerected for public meetings, &c, was opened on \n25 March, 1858, with a concert for the benefit of \nthe Middlesex hospital. Mr. Owen Jones was the \narchitect. The " Popular Monday Concerts" es- \ntablished by Mr. Thos. Chappell here began 14 Feb. \n1859. \n\nThe Moore and Burgess (" Christie ") Minstrels have \nperformed here regularly since 1865. \n\nJAMES\'S PALACE, ST., &c, London, was \nbuilt by Heury VIII. on the site of an hospital of \nthe same name, 1530-6. It has been the official \ntown -residence of the English court since the fire at \nWhitehall in 1698. \nThe Park a marsh till Henry VIII. enclosed and \n\nlaid it out in walks . : 1530 \n\nMuch improved by Charles II. , who employed Le \nNotre to plant lime-trees, and to layout "the \nmall," for the purpose of playing a game with a \n\nball called a mall 1668 \n\nWilliam III. granted a passage into it from Spring- \ngardens !6g9 \n\n\n\nA grand display of fireworks took place here at the \npeace, when the pagoda bridge erected here by \nsir W. Congreve was burnt . . . 1 Aug. 1814 \n\nThe park improved by Geo. IV. . . . 1827 et seq. \n\nThe enclosure first opened to the public in Jan. \n1829 : the opening by Carlton-steps in . . .1831 \n\nThe marble arch at Buckingham -palace removed \nto Cumberland-gate, Hyde-park . 29 March, 1851 \n\nAn iron bridge over the ornamental water con- \nstructed 1857 \n\nJAMES\'S THEATRE, ST., erected by \nBeazley for John Braham, the singer; opened \n14 Dec. 1835. See Theatres. \n\nJANINA, see Albania. \n\nJANISSARIES (Turkish ieni tcheri, new \nsoldiers), an order of infantry in the Turkish army; \noriginally, young prisoners trained to arms ; were \nfirst organised by Orcan, about 1330, and remodelled \nby his son Amurath I. 1360 ; their numbers being \nincreased by following sultans. In later days they \ndegenerated from their strict discipline, and several \ntimes deposed and killed the sultans. During an in- \nsurrection, 14-15 June, 1826, when nearly 3000 of \nthem were killed, the Ottoman army was re-orga- \nnised by Mahmud II. and a firman was issued on \n17 June, abolishing the Janissaries. \n\nJANSENISTS, persons who embraced the \ndoctrines of Cornelius Jansen, bishop of Ypres, who \ndied in 1638. The publication of his " Augustinus" \n1640, in which he maintained the doctrine of free \ngrace, kindled a fierce controversy, and was con- \ndemned by a bull of pope Urban VIII. in 1642. \nThrough the Jesuits Jansenism was condemned by \nInnocent X. in 1653, and by Clement XI., in 1713, \nby the bull Unigenitus. This bull the French \nchurch rejected. Jansenism still exists at Utrecht \nand Haarlem ; see Port Royalists. Loos, abp. of \nUtrecht, died, June, 1873. \n\nJANUARY derives its name from Janus, an \nearly Roman divinity. January was added to the \nRoman calendar by Numa, 713 B.C. He placed it \nabout the winter solstice, and made it the first \nmonth, because Janus was supposed to preside over \nthe beginning of all business. In 1751 the legal \nyear in England was ordered to begin on 1 Jan. in- \nstead of 25 March. Mild Januaries in England, 1804, \nmean temperature, 43*2 ; 1834, 44 4 ; 1846, 437 ; \nJS/S. 43\'4! 1884, 43-9; 1890, 43-5 (on 18 days \nabove 50). \n\nJANUS, TEMPLE OF, at Rome, was erected \nby C. Duilius in 3rd century B.C., kept open in time \nof war, and closed in time of peace. It was shut \nat the close of the first Punic war, 235 B.C.; and under \nAugustus. 29, 25, and 5 b.c. \n\nJAPAN, an Asiatic empire, comprehends four- \nlarge islands, Niphon or Nippon, Shikoku, Kyushu, \nand Yezo, and about 3,850 small ones. Iu 1869 \nTokio, previously called Jedo, was declared the \neastern capital till 500 a.d., the ancient Kyoto, re- \nnamed Saikyo or Sakei, becoming the western. \nPopulation, 1890, 40,453,461. \nThe early history is legendary till a. d. 500. Jimmu Tenno, \n\nthe founder of the present dynasty, is said to have \n\nreigned B.C. 665. \nThe empress Jingo is said to have conquered Corea \n\n201 A.D. \nCorean civilization introduced 285. \nIntroduction of Buddhism from Corea about 552. \nIts hierarchy established, 624. \nYoritomo, Slwgun or generalissimo, since called by the \n\nChinese Tycoon, usurps supreme power, the Mikado or \n\nemperor becoming the spiritual emperor, 1192 et seq. \nSanguinary wars among the chiefs during four centuries. \nJapan visited by Marco Polo, a Venetian, about 1275-95. \n\n[His " Maravigliose Cose " printed 1496.] \n\n\n\nJAPAN. \n\n\n\n541 \n\n\n\nJAPAN. \n\n\n\nWeak rival dynasties in the north and south, 1333-92. \n\nJapan visited by Mendez Pinto, a Portuguese, about \nI537-58- \n\nTyeyasu, victorious over southern barons, establishes a \nstrictly conservative government at Jedo, 1600. \n(His dynasty lasted till 1868.] \n\nThe Portuguese establish trading settlements about 1543, \nand introduce Jesuit missionaries who make many \nconverts ; by a fierce persecution beginning 1590, the \nPortuguese and their missionaries are expelled, and \ntheir converts massacred, 1637-42. \n\nThe Dutch settlements under severe restrictions, suffered \nto remain for a time, 1600 et seq. \n\nThe learned Engelbert Kiempfer visits Japan about 1690. \n[All foreigners rigidly excluded from Japan till 1853.] \n\nAn American expedition, under commodore Parry, \nreaches Jedo, and is favourably received ; but \nTemains only a few days ... 8 July, 1853 \n\nA treaty of commercial alliance concluded between \nthe two countries .... 31 March, 1854 \n\nA similar treaty with Great Britain . 14 Oct. ,, \n\nWith Russia 26 Jan. 1855 \n\nDestructive earthquake ; Anasaca and Simoda de- \nstroyed, Jedo much injured . . .23 Dec. 1854 \n\nNagasaki and Hakodadi opened to European com- \nmerce . 1856 \n\nCommercial treaty with Russia . . 19 Aug. 1858 \n\nLord Elgin visits Japan, with a present of a steamer \nfor the emperor, and is honourably received, \nJuly ; obtains the treaty of Jedo, opening \nJapan to British commerce ... 26 Aug. ,, \n\nThe secular emperor dies (aged 36) . 16 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMr. (afterwards sir) Rutherford Alcoek appointed \nconsul-general, Dec. 1858 ; envoy extraordinary, \n\nNov. 1859 \n\nA Japanese embassy visits Washington, New York, \n&c. , United States . . 14 May \xe2\x80\x94 30 June, i860 \n\nAttack on the British embassy at Jedo ; some \npersons wounded .... 5 July, 1861 \n\nEmbassy received at Paris, 13 April ; London, June ; \nin Holland, Prussia, <fec. . . July\xe2\x80\x94 Sept. 1862 \n\nForeign ministers transfer the residence from Jedo \nto Yokohama 27 June, ,, \n\nMr. Richardson murdered and his companions \ncruelly assailed by a Japanese noble and his suite, \n\n14 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n[Monument erected by Mr. Kurokawa, a Japanese \ngentleman, in honour of Mr. Richardson, 1884.] \n\nThe batteries and vessels of the prince of \nNagato fire on an English and a French vessel \nat the entrance of the straits of Simonosaki, \n\n15, 19 Nov. ,, \n\nSome English, French, and American vessels bom- \nbard his forts and his vessels . . 15-19 July, 1863 \n\nReparation demanded ; ioo,oooZ. paid by the govern- \nment ; the prince of Satsuma resists payment of \n25,oooZ. , his portion ; admiral Kuper enters the \nbay of Kagosima, and is fired upon ; whereupon he \nbombards the town and bums the prince\'s \nsteamers 15 Aug. ,, \n\nThe Japanese minister announces that the ports \nopened by virtue of the treaties will be closed, \n\n24 June, ,, \n\nThe prince of Satsuma pays the 25,000^. n Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Japanese government refuse to abide by the \ntreaties ; a combined fleet enters the straits of \nSimonosaki, 4 Sept. ; and attacks and destroys \nthe Japanese batteries . . . 5, 6 Sept. 1864 \n\nMajor Baldwin and lieut. Bird murdered, 20 Nov. ; \ntwo assassins executed .... Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSir Harry Parkes appointed to succeed sir R. \nAlcoek as envoy April, 1865 \n\nTreaties with England, France, &c, ratified, 25 Nov. ,, \n\nTwo more ports opened .... Jan. 1866 \n\nDeath of the tycoon : his successor said to be \nfavourable to foreigners . . . Sept. ,, \n\nTown of Yokohama and third part of European \nsettlement destroyed by fire . . 26 Nov. ,, \n\nJedo and other places opened to trade, by the \ngovernment 25 April, 1867 \n\nVisit of sir Harry Parkes to the tycoon, Stots Bashi, \n\n1 May, ,, \n\nPrince Minbontaiyou, brother of the tycoon, ar- \nrives at Dover, 2 Dec. ; presented to the queen, \n\n4 Dec. ,, \n\nOsaka and Niogo opened to European commerce, \n\n1 Jan. 1868 \n\n\n\nInsurrection of the Daimios ; rivalry between the \n\nmikado and tycoon, Dec. ; foreigners neutral, \n\n27 Jan. \xe2\x80\x94 Feb. \n\nJapanese outrages on French sailors ; culprits exe- \ncuted, 16 March ; further outrages punished, \n\n23 March, \n\nThe mikado\'s troops defeat the tycoon\'s, who flies, \n26-30 Jan. ; the mikado\'s defeated near Jeddo, \n\n10-17 May, \n\nAfter long war and varying success the rebellion \nends ; the mikado re-established . . July, \n\nMajority of the mikado proclaimed . . Nov. \n\nHis marriage, 9 Feb. ; another rebellion of the \ntycoon\'s partisans Feb. \n\nVisit of the duke of Edinburgh, 29 Aug. ; received \nby the mikado 22 Sept. \n\nThe tycoon submits to the mikado . . Dec. \n\nGreat progress of internal improvements, and \nassimilation to European civilisation ; proposed \nestablishment of railways, telegraphs, &c. . 18\' \n\nIndustrial exhibition opened at Kioto 10 April, \n\nDestructive fire at Jedo .... May, \n\nEmbassy of distinguished Japanese arrives at \nWashington, 4 March : in London . . 17 Aug. \n\nPacific mail screw steamer America burnt at Yoko- \nhama ; about 40 killed ... 24 Aug. \n\nFirst railway (from Yokohama to Shinagawa) \nopened, 12 June, to Jedo ; opened by the mikado, \n\nOct. \n\nJapanese ambassadors received by queen Victoria. \n\n5 Dec. \n\nEnglish proposed as the national tongue . Dec. \n\nPublic library at Tokio established .... \n\nInsurrection, through desire for war with Corea ; \nsoon suppressed . . . . Feb.-April, \n\nA successful expedition against Formosa to chas- \ntise savage tribes for massacring Japanese sailors, \nMay ; Chinese protest, Aug. ; Japanese withdraw \n(see Formosa), announced .... Nov. \n\nMr. L. Haber, German consul, murdered at Hako- \ndadi, by a fanatic, 8 Aug., executed . 26 Sept. \n\nThe Japanese minister received by queen Victoria, \n\n3 Mar. \n\nThe mikado decrees a new constitution ; 2 cham- \nbers, &c i 4 April, \n\nThe mikado opens a parliament of officials, nomi- \nnated by himself, in Jedo . . .20 June, \n\nIndustrial exhibition \n\nInsurrection of Satsuma and other clans specially \nagainst the ministry, Feb. ; suppression an- \nnounced Sept. \n\n" Foo Soo," iron-clad man-of-war, launched at Pop- \nlar, London, Chinese ambassador present, \n\n14 Apl. \n\nInsurrection suppressed ; power of the Daimios \nvirtually suppressed; principals only punished; \nannounced I3 Oct. \n\nProgress in Japan : 3744 post-offices ; 22,053,430 \nletters, and 7,372,566 domestic newspapers sent \nby post ; 2 railways in operation ; 34 lighthouses ; \nample religious freedom and virtual free trade . \n\nOkuto, able reforming minister of the interior, \nkilled by six men (political motives) . 14 May, \n\nScientific works in English, published by Tokio \nuniversity x s- \n\nImperial decree convoking a national assembly in \' \n1890 I2 Oct. \n\nEntirely new criminal code enforced . . \n\n53,760 primary schools and compulsory education \nestablished autumn, \n\nThe Japanese commander in chief with presents \nreceived by the queen at Windsor . 25 Nov. \n\nRev. Arthur W. Poole, consecrated Anglican bishop \nof Japan x q Oct. \n\nAll Japan to be thrown open to foreign trade, with \nmixed tribunals . . . annouueed Nov. \n\nDeath of the last tycoon .... April \n\nA new order of hereditary nobility instituted Sept! \n\nThe national religion disestablished and freedom \ngiven to other religions . . . n Aug. \n\nA Japanese village exhibited in London, iSS^; \nburnt 2 May ; re-opened . . 2 Dec. \n\nA Japanese dictionary printed in Roman characters, \ncompleted summer, \n\nAmicable correspondence between the mikado and \nthe pope Oct. \n\nBishop Poole died 9 July ; succeeded by rev. E. \nBickersteth Nov. \n\n\n\n0-71 \n1872 \n\n\n\n1874 \n\n\n\n1S75 \n\n\n\n1876 \n1877 \n\n\n\n1S7S \n\n\n\n1884 \n\n\n\n18S5 \n\n\n\nJAPAN. \n\n\n\n542 \n\n\n\nJAVA. \n\n\n\nGradual adoption of alphabetical in place of ideo- \ngraphic writing by agency of the Roma-ji-Rai, or \nRoman Alphabet Association .... 1885 \nDecree giving enlarged power to the prime minister \n\nsolely responsible to the mikado . . 1 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nPrince Komatsu arrives in London to confer on the \nprince of Wales the order of the chrysanthemum \n20 Nov. ; received by the queen at Windsor \n\n22 Nov. 1886 \nCount Ito, the prime minister, energetically intro- \nduces western dress and habits . . spring, 1887 \nDeath of Shimadju Saburo, ex-prince of Satsuma \n\n6 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nJapanese commission to examine the fine arts in \nEurope and America ; reports in favour of Japan ; \n"pure art is asleep in Japan, but dead in \n\nEurope " 1886-7 \n\nJapanese Fine Art Exhibitions opened in London T887-8 \nCompletion of the translation of the Bible into \n\nJapanese celebrated .... 3 Feb. 1888 \nVolcanic eruption at Sho-Bandai-San ; reported 400 \n\npersons killed 15-18 July ,, \n\nNew constitution promulgated by the mikado at \nTokio ; the houses of lords and commons esta- \nblished ; religious liberty and general freedom \n\ngranted 11 Feb. 1889 \n\nThe government desires new commercial treaties \nwith the European powers ; they hesitate ; one \nwith the United States promptly signed, Feb. ; \nwith Russia 8 Aug. ; with Italy, with Germany, \n\nwith France ,, \n\nDestructive storms and inundations in Yezo, &c. , \n\nApril, ,, \nOn west coasts, 1,200 houses destroyed . June, ,, \nVolcanic eruption on Ishima Island, 300 houses \n\ndestroyed ; 170 persons killed . 13, 14 April \xe2\x80\x9e \nEarthquakes at Kumamoto, 19 persons perish \n\n. 28 July-3 Aug. ,, \nThe southern island of Kiushiu, embankments, &c, \ndestroyed, July ; S.E. Japan the Chikugo river \nrose 28J feet above its usual level twice, 73,694 \npersons made destitute .... Aug. ,, \n\nJapanese commission of enquiry respecting parlia- \nmentary procedure in Europe, arrives in London \nearly in ...... . Oct. ,, \n\nJapanese national banks reported highlv prosperous, \n\nOct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nNine non-treaty ports opened to commerce, early \n\nOct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nSeveral changes in the ministry . Oct. -Dec. ,, \nN. Japan, destructive gales, 11 Sept., total loss 12 \nprefectures devastated ; 2,419 persons killed, \nabove 90,000 destitute, 50,000 houses swept away ; \n150,000 acres of crops destroyed, 6,000 bridges \ndestroyed, reported . . . about 18 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nVolcanic eruption of the Zoo, Bingo district, \n\nFukuvama buried, inhabitants escaped 16 Jan. 1890 \nViolent cyclone on the coast ; 900 fishing boats \n\nwrecked, great loss of life . . . 24 Jan. ,, \nThe pope proposes to appoint a metropolitan, and \n\nfour bishops for Japan . . .12 March ,, \nNational Industrial and Fine Art Exhibition opened \n\nat Tokio by the Mikado . . . 27 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \nNew civil code promulgated ... 21 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe duke and duchess of Connaught visit Yoko- \nhama 15-22 April, ,, \n\nThe mikado institutes a new order of knighthood, \n"the Golden Falcon," to commemorate the \n2,555th anniversary of the coronation of Jimmu \nTenno, the semi-mythical first sovereign of Japan, \n\nreported 12 May, ,, \n\nFirst parliamentary election . . . 1 July, ,, \nThe Japanese mail steamer, Muslia Mam, founders \nin a gale off the Japanese coast losing nearly all \nher crew, reported .... 18 Sept. ,, \nThe first Japanese parliament, opened by the \n\nemperor, with great rejoicing . . 29 Nov. ,, \nThe parliament house (wood) burnt down 15 Jan. 1891 \nThe Japanese commodore, Canaka, warmly re- \nceived by the sultan at Constantinople, and \nthanked for help given to the wrecked Ertogrul \n\n(18 Sept. 1890) 8 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDeath of prince Sanjo, prime minister since 1868, \n\nhighly honoured 18 Feb. ,, \n\nThe czarewitch travels in Japan ; wounded by a \nfanatic at Otsa, 1 1 May, visited by the mikado, \n\n13 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nCollision between the Tamaye and the Miyoshi \n\n\n\n(racing in Suirakami Bay, off the coast of Yezo), \nabout 260 lives lost .... 12 July, 1891 \n\nTyphoon at Kobe, H.M.S. gunboat Tweed and many \nother vessels sunk with great loss of life 16 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nVery destructive earthquake on the Niphon islands ; \nabout 84,000 houses and railways, bridges, <&c. , ,, \ndestroyed ; about 10,000 persons killed and \n300,000 homeless ; minor shocks follow ; esti- \nmated loss 2,000,000?. ... 28 Oct. ,, \n\nThe parliament, opposing the government, dis- \nsolved 25 Dec. ,, \n\nGovernment ordinance to provide for the relief of \nthe sufferers by the earthquake . 29 Dec. ,, \n\nViolent election riots with loss of 22 lives 15 Feb. 1892 \n\nThe establishment of a Roman Catholic hierarchy \nauthorized, reported . . . .15 March, ,, \n\nThe Japanese parliament opened by the mikado, \n\n6 May, ,, \n\nRETGNING EMPEROR OR MIKADO. \n\nMutsu Hito, born 3 Nov., 1852; succeeded his \nfather, Komei Tenuo, 1867. . . 13 Jan. 1867 \nHeir apparent, prince Haru, installed 3 Nov. 1889. \n\nJAPAN SOCIETY, London, was founded by \nlord de Saumarez, professors "W. Anderson, Church r \nand others, to promote the study of Japanese art, \nscience, finance, commerce, language, literature, \netc. ; instituted Jan. ; inaugural meeting, 29 April, \n1892. \n\nJAPGONITTM, a new metal discovered by \nprofessor A. Church in combination with the zircon \nof Ceylon. The spectrum was shown by Mr. H. \nSorby, 6 March, 1869. \n\nJAENAC (W. France). On 13 March, 1569, \nthe duke of Anjou, afterwards Henry III. of France, \nhere defeated the Huguenots under Louis, prince of \nConde,who was killed in cold blood by Montesquieu. \nThe victor (seventeen years of age), on account of \nhis success here and at Moncontour, was chosen \nking of Poland. \n\nA Jarnac Stroke ; a term of opprobrium, is derived \nfrom the Seigneur de Jarnac, who, in a duel with \nLa Chataigneraye, for a great insult, disabled \nhis antagonist by an unexpected wound in the \nham 1547 \n\nJASMINE or JESSAMINE {Jasminum offici- \nnale), native of Persia, &c, was brought hither from \nCircassia, before 1548. The Catalonian jasmine came \nfrom the East Indies, in 1629, and the yellow Indian \njasmine in 1656. \n\nJASSY, the capital of Moldavia, frequently \noccupied by the Russians ; taken by them in 1 739, \n1769, and 1828. A treaty between them and the \nTurks was signed here, 9 Jan. 1792. Population, \n1885, 90,000. \n\nJAVA, a large island in the Eastern Archi- \npelago, is said to have been reached by the Portu- \nguese in 151 1, and by the Dutch in 1595. The \nlatter, who now possess it, built Batavia, the \ncapital, about 1619 ; see Batavia. The atrocious- \nmassacre of 20,000 of the unarmed natives by the \nDutch, sparing neither women nor children, to \npossess their effects, took place in 1740. The \nisland capitulated to the British, 18 Sept. 1811. \nThe sultan was dethroned by the English, and the \nhereditary prince raised to the throne, in June, \n\n1 8 13. Java was restored to Holland by treaty in \n\n1814, and given up in 1816. The English promoted \nfree labour instead of forced ; but the Dutch re- \nverted to the old system, and in 1830 abolished \nfree labour, introducing the " culture system," by \nwhich the government controls the cultivation of \nthe land and buys the produce at its own price. In \nAug. i860, the Swiss soldiers here, aided by the \nnatives, mutinied, but were soon reduced, and many \nsuffered death. The diminished prosperity of Java \n\n\n\nJAWAKIES. \n\n\n\n543 \n\n\n\nJERUSALEM. \n\n\n\nled to warm discussions in the Dutch chamber in \n\n1866. \n\nThe valuable "History of Java," by sir T. Stamford \nRaffles (successful governor 1811-16), was published \n1817. \n\nJava has a great many volcanoes, and has frequently \nbeen devastated by eruptions and earthquakes ; those \nof 5 Jan. 1699, 31 Oct. 1876, and 10 June, 1877, were \nvery destructive. \n\nJava and neighbouring isles desolated by a series of \nviolent eruptions from about two-thirds of its 46 vol- \ncanoes, beginning with Krakatoa, casting up immense \nquantities of lava, mud, ashes, and fragments of rocks, \ndarkening the air for about 50 square miles. Moun- \ntains were split up, some disappeared, and many new \ncraters were formed. Rumbling noises heard 25 Aug., \nviolent eruptions of Krakatoa 26 Aug. There was \nmuch submarine disturbance, and an immense " tidal \nwave" destroyed Anjer and other places, 27 Aug. \nThe lighthouses in the straits of Sunda were swallowed \nup, and new volcanic peaks appeared, rendering navi- \ngation highly dangerous. Loss of life estimated at \n35,000, 25-28 Aug. Great atmospheric, oceanic, and \nelectrical disturbances for thousands of square miles. \nSee under Sun, 1883. \n\nA committee of the Koyal Society issued a report on the \neruption Oct. 1888. \n\nSerious volcanic outbreaks ; great destruction ; about \n500 persons perish, early May, 1885. \n\nInsurrection of the natives at Anjer ; some Europeans \nand natives killed ; the revolt checked by the police \nand settled, 16 July, 1888. \n\nJAWAKIES, see India, 1877-8. \n\nJEAN DE LUZ, ST. (S. France, near the \nPyrenees). Soult\'s strong position here was taken \nby general Hill and marshal Beresford, 10 Nov. 1813. \n\nJEDDA, the port of Mecca, Arabia. On 15 June, \n1858, the fanatic Mahometans massacred twenty-six \nof the Christian inhabitants, among them the Eng- \nlish and French consuls and part of their families ; \nbut many fled to the shipping. On the delay of \njustice, commodore Pullen, with the Cyclops, bom- \nbarded the town, 25, 26 July. On 6 Aug. eleven of \nthe assassins were executed ; the ringleaders after- \nwards. \n\nJEDO or YEDO (the name was changed to \nTokio about 1869), the eastern capital of Japan, on \nthe island of Niphon. Here was signed the treaty \nwith Great Britain, 26 Aug. 1858 ; see Japan. 5000 \nhouses destroyed by fire, 8 Dec. 1873, and 2,547, \nMarch, 1890. \n\nJEHAD, see Jihad. \n\nJELLALABAD, Afghanistan, defended by sir \nEobert Sale from 8 Jan. to 5 April, 1842, when the \nsiege was raised by general G. Pollock, who de- \nstroyed the fortifications. \n\nJE MAINTIENDRAI, "I will maintain," \nthe motto of the house of Nassau. When William \nIII. came to the throne of England, he continued \nthis, but added "the liberties of England and the \nProtestant religion," at the same time ordering \nthat the old motto of the royal arms, " Dieu et mon \ndroit," should be retained on the great seal, 1689. \n\nJEMAPPES (N.W. Belgium), the site of the \nfirst pitched battle gained by the French republicans \n(under Dumouriez), in which 40,000 French troops \ndrove out 19,000 Austrians, who were entrenched \nin woods and mountains, defended by redoubts and \nmany cannon, 6 Nov. 1792. The number killed on \neach side was reckoned at 5000. \n\nJENA and AUERSTADT (Central Germany), \nwhere two battles were fought, 14 Oct. 1806, be- \ntween the French and Prussians. The French were \ncommanded at Jena by Napoleon, and at Aucrstadt \nby Davoust : the Prussians by prince Hohenlohe at \nthe former place, and the king of Prussia at the \n\n\n\nlatter. The Prussians were defeated, losing nearly \n20 ? 000 killed and wounded, and nearly as many \nprisoners, and 200 field pieces ; the French lost \n14,000 men. Napoleon advanced to Berlin, and \nissued the Berlin decree {which see). \n\nJENKINS\' EAR. An ear of Robert Jenkins,, \ncaptain of a merchant-vessel, Rebecca Guar da Costas v \nwas torn off, with many insults, by a Spaniard in \n1731. He appeared before parliament in 1738, when \nthe convention of the Pardo was severely discussed. \nJenkins\' story was verified by Admiralty Records- \nin 1889. \n\nJENNERIAN INSTITUTION, founded; \n1803; see Vaccination. \n\nJEPHTHAH delivered Israel from the Ammo- \nnites B.C. 1143, Judges xi. "Jephthah," Handel\'s- \nlast oratorio ; composed 21 Jan. \xe2\x80\x94 30 Aug. 1 751; per- \nformed 26 Feb. 1752. \n\nJERSEY. The chief island of the channel \narchipelago (which includes Guernsey, Sark, Alder- \nney, &c), formerly held by the Romans in the 3rd \nand 4th centuries after Christ \xe2\x80\x94 Jersey being termed \nCsesarea. The isles were captured by Rollo, and; \nthus became an appanage of the duchy of Nor- \nmandy, and were united to the crown of England \nby his descendant, William the Conqueror. The \ninhabitants of the Channel Islands preferred to re- \nmain (subjects of king John, at the period of the \nconquest of Normandy by Philip Augustus, and \nwhile retaining the laws, customs, and (until lately), \nthe language of their continental ancestors, have \nalways remained firm in their allegiance to Eng- \nland. Almost every war with France has been \ncharacterised by an attack on Jersey, the most for- \nmidable of which, under the baron de Rullecour,. \nwas defeated by the English garrison and Jersey \nmilitia, commanded by major Pierson, 6 Jan. 1781.. \nMr. J. Bertrand Payne, in his " Armorial of Jersey," \nand his \' \' Gossiping Guide,\' \' has exhaustively treated; \nthe general and family history of the island. Jersey \nbecame a place of refuge for MM. Rouher, Baroche, \nDrouyn de Lhuys, and other distinguished French \nimperialists, Sept. 1870. Some of the Trappists \nand other monks expelled from France, settle in \nJersey, 1880-1. Philip Gosset, sentenced to 5 years* \nimprisonment for fraud against the state (\xc2\xa327,000) , \nand a banking company, 8 May, 1886. Governor, \ngen. C. B. Ewart, 188*7. The population of the- \nchannel isles in 1861 was 90,978 ; in 1871, 90,563 ; \nin 1881, 87,702; 1891,92,272. \n\nJERSEY CITY, U.S.A., population iS8o\xe2\x80\x9e \n120,722; 1890,163,003. See New Jersey. \n\nJERUSALEM, called also SAXEM, 1913 B.C. \n{Gen. xiv. 18). Its king was slain by Joshua, 145E \nB.C. It was taken by David, 1048 B.C., who dwelt \nin the fort, calling it the city of David ; see Jews* \nand Holy Places. Population about 1887, 43,000. \n\nThe first temple founded by Solomon, 1012 b. c. ; and \n\nsolemnly dedicated on Friday . . 30 Oct. 1004; \nJerusalem taken by Chosroes the Persian, a.d. \n614; retaken by the emperor Heraclius, 628; by \nthe Saracens, 637 ; and by the Crusaders, when \n70,000 infidels were put to the sword ; a new \nkingdom founded .... 15 July, 1099 \nThe " assize of Jerusalem," a code of laws, estab- \nlished by Godfrey of Bouillon, king . . . IIO o- \nKing Guy defeated at Tiberias, and Jerusalem taken \n\nby Saladin 2 Oct. 1187- \n\nBy the Turks, who drive away the Saracens, 1217 <fc 1239- \nSurrendered to the emperor Frederick II. by treaty, 122& \n\nSurrendered to the Crusaders 1243. \n\nTaken by Carismians I2 44_ \n\nTaken from the Christians I2 g r \n\nTaken by the Turks i SI 6. \n\nHeld by the French under Bonaparte . Feb. 1799 \n\n\n\n"JERUSALEM DELIVERED." 514 \n\n\n\nJESUS CHRIST. \n\n\n\nJerusalem visited by the prince of Wales, &c, \n\n31 March, 1862 \n\nConvention for the preservation of the holy sepul- \nchre, signed on behalf of Russia, France, and \nTurkey 5 Sept. ,, \n\nJerusalem and the neighbourhood surveyed by a \nparty of royal engineers since . . Sept. 1864 \n\nVisited by the prince of Prussia, 4 Nov. ; by the \nemperor of Austria .... 9 Nov. 1869 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Greatly benefited by sir Moses Montefiore, who \nvisited it for the seventh time, when aged 90 . 1875 \n\nDiscovery of pavement attributed to Constantine \n\nNov. 1887 \n\nMr. Carl Prosch\'s cycloraniic painting of Jerusalem, \na.d. 33, was exhibited in York-street, Westminster \n\nDec. 1890 \n\nA railway from Jerusalem to Jaffa constructed by \na French company ; opened . . . 13 Sept. 1892 \n\nA panorama of Jerusalem, &c, exhibited in Vic- \ntoria-street, Westminster . . .18 April, 1892 \n\nCHRISTIAN KINGS. \n\nGodfrey of Bouillon (styled himself " baron of the \n\nholy sepulchre ") 1099 \n\nBaldwin I \xe2\x80\xa2> 1100 \n\nBaldwin II. 1118 \n\nFulkofAnjou 1131 \n\nBaldwin III 1144 \n\nAmauri (or Almeric) 1162 \n\nBaldwin IV 1173 \n\nSibyl, then his son Baldwin V. .... 1185 \n\nGuy de Lusignan 1186 \n\nHenry of Champagne 1192 \n\nAmauri de Lusignan 1197 \n\nJeanne de Brienne 1210 \n\nEmperor Frederick II 1229-39 \n\nProtestant Bishopric of Jerusalem erected by treaty \n7 Sept. 1841, under the protection of Great Britain \nan.1 Prussia: \nS. M. S. Alexander consecrated bishop, 7 Nov. . 1841 \nSamuel Gobat, bishop, 1846 ; died 11 May . . 1879 \nJoseph Barclay, LL.D., consecrated 25 July, 1879; \n\ndied \'.22 Oct. 1881 \n\n\'{No successor appointed ; the compact dissolved \nJune, 1886 ; formally announced, 18 Aug. 1887. \nAn exclusively Anglican bishop was proposed by \nthe archbishop of Canterbury ; subscriptions in- \nvited, Feb. 1887. Dean G. F. P. Blyth, April, \n1887, was appointed bishop.] \nThe Jerusalem, Cowper\'s Court, Cornhill, originally \na coffee-house, opened early in the 17th century ; \nburnt in the great fire 1666, and again in 1748, \nlast rebuilt in 1880. It is supported by a com- \npany and subscribers, and forms a rendezvous for \nship-owners, brokers, and others closely con- \nnected with shipping and commerce with the \nFast, Australasia and the Cape. \n\n\' \' JERUSALEM DELIVERED," the great \nItalian epic, by Tasso, was published in 1 580. \n\nJERVIS\'S ACTS, 11 & 12 Vict., cc. 42, 43 \n(1848), relate to legal proceedings against criminals. \n\nJESTER is described as "a witty and jocose \nperson, kept by princes to inform them of their \nfaults, and of those of others, under the disguise of \na waggish story." Several of our kings, particu- \nlarly the Tudors, kept jesters. Kahere, the \nfounder of St. Bartholomew\'s priory, West Smith- \nfield, London, 1133, is said to have been a court \njester and minstrel. There was a jester at court in \nthe reigns of James I. and Charles I., but we hear \nof no licensed jester afterwards. \n\nJESUITS. The society or company of Jesus, was \nfounded by Ignatius Loyola, a page to Ferdinand V. \nof Spain, subsequently an officer in his army, and \nafterwards canonised. Having been wounded in \nboth legs at the siege of Pampeluna, in 1521, he \ndevoted himself to theology, and renounced the \nmilitary for the ecclesiastical profession. He dedi- \ncated his life to the Blessed Virgin as her knight ; \nmade a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and on his \nreturn laid the foundation of his society at Paris, \n\n\n\n16 Aug. 1534. He presented his institutes, in \n^^ to pope Paul III., who made many objec- \ntions ; but Ignatius adding to the vows of chastity, \npoverty, and obedience, a fourth of implicit sub- \nmission to the holy see, the institution was con- \nfirmed by a bull, 27 Sept. 1540. The number of \nmembers was not to exceed sixty, but that restric- \ntion was taken oft\' by another bull, 14 March, 1543 ; \nand popes Julius III., Pius V., and Gregory XIII. \ngranted many privileges. Loyola died 31 July, \n1556. Francis Xavier, and other missionaries, the \nfirst brethren, carried the order to the extremities \nof the habitable globe, but it met with great opposi- \ntion in Europe, particularly in Paris ; see Paraguay \nand Jansenists. The order still exists in many \nEuropean states contrary to the laws. \nThe society condemned by the Sorbonne, Paris, \n1554; expelled from France, 1594; re-admitted, \n1604 ; but after several decrees is totally sup- \npressed in France and its property confiscated . 1764 \nOrdered by parliament to be expelled from Eng- \nland, 1579, I 58i\xc2\xbb 1586, 1602 ; and by the Catholic \n\nrelief act in 1829 \n\nExpelled from \xe2\x80\x94 Venice, 1607; Holland, 1708; Por- \ntugal, 1759; Spain 1767 \n\nAbolished t>y Clement XIV. . . . 21 July, 1773 \n\nRestored by Pius VI. .... 7 Aug. 1814 \n\nFather Pierre J. Beckx, elected general 1853 ; active \n\nand successful ; retired, 1883 [died 4 March, 1887]. \n\nExpelledfrom \xe2\x80\x94 Belgium, 1818 ; Russia, 1820; Spain, \n\n1820, 1835; France, 1831,1845; Portugal, 1834; \n\nSardinia, Austria, and other states, 1848 ; Italy \n\nand Sicily i860 \n\nThe chief of the order appeals to the king of Sar- \ndinia for redress of grievances . . 24 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nReport of the order ; total number of Jesuits, 8167 : \n\nin France, 2422 : in 1866 ; 12,947 reported Jan. 1892 \nIn consequence of the activity of the order on be- \nhalf of the papal supremacy, a bill for its expul- \nsion from Germany passed by the parliament at \nBerlin (131-93), 19 June; promulgated . 5 July, 1872 \nThe head quarters of the order proposed to be re- \nmoved from Rome to Malta .... Oct. 1873 \nExpulsion of the Jesuits from Italy,decreed 25 June ; \n\ncarried into execution, 20 Oct. \xe2\x80\x942 Nov. . . . ,, \nFather Curci, orthodox and eloquent, resigned (vir- \ntually expelled) for recommending the pope to \nsubmit to loss of temporal power, Oct. 1877 ; \npublishes "II Moderno Dissidio fra la Chiesa e \n\nl\'ltalia." Dec. 1877 \n\nSubmits to the Pope in a humble letter ; received \n\ninto favour .... about 16 Oct. 1884 \n\n27 Jesuits\' colleges in France ; 848 teachers . . 1879 \nThe order in France dissolved by decree, 30 March, 1880 \nDecree for expulsion of Jesuits and other orders \n\nfrom France, 30 March ; carried out . 30 June, ,, \nA large gathering of Jesuits of all countries at Rome; \nFather Anderledy appointed Vicar-General Sept. \n1883; dies ...... .20 Jan. 1892 \n\nJESUIT\'S BARK, called by the Spaniards \nfever-wood, from the cinchona or chinchona tree, \ndiscovered, it is said, by a Jesuit, about 1535 (and \nused by the order). Its virtues were not generally \nknown till 1633, or 163S, when it cured of fever the \nwife of the viceroy (Chinchona) at Peru, hence \ntermed pulvis comitissce. It was sold at one period \nfor its weight in silver, and was introduced into \nFrance in 1649 ; and is said to have cured Louis \nXIV. of fever when he was dauphin. It came into \ngeneral use in 1680, and sir Hans Sloane intro- \nduced it here about 1700. The cinchona plant, \nlargely planted in the Neilgherry hills, India, in \n1861, is said to be thriving greatly, and also in \nCeylon; see Quinine. \n\nJESUS CHRIST, the Saviour of the \n\nWORLD, see Nativity. For his birth see Anno \nDomini. The following dates are given by ecclesi- \nastical writers: \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nChrist\'s baptism by John, and his first ministry \n(English Bible) a.d. 27 \n\n\n\nJEIT DE PATIME. \n\n\n\n545 \n\n\n\nJEWS. \n\n\n\nHe celebrated the last passover, and instituted the \nsacrament on Thursday ... 2 April, 33 \n\nWas first crucified on 3 April, at three o\'clock in \nthe afternoon ; arose. . . . 5 April, ,, \n\nSee Crucifixion. \n\nAscended to heaven from Mount Olivet 14 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Holy Spirit descended on his disciples on Sun- \nday, the day of Pentecost . . . 24 May, ,, \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0ffhe divinity of Christ, denied by the Arians, was \naffirmed by the council of Nice .... 325 \n\nJEU DE PAUME (the tennis court). The \nking having closed the hall of the assembly at Ver- \nsailles, the third estate (tiers-etat) met here, \nand swore not to dissolve till a constitution was \nestablished, 20 June, 1789. (It is the subject of \na painting by David.) Commemorated 20 June, \n1883. \n\nJEWELLERY was received by Rebekah as a \nmarriage gift, 1857 B.C. {Gen. xxiv. 53). Pliny the \nelder says he saw Lollia Paulina (wife of Caius \nOsesar, and afterwards Caligula) wearing ornaments \nvalued at a sum equal to 322,916/. sterling. Jewels \nwere worn in France by Agnes Sorel in 1434, and \nencouraged in England about 1685. The standard \nof gold for jewellery, except wedding rings, was \nlowered by parliament in 1854. \n\nJEWEL ROBBERIES,see Trials, 187 1, 1873, \nand Dec. 1891. \nThe countess of Dudley\'s jewels (value 15,000/.) \n\nstolen at Great Western Railway Station 12 Dec. 1874 \nMessrs. Williams, of Hatton Garden, London, \n\nrobbed of 25,000?. worth . . .25 March, 1876 \nDuchess of Cleveland, at Battle Abbey, Sussex, \n\nrobbed of between 5000?. and 10,000/. worth, \n\nearly in Feb. 1877 \nCountess of Aberdeen\'s (value above 5000/.) stolen, \n\nHalstead Place, Sevenoaks. Kent . 19 Nov. ,, \nHatton Garden Post-Office, London ; gas suddenly \n\nextinguished at 5 p.m., two mail bags stolen, one \n\ncontaining diamonds, and other jewels, watahes, \n\n&c. , in registered letters ; value above 15,000/,. \n\n16 Nov. 1881 \nLord Arthur Hill Trevor\'s house, Bryn-Kinalet, near \n\nChirk, Wales, robbed of jewels valued 60,000/. \n\nSunday, 4 Dec. ,, \n\nJEWISH COLONIZATION ASSOCI- \nATION, registered as a company by the Board of \nTrade, Sept. 1891. Nominal capital, 2,000,000/. ; \npromoted by lord Rothschild, sir Julian Uroldsmid, \nand other gentlemen to carry out baron Hirsch\'s \nscheme for the emigration of distressed Jews from \nEurope and Asia to N. or S. America. \n\nFirst general meeting ; amount subscribed 39,826/. \n(Messrs. N. M. Rothschild, 10,000/. ; Messrs. R. \nRaphael, 4,000/. ; sir Julian Goldsmid, 3,000/. ; \nMessrs. S. Montagu, Mrs. Nathaniel Montefiore, \nE. L. Raphael, and Messrs. Stern, 2,000/. each), \n14 Oct. 1891 ; 89,463/. received up to . 29 Dec. 1891 \n\nNegotiations with the Argentine republic for settle- \nments. The arrangements placed under the com- \nmand of lieut. -col. Albert Goldsmid . . Dec. ,, \n\nJEWISH DISABILITIES, see under Jews, \n1269- 1867. \n\nJEWISH EEA and Calendar. The Jews \n\nusually employi d the era of the Seleucidas until the \n15th century, when a new mode of computing was \nadopted. They date from the creation, which they \nconsider to have been 3760 years and 3 month\'s \nbefore the commencement of our era. To reduce \nJewish I ime to ours, subtract 3761 years. The Jewish \nyear consists of either twelve or thirteen months, of \n29 or 30 days. Ths civil year commences with the \nmonth Tisri, immediately after the new moon fol- \nlowing the autumnal equinox ; the ecclesiastical \nyear begins with Nisan. \n\n\n\nCivil year, 5649. \nTisri \n\nMarchesvan \nChislev . \nThebet \nSebat \n\n\n\nbegan 6 Sept. il \n6 Oct. \n5 Nov. \n5 Dec. \n3 Jan. 1 \n\n\n\nAdar . 2 Feb. ; Ve-Adar or 2nd Adar * 4 March \n\nNisan or Abib 2 April, \n\nIjar 2 May, \n\nSivan 31 May, \n\nTliammuz 30 June \n\nAb 29 July, \n\nElul 28 Aug. \n\nThe Jewish calendar is given annually in the best \nalmanacks. \n\n* Intercalated every third year, to supply the defi- \nciency of the Jewish year of 354 days. \n\nJEWS, successively called Hebrews, Israelites, \nand Jews, the descendants of Abraham, with w r hom \nGod made a covenant, 1898 B.C. Gen. xvii. See \nJerusalem. Computed number of Jews in the \nworld May 1889, 6,300,000 (Europe 5,400,000, \nAfrica 350,000, America, 250,000). The following \ndates are generally those by Usher given in the \nEnglish Bible ; differing dates are given by Hales, \nClinton, and other chronologers. \nCall of Abram to enter Canaan . . .B.C. 1921 \n\nIsaac born to Abraham 1896 \n\nBirth of Esau and Jacob 1837 \n\nDeath of Abraham 1822 \n\nJoseph sold\' into Egypt 1729 \n\nThe male children of the Israelites thrown into the \n\nNile ; Moses born 1571 \n\nThe Passover instituted ; the Israelites go out of \n\nEgypt, and cross the Red Sea .... 1491 \nThe law promulgated from Mount Sinai . . . 1491 \n\nThe Tabernacle set up 1490 \n\nDeath of Moses ; Joshua leads the Israelites into \n\nCanaan and conquers it 145 1 \n\nThe first bondage (Othniel, judge, 1405) . . . 1413 \nThe second bondage (Ehud, 1325) . . . . 1343 \nThe third bondage (Deborah and Barak, 1285) . 1305 \n\nThe fourth bondage (Gideon, 1245) . . . . 1252 \nThe fifth bondage (Jephthah, 1187) .... 1206 \n\nThe sixth bondage 1157 \n\nSamsoa slays the Philistines 1136 \n\nSamuel governs as judge, about 1120 \n\nSamson pulls down the temple of Dagon . . .1117 \n\nSaul made king 1095 \n\nDavid slays Goliath, about 1063 \n\nDeath of Saul ; David made king . . . . 1055 \n\nDavid besieges and takes Jerusalem, and makes it \n\nhis capital 1048 \n\nSolomon king, 1015 ; lays the foundation of the \n\ntemple, 1012 ; which is dedicated . . . 1004 \n\nDeath of Solomon ; the kingdom divided . . . 975 \n\nKINGDOM OF ISRAEL. \n\nJeroboam establishes idolatry 975 \n\nBethel taken from Jeroboam ; 500,000 Israelites \n\nslam 957 \n\nIsrael afflicted with the famine predicted by Elijah 906 \n\nThe Syrians besiege Samaria 901 \n\nElijah translated to heaven 896 \n\nMiracles of Elisha the prophet 895 \n\nThe Assyrian invasion under Phul . . . -771 \n\nPekah besieges Jerusalem 741 \n\nSamaria taken by the king of Assyria : the ten tribes \nare carried into captivity, and an end is put to the \n\nkingdom of Israel . 721 \n\nKINGDOM OF JUDAH. \n\nShishak, king of Egypt, takes Jerusalem, and pil- \nlages the temple 971 \n\nAbijah defeats the king of Israel, 500,000 men are \nslain in battle ....... 957 \n\nAsa defeats the Ethiopians ; abolishes idolatry . 941 \nJehoshaphat orders the law to be taught 912; defeats \nthe Ammonites, <fee. ...... 896 \n\nUsurpation and death of Athaliah . . . . 884 \n\nHazael desolates Judah 857 \n\nPekah, king of Israel, lays siege to Jerusalem ; \n120,000 of the men of Judah are slain in one day. 741 \n\nHezekiah abolishes idolatry 726 \n\nN N \n\n\n\nJEWS. \n\n\n\n546 \n\n\n\nJEWS. \n\n\n\nSennacherib invades Judea, but the destroying angel \nenters the camp of the Assyrians, and in one night \ndestroys 185,000 of them 710 \n\nHolofernes said to have been killed at the siege of \nBethulia by Judith \n\nIn repairing the temple, Hilkiah discovers the book \nof the law, and Josiah keeps a solemn Passover . \n\nNebuchadnezzar subjugates Judea .... \n\nHe takes Jerusalem after a long siege . . . . \n\nJerusalem fired, the temple burnt, the walls razed \nto the ground 587 \n\nKINGS. \n\nSaul began to reign . . .B.C. 1095 \nDavid, king of Judah, 1055 ; of all Israel, 1048 \nSolomon ,, .... 1015 \n\n\n\n656 \n\n\n\n624 \n605 \n\n\n\nPROPHETS. \n\nSamuel. \nNathan. \n\n\n\nB.C. \n\n975 \n958 \n\n955 \n953 \n93\xc2\xb0 \n029. \n925 \n918 \n914. \n897 \n\n\n\n857 \n839 \n825, \n\n810 \n\n784. \n775 \n772. \n761 \n759> \n758 \n742. \n73\xc2\xb0 \n726 \n698 \n643 \n641 \n\n\n\nKings of Judah. \nEehoboam . \nAbijah . . . \nAsa . \n\n\n\nJehoshaphat \n\n\n\nJehoram \nAhaziah \nAthaliah \nJoash or Jehoahaz \n\n\n\nKings of Israel. \nJeroboam I. \n\nNadab (954) . \nBaasha ,, . \nElah \xe2\x80\x9e \nZimri . \nOmri \nAhab . \n\nAhaziah \nJehoram or Joram \n\n\n\nAmaziah \n\n\n\nJehoahaz. \nJehoash (841) \nJeroboam II. . \n\n\n\nUzziah or Azariah \n\n\n\nJotham . \nAhaz . \n\nHezekiah . \nManasseh. \n\nAnion \nJosiah \nC Jehoahaz \n\\ (Shallum). \n( Jehoiakim. \n( Jehoiachin \n< (Coniah), \nI Zedekiah. \n\n\n\nAnarchy \nZeehariah \n\n( Shallum. \n\n\\ Menahem. \n\nPekahiah. \n\nPekah. \n\n\n\nHoshea. \n[Captivity, 721.] \n\n\n\nAhijah. \n\nAzariah. \nHanani. \nJehu. \n\n\n\nElijah. \n\nElisha. \nJahaziel. \n\n\n\nJor.ah. \nJ Hosea. \n( Amos. \n\nJoel. \n\n\n\nf Isaiah & \nt Micah. \n\n\n\n. Jeremiah. \n. Zephaniah \n\n. Habakkuk \n\n. Daniel. \n. Ezekiel. \n\n\n\nBABYLONISH CAPTIVITY. \n\nDaniel prophesies at Babylon . . . . b. c. 603 \nShadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego, refusing to wor- \nship the golden image, are cast into a fiery fur- \nnace, but are delivered by the angel . . . 587 \n\nObadiah prophesies \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDaniel declares the meaning of the handwriting \nagainst Belshazzar ; cast into the lion\'s den ; pro- \nphesies the return from captivity, and the coming \nof the Messiah 538 \n\nRETURN FROM CAPTIVITY. \n\nCyrus, sovereign of all Asia, publishes an edict for \nthe return of the Jews and rebuilding of the \n\ntemple \n\nHaggai and Zeehariah prophets .... \nThe second temple finished . . 10 March, \n\nThe Jews delivered from Hainan by Esther . . \nEzra, the priest, arrives in Jerusalem to reform \n\nabuses \n\nHere begin the 70 weeks of yeirs predicted by \nDaniel, being 490 years before the crucifixion of \n\nthe Redeemer 457 \n\nThe walls of Jerusalem built by Nehemiah . . 445 \n\nM alachi the prophet 415 \n\n[The Scripture history of the Jews ends, according \nto Eusebius, in 442 B.C. ; and from this time Jo- \nseplms and the Roman historians give the best \n\xe2\x80\xa2 account of the Jews. ] \n\n\n\n536 \n\n\n\n458 \n\n\n\nAlexander the Great marches against Jerusalem to> \nbesiege it, but, it is said, on seeing Jaddus, the\' \nhigh-priest, clad in his robes, he declares he had \nseen such a figure in Macedonia, inviting him to \nAsia, and promising to deliver the Persian empire \ninto his hands ; he goes to the temple, and offers \nsacrifices to the God of the Jews .... 332 \nJerusalem taken by Ptolemy Soter . ... 320- \nPtolemy Philadelphus said to employ 72 Jews to \n\ntranslate the Scriptures . about 285. \n\nThe Sadducee sect formed . . . . 25c \n\nJews massacred at Alexandria . . . . 216- \n\nAntiochus takes Jerusalem, pillages the temple, and \n\nslays 40,000 of the inhabitants . - 17c \n\nGovernment of the Maccabees begins . . . . 166\' \nTreaty with the Romans ; the first on record with \n\nthe Jews i6r. \n\nJudas Hyrcanus Aristobulus assumes the title of \n\n" king of the Jews " 107 \n\nAlexander Jannteus suppresses a rebellion of Phari- \nsees cruelly . . . . . . . .86- \n\nJerusalem taken by the Roman legions under \n\nPompey 63; \n\nThe temple plundered by Crassus .... 54. \nAntipater made intendant of Judfea by Julius \n\nCsesar 49 \n\nHerod, son of Antipater, marries Mariamne, grand- \ndaughter of the high priest ..... 42- \n\nInvasion of the Parthians 40- \n\nHerod employs the aid of the senate ; they decree \n\nhim to be the king ,, \n\nJerusalem taken by Herod and the Roman general \n\nSosius 37 \n\nHerod kills Mariamne, 29 ; rebuilds the temple 29-18: \n\nJesus Christ born 4 \n\nPontius Pilate is made procurator of Judea a.d. 26- \nJohn the Baptist begins to preach . . . ,, \nChrist\'s ministry and miracles, 27-33 ; &i s cruci- \nfixion and resurrection 33: \n\nThe Jews persecuted for refusing to worship Cali- \ngula 38- \n\nReceive the right of Roman citizenship . . . 4E \nClaudius banishes Jews from Rome . . .50- \n\nInvasion of Vespasian 68- \n\nJews settle at Merida, Spain 69- \n\nTitus takes Jerusalem ; the city and temple sacked \n\nand burnt, and 1 ,100,000 of the Jews perish, 8 Sept. 70- \nTargum of Onkelos written about . . . . ioo- \nAdrian rebuilds Jerusalem (calling it iElia Capito- \n\nlina), and erects a temple to Jupiter . . . 130- \nRebellion of Bar-cochba ; takes Jerusalem 132 ; \nkilled in war with Julius Severus, 135 ; desola- \ntion of Judea 135-136 \n\nMore than 580,000 of the Jews are slain by the \n\nRomans ,, \n\nJews favoured by Antoninus Pius ; college of Jam- \n\nnia opened 138 \n\nThe Mischna (see Talmud) compiled by Rabbi Judah, \n\nthe prince before 200 \n\nThe Jews favoured by Severus, 196 ; by Constan- \ntine, 310 ; by Julian, 363 ; persecuted by Constans 353 \n\nJews massacred at Alexandria 415 \n\nThe Babylonian Talmud completed . . about 6oo> \nJerusalem taken by Omar ...... 655 \n\nJews first mentioned in English chronicles . . 740\' \nFormation of the sect termed Karaites (which see) \n\nby Anan, about 754 \n\nJewish college founded at Cordova . . . . 948 \n\nTalmud translated into Arabic 1006 \n\nJews said to be banished from England by Canute 1020 \nPolygamy in Christian countries prohibited by the \n\nJewish synod at Worms 1030 \n\nJews return to England 1066 \n\n[Chiefly settled in London and Lincoln.] \nThe Jews massacred in London, on the coronation \n\nday of Richard I. , at the instigation of the priests 1189- \n500 Jews besieged in York castle by the mob, cut \n\neach other\'s throats to avoid their fury . . 1190 \nJews of both sexes imprisoned ; their eyes or teeth \nplucked out, and numbers inhumanly butchered, \n\nby king John . 1204 \n\nThe Rabbi Moses Maimonides died ....,, \n700 Jews are slain in London, a Jew having forced a \nChristian to pay him more than 2s. per week as \ninterest on a loan of 20s. (Stoiv.) . . . . 1262 \nStatute that no Jew should enjoy a freehold . . 1269 \nEvery Jew lending money on interest compelled to \n\n\n\nJEWS. \n\n\n\n547 \n\n\n\nJEWS. \n\n\n\nwear a plate on his breast, signifying that he was \na usurer, or to quit the realm. (Stoiv.) . . . 1274 \n267 Jews hanged and quartered, accused of clipping \ncoin ......... 1278 \n\nAll Jews (16,511) banished from England. (Rapin.) 1290 \nMuch pillaged and persecuted in France during the \n\n14th and 15th centuries. \nA fatal distemper raging in Europe ; they are sus- \npected of having poisoned the springs, and num- \nbers are massacred. (Lenglet.) . . . . 1348 \n\nSeveral hundred thousand Jews banished from \n\nSpain, Portugal, and France . . . 1492-94 \nEdicts against Jews rescinded by pope Sixtus V. . 1585 \n\nJews favoured in Holland 1603 \n\nAfter having been banished England 370 years, they \n\nare permitted to return by Cromwell . . . 1650 \nWho grants a pension to Manasseh Ben Israel . 1655 \n\nFirst Portuguese synagogue, King-street, Duke\'s- \n\nplace, erected 1656 \n\nStatute to compel them to maintain their protestant \n\nchildren enacted 1702 \n\nJews acquire right to possess land in England . . 1723 \nBill to naturalise the professors of the Jewish reli- \ngion in Ireland (where 200 Jews then resided) \n\nrefused the royal assent 1746 \n\nStatute to naturalise them in England passed . . 1753 \nBepealed on the petition of all the cities . . . 1754 \nThe Jews of Spain, Portugal, and Avignon are de- \nclared to be citizens of France 1790 \n\nThe synagogue, Duke\'s-place, London, E., conse- \ncrated 26 March \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Jews in France emancipated . . 27 Sept. 1791 \nSitting of the great Sanhedrim of Paris convened by \nthe emperor Napoleon . . . .18 Sept. 1806 \n\nJews\' hospital, London, founded ,, \n\nLondon society for promoting Christianity among \n\nthe Jews established 1808 \n\nJews\' free school, Spitalfields, London, established 1817 \nAlexander of Bussia grants land on the sea of Azoph \n\nto converted Jews .... 1 Sept. 1820 \nThe brothers Rothschild made barons of the Aus- \ntrian empire 1822 \n\nJews\' orphan asylum founded 1831 \n\nMr. (aft. sir) Francis H. Goldsmid, the first Jew \n\ncalled to the British bar 1833 \n\nMr. David Salomons elected sheriff of London (the \nfirst Jewish one) ; an act passed to enable him to \n\nact 24 June, 1835 \n\nBill for Jewish emancipation in England lost on the \nsecond reading by a majority in the commons, 228 \n\nagainst 165 17 May, 1836 \n\nMoses Montefiore, esq. , elected sheriff of London, \nand knighted by the queen, being the first Jew on \nwhom that honour has been conferred . 9 Nov. 1837 \nUkase of the emperor of Bussia, permitting the title \nof citizen of the first class to be held by any Jew \nwho renders himself worthy of it . . . . 1839 \nOwing to the disappearance of a Greek priest, a per- \nsecution of the Jews began at Damascus (see Da- \nmascus) 1 Feb. 1840 \n\nJewish mission to the East under sir Moses Monte- \nfiore ,, \n\nDr. Nathan M. Adlcr installed chief rabbi of the \n\nJews in the empire, London . . 9 July, 1845 \nCongregation of British Jews formed (see below) 1840-1 \nSir F. H. Goldsmid founded the Jewish Infant school 1841 \nSir Isaac Lyon Goldsmid, the first Jew made a \n\nBaronet \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAct to relieve Jews elected to municipal offices from \n\ntaking oaths, &e. , 9 Vict 1846 \n\nBaron Lionel de Bothschild returned to Parliament \nfor the city of London by a majority of 6619 votes ; \nhis opponent, lord John Manners, polling only \n\n3104 3 J ul y. 1849 \n\nAlderman Salomons elected member for Greenwich, \n\n28 June, 1851 \n\nNeither permitted to. sit ,, \n\nThe Jews\' Oaths of Abjuration bill passed the house \n\nof commons 3 July, ,, \n\nBaron Rothschild again returned for the city of \nLondon at the general elections, July, 1852; \nMarch, 1857 : July, 1857 : aua July> 1865. \nViolent outbreak against the Jews in Stockholm, \n\n3 Sept. 1852 \nThe Jewish Oath bill passed in commons, 15 April ; \n\nthrown out in the lords . . . 29 April, 1853 \nAlderman Salomons the first Jewish lord mayor of \nLondon . ... 9 Nov. 1855 \n\n\n\nThe Jewish Oath bill several times passed in the \n\ncommons and thrown out in the lords . . 1854-7 \nEdgar Mortara, a Jewish child, forcibly taken from \nhis parents by order of the archbishop of Bologna, \non the plea of having been baptized when an in- \nfant by a Boman Catholic maid-servant \n\n24 June, 1858 \nSir F. H. Goldsmid, the first Jew made Q.C. . . ,, \nAn act passed enabling Jews to sit in parliament by \n\nresolution of the house .... July, , , \nBaron Lionel de Bothschild takes his seat as M.P. \n\nfor London ... 26 July, ,, \n\nTo commemorate this event he endowed a scholar- \nship in the City of London School . . . . ,, \nThe BYench government having in vain urged Mor- \ntara\'s restoration to his parents, sir Moses Monte- \nfiore proceeds to Borne (but obtains no redress), \n\n22 Dec. \n\nAlderman Salomons elected M.P. for Greenwich \n\n(died 18 July, 1873) ; baron Meyer de Bothschild \n\nfor Hythe 15 Feb. 1859 \n\nProtest respecting the seizure of the boy Mortara \nsigned at London by the abp. of Canterbury, and \nbishops, noblemen, and gentlemen, sent to the \nFrench ambassador, Oct. ; and presented by lord \n\nJohn Bussell Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBoard of guardians for the relief of the Jewish \npoor, one of the grand institutions of the Jews in \n\nLondon, founded in ,, \n\nOppressive laws against the Jews in the Austrian \n\nempire annulled 6, 10 Jan. i860 \n\nAct passed permitting Jewish M. P. \'s to omit from \nthe oath the words " on the faith of a Christian," \n\n6 Aug. ,, \nAdditional political privileges granted to the Jews \n\nin Bussia, 26 Jan. ; and in Poland . June 1862 \nJews persecuted at Rome .... Dec. 1864 \nAlderman Benjamin Samuel Phillips, second Jewish \n\nlord mayor 9 Nov. 1S65 \n\nPersecution of Jews at Bucharest reported, July, 1866 \nA synagogue at Berlin, said to be the largest and \n\nmost beautiful in the world, consecrated, 5 Sept. ,, \nJewish emancipation bill, Hungary, received royal \n\nassent 29 Dec. 1867 \n\nBenjamin Disraeli, of Jewish extraction, premierof \n\nEngland 29 Feb. 1868 \n\nJews\' synagogue at Barnsbury , London, N. , founded \nby baron F. Rothschild, 24 Dec. 1867, consecrated \n\n29 March, ,, \nJews permitted to return to Spain . . . Oct. ,,. \nJewish congress at Pesth opened by the minister of \n\npublic worship, Ebtvbs ... 14 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nIt closes and presents the new statutes to the \n\nministers 25 Feb. 1869 \n\nJewish reform convention at Philadelphia, U.S., \n\nalterations in rituals, &c. , resolved on . Oct. ,, \nAlfred Davis, a Jew, a munificent benefactor of \n\neducation, Jewish and Christian, died 7 Jan. 1870 \n\nNew central synagogue in Great Portland-st. , W., \nfounded by baron Rothschild, 18 March, 1869 ; \n\nconsecrated 7 April, ,, \n\n" Hebrew Literature Society" established in London \n\n29 June, ,, \nAnglo-Jewish Association constituted for the moral, \nsocial, and intellectual progress of Jews (in con- \nnection with the Universal Israelitish Alliance, \nin Paris). First president, the late Mr. Jacob \n\nWaley, M.A 2 July, ,, \n\nThe emperor of Brazil attended worship at the \n\nWest Central London synagogue . . 8 July, ,, \nJews permitted to work on Sundays by a Workshops \n\nAct \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSociety formed at Birmingham to resist proselytism ,, \nA Jew made M.A. at Oxford (after the abolition of \n\ntests) 22 June, 1871 \n\nSir George Jessel, a Jew, solicitor-general, Nov. \n\n187 1 ; master of the rolls . . 29 Aug. 1873 \n\nEstimated number of Jews in Great Britain, 51,520 ; \n\nin London, 39,833 1876 \n\nNew synagogue founded at Bayswater . 7 June, 1877 \nMovement against the Jews in Berlin, etc., (JmU u- \nhetze); opposed by Mommsen, Virchow.and others; \ncensured by the crown prince; debate in the cham- \nbers ; no vote, 22 Nov. Many Jews leave Berlin, \n\nDec. 1S80 \nAnti-Semitic league formed ; presents a petition to \nBismarck to restrict the liberty of the Prussian \n\nJews 13 April, 1881 \n\nN N 2 \n\n\n\nJEW\'S HAEP. \n\n\n\n543 \n\n\n\nJOCKEY CLUB. \n\n\n\nJews severely persecuted at Kieff and other places \n\nin South Russia .... . May, 188 \n\nAbout 60,000 Russian Jews request permission to \n\nreturn to Spain, granted . . . June, ,, \n\nPersecution going on in Prussia, the emperor \n\ninterfering to stop it ... Aug. ,, \n\nSevere restrictive edict against the Jews in Russia \nissued, but not fully carried out, increasing civil \n\ndisabilities May, et seq. 188: \n\nCommittees formed at Berlin and London to receive \nmoney to help Jewish emigration, April; 108,759^. \nreceived in London .... 25 Oct. ,, \nNew synagogue at Abbey-road, London, N.W. \n\nconsecrated 30 July, ,, \n\nThe Jews violently attacked at Presburg, Hun- \ngary ; martial law proclaimed . . 29 Sept. ,, \n\nTrial of Jews (see Hungary) 188 \n\nViolent attacks on Jews at St. Petersburg, Pesth, \n\nZala Egcrszeg, &e. . . . July, Aug. ,, \nDeath of Charlotte, Baroness de Rothschild, great \n\nbenefactress I3 Mar. 188, \n\nJews still persecuted in Russia . Aug. et seq. ,, \nCommission to enquire into the condition and \n\nrights of the Jews Oct. ,, \n\nSir Moses Monteliore completes his 100th year, \ncelebrated by Jews all over the world as a \nvery great benefactor (27 Oct. Jewish Calendar) \n25-26 Oct. 1884 ; died . . . 28 July, 188 = \n\nThe Jews enjoy at present full citizenship in Europe \n(with the exception of Portugal, Roumania, \nRussia and Spain) ; also in the United States . 1884 \n\xe2\x96\xa0Sir Nathaniel de Rothschild, son of Lionel, created \na peer ; takes his seat 9 July, 1885 ; made lord- \nlieut. of Buckinghamshire . . . May, i83c \n\nEstimated population of the Jews in the world, \n\n6,377,602 I 88c \n\nExhibition of Anglo-Jewish antiquities at the Roval \n\nAlbert Hall opened .... 4 April, 1887 \nExpulsion of Jews from Odessa and Finland \n\ndecreed April, 1888 \n\nHenry Aaron Isaacs, 3rd Jewish lord mayor \n\nNov. 188c \nDr. Nathan Adler, chief rabbi, London, dies \n\n21 Jan. 189c \n\nEnforcement of the severe edict of May, 1882, \n\nagainst the Jews in Russia, about 2,000,000 said \n\nto be ordered, July ; officially contradicted at \n\nSt. Petersburg, 6 Aug. ; many Jews expelled from \n\nRussia Dec. \n\nAt a great meeting in the Guildhall, London, an \nappeal to the Czar to mitigate the laws against \nthe Jews agreed to (see under London, Feb. 1891) \n\n10 Dec. ,, \nThe reported scheme of baron Hirsch to purchase \nland in America, or elsewhere, to receive the \nbanished Jews, pronounced premature. 12 May, 1891 \nDr. Hermann Adler chosen chief rabbi by dele- \ngates 4 June \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nExpulsion of Jews from S. Russia ordered \n\nabout 29 May ,, \nRelaxation of the persecution ; enforcement of the \ndecree of expulsion from St. Petersburg ad- \njourned about 18 July \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n3,000 acres of land at Hulberton, Cumberland \ncounty, New Jersey, purchased by Mr. Leon \nLait, a Russian, for a Hebrew colony \n\n. about 20 July ,, \n\nlhe Jewish Colonization Association, which see, \n\nfounded about 11 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAnti-Jewish riots at Starodoub and other districts \nin Russia, about 30 deaths ; order restored by \nthe military, 170 arrests . . n Oct. et seq. ,, \nReformed or British Jews. In 1840 and 1841 a \ncongregation was formed by certain families of \nSpanish and German Jews, for uniting two sec- \ntions of the community, and for simplifying the \nritual observances. Their West London Syna- \ngogue in Burton-street, opened 1 Jan 1842 \xe2\x96\xa0 re- \nmoved to Margaret-street, Regent-street, 1840- \nsucceeded by a magnificent synagogue, in Upper \nBerkeley-street, consecrated . .22 Sept 1870 \n\nThe Reformed Jews recognise the authority of the \nOld Testament or written law only, and reject \nthe oral law embodied in the Talmud, which is \naccepted by the Orthodox or Rabbinical Jews. \n\nJEW\'S HAEP (probably Jaws\' harp), an \nancient instrument. Charles Eulenstein produced \n\n\n\nremarkable effects with Jew\'s harps at the Royal \nInstitution, London, 15 Feb. 1828. \n\nJEYNES or JAINS, a sect of Buddhists, in \nIndia, dating from the gth century. They do not \nrecognise a creator, but believe matter to be eternal, \nand ref 1 ain from destroying life, considering animals \nto be sacred. \n\nTheir discipline is very strict ; a trial for defama- \ntion of character by a libel, accusing certain \nmembers of breaking the laws of caste, lasted 34 \ndays at Moorshedabad, and cost above 100,000 \nrupees. The verdict was for the defendants \n\nMarch, 1891 \n\nJEYPOOE, one of the four principal Rajpoot \nstates of India, tributary to the British. The \nnew capital, Jeypoor, termed the Paris of India, \nwas built in the last century. The Maharajah, \nfriendly to the British, by whom he was supported, \ndied in Sept. 1880 ; he nominated a successor, in- \nstalled 30 Sept. 1880. \n\nJEZEEELITES, New and Latter House of \nIsrael, was founded by James Jershom Jezreel \n(James White), who died 1885. They assert that \nthe Gospel is sufficient, for the salvation of the soul, \nbut for the salvation of the body the Law must be \nadded. Head quarters, Gillingham, Kent. \n\nJIHAD, or religious warfare against unbelievers, \nalthough inculcated in the Mohammedan law, was \nprohibited by the Sheeahs, and only permitted by \nthe Sonnites in some cases ; certainly not with, \nany nation with whom they had made a treaty of \npeaae. The Jihad was preached by fanatics in India \nin 187 1, and prohibited by government. \nA jihad against the Russians was announced by the \n\nsheikh-ul-Islam, at Constantinople, about 28 May, 1877 \nA jihad against the British in Afghanistan, pro- \nposed by Shere Ali . . . . Oct. 1878 \nA jihad against the British was proclaimed by \nArabi Pasha .... about 24 July, 1882 \nSee Egypt. \n\nJINGO PAETY, a name given (in 1878) to \npersons who preferred war with Russia to submis- \nsion to her aggressive policy. A popular song said\xe2\x80\x94 \n" We don\'t want to fight, but, by jingo if we do, \n\nWe\'ve got the ships, we\'ve got the men, and we\'ve got \nthe money too." \n" By jingo " occurs in Jarvis\'s " Don Quixote," and the \n\n" Vicar of Wakefield." \n\nJOAN OF AEC, the maid of Orleans, born at \nDomremy, imagined that she had a divine com- \nmission to expel the English, who under the earl of \nSalisbury were besieging Orleans. Charles VII. \nentrusted her with the command of some French \ntroops, and she raised the siege, and entered Orleans \nwith supplies, 29 April, 1429 ; and the English, \nwho were before the place from 12 Oct. preceding, \nabandoned the enterprise 8 May following. She \ncaptured several towns in the possession of the \nEnglish, whom she defeated in a battle near Patay, \n18 June, 1429. She was wounded several times \nherself, but never shed any blood with her own \nhand. She was taken at the siege of Compiegne, \n25 May, 1430 ; and, after a trial, burnt for a witch, \nat Rouen, 30 May, 1431. A statue of Joan of Are, \nthe work of the late princess Marie of France, was \ninaugurated at Orleans, 13 Sept. 185 1, and the i \n435th anniversary of the deliverance of the city \nwas celebrated there on 14 May, 1865. The anni- \nversary of her death celebrated, 30 May, 1878. See \nTat ay. Her statue at Beaurevoir unveiled 9 Aug., I, \nat Domremy 26 Aug. 1891. \n\nJOCKEY CLUB. SeeHaces. \n\n\n\nJOHANNESBURG. \n\n\n\n549 \n\n\n\nJOURNALS. \n\n\n\nJOHANNESBURG, see Transvaal, 1887 et \nseq. \n\nJOHN BULL, a nickname given to English- \nmen, is said to be derived from Dr. Arbutlmot\'s \nsatire "John Bull," published 1712. \xe2\x80\x94 Brewer. \n"John Bull," a coined}\', by George Colman the \nyounger, was performed 1805. The "John Bull," \na Tory newspaper, supported by Theodore Hook, \nwas first published 1820. Its publication ceased in \n1S92. \n\n"JOHN COMPANY," a name formerly \ngiven to the East India Company, was sometimes \ngiven to the South Africa Company, 1891. See \nZambesi. \n\nJOHN DOE and Richard Roe, names \n\nwell known, as standing pledges for the prosecution \nof suits. In early times real and substantial per- \nsons were required to pledge themselves to answer \nto the crown for an amercement or fine set upon \nthe plaintiff, for raising a false accusation, if he \nbrought an action without cause, or failed in it; \nand in 1285, 13 Edw I. sheriffs and bailiffs were, \nbefore they made deliverance of the distress, to re- \nceive pledges for pursuing the suit, and for the \nreturn of the property, if return were awarded. \nBut this becoming a matter of form, the fictitious \nnames of Doe and Roe were used until the form was \ndeclared to be no longer necessary by the Common \nLaw Procedure Act, 1852. \n\nJOHN O\' GROAT\'S HOUSE, an ancient \nhouse formerly situated on Duncan\'s Bay Head, \nthe most northerly point of Great Britain, deriving \nits name from John of Groat, or Groot, and his \nbrothers, originally from Holland, said to have set- \ntled here about 1489. \n\nThe house was of an octagon shape, being one room, with \neight windows and eight doors, to admit eight mem- \nbers of the family, the heads of different branches of it, \nto prevent their quarrels for precedence at table. Each \ncame in by this contrivance at his own door, and sat \nat an octagon table, at which, of course, there was no \nchief place or head. \n\nJOHN, ST., see Newfoundland, Cambridge, \n\nNew Brunswick and Oxford. \n\nSt. John\'s Night, or Midsummer eve, 23 June : bonfires \nare still made in Ireland, and in some parts of Eng- \nland, and thought to be the relic of a pagan custom \xe2\x80\x94 \nresembling the Phoenician worship of Baal. \n\nJOHN, ST., Knights of, see Malta. \n\nThe Knights of St. John (Johanniter Hitter), a Luthe- \nran order of high rank, formed by Frederick Wil- \nliam III. of Prussia, 23 May, 1812, and reorganised 15 \nOct. 1852. These knights co-operated with the knights \nof St. John of Malta and various other bodies in \nrendering energetic assistance to the wounded during \nthe Franco-Prussian war, in 1870-1 ; the chief office \nbeing at the ancient gate of the priory of St. John, \nClerkenwell, London, E.C. ; the duke of Manchester \nbeing a prior of the order. \n\nThe Russian and English orders claim connection with \nthe original institution at Malta as two of its langues. \n\nT e St. John Ambulance Association, founded and estab- \nlished by the Order of St. John of Jerusalem in 1877 : \nits objects are \xe2\x80\x94 1. The dissemination of instruction \nin " first aid," i.e., the preliminary treatment of the \nsick and injured pending the doctor\'s arrival ; 2, \nlectures to women on home nursing and hygiene ; \n3, the deposit in appropriate localities of material \n(such as stretchers, hampers, splints, bandages, &c.) \nfor use in case of accident; 4, the development of \nambulance corps for the transport of the sick and \ninjured. Upwards of 250 administrative "centres" \nand some thousands of "detached classes " have been \nformed in all parts of the United Kingdom, India, the \nColonies, and elsewhere abroad, and over 100,000 \ncertificates of proficiency have been awarded. Sir \nEdmund A. H. Lechmere, bart., M.P., chairman ; \nJohn Parley, esq., honorary director of stores and \n\n\n\nmanager of transport department ; major sir Herbert \nC. Perrott, bart., chief secretary. The prince of \nWales installed at St. John\'s Gate as Grand Prior of \nthe Order of the Hospital of St. John of Jerusalem in \nEngland recently incorporated by Royal Charter, \n18 July, 1888. \n\nJOHN\'S GATE, ST. (St. John\'s Square, \nClerkenwell, London), a tine vestige of monastic \nbuilding, was the gate of the priory of St. John of \nJerusalem (suppressed in 1540), and was the place \nwhere the Gentleman\' s Magazine was first pub- \nlished, 6 March, 1731. The house was often visited \nby Dr. Johnson, Uarrick, and their friends. The \ngate was purchased for the Order of the Knights of \nSt. John, by Sir Edmund A. H. Lechmere, Bt., \nsecretary of the English league. The first meeting \nheld here 24 June, 1874. \nThe prince of Wales installed here as Grand Prior of \n\nthe Order of the Hospital of St. John of Jerusalem in \n\nEngland, recently incorporated by royal charter, \n\n18 July, 1888. \n\nJOHNSON\'S CLUB, see Literary Club. \n\nJOHNSTOWN INUNDATION, see under \nPennsylvania, 1889. \n\nJOHORE. A state and town in the Malay \nPeninsula. The sultan received by the queen, at \nWindsor, 21 Feb. 1891. During his visit, some \nterritorial arrangements were made. He left \nEngland 15 Maich, 1891. \n\nJOINT STOCK COMPANIES (good and \nbad) have been very numerous during the present \ncentury (especially in 1825, 1846, 1866, and 1872). \nMany acts have been passed for their regulation ; \nthe most important in 1844, 1855, 1857 and 1858. \nAn important act for the incorporation, regulation, \nand winding-up of trading companies and other \nassociations passed in 1862, was amended in 1867 ~ r \nsee Companies, and Limited Liability. 1544 new- \ncompanies were registered in the year 1881-2. \n\nJONATHAN, BROTHER. This national \nname for America is attributed to "Washington\'s \nreliance for advice and support on Jonathan Trum- \nbull, governor of Connecticut, whom he termed \n"the first of patriots." (Trumbull died 9 Aug. \n1785). \xe2\x80\x94 Breicer. \n\nJORDAN, a river of Palestine, crossed by \nthe Israelites B.C. 1451, when they entered \nCanaan. A plan for forming a canal from the \nMediterranean to the gulf of Akabah was discussed \nat the British A?sociation Sept. 1883. \n\nJOSHUA, successor of Moses, led the Israelites \ninto Canaan. B.C. 1451. (See Bible.) Handel\'s- \n14th oratorio "Joshua" was finished 19 Aug. \xe2\x80\xa2 \n1747 ; produced 9 March, 1748. It contained " See \nthe Conquering Hero comes," afterwards trans- \nferred to "Judas Maccabtcus." \n\nJOURNAL DES SAVANTS, see Reviews. \n\nJOURNALISTS, National Associa- \ntion OF, established at Birmingham, 1884. \nThe annual meeting at London was largely at- \ntended, 18 Dec. 1887 ; at Newcastle . Feb. 1888 \nInstitute of Journalists, Loudon, inauguratedo Mar. \n\n1889 ; incorporated .... 8 Feb. 1890 \nFirst annual conference held at Birmingham 27 Sept. ,, \n\nJOURNALS, see Newspapers. \n\nJOURNALS of the House of Commons, \n\ncommenced in 1547, first ordered to be printed in \n1752, when 5000/. were allowed to Mr. Hardmge \nfor the execution of the work. The journals of the \nHouse of Peeks (commencing 1509) were ordered \nto be printed in 1767. \n\n\n\nJOWAKIES. \n\n\n\n550 JUDGE ADVOCATE GENERAL. \n\n\n\nJOWAKIES, see India, 1877-8. \n\nJUAN FERNANDEZ, an island in the \nPacific, named from its discoverer in 1567. Alexan- \nder Selkirk, a native of Scotland, left on shore here \nby his captain in Nov. 1704, and lived alone till he \nwas discovered by captain Bogers in 1709. He died \nlieutenant of H.M.S. Weymouth, 1723. A monu- \nment to his memory was erected on the island in \n1868, then colonised by Germans. From his nar- \nrative De Foe is said to have derived his Adventures \nof Robinson Crusoe, first published in 17 19. The \npresent governor, Eodt, a Swiss adventurer, settled \non the island about 1874. \n\nJUAN, SAN, a small island, near Vancouver\'s \nisland. The possession of this island, on account of its \ncommanding the straits between British Columbiaand \nthe United States territories, led to disputes between \nthe two countries, owing to the doubtful interpre- \ntation of the treaty of Washington respecting the \nboundaries, 12 June, 1846. See United States, 1859 \nand i860. The matter (by the treaty of Washing- \nton, 8 May, 187 1) was referred for arbitration to \nthe emperor of Germany, who decided in favour \nof the United States, Oct. 1872. The isle was \nevacuated by the British 22 Nov. following. \n\nJUBILEES (Heb. yobel, the sound of a \ntrumpet). The Jews were commanded to cele- \nbrate a jubilee every fifty years, 1491 B.C. \n{Lev. xxv. 8.) Among the Christians a jubilee \nevery century was instituted by pope Boniface VIII. \nin the year 1300. It was ordered to be celebrated \nevery fifty years by pope Clement VI. ; and by \nUrban VI. every thirty-third year ; and by Six- \ntus V. every twenty-fifth year. \nNational jubilee in England on account of George \n\nIII. entering the 50th year of his reign, 25 Oct. 1809 \nJubilee in celebration of the general peace, and of \nthe centenary of the accession of the Brunswick \n\nfamily \' 1 Aug. 1814 \n\nShakspcare\'s Jubilee, projected by David Garrick, \nwas celebrated at Shakspeare\'s birth-place, \nStratford-on-Avon . . . . 6, 7, 8, Sept. 1769 \nA Shakspeare festival at Stratford . . 23 April, 1836 \nA Shakspeare festival at Stratford . 23 April, 1E65 \nThe Scott centenary celebrated (he was born 15 Aug. \n\n1771) 9 Aug. 1871 \n\nInternational musical jubilee at Boston, U.S., (see \n\nBoston) 17 June\xe2\x80\x94 4 July, 1872 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Queen Victoria\'s Jubilee, 1887 (accession 20 June, \n1837). Grand procession witnessed by many \nthousands ; solemn thanksgiving service in \nWestminster Abbey, in the presence of the queen, \nthe royal family, the kings of Denmark, Belgium, \nGreece and Saxony ; the crown princes of Ger- \nmany, Austria, Portugal and Sweden ; the grand \nduke Sergius of Russia, Amadeus, duke of Aosta, \nprince Ludwig of Bavaria, the maharajah Holkar \nand many Indian princes, the queen of Hawaii, \nalso the dignitaries of the empire, and many \npersons eminent in science, art, and literature \n\n21 June, 1887 \n\nBy her majesty\'s command, a picture representing \n\nthe scene, was painted by Mr. W. E. Lockhart, \n\nK.S.A., and by her permission was exhibited at \n\nWaterloo House, Pall Mall (engravings were sold \n\nby Messrs. Doig & Co.)\'. \n\nMagnificent illuminations throughout the metro- \npolis ; two deaths recorded^ and not many \npersonal injuries .... 21 June, ,, \nJubilee beacon fires throughout England and Wales, \nstarted on the Malvern Hills 10 p.m., and seen \nfrom Cottington Hill, Hants ; over 80 fires seen \n\n21 June, ,, \nAbout 26,000 elementary school children entertained \nin Hyde Park at the instance of Mr. Lawson of \nthe Daily Telegraph. The queen presents a \nmemorial cup to P\'lorence Dunn, aged 12, of St. \nMary\'s, Westminster ; the prince of Wales and \nmany of the nobility present . . 22 June, ,, \nGrand fete in Pontypool park, Monmouthshire, or- \n\n\n\nganized by captain Gus. Bevan (who was thanked \nby the queen) ; about 80,000 persons present ; \ngreat Eisteddfod ; a prize of 200?. awarded to \nDowlais choir ; fireworks, &c. . . n April, 1887 \nJubilee celebrated in India and all the colonies, \nand tin oughout the civilized world, June ; envoys \nfrom th e pope (Mon~. Ruff o Scilla), Japan and Siam , , \nCitizens\' thanksgiving service at St. Paul\'s, after \n\nformal procession from Guildhall . 23 June, ,, \nThe queen issues a letter to the nation, expressing \nher profound gratitude for the very kind reception \nof the vast multitude during her progress to and \nreturn from Westminster Abbey, and her high \nadmiration for the excellent order preserved \n\n24 June, ,, \nJubilee yacht race round the island (see Yachts) \n\n14-27 June, ,, \n28,000 volunteers reviewed by the queen at Bucking- \nham Palace, 2 July ,, \n\nThe queen lays foundation-stone of the Imperial \n\nInstitute 4 July, ,, \n\nThe queen reviews about 60,000 men at Aldershot \n\n9 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nGrand naval review by the queen (see Navy of \n\nEngland) 23 July, ,, \n\nThe presents given to the queen exhibited at St. \nJames\'s Palace, rich, beautiful, and eccentric, \n\n12 Sept. ,, \nMedals presented to the metropolitan police for \ntheir conduct during the jubilee celebration \n\nordeied 3 Sept. ,, \n\nThe queen expresses her thanks for jubilee addresses \n\nfrom all parts of the empire . . 14 Sept. ,, \nGreat number of addresses from municipal corpo- \nrations, scientific societies, and other bodies \n\n27 June, ,, \nEast India chiefs received and decorated at Windsor \n\n30 June, ,, \nThe queen thanks the mayors and municipal bodies \n\nfor their presents ; London Gazette . . 4 Nov. ,, \nLong official account of the jubilee proceedings, \n\nLondon Gazette .3 Jan. 1888 \n\nJubilee offering of the women of Great Britain and \nIreland (from id. to il.) ; 75,000?. presented to \nthe queen 22 June ; her letter of thanks published \n2 July, 1887 ; sum increased to 84,116?. in March, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe queen approved the application of about \n70,000?. for the sick poor, and the benefit of \nnurses and nursing institutions. About 10,000?. \nwas set apart for a colossal statue of the prince \nconsort, andabout 4,116?. fora personal ornament \nto be worn by the queen ; reported 20 April, ,, \nThe bronze equestrian statue, by sir J. E. Boehm, \nwas set up near Virginia water, Windsor great \npark, and was uncovered by the queen . 12 May, 1890 \nStatue of the queen by Sir J. E. Boehm, subscribed \nfor by the graduates, unveiled by the prince of \nWales at the University of London, Burlington \nGardens 8 May ; one by L. J. Williamson, at the \nCollege of Physicians, Thames Embankment \nunveiled . . . . . . .24 May, 1889 \n\nPicture of the Emperor William I. and his family, \npainted by Anton von Werner, presented to the \nqueen by the Germans residing in England . . \n\n16 May, ,, \nRoyal Victoria [Jubilee] Hospital, Bournemouth, \ncost 8,000?., opened by the prince of Wales \n\n16 Jan. 1S90 \nThe Jubilee offering of the officers of the British \narmy. \xe2\x80\x94 A silver gilt centre piece, representing \nthe greatness of the empire, designed by Mr. \nAlfred Gilbert, R.A., presented to the queen at \nBuckingham j\'alace by the duke of Cambridge \n\nand a deputation 10 May ,, \n\nSee Church House, Imperial Institute, & Nurses. \n\nJ UDAH, see Jews. \n\nJUDAS MACCABEUS, Handel\'s 12th ora- \ntorio, composed 9 July\xe2\x80\x94 11 Aug. 1746; produced I \nApril, 1747. See Maccabees. \n\nJUDGE ADVOCATE GENERAL, and \n\njudge martial of all the forces, an ancient office, \nheld by patent from the crown. He is the legal \nadviser of the commander-in-chief in military cases, \nand by his authority all general courts martial are \n\n\n\nJUDGES. \n\n\n\n551 \n\n\n\nJUNKER PARTY. \n\n\n\nlield. An advocate-general accompanied the army \nto France in 1625, and the office was constituted \nsoon after the restoration, lir. Samuel Barrowe \nwas appointed 1666. \n\n.John R. Davison appointed Dec. 1870; died 15 Apr. 1871 \n-Sir Robert Phillimore (admiralty judge) acted pro- \nvisionally 1871-3 \n\nActon S. Ayrton ... 21 Aug. 1873 \xe2\x80\x94 Feb. 1874 \n.Stephen Cave . . . Feb. 1874 \xe2\x80\x94 Nov. 1875 \n\nGeo. A. F. Cavendish Bentinck, 25 Nov. 1875 \xe2\x80\x94 May, 18S0 \n\xe2\x96\xa0George Osborne Morgan .... May, ,, \n\nWilliam T. Marriott June, 1885 \n\n-John Wm. Mellor 15 Feb. 1886 \n\nWilliam T. Marriott, July, 1886-92 ; knighted April, 1888 \n\nJUDGES appointed by God, when the Israelites \nwere in bondage, ruled from 1402 B.C. till the ela- \ntion of Saul as king, 1095 ; see Jews, Chancellor*, \nJustices, Circuits, Lords Justices, Vice- Chancellors, \nPrivy Councils, and Supreme Court. \nJ udges punished for bribery and Thomas de Wey- \n\nland banished 1289 \n\nWilliam de Thorp hanged for bribery . . . 1351 \nJohn de Cavendish beheaded by the Suffolk rebels, 1381 \nTresylian, chief justice, executed for favouring \n\ndespotism, and other judges condemned . . . 1388 \nThe prince of Wales said to have been committed \nby judge Gascoigne for assaulting him on the \n\nbench 1412 \n\n.Sir Thos. More, late lord chancellor, beheaded, \n\n6 July, 1535 \n-Judges threatened with impeachment, and Berkeley \ntaken off the bench and committed by the com- \nmons, on a charge of treason . . 13 Feb. 1641 \nThree judges inii>eached for favouring the levying \n\nship-money 1680 \n\n.Judge Jefferies committed by the lord mayor to the \n\nTower, where he died 1689 \n\nThe judge\'s office made tenable for life (during good \nbehaviour) instead of during the pleasure of the \n\ncrown by 13 Wdl. III. c. 2 1702 \n\n\'Their commissions made permanent, notwith- \nstanding the demise of the crown (by 1 Geo III.) 1761 \nThree additional judges appointed, one to each law \n\ncourt, 1784 ; and again in 1830 \n\nA new judge took his seat as vice-chancellor, 5 May, 1813 \nTwo new vice-chancellors appointed . . . 1841 \nA third vice-chancellor and two new chancery \n\njudges (styled lords-justices) appointed . . . 1851 \n_4 council of judges, was by the judicature act of \n1873, oi-dered to be held at least once every year, \n011 such day as should be fixed by the lord chan- \ncellor and lord chief justice, to consider the \noperation of the act, and such councils were held \n17, 21, 23 June, 1892. In their report issued 6 \nAug. , they propose many important legal reforms, \nffn the case <sf Mr. Buckley, attorney-general of \nNew Zealand, v. Mr. Worley B. Edwards, a puisne \njudge, the judicial committee of the privy council \ndecided that the appointment of a judge is not \nvalid unless the payment of his salary is pre- \nviously secured by statute . . .21 May, ,, \n\nJUDICATURE, see law; Supreme Court. \nJUDICIAL COMMITTEE of the Privy \n\nCOUNCIL, see Privy Council. \n\nJUDICIAL SEPARATION of married per- \nsons may now be decreed by the Divorce Court, \n\xe2\x96\xa0established by act of parliament in 1857. The \n^persons separated may not marry again. \n\nJUGGERNAUT, correctly Jagannath, or \n\xe2\x80\xa2" Lord of the World," one of the incarnations of \nKrishna, is an idol formed of an irregular pyramidal \nhlack stone, with two rich diamonds to represent \n\xe2\x80\xa2eyes; the nose and mouth are painted vermilion. \nThe number of pilgrims that visit the god is stated \nat 1,200,000 annually. Formerly some were crushed \nTby the wheels of the car (so lately as Aug. 1864) ; a \ngreat many never returned, and, to the distance of \nififty miles, the way was strewed with human bones. \nThe temple of Juggernaut has existed about Soo \n\n\n\nyears. The state allowance to the temple was sus- \npended by the Indian government in June, 1851. \nThe festival was kept, June, 1872. Twelve persons \nwere said to be killed by accident, Aug. 1873. The \nfestival of 1878 reported a failure. \n\nJUGURTHINE WAR. Jugurtha murdered \nhis cousin, Hiempsal, king of Numidia, and usurped \nhis throne, 1 18 B.C. He gave Adherbal a share in the \ngovernment, but killed him in 1 12. He then pro- \nvoked the Romans to war. Caecilius Metellus was \nfirst sent against him, and defeated him in two bat- \ntles; and Marius brought him in chains to Koine to \nadorn his triumph, 106 B.C., where he was put to \ndeath in 104. This war has been celebrated by \nthe pen of Sallust. \n\nJULIAN ERA and YEAR, see Calendar. \nJulian period (by Joseph Scaliger, about 1583), a \nterm of years produced by the multiplication of \nthe lunar cycle 19, solar cycle 28, and Romau \nindiction 15. It consists of 7980 years, and began. \n4713 years before our era. It has been employed in \ncomputing time to avoid the ambiguity attendant \non reckoning any period antecedent to our era, an \nadvantage in common with the mundane eras used \nat (different times. By subtracting 4713 from the \nJulian period, our era is found ; if before Christ, \nsubtract the Julian period from 4714. \n\nJULIERS, a Prussian province; made a duchy \nin 1356; became the subject of contention on the \nextinction of the ruling family in 1609 ; was allotted \nto Neuburg in 1659 ; seized by the French in 1794; \nand ceded to Prussia in 1815. \n\nJULY, the seventh, originally fifth, Roman \nmonth, named by Marc Antony from Julius Csesar, \nthe dictator of Rome, who was bom in it. \nThe early part of July, 1888, was very cold ; many \n\nthunderstorms, followed by destructive floods in the \n\nlatter part. See Inundations. \nJuly Revolution. See France, 1830. \n\nJUNE, originally the fourth, now the sixth \nmonth, owes its name to Junius, which some derive \nfrom Juno, and others from Juniores, this being the \nmonth for the young, as May was for aged persons. \nOvid, in his Fasti, introduces Juno as claiming this \nmonth. " Glorious 1st of June ; " see Ushant. \n\nJUNG RIVER, west Africa. Natives chas- \ntised for outrage on Mr. Laborde, envoy, and others, \nby gen. ilavelock, governor of Sierra Leone, May, \n1882. \n\nJUNIUS\' S LETTERS began in the Public \nAdvertiser, 21 Jan. 1769. \n\nThey have been ascribed to Mr. Burke, Mr. William \nGerard Hamilton, commonly called Single-speech Hamil- \nton, John Wilkes, Mr. Dunning (afterwards lord Ash- \nburton), serjeant Adair, the rev. J. Rosenhagen, John \nRoberts, Charles Lloyd, Samuel Dyer, general Lee, the \nduke of Portland, Hugh Boyd, lord George Saekville. \nand sir Philip Francis. The last-named is generally \nconsidered to have been the author. Junius said, " I \nam the depositary of my own secret, and it shall perish \nwith me." The work of Mr. Chabot and lion. E. T. B. \nTwisleton was considered decisive of sir Philip Francis \nbeing Junius, May, 1871. "Junius is as much unknown \nas ever."\xe2\x80\x94 Afhencewn, 8 Sept. 1888. \nSale of manuscript papers of sir Philip Francis, re- \nported to be inconclusive respecting " Junius" \n\nJune, 1892 \n\nJUNKER PARTY {Junker, German for \nyoung noble), a term applied to the aristocratic \nparty in Prussia, which came into power under \nOtho von Bismarek-Sehouhauscu, appointed prime \n\n\n\nJUNO. \n\n\n\n552 \n\n\n\nJUSTICIAES. \n\n\n\nminister, 9 Oct. 1862. Their political organ is the \nKreuz-Zeitung \'. \n\nJUNO, the planet discovered by M. Harding, of \nLilienthal near Bremen, 1 Sept. 1804. Its distance \nfrom the sun is 254 millions of miles, and it ac- \ncomplishes its revolution in four years and 128 \ndays, at the rate of nearly 42,000 miles an hour. \n\nJUNONIA, festivals in honour of Juno (the \nGreek Hera, or Here) at Rome, and instituted 431 B.C. \n\nJUNTA. The Spanish provincial juntas or \ncouncils declared against the French in 1808, aud \nincited the people to insurrection. \n\nJUNTO, a name given to the leaders of the \n\xe2\x96\xa0whig party in the reigns of William III. and Anne \n(1689-1714.) ; the chiefs were admiral Edward \nRussell, John Summers, Charles Montague, and \nThomas Warton. \n\nJUPITER, known as a planet to the Chaldeans. \nThe. discovery of the satellites, incorrectly attributed \nto Simon Mayr (Marius) in 1609, was made by \nGalileo on 8 Jan. 1610; see Planets. Jupiter\'s \nmoons were all invisible on 21 Aug. 1867 ; a very \nrare occurrence. A fifth satellite is said to have \nbeen discovered by Mr. Barnard at the Lick obser- \nvatory, 9 Sept 1892. \xe2\x80\x94 Jupiter Ammon\'s temple in \nLib) a was visited by Alexander, 332 B.C. Cambyses\' \narmy sent against it perished miserably, 525 B.C. \nThe Greek Zeus was the Roman Jupiter, contracted \nfrom Diovis pater, the father of Heaven. \n\nJURIDICAL SOCIETY was established in \nFeb. 1855, and opened with an address by sir R. \nBethell on 12 May following. \n\nJURIES. Trial by jury was introduced into \nEngland during the Saxon heptarchy, mention \nbeing made of six Welsh and six Anglo-Saxon \nfreemen appointed to try causes between the English \nand Welsh men of property, and made responsible, \nwith their whole estates real and personal, for false \nverdicts. Lombard. By most authorities their \ninstitution is ascribed to Alfred about 886. In \nMagna Charta, juries are insisted on as the great \nbulwark of the people\'s liberty. When either \nparty is an alien born, the jury shall be one half \ndenizens, and the other half aliens, stat. 28 Edw. \nUL 1353. By the common law a prisoner upon \nindictment or appeal might challenge peremptorily \nthirty-five, being under three juries ; but a lord ol \nparliament, and a peer of the realm, who is to be \ntried by his peers, cannot challenge any of his \npeers. An act for the trial by jury in civil cases in \nScotland was passed in 1815. An act to consolidate \nand amend the laws relating to juries in Ireland \nwas passed ^ Will. IV. 1833. A new act respecting \njuries, reguiating their payment, &c, was passed \n9 Aug. 1870. The clause respecting their pa} nient \nwas rescinded by act passed 28 Feb. 1871. Laws \nrespecting juries in Ireland amended, 14 Aug, 1871. \nNew Juries bill brought in by the attorney-general, \nsir John Coleridge, Feb. 1873. Juries are sum- \nmoned to assist the coroner in investigating the \ncauses of sudden or violent death.\xe2\x80\x94 Grand Juries \n(of not less than 12 or more than 23 persons), decide \nwhether sufficient evidence is adduced to put the \naccused on trial.\xe2\x80\x94 The constitution of 1791 esta- \nblished the trial by jury in France.\xe2\x80\x94 An imperial \ndecree abolished trial by jury throughout the Aus- \ntrian empire, 15 Jan. 1852.\xe2\x80\x94 Trial by jury beg-an \nin Russia, 8 Aug. 1866; in Spain, 1889\xe2\x80\x94 A true bill \nfor libel granted against alderman sir F. Truscott in \nhis absence, who was honourably acquitted, 18 Sept. \n1879. \n\n\n\nCoercion or Juries. \xe2\x80\x94 It is said tliat in early- \ntimes the suitors used to feed the jury empanelled in \ntheir action, and hence arose the common law of denying \nsustenance to a jury after the hearing of the evidence. \nA jury may he detained during the pleasure of the judge \nif they cannot agree upon a verdict ; and may be con- \nfined without meat, drink, or fire, candle light excepted, \ntill they are unanimous.\xe2\x80\x94 Some jurors have been fined \nfor having fruit in their pockets, when they were with- \ndrawn to consider of their verdict, though they did not \neat it. Leon Dyer, 137. A jury at Sudbury not being \nable to agree, and having been some time under duress, \nforcibly broke from the court where they were locked up, \nand went home, 9 Oct. 1791. Phillips. In Scotland,. \nGuernsey, Jersey, and Prance, juries decide by a ma- \njority ; in France, since 1831, a majority of two-thirds is- \nrequired. \n\n"JUSTE MILIEU" (moderation and con- \nciliation ti parties), according to Louis- Philippe (in \n1830), is the only principle of government which \ncan secure the welfare of France. \n\nJUSTICE GENERAL, Lord, Scotland, see- \nCourt of Session. \n\nJUSTICES OF THE PEACE are unpaid local \nmagistrates, invested with extensive powers_ in \nminor cases, but subject to supersession and punish- \nment by the King\'s Bench for an abuse of their \nauthority. They were first nominated by Wil- \nliam I. in 1076. Stow. Persons termed conserva- \ntors of the peace in each county were appointed by \nI Edw. III. c. 2, 1327 ; and their duties were \ndefined in 1360. The form of a commission of the \npeace settled by the judges, 23 Eliz. 1580. Saw- \nkins ; see Eyre. \n\nJUSTICES, LORDS, were appointed by \nEnglish sovereigns to govern during their absence - r \nespecially by William III., George 1. and George II. \n(1695-1760). George 111. never left England. In \nSept. 1821, when George IV. went to Hanover, \nlords justices were appointed, the duke of York \nbeing the first. No such appointment has been \nmade during the present reign, it having been \ndecided by the law authorities in 1843 to be un- \nnecessary when the queen went to France. Ireland \nis always ruled by lords justices when the lord- \nlieutenant is out of the country, or his office is \nvacant.\xe2\x80\x94 Two lords justices of the court of appeal in \nchancery, having rank next after the chief baron \nof the exchequer, were appointed from I Oct. 1851, \nsalary 6000I. For recent changes see Appeal. \n1 85 1. Sir James L. Knight-Bruce, resigned Oct., died \n7 Nov. 1866. \n,, Robert lord Cran worth (afterwards lord chan- \ncellor). \n1853. Sir George Jas. Turner, Jan., died, 9 July, 1867. \n\n1866. Sir Hugh M. Cairns, 29 Oct., became lord-chan- \n\ncellor, 29 Feb. 1868. \n\n1867. Sir John Rolt, July ; resigned Feb. 1868. \n\n1868. Sir Charles Jasper Selwyn, 8 Feb., died 11 Aug. \n\n1869. \n\n1868. Sir William Page Wood, March ; lord-chancellor, \n\n2 Nov. \n\n1869. Sir George M. Giffard, Dec, died 13 July, 1870. \n\n1870. Sir George Mellish, July; died 15 June, 1877. \n1875. Sir Richard Baggallay, Nov. \n\nPresent Lords Justices. \n\n1881. Sir Nathaniel Lindley. \n\n1882. Sir Charles S. C. Bowen. \n\n1883. Sir Edward Fry, 9 April. \n1885. Sir Henry Lopes, Dec. \n1890. Sir Edwd. E. Kay, Nov. \n\n1892. Sir Archibald Levin Smith, June. \n\nJUSTICIARS. In ancient times the kings oi \nEngland used to hear and determine causes; but it \nis declared by law that if the king cannot deter- \nmine every controversy, he, to ease himself, may \ndivide the labour among persons, men of wisdom \nand fearing God, and out of such to appoint judges. \nThe Saxon kings of England appointed a judge \n\n\n\nJUSTICIAEY. \n\n\n\n553 \n\n\n\nJUVENILE OFFENDERS. \n\n\n\nafter this manner, who was, in fact, the king\'s \ndeputy. After the Norman conquest, the person \ninvested with that power bad the style of Capitalis \nJusticiee, or Justiciarius An g lice. These judges \ncontinued until the erection of the courts of king\'s \nbench and the common pleas. The first justiciars \nof Pmgland were Odo, bishop of Bayeux, and \n"William Fitz-Osborne, in 1067; and the last was \nPhilip Basset, in 1261, or Hugh le Uespencer, 1263 \n(Henry III). Authorities vary. \n\nJUSTICIAEY, Cotjut OP, see Court of \nJusticiary. \n\nm JUSTINIAN CODE compiled by a commis- \nsion appointed by the emperor Justinian I. Feb. 528, \nwherein was written what may be termed the \nstatute law (scattered through 2000 volumes re- \nduced to fifty). It was promulgated, April, 529. \nTo this code Justinian added the Digest or Pan- \ndects, the Institutes, and Novels, promulgated \n16 Nov. 534. These compilations have since been \ncalled, collectively, the bod}- of civil law {Corpus \nJuris Civilis). \n\nJUTE, the fibres of two plants, the chonch and \nisbund {Corchorns olitorius and Corchorus cap- \n\n\n\nsularis), since 1830 extensively cultivated in \nBengal for making gunnycloth, &c. Jute has been \nmuch manufactured at Dundee as a substitute for \nflax, tow, &c, and in July, 1862, assertions were \nmade that it could be employed as a substitute lor \ncotton. In 1853, 275,578 cwt. ; in 1861, 904,092: \ncwt. ; in 1871, 3,454,120 cwt. ; in 1874,4,270,164 \ncwt.; in 1875, 3,416,617 cwt.; in 1877,3,649,877 \ncwt.; in 1879, 4,759,363cwt.; in 1881, 4,928,805 cwt.;; \nin 1883, 7.385,028 cwt. ; in 1885, 285,674 tons ; in \n1887, 327,221 tons, of undressed jute were im- \nported into the United Kingdom ; in 1888, 313,828. \ntons ; in 1889, 383,453 tons; in 1890, 369,958 tons. \n\nJUTLAND (Denmark), the home of the Jutes- \nwho settled in our southern counties. South Jut- \nland was taken by the allies in 1 8 1 3, and restored \nin 1814. \n\nJUVENILE OFFENDERS. In .1838, an \nact was passed for instituting a prison tor instruct- \ning and correcting juvenile offenders, and the mili- \ntary hospital at Parkhurst in the Isle of Wight was \nappropriated for this purpose. An act for their \ncommittal to reformatories was passed in 1854. \n\n\n\nK. \n\n\n\nKAABA. \n\nKAABA, see Caaba. \n\nKABYLES, see Algiers. \n\nKADSEABZ, see Parsees. \n\nKAFFBAEIA, an extensive country in S. \nAfrica, extending from the north of Cape Colony to \n\n\n\nOur war with the natives began \n\n\n\nithe Orange river, \nin 1798. \n\nThe Kaffirs, headed by Mokanna, a prophet, attack \nGrahamstown ; repulsed with much slaughter . 1819 \n\n.Again defeated, 1828, 1831 1834 \n\n\'The Kaffirs rise ; sir Harry Smith, the governor, pro- \nclaims martial law, and orders the inhabitants \nto rise en masse to defend the frontier 31 Dec. 1850 \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0\xe2\x80\xa2Disastrous operations against the Kaffirs in the \nWaterkloeff follow ; colonel Fordyce and several \nofficers and men of the 74th regiment killed 6 Nov. 1851 \n\n\'Wreck of the Birkenhead with reinforcements from \nEngland (see Birkenhead) ... 26 Feb. 1852 \n\nThe hostilities of the Kaffirs having assumed all \nthe features of regular warfare, the governor- \ngeneral, Cathcart, attacked and defeated them, \n\n20 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\'.The conditions offered by Cathcart accepted, and \npeace restored 9 March, 1853 \n\nDeath of Makomo, an eminent chief . n Sept. 1873 \n\nInsurrection of Langalibalele, suppressed ; see \nNatal . ... . . . . \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nKreli, a Galeka chief in the Transkei territory at- \ntacks the Fingoes and their British protectors ; \nrepulsed at Ibeka . . .24 and 29 Sept. 1877 \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0\xe2\x96\xa0Sir Bartle Frere, the governor general, with officers \nand volunteers proceeds to the spot ; Kreli de- \nfeated by commandant Griffith, his kraal burnt, \n9 Oct. ; deposed and his lands annexed . Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGalekas defeated and expelled from their territories \n\n2 Deo. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSRise of the Gaikas under Sandilli, an old chief \n(who after education relapsed into barbarism), \nabout 30 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Getywayo, king of the Zulus, troublesome ; sir B. \nFrere requests help ; 90th regiment and a battery \nof artillery sent from England . . . Jan. 1878 \n\nBritish advance ; rebels defeated, 24, 26 Jan. ; at \nQuintana, 7 B^eb., by gen. Thesiger (about 400 \nKaffirs killed; Sandilli escapes,) 18, 19 March; \nagain (capt. Donovan, lieut. Ward, and capt. \nShawe killed,) about 21 March ; continued fight- \ning, sometimes severe . . . March \xe2\x80\x94 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n;Sandilli and other chiefs reported dead ; his sons . \ncaptured; Kaffir refugees in dreadful condition June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n.Amnesty proclaimed to all surrendering rebels, \nabout 2 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\'Thanksgiving day for restoration of peace . 1 Aug. ,, \nWar still lingered on the borders during Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTini Macomo and Gangubele condemned to death as \ntraitors ; intercession for them in London ; re- \nprieved Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\niFor the war, see also Basuio Land, T -ansvaal, and \nZululand. \n\nKAGOSIMA, see Japan, 1863. \n\nKAINAEDJI (Bulgaria). Here a treaty was \n^signed, July, 1774, between the Turks and Russians, \n\xe2\x96\xa0which opened the Black Sea, and gave the Crimea \nto the latter. \n\nKALAFAT, on the Danube, opposite the \nfortress of Widden. This place was fortified by the \n\'Turks under Omar Pacha when they crossed the \nriver, 28 Oct. 1853. In December, prince Gort- \nsehakoff; with the Russian army, determined to \nstorm their intrcnchnients. The conflict lasted frond \n31 Dec. to 9 Jan. 1854, when the Russians were \n\n\n\nKANSAS. \n\ncompelled to retire. Among these conflicts one \noccurred at Citate, 6 Jan. ; see Citate. Kalafat \nwas invented 28 Jan. and general Schilders attacked \nit vigorously on 19 April, without success, and the \nblockade was raised 21 April. \n\nKALAKH, ancient capital of middle Assyria ; \nwhere many discoveries have been made by Layard \nand others. See Assyria. \n\nKALEIDOSCOPE, an optical instrument, \nwhich, by an arrangement of mirrors, produces a \nsymmetrical reflection of various transparent sub- \nstances placed between, was invented by Dr. (after- \nwards sir David) Brewster, of Edinburgh; it was \nsuggested in [814, and perfected in 1817 ; see \nDebusscope. \n\nKALEVALA, epic poem, see Finland. \n\nKALENDS, see Calends. \n\nKALI YUGH, see Call Yugh. \n\nKALITSCH (Poland). Here the Eussians \ndefeated the Swedes, 19 Nov. 1706, and here the \nSaxons, under the French general, Reynier, were \nbeaten by the Russians under Winzingerode, \n13 Feb. 1813. \n\nKALMAE, see Calmar. \n\nKALMUCK, see Tartar. \n\nKALUNGA FOET (E. Indies), attacked un- \nsuccessfully by the British forces, and general \nGillespie killed, 31 Oct. 1814; and again unsuccess- \nfully, 25 Nov. It was evacuated by the Nepaulese, \n30 Nov. same year. \n\nKAMPTULICON, a substance used for floor- \ning, patented by Elijah Galloway in 1843, and \nmanufactured since 1851, by Messrs. Tayler, \nHarvey, and Co. It is composed of India-rubber \nand cork, combined by masticating machines. \n\nKAMTSCHATKA, a peninsula, E. coast of \nAsia, was discovered by Morosco, a Cossack chief, \n1690; taken possession of by Russia in 1697; and \nproved to be a peninsula by fiehring in 1728. Four \nmonths, commencing at our midsummer, may be \nconsidered as the spring, summer, and autumn \nhere, the rest of the year being winter. The \namiable captain Clarke, a companion of captain \nCook, died in sight of Kamtschatka, 22 Aug. 1779, \nand was buried in the town of St. Peter and Paul, \nin the peninsula. \n\nKANDAHAE, see Candahar. \n\nKANGABOOS, animals indigenous to Aus- \ntralia (first seen by captain Cook, 22 June, 1770), \nwere bred at San Donato, the estate of prince \nDemidoff, in 1853, and since. \n\nKANSAS, a western state in N. America, \norganised as a territory, 30 May, 1854 ; admitted \ninto the union, 29 Jan. 1861 ; and left open to \nslavery, contrary to the Missouri Compromise ; see \nSlavery in America. During 1855-8 this state was \na scene of anarchy and bloodshed through fruitless \nefforts to make it "a slave state. Capital, Leaven- \n\n\n\nKAPUNDA. \n\n\n\n555 \n\n\n\nKENSINGTON. \n\n\n\nworth; population, 1880, 996,096; 1890, 1,427,096; \n\ncit y> 132,716. \n\nUniontown destroyed by the bursting of a dam \ncaused by heavy rains, several lives lost, re- \nported 17 June 1889 \n\nDestructive cyclone at Wellington and other places \nwith loss of life 27 May 1892 \n\nEAPUNDA, see under Wrecks, 1887. \n\nKARAITES (or Readers), the protestants of \nJudaism, a remnant of the Sadducees, foinied iuto \na sect by Anan-ben-David, in the 8th century. They \nprofess adherence to the Scriptures alone, and re- \nject the Talmud and Rabbinical traditions. They \nstill exist in Turkey, Poland, the Crimea, and other \nparts of the East. Their name is of uncertain \n\xe2\x80\xa2origin. \n\nKARRACK, see Garrach. \n\nKARS, a town in Asiatic Turkey, captured by \nthe Russians under Paskiewich, 15 July, 1828, \nafter three days\' conflict. In 1855 it was de- \nfeuded by general Fenwick Williams, with 15,000 \nmen, and with three months\' provisions and three \ndays\' ammunition, against the Russian general \nMouravieff, with an army of 40,000 infantry and \n10,000 cavalry. The siege lasted from 18 J une to \n28 Nov. 1855. The sufferings of the garrison were \nvery great from cholera and want of food. The \nRussians made a grand assault on 29 Sept. but were \nrepulsed with the loss of above 6000 men, and the \ngarrison were overcome by famine alone. Sand- \nwith. Kars was restored to Turkey, Aug. 1856. \n\nOn accepting general Williams\' proposal for surrender- \ning, general Mouravieff said: \xe2\x80\x94 "General Williams, you \nhave made yourself a name in history ; and posterity \nwill stand amazed at the endurance, the courage, and \nthe discipline which this siege has called forth in the \nremains of an army. Let us arrange a capitulation that \nwill satisfy the demands of war, without disgracing \nhumanity." In 1856 the general was made a baronet, \nwith the title of sir William Fenwick Williams of Kars, \nand granted a pension ; he died 26 July, 1883. \nThe Russians besieging Kars, compelled to retire \n\nby Mukhtar Pacha, . . . about 13 July, 1877 \nUnder the grand duke Michael and Loris Melikotf, \n\ndefeated 2, 4 Oct. ; defeat the Turks at Aladja \n\nBagh (which see) . . . . 14, 15 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nKars taken, after 12 hours\' fighting, by surprise \n\n(it is said by treachery) . . 17, 18 Nov. ,, \n{Killed and wounded : Russian, about 2500; Turkish, \n\n5000 ; with loss of 10,000 prisoners, 100 guns, &c] \nKars ceded to Russia by the Berlin treaty 13 July, 1878 \n\nKASHGARIA, central Asia ; subdued by \nChina; annexed by Keeu Lung, 1760; insurrec- \ntions subdued, 1826 et seq. Mahomed Yakoob Beg, \nduring an insurrection of the Tungani, made him- \nself ruler of Kashgaria, 1866, and sent envoys to \nLondon, &c, 1867. He was at length attacked by \nthe Chinese, totally defeated, and said to have been \nassassinated, 1 May, 1877. The capital, Kashgar, \nwas taken, and the country regained by China, \nKov. ; and the war closed, l\xc2\xbbec. 1877. \n\nKASHMIR, see Cashmere. \n\nKASSASSIN (4 battles) ; see Egypt, 28 Aug. \nand g Sept. 1882. \n\nKATHARINE\'S HOSPITAL, ST., founded \nabout 1 148, by Matilda, queen of Stephen, and re- \nfounded by Eleanor, queeu of Henry III., 1273. \nThe hospital was removed to Regent\'s Park in 1827, \nthe site having been bought for 163,000/. by the \nSt. Katharine\'s docks company. The brethren are in \norders, and not restricted from marriage ; the sisters \nare unmarried or widows. Aschool, attached in 1829, \nwas enlarged in 1849. \nOrder of St. Katharine for nurses instituted by the \n\n\n\nqueen ; annual payment 50L for 3 years, badge \n\nfor life ; first investiture ... 4 June, 1879 \n\nKATSBACH (Prussia) ; near this river the \nPrussian general liliicher defeated the French \nunder MacDonald and Ney, 26 Aug. 1813. He \nreceived the title of prince of Wahlstatt, the name \nof a neighbouring village. \n\nKEATING\'S ACT, 18 & 19 Vict. c. 67 (1855) \nrelates to bills of exchange. \n\nKEBLE COLLEGE (Oxford), founded in \nmemory of the rev. John Keble, author of the \n" Christian Year," born 25 April, 1792, died \n29 March, 1866. The first stone of the building \nwas laid by the archbishop of Canterbury, 25 April, \n1868; the building was dedicated, 23 June, 1870 ; \nthe chapel, the gift of "William Gibbs, was dedicated, \nand the library opened, 25 April, 1876. \n\nKEEPER of the King\'s Conscience. \n\nThe early chancellors were priests, and out of their \nsupposed moral control of the king\'s mind grew \nthe idea of an equity court in contradistinction to \nthe law courts. A bill in chancery is a petition \nthrough the lord chancellor to the king\'s conscience \nfor remedy in matters for which the king\'s common \nlaw courts afford no redress. The keeper of the \nking\'s conscience is therefore now the officer who \npresides in the court of chancery; see Chancellor \nand Lord Keeper. \n\nKEEPER (LORD) of the Great Seal \n\nOF ENGLAND differed only from the lord chan- \ncellor in that the latter had letters patent, whereas \nthe lord keeper had none. Richard, a chaplain, \nis said to have been the first keeper under Ranulph, \nin 1 1 16. Foss says that the distinction between the \ntwo offices was made 1232. The two offices were \nmade one by 5 Eliz. 1563. Cowell ; see Chancellor. \nThe office of lord keeper of the great seal of \nScotland was established in 1708, after the union. \n\nKELTS, see Celts and Gauls. \n\nKENILWORTH CASTLE (Warwickshire), \nwas built about 1 120, by Geoffrey de Clinton, whose \ngrandson sold it to Henry III. It was enlarged \nand fortified by Simon de Montfort, to whom Henry \ngave it as a marriage portion with his sister Eleanor. \nQueen Elizabeth conferred it on her favourite, \nDudley, earl of Leicester. His entertainment of \nthe queen commenced 19 July, 1575, and cost the \nearl daily wool. \n\nAfter the battle of Evesham and defeat and death of \nSimon de Montfort, by Prince Edward (afterwards \nEdward I.) 1265, Monfiort\'s younger son, Simon, shut \nhimself up in Keuilworth castle, which sustained a siege \nfor six months against the royal forces of Henry III., to \nwhom it at length surrendered. Upon this occasion was \nissued the " Dictum de Kenil worth," or "ban of Keuil- \nworth," enacting that all who had borne arms against \nthe king should pay him the value of their lands for \nperiods varying from 7 years to 6 months. \n\nKENNINGTON COMMON (Surrey) . The \nChirtist demonstration, 10 April, 1848, took place \non the common. It was directed to be laid out as a \npublic pleasure-ground in 1852. \n\nKENSAL GREEN, see Cemeteries. \n\nKENSINGTON : the palace was purchased \nby William III., from lord chancellor Finch, who \nmade the road through its park. The gardens were \nimproved by queens Mary, Anne, and Caroline, who \ndied here. Here died George, prince of Denmark, \nand George If. ; and here queen Victoria was born, \n24 May, 1819. Kensington returns two M.P.\'s by \nAct of 18S5. \n\n\n\nKENT. \n\n\n\n556 \n\n\n\nKHERSON. \n\n\n\nBy permission of the government, a military "band \n\nplayed in Kensington gardens on Sundays, Aug. 1855 \n\nObjected to ; discontinued 1856 \n\nNew parish church erected by sir Gilbert G. Scott \n\nwas consecrated 14 May, 1872 \n\nNew town-hall by ft. Walker opened by the duchess \n\nof Teck 7 Aug. 1880 \n\nFree central public library opened by the princess \n\nLouise 29 Nov. 1889 \n\nPopulation, 1881, 1,63,151; 1891, 166,321. \nSee South Kensington. \n\nKENT, see Britain and Holy Maid. Odo, \nbishop of Bayeux, brother of William the Con- \nqueror, was made earl of Kent, 1067; and Heniy \nGrey was made duke of Kent in 1710 ; he died with- \nout male heirs in 1740. Edward, son of George III., \nwas created duke of Kent in 1799, was father of \nqueen Victoria, and died 23 Jan. 1820 ; see England. \n\nKENT, an Eastlndiaman, of 1350 tons burthen, \nleft the Downs, 19 Feb. 1825, bound for Bombay. \nIn the Bay of Biscay she encountered a dreadful \nstorm, 28 Feb. On the next day she accidentally \ntook fire, and all were in expectation of perish- \ning, either by the tempest or the flames. The \nCambria, captain Cook, bound to Vera Cruz, provi- \ndentially hove in sight, and nearly all on board \nwere saved. The Kent blew up, 2 March. \n\n. KENTISH FIRE, a term given to the con- \ntinuous cheering common at the protestant meetings \nheld in Kent, 1828 and 1829, with the view of \npreventing the passing of the Catholic Belief \nbill. \xe2\x80\x94 Kentish Petition to the house of commons, \ncensuring its proceedings, was signed at Maidstone, \n29 April, 1 701. It gave much offence. \n\nKENTISH TOWN, N.W. London, an old \nmanor, church property, originally formed part of \nthe great forest of Middlesex. Since 1855 building \nhas very greatly increased. \n\nKENTUCKY, a western state of N. America, \nadmitted into the union 1792. It declared for strict \nneutrality in the conflict between the North and \nSouth in April, 1861, but was invaded by the \nSouthern troops in August. On their refusal to \nretire, after much correspondence, the legislature \nof Kentucky gave in its adhesion to the union, \n27 Nov. 1861. In the campaign that ensued sharp \nskirmishes took place, and uii 19 Jan. 1862, the \nconfederates under Zollicoffer were defeated and \nhimself killed at Mill Spring, and in March no con- \nfederate soldiers remained in Kentucky ; capital, \nFrankfort. Population, 1880, 1,648,690 ; 1890, \n1,858,635. See United States. \n\nMurderous ten years\' feud or vendetta at Morehead, \nRowan county, chiefly between Holbrooks and \nUnderwoods, beginning with a charge of horse- \nstealing against John Martin, sometimes rising \nto actual war. Closed by the sheriff killing \nCraig Tolliver and his gang . . 22 June, 1887 \n\nBy the fall of a new bridge between Covington and \nNewport, about 30 workmen perished 15 June, 1892 \n\nKEKBEKAN, BATTLE OF, see Soudan, 10 \nFeb. 1885. \n\nKERMADEC ISLANDS, north of New \nZealand, annexed by the British Government, Mav. \n1886. \xe2\x80\xa2" \n\nKEROSELENE, a new ancesthetic, derived \nfrom the distillation of coal-tar by Mr. W. B. Merrill, \nof Boston, U.S., was made known early in r86i. \n\nKERTCH, formerly Panticapaeum, capital of \nthe ancient kingdom of Bosporus, late a flourishing \ntown on the straits of Yenikale, sea of Azof. It \nwas entered by the allies (English and French) \n24 May, 1855 ; the Prussians retired after destroying \n\n\n\nstores, &c. The place was dismantled by the \nallies, and most of the inhabitants removed. \n\nKET\'S REBELLION: a revolt in July, \n1549, instigated by William Ket, a tanner, of \nWymondham, Norlblk. He demanded the abolition \nof inclosures and the dismissal of evil counsellors. \nThe insurgents amounted to 20,000 men, but were \nquickly defeated by the earl of Warwick. More \nthan 2000 fell ; Ket and others were tried 26 Nov., \nand hanged soon after. \n\nKEW (Surrey). The palace was successively \noccupied by the Capel family and Mr. Molyneux ; \nby Frederick, prince of Wales, 1 730, and George III. \nQueen Charlotte died here, 4 Nov. 1818. A new \npalace erected by George III., under the direction \nof Mr. Wyatt, was pulled down in 1827. The \ngardens contained a tine collection of plants, and \nwere decorated with ornamental buildings, most of \nthem erected by sir William Chambers, about 1760. \n\nBOTANIC GARDENS. \n\nMr. Aiton retired from his office of director, after \nfifty years\' service 1843 \n\nSucceeded by sir William Hooker, 1 April, 1841, at \nwhose recommendation the gardens were opened \nto the public daily. The royal kitchen and forcing \ngardens incorporated with the botanic gardens . 1847 \n\nCollections in the museum of Economic Botany \nbegan with the private collection of sir William \nHooker, given by him in . ,, \n\nUnder his charge the gardens were greatly im- \nproved, and magnificent conservatories erected. \n\nHe died 12 Aug. 1865, and was succeeded by his \nson, Dr. (now sir Joseph) D. Hooker, 1865, who \nresigned (succeeded by Mr. W. T. Thiselton Dyer) \n\n30 Nov. 1885 \n\n687,972 (great increase) visitors in . . . . 1877 \n\nThe Meteorological Observatory presented to the \nBritish Association, 1842 ; purchased by J. P. \nGassiot for io,ooo\xc2\xa3. , and presented to the Royal \nSociety 1873 \n\nGreat damage done to conservatories and plants \nby storm (cost about 2000Z.) . . .23 Aug. 1879 \n\nMiss Marianne North\'s present of a collection of pic- \ntures of fruit and flowers of all nations, painted by \nherself, and placed in a building erected at her ex- \npense, opened to the public . . summer, 1882 \n\n[She died, Sept. 1890. Her "Recollections of a \nHappy Life," were published early in 1892.] \n\nGardens first opened at noon . . .1 April, 1883 \n\nThe valuable bulletins first issued .... 1887 \n\nKEYS. See locks. \n\nKHARTOUM, capital of Nubia, at tbe con- \nfluence of the Blue and White Nile, built by Mo- \nhamed Ali, 1820. Its prosperity was destroyed by \nthe rapacity of the governors. Population in 1877 \nonly about 15,000. \n\nAfter successful administration col. Charles George \nGordon compelled to leave Khartoum, and re- \nturned to England 1877 \n\nIn his defence of Khartoum against the Mahdi (from \nFeb. 1884) he was greatly aided by colonel John \nDonald Stewart and Mr. Frank Power, correspon- \ndent of the Times (who were both massacred \nduring an expedition, Sept. 1884). He manifested \nmuch military skill, political sagacity, tender \nhumanity, and marvellous power in inducing his \nfollowers to overcome serious difficulties and \npatiently endure great sufferings and privations. \nKhartoum was surrendered, and Gordon and his \nfaithful followers killed, early on 26 Jan. 1885. \nSee under \xe2\x80\xa2Sowdcwi. \n\nKHEDIVE, or Kcdervi, king or lord, a title \ngiven to the viceroy of Egypt, instead of vali or \nviceroy, 14 May, 1867. \n\nKHELAT, see Beloochistan. \n\nKHERSON, an ancient Dorian colony (deriving \nits name from Chersonesus, a penins ,ia), came \nunder the sway of the great Mithridates about 120 \n\n\n\nKHERSON. \n\n\n\n007 \n\n\n\nKILFENORA. \n\n\n\nB.C. ; and afterwards under that of Rome, A.D.30. It \ncontinued important, and its possession was long \ndisputed by the Russians and Greeks. Justinian II. \ncruelly treated it. It was taken by Vladimir, grand- \nduke of Russia in 988, when he and his army received \nChristian baptism, and he married the emperor\'s \nsister Anne, who obtained Kherson as her dowry. \nThe city was destroyed by the Lithuanians ; and the \nTurks found it deserted when they took possession \nof the Crimea in 1475. What ancient remains the \nTurks and Tartars had spared, the Russians con- \nveyed away for the construction of Sebastopol. \n\nKHERSON, a Russian city on the Dnieper, \nfounded 1778. Potemkin, the favourite of Catherine, \nwho died at Jassy in 1791, is buried here, and John \nHoward, the English philanthropist, who died here, \n20 Jan. 1790, is buried about three miles from the \ntown, where an obelisk has been erected to his \nmemory, by the czar Alexander I. \n\nKHIVA (formerly Carasmia), in Turlcistan, \nA<ia, succe sively formed part of the territories of \nthe Seleucidas, Bactria, Parthia, Persia, and the \nCalifate, till about 1092, when it was subjugated by \nthe Seljuk Tartars, by the Moguls in 1221, and by \nTimour the Tartar in 1370, whose descendants \nruled till 151 1, when they were expelled by the \nUzbegs, a Turkish tribe who still inhabit the \ncountry. An expedition sent against it by the \nemperor Nicholas of Russia in 1839 perished through \nthe rigour of the climate in 1840. In 1875, colonel \nF. A. Burnaby reached Khiva, after a perilous ride, \nwhen his progress was stopped by Russian jealousy. \nTo obtain redress for many outrages, a Russian \n\nexpedition sent to Khiva .... Feb. 1873 \nAfter several defeats the town, Khiva, surrendered \n\nunconditionally .... 10 June, ,, \n\nThe khan fled, but returned, and became a vassal \n\nof the czar 5 July, ,. \n\nAn insurrection against the Russians repressed and \n\npunished Aug. ,, \n\nPart of Khiva annexed .... 15 Oct. \nThe country disturbed by revolts . . . 1873-4 \n\nKHOKAND, a khanate in central Asia, sub- \nject to China about 1760; rebelled and became \ntributary only, 1812. A rebellion, which broke out \nin Sept. was suppressed Oct. 1874. \nWar with Russia ; gen. Kaufraann defeats about \n\n30,000 men, 4 Sept. ; entered Khokand without \n\nresistance, and the khanate virtually subdued . \n\n16 Sept. 1875 \nHe defeats 5000 more .... 21 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe people expel the new khan . . 21 Oet. ,, \nPart of Khokand annexed by Russia . . Oct. ,, \nThe people rise and massacre Russian garrison, \n\nannounced 28 Nov. ,, \n\nRebels totally defeated at Assake (chiefs submit) \n\n30 Jan. 1876 \nKhokand formally annexed as Ferghana . 29 Feb. ,, \n\nKHUSCHK-I-NAKHUD, see Maiwand. \n\nKHYBER PASS (the principal northern \nentrance into Afghanistan from India) . It is ten \nmiles west of Peshawnr, extending about thirty- \nthree miles towards Jellalabad ; lying between lofty \nslate cliff\'s, varying from 600 to 1000 feet in height; \nheld by Afreedees and other warlike tribes, to whom \nDost Mahomed formerly paid subsidies, which \nwere discontinued by his son Shere Ali, ameer of \nA fghanistan. \n\nThe pass forced by col. Wade, 26 July, and gen. \nsir John Keane retired through it after his vic- \ntorious campaign 1839 \n\nAgain forced by general (aft. sir George) Pollock, \non his way to chastise Cabul for the massacres in \nthe previous winter . . . 5-14 April, 1842 \nAt Ali Musjid, a fort in the pass, the further ad- \nvance of sir Neville Chamberlain on a mission \n\n\n\nfrom the viceroy to the ameer was forbidden, \nwith threats of violence . . . 22 Sept. 1878 \nThe pass held by the British . . till March, 1881 \nThe viceroy, the marquis of Lansdowne, rode \nthrough the pass .... 30 Oct. 1889 \n\nSee Afghanistan. \n\nKIDDERMINSTER (Worcestershire), re- \nnowned for its carpet manufactures, established \nabout 1735. -ft was ma de a parliamentary borough, \nagain in 1832. The statue of Richard Baxter, the \nnonconformist, was unveiled by Mrs. Philpotts, \nwife of the bishop of Worcester, 28 July, 187? ; an \naddress was delivered by dean Stanley. Fierce \nrioting through carpet trade disputes quelled, 4-8 \nApril, 1884. Typhoid fever prevalent, Sept. to \nOct. 1884, 87 deaths. Population, 1881, 24,270; \n1891, 24,803. \n\nKIDNAPPING ACTS (1872 and 1875), \npassed to prevent and punish criminal outrages \nupon natives of the islands in the Pacific Ocean ; \nsee Slavery, Queensland, and Melanesia. \n\nKIEF (Kiov or Kiow), chief town of a province \nof the same name in European Russia, made a \nprincipality 1137, annexed to Poland 1386, aud \nafter several changes was ceded to Russia 1686. \nPopulation of the province, i88h, 3,026,036. \nThe cathedral of St. Sophia was founded in 1037, \n\nthe Greek academy 1588, and the university in \n\n1834. \n\nKIEL, chief town of Holstein, a seaport, and a \nmember of the Hanseatic league in 1300. The \nuniversity was founded in 1665. By a treaty \nbetween Great Britain, Sweden, and Denmark, \nsigned here 14 Jan. 1814, Norway was ceded to \nSweden ; see Norway. An extraordinary assembly \nof the revolted provinces, Schleswig and Holstein, \nmet here 9 Sept. 1850. By the convention of \nGastein between Austria and Prussia, 14 Aug. 1865, \nthe former w r as to govern Holstein, but Kiel to be \nheld by Prussia as a German federal port. This \nwas annulled in 1866 by the issue of the war. Popu- \nlation, 1890, 69,214. \n\nFoundation stone of opening lock of the canal \nfrom the Baltic to the North Sea laid by the \nemperor 3 June, 1887 \n\nKILCULLEN (Kildare) . Here a large body \nof the insurgent Irish defeated the British forces \ncommanded by general Dundas, 23 May, 1798. The \ngeneral in a subsequent engagement overthrew the \nrebels near Kilcullen-bridge, when 300 were slain. \n\nKILDARE (E. Ireland). The Curragh or \nrace-course here was once a forest of oaks. Here \nwas the nunnery of St. Bridget, founded by her in \nthe 15th century, and here was a building called the \nfire-house, where, it is supposed, the nuns kept the \ninextinguishable fire which existed till the re- \nformation. The see was one of the earliest episco- \npal foundations in Ireland; St. Conlajth, who \ndied 519, the first prelate. The first Protestant \nbishop was Thomas Lancaster, in 1550. The see is \nvalued, by an extent returned 39 Hen. VIII., at \n69/. lis. \\d. Irish per year. Kildare was united to \nDublin in 1846; see Dublin. The insurrection in \nKildare, which swelled into the rebellion, com- \nmenced, 23 May, 1798. On that night, lieut. Gilford \nof Dublin and a number of other gentlemen were \nmurdered by insurgents. This rebellion was quelled \nin 1799. The Curragh is now a military camp. \n\nKILFENORA (Clare), a bishopric, said to \nhave been founded by St. Pacinian. Cardinal \nPaparo, in 1 152, rendered it a suffragan see to \nCashel ; but in 1660 it was annexed to Tuam, and \nto Killaloe in 1752. \n\n\n\nKILIMA-NJAEO. \n\n\n\n55S \n\n\n\nKINETOGEAPH. \n\n\n\nKILIMA-NJAEO, a lofty volcanic mountain \n\nin E. Equatorial Africa, discovered by Rebmann in \n\n1848. \n\nMr. H. H. Johnston ascended 16,200 feet from the \nsummit of Kibo Nov. 1884 \n\nDr. Hans Meyer (unsuccessful 1887 and 1888), with \nHerr Purtscheller and one native, climbed up the \nicy steeps to the highest pinnacle of the ridges of \nthe volcanic crater about 19,700 feet high, which \nhe named " Kaiser Wilhelm\'s Peak," after having \nplanted on it the German flag, 6 Oct. ; they left \nthe mountain 30 Oct. 1889 \n\nDr. Meyer gave an account of his travels to the \nRoyal Geographical Society, London . 14 April, 1890 \n\nMajor von "Wissmann establishes a fortified station \nat Kilima-Njaro, in charge of lieutenant Witzleben \n15 Feb. 1891 ; Germans defeated ; fort abandoned \n10 June ; re-occupied without fighting 29 July, 1892 \n\nKILKENNY (S. E. Ireland), an English \nsettlement about 11 70. The castle was built 1195, \nby Wm. Marshall, earl of Pembroke. At the par- \nliament held here by Lionel duke of Clarence 1367, \nthe statute of Kilkenny was passed.* After a siege \nthe town surrendered to Cromwell, 28 March, 1650, \non honourable terms. \n\nKILLALA (Mayo) was invaded by a French \nforce landing from three frigates, under general \nHumbert, 22 Aug. 1798. The invaders were joined \nby the Irish insurgents, and the battles of Castlebar \nand Colooney followed ; and the French were de- \nfeated at Ballynamuck, 8 Sept. same year. \n\nKILLALA (Sligo), an early see. The author \nof the Tripartite life of St. Patrick, says, "that in \n434 he came to a pleasant place where the river \nMuadas (Moy) empties itself into the ocean ; and \non the south banks of the said river he built a noble \nchurch called Kil-Aladh, of which he made one of \nhis disciples, Muredach, the first bishop." The see \nof Achonry was united to Killala in the 1 7th century ; \nand both were united to Tuam in 1839 ; see \nTuam and Bishops. \n\nKILL ALOE (Clare), a see supposed to have \nbeen founded by St. Molua, whose disciple, St. \nFlannan, son to king Theodoric, consecrated at \nHome by John IV. in 639, was also bishop. At the \nclose of the 12th century, Roscrea was annexed to \nKillaloe, and Kilfenora has been held with it. \nClonfert and Kilmacduach were added in 1836. \n\nKILLIECKANKIE (a defile in Perthshire). \nHere the forces of "William III. commanded by \ngeueral Mackay were defeated by the adherents of \nJames II. under Graham of Claverhouse, viscount \nDundee, who fell in the moment of victory, 17 \nor 27 July, 1689. \n\nKILMACDUACH (Gal way). This see was \nheld with Clonfert, from 1602. St. Coleman was its \nfirst bishop, in the 7th century. It was valued, 29 \nEliz. 1586, at 13?. 6s. 8^. per annum. It is united \nto Killaloe. \n\nKILMAINHAM HOSPITAL (Dublin), \nthe noble asylum of aged and disabled soldiers in \nIreland, built by Wren, was founded by Arthur, \nearl of Granard, marshal-general of the army in \nIreland, 1675 ; and the duke of Ormond perfected \nthe plan in 1679. \n\n* It enacted among other things, "that the alliance \nof the English by marriage with any Irish, the nurture of \ninfantes, and gossipred with the Irish, be deemed high \ntreason." And again, "if anie man of English race use \nan Irish name, Irish apparel], or anie other guize or \nfashion of the Irish, his lands shall be seized, and his \n"body imprisoned, till he shall conform to English modes \nand customs." Said never to have been enforced. It \nabolished the Brehon laws. \n\n\n\nThe term Treaty of Kilmainham was applied to an \nalleged agreement between Mr. Gladstone\'s government \nand\'Mr. Parnell and other land-leaguers imprisoned in \nthe Kilmainham gaol on 13 Oct. 1881. The government \nis said to have entered into a negotiation with them while \nthere, May, 1882. \n\nKILMALLOCK (Limerick). An abbey was \nfounded here by St. Mochoallog or Molach about \n645, and an abbey of Dominicans was built in the \n13th century. Ware. A charter was granted to \nKilmallock by Edward VI., and another by Eliza- \nbeth in 1584. The town was invested by the Irish \nforces in 1598, but the siege was raised by the earl \nof Ormond. There was much fighting here in 1641 \nand 1642 ; see Fenians, March, 1867. \n\nKILMOBE (Armagh), an ancient town, whose \nbishops were sometimes called Brefinienses, from \nBrefney, and sometimes Triburnenses, from \nTriburna, a village; but in 1454, the bishop of \nTriburna, by assent of pope Nicholas V., erected \nthe parish church of St. Fedlemid into a cathedral. \nFlorence O\'Connacty, the first bishop, died in 1231. \nValued, 15 Jas. I. with Ardagh, at 100I. per annum. \nThe joint see of Elphin and Ardagh was united to \nit in 1841. \n\nKILSTTH (central Scotland). Here Montrose \ndefeated the Covenanters, 15 Aug. 1645, and \nthreatened Glasgow. \n\nKIMBEBLEY, see under Griqualand. \nKimberley\'\' s Act, see under Crime. \n\nKIMMEEIDGE CLAY: Rev. H. Moule \nannounced his successful use of this clay for fuel \nand gas-making, March, 1874 ; practicability \ndoubted. \n\nKINBUEN, a fort, at the confluence of the \nrivers Bug and Dnieper. Here Suwarrow defeated \nthe Turks, 28 June, 1788. Kinburn was taken by \nthe English and French, 17 Oct. 1855. Three \nfloating French batteries, said to be the invention \nof the emperor, on the principle of horizontal shell- \nfiring, was very effective. On the 18th the \nRussians blew up Oczakoff, a fort opposite. \n\nKINDEB-GABTEN (children\'s garden), a \nsystem of education devised by Froebel, but prac- \ntically carried out by Mr. and Mrs. Ronge, in \nGermany, in 1849, and in England in 1851. The \nsystem, founded mainly on self-tuition, and en- \nlivened by toys, games, and singing, is set forth in \nRonge\'s " Kinder-garten," published in 1858; and \nhas been partially adopted in English schools. The \nFrcebel Society established 1874. Annual meeting \n18 Jan. 1884. \n\nKINDEED, TABLE OF, in the Book of Com- \nmon Prayer, was set forth in 1563, see Leviticus, \nchap, xviii., B.C. 1490. \n\nKINEMATICS (Greek hineo, I move), the \nscience of motion. Reuleaux\'s " Kinematics of Ma- \nchinery," translated by A. B. W. Kennedy; pub- \nlished, June, 1876. " Kinematism " is a method of \ntreating certain diseases by movement. Prof. \nRankine\'s ." Machinery and Millwork " first ap- \npeared, 1809; new ed. 1876; see Motion. \n\nKINETOGEAPH, a machine invented by \nMr. Thomas A. Edison, combining electricity with \nphotography, by means of which the movements of \nthe actors in a scene at the theatre (accompanied by \ntheir voices and the music) are reproduced upon a \nscreen. The kinetograph was described by Mr. \nEdison at New Tork 28 May, and in the Times, \n29 May, 1 89 1. \n\n\n\nKING. \n\n\n\n559 \n\n\n\nKING\'S BENCH PRISON. \n\n\n\nKING : German Konig, equivalent in mean- \ning to the Latin Rex, Scythian Reis, Spanish Ret/, \nItalian Re, French Roy : Hebrew Rosch. Rex is \nthought to be connected with the Hindu rajah, de- \nrived from the Sanscrit ragan, the root of which is \narg, argami, to possess. Rex therefore means \npossessor. Nimrod was the first founder of a \nkingdom, about 2245 B.C. The "manner of the \nking" is set forth in I Samuel viii., 11 12 B.C. \nSaul was the first king of Israel, 1095 B.C. Most \nof the Grecian states were originally governed by \nkings ; and kings were the first rulers in Rome. \nKing of England. \xe2\x80\x94 The style was used by Egbert, \n828 ; but the title Rex gentis Anglorum, king of \nthe English nation, existed during the Heptarchy ; \nsee Britain. \nThe plural phraseology, we, its, our, was first adopted \n\namong English kings by John .... 1199 \nPope Leo X. conferred the title of " Defender of the \n\nFaith" on Hemy VIII. . . . 11 Oct. 1521 \n\nHenry VIII. changed lord of Ireland into king. . 1542 \nThe style "Great Britain " was adopted at the union \n\nof England and Scotland, 6 Anne . . . . 1707 \nThat of the " United Kingdom of Great Britain and \nIreland " at the union, when the royal style and \ntitle was appointed to run thus: \xe2\x80\x94 " Georgius \nTertius, Dei Gratia, Britanniarum Rex, Fidei \nDefensor," " George the Third, by the grace of \nGod, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and \nIreland, king, Defender of the Faith" (France \n\nbeing omitted) 1 Jan. 1801 \n\nHanover omitted in the queen\'s style 21 June, 1837 \n\nThe queen was proclaimed in all the important \nplaces in India, as "Victoria, by the Grace of \nGod, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain \nand Ireland, and the colonies and dependencies \nthereof in Europe, Asia, Africa, America, and \nAustralia, queen," <fec. (see Empress). 1 Nov. 1858 \n\nThe national assembly decreed that the title of \nLouis XVI. " king of France," should be changed \nto "king of the French" . . . 16 Oct. 1789 \nThe royal title in France abolished .... 1792 \nLouis XVIII. styled "by the grace of God king of \n\nFrance and Navarre " 1814 \n\nLouis-Philippe I. was invited to the monarchy under \n\nthe style of the " king of the French " . 9 Aug. 1830 \nThe emperors of Germany, in order that their \neldest sons might be chosen their successors \nin their own life-time, politically obtained them \nthe title of "king of the Romans." The first \nemperor so elected was Henry IV. . . . 105s \nRichard, brother of Henry III. of England, was \ninduced to go to Germany, where he disbursed vast \nsums under the promise of being elected next \nemperor ; he was elected " king of the Romans" \n(but failed in succeeding to the imperial crown) 1256 \nThe title of "king of France" assumed, and the \nFrench arms quartered, by Edward III., in right \nof his mother, 1340 ; discontinued by Geo. III. 1802 \nThe style "king of Rome" was revived by \n\nNapoleon I. for his son, born . . 20 March, 1811 \nThe title " king of Italy" conferred on Victor Emma- \nnuel II. of Sardinia by Italian parliament i7March, 1861 \n\nKING-OF-ARMS: three for England,\xe2\x80\x94 \n\nGarter, Clarencieux, andNorroy ; Lyonking-at-arms \nfor Scotland, and Ulster for Ireland. These offices \nare very ancient : Clarencieux is so named from \nLionel, third son of Edward III., the sovereign who \nfounded the order of the Garter ; see Garter-. \nLionel having by his wife the honour of Clare, was \nmade duke cf Clarence; which dukedom afterwards \nescheating to Edward IV., he revived the office of \nClarence king-at-arms. The office of Bath king-of- \narms, created in 1725, was changed to Gloucester \nking-of-arms, 14 June, 1726. Ulster was substi- \ntuted, it is said, in lieu of Ireland king-of-arms, by \nEdward VI., 1553 ; but the monarch himself named \nit as a new institution. \n\nKING\'S ADVOCATE, see Queen\'s. \nKING\'S BENCH, or Queen\'s Bench, \n\nCOURT OF, obtained its name from the king- \n\n\n\nsometimes sitting here on a high bench, and the* \njudges, to whom the judicature belongs in Ms- \nabsence, on a low bench at his feet. This court ins \nancient times was called Curia Domini Regis. The- \ncourt of queen\'s bench sat for the last time, July, \n1875, (see Supreme Court). Chief justice Cockburn \nreceived the freedom of London, 9 March, 1876 ; \nsaid to be the first case of the kind. The Queen\'s- \nBench Division of the high court of justice till i88r \nconsisted of the chief justice of England and four- \njudges. The chief justice of the queen\'s bench \ndivision is now chief justice of England ; the ex- \nchequer and common pleas division were abolished, \nin 1881. \n\n\n\n1687. \n\n\n\n1709. \n\n\n\n1718. \n1725- \n\n1733- \n\n\n\n1737- \n1754- \n1756. \n\n\n\nCHIEF JUSTICES IN ENGLAND \n\n1509. John Fineux. \n1526. John Fitz James. \n1539. Sir Edward Montagu. \n1546. Sir Richard Lyster. \n\n1552. Sir Roger Cholmely. \n\n1553. Sir Thomas Bromley. \n\n1554. Sir William Portman. \n1556. Sir Edward Saunders. \n1559. Sir Robert Catlyn. \n1573. Sir Christopher Wray. \n1591. Sir John Popham. \n1607 Sir Thomas Fleming. \n1613. Sir Edward Coke. \n1616. Sir Henry Montagu. \n1620. Sir James Ley. \n1624. Sir Ranulph Crewe. \n1626. Sir Nicholas Hyde. \n1631. Sir Thomas Richard- \nson. \n\n1635. Sir John Bramp- \n\nston. \n\n1643. Sir Robert Heath. \n\n1648. Henry Rolle. \n\n1655. John Glyn. \n\n1659. Sir Rd. Newdigate. \n,, Robert Nicholas. \n\n1660. Sir Robert Foster. \n1663. Sir Robert Hyde. \n1665. Sir John Kelyng. \n1671. Sir Matthew Hale. \n1676. Sir Richard Rayns- \n\nford. \n\n1678. Sir William Scroggs. \n\n1681. Sir Francis Pember- \nton. \n\n1683. Sir Edmund Saun- \nders. \nSir George Jefferies, \n\n\n\n1832. \n\n\n\n1850. \n\n\n\n1859. \n\n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0ROM HENRY VIII. \n\naft. lord Jefferies; \nand lord chanc. \n\nSir Edward Herbert. \n\nSir Robert Wright. \n\nSir John Holt. \n\nSir Thomas Parker., \naft. lord Parker,, \nearl of Macclesfield^ \nand lord chanc. \n\nSir John Pratt. \n\nSir Robert Raymond., \naft. lord Raymond- \nSir Philip Yorke, aft^ \nId. Hardwicke and: \nlord chanc. \n\nSir William Lee. \n\nSir Dudley Ryder. \n\nWm. Murray, lord, aft\xe2\x80\x9e \nearl of Mansfield. \n\nLloyd, lord Kenyon^ \n9 June. \n\nSir Edward Law, 12-. \nApril ; aft. lord \nEllenborough. \n\nSir Charles Abbott,. \n4 Nov. ; aft. lord \nTenterden. \n\nSir Thomas Denman, 7- \nNov. ; aft. lord Den- \nman : resigned. \n\nJohn, lord Campbell, \nMarch ; aft. lord \nchancellor. \n\nSir Alexander Cock- \nburn, June ; (died \n20 Nov. 1880). \n\nJohn Duke, lord Cole- \nridge, 26 Nov. \n\n\n\nchief justices jn Ireland (see Supreme Court). \n\n\n\n1690. Sir Richard Reynell, \n\n6 Dec. \n\n1695. Sir Richard Pyne, \n\n7 June. \n\n1709. Allan Brodriek, 24 \n\nDec. \n1711. Sir Richard Cox; 5 \n\nJuly. \n1714. W. Whitshed, 14 Oct. \n1727. JohnRogerson, 3 Apr. \nThomas Marlay, 29 \n\nDec. \nSt. George Caulfield, \n\n27 Aug. \n1760. Warden Flood, 31 \n\nJuly. \n1764. John Gore, 24 Aug. ; \n\naft, earl Annaly. \n1784. John Scott, 29 April ; \n\naft. earl of Clonmel. \n1798. Arthur Wolfe, 13 \n\nJune ; aft. lord Kil \n\n\n\n1741. \n\n\n\ni75i- \n\n\n\nEmmet\'s insurrec- \ntion^ July, 1803); \n\n1803. William Dowries, 12: \nSept. ; aft. lord \nDowries. \n\n1822. Chas. Kendal Bushe.. \n14 February. \n\n1841. Edward Pennefather.. \n10 November. \n\n1846. Francis Blackburne^ \n23 Jan. \n\n1852. Thos. Lefroy, March, \n\nt866. James Whiteside,. \nJuly ; died 25 Nov. \n1876. \n\n1877. George Augustus Chi- \nchester May, 9 Feb. \n\n1887. Sir Michael Morris.. \nJan. \n\n18S9. Sir Peter O\'Brien, \nDec, made lord of \nappeal as lord \nMorris, Dec. \n\n\n\nwarden (killed in \n\nKING\'S BENCH PRISON (Southwark),. \nnear the site of one of the oldest prisons of London, \nlong used for the confinement of debtors. Here, it \nis said, prince Henry (afterwards Henry V.) was \ncommitted by Justice Gascoigne. The prison was \n\n\n\nKING\'S BOOK. \n\n\n\n560 \n\n\n\nKNIGHTS. \n\n\n\nburnt down by the London rioters, 7 June, 1780; \nsee Gordon\'s No-Popery Riots. It was rebuilt in \n1781, and contained about 230 rooms. Formerly, \nthe debtors were allowed to purchase the liberties, \nto enable them to have houses or lodgings without \nthe walls, or to purchase day-rules, to go out of \nthe prison under certain regulations. The rules \nincluded iSt. George\'s Fields, &c. A consequence \nof the bankruptcy act, 1861, was the release of \nmany insolvent debtors ; and an act was passed \nin 1862 " for discontinuing the queen\'s prison \nand removal of the prisoners to Whitecross- street \nprison." The buildings, used as a military prison, \nwere pulled clown and the site sold, 1879-80. \n\nKING\'S BOOK, or "Valor Ecclesiasticus \ntemp. Henrici VIII." the return of the commis- \nsioners appointed in 1534 to value the first fruits \nand tenths granted to the king. An edition by \nJohn Bacon ("Liber Regis") was published in \n1780, and it was printed for the Record Commission, \n1810-25. \n\nKING\'S BOUNTY, an annual grant of \nIOOO/. for the Maunday royal alms distributed by \nthe lord high almoner, began early in the reign of \nGeorge III. and continued till 10 George IV. 1829. \nSee Maunday. \n\nKING\'S COLLEGES, see Aberdeen and \nCambridge. King\'s College, London, incorporated \n14 Aug. 1829, and opened 8 Oct. 1831. It was \nincorporated with the university of London in 1837. \nThe hospital w;is founded in 1839. The dining- \nhall and kitchen fell in, through drainage, 8 a.m., \n6 Dec. 1869 ; no lives were lost. The council of the \n\xe2\x96\xa0college issues an appeal to the public for additional \nfunds (50,000/.), 24 Jan. 1891. \n\nKING\'S COUNSEL, the first under the \ndegree of Serjeant was sir Francis Bacon, made \nso, honoris causa, without patent or fee, in 1604, \nby James I. The first modern king\'s counsel was \nsir Francis North, afterwards lord keeper, in 1663. \n\nKING\'S COUNTY (Ireland), formed out of \nconfiscated property, and so named from Philip, king \nof Spain, the husband of queen Mary of England, \nin 1556. \n\nKINGS CROSS MAEKET, N. London, \n\nopened 7 Aug. 1868 ; did not succeed. \n\nKINGSDOWN\'S ACT, 24 & 25 Vict. c. 114 \n(^1861) relates to wills. \n\nKING\'S EVIL (scrofula), formerly supposed \nto be cured by the king\'s touch; the first being \nEdward the Confessor, in 1058. In the reign of \nCharles II. 92,107 persons were touched; and, ac- \ncording to Wiseman, the king\'s physician, they \nwere nearly all cured ! Queen Anne officially an- \nnounced in the London Gazette, 12 March, 1712, her \nintention to touch publicly. The custom was \ndropped by George I., 1714. \n\nKING\' S SPEECH. The first from the throne \nis said to have been by Henry I., 1107. \n\nKING\'S THEATRE, see Opera-house. \n\nKINGSTON, see Hull. -KINGSTON, Ja- \nmaica, was founded in 1693, after the great earth- \nquake in 1692 which destroyed Port Royal ; it was \nconstituted a city, 1802." An awful fire here \nravaged a vast portion of the town, and consumed \n500,000/. of property, 8 Feb. 1782 ; another fire in \n1843; another great fire; town nearly destroyed; \nestimated loss about 3,000,000/., 5 deaths an- \nnounced, 11 Dec. 1882. See Mansion House. The \nbishopric was established in 1856; see Jamaica. \n\n\n\nKINGSTON . TRIAL. The duchess of \nKingston was arraigned before the lords in West- \nminster-hall, on a charge of bigamy, having \nmarried first, captain Hervey, afterwards earl of \nBristol, and next, during his lifetime, Eveyln \nPierrepont, duke of Kingston, 15-22 April, 1776. \nShe was found guilty, but, on pleading the privilege \nof peerage, the punishment of burning in the hand \nwas remitted, and she was discharged on paying the \nfees. \n\nKINGSTOWN (Dublin). The harbour here \nwas commenced in June, 1817. The name was \nchanged from Dunleary in compliment to George \nIV., w r ho here embarked for England at the close \nof his visit to Ireland, 3 Sept. 1821. The Kings- \ntown railway from Dublin was opened 17 Dec. \n1834. \n\nKIRBEKAN, BATTLE OF, see Soudan, 10 \nFeb. 1885. \n\nKISSING the hands of great men was a Grecian \ncustom. Kissing was a mode of salutation among \nthe Jews, 1 Samuel x. 1, &c. The " kiss of \ncharity," or " holy kiss," commanded in the Scrip- \ntures {Romans xvi. 16, &c), was observed by the \nearly Christians, and is still recognised by the \nGreek church and some others. Kissing the pope\'s \nfoot (or the cross on his slipper) began with Adrian \nI. or Leo III. at the close of the 8th century. \n\nKIT-KAT CLUB, of above thirty noblemen \nand gentlemen, instituted in 1703, to promote the \nProtestant succession. The duKe of Marlborough, \nsir R. Walpole, Addison, Steele, and Dr. Garth \nwere members. It took its name from its dining at \nthe house of Christopher Kat, a pastry-cook in \nKing-street, Westminster. \n\nKITT\'S, see Christopher\'s, St. \n\nKLADDERADATSCH, the German \n" Punch," first published in Berlin, by Albert \nHoffmann, the proprietor, originally a bookseller\'s \nassistant. He amassed a fortune, and died 10 Aug. \n1880, aged 62. \n\nKNEELING. The knee was ordered to be \nbent at the name of Jesus (see Philippians ii. 10), \nabout the year 1275, by the order of the pope. The \nceremony of a vassal kneeling to his lord is said to \nhave begun in the 8th century. \n\nKNIGHTS. The word knight is derived from \nthe Saxon Cniht, a servant {i.e., servant to the \nking, &c). The institution of the Roman knights \n{Equites or horsemen, from equus, a horse), is \nascribed to Romulus, about 750 B.C., when the \ncuriae elected 300. Knighthood was conferred in \nEngland by the priest at the altar, after confession \nand consecration of the sword, during the Saxon \nheptarchy. The first knight made by the sovereign \nwith the sword of state was Athelstane, by Alfred, \na.d. 900. Spelman. The custom of ecclesiastics \nconferring the honour of knighthood was sup- \npressed in a synod held at Westminster in \n1 100. Ash-mole\' s Institutes. Salmon. On the \ndecline of the empire of Charlemagne, all Europe \nbeing reduced to a state of anarchy, the proprietor \nof every manor became a petty sovereign ; his \nmansion was fortified by a moat, and defended by a \nguard, and called a castle. Excursions were made \nby one petty lord against another, and the women \nand treasure were carried oft\' by the conqueror At \nlength the owners of rich fiefs associated to repress \nthese marauders, to make property secure, and to \nprotect the ladies ; binding themselves to these \nduties by a solemn vow, and the sanction of a \nreligious ceremony. Cervantes\' " Don Quixote," a \n\n\n\nKNIGHTS. 561 \n\nsatire on knight-errantry, was published in i6oq \xe2\x96\xa0 \nsee Banneret, Chivalry, Tournaments, Rolu Sepul- \nchre, John, and Michael. \n\n\n\nPRINCIPAL MILITARY, RELIGIOUS, AND HONORARY \nORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD.* \n\nAfrican star, Congo state . \nAlbert the Bear, Anlialt \nAlbert, Saxony . \nAlcantara, instituted about . \nAlexander Nevskoi, St., Russia \nAmaranta, Sweden {female) \nAndrew, St., Russia . \n\n\n\n1156 \n1722 \n1645 \n\n\n\n1191 \n*73i \n1360 \n161S \n\n\n\n1162 \n\n\n\nAndrew, St. .Scotland (see Thistle) \' . \'7S7/1540\' \nAngehc Knights, Greece . 7 7 \xe2\x80\x9e\xc2\xb0\' \n\nAnne, St., Holstein, now Russia " \n\nAnuonciada, Savoy, about \n\nAnnunciada, Mantua . \n\nAnthony, St. , Hainault " \' \n\nAnthony, St., Bavaria . \nAvis, Portugal, about \nBannerets. See Bannerets. \n\nttsSrltd 399 -. *"**&"**) \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 TO \n\nBee, France {female) I213 \n\nBento d Avis, St. , Portugal\' \' \' \' I7 ? 3 \n\nBlack Eagle, Prussia . Il62 \n\nBlaise, St., Armenia, 12th century \' \' I?01 \n\nBlood of Christ, Mantua . , \n\nBridget, St., Sweden . l6 \xc2\xb0 8 \n\nBroomflowers, Prance \' \' \' \' I3 \n\nBrotherly (or Neighbourly) Love, Austria ( female-) \' t\xe2\x84\xa2r \nCa atrava, Castile, instituted by Sancho III \' \' 7 8 \n\nCatherine, St., Palestine \n\nCatherine, St. , Russia {female) \n\nCharles, St., Wurtemberg \n\nCharles X^stVe\xe2\x84\xa2^ 6o \xe2\x84\xa2^\xe2\x84\xa2)> ^ain Ip \n\nChase, Wurtemberg . l8lr \n\nChrist, Livonia I7 \xc2\xb0 2 \n\nChrist, Portugal and Rome \' \' \' I2 \xc2\xb0 3 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1317 \n\xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 1558 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1783 \n\n\n\nKNIGHTS. \n\nFrancis Joseph, Austria \n\nFrederick, Wurtemberg \n\nFriesland (or Crown Royal), France \n\nGarter {which see), England . \n\nGenerosity, Brandenburg \n\nGenet, France \n\nGeorge, St., and the Reunion, Naples \' \n\nGeorge, St., Angelic Knights . \n\nGeorge, St. , Austria \n\n\n\n. 1849 \n\n. . 1830 \n\n. 802 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x96\xa0 1349 \n. 1685 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 . 726 \n1800 and 18 19 \n\n. 1191 \n\nG tion e: B St \'\' 1)7f \'" 5el \' \xc2\xb0 f the Maculate \'Conce 7 p: \' 494 \n\n\n\nrter) \n\n\n\n1729 \n\n\n\n1158 \n1063 \n1714 \n1759 \n\n\n\nGeorge, St., England (see Garie, \n\nGeorge, St., Genoa / \xe2\x96\xa0 . . . 1349 \n\n*47 2 \n\n1839 \n\n1818 \n\n1492 \n\n1769 \n\n1317 \n\n. 1200 \n\n1190 \n\n1522 \n\n\n\nabout \n\n\n\nGeorge, St. , Hanover \n\nGeorge, St. , Ionian Isles . \n\nGeorge, St. , Rome \n\nGeorge, St. , Russia . \n\nGeorge, St. , Spain \n\nGeorge, St., Venice . \n\nGerion, St., Germany . \n\nGlaive, Sweden . \n\nGlory, Turkey . \n\nGolden Angel (afterwards St. George), \n\nGolden Falcon, Japan (which see) . \n\nGood *& inst ^ te 4 at Bruges by Philip the 9 \ntiood, Austria and Spam ,\xe2\x80\x9e,,\xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGolden Lion, Hesse Cassel \' \' \xe2\x80\xa2 IO Jan - ^29 \n\nGolden Lion, Nassau, and Holland \' \' \' lilt \n\nGolden Shield and Thistle, France . \' \' \xe2\x80\x9e\xc2\xa3 \n\nGolden Spur, by Pius IV " 37 \xc2\xb0 \n\nGolden Stole, Venice, before\' \' \' \' I5S9 \n\nGregory, St., Rome \nGuelphie, Hanover \nHenry, St. , Saxony \nHenry the Lion, Brunswick \n\n\n\n737 \n1831 \n1815 \n1736 \n\n\n\n1618 \n1660 \n\n\n\n1217 \n1822 \n\n\n\nChristian Charity, France \nCincinnati, America (soon dissolved) \nCompostello (see St. James) \nConception of the Virgin \n\nConcord, Prussia \n\nConstantine, St., Constantinople, \'about 313 \xe2\x80\xa2 by \nto n N e apTes. SaaC \' " 9 \xc2\xb0 ; Parma > ^99 ; since removed \nCrescent, Naples, 1268. Revived \nCrescent, Turkey \xe2\x96\xa0 . . . \n\nCross of Christ . \' * \' " \xe2\x96\xa0 lBo \n\nCross of the South, Brazil \nCrown of Italy \nCrown of India (female) \nCrown of Oak, Netherlands \nCrown, Prussia . \nCrown Royal, France (Fries/and)\' \nCrown, Wurtemberg \n\nD w!ioKffi^ the widow Louisa Eli - \n\nDenis, St., France . . \n\nDistinguished service, British army\' \nDog and Cock, France \n\nDove of Castile . . \n\nDragon, Hungary . \' \n\nDragon Overthrown, German \n\nEagle (see Black, Mexican, Red\', White) \nEar of Corn and Ermine, Brittany, about \nElephant, Denmark (about 1 i QO ),\' by Christian I \' \nElizabeth, St., Portugal and Brazil (female) \' \n\nElizabeth Theresa, Austria (female) \' \' \' \n\nEmpire of India . . \n\nEsprit, St., France . \n\nFerdinand, St., Naples . \n\nFerdinand, St., Spain . \xe2\x96\xa0 . . \n\nFidelity, Baden . \n\nFidelity, Denmark . \n\nFools, Cleves . . \n\nFrancis I., Two Sicilies \n\n\n\n31 Dee. 1877 \n\n\n\n802 \n1818 \n\n1671 \n\n1709 \n1267 \n1886 \n500 \nr 379 \nJ 439 \n1418 \n\n1442 \n1462 \n1801 \nr 75o \n1877 \n!579 \n\n\n\n1715 \nJ 732 \n1380 \n1829 \n\nand E tb! ar ?< e ?, and C 2 rr i Cte ^ d from Edmondson, CarlislT \ndo htfnl \xc2\xa3 lmana <* de Gotha ; " the earlv dates are \n\niStS^-SSMg wcre iustitutcd \xe2\x96\xa0"\xe2\x80\xa2*\xe2\x96\xa0 *\xc2\xa3 \n\n\n\nHermengilde, St., Spain \' \' \' \' J* \n\nHohenzollern, Prussia \' \' " T \n\nHoly Ghost, France . \' \n\nHoly Sepulchre (which see) \' \' T \' \' \n\nHoly Vial (St. Remi), France \' \' IO "\' \n\nMalta" 61 \' 8 (WMCh See) \' IO " ; 0f Rh odes, \'1308\'; of \n\nH cS) St B\'aS any (by the dUke \xc2\xb0 f Juliers \'"* \' \nImtiaz (Turkey) . \' \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 * \n\nIron Cross, Prussia N<m \xc2\xbb \n\nIron Crown, Lombardy, 1805; revived \' \' \nlinn Helmet, Hesse Cassel \' \' \' \n\nIsabella, St., Spam, 1804; Portugal ( female) \' \nIsabella the Catholic, Spain female) . \n\nJames, St., Holland \' \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 . . \n\nJames, St., Portugal \n\nJa aTdPo S rtuga f l the SW \xc2\xb0 rd \' Santiago, \' II75: Spain \nJanuarius, St. , Naples . \' " \n\nJerusalem (see Malta) \n\nJesus Christ, Rome, instituted by John XXII \' *"*" \n\n1320. Reformed as Jesus and Mary, by Paul V \'\' l6 , e \n\nJoachim, St., Germany \' ^ v - \' l0l 5 \n\nJohn of Aeon, St. , after \' \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x96\xa0 . . 1755 \n\nJSt a^SSE* St . (see ^*)-\'^ \xe2\x96\xa0 ?3 \n\nJoseph, St., Tuscany \n\nJulian of Alcantara, St \n\nKatherine St., England (female nurses) \n\nKnot, Najiles . . \' \n\nLa CaJza, Venice, about \n\nLamb of God, Sweden \n\nLazarus, St., France, before \nof St. Maurice, Savoy \n\nLegion of Honour, France \n\nLeopold, Austria . \n\nLeopold, Belgium \n\nLily of Aragon \n\nLily of Navarre, about \' \n\nLion, Holland \n\nLion (see Sun) . \n\nLion of Ziihringen, Baden\' . \n\nLioness, Naples, about \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 . . 1S12 \n\nLoretto, Lady of . \' \' J 399 \n\nLouis, Bavaria . X 5S7 \n\nLouis, Hesse Darmstadt \' \' l82 7 \n\nLouis, St., France l8 \xc2\xb07 \n\nLouisa, Prussia (female) \' \'. \' \xe2\x96\xa0 l6 93 \n\nMalta (see Hospitallers). l8l 4 \n\nMaria de Merced, St., Spain \n\nMaria Louisa, Spain (female) \' I2liJ \n\nMaria Theresa, Austria I7 9 2 \n\nJ 757 \n\nO \n\n\n\n1814 \n1851 \n\n1579 \n1496 \n\n499 \n\n\n\n1816 \n1814 \n1801 \n1815 \n1290 \n1310 \n\n"77 \n1738 \n\n\n\n181 \n\n\n\n1154: united with that \n\n\n\n1156 \n1879 \n1352 \n737 \n\n1564 \n\n\n\n1572 \n1802 \n\n\n\n1410 \n\n1043 \n1815 \n\n\n\nKNIGHTS. \n\n\n\n582 \n\n\n\nKOLA. \n\n\n\nMark, St. , Venice, about 828. Renewed . . . 1562 \n\nMartyrs, Palestine 1014 \n\nMaurice, St., Savoy 1434 \n\nMaximilian Joseph, Bavaria 1806 \n\nMedjidie, Turkey 1852 \n\nMerit, Bavaria 1808, 1866 \n\nMerit, Belgium 1867 \n\nMerit, Hesse Cassel . - ... . . . 1769 \n\nMerit, Oldenburg 1838 \n\nMerit, Prussia . . .... . . . 1740 \n\nMerit, Saxony 1815 \n\nMerit, Wiirtemberg 1859 \n\nMerit, Military, Baden . 1807 \n\nMexican Eagle . . 1865 \n\nMichael, St. , Bavaria 1693 \n\nMichael, St., France 1469 \n\nMichael, St., Germany . . . . . .1618 \n\nMichael and George, Sts. , 1818 ; re-organised, March, 1869 \n\nMontjoie, Jerusalem, before 1180 \n\nNeighbourly Love, Austria (female) .... 1708 \nNicholas, St. (Argonauts of), Naples . . . . 1382 \n\nNoble Passion, Saxony 1704 \n\nOak of Navarre, Spain 722 \n\nOlaf, St., Sweden 1847 \n\nOsmanie, Turkey ........ 1861 \n\nOur Lady of Montesa 1316 \n\nOur Lady of the Conception of Villa Vigosa . .1818 \n\nOur Lady of the Lily, Navarre 1043 \n\nPalatine Lion 1768 \n\nPalm and Alligator, Africa, granted to Gov. Camp- \nbell in 1837 \n\nPassion of Jesus Christ, France .... 1384 \n\nPatrick, St. , Ireland 1783 \n\nPaul, St., Rome 1540 \n\nPedro I. , Brazil T826 \n\nPeter, Frederick Lewis, Oldenburg . . . 1838 \n\nPeter, St., Rome 1530 \n\nPhilip, Hesse Darmstadt 1840 \n\nPius, founded by Pius IV 1559 \n\nPius IX. , Rome 1847 \n\nPolar Star, Sweden. Revived 1748 \n\nPorcupine, France .......... 1393 \n\nReale, Naples, about 1399 \n\nRed Eagle, Prussia, 1705, 1712, 1734. Revived . 1792 \n\nRedeemer (or Saviour), Greece 1833 \n\nRemi, St. (or Holy Vial), about .... 499 \n\nRosary, Spain 1212 \n\nRose, Brazil 1829 \n\nRound Table, England, by Alfred (see Garter), 516 or 528 \nRoyal Red Cross (female) . . .23 April, 1883 \n\nRue Crown, Saxony 1807 \n\nRupert, St., Germany 1701 \n\nSaviour, Aragon 1118 \n\nSaviour, or Redeemer, Greece 1833 \n\nSaviour of the World, Sweden 1561 \n\nSavoy, Italy 1815 \n\nScale, Castile, about 1316 \n\nScarf, Castile, 1330. Revived 1700 \n\nSepulchre, Holy, Palestine . . .... 1099 \n\nSeraphim, Sweden 1260 or 1265 \n\nShip and Crescent, France 1 269 \n\nSlaves of Virtue, Germany (female) . \xe2\x80\xa2 . . . 1662 \n\nStanislas, St. . Poland . 1765 \n\nStar, France 1022 \n\nStar, Sicily 1351 \n\nStar of India, British 1861 \n\nStar of the Cross (female), Austria . . . . 1668 \n\nStar of the North, Sweden 1748 \n\nStephen, St. , Hungary 1764 \n\nStephen, St., Tuscany 1561 \n\nSun and Lion, Persia 1808 \n\nSwan, Flanders, about 500 \n\nSwan, Prussia (female) ..... 1440, 1843 \n\nSword (or Silence), Cyprus, 1195 \n\nSword, Sweden, 1525. Revived 1748 \n\nTemplars (see Templars) 11 19 \n\nTeste Morte (Death\'s Head), Wiirtemberg (female) . 1652 \nTeutonic, Austria, about 1190; abolished, 1809; \n\n1522; re-organised 1840, 1865 \n\nThistle of Bourbon 1370 \n\nThistle, Scotland, 809. Revived . . 1540, 1687 \n\nThomas of Aeon, St. , after ... . 1377 \n\nToison d\'Or (Golden Fleece) 1429 \n\nTower and Sword, Portugal, 1459. Revived . . 1808 \nTusin, or Hungarian Knights, about . . . 1562 \n\nTwo Sicilies 1808 \n\nVasa, Sweden 1772 \n\nVigilance, or White Falcon, Saxe-Weimar . . . 1732 \n\n\n\nVirgin Mary, Italy . 1233 \n\nVirgin of Mount Carmel, France 1607 \n\nWends, Mecklenburg 1864 \n\nWhite Cross, Tuscany 1814 \n\nWhite Eagle, Poland, about 1325. Revived . . 1705 \n\nWhite Falcon, Saxe-Weimar 1732 \n\nWilhelm, Holland 1815 \n\nWing of St. Michael, Portugal n 72 \n\nWladimir, St., Russia 1782 \n\nFemale Knights. It is said that the first were, the \nwomen who preserved Tortosafrom the Moors in 1149, \nby their stout resistance. Large immunities were \ngranted to the women and their descendants. Several \nfemale orders appear in the preceding list. Ladies \nhave^een admitted to several male orders. \nKnights of Glyn and Kerry in Ireland. The heads \nof two branches of the family of Fitzgerald, who still \nenjoy the distinctions bestowed on their ancestors by \nsovereigns in the 13th century. The 19th knight of \nKerry died 6th Aug. 1880. \nKnights of the Shire, or of Parliament ; summoned \nby the king\'s writ and chosen by the freeholders, first \nsummoned by Simon de Montfort, in 1258, and in a \nmore formal manner, 20 Jan. 1265. There are writs \nextant as far back as 11 Edward I., 1283. The knights \nare still girded with a sword when elected, as the writ \nprescribes. \nKnights of Labour. A large secret trade union in the \nUnited States, said to have been originated by a man \nnamed Stevens in Philadelphia in 1869, for protection \nof workmen against capitalists. They were ener- \ngetic in the promotion of railway and other strikes, \nespecially in Missouri in March, 1886. Head quarters \nat Philadelphia, May, 1886. The society is condemned \nby the pope. Decline of the order reported Aug. 1888 ; \nactive in Aug. 1890. \n\nKNIVES. In England, Hallamshire (the \n\ncountry round Sheffield) has been renowned for its \ncutlery for five centuries; Chaucer speaks of the \n" Sheffield thwytel." Stow says that Richard \nMathews on the Fleet-bridge was the first English- \nman who made fine knives, &c. ; and that he ob- \ntained a prohibition of foreign ones, 1563. Clasp \nor spring knives became common about 1650 ; com- \ning originally from Flanders. \xe2\x80\x94 Knife -cleaning ma- \nchines were patented by Mr. George Kent in 1844 \nand 1852 ; others have been invented, by Masters, \nPrice, &c. ; see Forks. \n\nKNOW-NOTHINGS, a society which arose \nin 1853, in the United States of N. America. Their \nprinciples w r ere embodied in the following proposi- \ntions (at New York, 1855). They possessed several \nnewspapers and had much political influence : \xe2\x80\x94 \n\n1. The Americans shall rule America. \n\n2. The Union of these States. \n\n3. No North, no South, no East, no West. \n\n4. The United States of America \xe2\x80\x94 as they are \xe2\x80\x94 one and \n\ninseparable. \n\n5. No sectarian- interferences in our legislation or in the \n\nadministration of American law. \n\n6. Hostility to the assumption of the pope, through the \n\nbishops, &c, in a republic sanctified by Protestant \nblood. \n\n7. Thorough reform in the naturalisation laws. \n\n8. Free and liberal educational institutions for all sects \n\nand classes, with the Bible, God\'s holy word, as a \n\nuniversal text-book. \n\nA. society was formed in 1855 in opposition to the above, \n\ncalled Know-Somethings. Both bodies were absorbed \n\ninto the two parties, Democrats and Republicans, at \n\nthe presidential election in Nov. 1856. \n\nKNUTSFORD, Cheshire. The foundation \nstone of St. Paul\'s college for the northern counties \nhere was laid, 24 Sept. 1873. \n\nKOH-I-NOOR, or " Mountain of Light," the \nEast India diamond; see Diamonds. \n\nKOLA, a West African nut, from which is ob- \ntained, by grinding, a stimulating and sustaining- \ndrug, much used by the natives in long journeys, \nenabling them to endure thirst and hunger. \n\n\n\nKOLIN. \n\n\n\n563 \n\n\n\nKEOUMIES. \n\n\n\nKOLIN" or KOLLIN (Bohemia). Here the \nAustrian general Daun gained a signal victory over \nFrederick the Great of Prussia, 18 June, 1757. In \ncommemoration, the military order of Maria Theresa \nwas instituted by the empress-queen. \n\nKOLN, see Cologne. \n\nKOMOEN or COMORO (Hungary), an ancient \nfortress town, often taken and retaken during the \nwars with Turkey. Near it the Hungarians, under \nsjen. Klapka, defeated the Austrians, II July, 1849, \nhut surrendered the town 1 Oct. \n\nKONIEH (formerly Iconium) . Here the \nTurkish army was defeated by the pasha of Egypt, \n.after a long sanguinary fight, 21 Dec. 1832. The \n.grand vizier was taken prisoner. \n\nKONIGGBATZ (Bohemia). Near here was \nfought the decisive battle between the Austrians \n-commanded by marshal Benedek, and the Prussians \n\xe2\x96\xa0commanded by their king William I., 3 July, 1866. \nPrince Frederick Charles halted at Kammeniz on \nMonday, 2 July, his troops commenced their march \n;at midnight, and the first shot was fired about 7-30 \n;a.m. 3 July. The attack began at Sadowa (after \nwhich the battle is also named) about 10 o\'clock, \nand a desperate struggle ensued, the result ap- \npearing uncertain, till the army of the crown prince \n\xe2\x96\xa0of Prussia arrived about i2 - 30. "When Chlum, \nwhich had been taken and lost seven times by the \nPrussians, was taken for the eighth time, the fate \n\xe2\x96\xa0of the day was decided ; and the retreat of the Aus- \ntrians, at first orderly, became a hasty disastrous \nflight. About 400,000 men were engaged in this \n\xe2\x80\xa2battle, one of the greatest in modern times. The \nAustrians are said to have lost 174 guns, about 40,000 \nkilled and wounded, and 20,000 prisoners. The \nPrussians lost about io,OOOmen. The victory gave \nthe supremacy in Germany to Prussia, unity to \nNorth Germany, and Venetia to Italy ; and led to \nthe legislative independence of Hungary. \n\nKONIGSBEEG, the capital of east Prussia, \nwas founded by the Teutonic knights in 1255, and \n\xe2\x80\xa2became the residence of the grand master in 1457. \nIt joined the Hanseatic league in 1365. It was \n-ceded to the elector of Brandenburg in 1657, and \nhere Frederick III. was crowned the first king of \nPrussia in 1701. It was held by the Russians \n3758-64, and by the French in 1807. Here king \nWilliam I. and his queen were crowned, 18 Oct., \n\xc2\xab86i. Population, in 1885, 151,151; 1890, 161,528. \n\nKONIGSTEIN TUN (Nassau, Germany), \nmost capacious, was built by Frederick Augustus, \nking of Poland, in 1725. It was made to hold \n233,667 gallons of wine ; and on the top, which was \nrailed in, was accommodation for twenty persons to \nregale themselves. The famous tun of St. Bernard\'s \nwas said to hold 800 tons ; see Heidelberg Tun. \n\nKOOKAS, a warlike reforming sect in N. W. \nIndia, founded by Baluk Ram about 1845, and after \nhis death, about 1855, headed by Ram Singh, who \npreached the restoration of the old Sikh religion, \nwhich venerated cattle and punished their slaugh- \nterer. After several outrages against the Mahome- \ntans, an outbreak of the Kookas took place near \nLoodiana, which was vigorously suppressed, 15 \nJan. 1872, by commissioner Cowan, who ordered \n49 prisoners to be blown from cannon, 17 Jan. \nSeveral others were tried and executed by com- \nmissioner Forsyth soon after. For this severity \nMr. Cowan was ordered to be dismissed, and Mr. \nForsyth removed to another station, April, 1872. \nThe Kooka leaders claim 800,000 followers ; but \nthe probable number is about one-tenth. \n\n\n\nKORAN or Alcoran (Al Kuran), the \n\nsacred book of the Mahometans, was written about \n610, by Mahomet (who asserted that it had been \nrevealed to him by the angel Gabriel in twenty- \nthree years), and published by Abu-bekr about 635. \nIts general aim was to unite the professors of idolatry \nand the Jews and Christians in the worship of one \nGod (whose unity was the chief point inculcated), \nunder certain laws and ceremonies, exacting obe- \ndience to Mahomet as the prophet. The leading ar- \nticle of faith preached is compounded of an eternal \ntruth and a necessary fiction, namely, that there is \nonly one God, and that Mahomet is the apostle of God. \nGibbon. The Koran was translated into Latin in \n1143; into French, 1647; into English by Sale, \n1734; and into other European languages, 1763 \net seq. It is a rhapsody of 6000 verses, divided \ninto 114 sections; see Mahometanism, &c. \n\nKOBEISH, an Arab tribe which had the charge \nof the Caaba, or shrine of the sacred stone of Mecca, \nand strenuously opposed the pretensions of Maho- \nmet. It was defeated by him and his adherents, \n623-30. \n\nKOSSOVA, see Cossova. \n\nKOSZTA AFF ALB. Martin Koszta, a Hunga- \nrian refugee, when in the United States in 1850, \ndeclared his intention of becoming an American \ncitizen, and went through the preliminary forms. \nIn 1853 he visited Smyrna, and on 21 June was \nseized by a boat\'s crew of the Austrian brig Huzzar. \nBy direction of the American minister at Constan- \ntinople, captain Ingraham, of the American sloop St. \nLouis, demanded his release ; but having heard that \nthe prisoner was to be clandestinely transported \nto Trieste, he demanded his surrender by a certain \ntime, and prepared to attack the Austrian vessel on \n2 July; Koszta was then given up. On 1 Aug., the \nAustrian government protested against these pro- \nceedings in a circular addressed to the European \ncourts, but eventually a compromise was effected, \nand Koszta returned to the United States. \n\nKOYUNJIK, the site of the ancient Nineveh \n(ivhich see). \n\nKEAAL, a Dutch name for a South African \nvillage. See Zululand. \n\nKEAKATOA, see Java, 1883. \n\nKEAO. A hairy female Burmese child exhi- \nbited at the Westminster Aquarium, Jan. 1883 ; \nthought incorrectly by some to be a specimen of \nthe missing link between man and the anthropoid \napes. \n\nKEASNOI (central Russia). Here the French \ndefeated the Russians, 15 Aug. 1812 ; and here they \nwere themselves defeated after a series of conflicts, \n14-18 Nov. following. \n\nKEEASOTE, see Creasote. \n\nKBEMLIN, a palace at Moscow, built by De- \nmetri, grand-duke of Russia, about 1376. It was \nburnt down in Sept. 1812, and rebuilt in 1816 ; \npartl3 r burnt about 23 Jul}\', 1879. \n\nKBIEGSPIEL, see War Game. \n\nKEOMSCHBODEB GAS, a new hydro- \ncarbon (air saturated with petroleum spirit), was \ntried in May, 1873, at Great Marlow, for street \nlighting, and reported successful. The gas was \nsaid to be cheap and quickly generated, the com- \nbustion giving a brilliant white smokeless light. \n\nKEOUMIES, see Tunis. \n\no o 2 \n\n\n\nKEITPP. \n\n\n\n564 \n\n\n\nKYELE SOCIETY. \n\n\n\nKETJPP\'S CAST STEEL Factory, Essen, \nBhenish Prussia, established 1810. About 10,500 \nmen employed, exclusive of about 5000 miners and \nothers (1876). \n\nKEYPTOGEAPH, see Cryptograph. \n\nKIT KUX KLAN, the name of a secret society \nin the southern states of the Union, principally in \nTennessee in North America, bitterly opposed to the \nruling men. Early in 1868, this society issued lists \nof proscribed persons, who, if they did not quit the \ncountry after warning, becameliable to assassination. \nGeneral Grant endeavoured to suppress this society \nin April. Its repression by the militia in Arkansas \nwas ordered, Nov. 1868, and it became the subject \nof legislation at Washington, June, 1871. \n\nKULD JA, a revolted province of China ; was \nseized by Bussia in 1871, and restored by treaty \nin 1879. \n\nKULTUE-KAMPF, the conflict in Prussia \nrespecting worship, see Prussia, 1873, et seq. \n\nKUNNEESDOEF, Battle of, see Own- \n\nnersdorf. \n\nKTJNOBITZA, in the Balkan. Here John \nHunniades, the Hungarian, defeated the Turks, 24 \nDec. 1443. \n\nKUEDISTAIST, Western Asia (the ancient \n\n\n\nAssyria), subject partly to Turkey and Persia. \nIn Oct. 1880, the Kurds, savage tribes, nominal \nMahometans, invaded and ravaged Persia, andi \nwere subdued after fierce conflicts with then - chief, \nObeid-ullah, a Turkish sheikh, Nov. Dec. 1880, \nIn 1 88 1 he went to Constantinople and was well re- \nceived, but kept in a kind of honourable restraint, \nSept 1881. In Sept. 1882 he escaped to Kurdistan \nand incited the Kurds to revolt against Persia ; \ncaptured by the Turks ; rescued by his son, Nov. \n1882 ; said to have died at Mecca in 1883. \n\nKUEEACHEE, a flourishing port in N. W\xe2\x80\x9e \nIndia, capital of Sind, was taken by the British, 3 \nFeb. 1839. \n\nKUSHK-I-NAKHTJD, see Maiwand. \n\nKUSTEIN" or CUSTREST (Prussia), a fortified \ntown, besieged and burnt by the Eussians, 22 Aug, \n1758 ; taken by the French in 1806 ; given up, 1814. \n\nKYELE SOCIETY (named after John Kyrle, \nwho died 1724, extolled by Pope as the Man of \nEoss), started by Misses Miranda and Octavia Hill \nin 1875, and founded in 1877 by prince Leopold, \nprincess Louise, the duke of Westminster, and \nothers, with the object of "bringing beauty home \nto the people," by means of decorative art, gar- \ndening, music, &c. First public meeting held \n27 Jan. 1881. \n\n\n\nL. \n\n\n\ns. d. \n\n\n\nLADOCEA. \n\n\n\nL. \n\n\n\nd. see Coin. \n\n\n\nLABARUM, see Standards. \n\nLABORATORY- The Royal Institution labo- \nratory, the first of any importance in London, was \nestablished in 1800, and rebuilt, 1872. In it were \nmade the discoveries of Davy, Faraday, Tyndall, \nand Frankland ; see Royal Institution. The Royal \nLaboratory, Woolwich Arsenal, was re-organised in \n\nLABOUR COMMISSION. The relations \nbetween capital and labour having been greatly \ndisturbed in recent years, especially since 1888, \nleading to many strikes, the government were in- \nduced to appoint a royal commission " to inquire \ninto the relations between employers and employed, \nand to report whether legislation can with advan- \ntage be directed to remedy any evils that may be \ndisclosed," &c. \n\nAmong the persons nominated, 10 April, 1891, were \nthe following : the marquis of Hartington (duke \nof Devonshire, 21 Dee. 1891) chairman, the earl of \nDerby, sir M. Hicks-Beach, Mr. Mundella, Mr. \nCourtnev, Mr. Jesse Collings, Mr. Burt, sir F. \nPollock," Mr. Tom Mann, Mr. Plimsoll, with \nseveral chairmen of public companies and em- \nployers of labour. Secretaries, Mr. John Burnett \nand Mr. Geoffrey Drage. Miss Orme, Miss Abra- \nhams, Miss Collett and Miss Irwin were appointed \nlady sub-commissioners .... March 1892 \nFirst meeting, the marquis of Hartington in the \n\nchair 1 May 1891 \n\nThe first report laid before parliament . 1 April 1892 \n\nLABOUR QUESTION. The relations be- \ntween capital and labour have been much discussed \nin recent years. See Germany, 1889-90 ; Berlin, \nStrikes, Trades Union, Shipping, Gas Light, \n\nWorking-men, (Labour Day), I May, 1890-2, \n\nUnited States, 1 Sept. 1890-2. \n\nLABOURERS, Statute of, regulating \n\nwH&es, enacted 1349, 1357. A conference of philan- \nthropists on the condition of agricultural labourers \nwas held at Willis\'s rooms, Westminster, 28 March, \n1868. La.bouj.ung Classes Dwelling House Acts, \npassed, 1855, and May, 1866. Labourers\' (Ire- \nland) Act passed 1886. See Agriculture, Artisans, \nand Working-men. \n\nA labourers\' league was established to assist the \nlabourers in the exercise of the rights given \nthem by the Local Government Act . May, 1888 \n\nLABRADOR (North America), discovered by \nSebastian Cabot, 1497 ; visited by Corte Real in \n1500 ; made a Moravian missionary station in 1771. \nMuch distress through famine reported Sept. 1884. \n\nLABUAN, an Asiatic island, N. W. Borneo; \nceded to the British in 1846, and given up to sir \nJames Brooke in 1848. The bishopric was founded \n1855. Governor, John Pope Hennessy, 1867, sir II. \nE. Bulwer, 1871 ; Herbert Taylor "Usher, 1875; \nChas. Cameron Lees, 1879; P. "Leys, 1884; Van- \ndeleur Creagh Nov. 1889. Labuan was given up \nto the North Borneo company in 1889. Successful \nprogress reported Nov. 1890; see Borneo. \n\nLABURNUM? Cytisus laburnum, called also \nthe golden chain, was brought to these countries \nfrom Hungary, Austria, &c, about IS7\xc2\xb0- Ashe. \n\n\n\nLABYRINTHS. Four are mentioned: the \nfirst, said to have been built by Doedaius, in the \nisland of Crete, to secure the Minotaur, about 1210 \nB.C. ; the second, of Arsinoe, in Egypt, in the isle \nof Mosris, by Psammeticus, king of that place, about \n665 B.C.; the third, at Lemnos, remarkable for its \nsumptuous pillars, which seems to have been a sta- \nlactite grotto ; and the fourth, at Clusium, in Italy, \nerected by Porsenna, king of Etruria, about 520 B.C. \nPliny. The labyrinth of Woodstock is connected \nwith the story of Fair Rosamond ; see Rosamond. \nThe Maze at Hampton Court was formed by \nWilliam III. in the 17th century. \n\nLACE is said to have been made in the 14th \ncentury in France and Flanders. Its importation \ninto England was prohibited in 1483 ; but it was used \nin the court costume of Elizabeth\'s reign. Dresden, \nValenciennes, Mechlin, and Brussels, have long been \nfamous for their fine lace. An ounce weight of \nFlanders thread has been frequently sold for four \npounds in London ; and its value, when manufac- \ntured, has been increased to forty pounds, ten times \nthe price of standard gold. A framework knitter of \nNottingham, named Hammond, is said to have in- \nvented a mode of applying his stocking-frame to the \nmanufacture of lace from studying the lace on his \nwife\'s cap, about 1768. Macculloch. So many \nimprovements have been made in this manufacture, \nparticularly by Heathcote (1809, 1817, &c), Morley \nand Leaver (181 1, &c.), that a piece of lace which \nabout 1809 cost 17^. may now be had for js. (1853). \nUre. The process of "gassing" by which cotton \nlace is said to be made equal to fine linen lace, was \ninvented by Samuel Hall of Basford, near Notting- \nham. He died in Nov. 1862. Seguin\'s "La Den- \ntelle ; Histoire," &c, published, 1874. Dish lace \nexhibition at the Mansion House, London, 25 June- \n7 July, 1883. Scheme for encouraging the Irish \nlace manufacture supported by the government, \n^ne, 1884. Mrs. Bury Palliser\'s "History of \nj_ .ce," 3rd edition, 1875. \n\nLACED.ZEMON or LACONIA (Tzakonia), see \nSparta. \n\nLA CROSSE. A game of ball, with running, \namong the Red Indians of Canada ; adopted succes- \nsively by the French and English settlers, and \ntransmitted to the United States and to the United \nKingdom. Its rules were systematised by Dr. Beers \nin i860. Many clubs have been formed. \n\n_ LACTEALS (absorbent vessels connected with \ndigestion), were discovered in a dog by Jasper \nAsellius of Cremona, 1622, and their termination in \nthe thoracic duct by Pecquet, 165 1 ; see Lymphatics. \n\nLADIES\' COLLEGES, see under GlRTON \nCollege. \n\nLADIES\' NATIONAL AID ASSOCIA- \nTION, formed to contribute to the relief of the \nsick and wounded in the Soudan and Egypt. Ori- \nginated by the duchesses of Buccleuch, St. Albans, \nand Marlborough, the marchioness of Salisbury and \nothers, Feb. 1885. Sec Aid. \n\nLADOCEA, in Arcadia. Here Clcoraenes III. \nking of Spai ta, defeated the Achaean league, 226 B.C. \n\n\n\nLADEONE ISLES. \n\n\n\n566 \n\n\n\nLAMMAS-DAT. \n\n\n\nLADEONE ISLES (N. Pacific), belonging to \nSpain, discovered by Magellan in 1520. lie first \ntouched at the island of Guam. The natives having \nstolen some of his goods, he named the islands the \nLadrones, or Thieves. In the 17th century they \nobtained the name of Marianna islands from the \nqueen of Spain. \n\nLADY. The masters and mistresses of manor- \nhouses, in former times, served out bread to the poor \nweekly ; and were therefore called Lafords and Lef- \ndays \xe2\x80\x94 signifying bread givers (from hlaf, a loaf) : \nhence Lords and Ladies. Wedgewood considers this \nfanciful, and derives the words from the Anglo- \nSaxon, laford, lord, and hlcefdig, lady. \xe2\x80\x94 Lady day \n(March 25), a festival instituted about 350, according \nto some authorities, and not before the 7th century \naccording to others ; see Annunciation^. The year, \nwhich previously began on this day, was ordered to \nbegin on Jan. i,in France in 1564; and in Scotland, \nby proclamation, on 17 Dec. 1599; but not in Eng- \nland till 3 Sept. 1752, when the style was altered. \n\nLADY-BIEDS. About 18th August, 1869, \ngreat flights of these insects alighted on the S.L. \ncoasts of England, and arrived as far as London; a \nsimilar event occuired in 1867. \n\nLAFFELDT, Holland. Here marshal Saxe \ndefeated the English, Dutch, and Austrians, 2 July, \n1747- \n\nLAGOS, in the Bight of Benin (Africa), was \nassaulted and taken by the boats of a British squa- \ndron, under commodore Bruce, 26, 27 Dec. 1851. This \naffair arose out of breaches of a treaty for the sup- \npression of the slave-trade. In 1861, the place was \nceded to the British government, and created a set- \ntlement : Henry Stanhope Freeman, first governor, \nsee Gold Coast Colony. \nGovernor, sir Cornelius A. Moloney in 1SS9 ; \n\nGilbert T. Carter in Feb. 1891 \n\nTreaty with the king of Jebu securing freedom of \n\nroads, signed at Lagos by delegates . 21 Jan. 1892 \nThe Jebus and Egbas threaten Lagos and the Gold \n\nCoast; trade suspended, about 21 April ; this is \n\nchecked by the arrival of troops under capts. \n\nBayly and Larrymore, major Madden and col. \n\nScott April 1892 \n\nThe Jebus repulsed in their attack on Col. Scott\'s \n\nexpedition and their villages taken 12 May et se.q. ,, \nTotal defeat of the Jebus, surrender of the king, \n\nJebu Ode occupied, army dispersed . May 17-20 ,, \nThe, road for traders opened, tranquillity restored \n\n27 May ,, \n\nLAGOS BAY (Portugal). Here was fought a \nbattle between admiral Boscawen and the French \nadmiral De la Clue, who lost both his legs in the \nengagement, and died next day, 17, 18 Aug. 1759. \nThe Centaur and Modcste were taken, and the Re- \ndoubtable and Ocean run on shore and burnt : the \nscattered remains of the French fleet got into Cadiz. \n\nLAHOGUE (correctly Hague) (N.W.France), \nBattle of, 19 May, 1692, when the English and \nDutch fleets under admirals Russell and Booke, de- \nfeated the French fleet commanded by admiral Tour- \nville. The English burnt thirteen of the enemy\'s \nships, and destroyed eight more, thus preventing a \ndescent upon England. \n\nLAHORE (N. W. India), was taken by Baber \nabout 1520, and was long the capital of the Mongol \nempire. It fell into the power of the Sikhs in 1798. \nIt was occupied by sir Hugh Gough, 22 Feb. 1846, \nwho in March concluded a treaty of peace. See \nDurbar. Visit of the prince of Wales, 18 Jan. 1876, \nand of his son prince Albert Victor, who laid the \nfoundation stone of the "Jubilee Museum and \nTechnical Institute of the Punjab," 2-5 Feb. 1890. \nPopulation in 1891, 176,120. \n\n\n\nLAING\'S NEK, see Transvaal, 1881. \n\nLAKE DWELLINGS contain relics of the \nstone, iron, and brass ages. Herodotus (about 450 \nB.C.) described the Pseonians as living on platforms \nin Lake Prasias. In 1855, Dr. Keller discovered \nthe remains of lake habitations whichhadbeen sup- \nported on piles in several Swiss lakes ages ago; His \nbook was published in England in 1866. Similar \nrelics discovered in lake Constance, March, 1882 ; \nthey have also been discovered in Britain and \nvarious parts of Europe, Africa, and South America; \nthey are now considered to be evidence of a stage in \nhuman progress. The artificial fortified islands- \ntermed "Crannoges" discovered in some Irish lakes \nare attributed to the 9th and 10th Centuries. They \nhave been frequently used as places of refuge. \nArtificial lake, see under Liverpool, 1881 et seq. \n\nLAKE POETS, a term applied to Wordsworth \n(1770-1850), Coleridge (1772-1834), and Southey \n(1774-1843), from their residence in the neighbour- \nhood of the lakes of Westmoreland. \n\nLAKE EEGILLUS (Italy), where, tradition \nstates, the Romans defeated the Latin auxiliaries of \nthe expelled Tarquins, about 498 B.C. \n\nLAKES CHAMPLAIN, ERIE, aot> ON- \nTAEIO were the scenes of many actions between \nthe British and Americans in the war of indepen- \ndence (about 1776 and 1777), and in the war of \n1813-14. \n\nLAMAISM, the religion of Mongolia and Thibet; \n(dating about 1357), is a corrupt form of Buddhism \n{which see) . \n\nLAMBETH, parish, N. E. Surrey, became the \nseat of the abps. of Canterbury, 1 197. Lambeth \nreturned two members by the Reform Act of 1832, \nand four by act of 1885. Population, 188 1, 253,699 ; \n1891, 279,202. \n\nLambeth Palace. A considerable portion was \nbuilt in the 13th century, by Hubert Walter, \narchbishop of Canterbury. The tower of the \nchurch was erected about 1375; and other parts of \nthe edifice in the 15th century. Simon of Sudbury, \narchbishop of Canterbury, was killed here by the \nfollowers of Wat Tyler, who attacked the palace, \nburnt the furniture and books, and destroyed the \nregisters and public papers, 14 June, 1381. The \ndomestic portion of the palace was greatly enlarged \nfor archbishop Howley (who died 1848), by Mr. \nBlore, at an expense of 52,000/. The palace was- \nreopened after restoration, Oct. 1873 ; see Canter- \nbury, Articles. For Lambeth Conference see Pan- \nAnglican Synods. Lambeth bridge was freed from \ntoil 24 May, 1879. \n\nLambeth degrees are those conferred by the archbishop of \nCanterbury by virtue of 25 Henry YIIL, c. 21., 1533-4. \n\nLAMIAN WAE, 323 b.c. (excited by Demos- \nthenes, the orator), between Athens a\xc2\xabd her allies- \nand Antipater, governor of Macedon. Antipater \nfled to Lamia, in Thessaly, and was there besieged. \nHe escaped thence and defeated his adversaries at \nCranon, 322 B.C. \n\nLAMMAS-DAY, the 1st of August, one of our \nfour cross quarter-days of the year. Whitsuntide \nwas the first, Lammas the second, Martinmas the \nthird, and Candlemas the last ; and such partition \nof the year was once equally common with the pre- \nsent divisions of Ladyday, Midsummer, Michaelmas, \nand Christmas. Some rents are yet payable at each \nof these quarterly days in England, and very gene- \nrally in Scotland. Lammas probably comes from \nthe Saxon hlainni(essc, loaf mass, because formerly \nupon that day our ancestors offered bread made of \n\n\n\nLAMPETEE COLLEGE. \n\n\n\n567 \n\n\n\nLAND. \n\n\n\nnewwheat. Anciently, those tenants that held lands \nof the cathedral church of York were by tenure to \nbring 1 a lamb alive into church at high mass. \n\nLAMPETEE COLLEGE (Cardiganshire), \nwas founded by bishop Burgess in 1822, and \nincorporated 1828. Henry James Prince, founder \nof the Agapemone {which see), was one of the \nrevivalist Lampeter brotherhood, instituted among \nthe students here about 1836. \n\nLAMPS. The earthen lamp of Epicfetus the \nphilosopher sold after his death for 3000 drachmas. \nLamps with horn sides said to be the invention of \nAlfred. London streets were first lighted with oil- \nlamps in 1681, and with gas-lamps iu 1814. A \nlamp "constructed to produce neither smoke nor \nsmell, and to give considerably more light than any \nlamp hitherto known," was patented by M. Ainie \nArgand in 1 784, and was brought into general use \nin England early in the present century. On his \nprinciple are founded the lamps invented by Carcel \nabout 1803, and since 1825, the moderator lamps of \nLevavasseur, Hadrot, and Neuburger. See Safety \nLamp. Paraffin oil and naphtha spirit are now \nmuch used in lamps. The Water Safety Lamp in- \nvented by Mr. Devoll, was tried and approved \n2 June, 1S90. The flame is extinguished by the \nwater if the lamp is overturned. \n\nLANAEK (W. Scotland), was aRoman station, \nand made a royal burgh 1103. \n\nLANCASHIEE was created a county palatine \nby Edward III. for his son John of Gaunt, who had \nmarried the daughter of Henry first duke of Lan- \ncaster, in 1359, and succeeded him in 1362. The \ncourt of the duchy chamber of Lancaster was \ninstituted in 1376. On the accession of Henry IV. \nin 1399 the duchy merged into the crown. Net \nrevenue to the queen in 1888, 50,000/. ; total \nreceipts, 86,284/. For chancellors, fee Grey, and \nother administrations. See Cotton. \n\nLANCASTEE, supposed to have been the \nAd Alaunam of the Romans. Lancaster was \ngranted by William I. or IT. to Roger de Poitou, \nwho erected a castle upon its hill. It was taken \nby the Jacobites, Nov. 1715 and Nov. 1745. It was \ndisfranchised for bribery by the Reform act of \n1867. The public park, value about 23,000/., was \npresented by Mr. Jas. Williamson, of Ry lands, 21 \nNov. 1 88 1." The Storey Institute (technical), \nfounded by sir Thomas Storey by a gift of 20,000/. \nin memory of the queen\'s jubilee in 1887 when he \nwas mayor, opened by the marquis of Hartington, \n23 Oct. 1891. Population, 18S1, 24,239; 1891 \n31-038. \n\nLANCASTEEIAN SCHOOLS,, based on a \nsystem of education by means of mutual instruction, \ndevised by Joseph Lancaster about 1796, were not \nmuch patronised till about 1808. The system led \nto the formation of the British and Foreign School \nsociety, in 1805, whose schools are unsectarian, and \nuse the Bible as the only means of religious instruc- \ntion. Lancaster was accidentally killed at New \nYork in 1838. \n\nLANCASTEIANS, see Roses. \n\nLANCEES, see Regiments. \n\nLANCET, a weekly medical journal, established \nand edited by Thomas Wakley, surgeon (after- \nwards coroner for Middlesex and M.P.for Finsbury), \nfirst published 3 Oct. 1823. An injunction obtained \nby Mr. Abernethy %gainst the publication of his \nlectures in the "Lancet," was dissolved by the lord \nchancellor in 1825. Mr. Wakley died 16 May, \n\n\n\n1862. The proprietors of the "Lancet" have at \nvarious times employed medical men as commis- \nsioners of enquiry. The reports of the Analytical \nSanitary Commission of the " Lancet" in 1851-54, \nwere published by Dr. A. H. Hassall, as " Food and \nits Adulterations," in 1855. The "Lancet" com- \nmissioners (three physicians) enquired into the \nstate of workhouse infirmaries in London, 1865, and \nin the country, 1867. \n\nLAND is said to have been let generally in \nEngland for is. per acre, 36 Hen. VIII. 1544. The \nwhole rental of the kingdom was about 0,000,000/. \nin 1600 ; about 14,000,000/. in 1688. In 1798 Mr. \nPitt proposed his income tax of 10 per cent, on an \nestimate of 100 millions, taking the rent of land at \n50 millions, that of houses at 10 million*, and the \nprofits of trade at 40 millions ; but in his estimate \nwere exempted much land, and the inferior class of \nhouses. The rental of the United Kingdom was \nestimated at 59,500,000/. in 1851. An act for ren- \ndering the transfer of land more easy was pas-ed in \n1862 ; see Agriculture, Domesday, old and new. \nA species of Land-tax was exacted in England in the \n10th century, which produced 82,000?. (see Banc- \ngelt) in 1018 \n\nLand Banks were proposed by Yarranton in . . 1648 \nThe Land-tax grew out of a subsidy scheme of 4s. in \nthe pound (which produced 500,000?. in 1692), im- \nposed 1699 \n\nMinisters were left in a minority in the house of \ncommons on the land tax bill in 1767; it being \nthe first instance of the kind on a money but \nsince the revolution. Its rate varied in different \nyears from is. to 4.S. in the pound \nMr. Pitt made the tax perpetual at 4s. in the pound, \nbut introduced his plan for its redemption, \n\n2 April, 1798 \nThe tax in 1810 produced 1,418,337?. ; in 1820, \n1,338,420?. ; in 1830, 1,423,618?. ; in 1840, 1,298,622?. ; \nin 1852, 1,151,613?. ; in year 1872-3, 1,108,225?. \nin 1875-6, 1,090,177?.; 1880, 1,047,000?.; 1885, \n1,065,000?. ; 1891, 1,030,000?. From the revolu- \ntion to the year 1800, the land-tax had yielded \n227,000,000?. \nLand-tax and house-duty (to 31 March), in 1873, \n2,440,000?. ; 1876, 2,496,000?. ; 1877, 2,532,000/. ; \n1878, 2,670,000?. ; 1879, 1,075,511?. (land tax only). \nLand Allotments. Lord Braybrooke\'s successful \nexperiment in Essex, of allotting small portions \nof land to poor families, to assist them and relieve \n\nthe parish poor-rates 18 19 \n\n[The little colony was first called Pauper Gardens, \nbut afterwards Nexv Village, and it is calculated \nthat 200?. per annum were saved to the parish.] \nLanded Estates Court, established to "facilitate the \nsale and transfer of land in Ireland " (see Encum- \nbered Estates Act) 1858 \n\nThe Land Registry office for transfer of land opened \nin 1862 ; reported to be a failure by a commission, \n\nMarch, 1870 \nLand Tenure Reform League held its first \n\nmeeting, John Stuart Mill in the chair, 15 May, 1871 \nBill to facilitate sale and transfer of land by means \nof registration brought in by lord chancellor Sel- \nborne, 29 April, 1873 ; by lord chancellor Cairns, \n\n26 March, 1S74 \nThe transfer of land in Scotland facilitated by the \n\nconveyancing act passed . . .7 Aug. ,, \n\nAgricultural holding act and land transfer act for \n\nEngland passed 13 Aug. 1875 \n\n4 bills respecting land introduced by lord chancellor \n\nCairns 23 Feb. 1880 \n\nOwners of Land in England and Wales (exclusive of \nthe metropolis), of less than one acre, 703,289; \none acre and more, 269,547. Estimated value, \n124,000,000?. ; tithes \xe2\x80\x94 estimated, 5,000,000?. \n\nSettled Land Act passed 1882 \n\n[Tenants for life acquire power to sell or lease and \n\nuse the proceeds.] \nA new land commission unites in one body the En- \nclosure, Copyhold, and Tithes commissions . . ,, \nNew Agricultural Holdings Act passed . . . 1883 \nNationalization of the land advocated by the Trade \n\n\n\nLAND CREDIT COMPANY. \n\n\n\n568 \n\n\n\nLANGUAGE. \n\n\n\nUnion Congress, 1882 ; negatived by the same at \nNottingham (90-34) .... 14 Sept. 1883 \nThe National Land Company founded by the \ndukes of Argyll and Westminster, the earl of \nRipon, and others, for the object of buying land \nto be sold in small portions to be farmed, 24 April, 1885 \nPurchase of land (Ireland) act passed, 14 Aug. \xe2\x96\xa0 \n1885 ; said to have worked well ; another act \npassed, see Ireland .... 24 Dec. 1888 \nAllotments and small holdings association founded \nto carry out the allotments act of 1882, 1883-4 > \nsecond annual meeting . . . 11 Jan. 1886 \nThe political cry "Three acres and a cow" much \nused during the elections of Nov.-Dec. 1885 (said \nto have originated in a handbill printed at Bir- \nmingham), and to have been acted upon by lord \nTollemache in regard to his labourers. He died \n9 Dec. 1890, aged 85. ,, \n\nFree land league formed, supported by Mr. Arthur \nArnold and others ; it proposes nationalization \nof the land and changes in tenure and transfer 1885-6 \nIrish land commission ; earl Cowper, lord Miltown, \nsir J. Caird and others, announced 21 Sept. 1886 ; \n\nreport presented 24 Feb. 1887 \n\nLand, transfer bill (England) read second time in \n\nthe lords, 25 April, 1887 [dropped]. \nNew Irish land bill passed ... 23 Aug. ,, \nAllotments in England and Wales, 643,315 existing in 1886 \nAllotments act enabling sanitary authorities to \nacquire land, make arrangements, &c, passed \n\n16 Sept. 1887 \nWelsh land league formed (see under Wales) . \xe2\x80\x9e \nLarge reduction of rents ordered by the land com- \nmission 27 Oct. ,, \n\nLord Ashbourne\'s purchase of land act passed (see \nIreland) 14 Aug. 1885 ; another act passed 24 \nDec. 1888 ; great success reported Nov. 1889. \nLand had been sold amounting in value to \n3,792,532^. up to . . . -31 Dec. 1888 \n\nThe lord chancellor\'s land transfer bill dropped \n\n5 July 1889 \n\nNew allotment act passed 1890 \n\nNew purchase of land bill introduced by Mr. A. J. \nBalfour (see Ireland), 24 March, 1890 ; dropped, \n14 July, 1890 ; re-introduced in two parts, 27 Nov.; \n2nd reading, 3 Dec. 1890 ; passed . . 5 Aug. 1891 \n[This act provides further funds for the purchase of \nland in Ireland, and makes permanent the Land \nCommission, it also creates a Congested Districts \nBoard.] \n\nLAND CREDIT COMPANY (for Silesia), \nestablished by Frederick the Great ; see Credits \nFonder s, 1763. \n\nLAND LAW ACT, see Irish Land Law Act. \n\nLANDEN or NeERWINDEN (Belgium). \nNear here the French under marshal Luxembourg \ndefeated the allies, commanded by William III. of \nEngland, chiefly through the cowardice of the \nButch, 19 July (N.S. 29), 1693. The duke of Ber- \nwick, illegitimate son of James II., fighting on the \nside of France, was taken prisoner. \n\nLANDGEAVE (from land and graf, a \ncount), a German title, which commenced in 1130 \nwith Louis III. of Thuringia, and became the title \nof the house of Hesse about 1263. \n\nLAND LEAGUE, see under Leagues and \nIreland, 1879. \n\nLANDLORD, see Sent and Ireland, 1887, et \nseq. \n\nLANDLORD AND TENANT ACT (Ire- \nlaud), passed I Aug. 1870. \n\nLAND NATIONALIZATION SO- \nCIETY, formed at Westminster 16 Jan. 1882. The \nobject has been warmly advocated by Mr. Henry \nGeorge in his "Progress and Poverty," published \nFeb. 1881, and since. He condemns compensation. \nHe met about 2,000 men at the Royal Exchange, \nLondon, 17 Jan. 1885. \n\n\n\nLANDSHUT (Silesia), where the Prussians \nwere defeated by the Austrians under marshal \nLaudohn, 23 June, 1760. \n\nLANDSLIPS. Landslips are due to decay of \n\nthe rocks or excessive saturation of the soil by \n\nrain. \n\nRossberg mountain behind the Rigi slipped down, \nburying villages and hamlets with above 800 in- \nhabitants 1806 \n\nLyme Regis, Dorset, a strip of chalk cliff three- \nfourths of a mile long, between 100 and 150 feet \nhigh, undermined by rain, slid forward on the \nbeach, carrying fields, houses, and trees \n\n24 \xe2\x80\x94 27 Dec. 1839 \n\nNaini or Nynee Tal, a sanitary hill-station in the \nHimalayas, India, was destroyed by the descent \nof the mountain ; about 30 valuable British lives \n(including major Martin Morphy, col. Fred. Sher- \nwood Taylor, and capts. F. T. Goodeve, H. S. F. \nHaynes, and A. Balderston) and 200 natives \nperished 18 Sept. 1880 \n\nNear Northwich, Cheshire, salt works stopped \n\n- 6 Dec. et seq. ,, \n\nElm, Glarus Canton; fall of about 30 houses; above \n150 persons perished . . . .11 Sept. 1881 \nSee Quebec, 1889. \n\nLANDWEHR (German, land-defence).\' A \nforce so named was raised in Austria in 1805, and in \nPrussia in 1813, against the French. This force, \nthe militia of Germany, especially of Prussia, \nwas very effective in the war with Austria in 1866, \nand in that with France in 1870. No ranks in life \nare exempt from this service, and many persons in \nforeign countries returned to serve in 1870. \n\nLANGD ALES ACT, Lord, 7 Will. IV. & \nI Vict. c. 26 (1837), relates to copyholds, &c. \n\nLANGENSALZA (N. Germany). Here the \nHanoverian army on its way to join the Bavarians \nwas attacked by the Prussians, who were defeated \nwith the loss of about a thousand killed and \nwounded, and 012 prisoners, 27 June, 1866. The \nvictory was of little avail, for the Hanoverians \nwere soon surrounded by Falckenstein, and com- \npelled to capitulate on honourable terms on 29 \nJune. \n\nLANGOBARDI, see Lombards. \n\nLANGSIDE (S. Scotland), where the forces \nof the regent of Scotland, the earl of Murray, de- \nfeated the army of Mary queen of Scots, 13 May, \n1568. Mary fled to England and crossed the Solway \nFrith, landing at Workington, in Cumberland, 16 \nMay. Soon afterwards she was imprisoned by \nElizabeth. \n\nLANGUAGE must either have been revealed \noriginally from heaven, or the fruit of human \ninvention. The latter opinion is embraced by \nHorace, Lucretius, Cicero, and most of the Greek \nand Roman writers ; the former by the Jews and \nChristians, and many modern philosophers. Some \nsuppose Hebrew to have been the language spoken \nby Adam ; others say that the Hebrew, Chaldee, \nand Arabic are only dialects of the original tongue. \n" And the whole earth was of one language and of \none speech," Genesis xi. 1.* George I. in 1724, and \nGeorge II. in 1736, appointed regius professors of \nmodern languages and of history to each of the \nuniversities of England. \n\n* Eminent Linguists. \xe2\x80\x94 Anas Montanus, editor of the \nAntwerp Polygiott Bible (1527-98) ; sir Win. Jones \n(1746-94) ; Cardinal Giuseppe Mezzofanti (1774-1849) is \nsaid to have known 114 languages or dialects, and 50 \nwell ; and Niebuhr (1776-1831) knew 20 languages in \n1807, and more afterwards ; Hans Cononvonder Gabe- \nlentz knew many languages critically : he died 3 Sept. \n1874, aged nearly 67. \n\n\n\nLANGUE D\'OC. \n\n\n\n569 \n\n\n\nLATEEAN. \n\n\n\nThe original European languages were thirteen, viz. : \nGreek, Latin, German, Selavonian, spoken in the east; \n"Welsh ; Biscayan, spoken in Spain ; Irish ; Albanian, \nin the mountains of Epirus ; Tartarian ; the old \nIllyriau ; the Jazygian, remaining yet in Liburnia ; the \nChaucin, in the north of Hungary ; and the Finnic, in \neast Friesland. \n\nFrom the Latin sprang the Italian, French, Spanish, and \nPortuguese. \n\nThe Turkish is a mixed dialect of the Tartarian. \n\nFrom the Teutonic sprang the present German, Danish, \nSwedish, Norwegian, English, Scotch, &c. \n\nThere are 3424 known languages, or rather dialects, in \nthe world. Of these, 937 are Asiatic ; 587 European ; \n276 African ; and 1624 American languages and dialects. \nAdelung. \n\nIn 1861 and 1862 professor Max Miiller lectured on the \n"Science of Language" at the Eoyal Institution, \nLondon. He divides languages into three families : \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nI. Aryan (in Sanskrit, noble). \n\nSouthern Division. India (Prakrit, and Pali ; Sanskrit ; \ndialects of India ; Gipsy). \n\nIranic (Parsi ; Armenian, &c). \n\nNorthern Division. Celtic (Cymric : Cornish, Welsh, \nManx, Gaelic, Breton, &c. ). \n\nItalic (Oscan ; Latin ; Umbrian ; \xe2\x80\x94 Italian, Spanish, Por- \ntuguese, French, &c). \n\nIllyric (Albanian). \n\nHellenic (Greek, and its dialects). \n\nWendic (Lettic : Old Prussian ; Slavonic dialects, \xe2\x80\x94 \nBohemian, Russian, Polish, Lithuanian, &c). \n\nTeutonic (High German : Modern German ; Low German : \nGothic ; Anglo-Saxon ; Dutch ; Frisian ; English. \nScandinavian: Old Norse, Danish, Swedish, Nor- \nwegian, Icelandic). \n\nII. Semitic : Southern. Arabic (including Ethiopia \nand Amharic). Middle. Hebraic (Hebrew, Samaritan, \nPhoenician inscriptions). Northern. Aramaic (Chaldee, \nSyriac, Cuneiform inscriptions of Babylon and \nNineveh). \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 III. Turanian (from Tura, swiftness). \n\nNorthern Division. Tungusic (Chinese, &c.) ; Mongolic ; \nTurkic ; Samoyedic, and Finnic. \n\nSouthern Division. Taic (Siamese, &e.) ; (Himalayas); \nMalayic (Polynesia, &c); Gangetic ; Lonitic (Bur- \nmese, &c); Munda ; Tamulic. \n\nLANGUE D\'OC, see Troubadours. \n\nLANGUEDOC (a province, S. France), \n\nformed part of the Roman Gallia Narbonensis ; was \nnamed Gothia, as having been held by the Visi- \ngoths 409, who were expelled by the Saracens, in \nturn driven out by Charles Martel in the 8th cen- \ntury. In the dark ages the country was named \nSeptimania (probably from its containing seven \nimportant towns) : afterwards Languedoc (from its \ndialect, see Troubadours), about 1270, when an- \nnexed to the monarchy. It suffered during the \npersecutions of the Albigenses and Huguenots. \n\nLANSDOWN, near Bath (Somersetshire). \nThe parliamentary army under sir Wiu. Waller was \nhere defeated, 5 July, 1643. \n\nLANTERNS of scraped horn were invented in \nEngland, it is said, by Alfred ; and it is supposed \nthat horn was used for window lights also, as glass \nwas not generally known, 872-901. Stow. London \nwas lighted by suspended lanterns with glass sides, \nI4I5- \n\nLANTHANUM, a rare metal discovered in \nthe oxide of cerium, by Mosander in 1839. \n\nLAOCOON, an exquisite work of Grecian art, \nin marble, modelled by Agesander, Athenodorus, \nand Polydorus, all of Rhodes, and other eminent \nstatuaries (about A.D. 70) ; it repi\'esents the death \nof the Trojan hero, Laocoon, priest of Neptune, \nand his two sons, as described by Virgil. sEncis, \nii. 200. It was discovered in 1506 in the Sette \nSalle near Rome, and purchased by pope Julius II. \nIt is now in the Vatican. \n\n\n\nLAODICEA, see Seven Churches. \n\nLAON (N. France). A succession of actions \nbetween the allies (chiefly the Prussians) and the \nFrench, was fought under the walls of the town, \nwhich ended in the defeat of the latter with great \nloss, 9-10 March, 1814. Laon surrendered to the \nGermans 9 Sept. 1870. As the last man of the \ngarde mobile left the citadel, a French soldier, in \ncontravention of the capitulation, blew up the \npowder magazine, causing great destruction to the \ntown and fortress. The grand-duke V\\ illiam of \nMecklenburg-Schwerin was bruised, and 95 German \nriflemen and 300 French gardes mobiles were killed \nor wounded ; general Theremin Du Hame, the com- \nmander, was wounded. The French attributed the \nexplosion to accident. \n\nLA PEEOUSE\'S VOYAGE. In 1785 La \nPerouse sailed from France for the Pacific, with \nthe Boussole and Astrolabe under his command, \nand was last heard of from Botany Bay, in March, \n1788. Several expeditions were subsequently de- \nspatched in search of Perouse ; but no certain in- \nformation was obtained until captain Dillon, of the \nEast India ship Research, ascertained that the \nFrench ships had been cast away on the New \nHebrides, authenticated by articles which he \nbrought to Calcutta, 9 April, 1828. \n\nLAPLAND or SAMELAND (N. Europe), \nnominally subject to Norway in the 13th century, \nand now to Sweden and Russia. Several Lap- \nlanders were exhibited at the Westminster Aqua- \nrium, Nov. 1877. \n\nLA PLATA, the capital of the Argentine \nprovince of Buenos Ayres, which see, was founded \nin 1882. Population in 1888, 65,000. See Wrecks, \n1874. \n\nLAECENY, French, larcen ; Latin, latro- \ncinium ; see Theft. \n\nLAEENTALIA, see Laicrentalia. \n\nLAEGS (Ayrshire, S. Scotland). Here the \ngreat expedition of Haco of Norway was finally \ndefeated by Alexander III. after a succession of \nskirmishes, 3 Oct. 1263. \n\nLA EOTHIEEE (France). Here the French, \ncommanded by Napoleon, defeated the Prussian \nand Russian armies, with great loss, after a despe- \nrate engagement, I Feb. 1814. This was one of \nNapoleon\'s last victories. \n\nLAEYNGOSCOPE, an instrument consist- \ning of a concave mirror, by which light is thrown \nupon a small plane mirror placed in the pos- \nterior part of the cavity of the mouth. By its \nmeans the vocal chords" of the interior of the \nlarynx, &c., are exhibited, and have been photo- \ngraphed. It was invented by Mr. Manuel Garcia, \nand reported to the Roval Society 24 May, 1855. \nOne constructed by Dr. Turck was greatly modified, \nin 1857, by Dr. Czermak, who exhibited its suc- \ncessful action in London in 1862. A similar appa- \nratus is said to have been constructed by Mr. John \nAvery, a surgeon in London, in 1846. The Biitish \nLaryngolo^ical and Rhinulogical Association was \nfounded in 1888. \n\nLA SALETTE, see Pilgrimarjcs. \n\nLATEEAN, a church at Rome, dedicated to \nSt. John, "the mother of all the churches," was \noriginally a palace of the Laterani, a Roman family, \nand was given to the bishops of Rome by Constan- \ntine, and inhabited by them till their removal to \nthe Vatican in 1377. \' Eleven councils have been \nheld there. \n\n\n\nLATHE. \n\n\n\n570 \n\n\n\nLAUEEL. \n\n\n\nLATHE. The invention is ascribed to Talus, \na grandson of Daedalus, about 1240 B.C. Pliny \nascribes it to Theodore of Samos, about 600 B.C. \nGreat improvements have been made in recent \ntimes. \n\nLATHOM- HOUSE (Lancashire), was \nheroically defended for three months against the \nparliamentarians, by Charlotte, countess of Derby. \nShe was relieved by prince llupert, 27 May, 1644. \nThe house was, however, surrendered 4 Dec. 1645, \nand dismantled. \n\nLATIN KINGDOM, Empire, &c, see la- \ntium, Eastern Empire 1204, and Jerusalem. \n\nLATIN LANGUAGE (founded on the Oscan, \nEtruscan, and Greek), one of the original languages \nof Europe, and from which sprang the Italian, \nErench, and Spanish ; see Latium. A large por- \ntion of our language is derived from the Latin. \nIt ceased to be spoken in Italy about 581 ; and was \nfirst taught in England by Adelmus, brother of \nIna, in the 7th century. The use of Latin in law \ndeeds in England gave way to the common tongue \nabout 1000; was revived in the reign of Henry II. ; \nand again was replaced by English in the reign of \nHenry III. It was finally discontinued in religious \nworship in 1558, and in conveyancing and in courts \nof law in 1731 (by 4 Geo. If. c. 25). A corrupt \nLatin is still spoken in Roumelia. The foreign pro- \nnunciation of Latin (a, ah; e, a; i, e, &c.) was \nadopted in English universities and many schools \nabout 1875-6. For "Latin name," see Latium. \n\nPRINCIPAL LATIN WRITERS. \n\nDied I \nPlautus . . B.C. 184 Lnean . \nEnnius . . . 169 | Seneca \n\nTerence . (flourished) 166 , Pliny the Elder \n\n\n\nCato the Elder \n\nLucilius \n\nLucretius . . . \n\nJulius Caesar \n\nCicero . . . . \n\nCatullus \n\nSallust . . . . \n\nVitravius (flourished) \n\nPropertius . . . \n\nVirgil .... \n\nTibullus .... \n\nHorace \n\nCelsus (flourished) a.d. \n\nLivy .... \n\nOvid .... \n\nPaterculus . \n\nPersius . . . . \n\n\n\nDied \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 65 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 65 \n79 \nSo \n\n\n\n149 \'\xe2\x96\xa0 Quintilian (flourished) \n103 ! Valerius Flaccus ,, . 81 \n52 Pliny the Younger ,, . 100 \n44 Statius . . (about) 100 \n43 Tacitus . (flourished) 100 \n40 Silius Italicus . . 101 \n34 Martial . (flourished) 104 \n27 Suetonius . (about) 120 \n26 Juvenal . . . . 128 \n19 Aulus Genius \n18 (flourished) 169 \n\n" Apuleius . . . 174 \n\nAmmianus Marcellinus 390 \nClaud ian . . . . 408 \nMaerobius . . . 415 \nBoetliius . . . . 524 \n62 \n\n\n\n(See Fathers of the Church.) \nLATIN UNION (Monetary), that of France, \nItaly, Belgium, and Switzerland, to maintain the \nuse of the same coinage, from 1865 et seq. ; le-con- \nstituted in 1885 ; arranged to be continued from \nyear to year, autumn 1889; renewed till <;i Dec. \n1893, Oct. 1891. \n\nLATITAT, an ancient writ, directing the \nsheriff to apprehend persons to be brought be \'ore \nthe king\'s bench court, had its name irom its being \nsupposed that the person was lying 1 id, and could \nnot be found in the county to be taken by bill. \nThe writ was abolished by the Uniformity of Pro- \ncess act, 23 May, 1832. \n\nLATITUDE. First determined by Hippar- \nchus of Nice, about 162 B.C. It is the" extent of \nthe earth or the heavens, reckoned from the equa- \ntor to either pole. Mauperfuis, in 1737, in latitude \n66-20 measured a degree of latitude, and made it \n69-493 miles. Swanberg, in 1803, made it 69-292. \nAt the equator, in 1744, four astronomers made it \n68-732; andLambton, in latitude 12, made it 68-743. \n\n\n\nMudge, in England, made it 69-148. Cassini, in \nFrance, in 1718 and 1740, made it 69-12 ; and Biot, \n68-769 ; while a recent measurement in Spain makes \nit but 68-63\xe2\x80\x94 less than at the equator, and contra- \ndicts all others, proving the earth to be an oblate \nspheroid (which was the opinion of Cassini, Ber- \nnouilli, Euler, and others), instead of a prolate \nspheroid ; see Longitude. \n\nLATITUDINAEIANS, a name given to \ncertain theologians who endeavoured to reconcile \nthe church and nonconformists in the 17th cen- \ntury, such as Hales, Chillingworth, Tillotson, and \nBurnet. \n\nLATIUM, now CAMPANIA (Daly), the coun- \ntry of the Latini and their mythical king, Latinus, \npopular date, 1240 B.C. Laurentum was the capi- \ntal of the country in the reign of Latinus, Lavi- \nnium in that of JEneas, and Alba in that of Asca- \nnius ; see Italy, and Rome. \n\nThe Latms ally with Rome . . . (about) b. c. 520 \nJoin Porsenna to restore Tarquin II. 508 \n\nDefeated by Romans near Lake Regillus . 498 or 496 \nLeague with the Romans, 463 ; desert them in \n\ntrouble, 388 ; union restored .... 359 \nDefeated in war ; (before the great victory, near \nmonut Vesuvius, the consul, P. Decius Mus, de- \nvoted himself to death, 340), 339 ; subdued and \n\nincorporated with Rome 338 \n\nObtain Roman citizenship 90. \n\nThe "Latin n:ime" in the 3rd century, B.C., in- \ncluded the colonies in \' Italy founded by the \nRomans in their conquered territories, as well as \nthose founded by the Latins. \n\nLA TEAPPE, see Trappists. \n\nLATTEE-DAT SAINTS, see Mormonites. \n\nLAUDANUM, see Opium. \n\nLAUDEEDALE EAELDOM, Ac. (dated \nfrom 1590). Major Frederick Henry Mainland\'s \nclaim to it established before the House of Lords, \n22 July, 1885. A romantic story. \n\nLAUENBUEG, a duchy, N. Germany ; was \nconquered from the "Wends by Henry the Lion of \nSaxony, about 1152; ceded to Hanover, 1689; in- \ncorporated with the French empire, 1810 ; ceded to \nDenmark, 1815 ; annexed by Prussia, 14 Aug. 1865 ; \npossession taken 15 Sept. following; see Gastein. \n\nLAUFACH, Bavaria (S. W, Germany), was \ntaken by the Prussians under "Wrangel, on 13 July, \n1866, after a sharp action, in which the Hessians \nwere defeated, the Prussian needle gun being very- \nefficacious. \n\nLAUNCESTON, Cornwall. The granite \nchurch was erected in 151 1 ; the new town-hall \nin 1887. Population, 1881, 3,808; 1891, 4,345. \nLAUNCESTON, Tasmania, was founded 1804 ; in- \ncorporated 1858 ; made a city 1889. Population, \n1881, 12,753. \n\nLAUNDEY, London and Provincial Steam \nLaundry, Batte\'Sca, erected by a company; opened \nin 1880; and others since. \n\nLAUEEATE, see Poet Laureate. \n\nLAUEEL was sacred to Apollo, god of poetry ; \nand from the earliest times the posts, and generals \nof armies, when victors, were crowned with laurel. \nPetrarch was crowned with laurel, 8 April, 1341. \xe2\x80\x94 \nThe Prunus laurocerasus was brought to Britain \nfrom the Levant, before 1629; the Portugal laurel, \nPrunus lusitanica, before 1648 ; the royal bay, \nLaurus indica, from Madeira, 1665; the "Alexan- \ndrian laurel, Ruxcus raccmosus, from Spain, before \n1713; the glaucous laurel, Laurus aggregata, from \nChina, 1806 or 1 82 1. \n\n\n\nLATTRENTALIA. \n\n\n\n571 \n\n\n\nLAW. \n\n\n\nLAITRENTALIA were festivals celebrated at \nRome in honour of Acca Laurentia, or Larentia, \nsaid to have been either the nurse of Romulus and \nRemus, or a rich dissolute woman, who bequeathed \nher property to the Roman people. The festival \ncommenced about 621 B.C., and was held on the \nlast da}\' of April and the 23rd of December. \n\nLAUEIUM MINES, see Greece, 1872. \n\nLAURUSTTNUS, Viburnum Tinus, an ever- \ngreen shrub, was brought to England from the \nsouth of Europe, before 1596. \n\nLAUSANNE, capital of the canton of Vaud, \nSwitzerland, originally a Roman station. The \ncathedral was consecrated in 1275, and the univer- \nsity founded 1535. Here Gibbon completed his \n"Decline and Fail," 27 June, 1787. The Inter- \nnational Workmen\'s congress assembled here Sept. \n1867. Population, 188S, 33,340. \n\nLA VALETTA, see Malta. \n\nLAVALETTE\'S ESCAPE. Count Lava- \nlette, for joining the emperor Napoleon on his \nreturn in 1815, was condemned to death, but escaped \nfrom prison in the clothes of bis wife, 20 Dec. 1815. \nSir Robert Wilson, Mr. Michael Bruce, and captain \nJ. H. Hutchinson, aiding the escape, were sen- \ntenced to three months\' imprisonment in the \nFrench capital, 24 April, 1816. Lavalette was per- \nmitted to return to France in 1820, and died in \nretirement in 1830. \n\nLA YENDEE (W. France). The French \nroyalists of La Vendee took arms in March, 1793, \nand were successful in a number of hard-fought \nbattles with the republicans, between 12 July, \n1793, and 1 Jan. 1794, when they experienced a \nsevere reverse. Their leader, Henri comte de La- \nrochejaquelin, was killed, 4 March, 1794. A short \npeace was made at La Jaunay, 17 Feb. 1795. The \nwar was terminated by gen. Hoche in 179b, and a \ntreaty of peace was signed at Luc_on, 17 Jan. 1800 ; \nsee Chouans- \n\nLAVENDER, Lavandula spica, brought from \nthe south of Europe, before 1568. \n\nLAW, see Canons, Codes, Common Laiv, Civil \nLaw, Crime, Digest, Supreme Court. 1 he Jewish \nlaw was given by God, and promulgated by Moses, \n1491 B.C. \n\nThe laws attributed to Phoroneus, in the kingdom \nof Argos were reduced to a system by Draco, for \nthe Athenians, 623 B.C. ; whose code was super- \nseded by that of Solon, 594 B.C. \nThe Spartan laws of Lyeurgus were made about \n844 B.C. ; they remained in full force for about \n700 years, and formed a race totally different from \nall others living in civilised society. \nThe Roman laws of Servius Tullius 566 B.C. were \namended by the Twelve Tables published in 449 \nB.C., and remained in force till Justinian, nearly \na thousand years. \n\nBRITISH LAWS. \n\nThe British laws of earliest date were translated \n\ninto the Saxon in a.d. 590 \n\nSaxon laws of Ina published about . . . . 690 \nAlfred\'s code of laws, the foundation of the common \n\nlaw of England, is said to have been arranged \n\nabout 886 \nEdward the Confessor collected the laws . 1050-1065 \nStephen\'s charter of general liberties . . . 1136 \nHenry II. \'s confirmation of it . . 1154 and 1175 \nThe maritime laws of Richard I. (see Olerori) . . 1195 \nMagna Charta, by king John, 1215 ; confirmed by \n\nHenry III. 1216 et seq. (see Magna Charta, and \n\nForests Charter). \nLord Mansfield; lord chief justice of the king\'s \n\nbench, declared, "That no fiction of law shall \n\n\n\never so far prevail against the real truth of the \nfact, as to prevent the execution of justice," \n\n21 May, 1784. \nMany legal technicalities were got rid of by 14 & 15 \nVict. c. 100. The act for the improvement of the \nadministration of criminal justice, passed 7 Aug. 1851 \n\nLAWYERS. \n\nPleaders of the bar, or barristers, are said to have \nbeen first appointed by Edward 1 129:? \n\n" No man of the law " to sit in parliament, by stat. \nof 46 Edward III. and 6 Hen. IV. ... 1372: \n\nThis prohibition was declared to be invalid by Coke \nand unconstitutional by Blackstone; attention was \ndrawn to it in July, 1871 ; and the statutes were \nrepealed 187E \n\nSerjeants, the highest members of the bar, were alone \npermitted to plead in the court of common pleas. \nThe first king\'s counsel under the degree of Ser- \njeant was sir Francis Bacon, in ... . 1604. \n\nLaw Association charity for widows founded in . 1817 \n\nIncorporated Law Society of solicitors formed in \n1823 ; plan enlarged, 1825 : a charter obtained, \n1831 ; renewed, 1845 ; new charter, 1872. The \nbuilding in Chancery-lane, from the designs of \nVulliamy, was commenced in 1829. \n\nJuridical Society established in ... 1855, \n\nLaw Times, established .... 8 April, 1843. \n\nLaw Journal Jan. 1866. \n\nThe establishment of a legal university strongly \nadvocated by the lord chancellor and others, Jan. 1871 \n\nThe council of legal education put forth a scheme \ninvolving many changes, Nov. 1872 ; another \nscheme, Dec. 1891. \n\nLegal Practitioners\' Society, established . Nov. 1873. \nSee Barrister, Counsel. \n\nLAW REFORM. \n\nLaw Amendment Society, founded in 1843. It holds- \nmeetings during the session of parliament, and pub- \nlishes a journal and reports. Its first chairman was \nlord Brougham, who introduced the subject of Law \nReform by a most eloquent speech in the house of \ncommons, on 7 Feb. 1828. Many acts for Law Reform \nhave been passed since, and vigorous measures pro- \nposed. \n\nRoyal commission to inquire into the operation and con- \nstitution of the English courts of law, &c, issued 18 \nSept. 1867. \n\nThe Judicature Commission (appointed 1867) recom- \nmended the consolidation of all the superior courts, \ninto one supreme court divided into chambers, April,. \n1869. It issued its fifth and last report, Sept. 1874. \n\nThe High Court of Justice Bill introduced into the house \nof lords, 18 March, 1870, was dropped near the end of \nthe session. \n\nRoyal Commission on the administrative departments of \nCourts of Justice (Lord Lisgar and others) appointed,. \n\n4 Oct., 1873. \n\nSupreme Court of Judicature Bill introduced by lord, \nchancellor Selborne for establishing a High Court of \' \nJustice, and a High Court of Appeal 13 Feb., passedi \n\n5 Aug. 1873. \n\nIts operation deferred from 2 Nov... 1874 to 1 Nov., 187s \n\nThe abolition of the house of lords as an Appeal \nCourt rescinded 1875, \n\nCommission on Legal Procedure ; report, recom- \nmending simplifying changes, published 8 Oct. 1881 \n\nNew rules issued July, 1883, \n\nInternational commission on judicial reform recom- \nmends the establishment of an international \ntribunal for dealing with foreigners, except in \n\ncapital cases May, 1884). \n\nSee Supreme Court for details. \n\nLaw-Courts.\xe2\x80\x94 Commissioners appointed in 1859 reported. \nin favour of the concentration of the law-courts in. \nLondon, on a site near Carey-street, Chancery-lane, \nabout 7 acres, on which stood about 400 houses. \nThe estimated expense was about 1,500,000^., which it. \nwas recommended to take from the accumulated \nChancery fund, termed " Suitors\' fund." Acts of par- \nliament to carry out the plan were passed in 1S65 and \n1866. \n\nCompetitive designs were invited, and after much dis- \ncussion (public and professional), Mr. Street\'s design, \nwas selected, 30 May, 1868; much attacked, but ap- \nproved by the commission, Aug. 1S70; contracts signed \n17 Feb. 1874, and the works were begun immediately \nby Bull and Son, to be finished in 1881. \n\n\n\nLAW\'S BUBBLE. \n\n\n\n572 \n\n\n\nLEAD, BLACK. \n\n\n\nThere were to be 18 courts, varying in size; a central hall, \n231 feet long, 48 feet wide, 30 feet high ; principal \nentrance in the Strand. . \n\nOffices in Eastern Block occupied 21 April, 1879. \n\nBuildings completed, Oct. 1882. \n\nOpened by the queen, 4 Dec. 1882. \n\nAll the buildings constitute by statute the Palace of \nJustice. \n\nThe Courts occupied Hilary sittings, 11 Jan. 1883. \n\nLaw Reports : A new and more economical plan of \npreparing and publishing law reports was finally \nadopted by a committee of barristers on 11 March, 1865 \n(see Year-books). \n\nLaw Terms, see Terms, abolished by Supreme Court of \nJudicature Act, 5 Aug. 1873. \n\nInternational Law, see Neutral Powers and International \nLaw. \n\nExpenditure for law and justice from the public purse ex- \nclusive of county rates, in the year 1865-6, 2,344,540?. \n\nCourts of J" \'Mice : salaries, &e., one year (to 31 March, \n1877), 631,791?. \n\nLAW S BUBBLE . John Law, of Edinburgh \n(born 1681), was made comptroller-general of the \nfinances of France, upon the strength of a scheme \nlor establishing a bank, and an East India and a \nMississippi company, by the profits of which the \nnational debt of France was to be paid off. See \nMississippi. He first offered his plan to Victor \nAmadeus, king of Sardinia, who told him he was \nnot powerful enough to ruin himself. The French \nministry accepted it; and in 1716, he opened a \nbank in his own name, under the protection of the \nduke of Orleans, regent of France, and the de- \nluded rich subscribed for shares both in the bank \nand the companies. In 1718 Law\'s was declared \na royal bank, and the shares rose to upwards of \ntwenty-fold the original value ; so that, in 1719, \nthey were worth more than eighty times the amount \nof all the current specie in France. In 1720 this \nfabric of false credit fell to the ground, spreading \nruin throughout the country. Law died in poverty \nat Venice in 1729. \xe2\x80\x94 Tne South Sea Bubble in Eng- \nland occurred in 1720; see South Sea. \n\nLAWN TENNIS, see Tennis. \n\nLAYAMON\'S BBUT, or Chronicle of Britain, \na poetical semi-Saxon paraphrase of the Brut of \nWace, made between 1 100 and 1230, was published \nwith a literal translation by sir Frederick Madden, \nin 1847. \n\nLAYBACH (near Trieste, in Illyria). A con- \ngress met here in Jan. 1821, and was attended by \nthe sovereigns of Austria, Russia, Prussia, and \nNaples. It broke up in May, after having issued \ntwo circulars, stating it to be their resolution to \noccupy Naples with Austrian troops, and put down \npopular insurrections. \n\nLAYEE\'S CONSPIRACY. Christopher \nLayer, a barrister, conspired with other persons to \nseize George I., the prince of Wales, loi-d Cadogan, \nand the principal officers of state, to seize the tower, \nto plunder the bank, and bring in the Pretender. \nLayer was hanged, 17 May, 1723. He was hanged \nfor enlisting soldiers for the Pretender. Bishop \nAtterbury was accused of complicity and attainted, \nbut permitted to quit the country. \n\nLAY BROTHERHOOD of St. Paul, \n\nfor the diocese of London, was formed by the \nbishop of Marlborough, with, the sanction of the \nhishop of London in 1891. \n\nLAY HELPERS, to hold a position between \nthe clergy and laity, proposed by the archbishop of \nCanterbury, and others, Oct. 1881. The association \nof Lay Helpers for London began in 1865. \n\nLAYMEN, HOUSE OF, composed of 102 \nmembers elected in the dioceses, as a purely \n\n\n\nconsultative body to assist the Convocation of the \nclergy, its main object being the promotion of \nchurch reform. It first met with Convocation at \n"Westminster, 16 Feb. 1886. Lord Selborne, chair- \nman ; Mr. G. A. Spottiswoode, vice-chairman. \nThey met in the Church house, 12 Feb. 1890. \n\nLAZARISTS (the Priests of the Mission), a \ncongregation devoted to education, founded by St. \nVincent de Paul, 1625, were so named from their \nfirst establishment in a house which once belonged \nto the military order of St. Lazarus. They are also \ncalled Vincentines. \n\nLAZARO, ST. (N. Italy). Here the king of \nSardinia and the Imperialists defeated the French \nand Spaniards after a long and severe conflict, 4 \nJune, 1746. \n\nLAZISTAN, a Turkish province in the pacha- \nlik of Trebizond, on the Black sea. Batoum, its \nseaport, was ceded to Russia by the treaty of Berlin, \n13 July, 1878. The inhabitants at first resisted the \nchange, but submitted on persuasion, many emi- \ngrating. \n\nLAZZARITES, see Italy, 1878. \n\nLAZZARON1 (from lazzdro, Spanish for a \npauper or leper), a term applied by the Spanish \nviceroys to the degraded beings in Naples, half- \nclothed and houseless. No man was born a lazza.ro ; \nand he who turned to a trade ceased to be one. The \nviceroy permitted the lazzaroni to elect a chief with \nwhom he conferred respecting the imposts on the \ngoods brought to the markets. In 1647, Masaniello \nheld the office, and made an insurrection; see \nNaples. In 1793, Ferdinand IV. enrolled several \nthousands of lazzaroni as pikemen (spontoceers), \nwho generally favoured the court party ; on 15 \nMay, 1848, they were permitted, on the king\'s \nbehalf, to commit fearful ravages on the ill-fated \ncity. \xe2\x80\x94 Colletta. \n\nLEAD is found in various countries, and is \nabundant in various parts of Britain, and in some \nplaces richly mixed with silver ore. The famous \nClydesdale mines were discovered in 1513. Pattin- \nson\'s valuable method for extracting the silver was \nmade known in 1829. The lead-mines of Cumber- \nland and Derbyshire yield about 15,000 tons per \nannum. British mines produced 65,529 tons of \nlead in 1855 ; 69,266 in 1857, 67,181 in 1865; 73,420 \nin 1870; 58,777 in 1875; 58,667 in 1876; 51,6351 \n1879 ; 50,328 in 1882 ; 40,075 in 1884 ; 37,896 in \n1887; in 1888, 37,578; 1889,35,604; 1890, 33,590. \n\nLeaden pipes for the conveyance of water were \nbrought into use in 1236 \n\nIn 1859, 23*690 tons of pig and sheet lead were \nimported, and 18,414 tons exported ; in 1866, 36,946 \ntons imported ; 27,383 tons exported ; in 1875, \n79,825 tons imported, 35,398 tons exported ; in \n1883, 101,715 tons imported, 39,315 tons exported; \nin 1887, 114,493 tons imported, 44,301 tons ex- \nported ; in 1888, 132,880 tons imported, 48,616 \ntons exported ; in 1889, 145,203 tons imported, \n52,040 tons exported ; in 1890, 158,649 tons im- \nported, 55,557 tons exported. \n\nBy an explosion caused through ignited gas at the \nMill Close lead mine, Derbyshire, five men were \nkilled, 3 Nov. 1887. Explosions in lead mines \nare very rare. \n\nThe deadly manufacture of white lead greatly \nameliorated by the sublimation process invented \nin America and adopted by John Hall & Sons of \nBristol in 1886 \n\nProfessor Mac Ivor\'s new process was reported \ncheap, quick and safe ; works, Claphain, \nLondon, S.W July, 1.890 \n\nLEAD, BLACK, see Graphite. \n\n\n\nLEADENHALL MAEKET. \n\n\n\n573 \n\n\n\nLECTIONAEY. \n\n\n\nLEADENHALL MAEKET, London, \nfounded by sir Richard Whittington, in 1408, and \npresented to the city. A granary was added by Simon \nEyre, 1419. The demolition of the old market \nbegan in Sept. 1880; first stone of new one laid 28 \nJune ; opened by the lord mayor, 15 Dec. 1881 ; \ncost 47,5001?. \n\nLEADVILLE. A high mining district in \nColorado ; highly successful results of excavations \nfor the precious metals, 1878 et seq. \n\nLEAGUES. Four kings combined to make \nwar against five, about 1913 B.C. {Gen. xiv.) The \nkings of Canaan combined against the invasion \nof the Israelites, 145 1 B.C. The more emi- \nnent Greek leagues were the iEtolian, powerful \nabout 320 B.C., which lasted till 189 B.C., and the \nAchasan, revived 280 B.C., which was broken up by \nthe conquest of Greece by the Romans, 146 B.C. \nThe fall of these leagues was hastened by dissension. \n\nHanseatic league 1140 \n\nLombard leagues against the emperors (see Lom- \n\nbardy) 1167 and 1226 \n\nCaddee league (which see) about 1396 et seq. \nLeague of the Public Good was formed in Dec. 1464, \nby the dukes of Calabria, Brittany, and Bourbon, \nand other princes against Louis XL of France, \nunder pretext of reforming abuses ; an indecisive \nbattle was fought at Montnleri, 16 July ; and a \n\ntreaty was signed 25 Oct. 1465 \n\nLeague of Cambray against Venice .... 1508 \nHoly League (the popie, Venice, &c), against \n\nLouis XII 1510 \n\nLeague of Smalcald 1530 \n\nLeague of the Beggars (Gueux) ; the protestants so \ncalled (though Roman Catholics joined the league) \nto oppose the institution of the Inquisition in \n\nFlanders 1566 \n\nThe Holy League, to prevent the accession of \nHenry IV. of France, who was then of the re- \nformed religion, was formed at Peronne and lasted \ntill Henry embraced Romanism . . . 1576-93 \nLeague of Wurtzburg, by Catholics ; of Halle, by \n\nProtestants 1610 \n\nLeague against the emperor 1626 \n\nSolemn League and Covenant in Scotland, against \nthe episcopal government of the Church (see \n\nCovenant) 1638 \n\nLeague of Augsburg against France . . . . 1686 \nLeague of St. Sebastian instituted to promote the \nrestoration of his temporal dominions to the \npope, about 1870 ; held 9th annual meeting in \n\nLondon 20 Jan. 1879 \n\nLeague in aid of Christians in Turkey formed ; earl \n\nof Shaftesbury, chairman, . . -27 July, 1876 \nNational Irish Land League ostensibly formed to \nbuy up farms for the tenants ; supported by Mr. \nParnell and others, 1879 ; its enforcement of \nstringent rules against landlords and loyal tenants \ncreated a reign of terror ; led to legislation. See \n\nIreland 1 880-1 \n\nCharged with complicity and outrages ; dissolved \n\nby government 20 Oct. 1881 \n\nNew Irish National league formed (see Ireland, \n1882 et seq.) (Organ United Ireland, 1886). 17 Oct. 1882 \nSee Home Rule, 1890, and National Federation. \nFree land league, see Land. \n\nSeventh annual convention of the Irish national \nleague of Great Britain met at Cardiff, 29 Oct. \n1887, at Birmingham, 29 Sept. 1888 ; Manchester, \nSept. 1889 ; Edinburgh, 27 Sept. 1890 ; London, \n\n12 Dec. 1891 \nSeveral other leagues formed to obtain home rule \n\n1879 ^ se 1- \n" National Land League of Great Britain " formed ; \nMr. Justin McCarthy, president, 26 March ; met \nat Newcastle-on-Tyne, 29 Aug. 1881, and at other \nplaces since. \nNational league for the unification and consolidation \nof the empire, met at Westminster ; strongly op- \nposed to unfair free trade . . 8 Sept. et seq. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLEAP-YEAE or Bissextile, originated \n\nwith the astronomers of Julius Cajsar, 45 B.C. They \nfixed the solar year at 365 days, 6 hours, compris- \n\n\n\ning, as they thought, the period from one vernal \nequinox to another ; the six hours were set aside,, \nand at the end of four years, forming a day, the \nfourth year was made to consist of 366 days. The \nday thus added was called intercalary, and was- \nplaced a day before the 24th of February, the sixth \nof the calends, which was reckoned tivice, hence \ncalled bissextile or twice sixth. This added day \nwith us is Feb. 29th ; see Calendar. This arrange- \nment makes the year nearly three minutes longer \nthan the astronomical year: to obviate this, 1700 \nand 1800 were not, and 1900 will not be leap-years, \nbut 2000 will be one; see Calendar and Year. \n\nLEABNING and the Arts flourished \n\namong the Greeks, under Pisistratus, 537 B.C., \nand especially under Pericles, 444 b.c ; and with \nthe Romans at the commencement of the Christian \nera, under Augustus. The Greek refugees caused \ntheir revival in Italy, particularly after the taking of \nConstantinople by the Turks in 1453, and the inven- \ntion of printing shortly before,\xe2\x80\x94 the period of the Re- \nnaissance. Leo X. and his family (the Medici) greatly \npromoted learning in Italy, in the 16th century ; \nwhen literature revived in France, Germany, and \nEngland ; see Literature, and authors under Greek, \nLatin, English, and other languages. \n\nLEASE (from the French Earner, to let), a kind \nof conveyance invented by Serjeant Moore, soon \nafter the statute of uses, 27 Henry VIII. 1535. \nActs relating to leases were passed in 1856 and \n1858. Forged Leases ease, see Trials, Jan. 1878. \n\nLEATHEE was very early known in Egypt \nand Greece, and the thongs of manufactured hides \nwere used for ropes, harness, &c, by all ancient \nnations. The Gordian knot was made of leather \nthongs, 330 B.C. A leather cannon was proved at \nEdinburgh, fired three times, and found to answer, \n23 Oct. 1778. Phillips. The duty on leather im- \nposed 1697, produced annually in England^ \n450,000^. and in Ireland about "50,000^. It was \nabolished, 29 May, 1830. Many bankruptcies were \ndeclared in the leather trade, in the autumn of i860 \nin England. In the case of Lawrence, Mortimore, \nand Co., enormous fraudulent dealings in bills were \ndisclosed. A plan for making artificial leather out \nof cuttings, &c, was made known in i860. \xe2\x80\x94 \nLeather cloth (invented by Messrs. J. R. & C. P. \nCrockett, of Newark, U.S., and patented in 1849) is \nunbleached cotton coated with a mixture of boiled \nlinseed oil and turpentine, and coloured. The Lea- \nther-cloth company, London, successors to Messrs. \nCrockett, was established, 1859. An exhibition of \nleather manufactures at Northampton in 1873 i at \nthe Agricultural Hall, London, 1^-23 Sept. 1880; \n26 Sept. 1881 ; and 15 Sept. 1882. \n\nLEBANON {white mountain), the mountain \nrange between Syria and North Palestine, assigned \nto Israel, but never conquered, and long attached \nto Syria. Special ordinance for preservation of the \nancient cedar forest, Sept. 1881. The governor- \ngeneral since 1861 has been appointed by Turkey, \nsubject to the assent of the great powers. Governors, \n1873, Rustem Pasha ; 1883, Wassa Pasha, died 29 \nJune, 1892 ; successor Nauum Effendi ; see Asms- \nsins, Druses, Ifarouites, and Syria. \n\nLECH, a river, S. Germany, near which at re \nvillage named Rain the cruel "imperialist general \nTilly was defeated by the Swedes, under Gustavus \nAdolphus, 5 April, 1632, and died of his wounds. \n\nLECTION AEY, the name given to the Ang- \nlican table of scripture lessons ; see Common \nPrayer. \n\n\n\nLECTURES. \n\n\n\n574 \n\n\n\nLEGION OP HONOUR. \n\n\n\nLECTURES. Those on Physic were instituted \nby Dr. Thomas Linacre, of the College of Physicians \n.(foumded by Henry VIII.) about 1502. Clinical \nlectures, at the bed-side of the patients in hospitals \n;are said to have been given (by Dr. John Ruther- \nford) in Edinburgh, about 1748; in Dublin, about \n2785; in London, by sir B. C. Brodie (1813-17). \n.Mr. G. Macilwain, about 1824, gave surgical clin- \nical lectures in connection with a dispensary. \n\'The political lectures of Thelwall, commenced in \n\xe2\x96\xa0Jan. 1795, were interdicted by an act of parliament. \nIn the autumn of 1857 and since, many distinguished \nnoblemen and gentlemen lectured at mechanics\' \ninstitutes. An act passed in 1835 prohibited the \npublication of lectures without the consent of the \nlecturers. See Gresham College, Boyle\' s Lectures, \nRoyal and London Institutions, Trials, 1887, &c. \n\nLEEDS (Yorkshire), the Saxon Loidis, once a \nRoman station, received a charter in 1627. See \n^Population. \n\nLeeds bridge built 1327 \n\nShenfleld\'s grammar school founded . . . . 1552 \nColoured Cloth hall built 1758 ; White Cloth hall . 1775 \nLiterary and Philosophical society established . 1820 \nEnfranchised by the Reform act (2 members) . . 1832 \nMagnificent new town-hall opened by the queen, \n\nthe mayor, Peter Fairbairn, knighted 7 Sept. 1858 \nMusical festivals begun . . . 7-10 Sept. ,, \n\n.British Association met here . . . Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\xe2\x80\xa2Great Reform meeting ; Mr. Bright there 8 Oct. 1866 \nAn additional M. P. given to Leeds by Reform act, \n\n15 Aug. 1867 \nExhibition of art treasures, opened by the prince \n\nof Wales, 19 May, closed . .31 Oct. 1868 \n\nSoundhay-park inaugurated as a public park by \nprince Arthur, and new exchange founded, \n\n19, 20 Sept. 1872 \n\xe2\x80\xa2Church congress met .... 8-11 Oct. ,, \nNew bridge opened .... 9 July, 1873 \n\nMusical festival 14-17 Oct. 1874 \n\nYorkshire college of science opened 26 Oct. 1874 ; \nnew buildings opened by the prince of Wales \n\n15 July, 1885 \n"Yorkshire exhibition of arts and manufactures \nopened by the duke of Edinburgh . . 13 May, 1875 \n\nTheatre Royal burnt 28 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNew exchange opened . . . .31 Aug. ,, \nYorkshire college for science formally opened by \n\nthe duke of Devonshire .... 6 Oct. ,, \n-\xe2\x80\xa2Great amphitheatre burnt ; loss, about 30,000?. \n\n2 March, 1876 \n\nMusical festival 19-22 Sept. 1877 \n\nNew municipal offices and public free library opened \n\n17 April, 1884 \nLeeds returns five M.P\'s by act passed 25 June, 1885 \nFine art gallery and museum cost io,oooZ. opened \n\n3 Oct. 1888 \n\xe2\x80\xa2Col. J. T. North presents Kirkstall Abbey and \n\ngrounds to the corporation . . . Jan. 1889 \nSir Edward Baines, chief proprietor of the Leeds \nMercury, M.P. for Leeds 1859-74 ; knighted 1880, \nliberal nonconformist ; died, aged 89 2 March, 1890 \nStrike of gas-stokers ; the town in darkness ; above \n15,000 rioters attacking the gasworks, repulsed \nafter fighting ; many persons severely injured, \npolice re-inforced from neighbouring towns, and \nby the military, 30 June ; strike ends by con- \ncession to strikers .... 3 July, ,, \nMeeting of British association . . .2 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nAt a church bazaar, Oldfield, Wortley, 11 out of 15 \nchildren dressed in cotton wool, with Chinese \nlanterns, perished through fire . 31 Dec. et seq. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe dispute between the corporation and the gas- \nstokers amicably settled ... 26 Feb. ,, \nGreat fire in the stores under the railway arches ; \nestimated loss, about 200,000?. . . 13 Jan. 1892 \n\nLEEK, the Welsh emblem, worn on St. David\'s \nday, I March. The custom is traditionally as- \nsigned to a command from Dewi or David, after- \nwards archbishop of St. David\'s, in 519. The \nBritons are said to have worn a leek in their caps \nwhen Cadwallader defeated the Saxons, 540. \n\n\n\nLEESBURG HEIGHTS, see Ball\'s Bluff. \n\nLEEWARD ISLES, West Indies : Antigua, \nBarbuda, Montserrat, St. Christopher\'s, Nevis, \nAnguilla, Virgin Isles, and Dominica {which see). \nAn act for their federation passed 21 Aug. 1871. \nGovernor-general of the British Isles, col. Stephen \nJohn Hill, 1863; sirB. C. C. Pine, 1869; sir H. \nTurner Irving, 1873 ; Iron. Ceo. Berkeley, 1874; sir \nJ. H. Glover, Dec. 1881 ; sir Chas. Cameron Lees, \n1883 ; Viscount Gormanston, Aug. 1885 ; sir Charles \nBullen Hugh Mitchell, Dec. 1887. ; Mr. W. F. H. \nSmith, Nov. 1888. Total population of the isles in \n1891, 125,379- \n\nLEGACIES. In 1780 receipts for legacies \nwere subjected to a stamp duty, and in 1796 the \nlegacy duty was imposed. The impost was increased \nseveral times subsequently, particularly in 1805, \n1808, and 1845. In 1853 the legacy duty was \nextended to landed or real property. Further \nchanges were made in 188 1 ; see Succession Duty \nAct, and Wills. John Camden Neild, an eccentric \nmiser, died 30 Aug. 1852, bequeathing about 250,000/. \nto the queen. Received for legacy and succession \nduties in year 1870-1, 2,963,372/. ; 1875-6, \n3,548,956/.; 1876-7,3,675,802/.; 1880-1,2,827,377/.; \ni83i-2, 2,814,145/.; 18S7-8, 2,814,560/. Legacy \nduty 1888-9, 2,830,378/. ; 1889-90, 2,723,886/. ; \n1890-1, 2,626,016/. See Succession. \n\nLEGAL PRACTITIONERS\' SOCIETY, \n\nfor reforming abuses, &c, established Nov. 1873. \n\nLEGATES (legaius). Roman ambassadors; \nand also governors of the provinces into which \nAugustus divided the empire, 27 B.C. Legates are \nalso ambassadors from the pope. The legate\'s \ncourt in England, erected in 1 5 16 by cardinal \nWolsey, to prove wills, and for the trial of offences \nagainst the spiritual laws, was soon discontinued. \n\nLEGATIONS were the twenty administrative \ndivisions in the states of the church, governed by \nlegates. The3 r rebelled in 1859-60, and are now \nincluded in the kingdom of Italy ; see Rome. \n\nLEGHORN, Livorno, Tuscany, a mere village \nin the 15th century, owes its prosperity to the \nMedici family. It suffered dreadfully by an \nearthquake in 1 741 ; and was entered by the French \narmy, 27 July, 1796, but the British property had \nbeen removed. It was held by the French 1796-9 \nand retaken, 1800. It was unsuccessfully attacked \nby the British and Italian forces in Dec. 1813. \nThe Austrians took this city from the insurgents, \n12, 13 May, 1849, and quelled a slight insurrection, \nJuly 6, 1857. In June, 1857, above 60 persons \nwere killed at the theatre, through an alarm of fire ; \nsee Tuscany. Population, 1890, 104,960. \n\nLEGION, a corps of soldiers in the Roman \narmies, said to have been formed by Romulus, when \nit consisted of 3000 foot and 300 horse, about 720 B.C. \nWhen Hannibal was in Italy, 216 B.C., the legion \nconsisted of 5200 soldiers ; and under Marius, in \n88 B.C., it was 6200 soldiers besides 700 horse. \nThere were ten, and sometimes as many as eighteen, \nlegions kept at Rome. Augustus had a standing \narmy of 45 legions, together with 25,000 horse and \n37,000 lignt-armed troops, about 5 B.C.; and the \npeace establishment of Adrian was thirty of these \nformidable brigades. A legion was divided into ten \ncohorts, and every cohort into six centuries, with a \nvexillum, or standard, guarded by ten men. The \npeace of Britain was protected by three legions. \nSee Thundering Legion. \n\nLEGION OF HONOUR, a French order \nembracing the army, civil officers, and other indi- \n\n\n\nLEGITIMISTS. \n\n\n\nLEMUKES. \n\n\n\nviduals distinguished for services to the state ; \ninstituted by Napoleon Bonaparte, when first consul, \n19 May, 1S02, to replace the old suppressed orders of \nknighthood, &e. The order was confirmed by Louis \nXVIII. in 18 15, and its constitution modified in \n1816 and 1851. The honour was conferred on many \nBritish subjects who distinguished themselves in \nthe Russian war, 1854-6, and in the Paris exhibitions \nof 1855, 1867, 1878 and 1889. The palace and offices \nwere burnt by the communalists, 23 May, 1871. The \nLegion comprised upwards of 54,000 members in \n1887. The alleged traffic in decorations caused \nmuch excitement in the autumn of 1887. See \nFrance. \n\nLEGITIMISTS, a term (since 1814) applied \nto those who support the claims of the elder branch \nof the Bourbon family to the throne of France, \nwhose representative, Henry, due de Bordeaux, called \ncomte de Chambord, born 29 Sept. i820,died 24 Aug. \n1883. They held a congress at Lucerne on 24-29 \nJune, 1S62, and agreed to continue a pacific policy. \nThe party was active in Feb. 1871-5. Their efforts to \nrecover power have proved ineffectual ; see France. \n\nLEGNAGO, a fortress on the Adige, N. Italy, \none of the Quadrilateral. It was captured by the \nFrench in 1796; but reverted to the Austrians in \n1815. It was surrendered to the Italians in Oct. \n1866. \n\nLEGNANO, Lombardy". Here the emperor \nFrederick Barbarossa was defeated by the Milanese \nand their allies, 29 May, 1 1 76, and the treaty of Con- \nstance ensued in 1 183. \n\nLEICESTER (central England), a bishopric \nfor a short time in the 8th century, returned two \nmembers to parUameut in the reign of Edward I. \nHere Richard III. was buried, 25 Aug. 1485 ; and \nhere cardinal TTolsey died, 29 Nov. 1530. During \nthe civil war, Leicester was taken by Charles I. 31 \nMay, and by Fairfax, 17 June, 1645. The stocking \nmanufacture was introduced in 1680. New town- \nhall opened, 8 Aug. 1876. New Abbey park opened \nby the prince of Wales, 29 May, 1882. Population, \n1881, 122,376; 1891, 142,051. \nRiot occasioned by a strike, quelled by the police, \n\n1 1-12 Feb. ; end of strike . . . 19 Feb. 1S86 \nWilliam Gray Lowe, merchant, found dead by a \n\nrevolver shot in a Midland railway carriage here, \n\n21 Aug. ,, \nGreat opposition to vaccination 1883 etseq. ; sanitary \n\nprecautions strictly enforced, see Vaccination T887 \nMessrs. Bradshaw & Payne\'s shoe factory burnt, \n\nloss above 15,000? 29 Oct. 1889 \n\nLEICESTER SQUARE, London. See \nGlobe. The square, after remaining some time in a \ndisreputable state, was renovated by Mr. Albert \nGrant, who bought up the enclosure, and presented \nit to the Metropolitan Board of Works, 2 July, \n1874. \n\nLEIGHLIN (W. Carlow), a see founded by \nSt. Laserian, about 628. Burchard, the Norwegian, \nthe son of Garmond, founded or endowed the priory \nof St. Stephen of Leighlin. Bishop Doran, appointed \nin 1523, was murdered by his archdeacon, Maurice \nCavenagh, who was hanged on the spot where the \ncrime was committed. Beatson. In 1600 Leighlin \nwas united to Ferns ; the combined see united to \nOssory in 1835 ; see Ferns and Bishops. \n\nLEININGEN (or Linange), a principality \npartly in Bavaria, Baden, and Hesse, mediatised in \n1806. The present prince Ernest, born 9 Nov. 1830, \na captain in the British navy, is the son of prince \nCharles, the half-brother of queen Victoria. Feodore, \ndowager princess of Hohenlohe Langcnburg, the \n\n\n\nqueen\'s half-sister, died 23 Sept. 187^, aged nearly \n65. Her son, count Gleichen, afterwards prince \nVictor of Hohenlohe, born 1833, died 31 Dec. 1891. \nHe entered the British navy in Sept. 1848, and was \nlong in active service, especially in the Crimean \nwar. He was also an eminent sculptor. The first \nhusband of the duchess of Kent, prince Enrich of \nLeiningen, died 4 July, 1814. \n\nLEINSTER, a kingdom in 1167, now one of \nthe four provinces of Ireland. The abduction of \nDevorgilla, wife of O\'Ruarc, a lord of Connaught, \nby Dermot king of Leinster in 1152, is asserted to \nhave led to the landing of the English and the \nsubsequent conquest. The province of Leinster gave \nthe title of duke to Schomberg\'s son in 1690. The \ntitle became extinct in 1719, and was conferred on \nthe family of Fitzgerald in 1766. \n\nLEIPSIC (Saxony), an ancient city, famous \nfor its university (founded 1409) and its fair (1458). \nAt Breitenfeld, near here, Gustavus Adolphus, king \nof Sweden, defeated the Imperialists, under Tilly, \n7 Sept. 1631 ; and the Imperialists were again \ndefeated here by the Swedes, under Torstensen, 23 \nOct. 1642. Here took place, on 16, 18, 19 Oct. 1813, \n\'\xe2\x96\xa0\'\xe2\x96\xa0the battle of the nations," between the French \narmy and its allies, commanded by Napoleon \n(160,000), and the Austrian, Russian, and Prussian \narmies (240,000 strong). The French were beaten \nchiefly owing to 17 Saxon battalions, their allies, \nturning upon them in the heat of the engagement. \n80,000 men perished on the field, of whom more \nthan 40,000 were French, who also lost 65 pieces of \nartillery, and many standards. The victory was \nfollowed by the capture of Leipsic, of the rear \nguard of the French army, and of the king of Saxony \nand his family. The 50th anniversary was cele- \nbrated 18 Oct. 1863. The Leipsic book fair began \n1545. The new Supreme Court for all Germany, \nopened here 1 Sept. 1879. Population in 1885, \n170,340; in 1890, 353,272. \n\nLEITH, the port of Edinburgh, was burnt by \nthe earl of Hertford in 1544. It was fortified by the \nFrench partisans of queen Mary in 1560, and \nsurrendered to the English. The "Agreement of \nLeith" between the superintendents and ministers \nwas made, Jan. 1572. The docks were begun \n1720. Leith was made a burgh in 1833. Popu- \nlation, 1891, 69,696. \n\nLEITHA, a river dividing the Austrian terri- \ntories ; see ^Austria. \n\nLEITH HILL, near Dorking, Surrey, said to \nhave been a Roman station, and has a view of \neleven counties, being about 1000 feet above the \nsea level. The lofty tower on its summit was \nerected in 1766 by Mr. Richard Hull the then owner \nof Leith Hill Place, he died 18 Jan. 1772 and was \nburied within the tower. \n\nLELEGES, a Pelasgic tribe which inhabited \nLaconia about 1490 B.C., and after many contests \nmerged into the Hellenes , see Hellas. \n\nLE MANS, a French city, department of the \nSarthe. Here the retreating French general Chanzy \nwas overtaken and defeated by the Germans under \nprince Frederick Charles and the grand-duke of \nMecklenburg, after some conflicts : 10, II Jan. 1871. \nLe Mans was entered 12 Jan. In six days\' fighting \nabout 22,000 French made prisoners. \n\nLEMURES- The ancients supposed that the \nsoul, after death, wandered over the world, and \ndisturbed the peace of the living. The happy \nspirits were called Lares familiares, and the \n\n\n\nLENNIE MUTINY. \n\n\n\n576 \n\n\n\nLEVELS. \n\n\n\nunhappy, Lemures. The Roman festival, Lemu- \nralia, kept on 9, 11, 13 May, is mythically said to \nhave been instituted by Romulus about 747 B.C., \nto propitiate the spirit of the slaughtered Remus. \n\nLENNIE MUTINY. See Mutinies, 1875. \n\nLENT (from the Saxon, lencten, spring). The \nforty days\' fast observed in the Greek, Roman catho- \nlic, English, andotherchurchesfromAsh-Wednesday \nto Easter-day. The commencement of Lent varied, \nhut in the 8th or 9th century Ash Wednesday \nbecame the first day. Lent was first observed in \nEngland by command of Ercombert, king of Kent, \nin 640 or 641. Baker\'s Chron. Flesh was prohibited \nduring Lent; but Henry VIII. permitted the use of \nwhite meats by a proclamation in 1543, which con- \ntinued in force until, by proclamation of James I., \nin 1619 and 1625, and by Charles I., in 1627 and \n163 1, flesh was again wholly forbidden; see Ash- \nJJ edncsday, Quadragesima. \n\nLEON, KINGDOM OF, see under Spain. \n\nLEONAEDS\' ACTS, Lord St., 22 & 23 \nVict. c. 35 ; 23 & 24 Vict. c. 38 (1859-60), relate to \nlegal proceedings. \n\nLEONINE CITY (Cittd Leonina or Sorgo), \nformerly a suburb, now included in the city of \nRome, was founded by Leo IV., pope 847-55, and \nnamed Leopolis. It comprehends the castle of St. \nAngelo, the hospital of San Spirito, the Vatican \npalace and gardens, and St. Peter\'s. Its possession \n-was allotted to pope Pius IX. when the Italian royal \ntroops entered Rome, 20 Sept. 1870. About 1500 \ninhabitants of the Leonine city voted for union with \nthe kingdom of Italy, 2 Oct. 1870. \n\nLEONINES, hexameter and pentameter verses, \nrhyming at the middle and the end, are said to have \nbeen first made by Leoninus, a canon, about the \nmiddle of the 12th century, or by pope Leo II. \nabout 682. \n\nLEOPOLD\'S, PEINCE, ANNUITY \nACT (passed 7 Aug. 1874), provided for him \n15,000/. a year, from 7 April, 1874, when he came \nof age. \n\nLEPANTO (near Corinth), Battle of, 7 Oct- \n1571: when the combined fleets of Spain, Venice, \nGenoa, Malta, and Pius V., commanded by don \nJohn of Austria, defeated the whole maritime force \nof the Turks,and completely checked their progress. \nLEPROSY, a skin disease described in Leviticus \nxiii. (b.c. 1490), which prevailed in ancient times \nthroughout Asia. It has now almost disappeared \nfrom Europe. It chiefly affected the lower classes, \nyet occasionally proved fatal to the very highest \npersonages. Robert Bruce of Scotland died of leprosy \nin 1329. A hospital for lepers was founded at \nGranada, by queen Isabella of Castile, about 1504, \nand a large number of leper houses were founded in \nBritain. Dr. Edmondson met with u case in Edin- \nburgh in 1809. \n\nThe great increase of leprosy in the Sandwich Islands \ncompelled the government tn isolate the lepers, and \nlarge numbers were transported to Molokai, where \nthey endured much suffering. Since 1873 Father \nJoseph Damien (de Venster), R. C. Belgian mission- \nary, devoted his whole life most successfully to their \ngeneral relief, and finally died of their disease, aged 49, \n10 April, 1889. Other missionaries, male and female, \nare continuing his labours. \nThe Father Damien Memorial Fund \', under the auspices \nof the prince of Wales, was founded about 18 June, \n1889 ; and on 29 June it was determined to set up a \nmemorial statue of Father Damien at Kalawao, and to \nestablish a fund for the medical treatment of the \ndisease in the United Kingdom, and for the promotion \nof the study of it at home and abroad especially n \nIndia \n\n\n\nSir Henry B. Loch founds a hospital at Robben \n\nisland, Cape Colony ... .8 April, 1890 \nNational Leprosy Fund ; subscription dinner at the \nHotel Metropole, the prince of Wales in the chair, \n\n13 Jan. ,, \nThe Albert Victor leprosy hospital at Calcutta \n\nfounded Jan. ,, \n\nThe lion, sir Dinshaw Manockjee Petit presents \n100,000 rupees to found a leper hospital at Bombay, \nannounced . . . . . 7 Feb. ,, \n\nThe British leprosy commission arrived at Calcutta, \n\nNov. ,, \nLEEIDA, the ancient Ilerda, E. Spain, founded \nby the Carthaginians. Near it Julius Ctesar de- \nfeated Pompey\'s lieutenants, 49 B.C. It was made \nthe residence of the kings of Aragon, 1 149. It was \ncaptured for Philip V. by the French under theduke \nof Orleans, I30ct. I707,and bySuchet,i3 May,i8iO. \n\nLESSONS, see Common Prayer. \n\nLETTEES, see Alphabet, Anonymous, Belles \nLettres, Copying Machine, Epistles, Literature, \nMarque, and Privateers. \n\nLETTEES DE CACHET, sealed letters \nissued by the kings of France since about 1670, by \nvirtue of which those persons against whom they \nwere directed were thrown into prison or exiled. \nThe National Assembly decreed their abolition, 1 \nNov. 1789. \n\nLETTUCE, introduced into England from \nFlanders about 1520. It is said that when queen \nCatherine wished for a salad, she bad to send to \nHolland or Flanders for lettuce. \n\nLEUCTEA, in Bceotia, N. Greece, where the \nThebans under Epaminondas defeated the superior \nforce of Cleombrotus, king of Sparta, 8 July, 371 B.C. \n4000 Spartans, with their king, were slain. r Ihe \nSpartans gradually lost their preponderance in \nGreece. \n\nLEUDES, from the German, Leute, people. \nNative feudal vassals, faithful to the German and \nFrench sovereigns in the 6th and 7th centuries. \n\nLEUTHEN (S. Prussia) ; see Lissa. \n\nLEVANT (the East), a term applied to Greece, \nTurkey, Asia Minor, &c. Levant companies, in \nLondon, were established in 1581, 1593, and 1605. \n\nLEVELLEES, a fanatical party in Germany, \nheaded by Muncer and Storck in the 16th century, \nwho taught that all distinctions of rank were usurpa- \ntions on the rights of mankind. At the head of \n40,000 men, Muncer commanded the sovereign \nprinces of Germany and the magistrates of cities to \nresign their authority ; and on his march his followers \nravaged the country. The landgrave of Hesse at \nlength defeated him at Frankenhausen, 15 May, \n1525 ; 7000 of the enthusiasts fell in the battle, and \nthe rest fled ; their leader was taken and beheaded \nat Mulhausen. The English " Levellers," powerful \nin parliament in 1647, were put down by Cromwell \nin 1649, and then leader Lilburn imprisoned. At \nthe period of the French revolution some Levellers \nappeared in England. A " Loyal Association" was \nformed against them by John Reeves, Nov. 1792. \n\nLEVELS. The great Level of the Fens is a \nlow-lying district of about 2000 square miles, in \nLincolnshire, Huntingdonshire, Cambridgeshire, and \nNorfolk, said to have been overflown by the sea \nduring an earthquake, 368. It was long after ware\'s \nan inland sea in winter, and a noxious swamp in \nsummer, and wasgraduallydrained \xe2\x80\x94 by the Romans, \nthe Saxons, and especially by the monks during the \nreigns of the Plantagenet kings. One of the first \nworks on a large scale was carried out by Morton, \nbishop of Ely, in the reign of Henry VII. A general \n\n\n\nLEVEBIAN MUSEUM. \n\n\n\n577 \n\n\n\nLIBEEALS. \n\n\n\ndrainage act was passed by the advice of lord Burgh- \nley, in 1601, but little work was done till the reign \nof James I., who, in 1621, invited over the great \nDutch engineer, Cornelius Vermuyden, to assist in \nthe general drainage of the country. After complet- \ning several great works, Vermuyden agreed (in 1629) \nto drain the " Great Level." He was at first \nprevented from proceeding with his undertaking \nthrough a popular cutcry against foreigners ; but \neventually, aided by Francis, earl of Bedford, in \nspite of the great opposition of the people, for whose \nbenefit he was labouring, he declared his great work \ncomplete in 1652. lie also reclaimed much valuable \nland at Axholme, in Lincolnshire, 1626-30, and \nmany Dutch and French protestants settled here \nabout 1634; and a few of their descendants still \nremain. \xe2\x80\x94 \'there are the Middle, Bedford, South, \nand North Levels. \n\nThe drainage of the Great Level employed the \ntalents of Rennie (about 1807), and of Telford \n(1822), and of other eminent engineers. \nThe Middle Level commission cut through certain \n\nbarrier banks, and replaced them by other works 1844 \nThese were reported unsound in March, and the \noutfall sluice at St. Germains, near King\'s Lynn, \n\ngave way 4 May, 1862 \n\nHigh tides ensuing, about 6000 acres of fertile land \nwere inundated, causing a loss of about 25,000?. \nAfter unwearied, and, for a while, unsuccessful \nefforts, a new coffer dam was constructed under \nthe superintendence of Mr. Hawkshaw, which was \n\nreported sound July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAnother inundation, begun through the bursting \nof a marshland sluice, near Lynn, was checked \n\n4 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nNew outfall sluice opened ... 26 Nov. 1877 \n\nLEVEEIAN MUSEUM, formed by sir Ash- \nton Lever, exhibited to the public at Leicester- \nhouse, London ; it was offered to the public, in \n1785, by the chance of a guinea lottery, and won by \nMr. Parkinson, in 1785, who sold it by auction, in \nlots, May-July, 1806. \n\nLEVIATHAN", see Steam Navigation. \n\nLEWES (Sussex), where Henry III., king of \nEngland, was defeated by Montfort,earl c\' Leicester, \nand the barons, 14 May, 1264. Blaa,M. The \nking, his brother Richard, king of the Romans, and \nhis son Edward, afterwards Edward I., were taken \nprisoners. One division of Montfort\'s army, a body \nof Londoners, gave way to the furious attack of \nprince Edward, who, pursuing the fugitives too far, \ncaused the battle to be lost; see Evesham. Popu- \nlation, 1881, 11,199; 1891, 10,997. \n\nLEXICON, see Dictionaries. \n\nLEXINGTON" (Massachusetts), Battle of, at \nthe beginning of the war of independence. The \nBritish obtained the advantage, and destroyed the \nstores of the revolted colonists, but lost in the battle \n273 men, killed and wounded, 19 April, 1775. The \nHostilities thus commenced continued to 1783. \xe2\x80\x94 \nLexington, a town in Missouri, U.S., fortified by \nthe Federals, was attacked by the confederate general \nPrice, on 29 Aug., and after a gallant resistance by \ncolonel Mulligan, surrendered on 21 Sept. 1861. \n\nLEYDEN (Holland), Lugdunum Batavorum, \nimportant in the 13th century. Between 31 Oct. \n1573, and30ct. 1574, when it was relieved, itendured \ntwo sieges by the armies of Spain, during which 6000 \nof the inhabitants died of famine and pestilence. In \ncommemoration the university was founded, 1575. \nIn l6q9 two-thirds of the population perished by a \nievcr, which, it was said, was aggravated by its \nimproper treatment by professor De la Boo. The \nuniversity was almost destroyed by a vessel laden \nwith 10,000 lbs. weight of gunpowder blowing up, \n\n\n\nand demolishing a large part of the town, and killing \nnumbers of people, 12 Jan. 1807. The Leyden jar \nwas invented about 1745, by Kleist, -Muschenbroek, \nand others ; see Electricity. Population, 1890, \n43-510. \n\nThe third centenary of the foundation of the univer- \nsity celebrated joyfully .... 8 Feb. 1875 \n\nLIBEL. By the Roman laws of the Twelve \nTables, libels which affected the reputation of another \nwere made capital offences. In the British law, \nwhatever renders a man ridiculous, or lowers a man \nin the opinion and esteem of the world, is deemed a \nlibel. " The greater the truth the greater the libel," \nthe well known law maxim of a high authority, is \nnow disputed; see Trials, 1788, 1790, 1792, 1803, \n1808 et seq., 1863, 1882 ; and (note) Patents and \nTimes. \n\nDispersing slanderous libels made felony . . 1545 \nWin. Prynne, a puritan lawyer, fined 5000Z., placed \nin the pillory, where his ears were cut off, and \nimprisoned, for writing " Histriomastix," a con- \ndemnation of stage plays : which was considered \nto be a libel on the queen, who favoured them, \n1633 ; he was tried and further punished for his \n\nsatirical writings in 1637 \n\nFox\'s libel bill, which enlarged the discretionary \npower of juries in cases of libel, thrown out by the \n\nlords in 1791 ; passed in 1792 \n\nBlasphemous and seditious libels, on the second \n\noffence, made punishable with transportation . 1819. \nAn action for libel was brought in the court of \nKing\'s Bench by a bookseller named Stockdale, \nagainst Messrs. Hansard, the printers to the house \nof commons ; this action related to an opinion \nexpressed in a parliamentary report of a book \npublished by Stockdale, 7 Nov. 1836. Lord Den- \nman, in giving judgment, said he was not aware \nthat the authority of the house of commons could \njustify the publication of a libel\xe2\x80\x94 an opinion \nwhich led to some proceedings on the part of the \nhouse, and to other actions by Stockdale . 1837-39 \nVerdicts were given in his favour, and in Nov. 1839, \nthe sheriffs took possession of Hansard\'s premises. \nThis caused much excitement in parliament, and \nthey were ordered to appear at the bar of the \nhouse of commons, and were formally committed \nto the custody of the serjeant-at-arms, 21 Jan., \nbut immediately discharged : the conflict was \nmaintained by the law officers and the commons \n\ntill May, 1840 \n\nA law was passed giving summary protection to \npersons employed by parliament in the publication \nof its reports and papers . . .14 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe severity of the law in respect to newspapers \n\nrelaxed by lord Campbell\'s act, 6 <fc 7 Vict. c. 96 . 1843- \nA bill relieving newspapers from actions for libel in \nreporting speeches at lawful public meetings, read \nthird time in the commons, Aug. 1867, but \ndropped ; read 2nd time 1 April; and withdrawn, \n\n1 July, 1868 \nWason v. Walter (" Times") ; parliamentary reports \n\nand fair comments, declared no libel . 25 Nov. ,, \nNewspaper Libel Act passed . . 27 Aug. 1S81 \n\nNew Libel Law passed .... 24 Dec. 1888 \n\nLIBEEALS, a name given to the more ad- \nvanced Whigs and reformers since 1828. The party \nheld office under Earl Grey, Viscount Melbourne, \nEarl Russell, Viscount Palinerston, and Mr. W. E. \nGladstone. See Administrations. \nThe Liberal, a paper begun by Byron, Shelley and \n\nLeigh Hunt, 4 numbers only published . . 1822 \nNew city liberal club ; earl Granville, president ; \n\norganised May, 1874 \n\nNew liberal club for west end, founded . June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nA new liberal cry proposed "Free church, schools, \n\nand land " (Mr. Chamberlain) . . autumn. ,. \nMr. Gladstone resigned the leadership of the party \nin the commons, 13 Jan. ; his successor, the \nmarquis of Hartington . . . 13 Jan. 1875 \nAssociations composed of elected delegates to or- \nganise liberal voters, have been formed in Bir- \nmingham, Southward, Bradford, and other bo- \nroughs 1876 (t M 7 \n\nV P \n\n\n\nLIBEEATION OF EELIGION. \n\n\n\n578 \n\n\n\nLIBEAEIES. \n\n\n\nMr. W. E. Forster refused to submit to the dicta- \ntion of the committee of the Bradford associa- \ntion in respect to his voting . . . Aug. 1878 \nSee Caucus. \nNational Liberal Federation : constituted at Bir- \nmingham, 31 May, 1877 ; first annual meeting (at \nLeeds), 22 Jan. 1879. At the meeting at Notting- \nham, 18 Oct. 1887, Mr. Gladstone severely con- \ndemned the government Irish policy and action ; \nalso at Birmingham . 5 Nov. 1888 \n\nAgain at Manchester .... 3 Dec. 1889 \n\nAt Liverpood 18 March, 1890 \n\nAt Newcastle-on-Tyne (which see) . . 1 Oct 1891 \nGreat liberal conference at Leeds . . 17 Oct. 1883 \nNational liberal club, Westminster, founded Nov. \n1882 ; inaugural banquet, 2 May, 1883 ; founda- \ntion of house at Whitehall laid by Mr. Gladstone, \n\n4 Nov. 1S84 \nThe liberal majority in 1885, 82 (exclusive of 86 \n\nParnellites) \nMany secessions (lord Hartington, lord Selborne, \nearl Derby, Mr. John Bright, Mr. GSschen, Mr. \nChamberlain, sir John Lubbock, sir H. James, \nand others) against Mr. Gladstone\'s Irish policv \n(termed unionist or dissentient liberals, the old \nliberal party have since been named Gladstonians) \nJan.-May ; at a conference they resolve to sup- \nport the Salisbury government . . 7 Dec. 1886 \nInaugural meeting of the London Liberal and Radical \n\nUnion 11 Jan. 1887 \n\n"Round Table" conference at sir Wm. Harcourt\'s, \nfor re-union of unionists and Gladstonians ; \nreported unsuccessful . . 13 Jan. e.t seq. ,, \nThe Liberal Unionist, a new review published \n\n30 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \nLord Hartington and a great many liberal unionists \n\nretire from the National Liberal Club . . Dec. 1888 \n\'The National Radical Union becomes the National \n\nLiberal (see Radical) . . . .24 April, 1889 \nThe Women\'s Liberal Confederation (Gladstonian) \n\nconsists of 33,500 members . . . May, ,, \nA great Liberal Unionist banquet at the Crystal \npalace, in honour of the marquis of Hartington, \n\n13 May, 1890 \nNational Liberal Unionist conference at Manchester ; \nsir Henry James chairman, the marquis of Hart- \nington and the duke of Argyll present 10 Nov. 1891 \n\nLIBEEATIQN OF EELIGTON from \nState Patronage and Control. Society \n\nfor, was established by eminent political dissenters, \nMay, 1844. 16th triennial conference opened, \n3 May, 1892. \n\n" LIBEEATOE," a name popularly given to \nMr. Daniel O\'Connell, for his successful exertions \nrelating to Roman Catholic emancipation, com- \npleted by Parliament in 1829. " Liberator " was \nthe name of an American anti-slavery journal \nfounded by Wm. Lloyd Garrison, Jan. 1831, and \nedited by him till i856. He was aided by Mr. \nJohn G. Whittier. \n\nLIBEEIA, the republic of freed and indigenous \nnegroes on the coast of Upper Guinea, West Africa, \nwas founded in 1822 by the American Colonisation \nSociety, which was established by Henry Clay in \n1816 : capital, Monrovia. The independence of Li- \nberia was proclaimed, 24 Aug. 1847 ; recognised by \nEurope in 1848, by America, in 1862. Presidents: \nJ. J. Roberts, an able statesman, 1847; Daniel B. \nWarner, elected 1864; James Spriggs Payne, in- \nstalled 6 Jan. 1868 ; E. J. Roy, president, Jan. \n1870, was deposed, Oct. 187 1 ; escaped from prison; \ndrowned, Feb. 1872. J. J. Roberts re-elected Jan. \n1872 and 1874 ! died 215 Feb. ; J. Spriggs Payne, \nelected 3 June, 1876; A. W. Gardner, 1878; A. J. \nRussell, 1883 ; H. R. W. Johnson, 7 Jan. 1884. \nPopulation, about 20,000 civilized Africans, above \n100,000 natives. \n\nThe territories largely increased by annexations, \n1847 et seq., and by the adhesion of Maryland, a \nnegro republic (founded 1821-54) \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 1857 \n\n\n\nThe president Roberts, visits the exhibition in \nLondon ......... 1862 \n\nWar with the aborigines at Cape Palmas; fighting, 17 Sept. \nLiberia successful . . . . . . Oct. 1875 \n\nPeace concluded March, 1876 \n\nKingdom of Medina {which see) annexed ; an- \nnounced Feb. 1880 \n\nLIBEETINES (signifying freedmenand their \nsons), was a sect headed by Quintin and Corin, \nabout 1525, who held monstrous opinions. \n\nLIBEETY, see Press and Trees. A colossal \nstatue of Liberty, 150 feet high by M. Bartholdi, \nFrench sculptor, presented to the United States of \nN. America, was set up at New York Harbour and \nwas publicly dedicated 28 Oct. 1886. \n\nLIBEETY AWT) PEOPEETY DE- \nFENCE LEAGUE, formed by lords Elcho \n(since earl of Wemyss), B ram well, and others, to \nobviate the effects of legislation since 1871- First \nmeeting 5 July; first general meeting 29 Nov. 1882. \nThe league has many affiliated societies. At the \ngeneral meeting on 1 July, 1886, M. Leon Say was \npresident. \n\nLIBEAEIES-* Accadimor Chaldean libraries \nare said to have been formed 1700 B.C. The remains \nof those formed by Assyrian monarchs (744 et seq.) \nat Nineveh, &c, consisting of tablets of baked clay, \nwere discovered by Botta, Layard, and others, 1843 \net seq.; see Nineveh. Diodorus Siculus describes a \nlibrary in the tomb of Osymandyas, king of Egypt. \nA public library was founded at Athens by Pisis- \ntratus, about 540 B.C. Another was founded by \nPtolemy Philadelphus, 284 B.C. It was partially de- \nstroyed when Julius Caesar set fire to Alexandria 47 \nB.C. 400,000 valuable books in MS. are said to \nhave been lost by this catastrophe. Blair, \nThe first private library was Aristotle\'s. Strabo. B.C. 334 \nThe first library at Rome brought from Macedonia 167 \nAccording to Plutarch, the library at Pergamos con- \ntained 200,000 books. It came into the posses- \nsion of the Romans at the death of Attalus III., \nwho bequeathed his kingdom to the Roman people 133 \nThe library of Appellicon, sent to Rome from \n\nAthens, by Sylla 86 \n\nLibrary founded at Constantinople by Constantine, a.d. \n\nabout 355 \nAn Alexandrian library, said to have been burnt by \n\nthe caliph Omer 1 640 \n\nLibrary at St. Mark\'s, Venice, begun, by gifts from \n\nPetrarch, 1352 ; enlarged by cardinal Bessarion . 1468 \nMatthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, collected a \n\nlibrary of nearly 500,000 volumes at Buda ; died . 1490 \nThe first public library in Italy founded at Florence \nby Niccolo Niccoli, one of the great restorers of \nlearning. At his death he left his library to the \npublic, 1436. Cosmo de\' Medici enriched it with \nthe invaluable Greek and Hebrew MSS. about 1560 \nThe Vatican Library at Rome, founded by pope \nNicholas V. in 1447, and improved by Sixtus V., 1588 \n(contained about 150,000 volumes and 40,000 \nMSS., 1868). \nImperial Library of Vienna, founded by Frederick \n\nIII. in 1440, and by Maximilian. 1 1500 \n\nRoyal Library of Paris, founded by John 1350, en- \nlarged by Charles V., 1364 ; said to contain 815,000 \nvolumes and 84,000 MSS. in i860 ; 1,700,000 vols \nin 1876. A new reading-room has been built. \nRoyal Libraries founded at Copenhagen by Christian \nIII. about 1533 : at Stockholm, by Gustavus Vasa, \nabout 1540 : at Munich, by Albert III. . about 1550 \nEscurial at Madrid, commenced with the foundation \n\nof the palace, by Philip II 1557 \n\nHarvard University Library (see Harvard), Massa- \nchusetts, U.S., founded 1632, endowed . . 1638 \nImperial Library at St. Petersburg (principally the \nspoils of Poland), founded .... 1714 \n\n* A Conference of British and foreign librarians met at \nthe London Institution, 2 Oct. 1877. It founded the \nLibrary Association of the United Kingdom. \n\n\n\nLIBEAEY ASSOCIATION. \n\n\n\n579 \n\n\n\nLICHFIELD. \n\n\n\nAstor Free Publie Library, New York, founded by \nJohn Jacob Astor, by gift of 80,000?., 1839; he \ndied in 1848, and the library has since been \nwarmly supported by his wealthy son, Wm. \nJBlackhouse Astor (died 1875), and his grandson, \nJohn Jacob Astor (died 1890). \n\nLIBRARIES IN GREAT BRITAIN. \n\nIlichard de Bury, chancellor and high treasurer of \nEngland, purchased thirty or forty volumes of the \nabbot of St. Alban\'s for fifty pounds\' weight of \nsilver 1341 \n\nUniversity Library, St. Andrews, founded . . 141 1 \n\nGlasgow University Library, founded about . . 1473 \n\nLambeth palace Library founded by abp. Bancroft, \n\nabout 1610 \n\nSion College Library, founded 1630 \n\nRoyal Society Library, founded 1667 \n\nHarleian Library (which see) begun .... 1705 \n\nUniversity Library, Cambridge, founded 1475 ; Geo. \nI. gave 6000 guineas to purchase Dr. Moore\'s col- \nlection 1715 \n\nBodleian Library at Oxford, founded 1598 ; opened \n8 Nov. 1602. See Bodleian. \n\nCottonian Library, founded by Sir Robert Cotton \nabout 1588 ; appropriated to the public, 1701 ; \npartly destroyed by fire, 1731 ; removed to the \nBritish Museum (which see) 1753 \n\nDr. Daniel Williams\'s Public Library. He died, \n1716 ; bequeathed his library and money for a \nbuilding, which was opened at 49, Redcross-street, \nCity, in 1729 ; it was successively removed to \nQueen\'s-square, Bloomsbury, 1864, and to Graf- \nton-street East, and opened . . . Sept. 1873 \n\nRadcliffe Library at Oxford, founded by the will of \nDr. Radcliffe, 1714 ; opened 1749 \n\nThe Libraries of the Royal Institution (founded \n1803), the London Institution (1805), and the \n1 loyal College of Surgeons (1786), have classified \ncatalogues. \n\nLibrary of the University of Dublin (1601), and the \nA Ivocates\' Library in Edinburgh (1680), are ex- \ntensive and valuable. \n\nLibrary of East India Company, founded . . 1800 \n\nItojul Libraries in England: that of Edward IV., \nmentioned 1480, increased in the reigns of Edw. \nVI. and James I. ; much enlarged by Richard \nBentley, while librarian, 1 694-1 735 ; added to the \nBritish Museum by Geo. II., 1759 ; rich library of \nGeo. III., presented to the nation, 1823 ; deposited \nin the British Museum 1829 \n\nIn 1609 the Stationers\' Company agreed to give a \ncopy of every book published, to the Bodleian \nLibrary, Oxford. By 14 Charles II. c. 33 (1662), \nthree copies were required to be given to certain \npublic libraries ; by 8 Anne, c. 19(1709), the num- \nber was increased to nine ; by 41 Geo. III. c. 107, \nto eleven ; which number was reduced to rive by \n5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 110(1835): the British Museum, \nthe Bodleian, Oxford, the Public Library, Cam- \nbridge, the Advocates\' Library, Edinburgh, and \nTrinity College, Dublin. \n\nFree Libraries successfully established, since 1850, \nat Manchester, Liverpool, Salford, &c. Many \nothers formed under acts passed in 1845, 1850 & 1856 \n\nOn 5 Nov. 1855, a proposal to establish a Free Li- \nbrary in the city of London was negatived, and \nin 1857 that in Marylebone was closed for want of \nsupport, but was re-opened 1 May, 1890. \n\nThe new city library, Guildhall (free) was opened \n\nS Nov. 1872 \n\nMetropolitan Free Library Association formed, \n\n4 April, 1879 \n\nThe great library collected by Charles Spencer, 3rd \nearl of Sunderland, the property of the duke of \nMarlborough, partly sold by auction (under the \nBlenheim Settled Estates Act of 1880) 1-12 Dec. 1881 \n\nLibrary of sir Francis Drake and family sold, Mar. 1883 \n\nUnited Hamilton and Beckford libraries sold for \n86,444? 1883-4 \n\nThe Syston Park library (sir John Hay ford Thorold) \nincluding a Mazarin bible, early printed classics, \n&C., sold for about 28,000?. . . 12-20 Dec. 1884 \n\nThe library of Michael Wodhull, collected in the \nlast century, realized by 10 days\' sale 11,973?. 4 s - 6d. \n\n21 Jan. 1886 \n\n133 free libraries established up to . . 1887 \n\n\n\nLord Aylesford\'s library sold for 10,754?. ; nine \n\ndays\' sale 20 March, 1888 \n\nSee Circulating Library. \n\nLIBEAEY ASSOCIATION of the \nUNITED KINGDOM, founded at a conference of \nlibrarians at the London Institution, 2 Oct. 1877. \nIt met at Oxford, 1-3 Oct. 1878 ; at Manchester, 23 \nSept. 1879; Ldinburgh, 5 Oct. 1880; London, 1881 ; \nCambridge, 5 Sept. 1882; Liverpool, 11 Sept. 1883; \nLublin, 30 Sept. 1884 ; Plymouth, 15 Sept. 1885 ; \nLondon, 28 Sept. 1886; Birmingham, 20 Sept. \n1887 ; Glasgw, 4 Sept. 1888 ; London (Gray\'s Inn), \n2 Oct. 1889; Reading, 16 Sept. 1890 ; Nottingham, \n16 Sept. 1891 ; Paris, 12 Sept. 1892. \n\nLIBEO D\'OEO (Book of Gold). The title o \nan ancient register of 24 ruling Venetian families \nbefore 813; and also of another book, dated 150(5, \nrecording the genealogies of the noble houses who \nruled Venice till the fall of the republic in 1797. \n\nLIBYA, Greek name for all Africa, but specially \nfor the interior as distinguished from the north; it \nis mentioned by Homer and described by Herodotus. \nIt was temporarily subdued by (Jambyses, king of \nPersia, about 525 B.C. The country was explored \nfor trade purposes by Ptolemy II., III., and IV., \nkings of Egypt. \n\nLICENCES. This mode of levying money was \nintroduced by Richard I. about 1 190 ; but was then \nconfined to such of the nobility as desired to enter \nthe lists at tournaments. \n\nGames and gaming-houses licensed in London . 1620 \n\nLicence system for excisable articles enforced in \nvarious reigns, from the 12th Charles II. \n\nLottery office-keepers to take out licences, and pay \n50?. for each. This reduced the number from 400 \nto 51 Aug. \n\nGeneral licensing act, 9 Geo. IV. e. 61 . \n\nLicences for public-houses granted in 1551, and for \nrefreshment-houses, with wine licences . . . \n\nIn the case of Sharp v. Wakefield, thehouse of lords, \non appeal, decided that the licensing justices have \nthe power of refusing to renew a licence to \npublicans, when they think fit . 20 March, \n\nThe licensing system was applied to India as a kind \nof income-tax, 1859 : ceased in ... \n\nLicences for the sale of tea, coffee, chocolate, and \npepper were abolished and other licences modified \nby acts passed in x 8 \n\nLicensing Reform Agitation . . . .18 \n\nActs for licensing plays and playhouses by the lord \nchamberlain, were passed in 1736 (10 Geo. II. \nc. 28) ; and in 1843 (6 & 7 Vict. c. 68) ; and for \nmusic and dancing in public-houses, in 1752 (25 \nGeo. II. c. 36). \n\nNew licensing act, regulating the sale of intoxicating \nliquors ; very much opposed ; passed and came \ninto operation . . ." . .10 Aug. 1872 \n\nAnother licensing act passed . . .30 July, 1S74 \n\nThe licensing clauses of the local taxation bill \n(much opposed), dropped by the government, \n\n24 June, 1850 \n\nLicences issued : 1877, 21,729; 1881, 29,085. \nSee Press. \n\nLICHFIELD (Staffordshire). The see of \nMercia (at Lichfield) was founded about 656; re- \nmoved to Chester, 1075 i to Coventry, 1102. Inii2i \nRobert Peche was consecrated bishop of Lichfield \nand Coventry. By an order in council, Jan. 1837, \nthe archdeaconry of Coventry was added to the see \nof Worcester, andDr. Samuel Butler became bishop \nof Lichfield. This see has given three saints to the \nRomish church ; and to the British nation one lord \nchancellor and three lord treasurers. It is valued \nin the king\'s books at 559^. 18s. 2d. Present income, \n4200/. Population, 1881, 8,349; I S9 I > 7,864. \nLichfield cathedral was first built about 656 ; the pre- \nsent structure was founded by Roger de Clinton, the \n\nF p 2 \n\n\n\n1660 \n\n\n\n1778 \n1828 \n\nIS60 \n\n\n\n70-71 \n\n\n\nLICHFIELD HOUSE COMPACT. 580 \n\n\n\nLIFE-BOAT. \n\n\n\n37th bishop, in 1148. Walter de Langton (bishop in \n1296), built the chape] of St. Mary, now taken into the \nchoir, and under bishop Heyworth (1420) the cathedral \nwas perfected. The building was despoiled at the \nReformation, and was scandalously injured in the par- \nliamentary war (when its monuments, its fine sculp- \ntures, and beautifully painted windows, were demo- \nlished). It was repaired at the restoration, 1660; in \n1788 ; and by Gilbert G. Scott, 1860-63 and l8S 4- \nIn Lichfield castle, king Richard II. kept his Christmas \nfestival, 1397, when 200 tuns of wine and 2000 oxen \nwere consumed. A charter was granted to Lichfield, \nconstituting it a city, by Edward VI., 1549. It was \nabsorbed into the county in 1885. \n\nBISHOPS OF LICHFIELD AND COVENTRY. \n\n1781. James, earl of Cornwallis, died 1824. \n1824. Hon. Henry Ryder, died 31 March, 1836. \n\nBISHOPS OF LICHFIELD. \n\n1836. Samuel Butler, died 4 Dec. 1839. \n\n1839. James Bowstead, died n Oct. 1843. \n\n1843. John Lonsdale, died 19 Oct. 1867. \n\n1867. Geo. Aug. Selwyn, late bishop of New Zealand, \n\ndied 11 April, 1878. \n1878. William Dalrymple Maclagan, consecrated 24 June, \n\ntranslated to York, May, 1891. \n1891. Hon. Augustus Legge, June. \n\nLICHFIELD HOUSE COMPACT, said \nto have been made between the Whig government \nand Daniel O\'Connell in 1835 at Liehfield-house, \n13, St. James\'s-square. \n\nLICINIAN LAWS. In 375 b.c, C. Licinius \nStolo and L. Sextius, tribunes of the people, pro- \nmulgated various rogationes or laws to weaken the \npower of the patricians and benefit the plebeians : \none was to relieve the plebeians from their debts ; \nanother enacted that no person should possess more \nthan 500 jugera of the public land, or more than \n100 head of large cattle, or 500 of small, in the \nRoman states; and the third, that one of the con- \nsuls should be a plebeian. After much opposition \nthese were carried, and L. Sextius became the first \nplebeian consul, 366. Another law, 56 B.C., of this \nname, imposed a severe penalty on party clubs, or \nsocieties assembled for election purposes; and \nanother, about 103 B.C. (brought forward by P. \nLicinius Crassus), limited the expenses of the table. \n\nLICK OBSEKV ATOPY, see under Obser- \nvatory. \n\nLIEBENAU (Bohemia). Here -was fought \nthe first action of the seven weeks\' war, 26 June, \n1866; when the Austrians were compelled to \nretreat by the Prussians under general Von Horn. \n\nLIECHTENSTEIN, a principality, _S. Ger- \nmany. Population, in 1880, 9124. Constitutional \ncharter, 26 Sept. 1862. Prince John II., born 5 \nOct. 1840, succeeded his father Alois- Joseph, 12 \nNov. 1858. \n\nLIEGrE (Belgium), a bishopric, under the Ger- \nman empire, from the 8th century till 1795. Liege \nfrequently revolted against its prince-bishops. \nAfter a severe contest, the citizens were beaten at \nBrusthem, 28 Oct. 1467, and Liege taken by Charles \nthe Bold, duke of Burgundy, who treated them with \ngi - eat severity. In 1482 Liege fell into the power \nof De la Marck, the Boar of Ardennes, who killed \nthe bishop, Louis of Bourbon, and was himself \ndefeated and killed. liege was taken by the duke \nof Marlborough, 23 Oct. 1702; and by the French \nand others, at various times, up to 1796, when it \nwas annexed to France. It was incorporated with \nthe Netherlands in 1814, and with Belgium in 1830. \nIron-works were established at Liege in the 16th \ncentury, and have been greatly enlarged by the \nCockerills in the 19th, see Seraing. An inter- \nnational volunteer shooting contest held here, Sept. \n\n\n\n1869. The Iron and Steel Institute met here 18- \nAug. 1873. Dynamite explosions ; the church of \nSt. Martin much injured, 1,2 May; nine anarchists- \nconvicted ; sentences, penal servitude, one, 25 \nyears ; two, 20 years ; four, 15 years ; one, 10 years; \none, 3 years ; trial, 18-26 July, 1892. Population ? \nin 1890, 149,789. \n\nLIEGNITZ, see Ffaffendorf. \n\nLIEUTENANTS, Lord, for counties, were \ninstituted in England, 3 Edw. VI., 1549, and in \nIreland in 1 83 1. Their military jurisdiction abo- \nlished by Army Regulation Act, 10*71. For the lords- \nlieutenant of Ireland, see Ireland. \n\nLIFE ASSURANCE COMPANIES ACT P \n\npassed 9 Aug. 1870, requires the companies to pub- \nlish annual returns of receipts, expenditure, &c. \n\nLIFE-BOAT, &c, see Wrecks. \n\nPatent granted to Mr. Lionel Lukin for a life-boat . 1785; \n\nA reward, offered by a committee in South Shields \nfor a life-boat, 1788, obtained by Mr. Henry Great- \nhead, of that town (he received 1200Z. from parlia- \nment), 1789 ; it first put to sea . . 30 Jan. 1790 \n\nAnother life boat was invented by William Would- \nhave. His name was inscribed on a memorial \nerected in honour of Henry Greathead on the \npier at South Shields, uncovered . 25 June, 18901 \n\n31 life-boats built, and 300 lives saved up to . . 1804 \n\nThe duke of Northumberland offered a reward of \n105Z. for a life-boat, 1850 ; obtained by Mr. James \nBeeching, of Yarmouth 1851 \n\nThe tubular life-boat of Mr. H. Richardson, the \nChallenger, patented in Jan. ; a cruise was made \nby him from Liverpool to London in it . .1852 \n\nThe National Life-boat Institution, founded in 1824 ; \nits journal first published, 1852. In 1856 it received \na bequest of io,oooZ. from Hamilton Fitzgerald, \nesq., and of 39,000?,. from Mr. Wm. Birks Rhodes, \n"the Hounslow miser," in 1878. \n\n185 life-boats in the United Kingdom, 1865 ; 284, 1884 ; \n293, 1888 ; 303, 1891. \n\nLives saved by the Institution\'s life-boats, \xc2\xa3c, 1824-91, \n36,179 :\xe2\x80\x94 \n\n1877 \n1878 \n1879 \n\n\n\n1824 . \n\n\n. 124 \n\n\n1834 . \n\n\n214 \n\n\n1844 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 193 \n\n\n1854 \n\n\n355 \n\n\n1864 . \n\n\n. 698 \n\n\n1874 \n\n\n743 \n\n\n187s \xe2\x96\xa0 \n\n\n. 921 \n\n\n1876 \n\n\n. 600 \n\n\n\n1048 \n\n\n1885 \n\n\n555 \n\n\n616 \n\n\n1886 . \n\n\n. 761 \n\n\n8S5 \n\n\n1887 . \n\n\n572 \n\n\n697 \n\n\n1888 . \n\n\n. 617 \n\n\n1121 \n\n\n1889 . \n\n\n627 \n\n\n884 \n\n\n1890 . \n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 555 \n\n\n955 \n\n\n1891 . \n\n\n736 \n\n\n792 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nHans Busk Life-ship Institute founded . Oct. 1869 \n\nThe American Life-raft, composed of cylinders \nlashed together, sailed from New York, 4 June, \n1867, navigated by three men, capt John Mikes \nand Messrs. Miller and Mullane, and arrived at \nSouthampton, 25 July following. \n\nLife-Preserver, the ax>paratus of capt. Manby \n(brought into use in Feb. 1808), effects a com- \nmunication with the distressed vessel by a rope, \nthrown by a shot from a mortar, with a line \nattached to it. For the night, a night-ball is \nprovided with a hollow ease of thick pasteboard, \nand a. fuse and quick match, and charged with \nfifty balls, and a sufficiency of powder to inflame \nthem. The fuse is so graduated that the shell \nshall explode at the height of 300 yards. The \nballs spread a brilliant light for nearly a minute, \nand give a clear view of every surrounding object. \nIn 20 years, 58 vessels and 410 of their crews and \npassengers had been saved. Capt. Manby died \n18 Nov. 1854, aged 89. See Rockets. \n\nThe Boat-Lowering Apparatus, in consequence \nof many being lost when boats wei\'e lowered from \nthe Amazon in 1852, invented by Mr. Charles \nClifford, of London, in 1856, has been much ap- \nproved of, and has been generally adopted in the \nroyal navy. \n\nCapt. Kynaston\'s hooks were approved by admiral \nsir Baldwin Walker in 1862, and by a, committee \non the subject in 1872. \n\nExhibition of life-boats, life-rafts, &c, at the \nLondon Tavern opened 15 April, 1873. \n\n\n\nLIFE-GUAEDS. \n\n\n\n581 \n\n\n\nLIGHTHOUSE. \n\n\n\nHicks\' Life-raft, reported good on trial in East India \ndocks i Oct. 1874 \n\niCapt. Boyton\'s Life preserving dress (of india-rubber) \nwith means for signalling at sea, tried by him on \nthe Thames successfully, 23 Jan. and 6 March, \n.at Cowes, before the queen, while in the water \nlie fired rockets, caught fish, &c. , 5 April ; nearly \n\xe2\x96\xa0crossed the channel from Dover (paddled two \nmiles an hour) ; stopped by the French pilot \n\nApril, 1875 \n\nCaptain Boyton crossed the Channel from Grisnez \nto the South Foreland in 235 hours . 28-2(5 May, ,, \n\nChristie\'s Life-saving raft tried on the Thames, \ncould not be sunk .... 17 March, ,, \n\nEdmund Thompson\'s Life-raft, partially successful off \nPoplar 22 April, ,, \n\nBoyton race on the Thames by six young men, three \nprizes awarded by the duchess of Teck . 10 Aug. ,, \n\nRev. E. L. Berthon\'s Collapsible Life-boat taken out by \nthe Essequibo, and proved to be successful Sept. 1882 \n\nGold medal given to vice-admiral Ward, chief inspec- \ntor of life-boats for 32 years . . . Aug. 1883 \n\nMuch assistance rendered by life-boats during a \nsevere gale . . 14-16 Oct. and 8, 9 Dec. 1886 \n\nThe Mexico wrecked near Southport ; the Lytham \nlifeboat saves 12 lives ; the Southport and St. \nAnne\'s lifeboats capsized without righting them- \nselves ; 27 of the crews perish . . 9 Dec. ,, \n\nAdequate subscriptions for their wives and families \nand nucleus of a permanent fund formed Dec. ,, \n\n\'The Storm King patent life-boat 30 feet long, with \nits inventor, capt. Joergensen and a man named \nNelsen, left London 12 Sept. 1889, encountered \nheavy gales ; arrived at Cape Town . 2 March, 1890 \n\nDeath of Joaquin Lopez, boatman, aged 92, who \nhad saved many lives from drowning and received \nforeign honours ..... 22 Dec. 1890 \n\nThe queen presents the Albert medal to Laurence \nHennessy, seaman, for having saved the lives of \n31 men during ship-wrecks . . .18 Feb. 1892 \n\nThe Duke, of Northumberland, a new fast steel \nsteam life-boat, with 15 water tightcompartments, \ndesigned by Messrs. R. and H. Green, to be \nstationed at Harwich, tried on the Thames near \nBlack wall, 24 July, and since brought into service, 1890 \n\nAbout 714 lives saved by lifeboats, during the great \ngale 6, 7 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLIFE GUARDS, see Guards. . \n\nLIFE INSURANCE, see Insurance and An- \ntiuities. \n\nLIFE-PEERAGES. A bill for creating them \nwas read a second time in the lords, 27 April, 1869. \nhut afterwards rejected. Two peers for life created \nto act as appeal judges, 5 Oct. 1876. See Lords. \n\nLIFE, PRESERVATION OF. See Sani- \ntation. \n\nLIFE-SHIPS. To promote the construction \nand use of ihese the Hans Busk Life-Ship Institute \nwas founded, Oct. 1869. The life-ship, Peronelle, \nwas launched at Southampton, 25 Aug. 1873. \n\nLIGHT. The law of refraction discovered by \nSnellius, about 1624. The motion and velocity of \nlight discovered by Reaumur, and after him by \nGaesini, and calculated by "Rcemer (1676) and \nBradley (1720). Its velocity ascertained to beabout \n190,006,000 of miles in sixteen minutes, or nearly \n200,000 miles in a second, which is a million of \ntimes swifter than the velocity of a cannon ball, \nabout 1667. The light of the sun takes tight \nminutes and eight seconds for its transmission \nthrough space to the earth. See Emission Tliconj. \nThe undulatory theory of light, its polarisation, and \nits chemical action, have all been made known in the \npresent century by Dr.Thos. Young, Weber, Fresnel, \nMalus, Arago," Riot, Brewster, Wheatstone, Hitter, \nNiepce, Daguerre, Talbot, Stokes, Tyndall, Ray- \nleigh, Dewar, Crookes, &c. ; see Optics, Plioto- \ngraphi/, Calorescence, Fluorescence. \n\n\n\nVelocity of Light. Direct determination by the \ntoothed-wheel method by Fizeau agreed with \n\nthe astronomical result 1849 \n\nFoucault, with the revolving mirror, gave 298,000 \n\nkilometres in a second of mean time . . . 1865 \nComu\'s improved tooth-wheel apparatus gave \n\n3c 0,400 kilometres in a second of mean time . . 1874 \nProfessor Simon Neva nib, of Washington, with \nhis " photc tachometer " (completed in May, 1880) \ngave 299,860 kilometres in a second of mean time, 1886 \nMr. Wm. Crookes, F.B.S., considered that he had \ndemonstrated the mechanical action of light by experi- \nments with delicate balances in the highest piocurable \nvacuum, and calculated the foice of the sun\'s rays upon \nthe earth to be 2.3 tons to the square mile, 1873-6. \nHis apparatus was termed Badicmeter {which see). After \nmuch investigation, Mr. Crookes admitted that the ac- \ntion was not clue to radiation, but to difference of heat- \nabsorption and the reaction of residual air. \n\nMr. Crookes at the Boyal Society announces experi- \nments respecting an ultra-gaseous state of matter, sup- \nporting 1he emission theory ... 5 Dec. 1878 \nDr. C. Wm. Siemens reported to the Royal Society \nthat the electric light acts on vegetation like \nsolar light 4 Dec. 1880 \n\nLIGHT BRIGADE. Ste Balalclava. \n\nLIGHTHOUSE, called Pharos (now phare, \nFrench; faro, Italian), from one erected at Pharos, \n(which see) near Alexandria, Egypt, 550 feet high, \nsaid to ha\\e been visible forty-two miles, about 283 \nB.C. There was one at Messina, at Ehodes, &c. \nThe light was obtained by fires. A coal-fire light \nwas exhibited at Tynemouth castle, Northumber- \nland, about 1638. The first true lighthouse erected \nin England was the Eddystone lighthouse (which \nsee) in 1758-60. Lights were exhibited in various \nplaces by the corporation of the Trinity-house early \nin the 16th century. 2814 lighthouses in the world \n(1867). \n\nBRITISH LIGHTHOUSES. \n\nThe lighthouse (40 years old, height 80 feet, weight 300 \ntons) on the pier at Sunderland, Durham, was moved \nforward 500 feet without stopping the illumination, \nunder the superintendence of Mr. John Murray, \nOctober, 1841. \n\nThe Commissioners on Lights, &c. (1861), report 171 \nshorelights in England, 113 in Scotland, and 73 in \nIreland (total, 357) ; and 47 floating-lights. \n\n6 lighthouses building, April, 1867. \n\nThe French have 224 iighthouses on shore. \n\nThe source of light in our lighthouses is principally \noil ; but in harbour lights gas has been successfully \nused. Glass reflectors were used in 1780, and copper \nones in 1807. A common coal-fire light was discon- \ntinued at St. Bees so recently as 1822. Fresnel\'s \nDioptric system (which see), devised about 1819, was \nadopted forthe first time in England by Messrs.Wilkins, \nat the direction of the corporation of the Trinity-house, \n1 July, 1836. \n\nThe most brilliant artificial light ever produced\xe2\x80\x94 derived \nfrom magneto-electricity by a machine devised by \nprofessor Holmes\xe2\x80\x94 was first employed at the South \nForeland lighthouse, near Dover, on 8 Dec. 1858 ; and \nat Dengeness (or Dungeness) in 1S62. Mr. Holmes\' \narrangement, and a similar one constructed by M. \nSerin, were shown at the International exhibition, \nLondon, in 1862. \n\nMr. H. Wilde\'s apparatus for producing a most powerful \nmagneto-electric light, on trial in northern light- \nhouses, Oct. 1866. \n\nLime-light (which see) employed at the S. Foreland light- \nhouse in 1861. \n\nGas light tried successfully at Howth Bailey lighthouse, \nDublin Bay, Julv, 1869. \n\nMr. Wighaiu\'s triform light : glass belt round the gas- \nlight, prisms below the belt, and prisms forming a \ncupola : tried near Dublin ; approved by Dr. Tyndall, \nJuly, 1873. \n\nC. Wm. Siemens\' magneto-electric light used at tho \nLizards, 29 March, 1878. \n\nThe cost of erecting the three great British lighthouses \n\xe2\x80\x94viz., the Skerry-Vore (west coast), 158 feet high, \n83,126?. ; the Bishop Bock, Scilly Isles, 145 feet high, \n\n\n\nLIGHTING UP. \n\n\n\n582 \n\n\n\nLIMITATIONS. \n\n\n\n36,559?.. ; and the Bell Rock, Scotland, 117 feet high, \n61,331?, \n\nReturn to inquiries respecting officials, their duties, \nsalaries, &c. issued early in Dec. 1883. \n\nImportant experiments at South Foreland on electricity, \ngas, and oil as illuminants, June, 1884. Report \nadopted by Trinity House : electric light brightest, \nbut most expensive ; gas and oil nearly equal ; oil re- \ncommended for practical purposes ; electricity for \nspecial use on headlands, &c, about 25 Aug. 1885. \n\nRoyal commission respecting telegraph communication \nbetween lighthouses met, 18 June, 1892. \n\nLIGHTING UP (Towns, &c), see London, \n1684, 1694; \xc2\xae as and Electric Light. \n\nLIGHTNING-CONDUCTORS were first \nset up for the protection of buildings by Franklin \nshortly after 1752, when he brought down electricity \nfrom a thunder-cloud. Richmann, of St. Peters- \nburg, was killed while repeating these experiments, \nAug. 1752. The first conductor in England was set \nup at Payne\'s Hill, by Dr. Watson,\' In 1766 one \nwas placed on the tower of St. Mark, at Venice, \nwhich has since escaped injury, although frequently \ninjured by lightning previously. A powder maga- \nzine at Glogau, in Silesia, was saved by a conductor \nin 1782 ; and, from the want of one, a quantity of \ngunpowder was ignite 1 at Brescia in 1767. and above \n3000 persons perished. In 1762, Dr. Watson \nrecommended conductors to be used in the navy ; \nand they were employed for a short time, but soon \nfell into disuse from want of skill and attention. \nMr. (afterwards sir William) Snow Han is devoted \nhis attention to the subject from 1820 to 1854, and \npublished a work, in 1843, detailing his experiments. \nIn 1830, above thirty ships were fitted up with his \nconductors, and in 1842 his plans were adopted, and \nhis conductors are now manufactured in the royal \ndockyards. In 1854 parliament granted him \n5000/. \n\nLIGNY (near Fleurus, Belgium), where Napo- \nleon defeated the Prussian army under Blucher, \n16 June, 1815; see Waterloo. \n\nLIGUORIANS, or Redemptorists, a \nRoman catholic order, established in 1732 by Alfonso \nde Liguori, approved by pope Benedict XIV., 1749. \n\nLIGURIANS, a Celtic tribe, N. Italy, invaded \nthe Roman territory, and were defeated 238 B.C. \nThey were not subjugated till 172 B.C. \xe2\x80\x94 The Ltgu- \nbian Republic, founded in May, 1797, on the ruin \nof Genoa, was incorporated with Prance in 1805, \nand then merged into the kingdom of Italy. \n\nLILAC TREE, Syringa. The Persian lilac \nfrom Persia was cultivated in England about 1638; \nthe common lilac by Mr. John Gerard about 1597. \n\nLILLE, see Lisle. \n\nLILLI-BURLERO, part of the refrain of a \npopular song ridiculing the Irish pnpists, 1688. \nThe words are attributed to lord Wharton, the \nmusic to Henry Purcell. \n\nLILY, a native of Persia, Syria, and Italy, was \nbrought to England before 1460; the martagon \nfrom Germany, 1596. \n\nLLLYBiEUM, a strong maritime fortress of \nSicily, besieged by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, 276 B.C.. \nand relieved by the Carthaginians 275 b.c. It was \ntaken by the Romans, 241 B.C., after a siege of \nnine, years, which led to the end of the second \nPunic war. \n\nLIMA (Peru). In 1534, Pizarro, marching \nthrough Peru, was struck with the beauty of the \nvalley of Itimac, and there he founded this city, and \ngave it the name of Ciudad de los Reyes, or city of \n\n\n\nthe kings, 1535. Here he was assassinated, 26 June, \n1541. Awful earthquakes occurred here, 1586, 1630, \n1687, and 28 Oct. 1746. In 1854-5, thousands \nperished by yellow fever. Mr. Sullivan, the British \nconsul, was assassinated at Lima, II Aug. 1857; see \nPeru, 1872, 1881-3. Population, 1876, 101,488. \n\nLIMBURG (Netherlands), a duchy in the 10th \ncentury ; acquired by the dukes of Brabant about \n1288 ; added to Burgundy about 1429 ; passed to \nthe house of Austria in 1477 ; became one of the \nUnited Provinces, 1609; conquered and annexed to \nthe French republic, 1795; restored to the Nether- \nlands, 1814; divided between Holland and Belgium, \n1830; completely separated from the German con- \nfederation by treaty, 11 May, 1867. \n\nLIME or LINDEN" TREE, probably introduced \nin the 16th century. The limes in St. James\'s \npark are said to have been planted at the suggestion \nof Evelyn, who recommended multiplying odorifer- \nous trees, in his " Fumifugium " (1661). A lime- \ntree planted in Switzerland in 1410, existed in \n1720, the trunk being thirty-six feet in circum- \nference. \n\nLIME-LIGHT, produced by the combustion \nof oxygen and hydrogen or carburetted hydrogen on \na surface of lime. This light evolves little heat and \ndoes not vitiate the air. It is also called Drummond \nLight, after its inventor, lieut. Thomas Drummond, \nwho successfully produced it as a first-class light in \n1826, and employed it on the ordnance survey. It \nis said to have been seen at a distance of 112 miles. \nIt was tried at the South Foreland lighthouse in \n[861. , Lieut. Drummond was born, 1797, died \nT5 April, 1840. To him is attributed the maxim \nthat " property has its duties as well as its rights." \n\nLIMERICK, anciently Lumneach (S. W. Ire- \nland). About 550, St. Munchin is said to have \nfounded a bishopric and built a church here, which \nlatter was destroyed by the Danes in 853. Donald \nO\'Brien, king of Limerick, founded the cathedral \nabout 1200. Limerick obtained its charter in 1 195, \nwhen John Stafford was made first provost; and its \nfirst mayor was Adam Servant, in 1 198. It was \ntaken by Ireton after six months\' siege in 1650. In \nAug. 1690 it was invested by the English and \nDutch, and surrendered on most honourable terms, \n3 Oct. 1691.* An awful explosion of 218 barrels of \ngunpowder greatly shattered the town, killing IOO \npersons, 1 Feb. 1694. Another explosion of gun- \npowder here killed many persons, 2 Jan. 1837. \nAwful and destructive tempest, 6-7 Jan. 1839. A \nnew graving-dock was opened by the lord-lieutenant, \nearl Spencer, 13 May, 1873. Population, 1881, \n38,555; 1891,37,072. \n\nLIMITATIONS, Statute of, 21 James I. \n\nc. 16, 1623. By it actions for trespass or debt, or \nsimple contract, must be commenced within six \nyears after the cause of action, and actions for \nassault, menace, or imprisonment within four years. \nThe Real Actions Limitation act, 1874, fame into \noperation i Jan. 1879. \n\n* By the treaty it was agreed that all arms, property \nand estates should be restored ; all attainders annulled, \nand all outlawries reversed ; and that no oath but that \nof allegiance should be required of high or low ; the free- \ndom of the Catholic religion was secured ; relief from \npecuniary claims incurred by hostilities was guaranteed ; \npermission to leave the kingdom was extended to all who \ndesired it ; and a general pardon proclaimed to all then \nin arms. Burns. This treaty was annulled by the Irish \nparliament, 1695. Limerick is still called "the city of \nthe broken treaty." \n\n\n\nLIMITED LIABILITY. \n\n\n\n583 \n\n\n\nLINN^EAN SYSTEM. \n\n\n\nLIMITED LIABILITY. An act for limit- \ning the liability of joint stock companies, 18 & 19 \nVict. c. 133 (passed 1855), was several times \namended 1856-7-8. On 31 May, 1864, "3830 joint \nstock companies had been formed and registered on \nthe limited liability principle, and 938 had ceased \nto exist." Much calamity in 1866 was occasioned \nby the abuse of the system. The Companies act of \n1862 was ameuded in 1867. 1241 registered in 1874 ; \n1,791 registered in 1886; total 1862-86, 25,042. \nThe principle adopted by some joint stock banks \nin 1879-80. See under Banks. \n\nLIMOGES AFFAIR, see France, Dec. 1877. \n\nLIMOURS MURDERS, N.-central France. \nSeveral barbarous murders, especially of aged \npeople, took place here, Jan., Sept., Nov., 1873, \nand Jan. 1874; several persons denounced, proved \ninnocence. In June, 1874, one Foirier confessed to \nsimilar murders at Nogent and other places, in \nNov. 1873 and Jan. 1874. Executed at Chartres, \n29 Sept. 1874. \n\nLINCELLES (N. France), where the allied \nEnglish and Dutch armies defeated the French, \n18 Aug. 1793. General Lake commanded three \nbattalions of foot guards. \n\nLINCOLN, the Roman Lindum Colonia, and \nat the period of the conquest rich and populous. It \nwas taken several times by Saxons and Dane*. The \ncastle was built by "William I. in 1086. Without \nNewport-gate upon Lincoln plain was fought the \nbattle between the partisans of the empress Maud, \ncommanded by the earl of Gloucester, and the army \nof Stephen, in which the king was defeated and \ntaken prisoner, 2 Feb. 1141. I ouis, dauphin of \nFrance, invited over by the discontented barons in \nthe last year of king John\'s reign, was acknowledged \nby them as king of England here ; but the nobility, \nsummoned by the earl of Pembroke to Gloucester \nto crown Henry III., marched against Louis and \nthe barons, and defeated them in a most sanguinary \nfight (called the Fair of Lincoln), 20 May, 1217; \nand Louis withdrew. Population, 1881, 37?3 r 3 j \n1891. 41,491. \n\nLINCOLN, Bishopric of. Sidnacester or \n\nLindisse and Dorchester, two distinct sees in Mercia, \nwere united about 1078, and the see was removed \nto Lincoln by bishop Remigius de Feschamp, who \nbuilt a cathedral (1086), afterwards destroyed by \nfire, but rebuilt by bishop Alexander (1127) and \nbishop Hugh of Burgundy. The diocese is very \nlarge, although the dioceses of Ely (1109), Oxford, \nand Peterborough (1541) were formed from it, and \nwere further enlarged in 1837. The see was valued \nat the dissolution of monasteries at 2065?. per \nannum ; and after many of its manors had been \nseized upon, it was rated in, the king\'s books at \n894/. 10s. id. Present income, 4500^. It has given \nthree saints to the church of Koine, and to the civil \nstate of England six lord chancellors. The great \nbell of the cathedral, called Great Tom of Lincoln, \nweighs four tons eight pounds. \n\nRECENT BISHOPS. \n\n1787. George Pretyman (afterwards Tomlinc), translated \nto Winchester, 1820. \n\n1820. Hon. George Pelham, died 1 Feb. 1827. \n\n1827. John Kaye, died 19 Feb. 1852. \n\n1852. John Jackson, translated to London, 1869.. \n\n1869. Christopher Wordsworth, consecrated 24 Feb. ; re- \nsigns Dee. 1884 ; died 21 March, 1885. \n\n1885. Edward King, Feb. For his trial lor ritualistic \npractices, see under Canterbury. \n\nLINCOLN\'S-INN (London), derives its name \nfrom Henry de Lacy, carl of Lincoln, who erected a \nmansion on this spot in the reign of Edward I., \n\n\n\nwhich had been the bishop of Chichester\'s palace. \nIt became an inn of court, 1310. The gardens of \nLincoln\' s-inn-fields were laid out bj T Inigo Jones, \nabout 1620, and erroneously said to occupy the same \nspace as the largest pyramid of Egypt, which is \n764 feet square ; Lmcoln\'s-inn square being 821 feet \nby 625 feet 6 inches. "William lord Russell was \nbeheaded in Lincoln\' s-inn-fields, 21 July, 1683. \nThe square (formed in 1618) was enclosed with iron \nrailings about 1737. The new hall and other build- \nings were opened, 30 Oct. 1845, and the square \nplanted. The theatre in Lincoln\'s-inn-fields was \nbuilt in 1695; rebuilt in 1714 ; made a barrack in \n1756, and pulled down in 1848. \n\nLINCOLN TOWER, Westminster Bridge \nRoad, was erected by the united subscriptions of \nBritons and Americans, as a memorial of the aboli- \ntion of slavery, and of Abraham Lincoln, president. \nThe foundation-stone was laid by general Sdienk, \nthen American minister here, 9 July, 1874; and the \nhead stone was placed by the Rev. Newman Hall, \nminister of Surrey chapel, 28 Sept. 1875. The \ntower, which is 220 feet high, co-t about ~OOOl. \nThe church, named Christ church (to r< place- \nSurrey chapel), and schools adjoining (cost about \n60,000?.), were dedicated, 4 July, et scq. 187G. \'1 he \nrev. Rowland Hill\'s body was removed from Surrey \nchapel and placed here, 14 April, 1881. \n\nLINDISFARNE, or Holy Island, on tie \n\ncoast of Northumberland, became a bishop\'s see, \n635. It was ravaged by the Danes under Kegnar \nLodbrok in 793, and the monastery destroyed by \nthem in 875. The see was then removed to Chest er- \nle-street, and to Durham in 995 (or 990). \n\nLINEN. Pharaoh ai-rayed Joseph in vestures \nof tine linen, 1716 B.C. {Gen. xli. 42.) \nFirst manufactured in England by Flemish weavers, \n\nunder the protection of Henry III. . . . 1253 \nA company of linen weavers established in London 1368 \nThe art of staining linen known . . . about 1579, \nA colony of Scots in the reign of James I., and other \nPresbyterians who fled from persecution in suc- \nceeding reigns, planted themselves in the north- \neast part of Ireland, and there established the \nlinen manufacture, which was liberally en- \ncouraged by the lord deputy Wentworth in 16^4 ; \n\nby William III 1698 \n\nHemp, flax, linen, thread, and yarn, from Ireland, \n\npermitted to be exported duty free . . . . 1696 \nIrish linen board established in 1711 ; the Linen- \nhall, Dublin, opened 1728 ; the board abolished . 1828 \nA board of trustees to superintend the Scotch linen \n\nmanufacture established 1727 \n\nDuty on linen taken off i860 \n\nDunfermline in Fifeshire, Dundee in Forfarshire, \nand IBarnsley in Yorkshire are chief seats of our \nlinen manufacture. \n\nLINGAM, an ancient Hindoo god (much \nworshipped by women), who had many temples in \nDelhi, before the Mahometan conquest. One of \nhis idols set in gold, diamonds, and other precious \nstones, was sold bv Messrs. Phillips of Bond Street, \nLondon, for 2,450?., 5 Dec. 1888. \n\nLINLITHGOW - BRIDGE (near Edin- \nburgh), near which the forces of the earl of Angus, \nwho held James V. in their power, defeated the \nforces of the earl of Lennox, who, after receiving \npromise of quarter, was killed by sir James Hamil- \nton, 1526. Mary, queen of Scots, was born in the \npalace of Linlithgow, 8 Dec. 1542, James V., her \nfather, dying of a broken heart, 14 Dec , in conse- \nquence of his defeat by the English at Solway \nMoss, 25 Nov. previous. \n\nLINNiEAN" SYSTEM of botany, arranged \nbv Linne or Linnnms, a Swede, 1725-30. He \n\n\n\nLINOTYPE. \n\n\n\n584 \n\n\n\nLITERARY CONGRESS. \n\n\n\nclassed the plants according to the number and \nsituation of the sexual parts, and made the flower \nand fruit the test of his various genera. Linnreus \nlived from 1707 to 1778. His library and herbarium \nwere purchased by sir James E. (then Dr.) Smith, \nand given to the Linnean Society in London, which \nwas instituted in 1788, and incorporated 26 March, \n1802 ; at Milan, about 20 Sept. 1892. \nThe centenary of the foundation of the Linnean Society \ncelebrated ; gold medals were presented to sir Joseph \nHooker, and sir Bichard Owen, 24 May, 1888. \n\nLINOTYPE. See under Printing. \n\nLION AND UNICORN, the former English, \nthe latter Scottish, became the supporters of the \nroyal arms on the accession of James I. in 1603. \nThe lions in Trafalgar-square, designed by sir Edwin \nLandseer, were uncovered, 31 Jan. 1867. \nLion. True lions belong to the old world exclu- \nsively. They existed in Europe, Egypt, and \nPalestine, but have long disappeared from those \ncountries ; their present country being Africa. A \nlion named Pompey died in the Tower of London \nin 1760, after 70 years\' confinement. \nMr. Gordon dimming, the lion-slayer, published \n\nhis "Sporting Adventures in South Africa " in . 1850 \nVan Amburgh was very successful in taming lions ; \nhut many have perished through rashness. The \nLion-queen was killed at Chatham, 1850 ; and \nMassarti (John McCarthy) was killed by a lion, \n\n3 Jan. 1872 \nlion Sermon preached annually on 16 Oct. at St. \nKatherine Cree church, London, in memory of \nthe escape of sir John Gayer from a lion in Arabia \n\n16 Oct. 1630 \nLIPPATJ, see Hussites. \n\nLIPPE, a constitutional principality (N.W. \nGermany). Population, 1885, 123,212; 1890, \n12,814. Prince Leopold, born 1 Sept. 1821; suc- \nceeded his father, Leopold, 1 Jan. 185 1 ; died 8 Dec. \n1875 \xe2\x80\x94 hi s brother Waldemar, born 18 .April, 1824, \nsucceeded. Lippe became a member of the North \nGerman confederation, 18 Aug. 1866. \n\nLIPPSTADT, see Liitzen. \n\nLIQUEFACTION. See Gases and Cold. \n\nLISBON (Olisippo, and Felicitas Julia, of the \nancients) was taken by the Arabs about 716, and \nbecame important under the Moorish kings, from \nwhom it was captured by Alfonso I. of Portugal in \n1 147. It was made the capital of Portugal by \nEmanuel, 1506. Lisbon has suffered much by \nearthquakes, ai-.d was almost destroyed by one, \nI Nov. 1755; see Earthquakes. The court fled to \nthe Brazils, 10 Nov. 1807, and on 30 Nov. the \nFrench, under Junot, entered Lisbon,\' and held it \nuntil the battle of Vimeira, in which they were \ndefeated by the British, under sir Arthur Weilesley, \n21 Aug. 1808. A military insurrection at Lisbon, \n21 Aug. 1831, was soon suppressed, and manv sol- \ndiers were executed ; see Portugal. Population in \n1885, 243.010. \n\nA pleasure boat on the Tagus upset, about 6a \ndrowned 2 <5 MaV) lS \n\nLisbon Steam Tramway Company, favoured by duke \nof Saldanha, ambassador in London ; company \npromoted by baron Albert Grant and others\'; \ntramway could not be made ; see Trials . July,\' 1876 \n\nGreat fire at the dockyard, estimated loss ioo,oooL\', \n\n17-18 Dec. 1883 \n\nGreat excitement through the British ultimatum \n\n\n\nrespecting East Africa (see Portugal) \n\n\n\nJan. 1890 \n\n\n\nLISLE (now Lille), N. France, has a strong \ncitadel by Vauban. It was besieged by the duke \nof Marlborough and the allies ; and, though deemed \n\n\n\nimpregnable, was taken after a thiee months\' siege \nin 1708. It was restored by the treaty of Utrecht, \nin 1713, in consideration of the demolition of the \nfortifications of Dunkirk. Lisle sustained a severe \nbombardment from the Austrians, who were obliged \nto raise the siege, 7 Oct. 1792. Population, 1886, \n188,272; 1891, 200,935. \n\nThe French Association for the Advancement of \nScience met here 20 Aug. 1874 \n\nLISMORE (S Ireland.) St. Cartbagh. first \nbishop, 636, says : " Lismore is a famous and holy \ncity, of which neailv one-half is an asylum where \nno woman dare enter." The castle (built by king \nJohn when earl cf Moreton, 1 185,) burnt in 1645, \nwas rebuilt with great magnificence by the duke of \nDevonshire. The cathedral, built 636, was re- \npaired by Cormac, s on of Muretus, king of Muns- \nter, about 1130. The bishopric was united to that \nof Waterford, about 1363; and both to Cashel in \n1839. \n\nLISSA (or Leuthcn, Silesia). Here the king \nof Prussia vanquished Charles of Lorraine ; COOO \nAustrians were slain, 5 Dec. 1757. \xe2\x80\x94 Lissa, in \nPoland, was laid in ruins by the .Russian army in \nthe campaign of 1707. \xe2\x80\x94 Lissa. an island in the \nAdriatic. Near here the Italian fleet, commanded by \nPersano, was defeated with severe loss by the Aus- \ntrian fleet, commanded by Tegethoff, 20 July, 1S66. \nThe Italians had 23 vessels, 11 of which were iron- \nclads, and the Austrians had 23 vessels, 7 only \nbeing ironclads. \nPersano, when in sight of the enemy, quitted his \nship, the lie d\'ltalia, and hoisted his flag on the \nAffondatore. His ironclads did not keex> well \ntogether. \nDuring the action, the ironclad Palestro took fire \nand exploded, and all on board perished (except \n19 out of 200 men), exclaiming, Viva il Re! Viva \nItalia! The Re d\'ltalia was surrounded and sunk \nby the Austrians. The Re di Portobello disabled \nthe Austrian line-of-battle ship Kaiser, and com- \npelled her to run ashore. Both parties soon after \nretired from the conflict, which had lasted four \nhours. \nAdmiral Persano was tried for misconduct and \ndismissed the service (see Italy) . 15 April, 1867 \nBattle off Lissa. \nCapt. Win. Hoste in the Amphion, with two other \nfrigates ; the Active, Capt. J. A. Gordon ; the \nCerberus, Capt. H. Whitby ; and the Volage, \n22-gun ship, Capt. P. Hornby, defeated a Franco- \nVenetian squadron which attacked him ; he \ncaptured two vessels, the Corona and Bellona; \nhe was badly wounded . . . 13 March, 181 1 \n\nLITANIES (Greeklitaneia, supplication), were \nfirst used in processions, it is said, about 469 ; others \nsay about 400. Litanies to the Virgin Mary were \nfirst introduced by pope Gregory I. about 59^. \nThe first English litany was commanded to be used \nin the Reformed churches by Henry VIII. in 1544. \n\nLITERARY CLUB (at first called " The \nClub" and "Johnson\'s Club"), founded by Dr. \nJohnson and sir Joshua Reynolds, in 1764. Haw- \nkins, Topbam Beauclerk, Goldsmith, Burke, and \nBennet Langton, were among the first members. \nThe opinion formed of a new work by the club was \nspeedily known all over London, and had great in- \nfluence. The club still exists. Mr. W. E. Glad- \nstone and other eminent men are members. Hallani, \nMaeaulay, the marquis of Lai^downe, and bishop \nBlomfield were members; Dr. Milman, dean of St. \nPaul\'s, was in the chair at the centenary dinner, on \n7 June, 1864 \n\nLITERARY AND ARTISTIC CON- \nGRESS, International, met at Paris (Victor Hugo, \npresident), 17 June; and founded "International \n\n\n\nLITERARY FUND. \n\n\n\n585 \n\n\n\nLIVERPOOL. \n\n\n\nLiterary Association," 28 June, 1878 ; met in Lon- \ndon, 9-14 June, 1879; at Lisbon, 20 Sept. 1S80; at \nVienna, 20-29 Sept. 18S1; at Berne, 10 Sept. 1883; \nat Brussels, 27 Sept. 1884 ; at Berne, 7 Sept. 1885 ; \nat Madrid, 8 Oct. 1887 ; at Venice, 19 Sept. 1888 ; \nat Paris, 20 June, 1889; at Berne, 5 Oct. 1889; \nin London, 4 Oct. 1890; at Neufchatel, 26 Sept. \n1891 ; at Milan, about 20 Sept. 1892. \nLITERARY FUND, Royal, was founded \n\nin 1790. to relieve literary men of all nations, by \nJJavid Williams,* the Mend of Benjamin Franklin, \nand incorporated in 1818. The kingof the Belgians \npresided at the annual dinner, 8 May, 1872; the \nprince of Wales at the centenary dinner, 14 May, \n1890. The permanent fund in 1892 was 12 737;. \n\nLITERARY PROPERTY, SOCIETIES, \n\n&c.\', see Authors, Copyright, Societies, &c. \n\n"Literary Production Committee " of authors ; proposed \nformation, with the object of obtaining a good price \nfor their works, July, 187S. \n\nLITERATURE, see letters, English, Trench, \nGerman, Greek, Italian, Lectin, and Spanish \nLanguage; comprehends eloquence, poetr}\', history, \nlanguage, and their subdivisions. \n\nLITHIUM, the lightest metal known (specific \ngravity 059 : atomic weight 7) is obtained from an \nalkaline substance termed lithia ; discovered by M. \nArf\\ved:-on,.a Swede, in 1817. \n\nLITHOFRACTEUR, or " STOira-BitEAK- \nElt," an explosive material, a modification of dyna- \nmite (composed of gun-cotton, nitro-glycerine, with \nthe constituents of gunpowder, and other sub- \nstances), invented by professor Engels of Cologne, \nand made by Krebs, in 1869. It was occasionally \nused by the Germans in the war 1870-1, and was \ntried and well reported of for power and safety at \nKant BJawy quanies, near Shrewsbur}\', 9, 10 May, \n1871, and again on 20 Feb. 1872, before the govern- \nment explosive committee, with similar results. \n\nLITHOGRAPHY (drawing on stone). The \ninvention is ascribed to Alois Sennefelder, about \n1796 ; and shortly afterwards the art was announced \nin Germany, and was known as polyautography. It \nbecame partially known in England in 1801, etseq., \nbut its general introduction is referred to Mr. \nAckermann, of London, about 1817. Sennefelder \ndied in 1841. Improvements have been made by \nEngelmann and many others; see Printing in \nColours. \n\nLITHOSCOPE. An instrument for distin- \nguishing precious stones, invented by sir David \nBrewster ; described by him Jan. 1864. \n\nLITHOTOMY. The surgical operation of \ncutting for the stone, it is said, was performed bj r \nAmmonius, about 240 b.c. The \'\'small apparatus," \nso called from the few instruments used in the \noperation, was practised by Cehus, about a.d. 17. \nThe " high apparatus " waspraeti-ed (on a criminal \nat Paris) by Colot, 1475 ; by Franco, on a child, \n\n* Floyer Sydenham, an eminent Greek scholar, of \nWadliam college, Oxford, and translator of some of the \nworks of Plato, was arrested and thrown into prison for \na trifling debt due for his frugal meals, and there, in \n178s, died of a broken heart in want and misery, when \nnearly eighty years of age. The sympathy excited gave \nrise to this institution, since well supported. Williams \nwas in early life a dissenting minister, and wrote on \neducation. He was consulted by the early revolutionary \nparty in France as to the form of a constitution for that \ncountry ; he, Dr. Priestley, sir James Mackintosh, and \nother distinguished Englishmen, having been previously \ndeclared French citizens. He died 29 June, 1816. \n\n\n\nabout 1566 ; and in England, by Dr. Douglass, \nabout 1519. The "lateral operation," invented by \nFranco, much performed in Paris by Freie Jacques, \nin 1697, has been greatly improved. The "great \napparatus" was invented bv John de Komauis, and \ndescribed by his pupil Maiianus Sanctus, 1524. \n\nLITHOTRITY (or bruising the stone). The \napparatus produced by M. Leroy d\'Etiolhs in 1S22 \nhas since been improved. \nPrizes of 6000 and 10,000 francs were awarded M. Jean \n\nCiviale for his method of operation, 1827 & 1829. \n\nLITHUANIA, formerly a grand-duchy, N. E. \nof Prussia. \'Ihe natives (belonging to the Slavonic \nrace) long maintained their independence against \nthe Russians and Poles, hi 1386, their grand-duke \nJagellon became king of Poland and was baptized : \nLithuania was not incorporated with Poland till \n1501, when another duke Casimir, became king of \nthat country. The countries were formally united \nin 1569. The larger part of Lithuania now belongs \nto Russia, the remainder to Prussia. \n\nLITURGIES (from the Greek leitos, public, \nand ergon, work). The Greek and Roman liturgies \nare very ancient, having been committed to writing \nabout the 4th and 5th centuries. The Romish church \nrecognises four: the Roman or Gregorian, the Am- \nbrosian, the Uallican, and the Spanish or Mosarabic. \nThe Greek church has two principal liturgies : St. \nChrysostom\'s and St. Basil\'s, and several smaller \nones. Parts of these liturgies are attributed to the \nApostles, to St. Ignatius, 250, to St. Ambrose (died \n397), and to St. Jerome (died 420). \nThe present English Liturgy was first composed, \nand was approved and confirmed by parliament, \nin 1547-8. The offices for morning and evening \nprayer were then put into nearly the same form \nin which we now have them, and published 1549 \nand 1552. \nAt the solicitation of Calvin and others, the liturgy \n\nwas reviewed and altered 1551 \n\nIt was first read in Ireland, in the English lan- \nguage, in 1550, and in Scotland, where it occa- \nsioned a tumult, in 1637, an d was withdrawn . 1638 \nThe liturgy was revised by Whitehead, formerly \nchaplain to Anne Boleyn, and by bishops Parker, \nGrindall, Cox, and Pilkington, dean May, and \nsecretary Smith. \nJohn Knox is said to have used a liturgy for several \nyears. The rev. Robert Lee, of Edinburgh, intro- \nduced a form of prayer in public worship, but \ngave it up when ordered to discontinue it in May, \n1859 ; he soon after resumed it, and the discussion \non the subject ceased only at his death, 14 March, 1868 \nSee Common Prayer. \n\nLIYERIES OF THE CITY OF LON- \nDON. The term is derived from the custom of the \nretainers of the lord mayor and sheriffs wearing \nclothes of the form and colour displaced by those \nfunctionaries. Liveries were regulated bv statute \nin 1392, and frequently since. The nobility gave \nliveries to their retainers. See Companies. \n\nLIVERPOOL (W. Lancashire), is supposed to \nbe noticed in Domesday-book under the name Esme- \ndnne, or Smedune* Soon after the conquest, \nWilliam granted that part of the country situated \nbetween the rivers Mersey and Ribble to Roger of \nPoitiers, who, according to Camden, built a castle \nhere, about the year 1089. It afterwards was held \n\n\n\n* In other ancient records its appellations arc Litherpul \na.nd Lyrpul, signifying probably in the ancient dialect, the \nlower pool ; though some have deduced its etymology \nfrom a pool frequented by an aquatic fowl, called the \n\xe2\x96\xa0\' Liver," or from a sea-weed of that name ; and others, \nfrom its having belonged to a family of the name of \nLever, whose antiquity is not sufficiently established to \njustify their conclusion. \n\n\n\nLIVERPOOL. \n\n\n\n586 \n\n\n\nLIVERPOOL. \n\n\n\nby the earls of Chester and dukes of Lancaster. \nLiverpool is the second city of the Empire. The \nincome of the estates of the Corporation 13?. in \n1672, now about 12,500,000/. (1888), from renewal \nfines, &c. Changes in the leases, &c, proposed by \nthe Corporation postponed, Jan. 1888. See under \nPopulation. \nLiverpool made a free borough by Henry III. . 1225 \n\nMade an independent port 1338 \n\nLiverpool " a paved town " (Leland) . . . . 1559 \n" The people of her majesty\'s decayed town of \nLiverpool " petition Elizabeth to be relieved from \n\na subsidy . . 1571 \n\nSeparated from the duchy of Lancaster . . : 1628 \nTown rated for ship-money in only 26?. by Charles I. 1634 \nBesieged and taken by prince Rupert 26 June, 1644 \n\nMade a separate parish 1698 \n\nThe old dock constructed, 1699 ; the first ship, the \nMarlborough, entered ... . . 8 June, 1700 \n\nBlue-coat hospital founded 1709 \n\nThe town vigorously opposes the Young Pretender 1745 \n\nTown- hall commenced 1749 \n\nInfirmary established \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSeamen\'s hospital founded 1752 \n\nSalthouse dock opened 1753 \n\nLiverpool library founded 1757 \n\nA most destructive fire 1762 \n\nHouse of industry founded 1770 \n\nTheatre licensed, 1771 ; opened .... 1772 \nLiverpool equips, at the commencement of the war \nagainst France, 120 privateers, carrying 1986 guns, \n\nand 8754 seamen 177S \n\nFirst musical festival 1784 \n\nKing\'s dock constructed 1785 \n\n[The Queen\'s dock was also constructed about the \nsame time. ] \n\nMemorable storm raged 1789 \n\nThe exchange burnt 1795 \n\nThe town-hall destroyed by fire , \n\nThe Athenaeum opened .... 1 Jan. 1799 \n\nUnion news-room erected 1800 \n\nThe Lyceum erected 1802 \n\nAwful fire ; loss exceeded 1,000,000?. . 14 Sept. ,, \n\nCorn exchange opened .... 4 Aug. 1808 \n\nRoyal Exchange completed 1809 \n\nStatue of George III. commenced . . 25 Oct. ,, \nFall of St. Nicholas\' tower, 28 killed . n Feb. 1810 \n\nRoyal Institution founded 1814 \n\nWellington-rooms built 1815 \n\nRoyal Institution opened by Mr. Rosooe . 2 Nov. 1818 \n\nAmerican seamen\'s hospital 1820 \n\nPrince\'s dock opened . . . .19 July, 1821 \nSt. John\'s market-place .... Feb. 1822 \nRoyal Institution incorporated . . . ,, \n\nMarine Humane Society formed 1823 \n\nNew house of industry erected 1824 \n\nLiver theatre opened 1825 \n\nOld dock closed . 1826 \n\nFoundation of new custom-house laid . 12 Aug. 1828 \n\nBlackrock lighthouse built, and light first shown, \n\n1 March, 1830 \nLunatic asylum founded, 1792 ; new buildings \n\nerected ,, \n\nClarence dock completed .... Sept. ,, \nLiverpool and Manchester railway opened* 15 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nZoological gardens opened 1833 \n\nGreat tire ; 300,000?. property destroyed . 1 Jan. ,, \nLock hospital and Waterloo dock opened . . 1834 \nVictoria and Trafalgar docks opened . 8 Sept. 1836 \n\nBritish Association meet here, 1st time . Sept. 1837 \n\nMechanics\' institute opened ,, \n\nNew fish-market opened .... 8 Feb. ,, \n\nApothecaries\' company formed \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLiverpool and Birmingham (Grand Junction) rail- \nway opened 4 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRailway to London (now the North-Western) opened \nits entire length I? Sept. 1838 \n\n* The first grand work of the kind, about 31 miles long \nThe first shaft was commenced in Oct. 1826, and the ex- \ncavation of the tunnel, one mile and a quarter long, Jan. \n1827 ; the tunnel was completed in Sept. 1828, and opened \n30 July, 1829. At the opening of the railroad, the duke \nof Wellington and other illustrious persons were present ; \nand Mr. Huskisson who alighted during a stoppage of \nthe engines, was knocked down by one of them, which \nwent over his thigh and caused his death, 15 Sept. 1830. \n\n\n\nStatistical society and Polytechnic society founded \n\nThe Liverpool steamer, of 461-horse power, sails for \nNew York . . . " . . .28 Oct. \n\nAwful storm raged 6 Jan. \n\nFoundation of the collegiate institution laid by lord \nStanley \n\nLiverpool Philharmonic society founded . . . \n\nFoundation of St. George\'s hall and courts laid . . \n\nImmense fire ; property worth more than half-a- \nmillion sterling destroyed ... 25 Sept. \n\nMr. Huskisson \'s statue erected . . . Oct. \n\nProcession of Orangemen ; fatal riot . 14 July, \n\nThe queen visits Liverpool ... 9 Oct. \n\nBritish Association meet here, 2nd time . Sept. \n\nSt. George\'s hall opened . . . .18 Sept. \n\nBread riots (150,000 persons out of employ through \nthe frost) 19 Feb. \n\nGreat landing stage for large steamers opened, 1 Sept. \n\nMany commercial failures . . Sept. to Nov. \n\nAssociation for Social Science meets \xe2\x96\xa0 . Oct. \n\nSailors\' home (cost 30,000?.) burnt . . 29 April, \n\nFree library, &c. , founded by Mr. (afterwards sir) \nW. Brown, M. P. for S. Lancashire, 15 April, 1857 \'> \nfree library, &c. opened . . . .11 Oct. \n\nFree Museum opened 17 Oct. \n\nBrownlow Hill church and workhouse school burnt, \nand 23 lives lost (20 children) . . 8 Sept. \n\nExplosion of nj tons of gunpowder in the Lottie \nSleigh, in the Mersey, great damage . 16 Jan. \n\nDeath of sir Wm. Brown, a great benefactor to Liver- \npool 3 March, \n\nAdditional M.P. (now 3) by Reform act, 15 Aug. \n\nRoyal bank of Liverpool stopped . . 21 Oct. \n\nGreek steamer (Bu.biilina) in the Mersey exploded ; \nabout 19 lives lost .... 29 Nov. \n\nReverdy Johnson, the United States\' minister \nwarmly received 22 Oct. \n\nA Greek church consecrated by the Greek arch- \nbishop of Syra 16 Jan. \n\nPanic through false alarm of fire at St. Joseph\'s \nCathplic chapel, 15 lives lost . . 23 Jan. \n\nStanley park, 100 acres (cost 42,000?.) opened 7 May, \n\nStanley hospital ; foundation laid by the earl of \nDerby 6 June, \n\nBritish Association meets here third time 14 Sept. \n\nEquestrian statue of the queen unveiled 3 Nov. \n\nSeamen\'s Orphan Institution founded . 11 Sept. \n\nSefton park opened by prince Arthur . 20 May, \n\nGreat landing-stage burnt; loss abt. 150,000?. 28 July, \n\nDuke of Edinburgh lays foundation of the Art \nGallery, 29 Sept. ; and opens the Seamen\'s \nOrphanage 30 Sept. \n\nAbout 325,000?. bequeathed to charities by R. L. \nJones, a timber merchant .... Jan. \n\nVisit of M. Michel Chevalier, free-trader 21 April, \n\nStatue of Wm. Rathbone, eminent merchant, un- \nveiled 1 Jan. \n\nRotunda theatre burnt .... 9 July, \n\nWalker Art Gallery (gift of the mayor. Andrew \nWalker), cost above 30,000?., opened by the earl \nof Derby 6 Sept. \n\nBishoprics Act, permitting the erection of a see at \nLiverpool, passed . . . . 16 Aug. \n\nPanic through false alarm of fire at Colosseum \ntheatre ; 37 persons crushed to death 11 Oct. \n\nStrike of dock labourers and sailors ; riots sup- \npressed, 7 Feb. ; strike ends . about 25 Feb. \n\nMysterious disappearance of Miss Edwards, 3 Sept. ; \nfound in London . . ... .21 Oct. \n\nBishopric established . . . -24 March, \n\nLiverpool nominated a city . . . April, \n\nFoundation of University college ; about 88,000?. \nsubscribed Oct. \n\nNew water works in the valley of the river Vyrnwy, \n25 miles from Oswestry, begun, 14 July, 1881 ; \ninaugurated by the duke of Connaught starting a \nfountain at Liverpool . . . .14 July, \n[Lake 4 miles long formed, A mile to 200 yds. wide, \nLlanwddyn village covered, 68 miles of aque- \nducts, tunnels, pipes, &c. The undertaking was \nprojected in 1879 by Mr. G. F. Deacon, aided \nby Mr. C. Hawksley and Mr. J. Bateman, and \ncarried out by Mr. Deacon as chief engineer.] \n\nDiscovery of infernal machines in steamers Malta \nand Bavarian announced . . .24 July, \n\nPlot to blow up the town-hall discovered ; bag of \nexplosives found at door ; 2 Fenians apprehended \n10 June ; convicted, sentenced to penal servitude, \n\n\n\n1839 \n\n\n\n1851 \n\n\n\n1855 \n1857 \n\n\n\n1S64 \n\n\n\n1872 \n\n\n\n1875 \n1877 \n\n\n\n1S7S \n1879 \n\n\n\nLIVEEPOOL. \n\n\n\n587 \n\n\n\nLOANS. \n\n\n\nJames McGrath for life ; James McKnivett, \n\n15 years . . .... 2 Aug. 1881 \n\nDock space in 1810, 26 acres forships, 704,000 tons ; \n\nin 1857, 209 acres, tonnage, 4,320,000. \nNew Langton dock opened by the prince and prin- \ncess of Wales, and named Alexandra. . 8 Oct. ,, \nUniversity College inaugurated by the earl of Derby, \n\n14 Jan. 1882 \nNew court-house founded . . .1 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nHome for ancient mariners opened by the duke of \n\nEdinburgh 16 Dec. ,, \n\nLancelot\'s hay warehouse burnt (damage about \n\n100,000?.) 21 April, 1883 \n\nMersey tunnel, opened (see under Tunnels) 13 Feb. 1885 \nLiverpool returns nine M.P.\'s by act passed 25 June, ,, \nInternational Exhibition of Navigation, Commerce, \n\n&c. ; proposed by alderman David Radcliffe ; \n\nadopted by the earl of Derby ; 60,000?. subscribed ; \n\nsite granted by the corporation 1885 ; opened by \n\nthe queen ; alderman Radcliffe, the mayor, \n\nknighted 1 1 May ; the queen leaves 13 May ; \n\n2,468,098 visitors ; reported receipts 131,032?. ; \n\nexpenditure 150,167?. ; closed . . \' 8 Nov. 1886 \nRiots ; socialist, orangemen, &c. . 19 Sept. ,, \n\nMessrs. Lewis\'s premises with a clock-tower burnt ; \n\nestimated loss 250,000?. ... 24 Dec. ,, \n\nRoyal Jubilee Exhibition opened by the princess \n\nLouise 16 May, 1887 \n\nFirst meeting of the National Association for the \n\nAdvancement of Art . . . . 3-7 Dec. 1888 \nStrike of sailors and firemen end of May ; ended \n\n12 July, 1889 \nFrequent dock strikes, met by a supply of men \n\nFeb., March, 1890 \nAbout 20,000 men on strike, reported 7 March ; \n\nsoldiers from Preston arrive, 18 March ; dispute \n\nsettled 31 March, ,, \n\nThe duke of Clarence and Avondale opens the new \n\nRoyal Infirmary 29 Oct. ,, \n\nMr. George Holt presents 10,000?. to endow a chair \n\nof physiology in University College . 3 June, 1891 \nNaval exhibition opened by lord George Hamilton, \n\n1 Feb. 1892 \nGreat cotton fire at Bramley Moor Dock ; estimated \n\nloss, about 100,000\' 15 Feb. ,, \n\nMr. John Hartnup killed by falling from the top of \n\nthe Liverpool observatory, Birkenhead, of which \n\nlie was director 21 April, ,, \n\nLIVEEPOOL ADMINISTBATION. \n\nShortly after the assassination of Mr. Perceval \n\n(II May, 1812), the earl of Liverpool became first \n\nminister.* His administration terminated when he \n\nwas attacked by apoplexy, 17 Feb. 1827, and Mr. \n\nCanning succeeded as prime minister, 10 April. \n\nEarl of Liverpool, first lord of the treasury. \n\nEarl of Eldon, lord chancellor. \n\nEarl of Harrowby, lord president of the council. \n\nEarl of Westmorland, ?orf? privy seal. \n\nN. Vansittart, chancellor of the exchequer (succeeded by \n\nF. J. Robinson, 1823). \n\nViscount Sidmouth, home secretary (succeeded by Robert \n\nPeel, 1822). \nViscount Castlereagh, aft. marquis of Londonderry, \n\nforeign secretary (succeeded by George Canning, 1822). \nEarl Bathurst, colonial secretary. \nViscount Melville, first lord of admiralty. \nEarl of Buckinghamshire, board oj control (succeeded by \n\nG. Canning, 18 16 ; C. Bathurst, 1820 ; C. Wynne, 1822. \nCharles Bathurst (1813), chancellor of duchy of Lancaster \n\n(succeeded by N. Vansittart, lord Bexley, 1823). \n\nWellesley Pole, afterwards lord Maryborough, 1815, \nmaster of the mint. \n\nF. J. Robinson, 1818 ; W. Huskisson, 1823, hoard of trade. \n\nEarl of Mulgrave, ordnance (succeeded by duke of Wel- \nlington, 1819). \n\nLIVEEPOOL BisnorRic established by \norder of the privy council, 24 March, 1880; St". \nPeter\'s church to be the cathedral; first bishop, \nJohn Charles Ryle, D.D. \n\n\n\n* Robert Jenkinson, born 7 Jan. 1770, entered the house \nof commons under Mr. Pitt ; opposed the abolition of t lie \nslave trade in 1702; became lord Hawkesmiry in 1796; \nbecame foreign minister under Mr. Addington, in 1801 ; \nsucceeded his father as earl of Liverpool hi iSoS ; died 4 \nDec. 1828. \n\n\n\nLIVINGSTONE, see under Africa, 1856 et \nseq. \n\nLIVONIA, a Russian province on the Baltic \nsea, first visited by some Bremen merchants about \n1 158. It has belonged successively to Denmark, \nSweden, Poland, and Russia. It was finally ceded \nto Peter the Great in 1721. Population in 1886, \n1,239,728. \n\nLIVEET D\'OUVEIEE, a species of work- \nman\'s passport, introduced into France by Turgot \nabout 1781 ; abolished 23 March, 1869. \n\nLLANDAFF (S. Wales). The first known \nbishop was St. Dubritius, said to have died in 612. \nThe see is valued in the king\'s books at 154^. 14-s. id. \nper annum. Present income 4200^. \n\nRECENT BISHOPS. \n\n1782. Richard Watson ; died 4 July, 1816. \n\n1816. Herbert Marsh; trans, to Peterborough, 1819. \n\n1819. Win. Van Mildert ; translated to Durham, 1826. \n\n1826. Charles Richard Sumner ; translated to Win- \n\nchester, 1827. \n\n1827. Edward Copleston ; died 14 Oct. 1849. \n1849. Alfred Ollivant, died 16 Dec. 1882. \n\n1883. Richard Lewis, consecrated 25 April, 1883. \n\nLLEEENA, see Villa Franca. \n\nLLOYD\'S (London), at the Royal Exchange- \nabout 1692. A cotfee-house, kept by Edwd. Lloyd, \nAbchurch-lane, became a place of meeting of mer- \nchants. After several removals it was established \nfinally at the Royal Exchange in 1774, and re- \nmained there till the fire in 1838, when it was \nremoved till the present building was completed in \n1844. Here resort eminent merchants and ship- \nowners, and here are effected insurances on ships and \nmerchandise. A Register of ships began about \n1764; and the terms A. 1, &c. were used about \n1775. Two societies (underwriters and merchants) \nwere united, and one register issued, Oct. 1834. \nJubilee celebrated, 31 Oct. 1884. Lloyd\'s is sup- \nported by subscribers who now pay annually 5/. 5s., \nformerly 4/. 4s. The books kept here contain an \naccount of the arrival and sailing of vessels, and \nare remarkable for their early intelligence of \nmaritime affairs. Many new signalling stations. \nestablished, 1882-3. First annual issue of the \n" Univei-sal Shipping Register," published here, \nMay, 1886. In 1803, the subscribers instituted; \nthe Patriotic Fund {which sec). The Austrian \nLloyd\'s, an association for general, commercial, \nand industrial purposes, was founded at Trieste, by \nBaron Bruck, in 1833. It has established regular \ncommunication between Trieste and the Levant, \nby means of a fleet of steamers carrying the mails, \nand publishes a journal. \n\nLOADSTONE, see Magnetism. \n\nLOAN EXHIBITIONS, see Exhibitions,. \nNational Portraits, Scientific Apparatus, eye. \n\nLOANO, Piedmont (N. Italy). Here the Aus- \ntrians and Sardinians were defeated by the French, \nunder Massena, 23. 24 Nov. 1795. \n\nLOANS for t.;e puMic service were raised by \nWolsey in 1522 and 1525. In 1559 Elizabeth \nborrowed 200,000^. of the city of Antwerp, to en- \nable her to reform her own coin, and sir Thomas \nGresham and the city of London joined in ihe- \nsecuritv. Rnpin. The amount of some of the \nEnglish and other loans, during memorable periods, \nviz. : \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nSeven years\' war . . 1755 to 1763 .\xc2\xa352,100,000 \nAmerican war . . . 1776(01784 . 75,500,000 \nFrench revolutionary war . 170.1 tn 1802 . 168.500,000 \nWar against Bonaparte . 1803 to 1S14 . 206,300,000 \n\n\n\nLOAN SOCIETIES. \n\n\n\n588 \n\n\n\nLOCKS. \n\n\n\nz loans, 1813 . . . 21,000,000?. and \xc2\xa322,000,000 \n\nWar against Russia . . 1855 to 1856 . 16,000,000 \n\nFor deficiency in revenue 1856 . 10,000,000 \n\n[Both taken by the Rothschilds alone.] \n\nBy Bast India Company . . 1858 . 8,000,000 \n\nA subscription loan (18,000,000?.) to carry on the war, \nagainst France, filled up in London in 15 hours and \n20 minutes (see Loyalty Loans), 5 Dec. 1796. \n\nFrench loan on 9 July, 1855, on account of the war with \nRussia. The French legislature passed a bill for raising \nby loan 750 million francs (30,000,000?. sterling). On \nthe 30th the total subscribed in France amounted to \n3.652,591,985 francs (about 146,103,679?.), nearly five \ntimes the amount required ; 2,533,888,450 francs were \nfrom Paris ; from the departments, 1,118,703,535 francs. \nThe number of subscribers was 316.864. No less than \n231,920,155 francs were made up by subscription of 50 \nfrancs and under. About 600 millions came from foreign \ncountries. The English subscription of 150,000.000 \nfrancs was returned, as double the amount required \nhad been proffered. \n\nThe French government raised a loan of 20,000,000?. for \nthe Italian war from its own people without difficulty, \nMay, 1859. \n\nA Turkish loan, in 1854, at 7^ per cent., recommended \nby lord Palmerston ; a loan of 5,000,000?. , at 4 per \ncent., on the security of England and France, was \ntaken up by Rothschild in Aug. 1855, and was well \nreceived : the stock rose to a small premium. \n\nFrench loan for 17,600,000?. announced 29 Jan. 1868. \n\nFrench loan 2,000,000,000 francs for 80,000,000?. : nearly \ntwice the amount subscribed in Prance alone, 28 June, \n3871 ; another loan, of (120,000,000?. at 6\\ per cent.) \n\'for speedy payment of the indemnity and evacuation \nof the provinces held by the Germans ; announced 26 \nJuly, 1872 ; above twice the amount subscribed. See \nFrance. \n\nForeign Loans Committee: appointed to inquire con- \ncerning certain loans to Honduras, Costa Rica, and \nParaguay, in their report comment on the exaggerated \nstatements respecting the revenues and resources of \nthe states in the prospectuses, the efforts of the con- \ntractors to make fictitious markets ; the proceedings \n\xe2\x96\xa0on the stock exchange to maintain their prestige ; the \n.-secrecy adopted in the proceedings ; " the best secu- \nrity against the recurrence of such evils will be found, \nnot so much in legislative enactments as in the en- \nlightenment of the public as to their real nature and \norigin, thus rendering it more difficult for unscrupulous \npersons to carry out schemes .... which have ended \nin so much discredit and disaster," July, 1S75. \n\nLOAN SOCIETIES. The laws relating to \nthem were amended by the act 3 & 4 Vict. c. no ; \npassed Aug. 1840. \n\nLOBSTERS and CEABS- The size at which \nthey are to be sold is regulated by the Fisheries \nact, 1877. \n\nLOCAL GOVERNMENT ACT, passed in \n1858, was amended in 1861. Scotch 1 >cal govern- \nment bill introduced by the krd advocate, J. P. B. \nEobertson, 8 April, passed 26 Aug. 1889. \nMr. Ritchie\'s Local Government Bill (England & Wales) \nread first time 19 March ; second time nem. con. 20 \nApril ; royal assent 13 Aug. 1888 ; 51 & 52 Vict. c. 41. \n\nI. Establishes County Councils in every adminis- \ntrative county as defined by the act. Council to \n\xe2\x80\xa2consist of councillors and aldermen, with a chair- \nman ; electors to be parliamentary voters, and male \nand female ratepayers. \n\nII. 61 boroughs constituted county boroughs ; the \nmetropolis constituted the county of London, super- \nseding the Metropolitan Board of Works. \n\nIII. Boundaries. \n\nIV. Finance. \n\nV. Supplemental. \n\nVI. Transitory provisions ; first election (for three \nyears) in Jan., and duties entered on 1 April, 1889. \n\nLocal Government (Boundaries) Act. See under \n\nBoundary Acts, 1887. \nLocal Government (Electors) Act passed 16 May \n\ni838. \xe2\x80\xa2 \nIrish Local Government Bill introduced by Mr. A. J. \n\nBalfour (due provision made for the rights of minorities) \n\nread first time 18 Feb. ; second reading (339-247), \n\n24. May ; withdrawn, 13 June, 1892. \n\n\n\nLOCAL GOVERNMENT BOARD (anew \ndepartment of the government, comprising the \nsupervision of the public health, and local govern- \nment together with the powers and duties of the \nPoor Law board, including education, police, \nhighways, &c), was established in pursuance of \nan act passed 14 Aug. 1871. First president, Mr. \nJames Stansfeld, appointed president of the poor \nlaw board, March, 1871. Mr. (aft. sir John) Lam- \nbert, C.B., first secretary, appointed Sept. 1871. See \nGladstone and other Administrations. See London, \n15 March, 1883. \n\nLOCAL LOANS ACT, passed 13 Aug. 1875, \nBy the National Debt and Local Loans Act passed \n12 July, 1887, the local loans stock was created. \nIn May, 1891, the local indebtedness was stated to be \nabout 195,400,0001., which is still increasing, being the \nresult of expenditure by local authorities on important \npublic works, frequently reproductive, and also sani- \ntary improvements. The debtors include nearly all \nthe great towns in the kingdom. \n\n" LOCAL OPTION," see Permissive Bill. \n\nLOCAL PARLIAMENTS. The first of \nthese mimic parliaments was opened in Liverpool, \nabout 1864; a conference of about 150 delegates \nfrom 146 of these assemblies, with 20,000 members, \nin Great Britain, met at the Crystal Palace, 20-23 \nMay, 1883. \n\nLOCAL RATES in England, come from 26 \nsources. \xc2\xbb \n\nLocal self-government is a chaos of authorities, of rates, \n\nand areas. 67. /. Ooschen. \n\nSee Probate Duty, 1888. \nThe Lonion Ratepayers\' Defence League formed (the \n\nduke of Westminster president) 18 Nov. 1891. \n\nLOCHLEVEN CASTLE (Kinross), built on \nan isle in Loch Leven, it is said by the Picts, was \nthe royal residence of Alexander III. and his queen \nwhen taken from it to Stirling. It was besieged \nby the English in 1301, and in 1334. Patrick \nGraham, first archbishop of St. Andrews, im- \nprisoned for attempting to reform the church, died \nhere about 1*478. The earl of Northumberland was \nconfined in it, 1569. It was the place of queen \nMary\'s imprisonment in 1567, and of her escape on \nSunday, 2 May, 1568. \n\nLOCKE\'S ACT, 23 & 24 Vict. c. 127 (i860), \nrelates to legal proceedings. \n\nLOCKE KING\'S ACTS; 17 & 18 Vict, \nc. 113 (1854), and 30 & 31 Vict. c. 69 (1867), relate \nto mortgages. \n\nLOCK HOSPITAL, established 1747; the \nasylum, 1787. \n\nLOCK-OUTS, see Strikes. \n\nLOCKS, early used by the Egyptians, Greeks, \nRomans, and the Chinese. Denon Iras engraved an \nEgyptian lock of wood. Du Cange mentions locks \nand padlocks as early as 1381. \nBarron\'s locks (on the many-tumbler principle) were \n\npatented in 1778; Bramali\'s, in 1788; and Chubb\'s \n\n" detector" locks in 1818. \nMr. E. Beckett Denison (now lord Grimthorpe) in- \nvented a lock asserted to be secure against picking, in \n\n1852. \nNew locks have been produced by Messrs. Day and \n\nNewell, Yale, Andrews, and others, especially in \n\nAmerica. \nMr. Hobbs, an American, exhibited his own locks in \n\nthe Crystal palace, in 1851, and showed great skill in \n\npicking others. \nA " Key Bureau " to aid in the recovery of lost keys \n\n(charge is. per annum) established in Loudon in 1885. \n\n\n\nLOCOMOTIVES. \n\n\n\n589 \n\n\n\nLOMBARD MERCHANTS. \n\n\n\nChubb\'s "panic door lock" for easy opening of doors \n\nin theatres announced Oct. 1887. \nMr. F. J. Biggs\'s tubular lock, said to be cheaper and \n[_ better than mortice locks, manufactured by a syndi- \ncate in London, May, 1890. \n\nLOCOMOTIVES, see Railways. The use of \n\nsteani locomotives on ordinary roads is regulated by \nacts passed in 1861, 1865, and 1878. \n\nLOCRIANS, an ancient people of Northern \nGreece. They resisted Philip of Macedon, were \naided by the Athenians and Thebans, and defeated \nby him at Chaeronea, 6 or 7 Aug. 338 B.C. \n\nLOCUSTS, one of the plagues of Egypt, 1491 \nB.C. {Exod. x.) The ravages of locusts in Cyprus \nhave been greatly checked by the skill and energy \nof Mr. Richard Matteiand Mr. Samuel Brown, 1881 \net seq. A swarm of locusts settled upon the ground \nabout London, and consumed the vegetables; great \nnumbers fell in the streets ; they resembled grass- \nhoppers, but were three times the size, and their \ncolours more variegated, 4 Aug. 1748. They in- \nfested Germany in 1749, Poland in 1750, S. Africa \n1797, 1877, and Warsaw in June, 1816. They are \nsaid to have been seen in London in 1857. Russia \nwas infested by them in July, i860; Algeria, \nseverely,in 1866, 1874, 1889, and 1891-2 ; Sardinia \nin 1868; and Minnesota, U.S., 1873-74; S. Russia, \nJune, 1884; Cjprus, 1884 ; N. India, June, July, \n1891 ; Morocco, Dec. 1891, June, 1892. \n\nLODGERS paying 10I. a year for a whole year \nfor apartments without furniture, acquired the \nsuffrage, by Reform act passed 15 Aug. 1867. Act \nto protect their goods from distraint, passed 16 Aug. \n187 1. The lodger franchise much increased by \nthe Parliamentary and Municipal Registration act \nof 1878 ; and by the new Reform Rill, 6 Dee. 1884. \n\nThe assembled judges decide that with a non-resident \nlandlord the lodger is a householder; with a resident \nlandlord he must qualify as a compound householder. \n\nLODGING-HOUSES. An act placing com- \nmon lodging-houses under the watch of the police \nwas passed in 1851. In that year a model lodging- \nhouse erected by prince Albert appeared at the Great \nExhibition. Since then, blocks of lodging-houses \nfor the poor have been erected by Baroness Burdett- \nCoutts and others. Mr. Peabody\'s donation of \n12 March, 1862, has been appropriated for a similar \npurpose ; see Peabody. On 19 Nov. 1863, the city \nof London voted 20,000^. and a piece of land in \nVictoria-street (now Farringdon-road) for the pur- \npose. See London, 1845. \n\nLODI (N. Italy). Napoleon Bonaparte, com- \nmanding the French army, totally defeated the \nAustrians, under Beaulieu, after a bloody engage- \nment, at the bridge of Lodi, 10 May, 1796. The \nrepublican flag floated in Milan a few days after. \nMonument to Victor Emmanuel inaugurated, 16 \nSept. 1883. \n\nLOGARITHMS, the indexes of the ratio of \nnumbers one to another, were invented by John \nNapier, baron of Merchiston, who published his \ncanon, or table, in 1614. The invention was com- \npleted by Mr. Henry Briggs, at Oxford, who pub- \nlished tables, 1616-18. The method of computing \nby means of marked pieces of ivory was discovered \nabout the same time, and hence called Napier\'s \nbones. \n\n" The Construction of Logarithms," 1619, by John \nNapier, baron of Merchiston, translated with notes, \nand a catalogue of Napier\'s works by Win. Rae Mac- \ndonald, published in 1889. \n\n\n\nLOGIC, " the science of reasoning." Eminent \nworks on it are by Aristotle; Bacon, Novum \nOrganon ; Locke on the Understanding ; and the- \nmodern treatises on Logic, by archbishop Whately, \nsir "William Hamilton, and Mr. John Stuart Mill! \nEarl Stanhope\'s Demonstrator, or Logical Machine, in- \nvented in the latter part of the 18th century, was de- \nscribed by rev. Robert Harley to the British Associa- \ntion, 19 Aug. 1878. \nIn his "Principles of Science," 1874, Mr. Win. Stanley \nJevons describes his "Logical Abecedarium " and \n" Logical Slate." \nG. Boole on " Laws of Thought," 1854. \nJ. Venn\'s "Symbolic Logic," July, 1881. \n\n. LOGIERIAN SYSTEM of musical educa- \ntion, commenced by J. B. Logier, in Jan. 1815, and \nintroduced into the chief towns of the United King- \ndom, Prussia, &c. He died in 1846. \n\nLOG-LINE, used in navigation, about 1570 ^ \nfirst mentioned by Bourne in 1577. It is divided, \ninto spaces of 50 feet, and the way which the shij> \nmakes is measured by a half-minute sand-glass, \nwhich bears nearly the same proportion to an hour \nthat 50 feet bear to a mile : the line used in the- \nroyal navy is 48 feet. \n\nLOGOGRAPH, apparatus invented by Mr. W. \nH. Barlow, about 1874, to give graphic representa- \ntion of the vibratory motions of the air-waves of \nspeech, somewhat resembling a telegraphic mes- \nsage. \n\nLOGOGRAPHIC PRINTING, in which \nthe commoner words were cast in one mass, was \npatented by Henry Johnson and Mr. Walter of the \nTimes in 1 783. Anderson\' s " History of Commerce," 1 \nvol. iv. was printed by these types in 1789. \n\nLOGRONO, see JSfafara. \n\nLOI DES SUSPECTS, enacted by the \nFrench convention, 17 Sept. 1793, during the reign \nof terror, filled the prisons of Paris. The Public- \nSafety bill, of a similar character, was passed, \n18 Feb. 1858, shortly after Orsini\'s attempt on the- \nlife of the emperor, Napoleon III. \n\nLOLLARDS (by some derived from the German \nlollen, to sing in a low tone, by others derived from \nthe English verb to loll or lounge) the name given \nto the first reformers of the Roman catholic religion- \nin England, the followers of Wykliffe. The sect is \nalso said to have been founded in 13 15 by Walter \nLollard, who was burnt for heresy at Cologne in \n1322. The Lollards are said to have devoted them- \nselves to acts of mercy. The first Lollard martyr \nin England was William Sawtree, parish priest of \nSt. Osith, London, 12 Feb. 1401, when the Lollards \nwere proscribed by parliament, and numbers of \nthem were burnt alive. Sir John Cobham, lord \nOldcastle, a follower of Wykliffe, was accused of \ntreason and condemned, Sept. 1413. Ho escaped to. \nWales, where he was captured, and brought to \nLondon and burnt, 25 Dec. 1418. Lollards\' "tower, \npart of the bishop\'s prison, was near St. Paul\'s, not \nLambeth palace. Dr. Maitland. \n\nLOMBARDISTS, disciples of Peter Lombard, \nthe schoolman, bishop of Paris, author of the " Book \nof Sentences," who died in 1164. \n\nLOMBARD MERCHANTS, in England, \n\nwere understood to be composed of natives of pome- \none of the four republics of Genoa, Lucca, Florence, \nor Venice. Anderson. Lombard usurers were sent \nto England by pope Gregory IX. to lend money to- \nconvents, communities, and private persons who- \nwere not able to pay down the tenths which were \ncollected throughout the kingdom with great rigour \nthat year, 13 Hen. III. 1299. They had off ces in \n\n\n\nLOMBAEDY. \n\n\n\n590 \n\n\n\nLONDON. \n\n\n\nthe street named after them to this day. Their \nusurious transactions caused their expulsion from \nthe kingdom in the reign of Elizabeth. \n\nLOMBAEDY (N. Italy) derived its name \nfrom the Longobardi, a German tribe from Branden- \nburg, said (doubtfully) to have been invited into \nItaly bv Justinian to serve against the Goths. \nTheir chief, Alboin, established a kingdom which \nlasted from 568 to 774. The last king, Desiderius, \nwas dethroned by Charlemagne. (For a list of \nthe Lombard kings, see Italy.) About the end ot \nthe 9th century the chief towns of Lombardy forti- \nfied themselves, and became republics. The first \nLombard league, consisting of Milan, Venice, \nPavia, Modena, &c, was formed to restrain the \npower of the German emperors, in 1167. On 29 \nMay, 1 1 76, they defeated the emperor Frederick \nBarbarossa at Legnano, and eventually compelled \nhim to sign the peace of Constance in 1183. In \n1226 another league was formed against Frede- \nrick II., which was also successful. After this, \npelty tyrants rose in most of the cities, and foreign \ninfluence quickly followed. The Guelf and Ghibel- \nline factions greatly distracted Lombardy; and \nfrom the 15th century to the present time, it has \nbeen contended for by the German and French \nsovereigns. The house of Austria obtained it in \n1748, and held it till 1797, when it was conquered \nby the French, who incorporated it with the Cisal- \npine republic, and in 1805 with the kingdom of \nItalv. On the breaking up of the French empire \nin 1815. the Lombardo- Venetian Kingdom was \nestablished by the allied sovereigns and given to \nAustria, who had lost her Flemish possessions. \nLombardy and Venice revolted, and joined the king \nof Sardinia in March, 1848; but they did not sup- \nport him well, and were again subjected to Austria \nafter his defeat at No vara, 23 March, 1849. An \namnesty for political offences was granted in 1856 \nGreat jealousy of Sardinia was felt by Austria aftei \n1849. In 1857 diplomatic relations were suspended; \nand in April, 1859, war broke out; the Austrians \ncrossing the Ticino and entering Piedmont. The \nFrench emperor declared war against Austria, and \nimmediately sent troops into Italy. The Austrians \nwere defeated at Montebello, 20 May ; Palestro, 30, \n31 May ; Magenta, 4 June ; and Solferino, 24 June. \nBy the peace of Villafranca (11 July), the largest \npart of Lombardy was ceded to Louis Napoleon, who \ntransferred it to the king of Sardinia. It now forms \npart of the new kingdom of Italy, to which Venetia \nwas also surrendered by the treaty of Vienna, \n3 Oct. 1867. Population 1890, 3,906,958. \n\nLONATO (Brescia, N. Italy). Here Napoleon \nBonaparte defeated Wurmser and the Austrians, 3 \nAug. 1796. \n\nLONDON, the capital of 1he British empire. \nThe earliest history is traditional. The Celtic name \nis said to have been Lyn-din, lake-fort ; Tacitus in \nthe first century, calls it Londinium ; and describes \nit as a flourishing trading city ; it was afterwards \ncalled Augusta, an appellation frequently given to \ngreat cities ; several other forms of the name appear \nin documents, such as Lundenbyrig, Lundonia, and \nLondon-wic. In i860, London and the suburbs \nwere estimated to cover 121 square miles (11 miles \neach way, being three times as large as in 1800 ; in \n1880 122 square miles. The population of the \n"city" in 1801,156,859; in 1811,120,909; ini82i, \n125,434; in 1831, 125,574; in 1.841, 125,008; in \n1 85 1, 122,440; 1111861, 112,063; in 1871,74,897; in \n1881, 50,652. Day census, 25-30 April, 201,061 ; \n1891, 5 April, 37,694 (day census, 27 April, 301,384). \nFor London and suburbs, 1801 et seq. see table in \n\n\n\narticle Population (5 April, 1891, 4,231,431). \nEevenue of corporation, 1862, 437,341/.; 1875, \n655,391/.: expenditure, 592,244/. ; in 1877, revenue, \n634,734/.: expenditure, 667,812/. Annual rate- \nable value (metropolitan district) April, 1881, \n27,405,488/. ; the " city," 3,537,561/. Jan. 1888, \n34,340.596/. The " port" of London extends from \nLondon Bridge to the Norih Foreland. Tonnage \nentering and leaving the port, 1871, 7,600,000; \n1885, 12,000,000 (dues paid over 41,000/.). London \nreturns 2 instead of 4 members to parliament by Act \nof 1885. See Docks, Mayors, Metropolitan Boardof \nWorks, London County Council, and Treaties. \n\nThe town appears to have prospered under British, \nRoman, and Saxon rules, and to have been much \nindebted to Alfred and his successors, but suffered \ngreatly by the Danes ; it was not attacked by Wil- \nliam I., by whom the citizens were conciliated, and its \ncorporate government was recognized by his son \nHenry I. The city receh ed many favours from the \nPlantagenet kings, but frequently resisted their \nexactions. London is governed by the lord mayor, \nthe court of aldermen, the common council, and other \noffices. London was not included in the municipal \ncorporations Act, 1835. The London county council \nwas constituted by the local government Act passed \nin 18S8. \nLondon (metropolitan district), contains 6612 miles \nof streets ; 528,794 inhabited houses ; population, \n\n4,025,659 June, 1873 \n\nIncome of the city estates, 538, 6$il. . . . ,, \nAulus Plautius invades Britain and erects a fort \n\non the Thames 41 or 43 \n\nBoadicea, queen of the Iceni, defeats the Romans \nand burns London ; she is defeated by Suetonius \n\nand dies by suicide 61 \n\nLondon held\' by the rebel emperors, Carausius and \n\nAllectus 286 \n\nConjectured date of the building of the wall . 350-369 \n800 vessels said to be employed hi the port of Lon- \ndon for the export of corn 359 \n\nSt. Paul\'s church founded by Ethelbert, about . 597 \nLondon termed the ecclesiastical capital of the East \n\nSaxons \n\nMellitus, first bishop (soon expelled) . \n\nA plague ravages London 644 \n\nGreat fire which nearly consumed the city . \nLondon pillaged by the Banes, 839; these expelled \n\nAlfred repairs and strengthens London . \nEasterlings settle in London before . \n\nAnother great fire \n\nTower built by William I. .... \n\nFirst charter granted to the city by the same king\' 1079 \n\nAnother great fire, St. Paul\'s burnt . \n\n606 houses thrown down by a tempest \n\nImportant Charter granted by Henry I. . \n\nSt. Bartholomew\'s priory founded by Rahere, about ,, \n\nLondon-bridge built, 1014 ; burnt with part of the \n\ncity 1 136 \n\nCharter granted by Henry II n 54 \n\nOld London-bridge begun 11 76 \n\nHenry Fitz-Ailwin, the first mayor (served twenty- \nfour years) see below, 1889 . . . 1189 or 1191 \n\nMassacre of Jews ,, \n\nFirst stone bridge finished 1209 \n\nCharter of king John ; mayor and common council \n\nto be elected annually 1214 \n\nForeign merchants invited, settle here . 1199-1220 \n\nCharter of Henry III 1233 \n\nWatch in London, 38 Henry III 1253 \n\nPrivileges granted to the Hanse merchants (which \nsee) 1259 \n\n\n\n* It is still preserved in the city archives. This \ncharter is written in beautiful Saxon characters, on a \nslip of parchment six inches long, and one broad, and is \nin English as follows: \xe2\x80\x94 "William the king greeteth \nWilliam the bishop, and Gosfrith the portreeve, and all \nthe burgesses within London, French and English, \nfriendly. And I acquaint you, that I will that ye be all \nthere law-worthy as ye were in king Edward\'s days. And \nI will that every child be his father\'s heir, after his father\'s \ndays. And I will not suffer that any man do you any \nwrong. God preserve you." \n\n\n\nLONDON. \n\n\n\n591 \n\n\n\nLONDON. \n\n\n\nThe liberties and privileges of the city maintained \n\nand enlarged by Walter Harvey, mayor . . 1272 \nTax called murage, to keep the walls and ditches in \nrepair ....... about 1282 \n\nHenry le Waleys and 5 others first M. P.\' s for London 1284 \nWater brought from Tyburn to West Cheap . . 1285 \nExpulsion of the Jews by Edward I. (16,511) . . 1290 \nThe manor of South wark conveyed to the citizens 1327 \n\nCharter granted by Edward III 1328 \n\nTerrible pestilence, in which 50,000 (?) citizens \nperish *........ 1348 \n\nLondon sends 4 members to parliament . . . 1355 \nWilliam of Walworth lord mayor . . . . 1380 \n\nWat Tyler\'s rebellion (see Tyler) .... 1381 \n\nAldermen elected for life 1394 \n\nGreat plague, 30,000 (?) died 1406 \n\nCity first lighted at night by lanterns . . . . 1415 \nGuildhall commenced 1411, finished . . . 1416 \nWhittington thrice lord mayor, viz., 1397, 1406, 1419 \nJack Cade\'s rebellion ; see Cade .... 1450 \nFirst civic procession on the water ; sir John Nor- \nman lord mayor 1453 \n\nFalconbridge attempts the city . . . .1471 \n\nPrinting-press set up by Caxton ,, \n\nSweating sickness rages 1485 \n\nFleet diteli navigable . 1502 \n\nSt. Paul\'s school founded by dean Colet . . 1509 \n\nThe fatal sweat, Sudor A nglicus 1517 \n\nEvil May-day {which see) ,, \n\nStreets first paved (Viner\'s Slat.) . . . . 1533 \n\n" Bills of Mortality " ordered to be kept . . . 1538 \n\nDissolution of religious houses 1539 \n\nSt. Bartholomew\'s monastery changed to an hospital , , \nForty taverns and public houses allowed in the \n\ncity, and three in Westminster, act 7 Edw. VI. . 1553 \nChrist\'s hospital founded by king Edw. VI. . ,, \n\nRussian trading company established . . . . \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCoaches introduced about 1563 \n\nRoyal Exchange built (sen Exchange) . . . . 1566 \nNew buildings in London forbidden "where no \nformer hath been known to have been," to pre- \nvent the increasing sizet 1580 \n\nThames water conveyed into the city by leaden \n\npipes 1580-94 \n\nStow publishes his survey 1598 \n\nNearly all London yet built of wood . . . 1600 \n30,578 persons said to perish by the plague . . 1603 \nThomas Sutton founds Charterhouse school, &c. . 1611 \nNew river water brought to London . . . .1613 \nPrincipal streets! paved . . . . . . 1616 \n\nHackney coaches first plied 1625 \n\nA great plague \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBuilding of the western parishes, St. Giles\'s, <fec. \n\nbegun . . . . 1640 \n\nThe city held for the parliament .... 1642 \n\nLondon fortified 1643 \n\nJews allowed to return to London by Cromwell . 1650 \nBanking begun by Francis Child . . about 1660 \nRoyal Society of London chartered . . . . 1662 \n\nThe great plague (see Plagues) 1665 \n\n" Oxford" afterwards " London Gazette " published \n\n7 Nov. ,, \nGreat fire of London (see Fires) . . 2-6 Sept. 1666 \n\n* This terrible pestilence broke out in India, and \nspreading itself westward through every country on the \nglobe, reached England. Its ravages in London were \nso great, that the common cemeteries were not sufficient \nfor the interment of the dead ; and various pieces of \nground without the walls were assigned for burial-places. \nAmongst these was the waste land now forming the \nprecincts of the Charter-house, where upwards of 50,000 \nbodies were then deposited. Tins disorder did not sub- \nside till 1357. Leigh. \n\nt This proclamation or decree was dated from None- \nsuch, 7 July, 1580, and it was forbidden to erect new \nbuildings where none had before existed in the memory \nof man. The extension of the metropolis was deemed \ncalculated to encourage the increase of the plague ; \ncreate a trouble in governing such multitudes ; a dearth \nof victuals ; multiplying of beggars, and inability to \nrelieve them ; an increase of artisans more than could \nlive together ; impoverishing other cities for lack of \ninhabitants. The decree stated that lack of air, lack of \nroom to walk and shoot, &c. , arose out of too crowded a \ncity. A proclamation to the same effect was also issued \nby James 1. \n\n\n\nAct for a "new model of building " in the city . 1666 \nMonument erected by Wren (see Monument) . 1671-7 \n\nSt. Paul\'s founded .... 21 June, 1675 \n\nA London directory published 1679 \n\nCharter granted by Charles II. .... 16S0 \n\nPenny post established 1683 \n\nLondon partly lit at night by Edward Heming\'s \n\npatent 1684-5 \n\nSettlement of French protestants .... 1685 \nCharter declared forfeited, 1682 ; but restored . . 1689 \n\nBank of England established 1694 \n\nSt. Paul\'s opened 2 Dec. 1697 \n\nAwful storm .... 26 Nov.-i Dec. 1703 \n\nSacheverel\'s sermon and mob (see Riots) . . . 1709 \nAct for the erection of fifty new churches . . 1711 \nSouth Sea bubble commenced, 1710 ; exploded (see \n\nSouth Sea, Company) i-j2o \n\nChelsea water works formed 1722 \n\nBank of England built 1732-4 \n\nGlass lamps in the street . . between 1694 & 1736 \nFleet ditch covered, and Fleet market opened . 1737 \n" Great Frost," 25 Dec. 1739 to 8 Feb. . . . 1740 \n\nLondon Hospital instituted ,, \n\nNew Mansion-house founded, 1739 ; completed . . 1753 \n\nBritish Museum established ,, \n\nSociety of Arts established ,, \n\nThe New road, 1755-6 ; City road projected about 1760 \n\nEight gates removed 1760-1 \n\nShop signs removed 1762 \n\nWestminster paving-act passed ....,, \nBlackfriars-bridge opened ... 19 Nov. 1769 \n\nThe lord mayor (Brass Crosby) committed to the \n\nTower by the House of Commons for a breach of \n\nprivilege 27 March, 1771 \n\nLord George Gordon\'s No-popery mob (see Gordon\'s \n\nmob) June, 1780 \n\nThanksgiving of George III. at St. Paul\'s Cathedral \n\n23 April, 1789 \nBuilding of Camden town, begun . . . . 1791 \nLondon docks opened .... 20 Jan. 1799 \n\nLondon Institution founded 1805 \n\nLord Nelson\'s funeral .... 9 Jan. 1806 \n\nGas first exhibited in Pall Mall 1807 \n\nRiots on the committal of sir F. Burdett to the \n\nTower 6 April, 1810 \n\nThe Mint finished I 8n \n\nRegent-street begun ^13 \n\nCivic banquet to the allied sovereigns at Guildhall, \n\n18 June, 1814 \n\nCustom-house burnt 12 Feb. \n\nThe city generally lighted with gas . . . " \n\nWaterloo-bridge opened ... 18 June, 1817 \n\nNew Custom-house opened ( \n\nSouthwark-bridge opened ... 24 March, 1S19 \nThe great increase in building commences . . . 1820 \nBank of England completed by sir John Soane . 1821 \nTumults at queen Caroline\'s funeral . 14 Aug. ,, \n\nCabs introduced ^23 \n\nLondon Mechanics\' Institution founded . . . ,, \n\nBubble companies\' panic ^s \n\nLondon University chartered . . .11 Feb. 1826 \n27 turnpikes removed by act of parliament . . 1827 \n\nNew Post-office completed 1829 \n\nFarringdon-market opened , \n\nOmnibuses introduced ,, \n\nNew metropolitan police began . . 29 Sept. ,, \n\nCo vent-garden market rebuilt 1830 \n\nMemorable political panic, 5 Nov. ; and no lord \n\nmayor\'s show g Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNew London-bridge opened . . . . i Aug. 1831 \nGeneral Fast on account of the cholera in England, \n\n6 Feb. 1832 \nHungerford-market opened ... 3 July, 1833 \nHouses of parliament burnt . . . .16 Oct. 1834 \nCity of London school founded ....,, \n\nThe queen dines at Guildhall . . .9 Nov. 1837 \nRoyal Exchange burnt .... 10 Jan. 1838 \nRailway opened from London to Birmingham, \n\n17 Sept. ; to Greenwich . . . . 28 Dec. ,, \nPenny-postage begun .... 10 Jan. 1840 \nRailway to Southampton opened . n May, \n\nWood pavement tried ; fails .... \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLondon library established 1841 \n\nRailway to Bristol opened . . . 30 June, ,, \nBlackwall railway opened . . . .2 Aug. ,, \nRailway to Brighton opened . . .21 Sept. ,, \nThames Tunnel opened . . . . 25 March, 1S43 \nRoyal Exchange opened by the queen . 28 Oct. 1844 \n\n\n\nLONDON. \n\n\n\n592 \n\n\n\nLONDON. \n\n\n\nErection of baths and wash-houses begins . . . 1844 \n\nFleet prison taken down ,, \n\nNew building act begins operation . . 1 Jan. 1845 \n\nPenny steamboats begun ,, \n\nModel lodging houses built ,, \n\nRailway mania ,, \n\nTwopenny omnibuses begun 1846 \n\nGreat Chartist demonstration in London (see \n\nChartists) 10 April, 1848 \n\nRe-api>earance of the cholera . . . Sept. 1849 \nCoal Exchange opened .... 30 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nLord mayor\'s great banquet (of mayors)\xe2\x80\x94 (see Lord \n\nMayors) 21 March, 1850 \n\nAttack upon general Haynau ... 4 Sept. ,, \nGreat Exhibition opened, 1 May ; closed, 11 Oct. . 1851 \nDuke of Wellington dies, 14 Sept. ; his funeral at \nSt. Paul\'s (see Wellington) . . 18 Nov. 1852 \n\nCab-strike 27-29 July, 1853 \n\nVisit of king of Portugal . . . .19 May, 1854 \nAttack of cholera .... Aug. & Sept. ,, \nMeeting for Patriotic fund .... 2 Nov. ,, \nVisit of emperor and empress of the French to the \n\nlord mayor 19 April, 1855 \n\nThe queen distributes Crimean medals . 18 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nFailure of Paul, Strahan, & Co. (see Trials) 5 June, ,, \nMetropolitan Local Management act passed 14 Aug. ,, \nVisit of the king of Sardinia . . 30 Nov. ,, \n\nMetropolitan Board of works, first meeting 22 Dec. ,, \nPeace proclaimed, 29 April ; illuminations and fire- \nworks in the parks .... 29 May, 1856 \nRoyal British Bank stops payment (see British Bank) \n\n4 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nMeetings of unemployed operatives in Smithfleld, \n\nFeb. 1857 \nMany commercial failures ; Bank charter act sus- \npended 12 Nov. ,, \n\nJames Morison (originally a poor boy), who mainly \nintroduced the system of quick returns and small \nprofits, dies exceedingly rich . . 30 Oct. ,, \n\nMetropolis divided into 10 postal districts 1 Jan. 1858 \nGreat Eastern launched (began 3 Nov. 1857)31 Jan. ,, \nComplaints of the state of the Thames ; act for its \n\npurification passed . . - . . .2 Aug. ,, \nPanic on stock exchange (40 or 50 failures) at re- \nported French and Russian alliance against Aus- \ntria April, 1859 \n\nA strike among the building trades, and a lock-out \nby the masters, 8 Aug. ; the latter require the men \nto sign a document, declaring that they will not \nbelong to any society which interferes with the \nfreedom of the workman ; the strike was dying \n\nout in Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDisgraceful riots at the church of St. George\'s in \nthe East, through the indiscretion of the Trac- \ntarian clergyman, the rev. Bryan King, Sept. and \nOct. The church (closed for a time) re-opened : \nfresh disturbances on 6, 13, 20 Nov. ; the agita- \ntion continued till Mr. King retired ; a coin promise \nwas effected . . ... 29 July, i860 \n\nMetropolitan railway (underground) commenced in \n\nspring of \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGreat distress through the severe winter ; thousands \n\nrelieved at the police offices . Dec. i860, & Jan. 1861 \nAnother strike in the building trades commences, \n\n22 March, ,, \nA street railway in the metropolis opened near \n\nBayswater (temporary) . . .23 March, ,, \n\nGreat fire near Tooley-street (see Fires) 22 June, ,, \nSale of the East India house . . 23 June, 186? \n\nMeeting to establish the " City of London College," \n\nbishop of London in the chair . . 2 Oct. ,, \nMr. George Peabody, the American merchant, gives \n150,000!. to ameliorate the condition of the poor \nand needy of London ... 12 March, 1862 \nThe International Exhibition opens . 1 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThames embankment bill passed, after much dis- \ncussion Aug. ,, \n\nFights in Hyde-park between the Garibaldians and \n\nIrish 28 Sept. <fe 5 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPublic meetings there prohibited . 9 Oct. ,, \n\nComtesse de Silly leaves 4000Z. to poor of London ,. \nThe Metropolitan railway opened . . 10 Jan. 1863 \nPneumatic despatch company begins to convey \n\npost-office bags 21 Feb. ,, \n\nPrincess Alexandra of Denmark enters London, \n\n7 March, ,, \nPrince and princess f Wales present at the city ball \nat Guildhall . .... 8 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nAppeal of the bishop of London on account of the \nspiritual destitution of the metropolis (see Church \n\nof England) June, 1863 \n\nThe common council vote 20,000^. and a site in \nVictoria-street, E.C. (now Farringdon-road), for \na lodging-house for the poor . . 19 Nov. ,, \n\nNew street between Blackfriars and London-bridge \n\nopened 1 Jan. 1864 \n\nCharing Cross railway opened . . .11 Jan. ,, \nFirst block of Peabody\'s dwellings in Spitalnelds \n\nopened 29 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGaribaldi enters London, n April ;- receives the \n\nfreedom of the city .... 21 April, ,, \nMany turnpikes in the N. suburbs abolished, 1 July, ,, \nGreat excitement through the murder of Mr. Briggs \n\nin a carriage of the N. London railway . 9 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe first railway train enters the city of London \n\nnear Blackfriars-bridge ... 6 Oct. ,, \n\nNorth London industrial exhibition, Islington, \n\nopened by earl Russell . . . .17 Oct. ,, \nExcitement through the performance of the Daven- \nport brothers Oct. -Dec. ,.. \n\nGreat bullion robbery in Lombard-street, 3 or 4 Dec. ,, \nMany burglaries in London ; great robbery at \n\nWalker\'s, the jewellers, Cornhill . . 4, 5 Feb. 1865 \nSouth London industrial exhibition opened by earl \n\nof Shaftesbury 1 March, ,, \n\nThe prince of Wales present at the opening of the \nmain drainage works, at the southern outfall \n\nnear Erith 4 April, ,,, \n\nPrince of Wales opens the international reformatory \n\nexhibition at Islington . . . 19 May, ,, \nCattle puague breaks out in cow houses near Barns- \nbury, about 27 June, t> \n\nInvestigation into the state of the workhouse in- \nfirmaries from several paupers dying through \n\nneglect Aug. ,.. \n\nMany turnpikes in the S. suburbs abolished, 31 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nMr. Peabody adds ioo,ooo\xc2\xa3. to his gift of 1862, \n\n29 Jan. 1866 \nCity industrial exhibition opened by lord mayor, \n\n6 March, ,, \nHorrible murder of Sarah Millson in Cannon-street \n\n(culprit undiscovered) . . . . n April, ,. \nBlack-Friday ; commercial panic ; failure of Overend, \nGurney, & Co., Discount Company (see Bank, \n\n11 May) 10 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAgra and Masterman\'s bank stops ; greatexcitement, \n\n6 June, ,,. \nShocking revelations in London workhouse in- \nfirmaries June, et seq. ,, \n\nCholera prevails in east London (see Cholera), \n\nJuly-Sept. ,, \nRiots in Hyde-park . . . . 23, 24 July, \xe2\x80\x9e. \nCannon-street railway station opened . 1 Sept. , y \nLord mayor honourably entertained at Brussels by \n\nthe king of the Belgians .... Oct. ,,. \n\nWorking classes industrial exhibition at Islington \n\nclosed 12 Nov. t> \n\nReport of committee at common council recom- \nmending enlargement of constituency voting for \nmunicipal questions (from about 6700 to 15,000) \n\n12 Nov. ,, \nReform demonstration by trades unions ; procession \nof about 25,000 to Beaufort-house grounds, Bromp- \n\nton 3 Dec. ,, \n\nEstimated population of the " City " by day, \n\n283,520; by night, about 100,000 . . Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nSevere frost : 40 lives lost by breaking in of ice on \n\nornamental waters in Regent\'s park . 15 Jan. 1867/ \n" Icy night " ; many accidents through fall of rain \n\nand immediate frost 22 Jar. ,\xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLondon Street Reform Association organised, Jar. ,, \nGreat distress in east London ; large subscriptions ; \nMansion-house Metropolitan Relief Fund esta- \nblished 26 Jan. ,. \n\nMetropolitan poor act passed . . 29 March, , r \nLondon conference on Luxembourg question \n\n7-1 1 May, ,\xe2\x80\x9e \nFirst stone laid of Holborn viaduct, 3 June ; of new \n\nmeat market 5 June, ... \n\nThe lord mayor entertained the viceroy of Egypt \n11 June ; the Belgians, 12 July ; the Sultan, \n\n18 July, 1867 \nThe Sultan gives 2500Z. to the poor of London, \n\n22 July, \n\nElectors for M.P.\'s to have 3 votes only, by Reform \n\nact passed . p . f \xe2\x80\xa2 15 Aug- \n\n\n\nLONDON. \n\n\n\n593 \n\n\n\nLONDON. \n\n\n\nCounty Court for the city established by act of par- \nliament 20 Aug. 1S67 \n\nEdvv. M\'Donnell shot by supposed Fenian, 28 Sept., \n\ndied 5 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\'Tailors\' strike, began 22 April ; over . . Oct. ,, \nLord mayor\'s state coach not used . . 9 Nov. ,, \nCommon Council undertake erection of another \n\ncattle market (for foreign cattle) . . 6 Dec. ,, \nPremeditated explosion outside Clerkenwell house \nof detention to release Fenians (7 persons killed \nand about 50 wounded) . . . 13 Dec. ,, \n\nMuch excitement through other attempted explo- \nsions ; about 30,000 special constables sworn in, \n\n17-24 De \xe2\x96\xa0:. ,, \nMysterious disappearance of the rev. B. Speke in \n\nWestminster 8 Jan, 1868 \n\nGreat distress in the east of London through want \nof employment ; meeting of employer and em- \nployed ; work offered to the iron shipwrights at \nlower wages declined .... 25 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n52,974 special constables in the metropolis up to \n\n28 Jan. ,, \nMr. Speke (partially insane) found in Cornwall, \n\n24 Feb. ,, \n(East) London Museum Site act passed . 28 Feb. ,, \nThe queen lays foundation-stone of the new St. \n\nThomas\'s hospital .... 13 May, ,, \n\nWestern approach street, Holborn Valley, opened, \n\n25 June, ,, \nPart of the Albert (southern) embankment of the \n\nThames opened 30 July, ,, \n\nKing\'s Cross market opened ... 7 Aug. ,, \nMidland Counties railway station opened 1 Oct. ,, \nGreat meeting to relieve sufferers by South American \n\nearthquake (n, oool.) collected . . . 13 Oct. ,, \nNew meat market, Smithfield, inaugurated by the \n\nlord mayor, 24 Nov. ; opened to the public,! Dec. ,, \nMr. Peabody gives another 100,000!. to the poor of \n\nLondon 5 Dec. ,, \n\nLondon Association for prevention of poverty and \n\ncrime founded 17 Dec. ,, . \n\nS. London industrial exhibition opened 1 March, 1869 \nColumbia market, Bethnal-green, erected by Miss \n\nBurdett-Coutts ; opened by her . . 28 April, ,, \nStatue of Mr. Peabody uncovered, prince of Wales \n\npresent 23 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nInauguration of the Holborn viaduct and the new \n\nBlackfriars bridge by the queen . . \xe2\x80\xa2 6 Nov. ,, \nInauguration of the Victoria (northern) Thames em- \nbankment by the prince of Wales . . 13 July, 1870 \nInternational workmen\'s exhibition at Islington \n\nopened by the prince of Wales . . 16 July, ,, \nLondon ratepayers\' school-board association esta- \nblished 8 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNew city library and museum founded near Guild- \nhall 27 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLondon education board elected . . 29 Nov. ,, \nFoundation-stone laid of new general post-office, \n\n16 Dec. ,, \nMansion-house Relief Fund established for the \n\nFrench (24,000!. raised in 4 days) . 18 Jan. 1871 \n\nA 1 1 dresses of the corporation presented . 28 Feb. ,, \nRoyal Albert hall, Kensington, opened by the queen, \n\n29 March, ,, \nFirst annual International Exhibition at South \nKensington opened by the prince of Wales (closed \n\n30 Oct.) 1 May, ,, \n\nSt. Thomas\'s hospital opened by the queen, \n\n21 June, ,, \nHampstead heath purchased by Metropolitan board \n\nof works for 45,000!. ; act passed . 29 June, ,, \nThe freedom of the city presented to prince Arthur, \n\n13 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nTolls on the Commercial roads, London, E., ceased, \n\n5 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nQueen Victoria-street opened, 4 Nov. ; St. Andrew\'s \n\nstreet, <fec. , opened 20 Nov. ,, \n\nNew lieutenancy appointed, 1 Nov. . 8 Dec. ,, \n\nNational thanksgiving for the recovery of the prince \nof Wales ; the queen and prince go to St. Paul\'s. \n\n27 Feb. 1872 \nStrike of building trades begun, 1 June (see Strikes) ; \n\nlock-out by the masters begun . . 19 June, ,, \nEast London Museum at Bethnal-grcen opened by \n\nthe prince and princess of Wales . . 24 June, ,, \nMurder of Mrs. Squires and daughter in Hoxton \n(undiscovered) .... noon 10 July, ,, \n\n\n\nFailure of Gledstanes and Co. (East India firm) for \nnearly 2,000,000!. ; announced . . 22 Aug 1872 \n\nBuilders\' strike aud lock-out ends by agreement, \nabout 27 Aug. ,, \n\nEpidemic smallpox .... July-Sept. ,, \n\nSecond annual International Exhibition opened \n1 May ; closed 19 Oct. ,, \n\nNew City Library and Museum at Guildhall opened \nby the lord chancellor .... 5 Nov. ,, \n\nBrutal murder of Harriet Buswell, a gay woman, \nin Great Coram-street (undiscovered) 25 Dec. ,, \n\nForgery on the Bank of England to amount of \n80,000!. detected March, 1873 \n\nBanquet to mayors of corporate towns at the Man- \nsion-house 26 March, ,, \n\nVictoria-park visited by the queen ; she went \nthrough Islington and returned through the city, \n\n2 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe City temple (to replace the Poultry chapel) \n\nfounded near Holborn Viaduct . . 19 May, ,, \nFirst Hospital Sunday {which see) . .15 June, ,, \nThe Shah of Persia at a banquet at Guildhall, 20 June, ,, \nThe common council vote 10,000!. to buy Upton \n\npark, West Ham Nov. ,, \n\nBank-rate, 9 per cent., panic on stock exchange \n\n7 Nov. ,, \nContinued fog, much sickness, and many accidents \n\n8-13 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nNational training school for music, South Ken- \nsington ; foundation laid by the duke of Edin- \nburgh 18 Dec. ,, \n\nTichborne case closed (see Trials) . . 28 Feb. 1874 \n\nDuke and Duchess of Edinburgh enter London \n\n12 March, ,, \nFourth International Exhibition, opened 6 April, ,, \nCity liberal club, earl Granville, president, organ- \nized May, ,, \n\nThe czar entertained at Guildhall . . 18 May, ,, \nCity Temple, Holborn Viaduct, opened . 19 ,, ,, \nBanquet to provincial mayors at Mansion-house \n\n3 June, ,, \nSecond Hospital Sunday . . . 14 June, ,, \nThe czar presents 1000!., to the bishop and the lord \n\nmayor for the poor of London . . 2 July, ,, \n\nFirst Hospital Saturday (which see) . . 17 Oct. ,, \n\nFreedom given to sir Garnet J. Wolseley . 22 Oct. ,. \n\nInternational exhibition closed . . 31 Oct. ,, \n\nLord mayor Stone and the sheriffs at the opening \nof the new opera-house, Paris . . .5 Jan. 1875 \n\nCongregational Memorial hall, Farriugdon-street, \nopened 19 Jan. ,, \n\nArrival of Moody and Sankey (see Revivals), first \nmeeting 9 March, ,, \n\nLord Elcho\'s bill for municipal government with- \ndrawn May, ,, \n\nGreat Failures in the iron trade . . 31 ,, ,, \n\nArrival of the Sultan of Zanzibar . . 9 June, ,, \n\nFailure of Alex. Collie & Co. led to others (Collie \nabsconded 9 Aug.) .... June, July, ,, \n\nBritish and foreign mayors, burgomasters, prefets, \n&c. , entertained by the lord mayor . . 29 July, ,, \n\nDiscussion on widening London Bridge Sept. -Oct. ,, \n\nFirst pile of steam-ferry landing-place from Wap- \nping to Rotherhithe struck by lord-mayor Stone \n\n11 Oct. ,, \n\nPrince Leopold takes up his freedom . . 25 Oct. ,, \n\nGrocers\' company wing, London hospital, opened \nby the queen 7 March, 1876 \n\nFreedom of the city given to chief-justice Cockburn \n(said to be first case of the kind) . 9 March, ,, \n\nBanquet and ball to the prince of Wales on his \nreturn from India (11 May) . . . 19 May, ,, \n\nLord Elcho\'s resolution for reforming the corpora- \ntion and establishing a metropolitan government \nwithdrawn from the Commons . . 13 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nStock exchange very dull; new 3 per cent, con- \nsols, 974 24 July, ,, \n\nPublic meeting at Mansion-house respecting atro- \ncities in Bulgaria (see Turkey) . . 18 Sept. ,, \n\n" Great Eastern-street " (from Shoreditch to Old- \nstreet), opened . . 12 Oct. ,, \n\nVisit of municipal officers of Paris, to inspect rail- \nways, &c. ... 30 April\xe2\x80\x94 8 May, 1877 \n\nSir John Bennett thrice elected alderman, rejected \nby court of aldermen, third time, 16 Oct. ; Edgar \nBrefiitt elected by court of aldermen . 23 Oct. ,, \n\nTemple Bar removed . . . 2 \xe2\x80\x94 14 Jan. 1878 \n\nRevival of trade ; bank discount 4 per cent. 1 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nQ Q \n\n\n\nLONDON. \n\n\n\n594 \n\n\n\nLONDON. \n\n\n\nBanquet to the ministers after the treaty of Berlin ; \nfreedom of city given to the earl of Beaeonsfield \nand the marquis of Salisbury . . 3 Aug. \n\nThe Parochial Charities commission appointed (the \nduke of Northumberland, canon R. Gregory, pre- \nbendary Wm. Rogers, and others) . 9 Aug. \n\nBank discount raised to 5 per cent. . 12 Aug. \n\nGreat Eastern-street completed and opened Aug. \n\nFoundering of the Princess Alice (xvhich see) through \ncollision with the Bywell Castle in Thames (see \nMansion House Fund) .... 3 Sept. \n\n"Waterloo-bridge opened toll-free . . 5 Oct. \n\n" City and Guilds of London Institute for the ad- \nvancement of Technical Education," formally \nconstituted n Nov. \n\nCity Church and Churchyard Protection Society \nformed Feb. \n\nNew-formed street between Shoreditch and Bethnal- \ngreen opened (it completes direct road from \nOxford-street to Old-ford) ... 29 March. \n\nHolborn Town-hall opened by the lord mayor, \n\n18 Bee. \n\nThe king of Greece receives freedom of the city, \n\n16 June, \n\nMunicipality of London bill introduced by Mr. Firth \nand others 25 June, \n\nExplosion of gas main near Tottenham-court-road ; \n2 deaths ; much property destroyed . 5 July, \n\nCity Livery Companies\' Commission appointed (earl \nof Berby, duke of Bedford, lord Sherbrooke, lord \nColeridge, sir R. A. Cross, <&c.) . . July, \n\nTopographical Society of London founded, 28 Oct. \n\nTemple Bar Memorial uncovered (see Temple), 8 Nov. \n\nMansion-house {which see) ; attempt to blow it up \ndetected 16 March, \n\nElcho shield placed in Guildhall, 10th time 29 Oct. \n\nMr. W. Ward bequeaths 20,000?., and other property \nto the Corporation, announced . 17 Nov. \n\nCity of London College near Moorgate-st. ; founda- \ntion laid 31 March, \n\nThe lord Mayor takes freedom of the city to the \nKing of the Netherlands at the Hague . 20 Sept. \n\nNew city of London schools, Victoria Embankment, \nopened by the prince of Wales . . 12 Bee. \n\nFreedom given to lord Alcester . . 11 April, \n\nCity of London Parochial Charities act, 46 & 47 \nVict. c. 56, passed 20 Aug. \n\nMuch excitement about the dwellings of "Out-cast \nLondon" through Mr. G. R. Sims, "How the \npoor live," &c Autumn, \n\nMeeting at the Mansion House to raise 50,000?., to \naid the Beaumont legacy, in establishing a great \ninstitution for the instruction and recreation- of \nthe people of the East end . . .14 Bee. \n\nNew street from King William street to the Tower \nopened 25 Jan. \n\n1,000?. offered by government, and 1,000?. by \nrailway companies, for discovery of dynamite \nconspirators about . . .3 March, \n\nSee Dynamite, and Explosions, 1883-4. \n\nFreedom of the city given to the earl of Shaftesbury, \na life-long social philanthropist . . 5 March, \n\nProposed settlement of Oxford and Cambridge \nuniversity men in E. London to improve social \nlife May, \n\nRemains of Roman architecture, &c. discovered \nduring excavations in Bevis Marks, E.C. . Aug. \n\nThe common council meet in their new chamber at \nGuildhall 2 Oct. \n\nThe common council agree to the construction of a \nlow-level bridge between the Tower and Horsely- \ndown, with lifting sections for the passage of \nships, cost about 750,000?. . . .24 Oct. \n\nGreat meeting of unemployed social democratic \nfederation on Thames embankment ; proceed to \nlocal government board ; dissatisfied and riotous \n\n16 Feb. \n\nFreedom of the city presented to prince Albert \nVictor of Wales 29 June \n\nTower bridge act passed ... 14 Aug \n\nMeeting of citizens at Guildhall ; sir John Lub- \nbock\'s resolution against an Irish parliament \ncarried ... . 2 April, \n\nFoundation stone of the Tower bridge laid by the \nprince of Wales. . . . . 21 June, \n\nFire panic in Hebrew dramatic club, Spitalfields, \n17 killed 18 Jan. \n\nParliamentary committee to enquire into charges ot \n\n\n\ni879 \n\n\n\nspending corporation funds to oppose municipal \nreform bill report the charge to be partially \nsustained in getting up metropolitan ratepayers\' \nprotection association ; bogus meetings and \nmuch agitation (19,550?. spent in 1882-5), about \n21 May, 1887 ; charge declared not proved by \nthe common council .... 9 Feb. 1 \n\nThe queen receives the lord mayor and others with \ntheir jubilee address .... 9 May, \n\nThe queen proceeds from Paddington to Mile End \nto open the "People\'s Palace"; visits the \nMansion-house ; the houses in the route \nsplendidly decorated ; the line kept by the \nmilitary, volunteers, and police ; no disorder, \n\n14 May, \n\nDeath of sir Horace Jones, city architect, aged 68, \n\n21 May, \n\nTerrific storm, destructive of life and property \nbegan 5.30 p.m., lasting about 4 hours 17 Aug. \n\nIncreased spread of scarlet and other fever \n\nSept.-Oct. \n\nTorchlight meeting of liberal and radical clubs \nat Rotherhithe, about 12,000 present condemning \nthe Irish policy of the government . 24 Oct. \n\nSpecial constables sworn in (see Riots) 17-19 Nov. \n\nFreedom of the city of London conferred on the \nmarquis of Hartington . . . 18 April, \n\nThe new city of London court opened by the lord \nmayor 6 Dec. \n\nThe great fiee steam ferry between north and south \nWoolwich opened by lord Rosebery 23 March, \n\nThe lord mayor Whitehead visits the exhibition at \nParis, and is honourably entertained 6 May \xc2\xabt seq. \n\nFreedom of the city given to the marquis of \nDufferin (with banquet) ... 29 May, \n\nFreedom of the city presented to prince George of \nWales 1 June, \n\nStrike of dock labourers (see Strikes) . Aug. -Sept. \n\nBall at the Mansion-house to celebrate the 700th \nanniversary of the mayoralty . -29 Oct. \n\nGrand lord mayor\'s show arranged by Hon. Lewis \nWingfield 9 Nov. \n\nSir Sydney H. Waterlow presents a park at South \nHampstead (see Waterlow Park) . .12 Nov. \n\nLord Napier of Magdala dies 14 Jan. ; grand mili- \ntary funeral, St. Paul\'s . . . .21 Jan. ] \n\nThe freedom of the city given to Mr. H. M. Stanley \n(see Soudan, 1887 et seg.) . . -13 May \n\nNew art gallery of the corporation opened by the \nlord mayor 10 June \n\nTemporary strikes of the postmen and police (which \nsee) July \n\nExcavations near the post-office, St. Martin\'s-le- \nGrand ; discoveries of Roman remains, the town \nditch, &c Sept. \n\nCity and S. London Electric Railway opened by \nthe prince of Wales .... 4 Nov. \n\nThe Corporation medal commemorating the founda- \ntion of the mayorality in 1189, completed by \nMessrs. Kirkwood of Edinburgh . . Nov. \n\nFinancial crisis through the serious difficulties of \nMessrs. Baring (liabilities, 21,000,000/.), who are \npromptly and .judiciously assisted by the Bank of \nEngland, William Lidderdale, governor, aided by \nthe Bank of France, and other establishments ; \npanic hardly averted . . 8-15 Nov. et seq. \n\nBaring Brothers constituted a limited liability \ncompany, principally by Mr. T. C. Baring and the \nfamily ; registered 24 Nov. \n\nGreat meeting in the Guildhall, London, appealing \nto the czar on behalf of the Jews, 10 Bee. 1890 ; \nmemorial and the lord mayor\'s letter, returned to \nhim, through the foreign office, by the Russian \nambassador without comment . . 7 Feb. : \n\nThe telephone system between London and Paris \ninaugurated (see Telephone) . . 18 March \n\nFreedom of the city presented to Mr. William \nLidderdale, governor of the bank of England \n\n6 May \n\nOmnibus strike (which see) . . . 7-13 June, \n\nState visit of the German emperor and empress (see \nGermany) 10 July \n\nThe prince of Naples dines with the lord mayor \n\n28 July \n\nThe London Ratepayers\' Defence League formed at \na meeting at the Guildhall . . .18 Nov. \n\nBeath of Mr. Benjamin Scott, aged 7S, chamber- \n\n\n\nLONDON, BISHOPRIC OF. \n\n\n\n595 \n\n\n\nLONDON HOSPITAL. \n\n\n\nlain since 1858, died, 17 Jan. ; succeeded by alder- \nman Win. J. R. Cotton . . . . 5 Feb. 1892 \nSir Charles Hall, Q.O., elected recorder . 8 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n[See England; and the occurrences not noticed \nhere, under their respective heads.] \n\nLONDON, BISHOPRIC OF, is said tradition- \nally to have been founded in tlie reign of Lucius, \nabout 179. Restitutus, bishop, is said to have \nbeen present at the council of Aries, 314. Augustin \nmade Canterbury the metropolitan see of England. \nMellitus was first bishop in 604 ; expelled 616 ; \nfirst successor, Cedd, 6$6. The see has given to the \nchurch of Koine five samts, and to the realm sixteen \nlord chancellors and lord treasurers ; it was valued \nin the king\'s books, at 119^. 8s. $d. per annum. \nPresent income, io,OOo\xc2\xa3. In 1845 Hertford and part \nof Essex were taken from the see of London and \nadded to that of Eochester. \n\nHECENT BISHOPS. \n\n1787. Beilby Porteus, died 14 May, 1809. \n\niSog. John Randolph, died 28 July, 1813. \n\n1813. W. Howley, trans, to Canterbury, Aug. 1828. \n\n1828. Charles James Blomfield ; resigned Oct. 1856 \n\n(died 5 Aug. 1857). \n1856. Archibald Campbell Tait, translated to Canterbury, \n\nDee. 1868. \n1869. John Jackson, from Lincoln, elected 14 Jan. (had \n\nconsecrated 84 new churches, 1869-79), &izd- 6 \n\nJan. 1885. \n1885. Fred. Temple, translated from Exeter. \n\nLONDON BRIDGE. The first bridge said \nto have been built 994, was much injured by the \nDanes 1008 and destroyed by a flood 1091. Another \nbridge erected by command of William II., was \nburnt in 1136. The late old bridge was com- \nmenced about 1 1 76, by Peter of Coleehurch, and \ncompleted in 1209, with houses on each side, con- \nnected together by large arches of timber which \ncrossed the street. \n\nA fire at the Southwark end brought crowds on the \nbridge ; the houses at the north end caught Are \nlikewise, and prevented their escape : and up- \nwards of 3000 persons lost their lives, being \neither killed, burned, or drowned . . July, 1212 \nThe bridge restored in 1300, again destroyed by fire \nin 1471 ; 13 Feb. 1632, and . . . Sept. 1725 \n\nAll the houses pulled down 1756 \n\nWaterworks begun, 1582 ; destroyed by fire . . 1774 \nThe toll discontinued .... 27 March, 1782 \nIn 1822 the corporation advertised for designs for a \nnew bridge : that by John Rennie was approved, \nand the works were executed by his sons John \nand George. The first pile was driven 200 feet to \nthe west of the old bridge, 15 March, 1824 ; the \nfirst stone was laid by the lord mayor, alder- \nman Garratt 15 June, 1825 \n\nThe bridge opened by William IV. and his queen, \n\n1 Aug. 1831 \nThe cost was 506,000?. \n\nPlans for widening the bridge rejected . . . 1875 \nIt was computed that on 17 March, 1859, there \npassed over London-bridge 20,498 vehicles (of \nwhich 4483 were cabs and 4286 omnibuses), and \n167,910 persons (107,074 on foot, and 60,836 in \nvehicles). In April 1881 in one day (24 hours) \npassed over 78,943 passengers in 10,733 vehicles. \nAttempt to explode S.W. end, damage to property, \nnot life ; near 6 p.m. 13 Dec. 1884, 500I. reward \noffered. \n\nLONDON CONFERENCE, of representa- \ntives of the chief European powers to reconcile Aus- \ntria, Prussia, and Denmark, met 25 April to 25 June, \n1864, without effect. A conference in London re- \nspecting the treaty of Paris, 1856, led to a treaty \nsigned 13 March, 187 1 ; see Black Sea. \nConference respecting Egyptian affairs; earl Gran- \nville, foreign secretary, &c, H. C. E. Childers, \nchancellor of the exchequer, met the following \nambassadors i Count Karolyi (Austria), M. Wad- \ndington (France), count Minister (Germany), \n\n\n\ncount Nigra (Italy), count De Staal (Russia), and \nMusurus Pasha (Turkey), 28 June, 1884; ad- \njourned without result sine die . .2 Aug. 1884 \n\nLONDON COUNTY COUNCIL was \n\nconstituted by the Local Government Act of 1888, \nand to it was transferred the powers, duties, \nproperty and debts, and liabilities, of the Metro- \npolitan Board of Works (which sec). The council \nconsists of 118 members, elected by the ratepayers \nof the parishes, and 19 aldermen, including a \nchairman. The old "city" retains most of its \nancient privileges. \nThe duke of Westminster first lord lieutenant \n\nannounced 24 Oct. 1888 \n\nFirst council elected ; the earl of Rosebery, sir \nJohn Lubbock, Mr. Benjamin Cohen, and Mr. \nHenry Clarke returned for the city (lady Sand- \nhurst and Miss Cobden elected councillors) \n\n7 Jan. T889 \nFirst provisional meeting, sir John Lubbock \nchairman, 31 Jan. ; 19 aldermen elected, including \nlord Lingen, lord Hobhouse, and the earl of \nMeath, the majority progressive radicals, 5 Feb. ; \nthe earl of Rosebery appointed chairman, sir \nJohn Lubbock vice-chairman (both unpaid), Mr. \nJ. F. Bottomley Firth deputy-chairman (salary \n2000/.) 12 Feb. 1889. Mr. Firth died suddenly \nabout 4 Sept. ; succeeded by Mr. Alfred H. \nHaggis (salary 1000Z.), 7 Nov. 1889 ; he died sud- \ndenly . . . . . . .24 Nov. 1891 \n\nThe council entered on its duties by order of the \n\nlocal government board . . . 21 March, 1889 \nThe queen\'s bench decides on appeal of lady Sand- \nhurst that women are disqualified for election \nas councillors, 16 May, 1889 ; see Women . 1889-90 \nSir John Lubbock elected chairman to succeed the \nearl of Rosebery (resigned), 22 July ; sir Thomas \nH. Farrar, vice-chairman, 29 July ; the three \n\nofficers re-elected 7 Nov. 1890 \n\nThe council was authorised to raise mo-iey by acts \n\npassed 1889-90 ; another act passed . . . 1892 \nSecond council elected (progressives, 83 \', moderates, \n35), 5 March ; the earl of Rosebery elected \nchairman ; Mr. John Hutton, vice-chairman ; Mr. \nDickinson, deputy-chairman, 15 March; the earl \nof Rosebery resigns 22 June ; succeeded by Mr. \nJohn Hutton 12 July, ,, \n\nLONDONDERRY or Derry (N. Ireland), \nmentioned 546. An abbey here was burned by the \nDanes in 783. A charter was granted to the Lon- \ndon companies in 1615. The town was surprised, \nand sir George Powlett, the governor, and the \nentire garrison were put to the sword by rebels, in \n1606. It was besieged by O\'Neill in 1641. A grant \nwas made of Deny, with 210,000 acres of land, to \nvarious companies in London, in 1619, when it took \nits present name. The siege of Derry by James II. \'s \narmy commenced 20 April, 1689. The garrison \nand inhabitants were driven to the extremity of \nfamine; but under the rev. George Walker, they \ndefended it until the siege was raised by gen. \nKirke, on 30 July. James\'s army, under the French \ngeneral Rosen, retired with the loss of about 9000 \nmen. Foyle College act passed, 1874. A grand \niron bridge over the Eoyle, opened I Jan. 1878. \nRiots through orange opposition to the mayor of \nDublin\'s visit, 31 Oct. 1883. Population 1881, \n29,162; 1891,32,893. The lord lieutenant, the earl \nof Zetland, opened the new Guildhall, 31 July, 1890. \n\nLONDON DIALECTICAL SOCIETY, \n\nsee Dialectical. \n\nLONDON GAZETTE, sec Newspapers. \n\nLONDON HOSPITAL, Whitechapel, in- \nstituted Nov. 1740; for seamen, labourers, &c. \nFoundation of present building laid by adin. sir \n\nPeter Warren, 15 Oct. 1752 ; had 130 beds . . 1760 \nThe queen opened the Grocers\' company\'s wing \n\n(raising number of beds to 790) . . 7 March, 1876 \n\nQ Q 2 \n\n\n\nLONDON INSTITUTION. \n\n\n\n536 \n\n\n\nLONDON WATER SUPPLY. \n\n\n\nLONDON. INSTITUTION, "for the ad- \nvancement of literature and the diffusion of useful \nknowledge," in imitation of the Royal Institution, \nwas founded in 1805 by sir Francis Baring, bart., \nand others, at 8, Old Jewry, Cheapside, and incor- \nporated 30 April, 1815. Prof. Poison, the first \nlibrarian, died 25 Sept. 1808. The present building \nin Finsbury-circus was opened on 21 April, 1819; \nthe first lecture was delivered by Mr. W. T. Brande, \non 5 May following. Mr. W. R. Grove, Q.C. \n(afterwards justice) (the inventor of the Voltaic \nbattery which bears his name), was the first pro- \nfessor of experimental philosophy, 1840-6. The \ninstitution possesses an excellent library, lecture- \nroom, and laboratory. Thomas Baring, M.P., long \npresident, died 18 Nov. 1873; succeeded by Dr. \n"Warren de la Bue ; by Mr. Henry Hucks tibbs, 2 \nMarch, 1886. \n\nLONDON LIBRARY (circulating), at first \nin Pall-mall, now in St. James\'s-square, was \nfounded by lord Eliot and others, 24 June, 1840, \nand opened 1 May, 1841. The latest catalogues were \nprinted in 1875-88. \n\nLONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY, es- \ntablished 1795. In 1878 there were 151 European, \nand 543 ordained native missionaries : receipts in \n1887, 105,382/; 1891, 114,293/. \n\nLONDON MUNICIPAL BILL, intro- \nduced by sir W. Harcourt, 8 April ; withdrawn, \n10 July, 1884. \n\nThe corporation of London was to be so extended as to \ncomprehend the whole Metropolitan area ; common \ncouncil, (240 members) elected triennally by burgesses \nof 39 districts, to be sole governing body, and to com- \nbine functions of existing corporation, Metropolitan \nBoard of Works, and other local authorities ; and to \nelect annually a Lord Mayor and Deputy Mayor ; and \nto control all local affairs except Poor Law Administra- \ntion, Education, and Police. \nCommon council adopt a scheme, for creation of nine \nmunicipal corporations in addition to that of London, \n5 Nov. ; published in Times, 6 Nov. 1885. \nFor opposition to the London municipal bill, see \nLondon, 21 May, 1887. \n\nLONDON MUNICIPAL REFORM, a \n\nleague was founded 10 March, 1881, to promote \none representative municipal government for the \nmetropolis ; meetings were held in Oct. 1881 ; \nchairman of council, Mr. J. F. B. Firth, M.P. for \nChelsea. Annual meetings are held. \n\nLONDON PARKS AND WORKS ACT, \n\nplaced Battersea Park, Kennington Park, Bethnal \nGreen Museum Gardens, Chelsea Embankment, \nand Victoria Park, under the direction of the \nMetropolitan Board of Works, 1887. \n\nLONDON PHILANTHROPIC SO- \nCIETY was founded 1841, to supply bread and \ncoal to the poor. \n\nLONDON RAILWAYS, principal exten- \nsions and branches incorporated. \nLondon and Blaekwall, 1836 ; London, Brighton, and \nSouth Coast, 1846 ; London, Chatham and Dover, \n1853 I London and Greenwich opened 1838 ; London \nand North-Western (formed out of the London and \nBirmingham, Grand Junction and Manchester and \nBirmingham), 1846 ; London and South- Western (and \nSouthampton till 1839), opened 1840 ; acts consoli- \ndated, 1855 ; Metropolitan, 1854 ; Metropolitan Dis- \ntrict, 1864 ; Midland, 1844 ; North London, 1846 \nSouth Eastern, 1836. \n\nLONDON SACRED HARMONIC SO- \nCIETY, formed after the dismissal of Mr. Sur- \nman, conductor of the Sacred Harmonic Society \n6 March, 1848 ; gave last concert, 22 Dec. 1856. \n\nLONDON SALVAGE CORPS, maintained \nby the Insurance Companies, established 1866. \n\n\n\nLONDON SCHOOL BOARD, see Edu- \ncation, 1870, et seq. \n\nLONDON STEAMER, see Wrecks, fee., 11 \nJan. 1866. \n\nLONDON STONE. A stone said to have \nbeen placed by the Romans in Cannon-street, then \nthe centre of the city, 15 B.C. London stone was \nknown before the time of "William I. It was re- \nmoved from the opposite side of the way in 1742 ; \nand again moved to its present position in the wall \nof St. S with in\' s church, 1798. It was against this \nstone that Jack Cade is traditionally said to have \nstruck his sword, exclaiming "Now is Mortimer \nlord of this city ! " 1450. \n\nLONDON, UNIVERSITY OF. The "Lon- \ndon university " was founded by the exertions of lord \nBrougham, Thomas Campbell, sir Isaac L. Goldsmid, \nand others; thedeed of settlement dated II Feb. 1826. \nThe building was commenced 30 April, 1827 (when the \nfirst stone was laid by the duke of Sussex) ; and \nwas opened by an inaugural lecture from professor \nBell, 1 Oct. 1828. On 28 Nov. 1836, two charters \nwere granted: by one the "London university" \nwas changed to "University college," and by the \nother the University of London was established, \nwith a chancellor and other officers. New charters \nwere granted to the latter on 5 Dec. 1837 and 21 \nApril, 1858. It has power to grant degrees to \nstudents of the universities of the united kingdom, \nand of many collegiate establishments; and to \nwomen, by a supplemental charter, 1878. Its offices \nwere long in Burlington-house, Piccadilly, London. \nThe university was enfranchised by the Reform \nact of 1867, and Robert Lowe was elected the first \nM.P. 17 Nov. 1868 ; succeeded by sir John Lubbock, \nJune, 1880. The new buildings in Burlington- \ngardens, erected by Mr. Pennethorne, were inaugu- \nrated by the queen 11 May, 1870. Chancellors : earl \nof Burlington (aft. duke of) Devonshire, 1836; earl \nGranville, 1856 (died 31 March, 1891) ; earl of \nDerby, April, 1891. University Sail, Gordon- \nsquare, was founded in 1847. University College, \nnew buildings opened, Oct. 1880. A scheme for \nestablishing a teaching university of London, with \nfour faculties (arts, laws, science and medicine) \nset forth at the Society of Arts, by lord Reay, and \nothers, 15 Dec. 1884, and 5 Feb. 1885. \nThe report of the royal commission on the subject \nappointed in 1888 \xe2\x80\x94 Lord Selborne, sir George \nStokes, sir Wm. Thomson, sir James Hannen, Dr. \nBall, and Mr. Welldon \xe2\x80\x94 recommends that a \nteaching university for London should be pro- \nvided by the improvement and extension of the \nuniversity of London .... May, 1889 \nAnother scheme propounded by the senate of the \nuniversity of London, Feb. ; not approved by the \ncolleges, March ; rejected by the convocation \n\n(461-197) 12 May, 1S91 \n\nUniversity college issues an appeal to the public \nfor additional funds (50,000?.) to enable it to \n\ncarry on its work 24 Jan. ,, \n\nRoyal commission to consider the charter of the \nproposed teaching university in and for London, \nnominated : earl Cowper, chairman, lord Reay, \nbishop Barry, sir Lyon Playfair, Dr. J. S. Burdon \nSanderson, and 8 others, 25 April ; met . 2 June, 1892 \n\nLONDON WATER SUPPLY. \n\nMetropolitan Board of Works undertook to supply \nwater from the Chalk, and also from the Thames \nabove Teddington, with two sets of pipes, for \n12,000,000/. ........ 1878 \n\nNegotiations with the water companies by Mr. \nSmith, begun Oct. 1879 ; annuities proposed to \nhe given to the companies, 29,734,281/., with ad- \nditional payments making in all a capital payment \nof 33,018,836/., yearly interest to be paid by the \nconsumers, 1,240,673/. \n\n\n\nLONE STAR. \n\n\n\n597 \n\n\n\nLONGITUDE. \n\n\n\nLondon Water Supply Commission (sir William \nHarcourt, chairman) appointed 3 June, reported \nrecommending water supply to be placed under \ncontrol of some responsible public body (or Water \nTrust) to be created ; non-acceptance of Mr. \nSmith\'s proposal ; that the undertakings of exist- \ning companies be purchased upon fair and reason- \nable terms, if not, the endeavour to obtain an \nindependent supply, signed . . .3 Aug. 1880 \nSee Dobbs\' case, trials, 30 Nov. 1883. \n\nMetropolitan wacer bill, checking the systems of \nthe Companies rejected in the commons (197-152) \n\n11 March, 1884 \n\nLONE STAR, a secret society formed in 1848, \nin Alabama and other southern states of the North \nAmerican Union, for the " extension of the institu- \ntions, power, influence, and commerce of the \nUnited States over the whole of the western hemi- \nsphere, and the islands of the Atlantic and Pacific \noceans." The first acquisitions to be made by the \norder were Cuba and the Sandwich Islands. The \nknowledge of the existence of this society reached \nEngland in Aug. 1852. \n\nLONG ISLAND or FlATBUSH (N. America), \nBattle of, 27 Aug. 1776, between the British troops \nunder sir William Howe, and the revolted Ameri- \ncans, who suffered a severe defeat, alter a well- \nfought action, losing 2000 men killed and wounded \nand IOOO prisoner?. \n\nLONGEVITY. Methuselah died, aged 969, \n2349 B.C. (Gen. v. 27). Golour M\'Crain of the Isle \nof Jura, one of the Hebrides, is mythically said to \nhave kept 180 Christmases in his own house, and died \nin the reign of Charles I. "In 1014 died Johannes \nde Temporibus, who lived 361 years (!)" Stow. \nThomas Parr, a labouring man of Shropshire, was \nbrought to London by the earl of Arundel, in 1635, \nand said to be in his 153rd year and in perfect \nhealth.; he died 15 Nov. 111 the same year. Henry \nJenkins, of Yorkshire, died in 1670, and was buried \nin Bolton churchyard, 6 Dec. aged 169 years (?) The \nresearches of sir G. Uornewall Lewis, professor \nOwen, Mr. Wm. J. Thorns (in his " Human Longe- \nvity," May, 1873) anu others, have disproved many \nalleged cases of longevity ; and few statements \nof lives extending much beyond a century can be \nrelied on. There were no records of baptism till \nthe 16th century. In last decade about 800 alleged \ncentenarians registered ; 204 men. LVaths of 25 \nmen and 66 women aged above 100 registered in \n1881. See Abstinence. \n\nAlleged instances (most of them evidently false). \nDied. Aged. \n\n1656. James Bowles, Killingworth . . . . 153 \n\n1691. Lady Eccleston, Ireland 143 \n\n1759. James Sheil, Irish yeoman 136 \n\n1766. Colonel Thomas Winslow, Ireland . . . 146 \n\n1772. Mrs. Clum, Lichfield 138 \n\n1774. William Beeby, Dungarvan (an ensign who \nserved at the battles of the Boyne and Augh- \n\nrim) 130 \n\n1780. Robert Mao Bride, Hemes 130 \n\n,, Mr. William Ellis, Liverpool .... 130 \n\n1785. Cardinal de Solis no \n\n1797. Charles Macklin, actor, London . . . . 107 \n\n1806. Mr. Creeke, of Thurlow 125 \n\nCatherine Lopez, of Jamaica . . . . 134 \n\n1813. Mrs. Meighan, Uonoughmore .... 130 \n\n1814. Mary Innes, Isle of Skye 127 \n\n1816. Jane Lewson, Coldbath-fields, Clerkcnwell . 116 \n1840. Mi\'s. Martha Rorke, of Dromore, county of \n\nKildare, 27 Aug 133 \n\n1S53. Mrs. Mary Power (aunt of Rd. Lalor Shiel), \n\nUrsuline convent, Cork, 20 March . . . 116 \n1S58. James Nolan, Knockardrane, Carlow . . . 116 \n\n1874. Anthony Beresford (born 8 Feb. 1772) died at \n\nAlstonlield, 3 March, autlientic . . . 101 \n\n1875. Count Jean Fred. Waldeck, painter ; born at \n\nPrague, 16 March, 1766 ; died at Paris, 29 \nApril, 1875 109 \n\n\n\nDied. Aged. \n\n1875. Jacob Wm. Liming, at Morden college . . 103 \n\n1876. Madame Hulsenstein, said to have been maid \n\nof honour to the empress Maria Theresa . .119 \n,, Elizabeth Abbott, Ipswich, said to be . . 105 \n\n1877. Pleasance, widow of sir James E. Smith, bo- \n\ntanist, (b. n May, 1773 ; d. 3 Feb. 1877) . 103 \n,, Eunice Bagster, wife of Samuel, Bible book- \nseller, London, zi Aug. .... 100 \n187S. Thomas Budgen, Spitalfields, London 4 Aug. 104 \n\n1879. Jane Hooper, St. Pancras, London . . . 102 \n,, Rev. Canon Beadon, Stoneham . . . . 102 \n,, Margaret Crook, Durham 112 \n\n1880. Sarah Way, Bristol .... 104! \n,, Johannette Polack (born Genth) ; Wiesbaden \n\n101 and 5 months \n\n1881. Martha Gardner, Liverpool, 10 March 104 and 5 \n\nmonths \n,, Fanny Bailey, Worthing, 6 April . . . 103^ \n,, Annie Webb, sister of Sir Joseph Maxwell, Aug. 102 \n,, Jane Pinkerton, of Lower Crumpsall, Man- \nchester, (born 10 June, 1774) died 5 Oct. . 107 \n,, Archibald M\' Arthur, Dunoon, born 1777 . 104 \n\n1882. James Smith, St. Mary Cray, born 1777 \n\ndied* 27 Nov. aged nearly 105 \n\xe2\x80\x9e Thomas Bramley, Ilkeston, Derby, born \n\n29 Dec. 1777, died Dec. .... 105 \n\n1883. Betty Morgan, Garth in Wales, died 26 Feb. 107 \n,, Stephen Lewes, Southampton, died May . . 106 \n\n1884. Rhoda Dunn, Hunstanton, Norfolk . . 103 \n\n1855. Sir Moses Montefiore, Ramsgate, died 28 July, iooj \n\xe2\x80\x9e Mrs. Townsend, Faringdon, Berkshire, died \n\n29 May 102 \n\n1856. Miss Joanna Hastings (aunt of G. W. Hastings, \n\nM.P.), Great Malvern (born 14 March, 1782), \n\ndied 12 March 103- \n\n,, Richard Holmes, Heathfield, Sussex, died \n\n5 May 107 \n\n,, Sarah Marshall, Nantyglo, Wales, died 6 Aug. . 107 \n,, W. Nicholson, Wenden, Essex, died 15 Dec. . 103 \n\n1887. Miss Jane Gibson, Glasgow, died Dec. . . 102^ \n,, The death of 31 alleged centenarians reported \n\nin 1887. \n\n1888. M. Dimitrios Antippa died Jan. . . 115 (?)\xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n,, Caroline Heathorne, died 3 Feb 104;. \n\n\xe2\x80\x9e Pattison Jolly, Dublin, died 5 Feb. . . 104 \n\n,, Thomas Eggleston, West Virginia, IT. S., died \n\n3 May 111J \n\n1889. Mrs. R. Chapman, Lewes, died March . . 105 \n,, Eugene Chevreul, Paris, 9 April . . . 102 \n,, Mrs. Catherine Voss, Shortlands, died 17 July 104. \n,, Madame Poulaillon, or Roux, at Toulouse, \n\ndied Nov. 106 \n\n1890. Mr. Edward Grubb, Bristol, died about 1 July 109 \n\n1891. Ann Telford, at Maryport, died 3 March . . in \n,, Mrs. Ann Starling, Birmingham, died 30 Sept. 103 \n\n1892. Magdalen Ponsa, at Vienna, died 4 Feb. . .117 \n\nEXAMPLES FURNISHED BY DR. J. WEBSTER, r.R.S. \n\n(unautlienticated) \nDied. Buried at Aged. \n\n1652. Dr. W. Meade, Ware, Herts .... 148J \n1711. Mrs. Scrimshaw, Rosemary-lane . . . 127 \n1739. Margaret Patten, Christehurch, Westminster . 136 \n1741. John Rovin, Temeswar, Hungary . . . 172 \n1757. Alexander M\'Culloch, Aberdeen . . . 132 \n1759. Donald Cameron, Rannach, Aberdeenshire . 130 \n\n1763. Mrs. Taylor, Piccadilly 131 \n\n1766. John Mount, Langham, Dumfries . . . 136 \n\n,, John Hill, Leadhills, near Edinburgh . . . 130 \n\n1771. Mr. Whalley, Rotherhithe . . . .121 \n\n1775. Widow Jones, Campbell 125 \n\n1780. Mr. Evans, Spitalfields 139 \n\n1784. Mary Cameron, Braemar, Aberdeen . . . 129 \n1791. Archbd. Cameron, Keith, Aberdeenshire . . 122 \n1851. Jean Golembeski, Hotel de\'s Iuvalides, Paris . 126 \n\nLONGITUDE, determined by Hipparchus, at \nNice, who fixed the first degree in the Canaries, \n162 B.C. Harrison made a time-keeper, in a.d. \n!759i which in two voyages was found to correct \nthe longitude within the limits required by the act \nof parliament 12 Anne, 1714; and obtained the \nreward; see Harrison\'s Timepiece. The chrono- \nmeters of Arnold, Eamshaw, and Breguet, are \nhighly esteemed. Chronometers are now received \non trial at Greenwich Observatory. The actrelatin \n\n\n\nLONGMANS MAGAZINE. \n\n\n\n598 \n\n\n\nLOEDS, HOUSE OF. \n\n\n\nto the discovery of the longitude at sea was repealed \nin 1828. The Bureau des Longitudes at Paris was \nestablished in 1795. \n\nLONGMAN\'S MAGAZINE first published \n(to replace " Frazer\'s"), Nov. 1882. \n\nLONGOBARDI, see Lombardy. \n\nLONG PARLIAMENT met 3 Nov. 1640; \nwas forcibly dissolved by Cromwell 20 April, 1653. \n\nLONGWOOD, in St. Helena (S. Atlantic \nOcean), the residence of the emperor Napoleon from \n10 Dec. 1815 till bis death, 5 May, 1821. \n\nLONGWY (N.E. France), a frontier town, \nwas taken by the allied army of Austrians and \nPrussians, 23 Aug. 1792, the beginning of the great \nwar. It was again taken 18 Sept. 18 15. After a \nbombardment it surrendered to the Germans, 25 \nJan. 1871. \n\nLOOCHOO ISLES; N. Pacific; long nomi- \nnally subject to Japan ; with a nearly independent \nking. Disputes between China and Japau respect- \ning them, 1879 ; the isles annexed by Japan, 1879. \n\nLOOKING-GLASSES, see Mirrors. \n\nLOOM: was used by the Egyptians. Theweaver\'s \notherwise called the Dutch loom, was brought into use \nin London from Holland, about 1676. There were, in \n1825, about 250,000 hand-looms in Great Britain, \nand 75,000 power-looms, each being equal to three \nhand-looms, making twenty-two yards each per \n\xe2\x96\xa0day. The steam-loom was introduced in 1807 ; see \nCotton, Electric-loom, Jacquard, Pneumatic-loom. \n\nLOOSHAIS, a predatory nomadic Indian \ntribe, about 300 miles east of Calcutta. They fre- \nquently robbed the British tea plantations, killing \nthe planters and carrying off their children. An \nexpedition to chastise them was successful, Dec. 187 1 . \n\nLORD, see Lady. "When printed in the Eng- \nglish Bible in small capitals Lord stands for Jeho- \nvah, the self-existing God, the name first revealed \nto Moses, 1491 B.C. Exod. vi. 3. "When Lord is in \nordinary type, it represesents A.donai, lord or \nmaster. \n\nLORD ADVOCATE, CHAMBERLAIN, \nCHANCELLOR, &c., see Advocate, Chamber- \nlain, Chancellor, &c. \n\nLORD MAYOR, see Mayors. \n\nLORD\'S DAY ACT, 29 Chas. II. c. 7, see \nSabbath. \n\nLORD\'S SUPPER, instituted by Jesus Christ \n{Matt. xxvi. 17), 33, see Sacrament and Transub- \nstantiation. \n\nLORDS.* The nobility of England date their \ncreation from 1066, when William Fitz-Osborn is \nsaid to have been made earl of Hereford by Wil- \nliam I. ; and afterwards Walter d\'Evreux, earl of \nSalisbury; Copsi, earl of Northumberland; Henry \nde Ferrers, earl of Derby ; and Gherbod (a Fleming) \nearl of Chester. Twenty-two other peers were made \nin this sovereign\'s reign. The first peer created by \npatent was lord Beauchamp of Holt Castle, by \n.Richard II. in 1387. In Scotland, Gilchrist was \n\n\n\n* Peers of England are free from all arrests of debts, as \nbeing the king\'s hereditary counsellors ; therefore a x\'eer \ncannot be outlawed in any civil action, and no attach- \nment lies against his person ; but execution may be taken \nupon his lands and goods. For the same reason, they \nare free from all attendance at courts leet or sheriffs\' \nturns ; or, in case of a riot, from attending the 2\'osse \ncomitates. He can act as a justice of the peace in any \ns.t of the kingdom. See Baron, Earl, &o. \n\n\n\ncreated earl of Angus by Malcolm III. 1037. In \nIreland, sir John de Courcy was created baron of \nKingsale, &c, in 1181; the first peer after the \nobtaining of that kingdom by Henry II. \n\nLORDS, HOUSE OF. T^ie peers of England \n\nwere summoned ad eoiisulendiim, to consult, in early \nreigns, and by writ, 6 & 7 John, 1205 ; but the \nearliest writ extant is 49 Hen. III. 1265. The \ncommons did not form a part of the great council of \nthe nation until some ages after the conquest ; see \nParliament. The house of lords in eludes the spiritual \nas well as temporal peers of Great Britain. The \nbishops are supposed to hold certain ancient baronies \nunder the kins;, in right whereof they have seats in \nthis house. Some of the temporal lords sit by de- \nscent, and some by creation : others by election, \nsince the union with Scotland in 1 707, and with \nIreland, 1801. \xe2\x80\x94 Scotland elects 16 representative \npeers, and Ireland, 28 temporal peers for life. The \nhouse of lords in Jan. 1892, consisted of 6 princes of \nthe blood, 2 archbishops, 20 dukes, 21 marquises, \n138 earls, 31 viscounts, 313 barons, and 24 bishops ; \nin all, 555. \n\nHouse of lords at death of Charles II. 1685 . 176 peers. \n\n,, ,, Will. III. 1702 . 192 \n\n,, ,, Anne, 1714 . . 209 \n\n\xe2\x80\x9e ,, Geo. I. 1727 . . 216 \n\n,, ,, Geo. II. 1760 . . 229 \n\n,, \xe2\x80\x9e Geo. III. 1820 . 339 \n\n,, ,, Geo. IV. 1830 . . 396 \n\nWill. IV. 1837 . 456 \n\nIn the 18th Vict. 1855 . . - . . . 448 \n\n,, 24th Vict, i860 462 \n\n,, 32nd Vict. 1868 464 \n\n,, 39th Vict. 1876 494 \n\n\xe2\x80\x9e 41st Vict. 1878 501 \n\nThe king, barons, and clergy enact the constitutions \n\nof Clarendon in 1164 \n\nObtain Magna Charta in 1215 \n\nHeld the government 1264-5 \n\nHouse of lords abolished by the commons, 6 Feb. 1649 \n\n,, ,, met again, . . .25 April, ,, \nUnite with the commons in making William and \n\nMary king and queen 1689 \n\nReject the great reform bill, 7 Oct. 1831 ; pass it, \n\n4 June, 1832 \nThe parliament house destroyed by fire . 16 Oct. 1834 \nTake possession of their new house . 15 April, 1847 \n\nOppose successfully the creation of life peerages,* \n\n7 Feb. t8s6 \nVoting by proxy abolished by standing order, \n\n31 March, 1868 \nNew regulations respecting committees 2 April, ,, \nSix new peers were gazetted . . 17 April, ,, \n\nBankrupt peers not to sit or vote, decided 10 Feb. ; \n\nsettled by act 13 July, 1871 \n\nThat peers cannot vote for M. P. \'s affirmed by court \n\nof common pleas on appeal . . . 15 Nov. 1872 \nTwo peers for life may be created by her majesty as \n\nlords of apjieal in ordinary, to aid the house of \n\nlords ; as a court of ultimate appeal (see Supreme \n\nCourt). \nLords Blackburn and Gordon created peers for life \n\n5 Oct. 1876 \nEntitled to sit and vote in parliament while appeal \n\njudges ; first sitting .... 21 Nov. ,, \n\nLord Rayleigh (said to be) the first peer elected a \n\nprofessor of physics (at Cambridge) 12 Dec. 1879 ; \n\nRoyal Institution, London .... 1887 \nProposed abolition of the hereditary principle \n\nnegatived (202-166) in the commons, 5 March, \n\n1886 ; (223-162) 9 March, 1888 ; (201-160) 17, 18 \n\nMay, 1889; (201-139) ... 21 March 1890 \n\n* Peerage for life only, with the title f lord Wensleydale \nof Wensleydale, was granted to baron sir James Parke, \n10 Jan. 1856 ; the house of lords opposed his sitting and \nvoting as a peer for life, and on 25 Jul} 7 , 1856, he was \ncreated a peer in the usual way, with the title of lord \nWensleydale of Walton. He died in 1868. A bill for \ncreating life peerages was read a second time in the lords \n27 April, 1869, but afterwards rejected. \n\n\n\nLOEDS JUSTICES. \n\n\n\n599 \n\n\n\nLOUEENCO MAEQUES. \n\n\n\nLord Blackburn having resigned, permitted to sit \nby appellate jurisdiction act .... 1887 \n\nThe earl of Rosebery\'s motion for a committee to \nconsider reform of the house of lords rejected \n(97-50) 19 March, 1888 \n\nLord Dunraven\'s bill for reforming the constitution \nof the house of lords withdrawn on the promise \nof the government dealing with the question \n\n26 April, ,, \n\nMarquis of Salisbury\'s bill for creation of life peers \nand exclusion of those whom he termed "black \nsheep " read first time 18 June ; second time 10 \nJuly ; dropped July, ,, \n\nThe lords of appeal are peers for life (see under \nAppeals). \n\nLOEDS JUSTICES, see Justices and Appeal. \n\nLOEDS LIEUTENANTS, see Lieutenants \nand Ireland. \n\nLOEDS OF THE PALE, see Pale. \n\nLOEENZO MAEQUEZ, see Zourenco. \n\nLOEETTO, near Ancona, Italy. Here is the \nCasa Santa, or Holy House, in which it is pretended \nthe Virgin Mary lived at Nazareth, and said to have \nbeen carried by angels into Dalmatia from Galilee \nin 1291, and brought here a few years after. The \nlady of Loretto, gaudily dressed, stands upon an \naltar holding the infant Jesus in her arms, sur- \nrounded with gold lamps. Loretto was taken by the \nFrench in 1797; the holy image, which had been \ncarried to France, was brought back with pomp, 5 \nJan. 1803. \n\nL\'OEIENT (W. France). Lord Bridport off \nthis port defeated the French fleet, 23 June, 1795. \nThe loss of the French was severe - that of the \nBritish inconsiderable. \xe2\x80\x94 The French flag-ship, \nL\'Okiext, blew up during the battle of the Nile, I \nAug. 1798. Admiral Brueys and about 900 men \nperished. \n\nLOEEAINE (Lotharingia), formerly a French \nnow a German province, became a kingdom under \nLothaire (son of the emperor Lothaire I.) about \n85; ; and was divided at his death, in 869, part of \nit being made a duchy. From the first hereditary \nduke, Gerard, nominated by the emperor Henry III. \nin 1048, descended the house of Lorraine, repre- \nsented now by the emperor of Austria, whose ances- \ntor, the empress Maria Theresa, married in 1736 \nFrancis formerly duke of Lorraine, then of Tuscany. \nLorraine, given to the dethroned king of Poland, \nStanislaus L, for life, was, at his death in 1766, \nunited to France ; see Nancy. Lorraine was the seat \nof war in Aug. 1870, and about the fifih part, in- \neluding Metz and Thionville, was annexed to \nGermany at the peace, 26 Feb. 1871. \n\nLOTS- Casting lots, as an appeal to God, was \neacred among the Jews, Proverbs xvi. 33. It was \nemployed in the division of the land of Canaan, \nabout 1444 B.C., by Joshua (xiv.), and in the elec- \ntion of Matthias the apostle, a.d. 33, Acts i. \xe2\x80\x94 Lots \nfor life or death have been frequently cast. For an \ninstance, see Wales, 1649, note. \n\nLOTTEEIES are said to have originated in \nFlorence about 1530, and to have been legalised in \nFrance in 1539, and soon became common. They \nwere prohibited by pope Benedict XIII. (1724-30), \nand sanctioned by Clement XII. (1730-40). See \nArt Union under Arts and .Paris (exhibition 1889). \nThe first mentioned in English history took \nplace, day and night, at the western door of \nSt. Paul\'s cathedral It contained 40,000 " lots " \nat ios. each lot, the profits were for repairing the \nharbours, and the prizes were pieces of plate, \n\n11 Jan. -6 May, 1569 \n\n\n\nA lottery, granted by the king, in favour of the \ncolony of Virginia (prizes, pieces of plate), drawn \nnear St. Paul\'s ... 29 June-20 July, 1612 \nFirst lottery for sums of money took place in . . 1630 \nLotteries established (for more than 130 years \n\nyielded a large annual revenue to the crown) . . 1693 \nLotteiy for the British Museum .... 1753 \nCox\'s museum, containing many rare specimens of \n\nart, disposed of by lottery ..... 1773 \nAn act passed for the sale of the buildings of the \nAdelphi by lottery . . . . 16 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nIrish state lottery drawn 178\xc2\xb0 \n\nLottery for the Leverian Museum . . . 1784-5 \nFor the Pigott diamond, permitted, Jan. 2, 1801 ; it \nwas afterwards sold at Christie\'s auction for 9500 \n\nguineas \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x80\xa2 10 May, 1802 \n\nFor the collection of pictures of alderman Boydell, \n\nby act 1804-5 \n\nLotteries abolished by 6 Geo. IV. c. 60, Oct. ; the \n\nlast drawn 18 Oct. 1826 \n\nAct passed declaring that the then pending Glasgow \n\nlottery should be the last 1834 \n\nA.11 act passed imposing a penalty of 50I. for adver- \ntising lotteries in the newspapers .... 1836 \nLotteries suppressed in France . . 1793 an( i 1836 \nMr. DethierV twelfth-cake lottery, Argyll-rooms, \n\nHanover-square, suppressed . . .27 Dec. i860 \nTwelve million national lottery tickets of one franc \neach, sold at Paris to pay for prizes to exhibitors, \nand expenses of working men visitors, 1878; 1st \nprize worth 5,000!., 2nd, 4,000?., 3rd and 4th \n2,oooZ. ; total 230,000 rewards. Drawing began \n\n26 Jan. 1879 \n\nLOUDON-HILL, orDRTJMCLOG; see Drum- \nclog. \n\nLOUIS-D\'OE, a French gold coin of 24 francs, \nfirst struck bv Louis XIII. in 1640; it was not \nlegal, 1795-1814; superseded by the Napoleon, \n1810. \n\nLOUISIANA (N. America), one of the United \nStates ; discovered by Ferdinand de Soto, 1541 ; \ntraversed by M. de Salle, 1682 ; settled by Louis \nXIV. (from whom it derived its name), about 1698. \nIt formed the basis of Law\'s Mississippi scheme, \n1717. It was ceded to Spain when all east of the \nMississippi was given to England, 1763. Capital, \nBaton Kouge; commercial capital, New Orleans. \nPopulation, 1880,939,946; 1890, 1,118,587. \n\nRestored to France 1801 \n\nSold to the Americans, 1803 ; and made a state . 1812 \nGen. Jackson defeated the British at New Orleans, \n\n8 Jan. 1815 \nSeceded from the Union by ordinance . 25 Jan. 1861 \nAdni. Farragut takes New Orleans for the Federals, \n\n28 April, 1862 \nouisiana restored to the Union .... 1865 \nThe state disturbed by factions and civil war : at \n\nGrant parish many negroes massacred 11 April, 1873 \nSee jSicw Orleans and Mississippi. \n\nLOUIS, St., commercial capital of the Missis- \nsippi valley. Founded by the French in 1764. \nPopulation \'in 1870, 310,864; 1880,350,518; 1890, \n451,770. See Mauritius. \n\nLOUISVILLE, chief commercial town in \nKentucky, U.S., founded 1773; named after Louis \nX\\ I., France, 1780. The town suffered greatly by \na tornado, 27 March, 1890, when about 93 persons \nperished; see Storms. Great fires and explosion, \nabout 25 persons perished, 8, 9 Dee. 1891. Popula- \ntion, 1880, 123,758; 1890, 161,129. \n\nLOUEDES, Hautes Pyrenees, S. France, see \nFrance, 1872- 1875. \n\nLOUEENCO MAEQUES. a Portuguese \nsettlement, E. \'coast of Africa. In May, 1879, a \ntreaty was agreed to permitting a railway to be \nmade\' to the Transvaal territory. Its ratification \nwas opposed in the chambers at Lisbon in 1881, and \nled to a change of ministry. See Portugal, 1881, \nand Del agon Bug. \n\n\n\nLOTJVKE. \n\n\n\n600 \n\n\n\nLUGDUNUM. \n\n\n\nLOUVRE, in Paris, is said to have been a royal \nresidence in the reign of Dagobert, 628. It was a \nprison-tower constructed by Philippe Augustus in \n1204. It afterwards became a library, and Charles \nVI. made it his palace (about 1364). The new \nbuildings, begun by Francis I. in 1528, were enlarged \nand adorned by successive kings, particularly Louis \nXIV. \xe2\x80\x94 Napoleon I. turned it into a museum, and \ndeposited in it the finest collection of paintings, sta- \ntue^, and treasures of art known in the world. The \nchief of those brought from Italy have since been \nrestored to the rightful possessors. The magnificent \nbuildings of the new Louvre, begun bj- .Napoleon I. \nand completed by Napoleon III., were inaugurated \nby the latter in great state, 14 Aug. 1857. The \nlibrary was destroyed and other buildings much \ninjured by the communists, May, 1871. \n\nLOVE FEASTS, see Agapm. \n\nLOW COUNTRIES, the PaysBas, now Hol- \nland and Belgium (which see) . \n\nLOWER EMPIRE. Some historians make \nit begin with the reign of Valerian, 253 ; others \nwith that of Constantine, 323. \n\nLOWERING BOAT APPARATUS, see \n\nLife-boats. \n\nLOW SUNDAY, the first Sunday after Easter, \nsaid to derive its name from the inferiority of its \nsolemnities to those of Easter Sunday ; see Easter. \n\nLOYAL AND PATRIOTIC UNION, \n\nsee Ireland, 1886. \n\nLOYALISTS, a term applied to the Royalist \nparty during the American war of 1775-83, and to \nthe supporters of the Union in Ireland in 1883. \n\nLOYALTY LOANS were raised during the \nrevolutionary wars. The term was applied to one \nopened in London 5 Dec. 1796; in fifteen hours and \ntwenty minutes the sum of eighteen millions sterling \nwas subscribed ; see National Association. \n\nLUBBOCK\'S ACT, Sir John, see Bank Holi- \ndays\' Act. \n\nLUBECK, a city in N. Germany, one of the \nfour republics of the German confederation, was \nbuilt in the I2th century, and was chief founder of \nthe Hanseatic league about 1240, which lasted till \n1630. Lubeck was -declared a free imperial city \nabout 1226 ; but was frequently attacked by the \nDanes. The French took it by assault, 6 N r . \n1806, and Napoleon incorporated it with his em r .rs \nin 1810. On his fall in 1814 it became once more a \nfree imperial city. It joined the North German \nconfederation 18 Aug. 1866. Population in 187 1, \n52,158; in 1880, 63,571; in 1885, 67,658; I890, \n76,485. \n\nLUCANIANS, a warlike people of S. Italy, \ndefeated Alexander of Epirus at Pandosia, 332 B.C. ; \nwere subdued by the Romans, 272 ; revolted after \nthe battle of Cannse, 216; were reduced by Scipio, \n201 ; again revolted, 90 ; admitted as Roman citi- \nzens, 88. \n\nLUCCA (central Italy), a Roman colony, 177 \nB.C. ; a Lombard duchy, a.d. 1327; a free city about \n1370 ; took an active part in the civil wars of the \nItalian republics. It was united with Tuscany, and \ngiven as a principality to Eliza Bonaparte by her \nbrother Napoleon I., 1805. Lucca, as a duchy, was \ngiven to Maria Louisa, widow of Louis, king of \nEtruria, in 1814. It was exchanged by her son \nCharles-Louis for Parma and Plaeentia" in 1847 ; \nwas annexed to Tuscany, and with it became part \nof the kingdom of Italy, in i860. \n\n\n\nLUCERNE (Switzerland) became independent \nin 1332, and joined the confederation. The city \nLucerne is said to derive its name from a light \n(lucerna) set up to guide travellers. It dates from \nthe 8th century, and was subject to the abbots- \nof Murbach, who surrendered it to the house of \nHapsburg. It was taken by the French in March, \n1798, and was for a short time capital of the Hel- \nvetic republic ; which, as the focus of insurrection \nagainst the French, was suppressed Oct. 1802. As \na catholic canton, Lucerne was very active on \nbehalf of education by the Jesuits, 1844 ; see Swit- \nzerland. Population, 1888 : canton, 135,360 ; city, \n20,314. \n\nLUCIA, ST. (West Indies), first settled by \nthe Knglish, 1639; expelled by the natives; settled \nby French in 1650 ; taken by the British severaS \ntimes in the subsequent wars. Insurrection of \nthe Fiench negroes, April, 1795. St. Lucia was \nrestor. d to France at the peace of 1802 ; but was \nseized by England, 1803, and confirmed to her in \n1814. Population in 1871, 31,811 : 710 whites. In \n1880,38,265; 1891,41,713; see Windward Isles. \n\nLUCIFER MATCHES .came into use about \n1834. Friction matches were invented by Walker \nof Stockton-on-Tees, 1829. In March, 1842, Idr. \nR uben Partridge patented machinery for manu- \nfacturing the splints. In 1845, Schrotter of \nViem a produced his amorphous phosphorus (by \nheating ordinary phosphorus in a gas which it \ncannot absorb), by the use of which lucifers are \nrendered less dangerous, and the manufacture less \nunhealthy. Phosphoros (Greek) and lucifer (Latin), \nboth signify light-bearer. \n\nMr. Lowe\'s proposed tax on lucifers (with " e luce. \nlucellum, " on the box) was much opposed and with- \ndrawn, April, 1871. For their exertions, a drinking \nfountain at Bow was inaugurated as a memorial to \nBryant and May, 5 Oct. 1872 The match manufacture \nwas made a monopoly in France in Oct. 1872, for \n750,000!. \n\nStrike of women and girls at Bryant and May\'s, assisted \nby socialists, 5-17 July, 1888. \n\nThe Swedish match company formed in 1888 reported \nunsuccessful, 6 March, 1889. \n\nThe manufacture in France became a state mono- \npoly 1 Jan. 1890 \n\nLUCIGEN, fl strong light for open-air work, \nproduced by apparatus invented by Lyle and \nHannay. The fuel is hydro-carbon oil and com- \npressed air. It was tried at the King\'s Cross \nStation, Dec. 1885, and has been employed on the \nForth Bridge Works. Exhibited at the Crystal \nPalace, 14 Sept. 1887. \nMessrs. F. Braby & Co. patent a light created by a \n\ncombination of heated oil, water and compressed air. \n\nThe light said to be equal to 2,500 candles. It is \n\nintended to light public works and large areas, \n\nOct. 1888. \n\nLUCKNOW, the capital of Oude, since 1675 ; \nsee Oude, and India, 1857. Visit of prince of \nWales, Jan. 1876. \n\nLUDDITES. Large parties of men under this \ndesignation, derived from Ned Lud, an idiot, who \nonce broke some frames in a passion, commenced \ndepredations at Nottingham, breaking frames and \nmachinery, Nov. 181 1. Skirmish with the military \nthere, 29 Jan. 1812. Serious riots occurred again \nin 1814; and numerous bodies of unemployed arti- \nsans committed great excesses in 1816 e t seq. Several \nof thi se Luddites were tried and executed, 1813 and \n1818; see Derby. \n\nLUGDUNUM. see Leyden and Lyons. \n\n\n\nLUMINOUS PAINT. \n\n\n\n601 \n\n\n\nLUTHERANISM. \n\n\n\nLUMINOUS PAINT, invented by Mr. W. \nH. Balmain, of University College, London ; \npatented by Ihlee and Home, of London. \n\nPhosphorescent materials ; lime and sulphur mixed \nwith oil or water; clock-faces, statues, <fcc., painted \nwith this mixture, exposed to light, remain luminous \nfor some time. Besides domestic uses, it is applied to \nmilitary purposes. \n\nLUNAR SOCIETY, Birmingham, about 1780. \nThe members, Joseph Priestley, James Watt, Eras- \nmus Darwin, Dr. Withering, and others, met near \nthe full of the moon, to discuss philosophy and \npolitics. \n\nLUNATICS. Insanity (defined by sir fra. \nHamilton as " the paralysis of the regulating or \nlegislating faculties of the mind "). \n" The king shall have the custody of the lands of \nnatural fools," &c, 17 Edw. II. . . . . 1324 \n\nMarriages with lunatics declared void, 15 Geo. II. \nc. 30 ........ . 1742 \n\nOthers were made in . ... 1774 and 1828 \n\nAct regarding criminal lunatics passed . Aug. 1840 \nLunacy act, 8 & 9 Vict. c. 100, passed . . . 1845 \nThe numerous laws respecting lunatics were con- \nsolidated and amended by 16 & 17 Vict. cc. 70, 96, \n\n\n\n97 \n\n\n\nA new lunacy act for Scotland passed . . . 18 \n\nAn act to amend the law relating to commissions of \nlunacy passed (said to be in consecpience of the \nWyndham case ; see Trials, 1862) . . . .18 \nA parliamentary committee, reports favourably of \n\nthe present system of custody of lunatics . .18 \nLunacy Regulation act amended . . . . 18 \n\nA trial of Lunatics act passed . . . 25 Aug. 18 \nA stringent Lunacy bill introduced by lord chan- \ncellor Selborne, 26 March, 1885 ; re-introduced \nby lord chancellor Herschell, 1 March, 1886 ; \npassed by the lords, 1 April, 1887 ; another bill \nintroduced ; dropped .... 10 July, 1888 \n11,954 lunatics in charge in Scotland . . 1 Jan. 1889 \nLunacy acts amendment bill passed 26 Aug., 1889, \n\nand a consolidating act in 1890 ; amended . . 1891 \nThe Cathcart case (see Trials) . . . July, ,, \n\nTREATMENT OF THE INSANE. \n\nTill the end of the last century lunatics were treated \nwith cruel severity ; see Conolly " On the Treat- \nment of the Insane," 1856. \n\nThe insane were exhibited at Bethlem as a show, \nfor id. or 2d. till 1770 \n\nEnlightened principles of treatment were intro- \nduced by Wm. Tuke, at the Society of Friends\' \n" Retreat," at York, and by Pinel, at theBicetre, \nParis, with very great success . . . . 1792 \n\nEsquirol succeeds Pinel, and strongly recommends \ninstruction in the management of mental dis- \norders . 1810 \n\nExposure of enormous cruelties in the Bethlem \nhospital 1815 \n\nThis led to gradual improvements, and at last to \nthe total abolition of mechanical restraints at \nLincoln, 1837 \'\xe2\x80\xa2 an d at Hanwell Asylum (under \nthe superintendence of Dr. John Conolly) and at \nother places 1839 \n\nPsychological Journal first published by Dr. Forbes \nWinslow 1S48 \n\nJournal of Mental Science, by Dr. J. C. Bucknill . 1852 \nSee Hospitals. \n\nLunatics in charge in England and Wales, 1 Jan. 1855. \n\nPrivate. Pauper. \n\nMale. Female. Male. Female. Total. \n\nCounty Asylums . 132 123 6008 7316 13.579 \n\nHospitals . . 895 723 91 94 1,803 \n\nLicensed houses . 1448 1350 1034 1279 5. in \n\n\n\n2475 2196 7133 \n\n\n\n20,493 \n\n\n\nLunatics, Idiots, and Persons of Unsound Mind in \nEngland and Wales : \n1 Jan. \n\n\n\nRegistered. \n\n\n1 Juii. \n\n\nRegistered \n\n\n36,672 \n\n\n1863 . \n\n\n43,118 \n\n\n38,058 \n\n\n1864 . \n\n\n44.795 \n\n\n39.647 \n\n\n1865 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n45.950 \n\n\n41,129 \n\n\n1866 \n\n\n47,648 \n\n\n\nJan. \n\n\nRegistered \n\n\n1867 . \n\n\n49,086 \n\n\n1868 . \n\n\n51,000 \n\n\n1869 . \n\n\n53,i77 \n\n\n1870 . \n\n\n54,713 \n\n\n1871 \n\n\n56,755 \n\n\n1872 \n\n\n58,640 \n\n\n1S73 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n60,296 \n\n\n1874 \xe2\x96\xa0 \n\n\n02,027 \n\n\n1875 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n63,793 \n\n\n1876 . \n\n\n64,916 \n\n\n1877 . \n\n\n66,636 \n\n\n1878 . \n\n\n68,538 \n\n\n\nJan. \n\n\n\nib 7 g \n\n\n\nRegistered \n71,191 \n\n73."3 \n74,842 \n76,765 \n78,528 \n\n79.704- \n80,156 \n80,891 \n82,643. \n84,340 \n86,067 \n86.795 \n87,848 \n\n\n\nCriminal lunatics in charge, Oct. 1890, 926. \n\n1878. Male lunatics, 31,024 ; female, 37,514 ; ratio, 27.57 \nper 10,000. \n\nRatio per 1000 to the population : 1859, 1. S6 ; 1865, \ne.18 ; 1870, 2.47 ; 1874, 2.62. \n\nJn 1851, there were in Ireland nearly 15,000 lunatics of \nall classes ; in Scotland in 1851, 3362 in charge ; in 1855., \n7403 ; of which only 3328 were under the protection of \nthe law. \n\nLUND-HILL, near Barnsley, in South York- \nshire. While toe miners were dining in the pit, 19 \nFeb. 1857, the inflammable gas took tire and \nexploded. About 189 miners perished. In April \nand May bodies were still being extricati d. There- \nhad been great laxity of discipline in the pit. \n7000^. were subscribed for the bereaved. \n\nLUNEBURGr, see Brunswick. \n\nLUNEVILLE (France), PEACE OF, con- \ncluded between the French republic and the emperor \nof Germany, confirmed the cessions made by the \ntreaty of Campo Forinio, stipulated that the Rhine-,, \nas far as the Dutch territories, should form the- \nboundary of France, and recognised the Batavian, \nHelvetic, Ligurian, and Cisalpine republics, 9 Feb. \n1801. \n\nLUPERCALIA, a yearly festival observed at \nRome on 15 Feb. instituted in memory of Romulus- \nand Remus, according to Plutarch; but according: \nto Livy, brought by Evander into Italy. These \nfe:ists are said to have been abolished in 496, by \npope Gelasius, on account of their great disorders. \n\nLUSATIA, a marquisate in N. Germany, \ngiven to John of Bohemia, 1319 ; obtained by \nMatthias of Hungary, 1478 ; ceded to Saxony ia \n163c. \n\nLUSHAIS, see Chins. \n\nLUSIAD, the great epic poem of the Portu- \nguese, written in honour of their discoveries in \nIndia, by Luis de Camoens, and publis\' ed by him \nat Lisbon, 1572. The English translations are by \nsir Richard Fanshawe, 1655; by Wm. Julius Mickle, \n1775; and others; the latest and best by J. J. \nAubertin, 1884. \n\nLUSITANIA, see Portugal. \n\nLUSTRUM, an ancient expiatory sacrifice \nmade foi the Roman people, at the end of every \nfive years, after the census had been taken. Every \nfifth year was called a lustrum ; and ten, fifteen, or \ntwenty years, were commonly expressed by two, \nthree, or four lustra, \'lhe last lustrum took place, \n\n74 A \xc2\xbb- \n\nLUTE, an ancient instrument of oriental origin, \n(Arabic, al\'ud) ; said to have been brought to \nMecca, in the 6th century A.D., and thence to \nEurope. J. S. Bach and others composed tor the \n"Western lute in the 18th century. \n\nLUTHERANISM, * the form of C hri stianity \n\n* Martin Luther was born at Eisleben, 10 Nov. 1483; \nstudied at Erfurt, 1501 ; was professor of philosophy at \nWittenberg, 1508 ; resisted the sale of indulgences, 1517 ; \ndefended himself at Augsburg, 151S ; at Worms, 1520; \n\n\n\nLUTINE. \n\n\n\n602 \n\n\n\nLYDDITE. \n\n\n\nprofessed by the majority of the people of the north \nof Germany, Prussia, Denmark, and Sweden. The \n\xe2\x96\xa0doctrines are mainly embodied in Luther\'s cate- \nchisms, in the Augsburg Confession, and in the \nFormula Concordia: of the Lutherans, published in \n1580. Their first university was founded at Mar- \nburg, in 1527, by Philip, landgrave of Hesse. The \nLuther memorial at W orras was unveiled in presence \n\xe2\x80\xa2of the king of Prussia and other sovereigns, 25 \nJune, 1868. Fourth centenary of Luiher\'s birth \n\xe2\x96\xa0celebrated at Halle, Eisleben (where he was born), \nBerlin, and throughout Germany ; also at London, \nEdinburgh, Dublin, and other places in the united \nkingdom ; at Paris, and other places on the con- \ntinent, 31 Oct. \xe2\x80\x94 17 Nov. 1883- \n\nLUTINE, see Wrecks, 1799. \n\nLUTZEN, or LUTZENGEN (N. Germany). \n\nHere Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, defeated \nthe imperif lists under Wallenstein, 16 Nov. 1632, \nbut was himself killed ; and here the French army, \ncommanded by Napoleon, defeated the combined \narmies of Bussia and Prussia, commanded by general \n"Wittgenstein, 2 May, 1813. The battles of Bautzen \nand Wurschen immediately followed (19-21 May), \nboth in favour of Napoleon. The allies were com- \npelled to pass the Oder, and an armistice was \nagreed to, afterwards prolonged; but, unfortunately \nfor the French emperor, this did not produce \npeace. \n\nLUXEMBURG, a grand duchy held by the \nking of Holland till Nov. 1890. Luxemburg, the \ncapital, once considered the strongest fortified city \nin the world, has been many times besieged and \ntaken : by the French in 984, 1443, 1479, 1542-3 ; \n\xe2\x80\xa2by the Spaniards in 1544 ; by the French in 1684; \nrestored to Spain in 1697 ; taken by the French in \n1701 ; given to the Dutch as a barrier town, but \nceded to the emperor at the peace in 1713. It \nwithstood several sieges in the last century. It \nsurrendered to the French after a siege, from Nov. \nS794 to July, 1795 ; and was retaken by the allies \nin May, 1814. Population of the grand duchy, \n3867,199,958; 1875, 205,158; 1885, 213,283 ; 1890, \n211,088; city, 18,187. \n\nThe grand duchy was annexed to the Netherlands, \nstill remaining a member of the Germanic con- \nfederation, the capital having a Prussian garrison 1815 \nA portion given to the new kingdom of Belgium . 1830 \nAfter the dissolution of the Germanic confedera- \ntion, the emperor Napoleon objected to the Prus- \nsian garrison, and offered to buy the grand duchy \nfrom the king of Holland . . . March, 1867 \nSn consequence of the opposition of Prussia, a con- \nference of representatives of the great powers met \nin London, 7-1 1 May, who agreed upon a treaty \nguaranteeing the neutrality of the province, the \nretirement of the Prussian garrison, and the dis- \nmantling the fortress of Luxemburg 7-1 1 May, ,, \nThe Prussian soldiers retired . . . Nov. ,, \nThe fortifications dismantled .... Aug. 1870 \nThe people protest against absorption into Germany, \n\n21 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThey are accused of violating neutrality, and the \nabrogation of the treaty is mooted by Prussia, \n\nearly in Dec. ,, \n\nThe king of Holland, their sovereign, declared that \n\nhe would maintain the treaty, 15 Dec. ; and the \n\ngovernment protested against the charge, 19 Dec. ,, \n\nNew treaty with Prussia ; indemnity to be paid for \n\nbreaches of neutrality ; fortresses to be garrisoned \n\nby Germans Feb. 1871 \n\nFortifications transformed to civil purposes . . 1874 \nThe duke of Nassau, on the severe illness of the \nking of Holland, assumed the regency of Luxem- \nburg 10 April, 1889 \n\nwas excommunicated, 16 June, 1520 ; began his German \nbible, 1521 ; married Katherine de Bora, 1525 ; published \nhis German bible complete, 1534 ; died 18 Feb. 1546. \n\n\n\nThe king recovers and resumes the government \n\n3 May, 1889 \n\nThe duke reassum.es the government as regent, \n6 Nov. ; becomes grand duke on the death of the \nking, 23 Nov. ; takes the oath and opens the par- \nliament 9 Dec. 1890 \n\nGrand Duke, 1890, Adolphus William Charles, \n(titular duke of Nassau), born 24 July 1817. \n\nLUXOR, or El-Uksub, Egypt, see Thebes. \n\nLUXURY. Lucullus (died 49 B.C.), at Borne, \nwas distinguished for inordinate luxury ; see Sump- \ntuary Lav)s. \n\nLYCEUM (originally a temple of Apollo \nLyceus, or a portico, or gallery, built by Lyceus, \nson of Apollo) was a spot near thellissus, in Attica, \nwhere Aristotle taught philosophy; and as he \ngenerally taught as he walked, his pupils were \ncalled peripatetics, ualkers-aboiit, and his philoso- \nphy that of the Lyceum, 342 B.C. Stanley ; see \nTheatres. \n\nLYCIA (Asia Minor), subject successively to \nCroesus (about 560 B.C.), to the Persians (546 B.C.), \nto Alexander the Great (333 B.C.), and to his suc- \ncessors the Seleucidse. The Bomans gave Lycia to \nthe Rhodians (188 B.C.). It became nominally free \nunder the Romans, and was annexed to the empire \nby Claudius. The marbles brought from Lycia by \nsir Charles Fellows were deposited in the British \nMuseum, 1840-46. \n\nLYCURGUS, see Laws. \n\nLYDIA, or Mseonia, an ancient kingdom in \nAsia Minor; the early history -wholly mythical. \nOf a long dynasty of kings, the last was Croesus, \n"the\' richest of mankind." The coinage of gold \nand silver monej r , and other useful inveations, are \nascribed to the Lydians. ^Esop, the Phrygian \nfabulist, Alcman, the first Greek poet, Thales of \nMiletus, Anaximenes, Xenophanes, Anacreon of \nTeos, Heraclitus of Ephesus, &c., flourished in \nLydia. \nAgron, a descendant of Hercules, reigns in Lydia, \n\nHand. . about B.C. 1223 \n\nThe kingdom, properly so called, begins under \n\nArdys I. Blair 797 \n\nAlyattes I. reigns 761 \n\nMyrsus commences his rule 747 \n\nReign of Candaules (or Myrsilus) .... 735 \nGyges, first of the race Mermnadpe, kills Candaules, \nmarries his queen, usurps the throne about 690, \nand makes great conquests . . . about 716 \nArdys II. reigns, 678 ; the Cimbri besiege Sardis, \n\nthe capital of Lydia 635 \n\nThe Milesian war, commenced under Gyges, is con- \ntinued by Sadyattes, who reigns . . . . 628 \n\nReign of Alyattes II. 617 \n\nBattle upon the river Halys, between the Lydians \nand Medes, interrupted by an almost, total eclipse \nof the sun. This eclipse had been predicted many \nyears before by Thales of Miletus. Blair. \n\n28 May, B.C. 585 \nCroesus, son of Alyattes, succeeds to the throne, \nand conquers Asia Minor .... 560-50 \n\nCroesus, dreading Cyrus, whose conquests had \nreached to the borders of Lydia, crosses the \nHalys to attack the Medes-, with 420,000 men and \n60,000 horse ........ 548 \n\nHe is defeated, pursued, and besieged in his capital \nby Cyrus, who orders him to be burned alive ; \nthe pile is already on fire, when Croesus calls \naloud Solon ! and Cyrus hearing him, spares his \nlife. Lydia made a province of the Persian \n\nempire . 546 \n\nSardis burnt by the Ionians 499 \n\nLydia conquered by Alexander .... 332 \nBecomes part of the kingdom of Pergamus . . 283 \n\nConquered by the Turks a.d. 1326 \n\nLYDDITE, the English name for the French \nMelenite (which see). \n\n\n\nLYING-IN HOSPITALS. \n\n\n\n603 \n\n\n\nLYRE. \n\n\n\nLYING-IN HOSPITALS. The first, esta- \nblished in Dublin by Dr. Bartholomew Mosse, a \nphysician, amid strong opposition, was opened \nMarch, 1745; see Hospitals. \n\nLYMPHATICS (absorbent vessels connected \nwith digestion), discovered about 1650 by Rudbek \nin Sweden, Bartholin in Denmark, and Jolyffe in \nEngland. Asellius discovered the laeteals in \n1622. In 1654, Glisson ascribed to these vessels the \nfunction of absorption ; and their properties were \nstudied by "Win. and John Hunter, Monro, Hew- \nson, and other great anatomists. \n\nLYNCH LAW, punishment inflicted by pri- \nvate individuals, independently of the legal authori- \nties. The origin of the term is doubtful ; the \npractice has been attributed to James Lynch Fitz- \nStephen, warden of Galway, about 1526, to Lynch, \na farmer in Virginia, and to Lynch, a person sent to \nAmerica to suppress piracy, 1687-8. "Judge \nLynch\'\' is thought by some to be a mythical person. \nThis mode of administering justice still exists in \nthe outlying districts of the United States. Four \nrobbers were taken from prison and hanged by a \nvigilance committee at New Albany, on the Ohio, \n11 Dec. 1868. \nCases occurred at Savannah, Georgia, and near \n\nBessemer, Alabama, and Como, Mississippi. \n\nNov. 1890 \nAt Salina village, Boulder county, Colorado \n\n2i Feb. 1891 \nNew Orleans (which sec) .... 14 March \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSee Washington State. \nNumerous cases in 1891-92 \n\n. LYNDHTJRST\'S ACT (5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 54), \nintroduced by lord Lyndhurst, rendered valid cer- \ntain marriages within the forbidden degrees (with \n\xe2\x80\xa2deceased wife\'s sister) up to that time, but prohi- \nbited them for the future ; passed 31 Aug. 1835. \n\nLYONS (S. France), the Roman Lugdunum, \nfounded by M. Plancus, 43 B.C. The city was re- \nduced to ashes in a single night by lightning, a.d. \n59, and was rebuilt in the reign of Nero. It was \n\n\n\na free city till its union with France in 1307. \nPopulation in 1886, 367,822; in 1891, 401,930. \n\nBattle near Lyons ; Clodius Albinus defeated and \n\nslain by Septimius Severus . . 19 Feb. 197 \nTwo general councils held here (13th and 14th), \n\n1245, 1274 \n\nSilk manufacture commenced 1515 \n\nLyons taken by the republicans after 70 days\' siege, \n9 Oct. ; awful pillage and slaughter follow ; the \nConvention decreed the demolition of the city, \n\n12 Oct. 1793 \nCapitulated to the Austrians . . . March, 1814 \n\nEntry of Napoleon 8 March, 1815 \n\nAn insurrection among the artisans, which led to \ngreat popular excesses ; quelled by an army, \n\n21 N0V.-31 Dec. 1831 \nDreadful riots, put down by military . 15 April, 1834 \nRailway to Paris opened . . . 7 April, 1839 \n\nA dreadful inundation at Lyons (see Inundations), \n\n4 Nov. 1840 \nAnother insurrection quelled, with much loss of life, \n\n15 June, 1849 \nGrand banquet to Louis Napoleon . 15 Aug. 1850 \nA committee of public safety appointed here and the \nredflagraised soonaftertherevolutionin Paris. M. \nSaigne, calling himself president, gen. Cluseret (ex- \npelled from Paris), and other extreme republicans, \ndefeatedin their endeavours to depose M. Challemel \nLacour, the prefect of the Rhone, who was well \nsupported by the national guard ; gen. Mazure, \nthe military commander, accused of treacherous \ninaction, was arrested ... 28 Sept. 1870 \nArnaud, commandant of the national guard, mur- \ndered by the mob, after a mock trial, for resist- \ning them 20 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nVisited by marshal MacMahon . . . Sept. 1876 \nRioting, see France Oct. 1882 \n\nLYRE. Its invention is ascribed to the Grecian \nHermes (in Latin Mercury), who, according to \nHomer, gave it to Apollo, the first that played upon \nit with method, and accompanied it with poetiy. \nThe invention of the primitive lyre, with three \nstrings, is ascribed to the first Egyptian Hermes. \nIt is said that Terpander added several strings to \nthe lyre, making the number seven, 673 B.C., and \nthat Phrynis, a musician of Mitylene, added two \nmore, making nine, 4^8 B.C. \n\n\n\nM. \n\n\n\nMACADAMISING. \n\n\n\nMACEDON. \n\n\n\nMACADAMISING, a system of road-making \ninvented by Mr. John Macadam, and published by \nhim in an essay, in 1819, having practised it in \nAyrshire. H e prescribed stones to be broken to six \nounces weight, and the use of clean Mints and granite \nclippings. Hereceived 10,000^. from parliament; was \nappointed surveyor-general of the metropolitan roads \nin 1827, and died in 1836 ; see Roads. \n\nMACAO (in Quang-tong, S. China) was given \nto the Portuguese as a commercial station in 1586 \n(in return for their assistance against pirates), sub- \nject to an annual tribute, which was remitted in 1886. \nHere Camoens composed part of the " Lusiad." The \nabuses of the Coolie trade by the Portuguese, led to \nits abolition here by the British and Chinese govern- \nments in 1873. \n\nMACARONI. This name, given to a poem by \nTheophilus Folengo, 1509, continues to designate \ntrifling performances, as buffoonery, puns, ana- \ngrams, "wit without wisdom, and humour without \nsense." His poem was so called from a nutritious \npreparation of wheat-flour in tubes and threads. \nThese poems, in Italy and France, gave rise to \nMacaroni academies, and in England to Macaroni \nclubs (about 1 772), when everything ridiculous in \ndress and manners was called " Macaroni." \n\nMACCABEES, a name of the As-r.onteans, who \ncommenced their career during the persecution of \nAntiochusEpiphanes, 167 B.C. Mattathias, apriest, \nresisted the tyranny ; and his son, Judas Maccabams, \ndefeated the Syrians in three battles, 166, 165 B.C. ; \nbut fell in an ambush, 161 B.C. His brother Jona- \nthan made a league with the Romans and Lace- \ndaemonians, and after an able administration was \ntreacherously killed at Ptolemais by Tryphon, \n143 B.C. His brother and successor, Simon, was \nalso murdered, 135 B.C. John Hyrcanus, son of \nSimon, succeeded. His son Judas, called also Aris- \ntobulus, took the title of king, 107 B.C. The history \nof the Maccabees is contained iu five books of that \nname, two of which are included in our Apocrypha. \nFour are accounted canonical by the Roman Catholic \nchurch ; none by Protestant communions. \n\nThe magnificent Maccabees chapel at Geneva, founded \nin 1415, by the cardinal Jean de Broguier, president of \nthe council of Constance and the place of his sepulchre. \nThe building much injured and desecrated at the time \nof the Reformation was fimly renovated in 1881 and \nfitted up as a museum. \n\nMACCLESFIELD, Cheshire, was incorpor- \nated in 1260, disenfranchised in 1885. The church \nof St. Michael was founded by queen Eleanor in \n1278 ; the grammar-school in 1502. Population, \n1881, 37,514; 1891,36,009. \n\nMACDONALD AFFAIR, see Prussia, 1861. \n\nMACE, a weapon anciently used by the cavalry \nof most nations, was originally a spiked club, hung \nat the saddle-bow, and usually of metal. Maces \n\xe2\x96\xa0were also early ensigns of authority borne hefore \nofficers of state, the top being made in the form of \nanopeu crown, and commonly of silver gilt. The \nlord chancellor and speaker of the house of commons \nhave maces borne before them. Edward III. granted \nto London the privilege of having gold or silver \n\n\n\nmaces carried before the lord mayor, sheriffs, alder- \nmen, and corporation, 1354. It was with the mace \nusually carried before the lord mayor on state \no casions, that Walworth, lord mayor of London, is \nsaid to have knocked the rebel Wat Tyler off his \nhorse, for rudely approaching Richard II., a cour- \ntier afterwards de?patching him with his dagger, \n15 June, 1 381. Cromwell, entering the house of \ncommons to disperse its members and dissolve the \nparliament, ordered one of his soldurs to "take \naway that bauble," the mace, which was done, and \nthe doors of the house loeked, 20 April, 1653. \n\nMACEDON (N. Greece). The first kingdom \nis said to have been founded by Caranus, about 761 \nB.C. It was successively under the protection of \nAthens, of Thebes, and Sparta, until the reign of \nPhilip, the father of Alexander the Great, who by \nhis political wisdom and warlike exploits made it a \npowerful kingdom, and paved the way for his son\'s \ngreatness. \nReigns of Caranus, about 761 ; Perdiccas I., 729; \n\nArgeeus I. , 684 ; Philip I. , 640 or 6oq. \nReign of Amyntas, 540 ; of Alexander I. . B.C. 500 \nMacedon conquered by the Persians, 513; delivered \n\nby the victory of Platsea 479 \n\nReign of Perdiccas II 454 \n\nPotidsea, revolting, 433 ; re-taken by the Athenians 429, \nArchelaus, natural son of Perdiccas, murders the \nlegitimate heirs ; seizes the throne, and improves \nthe country. 413 ; murdered by a favourite, to \nwhom he promised his daughter in marriage \n\nPausanias reigns \n\nReign of Amyntas II., after killing Pausanias \nThe IUyrians enter Macedonia, expel Amyntas, and \nmake Argaeus, brother of Pausanias, king . . \nAmyntas again recovers his kingdom \nReign of Alexander II., 369; assassinated . . . \nReign of Perdiccas III., 364 ; killed in battle . \nReign of Philip II., and institution of the Mace- \ndonian phalanx \n\nHe defeats the Athenians and Illyrians . . 360, \n\nHe takes Amphipolis 358 \n\nHe conquers Thrace, Illyria, and Thessaly . 356-352 \n\n\n\n399 \n394 \n393 \n\n39 2 \n\n39\xc2\xb0 \n367 \n360 \n\n359 \n\n\n\nBirth of Alexander III. the Great \n\nClose of the first sacred war \n\nIllyricum overrun by the army of Philip . \n\nThrace made tributary to Macedon . . . . \n\nAristotle appointed tutor to Alexander . \n\nWar against the Athenians \n\nPhilip besieged Byzantium unsuccessfully \n\nBattle of Charonea ; Philip victor . . . . \n\nPhilip is assassinated by Pausanias at iEgse during \n\nthe celebration of games in honour of his \n\ndaughter\'s nuptials; Alexander III., the Great, \n\nsucceeds \n\nThe Greeks appoint him general of their armies \n\nagainst the Persians \n\nThe Thebans revolt ; he levels Thebes to the \n\nground ; the house of Pindar alone left \nHe passes into Asia, and gains his first battle over \n\nDarius at the Granicus ... 22 May, \n\nSardis surrenders, Halicarnassus taken, and cities \n\nin Asia Minor ....... \n\nMenmon ravages the Cyclades ; Darius takes the \n\nheld with 460,000 infantry, and 100,000 cavalry \nDarius defeated at Issus (which sec) . . Nov. \nAlexander on his way to Egypt, lays siege to Tyre, \n\nwhich is destroyed after seven months \nDamascus is taken ; Gaza surrenders \nAlexander enters Jerusalem ; Egypt conquered \n\nAlexandria founded . . . \' . \nThe Persians totally defeated at Arbela . 1 Oct. \nAlexander master of Asia ; enters Babylon \nSits on the throne of Darius at Susa \n\n\n\n356 \n346" \n344 \n343. \n\n34i \n340 \n33& \n\n\n\nMACEDONIANS. \n\n\n\n605 \n\n\n\nMADAGASCAE. \n\n\n\nParthia, Media, &e. , overrun by him . . b. c. 329 \nThalestris, queen of the Amazons, visits him . ,, \n\nHe puts his friend Parmenio to death, on a charge \n\nof conspiracy supposed to be false ,, \n\nHis expedition to India ; Porus, king of India, is \ndefeated and taken ; and the country as far as the \nGanges, is overrun . . . . . . 327 \n\nCallisthenes is put to the torture for refusing to \n\nrender divine homage to Alexander . . . 328 \nVoyage of his admiral Nearchus from the Indus to \n\nthe Euphrates 32S-325 \n\nReturns to Babylon, 324 ; dies .... 323 \n\nPhilip III. (Aridseus) king 323 \n\nAlexander\'s conquests are divided among his \ngenerals, 323 ; his remains are transported to \nAlexandria, and buried by Ptolemy . . . 322 \nThe Greeks defeated by Antipater and the Mace- \ndonians, near Cranon (which see) . . . . ,, \nCassander reigns, 316 ; rebuilds Thebes . . . 315 \n\nSeleucus recovers Babylon 312 \n\nCassander kills Roxana and her son (the last of \n\nAlexander\'s family), and usurps the throne . . 311 \nBattle of Ipsus (which see) ; Antigonus killed . . 301 \n\nNew division of the empire ,, \n\nDeath of Cassander 298 \n\nReign of Alexander V. and Antipater, his sons . \xe2\x80\x9e \nDemetrius I. , Poliorcetes, son of Antigonus, murders \n\nAlexander, and seizes the crown of Maeedon . 294 \nAchsean league formed against Maeedon . . 281-243 \nGovernments of Pyrrhus, 287 ; Lysimachus, 286 ; \n\nPtolemy Ceraunus 281 \n\nIrruption of the Gauls ; Ptolemy killed . . . 279 \n\nSosthenes governs 278 \n\nReign of Antigonus Gonatas, son of Demetrius . 277 \nPyrrhus invades Maeedon, defeats Antigonus, and \nis proclaimed king .... . . 273 \n\nPyrrhus slain ; Antigonus restored . . . 272 \n\nAntigonus takes Athens 268 \n\nThe Gauls again invade Maeedon . . . . \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRevolt of the Parthians 250 \n\nReign of Demetrius II 239 \n\nPhilip, his son, 232 ; set aside by Antigonus Doson 229 \nPhilip V., 220; allies with Hannibal, 211; wars \n\nunsuccessfully against the Hhodians . . . 202 \nPhilip defeated by the Romans at Cynoscephalas 197 \nReign of Perseus, his son, 178 ; war with Rome . 171 \nPerse\'us defeated at Pydna ; Maeedon made a. \n\nRoman province 168 \n\nPerseus and his sons walk in chains before the \nchariot of jEmilius in his triumph for the con- \nquest of Maeedon 167 \n\nInsurrection of Andriscus, calling himself Philip, \n\nson of Perseus, quelled 148 \n\nMacedonia plundered by Theodoric the Ostro- \ngoth a.d. 482 \n\nConquered by the Bulgarians 978 \n\nRecovered by the emperor Basil 1001 \n\nFormed into the Latin kingdom of Thessalonica, by \n\nBoniface, of Montferrat 1204 \n\nAfter various changes, conquered by Amurath II., \n\nand annexed to Turkey 1430 \n\nA Macedonian Society formed to urge the execution \nof the Treaty of Berlin (1878) was active in 1885. \n\nMACEDONIANS, a semi-Arian sect, followers \nof Macedonius, made bishop of Constantinople \nabout 341. His appointment was greatly opposed \nand led to much bloodshed. He was expelled by \nthe decree of a council held 360. \n\nMACHIAVELLIAN PEINCIPLES, \n\ntho>e of iNicolo Machiavelli of Florence (born \n1469, died 1527), in his \'\xe2\x80\xa2 Practice of Politics" and \n"The Prince." By some they are styled "the \nmost pernicious maxims of government, founded on \nthe vilest policy ; " by others as \'\'sound doctrines, \nnotwithstanding the prejudice erroneously raised \nagainst them." The author said that if he taught \nprinces lo be tyrants, he also taught the people to \ndestroy tyrants. "The Prince" appeared at Rome \nin 1532, and was translated into English in 1 761. \n\nMACIEJOVICE (near Warsaw, Poland). \nHere the Poles were totally defeated by the Russians, \nand tneir general, Kosciusko, taken prisoner, 10 \nOct. 1794, after a murdeious action. He strenuously \n\n\n\nendeavoured to prevent the junction of the Russian \nand Austrian armies. The statement that he said \n"Finis Polomte!" is contradicted. \n\nMACKENZIE BASIN, see Canada, 1888. \n\nMADAGASCAE (S. E. coast of Africa), a \n\nlarge island (capital, Antananarivo), said to have \n\nbeen discovered by Lorenzo Almeida, 1506. The \n\npeople are called Hovas. Population, about \n\n3,500,000 (1884). \n\nPortuguese settlement, 1548 ; destroyed by the \nFrench one, 1642, on arrival of a French governor 1669 \n\nThe French attempted to settle at Antongel-bay in 1774 \n\nCount Benyowski supreme in the island, Oct. 1775 ; \nkilled in an encounter with the French 23 May, 1786 \n\nTheir establishment at Fort Dauphin fell into the \nhands of the English with Bourbon and Mauritius \nhi 1810-11 \n\nThe settlements ceded to king Radama, on his \ngiving up the slave trade 1818 \n\nRadama I. king 1810, who favoured Europeans and \nencouraged Christianity, died .... 1828 \n\nA reactionary policy under his energetic queen \nRanavalona, 1828. The English missionaries who \ncame in 1820 obliged to depart . . . . 1835 \n\nThe application of the native laws to the European \nsettlers occasioned an unsuccessful attack on the \ntown of Tamatave, by a united expedition from \nthe English at the Mauritius, and the French \nfrom the isle of Bourbon . . . June, 1845 \n\nAll amicable intercourse ceases, the native Christians \nsuffer persecution 1846 et seq. \n\nThe French defeated in an attack on the island, \n\n19 Oct. 1855 \n\nConspiracy against the queen frustrated . June, 1857 \n\nThe rev. W. Ellis published accounts of his three \nvisits to the island, on behalf of the London \nMissionary Society, in 1854-5-6 1S58 \n\nThe queen dies ; succeeded by her son Radama II., \na Christian 23 Aug. 1861 \n\nTreaty with Great Britain and France signed, \n\n12 Sept. 1862 \n\nArevolution ; the kingand his ministers assassinated ; \nthe queen Rasoherina proclaimed sovereign, May, 1863 \n\nEmbassy from Madagascar arrives at Southampton, \n\nFeb. 1864 \n\nDisputes with the French . . . . Nov. ,, \n\nTreaty with Great Britain ; Christians to be tole- \nrated, &c., 27 June, 1865 ; ratified . . 5 July, 1866 \n\nRev. Win. Ellis\'s " Madagascar Revisited," pub- \nlished j Feb. 1867 \n\nThe queen died in March ; her cousin, Ranava\'ona II. , \nsucceeded as queen, 1 April, 1868 ; baptized, Feb. 1869 \n\nDr. Henry Rowley was consecrated bishop of \nMadagascar, Dec. 1872 ; Dr. R Kestell-Cornish 1874 \n\nAfrican slavery prohibited, 1873 ! solemnly June, 1877 \n\nDisputes with the French begin respecting land \ngiven to Laborde, a missionary, reclaimed by the \nHovas ; aggressive insolent conduct of French \nconsuls, Cassas, Meyer, and Baudais . . 1879 et seq. \n\nThe French claim protectorate of part of N.W. Ma- \ndagascar, by virtue of a treaty made with rebel \nchiefs, 1840- 1 ; on appeal, the British government \ncorrespond with the French ministry July, Aug. 1S82 \n\nThe queen Ranavalona II. dies about 13 July; \nsucceeded by her niece Ranavalona III. . July, ,, \n\nNative embassy to France objecting to French \nprotectorate, &c. Oct. ,, \n\nThe French government unyielding Nov. ; the \nenvoys come to London ; received by earl \nGranville, 2 Dec, by the queen . . 12 Dec. , \n\nFriendly modification of the treaty of 1868 with \nEngland Feb. 1883 \n\nArrival of French war vessels in Madagascar 23 Feb. ,, \n\nTreaty with the United States ratified about \n\n14 March, ,, \n\nH.M.S. Dryad at Tamatave . . . 14 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTreaty with Germany .... 15 May, , \n\nAdmiral Pierre bombards and seizes the custom- \nhouse at Majunga24 May ; Adin. Pierre bombards \nTamatave, unresisting 11 June, captures it.n June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFrench ultimatum, offered and rejected, announced \n\n13 June, \n\nTenoarivo destroyed; state of siege at Tamatave; \nadin. Pierre orders the British consul, T. C. \nPakenhanl (ill) to quit within 24 hours, who dies, \n\n\n\nMADDEE. \n\n\n\n606 \n\n\n\nMADEAS. \n\n\n\n22 June. Mr. Shaw, missionary, arrested ; capt. \nJohnson of the Dryad insulted ; the British go- \nvernment demands explanations 12 July, satisfac- \ntion ordered to be given . . . Aug. 1883 \nAdm. Pierre reports repulse of two night-attacks \n\non ... .22 June and 5 July, ,, \n\nRelease of Mr. Shaw about . . . .7 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAdm. Pierre dies 10 Sept. ,, \n\nThe Hovas retake French posts, except Majunga \n\nannounced 6 Sept ,, \n\nMr. Shaw at Exeter Hall, describes his arrest, false \ncharges against him, cruel usage and abrupt \n\nrelease 27 Sept. , , \n\nGreat mortality among French troops . Sept. ,, \n1000Z. awarded to Mr. Shaw, and apology made to \nthe British government by the French, announced \n\nabout 29 Oct. ,, \nMuch British property destroyed . . . Nov. ,, \nFrench demand raised, by M. Baudais . . Jan. 1884 \nThe French chambers vote to support French \n\nhonour in Madagascar (450 \xe2\x80\x94 32) . . 27 March, ,, \nFrench attack on the Hova camp repulsed 27 June, ,, \nTwo blue books published by the Hova government \ngiving the history of the disputes with the \n\nFrench, 1879-84 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDesultory warfare and negotiations reported, \n\nFrench settlements in progress at Majunga, &c. ; \n\nthe Hovas prepare for war .... Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe French bombard Mahanoro . . .22 Sep. ,, \n\nMr. T. Wilkinson, missionary and trader, expelled \n\n\' from Antananarivo for newspaper correspondence \n\nNov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe Hovas severely defeated . . .2 Dec. ,, \nThe French take forts after sharp conflict 6-11 Dec. ,, \nSeven French ships of war at Tamatave, the Hovas \n\nretreating inland Jan. 1885 \n\nFrench chambers vote for maintaining of status quo, \n\nJuly- Aug. ,, \nUnsuccessful French attack o"n the Malagasy \n\nposition near Tamatave ... 10 Sept. ,, \nAnother conflict (undecisive) announced 28 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nNegociations for peace fail ; French protectorate \n\nrejected 13 June-17 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTreaty signed conceding partial French control on \n\nforeign affairs ; 400,000!. as compensation for * \n\nlocal injuries &c, by the agency of adm. Miot. 20 \n\nDec. 1885 ; ratified by French senate 13 March, \n\nM. Lemyre de Villers, first French resident April, ,, \n\nTamatave evacuated by the French, re-occupied by \n\nthe natives . . ... 25 Jan. 1887 \n\nProsperity of the island reported . . .Oct. 1889 \nFrench protectorate recognised by Great Britain \n\nS Aug. 1890 \nMassacre of about 200 complaining natives, by the \n\ngovernor of Belanona, reported . . 9 Jan. 1891 \nThe governor and his brother tried and executed, \n\nreported 24 March \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDr. Catat, at Paris, reports the results of an \nexploring scientific expedition in Madagascar \nsent out in 1888, by the government 23 March, ,, \nInsurrection in the Comoro Islands (near Mada- \ngascar), ruled by Arab chiefs under French pro- \ntection ; massacres and exactions. Prince Salim \nrefuses to negotiate with Dr. Ormieres, the \nFrench resident, reported . . . 28 March, ,, \nThe residents take refuge in the ships ; slaves hold \n\nthe town in Johanna Island, reported 3 April, ,, \nMurder of Dr. Beziat, chief of the French medical \nstaff, reported 30 Oct. ,, \n\nMADDEE, the root of the Bubia tinctoria, \nhighly valued for dyeing properties. See Alizarine. \n\nMADEIEA, an island, N. W. coast of Africa, \ndiscovered, it is said, in 1344, by Mr. Macham, an \nEnglish gentleman, or mariner, who fled from \nFrance for an illicit amour. He was driven here \nby a storm, and his mistress, a French lady, dying, \nhe made a canoe, and carried the news of his dis- \ncovery to Pedro, king of Aragon, which occasioned \nthe report that the island was discovered by a \nPortuguese, 1345. It is asserted that the Portu- \nguese did not visit this island until 1419 or 1420, \nor colonise it until 1431. It was taken by the \nBritish in July, 1801 ; and again by admiral Hood \nand general Beresford, 24 Dec. 1807, and retained \n\n\n\nin trust for the royal family of Portugal, who had \nemigrated to the Brazils. It was restored to the \nPortuguese in 1814. Since 1852 the renowned \nvintages here have been almost totally ruined by the \nvine disease (oidium) . Population, 1882, 133,955. \nOpposition of the peasantry to new taxation ; \nfighting with bloodshed announced . 16 Jan. 1888 \n\nMADIAI PEESECUTION, see Tuscany. \n\nMADEAS (S. E. Hindostan), called by the \nnatives Chennapatam, colonised by the English, \n1640. Population of the province, 1881, 30,812,745 ; \n^i, 35,588,850; of the city, 1881,405,848; 1891, \n449,950. \nFort St. George built, 1641 ; made a presidency . 1653 \n\nBengal placed under Madras 1658 \n\nCalcutta, hitherto subordinate to Madras, made a \n\npresidency 1701 \n\nMadras taken by the French . . 14 Sept. 1746 \n\nRestored to the English 1749 \n\nVainly besieged by the French under Lally, 12 Dec- 1758 \nHyder marches to Madras and obtains a favourable \n\ntreaty April, 1769 \n\nSir John Lindsay arrives .... July, 1770 \nHe is succeeded by sir R. Hartland Sept. 1771 \n\nLord Pigot, governor, imprisoned by his own coun- \ncil, 24 Aug. 1776 ; dies in confinement, 17 April, \' \n1777 ; his enemies convicted and fined 1000!. each, \n\n11 Feb. 1780 \nSir Eyre Coote arrives .... 5 Nov. ,, \n\nHe defeats Hyder 1 July, 1781 \n\nLord Macartney arrives as governor . . 22 June, ,, \nThe Madras government arrest gen. Stuart for dis- \nobedience, and send him to England . . June, 1783 \nLord Cornwallis arrives here . . .12 Dec. 1790 \nSir C. Oakley succeeds gen. Win. Meadows as \n\ngovernor 1 Aug. 1792 \n\nMadras system of education introduced (see Moni- \ntorial) 1795 \n\nLord Mornington (afterwards the marquis Wellesley) \nvisits here . . . . . . . Dec. 1798 \n\nGeneral Harris with the Madras army enters Mysore, \n5 March ; and arrives at Seringapatam, 5 April, \nwhich is stormed by the British under major- \ngeneral Baird, and Tippoo Sahib killed . 4 May, 1799 \nAppointment of sir Thomas Strange, first judge of \n\nMadras under the charter ... 26 Dec. 1800 \nMore than 1000 houses in Madras burnt . . Feb. 1803 \nThe Madras army under general Arthur Wellesley \n(afterwards duke of Wellington) marches for Poo- \n\nnah (see India) March, ,, \n\nMutiny among the native forces at Vellore ; 600 \n\nsepoys killed ; 200 executed ... 10 July, 1806 \nMutiny of the sepoy troops at Madras . ... 1809 \nArrival of lord Minto at Madras, who publishes a \n\ngeneral amnesty . ... 29 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAwful hurricane, by which the ships at anchor were \ndriven into the town and seventy sail sunk, many \n\nwith their crews May, 1813 \n\nMadras attacked by the Pindarees . . . .1817 \nAppointment of the rev. Dr. Corrie, first bishop of \n\nMadras 14 Feb. 1835 \n\nSir Charles Trevelyan, governor, Jan. 1859 : recalled \nfor publishing a minute in opposition to Mr. Jas. \nWilson\'s financial schemes ... 10 May, i860 \n[Appointed financial secretary and a member of \nthe Indian council at Calcutta, Oct. 1862.] \nHis successor, sir H. Ward, dies at Madras, 2 Aug. ,, \nSir Wm. Dennison appointed governor, Nov. i860 ; \n\narrives 18 Feb. 1861 \n\nLord Napier appointed governor . . 31 Jan. 1866 \nArrival of the duke of Edinburgh . . 22 March, 1870 \nLord Hobart appointed governor, Feb. 1872 ; died, 27 \n\nApril ; the duke of Buckingham appointed May, 1875 \nVisit of the prince of Wales . . 13 Dec. ,, \n\nThe Rt. Hon. W. P. Adam appointed governor, \nAug. 1880 : died 24 May ; the Rt. Hon. M. E. \nGrant Duff appointed governor . . June, 1881 \nHe reports " a deep peace broods over the land," \n\nnatives advancing in civilization . . . Jan. 1884 \nThe right hon. Robert Bourke (created lord Conne- \n\nmara) appointed governor . . . Aug. 1886 \nGreat accidental fire began in booths at a fair \nin the people\'s park ; great panic, about 405 \npersons said to have perished . . 31 Dec. ,, \n\n\n\nMADEID. \n\n\n\n607 \n\n\n\nMAGDEBUEG. \n\n\n\n25 persons killed by an explosion of gunpowder at a \nvillage festival 14 Oct. 1888 \n\nA severe famine in Ganjam, the last crops having \nfailed through deficiency of rain ; high prices \nand much destitution ; about 15,000 persons \nemployed on relief works ; deaths from cholera ; \nabout 1,400 weekly middle of May et seq. 1889. \nLord Connemara visits the district . June, 1889 \n\nGovernment relief aided by native princes ; 9,429 \npersons employed on public works ; 865 deaths \nfrom cholera in one week ; reported . 18 June \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLord Connemara reports improvement in the con- \ndition of Ganjam ; employed on works, 15,425 ; \ndeaths from cholera in a week, 602 ; reported \n\n9 Jul y. \xc2\xbb \n\nLord Connemara resigns, much regretted . Nov. 1890 \nBeilby Lawley, lord Wenlock, appointed governor \n\nabout 1 Dec. 1890 ; arrives . . 19 Jan. 1891 \nA famine commissioner appointed . 19 Jan. 1892 \n\nTour of lord Wenlock . . . April, May, ,, \nHeavy rains, improved prospects . May, June, July, ,, \nEmployed on relief works, 15,728, Sept. 1889 ; \n19,655, 10 Nov. 1891 ; 29,319, 16 Feb. 1892 ; 64,000, \n5 May; 53,000, 22 July ; under 9,000 . 3 Sept., \xe2\x80\x9e \nWorks stopped, reported . . . .22 Sept. ,, \n[For other events, see India.] \n\nMADEID (New Castile), mentioned in history \nas Majerit, a Moorish, castle. Population in 1887, \n470,283. \n\nSacked by the Moors 1190 \n\nFortified by Henry III. about 1400 \n\nHumiliating treaty of Madrid between Charles V. \n\nand Francis I. , his prisoner . . . 14 Jan. 1526 \nMade the seat of the Spanish court by Philip II. . 1560 \n\nThe Escurial built 1563 et seq. \n\nTaken by lord Galway . . . -24 June, 1706 \n\nThe old palace burnt down 1734 \n\nMadrid taken by the French . . . March, 1808 \nThe citizens attempt to expel the French ; defeated \n\nwith much slaughter . . . .2 May, ,, \nJoseph Bonaparte enters Madrid as king of Spain \n\n(but soon retires) 20 July, ,, \n\nMadrid retaken by the French . . .2 Dec. ,, \nRetained till it is entered by Wellington 12 Aug. 1812 \nFerdinand VII. restored .... 14 May, 1814 \nMadrid pronounces for provisional government \n\nagainst Isabella II 29 Sept. 1868 \n\nEnglish protestant church authorised . 9 Nov. ,, \nMadrid (with Alcala de Henares) made a bishopric \n\nearly in 1885 \n\nThe bishop Martinez Izquierdo shot on the steps of \n\nthe pro-cathedral by Cayetano Galeote, a priest \n\nsuspended by him, 18 April ; dies . 19 April, 1886 \nDestructive hurricane, about 32 persons killed and \n\nabout 320 wounded, 12 May ; sufferers visited by \n\nthe queen 13 May, ,, \n\nPopulation, in 1857, 271,254 ; in 1870, 332,024 ; 1884, \n391,829. \n\nSee Spain, 1840 et seq. \n\nMADBIGAL, an unaccompanied song for three \nor more voices, of which fine examples are by Eng- \nlish composers. Madrigals, invented in the Nether- \nlands, were adopted in Italy, where fine specimens \nwere produced. Many were published by Morley, \n1594; Weelkes, 1597; Wilbye, 1598; and Bennet, \n1599. The Madrigal Society in London began in \n1 741. English Glee and Madrigal Union founded \nin 185 1. Kimbault\'s " Bibliotheca Madrigalium " \npublished 1847. The madrigal, " Summer is i cumen \nin" is attributed to the 13th or 14th century. \n\nMAESTEICHT (Holland), the ancient Tra- \njectum ad Mosam, the capital of Limburg. It re- \nvolted from Spain, and was taken by the prince of \nParma in 1579, when a dreadful massacre took \nplace. In 1632, the prince of Orange reduced it \nafter a memorable siege, and it was confirmed to \nthe Dutch in 1648 ; Louis XIV. took it in 1673 > \nWilliam, prince of Orange, invested it in vain in \n1676 ; but in 1678 it was restored to the Dutch. \nIn 1748 it was besieged by the French, who were \n\n\n\npermitted to take possession of the city on condi- \ntion of its being restored at the peace then nego- \ntiating. In Feb. 1793, Maestricht was unsuccess- \nfully attacked by the French, but they became \nmasters of it, Nov. 1794. In 1814 it was made part \nof the kingdom of the Netherlands, and now \nbelongs to Holland. Population, 1891, 32,225. \n\nMAFIA, a secret terrorist murderous society ire \nSicily, comprising all classes ; became prominent \nin i860. It is opposed to the Camorra. Efforts for \nthe suppression of both were made by the govern- \nment in 1874-5. See New Orleans, 1890. \n\nMAGAZINE, at first a miscellaneous periodical \npublication. There are now magazines devoted to \nnearly every department of knowledge. The fol- \nlowing are the dates of the first publication of the \nprincipal magazines, some of Avhich are extinct. \nIn Jan. 1865, 544 magazines; in Jan. 1872, 639- \nin Jan. 1889, (including reviews) 1,593 i ln Jan - \n1892, 1901 were in course of publication in Great \nBritain and Ireland ; see Revieivs and Newspapers. \n\n\n\n1877 \n\n\n\nGentleman\'s \n\n\nI 73 I \n\n\nCornhill . \n\n\nLondon . . . . \n\n\nI 73 2 \n\n\nMacmillan\'s . . . \n\n\nScots . \n\n\n1739 \n\n\nGood Words \n\n\nRoyal . . . . \n\n\n*759 \n\n\nQuiver . . . . \n\n\nCourt . \n\n\n1760 \n\n\nSt. Paul\'s . \n\n\nGospel . . . . \n\n\n1768 \n\n\nNineteenth Century . \n\n\nLady\'s \n\n\n1772 \n\n\nMany new ones pub- \n\n\nEuropean . . . \n\n\n1782 \n\n\nlished . . 18 \n\n\nMethodist . \n\n\n1784 \n\n\nMagazine of Art . . \n\n\nEvangelical . . . \n\n\n1792 \n\n\nAntiquary . \n\n\nMonthly \n\n\n1796 \n\n\nCentury . . . . \n\n\nPhilosophical . . \n\n\nI79S \n\n\nHarper\'s \n\n\nBlackwood\'s \n\n\n1817 \n\n\nLongman\'s . . . \n\n\nNew Monthly . . \n\n\n1814 \n\n\nMerry England . \n\n\nFraser\'s \n\n\n1830 \n\n\nEnglish Illustrated . \n\n\nMetropolitan . . . \n\n\n1831 \n\n\nMurray\'s . \n\n\nPenny. \n\n\n1832 \n\n\nSeribner\'s . . . \n\n\nTait\'s . . . . \n\n\n1833 \n\n\nStrand \n\n\nCassell\'s Family Maga \n\n\n\n\nStaler \n\n\nzme \n\n\ni853 \n\n\n\n\n\n1860-78 \n1878 \n\n\n\nMAGAZINE EIFLES, see under Fire- \narms. \n\nMAGDALA, a very strong place in Abyssinia; \n(which see). On Good Friday, 10 April, 1868, the \ntroops of the emperor Theodore attacked the first \nbrigade of the British army under sir Bobert \nNapier, and were repulsed with great slaughter. \nOn the next day all the European prisoners were \ngiven up, but Theodore himself refused to sur- \nrender ; and on Easter Monday, 13 April, Magdala \nwas stormed, and Theodore himself killed\xe2\x80\x94 it is- \nsaid by his own hand. \xe2\x80\x94 British loss, 2 killed ; 20 \nwounded : Abyssinian loss, about 500 killed and \nwounded out of about 5000. Magdala was burnt to \nthe ground by the British, 17 April, 1868. \n\nMAGDALENS and Magdalenettes\xe2\x80\x9e \n\ncommunities of nuns, consisting chiefly of penitent \ncourtesans. The order of penitents of St. Magdalen \nwas founded 1272, at Marseilles. The convent of \nNaples was endowed by queen Sancha, 1324. That \nat Metz was instituted in 1452. At Paris, 1492. \nThe Magdalen at Rome was endowed by pope \nLeo X., in 1515, and favoured by Clement YIII. in \n1594. The Magdalen hospital, London, was founded \nin 1758, under the direction of Dr. Dodd. The \nasylum in Dublin was opened in June, 1766. \n\nMAGDEBUEG (Prussia). The archbishopric \nwas founded about 967. The city suffered much \nduring the religious wars in Germany. It was \nbesieged and taken by the elector Maurice, Nov. \n1550, and Nov. 1551 ; blockaded for seven months- \nby the imperialists, under "Wallenstein, in 1629 ; \nand barbarously sacked by Tilly on 10 May, 1631. \n\n\n\nMAGELLAN. \n\n\n\n638 \n\n\n\nMAGNESIUM. \n\n\n\nIt was given to Brandenburg in 1648 ; was taken \nby the French, 8 Nov. 1806 ; annexed to the king- \ndom of Westphalia, 9 July, 1807 ; restored to \nPrussia, May, 1813. Valuable fine art collection \nhurnt 6 April, 1891 Population, 1890, 202,325. \nThe Magdeburg Experiment is shown by means of a hollow \nsphere, composed of two hemispheres, fitting air-tight. \nWhen the air is exhausted by the ah -pump, the hemi- \nspheres are held together by the pressure of the atmo- \nsphere, and require great force to separate them. The \napparatus was suggested by Otto von Guericke, the \ninventor of the air-pump. He died in 1686. Brande. \n\nMAGELLAN, Straits of (connecting the \nAtlantic and Pacific oceans), was passed by Fer- \nnando de Magelhaens (Magellan), a Portuguese, on \n27 Nov. 1520. He gave the latter ocean its name \non account of its calmness. Magellan completed \nthe first voyage round the world, with a fleet of \ndiscovery fitted out by the emperor Charles V., but \nwas killed in 152 1. The Spaniards had a fort here, \n\xe2\x96\xa0called Cape Famine, because the garrison perished \nfrom want. \n\nMAGENTA, a small town in Lombardy, near \nwhich the French and Sardinians defeated the \nAustrians, 4 June, 1859. The emperor Louis \nNapoleon commanded, and he and the king oi \nSardinia were in the thickest of the fight. It is \nsaid that 55,000 French and Sardinians, and 75,000 \nAustrians were engaged. The former are asserted \nto have lost 4000 killed and wounded, and the \nAustrians 10, coo, besides 7000 prisoners. The \nFrench generals Fs] inasse and Clerc were killed. \nThe arrival of general MacMahon during a deadly \nstruggle between the Austrians and the French, \ngreatly contributed to the victory. The contest \nnear the bridge of Buffalora was very severe. The \nAustrians fought well, but were badly commanded. \nThe emperor and king entered Milan on 8 June \nfollowing; MacMahon and Regnault d\'Angely were \ncreated marshals of France. A monument erected \nhere in memory of the slain was solemnly inaugu- \nrated 4 June, 1872. \xe2\x80\x94 The red dye, rosaniline, ob- \ntained by chemists from gas-tar, is termed magenta; \nsee Aniline. \n\nMAGI, an order of priests and teachers among \nthe ancient Modes and Persians, with much political \npower. One of them who on the death of Oambyses \nasserted that he was Smefdis, a son of Cyrus, and \n\xe2\x80\xa2claimed the throne of Persia, was deposed by Darius \nHystaspes, 521 B.C., and a massacre of the Magi \nfollowed. \' They retained their religious position \ntill the later Roman empire. The constitution of \nthe order is traditionally assigned to Zoroaster, the \n\'Znrathustra of the Zendavesta, whose time and very \nexistence are uncertain, the 6th century b.c being \nmentioned. lie is said to have taught the know- \nledge of Ormuzt, the supreme good principle, to the \nMagi, whom he classified as learners, masters, and \nperfect scholars, the possessors of all spiritual \npower, and the science of the age, see Parsees. \nThe name Magi has been applied to the " wise \nmen" of Mutt, ii., and the Parsees at Bombay are \n\xe2\x96\xa0descendants of the Guebres or fire- worshippers. \n\nMAGIC, see Alchemy, Witchcraft, &c. The \n\xe2\x80\xa2invention of the Magic Lantern is ascribed to \nRoger Bacon, about 1260, but more correctly to \nAthanasius Kircher, who died 1680. Sir David \nSalomons, in a discourse at the Royal Institution on \n" Optical Projection," exhibited an arrangement of \nthe magic lantern, in which by the use of lenses \n\xe2\x80\xa2magnifying up to 4,500 diameters, he stated that he \nwas enabled to magnify a postage stamp to the size \n\xe2\x96\xa0of 2\\ acres, 26 Feb. 1892. See Godwin\'s "Lives \nof the Necromancers," 1834, and Ennemoser\'s \n" History of Magic," translated by W. Howitt, 1854. \n\n\n\nMAGISTEATES, see Justices. Stipendiary \nborough magistrates may be appointed by 5 & 6 \nWill. IV. c. 76, 1835; and by 26 & 27 Vict. c. 97, \n1863. The present arrangement of metropolitan \nmagistrates (the chief sitting at Bow-street) was \nmade by acts of parliament in 1792 and 1839. \nEleven courts were appointed in 1840. Their salaries \nraised from 25 March, 1875. Henry Fielding, the \nnovelist, was acting magistrate for Westminster \nand at Bow-street. He was succeeded by his half- \nbrother, sir- John Fielding, in 1 761 ; by \n\nSir William Addington 1780 \n\nSir Richard Ford 1800 \n\nMr. Read 1806 \n\nSir Nathaniel Conant 1813 \n\nSir Robert Baker 1820 \n\nSir Richard Birnie 1821 \n\nSir Frederick Roe 1823 \n\nMr. T. J. Hall 1839 \n\nSir Thomas Henry (died suddenly, 16 June, 1876) . 1864 \nSir James Taylor Ingham, July, 1876 ; died 5 March, \n\n1890 ; succeeded by sir John Bridge about \n\n22 March, 1890 \nThe new offices, Bow-street, opened . . 4 April 1881 \n\nMAGNA CHAETA. Its fundamental parts \nwere derived from Saxon charters, continued by \nHenry I. and his successors. On 20 Nov. 1214, the \narchbishop of Canterbury and the barons met at \nSt. Edmondsbury. On 6 J<m. 1215, they presented \ntheir demands to king John, who deferred his \nanswer. On 19 May they were censured by the \npope. "On 24 May they marched to London, and \nthe king was compelled to yield. The charter was \nsealed by John at Runnymede, near Windsor, \n15 June, 1215. It was many times confirmed, by \nHenry III. and his successors. This last king\'s \ngrandcharter was granted in 1224, and was assured \nby Edward I.; see Forests. Ihe original MS. \ncharter is lost. The finest MS. copy, which is at \nLincoln, was reproduced by photographs in the \n"National MSS." published by government, 1865. \n\nMAGNA GR^ECIA, the independent states \nfounded by Greek colonists in South Italy, Sicily, \n&c. Cumse, in Campania, is said to have been \nfounded in 1034 B.C., Pandosia and Metapontum \nin 774 B.C. These states were ruined through siding \nwith Hannibal when he invaded Italy, 216 B.C. \nSyracuse founded about . . . . b. c. 734 \n\nLeontinum and Catana 730 \n\nSybaris 721 \n\nCrotona ... 710 \n\nTarentum . . 708 \n\nLocri Epizephyrii 673 \n\nLipara 627 \n\nAgrigentum 582 \n\nThurium 432 \n\nMAGNANO (N. Italy). Here Scherer and a \nFrench army were defeated by the Austrians under \nKray, 5 April, 1799. \n\nMAGNESIA (Asia Minor). Here Antiochus \nthe great, king of Syria, was defeated by the \nScipios, 190 B.C. \xe2\x80\x94 Magnesia alba, the white alkaline \nearth used in medicine, was in use in the beginning \nof the 1 8th century. Its properties were developed \nby Dr. Black in 1755. \n\nMAGNESIUM, a metal first obtained from \nmagnesia by sir Humphry Davy in 1808, and since \nproduced in larger quantities by Bussv, Deville, \nand especially by Mr. E. Sonstadt, in 1862-4. Its \nlight when burnt is very brilliant, and is so rich in \nchemical rays that it may be used in photography. \nLamps made for burning magnesium wire, were \nemployed by the excavators of the tunnel through \nMount Cenis. By its light photographs of the in- \nterior of the Pyramids were taken in 1865. Larkin\'s \n\n\n\nMAGNETISM. \n\n\n\n609 \n\n\n\nMAHOMETANISM. \n\n\n\nmagnesium lamp (in which the metal is burnt in \nthe form of a powder) was exhibited at the Royal \nInstitution on I June, 1866, and before the British \nAssociation at Nottingham in Aug. 1866. \n\nMAGNETISM. The attractive power of the \nloadstone or magnet was early known, and is re- \nferred to by Homer, Aristotle, and Pliny ; it was \nalso known to the Chinese and Arabians. The \nGreeks are said to have obtained the loadstone from \nMagnesia in Asia, iooob.c. Roger Bacon is said \nto have been acquainted with its property of point- \ning to the north (1294). The invention of the \nmariner\'s compass is a.-cribed to Flavio Gioia, a \nNeapolitan, about 1310; but it was known in Nor- \nway previous to 1266; and is mentioned in a French \npoem, 1 150. See under Electricity. \nRobert Norman, of London, discovered the dip of \n\nthe needle about 1576 \n\nGilbert\'s treatise "De Magnete," published . . 1600 \nHalley\'s theory of magnetic variations published . 1683 \nMarcel observed that a suspended bar of iron be- \ncomes temporarily magnetic by position . . 1722 \nArtificial magnets made by Dr. Gowan Knight . . 1746 \nThe variation of the compass was observed by Bond, \nabout 1668 ; the diurnal variation by Graham, \n1722 ; on which latter Canton made 4000 observa- \ntions previous to 1756 \n\nCoulomb constructed a torsion balance for deter- \nmining the laws of attraction and repulsion, 1786 ; \nalso investigated by Michell, Euler, Lambert, \n\nRobison, and others 1750-1800 \n\nThe deflection of the magnetic needle by the voltaic \n\ncurrent was discovered by GErsted . . . 1820 \nMr. Abraham invents a magnetic guard for persons \n\nengaged in grinding cutlery 1821 \n\nThe magnetic effects of the violet rays of light ex- \nhibited by Morichini, 1814 ; polarity of a sewing \nneedle so magnetised shown by Mrs. Somerville . 1825 \nMr. Christie proves that heat diminishes magnetic \n\nforce about ,, \n\nSir W. Snow Harris invents various forms of the \n\ncompass 1831 \n\nMagnetic north pole discovered by commander (aft. \nsir) James Clark Ross (during sir John Ross\'s \n\nsecond voyage) 1 June, ,, \n\nElectricity produced by the rotation of a magnet by \nprofessor Faraday, 1831 ; his researches on the \naction of the magnet on light, on the magnetic \nproperties of flame, air, and gases (published \n1845), on dia-magnetism (1845), on magno-crys- \ntallic action (1848), on atmospheric magnetism \n(1850), on the magnetic force . . . . 1851-2 \nMagnetic observations established in the British \ncolonies under the superintendence of col. Edward \n\nSabine 1840 et seq. \n\nProf. Tyndall proves the existence of dia-magnetic \n\npolarity 1856 \n\nMr. Archibald Smith described the results of his \ninvestigations respecting the deviation of the \ncompass in iron ships at the Royal Institution, \n\n9 Feb. 1866 \nWm. Robinson patented a method of making wrought \niron from cast iron by the help of magnetism, \n\nannounced, July, 1867 \nWilde\'s magneto-electric machine exhibited (see \n\nunder Electricity) \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nIn the present century our knowledge of the phe- \nnomena of magnetism has also been greatly in- \ncreased by the labours of Arago, Ampere, Hans- \nteen, Gauss, Weber, Poggendorft\', Sabine, Lamont, \nDu Moncel, Archibald Smith, &c. (see Animal \nMagnetism). \nIn the Royal Institution, London, is a magnet by \nLogeman, of Haarlem, constructed on the princi- \nples of Dr. Elias, which weighs 100 lb, and can \nsustain 430 lb. Hsecker, of Nuremberg, con- \nstructed a magnet weighing 36 grains, capable of \nsustaining 146 times its own weight. This was \nexhibited in 1851, also at the Royal Institution. \nSir E. Sabine, eminent for life-long researches in \nmagnetism, died (aged 94), 26 June, 1883. \n\nMAGNETO-ELECTRICITY, the discovery \nof professor Faraday ; see under Electricity. Mag- \n\n\n\nneto-electricity has been recently applied to tele- \ngraphic and to lighthouse purposes. The South \nForeland lighthouse, near Dover, was illuminated \nby the magneto-electric light in the winter of \n1858-9 and 1859-60 (the light removed to Dungeness \nin 1861), the Lizards, by Dr. C. "William Siemens\' \nmagneto-electric light, 1878. See Faradisation. \n\nMAGNOLIA. Magnolia glauca was brought \nhere from N. America, 1688. The laurel-leaved \nMagnolia, Magnolia grandiflora, from N. America, \nabout 1734- The dwarf Magnolia, Magnolia pumila, \nfrom China, in 1789; and (also from China), the \nbrown stalked, 1789; the purple, 1790; and the \nslender, 1804. \n\nMAGUIRE, see Molly. \n\nMAGYARS, see Hungary. \n\nMAHARAJPOOR (India). Here sir Hugh \nGough severely defeated the Mahratta army of \nGwalior, 29 Dec. 1843. Lord Ellenborough was \npresent. \n\nMAHDI (Guided by God), a name assumed by \nseveral Mahometan fanatics claiming to be divinely \nsent reformers and liberators. An eminent example \nis found in Ibn Tumert, the Almohade Mahdi in the \n12th century. See Babysm, and for the latest Mahdis \nsee Soudan, 1881, et seq. A Mahdi has risen in \nBokhara, named Mahomed Abdallah Ben Oman, \nMay, 1884. See Dervishes. \n\nMAHEDPORE, see Mehedpore. \n\nMAHOGANY is said to have been brought to \nEngland by Raleigh, in 1595 ; but not to have come \ninto general use till 1720. \n\nMAHOMETANISM embodied in the Koran, \nincludes \xe2\x80\x94 the unity of God, the immortality of the \nsoul, predestination, a last judgment, and a sensual \nparadise. Mahomet asserted that the Koran was \nrevealed to him by the angel Gabriel during a \nperiod of twenty-three years. He enjoined on his \ndisciples circumcision, prayer, alms, frequent ablu- \ntion, and fasting, and permitted polygamy and \nconcubinage. \n\nThe Mahometan year, 1306-7. Months ; Jornada I., \nbegins(3 Jan. 1889); Jornada II., (2 Feb.); Rajab, \n(3 March); Shaaban, (2 April) ; Ramadan, d May); \nShawall, (31 May) ; Dulkaada, (29 June); Dulheg- \ngia, (29 July) \xe2\x80\x94 1307; Muharram, (28 Aug.); Sap- \ntiar, (27 Sept.); Rabia I., (26 Oct.); Rabia II., \n(25 Nov.) ; Jornada I., (24 Dec). \nMahomet, Mohammed (the name is spielt many \nways), born at Mecca .... 569 or \n\nAnnounced himself as a prophet . . . about \n\nFled from his enemies to Medina (his flight is called \n\nthe Hegira) . . . . . .15 July, \n\nOvercomes his enemies (the Koreish, the Jews, &c.) \n\nin battle 623-5 \n\nDefeats the Christians at Muta 629 \n\nIs acknowledged as a sovereign .... 630 \nDies, it is said, of slow poison, administered by a \nJewess to test his divine character . 8 June, \n\nThe Mahometans are divided into several sects, the \ntwo chief being the Sonnitcs, or the Orthodox \n(who recognised as caliph Abubeker, the father- \nin-law of Mahomet, in preference to Omar anil \nAli), and the Shiites (Sectaries), or Fatimites, the \nfollowers of Ali, who married Fatima, the pro- \nphet\'s daughter. \nThe former (also called Sunnites) recognise the \n"Sunua" (traditions) sayings of Mahomet (sup- \nplementary to the Koran) which the Shiites \nreject. Husan and other sons of Ali were mur- \ndered a.d. 680, and a miracle play and a festival \nin their honour are still observed. \nThe Ottoman empire is the chief seat of the Son- \nnites, the sultan being considered the representa- \ntive of the caliphs ; Persia has been for centuries \nthe stronghold of the Shiites. \nThe Mahometans termed Saracens, conquered \n\n11 K \n\n\n\n57\xc2\xb0 \n611 \n\n\n\n622 \n\n\n\n632 \n\n\n\nMAHRATTAS. \n\n\n\n610 \n\n\n\nMAJUBA HILL. \n\n\n\nArabia, North Africa, and part of Asia, in the \n7th century ; in the 8th they invaded Europe, \nconquering Spain, where they founded the cali- \nfat of Cordova, which lasted from 756 to 1031, \nwhen it was broken up into smaller govern- \nments, the last of which, the kingdom of \nGrenada, endured till its subjugation by Ferdi- \nnand in 1492 ; but the Moorish Mahometans were \nnot finally expelled from Spain till . . . . 1609 \n\nTheir progress in France was stopped by their \ndefeat at Tours by Charles Martel, in . . . 732 \n\nAfter a long contest, the Turks under Mahomet II. \ntook Constantinople ; he made it his capital and \nthe chief seat of his religion 1453 \n\nThough considered to be declining, Mahometanism \nis calculated as including 100 millions amongst its \nvotaries. \n\nCoomroodeen Tyabjee, a Mahometan, admitted to \npractise as an attorney in England, having taken \nthe oaths upon the Koran . . . Nov. 1858 \n\nBudroodeen Tyabjee, a Mahometan, called to the \nbar 30 April, 1867 \n\nThe first Mahometan mosque in England erected at \nMaybury, Woking, Surrey, to be completed by \nthe exertions of Dr. G. W. Leitner (not a Maho- \nmetan) Aug. 1889 \n\nThe representation of a play called Mahomed on \nthe English stage, was stopped by request, aided \nby the intervention of the sultan . . Dec. 1890 \n\nA Mahometan marriage at the Moslem Institute, \nLiverpool, the first in England . 18 April, 1891 \n\n"The Life and Teachings of Mohammed, or, The \nSpirit of Islam," by Syed Ameer Ali, m. a.., a judge \nin Bengal, published in 1873 and 1891. \n\nMAHEATTAS, a people of Findostan, Avho \noriginally dwelt north-west of the Deccan, which \nthey overran about 1676. They endeavoured to \novercome the Mogul, but were restrained by the \nAfghans. They entered into alliance with the East \nIndia company in 1767, made war against it in \n1774, again made peace in 1782, and were finally \nsubdued in 1818. See India 1803, et scq., Givalior \nand Indore. \n\nMAID, see Holy Maid, Elizabeth Barton, and \nJoan of Arc, maid of Orleans. \n\nMAIDA (Calabria) where the French, com- \nmanded by general Regnier, were signally defeated \nby the British under major-general sir John Stuart, \n4*July, 1806. \n\nMAIDEN, see Guillotine. \n\nMAIDS OF HONOUR. Anne, daughter of \nFrancis II. duke of Brittany, and queen of Charles \nVIII. and Louis XII. of France (1483-98), had \nyoung and beautiful ladies about her person, called \nmaids of honour. The queen of Edward I. of \nEngland is said to have had four maids of honour \n(1272-1307) ; queen Victoria has eight. \n\nMAIDSTONE, Kent, a British town, anciently \ntermed the city of the Med way (Caer Meguaid), a \npossession of the archbishops ofi Canterbury in \n1086-7. It wa? chartered by several kings, from \nEdward VL to George II. The royalist Kentish \nmen were here defeated by Faixfax, 1648. The \narchbishop\'s palace was built in 1348. Maidstone, \nwhich previously sent two members to parliament, \nsince 1885 sends one. Population 1881, 29,263 ; \n1891, 32,150. \n\nMAIL-COACHES, for the conveyance of \nletters, were first set up at Bristol by Mr. John \nPalmer, of Bath, 2 Aug. 1784. They were employed \nfor other routes in 1785, and soonbecame general \nin England. The mails were first sent by rail in \n1838. \n\nMAILLOTINS (small mallets), a name given \nto certain citizens of Paris, who, in March, 1382, \nviolently opposed the collection of new taxes \nimposed by the duke of Anjou, the regent. They I \n\n\n\narmed themselves with small iron mallets (taken \nfrom the arsenal), and killed the collectors ; for \nwhich they were severely punished in Jan. 1383. \n\nMAIMING- AND WOUNDING, see Coventry \nAct. \n\nMAINTENANCE, see Barratry. \n\nMAIN PLOT, a name given to a conspiracy \nto make Arabella Stuart sovereign of England in \nplace of James I. in 1603. Lord Cobham, sir \nWalter Raleigh, and lord Grey, were condemned \nto death for implication in it, but reprieved ; others \nwere executed. Raleigh was executed, 29 Oct. \n1618. \n\nMAINE, 1, a province, N.W. of France, seized \nby William I. of England in 1069. It. acknowledged \nprince Arthur, 1199; was taken from John of \nEngland by Philip of France, 1204 ; was recovered \nby Edward III. in 1357 ; but given up, 1360. After \nvarious changes it was finally united to France by \nLouis XL in 1481. \xe2\x80\x94 2. MAINE (N. America), \nwas discovered by Cabot, 1497 ; and colonised by \nthe English 1630 et seq. ; it became a state of the \nunion in 1820. Capital Augusta. Population, 1880, \n648,936; 1890,661,086. The boundary line between \nthe British and the United States territories in \nMaine was settled by the Ashburton treaty, con- \ncluded 9 Aug. 1842. The Maine liquor law, pro- \nhibiting the manufacture, sale, and use of intoxi- \ncating drinks, with certain exceptions, was enacted \nin 185 1. In 1872, it was officially reported to have \ngreatfy decreased drunkenness and rendered the \ntrade disreputable. \n\nMAIWAND, Afghanistan, about 50 miles from \nCandahar. On 27 July, 1880, gen. J. Burrows marched \nfrom Kushk-i-Nakhud, and attacked the army of \nAyoob Khan, about 20,000 men, entrenched here on \nthe river Helmund, and after four hours\' severe \nconflict was compelled to retreat. About 300 of the \nBritish with many officers fell (including lieut.-col. \nGalbraith, major G. F. Blackwood, captains Garratt, \nMcMath, Cullen, Roberts, and others), especially \nofficers of the 66th regiment ; with about 700 of the \nnative troops killed or missing. The British com- \nmanders were censured. Ayoob Khan did not \nimprove his victory, and was totally defeated by \ngen. sir F. Roberts, 1 Sept. 1880. See Mazra. \n\nMAJESTY. Among the Romans, the emperor \nand imperial family were thus addressed, and also \nthe popes and the emperors of Germany. The \nstyle was given to Louis XI. of France in 1461. \nVoltaire. Upon Charles V. being chosen emperor \nof Germany in 15 19, the kings of Spain took the \nstyle. Francis I. of France, at the interview with \nHenry VIII. of England, on the Field of the Cloth \nof Gold, addressed the latter as Your Majesty, 1520. \nJames I. used the style "Sacred," and "Most \nExcellent Majesty." \n\nMAJOLICA WARE, see Pottery. \n\nMAJORCA, see Balearic Isles, and Minorca. \nMajorca opposed Philip V. of Spain in 1714 ; but \nsubmitted, 14 July, 17 15. Its first railway, from \nPalnia, capital of the Balearic isles, to Inca, 18 \nmiles, opened, 24 Feb. 1875. \n\nMAJUBA HILL (see Transvaal) . On Satur- \nday night, 26 Feb. 1881, above 600 men under sir \nGeorge P. Colley marching from the camp at Mount \nProspect, ascended Majuba hill overlooking Laing\'s \nNek, where the Boers were encamped, to surprise \nthem. The attack of the Boers began 10.30 a.m. of \nthe 27th. Fierce conflicts ensued ; eventually over- \nwhelmed by numbers and deadly fire, the British \nwere routed and fled. Sir George Colley fell with \n\n\n\nMAKALAKA. \n\n\n\n611 \n\n\n\nMALTA. \n\n\n\nhis face to the enemy. Boer loss about 150. About \n350 British engaged. Loss : killed, 3 officers and \nabout 82 men; many wounded, 122 prisoners, and \nsome missing. \n\nMAKALAKA, see Mashona. \n\nMALABAB (W. coast of Hindostan). The \nPortuguese established factories here in 1505 ; the \nEnglish did the same in 1601. \n\nMALACCA, on the Malay peninsula, E. Indies, \nsvas made a Portuguese settlement in 151 1. The \nDutch factories were established in 1640. The \nDutch government exchanged it for Bencoolen in \nSumatra in 1824, when it was placed under the \nBengal presidency. It is now part of the Straits \n\xe2\x96\xa0Settlements (which see). \n\nMALAGA (S. Spain), a Phoenician town, taken \nby the Arabs, 714 ; retaken by the Spaniards, after \na long siege, 1487; see Naval Battles, 1704. An \ninsurrection against the provisional government \nwas put down with much slaughter, 31 Dec. 1868. \nPopulation in 1887, 134,106. \n\nMALAKHOFF, a hill near Sebastopol, on \nwhich was situated an old tower, strongly fortified \nby the Prussians during the siege of 1854-55. T ne \nallied French and English attacked it on 17, 18 \nJune, 1855, and after a conflict of forty-eight hours \nwere repulsed with severe loss ; that of the English \nbeing 175 killed and 1126 wounded; that of the \nFrench 3338 killed and wounded. On 8 Sept. the \nFrench ag;iin attacked the Malakhoff; at eight \no\'clock the first mine was sprung, and at noon the \nFrench flag floated over the conquered redoubt ; see \nSebastopol. In the Malakhoff and Redan were found \n3000 pieces of cannon of every calibre, and 120,000 \nibs. of gunpowder. \n\nMALA VITA (evil life), the name of a secret \nsociety in south Italy ; the highest of its three grades \nis the Camorristi ; see Gamorra. \n\nMALAY AECHIPELAGO, see Moluccas, \nPhilippines, Straits, &c. \n\nMALDON (Essex), built 28 B.C., is supposed \nto have been the first Roman colony in Britain. \nIt was burnt by queen Boadicea, and rebuilt by the \nRomans; burnt by the Danes, a.d. 991, and rebuilt \nby the Saxons. Maldon was incorporated by Philip \nand Mary. Absorbed into the county, 1885. The \nsingular custom of Borough- English is Kept up \nhere, by which the youngest son, and not the \neldest, succeeds to the burgage tenure on his \nfather\'s death ; see Borough- English. \n\nMALEGNANO or MelegnANO, modern \nnames of Marignano {which see). \n\nMALICIOUS DAMAGES. The law re- \nspecting them was consolidated and amended by \n24 & 25 Vict. c. 97. This act protects works of art, \nelectric telegraphs, &c, 1861. \n\nMALINES, see Mechlin. \n\nMALLTSTS\' ACT, 20 & 21 Viet. c. 57, relating \nto the powers of women in regard to property, was \npassed in 1857. \n\nMALMESBUBY, Wiltshire, an old market- \ntown. The abbey, founded about 670, was several \ntimes destroyed by the Dane? and restored. Its \nchief was made a mitred abbot by Edward \nIII. Athelstan was buried in the abbey. Thomas \nHobbes, the philosopher, was born here, 5 April, \n1588. By the act of 1885, Malmesbury was disen- \nfranchised and absorbed into the county. Popula- \ntion, 1881, 3,176; 1891, 2,964. \n\n\n\nMALO, ST. (N.-W. France). This port, as a \ngreat resort of privateers, sustained a tremendous \nbombardment by the English under admiral Benbow \nin 1693, and under lord Berkeley in July, 1695. In \nJune, 1758, the British landed in considerable force \nin Cancalle bay, and went up to the harbour, \nwhere they burnt upwards of a hundred ships, and \ndid great damage to the town, making a number \nof prisoners. It is now defended by a very strong \ncastle, and the harbour is very difficult of access. \n\nMALO-JAEOSLAVITZ, near Moscow, cen- \ntral Russia : the site of severe encounters between \nthe Russians and the retreating French army, \n24 Oct. 1812. The latter were victorious, but with \ngreat loss. \n\nMALPLAQUET (N. France). Here the \nallies under the duke of Marlborough and prince \nEugene defeated the French, commanded by mar- \nshal Villars, 11 Sept. 1709. Each army consisted \nof nearly 120,000 choice soldiers. There was great \nslaughter on both sides, the allies losing 18,000 \nmen, which loss was but ill repaid by the capture of \nMons. \n\nMALT, barley prepared for brewing and distil- \nlation. A duty was laid upon malt in 1667 ; re- \npealed but reimposed 1697, et seq. Important acts \nfor the regulation of malt duties were passed in \n1830 and 1837. In March, 1858, there were 6157 \nlicensed maltsters in the United Kingdom. The \nduty on malt in 1863 amounted to 6,273,727/. \nIn 1864 the duty was remitted on malt used for \ncattle feeding; and in 1865, an act was passed \nallowing the excise duty to be charged according to \nthe weight of the grain used. A parliamentary \ncommittee to consider repeal of malt tax was agreed \nto, 14 Ma} r , 1867, without success ; a motion to \nrepeal the tax was negatived (244-17), 23 April, \n1874. Tax abolished, 1880 (when it was 2s. 8^d. a \nbushel). It ceased 1 Oct. 1880. \n\nRevenue from the malt duties : in the year ending 31 \nMarch, 1850, 5,391,322?. ;\xe2\x80\x94 1854, 5,418,4182. ;\xe2\x80\x94 1856, \n6,676,849?.; \xe2\x80\x94 1857 (tax reduced), 5,690,950?.; \xe2\x80\x94 1860, \n6,648,881?.;- 1862, 6,208,813?.; 1867, 6,816,385?.;\xe2\x80\x94 1871, \n6,978,37^-;\xe2\x80\x94 1872,6,910,366?. ;\xe2\x80\x94 1873, 7,544,175?.;\xe2\x80\x94 1877, \n8,040,378?.;\xe2\x80\x94 1878, 7,721,548?. \n\nMalt made and retained in the United Kingdom : in \n1825, 36,205,451 bushels ; in 1835, 42,892,012 ; in 1847, \n35.3\xc2\xb07> 8l 5; in 1857, 44,545,649; in 1861, 46,650,100; in \n1870, 56,775,614 ; in 1875, 63,015,676. \n\nMALTA (formerly Melita), an island in the \nMediterranean, held successively by the Phoeni- \ncians, Carthaginians, and Romans, which last con- \nquered it, 259 B.C. The apostle Paul was wrecked \nhere, a.d. 02. (Acts x\'xvii., xxviii.) Malta was \ntaken by the Vandals, 534; by the Arabs, 870; and \nby the Normans from Sicily, JO90. With Sicily it \nbecame successively part of the possessions of the \nhouses of Hohenstaufen, of Anjou (1266), and of \nAragon (1260). In 1530 Charles V. gave it to the \nKnights Hospitallers, who defended it most cou- \nrageously and successfully, in 1551 and 1565, against \nthe Turks, who were obliged to abandon the enter- \nprise after the loss of 30,000 men. The island was \ntaken by Bonaparte in the outset of his expedition \nto Egypt, 12 June, 1798. He found in it 1200 \npieces of cannon, 200,000 lbs. of powder, two ships \nof the line, a frigate, four galleys, and 40,000 mus- \nkets, besides an immense treasure collected bv \nsuperstition ; and 4500 Turkish prisoners, whom he \nset at liberty. Malta surrendered to the British \nunder Pigot, 5 Sept. 1800. At the peace of Amiens \nit was stipulated that it should be restored to the \nknights. The British, however, retained possession, \nand the war recommenced between the two nations ; \n\nR E 2 \n\n\n\nMALTA. \n\n\n\n612 \n\n\n\nMAN". \n\n\n\nbut by the treaty of Paris, in 1814, the island was \nguaranteed to Great Britain. A legislative con- \nstitution was established in 1849 ; and after various \nchanges was replaced by a more popular one pro- \nclaimed 22 Dec. 1887. La Valetta, the capital, \nwas founded in 1557 by the grand master \nLa Valetta, and completed and occupied by the \nknights, 18 Aug. 157 1. The Protestant college \nwas founded in 1846. A grand new naval dry dock \n\xe2\x80\xa2was opened, May, 187 1. Governor of Malta and \nGozo, sir Patrick Grant, March, 1867 ; sir C. T.Van \nStraubenzee, 1872 ; sir Arthur Borton, 1878 ; gen. \nsir John Lintorn A. Simmons, 1884; lt.-gen. sir \nHenry D\'Oyly Torrens, March, 1888, died 1 Dec. \n1889; lieut\'.-gen. sir H. A. Smyth, Dec. 1889 \xe2\x80\x94 \nThe visit of prince of Wales, 6 April, 1876. Great \nimmigration of destitute Europeans from Alexandria \n(see Egypt) middle June, 1882 ; about 2200, 6 July, \n1882. \' See Cholera. Population of Malta and ad- \njacent isles in 1890, 165,662. \nNegotiations respecting the Roman Catholics and \n\nmarriage laws concluded by sir J. L. Simmons ; \n\nsee under Pope, Leo XIII. ... 7 April, 1890 \nJubilee statue of the queen unveiled, 6 Aug. 1891, \n\nby lady Smyth. \n\nMALTA, KNIGHTS OF. A military religious \norder, called also Hospitallers of St. John of Jeru- \nsalem, Knights of St. John, and Knights of Rhodes. \nSome merchants of Main, trading to the Levant, \nobtained leave of the caliph of Egypt to build a \nhouse for those who came on pilgrimage to Jerusa- \nlem, and whom they received with zeal and charity, \n1048. They afterwards founded a hospital for the \nreception of pilgrims, from whence they were called \nHospitallers (Latin, hospes, a guest). The military \norder was founded about 1099; confirmed by the \npope, 1 1 13. In 1 1 19 the knights defeated the Turks \nat Antioch. After the Christians had lost their \ninterest in the East, and Jerusalem was taken, the \nknights retired to Acre, which they defended \nvaliantly in 1290. John, king of Cyprus, gave \nthem Limisso in his dominions, where they stayed \ntill 13 10, in which year they took Bhodes, under \ntheir grand master De Vallaret, and the next year \ndefended it under the duke of Savoy against an \narmy of Saracens. The story that his successors \nhave used F. E. E. T. (Fortitudo ejus Rhodum \ntenuit, or his valour kept Bhodes) for their device \nis much doubted. From this they were also called \nknights of Rhodes; but Rhodes being taken by \nSolyman in 1522, they retired into Candia, thence \ninto Sicily. Pope Adrian YI. granted them the \ncity of Viterbo for their retreat; and in 1530 the \nemperor Charles V. gave them the isle of Malta. \nThe order was suppressed in England in 1540; re- \nstored in 1557; and again suppressed in 1559. St. \nJohn\'s Gate, Clerkenwell, a relic of their possessions, \nstill exists. The emperor Paul of Russia declared \nhimself grand master of the order in June, 1799. \nAfter the death of the grand master, Tommasi di \nContara, in 1805, the order was governed by a lieu- \ntenant and a college at Rome, till Pope Leo XIII. \nmade count Ceschi a Santa Cisce (lieutenant since \n14 Feb. 1871) grand master, 28 March, 1879. The \nknights sent a hospital establishment into Bohemia \nduring the war in 1866. which afforded great relief \nto the wounded and sick. \n\nMAMELON, a hill, one of the defences of \nSebastopol, was captured by the French, 7 June, \n1855- \n\nMAMELUKES, originally Turkish and Cir- \ncassian slaves, established by the sultan of Egypt as \na body-guard, about 1240. They advanced one of \ntheir own corps to the throne of Egypt, May, 1250, \n\n\n\nand continued to do so until it became a Turkish \nprovince, in 1517, when the beys took them into pay, \nand filled up their ranks with renegades from \nvarious countries. On the conquest of Egypt by \nBonaparte, in 1798, they retreated into Nubia;- but, \nassisted by the Arnauts, reconquered Egypt from \nthe Turkish government. In 1804, Napoleon em- \nbodied some of them in his guard. On 1 Marchi, \n1811, they were decoyed into the power of the- \nTurkish pacha, Mehemet Ali, and slain at Cairo. \n\nMAMERTINI, sons of Mamers or Mars, were- \nCampanian soldiers of Agathocles. They seizeds \nMessina in Sicily, in 281, B.C., and when closely- \nbesieged by the Carthaginians, and Hiero of Syra- \ncuse, in 264, they implored the help of the Romansy \nwhich led to the first Punic war. \n\nMAMMOTH, an extinct species of elephant. \nAn entire mammoth, flesh and bones, was dis- \ncovered in Siberia, in 1799. Remains of this \nanimal have since been found at Harwich, in 1803, \nand at places in Europe, Asia, and America. \n\nMAN, ANTIQUITY OF. In 1836, M. Boucher \nde Perthes found some rude flint implements, \nwhich he believed to be of human manufacture, \nmingled with bones of extinct animals, in the old) \nalluvium near Abbeville in Picardy, France, and also- \nin 1847, near Amiens. Similar flints have since been \nfound in Sicily by Dr. Falconer, at Brixham by \nMr. Pengelly, and lately in various parts of the \nworld. Hence many geologists infer that man ex- \nisted on the earth many ages earlier than has beem \nhitherto believed. \n\nSome burnt bricks found in the Nile are considered \n\nto be 20,000 years old, and some bones found in \n\nlacustrine deposits in Florida, 30,000 years old. \n\nThe " Engis skull" found by Schmerling in the \n\nvalley of the Meuse about 1834 \n\nFossil human remains found in extinct volcanos of \n\nSt. Denis, near Puy en Velay .... 1844 \nA human jaw said to have been found in the drift \n\nat Moulin Quignon, near Abbeville . March, 1863 \nSir Charles Lyell\'s "Antiquity of Man" was pub- \nlished in 1863 (4th edition, 1873), and sir John \nLubbock\'s " Prehistoric Times," 1865 (4th ed. 1878)* \nThe skeleton of a man supposed to have been a con- \ntemporary of the mammoth and cave-bear was \nfound with polished flint implements by M. \nRiviere in the Cavillin cavern, near Mentone, \n26 March, 1872. Mr. W. Pengelly went to exa- \nmine these remains. \n" The Ancient Stone Implements, Weapons, and Or- \nnaments of Great Britain," by John Evans, F.R.S., \npublished, July, 1872 ; and his "Ancient Bronze \nImplements, Weapons, &c." published. May, i88e \n" In our day the quaternary mail is a fact univer- j \nsally accepted ; but the tertiary man is a pro-- \nblem under discussion." \xe2\x80\x94 Virchow . . . 1877 \n\nMAN, ISLE OF, was subdued by Edwin, king \nof Northumberland, about 620 ; by Magnus of Nor- \nway, 1098 ; by the Scots, 1266 ; occupied by Edward \nat thewish of the inhabitants 1290; recovered by the \nScots in 13 13 ; but taken from them by Montacute, \nafterwards earl of Salisbury, to whom Edward III. \ngave the title of king of Man, in 1343. It was \nafterwards subjected to the earl of Northumber- \nland, on whose attainder Henry IV. granted it in \nfee to sir John Stanley, 1406. It was taken from \nthis family by Elizabeth, but was restored in 1610 \nto the earl of Derby, through whom it fell by in- \nheritance to the duke of Athol, 1735. He received \n70,000/. from parliament for all his rights in \n1765; and the nation was charged with the further \nsum of 132,944/. for the purchase of his remaining \ninterest in the revenues of the island in Jan. 1829. \nThe countess of Derby held the isle against the \nparliament forces for a time in 165 1. The new \n\n\n\nMANASSAS JUNCTION. \n\n\n\n613 \n\n\n\nMANCHESTEE. \n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2queen\'s landing pier (cost 46,400^.) inaugurated \n\xe2\x80\xa2by the lieut. governor, H. B. Loch, 1 July, 1872. \nAct relating to the harbours and coasts, passed June, \n1872 The first railway (from Douglas to Peel) \nopened, 1 July, 1873. Population, 1871, 54,042 ; in \n;88i, 53,558; 1891, 55,598. Revenue, 1889-90, \n63,824^., expenditure, 57,947/. Proposed reform of \nthe house of keys, Dee. 1886 ; partly negatived, \n26 Jan. 1887. .New Customs Act passed in 1887. \nThe Bishopric is said to have been presided over \nby Amphibalus about 360. Some assert that St. \nPatrick was the founder of the see, and that Ger- \nmanus was the first bishop, about 447. It was \nunited to Sodor in 1 1 13. The bishop has no seat in \nthe house of lords; but lord Auckland (bishop, \n1847-54) sat by right of his barony. Present \nincome, 2000 1. \nThe foundation stone of the Eiffel tower at Douglas \n\nlaid by the earl of Lathom ... 23 Oct. 1890 \nAccording to custom, five bills, which had received \nthe royal assent, one for the re-distribution of \nseats in the house of Keys, were promulgated to \nthe legislature, in the open air, by the lieut.- \ngovernor, Spencer Walpole . . 30 March, 1891 \n\nRECENT BISHOPS OF SODOR AND MAN. \n\nE784. Claudius Crigan: died in 1813. \n\n1813. George Murray, trans, to Rochester, 1827. \n\n1828. William Ward ; died in 1838. \n\n1838. James Bowstead, trans, to Lichfield, Dec. 1839. \n\n1840. Henry Pepys, trans, to Worcester, 1841. \n\n1841. Thos. Vowler Short, trans, to St. Asaph, 1846. \n\n1846. Walter Augustus Shirley ; died in 1847. \n\n1847. John Eden (lord Auckland), trans, to Bath, 1854. \n1854. Hon. Horatio Powys ; died 31 May, 1877. \n\n1877. Rowley Hill, consecrated 24 Aug ; died. 27 May, \n\n1887. \nr887. John Wareing Bardsley ; translated to Carlisle, \n\nDec. 1 89 1. \n1891. Norman D. J. Straton, Dec. \nRecent lieut. -governors : H. B. Loch, 1863; Spen- \nder Walpole, 1882. \n\nMANASSAS JUNCTION (Virginia, United \nS>\'ates), an important military position, where the \nAlexandria and Manassas Gap railways meet, near \na creek named Bull Run. I. It was held by the \nconfederates in 1861, when they were attacked by \nthe federal general Irwin McDowell. He began \nhis march from Washington on 16 July, and gained \nsome advantage on the 18th at Centreville. On \nthe 21st was fought the^V.s^ battle of Bull Run. \nThe federals, who began the fight, had the advan- \ntage till about ttiree o\'clock p.m., when the con- \nfederate general Johnston brought up reinforcements, \nwhich at first the federals took for their own troops. \nAfter a brief resistance, the latter were seized with \nsudden panic, and, in spite of the utmost efforts of \ntheir officers, fled, abandoning a large quantity of \narms, ammunition, and baggage. The confederate \ngenerals Johnston and Beauregard did not think it \nprudent to pursue the fugitives, who did not halt \ntill they arrived at Washington. The federal army \nis said to have had 481 killed, ion wounded, \n12 16 missing. The loss of the confederates was stated \nto be about 1500. -In March, 1862, when the army \nof the Potomac, under general McClellan, inarched \ninto Virginia, they found that the confederates had \nquietl)* retreated from the camp at Manassas. 2. On \n30 Aug. 1862, this place was the site of another great \nbattle between the northern and southern armies. \nIn August, general "Stonewall" Jackson, after \ncompelling the federal general Tope to retreat, de- \nfeated him at Cedar mountain on the 9th, turned \nhis flank on the 22nd, and arriving at Manassas \nrepulsed his attacks on the 29th. On the 30th \ngeneral 11. E. Lee (who had defeated general \nMcClellan and the invading northern army before \nRichmond, 26 June to 1 July) joined Jackson with \n\n\n\nhis army, and Pope received reinforcements from \nWashington. A desperate conflict ensued, which \nended in the confederates gaining a decisive victory, \ncompelling the federals to a hasty retreat to Centre- \nville, where they were once more routed, 1 Sept. The \nremains of their arm}\' took refuge behind the lines \nof Washington on 2 Sept. Pope was at once super- \nseded, and McClellan resumed the command to \nmarch against the confederates, who had crossed \nthe Potomac and entered Maryland; see United \nStates. \n\nMANCHESTER (Lancashire), in the time of \nthe Druids, was one of their most principal stations, \nand had the privilege of sanctuary attached to its \naltar, in the British language Meyne, a stone. It \nwas one of the seats of the Brigantes, who had a \ncastle, or stronghold, called Mancenion, or the place \nof tents, near the confluence of the rivers Medlock \nand Irwell. \'1 he site of this, still called the \n"Castle Field," was, about 79, selected by the Ro- \nmans as the station of the Conors Prima Frisiorwn, \nand called by them Mancunium ; hence its Saxon \nname Manceastre, from which its modern appella- \ntion is derived. Lewis. See under Population. \nMancenion taken from the Britons . . . . 488 \nCaptured by Edwin of Northumbria . . . 620 \n\nThe inhabitants become Christians . . about 627 \nThe town taken by the Danes, 870 ; retaken . . 92^ \nThe charter (Magna Charta of Manchester), 14 May, 1301 \n" Manchester cottons " introduced .... 1352 \n\nThe church made collegiate 1421 \n\nFree grammar-school founded 1516 \n\nPrivilege of sanctuary moved to Chester . about 1541 \nAn aulnager (measurer) stationed here . . . 1565 \nSir Thomas Fairfax takes the town . . . . 1643 \nThe walls and fortifications razed .... 1652 \nCheetham college, or Blue-coat hospital, founded 1653 \nTumult raised by " Syddall, the barber," afterwards \n\nhanged 171 5 \n\nPrince Charles Edward, the Young Pretender, \nmakes it his quarters .... 28 Nov. 1745 \n\nQueen\'s theatre first built 1753 \n\nThe Infirmary instituted, 1752 ; built . . . 1755 \nThe inhabitants discharged from their obligation to \n\ngrind their corn at Irk-mill 1759 \n\nCotton goods first exported 1760 \n\nManchester navigation opened, by Bridgewater \n\ncanal 1761 \n\nLunatic asylum founded 1765 \n\nAgricultural society instituted 1767 \n\nChristian, king of Denmark, visits Manchester, and \n\nputs up at the Bull-inn 1768 \n\nTue Queen\'s theatre rebuilt 1775 \n\nSubscription concerts established .... 1777 \nRiots against machinery . ... 9 Oct. 1779 \nManufacture of muslin attempted here . about 1780 \nPhilosophical society established . . . . 1781 \n\nNew Bailey bridge completed 1785 \n\nQueen\'s theatre burnt down, 19 June, 1789 ; re- \nerected . . 1790 \n\nNew Bailey built \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAssembly-rooms, Mosley-street, built . . . . 1792 \n\nPhilological Society instituted 1803 \n\nFever hospital erected, 1805 ; Theatre-royal . . 1806 \n\nThe portico erected , \n\nThe weavers\' riot 24 May, 1S08 \n\nExchange and Commercial buildings erected, Jan. 1809 \nManchester and Salford water-works established . ,, \n\nBlanketeers\' meeting 4 Nov. 1817 \n\nLock-hospital established 1819 \n\nManchester reform meeting (called Peterloo) of from \n60,000 to 100,000 persons, men, women, and chil- \ndren. Mr. Hunt, who took the chair, had spoken \na few words, when the meeting was suddenly as- \nsailed by a charge of cavalry, assisted by a \nCheshire regiment of yeomanry, the outlets being \noccupied by other military detachments. The \nunarmed multitude were driven upon each other ; \nmany were ridden over by the horses, or cut down \nby their riders. The deaths were n, men, \nwomen, and children, and the wounded about 600 \n\n16 Aug. ,, \nNew Brunswick-bridge built .... 18.20 \n\n\n\nMANCHESTER. \n\n\n\n614 \n\n\n\nMANCHESTER. \n\n\n\nChamber of commerce established .... 1820 \n\nLaw library founded \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNatural History society projected .... 1S21 \n\nNew Quay company founded 1822 \n\nDeaf and Dumb school instituted .... 1823 \n\nRoyal Institution formed ,, \n\nFloral and Horticultural society established . . ,, \n\nMechanics\' institution founded 1824 \n\nMusical festival first held 1828 \n\nAt the launch of a vessel which keeled and upset, \nupwards of 200 persons precipitated into the \n\nriver ; 51 perished 29 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nIn a tumult, a factory burnt, and much machinery \n\ndestroyed 3 May, 1829 \n\nNew concert-room established , \n\nThe races established 1830 \n\nManchester and Liverpool railway opened \xe2\x80\x94 Mr. \n\nHuskisson killed (see Liverpool) . 15 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nManchester made a parliamentary borough (2 mem- \nbers) by Reform act . . . .7 June, 1832 \n\nChoral society established 11833 \n\nStatistical society formed (the first in England), \n\n2 Sept. ,, \nChurch-rate refused .... 3 Sept. 1834 \n\nManchester incorporated, by Municipal Reform act 1835 \nManchester and Leeds railway act passed . . . 1836 \n\nGeological Society instituted 1838 \n\nCharter of incorporation . . . .2360! \nManchester police act .... 26 Aug. 1839 \nGreat disorders in the midland counties among \n\nartisans : they extend to this town . . Aug. 1842 \nBritish Association meet here . . .23 June, \nGreat free-trade meetings held here (see Com Laws) \n\n14 Nov. 1843 \nImportant meeting held at the Athenaeum (see \n\nAthenceum) 3 Oct. 1844 \n\nGreat anti-corn law meeting, at which 64,984?. were \n\nsubscribed in four hours ... 23 Dee. 1845 \nThe Queen\'s-park, Peel-park, and Philip\'s-park, \n\nopened Aug. 1846 \n\nManchester made a bishopric . . 10 Aug. 184- \n\nOpening of Owens collegiate institution, to which \n\nJohn Owens bequeathed 100,000?. . 10 March, 1851 \n\nThe Queen\'s visit to Manchester . . .7 Oct. \nGreat meeting in the Free-trade hall, to greet M. \n\nKossuth ZI ]Sf v. \n\nThe engineers\' strike ... 3 Jam-26 April! 1852 \nThe Guild of Literature entertained at a banquet by \n\nthe citizens 3I Aug. \n\nOpening of the Free library . . . . 2 Sept " \nGreat Free-trade banquet ... 2 Nov. \nManchester declared to be a city, and formally so \n\ngazetted x g April, 1853 \n\nGreat strike of minders and piecers . . 7 Nov. 1855 \nExhibition of Art Treasures determined on, 20 \n\xe2\x80\xa2 May, 1856 ; 1115 old paintings, 689 new paintings, \n969 water-colours, 388 British portraits, &c. col- \nlected ; opened by prince Albert, 5 May ; visited \nby the Queen, 29, 30 June; visited by 1,335,915 \npersons; expenses, 99,500?., receipts, 98,500?.; \n\nclosed I? Oct. 1857 \n\nSir John Potter, a benefactor to the town, died \n\n-r, ,.\xe2\x96\xa0,.. ,. . 2 5 Oct. 1858 \n\nBritish Association meet here (2nd time), 4 Sept. 1861 \nGreat county meeting ; 130,000?. subscribed to the \n\nLancashire Relief fund 2 Dec 1862 \n\nMeeting of the Church Congress . . 13-15 Oct\' 1S63 \nGreat Reform meeting ; Mr. Bright there. 24 Sept.\' 1866 \nManchester Education bill committee appointed \nAdditional M.P. granted by Reform act 15 Aug! 1867 \nMeeting of Manchester and Liverpool agricultural \n\nsociety Au \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTrades\' Unions commission opened ; evidence ob- \' \n\ntained of gross outrages . . . 3 . 2 , Sevt \n\nTwo Fenians, Kelly and Deasy, forcibly taken from \' \n\na police-van, near Manchester, and Brett a \n\npoliceman killed j3 gg,^ \n\n23 persons committed for trial ; trial, \'29 Oct -12 " \nNov. ; five condemned to death for murder 1 \nNov. ; others to imprisonment ; Allen, Gould \nand Larkin executed ... 23 Nov\' \n\nJacob Bright elected M.P. (Lily Maxwell, \'a widow\' " \n\nvoted for him) z6 Nov \' \n\nFalse alarm of fire at Lang\'s music-hall, 23 killed, \' \n\nNew town-hall founded .... \\V00t\' ^ \nManchester Reciprocity Association founded, Sept.\' i860 \n\n3, 4 Nov. ,, \n\n\n\nNational Education Union meet . \n\n\n\nBishop James Prince Lee died, 24 Dec. 1869 ; suc- \nceeded by James Fraser .... Jan. 1870 \nAlexandra- park (provided by the corporation) \n\nopened 6 Aug. ,, \n\nOwens college new buildings founded . 23 Sept. ,, \nGrammar school : additional building opened by \n\nearl of Derby 25 Oct. 1871 \n\nVisit of Mr. Disraeli; enthusiastically received, \n\n2-5 April, 1872 \nThe library at the Athenaeum burnt . 24 Sept. 1873 \nProposal to rebuild the cathedral by subscription, \n\nspring, 1874. \nAthenaeum lecture- rooms opened by lord chief just. \n\nCockburn, the marquis of Salisbury, &c. 22 Jan. 1875 \nHumphry Nichols, who had given about ioojoooL \n\nto public charities, died ... 31 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nStatue of Cromwell (by M. Noble) gift of Mrs. \n\nAbel Heywood, uncovered . . .1 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nRev. Thos. Middleton bequeaths 14,000?. to Royal \n\nInfirmary May, 1876 \n\nProposal to make Owens college a university, July, ,, \nDeath of sir Elkanah Armitage, a great benefactor \n\n26 Nov. ,, \nNew town-hall opened, by Mr. Abel Heywood, the \n\nmayor 13 Sept. 1877 \n\nOwens college made the nucleus of Victoria Univer- \nsity (which see) . . . July, 1880 \nNew school of art opened by the earl of Derby, \n\n27 April, 1883 \nVisit of the dukes of Edinburgh and Albany 12 Dee. \xe2\x80\x9e \nFormation of a ship canal by junction of the Mersey \nand Irwell ; Mr. William\'s plan approved about \n\n26 Sept. 1882 \nFine art and industrial exhibition opened . 20 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nFire at Messrs. Wilkinson and Hodgkinson\'s, about \n\n100,000?. damage 17 Nov. ,, \n\nNew fine art gallery opened . . . 31 Aug. 1883 \n\nEdmund Potter, manufacturer and benefactor of \nthe city, died aged 81 . . . .26 Oct. ,, \n\nThree great meetings to support the government \nand the franchise bill . . . . 26 July, 1884 \n\nGreat conservative demonstration, present the \nmarquis of Salisbury, sir R.Cross, lord Randolph \nChurchill, and others . . .... 9 Aug. ,, \n\nManchester Geographical Society established Jan. 1885 \nManchester returns six M. P. \'s by act passed 25 June, ,, \nRoyal Jubilee Exhibition of manufactures, science, \nand art opened by the prince and princess of \nWales, 3 May ; closed .... 10 Nov. 1887 \n\n[4,765,137 .persons admitted ; receipts about \n250,000?. The surplus over 43,000?. given to \nthe Manchester Whitworth Institute, Dec. \n1889.] \nSir Joseph Whitworth\'s trustees propose the estab- \nlishment of the Whitworth Institute of Art and \n\nIndustry May, 1888 \n\nPrince Albert Victor opens Birchfield recreation \n\ngrounds and lads\' club ... 20 Oct. ,, \n\nManchester new college, transferred to Oxford, \n\nopened .25 Oct. 1889 \n\nThe Manchester Whitworth Institute chartered, \nNov. 1889 ; inaugurated by the marquis of Har- \nrington 17 July, 1890 \n\nThe Queen\'s theatre burnt . . . 17 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nMessrs. Holland\'s cotton mill burnt, estimated \nloss, 120,000?. ..... 17 Aug. ,, \n\nStatue of Mr. John Bright unveiled by the earl of \n\nDerby 10 Oct. i8gr \n\nEarl Spencer installed chancellor of the Victoria \nuniversity 25 May, 1892: \n\nManchester ship canal act (with conditions) passed \nJuly, 1885 ; company formed, proposed capital \n8,000,000?. Oct. 1885. To hold property of Bridge- \nwater Navigation Company ; to occupy about \n7,500 square miles. Contract for work taken by \nLucas and Aird for 5,750,000?. July ; execution of \nthe scheme suspended through non-subscription \nof capital announced 24 July, 1886 ; first sod cut \nat Eastham by lord Egerton of Tatton 1 1 Nov. \n1887 ; satisfactory progress in the work reported, \nabout one third done .... June, 188a \n\nMr. J. A. Walker, the contractor, dies 25 Nov. ; \nprogress retarded by the bursting of the Mersey \nbank at Statham 7 Nov. 1890 \n\nWater of the Mersey first admitted into the East- \nham section of the canal, 18, 19 June, 1891. \nCollapse of part of the embankment near the \n\n\n\nMANCHESTER. \n\n\n\n615 \n\n\n\nMANIPUR. \n\n\n\nEastham section ; new embankment quickly con- \nstructed, i2 July ; the first flotilla of traffic from \nEllesmere port passed down the ship canal into \n\nthe Mersey 16 July, 1891 \n\nThrough the error of a pointsman, George Pratt, \naged 16, a train of carriages conveying rock debris \nand soil was precipitated down an embankment \n60 feet deep, killing 10 men at supper below ; 6 \nmen on the train leaped from it and thus escaped, \n\nabout 1 a.m 18 July, ,, \n\nAmount expended, 10,359,597^ up to . 1 Aug. ,, \nThe Manchester Corporation lent 3,000,000?., 1891 ; \n1,500,000?. more required .... Aug. 1892 \n\nMANCHESTER, Bishopric of. An order \n\nin council in Oct. 1838, declared that the sees of \nSt. Asaph and Bangor should be united on the next \nvacancy in either, and that the bishopric of Man- \nchester should be immediately created within the \njurisdiction of the archiepiscopal see of York; the \ncounty of Lancaster for that purpose to be detached \nfrom Chester. By act 10 Vict. (1847) the sees of \nSt. Asapli and Bangor were to exist undisturbed, \nand that of Manchester was to be created. \n\nBISHOPS. \n\n1847. James Prince Lee ; died 24 Dec. 1869. \n1870. James Fraser, Jan. 1870 ; died 22 Oct. 1885. \n1886. James Moorhouse, D.D. (bishop of Melbourne,), \nJan. \n\nMANDALAY, see Burmah. \n\nMANER.U, near Puente de la Reyna Navarre. \nHere took place a conflict between the republicans, \nunder Moriones, and the Carlists, under Otto ; both \nclaimed a victory ; 6 Oct. 1873. The Carlists were \nconsidered to have the advantage. \n\nMANGANESE. Black oxide of manganese, \nlong used to decolorise glass, and called Magnesia \nnigra, was formerly included among the ores of iron. \nIts distinctive character was proved by the re- \nsearches of Pott (1740), Kaim and Winter! (1770), \nand Scheele and Bergmann (1774) > ^ was nr8 t \neliminated by Gahn. Manganese combined with \npotassium is called mineral chameleon, trom its \nrapid change of colour under certain circumstances. \nForehammer employed it as a test for the presence \nof organic matter in water ; and Dr. Angus Smith, \nsuccessfully applied this test to air in 1858. The \noxide is the important ingredient in Condy\'s "dis- \ninfecting fluid." Manganese bronze, a new metal \nproduced by Mr. P. M. Parsons, inventor of white \nbrass, 1876. Manganese steel produced by Messrs. \nPfeil & Co. 1887. \n\nMANICA, a territory in S. Africa in Mashona- \nland, near Mozambique, which on account of its \nmines, the Portuguese vainly endeavoured to \nacquire in the 16th century. See Zambesi. \nThe territory was acknowledged to be under the influ- \nence of Portugal by the convention of Aug. 1890. \n\nMANICHEANS, a sect founded by Manes, \nin Persia, about 261. It spread into Egypt, Arabia, \nand Africa. A rich widow, whose servant Manes \nhad been, left him much wealth, after which he as- \nsumed the title of Apostle, or envoy of Jesus \nChrist, and announced that he was the paraclete \nor comforter that Christ had promised to send. He \nmaintained two principles, the one good he called \nlight, the other bad he called darkness. He re- \njected the Old Testament, and composed a system of \ndoctrine from Christianity and the dogmas of the \nancient fire-worshippers. Sapor, king of Persia, \nbelieved in him at one time ; but afterwards \nbanished him. He was burnt alive by Bahrain or \nVaranes, king of Persia, in 277. His followers \ndispersed, and several sects sprang from them. \n\n\n\nMANILLA (built about 1573), capital of the \nPhilippine isles, a great mart of Spanish commerce. \nManilla was taken by the English, 6 Oct. 1762, \nwhen the archbishop engaged to ransom it for about \na million sterling; never wholly paid. Manilla \nhas suffered greatly by earthquakes. It is stated \nthat nearly 3000 persons perished by one in 1645. \nIn Sept. 1852, the city was nearly destroyed, and \non 3 July, 1863, about a thousand lives were lost. \nThe duke of Edinburgh was hospitably entertained \nhere, 19 Nov. 1869. See Earthquakes 1852, 1863, \n1880. Destructive typhoon, 20, 21 Oct. 1882. \n\nMANIPUR (Manipore), a small native state, \nN.E. India, adjoining Assam and Burmah; popula- \ntion, 1881,221,070; army about 5,000. \nThe state has long been protected by the British from \ntheattacks of the Burmese. In 1834, Gumbheer Singh, \nthe restored rajah, died, and was succeeded by his \nson, Chandra Kirti Sing, two years old. The regent, \nNar Singh, a relative, usurped the government, and \nruled till his death in 1850, when the young rajah was \nrestored ; a British resident being afterwards p\'a.\'ed in \nthe capital, with good effect. Much trouble was giv( n \nby rival members of his family till 1866 ; he died in \n1885 or 1886. He left eight sons, who formed opposirg \nparties. The eldest. Sura Chandra Singh, Lecan.e \nmaharajah, and appionted his eldest brother, Kula \nChandra Dhuya Singh, jubraj, or heir-ap parent, after- \nwards termed regent, a weak, incapable man. In Sept. \n1890, his brother, Takendrajil Singh, the senaputti, or \ncommander-in-chief, dethroned the maharajah and set \nup the jubraj in his place. The maharajah retired to \nCalcutta. \nOn 21 Feb. 1891, Mr. James W. Quinton, chief commis- \nsioner of Assam, was directed to proceed with a \nsufficient force to Manipur, to recognise the regent, \nand to remove the senaputti. He entered Manipur \n22 March, with 470 men and officers, civil and \nmilitary, and was well received by the regent and \nthe senaputti, but could not succeed in getting \nthe latter to attend a durbar or court. Mr. Quin- \nton as an ultimatum required the surrender of \nthe senaputti, the letter being taken by Mr. F. St \nC. Grimwood, political agent, without any result, 23 \nMarch. On the 24th, colonel Skene proceeded with \n250 men to arrest the senaputti at his house within \nthe fort inchisure, of which they obtained possession \nafter a sharp struggle, during which lieut. Bracken- \nbury was mortally wounded. The senaputti had \nescaped. About 10 a.m., the Manipuris opened fire \non the residency in front, and about noon on the rear, \nand shelled it. About 4 p.m. the troops were with- \ndrawn from the senaputti\'s house, and all the force \nwas posted in the residency, which was seriously \ndamaged by artillery about 5 p.m., and the ammuni- \ntion began to fall short. About 7 p.m. negotiations \nwere re-opened by letter from Mr. Quinton, and the \nfiring ceased, but the conditions offered by the regent \ncould not be accepted. Having been invited by the \nsenaputti halfway between the residency and the \npalace, Mr. Quinton took with him colonel Skene, \nMr. F. St. C. Grimwood, Mr. H. Cossins, an I lieut. \nSimpson, unarmed, and without escort. After a long \nparley, the party entered the fort and were seen no \nmore, and it was afterwards discovered that they \nwere all killed (beheaded or otherwise). The tiring \nre-commenced about midnight. The ammunition \nhaving been greatly reduced, it was decided to retire \nfrom the residency, and to march across the country \nto meet captain Cowley\'s advancing party. This was \ndone about 2 a.m. on the 25th, the party taking with \nthem 17 wounded, and Mrs. Grimwood, who displayed \nmuch judgment, courage, and humanity. There was \nno serious resistance during the march, but a few \nskirmishes occurred. About 10 a.m. they nut captain \nCowley\'s party, who supplied them with food and \nother assistance. They continued their march, ar- \nriving, mi 30 March, atLakhipuron the Cachar frontier. \nLieut. C. J. W. Grant hearing, on 27 March, of the \ndisaster at Manipur, volunteered to attempt the relief \nof the British captives, and marched with So native \nsoldiers from Tainu in Burmah, 28 March; entrenched \nhimself near Thobal, 31 March; held out against the \nattacks of the Manipuri army (about 3,000) till 7 \n\n\n\nMANITOBA. \n\n\n\n616 \n\n\n\nMANSION-HOUSE. \n\n\n\nApril ; and resisted negotiations judiciously ; \n\nonly i killed. \n\n[Lieut. Grant was made major and otherwise \n\nhonoured.] \n\nAbout 2,000 Manipuris, entrenched near Tamu, \n\nattacked and disperse 1 by general Graham\'s \n\nparty, captain Drury being especially successful, \n\n25 April ; three columns under gen. Graham, and \nothers from different directions converge at \nManipur, which they find totally deserted, the \nregent, senaputti, and other princes having fled, \n\n26 April ; the palace had been blown up ; the \nheads of Mr. Quinton and his companions were \nfound in the enclosure. \n\nFuneral ceremony was held over the exhumed bodies \nof Mr. Quinton and his companions, 30 April ; \ngeneral Collett was left in command at Manipur, \nsome of the troops left. The Manipuris returned \nto their homes, May ; the regent and his minister \nwere captured, 8 May, and the senaputti, \n\nabout 23 May, 1891 \n\nThe regent, the senaputti, and prince Angao Sena, \na younger brother, were tried for rebellion and \nabetting to murder, and sentenced to death (all \nappealed) 9-20 June, ,, \n\nThe sentences of death on the senaputti and the \nTongal general, as implicated in the murders, \nwere confirmed. The sentences on the regent \nand his younger brother commuted to transporta- \ntion for life to the Andaman Islands ; forfeiture \nof property, announced 10 Aug. The senaputti \nand the Tongal general hanged at Manipur, \n\n13 -A-Ug- ,, \n\nIt was decided that Manipur should still be ruled \nby a native prince, 23 Aug. ; and Chura Chand, \n.aged 5, great grandson of Nar Singh, was appointed \nrajah, 13 Sept. ; dignity to be hereditary, subject \nto the government of India ; an annual tribute to \nbe paid ; declaration communicated . . Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\'The young prince was invested with a dignity, \n\n29 April, 1892 \n\nMANITOBA, see Rupert- s Land and Hudson\' s \nBay (N. America). Manitoba was made a part of \nthe confederation in 1870. Capital, Winnipeg. \nPopulation, 1886, 108,640 ; 1891,154,442. Lieut.- \ngov., John C. Schultz. A ienian attack on the \n.colony was suppressed by American troops about \n12 Oct. 1871. For insurrection in the neighbouring \nprovinces in March, 1885, see Canada. For the \nRed Iliver Railway disputes see Canada, Oct. 1888. \n\nMANNHEIM (S. Germany), founded in 1606, \nbecame the court residence of the palatine of the \nRhine in 17 19 ; but his becoming elector of Bavaria \nin 1777 caused the removal of the court to Munich. \nMannheim surrendered to the French, under com- \nmand of general Pichegru, 20 Sept. 1795. On 31 \nOct. the Austrians under general Wurmser defeated \nthe French near the city. Several battles were \nfought with various success in the neighbourhood \nduring the wars of Napoleon I. Kotzebue,the popu- \nlar dramatist, was assassinated at Mannheim, by \nSand, a student of Wurtzburg, 2 April, 1819. Popu- \nlation, 1890, 79 044. \n\nMANOMETER (Greek, manos, thin), an in- \nstrument for measuring the rarity of the atmo- \nsphere, gases, and vapours. One is said to have \nbeen made by Otto von Guericke about 1660, and \nthe "statical barometer" of Robert Boyle was \na simple manometer. Various forms of the appara- \ntus were devised by Ramsden (about 1773), DV R\xc2\xb0 v \n(1777), by Cazalet (1789), and by Bourdon and \nothers. A manometer was constructed for the in- \nvestigation respecting the elasticity of steam con- \nducted by Prony, Arago, Dulong, and Girard, 1830. \n\nMANOBS are as ancient as the Saxon times, \nand imply a territorial district with its jurisdiction, \nrights, and perquisites. They were formerly called \nbaronies, and still are lordships. Each lord was \nempowered to hold a court called the court-baron \n\n\n\nfor redressing misdemeanors, and settling disputes \nbetween the tenants. Cabinet Lawyer. \n\nMANSFIELD COLLEGE, Oxford, for the \nstudy of Nonconformist theology opened in tempo- \nrary rooms 19 Oct. 1886. The new college solemnly \nopened, 14 Oct. 1889. \n\nMANSION-HOUSE, London. The resi- \ndence of the lord mayor. It is situate at the east \nend of the Poultry on the site of the ancient Stocks- \nmarket. It was built of Portland stone by George \nDance the elder, 1739-53 > repaired and redecorated, \n1867-68 ; see Mayor. \n\nAttempt to blow up part of Mansion- House ; a box \nof gunpowder (40 lbs.) discovered in a window, \neast side, about 11 p.m. 16 March, 1881 ; again, \n\n12 May, 18.82 \n\nVisited by the queen, after opening the People\'s\' \n\nPalace 14 May, 1887 \n\nMansion-House Funds : \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nFrench Relief Fund for the sufferers by the siege \nof Paris, was established at a meeting . j8 Jan. 1871 \n\nIn four days about 24,000?. had been received ; up \nto 4 March, 113, 599L ; finally, 126,609?. Col. H. \nStuart Wortley and Mr. George Moore went to \nParis on 3 Feb. with 68 tons of provisions, and \npersonally superintended theirdistribution by the \nclergy, foreign consuls, and others. An official \nreport issued by the lord mayor, dated 7 Nov. \n1871, showed a balance of 4679?. in hand. \n\nBengal Relief Fund, begun 24 Jan. 1874 ; prince \nof Wales became patron, 24 Feb. ; public meeting, \n\n14 April; above 55,000?. subscribed, 19 March; \n125,000?., 27 July, when the fund was closed. \n\nEastern War Sufferers\' Fund ; 9400?. received \nup to 6 Oct. 1876; 18 Oct. 13,000?. ; 27 Oct. \n14,200?. \n\nInundations Relief Fund ; 1877, received, 11 Jan. \n3600?. ; 20 Jan. 8100?. ; closed, 14 Feb., 8792?. \n\nIndian Famine Relief Fund, 1877-8; announced, \n\n15 Aug. ; received up to 20 Aug. 12,000?. ; 11 Sept. \n135,000?.; 23 Oct. 415,000?.; 5 Nov. 446,100?.; \n(fund declared closed by request of the duke of \nBuckingham, governor-general of Madras) ; since \nreceived, 22 Dec. 493,000?. ; 15 Jan. 1878, 503,000?. \nWound up, 515,200?. received ; \xe2\x80\x94 506,063?. sent to \nIndia 20 May, 187S \n\n" Eurydice " Fund (see Wrecks, 24 March, 1878) ; \nreceived for families of the men, 5496?.; trans- \nmitted 25 Sept. ,, \n\n" Princess Alice " Relief Fund ; opened 5 Sept. \n\n1878 ; received, 21st Sept. 25,000?.; 1 Oct. 31,400?. \nSee Princess Alice. \n\nAbercarne Colliery Explosion Fund ; opened \n14 Sept. 1878 ; received, 21 Sept. 11,500?.; 21 Oct. \n29,300?. : above 18,000?. received in the country. \n\nDinas Colliery Explosion Fund (for 180 widows \nand children) ; opened in .... Feb. 1879 \n\nHungarian Floods Fund ; opened 14 March ; re- \nceived 18 March, about 4,200?. ; May 1, 11,248?. ,, \n\nZulu War Fund ; opened, 31 March ; received \n2 April, 3,400?. ; 25 April, 10,300?. . . ,, \n\nRowland Hill Memorial proposed 9 Sept. 1879 ; \nthe lord mayor, Whetham, announced that as \nabout 100?. only had been subscribed ; the money \nwould be returned ; another committee was then \nformed, and lord mayor Truscott assumed charge \nof the fund, 11 Nov. ; 6,300?. received 12 Dec. \n\n1879 ; about 16,000?. 26 Feb. 1880 ; 17,286?. 5 Jan. 1881 \nDuchess of Marlborough\'s Irish Relief Fund ; \n\nopened on appeal by her grace, 22 Dec. 1879 ; \n\nabout 2,300?. received 29 Dec. ; total sent to \n\nDublin, 34,164?. 6s. 6d. ; fund closed . 10 Aug. 1880 \n" Atalanta " Fund ; to relieve sufferers by loss of \n\nthe Atalanta (which see) ; opened . . 15 June, ,, \nTruro Cathedral Fund opened 14 July ; received, \n\n1,085? 9 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRisca Colliery Explosion Fund, opened 16 July ; \n\nreceived 7,317?. 9 Nov. ,, \n\nNaini Tal Landslip Fund ; opened . 22 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nAgram Earthquake Fund ; opened . 17 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nPenygraig Colliery Explosion Fund ; opened, \n\n13 Dee. ,, \nChios or, Scio Earthquake Fund ; opened 7 April, 1881 \n\n\n\nMANSION-HOUSE. \n\n\n\n617 \n\n\n\nMAEBUEG. \n\n\n\nDefence or Property in Ireland Fund, (" to up- \nhold the rights of property against organized \ncombination, to defend and to sustain freedom of \ncontract and liberty of action,\'\') begun, 13 Dec; \n1881 ; 18,226/. applied, balance of 1,2682. trans- \nferred to Irish Defence Union . . 18 Dee. \n\nEgyptian Refugees Fund: 2,100?., 30 June, 1882; \n2,700?., 6 July ; 7,800?., n Aug. ; 8,000?., 10 Sept. ; \n21, 308? 10 April, \n\nRelief of Persecuted Russian Jews Fund, begun \n\n1 Feb. 1882 ; 46,000/., received, 13 Feb. ; 50,365/. \nao Feb. ; about 72,000/., 19 May. Fund closed \n108,759/., received (over 110,000/. received, finally \nclosed 9 July, 1886) 25 Oct. \n\nFund for Emigration of the Unemployed, es- \ntablished 13 April; unsuccessful, closed 25 April, \n\nIceland Famine Fund, formed 29 Aug. 1882 ; \n1,500/. received 6 Sept. ; 2,800/. 14 Sept. ; 3,700/. \n\n21 Sept.; 5,505/., closed .... April, \nClay Cross Colliery Explosion Fund, about 14 \n\nNov.; 496/. ios. 61I. remitted ; fund closed, 26 Jan. \nJamaica Fire Relief Fund, established, 22 Jan. \n\nreceived 4,400/. ; 21 Feb. 7,620/. ; closed, received \n\n7,850/. . 9 April, \n\nWest Coast of Scotland Fund, 2,200/. received \n\n3 April ; 3,964/. 12 April ; 4,861/. 8 May; 5,159/. \n\nfund closed 23 July, \n\nFund for Sufferers by North Sea Gale, \n\n(6 March) 12 April, \n\nIschia Earthquake Fund, opened 14 Aug. ; 1,200/. \n\n22 Aug. ; about 29,000/. 12 Oct. ; closed 31 Oct. \nEgyptian Cholera Fund, opened 31 Aug. about \n\n2,731/. received ; closed . . . .9 Nov. \n\nEastern Counties Earthquake Fund, begun 26 \nApril, 1884 ; 2,000/. received, 2 May ; 3,000/. 5 May ; \n6,000/. 15 May ; 9,900/. 10 June ; 10,413/. 31 July, \n\nNisero Fund (see Nisero), established 17 July ; \n405/. received from earl of Derby and others ; 600/. \nreceived from Rotterdam, Aug.; 1,237/. received, \nfund closed 1 Dec. \n\nNeapolitan Cholera Fund, 1,000/. sent off, Oct. 1 \nfinal remittance, 323/.. .... Nov. \n\nGordon National Memorial Fund, (see Gordon \nMemorial) begun 25 Feb. ; 13,500/. received up to \n8 April ; king of Belgium gives 100/. . 8 April, \n\nSpanish Cholera Fund begun n Sept. ; 4191Z. \nreceived ; closed 4 Nov. \n\nUnemployed Relief Fund, begun about 5 Feb. ; \nover 3,300/. received ; 76,225/. 26 March ; 76,819?. \n31 March ; 77,910/. (1,200/. collected in the streets \n3 April) 7 April; closed 19 April ; total received \n78,629/. \n\nSt. Paul\'s Cathedral Approach Fund, begun \n\nabout 5 Feb. \n\nEarthquake Fund for sufferers in Greece and \nCharleston, U.S. 7 Sept. ; 5,000/. 17 Sept. ; 6,500/. \n24 Sept. ; closed .... 26 Oct. \n\nColonial and Indian Institute Fund proposed as \na memorial of the queen\'s jubilee by the prince of \nWales 13 Sept. 1886 ; 27,500/. received 27 Oct. \n\nExeter Theatre Fire Relief Fund 8 Sept. ; the \nqueen gives 100/. ; announced 12 Sept. ; 1,300/. to \n\n16 Sept. \n\nPrussian Inundation Fund, 9 April ; 3,000/. \nreceived 13 April, \n\nChinese Famine Fund proposed 22 Jan. ; 5,300?. \nreceived 30 Jan.; 18,250/. 4 March; 21,706/. 26 \nMarch ; fund closed, over 32,654/. received May, \n\nThe fund in aid of the Royal Agricultural Jubilee \nShow (see Windsor) amounted to 5,516/. 1 Aug. \n\nPasteur Institute Fund established (see Hydro- \nphobia), 1 July, 1889 ; received from the prince of \nWales 105/., the duke of Westminster 200/., the \nduke of Northumberland 100/., and many others ; \namount received, 2,839/ Dec. \n\nFruit Culture Fund begun by the lord mayor ; \nthe duke of Westminster gave 50/., baroness Bur- \ndett-Coutts 50/., and others . . .14 Oct. \n\nLord Napier of Magdala Memorial Fund. \nReceived from city companies and others 2,000?., \n8 Feb. 1890 ; total received, 5,446/. . 10 Nov. \n\nLlanerch Colliery Explosion Fund. Contri- \nbutions received, 11 Feb., 363/. ; 1 March, 5,000/. ; \n7,333/. remitted 23 May, \n\nMorfa Colliery Explosion Fund, 15 March. \nContributions received, 22 March, about 1,300/. ; \n\n2 June, 2,800/. ....... \n\nLord Strathnairn (sir Hugh Rose) Memorial \n\n\n\nFund. Amount received, 17 June, 1,500?. 2,700?. \n\n6 Nov. Liberal contributions received from \n\nIndian princes 1890 \n\nSalonica Fire Relief Fund, 19 Sept. 3,373?. \n\nreceived, 7 Nov. ; fund closed . . 8 Nov. ,, \nSerpent Wreck Relief Fund (see Navy, 10 Nov. \n\n1890, el seq.) started by request about 20 Nov.; \n\n2,750/. received 8 Jan. 1891 \n\nMauritius Hurricane Fund, opened 30 April, \n\n1892; received about 1,300/., 24 May; (closed) \n\n12,083/. ... 20 Sept. 1892 \n\nMANSOUEAH (Lower Egypt). Here Louis \nIX. was defeated by the Saracens and taken pri- \nsoner, 5 April, 1250. He gave Damietta and 400,000 \nlivres for his ransom. Mansourah suffered much \nby cholera, summer, 1883. \n\nMANTTNEA (Arcadia, Greece). Here\xe2\x80\x94 (1) \nAthenians and Argives were defeated by Agis II. of \nSparta, 418 B.C. (2) And here Epaminondas and \nthe Thebans defeated the combined forces of Lace- \ndaemon, Achaia, Elis, Athens, and Arcadia, 362 B.C. \nEpaminondas was killed in the engagement, and \nThebes lost its power among the Grecian states. The \nemperor Adrian built a temple at Mantinea in honour \nof his favourite Alcinoiis. The town was also called \nAntigonia. Utber battles were fought near it. \n\nMANTUA (N. Italy), an Etruscan city, near \nwhich Virgil was born, 70 B.C. Mantua was ruled \nby theGonzagas, lords of Mantua, from 1328 to 1708, \nwhen it was seized by the emperor Joseph I. It \nsurrendered to the French, 2 Feb. 1797, after a \nsiege of eight months ; retaken by the Austrians \nand Russians, 30 July, 1799, after a short siege. \nAfter the battle of Marengo (14 June, 1800), the \nFrench again obtained possession of it. It was in- \ncluded in the kingdom of Italy till 1814, when it \nwas restored to the Austrians, who surrendered it to \nthe Italians, 11 Oct. 1866, after the peace. \n\nMANU, see Menu. \n\nMAOEIS, see New Zealand. \n\nMAPLE-TEEE. The Acer rubrum, or scarlet \nmaple, was brought here from N. America, before \n1656. The Acer Negundo, or ash-leaved maple, \nbefore 1688. From the Acer saccharinum (intro- \nduced here in 1 735) the Americans make good sugar. \n\nMAPS, see Charts, and Mercator. \n\nMAEANON, see Amazon. \n\nMAEATHON (in Attica). Here, on 28 or 29 \nSept 490 B.C., the Greeks, only 11,000 strong, de- \nfeated the Persian army amounting to about 1 10,000. \nThe former were commanded by Miltiades, Aristides, \nand Themistocles. Among the slain (about 6400) is \nsaid to have been Hippias, who had been expelled \nfrom A thens, and was the instigator of the war. The \nPersian arniy was forced to retreat to Asia; see \nGreece. \nInvestigations in 1890 on the presumed site of this battle \n\nled to the discovery of vases, and the probable grave \n\nof the 192 Athenians who fell. \n\nMAEBLE. Dipcenus and Scyllis, statuaries of \nCrete, were the first artists who sculptured marble, \nand polished their works; all statues previously \nbeing of wood, about 568 B.C. Pliny. The edifices \nor monuments of Rome were constructed of, or orna- \nmented with, tine marble. The ruins of Palmyra \nare chiefly of white marble. The marble arch, \nLondon, erected at Buckingham palace, 1830, was \nremoved to Hyde-park, March, 1851. \n\nMAEBUEG (VV. Germany). The cathedral \nwas founded, 1231 ; and the first Protestant univer- \nsity in 1527. It suffered much during the Seven \nyears\' war, 1753-O0. \n\n\n\nMARCH. \n\n\n\n618 \n\n\n\nMARKET. \n\n\n\nMARCH, the first month of the Roman year, \nuntil Numa added January and February, 713 B.C. \nIt is said that Romulus gave to this month the \nname of his supposed father, Mars; though Ovid \nobserves, that the people of Italy had the month of \nMarch before the time of Romulus, but placed it \ndifferently in the calendar. The year commenced \non the 25th of this month till 1753; see Year. The \nMarch of 1845 an d 1886 had much frost and skating. \n\nMAECHES- The old boundaries between \nEngland and Wales, and England and Scotland. \nThe Lords Marchers of the Welsh borders had vice- \nregal authority ; the wardens of the Scotch marches \nwere subordinate officers. These powers were abol- \nished, 1536, and 1689. \n\nMARCHFELD (Austria). Here Ottocar II. \nof Bohemia was defeated and slain by his rival, the \nemperor Rodolph of Hapsburg, 26 Aug. 1278 ; see \nBohemia. \n\n\\ MARCIONITES,Mlowersof Marcion, a here- \ntic, about 150, who preceded the Manichees, and \ntaught similar doctrines. Cave. \n\nMARCOMANNI, a people of Southern Ger- \nmany, expelled the Boii from Bohemia, and, united \nwith other tribes, invaded Italy about 167, but were \nrepelled by the emperors Antoninus and Verus. They \nwere defeated by the legion called, from a fabled \nmiracle, the Thundering Legion, 179; and finally \ndriven beyond the Danube by Aurelian, 271. \n\nMARENGO (N. Italy). Here the French army, \ncommanded by Bonaparte, after crossing the Alps \ninto Piedmont, attacked the Austrians, 14 June, \n1800 ; his army was retreating, when the arrival of \ngeneral Dessaix turned the fortunes of the day. The \nslaughter on both sides was dreadful. By a treaty \nbetween the Austrian general Melas and Bonaparte, \nsigned 15 June, the latter obtained twelve strong \nfortresses, and became master of Italy. \n\nMARESCHALS or Marshals, in France, \nwere the esquires of the king, and originally had \nthe command of the vanguard to observe the enemy \nand to choose proper places for its encampment. \nTill the time of Francis I., in 15 15, there were but \ntwo marshals, who had 500 livres per annum in \nwar, but no stipend in time of peace. The number \nwas afterwards greatly increased. Napoleon\'s mar- \nshals were renowned for skill and courage ; see \nMarshal. \n\nMARGARINE, see under Butter. \n\nMARGATE, Kent, Royal sea-ba\'hinginfirmary \nfounded 1792, enlarged 1882. The town-hall was \nerected in 1820. Population, 1881, 16,030 ; 1891, \n18,419. \n\nMARIAN PERSECUTION, see Protestants. \n\nMARIGNANO (nowMAlEGNAlfO), N. Italy, \nnear Milan. Three battles have been fought near \nhere \xe2\x80\x94 I. Francis I. of France defeated the duke of \nMilan and the Swiss, 13, 14 Sept. 1515 ; above 20,000 \nmen were slain. This conflict has been called the \nBattle of the Giants. \xe2\x80\x94 2. Near here was fought the \nbattle of Pavia (which see), 24 February, 1525. \xe2\x80\x94 3. \nAfter the battle of Magenta, 4 June, 1859, the Aus- \ntrians entrenched themselves at Malegnano. The \nemperor sent marshal Baraguay d\' Uilliers with \n16,000 men to dislodge them, which he did with a \nloss of about 850 killed and wounded, on 8 June. \nThe Austrians are said to have lost 1400 killed and \nwounded, and 900 prisoners, out of 18,000 engaged. \n\nMARINE BIOLOGICAL ASSOCIA- \nTION. See Biology. \n\n\n\nMARINER\'S COMPASS, see Compass, and \n\n\n\nMARINES, soldiers serving on ship-board, \nwere first established vsith the object of form- \ning a nursery to man the fleet. An order in \ncouncil, dated 16 Oct. 1664, authorised 1200 sol- \ndiers to be raised and formed into one regiment. In \n1684, the third regiment of the line was called the \nMarine Regiment ; but the system of having soldiers \nexclusively for sea service was not carried into effect \nuntil 1698, when two marine regiments were formed. \nMore regiments were embodied in subsequent years; \nand in 1 74 1 the corps consisted of ten regiments, \neach 1000 strong. In 1759 they numbered 18,000 \nmen. In the latter years of the French war, ending \nin 1815, they amounted to 31,400, but there weie \nfrequently more than 3000 supernumeraries. The \njollies, as they are called, frequently distinguished \nthemselves. The "Royal Marine Forces" (so \nnamed 1 May, 1802), now comprehend artillery and \nlight infantry. The vote for 1857 was for l6,000> \nmarines, inclusive of 1500 artillery. P- S. Nicolas. \nMarine Engineers\' Institution, founded in 1872. \nOfficers of the marines made equal in rank with \nthose in the army and navy, Dec. 1882. \n\nMARINE SOCIETY (for the maintenance \nand instruction of boys for the navy), was founded \nby Jonas Hanway, 1756, and incorporated, 1772. It \ninstituted the first training ship on the Thames, \n1786. H.M.S. Warspite was burnt, without loss \nof life, 3 Jan. 1876 ; and the boys were removed to \nthe Conqueror. \n\nMARINO, SAN, a republic in central Italy. \nIts origin is ascribed to St. Marinus, a hermit, who \nresided here in the 5th century. Its independence \nlost for a short time, to Goesar Borgia, 1503, and to \nthe pope, 1739; was confirmed by pope Pius VII. \nin 1817. A convention with Italy, 27 March, 1872. \nPopulation, in 1 858, about 8000 ; in 1869, 7303 ; in \n1874, 7816; in 1891, about 8,000. \n\nMARIOLATRY, worship of the virgin Mary, \nbegan in the 4th century, greatly increased in the \n10th. \n\nMARIONETTES, puppet plays. The fan- \ntoccini, popular in Italy in the 15th century; in \nthe 18th in England, and Germany. See Punch. \n\nMARITIME EXHIBITION at Havre \nopened by representatives of the government 1 June, \n1868 : (anoihcr at Havre, 7 May, 1887) ; a similar \nexhibition was opened at Naples by the prince of \nPiedmont, 17 April, 1871; at Paris, 10 July, 1875; \nat Liverpool, 11 May, 1886. \n\nAn International Maritime conference, at which 23 \nnations were represented by 50 delegates, Portu- \ngal not included, met at Washington, and were \nreceived by Mr. secretary Blaine and introduced \nto president. Harrison. Adm. Franklin, U.S., \n\nelected president 16 Oct. 1889 \n\nConference closed 31 Dec. ,, \n\n[Subjects discussed by committees : lights, signal- \nling, rules of the road, life saving systems, sea- \nworthiness, sailors, routes at sea.] \nA government blue book issued on the subject, \n\nNov. 1890 \n\nMARK, a silver coin of the northern nations, \nand the name mark-lubs is still retained in Denmark. \nIn England, the mark means the sum of 13s. qd., \nand the name is retained in law courts. \n\nMARKET, see Smithjield, Metropolitan Cattle \nMarket, Leadenhall, Farringdon, Columbia, and \nCoveut Garden Markets. New market constructed \nby Great Eastern Railway Co. at Bishopsgate \n\n\n\nMARK\'S, ST. \n\n\n\n619 \n\n\n\nMARRIAGE. \n\n\n\nstreet; opened, I July, 1882. Wholesale fish, and \n\npoultry market opened, 19 Oct. 1882. \n\nRoyal Commission on Market Rights and Tolls \n\nappointed in 1888 ; issued first report March, 1889 \nThe Market and Fairs act, 1887, amended . . 1891 \nFinal report Jan. 1891, recommending reforms. \n\nMARK\' S, St. (Venice) . The church was erected \nbetween 977 and 1043. \n\nThe restorations of the Palace of the Doges were \ncompleted and exposed to view . . Nov. 1889 \n\nMARLBOROUGH, a town in Wiltshire ; a \nroyal manor mentioned in Domesday book. King \nHenry III. passed the " Statutes of Malbridge " in \nthe ancient castle in 1267. Marlborough returned \ntwo members to parliament since Edward I. Ab- \nsorbed into the county, 1885. The grammar \nschool was founded by Edward VI. \xe2\x80\x94 Marlbokough \nHouse, Pall Mall, London, was built by Wren for \nthe duke of Marlborough, 1709-10; was bought for \nthe princess Charlotte and prince Leopold in 1817 ; \nheld by queen Adelaide till 1849, and became the \nresidence of the prince of Wales, 1863. See Gems. \nPopulation, 1881, 3,343; 1891, 3,012. \n\nMARLOWE MEMORIAL, a committee de- \ntermine to erect a memorial to Christopher Mar- \nlowe, the dramatist (1564-93), in Canterbury, Dec. \n1888. The statue unveiled by Mr. H. Irving, \n16 Sept. 1891. \n\nMAROCCO, see Morocco. \n\nMARONLTES, Christians in the East, fol- \nlowers of one Maron in the 5th century ; they are \nsaid to have embraced the errors of the Jacobites, \nNestorians, and Monothelites. About 1 180 they \nnumbered 40,000, living in the neighbourhood of \nmount Libanus, and were of service to the Christian \nkings of Jerusalem. They were reconciled to the \nchurch of Rome soon after. Eor an account of the \nmassacres of the Marouites in i860, see Druses. \n\nMAROONS, a name given in Jamaica to run- \naway negroes. When the island was conquered \nfrom the Spaniards, a number of their negroes tied \nto the hills and became very troublesome to the \ncolonists. A war of eight years\' duration ensued, \nwhen the Maroons capitulated on being permitted \nto retain their free settlements, about 1730. In \n1795 they again took arms, but were speedily put \ndown and many were transported. Brande. \n\nMARPHSTGER, village, near Saarbruck. The \nVirgin and Satan said to have been seen by children ; \nand miracles wrought, 3 July, 1876. The priest, \nNeureuter, acquitted of the charge of imposture, \nApril, 1879. \n\nMAR-PRELATE TRACTS, virulently at- \ntacking episcopacy, were mostly written, it is \nbelieved, by Henry I\'enry, who was cruelly executed, \n29 May, 1593, for writing seditious words against the \nqueen (found about his person when seized). The \ntracts appeared about 1586. Some had very singular \ntitles: such as \'* An Almand for a Parrat," "Hay \nany Worke for Cooper ? " &c. They were collected \nand reprinted in 1843. \n\nMARQUE, LETTERS OF, see Privateer. \n\n.MARQUESAS ISLANDS (Polynesia) were \ndiscovered in 1595 by Mendana, who named them \nafter the viceroy of Peru, Marquesa do Mendocja. \n\nThey were visited by Cook in 1 774, and were taken \npossession of by the Trench admiral Uupetit Thouars, \nI May, 1842. \n\nMARQUIS, a dignity, called by the Saxons \nmarkin-reve, by the Germans markgrave, took its \n\n\n\noriginal from mark or March, a limit or bound (see \nMarches); the office being to guard or govern the \nfrontiers of a province. Marquis is next in honour \nto a duke. The first Englishman on whom the title- \nwas conferred was the favourite of king Richard II. r \nRobert de Vere, earl of Oxford, created marquis of \nDublin, and placed in parliament between the dukes \nand earls, 1385. James Stewart, second son oi \nJames III. of Scotland, was made marquis of Or- \nmond, in 1476, without territories, afterwards earl \nof Ross. \n\nMARRIAGE was instituted by God {Gen. ii.) t \nand confirmed by Christ {Mark x.), who performed \na miracle at the celebration of one {John ii.). Ma- \ntrimonial ceremonies among the Greeks are ascribed \nto Cecrops, king of Athens, 1554 B.C. See Age T \nAffinity. \n\nLaw favouring marriage passed at Rome . .B.C. iS \nPriests forbidden to marry after ordination a.d. 325. \n\nMarriage in Lent forbidden 366- \n\nIt was forbidden to bishops in 692, and to priests in \n1015 ; and these latter were obliged to take the \n\nvow of celibacy 1073. \n\nStatute prohibiting marriages between certain \n\npersons within prohibited degrees 25 Hen. VIII. 1533-4. \nThe celebration of marriage, as a sacrament, in \nchurches ordained by pope Innocent III. about \n1199 ; and so affirmed by the council of Trent . . 1547 \nMarriages solemnised by justices of the peace under \n\nan act of the commons 1655 \n\nA tax laid on marriages, viz. : marriage of a duke, \n\n50?. ; of a common person, 2s. dd 1695 \n\nIrregular marriages prohibited (see Fleet Marriages) 1753. \n\nMarriages again taxed 1784 \n\nNew marriage act, 1822 ; partially repealed . . 1823. \nActs prohibiting marriages by Roman Catholic \npriests in Scotland, or other ministers not belong- \ning to the church of Scotland, repealed . . 1834. \nThe present marriage act for England, authorising \nmarriages without religious ceremony, by regis- \ntrar\'s certificate, or in a dissenting chapel, passed \n1836 [amended in 1837 and 1856]. \n\nMarriage Registration act 1837 \n\nAmendment acts passed in . . . 1840 and 1856 \nA bill to suppress irregular marriages in Scotland \n\n(see Gretna) passed in ,, \n\nA court established for Divorce and Matrimonial \nCauses, which has the power of giving sentence of \njudicial separation for adulter} - , cruelty, or deser- \ntion without cause for two years and upward (see \n\nDivorce) 1857 \n\nAct to render the children of certain marriages \nwithin forbidden degrees {with deceased wife\'s \nsister) legitimate ; such marriages in future pro- \nhibited (Lyndhurst\'s act, which see) ; (efforts made \nto legalise marriage with deceased wife\'s sister \n\never since) 1835, \n\nThe Marriage Law Reform association instituted (to \nlegalise a marriage with a deceased wife\'s sister), \n15 Jan. 1851. A bill for this purpose passed the \ncommons, 2 July ; was rejected by the lords, 23 \nJuly, 1858 ; again rejected, 1862 : and again by \nthe commons, 2 May, 1866 ; and 30 April, 1870, \nrejected by the lords (77-73) 19 May, 1870 ; passed \nby commons, 9 March, rejected by the lords (97- \n71), 27 March, 1871 ; passed by commons in 1872, \n1873 ; and rejected by the lords (49-74), 14 March, \n1873; rejected by commons (171-142), 17 Feb. \n1875; by the lords (101-81); (the prince of Wales \nand duke of Edinburgh voted for it), 6 May, 1S79 \'\xe2\x80\xa2 \n(101-90), 25 June, 1S80; (132-128), 12 June, 1882; \nread second time by commons, (165-148) 11 June ; \nrejected by lords (145-140) . . .28 June, 1883 \nResolution for it adopted by the 001111110118(238-127) \n6 May, 1884; rejected by the lords (149-127) 24 \nMay, 1886; read 2nd time by commons (230-182) \n18 April, 1888 ; again for Scotland 3 April : re- \njected by the lords (147-120) . . 9 May, 1889. \nRead 2nd\' time by the commons (222 \xe2\x80\x94 155), 30 \nApril, 1890; (202\xe2\x80\x94155) 11 Feb. ; withdrawn, \n\n17 June, 1891 \nThese marriages made legal by the legislature at \nMelbourne, Nov. 1S72 ; at Sydney, 1875; in \nNew Zealand, 1880 ; Canada .... 1882 \n\n\n\nMAEEIAGE. \n\n\n\n620 \n\n\n\nMAES. \n\n\n\nA bill for the recognition in Great Britain of such \ncolonial marriages was read a 2nd time in the \ncommons, 28 Feb. 1877 ; (21 majority) 27 Feb. 1878 \n\nIn the case of Brook v. Brook, it was decided that \nsuch a marriage celebrated in a foreign country \nwas not valid 17 April, 1858 \n\nThis decision confirmed on appeal to the house of \nlords, ou 18 March, t86i \n\nA commission appointed to inquire into the work- \ning of the marriage laws of Scotland, 22 March, \n1865, reported strongly in favour of changes being \nmade to insure uniformity, simplicity, and cer- \ntainty July, 1868 \n\nConsular Marriage Act, enabling acting British \nconsuls abroad to solemnize marriages, passed \n\n16 July, 1868 \n\nThe law amended by act passed . . . 1890 \n\nMarried Women\'s property act passed . 9 Aug. 1870 \n\nMarriage Law of Ireland amended by an act passed \n10 Aug. 1870 ; amended .... July, 1871 \n\nMatrimonial Causes Act (which see), passed . . 1878 \n\nAn act to encourage regular marriages in Scotland ; \npassed 8 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMarriage Act passed 1886 extends hour of marriage \nfrom 12 to 3 p.m. in England and Wales. \n\nMarriages Abroad act passed . . 27 June, 1892 \n\nCommander Christopher Bethell\'s marriage with \nTeepoo, a JBaralong woman, in Bechuanaland, \naccording to native rites, declared invalid in \nEngland (\'^Bethell v. Hildyard ") . 15 Feb. 1888 \n\nREGISTERED MARRIAGES IN ENGLAND AND WALES. \n\n\n\n1750 \n\n\n. 40,300 \n\n\n1854 \n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 159,727 \n\n\nc8oo . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 73 \n\n\n228 \n\n\n1855 (Crimean Wa \n\n\n\') 152,113 \n\n\n1810 \n\n\n. . . 84 \n\n\n473 \n\n\n1856 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 i59>337 \n\n\nE815 . \n\n\n. . 91 \n\n\n946 \n\n\n1857 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 159,097 \n\n\n11820 \n\n\n. 96,883 \n\n\n1858 \n\n\n. 156,070 \n\n\n1825 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x96\xa0 98,378 \n\n\n1859 . \n\n\n. 167,723 \n\n\n1830 \n\n\n. 102 \n\n\n437 \n\n\ni860 \n\n\n. 170,156 \n\n\n1840 . \n\n\n. 121 \n\n\n083 \n\n\n1861 (Cottonfamine) 163,706 \n\n\n1845 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 143,743 \n\n\n1862 \n\n\n. 164,030 \n\n\niS 4 8 . \n\n\n. . . 138 \n\n\n230 \n\n\n1863 . \n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 173-510 \n\n\nE850* \n\n\n- 152 \n\n\n744 \n\n\n1864 \n\n\n. 180,387 \n\n\nS853 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n. . 164 \n\n\n520 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nMARRIAGES IN \n\n\nTHl! \n\n\nUNITED KINGDOM. \n\n\n\n\n\n\nEngland and Wales. \n\n\nScotland. - \n\n\nIreland, t \n\n\nK865 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 185,474 \n\n\n\n\n23,527 \n\n\n\n\n\n1866 \n\n\n. 187,776 \n\n\n\n\n23,629 \n\n\n30,151 \n\n\n1867 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x96\xa0 I79.IS4 \n\n\n\n\n22,521 \n\n\n29,796 \n\n\n1868 \n\n\n. 176,962 \n\n\n\n\n21,853 \n\n\n27.753 \n\n\n1869 \n\n\n. 176,970 \n\n\n\n\n22,083 \n\n\n27,277 \n\n\n1870 \n\n\n. 181,655 \n\n\n\n\n23,788 \n\n\n28,835 \n\n\n1871 \n\n\n. . 190,112 \n\n\n\n\n23,966 \n\n\n28,060 \n\n\n1872 \n\n\n. 201,267 \n\n\n\n\n25,580 \n\n\n27,114 \n\n\n1873 \n\n\n. . 205,615 \n\n\n\n\n26,730 \n\n\n26,270 \n\n\n1874 \n\n\n. 202,010 \n\n\n\n\n26,247 \n\n\n24,481 \n\n\n1875 \n\n\n. 201,212 \n\n\n\n\n25,921 \n\n\n24,037 \n\n\n1876 \n\n\n. 201,874 \n\n\n\n\n26,563 \n\n\n26,388 \n\n\n1877 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 194-352 \n\n\n\n\n25,790 \n\n\n24,722 \n\n\n1878 \n\n\n. 190,054 \n\n\n\n\n24,333 \n\n\n25,284 \n\n\n1879 \n\n\n. . 182,082 \n\n\n\n\n23,462 \n\n\n2 3>254 \n\n\n1880 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 ^^s \n\n\n\n\n24,489 \n\n\n20,363 \n\n\n1881 \n\n\n. . 197,290 \n\n\n\n\n25,948 \n\n\n21,826 \n\n\nT882 \n\n\n. 204,405 \n\n\n\n\n26,574 \n\n\n22,029 \n\n\n1883 \n\n\n. . 206,384 \n\n\n\n\n26,855 \n\n\n21,368 \n\n\nJ884 \n\n\n. 204,301 \n\n\n\n\n26,061 \n\n\n22,585 \n\n\n1885 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 197,745 \n\n\n\n\n25,256 \n\n\n21,177 \n\n\n1886 \n\n\n196,071 \n\n\n\n\n24,469 \n\n\n20,594 \n\n\n1887 \n\n\n. . 200,518 \n\n\n\n\n24,876 \n\n\n20,945 \n\n\n1888 \n\n\n203,821 \n\n\n\n\n25,305 \n\n\n20,060 \n\n\n1889 \n\n\n. . 213,865 \n\n\n\n\n26,318 \n\n\n21,521 \n\n\n1890 \n\n\n223,028 \n\n\n\n\n27,441 \n\n\n20,990 \n\n\niSgi \n\n\n. . 226,025 \n\n\n\n\n27,949 \n\n\n21,421 \n\n\n\nRoyal Marriage Act, 12 Geo. III. c. 11, was passed in \n1772, in consequence of the marriage of the duke of \nGloucester, the king\'s brother, with the widow of the \nearl Waldegrave, and of the duke of Cumberland with \n\n* Of these marriages, it is stated in the registrar\'s re- \nturns that 47,570 men and 70,601 women could not write, \nand that they signed the marriage register with their \nmarks. \xe2\x80\x94 In France, the marriages were 208,893 in 1820 ; \n243,674 in 1825 ; and 259,177 in 1830. As respects Paris, \n7754 marriages were, bachelors and maids, 6456 ; bachelors \nand widows, 368 ; widowers and maids, 708 ; widowers \nand widows, 222. \n\nt Approximative, through doubtful returns. \n\n\n\nthe widow of colonel Horton and daughter of lord Irn- \nham. [By this act, none of the descendants of George II. , \nunless of foreign birth, can marry under the age of 25, \nwithout the consent of the king ; at and after that age, \nafter twelve months\' notice given to the privy council, \nthey may contract such marriage, which shall be \ngood unless both houses of parliament disapprove. \nThe marriage of the duke of Sussex with the lady \nAugusta Murray, solemnised in 1793, was pronounced \nillegal, 1794, and the claims of their son, sir Augustus \nd\'Este, declared invalid, by the house of lords, 9 July, \n1844. He married lady Cecilia Underwood (afterwards \nduchess of Inverness), 1831. \n\nH. R. H. the princess Louise was married to the mar- \nquis of Lome by the queen\'s consent, 21 March, 1871. \n\nHalf Marriage. Semi-Matrimonium. Among the \nRomans concubinage was a legitimate union, not \nmerely tolerated but authorised. The concubine had \nthe name of semi-conjux. Men might have either a \nwife or a concubine, provided they had not both to- \ngether. Constantine the Great checked concubinage, \nbut did not abolish it. This ancient custom of the \nRomans was preserved, not only among the Lombards, \nbut by the French when they held dominion in that \ncountry. Cujas assures us that the Gascons and other \npeople bordering on the Pyrenean mountains had not \nrelinquished this custom in his time, 1590. The women \nbore the name of " wives of the second order." He- \nnault. See Morganatic Marriages. \n\nDouble Marriages. There are some instances of a hus- \nband and two wives (but they are very rare) in countries \nwhere polygamy was interdicted by the state. The first \nLacedaemonian who had two wives was Anaxandrides, \nthe son of Leon, about 510 B.C. Dionysius of Syracuse \nmarried two wives, viz. : Doris, the daughter of Xenetus, \nand Aristomache, sister of Dion, 398 b.c It is said \nthat the count Gleichen, a German nobleman, was per- \nmitted, under peculiar circumstances, by Gregory IX. , \nin a.d. 1237, to marry and live with two wives. The \nMormonites practise and encourage polygamy. \n\nForced Marriages. The stat. 3 Henry VII. (1487) made \nthe principal and abettors in marriages with heiresses, \n&c. , contrary to their will, equally guilty as felons. \nBy 39 Eliz. (1596) such felons were denied the benefit \nof clergy. This offence was made punishable by trans- \nportation, 1 Geo. IV. (1820). The remarkable case of \nMiss Wharton, heiress of the house of Wharton, whom \ncaptain Campbell married by force, occurred in William \nIII. \'s reign. Sir John Johnston was hanged for seizing \nthe young lady, and the marriage was annulled by \nparliament, 1690. \xe2\x80\x94 Edward Gibbon Wakefield was tried \nat Lancaster, and found guilty of the felonious abduc- \ntion of Miss Turner, 24 March, 1827 ; and his marriage \nwith her was immediately dissolved by act of parlia- \nment. \n\nMarriages by Sale. Among the Babylonians, at a cer- \ntain time every year, the marriageable females were \nassembled, and disposed of to the best bidder. This \ncustom is said to have originated with Atossa, daughter \nof Belochos, about 1433 B.C. \n\nFleet Marriages. SeeFleet. \n\nMAEEIED WOMEN, see Wives. \n\nMAEES MUEDEES, see Ratcliffe Highicay. \n\nMAE\'S INSUEEECTION. John, earl of \nMar, proclaimed James III. at Braemar, Aberdeen- \nshire, 6 September, 1715- He was defeated at \nSherift\'muir, 13 Nov., and escaped from Montrose \nwith the Pretender, 4 Feb. 1716. \n\nMAES, a planet, next to the earth in order of \ndistance from the sun; the spots on its surface were \nfirst observed by Fontana, in 1636. Two satellites \nwere discovered by professor Asaph Hall, at Wash- \nington, U.S., 11 Aug. 1877. \n\nM. Dubois of Paris suggests that these satellites may \nbe planetoids attracted by Mars, Aethra and another of \nthese bodies having disappeared about the time of the \ndiscovery. \nM. Schiaparelli, of Milan, describes configurations like \ncanals, 1882, and M. Perrotin since has mapped them \nand asserts that Mars has an atmosphere and clouds \n(1887) \n" They have likewise discovered two lesser stars or sa- \ntellites which revolve about Mars." \xe2\x80\x94 Swift, Gulli- \nver\'s Travels\xe2\x80\x94 Voyage to Laputa, about 1726. \n\n\n\nMARSAGLIA. \n\n\n\n621 \n\n\n\nMARTINIQUE. \n\n\n\nMARSAGLIA (Piedmont, N. Italy). Here \n\nthe imperialists under prince Eugene and the duke \nof Savoy were defeated by the French under Catinat, \n4 Oct. 1693. \n\nMARSEILLAISE HYMN.. The words and \nmusic are ascribed to Eouget de Lille, or L\'Isle, a \nFrench engineer officer, who, it is said, composed it \nby request, 1792, to cheer the conscripts at Strasburg. \nIt derived its name from a body of troops from \nMarseilles marching into Paris in 1792 playing the \ntune. This account is doubted by some (1879). The \nauthor was pensioned by Louis Philippe, 1830, and \ndied in 1836. \n\nMARSEILLES. The ancient Massilia (S. \nFrance), a maritime city, founded by the Phocseans \nabout 000 B.C. ; an ally of Rome, 218 B.C. Cicero \nstyled it the Athens of Gaul, on account of its excel- \nlent schools. Population, 1881, 360,099 ; 1891, \n375.3/8- \nTaken by Julius Cassar after a long siege . . b.c. 49 \n\nBy Eurie the Visigoth a.d. 470 \n\nSacked by the Saracens 839 \n\nMarseilles a republic 1214 \n\nSubjected to the counts of Provence . . . 1251 \n\nUnited to the crown of France 1482 \n\nThe plague rages 1649 \n\nIt carried off 50,000 of the inhabitants. The bishop \nBelsunce devotedly exerted himself to relieve the \nsufferers ........ 1720-1 \n\nRevolutionary commotions here . . 30 April, 1789 \nMarseilles opposes the revolutionary government, \n\nand is reduced 23 Aug. 1793 \n\nDissensions and conflicts between the French and \n\nItalians ; much stabbing ; several deaths ; about \n\n200 arrests, 19, 20 June ; city quiet . 22 June, 1881 \n\nPharo Chateau and Park presented to the city, \n\nby the ex-empress Eugenie, Dec. 1882 ; finally \n\naccepted July, 1883 \n\nInauguration of great drainage works; M. Frey- \ncinet, the premier, and 4 other ministers present, \n\n8 Oct. 1891 \nSee Cholera. \n\nMARSHALS- Two were appointed in London \nto clear the streets of vagrants, and to send the \nsick, blind, and lame to asylums and hospitals for \nrelief, 1567. Northouck. \n\nMARSHALS, British Field-. This rank \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0was first conferred upon John, duke of Argyll, and \nGeorge, earl of Orkney, by George II. in 1736. The \nduke of Cambridge was made field-marshal, 9 Nov. \n1862 ; the prince of Wales, 29 May, 1875 \'\xe2\x96\xa0> wr d \nNapier of Magdala, I Jan. 1883, died 14 Jan. 1890; \nsir Patrick Grant, 24 June, 1883; and lord William \nPaulet, 1886, see Mareschal. \n\nMARSHALS op France, appointed by \n\nNapoleon I. during his wars, 1804- 14. \nArrighi, duke of Padua ; died 21 March, 1853. \nAugereau, duke of Castiglione ; died 12 June, 1816. \nBernadotte, prince of Ponte Corvo, king of Sweden, \n\n1818 ; died 8 March, 1844. \nBerthier, prince of Neufchatel and Wagram, killed or \n\ncommitted suicide at Bamberg, 1 June, 1815. \nBessieres, duke of Istria; killed at Lutzen, 1 May, 1813. \nBrune, murdered at Avignon, 2 Aug. 1815. \nClarke, H. J. W., due de Feltre ; died 28 Oct, 1818. \nClause!, Bertrand, comte de ; died 21 April, 1842. \nDrouet, J. Baptiste, comte d\'Erlon ; died 25 Jan. 1844. \nDavoust, prince of Eckmiihl and duke of Auerstadt ; \n\ndied 1 June, 1823. \nDuroc, G. Christophe Michel, due de Friuli ; killed at \n\nbattle of Mackersdorff 23 May, 1813. \nGerard, Etienne Maurice ; died 17 April, 1852. \nGouvion Saint-Cyr, Laurent ; died 17 March, 1830. \nGnmchy, died 29 May, 1847. \nJourdan, peer of France ; died 23 Nov. 1833. \nJuncit, duke of Abrantes ; suicide, 29 July, 1813. \nIv-llrmiann, duke of Valnry ; died 12 Sept, 1820. \nLannes, duke of Montebello. wounded at Aspem ; died \n\n31 May, 1809. \n\n\n\nLauriston, Jacque Alexandre Bernard Law; died i.j \n\nJune, 1828. \nLefebvre, duke of Dantzic ; died 14 Sept. 1820. \nMaedonald, duke of Tarento ; died 24 Sept. 1840. \nMaison, Nicolas Joseph, marquis ; died 13 Feb. 1840. \nMarmont, duke of Ragusa ; died 2 March, 1852. \nMassena prince of Essling and duke of Rivoli ; died .$ \n\nApril, 1817. \nMolitor, Gabriel Jean Joseph ; died 28 July, 1849. \nMoncey, duke of Conegliano ; died 20 April, 1842. \nMortier, duke of Treviso, killed by Fieschi, 28 July, 1835. \nMurat, king of Naples, executed 13 Oct. 1815. \nNey, prince of Moskwa, duke of Elchingen, executed! \n\n7 Dec. 1815. \nOudinot, duke of Reggio ; died 13 Sept. 1847. \nPerignon, marquis de ; died 25 Dec. 1818. \nPoniatowski, prince Josef Anton, wounded at Leipsie, \n\nand drowned 19 Oct. 1813. \nSerrurier, Jean Mathieu Philibert, comte ; died 21 Dec. \n\n1819. \nSoult, duke of Dalmatia ; died 26 Nov. 1851. \nSuchet, duke of Albufera ; died 3 Jan. 1826. \nVictor, duke of Belluno ; died 1 March, 1841 \n\n. MARSHALSEA COURT, having jurisdic- \ntion in the royal palace, was very ancient, of high \ndignity, and coeval with the common law. Since \nthe decision of the case of the Marshalsea (see lord \nCoke\'s 10 Rep. 68) no business has been done in this \ncourt ; but it was regularly opened and adjourned \nat the same time with the Palace court, the judges- \nand other officers being the same. These courts- \nwere removed from Southwark to Scotland-yard in \n1 801, were abolished by parliament, and discontinued \n31 Dec. 1849; see Prisons. \n\nMARSI, a brave people of Southern Italy, who, \nafter several contests, yielded to the Romans, about \n301 B.C. During the civil wars they and their \nallies rebelled, having demanded and been refused \nthe rights of Roman citizenship, 91 B.C. Aitei \nmany successes and reverses, they sued for and \nobtained peace and the rights they required, 87 B.C. \nThe Marsi being Sociioi the Romans, this was called \nthe Social war. \n\nMARSTON-MOOR (near York). The Scots \nand parliamentary army were besieging York, when \nprince Rupert, joined by the marquis of Newcastle, \ndetermined to raise the siege. Both sides drew up \non Marston-moor, on 2 July, 1644, ar >d tne content \nwas long undecided. Rupert, commanding the \nright wing of the royalists, was opposed by Oliver \nCromwell, at the head of troops disciplined by him- \nself. Cromwell was victorious; he drove his op- \nponents off the field, followed the vanquished, \nreturned to a second engagement and a second vic- \ntory. The prince\'s artillery was taken, and the \nroyalists never recovered the blow. \n\nMARTELLO TOWERS, said to have been \nerected by Charles V. on the coasts of Italy. \nSimilar circular buildings were erected in the be- \nginning of the present century, on the southern \ncoast of England, and other parts of the empire, as \ndefences against invasion. The towers were said by \nsome to be named from Cape Martello, or Mortella hi \nCorsica. They are now being destroyed as obsolete. \n\nMARTIAL LAW, see Courts-Martial, and \nMilitary Law. \n\nMARTINESTI, see Rimnik. \n\nMARTINIQUE (French West Indies), dis- \ncovered in 1493 or 1502; settled by France, 1635. \nThis and the adjacent isles of St. Lucia and \nSt. Vincent, and the Grenadines, were taken by tin- \nBritish from the French in Feb. 1762. They were \nrestored to France at the peace of the following\' \nyear. They were again taken, 16 March, 1794"; \nrestored at the peace of Amiens in 1802 ; again \n\n\n\nMAETINMAS. \n\n\n\n622 \n\n\n\nMASS. \n\n\n\ncaptured 23 Feb. 1809. A revolution in this island \nin favoixr of Napoleon was finally suppressed by \nthe British, 1 June, 1815, and Martinique reverted \nto its French masters. Severe earthquakes occurred \nhere in 1767 and 1839. \n\n\'Great destruction of life and property was caused by a \ncyclone and earthquake about 18 Aug. 1891 ; estimated \ndeaths 378, besides losses by shipwrecks. Estimated \n\nloss 2,000,000^. \n\nMAETINMAS, 11 Nov., the feast cf St. \nMartin, bishop of Tours, in the 4th century, is \nquarter day in parts of the north of England \nand in Scotland. The high sheriffs of England and \nWales are nominated on the morrow of St. Martin, \n12 Nov. \n\nMAETIN\'S HALL, ST. (Long Acre, London), \nsvas opened as a concert-room for Mr. John Hullah, \non 11 Feb. 1850 ; burnt down 26 Aug. i860; rebuilt, \n1861 ; opened as the New Queen\'s Theatre, by \nMr. Alfred Wigan, 24 Oct. 1867. \n\nMAETYES. Stephen, the first Christian \nmartyr, was stoned, 33. The festivals of the \nmartyrs, of very ancient date, took their rise about \nthe time of Polycarp, who suffered martyrdom about \n169. St. Alban is the English protomartyr, 286 ; \nsee Persecutions, Protestants, and Diocletian Era. \nThe Martyrs\' Memorial, Smithfield, erected by the \nProtestant Alliance, was inaugurated II March, \n1870. The Martyrs\' memorial church, St John\'s- \nstreet, Clerkenwell, was consecrated 2 June, 1871. \n\nMAEY-ANNE- Secret republican associa- \ntions, especially in France. The name was given to \nthe republic of 1792, to the guillotine, and to little \nstatuettes of Liberty. \n\nMAETLAND, named after queen Henrietta \nMaria, one of the first thirteen United States of \nNorth America, was granted in 1632 to lord Balti- \nmore, and settled by a company of English \nRomanists in 1634. It contains the district of \nColombia, in which Washington is situate. It con- \ntinued in the Union when the other slave states \n.\xe2\x96\xa0seceded in i860 and 1861. The confederate arnty, \nunder general Lee, after their victory at Bull Run, \n30 Aug. 1862, crossed the Potomac and entered \n"Maryland. They were followed by the federal \narmy under McClellan. Severe conflicts ensued, \nespecially on 17 Sept., at Antietam Creek, with \ngreat loss on both sides, each claiming the victory. \nThe confederates retired into Virginia in good order, \nand it is said with much booty. Capital, Anna- \npolis ; population, 1880, 934,943 ; 1890, 1,042,390. \n\nMAEY-LE-BONE, a large parish, N.-W. \nLondon. The name is corrupted from St. Mary at the \nBourne, or brook,\xe2\x80\x94 Tyebourne. It was chiefly pas- \nture land in 1 760. The manor was acquired by the \nduke of Portland in 1813. The hunting-grounds \nmow form Regent\'s park {which see). The parishes \nof Marylebone, St. Pancras, and Paddington were \nmade a parliamentary borough in 1832. By act of \n1885 Marylebone alone returns two M.P.\'s. Six \nmen killed by fall of a new house in Great Titch- \nfield Street, 9 Nov. 1888. Population, 1881, 154,910; \n1891, 142,381. \n\nHew higher gradeand technical schools presented by ladies \nHoward de Walden and Ossington opened 30 July, 1890 \nMary-le-bone gardens \xe2\x80\x94 attached to the "Rose of Nor- \nmandy "\xe2\x80\x94 a place of public entertainment, opened in \nthe middle of the 17th century ; mentioned by Pepys ; \nclosed 23 Sept. 1776 ; a music hall erected here, 1855. \nThe Marylebone Murder.\xe2\x80\x94 Miss Lucy Clark, dressmaker, \naged 49, living at 86, George St., Portman Sq., found \nmurdered 23 Jan. 1888. \n\n\n\nMASANIELLO, see Naples, 1647. Auber\'s \nopera, "La Muette de Portici" (1828), was pro- \nduced in London as \'\' Masaniello," 4 May, 1829. \n\nMASCAT, see Muscat. \n\nMASHONA, Makalakaland and Matabele \n\nlands, territories in south Africa, ruled by Loben- \n\ngula, who entered into agreement with the British \n\ngovernment, 11 Feb. 1888. \n\nA deputation of two head men from him, was received \nby queen Victoria, 2 March, 1889, requesting pro- \ntection against a syndicate, to which he had incon- \nsiderately conceded lands. The concession was \nafterwards legally withdrawn. See Zambesi, 1889. \n\nThe Imperial Mission conveying queen Victoria\'s letter \nto Lobengula, recommending the British South \nAfrican company, favourably received by him at \nBuluwayo, the Matabele capital, 29 Jan. 1890. \n\nSuccessful progress of colonization, reported May, 1892. \n\nExplorations of Mr. J. Theodore Bent ; he discovers at \nZimbabwe, an ancient fortress (probably Phoenician), \na temple with ornamented walls, monoliths, specimens \nof good pottery, relics of gold-mining, etc., June-Aug. \n1891. Mr. Bent gave an account of his exploration at \na meeting of the "Royal Geographical Society, 22 Feb. \n1892. \n\nMASKS. Masks of painted papyrus are said \nto have been occasionally worn by kings and priests \nof ancient Egypt. Horace attributes them to \niEschylus; yet Aristotle says the inventor and time \nof their introduction were unknown. \xe2\x80\x94 Modern \nmasks, and muffs, fans, and false hair for the \nwomen , were devised in Italy, and brought to Eng- \nland from France in 1572. Stow ; see Iron Mask. \n\nMASONIC INSTITUTIONS, see-Freema- \nsonry. \n\nMASOEAH (Hebrew, tradition), a collection \n\nof conjectural readings (Keris) of the Hebrew text \n\nof the Old Testament, with critical, grammatical, \n\nand exegetical remarks by various Jewish doctors, \n\nwritten between the 6th and 10th centuries, who \n\nalso furnished the Masoretic vowel points. \n\nThe first Rabbinical Hebrew Bible, containing the \n\nMasorah, Targums, and comments, was printed by \n\nBomberg at Venice, 1518. The " Book of the Masorah, \n\nthe Hedge of the Law," was first printed at Florence, \n\n1750. \n\nMASQUEEADES were in fashion in the \ncourt of Edward III., 1340; and in the reign of \nCharles II. 1660, masquerades were frequent among \nthe citizens. The bishops preached against them, \nand made such representations as occasioned their \nsuppression, 9 Geo. I. 1724. They were revived \nand carried to a shameful excess in violation of the \nlaws, and tickets of admission to a masquerade at \nRanelagh were on some occasions subscribed for at \ntwenty-five guineas each, 1776. Mortimer. At \nthe close of a bal masque, given by Anderson the \nWizard, 5 March, 1856, Co vent-garden theatre was \ndestroyed by fire. \n\nMASQUES) precursors of the opera, introduced \ninto England in the latter part of the 16th century; \nmany were written by Ben Jonson ; one at the \nMiddle Temple on the marriage of princess Eliza- \nbeth, Feb. 1613. Milton\'s "Comus" was represented \nat Ludlow castle in 1634. \n\nMASS, in the Roman church, is the office or \nprayers used at the celebration of the Eucharist, in \nmemory of the passion of Christ, and to this every \npart of the service alludes. The general division \nconsists in high and low ; the first is that sung by \nchoristers, and celebrated with the assistance of a \ndeacon and sub-deacon ; low masses are those in \nwhich the prayers are rehearsed without singing. \nMass was first celebrated in Latin about 394 ; it was \n\n\n\nMASSACHUSETTS. \n\n\n\n623 \n\n\n\nMASSACEES. \n\n\n\nintroduced into England in the 7th century. Pro- \nstration was enjoined at the elevation of the host in \n1201. Dr. Daniel Rock, in "The Church of our \nFathers " (1849), describes an ancient MS. of " The \nService of the Mass, called the Rite of Salisbury," \ncompiled for that cathedral, by St. Osmund and \nothers, during the 12th century. The English \ncommunion service was adopted in 1549 ; see Missal, \nand Ritualism. \n\nMASSACHUSETTS, the mother state of \nNew England, North America, founded b} T the \nEnglish puritans at Plymouth-rock, 1620. It \nabolished slavery 1783, and adopted the constitution \nof the United States, 1788. Capital, Boston. Pop- \nulation, 1880, 1,783,085; 1890, 2,238,943. See \nFilgrim Fathers and Boston. \n\nGreat fire at Lynn, a large shoe-making town. 296 \nbuildings destroyed, and about 8,000 persons destitute, \nestimated loss 5,000,000 dollars, 26 Nov. 1889. \n\nMASSACEES. The following are among the \nmost remarkable, probably exaggerated : \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nBEFORE CHEIST. \n\nOf all the Carthaginians in Sicily, 397. \n\n2000 Tynans crucified and 8000 put to the sword for not \n\nsurrendering Tyre to Alexander, 331. \nOf 2000 Capuans, friends of Hannibal, by Gracchus, 211. \nA dreadful slaughter of the Teutones and Ambrones, near \n\nAix, by Marius, the Roman general, 200,000 being left \n\ndead on the spot, 102. \nThe Romans throughout Asia, women and children not \n\nexcepted, massacred in one clay, by order of Mithri- \n\ndates, king of Pontus, 88. \nA great number of Roman senators massacred by Cinna, \n\nMarius, and Sertorius, 87. \nAgain, under Sylla and Catiline, his minister of ven- \ngeance, 82. \nAt Perusia, Octavianus Cresar ordered 300 Roman senators \n\nand other x>ersons of distinction to be sacrificed to the \n\nmanes of Julius Caesar, 40. \n\nAFTER CHRIST. \n\nAt the destruction of Jerusalem, 1,100,000 Jews are \nsaid to have been put to the sword, 70. \n\nThe Jews, headed by one Andra?, put to death many \nGreeks and Romans, in and near Cyrene, 115. \n\nCassius, a Roman general, under the emperor M. \nAurelius, put to death 300,000 of the inhabitants of \nSeleucia, 165. \n\nAt Alexandria, many thousands of citizens were mas- \nsacred by order of Antoninus, 215. \n\nThe emperor Probus is said to have put to death 400,000 \nof the barbarian invaders of Gaul, 277. \n\nOf the Gothic hostages by Valens, 378. \n\nOf Thessaloniea, when 7000 persons invited into the \ncircus were put to the sword, by order of Theodosius, \n39\xc2\xb0- \n\nOf the circus factions at Constantinople, 532. \n\nMassacre of the Latins at Constantinople, by order of \nAndronicus, 1184. \n\nOf the Albigenses and Waldenses, commenced at Toulouse, \n1208. Thousands perished by the sword and gibbet. \n\nOf the French in Sicily, 1282 ; see Sicilian Vespers. \n\nAt Paris, of the Armagnacs, at the instance of John, \nduke of Burgundy, 1418. \n\nOf the Swedish nobility, at a feast, by order of Chris- \ntian II., 1520. \n\nOf Protestants at Vassy, 1 March, 1562. \n\nOf 70,000 Huguenots, or French Protestants, in France \n(see St. Bartholomew), 24 Aug. 1572. \n\nOf the Christians in Croatia by the Turks, when 65,000 \nwere slain, 1592. \n\nOf the pretender Demetrius, and his Polish adherents, \nat Moscow, 27 May, 1606. \n\nOf Protestants in the Valteline, N. Italy, 19 July, 1620. \n\nOf Protestants at Thorn, put to death under a pretended \nlegal sentence of the chancellor of Poland, for being \nconcerned in a tumult occasioned by a Roman Catholic \nprocession, 1724. All the Protestant powers in Europe \ninterceded to have this unjust sentence revoked, but \nunavailingly. \n\nA.t Batavia, 12,000 Chinese were massacred by the natives, \nOct. 1740, under the pretext of an intended insurrec- \ntion. \n\n\n\nAt the taking of Ismail by the Russians, 30,000 old and \nyoung were slain, Dec. 1790 ; see Ismail. \n\nOf French Royalists (see Septembrizers), 2 Sept. 1792. \n\nOf Poles, at Praga, 1794. \n\nIn St. Domingo, where Dessalines made proclamation for \nthe massacre of all the whites, 29 March, 1804, and \nmany thousands perished. \n\nInsurrection at Madrid, and massacre of the French, \n2 May, 1808. \n\nMassacre of the Mamelukes, in the citadel of Cairo, \n1 March, 181 1. \n\nMassacre of Protestants at Nismes, perpetrated by the \nCatholics, May, 1815. \n\nMassacre at Scio, 22 April, 1822 ; see Chios. \n\nOf the Janissaries at Constantinople, 14 June, 1826; at \nCabul (see Afghanistan), 1841. \n\n600 Kabyles suffocated in a cave in Algeria, 18 June, \n1845 ; see Dahra. \n\nMassacre of Christians at Aleppo, 16 Oct. 1850. \n\nOf 136 emigrants at Mountain Meadows, Utah (said to \nbe by Mormons whom they had offended) ; a few chil- \ndren spared ; 18 Sept. 1857. \n\n[Bishops Ph. K. Smith and Lee accused; Brigham Young \nexonerated, 1875. Bp. Lee sentenced to death, Oct. \n1876 ; shot, 23 March, 1877.] \n\nOf Maronites, by Druses, in Lebanon, June, i860 ; and of \nChristians, by Mahometans, at Damascus, 9-11 July, \ni860 ; see Druses and Damascus. \n\nOf 173 N.-W. Indians (including women and children) \n(as a chastisement for murders, outrages, and rob- \nberies), by major Baker, of U.S. army, Jan. 1870. \n\nOf French missionaries and others, at Tien-tsin, 22 per- \nsons (see China), 21 June, 1870. \n\nOf foreigners, by the native Gauchos in the Tandel dis- \ntrict, Buenos Ayres, S. America, 1 Jan. 1872. \n\nOf about 90 French colonists and others in New Cale- \ndonia, by natives, during a revolt, June, 1878. \n\nOf about 6 negro militia-men, who had made a patriotic \ndemonstration on 4 July, by whites, at Hamburg, \nSouth Carolina, 9 July, 1876. \n\nOf Mehemet Ali Pacha, and others, at Ipek, near Scu- \ntari, by Albanians, 6 Sept. 1878. \n\nAt Cabul (see Afghanistan), 1879. \n\nAlexandria (see Egypt), n June, 1882. \n\nOf Christians in Cochin-China ; 24,000 reported to be \nmassacred, summer, 1885 ; and about 22,000 in Annam \nby rebels, July-Dec. 1885. \nSee Indians, Minnesota, Modoc Indians, and Turkey, \n\n1876. \n\nMASSACRES IN BRITISH HISTORY. \n\nOf 300 British nobles, on Salisbury Plain, by Hengist, \nabout 450. \n\nOf the monks of Bangor, to the number of 1200, by Ethel- \nfrid, king of Bernicia, 607 or 612. \n\nOf the Danes in the southern counties of England, in \nthe night of 13 Nov. 1002, by order of Ethelred II. At \nLondon it was most bloody, the churches being no \nsanctuary. Amongst the rest was Gunilda, sister of \nSwein, kmg of Denmark, left in hostage for the per- \nformance of a treaty but newly concluded. Baker. \n\nOf the Jews, in England. Some few pressing into West- \nminster hall at Richard I.\'s coronation, were put to \ndeath by the people ; and a false alarm being given \nthat the king had ordered a general massacre of them, \nthe people in many parts of England slew all they met. \nIn York 500, who had taken shelter in a castle, killed \nthemselves, rather than fall into the hands of the \nmultitude, 1189. \n\nOf the Bristol colonists, at Cullcn\'s Wood, Ireland (see \nCullen\'s Wood), 1209. \n\nOf the English factory at Amboyna, in order to dispossess \nits members of the Spice Islands, Feb. 1624. \n\nMassacre of the Protestants in Ireland, in O\'Neill\'s rebel- \nlion, which began 23 Oct. 164 1 . Upwards of 30,000 British \nwere killed in the commencement of this rebellion. Sir \nWilliam Petty. In the first three or four days of it, \nforty or fifty thousand of the Protestants were de- \nstroyed. Lord Clarendon. Before the rebellion was \nentirely suppressed, 154,000 Protestants were massa- \ncred. Sir W. Temple. \n\nOf the Macdonalds <>f Glencoe (see Glencoe), 13 Feb. 1692. \n\nOf 184 men, women, and children, chiefly Protestants, \nburnt, shot, or pierced to deatli by pikes ; perpetrated \nby the insurgent Irish, at the barn of Scullabogue, \nIreland, in 1798. Musgrave. \n\nOf Europeans at Meerut, Delhi, &C, by mutineers of the \nnative Indian army (see India), May and Juno, 1857. \n\n\n\nMASSAGET^J. \n\n\n\n624 \n\n\n\nMATHEMATICS. \n\n\n\nOf Europeans at Kalangan, on the south coast of Borneo, \ni May, 1859. \n\nOf the Europeans at Morant bay, Jamaica, by the in- \nfuriated negroes, n-12 Oct. 1865 ; see Jamaica. \n\nOf lieut. Holcombe and surveying party (about 70) in \nAssam on Naga hills ; about 24 Feb. 1875. \n\nOf Mr. Margary and servants (with col. Browne\'s expedi- \ntion into Western China; at Manwyne, by Chinese, \n21 Feb. 1875. \n\nOf commodore Goodenough, of the Pearl, and 2 seamen, \nby natives of Santa Cruz island, South Pacific ocean ; \nattacked 12 Aug., died 20 Aug. 1875. \n\nOf prof. Palmer and others ; see Egypt, 1882. \n\nOf gen. Gordon ; see Khartoum, 1885. \n\nOf Mr. Qninton and others, in Manipur (which see), about \n24 March, 1891. \n\nMASSAGETiE, an ancient Scythian people \n(probably the ancestors of the Goths), who invaded \nAsia about 635. In a conflict with them Cyrus the \nGreat was killed, 529 b.c. \n\nMASSILIA, see Marseilles. \n\nMASSORAH, see Masorah. \n\nMASSOWAH, a port on the Red Sea, subject to \nEgypt. Certain commercial rights secured to Abvs- \nsinia by treaty with England and Egypt, May, 1884. \nThe Italian flag hoisted beside the Egyptian, 6 Feb. 1885 \nThe Abyssinians under Ras Aloula severely defeat \n\nthe Arabs at Kufeit near Amadib . 23 Sept. ,, \nGovernment of Massowah assumed by the Italians \n\n2 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nAbyssinians attack Massowah and Italian outposts \n\nbut suffer loss and retire . . 18 Jan. et seq. 1887 \nAbout 500 Italians proceeding with supplies to \nSahati cut off by Abyssinians under Ras Aloula \nat Dagoli, near Massowah . . 25-26 Jan. ,, \nNegotiations with Ras Aloula with respect to release \n\nof prisoners 11 March, ,, \n\nSkirmishes between Italians and Deber tribe \n\n27-28 March, ,, \nMajor Savoiroux made a prisoner, still kept by the \n\nAbyssinians, April ; released . . Sept. ,, \n\nProclamation issued declaring that a state of war \nexists in Massowah and its dependencies, with \nblockade of ports .... 2 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe chief Kantibay submits to Italy . 18 Oct. ,, \nDeclared to be in a state of siege . . 10 Nov. ,, \nItaly notifies to the powers that it has annexed \n\nMassowali July, 1888 \n\nProtectorate proclaimed at Zulla . . 3 Aug. ,, \n\nSevere defeat of Italians at Sanganeiti on the borders \nthrough native treachery ; four Italian officers \n\nkilled Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nKeren occupied and annexed by the Italians 2 June, 1889 \nGen. Baldissera occupies Asmara . . 4 Aug. ,, \nAbout 1,000 dervishes severely defeated after their \nincursion into Italian-protected country ; captives \nand booty rescued, reported . . 29 June, 1890 \nGen. Gandolfi, new governor, announces the termi- \nnation of military rule, in the Italian possessions \non the Red Sea 1 July ,, \n\nMASTER OF THE CEREMONIES, see Cere- \nmonies. \n\nMASTER and Servant Act (amending \n\nthe statute respecting them) was passed 20 Aug. \n1867 ; another act repealing parts of preceding acts \nwas passed 26 July, 1889. See Servants. \nRoyal commission to examine into its working, \nreported 31 July ; published evidence . Oct. 1874 \n\nMASTER of the Great Wardrobe, an \n\nancient office abolished in 1 782 ; duties transferred \nto the lord chamberlain. \n\nMASTER of the Revels, an officer of the \ncourt. Solomon Dayrolle was the last appointed. \nPart of the duties were transferred to the licenser of \nplays, 1737. \n\nMASTER OF THE ROLLS, an equity judge, \nderives his title from having the custody of all \ncharters, patents, commissions, deeds, and recog- \n\n\n\nnizances, entered upon rolls of parchment ; his de- \ncrees are appealable to the court of chancery. The \nrepository of public papers, called the Rolls, wa< in \nChancery-lane. The rolls were formerly kept in a \nchapel founded for the converted Jews; but after \nthe Jews were expelled the kingdom in 1290 it was \nannexed for ever afterwards to the office of the \nmastership of the rolls. Here were kept all the \nrecords since the beginning of the reign of king \nRichard III., 1483; all prior to that period being \nkept in the Tower of London ; see Records. The \nfirst recorded master of the rolls was either John de \nLangton, appointed 1286, or Adam de Osgodeby, \nappointed 1 Oct. 1295 ; but it is clear that the office \nwas in existence long before. Hardy. The duties \nwere define) in 1833; the salary regulated in 1837. \nChanges by the judicature act of 1881. By the \nsupreme court of judicature act, the master of the \nrolls was made a judge of appeal only. \n\nRECENT MASTERS OF THE ROLLS. \n\nSir fin, Grant appointed . . . .27 May, 180a \n\nSir Thomas Plumer 6 Jan. 1818 \n\nRobert, lord Gifford 5 April, 1824 \n\nSir J. S. Copley (aft. lord Lyndhurst) . 14 Sept. 1826 \n\nSir John Leach 3 May, 1827 \n\nSir C. Pepys (aft. lord Cottenham) . 29 Sept. 1834 \nHenry Bickersteth (aft. lord Langdale) . 19 Jan. 1836 \nSir John (baron 1865) Romilly . . 28 March, 1851 \nSir George Jessel (a Jew), 29 Aug. 1873 ; died, \n\n21 March, 1883 \nSir ffm. Baliol Brett (lord Esher, 1885) . 3 April, ,, \n\nMASTERS in Chancery, chosen from the \n\nequity bar, were first appointed, it is said, to assist \nthe ignorance of sir Christopher Hatton, lord chan- \ncellor of England, in 1587. The office was abolished \nin 1852. The offices of the masters in the queen\'s \nbench, common pleas, and exchequer divisions of \nthe high court of justice were amalgamated into \none central office in the high court of justice in \n1879. \n\nMASTODON, see Mammoth. \n\nMATABELE LAND. See Mashona. \n\nMATACAO, a small island near Sierra Leone ; \nsecured to the British by treaty, 18 April, 1826. \nIt was occupied by the French, March, 1879 > an( * \nafter some discussion was left by them June fol- \nlowing. \n\nMATCHES, see Lucifers. \n\nMATERIALISM, the doctrine held by those \nwho maintain that the soul of man is not a spiritual \nsubstance distinct from matter, but is the result of a \nparticular organisation of matter in the body. The \nterm is rather loosely applied to the system of \nEpicurus, about 310 B.C. ; Hobbes, about a.d. 1642 ; \nPriestley, about 1772; and many eminent men in \nthe present day. It is not necessarily identical \nwith atheism. \n\nMATERNITY CHARITY, ROYAL, Fins- \nbury; founded 1757. \n\nMATHEMATICS formerly signified all kinds \nof learning ; but the term is now applied to the \nsciences relating to numbers and quantity ; see \nArithmetic. Among the most eminent mathe- \nmaticians were Euclid, 300 B.C.; Archimedes, \n287 B.C. ; Descartes, died 1650 a.d. ; Barrow, died \n1677; Leibnitz, died 17 16; sir Isaac Newton, died \n1727; Euler, died 1783; Lagrange, died 1813 ; \nLaplace, died 1827 ; and Dr. Peacock, died 1858 ; \nsir G. B. Airy, Bartholomew Price, J. J. Sylvester, \nand I. Todhunter, (died 1884,) are eminent \nmathematicians. Mary Somerville, born 1 790, au- \nthor of the "Mechanism of the Heavens," died 1873. \n\n\n\nMATHURINS. \n\n\n\n625 \n\n\n\nMAYNOOTH COLLEGE. \n\n\n\nThe London Mathematical Society was founded, 16 \nJan. 1865 ; professor Aug. De Morgan, president. \n.John Thomas Crossley, author of the popular " Intel- \nlectual Calculator," died 29 April, 1889, aged 89. \n\nMATHURINS, see under Trinity. \n\nMATINS. The service or prayers first per- \nformed in the morning or beginning of the day in \nthe Roman Catholic church. The French Matins \nwere the massacre of St. Bartholomew, 24 Aug. \n1572. The Matins of Moscow were the massacre of \nprince Demetrius, and the Poles his adherents, in \nthe morning of 27 May, 1606. \n\nMATRIMONIAL CAUSES ACT, passed \n\n1859. By the act passed 27 May, 1878, a magistrate \nmay grant judicial separation with maintenance to \na wife suffering from a husband\'s violent usage. \nThe act was amended in 1884. \n\nMATTER is held to exist in three states: \ngaseous, liquid, and solid. Mr. William Crookes \nconsiders that there is a fourth state, "radiant \nmatter," subtler than any of these, 1879-80. See \nLight. \n\nMATTERHORN, a part of the main ridge of \nthe Alps, about 14,836 feet high, S. Switzerland. \nAfter various fruitless attempts by professor Tyn- \ndall and other eminent climbers, in i860, the sum- \nmit was reached on 14 July, 1865, by Mr. Edward \nWhymper and others. During their descent, four \nof the party were killed. Mr. Hadow fell; the \nconnecting rope broke, and he himself, lord Francis \nDouglas, the rev. Mr. Hudson, and Michael Croz, \na guide, slipped down, and fell from a precipice \nnearly 4000 feet high. Miss Walker, with her \nfather, ascended the Matterhorn, 22 Jul} 7 , 187 1. \nThree gentlemen ascended without a guide, 21 July, \n1876. Dr. W. 0. Moseley, an American, was killed \nhere, 14 Aug. 1879. Three persons attempting the \nascent perished 12 Sept. 1890. \n\nMAUNDY-THURSDAY (derived by Spel- \nman from mande, a hand-basket, in which the king \nwas accustomed to give alms to the poor ; by others \nfrom dies mandati, the day on which Christ gave \nhis grand mandate, that we should love one an- \nother), the Thursday before Good Friday. Wheatly. \nOn this day it was the custom of our sovereigns or \ntheir almoners to give alms, food, and clothing to as \nmany poor persons as they were years old. It was \nbegun by Edward III., when he was fifty years of \nage, 1363, and is still continued. \n\nMAUR, ST., see Benedictions. \n\nMAURITANIA (N. Africa), with Numidia, \nbecame a Roman province, 33 B.C. Augustus created \n(30 B.C.) a kingdom formed of Mauritania and part \nof Getulia, for Juba II., a descendant of the ancient \nAfrican princes. Suetonius Paulinus suppressed a \nrevolt here, a.d. 42, when it was made a province, \ndivided into parts. The country was subjugated \nby the Vandals, 429, and Greeks, 533, and fell into \nthe hands of the Arabs, about 680; see Morocco, and \nIfoors. \n\nMAURITIUS, or Isle of France (in the \n\nIndiin Ocean), was discovered by the Portuguese, \n1505 ; but the Dutch were the first settlers in 1598. \nThey called it after prince Maurice, their stock- \nholder, but on the acquisition of the Cape of Good \nHope, they deserted it ; and it continued unsettled \nuntil the French landed, and gave it the name of \none of the finest provinces in France, 1715- This \nisland was takrn by the British, 2 Dec. 1810, and \nconfirmed to them by the treaty of Paris in 18 14. \nThe bishopric was founded 1854. Sir Henry Barkly, \n\n\n\ngovex-nor, in 1863, succeeded by sir Arthur H. \nGordon, 1870; sir Arthur Purves Phayre, 1874; \nsir George F. Bowen, 1878; sir J. Pope Hennessy, \nDec. 1882; sir Charles Cameron Lees, Sept. 1889. \nPopulation in 1861, 313,462; in 1875, 344,602 ; in \n1890, 377,986. In 1866 two railways were in pro- \ngress ; both now opened. By an awful hurricane, \non 11 March, 1868, great damage was done to \nshipping and buildings, with much loss of life. \nA responsible government granted with a legislative \n\nassembly July-Sept. 1885 \n\nDissensions between sir J. Pope Hennessy and \nMr. Clifford Lloyd and the council, April ; Mr. \nLloyd removed (made governor of the Seychelles) ; \nsir Hercules Robinson as royal commissioner \ninvestigates the affairs, and suspends the governor \nfrom action, announced 28 Dec. 1886. Sir J. Pope \nHennessy reinstated with admonition July, 1887 ; \narrives at Mauritius .... 22 Dec. 1888 \nViolent hurricane, great destruction of buildings, \nshipping and crops ; one-third of port Louis de- \nstroyed, with about 600 deaths, 29 April ; total \nnumber of deaths reported, 1,230 . 14 July, 1892 \nRelief committtes organised (see \'Mansion house). \nLoan of 6oo,oooL to the colony guaranteed by the \n\nBritish government . . . about June, ,, \nThe queen 50Z. \n\nMAUSOLEUM. Artemisia married her own \nbrother, Mausolus, king of Caria, Asia Minor, \n377 B.C. At his death, 353, it is said she drank in \nliquor his ashes after his body had been burned, and \nerected to his memory at Halicarnassus a monument, \none of the seven wonders of the world (350 B.C.), \ntermed Mausoleum. She invited all the literary \nmen of her age, and proposed rewards to him who \ncomposed the best elegiac panegyric upon her hus- \nband. The prize was adjudged to Theopompus, 357 \nB.C. She died 352 B.C. The statue of Mausolus is \namong the antiquities brought from Halicarnassus \nby Mr. (aft. sir) C. T. Newton in 1857, and placed \nin the British Museum. A mausoleum for the royal \nfamily of England was founded by the queen at \nFrogmore, 15 March, 1862. \n\nMAUVE (French for malva, mallow), a dye \nproduced by Dr. Stenhouse from lichens in 1848 ; \nnow produced from Aniline {which see). \n\nMAY, the fifth month of the year, received its \nname, some say, from Romulus, who gave it this \nappellation in respect to the senators and nobles of \nhis city, who were denominated majores ; others \nsupposed it was so called from Maia, the mother of \nMercury, to whom they offered sacrifices on the first \nday. The ancient Romans used to go in pi-ocession \nto the grotto of Egeria on May -day; see Evil \nMay-day. \nMrs. Elizabeth Montague (who died in 1800) gave for \n\nmany years, on May-day, an entertainment at her \n\nhouse in Portman-square, to the chimney-sweepers of \n\nLondon. \nThe annual festival of " Jack in the Green," and his \n\ncompanion sweeps, has gradually ceased, 1816. \nSee under Working Men, May 1890, 1S91 and 1892. \n\nMAYENCE, see Mentz. \n\nMAY-FLOWER, see Pilgrim Fathers. \n\n"MAY LAWS," see Prussia, May, 1S73. \n\nMAYNOOTH COLLEGE (Ireland), \nfounded by parliament, 1795, and endowed by a \nyearly grant voted for the education of students \ndesigned for the Roman Catholic priesthood in \nIreland. An act for its government was passed in \n1800. It contains about 500 students. Permanent \nendowment of this college (30,000^. for the enlarge- \nment of the buildings and 26 000/. annually) was \ngranted by parliament, June, 1845. This occasioned \nmuch controversy in England, a motion being made \n\ns s \n\n\n\nMAYO ASSASSINATION. \n\n\n\n626 \n\n\n\nMAYOES, LOED. \n\n\n\nfor its abolition almost every session. The college \nwas repaired and enlarged in i860. By the Irish \nChurch act, passed 26 July, 1869, the annual parlia- \nmentary grant was to cease after 1 Jan. 187 1 ; a \ncompensation being made. A synod held here, \nSept. 1875, condemned mixed education. The build- \nings were much injured by fire, 31 Oct. 1878 ; dam- \nage estimated at 10,000^. The pictures and books \nwere saved. \n\nMAYO ASSASSINATION. BichardSouth- \nwell Bourke, earl of Mayo, was born 21 Feb. 1822. \nAs lord Naas he was chief secretary for Ireland, in \nthe Derby and Disraeli administrations, 1852, 1858-9, \n1866-8. In Sept. 1868, he was appointed viceroy \nof India, and energetically fulfilled the duties. He \nwas assassinated at Port Blair in the Andaman \nislands, on a visit of inspection, by Shere Ali, a \nconvict, 8 Feb. 1872. The Indian government \ngranted an annual pension of 1000/. to the countess, \nand 20,000^. for the children ; and iooo\xc2\xa3. a year \nwas added to lady Mayo\'s pension by parliament, \nvoted unanimously, 22 July, 1872. \n\nMAYOES OF THE PALACE, high officers in \nFrance, who had great influence during the later \nMerovingian kings, termed " faineants ," do-no- \nthings: \xe2\x80\x94 Pepin the Old (or de Landen), 622 et seq.; \nPepin Heristal, 687-714 ; Charles Martel, despotic, \n714-741 ; Pepin le Bref, 741, who shut up Chil- \nderic III. in a monastery, and himself took the \nkingdom, 752. \n\nMAYOES of Corporations. At the time \n\nof the Norman conquest, 1066, the chief officer of \nLondon was called port-grave, afterwards softened \ninto port-reeve, from Saxon words signifying chief \ngovernor of a harbour. He was afterwards called \nprovost ; but in Henry II. \'s reign the Norman title \nof maire (soon after mayor) was brought into use. \nAt first the mayor was chosen for life, but after- \nwards for periods of irregular duration ; now he is \nchosen annually, but is eligible for re-election. He \nmust be an alderman, and have been sheriff. His \nduties commence on 9 Nov. In early times the \nmayor was always an M.P. for the city The prefix \n10ED is peculiar to the chief civic officer of London, \nDublin, Edinburgh, York, Dundee, Glasgow, and \nBelfast. \n\nThe first mayor of London, Henry Fitz-Ailwin, \nheld office for 24 years, appointed . 1189 or ngi \n\nSir Henry Piekard, who had been lord mayor of \nLondon in 1357, sumptuously entertained in one \nday four monarchs : Edward, king of England ; \nJohn, king of France ; the king of Cyprus ; and \nDavid, king of Scotland ; the Black Prince and \nmany of the nobility being present. Stow. . . 1363 \n\nSir John Norman, lord mayor, went by water to be \nsworn at Westminster, and it is said instituted \nlord mayor\'s show 1453 \n\nThe more costly pageants of the show laid aside . 1685 \n\nThe lord mayor entertained the prince regent of \nEngland, the emperor of Russia, king of Prussia, \nand numerous foreigners of high rank 18 June, 1814 \n\nThe lord mayor, Famcombe, gave a banquet to \nprince Albert and the mayors of most of the \nboroughs of the United Kingdom, in further- \nance of the project of the great International \nIndustrial Exhibition, 1851 . . 21 March, 1850 \n\nThe lord mayor, sir F. Moon, entertained the em- \nperor and empress of the French . 19 April, 1855 \n\nThe lord mayor, B. S. Phillips, entertained the king \nand queen of the Belgians, July ; entertained by \nthem at Brussels Oct. 1866 \n\nThe lord mayor entertained the viceroy of Egypt, \nn June ; the sultan, 18 July, 1867; the shah of \nPersia, 20 June, 1873 ; the czar . . 18 May, 1874 \n\nLord Mayor Nottage died while in office (the first \nsince William Beckford, who died 21 June, 1770), \n\n11 April, 1885 \n\n\n\n813-14 \n\n\n\n1808-9. \n\n1809- \n\n1810- \n\n1811- \n\n1812- \n\n1813 \n\n1814- \n\n1815- \n\n1816- \n\n1817- \n\n1818- \n\n1819- \n\n1820- \n\n1821- \n\n1822- \n\n1823- \n\n1824- \n\n1825- \n\n1826- \n\n1827- \n\n1828- \n\n1829- \n\n1830- \n\n1832- \n\n1833- \n\n1834- \n\n1835- \n\n1836. \n\n1837 \n\n\n\nLORD MAYORS OF L0ND0K \n\n1800-1. Sir William Staines, bart. \n1801-2. Sir John Earner, bart. \n\nCharles Price. \n\nJohn Perring. \n\nPeter Perehard. \n\nSir James Shaw. \n\nSir William Leighton, bart. \n\nJohn Ainsley. \n\nSir Charles Flower, bart. \n\nThomas Smith. \n\n11. Joshua Jonathan Smith. \n\n12. Sir Claudius S. Hunter, bart. \n\n13. George Scholey. \nSir William Domville, bart. \n\n15. Samuel Birch. \n\n16. Matthew Wood. \n\n17. Matthew Wood again. \n\n18. Christopher Smith. \n\n19. John Atkins. \n\n20. George Brydges. \n\n1. John T. Thorpe. \n\n2. Christopher Magnay. \nWilliam Heygate. \nRobert Waithman. \nJohn Garratt. \nWilliam Venables. \nAnthony Browne. \nMatthias Prime Lucas \nWilliam Thompson. \nJohn Crowder. \n\nand 1831-2. Sir John Key, bart. \n\n3. Sir Peter Laurie. \n\n4. Charles Farebrother. \n\n5. Henry Winchester. \n\n6. William Taylor Copeland. \n\n7. Thomas Kelly. \n\xe2\x80\xa28. Sir John Cowan, bart. \n\n1838-9. Samuel Wilson. \n\n40. Sir Chapman Marshall, bart. \nThomas Johnson. \nJohn Pirie. \n\n3. J. Humphrey. \n\n4. Sir W. Magnay, bart. \n\n5. Michael Gibbs. \n\n6. John Johnson. \n\n7. Sir George Carroll. \n\n8. John Kinnersley Hooper. \n\n9. Sir James Duke, bart., M.P. \n50. Thomas Farn combe. \n\nSir John Musgrove. \n\nWilliam Hunter. \n\nThomas Challis, M.P. \n\nThomas Sidney. \n\nSir Fras. G. Moon, bart. \n\nDavid Salomons, Jew. \n\nThomas Quested Finnis. \n\nSir Robert W. Carden (bart. , May, 1887), (died 20 \nJan. 1888). \n1858-9. David W. Wire. \n1859-60. James Carter. \n1860-1. William Cubitt, M.P. \n1861-2. William Cubitt, again. \n1862-3. W. A. Rose. \n1863-4. Wm. Lawrence. \n1864-5. Warren S. Hale. \n1865-6. Benj. Sam. Phillips, Jew. \n1866-7. Thos. Gabriel. \n1867-8. Wm. Ferneley Allen. \n1868-9. James Lawrence. \n1869-70. Robert Besley. \n1870-1. Thomas Dakin. \n\n2. Sills John Gibbons. \n\n3. Sir Sidney Hedley Waterlow \n\n4. Andrew Lusk, M.P. \n\n5. David Henry Stone. \n\n6. Wm. James Richmond Cotton. \n\n7. Sir Thomas White. \n\n8. Thomas Scambler Owden. \n\n9. Sir Charles Whetham. \n_ 80. Sir Francis Wyatt Truscott. \n0-1. Wm. McArthur. \n1-2. John Whittaker Ellis ; bart. May. \n2-3. Henry Edmond Knight. \n3-4. R. N. Fowler, M.P. \n\n4-5. George Swan Nottage; died 11 April, 1885. \n5. Sir R. N. Fowler, bart. M.P., re-elected 14 April \n5-6. John Staples. \n\n\n\n1840- \n\n1841 \n\n1842 \n\n1843 \n\n1844 \n\n1845 \n\n1846 \n\ni8 47 \n\n1848 \n\n1849 \n\n1850- \n\n1851-2 \n\n1852-3 \n\n\xc2\xa3853-4 \n\n1854-5 \n\n1855-6 \n\n1856-7 \n\n1857-8 \n\n\n\n1871 \n1872- \n1873 \n1874 \n1875 \n1876 \n1877 \n1878 \n\n\n\nMAZABIN BIBLE. \n\n\n\n627 \n\n\n\nMECHLIN. \n\n\n\n1886-7. Sir Reginald Hanson (bart., May, 1887) \n\n1887-8. Polvdore de Keyser (Belgian R.C.) (knt. Oct. \n\n1888). \n\n1888-9. James Whitehead (bart., Nov. 1889). \n\n1889-90. Sir Henry Aaron Isaacs, Jew. \n\n1890-1. Joseph Savory (bart. , July, 1891.) \n\n1891-2. David Evans (knt, July, 1892). \n\nLORD MAYORS OF DCBL1N. \n\nJohn le Decer was appointed first provost in 1308 ; \na gilded sword was granted to be borne before the \nprovost by Henry IV 1407 \n\nThomas Cusack appointed first mayor . . . 1409 \n\nThe collar of SS. and a foot company granted by \nCharles II. to the mayors 1660 \n\nSir Daniel Bellingham, the first mayor honoured \nwith the title of lord, by Charles II. , who granted \n500I. per annum, in lieu of the company of foot . 1665 \n\nThe new collar of SS. granted by William III. to the \nmayor, value 1000Z. , the former having been lost \nin James II. \'s time .... = .. 1697 \n\nMAZAEIN BIBLE, see Printing, 1450-5. \n\nMAZEA (or Baba Wali), near Candahar, \nAfghanistan. Here gen. sir Frederick Sleigh \nRoberts totally defeated Sirdar Mahomed Ayoob \nKhan, and captured his camp and all his cannon, \nI Sept. 1880. Amongst the killed were colonel F. \nBrownlow, capt. St. John F. Frome, and capt. \xc2\xa3. \nStraton ; lieut. Hector Maclaine (made prisoner 27 \nJuly) was found recently murdered. Ayoob Khan \nwith some followers fled towards Herat. \n\nMAZUBKA, a Polish dance of the 16th cen- \ntury, introduced into England about 1845 i Chopin\'s \nmusic for the mazurka is much admired. \n\nMEAL TUB PLOT, against the duke of \nYork, afterwards James II., contrived by one \nDangerfield, who secreted a bundle of seditious \nletters in the lodgings of colonel Maunsell, and then \ngave information to the custom-house officers to \nsearch for smuggled goods, 23 Oct. 1679. After \nDangerfield\' s apprehension, on suspicion of forging \nthese letters, papers were found concealed in a \nmeal-tub at the house of a woman with whom he \ncohabited, which contained the scheme to be sworn \nto, accusing the most eminent persons in the Protes- \ntant interest, who were against the duke of York\'s \nsuccession, of treason, \xe2\x80\x94 particularly the earls of \nShtiftesbury, Essex, and Halifax. On Dangerfield \nbeing whipped the last time, as part of his punish- \nment, 1 June, 1685, one of his eyes was struck out \nby a barrister named Robert Francis. This caused \nhis death, for which his assailant was hanged. \n\nMEASUEES, see Weights, and Micrometer. \n" Not men, but measures," a phrase used in par- \nliament by Brougham, 2 Nov. 1830. \n\nMEAT, see Provisions. \n\nMEAT-BISCUIT, said to have been invented \nby Cecil Borden, 1850. See Milk. \n\nMEATH (Ireland). Many episcopal sees in \nMeath (as Clonard, JDuleek, and others of less note) \nwere fixed at Clonard, before 1151-2, when the \ndivision of the bishoprics in Ireland was made by \nJohn Paparo, then legate from Pope Eugene III. \nEugene was the first styled bishop of Meath, about \n1 1 74. Meath was valued, 30 Henry YIIL, at \n373^. 12s. per annum. \n\nMECCA (in Arabia), the birth-place of Ma- \nhomet, about 571, whence be was compelled to flee, \n15 July, 622 (the Hegira). On one of the neigh- \nbouring hills is a cave, where it is asserted he \nretired to perform his devotions, and where the \ngreatest parr of the Koran was brought to him by \nthe angel Gabriel, 604. Mecca, after being vainly \nbesieged by Hosein for the caliph Yezid, 682, was \n\n\n\ntaken by Abdelmelek, 692. In 1803 it fell into the \nhands of the Wahabees, a Mahometan sect. They \nwere expelled by the pacha of Egypt in 1818, \nwho retired in 1841. It is said "that 160,000 \npilgrims visited Mecca in 1858, and only 50,000 \nin 1859. The grand shereef was assassinated by a \nfanatic, 21 March, 1880. Pilgrimage to Mecca \nstill continues ; annual average, 93,350 (1887). \n\nMECHANICAL ENGLNEEES\' INSTI- \nTUTION. See under Engineers, 1847. \n\nMECHANICS. The simple mechanical \npowers have been ascribed to heathen deities ; the \naxe, wedge, wimble, &c., to Dsedalus; see Steam \nEngine, Motion. \n\nAristotle writes on mechanics about . . b. c. 320 \nThe properties of the lever, &c. , demonstrated by \n\nArchimedes, who died 212 \n\n[He laid the foundations of nearly all those inven- \ntions, the further prosecution of which is the \nboast of our age. -Wallis (1695).] \nThe hand-mill, or quern, was very early in use ; the \n\nRomans found one in Yorkshire. \nCattle-mills, moke jumentarice, were also in use by \n\nthe Romans. \nThe water-mill was probably invented in Asia ; the \nfirst that was described was near one of the \n\ndwellings of Mithridates 70 \n\nA water-mill is said to have been erected on the \n\nriver Tiber, at Rome 50 \n\nPappus wrote on mechanics . . about a. d. 350 \n\nFloating-mills on the Tiber 536 \n\nTide-mills were, many of them, in use in Venice \n\nabout 1078 \nWind-mills were in very general use in the 12th \n\ncentury. \nSaw-mills are said to have been in use at Augsburg 1332 \nTheory of the inclined plane investigated by Cardan \n\nabout 1540 \n\nWork on Statics, by Stevinus 1586 \n\nGalileo\'s " Seienza Mecanica " 1634. \n\nTheory of falling bodies, Galileo .... 1638 \n\nLaws of percussion, Huygens, Wallis, Wren, about 1660 \nTheory of oscillation, Huygens .... 1670 \n\nEpicycloidal form of the teeth of wheels, Roemer . 1675 \nPercussion and animal mechanics, Borelli ; he died 1679 \nApplication of mechanics to astronomy, parallel- \nism of forces, laws of motion, &c, Newton, \nHooke, &c. ...... 1666-1700 \n\nProblem of the catenary with the analysis, Dr. \n\nGregory 1697 \n\nSpirit level (and many other inventions) by Dr. Hooke \n\nfrom 1660 to 1702 \nD\'Alembert\'s researches on dynamics . about 1743 \nLagrange\'s " Meeanique Analytique " published . 1788 \nLaplace\'s " Meeanique Celeste " published 1799-1805 \nBorgnis\' Dictionnaire de Meeanique appliquee aux \n\nArts, 10 vols. 1818-23 \n\nEdward H Knight\'s excellent "Practical Dic- \ntionary of Mechanics," published . . 1877-S4 \n[Among the best modern writers on the science of \nmechanics are Poncelet, Whewell, Barlow, Mose- \nley, Delaunay, Rankine, Bartholomew Price, Ball \nand Willis.] \n\nMECHANICS\' INSTITUTIONS. One \n\nwas founded by Dr. Birkbeck in London, and \nanother in Glasgow, in 1823; and soon after others \narose in different parts of the empire. They have \nrevived since 1857, many noblemen and gentlemen \ngiving lectures in them. \n\nMECHANICS\' MAGAZINE, weekly; esta- \nblished 30 Aug. 1823 ; was incorporated with a new \npaper termed " Iron," Jan. 1873. \n\nMECHLIN or MALINES (Belgium), re- \nnowned for its lace manufacture, was founded iu \nthe 6th century; destroyed by the Normans in 884; \nsacked by the Spaniards, 1572 ; taken by the prince \nof Orange, 1578, and by \'the English," 1580; and \nfrequently captured iu the 17th and 18t.l1 centuries, \npartaking in the evil fortunes of the country. A \n\ns s 2 \n\n\n\nMECKLENBURG. \n\n\n\n623 \n\n\n\nMEDICINE. \n\n\n\nRoman Catholic congress was held here Sept. 1867. \nPopulation 1890, 50,962. \n\nMECKLENBURG (N. Germany), formerly \na principality in Lower Saxony, now independent \nas the two grand duchies of Meeklenburg-Sehwerin \n(population in 1885, 575,152; 1890, 578,565) and \nMecklenburg- Strelitz (population in 1885, 98,371 ; \n1890, 97,978). The house of Mecklenburg claims \nto be descended from Genseric the Vandal, who \nravaged the western empire in the 5th century, \nand died 477. During the Thirty years\' war Meck- \nlenburg was conquered by Wallenstein, who became \nits duke, 1628 ; it was restored to its own duke, \n1630. After several changes the government was \nsettled in 1701 as it now exists in the two branches \nof Schwerin and Strelitz. In 1815 the dukes were \nmade grand dukes. The dukes joined the new \nNorth German confederation by treaty, 21 Aug. \n1866. \n\n\n\n1815. \n\n\n\n1815. \n1816. \n\n\n\nGRAND-DUKES OP MECKLENBURGSCHWERIN. \n\nFrederic-Francis I. ; died 7 March, 1842. \nFrederic-Francis II. ; born 28 Feb. 1823 ; died 15 \n\nApril, 1883. \nFrederic-Francis III. son, born 19 March, 1851. \n\nGRAND-DUKES OF MECKLENBURG-STRELITZ. \n\nCharles ; died 6 Nov. 1816. \n\nGeorge, born 12 Aug. 1779; died 6 Sept. i860. \n\nFrederic William, horn 17 Oct. 1819 ; married prin- \ncess Augusta of Cambridge, 28 June, 1843. \n\nHeir: his son, Adolphus-Frederic, born 22 July, \n1848. \n\nThe royal family of England is intimately allied \nwith the house of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. King \nGeorge III. married Charlotte, a daughter of the \nduke, in 1761; their son, the duke of Cumber- \nland (afterwards king of Hanover) married \nprincess Frederica Caroline, a daughter of the \nduke, in 1815. \n\nMEDALS, see Numismatics. The ancient \nmedals resembled medallions. Modern medals \nbegan about 1453 in the 15th century with the \nworks of Vittore Pisano, of Verona, who died \n1456, and his followers. Charles I. author- \nized the presentation of a badge or medal for \n"forlorn hopes" soldiers, May, 1643. The house \nof commons resolved to grant rewards and medals \nto the fleet whose officers (Blake, Monk, Penn and \nLawson) and men gained a glorious victory over \nthe Dutch fleet, off theTexel, in 1653. Blake\'s medal \nof 1653 was bought by his majesty, William IV. for \n150 guineas. In 1692 an act was passed for apply- \ning the tenth part of the proceeds of prizes for \nmedals and other rewards for officers, seamen, and \nmarines. Subsequent to Lord Howe\'s victory, \n1 June, 1794, it was thought expedient to institute \na naval medal. Medals were struck for the victory \nof Waterloo ; a general war medal (for the war \n1793-1814) was ordered in 1847 ; and special medals \nwere given after the Caff\'re and Chinese wars. Medals \nwere presented by the queen to persons distin- \nguished in the war in the Crimea, 18 May, 1855. \nMedals were given to arctic voyagers of 1875-6, in \n1877; after Egyptian war, 1882, distributed by the \nqueen at Windsor, 21 Nov. 1882; medals for the \nSoudan war, ordered, 2 Sept. 1885 ; a Burmah medal \nwas given for the war, 1885-7. Col. Eaton exhi- \nbited 1000 medals in New Bond-street, May, 1880. \nSee Victoria Gross. \nSociety of Medallists formed in the spring of 1885 by the \n\nhon. C. W. Freniantle, deputy-master of the Mint, \n\npresident, sir Frederick Leighton and others. \nJubilee medal designed by sir Frederick Leighton, \n\nP.R.A., issued. \nA list of military and naval medals is given in Whitaker\'s \n\nAlmanack in 1888. \nGeneral Fred. Brine possesses a fine collection of war \n\nmedals which he has exhibited. \n\n\n\nMEDIA, a province of the Assyrian empire, \nrevolted, 71 1 B.C. Its chronology is doubtful. \nArbaces, reputed founder of the monarchy about b. c. 842 \n\nSucceeded by eight kings (Ctesias), or by four \n\n(Herodotus). \nDeioces, founder of Eebatana, reigns , . . . 709 \nPhraortes, or Arphaxad, reigns ; (he conquers Persia, \n\nArmenia, and other countries) .... 656 \n\nWarlike reign of Cyaxares 632-594 \n\nWar with the Lydians (see Halys) .... 603 \n\nAstyages reigns 594 \n\nAstyages deposed by Cyrus, who established the \n\nempire \'of Persia (which see) .... 560 \n\nMEDIAEVAL, see Dark Ages. \n\nMEDICAL ACT, see Medical Council. \n\nMEDICAL ASSOCIATION, British, \nfounded in 1832 for the promotion of medical science \nand the maintenance of the honour of the medical \nprofession. It holds annual meetings at different \nplaces in the United Kingdom, and publishes the \n" British Medical Journal" weekly. \n\nMEDICAL BENEVOLENT COLLEGE, \n\nRoyal, (Epsom,) opened in 1855 by the prince \nconsort. It provides an asylum tor 20 pensioners \nmale and female ; and 40 foundation scholars (sons \nof medical men) are fed, clothed, and educated. \n\nMEDICAL CONGRESSES, International, \nhave been held at Paris, 1867; Florence, 1869; \nVienna, 1873 ; Brussels, 1875 ! Geneva, 1877 ; \nAmsterdam, 1879 ; the seventh was held in \nLondon, 2-9 August, 1881 ; eighth, Copenhagen, \n10 Aug. 1884; ninth, Washington, 5-10 Sept. \n1887 ; tenth, at Berlin, 4-9 Aug. 1890. \n\nMEDICAL COUNCIL. The Medical Act, \n1858, " to regulate the qualifications of practi- \ntioners in medicine and surgery;" was amended \nin i860, and an important amendment act, with- \ndrawn 25 July, 1884, passed 1886. It esta- \nblished "the General Council of Medical Edu- \ncation and Registration of the United King- \ndom." The first meeting of this council took \nplace on 23 Nov. 1858, when sir B. C. Brodie was \nelected first president (who on 30 Nov. was elected \npresident of the Royal Society). He was succeeded \nby Mr. J. H. Green in June, i860 ; by Dr. George \nBurrows, Jan. 1864; by Dr. George Edward Paget \nin 1870; and by Dr. Henry Wentworth Acland in \n1874; Mr. John Marshall in 1887, and by sir \nRichard Quain, bart., in 1891. The first Medical \nRegister was issued in July, 1859. In 1862 the \ncouncil was incorporated by parliament, and autho- \nrised to prepare and sell a new Pharmacopoeia, \nwhich was published as the "British Pharmaco- \npoeia," in 1864. New editions have appeared since. \n\nMEDICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, \n\nfounded 1773. Royal Medical and Chirurgical \nSociety, founded 1805. \n\nMEDICI FAMILY, the restorers of litera- \nture and the fine arts in Italy, were chiefs or \nsignori of the republic of Florence from 1434, in \nwhich year Cosmo de\' Medici, who had been \nbanished from the republic, was recalled and made \nits chief; he ruled for thirty years. Lorenzo de\' \nMedici, styled "the Magnificent," and the "Father \nof Letters," ruled Florence from 1469 to 1492. \nGiovanni de\' Medici (pope Leo X.) was the son of \nLorenzo. Roscov. From 1569 to 1737 the Medici \nfamily were hereditary grand dukes of Tuscany \n(which see). Cattarina de\' Medici became queen of \nFrance in 1547, and regent in 1550. She plotted \nwith the duke of Alva to destroy the Protestants \nin 1565. \n\nMEDICINE, see Physic, and Physicians. \n\n\n\nMEDINA. \n\n\n\n629 MELBOUENE ADMINISTRATIONS. \n\n\n\nMEDINA (Arabia Deserta), famous for the \ntomb of Mahomet, in a large mosque, lighted by \nrich lamps. Medina was called the City of the \nProphet, because here Mahomet was protected when \nhe tied from Mecca, 15 July, 622 ; see Hegira. \nMedina was taken by the Wahabees in 1804 ; re- \ntaken by the pauha of Egypt, 1818. \n\nMEDINA, Bopora country, Africa, a kingdom \nannexed to Liberia by consent, announced Feb. \n1880. It is rich in forests and African products, \nwith gold, iron, and other minerals. \n\nMEDINA DE ^ EIO SECO (Valladolid, \nSpain). Here Bessieres defeated the Spaniards, \n15 July, 1808. \n\nMEDIOLANITM, see Milan. \n\nMEDIUM, see Spiritualism. \n\nMEDUN, near Podgoritza, European Turkey. \nIn a ravine here, the Turks, under Mahmud \nPacha, were severely defeated \\>y the Montenegrins, \n14 Aug. 1876. \n\nMEEANEE. The Belooehees, amounting to \n30,000 infantry, with 15 guns and 5000 cavalry, \nposted in a formidable position at Meeanee, were \ndefeated with great loss on 17 Feb. 1843, by lieut.- \ngen. sir Charles Napier, with 2600 men of all \narms, \n\nMEEEUT (near Delhi). Here the Indian \n\nmutiny began, 10 May, 1857; sec India. \n\nMEG^EEA, see Wrecks, 187 1. \n\nMEGALOPOLIS, a city of Arcadia, founded \nby the advice of Epaminondas, 371 B.C., long sub- \nject to the Macedonians. Having joined the \nAcha?an League, 234 b c, it was taken and plun- \ndered by Cleomenes of Sparta, 222 B.C. It was \npartly restored 221, but gradually decayed. \nDuring the excavations carried on for the British school \nof Archaeology of Athens, many discoveries were made, \nincluding the site of a great theatre, a tumulus with \nbones, ornaments, etc., reported April, 1890. \n\nMEGAPHONE, a form of telephone (wJdch \nsee), invented by Mr. T. A. Edison, for the use of \nthe deaf; announced 1878. \n\nMEGAEA, a city of ancient Greece, was sub- \ndued by the Athenians in the 8th century B.C. \nPericles suppressed a revolt, 445 B.C. The Mega- \nrians founded Byzantium 657 B.C. Megara became \na free city 307, and joined the Achasan League, 242, \nand sent a second colony, 628 B.C. The Megarian \n(Eristic or disputatious) school of philosophy was \nfounded by Euclid and Siilpo, natives of Megara. \n\nMEHADPOEE or MAHEDPORE (W.India). \nHere sir Thomas Hislop and sir John Malcolm \ndefeated the Mahrattas under Holkar, 21 Dec. 1817. \n\nMEININGEN COUET COMPANY. See \n\nunder Theatres : Drury-lane. \n\nMEISTEESINGEES, see Minnesingers. \n\nMELANESIA, South-west Pacific Isles. The \nrev. J. C. Patteson (son of sir Juhn), born 1827, was \nconsecrated missionary bishop of Melanesia. He \nand the rev. J. Atkin were murdered at the isle of \nSanta Cruz, one of th- Queen Charlotte group, by the \nnatives, Sept. 1871, it is supposed in revenge for \nthe kidnapping natives for slaves for Queensland \nand the Fiji isles, a measure wbich the bishop \nhimself strenuously opposed. \n\nMELAZZO (W. Sicily). Here Garibaldi, on \n20, 21 July, i860, defeated the Neapolitans under \ngeneral Bosoo, who lost about 600 men; Garibaldi\'s \n\n\n\nloss being 167. The latter entered Messina; and \non 30 July a convention was signed, by which it \nwas settled that the Neapolitan troops were to \nquit Sicily. They held the citadel of Messina till \n13 March, 1861. \n\nMELBOUENE (Australia) capital of Victoria \n{which see). It was founded by J. P. Fawkener, \n29 Aug. 1835 ; and laid out as a town by order of \nsir R. Bourke, in April, 1837. The first land sale \ntook place in June, and speculation continued till \nit caused wide-spread insolvenc3 r , in 1841-2. \nPopulation in 1851,23,000; 1891,491,378. \n\nMade a municipal corporation, 1842 ; a bishopric . 1847 \nFirst legislative assembly of Victoria meets . . 1852 \nGold found in great abundance about 80 miles from \nMelbourne in the autumn of 1851, and immense \nnumbers of emigrants flocked there in conse- \nquence, causing an enormous rise in the prices of \n\nprovisions and clothing \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe city greatly improved with public buildings, \n\nhandsome shops, <fcc _ . 1853 \n\nThe Victoria bank, Ballarat, broken open, and \n14,300?. in money and 200 ounces in gold dust \ncarried otf [one of the robbers was taken in Eng- \nland, sent back to Melbourne, and there tried \n\nand hanged] 8 Oct. 1854 \n\nUniversity founded 1855 \n\nMonster meeting held at Ballarat respecting the \ncollection of the gold licences, followed by riots, \nduring which the Southern Cross flag was raised ; \nintervention of the military ; 26 rioters and three \nsoldiers killed, and many wounded . 30 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe mayor comes to London to congratulate the \n\nqueen on the marriage of the princess royal . 1858 \n\nIntercolonial exhibition opened . . .25 Oct. 1866 \nArrival of the duke of Edinburgh . . 23 Nov. 1867 \nGreat telescope set up at the Observatory early in 1869 \nTheatre-royal burnt .... 19 March, 187:2 \nInternational exhibition opened by the marquis of \n\nNormanby 1 Oct. 1880 \n\nDirect railway to Sydney completed . June, 1883 \nCentenary exhibition to celebrate the foundation of \nNew South Wales colony opened by sir Henry \nBrougham Loch, the governor, 1 Aug. 1888-31 Jan. 1889 \nGreat meeting to support Imperial Institute 9 May, ,, \nGreat fire in Collins street, 3 firemen killed, loss \nabout 200,000?. ..... 13 Sept. ,, \n\nMeeting of Australian delegates respecting the \n\nfederation (see Australasia) . . 6-14 Feb. 1890 \nGreat strike of officers and men employed in ship- \nping connected with the marine association, \n\nabout 15 Aug. ,, \nA union of employers formed, 4 Sept. ; plenty of \n\nfree labour 11Se.pt. ,, \n\nGradual resumption of work ; end of the strikes \n\nannounced at a mass meeting . . 14 Nov. ,, \n\nThe new Anglican cathedral consecrated 22 Jan. 1891 \nDestructive overflow of the Yarra-Yarra owing to \nheavy rains about n July, et seq. ; floods subside ; \n12,000?. subscribed for sufferers . 21 July, ,, \nThe Standard Bank of. Australia stops payment; \n\ntemporary panic 4 Dec. ,, \n\nThe new great Western dock opened by lord Hope- \n\ntoun 22 March, 1892 \n\nMelbourne murder: Frederick Bailey Deeming (alias \nAlbert Oliver Williams), tried for the murder of \nEmily Mather whom he married at Liverpool \n17 Oct., and brought to Australia 15 Dec, and \nmurdered at Windsor near Melbourne about \n25 Dec. 1891 ; convicted 28 April-2 May ; executed \n\n23 May, ,, \n[It was stated that in Feb. 1881, he married \nMarie James, went with her to Sydney, and \nwas there convicted of fraud in 1882 ; that \nhe took Dinham Villa, Rainhill, near Widnes, \nLancashire, England, 23 July, 1891 ; and \nthere murdered his wife and four children \nabout 26, 27 July, 1891 ; he was charged with \nthe murders, by the verdict of the coroner\'s \njury, 28 March, 1892.] \n\nSee Victoria. \n\nMELBOUENE ADMINISTRATIONS. \n\nOn the retirement of earl Grey, 9 July, 1834, \n\n\n\nMELEGNANO. \n\n\n\n630 \n\n\n\nMENAI STEAIT. \n\n\n\nviscount Melbourne * became first minister of the \ncrown, 16 July. When viscount Althorp became \nearl Spencer, on his father\'s decease, Nov. same \nyear, lord Melbourne waited on the king to receive \nhis majesty\'s command as to the appointment of a \nnew chancellor of the Exchequer, when his majesty \nsaid he considered the administration at an end. \nSir Robert Peel succeeded, but was compelled to re- \nsign in 1835, and lord Melbourne returned to office. \nHis administration finally terminated, 30 Aug. \n1841, sir Robert Peel again coming into power; see \nAdministrations. \n\nfirst administration, July, 1 834 resigned \nNov. 1834. \nViscount Melbourne, first lord of the treasury. \nMarquis of Lansdowne, lord president. \nEarl Mulgrave, privy seal. \nViscount Althorp, chancellor of the exchequer. \nViscount Duncannon, viscount Palmerston, and T. Spring \n\nRice (afterwards lord Monteagle), home, foreign, and \n\ncolonial secretaries. \nLord Auckland, admiralty. \nMr. Charles Grant (afterwards ord Glenelg), and Mr. C. \n\nP. Thomson (afterwards lord Sydenham), boards of \n\ncontrol and trade. \nLord J ohn Russell, paymaster of the forces \nLord Brougham, lord chancellor. \nSir John Hobhouse, Mr. Elliee, marquis of Conyngliam, \n\nMr. Littleton, &c. \n\nSECOND ADMINISTRATION, April, 1835. \n\nViscount Melbourne, first lord of the treasury. \n\nMarquis of Lansdowne, lord president. \n\nViscount Duncannon, privy seal, and woods and forests \n\n(succeeded by earl of Clarendon, Jan. 1840). \nT. Spring Rice, chancellor of the exchequer (succeeded by \n\nFrancis T. Baring, Aug. 1840). \nLord John Russell, home secretary (succeeded by marquis \n\nof Normanby, Aug. 1839). \nViscount Palmerston, foreign secretary. \nLord Glenelg, colonial secretary (succeeded by marquis \n\nof Normanby, Feb. 1839; lord John Russell, Aug. 1839). \nViscount Howick, secretary-at-war (succeeded by T. B. \n\nMacaulay, Sept. 1839). \nLord Auckland, admiralty (succeeded by earl of Minto, \n\nSept. 1835). \nSir John C. Hobhouse, board of control. \nC. Poulett Thomson, board of trade (succeeded by Henry \n\nLabouchere, Aug. 1839). \nLord Holland, chancellor of duchy of Lancaster (succeeded \n\nby earl of Clarendon, Oct. 1840). \nThe chancellorship in commission ; sir C. Pepys (after- \nwards lord Cottenham), became lord chancellor, Jan. \n\n1836. \n\nMELEGNANO, see Marignano. \n\nMELENITE, a new explosive invented by M. \nTurpin, a French chemist ; approved by the French \nWar Minister, Dec. 1886. Several persons killed \nby an explosion of this material at Belfort. The \npatent was bought by Messrs. Armstrong & Co., of \nElswick, named Lyddite, and sold by them to the \nBritish Government, announced Oct. 1888. \nBy an explosion of melenite at Bourges four work- \nmen were killed Io0c t. 1890 \n\nine mchnite scandal, notice by the chamber of \ndeputies, May, June, 1891. M. Turpin and \ncaptain Tripone sentenced to imprisonment, \nexile and fines for receiving monev for communi- \ncations respecting melinite to foreigners, 17 June, 1891 \nMELFI (Apulia, S. Italy) was nearly destroyed \nby an earthquake, 14 Aug. 1851 : about 600 persons \nperished. \n\nMELODISTS\' CLUB, founded in 182; by \nadmirers of Uibdin ; prizes were offered. \n\nMELODRAMA, in which dialogue is inter- \nspersed with music, began in Germany in the 18th \n\n* Win. Lamb, born in 1779; became M.P. for West- \nminster, 1812 ; secretary for Ireland, 1827 ; succeeded his \nfather as viscount Melbourne, 1828 ; died, 24 Nov 1848 \n\n\n\ncentury, and was introduced here by Thomas Hol- \ncroft. \n\nMELOEA or MELORIA, a small isle in the \nMediterranean, near which the Pisan fleet defeated \nthe Genoese, in 1241, capturing many bishops going \nwith much treasure to a council. The total destruc- \ntion of the Pisan fleet on 6 Aug. 1284, by the \nGenoese near the same place, after a most sanguinary \nconflict, was considered to be the just punishment \nof their impiety. \n\nMELOS (now Milo), one of the Cyclades in the \niEgean sea, early colonised by the Spartans \nDuring the Peloponnesian war the Melians \nadhered to Sparta, till the island was captured, \nafter seven months\' siege, by the Athenians, who \nmassacred all the men and sold the women and \nchildren as slaves, 416 B.C. A statue of Venus, \nfound here in 1820, was placed in the Louvre, 1834. \n\nMEMBEES OF PAELIAMENT \n\n(Charges and Allegations) ACT, passed \n\n13 Aug., 1888. See under Ireland and Parnellites. \n\nMEMEL, an important commercial port in \nPrussia, built about 1252 by the Livonian order. \nIt was fortified by the Teutonic knights, 1404. \nIt was almost totally destroyed by fire, 4 Oct. \n1854. \n\n^ MEMNONEIUM or Bameseion (Thebes, \nEgypt), the first Egyptian monarch \xe2\x80\x94 4455, Britgsck, \nthe tomb of Osymandyas, according to Diodorus, \nnow considered to be that of Rameses III., about \n1200, Brugsch. \n\nMEMOEIAL HALL, see Independents. \n\nMEMOEY, see Mnemonics. \n\nMEMPHIS, an ancient city of Egypt ("of \nwhich the very ruins are stupendous"), is said to \nhave been built by Menes. It included several \ngrand temples with the tombs of the kings. \nThe invasion of Cambyses, 525 B.C., began the \nruin of Memphis, and the founding of Alexandria, \n332, completed it. It was restored by Septimius \nSeverus,A.D. 202. In the 7th century, under the \ndominion of the Saracens, it fell into decay. \xe2\x80\x94 \nMemphis, Tennessee, U. S., on the Mississippi, was \ntaken from the confederates by the federals after a \nsevere conflict, 6 June, 1862. \nThe cyclorama of Memphis as it might have appeared at \n\nthe departure of the Israelites from Egypt 1491 B.C. \n\npainted by Herr Edmund Beringer, was exhibited at \n\nNiagara-hall, Westminster, Jan. 1892. \n\n"MEN OF THE BEIGN." by T. Humphry \n\nWard, published 1885. " Celebrities of the Cen- \ntury," by L. C. Sanders, 1887. \n\nMEN OF THE TIME, a Dictionary of Con- \ntemporaries, first published 1852 ; 12th edition, by \nT. Humphry Ward, 1887. 13th edition "Men \nand Women of the Time," edited by G. W. Moon, \n1891. \xe2\x80\x94 " Men of Mark," printed photographs, \nwith biographical sketches, by Mr. T. Cooper, first \nappeared Jan. 1876. \n\nMENAGEEIE, see Zoology, Tower. \nMr. Phineas Taylor Barnum\'s great menagerie at Bridg- \nport, Connecticut, burnt ; a great many animals perish ; \nloss about 140,000?. 20 Nov. 1887. Mr. Barnum stated \nto have purchased the old Wombwell\'s collection Jan. \n1888. See Barnum. \n\nMENAI STEAIT (between the Welsh coast, \nand the isle of Anglesey). Suetonius Paulinus, \nwhen he invaded Anglesey, transported his troops \nacross this strait in flat-bottomed boats, 59. In \ncrossing this strait, a ferry-boat was lost, and fifty \n\n\n\nMENDICANT FEIAES. \n\n\n\n631 \n\n\n\nMEECUEY. \n\n\n\npersons, chiefly Irish, 4 Dec. 1785. The road from \nLondon to Holyhead has long been regarded as the \nhighway from the British metropolis to Dublin; \nMr. Telford was applied to by the government to \nperfect this route by the London and Holyhead \nmail-coach road, which he did by erecting beautiful \nsuspension bridges over the river Conway and the \nMenai Strait, commenced in July, 1818, finished in \nJuly, 1825, opened 30 Jan. 1826. The Britannia \ntubular bridge over the Menai was constructed by \nStephenson and Fairbaira in 1 849-50 ; see Ttibular \nBridges. \n\nMENDICANT FEIAES. Several religious \norders commenced alms-begging in the 13th century, \nin the pontificate of Innocent III. They spread \noyer Europe, and formed many communities ; but \nat length by a general council, held by Gregory X. \nat Lyons, in 1272, were reduced to four orders \xe2\x80\x94 \nDo mini cans, Franciscans, Carmelites, and Augus- \ntuses. The Capuchins and others branched off; \nsee Franciscans, &c. \n\nMENDICITY SOCIETY (Red Lion-square, \nLondon), was established in 1818 for the suppression \n\xe2\x80\xa2of public begging, and other impositions. Tickets \nreceived from the society are given by subscribers \nto beggars, who obtain relief at the society\'s house, \nif deserving. Up to 1872 the society had caused \nabove 23,000 vagrants to be convicted as impostors. \nIn 1857, 54,074 meals; in i860, 42,912; in 1865, \n\xe2\x80\xa252,137; in 1872, 26,330; in 1878, 55,180 were dis- \ntributed. In 1857, 3785 ; in 1865, 3809 ; in 1872, \n.2192; and in 1878, 1700 begging letters were in- \nvestigated; in 1891, 1358 ; 1384 cases were relieved \nan 1887. See Poor. The society has been much \naided by the action of the Charity Organization \nsociety ; established in 1870. \n\nMENDOZA, in the Argentine republic, nearly \n\xe2\x80\xa2destroyed by an earthquake, one of the most awful \nrecorded, 20 March, 1861 : above 7000 persons \nperished. \n\nMENIPPEE, see Satire. \n\nMENNONITES, four sects of Dutch, Flemish \nand German baptists ; derive their name from Menno \n\xe2\x80\xa2Symonis (1505-61), formerly a catholic priest, who \nhecame a teacher and leader of the anabaptists, \nabout 1537, and published his " True Christian \nBelief" in 1556 ; subsequently divisions and changes \nensued. The Mennonites, objecting to war, emi- \ngrated from Prussia to Odessa, to escape military \n\xe2\x80\xa2\xe2\x96\xa0service, and went thence to America, 1878. \n\nMENSUEATION. The properties of conic \nsections were discovered by Archimedes, to whom \nthe chief advancement in mensuration may be \nattributed. He also determined the ratio of spheres, \nspheroids, &c, about 218 B.C. ; see Arithmetic. \nThe Mensurator, a new machine for the solution \nof triangles, was explained by Mr. W. Marsham \nAdams, at the British Association Meeting at \nBrighton, Aug. 1872. \n\nMENTANA, (near Monter Rotondo, in the old \npapal states). Here Garibaldi and his volunteers, \nafter having intrenched his positions at Monte \nllotondo and Mentana on their march towards \nTivoli, on Sunday, 3 Nov. 1867, were totally \n\xe2\x96\xa0defeated by the pontilical and French troops under \ngenerals Kanzlar and Polhes, after a severe con- \nflict, in which general Failly said " the Chassepot \naides did wonders." There were about 5000 men \non each side, but the Garibaldians were very badly \narmed. The loss of the papal and French troops \nwas about 200 killed and wounded ; that of Garibaldi \nabout 800. Garibaldi crossed the Italian frontier. \n\n\n\nand was arrested at Correse, and eventually sent to \nCaprera (about 25 Nov.). See Rome. A monu- \nment to the Garibaldians who fell here was inau- \ngurated 25 Nov. 1877. \n\nMENTZ or MayEjNTCE (S.W. Germany), the \nRoman Moguntiacum, built about 13 B.C. The \narchbishopric was founded by Boniface, 745. Many \ndiets have been held here ; and here John Faust \nestablished a printing press, about 1440. A festival \nin honour of John Gutenberg was celebrated here \nin 1837, another June, 1890. See Printing. Mentz \nwas given up to the Prussians, 26 Aug. 1866. \nPopulation 1890, 72,934. \n\nMENU, INSTITUTES OF, the very ancient \ncode of India. Sir Win. Jones, who translated them \ninto English (1794), considers their date should be \nplaced between Homer (about 962 B.C.) and the \nRoman Twelve Tables (about 449 B.C.). \n\n. MEECANTILE MAEINE ACT was passed \nin Aug. 1850, and amended Aug. 1851. \n\nMEECATOE\'S CHAETS, said to have been \nconstructed by Gerard Mercator or Kaufl\'mann and \npublished 1556, and applied to navigation by Edward \nWright about 1599. \n\nMEECHANDISE MAEKS ACT, passed \nin 1862 to punish forgeries of trade-marks. Another \nact passed in 1887 ; reported very effectual, 1890 ; \namended 1891. \n\nAt an International Conference on the subject of \nfraudulent trade-marks, held at Madrid 7-14 April \n1890, an important convention was agreed to. \n\nMEECHANT ADVENTUEEES\' COM- \nPANY, established by the duke of Brabant in \n1296, was extended to England in Edward lll.\'s \nreign, and was formed into a corporation in 1564. \xe2\x80\x94 \nThe Merchant-Taylors, a rich company of the \ncity of London, of which many kings have been \nmembers, were so called after the admission of \nHenry VII. into their company, 1501, but were in- \ncorporated in 1466. Their school was founded in \n1 561. Stow. \n\nMEECHANT SHIPPING ACT of 1854 \nwas amended by acts passed in 1862, 1867, 1871, 1872, \nand 1873. The Act suddenly passed 13 Aug. 1875, \ngave further power to the Board of Trade for \nstopping unseaworthy ships. Other Acts passed \n1876, 1880, 1882, 1883, 1889; see Courts of Survey, \nand Seamen. \n\nLoss of life at sea having groatly increased, a new \nbill brought in by Mr. Joseph Chamberlain, pre- \nsident of the Board of Trade, to prevent over- \nloading, under-manning, and over-insurance, 19 \nMay ; withdrawn .... 3 July, 1884 \nRoyal commission to inquire into merchant ship- \nping (earl of Aberdeen, the duke of Edinburgh, \nMr. J. Chamberlain, Mr. Burt, Mr. H. Green, Mr. \nT. C. Baring and eight others), gazetted 28 Oct. \n1884; last meeting .... 31 July, 1885 \n\nFirst report issued 15 Nov. ,, \n\nRoyal commission on loss of life at sea appointed \n\n4 March, 1886 \nIssue report recommending such alteration of law \n(if marine insurance as would prevent owners \nfrom making profit by the loss of their ships and \nother changes 27 Aug. 1887 \n\nMEECHANTS were protected by Magna \nCharta, 1215, and by many statutes. See Acton \nBurnel. An attempt made by queen Anne\'s ministry \nto exclude merchants from sitting in the house of \ncommons in 1711, failed. \n\nMEECIA, sec under Britain. \n\nMEECUEY, the planet nearest the sun, and \nthe smallest known to the ancients. The transit \nof Mercury over the sun\'s disk, of rare occurrence \n\n\n\nMEECY. \n\n\n\n632 \n\n\n\nMETAMOEPHISTS. \n\n\n\naud first observed by Gassendi, 1631, was well ob- \nserved 5 Nov. 1868; at Athens\'), 10 May, 1891. See \nCalomel and Quicksilver. The Greek god Hermes \nwas the Roman Mercury. \n\nMEECY, ORDER OF (in France), was estab- \nlished with the object of accomplishing the redemp- \ntion of Christian captives among the Saracens, by \nJohn de Matha in 1198. Henault. Another order \nwas formed by Pierre Nolasque in Spain, 1223. \n\nMEEIDA (Spain), a town in Estremadura \n(built by the Romans), was taken by the French, \nJan. 1811. Near this town, at Arroy dos Molinos, \nthe British army under general (afterwards lord) \nHill defeated the French under general Girard, \nafter a severe engagement, 28 Oct. 181 1. The \nBritish took Merida from the French in 1812, \ngeneral Hill leading the combined forces of English \nand Spanish troops. \n\nMEEIDIAN, see under Geodesy. \n\nMEEINO SHEEP, imported into England \nfrom Spain, 1788, are thought to be descendants of \nEnglish sheep taken to Spain as part of the dowry \nof John of Gaunt\' s daughter Katherine, 1390. \n\nMEEOE, an ancient city and country of \nAfrica, near the sources of the Nile, said to have \nflourished under sacerdotal government in the time \nof Herodotus, about 450 B.C. \n\nThe priest-king Brgainenes massacred the priests and \n\nbecame absolute, about 300 b.c. \nThe ruins of the ancient capital, were discovered by \n\nCaillaud between 1819 and 1822. \n\nMEEOVINGIANS, the first race of French \nkings, 418-752 ; see France and Mayors. \n\nMEEEIMAC, see United States, 1862. \n\nMEEEY-ANDEEW. The name is said to \nhave been first given to Andrew Borde, a physician, \nwho lived in the reign of Henry VIII., and who, on \nsome occasions, on account of his facetious manners, \nappeared at court, 1547. \n\nMEESEY TUNNEL, see Tunnel. \n\nMEETH YE-T YDVIL (Glamorganshire) . \nEiots commenced here, 3 June, 1831, and continued \nfor several days ; many persons were killed and \nwounded ; see Coal {Accidents). \n\nMEETON (Surrey). At an abbey here, the \nbarons under Henry III., 23 Jan. 1236, held a \nparliament which enacted the Provisions of Merton, \nthe most ancient body of laws next after Magna \nCharta. They were repealed in 1863 ; see Bastards. \nThe statute of Merton also provides for the in- \nclosm-e of common lands. \n\nMEEV, or Meru (the ancient Antiochia Mar- \ngiana), a town of independent Turkestan, Central \nAsia. It flourished under the Seljuk Turks, especi- \nally under Sultan Alp Arslan ; it was sacked by the \nMonguls in 1221 ; it became subject to Persia in \n1510; to the emir of Bokhara in 1787; to the \nTurkomans in 1856, and to Russia 1883-4. See \nMussia and Turkestan. \n\nMESMEEISM. Frederick Anthony Mesmer, \na German physician, of Merseburg, published his \ndoctrines in 1766, contending, in a thesis on \nplanetary influence, that the heavenly bodies dif- \nfused through the universe a subtle fluid which acts \non the nervous system of animated beings. Quitting \nVienna for Paris, in 1778, he gained numerous \nproselytes and much money by experiments with \nand without metallic plates, producing effects termed \nthen, "animal magnetism" now "hypnotism." \n\n\n\nA committee of physicians and philosophers investi- \ngated his pretensions, and Bailly, in a paper drawn \nup in 1784, exposed the futility of animal mag- \nnetism. Mesmerism excited attention again about \n1848, when Miss Harriet Martincau and others- \nannounced their belief in it. In 1859, the Mesmeri\xc2\xa9 \nInfirmary issued its tenth annual report, archbishop \nWhately being president, and the earl of Carlisle- \nand Mr. Monckton Milnes (since lord Houghton) \namong the vice-presidents. See Animal Magnetism \nand Hypnotism. \n\nMESSALIANS, a sect professing to adhere to \nthe letter of the gospel, about 310, refused to work, \nquoting this passage, "Labour not for the foocj \nthat perisheth." \n\nMESSENIA (now Maura-Matra) , in the \nPeloponnesus, an ancient kingdom. It had long \ns.inguinary wars with Sparta. It was at first \ngoverned by kings ; after its restoration to power \nin the Peloponnesus it formed an inferior republic,, \nunder the protection first of the Thebans, and after- \nwards of the Macedonians. \n\nTae first Messenian war began 743 B.C. ; was occa- \nsioned by violence ottered to some Spartan \nwomen in a temple of devotion common to both \nnations ; the king of Sparta being killed in his \nefforts to defend the females. Eventually, Ithome \nwas taken, and the Messenians became slaves to \n\nthe conquerors b.c 724 \n\nThe second war, to throw off the Spartan yoke, com- \nmenced about 685, ending in the defeat of the \n\nMessenians, who fled to Sicily 668 \n\nThe third war, (the Messenians emigrate) . 464-455 \n\nMESSIAH, synonymous with Christ "the \nanointed," foretold by JJaniel ix. 25, about 538 B.C. \n"We have found the Messias, which is, being in- \nterpreted, the Christ." John i. 41. "The Mes- \nsiah," Handel\'s greatest oratorio, composed by \nhim in twenty-three days (22 Aug. -14 Sept. 1741), \nwas first performed at Lublin, 13 April, 1742, the \nreceipts being given by him to the charities of that \ncity. \n\nMESSINA (Sicily), so named by the Samians, \nwho seized this city, then called Zancle, 671 B.C. \nIt was seized by the Mamertini {which see), about \n281 B.C. It belonged for many ages to the Roman \nempire ; was taken by the Saracens, about a.d. 829. \nPriestley. Roger the Normaii took it from them by \nsurprise, about 1072. \nRevolts against Charles of Anjou, and is succoured \n\nby Peter of Aragon 1282 \n\nRevolts in favour of Louis XIV. of France, 1676 ; \n\nthe Spaniards punish it severely .... 1678 \nAlmost ruined by an earthquake and eruption of \n\nEtna 1693 \n\nNearly depopulated by a plague .... 1740 \nHalf destroyed by an earthquake . . . . 1783 \n\nHead-quarters of the British forces in Sicily, prior to 1814 \nAn insurrection here subdued ... 7 Feb. 1848 \nGaribaldi enters Messina after his victory at Melazzo \n\n20-21 July, i860 \nThe citadel surrenders to Cialdini . . 13 March, 1861 \nPopulation i8go, 142,000. \n\nMETALS. Tubal-Cain is mentioned as an \n" instructor of every artificer in brass and iron." \n(Gen. iv.) The Phoenieians had great skill in \nworking metals. Bunsen and Kirchhoff\'s method \nof chemical analysis by means of the spectrurn has \nadded oacsium, rubidium, thallium, indium, gallium, \nand others to the known metals. See Elements, \nMines, Iron, and the other metals. " Metallurgy," \npublished by Dr. John Percy, 1861-80; he died 19 \nJune, 1889. \n\nMETAMOEPHISTS in the 15th century \naffirmed that Christ\'s natural body, with which he \nascended into heaven, was wholly deified. \n\n\n\nMETAPHYSICS. \n\n\n\n632 \n\n\n\nMETEORS. \n\n\n\nMETAPHYSICS, the science of abstract \nreasoning, or that which contemplates the existence \nof things without relation to matter. The term, \nliterally denoting "after physics," originated from \nthese \xc2\xbb ords having been put at the head of certain \nessays of Aristotle, which follow his treatise on \nPhysics. Mackintosh. Modern metaphysics arose \nin the 15th century \xe2\x80\x94 the period when an extra- \nordinary impulse was given to the study of the \nhuman mind in Emope, commonly called the " re- \nvival of learning.\'\' Hobbes, Cudworth, S. T. Cole- \nridge, Dugald Stuart, and sir W. Hamilton, were \neminent British metaphysicians, and Descartes, \nPascal, Kant, Schilling, and Fichte, foreign ones. \nSee Pliilosophy. \n\nMETAURUS, a river in central Italy, where \nHasdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, was defeated \nand slain, 207 B.C., when marching with abundant \nreinforcements. The Romans were led by Livius \nand Claudius Nero, the consuls. The latter com- \nmanded the head of Hasdrubal to be thrown into \nhis brother\'s camp. The victory saved Rome. \n\nMETEMPSYCHOSIS, a doctrine attributed \nto Pythagoras, about 528 B.C., asserts the trans- \nmigration of the soul from one body to another. \nIt is also ascribed to the Egyptians, who would \neat no animal food lest they should devour the \nbod}- into which the soul of a deceased friend had \npassed. They had also an idea that so long as the \nbody of the deceased was kept entire, the soul \nwould not transmigrate ; and therefore embalmed \nthe dead. See Buddhism. \n\nMETEOROGRAPH, an apparatus for the \ninvention of which father Secchi of Rome received \na prize at the Paris International Exhibition, July, \n1867. It is self-acting, and registers the various \nchanges of the atmosphere in the form of a dia- \ngram. \n\nMETEOROLOGY (from the Greek meteoros, \naerial), the science which treats of the phenomena \nwhich have their origin in the air, such as rain, \nlightning, meteors, fogs, &c. Bacon, Boyle, and \nFranklin wrote on the subject. \n\nMeteorological Society of the Palatinate, established \n1780. \n\nMeteorological Society of London, first met, 15 Oct. \n1823. \n\nJohn Dalton\'s essay on meteorology appeared in 1793. \n\nLuke Howard\'s work on the clouds appeared in 1802, \nand his " Barometrographia " in 1848. See Clouds. \n\nSir W. Reed published his work on the " law of storms " \nin 1838. The works of Daniell (1845), Ksemtz (1845), \nMiiller (1847), anc l Buehan (1867) are esteemed. \n\nThe "British" Meteorological Society, established in \n1850, chartered in 1866, became Royal, Oct. 1883. By \nthe exertions of Mr. James Glaisher, long the \nsecretary, the apparatus at Greenwich was erected ; \nand meteorology has appeared in the " Greenwich \nObservations " since 1848. See Balloon \xe2\x80\x94 Scientific \nAscents. \n\nThe royal meteorological society\'s annual exhibitions \nbegan in 1880. \n\nMeteorological observatories have been erected in all \nparts of the globe. \n\nThe Meteorological department of the Board of Trade, es- \ntablished in 1855, under admiral Fitzroy, commenced \nthe publication of reports in 1857. The admiral pub- \nlished his "Weather-Book" in 1863. His exertions \nare said to have overworked his brain ; and on 30 \nApril, 1865, he died by his own hand. The Meteoro- \nlogical office was soon after placed under the direction \nof Mr. Robert H. Scott. It has issued apparatus and \ninstruction books to captains of ships and established \nobservatories in many places in the empire. It was \nhanded over to the Royal Society in 1871, and endowed \nby Mr. J. P. Gassiot. \n\nThe Kew meteorological observatory given to the British \nAssociation in April, i860. It was placed under the \n\n\n\nMeteorological council nominated by the Royal Society, \nbut appointed by the treasury. R. H. Scott, secretary, \nJuly, 1877. \n\nAt the recommendation of M. Le Vernier and admiral \nFitzroy, meteorological information, obtained by the \ntelegraph from the principal places in the United King- \ndom, has been transmitted daily to Paris, and thence \nto other parts of Europe since 1 Sept. i860. \n\nStorm-warnings first issued in Holland through M. \nBuys Ballot, i860. His "law of the winds" points- \nout the relation between the direction of the wind, \nand the atmospheric pressure. \n\nStorm-warnings hrst sent to the coast by the Board of \nTrade, 6 Feb. ; and first published 31 July, 1861 ; sus- \npended, 7 Dec. 1866 ; restoration proposed, Nov. 1867 ; \nreissued at Christmas 1867, and have been since \ncontinued. \n\nDaily international bulletin of the imperial observatory \nat Paris, under the direction of M. Le Verrier, fiist \npublished in MS. 1 Jan. 1858, first issued to subscribers, \n4 Nov. 1863. (This was the first chart with united \nmaps.) \n\n" Daily weather charts " first issued by the Meteorological \nOffice, 1 Oct. (first prepared in M.S. 3 Sept. 1860)1872; \n" Weekly Weather Report" first published, n Feb. 1878. \n\nInternational Meteorological congress at Vienna, 2-16 \nSept. 1873 ; at Rome 14-22 April, 1879 ; and at Berne, \n9-12 Aug. 1880. \n\n" Weather Charts and Storm Warnings," by R. H. Scott, \npublished, 1876 et seq. \n\nWrecks diminished in consequence, June 1876-7, 1805 ; \n1879-81, 891. \n\nCircular issued relating to a new plan for obtaining in- \nformation from ships at sea, &e., 14 April, 1882. \n\nObservatory erected on Ben Nevis ; Mr. R. T. Omond \nappointed director, 6 Sept.; opened 17 Oct. 1883. New \ntower erected, 1884. \n\nA French academy of meteorology organised a successful \nballoon ascent, 9 Aug. 1879. \n\nAn observatory on Sonnblick Salzburg (10,177 feet \nhigh), opened about 1 Sept. 1886. \n\nDaily forecasts for midland counties, 1886, 310. Absolute \nsuccesses 247, absolute failures 26 ; and partial or \ndoubtful successes 36, announced in Times, 7 Feb. \n1887. \n\nWeather plant (Abrus precatorius) exhibited by professor \nNowak at Vienna ; changes in the weather said to be \nforetold by alteration in the leaves attributed to electro- \nmagnetism in 24 to 48 hours previously, Aug. -Sept \n1888. The plant is grown in the Botanical society\'s, \ngardens, London. Many other plants possess this, \nproperty (W. So-werby), Sept. 1888. During the experi- \nments made at the Jodrell laboratory, Kew, by \nDr. Oliver and Herr Joseph Nowack in October 1S89, \nwhen many weather changes occurred, only one fore- \ncast was given by the weather plant which therefore \ncannot be relied upon for meteorological purposes. \n\nInternational Meteorological Congress at Munich 26 Aug. \net seq. 1891. \n\nThe 13th annual exhibition of meteorological apparatus, \nLondon, opened 15 March 1892. \n\nSee Barometer, Thermometer, &c. \n\nMETEORS, Luminous, include shooting \n\nstars, tire-balls, and falling stones or aerolites. \nThey were described by Halley, Wallis, and others \nearly in the 17th century. The periodicity of the \nstar showers about the 10th of August (termed in \nthe middle ages St. Lawrence\'s tears) was dis- \ncovered separately by Quetelet, 1836, and by Her- \nrick in 1837. The following are remarkable epochs \nfor their annual return : \xe2\x80\x942 Jan.; 29 July; 3 and \n9-12 Aug. ; 8-14 Nov. ; 11 Dec. It. 1\\ Greg. See \nAugust. \n\nThe magnificent continuous star-shower of 14 Nov. 1866, \nhad been predicted by professor Newton some time \npreviously. A fine display occurred on the night of \n13 Nov. 1868, in the United States. A similar phenome- \nnon had been witnessed by Humboldt at Cumana \n(S. A.), 12 Nov. 1799 ; and by Dr. D. Olmsted, at New- \nhaven (U.S.), 13 Nov. 1833. They were well observed in \nBritain and Europe, 27 Nov. 1872 ; and in Southern \nand Western Europe, 27 Nov. 1885. \nAKrolites, falling-stones, accompanying meteors, are \nfound in our museums. They contain iron, nickel, and \nother minerals. \n\n\n\nMETHOD. \n\n\n\n634 METROPOLITAN ASSOCIATION. \n\n\n\nMr. Norman Lockyer announces his theory, based on \nspectrum experiments that all self-luminous bodies in \nthe celestial spaces are composed of meteorites or \nmasses of vapour produced by heat brought about by \ncondensation of meteor swarms due to gravity, royal \n.\xe2\x80\xa2society, 17 Nov. 1887. \n\n.METHOD (Greek, a way of transit) , that which. \n\xe2\x80\xa2gives to knowledge its character. S. T. Coleridge\'s \n(treatise en the science of method is prefixed to the \nfirst volume of the " Encyclopaedia Metropolitana." \n\xc2\xa3845. \n\n\'The most recent work on this subject is Professor \n\xe2\x80\xa2 Stanley Jevons\' " Principles of Science : a Treatise on \nLogic and Scientific Method," 1874. " The powers of \nmind concerned in creation of science are discrimina- \ntion, detection of identity, and retention." \n\nMETHODISTS, see Wesleycms. \n\nMETHUEN TREATY, a treaty for regulat- \ning the commei\'ee between Great Britain and Portu- \ngal, made 27 Dec. 1 703, concluded by Paul Methuen, \n<our ambassador at Lisbon. It greatly favoured the \nimportation of port wine into this country by \nlowering the duty, to the discouragement of French \nwines. It was abrogated in 1834. \n\nMETHYL, a colourless inodorous gas, a com- \npound of hydrogen and carbon, obtained in the \nfree state first by Frankland and Kolbe separately, \nin 1849. \n\nMETHYLATED SPIRITS. By an act \n\npassed in 1855 a mixture of spirits of wine with 10 \nper cent, of its hulk of wood-naphtha, or methylic \nalcohol, is allowed to be made duty free for use in \nthe arts and manufactures, not less than 450 gal- \nlons being made at one time. In 1861 an act was \npassed permitting the methylated spirits to be re- \ntailed by licence. - \n\nMETONIC CYCLE, a period of 19 years, or \n6940 days, at the end of which the changes of the \nmoon fall on the same days ; see Calippic Period, \nGolden Number. \n\nMETRIC SYSTEM. Before the revolution \n(there was no uniformity in French weights and mea- \nsures. On 8 May, 1790, the constituent assembly \n\xe2\x80\xa2charged the Academy of Sciences with, the organisa- \ntion of a better system. The committee named for \nthe purpose by the academy included the names of \nBertholiet, Borda, Delambre, Lagrange, Laplace, \nMecbain, and Prony. Delambre and Mechain were \ncharged with the measurement of an arc of the meri- \ndian between Dunkirk and Barcelona, and from their \ncalculations the metre, which is equal to a ten-mil- \nlionth part of the distance between the poles and the \n.equator (3-2808 English feet) was made the unit of \nlength and the base of the system by law on 7 April, \n1795. The system was completed in 1799, aud made \nby law the only legal one on 2 Nov. 1801. A decree \non 12 Feb. accommodated the old measures to the \nnew system ; but on 4 July, 1837, it was decreed \nthat after. 1 Jan. 1840, the metric and decimal \nsystem in its primitive simplicity should be used in \nail business transactions. The example of France \nhas been followed by the greater part of Europe \nand will probably in time be adopted in the British\' \nempire. \nUnit of Surface, ceniiare=a, square metre=fi96o \n\nEnglish yard (a square decametre or are\xe2\x80\x94 100 square \n\nmetres). \nUnit of Volume or Solidity, sthre\xe2\x80\x94a, cubit metre. \nUnit of Capacity, litre=a, cubic decimetre (or lothofa \n\nmetre)=i \'76077 English pint. \nUnit of Weight, ?ramme=weight of a cubic centimetre \n\n(the 100th part of a metre) of distilled water=o\'56438 \n\nEnglish drachm. \nUnit of Money, the franc, a piece of silver weighing 5 \n\ngrammes. \n\n\n\nThe multiples of these units are expressed by Greek \nnumerals (deca-, 10 ; hekato-, 100 ; kilo-, 1000 ; myria-, \n10,000. The divisors are expressed by Latin numerals \n(deci-, 10 ; centi-, 100 ; milli-, 1000). \n\nSir John Wrottesley brought the subject before \nparliament 25 Feb. 1824 \n\nA commission of inquiry appointed at the instance \nof the chancellor of the exchequer, Mr. Spring \nRice (since lord Monteagle) . . . May, 1838 \n\nAnother commission was appointed (both consisted \nof eminent scientific men, and reported strongly \nin favour of the change) . . .20 June, 1843 \n\nA committee of the house of commons reported to \nthe same effect 1 Aug. 1853 \n\nMr. Gladstone, admitting the advantages of the \nsystem, thought its introduction premature. \n\nDecimal Association formed for the purpose of \nobtaining the adoption of the system . June, 1854 \n\nAnother commission for inquiry was appointed, \nconsisting of lords Monteagle and Overstone, and \nMr. J. G. Hubbard, who published a preliminary \nreport (with evidence), but expressed no opinion, \n\nNov. 1855 \n\nAn International Decimal Association formed in . \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe decimal currency adopted in Canada 1 Jan. 1858 \n\nThe new weights and measures bill (an approxima- \ntion to the decimal system) was passed . . 1862 \n\nAn act passed "to render permissive the use of the \nmetric system of weights and measures," 29 July, 1864 \n(repealed by weights and measures act, 1878). \n\nA bill for the compulsory adoption of the metric \nsystem rejected by the commons . . 26 July, 1871 \n\nMeeting at the Mansion-house, London, advocating \nits adoption 17 Jan. 1872 \n\nInternational Congress to promote the universal \nadoption of the metric system . . 24 Sept. ,, \n\nInternational convention for adopting metric sys- \ntem, signed at .Paris, by representatives of \nAustria, Germany, Russia, Italy, Spain, Portugal, \nTurkey, Switzerland, Belgium, Sweden, Denmark, \nUnited States of America, Argentine Republic, \nBrazil; and Peru, 20 May, 1875, England . 1884 \n\nThe system (to come into force in 1889) adopted by \nSweden May, 1876 \n\nInternational congress on weights and measures \nmet at Paris 4 Sept. 1878 \n\nAdoption of decimal system proposed in house of \ncommons by Mr. Ashton W. Dilke ; negatived \n(108-28) 29 March, 1881 \n\nMETRONOME, to regulate time in the per- \nformance of music. A metronome with double \npendulum, invented by Winkel, was adopted suc- \ncessfully by Maelzel, and patented by him in \n1816. \n\nMETROPOLIS op Great Britain in- \ncludes the cities of London and "Westminster, and \nthe boroughs of Southwark, Finsbury, Maryle- \nbone, Tower- Hamlets, Hackney, Lambeth, and \nChelsea, in which great changes were made by the \nre-distribution of seats act, 1885. The Metropolis \nManagement Act, 18 & 19 Vict. c. 122, was passed in \n1855 ; estimated gross value of property, 6 April, \n1889, 38,462,493/.; rateable, 31,592,387/.; see \nLoudon. \n\nMETROPOLIS ROADS ACT (passed in \n1863) transferred the management of certain roads \nnorth of the Thames from the commissioners to the \nparishes, and abolished certain turnpikes and toll- \nbars. \n\nMETROPOLIS WATER ACT, 1852, \namended, 187 1. \n\nMETROPOLITAN (from the Greek metro- \npolis), a title given at the council of Nice, 325, to \ncertain bishops who had jurisdiction over others in \na province. \n\nMETROPOLITAN ASSOCIATION for \nImproving the Dwellings of the In- \ndustrious Classes. Founded 15 Sept. 1841 ; \nincorporated 16 Oct. 1845. \n\nCapital originally 100,000?. ; increased to 200,000^. \n\n\n\nMETEOPOLITAN BOAKD OF WOEKS. 635 METEOPOLITAN STEEETS ACT. \n\n\n\n(1884). Dividend not to exceed 5 per cent. Secretary, \nand chief originator, Mr. Charles Gatliff; offices, 118, \nFinsbury-circus. The late rt. hon. lord Claud Hamilton \nmember 1845-84 ; chairman for 13 years. \n\nMETEOPOLITAN BOAED of WOEKS \n\nwas established by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 120 (1855),* \namended in 1862. It held its first meeting and \nelected Mr. (aftds. sir) John Thwaites as chairman, \n22 Dec. 1855. The office was in Spring-gardens. In \n1858, its powers were extended in order to effect the \npurification of the Thames by constructing a new \nmain drainage for the metropolis. The board was \nauthorised to raise a loan and levy 3d. in the pound \non the property in the metropolis. It was also \nauthorised to construct the Thames Embankment. \nIn 1861 the board received nearly a million pounds, \nand expended 900,000/. ; see Sewage, and Thames. \nSir John Thwaites, the chairman, died 8 Aug. 1870, \naged 55. Much discussidn ensued respecting the \nappointment of his successor ; Mr. Bruce, the home \nsecretary, having intimated the probability of the \noffice being abolished by parliament, with other \nchanges, II Aug. Col. (aftds. sir) James Mac- \nnaghten McGarel Hogg (created baron Maghera- \nraorne, June, 1887), a member of the board, was \nelected chairman for one year, 18 Nov. 1870 ; \nannually till 1889 (he died 27 June, 1890). The \nboard was empowered to borrow money by acts \npassed 1869-87. Its powers extended over 117 \nsquare miles, and 3,266,287 persons in 1873. It was \ncomposed of delegates from various local boards, &c. \nRoyal commission of inquiry into the working of \nthe board appointed by parliament, 1888. Lord \nHerschell chairman ; charges against Messrs. \nRobertson, Goddard, and others ; many dismissed \n\nJune-July, 1888 \nThe commissioners\' " interim " report discloses \ncases of negligence, inefficiency, irregularities, \nerrors in judgment, and some evidence of \n\ncorruption Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe eminent engineer of the Board, sir Joseph \nBazalgette, appointed 1856; resigns Feb. 1889; \n\nhe died 15 March, 1891 \n\nThe board was abolished by the local government \nact of 1888, and its powers, duties, property, \ndebts and liabilities transferred to the London \ncounty council, beginning 21 April, 1889 ; carried \ninto effect by the local government board, \n\n21 March, ,, \nThe board accepted a tender for the construction \nof a tunnel from Blackwall to Greenwich for \n318,840^. from Messrs. S. Pearson & Sons, \n\n15 March, ,, \nFinal report of the commission issued . 4 May \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMETEOPOLITAN BUILDING ACTS, \nsee Building. \n\nMETEOPOLITAN CATTLE MAEKET, \n\ninaugurated by the lord mayor and corporation on \nWednesday, 13 July, 1855, in presence of the prince \nconsort. It is situated in Copenhagen-fields, an \nelevated site north of London, occupying an area of \nabout fifteen acres, larger by nine acres than Smith- \nfield, and capable of containing 30,000 sheep, 6400 \nbullocks, 1400 calves, and 900 pigs. In the centre \nis a circular building, let to bankers and others \nhaving business connected with graziers and cattle- \nagents. Within and around the market are erected \nseveral large taverns. A place is set apart for \nslaughtering animals, with approved appliances for \npurposes of health, by ventilation, sewerage*, &c. ; \nthere is also a place for haystands. Sales com- \nmenced on Friday, 15 June, 1855. \xe2\x80\x94 An act for \nestablishing a meat and poultry market in Smith- \nfield {.which see) was passed in i860. \n\n* " For the management of public works in which the \nmetropolis has a common interest." \n\n\n\nMETEOPOLITAN COMMONS. Acts re- \nspecting them passed 1866, 1869, and 1878. See \nCommons. \n\nMETEOPOLITAN CONVALESCENT \nINSTITUTION, Fire Brigade, and \nHOUSELESS POOR. See Convalescent, Fire \nBrigade, and Houseless Poor. \n\nMETEOPOLITAN DISTEICT ASY- \nLUM BOAED, instituted by parliament in 1867, \nproceeded to erect hospitals at Haverstock-hill, \nCaterham, &c, 1868, causing much discontent in \nseveral parishes. The asylum for idiots at Leaves- \nden, near Watford, Herts, inaugurated 27 Sept. \n1870. An act respecting the board passed in 1884. \nThe epidemic of fevers, especially scarlet, caused \n\ngreatly increased demand for accommodation for \n\npatients, well met Sept. 1887-Jan. 1888. The \n\nspread of small-pox greatly checked. \n\nMETEOPOLITAN DBAINAGE, see \n\nSewers. \n\nMETEOPOLITAN DEINKING FOUN- \nTAIN and Cattle Trough Association ; \n\nfounded 1859. See Drinking Fountains. \n\nMETEOPOLITAN MEAT MAEKET, \n\nSmithtield, erecied in accordance with an act passed \nin i860, was inaugurated by the lord mayor, James \nLawrence, 24 Nov. 1868, and opened for business, \nI Dec. \n\nMETEOPOLITAN MUNICIPAL ASSO- \nCIATION met 11 Dec. 1866. \n\nMETEOPOLITAN POLICE ACTS, 1829 \net seq., consolidated in 1887. \n\nMETEOPOLITAN POLICE MAGIS- \nTRATES, see Magistrates and Police. \n\nMETEOPOLITAN POOE ACT, "for the \nestablishment in the metropolis of asylums for the \nsick, insane, and other classes of the poor," passed \n29 March, 1867; was amended in 1869; see Poor. \n\nMETEOPOLITAN EAILWAY {Under- \nground}, at first between Paddington and "Victoria- \nstreet, near Holborn. The act for it passed in 1853 ; \nthe construction began in the spring of i860 ; and it \nwas opened for traffic, 10 Jan. 1863. Many serious \ndifficulties were overcome with great skill and \nenergy by the engineer, John Fowler, and the con- \ntractors, Jay, Smith, and Knight. In the first six \nmonths of 1865 there were 7,462,823 passengers. \nIt has been continued and there is now an Inner \nand Outer Circle, and it has been supplemented by \nthe Metropolitan Districts Railway. \n\nMETEOPOLITAN SCHOOL BOAED, \n\ninstituted by the Elementary Education act, 1870, \nwas elected 29 Nov. 1870 (for three years). It in- \ncluded lord Lawrence, lord Sandon, professor Hux- \nley, Miss Garrett, M.D., and Miss Davies. At its \nfirst meeting, 15 Dec, lord Lawrence was elected \nchairman, and Mr. C. Reed, M.P., vice-chairman; \nand it was decided that the chairman should be \nunpaid at present. On 27 Nov. 1873, 30 Nov. 1876, \nand 27 Nov. 1879, Mr. (afterwards sir) Charles \nReed was elected chairman. He died 25 March, \n1881, succeeded bvMr. Edwd. North Buxton. Rev. \nJ. R. Diggle, elected chairman, 3 Dec. 1885; re- \nelected A Oee. 1888. and 3 Dec. 1891. For history, \n&c., see Education. 1870 etseq. \n\nMETEOPOLITAN STEEETS ACT \n\n(30 & 31 Vict. c. 134) " for regulating the traffic in \nthe metropolis, and for making provision for the \ngreater security of persons passing through the \n\n\n\nMETTRAY. \n\n\n\n636 \n\n\n\nMEXICO. \n\n\n\nstreets," passed 20 Aug. 1867. A short, act, modi- \nfying the clauses relating to costermongers and cabs, \nwas passed 7 Dec. 1867. \n\nMETTEAY, see Reformatory Schools. \n\nMETZ, a fortified city in Lorraine, annexed to \nthe empire of Germany, 10 May, 1871. It was \nthe Roman JDivodunum or Meti, capital of the \nMediomatrici, a powerful Gaulish tribe, and after- \nwards of the kingdom of Austrasia, or Metz, in the \n6th century. It was made a free imperial city, 985. \nIt was besieged by Charles VII. of France for seven \nmonths in 1444, and was ransomed for 100,000 \nflorins ; was captured by Henry II., 10 April, 1552, \nand successfully defended by the duke of Guise \nagainst the emperor Charles V. with an army of \n100,000 men, 31 Oct. 1552 to 15 Jan. 1553. Metz \nAvas ceded to France by the peace of Westphalia, \n24 Oct. 1648, and was fortified by Vauban and Belle- \nisle. On 28 July, 1870, the emperor Napoleon III. \narrived at Metz and assumed the chief command. \nAfter the disastrous defeats at Woerth and Forbach, \non 6 Aug. the whole French army (except the corps \nof MacMahon, De Failly, and Douay) was concen- \ntrated here, 10, II Aug., and by delay was hemmed \nin by the Germans. Marshal Bazaine assumed the \nchief command, 8 Aug. The emperor departed with \nthe vanguard, which crossed the Moselle early on \n14 Aug. Population, 1890, 60,194. \n\n1. Battle of Pange or Courcelles, gained by the \n\nfirst army under Von Steinmetz, after several \nhours\' fighting, with great German loss, \n\n14 Aug. 1870 \nBazaine was censured for not advancing on \n\n15 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n2. Battle of Vionville or Mars-la-Tour, gained by \n\nthe 2nd army under prince Frederick Charles, \nafter twelve hours\' fighting. By the unex- \npected unmasking of a mitrailleuse battery, \nHenry, prince of Reuss, and many German \nnobles were killed in a few moments. The \nvictory was at first claimed by the French. \n(This battle, the most sanguinary in the war \nhitherto, included a Balaclava charge of a \nGerman regiment of cavalry upon a French \nbattery, by which it was decimated, but to \nwhich the victory was greatly due. Twice as \nmany Germans were killed as at Koniggratz, \nthe killed and wounded being estimated at \n17,000. The French loss was said to have \nbeen equally great) . . . 16 Aug. 1870 \nBazaine masses his troops for a decisive conflict, \n\n17 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n3 Battle of Rezonville or Gravelotte, gained by \n\nthe combined 1st and 2nd armies, commanded \nby the king in person, after twelve hours\' \nfighting. " The most desperate struggle took \nplace on the slopes over Gravelotte, which \nthe Germans gained by nightfall, after re- \npeated fatal charges ; the fortune of the day \nbeing long in suspense. But the right of the \nFrench had been outflanked, they fell back \nfighting to the last, and retired under cover \nof Metz. The French are said to have lost \n19,000 ; and the Germans, 25,000." (The king, \non the 19th, had not undressed for thirty \' \nhours. The carnage is considered to have \nbeen unexampled ; a large number of French \nprisoners were made ; and enormous loss was \nexperienced by the imperial guard. The Ger- \nman army included Saxons and Hessians), \n\n18 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nBazaine repulsed in a sortie at Courcelles, near Metz \n\n(he claimed a victory) ... 26 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nHis whole army defeated by gen. Manteuffel of the \narmy of prince Frederick Charles, in a battle \nlasting from the morning of 31 Aug. to noon, \n\n1 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nVon Steinmetz sent to govern Posen ; prince \nFrederick Charles sole commander before Metz, \n\n21 Sept. ,, \nThree vigorous but ineffective sallies, \n\n23, 24, 27 Sept. ,, \n\n\n\nAbout 100,000 soldiers estimated in Metz, 30 Sept. 1870 \n\nGreat sortie ; the Germans surprised ; about 40,000 \nFrench engaged ; they are repulsed after a severe \nengagement from 3 p.m. till dark ; loss about 2000 \nFrench and 600 Germans ... 7 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAbout 600 oxen and 500 sheep captured during a \nsortie 8 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGeneral Boyer arrives at Versailles to treat for \nterms of capitulation .... 14 Oct. ,, \n\nMetz surrenders with the army, including marshals \nBazaine, Canrobert, and Le Bceuf ; 66 generals ; \nabout 6000 officers ; 173,000 men, including the \nimperial guard ; 400 pieces of artillery ; 100 \nmitrailleuses ; and 53 eagles or standards, 27 Oct. ,, \n\nThe capitulation was signed at Frescati by generals \nJarras and Stiehle on behalf of the French and \nGerman commanders . . ... 27 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGeneral order to the army issued by marshal Bazaine, \nsaying that they were "conquered by famine," \n\n27 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nOrder to the army issued by prince Frederick \nCharles, recognising their bravery, great obedi- \nence, calmness, cheerfulness, and devotion, \n\n27 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Germans enter Metz ... 29 Oct. ,, \n\nOne cause of the fall of Metz was the great army it \ncontained ; it might have been successfully de- \nfended by 20,000 men. \n\nMarshal Bazaine was tried and condemned to death \nfor surrendering Metz and the army, 6 Oet.- \n10 Dec. ; punishment commuted to 20 years\' \nimprisonment, 12 Dec. ; he escaped from Isle St. \nMarguerite 9 Aug. 1874 \n\nThe German emperor and empress were well re- \nceived at Metz 23 Aug. 1889 \n\nSee France. \n\nMEXICO, anciently Anahuac, N. America, is \nsaid to have been conquered by the Aztecs, who \nfounded the city of Mexico about 1325. It was dis- \ncovered in 15 1 7, and conquered by Fernando Cortez, \n1519-21 ; explored by Alexander von Humboldt, \n1799-1804. It consL-ts of 27 confederate states. It \nis stated that there have been above 260 insurrec- \ntions in Mexico since 1821. Population, 1874, \nabout 9,276,079 ; 10,447,974 in 1882 ; 1890, \n",395.712; the city, Mexico, 329,535. \n\nMontezuma emperor 1503 \n\nCortes lands, 1519; captures the city of Mexico . 1521 \nMexico constituted a kingdom. Cortes, governor . 1522 \nMendoza, first viceroy of New Spain, 1530; estab- \nlishes a mint 1535 \n\nUnsuccessful insurrections of Miguel Hidalgo, 1810; \n\nof Morelos, 1815 ; of Mina 1817 \n\nMexico declared independent by the treaty of \n\nAquala 23 Aug. 1821 \n\nAugustin Iturbide, president of a provisionaljunto, \nFeb. ; Mexico formed into an empire ; the crown \ndeclined by Spain ; Iturbide made emperor, May, 1822 \nCompelled to abdicate .... 26 March, 1823 \nMexican federal republic proclaimed . 4 Oct. ,, \nIturbide went to England ; returns and endeavours \n\nto recover his dignity ; shot . . .19 July, ^24 \nFederal constitution established . . . Oct. ,, \nTreaty of commerce with Great Britain April, 1825 \n\nExpulsion of the Spaniards decreed . March, 1829 \n\nSpanish expedition against Mexico surrendered, \n\n26 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nMexican revolution : the president Guerrero de- \nposed 23 Dec. ,, \n\nSanta Anna president 11 May, 1833 \n\nIndependence of Mexico recognised by Brazil, \n\nJune, T830; by Spain .... 28 Dec. 1836 \nDeclaration of war against France . . 30 Nov. 1838 \nThis war terminated .... 9 March, 1839 \nWar with the United States . . . 4 June, 1845 \nThe Mexicans defeated at Palo Alto, and at Mata- \n\nmoras 8 May, 1846 \n\nSanta Fe captured, 22 Aug. ; and Monterey, 24 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nBattle of Buena Vista ; the Mexicans defeated by \ngeneral Taylor, with great loss, after two days\' \n\nfighting 22 Feb. 1847 \n\nThe Americans, under general Scott, defeat the \n\nMexicans at Cerro Gorda . . .18 April, ,, \nThe Mexicans beaten in several actions; Mexico \ntaken by assault by general Scott . 15 Sept. ,, \n\n\n\nMEXICO. \n\n\n\n637 \n\n\n\nMEXICO. \n\n\n\nTreaty of peace ratified . . . .19 May, \n\nPolitical convulsions .... Sept. \n\nPresident Arista resigns, 6 Jan. ; and Santa Anna \nreturns, Feb. ; dictator . . . 16 Dec. \n\nHe abdicates ; Carera elected president . Jan. \n\nWho also abdicates ; succeeded first by Alvarez, \nand afterwards by general Comonfort . Dec. \n\nProperty of the clergy sequestrated . 31 March, \n\nNew constitution established . . .5 Feb. \n\nBeginning of a reformed Church by Aguilar and \nothers \n\nComonfort chosen president . . . July, \n\nCoup d\'etat ; constitution annulled by the church \nparty ; Comonfort compelled to retire, 1 1 Jan. ; \ngeneral Zuloaga takes the government, 21-26 Jan. \n\nBenito Juarez declared constitutional president at \nVera Cruz 11 Feb. \n\nCivil war : several engagements . Aug. to Nov. \n\nGeneral Miguel Miramon nominated president at \nMexico by the Junta 6 Jan. \n\nZuloaga abdicates 2 Feb. \n\nIn consequence of injury to British subjects, ships \nof war sent to Mexico .... Feb. \n\nMiramon forces the lines of the liberal generals, \nenters the capital, assumes his functions as \ngovernor, and governs without respect to the \nlaws of life and property . . .10 April, \n\nJuarez confiscates the church property 13 July, \n\nMiramon and the clerical party defeat the liberals \nunder Colinia 21 Dec. \n\nHe besieges Vera Cruz, 5 March; bombards it; \ncompelled to raise the siege . . 21 March, \n\nGeneral Zuloaga deposes Miramon, and assumes \nthe presidency .... 1 May, \n\nMiramon arrests Zuloaga, 9 May ; the diplomatic \nbodies suspend official relations with the former, \n\n10 May, \n\nMiramon defeated by Degollado . . 10 Aug. \n\nHe governs Mexico with great tyranny; seizes \n152,000/. belonging to English bondholders, Sept.; \nthe foreign ministers quit the city . . Oct. \n\nHe is defeated ; compelled to retire ; Juarez enters \nMexico, 11 Jan. ; re-elected president . . 19 Jan. \n\nJuarez made dictator by the congress . 30 June, \n\nThe Mexican congress decides to suspend payments \nto foreigners for two years . . 17 July, \n\nWhich leads to the breaking off diplomatic relations \nwith England and France . -27 July, \n\nIn consequence of many gross outrages on foreign- \ners, the British, French, and Spanish govern- \nments, after much vain negotiation, claiming \nefficient protection of foreigners, and the payment \nof arrears due to fundholders, sign a convention \nengaging to combined hostile operations against \nMexico 31 Oct. \n\nThe Mexican congress dissolves, after conferring \nfull powers on the president . -15 Dec. \n\nSpanish troops land at Vera Cruz, 8 Dec; it sur- \nrenders 17 Dec. \n\nA British naval and French military expedition \narrives 7, 8 Jan. \n\nThe Mexicans resist, and invest Vera Cruz ; their \ntaxes raised 25 per cent Jan. \n\nMiramon arrives, but is sent back to Spain by \nthe British admiral Feb. \n\nProject of establishing a Mexican monarchy, for \narchduke Maximilian of Austria, disapproved of \nby British and Spanish governments . Feb. \n\nNegotiation ensues between the Spanish and Mexi- \ncans ; convention between the commissaries of \nthe allies and the Mexican general Doblado, at \nSoledad 19 Feb. \n\nThe Mexican general Marquez takes up arms \nagainst Juarez ; and general Almonte joins the \nFrench general Lorencez ; Juarez demands a com- \npulsory loan, and puts Mexico in a state of siege, \n\nMarch, \n\nConference between plenipotentiaries of the allies \nat Orizaba; the English and Spanish declare for \npeace, which is not agreed to by the French, \n9 April ; who declare war against Juarez, \n\n16 April, \n\nThe Spanish and British forces retire ; the French \ngovernment sends reinforcements to Lorencez, \n\nMay, \n\nThe French, induced by Marquez, advance into \nthe interior; severely repulsed by Zaragoza, at \nFort Guadaloupe, near Puebla \xc2\xbb . 5 May, \n\n\n\n1853 \n1855 \n\n\n\n1857 \n\n\n\n1862 \n\n\n\nJuarez quits the capital ... 31 May, 1862 \n\nThe French defeat the Mexicans at Cerro de Borgo, \nnear Orizaba 13, 14 June, ,, \n\nThe Mexican liberals said to be desirous of nego- \ntiation Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGen. Forey and 2500 French soldiers land 28 Aug. ,, \n\nLetter from the emperor Napoleon to Lorencez \ndisclaiming any intention of imposing a govern- \nment on Mexico ; announced . . Sept. ,, \n\nDeath of Zaragoza, a great loss to the Mexicans, \n\n8 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGen. Forey deprives Almonte of the presidency at \nVera Cruz, and appropriates the civil and mili- \ntary power to himself .... Oct. ,, \n\nOrtega takes command of the Mexicans 19 Oct. ,, \n\nThe Mexican congress assembles, and protests \nagainst the French invasion . . . 27 Oct. ,, \n\nThe French evacuate Tampico . . 13 Jan. 1863 \n\nForey marches towards Mexico . . .24 Feb. ,, \n\nSiege of Puebla; bravely defended, 29 March; \nsevere assault, 31 March to 3 April ; it is sur- \nrendered at discretion by Ortega . . 18 May, ,, \n\nJuarez and the republican government remove to \nSan Luis de Potosi . . . 31 May, ,, \n\nMexico occupied by the French, under Bazaine, \n5 June ; Forey and his army enter, 10 June ; pro- \nvisional government ,, \n\nAssembly of notables at Mexico decide on the es- \ntablishment of a limited hereditary monarchy, \nwith a Roman Catholic prince as emperor ; and \notter the crown to the archduke Maximilian of \nAustria : a regency established . . 6-10 July, ,, \n\nThe French re-occupy Tampico . . 11 Aug. ,, \n\nMarshal Forey resigns his command to Bazaine, \nand returns to France . . . .1 Oct. ,, \n\nThe archduke Maximilian will accept the crown if \nit be the will of the people . . . 3 Oct. ,, \n\nThe Mexican general Comonfort surprised and shot \nby partisans 12 Nov. ,, \n\nSuccessful advance of the imperialists ; Juarez \nretires from San Luis de Potosi, 18 Dec. ; it is \nentered by the imperialists . . . 24 Dec. ,, \n\nThe French occupy various places Jan. & Feb. 1864 \n\nThe ex-president, general Santa Anna, lands at \nVera Cruz, professing adhesion to the empire, \n27 Feb. ; dismissed by Bazaine . 72 March, ,, \n\nJuarez enters Monterey, which becomes the seat of \nthe republican government . . . 3 April, ,, \n\nThe archduke Maximilian definitively accepts the \ncrown from the Mexican deputation at Miramar, \n\n10 April, ,, \n\nThe emperor and empress land at Vera Cruz, 29 May ; \nenter the city of Mexico . . . 12 June, ,, \n\nThe emperor visits the interior ; grants a free press, \n\nAug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe republicans defeat the imperialists at San Pedro, \n\n27 Dec. ,, \n\nJuarez, at Chihuahua, exhorts the Mexicans to \nmaintain their independence . 1 Jan. 1865 \n\nThe emperor institutes the order of the Mexican \neagle , \n\nSurrender of Oaxaca to marshal Bazaine 9 Feb. ,, \n\nA constitution promulgated . . .10 April, ,, \n\nOrtega, at New York, enlists recruits for the repub- \nlican army, May ; discountenanced by the U. S. \ngovernment June, ,, \n\nAnniversary of Mexican independence ; descend- \nants of Iturbide made princesses, &c. 16 Sept. ,, \n\nThe emperor proclaims the end of the war, and \nmartial law against all armed bands of men ; \nmuch indignation excited ... 2 Oct. ,, \n\nJuarist generals taken prisoners ; shot . 16 Oct. ,, \n\nThe American government protests against the \nFrench occupation .... Nov.-Dec. ,, \n\nPresidency of Juarez expires ; he determines to \ncontinue to act, 30 Nov. ; he flies to Texas, 20 Dec. ,, \n\nBagdad, on the ltio Grande, seized by American \nJuarists, 4, 5 Jan. ; occupied by the American \ngeneral Weitzcl, 5 Jan. ; lvis conduct disavowed ; \nand Bagdad re-occupied by imperialists, 20 Jan. 1866 \n\nMinisterial changes . . . March-April, ,, \n\nEmperor Napoleon agrees to withdraw all his sol- \ndiers from Mexico betwconNov. iS66and Nov. 1S67 \n\nApril, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGuerilla warfare going on, numerous conflicts, with \nvarying success .... March-May, ,, \n\nMatamoras captured by the liberals, under Escobrdo, \n\n23, 24 June, ,, \n\n\n\nMEXICO. \n\n\n\n638 MICHAEL, ST., AND GEORGE, ST. \n\n\n\nThe empress Charlotte departs for Prance, 13 July ; \nconspiracy against the government suppressed, \n\n15-17 July, 1866 \nConvention between Maximilian and the French ; \ntransfer of the receipts of the customs to France, \n\n30 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nJuarez and his party take Tampico . . 1 Aug. \' \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe Americans disallow Maximilian\'s blockade of \n\nMatamoras 17 Aug. ,, \n\nDissension among the liberals ; three rival presi- \ndents, Juarez, Ortega, and Santa Anna, \n\nSept. -Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe empress solicits help from France, in vain, \n\nSept. ; she falls ill Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFirm speech of emperor Maximilian . .19 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nEmperor leaves Mexico for Orizaba ; giving autho- \nrity to Bazaine Oct. ,, \n\nThe French evacuate several places . . Nov. ,, \nImperial council at Orizaba determine to maintain \n\nthe empire 24 Nov. ,, \n\nDeath of Augustin Iturbide . . . 11 Dec. ,, \nMaximilian, at the head of the army, arrives at \n\nQueretaro iq Feb; 1867 \n\nDeparture of the French, 13 Jan., 5 Feb., 14 March, ,, \nContest for supremacy between Juarez, Diaz, and \n\nOrtega April. ,, \n\nQueretaro, after many conflicts, captured by \n\ntreachery ; Mendez shot . . . .15 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nEmperor Maximilian, Miramon, and Mejia, after \n\ntrial, shot 19 June, ,, \n\nMexico city taken after 67 days\' siege ; republic re- \nestablished 21 June, ,, \n\nSurrender of Vera Cruz . . . . 25 June, ,, \nSanta Anna captured ; detained a prisoner July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nJuarez enters Mexico ; convokes the assembly to \n\nelect a president . . . .14, 15 July, ,, \n\nMarquez and others said to be organising resistance \n\nto Juarez Aug. ,, \n\nNumerous executions ; reign of terror Aug. et seq. ,, \nPoriirioDiaz said to be nominated for the presidency, ,, \n\nSept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nSanta Anna sentenced to eight years\' banishment, \n\nOct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nMaximilian\'s body given up to the Austrian admiral \n\nTegethoff 26 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMexican congress opened ; Juarez acting as provi- \nsional president; foreign consuls said to be leaving, \n\n8 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nJuarez re-elected president . . . Dec. ,, \nJuarez inaugurated as president . about 25 Dee. ,, \nMaximilian\'s body buried at Vienna . 18 Jan. 1868 \nEebellion against Juarez in Yucatan and other pro- \nvinces Jan. -Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nHasty blockade of Mazatlan by capt. Bridge of \nH.M.S. Chanticleer, for an outrage 20 June ; \nraised by admiral Hastings . . . July, ,, \nTreaty with United States adopted . . Dec. ,, \n\nInsurrection at Puebla suppressed . . Feb. 1869 \nGeneral Almonte dies at Paris . . - March, ,, \nEncounter between Mexicans and United States \ntroops who had pursued some Indian depreda- \ntors ; about 40 Americans killed ; reported, \n\n12 April, 1871 \nElection for president ; Diaz, 1982 votes ; Juarez, \n1963 ; Lerdo, 1366 ; Juarez retains the power, \n\n27 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nInsurrections arise Aug. ,, \n\nInsurrection headed by Negrete, Eiveras, and \n\nothers, suppressed with much slaughter 12 Oct. ,, \nJuarez re-elected president .... Oct. ,, \nInsurgents under Porflrio Diaz twice defeated ; \n\nannounced Jan. 1872 \n\nCivil war going on with varying success, April- June, , , \nBebels nearly subdued . . . . 1 July, ,, \nDeath of Benito Juarez (aged about 68) by apoplexy \n\n18 July, ,, \nThe country tranquil ; Diaz accepts the amnesty ; \n\nannounced 14 Aug. ,, \n\nLerdo de Tejado (of good character) elected presi- \ndent, Oct. ; Diaz submits .... Nov. ,, \nBailway from Mexico city to Vera Cruz completed ; \n\nruns 23 Jan. 1873 \n\nCustoms\' tariffs liberalised . . . July, 1S74 \nA senate voted by the Congress . . . Aug. ,, \nBeligious orders suppressed . . . Dec. ,, \nBeligious disturbances : Catholic outrages on Pro- \ntestants Jan. 1875 \n\n\n\nInsurrection by Porflrio Diaz, March ; he takes Ma- \ntamoras 1 April, 1876 \n\nProgress of reformed church ; union with episcopal \nchurch of United States proposed . April, ,, \n\nInsurgents defeated at Oaxaca, 29 May ; at Quinre- \ntaro June, ,, \n\nDeath of Santa Anna, ex-president . . 20 June, ,, \n\nDiaz defeats the government troops at Tekoar, \n12 Nov. ; enters Mexico, assumes power as provi- \nsional president 20 Nov. ,, \n\nPresident Lerdo de Tejado retires ; Iglesias takes \narms as president .... Dec. ,, \n\nDiaz defeats Iglesias, who retreats ; Diaz elected \npresident, 18 Feb. ; proclaimed . .5 May, 1877 \n\nBrief rebellion ; about 80 hanged ; announced, \n\n28 Dec. 187S \n\nInsurrection of Negrete ; Diaz marches against \nhim ; becomes president . . .16 June, 1879 \n\nManuel Gonzalez elected, 11 July ; succeeds 1 Dec. 1880 \n\nAbout 200 lives lost through precipitation of train \non San Morelos railway into the river near \nCuartla, through fall of bridge night of 24 June, 1881 \n\nIncrease of railways constructed by Americans . ,, \n\nBritish envoy re-appointed (sir Spencer St. John), \nJune ; received 17 July, 1883 \n\nBemains of an ancient city discovered in Sonora, \nnear Magdalena, including a great pyramid, \nrooms cut in a stony mountain, implements, &c. \nand hieroglyphic inscriptions . . . ,, \n\nDiplomatic relations with Great Britain resumed, \n\nannounced, Aug. 1884 \n\nConcession obtained from the Mexican government \nby Mr. James B. Eades for 99 years for the con- \nstruction of a railway for the conveyance of ships \nacross the isthmus ; estimated cost, 15,000,000?. ; \nmodel exhibited at Long Acre, London . Aug. ,, \n\nBiots in Mexico city on account of conversion of \nEnglish debt ; bloodshed . . . 18 Nov. ,, \n\nPorflrio Diaz inaugurated president . . 1 Dec. ,, \n\nImpending state insolvency through public works \nspeculations ; funding debts and loan proposed ; \nmuch dissatisfaction .... June, 1885 \n\nInsurrection at Nuevo Leon suppressed, Dec. 1885 ; \nanother insurrection, Guerro captured, insurgents \nsignally defeated ; disturbances between the \npeople of El Paso and the Texans ; interference \nof the United States and Mexican governments, \n\nJuly, 1886 \n\nMr. Cutting, an American journalist in Texas, \nimprisoned for libel ; the U.S. government inter- \nvenes, July- Aug. ; Mr. Cutting released 23 Aug. ,, \n\nInundations through heavy rains ; great loss of \nlife, especially at Leon and Silas 17-20 June, 188S \n\nWreck of an excursion steamer on Lake Chapala ; \nloss of 50 lives March, 1889 \n\nTwo companies of soldiers, while bathing, mas- \nsacred by Yaqui Indians from Sonora ; the \ngovernment send 4,000 men to punish the In- \ndians, announced 12 Oct. ,, \n\nFamine in the agricultural districts, government \n\nassistance given, reported ... 10 Dec. 1891 \nInsurrection ; gen. Lorenzo Garcia killed by his \ntroops, who join the rebels under Garza in Texas ; \nhe captures 45 soldiers and kills 4 officers, re- \nported, 31 Dec. 1891 ; Garza\'s band dispersed, re- \nported, 4 Jan. ; Dias re-elected president n July, 1892 \n\nEMPERORS. \n\n1822. Aug. Augustin Iturbide, Feb. ; abdicated 23 \nMarch, 1823 ; shot for attempting to recover his. \nauthority, 19 July, 1824. \n\n^864. Maximilian (brother to the emperor of Austria), \nborn 6 July, 1832 ; accepted the crown, ic \nApril, 1864 ; married 27 July, 1857, te princess \nCharlotte, daughter of Leopold I., king of the \nBelgians ; adopted Augustin Iturbide as his \nheir, Sept. 1865 ; shot (after a trial), 19 June, \n1867. \nMEZZOTINTO, see Engraving. \nMHOW COUKT-MAKTIAL, see Trials, \n\nNov. 1863. \n\nMICHAEL, St., and GEORGE, St. \nThis order of knighthood, founded for the Ionian \nIsles and Malta, 27 April, 1818, was reorganised in \nMarch, 1869, in order to admit servants of the \n\n\n\nMICHAELMAS. \n\n\n\n639 \n\n\n\nMIDDLESEX. \n\n\n\ncrown connected with the colonies. Among the \nfirst of the new knights were the earl of Derby, earl \nEussell, and earl Grey. See Knights. \n\nMICHAELMAS, 29 Sept., the feast of St. \nMichael, the reputed guardian of the Eoman \nCatholic church, under the title of "St. Michael \nand All Angels." Instituted, according to Butler, \n487. \n\nThe custom of eating goose at Michaelmas has been \nerroneously attributed to Queen Elizabeth\'s eating of \nthe bird at dinner on 29 Sept. 1588, at the house of sir \nNeville Umfreyville, at the time she heard of the \ndestruction of the Spanish Armada. The custom is of \nmuch older date, and is observed on the continent. \nClavis Calenduria. \n\nMICHAEL\'S MOUNT, St. (Cornwall), is \nconsidered by some to be the Iktis of Diodorus \nSiculus, and an ancient resort of the tin merchants. \nSt. Michael was said to have appeared on the \nmount, 495 or 710; and the place, thus reputed \nholy, became the seat of a body of monks, who \nreceived a charter from Edward the Confessor, \n1044, and many privileges from pope Gregory YIL, \n1079. \n\nMICHIGAN, a north-west state of N. America, \nsettled by the French, 1670; admitted into the union, \n26 Jan. 1837. Capital, Lansing. Population, 1880, \n1,636,937 ; 1890, 2,093,889. \nAbout 500 persons perish and 10,000 made homeless \n\nby destructive forest fires on . . 5 Sept. 1881 \nGreat fire at Grandhaven, 41 buildings destroyed, \n\nabout 30 Sept. 1889 \nExplosion at Messrs. Farriwold\'s dynamite factory \n\nat White Pigeon, 16 men killed . . 3 Sept. 1891 \n\nMICEOBES, see Germ. \n\nMICBOMETEB, an astronomical instrument \nused to measure any small distances and the minuter \nobjects in the heavens, such as the apparent dia- \nmeters of the planets, &c, was invented by Wm. \nGascoigne, who was killed at the battle of Marston- \nmoor, 2 July, 1644. It was improved by Huyghens \nabout 1652. Sir Joseph Whitworth made a ma- \nchine to measure the millionth of an inch, about \n1858 ; the measurement of the 30,000th of an inch \nis now common. \n\nMICEOPHONE (Greek, micros, little; phone, \nsound), a name given byWheatstone, in 1827, to an \ninstrument for rendering weak sounds audible by \nmeans of solid rods. The name was also given to \nan arrangement invented (in Dec. 1877) by pro- \nfessor D. E. Hughes (an American, an inventor \nof the printing telegraph), and shown to the Eoyal \nSociety, 9 May, 1878. \n\nAn electric current is established between two mode- \nrately conducting bodies (such as pieces of charcoal, \nmetallised by being plunged when heated into mer- \ncury) resting slightly upon each other, mounted on a \npiece of thin wood. If the contact is so made that \none of the bodies may be easily displaced, minute \nsounds produced on the wood disturb the electric \nconductivity at the place of contact, and may be heard \nby the help of the telephone. The sonorous and \nelectric waves are thus rendered synchronous, and \nbecome convertible. The tread of a fly sounds like \nthat of a large quadruped. See Telephone. \n\nMICBOPHITE, amicroscopic plant, especially \nparasitic ; some physiologists consider bacteria and \nbacilli to be microphites, 1890. \n\nMICEOSCOPES, said to have been in- \nvented by Jansen, in Holland, about 1590 ; by \nGalileo, about 1610; by Fontana, in Italy, and \nby Drcbbel, in Holland, about 162 1. Those \nwith double glasses were made at the period \nwhen the law of refraction was discovered, about \n1624. Solar microscopes were invented by Dr. \n\n\n\nHooke. In England great improvements were made \nin the microscope by Benjamin Martin (who in- \nvented and sold pocket microscopes about 1740), by \nHenry Baker, F.ll.S., about 1763, and still greater \nduring the present century by Wollaston, Eoss, \nJackson, Varley, Hugh Powell, and others. Diamond\' \nmicroscopes were made by Andrew Pritchard va \n1824 ; and the properties of "test objects" to prove \nthe qualities of microscopes, discovered by him and \nGoring in 1824-40. A binocular microscope {i.e., for \ntwo eyes), was constructed by professor Eiddell in? \n1851, and Wenham\'s important improvements were \nmade known in 1861. Treatises on the microscope- \nby J. Quekett (1848), by Dr. W. B. Carpenter (1856 \net seq.), by Dr. Lionel Beale (1858 et seq.), and \nGriffith and Henfrey\'s " Micrographic Dictionary" \n(1856, 1875, and 1883), are valuable. The Micro- \nscopical Society of London was established 20 Dec. \n1839, and the Quekett Microscopical Club, 1865. In \n1865 Mr. H. Sorby exhibited his spectrum microscope;, \nby which the millionth of a grain of blood was \ndetected. \n\nMICEO-TASIMETEE, a new instrument \ninvented by Mr. T. A. Edison, in which he has ap- \nplied the principle of the carbon microphone to the \nmeasurement of infinitesimal pressure ; announced \nJuly, 1878. He proposes to apply the principle to- \ndelicate barometers, thermometers, hygrometers,, \n&c. \n\nMIDDLE AGES, see Bark Ages. \n\nMIDDLE-CLASS EXAMINATION and- \nSCHOOLS, see Education (1858, and 1865-8). \nMiddle-Class Education Corporation, established in \n\n1866, for education of children of clerks and others ia \n\nsimilar ranks of life. Building in Cowper-streetj, \n\nLondon. \n\nMIDDLE-LEVELS, see Levels. \n\nMIDDLESBEOUGH, N. Eiding of York- \nshire, on the Tees, a coal port and a chief seat of the \niron manufacture, the first house erected by George \nChapman, April, 1830. New dock, and literary and \nscientific institution opened, Oct. 1875. Mr. Henry \nW. F. Bolckow and John Vaughan, heads of great \niron-works (Mr. Bolckow, the first mayor and M.P., \ndied 18 June, 1878). The prosperity of the Cleve- \nland district, which had greatly declined since 1874, \nbegan to revive in the autumn of 1879. At the \njubilee celebration, 6 Oct. 188 1, a bust of Mr. \nBolckow was unveiled ; and one of Mr. Vaughan; \nwas unveiled 2 June, 1884. See under Steel. Popu- \nlation, 1861, 18,992; 1881, 55,934; 1891, 75,516. \nSouth Gare breakwater, nearly i\\ miles long, \nbegun in 1864, opened by the right hon. W. H. \nSmith . . . .- . . . 25 Oct. 188S \nA town hall &c. opened by the prince and princess \n\nof Wales 23 Jan. 1889 \n\nStoppage of the firm of Messrs. Downey & Co., iron \n\nmanufacturers 28 March, 1892- \n\nGreat distress in the district through the Durham \nminers\' strike, April etseq. ; relieved by subscrip- \ntions in London, &c. . . . May, June, 1892- \n\nMIDDLESEX, the metropolitan county of \nEngland, was the seat of the Trinobantes in the \nEoman province, Flavia Canadensis, and the Mid- \ndel-Sexe, or Middle Saxons, in the kingdom of \nEast-Sexne, or Essex. Lionel Cranfield was cre- \nated earl of Middlesex, 16 Sept. 1622; succeeded by \nhis sons, James, 1645-51; Lionel, 1651-74, when, \nthe title became extinct. Charles SaVkville was \nmade earl in 1675 ! and his son became duke of \nDorset in 1720. \nMiddlesex returns forty-eight M.P\'s. by act passed \n\n25 June, 1S85 \nThe Middlesex county record society was estab- \n\n\n\nMIDDLESEX HOSPITAL. \n\n\n\n640 \n\n\n\nMILITAEY EXHIBITION. \n\n\n\nlished in 1884. It has issued three volumes con- \ntaining session rolls &c. (1549 e * se Q ) Nov. 1888. \nThe earl of Strafford, lord lieutenant, president 1888 \n\nMIDDLESEX HOSPITAL, London, \nfounded, 1745; incorporated, 1836; cancer ward \nendowed, 1791. \n\nMEDIAN, now Arz MADIAN, N.W. Arabia; \nanciently held by the descendants of Midian, a son \nof Abraham. Having enticed the Israelites to idol- \natry, they were severely chastised, 1452 B.C. \' They \ninvaded Canaan about. 1249 B.C., and were tho- \nroughly defeated by Gideon. \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Capt. Richard F. Burton explored the ruined cities of \nMidian in 1877, and found the remains of ancient \nmines, many relics, and gold. An expedition, equipped \n""by the khedive of Egypt, and placed under his com- \nmand, started from Suez, 10 Dec. 1877, and returned \n20 April, 1878. He brought home 25 tons of geological \nspecimens, specimens of silver and copper ore, many \ncoins and other antiquities, and photographs of the \nremains of ruined cities, &c. \n\nMIDLAND INSTITUTE, Birmingham, \n\nincorporated 1854. \n\nMIDLAND BAIL WAY STATION, St. \n\nPancras, N. London, possessing the largest known \nroof in the world (245 feet 6 inches wide, and 698 \nfeet long), was opened for traffic I Oct. 1868. The \nengineer was Mr. H. W. Barlow. The architect of \nthe magnificent Gothic hotel was sir G. Gilbert Scott. \n\nMIDWIFERY. Women were the only practi- \ntioners among the Hebrews and Egyptians. Hippo- \ncrates, in Greece, 460 B.C., is styled the father of \n\xe2\x96\xa0midwifery, as well as of physic. It advanced \nunder Ceisus, who flourished a.d. 37, and of Galen, \n\xe2\x80\xa2who lived 131. In England midwifery became a \n\xe2\x96\xa0science about the period of the institution of the \ncollege of physicians, 10 Hen. VII. 1518. Dr. \nHarvey engaged in the practice of it, about 1603 ; \nAstruc affirms that madame de la Valliere, mistress \nof Louis XIV., in 1663, employed Julian Clement, \na surgeon, with great secrecy. \n\nMILAN, Mediolanum, capital of the ancient \nLiguria, now Lombardy, is reputed to have been \n%uilt by the Gauls, about 408 B.C. The cathedral \ntermed duomo was built about 1385. Population \n1890, 414,551. \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Conquered by the Roman consul Marcellus . B.C. 222 \nSeat of government of the western empire . a.d. 286 \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Council of Milan 346 \n\nSt. Ambrose, bishop of Milan 375 \n\nMilan plundered by Attila 452 \n\nIncluded in the Ostrogothic kingdom, 489 ; in the \n\nLombard kingdom 569 \n\nBecomes an independent republic .... 1101 \nThe emperor Frederic I. takes Milan, and appoints \n\na p>odesta 1158 \n\nIt rebels ; is taken by Frederic and its fortifications \n\ndestroyed 1162 \n\n.Rebuilt and fortified 11 69 \n\nThe Milanese defeated by the emp. Frederic II. . 1237 \nThe Visconti become paramount in Milan . . . 1277 \nJohn Galeazzo Visconti takes the title of duke . 1395 \nFrancesco Sforza, son-in-law of the last of the Vis- \nconti, subdues Milan and becomes duke . . . 1450 \nMilan conquered by Louis XII. of France . . 1499 \n\'The French expelled by the Spaniards . . . 1525 \nMilan annexed to the crown of Spain . . . 1540 \nGreat plague alleviated by the archbishop Bor- \n\nromeo 1576 \n\nMilan ceded to Austria 1714 \n\nConquered by the French and Spaniards . . . 1743 \n"Reverts to Austria, upon Naples and Sicily being \n\nceded to Spain 1748 \n\nSeized by the French .... 30 June, 1796 \n\nRetaken by the Austrian s 1799 \n\nRegained by the French . . . 31 May, 1800 \nMade the capital of the kingdom of Italy, and Napo- \nleon Bonaparte crowned with the iron crown here, \n\n26 May, 1805 \n\n\n\nThe Milan decree of Napoleon against all continental \n\nintercourse with England ... 17 Dec. 1807 \nInsurrection against the Austrians ; flight of the \n\nviceroy 18 March, 1848 \n\nSurrenders to the Austrians ... 5 Aug. ,, \nTreaty of peace between Austria and Sardinia, \n\n6 Aug. 1849 \nAnother revolt promptly suppressed and rigorously \n\npunished 6 Feb. et seq. 1853 \n\nMilan visited by the emperor of Austria . Nov. 1856 \nAmnesty for political offences granted . Dec. 1857 \nAfter the defeat of the Austrians at Magenta, 4 June, \nNapoleon III. and the king of Sardinia enter Milan, \n\n8 June, 1859 \nPeace of Villafranca ; a large part of Lombardy \n\ntransferred to Sardinia ... 12 July, ,, \nVictor-Emmanuel enters Milan as king . 8 Aug. i860 \nReactionary plots of Neapolitan soldiery suppressed, \n\n29, 30 April, 1861 \nThe Victor-Emmanuel gallery opened by the king, \n\n15 Sept. 1867 \nThe arts exhibition opened by the king 26 Aug. 1872 \nVisit of the emperor of Germany . . 18-23 Oct. 1875 \nThe Mentana Memorial inaugurated by Garibaldi, \n\n4 Nov. 1880 \nNational exhibition, opened by the king 5 May, 1881 \nVisit of the emperor William II. . . 19 Oct. 1889 \nSee Italy. \n\nMILBANK PENITENTIARY, West- \nminster : The very unhealthy site was purchased \nof the Marquis of Salisbury in 1799 for I2,ooo7. \nThe building, a modification of Jeremy Bentham\'s \nPanopticon {which see), first received convicts 27 \nJune, 1816. \n\nIn consequence of many deaths during a great epi- \ndemic the convicts were placed in Woolwich hulks, \n1822-3. O n lf > June, 1843, a committee reported the \npenitentiary a failure. The system was abolished in \nparliament, and the building styled Milbank prison. \n\nThe buildings ordered to be pulled down and site sold, \n1888.- \n\nIt was finally closed 6 Nov. 1890. \n\nMILETUS, a Greek city of Ionia, Asia Minor, \nfounded about 1043 B.C. The Milesians "defended \nthemselves successfully, 623-612 b.c. During the \nwar with Persia it was taken, 494, but restored, \n449. Here Paul delivered his celebrated charge \nto the elders of the church of Ephesus, a.d. 60 \n{Acts xx.). \n\nMILFORD HAVEN (Wales). Here the \nearl of Richmond, afterwards Henry VII., landed on \nhis way to encounter Richard III. whom he defeated \nat Bosworth, 1485. The packets from this port to \nIreland, sailing to Waterford, were established in \n1787. The dock-yard, established here in 1790, \nwas removed to Pembroke in 1814. Sham naval \nfights here 16 Aug. et seq. 1886. \nMilford Haven adopted as an Atlantic terminus by \nthe Anchor line company ; their steamer, the \nCity of Rome, arrives .... 24 Oct. 1889 \n\nMILITARY ASYLUM, Royal, at Chehea, \n\n" for the children of the soldiers of the regular \narmy." The first stone was laid by the duke of \nYork, 19 June, 1801, \n\nMILITARY EDUCATION, see Army, \nJune, 1868. \n\nMILITARY EXHIBITION, Royal, \nChelsea, president the duke of Cambridge, was \nopened by the prince of Wales, with the princess, \nthe duke of Edinburgh, and other distinguished \npersons, 7 May, 1890; visited by the queen, 4 July. \nThe exhibition consisted of the industrial work of \nthe soldiers, articles of military equipment, pictures \nlent, and other objects of interest ; military sports, \ndrills, &c. Mr. Spencer\'s strong war balloon \nascended 10 May, et seq. The exhibition was \nintended to promote the increase of soldiers\' insti- \ntutes in towns. \n\n\n\nMILITAEY KNIGHTS. \n\n\n\n641 \n\n\n\nMINES. \n\n\n\nThe exhibition closed i Nov. 1890 \n\nThe profits were reported to be 9,744^. . 9 May, i8qi \n\nMILITAEY KNIGHTS of WINDSOE, \nsee Poor Knights oj Windsor. \n\nMILITAEY or MAETIAL LAW is built \non no settled principle, but is entirely arbitrary, \nand, in truth, no law ; but sometimes indulged, \nrather than allowed, as law. Sir Matthew Hale. \nIt has been several times proclaimed in parts of \nthese kingdoms, and in 1798 was almost general in \nIreland, where it was also proclaimed in 1803. \n\nMILITIA, the standing national force of these \nrealms, is traced to king Alfred, who made all his \nsubjects soldiers, 872-901. See Army Defence. \n\nCommission of array to raise a militia . . . 1122 \n\nRevived by Henry II n 7 6 \n\nAgain revived IS57 \n\nSaid to amount to 160,000 men .... 1623 \n\nThe militia statutes 1661 to 1663 \n\nSupplemental militia act passed .... 1796 \nIrish militia ottered its services in England, \n\n28 March, 1804 \nGeneral militia act for England and Scotland, 1802 ; \n\nfor Ireland 1809 \n\nEnactment authorising courts-martial to inflict \n\nimprisonment instead of flogging passed . . 1814 \nActs to consolidate the militia laws . i852*-54, 1882 \nMilitia embodied on account of the Russian war, \n\n1854 ; on account of the Indian mutiny, 1857 ; and \n\non account of the war in the Soudan . 18 Feb. 1885 \n\nMilitia reserve act passed 1867 \n\nMilitia in 1872, 139,018; 1875, 149,330; 1877, 134,500; \n\nin 1884, 82,525 ; in 1886, 108,196 ; in 1887, 110,488 ; \n\n1888, 141,593 ; 1890, 113,163. \nMilitia (volunteers) Enlistment Act, consolidating \n\nand amending the laws passed . . n Aug. 1875 \nA committee on the state of the militia reported, \n\nFeb. 1890, greatly increased efficiency since 1850. \n\nMILITIA OF JESUS, a society of Roman \nCatholic youth of France and Italy, formed to sup- \nport the papal cause by moral agencies, became \nknown in 1877. \n\nMILK. The type of food as containing all \nthings needful for the development of the animal \nbody. A process for its condensation was in- \nvented by Mr. Gail Borden, near New York, in \n1849, for which he was awarded a medal at the \nGreat Exhibition in 1851, when he erected factories. \nHe invented meat biscuit, 1850. The Anglo-Swiss \ncondensed milk company was established in 1866; \nand since then the Aylesbury company. \nTyphoid fever (said to be caused by bad milk, pre- \nvailed) in London, Aug., Sept. 1873; about 20 died \nof fever through milk, at and near Eagley, Lan- \ncashire March, 1876 \n\nMILKY WAY (Galaxy) in the heavens. \nJuno is said by the Greek poets to have spilt her \nmilk in the heavens after suckling Mercury or \nHercules. Democritus (about 428 B.C.) taught that \nthe via lactea consisted of stars, which Galileo \n(1610-42) proved by the telescope. See Stars, 1892. \n\nMILLENAEIANS (or Chiliasts) suppose that \nthe world will end at the expiration of the seven \nthousandth year from the creation; and that during \na thousand years (millennium) Christ and the saints \nwill reign upon the earth ; see Rev. xx. The \ndoctrine was very generally inculcated in the 2nd \n\n* This militia act was consequent upon the then pre- \nvailing opinion of the necessity of strengthening our \nnational defences against the possibility of French \ninvasion. The act empowered her majesty to raise a \nforce not exceeding 80,000 men, of which number 50,000 \nwere to be raised in 1852, and 30,000 in 1855 ; the quotas \nfor each county or riding to be fixed by an order in \ncouncil. \n\n\n\nand 3rd centuries, by Papias, Justin Martyr and \nothers. \n\n.MILLENAEY PETITION, presented to \nking James on his accession, 1603, on behalf of \nnearly a thousand Puritan ministers against the \n"human rites and ceremonies " of the church of \nEngland. \n\nMILLS. Moses forbade mill-stones to be taken \nin pawn, because it would be like taking a man\'s \nlife to pledge. Deut. xxiv. 6. The hand-mill was \nin use among the Britons previously to the con- \nquest by the Romans. The Romans introduced the \nwater-mill. Cotton mills moved by water were \nerected by sir Richard Arkwright, at Cromford, \nDerbyshire. He died in 1792. See Mechanics. \nMill-work exhibition at the Agricultural Hall, \nLondon, N. 10-18 May, 1881. \n\nMILWAUKEE. A town in Wisconsin, \nNorth America, founded 1835. The New Hall hotel \nwas burnt 4 a.m. 10 Jan. 1883, when about 109 \npersons perished. George Sclieller, lessee of the \nbar-room, arrested for arson about 17 Jan. 1883. \nPopulation, 1890, 204,486. \n\nMINCIO, a river of Lombardy. Here the \nAustrians wei - e repulsed by the French under \nBrune, 25-27 Dec. 1800; and by Eugene Beau- \nharnais, 8 Feb. 18 14, near Valeggio. \n\nMIND-CUEE. A sect termed Christian \nScientists in Boston, U.S., led by Mrs. M. B. G. \nEddy, professed to cure bodily diseases by acting on \nthe mind through the body, by staring, &c, 1885, \net seq. \n\nMINDEN (Prussia), Battle of, i Aug. \n\n1759, between the English, Hessians, and Hano- \nverians (under prince Ferdinand of Brunswick), \nand the French (under marshal De Contades), who \nwere beaten and driven to the ramparts of Minden. \nLord George Sackville (afterwards lord George \nGermain) who commanded the British and Hano- \nverian horse, for some disobedience of orders was \ntried by a court-martial on his return to England, \nfound guilty, and dismissed, 22 April, 1760. He \nwas afterwards restored to favour, and became \nsecretary of state, 1776. \n\nMINEEALOGY, the science of minerals, is \na branch of geology; see Geology, Mines, and \nCrystallography. It was not mucli studied by the \nancients. George Agricola in the 16th century \nmade the first attempt to treat it scientifically. \n\nThe study of mineralogy was advanced by Becker, \n\nKircher, and Woodward in the 17th century. \nA British Mineralogical Society established in . . 1800 \nHaiiy\'s " Traite de Mineralogie " appeared in . . 1801 \nMineralogical society of Great Britain held first \n\nmeeting in London, 3 Feb. 1876, and others since. \nAnother society termed itself h, jfc, I, Miller\'s \n\nsymbol for the face of a crystal .... 1876 \nJames D. Dana\'s "System of Mineralogy," 5 th \n\nedition l883 \n\nMINES. Strabo and Tacitus enumerate gold \nand silver as among the products of Britain. The \nearliest instance of a claim to a mine royal being \nenforced occurs 47 Hen. III. 1262. It related to \nmines containing gold, together with copper, in \nDevonshire. In Edward I.\'s reign, according to \nMr. Ruding, the mines in Ireland, which produced \nsilver, were supposed to be so rich that the king \ndirected a writ for working them to Robert de \nUfford, lord justice, 1276. The lend mines of Cardi- \nganshire, from which silver has ever since been ex- \ntracted, were discovered by sir Hugh Middleton in \n\nT x \n\n\n\nMINERVA. \n\n\n\n642 \n\n\n\nMINT. \n\n\n\n1871 \n1872 \n\n\n\n1873 \n\n\n\nthe re ign of James I. ; see Coal, and the various \nmetals. \n\nMining Journal established . . .29 Aug. 1835 \n\nThe Royal School of Mines, &e., Jermyn-street, \nSt. James\'s, opened in .... Nov. 1851 \n\nAn act for the regulation of mines passed in . . i860 \n\nA Miners\' Protection Association proposed by Mr. \nWilliam Gumey and others in . . March, 1862 \n\nValue of the total mineral produce of the United \nKingdom estimated at 29,155, 701?. in 1854; \n31,680,581?. in 1859 ; 41,521,705?. in 1868 ; \n46,094,600?. in 1870 ; 69,041,158?. in 1873 ; \n63,737, 881?. in 1879 ; 88,042,457?. in 1881 ; \n64,076,424?. in 1884 ; 58,653,689?. in 1887 ; \n100,802,657?. iu 1890. \n\nMiners\' conference, for amelioration of their con- \ndition, held at Merthyr Tydvil ; well conducted ; \nMr. Halliday president .... Oct. \n\nMetalliferous Mines Regulation act passed 10 Aug. \n\nThe Amalgamated Association of Miners begun in \nLancashire about 1869, held a conference at New- \nport, 1872 ; at Bristol . . . .8 Oct. \n\nRoyal commission on mines (see under Coal) ap- \npointed, Feb. 1879. Report issued . Nov. 1881 \n\nA miners\' national conference on wages, &c. ; opened \nat Birmingham, 20 April, 1881 ; at Manchester, \n29 Aug. 1882, and frequently at other places. \n\nMiners\' association of Northumberland vote against \ncontinuance of payments to their M.P\'s, Messrs. \nBurt and Fenwick, 19 Sept. ; vote rescinded, \nNov. 1887 ; further agitation on the subject ; \nagain rescinded April, 1888 \n\nNational Miners\' Federation annual conferences, \n1889 ; Birmingham, 22 Jan. et seq. 1890 ; Birming- \nham, 7 Jan. 1891 ; Stoke-on-Trent . 12 Jan. 1892 \n\nInternational exhibition of mining and metallurgy, \nCrystal palace . . . .28 July \xe2\x80\x94 11 Oct. 1890 \n\nInstitute of Mining Engineers meets at Nottingham, \n\n24 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nInternational congress of miners at Jolimont, Bel- \ngium, 20-24 May, 1890 ; at Paris, 31 March-4 \nApril, 189 1 ; at Westminster . 7-10 June, 1892 \n\nSee Coal 1889 et seq. \n\nPersons employed in mines in the United Kingdom \nin 1888, about 592,696; in 1891, 707,411. \n\nAccidents in mines, see under Coal. \n\nMINERVA, see Parthenon and Athens. \n\nMINGRELIA, the ancient Colchis, mentioned \nin the legend of "Jason, the Argonauts, and the \nGolden Fleece." A province of Asiatic Eussia, \nprince Nicolas having ceded his rights to the Czar \nin 1867. In 1887 the prince was spoken of as a \ncandidate for the Bulgarian throne. \n\nMINIE RIFLE, invented at Vincennes, about \n1833, by M. Minie (born 1810). From a common \nsoldier he raised himself to the rank of chef \nd\'escadron. His rifle, considered to surpass all \nmade previous to it, was adopted by the French, \nand, with modifications, by the British, 1852. \n\nMINIMIZERS- A name given to certain \nwriters who advocate the limitation of the sove- \nreign power of the state as much as possible to the \nprotection of life and property, which is styled \nby professor Huxley "administrative nihilism." \nThey include "W. von Humboldt, J. S. Mill (in his \n"Essay on Liberty "), and Mr. Herbert Spencer \n(in his "Political Institutions"), 1882. \n\nMINIMS (from minimi, the least), an order of \nmonks, founded by S. Francisco di Paolo (1416 \xe2\x80\x94 \n1507), in Calabria, received their name, as profes- \nsing themselves inferior to the Minorites (from \nminor, less) ; see Franciscans. St. Francis died \nin France in 1 ^07 ; where he had established houses \nof his order. \n\nMINISTER OF WAR, see War Minister. \nMINISTERS, see Administrations. \n\nMINISTERS in Scotland: church patronage \nwas abolished in 1874. \n\n\n\nMINNESINGERS, lyric German poets, of \nthe 12th and 13th centuries, who sang of love and \nwar to entertain knights and barons of the time. \nThe Meistersingers, their successors, an incorporated \nfraternity in the 14th century, composed satirical \nballads for the amusement of the citizens and lower \nclasses. Hans Sachs, a shoemaker (1494-1576), a \npoet of the reformation, was for a time their dean. \nHis works were published at Nuremberg, 1560. \n"Owleglass" and " Reynard the Fox," are attri- \nbuted to the Meistersingers. \n\nMINNESOTA, a western state of N. America, \nwas organised as a territory, 3 March, 1849, and \nadmitted into the union in 1857. On 17 Aug. 1862,. \nthe Sioux Indians commenced a series of outrages- \nat Acton in Messier county, desolating the country \nand massacring above 500 persons, of both sexes, \nand of all ages. General Sibley beat the Indians- \nin two battles and rescued many captives. Thirty- \neight Indians were executed as assassins. Capital \nSt. Paul. \nThe great Tribune buildings at Minneapolis were \n\nburnt, about 20 persons perished . . 30 Nov. i88g> \nTornado, much destruction and loss of life in St. \nPaul and the neighbourhood ; the Sea-King, \nsteamer, on lake Pekin upset, about 100 persons \ndrowned, and many others in small boats ; total \n\nloss about 250 13 July, 1890? \n\nDestructive tornado with loss of life 15, 16 June, 1892: \nPopulation, 1880, 780,773 ; 1890, 1,301,826. \n\nMINORCA AND MAJORCA, the Balearic \nIsles (which see). Port Mahon in Minorca was- \ncaptured by lieutenant-general Stanhope and sir \nJohn Leake in 1708, and was ceded to the British \nby the treaty of Utrecht in 1713. It was retaken \nby the Spanish and French in July, 1756, and \nadmiral Byng fell a victim to public indignation \nfor not relieving it; see Byng. It was restored to> \nthe British at the peace in 1763; taken 5 Feb. \n1782 ; again captured by the British under general \nStuart, without the loss of a man, 15 Nov. 1798; \ngiven up at the peace of Amiens, 25 March, 1802. \n\nMINORITIES. In the new reform bill, \npassed 15 Aug. 1867, provision was made for the \nrepresentation of minorities in constituencies with \nthree members by limiting each elector to two votes . \nIt was introduced as an amendment by lord Cairns \nin the lords, 30 July, and accepted by the commons, \nAug. 1867. The principle was adopted in a new \nconstitution by the state of Illinois, U.S., July, \n1870. See Proportional Representation. \n\nMINSTER, or MONASTERIUM, a place oc- \ncupied by monks ; see Westminster and York. \n\nMINSTRELS, originally pipers appointed by \nlords of manors to divert their copyholders while at \nwork, owed their origin to the glee men or harpers \nof the Saxons, and continued till about 1560. John \nof Gaunt erected a court of minstrels at Tutbury in \n1380. So late as the reign of Henry VIII. they \nintruded without ceremony into all companies, even \nat the houses of the nobility ; but in Elizabeth\'s \nreign they were adjudged rogues and vagabonds \n(1597)- \n\nMINT. Athelstan enacted regulations for the \ngovernment of the mint about 928. There were \nseveral provincial mints under the control of that \nof London. Henry I. is said to have instituted a \nmint at Winchester, 1125. Stow says the mint was \nkept by Italians, the English being ignorant of \nthe art of coming, 7 Edw. I. 1278. The operators \nwere formed into a corporation by the charter of \nIcing Edward LTL, in which condition it consisted \nof the warden, master, comptroller, assay-master, \n\n\n\nMINUET. \n\n\n\n643 \n\n\n\nMISSOUEI. \n\n\n\nworkers, coiners, and subordinates. The first entry \nof gold brought to the mint for coinage occurs in \n18 Edw. III. 1343. Tin was coined by Charles II. \n1684; and gun-metal and pewter by his successor \nJames after his abdication. Sir Isaac Newton was \nwai-den, 1699-1727, during which time the debased \ncoin was called in, and new issued at the loss of \nthe government. Between 1806 and 1810, grants \namounting to 262,000/. were made by parliament \nfor the erection of the present mint, which was \ncompleted in 1810; it was injured by fire, 31 Oct. \n1815. The new constitution of the mint, founded \non the report of the hon. "Wellesley Pole, took \neffect in 1817. Professor Thomas "Graham, the \nmaster of the mint, died 16 Sept. 1869. By the \nCoinage Act, passed 4 April, 1870, the office was \ncombined with that of the chancellor of the ex- \nchequer, the duties being transferred to the deputy- \nmaster (Sir C. "W. Fremantle), k.c.b., i Jan. 1890. \nAfter reorganization, the work ^as resumed, 8 Dec. \n1882. See Coin. \n\nMASTERS OF THE MINT. \n\n\n\n1817. "Wellesley Pole. \n1823. Thomas Wallace. \n\n1827. George Tierney. \n\n1828. J. C. Hemes. \n1830. Lord Auckland. \n\n1834. James Abererombie. \n\n1835. Alexander Baring. \n,, Henry Labouchere. \n\n\n\n1841. William E. Glad- \nstone. \n\n1845. Sir George Clerk. \n\n1846. Richard L. Sheil. \n1850. Sir John F. Herschel, \n\nF.R.S. \n\n1855. Thomas Graham, \n\nF.R.S. \n\n\n\nMINUET, a French dance, said to have been \nfirst danced by Louis XIV., 1653. \n\nMINUS, see Plus. \n\nMIEACLE PLAYS, see under Drama. \n\nMIEIDITES, or MlRDITES, see Turkey, \n1877. \n\nMIEEOES. In ancient times mirrors were \nmade of metal ; those of the Jewish women of \nbrass. Mirrors of silver were introduced by Praxi- \nteles 4th century B.C. Mirrors or looking-glasses \nwere made at Venice, a.d. 1300 ; and in England, \nat Lambeth, near London, in 1673. The improve- \nments in manufacturing plate-glass, and that of \nvery large size, have cheapened looking-glasses very \nmuch. Various methods of coating glass by a \nsolution of silver, thus avoiding the use of mer- \ncury, so injurious to the health of the workmen, \nhave been made known ; by M. Petitjean in 185 1 ; \nby M. Cimeg in 1861, and by Liebig and others. \n\nMISCHNA, see Talmud. \n\nMISEEEEE {Psalm li.) sung at Eome in the \n" Tenebrce," the service in Holy or Passion "Week, \nin a peculiarly effective manner, to old music. One \narrangement is by Costanzo Festa, dated 1517. \n\n.MISSAL, or MASS BOOK, the Eomanist \nritual compiled by pope Gelasius 1. 492-6 ; revised \nby Gregory I. 590-604. Various missals were in \nuse till the Koman missal was adopted by the coun- \ncil of Trent, 1545-63. The missal was super- \nseded in England by the book of common prayer, \n1549- \n\nMISSIONAEY BISHOPS, see under \nBishops. \n\nMISSIONS,* see Mark xvi. 15. Among the \nRomanists, the religious orders of St. Dominic, St. \n\n* Missions, "a series of sermons, generally by a \n\' missioner,\' or special preacher, often followed by con- \nfessions and communions " (a species of revivalism), \nwere authorised in the metropolis by the bishops of \nLondon, Winchester, and Rochester, held 1865 and \nsince. \n\n\n\nFrancis, St. Augustin, &c, have missions to the \nLevant and to America. Marco Polo is said to have \nintroduced missionaries into China, 1275. The \nJesuits have missions to China {which see) and to \nmost other parts of the world. Among the Protes- \ntants, an early undertaking of this kind was a \nDanish mission, planned by Frederick IV. in 1706. \nThe Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in \nforeign parts was established 1701, and the Mora- \nvian Brethren encouraged missions about 1732. \nThe London Missionary Society held their first \nmeeting, 4 Nov. 1794. Most Christian sects now \nsupport missions. British Contributions to Foreign \nMissions; 1871, 855,742/.; 1877, 1,100,793/. (in \n1871-7, 6,977,586/.) \n\nGreat congress of protestant missions in London ; a \nlarge number of societies represented ; the earl of \nAberdeen president, 9-19 June, 1888. \n\nCommander Allan Gardner, R. N. , who left England in \nthe Ocean Queen in Sept. 1850, on the Patagonian mis- \nsion, with Mr. Williams, surgeon, Mr. Maidment, \ncatechist, and four others, died on Picton Island, at \nthe mouth of the Beagle Channel, to the south of \nTierra del Fuego, having been starved to death ; all \nhis companions having previously perished, 6 Sept. \n1851. \n\nM. Schoffter, a missionary to Cochin-China, was publicly \nexecuted at Son-Tay, by order of the grand mandarin, \nfor preaching Christianity, such preaching being pro- \nhibited by the law of that country, 4 May, 1851. \n\nMISSISSIPPI, a great river, N. America, \nexplored by De Soto about 1541. Captain Glazier \ndiscovered its source, 1884. Its length is now stated \nto be 2,960 miles. The Mississippi trade was begun \nin England, in Nov. 1716. Law\'s Mississippi scheme \nin France, commenced about the same period, ex- \nploded in 1720; at which time the nominal capital \nis said to have amounted to 100,000,000/. The ruin \nof thousands soon followed. See Law\'s Bubble. \n\nPopulation, 1880, 1,131,597 ; 1890, 1,289,600. \n\nThe great Eads bridge at St. Louis opened, 4 July, \n\nBy the explosion of the boiler of the Corona at \nPort Hudson on the Mississippi, 43 persons \nperished 3 Oct. \n\nThe North American state, Mississippi, was settled \nin 1716 ; admitted as a state of the union, 1817 ; \nseceded from it by ordinance, 8 Jan. 1861 ; sub- \nmitted, 1865. Capital, Jackson. \n\nAbout 85,000 persons made homeless through floods \nin the lower Mississippi valley early in March, \n\nThe Mississippi valley suffers much by frequent \ninundations ; one was very disastrous in March, \nApril, 1890, when thousands of square miles were \nimmerged, many towns isolated, and communi- \ncations cutoff. Louisiana suffered much in April \nfollowing. 150,000 dollars voted by congress to \nrelieve the sufferers . . . .25 April, \n\nGrenada nearly destroyed by fire . . 14 Jan. \n\nThe great cantilever bridge over the river, 3 miles \nlong, at Memphis, joining Tennessee and Arkan- \nsas, completed ; cost, 600,000?., announced \n\n11 April, 1892 \n\nDestructive, floods ; about 250 lives lost, about 13 \nApril et seq. ; about 1,500 sq. miles covered near \nSt. Louis ; 11 million dollars estimated loss ; \ngreat loss of life ; floods abating . . 25 May, ., \n\nMISSOLONGHI, a town in Greece, taken \nfrom the Turks, 1 Nov. 1821, and heroically and \nsuccessfully defended against the Turks by Marco \nBotzaris, Oct. 1822\xe2\x80\x9427 Jan. 1823. It was taken 22 \nApril, 1826, after a long siege. Here Lord Byron \ndied, 19 April, 1824. A statue of Byron was un- \nveiled here, 6 Nov. 1S81, It was surrendered to the \nGreeks in 1829. \n\nMISSOUEI, a south-western state in N. \nAmerica, was settled in 1763, and admitted into the \nunion, 10 Aug. 1821. It decided on neutrality in \n\nT T 2 \n\n\n\n1S74 \n\n\n\n1090 \n1891 \n\n\n\nMITCHELSTOWN. \n\n\n\n644 \n\n\n\nMODOC INDIANS. \n\n\n\nthe conflict of 1861, but was invaded by both the \nconfederate and federal forces in June of that year, \nand became one of the seats of war. Capital, \nJefferson city; population, 1880, 2,168,380; 1890, \n2,679,184; see United States, 1861 et seq. \xe2\x80\x94 Great \nrailway strike March, 1886. The university library, \nColumbia, burnt, 9 Jan. 1892.\xe2\x80\x94 For the MISSOURI \nCOMPROMISE, see Slavery in America. The \nMissouri river is 3,047 miles long. \n\nMITCHELSTOWN, Cork, see Ireland, 9 \nSept. 1887. \n\nMITHEIDATE, a medical preparation in the \nform of an electuary, supposed to be an antidote to \npoison and the oldest compound known, is said to \nhave been invented by Mithridates, king of Pontus, \nabaut 70 B.C. \n\nMITHRIDATIC WAR, caused by the mas- \nsacre of 80,000 .Romans, by Mithridates VI. , king of \nPontus, 88 B.C., and remarkable for its duration, \nits many sanguinary battles, and the cruelties of its \ncommanders. Mithridates having taken the consul \nAquilius, made him ride on an ass through a great \npart of Asia, crying out as he rode, "I am Aquilius, \nconsul of the Romans." He is said to have killed \nhim by causing melted gold to be poured down his \nthroat, in derision of his avarice, 85 B.C. Mithri- \ndates was defeated by Pompey, 66 B.C.; and com- \nmitted suicide, 63 B.C. \n\nMITRAILLEUSE, or MlTRAILLETJR, a \nmachine-gun in which 37 or more large-bored rifles \nare combined with breech-action, by means of which \na shower of bullets may be rapidly projected by one \nman. It was invented in Belgium, and adopted by \nthe French emperor soon after the Prusso -Austrian \nwar in 1866, and was much used in the Franco- \nPrussian war in 1870. Its peculiar " dry, shrieking, \nterrible sound" was described in the bombardment \nof Saarbriick, 2 Aug. 1870. Modifications of the \nmitrailleuse have been made by Montigny and \nothers. The Fosbery mitrailleuse was tried and \napproved at Shoeburyness, n Aug. 1870. \xe2\x80\x94 It is \nmentioned in Grose\'s Military Antiquities (1801) \nthat in England, in 1625, a patent was granted to \n\'William Drummond for a machine composed of a \nnumber of muskets joined together, by the help of \nwhich two soldiers can oppose a hundred, and \nnamed, on account of itseffect, "thunder carriage," \nor more usually, "fire carriage." An English \nmitrailleuse, a modification of the American gatling, \ncontaining 50 cartridges, was tried at Woolwich, 18 \nJan. 1872; fifty of them were ordered to be made \nby Armstrong. \n\nMITRE. The cleft cap or mitre was worn by \nthe Jewish high-priest, 1491 B.C. It had on it a \ngoldun plate inscribed "Holiness to the Lord." \nExodus xxxix. 28. The most ancient mitre that \nh is the nearest resemblance to the present one is \nthat upon the seal of the bishop of Laon, in the 10th \ncentury. Fosbroke. Anciently the cardinals wore \nmitres, but at the council of Lyons, in 1245, they \nwere directed to wear hats. \n\nMITYLENE, or LESBOS, iEgean Sea. Near \nhere the Greeks defeated and nearly destroyed the \nTurkish fleet, 7 Oct. 1824. \n\nMNEMONICS, artificial memory, was intro- \nduced by Simonides the younger, 477 B.C. Arund. \nMarbles. "Mnemoniea" was published by John \n"Willis in 1618; and the " Memoria Technica" of \nDr. Grey first appeared in 1730. A system of \nmnemonics was announced in Germany in 1806-7.J \n\n\n\nMOABITES, descendants of Lot, a people \nliving to the south-east of Judaea. They were fre- \nquently at war with the Israelites, and were sub- \ndued vvith divine help by Ehud about 1336, by \nDavid about 1040, and by Jehoshaphat, 895 B.C., \nbut often harassed the Jews in the decay of their \nmonarchy. The discovery of a stone with inscrip- \ntion in Phoenician characters, said to relate to \nMesha, king of Moab, referred to in 2 Kings, iii., \nwas announced in Jan. 1 870, and impressions were \nexhibited soon after, causing much discussion among \norientalists, and its authenticity was doubted. \n\nMOCKERN (Prussia). Here the French army \nunder Eugene Beauharnais were defeated by the \nPrussians under Yorck, 5 April, 1813 ; and here \nBliicher defeated the French, 16 Oct. 1813. \n\nMODELS. The first were figures of living \npersons, and Dibutades, the Corinthian, is the \nreputed inventor of those in clay. His daughter, \nbeing about to be separated from her lover, traced \nhis profile by his shadow on the wall ; her father \nfilled up the outline with clay, which he afterwards \nbaked, and thus produced a figure of the object of \nher affection, giving rise to an art till then unknown, \nabout 985 B.C. \nA beautiful model of the new town of Edinburgh, before \n\nthe building began, was formed in wood. \nA model was made of a bridge over the Neva, of uncom- \nmon strength as well as elegance ; and of the moun- \ntains of Switzerland, by general Puffer (1766-85). \nM. Choffln\'s model of Paris also was remarkable for its \n\nprecision. \nFine models of Gibraltar, Quebec, and other fortified \nplaces, are deposited in the Rotunda at Woolwich. \nSee Waxwork. \n\nMODENA (formerly Mutina), capital of the \nlate duchy in Central Italy; was governed by the \nhouse of Este, from 1288 till 1796, when the last \nmale of that house, the reigning duke Hercules III., \nwas expelled by the French. By the treaty of \nCampo Formio, the Modenese possessions were \nincorporated with the Cisalpine republic, 1797, and \nwith the kingdom of Italy, 1805. The archduke \nFrancis of Este, son of the archduke Ferdinand of \nAustria, and of Mary, the heiress of the last duke, \nwas restored in 1814. Modena, in accordance with \nthe voting by universal suffrage, was annexed to \nSardinia on i8 March, i860. Population of the \ncity, 1881, 31,053 ; of the province, 1881, 279,254, \n1889, 303,541. \n\nGRAND DUKES. \n\n18 14. Francis IV. An invasion of his states by Murat \nwas defeated, 11 April, 1815. He was expelled \nby his subjects in 1831, but was restored by the \nAustrians. \n\n1846. Francis V. (born 1 June, 1819) succeeded 21 Jan. \nHis subjects rose against him soon after the \nItalian war broke out, in April, 1859. He fled \nto Verona, establishing a regency, 11 June ; \nwhich was abolished, 13 June ; Farina was ap- \npointed dictator, 27 July ; a constituent assembly \nwas immediately elected, which offered the \nduchy to the king of Sardinia, 15 Sept., who \nincorporated it with his dominions, 18 March, \ni860. Francis died, 20 Nov. 1875. \n\nMODERADOS. A political party in Spain, \nlong headed by Ramon Maria Narvaez, duke of \nValencia (who died 23 April, 1868), who opposed \nthe Progresistas headed by Espartero and Prim. \nThe party was reinforced by the favourers of Don \nCarlos, after his total defeat in 1876. \n\nMODOC INDIANS (a few hundreds), \ndwelling in lands south of Oregon, were removed to \nother lands by the United States government. Not \nobtaining subsistence, they returned to their old \npossessions, and their able leader captain Jack de- \n\n\n\nMOESIA. \n\n\n\n645 \n\n\n\nMONDAY CONCERTS. \n\n\n\nfeated the troops sent to expel them, 17 Jan. 1873. \nDuring negotiations for a peaceful settlement, they \ndecoyed the United States commissioners into an \nambush (11 April), and massacred general Canby \nand about 40 othei s. Fighting took place, 15, 16 \nApril, and the Indians retreated to almost impreg- \nnable positions. The troops were fh-ed on, and \nsuffered much loss, 27 April. The Indians were \ngradually surrounded. Jack and about twenty war- \nriors held out desperately. Some surrendered, and \nhe himself was captured, I June ; tried, July, and \nexecuted 3 Oct. 1873. \n\nMCESIA (now Bosnia, Servia, and Bulgaria), \nwas finally subdued by Augustus, 29 B.C. It was \nsuccessfully invaded by the Goths, a.d. 250, who \neventually settled here ; see Goths. \n\nMOGULS, see Tartary. \n\nMOHACZ (Lower Hungary). Here Louis king \nof Hungary, defeated by the lurks under Solyman \nII. with the loss of 22,000 men, was suffocated by \nthe fall of his horse in a muddy brook, 29 Aug. 1526. \nHere also prince Charles of Lorraine defeated the \nTurks, 12 Aug. 1687. \n\nMOHAMMEDAN, see Mahometanism. \n\nMOHAMMERAH, a Fersian town near the \nEuphrates, captured, after two hours\' cannonading, \nby sir James Outram, during the Persian war, 26 \nMarch, 1857. News of the peace arrived 4 April. \n\nMOHILEV, or MOHILEF (Russia). Here \nthe Russian army, under prince Bagration, was \nsignally defeated by the French under marshal \nDavoust, prince of Eckmiihl, 23 July, 1812. \n\nMOHOCKS, ruffians, who went about London \nat night, wounding and disfiguring the men, and \nindecently exposing the women. One hundred \npounds were offered by royal proclamation in 1712, \nfor apprehending any one of them. Northouck. \nThe "scourers" of the seventeenth century resemble \n\nthe Mohocks. \n\nMOHURR UM, a Mahometan festival in honour \nof the prophet\'s nephews: at its celebration in Bom- \nbay, Feb. 1874, the Mahometans fiercely attacked \nthe Parsees, and were quelled by the military. \n\nMOKANNA (Hakim ben Allah), "The Veiled," \nprophet, founder of a sect in Khorassan in the eighth \ncentury. He pretended to be an incarnation of \nGod, and therefore veiled his face, but really to con- \nceal the loss of an eye. He rebelled against the \ncalif Almahdi, was for a tune successful, but was \nsubdued in 780, when he and the remains of his \nfollowers took poison. He is the subject of a poem \nby Thos. Moore in Lalla Rookh, 181 7. \n\nMOLDAVIA, see Danubian Principalities. \n\nMOLINISTS, a Roman Catholic sect, followers \nof Louis Molina, a Jesuit, born 1535. He maintained \nthe reconcilability of the doctrines of predestination \nand free will, 1588. \n\nMOLLY MAGUIRE, the name of a secret \nsociety in Ireland in 1843, and of another society \n(originally Buckshot, about 1853) in mining dis- \ntricts, United States {which sec), 1877. It ceased \nabout March, 1879. \n\nMOLOKANI, a sect in "West Russia, said to \ndate from the 16th century, who maintain primi- \ntive Christian doctrines and practices ; well de- \nscribed by Mr. D. Mackenzie Wallace in his \n" Russia," published 1877. \n\nMOLUCCAS, an archipelago in the Indian \nOcean (the chief island, Amboyna), discovered by \n\n\n\nthe Portuguese, about 1511, and held by them. \nsecretly until the arrival of the Spaniards, who \nclaimed them, till 1529, when Charles V. yielded \nthem to John III. for a large sum of money. The \nDutch conquered them in 1607, and have held them \never since, \xe2\x80\x94 except from 1810 to 1814, when they \nwere subject to the English. \n\nMOLWITZ (in Prussian Silesia). Here the \nPrussians, commanded by Frederick II., obtained a \ngreat victory over the Imperialists, 10 April (0. S. \n30 March), 1741. \n\nMOLYBDENUM, a whitish, brittle, almost \ninfusible metal. Scheele, in 1778, discovered mo- \nlybdic acid in a mineral hitherto confounded with \ngraphite. Hjelm, 1782, prepared the metal from \nmolybdic acid; and in 1825 Berzelius described \nmost of its chemical characters. Gmelin. \n\nMOMBASA, chief town of the British East \nAfrica territories; increasing prosperity reported, \nJuly, 1890. See Africa {British East). \n\nMONACHISM (from the Greek memos, \nalone). Catholic writers refer to the prophet Eli- \njah, and the Nazarites mentioned in Numbers, ch. \nvi., as early examples. The first Christian ascetics \nappear to be derived from the Jewish sect of the \nEssenes, whose life was very austere, practising \ncelibacy, &c. About the time of Constantine \n(306-22) numbers of these ascetics withdrew into \nthe deserts, and were called hermits, monks, and \nanchorets ;* of whom Paul, Anthony, and Pacho- \nmius were most celebrated. Simeon, the founder \nof the Stylitse (or pillar saints), died 451. He is \nsaid to have lived on a pillar thirty years. St. \nBenedict, the great reformer of western monachism, \npublished his rules and established his monastery at \nMonte Casino, about 529. The Carthusians, Cister- \ncians, &c, are varieties of Benedictines. In 964, \nby decree of king Edgar, all married priests were \nineffectually ordered to be replaced by monks. \nReligious orders expelled from France, by decree, \n29 March, 1880. Relieved of their vows by the \nPope, 1881. See Abbeys, and Benedictines. \n\nMONACO, a principality, N. Italy, held by \nthe Genoese family Grimaldi since 968. By treaty \non 2 Feb. 1861, the prince ceded the communes of \nRoquebrune and Mentone, the chief part of his \ndominions, to France, for 4,000,000 francs. The \nprince, Charles III., bom 8 Dec. 1818, succeeded \nhis father Florestan, 20 June 1856 ; died 10 Sept. \n1889, was succeeded by Albert, born 13 Nov. 1848. \nA commercial convention between the prince and \nFrance, signed 9 Nov. 1865, was much discussed as \ntending towards the abolition of the French naviga- \ntion law3. Petitions against Monte Carlo, the great \ngaming establishment, 1880-4. Population, 1888, \n\nr 3>3 4- \n\nMONARCHY. Historians reckon various \ngrand monarchies\xe2\x80\x94 the Chaldfflan, Assyrian, Baby- \nlonian, Median, Persian, Grecian, Parthian, and \nRoman {which see). \n\nMONASTERIES, see Abbeys. \n\nMONCONTOUR (near Poitiers, France). \nHere the admiral Coligny and the French Protes- \ntants were defeated with great loss by the duke of \nAnjou (afterwards Henry III.), 3 Oct. 1569. \n\nMONCRIEFF SYSTEM, see Cannon. \n\nMONDAY CONCERTS, see under Music. \n\n* The anchorites of the 12th, 13th, and 14th centuries \nmust not be confounded with the anachorets and ancho- \nrets, or hermits. The former wore confined to solitary \ncells ; the latter permitted to go where they pleased. \n\n\n\nMONDOVI. \n\n\n\n646 \n\n\n\nMONTE CASINO. \n\n\n\nMONDOVI (Piedmont). Here the Sardinian \narmy, commanded by Colli, was defeated by Napo- \nleon Bonaparte, 22 April, 1796. \n\nMONETAEY CONFEBENCES, Interna- \ntional, opened at Paris, 16 Aug. 1878 ; and 19 April, \n1881 ; Cologne, 11-13 Oct. 1882; Paris, 21 July, \nadjourned, 5 Aug. 1885; the union continued till \nI Jan. 1887 : conventions signed, 6 Nov., and 8 \nDec. 1885. A congress was held at Paris II Sept. \net seq., 1889. See Latin Union. \n\nMONEY is mentioned as a medium of com- \nmerce in Genesis xxiii., i860 B.C., when Abraham \npurchased a field as a sepulchre for Sarah. The \ncoinage of money is ascribed to the Lydians. \nMoneta was the name given to their silver by the \nRomans, it having been coined in the temple of \nJuno-Moneta, 269 B.C. Money was made of dif- \nferent metals, and even of leather and other articles, \nboth in ancient and modern times. It was made \nof pasteboard by the Hollanders so late as 1574. \nThe czar Nicholas struck coins in platinum. See \nCoin; Gold; Copper; Mint; Banks, &c. For \nMoney Orders, see Post Office. \n\nMONEYEES travelled with our early kings, \nand coined money as required ; see Mint. \n\nMONGOLS, see Tartary. \n\nMONITEUE TJNIVEESEL, aFrenchnews- \npaper, was established in Paris by C. J. Panc- \nkoucke, 5 May, 1789 ; daily paper, 24 Nov. 1789 ; \nthe organ of the government, 28 Dec. 1799. It was \nsuperseded by the Journal Officiel, 1 Jan. 1869 ; \nresumed its official position about 23 Sept. 1870 ; and \nwas again superseded by the Journal Officiel, Feb. \n187 1. It became the organ of MacMahon\'s govern- \nment in 1875. \n\nMONITOEIAL SYSTEM (in education), \nin which pupils are employed as teachers, was used \nby Dr. Bell in the Orphan Asylum at Madras in \n1795) an( l was a ^ so adopted by Joseph Lancaster, \nin London ; see Education. \n\nMONITOE SHIPS, see United States. The \nAmerican monitor, Miantonomah, arrived at Ply- \nmouth in June, 1866, and excited much attention. \n\nMONK, see Monachism. \n\nMONMOUTH, Monmouthshire, was a Roman \nstation, afterwards a Saxon fortress. The ancient \ncastle rebuilt by John, lord of Monmouth, 1257, be- \ncame the property of John of Gaunt, and in it his \ngrandson, Henry V., was born, 9 Aug., 1388. Mon- \nmouth was first incorporated in 1550. Population, \n1881, 6,111 ; 1891, 5,470. \n\nMONMOUTH\'S EEBELLION. James, \nduke of Monmouth (born at Rotterdam, 9 April, \n1649), a natural son of Charles II. by Lucy Waters, \nwas banished England for his connection with the \nRye-house plot, in 1683. He invaded England at \nLyme, n June, 1685; was proclaimed king at \nTaunton, 20 June; was defeated at Sedgmoor, near \nBridgewater, 6 July ; and beheaded on Tower-hill, \n15 July. \n\nMONOCHOED, a box of tbin wood, with a \nbridge, over which is stretohed a wire or chord, said \nto have been invented by Pythagoras, about 600 B.C. \n\nMONOLITH, Greek for single stone; see \nObelisk. \n\nMONOPHYSITES, see Eutychicms. \n\nMONOPOLIES were formerly so numerous \nin England that parliament petitioned against \nthem, and many were abolished, about 1601-2. \n\n\n\nThey were further suppressed by 21 Jas. I., 1624. \nSir Giles Mompesson and sir Francis Mitchell were \npunished for their abuse of monopolies, 1621. In \n1630, Charles I. established monopolies of soap, \nsalt, leather, and other common things, to supply a \nrevenue without the help of parliament. It was \ndecreed that none should be in future created by \nroyal patent, 16 Chas. I. 1640. \n\nMONOTHELITES, heretics who affirmed \nthat Jesus Christ had but one will, were favoured \nby the emperor Heraclius, 630 ; they merged into \nthe Eutychians {which see). \n\nMONEOE DOCTBINE, a term applied to \nthe determination expressed by James Monroe, \npresident of the United States, in his message to \nthe congress, 2 Dec. 1823, not to permit any Euro- \npean power to interfere with the concerns of any \nindependent states of North or South America. \nThis doctrine was referred to in 1859 and 1865. \n\nMONTANA, a territory of the United States, \nnorth America, formed out of Idaho ; became a \nterritory in 1864, and a state in 1889. Capital, \nHelena. Population in 1880,39,159; 1890,132,159. \n\nMONTANISTS, followers of Montanus, of \nArdaba, in Mysia, about 171, who was reputed to \nhave the gift of prophecy, and proclaimed himself \nthe Comforter promised by Christ. He condemned \nsecond marriages as fornication, permitted the dis- \nsolution of marriage, forbade avoiding martyrdom, \nand ordered a severe fast of three lents ; he hanged \nhimself with Maximilla, one of his female scholars, \nbefore the close of the 2nd century. Cave. The \neloquent father, Tertullian, joined the sect, 204. \n\n.MONT BLANC, in the French Alps, is the \nhighest mountain in Europe, being 15,781 feet \nabove the level of the sea. The summit was first \nreached by Jacques Balmat in June, 1786, and \nafterwards by H. B. Saussure, aided by Balmat, \non 2 Aug. 1787. The summit was attained by Dr. \nHamel (when three of his guides perished) in 1820, \nand by many other persons before and since. Ac- \ncounts of the ascents of Mr. John Auldio, Charles \nFellows (1827), and of professor Tyndall (1857-8) \nhave been published ; see Alps. 57 ascents re- \nported in 1873 ; 64 in 1881. \n\nHerr Bothe and a guide killed by an avalanche, \n\n20 Aug. 1891 \n\nErection of an observatory on the summit pro- \nposed ; work proceeding, July ; stopped about \n28 Aug. ; 3 deaths. Favourable report by M. \nJanssen to the Academy of Sciences, 2 Nov. 1891. \nPreparations for a renewal of the work, with pre- \ncautions June, 1892 \n\nBy the torrents consequent on the fall of a glacier, \nthe " Etablissement des Bains" at St. Gervais \nand two villages were destroyed, and about 130 \npersons perished . . . . n, 12 July, ,, \n\nMONT CENIS, see Alps. \n\nMONTEBELLO, in Piedmont, where Lannes \ndefeated the Austrians, 9 June, 1800, and acquired \nhis title of duke of Montebello ; and where, after \na contest of six hours, the French and Sardinians \ndefeated the Austrians, who lost about IOOO \nkilled and wounded, and 200 prisoners, 20 May, \n1859. The French lost about 670 men, including \ngeneral Beuret. \n\nMONTE CAELO, see Monaco. \n\nMONTE CASINO (Central Italy). Here \nBenedict formed his first monastery, 529. After \naffording a refuge for many eminent persons, its \nmonastic character was abolished by the Italian \n\n\n\nMONTEM. \n\n\n\n647 \n\n\n\nMONTI DI PIETA. \n\n\n\ngovernment in 1866, care being taken for the pre- \nservation of its historical and literary monuments. \n\nMONTEM, see Eton. \n\nMONTENEGRO, an independent principality \nin European Turkey, was conquered by Solyman II. \nin 1526. It rebelled early in the 18th century, and \nestablished a hereditary hierarchical government in \nthe family of Petrovitsch Njegosch, \xe2\x80\x94 permitted, but \nnot recognised by the Porte. Its independence \n\xe2\x96\xa0was declared by the treaty of Berlin, 13 July, \n1878. Population, in 1891, 200,000. Capital, \nCettinje. \n\nThe nephew and successor of the Vladika, Peter II., \ndeclined to assume the ecclesiastical function, \nand declared himself a temporal prince, with the \ntitle of Daniel I., 1851 ; and "began war with \n\nTurkey 1852 \n\nMontenegro put in a state of blockade . 14 Dec. ,, \nAlter indecisive encounters, tranquillity restored by \nthe influence of the arms and negotiations of \nOmar Pacha, the general of the Turkish army ; he \n\nleft the province 25 Feb. 1853 \n\nBlockade raised 10 April, ,, \n\n"War again broke out ; the Turks defeated at Gra- \n\nhovo, June ; peace restored .... Nov. 1858 \nThe country much disturbed through the tyrannical \nconduct of prin.ce Daniel, who was assassinated \n\n(aged 35) 14 Aug. i860 \n\nSucceeded "by his nephew Nicolas, or Nikita, \n\n(married) 8 Nov. ,, \n\nAn insurrection ia the Herzegovina, favoured by \nthe Montenegrins ; the blockade of Montenegro, \n\n4 April, 1 861 \nOmar Pacha invaded the province with an army of \n\n32,000 men in Aug. ,, \n\nMany conflicts with various success, but latterly in \nfavour of the Turks ; peace made, Turkish supre- \nmacy recognised 8-9 Sept. 1862 \n\nMurderous cruarrels between Christians and Mussul- \nmen at Podgoritza ; 21 Montenegrins said to be \n\nkilled by Turks 20 Oct. 1874 \n\nThreatened war prevented by intervention of the \ngreat powers ; each nation to punish culprits \n\nJan. 1875 \n.Some rioters executed .... 15 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nMontenegro with difficulty restrained from inter- \nvention in Herzegovina . Autumn and "Winter, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe prince declared war and joined the Servians \n\n2 July, 1876 \n.See Turkey and Rtisso-Turlcish war . . 1876-7-8 \nDeclared independent of Turkey by treaty of San \nStefano, 3 March ; (with new boundaries, and \nAntivari for a seaport) by the Berlin treaty \n\n13 July, 1878 \nPodgoritza surrendered by Turkey . . 7 Feb. 1879 \nAfter much resistance by the Albanians, and nego- \ntiation with Turkey, Gussinge surrendered, April, 1880 \nFrontier disputes with Turkey settled, Nov. 1882 ; \n\nthe prince well received at Constantinople, Sept. 1883 \nBuilding to contain state library, museum, and \n\ntheatre, at Cettinje founded . . 12 May, 1884 \nA constitution promised . . . May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTemporary fighting between Turks and Monte- \nnegrins at Cettinje . . . . 3, 4 July, 1886 \nThe prince visits the czar at St. Petersburg May, 1889 \nSevere famine relieved by the great exertions of the \nprince, Sept. ; aided by Russia, Hungary, and \n\nTurkey Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAbout 11,360 persons emigrate to Servia, Oct., Nov. \n1889 ; famine continues, more emigration needed, \n\nMarch, 1890 \nOolonel Bosko Martinovitch, cousin of the prince, \n\nmurdered ; the assassin lynched . . 7 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nFrequent Albanian raids checked by Turks, \n\nJuly, Aug. ,, \n\xe2\x96\xa0Great distress through snow-storms . early Feb. 1891 \n\nPRINCES. \n\n1851. Daniel, born 25 May, 1826 ; assassinated, 13 Aug. \n\ni860. \ni860. Nicolas, or Nikita (nephew), born 7 Oct. 1841 ; \nmarried princess Milena, 8 Nov. i860. \nHdr, Dauilo, born 29 June, 1871. \n\n\n\nMONTENOTTE, a village in Piedmont, \nmemorable as being the site of the first victory \ngained over the Austrians by Napoleon Bonaparte, \n12 April, 1796. \n\nMONTEEEAU (near Paris). On the bridge \nof Montereau, at his meeting with the dauphin, \nJohn the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, was killed by \nTanneguy de Chatel in 1419. This event led to \nour Henry V. subduing France, the young duke \nPhilip joining the English. Here the allied armies \nwere defeated by the French, commanded by Napo- \nleon, with great loss in killed and wounded ; hut \nit was one of his last triumphs, 18 Feb. 1814. \n\nMONTEREY (Mexico), was taken by general \nTaylor after a three days\' conflict with the Mexi- \ncans, 21-23 Sept. 1846. \n\nMONTE-VIDEO (S. America), was taken by \nstorm by the British forces under sir Samuel Auch- \nrauty, but with the loss of nearly one-third of our \nbrave troops, 3 Feb. 1807. It was evacuated 7 July \nthe same year, in consequence of the severe repulse \nthe British met with at Buenos-Ayres ; see Buenos- \nAyr es. Monte-Video, a subject of dispute between \nBrazil and Buenos-Ayres, was given up to Uruguay, \n1828. For recent war, etc., see Brazil and Uruguay. \nFire at celebration service for Garibaldi, about 20 \nkilled, 11 June, 1882. \n\nMONTFERRAT (Lombardy), House of, \n\ncelebrated in the history of the Crusades, began \nwith Alderan, who was made marquis of Mont- \nferrat, by Otho, about 967. Conrad of Montferrat \nbecame lord of Tyre, and reigned from 1 187 till \n1 191, when he was assassinated. "William IV. died \nin a cage at Alexandria, having been thus impri- \nsoned nineteen months, 1292. Violante, daughter \nof John II., married Andronicus Pakeologus, em- \nperor of the East. Their descendants ruled in \nItaly amid perpetual contests till 1533, when John \nGeorge Paheologus died without issue. His estates \npassed after much contention to Frederic II. Gon- \nzaga, marquis of Mantua, in 1536, and next to the \nduke of Savoy. \n\nMONTGOMERY, capital of Alabama, United \nStates, founded 181 7. Here the state convention \npassed the ordinance of secession from the union \non II Jan. 1861; here the confederate congress met \non 4 Feb. and elected Jefferson Davis president, \nand Alexander Stephens vice-president, of the con- \nfederate states of North America; and here they \nwere inaugurated on 18 Feb. On 21 May the \ncongress adjourned to meet on 20 July at Ilich- \nmond, in Virginia, that state having joined the \nconfederates and become the seat of war. \n\nMONTH (from mona, Anglo-Saxon moon), the \ntwelfth part of the calendar year. See Year, \nCalendar, January and other months, French Revo- \nlutionary Calendar and Jewish Era. \n\nLunar Month. \xe2\x80\x94 The period of one revolution of the \nmoon (syuodical) ; mean length, zgd. 12ft. 44m. 2.87s. \n\nSidereal Month.\xe2\x80\x94 Time of moon\'s revolution from a star \nto the same again, 271/.. 7/1. 43?)!.. 11.5s. \n\nSolar Month.\xe2\x80\x94 The time the sun passes through one \nsign of the zodiac, 30CZ. io7t.. 29m. 4.1s. \n\nInformation respecting the months of the Egyptians, \nJews, Greeks, Romans, Persians, and other nations will \nbe found in sir H. Nicolas\'s "Chronology of History." \nSee under Jewish era and Mahomctanism. \n\nMONTI DI PIETA, charitable institutions \nfor advancing money on pledges, were first estab- \nlished at Perugia, Florence, Mantua, and other \nItalian cities, 1462, et scq. The Franciscans, in \n149}, began to receive interest, which was per- \nmitted by the pope, in 1515. Monts de Hetd \n\n\n\nMONTIEL. \n\n\n\n648 \n\n\n\nMOOLTAN. \n\n\n\nestablished in France 1777, were suppressed by the \nRevolution, but restored, 1804 ; regulated by law, \n185 1 -2 ; see Paivnbroking . \' \n\nMONTIEL (Spain), Battle of, 14 March, \n\n1369, between Peter the Cruel, king of Castile, and \nhis brother Henry of Trastamare, aided by the \nFrench warrior, Bertrand du Guesclin. Peter \nwas totally defeated, and afterwards treacherously \nslain. \nMONTIGNY, see under Firearms. \n\nMONTLHEEY (Seine -et-Oise, France), \nsite of an indecisive battle between Louis XI. and a \nparty of his nobles, termed " The League of the \nPublic Good," 16 July, 1465. \n\nMONTMARTRE, HEIGHTS OF, near Paris, \ntaken by Blucher, 30 March, 1814. They were \nfortified during the communist insurrection, March, \n1871 ; and retaken by the army of Versailles, 28 \nMay. \n\nMONTMIRAIL (Marne, France). Here \nNapoleon defeated the allies, 11 Feb. 1814. \n\nMONTPELLIER (S. France), built in the \n8th century, prospered as the neighbouring city \nMaguelonne decreased. It was acquired by mar- \nriage by the king of Arragon, 1204 ; by the king of \nMajorca, 1276; was ceded to France, 1349; given \nto Charles the Bad, king of Navarre, in exchange \nfor Mantes, &c, 1365 ; sequestered by France, \n1378. It was seized by the Huguenots early in the \nreign of Henry III., and held by them till Sept. \n1622, when it surrendered after a siege, followed \nby a treaty of peace, 20 Oct. Sexcentenary of the \nUniversity celebrated, president Carnot present, 23 \nMay, 1890. \n\nMONTREAL, the second city in Lower \nCanada, founded by the French, and named Ville \nMarie, 18 May, 1642. Population, 1881, 140,747 ; \n1891, 216,650. \n\nSurrendered to the English . . . 8 Sept. 1760 \nTaken by the Americans ... 12 Nov. 1775 \nRetaken by the British . . , .15 June, 1776 \nThe church, Jesuits\' college, prison, and many \n\nbuildings burnt down ... 6 June, 1803 \n\nGreat military affray . . . .29 Sept. 1833 \n\nBishopric founded . 1836 \n\nRiots against the government ... 6 Nov. 1837 \nThe self-styled "loyalists" of Montreal assault the \ngovernor-general, lord Elgin; enter the parlia- \nment-house, drive out the members, and set Are \n\nto the building 25 April, 1849 \n\nA bishopric established \n\nA destructive fire 23 Aug. 1850 \n\nAnother, destroying 1200 houses; the loss esti- \nmated at a million sterling . . .12 July, 1852 \nAt an anti-papal lecture here by Gavazzi, riots en- \nsued, and many lives were lost . . 10 June, 1853 \nThe cathedral destroyed by fire . . 10 Dec. 1856 \nVictoria railway bridge (which see) formally opened \n\nby the prince of Wales .... 25 Aug. i860 \nFierce riots at the attempt to bury Joseph Guibord, \na Roman Catholic, while under censure, in the \nRoman Catholic cemetery .... Sept. 1875 \n[He belonged to the " InstitutCanadien," censured \nfor possessing forbidden books; he died in 1869; \nafter much litigation, the privy council judicial \ncommittee affirmed his right to burial against the \nclerical authorities.] \nRiot at a memorial Romanist procession ; 1 man \n\nkilled 2 6 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGuibord buried with military and police escort, \n\n16 Nov. ,, \n\nViolent bread riots I7 Dec. \n\nFierce orange riots, with loss of life 12 July et seq. 1877 \nIce palace erected and carnival held . 23 Jan. 1883 \nPrevalence of small pox ; riots against compulsory \nvaccination suppressed, 29 Sept. ; 1,622 deaths in \nOctober T oo, \n\n\n\nGreat inundation through ice gorge of the lower \ntown ; about 1,000,000?. damage ; much privation \n\n17-18 April, 1886 \n\nGreat fires in 1887-8 \n\nThe Longue Pointe Lunatic Asylum burnt, about \n\n80 persons perish 6 May, 1890 \n\nVisit of the duke and duchess of Connaught 2 June, \xe2\x80\x9e, \nGreat fire at the Cote St. Antoine suburb ; the loss , \n\nabout 50,000 dollars . . . .28 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nVisit of the comte de Paris, banquet . 25 Oct. ,, \nGreat labour demonstration ... 7 Sept. 189E \n\nMONTSERRAT, a W. India island, dis- \ncovered by Columbus in 1493, and settled by the \nBritish in 1632. It has several times been takert \nby the French, but was secured to the British in \n1783. Population, 1891, 11,762. See Leeward Isles: \n\nMONUMENT of LONDON, built by sir \nChristopher Wren, 1671-7. The pedestal is forty \nfeet high, and the edifice altogether 202 feet, that \nbeing the distance of its base from the spot where \nthe tire which it commemorates commenced. It is \nthe loftiest isolated column in the world. Its \nerection cost about 14,500^. The staircase is of \nblack marble, consisting of 345 steps.* Fall of \npart of the stone coping, no one injured, 25 Sept. \n1888 ; examined and repaired ; re-opened 14 Jan. \n1889. Of the four original inscriptions, three \nwere Latin, and the following in English, \xe2\x80\x94 cut \nin 1681, obliterated by James II. ; re-cut in the- \nreign of "William III.; and finally erased by order \nof the common council, 26 Jan. 1831. They pro- \nduced Pope\'s indignant lines :\xe2\x80\x94 \n\n" Where London\'s column, pointing at the skies, \nLike a tall bully, lifts the head, and lies." \n\nTHIS PILLAR WAS SET VP IN PERPETVAL REMEMBRANCE \nOF THAT MOST DREADFUL BURNING OF THIS PROTESTANT \nCITY, BEGUN AND CARRYED ON BY Y e TREACHERY AND- \nMALICE OF Y e POPISH FACTION, IN Y e BEGINNING OF \nSEPTEM. IN Y* YEAR OF OUR LORD 1666, IN ORDER TO Y\xc2\xab \nCARRYING ON THEIR HORRID PLOT FOR EXTIRPATING Y a \nPROTESTANT RELIGION AND OLD ENGLISH LIBERTY, AND \nY= INTRODUCING POPERY AND SLAVERY. \n\nMONUMENTS, see Ancient. An act passed \n22 July, 1878, empowers the Metropolitan board of \nworks to take care of Cleopatra\'s needle, and other \nmonuments. \n\nMONZA, or Monsa, formerly capital of the \nkingdom of Lombardy, frequently besieged. The \ncathedral was founded in the sixth century. The \niron crown of Italy (which see) was kept here till \n1859. See Italy, Oct. 1891. \n\nMOODKEE (India). Here, on 18 Dec. \n1845, the Sikhs attacked the advanced guard of \nthe British, commanded by general Gough, and \nwere repulsed three miles, losing many men and \nfifteen pieces of cannon. Sir Robert Sale was \nmortally wounded. The battle preceded that of \nFerozeshah (which see). \n\nMOOLTAN (N. W. India), an ancient city, \nwas stormed by RunjeetSing, 1818. Here his son, \nMoolraj Sing, ruler of the Sikhs, treacherously \nmurdered Mr. Vans Agnew and lieutenant Ander- \nson, 21 April, 1848. Several conflicts took place \nbetween the British and the Sikhs, in which the \nlatter were beaten, and Mooltan taken after a pro- \ntracted siege, 2-22 Jan. 1849. \n\n* William Green, a weaver, fell from this monument, \n25 June, 1750. A man named Thomas Craddock, a baker, \nprecipitated himself from its summit, 7 July, 1780. Mr. \nLyon Levy, a Jewish diamond merchant, of considerable \nrespectability, threw himself from it, 18 Jan. 1810; as \ndid more recently three other persons : in consequence \nof which a fence was placed round the railing of the \ngallery in 1839. \n\n\n\nMOON. \n\n\n\n649 \n\n\n\nMORGARTEN. \n\n\n\nMOON. Opacity of the moon, and the true \n\ncauses of lunar eclipses, taught by Thales, 640 B.C. \n\nHipparchus made observations on the moon at \n\nRhodes, 127 B.C. Posidonius accounted for the \n\ntides from the motion of the moon, and said that \n\nthe moon borrows her light from the sun, 79 B.C. \n\nDiog. Laert. \n\nMaps of the moon constructed by Hevelius, 1647. \nCassini ......... 1680 \n\nBeer and Madler\'s map published . . . . 1834 \n\nProfessor John Phillips invited the British Associa- \ntion to make arrangements to obtaiu a "syste- \nmatic representation of the physical aspect of the \nmoon " 1862 \n\nPhotographs of the moon taken by Draper at New \nYork, 1840; by Bond, 1850; by Mr. Warren de la \nRue, 1857 ; by Rutherford 1871 \n\nHansen\'s "Tables of the Moon," calculated at the \nexpense of the British and Danish governments, \npublished at the cost of the latter . . . 1857 \n\nThe British Association " lunar committee " publish \ntwo sections of a map of the moon, on a scale of \n200 inches to her diameter . . . July, 1867 \n\nThe earl of Rosse made experiments on the radiation \nof heat from the moon 1868-73 \n\nProfessor S. P. Langley, of Washington, U.S., pub- \nlished the results of experiments relative to the \ntemperature of the moon . . . Nov. 1887 \n\nMr. C. V. Boys, of South Kensington, described at \nthe Royal Institution how he obtained evidence \nof the heat of the moon by means of his very \nsensitive thermopile composed of quartz fila- \nments, according to the anticipations of professor \nPiazzi Smyth . . . -17 April et seq. 1890 \n\nProfessor J. F. Julius Schmidt, of Athens, com- \npleted his map of the moon after 34 years\' work : \ndiameter 2 metres 1874 \n\nMr. James Nasmyth and Mr. J. Carpenter published \nthe result of many years\' observations, in "The \nMoon " 1874 ; new edition, 18S5 \n\nMr. Edmund Neison published "The Moon and \nthe Conditions and Configurations of its Surface" \n\nJuly, 1876 \n\nProfessor Schmidt\'s map published at Berlin . . 1878 \nSee Eclipses. \n\n"MOONLIGHTERS," a name given to the \nperpetrators of night outrages in 18S0. See Ireland \n1885. \n\nMOORS, formerly the natives of Mauritania \n{which see), but afterwards the name given to the \nNumidians and others, and now applied to the \nnatives of Morocco and the neighbourhood. \nThey frequently rebelled against the Roman \nemperors, and assisted Genseric and the Vandals \nin their invasion of Africa, 429. They resisted \nfor a time the progress of the Saracens or Arab \nMahometans, but were overcome in 707, and \nin 1019 were by them introduced into Spain, \nwhere their arms were long victorious. In 1063 \nthey were defeated in Sicily by Roger Guiscard. \nThe Moorish kingdom of Grenada was set up \nin 1237, and lasted till 1492, when it fell before \nFerdinand V. of Castile, mainly owing to infernal \ndiscord. The expulsion of the Moors from Spain \nwas decreed by Charles V., but not fully carried \ninto effect till 1609, when the bigotry of Philip \nIII. inflicted this great injury to his country. About \n1 5 1 8 the Moors established the piratical states of \nAlgiers and Tunis (which see). In the history of \nSpain, the Arabs and Moors must not be con- \nfounded. \n\nMOPLAHS, industrious fanatical Mahometans \nin Malabar, E. Indies, gave trouble by their attacks \non Hindoos and the British, especially in 1845 ; an \noutbreak was suppressed about 15 Sept. 1873. \n\nMORAL PHILOSOPHY, the science of \nethics, defined as the knowledge of our duty, and \nthe art of being virtuous and happy. Socrates \n\n\n\n(about 430 B.C.) is regarded as the father of \nancient, and Grotius (about 1623) the father of \nmodem moral philosophy; see Ethics and Philo- \nsophy. \n\nMORAT (Switzerland), where Charles the Bold \nof Burgundy was completely defeated by the Swiss, \n22 June, 1476. A monument, constructed of the \nbones of the vanquished, was destroyed by the \nFrench in 1798, and a stone column erected. 400th \nanniversary kept, 1876. \n\nMORAVIA, an Austrian province, occupied by \nthe Slavonians about 548, and conquered by the \nAvars and Bohemians, who submitted to Charle- \nmagne. About 1000 it was subdued by Boleslas of \nPoland, but recovered by Ulrich of Bohemia iu \n1030. After various changes, Moravia and Bohemia \nwere amalgamated into the Austrian dominions in \n1526. Moravia was invaded by the Prussians in \n1866, and they established their head quarters at \nBriinn, the capital, 13 July. The demand of the \nMoravians for home rule was resisted Oct, 187 1. \nStrike of 30,000 coal miners at O-trau, and rioting \nsuppressed by military, 16, 17 April, 1890. Popu- \nlation in 1890, 2,276,870. \n\nMORAVIANS, or United Brethren, \n\nsaid to have been part of the Hussites, who with- \ndrew into Moravia in the 15th century; but the \nbrethren assert that then sect was derived from the \nGreek church in the 9th century. In 1722 they \nformed a settlement (called Ilcrrnhut, the watch \nof the Lord) on the estate of count Zinzendorf. \nTheir church consisted of 500 persons in 1727. \nThey were introduced into England by count Zin- \nzendorf about 1738; he died at Chelsea in June, \n1760. In 1851 they had thirty-two chapels in Eng- \nland. They are zealous missionaries, and founded \nsettlements in foreign parts, about 1732. London \nAssociation f unded, 1817. \n\nMORAY FLOODS, see Inundations, 1829. \n\nMORDAUNT, see Administrations, 16S9. \n\nMORDEN COLLEGE (Blackheath), alms- \nhouses for decayed merchants, with pensions, esta- \nblished by sir John Morden, 1695 ; opened, 1702. \n\nMOREA, a name given to the Peloponnesus in \nthe 13th century; see Greece. \n\nMORETON BAY (New S. Wales). The \ncolony founded here in 1859 has since been named \nQueensland (which see). \n\nMORGANATIC* MARRIAGES, when the \nleft hand is given instead of the right, between a \nman of superior and a woman of inferior rank, in \nwhich it is stipulated that the latter and her chil- \ndren shall not enjoy the rank or inherit the pos- \nsessions of the former. The children are legitimate. \nSuch marriages are frequently contracted in Ger- \nmany by royalty and the higher nobility. It has \nbeen asserted that our George I. was thus married \nto the duchess of Kendal ; the late duke of Sussex \nto lady Cecilia Underwood ; Frederic VI. of Den- \nmark to the countess of Banner, 7 Aug. 1850 ; and \nseveral Austrian princes, recently. \n\nMORGARTEN (Switzerland). 1300 Swiss en- \ngaged 20,000 Austrians, commanded by the duke \nLeopold, whom they completely defeated, 15 Nov. \n1315, upon the heights of Morgarten, overlooking \nthe defile through which the enemy was to enter \ntheir territory from Zug. \n\n* Said to be derived from Morgengabe, the gift of \na husband of a limited part of his property to such a \nbride on the morning after the marriage. \n\n\n\nMOEICE DANCE. \n\n\n\n650 \n\n\n\nMOEOCCO. \n\n\n\nMOEICE DANCE, an ancient dance pecu- \nliar to some of the country parts of England, and, it \nis said, also to Scotland : it was performed before \nJames I. in Herefordshire. \n\nMOEIEE INCIDENT, see Prussia, 1889. \n\nMOEISONIANS, followers of the Rev. James \nMorison of Kilmarnock, suspended for heterodoxy, \n1841. \n\nMOELEY HALL and Welbeck Institute, \nTtegent Street, London, for the Young Women\'s \nChristian Association, opened by princess Christian, \n\n22 NOV. 1886. \n\nMOEMONS (calling themselves the Church \nof Jesus Christ of the Latter-day Saints). \nThis sect derives its origin from Joseph Smith, \n\xe2\x96\xa0called the Prophet, who announced in 1823, at \nPalmyra, New York, that he had had a vision of \nthe angel Moroni. In 1827 he said that be found \nthe book of Mormon, written on gold plates in \nEgyptian characters. This book is said to have \nbeen written about 1812, by a clergyman named \nSolomon Spaulding (or by Martin Harris, who died \n.\'Sept. 1875), as a religious romance in imitation of \nthe scripture style. It was translated and published \nin America in 1830, in England in 1841. It fell \ninto the hands of Eigdon and Smith, who deter- \nmined to palm it off as a new revelation. The \nMormons command the payment of tithes, permit \npolygamy, encourage labour, and believe in their \nleaders working miracles. Missionaries are propa- \ngating these doctrines in Europe with more success \nthan would be expected. \n\n\'The Mormonites organise a church at Kirkland, \nOhio . . 1830 \n\nThey found Zion, in Jackson county, Missouri 1831-2 \n\nFrom 1833 to 1839 the sect endured much perse- \ncution, and, driven from place to place, was com- \npelled to travel westwards ; till the city Nauvoo \non. the Mississippi was laid out and a temple \nwas built 1 840-1 \n\nJoseph and his brother Hyram, when in prison on a \ncharge of treason, shot by an infuriated mob, and \nBrigham Young chosen seer . . June, 1844 \n\nMuch harassed by their neighbours ; departure from \nNauvoo determined on 1845 \n\nThe Great Salt Lake chosen "for an everlasting \nabode," and taken possession of . . 24 July, 1847 \n\nThe valley surveyed by order of the United States \ngovernment 1849 \n\nThe provisional government abolished and the Utah- \nterritory recognised by the United States ; Brig- \nham Young appointed the first governor ; and the \nuniversity of Deseret was founded . . 1849-50 \n\n\'The population, 11,354 1851 \n\nThe crops at the Utah settlement said to be de- \nstroyed by locusts .... Aug. 1855 \n\nThe United States judge at Utah resigned from \ninability to discharge his functions, in conse- \nquence of the violent and treasonable conduct of \nthe Mormons, and their leader, Brigham Young 1857 \n\nA conference of Mormon elders, &c, was held in \nLondon ; offensive speeches made and songs sung \nadvocating polygamy . . . . 1 Sept. ,, \n\nThe United States government sent an army to \nUtah : a compromise was entered into, and peace \nwas established by governor Cummmgs in June, 1858 \n\nA Mormonite meeting at Southampton . 18 Feb. 1861 \n\nA French Mormonite priest preached at Paris in Oct. 1862 \n\n"Latter-day Saints\' " meetings held in London . 1S65 \n\nUtah settlement visited by Hepworth Dixon : he \nstated that it contained 200,000 persons, and an \narmy of 20,000 rifles. (" New America," published \nin 1867) 1866 \n\nReported schisms : through increasing opposition \nto polygamy June, 1867 \n\nSynod held in Store-street, London (London con- \nference said to include 11 72 members) 5 April, 1868 \n\n650 new Mormonites sailed from Liverpool for Utah, \n\n6 June, ,, \n\n\n\nBill depriving polygamists of civic rights passed \nU S. house of representatives . . March, 1870 \n\nBrigham Young ordered to be tried for bigamy, \nflies ; Hawkins, a Mormonite elder, sentenced to \nthree years\' imprisonment for adultery, end of Oct. 1871 \n\nBrigham Young surrenders for trial, 2 Jan. ; pro- \nceedings annulled by the supreme court about May, 1872 \n\nBrigham Young resigns temporal powers, 10 April, 1873 \n\nThe Mormonite conferences at the Holborn Amphi- \ntheatre 25 May, ,, \n\nNineteen missionaries for Britain arrive at Liverpool \n\n12 Nov. ,, \n\nBrigham Young again indicted for polygamy, about \n\n15 Oct. 1874 \n\nAdjudged to support one of his wives while she sues \nfor divorce, March ; imprisoned in his own house, \nfor non-compliance, Nov. ; discharged . Dec. 1875 \n\nBp. J. D. Lee shot for his share in Mountain Mea- \ndows massacre, (Brigham Young suspected,) (see \nMassacres) 23 March, 1877 \n\nDeath of Brigham Young, aged 76 . 29 Aug. ,, \n\nJohn Taylor, chief of 12 apostles, became presi- \ndent oi\' the church Sept. ,, \n\nConference in London opened . . 30 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nOrson Pratt, a leader and eolleague of Joseph \nSmith, died Nov. 1881 \n\nSix meeting-houses in London, March, 1882 ; esti- \nmated 85,000 English converts . . . 1837-82 \n\nPolygamy in the United States abolished by Act \npassed 23 March, 1882 \n\nGreat meeting at Salt Lake ; 57 missionaries sent \nout 6 Oct. 1883 \n\nSenator Edmund\'s bill for suppression of the Mor- \nmon church passed by the U.S. senate (38-7) \n\n9 Jan. 1886 \n\nMeeting of Mormon elders and missionaries at St. \nGeorge\'s Hall, Langham-place, London 12 Oct. ,, \n\nJohn Taylor died 25 July, 1887 \n\nDecree for the suppression of the church ; appealed \nagainst ... ... Oct. 1888 \n\nA new temple erected in Salt Lake City, capable of \nholding 14,000 persons, the granite walls 20 ft. \nthick at the base, taper upwards to 6 ft. \n\nreported Aug. 1889 \n\nMany Mormons disenfranchised for taking an \nillegal oath ; the "Gentiles \' obtain majority in \nelections Feb. 1890 \n\nPresident Woodruff and a conference of elders put \nforth a profession of faith, recognizing the Bible \nand the Book of Mormon as the Word of God, \ngifts of tongues, &c, and renouncing polygamy, \nabout 25 Sept. ; adopted by the church at a great \nmeeting 6 Oct. ,, \n\n144,352 Mormons in the United States, N. A. ; \ncensus of 1890. Mr. Joseph Smith, jun., son of \nthe founder of Mormonism, heads a party op- \nposed to polygamy (about 30,000 members) Aug. 1891 \n\nNew settlement on land granted by the Mexican \ngovernment in N. Mexico : arrangements made \nby Mr. John Young, son of Brigham Young ; a \nlarge number of Mormons ready to start from \nUtah, reported June, 1892 \n\nMOENING POST, fashionable daily paper, \nfavourable to the Whigs and High Church party, \nfirst appeared, 2 Nov. 1772. Conservative, 1874. \nPrice reduced to id., 27 June, 1881. \n\nMOEOCCO, or MAROCCO, an empire in North \nAfrica, formerly Mauritania (which see). In 105 1 \nit was subdued for the Fatimite caliphs by the \nAlmoravides, who eventually extended their do- \nminion into Spain. These Avere succeeded by the \nAlmohades (1121), the Melinites (1270), and in \n1516 by the Scherifs, pretended descendants of \nMahomet, the now reigning dynasty. The Moors \nhave had frequent wars with the "Spaniards and \nPortuguese, due to piracy. Population, i8qi, about \n8,000,000 ; Fez, the capital, 140, to 150,000. \n\nInvasion of Sebastian of Portugal, who perishes \nwith his army at the battle of Alcazar 4 Aug. 1578 \n\nTangiers (which see) acquired by England, 1662 ; \ngiven up 1683 \n\nThe Moors attack the French in Algeria at the \n\n\n\nMOEPHIA. \n\n\n\n651 \n\n\n\nMOSCOW. \n\n\n\ninstigation of Abd-el-Kader ; the prince de \nJoinville bombards Tangiers, 6 Aug. , and Mogadcr \n\n16 Aug. 1844 \n\nMarshal Bugeaud defeats the Moors at the river \nIsly, and acquires the title of duke . 14 Aug. ,, \n\nPeace between France and Morocco . 10 Sept. ,, \n\nThe Spaniards, who possess several places on the \ncoast of Morocco (Ceuta, Penon de Velez, <fcc), \nhaving suffered much annoyance by Moorish \npirates, declare war .... 22 Oct. 1859 \n\nNegotiations fruitless : the Spanish government \nincreasing their demands as the sultan yielded ; \nthe English government interfered in vain. For \nthe war, see Spain 1859-60 \n\nA Moorish ambassador (the first since the time of \nCharles II.) in London. (He gave 200L to the \nlord mayor for the London charities) June-Aug. i860 \n\nThe British government gave a guarantee for a loan \nof 426,000^. to the sultan to meet his engagements \nwith Spain 24 Oct. 1861 \n\nInsurrection of a pretender, Elkadin ben Abder- \nahman, suppressed Dec. 1873 \n\nPrince Sidi Shereef visits Britain . . Aug. 1877 \n\nThe grand sherif of Wazan marries an English wife ; \nliberates his slaves, &c. ; persecuted, becomes a \nFrench subject Jan. 1884 \n\nThe rebel tribes of Benin Guild district defeated \nafter a severe engagement . . 25 June, 1888 \n\nThe sultan\'s visit to Tangier delayed . Sept. ,, \n\nAn exploring expedition under Mr. Joseph Thomson \nand Mr. Harold Crichton Browne aided by the \nKoyal and Geographical societies, spring and \n\nsummer, ,, \n\nDisputes among the foreign consuls ; abuse of their \npowers and consequent Moorish resistance, \n\nautumn, ,, \n\nThe sultan visits Tetuan after long absence, 5 Sept. ; \nTangier 22 Sept. 1889 \n\nDispute with Spain respecting the seizure of a \nSpanish coasting vessel, Miguel Texesa, settled by \ndue reparation .... about 29 Sept. ,, \n\nAffray between Moors and the Spanish cavalry of \nthe fortress Melilla, several killed, 20 July ; \npeace restored 25 July, 1890 \n\nThe sultan defeats rebel tribes, and beheads 80 \nprisoners, reported 20 Aug. ; further defeats of \nthe rebels reported . . . .26 Sept. ,, \n\nThe Moorish government agrees to pay 50,000^. as \nindemnity for murder of persons connected with \na Bi\'itish factory at Cape Juby in 1889 . Feb. 1891 \n\nSir William Kirby Green, the able British minister \nto Morocco, died 25 Feb. ; succeeded by sir \nCharles Euan Smith, from Zanzibar . . . \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nHostility of the Kabyles and other tribes to the \ngovernor ; two British war-vessels arrive off \nTangier, about 5 Jan. ; 3 foreign vessels arrive, \n\nabout 13 Jan. 1892 \n\nTranquillity restored by the sultan dismissing the \ngovernor, and appointing a successor . 22 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSir C. Euan Smith received by the sultan at Fez, \n\n14 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nA new commercial treaty considered . . May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRebellion in Angera June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\n1822. Muley Abderahman. \n\n1859. Sidi Muley Mohammed, Sept., died Sept. 1873. \n\n1873. Muley Hassan (son), proclaimed 25 Sept. \n\nMOEPHIA, an alkaloid, discovered in opium \nby Serturner, in 1803. \n\nMOEPHOLOGY (Greek, morphe, form), the \nscience of fomi and structure, as distinguished from \nphysiology, studied in the 19th century, by Goethe, \nGegenbaur, Haeckel, and others. \n\nMOEEILL TAEIFF, see United States, 1861. \n\nMOEEIS DANCE, see Morice. \n\nMOETALITY TABLES have been fre- \nquent lv compiled. The Northampton tables (for \nx 735-fo), by Dr. Price; the Carlisle tables (for \n1780-S7), by Dr. Hailsham; see Annuities awl Bills \nof Mortality. \n\nMOETAEA ABDUCTION", see Jews, 1858. \n\n\n\nMOETAES, a short gun with a large bore, and \nclose chamber, for throwing bombs; said to have \nbeen used at Naples in 1435, and first made in \nEngland in 1543. The mortar left by Soult at \nCadiz in Spain was fixed in St. James\'s-park in \nAug. 1816. On 19 Oct. 1857, a colossal mortar, \nconstructed by Mr. Robert Mallet, was tried at \n"Woolwich; with a charge of 70 lbs. it threw a \nshell weighing 2550 lbs. lh mile horizontally, and \nabout f mile iu height. \n\nMOETELLA TOWEES, see Martello. \n\nMOETIMEE\'S CEOSS (Herefordshire). \nThe earl of Pembroke and the Lancastrians were \nhere severely defeated by the young duke of York, \nafterwards Edward IV., 2 Feb. 1461. He assumed \nthe throne as Edward IV. in March following. \n\nMOETMAIN ACTS (mort main, dead hand). \nWhen the survey of all the land in England was \nmade by William I., 1085-6, the whole was found \nto amount to 62,215 knights\' fees, of which the \nchurch then possessed 28,015, to which additions \nwere afterwards made, till the 7th of Edward I., \n1279, when the statute of mortmain was passed, \nfrom a fear that the estates of the church might \ngrow too bulky. By this act it was made unlawful \nto give any estates to the church without the king\'s \nleave ; and this act, by a supplemental provision, \nwas made to reach all lay-fraternities, or corpora- \ntions, in the 15th of Richard II., 1391. Mortmain \nbeing such a state of possession as makes property \ninalienable, it is said to be in a dead hand. Several \nstatutes have been passed on this subject; legacies \nhy mortmain were especially restricted by the 9th \nGeo. II., c. 36 (1736). Law consolidated and \namended 1888 ; 1891. \n\nMOSAIC WOEK (the Roman opus tessella- \ntum), is of Asiatic origin, and is probably referred \nto in Esther, ch. i. 6, about 519 b.c. It had \nattained to great excellence in Greece, in the time \nof Alexander and his successors, when Sosos of \nPergamus, the most renowned Mosaic artist of \nantiquity, flourished. He acquired great fame by \nhis accurate representation of an " unswept floor \nafter a feast." The Romans also excelled in Mosaic \nwork, as evidenced by the innumerable specimens \npreserved. Byzantine Mosaics date from the 4th \ncentury after Christ. The art was revived in Italy \nby Tafi, Gaddi, Cimabue, and Giotto, who designed \nMosaics, and introduced a higher style in the 13th \ncentury. In the 16th century Titian and Veronese \nalso designed subjects for this art. The practice of \ncopying paintings in Mosaics came into vogue in \nthe 1 7th century ; and there is now a workshop in \nthe Vatican where chemical science is employed in \nthe production of colours, and where 20,000 different \ntints are kept. In 1861, Dr. Salviati of Venice had \nestablished his manufacture of "Enamel-mosaics," \nand in July, 1864, he fixed a large enamel Mosaic \npicture in one of the spandrils under the dome of \nSt. Paul\'s cathedral, London. He has since \nexecuted commissions for the queen and other \npersons. He died Feb. 1890, aged 74. \n\nMOSANDEIUM. See Philippium. \n\nMOSCOW, the ancient capital of Russia, was \nfounded, it is said, by Dolgorouki, about 1147. The \noccupation of the south of Russia by the Mongols, \nin 1235, led to Moscow becoming the capital, and \nbeginning with Jaroslav II., 1238, its princes \nbecame the reigning dynasty. It is regarded as a \nholy city by the Russians. Population, 1S86 : \nprovince, 2,204,930; city, 1885, 753,469. \n\n\n\nMOSKIRCH. \n\n\n\n652 \n\n\n\nMOZAMBIQUE. \n\n\n\nCathedral of the Assumption built, 1326 ; of the \n\nTransfiguration 1328 \n\nThe Kremlin founded 1367 \n\nMoscow plundered by Timour 1382 \n\nBy the Tartars 145 1, 1477 \n\nMassacre of Demetrius and his Polish adherents, \n\nthe "Matins of Moscow" . . . 27 May, 1606 \nMoscow ravaged by Ladislas of Poland in . .1611 \n\nThe university founded 1705 \n\nEntered by Napoleon I. and the French, 14 Sept. ; \nthe governor, Rostopchin, is said, doubtfully, to \nhave ordered it to be set on fire (11,840 houses \nburnt, besides palaces and churches) . 15 Sept. 18 12 \nThe French evacuate Moscow . . . Oct. ,, \nRailway to St. Petersburg opened . . . 185 1 \n\nIndustrial exhibition 16 July, 1865 \n\nVery great tire, about 50 houses burnt . 18 June, 1876 \nZvartofsky\'s weaving-works burnt ; about 24 per- \nsons perish 8 March, 1880 \n\nExhibition of Russian arts and manufactures, \n\nsummer, 1882 \n\nSt. Saviour\'s cathedral (erected to commemorate \n\nthe retreat of the French in 1812), founded by \n\nNicholas I., 27 July, 1838; consecrated 7 June, 1883 \n\nThe French exhibition of arts and manufactures \n\nsolemnly opened, 11 May; \\isited by the czar \n\nand czarina 30 May, 1891 \n\nAdmiral Gervais and the officers of the French \nfleet enthusiastically received . . 7 Aug. ,, \n\nMOSKIRCH (Baden). Here the Austriaus \nwere defeated by Moreau and the French, 5 May, \n\n\n\nMOSKWA or Borodino, Battle of; see \n\nBorodino. \n\nMOSQUE, a Mahometan house of pra\\ er. Fine \nexamples exist in Spain, India, and other countries. \nThe dome and porticos are leading features. After \nthe c.iptiire of Constantinople in 1453 by Mahomet \nII., the church of St. Sophia- was transformed into \na mosque, see Sophia, St. A mosque was erected \nin England in 1889 ; see under Mahometanism. \n\nMOSQUITO COAST (Central America). \nThe Indians inhabiting this coast were long under \nthe protection of the British, who held Belize and a \ngroup of islands in the bay of Honduras. The \njealousy of the United States long existed on this \nsubject. In April, 1850, the two governments \ncovenanted not "to occupy, or fortify, or colonise, \nor assume, or exercise any dominion over any part \nof Central America." In 1855 the United States \ncharged the British government with an infraction \nof the treaty ; on which the latter agreed to cede \nthe disputed territory to the republic of Honduras, \nwith some reservation.* The matter was finally \nsettled in 1859. \n\nMOSS-TROOPERS, desperate plunderers, \nand lawless soldiers, secreting themselves in the \nmosses on the borders of Scotland. Many severe \nlaws were enacted against them, but they were not \nextirpated till the 18th century. \n\nMOTETTS, short pieces of church music, some \nof which are dated about the end of the 13th cen- \ntury. Good motetts were written between 1430 \nand 1480; and very fine ones in the 16th and 17th \ncenturies. The "Motett Society," for the publi- \ncation of these works, was founded in 1847, by \n\xc2\xa5111 . Dyce. \n\nMOTION. On 13 Nov. 1873, professor Sylvester \ndescribed to the London Mathematical Society a \n\n* St. Juan del Norte (Greytown) was held by the British \non behalf of the Mosquitoes till the American adventurers, \nunder col. Kinney, took possession of it in Sept. 1855. \nHe joined Walker ; and on 10 Feb. 1856, their associate, \nRivas, the president, claimed and annexed the Mosquito \nterritory to Nicaragua. \n\n\n\nmachine for converting spherical into rectilinear, \nand other motions, and lor producing perfectly \nparallel motion, the discovery of M. Peaucellier, a \nFrench engineer officer, about 1867. See Kine- \nmatics. \n\nMOTTOES, ROYAL. Bieu et mon Droit, \nfirst used by Richard I., 1198. Ich clien. " I serve," \nadopted by Edward the Black Prince, at the battle \nof Cressy, 1346. Honi soit qui mat y pense, the \nmotto of the Garter, 1349. Je maintiendrai, "I \nwill maintain," adopted by William III., to which \nhe added, in 1688, " the liberties of England and \nthe Protestant religion." Semper eadem, was \nassumed by queen Elizabeth, 1558, and adopted by \nqueen Anne, 1702. See them severally. \n\nMOUNTAIN MEADOWS, see Massacres. \n\nMOUNTAIN PARTY, see Clubs, French. \n\nMOUNT EVEREST, 29,002 feet high, the \nhighest point in the Himalayas and as yet known \nin the world, was named after the late sir George \nEverest, superintendent of the trigonometrical sur- \nvey of India in Dec. 1843, by his successor, col. \nAndrew Waugh. \n\nMOUNTS, see Bernard, Calvary, Etna, Hecla, \nOlivet, and Vesuvius. \n\nMOURNING FOR THE DEAD. The Israel- \nites neither washed nor anointed themselves during \nthe time of mourning, which for a friend lasted \nseven days ; upon extraordinary occasions a month \nor more. The Greeks and Romans fasted. "White \nwas used in mourning for the imperial family at \nConstantinople, 323. The ordinary colour for \nmourning in Europe is black ; in China, white ; \nin Turkey, violet; in Ethiopia, brown; it was \nwhite in Spain until 1498. Anne of Brittany, the \nqueen of two successive kings of France, mourned \nin black, instead of the then practice of wearing \nwhite, on the death of her first husband, Charles \nVIII., 7 April, 1498. Henault. \n\nMOUSQUETAIRES or Musketeers, \nhorse-soldiers under the old French regime, raised \nby Louis XIII., 1622. This corps was considered \na military school for the French nobility. It was \ndisbanded in 1646, but was restored in 1657. A \nsecond company was created in 1660, and formed \ncai-dinal Mazarin\'s guard. Henault. The Mousque- \ntaires were abolished in 1775. \n\nMOZAMBIQUE, chief of the Portuguese \nterritories, E. Africa, was visited by Vasco da \nGama, 1498 ; conquered by the Portuguese under \nTristan da Cunha and Albuquerque, 1506 ; a \nsettlement was established, 1508. Capital, Mozam- \nbique, on an islet. \n\nGreat rising of the natives against the Portuguese, who \nare said to have been severely defeated 23 Oct. ; the \nrebellion quelled Dec. 1886 ; temporary revival 2-4 \nMarch, 1887. \nTerritorial disputes with the sultan of Zanzibar led to \nwar. The Portuguese stormed Tungi 16 Feb." ; the war \nended early March, 1887. Fresh insurrection ; Bonga \ndefeated by the governor after a severe conflict, \nannounced 12 Jan. 1889. \nA company formed at Lisbon for the development of \nthe resources of Mozambique, announced 12 Dec. 1889. \nFor the disputes with England respecting East Africa, \nsee under Zambesi. \nMuch hostility shown towards the English at \n\nQuilimane. . May, June, 1890 \n\nCol. Joaquim Jose Machado appointed governor- \ngeneral of Mozambique . . about 17 June, ,, \nLieut. Azevedo Continho, in the Shire seizes the \nJames Stevenson, belonging to the British African \nlakes company, at Chimoro, and sends the crew \nto Quilimane\' for trial, reported 31 July; he is \ncensured by the government . . 2 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nMUCKEE. \n\n\n\n653 \n\n\n\nMUECIA. \n\n\n\nMr. H. H. Johnston, C.B., British consul at Mo- \nzambique, nominated consul-general for the \nPortuguese East Africa territories, announced, \n\nJan. 1891 \n\nA Portuguese royal charter granted to a company \nin Mozambique, 11 Feb. ; modified . 30 July, ,, \n\nMUCKEE, {hypocrites), a German sect ; see \n\nEbelians and Brazil, 1874. \n\nMUGGLETONIANS, so called from Ludo- \nwic Muggletou, a tailor, known about 1641, promi- \nnent about 1650; convicted of blasphemy, Jan. \n1676 ; died, 1697. He and John Reeve affirmed \nthat God the Fathei - , leaving the government of \nheaven to Elias, came down and suffered death in a \nhuman form. They asserted that they were the two \nlast witnesses of God which should appear before \nthe end of the world, Rev. xi. 3. This sect existed, \n1850. \n\nMUHLBEEG, on the Elbe, Prussia. Here \nthe German protestants were defeated by the em- \nperor Charles V., 24 April, 1547, and John Frede- \nrick, elector of Saxony, was taken prisoner. \n\nMtJHLDOEF (Bavaria). Near this place \nFrederick, duke of Austria, was defeated and taken \nprisoner by Louis of Bavaria, 28 Sept. 1322. \n\nMTJLBEEEY-TEEES. The alleged first \nplanted in England are in the gardens of Sion- \nhouse. Shakspeare is said to have planted a \nmulberry-tree with his own hands at Stratford- \nupon-Avon; and Garrick, Macklin, and others were \nentertained under it in 1742. Shakspeare\' s house \nwas afterwards sold to a clergyman of the name of \nGastrel, who cut down the mulberry-tree for fuel, \n1765. A silversmith purchased the whole, and \nmanufactured it into memorials. \n\nMULE, a spinning machine invented in 1779, \nby Samuel Crompton, born at Bolton, Lancashire, \nin 1753; named, from Crompton\'s residence, Hall- \nin-the-ivood-ivheel ; and muslin-wheel, from its \ngiving birth to the British muslin and cambric \nmanufacture ; and mule, from its combining the \nadvantages of Hargreave\'s spinning jenny, and \nArk wright\'s adaptation. It is stated that Crompton \nat the time knew nothing of the latter. He did not \npatent his invention, but gave it up in 1 780. It \nproduced yarn treble the fineness and very much \nsofter than any ever before produced in England. \nParliament voted him 5000^. in 1812, now considered \na most inadequate compensation. Mr. Koberts in- \nvented the self-acting mule in 1825. \n\nMULHAUSEN (in Alsace-Lorraine), an im- \nperial city, under Rodolph of Hapsburg ; joined the \nSwiss confederation in 1515 ; annexed to France in \n1798; conquered and annexed to Germany, 1870-1. \nThe calico manufacture was introduced in 1746. \nPopulation, 1890, 76,968. \n\nMUMMIES (from the Coptic mum, bitumen, \ngum, resin) ; see Embalming . The mummies in the \nBritish Museum, with other Egyptian antiquities, \nwere placed there about 1803 and since. Mr. Alex. \nGordon, in 1737, published an essay on three \nEgyptian mummies, one of which was brought to \nEngland in 1722 by capt. Wm. Lethieullier ; two \nothers came in 1734, one of which was retained \nby Dr. Mead, the other was given to the College \nof Physicians. In 1834, Mr. T. J. Pettigrew pub- \nlished a "History of Egyptian Mummies." The \ndiscovery of about 39 mummies of kings, priests, \nand other eminent persons in sarcophagi at Renneh, \nnear Thebes, Upper Egypt, was announced in Aug. \n1881, supposed to be of the 21st dynasty, about \n1 100 B.C. \n\n\n\nThe mummies of Rameses II. (Sesostris) and III. were \nuncovered by MM. Gaston Maspero and B. Brugsch in \nthe presence of the khedive of Egypt and others 1 \nJune, 1886. \n\nA mummy, dated about 800 B.C., unrolled by Mr. \nE. A. Wallis Budge at University college, Lon- \ndon 18 Dec. 1889 \n\nDiscovery of a large burial place of mummified \ncats, sacred animals, in central Egypt, sold as \nmanure ; 28 tons brought to Liverpool . Feb. 1890 \n\nDiscovery by M. Grebaut, director-general of the \nexcavations, of a vast tomb of the high priests of \nAmen, on the Libian mountains west of Thebes, \nnear De\'ir-el-Bahari, containing many sarcophagi, \nsome dating from the nth dynasty, statuettes, \npapyri, votive offerings, &c. Three galleries \nopened, one empty ; the others contained 152 \nmummies intact, 149 of the 21st dynasty, about \n1,100 B.C., and 2 of the 19th, the whole conveyed \nin barges to Cairo Feb. 1891 \n\nThe high priests of Amen, at Thebes, were a line of \npowerful prelates, beginning under the kings of \nthe 12th dynasty, between 3,000 and 2,000 B.C. \n\nMUNCHENGEATZ (Bohemia) was taken by \nthe Prussians under prince Frederick Charles, after \na severe action, 28 June, 1866. The Austrians lost \nabout 300 killed and 1000 prisoners, and the prince \ngained about 12 miles of country. \n\nMUNDA (now Monda, S. Spain). Here Cneius \nScipio defeated the Carthaginians, B.C. 216; and \nhere Julius Caesar defeated the sons of Pompey, 17 \nMarch, 45, after a severe conflict. \n\nMUNDANE EEAS. That of Alexandria \nfixed the creation at 5502 B.C. This computation \ncontinued till a.d. 284, Alex, era, 5786; but in \na.d. 285 ten years were subtracted, and 5787 be- \ncame 5777. This coincided with the Muudane era \nof Antioch (which dated the creation 5492 B.C.). \nNicolas. \n\nMUNICH, the capital of Bavaria, said to have \nbeen founded by duke Henry of Saxony, 962, on \na site previously occupied by monks {Miincheri). It \nwas taken by Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden in \n1632; by the Austrians, in 1 704, 1 741, and 1743 ; \nand by the French under Moreau, 2 July, 1800. It \nabounds in schools, institutions, and manufactories. \nThe university was founded by king Louis in 1826. \nA Bavarian art-exhibition was opened here by \nprince Adalbert, 20 July, 1869. A congress of" Old \nCatholics" {which see) met here, 23 Sept. 1871. \nInternational exhibition opened, 19 July, 1879. \nInternational art exhibition opened 1 July, 1883 ; \nothers, 1 June, 1888, and 1892. Centenary of King \nLouis I., 30-31 July, 1888. Visit of the emperor \nWilliam II., 7 Sept. 1891. Population, Dec. 1871, \n169,693; 1880,230,023; 1885,261,981; 1890,348,317. \n\nMUNICIPAL COEPOEATIONS, &c; see \n\nCorporations. \n\nMUNSTEE (W. Prussia). The bishopric, said \nto have been founded by Charlemagne, 780, was \nsecularised in 1802 ; seized by the French, 1806 ; \npart of the duchy of Berg, 1809; annexed to France, \n1810; ceded to Prussia, 1815. The Anabaptists, \nunder John of Leyden, the king of Minister, held \nthe city in 1534-5. Here were signed the prelimi- \nnaries of the treaty of Westphalia {which see), \nor Munster, Jan. 1647; definitively signed 24 Oct. \n1648. Population, 1890, 49,344. \xe2\x80\x94 Munster, the \nsouthern province of Ireland, an ancient kingdom. \nSee Ireland, 1014. In 1568 a commission was \nissued for its government by a president and coun- \ncil, and new colonies were founded in 1588. \n\nMUEADAL, see Toloso. \n\nMUECIA, a province, formerly a kingdom, \nN. E. Spain, was subdued by the Moors, 713; by \n\n\n\nMUEDEE. \n\n\n\n654 \n\n\n\nMUSIC. \n\n\n\nFerdinand of Castile, 1240; and divided between \n\nCastile and Arragon, 1305. Population, 1887 : \n\nprovince, 491,436 ; city, 98,538. \n\nMurcia, the capital, was sacked by the French under \nSebastiani, 23 April, 1810. It was inundated by the \nSegura, after a violent storm, 15-17 Oct., 1879, when \nabout 1000 persons perished. \n\nMUEDEE, the highest offence against the law \nof God. {Genesis ix. 6, 2348 B.C.) A court of \nEphetse was established by Demopboon of Athens \nfor the trial of murder, 11 79 B.C. The Persians did \nnot punish the first offence. In England, dming \na period of the heptarchy, murder was punished \nby fines only. So late as Henry VIII. \'s time the \ncrime was compounded for in Wales. Murderers \nwere allowed benefit of clergy in 1503. Aggravated \nmurder, or petit treason (a distinction now abo- \nlished), happened in three ways: by a servant \nkilling his master, a wife her husband, and an \necclesiastical person his superior, stat. 25 Edw. III. \n1350. The enactments relating to this crime are \nvery numerous, and its wilful commission has been \nrarely pardoned by our sovereigns. The act whereby \nthe murderer should be executed on the day next \nbut one after his conviction, was repealed, 1836; \nsee Assassinations, Executions, Trials; also Lon- \ndon, 1872, Bravo, Burton, Euston, Ratcliffe, Road, \nRichmond, Harley Street, Whitechapel, Poisoning ; \nRailways, 1864 and 1881 ; Slough, Melbourne. \n\nMurders in England and Wales (from Coroners\' In- \nquests) : \xe2\x80\x94 \n\n\n\n*8 5 7 \n\n\n\n. . 270 \n. . 246 \n\n\n\n1873 \n\n\n\n226 \n\n\n1874 .. 223 \n\n\n272 \n\n\n1875 \xe2\x80\xa2\xe2\x80\xa2 200 \n\n\n255 \n\n\n1876 .. 207 \n\n\n261 \n\n\n1877 .. 199 \n\n\n265 \n\n\n1878 .. 176 \n\n\n222 \n\n\n1879 .. 153 \n\n\n226 \n\n\n1880 . . 157 \n\n\n257 \n\n\nl88l .. 193\' \n\n\n223 \n\n\n(101 females) \n\n\n\n176 \n\n177 \n\n192 \n\n\n\nMUEET (S. France). Here the Albigenses, \nunder the count of Thoulouse, were defeated by \nSimon de Montfort, and their ally Peter of Arragon \nkilled, 12 Sept. 12 13. \n\nMUEFEEESBOEOUGH (Tennessee, N. \nAmerica) was the site of fierce conflicts between \nthe federals under Rosencrans and the confederates \nunder Bragg, from 31 Dec. 1862 to 3 Jan. 1863, when \nBragg retired with great loss. This struggle is \ncalled also the battle of Stone River. \n\nMURIATIC ACID, see Alkalies. \n\nMUEBAY\'S HANDBOOKS FOE TBA- \n\nVELLERS. The parent of the series, a" Handbook \nfor Travellers on the Continent," which appeared in \n1836, was the work of Mr. John Murray the \npublisher. Handbooks for France, Switzerland, \nSouth Germany, &c, soon followed ; one for Algeria \nappeared in Oct. 1873 > one f\xc2\xb0 r Japan in 1884. \nHandbooks for all 1he counties in England except \nfour, had appeared 1892. \nMurray\'s Magazine first published by John Murray, of \n\n50, Albemarle Street, London, W., Jan. 1887. \nMr. John Murray, aged nearly 84, died 2 April, 1892. \n\nMUSCAT, or MASCAT, an Arab state on the \ngulf of Oman, was conquered by the Portuguese \nunder Albuquerque in 1507, but recovered by the \nArabs in 1648. \nAhmad bin Sa\'id repelled a Persian invasion and \n\nfounded present dynasty 1741 \n\nSa\'id, his son, succeeded 1775 \n\nSa\'id bin Sultan, his son 1803 \n\nTreaty with the British 1839 \n\nAt his death his territories divided ; after a con- \nflict, his son Sa\'id Thuwainy obtained Oman ; and \nMajid, Zanzibar (which see) 1856 \n\n\n\nSyud Redin compelled to fly, and a chief, Azan bin \nGheo, seized the government . . . Oct. 1868 \n\nThe imaum endeavoured to regain his authority, \n\nAug. 1870 \n\nThe city was taken by Sa\'id Toorkee, and the chief \nkilled about 30 Jan. 1871 \n\nSa\'id Abdool Aseer said to be deposed by his bro- \nther, Sa\'id Toorkee, end of Dec. 1875 \n\nRebellion against the sultan . . . June, 1882 \n\nThe city of Muscat besieged by the sultan\'s brother, \nwhose camp is shelled by the British ship Philo- \nmel ; siege raised, announced . . 29-31 Oct. 1883 \n\nRebels defeated and dispersed, announced 5 Nov. ,, \n\nFive Arab horses presented by the sultan received \nby the queen at Windsor . . .18 Nov. 1886 \n\nDeath of the sultan .... 6 June, 1S88 \n\nMUSEUM, oi-iginally a quarter of the palace \nof Alexandria, like the Prytaneum of Athens, where \neminent learned men were maintained by the pub- \nlic. The foundation is attributed to Ptolemy \nPhiladelphus, who here placed his library about 280 \nB.C. Besides the British Museum, Soane\'s Museum, \nand the Museum of Geology (which see), there are \nvery many others in London. The opening of \npublic museums and galleries on Sunday was long \nadvocated in parliament: negatived by 271 to 68, \n19 May, 1874. Urban authorities authorised to \nprovide museums and gymnasiums, by act passed \n3 July, 1891. \n\nMUSIC* "Jubal, the father of all such as \nhandle the harp and the organ" (3875 B.C. Gen. \niii. 21). The flute, and harmony, or concord in \nmusic, are said to have been invented by Hyagnis, \n1506 B.C. Arund. Marbles. Vocal choruses of \nmen are first mentioned 556 B.C. Dufresnoy. See \nOrgan, and other musical instruments. Prior to \n1600, the chief music in England was masses, \nballads, and madrigals, but dramatic music was \nmuch cultivated from that time. About the end of \nJames I. \'s reign, a music professorship was founded \nin the university of Oxford by Dr. Wm. Hychin ; \nand the year 1710 was distinguished by the arrival \nin England of George Frederick Handel. Mozart \ncame to England in 1763 ; Joseph Haydn in 1791 ; \nand Carl Maria von Weber in 1825. \nDictionaries of Music, Rousseau\'s, published 1767 ; \nin " Encyclopedie Methodique," 1791 ; Fetis, \n"Biographie Universelle des Musiciens," 1835-44, \nand 1860-65. The publication of the excellent \n" Dictionary of Music and Musicians," edited by \nMr. (aft. Sir) George Orove, begun Jan. 1878, \n\nwas completed in 1890 \n\nMonthly Musical Record published, 1871 et seq. \nMusical Notes, &c. See Gamut The first six are said \nto have been invented by Guy Aretino, a Benedictine \nmonk of Arezzo, about 1025. Blair. The notes at \npresent used were perfected in 1338. Counterpoint \nwas brought to perfection by Palestrina about 1555. \nGafforio of Lodi read lectures on musical composition \nin the 15th century, and they effected great improve- \nment in the science. The Italian style of composition \nwas introduced into these countries about 1616. \nThe Musical Pitch was settled in France in 1859. The \nmiddle A to be 870 simple or 435 double vibrations in a \nsecond ; but through error of measurement the fork \nmade gave (A) 439 double vibrations (C, 522). At a \nmeeting on the subject, held at the Society of Arts, on \n23 Nov. i860, the concert pitch of C was recommended \nto be 528 vibrations in a second ; but the fork made by \nMr. J. H. Griesbaeh gives 539! vibrations. Mr. Hullah \nadopted 512 vibrations. \nA lower pitch was adopted at concerts in London in Jan. \n1869. 528 vibrations for C adopted for performances \n\n* Pythagoras (about 555 B.C.) maintained that the \nmotions of the twelve spheres must produce delightful \nsounds, inaudible to mortal ears, which he called "the \nmusic of the spheres. " St. Cecilia, said to have enticed \nan angel from the celestial regions by her melody, is \ntermed the patroness of music. She died in the second \ncentury. \n\n\n\nMUSIC. \n\n\n\n655 \n\n\n\nMUSIC. \n\n\n\nat the international exhibition of 1872, at a meeting, \n20 Jan. 1872. \n\n[Handel\'s tuning-fork, 1740, was 495 ; the Philharmonic \nSociety\'s, 1813-43, was 515.] \n\nMr. A. J. Ellis\'s elaborate " History of Mus\'cal Pitch " \nis published in " Journal of the Society of Arts," 5 \nMarch, 1880, and separately. \n\nSir G. Macfarren and a meeting agree to French normal \ndiapason, 20 June ; agreed to by international con- \nference at Vienna, about 17 Nov. 1885. \n\nMusical Festivals in England. Dr. Bysse, chancellor \nof Hereford, about 1724, proposed to the members of \nthe choirs, a collection at the cathedral door after \nmorning service, when forty guineas were collected \nand appropriated to charitable riurposes. It was then \nagreed to hold festivals at Hereford, Gloucester, and \nWorcester, in rotation annually. Until the year 1753, \nthe festival lasted only two days ; it was then ex- \ntended at Hereford to three evenings ; and at Glouces- \nter, in 1757, to three mornings, for the purpose of in- \ntroducing Handel\'s "Messiah," which was warmly \nreceived, and has been performed annually ever since. \nMusical festivals on a great scale are now annually held \nat various cathedrals in England ; see Handel and \nCrystal Palace. \n\n"Sons of the Clergy" annual musical performances at St. \nPaul\'s began 1709. \n\nMusical Festivals. Several were held on the conti- \nnent in the 18th century ; for Haydn at Vienna, 1808, \n1811; others at Erfurt 1811, Cologne 1821, and fre- \nquently since. \n\nStudy of music greatly increased by the efforts and \nteaching of John Hullah since 1840 et seq. \n\nThe Tonic sol-fa system, in which the letters d, r, m, /, s, \nI, t, (fordo, re, mi, fa, so, la, \xc2\xa3\xc2\xa3, or si) are used instead of \nnotes, was invented by Miss Glover, of Norwich, and \nimproved by rev. John Curwen, about 1841 ; he died \nt88o. \n\nThe Tonic Sol-fa Association founded 1853 ; the college \nestablished 1862 ; jubilee celebrated at St. Paul\'s, 7 \nJuly ; Crystal Palace, 18 July, 1891. \n\nMusical Institutions. The Ancient Academy of Music \nwas instituted in 1710. It originated with numerous \neminent performers and gentlemen wishing to promote \nthe study of vocal harmony. \n\nMadrigal Society was established in 1741, and other musi- \ncal societies followed. \n\n" Ancient concerts " began, 1776 ; ceased, 1848. \n\nRoyal Society of Music arose from the principal nobility \nand gentry uniting to promote the performance of \noperas composed by Handel, 1785. \n\nPhilharmonic Society\'s concerts began in 1813. \n\nRoyal Academy of Music, established 1822 {which see). \n\nMelodists\' Club, 1825. \n\nNew Philharmonic Society established 1852. \n\nSacred Harmonic Society, Exeter hall, established 1831. \nSooth performance, 13 Dec. 1867 ; performances at St. \nJames\'s Hall, 1880-1. It ceased to exist in 1882 ; \nfinal concert, 28 April (Handel\'s "Solomon"). The \nnew society gave its first concert, 23 Feb. 1883. \n\nBritish Orchestral Society, 1872. \n\nCatch Club formed, 1761 ; centenary kept, July, 1861. \n\nGlee Club formed, 1787. \n\nMusical Union, founded by John Ella, 1844 ; he died 2 \nOct. 1888. \n\nHarmonic Union (for performances of ancient and \nmodern music), 1852-4. \n\nMusical Society of London, established 1858. \n\n" Popular Monday Concerts " at St. James\'s Hall, \nfounded by Thos. Chappell, commenced with a " Men- \ndelssohn night," 14 Feb. 1859 ; 1000th concert, 4 April, \n1887. \n\nLondon Academy of Music founded in 1S60. \n\nCfficilian Society, London, founded by Z. W. Vincent and \nothers in 1785 ; ceased in 1861. \n\n" Musical Education Committee " of the Society of Arts, \nLondon, with the prince of Wales as chairman, held its \nfirst meeting 22 May, 1865. Its first report, dated 27 \nJune, 1866, recommended the reconstitution of the \nRoyal Academy. \n\nNational Training School for Music; building near the \nAlbert-hall, founded by the duke of Edinburgh, \n18 Dec. 1873 ; opened by him 17 May, 1876 ; first public \nconcert, 23 June, 1879. Premises given up to the \nprince of Wales as Chairman of the proposed National \nCollege of Music, 6 April, 1882. \n\nGuildhall School of Music founded 1880 (see under \nGuildhall). \n\n\n\nRoyal College of Music, Kensington ; establishment pro- \nposed at a meeting at Marlborough-house, the prince- \nof Wales in the chair, Aug. 1878, and 23 and 28 Feb. \n1882. Charter granted ; prince of Wales, president ;. \nsir George Grove, director ; 21 April, 1883 ; opened by \nthe prince of Wales, 7 May ; reported successful ;. \nfirst annual meeting 28 May, 1884. \n\nMr. Samson Fox, civil engineer of Leeds, presented. \n30,000?. (increased to 45,000?., 18 May, 1889), for the- \nerection of buildings ; personally accepted by the \nprince of Wales, Jan. 1888, who laid the foundation of" \nnew buildings, 8 July, 1890. \n\n" Musical Association for the Investigation and Discus- \nsion of subjects connected with the Art and Science? \nof Music," founded 16 April, 1874, by Messrs. Spottis- \nwoode, Wheatstone, Tyndall, G. A. Macfarren, J. \nHullah, Sedley Taylor, Stone, Pole, Chappell, Barnby^ \nand others. Publishes its " Proceedings." \n\nHenry Leslie\'s musical choir formed about 1855 ; dis- \nsolved 1880; re-organised, Mr. Randegger conductor,, \nJuly, 1882. \n\nChurch Choral Society, London, incorporated as Trinity \nCollege, 1875. \n\nNational Opera-house, N. Thames embankment, first brick \nlaid by Mile. Tietjens, 7 Sept. ; first stone by the duke- \nof Edinburgh, 16 Dec. 1875. \n\nThe Wagner Society in London gave concerts to intro- \nduce R. Wagner\'s so-called "Music of the Future" \n(the due combination of music and poetry), Feb. 1873. \n\nWagner\'s Lohengrin, performed at Covent-garden, 8 May,, \nat Drury-lane, 13 June, 1875. Tannha/user performed air \nCovent-garden, 29 April, 1876. \n\nThree series of performances of Wagner\'s " Ring des \nNibelungen," in four parts (Rhcingolcl, WaVcure, Sieg- \nfried, and Gotterdammerung), at Bayreuth, in \npresence of the emperors of Germany and Brazil, th& \nking of Bavaria, and many other sovereigns and. \nprinces, 13 Aug., et seq., 1876 ; at Berlin, May, 1881. la \nLondon, 5 May, et seq. 1882. \n\nWagner Festival, Royal Albert Hall, London (Wagner- \npresent), 7 \xe2\x80\x94 19 May, 1877. \n\nRichard Wagner died at Venice, 13 Feb. 1883. \n\nNational Society of Professional Musicians founded irt \n1882. \n\nA fine collection of musical instruments at the Inven- \ntions Exhibition, South Kensington, opened 4 May \n1885. \n\nJosef Hofnian, aged about 10, plays brilliantly at St. \nJames\'s Hall long classical pieces from memory,, \nsummer and autumn ; goes to America, where his \nperformances are stopped by a philanthropist, 1887. \n\nOtto Hegner, aged 11, plays in London, March, 1888. \n\nCopyright of musical compositions, restricting their \nunauthorized performance, passed 5 July, 1888. \n\nMusical Chamties. Royal Society of Musicians, estab- \nlished 1738 ; incorporated 1790. \n\nRoyal Society of Female Musicians, established 1839 ? \nthese two combined, 1866. \n\nChoir Benevolent Fund, 1851. \n\nSacred Harmonic Benevolent Fund, 1855. \n\nEMINENT MUSICAL COMPOSERS. \n\nBorn Die& \n\nTallis . 1529 1585. \n\nPalestrina 1524 159+ \n\nT. Morley. . . .... 1550 1604. \n\nOrlando Gibbons 1583 1624. \n\nH. Lawes . . 1600 1662 \n\nDully 1633 1672: \n\nPurcell 1658 1695 \n\nJ. Seb. Bach* 1685 1750- \n\nG. F. Handel 1684 1759 \n\nT. A. Arne i 7IO 1778 \n\nC. Gluck 1714 1787 \n\nW. A. Mozart 1756 1791 \n\nJoseph Haydn 1732 1809. \n\nC. Dibdin 1748 1814. \n\nS. Webbe 1740 1817 \n\nJ. W. Callcott 1766 1821 \n\nC. Weber 1786 182& \n\nF. Schubert 1797 1828 \n\nL. Beethoven 1770 1827 \n\nM. Cherubini 1760 1842 \n\nF. Mendelssohn-Bartholdy .... 1809 1S4S \n\nF. Chopin 1810 1849; \n\nH. Bishop 1787 1855 \n\n* He had eleven sons musicians ; four distinguished. \n\n\n\nMUSICAL GLASSES. \n\n\n\n656 \n\n\n\nMYCENAE. \n\n\n\nBom Died \n\nJt. Schumann 1810 1856 \n\nL. Spohr 1783 l8 59 \n\nJ. E. Halevy 1799 1862 \n\nJ. Meyerbeer \xe2\x96\xa0 1794 1864 \n\nJ. Rossini ... ... 1792 1868 \n\nL. H. Berlioz 1803 1869 \n\nM. W. Balfe 1808 1870 \n\nD. T. Auber 1784 1871 \n\nW. Sterndale Bennett . ... 1816 1875 \n\nJ. Raff 1822 1882 \n\nR. Wagner ....... 1813 1883 \n\nM. Costa 1810 1884 \n\nJulius Benedict 1804 1885 \n\nF. Liszt 1811 1886 \n\nG. A. Maefarren 1813 1887 \n\nAlfred Cellier 1844 1891 \n\nG. Verdi 1814 \n\nR. Franz 1815 \n\nC. F. Gounod 1818 \n\nA. Rubinstein 1830 \n\nJ. Brahms 1833 \n\nJ. Stainer 1840 \n\nP. A. Dvorak 1841 \n\nE. H. Greig 1841 \n\nA. Sullivan . ._ 1844 \n\nA. C. Mackenzie 1847 \n\nO. V. Stanford 1852 \n\nF. H. Cowen 1852 \n\nMUSICAL GLASSES, see under Harmonic, \nand Copophone. \n\nMUSIC HALLS. In 1878, 347 of these were \nlicensed in London : first class, 3 ; second class, 6 ; \n(third class, 13 ; fourth class, 53 ; &c. \n\nMUSKETS, see Firearms. \n\nMUSKETEY SCHOOLS at Hythe and \nFleetwood were established in 1854 under major- \ngeneral C. C. Hay. He resigned in 1867. The \n\xe2\x80\xa2school at Fleetwood was closed the same year. \n\nMUSLIN, a fine cotton cloth, so called, it is \nsaid, from having a downy nap on its surface, re- \nsembling moss (French, mousse) ; according to \nothers, because it was first brought from Moussol, \nIn India. M uslins were first worn in England in \n1670. Anderson. By means of the Mule {which \nsee), British much superseded India muslins. \n\nMUTA (Syria). Here Mahomet and his fol- \nlowers defeated the Christians in his first conflict \nwith them, 629. \n\nMUTE. A prisoner is said to stand mute, when \nbeing arraigned for treason or felony, he either \nmakes no answer, or answers foreign to the pur- \npose. Until 1 741, persons refusing to plead were \nsubjected to torture by pressure. \nWalter Calverly, esq. , of Calverly in Yorkshire, having \n\nmurdered two of his children, and stabbed his wife in \n\na fit of jealousy, being arraigned for his crime at York \n\nassizes, stood mute, and was thereupon pressed to \n\ndeath in the castle, a large iron weight being placed upon \n\nhis breast, 5 Aug. 1605. Stow. \nMajor Strangeway suffered death in a similar manner \n\nat Newgate for the murder of his brother-in-law, Mr. \n\nFussell, 1657. \nJudgment was awarded against mutes, as if they were \n\nconvicted or had confessed, by 12 Geo. III. 1772. \nA man refusing to plead was condemned and executed at \n\nthe Old Bailey on a charge of murder, 1778, and another \n\non a charge of burglary at Wells, 1792. \nAn act passed by which the court is directed to enter a \n\nplea of " not guilty " when the prisoner will not plead, \n\n1827. \n\nMUTINA (now Modena), N. Italy. Here \nMark Antony, after defeating the consul Pansa, was \nhimself beaten with great loss by Hirtius the other \nconsul, and fled to Gaul, 27 April, 43 B.C. \n\nMUTINIES, BRITISH. The mutiny through- \nout the fleet at Portsmouth for an advance of wages, \n\n\n\nApril, 1797. It subsided on a promise from the \nA dmiralty, which not being quickly fulfilled, occa- \nsioned a second mutiny on board the London man- \nof-war ; admiral Colpoys, and his captain, were put \ninto confinement for ordering the marines to fire, \nwhereby some lives were lost. The mutiny sub- \nsided 10 May, 1797, when an act was passed to raise \nthe wages, and the king pardoned the mutineers. \n\nMutiny of the Bounty, 28 April, 1789 ; see Bounty. \n\nMutiny at the Nore, which blocked up the trade of the \nThames, broke out on 27 May, 1797, and subsided 13 \nJune, 1797, when the principal mutineers were put in \nirons, and several executed (including the ringleader, \nwho had assumed the name of rear-admiral Richard \nParker), 30 June, at Sheerness. \n\nMutiny of the Danae frigate ; the crew carried the ship \ninto Brest harbour, 27 March, 1800. \n\nMutiny on board admiral Mitchell\'s fleet at Bantry Bay, \nDec. 1801, and January following (see Bantry Bay). \n\nMutiny at Malta, began 4 April, 1807, and ended on the \n12th, when the mutineers (chiefly Greeks and Corsi- \ncans) blew themselves up by setting fire to a large \nmagazine, consisting of between 400 and 500 barrels of \ngunpowder. \n\nMutiny on the Flowery Land; bound from London to \nSingapore ; John Lyons and six foreign sailors mur- \ndered the captain and others, 10 Sept. 1863 ; a sailor \nnamed Tiffin separated from the rest, gave information, \nand seven were tried and five executed, 14-22 Feb. \n1864. \n\nMutiny on the Jefferson Borden, U. S. schooner ; two \nmates murdered ; put down by the captain, 20 April ; \nvessel arrived at Gravesend. May ; 2 men condemned \nat Boston, U. S., 1 Oct., 1875. \n\nMutiny on the Lennie, British ship, bound for America, \ncaptain and two mates murdered by foreign seamen, \n31 Oct. 1875. Van Hoydek, steward, managed to get \nthe vessel to the Isle of Rhe ; n men seized and con- \nveyed to London, tried, 4 convicted, 4 May ; executed, \n23 May, 1876. \n\nMutiny on the Caswell, Glasgow barque, eapt. G. Best : \n4 Jan., on way home from Valparaiso ; captain and \n3 men killed ; mutineers overcome by others, some \nkilled; vessel brought to Queens\'town, 13 May; \nChristos Baumbos sentenced to death. 31 July ; exe- \ncuted at Cork, 25 Aug. 1876. Giuseppe Pistoria exe- \ncuted at Cork, 25 Aug. 1879. \n\nMutiny in 19th Hussars, Curragh camp, Dublin ; through \ndiscontent with officers on account of extra duty, 8 \nSept. ; 75 arrested ; court martial ; sentenced to penal \nservitude, 2 for 5 years, 2 for 6 years, 1 for 7 years, 1 \nfor 8 years, 14 Nov. 1877. \n\nMutiny on board the Frank N. Thayer, U.S. ship, 700 \nmiles from St. Helena ; two coolies from Manila \nwound the captain, cause panic, kill six men, imprison \nothers, set fire to the ship ; overpowered ; leap over- \nboard 2-3 Jan. ; the captain and crew in boats reach \nSt. Helena 10 Jan. 1886. \n\nFor Indian Mutinies, see Madras, t8o6, and India, 1857. \n\nMUTINY ACT (1 & 2 Will, and Mary, c. 5), \nfor the discipline, regulation, and payment of the \narmy, &c, was passed 12 April, 1689, and has since \nbeen re-enacted annually. \n\nA parliamentary commission reported in favour of con- \nsolidating and simplifying military law, by combining \nthe mutiny act and articles of war in a new act to be \npassed annually, &c, July, 1878, called the Army \n(Annual) Act. See under Army, 1879 and 1881. \n\nMYCALE (Ionia, Asia Minor), BATTLE OF, \nfought between the Greeks (under Leotychides, the \nking of Sparta, and Xantippus the Athenian) and \nthe Persians, 22 Sept. 479 B.C. ; the day on which \nMardonius was defeated and slain at Plata?a by \nPausanias. The Persians (about 100,000 men), \nwho had just returned from the unsuccessful expe- \ndition of Xerxes in Greece, were completely de- \nfeated, thousands of them slaughtered, and their \ncamp burnt. The Greeks sailed back to Samos \nwith an immense booty. \n\nMYCENZE, a division of the kingdom of \nArgivcs, in the Peloponnesus. It stood about fifty \n\n\n\nMYL^. \n\n\n\n657 \n\n\n\nMYTHOLOGY. \n\n\n\nstadia from Argos, and flourished till the invasion \nof the Heraclidse. Early history mythical. \n\nPerseus removes from Argos, and founds Mycenae, \n\nB.C. 1431, 1313, or 1282 \n\nReign of Eurystheus . . . 1289,1274,01-1258 \n\n[Towards the close of his reign is placed the story of \nthe labours surmounted by Hercules.] \n\niEgisthus assassinates Atreus ; Agamemnon suc- \nceeds to the throne ; becomes king of Sicyon, \nCorinth, and perhaps of Argos 1201 \n\nHe is chosen generalissimo of the Grecian forces \ngoing to the Trojan war . . . about 1 193 \n\niEgisthus, in the absence of Agamemnon, lives in \nadultery with the queen Clytemnestra. On the \nreturn of the king they assassinate him ; and \niEgisthus mounts the throne . . . 1183 \n\nOrestes, son of Agamemnon, kills his mother and \nher paramour 11 76 \n\nOrestes dies of the bite of a serpent. . . . 1106 \n\nThe Achaians are expelled ,, \n\nInvasion of the HeraclidEe, and the conquerors \ndivide the dominions 1103 \n\nMycenae destroyed by the Argives . . . . 1468 \n\nDiscoveries on the supposed site of Mycenae made \nby Dr. Sehliemann : reported March, 1874-Sept. 1876 \n\nVisited by the emperor of Brazil . . 15 Oct. ,, \n\nDiscovery of tombs of Agamemnon, and others, \nand many treasures ; announced by Dr. Sehlie- \nmann 28 Nov. ,, \n\nDr. Sehliemann reports his discoveries to the So- \nciety of Antiquaries, London, 22 March ; pub- \nlishes his " Mycenae " .... Dec. 1877 \n\nRenewed excavations with discoveries by Dr. \nSehliemann Sept. 1888 \n\nDr. Sehliemann died at Naples . . .26 Dec. 1890 \n\nMYLJ1, a bay of Sicily, where the Komans, \nunder their consul Duilius, gained their first naval \nvictory over the Carthaginians, and took fifty of \ntheir ships, 260 B.C. Here also Agrippa defeated \nthe fleet of Sextus Pompeius, 36 B.C. \n\nMYOGRAPHION, an apparatus for deter- \nmining the velocity of the nervous current, invented \nby H. Helmholtz in 1850, and since improved by \nDu Bois Reyinond and others. \n\nMYSORE (S. India), was made a flourishing \nkingdom by Hyder Ali, who dethroned the reign- \ning sovereign in 1761, and by his son, Tippoo \nSahib, who considerably harassed the English. \nTippoo was chastised by them in 1792, and on \n4 May, 1799, his capital, Seringapatam, was taken \nby assault, and himself slain. The English esta- \nblished a prince of the old royal family as maharajah \nof part of Mysore in 1799; being without an heir \nhe was permitted to adopt a child of four years of \nage, in Aug. 1867 ; who succeeded him at his \ndeath, 27 Mar. 1868, and assumed the government \nin May, 1881. Tippoo\'s last surviving son, Gholam \nMahomet, a British pensioner, died at Calcutta, 1 1 \nAug. 1872. Anew maharajah assumed the govern- \nment about 13 Oct. 1889. Population, in 1881, \n4,186,188 ; in 1891, 4,859,760. \n\nMYSTERIES, derived from the Greek muste- \nrion, a mystery or revealed secret. The Sacred \n\n\n\nmysteries is a term applied to the doctrines of \nChristianity, called the " mystery of godliness," \n1 Tim. iii. 16, as opposed to the " mystery of \niniquity," 2 Thess. ii. 7. The Holy Eucharist is \nalso termed the sacred mysteries. The Profane mys- \nteries were the secret ceremonies performed by a se- \nlect few in honour of some deity. Prom the Egyptian \nmysteries of Isis and Osiris sprang those of Bacchus \nand Ceres among the Greeks. The Eleusinian mys- \nteries were introduced at Athens by Eumolpus, 1356 \nb.c. \xe2\x80\x94 Mystery Plays; see Drama. \n\nMYSTICS, a name given to those theologians \nwho, in addition to the obvious meaning of the \nHoly Scriptures, assert that there are interpreta- \ntions to be discovered by means of an emanation of \nthe Divine "Wisdom, by which the soul is enlight- \nened and purified; for which purpose they advocate \nseclusion for contemplation and asceticism. \nMysticism taught at Alexandria by Clemens, Pantaenus, \nOrigen, and others, who mingled Christianity and \nPlatonism, 2nd and 3rd centuries. \nMuch promoted by the works of the pseudo-Dionysius \n\n("The Mystic Theology," &c), 6th century. \nIntroduced into the Western empire, 9th century. \nEminent Mediaeval mystics (opposed by the schoolmen), \nMaster Eckhart (1251-1329); John Tauler of Stras- \nburg, where he acted heroically during the plague, \ntermed the "black death" (1290-1361); Henry Suso \n(1300-65). They aimed at a more spiritual religion \nthan Romanism ; but their followers were charged \nwith immorality, pantheism, communism, and main- \ntaining private inspiration. \nJacob Bohme or Behmen, the German mystic, published \nhis "Aurora" (an alleged divine revelation) 1612; \ndied, 18 Nov. 1624. \nFor modern mystics, see Quakers, Quietists, Hutchin- \nsonians and Swederiborgians. \n\nMYTHOLOGY (Greek mytho*, fable), the \ntraditions respecting the gods and early history of \nany people. For the Egyptian mythology, see \nEgypt. \n\nGreek Gods. Roman. \n\nST" !*"\xc2\xbb*\xe2\x96\xa0\xc2\xbb\' \xc2\xa3|p\xe2\x84\xa2 te \xc2\xbb f \n\nZeus Jupiter (Diovis-pater). \n\nPlouton (Aides, Hades) . . . Pluto. \n\nPoseidon Neptune. \n\nHere or Hera Juno. \n\nDemeter Ceres. \n\nHestia Vesta. \n\nPersephone Proserpine. \n\nDionysius Bacchus. \n\nJupiter\'s Children. \n\nApollon Apollo. \n\nAres Mars. \n\nHermes Mercury. \n\nHephaistos Vulcan. \n\nAthena or Athene Minerva. \n\nAphrodite Venus. \n\nArtemis Diana. \n\nThe chief Hindu gods are Brahma the creator, Vishnu, \nthe preserver, and Siva the destroyer, but there have- \nbeen many changes in the Hindu Pantheon. \n\n\n\nN. \n\n\n\nNAAS. \n\nNAAS (E. Ireland). Here a desperate engage- \nment took place between a body of royal forces and \nthe insurgent Irish, 24 May, 1798, during the re- \nbellion. The latter were defeated with the loss of \n300 killed and many wounded. \n\nNABONASSAB, ERA OF, received its name \nfrom the prince of Babylon, under whose reign \nastronomical studies were much advanced in \nChaldsea. The years contain 365 days each, with- \nout intercalation. The first day of the era was \n"Wednesday (said, in mistake, to be Thursday, in \nL\' Art de Verifier les Bates), 26 Feb. 747 B.C. \xe2\x80\x94 \n3967, Julian period. To find the Julian year on \nwhich the year of Nabonassar begins, subtract the \nyear, if before Christ, from 748; if after Christ, \nadd to it 747. \n\nNACHOD (Bohemia). At this place the \nPrussians, under their crown prince, defeated \nthe Austrians, after a severe conflict, 27 June, 1866. \nThe Prussian Uhlans vanquished the Austrian \ncavalry. \n\nNACOLEA (Phrygia). Near here the usurper \nProcopius was defeated, and soon afterwards slain \nby the emperor Valens, 366. \n\nNAFELS (Switzerland). Here an Austrian \narmy was defeated by a small body of Swiss, 1388. \n\nNAGA HILLS MASSACEE, see India, \n\n1875- \n\nNAG\'S HEAD STOEY. Matthew Parker- \nwas consecrated archbishop of Canterbury at Lam- \nbeth, 17 Dec. 1559, by bishops Barlow, Coverdale, \nScory, and Hodgkins. For forty-five years after, the \nEomish writers asserted that Parker and others had \nheen ordained in an abnormal fashion by Scory at \nthe Nag\'s Head Tavern, Cheapside. This fiction \nwas refuted by Burnet, and is rejected by Eoman \nCatholic authorities, such as Lingard. \n\nNAHUM, FESTIVAL OF. Nahum, the seventh \n\xe2\x96\xa0of the twelve minor prophets, about 713 B.C.; the \nfestival is kept by the Eastern church on 1 December. \n\nNAINI TAL, see Landslips, 18 Sept. 1880. \n\nNAISSUS (Mcesia). The Goths were defeated \n\xe2\x96\xa0near here with great slaughter by the emperor \nClaudius II., 269. \n\nNAJABA or NAVARRETE (N. Spain). At \nLogroiio, near these places, Edward the Black \nPrince defeated Henry de Trastamara, and re- \nestablished Peter the Cruel on the throne of \nCastile, 3 April, 1367. \n\nNAMES. Adam and Eve named then- sons. \nGen. iv. 25, 26. A Roman citizen had generally \nthree names ; pramomen, denoting the individual ; \nnomen, the gens or clan ; cognomen, the branch of \nthe clan : sometimes he had the agnomen {e. g., \nPublius Cornelius Scipio Africanus). The popes \nchange their names on their exaltation to the \npontificate, "a custom introduced by pope Sergius, \nwhose name till then was Swine-snout," 687. \nPlatina. Onuphrius (followed by most of the mo- \ndern authorities), refers it to John XII., 956; \nstating that it was done in imitation of SS. Peter \nand Paul, who were first called Simon and Saul. \nIn France the name given at baptism was some- \n\n\n\nNAPLES. \n\ntimes changed. The two sons of Henry II. of \nFrance were christened Alexander and Hercules ; \nat their confirmation these names were changed to \nHenry and Francis. Monks and nuns, at their \nentrance into monasteries, assume new names. See \nSurnames. Miss Yonge\'s "History of Christian \nNames," published 1863 (new edition 1884). M. A. \nLower\'s " Patronymica Britannica," i860. \n\nNAMUE, in Belgium, was made a county in \n932 ; taken by the French, 1 July, 1692 ; by Wil- \nliam of England, 4 Aug. 1695; ceded to the house \nof Austria by the peace of Utrecht, and garrisoned \nby the Dutch as a barrier town of the United Pro- \nvinces in 1715. The city of Nam ur was ceded to \nAustria, 17 13; taken by the French in 1746, but \nwas restored in 1749. In 1782, the emperor Joseph \nexpelled the Dutch garrison. In 1792 it was again \ntaken by the French, who were compelled to \nevacuate it in 1793; regained 1794; delivered up \nto the allies, 1814; assigned to Belgium, 1831. It \nwas a site of a severe conflict in June, 1815, between \nthe Prussians and the French under Grouchy, when \nretreating after the battle of Waterloo. Population, \n\n1890, 29,794. \n\nNANCY (N.E.France), an ancient city, capital \nof Lorraine, in the 13th century. After taking \nNancy, 29 Nov. 1475, and losing it, 5 Oct. 1476, \nCharles the Bold of Burgundy was defeated beneath \nits walls, and slain by the duke of Lorraine and \nthe Swiss, 5 Jan. 1477 ; see Lorraine. Nancy was \nembellished by Stanislas, ex-king of Poland, who \nresided and died here Feb. 1766. It was captured \nby Bliicher, Jan. 1814, and on the retreat of Mac- \nMahon\'s army, and expecting the German army, \nsurrendered to four Uhlans, 12 Aug. 1870. It was \nrestored at the peace. \n\nGrand fetes ; visits of president Carnot and the grand \nduke Constantine of Russia, 5-7 June, 1892. \n\nNANKIN, said to have been made the central \ncapital of China, 420. It was the court of the \nMing dynasty from 1369 till Yung-lo removed it to \nPekin in 1410. On 4 Aug. 1842, the British ships \narrived at Nankin, and peace was made. The rebel \nTae-pings took it on 19, 20 March, 1853. It was \nrecaptured by the Imperialists, 19 July, 1864, and \nfound to be in a very desolate\' condition. Esti- \nmated population, 1,000,000. \n\nNANTES (AV. France), formerly capital of the \nNamnetes. The edict in favour of the Protestants \nissued here by Henry IV., 13 April, 1598, was re- \nvoked by Louis XIV., 22 Oct. 1685 (bicentenary cele- \nbration, 22 Oct. 1885). Awful cruelties were com- \nmitted here by the republican Carrier, Oct.-Nov. \n1793 ; see Browning. Population in 1886, 127,482 ; \n\n1891, 121,054. \n\nNAPHTHA, a clear combustible rock oil, \nknown to the Greeks, called " oil of Media," and \nthought to have been an ingredient in the Greek \nfire {which see). \n\nNAPIEES BONES, see Logarithms. \n\nNAPLES, formerly the continental division \nand seat of government of the kingdom of the Two \nSicilies, began with a Greek colony named Parthe- \nnope (about 1000 B.C.), which was afterwards \n\n\n\nNAPLES. \n\n\n\n659 \n\n\n\nNAPLES. \n\n\n\ndivided into Palseopolis (the old) and Neapolis (the \nnew city) ; from the latter the present name is \nderived. The colon)\' was conquered by the Romans \nin the Sanmite war, 326 B.C. Naples, after resisting \nthe power of the Lombards, Franks, and Germans, \nwas subjugated by the Normans under Roger Guis- \n\xe2\x80\xa2card, king of Sicily, a. d. 1 131. Few countries have \nhad so many political changes, and cruel and des- \npotic rulers, or suffered so much by convulsions of \nnature, such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, &c. \nThe eldest son of the king of Italy is styled prince \nof Naples. In 1856, the population of the kingdom \nof Naples was 6,086,030, of Sicily 2,231,020; total, \n9,117,050. It now forms part of the revived king- \ndom of Italy. Population of the province in 1889, \n1,060,032; of the city in 1890, 530,872. \nNaples conquered by Theodoric the Goth . . 493 \n\nThe city retaken by Belisarius 536 \n\nTaken again by Totila . . . . . . 543 \n\nKetaken by Narses 552 \n\n.Becomes a duchy nominally subject to the Eastern \n\nempire 568 or 572 \n\nDuchy of Naples greatly extended . . . . 593 \nRobert Guiscard, the Norman, made duke of Apulia, \n\nfounds the kingdom of Naples .... 1059 \nNaples conquered, and the kingdom of the Two \n\nSicilies founded by Roger Guiscard II. . . . 1131 \nThe imperial house of Hohenstaufen (see Germany) \n\nobtains the kingdom by marriage, and rules 1194-1266 \nThe pope appoints Charles of Anjou, king, who de- \nfeats the regent Manfred (son of Frederick II. of \nGermany) at Benevento (Manfred slain) 26 Feb. 1266 \nCharles defeats Conradin (t)ie last of the Hohen- \nstaufens who had come to Naples by invitation of \nfthe Ghibellines), at Tagliacozzo, 23 Aug. : Con- \n\n(radin beheaded 29 Oct. 1268 \n\nThe massacre called the Sicilian vespers (which see) \n\n30 March, 1282 \nAndrew of Hungary, husband of Joanna I. murdered \n\n18 Sept. 1345 \nHis brother Louis, king of Hungary, invades Naples 1349 \nijueen Joanna put to death . . .22 May, 1382 \nAlphonso V. of Arragon (called the Wise and Mag- \nnanimous), on the death of Joanna II. seizesNaples 1435 \nNaples conquered by Charles VIII. of France . . 1494 \nAnd by Louis XII. of France and Ferdinand of \n\nSpain, who divide it 1501 \n\nExpulsion of the French 1504 \n\nNaples and Sicily united to Spain . . . . ,, \nInsurrection of Masaniello, occasioned by the extor- \ntions of the Spanish viceroys. An impost was \nclaimed on a basket of figs, and refused by the \nowner, with whom the populace took part, headed \nby Masaniello (Thomas Aniello), a fisherman ; \nrthey obtained the command of Naples, many of \nthe nobles were slain and their palaces burnt, and \nthe viceroy was compelled to abolish the taxes \nand to restore the privileges granted by Charles \n\nV. to the city June, 1647 \n\nMasaniello, intoxicated by his success, was slain by \n\nhis own followers 16 July, ,, \n\nAnother insurrection suppressed by don John of \n\nAustria Oct. ,, \n\nHenry II. duke of Guise, lands, and is proclaimed \nking, but in a few days is taken prisoner by the \n\nSpaniards April, 1648 \n\nNaples conquered by prince Eugene of Savoy, for \n\nthe emperor 1706 \n\nDiscovery of Herculaneum (which see) . . .1711 \nThe Spaniards by the victory at Bitonto (26 May) \nhaving made themselves masters of both king- \ndoms, Charles (of Bourbon), son of the king of \nSpain, ascends the throne, with the ancient title \n\nof king of the Two Sicilies 1734 \n\nOrder of St. Januarius instituted .... 1738 \nCharles, becoming king of Spain, vacates the throne \nin favour of his third son, Ferdinand, agreeably to \n\ntreaty 1759 \n\nExpulsion of the Jesuits .... 3 Nov. 1767 \nDreadful earthquake in Calabria . . .5 Feb. 1783 \nEnrolment of the Lazzaroni (which sec) as pikemen \n\nor spontoneers 1793 \n\nThe king flees on the approach of the French repub- \nlicans, who establish the Parthenopcan republic, \n\n14 Jan. 1799 \n\n\n\nNelson appears ; Naples retaken ; the restored king \n\nrules tyrannically . . . . June, 1799 \n\nPrince Caracciolo tried and executed by order of \n\nNelson 29 June, ,, \n\nThe Neapolitans occupy Rome . . 30 Sept. ,, \nDreadful earthquake ; thousands perish . 26 July, 1805 \nTreaty of neutrality between France and Naples \n\nratified 9 Oct. ,, \n\nFerdinand, through perfidy, is compelled to nee to \nSicily, 23 Jan. ; the French enter Naples, and Jo- \nseph Bonaparte made king .... Feb. 1806 \nThe French defeated at Maida . . .4 July ,, \nJoseph Bonaparte, after beginning many reforms, \n\nabdicates for the crown of Spain . . June, 1808 \n\nJoachim Murat made king (rules well) 15 July, ,, \n\nHis first quarrel with Napoleon .... 1811 \nHis alliance with Austria .... Jan. 1814 \nDeath of queen Caroline .... 7 Sept. ,, \nJoachim declares war against Austria . 15 March, 1815 \nDefeated at Tolentino .... 3 May, ,, \nHe retires to France, 22 May, and Corsica : he madly \nattempts the recovery of his throne by landing at \nPizzo : seized, tried, and shot . . 13 Oct. ,, \nFerdinand, re-established, soon returns to tyrannical \n\nmeasures June, ,, \n\nA plague rages in Naples, Nov. 1815 to June . . 1816 \nEstablishment of the society of the Carbonari . . 1819 \nSuccessful insurrection of the Carbonari under gen. \nPepe ; the king compelled to swear solemnly to a \n\nnew constitution 13 July, 1820 \n\nThe Austrians invade the kingdom, at the king\'s \n\ninstigation ; general Pepe defeated . 7 March, 1821 \nFall of the constitutional government . 23 March, ,, \nDeath of Ferdinand (reigned 66 years) . 4 Jan. 1825 \n\n[In 30 years, 100,000 Neapolitans perished by various \n\nkinds of death.] \nInsurrection of the Carbonari suppressed . Aug. 1828 \nAccession of Ferdinand II. , Boniba (as faithless and \n\ntyrannical as his predecessors) . . 8 Nov. 1830 \nDispute with England respecting the sulphur trade, \n\n1838 ; settled May, 1840 \n\nAttilio and Emilio Bandiero, with eighteen others, \nattempting an insurrection in Calabria, are shot \n\n17 Jan. 1844 \n\n[The statement that lord Aberdeen had given notice \n\nof this attempt was contradicted by his lordship.] \n\nProspect of an insurrection in Naples ; the king \n\ngrants a new constitution with liberal ministry, \n\n29 Jan. 1848 \nGreat fighting in Naples ; the liberals and the na- \ntional guard almost annihilated by the royal \ntroops, aided by the lazzaroni . . 15 May, ,, \nA martial anarchy prevails ; the chiefs of the liberal \n\nparty arrested in Dec. 1849 \n\nSettembrini, Poerio, Carafa, and others, after a \nmock trial, are condemned, and consigned to hor- \nrible dungeons for life .... June, 1850 \nAfter remonstrances with the king on his tyrannical \ngovernment (May), the English and French am- \nbassadors are withdrawn ... 28 Oct. 1856 \nAttempted assassination of the king by Milano 8 Dec. ,, \nThe Cagliari, a Sardinian mail steamboat plying \nbetween Genoa and Tunis, sailed from the former \nport on 25 June, 1857, with thirty-three passen- \ngers, who, after a few hours\' sail, took forcible \npossession of the vessel, and compelled the two \nEnglish engineers (Watt and Park) to steer to \n\nPonza 25 June, 1857 \n\n[Here they landed, released some prisoners there, \ntook them on board, and sailed to Sapri, where \nthey again landed, and restored the vessel to its \ncommander and crew. The latter steered imme- \ndiately for Naples ; but on the way the vessel was \nboarded by a Neapolitan cruiser, and all the crew \nwere landed and consigned to dungeons, where \nthey remained for nine months waiting for trial, \nsuffering great privations and insidts. This caused \ngreat excitement in England : and after much \nnegotiation, the crew were released, the vessel \ngiven up to the British government, and 3000?. \ngiven as a compensation to the sufferers.] \nItalian refugees, under count Pisaccane, land in \nCalabria, are defeated, and their leader killed, \n\n27 June-2 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nDreadful earthquake in the Apennines . 16 Dec. \nAmnesty granted to political offenders . 27 Dec. 185S \nPoerio and sixty-six companions released and sent to \nN. America, Jau. ; on their way, they seize the \n\nu u 2 \n\n\n\nNAPLES. \n\n\n\n660 \n\n\n\nNAPLES. \n\n\n\nvessel, sail to Cork, 7 March ; and proceed to \nLondon 18 March, \n\nDeath of Ferdinand II., after dreadful sufferings, \n\n22 May, \n\nDiplomatic relations resumed with England and \nFrance June, \n\nA subscription for Poerio and his companions in \nEngland amounted to io.oool . . July, \n\nInsubordination among the Swiss troops at Nar>les, \nmany shot, July 7 ; major Latour sent to Naples \nby the Swiss confederation . . .16 July, \n\nArmy increased ; defences strengthened . Oct. \n\nMany political imprisonments ; the foreign ambas- \nsadors collectively address a note to the king \nstating the necessity for reform in his states, 26 \nMarch ; the count of Syracuse recommends re- \nform and alliance with England . . April, \n\nGaribaldi lands in Sicily, 11 May ; defeats the Nea- \npolitan army at Calataflmi . . . 15 May, \n\nRevolutionary committee at Naples . 15 June, \n\nFrancis II. proclaims an amnesty ; promises a liberal \nministry ; adopts a tricolor flag, &c. 26 June, \n\nBaron Bremer, French ambassador, wounded in his \ncarriage by the mob . . . .27 June, \n\nA liberal ministry formed ; destruction of the com- \nmissariat of the police in 12 districts ; state of \nsiege proclaimed at Naples ; the queen-mother \nflees to Gaeta 28 June, \n\nGaribaldi defeats Neapolitans at Melazzo, 20 July ; \nenters Messina, 21 July ; the Neapolitans agree to \nevacuate Sicily 30 July, \n\nThe king of Sardinia in vain negotiates with Francis \nII. for alliance July, \n\nFrancis II. proclaims the re-establishment of the \nconstitution of 1848, 2 July ; the army proclaim \ncount de Trani king . . . .10 July, \n\nGaribaldi lands at Melito, 18 Aug. ; takes Reggio, \n\n21 Aug. \n\nDefection in army and navy ; Francis II. retires to \nGaeta, 6 Sept. ; Garibaldi enters Naples without \ntroops 7 Sept. \n\nGaribaldi assumes the dictatorship, 8 Sept. ; gives \nup the Neapolitan fleet to the Sardinian admiral \nPersano, 11 Sept. ; expels the Jesuits ; establishes \ntrial by jury ; releases political prisoners Sept. \n\n\n\nHe repulses the Neapolitans at Cajazzo, 19 Sept. ; \ndefeats them at the Volturno . . .1 Oct. i860. \n\nThe king of Sardinia enters the kingdom of Naples, \nand takes command of his army, which combines \nwith Garibaldi\'s n Oct. ,,. \n\nNaples unsettled through intrigues . . Oct. , r \n\nCialdini defeats the Neapolitans at Isernia, 17 Oct. ; \nat Venafro 18 Oct. ,, \n\nThe plebiscite at Naples, <fcc. ; almost unanimous \nvote for annexation to Piedmont (1,303,064 to \n10,312) . 21 Oct. , r \n\nGaribaldi meets Victor-Emmanuel, and salutes him \nas king of Italy 26 Oct. , r \n\nThe first English Protestant church built on ground \ngiven by Garibaldi ; consecrated . 11 March, 1865 \n\nCholera raged at Naples .... autumn, 1866 \n\nGreat eruption of Vesuvius began . 12 Nov. 1867 \n\nLand-slip at Naples ; 20 persons engulfed 28 Jan. 1868 \n\nVictor-Emmanuel, prince of Naples (son of prince \nHumbert), born at Naples . . .11 Nov. 1869 \n\nMaritime exhibition opened a.t Naples . 17 April, 1871 \n\nGreat marine biological laboratory organised by Dr. \nDohrn 1872 \n\nManzo and his band of brigands, (said to be the last) \ndestroyed by soldiers . . . .20 Aug. 1873 \n\nNational exhibition of the fine arts opened at Naples \nby the king 8 April, 1877 \n\nDeath of Sisto Riario Sforza, cardinal archbishop, \na proposed successor to the pope . 6 Oct. ,, \n\nAntonio Scialoia, statesman and financier, died, \naged 61 about 17 Oct. ,, \n\nRevival of brigandage, chiefly in the south, July, Aug. 1878 \n\nAsiatic cholera rages in Naples and Spezzia (see \nCholera). The king energetic in relieving the \nsufferers, 7-14 Sept. ; disease dying out . 6 Oct. 1884, \n\nNaples visited by the king Humbert and the em- \nperor William II 16 Oct. 1888 \n\nThe king inaugurates new sanitary works 15 June, 1889 \n\nTrial of the two dukes of Vilarosa for the murder \nof lieut. Leone, a suitor for the hand of their \nsister, 30 Dec. 1888 ; one brother acquitted, the \nother\' sentenced to 5 years\' imprisonment ; much \n\nindignation 22 Dec. i8gr \n\n[General history under Italy.} \n\n\n\n1131. Roger I. (of Sicily, 1130) Norman. \n\n1154. William I. the Bad ; son. \n\n1 166. William II. the Good ; son. \n\n1 189. Tancred, natural son of Roger. \n\n1 194. William III. son, succeeded by Constance, married \n\nto Henry VI. of Germany. \n\n1197. Frederick II. of Germany \' {Hohenstaufen). \n\n\n\nSOVEREIGNS OF NAPLES AND SICILY. \n\n\n\n1250. Conrad ; son. \n\n1254. Conradin, son ; but his uncle, \n\n1258. Manfred, natural son of Frederick II., seizes the \n\ngovernment ; killed at Benevento, in 1266. \n1 266. Chas. of A njou, brother of St. Louis, king of Franca \n\n[Conradin beheaded, 29 Oct. 1268.] \n1282. Insurrection in Sicily. \n\n\n\n1282. \n1285. \n1309. \n1343\' \n\n\n\n1385- \n1386. \n1414. \n\n\n\n1458. \n1494. \n*495- \n\n\n\ni5\xc2\xb03- \n1516. \n1556. \n1598. \n\n\n\nNAPLES. \n\nCharles I. of Anjou. \n\nCharles II. ; son. \n\nRobert the Wise ; brother. \n\nJoanna (reigns with her husband, Andrew of Hun- \ngary), 1343-45 : with Louis of Tarento, 1349-62 ; \nJoanna put to death (22 May, 1382) by \n\nCharles III., grandson of Charles II. : he becomes \nking of Hungary ; assassinated there, 1386. \n\nLouis I., titular, crowned. \n\nLouis II. , son of Louis I. \n\nLadislas of Hungary. \n\nJoanna II., sister, dies in 1435, and bequeaths her \ndominions to Regniev of Anjou. They are ac- \nquired by \n\nNaples. {Separation ofNarih \n\nFerdinand I. \nAlphonso II. abdicates. \nFerdinand II. \nFrederic II. expelled by the French, 1501. \n\n\n\n{Separation of the Kingdoms in 1282.) rtcily. \n\n1282. Peter I. (III. of Arragon.) \n1285. James I. (II. of Arragon.) \n1295. Frederick II. \n1337. Peter II. \n1342. Louis. \n1355. Frederick III. \n1376. Maria and Martin (her husband). \n1402. Martin I. \n\n1409. Martin II. \n\n1410. Ferdinand I. \n1416. Alphonso I. \n\n\n\n1435. Alphonso I. thus king of Naples and Sicily. \n\nand Sicily in 1458.) sicily. \n\n1458. John of Arragon. \n\n1479. Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain. \n\n\n\nFerdinand III. (king of Spain) \nCharles I. (V. of Germany). \nPhilip I. (II. of Spain). \nPhilip II. (III. of Spain). \n\nNAPLES. \n\nCharles III. of Austria. \n\n\n\n1735. Charles IV. (III. of Spain). \n\n\n\nThe Crowns United. \n\n1621. Philip III. (IV. of Spain). \n1665. Charles II. (of Spain). \n1700. Philip IV. (V. of Spain), Bourbons. \n1707. Charles III. of Austria. \n{Separation in 1713.) sicily. \n\nI 1 71 3. Victor Amadeus of Savoy (exchanged Sicily for \nSardinia, 1720.) \nThe Two Sicilies. \n{Part of the empire of Germany, 1720-34.) \n\nI 1759. Ferdinand IV. fled from Naples to Sicily, x8o6. \n\n\n\nNAPOLEON CODE. \n\n\n\n661 NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL HALL \n\n\n\nNAPLES. \n\n1806. Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte. \nz8o8. Joachim Murat, shot 13 Oct. 1815. \n\n\n\n(Separation in 1806.) \n\nI 1806-15. Ferdinand IV. \n\nThe Two Sicilies. \n\n\n\nE815. Ferdinand I., formerly Ferdinand IV., of Naples \n\nand Sicily. \n1825. Francis I. \n1830. Ferdinand II., Nov. 8 (termed king Bomba). \n\n\n\n1859. Francis II., 22 May; bom 16 Jan. 1836; last King \nof Naples ; deposed ; fled 6 Sept. i860. \n\n1861. Victor-Emmanuel II. of Sardinia, as King of Italy, \nMarch ; (see Italy, end). \n\n\n\nNAPOLEON CODE, see Codes. \n\nNAPOLEON MEMORIAL : subscriptions \nfrom the Royal family and the three services for a \nstatue of prince Louis Napoleon (killed in Zulu- \nland, 1 June, 1879), were closed about 15 July, \nS879. The statue was placed in St. George\'s \nichapel, Windsor, May, 1881 ; placing it in West- \nminster Abbey having been much opposed. \n\nNARBONNE (S. E. France), the Roman \nNarbo Martius, founded 1 18 B.C., made capital of a \nVisigothic kingdom, 462 ; captured by the Saracens, \n720; re-taken by Pepin le Bref, 759. Gaston de \nFoix, the last vicomte (killed at Ravenna, 11 April, \n1512), resigned it to the king in exchange for the \nduchy of Nemours. Many councils held here, 589- \n1374- \n\nNARCEINE AND NaRCOTINE, alkaloids \nobtained from Opium {which nee). Narceine was \ndiscovei-ed by Pelletier in 1832 ; and narcotine by \nDerosne in 1803. \nCrystallized narceine was stated by M. Laborde at Paris \n\nto be an innocuous anaesthetic, June 1890 \n\nNARVA (Esthonia, Russia). Here Peter the \nGreat of Kussia was totally defeated by Charles XII. \nof Sweden, then in his nineteenth year, 30 Nov. \n1700. The army of Peter is said to have amounted \nto 60,000, some Swedes affirm 100,000 men, while \nthe Swedes were about 20,000. Charles attacked \nthe enemy in bis intrenchments, and slew 18,000; \n30,000 surrendered. He had several horses shot \nunder him. He said, "These people seem dis- \nposed to give me exercise." Narva was taken by \nPeter in 1704. \n\nNASEBY (Northamptonshire), the site of a \ndecisive victory over Charles I. by the parliament \narmy under Fairfax and Cromwell. The main \nbody of the royal army was commanded by lord \nAstley ; prince Rupert led the right wing, sir Mar- \nmaduke Langdale the left, and the king himself \nheaded the body of reserve. The king fled, losing \nhis cannon, baggage, and nearly 5000 prisoners, \n14 June, 1645. \n\nNASHVILLE (Tennessee, N. America) was \noccupied by the confederates in 1861, and taken \nby the federals, 23 Feb. 1862. Near here the con- \nfederates under Hood were defeated by the federals \nunder Thomas, 14-16 Dec. 1864. Population, 1890, \n76,168. \n\nNASSAU, a German duchy, made a county by \nthe emperor Frederic I. about 1180, for Wolfram, a \ndescendant of Conrad I. of Germany; from whom \nare descended the royal house of Orange now \nreigning in Holland (see Orange, and Holland), \nand the present duke of Nassau. Wiesbaden was \nmade the capital in 1839. On 25 April, i860, the \nNassau chamber strongly opposed the conclusion of \na concordat with the pope, and claimed liberty of \nfaith and conscience. The duke adopted the Aus- \ntrian motion at the German diet, 14 June, and after \nthe war the duchy wax annexed to Prussia by decree, \n20 Sept., and possession taken, 8 Oct. 1866. Popu- \nlation of the duchy in 1865, 468,311. \n1788. Count Frederic William made duke in 1806. \n1014. William-George, 20 Aug. \n\n\n\n1839. Adolphus-William-Charles, born 24 July, 1817 ; \nassumed the regency of Luxemburg 10 April, 1889, \nbecame grand duke on the decease of the king \nof Holland, 23 Nov. 1890. See Luxemburg. \n\nNATAL (Cape of Good Hope). Vasco de Gama \n\nlanded here on 25 Dec. 1497, and heuce named it \n\nTerra Natalis. \n\nThe Dutch attempted to colonise it about . . . 1721 \n\nThe Zulu power established about .... 1812 \n\nLieut. Farewell, with some emigrants, settled . 1823 \n\nCapt. Allen Gardiner\'s treaty with the Zulus, \n\n6 May, 1835 \n\nDutch republic, Natalia, set up ; put down by the \nBritish 12 May, 1842 \n\nNatal annexed to the British possessions . 8 Aug. 1843 \n\nMade a bishopric (Dr John Wm. Colenso, bishop), \n1853 ; and an independent colony . . . 1856 \n\nAttempts to depose bishop Colenso for unsound \ndoctrine having failed, the rev. W. R. Macrorie \nwas sent out as bp. of Maritzburg, to act with \nthe clergy opposed to their bishop . Dec. 1868 \n\nSee Church of England, 1863-8. \n\nA bishop of Zululand appointed . . . . 1871 \n\nAlleged insurrection of Caffres under Langalibalele, \nquickly suppressed . . . Nov. -Dec. 1873 \n\nHe and others were tried, it was said illegally, and \npunished with imprisonment ; he is sent to Bob- \nben island 4 Aug. 1874 \n\nBishop Colenso came to England to advocate his \nease ,, \n\nSir Garnet Wolseley sent as temporary governor, \nFeb. ; Langalibalele released, and placed under \nsurveillance out of the colony ; sir Garnet re- \nturns Aug. 1875 \n\nSucceeded by Mr. Walter J. Sendall, appointed, \n\nNov. 1881 \n\nGreat dissatisfaction in the colony at this appoint- - \nment Nov. ,, \n\nDeath of bishop Colenso . . . 20 June, 1883 \n\nGovernors of Natal : Robt. Wm. Keate, 1867 ; An- \nthony Musgrave, 1873 ; sir Benj. C. C. Pine, 1874 ; \nSir H. Ernest Bulwer, Sept. 1878 ; sir Garnet \nWolseley, May, 1879 ; sir George Pomeroy Colley, \nMay, 1880; killed at the battle of Majuba Hill, \n\n27 Feb. 1881 \n\nSir Henry E. G. Bulwer nominated governor, Dec. \ni38i ; sir A E. Havelock, Nov. 1885 ; sir Charle? \nB. H. Mitchell Aug. 1889 \n\nThe legislative council offers to undertake the \nadministration of Zululand at the cost of the \ncolony to check the encroaching Boers about 22 \nOct. ; sanction refused by the British government \nannounced 27 Oct. 1886 \n\nSlight military mutiny ; two men killed in its \nsuppression at Fort Napier . . 7 Aug. 1887 \n\nThe council vote for a free and responsible govern- \nment 26 June, 1890 \n\nAt Pietermaritzburg (the capital) a statue of the \nqueen by sir E. Boelnn was unveiled by sir \nCharles Mitchell 8 July, ,, \n\nThe bill for a new constitution voted . 3 Feb 1891 \n\nParliament opened 30 April, ,, \n\nConstitutional bill passed, parliament prorogued, \n\n8 Aug. ,, \n\nConfirmation by the British government deferred, \n\nDec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nConference of two Natal delegates, sir John Robin- \nson and Mr. Sutton, with lord Knutsford May, 1892 \n\nRailway to Orange Free State opened . 13 July, ,, \n\nPopulation, 326,957 (20,490 whites), 1876 ; in 1886, \n442,697; in 1891, 543,913. See Zululand. \n\nNATIONAL ANTHEM, see God save the \nKing. \n\nNATIONAL AGRICULTURAL HALL, \nsee under Agriculture. \n\n\n\nNATIONAL ASSEMBLY. \n\n\n\n662 \n\n\n\nNATIONAL DEBT. \n\n\n\nNATIONAL ASSEMBLY, French. \nUpon the proposition of the abbe Sieye\xc2\xab, the states- \ngeneral of France constituted themselves the Na- \ntional Assembly, 17 June, 1789. On the 20th the \nhall of this new assembly was shut by order of the \nking ; upon which the deputies of the Tiers Etat \nrepaired to the Jeu de Paume, or Tennis-court, and \nswore not to dissolve until they had digested a \nconstitution for France. On the 22nd they met at \nthe church at St. Louis. This assembly abolished \nthe state religion, annulled monastic vows, divided \nFrance in*;o departments, sold the national do- \nmains, ( st iblished . a national bank, issued as- \nsignats, and dissolved itself 21 Sept. 1792; see \nNational Convention. In 1848 the legislature was \nagain termed the National Assembly. It met \n4 May, and a new constitution was proclaimed, 12 \nNov. Anew constitution was once more proclaimed \nhy Louis Napoleon in Jan. 1852, after dissolving \nthe National Assembly, 2 Dec. 1851. The present \nFrench National Assembly was elected 8 Feb., and \nmet 12 Feb. 1871; new constitution adopted, 25 \nFeb. 1875 ; see France. \n\nNATIONAL ASSEMBLY, German, see \nGermany, 1848. \n\nNATIONAL ASSOCIATIONS. .One was \nformed in 1584, headed by the earl of Leicester, to \nprotect queen Elizabeth from assassination, in con- \nsequence of the discovery of various plots. Another \nwas proposed in the house of commons, in Feb. \n\n1696, by sir Rowland Gwjn, for the defence of the \nperson and government of William III. soon after \nthe discovery of the assassination plot {which see). \nThe members of both houses of parliament, and the \nmajority of the mule population, joined it imme- \ndiately ; all persons holding office under govern- \nment were required to be members; see Aid to Sick \nand Wounded, Artillery, Arts, Colonies, Em- \nployers, Farmers, Social Science, and Volunteers \nfor other national associations. \n\nNATIONAL BENEVOLENT INSTI- \nTUTION, established 1812, incorporated 1859. \nPensions are granted to decayed gentry, and to \nprofessional people, teachers, and others in reduced \ncircumstances. \n\nNATIONAL CONVENTION of France, \nconstituted in the hall of the Tuileries 17 Sept. and \nformally opened 21 Sept. 1792, when M. Gregoire, \nat the head of the National Assembly, announced \nthat that assembly had ceased its functions. It was \nthen decreed, \'\' That the citizens named by the \nFrench people to form the National Convention, \nbeing met to the number of 371, after having verified \ntheir powers, declare that the National Convention \nis constituted." This convention continued until \na new constitution was organised, and the Execu- \ntive Directory was installed at the Little Luxem- \nbourg, 1 Nov. 1795 i see Directory. The Chartists \n(which see) in England formed a National Conven- \ntion in 1839. \n\nNATIONAL DEBT. The first mention of \nparliamentary security for a debt of the nation \noccurs in the reign of Henry VI. The present \nnational debt may be said to have commenced in \nthe reign of William III., 1689. It amounted, in \n\n1697, to about five millions sterling, and was then \nthought to be of alarming magnitude. The sole \ncause of the increase has been war. By an act \npassed 31 May, 1867, the conversion of 24,000,000^. \nof the debt into terminable annuities was pro- \nvided for. The law is consolidated by the national \ndebt act, passed 9 Aug. 1870; amended by acts \npassed 1875, 1882, 1884, 1886 and 1887. By the \n\n\n\nnational debt act, passed Aug. 1883, 70,241,908^. \nwere immediately converted, and 173,300,000^. \nwould be cancelled in 20 years. See Sinking Fund* \nand Local Loans. \n\n\n\n1689. William III, \n\n1702. Anne . \n\n1714. George I. \n\n1763. George III. (end of Seven \n\nnearly . \n1786. After American war \n1793. Beginning of French war \n1802. Close of French war \n18 17. English and Irish Exchequers \n\ndated \n1830. Total amount \n1840. Ditto \n1850. Ditto \n\n1854. Ditto \n(31 March) \n\n1855. Ditto \n\n1856. Ditto \n\n1857. Funded debt \nUnfunded . \n\n1858. Funded debt \nUnfunded . \n\n1859. Funded debt \nUnfunded . \n\ni860. Funded debt \n\nUnfunded . \n(31 March) \ni85i. Funded debt \n\nUnfunded \n\n1862. Funded debt \nUnfunded \n\n1863. Funded debt \nUnfunded \n\n1864. Funded debt \nUnfunded \n\n1865. Funded debt \nUnfunded \n\n1866. Funded debt \nUnfunded \n\n1867. Funded debt \nUnfunded \n\n1868. Funded debt \nUnfunded \n\n1869. Funded debt \nUnfunded \n\n1870. Funded debt \nUnfunded \n\n1 871. Funded debt \nUnfunded \n\n1872. Funded debt \nUnfunded \n\n1873. Funded debt \nUnfunded \n\n1874. Funded debt \nUnfunded \n\n1875. Funded debt \nUnfunded \n\n1876. Funded debt \nUnfunded \n\n1877. Funded debt \nUnfunded \n\n1878. Funded debt \nUnfunded \n\n1879. Funded debt \nUnfunded \n\n1880. Funded debt \nUnfunded \n\n1881. Funded debt \nUnfunded \n\n1882. Funded debt \nUnfunded \n\n1883. Funded debt \nUnfunded \n\n1884. Funded debt \nUnfunded \n\n1885. Funded debt \nUnfunded \n\n1886. Funded debt \nUnfunded \n\n\n\nwar) \n\n\n\nconsoli \n\n\n\nDebt. \n\n\xc2\xa3664,263 \n16,394,702: \n54> i45,3 6 3 \n\n138,865,430 \n249,851,628 \n244,440,306 \n\n572,0<DO,OOQ\' \n\n848,282,477 \n840,184,022 \n789,578,7 2( > \n787,029,162 \n775,041,272 \n\n7\xc2\xb03r375,i\xc2\xb09< \n807,981,788 \n780,119,722 \n27,989,000 \n\n779> 22 5,495 \n25,911,500, \n\n786,801,154 \n18,277,400. \n\n785,962,000 \n16,228,300. \n\n785,119,609, \n\n16,689,000, \n\n784,252,338 \n\n16,517,900 \n\n783,306,739. \n\n16,495,400 \n\n777,429,224 \n\n13,136,000 \n\n775,768,295 \n\n10,742,500 \n\n773,313,229 \n\n8,187,700 \n\n769,541,004 \n\n7,956,800 \n\n741,190,328 \n\n7,911,100 \n\n740,418,032 \n\n8,896,100 \n\n741,514,681 \n\n6,761,500 \n\n73 2 >\xc2\xb043> 2 7\xc2\xb0 \n\n6,091,000 \n731,756,962 \n\n5,155,100 \n727,374,082 \n\n4,829,100 \n723,514,005 \n\n4,479,600 \n714,797,715 \n\n5,239,00a \n7!3, 657,5i? \n*n, 401,800 \n712,621,355 \n*i3,943,8oo \n7:50,843,007/ \n*20,6o3,ooo \n\n7\xc2\xb09,43\xc2\xb0> 593 \n25,870,100 \n710,476,355 \n\n27,344,9oo \n\n709,078,526 \n\n22,077,500 \n\n7 9>49 8 ,547\' \n\n18,007,700 \n712,698,994 \n\n14,185,400 \n640,631,095 \n\n14,110,600 \n640,181,896 \n\n14,033,100 \n638,849,694 \n\n17,602, Soo, \n\n\n\n* Including Suez Canal Bonds, 1876, 4,000,000/. ;. 1877, \n3,990,000/. ; 1878, 3,929,200/. \n\n\n\nNATIONAL DEFENCE. \n\n\n\n663 \n\n\n\nNATIONAL GUARD. \n\n\n\n1887. Funded debt ..... \xc2\xa3637,637,640 \nUnfunded 17,517,900 \n\n1888. Funded debt 609,740,743 \n\nUnfunded 17,385,100 \n\n1889. Funded debt 607,057,811 \n\nUnfunded 16,093,322 \n\n1890. Funded debt 585,959,852 \n\nUnfunded 32,252,305 \n\n1891. Funded debt 579,472,082 \n\nUnfunded 36,140,079 \n\n[Exclusive of terminable annuities, estimated, 1867, \n\n27,521, 513?.; 1872, 55,749,070?. ; 1876, 51,911,227?. ; \n1878, 46,335.589^] \n\nThe National Debt and Local Loans Act passed 12 July, \n1887, see Local Loans. \n\nMr. Matthew O\'Reilly Dease, formerly M.P. for Louth, \nbequeaths about 40,000?. towards extinguishing the \nnational debt ; he died 17 Aug. 1887. \n\nThe National Debt Redemption Act with suitable pro- \nvisions was passed; royal assent, 11 April, 1889. \n\nSir Stafford Northcote\'s act provides the annual charge \nof 28,000,000?. ; the surplus to be devoted to the re- \nduction of the debt \xe2\x80\x94 1876. \n\nThe annual interest in 1850 was 23,862,257?. ; and the \ntotal interest, including annuities, amounted to \n27,699,740?. On 1 Jan. 1851, the total unredeemed \ndebt of Great Britain and Ireland was 769,272,562?., \nthe charge on which for interest and management was \n27,620,449?. The total charge on the debt for interest \nand management, 1872, 26,839,601?. Mr. Childers\' plan \nfor reducing national debt by terminable annuities, \ncommencing 1885, April, 1883; National Debt Conver- \nsion of Stock act read 2nd time (117-34), 6 June; passed \n3 July, 18S4 ; accepted, 17 Oct. 1884, 18,666,000?. for 2J \nper cent. ; 4,451,000?. for 2J per cent., by government, \nnearly 12,000,000?. Annual charge reduced by \n2,000,000?., April, 1887. Reduced to 25,000,000?. by \nnew act passed, royal assent, 31 May, 1889. \n\nMr. Goschen\'s National Debt Conversion Act ; read 2nd \ntime without division 16 March ; royal assent 27 March, \n1888. \n\n[3 per cent, stock reduced to 2? till 5 April, 1903, and \nafterwards to 2^, new stock not redeemable till \n5 April, 1923.] \n\nNational debt redemption act passed 11 April, 1889. \n\nESTIMATED FOREIGN NATIONAL DEBTS, 1884. \n\n\xc2\xa390,000,000 \n\nIo6,000,000 \n\n85,000,000 \n\n21,000,000 \n\n29,000 \n\n11,000 \n\nNATIONAL DEFENCE, see Colonial \n\nDefences Commission, under Colonies, 1879. \n\nResolutions voted in the commons for supporting \narrangements with the colonies in providing ships, \n&c, 850,000?. ; and for defence of various ports and \ncoaling stations, 2,600,000?. 15 May, 1888. \n\nNational Defence Act passed 13 Aug. i833 ; another \nact passed 31 May, 1889 ; see Navy, 1889. \n\nNATIONAL DRAMATIC ACADEMY \n\nwas proposed by professor H. Morley and others in \n1879. \n\nNATIONAL FEDERATION (Irish) esta- \nblished in opposition to Mr. Parnell, by Mr. Justin \nM\'Carthy and other M.P.\'s, supported by the It. C. \nbishops and clergy; inaugural meeting at Dublin, \n10 March, 1891. Its organ is the National Press, \nfirst published, 7 March, 1891. See Ireland, March, \n1892. \n\nNATIONAL GALLERY, London, began \nwith the purchase, by the British government, of \n\nthe Angerstein collection of 38 pictures, for 57,000/., \nin 1824. The first exhibition of them took place in \nPall-mall, on 10 May, 1824. Sir G. Beaumont \n(1826), Mr. Holwell Carr (1831), and many other \ngentlemen, as well as the British Institution, con- \ntributed many fine pictures; and the collection has \nbeen since greatly augmented by gifts and pur- \nchases. The present edifice in Trafalgar-square, \ndesigned by Mr. Wilkins, was completed and \n\n\n\nFrance \n\n\n\xc2\xa3786,000,000 \n\n\nHolland \n\n\nItaly \n\n\n. 406,500,000 \n\n\nPortugal . \n\n\nRussia \n\n\n. 578,000,000 \n\n\nBelgium \n\n\nAustria \n\n\n. 346,000,000 \n\n\nGreece \n\n\nSpain \n\n\n(1881) 512,000,000 \n\n\nRoumania \n\n\nTurkey \n\n\n(1881) 106,000,000 \n\n\nDenmark . \n\n\n\nopened 9 April, 1838. In July, 1857, a commission \nappointed to consider the propriety of removing the \npictures reported in favour of their remaining in \ntheir present locality ; and in i860, 15,000/. were \nvoted to be expended in adapting the central part \nof the building to exhibition purposes. On 11 May, \n1861, the National Gallery was reopened after \nhaving been closed eight months, during which \ntime great improvements were made in the internal \narrangements. On 19 June, 1865, the house of \ncommons voted 20,000/. to buy land to enlarge the \nbuilding, and an act for this purpose was passed \n15 July, 1866. Visitors in 1866, 775,901; in 1871, \n911,658; in 1883, 849,604; sum voted for year \n1867-8, 15,895/., for 1876, 20,098/. Legacy from \nFrancis Win. Clarke, about 24,000/., fell in 1880; \n1880, pictures 1040. \n\nSir Charles Eastlake, director, 1850; sir Fred. AY. Burton, \n\n1864. \nA parliamentary return gives a list of pictures presented \nto or purchased for the National Gallery \xe2\x80\x94 284 pre- \nsented, 256 bequeathed, and 313 purchased. The cost \nof the 313 purchases, which has been spread over 45 \nyears, has been 254,527?. Up to 1871, 337,195?. had \nbeen expended. The Peel collection (70 pictures), \nbought for 75,000?., spring, 1S71. Two pictures of the \nBlenheim Collection were bought for 83,520?., March, \n1885 (Raphael\'s "Ansidei Madonna" 70,000?.). The \n"Congress of Munster," a master-piece of Terburg \n(valued at 7280?. in 1868), presented by sir Richard \nWallace, Oct. 1871. \nMr. AYynn Ellis (a silk merchant, born July, 1780; died \n27 Nov. 1875) bequeathed about 800 pictures to the \nNational Gallery on certain conditions. Re-opened ; \nnew galleries erected by E. Barry : pictures re-arranged, \nAug., 1876. \nAbout 1030 oil paintings in the gallery . March, 1882 \nMr. Henry Tate presents 57 modern pictures (value nearly \n90,000?.) announced 8 March ; declined by the govern- \nment for want of space ; he proposes the establish- \nment of a National gallery especially for British Art, \n17 June, 1890. \nThe government proposes placing his pictures in galleries \n\nat South Kensington 26 June, 1890. \nThree of the earl of Radnor\'s pictures purchased for the \ngallery for 55,000?. (Holbein\'s "Ambassadors," and two \nportraits by Velasquez and Moroni), reported July, 1890. \n[The government gave 25,000?., lord Rothschild, sir \nEdward Guinness (since lord Iveagh) and Mr. Charles \nCotes, each io,oooJ.l \nMr. William Agnew offers to present 10,000?. towards the \nerection of a special National gallery of British art, \nnear Kensington palace, 21 July, 1890. \nAn anonymous donor (Mr. Henry Tate) through Mr. \nHumphry Ward, offers to the government So.ooo?. for \nthe erection of a National gallery of British Art, \n12 March ; accepted by Mr. Goschen, 19 March, 1891. \nMr. Tate, not approving of the site proposed by the \ngovernment, withdraws his offer, 3 March, 1892. \n\nNATIONAL GUARD of France was \n\ninstituted by the Committee of Safety at Paris on \n13 July, 1789 (the day before the destruction of the \nBastile), to maintain order and defend the public \nliberty. Its first colours were blue and red, to \nwhich white was added, when its formation was \napproved by the king. Its action was soon para- \nlysed by the revolution, and it ceased altogether \nunder the consulate and empire. It was revived \nby Napoleon in 1814, and maintained by Louis \nXVII!., but was broken up by Charles X., after a \ntumultuous review in 1827. It was revived in 1830, \nand helped to place Louis Philippe on the throne. \nIn 1848 its reconstitution and its enlargement from \n80,000 to 100,000 men led to the frightful conflict of \nJune, 1848. Its constitution was entirely changed \nin Jan. 1852, when it was subjected entirely to the \ncontrol of the government. Formerly it had many \nprivileges, such as choosing its own officers, &c. \nIn consequence of the defection of part of the \nNational Guard and the incompetency of the rest \n\n\n\nNATIONAL HEALTH SOCIETY. 664 \n\n\n\nNATUEAL SELECTION. \n\n\n\nduring the outbreak in Paris in 1871, its gradual \nabolition was decreed by the national assembly at \nVersailles (488-154), 24 Aug. 1871. The peaceful \ndisarmament began in September. National Guards \nhave been established in Spain, Naples, and other \ncountries, during the present century. \n\nNATIONAL HEALTH SOCIETY, \n\nfounded in 1873 for the collection and diffusion of \nsanitary knowledge, by lectures and otherwise. \n\nNATIONALISTS. See Ireland {Young), \nHome Rule, Farnellites, and Separatists. \n\nNATIONALITY ; a word much used since \n1848. In Poland, Hungary, Italy, and Germany, \nthe strugglefor nationality has been long and severe. \nIn 1866 agitationfor t his pi\'irjciple began in Bohemia, \nSlavonia, and other parts of the Austrian empire. \nThe nationality of Ireland is the alleged basis of \nthe Fenian agitation ; see Ireland, 1870, and Home \nGovernment. \n\nNATIONALIZATION, &c. See under Land. \n\nNATIONAL LEAGUES, see Leagues, and \n\nIreland, 1882, et seq. \n\nNATIONAL LIBERAL FEDERATION, \n\nsee under Liberals. \n\nNATIONAL OPERA HOUSE, N. Thames \nEmbankment ; Mr. M apleson, proprietor ; Mr. F. H. \nFowler, architect; Mr. Wm. Webster, contractor. \nFirst brick laid by Mile. Tietjens, 7 Sept.; first \nstone laid by the duke of Edinburgh, 16 Dec. 1875. \nFailure of the scheme reported, Nov. 1877. Mate- \nrials sold, 24 June 1880, et seq. ; estimated loss by the \nscheme about 100,000^. ; the building was pulled \ndown, May, 1888. \n\nNATIONAL PORTRAIT EXHIBI- \nTIONS proposed by the earl of Derby, earl Gran- \nville, and others, at a meeting in London, 13 July, \n1865. They were held in what had been the re- \nfreshment room of the Exhibition of 1862, at South \nKensington. The 1st was opened 16 April ; closed \n18 Aug. 1866: 2nd, opened 3 May; closed 31 Aug. \n1867 : 3rd, opened 13 April ; closed 22 Aug. 1868. \n\nNATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY was \ndetermined on in Feb. 1857, in pursuance of votes \nfrom both houses of parliament. The sum of 2000<?. \nwas appropriated for the purchase of portraits of \npersons eminent in British history. Donations are \nreceived under certain restrictions. The gallery, \nGt. Georere-street, Westminster, was opened 15 Jan. \n1859. . Director, &c, George Scharf, c.b. The \ncollection was removed to South Kensington Dec. \n1869, and re-opened 28 March, 1870. The pictures \nremoved to Bethnal Green museum for safety after \nthe fire at the Indian museum, June, 1885. A \n-valuable collection of National Portraits appeared \nat the Manchester Fxhibition in 1857. \n\nThe marquis of Salisbury at the Royal Academy dinner, \nstated that the government had received an anonymous \noffer to erect a building for the National Portrait \nGallery, if a site were provided, 4 May, i88q. \n\nMr. W. H. Alexander having given 100,000?., the \nnorth extremity of the National Gallery chosen for the \nsite of the new building, July ; bill passed 26 July, 1889. \n\nNational Portrait, Gallery for Scotland. \xe2\x80\x94 3o,ooo;."offered \nby a gentleman to form a collection and erect a building \n1883-4. The building at Edinburgh was opened by the \nmarquis of Lothian, 15 July, i88q. \n\nNATIONAL REFORM UNION, see under \n\nJtfform Association. \n\n\n\nNATIONAL REVIEW, Conservative, first \nappeared March, 1883. \n\nNATIONAL SCHOOLS, see Education, and \nMusic, 1873. \n\nNATIONAL SOCIETY for promoting the \nEducation of the Poor in the principles of the esta- \nblished church of England, founded 1811, incorpo- \nrated 1817. In 1883 there were 2,385,374 children, \nand 28,000,000^. have been expended. Training \ncolleges: St. Mark\'s, Chelsea, Whitelands, and \nBattersea. \n\nNATIONAL TESTIMONIALS (subscribed \nfor) were presented to Kowland Hill (for his exer- \ntions in obtaining the penny postage), 17 June, \n1846; and to Miss Florence Nightingale (for her \nbeneficent exertions for the sufferers during the \nCrimean war), 29 Nov. 1855. \n\nNATIONAL THRIFT SOCIETY, formed \nat Oxford in 1878. Meetings have been held at the \nMansion House, London, 1880, et seq. The erection \nof a Thrift-hall proposed, 31 Dec. 1887. \n\n. NATIONAL TRADE SOCIETY formed \nin June, 1871, to watch over and secure the interests \nof traders, and promote amendments in the law \naffecting commercial interests. President, rt. lion. \nW. H. Smith, M.P. Civil Service trading, the in- \ncome tax, and international exhibitions have been \nconsidered by the committee. \n\nNATIONAL TRAINING SCHOOL for \n\nMusic, South Kensington, founded by the duke of \nEdinburgh, 18 Dec. 1873; opened by him, 17 May, \n1876. . \n\nNATIONAL UNION was formed in 1868 to \ncombine a number of associations supporting the \nConservative party. Lecturers were employed and \npamphlets circulated. The party was termed Na- \ntionalists in Aug. 1871. lord handolph Churchill \nwas chairman in 1884. Conference at Aberdeen, \n16 Oct. 1884. The twentieth annual conference \nheld at Oxford, 22 Nov. 1887, and at other places \nsince. \n\nNATIONAL UNION CONVENTION, \n\nsee United States, 1866, and Dec. 1890. \n\nNATIONAL VIGILANCE ASSOCIA- \nTION, for the promotion of social purity, and the \nprotection of women and children, founded by Dr. \nG. Bidding (bishop of Southwell), Mr. Samuel \nMorley and others, March, 1886. \nAnnual meetings are held, latest 4 Nov. 1891. \n\nNATIONAL WORKSHOPS, see Ateliers \nNalionaux. \n\nNATIVITY. There are three festivals in the \nBoman and Greek churches, under this name. The \nNativity of Christ, also observed by the Protestants, \non 25 Dec. (see Christmas) ; the Nativity of the \nVirgin Mary, not observed by the Protestants at all. \nPope Sergius I., about 690, established the latter, \nbut it was not generally received in France and \nGermany till about iooo ; nor by the eastern Chris- \ntians tiil the 12th century. The festival of the \nnativity of St. John the Baptist, 24 June, Midsum- \nmer-day, is said to have been instituted in 488. \n\nNATURAL HISTORY was studied by Solo- \nmon, 1014 B.C. (1 Kings iv. 33) ; Aristotle (384-322 \nB.C.); by Theophrastus (394-297 B.C.); and by Pliny \n(23-79 a.d.) ; see Botany, Zoology, &c. \n\nNATURAL PHILOSOPHY, see Philo- \nsophy. \n\nNATURAL SELECTION, see Species. \n\n\n\n\n\n\nNATURALISATION. \n\n\n\n665 \n\n\n\nNAVAL BATTLES. \n\n\n\nNATURALISATION is defined to be "the \nmaking a foreigner or alien a denizen or freeman of \nany kingdom or citj r , and so becoming, as it were, \nboth a subject and a native of a king or country \nthat by nature he did not belong to." The first act \nof naturalisation passed in 1437 ; and various similar \nenactments were made in most of the reigns from \nthat time; several of tbem special acts relating to \nindividuals. An act for the naturalisation of the \nJews passed May, 1753, but was repealed in 1754, \non the petition of all the cities in England ; see \nJews, for the privileges since granted them. The \nact for the naturalisation of prince Albert passed \n3 Vict., 7 Feb. 1840. A committee to inquire into \nthe naturalisation laws, appointed May, 1868, earl \nof Clarendon chairman, met 25 Oct. 1868; reported \nabout Feb. 1869 ; and new acts for this purpose were \npassed 12 May, 1870, and 25 July, 1872. In 1870 \nthere were about 9500 Americans in England, and \nabout 2,500,000 British subjects in the United States \nof America. By the new act the latter were enabled \nto renounce their allegiance; and by the conven- \ntion signed 3 Feb. 1871, the nationality of British \nsubjects was made dependent on choice and not on \nbirth. \n\nNATUEALISM, a realistic style in literature, \nmainly introduced by Balzac, 1829, et seq. \nEdmond and Jules de Goncourt published " Medical and \n\nPhysiological Novels," 1846, et seq. \nEmile Zola, in his " Rougon-Macquart " series, 1871, et \nseq., portrayed deformed and diseased rather than true \nnature. A dramatised form of his "Assommoir," en- \ntitled " Drink," was much performed in London in \n1870. \n\nNATURE, a weekly illustrated journal of \nscience, first appeared 4 Nov. 1869; editor, Mr. \nJoseph Norman Lockyer, F.BS. \nThe French publication, La Nature, appeared in 1892. \n\nNATURE PRINTING. This process con- \nsists in impressing objects, such as plants, mosses, \nfeathers, &c, into plates of metal, causing these \nobjects, as it were, to engrave themselves ; and \nafterwards taking casts or copies fit for printing \nfrom. Kniphoft\'of Erfurt, between 1728 and 1757, \nproduced his Herbarium vivum by pressing the plants \nthemselves (previously inked) on paper ; the im- \npressions being afterwards coloured by hand. In \n1S33, Peter Kyhl, of Copenhagen, made use of steel \nrollers and lead plates. In 1842 Mr. Taylor printed \nlace. In 1847 Mr. Twining printed ferns, grasses,- \nand plants ; and in the same year Dr. Branson sug- \ngested the application of electrotyping to the im- \npressions. In 1849, professor Leydolt, of Vienna, \nby the able assistance of Mr. Andrew Worring, ob- \ntained impressions of agates and fossils. The first \npractical application of this process is in Von \nHeufler\'s work on the Mosses of Arpasch, in Tran- \nsylvania; the second (the first in this country) in \n" The Ferns of Great Britain and Ireland," edited \nby Dr. Lindley, the illustrations to which were pre- \npared under the superintendence of Mr. Henry \nBradbury in 1855-56, who also in 1859-60 printed \n"The British Sea-weeds," edited by W. G. John- \nstone and Alex. Croall. The process was applied to \nbutterflies by Joseph Merrin of Gloucester, in 1864. \n\nNATURFORSCHER GESELL- \nSCHAFT, see German Union. \n\nNAUCRATIS, see under Egypt Exploration \nFund. \n\nNAUTICAL ALMANAC, first published in \n\n1767, edited by Dr. Neville Maskelyne, astronomer \nroyal; the new and improved series began in 1834. \nDr. John Kussell Hind, for many years superin- \ntendent, was succeeded by Mr. A. M. W. Downing, \nJan. 1892. \n\n\n\nNAUVOO, Illinois, N. America, a city of the \nM.ormom.tes,(ichich see) ; founded 1840; left 1848. \n\nNAVAL AND MILITARY ADMINI- \nSTRATION, Royal Commission appointed con- \nsisting of Lord Harrington, Lord R. Chun-hill, \nLord Revelstoke, Mr. Campbell Bannerman, Mr. \nIsmay, General Brackenbury, Admiral Sir F. \nRichards, Sir R. Temple, and Mr. W. H. Smith, 7 \nJune, 1888. \nFirst report, containing various recommendations with \n\nevidence, issued 20 March, 1890. \nMr. E. Stanhope, the war secretary, reports the proposal \nfor the establishment of a council within the cabinet, \nfor naval and military affairs, to decide on questions \nbetween the two departments, also to establish a war \noffice council and a promotion board, 3 July, 1890. \n\nNAVAL AND MILITARY OFFICERS\' \nASSOCIATION, instituted to provide employ- \nment for retired officers, proposed spring 1885. \n\nNAVAL ARCHITECTS\' INSTITU- \nTION was established in Jan. i860. Annual \nsessions are held. \n\nNAVAL ARCHITECTURE. A scientific \ncommittee of fifteen appointed to consider the pre- \nsent state of naval architecture, and the require- \nments of naval warfare ; 6 naval officers, 9 scientific \nmen ; lord Dufferin chairman ; about 19 Dec. 1870. \nA royal school of naval architecture, established at \nSouth Kensington in 1864, merged into the Royal \nNaval College, Greenwich. \nM. Raoul Pictet, of Geneva, announced his discovery of \n\na new kind of keel to glide over water, Aug. 1881. \n\nNAVAL ARTILLERY VOLUNTEER \nFORCE, ROYAL, established by act passed 5 Aug. \n\n1873- \n\nOn March 22, 1889, a proposal to utilise these volunteers \nwho are stationed at various ports, was made in the \nhouse of lords. \n\nNAVAL ASYLUM, Royal, begun at Pad- \ndington in 1801, was transferred to Greenwich in \n1807. The interior of the central portion of the \nbuilding was commenced in 1613 by Anne, queen of \nJames I., and completed in 1635 by queen Henrietta- \nMaria, whose arms still adorn the ceiling of the \nroom in which her son Charles II. was born, 1630. \n\nNAVAL BATTLES. The first sea-fight on \nrecord is that between the Corinthians and Corcy- \nreans, 665 B.C. The following are among the most \ncelebrated naval engagements : for the details of \nwhich see separate articles. \n\nB.C. \n\nBattle of Salamis (Greek victory) . . 20 Oct. 480 \n\nBattle of Eurymedon (ditto) 469 \n\nBattle of Cyzicus ; the Lacedemonian fleet taken by \n\nAlcibiades, the Athenian 410 \n\nBattle of Arginusas 4\xc2\xb06 \n\nBattle of iEgospotamos (Spartans victors) . . . 405 \nThe Persian fleet, under Conon, defeats the Spartan, \nat Cnidos ; Pisander, the Athenian admiral, is \nkilled ; and the maritime power of the Lacede- \nmonians destroyed . .... 394 \nBattle of Mylse (Romans defeat Carthaginians) . . 260 \nThe Roman fleet, off Trepanum, destroyed by the \n\nCarthaginians 249 \n\nThe Carthaginian fleet destroyed by the consul Lu- \n\ntatius 241 \n\nBattle of Aetium 3 1 \n\nThe emperor Claudius II. defeats the Goths, and \n\nsinks 2000 of their ships .... a.d. 269 \nBattle of Lepanto (Turks defeated) . . 7 Oct. 1571 \nBay of Gibraltar; Dutch and Spaniards (a bloody \nconflict and decisive victory, giving for a time the \nsuperiority to the Dutch) . . . 25 April, 1607 \nThe Austrians defeat the Italians a1 Lissa(see TAssa) \n\n20 July, 186c \n\nNAVAL ENGAGEMENTS IN BRITISH IllSToKY. \n[Ilallain considers that the naval glory of Kngland \ncan first be traced " in a continuous track of \nlight" from the period of the Commonwealth.] \n\n\n\nNAVAL BATTLES. \n\n\n\n666 \n\n\n\nNAVAL BATTLES. \n\n\n\nAlfred with 10 galleys, defeated 300 sail of Danish \npirates 011 the Dorset and Hampshire coast. Asser\'s \nLife of Alfred 897 \n\nEdward III. defeats the French near Slays 24 June, 1340 \n\nOff Winehelsea ; Edward III. defeated the Spanish \nfleet of 40 large ships, and captured 26 29 Aug. 1350 \n\nThe English and Flemings ; the latter signally de- \nfeated 1371 \n\nEarl of Arundel defeats a Flemish fleet of 100 sail, \nand captures 80 ... 24 March, 1387 \n\nNear Milford Haven ; the English take 8, and de- \nstroy 15 French ships 1405 \n\nOff Harfleur ; the duke of Bedford takes or destroys \nnearly 500 French ships . . -15 Aug. 1416 \n\nIn the Downs ; a Spanish and Genoese fleet cap- \ntured by the earl of Warwick . . . . 1459 \n\nBay of Biscay ; English and French, indecisive, \n\n10 Aug. 15 12 \n\nSir Edward Howard attacks the French under Prior \nJohn; repulsed and killed . . . 25 April, 151 3 \n\nThe Spanish Armada destroyed . . 19 July, 1588 \n\nDover straits ; the Dutch admiral Van Tromp de- \nfeated by admiral Blake 28 Sept. The Dutch \nsurprise the English in the Downs, 80 sail engag- \ning 40 English, several of which are taken or \ndestroyed, 28 Nov. ; the Dutch admiral sails in \ntriumph through the channel, with a broom at his \nmast-head, to denote that he had swept the English \nfrom the seas . . . . .29 Nov. 1652 \n\nThe English gain a victory over the Dutch fleet off \nPortsmouth, taking and destroying 11 men-of-war \nand 30 merchantmen. Van Tromp was the Dutch, \nand Blake the English admiral . 18-20 Feb. 1653 \n\nAgain, off the North Foreland. The Dutch and \nEnglish fleets consisted of near 100 men-of-war \neach. Van Tromp commanded the Dutch ; Blake, \nMonk, and Deane, the English. Six Dutch ships \ntaken ; 11 sunk, and the rest ran into Calais roads \n\n2 June, ,, \nAgain, on the coast of Holland ; the Dutch lose 30 \n\nmen-of-war, and admiral Tromp was killed (the \nseventh and last battle) . . .31 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAt Cadiz, when two galleons, worth 2,000,000 pieces \nof eight, were taken by Blake . . . Sept. 1656 \n\nSpanish fleet vanquished, and burnt in the harbour \nof Santa Cruz by Blake . . . .20 April, 1657 \n\nEnglish and French : 130 of the Bordeaux fleet de- \nstroyed by the duke of York (afterwards James II.) \n\n4 Dec. 1664 \n\nThe duke of York defeats the Dutch fleet off Har- \nwich ; Opdam, the Dutch admiral, blown up, with \nall his crew ; 18 capital ships taken, 14 destroyed \n\n3 June, 1665 \nThe earl of Sandwich took 12 men-of-war and 2 India \n\nships 4 Sept. ,, \n\nA contest between the Dutch and English fleets for \nfour days. The English lose 9, and the Dutch 15 \nships 1-4 June, 1666 \n\nDecisive engagement at the mouth of the Thames, \nthe English gain a glorious victory. The Dutch \nlose 24 men-of-war, 4 admirals killed, and 4000 \nseamen 25, 26 July, ,, \n\nThe Dutch admiral de Buyter sails up the Thames \nand destroys some ships . . . n June, 1667 \n\nTwelve Algerine ships of war destroyed by sir Ed- \nward Spragg . . . . . 10 May, 1671 \n\nBattle of Southwold bay (see Solebay) 28 May, 1672 \n\nCoast of Holland ; by prince Rupert, 28 May, 4 \nJune, and n Aug., sir E. Spragg killed ; d\'Etrees \nand Ruyter defeated 1673 \n\nOff Beachy Head ; the English and Dutch defeated \nby the French under Tourville . . 30 June, 1690 \n\nWho is defeated by them near Cape LaHogue,i9 Mav > l6 9 2 \n\nOff St. Vincent ; the English and Dutch squadrons, \nunder admiral Rooke, defeated by the French, \n\n16 June, 1693 \n\nOff Carthagena, between admiral Benbow and the \nFrench fleet, commanded by admiral Du Casse. \nFought io Aug. 1702 \n\nThe other ships of the squadron falling astern, left \nBenbow alone to maintain the battle. A chain- \nshot shattered his leg, yet he would not he \nremoved from the quarter-deck, but continued \nlighting till the morning, when the French \nsheered off. He died in Oct. following, of his \nwounds, at Jamaica, where, soon after his arrival, \nhe received a letter from the French admiral, of \nwhich the following is a translation : \xe2\x80\x94 \n\n\n\n"Carthagena, 22 Aug. 1702. \n"Sir, \xe2\x80\x94 I had little hopes, on Monday last, but \nto have supped in your cabin ; yet it pleased God \nto order it otherwise. I am thankful for it. As \nfor those cowardly captains who deserted you, \nhang them up, for by G \xe2\x80\x94 d they deserve it. \n\n"Du Casse." \n\nCaptains Kirby and Wade were shot on their arrival \nat Plymouth, having been previously tried by a \ncourt-martial. \n\nSir George Rooke defeats the French fleet off Vigo \n{which see) . . . . . .12 Oct. 1702 \n\nOff Malaga ; bloody engagement between the French, \nunder the count of Thoulouse, and the English, \nunder sir George Rooke . . -13 Aug. 1704 \n\nAt Gibraltar ; French lose 5 men-of-war . 5 Nov. ,, \n\nIn the Mediterranean, admiral Leake took 60 French \nvessels, laden with provisions . . .22 May, 1708 \n\nSpanish fleet of 29 sail totally defeated by sir George \nByng, in the Faro of Messina . . 31 July, 1718 \n\nBloody battle off Toulon ; Matthews and Lestoek \nagainst the fleets of France and Spain. Here \nbrave captain Cornewallfell with 42 men, including \nofficers ; and the victory was lost by a misunder- \nstanding between the English admirals 11 Feb. 1743-4 \n\nOff Cape Finisterre ; the French fleet of 38 sail taken \nby admiral Anson 3 May, 1747 \n\nOff Finisterre ; when admiral Hawke took 7 men-of- \nwar of the French 14 Oct. ,, \n\nOff Newfoundland ; when admiral Boseawen took 2 \nmen-of-war 10 June, 1755 \n\nOff Cape Frangoise ; 7 ships defeated by 3 English, \n\n21 Oct. 1757 \n\nAdmiral Pocock defeats the French fleet iri the East \nIndies, in two actions, 1758, and again . . . 1759 \n\nAdmiral Boseawen defeats the French under De la \nClue, off Cape Lagos .... 18 Aug. ,, \n\nAdmiral Hawke defeats the French fleet, com- \nmanded by Conflans, in Quiberon Bay, and thus \nprevents a projected invasion of England (see \nQuiberon Bay) 20 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nKeppel took 3 French frigates, and a fleet of mer- \nchantmen 9 Oct. 1762 \n\nOn Lake Champlain the provincial force totally de- \nstroyed by admiral Howe . . .11 Oct. 1776 \n\nCapt. Sam. Marshall, of " the saucy.4refli.wsa," 32 guns \n(part of Keppel\'s fleet), summoned La Belle Poule \nto surrender off Ushant, and fired across her bow ; \nafter two hours\' conflict, the French made sail and \nescaped ..... 16 or 17 June, 1778 \n\nOff Ushant ; a drawn battle between Keppel and \nd\'Orvilliers 27 July, ,, \n\nIn New England ; the American fleet totally de- \nstroyed 30 July, 1779 \n\nNear Cape St. Vincent ; admiral Rodney defeated a \nSpanish fleet under admiral don Langara (see \nRodney) . . 16 Jan. 1780 \n\nAt St. Jago ; Mons. Suffrein defeated by commodore \nJohnstone 16 April, 1781 \n\nDogger-bank, between admiral Parker and the Dutch \nadmiral Zoutman : 400 killed on each side, 5 Aug. ,, \n\nAdmiral Rodney defeated the French going to at- \ntack Jamaica ; took 5 ships of the line, and sent \nthe French admiral, Comte de Grasse, prisoner \nto England 12 April, 1782 \n\nThe British totally defeated the fleets of France and \nSpain in the Bay of Gibraltar . . 13 Sept. ,, \n\nEast Indies : a series of actions between sir Edward \nHughes and Suffren, viz. : 17 Feb. 1782, the \nFrench had 11 ships to 9 ; 12 April they had 18 \nships to u, yet were completely beaten. Again, \n6 July, off Trincomalee, they had 15 to 12, and \nwere again beaten with loss of 1000 killed, 3 \nSept. 1782 ; again 20 June, 1783 \n\nLord Howe defeated the French off Ushant, took 6 \nships of war, and sunk one . . .1 June, 1794 \n\nSir Edward Pellew took 15 sail ; burnt 7, out of a \nfleet of 35 sail of transports . . .8 March, 1795 \n\nFrench fleet defeated, and 2 ships of war taken by \nadmiral Hotham. Fought . . 14 March, ,, \n\nAdmiral Cornwallis took 8 transports, convoyed by \n3 French men-of-war. Fought . . 7 June, ,, \n\nEleven Dutch East Indiainen taken by the Sceptre, \nman-of-war, and some armed British Indiamen in \ncompany 19 June, ,, \n\nL\'Orient : the French fleet defeated by lord Brid- \nport, and 3 ships of the line taken ; see L\'Orient, \n\n23 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nNAVAL BATTLES. \n\n\n\n667 \n\n\n\nNAVAL BATTLES. \n\n\n\nDutch fleet, under admiral Lucas, in Saldanha Bay, \nsurrenders to sir George Keith Elphiustone (see \nSaldanha Bay) 17 Aug. 1796 \n\nVictory off Cape St. Vincent (which see) . 14 Feb. 1797 \n\nUnsuccessful attempt on Santa Cruz ; admiral \nNelson loses his right arm . . .24 July, ,, \n\nVictory of Camperdown (which see) . 11 Oct. ,, \n\nOf the Nile (ivhieh see) 1 Aug. 1798 \n\nOff the coast of Ireland ; a French fleet of 9 sail, \nfull of troops, as succours to the Irish, engaged \nby sir John Borlase Warren, and 5 taken, 12 Oct. ,, \n\nThe Texel fleet of 12 ships and 13 Indiamen surren- \nders to admiral Mitchell ... 30 Aug. 1799 \n\nCapture of the Cerbere (which see) . . 29 July, 1800 \n\nCopenhagen bombarded (see Copenhagen), 2 April, 1801 \n\nGibraltar bay ; engagement between the French \nand British fleets ; the Hannibal, of 74 guns, lost, \n\n6 July, 1801 \n\nOff Cadiz ; sir James Saumarez obtains a victory \nover the French and Spanish fleets ; 1 ship cap- \ntured. Fought 12 July, ,. \n\nSir Robert Calder, with 15 sail, takes 2 ships (both \nSpanish) out of 20 sail of the French and Spanish \nfleets, off Ferrol (Calder censured) . 22 July, 1805 \n\nVictory off Trafalgar (which see) . . 21 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSir R. Strachan, with 4 sail of British, captures 4 \nFrench ships, off Cape Ortega! . . 4 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nIn the West Indies ; the French defeated by sir T. \nDuckworth ; 3 sail of the line taken, 2 driven on \nshore 6 Feb. 1806 \n\nSir John Borlase Warren captures 2 French ships, \n\n13 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAdmiral Duckworth effects the passage of the \nDardanelles (see article Dardanelles) . 19 Feb. 1807 \n\nCopenhagen fleet captured . . . .8 Sept. ,, \n\nThe Russian fleet of several sail, in the Tagus, sur- \nrenders to the British .... 3 Sept. 1808 \n\nAix or Basque Roads ; 4 sail of the line, &c, de- \nstroyed by lord Gammer . . . n-12 April, 1809 \n\nTwo Russian flotillas of numerous vessels taken or \ndestroyed by sir J. Saumarez . . . July, ,, \n\nFrench ships of the line driven on shore by lord \nCollingwood (two of them burnt by the French \nnext day) 25 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBay of Rosas, where lieut. Tailour, by direction of \ncaptain Hallowell, takes or destroys 11 war and \nother vessels (see Rosas Bay) ... 1 Nov. ,, \n\nBasseterre ; La Loire and La Seine, French frigates, \ndestroyed by sir A. Cochrane . . .18 Dec. ,, \n\nThe Spartan frigate gallantly engages a large French \nforce in the bay of Naples ... 3 May, 18 10 \n\nAction between the Tribune, captain Reynolds, and \n4 Danish brigs. Fought . . . .12 May, ,, \n\nIsle of Rlie ; 17 vessels taken or destroyed by the \nArmide and Cadmus . . . -17 July, ,, \n\nCaptain Barrett, in the merchant vessel Cumber- \nland, with 26 men, defeats four privateers and \ntakes 170 prisoners .... 16 Jan. 1811 \n\nTwenty-two vessels from Otranto taken by the \nCerberus and Active. .... 22 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nOff Lissa (which see); brilliant victory gained over \na Franco-Venetian squadron byeapt. Win. Hoste. \n\n13 March, ,, \n\nAmazon French frigate destroyed off Cape Barfleur \n\n25 March, ,, \n\nSagone Bay ; 2 French store-ships burnt by captain \nBarrie\'s ships 1 May, ,, \n\nThe British sloop Little Belt, and American ship \nPresident: their rencontre . . 16 May, ,, \n\nOff Madagascar ; 3 British frigates under captain \n\n\n\nSchomberg, engage 3 French larger-sized, with \ntroops on board, and capture 2 . .20 May, \n\nThe Thames and Cephalus capture 36 French vessels \n\nJuly, \n\nThe Naiad frigate attacked in presence of Bonaparte \nby 7 armed praams ; they were gallantly repulsed \n\n21 Sept. \n\nFrench frigates Pauline and Pomone captured by the \nBritish frigates Alceste, Active, and Unite 29 Nov. \n\nRivoli, 84 guns, taken by Victorious, 74, 21 Feb. \n\nL\'Orient : 2 French frigates, &c, destroyed by the \nNorthumberland, capt. Hotham . 22 May, \n\nGuerriere, British frigate, 46 small guns, captured \nby the American ship Constitution, 54 guns (an \nunequal contest) 19 Aug. \n\nBritish brig Frolic captured by the American sloop \nWasp 18 Oct. \n\nBritish frigate Macedonian taken by the American \nship United States, large class . . 25 Oct. \n\nBritish frigate Java taken by the American ship \nConstitution, large class . . . .29 Dec. \n\nBritish frigate Amelia loses 46 men killed aud 95 \nwounded, engaging a French frigate . 7 Feb. \n\nBritish sloop Peacock captured by the American \nship Hornet ; she was eo disabled that she sunk \nwith part of her crew ... 25 Feb. \n\nAmerican frigate Chesapeake taken by the Shannon, \ncaptain Broke (see Chesapeake) . . 1 June, \n\nAmerican ships Growler and Eagle taken by British \ngun -boats 3 June, \n\nAmerican sloop Argus taken by the British sloop \nPelican 14 Aug. \n\nFrench frigate La Trave, 44 guns, taken by the \nAndromache, of 38 guns . . . 23 Oct. \n\nFrench frigate Ceres taken by the British ship \nTagus 6 Jan. \n\nFrench frigates Alcmene and Iphigenia taken by the \nVeneroMe 16 Jan. \n\nFrench frigate Terpsichore taken by the Majestic \n\n3 Feb. \n\nFrench ship Clorinde taken by the Dryad and \nAchates, after an action with the Eurotas, 25 Feb. \n\nFrench frigate L\'Etoile captured by the Hebrus, \n\n27 March, \n\nAmerican frigate Essex captured by the Plimbe and \nCherub 29 March, \n\nBritish sloop Avon sunk by the American sloop \nWasp 8 Sept. \n\nLake Cham plain : the British squadron captured by \nthe American, after a severe conflict, n Sept. \n\nAmerican ship President cajitured by the Endymion \n\n15 Jan. \n\nAlgiers bombarded by lord Exmouth ; see Algiers \n\n27 Aug. \n\nNavarino (which see) 20 Oct. \n\nAction between the British ships Volage and \nHyacinth and 29 Chinese war-junks, which were \ndefeated 3 Nov. \n\nBombardment and fall of Acre. The British \nsquadron under admiral Stopford achieved this \ntriumph with trifling loss, while the Egyptians \nlost 2000 killed and wounded, and 3000 prisoners \n(see Syria) 3 Nov. \n\nLagos attacked and taken by commodore Bruce, \nwith a squadron consisting of the Penelope, Blood- \nhound, Sampson, and Teazer, war-steamers, and \nthe Philomel brig of war . . 26-27 Dec. \n\n[For naval actions which cannot be called regular \nbattles, see China, Japan, and Egypt, 1882.] \n\n\n\n1816 \n1827 \n\n1839 \n\n\n\n1840- \n\n\n\n1851 \n\n\n\nSHIPS TAKEN OR DESTROY]:!) BY THE NAVAL AND MARINE FORCES OF GREAT BRITAIN: \n\n\n\nIii the French War, ending 1802. \n\n\nIn the French V \n\n\nfar, ending 18 \n\n\n[4. \n\n\nForce. \n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0i \n\nc \n\n1 \n\n\n\n\nQ \n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0a \n\n\'3 \n\nci \nDO \n\n\n1 ?, \n\n\nTotal \n\n\n\n\nSpanish. \nDanish. \n\n\nRussian. \n\n\n\'C \n\n\nTotal. \n\n\n\n\n45 \n\n\n25 \n\n\nII \n\n\n2 \n\n\n83 \n\n\n7\xc2\xb0 \n\n\n27 23 \n\n\n4 \n\n\n\n\n\n124 \n\n\nFifties .... \n\n\n2 \n\n\n1 \n\n\nO \n\n\n\n\n\n3 \n\n\n7 \n\n\n1 \n\n\n\n\n\n1 \n\n\n9 \n\n\nFrigates \n\n\n133 \n\n\n31 \n\n\n20 \n\n\n7 \n\n\n191 \n\n\n77 \n\n\n36 24 \n\n\n6 \n\n\n5 \n\n\n148 \n\n\nTotal .... \n\n\n161 \n\n\n32 \n\n\n55 \n\n\n16 \n\n\n264 \n\n\n188 \n\n\n64 \n\n\n16 \n\n\n7 \n\n\n13 \n\n\n2S8 \n\n\n341 1 89 \n\n\n86 \n\n\n25 \n\n\n541 \n\n\n342 \n\n\n127 \n\n\n64 \n\n\n\'7 \n\n\n19 \n\n\n569 \n\n\n\nNAVAL COLLEGE. \n\n\n\nNAVY. \n\n\n\nNAVAL COLLEGE, Eoyal, established \nat Greenwich Hospital, and opened I Feb. 1873. \n\nNAVAL DEFENCE ACTS, see Colonies, \n1865 and 1887 and Navy of England, 1889. \n\nNAVAL EXHIBITION, Eoyal, Chelsea \nembankment, was opened by the prince of Wales, \n2 May ; visited by the Queen, 7 May ; by the Ger- \nman emperor, 10 July ; by the prince of Naples, 28 \nJuly; closed 24 Oct. 1891. \n\nSir William Dowell was chairman of the executive com- \nmittee. \nThe exhibition consisted of nine galleries, named Nelson, \nBenbow, &c, containing relics, pictures, ordnance, \nancient and modern, models of the Victory, light- \nhouses, &c., and an arctic panorama. There was also \na lake for nautical evolutions. \nTotal number of persons admitted 2,351,683 ; receipts, \nI S5.447 ? - > by the surplus profit, 47,010^, the Royal \nNaval Fund was founded, 29 June, 1892. \n\nNAVAL KNIGHTS of Windsor, see \n\nPoor Knights. \n\nNAVAL EESEEVE, EEVIEWS, \nSALUTE, AND VOLCJNTEEES, see under \nNary. \n\nNaval volunteer home defence association, formed in \n1885 ; decided in May, 1889, to break up in June \nfollowing. \n\nNAVAEINO (S. W. Greece), settled by the \nArabs 6th century ; taken by the Turks, 1500 ; by \nVenetians, 1686; by Turks, 1718 ; by Greeks, 1821 ; \nby Turks, 1825. Near here, on 20 Oct. 1827, the \ncombined fleets of England, France, and Russia, \nunder command of admiral Codrington, nearly \ndestroyed the Turkish and Egj\'ptian fleet. More \nthan thirty ships, many of them four-deckers, were \nblown up or burnt, chiefly by the Turks themselves, \nto prevent their falling into the hands of their \nenemies. This destruction of the Turkish naval \npower was characterised by the duke of "Wellington \nas an " untoward event." The port is also called \nNavarine. \n\nNAVAEEE, now a province of Spain, formed \na part of the Roman dominions, and was conquered \nfrom the Saracens by Charlemagne, 778. His \ndescendants appointed governors, one of whom, \nGarcias Ximenes, took the title of king in 857. In \n1076, king Sancho IV. was poisoned, and Sancho \nRamorez of Aragon seized Navarre. In 1134, \nNavarre became again independent under Garcias \nJEtamorez IV. In 1234, Thibault, count of Cham- \npagne, nephew of Sancho VII., became sovereign of \nNavarre ; and in 1284, by the marriage of the \nheiress Jane with Philip IV. le Bel, Navarre was \n\'united to France. \n\nSOVEREIGNS OF NAVARRE. \n\n1274. Jane I. and (1284) Philip-le-Bel of France. \n\n1305. Louis X. Hutin of France. \n\n1316. Philip V. the Long, of France. \n\n1322. Charles I. the Fair, IV. of France. \n\n1328. Jane II. (daughter of Jane I.), and her husband \n\nPhilip d\'Evreux. \n1349. Charles II. , the Bad. \n3387. Charles III., the Noble. \n1425. Blanche, his daughter, and her husband, John of \n\nAragon. \n1441. John II., alone, who became king of Aragon, in \n\n1458. He endeavoured to obtaiu the crown of \n\nCastile also. \nJ1479. Eleanor de Foix, his daughter. \n\n,, Francis Phoebus de Foix, her son. \n1483. Catherine (his sister) and her husband John \n\nd\'Albret. Ferdinand of Aragon conquers and \n\nannexes all Navarre south of the Pyrenees, 1512 \n\n\n\nLower Navarre (in France). \n1516. Henry d\'Albret. \n1555. Jane d\'Albret and her husband, Anthony de \n\nBourbon, who died 1562. \n1572. Henry III. who became in 1589 king of France, to \n\nwhich Lower Navarre was formally united in \n\n1609. \n\nNAVIES, see Fleets. \n\nNAVIGATION began with the Egyptians and \nPhoenicians. The first laws of navigation originated \nwith the Rhodians. The first account we have of \nany considerable voyage is that of the Phoenicians \nsailing round Africa. \n\nPlane charts and mariner\'s compass used about . 1420 \nVariation of the compass observed by Columbus . 1492 \nThat the oblique rhomb lines are spiral, discovered \n\nby Nonius 1537 \n\nFirst treatise on navigation 1545 \n\nThe log first mentioned by Bourne . . . -1577 \n\nMerca tor\'s chart 1599 \n\nDavis\'s quadrant, orbackstaff, for measuring angles, \n\nabout 1600 \n\nLogarithmic tables applied to navigation by \n\nGunter 1620 \n\nMiddle latitude sailing introduced .... 1623 \nMensuration of a degree, Norwood . . . . 1631 \n\nHedley\'s quadrant 1731 \n\nHarrison\'s time-keeper used ..... 1764 \n\nNautical Almanac first published .... 1767 \nBarlow\'s theory of the deviation of the compass . 1820 \nQuarterly Journal of Naval Science, edited by E. J. \n\nReed, published April, 1872-5 \n\nSee Compass, Latitude, Longitude, Steam, &c. \n\nNAVIGATION LAWS. A code of maritime \nlaws is attributed to Richard I. of England, said \nto have been decreed at the isle of Oleron, \n1194, and further enactments were made by \nRichard II. in 1381. \xe2\x80\x94 In Oct. 1651, the parliament \npassed an act entitled "Goods from foreign parts, \nby whom to be imported," the principles of which \nwere affirmed by 12 Charles II. c. 18, "an act for \nthe encouraging and increasing of shipping and \nnavigation" (1660). The latter act restricts the \nimportation and exportation of goods from or to \nAsia, Africa, or America, to English ships, of which \nthe masters and three-fourths of the mariners are \nto be English. \'1 his was followed by many acts \nof similar tenor ; which were consolidated by 3 & 4 \nWill. IV. c. 54 (1833). These acts were in the \nwhole or in part repealed by the act " to amend the \nlaws in force for the encouragement of British \nshipping and navigation" (passed 12 & 13 Vict. c. \n29, 26 June, 1849, after much opposition), and \nwhich came into operation 1 Jan. 1850. The steam \nnavigation act passed 14 & 15 Vict. c. 79, 1851, \ncame into operation I Jan. 1852. The act regulating \nthe navigation of the river Thames was passed in \n1786.\xe2\x80\x94 In Feb. 1865 the emperor recommended the \nmodification of the French navigation laws ; in Feb. \n1872, new restrictions were laid upon foreign ships, \nchiefly affecting British. \n\nNAVIGATOES (or Navvies). These helpers \nin the construction of railways probably derived \ntheir name (about 1830) from formerly making the \ninland navigation in Lincolnshire, &c, and are \ndoubtfully said to be descendants of the original \nDutch canal labourers. Navvy Mission Society \n(new) met at Lambeth palace, 7 May, 1880. A \n"steam navvy" suitable for working in sand, \ngravel, or heavy clay, made by Messrs. Ruston, \nProctor, & Co., of Lincoln, 1878. \n\nNAVY OF ENGLAND, " whereon, under the \ngood providence of God, the wealth, safety, and \nstrength of the kingdom chiefly depends," Act for \nthe government of the Nary, bee Naval Battles. \n\n\n\nNAVY. \n\n\n\n669 \n\n\n\nNAVY \n\n\n\nA fleet of galleys built by Alfred .... 897 \n\nThe number of galleys greatly increased under \nEdgar, who claimed to be lord of the ocean sur- \nrounding Britain about 965 \n\nA formidable fleet equipped by the contribution of \nevery town in England, in the reign of Ethelred II. \nwhen it rendezvoused at Sandwich, to be ready to \noppose the Danes 1007 \n\nA fleet collected by Edward the Confessor to resist \nthe Norwegians, 1042 ; and by Harold to resist \nthe Normans 1066 \n\nRichard I. collected a fleet and enacted naval laws \nabout 1191 \n\n[The Cinque ports and maritime towns frequently \nfurnished fleets commanded by the king or his \nofficers. ] \n\nEdward III. \'s fleet defeat the French at the battle \nof Sluys, 24 June, 1340; and the Spanish off \n\n"Winchelsea 29 Aug. 1350 \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 Henry V. made efforts to increase the navy . 1415-1422 \n\nHenry VII. built the Royal Harry ; considered to be \nthe beginning of the Royal Navy . . . . 1488 \n\nThe Trinity house established and the Navy office \nappointed (see Admiralty and Trinity house) . 1512 \n\n[The navy then consisted of Great Harry, 1200 tons, \ntwo ships, of 800 tons, and six or seven smaller.] \n\nJames I. and Charles I. improve the navy. The \nSovereign of the Seas launched 1637 \n\nFrigates said to have been first built . . . 1649 \n\nJames II. systematises sea-signals and improves the \nnavy 1685-8 \n\n\n\nYears. \n\n\nShips. \n\n\nTons. \n\n\nMen. \n\n\nNavy Estimates. \n\n\n1546 \n\n\n58 \n\n\n12.455 \n\n\n8,546 \n\n\nno account. \n\n\n1558 \n\n\n27 \n\n\n7,110 \n\n\n3.565 \n\n\nno account. \n\n\n1578 \n\n\n24 \n\n\n10,506 \n\n\n6,700 \n\n\nno account. \n\n\n1603 \n\n\n42 \n\n\ni7.\xc2\xb055 \n\n\n8,346 \n\n\nno account. \n\n\n1658 \n\n\n157 \n\n\n57,000 \n\n\n21,910 \n\n\nno account. \n\n\n1688 \n\n\n173 \n\n\n101,892 \n\n\n42,000 \n\n\nno account. \n\n\n1702 \n\n\n272 \n\n\n159,020 \n\n\n40,000 \n\n\n1,056,915?. \n\n\n1760 \n\n\n412 \n\n\n321,134 \n\n\n70,000 \n\n\n3,227,143 \n\n\n1793 \n\n\n498 \n\n\n433.226 \n\n\n45,000 \n\n\n5,525,331 \n\n\n1800 \n\n\n767 \n\n\n668, 744 \n\n\n135,000 \n\n\n12,422,837 \n\n\n1808 \n\n\n869 \n\n\n892,800 \n\n\n143,800 \n\n\n17,496,047 \n\n\n1814 \n\n\n901 \n\n\n966,000 \n\n\n146,000 \n\n\n18,786,509 \n\n\n\nReign of George III. ; dimensions of ships in- \ncreased ; copper sheathing adopted for ships of \nevery class ; establishments of naval stores pro- \nvided at all dockyards and naval stations ; and \nvarious improvements made in shipbuilding 1760- \n\nGreatBritainhadgoi ships; i77of theline,ini8i4; 621 \nships, some of 140 guns each, and down to survey- \ning vessels of two guns only ; 148 sail employed \non foreign and home service \n\nThe screw propeller introduced in the Royal Navy, \n\nThe total number of ships of all sizes in commission, \n183 1 Jan. \n\nThe Navy consisted of 339 sailing and 161 steam \nvessels \n\nNaval Coast Volunteers\' act passed . . Aug. \n\nOf 315 sailing vessels, 97 screw steamers, and 114 \npaddle steamers April, \n\nReview of the Baltic fleet at Spithead by the Queen, \n10 March, 1854, and 23 April, \n\nOf 271 sailing vessels, carrying 9594 guns, and 258 \nsteam vessels, carrying 6582 guns ; together 573 \nvessels, carrying 16,176 guns ; also 155 gun- \nboats, and in vessels on harbour service, July, \n\nProclamation for manning the navy . . 30 April, \n\nNaval Reserve Force authorised . . . Aug. \n\nFlogging not to be inflicted on first-class seamen \nexcept after a trial Dec. \n\nGreat excitement respecting the French Govern- \nment building the plated frigate Gloire (see \nNavy of France) \n\nThe Warrior, our first iron-plated steam frigate, \nthe largestvesseltheninthe world except the Great \nEastern (see Steam), length, 380 ft. breadth, 58 ft. ; \niron-plate, 4^ inches thick; 6170 tons burthen; \ncost about 400,000?. ; launched [censured in 1864], \n\n29 Dec. \n\nA royal commission recommends the abolition of \nthe board of admiralty, and the appointment of a \nminister of the navy department . . March, \n\n\n\n1830 \n\n\n\n1850 \n1853 \n\n1854 \n\n1856 \n\n\n\n1859 \n\n\n\nLord Clarence Paget, secretary of admiralty, states \nthat England has 67 steam ships of the line ; \nwhile France has 37, Russia 9, Spain 3, and Italy 1 \n\n11 April, \n\nNew act for the government of the navy (the Naval \nDiscipline act) passes .... 6 Aug. \n\nFour iron-plated vessels (400 ft. long ; 59J ft. wide ; \nand cost about 600,000/. each) building . Dec. \n\nCupola or Turret ships. Capt. Cowper Coles\' mode \nof constructing iron-plated vessels, with a cupola \nor turret for firing from, the other parts of the \nvessel being nearly submerged, made known in, \n1855, and recommended to the admiralty in 1861 ; \nadopted by Ericson in the Monitor, 1862 ; pro- \nposed to be adopted by the British government, \n\nSix different kinds of plated vessels said to be con- \nstructing ; E. J. Reed authorised to build the \nEnterprise as a specimen of an iron-plated sea- \ngoing vessel April, \n\nRoyal Oak, iron-clad steamer, launched at Chatham, \n\n10 Sept. \n\nTwin or double screws for vessels of light draught \nintroduced \n\nMr. E. J. Reed appointed chief constructor of the \nRoyal Navy Jan. \n\nNavy consists of 1014 vessels of all classes ; 85 line- \nof-battle ships ; 69 frigates ; 30 screw corvettes, \n\nJan. \n\nSteam ram Valiant launched . . .14 Oct. \n\nMinotaur iron-steamer launched . . 12 Dec. \n\nRoyal School of Naval Architecture, South Kensing- \nton, established \n\nThe turret-ship Sovereign, constructed on Coles\' \nprinciple, put out of commission, and placed \namong reserved ships ; this blamed by some, Oct. \n\nNaval models from the time of Henry VIII. col- \nlected early in the present century by sir Robert \nSejipings, removed to South Kensington Museum, \n\nDec. \n\n29 iron-clad vessels building " to be ready for sea \nthis year " March, \n\nBellerophon, iron-clad, by Mr. E. J. Reed ; and the \nLord Warden, iron-clad, launched . . May, \n\nA British fleet entertained at Cherbourg, Brest, &c. , \n15 Aug., &c. ; and a French fleet at Portsmouth, \n\n29-31 Aug. \n\nRoyal Navy " consists of 735 vessels and steam- \nships of all classes " (30 iron-clads ready for sea), \n(see under Cannon) .... July, \n\nNew Naval Discipline act, passed . . . Aug. \n\nDifficult launch of the Northumberland iron-clad, \n17 March, et seq. ; effected . . .17 April, \n\nExperimental cruise of the iron-clad fleet in stormy \nweather ; general performance satisfactory (Times) \n\nSept. -Nov. \n\nActs for protection of naval stores passed, 1867 and \n\n150 wooden ships of all classes sold . \n\n[Of these were 7 line-of battle ships and 6 frigates, \ncost above 1,000,000?., sold for 87,543?.] \n\nHercules, 12, armour-plated ship, 1200 horse-power, \nfloated at Chatham 10 Feb. \n\nThe Monarch, our first armour-clad turret ship, \nlaunched at Chatham .... 25 May, \n\n47 armoured vessels afloat, with 598 guns ; 66 \nefficient unarmoured vessels ; and a large number \nof vessels of the old type, constitute the navy, \n\nApril, \n\nSatisfactory trial trip of the Navy Reserve squadron , \n\nJuly, \n\nExplosion of the boiler of the Thistle gun-boat, 011 \ntrial trip ; 10 killed 3 Nov. \n\nDevastation, iron turret ship, first rivet of her keel \nclinched by Mr. Childers, the first lord, at Ports- \nmouth 12 Nov. \n\nResignation of Mr. E. J. Reed, chief constructor, \n\nJuly. \n\nAd in. sir T. M. C. Symonds reports on the Monarch \nand Captain turret ships (the latter said to be over- \nmasted and unfit to cruise under sail alone) Aug. \n\nH.M.S. iron-clad frigate Triumph launched at \nJarrow 27 Sept \n\nThe Captain founders near Finisterre about \n12. 15 a.m 7 Sept. \n\n472 lives were lost, including the captain. Ilugli \nBurgoyne, Captain Cowper rules, (lie designer of \nthe ship, Mr. Childers (a son of the first lord), \nand other officers, the (\xe2\x96\xa0lite of the service ; iS men \nof the crew were saved. " She capsized in a \n\n\n\n1865 \n\n\n\n859-67 \n\n\n\n1S70 \n\n\n\nNAVY. \n\n\n\n670 \n\n\n\nNAVY. \n\n\n\nheavy squall shortly after midnight, and went \n\xe2\x80\xa2down in three minutes." \xe2\x80\x94 Gunner\'s report. Her \ndestruction was attributed to too low free-board, \nheavy top- weight, masts, and hurricane deck. \nShe cost 440,000?. She was built by Messrs. \nLaird at Birkenhead. \nA court-martial for the nominal trial of James May, \nthe gunner, and 17 other survivors, was held 27 \nSept. to 4 Oct. ; Mr. E. J. Reed and other emi- \nnent authorities were examined ; the verdict was, \nthat the loss of the ship was due to instability \nfrom faulty construction : " a grave departure \nfrom her original design having been committed " \n\n8 Oct. 1870 \nIteport on the Monarch that her reserve of energy \n\nto prevent upsetting by a squall, is 16 to 1 of \nthat of the Captain. \xe2\x80\x94 Times . . . 10 Nov. ,, \n\nNavy. \xe2\x80\x94 55 armoured vessels afloat ; 9 constructing ; \neffective force afloat, 354 vessels ; and a large \nnumber of others 1871 \n\nMegcera troopship lost near Amsterdam island (see \nWrecks) 16 June, ,, \n\nThe Aginoourt, capt. Hamilton Beamish, 6621 tons, \nstruck on the Pearl Rock near Gibraltar, 1 1 a., m. \n11 July ; got off by great skill and management \nby the Hercules, capt. lord Guildford . 4 July, ,, \n\nI After trial, admirals Wellesley and Wilmot ordered \nto strike flags ; capts. Beamish and Well super- \nseded ; others censured ; lord Guildford com- \nmended, Aug. 1S71.] \n\nTurret vessels of the Monitor type designed by E. \nJ. Reed, launched : the Glatton, 6 March ; Devas- \ntation, 12 July ; Cyclops ... 18 July, ,, \n\nZN"ew rules respecting promotions, &c, published \n\n9 Feb. 1872 \nThe Thunderer, ocean-going turret ship, launched \n\nat Pembroke ..... 25 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLord Clyde, iron-clad, stranded off Pantellaria, 15 \nMarch ; capt. Bythesea and staff-commander \n"May dismissed the service . . . . May, ,, \n\nA trial-trip of the Devastation reported successful, \n\niS April, 1873 \n\nNavy. \xe2\x80\x94 23 great iron-clads ; 27 smaller . Aug. ,, \n\n*\' We now carry 35-ton guns on board ships in tur- \nrets protected by 14-inch plates" (Times) 28 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nHoyal Naval Artillery Volunteer force established \nby act passed 5 Aug , , \n\nH.M.S. Alexandra launched at Chatham . 7 April, 1875 \n\nH.M.S. Vanguard, double-screw iron clad (cost \n350,000!.), sunk by collision with the Iron Duke \n\xe2\x80\xa2during a fog off the Wicklow coast ; crew (about \n400) saved ; 50 m. past noon . . .1 Sept. , , \n\nCourt-Martial on capt. Dawkins ; assigned as causes : \n1. That the squadron (under admiral Tarleton), of \nwhich the Vanguard was one, was going at too \ngreat a speed for a fog ; 2. That captain Dawkins \nliad left the deck before an ordered evolution was \nperformed ; 3. That the speed of the Vanguard \nhad been injudiciously reduced ; 4, 5, 6. The in- \ncreased speed of the Iron Duke, her improper \nsiavigation, and want of signals ; captain Dawkins \nreprimanded and dismissed ; others reprimanded, \n\n29 Sept. ,, \n\nThe Admiralty Minute considered the speed of the \nsquadron no cause of the accident ; censured part \nof admiral Tarleton\'s evidence on responsibility \nof officers ; and removed lieutenant Evans of the \nIron Duke from his command . . . 12 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nIron Duke nearly lost through a valve left open, \n\n28 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Monarch, iron-clad, injured by collision with \nNorwegian ship Halden in the Channel 28 Nov. ,, \n\nThe Inflexible, with 18-inch armour and four 81-ton \nguns, moveable by hydraulic power, launched by \nprincess Louise at Portsmouth . . 27 April, 1876 \n\nThe Temiraire, smaller iron-clad, launched at Chat- \nham 9 Ma y\xc2\xbb \xc2\xbb \n\nThe Thunderer (see 1872 above) : explosion of a \nboiler through sticking of safety valves ; 45 deaths \nensued ; about 50 injured ; during a trial trip in \nStoke\'s Bay, near Portsmouth ; 14 July ; inquest \nbegun 27 July ; (about 5,000?. subscribed for the \nsufferers,) ; verdict, accidental deaths . 30 Aug. ,, \n\n.BaccTwnife, unarm oured war-ship, launched, 19 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLaunched at Glasgow, Nelson, iron-clad . 4 Nov. ,, \n,, ,, Northampton . 18 Nov. ,, \n\nEuryalus, unarmoured corvette, launched at Chat- \nham .31 Jan t8 77 \n\n\n\nCommission of inquiry respecting the Inflexible, \n\nappointed about .... 14 July, 1877 \n4 new ironclads bought .... March, 1878 \nDreadnought, iron-clad ; 10,886 tons ; engines, 8000 \nhorse-power ; four 38-ton guns, &c. ; most power- \nful fighting ship in the world ; constructed . ,, \nEurydice, H.M.S. frigate ; training ship, foundered \nin a gale off Dunose, Isle of Wight ; about 300 \nperished with capt. Hare, 24 March ; with much \nskill and labour raised and taken to Portsmouth \n1 Sept., ordered to be broken up . . Sept. ,, \nThe Thunderer (see 1876), a 38-ton gun explodes \nwhile practising, near Ismid, in the Sea of \nMarmora, Turkey ; 2 officers and 8 men killed, \nand between 30 and 40 wounded . . 2 Jan. 1879 \nOn investigation the cause assigned was that the \ngun was charged and missed fire ; re-charged and \nboth charges were fired, when it exploded Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nAgamemnon, iron-clad turret ship ; 8492 tons ; en- \ngines, 6000 horse-power; four 38-ton guns ; \nlaunched at Chatham ... 17 Sept. ,, \nCollision of the Achilles and Alexandra, off Larnaca, \nMediterranean ; boats injured, &c. . 2 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSham naval attack on Portsmouth ; defended by \ntorpedoes, &c 16 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThunderer gun experiments at Woolwich (confirm \ndecision of investigation committee of Feb. 1879), \n\n9 Dee. 1879\xe2\x80\x943 FeD - l88 \xc2\xb0 \n\nAtalanta training ship lost in gale (see Atalanta), \n\n12\xe2\x80\x9416 Feb. ,, \n\nGreat naval demonstration at Portsmouth ; attack \non forts ; electric light used at night . 10 Aug. ,, \n\nDoterel, 6 guns ; capt. Richard Evans ; destroyed \nby explosion (attributed to formation of coal gas, \n3 Sept.) in Straits of Magellan ; out of 150 about \n143 persons perished 26 April, 1881 \n\nPolyphemus, huge double-screw steam armour- \nplated ram and torpedo boat ; launched at Chatham \n(designed by sir G. Sartorius) . . 15 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLaunch of Canada corvette at Portsmouth, 26 Aug. ; \nof Conqueror, steel-clad turret ship, at Chatham \n\n8 Sept. ,, \n\nTriumph, explosion of xerotine siccative (a patent \ndrier for paint) near Coquimbo, coast of Chili, \n23 Nov. ; 3 men killed, 7 wounded . . Jan. 1882 \n\nAjax, new armoured turret-ship, moved from Chat- \nham 20 Feb. ,, \n\nTwo very large armour-plated war-ships launched ; \nEdinburgh, at Pembroke, 18 March ; Colossus, at \nPortsmouth 21 March, ,, \n\nThe Phoenix lost off Prince Edward\'s island, 12 Sept. ; \ncommander Greenfell dismissed . . 1 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Collingwood, of "British Admiral class," \nlaunched at Pembroke ... 22 Nov. ,, \n\nNaval Intelligence Committee formed . . Dec. ,, \n\nThe duke of Edinburgh appointed to command the \nChannel fleet .... about 26 Nov. 1883 \n\nCollision of the Defence and Valiant in Bantry Bay, \n18 July; capt. Edwin John Pollard, of the De- \nfence, tried and dismissed from his ship for \ninefficiency 30 July, 1884 \n\nWasp, gun boat (comm. Nicholls), wrecked off Tory \nisland (attributed to bad navigation) ; about 52 \nperish 22 Sept. ,, \n\nRodney, great iron-clad, launched by the duchess of \nEdinburgh, at Chatham .... 8 Oct. ,, \n\nNavy Discipline act amended \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGreat Britain has 46 iron-clads . . . Dec. ,, \n\nLarge and important additions to the navy autho- \nrised Feb. 1885 \n\nLaunch of Mersey, \' \'protected corvette, " at Chatham, \n\n31 March, ,, \n\nBenbow, ironclad battleship, launched at Blackwall, \n\n15 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSham battle near Bantry Bay, 30 June ; attempted \nattack on Greenock . . . . 14 July, ,, \n\nIcarus, warship, launched at Devonport 27 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSevern, fast sailing steel corvette launched at \nChatham 29 Sept. ,, \n\nHero, steel built, armour-plated, turreted ram, \nlaunched at Chatham .... 27 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSwallow, largest gun vessel launched at Sheerness, ,, \n\n27 Oct. ,, \n\nCamperdown, great ironclad war ship launched at \nPortsmouth ... . .24 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe duke of Edinburgh takes command of the \nMediterranean fleet .... 22 Feb. 1886 \n\n\n\nNAVY. \n\nAnson, twin-screw armour-plated barbette ship, \nlaunched at Pembroke dockyard . 17 Feb. 1 \n\nH.M.S. Collingwood, at Portsmouth, 43 ton gun \nburst ; no casualty, 4 May ; stated to be due to \ndefective metal 6 Sept. \n\nSham naval fights at Milford Haven 16 Aug. et seq. \n\nH.M.S. Orlando, first of the new class of belted \ncruisers, launched at Jarrow on Tyne . 23 Aug. \n\nThe Undaunted, another belted cruiser, launched \nat Jarrow on Tyne .... 25 Nov. \n\nNarcissus, new belted cruiser, launched at Hull, \n\n15 Dec. \n\nThe naval intelligence department formed as a \ncommittee, 10 April, 1884 ; as a department, \n\n1 Feb. 1 \n\nReport of commission on admiralty contracts \ncensures system and recommends changes, about \n\n10 March, \n\nSerpent, large torpedo cruiser launched at Devon- \nport 10 March, \n\nVictoria (first called Renown), armour clad war- \nship, launched at Elswick yard, Newcastle, \n\n9 April, \nSans Pareil, ironclad war-ship, launched at Black- \nwall 9 May, \n\nSerious collision between Ajax and Devastation on \ntheir way to Spithead ... 18 July, \n\nGrand jubilee naval review by the queen at Spit- \nhead ; 135 vessels, 20, 200 men and about 500 guns, \n\n23 July, \n\nNaval manceuvres and torpedo experiments on the \ncoast Aug. \n\nTrafalgar, great steel twin-screw turret ram ; 11,940 \ntons, 345 feet long, 73 feet broad, launched at \nPortsmouth 20 Sept. \n\nNile, ironclad, heaviest yet launched in England ; \n12,000 tons, 345 feet long, 73 feet broad ; launched \nat Pembroke dock .... 27 March, \n\nH.M.S. Magicienne, twin-screw swift cruiser, \nlaunched at Go van . . . . 12 May, \n\nH.M.S. Medea, twin-screw, second class cruiser, \nlaunched at Chatham .... 9 June, \n\nH.M.S. Marathon, cruiser, launched by princess \nBeatrice in the Clyde .... 23 Aug. \n\nNaval manoeuvres, sham capture of Liverpool and \nother ports Aug. \n\nLord George Hamilton, first lord, at Glasgow, gives \na favourable account of the state of the navy \n\n10 Oct. \nNavy afloat: 62 armoured vessels; 29 protected \n\nand partially protected ; 282 unprotected ; total, \n373 ships; tonnage, 679,144; cost, 35,635,719/. \n\n1 Jan. \nLord George Hamilton proposes resolutions for the \nconstruction and equipment of 70 ships, includ- \ning 10 battle ships, (8 first and 2 second class) \nanil 42 cruisers, 18 torpedo boats &c, to be com- \npleted in 4^ years, cost 21,500,000?. (10,000,000?. \nfrom the consolidated fund in seven years; \n11,500,000?. from five years\' navy estimates), \n\n7 March, \nThe Northbrook programme of 1885 reported nearly \n\ncomplete 7 March, \n\nLord George Hamilton\'s resolutions adopted by \n\nthe commons 2-4 April, \n\nSir A. Hoskins succeeds the duke of Edinburgh in \ncommand of the Mediterranean fleet 6 April, \n\nThe Sultan, ironclad, run ashore on a rock at \nComino channel, Maltese group, 6 March ; \nabandoned ; the crew saved ; after strenuous \nattempts to save her, the vessel sank, 14 March ; \ntrial ; captain Rice reprimanded for sailing too \n\nclose to shore 8 April, \n\n[The admiralty appointed a court to enquire into \nall the circumstances, 29, 30 May, when the \nduke of Edinburgh, who had directed the \nsalvage operations, was examined ; the court \nreported its approbation of the steps taken for \nthe recovery of the vessel] . . 15 June, \nThe Sultan was raised 20 Aug., sailed to Malta \n26 Aug. ; at Spithead . . . .23 Dec. \nII.. M.S. Vulcan, swift cruiser, launched at Ports- \nmouth 13 June, \n\nNaval defence act passed, royal assent 31 May, \nTlir fleet assembled for the autumn manoeuvres in- \nspected by the emperor William II. (and his \nbrother prince Henry), the prince of Wales, and \nmembers of both houses of parliament. The dis- \n\n\n\n671 \n\n\n\nNAVY. \n\n\n\nplay consisted of 20 battle ships (9 first class, 9 \nsecond class and 2 third class), 38 first class \ntorpedo boats and other vessels, in all 106 vessels \n(the queen inspected the fleet later in the day), \n\n5 Aug. 18S \nThe naval manoeuvres begin ; sham declaration of \nwar, 15 Aug. ; English fleet commanded by adm. \nTryon, Achill or foreign fleet by adm. Baird ; \nenemies\' country, Ireland ; Dublin, Belfast, \nWaterford captured by Tryon ; Edinburgh cap- \ntured, Aberdeen, Sunderland and other towns \nbombarded by Baird, invasion repelled \n\n22-29 Aug. ,, \nBarham, steel-plated cruiser, launched at Ports- \nmouth n Sept. ,, \n\nLilly gunboat struck on a rock, off Point Armour, \nLabrador coast, and sank, 7 lives lost ; heroic \nconduct of the crew, i6Sept. ; commander Russell \nand lieut. Sharp censured and dismissed 4 Oct. ,, \nBlake, protected cruiser, the largest yet constructed, \nlength 375 ft., breadth 65 ft., launched at Chat- \nham 23 Nov. ,, \n\nGossamer and Gleaner, gun vessels, launched at \n\nSheerness 9 Jan. 189 \n\nBarracouta, cruiser (launched April, 1889), trial \ntrip off Margate ; explosion ; Henry Ovendina and \nJames Gould killed, 8 severely injured, 7 Feb. ; \ninquest, 10 Feb. ; verdict, accidental death ; \nengineer censured . . . .10 April, ,, \n\nLatona, war cruiser, launched at Barrow 22 May, ,, \nPallas, second class cruiser, the first of a set con- \nstructed under the Naval Defence act, launched \n\nat Portsmouth 30 June, ,, \n\nBlenheim, large cruiser, launched at Blackwall \n\n5 July, >> \nNaval manceuvres ; defensive fleet under adm. \nsir George Tryon ; enemy\'s fleet under adm. sir \nMichael Culme-Seymour ; kept the seas but could \nnot be met with ; there was much practice and \nmany evolutions but no conflict . 9-18 Aug. ,, \nLaunch of Melampus, steel protected cruiser, at \n\nBarrow 2 Aug. ,, \n\nAndromache, cruiser, launched at Chatham, 14 Aug. ,, \nSerpent, torpedo-cruiser, started from Plymouth \n8 Nov. ; during a gale struck on a rock at Penta \ndel Buey on the coast of Camariiias, 5 miles N. of \ncape Villano. Commander Harry L. Ross, lieuts. \nGuy A. J. Greville and Torquil Macleod, Mr. \nJames W. Dixon, paymaster, and 169 others were \ndrowned ; three seamen, Edwin Burton, Frederick \nJoseph Gould and Oney Luxton were the only \nsurvivors .... 10-30 p.m. 10 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe bodies were honourably buried as they were \nwashed ashore. Court martial verdict, error in \n\nnavigation 16, 17 Dec. ,, \n\nA national fund for the relief of the families suffer- \ning by the wreck, was started at Devonport by \nthe duke of Edinburgh, 18 Nov. ; the duke gave \n100?., the duchess 50?., the queen 50?., the prince \nof Wales 25?., see Mansion House Fund and \nSoldiers\' and Sailors\' Families Association. \nTotal sum collected 13,580?., reported . 15 Nov. 189: \nEdgar, first class cruiser, launched at Devonport \n\n24 Nov. 189c \nPique, second class twin-screw cruiser ; launched at \n\nHowdon-on-Tyne .... 13 Dec. ,, \nEarnest appeal on behalf of the rank and file \n(warrant officers, &c), for a system of promo f ion ; \n\ncirculated about 17 Jan. 1S9: \n\nThe queen, in the presence of her three sons and a \nlarge company at Portsmouth, names and \nlaunches the Boyal Arthur, first class protected \ncruiser ; and also names, and causes the floating \nout of dock of the Royal Sovereign, the largest \nbattleship in the Royal Navy (length 380 feet \nbread tli 75 feet); all very successful . 26 Feb. , \nThe Empress of India, great ironclad, 14,150 tons, \n380 feet long, 75 feet broad, with 7 Whitehead \ntorpedoes, launched at Pembroke docks by the \nduchess of Connaught . . . . 7 May, ,, \nCordelia, cruiser ; 2 lieuts. and 4 men killed by the \nexplosion of a gun while practising in the Pacific \n\nocean 29 June, , \n\nNaval manoeuvres under admirals Seymour and \nJones, tactical operations of all kinds \n\n1^ July-3 Aug. \nEndymion, armoured cruiser, launched at Hull, \n\n\n\nNAVY. \n\n\n\n672 \n\n\n\nNEBULAE HYPOTHESIS. \n\n\n\nand named by the marchioness of Salisbury, \n\n22 July, 1 89 1 \n\nHood, great turret ship, length 380 ft., breadth \n75 ft., launched at Chatham, and named by Lady \nHood 30 July, ,, \n\nVictoria, flagship, runs aground near Platea, \nW. Greece, 29 Jan. ; refloated, little injured, \n5 Feb. et seq. ; arrived at Malta for repairs, \n12 Feb. ; capt. Bourke reprimanded for negligence \nby a court martial .... 25 Feb. 1892 \n\nGrafton, swift cruiser, launched at the Thames \nIronworks Dockyard .... 30 Jan. ,, \n\nRepulse, great turret ship, length 380 ft. ; breadth \n75 feet ; launched at Pembroke, 27 Feb. ; the \nRamilies, a similar vessel, was launched on the \nClyde 1 March, ,, \n\nGibraltar, first class protected cruiser, launched at \nGovan, near Glasgow ... 27 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nJason, torpedo gunboat, launched at Barrow-in- \nFurness 14 May, ,, \n\nResolution, first class battleship, launched at \nJarrow-on-Tyne 28 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAnnual Expenditure of the British Navy. \xe2\x80\x94 1850, \n6,942,3976 ;\xe2\x80\x94 1854, 6,640,5966 1 \xe2\x80\x94 1855 (to 31 March, \nRussian war), 14,490,1056 ; \xe2\x80\x94 1856, 19,654,5856 ; \xe2\x80\x94 1859, \n9,215,487?. ; \xe2\x80\x94 1861, 13,331,668/. ; \xe2\x80\x94 1862, 12,598,042/. ; \n\n\xe2\x80\x94 1863, 11,370,5886 ; \xe2\x80\x94 1864, 10,821,5966 ; \xe2\x80\x94 1865, \n10,898,2536 ; \xe2\x80\x94 1866, 10,259,7886 ; \xe2\x80\x94 1867, 10,676,1016 ; \xe2\x80\x94 \n1868, 11,168,9496 ; \xe2\x80\x94 1869, 11,366,5456 ; \xe2\x80\x94 1870, 9,757,2906 ; \n\xe2\x80\x94 1871, 9,456,6416 ;\xe2\x80\x94 1872, 9,900,4866 ;\xe2\x80\x94 1873, 9,543,0006 ; \n\n\xe2\x80\x94 1874, 10,279,9006 ; \xe2\x80\x94 1875, 10,680,4046 ; \xe2\x80\x94 1876, \n10,285,1946 ; \xe2\x80\x94 1877, 11,288,8726 ; \xe2\x80\x94 1878, 11,053,9016 ; \xe2\x80\x94 \n1879, 10,586,8946 ; \xe2\x80\x94 1880, 10,492,9356 ; \xe2\x80\x94 1881, \n10,725,9196; \xe2\x80\x94 1882, 10,483,9016; \xe2\x80\x94 1883, 10,899,5006; \xe2\x80\x94 \n1884-5, 11,645,711/- ; 1885-6, . 12,694,9006 ; 1886-7, \n12,993,1006 ; 1887-8, 12,476,8006 ; 1888-9, 13,082,8006 ; \n1889-90, 13,685,4006 ; 1890-1, 14,557,8566 ; 1891-2, \n14,215,1006 ; 1892-3, 14,240,2006 \n\nNaval Salute to the British Flag began in Alfred\'s \nreign, and though sometimes disputed, may be said to \nhave been continued ever since. The Dutch agreed to \nstrike to the English colours in the British seas, in \n1673. The honour of the flag salute at sea was also \nformally assented to by France in 1704, although it \nhad been long previously exacted by England ; see \nFlag and Salutes at Sea. \n\nNaval Uniforms. The first notice of the establishment \nof a uniform in the British naval service, which we \nhave met with, occurs in the Jacobite\'s Journal of 5 \nMarch, 1748, under the head of " Domestic News," in \nthese terms : \xe2\x80\x94 \' \' An order is said to be issued, re- \nquiring all his majesty\'s sea-officers, from the admiral \ndown to the midshipman, to wear a uniformity of \nclothing, for which purpose pattern coats for dress \nsuits and frocks for each rank of officers are lodged at \nthe Navy-office, and at the several dockyards for their \ninspection." This is corroborated by the Gazette of 13 \nJuly, 1757, when the first alteration in the uniform \ntook place, and in which a reference is made to the \norder of 1748, alluded to in the journal above men- \ntioned, and which in fact is the year when a naval uni- \nform was first established. James I. had indeed \ngranted, by warrant of 6 April, 1609, to six of his \nprincipal masters of the navy, "liverie coats of fine \nred cloth. " The warrant is stated to have been drawn \nverbatim from one signed by queen Elizabeth, but \nwhich had not been acted upon by reason of her death. \nThis curious document is in the British Museum ; but \nking James\'s limited red livery is supposed to have \nbeen soon discontinued. \xe2\x80\x94 Quarterly Review. \n\nNavy Pay Office, organised in 1644, was abolished in \n1836, when the army and navy pay departments were \nconsolidated in the Paymaster General\'s office. \n\nNavy List was first officially compiled by John Finlai- \nson, the celebrated actuary, and published monthly in \n1814 ; now quarterly. \n\nNaval Reviews. The queen reviewed the fleet at Spit- \nhead, near Portsmouth, n Aug. 1853; again, March, 1854, \nbefore it sailed to the Baltic, at the commencement of \nthe Russian war ; and again, at Portsmouth, on the \nconclusion of peace, in the presence of the parliament, \n&c. The fleet extended in an unbroken line of 5 miles, \nand consisted of upwards of 300 men-of-war, carry- \ning 3800 guns, and manned by 40,000 seamen. There \nwere about 100,000 spectators, 23 April, 1856. \n\nA grand naval review (15 great wooden ships, 15 iron- \nplated, 16 gun- vessels and boats), was held at Spithead \n(the queen, the sultan, and the viceroy of Egypt pre- \n\n\n\nsent), 17 July, 1867 ; another at Spithead before the \nshah of Persia, 23 June, 1873 : another at Spithead \nby the queen, (10 broadside ships, 8 turret ships, &c.,) \n3 Aug. 1878 ; another at Portsmouth, the queen and \ncolonial visitors present (at the expense of the officers), \n23 July, 1886. \n\nGrand unexampled naval review (jubilee) by the queen \nat Spithead, 23 July, 1887 ; 135 vessels of all kinds, \nincluding 26 ironclads, 20,200 officers and men ; one \nman died through the bursting of a saluting gun. \n\nNaval Volunteers (or Reserve). By 16 & 17 Vict. c. 73 \n(1853), the admiralty were empowered to raise a body \nof sea-faring men to be called the " Naval Coast Volun- \nteers," no to exceed 10,000, for the defence of the \ncoast, and for actual service if required. In 1859, \nacts were passed to enable the admiralty to raise \na number of men, not exceeding 30,000, as a re- \nserve force of seamen, to be called the " Royal Naval \nVolunteers." In November following, the admiralty \nissued a statement of the "qualifications, advantages, \nand obligations " of this reserve. The enrolment com- \nmenced on 1 Jan. i860. The engagement is for five \nyears, and the volunteers are entitled to a pension \nwhen incapacitated after the expiration of the term. \nAt the prospect of war with the United States in Dec. \n1861, a great number of seamen at Hartlepool, Dundee. \nLondon, Aberdeen, &c. , offered their services. \n\nFirst enrolled body of Royal Naval Volunteers inspected, \nabout 18 Jan. 1873. \n\nNAVY OF FRANCE. It is first mentioned in \nhistory, 728, when, like that of England at an early \nperiod, it consisted of galleys ; in this year the \nFrench defeated the Frisian fleet. The French \nfleet was almost annihilated by Edward III. at the \nbattle of Sluys, 24 June, 1340. It was considerably, \nimproved under Louis XIV. at the instance of his \nminister Colbert, about 1697. The French navy was \nin its splendour about 1781 ; became greatly reduo-.\'d \nin the wars with England ; see Naval Battles. Ifc \nwas greatly increased by the emperor Napoleon III., \nand in 1859 consisted of 51 ships of the line (14 \nsailing vessels and 37 steamers), and 39S other \nvessels, in all 449; including vessels building, con- \nverting, or ordered to be built. The new French \niron-clad frigate Gloire, constructed by M. Dupuy \nde Lome, launched in i860, was generally considered \nas successful. The Solferino and Magenta were \nlaunched in June, 1861 ; other iron vessels since. \nThe Magenta was destroyed by fire, 6killed, 31 Aug. \n1875. The Devastation, a great iron-clad, launched \nat Lorient, 19 Aug. 1879. France had 22 battle- \nships, II armoured vessels for coast defence, \nbesides gun boats, cruisers and torpedo boats ; in \nall 256 vessels in 1888. The Supreme ISavy \nCouncil was created by decree, 6 Dec. 1889. See \nunder Fleets. \n\nNAZAEENE, a name given to Jesus Christ, \nand his disciples ; but afterwards to a sect who re- \njected the doctrine of Christ\'s divinity in the first \ncentury. A sect named Nazarenes, resembling the \nSociety of Friends in Britain, became prominent in \nHungary in the autumn of 1867. \n\nNEAPOLIS, see Naples. \n\nNEBEASKA, a N.W. territory of North \nAmerica (part of Louisiana), was organised 30 May, \n1854. Capital, Lincoln ; Omaha city, very im- \nportant. Bradshaw destroyed by a tornado, 3 June, \n1890. Population, 1880, 452,402 ; 1890, 1,058,910. \n\nNEBULAE HYPOTHESIS, put forth \nby sir Wm. Herschel, 181 1, supposes that the uni- \nverse was formed out of shapeless masses of nebulas \nor clusters of small stars. It has not been generally \nreceived. In Oct. i860, Mr. Lassell strictly \nscrutinised the dumb-bell nebula, and stated that \nthe brightest parts did not appear to be stars. In \n1865, Mr. Wm. Huggins reported that he had \n\n\n\nNECROMANCERS. \n\n\n\n673 \n\n\n\nNERVES. \n\n\n\nanalysed certain nebulae by their spectra, and be- \nlieved them to be entirely gaseous. \n\nFor Mr. Norman Lockyer\'s theory see under Meteors, \n17 Nov. 1887. \n\nNECROMANCERS, see Magic. \n\nNECTARINE, the Amijgdalus Persica, ori- \nginally came from Persia about 1562. Previously, \npresents of nectarines were frequently sent to the \ncourt of England from the Netherlands; and \nCatherine, queen of Henry YIIL, distributed thein \namong her friends. \n\nNEEDLES. "The making of Spanish needles \nwas first taught in England by Elias Crowse, a \nGerman, about the eighth year of queeu Elizabeth, \nand in queen Mary\'s time there was a negro made \ndne Spanish needles in Cheapside, but would never \nteach his art to any." \xe2\x80\x94 Stoiv. The manufacture \nwas greatly improved at "Whitechapel, London ; \nKedditch, in Gloucestershire, and Hathersage, in \nDerbyshire. An exhibition of ancient needlework \nwas formed at South Kensington Museum in 1873. \n\nNEEDLE-GUN (Zundnadelgewehr), a musket \n\ninvented by J. N. Dreyse of Soemnierda, about 1827, \nand made a breech-loader in 1836, which was \nadopted by the Prussian general Manteuffel about \n1846. It was found to be a most effective weapon \nin the war with Denmark in 1864, and in that with \nAustria in 1S66. The ignition of the charge is pro- \nduced by a fine steel rod or needle being pressed \nthrough the cartridge. The principle is claimed \nfor James "Whitley, of Dublin, 1823 ; Abraham \nMosar, 1831 ; and" John Hanson, of Huddersfield, \nS843. \n\nNEERWINDEN, see Landen. \n\nNEGRO TRADE, see Slavery. \n\nNEGUS (wine and water), said to be named \nafter col. Francis Negus, about 1 7 14. The sove- \nreign of Abyssinia is termed negus. \n\nNELSON\'S VICTORIES, &c, see separate \n\narticles. \n\nHoratio Nelson, born at Bunihani Thorpe, Norfolk \n\n29 Sept. 1758 \n\nSailed with captain Phipps to the North Pole . 1773 \n\nDistinguished himself in the West Indies . . . 1780 \n\nLost an eye at the reduction of Calvi, Corsica . 1794 \n\nCaptured Elba 9 Aug. 1796 \n\nWith Jervis, at the victory off St. Vincent, 14 Feb. ; \nknighted and made rear-admiral . 20 Feb. 1797 \n\nLost his right arm at the unsuccessful attack on \nSanta Cruz 25-26 July, ,, \n\nGained the battle of the Nile, 1 Aug. ; created baron \nNelson of the Nile .... 6 Nov. 1798 \n\nAttacks Copenhagen, 2 April ; created viscount, 22 \nMay ; attacks Boulogne flotilla, and destroys \nseveral ships 15 Aug. 1801 \n\nAppointed to chief command in the Mediterranean, \n\n20 May, 1803 \n\nPursues the French and Spanish fleets, March to \nAug. ; returns to England, Aug. ; re-appears at \nCadiz, and defeats the fleets in Trafalgar Bay, \nwhere he is killed 21 Oct. 1805 \n\nI be Victory man-of-war arrived off Portsmouth with \nhis remains 4 Dec. ,, \n\nThe body lay in state in the Painted Hall, at Green- \nwich, 5 Jan. ; removed to the Admiralty, 8 Jan. ; \nfuneral took place 9 Jan. 1806 \n\nThe prince of Wales (afterwards George IV.), the \nduke of Clarence (afterwards William IV.), and \nother royal dukes ; almost all the peers of England, \nand the lord mayor and corporation of London, \nwith thousands of military and naval officers and \ndistinguished men, followed the funeral car to St. \nPaul\'s : the military amounted to near 10,000, \nindependent of volunteers. \n\nKelson Column, Trafalgar-square, London, completed, \nand statue placed on it (see Statues) 4 Nov. 1843 \n\n\n\nNEMEAN GAMES, celebrated at Nemea, \nin Achaia, said to have been instituted by the Ar- \ngives, in honour of Archemorus, who died by the \nbite of a serpent ; and revived by Hercules* who \nslew the Nemean lion. The conqueror was rewarded \nwith a crown of olives, afterwards of green parsley. \nThey were celebrated every third year, or, accord- \ning to others, on the first and third year of every \nOlympiad. \xe2\x80\x94 Herodotus. They were revived by the \nemperor Julian, a.d. 362, but ceased in 396. \n\nNEO-PLATONISM or New Platonism, \n\nsee Philosophy. \n\nNEPAUL (N. India) was conquered by the \nGhoorkas, 1768, who made treaties with the British, \nI79i_and 1801 ; but frequently made incursions; \nand in consequence war with them commenced 1 Nov. \n1814 ; terminated 27 April, 1815. A treaty of peace \nwas signed between the parties, 2 Dec. 1815. "War \nwas renewed through an infraction of the treaty by \nthe Nepaulese, Jan. 1816; and after several con- \ntests, unfavourable to the Nepaulese, the former \ntreaty was ratified, 15 March, 1816. An extra- \nordinary embassy from the king of Nepaul to the \nqueen of Great Britain arrived in England, landing \nat Southampton, 25 May, and remained till Aug. \nl8tjO ; it consisted of the Nepaulese prince, Jung \nBanadoor, and his suite, to whom many r honours \nwere paid. He supported the English during the \nIndian mutiny in 1857. The prince of Wales was \nhonourably received in Nepaul, 12 Eeb. 1876. \nWar with Thibet on account of robbed merchants \n\nMay, id84 \n\nThibet submits June, ,, \n\nRevolution : the prime minister and son murdered ; \n\n22 Nov. 1885 \nNew ministry constituted : the maharajah, Pirthibi \n\nBir Bikrmn Sah (born 7 Aug. 1875). \nAnother revolution imminent, Dec. 1887 ; proves \n\nunsuccessful Jan. 1S88 \n\nGen. lord Roberts\' visit to Nepaul, very satisfactory \n\nApril, 1892 \n\nNEPHALIA, sacrifices of sobriety among the \nGreeks, when they offered mead instead of wine to \nthe sun and moon, to the nymphs, to Aurora, and \nto Venus ; and burnt any wood but that of the vine, \nfig-tree, and mulberry-tree, esteemed symbols of \ndrunkenness, 613 B.C. \n\nNEPHOSCOPE (nephos, Greek, a cloud). An \napparatus for measuring the velocity of clouds, in- \nvented by Karl Braun, and reported to the Academy \nof Sciences, Paris, 27 July, 1868. \n\nNEPTUNE, a primary planet, first observed \non 23 Sept. 1846, by Dr. Galle at Berlin, in conse- \nquence of a letter from M. Le Verrier, who had \nconjectured from the anomalous movements of \nUranus that a distant planet might exist nearly in \nthe position where Neptune is situated. Calcula- \ntions to the same effect had been previously made \nby Mr. J. Couch Adams, of Cambridge ; but unfor- \ntunate delays occurred in their publication, and \nalso of professor Challis\'s consequent discovery of \nthe planet. The Royal Society of London awarded \nits gold medal to both astronomers as equals in the \ntheoretical discovery. A satellite of Neptune was \ndiscovered by Mr. Lassell on 10 Oct. following. \nNeptune is said to have been seen by Lalandc, and \nthought to be a fixed star. The Greek god Poseidon \nbecame the Roman Neptune. Trof. J. C. Adams \ndied 21 Jan. 1892. \n\nNEPTUNIUM, a new metal discovered in tan- \ntalite, from Connecticut, by 11. Herrmann in 1877; \nnot generally admitted by chemists. \n\nNERVES- Our knowledge of the nature and \nfunctions of the nervous system has been greatly \n\n\n\nNERVIL \n\n\n\n674 \n\n\n\nNEW BRUNSWICK/ \n\n\n\nenlarged by the researches and experiments of phy- \nsiologists during the present century. Sir Charles \nBell announced his discovery of the distinction \nbetween the nerves of motion and sensation, 1810. \nHe published papers on the nervous system, \n1821. See Craniology. \n\nNERVII, a warlike tribe in Belgic Gaul, were \ndefeated in a severe battle by Julius Caesar 57, and \nsubdued 53 B.C. \n\nNERWINDEN, see Landen. \n\nNESBIT, seeMsbet. \n\nNESTORIANS, the followers of Nestorius, \nbishop of Constantinople (428-431), who is repre- \nsented as a heretic. He was opposed by Eutyches ; \nsee Eutychians. \n. He rejected the error of those who said Christ was \na mere man, as Ebion, Paul of Samosata Photinus. \n2. He maintained that the Word was united to the \nhumanity in Christ Jesus, and that this union was \nmost intimate and strict. 3. He held that these two \nnatures made one Christ, one Son, one Person ; only \nmade up of two natures. 4. And this one Person may \nhave either divine or human properties attributed to \nHim. \nNestorian Christians in the Levant administer the \nsacrament with leavened bread and in both kinds, \npermit their priests to marry, and use neither con- \nfirmation nor auricular confession. \xe2\x80\x94 DuPin. \nA Nestorian priest and deacon were in London in July, \n1862. \n\nNETHERLANDS. William Frederick, \nprince of Orange, assumed the title of King of the \nNetherlands 16 March, 1815, and his successors, \nkings of Holland, retain the title. See Flanders, \nHolland, and Belgium. \n\nNETLEY HOSPITAL, near Southampton, \nfor invalid soldiers. The foundation stone was laid \nby the queen, 19 May, 1856. \n\nNEUFCHATEL, a canton in Switzerland, \nformerly a lordship, afterwards a principality. The \nfirst known lord was Ulric de Fenis, about 1032, \nwhose descendants ruled till 1373, after which hy \nmarriages it frequently changed governors. On the \ndeath of the duchesse de Nemours, the last of the \nLonguevilles, in 1 707, there were many claimants ; \namong them our William III. He and the allies \nhowever gave it to Frederick I. of Prussia with the \ntitle of prince. In 1806 the principality was ceded \nto France, and Napoleon bestowed it on his general \nBerthier, who held it till 18 14, when it fell to the \ndisposal of the allies. They restored the king of \nPrussia with the title of prince with certain rights \nand privileges; but constituted it a part of the \nSwiss confederation. Population, 1888: canton, \n108,153; city, 16,261. \n\nAfter an unsuccessful attempt in 1831, the inhabit- \nants repudiated their allegiance to Prussia, and \nproclaimed Neufchatel a free and independent \nmember of the Swiss confederation . . . 1848 \nThe king of Prussia protested against this ; and a \nprotocol was signed between England, France, and \nAustria, recognising his claims . . . . 1852 \n\nSome of his adherents, headed by the count de Pour- \ntales, broke out into insurrection against the re- \npublican authorities, who, however, quickly sub- \ndued and imprisoned them, with the intention of \nbringing them to trial .... Sept. 1856 \n"War threatened by the king of Prussia, and great \nenergy and determination manifested by the Swiss. \nOn the intervention of the English and French \ngovernments, a treaty was signed by which the \nking of Prussia virtually renounced his claims, on \nreceiving a pecuniary compensation, which he \neventually gave up. He retains the title of prince \nof Neufchatel, without any political rights \n\n11 June, 1857 \nThe prisoners of Sept. 1856 were released withouttrial \n\n18 Jan. ,. \n\n\n\nNEUROLOGICAL SOCIETY OF \n\nLONDON, formed to promote the study of nerves^ \nfrom a psychological, physiological, anatomical, \nand pathological point of view, 1887. First \npresident Dr. Samuel Wilks, F.R.S. \n\nNEUSTRIA or WEST FkANCE, a kingdom \nallotted to Clotaire by his father Clovis, at his \ndeath in 511. His descendant, Charlemagne, be- \ncame sole king of France in 771. It was conquered \nby the Northmen and hence named Normandy \n(which see) . \n\nNEUTRALITY LAWS. A commission, in \na report issued in May, 1868, recommended changes. \nAn act to make better provision for the preservation \nof neutrality was passed 9 Aug. 1870. John P. \nMcDiarmid apprehended, for breach of neutrality \nlaws, at Bow-street, 28 Oct. 1870. \n\nNEUTRAL POWERS. By the treaty of \nParis, signed by the representatives of Great \nBritain, Fiance, Austria, Russia, Prussia, Turkey,, \nand Sardinia, on 16 April, 1856, it was determined \nthat privateering should be abolished; that \nneutrals might carry an enemy\'s goods not con- \ntraband of war ; that neutral goods not contraband \nwere free even under an enemy\'s flag ; and that \nblockades to be binding must be effective. The pre- \nsident of the United States acceded to these provi- \nsions in 1861. See International Law. \n\nNEVADA, a western territory of the United \nStates of N. America, organised 2 March, 1861 ;, \nadmitted a state, 31 Oct. 1864. Capital, Carson \ncity. Virginia city was nearly destroyed by fire, 26 \nOct. 1875; several lives were lost ; property about \n2,000,000 dols. ; 10,000 persons rendered homeless, \nPopulation of Nevada, 1880, 62,266; 1890, 45,761. \n\nNEVILLE\'S CROSS or Durham, Battle \n\nOF, between the Scots under king David Bruce and \nthe English it is said (probably incorrectly) under \nPhilippa. consort of Edward III., and lord Percy,. \n12 or 17 Oct. 1346. More than 15,000 of the Scots- \nwere slain, and their king taken prisoner. \n\nNEVIS (W. Indies), an island discovered by \nColumbus, planted by the English in 1628 ; takers \nby the French, 14 Feb. 1782 ; restored to the Eng- \nlish in 1783. The capital is Charleston. See Lee- \nivard Isles. \n\nNEWARK (Nottinghamshire). The church \nwas erected by Henry IV. Here, in the midst of \ntroubles, died king John, 19 Oct. 1216; here the- \nroyal army under prince Rupert repulsed the army \nof the parliament, besieging the town, 21 March,. \n1644; and here, 5 May, 1646, Charles I., after his \ndefeat at Naseby, put himself into the hands of the- \nScotch army, who afterwards gave him up to his \nenemies. Newark was first incorporated by Ed- \nward VI., and afterwards by Charles II. Absorbed \ninto the county, 1885. Population, 1881, 14,018; \n1891, 14,457. \n\nNEWARK, a town in New Jersey, U.S.A.,. \nsettled in 1666, and chartered in 1836. Population \nin 1890, 181,830. \n\nNEW BRUNSWICK was taken from Nova \nScotia, and received its name as a separate colon y \nin 1785. It was united with Canada for legislative \npurposes by an act passed 29 March, 1867. Popu- \nlation of New Brunswick in 1865, 272,780 ; in 1881, \n321,233; 1891, 321,294. Capital Frederickton. \nLieut. -governor, Lemuel A. Wilmot, 1868 ; Samuel \nLeonard Tilley, 1874; Robert Duncan Wilmot, 1880; \nsir Samuel L. Tilley, 1886. \n\nGreat fire at St. John, 20-22 June, 1877 ; destruction of \n12 churches, 25 public buildings ; thousands houseless ; \n\n\n\nNEWBURY. \n\n\n\n675 NEWCASTLE ADMINISTRATION. \n\n\n\nabout 20 killed, loss about 3,000,000/. Subscriptions \n\nin Britain. \nVery destructive forest fires on both sides of the St. \n\nLawrence, 10 June et seg. 1891. \nThe St. Lawrence lumber mills burnt, 24 Sept. 1891. \n\nNEWBURY (Berkshire). Near here were \nfought two desperate battles \xe2\x80\x94 (1.) 20 Sept. 1643; \nbetween the army of Charles I. and that of the \nparliament under Essex ; it terminated somewhat \nfavourably for tbe king. Among the slain was \nthe amiable Lucius Cary, viscount Falkland, \ndeeply regretted. (2.) A second battle of dubious \nresult was fought between the royalists and the \nparliamentarians under Waller, 27 Oct. 1644. Popu- \nlation, 1881, 14,018; 1891, 14,457. \nA memorial to lord Falkland and his companions, at \n\nNewbury, was inaugurated by the earl of Carnarvon, 9 \n\nSept., 1878. \n\nNEW CALEDONIA (Pacific Ocean), dis- \ncovered by Cook on 4 Sept. 1774, was seized by the \nFrench, 20 Sept. 1853, and colonised. The French \ngovernment in Dec. 1864, redressed the outrages \ncommitted upon the British missionaries at a station \nestablished here in 1854. \nIn the latter part of June, 1878, some of the native \n\ntribes revolted, burnt some of the towns and villages, \n\nand killed about 90 of the European colonists, men. \n\nwomen, children, and servants, including col. Gally- \n\nPassebose, the military commandant of the island. \n\nThe insurrectionwas not subdued till the end of the year. \nNow used as a French penal settlement ; said to be very \n\ndisorderly, 1884. See Recidivists. \n\nNEWCASTLE-TJPON-TYNE (Northumber- \nland), the Roman Pons iElia, the first coal port in \nthe world,* and the commercial metropolis of the \nnorth of England. The coal-mines were discovered \nhere about 1234. The first charter granted to the \ntownsmen for digging coal was by Henry III. in \n1239. See Po2)idation. \n\nThe castle built by Kobert Courthose, son of Wil- \nliam I. 1080 \n\nTaken by William II. 1095 \n\nSt. Nicholas church built, about 1091 ; burnt in 1216 ; \nrestored by Edward I., to whom John Baliol did \n\nhomage here, 1292 ; rebuilt 1359 \n\nNewcastle surrenders to the Scotch .... 1640 \nWho here gave up Charles I. to the parliament \n\n30 Jau. 1647 \n\nOccupied by general Wade in 1745 \n\nAntiquarian Society established .... 1813 \nLiterary and Philosophical Society founded 1793 ; \n\nliberally endowed by Robert Stephenson . . 1858-g \nT. Bewick, the wood-engraver, dies .... 1828 \nThe magnificent market erected by Richd. Grainger, \nwho greatly improved the town . . . .1835 \n\nBritish Association met here 1838 \n\nHigh level bridge erected by Robert Stephenson ; \n\nand grand central station built . . . 1846-50 \n1538 persons die of cholera . 31 Aug. to 26 Oct. 1853 \nGreat fire through the explosion at Gateshead (which \n\nsee) 5, 6 Oct. 1854 \n\nGreat distress through failure of Northumberland \nJoint-Stock Bank ...... Nov. 1857 \n\nRichard Grainger dies, aged 63 . . . 4 July, 1861 \nEnthusiastic leception of Mr. W. E. Gladstone, \n\n7-9 Oct. 1862 \nBritish Association met here, second time 26 Aug. 1863 \nGreat fire at Brown\'s flour mills, <fec, near the new \nlevel bridge, which is injured ; about 70,000/. loss \n\n24 June, 1866 \nThe Central Exchange destroyed by fire 11 Aug. 1867 \nMr. Mawson, the sheriff, and Mr. Bryson, the town \nsurveyor, and others, killed, while attempting to \n\n\n\n* In 1306 the use of coal for fuel was prohibited in \nLondon, by royal proclamation, chiefly because it injured \nthe sale of wood for fuel, great quantities of which were \nthen growing about the city ; but this interdiction did \nnot long continue, and we may consider coal as having \nbeen dug and exported from this place for more than 500 \nyears. \n\n\n\nbury some nitro-glycerine in the town-moor, to \n\nget rid of it 18 Dec. 1867 \n\nStrike of about 9000 engineers, for day\'s work of \n\nnine hours ; begun about 16 May, 1871 \n\nCollege of Physical Science in connection with the \n\nDurham University, opened . . . Oct. ,, \nEngineers\' strike closed : terms, nine hours a day, \nto begin on 1 Jan. 1872 ; men to work overtime \nwhen needed ; wages to remain the same ; ar- \nranged by Mr. R. B. Philipson and Mr. Joseph \n\nCowen 6 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nElswick estate purchased by a committee for a \n\npublic park, announced .... Aug. 1873 \nNew R. C. church built by the Dominicans, opened \n\n10 Sept. ,, \nNew swing-bridge over the Tyne (2S1 feet long ; \nweight, 1450 tons, lifted by a hydraulic crane) ; \nbegun 1868 ; completed . . . June, 1876 \nBishoprics act ; permitting the erection of a see at \n\nNewcastle, passed .... 16 Aug. 1878 \nTechnical college for north of England inaugurated \n\n24 Sept. 1880 \nCentenary of birth of George Stephenson celebrated \n\n9 June, 1881 \nNewcastle constituted a city; charter received \n\nS July, 1882 \nPublic library opened 13 Sept. 1880; the new \n\nbuilding was opened . 1 Sept. ,, \n\nSanitary Institute of Great Britain and congress \n\nmeet here 26 Sept. \n\nParks given by sir William Armstrong ; addition \n\nFeb. 1883 \nVisit of prince and princess of Wales and family ; \nenthusiastic reception ; opening of Armstrong \npark, natural history museum, free library, \nAlbert Edward dock, <fcc. . . 20, 21 Aug. 1884 \n\nGreat distress through want of employment Oct. ,, \nRoyal mining, engineering, and industrial exhi- \nbition opened by the duke of Cambridge, 11 May ; \n2,002,273 admissions ; reported successful ; closed \n\n29 Oct. 1887 \nRoyal agricultural society\'s show opened 11 July; \n\nvisited by the prince of Wales and sons 12 July, ,, \nNewcastle and Durham college of physical science : \nfoundation stone laid by sir Wm. Armstrong \n(after lord), 15 June, 1887 ; opened by the \n\nprincess Louise 5 Nov. 1S88 \n\nThird meeting of the British Association 11 Sept. 1889 \nThe new college of medicine (founded by the duke \nof Northumberland in 1887) opened by the mayor \n\n2 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nMr. John Fleming bequeaths above 100,000/. to \nlocal charities (Fleming Memorial Hospital for \nsick children, &c), announced . . Feb. 89 \nDeath of Mr. John Clayton, aged 98 ; 45 years \n\ntown clerk (estate sworn at 728,746/.) . 14 July, ,, \nThreatened strike of persons employed on the \nNorth-Eastern railway, averted by concessions . \n\nabout 20 Dec. , \nNewcastle programme, proposed at the meeting of \nthe National Liberal Federation (by Mr. Glad- \nstone). Re-constitution of the house of lords ; \none man, one vote ; shorter parliaments ; paid \nmembers ; settlement of the Irish question ; land \n\nlaws, &c 1 Oct. et tea. 189 \n\nGreat strike of the engineers on the Tyne and Wear \n\nrespecting overtime, 2 Nov., ended . . 7 Nov. ,, \nStrike and lock-out of ship-building engineers, and \nplumbers, on the Tyne, due to internal disputes, \nabout 30 Jan. ; about 20,000 out of work, 12 \nMarch ; arbitration accepted ; work resumed \n\n27 April, 1892 \nThe rev. Dr. John Collingwood Bruce, historian of \n\n" The Roman wall " dies, aged 86 . .5 April ,, \nEnd of the Durham miners\' strike, see Coal . \n\n11 March- 1 June, ,, \n\nNEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE, Bishopric \n\nOF, founded by Order in Council 17 May, 1882. \n\nBISHOP. \n\n1882. Ernest Roland Wilberforce consecrated at Durham, \n25 July, 1882. \n\nNEWCASTLE ADMINISTRATION, \n\nformed April, 1754; resigned Nov. 1756; when \nthe duke of Devonshire became first lord of the \ntreasury. \n\nx x 2 \n\n\n\nNEWCASTLE. \n\n\n\n676 \n\n\n\nNEWFOUNDLAND. \n\n\n\nThomas Holies Pelham, duke of Newcastle, first lord of \nthe treasury. \n\nHenry Bilson Legge, chancellor of the exchequer. \n\nEarl of Holdernesse and sir Thomas Robinson (after- \nwards lord Grantham), secretaries of state. The latter \nsucceeded by Henry Fox (afterwards lord Holland). \n\nLord Anson, first lord of the admiralty. \n\nEarl Granville, lord president. \n\nLord Gower (succeeded by the duke of Marlborough \n1755), lord privy seal. \n\nEarl of Hardwicke, lord chancellor. \n\nDuke of Grafton, earl of Halifax, George Grenville, <&c. \n\nNEWCASTLE AND PITT ADMINIS- \nTRATION (see Chatham Administration) , formed \nJune, 1757- After various changes it resigned May, \n1762 ; lord Bute coming into power. \nThomas Holies Pelliam, duke of Newcastle, first lord of \n\nthe treasury. \nWilliam Pitt (afterwards lord Chatham), secretary of state \n\nfor the northern department, and leader of the house of \n\ncommons. \nEarl of Holdernesse, secretary of state for the southern \n\ndepartment. \nEarl Granville, lord president. \nEarl Temple, privy seal. \nH. B. Legge, chancellor of the exchequer. \nDuke of Devonshire, lord chamberlain. \nDuke of Rutland, lord steward. \nLord Anson, admiralty. \nDuke of Marlborough (succeeded by lord Ligonier), \n\nordnance. \nSir Robert Henley, lord keeper of the great seal. \nHenry Fox, George Grenville, viscount Barrington, lord \n\nHalifax, James Grenville, &c. \n\nNEW CHUECH, see Swedenborgians. \n\nNEW COLLEGE (St. John\'s Wood, London), \nerected by the Independent dissenters for the edu- \ncation of their ministers, 1850-1, was formed by \nthe union of Homerton, Highbury, and Coward \ncolleges. See Oxford. \n\nNEW DEPARTURE DEMOCRATS, see \n\nUnited States, 1871. \n\nNEW ENGLAND (N. America). The first \nsettlement made in 1607, was named New England \nby captain Smith, in 1614. A band of 102 Puri- \ntans, now termed the " Pilgrim Fathers " (with 28 \nwomen) arrived here in the Hay Flower, and \nfounded the settlement on Plymouth Eock, 25 Dec. \n1620, which was named New Plymouth. This was \nthe nucleus of Massachusetts, from whence were \ngradually developed New Hampshire, Vermont, \nConnecticut, and Rhode Island. In 1643 these \nsettlements formed the first American confederation, \na defensive union, with a constitution based on the \nMosaic law, governed by a religious aristocracy, \nwhich lasted till 1693. "Maine was made an inde- \npendent state in 1820. \n\nNEW FOREST (Hampshire), was made \n("afforested") by William the Conqueror, 1079-85. \nIt is said that the whole country, for thirty miles \nin compass,_was laid waste. William Rufus was \nkilled in this forest by an arrow shot by Walter \nTyrrel, that accidentally glanced against a tree, \n2 Aug. 1 100, the site of which is now pointed out \nby a triangular stone. The New Forest Deer \nRemoval act was passed 14 & 15 Vict. c. 76, 7 Aug. \n185 1. Agitation for the preservation of this forest, \nautumn, 1870. In accordance with an act passed \nin 1877, the forest is now managed by a court of \nVerderers as a public pleasure ground, and cattle \nfarm. See Forests. \n\nNEWFOUNDLAND (N. America), discov- \nered by John Cabot, who called it Prima \nVista, 24 June, 1497. It was formally taken pos- \nsession of by sir Humphry Gilbert, 1583. In the \nreign of Elizabeth, other nations had the advan- \n\n\n\ntage of the English in the fishery. In 1577 there \nwere 100 fishing vessels from Spain, 50 from Portugal, \n150 from France, and only 15, but of larger size, \nfrom England. \xe2\x80\x94 Hakluyt. But the English fishery \nin some years afterwards (1625) had increased so \nmuch that the ports of Devonshire alone employed \n150 ships, which sold their fish in Spain, Portugal, \nand Italj r . The sovereignty of England was recog- \nnised in 1 7 13, by the treaty of Utrecht, certain \nrights on the " French shores " being reserved for \nFrance. Newfoundland obtained the privilege of \na colonial legislature in 1832; and the bishopric \nwas established in 1839. Population, 1884, \n197,335. Appalling fire at St. John\'s, a great \nportion of the town destroyed, the loss estimated at \n1,000,000/. sterling, 9 June, 1846. On 14 Jan. \n1857, a convention was concluded between the \nEnglish and French governments, confirming cer- \ntain French privileges of fishery in exchange for \nothers. The English colonists were dissatisfied \nwith this convention. Newfoundland refused \nunion with the dominion of Canada, March, 1869 ; \na railway from St. John\'s to St. George\'s bay, \nproposed by the colonial government Aug. 1878. \nCapital, St. John\'s; population, 1884, 31,142. \nGovernor, col. sir Stephen J. Hill, 1870 ; sir John \nH. Glover, Jan. 1876. Maxse died Sept. 1883 ; sir \nJohn Hawley Glover, Dec. 1883; died 30 Sept. \n1885; sir G. Wm. des Voeux, Feb. 1886; sir J. \nTerence N. O\'Brien, Nov. 1888. See Canada, Nov. \n1877. \n\nFishery Dispute. At Fortune bay, U.S., fishers \nfixed nets on Sunday, 13 Jan. 1878 ; this being \ncontrary to local regulations, they were forcibly \nremoved ; controversj\' ensued ; Mr. Evarts on \npart of U. S government sent despatch, 24 Aug. ; \ncorrespondence, Sept. Oct. ; the marquis of Salis- \nbury refused compensation ; but earl Granville \ngranted it ; is,oooZ. were awarded by arbitration \n\n28 May, 1881 \n\nThe French tri-colour flag set up at Cumberland \nStage, near St. John\'s, by a French captain, \n\n9 Sept. 1882 \n\nConflicts between the Orangemen and Romanists \nat Harbour Grace ; several killed . 26 Dec. 1883 \n\nContinued disputes through the British lobster fac- \ntories on the French shore 1890 \n\nThe people dissatisfied with the new arrangements \nbegun after 1 July, 1889, termed modus vivendi. \nA great meeting at St. John\'s . 26 March, ,, \n\nSir James Winter, ex-attorney-general, and other \ndelegates, arrive in London . . .13 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAddress to the queen voted by the Newfoundland \nlegislature 14 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nA French war vessel requests the stoppage of \nBritish fishing in St. George\'s bay ; indignation \nmeeting at St. John\'s . . reported 24 May, ,, \n\nThe parliament votes an address to the queen and \nis prorogued n June, ,, \n\nFight between Newfoundlanders and French \nfishermen respecting lobsters, at Port-au-Port, \nwith clubs, &c. ; the latter beaten \n\nabout 19 June, ,, \n\nCapt. Sir Baldwin Walker of the Emerald, stops \nMr. Baird\'s lobster factory at Sandy Point, about \n26 June ; Mr. Baird sues for damages . July, ,, \n\nFrench war vessel at Port-au-Port drives off 30 \nBritish fishing vessels . . . .23 June, ,, \n\nSir William Whiteway, premier, and Mr. Harvey, \ndelegates in London, 3 July, e.t seq. ; the colonists \nclaim extinction of French rights, about 5 Aug. ; \nSir W. Whiteway returns to Newfoundland \n\n12 Nov. et seq. ,, \n\nThe modus vivendi enforced by the Emerald and \nthe Forward gunboat . . . Sept. el seq. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nJoseph Girardin, capt. of the French schooner \nMinegard, arrested for illegal acts ; imprisoned \ntill fines were paid ; rescued from prison, regains \nhis ship, puts off to sea ; the ship runs aground, \nand is again seized ..... Oct. ,, \n\nGreat storm, destruction of shipping, buildings, &c. \n\nreported 8 Dec. ,, \n\n\n\nNEW FEANCE. \n\n\n\n677 \n\n\n\nNEW GUINEA. \n\n\n\nAction of Mr. Baird against sir Baldwin Walker in \nthe supreme court concluded ; judgment reserved \n\n10 Feb. 1891 \n\nVerdict for Mr. Baird, 18 March ; appeal to the \nprivy council, March, 1891 ; dismissed 4 Aug. 1892 \n\nArbitration accepted by the British and French \ngovernments, the modus vivendi to continue, \nagreement signed in London, 11 March, at Paris, \n13 March, and reported at St. John\'s 13 March, ,, \n\nBdl brought into the house of lords to enforce the \nmodus vivendi, early April ; read second time \n\n27 April, 1891 \n\nSir William Whiteway, and 4 other delegates \nappear at the house of lords, and make a state- \nment 23 April, ,, \n\nThe house of assembly adopts a petition to the \nqueen, to ratily their convention with the United \nStates 8 April, ,, \n\nThe British fishermen of Fortune\'s bay, rise against \nthe sale of bait to others, about 22 April ; stock- \nade raised, and bait seized . about 28 April ,, \n\nAfter some negotiation, the modus vivendi coercion \nact (to last till 1893) is passed by both branches \nof the Newfoundland legislature . 26 May, ,, \n\n(The coercion bill in the British house of commons \nwas withdrawn May). \n\nThe French enforce the modus vivendi; difficulties . \n\nreported 18 June, ,, \n\nSixty British lobster factories closed by order \nunder the modus vivendi . . reported 7 July, ,, \n\nThe Canadian government protests against the re- \nstrictions on the supply of herrings as bait for \nthe fisheries and threatens reprisals, about 28 \nNov. ; and imposes import duties on fish 8 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nA sudden blizzard off the coast drove out 220 fish- \ning boats, 27 men perished by frost, &c. 27 Feb. 1892 \n\nThe modus vivendi, respecting lobsters, renewed \nby the British and French governments 4 April ,, \n\nThe" French shore bill supported by the British \ngovernment, for constituting a judicial commis- \nsion court to settle the disputes submitted to the \nhouse of assembly, 30 April ; rejected 14 May ; a \njoint committee on the subject appointed . \n\n19 May, ,, \n\nThe dispute with Canada settled ; return to the \nstatus of 1889 . . . announced 21 May, ,, \n\nThe French fishermen break the modus vivendi by \ndestroying 300 British lobster traps \n\nabout 13 June, ,, \n\nNEW FEANCE, see Canada. \n\n"NEW" GALLEEY, Regent Street, W., \nerected by seceders from the subscribers to the \nGrosvenor Gallery (which see), opened 9 May, 1888. \nIn this building were held the Tudor, Stuart, \nGuelph, and Victorian exhibitions, which see. A \npicture exhibition was opened 25 April, 1892. \n\nNEWGATE, LONDON. The prison derives its \nname from the gate, to which was attached a small \nprison, gradually enlarged. One was erected in 1086 \nby the bishop of London. It was used as a prison \nfor persons of rank as early as 1218 ; but was rebuilt \nabout two centuries afterwards by the executors of \nsir ltichard Whittington, whose statue with a cat \nstood in the niclie till the time of its demolition \nby the great fire of London, in 1666. It was then \nreconstructed; but becoming an accumulation of \nmisery and inconvenience, was pulled down and \nrebuilt between 1778 and 1780. During the riots \nin 1780, the interior was destroyed by fire, but \nshortly afterwards restored. In 1857 the interior \nwas pulled down to be re-erected on a plan adapted \nto the reformatory system. Newgate was disused \nas an ordinary prison, 31 Dec. 1881. Major Arthur \nGriffiths\' " Chronicles of Newgate," published Jan. \n1884. See Old Bailey. Newgate market, es- \ntablished in 1681, was ordered to be abolished by \nan act passed in 1861, which took effect when the \nmeat and poultry market in Smithfield was opened, \nI Dec. 1868. \n\nNEW GEENADA (S. America), discovered \nby Ujeda in 1499, and settled by the Spaniards in \n\n\n\n1536. It formed part of the new republic of Bo- \ngota, established in 1811; and, combined with \nCaracas, formed the republic of Colombia, 17 Dec. \n1819; see Colontbia. \n\nPresident M. Ospina entered on office 1 April, 1857 \n\nAfter several reunions and dissolutions, the republic \nof New Grenada merged into the Grenadine Con- \nfederation, which includes Bolivar, Antioquia, \nPanama, and other small states . 15 June, 1858 \nStruggles between the conservatives, partisans of \n\nthe old government, and the liberals . . Jan. 1861 \nGeneral Mosquera (liberal) deposes Ospina; and \n\nseizes the government . . . 18 July, ,, \nA congress of the states determine on union, under \nthe name of the United States of Colombia, \n\n20 Sept. ,, \nArnoleda, chief of the conservatives, assassinated \n\n(succeeded by Cassal) . . . . 1 Nov. 1862 \nNew constitution established . . .8 May, 1863 \nMosquera invites Venezuela and Ecuador to join \n\nthe confederation Aug. ,, \n\nEcuador declines \xe2\x80\x94 war ensues . . .20 Nov. ,, \nThe troops of Ecuador defeated, 6 Dec. ; peace en- \nsues, and Ecuador remains independent 30 Dec ,, \nCoup d\'etat of Mosquera, who declares himself dic- \ntator 11 March, 1866 \n\nMosquera deposed by Santos Acosta, who becomes \n\nprovisional president ... 23 May, 1867 \n\nMosquera, the ex-president, exiled . . 1 Nov. ,, \nGeneral Santas Gutierrez Vergara, the president, \n" deposed and imprisoned, and general Ponce made \nprovisional president. Ponce compelled to ab- \ndicate; succeeded by Correoso, 29 Aug., who \ndefeated his opponents ... 12 Nov. i%6& \nThe republic now named Colombia {which see). \n\nNEW GUINEA or Papua, a large island,. \nPacific Ocean, discovered by the Portuguese after \ntbeir settlement of the Moluccas between 151 1 and \n1530. It was visited by Saavedra, a Spaniard, in \n1528. It is said to have been named New Guinea \nby Ortiz de Retes, a Portuguese, 1549. Torres- \nStraits, which divide New Guinea and Australia,, \nwere discovered by Torres, a Spaniard, in 1606. \nIt was frequently visited by the Dutch in the \n17th century. They established a colony and \nerected a fortress, named Dubus, on the S.W. \ncoast, in 1828, which was unsuccessful ; and re- \nmoved in 1835. A lofty range of mountains was \nnamed after capt. Owen Stanley, who first saw them \nfrom his vessel on sea about 1849. \n\nOn 9 Oct. the New Guinea Colonizing Association pro \nposed to lord Carnarvon, the colonial secretary, to \nsend to New Guinea an expedition of 200 men with 50 \nofficers, in a ship of 1200 tons burden ; he declined \nto sanction it, and referred to dangers, 30 Oct. 1875 ; \npart of the island annexed by the Queensland govern- \nment, announced April, 1883, with the approval of all \nAustralia ; this act declared by the British government \nto be " null in point of law, and not to be admitted in \npoint of policy," 2 July, 1883 ; signified by lord Derby\'s \ndispatch, also recommending a confederation of \nAustralian states, 11 July, 1883. \n\nMr. Maclvor\'s proposed expedition to New Guinea pro- \nhibited by lord Derby, Oct. 1883. \n\nInter-colonial conference at Sydney recommend annexa- \ntion, 6 Dec. 1883. \n\nProtectorate of the southern part and adjacent islands \nunder a high commissioner determined on, Aug. 1884 ; \nto be supported by the Australian colonics ; \nMajor-Gen. Peter H. Scratchlcy appointed, Oct. 1884 ; \nprotectorate proclaimed in New Guinea,. 6 Nov. \n\nGerman flag hoisted on northern part and adjacent \nislands ; Australian colonies protest, Dec. 1884. \n\nThe German colony named Kaiser Wilhelm\'s Land, \nMarch, 1885. \n\nAgreement between England and Germany announced, \n19 June, 1885. \n\nExploring expedition of geographical society of Austral- \nasia under captain Evorill, in New Guinea, Sept. 1885. \n\nDeath of sir Peter Henry Scratchley announced, 3 Dec. \n1885. \n\nBill regulating the government passed by legislature o." \nQueensland, 4 Nov. 1887. \n\n\n\nNEW HAMPSHIEE. \n\n\n\n678 \n\n\n\nNEW OELEANS. \n\n\n\nNew Guinea constituted an independent colony by \nletters patent, 30 Oct. 18S8. Seat of government, \nport Moresby ; administrator, Mr. (aft. sir) W. Mac- \ngregor. \n\nSir Win. Macgregor explores the Owen Stanley \nrange of mountains and names one Victoria \n(13,121 feet high), another Albert Edward (12,500 \nfeet), 40 miles inland from Port Moresby, . \n\nMay, June, 1889 \n\nSir Wm. Macgregor lands at Demara with 22 men \nto search for murderers ; repulses an attack of \n250 natives and burns a village . . . . \n\nannounced 15 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMurder of Mr. J. Hedley and the crew of the cutter \nIsabel (while pearl fishing) . reported 1 Oct. 1890 \n\nMassacre of 40 villagers by the Tugaree tribe . \n\nreported 9 Jan. 1891 \n\nThe British colony reported prosperous . Jan. 1892 \n\nNEW HAMPSHIEE, one of the early united \nstates of N. America, was settled in 1623, placed \nunder Massachusetts, 1641 ; separated, 1679. Capital, \nConcord. Population, 1880, 346,991 ; 1890, 376,530. \n\nNEW HAEMONY, see Harmonists. \n\nNEW HEBEIDES (S. Pacific Ocean), dis- \ncovered by Quiros, who believing them to be a \ncontinent named them Tierra Australia del Espiritu \nSanto, in 1606. Bougainville in 1768 found them \nto be islands ; and in 1774 Cook gave them their \npresent name. On appeal, the British government \npromise protection to the natives against kid- \nnapping, &c. 7 Feb. 1883. \nIn 1878 the British and French governments agreed not \n\nto occupy these islands, but French aggressions have \n\nbeen protested against by the Australian colonies, \n\n1887. \nFrench vessels land troops here to protect their \n\ncountrymen, 1 June, 1886. \nLand dispute between French Hebrides company and \n\nnative christian mission, reported 15 Sept. 1886. \nSir William Stawell appointed lieut-governor Jan. 1887. \nConvention signed at Paris ; the French troops to be \n\nwithdrawn, 24 Oct. 1887 ; effected 15 March, 1888. \n\nNEW HOLLAND, see Australia, New South \nWales, &c. \n\nNEW IEELAND, an island in the Pacific \nocean, lat. 2 3\' S. long. 152 E., 200 miles long, 25 \nmiles average width. An attempt of the French \nmarquis de Bays to colonise this island was re- \nported a disastrous failure in August, 1880, and \nMay, 1881. The island is now named New Meck- \nlenburg. \n\nNEW JEESEY, one of the early United States \nof N. America, was settled by the Dutch from New \nYork, 1620; and by Swedes in 1627. Capital, \nTrenton. Population, 1880, 1,131,116; 1890, \n1.444,933- \nThe S. half of Seabright with fine buildings burnt, \n\n17 June (see Jews) 1891 \n\nNEW JEEUSALEM CHUECH, see \n\nSwcdenborgians. \n\nNEW LANAEK (W. Scotland). A manu- \nfacturing village founded by David Dale, 1783. \nHere his son-in-law, Bobert Owen, endeavoured to \nestablish socialism in 1801 ; and here the first in- \nfant school was set up, 1815. \n\n" NEW LEAENING," a term applied to the \nrevival of the study of the Bible and the Greek and \nLatin classics, in their original tongues in the 15th \nand 16th centuries, which conduced greatly to the \nReformation. See Humanism. \n\nNEWMAEKET (Cambridgeshire), renowned \nfor its horse-races. It is first mentioned in 1227; \nand probably derived its name from the market \nthen recently established. James I. erected a hunt- \ning seat here, called the king\'s house, to which \n\n\n\nCharles I. was taken as a prisoner in 1647, when \nthe parliament army was quartered in the neigh- \nbouring village of Kennet. Charles II.. who was fond \nof racing, built a stand-house for the sake of the \ndiversion, about 1667,* and from that period races \nhave been annual to the present time ; and many \nextraordinary races have been run ; see Races. \nPopulation, 1881, 5,093 ; 1891, 6,213. \n\nNEW MEXICO (N. America), ceded to the \nUnited States in 1848, and organised as a territory, \n9 Sept. 1850 ; admitted as a state by the house of \nrepresentatives, 1892. Capital, Santa Fe. Popula- \ntion, 1880, 119,565 ; 1890,153,593. \n\nNEWNHAM COLLEGE, see Girton. \n\nNEW OELEANS, capital of Louisiana, N. \nAmerica (which see), founded in 1 717, under the re- \ngenc3\' of the duke of Orleans. In 1788, seven-eighths \nof the city were destroyed by fire. The British attacked \nNew Orleans in Dec. 1814, and were repulsed with \ngreat loss by the Americans under general Jackson, \n8 Jan. 1815. New Orleans was surrendered to the \nFederals in April, 1862. The strong feeling of the \ninhabitants in favour of the Confederates and \nagainst the Federals induced general B. Butler to \nrule them with military rigour, occasionally degene- \nrating into brutal tyranny, especially towards \nfemales, May to October, 1862. He was replaced by \ngeneral Banks, 16 Dec. 1862. Sanguinary riots; \ndue to agitators, begun 30 July, 1866, only sup- \npressed by martial law ; about 40 persons, white \nand coloured, were killed, and about 160 wounded, \nsimilar riots occurred, 24 Oct. 1868, and often since. \nPopulation in 1880,216,090; in 1890, 158,019. \nNew Orleans. \xe2\x80\x94 John McEnery elected governor of Louis- \niana by the southern whites, 4 Nov. 1872 ; but W. P. \nKellogg, elected by the coloured people and their \nwhite friends, was recognised by the Federal govern- \nment. To defend themselves against tyranny, the \nsoutherns formed the "white league," and collected \narms, which they refused to surrender on demand on \n15 Sept. 1874. They deposed Kellogg at New Orleans \nafter some resistance, and established McEnery as \ngovernor, but submitted to the president\'s proclama- \ntion ; and Kellogg was restored 18 Sept. \nThe government troops eject members from the \n\nlegislative assembly as unduly elected 4 Jan. 1875 \nAfter much discussion, a peaceful uomxiromise April ,, \nMuch trouble, 2 governors at one time, Jan. ; dis- \nputes settled in favour of Democrats by president \nHayes ; prospect of peace . . 25 April, 1877 \n" World\'s Industrial and Cotton Centennial " Expo- \nsition .... 16 Dec. 1884 \xe2\x80\x94 30 May, 1885 \nAnother exposition opened ... 10 Nov. 1885 \nMississippi steamer, J. M. White, burnt, 30 lives \n\nlost . . ... about 14 Dec. 1888 \n\nMr. David Hennessy, chief of the police, assassinated \nby a party of the Sicilian vendetta society \nnamed MaAa, which see, 15 Oct. ; 17 men \n\narrested 19, 20 Oct. 1890 \n\nThe committee of safety, aided by the Italian \ngovernment, determine to clear the city from \nsecret societies ; meeting held. . . 27 Oct. ,, \nIndictment of 17 Sicilians for the murder of Mr. \nHennessy, 22 Nov. 1890 ; 9 tried ; 6 acquitted ; no \nverdict on 3, 13 March, 1891; the mob, invited \nby Mr. Parkerson, lawyer, and other citizens, \nbreak into th\xc2\xab gaol, and shoo I or hang 11 \nprisoners (2 not American citizens). . 14 March, 1891 \nStrong protest of the Italian government 15 March, ,, \n\n* During the races, on 22 March, 1683, Newmarketwas \nnearly destroyed by an accidental fire, which occasioned \nthe hasty departure of the company then assembled, \nincluding the king, the queen, the duke of York, the \nroyal attendants, and many of the nobility ; and to this \ndisaster historians have ascribed the failure of the Bye \nhouse plot, the object of which was said to be the assas- \nsination of the king and his brother on the road from \nNewmarket to London, if the period of their journey had \nnot been thus anticipated; see Rye House Plot. \n\n\n\nNEW PHILOSOPHY. \n\n\n\n679 \n\n\n\nNEW SOUTH WALES. \n\n\n\nSecretary Blaine writes to Mr. Nicholls, governor \nof Louisiana, expressing the president\'s regret at \nthe citizens\' disparagement of the law ; Baron di \nFava, the Italian minister, recalled by his govern- \nment 31 March, 1891 \n\nCorrespondence between the Governments March, \n\nApril, ,, \n\nThe United States government pays to the Italian, \n25,000 dollars for the benefit of the heirs of the \nlynched Italians ; diplomatic relations resumed . \n\nabout 14 April, 1892 \n\nNEW PHILOSOPHY, a term applied in \n\nthe 17th. century to that of Bacon {which see). \nNEW PLYMOUTH, see New England. \nNEWPOET (Monmouthshire) . Chartered by \n\nEdward IILand James I. Population, 1881, 38,469 ; \n\n1891, 54,695. \n\nChartist Riots.\xe2\x80\x94 About 10,000 chartists {which see), \nfrom the neighbouring mines, armed with guns, pikes, \n&c. , arrived at Newport, 4 Nov. 1839. They divided \nthemselves into two bodies \xe2\x80\x94 one, under the command \nof Mr. John Frost, an ex-magistrate, proceeded down \nthe principal street ; whilst the other, headed by his \nson, took the direction of Stow-hill. They met in \nfront of the Westgate hotel, where the magistrates \n\xe2\x96\xa0were assembled with about 30 soldiers of the 45th \nregiment, and several special constables. The rioters \n"broke the windows and fired on the inmates, by which \nthe mayor, Mr. (afterwards sir Thomas) Phillips, and \n\xe2\x96\xa0several other persons, were wounded. The soldiers \nreturned the fire, and dispersed the mob, which fled, \nleaving about 20 dead, and others wounded. A detach- \nment of the 10th royal hussars arrived from Bristol, \nand the town became tranquil. \n\nFrost was apprehended on the following day, together \nwith his printer, and other influential persons \namong the chartists. He and others were tried \nand sentenced to death (afterwards commuted to \ntransportation) Jan. 1840 \n\nAn amnesty was granted them, 3 May, and they \nreturned to England .... Sept. 1856 \n\nFrost died, aged 96 .... 29 July, 1877 \n\nJExplosion on the Tancarville petroleum steamer in \nthe dry dock ; five men killed, many injured \n\n11 May, 1 89 1 \n\nNEW RIVER, for the supply of London with \n\'water, was begun 1609, and finished in 1613, when \nthe projector, Hugh Myddelton, a London gold- \nsmith, was knighted by James I. \xe2\x80\x94 Strype. This \nartificial river, which rises in Hertfordshire, * and \nwhich, with its windings, then forty- eight miles \nlong, was brought to London, and opened 29 Sept. \n1613. So little was the benefit of it understood, that \nfor above thirty years the seventy-two shares \n(equally divided into King\'s and Adventurers\'), \nnetted only 5/. apiece. Charles I. sold his shares to \nMyddelton\'s representatives for an annuity of 500/. \nEach of these shares was sold originally for 100/. A \npart of a share sold at the rate of 94,050/. the share, \nI Nov. 1876; part of a king\'s share at rate of 90,000/. ; \nof an adventurer\'s share at rate of 93,200/., 15 May, \n1878 ; king\'s share, rate 88,200/. ; adventurer\'s, \n\xe2\x96\xa091,000/., Oct. 1878; king\'s share, rate 91,010/.; \nadventurer\'s, 94,500/., Nov. 1880; king\'s share \nrate, 85,800/. ; adventurer\'s, 85,200/. Nov. 1887. \nAn entire freehold adventurer\'s share of the com- \npany was sold by auction for 122,800^. to the \nPrudential Assurance Company . . 17 July, 1889 \nThe annual income of the company from land and \n\nwater was stated to be 511,356\'. in 1888 \n\nAn entire " King\'s Share " sold for 95,100?. 21 May, 1890 \n\nNEAV ROAD, N. London (now Pentonville, \n\nEuston, and Marylebone roads) was cut through \n\nverdant meadows, 1756-7, after much opposition. \n\nNEW ROSS (Wexford), S. E. Ireland. Here \n\n* Myddelton turned the first sod atChadwell, a spring \n5-ising at the foot of a hill near Ware, 19 April, 1609 ; the \n\xe2\x80\xa2water issued out of a deep hole, and combined with \nanother spring, A mwell : forming a river about 20 feet \nwide : he died poor, 10 Df <;. 1631. \n\n\n\ngeneral Johnston totally defeated the rebels under \nBeauchamp D. Bagenal Harvey, 4 June, 1798. \n\n(NEW) RUGBY, Tennessee, United States, N. \nAmerica, a colony of British farmers and others, \nfounded on English principles by Mr. Thomas \nHughes, Q.C., formerly M.P., author of " Tom \nBrown\'s Schooldays," &c; inaugurated 5 Oct. 1880. \nKeported failure of crops and prevalence of fever, \nAug. 1881. Said to be not quite a failure by ener- \ngetic persons, 13 Oct. 1881 ; more favourable re- \nports, Sept. 1883. \n\nNEWRY (N. Ireland). In the rebellion of \n1641, Newry was reduced to a ruinous condition ; it \nwas surprised by sir Con. Magenis, but was retaken \nby lord Conway. After the Bestoration the town \nwas rebuilt. It was burnt by the duke of Berwick \nwhen fleeing from Schoniberg and the English \narmy, and only the castle and a few houses escaped, \n1689. \n\nNEWS-LETTERS. News- writers in the \nreign of Charles II. collected from the coffee-houses \ninformation, which was printed weekly and sent \ninto the country. The London Gazette, then the \nonly authorised newspaper, contained little more \nthan proclamations and advertisements. \n\nNEW MODEL, see Council of Officers. \n\nNEW SOUTH WALES, the principal \ncolony of Australia on the eastern coast was explored \nand taken possession of and named by captain Cook \nin 1770. At his recommendation a convict colony \nwas first formed here. Captain Arthur Phillip, the \nfirst governor, arrived at Botany Bay with 800 con- \nvicts, 20 Jan. 1788; but he subsequently preferred \nSydney, about seven miles distant from the head of \nPort Jackson, as a more eligible situation for the \ncapital. A new constitution was granted in 1855 \n(18 & 19 Vict. c.54). The Intercolonial Exhibition \nwas opened at Sydney, by the governor-general lord \nBelmore, 30 Aug. 1870. It consisted of two depart- \nments, agricultural and non- agricultural, A con- \nference of delegates from the Australian colonies \nmet at Sydney in Jan. 1873, to\' deliberate on a cus- \ntoms\' union, postal and railway arrangements, &c. \nThe ministry introduced a free trade budget near the \nend of the year. Industrial exhibition opened by \nthe governor, 11 April, 1874. Population, (1856), \n269,722; (1862), 367,495 ; (1866), 411,388; (1871), \n519,163; ( 1 881), 750,006; (1891), 1,134,207. Im- \nports 6,597,053/. in 1859; 20,960,157/. in 1883; \n18,806,236/. in 1887 ; 22,954,015/. in 1890 ; the ex \xe2\x80\xa2 \nports to 4,768,049/. in 1859, to 19,886,018/. in 1883, \nto 18,496,917/. in 1887, to 13,266,222/. in 1890. 1887 \nrevenue, 8,582,811/,; 1888, 8,963,000/.; 1889-90, \n8,519,159/.; expenditure, 11,077,964/.; 1889-90, \n9,811,251/. Governor, sir John Youna:, i860 ; earl \nof Belmore, 1867; sir Hercules Robinson, April, \n1872 ; lord Loftus, 1879; lord Carrington, 1885 ; \nthe earl of Jersey, 1890. See Australia and Sydney. \nThe bishopric of Australia was formed in 1836 ; New \nZealand was detached in 1841, and Tasmania in \n1842 ; the diocese of Australia was again divided \nin 1847, the sees of Sydney, Newcastle, Adelaide \nand Melbourne being formed ; the diocese of \nPerth was formed 1857 ; Goulburn, 1863 ; Bathurst, \n1869 ; Grafton and Armidale, 1869 ; Ballarat, 1875 ; \nNorth Queensland, 1878 ; Riverina . . . . 1883 \nTown of Jerilderie seized and robbed by the Victo- \nrian thieves, " Kelly gang" . 8-10 Feb. 1879 \nInternational Exhibition opened by Lord A. Loftus, \n\n17 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nBuilding burnt down .... 22 Sept. 1882 \nThe Wolverene was presented as a gift from the \nBritish government to the government of New \nSouth Wales . . \xe2\x80\xa2 16 Jan. ,, \n\nHenry Partes, originally farm labourer, premier \n1S72-5, 1877, 1378-83. \n\n\n\nNEWSPAPEES. \n\n\n\n680 \n\n\n\nNEWSPAPEES. \n\n\n\nNew parliament ; resignation of ministry ; Mr. \nAlex. Stuart forms a new cabinet . . 3 Jan. 1883 \n\nThe legislature rejects the federal scheme by 1 vote \n\nabout 1 Nov. 1884 \n\nMilitary contingent ordered to be sent to the \nSoudan ; 3 o,oooi. subscribed for the Patriotic \nFund, at Sydney, 23 Feb.; amount raised to 45,000^. \n3 March ; contingent starts, 3 March ; arrives at \nSuakim . . . 29-30 March ; left May, 1885 \n\nKesignation of ministry ; new one formed by sir \nJohn Robertson, 17 Dec. 1885 ; coalition formed \nby sir J. Robertson and sir Patrick Jennings, \n\n25 Feb. 1886 \n\nExplosion at Bulli colliery; 85 men perish, \n\n23 March, 1887 \n\nProposal to change the name of the colony to \n\nAustralia 23 Nov. ,, \n\nReward of 25,000?. offered by government for the \nextermination of rabbits introduced from Europe. \n\xe2\x80\x94 M. Pasteur suggests the introduction of rabbits \ninoculated with microbes ; professor "Watson of \nAdelaide proposes a similar method, 1887 ; [re- \nported unsuccessful, 1889-90.] \nSir Henry Parkes premier .... 1887-8 \nCentenary of the landing of captain A. Phillip at \n\nSydney 24 Jan - et s -1- l883 \n\nSevere Chinese restriction bill (against the treaties \nof Nankin and Pekin) passed by the assembly \n\n16-17 May, ,, \nConference of Australasian ministers on the Chinese \n\nquestion 12 June, 1888 \n\nHon. G. R. Dibbs forms a new ministry, 15 Jan. ; \ndefeated 17 Jan. ; dissolution of parliament ; \nelections, 2 Feb. 1889 ; sir Henry Parkes forms a \n\nministry 14 March, 1889 \n\nGreat storm on the coast near Sydney with much \n\nloss of life and property . . 25 May et seq. \xe2\x80\x9e \nBill for the payment of legislature finally passed . \n\n20 Sept. ,, \nThe town of Bourke temporarily submerged by the \nrising of the Upper Darling river, through heavy \nrain ; much property damaged, no loss of life . \n\n18-20 April, 1890 \nNew parliament opened . . . 29 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \nFor the great strikes, see Sydney . . . Aug. ,, \nDeath of Sir John Robertson, eminent statesman, \naged 75, premier 1860-63, 1868-70, 1875-77, 1885-6 \n\nannounced 8 May, 1891 \nParliament dissolved .... 7 June, ,, \n\nElections ; 48 ministerialists, s6opposition, 31 labour \n\ncandidates and others . . . .30 June, ,, \nParliament opened 15 July; Mr. Dibbs\' vote of \nwant of confidence in sir Henry Parkes negatived \n\n(80 to 57) 23 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe earl of Jersey\'s proclamation strictly forbid- \nding all interference with free labour . 23 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nSettlement of the shearers\' strike .... \n\nannounced 11 Aug. ,, \nResignation of sir H. Parkes and his ministry on \naccount of the introduction of a bill limiting the \nhours of labour to 8 in coal-mines . . 19 Oct. ,, \nNew ministry formed by Hon. G. R. Dibbs 23 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe Eight hours bill passed . . . 1 Dec. ,, \nThe new tariff bill voted by the legislative assem- \nbly by 50 votes against 3, 19 Dec. 1891 ; assent \n\ngiven, 2 March, 1892 \n\nGreat difficulty with the unemployed . April, ,, \nRailway accident near Bathurst, 9 persons killed . \n\n27 April, ,, \nSeven months\' drought relieved by heavy rain \n\n26 May, ,, \nThe hon. G. R. Dibbs, premier, arrives in London, \n8 June ; knighted, 23 July ; returned . 12 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNEWSPAPEE PEOVINCIAL SO- \nCIETY, established in 1836, became the News- \npaper Society in 1889 ; see Press Association. \n\nNEWSPAPEES. The Roman Acta Biurna \nwere issued, it is said, 691 B.C. In modern times, a \nGazetta, which derived its name from its price, a \nsmall coin, was published in Venice (about 1536). \nThe Gazette cle France, now existing, first appeared \nin April, 1631, edited by Renaudot, a physician. It \n\xe2\x96\xa0was patronised by the king, Louis XIII., who wrote \none article for it, and by Richelieu. The first real \n\n\n\nnewspaper published in England* was established, \nby sir Roger L\' Estrange, in 1663; it was entitled \nthe Public Intelligencer, and continued nearly \nthree years, when it ceased, on the appearance of \nthe Gazette. In the reign of James I., 1622, \nappeared the London Weekly Courant ; and in the \nyear 1643 (the period of the civil war) were \nprinted a variety of publications, certainly in no \nrespect entitled to the name of newspapers See- \nFourth Estate. The following are the titles of some \nof them : \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nEngland\'s Memorable Accidents. \nThe Kingdom\'s Intelligencer. \nThe Diurnal of Certain Passages in Parliament. \nThe Mercurius Aulicus. \nThe Scotch Intelligencer. \nThe Parliament\'s Scout. \n\nThe Parliament\'s Scout\'s Discovery, or certain Informa- \ntion. \nThe Mercurius Civicus, or London\'s Intelligencer. \nThe Country\'s Complaint, &c. \nThe Weekly Accounts. \nMercurius Britannicus. \n\nA paper called the London Gazette,-^ published 22 Aug. \n1642. The London Gazette of the existing series, pub- \nlished first at Oxford, the Court being there on account \nof the plague, 7 Nov. 1665, and afterwards at London, \n5 Feb. 1666. A valuable index (1830-1883) compiled! \nby Alex. Pulling for council of law reporting, pub- \nlished Nov. 1885. \nPrinting of newspapers and pamphlets prohibited, 31 \n\nChas. I. 1680. Salmon\'s Chron. \nThe regular newspapers commenced on the abolition of \n\nthe censorship of the press, in 1695. \nDaily Courant said to have been first published in 1702- \n\nThe stamp duty imposed 1711 \n\nSunday Newspapers began with The British Gazette and \nSunday Monitor, 26 March, 1780 ; followed by the Ob- \nserver, 1791 ; Bell\'s Messenger, 1796 ; Weekly Dispatch, \n1 801, &e. London ed. of New York Herald, 1889. \nA penny charged for every sheet, and a halfpenny \n\nfor every half sheet 1724 \n\nThe duty made id. or 4L is. 8d. the 1000 . . . 1761 \nThe duty raised to ij<\xc2\xa3 in 1776 ; to id. in 1789 ; to \n\n2M. in 1794 ; to 3J& in 1797 ; to \\d. in . . . 1815 \nReduced to id., and \\d. for a supplement in . . 1836 \nAbolished, the compulsory stamp being retained \n\nonly for postal purposes 1855 \n\nThis also ceased 30 Sept. 1870 \n\nNewspapers first sent with a \\d. stamp affixed to \nthe cover 1 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNUMBER OF STAMPS ISSUED TO BRITISH NEWSPAPERS. \n\n1S20 . . . 24,862,186 \n\n1825 . . . 26,950,693 \n\n1830 . . . 30,158,74a \n\n1S35 . . . 32,874,652 \n\n1840 . . . 49,033,384. \n\n1843 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 56.433.97X \n\n851, there were 150 London* \nnewspapers, in which appeared 891,650 advertisements ; \n222 English provincial newspapers, having 875,631 ad- \nvertisements. \n\nIn Scotland, same year, there were no newspapers, having: \n249,141 advertisements. \n\nIn Ireland, there were 102 newspapers, having 236,128 \nadvertisements. \n\nIn that year the number of stamps issued was\xe2\x80\x94 in Eng- \nland, 65,741,271 at id., and 11,684,423 supplement \nstamps at hi. ; in Scotland, 7,643,045 stamps at id., and \n\n\n\n1753 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 7.4H.757 \n\n\n1760 \n\n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 9.404.790 \n\n\n1774 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n\n\n. 12,300,000 \n\n\n1790 \n\n\n\n\n. . 14,035,639 \n\n\n1800 . \n\n\n\n\n. 16,084,905 \n\n\n1810 \n\n\n\n\n. . 20,172,837 \n\n\nIn the \n\n\nyear \n\n\nending 5 Jan. \n\n\n\n* Some copies of a publication are in existence called \nThe English Mercur .</, professing to come out under the \nauthority of queen Elizabeth, in 1588, the period of the \nSpanish Armada. The researches of Mr. T. Watts, of \nthe British Museum, proved these to be forgeries, \nexecuted about 1766. The full title of No. 50 is " The \nEnglish Merenrie, published by authoritie, for the pre- \nvention of false reports, imprinted by Christopher Bar- \nker, her highness\'s printer, No. 50." It describes the \nSpanish Armada, giving " A journall of what passed since \nthe 21st of this month, between her majestie\'s fleet and \nthat of Spayne, transmitted by the Lord Highe Admiral, \nto the Lordes of council." \n\nt On 22 May, 1787, a London Gazette Extraordinary was \nforged, with a view of affecting the funds. \n\n\n\nNEWSPAPERS. \n\n\n\n681 \n\n\n\nNEWSPAPERS. \n\n\n\n241,264 at Jd ; in Ireland, 6,302,728 stamps at id, and \n43,358 at Jet \n\nReduction of newspaper duty from 4CI. to id took effect \non 15 Sept. 1836. \n\nThe distinctive die came into use 1 Jan. 1837. \n\nDuty on advertisements abolished, 1853. \n\nBy the act passed 15 June, 1855 (18 & 19 Vict. c. 27), the \nstamp on newspapers, as such, was totally abolished, \nand to be employed henceforth only for postal pur- \nposes. Many new papers were then started, which \nwere but of short duration. \n\nIn 1857, 71 million newspapers passed through the post- \noffice. In Jan. i860, 1060 newspapers ; in Jan. 1862, \n1165 newspapers ; and in Jan. 1868, 1404 newspapers \nwere published in the United Kingdom. \n\nOn 1 Oct. 1861, when the paper duty came off, the Times, \nDaily News, and Morning Post reduced their price to \n3d each copy unstamped. \n\n"Penny a Week Country Daily Newspaper," single copy \n%d. ; No. 1. 25 June, 1873. \n\nPetit Journal, Jd daily, established by Marioni, 1861 ; \ncirculation about 840,000. \n\nSell\'s "Dictionary of the World\'s Press" for 1887 \nconsists of 1,200 pages ; increased considerably, 1892 ; \npublished annually. \n\nNewspaper libel and registration act passed 1881. \n\nLaw of libel relating to newspapers amended 1888. \n\nMitchell\'s annual newspaper press directory first pub- \nlished, 1846. \n\nEstimated newspapers in the world, 41,000, Aug. 1890. \n\nFor copyright in newspaper articles, see Trials, June, \n1892 \n\nIRISH NEWSPAPERS. \n\nThe first was the Dublin Neivs-Letter, byJosephKay, 1685; \nPue\'s Occurrences, 1700 or 1703. Faulkner\'s Journal was \nestablished by George Faulkner, " a man celebrated for \nthe goodness of his heart and the weakness of his \nhead," 1728. The oldest of the existing Dublin news- \npapers is the Freeman\'s Journal, founded as the Public \nRegister, by the patriot Dr. Lucas, about 1763. The \nLimerick Chronicle, the oldest of the provincial prints, \n1766. \n\nPROVINCIAL NEWSPAPERS. \n\nNorwich Postman, 1706. Worcester Postman, 1709. Neio- \ncastle-on-Tyne Courant, 1711. \n\nFOREIGN NEWSPAPERS. \n\nGazette de Ve\'nise, early in 17th century. \n\nGazette cU France (now publishing), 1631. \n\nJournal de Paris, alleged first French daily paper, 1 Jan. \n\n1777- \nGaliqnani\'s Weekly Messenger, Paris, begun 1814. \nChinese newspaper published in London . . 1876 \n\nArabic newspaper ,, ,, . . ,, \n\nThe first newspaper set up in Germany, 1715. \nThe first published in America, the Boston Neivs-Jetter, in \n\n1704 ; the first at Philadelphia in 1719 ; and the first in \n\nHolland in 1732. \n"America, whose population is 23 millions and a half, \n\nsupports 800 newspapers (50 of these publishing daily), \n\nand their annual circulation is stated at 64,000,000. \n\nIn Paris there exists 169 journals, literary, scientific, \n\nreligious and political." \xe2\x80\x94 Westminster Review, 1830. \n\n\n\nREGISTERED NEWS- \nPAPERS. \n\nLondon daily \nLondon weekly . \nLondon generally \nEng. prov. . . . \n\nIrish \n\nScotch . . . . \nBritish isles . . \n\n\n\n1850. 1865. 1872. i\xc2\xa3 \n\n\n\n166 209 23 \n\n\n\n222 \n102 \n\nno \n14 \n\n\n\n75\xc2\xb0 \n132 \n140 \n\n14 \n\n\n\n9\xc2\xb03 \ni34 \n134 \n17 \n\n\n\n320 \n950 \n138 \n152 \n19 \n\n\n\n18S1 1885. 1852. \n\n17 20 27 \n\xe2\x80\x94 318 340 \n\n378 40s 461 \n\n1087 1202 1302 \n154 161 146 \n181 184 206 \n\n24 \n\n\n\nTotal newspapers in the United Kingdom, Jan. 1892, \n2255- \n\nESTABLISHMENT OF THE PRINCIPAL LONDON NEWSPAPERS \n\n{Mitchell) DAILY (1892). \n\nLloyd\'s List (with Shipping and Mercantile Gazette) 1726 \n\nPublic Ledger (commercial) 1759 \n\nMorning Chronicle (liberal), 1770 ; extinct . . 1862 \n\nMorning Herald (conservative), 1780, extinct 31 Dec. 1869 \n\nMorning Post (whig, latterly conservative) . . . 1772 \n\nTimes (independent) 1 Jan. 1788 \n\nBun (liberal) extinct 1792 \n\nMorning Advertiser (liberal) . . . 8 Feb. 1794 \n\n\n\nGlobe (whig : 1866 conservative) evening . . . 1803; \n\nStandard (conservative) even. (morn. 29 June, 1857) 1827 \n\nShipping and Mercantile Gazette . . 4 Jan. 1836 \n\nDaily News (liberal) 21 Jan. 1846. \n\nDaily Chronicle and Clerkenwell News (liberal) . 1855 \n\nDaily Telegraph* (liberal, latterly conserv.), 29 June, ,, \n\nSporting Life (and Bell\'s Life in London) . . . 1859 \n\nMorning Star (liberal), 1856 ; extinct . . Oct. 1869 \nPall Mall Gazette (independent), even. (morn. Jan.- \n\nApril, 1870) 1865 \n\nSportsman Aug. ,, \n\nGlowworm (liberal), extinct ,, \n\nEcho \xc2\xa3d (independent) Dec. 186S \n\nHour (conservative) 24 March, 1873; extinct n Aug. 1876 \n\nContinental Times (neutral) 187& \n\nSt. James\'s Gazette (anti-radical) . . May, 1880- \n\nFinancial News (independent) 1884 \n\nEvening Post (independent) 1887- \n\nFinancial Times (independent) 1888 \n\nStar (radical) ,, \n\nDaily Graphic (illustrated) 1890. \n\nMoaning Leader 1892 \n\nPRINCIPAL SUNDAY, WEEKLY, ETC. (1892). \n\n\n\n1763 \n1787 \n1789 \n1 791 \n\n1796 \n\n\n\nLond. Gazette 7 Nov. 1665 \nSt. James\'s Chronicle \n(conser.), united with \n" Press \nCounty Chronicle \nMail .... \nObserver (whig) . \nBell\'s Messenger (lib. \n\nconservative) \nWeekly Dispatch (lib.) 1801 \nExaminer (lib. , extinct) \n\n1808-81 \nLiterary Gazette (ex- \ntinct) . . 1817-62 \nJohn Bull (conserv.) 1820-92 \nBell\'s Life in London \n(sporting) now with \nSporting Life (daily) 1822 \nSunday Times (lib. con.) \xe2\x80\x9e \nLancet (medical) . 1823 \nMechanic\'s Magazine \n(merged into "Iron," \n\n1873) \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2\' \xe2\x80\xa2 ., \nAtlas (liberal) extinct . 1826 \nMedical Gazette, 1827 ; \nMedical Times (uni- \nted)i8so(exti)icti&8s) 1828 \nAthenaeum (liter, and \n\nscientific) . ,, \n\nSpectator (liberal) . ,, \nRecord (lib. conserv.) . ,, \nCourt Journal (neut.) \nMark Lane Express \nUnited Service Gaz. . \nNaval and Military \n\nGazette (extinct) \nMining Journal . \nRailway Times . \nEra (theatrical) . \nPublishers\' Circular . ,, \nEcclesiastical Gazette 1838 \nMedical Press . ,, \n\nTablet (Rom. Catholic) 1840 \nGardeners\' Chronicle . 1841 \nNonconformist . ,, \n\nPunch . . . ,, \nJewish Chronicle . ,, \nPharmaceutical Journ. ,, \nIllustrated London \n\nNews (liberal) . 1842 \n\nLloyd\'s Weekly Lon- \ndon Newsi>aper(rad) ,, \nBuilder . . . ,, \nInquirer (lib.) . . ,, \nEnglish Churchman \n& St. James\'s Chro- \nnicle (High Church). 1843 \nNews of the World \n\n(liberal) . . . ,, \nLaw Times . . ,, \n\nEconomist (liberal) . ,, \n\n\n\n1829 \n1832 \n1833 \n\n\n\n1835 \n1837 \n\n\n\nFarmer (agricultural) 1843. \nAllen\'s Indian Mail \n(combined with \n\nHomeward Mail) . ,, \n\nMusical Times . . 1844 \n\nAgricultural Gazette . ,, \nGuardian (High Church) 1846 \n\nEducational Times . 184? \nNotes and Queries (lit. \n\nand antiquarian) . 1849. \n\nJournal of Gaslighting ,, \nJournal of Society of \n\nArts . . . 1852 \nPress (conserv.), united \nwith "St. James\'s \nChronicle" (extinct) 1853; \nField (country gentle- \nmen\'s) . . \xe2\x80\x9e \nCivil Service Gazette . ,, \nBritish Medical Jour- \nnal . . . ,, \nBuilding News . . 1854 \nSaturday Review (lit.) 1855 \nOverland Mail . . ,, \nEngineer . . . 1856 \nCourt Circular . . ,, \nCity Press (neutral) . 1857 \nHomeward Mail. . \xe2\x80\x9e \nSolicitors\' Journal . ,, \nBookseller . . . 1858 \nPhotographic News . ,, \nChemical News . . 1859. \nChristian World . ,, \nArmy and Navy Gaz. i860 \nNational Reformer . \xe2\x80\x9e \nCatholic Times . . ,, \nFun (comic) . . 1861 \nQueen (ladies") . ,, \nChurch Review (ritual.) ,, \nOwl (satirical) stopt \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x96\xa0 1864 \nEnglish Mechanic . 1865 \nEngineering . . 1866 \nLaw Journal . . ,, \nLand and Water (nat. \n\nhist.) . . . ,, \n\nBullionist . . . ,, \n\nRock (Protestant) . 186S \n\nVanity Fair . . ,, \n\nBazaar . . . \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAcademy (literary) . 1869. \n\nArchitect . \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNature (scientific) . ,, \n\nGraphic (illustrated) . ,, \n\nFreemason . . . \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nJournal of Education 1870- \nGarden . . .1871 \n\nBritish Mail . . 1872 \n\n.Metropolitan . ,, \nlvon(manvfacturesand \n\nI science) . . . 1873 \n\n1 Money . . . 1872 \n\n\n\n144.000 copies sold ou 16th Dec. 1861. The prince \nsort died on the 14th. \n\n\n\nNEW STYLE. \n\n\n\n682 \n\n\n\nNEW YOEK. \n\n\n\nIllustrated Sporting \n\n\n\n\nKnowledge . \n\n\nand Dramatic News \n\n\n1874 \n\n\nPeople \n\n\n-Pictorial World . \n\n\n\n\nCity Leader \n\n\nWorld \n\n\n,, \n\n\nCounty Council Times \n\n\n-Accountant \n\n\nt \n\n\nPelican (society) . \n\n\n.British Architect \n\n\n\n\nLaw Gazette \n\n\n.Sanitary Reeord \n\n\n,, \n\n\nSpeaker (liberal) \n\n\nWhitehall Review \n\n\n1876 \n\n\nWoman (for Indies) . \n\n\n.Bicycling News . \n\n\n,, \n\n\nBlackand White (illus- \n\n\nTruth .... \n\n\n1877 \n\n\ntrated) \n\n\nReferee \n\n\n\n\nAnti- Jacobin (conser- \n\n\n."Statist \n\n\n1878 \n\n\nvative) \n\n\nElectrician \n\n\n,, \n\n\nExpress (neutral) \n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Citizen \n\n\n\n\nTrade Unionist . \n\n\nlady\'s Pictorial . \n\n\n1880 \n\n\n\n\nRoyal Newspaper \n\n\nPres \n\n\ns Fund, established \n\n\n(Chartered 1890. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nNEW STYLE. Pope Gregory XIII., in order \nto rectify the errors of the current calendar, pub- \nlished a new one, in which ten days were omitted \xe2\x80\x94 \n5 Oct. 1582, becoming 15 Oct. The new style was \nadopted in France, Italy, Spain, Denmark, Holland, \nFlanders, Portugal, in 1582, in Germany in 1584, \n\xe2\x96\xa0in Switzerland in 1583 and 1584, in Hungary in \n1 \xc2\xa387 ; and in Great Britain in 175 1. In 1752 \n-eleven days were leit out of the calendar \xe2\x80\x94 3 Sept. \nbeing reckoned as. 14 Sept. The difference between \nthe old and new style up to 1699 was 10 dajs ; after \n1700, II days; after 1800, 12 days. In" Bussia, \n\xe2\x80\xa2Greece, and throughout the East, the old style is \nstill retained. The czar, Alexander II., was born \non the 17th April, 1818, old style, 29 April, new \nstyle ; see Calendar. \n\nNEW TESTAMENT, see Bible. \n\nNEWTONIAN PHILOSOPHY, the doc- \ntrines respecting gravitation, &c, taught by sir \nIsaac Newton in bis " Principia," published in \n1687; see Gravitation. He was born 25 Dec, 1642; \nhecame master of the mint, 1699; president of the \nEoyal Society, 1703 ; and died 20 March, 1727. A \nstatue of him in marble by Eoubiliae was set up at \nTrinity College, Cambridge, 14 July, 1755, and one \nin bronze by Theed, at Grantham, 21 Sept. 1858, \nwhen lord Brougham delivered a discourse on the \nlife and works of Newton. The latter statue cost \n1600L, a sum obtained by public subscription. \n\nNEWTOWNBARRY RIOT (S.E. Ireland). \nAt a seizure of stock for tithes, a conflict ensued \nhere between the yeomanry and the people, when \nthirty-five persons were killed or wounded, 18 June, \n1831. The jury at the inquest were unable to agree \non a verdict. \n\nNEWTOWN-BUTLER (N. Ireland). On \n30 July, 1689, the Enniskilleners under Gustavus \nHamilton thoroughly defeated the adherents of \nJames II. commanded by general Maccarty, taking \nhim prisoner with his artillery, arms, and baggage. \n\nNEW YEAR\'S DAY, &c. The beginning \nof the Jewish year was changed and the passover \ninstituted, 1491 B.C. A feast is said to have been \ninstituted by Numa, and dedicated to Janus (who \npresided over the new year), 1 Jan. 713 B.C. \nOn this clay the Romans sacrificed to Janus a cake of \nnow sifted meal, with salt, incense, and wine ; and all \nthe mechanics began something of their art of trade ; \nthe men of letters did the same, as to books, poems, \n&c. ; and the consuls, though chosen before, took the \n\xe2\x80\xa2chair and entered upon their office this day. Nonius \nMarcellus refers the origin of New-year\'s gifts \n.among the Romans to Titus Tatius, king of the \niSabines, who having considered as a good omen a \npresent of some branches cut in a wood consecrated \nto Strenia, the goddess of strength, which he received \non the first day of the new year, authorised the cus- \ntom afterwards, and gave these, gifts the name of \n.Sirens, 747 B.C. \n\n\n\nNEW YORK, the "empire state" of the \nUnited States of N. America, is said to have been \ndiscovered by Verrazano, a Florentine in the French \nservice, about 1524, and rediscovered by Hudson, \nan Englishman in the Dutch service, in 1609, and \nsettled by the Dutch in 1614, the city being named \nManhattan and New Amsterdam ; but the English \nunder colonel Nichols dispossessed them and the \nSwedes, 27 Aug. 1664, and changed its name, \nthe king, Charles II., having given the territory to \nhis brother, the duke of York. Population of the \ncity, in i860, 805,651 ; in 1870, 942,292 ; in 1880, \n1,206,299; i n ^90, 1,515,301; of the state in 1880, \n5,082,871; in 1890, 5,997,853; of Albany, the state \ncapita], in 1880,90,758; in 1890, 94,923 ; of Brook- \nlyn, in 1880, 566,663 ; in 1890, 806,343 ; of Buffalo, \nin 1880, 155,134; in 1890, 255,664. \nThe city confirmed to England by the peace of \n\nBreda 24 Aug. 1667 \n\nTaken by the Dutch, and named New Orange, 1673 ; \n\nsurrendered 1674 \n\nThe city a principal point of the struggle for inde- \npendence. It surrendered to the British forces \nunder general Howe .... 15 Sept. 1776 \nThe city was evacuated by the British; "Evacua- \ntion day " made one of rejoicing ever since, 25 Nov. 1783 \nAcademy of the fine arts, and a botanical garden, \n\nestablished in 1804 \n\nFire here ; 674 buildings destroyed, and property \n\nvalued at nearly 20,000,000 dollars . 16 Dec. 1835 \n\nAstor library founded by John Jacob Astor I. ; see \n\nunder Libraries 1S39 \n\nFire ; 302 houses burnt . . . .19 July, 1845 \nThe Park theatre destroyed by fire . 16 Dec. 1848 \n\nSerious riot (several lives lost) at the theatre, \noriginating in a dispute between Mr. Macready \n(English) and Mr. Forrest (American), actors, \n\n10 May, 1849 \nNew York Times first appeared . . 18 Sept. 185 1 \nThe Crystal Palace, containing an exhibition of \ngoods from all nations, was opened in the presence \nof the president of the United States and many \nother dignitaries .... 14 July, 1853 \nNew York suffered severely by large commercial \nfailures, and \' \' hunger demonstrations " took place \n\nduring the panic Nov. 1857 \n\nThe Crystal Palace destroyed by fire . . 5 Oct. 1858 \nA magnificent cathedral erected .... 1859 \nGreat fire ; about 50 lives lost . . .2 Feb. i860 \nDuring the civil war of 1861 New York strongly \nsupported the government of president Lincoln \n(republican, or abolitionist) ; but during 1862 a \nreaction gradually took place, and the opposition \n(democrat) candidates for congress were elected \n\nby large majorities Nov. 1862 \n\nFierce riots against conscription ; many persons \n\nkilled and much property destroyed 13-17 July, 1863 \nBarnum\'s museum burnt; great loss, 13 July, 1865 ; \n\nagain 2 March, 1868 \n\nGreat loss and panic through James Fisk and \n\nothers (the Erie Ring) buying up gold, 22-26 Sept. 1869 \nRiot through an Orange procession ; about 30 killed, \n\n12 July, 1871 \n\nDisclosure of great corruption in the municipal \n\ngovernment (termed "Tammany frauds," from \n\nthe council meeting in Tammany hall) ; public \n\nmeeting to obtain prompt redress . 4 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Tammany party excluded from office by the \n\nelections Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDemonstrations of the International Society of \n\nWorkmen repressed Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nJames Fisk, the railway and financial speculator, \nassassinated by Edw. Stokes, through jealousy , \n\ndies 7 Jan. 1872 \n\nCollapse of the Erie railway ring, ruled by Fisk and \n\nJay Gould ; new directors elected (including \n\ngenerals Dix and M\'Clellan) . . March, ,, \n\nMuch inconvenience by the horse disease . Oct. ,, \n\nLegal proceedings against Gould suspended ; he \n\nagrees to give up to the company 9,000,000 dollars, \n\nDec. ,, \nStokes convicted of murder ; 6 Jan. ; new trial, \n\nsentenced to imprisonment . . . . 30 Oct. 1873 \nBarnum\'s museum again burnt ; menagerie de- \nstroyed ; reported Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nNEW YOEK. \n\n\n\n6S3 \n\n\n\nNEW ZEALAND. \n\n\n\nFinancial excitement through the stoppage of Jay, \nCooke, & Co. about . 18 Sept. 1873 \n\nThe hon. Wm. M. Tweed, of the Tammany Ring, \nconvicted of embezzlement (sentenced to 12 \nyears\' imprisonment) 19 Nov. Tweed permitted ,, \nto visit his own house, escapes . . 4 Dee. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDeath of W. B. Astor, very rich merchant 24 Nov. 1875 \n\nGreat lire, with loss of life, 30 buildings destroyed \n\n8 Feb. 1876 \n\nDeath of Alex. T. Stewart, very rich merchant \n\n10 April, ,, \n\nTweed arrested at Vigo .... 8 Sept. ,, \n\nSome of the rocks named " Hell Gate," blown up to \nimprove entrance into the harbour . 24 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n"Commodore" Vanderbilt, a "railway king" and \ngreat capitalist died Jan. 1877 \n\nTweed discloses the system of the " Tammany \nfrauds," incriminating many persons Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAbp. Bayley dies 3 Oct. ,, \n\nGreat fire at Greenfield\'s confectionery works, &c, \n50 to 60 persons perished . about 20 Dec. ,, \n\nElevated street-railways in progress . . . 1877-8 \n\nTweed dies in gaol 12 April, 1878 \n\nInternational exhibition here (in 1883) proposed . 1880 \n\nFall of O\'Kelly, the " boss " of New York ; once \nvery influential Dec. ,, \n\nAbbey-park theatre burnt . . . .30 Oct. 1882 \n\nPeter Cooper, philanthropist, founder of the Cooper \nInstitute, died aged 92 ... 4 April, 1883 \n\nBridge from New York to Brooklyn, 5989 feet long \n(constructed by the skill of Mr. and Mrs. \nWashington Rcebling), begun 3 Jan 1870; opened \n24 May ; 12 persons killed in a panic 30 May, ,, \n\nNew Metropolitan opera-house opened . 22 Oct. ,, \n\nCentenary of " Evacuation day " celebrated 26 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Standard theatre burnt . . . 14 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSevere panic in the stock-market, Wall-street, \nchecked 12-14 May, 1884 \n\nAttempt to kill capt. Phelan, 9 Jan. ; to kill \nO\'Donovan Rossa (see Fenians) . . 2 Feb. 1885 \n\nGreat ironworkers strike ; compromise 1-16 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGeneral Grant\'s funeral (see United States) 8 Aug. ,, \n\nAbout nine acres of rock (Flood rock) in Hell Gate \nchannel exploded by dynamite . . 10 Oct. ,, \n\nGreat strike on S.W. railway, early March, 1886 ; \nmen submit .... about 31 March, 1886 \n\nMr. Abram Hewitt elected mayor in opposition to \nMr. Henry George .... 3 Nov. ,, \n\nAlderman McQuade for bribery, &c, sentenced to \nseven years\' imprisonment and fine . 20 Dec. ,, \n\nRev. Henry Ward Beecher, popular preacher, &c, of \nPlymouth church, Brooklyn, dies, aged 73, \n\n8 March, 1887 \n\nDestructive blizzard, see Storm . 11-13 March, 1888 \n\nMessrs. Fairbank\'s lard refinery works and other \nestablishments on the river side, about half a \nmile in extent, burnt ; two persons killed, others \nmissing ; loss about S3, 000, 000 . 19, 20 April, 1889 \n\nGrand Washington celebration, see United States, \n\n29-30 April, 1 May, ,, \n\nJohn Jacob Astor, wealthy benefactor to charities, \ndied 22 Feb. 1890 \n\nWestern Union Telegraph building destroyed by \nexplosion and fire ; great loss . . 18 July, ,, \n\nGreat fire in central New York ; estimated loss \n1,000,000 dollars . . . . . 30 July, ,, \n\nStrike of servants of the New York central railway, \npromoted by the Knights of labour, 8 Aug. ; de- \nfeated, 11 Aug. ; fresh strike. . . 15 Aug. ,, \n\nTemporary financial panic connected with the \ncrisis in London .... about 15 Nov. ,, \n\nMany commercial failures, about 10 Dec. ; confi- \ndence restored 12 Dec. ,, \n\nClinton state prison nearly destroyed by fire, 3 Jan. 1891 \n\nGreat snow-storm ; electric light, telegraph, and \ntelephone communication stopped . 24, 25 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBy a lire in Park-place above 60 persons perish \n\n22 Aug. ,, \n\nA man enters the office of Mr. Russel Sage, de- \nmands money, and causes a great explosion by \ndynamite by which he himself and 4 others are. \nkilled 4 Dec. ,, \n\nThe Hotel Royal, Sixth-avenue, burnt ; many \nperish 7 Feb. 1892 \n\nMr. William Astor died . . . . 25 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nOswego lumber district nearly destroyed by fire . ,, \nabout 21 May ,, \nSee under United States. \n\n\n\nNEW ZEALAND (in the Pacific Ocean), \ndiscovered by Tasman in 1642. The country re- \nmained unknown, and was supposed to be part of a \nsouthern continent, till 1769-70, when it was cir- \ncumnavigated by captain Cook. In 1773, he \nplanted several spots of ground on this island with \nEuropean garden seeds; and in 1777, he found \nsome fine potatoes. European population in i860, \n84,294; Dec. 1865, 190,607; 1874, 310,895, natives, \n46,016; in 1881,489,933; 1887, 603,34.0 Europeans, \nand 4196 natives; 1891, 626,830. 1859, imports, \n1,551,030/.; exports, " 551,484/. ; 1874, imports, \n6,464,687/.; exports, 5,610,371/. ; 1887, imports, \n6,245,515/.; exports, 6,865,169/.; 1890, imports, \n6,260,525/.; exports, 9,811,720/. 1887-8, revenue, \n3,521,490/.; expenditure, 4,082,634/.; 1890-91, \nrevenue, 4,208,029/. ; expenditure, 4,081,566/. \nPublic debt, 1888, 38,758,437/. ; 1891, 38,830,350/. \n\nThe right of Great Britain to New Zealand recog- \nnised at the peace in 1814 \n\nNo constitutional authority placed over it until a \n\nresident subordinate to New South Wales . . 1833 \nNew Zealand company established ; Wellington \n\nfounded 1839 \n\nCapt. Hobson, the first governor, landed, 29 Jan. ; \ntreaty of Waitangi signed, by which the chiefs \ncede a large amount of land 5 Feb. 1840 \n\nNew Zealand an independent colony and a bishop\'s \n\nsee April, 1841 \n\nCapt. (aft. adm.)Fitzroy, governor, Dec. 1843 to Nov. 1845 \n\nSir George Grey, governor 1846 \n\nA charter, founded upon an act passed in 1846, \ncreating powers municipal, legislative, and ad- \nministrative 29 Dec. 1847 \n\nThis charter was not acted on ; a legislative council \n\nopened by the governor . . . .20 Dec. 1848 \nFoundation of Auckland, 1840 ; Nelson and Tara- \nnaki (or New Plymouth), 1841 ; Otago, 1848 ; Can- \nterbury 1850 \n\nNew Zealand company relinquish charter . ,, \n\nNew constitution granted 1852 \n\nSettlement of Canterbury, south island, founded \n\n(capital Christchurch) 1850-3 \n\nCol. Wynyard, governor . . Jan. 1854 to Sept. 1855 \n\nGovernor Browne Oct. ,, \n\nAn earthquake ; not much damage done, 23 Jan. ,, \n\nConstitution modified 1857 \n\nNew bishoprics established : Christ Church, 1856 ; \n\nNelson and Wellington, 1858 ; Waiapu . . 1859 \n\nInsurrection of the natives (Maoris) under a chief \nnamed William Kmg(Wirrimu Kingi), arising out \nof disputes respecting the sale of land ; the bishop \nSelwyn and others consider the natives unjustly \n\ntreated March, i860 \n\nIndecisive actions between the militia and volun- \nteers and the Maoris . . . 14-28 March, ,, \nWar breaks out at Taranaki ; the British repulsed \n\nwith loss 30 June, ,, \n\nGreat excitement in Australia ; troops sent to New \n\nZealand, under gen. Pratt, land . . 3 Aug. ,, \nIndecisive actions . . 10, 19 Sept. , 9, 12 Oct. ,, \nGen. Pratt defeats the Maoris at Mahoetahi, and \n\ndestroys their fortified places . . 6 Nov. ,, \nNew Zealaud colonists in England justify the con- \nduct of the governor . . . . 22 Nov. ,, \nThe Maoris defeated, 29 Dec. i860; 23 Jan., 24 Feb. \n\n16-18 March, 1861 \nThe war ends : surrender of natives . 19 March, ,, \nSir George Grey re-appointed governor . June, ,, \nGold discovered at Otago, &c. . . . June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nA native sovereignty proclaimed ; 5000 British sol- \ndiers in the island July, ,, \n\nLoyalty of the natives increasing . . May, 1862 \nThe Maori chiefs sign a poetical address of condo- \nlence to the queen on the death of the prince con- \nsort ; received Nov. ,, \n\nNatives attack a military escort and kill 8 persons, \n\n4 .May, 1S63 \nWaikato tribe driven from a fort . . 17 July, ,, \nWar spreads ; natives construct rifle pits . Aug. ,, \nProposed confiscation of Waikato lands . . Sept. ,, \nGen. Cameron severely defeats the Maoris at Ran- \ngariri 20 Nov. ,, \n\n\n\nNEW ZEALAND. \n\n\n\n6ii \n\n\n\nNEY\'S EXECUTION. \n\n\n\nContinued success of gen. Cameron ; capitulation of \n\nthe Maori king 9 Dec. 1863 \n\nBritish attack on Galepa (the gate pah) repulsed \n\nwith loss of officers and men . . 29 April, 1864 \nLoan of 1,000,000?. to New Zealand ; guaranteed by \n\nparliament July, ,, \n\nSeveral tribes submit ... . . . Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMaori prisoners escape and form the nucleus of a \nnew insurrection . . . . - . Sept. ,, \n\nSir George Grey issues proposals of peace, 25 Oct. ; \nthe Aborigines Protection Society send religious, \nmoral, and political advice to the Maoris (con- \nsidered injudicious) .... Nov. ,, \n\nChange of ministry and policy ; seat of government \nto be removed from Auckland to Wellington on \n\nCook\'s Strait 24 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMaoris\' attack on Cameron severely defeated, 25 \n\nJan. ; again 25 Feb. 1865 \n\nOutbreak of the Pai Mariri or Hau-hau heresy, a \ncompound of Judaism and paganism, amongst \nthe Maoris ; the rev. C. S. Volkner murdered and \nmany outrages committed, 2 March ; proclamation \nof governor sir George Grey against it; it is checked \nby the agency of a friendly native chief We-tako, \n\nApril, \xe2\x80\x9e \nWilliam Thompson, an eminent chief, surrenders \n\non behalf of the Maori king . . 25 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nNew Zealand still unsettled . . . July, ,, \nThe Hau-haus beaten in several conflicts, Aug. ; \nthe governor proclaims peace, 2 Sept. ; British \ntroops about to leave . . . .15 Sept. ,, \nThe Maoris treacherously kill the envoys of peace ; \nresignation of the Weld ministry ; one formed by \n\nMr. Stafford Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBishopric of Dunedin, Otago, founded . . ,, \n\nGeneral Chute subdues the Hau-haus . . Jan. 1866 \nProgress of peace measures . . . April, ,, \nMurderers of Mr. Volkner executed . 17 May, ,, \n\nGovernor announces cessation of the war, 3 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nDeath of Wm. Thompson, the Maori chief, 28 Dec. ,, \nSir George F. Bowen appointed to succeed sir \n\nGeorge Grey ; gazetted ... 19 Nov. 1867 \nAct relating to the government of New Zealand \n\npassed in the British parliament .... 1868 \nGeo. Samuel Evans (an eminent colonist, i838-9)dies - \n\n23 Sept. ,, \n\nTe Kooti, a chief, and about 150 Maori convicts, \n\nescape from Chatham island to the mainland, \n\n4 July ; they repulse troops sent against them, \n\n7 Sept. ; massacre the whites at Poverty Bay, \n\n10 Nov. ,, \nTe Kooti and the rebels defeated by col. Whitmore ; \n\n130 Maoris killed 5 Jan. 1869 \n\nMassacre of settlers at Taranaki . . 12 Feb. ,, \nChange of ministry : hon. Mr. Fox\'s proposal to \npay for British troops declined by the home \n\ngovernment Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTe Kooti, thrice defeated by the colonists and friendly \n\nnatives, a fugitive Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDespatch from earl Granville, insisting on the \nwithdrawal of the British troops (18th regiment) \ncauses much dissatisfaction ... 7 Oct. ,, \nFriendly interview between Mr. McLean and the \n\nMaori king\'s minister . . . .8 Nov. ,, \nIncreased demand for the New Zealand fibrous \n\nplant, Phormium tenax 1869-70 \n\nDeparture of the last British troops . . 22 Jan. 1870 \nTe Kooti, refusing to surrender at discretion, 24 \n\nJan. , narrowly escapes . . . . 5 Feb. ,, \nTe Kooti\'s party attacked and dispersed ;his speedy \n\ncapture anticipated .... 31 July, ,, \nThe duke of Edinburgh, in the Galatea, at Welling- \nton 27 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nIncrease of prosperity reported ; loan of 4,000,000?,. \n\nproposed Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPolitical union of the islands effected . . Aug. ,, \nMurder of Mr. Todd, surveyor, by Maoris, 28 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nTe Kooti reported as living by plunder ; acting as a \n\nfanatical potentate Nov. 1871 \n\nFriendly meeting of Mr. McLean with Wirrimu \nKingi and other chiefs, who submit to the British \n\ngovernment March, 1872 \n\nMr. Stafford\'s ministry resigns, succeeded by one \n\nunder Mr. Waterhouse (the Fox party) about Oct. ,, \nSir James Fergusson appointed governor, March, 1873 \nThe marquis of Normanby governor . . Nov. 1874 \nThe Maori king submits to the British government \n\nFeb. 1875 \n\n\n\nThe colony reported highly prosperous by sir \n\nJulius Vogel, ex-premier . . .31 Oct. 1877 \nSir Hercules G. R. Robinson, governor . Dee. 1878 \n\nDisputes with the Maoris ; they expel British \nsettlers near New Plymouth, Taranaki ; and \n\nplough the land 25 May, 1879 \n\nThe settlers recover their land by force 22 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nGreat influence of Erueti, now Te Whiti, a fanati- \ncal Christian Maori, aged 45 ; he supports Maori \nclaims, but checks bloodshed . . . . ,, \nSir George Grey, too energetic liberal premier, com- \npelled to resign\'; succeeded by Hon. John Hall, \n\nOct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nSir Arthur Hamilton Gordon appointed governor . 1880 \nApprehended outbreak at Parihaka under the Maori \n\nchief, Te Whiti; volunteers coming forward 3iOct. 1881 \nTe Whiti arrested for sedition announced 6 Nov. ,, \nHe counsels passive resistance . . 8 Nov. ,, \n\n124 arrests .... announced 17 Nov. ,, \nDifficulty peaceably settled . announced 3 Dec. ,, \nResignation of the Hall ministry . about 10 April 1882 \nPublic debt, 31,400,000?,. ... 31 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \nSir William Jervoise, governor . . . ,, \n\nSeveral Maori chiefs in London ; received by the \n\nprince of Wales, 17 Aug. ; sail for home 7 Sept. ,, \nRelease of Te Whiti, John, and others 8 March, 1883 \n\nMahuki and 20 others sentenced to imprisonment \n\nfor outrages .... about 7 May, ,, \n\nCommunication between New Zealand and the \nThames by steamers ; time reduced to 40 days \n(14,000 carcases of sheep brought) . . Dec. ,, \nTawhaio, the Maori king, arrives in London, 2 \nJune ; visits theatres, &c, and receives visitors ; \nreceived by the earl of Derby ; appeals for redress, \nreferring to the treaty of Waitangi (1840), 22 July ; \nsails from Gravesend ... 20 Aug. 1884 \n\nMr. H. A. Atkinson forms a ministry, 28 Aug. ; \n\nresigns 30 Aug ,, \n\nLieut. Bryce, colonial native minister, v. G. W. \nRusden, for gross libel in " History of New \nZealand," charging him with cruelty &c. to the \nMaoris ; damages awarded, 5,000?. 12 March, 1886 \nDestructive volcanic eruption of Tarawera moun- \ntain ; about 60 miles of beautiful fertile country \ndesolated by showers of lava, hot cinders, and. \nmud ; about 100 persons killed ; Wairoa de- \nstroyed 9, 10 June, ,, \n\nThe Maori king reconciled, sits in the legislative \n\ncouncil May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMaori incursions on European lands . . July, ,, \nMinistry resign 30 Sept. ; Mr. H. A. Atkinson \n\nforms a ministry 9 Oct. 1887 \n\nThe earl of Onslow, governor . . Nov. 188S \n\nThe debate on the Representation bill to increase \n\nthe number of country members of parliament at \n\nWellington lasted 76 hours, adjourned 27 July ; \n\namicable arrangement between town and country \n\nparties 29 July, 1889 \n\nInternational exhibition at Dunedin opened \n\nabout 26 Nov. ,, \nRev. A. B. Suter, bishop of Nelson, declared \n\nprimate Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nA shipping strike begun at Wellington 5 Sept., \n\nended 31 Oct. 1890. \n\nResignation of ministry ; new cabinet under hon. \n\nJ. Ballance 24 Jan. 1891 \n\nFirst visit to the Uriwera country, North Island ; \nthe earl of Onslow well received by the Maoris, \nreported April ; he resigns . . . Nov. ,, \nWomen authorized to serve in parliament and to \nvote, at elections, 4 Sept. ; the bill rejected by \nthe legislative council ... 10 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe earl of Glasgow appointed governor . : Feb. 1892 \nSir George Grey\'s 80th birthday enthusiastically \n\ncelebrated .... about 14 April. ,, \nTawhaio, the 2nd Maori king, accepts a pension, \n\nMay, ,, \nBuckley v. Edwards, see under Judges . 21 May, ,, \nTwo Americans, Messrs. Witham and Webster\'s old \nclaim for compensation for seizure of land, pur- \nchased from native chiefs ; the senate of U.S.A. \nrecommend arbitration ... 26 May, ,, \nArrival of the earl of Glasgow . . . 7 June, ,, \n\nNEY\'S EXECUTION. Ney, duke of El- \nchingen, prince of the Moskwa, and one of the most \nvaliant of the marshals of France, was shot as a \n\n\n\nNEZIB. \n\n\n\n685 \n\n\n\nNICARAGUA. \n\n\n\ntraitor, 7 Dec. 1815. On 7 Dec. 1853, his statue \nwas erected on the spot where he fell. \n\nAfter the abdication of Napoleon I., 5 April, 18 14, Ney \ntook the oath of allegiance to the king, Louis XVIII. \nOn Napoleon\'s return to Prance from Elba, he inarched \nagainst him ; but his troops deserting, he regarded the \ncause of the Bourbons as lost, and opened the invader\'s \nway to Paris, March, 1815. Ney led the attack of the \nFrench at Waterloo, where he fought in the midst of \nthe slain, his clothes pierced with bullet-holes, five \nhorses having been shot under him ; night and defeat \nobliged him to flee. Though included in the decree of \n24 July, 1815, which guaranteed the safety of all \nFrenchmen, he was sought out, and on 5 Aug. taken \nat the castle of a friend at Urillac, and brought to trial \nbefore the Chamber of Peers, 4 Dec. The 12th article \nof the capitulation of Paris, fixing a general amnesty, \nwas quoted in his favour in vain. \n\nNEZIB, Syria. Here Ibrahim and the \nEgyptians defeated the Turks, 24 June, 1839. \n\nNIAGARA (N. America) . At the head of this \nriver, on the western shore, is Fort Erie, which was \ntaken by the English, 24 July, 1759. It was \nabandoned in the war with the United States, 27 \nMay, 1813, but was retaken, 19 Dec. following. A \nsuspension bridge of a single span of 820 feet over \nthe Niagara, connecting the railways of Canada \nand New York, was opened in March, 1855. It is \nelevated 18 feet on the Canadian, and 28 feet on the \nAmerican side. \n\nAbout eighteen miles below Fort Erie are the remarkable \nfalls. The river is here 740 yards wide ; the half-mile \nimmediately above the cataracts is a rapid, in which \nthe water falls 58 feet ; it is then thrown, with aston- \nishing grandeur, down a stupendous precipice of 150 \nfeet perpendicular, in three distinct and collateral \nsheets ; and, in a rapid that extends to the distance of \nnine miles below, falls nearly as much more. The river \nthen flows in a deep channel till it enters lake Ontario, \nat Fort Niagara. \n\nThe falls visited by the prince of Wales, Sept. i860. \n\nBlondin crossed the falls on a tight rope, 17 Aug. 1859. \n\nProfessor Tyndall visited the falls, Nov., 1872, and lec- \ntured on them at the Royal Institution, 4 April, 1873. \n\nCompany formed to utilize its water power mechani- \ncally, 1877. \n\nCapt. Matt Webb drowned while attempting to swim \nacross the whirlpool rapids, 24 July, 1883. \n\nNiagara international park purchased by the U.S. govern- \nment, opened 15 July, 1885. \n\nMr. Carlisle D. Graham, an Englishman, passed through \nthe rapids safely in a barrel shaped like a buoy, seven \nfeet long, n July, 1886; again, 15 June, 1887. \n\nWm. J. Kendall in a cork vest swims tlu\'ough the \nrapids, 22 Aug. 1886. \n\nThe huge upper table rock fell, due to weight of \naccumulated ice, 13 Jan. 1887. \n\nMr. Hollingshead\'s grand " cyclorama " of Niagara, \nLondon, opened 12 March, 1888, closed 29 Nov. 1890. \n\nMr. Carlisle D. Graham after long preparation said to \nhave " shot Niagara (rapids) in a barrel" 25 Aug. 1889 \n\nMr. Dixon crosses Niagara river below the falls on a \nwire rope, 6 Sept. 1890. \n\nAn international commission (president, sir Win. Thom- \nson, afterwards lord Kelvin) was appointed to consider \nthe best method for utilizing 125,000 horse-power, of \nthe force of the Niagara falls, which is computed to be \nabout 4,500,000 horse-power. Prizes were given by the \nCataract company to the authors of various projects \n9 Feb. 1 89 1. \n\nIn the Times of 8 June, 1892, professor George Forbes, \nwho was engaged in the undertaking, reported that \nthe engineering works were nearly completed, and \nthat the electrical arrangements by which the vast \nforce was to be transmitted, were begun. \n\nThe force is to be used in factories, in lighting Niagara \nFalls city, and in working railways, probably in 1893. \n\nNIBELUNGE NOTorNlBELUNGEN-LlED, \na popular German epic of the 12th century, com- \nposed of various ancient mythical poems, termed \n6agas ; which according to the poet Wm. Morris, \n\n\n\nshould be to our race what Homer was to the \nGreeks. \n\nThe first critical edition, by K. Lachmann, appeared 1826 \nand 1846. The best translation in modern German, by \nSimrock, 1827; a useful edition, with translation and \nglossary, by L. Braunfels, 1846 ; in English, by W. N. \nLettsoin, 2nd ed. 1874. \n\nRichard Wagner\'s musical dramas, "The Ring of the \nNibelungen," are based on this poem : the persons in- \nclude the great Northern gods and goddesses, the giants, \nthe dwarfs, and the daughters of the Rhine (see under \nMusic). \n\nNIC.EA, see Nice. \n\nNICARAGUA, a state in Central America \n{which see). The present constitution was estab- \nlished 19 Aug. 1858. At the commencement of 1855 \nit was greatly disturbed by two political parties : \nthat of the president, Chamorro, who held Granada, \nthe capital, and that of the democratic chief, \nCastellon," who held Leon. The latter invited \nWalker, the filibuster, to his assistance, who in a \nshort time became sole dictator of the state.* By \nthe united efforts of the confederated states the \nfilibusters were all expelled in May, 1857. On \n1 May, 1858, Nicaragua and Costa Rica appealed to \nthe great European powers for protection. Nicaragua \nrailway, a transit route between the Pacific and \nAtlantic, proposed, and company formed Nov. 1866. \nPresident T. Martinez elected, 1859 and 1863 ; \nFernando Guzman, elected 1 March, 1867; Vicente \nQuadra elected 1 Feb. 1871 ; Pedro Joaquin Cha- \nmorro, 1 Feb. 1875 ; Joaquin Zavala, 1 March, \n1879 J Dr. Adam Cardenas, Jan. 1883 ; Seflor \n\n* William Walker was born at Tennessee, in the \nUnited States, where he became successively doctor, \nlawyer, and journalist, and afterwards gold-seeker in \nCalifornia, whence he was invited to Nicaragua by \nCastellon, with the promise of 52,000 acres of land, ou \ncondition of bringing with him a band of adventurers to \nsustain the revolutionary cause. Walker accepted the \nterms, and on 28 June landed at Realejo with 68 men. \nHe increased his forces at Leon, aud soon after attacked \nthe town of Rivas, where he was repulsed with loss. \nHe then joined col. Kinney, who had occupied and \ngoverned Grey Town, 6 Sept. On 13 Oct. Walker cap- \ntured Grenada by surprise when in a defenceless state, \nshot Mayorga, one of the ministers, and established a \nrule of terror. By intervention of the American consul \nhe made peace with the general of the state army, Corral, \nbut shot him on 7 Nov. , on finding him corresponding \nwith fugitives at Costa Rica. Walker at first was only \ngeneral-in-chief ; but on Rivas, whom he had made \npresident, deserting him, he became sole dictator. On \n14 May, 1856, his envoy Vijil was recognised by the \npresident of the United States, whence also he obtained \nreinforcements during his retention of power. Costa Rica \ndeclared war against him, 28 Feb. 1856 ; the other states \nof central America soon followed the example, and a \nsanguinary struggle ensued, lasting till May, 1857. On \n25 Nov. 1856, Walker totally burnt Grenada, being unable \nto defend it, and removed the seat of government to \nRivas. This place he surrendered to gen. Mora on 1 May, \n1857, on the intervention of capt. Davis, of the St. Mary\'s, \nU.S. Himself, his staff, and 260 men, were conveyed in \nthat vessel to New Orleans, where they were received witli \ngreat enthusiasm. On 25 Nov., 1857, he again invaded \nNicaragua, landing at Punta Arenas with 400 men ; but \non 8 Dec. was compelled to surrender to capt. Paulding, \nU.S., and was conveyed to New York. He escaped \npunishment by nolle prosequi (2 June, 1858): but capt. \nPaulding was tried for exceeding orders, aud blamed \xe2\x80\x94 \nyet excused by president Buchanan. On 5 Aug. 1S60, \nWalker landed near Truxillo, Honduras, and took the \nfort on the 6th. On the 7th he proclaimed that he made \nwar on the government, not on the people of Honduras. \nOn being summoned to surrender his booty by capt. \nSalmon, R.N. , of the Icarus, he refused, and fled. He \nwas pursued, caught, given up to the Honduras govern- \nment, tried, and shot (12 Sept.). His followers were \ndismissed. Grey Town was surrendered to Nicaragua in \ni860. \n\n\n\nNICE. \n\n\n\n686 \n\n\n\nNIGHTINGALE FUND. \n\n\n\nCarazo, 16 Dec. 1886. Don Benjamin Guera, 1889 ? \nSenor Bobert Sacasa, 1889. Population in 1888, \n282,845. \n\nLouis Napoleon, afterwards emperor, proposed the \nmaking a ship canal by the lake Nicaragua from the \nAtlantic to the Pacific, between 1842-4 ; the govern- \nment of Nicaragua proposed it in 1846 ; colonel ChiMs \nmade a survey in 1851 ; a company was chartered for \n85 years, and conventions were signed, but the capi- \ntalists declined their support. \nThe scheme was revived in Feb. 1875. See Panama ; and \n\nLoans. \nTreaty by which the United States may construct a \ncanal (Menseall\'s plan) from San Juan (Grey Town) \non the Caribbean sea to Brito, on the Pacific, with \nequal powers ; contrary to the Bulwer Clayton treaty, \nwhich see, about 16 Dec. 1884 ; rejected by the United \nStates legislature, 30 Jan. 188=;. \nThe senate and house pass the Nicaragua canal bill, ! \n\n7 Feb. 1889. \nThe construction of a breakwater at Grey Town begun \n\nJune, 1889. \nDeath of sig. Carazo ; Dr. Sacaza elected president : re- \nported 2 Aug. 1889 ; re-elected about 9 Oct. 1890. \nTue construction of the Nicaragua canal begun 22 Oct. \n1889 ; the bill for it, abandoned by the U.S.A. senate, \n27 Feb. 1891. \nInsurrection in Granada suppressed with bloodshed (the \nleaders exiled), 23 Aug. 1891. \n\nNICE or Ntc.t.a, a town in Bithynia, Asia \nMinor, N. TV. Antigonus gave it the name Anti- \ngoneia, which Lysimachus changed to Nicaea, the \nname of his wife. It became the residence of the \nkings of Bithynia about 208 B.C. At the battle of \nISTice, a.d. 194, the emperor Severus defeated his \nrival, Pescennius Niger, who was again defeated at \nIssus, and soon after taken prisoner and put to \ndeath. The first general council was held here 19 \nJune to 25 Aug. 325, which adopted the Nicexe \nCreed and condemned the Arians. It was attended \nby 318 bishops from divers parts, who settled both \nthe doctrine of the Trinity and. the time for observing \nEaster. An addition was made to the creed, 381 ; \nwas rejected, 431. See Filioque. When the Cru- \nsaders took Constantinople, and established a Latin \nempire there in 1204, the Greek emperors removed \nto Nice and reigned there till 1261, when they re- \nturned to Constantinople ; see Eastern Empire. \nNice was taken by the Ottoman Turks in 1330. \n\nNICE (S. E. France) was the seat of a colony \nfrom Massilia, now Marseilles, and formed part of the \nSoman empire. In the middle ages it was subject \nto Genoa, and suffered from the frequent wars, \nbeing taken and re-taken by the imperialists and \nFrench. It was taken by the Austrians under \nMelas, 1800; seized and annexed to France 1792; \nrestored to Sardinia in 1814. Nice was again \nannexed to France in virtue of the treaty of 24 \nMarch, i860; the people having voted nearly \nunanimously for this change by universal suffrage. \nThe French troops entered 1 April, and definite \npossession was taken 14 June following. Garibaldi, \na native, vehemently protested against this annexa- \ntion. \nFire at the opera house, and panic, about 70 killed, \n\n23 March, 1881 \nInternational exhibition .... 6 Jan. 1884 \nAbout 90 acres of forest destroyed by fire ; three persons \n\nperish ...."... 27 Feb. 1891 \nStatue of Garibaldi unveiled . . . 4 Oct. ,. \n\nNICIAS, PEACE OF, between Athens and \nSparta for 50 years, 421 B.C., negotiated by that \nunfortunate Athenian general, who with his col- \nleague, Demosthenes, was put to death after the \ndisastrous termination of the expedition against \nSyracuse, 413 B.C. \n\nNICKEL, a white, ductile, malleable, magnetic \nmetal, employed in the manufacture of German \n\n\n\nsilver. Cronstedt in 1 75 1 discovered nickel in the \nmineral copper-nickel. Nickel ordered to be sub- \nstituted for bronze coinage in France, 1882. \nThe nickel heat engine of professor Stefan of Vienna in \n1885, consisted of plates of nickel fixed on a wheel \nwhich rotated when the metal was heated, in the \npresence of a magnet. Similar machines have been \nconstructed by E. Berliner, 1885, Edison, 1887, and \nF. J. Smith, 1892. \n\nNICOBAE ISLES, Indian Ocean, S. of Bay \n\nof Bengal, given up by Denmark and occupied by \nGreat Britain to suppress piracy ; announced June, \n1869. \n\n.. NICOLAITANES, a sect mentioned in Rev. \nii. 6, 15, said to have sprung from Nicolas, one of \nthe first seven deacons {Acts vi.), and to have \nadvocated a community of wives, and to have denied \nthe divinity of Christ. \n\nNICOaLEDIA, the metropolis of Bithynia, Asia \nMinor, N. AY., founded by king Nieomedes I., 264 \nB.C., on the remains of Astacus ; destroyed by an \nearthquake, a.d. 1 15; and restored by the emperor \nAdrian, 124. The Eoman emperors frequently \nresided here during their eastern wars. Here \nDiocletian resigned the purple, 305 ; and Constan- \ntine died at his villa in its neighbourhood, 337. It \nsurrendered to the Seljukian Turks, 1078 ; and to \nOrehan and the Ottoman Turks in 1338. \n\nNICOPOLIS, on the Danube, Bulgaria, \nfounded by Trajan. Here was fought a battle be- \ntween the allied Christian powers under Sigis- \nmund, king of Hungary, afterwards emperor, and \nthe Turks under Bajazet; said to have been the \nfirst battle between the Turks and Christians ; the \nlatter were defeated, losing 20,000 slain, and as \nmany wounded and prisoners, 28 Sept. 1396. Ni- \ncopolis was taken by the Eussians after a severe \nconflict (2 pashas, about 6000 men, 2 monitors, \nand 40 guns were captured), 15, 16 July, 1877. \n\nNLELLO-WORK, believed to have been pro- \nduced by rubbing a mixture of silver, lead, copper, \nsulphur, and borax into engravings on silver, &c, \nan art known to the ancients, was practised in the \nmiddle ages, and said to have given to Maso \nFiniguerra the idea of engraving upon copper, about \n1460. \n\nNIE MEN, or AlEiiEL, a river flowing into the \nBaltic, and separating Prussia from Eussia. On a raft \non this river the emperor Napoleon met Alexander \nof Eussia, 22 June 1807, and made peace with him \nand Prussia. He crossed the Niemen to invade \nEussia, 24 June, 1812, and re-crossed with the \nremains of his army, 28 Dec. Near it the Poles \ndefeated the Eussians 27 May, 1831. \n\nNIGEE. A great river of N."W. Africa. British \nsettlements at the mouth established since 1841. \nNiger expedition, see Africa, 1841. British protec- \ntorate with free trade affirmed by the West African \nConference at Berlin, Dec. 1884 ; confirmed June, \n1885. \n\nThe National African company incorporated in 1882 ; \nchartered as the Royal Niger company in 1886. \nComplaints against the company made by Germans in \nAfrica, Nov. ; were rebutted by the company, \nDec. 1889. \nThe company reported prospering, 29 July, 1890. \nSamuel Adjai Crowther, a native African, first bishop of \nthe Niger territory, rescued when a child from a slave- \nship by the British, and taken to Sierra Leone 1822 ; \nbaptised and educated ; became a missionary ; con- \nsecrated at Canterbury cathedral, 1864; died 31 Dec, \n1891. \n\nNIGHTINGALE FUND. On 21 Oct. 1854, \nMiss Florence Nightingale left England with a \n\n\n\n:z :-: \n\n\n\n: _ : _ : . \n\n\n\n;_ i a ix t m: \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x96\xa0---:.- nred i ./" . : \n\n1 sr - i- esq ! r re . nrv \n\nin : :~;-:- . - 1 i : - - - : - I \n: " . . 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" ; iO . 7 ik mi \n7-i : ~ i - : " 7 : --\xe2\x96\xa0-.--- \n\nwe -".1 Far i --.\xe2\x80\xa2--. g - - -_ - \n\ntie: tarn 7 \n_ \xe2\x96\xa0"-"_=- 7 iz j \xe2\x80\x9e " \n\n77_ "7 s znnon. \n\n\xe2\x80\x94 7 - - \xe2\x96\xa0 \n\nZZZZ. XESTESTS \n\n\\ I K O T,_S~" 1 K fi --\xe2\x96\xa0\xe2\x96\xa0\xe2\x96\xa0_ \n\ns6 J \n\n3TEKSECH - \xe2\x96\xa0- \xe2\x96\xa0 . : 7 \xe2\x80\xa2 -- .. \n\n; , - \n\nES \n\n~~TT,"nAia\xc2\xbbA7~; \n\n>ZZZ Kgypt " , - \n\n- \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n- - - \n\n- . \xe2\x80\xa2 - \n77 - \n\nt| 7 177 \n\n! \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 " \' ! \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n: \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 - - \xe2\x96\xa0 : \n\n- \n\n: \n- \n\n3MBEM \n- - \n- \n\nat t \n\ni : - " ! \xe2\x80\xa2 - \n\n\n\nI I r . ^_ 3 "xr 77 : - - \n\n\xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x96\xa0\xe2\x96\xa0\xe2\x96\xa0 ._:._- \n\nPravin 5.D37 . \xe2\x96\xa0\xe2\x96\xa0 - 1 - \xe2\x80\x94 . . _ _z - \n\n\xe2\x80\x94 - - " : " m \xe2\x80\x94 \n\n- " : " _ " \' . " " _ n " 7 ~ \n\n- - - I ~ 7 \n\n: ~ ~tzzi ~T3 : z: t~ 7 \n\n1 2 \n\n\xe2\x80\x94 - -. " \' on - 5ji " 1 \n\nXZZZ - Z3 \n\n1 - : : - : - \xe2\x96\xa0 ~ \xe2\x96\xa0 \n\n77 - as - - \n" \xe2\x96\xa0 , 1 \n\n- - - ~ 7 - \n\n- \n\neomn 3 Zhsrc \n\n. - - - \n\n_ - \n\nf| \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x96\xa0 \n\n" \xe2\x96\xa0_ - - \n\nSCr. Bass ... \n\n- \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2" . \xe2\x96\xa0 : \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2- \xe2\x96\xa0- \n\n- \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 - - ^ - \n\n: - \n- \n\nV \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n\ny ~ . *z *z \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0\xe2\x80\xa2-7.-t: -i \xe2\x96\xa0:\xe2\x80\xa2::. x" 1 v-s - \xe2\x80\xa2_ - c .dfn- \n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n\n\n\n\nNIRVANA. \n\n\n\n638 \n\n\n\nNON-CONFORMISTS. \n\n\n\nNIRVANA, see Buddhism. \n\nNISBET or NESBIT (Northumberland). Here \n.a battle was fought between the English and \nScotch armies, the latter greatly disproportioned in \nstrength to the former. Several thousands of the \nScots were slain upon the field and in the pursuit, \n7 May, 1402. \n\nNISERO. See Acheen. \n\nNISI PRIITS ("unless before"), words in a \nwrit summoning a person to be tried at Westmin- \nster, unless the judges should come to hold their \nassizes in the place where he is. Judges sit in \nMiddlesex by virtue of 18 Eliz. c. 12 (1576). \n\nNISMES (Nimes), S. France, was the flourish- \ning Roman colony, Nemausus. Its noble amphi- \ntheatre was injured by the English in 141 7. The \nInhabitants embraced Protestantism, and suffered \nmuch persecution in consequence, and Nismes has \nfrequently been the scene of religious and political \n\xe2\x96\xa0contests. The treaty termed the Pacification of \nNismes (14 July, 1629) gave religious toleration for \na time to the Huguenots. \n\nNITRE, see Saltpetre. \n\nNITRIC ACID, a compound of nitrogen and \noxygen, formerly called aqua fortis, is said to have \nbeen first obtained in a separate state by Kaymond \nLully, an alchemist, about 1287; but we are in- \ndebted to Cavendish, Priestley, and Lavoisier for \nour present knowledge of its properties. H. \n\xe2\x96\xa0Cavendish demonstrated the nature of this acid \nin 1785. Nitrous acid was discovered by Scheele \nabout 1774. Nitrous gas was accidentally dis- \ncovered by Dr. Hales. Nitrous oxide gas (laugh- \ning gas) was discovered by Dr. Priestley in 1776. \nThe use of this gas as an anaesthetic, recommended \nby H. Davey in 1800, was begun in America (by \nMr. "Wells, a dentist), 1844; in Paris, 1866; in \nLondon, 31 March, 1868, ingenious apparatus \niiaving been invented for its application. \n\nNITROGEN or AZOTE (from the Greek a, no, \nand zao or zo, I live), an irrespirable elementary \ngas, and an important element in- food, discovered \nby Rutherford about 1 772. Before 1777, Scheele \nseparated the oxygen of the air from the nitrogen, \nand almost simultaneously with Lavoisier dis- \ncovered that the atmosphere is a mixture of these \ntwo gases. Nitrogen combined with hydrogen \nforms the volatile alkali ammonia, so freely given \n\xe2\x96\xa0off by decomposing animal and vegetable bodies. \n\nNITRO-GLYCERINE (also called Nitro- \njLETJM), an intensely explosive amber-like fluid, \ndiscovered by Sobrero in 1847, is produced by add- \ning glycerine (in successive small quantities) to a \nmixture of one part of nitric acid, and two parts \nof sulphuric acid. Alfred Nobel, a Swede, first \nattempted its application as an explosive agent, in \n1864. It has caused several most disastrous acci- \ndents, with great loss of life. In attempting to \nbury some nitro-glycerine in the town moor at \nNewcastle-on-Tyne, 17 Dec. 1867, an explosion \ntook place, and seven persons lost their lives, in- \ncluding Mr. Mawson, the sheriff, and Mr. Bryson, \ntown surveyor ; see Dynamite. Mr. Alfred Nobel\'s \nnitro-glyccrinc manufactory, near Stockholm, blown \nup; 15 persons killed, many injured, 10 June, \n1868. An act prohibiting its importation for a time, \nand regulating its transmission, was passed in 1869, \nand repealed by the Explosives Act of 1875. Secret \nmanufacture discovered, see Birmingham, 1883. \n\nNIZAM, see Hyderabad. \n\n\n\nNOBILITY. The Goths, after they had seized \na part of Europe, rewarded their heroes with titles \nof honour, to distinguish them from the common \npeople. The right of peerage seems to have been \nat first territorial. Patents to persons having no \nestate were first granted by Philip the Fair of \nFrance, 1095. George Neville, duke of Bedford \n(son of John, marquis of Montague), ennobled in \n1470, was degraded from the peerage by parliament, \non account of his utter want of property, 19 Edw. \nIV., 1478. Noblemen\'s privileges were restrained \nin June, 1773 ; see Lords, and the various orders of \nthe nobility. \n\nIn 1845 a statistical writer said that there were 500,000 \nnobles in Russia, 239,000 in Austria ; in Spain (in \n1780), 470,000 ; in France (before 1790) 360,000 (of \nwhom 4,120 were of the ancienne noblesse); in the \nUnited Kingdom, 1,631 with transmissible titles (dukes \nto baronets). \n\nNOBILITY OE FRANCE preceded that of \nEngland. On 18 June, 1790, the National Assembly \ndecreed that hereditary nobility could not exist in \na free state ; that the titles of dukes, counts, \nmarquises, knights, barons, excellencies, abbots, \nand others, be abolished ; that all citizens take \ntheir family names ; liveries and armorial bearings \nalso to be abolished. The records of the nobility, \n600 volumes, were burnt at the foot of the statue \nof Louis XIV., 25 June, 1792. A new nobility was \ncreated by the emperor Napoleon I., 1808. The \nhereditary peerage was abolished 27 Dec. 1831 ; re- \ninstituted by Napoleon III., 1852. \n\nNOBLE, an English gold coin (value 6s. 8d.), \nfirst struck in the reign of Edward III., 1343 or \n1344, said to have derived its name from the excel- \nlency of the metal of which it was composed. \n\nNOCTURNE, a name given by John Field \n(who died 1837) to anew and very pleasing musical \ncomposition. He was followed very successfully \nby Chopin, who died, 1849. The term was adopted \nby Mr. Whistler, the artist, for his night pieces, \nin which he began with line, form, and colour, \n1877-8. \n\n"NOLUMUS LEGES ANGLIC MU- \nTARI," see Bastards, and Merton. \n\nNOMINALISTS (or Concepttjalists),^ \n\nscholastic sect, opposed to the Realists, maintain \nthat general ideas have no existence outside our \nminds, and only exist by the names we give them. \nThe founder of the sect, Jean Boscellin, a canon \nof Compiegne, was condemned by a council at \nSoissons, 1092, but the controversy was revived in \nthe 12th century. Among the Nominalists are \nreckoned Abelard, St. Thomas Aquinas (partially), \nOccam, Hobbes, Locke, Berkeley, and Dugald \nStewart. The Bealists assert that general ideas \nare real things with positive existence. \n\nNON-CONFORMISTS. The Protestants in \nEngland are divided into conformists and non- \nconformists, or, churchmen and dissenters. The \nfirst place of meeting of the latter, in England, \nwas established at Wandsworth, near London, \n20 Nov. 1 ^72. The name of non-conformists was \ntaken by the Puritans when the Act of Uniformity \ncame into operation on 24 Aug. 1662 (termed \n" Black Bartholomew\'s day ") , when 2000 ministers \nof the established religion resigned, not choosing to \nconform to the statute passed " for the uniformity \nof public praj r ers and administration of the sacra- \nments;" see Puritans, and Dissenters. The laws \nagainst them were relaxed by the Toleration act, \n24 May, 1689. \xe2\x80\x94 The Nonconformist newspaper \n\n\n\nNONES. \n\n\n\n6S9 \n\n\n\nNORTHAMPTON. \n\n\n\n(edited by Mr. Edward Miall, aft. M.P.) first \n\nappeared 14 April, 1841. He died 29 April, 1881. \n\nThe non-conformists presented to Mr. Miall 10,000 \nguineas for his exertions on behalf of religious \nequality ... . . 18 July, 1873 \n\nMeeting of bishops and dissenting ministers at \nLambeth palace, to consider the alleged progress \nof irreligious thought . . . .24 July, 1876 \n\nMansfield college, Oxford, for Nonconformists, \nopened 1886 \n\nNONES, in the Roman calendar, were the fifth \nday of each month, excepting March, May, July, \nand October, when the nones fell on the seventh \nday. \n\nNON-JURORS considered James II. to have \nbeen unjustly deposed, and refused to swear alle- \ngiance to William III. in 1689. Among them were \nSancroft, archbishop of Canterbury; Ken, bishop \nof Bath and Wells, and the bishops of Ely, Glou- \ncester, Norwich, and Peterborough, and many of \nthe clergy, who were deprived 1 Feb. 1691. Non- \njurors were subjected to double taxation, and \nobliged to register their estates, May, 1723. They \nformed a separate communion, which existed till \nthe beginning of the present century. \n\nNON NOBIS, DOMINE ! (" Not unto us, \nLord!" &c, Psalm cxv. 1), a musical canon, \nsung as a grace at public feasts, was composed by \nW. Birde in 1618. \n\nNON-RESISTANCE OATH (containing a \ndeclaration that it is unlawful to take arms against \nthe king upon any pretence whatever), enforced by \nthe Corporation act, 1661, was repealed in 17 19. \n\nNOOTKA SOUND (Vancouver\'s Island), \ndiscovered by captain Cook in 1778, and settled by \nthe British in 1786, when a few British merchants \nin the East Indies formed a settlement to supply \nthe Chinese market with furs ; but the Spaniards \nin 1789 captured two English vessels and took pos- \nsession of the settlement. The British ministry \ndemanded reparation, and the affair was amicably \nterminated by a convention, and a free commerce \nwas confirmed to England in 1790. \n\n" NO-POPERY RIOTS," see Gordon. The \ncry was revived against the Catholic emancipation \nbill, 1829. \n\nNORDLINGEN (Bavaria). Here the Swedes \nunder count Horn were defeated by the Austrians, \n27 Aug. 1634; and the Austrians and allies by \nTurenne in 1645. \n\nNORE MUTINY, see Mutinies. \n\nNORFOLK ISLAND (Pacific Ocean), dis- \ncovered in 1774, by captain Cook, who found it \nuninhabited, except by birds. The settlement was \nmade by a detachment from Port Jackson under \ngovernor Phillip, in 1788, in Sydney bay, on the \nsouth side of the island. This was at one time the \nseverest penal colony of Great Britain. The island \nwas abandoned in 1809, but re-occupied as a penal \nsettlement in 1825. The descendants of the muti- \nneers of the Bounty were removed to it in June, \n1856, from I\'itcairn\'s Island {which sec). \n\nNORICUM, see Austria. \n\nNORMAL SCHOOLS (from norma, a rule). \nOne for the instruction of teachers, established at \nParis by a law, 30 Oct. 1794, opened 20 Jan. 1795, \nunder the direction of La Place, La Harpe, Haiiy, \nand other eminent men, was soon closed. Another, \nestablished by Napoleon in 1808, was closed in 1822. \nThe plan was revived in 1826, and has been de- \nveloped in England and other countries. See \nScience and Art. \n\n\n\nNORMANDY (N. France), part of Neustria, \na kingdom founded by Clovis in 511 for his son \nClotaire, which, after various changes, was united \nto France by Charles the Bald in 837. From the \nbeginning of the 9th century it was continually \ndevastated by the Scandinavians, termed North- \nmen or Normans, to purchase repose from whose \nirruptions Charles the Simple of France ceded the \nduchy to their leader Rollo, 905. Polio, the first \nduke, held it as a fief of the crown of France, and \nseveral of his successors after him, until William \nthe seventh duke, acquired England, in 1066. It \nremained a province of England till the reign of \nking \' John, 1204, when it was conquered by \nPhilip Augustus and reunited to France. It \nwas re-conquered by Henry V., 1418, and held by \nEngland partially till 1450. The English still pos- \nsess the islands on the coast, of which Jersey and \nGuernsey are the principal. \n\nDUICES. \n\n912. Rollo (or Raoul), baptized as Robert. \n927. William I. Longsword. \n943. Richard I. the Fearless. \n996. Richard II. the Good. \n\n1027. Richard III. \n\n1028. Robert I. the DeviL \n\n1035. William II. (I. of England). \n\n1087. Robert II., Courthose (his son), after a contest de- \nspoiled by his brother. \n1 106. Henry I. (king of England). \n1135. Stephen (king of England-). \n1 144. Matilda and Geoffrey Plantagenet. \n1151. Henry II. (king of England in 1154). \n1 189. Richard IV. (I. of England). \n1190-1204. Arthur and John of England. \n\nNORTH ADMINISTRATION, formed by \n\nlord North, Jan. 1770, who resigned March, 1782. \n\n(Lord North entered into a league with the Whigs ; \n\nwhich led to the short-lived Coalition ministry, 1783. \n\nHe succeeded to the earldom of Guildford in 1790, \n\nand died in 1792; see Coalition.) \n\nFrederick, lord North, first lord of the treasury, and chan- \ncellor of the exchequer. \n\nEarl Gower, lord president. \n\nEarl of Halifax, privy seal. \n\nEarl of Roehford, lord Weymouth (succeeded by lord \nSandwich) and earl of Hillsborough, secretaries of state. \n\nSir Edward Hawke, admiralty. \n\nMarquis of Granby, ordnance. \n\nSir Gilbert Elliot, \'lord Hertford, duke of Ancaster, lord \nCarteret, &c. \n\nNORTHALLERTON (Yorkshire). Near \nhere was fought the "battle of the Standard," \nwhere the English totally defeated the Scotch \narmies, 22 Aug. 1138. The archbishop of York \nbrought forth a consecrated standard on a carriage \nat the moment when they were hotly pressed by the \ninvaders, headed by king David. \n\nNORTH AMERICA, see America, United \nStates, Indians, Canada, &c. \n\nNORTH AMERICAN REVIEW began \nat Boston, U.S., in 1815, as a rival of the Edin- \nburgh and Quarterly Reviews. It was published at \nfirst every second month; in 1818, quarterly; in \n1879, monthly, at New York. \n\nNORTHAMPTON was burnt by the Danes \nin IOIO. Here Henry III. proposed to found a \nuniversity in 1260, and held a parliament in 126\'). \nOn 10 July, 14O0, a conflict took place between the \nduke of York and Henry VI. of England, in whieli \nthe king was defeated, and made prisouer (the \nsecond time) after a sanguinary fight which took \nplace in the meadows below the town. Northamp- \nton was ravaged by the plague in 1637. It was \nseized and fortified by the parliamentary forces in \n1642. A fire nearly destroyed the town, 3 Sept. \n\nY Y \n\n\n\nNORTH BRITON. \n\n\n\n690 \n\n\n\nN.-E. AND -W. PASSAGES. \n\n\n\n1675. Eiots here because Mr. C. Bradlaugh was \nnot elected M.P., 6 Oct. 1874, were suppressed by \nthe military. Population, 1881, 51,881 ; 1891, \n61,016. \n\nNORTH BRITON, a newspaper, first pub- \nlished 29 May, 1762, supported by John Wilkes, \nM.P. for Aylesbury, and a London alderman, and \nvery bitter against the earl of Bute\'s administra- \ntion, accusing him of unduly favouring the Scotch. \nInNo. 45 (termed "Wilkes\'s number"), the king was \ncharged with uttering falsehood in his speech \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\npublished 23 April, 1763 \n\n" General warrant " issued by lord Halifax against \n\nthe authors, printers, and publishers 26 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \nWilkes and others arrested and committed to the \n\nTower, and his house searched . . 30 April, ,, \nBrought by writ of habeas corpus before chief-jus- \ntice Pratt, and discharged, his arrest being re- \ngarded as illegal 6 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n300I. damages granted to a printer for false impri- \nsonment 6 July, ,, \n\nNo. 45 declared to be "a scandalous and seditious \nlibel " by parliament, and ordered to be burnt by \n\nthe hangman 15 Nov. ,, \n\nRiot at the burning in Cheapside . 3 Dec. ,, \n\n" General warrants" declared illegal by chief-justice \nPratt ; 1000Z. damages awarded to Wilkes for \nseizure of. his papers .... 6 Dec. ,, \n4000J. damages obtained by Wilkes in an action \n\nagainst lord Halifax .... 10 Nov. 1769 \nWilkes elected lord mayor, 8 Oct. ; elected fifth time \n\nM.P. for Middlesex Oct. 1774 \n\nAllowed to take his seat .... Jan. 1775 \nElected chamberlain of London, 1779; died, 26 Nov. 1797 \n\nNORTHBROOKCLUB. Originated in 1879 \nto promote comfort and social intercourse for young \nIndians of good families under education in Eng- \nland. New premises in Whitehall Gardens were \ninaugurated by the prince of Wales, 21 May, 1883. \nLord Northbrook was an active promoter of the \nundertaking. \n\nNORTH CAROLINA, NORTH GER- \nMAN, see Carolina, German. \n\nNORTH-EAST and -WEST PASSAGES. \n\nThe attempt to discover a north-west passage was \nmade by a Portuguese named Corte Beal, about \n1500. In 1585, a company was formed in London \ncalled the "Fellowship for the discovery of the \nNorth-West Passage." From 1743 to 1818 parlia- \nment offered 20,000^. for this discovery. In 1818 \nthe reward was modified by proposing that 5000^. \nshould be paid when either no\xc2\xb0, 120\xc2\xb0, or 130\xc2\xb0 W. \nlong, should be passed ; one of which payments was \nmade to sir E. Parry. For their labours in the \nvoyages enumerated in the list below, Parry, \nFranklin, Ross, Back, Richardson, M\'Clure, Nares, \nand McClintock were knighted. \n\nSebastian Cabot\'s voyages to the arctic regions, 1498, 1517 \nSir Hugh Willoughby\'s and Richard Chancellor\'s \nexpedition to find a north-east passage to China, \nin the Edward Bonaventura, BonaEsperanza, and \nBona Conftdentia, sailed from the Thames. 20 May, 1553 \nRichard Chancellor, in the Edward, reached Arch- \nangel and Moscow ; the rest perished off the \n\ncoast of Lapland, about 1554 \n\nSir Martin Frobisher\'s attempt to find a N.W. pas- \nsage to China 1576 \n\nCapt. Davis\'s expeditions to find a N.W. passage, \n\n1585, 1586, 1587 \nBarentz\'s Dutch expeditions (by N.E.) . . 1594-5 \nWaymouth and Knight\'s expedition . . . . 1602 \nHudson\'s voyages (see Hudson\'s Bay) . . 1607-10 \nSir Thomas Button\'s . . . . . . . 1612 \n\nBaffin\'s (see Baffin\'s Bay) 1616 \n\nFoxe\'s expedition 1631 \n\n[A number of enterprises, undertaken by various \n\ncountries, followed.] \nBehring\'s voyages .... 1728, 1729, 1741 \nMiddleton\'s expedition 1742 \n\n\n\nMoore\'s and Smith\'s . . . . . . . 1746 \n\nHearne\'s land expedition 1769 \n\nCaptain Phipps, afterwards lord Mulgrave, his ex- \npedition \xe2\x96\xa0 . 1773 \n\nCapt. Cook, in the Resolution and Discovery July, 1776 \n\nMackenzie\'s expedition 1789 \n\nCaptain Duncan\'s voyage 1790 \n\nThe Discovery, captain Vancouver, returned from a \nvoyage of survey and discovery on the north-west \n\ncoast of America Sept. 1795 \n\nLieut. Kotzebue\'s expedition .... Oct. 1815 \nCaptain Ross and lieut. Parry in the Isabella and \n\nAlexander 1818 \n\nCaptain Buchan\'s and lieut. Franklin\'s expedition \n\nin the Dorothea and Trent ,, \n\nFranklin\'s second expedition 1819-22 \n\nLieuts. Parry and Liddon, in the Hecla and Griper, \n\n4 May, 1819 \nThey return to Leith .... 3 Nov. 1820 \nCapts. Parry and Lyon in Fury and Hecla, 8 May, 1821-23 \nParry\'s third expedition with the Hecla . 8 May, 1824 \nCapts. Franklin* and Lyon, after having attempted \na land expedition, again sail from Liverpool, \n\n16 Feb. 1825 \nCapt. Parry* again in the Hecla, sails from Dept- \nford, and reaches a spot 435 miles from the North \nPole, 22 June ; returns ... 6 Oct. 1827 \n\nCapt. Ross* arrived at Hull, on his return from his \nArctic expedition, after an absence of four years, \nand when all hope of his return had been nearly \n\nabandoned t 18 Oct. 1833 \n\nCapt. Back and his companions arrived at Liver- \npool from their perilous Arctic land expedition \n(1833), after having visited the Great Fish River \nand examined its course to the Polar Seas 8 Sept. 1835 \nCapt. Back sailed from Chatham in command of his \nmajesty\'s ship Terror, on an exploring adventure \n\nto Wager River 21 June, 1836 \n\n[The Geographical Society awarded the king\'s annual \n\npremium to capt. Back for his polar discoveries \n\nand enterprise, Dec. 1835.] \n\nSir John Franklin, and capts. Crozier and Fitzjames, \n\nin the ships Erebus and Terror, leave England, \n\n(see Franklin) 24 May, 1845 \n\n[The north-west passage was discovered by sir \nJohn Franklin and his companions, who sailed \ndown Peel and Victoria Straits, since named \nFranklin Straits. On the monument in Waterloo- \nplace is inscribed \xe2\x80\x94 " To Franklin and his brave \ncompanions, who sacrificed their lives in completing \nthe discovery of the north-west yMssage, a.d. 1847-8." \nLady Franklin received a medal from the Royal \nGeographical Society.] \nCommanders Collinson and M\'Clure, in the Enter- \nprise and Investigator, sailed eastward in search of \nsir John Franklin J .20 Jan. 1850 \n\n\n\n* Sir John Franklin died 11 June, 1847 (see Franklin) ; \nsir E. Parry died 8 July, 1855, aged 65 ; and sir John \nRoss died 30 Aug. 1856, aged 80. \n\nt In 1830 he discovered Boothia Felix : on 1 June, 1831, \nhis nephew, com. James Clark Ross, discovered the \nnorth magnetic pole, in 70\xc2\xb0 5\' 17" N. lat., and 96 46\' 45" \nW. long. \n\n% Capt. M\'Clure sailed in the Investigator in company \nwith com. Collinson in the Enterprise in search of sir \nJohn Franklin, 20 Jan. 1850. On 6 Sept. he discovered \nhigh land, which he named Baring\'s land ; on the 9th, \nother land, which he named after prince Albert ; on the \n30th the ship was frozen in. Entertaining a strong con- \nviction that the waters in which the Investigator then lay \ncommunicated with Barrow\'s straits, he set out on 21 \nOct. , with a few men in his sledge, to test his views. On \n26 Oct. he reached Point Russell (73\xc2\xb0 31\' N. lat., 114\xc2\xb0 14\' \nW. long.), where from an elevation of 600 feet he saw \nParry or Melville Sound beneath them. The strait con- \nnecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans he named after \nthe prince of Wales. The Investigator was the first ship \nwhich traversed the Polar sea from Behring\'s straits to \nBehring island. Intelligence of this discovery was brought \nto England by com. Inglefield, and the Admiralty chart \nwas published 14 Oct. 1853. Capt. M\'Clure returned to \nEngland, Sept. 1854. In 1855, 5000?. were paid to capt. \n(afterwards sir Robert) M\'Clure, and 5000Z. were distri- \nbuted among the officers and crew. On 30 Jan. 1855. the \nAdmiralty notified that the Arctic medal would be given \nto all persons engaged in the expeditions from 1818 to 1855. \n\n\n\nN.-E. AND -W. PASSAGES. \n\n\n\n691 NORTH- WESTERN RAILWAY. \n\n\n\nA north-west passage discovered by capt. M\'Clure, \n\n26 Oct. 1850 \nA German arctic expedition (the Germania and the \nHansa) sailed, 15 June ; arrived at Pendulum bay, \n\xe2\x96\xa0Greenland, 18 July, 1869 ; the vessels parted ; the \n1 Germania arrived at Bremen, 11 Sept. 1870; the \nHansa was frozen and sank, Oct. 1869 ; the crew \nescaped with provisions, and reached Copenhagen \n\n1 Sept. 1870 \nA Norwegian arctic expedition sailed in the spring 1872 \nA Swedish expedition under professor Nordensk- \njold, sailed from Tromso, 21 July, 1872 ; unsuc- \ncessful ; returned summer 1873 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Capt. Hall sailed from New York in the U. S. ship \nPolaris, 29 June, 1871 ; frozen in, Sept. ; died, \n8 Nov. After much suffering, the crew reached \n\nNewfoundland 9 May, ,, \n\nMr. B. Leigh Smith sailed to lat. 81\xc2\xb0 24\', and dis- \ncovered land to the N.E. of Spitzbergen, 1871 ; in \nother voyages he discovered under-currents of \nwarm water flowing into the polar basin ; he re- \nlieved the Swedish expedition . . . 1872-73 \nAn Austro-Hungarian expedition in the Admiral \nTegethoff, and the Isbbrjnen, under Weyprecht \nand Payer, sailed from Tromso, in Norway, 14 \nJuly, 1872 ; the ships parted company, and the \nTegethoff sailed northward and discovered Franz- \nJoseph Land, 31 Aug. 1873 ; frozen in, abandoned \nship, May, 1874 ; reached Vardoe, Norway, by \nsledges, 3 Sept. ; arrived at Vienna . 25 Sept. 1874 \nMr. Disraeli consents to a new British arctic expe- \ndition, 17 Nov. 1874 ; 38,620^. voted for the ex- \npedition 5 March, 1875 \n\nCapt. G. S. Nares, of the Challenger, appointed to \ncommand the Alert, and capt. H. P. Stephenson \nto command the Discovery. \nTelegram from the queen to capt. Nares before \nstarting : "I earnestly wisli you and your gallant \ncompanions every success, and I trust that you \nmay safely accomplish the important duty you \nhave so bravely undertaken." \n\xc2\xa311 the reply, " Her majesty may depend on all \n\ndoing their duty." \nThe ships sailed from Portsmouth 29 May, 1875 ; \n\ndespatches received from Disco (all well) 15 July, 1875 \nAlert (on return) arrived at Valentia, 27 Oct. ; tlie \nDiscovery at Queenstown, 29 Oct, ; at Ports- \nmouth 2 Nov. 1876 \n\nResults. Sledges reached 83 20\' 26", 12 May, 1876 ; \npassage to the pole declared to be impracticable ; \nno signs of open polar sea ; ships wintered, 82 87\' \nlat. ; sun absent 142 days ; no Esquimaux be- \nyond 8i\xc2\xb0 52\'. \nOut of 120 persons 4deaths (1 frost bitten, 3 scurvy) ; \ngreatest cold, 72\xc2\xb0 \xe2\x80\x94 zero ; extremist N. point \nreached by Markham named Cape Colombia. \nCost of the expedition, 120,000?. \n\nThe " Voyage " published by Capt. Nares . .1878 \nExpedition of capt. Allen Young in the Pandora \n(aided by lady Franklin), sailed 25 June ; returned \n19 Oct. 1875; sailed again, 2 June; returned3i Oct. 1876 \nDutch expedition sailed from Holland . April, 1878 \nMr. James Gordon Bennett\'s expedition ; lieut. de \n\nLong sailed in yacht Jeannette . . 8 July, 1879 \nDutch exploring expedition in Willem Barents, \nsailed for Arctic Ocean, 6 May ; successful ; re- \nturned to Hammerfest, Norway . . 24 Sept. ,, \nAnother expedition in Vega, under prof. Nordensk- \njold, started 4 July, 1878 ; at Port Dickson on the \nYenisei, 6 Aug. ; at the mouth of Lena, 27 Aug. ; \nat Yakutsk, 22 Sept. ; imprisoned in ice near \nTschuetshe settlement, 28 Sept. 1878 \xe2\x80\x94 18 July, \n1879 ; passed East Cape, Behring\'s strait ; entered \nSt. Lawrence Bay, in Pacific Ocean, 20 July ; \n\nreadied Yokohama 2 Sept. ,, \n\nThe North-East Passage from the Atlantic to the \nPacific is thus accomplished ; chiefly at the ex- \npense of Mr. Oscar Dickson, a merchant of Go- \nthenburg 1878-9 \n\nMr. ]j. Leigh Smith\'s successful expedition in his \nyacht Eira from and to Peterhead, 22 June \xe2\x80\x94 \n\n12 Oct. 1880 \nAnother expedition by him in the Eira, 14 June ; \n\nEira seen in Straits of Nova Zembla . 8 July, 1881 \n[The Eira injured by ice ; at Cape Flora sank in \ndeep water, 21 Aug. ; stores saved, tent and \nhouse erected ; the party live on seals, walrus, \n&c. during winter, 1881-2 ; return voyage began \n\n\n\n(boats hauled, &c), 21 June ; fell in with a Dutch \nvessel, Willem Barents, and soon after with the \nHope, near Matotchkin Straits, Nova Zembla, \n3 Aug. ; sail for home, 6 Aug. ; arrive at Aber- \ndeen, 2o Aug.] \nSearch for him proposed ; government to give \n5000Z. Geographical Society 1000Z. ; other sums \n\noffered March, 1882 \n\nThe Hope (Capt. Sir Allen Young) sails in search \n\nof the Eira 22 June, ,, \n\nExpedition in the Jeannette, which is crushed by \nice, 23 June ; two boats with crew received by \nRussians at mouth of the Lena ; one boat missing, \nDec. 1881 ; bodies of capt. de Long and others \nfound near the mouth of the Lena, 23 March, 1882 ; \nconveyed to Philadelphia, and buried 23 Feb. 1884 \nGerman arctic expedition, Germania sailed, summer, \n\nreturned 23 Oct. 1882 \n\nBritish circumpolar expedition started . 11 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nArrived at Fort Rae, 30 Aug. ; good news 1 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nAustrian Polar expedition, Polar started 2 April, \n1882 ; returned to Drontheim n Aug. ; to Vienua \n\n22 Aug. 1883 \nThe British government presents the Alert to aid \nthe expedition, under commander Winfield S. \nSchley, in search for the party under lieut. \nGreeley, 25 persons (which started for the Polar \nseas in the summer of 1881), Feb. 1884 ; the \nsearch expedition starts, 10 May, 1884 ; 5000?. \nreward offered by U. S. government for discovery \nof lieut. Greeley and party . . . May, 1S84 \n\nLieut. Greeley\'s party reached Cape Sabine, Smith\'s \nSound, 83 deg. N. lat. ; 17 persons starved to \ndeath ; 1 drowned, 6 survivors found by com. \nSchley with the Thetis, 22 June ; arrive at St. \nJohn\'s, Newfoundland, 17 July ; at Portsmouth, \n\nNew Hampshire 1 Aug. ,, \n\n[The Alert returned to the British government \n\nwith thanks, Feb. 1885.] \nColonel Gilder\'s expedition starts from Winnipeg \n2 Oct. 1886 ; returns ... 3 March, 1887 \n\n(Charts of the latest discoveries are published in \nPetermann\'s " Mittheilungen der Geographie.") \n\nNORTHMEN or NORSEMEN, see Scandi- \nnavia, and Normandy. \n\nNORTH SEA, or German Ocean, a canal \n\nconnecting the sea with Amsterdam; opened by the \nking of Holland, 1 Nov. 1876. For the canal con- \nnecting the North sea with the Baltic, see Baltic, \n1887-91. \n\nNORTHUMBERLAND AVENUE, W. \n\nLONDON. A fine new street opened 18 March. \n1876. \n\nNORTHUMBERLAND HOUSE, \n\nSTRAND, LONDON, built on the site of a hospital, \ndedicated to the Virgin, by Henry Howard, earl of \nNorthampton, was finished 1605; named Suffolk \nHouse by his nephew, Thomas, earl of Suffolk ; and \nafterwards named Northumberland House from his \ndescendant, Elizabeth, marrying Algernon, earl of \nNorthumberland, by whom it was partially rebuilt. \nThe house was purchased by the Metropolitan \nBoard of Works ; 497,000?. being paid for it, \nJune. The lion (set up 1749) taken down, 3 \nJuly, to be put up at Sion-house ; and the house \nsold for building materials and pulled down \nduring the autumn iSy\xc2\xb1 \n\nNORTHUMBRIA, a Saxon kingdom, founded \nby Ida, 547 ; see under Britain. \n\nNORTH WESTERN PROVINCES of \n\nIndia, separated from 13eng.il in 1835 (Cude was \nannexed in 1856), and all were placed under ono \nlieut.-governorin 1877. Capital, Allahabad. Popu- \nlation in 1881, 44,107,869. Lieut-governors, Hon. \nsir Alfred Conryns Lyall, 1882 ; sir Auckland Colvin, \nautumn 1887. Chief - commissioner, A. Patrick \nMacDonnell, Nov. 1890. \n\nNORTH-WESTERN RAILWAY. \n\nLONDON AND, constituted by the amalgamation of \n\nY Y 2 \n\n\n\nNOEWAY. \n\n\n\n692 \n\n\n\nNOEWICH. \n\n\n\nthe London and Birmingham Grand Junction, and \nthe Liverpool and Manchester railways, in 1847. \nSir Richard Moon (director, 1848, chairman, 1862, \non resigning, 20 Feb. 1891, reported the capital, \nDec. 1890, to be about 110,077,934/., proprietors \n34,000, persons employed, about 60,000, mileage, \n1,900. See Crewe. \n\nNOEWA Y, until the 7 th century, was governed \nby petty rulers. About 630, Olaf Iratelia, of the \nrace of Odin termed Ynglings or youths, expelled \nfrom Sweden, established a colony in Vermeland, \nthe nucleus of a monarchy, founded by his de- \nscendant, Halfdan III. the Black, a great warrior \nand legislator, whose memory was long revered. \nPopulation, 1887, 1,925,000; 1891,1,988,997. \n\nOlaf Trsetelia, 630 ; slain by his subjects . . .640 \nHalfdan. I., 640 ; Eystein I., 700 ; Halfdan II., 730 ; \n\nGudrod, 784 ; Olaf Geirstade and Halfdan III. . 824 \nHalfdan recovers his inheritance from his brother, \nwhom he subdues, together with the neighbour- \ning chiefs, 840 ; accidentally drowned . . . 863 \nThe chiefs regain their power during the youth of \nhis son, Harold Harfager, or fair-haired, who vows \nneither to cut nor comb his hair till he recovers \n\nhis dominion 865 \n\nHe defeats his enemies at Hafsfiord, 872 ; dies . . 934 \nEric I. (the bloody axe), his son, a tyrant, expelled, \n\nand succeeded by \nHako (the Good). 940 ; he endeavours in vain to \n\nestablish Christianity ; dies 963 \n\nHarold II., Graafeld, son of Eric, succeeds . . . ,, \nKilled in battle with Harold of Denmark . . 977 \n\nHako Jarl, made governor of several provinces ; be- \ncomes king, 977 ; his licentiousness leads to his \nruin; deposed by Olaf I., Trygvasson ; and slain \n\nby his slave 995 \n\nOlaf I. , 99s ; establishes Christianity by force and \n\ncruelty 998 \n\nDefeated and slain, during an expedition against \nPomerania, by the kings of Denmark and Sweden, \nwho divide Norway between them . . . . 1000 \nOlaf II., the Saint (his son), lands in Norway . . 1012 \nDefeats his enemies and becomes king . . . 1015 \nFiercely zealous in the diffusion of Christianity 1018-21 \nSuccessful invasion of Canute, who becomes king 1028-9 \nOlaf expelled ; returns and is killed in battle . . 1030 \nSweyn, at the death of Canute, succeeds as king of \nNorway, but is expelled in favour of Magnus I., \n\nbastard son of Olaf II 1035 \n\nMagnus becomes king of Denmark, 1036 ; dies . 1047 \nHarold Hardrada, king of Norway . . . . ,, \nInvades England ; defeated and slain by Harold II. \n\nat Stamford -bridge 25 Sept. 1066 \n\nOlaf III. and Magnus II. (sons), kings, 25 Sept. 1066 ; \n\nOlaf alone (pacific) 1069-1093 \n\nOlaf III. founds Bergen 1070 \n\nMagnus III. (Barefoot), son of Olaf . . . . 1093 \nInvades the Orkneys and Scotland .... 1096 \n\nKilled in Ireland 1103 \n\nSigurd I., Eystein II., and Olaf IV. (sons) . . ,, \nSigurd visits the Holy Land as a warrior pilgrim 1 107-10 \nBecomes sole king, 1122 ; dies . .... 1130 \n\nMagnus IV. (his son) and Harold IV. . . . ,, \n\nMagnus dethroned . . . . . . 11 34 \n\nHarold IV. murdered ; succeeded by his sons, Sigurd \n\nII., &c. ; civil war rages 1136 \n\nNicolas Breakspear (afterwards pope Adrian IV.), \nthe papal legate, arrives, reconciles the brothers, \nand founds the archbishopric of Drontheim . .1152 \nNumerous competitors for the crown ; civil war ; \nInge I., Eystein III., Hako III., Magnus V. . 1136-62 \n\nMagnus V. alone 1162 \n\nBise of Swerro, an able adventurer, who becomes \n\nking ; Magnus defeated ; drowned . . . 1186 \nSwerro rules vigorously ; dies . . ... 1202 \nHako, his son, king, 1202 ; Guthrum, 1204 ; Inge II. 1205 \n\nHako IV. , bastard son of Swerro 1207 \n\nUnsuccessfully invades Scotland, where he dies . 1263 \nMagnus VI., his son (the legislator), dies . . 1280 \n\nEric II., the priest-hater, marries Margaret of Scot- \nland ; their daughter, the Maid of Norway, be- \ncomes heiress to the crown of Scotland . . . 1286 \nHako V., his brother, king .... 1299-1319 \n\n\n\nDecline of Norwegian prosperity. \n\nMagnus VII. (III. of Sweden), king . . . 1319-43 \n\nHako VI 1343-80 \n\nOlaf V of Norway (II. of Denmark) . . . 1380-87 \nNorway united with Denmark and Sweden under \n\nMargaret 1389 \n\nAt an assembly at Calmar the three states are \n\nformally united 1397 \n\nSweden and Norway separated from Denmark, 144S ; \nre-united ......... 145\xc2\xa9 \n\nDenmark and Norway separated from Sweden . 1523 \nChristiania, the modern capital, built by Chris- \ntian IV 1624 \n\nNorway given to Sweden by the treaty of Kiel ; \nPomerania and Bugen annexed to Denmark 14 \nJan. ......... 1814 \n\nThe Norwegians declare their independence, 17 May, ,, \nThe Swedish troops enter Norway . . 16 July, ,.,. \nCharles Frederic, duke of Holstein, elected king of \n\nNorway ; abdicates 10 Oct. , T \n\nCharles XIII. of Sweden proclaimed king by the \nNational Diet (Storthing) assembled at Christiania; \nhe accepted the constitution which declares Nor- \nway a free, independent, indivisible, and inalien- \nable state, united to Sweden . . 4 Nov. ,, \n\nNobility abolished 182H \n\nThe national order of St. Olaf instituted by king \n\nOscar 1 1847 \n\nMillennial festival of the establishment of the king- \ndom, kept 18 July, 1872 \n\nThe king Oscar II. crowned at Drontheim, \n\n17 July, 1873 \nStatue of Charles John XIV. unveiled at Christiania \n\n7 Sept. 1875 \nChristian Selmer succeeds Fk. Stang as prime \n\nminister 1881 \n\nDisputes between the Storthings and the crown \n\nrespecting constitutional changes . . . . ,, \nElections ; liberal majority claiming Norwegian \n\nconstitutional rights ; many republicans Oct. 1882 \nLiberal leaders, Sorens Jaabcek (violent), Mr. Sver- \n\ndrup (moderate) . . . ~ . . . Jan. 1883 \nOpening of the Storthing, firm resistance of the \n\ncrown ministers Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nWho are threatened with impeachment, 9 March ; \n\nwhich is adopted 23 April, , r \n\nExhibition of art and industry opened at Chris- \ntiania June, ,, \n\nImpeachment of the minister, Christian Selmer, \nand his 10 colleagues, for advising the king to \nveto the bill for ministerial responsibility . , r \n\nTrial of Selmer began . . . .22 Oct. , t \n\nSelmer found guilty by the supreme council of \nNorway ; sentenced to dismission from public \nservice, and payment of expenses of prosecution, \n\n27 Feb. 1884 \nM. Selmer resigns his post, the king accedes, but \n\nmaintains his power of veto . . 12 March, ,, \nTrial and conviction of M. Kjerulf and other \n\nministers .... 20 March \xe2\x80\x94 1 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe crown prince of Sweden appointed viceroy of \n\nNorway 19 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNew ministry formed (councillor Schweigaard and \n\nM. Carl Lovenskjold, and others) . 3 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \nBesigns, 6 June ; M. Johan Sverdrup forms a \n\nliberal ministry 26 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBesignation of the Sverdrup ministry, 2 July ; suc- \nceeded by Emil Stang . . . \xe2\x80\xa2. 12 July, 1889 \nDeath of Christian A. Selmer . . about 9 Sept. \nVisit of the German emperor at Christiania, grand \n\nreception 1 July e i seq. 1890 \n\nBesignation of the Stang ministry, in consequence \nof a vote in the parliament demanding greater \nindependence for Norway in political policy, tend- \ning to separation from Sweden . . 23 Feb. 1891 \nM. Steen, the liberal leader, forms a cabinet \n\n5 March, ,, \nNorway desires autonomy in foreign affairs ; \nopposed by Sweden, Feb. ; adopted by the \nStorthing . . . . . . 10 June, 1892 \n\nSee Denmark and Sweden. \n\nNOEWICH (Norfolk), mentioned in history in \nthe Saxon Chronicle at the period when Sweyn, \nking of Denmark, destroyed it by fire, 1004. See \nPopulation. \n\n\n\nNORWICH. \n\n\n\n693 \n\n\n\nNOVARA. \n\n\n\nArtisans from the Low Countries establish here the \n.manufacture of baizes, &c, aboiit . . . . 1132 \n\nCathedral first erected in 1088, by bishop Herbert \nLosinga ; completed by bishop Middleton, about 1280 \n\nA great plague 1348 \n\nChurch of the Blackfriars, now St. Andrew\'s-hall, \nerected 1415 \n\nNorwich nearly consumed by Are .... 1505 \n\nPublic library instituted 1784 \n\nJohn Stratford executed for poisoning John Burgess \nby arsenic 17 Aug. 1829 \n\nNorwich new eanal and harbour were opened, \n\n3 June, 1 83 1 \n\nChurch congress met . . . .3-7 Oct. 1865 \n\nThe musical festival was attended by the prince of \nWales 31 Oct. 1866 \n\nNorwich and Norfolk Industrial exhibition opened \nin St. Andrew\'s-hall .... Aug. 1867 \n\nBritish Association met here . . 20-26 Aug. 1868 \n\nNorfolk and Norwich Naturalists\' Society founded 1869 \n\nMutilated remains of a human body discovered near \nNorwich, 21-25 June, 1851 ; William Sherward, a \npublican of the place, confessed on 1 Jan. 1869, \nthat they were the remains of his wife murdered by \nhim ; he recanted, but was tried and condemned, \nand executed 20 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNorwich Crown bank stopped ; much distress oc- \ncasioned ; sir Bobert H. J. Harvey, the chief \npartner, commits suicide : died . 19 July, 1870 \n\nElection commission ; much corruption disclosed \n\nAug.-Sept. 1875 \n\nWrit for election of M.P. suspended till dissolution \nof parliament, by act passed . . 15 Aug. 1876 \n\nNational fisheries exhibition (opened by the prince \nof Wales) 18-30 April, 1881 \n\nThe castle, long used as a prison, proposed to be \n.transformed into a museum, &c 1888 \n\nNORWICH, Bishopric op, originally East \n\nAnglia ; die first bishop was Felix, a Burgundian, \neent to convert the East Anglians about 630. The \ngee was divided into two distinct bishoprics \xe2\x80\x94 Elm- \nham, in Norfolk, and Dunwich, in Suffolk, about \n673. Both sees suffered extremely from the Danish \ninvasions, insomuch that after the death of St. \nHumbert, they lay vacant for a hundred years. At \nlast the see of Elmham was revived, and Dunwich \nwas united to it; but Arfastus removed the seat to \nThetford, where it. continued till Herbert Losinga \nremoved it to Norwich, 1094. This see has given to \nthe church of Rome two saints ; and to the nation \nfive lord chancellors. It was valued in the king\'s \nbooks at 899/. 18s. "jhd. per annum. Present income, \n4500/. ; see Bishoprics. \n\nRECENT BISHOPS OF NORWICH. \n\n1790. George Home ; died 17 Jan. 1792. \n\n1792. Charles Manners Sutton ; translated to Canterbury, \n\n1 Feb. 1805. \n1805. Henry Bathurst ; died 5 April, 1837. He was a \n\nstrenuous supporter of catholic emancipation, \n\nand for a long time the only liberal bishop) in the \n\nhouse of peers. \nC837. Edward Stanley ; died 6 Sept. 1849. \n1849. Samuel Hinds ; resigned 1857. \n1857. Hon. John T. Pelham, May. \n\nNOTABLES, French assemblies of nobles, \nbishops, knights, and lawyers. An assembly of the \nnotables was convened by the duke of Guise, 20 Aug. \n1560, and by other statesmen. Calonne, the minister \nof Louis XVI., summoned one which met on 22 \nFeb. 1787, on account of the deranged state of the \nking\'s finances, and again in 1788, when he opened \nhis plan : but as any reform militated too much \nagainst private interest to be adopted, Calonne was \ndismissed, and soon after retired to England. Louis \nhaving lost his confidential minister, De Vergennes, \nby death, called De Brienne, an ecclesiastic, to his \n\xe2\x96\xa0councils. The notables were re-assembled on 6 \nNov. 1788. In the end, the states-general were \nconvoked 5 Dec. ; and from this assembly sprang \nthe national assembly {which see). The notables \n\n\n\nwere dismissed by the king, 12 Dec. 1788. \xe2\x80\x94 The \nSpanish notables assembled and met Napoleon \n(conformably with a decree issued by him command- \ning their attendance), at Bayonne, 25 May, 1808. \n\nNOTARIES PUBLIC, said to have been \nappointed by the primitive fathers of the Christian \nchurch, to collect the acts or memoirs of the lives \nof the martyrs in the 1st century. \xe2\x80\x94 Du Fresno)/. \nThis office was afterwards changed to a legal em- \nployment, to attest deeds and writings, so as to esta- \nblish their authenticity in any other country. A \nstatute to regulate public notaries was passed in \n1801, and statutes on the subject have been enacted \nsince. \n\n"NOTES AND QUERIES," a medium of \nintercommunication for literary men and general \nreaders, founded and edited by W. J. Thorns ; first \npublished on 3 Nov. 1849 ; bought by sir C. W. \nDilke, about Aug. 1872. \n\nNOTRE DAME, the cathedral at Paris, was \nfounded in 1163, completed 1257. It narrowly es- \ncaped destruction by the communists, May, 187 1. \nIt has been beautifully and judiciously restored, at \na cost of about 250,000/., under the superintendence \nof Viollet-le-Duc, 1866, et seq. \n\nNOTTINGHAM (Saxon, Snotingaham) . The \ncastle here was defended by the Danes against \nking Alfred, and his brother Ethelred, who retook \nit, 868. It was rebuilt by William I. 1068 ; and \nultimately became a strong fortress. See Popu- \nlation. \n\nBurnt in the civil wars . . . 1140,1153,1173 \nParliaments held . . 1194, 1337, 1386, 1394, 1397 \n\nHere Charles I. raised his standard . 6 May, 1642 \n\nThe riots at Nottingham, in which the rioters broke \n\nframes, &c. . . . 14 Nov. 1811 to Jan. 1812 \nMuch similar mischief . ... April, 1814 \n\nThe Watch and Ward act was enforced . 2 Dec. 1816 \nNottingham castle was burnt by rioters duriug the \n\nBeform excitement .... 10 Oct. 1831 \nFierce election riots with "lambs" and others took \n\nplace in July, 1865 \n\nThe British Association met . . 22 Aug. 1866 \n\nSuffragan bishop\xe2\x80\x94 Henry Mackenzie, D.D. . . 1870 \nThe church congress met .... Oct. 1871 \n\nA gentleman gives io,oooL to educate the working \n\nclasses Jan. 1875 \n\nUniversity college buildings founded 27 Sept. 1877 \n\nMidland Counties Art museum opened by the \n\nprince of Wales, 3 July, 1878 ; Mr. Henry Lam- \n\nmin bequeaths to it paintings, &c. value 4,000?. \n\nAug. 1890 \nUniversity free public library and free natural \n\nhistory museum opened by prince Leopold, duke \n\nof Albany 30 June, 1881 \n\n50th anniversary of the foundation of the Mechanics \n\nInstitution celebrated ; duke of St. Albans in the \n\nchair . . . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 1 Nov. et seq. 1887 \nThe Boyal Agricultural Society meet here, very \n\nsuccessful 9 Jul y. l8S S \n\nNew guildhall opened by the mayor . 27 Sept.. \xe2\x80\x9e \nSettlement by conciliation of a great strike in the \n\nlace trade 9 Se l )t: - l88 9 \n\nWilhelm E. H. Arnemann, dentist, sentenced to \n\n20 years\' penal servitude for shooting judge Bris- \n\ntowe at the railway station (19 Nov. 1889) \n\n8 March, 1890 \nAdcock\'s factory burnt, estimated loss, 40,000?. \n\n5 June, 1891 \n\nNOVARA (N. W. Italy). Near this town the \nAustrian marshal Radetzky totally defeated the. \nking Charles Albert and the Sardinian army, 23 \nMarch, 1849. The contest began at 10 a.m. and \nlasted till late in the evening; the Austnans lost \n396 killed, and had about 1850 wounded ; the Sar- \ndinians lost between 3000 and 4000men, 27 cannons, \nand 3000 prisoners. The king soon after abdicated \nin favour of his son Victor Emmanuel. \n\n\n\nNOVA SCOTIA. \n\n\n\n694 \n\n\n\nNUNNERY. \n\n\n\nNOVA SCOTIA (N. America), was discovered \nby Cabot, 1497 ; visited by Verntzzani, 1524, and \nnamed Acadia ; settled in 1622, by tbe Scotch under \nsir "William Alexander, in the reign of James I. of \nEngland, from whom it received the name of Nova \nScotia. Since its first settlement it has more than \nonce changed proprietors, and was not confirmed to \nEngland till the peace of Utrecht, in 1713. It was \ntaken in 1745 an ^ U58; Dut was a S a i n confirmed \nto England in 1763. Nova Scotia was divided \ninto two provinces in 1784, and was erected into a \nbishopric in Aug. 1787. King\'s College, Windsor, \nwas founded in 1788; see Baronets. Gold was \nfound in Nova Scotia in 1861. By an act passed \n29 March, 1867, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick \nwere united with Canada for legislative purposes. \nOn the agitation for secession Mr. John Bright pre- \nsented a petition in the commons 15 May; his \nmotion for a royal commission of inquiry negatived \n16 June, 1868. The agitation soon subsided. Lieut. - \ngovernor, sir Charles H. Doyle, 1867; Joseph Howe \ndied soon after his appointment, 1 June, 1873 5 \nAdams George Archibald, 1873 ; Matthew Henry \nEichey, 1883; A. W. McLelan, 1888 (died 26 June, \n1890) ; M. B. Daly, 1890. Capital, Halifax. Popu- \nlation, in 1881, 440,572 ; 1891, 450,523. \nThe gaol and other buildings at Picton were burnt \n\nby the act of a prisoner, who perished, about \n\n8 Nov. ; estimated loss, 10,000/ 1890 \n\nThe " Princess," a block of buildings at Yarmouth, \n\nburnt, loss about 10,000/. . reported 29 Dec. ,, \nExplosion at Sp.-ingliill coal mines; 122 deaths, \n\n21 Feb. ; subscriptions in England for sufferers ; \n\nthe queen gives 30/. . . . ." March, 1891 \n\nConstruction of the Chignecto ship railway stopped, \n\nafter the expenditure of 3,500,000/. ; 1,500,000/. \n\nmore required Dec. ,, \n\nNOVATIANS, a sect which denied restoration \nto the church to those who had relapsed during per- \nsecution, began with Novatian, a Boman presbyter, \nin 250 ; see Cathari. \n\nNOVELS (Novella?) , a part of Justinian\'s Code, \npublished 535. See Romances. \n\nNOVEMBER [novem, nine), anciently the \nninth month of the year. When Numa added \nJanuary and February, in 713 B.C., it became the \neleventh as now. The Boman senators wished to \nname this month in which Tiberius was born, by \nhis name, in imitation of Julius Cresar, and Augus- \ntus; but the emperor refused, saying, " What will \nyou do, conscript fathers, if you have thirteen \nCsesars ? " \n\nNOVEMBER METEORS, see Meteors. \n\nNOVGOROD (Central Bussia), made the seat \nof his government by Buric, a Varangian chief, in \n862, is held to be the foundation of the Bussian \nempire. In memory of the event the czar inaugu- \nrated a national monument at Novgorod, on 20 \nSept. 1862. Novgorod became a republic about \n1 150. Visited by the duke of Edinburgh, 20-27 \nAug, 1875. Population, 1886: province, 1,231,539; \ncity, 66,585. \n\nNO VI (N. Italy). Here the French, com- \nmanded by Joubert. were defeated by the Bussians \nunder Suwarrow, with immense loss, 15 Aug. 1799. \nAmong the French slain was their leader, Joubert, \nand other distinguished officers. \n\nNOVI BAZAR, see Herzegovina. \n\nNOVUM ORGANON, the great work of lord \nBacon, containing his system of philosophy, was \npublished 1620. \n\nNOXIOUS VAPOURS, see Alkalies and \n\nChemical Works. \n\n\n\nNOYADES, see Browning. \n\nNUBIA, the ancient ^Ethiopia supra 2Egyptum r \nsaid to have been the seat of the kingdom of the Meroe,. \nreceived its name from a tribe named Nubes or \nNubates. The Christian kingdom, with Dongola,. \nthe capital, lasted till the 14th century, when it \nwas broken up into Mahometan principalities. Ifc \nis now subject to the viceroy of Egypt, having been \nconquered by Ibrahim Pacha in 1822. \n\nNUCLEUS THEORY m Chemistry, see \n\nCompound Radicles. \n\nNUISANCES REMOVAL ACT; passed \n1848; amended 1849; see Sanitary Legislation. \n\nNUITS. A small fortified town, near Dijon, in \nBurgundy, N.E. France, chartered in 1212 ; fre- \nquently captured and ravaged, specially in 1569,. \n1576, and 1636. It was taken by the Badenese- \nunder Von Werder, 18 Dec. 1870, after five hours\'" \nconflict, in which above 1000 French are said to- \nhave been killed and wounded, and 700 prisoners- \ntaken. The German loss was also heavy. A depot \nof arms and ammunition was gained by the victors. \n\nNUMANTINE WAR. The war between the \nRomans and the Celtiberians (Celts who possessed \nthe country near the Iber, now the Ebro) began T \n143 B.C., on account of tbe latter having given \nrefuge to their allies the Sigidians, who had been \ndefeated by the Bomans. Numantia, an unpro- \ntected city, withstood a long siege, in which the- \narmy of Scipio Africanus, 60,000 men, was opposed \nby no more than 4000 men able to bear arms. The \nNumantines fed upon horse-flesh, and their own \ndead, and then drew lots to kill one another. At \nlength they set fire to their houses, and destroyed \nthemselves, so that not one remained to adorn the- \ntriumph of the conqueror, 133 B.C. \n\nNUMIDIA (N. Africa), tbe seat of the war of \nthe Romans with Jugurtha, which began in B.C., \nand ended with his subjugation and captivity, 106. \nThe last king, Juba, joined Cato and was killed at \nthe battle of Thapsus, 46 B.C., when Numidia be- \ncame a Roman province ; see Mauritania. \n\nNUMISMATICS,, the science of coins and \nmedals, an important adjunct to the study of history. \nIn this country Evelyn (1697), Addison (1726), and! \nPinkerton (1789), published works on medals. Pel- \nlerin\'s \'\' Eecueil des Medailles," 9 vols. 4to (1762). \nBuding\'s Annals is the great work on British \ncoinage (new edition, 1840). \xe2\x80\x94 The Numismatie \nSociety in London was founded by Dr. John Lee in \n1836. It publishes the Numismatie Chronicle. \xe2\x80\x94 \nMr. Yonge Akerman\'s Numismatic Manual (1840} \nis a useful introduction to the science. Foreign \nworks are numerous. \n\nNUNCIO, an envoy from the pope of Borne tc- \ncatholic states. The pope deputed a nuncio to the \nIrish rebels in 1645. The arrival in London of a \nnuncio, and his admission to an audience by \nJames II., July, 1687, is stated to have hastened \nthe Bevolution. \n\nNUNNERY. The first founded is said to have \nbeen that to which the sister of St. Anthony retired \nat the close of the 3rd century. The fir.-t founded \nin France, near Poictiers, by St. Marcellina, sister \nto St. Martin, 360. \xe2\x80\x94 Bit Fresnoy. The first in \nEngland was at Folkestone, in Kent, by Eadbald, \nor Edbald, king of Kent, 630. \xe2\x80\x94 Bugdale; "see Abbeys \nand Monachism. The nuns were expelled from \ntheir convents in Germany, in July, 1785 ; in \nFrance, in Jan. 1790. In Feb. 1861, monastic \nestablishments were abolished in Naples, com- \n\n\n\nNUREMBERG. \n\n\n\n695 \n\n\n\nNYSTADT. \n\n\n\npensation being made to the inmates. For me- \nmorable instances of the fortitude of nuns, see \nAcre, and Coldingham. \n\nNUREMBERG-, a free imperial German city \nin 1219. In 1522, the diet here demanded ecclesi- \nastical reforms and a general council, and in 1532 \nsecured religious liberty to the Protestants. It was \nannexed to Bavaria in 1805. Albert Diirer was \nborn here in 1471. Population, 1890, 142,403. \n\nNURSES, their qualifications have been \ngreatly raised during this century by the influence \nof Florence Nightingale and the viscountess \nStrangford, who died 24 March, 1887 ; both ladies \nrendered eminent services to the sick and wounded \nin the Eusso-Turkish wars. Institution of Nurs- \ning Sisters founded 1840, and many others since. \nSee Nightingale Fund and John, St. \nMr. Henry C. Burdett in Oct. 1887 proposed a scheme \nfor the establishment of the National Pension Fund \nRoyal 1890, for nurses and hospital officials. In Jan. \n1888 Messrs. Gibbs, Hambro, J.S. Morgan and Roth- \nschild presented 20,000?. towards its foundation ; in- \ncorporated Feb. 1888. \nCertificates of membership of the fund presented by the \nprincess of \'Wales at Marlborough House, 4 July, 1890, \n\n\n\nto about 650 nurses, who represented the first 1 000 \n\ninvestors in the fund. \nThe family of the late Junius S. Morgan presented \n\n7>73*?- 15s. 5(1. to the fund named after him, 18 Dec, \n\n1890. Total amount of the fund, io.oooZ. \nA second 1,000 nurses received at Marlborough House, \n\n25 July, 1891. \n70,000?. of the Women\'s Jubilee Offering was devoted to \n\nthe benefit of nurses and nursing institutions for the \n\nsick poor by direction of the queen, 1887. See under \n\nJubilee. \nBritish Nurses\' Association, founded 1887, Royal 1891, \n\nprincess Christian, president. \n\nNYASSALAND, the region S/W. and N.W. \n\nof Lake Nyassa, E. Africa, occupied by the African \nLakes company of Glasgow since its foundation in \n1878. It contains missionary stations at Blantyre \nand Bandawe. Active measures are taken to sup- \npress the slave trade. See Africa, British \nCentral. \n\nNYNEE TAL, see Landslips, 18 Sept. 1880. \n\nNYSTADT, S.W. Finland. By a treaty, \nsigned here 30 Aug. 1721, Sweden ceded Livouia, \nEsthonia, and other territories to Russia. \n\n\n\n0. \n\n\n\nOAK. \n\nOAK, styled the monarch of the woods, and an \nemblem of strength, virtue, constancy, and long \nlife. That produced in England is considered to be \nthe best calculated for ship-building. In June, 403, \nthe "Synod of the oak," was held at Chalcedon. \nThe constellation Eobur Caroli, the oak of Charles, \nwas named by Dr. Halley in 1676, in memory of \nthe oak in which Charles II. saved himself from \nhis pursuers, after the battle of Worcester, 3 Sept. \n165 1 ; see Boscobel, and Races. \nThe evergreen oak, Quercus Ilex, brought from the \n\nsouth of Europe before 1581 \n\nThe scarlet oak, Quercus coccinea, brought from \n\nNorth America before 1691 \n\nThe chestnut-leaved oak, Quercus Prinus, from \n\nNorth America before 1730 \n\nThe Turkey Oak, Quercus Cerris, from the south of \n\nEurope I735 \n\nThe agaric of the oak was known as a styptic in . 1750 \nHeme\'s oak, Windsor Park, mentioned in Shaks- \npeare\'s "Merry Wives of Windsor, " finally de- \nstroyed by the wind .... 31 Aug. 1863 \nExisting Oaks, 1879. Cowthorpe, Yorkshire ; girth \nat the ground, 55 feet 6 inches. Newland, Glou- \ncester (mentioned in Domesday Book), 46 feet. \n\nOATES\'S PLOT. Titus Oates, at one time \nchaplain of a ship of war, was dismissed for im- \nmoral conduct, and became a lecturer in London. \nIn conjunction with Dr. Tongue, he invented a plot \nagainst the Roman Catholics, who he asserted had \nconspired to assassinate Charles IL, and extirpate \nthe Protestant religion. He made it known 12 Aug. \n1678, and in consequence about eighteen Eoman \nCatholics were accused, and upon false testimony \nconvicted and executed ; among them the aged \nviscount Stafford, 29 Dec. 1680. Oates was after- \nwards tried for perjury (in the reign of James II.), \nand being found guilty, was fined, put in the \npillory, publicly whipped from Newgate to Tyburn, \nand sentenced to imprisonment for life, May, 1685. \nPardoned on the accession of William and Mary, \nand a pension of $1. a week granted to him, 1689. \n\nOATHS were taken by Abraham, B.C. 1892 \n{Gen. xxi. 24), and authorised (b.c. 1491) Exod. \nxxii. 1 1 . The administration of an oath in judicial \nproceedings was introduced by the Saxons into \nEngland, 600.\xe2\x80\x94 Rapin. That administered to a \njudge was settled 1344. \n\nIcelandic Oath. " Name I to witness that I take oath \nby the ring, law-oath, so help me Freyand Niordh, \nand almighty Thor, as I shall this suit follow or \ndefend, or witness bear, or verdict or doom, as I \nwit rightest and soothe stand most lawfully," &c. \n\xe2\x80\x9e _ about 925 \n\nOf Supremacy, first administered to British sub- \njects, and ratified by parliament, 26 Hen. VIII. \n\n(Stmv\'s Chron.) !--,- \n\nOaths were taken on the Gospels so early as 528*; \nand the words "So help me God aud all saints," \n\nconcluded an oath until I550 \n\nThe ancient oath of allegiance, which contained a \npromise \' \' to be true and faithful to the king and his \nheirs, and truth and faith to bear of life and limb \nand terrene honour ; and not to know or hear of any \nill or damage intended him without defending \nhim therefrom," was modified by James I., a \ndeclaration against the pope\'s authority being \nadded 1603 : it was again altered . . . ^89 \n\nThe affirmation of a Quaker was made equivalent to \nan oath, by statute, in 1696, ct seq. \n\n\n\nOBELISK. \n\nOp Abjukation, being an obligation to maintain \nthe government of king, lords, and commons, \nthe church of England, and toleration of Protes- \ntant dissenters, and abjuring all Roman Catholic \npretenders to the crown, 13 Will. III. . . . 1701 \n\nThe Test and Corporation oaths modified by stat. \n9 Geo. IV. (see Tests) 1828 \n\nAct abolishing oaths in the customs and excise de- \npartments, and in certain other cases, and substi- \ntuting declarations in lieu thereof, 1 & 2 Will. IV. 1831 \n\nAffirmation, instead of oath, was permitted to \nQuakers and other dissenters by acts passed in \n1833, 1837, 1838, and 1863 (see Affirmation). \n\nIn 1858 and i860, Jews elected M.P. were relieved \nfrom part of the oath of allegiance (see Jews). \n\nBy 24 & 25 Vict. c. 66, a solemn declaration may be \nsubstituted for an oath by persons conscientiously \nobjecting to be sworn in criminal prosecutions . 1861 \n\nA bill for modifying the oath taken by Roman \nCatholics (passed by the commons), was rejected \nby the lords 26 June, 1865 \n\nThe oath to be taken by members of parliament \nwas modified by an act passed . . 30 April, 1866 \n\nNew oath of allegiance provided by the 31st and \n32nd Vict. c. 72 (1868), to be taken by the mem- \nbers of the new parliament : \xe2\x80\x94 " I do swear that I \nwill be faithful and bear true allegiance to her \nmajesty queen Victoria, her heirs and successors, \naccording to law, so help me God. " \n\nBracllaugh Case, see Parliament, 1880. \n\nNew parliamentary oaths bill brought in ; dis- \ncharged 5 July, 1881 \n\nAffirmations ordered to be accepted for oaths in \nFrance, 2 Feb. ; in Spain . . . April, 1883 \n\nMr. Bradlaugh\'s Oaths Bill, substituting an affirma- \ntion for an oath, in all cases when required ; \nroyal assent 24 Dec. 1888 \n\nOBELISK (Greek obelos, a spit, monoHt/ws, \na single stone) . The Egyptian symbol of the su- \npreme God. The first mentioned in history was \nthat of Rameses II., king of Egypt, about 1322 B.C. \nThe Arabians called them Pharaoh\'s needles, and \nthe Egyptian priests the fingers of the sun. Several \nwere erected at Koine; one was erected by the \nemperor Augustus in the Campus Martius, on the \npavement of which was a horizontal dial that \nmarked the hour, about 14 B.C. Of the obelisks \nbrought to Rome by the emperors, several have \nbeen restored and setup by various popes. One was \nexcavated and set up in the piazza of St. John \nLateran, Rome, by Sixtus V. 1588. \nEgyptian Obelisks. \xe2\x80\x94 42 are known, some broken : 12 at \nRome ; 1, from Luxor, set up in the Place de la Con- \ncorde, Paris, Oct. 1836 ; 5 in England (2 British mu- \nseum ; 1 Alnwick ; 1 Soughton hall ; 1 on Thames em- \nbankment). \nThe obelisks improperly named Cleopatra\'s Needles were \nerected by Thothmes III. at On (Heliopolis), about 160c \nb.c. One was removed to Alexandria by Augustus, \nabout 23 b.c. After being long imbedded in the shore, \nit was acquired for Great Britain by sir Ralph Aber- \ncroniby, in 1801 ; but not removed. It was ottered to \nthe British government by Mehemet Ali, and again by \nthe Khedive, 15 March, 1877. \nMr. James Erasmus Wilson (knt. Nov. 1881) having \noffered to pay all expenses, Mr. John Dixon, the \nengineer, undertook to convey it to England. The \nvessel, Cleopatra, containing it sailed with the Olga \n21 Sept. During a violent gale, the vessels were \nseparated, 14-15 Oct. ; six lives were lost in a fruit- \nless attempt to recover it. The Cleopatra, which was \nabandoned, was found by the Fitzmaurice (capt. \nCarter), and towed to Ferrol, whence it was towed by \nthe Anglia, and arrived in Loudon, 20 Jan. 1878. \n\n\n\nOBLIVION. \n\n\n\n697 \n\n\n\nODESSA. \n\n\n\nThe salvage awarded was 2000?., 6 April, 1878. \n\nAfter much discussion, the Thames embankment (be- \ntween Charing cross and Waterloo bridges) was selected \nfor its site ; where, by much engineering skill, it was \nplaced, 12 Sept. 1878. \n\nThe obelisk weighs 186 tons, 7 cwt., 2 stones, 11 ft>. \nHeight, from base to point, 68 feet 5^ inches. \n\nIt was placed under the care of the metropolitan board \nof works by act passed 22 July, 1878. \n\nSir J. Erasmus Wilson died 8 Aug. 1884. \n\nIn London are three English obelisks : first in Fleet- \nstreet, at the top of Bridge-street, erected to John \nWilkes, lord mayor of London in 1775 (see North \nBriton) ; and immediately opposite to it at the south \nend of Farringdon-street, stands another of granite to \nthe memory of Robert Waithman, lord mayor in 1824, \nerected 25 June, 1833 > the third at the south end of \nthe Blackfriars-road marks the distance of one mile \nand a fraction from Fleet-street. \n\nThe Washington Obelisk, at Washington, TJ. S., 555 feet \nhigh, inaugurated, 21 Feb. 1885 \n\nOBLIVION. In 1660 was passed an act of \n" free general pardon, indemnity, and oblivion for \nall treasons and state offences" committed between \nI Jan. 1637, and 24 June, 1660. The regicides and \ncertain Irish popish priests were excepted. A similar \nact was passed 20 May, 1690. See Amnesty. \n\nOBSERVANCE, Fathers of the (or \n\nOBSERVANTS), a name given to certain members \nof the Franciscan order, about 1363, who volun- \ntarily undertook the observance of their rule in its \npristine rigour. This reformation was after a time \nenforced by the pope. \n\nOBSERVATORIES, Astronomical. The \n\nfirst is said to have been erected on the top of the \ntemple of Belus at Babylon about 2247 B.C. The \nfirst in authentic history was at Alexandria, about \n300 B.C., erected by Ptolemy Soter. " Observatory, \na monthly review of astronomy," first appeared in \n1877. Observatories of early date probably existed \nin .Egypt, China, and India. \nFirst modern meridional instrument by Copernicus 1540 \n\nFirst observatory at Cassel 1561 \n\nTycho Brahe\'s, at Uranienburg .... 1576 \n\nAstronomical tower at Copenhagen . . . . 1657 \n\nRoyal (French) 1667 \n\nRoyal observatory at Greenwich {which see) . . 1675 \n\nObservatory at Nuremberg 1678 \n\nAt Utrecht 1690 \n\nBerlin, erected under Leibnitz\'s direction . .1711 \n\nAt Bologna 1714 \n\nAt St. Petersburg 1725 \n\nAt Pekin, about 1750 \n\nOxford, Dr. Radcliffe 1772 \n\nCalton Hill, Edinburgh 1776 \n\nDublin, Dr. Andrews 1783 \n\nArmagh, Primate Robinson 1793* \n\nCambridge, England 1824 \n\nPulkowa, Russia 1839 \n\nCambridge, U.S. 1840 \n\nWashington, U.S 1842 \n\nLiverpool, England 1844 \n\nBen Nevis, Scotland 1883 \n\nLick Observatory, on a peak of Mount Hamilton, \nCalifornia, U.S. (4,200 feet above sea-level), en- \ndowed by James Lick of San Francisco (who died \n1 Oct. 1876); erected .... 1888 ct seq. \nThe pope\'s new observatory erected in the Vatican, \ncompleted Jan. 1890 \n\nOBSERVER, Sunday paper (liberal), esta- \nblished 1 791. \n\nOC (for hoc, yes); oil, now out, "yes." See \nFrench Language. \n\nO C A N A (central Spain), near which the \nSpaniards were defeated by the French, commanded \nby Mortier and Soult, 19 Nov. 1809. \n\nOCCULT SCIENCES (from occultm, con- \nealed) ; see Astrology, Alchemy, Magic, &c. \n\n\n\nOCEANA, an imaginary republic, described in \na book written by James Harrington, dedicated to \nOliver Cromwell, and published in 1656. \n\nOCEAN MONARCH, an American emi- \ngrant ship, left Liverpool, bound for Boston, \n24 Aug. 1848, having nearly 400 persons on board. \nWhen within six miles of Great Orme\'s head, Car- \nnarvonshire, N. Wales, she took fire, and in a few \nhours was burnt to the water\'s edge, and 178 persons \nperished. \n\nThe Brazilian steam-frigate, Alfonzo, happened to be out \non a trial trip at the time, with the prince and princess \nde-Joinville and the duke and duchess d\'Aumale on \nboard, who witnessed the catastrophe, and aided in \nrescuing and comforting the sufferers. The crews and \npassengers of the Alfonzo and the yacht Queen of the \nOcean saved 156 persons, and 62 others escaped by \nvarious means. \n\nOCTARCHY, see Britain. \n\nOCTOBER, the eighth month in the year of \nRomulus, as its name imports, and the tenth in the \nyear of Numa, 713 B.C. October still retained its \nfirst name, although the senate ordered it to be \ncalled Fanstinus, in honour of Faustina, wife of \nAntoninus the emperor; and Commodus called it \nInvictus, and Domitianus. October was sacred to \nMars. \n\nOctober Club. A party of country gentlemen in the \nhouse of commons, about 1710, which professed high \nchurch principles, and favoured Bolingbroke and the \nJacobite cause. \n\nOCTROIS (from the low Latin auctorium, \nauthority), a term applied to concessions from \nsovereigns, and to the taxes levied at the gates of \ntowns in France on articles of food before entering \nthe city. These octrois, of ancient origin, were \nsuppressed in 1791 ; re-established, 1797, and re- \norganised in 1816, 1842, and 1852. In 1859, the \noctrois of Paris produced above 54 million francs. \nThe Belgian government became very popular in \nJuly, i860, by abolishing the Octrois. The Coal \nand Wine dues of London were of this nature. \n\nODDFELLOWS, Unity of, the name of a \nlarge friendly society, originally of a convivial \ncharacter, which took its present name in 1812. It \nhas numerous branches, but its headquarters are \nin Manchester. In 1886, there were 617,587 mem- \nbers; in 1892, 695.687 members, income, 1,361,314/.; \ncapital, 7,630,228/. Reported capital 6,806,73b/. 31 \nDec. 1887. \n\nODD VOLUMES, SETTE OF. A literary \n\nsociety established in London; dined at Freen^ oils\' \nTavern, London, Jan. 1884. The society prints for \nprivate distribution, small out-of-the-way works. \n\nODES are very ancient ; amongst the Greeks \nthey were extempore compositions sung in honour \nof the gods. Anacreon\'s odes were composed about \n532; Pindar\'s, 498 to 446; and Horace\'s from 24 \nto 13, all B.C. Anciently odes were divided into \nstrophe, antistrophe, aud epode; see Foets Lau- \nreate. \n\nODESSA, a port on the Black Sea, built by \nthe empress Catharine of Russia, 1 784-1792, after \nthe peace of Jassy. In 18 17 it was made a free \nport, since when its prosperity has rapidly in- \ncreased. It was partially bombarded by the British, \n21 April, 1854, in consequence of the Russian \nbatteries having fired on a flag of truce, 6 April. \nOn 12 May the English frigate Tiger stranded \nhere, and was destroyed by Russian artillery. The \ncaptain, Giffard, and\' many of his crew were killed, \nand the rest made prisoners. Population, 1885, \n240,000. \n\n\n\nODOMETER. \n\n\n\n698 \n\n\n\nOLD BAILEY. \n\n\n\nODOMETER (from the Greek hodos, way, and \nmetron, measure), see Pedometer. \n\nODONTOLOGY (from the Greek odontes, \nteeth), the science of the teeth, may be said to \nhave really begun with the researches of professor \nRichard Owen, who in 1839 made the first definite \nannouncement of the organic connection between \nthe vascular and vital soft parts of the frame and \nthe hard substance of a tooth. His comprehensive \nwork, "Odontography" (illustrated with beautiful \nplates), was published 1840-45. The Odontological \nSociety was established 1856. \n\nODRYSiE, a people of Thrace. Their king \nTeres retained his independence of the Persians, \n508 B.C. Sitalces, his son, enlarged his dominions, \nand in 429, aided Amyntas against Perdiccas II., of \nMacedon, with an army of 150,000 men. Sitalces, \nkilled in battle with the Triballi, 424, was suc- \nceeded by Seuthes, who reigned prosperously; \nCotys, another king (382-353), disputed the pos- \nsession of the Thracian Chersonesus with Athens. \nAfter 9 or 10 years\' warfare, Philip II. of Macedon \nreduced the Odrysse to tributaries, and founded \nPhilippopolis and other colonies, 343. The Romans, \nafter their conquest of Macedon, favoured the \nOdrysa?, and in 42 their king Sadales bequeathed \nhis territories to the Romans. The Odrysse, tur- \nbulent subjects, and often chastised, were finally \nincorporated into the empire by Vespasian, about \na.d. 70. \n\nODYL, the name given in 1845 by baron von \nKeichenbach to a so-called new "imponderable, or \ninfluence," said to be developed by magnets, crys- \ntals, the human body, heat, electricity, chemical \naction, and the whole material universe. The \nodylic force is said to give rise to luminous pheno- \nmena, visible to certain sensitive persons only. \nThe baron\'s " Researches on Magnetism, &c, inrela- \ntion to the Vital Force," translated by Dr. Gregory, \nwere published in 1850. Emanuel Swedenborg \n(died 1772) described similar phenomena. \n\nOECUMENICAL BISHOP (from the Greek \ncikoumene, the habitable, globe understood), " uni- \nversal bishop ;" a title assumed by John, bishop of \nConstantinople, 587. \n\nCENOPHYTA (Boeotia, N. Greece). Here \nMyronides and the Athenians severely defeated the \nBoeotians, 456 B.C. \n\nOFEN, see Buda. \n\nOFFA\'S DYKE, the intrenchment from the \n"Wye to the Dee, made by OfFa, king of Mercia, to \ndefend his country from the incursions of the \nWelsh, 779. \n\nOFFICIAL SECRETS ACT, passed 26 \nAug. 1889, punishes disclosures as a misdemeanour. \n\nOGULNIAN LAW, carried by the tribunes Q. \nand Cn. Ogulnius, increased the number of the \npontiff\'s and augurs, and made plebeians eligible to \nthose offices, B.C. 300. \n\nOGYGES, see Deluge. \n\nOHIO, a western state of North America, \nsettled by the French in 1673, was ceded to the \nBritish with Canada, in 1763 ; extensively settled \nin 1788, and admitted into the Union, 29 Nov. 1802. \nCapital, Columbus ; see Storms, 1890. Explosion \nof 16 tons of gunpowder at King\'s powder mills, 20 \nmiles from Cincinnati, 20 persons killed, 15 July, \n1890. Population, 1880, 3,198,062; 1890,3,672,316. \n\nOHM\'S LAAV, for determining the quantity \nof the electro-motive force of the voltaic battery, \n\n\n\nwas published in 1827. It is in conformity with \nthe discovery that the earth may be employed as \na conductor, thus saving the return wire in electric \ntelegraphy. \n\nOIL was used for burning in lamps as early as \nthe epoch of Abraham, about 1921 B.C. It was the \ncustom of the Jews to anoint with oil persons ap- \npointed to high offices, as the priests and kings, \nPsalm exxxiii. 2; I Sain. x. 1 ; xvi. 13. The fact \nthat oil, if passed through red-hot iron pipes, will \nbe resolved into a combustible gas, was long known \nto chemists; and after the process of lighting by \ncoal-gas was made apparent, Messrs. Taylor and \nMartineau contrived apparatus for producing oil- \ngas on a large scale, 1815. \xe2\x80\x94 Oil Springs ; see \nPetroleum. Oil Frescos; see under Painting. \nTo supply oil to calm the waves, pipes were laid \ndown in the port of Aberdeen ; experiments with \nMr. Shield\'s apparatus, 26 Sept. ; successful ex- \nperiments reported .... 4 Dec. 1882 \nScotch fishing vessels provided with oil tanks, Nov. 1885 \nMr. Shield\'s plans successful at Folkestone harbour, \n\nJan. 1884 \nCapt. Chetwind reports oil to be ineffectual in re- \ngard to breakers and surf . . . Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nMr. Gordon\'s oil-shells shot out at Montrose said \nto calm the sea 6 April, 1885 \n\nOIL PAINTING, see Painting. The Insti- \ntute of Painters in Oil Colours established ; first \nPresident Mr. J. H. Linton ; 94 members elected, \nFeb. ; first exhibition opened 17 Dec. 1883. \n\nOIL RIVERS, a territory on the W. coast of \nAfrica, between Cameroons and Lagos, adjoining \nthe territories of the Royal Niger company, see \nNiger. It contains six main rivers, which derive \ntheir general name from palm oil, the chief product, \nwith a population reported above 12,000,000. \n\nThe country was visited first by missionaries early \nin the 19th century, and afterwards by traders, \nwho by peaceful means, have gradually established \nplantations and nearly 40 factories in the interior. \nThe region was placed under British protection, \nwith a consul, in 1884. The traders formed them- \nselves into an association, Feb. 1890; major sir \nClaude MacDonald appointed commissioner, with \nconsular jurisdiction Nov. 1890 \n\nOKLAHOMA ("beautf ,1 land"), a part of \nthe \'\'Indian Territory" situated between Texas, \nKansas, and Arkansas, partly inhabited by Indians. \nThe western part of the territory was ceded to the \nUnited States in 1866. It has been surveyed and \ndivided into 85 townships. See United States, 1889. \n\nGreat distress caused through the destruction of \nthe promising crops by a hot wind (15 June) ; \nabout 30,000 destitute persons, government relief \npromised Dec. 1890 \n\nTowns : Guthrie, Oklahoma, Kingfisher, and others. \n\nAdditional lands opened, Sept. 1891. Population, \n1890, 61,834. \n\nOLBERS, the asteroid, now termed Pallas, dis- \ncovered by M. Olbers, in 1802. \n\nOLD BAILEY SESSIONS COURT, is \nheld for the trial of criminals, and its jurisdiction \ncomprehends the county of Middlesex as well as \nthe city of London. It is held eight times in the \nyear by the royal commi-sion of 01/er and terminer. \nThe judges are, the lord mayor, those aldermen \nwho have passed the chair, the recorder and the \ncommon-serjeant, who are attended by both the \nsheriff\'s, and one or more of the national judges. \nThe court-house was built in 1773, and enlarged \nin 1808; see Central Criminal Court. \nDuring some trials in the old court, the lord mayor, \none alderman, two judges, the greater part of the \njury, and numbers of spectators, caught the gaol \ndistemper, and died .... May, 1750 \n\n\n\nOLD BELIEVEES. \n\n\n\n699 \n\n\n\nOLYMPIADS. \n\n\n\nThis disease was fatal to several . . . . 1772 \n\nTwenty-eight persons killed at the execution of Mr. \nSteele\'s murderers at the Old Bailey . 23 Feb. 1807 \nOLD BELIEVEES, a Russian sect, said to \nnumber about 12,000,000, originated in a revolt \nagainst the cruelties of the patriarch Nicon, \nwhom they named Anti-Christ, 1654. They profess \nto adhere to the old reading of the Sclayonian \nsacred books, which have been superseded by the \npresent Russian church. The czar Alexander II. \ngranted liberty of worship to the sect in 1879. \n\nOLD CATHOLICS, the name assumed \nin Germany by the members of the Roman \nCatholic church opposed to the dogma of papal \ninfallibility, headed by professor Dollinger of \nMunich (see Councils, 18 July, 1870). After \nthree days\' conference at Munich, Sept. 1871, they \ndecided to set up independent worship, first meet- \ning in a church given them by the town council of \nMunich. The abbe Michaud began a similar \nmovement in Paris in Feb. 1872. Dr. Dollinger \npreached in favour of union with the church of \nEngland, March, 1872. Pere Hyacinthe (Charles \nLoyson), president of the party at Rome, issued a \nprogramme, respecting the Vatican decrees, recog- \nnising ecclesiastical authorities, demanding reform, \nyet opposing schism, about 5 May, 1872. The bishops \nof Lincoln (Wordsworth) and Ely (Browne) and the \ndean of Westminster (Dr. Stanley), by invitation \nattended the conference at Cologne, and delivered \naddresses, 20-22 Sept. 1872. The Old Catholics \nelected their first bishop, Dr. Joseph Reinkens, \nI June, 1873, who was recognised by the emperor \nand other powers. \nCongress of old Catholics held at Constance, 18 Sept. \n\n1873 ; at Freiburg 6 Sept. 1874 \n\nFirst synod held in Germany at Bonn, opened \n\n27 May, ,, \nDr. Dollinger received delegates from eastern and \nwestern churches at Bonn, with a view for union \nwith the old Catholics ; and after much discussion \ncertain preliminaries were agreed on ; much \nresult was not expected ... 14 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nFirst old Catholic church in Berlin opened 30 Nov. ,. \nIn Prussia about 20,000 old Catholics (about \n\n8,000,000 Romanists) 1875 \n\nCongress at Bonn : bishop of Winchester, canon \nLiddon, and several oriental clergy present, 12 \nAug. ; agreement respecting the Jilioque clause \n\n16 Aug. ,, \nCircular put forth by the old Catholics at Bonn ask- \ning for a church tor their worship ; (they declare \nopposition to the Vatican decrees of 18 July, 1870; \nthey do not secede from the Catholic church, \nbut desire Catholicism free from debasing doc- \ntrines ; repudiate infallibility and supremacy of \nthe pope ; sanction reading of the Bible, and \ndivine worship in the vulgar tongue ; and mar- \nriage of priests) Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCongress at Bonn ; strong opposition to celibacy of \n\nclergy ; question deferred, early in . . June, 1876 \nCongress at Mentz opens . . . 28 Sept. 1877 \nMeeting at Berne : bishop C\'otterill of Edinburgh \nand M. Hyacinthe Loyson there, 17 Aug. 1879 ; \nat Geneva, 23 May, 1880 ; at Baden-Baden 19-21 \nSept. 1880; at Vienna, .... 8 Sept. 1886 \nVisits of the bishops of Lichfield (W. D. Maclagan) \nand Salisbury (J. Wordsworth), conferences at \nBonn, &c, in Switzerland, and at Vienna Oct. \n1887 ; at Cologne, 12 Sept. 1890 ; at Lucerne, \n\n12 Sept. 1892 \n[The doctrines of the Old Catholics closely resem- \nble those of the church of England.] \nThe progress of the Italian catholic church opposed \n\nto the papacy, reported .... Feb. 1888 \nDr. Dollinger\'s ninetieth\' birthday celebrated at \nMunich, 28 Feb. 1889 ; he died . . 10 Jan. 1890 \n\nOLDENBUBG-, a grand duchy in North Ger- \nmany, was annexed to Denmark in 1448; in 1773, \nChristian VII. ceded the country to Russia in ex- \nchange for llolstein Gottorp, and soon after the \n\n\n\npresent dignity was established. The duke joined \nthe North German confederation, 18 Aug. 1866, \nand obtained a slight increase of territory from \nHolstein, 27 Sept. following. Population in 1864, \n301,812; in 187 1, 314,591; in 1880, 337,478 ; 1890, \n354-968. \n\nDUKES. \n\n1773. Frederick Augustus. \n\n1785. Peter Frederick. The duchy was seized by Napo- \nleon, and annexed to his empire in 1811 ; but \nrestored in 18 14. \n\nGRAND-DUKES. \n\n1829. May 21. Augustus. \n1853. Feb. 27. Peter, son ; born 8 July, 1827. \nHeir : Augustus, son ; born 16 Nov. 1852. \n\nOLDHAM, Lancashire, a village in 1760, was \nincorporated in 1849, and has sent two members to- \np irliament since 1832, when William Cobbett was- \nelected one of the members. It has extensive- \ncotton manufactories. The hand-ome town-hall \nwas built in 1841, and enlarged in 1879. Popula- \ntion, 1881, 111,343; I89 1 . I3M63- \n\nOLD MAN of the Mountain, see- \n\nAssassins. \nOLD STYLE, see New Style. \n\nOLEFIANT GAS, a combination of hydrogen \nand carbon, which burns with much brilliancy. \nIn 1862, Berthelot formed it artificially by means- \nof alcohol. \n\nOLEBON, see Navigation Laws. \n\nOLIVES are named in the earliest accounts of \nEgypt and Greece. They were first planted in Italy \nabout 562 B.C. The olive has been cultivated in \nEngland since 1648 a.d.; the Cape olive since 1730. \n\nOLMITTZ, the ancient capital of Moravia. \nHere the emperor Ferdinand abdicated, on behalf \nof his nephew, Francis Joseph, 2 Dec. 1848; and \nhere the latter promulgated a new constitution,. \n4 March, 1849. A conference was held here, 29 Nov. \n1850, under the czar Nicholas, when the difficulties \nbetween Austria and Prussia respecting the affairs \nof Hesse-Cassel were arranged. \n\nOLTENITZA. A Turkish force having crossed \nthe Danube, under Omar Pacha, established them- \nselves at Oltenitza, in spite of the vigorous attacks \nof the Russians, who were repulsed with loss, 2 and \n3 Nov. 1853. On the 4th a desperate attempt tc- \ndislodge the Turks by general Danueberg with 9000 \nmen, was defeated with great loss. \n\nOLYMPIA, "West Kensington, opened 27 Dec. \n1886. See under Agriculture, and Irish Exhibition, \nFirst great horse show of English Horse Society \n\nopened here 15 May, 1889. \n\nSee under Horse. \nThe pictures not accepted by the Royal Academy \nfor exhibition in 1889 were exhibited here \n\n22 June, et seq., ,, \nSee Barman\'s Show. \nOlympia opened as a skating rink for roller skates \n\n21 April, 189& \nOlympia taken by Mr. Augustus Harris and a \n\nsyndicate Feb. 1891 \n\nRepresentations of ancient and modern Venice, con- \nstructed by Mr. Imre Kiralfy and by Mr. Wilson \nBennison, exhibiting the scenery, the life of the \ninhabitants, manufactures (including Dr. Sal- \nviati\'s glass manufacture), 100 gondolas, with \ngondoliers, a grand aquatic carnival, and other \nentertainments ; opened . . .26 Dec. , r \n\nOLYMPIADS, the era of the Greeks, dating \nfrom 1 July, 776 B.C., the year in which Corcebus \nwas successful at the Olympic games. This era \nwas reckoned by periods of four years, each period \nbeing called an Olympiad, and in milking a date \nthe year and Olympiad were both mentioned. The- \n\n\n\nOLYMPIC GAMES. \n\n\n\n700 \n\n\n\nOPEEAS. \n\n\n\ncomputation of Olympiads ceased with the 305th, \na.d. 440. \n\nOLYMPIC GAMES, so famous among the \nGreeks, said to have been instituted in honour of \nJupiter by the Idsei Dactyli, 1453 B.C., or by \nPelops, 1307 B.C., revived by Iphitus, 884 B.C., \nwere held at the beginning of every fifth year, on \nthe banks of the Alpheus, near Olympia, in the \nPeloponnesus, now the Morea, to exercise the youth \nin five kinds of combats; the conquerors being \nhighly honoured. The prize contended for was a \ncrown made of a kind of wild olive, appropriated to \nthis use. The festival was abolished by Theodosius, \na.d. 394. In 1858 M. Zappas, a wealthy Pelopon- \nnesian, gave funds to re-establish these games, \nunder the auspices of the queen of Greece. \xe2\x80\x94 Olympic \nTheatre, London, opened 1806 ; see Theatres. \n\nOLYMPIEUM (near Peloponnesus) the great \ntemple of Jupiter, erected by Libon, of Elis, about \n450, at the charge of the Eleans, after their con- \nquest of the country. For this temple Phidias \nmade the colossal statue of the god, in gold and \nivory, 437-433 B.C. \n\nThe German explorations by Messrs. Hirschfeld and \nBbttieher, planned by prof. Ernst Curtius, the his- \ntorian, began in Oct. 1875. Torsos and other relics \nwere found. Above 904 objects in marble, many coins, \nbronzes, inscriptions, &c., found, 1875-S. Explora- \ntions closed, Nov. 1880. \n\nOLYNTHUS, a city, 1ST. Greece. To re.-ist the \npredominance of Sparta, it formed a league with \nother cities, which was subdued in war, 382-379 B.C. \nIt resisted Philip of Macedon, 350 B.C., by whom \nit was destroyed, 347. Demosthenes delivered three \norations on its behalf, 349. \n\nOMEN\'S, see Augury. Alexander the Great \nand Mithridates the Great are said to have studied \nomens. At the birth of the latter, 131 B.C., there \nwere seen for seventy days together, two splendid \n\xe2\x96\xa0comets ; and this omen, we are told, directed all the \nactions of Mithridates throughout his life. \xe2\x80\x94 Justin. \n\nOMMIADES, a dynasty of Mahometan \ncaliphs, beginning with Moawiyah, of whom four- \nteen reigned in Arabia, 661--750 ; and eighteen at \nCordova, in Spain, 755-1031. Their favourite colour \nwas green. \n\nOMNIBUS (from omnibus, Latin " for all"). \nThe idea of such conveyances is ascribed to Pascal, \nabout 1662, when similar carriages were started, \nbut soon discontinued. They were revived in Paris \nabout 11 April, 1828; and introduced into London \nby a coach proprietor n-.imed Shillibeer. The first \nomnibus started from Paddington to the Bank of \nEngland on Saturday, 4 July, 1829. Regulations \nwere made respecting omnibuses by 16 & 17 Vict. \ne - 33 ( x 853). See Cabriolets and Hackney Coaches. \nThe Loudon Omnibus Company was established in \nJan. 1856. The saloon omnibuses ran in 1857-60. \nIn Sept. 1865, it was stated that there were then \nfunning about 620 omnibuses belonging to the \nGeneral Omnibus Company, and 450 belonging to \nprivate proprietors ; in 1867, about 1050 omni- \nbuses, with 13,000 drivers and conductors.\xe2\x80\x94 Sir \n\xc2\xa3,. Mayne. In 1873 about 1400 omnibuses ; 1891, \n2,415. Dividend, Aug. 1878, 12\\ per cent. An \nomnibus bill, one which deals with many topics. \nThe London Road Car Company registered 1 Jan. 1883. \nThe number of omnibuses greatly increased, daily \n\nadditions with cheap fares, some id. and $d. 1889-92. \nStrike of the men employed by the General Omnibus \n\nand Road Car Companies, claiming a twelve hours\' \n\nday, 7 June ; closed by concessions, 13 June, 1891. \nThe Workers\' co-operative omnibus company formed ; \n\nnew omnibuses ordered, 30 Dec. 1891. \n\n\n\nOMNIMETEE, a new surveying apparatus \n(combining the theodolite and level, and com- \nprising a telescope and microscope), invented by \nEckhold, a German engineer, to supersede chain \nmeasuring ; announced Sept. 1869. \n\nONE POUND NOTES issued by the Bank \n\nof England, 4 March, 1797, withdrawn for England, \n\n1823 ; re-issued for a short time, 16 Dec. 1825. \n\nMr. Goschen\'s proposal in 1891 to issue one pound \n\nnotes to increase the reserve of gold at the Bank of \n\nEngland, was much discussed ; and at a meeting of \n\nthe London chamber of commerce, the consideration \n\nof the question was deferred (51 to 14), 21 Jan. 1892. \n\nONEIDA, collision with the Bombay; see \n\nUnited States, 1870. \n\nONTAEIO, formerly Canada West, or Upper \nCanada; capital, Toronto. Bishopric founded 1 86 1. \nComber, 30 miles from Amherstburg, destroyed by \nfire, 27 April, 1 89 1. Population, 1861,1,396,091; \n1881,1,923,228; 1891,2,112,989. Lieut.-governor, \nhon. sir Alexander Campbell, 1887. \n\nO. P. (old prices) EIOT began on the opening \nof the new Covent Garden Theatre, London, by \nJ. P. Kemble, with increased prices of admission, \n18 Sept., and lasted till 16 Dec. 1809, when the old \ncharges were restored. Of the play, Macbeth, not \none word was heard, and great injury was done to \nthe theatre. \n\nOPEN AIE MISSION, founded 1853. Races, \nfairs, &c, are visited by preachers. \n\nOPEN SPACES ACT (Metropolitan), 40 \n\n&41 Vict. c. 35 (1877), authorises the Metropolitan \nBoard of Works and the corporation of London to \nacquire open spaces for the benefit of the public. \nActs consolidated in 1887. \n\nOPEEAS. Adam de la Hal \xc2\xbb ? a Trouveie, sur- \nnamed " le Bossn d\' Arras," born in 1240, is, as far \nas has yet been ascertained, the composer of the \nfirst comic opera, Li Gieus (Le Jeu) de Robin et de \nMarion. The Italian opera began with the II \nSatiro of Cavaliere, and the Dafne of Rinuccini, \nwith music by Peri, about 1590. Their Eurydice \nwas represented at Florence, 1600, on the marriage \nof Marie de Medicis with Henry IV. of France. \nL\' Orfeo, Favola in Musica, composed by Monte- \nverde, was performed in 1607, and is supposed to \nhave been the first opera that was ever published. \nAbout 1669, the abbot Perrin obtained a grant from \nLouis XIV. to set up an opera in Paris, where, in \n1672, was acted Pomona. \nScarlatti produced 108 operas, 1680 etseq.; followed \n\nby Stradella, Lulli, and other composers. \nPureell produced Dido and JEneas, 1677 ; and many \n\nothers. \nHandel\'s Rinaldowas performed at the Haymarket ; \nhe successfully broke through previous restric- \ntions 24 Feb. 1711 \n\nPepusch\'s Beggar\'s Opera 1728 \n\nC. W. Gluck introduced a new style with reforms \n\nin his Orfeo ed Euridlce 1762 \n\nArne\'s Artaxerxes ,, \n\nJ. H. Hasse produced many operas chiefly at Dres- \nden ......... 1731-63 \n\nN. Logrosemo developed the opera buffa ; died . 1763 \nMozart\'s Le Nozze di Figaro, 1786 ; Die Zauberflote, \n\n1786 ; II Giovanni, 1787 ; La Clemenza di Tito . 1791 \nCimarosa\'s II Matrimonio Segreto, <&c. . . . 1792 \n\nCentenary of the first performance of Mozart\'s II \nGiovanni at Prague celebrated in many European \ntheatres, and at the Crystal Palace, London \n\n29 Oct. 1887 \nSuccessful revival of the Italian opera \n\n14 May-21 July, 1888 \n\nStorace\'s Waterman, <fcc 1788-96 \n\nCherubini\'s Lodoislca, 1791 ; Anacreon . . . 1803 \nBeethoven\'s Fidelio 1805 \n\n\n\nOPERAS IN ENGLAND. \n\n\n\n701 \n\n\n\nOPORTO. \n\n\n\n1807 \n1816 \n\n1823 \n1826 \n1828 \n\n\n\n1829 \n\n\n\n1876 \n\n\n\nShield\'s Rosina, &c 1782 \n\nBishop\'s Guy Mannering, &e \n\nSpohr\'s romantic opera, Faust, 1818 ; Jessonda \n\nWeber\'s Der Freischiitz, 1821 ; Oberon . . . . \n\nAuber\'s Muette di Portici ; Masanidlo \n\nKossini\'s II Tancredi, 1813 ; Barbieredi Siviglia and \nOtello, 1816 ; Gazza Ladra, 1817 ; Semiramide, \n1823 ; Guillaume Tell \n\nBellini\'s La Somnanibula \n\nDonizetti\'s Lucia di Lammermor, 1835 ; Lucrezia \nBorgia ......... \n\nVerdi\'s Oberto, 1839 ; Rigoletto, 1851 ; Trovatore and \nTraviata, 1853, and others ; Otello \n\nMeyerbeer\'s Hubert le Diable, 1831 ; Huguenots, 1836 ; \nProphete \n\nBichard Wagner, reformer of the opera, and author \nof Tannhduser, 1845 ; Lohengrin, 1848 ; and the \nRing des Nibelungen \n\nGounod\'s Faust, 1859 ; Polyeucte . . . \n\nSir A. Sullivan\'s chief operas (librettos by W. S. \nGilbert) performed at the Savoy, 1881, et seq. \nH.M.S. Pinafore, 1878 ; Pirates of Penzance, 1879 ; \nPatience, 1881 ; lolanthe, 1882 ; Princess Ida, 1884 ; \nThe Mikado, 1885 ; Ruddygore, 1887 ; Yeoman of \nthe Guard, 1888. The Gondoliers, 7 Dec. 1889, per- \nformed before the queen at Windsor, 4 March, \n1891 ; Ivarilwe, see Royal English Opera, Theatres, \n1891 ; Haddon Hall (libretto by Sydney Grundy) \n\n24 Sept. 1892 \n\nOPERAS IN ENGLAND. Sir William Dave- \nnant introduced a species of opera in London in \n1684. The first regularly performed opera was at \nYork buildings in 1692. The first at Drury Lane \nwas in 1 705. Handel\'s opera, Badamistus, was per- \nformed in 1 720, and others by him were frequently \nperformed a few years after. Gay\'s Beggar\'s Opera, \nfirst performed in 1727 at the Lincoln\'s Inn theatre. \nIt ran for sixty- three successive nights, but so \noffended the persons in power, that the lord \nchamberlain refused a licence for the performance \nof a second part of it entitled " Polly." By Gay\'s \nfriends\' subscription, his profits on its publication \namounted to 1200/., whereas the Beggar\'s Opera \ngained him only 400?. By the exertions of Carl \nKosa (Kose) and the company formed by him since \n1875, performances of the opera have been greatly \npromoted in England. The company was joined by \nMr. Augustus Harris in April 1889, and obtained \nthe command of Drury Lane in addition to Covent \nGarden and the Prince of Wales\'s.\xe2\x80\x94 Carl Bosa died, \naged 46, 30 April, 1889, much lamented. See Theatres. \nThe Opera Company liquidating Jan. 1890 ; arrange- \nments with Mr. A. Harris terminating . Nov. 1890 \nThe Royal English Opera House, Cambridge-circus, \nShaftesbury -avenue, erected by Mr. D\'Oyly Carte, \nopened, 31 Jan., 1891. See under Theatres. \n\nOPERA COMIQUE, a new theatre, 299, \nStrand, opened 29 Oct. 1870, by Mdlle. Dejazet and \na French company. The French opera comique \nbegan 1715 ; destroyed by fire, about 131 persons \nperish, 25, 26 May, 1887, see Paris. \n\nOPERA-HOUSE, The Italian, or \n\nQueen\'s, or (since 1837) Her Majesty\'s \n\nTHEATRE. The original building is generally sup- \nposed to have been constructed by sir JohnVanbrugh, \nthough Mr. Pennant attributes it to sir Christopher \nWren. It was built as " the queen\'s (afterwards \nchanged to king\'s), theatre " opened 9 April, 1705; \nand burnt down 17 June, 1789. The foundation of \nthe new theatre was laid 3 April, 1 790; and the \nhouse was opened 22 Sept. 1791, on an improved \nplan ; a new exterior was erected in 1820, \nfrom designs by Mr. Nash, relievo by Mr. Budd, \n182 1. This theati-e was totally destroyed by fire \non the night of 6-7 Dec. 1867. The loss of the \nlessee, Mr. Mapleson, was about 12,000/., and that \nof Mdlle. Titiens was valued at 2000/.; rebuilt, \nbut internal arrangements not completed. Moody \n\n\n\nand Sankey\'s revival meetings were held here, 12 \nApril, 31 May, 1875. The new house was opened \nfor Italian opera by Mr. Mapleson, 28 Aprii, \n1877 i see Theatres. The house was pulled down \nin 1892. \xe2\x80\x94 The English Opera (or Lyceum) \nwas opened 15 June, 1816. It was entirely de- \nstroyed by fire 16 Feb. 1830. The new English \nOpera-house, or Lyceum, was erected from designs \nby Mr. S. Beazley, and opened in July, 1834; \nsee Theatres and National Opera-house. \n\nOPHICLEIDE, the keyed bassoon, said to \nhave been invented by Frichot, a Frenchman, in \nLondon, between 1791 and 1800. \n\nOPHTHALMIA, general term for disease of \n\nthe eye. \n\nOphthalmic hospitals were founded in London, 1804 am? \n1843. The Ophthalmological Society of Great Britain \nwas founded in 1880 mainly by sir W. Bowman, the- \nfirst president. He died 29 March, 1892, having greatly \nadvanced ophthalmic surgery. \n\nOPHTHALMOSCOPE, an apparatus for \ninspecting the interior of the eye, invented by \nprofessor H. Helmholtz, and described by hira \nin 1851. \n\nOPIUM, the juice of the white poppy, was- \nknown to the ancients, its cultivation being men- \ntioned by Homer, and its medicinal use by Hippo- \ncrates. It is largely cultivated in British India, \nand was introduced into China by our merchants, \nwhich led eventually to the war "of 1839, the im- \nportation being forbidden by the Chinese govern- \nment. The revenue derived from opium by the \nIndian government in 1862 was about 7,850,000/.; \nin 1874, 8,000,000/. ; in 1880, about 10,500,000/., \nbut it has since declined. Laudanum, a preparation, \nof opium : was employed early in the 17th century. \nA number of alkaloids have been discovered in \nopium : narcotine by Derosne, and morphia by \nSerturner, in 1803. A society for suppressing the- \nopium trade held meeting in London, 17 Jan. 1881, \nand since. \n\nThe Chinese government derives a large revenue from \nthe duty on imported opium which was fixed by the- \ntreaty of 1858. The plant is now largely grown in \nChina. \nSir Joseph Pease\'s resolution condemning the cultiva- \ntion of opium in India, the traffic in \'the drug, and \nthe revenue, was adopted by the house of commons \n(160-130), 10 April, 1891 ; this caused much excite- \nment in India. \n\nOPORTO (W. Portugal), the ancient Calle, \none of the most impregnable cities in Europe. \nAfter being held at various times by the Goths and \nMoors, Oporto was finally acquired by the christians \nIO92. Oporto is the mart of Portuguese wine known \nas " Port." A chartered company for the regula- \ntion of the port- wine trade was established in 1756. \nThe French, under marshal Soult, were surprised, \nhere by lord Wellington, and defeated in an action, \nfought 12 May, 1809. The Miguelites besieged \nOporto, and were repulsed by the Pedroites, with \nconsiderable loss, 19 Sept. 1832. The Oporto wine \ncompany was abolished in 1834, but re-established \nby a royal decree, 7 April, 1838. An international \nexhibition was opened here by the king, 18 Sept. \n1865. Population, 1878, 105,838 ; see Portugal. \nThe Baquet theatre burnt ; panic; about 100 lives\'losi - \n\n20 March, 1888. \nBusiness paralyzed by the strike of masters and men \nconnected with the wine trade, through the govern- \nment favouring speculators for a monopolizing com- \npany ; riots quelled by the military about 30 .May. \net seq. 1889. \nRevolt of about 600 of the garrison, led by captain \nLeitao, joined by citizens ; suppressed by loyal troops ; \nthe rebels fortify themselves in the Hotel d<> Ville; \nthey surrender after bombardment; about 50 killed \n\n\n\nOPPOETUNISTS. \n\n\n\n702 \n\n\n\nOEANGE FEEE STATE. \n\n\n\nand many wounded, 31 Jan. ; many persons, civil and \nmilitary, arrested, 1-4 Feb. 1891. \n\nTrial by courts martial of about 300 soldiers and 21 civi- \nlians, 27 Feb. etseq. Sentences: captain Leitao, 6 years\' \ncell imprisonment, followed by 10 years\' transportation ; \nother officers and civilians various kinds ancl terms of \nimprisonment or transportation, the majority of the \nsoldiers 18 months\' imprisonment. \n\nThe Abbe of St. Nicholas, acquitted 23 March, 1891. \n\n"The rebels all pardoned by the king on his birthday, \n28 Sept. 1891. \n\n"Visit of the king and queen, 18 Nov. 1891. \n\nExhibition of National Manufactures opened by the \nking, 22 Nov., review of troops, 25 Nov. 1891. \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Several banks stop payment about 18 March, 1892. \n\nOPPOETUNISTS, a name given to French \npoliticians (especially the ultra-liberals,) who sus- \npend agitation for their peculiar opinions till a \nsuitable opportunity comes ; among them Gambetta \nwas prominent, 1876-82. See France. Opportunism \nin England is defined as the modification of political \npolicy as the necessities of the time dictate, Oct. \ni8gi. See Trimmer. \n\nOPTICS, a science studied by the Greeks; and \nhy the Arabians about the 12th century. See Light. \nburning lenses known at Athens . . . . b. c. 424 \nA treatise on optics doubtfully attributed to Euclid, \n\nabout 300 \nffhe magnifying power of convex glasses and con- \ncave mirrors, ancl the prismatic colours produced \nby angular glass, mentioned by Seneca, about a. d. 50 \nTreatise on optics by Ptolemy . . . about 120 \nTwo of the leading principles known to the Pla- \n\ntonists 3\xc2\xb0\xc2\xb0 \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0\xe2\x80\xa2Greatly improved by Alhazen, who died . . . 1038 \nHints for spectacles and telescopes, given by Roger \n\nBacon about 1280 \n\nSpectacles said to have been invented by Salvinus \n\nArmatus, of Pisa before 1300 \n\nCamera obscura said to have been invented by Bap- \n\ntista Porta 1560 \n\n\'Telescopes invented by Leonard Digges about 1571 \n\n\' Kepler publishes his " Dioptrice " .... 1611 \n"Telescope made by Jansen (said also to have in- \nvented the microscope), about 1609, and inde- \npendently, by Galileo .... about 1630 \n"Microscope, according to Huyghens, invented by \n\nDrebbel about 1621 \n\nLaw of refraction discovered by Snellius about 1624 \n\n.\'Inflection of light discovered, and the undulatory \n\ntheory suggested by Grimaldi . . . about 1665 \nReflecting telescope, Jas. Gregory, 1663 ; Newton . 1666 \nMotion and velocity of light discovered by Roemer, \n\nand after him by Cassini 1667 \n\nfits velocity demonstrated to be 190 millions of \n\nmiles in sixteen minutes.] \nDouble refraction explained by Bartholinus . . 1669 \n\nCassegrainian reflector 1672 \n\nNewton\'s discoveries in colours, &c. 1674 \n\nTelescopes with a single lens by Tschirnhausen, \n\nabout 1690 \nPolarisation of light and undulatory theory dis- \ncovered by Huyghens about 1692 \n\nStructure of the eye explained by Petit . about 1700 \nAberration of light discovered by Bradley . -1727 \nAchromatic telescope constructed by Mr. Hall (but \n\nnot made public) in 1733 \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Constructed by Dollond, most likely without any \n\nknowledge of Hall\'s telescope .... 1757 \nHerschel\'s great reflecting telescope erected at \n\nSlough 1789 \n\nDr. T. Young\'s discoveries (undulatory theory, &c.) 1800-3 \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Camera lucida (Dr. Wollaston) 1807 \n\nMalus (polarisation of light by reflection) about 1808 \nFresnel\'s researches on double reflection, &c. . . 1817 \n\xe2\x80\xa2Optical discoveries of Wheatstone . . 1838 et seq. \nLarge telescope constructed by lord Rosse . . 1845 \nArago (colours of polarised light, &c). . .1811-53 \nSir D. Brewster, optical researches (see Kaleidoscope, \n\nPhotography) . \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x96\xa0 1814-57 \n\nThe spectroscope constructed and used by Kirch- \n\nhoff and Bunsen 1861 \n\nDr. Tyndall\'s Lectures on Light first illustrated by \nDuboscq\'s electric lamp, at the Royal Institution, \nLondon ....... \xe2\x96\xa0 1856 \n\n\n\nResearches of Mr. Y> T m. Spottiswoode on polarised \nlight 1871-8 \n\nSee Telescope, Microscope, Stereoscope, Pseudoscope, \nSpectrum, Photography, Magic, &c. \n\nOPTIC NEEVES are said to have been dis- \ncovered by N. Varoli, a surgeon and physician of \nBologna, about 1538.\xe2\x80\x94 Nouv. JDict. \n\nOPTIMISM (from opfimus, the best), the \ndoctrine that everything which happens is for the \nbest, in opposition to Pessimism (from pessvmus, \nthe worst). The germ of optimism is to be found \nin Plato, and in St. Augustin, and other fathers; \nand has been especially propounded by Malebranche \nand Leibnitz, and adopted by Pope, Bolingbroke, \nRousseau, and others. Optimism as expressed in \nthe term, " the best of all possible worlds," is ridi- \nculed by Voltaire (1694- 1778) in his " Candide." \nThe term meliorism (from mi-lior, better) has been \nlately introduced. See Pessimism. \n\n" OPTION," a term given at the time to the \npermission given to the inhabitants of Alsace and \nLorraine by the German government to choose, \nbefore 30 Sept. 1872, whether they would quit \ntheir country or become German subjects. Great \nnumbers emigrated into the French territories. The \n" option " of archbishops respecting their claims on \na benefice becoming void on the creation or transla- \ntion of a bishop, was abolished in 1845. \n\nOEACIjES, a term applied to revelations made \nby God to man. They were given to the Jews at \nthe Mercy-seat in the tabernacle ; see Exod. xxv. \n18-22. The Holy Scriptures are the Christian \n" oracles," Rom. iii. 2; r Pet. iv. II. King Aha- \nziah sent to consult the oracle of Baalzebub at \nEkron about 896 B.C. The Greeks consulted espe- \ncially the oracles of Jupiter and Apollo (see Bodona \nand Delphi); and the Italians those of Faunus, \nFortune, and Mars. \n\nOEAN, Algeria (N. Africa), a Moorish city \nseveral times captured by the Spaniards ; defini- \ntively occupied by the French in 1831, who have \nsince added docks, &e. \n\nOEANGE, a principality in S.E. France, \nformerly a lordship in the 9th or 10th century. \nIt has been ruled by four houses successively : that \nof Giraud Adheniar (to 1 1 74) ; of Baux (1182 to \n1393) ; of Chalons (to 1530) ; and of Nassau (1530 \nto 1 7 13) ; see Nassau. Philibert the Great, prince \nof Orange, the last of the house of Chalons, having \nbeen wronged by Francis I. of France, entered the \nservice of the emperor Charles V., to whom he \nrendered great services by his military talents. \nHe was. killed at the siege of Florence, 3 Aug. 1530. \nHe was succeeded by his nephew-in-law, Bene of \nNassau ; see princes of Orange under Holland. \nThe eldest son of the king of Holland is styled the \nprince of Orange, although the principality was \nceded to France in 1713. See Arausio. \n\nOEANGE FEEE STATE, a republic in \nSouth Africa, founded by Boers from Cape Colony \nin 1836. The British government proclaimed its \nauthority over this territory, on 3 Feb. 1848, but \ndeclared it independent, 23 Feb. 1854. A consti- \ntution proclaimed, 10 April, 1854; revised, 1866, \nand 1879. The able president, sir John Henry \nBrand, first elected, 1863, died, 14 July, 188a. \nPresident Eeitz elected, 11 Jan. 1889. Defensive \ntreaty with the Transvaal, about 13 March, ratified \n25 May, 1889. Concession granted to the Cape \nGovernment to construct a railway to Bloemfontem, \nthe capital, May, 1889; railway opened at Bloem- \nfontein, 17 Dec. 1890. Population, 1885, 133,518. \n\n\n\nORANGEMEN. \n\n\n\n703 \n\n\n\nORDNANCE SURVEY. \n\n\n\nORANGEMEN. The "Battle of the Dia- \nmond," 21 Sept. 1795 (see Diamond), and the \ntreachery experienced by the Protestants on that \noccasion, convinced them they would become an \neasy prey to the Eoman Catholics, from their small \nnumbers, unless they associated for their defence, and \nconsequently the Orange Society was formed in 1 795. \nThe first Orange lodge was formed in Armagh ; \nbut the name of Orangemen already existed. An \nOrange lodge was formed in Dublin ; the members \npublished a declaration of their principles (the \nmaintenance of church and state under the house \nof Brunswick) in Jan. 1798. After 1813 Orange- \nism declined; but revived again in 1827, when \nthe duke of Cumberland became grand-master; \nand it is stated that in 1836 there were 145,000 \nOrangemen in England, and 125,000 in Ireland. \nAfter a parliamentary inquiry Orange clubs were \nbroken up in conformity with resolutions of \nthe house of commons; but were revived in 1845 \n\xe2\x80\x94 1889. In Oct. 1857, the lord chancellor of Ire- \nland ordered that justices of the peace should not \nbelong to Orange clubs. The Orangemen in Canada \nwere greatly excited during the visit of the prince \nof Wales in Sept. i860. Mr. Wm. Johnston, a \ngrand master, convicted of violating the Party \nProcessions Act, was elected M.P. for Belfast, Nov. \n1869. See Belfast. \n\nORANGES. The sweet, or China orange, was \nfirst brought into Europe from China by the Portu- \nguese, in 1547 ; and it is asserted that the identical \ntree, whence all the European orange-trees of this \nsort were produced, is still preserved at Lisbon, in \nthe gardens of one of its nobility. Orange- trees \nwere first brought to England, and planted, with \nlittle success, in 1595 ; they are said to have been \nplanted at Beddington park, near Croydon, Surrey. \nThe duty on imported oranges was repealed in i860. \n\nORATOR HENLEY. An eccentric English \ngentleman of some talents, in 1726, opened his \n<l oratory," a kind of chapel, in Newport-market, \nwhere he gave lectures on theological topics on \nSundays, and on other subjects on Wednesdays, \n\xe2\x96\xa0every week. Novelty procured him many hearers ; \nhut he was too imprudent to gain any permanent \nadvantage. He removed his oratory to Clare-market, \nand sank into obscurity previously to his death, in \nI756- \n\nORATORIANS (from the Latin orare, to \npray), a regular order of priests established by St. \nPhilip Neri, about 1564, and so called from the \noratory of St. Jerome, at Borne, where they prayed. \nThey had a foundation in France, commenced by \nGuillaume Gibieuf and Pierre de Berulle (afterwards \ncardinal), 1612, approved by pope Paul V. 1613. \xe2\x80\x94 \nThe rev. Frederick Faber and others, as "Fathers \nof the Oratory," established themselves first in \nKing William-street, Strand, in 1848, and after- \nwards at Brompton. \n\nORATORIO, a kind of musical sacred drama, \nthe subject of it being generally taken from the \nScriptures. The origin of our oratorios (so named \nfrom having been first performed in an oratory), is \nascribed to St. Philip Neri, about 1550. The first \ntrue oratorio, Emilio del Cavaliere\'s " Rappresenta- \nzione," was performed at Rome in 1600. He was \nfollowed by Giovanni Carissimi, Alessandro Scar- \nlatti, &c. The first oratorio in London was per- \nformed in Lincoln\' s-inn theatre in Portugal-street, \n\n\n\nof Olives," 1803; Spohr\'s " Last Judgment " (pro- \n\n\n\nperly " Things"), 1825 ; Mendelssohn\'s " St. Paul " \nin 1836, and "Elijah" in 1846; Costa\'s "Eli," \n1865; "Naaman," 1864; S. Bennett\'s " Woman of \nSamaria," 1867; Benedict\'s "St. Peter," 1870; \nMacfarren\'s "John the Baptist," 1873; "Resur- \nrection," 1876 ; and "Joseph," 1877 ! Dr. P. Amies\' \n"Hezekiah " 1878; professor Macfarren\'s "King- \nDavid," 180*3. \n\nORCHIDS, a natural order of plants of a very \npeculiar organization, recently much cultivated. \nIn 1880, a great establishment for their cultivation \nwas set up at St. Albans by Mr. Sander, "the \norchid king," patronised by the Rothschilds, who \nintroduced him to the queen at Waddesdon Manor, \n14 May, 1890. \n\nORCHOMENUS, a small Greek state in \nBceotia, was destroyed by the Thebans, 367 B.C. ; re- \nstored by Philip II. of Macedon, 354 ; and given up \nby him to Thebes, 346. \n\nORDEAL was known among the Greeks and \nJews (Num. v. 2). It was introduced into England \nby the Saxons. A prisoner who pleaded not guilty \nmight choose whether he would put himself for \ntrial upon God and his country, by twelve men, as \nat this day, or upon God only. The trial by ordeal \nwas abolished in 1218. \n\nORDER OF THE CORPORATE RE- \nUNION, virtually a new episcopal church, said \nto arise out of the Christian Unity Association \n(which see). It proposed to form four stations, \n(Canterbury, York, Caerleon, and St. Andrews,) with \nrectors and provincials ; announced 1 1 Sept. 1877. \n\nORDERS, see Knighthood. \n\nORDERS IN COUNCIL were issued by the \nBritish government 7 Jan. and 11 Nov. 1807, pro- \nhibiting trade with the ports occupied by the \nFrench, being reprisals for Napoleon\'s Berlin decree \n(which see). They greatly checked the progress of \nmanufactures in this country, and caused much \ndistress till their removal in 1814. \n\nORDINANCES, see Ordonnances, Self-Deny- \ning Ordinances. \n\nORDINATION of ministers in the Christian \nchurch began with Christ and his apostles ; see \nMark iii. 14, and Acts vi. and xiv. 23. In Eng- \nland in 1549 a new form of ordination of ministers \nwas ordered to be prepared by a committee of six \nprelates and six divines. \n\n. ORDNANCE OFFICE. Before the inven- \ntion of guns, this office was supplied by officers \nunder the following names : the bowyer, the cross- \nbowyer, the galeater, or purveyor of helmets, the \narmourer, and the keeper of the tents. Henry VIII. \nplaced it under the management of a master-general, \na lieutenant, surveyor, &c. The master-general \nwas chosen from among the first generals in the \nservice of the sovereign. The appointment was \nformerly for life ; but since the restoration, was \nheld durante bene placito, and not un frequently by \na cabinet minister. \xe2\x80\x94 Beat.son. The letters patent \nfor this office were revoked 25 May, 1S55, and its \nduties vested in the minister of war, lord Panmure. \nThe last master-general was lord Fitzroy-Somerset, \nafterwards lord Raglan. The revival of the office \nrecommended by the Ordnance Commission (see \nunder Army, 1886). \n\nORDNANCE SURVEY. The trigonome- \ntrical survey of England was commenced by gen. \nRoy, in 1784, continued by col. Colby, and com- \npleted by col. (aft. sir Henry) James in 1856. The \npublication of the maps (scale 7 inches to a mile), \n\n\n\nOEDONNANCES. \n\n\n\n7C4 \n\n\n\nOEISSA. \n\n\n\ncomnienced in 1819, under the direction of col. \nMudge, and was completed in 1862 ; a large part \nof these maps have been coloured geologically. \nThe survey of Ireland (6 inches to a mile) has \nbeen completed and published ; that of Scotland, \ncompleted Nov. 1882. By the survey act, passed 12 \nMay, 1870, the ordnance survey was transferred to \nthe Board of Works, and by an act passed in 1889, \nto the Board of Agriculture, beginning 1 April, 1890. \nDirectors, lieut.-gen. John Cameron, succeeded sir \nHenry James in 1875, died 30 June, 1878 ; col. A. \nC. Cooke; col. R. H. Stotherd, 1885. In 1892, \nseveral sets of maps were in course of public ition or \npreparation. \n\nOEDONNANCES, the laws enacted by the \nCapetian kings of France previous to 1789. They \nbegan with " in the name of the king," and ended \nwith " such is our good pleasure." The first in \nTrench is dated 1287 (Philip IV.) The publication \nof these " ordonnances," ordered by Louis XIV., \n1706, is still in progress. The " ordonnances " of \nCharles X., promulgated 26 July, 1830, led to the \nrevolution. \n\nOEEGON TEEEITOEY (N. America), is \nsaid to have been visited by Drake in 1579. Lieut. \nBroughton took possession of part of it for Great \nBritain in 1792. In I810 a settlement named \nAstoria, was founded by a New York Company. \nOregon was occupied by the English in 1814, but \nwas claimed by the United States government, to \nwhom the greater part was ceded, after much nego- \ntiation, by the treaty of 12 June, 1846. Oregon \nwas made a territory in 1848, and admitted as a \nstate Feb. 1859. Capital, Salem. Population, \n1880,\' 174,768; 1890,313,767 \nBy the fall of a train through a broken bridge ; in \n\nWascow county 10 men were killed . 4 Feb. 1890 \nDisastrous floods on the Willematte river, 6 Feb. ; \n\nmuch distress at Salem and Portland . \n\nabout 7 Feb. ,, \nThe overland Pacific train wrecked on the long \n\ntrestle bridge over lake Labish, 4 lives lost and \n\nmany injured . . - . . . 12 Nov. ,, \n\nOEGAN, a development of the pandean pipes ; \nthe "organ" in Gen. iv. 21 should be trans- \nlated pipe. The invention is attributed to Ctesi- \nbius, a barber of Alexandria, about 250 B.C. ; and to \nArchimedes, about 220 B. c. The organ was brought \nto Europe from the Greek empire, and was applied \nto religious devotions in churches, about a.d. 657. \n\nBellarmine. Organs were used in the western \n\nchurches by pope Vitalianus, in 658.\xe2\x80\x94 Ammonias. \nIt is affirmed that the oi-gan was known in France \nin the time of Louis I., 815, when one was con- \nstructed by an Italian priest. The organ at Haar- \nlem is one of the largest in Europe ; it has 60 stops \nand 8000 pipes. At Seville is one with no stops \nand 5300 pipes. The organ at Amsterdam has a \nset of pipes that imitate a chorus of human voices. \nOf the organs in England that at St. George\'s Hall, \nLiverpool, by Mr. Willis, was the largest ; next in \norder that at York minster, and that in the music- \nhall, Birmingham. In London, the largest was, \nperhaps that of Spitalfields church ; and that in \nChrist Church was nearly as extensive. The erection \nof the famous Temple organ was competed for by \nSchmidt and Harris; after long disputes, the \nauestion was referred to vote, and Mr. Jefl\'eries, \nafterwards chief justice, gave the casting vote in \nfavour of Schmidt (called Father Smith), about \n1682 A monster organ was erected in the Crystal \nPalace, Sydenham, in June, 1857. The organ, by \nWillis at the Koj al Albert Hall, is now said to be \nthe largest in the world ; 187 1. A larger proposed \nfor a cathedral in Long Island, North America, \n\n\n\n1880. A noble organ (by Bryceson), with many \nappliances, opened in the hall, Primrose-hill-road, \nLondon, N. Jan. 1876. \nBarrel organs are said to have been first made early in \n\nthe 1 8th century. The finest was the Apollouicon \n\n{which see). \n\nOEGANIC SYNTHESIS, see Chemistry. \n\nOEIEL COLLEGE (Oxford), founded in \n1326, by Adam de Brome, archdeacon of Stow, and \nalmoner to king Edward II. This college derives \nits name from a tenement called V Oriole, on the \nsite of which the building stands. \n\nOEIENTAL INSTITUTE, Woking, Surrey, \nestablished by high caste Hindoos, Mahometans, \nand Sikhs, for religious and educational purposes, \nabout 1884. A mosque was erected here, Aug. 1889. \n\nOEIENTALISTS- The first International \nCongress of these scholars was held at Paris, 1 Sept. \n1873; M- Leon de Rosny, the founder, president. \nThe second Congress met at the Royal Institution, \nin London, 14-19 Sept. 1874; Dr. S. Birch, \npresident. The third Congress met at St. Peters- \nburg, 1 Sept. 1876 ; the fourth at Florence, Sept. \n1878. The fifth met at Berlin, 12-17 Sept. 1881, \nM. Dittman, president. The sixth at Leyden, 10 \nSept. 1883. The seventh, Vienna, 27 Sept. 1886. \nEighth, Stockholm (president king Oscar II.), 2-7 \nSept. 1889. Independent, London, 1-10 Sept. \n1891. Ninth in London, 5-12 Sept. 1892. See \nAsiatic Societies. \n\nOriental Studies ; Professor Max Miiller, in the \npresence of the prince of Wales, at the Royal In- \nstitution, gave a discourse to inaugurate the \nestablishment of a school for modern oriental \nstudies by the Imperial Institute, in union with \nUniversity College and King\'s College, London \n\n11 Jan. 1890 \n\nOEIFLAMME, see Auriflamma. \n\nOEIGENISTS pretended to draw their opinions \nfrom the writings of Origen, who lived 185-253. \nThey maintained that Christ was the son of God \nin no other way than by adoption and grace ; that \nsouls were created before the bodies ; that the sun, \nmoon, stars, and the waters that are under the \nfirmament, have souls ; that the torments of the \ndamned shall have an end, and that the fallen \nangels shall, after a time, be restored to their first \ncondition. They were condemned by councils, and \nthe reading of Origen\' s work was forbidden. \xe2\x80\x94 Burke. \nThese doctrines were condemned by the council of \nConstantinople in 553. \n\n" OEIGIN OF SPECIES, by means of \n\nNATURAL SELECTION " by Charles Robert Dar- \nwin, F.R.S., first published, 24 Nov. 1859. He was \nborn 12 Feb. 1809, died 19 April, 1882. See \nSpecies. \n\nOEION STEAM-SHIP. On 18 June, 1850, \nthis splendid vessel, bound from Liverpool to Glas- \ngow, struck on a sunken rock, northward of Port- \npatrick, within a stone\'s throw of land, and in- \nstantly filled. Of two hundred passengers more \nthan fifty were drowned. \n\nOEISSA, an ancient kingdom of India, now a \nprovince of N. W. Bengal, conquered by Clive \nin 1755, and nearly all acquired by the company in \n1765. It suffered much by famine in 1770, and \n1792-3, and more especially from the end of 1865 \nto Nov. 1866, when it is said about 750,000 per- \nsons perished. The government and officials were \ncensured for neglect and want of forethought. It \nis also said that during a hurricane in Oct. 1836, \n22,500 persons were drowned. \n\n\n\nORKNEY ISLES. \n\n\n\n705 \n\n\n\nORPHAN-HOUSES. \n\n\n\nORKNEY and SHETLAND ISLES \n(North of Scotland), were conquered by Magnus III. \nof Norway, 1099, and were ceded to James III. as \nthe dowry of his wife Margaret, in 1469. The \nOrkneys were the ancient Orcades; united with \nShetland, they now form one of the Scotch coun- \nties. The bishopric of Orkney, founded by St. \nServanus early in the 5th century, some affirm by \nSt. Colm, ended with the abolition of episcopacy in \n\xe2\x96\xa0\xe2\x96\xa0Scotland, about 16S9; see Bishops in Scotland. \n\nORLEANS (a city in central France), formerly \nAureliemiiHi ; gave title to a kingdom, 491, and \n.afterwards to a duchy, usually held by one of the \nroyal famity. Attila the Hun, besieging it, was \ndefeated by Aetius and his allies, 451. It was be- \nsieged by the English under earls of Salisbury and \n\'Suffolk, 12 Oct. 1428, bravely defended by Gaucour \n(as its fall would have ruined the cause of Charles \nVI. king of France), and i-elieved by the heroism \nof Joan of Arc, afterwards surnamed the Maid of \nOrleans, 29 April, 1429, and the siege was raised \n\'3 May; see Joan of Arc. (The 439th anniversary \nwas celebrated 10 May, 1868 ; the emperor and \n\xc2\xabmpress being present.) During the siege of Or- \nleans, Feb. 1563, the duke of Guise was assas- \nsinated. \n\nAfter nine hours\' severe fighting, Orleans captured \nby the Germans, under general Von der Tann. \nMore than 4000 prisoners were taken. The loss \non both sides was heavy. About 35,000 on each \nside were engaged. The city was made to pay a \nwar contribution of 60,000?. . . 11 Oct. 1870 \nVon der Tann and the Bavarians defeated by \ngenerals DAurelle de Paladines and Pallieres, \nand Orleans re-taken. The Germans acknow- \nledged the loss of about 700 men and 1000 pri- \nsoners, chiefly wounded. The French asserted \nthe numbers of both to be higher, and were much \ncheered with their victory. The French loss was \nheavy. The chief conflict took place between \nCoulmiers and Bacon or Baccon . 9, 10 Nov. ,, \n\'.Severe conflicts at Bazoche and Chevilly, near Or- \nleans, between a part of the army of the Loire \nand prince Frederick Charles and the grand-duke \n\nof Mecklenburg 2-4 Dec. ,, \n\nA battle, during which the suburbs were stormed, \nand about 10,000 unwounded prisoners, 77 guns, \nand four gunboats taken. The French retired ; \nOrleans re-taken by the Germans . 5 Dee. ,, \n\nDUKES. \n\nXouis contended for the regency with John the Fearless, \nduke of Burgundy, by whose instigation he was assas- \nsinated in 1407. \n\nCharles taken prisoner at Agincourt, 1415 ; released, \n1440; died, 1465. \n\nouis, became Louis XII. of France in 149S, when the \nduchy merged in the crown. \n\nBourbon Branch. \xe2\x80\x94 Philip, youngest son of Louis XIII. , \nborn, 1640; died, 1701. \n\n\'Philip II., son, born, 1673; regent, 1715; died, 1723. \n\nLouis, son, horn, 1703; died, 1752. \n\nLouis Philippe, son, born, 1725; died, 1785. \n\nLouis Philippe Joseph, son, born, 1747; orrposed the \ncourt in the French revolution ; took the name \nVigalite, 11 Sept. 1792; voted for the death of Louis \nXVI.: was guillotined, 6 Nov. 1793. \n\nLouis Philippe, son, born, 6 Nov. 1773; chosen king of \ntii3 French, 9 Aug. 1830: abdicated, 24 Feb. 184S; \ndied, 26 Aug. 1850. His queen, Marie Amelie, died, \n24 March, 1866 (see France). \n\nFerdinand Philippe, son, duke of Orleans, born, 3 Sept. \n1810 : died, through a fall, 13 July, 1842. \n\nLouis Philippe, son, count of Paris, born, 24 Aug. 1838, \nmarried Maria Isabella, daughter of the di.ke of \nMontpi\'ii-iier, 30 May, 1864. Son, Louis Philippe, duke \nof Orl\'aus, born 7 Feb. 1859, see France, Feb. i?go. \n\nThe demand of the Orleans princes to return to \nFrance, 19 June, refused by the legislative assem- \nbly after discussion .... 2 July, 1870 \n\nTheir request totserve in the army after the fall of \nthe emp re declined Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n{The due de Chartres served incognito.) \n\n\n\nAfter discussion, the due d\'Aumale and the prince \nde Joinville permitted to take their seats as mem- \nbers of the national assembly . . 19 Dec. 18-0 \n\nAfter much discussion, the comte de Paris at a per- \' \nsonal interview recognized the comte de Cliam- \nbord as the legitimate head of the Bourbon family \nand king of France . . . . 5 Aug 187a \n\nFor consequent proceedings see France . 1873?^ \xc2\xab-\'</ \n\nThe bodies of king Louis Philippe and others of his \nfamily removed from England and buried in the \nmausoleum at Dreux ... 9 June, 1876 \n\nMarriage of princess Marie, daughter of due de \nChartres, to prince Waldemar of Denmark 22 Oct. 1885 \n\nMarriage of princess Amelie, daughter of the comte \nde Paris to the duke of Braganza . 22 May, 1886 \n\nExpulsion of the Orleans princes from France (see \nFrance) May-June, ., \n\nFor acts of the comte de Paris see France, 1873, et S \xc2\xab<Z- \n\nThe due de Montpensier, born 1824 (see Spain, \n1846 et seq.), died 4 Feb. 1850 \n\nORLEANS, NEW, sec JS f ew Orleans. \n\nORMULTJM, a metrical version of the Gospels \nand Acts, in early English, made by Orm, an ecclesi- \nastic, in the 12th century, printed at Oxford in \n1852, from a MS. in the Bodleian. \n\nORNITHOLOGY, see Birds. \n\nORNITHORHYNCHUS, the duck-billed \nplatypus, or water-mole, a singular compound of \nthe mammal and the bird, a native of Australia, \nwas first described by Dr. Shaw, in 1819. \n\nOROQUIETA, Navarre, N. Spain. Here don \nCarlos, calling himself king Carlos VII., grandson \nof don Carlos, brother of Ferdinand VII., com- \nmanding about 4000 men, was suddenly attacked \nby general Moriones with about 2000, and defeated \nafter a short conflict, 4 May, 1872. He fled, leav- \ning 757 prisoners and 38 dead. \n\nORPHAN-HOUSES. The emperor Trajan \nfirst formed establishments for this purpose. Pliny \nrelates in his Panegyric that he had caused 5000 free- \nborn children to be sought out and educated, about \na.d. 105. Orphan houses properly so called arc \nmentioned for the first time in the laws of the em- \nperor Justinian. At the court of Byzantium the \noffice of inspector of orphans, orphanotrophos, was \nso honourable that it was held by thebrother of the \nemperor Michael IV. in the nth century; see \nFoundling Hospitals. \n\nThe Orphanotropheon at Halle, established by Au- \ngust Franeke 1698-9 \n\nThe Orphan Working Asylum for 20 boys was esta- \nblished at Hoxton in 1758. It is now situated at \nHaverstock-hill, and contains 350 boys and girls. \nAsylum for Female Orphans, Lambeth ; removed \n\nto Beddington, near Croydon; instituted \'. . 1758 \nLondon Orphan Asylum founded, 1S13 ; removed to \nClapton, 1S23 ; new building at Watford, founded \nby the prince of Wales, 13 J uly, 1869 ; opened, \n\n20 July, 1871 \nBritish Orphan Asylum, Clapham-rise, established \n1827; removed to Slough, Bucks; re-opened, \n\n25 June, 1S63 \nThe Infant Orphan Asylum at Wanstead (1827); \nand the Asylum for Fatherless Children (in 1844; \nsettled at Reedham, Surrey), established mainly \nthrough the exertions of a congregational minister, \nthe rev. Andrew Reed, D.D. \nOrphan-houses, Ashley-down, Bristol, founded by \nGeorge M filler, a Prussian, supported entirely \nby voluntary contributions. (He began in a \nhouse in Bristol, 11 April, 1S36.) 2050 orphans \nwere maintained, 1873 ; reported prosperous . 1876 \nErdington Orphanage and Alms-houses, near Bir- \nmingham, erected and endowed (with 250,000?.) \nby Josiah Mason, a manufacturer of Birmingham, \n\n1860-69 \nRoyal Albert Orphan Asylum, at Bagshot, esla- \nblished, 1864; additional buildings founded by \nthe queen, 29 June, 1867. \n\nz z \n\n\n\nORPHEONISTS. \n\n\n\n706 \n\n\n\nOTOLOGY. \n\n\n\nAlexandra Orphanage for Infants, Holloway, 1864; \nfoundation of building laid, 6 July, 1867. \n\nStockwell Orphanage, Clapham-road, founded by \nRev. C. Spurgeon, aided by legacy of Miss Hill- \nyard 1867 \n\nOrphans\' Homes : \xe2\x80\x94 Maida-hill, 1873; West-square, \nSouthwark ; and Gravesend . . . . ,, \n\nORPHEONISTS, see Crystal Palace, i860. \n\nOEPHEUS, STEAMER, see Wrecks, 7 Feb. \n1863. \n\nORRERY, a planetary machine to illustrate \nand explain the motions of the heavenly bodies, \nappears to have been coeval with the clepsydra. \nPtolemy devised the circles and epicycles that dis- \ntinguish his system about 130. The planetary \nclock of Finee was begun 1553. The planetarium \nof De Rheita was formed about 1650. The planet- \narium, now termed the Orrery, it is said, was \nconstructed by Eowley, after a pattern devised by \nthe clock-maker, George Graham, at the expense of \nCharles Boyle, earl of Orrery, about 1715. A large \n" planetarium" was constructed by the rev. \xc2\xa5m. \nPearson, for the Royal Institution, London, about \n1803. An excellent planetarium, constructed in \nLondon by signor N. Perini, was exhibited in Dec. \n1879. \n\nORSINI\'S PLOT against the emperor Napo- \nleon III. ; see France, Jan. 1858. \n\nORTHES or OrTHEZ (S. France), once capital \nof the principality of Beam. Near it the British \nand Spanish armies, commanded by Wellington, \ndefeated the French, under Soult, "27 Feb. 18 14. \nThe battle of Toulouse soon followed. \n\nORTHOPAEDIC HOSPITALS, for the \ncure of club-foot, spinal curvatures, &c. : National, \nGreat Portland street, founded, 1836 ; Eoyal, Han- \nover-square, 1838; City, 1851. \n\nOSBORNE HOUSE (Isle of Wight), was \npurchased by the queen in 1845, and rebuilt by \nMr. Cubitt. \n\n_ OSMIUM, one of the heaviest known metals, \ndiscovered in platinum ore by Tennant in 1803. \n\nOSNABURG (N. Germany), made the seat of \na bishopric, by Charlemagne, near the end of the \n8th century. After the treaty of Westphalia in \n1648, the bishop was a Roman Catholic and Protes- \ntant alternately, the latter being chosen from the \nhouse of Brunswick. Frederick, duke of York, the \nlast bishop, resigned in 1803, when the lands were \nannexed to Hanover. He died 5 Jan. 1827. \n\nOSSORY (S. E. Ireland), BISHOPRIC OF, \nwas! first planted at Saiger, about 402 ; translated \nto Aghadoe, in Upper Ossory, in 10^2; and to \nKilkenny about the end of the reign of Henry II. \nIt was united to Ferns and Leighlin in 1835. \n\nOSTEND (Belgium). An important sea-port \nin the nth century, was destroyed by the sea 1334, \nrebuilt and afterwards walled by Philip the Good, \nthe duke of Burgundy, 1445; sustained a siege by the \nSpaniards, from July, 1601, to Sept. 1604, when it \nhonourably capitulated. On the death of Charles \nII. of Spain, the French seized Ostend; but in \n1706, after the battle of Ramilies, it was retaken by \nthe allies. It was again taken by the French in \n1745, but restored in 1748. In 1756, the French \ngarrisoned this town for the empress-queen Maria \nTheresa. In 1792, the French once more took \nOstend, which they evacuated iu 1793, but regained \nin 1794. Tno English destroyed (jie works of the \n.Bruges canal j hut; thp wind shifting; before they \n\n\n\ncould re-embark, they surrendered to the French, \n19 May, 1798. The Ostend East India company, \nestablished 1723, was dissolved 1731. Riotous at- \ntacks on British fishermen landing fish quelled \nwith bloodshed ; intervention of the king ; peace \nrestored 23-30 Aug. 1887. Population, 1890, 24,712. \n\nOSTIA, a Boman port, at the mouth of the \nTiber, said to have been founded by Ancus Marlins \nabout 627 B.C. \n\nOSTRACISM (from the Greek ostralcon, a \n\npotsherd or shell), a mode of proscription at Athens, \nis said to have been first introduced by the tyrant \nHippias; others ascribe it to Cleisthenes, about 510 \nB.C. The people wrote the names of those whom \nthey most suspected upon small shells ; these they \nput in an urn or box and presented to the senate. \nUpon a scrutiny, he whose name was oftenest \nwritten was sentenced by the council to be banished \nfrom his altar and hearth. 6000 votes were re- \nquired. Aristides, noted for his justice, and Mil- \ntiades, for his victories, were thus ostracized. The \ncustom was abolished by ironically proscribing \nHyperbolus, a mean person, about 338 B.C. \n\nOSTRICH (the struthios of the ancients), a \nnative of Africa (see Job xxxix. 14). Ostriches \nwere hatched and reared at San Donate, near Flo- \nrence, 1859-60; and at Tresco abbey, the seat of \nAugustus Smith, in the Scilly isles, 1866. \n\n. OSTROGOTHS, or Eastern Goths, were \n\ndistinguished from the Visigoths (Western Goths) \nabout 330. After ravaging eastern Europe, Thrace, \n&c, their great leader, Theodoric, established a. \nkingdom in Italy, which lasted from 493 to 553 ; \nsee Italy. \n\nOSTROLENKA (Poland). Near here the- \nFrench defeated the Prussians, 16 Feb. 1807. In \nanother battle here between the Poles and Russians- \nthe slaughter was immense, but the Poles remained\' \nmasters of the field, 26 May, 1831. \n\nOTAGO, see New Zealand, 1848, 1861, 1866. \n\nOTAHEITE or Tahiti, an island in the S.. \nPacific Ocean, seen by Byron in 1765, and visited \' \nin 1767 by captain Wallis, who called it George the \nThird Island. Captain Cook came hither in 1768" \nto observe the transit of Yenus ; sailed round the \nwhole island in a boat, and stayed three months;: \nhe visited it twice afterwards. See Cook. Omai, a* \nnative of this island, was brought to England by \nCook, and carried back in his last voyage. In \n1799, king Pomare ceded the district of Matavai to \nsome English missionaries. Queen Pomare was* \ncompelled to put herself under the protection of \nFrance, 9 Sept. 1843. She retracted, and Otaheite \nand the neighbouring islands were taken possession \nof by admiral Dupetit-Thouars in the name of thc- \nFrench king, Nov. 1843. T ne French imprisoned \nMr. Pilchard, the English consul, 5 March, 1844, \nbat the act was censured in France. \n\nQueen Pomare IV., born, 23 Feb. 1813 ; succeeded hoi- \nbrother, Pomare III., in Jan. 1827 ; died 17 Sept. 1877, \nhaving reigned 50 years. By consent of her successor \nthe island was formally annexed to France, 29 June r \n1880. The queen arrived at Paris, 27 Feb. 1884. \n\nOTHEOSCOPE (from otheb, I propel), ap- \nparatus invented by Mr. W. Crookes, for studying \nmolecular motion, the effects of radiation ; described \nby him, April, 1877. \n\nOTOLOGY, the science of the ear. A con- \ngress of Otologists met at Brussels, Sept. 1S88, \n\n\n\nOTTAWA. \n\nOTTAWA (formerly BYTOWN), on the river \nOttawa, was appointed to be the capital of Canada \nby the queen in August, 1858. The executive \ncouncil met here 22 Nov. 1865, and the Canadian \nparliament was, for the first time, opened here by \nthe governor-general, lord Monck, on 8 June, \n1866. Mr. Darcy McGee, M.P. for Montreal (once \nan Irish agitator, but afterwards exceedingly loyal), \nwas assassinated on his return from parliament, \n7 April, 1868. Fenians were suspected, and the \ntown was put in a state of siege. Whelan, con- \nvicted of the murder, 15 Sept. 1868, was executed \nFeb. 1869. A dominion exhibition was opened \nhere 24 Sept. 1879. The duke and duchess of \nConnaught warmly received 4 June, 1890. Popula- \ntion in 1861, 14,669; in 1871, 21,545; in 1881, \n27,412; 1891, estimated 35,000. \n\nOTTEBBUBN (Northumberland). In 1388 \nthe Scotch besieged Newcastle and were driven off \nby Henry Percy (Hotspur), son of the earl of North- \numberland. Percy pursued them to Otterburn, \nwhere a battle was fought on 10 Aug., in Avhich the \nearl of Douglas was killed and Percy taken pri- \nsoner. On this battle the ballad of Chevy Chase is \nfounded. \n\nOTTOMAN EMPIEE, see Turkey, 1299. \n\nOXIDE or OuDH (North India), formerly a \n\nvice-royalty held by the vizier of the great mogul. \n\nAbout 1760, it was seized by the vizier Sujah-ud- \n\nDowlah, ancestor of the late king. \n\nBattle of Buxar, where Sujah and his ally, Meer \nCossim, are totally defeated, and the British be- \ncome virtually masters of Oude . . 23 Oct. 1764 \n\nReign of Asoph-ud-Dowlah, who cedes Benares, &c, \nto the East India Company, who place troops in \nOude (see Chunar) 1775-81 \n\n[The annual subsidy to the company in 1787 was \n500,000?. ; in 1794, 760,000?. ; in 1801, 1,352,347?.] \n\nMore territories ceded to the company . . . 1801 \n\nGhazee-ud-deen becomes king, with the consent of \nthe British 1819 \n\nDreadful misgovernment of Nusser-ud-deen 1827-37 \n\n[At his death, the British resident, Colonel Lowe, \npromptly suppresses an insurrection.] \n\nMahomed AH governs well .... 1837-42 \n\nBut bis son Umjeed Ali Shah .... 1842-7 \n\nAnd grandson, Waud Ali Shah, exceed all their pre- \ndecessors in profligacy .... 1847-56 \n\nIn consequence (by virtue of the treaty of 1801) \nOude is annexed to the British territories, by \ndecree, proclaimed 7 Feb. 1856 \n\nThe queen and prince of Oude, &c. , arrive in Lon- \ndon to appeal 20 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nOude joins the Indian mutiny; ex-king of Oude \nimprisoned (on suspicion) . . .14 June, 1S57 \n\nThe queen dies at Paris, 24 Jan. ; and the prince at \n\nLondon 26 Feb. 1858 \n\n[For the war, see India, 1857-8.] \n\nTriumphal entry of the governor-general into Luck- \nnow ; the Talookdars (landowners) receive a free \ngrant of their estates . . . . 22 Oct. 1859 \n\nGrand durbar held at Lucknow by the viceroy, sir \nJohn Lawrence 12 Nov. 1867 \n\nOude was annexed to the N.W. Provinces in . . 1856 \n\nOUDENABDE (Belgium). Here the English \nand allies under the duke of Marlborough and prince \nEugene thoroughly defeated the French besiegers, \nir July, 1708. \n\nOULAET (S.E. Ireland). Here 5C00 Irish \ninsurgents attacked the king\'s troops, in small \nnumbers, 27 May, 1798. The North Cork militia, \nafter great feats of bravery, were cut to pieces, five \nmen only escaping. \xe2\x80\x94 Musgrave. \n\nOUNCE (from uncia), the sixteenth part of the \npound avoirdupois, and twelfth of the pound troy. \nIts precise weight was fixed by Henry III., who \n\n\n\n\xe2\x84\xa27 OWHYHEE. \n\ndecreed that an English ounce should be 640 dry \ngrains of wheat; that twelve of these ounces should \nbe a pound; and that eight pounds should be a \ngallon of wine, 1233. \n\nOUEIQUE (Portugal), where Alfonso, count \nor duke of Portugal, is said to have encountered \nfive Saracen kings and a great army of Moors, 25 \nJuly, 1 139, and signally defeated them; and then \nto have been hailed the first king. Lisbon, the \ncapital, was taken, and he soon after was crowned. \n\nOUTLAW, one deprived of the benefit of the \nlaw, and out of the sovereign\'s protection; a \npunishment for such as being called in law do con- \ntemptuously refuse to appear. In the reign of \nEdward III. all the judges agreed that none but the \nsheriff only having lawful warrant therefor, should \nput to_ death any man outlawed. \xe2\x80\x94 Coivel. Outlawry \nin civil proceedings was abolished by 42 & 43 Vict, \nc. 59, 15 Aug. 1879. \n\nOUZEL GALLEY SOCIETY. In 1700, \n\nthe case of the Ouzel Galley, a ship in the port of \nDublin, excited great legal perplexity, and was \nreferred to an arbitration of merchants, whose \nprompt decision was highly approved. This led to \nthe present societ}\', founded in 1705. \n\nOVATION, an inferior triumph which the \nRomans allowed those generals of their army whose \nvictories were not considerable. Publius Posthumius \nTubertus was the first who was decreed an ovation, \n503 b.c. A sheep (ovis) was offered by the general \ninstead of a bull. \n\nOVEELAND MAIL, see Way horn. The \noverland mail travelled first through the Cenis \ntunnel to Brindisi, saving 24 hours, 5 Jan. 1872. \nCommunication between the East and West has been \ngreatly facilitated by the opening of the Suez \nCanal, 1869, and the railways between the \nAtlantic and Pacific oceans ; by means of the \nCanadian Pacific railway the China and Japan \nmails were conveyed from Yokohama to London \nin 25 days, arriving in London . . 13 May, 1891 \n\nOVEBSEEBS of the poor for parishes were \nappointed in 1601 ; see Poor Laics. \n\nOWENS COLLEGE, Manchester, founded \nby means of a bequest of 100,000/. by John Owens \nmerchant, who died in 1846. A new constitution \nwas obtained in 1870, and the duke of Devonshire, \npresident, laid the first stone of the new building \n23 Sept. 1870; and opened it, 8 Oct. 1873. Mr. \nE. E. Langworthy bequeathed 10,000/. to develop \nthe chair of experimental physics, 1874. The \ncollege proposed as a university, \'July 1876-8. See \nVictoria University. \n\nOWHYHEE or HAWAII, an island in the \nN. Pacific Ocean, discovered Dec. 1778, by capt. \nCook. On 14 Feb. 1779, he here fell a victim to a \nsudden resentment of the natives. A boat havin\xc2\xb0- \nbeen stolen by one of the islanders, the captain \nwent on shore to seize the king, and keep him as a \nhostage till the boat was restored. The people \nwould not submit to this insult, and their resistance \nbrought on hostilities, and captain Cook and some \nof his companions were killed. Great progress has \nbeen recently made in civilisation here; and an \norder of nobility and a representative assembly were \ninstituted in i860. The population then was about \n120,000; about 60,000 in 1878; a railway opened \nin 1878. See Sandwich Isles and Leprosy. \nEruption of the volcano Mauna Loa ceased, about 20 \nmiles of lava, 8 Feb. ; there have boon frequent out- \nbreaks of volcanoes on the island with occasional \nshocks of earthquake ; earthquake shocks 5 May, 18S7 \net seq. ; 167 persons killed. \n\n\n\nOWNERS OF LAND. \n\n\n\nOXFORD UNIVERSITY. \n\n\n\nOWNERS OF LAND, see Domesday. \n\nOXALIC ACID, which exists in several \nplants, especially in sorrel, is now abundantly \nobtained, for use in the arts, from sawdust acted \nupon by caustic potash or soda, according to Dr. \nDale\'s process, patented in 1862. \n\nOXFORD, an ancient city, restored by king- \nAlfred, who resided here and established a mint, \n&c., about 879. Returns one M.P. by Act of \n1885. See Topulation. \nCanute held a national council here . . . . 101S \n\nStormed by William I. . 1067 \n\nCharter by Henry II., the city granted to he bur- \ngesses by John 1199 \n\nHenry III. holds the " mad " parliament here . . 1258 \nBishops Kidley and Latimer burnt here, 16 Oct. \n\n1555 ; and archbishop Cranmer . 21 March, 1556 \nFatal (or Black) Oxford Assizes, \xe2\x80\x94 when the high \nsheriff and 300 other persons died suddenly of an \n\ninfection from the prisoners 1557 \n\nCharles I. took Oxford, 1642, and held a parliament \n\nhere 1644 \n\nTaken by the parliament ... 24 June, 1646 \nCharles II. held parliaments here . . 1665 & iCSi \n\nVisit of the allied sovereigns 1814 \n\nBritish Association met here . . 1832, 1847, i860 \nOxford Military College, Cowley, opened . 20 Sept. 3876 \nNew high school opened . . . .15 Sept. 1881 \nNew theatre opened 13 Feb. 1886 ; greatly injured \nby lire 10, 11 March, 1892 \n\nOXFORD ADMINISTRATION, formed \n\n29 May, 171 1. \n\nBoberfc, earl of Oxford (previously right lion. Robert \nHarley), lord treasurer. \n\nSir Simon (afterwards lord) Harcourt, lord keeper. \n\nJohn, duke of Normanby and Buckingham, lord presi- \ndent. \n\nJohn, bishop of Bristol (aft. London), privy seal. \n\nHenry St. John (afterwards viscount Bolingbroke), and \nWilliam, lord Dartmouth, secretaries of state. \n\nBobert Benson (afterwards lord Bingley), chancellor of \ntlie exchequer. \n\nThe duke of Shrewsbury succeeded lord Oxford, receiv- \ning the lord treasurer\'s staff on 30 July, 1714, three \ndays before the death of queen Anne. From the reign \nof George I. the office of lord treasurer has been exe- \ncuted by commissioners. \n\nOXFORD BISHOPRIC, established by \nHenry Till., formed out of Lincoln, first placed \nat Osney in 1542 ; removed to Oxford cathedral \n(formerly St. Erideswide, now Christ Church), 1545. \nPresent income, 5000/. \n\nRECENT BISHOPS. \n\n1807. Charles Moss ; died, 16 Dec. 1S11. \n\n1812. William Jackson ; died, 2 Dec. 1815. \n\n1815. Edward Legge ; died, 27 Jan. 1827. \n\n1827. Charles Lloyd ; died, 31 May, 1829. \n\n1829. Richard Bagot ; translated to Bath, Nov. 1845. \n\n1845. Samuel Wilberforee ; translated to Winchester, \n\nNov. 1869. \n1869. John Fielder Maekarness ; resigned about 21 June, \n\n1SS8 ; died 16 Sept. 1889. \n188S. William Stubbs ; translated from Chester, July. \n\nOXFORD DECLARATION, see Church of \nEngland, 1864. \n\nOXFORD HOUSE\', see under University \nTeaching. \n\nOXFORD MARBLES, seeArundelian. \n\nOXFORD UNION SOCIETY, established \nas a debating- club, in 1823 ; amongst its early \nmembers, are or were Mr. Gladstone, bp. Wilberforce, \nlord Stanhope, abp. Manning, Sidney Herbert, abp. \nTait, cvc. It held a jubilee festival, 22 Oct. 1873, \nthe lord chancellor Selborne in the chair. \n\nOXFOBD UNIVERSITY. Alfred bunded \n\'\' the schools" about S79. \n\n\n\nCharter granted by Henry III 1248 \n\nCharter of Edward III. 1355 ; of Henry VIII. . . i;io \n\nThe university incorporated by Elizabeth . . 1570 \n\nBeceives the elective franchise (to send two mem- \nbers to parliament) 1604 \n\nBodleian Library opened, 8 Nov. 1602 ; building- \ncompleted 161 3 \n\nThe botanic garden, &c., established by the earl of \nDanby 1622 \n\nBadcliffe Library opened, 13 April, 1749 ; the \nBadeliffc observatory completed .... 1786 \n\nA commission appointed (31 Aug. 1S50) to inquire \ninto its " state, studies, discipline, and revenues ;" \nreported 27 April, 1S52 \n\nActs making alterations passed . . . 1854, 1856 \n\nUniversity Museum opened .... July, jSCo \n\nExamination statutes passed . 1801, 1S07, 1S50, iSts \n\nExtension of the university propjosed at a meeting \nheld 16 Nov. 1865 \n\nUniversity tests abolished by act passed 16 June, 1871 \n\nBoyal commission to inquire respecting university \nproperty, &c, appointed . . . . 6 Jan. 1P72. \n\nIncome in 1871, reported to be : university, \n47,589?. os. 3d, colleges and halls, 366,253?. 16s. 3d., \ntotal, 413,842?. 16s. 6c? Oct, 1S74 \n\nHebdomadal board reported that about 100,000?. \nwas needed for education in science . June, 1S75 \n\nLord Ilehester\'s bequest to promote the study of \nSlavonian literature, especially Polish ; first lec- \ntures given May, ., \n\nNew commission appointed (lords Selborne and \nBedesdale, Montague Bernard, sir M. W. Kidley, \ndean Burgoii, and Mr. Justice Grove) ; announced \n\n27 March, 1S76 \n\nOxford University Bill withdrawn July, 1876 ; the \nUniversities Act passed . . . 10 Aug. 1877 \n\nThe commission publish a new scheme for profes- \nsors, &c, very restrictive . . .2 Nov. 18S0 \n\nStatute passed admitting women to examination \n\n29 April, 1884 \n\nPusey memorial house, containing Pusey\'s library, \n&c., opened by bishop of Oxford . . 9 Oct. ,, \n\n4 sets of rooms at Queen\'s College destroyed by fire \n\n11 Dec. i8S~ \n\nMuseum for gen. Pitt-Rivers\' collection of ancient \nweapons, &e., presented to the university, opened \n\nFeb. 1887 \n\nCombination of the municipal and academical civic \npowers in conformity with the local government \nact of 1888, consummated . . .0 Nov. 18E0 \n\nCatherine T. Kiordon\'s attempt on the life of Dr. J. \nT. Bright, master of University College, 6 Nov. ; \nsentenced to 6 years\' penal servitude . 15 Nov. 1850 \n\nCOLLEGES. \n\nUniversity, said to have been founded by king \nAlfred, 872 ; founded by William, archdeacon of \nDurham, about 1232 \n\nBalliol ; founded by John Baliol or Balliol, knt. \n(father to Baliol, king of the Scots), and Deborah, \nhis wife 1263 \n\nMerton College, by Walter de Merton, bishop of \nRochester 1264 \n\nHertford College 1312 (dissolved in 1S05, and a \nHertford scholarship appointed) 1805 ; revived, \nand Magdalen Hall incorporated with it. . . 1874 \n\nExeter, by V, 7 alter Stapleton, bishop of Exeter . 1314 \n\nOriel College, by king Edward II. ; Adam de Broine. \narchdeacon of Stowe 1326 \n\nQueen\'s College, by Robert de Eglesfield, clerk, \nconfessor to queen Pliilippa, consort of Edward \nIII. ..... .... 1340 \n\nNew College, by William of Wykeham, bishop of \nWinchester ; first called St. Mary of Winchester, \nfounded 1379 ; occupied 1386 ; (500th anniversary \ncelebrated 14 Oct. 1879). \n\nAll Souls\' College, by Henry Chichely, archbishop \nof Canterbury 1437 \n\nMagdalen, by William of Waynflete, bishop of Win- \nchester 1456 \n\nLincoln College, by Richard Fleming, 1427 ; finished \nby Rotherham, bishop of Lincoln . . . 1479 \n\nBrazenose, by William Smyth, bishop of Lincoln, \nand sir Richard Sutton 1509 \n\nCorpus Christi, by Richard Fox, bishop of Win- \nchester 1516 \n\nChrist Church, by cardinal Wolsey, 1525 ; and \nafterwards by Henry VIII 1532 \n\n\n\n\n\n\nOXFOKD. \n\n\n\n709 \n\n\n\nOYSTER. \n\n\n\nTrinity, by sir Thomas Pope, on the basis of a pre- \nvious institution, called Durham College . . 1554 \n\n.St. John\'s, by sir Thomas Wlryte, lord mayor of \nLondon I 55S \n\nJesus CoUege, by Dr. Hugh Price and queen Eliza- \nbeth 1571 \n\nWadham, by Nicholas Wadham, and Dorothy, his \nwife I( 5i3 \n\nPembroke, by Thomas Teesdale and Richard Wight- \nwick, clerk 1624 \n\nWorcester, by sir Thomas Coke, of Bentley, in Wor- \ncestershire ; it was originally called Gloucester \nCollege i7H \n\nKeble College (see Kebh College) ; first stone laid by \narchbishop of Canterbury 25 April, 1868 ; conse- \ncrated 23 June > lS 7\xc2\xb0 \n\nIndian Institute, founded 1878 or 1879. \n\nSomerville Hall, opened, 1879; Mansfield College, \nfor Nonconformists !886 \n\nManchester New College .... . 1889 \n\nProposed establishment of Honour School of modern \nEuropean languages 3 May, 1887 \n\nhalls (not incorporated). \n\nSt. Edmund\'s 1269 \n\nSt. Mary\'s 1333 \n\nNew Inn Hall i39 2 \n\nSt, Mary Magdalen (incorporated with Hertford \n\ncollege 1874) I 4 8 7 \n\nSt. Alban\'s (united with Merton College, 1882) . 1547 \n\n[Oxford University Calendar.] \nFir.4 Professorships =\xe2\x80\x94 Divinity (Margaret), 1502; \n\nDivinity, Law, Medicine, Hebrew, Greek, 1540, \n\n&c. \n\nP.SCENT CHANCELLORS. \n\ni"o-->. William, baron Granville. \n\n1S34. Arthur, duke of Wellington. \n\n1S52. Edward, earl of Derby ; d. 23 Nov. 1S69. \n\n1S69. Robert, marquis of Salisbury, elected 12 Nov. \n\nOXFORD, PROVISIONS OP, for several poli- \ntical reforms; enacted by " the mad parliament," \nJune 1258; several times annulled and confirmed \nduring the "barons\' war." \n\nOXFORD\'S ACT, Bisnor OP, see District \n\nC\'iii\'.rchcs. \n\nOXFORD\'S ASSAULT on the Queen. \n\nEdward Oxford, a youth who had been a servant \nin a public-house, discharged two pdstols at queen \nVictoria and prince Albert, as they were proceeding \nup Constitution-hill in an open phaeton from \nBuckingham palace, 10 June, 1840. He stood \nwithin a few yards of the carriage, but neither her \nmajesty nor the prince was injured. Oxford was \ntried at the Old Bailey (10 July), and was adjudged \nto be insane, and sent first to Bethlehem hospital, \nnext to Broadmoor ; and set at liberty in 1868, on \ncondition of going abroad. \n\nOXFORD HOUSE, sec University \nTeaching. \n\n"OXFORD MOVEMENT, 1833-45, by \nIt. W. Church," late dean of St. Paul\'s, published \n10 March, 1891 ; see Puseyism and Tractarianism. \n\nOXUS (the Persian and Turkish Djihoun, \nlocal name, Amou Darya), a river of Central Asia ; \nHiipposed to have changed its course before 1000 \na.d., and to have resumed its ancient bed in 1878. \n\nOXYGEX, a gas (named from the Greek oxus, \nsharp, as being generally found in acids), is the \nmost abundant of all substances, constituting about \none-third of the solid earth, and forming about \nnine-tenths of water and one-fifth of the atmo- \nsphere. It was first separated from red oxide of \nmercury by Priestley, I.Aug. 1774, and by Scheele, \nwho was ignorant of Priestley\'s discovery, in 1775. \nIt is a supporter of animal life (in respiration), and \nof combustion. An oxygen gas company was \nannounced in Dec. 1864; its object being the cheap \n\n\n\nmanufacture of oxygen for its application to the \nproduction of perfect combustion in lamps, stoves, \nfurnaces, &c. Oxygen was liquefied by Eaoul \nPictet at Geneva ; (pressure, 320 atmospheres, \ntemp. 140 below zero cent.) 22 Dec. 1877. Sec \nOzone. \n\nProfessor Dewar obtained 2 cubic centimetres ( T V of a \nfluid oz.) of liquid oxygen by means of liquid ethylene \n(the illuminating part of coal gas), temp. 140\xc2\xb0 below \nzero Cent, (by Wroblcwski and Olszewski\'s method) \nat the Royal \'institution, London, in the presence of \nthe prince and princess of Wales, 26 June, 1884. He \nexhibited for the first time some solid oxygen in the \nform of snow (temperature -200 cent \xe2\x80\x94 400 fahr.) pro- \nduced by placing liquid oxygen in a partial vacuum at \nthe Royal Institution 27 May, 1886. \nProfessor Dewar exhibited between 300 to 400 cer.ti- \ntimetres liquid oxygen at the Faraday Centenary, \n26 June, 1801. The feeble magnetism of oxygen, \ndemonstrated by Faraday, was shown by Professor \nDewar to be greatly increased when reduced to the \nliquid state by a temperature of 180 below zero centi- \ngrade ; announced 10 Dec. 1S01. Some liquid oxygen \nplaced in the magnetic held, sprang to the poles and \nadhered to them till evaporated ; this was publicly \nexhibited by the professor at the Royal Institution, \n10 June, 1892. Several pints of liquid oxygen and \nliquid air were then produced in the presence of the \naudience. \nA -statue of Priestley, by F. J. Williamson, at Birming- \nham, was unveiled by professor T. H. Huxley, 1 Aug. \n1874, the centenary of the discovery of oxygen. This \nwas also celebrated at Northumberland, Pennsylvania, \nwhere he was buried, Feb. 1804. The following tele- \ngram was sent 31 July : "The brethren at the grave \nto the brethren at the home of Priestley send greet- \ning on this centennial anniversary of the birth of \nchemistry." . \n\nA method of obtaining oxygen from air, devised and \npatented by M. Margis, of Paris. The principle is that \nof dialysis, or diffusion under pressure, Sept. i38a. \nSee Gas (liquefaction). \n\nOYER AND TERMINER, a commission directed \nto the judges of the courts, by virtue whereof they \nhave power to hear and determine treasons, felonies, \n&c., 1285. \n\nO YES ! A corruption of the French oyez, hear \nye ! The ancient term still used by a public crier \nand by the usher of courts of justice to enjoin \nsilence and attention. \n\nOYSTER (the Latin Ostrea edulis). British \noysters are celebrated by the Roman satirist Juvenal " \n(Sat- iv. 140) about 160. The robbery of oyster- \nbeds is prohibited by 7 &8Geo. IV. c. 29 (1827). \nAbout 15,000 bushels of oysters were said to be pro- \nduced from the Essex beds alone. In 1858 M. Costc \ncommenced rearing oysters in great numbers on the \ncoast of Brittany, and his plan has been found suc- \ncessful. \nAn act for promoting the cultivation of oysters in \n\nthe United Kingdom, passed . . Aug. iS56 \n\nOne for the preservation of oyster fisheries 3 May, 1S67 \nCertain restrictions of the Oyster Fisheries act, \n\n1862, removed by the Fisheries act . . . 1868 \nThe fisheries (oyster, crab, and lobster) act forbids \nthe sale of deep-sea oysters between 15 June and 4 \nAugust ; and the sale of others, between 14 May \nand 4 August ; passed ... 10 Aug. 1877 \n\nProfessor Huxley at the Royal Institution asserts \nthe uselessness of restrictions and a close, time for \noysters, and the present uncertainty of culture \n\n11 May. t88 3 \nArtificial breeding greatly promoted by professor \nBrooks of Baltimore, (who discovered non-her- \nmaphrodite) lieutenant WinslOW, U.S., and M. \nBouchen-Brandely, announced . . . June, 1884 \nAct for the cultivation of oysters in Ireland passed \xe2\x80\x9e \nOysters, about 1830 the commonest of food, are. new be- \ncoming scarcer and scarcer, although their reproduction \nis about a million fold. A committee recommend \na close time for dredging, viz., 1 May to 1 Sept., deep- \n\n\n\nOZOKEEIT. \n\n\n\n710 \n\n\n\nOZONE. \n\n\n\nsea fishing to be restricted, as at present, from 15 June \nto 15 Aug. ; no oyster to be sold under 2j inches in dia- \nmeter. The Whitstable beds in 1875 are said to have \nproduced about 79,564,000 oysters ; value about \n55,i4oZ. \n\nAmerican and Portuguese oysters are now largely im- \nported. \n\nOysters successfully cultivated at Arcachon, near \nBordeaux, i88g. \n\nOZOKERIT, a mineral hydro-carbon found in \nMoldavia and "Wallachia. From it is distilled a \nsubstance suitable for making candles, introduced \nin the autumn of 1871. \n\nOZONE (from the Greek ozein, to yield an \nodour), was discovered by Schonbein, of Basel, in \n1840, when experimenting with the then newly- \ninvented battery of sir "Wm. Grove, and was recog- \nnised by him successively as a minute constituen t \nof the oxygen gas resulting from the electrolysis of \nwater effected by a current of high tension ; of air \nor oxygen through which electric discharges have \n( aken place ; and of air in which moist phosphorus \nhas been undergoing slow oxidation. \n\n\n\nMarignac determined the action of ozone on various \nsubstances to be due to their oxidation . . 1845 \n\nOzonometers constructed 1858 \n\nM. Schonbein announced his discovery of another \nmodification of oxygen, which he termed antozone, \nhitherto found only in the compound state (in \nperoxides of sodium, potassium, &c.) . . 1859 \n\nThe French Academy of Sciences appointed a com- \nmittee of eminent philosophers to inquire into \nthe nature and relations of ozone . 4 Dec. 1865 \n\nAndrews and Tait demonstrated ozone to be a con- \ndensed form of oxygen .... i860, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThis further established by Soret and Brodie, by \nquantitative reactions. (Odling suggested and \nBrodie proved ozone to be 3 parts of oxygen com- \npressed into the space of 2) 1872 \n\nOzone, generated by a current produced by Wilde\'s \nmagneto-electric machine, employed to bleach \nsugar, by Edward Beane\'s patent . . Aug. 1868 \n\nLiquefied by Hautefeuille and Chappuis . Oct. 1880 \n\nOther properties since discovered . . . 1881-4 \n\nThe inhalation of ozone recommended as a remedy \nfor phthisis ; the institution at St. Raphael on the \nMediterranean opened for the purpose ; reported \n\nDec. 1891 \n\n\n\np. \n\n\n\nPACIFICATION. \n\n\n\nPAINTING. \n\n\n\nPACIFICATION, Edicts of, the name \n\nusually given to the edicts of toleration granted by \n\nthe French kings to the protestants ; see Ghent. \n\nFirst edict, by Charles IX. , permitting the exercise \nof the reformed religion near all the cities and \ntowns in the realm .... Jan. 1562 \n\nThe reformed worship permitted in the houses of \nlords justiciaries, and certain other persons, March, 1563 \n\nThese edicts revoked, and all Protestant ministers \nordered to quit France in fifteen days . . . 1568 \n\nEdict, allowing lords and others to have service in \ntheir houses, and granting public service in cer- \ntain towns 1570 \n\nf_In Aug. 1572, the same monarch authorised the \nmassacre of St. Bartholomew (see Bartholomew).\'] \n\nEdict of Pacification by Henry III., April; re- \nvoked, Dec. 1576; renewed for six years Oct. 1577 \n\n[Several edicts were published against the protes- \ntants after the six years expired.] \n\nEdict of Henry IV., renewing that of Oct. 1577 . 1591 \n\nEdict of Nantes (which see), by Henry IV., 13 April, 1598 \n\nPacification of Nismes (which see) . . 14 July, 1629 \n\nPACIFIC ISLANDERS. See Kidnapping \n\nActs. \n\nPACIFIC OCEAN, the largest of the five \noceans of the globe. It was first discovered in 15 13 \nby Vasco Nunez do Balboa, and received its name \nfrom Magellan in 1521. Sir Francis Drake was the \nfirst Englishman who sailed upon it in 1577. See \nMagellan; Steam, 185 1 ; Wrecks, 1856; Kidnap- \nping Acts ; Panamd. \n\nPACIFIC RAILWAY, North America, from \nOmaha citj T , Missouri, to Sacramento, California, \n1700 miles, opened 12 May, 1869. By a collision \nnear San Francisco, about 15 persons were killed, \n14 Nov. 1869. For new Pacific railway see Canada, \n1881, et seq. By means of this railway, the China \nand Japan mails were conveyed from Yokohama to \nLondon in 25 days; received 13 May, 1891. \n\nPADLOCKS are said to have been invented \nby Beecher at Nuremberg, 1540, but are mentioned \nmuch earlier. \n\nPADUA, the Roman Patavium, in Venetia, N. \nItaly, said to have been founded by Antenor, soon \nafter the fall of Troy. It flourished under the \nRomans. Patavian Latin was considered very \ncorrupt, and is traced in Livy, a native of Padua. \nAfter being an independent republic, and a member \nof the Lombard league, Padua was ruled by the \nCarrara family from 1318 with a short interruption \ntill 1405, when it was seized by the Venetians. \nThe university was founded about 1220. It was \nelosed through disturbances, 1 848-50. \n\nPAGANS, the heathen, worshippers of idols, \nnot agreeing in any set form or points of belief. See \nIdols. C\'onstantine\'s nephew, Julian, attempted their \nrestoration, 361; but Paganism was renounced by \nthe Roman senate in 388, and finally overthrown \nin the reign of Thcodosius the younger, about 391. \n\nPAI MARIRE, a name given to the dogmas \nof the Hau-hau sect; see New Zealand, 186,5. \n\nPAINS AND PENALTIES, certain bills \npassed by the legislature to punish state offenders ; \nsee Queen Caroline. \n\nPAINTING. This art was practised in Egypt \nand Greece in very early times; see under Arts. \n\n\n\nPolygnotus, said to be the first portrait and historic \npainter, lived about b.c. 450 \n\nZeuxis of Heraelea and Parrhasius of Ephesus, about 400 \n\nApelles about 332 \n\nPausias of Sieyon was the inventor of the encaustic, \na method of burning the colour\'s into wood or \nivory about 360-330 \n\nAntiphilus, an Egyptian, is said to have been the \ninventor of the grotesque. Pliny. . . b.c. 332 \n\nThe art was introduced at Rome from Etruria, by \nQuintus Fabius, styled Pictor. Livy. . . . 291 \n\nExcellent pictures broughtfrom Corinth by Mummius 146 \n\nAfter the death of Augustus, not a single painter of \neminence appeared for several ages ; Ludius, who \nwas very celebrated, is supposed to have been the \nlast about a. d. 14 \n\nPainting on canvas seems to have been known at \nRome in 66. Bede, the Saxon historian, knew \nsomething of the art, died 735 \n\nGiovanni Cimabue, of Florence, revived the art ; he \ndied 1300 \n\nJohn Van Eyck, of Bruges, and his brother, Hubert, \nare regarded as the founders of the Flemish school \nof painting in oil 1415 \n\nUccello first studied perspective ; died . . . 1432 \n\nHenry VIII. patronised Holbein, and invited Titian \nto his court about 1523 \n\nIn Aug. i860, the sale of lord Northwick\'s pictures \noccupied eighteen days. It produced 95,725?. A \nCarlo Dolci fetched 2010?., and a Murillo 1400?. \n\nThe Bicknell collection, sold in April, 1863, pro- \nduced 25,600?. \n\nMr. Win. Noy "Wilkins invented a process of using \noil with mineral colours for frescoes in 1853 ; pub- \nlished his " Durability in Art " .... 1875 \n\nGainsborough\'s picture of Georgiana, duchess of \nDevonshire, bought by Messrs. Agnew for 10,100?., \nstolen from their house in Bond-street, London, \n\n24-25 May, 1S76 \n\nBaron Albert Grant\'s collection said to have sold \nfor 106,262?. 28 April, 1877 \n\nMr. Munro\'s Novar collection, sold for 64,975/. \nclose of sale 3 June, 1878 \n\nLeigh Court collection (sir P. W. Miles) sold for \n44,296? 2S June, 1884 \n\nThe collections of John Graham of Ayrshire : ancient \nmasters sold for 69,168?. 12 April, 1886; modern \nmasters, 62,297? 3\xc2\xb0 April, 18S7 \n\nMr. Bolckow\'s collection of about 70 modern \npictures sold for 71,378?. . . .5 May, 1888 \n\nMr. Wells\' (of Redleaf) collection of 104 pictures \n\nsold for 77,000? 10 May, 1S90 \n\nSee under Blenheim and Hamilton Palace. \n\nEMINENT PAINTERS. Bom OV \n\nSchool. Flourished. Pied. \n\nGuido da Siena . . . . i2zo \n\nMarghitone d\'Arezzo . . Florentine . 12 12 1289 \n\nCimabue Ditto . . 1240 1300 \n\nGiotto Ditto . . 1276 1336 \n\nSimone Martiuo (Memmi) . Italian . . 1283 1344 \n\nAndrea Orcagna . . . Ditto . . 1329 1389 \n\nHubert Van Eyck . . Flemish . 1366 1426 \n\nJ. Van Eyck . . . . Ditto . . 1366 1441 \n\nFra Angelico da Fiesole. . Italian . . 13S7 1455 \n\nFelippo Lippi . . . . Ditto . . 1412 1469 \n\nDomenico (jhirlandajo . . Ditto . . 1449 r 49S \n\nAndrea Mantegna . . . Ditto . . 1431 1506 \n\nGiorgione .... Venetian . 1477 1511 \n\nSandro Botticelli . . . Italian . . 1437 1515 \n\nGiovanni Bellini . . . Ditto . . 1426 1516 \n\nLeonardo da Vinci . . . Florentine . 1452 1520 \n\nRaphael d\'Urbino . . . Roman . 14S3 1520 \n\nPietro Paolo Perugino . . Italian . . 1446 1524 \n\nAlbert Diirer .... German . 1470 1528 \n\nQuentin Matsys . . . Flemish . 1460 1529 \n\nAndrea Vannuchi (del Santo). Florentine . 148S 1530 \n\nCorreggio Lombardian 1494 1534 \n\nParmegiano .... Ditto . . 1503 1540 \n\n\n\nPAINTING. \n\n\n\nfl2 \n\n\n\nPAL^OLOGI. \n\n\n\nHans Holbein . \n\n\n. . German \n\n\n\n\nGiulio Romano \n\n\n. Roman \n\n\nSebastian del Piombo \n\n\n. . Venetian \n\n\nLucas Cranacb \n\n\n. German \n\n\nGiovanni Razzi . \n\n\n. Siennese \n\n\nMichael Angelo Buonai \n\n\notti . Florentine . \n\n\nTitian \n\n\n. . Venetian \n\n\nPaul Veronese \n\n\n. Ditto \n\n\nTintoretto . \n\n\n. . Ditto . \n\n\nAnnibal Caracci \n\n\n. Lombardian \n\n\n\n\n\n\nP. P. Kubens \n\n\n. Ditto . \n\n\nDomenichino \n\n\n. . Bolognese . \n\n\nVandyck \n\n\n. Flemish . . \n\n\n\n\n\n\n"Wm. Dobson . \n\n\n. English \n\n\nBoth .... \n\n\n. . Dutch . . \n\n\nP. Potter \n\n\n. Ditto . \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSpagnoletto . \n\n\n. Spanish \n\n\nSn} r clers \n\n\n. . Flemish \n\n\nVelasquez \n\n\n. Spanish \n\n\nZarbaran . \n\n\n. . Ditto \n\n\nN. Poussin \n\n\n. French \n\n\n\n\n\n\nHobbima \n\n\n. Flemish \n\n\nA. Cuyp . \n\n\n. . Dutch. \n\n\nSamuel Cooper \n\n\n. English \n\n\nA. Vander Velde \n\n\n. . Dutch . . \n\n\nSalvator Rosa \n\n\n. Neapolitan . \n\n\nRembrandt \n\n\n. . Dutch . . \n\n\nGerard Douw . \n\n\n. Ditto . \n\n\nSir Peter Lely . \n\n\n. . German \n\n\nMieris \n\n\n. Dutch. \n\n\n\n\n. . Ditto \n\n\nClaude Lorraine \n\n\n. French \n\n\n\n\n. . Dutch . \n\n\nMurillo . \n\n\n. Spanish \n\n\n\n\n. . Dutch . \n\n\nCarlo Dolci . \n\n\n. Florentine \n\n\nWouvermans \n\n\n. . Dutch . \n\n\nLe Bran . \n\n\n. French . \n\n\n\n\n\n\nW. Vander Velde . \n\n\n. Dutch . \n\n\nWatteau \n\n\n. . French . \n\n\nSir Godfrey Kneller \n\n\n. German \n\n\nSir J. Thomhill \n\n\n. . English . \n\n\nHuysum \n\n\n. Dutch. \n\n\nHogarth \n\n\n. . English \n\n\nCanaletti \n\n\n. Venetian \n\n\nJ. Mortimer \n\n\n. . English \n\n\nR. Wilson \n\n\n. Ditto \n\n\nGainsborough . \n\n\n. . Ditto . \n\n\n\n\nC. J. Vernet . \n\n\n. French \n\n\n\n\nSir J. Reynolds . \n\n\n. . English \n\n\n\n\nRomney . \n\n\n. Ditto \n\n\n\n\nGeorge Morland \n\n\n. . Ditto . \n\n\n\n\nBarry . \n\n\n. Ditto \n\n\n\n\nGeorge Stufobs . \n\n\n. . Ditto \n\n\n\n\n\n\n. . Ditto . \n\n\n\n\nPaul Sandby . \n\n\n. Ditto \n\n\n\n\n\n\n. . Ditto . \n\n\n\n\nCopley . \n\n\n. \' . Ditto \n\n\n\n\nWest .... \n\n\n\n\n\n\nH. Raebnrn . \n\n\n. Ditto \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nDavid \n\n\n. French \n\n\n\n\nLawrence . . \n\n\n. . English \n\n\n\n\nNorthcote \n\n\n. Ditto \n\n\n\n\nThos. Stotliard . \n\n\n. . Ditto . \n\n\n\n\nA. C. H. Vernet . \n\n\n. French \n\n\n\n\nPeechey \n\n\n. . English \n\n\n\n\nWm. Hilton . \n\n\n. Ditto \n\n\n\n\nWilkie \n\n\n\n\n\n\nHaydon . \n\n\n. Ditto \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nEtty . . . \n\n\n. Ditto \n\n\n\n\nTurner \n\n\n. . Ditto . \n\n\n\n\nMartin . \n\n\n. Ditto \n\n\n\n\nC. R. Leslie \n\n\n. . Ditto . \n\n\n\n\nAug. Egg \n\n\n. Ditto . \n\n\n\n\nWm. Mulready . \n\n\n. . Ditto \n\n\n\n\nJ. E. H. Vernet \n\n\n. French \n\n\n\n\nP. V. E. De la Croix . \n\n\n. . Ditto \n\n\n\n\nWm. Hunt \n\n\n. English \n\n\n\n\nD. Roberts \n\n\n. . Ditto . \n\n\n\n\n\nBorn or \n\nSchool. Flourished. \n1495 \n1492 \n148S \n1472 \n1479 \n1474 \n1477 \n1532 \n15 12 \n1568 \n156s \n1577 \n1581 \n\n1599 \n1575 \n1610 \n1600 \n1625 \n1617 \n1589 \n1579 \n1599 \n1598 \n1594 \n159\xc2\xb0 \n1611 \n1606 \n1609 \n1638 \n1615 \n1606 \n1613 \n1617 \n1635 \n1636 \n1600 \n1610 \n1618 \n1624 \n1616 \n1620 \n1619 \n1610 \n1633 \n1684 \n1648 \n1676 \n\n\n\n1697 \n1739 \n1714 \n1727 \n1714 \n1723 \n1734 \n1763 \n1 741 \n1724 \n1761 \n1725 \n1756 \n1738 \n1738 \n1786 \n1741 \n1748 \n1769 \n1746 \nI75S \n1758 \n1753 \n1786 \n1785 \n17S6 \n1788 \n1787 \nJ 775 \n1789 \n1794 \n1816 \n1786 \n1789 \n1798 \n1790 \n1796 \n\n\n\nDied. \n1543 \n1546 \n1547 \n1553 \ni5S4 \n1564 \n1576 \n1588 \n1594 \n1609 \n1625 \n1640 \n1641 \n1641 \n1642 \n1646 \n1650 \n1654 \n1655 \n1656 \n1657 \n1660 \n1662 \n1665 \n1666 \n1670 \n1672 \n1672 \n1672 \n1673 \n1674 \n\n\n\n1694 \n1707 \n1721 \n1723 \n1732 \n1749 \n1764 \n1768 \n1779 \n1782 \n1788 \n1789 \n1792 \n1802 \n1804 \n\n\n\n1815 \n1820 \n1823 \n1825 \n1825 \n1830 \n1831 \n\n\n\n1839 \n1839 \n1841 \n1846 \n\n\n\n1S54 \n1859 \n\n\n\n1863 \n1863 \n\n\n\n\n\nBorn or \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSchool. Flourished. \n\n\nDied.. \n\n\nW. F. Witherington \n\n\n. English \n\n\n1786 \n\n\n1865. \n\n\nClarkson Stanfield \n\n\n. . Ditto . . \n\n\n1798 \n\n\n1867- \n\n\nP. Von Cornelius . \n\n\n. German \n\n\n1787 \n\n\n1867 \n\n\nJ. D. A. Ingres . \n\n\n. . French . . \n\n\n1781 \n\n\n1867 \n\n\nThos. Creswick \n\n\n. English \n\n\ni8n \n\n\n3869 \n\n\nF. Overbeck \n\n\n. . German . . \n\n\n1789 \n\n\n1869 \n\n\nD. Maclise \n\n\n. English \n\n\n181E \n\n\n1870 \n\n\nSir George Hayter \n\n\n. . Ditto . . \n\n\n1792 \n\n\n1871 \n\n\nSir E. Landseer \n\n\n. Ditto . \n\n\n1802 \n\n\n1873 \n\n\nW. Kaulbach \n\n\n. . German \n\n\n1805 \n\n\n1374 \n\n\nP. F. Poole . \n\n\n. English . . \n\n\n1806 \n\n\n1879 \n\n\nE. M. Ward \n\n\n. . Ditto . \n\n\n18.6 \n\n\n1879 \n\n\nE. W. Cooke ... \n\n\n. Ditto . . \n\n\n1810 \n\n\n18S0- \n\n\nGustave Dore \n\n\n. . French \n\n\n1832 \n\n\n1883 \n\n\nJohannes Makart . \n\n\n. German \n\n\n1840 \n\n\n1884 \n\n\nThos. Webster . \n\n\n. . English \n\n\n1800 \n\n\n1886 \n\n\nRichd. Redgrave \n\n\n. Ditto . \n\n\n1804 \n\n\n1888 \n\n\nFrank Holl . \n\n\n. . Ditto. \n\n\n1846 \n\n\n1888 \n\n\nArthur Stocks . \n\n\n. . Ditto . . \n\n\n1846 \n\n\n1889. \n\n\nJ olm R. Herbert . \n\n\n. Ditto . \n\n\n1810 \n\n\n1890- \n\n\nJ. C. Horsley . \n\n\n. . Ditto . \n\n\n1817 \n\n\n1890 \n\n\nC. W. Cope . \n\n\n. Ditto . \n\n\n1811 \n\n\n1890- \n\n\nJ. L. E. Meissonier . \n\n\n. . French . \n\n\n1815 \n\n\n1891 \n\n\nEdwiu Long . \n\n\n. English \n\n\n1839 \n\n\n1S91 \n\n\nSir Wm. F. Douglas \n\n\n. Ditto . . \n\n\n1829 \n\n\ni8qi. \n\n\nW. P. Frith \n\n\n. . Ditto . \n\n\n1819 \n\n\n\n\nJohn Faed \n\n\n\'. Ditto . . \n\n\n1820 \n\n\n\n\nFredk. Goodall . \n\n\n. . Ditto . \n\n\n1822 \n\n\n\n\nThomas Faed \n\n\n. Ditto . \n\n\n1826 \n\n\n\n\nH. S. Marks \n\n\n. . Ditto . \n\n\n1829 \n\n\n\n\nJ. E. Millais . \n\n\n. Ditto . \n\n\n1829 \n\n\n\n\nF. Leighton \n\n\n. . Ditto . \n\n\n1830 \n\n\n\n\nVicat Cole \n\n\n. Ditto . \n\n\n1833. \n\n\n\n\nG. D. Leslie \n\n\n. . Ditto . \n\n\n1835 \n\n\n\n\nE. J. Poynter \n\n\n. Ditto . \n\n\n1836 \n\n\n\n\nL. Alma Tadenia \n\n\n. . Dutch \n\n\n1836 \n\n\n\n\nThos. S. Cooper \n\n\n. English . \n\n\n1803. \n\n\n\n\nEdw. Armitage. \n\n\n. . Ditto . \n\n\n1817 \n\n\n\n\nSir J. Gilbert. \n\n\n. Ditto \n\n\n1817- \n\n\n\n\nJ. C. Hook . \n\n\n. Ditto . \n\n\n. 1819 \n\n\n\n\nJ. Sant \' . . . \n\n\nDitto . \n\n\n. 1S20 \n\n\n\n\nJ. F. Watts . \n\n\n. Ditto . \n\n\n. 1820 \n\n\n\n\nCarl Haag . \n\n\nDitto . \n\n\n. 182& \n\n\n\n\nPhil Calderon . \n\n\n. . Ditto . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1833. \n\n\n\n\nJ. A. M. Whistler . \n\n\n. Ditto \n\n\n1835 \n\n\n\n\nW. 0. Orchardson. \n\n\n. . Ditto . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 183S \n\n\n\n\nE. J. Poynter \n\n\n. Ditto \n\n\n1836 \n\n\n\n\nJohn Pettie \n\n\n. . Ditto . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1839 \n\n\n\n\nMarcus Stone \n\n\n. Ditto \n\n\n. 1 840 \n\n\n\n\nBriton Riviere . \n\n\n. . Ditto . \n\n\n. 184& \n\n\n\n\nJas. D. Linton \n\n\n. Ditto . \n\n\n. 184a \n\n\n\n\nEliz. Thompson, since \n\n\nlady \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSir John Pettie \n\n\n. Ditto . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 l8 39 \n\n\n\n\nOuless \n\n\n. . Ditto . \n\n\n. 1848 \n\n\n\n\nHubert Herkomer . \n\n\n. Ditto \n\n\n. 1849 \n\n\n\n\n\nPAISLEY, a borough, "W. Scotland, the Roman? \nYanduava, and grew out of the priory of Passalet,; \nfounded 1160-4 by Walter Stewart, made an abbey \nabout 1220 ; burnt by the English 1307, rebuilt 15th. \ncentury. Made a burgh of barony 1488 and a Parlia- \nmentary borough 1832. Since 1805 Paisley silk and \ncotton shawls have been celebrated. Visited by the- \nQueen, 23 Aug. 1888. See Population. \n\nPALACE COUET, sec Marshalsea, and \n\nGreen Cloth. \n\nPALACE OF JUSTICE, or Eoyal \nCOURTS OF JUSTICE. The names given to the new \nLaw r Courts, London. See Law Courts under Latv. \n\nPALACES, see Buckingham, St. James\'s, Par- \nliament, 1834-52, 1885, Pscurial, Tuilcrics, St. \nCloud, Versailles, &c. \n\nPAL^EOGEAPHY, ancient writing; see \n\nDiplomatics, Writing. \n\nPAL2E0L0GI, a family which reigned as \nemperors of the east from 1260 to 1453. George \nPalreologus raised Alexius Comnemis to ihe thione \nin 108 1, and thereby founded his own family. An- \ndrew, tlic last Pahtologus, son of Thomas, ruler of \n\n\n\nPALAEONTOLOGY. \n\n\n\n713 \n\n\n\nPALESTINE. \n\n\n\nhie Morea, after the overthrow of Lis father, be- \ncame a Mahometan at Constantinople about 1533. \nA person who called himself John Anthony Palajo- \nlogus Lascaris died at Turin, Sept. 1874. His \nclaims were doubted. \n\nPALAEONTOLOGY (from the Greek palaios, \nancient, and onta, beings), treats of the evidences of \norganic beings in the earth\'s strata. It combines \nbiology and geology {which see). Cuvier, Mantell, \nAgassiz, Owen, Edward Forbes, and lilainville, all of \nthe present century, may be reckoned as fathers of \nthis science. The Pala:oiitographieal society, which \npublishes elaborate monographs of British organic \nremains, was founded in 1847. The journal \n" Palaeontographica " (German) began 1851. Pro- \nfessor Owen\'s "Palaeontology" was published in \ni860. "Nearly 40,000 species of animals and \nplants have been added to the Systema Naturce by \npakcontological research." Huxley. See Man. \n\nPALaEOPOLIS, see Naples. \n\nPALAIS EOYAL, Paris, originally Palais \nCardinal, built for cardinal Eichelieu by Lemer- \ncier, 1620-36, received its present name when occu- \npied by Louis XIII., to whom the cardinal gave it \nshortly before his death in 1642. Louis XIV., in \n1692, gave it to his nephew Philippe, duke of Or- \nleans, and it became the residence of his successors. \nIt was confiscated by the republic in 1793, after the \nexecution of Philippe Egalite. Louis Philippe re- \nsided in it, 1814-31. It suffered much injury at \nthe revolution in 1848. Under the second empire \nit became the residence of prince Jerome and his \nson Napoleon. The buildings were much injured \nby fire by the communists, 24 May, 1871. \n\nPALATINATE OP THE Eiiine, one of the \nseven ancient electorates of Germany. It was long \nunited to Bavaria, but was separated in 1294. \xe2\x80\x94 \nFrederic V., the elector palatine in 1610, married \nin 1613 Elizabeth, the daughter of James I. of Eng- \nland, and thus was an ancestor of queen Victoria ; \nsee Hanover. In 1619 he was elected king of Bo- \nhemia, but lost all by his defeat by the Austrians \nat Prague in 1620. The Palatinate was horribly \nravaged by Tilly in 1622, and by the French in \ni 688. Several thousands of the ruined peasantry \nwere sent to America by the British government \nand people. The elector palatine, Charles Theo- \ndore, inherited Bavaria in 1778 ; since when the \ntwo electorates have been united ; see Bavaria. \n\nPALATINE. "William the conqueror made \nhis nephew, Hugh De Abrincis, count palatine of \nChester with the title of carl, about 1070. Edward \nIII. created the palatine of Lancaster, 1539; see \nLancaster, duchy of. The bishopric of Durham also \nmade county palatine. There is also mention made \nof the county palatine of Hexham, in 33 Henry \nVIII. c. 10, which then belonged to the arcli- \nbishop of York, but by the 14th of Elizabeth \nit was dissolved, and made cart of the county of \nNorthumberland. The palatinate jurisdiction of \nDurham was separated from the diocese, and vested \nin the crown, 6 Will. IV. c. 19, 21 June, 1836. \n\nPALE, the name given to the part of Ireland \ncolonised by the English \xe2\x80\x94 viz., parts of the coun- \nties of Louth, Lublin, Meath, and Kildare. Anglo- \nIrish rulers were termed lords of the pale. Their \narbitrary exactions led to a royal commission of \ninquiry in 1537. The defection of the lords of the \npale in 1641 was followed by a general insurrection, \nand the royal cause was ruined in 1647. In 1652 \nIreland was committed to the rule of four com- \nmissioners. \n\n\n\nPALERMO (N.W.Sicily), the ancient l\'an- \normus. It has been held by the Carthaginians, 415 \nB.C. ; taken by the Romans, 254 i$.c. ; by the Sara- \ncens, A.n. 832 ; and by the .Normans, 1072. Here \nUoger II. was crowned king of Sicily, 1130. \nPalermo was the scene of the (Sicilian Vesper* \n{ivhich see), 30 March, 1282. It suffered ircm. \nearthquake in 1726 and 1740. The king Ferdinand \nresided at Palermo from 1806 to 1815, while Naples \nwas ruled by Joseph honaparte and Joachim Murat. \nIt revolted against the tyranny of Ferdinand II. \n12 Jan. 1848. It was attacked by general Filan- \ngieri, 29 March, 1849, an ^ surrendered 011 14 May. \nIt was taken by Garibaldi, 6 June, i860. An in- \nsurrection against the abolition of the monastic \nestablishments broke out in Palermo on 13 Sept.- \n1866, and was suppressed by the royal troops with \nmuch bloodshed; order was restored by 22 Sept. \nPopulation, 1890, 267,416. \n\nThe Italian National Exhibition at Palermo opened \nin the presence of the king and the royal family, \nby sigrior Chimirri, minister of agriculture \n\n15 Nov. 1 89 1 \n\nThe exhibition included manufactures, fine arts, \nGreek relics, an Abyssinian department, &c, \n\nNew monument to Garibaldi uncovered ; speech by \nsig. Crispi 27 May, 1892- \n\nPALESTINE, the name given by Moses \n{Exodus xv., 14) and oilier ancient writers, to a \nbroad strip of land on the easteoa>t of the Mediter- \nranean Sea, which originally included PJulistia, but \nwas afterwards limited to tue part termed, the land \nof Cauaan or Israel, Judea, and the Holy Land : \nsee Jews. After being several times conquered by \nthe Saracens, and retaken from the 7th to the iotli \ncentury, and after being the scene of the wars of \nthe Crusades {ivhich see), and other conflicts, Pales- \ntine was united to the Ottoman empire by Selim I. \nin 1516. See Bible (note), Holy Places, and Syria. \n\nPalestine visited by the prince of Wales, \n\nMarch and April, 1862 \n\n" The Palestine exploration fund "was founded in \nLondon by many eminent persons as a society \n"for the investigation of the archaeology, topo- \ngraphy, geology, and manners and customs of the \nholy Land ;" at the first meeting the archbishop \nof York (Dr. W. Thomson) was in the chair \n\n22 June, 1865 \n\nBy its means captain (after sir Charles) Wilson and \na party left England for Palestine in Nov. 1865 : \nthey arrived at Damascus, Dee. 20 ; and in the \nfollowing spring explored Jezreel, Nazareth, and \nmany other parts of the holy Land. \n\nExcavations in Jerusalem carried on by capt. (aft. \nsir Charles) Warren 1867-1870- \n\nThe Moabite stone discovered 186S- \n\nThe systematic trigonometrical survey of Palestine \ncarried on by capt. Stewart, R.E., lieuts. Cornier \nand Kitchener, lt.E 1872-7 \n\nA similar fund established at New York . . .1871 \n\nThe ordnance survey of Sinai by capts. Wilson and \nPalmer, published 1S72 \n\nThe surveying party attacked by natives, rescued \nby soldiers, after much suffering . . 10 July, 1875. \n\nSurvey of Western Palestine completed ; announced \n\nOct. 1877 \n\nPublication of map (1 inch to the mile) in 26 sheets \n\nMay, 18S0 \n\nMap and Memoirs of the Survey of Western Pales- \ntine published 1800-1 \n\nSurvey of Eastern Palestine begun by lieuts. Conder \nand Kitchener 188 r \n\nThe twenty-first anniversary of the foundation \ncelebrated at the Royal Institution ; the abp. of \nYork in the chair ...... 22 June, 1S06 \n\n" Twenty-one years\' work in the Holy Land," pub- \nlished June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFor captain Conder\'s discovery of a key to the \nHittite inscriptions see under Hittites, 26 Feb. i88j \n\nFinnan authorising excavutions granted with eon- \n\n\n\nPALESTEO. \n\n\n\n714 PALMEESTON-EUSSELL ADMIN". \n\n\n\nditions ; the committee appoint Mr. Flinders \nPetrie, superintendant, announced . Feb. 1890 \n\nThe archbishop of Canterbury (Dr. Benson) suc- \nceeds the archbishop of York, as president of the \nfund . April, 1891 \n\nAn association for the Colonization of Palestine by \nthe Jews held an important meeting in east \nLondon 7 Feb. ,, \n\nPALESTEO (N. Italy). Here the Sardinians \n\xe2\x96\xa0defeated the Austrians, 30, 31 May, 1859. \n\nPALIMPSEST (from the Greek, palm, again; \nand psao, I efface), parchments written on after \nthe previous writing had been partially effaced. \nCardinal Mai, by removing the second writing in- \nsome MSS., recovered the original. This was the \n\xe2\x80\xa2case with Cicero\'s " De Republica," published by \nMai in 182 1. It had been covered by a treatise of \nLactantius. \n\nPALL, PALLIUM, in the Eoman Church an \nensign of dignity conferred by the pope upon arch- \nbishops. By a decretal of pope Gregory XI. (about \n1370), no archbishop could call a council, bless the \nchrism, consecrate churches, ordain a clerk, or con- \nsecrate a bishop, till he had received his pall from \nthe see of Borne. The pall was first worn by an \nIrish archbishop in 11,52, when Gelasius was recog- \nnised as primate of all Ireland. \n\nPALLADIUM, the statue of Pallas, said to have \nfallen from heaven near the tent of Ilus, as he was \nbuilding Ilium, which the oracle of Apollo de- \nclared should never be taken so long as the Palla- \ndium was found within its walls. The Greeks are \n\xe2\x96\xa0said to have obtained it by craft during the Trojan \nwar, 1 184 B.C. ; but some writers assert, another \nstatue was taken, and that the real Palladium was \nconveyed from Troy to Italy by iEneas, 1183 B.C., \nand preserved by the Romans with the greatest \nsecrecy in the temple of Vesta. \xe2\x80\x94 Palladium is a \nrare metal, discovered in platinum ore by Dr. "Wol- \nlaston, in 1803. \n\nPALLAS, the planet, was discovered by Olbers, \nat Bremen, 28 March, 1802. \n\nPALLISEE\'S CHILLED SHOT, see \n\nCannon. \n\nPALL MALL, a street near St. James\'s \npalace, London, is named from a French game at \nball (pale-mail, being a wooden mallet), re- \nsembling the modern croquet, having been played \nthere about 1600, and introduced into England \nabout 1660. Among eminent inhabitants were \nNell Gwyn and Dr. Thomas Sydenham. The \nPall Mall Gazette, a daily independent political \nand literary journal, first appeared 7 Feb. 1865, and \nwas edited by Mr. Frederick Greenwood till 1 May, \n1880, when it became a liberal paper, edited by Mr. \nJohn Morley, who retired 25 Aug. 1883. Price 2d. \nreduced to id. 2 Jan. 1882. \n\nNos. 6, 7, 8, 9 July, 1885, contained Mr. Stead\'s state- \nments respecting offences against young women and \nchildren. Greatly disproved on investigation. See \nTrials, Oct. -Nov. 1885. \n\nPALMEESTON ADMINISTEATION.* \n\nThe resignation of the Aberdeen administration was \n\n\n\n* Heury John Temple was born 20 Oct. 1784 ; was \neducated at Harrow, Edinburgh, and Cambridge ; suc- \nceeded his father, viscount Palmerston, 1802 ; became \nM.P., and a junior lord of the admiralty, 1807; wassecre- \ntary-at-war, 1809-28, and a secretary for foreign affairs, \nNov. 1830-34, April, 1835 to Sept. 1841, and July, 1S46 \nto Dec. 1851, and home secretary, Dec. 1852 to March, \n1855, when he became first lord of the treasury. He was \ncreated lord warden of the cinque ports, 31 March, 1861 ; \nand master of the corporation of the Trinity house, \n16 June, 1862. He sat for Tiverton, 1835-65. He died \n\n\n\nannounced 1 Feb. 1855, but nearly all its members \nreturned to office soon after under lord Palmerston, \nlord Derby and lord John Russell having each iD \nvain endeavoured to form an administration. On \n22 Feb. Mr. Gladstone, sir James Graham, and Mr. \nSidney Herbert resigned on account of the Sebas- \ntopol inquiry. Lord John Russell resigned 13 July. \nLord Canning was appointed governor-general of \nIndia, 4 July, 1855. This cabinet resigned 20 Feb. \n1858, in consequence of a vote of censure upon it \nfor introducing the Foreign Conspiracy bill, and was \nsucceeded by the Derby administration (which see). \n\nFirst lord of the treasury, Henry viscount Palmerston. \n\nLord chancellor, lord Cranworth. \n\nPresident of the council, earl Granville. \n\nLord privy seal, duke of Argyll ; next, earl of Harrowby ; \n\nafterwards the marquis of Clanricarde. \nSecretaries \xe2\x80\x94 home, sir George Grey ; foreign, carl of \n\nClarendon ; colonial, Sidney Herbert (resigned Feb. 22) ; \n\nafterwards lord J. Russell (resigned July 13); sir \n\n"William Molesworth (died 22 Oct. 1855) ; next Henry \n\nLabouchere ; war, lord Panmure. \nChancellor of the exchequer, W. E. Gladstone (resigned \n\n22 Feb.) ; next, sir G. Cornewall Lewis. \nFirst lord of the admiralty, sir James Graham (resigned \n\n22 Feb.) ; next, sir diaries Wood. \nBoard of control, sir Charles "Wood ; next, R. Vernon \n\nSmith. \nPublic ivories, sir "Win. Molesworth ; next, sir B. Hall \n\n(appointed 22 July, 1855). \nPostmaster-general, viscount Canning (appointed governor- \ngeneral of India, 4 July) ; next, duke of Argyll. \nPresident of the board of trade, lord Stanley of Alderley. \nMarquis of Lansdowne, without office. \nChancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, earl of Harrowby ; \n\nnext, M. T. Baines (appointed 24 Nov. 1855). \n\nPALMEESTON-EUSSELL ADMINIS- \nTEATION. The second Derby administration \n{which see) resigned 11 June, 1859. Earl Granville \nwas requested by the queen to form an administra- \ntion, and obtained the support of lord Palmerston, \nbut not of lord John Russell : the two last then \nagreed to form a cabinet, which came into office \n18 June, 1859. On the decease of lord Palmerston, \ni80ct. 1 865, earl Russell became premier; sceM-itsselL \n\nFirst lord of the treasury, Henry viscount Palmerston. \nLord high chancellor, John lord Campbell (died 23 June, \n\n1861) ; succeeded by sir Richard Bethell, made Lord \n\nSVestbury, who resigned 4 July, 1865 ; succeeded by \n\nlord Cranworth. \nLord president of the council, earl Granville. \nLord privy seal, duke of Argyll. \nSecretaries\xe2\x80\x94 foreign affairs, lord John (afterwards earl) \n\nRussell ; colonies, duke of Newcastle ; succeeded by \n\nEdward Cardwell, 8 April, 1S64; home, sir G. Cornewall \n\nLewis ; succeeded by sir George Grey ; war, Sidney \n\n(afterwards lord) Herbert ; succeeded by sir G. C. \n\nLewis (died 13 April, 1863), and by earl de Grey \n\n(1 May) ; India, sir Charles Wood. \nChancellor of the exchequer, "Win. Ewart Gladstone. \nFirst lord of the admiralty, duke of Somerset. \nPresident of the board of trade, Thos. Milner Gibson. \n\n[This office was offered to Mr. R. Cobden, and declined \nby him.] \nSecretary of state for Ireland, Edward Cardwell; succeeded \n\nby sir R. Peel (not in the cabinet). \nChancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, sir George Grey, \n\nbart. ; succeeded by Edward Cardwell ; and by earl \n\nClarendon, 8 April, 1864. \nPostmaster-general, earl of Elgin (proceeded to China in \n\nApril, i860) ; succeeded by lord Stanley of Alderley, \n\nappointed Sept. i860. \nPoor-law board, T. Milner Gibson ; succeeded by Charles \n\nP. ViUiers (9 July, 1S60). \nPalmerston\'s Act for abatement of smoke nuisance (16 \n\n& 17 Vict. c. 128), 20 Aug. 1853. \n\n18 Oct., and was buried in "Westminster abbey, 27 Oct. \n1865. His statue at Romsey, by M. Noble, was un- \ncovered by earl Russell, 21 July, 1868. Lady Palmer- \nston died 11 Sept. 1S69, aged 82. \n\n\n\nPALM-SUNDAY. \n\n\n\n715 \n\n\n\nPANAMA. \n\n\n\nPALM-SUNDAY. When Christ made his \nentry into Jerusalem, multitudes of the people who \nwere come to the feast of the Passover, took branches \nof the palm-tree, and went forth to meet him, -33. \nIt is usual, in some countries, to carry palms on the \nSunday before Easter, hence called Palm-Sunday. \n\nPALMYBA (Syria) was supposed to have been \nthe Tadnior in the wilderness built by Solomon, \nbut was manifestly Grecian. The brilliant part of \nthe history of Palmyra was under Odenatus and his \nqueen Zenobia. At the death of Odenatus, Zenobia \nassumed the title of queen of the East, in 267. \nAurelian defeated her at Emesa, in 272, and made \nher captive, 273, and killed Longinus, the philo- \nsopher, her friend. Palmyra is now inhabited by a \nfew Arab families. The ruins were visited in 1751, \nby Mr. Wood, Avho published an account of them \nin 1753- \n\nPAMIRS, a lofty mountain ridge in Turkestan, \nCentral Asia. \n\nCol. Gromtchevski\'s Russian exploring expedition \nstopped by Afghan and British outposts in 1889. \nCapt. Yonoff, with a military force, excludes capt. \nYounghusband and lieut. Davison, travellers, from \nthe little Pamir, on the frontiers of Afghanistan, &c. \nThe Russians afterwards retire on the advance of a \nparty of Goorkhas, Aug. 1891. The Russian govern- \nment declares the action of capt. Yonoff to be illegal, \nand apologises, Feb. 1892. \n\nPAMPELUNA (X. E. Spain, taken by the \nFrench on their invasion of Spain), was invested by \n1 he British, between whom and the French obstinate \nconflicts took place, 27 and 29 July, 1813. It sur- \nrendered to the British, 31 Oct. in that year. Popu- \nlation, 1887, 26,663. \n\nPAMPHLETS. Their first appearance \namongst us is generally thought to have been in \nopposition to the church of Home. Those who were \nfirst convinced of the reasonableness of the "new \nlearning," as it was then called, propagated their \nopinions in small pieces, cheaply printed, and (what \nwas then of great importance) easily concealed. \nPolitical pamphlets began in Edward VI. \'s time, \nand were very numerous in the 17th and 18th cen- \nturies (by De Foe, Swiff, Steele, and others). \nPaul Louis Courier wrote "Simple Discours" and other \npamphlets against the priests and nobles after the \nrestoration of the Bourbons, 1815. His "Pamphlet \ndes Pamphlets," defending the pamphleteer (published, \n1824), probably led to his murder, 10 April, 1825. \nLarge collections are in the libraries of the British \n\nMuseum and the Royal and London Institutions. \nCertain enactments respecting panvphiets removed by an \nact passed July, 1869. \n\nPANAMA, the isthmus which joins the two \nAmericas; see I)ari,en. Across this a ship canal \nwas proposed by the Buliver-Clayton treaty, \n19 April, 1850. A treaty for the construction of a \nship canal through the isthmus \\>y the United \nStates was signed by representatives of that govern- \nment and that of Colombia 26 Jan. 1870. A railway \nwas opened in 1855. In that year a new state, New \nGranada, was divided into eight federal states, one \nof which is named Panama. A revolution took \nplace in Panama, on 9 March, 1865 ; the govern- \nment was deposed, and don Jil Colunje became pre- \nsident; succeeded by Vincent Olarte, I Oct. 1866. \nPanama is now subject to Colombia (which see). \nAspinwall, a town at the extremity of the Panama \nrailway, named after its originator, Mr. Aspinwall, a \nNew York merchant, was officially named Colon in \nI070. The government overthrown by Colombian \ntroops without bloodshed, about 12 Oct. 1875. Civil \nwar between Dr. Damaso Cervera and gen. li. Ruiz ; \nsharp fights; the Morro beats the Alajucla, 14 \n\n\n\nOct. 1884. General Santo Domingo Vila installed \nas president, 8 Jan. 1884. Rebellion ; government \nsteamer Ecuadouan captures the rebel ship Buacho; \nmuch slaughter announced, 24 Dec. 1884. Insur- \nrection in Panama ; conflict with Colombian troops ; \nabout 20 people killed. Insurgents destroy Aspin- \nwall railway terminus, &c. ; the United States \ngovernment intervenes with troops, &c. to protect \ncolonists and restore buildings ; rebels said to be \ntotally defeated, 16 March-April. Railway re- \nopened with protected trains, 13 April, i885- \nGen. Tlirr and a committee propose a canal Oct. 1876 \nLieut. L.A.B.Wyse\'s survey (1875) published autumn 1877 \nCongress respecting a new canal meet at Paris ; P. \n\nDe Lesseps president . . . . 1 May, 1879 \nSeven schemes proposed ; canal from Gulf of Limon \n\nto Bay of Panama recommended (by 74-8) 29 May, ,, \nScheme suspended for want of funds . . . ,, \nCanal through Nicaragua proposed by Americans ; \n\nfavoured by gen. Grant .... Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nLesseps\' scheme opposed by the United States \n\ngovernment March, 1880 \n\nLesseps at Liverpool describes Iris plan ; canal to \n\nbe 46 miles long 31 May, ,, \n\nEngineers leave Paris to proceed to the work, 3 \n\nJan. ; at work 24 Feb. 1881 \n\nMr. Blaine, the American secretary, issued a circu- \nlar to the European powers protesting against \njoint international guarantees of the neutrality of \nthe canal, asserting that the guarantee of the \nUnited States of 24 July, 1846, is sufficient 25 Oct. ,, \nRailway and works partly destroyed by earthquakes \n\n7, 9, 10 Sept. 1882 \nColon and Aspinwall, with consulates, burnt by the \n\nrebels under gen. Aizpurn, announced 1 April, 1885 \nUnited States marines defeat the rebels ; destroy \nbarricades and occupy Panama^ to protect pro- \nperty and railway transit . about 24 April, ,, \nThe Colombian government resume possession of \nPanama ; amnesty granted, with exceptions \n\n30 April, ,, \nGen. Aizpurn arrested 4 May, 1885 ; martial law, \n\nabout 12 June ; quiet restored . . July, ,, \n\nM. de Lesseps sails up about 3 miles . 20 Feb. 1886 \nTen m<;n killed by gunpowder explosion, announced \n\n31 March, ,, \nM. de Lesseps\' proposal of a lottery loan opposed \n\nby the French premier, M. Tirard . . Jan. 188S \nThe lottery loan bill passed by the deputies 28 \nApril ; by the senate 5 June ; progress of the \nscheme retarded .... July, ct scrj. \xe2\x80\x9e \nM. de Lesseps asserts that the canal will be opened \n\nin July, 1890 21 Oct. ,, \n\nThe necessary amount of subscriptions to the loan \nnot received ; the company suspend payment 14 \nDec. ; the government bill permitting the com- \npany to suspend payments for three months \nrejected by the chambers (256-181) . 15 Dec. ,, \n[about sixty million pounds already expended] \nM.de Lesseps resigns and proposes liquidation 15 Dec. ,, \nA great meeting of shareholders agree to the sus- \npension of payments of coupons and annuities \nuntil the opening of the canal, and the raising of \nmore capital, and profess continued confidence iu \n\nM. de Lesseps 27 Dec. \xe2\x96\xa0\xe2\x96\xa0> \n\nReport received that perfect order remains at the \n\nworks, which are still carried on . . 8 Jan. 1889 \nThe United States senate pass resolutions against \nany interference of foreign powers in regard to \n\nthe canal 9 Jan. ,, \n\nNew company for the completion of the canal \nstarted (the old \'company dissolved) .Ian. ; suf- \nficient shares not taken up ; the company goes \n\ninto liquidation Feb. ,, \n\nGradual suspension of the works . . . Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe Panama Canal Bill to promote the continuance \nof the work passed by the chamber of deputies \n\n28 June, ,, \nCanal bill passed by the French senate . 11 July, ,, \nReport of Inquiry commission states that \n900,000,000 francs will be required to complete \n\nthe canal 5 May, 1890 \n\nGreat fire at Colon (formerly Aspinwall), the \nPanama railway buildings ami a large part of the \ntown destroyed . . . . 23. 24 Sept. ,, \nArrangement between the company and the re- \n\n\n\nPAN-AMEEICAN CONGRESS. \n\n\n\n716 \n\n\n\nPANTHEON. \n\n\n\npublic of Columbia ; the time for the completion \nof the canal extended by ten years ; contract \ndated 10 Jan. i8go \n\nAfter visitation of the works, total collapse of the \nscheme reported ; legal investigation proposed \n\nSept. 1891 \n\nEeport of M. Mcnclrieourt, the official liquidator, \nissued at Paris Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPAN-AMEEICAN CONGEESS- 34 dele- \ngates from the states of North, South, and Central \nAmerica, met at Washington 30 Sept. 1889. Mr. \nSecretary Blaine was appointed president 2 Cct. \nThey visit Chicago and other cities, Oct., meet at \nWashington 18 Nov. et seq. Construction of con- \nnecting railways proposed Feb. 1890. Treaty \nadopting arbitration agreed on, &c. Banquet to \npresident Harrison 16 April ; the delegates depart \nfor home 19 April, 1890. \n\nPAN-ANGLICAN SYNOD, the popular \nname of a conference of 76 bishops, British, colonial, \nand American, who met at Lambeth-palace, 24-27 \nSept. 1867. They issued an address, published \ntheir resolutions, of a very general character, and \nformally closed their conference on 10 Dee. \nAnother synod of about 100 bishops met . 2 July, 187S \nGrand closing service at St. Paul\'s . 27 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nAn encyclical letter issued proposing an episcopal \nboard of reference for ecclesiastical questions, &c, \n1878 ; another issued with practical moral recom- \n1 nendations, earnestly advocating unity and union \n\nwith nonconformists 1888 \n\nThe third conference of 145 bishops was held at \nLambeth 7-28 July ; the abp. of York preached \n\nat St. Paul\'s 27 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSee under Presbyterians. \n\nPANDEAN PIPES (said to be the Creek \nsyrinx, and the ugab or organ of the Bible, Gen. iv. \n21 and Psalm cl.), usually seven tubes, popular in \nBritain early in the 19th century. A " Pre- \nceptor" for JDavies\' "new invented syrrynx" was \npublished in 1807. \n\nPANDECTS, a digest of the civil law, made by \norder of Justinian, 533. It is stated that a copy of \nthese Pandects was discovered in the ruins of Amalfi, \n1 137 ; removed from Pisa in 1415, and preserved in \nthe library of the Medici at Florence, as the Pan- \ndect ce Florentines. \n\nPANDOSIA (Bruttium, S. Italy). Here \nAlexander, king of Epirus, was defeated and slain \nby the Bruttians, 326 B.C. Loevinus, the Roman \nconsul, was defeated between Ileraclea and Pando- \nsia, in Lucania, by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, 28OB.C. \n\nPANEAS or PANIUS (Syria). Here Antioehus \nthe Great defeated Scopas, the Egyptian general, \n\xe2\x80\xa2and his Greek allies, 198 B.C. \n\nPANICS, COMMERCIAL, generally the result \nof over-speculation; see Bubbles, South Sea, Law\'s. \nThrough French war : government issued 5,000,000?. \n\nexchequer bills 1703 \n\nThrough Irish rebellion, &c. (3 per cents, at 44I) . 1797 \nThrough bubble companies, 770 banks stopped " \n\nwinter, 1825-6 \n\nThrough railway mania Oct. 1S47 \n\nThrough American failures . . . Nov. 1857 \nThrough fear of European war . . . April, 1859 \nThrough over-speculation in limited liability com- \npanies May, 1866 \n\nThrough Franco-Prussian war . . to July, 1870 \nThrough Russian attack on Afghans at Penjdeh \n(temporary) . ... . . . 9 April, 1S85 \n\nWar panics at Paris and London . 3-4 Feb. 1887 \n\nSee London, 24 Nov. 1890. \n\nPANNONIA, part of Illyria, now Hungary, \n"Was finally subdued by Tiberius, a.d. 7-9. \n\nPANOPTICON of So -Ence and Art, in \n\nLeicester- square, erected in 1852-3 lor a chartered \n\n\n\ncompany, by Mr. T. II. Lewis, the architect; was. \nopened in 1854 for lectures, musical performances, \n&c. It had a very large electrical machine, battery,, \n&c. The speculation did not succeed; the building \nwas sold in 1857, and in March, 1858, was opened for \nconcerts and horsemanship, and called the Alhambra \n(which see). \n\nJeremy Behtham\'s book "Panopticon, or the Inspection \nHouse," an establishment in which persons may be \nkex>t under inspection, published 1791 ; see Milbarik. \n\nPANOEAMAS, invented by Robert Barker, \nare bird\'s eye views painted round the wall of a \ncircular building. In 1788 he exhibited at Edin- \nburgh a view of that city, the first picture of the \nkind. He then commenced similar exhibitions in \nLondon in 1789, having adopted the name " Pano- \nrama," and was ultimately enabled to build com- \nmodious premises in Leicester-square for that \npurpose. Panoramas were exhibited on the conti- \nnent by himself and his associate, liobt. Fulton. \nM. Thuyer, having bought the invention from \nFulton, exhibited panoramas in Paris about 1796. \nSee Colosseum. (Barker died in April, 1806.) J. P. \nLoutherbourg, a painter, termed the panoramist,. \ninvented the "Eidophusikon," natural phenomena, \nrepresented by moving pictures, exhibited at Lisle- \nstreet, Leicester-square, 3 April, 1781. "This was. \ncertainly not a panorama." P/r. Rimbault. \n\nPANOEMUS, see Palermo. \n\nPANTAGEAPH (from the Greek panta, all \nthings, and graphein, to write, and incorrectly \ntermed Pentagraph), an instrument for copying,, \nreducing, or enlarging plans, &c, invented by \nChristopher Scheiner, about 1603 ; improved by pro- \nfessor Wallace, and called " Eidograph," about 1821. \n\nPANTALEON, a musical instrument (a drum \nwith tuned strings), invented by Pantaleon Heben- \nstreit, about 1735. \n\nPANTECHNICON, a range of buildings, Mot- \ncombe-strcet, Knightsbridge, London, W., erected \nby Seth Smith, as a receptacle for paintings, \njewellery, furniture, carriages, &c., 1830; was \ndestroyed by fire 13 \xe2\x80\x94 14 Feb. 1874, when much \nproperty was lost : re-built, 1874. \n\nPANTHAYS, Mahometans in the Chinese \nprovince, Yunan, became independent under a \nsultan, during the Tae-ping revolt, 1851-64. After \nits suppression, the Panthays, after a severe \nstruggle, were also subdued. Their capital, Talifoo, \nwas captured, and its inhabitants cruelly massacred \nin Feb. 1873. r ^ ne Panthays sent an embassy to* \nEngland in 1872, without effect. Sultan Suleiman \ncommitted suicide. \n\nPANTHEISM, the formula of which is \n"everything is God, and God is one," was espe- \ncially taught by Xenophanes, who died 500 B.C. \nThe doctrine is attributed to Spinoza, Kant, Fichtc, \nand other modern philosophers. Amalric of Chartres, \ncensured for holding the doctrine, recanted 13th \ncentury. He is said to have asserted that " all is- \nGod, and God is all." \n\nPANTHEON, at Pome, a circular temple \nbuilt by Agrippa, the son-in-law of Augustus, \n27 B.C. " It had niches in the wall, where the image \nor representation of a particular god was set up; the \ngates brass, the beams covered with gilt brass, and \nthe roof covered with silver. Pope Boniface III. \ndedicated it to the Virgin Mary and all the saints, \nby the name of S. Maria della Rotunda, or "ad \nMartyres," a.d. 608.* \xe2\x80\x94 The Pantheon in London \n\n>: Victor Emmanuel, first king of united Italy was \nburied here, 17 Jan. 1878. \n\n\n\nPANTOGEN. \n\n\n\n"17 \n\n\n\nPAPIEE MACHE. \n\n\n\ntvas erected by subscription, and opened 27 Jan. \n\n1772; formed into an opera house ; burned down \n\n14 Jan. 1792 ; rebuilt for masquerades in 1795 ; \n\nopened as theatre, 1812; made a bazaar in 1834. \n\nThe bazaar was closed in 1867, and the premises \n\ntaken by Gilbey and Co., wine merchants, who lent \n\nthe south part for a temporary church. \n\nPantheon, Paris, a magnificent building founded by \nLouis XV. in pursuance of a vow, dedicated to Ste. \nGenevieve; built by Soufflot, 1757-90; named Pan- \ntheon, and decreed tu be a mausoleum for eminent \nmen, 1791 ; made a church, 1806 ; named Ste. Gene- \nvieve, 1821 ; re-named Pantheon, 1S31 ; again a church, \nNov. 1852; again secularised, 27 May, 1S85 ; received \nthe remains of Victor Hugo, 1 June, 1885. \n\nPANTOGEN, see Atomic Theory. \n\nPANTOMIMES were representations by ges- \ntures and attitudes among the Greeks, and were \nintroduced 011 the Roman stage by Pylades and \nJJathyllus, 22 B.C. Comic masques were introduced \nhere from Italy about 1700. The first regular \nEnglish pantomime is said to have been "Harle- \nquin executed," produced by John Rich at the Lin- \n\xc2\xaboln\'s-inn -fields theatre, 26 Dec. 1 717. Joseph \nGrimaldi (1779- 1837) was a most eminent clow 11. \n\n"PAPAL AGGRESSION." In a consistory \nholden in Rome, 30 Sept. 1850, the pope (Pius IX.) \nnamed fourteen new cardinals, of whom four only \nwere Italians. Among them was Dr. Nicholas Wise- \nman, vicar-apostolic of the London district, who \nwas at the same time nominated lord archbishop of \n"Westminster. \nDr. Ullathorne enthroned as Roman Catholic bishop \n\nof Birmingham in St. Chad\'s cathedral 27 Oct. 1850 \nA pastoral letter from Dr. Wiseman read in all the \nRoman catholic chapels of his see (all England \nparcelled out into Romish dioceses) . . 27 Oct. ,, \nThe answer of the bishop of London (Dr. Blomfield) \nto a memorial from the protestant clergy of West- \nminster, against a Romish hierarchy in this \ncountry, was followed by the "Durham" letter \nfrom lord John Russell, then chief minister of the \ncrown, to the bishop of Durham, in which he \nseverely censured, not only the papal aggression, \nhut also the proceedings of the tractarian clergy \nof the Church of England ... 4 Nov. ,, \nImmediately from every quarter of England ad- \ndresses poured in to her majesty the queen, calling \nupon her and the government to resist the usurpa- \ntion ; 6700 addresses, it is said, had been voted \nfrom nearly as many influential meetings up to \n\n31 Dec. ,, \nDr. Eriggs, created Roman catholic bishop of Bever- \nley, was enthroned in St. George\'s chapel at York, \n\n13 Feb. 1851 \nDr. Browne, created bishop of Clifton, and Dr. \nBurgess, bishop of Shrewsbury : both consecrated \nin St. George\'s cathedral, Southwark 27 July, ., \nThe Ecclesiastical Titles act, 14 <fc 15 Viet. c. Co, \nprohibited the constitution of bishops of pre- \ntended provinces under a penalty of 100?. Aug. ., \nTt was not acted upon, and was repealed 24 July, 1871 \n\nPAPAL INFALLIBILITY. This dogma, \n\nmaintained by one party iu the Roman church,- \ntolerated by another, and utterly rejected by a \nthird, was adopted and promulgated at the general \ncouncil at homo 18 July, 1870, a great many bishops \nhaving withdrawn. The dogma was inculcated by \nthe i\'alse decretals of Isidore and others, but not \nadopted by the council of Trent ; seo Councils XXI. \nProfessor Dollinger, the historian, was excommuni- \ncated at Munich for rejecting this dogma, iS April, \n1S71 : ha was made a D.U.L. at Oxford about \n16 June following; see Old Catholic*. The doc- \ntrine was strenuously attacked by Mr. W. E. 1 ilad- \netone, in his pamphlet, "The Vatican Decrees," \n2\\ T ov. 1874. \n\nPAPAL STATES, see Some, and Fopes. \n\n\n\nPAPER, see Papyrus. Paper was probably \nmade in Egypt, and centuries before the Christ i:iii \nera. It was made of cotton about 600 a. d. ; and or \nrags about 1300.* "White coarse paper was made \nby sir John Speilman, a German, at Dartford, in \nEngland, 33 Eliz. 1580; and here paper mills \nwere ereeied. Stoic. Paper for writing and print- \ning manufactured in England, and an act passed \nto encourage it, 2 Will. III. 1690 ; betore this \ntime we paid for these articles to France and \nHolland 100,000/. annually. The French refugees \ntaught our people ; we had made course brown \npaper almost exclusively, until they came among \nus; wc made white paper first in 1690. Anderson. \nPaper-making by a machine was suggested by \nLouis Robert, who sold his model to Didot, the \ngreat printer, who brought it to England, and, con- \njointly with Fourdrinier, perfected the machinery. \nThe latter obtained a patent for paper-making ma- \nchinery in 1801 ; and for manufacturing paper of \nan indefinite length in 1807. The machinery was \nimproved by Bryan Donkin. A sheet of paper, \n13,800 feet long, and 4 feet wide, was made at \nWhitehall-mills, Derbyshire, in 1830; and one \n21,000 feet long, and 6 feet 3 inches wide, was \nmade at Colyton in Devon in i860. Esparto, a \nSpanish grass, first imported in 1857, nas been \nlargely employed in the paper manufacture s-inec \n1864. In 1866 wood was largely manufactured into \npaper at Philadelphia; and at the Paris exhibition, \n1867, fine specimens cf wood-paper were shown ; see \nParchment (note). The paper duty, imposed in \n169A (producing, latterly, about 1,460,000/. annu- \nally), after having been the subject of agitation for \nseveral years, was repealed in\'1861. Hop-stalks \nsaid to be used for paper-making in France, 1873. \nPaper-mills in Great Britain, 1877, about 385 (England. \n\n300 ; Scotland, 65 ; Ireland, 20) ; annual produce about \n\n360,000 tons ; value, 16,090,000/. Great increase since \n\nthat time. \nPaper-exhibition at Berlin, Aug. 1878 : contained not \n\nonly great varieties of paper, but a paper house, tables, \n\nchairs, carpets, barrels, boats, &c. \nPaper pianoforte exhibited, soft tone, July, 1885. \nBottles largely made of paper in America, 1887. \n\nPAPER-HANGINGS, &c. Stamped paper \nfor this purpose was first made in Spam and Hol- \nland about 1555. Made of velvet and floss, for \nhanging apartments, about 1620. The manufacture \nof this kind of paper rapidly improved in this \ncountry during the present century. \xe2\x80\x94 Paper \nBricks have been made in America ; and paper \ntubing for water and gas, made by M. Jaloureau of \nParis, was shown in i860. \n\nPAPER-MONEY, see .Banana Greenbacks. \n\nPAPIER MACHE. This manufacture (of \npaper-pulp combined with gum and sometimes with \nchina clay) has existed for above a century. Martin, \na German snuff-box maker, is said to have learnt \nthe art from one Eefevre about 1740. In 1745 it \nwas taken up by Baskerville, the printer at Bir- \nmingham, and soon spread over that district. \nPapier mache is now largely employed in orna- \nmenting the interior of buildings, &e. A large \n\n* Mr. Joseph Hunter (in the Archceologia, xxxvii.) \nstates that the earliest paper which ue had seen was a \nMS. account-book, dated 130-\', probably of Bordeaux \nmanufacture. He gives engravings of manufacturers\' \nmarks, French and English, the dales of which range \nfrom 1330 to 1431. He also gives an extract from a work \nby Bartholus, a writer of the middle of the 14th century, \nin which mention is made of a paper manufactory in the \nMarches of Ancona At the end of \\\\ ynkin de Wbrde\'s \nedition of Bartholomaus De Propri tatibns Rernnt, \n1494, its thin paper, made by John Tate in England, is \ncommended. \n\n\n\nPAPIN\'S DIGESTEE. \n\n\n\n718 \n\n\n\nPABDONS. \n\n\n\ndome at Brussels ordered to be made of it, Dec. \n1881. \n\nPAPIN\'S DIGESTEE (see Steam), invented \nabout 1 68 1. Denis Papin, a French philosopher, \nassisted Boyle in his experiments about 1678. \n\nPAPISTS, see Roman Catholics. \n\nPAPUA, see New Guinea. \n\nPAPYEUS, the reed from which was made \nthe paper of Egypt and India, used for writings \nuntil the discovery of parchment, about 190 B.C. \nThe earliest known specimens of papyri were found \nin the monuments attributed to the third dynasty, \n3966 B.C. Many papyri were discovered at Hercu- \nlaneuni in 1754 ; and many were collected by the \nFrench in Egypt, 1798. A manuscript of the \nAntiquities of Josephus on papyrus, among the \ntreasures seized by Bonaparte in Italy, and sent to \nthe National Library at Paris, was restored in 181 5. \nFae-similes of the largest known papyrus, found in 1855, \n\nbehind Modinet Habu on the Nile, and now in the \n\nBritish Museum, were published with translations by \n\nthe trustees in 1876. \n\n" PAEABLE, see Fable. \n\nPAEACHUTE, see Balloons, 1785, 1802, 1837, \n1874, 1887. \n\nPAEACLETE (Greek for comforter), a name \ngiven by Abelard to the convent which he founded \nin Champagne in 1122, of which Heloise became \nthe first abbess. \n\nPAEADISE LOST, the great English epic \nby John Milton, appeared first in ten books in 1667; \nin twelve books in 1674. \n\nPAEADOX (Greek, para, beyond ; and doxa, \nopinion), something contrary to common opinion. \nProfessor De Morgan\'s "Budget of Paradoxes" (of \nall kinds) was published in 1872. John Paget\'s \n" Paradoxes and Puzzles, Historical, Judicial, and \nLiterary," published 1874. \n\nPABAFFIN (fromparum affinis, fromitshaving \nlittle affinity with anything), also called photogen, \na solid substance, somewhat like spermaceti, pro- \nduced by distillation of coal, and first obtained by \nReichenbach in 1830, and by Dr. Christison about \nthe same time. It was procured from mineral oil by \nMr. James Young about 1848 at Alfreton in Derby- \nshire. Soon after it was largely obtained from Bog- \nhead coal. It is also obtained\' from Irish peat. It \nmakes excellent candles. Much litigation ensued \nthrough interference with Mr. Young\'s patent- \nright. \n\nPAEAGEAPH BIBLES, see under Bibles. \n\nPAEAGUAY, a republic in S. America, dis- \ncovered by Juan Diaz de Solis in 1515, and by \nSebastian Cabot in 1526; conquered by Alvarez \nNunez in 1535, and civilized by the Jesuits, who \nin 1608 commenced their missions there and held \nit till their expulsion in 1768. Paraguay rose \nagainst the Spanish yoke in 1811. In 1814, Dr. \nJose G. R. Francia was elected dictator ; he ruled \nvigorously but tyrannically ; he was succeeded on \nhis death in 1840 by Vibal. From 1814 to 1844 the \ncountry was rigidly closed against foreigners. The \npresident, C. A. Lopez, elected in 1844, was suc- \nceeded by his son, Francis S. Lopez, Sept. 1862 \n{see below). Paraguay was recognised as an inde- \npendent state by the Argentine Confederation, \n14 July, 1852, and by Great Britain in 1853. \nCapital, Asuncion. Population in 1857, 1,337,439; \nin 1873, 221,079; in 1888 (estimated) 270,000. \nHostilities between Paraguay and Brazil began when \n\na Brazilian steamer was captured as an intruder \n\non the Paraguay 11 Nov. 1864 \n\n\n\n1865 \n\n\n\n1871 \n1874 \n\n\n\n1877 \n\n\n\n1890 \n\n\n\nBrazil invaded in December \n\nLopez invaded the territories of the Argentine re- \npublic, which immediately made alliance with \nBrazil 14 April, \n\nThe army of Lopez defeated .... Sept. \n\nThe allies cax^tured Uruguyana and an army of Para- \nguayans .... . . 18 Sept. \n\n[For details of the war, see Brazil, 1865-9.] \n\nA provisional government installed ; Lopez totally \ndefeated, proclaimed an outlaw . 17 Aug. \n\nLopez killed near the Aquidaban . . 1 March, \n\nPeace signed with Brazil and the Argentine republic, \n\n20 June, \n\nPresident Salvador Jovellanos elected for three \nyears 12 Dec. \n\nPresident Juan Bautista Gill . . 25 Nov. \n\nThe president and his brother assassinated ; an- \nnounced April ; Higinio Uriarte, president \n\n12 April, \n\nPresident Candido Bareiro (for 4 years) . 25 Nov. \n\nPresident gen. B. Caballero . . .25 Nov. \n\nPresident gen. Escobar .... 25 Sept. \n\nPresident J. Gonzalez 1 Oct. \n\nBevived prosperity of the country reported . Oct. \n\nBevolutionary attempt by major Vera and others \nsuppressed with bloodshed, reported . 24 Oct. 1891 \n\nPAEALLEL MOTION, see Motion. \n\nPAEASOLS were used by the ancient Egyp- \ntians. A new form (said to have been devised by the \nduchess of Rutland) came into general use about 1820. \n\nPAEC AUX CEEFS, a deer-park at Ver- \nsailles, near Paris, made by Louis XII., and kept \nas such till 1694, when Louis XIV. took the land \nfor building. The name was given to a house \nerected on it by madame Pompadour, popularly said \nto form a seraglio for Louis XV. in 1755. It was \nclosed by madame Du Barry in 1771. \n\nPAECEL POST (advised by Rowland Hill in \n1842). Proposed in Parliament by Mr. H. Fawcett \n27 March ; act passed, 18 Aug. 1882 ; came into \noperation 1 Aug. 1883. Rates, from lib. 3d. to \n71b. is. \n\nMaximum weight raised to 11 lbs. from 1 May, 1886. \nParcel Post extended to India, British Burmah, Aden, \n\nGibraltar, and Egypt 1 July, 1885, and other countries \n\nsince. \nColdbath fields prison was converted into offices for the \n\nParcel Post, 1887. \n\nPAECHMENT. Invented for writing books \nby Eumenes (some say by Attalus), of Pergamus, the \nfounder of the celebrated library at Pergamus, \nformed on the model of the Alexandrian, about \n190 B.C. Parchment-books from this time became \nthose most used, and the most valuable as well as- \noldest in the world are written on the skins of \ngoats. It should be mentioned that the Persians \nand others are said to have written all their records \non skins long before Eumenes\' time. \nParchment paper (or vegetable parchment) was invented \nand patented in 1857, by Mr. W. E. Gaine, C.E., who \ndiscovered, that when paper is exposed to a mixture of \ntwo parts of concentrated sulphuric acid and one part \nof water for no longer time than is required to draw it \nthrough the fluid, it is immediately converted into a \nstrong tough skin-like material. It must be instantly \nwashed with water. -Its great strength points out \nmany applications of this material, e.g., maps, schooL \nand account-books, and drawing-paper. In 1859 it ap- \npeared that a similar invention had been made in Paris \nby Figuier and Poumarede in 1846. \n\nPABDONS. General pardons were proclaimed \nat coronations : first by Edward III. in 1327. The \nking\'s power of pardoning is said to be derived a \nlege sues dignitatis ; and no other person has power \nto remit treason or felonies, stat. 27 Hen. VIII. \n1535. BlacJcstone. A pardon cannot follow an \nimpeachment of the house of commons : stat. \nWill. III. 1700. \n\n\n\nPAEGA. \n\n\n\n719 \n\n\n\nPAEIS. \n\n\n\nPAEGA, a city in European Turkey : retained \nits civic independence under the protection of \nVenice till 1797, when that state was conquered by \nthe French. It resisted various attempts to cap- \nture it ; and in 1806 was garrisoned by Russians. \nIt was given up to the French in 1807; taken by \nthe English, 22 March, 1814; surrendered to the \nTurks, 181 7 ; and abandoned by above 3000 of its in- \nhabitants, who retired to the Ionian Isles, May,i8ic). \n\nPAEIAN MAEBLES, see Arunclclian \nMarbles. \n\nPAEIS (formerly Lutetia Parisiorum), the \ncapital of France, situated on the river Seine, which \ncuts it into two unequal parts, the strongest being \ntowards the north, and in which are three isles, \nla ville (the city), the lie St. Louis, and the tie \nLouviers. In the time of Julius Csesar, Lutetia \ncomprised the city only. It was greatly improved \nby the emperor Julian, who made it his residence \nwhile he governed Gaul, 355 to 361. It became \nsuccessively the capital of the kingdoms of Paris, \nSoissons, and Neustria, and eventually of all the \nkingdom. Many ecclesiastical councils were held \nat Paris, 360-1528. The representative of the house \nof Orleans is styled count of Paris. Population of \nParis in 1856, 1,178,262; in 1872, estimated popula- \ntion, 1,851,792; in 1876, 1,988,806; in 1881, \n2,269,023; in 1891, 2,423,946; see France. \n\nClovis makes Paris his residence . . about 508 \n\nSt. Denis founded 613 \n\nHotel Dieu hospital founded by bishop Landry \n\nabout 656 \nParis ravaged by the Normans (or Danes), 845, 855, \n\n861 : suffered from famine .... 845-940 \nGallantly defended against the Danes by the count \n\nEudes and the bishop Goslin 885 \n\nUniversity founded, about 1200 \n\nRebuilt 1231 \n\nChurch of Notre Dame built .... 1160-1270 \n\nThe parliament established 1302 \n\nSuffers by the factions of the Armagnaes and Bur- \n\ngundians 1411-1418 \n\nTaken by the English 1420 \n\nRetaken by the French 1436 \n\nPont Notre Dame built 1499 \n\nThe Louvre commenced (see Louvre) . . . 1522 \n\nHotel de Ville founded 1533 \n\nThe Boulevards commenced 1536 \n\nFountain of the Innocents erected . . . . 1551 \nThe Tuileries begun (see Twileries) .... 1564 \nMassacre of St. Bartholomew\'s . . 24 Aug. 1572 \n\nThe Pont Neuf begun 1578 \n\nVainly besieged by Henry IV 1589-90 \n\nEntered by him March, 1594 \n\nHospital of Invalids 1595 \n\nPlace Roy ale begun 1604 \n\nThe Hotel-Dieu founded 1606 \n\nJardin des Plantes formed 1610 \n\nThe Luxembourg, by Mary de Medicis . . . 1615 \n\nThe Palais-Royal built 1629 \n\nThe Val-de-Grace 1645 \n\nConflicts of the Fronde 1648-53 \n\nRoyal palace at Versailles built ; the court removed \' \n\nthere 1661-72 \n\nThe Academy of Sciences founded .... 1666 \n\nThe Observatory established 1667 \n\nChamps Elysees planted 1670 \n\nArch of St. Denis erected 1672 \n\nPalais d\'Elysee Bourbon built 1718 \n\nThe Palace of the Deputies 1722 \n\nThe Military School 1751 \n\nThe Pantheon (which see) St. Genevieve, founded . 1764 \nThe French revolution breaks out ; the Bastile taken, \n\n14 July, 1789 \n\nPont de Louis XIV. finished 1790 \n\nCemetery of Pere la Chaise consecrated . . . 1804 \nPont des Invalides, &c, erected .... 1806 \nParis surrenders to the allies . . 30 March, 1814 \n\nParis lit with gas 18^ \n\nRevolution (see France) .... July, 1830 \nColumn of July founded .... 28 July, 1831 \n\n\n\nFortifications of Paris (for which 140,000,000 of \nfrancs were voted, 1833) commenced 15 Dec. 1840; \ncompleted March, 1846 \n\nRevolution (see France) .... 22 Feb. 1848 \n\nParis much improved by Louis Napoleon (probable \ncost 12,800,000?.) 1853-62 \n\nIndustrial Exhibition opened by the emperor and \nempress, 15 May ; visited by queen Victoria and \nprince Albert (the first visit of an English sovereign \nto Paris since 1422), 24 Aug. ; exhibition closes, \n\n15 Nov. 1855 \n\nConference at Paris respecting the Danubian Prin- \ncipalities {which see) ; closes . . . Aug. 1858 \n\nBois de Boulogne opened as a garden of acclimatisa- \ntion . . 6 Oct. i860- \n\nRemains of Napoleon I. deposited in the Invalides, \n\n31 March, 1861 \n\nA building was erected for a permanent industrial \nexhibition by a company .... Oct. 1862 \n\nThe scheme failed Feb. 1864- \n\nBoulevard-prince-Eugene opened by the emperor, \n\n7 Dec. 1863 \n\nDecree for an international exhibition of the pro- \nducts of agriculture, industry, and the fine arts, \nat Paris, in 1867 ; commissioners appointed, \n\n2T Feb. i86.f \n\nCab strike, 4 days 1865. \n\nFine arts exhibition opened . . . 1 May, 1866\' \n\nThe cathedral of Notre Dame and other buildings \nrestored ,, \n\nInternational Exhibition on the Champ de Mars \n(with a new park, comprising more than 100 \nacres) ; the oblong building designed by Leplay \n(enclosing 35 acres), 1245 feet wide, 1500 feet long, \nconsisting of circles within circles ; the external \ncorridor was a belt of iron, 85 feet high and 115 \nfeet wide ; opened by the emperor and empress, \n\n1 April, \n\nIt was visited by the prince of Wales, the kings of \nGreece, Belgium, Prussia, and Sweden, the czar \nof Russia, the viceroy of Egypt, the sultan of \nTurkey, the emperor of Austria, and other inferior \npotentates May-Nov. \n\nAttempted assassination of the czar by Berezowski, \na Pole 6 June, \n\nThe czar and the king of Prussia entertained by \nM. Haussmann, prefect of Paris (cost 36,000?.), \n\n8 June, \n\nDeparture of the czar, 11 June ; of the king of \nPrussia 14 June, \n\nDistribution of prizes to exhibitors by the emperor \nin the presence of the prince of Wales, the sultan, \n<fec. 1 July, \n\nBerezowski condemned to transportation for life, \n\n15 July, \n\nVisit of the emperor of Austria . 23 Oct. -2 Nov. \n\nGrand banquet to commissioners of international \nexhibition 26 Oct. ,,. \n\nExhibition finally closed (instead of on 31 Oct.), \nSunday, 3 Nov., gross receipts, 9,830,369 francs. \n\nAbbe Migne\'s great printing-office burnt, loss about \n360,000?- ...... 12 Feb. \n\nM. Haussmann, the prefect of the Seine, reported \nthe budget of the city to exceed 9,200,000?. He \nresigned Jan. 1870- \n\nFor the sieges and other recent events, see France \nand Franco-German War 1870-1 \n\nVersailles becomes the seat of government, March, 1871 \n\nGrand Opera-house burnt . . 28-29 Oct. 1S73. \n\nGreat explosion with loss of life at Poirier\'s chemi- \ncal works, near Paris . . . . 19 Nov. 1S74 \n\nGrand new opera-house ; decreed i860 ; designed \nby Gamier ; opened in state ... 5 Jan. 1S75 \n\nMunicipal officers visit Loudon, to inspect rail- \nways, &c 30 April, 1877 \n\nNew Hotel Dieu finished .... Aug. ,, \n\nInternational Exhibition : site, two unequal \nparts divided by the Seine. The main building in \nthe Champ de Mars covers 263,593 square yards : \n(765 by 360 yards;) the Trocadero (which sec) \npalace is a stone structure, with a rotunda sup- \nported by columns, crowned by a dome, Banked \nby two lofty towers, the exterior gallery orna- \nmented with statues. \n\nThe exhibition was opened by the president, mar- \nshal MacMahon (" in the name of the republic") \nin presence of the prince of Wales, the due \nd\'Aosta, and other distinguished persons, 1 May, 187S \n\n\n\nPARIS. \n\n\n\n720 \n\n\n\nPARKS. \n\n\n\n2",955 persons visited exhibition (a fete day) \n\nIS Aug. 1878 \ntGrand distribution of medals by marshal Mac- \nMahon, with speech . . . .21 Oct. ,, \n\nClosed Sunday 10 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTotal admissions, 16,032,725 ; daily average, 82,000 ; \n\ngross receipts, 12,653,746 francs. \nInternational exhibition of applied science opened, \n\n24 July, 1879 \nThe senate and assembly meet again at Paris, 27 Nov. . , \nElectrical exhibition and congress (see under Elic- \n\niricity) Aug.-Oct. 1881 \n\nStatue of Alexandre Dumas, sen. by G. Dore ^un- \ncovered 4 Nov. 1883 \n\nInternational exhibition of manufactures and pro- \ncesses 23 July\xe2\x80\x94 23 Nov. 1885 \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Grand funeral of Victor Hugo . . 1 June, ., \nInternational Workmen\'s Exhibition and Congress \n\nopened 2 June, 1886 \n\nOpera Comique destroyed by fire ; panic ; about 131 \nlives lost 25-26 May ; M. Carvalho, the director, \nsentenced to three months\' imprisonment and a \nfine of above 2,oooZ. ; and the fireman Andre to \none month\'s imprisonment . . 15 Dec. 1S87 \nDeath of Mad. Boucicault, a great benefactress of \n\nthe city, see Bon Marehe .... Dec. ,, \nStrike of navvies, about 22 July . ends 16 Aug. 1888 \nSocialistic strikes of waiters and hairdressers Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nUniversal Exhibition of Arts, Manufactures, &o. \n(proposed in 1884), opened by president Carnot \n(about 209,000 persons admitted), 6 May ; \nofficially closed, 6 Nov. 1889. The greatest of \nall the exhibitions hitherto held. The buildings \nwere of colossal proportions, and with the charm- \nin<* gardens, occupied nearly the whole of the \nChamps de Mars. The chief galleries were sur- \nmounted by domes with, a central one. Archi- \ntect, M. Dutert ; engineer, M. Contamin, decora- \ntions in excellent taste. The gigantic Eiffel Tower, \n985 feet high, was constructed chiefly of iron by \nM. Eiffel and a company, it is said after the \ndesign of a young engineer Nonguier. The build- \ning was inaugurated by M. Tirard, the premier, 31 \nMarch. The electric lighting by Messrs. Davey, \nPaxman and Co., the Societe Gramme of Paris, \n\nverv good l8S S \n\nA grand nocturnal fete arranged by M. Alphand, \n\nmanager * June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\'Total paying visitors about 22,277,000, 2,723,000 \n\ngratuitous ; 402,065 admitted . . 13 Oct. ., \n\nReceipts, 41,000,000 francs (i8,oco,ooo francs from \nthe state ; 7,000,000 francs from the city) ; ex- \npenses 41,000,000 francs; surplus, 4,000,000 francs \n\n14 Nov. ,, \nAmong the distinguished visitors were the prince \nand princess of Wales (9-15 June), the shah of \nPersia, the king of Greece, the duke of Braganza \n(since king of Portugal), the dukes of Cambridge \nand Edinburgh, prince Ferdinand of Bulgaria, \nthe two sons of the khedive, and Milan, ex-king \nof Servia. \nAwards of medals by international jurors ; to \n\nBritish exhibitors, 910, out of 1,017. \nThe French honours granted to British subjects \nwere distributed by M. Waddington, the French \nambassador, at the Mansion-house, London \n\n25 Jan. 3890 \nMany international congresses on social, moral, \nscientific, literary, and artistic subjects met at \nParis during the exhibition. \n\nThe new commercial exchange was opened by \nM. Tirard, the premier . . . 24 Sept. 1SS9 \n\nDeath of sir Richard Wallace, benefactor to Paris, \nson of the marquis of Hertford . . 20 July, 1890 \n\nBaron Haussmann, who, supported by Napoleon III. \nand aided by M. Alphand, rebuilt Paris (1853, ct \nsect.), dies, 11 Jan. 1891. Death of M. Alphand \n\' 7 Dec. 1891 \n\nThe telephone system between London and Paris \ninaugurated (see Telephone) . . 18 March, ,, \n\nIMPORTANT TREATIES OF PARIS. \n\nBetween England, France, Spain, and Portugal ; \ncession of Canada to Great Britain by France, \nand Florida by Spain .... 10 Feb. 1763 \n\nBetween France and Sardinia; the latter ceding \nSavoy, &c 15 May, 1796 \n\n\n\nBetween France and Sweden, whereby Swedish \nPomerania and the island of Rugen were given up \nto the Swedes, who agreed to adopt the French \nprohibitory system against Great Britain 6 Jan. 1810 \n\nCapitulation of Paris : Napoleon renounces the \nsovereignty of France .... 11 April, 1814 \n\nConvention of Paris, between France and the allied \npowers ; the boundaries of France to be the same \nas on the 1st of January, 1792 . . 23 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPeace of Paris ratified by France and all the allies, \n\n14 May, ,, \n\nConvention of St. Cloud, between marshal Davoust, \nand Wellington, and Blucher, for the surrender of \n\nParis 3 July, 1815 \n\n[The allies entered it on the 6th.] \n\nTreaty of Paris, between Great Britain, Austria, \nRussia, and Prussia, styling Napoleon the prisoner \nof those powers, and confiding his safeguard to \nEngland 2 Aug. ,, \n\nEstablishing the boundaries of France, and stipu- \nlating for the occupation of certain fortresses by \nforeign troops for three years . . 20 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTreaty of Paris, confirming the treaties of Chaumont \nand Vienna, same day . . . .20 Nov. ,, \n\nTreaty of Paris, to fulfil the articles of the Congress \nof Vienna 10 June, 1817 \n\nTreaty of Paris between Russia and Turkey, Eng- \nlaud, France, and Sardinia (revised 13 March, \n1871 ; see Russia) .... 30 March, 1856 \n\nDeclaration of Paris, signed by European powers, \nnot by United States, March, 1856 : 1. Privateer- \ning abolished. 2. Neutral flags to exempt an \nenemy\'s goods from capture, except contraband \nof war. 3. Neutral goods under an enemy\'s flag- \nnot to be seized. 4. Blockade to be binding must \nbe effective. This declaration was censured in \nparliament in 1871. \n\nTreaty of Paris between England and Persia. \n\n4 March, 1857- \n\nTreaty of Paris between the European powers, \nPrussia, and Switzerland, respecting Neufchatel, \n\n26 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nImportant commercial treaty between France and \nEngland 23 Jan. 1S60 \n\nConvention between France and Italy for with- \ndrawal of French troops from Rome . 15 Sept. 1864 \n\nPARISHES. Their boundaries in England \nare said to have been fixed by Honorius, archbishop \nof Canterbury, 636, or by Alfred about 890. They \nwere enlarged, and the number of parishes was \nconsequently reduced in the 15th century, when \nthere were 10,000. Parish registers were com- \nmenced in 1538. Acts were passed in 1844 an( * \n1856 by which new parishes may be formed out of \ntoo extensive ones; acts amended in 1869. The \nappointment of parish constables was made un- \nnecessary by an act passed Aug. 1872. See Regis- \nters, and Benefices. \n\nPARISIENNE, LA, popular song byCasimir \nDelavigne, celebrating the defeat of the troops rt \nCharles X. by the Parisians, 1 Aug. 1830; the \nmusic (an old air) was arranged by Auber. \n\nPARKES MUSEUM, see Sanitation. \n\nPARKESINE. A new substance, composed \nof gun-cotton, obtained from various vegetable \nbodies, and oil. It can be. formed with the pro- \nperties of ivory, tortoiseshell, wood, india-rubber, \ngutta-percha, &c. It is the invention of Mr. Alex- \nander Parlces, of Birmingham, and was shown by \nhim at the Exhibition in 1862. In Dec. 1865, at \nthe Society of Arts, parkesine was proved to be an \nexcellent electric insulator, and therefore likely to \nbe suitable for telegraphic purposes. \n\nPARK LANE MURDER, sec Trials, 1872. \n\nPARKS. The Romans attached parks to their \nvillas. Kulvius Lupinus, Pompey, and Hortcnsius, \namong others, had large parks. In England, the \nfirst great park of which particular mention is made \nwas that of Woodstock, formed by Henry I., 1125. \n\n\n\nPAEK\'S TEAVELS. \n\n\n\n721 \n\n\n\nPAELIAMENT. \n\n\n\nQueen Caroline, consort of George II., inquired, it \nis said, of the first Mr. Pitt (afterwards earl of \nChatham), how much it would cost to shut up the \nparks as private grounds. He replied, "Three \ncrowns, your majesty." The design was never \nafterwards entertained. See Mnsbury, Southwark, \nGreen, Hyde, James\'s, St., Regent\'s, Victoria, \nAlexandra, Battersea, West Sam, and People\'s \nParks, Clissold, Waterlow, and Yellowstone Park, \nU.S., and London Parks Act. \n\nThe Parks Preservation Society, established by Mr. \nF. G. Heath and others 1871 \n\nThe Parks\' Regulation act, passed . 27 June, 1872 \n\nBy new regulations, Hyde, Battersea, Regent\'s, and \nVictoria parks are the only metropolitan parks in \nwhich public addresses may be given, under \ncertain restrictions Oct. ,, \n\nThese regulations (much objected to ; broken, and \noffenders fined) were modified by the home secre- \ntary Feb. 1873 \n\nActs for the establishment of public parks in Eng- \nland and Ireland were passed, 12 July, 1869; for \nScotland 18 March, 1878 \n\nParks railway bill (Hyde Park, &c.) rejected by \ncommons committee . . . .20 May, 1884 \n\nBy the London Parks and Works Act, the charge \nof Battersea park, Bethnal Green museum and \ngarden, Chelsea embankment and Victoria park \nwere transferred to the Metropolitan Board of \nWorks 1887 \n\nClissold park, Stoke Newington, purchased for the \npublic (price 96,045?.), 10 Jan. 1889. \n\nPAEK\'S TEAVELS. Mungo Park set sail \non his first voyage to Africa, under the patronage of \nthe African society, to trace the source of the river \nNiger, 22 May, 1795 ; and returned 22 Dec. 1797, \nafter having fruitlessly encountered great danger. \nHe again sailed from Portsmouth on his second \nvoyage, 30 Jan. 1805, appointed to a new expedition \nby government. It is stated that his party fired \n\xe2\x96\xa0011 tlie natives when resisted, and that he was killed \nat Broussa on the Niger, Nov. 1805. His "Travels \nin Africa" were published in 1799. \n\nPAELIAMENT (from the French parlement, \ndiscourse) derives its origin from the Saxon general \nassemblies, called Wittenagemot. The name was \napplied to the assemblies of the state under Louis VII. \nof France, about the middle of the 12th century, \nbut it is said not to have appeared in our law till its \nmention in the statute of Westminster I., 3 Edw. I., \n1272 : and yet Coke declared in his Institutes, and \n6poke to the same effect, when speaker (1592), that \ntliis name was used even in the time of Edward the \nConfessor, 1041. The first clear account we have of \nthe representatives of the people forming a house of \ncommons, was in the 43rd Hen. III. 1258, when it \nwas settled by the statutes of Oxford, that twelve \npersons should be chosen to represent the commons \nin the three parliaments, which, by the sixth statute, \nwere to be held yearly. Burton\'s Annals. The \ngeneral representation by knights, citizens, and \nburgesses, took place 49 Hen. III. 1265. Dug dale\' s \nSummons to Parliament, edit. 1685 ; see Commons \nand Lords. The power and jurisdiction of parlia- \nment are so transcendent and absolute, that it can- \nnot be confined, either for causes or persons, within \nany bounds. It hath sovereign and uucontrollable \nauthority in making and repealing laws. It can \nregulate or new-model the succession to the crown \n(as was done in the reigns of Henry VIII. and \nWilliam III.). It can alter and establish the re- \nligion of the country, as was done in the reigns of \nHenry VIII., Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth. \nSir Edward Coke* The ninth edition of May\'s \n\n* When the royal assent is given to a public bill, the \nclerk says " Le roi [or la rcine] le veut." If the bill be \n\n\n\nj\' Practical Treatise on Parliament " was published \nin 1883 ; see Triennial and Septennial. Return of \nthe names of members of parliament from the \nearliest period to the present time, ordered by the \nhouse of commons, 4 May, 1876, and 9 March, 1877. \nPart I. (12 13-1702), published 1879. See Reform \nand Local Parliaments. \n\nFirst summons of barons by writ directed to the \nbishop of Salisbury, by John .... 1205 \n\nParliament of Merton 1236 \n\nAn assembly (the mod parliament) . 11 June, 1258 \n\nSimon de Montford, earl of Leicester, summons a \n\nparliament, including knights of the shire . . 1264 \nFirst assembly of the commons as a confirmed repre- \nsentation. Dugdale 20 Jan. 1265 \n\nFirst regular parliament (according to many his- \ntorians), 22 Edw. 1 1294 \n\nFirst a deliberative assembly ; it becomes a legisla- \ntive power, whose assent is essential to constitute \n\na law 130S \n\nThe commons elect their first speaker, Peter De la \n\nMare 1377 \n\nParliament of only one day (Richard II. deposed) \n\n29 Sept. 1399 \n" Parliamentum Indoctum" at Coventry (lawyers ex- \ncluded) 6 Oct. 1404 \n\nMembers obliged to reside at the places they repre- \nsented 1413 \n\nForty-shilling freeholders only to elect knights . . 1430 \n" Parliamentum diabolicum" at Coventry : attainted \n\nthe Yorkists 1459 \n\nJournals of the lords commenced . . . . 1509 \nActs of Parliament printed in 1501, and consecutively \n\nfrom ,, \n\nMembers protected from arrest (see Ferrars) . . 1542 \nJournals of the commons begun .... 1547 \nFrancis Russell, son of the earl of Bedford, was the \nfirst peer\'s eldest son who sat in the house of \n\ncommons 1549 \n\nThe Addled Parliament; remonstrated with James I. \nrespecting benevolences ; dissolved by him in auger \n\n5 April, 1614 \nThe parliament in which were first formed the Court \nand Country parties, 1614, disputes with James I. \n\nJune, 1620 \nCharles I. dissolves parliament, which does not meet \n\nfor eleven years 1629 \n\nThe Long Parliament (which voted the house of lords \n\nas useless) first assembled ... 3 Nov. 1640 \nThe bishops excluded from voting on temporal mat- \nters ,, \n\nThe Rump Parliament ; it voted the trial of Charles I. \n\nJan. 1649 \nHouse of peers abolished .... 6 Feb. ,, \nA peer sat as a member of the commons . . . \xe2\x80\x9e \nCromwell roughly dissolves the Long Parliament \n\n20 April, 1653 \nA convention parliament (see Co nveniion) . . . 1660 \nRoman catholics excluded from parliament . . 1678 \nThe commons committed a secretary of state to the \n\nTower Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe speaker of the commons refused by the king . 1679 \nA convention parliament (see Convention) . . 1688 \nJames II. convenes the Irish parliament at Dublin, \n\nwhich attaints 3000 protestauts . . . . 16S9 \nAct for triennial parliament (see Triennial) . . 1694 \nFirst parliament of Great Britain met . \' 23 Oct. 1707 \nMembers of the house of commons accepting any \noffice of profit ordered to be re-elected by statute \n\n6 Anne, cap. 7 \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Triennial act repealed, and Septennial act voted \n\n(see Septennial Parliament) . . . 7 May, 1716 \nThe journals ordered to be printed .... 1752 \nPrivilege as to freedom from arrest of the servants \n\nof members relinquished by the commons . . 1770 \nThe lord mayor of London (Oliver) and alderman \nCrosby committed to the Tower by the commons \nin Wilkes\'s affair 1771 \n\na private bill, he says " Soit fait comme il eat desiri." If \nthe bill have subsidies for its object, he says, Le roi [or \nla reine] remercie scs loyaux sujets, accepte leur bin&volt nee, \net aussi le veut. " If the king do not think proper to assent \nto the bill, the clerk says, " Le roi [or la rcinc] s\'avisera," \nwhich is a mild way of giving a refusal. It is singular \nthat the French language should still be used. \n\n3 A \n\n\n\nPAKLIAMENT. \n\n\n\n722 \n\n\n\nPAELIAMENT. \n\n\n\nReporting the debates permitted (see under Report- \ning) about 1771 \n\nAssembly of the first parliament of the United King- \ndom of Great Britain and Ireland . 2 Feb. 1S01 \nClergymen prohibited from becoming M.P.s . . ,, \nSir F. Burdett committed to the Tower . 6 April, 1810 \nMurder of Spencer Perceval, by Bellingham, at the \n\nhouse of commons .... 11 May, 1S12 \nReturn for Clare county, Ireland, of Mr. O\'Connell, \nthe first Roman catholic commoner elected since \n\nthe Revolution 5 July, 1S28 \n\nThe duke of Norfolk took his seat in the lords, the \nfirst Roman catholic peer under the Relief bill (see \nRoman Catholics) .... 28 April, 1829 \nThe Reformed Parliament meet . . 7 Aug. 1832 \nJoseph Pease, the first Quaker admitted M.P. on his \n\naffirmation . . . . - . . 15 Feb. 1833 \nHouses of Parliament destroyed by fire . 16 Oct. 1834 \nNew houses of parliament commenced * . . . 1840 \nThe members of the commons\' and lords\' houses re- \nlinquish the privilege of franking letters (see \n\nFranking) - . 10 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCommittal of Smith O\'Brien by the commons for \n\ncontempt (see Ireland) ... 30 April, 1846 \nThe peers took possession of their house, that por- \ntion of the palace being ready . . 15 April, 1847 \nReporters excluded by motion of John O\'Connell for \n\ntwo hours 18 May, 1849 \n\nThe commons assemble in their new house 4 Nov. 1852 \nThe chairman of committees of the whole house ap- \npointed to act as a deputy-speaker of the house of \n\ncommons Aug. 1853 \n\nThe two houses began to communicate by letter . 1855 \nBaron L. Rothschild, the first Jew admitted 26 July, 1858 \nCourt of referees to examine private bills established 1865 \nHenry Fawcett (blind), elected M. P. . July, ,, \n\nThe parliamentary oaths modified and made uniform \n\n30 April, 1866 \nArthur M. Kavanagh (without arms and legs), elected \n\nNov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nHer Majesty authorised to proclaim prorogation of \nparliament during the recess, by act passed \n\n12 Aug. 1867 \nNew Reform bill received royal assent . 15 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nGreat dissatisfaction in the commons at the small- \nness of their building ; a committee\'s report (pro- \nposing changes or a new house) printed . Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nChanges in mode of dealing with private bills in \n\ncourt of referees March, 1868 \n\nVote by proxy in the house of lords abolished by \n\nstanding order 31 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nReform acts for Scotland and Ireland, and Parlia- \nmentary Boundaries act passed . . 13 July, ,, \nParliamentary Elections act passed . 31 July, , \n\nParliament dissolved n Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNew parliament met .... 10 Dec. ,, \nReporters excluded from the commons during de- \nbates on the Contagious Diseases act, \n\n24 May and 20 July, 1S70 \nThe commons sat from 2 p.m. 15 July, to 5.30 a.m., \n\n16 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nMeeting of parliament, in six days after proclama- \ntion, legalised by act passed ... 9 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nDeath of the earl of Onslow, father of the house of \n\nlords, aged 93 24 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMr. Fawcett alone in the lobby (350-1, on grant of \n30,000!. to princess Louise on her marriage), \n\n16 Feb. 1871 \nBankrupt peers disqualified from sitting or voting \n\nin parliament by act passed . . 13 July, ,, \nMr. Bonham Carter succeeds Mr. J. C. Dodson as \ndeputy speaker and chairman of committees, \n\n8 April, 1872 \n\n* Termed the " Palace of Westminster." The first con- \ntract for the embankment of the river was taken in 1837, \nby Messrs. Lee ; this embankment, faced with granite, is \n886 feet in length, and projected into the river in a line \nwith the inner side of the third pier of old Westminster- \nbridge. Sir Charles Barry (born 1795, died 1S60) was the \narchitect of the sumptuous pile of buildings raised since \n1840. The whole stands on a bed of concrete twelve feet \nthick ; to the east it has a front of about 1000 feet, and \ncovers an area of nine statute acres. It contains 1100 \napartments, 100 staircases, and two miles of passages or \ncorridors. The great Victoria tower at the south-west \nextremity is 346 feet in height, and towers of less magni- \ntude crown other portions of the building. \n\n\n\nMr. Biggar and others caused reporters and others \nto be excluded from the debates in the commons-; \nmuch discussion ensued ; Mr. Disraeli\'s resolu- \ntion that strangers are not to withdraw without \na vote of the house or order of the speaker, \nunanimously adopted ... 31 May, 1872: \n\nOnly 89,938!. paid to members (commons) for sala- \nries and pensions, civil, naval, and military July, ,, \n\nThe ballot act passed .... 18 July \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMr. Plimsoll, greatly excited, makes unparliamen- \ntary charges at the proposed withdrawal of the \nMerchant Shipping Bill, 22 July ; apologises ; \nmotion for reprimand withdrawn . 29 July, 1875 \n\nThe commons through Irish members (principally \nMessrs. Parnell, Biggar, O\'Donnell, Power, Gray, \nKirk, and Nolan) sat from 3.45 p.m. 2 July, to \n7.15 a.m. 3 July; from about 4 p.m. 31 July, to \n6.10 p.m 1 Aug. 1877 \n\nTemporary resolution to check obstructiveness (by \nabuse of the power of moving the adjournment of \nthe house) passed (282-32) . . 27 July, ,, \n\nMajor O\'Gorman, M.P. for Waterford, "named" by \nthe speaker for refusing to submit to his authority, \n6 Aug. ; apologises .... 7 Aug. 137& \n\nMuch obstruction by home-rule party, June, July ; \nMr. Parnell\'s virtual vote of censure of the \nspeaker (for directing notes to be taken, &c.) lost \n(29-421) 11, 12 July, 1875 \n\nBreach of privilege ; Mr. C. E. Grissell having stated \nthat he could influence the committee on the \n" Tower high level bridge," is examined by a \ncommittee ; he and Mr. John Sandilands Ward \nconvicted, 16 July ; Mr. Grissell went abroad ; \norder for his apprehension issued ; Mr. Ward ap- \npeared before the house ; taken into custody, 23 \nJuly ; released, 30 July ; Mr. Grissell surrenders ; \nsent to Newgate, 14 Aug. ; released . 15 Aug. ,, \n\nMotion for quinquennial parliaments negatived, \n(110-160) 24 Feb. 1880 \n\nSir Stafford Northcote\'s resolutions against obstruc- \ntion, 26 Feb. ; adopted in the standing orders \n(160-20) 28 Feb. ,, \n\nMr. Grissell arrested, and committed to Newgate, \n2, 3 March ; discharged . . .24 March, , r \n\nMr. Charles Bradlaugh, M.P. for Northampton (not \nbelieving in God) objects to take oath of alle- \ngiance ; his affirmation refused, 3 May ; his offer \nto take oath not permitted . . . 21 May, ,, \n\nA committee appointed ; recommends that he be \nallowed to affirm, 16 June ; much discussion en- \nsues ; resolution of Mr. Labouchere, M.P. for \nNorthampton, that Mr. Bradlaugh be permitted \nto affirm, negatived (275-230) . . 22 June, \xe2\x80\xa2\xe2\x80\x9e. \n\nMr. Bradlaugh\'s claim to take the oath, or affirm, \ndenied by the house ; he refuses to withdraw, and \nis taken into custody, and imprisoned in the clock \ntower (vote 326-38), 23 June ; released by vote, \n\n24 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nResolution moved by Mr. Gladstone that affirma- \ntion be accepted instead of an oath in certain \neases ; opposed by sir Stafford Northcote as re- \nscinding vote of 22 June ; resolution accepted \n(303-249) 1, 2 July ; Mr. Bradlaugh affirms, is ad- \nmitted, and votes 2 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSee Trials, 1S81. \n\nThe commons sat continuously 21 hours (devoted \nto Irish affairs) 26, 27 Aug. ,, \n\nDebate on Irish amendments to the address : \n\nMr. Parnell\'s lost (57-435) \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 6-14 Jan. 1881 \nMr. Justin McCarthy\'s (37-201) . 17-19 Jan. ,, \nMr. Dawson (36-274) . . . .20 Jan. ,, \nMr. O\'Kelly (34-178) .... 20 Jan. ,, \n\nHouse of Commons on Irish protection bill, sat \nfrom 4 p.m. 25 Jan. to 2 p.m. . . 26 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMr. Gladstone\'s motion for urgency carried (251- \n33) ...... ,, \n\nOn first reading of Mr. Forster\'s coercion bill ; de- \nbate summarily closed by Mr. H. Brand, the \nspeaker (termed coup d\'etat) 4 p.m. 31 Jan. to 9.30 \np.m. : \' 2 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThirty-six Irish members, Mr. Parnell, Mr. Justin \nMcCarthy, and others, suspended for the sitting \nfor disorderly conduct ; Mr. Gladstone\'s resolu- \ntions ; speaker invested with all the powers of the \nhouse to regulate business when voted urgent by \nthree-fourths of the members (at least 200) (234- \n15\xc2\xb0) 3 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nPAELIAMENT. \n\n\n\n723 \n\n\n\nPAELIAMENT. \n\n\n\nNew stringent rules to be enforced when business is \n\ndeclared urgent by a minister of the crown ; laid \n\non table by the speaker .... 9 Feb. \n\nSupplemental rules, 17 Feb. modified; acted on \n\n21 Feb. ; new rules announced 11, 12 March \n\nMr. Gladstone\'s resolution for "urgency," with the \n\nsupplies lost (212-296) . . . 14 March, \n\nMr. Bradlaugh re-elected for Northampton, 9 April, \n\nHis offer to take the oath opposed (208-175) ; he is \n\nforcibly removed, 26 April ; again ejected, 10 May, \n\nNew parliamentary oaths bill discharged 5 July, \n\nMr. Bradlaugh\'s attempt to enter the House of \n\nCommons, forcibly resisted by the police. Mr. \n\nLabouchere\'s motion to rescind the resolution of \n\n10 May, 18S1, negatived (191-7) . . 3 Aug. \n\nDifferences between the houses on the land bill \n\nsettled by mutual concessions . . 12-15 A-Ug. \n\nMr. Bradlaugh not permitted to sit ; government \n\nmotion negatived (2S6-228) . . .7 Feb. : \nNew rules of procedure including the cloture (the \npower of closing a debate) and delegation of \nbusiness, proposed by Mr. Gladstone . 13 Feb. \nProposal for writ for Northampton negatived \n(307-18) ; Mr. Bradlaugh repeats oath and takes \na seat ; withdraws when directed ; 21 Feb. ex- \npelled (291-83) ; new writ to be issued . 22 Feb. \nMichael Davitt, convict, elected M.P. forco. Meatli \n\n22 Feb. \n\nMr. Bradlaugh re-elected for Northampton 2 Mar. \n\nResolution of 7 Feb. re-affirmed (286-228) . 6 Mar. \n\nMr. Marriott\'s amendment on Mr. Gladstone\'s new \n\nrule negatived (31S-279) . . . 30-31 Mar. \n\nDiscussion on the cloture deferred . . 1 May, \n\nCommons ; sat 2 p.m. -8 p.m. 30 hours, committee \n\non prevention of crime bill; 25 Irish members \n\nsuspended for wilful obstruction 30 June and \n\n1 July, \nMr. O\'Donnell suspended for 14 days (181-33) 3 ^ u h\\ \nDifference between the two houses ; compromise \n\n(see Ireland) Aug. \n\nMr. Bradlaugh publishes a determined manifesto, \n\nTimes 23 Sept. \n\nParliament meets 24 Oct. ; discussion on procedure \n\nresumed 25 Oct \n\nMr. Gibbons\' amendment (the cloture to be carried \nby two-thirds instead of bare majority) negatived \n\n322-238 1-2 Nov. \n\nThe cloture adopted (304-260). . . 10-11 Nov. \nThe new rules made standing orders 27 Nov.-i Dec. \nAffirmation bill introduced in the commons (184-53) \n\n19-20 Feb. 1 \nMi-. O\'Kelly suspended for a week for giving Mr. \n\nForster the lie 22 Feb. \n\nGrand committee\'s first meeting, Mr. Goschen \n\nchairman 9 April, \n\nAffirmation bill rejected by the commons (292-2S9) \n\n3-4 May, \n\nMr. Bradlaugh not permitted to take the oath 4 May, \n\nHis exclusion voted (232-65) . . .9 July, \n\nArrested by Mr. Gosset, the sergeant-at-arms, for \n\nattempting to enter the house, 3 Aug. ; brings an \n\naction against the sergeant, 7 Dec. ; verdict for \n\ndefendant 9 Feb. 1 \n\nMr. Bradlaugh administers the oath to himself, sits, \n\nand votes ; excluded by vote (228-120)11 Feb. ; \n\nre-elected for Northampton (4,032-3664) 19 Feb. ; \n\nvote for his re-exclusion (226-173) \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x96\xa0 2I Feb. \n\nNew Reform bill introduced by Mr. Gladstone \n\n2S Feb. \n\nComraons : irregular debate on Egyptian policy ; \n\nsupplies ; sat from 12. 20 p.m. \'15 March, to 5.45 a.m. \n\n(Sunday) 16 March, \n\nQueen v. Bradlaugh for voting without taking the \n\noath, Queen\'s Bench .... 13 June, \n\nVerdict for the crown .... 30 June, \n\nConflict between the lords and commons, respecting \n\nthe Franchise bill, (see Reform) . . . . \n\nExplosion (dynamite) on the stair above the crypt \n\nin the house of commons ; much damage done ; \n\ntwo police constables, Wm. Cole and Thos. \n\nCox, and Mr. Green seriously hurt. [Cole \n\npicked up a blazing parcel, to carry it out ami \n\nsaved the building; he and Cox commended by \n\nthe queen, and rewarded for steady courage. Cole \n\nreceived the Albert medal, in Westminster Hall \n\n\n\n26 March.]* Westminster Hall much injured by \nanother explosion a few minute.; past 2 p.m. \n\n24 Jan. 1883 \n\nMr. Bradlaugh\'s appeal disallowed by the lords \njustices 28 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe new rules and the cloture first applied ; Mr. \nO\'Brien expelled 24 Feb. ,, \n\nMr. Bradlaugh not permitted to take the oath \n(263-219) 6 July, ., \n\nRetirement of Mr. Ralph A. Gosset ; knightedaft ;r \na long service and ten years sergeant-of-arais \n(died 27 Nov.) 30 Sept. ; succeeded by H. D. \nErskine ,, \n\nParliament dissolved 18 Nov. ,, \n\nNew parliament meets 12 Jan. ; opened by the \nqueen 21 Jan. 1800 \n\nMr. Bradlaugh takes the oath, intervention stoppe I \nby the speaker 13 Jan. ,, \n\nMr. Gladstone introduces his bill, "to make better \nprovision for the future government of Ireland ; " \nthe House crammed, occupied by members from \n6 a.m 8 April, ,, \n\nSir T. Erskine May (author of the " Practice of \nParliament," 1884, et scq.) assistant clerk to the \ncommons 1856 ; clerk 1871 ; retires 15 April \n(created lord Farnborough 10 May ; died 17 May) ; \nsucceeded by Reginald Palgrave . . 1 May, ,, \n\nDeath of lord Redesdale, chairman of committees \nsince 1851, 2 May ; succeeded by the duke of \nBuckingham (122 against 103 for lord Morley) \n\n10 May, ,, \n\nNew parliament meets (see England) . 5 Aug. ,, \n\nParliament prorogued . . . .25 Sept. ,, \n\nNew procedure rules with increased application of \nthe closure, &c, introduced 21 Feb. ; first and \nprincipal rule adopted (222-120) . 16 March, 1887 \n\nHouse of commons sat above 21 hours 21-22 March, ,, \n\nThe commons decide that an article in the Times of \nMay 2 on Mr. Dillon is not a breach of privilege \n(Mr. Dillon rejects the offer of a public prosecu- \ntion) 4, 5 May ; Mr. Gladstone\'s motion for a \ncommittee rejected (317-233) . . 6, 7 May, ,, \n\nMuch obstruction of the opposition to the \nCriminal Law (Amendment) Ireland Bill in the \ncommons ; many amendments 28 March, ct se-y. ,, \n\nMr. T. Healy suspended for 14 days . 29 July, . ,, \n\nMr. C. Graham and Mr. E. Harrington suspended \nfor speaking disrespectfully of the house of lords \n\n13 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNew rules of procedure introduced ; rule 1 (limiting \nthe sittings of the commons on ordinary days \nfrom 3 p.m. to 1 a.m.) passed 24 Feb. ; rule 2 \n(giving the power of closure to a majority in a \nhouse of 100), 3-8 (for repressing disorder and \nwaste of time) passed 28 Feb. ; 9-12 passed 29 Feb. ; \n13 (reviving grand committees, &c.) 7 March, i833 \n\nMr. C. A. V. Conybeare, M.P., suspended for a \nmonth (or to the end of the session) for libelling \nthe speaker in the Star newspaper . 21 July, ,, \n\nIllegal attempt by constable Jeremiah Sullivan to \narrest Mr. Sheehy, M.P., in the precincts of the \nHouse ; committee to consider breach of privilege \nappointed 26 Nov. ; breach affinned, but no \naction 7 Dec. ,, \n\nDr. Tanner suspended for insulting Mr. Balfour \n\n21 Dec. ,, \n\nThe house of lords meets to pass the Appropriation \nBill, n.20 p.m 22 Dec. ,, \n\nParliament meets, 21 Feb. ; prorogued . 30 Aug. iSVg \nParliament meets 11 Feb. 1890 \n\n\n\n* The chief Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police, \nsir E. Y. W. Henderson, issued an order stating that the \nPrime Minister directed the payment of 50?., each to Cole \nand Cox from the Royal Bounty Fund, and further, that \nthe Home Secretary has approved of the payment of \n120I. to Cole and 70L to Cox, while sir James Ingham \ngranted them the sum of 30?., each from the Bow-street \nHoward Fund. Both were granted a pension of 7SI. per \nannum each, April, 1886. Cole and Cox were each pre- \nsented with a money testimonial from the members of \nboth Houses (108?. 10s. each ; Cole received a gold watch \nand chain). They both left the hospital at the end of \nMarch, 1885. On 5 Oct. 1885, John Colebrook, Esq., \nretired surgeon of the Indian army, a member of the \nRoyal Institution of Great Britain, presented to both \nmen a copy of this book at the institution \n\n3 A 2 \n\n\n\nPAKLIAMENT. \n\n\n\n724 \n\n\n\nPAELIAMENT. \n\n\n\nMr. Labouchere suspended from sitting for a week, \nfor asserting his disbelief in lord Salisbury\'s \ndenial of connection with a conspiracy for de- \nfeating the ends of justice in relation to a recent \ntrial 28 Feb. 1890 \n\nA select committee on procedure in parliament \nnominated (Mr. Goschen (chairman), Mr. A. J. \nBalfour, Mr. J. Chamberlain, Mr. Gladstone, sir \nW. V. Harcourt, lord Hartington, and others), \n27 June ; first met, 30 June. Mr. Balfour\'s \nreport not accepted ; some of the members \n\nretire 14 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n[The committee recommended various means \nfor saving the time of parliament in passing bills \nfrom one session to another, and for shortening \nthe sessions, &c] \n\nThe commons sat from 3 p.m. to 7 a.m. (obstruction \nto Irish light railways bill) . . 14, 15 Aug. ,, \n\nThe resolution against Mr. Bradlaugh, 22 June, \n1880, ordered to be expunged from the journals \nof the commons, 27 Jan. ; he died . 30 Jan. 1891 \n\nSir William Whiteway, premier of Newfoundland, \nwith other delegates, appears at the bar of the \nhouse of lords ; he makes a statement in defence \nof the colony\'s claims .... 23 April, ,, \n\nMr. Cunninghame Graham, M.P., expelled from \nPrance for seditious speeches . . 11 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCapt. Edmund Hope Verney expelled from the \nhouse of commons, having been sentenced to a \nyear\'s imprisonment for a misdemeanour on his \nown confession . ... 12 May, ,, \n\nMr. Atkinson, M.P., suspended for disrespect to \nthe speaker 27 July, ,, \n\nParliament prorogued 5 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMr. Edward S. W. De Cobain, M.P. for Belfast ; \nfled from justice ; commanded to attend the \nhouse on 23 July, 1891 ; expelled . 26 Feb. 1892 \n\nMr. George W. Hastings, M.P. for E. Worcester- \nshire, sentenced to 5 years\' penal servitude for \nfraud as a trustee (see Trials), 11 March; ex- \npelled from the house . . .21 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMr. Fenwick\'s resolution for the payment of \nmembers of parliament rejected by the commons \n(227 \xe2\x80\x94 162) : .... 25 March, ,, \n\nMr. James F. Buckley, Mr. John W. Maclure, M.P., \nMr. William B. Hawkins, anil Mr. John Conacher, \ndirectors of the Cambrian railway, were admon- \nished by the speaker, by direction of the house \nof commons, for a breach of privilege in dismiss- \ning Mr. John Hood, a statiomnaster, on account \nof his evidence given to the committee on the \nhours of railway servants . . . 7 April, ,, \n\nMr. Cuninghame Graham suspended for a week \nfor disorderly conduct .... 4 May, ,, \n\nParliament dissolved, 28 June ; new parliament \nmeets 4 Aug. ,, \n\nNUMBED, AND DURATION OF PARLIAMENTS, FROM \n27 EDW. I. 1299, TO 37 VICT. 1874. \n\nEdward 1 8 pari, in 8 yrs\'. reign \n\nEdward II 15 ,, 20 ,, \n\nEdward III. . . . . 37 ,, 50 ,, \n\nRichard II 26 ,, 22 ,, \n\nHenry IV 10 ,, 14 ,, \n\nHenry V 11 ,, \xe2\x80\xa2 9 ,, \n\nHenry VI 22 ,, 39 ,, \n\nEdward IV. . . . . . 5 ,, 22 \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRichard III 1 \xe2\x80\x9e 2 \n\nHenry VII \n\n\n\nDay of Meeting.* When Dissolved \n\n\n\n\n* Corrected by the blue-book, \nland," printed 1879. \n\n\n\nParliaments of Eng- \n\n\n\nMary \n\n\n5 Oct, \n\n\n1553 \n\n\n5 Dec. . \n\n\n1553 \n\n\n\n\n2 April . \n\n\n1554 \n\n\n5 M ay . \n\n\n1554 \n\n\n\n\n12 Nov. . \n\n\n1554 \n\n\n16 Jan. \n\n\n1555 \n\n\n\n\n21 Oct, . \n\n\n1555 \n\n\n9 Dec. . \n\n\n,, \n\n\n\n\n20 Jan. \n\n\n1558 \n\n\n17 Nov. . \n\n\n1558 \n\n\nElizabeth . . \n\n\n23 Jan. \n\n\n1559 \n\n\n8 May . \n\n\n1559 \n\n\n\n\n11 Jan. \n\n\n1563 \n\n\n2 Jan. \n\n\n1567 \n\n\n\n\n2 April . \n\n\n1571 \n\n\n29 May . \n\n\n1571 \n\n\n\n\n8 May . \n\n\n1572 \n\n\n19 April . \n\n\n1583 \n\n\n\n\n23 Nov. . \n\n\n1584 \n\n\n14 Sept. . \n\n\n1585 \n\n\n\n\n29 Oct. . \n\n\n1586 \n\n\n23 March . \n\n\n15S7 \n\n\n\n\n12 Nov. . \n\n\n1588 \n\n\n29 March . \n\n\n1589 \n\n\n\n\n19 Feb. . \n\n\n1593 \n\n\n10 April . \n\n\n1593 \n\n\n\n\n24 Oct. . \n\n\n1597 \n\n\n9 Feb. . \n\n\n1598 \n\n\n\n\n27 Oct. . \n\n\n1 601 \n\n\n19 Dec. . \n\n\n1601 \n\n\nJames I. . \n\n\n19 March. \n\n\n1604 \n\n\n9 Feb. . \n\n\n1611 \n\n\n\n\n5 April. . \n\n\n1614 \n\n\n7 June . \n\n\n1614 \n\n\n\n\n16; 23, 30 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nJan. \n\n\n1621 \n\n\n8 Feb. . \n\n\n1622 \n\n\n\n\n12 Feb. \n\n\n1624 \n\n\n27 March . \n\n\n1625 \n\n\nCharles I. \n\n\n17 May . \n\n\n1625 \n\n\n12 Aug. . \n\n\n,, \n\n\n\n\n6 Feb. . \n\n\n1626 \n\n\n15 June . \n\n\n1626 \n\n\n\n\n17 March . \n\n\n1628 \n\n\n10 March . \n\n\n1629 \n\n\n\n\n13 April . \n\n\n1640 \n\n\n5 May . \n\n\n1640 \n\n\nLong Parliament \n\n\n3 Nov. \n\n\n,, \n\n\n20 April \n\n\n1653 \n\n\nCommonwealth \n\n\n3 Sept. . \n\n\n1654 \n\n\n22 Jan. \n\n\n1655 \n\n\n\n\n17 Sept, . \n\n\n1656 \n\n\n4 Feb. . \n\n\n1658 \n\n\n\n\n27 Jan. \n\n\n1659 \n\n\n22 April . \n\n\n1659 \n\n\n\n\n7 May . \n\n\n\n\n16 March . \n\n\n1660 \n\n\nCharles II. . . \n\n\n25 April . \n\n\n1660 \n\n\n29 Dec. \n\n\n,, \n\n\nPensionary Pari. \n\n\n8 May . \n\n\n1661 \n\n\n24 Jan. \n\n\n1679 \n\n\n\n\n6 March . \n\n\n1679 \n\n\n12 July . \n\n\n,, \n\n\nSeven Proroga- \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\ntions. \n\n\n17 Oct. . \n\n\n1679 \n\n\n18 Jan. . \n\n\n16S1 \n\n\nJames II. . \n\n\n21 March \n\n\n1681 \n\n\n28 March . \n\n\n1681 \n\n\n(Convention.) \n\n\n19 May \n\n\ni68 S \n\n\n2 July . \n\n\n1687 \n\n\nWilliam III. . \n\n\n22 Jan. \n\n\n1689 \n\n\n6 Feb. . \n\n\n1690 \n\n\n\n\n20 March \n\n\n1690 \n\n\n11 Oct. . \n\n\n1695 \n\n\n\n\n22 Nov. . \n\n\n1695 \n\n\n7 July . \n\n\n1698 \n\n\n\n\n24 Aug. \n\n\n1698 \n\n\n19 Dec. \n\n\n1700 \n\n\nAnne . \n\n\n6 Feb. \n\n\n1 701 \n\n\n11 Nov. . \n\n\n1 701 \n\n\n\n\n30 Dec. \n\n\n,, \n\n\n2 July . \n\n\n1702 \n\n\n\n\n20 Aug. \n\n\n1702 \n\n\n5 April . \n\n\n1 7\xc2\xb0S \n\n\n\n\n25 Oct, \n\n\ni7\xc2\xb05 \n\n\n11 April \n\n\n1708 \n\n\n\n\n18 Nov. \n\n\n1708 \n\n\n28 Sept. . \n\n\n1710 \n\n\n\n\n25 Nov. \n\n\n1710 \n\n\n8 Aug. . \n\n\n1713 \n\n\nGeorge I. . . \n\n\n11 Nov. \n\n\nI 7 I 3 \n\n\n15 Jan. \n\n\ni7!5 \n\n\n\n\n21 March \n\n\n1715 \n\n\n10 March \n\n\n1722 \n\n\nGeorge II. \n\n\n9 Oct, \n\n\n1722 \n\n\n7 Aug. \n\n\n1727 \n\n\n\n\n28 Jan. \n\n\n1728 \n\n\n18 April \n\n\n1734 \n\n\n\n\n14 Jan. \n\n\n1735 \n\n\n28 April \n\n\n1 741 \n\n\n\n\n4 Dec \n\n\n1741 \n\n\n18 June \n\n\n!747 \n\n\n\n\n10 Nov. \n\n\n*747 \n\n\n8 April \n\n\nI 754 \n\n\nGeorge III. . . \n\n\n14 Nov. \n\n\n1754 \n\n\n21 March \n\n\n1 761 \n\n\n\n\n3 Nov. \n\n\n1761 \n\n\n12 March \n\n\n1768 \n\n\n\n\n10 May \n\n\n1768 \n\n\n30 Sept. \n\n\n1774 \n\n\n\n\n29 Nov. \n\n\n!774 \n\n\n1 Sept. \n\n\n1780 \n\n\n\n\n31 Oct. \n\n\n1780 \n\n\n25 March \n\n\n1784 \n\n\n\n\n18 May \n\n\n1784 \n\n\n21 June \n\n\n1790 \n\n\n\n\n26 Nov. \n\n\n1790 \n\n\n20 May \n\n\n1796 \n\n\n\n\n27 Sept. \n\n\n1796 \n\n\n29 June \n\n\n1802 \n\n\n\n\n16 Nov. \n\n\n1802 \n\n\n24 Oct. \n\n\n1806 \n\n\n\n\n15 Dec. \n\n\n1806 \n\n\n29 April \n\n\n1807 \n\n\n\n\n22 June \n\n\n. 1807 \n\n\n24 Sept. \n\n\n1812 \n\n\n\n\n24 Nov. \n\n\n. 1812 \n\n\n10 June \n\n\n1818 \n\n\nGeorge IV. \n\n\n14 Jan. \n\n\n. 1819 \n\n\n29 Feb. \n\n\n1820 \n\n\n\n\n23 April \n\n\n. 1820 \n\n\n2 June \n\n\n1826 \n\n\n\n\n14 Nov. \n\n\n. 1826 \n\n\n24 July \n\n\n1830 \n\n\nWilliam IV. \n\n\n26 Oct. \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1830 \n\n\n22 April \n\n\n1831 \n\n\n\n\n14 June \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1831 \n\n\n3 Dec. \n\n\n1832 \n\n\n, \n\n\n29 June \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1833 \n\n\n30 Dec. \n\n\n1834 \n\n\nVictoria . \n\n\n19 Feb. \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1S35 \n\n\n17 July \n\n\n1837 \n\n\n\n\n15 Nov. \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1837 \n\n\n23 June \n\n\n1841 \n\n\n\n\n19 Aug. \n\n\n. 1841 \n\n\n23 July \n\n\n1847 \n\n\n\n\niS Nov. \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1847 \n\n\n1 July \n\n\n18^2 \n\n\n\n\n4 Nov. \n\n\n. 1852 \n\n\n21 March \n\n\n1857 \n\n\n\n\n1 April \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1857 \n\n\n23 April \n\n\n1S59 \n\n\n\n\n31 May \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1859 \n\n\n6 July \n\n\n1S65 \n\n\n\n\n1 Feb. \n\n\n. 1866 \n\n\n11 Nov. \n\n\n1868 \n\n\n\n\n10 Dec. \n\n\n. 1868 \n\n\n26 Jan. \n\n\n1874 \n\n\n\n\n5 March \n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 1874 \n\n\n23 March \n\n\n1S80 \n\n\n\n\n29 April \n\n\n. 1880 \n\n\niS Nov. \n\n\n. 1885 \n\n\n% \n\n\n12 Jan. \n\n\n1886 \n\n\n26 June \n\n\n. 1886 \n\n\n\n\n5 Aug. \n\n\n1886 \n\n\n28 June \n\n\n. 1892 \n\n\n\n\n4 Aug. \n\n\n. 1892 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nPARLIAMENT. \n\n\n\nm \n\n\n\nPARNELLITES. \n\n\n\nPARLIAMENT of Ireland, it is said, \n\nbegan with conferences of the English settlers on \nthe hill of Tara, in 1173. Writs for knights of the \nshire were issued in 1295. The Irish parliament \nmet last on 2 Aug. i3oo; the bill for the union \nhaving passed. \n\nPARLIAMENT of Scotland consisted of \n\nbarons, prelates, and abbots, and occasionally of \nburgesses. A great national council was held at \nScone by John Balliol, 9 Feb. 1292 ; and by Robert \nBruce at Canibuskenneth, in 1326. A house of \ncommons was never formed in Scotland. The par- \nliament of Scotland sanctioned the act of union on \n16 Jan. 1707, and met for the last time on 22 April, \nsame year. \n\nThe parliament hall, Edinburgh castle, erected by \nJames I., in 1434, was thoroughly and .judiciously \nrestored by M. Hippolyte Blanc, at the expense of \nthe late Mr. Nelson and family. The hall was re- \nopened, Feb. 1891. The undertaking was greatly pro- \nmoted by the investigations of lords Napier and \nEttriek, major Gore Booth, and Mr. R. Chambers. \n\nPARLIAMENT OF Paris was instituted by \nrhilip Augustus II., 1 190, and was made the chief \ncourt of justice in France by Philip IV. ; at his \nsuggestion it revoked a bull of pope Boniface VIII., \n1302. It was suppressed by Louis XV., 1771 ; \nrestored by Louis XVI., 1774 ; demanded a meeting \nof the states-general in 1787 ; and was suspended by \nthe national assembly, 3 Nov. 1789; see Commune. \n\nPARLIAMENTARY AND MUNICI- \nPAL REGISTRATION ACTS (41 & 42 Vict. \nc. 26), passed 22 July, 1878. \n\nPARMA (N. Italy), founded by the ancient \nEtrurians. It took part Avith the Lombard league \nin the wars with the German emperors. It was \nmade a duchy (with Placentia), 1545. Population \nof Parma and Modena, 1890, 1,034,712. \nUnited to Spain by Philip V.\'s marriage with Eliza- \nbeth Farnese 1714 \n\nBattle near Parma ; the confederates, England, \nFrance, and Spain, against the emperor ; both \narmies claimed the victory . . 29 June, 1734 \nBattle near the Trebbia ; the French under Maedon- \nald, defeated by Suwarrow, with the loss of 10,000 \nmen and four generals .... 19 June, 1799 \nThe duke of Parma made king of Etruria . Feb. 1801 \nParma united to France : with Placentia and Guas- \ntalla conferred on Maria Louisa, ex-empress, by \ntreaty of Fontainebleau .... 5 April, 1814 \nParma occupied by the Austrians and Sardinians in \n\nthe war of 1848 \n\nThe Sardinians retire after the battle of Novara, \n\n23 March, 1849 \nThe duke Charles II. abdicates in favour of his son, \n\nCharles III. (died 17 April, 1883) . 14 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \nCharles III. stabbed by an assassin,* 26 March, dies, \n\n27 March, 1854 \nRobert I., a minor(born9 July, 1848); whose mother \n\nbecomes regent. \nWar in Italy ; the Parmesans establish a provisional \ngovernment ; the duchess-regent retires to Switzer- \nland 1 May, 1859 \n\nFarina became dictator ... 18 Aug. ,, \nAnnexation to Sardinia voted . . . 12 Sept. ,, \nCol. Anviti, a former obnoxious police minister, \nhaving rashly returned, cruelly murdered by the \n\nmob 5 Oct. ,, \n\nParma is now part of the province of ./Emilia in the \nkingdom of Italy, to which it was annexed by de- \ncree after a plebiscite ... 18 March, i860 \nDuchess-regent died 1 Feb. 1864 \n\nPARNELLITES, the followers of Mr. Charles \nStewart Parncll, the principal leader of the more \n\n\n\n* Antonio Carra, in revenge of a private injury, and \non behalf of the Giovane Italiane. He was acquitted \n\nthrough a Haw in the evidence, and died in Philadelphia \nAug. 1887. \n\n\n\nenergetic section of the home-rule party, 1880 et \nseq. He was born 28 June, 1846, elested" M.P. for \nco. Meath, 1875-80; for Cork, 1880-91; became \nIrish parliamentary leader, with great influence, \nwhich he lost greatly, Nov. 1890 ; he died suddenly \nnear Brighton, 6 Oct. 1891 ; solemn funeral at \nDublin, 11 Oct. 1891. See Home Rule and In- \nland, 1879, et seq., and below. \nThe Times publishes a series of articles headed \n"Parnellism and Crime," 7, 10, 14 March, \n1887 et seq. ; the third series published June, \n1887, related to the Clan-na-gael, based upon \nstatements in United Ireland (Dublin), Irish \nWorld (New York), and other papers. The Tim s \npublished the facsimile of a letter alleged to be \nsigned by Mr. Parnell (dated 15 May, 1882), in \nwhich he is made to say "though I regret the \naccident of lord Cavendish\'s death, I cannot \nrefuse to admit that Burke got no more than his \ndeserts," 18 April, 1887. This letter Mr. Parnell \nin parliament termed an " anonymous fabri- \ncation " 1 a.m., 19 April, 1887 \n\nMr. Frank Hugh O\'Donnell v. Mr. John Walter \nand others (for libel in the Times, " Parnellism \nand Crime"), damages claimed 50,000^, Queen\'s \nBench Division, no case ; verdict for the de- \nfendants .\' 2-5 July, 188 \n\nRoyal commission to examine into the-authenticity \nof charges against certain Irish members of \n\nparliament 17 Sept. ,, \n\nThe court of session, Edinburgh, dismisses Mr. \nParnell\'s action against the Times 23 Oct. 1888 and \n\n5 Feb. 1S89 \nMr. Parnell moves for a trial in the exchequer \n\ndivision, Dublin (afterwards stopped) n Feb. ,, \nMr. Parnell\'s action against the \'Times in London \ndeferred till Michaelmas sessions . .18 June, ,, \nParnellite Commission. \nSir James Hannen, president ; Mr. Justice Day \xe2\x96\xa0 \nand Mr. Justice A. L. Smith, constituted by act \npassed 13 Aug. 1888. Preliminary meeting : sir \nC. Russell, Mr. Asquith, and others counsel for \nMr. Parnell and other M.P.\'s (65); attorney- \ngeneral sir Richard Webster, Mr. W. Graham \nand others, for the Times, 17 Sept. 1888 ; pro- \nceedings begin 22 Oct. 1888. Long examination \nof witnesses ; examination of Mr. Parnell\'s \nalleged letters, 14 Feb. 1889 ; after the evidence \nand cross-examination of Mr. Soarnes, solicitor, \nand Mr. Macdonald, manager of the Times, and \nof Mr. Houston from whom the alleged letters were \nobtained, Mr. Richard Pigott, Irish journalist, \nwho had sold them to Mr. Houston, on cross- \nexamination by sir Charles Russell, grossly \n\nprevaricated 20-22 Feb. ,, \n\nMr. Pigott fled to Paris, and his confession that he \nforged some of the alleged letters, and had given \nfalse evidence, was read in the court, 27 Feb. \n(57th sitting) ; the attorney-general on behalf of \nthe Times accepted the confession and expressed \ndeep regret for the publication of the letters, 27 \nFeb., which was confirmed by the Times 28 Feb. ,, \nSuicide of Richard Pigott at Madrid, 1 March ; \n\nburied there . \' . . . . 6 March, ,, \nLong address of sir C. Russell ends . 12 April, ,, \nPatrick Malloy sentenced to 6 months\' hard labour \n\nfor perjury before the commission . 1$ April, ,, \nOn examination Mr. Parnell denies all complicity \n\nwith crime .... 30 April-8 May, ,, \n\nExamination of archbishop Walsh and other priests \n\n8 May et set/. ,, \n91st to 100th sitting, Mr. T. Sexton and other M.P.\'s \n\nexamined . . .18 June till 4 July, ,, \n\n101st sitting : Michael Davitt examined . 4 July. ., \n106th sitting : Mr. Houston, secretary of the \n"Loyal and Patriotic Union\'\' (established in \n1885), states that in 1885 he purchased the copj - \nright of "Parnellism Unmasked" (by Richard \nPigott). The court refuses to accede to the ap- \nplication of sir C. Russell to inspect the books of \nthe "Loyal and Patriotic Union" . 12 July, ,, \n107th sitting: Mr. Parnell and his friends with \n\ntheir counsel withdraw from the case . 15 July, ., \n112II1 sitting: examination of the Land League \naccount books and documents [important books \nlost] : adjournment to 24 Oct. 25 July, ,, \n\n\n\nPAENELLITES. \n\n\n\n726 \n\n\n\nPAETITIQN TEEATIES. \n\n\n\n113th sitting, 24 Oct. : speech by Mr. Biggar. \nivlr. M. Davitt began an address which was \nfinished 31 Oct. 1889 \n\nii3th to 128th sitting :\' Sir Henry James\' address \nfor the Times ... 31 Oct. \xe2\x80\x94 22 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe report of the commissioners was laid before \nparliament, 13 Feb. 1890. The following is an \nabridgment of their conclusions : \xe2\x80\x94 I. That the \nrespondent members o parliament collectively \nwere not guilty of conspiring for the absolute \nindependence of Ireland as a separate nation, but \nthat some of them (Messrs. M. Harris, Dillon, \nW. O\'Brien, W. Redmond, O\'Connor, J. Condon, \nand J. J. O\'Kelly), together with Mr. Davitt, \nestablished the Land League mainly for that \npurpose. II. That the respondents [44] did con- \nspire to promote agrarian agitation, the non-pay- \nment of rents, and the expulsion of the landlords \n(styled the English garrison). III. That they ac- \nquitted Mr. Parnell and others of the charge of \ninsincerity in their denunciations of the Phoenix \nPark murders, and affirmed the fac-simile letter \nto be a forgery. IV. They found that the respon- \ndents did disseminate the Irish World and other \nnewspapers, intending to incite to sedition and \nother crimes. V. That the charges of incitement \nto crime, except by intimidation, and of payments \nfor that purpose, were not proved. VI. They \nfound that the respondents did not denounce the \nsystem of intimidation, though they knew its \neffects ; and VII. That they defended persons \ncharged with agrarian crime, and supported \ntheir families, but it was not proved that they \nsubscribed for testimonials for, or were intimately \nassociated with, notorious criminals, or aided \ntheir escape by payments. VIII. That they \nfound that the respondents made payments to \ncompensate persons injured in the commission of \ncrime. IX. That the respondents did invite and \nobtain the assurance and co-operation of the \nPhysical Force Party in America, including the \nClan-na-Gael, and did not repudiate the action of \nthat party. \n\n[Certain allegations against Mr. Parnell were \ndeclared not proved.] \nThe report adopted with thanks, by the commons, \nafter 7 days\' debate, 3-1 1 March; by the lords \n(without a division), 21 March, 1890. Mr. Glad- \nstone\'s amendment rejected by 339 to 263. \nParnell v. Walter and another, for libel, Queen\'s \nbench division, justices Denman and Wills ; \ndamagos claimed, ioo,oooL ; 40s. paid into court, \n11 Jan. Verdict for the plaintiff, by consent, \n\n5,002\'. damages 3 Feb: 1890 \n\n[The publication voted not a breach of privilege \nby tli3 commons (260\xe2\x80\x94212), n Feb. 189c] \n\nIn consequence of the issue of the divorce suit, \ncapt. O\'Shea, Mrs. O\'Shea and Mr. C. S. Parnell, \n15-17 Nov. 1890, Mr. Parnell was requested by \nMr. W. E. Gladstone and other English liberals, \nto retire from the chairmanship of the Irish party. \nHe declined, and issued a manifesto to the people \nof Ireland, giving an account of private confer- \nences with Mr. Gladstone and Mr. John Morley, \n20 Nov. The Irish R.C. bishops demanded Mr. \nParncll\'s retirement, 3 Dec. After a week\'s \nangry discussion in the commons\' committee- \nroom No. 15, the Irish party divided ; Mr. Justin \nM\'Carthy, the vice-chairman, was elected chair- \nman by 44 members ; Mr. Parnell continuing \nchairman with 26 followers, 6 Dec. Manifestoes \nof the two parties issued . . 9, 10 Dec. \n\nCollapse of negotiations (chiefly at Boulogne) of \' \nMr. Parnell, with Messrs. ffm. O\'Brien, Dillon, \nJustin McCarthy, Sexton, and others ; Mr. Par- \nnell refuses to resign the leadership, n Feb \xe2\x96\xa0 \n\xe2\x96\xa0counter manifestoes issued . 12 Feb. ei sea. 189 1 \n\nDispute between Mr. Parnell and Mr. M\'Carthy \nrespecting the disposal of the league funds (in \n\n_ Paris) Feb., March, ,.- \n\nMr. Parnell in his campaign visits Roscommon, \n22 Feb., Drogheda, and other places 1 March, \n\nThe National Federation (which sie) established by " \n\nthe Anti-Parnellites . . . .10 March \n9 Parncllites, 72 Anti-Parnellites. elected M. P. \' \n\nJuly, 1892 \n\n\n\nPAEOCHIAL CHAEITIES COMMIS- \nSION, see London, 1878, and under Charities, \n1883. \n\nPAEEICIDE- There was no law against it \nin Athens or Rome, such a crime not being supposed \npossible. About 172 B.C., L. Ostius having killed \nhis father, the Romans scourged the parricide ; \nsewed him up in a leathern sack made air-tight, \nwith a live dog, a cock, a viper, and an ape, and thus \ncast him into the sea. Miss Blandy was executed \nat Oxford for the murder of her father, April, 1752 ; \nsee Trials, March, 1890. \n\nPAESEES or GuEBRES, the followers of \nZerdusht, dwelt in Persia till 638, when, at the \nbattle of Kadseah, their army was decimated by \nthe Arabs, and the monarchy annihilated at the \nbattle of Nahavend in 641. Many submitted to \nthe conquerors, but others fled to India, and their de- \nscendants still reside at Bombay (where they are \ntermed Parsees). Sir Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy, the 3rd \nbaronet, was elected president of the community \nthere, July, 1877. Mr. Dadabhai Naoroji, a Par- \nsea merchant, was for several years professor of \nGujerati at University college, London. He was \nnominated as M.P. for the Holborn district, but not \nelected, 1886 ; elected 6 July, 1892, for Central \nFinsbury. " History of the Parsis," by Dosabhai \nFramji Karaka, published, 1884. See Bombay. A \nParsee fire temple at Bombay was consecrated, Nov. \n1891. \n\n"PAETANT POUS LA SYEIE," popu- \nlar French song; words by comte Alexandre de \nLaborde; music by Hortense Beauharnois, wife of \nLouis Bonaparte, king of Holland, about 1809. The \nmusic became very popular after her son became \nemperor, in 1852, as Napoleon III. \n\nPAETHENON (from Greek parthenos, virgin), \na temple at Athens dedicated to Minerva, erected \nabout 442 B.C. In it Phidias placed his renowned \nstatue of that goddess, 438 B.C. The roof was de- \nstroyed by the Venetians in 16S7. "The Parthenon" \npublished by Mr. James Fergusson in 1883. See \nElgin Marbles. \n\nPAETHEXOPEAN EEPUBLIC was esta- \nblished by the French at Naples (anciently called \nParthenope), 23 Jan. 1799, and overthrown in June \nsame year. \n\nPAETHIA (Asia). The Parthians were origi- \nnally a tribe of Scythians, who, being exiled, as \ntheir name implies, from their own country, settled \nnear Hyrcania. Arsaces laid the foundation of an \nempire which ultimately extended over a large part \nof Asia, 250 B.C. ; the Parthians were never wholly \nsubdued by the Romans. The last king, Artabanus \nV., was killed, a.d. 226; and his territories were \nannexed to the new kingdom of Persia founded by \nArtaxerxes, who had revolted against Parthia. \n\nPAETICULAEISTS. The name given to \nthose Germans who desire the maintenance of the \nindependence of the German states, and oppose \ntheir absorption into the empire. M. Gasser, one \nof them, failed in an attempt to form a ministry in \nBavaria, Sept. 1872. \n\nPAETITION ACT, relative to the division of \n\nproperty sold by direction of the court of chancery, \npassed 25 June, 16S8. \n\nPAETITION TEEATIES. The first treaty \nbetween England and Holland for regulating the \nSpanish succession (declaring the elector of Bavaria \nnext heir, and ceding provinces to France) was \nsigned. 19 Aug. 1698; and the second (between \nFrance, England, and Holland, declaring the arch- \n\n\n\nPARTNERSHIP. \n\n\n\n727 \n\n\n\nPATENTS. \n\n\n\nduke Charles presumptive heir of the Spanish mon- \narchy, Joseph Ferdinand having died in 1699), 13 \nMarch, 1700. Treaty for the partition of Poland ; \nthe first was a secret convention between Russia and \nPrussia, 17 Feb. 1772 ; the second between the \nsame powers and Austria, 5 Aug. same year ; the \nthird was between Russia, Austria, and Prussia, 24 \nOct. 1795. \n\nPARTNERSHIP. The laws respecting it \nwere amended in 1863 and 1890; see Limited \nLiability. \n\nPARTY, see Processions. \n\nPASIGRAPHY (from Greek, pan, for all) : \na system which professes to teach people to com- \nmunicate with each other by means of numbers \nwhich convey the same ideas in all languages. A \nsociety for this purpose was established at Munich ; \nand the president, Anton Bachmaier, published a \n\xe2\x96\xa0dictionary and grammar for German, French, and \nEnglish, 1868 \xe2\x80\x94 :/! ; 4334 mental conceptions may \nbe thus communicated. \n\nPASQUINADES. Small satirical poems ob- \ntained this name about 1533- \n\nAt the stall of a cobbler named Pasquin, at Home, idle \npersons used to assemble to listen to his sallies, to re- \nlate anecdotes, and rail at the passers-by. After the \ncobbler\'s death, his name was given to a statue to which \nlampoons were affixed. \n\nPASSAROWITZ TREATY, concluded 21 \nJuly, 17 18, between Germany and Venice, and the \nTurks, by which the house of Austria ceded certain \n\xe2\x96\xa0commercial rights, and obtained from Turkey the \nTemeswar, Belgrade, and part of Bosnia, Servia, \nand Wallachia. The Turks gained the Morea. \n\nPASSAU (Germany), TREATY OF, whereby \nreligious freedom was established, was ratified be- \ntween the emperor Charles V. and the protestant \nprinces of Germany, 31 July, 1552. In 1662 the \ncathedral and great part of Passau were consumed \nby fire. \n\nPASSENGERS\xe2\x80\x94 by public vehicles, are pro- \ntected by 1 & 2 Will. IV. c. 22 (1831), 1 & 2 Vict. \n\xc2\xab. 79 (1838), and 16 & 17 Vict. c. ^ (1853) ; \nanother act was passed in 1889. Mr. Cleghorn, \nunder whom the front seat on the near side of one \nof the general omnibus company\'s carriages had \ngiven way, recovered 400^. damages against the \ncompany, in a verdict by consent, in the Queen\'s \nBench, 10 Dec. 1856. The Ships\' Passenger act, \n18 & 19 Vict. c. 119, passed in 1855, was amended \nin 1863 ; see Campbell\'s Act, and under Railways. \n\nPASSIONISTS, a congregation of clerks of \nthe holy cross, founded by St. Paul of the Cross, \nwho died 1775, and was canonized by the pope \n1867. A home was set up in England in 1841, and \nothers since. The monastery, Highgate, London, \nN., solemnly blessed by cardinal Manning, and \nopened, 16 July, 1876. \n\nPASSION PLAY, see Drama. \n\nPASSION-WEEK, the name given since the \nReformation to the week preceding Easter, was \nformerly applied to the fortnight. Archbishop \nLaud says the two weeks were so called \' \' for a \nthousand years together," and refers to an epistle, \nby Ignatius, in the 1st century, in which the prac- \ntice is said to have been "observed by all." The \nweek preceding Easter is now by some termed \n"Holy Week," the previous week "Passion \nWeek." \nPassion-Music: Gregory Nazianzen (a.d. 330-390) is said \n\nto have tirst set forth the history of the Passion in a \n\ndramatic form. \n\n\n\nGuidetti, in 1586, published music for this subject, \nwhich has been treated since by many composers. \n\nJ. 8. Bach\'s great "Passion Musik," first performed on \nGood Friday, 1729, has been revived with great suc- \ncess in this country, beginning with that "according \nto St. Matthew," 6 April, 1854. \n\nPASSOVER, the most solemn festival of the \nJews, instituted 1491 B.C. (Exodus xii.) in comme- \nmoration of their coming out of Egypt; because \nthe night before then departure, the destroying \nangel, who put to death the firstborn of the Egyp- \ntians, passed over the houses of the Hebrews with- \nout entering them; the door posts being marked \nwith the blood of the Paschal Lamb killed the \nevening before. The passover was celebrated in \nthe new temple, 18 April, 515 B.C. Usher. \n\nPASSPORT SYSTEM forbids subjects to quit \none country or enter another without the consent of \nthe sovereign thereof. In 1858 the system was \nsomewhat changed in this country, and the stamp \nduty on passports was reduced from 5s. to 6d. \nPassports were abolished in Norway in 1859 \'1 lVL \nSweden in i860; and (with regard to British sub- \njects) in France, 16 Dec. i860; in Italy, 26 Jane, \n1862 ; in Portugal, 23 Jan. 1863 ; and are falling \ninto disuse in other countries. The passport system \nwas established in the United States on 19 Aug. \n1861. The passport system, revived in France on \naccount of the war, I Aug. 1870, was abolished by \nM. Thiers, 10 April, 1872, in compliance with the \nwish of the British government. \n\nPASTEUR INSTITUTE, Paris, see under \nHydrophobia. \n\nPASTEL, a roll of paste made of different \ncolours ground with gum water, used as a crayon. \nPastel painting his been recently much practised \non the continent. The Society of British Pastell Uts, \npresident sir Coutts Lindsay, first exhibited at the \nGrosvenor Gallery, 18 Oct. 1890. Its members \nincluded Mr. Watts, Mr. Orchardson and other \neminent artists. \n\nPASTON LETTERS, the correspondence of a \nNorfolk family, 1422-83, giving a picture of \nsocial life in England, were edited by sir John \nFenn, and published in five volumes, quarto, 1787- \n1823. Their authenticity was questioned Sept. \n1865, but was satisfactorily vindicated by a com- \nmittee of the Society of Antiquaries in May, 1866. \nPart of the MS. was soon after purchased by the \ntrustees of the British Museum. The publication \nof a new edition, by James Gairdner, with addi- \ntional letters, 1872\xe2\x80\x945. The MS. of the second \nseries with other letters was found in 1875, by Mr. \nFrere, of Roydon Hall, near Diss, Norfolk. The \nMS. of the first series, long lost from the Royal \nLibrary, found in the library of col. Geo. Tomline \nat Orwell Park, who died 25 Aug. 1S89 ; announced \nApril, 1890. \n311 MS. Paston letters put up for sale by Messrs. \n\nChristie, London, bought in at a high reserve, \n\n31 July, t88S \n\nPAT AY (France), where Joan of Arc, the nraid \nof Orleans, was present, when the earl of Biche- \nmontc signally defeated the English, 18 June, 1429. \nTalbot was taken prisoner, and the valiant Fast. die. \nwas forced to flee. In consequence, Charles VII. \nof France entered Rheims in triumph, and was \ncrowned 17 July, following year, Joan of Arc as- \nsisting in the ceremony in full armour, and holding \nthe sword of state, see Joan of Arc. \n\nPATENTS (hompalco, I lie open), licences and \nauthorities granted by the king. Patents are said to \nhave been granted for titles of nobility in 1344, by \n\n\n\nPATENT MEDICINES. \n\n\n\n723 \n\n\n\nPATEONAGE. \n\n\n\nEdwardlll. They were first granted\'for the exclu- \nsive privilege of printing books, in 1591. The pro- \nperty and right of inventors in arts and manufac- \ntures were secured by letters patent by an act passed \nin 1623. The later laws regulating patents are very \nnumerous ; among them are 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 83 \n(1835), and 15 & 16 Vict. c-83 (1852). By the latter \nCommissioners of Patents were appointed, viz., \nthe lord chancellor, the master of the rolls, the attor- \nney-general for England and Ireland, the lord \nadvocate, and the solicitors-general for England, \nScotland, and Ireland. In 1853, a journal was pub- \nlished under their authority, and indexes of patents, \nfrom March, 1617, to the present time. Specifica- \ntions of patents may be consulted by the public at \nthe Free Library and Eeading-Eoom, in Southamp- \nton buildings, opened 5 March, 1854. A museum \ncontaining models, portraits, &c, was established \nin 1859 at South Kensington, mainly by the exertions \nof Mr. Bennet Vfoodcroft. \nThe " Illustrated Official Journal " combining six others \n\npublished Jan. 1889, \nAn international congress for the protection of patents \n\nmet at Vienna, Aug. 1873 ; at Paris, 6 March, 1883. \nNew patent bills introduced into parliament withdrawn, \n1875, 1876, 1879; Mr. Anderson\'s bill read, 15 June, \n1881. \nPatent Design and Trade Marks Act, 46 & 47 Viet. c. 57, \npassed 25 Aug. 1883, began 1 Jan. 1884; amended \n24 Dec. 1888. It greatly relieved patentees by lessen- \ning fees, &c. \nIn 1864, the alleged defalcations of Mr. Edmunds, a clerk \nin the patent office and an official of the house of lords, \nled to his retirement. He obtained a pension of Sool. , \nwhich was taken from him by a vote of the house of \nlords on 9 May, 1865. Much litigation ensued. In an \naction against Mr. Gladstone, the prime minister, and \nothers, for a libel, Mr. Edmunds was non-suited, 21-22 \nJune, 1872 ; and he failed in actions against several \nnewspapers for printing a treasury minute. His appeal \nto the house of lords failed 16 June, 1873. \n17,110 applications for patents in 1884 ; 16,101 in 1885 ; \n17,162 in 1886 ; 18,051 in 1887; 19,103 in 1888; 21,008 \nin 1889 ; 22,888 in 1891. \nRoyal commission to enquire into the law relating to \nletters patent appointed 1862 ; Mr. Hindmarch\'s re- \nport issued 1864. In pursuance of recommendations \nfor the formation of a roll of patent agents, the Insti- \ntute of Patent Agents was registered 1882, chartered \n1891. It has given much attention to legislation re- \n\xe2\x96\xa0 specting patents. \n\nPATENT MEDICINES: received for stamps, \nyear 1883-4, 159,238/. \n\nPATNA (N. India). Near here the English, \nunder major Carnac, defeated the emperor Shah \nAlum on 15 Jan. 1761. The town was acquired by \nthe British by their defeat of the sanguinary Meer \nCassim, 23 Oct. 1764. \n\nPATEIAECHS (a name given to Abraham, \nIsaac, Jacob, and his sons). The ecclesiastical \nhistorian Socrates gives this title to the chiefs of \nChristian dioceses, about 440. It was first con- \nferred on the five grand sees of Home, Constanti- \nnople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem\'. The \nLatin church had no patriarchs till the 6th century. \nThe first founders or heads of religious orders are \ncalled patriarchs. \n\nNectarius, bishop of Constantinople, as cx-officio chief of \nthe Eastern bishops, was nominated patriarch of Con- \nstantinople at the second general council of Constanti- \nnople, 9 July, 381. This led the way to the schism \nbetween the Eastern and Western churches. \n\nPATEICIANS, the highest citizens or aristo- \ncracy of Eomc ; their authority began with the city \nitself ; sec Home. \n\nPATRICK\'S CATHEDEAL, ST. (Dublin), \nwas founded in 1190 by archbishop Comyn, on the \n\n\n\nsite of an old church. The cathedral was dese- \ncrated in 1546, and used as a law court ; restored \n1553. After renovation by the munificence of the \nlate sir Benjamin Lee Guinness, it was re-opened 24 \nFeb. 1865. Several persons killed by the falling of \na flying buttress, 14 Sept. 1882. See Dublin. \n\nPATRICK, ST., KNIGHTS OE, an order in- \nstituted by king George III., 5 Feb., the statutes- \nwere signed 28 Feb. 1783. The number, originally \nfifteen, was increased in 1821, 1831, and 1833, and \nis now twenty-two. The prince of "Wales was- \ninstalled as knight, 18 April, 1868. \xe2\x80\x94 St. Patrick\'s \nBenevolent Society, London, instituted 1784. It \nsprang from ihe Irish Chaiitable Society, founded \nin 1704. \n\nPATRIOTIC ASSOCIATION, formed to \naid in upholding the honour and interest of the \nBritish Empire. A meeting was held at St. James\'s \nHall, London, 27 March, 1880. "England," a \nweekly paper, was published same day. The duke \nof Abercorn, earl Stanhope, and others, were sup- \nporters. \n\nPATEIOTIC BEOTHEEHOOD, see Ire- \nland, 1883. \n\nPATEIOTIC EUNDS, established to en- \ncourage the army and navy in times of war. \n\n1. Founded by the subscribers to Lloyd\'s, " to animate \n\nthe efforts of our defenders by sea and land " by \nproviding a fund for the relief of themselves when \nwounded, and of their widows and orphans, and for \ngranting pecuniary rewards and badges of distinction \nfor valour and merit, 20 July, 1803 : 24 Aug. 1809, \n424, 832?. had been received, and 331,611?. expended. \nFrom 1803 to 1826 the total sum received was \n629,823?. 14s. id. \n\n2. A commission (headed by prince Albert) was appointed) \n\nto raise and distribute a fund bearing this name, for \nthe relief of the families of those who might fall in \nthe Russo-Turkish war, June ; a great meeting held, \nNov. 1854. \n\nLarge sums were collected from this country and the \ncolonies, amounting to 1,171,270?. in July, 1855 ; to \n1,296,282?. on 16 Nov. 1855; finally to 1,460,861/. In \nJan. 1874, 1,303,386?. expended. \n\n200,000?. appropriated to founding an asylum for 300- \norphan girls (the Royal Victoria Patriotic Asylum) \non Wandsworth common, the first stone of which \nwas laid by the queen, 11 July, 1857. \n\nThe royal family and many of the aristocracy con- \ntributed drawings, sold for high prices, in May, 1855. \n\n3. A large fund contributed for the relief of the sufferers \n\nby the Indian mutiny, Aug. 1857, 434>7 2 9\'- collected \n\nup> to Nov. 1858. An act for its administration was \n\npassed, 12 Aug. 1867, amended 1886; see I nclia, 1857. \n\nThe total of the funds administered was 755,102?., 31 \n\nDec. 1888 ; 764,211/., 31 Dec. 1890. \nThe alleged mal-administration of the Patriotic Fund was \nbrought before the house of commons by baron de \nWorms 9 Aug. 1880, and in Jan. 1881. \nLiberal subscriptions to the fund from Australia, \non account of the Soudan war ; about 45,000?. at \n\nSydney 2 March, 1885 \n\nPatriotic volunteer fund instituted by lord mayor \nWhitehead, see Volunteers .... 1889 \n\nPATEONAGE OF LIVINGS by Laymen in \nEngland is very ancient ; in Scotland was opposed \nby the books of discipline 1560 and 1578, abolished \n1049, restored 1660. The system led to the dis- \nruption of the established church, and the foundation \nof the free church, 18 May, 1843. The abolition of \nlay patronage was earnestly advocated by the \nauthorities of the established church in March, \n1870, and the duke of Argyll volunteered to resign \nhis patronage in May. Of 1 109 livings 319 belonged \nto the crown, and about 600 to private persons. An \nact (37 & 38 Vict. c. 82) for abolishing patronage \nin Scotland, brought in by the duke of Eichniond, \n18 May, passed, 7 Aug. 1874. \n\n\n\nPAULIANISTS. \n\n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa029 \n\n\n\nPAVAN. \n\n\n\nPAULIANISTS or PatjlTNIANS, followers \nof Paul bishop of Samosata, afterwards patriarch of \nAritioch, 260, who are said to have denied Christ\'s \ndivinity and the trinity; he was excommunicated \n269 by a council at Antioch. \n\nPAULICIANS, a sect of Christian reformers, \narose about 652. Although they were severely \npersecuted, they spread over Asia Minor, in the 9th \ncentury, and finally settled at Montford, in Italy, \nwhere they were attacked by the bishop of Milan \nin 1028. Severe decrees against them were made \nin 1 163, and they gradually dispersed; very \nprobably sowing the seeds of the great reformation \nof the 16th century. \n\nPAUL JONES, a Scotchman, born 1742 ; died \nat Paris, 1792. He commanded an American \nprivateer during the American war, and made \ndaring depredations on British commerce. He \npillaged the house of lord Selkirk, near Kirkcud- \nbright, and at Whitehaven burnt shipping in the \nharbour, April 1778. The Dutch permitted Paul \nJones to enter their ports with two British ships of \nwar which he had taken, and which the stadtholder \nperemptorily refused to deliver up, 1779- \n\nPAUL\'S CATHEDRAL, ST. (London). \n\nFor details of its history, see Dugdale\'s "History \nof St. Paul\'s," 1658 and 1716 ; Dean Milman\'s \n" Annals of St. Paul\'s," 1868 ; and Mr. ffm. Long- \nman\'s " History of the Three Cathedrals, dedicated \nto St. Paul," 1873. \n\nThe first church, built 011 the site of a temple to \nDiana, supposed to have been destroyed during \nthe Diocletian persecution (302), rebuilt in the \n\nreign of Constantine 223-337 \n\nDemolished by the pagan Saxons, and restored by \nEthelbert and Sebert . . . about 597-610 \n\nInjured by fire 962 \n\nDestroyed by the great conflagration, 1086, after \nwhich Mauritius, then bishop of London, com- \nmenced a magnificent edifice with the highest \nspire in the world about 1087 ; completed . . 1240 \n\nNearly destroyed by fire 1444 \n\nThe spire burnt 1561 \n\nA commission granted to Laud, then, bishop of \n\nLondon, to restore the cathedral . 2 April, 1631 \n\nIt was totally destroyed by the fire of . Kept. 1666 \nClearing of the ground began . . . May, 1674 \nI\'M rst stone of the present edifice laid . 21 June, 1675 \nThe choir opened for divine worship . 2 Dec. 1697 \n\nThe whole edifice completed under sir Christopher \n\nWren (except some decorations, finished 1723) . 1710 \n[The total cost (including 200 tons\' weight of iron \n\nrailing) was 1,511,202/..] \nLord Nelson buried . . . .9 Jan. 1806 \n\nBall and cross restored by Mr. Cockerell . . 1822 \n\nDuke of Wellington buried . . . 18 Nov. 1852 \nMoney having been subscribed to adapt St. Paul\'s \nfor the purpose, evening services began, under \nthe dome, when above 4000 persons were present, \n\nSunday, 28 Nov. 1858 \nA national guinea subscription for completing the \n\ninterior ornamentation, began . . Feb. 1864 \n\n87th meeting of the charity school children 3 June, 1869 \nGreat meeting held at the Mansion-house to complete \nthe interior of the cathedral according to Wren\'s \ndesign, 13 July ; 34,708?. collected by . 4 Nov. 1870 \nDr. Church, the new dean, gave 1000?. . Nov. 1871 \nNational Thanksgiving for the recovery of the \n\nprince of Wales, see Thanksgiving . 27 Feb. 1872 \n" Thanksgiving fund " established ....,, \nThe ipteen gave 1000J., the prince 500?. . Feb. ,, \n\nAfter an interval, annual meeting of the children \n\nresumed\xe2\x80\x94 [not held 1878] . . \' . 9 Oct. 1873 \nThe iron railings (set up in 1710) sold, and soon \nafter removed (the dean and chapter bought the \nenclosed space from the corporation) 8 Jan. ; for- \nmally opened 26 Jan. 1874 \n\nDiscussion respecting the ornamentation : Mr. \nBurges\' plans censured, June ; the engagement \nwith him rescinded . Nov. ,, \n\n\n\nMeeting to endeavour to obtain a peal of bells, the \nlord mayor, the dean, &c., present, 2 Nov. 1875 ; \narrangements being made . . . Sept. 1876 \n\nGrand concluding service of Lambeth episcopal \nsynod ; about 100 bishops present . 27 July, 187S \n\nPeal of 12 beUs (by Taylor, of Loughborough) given \nby the corporation and some of the companies, \ndedicated ...... 1 Nov. ,, \n\nThe corporation authorised to deal with the church- \nyard as an open space, 187S; opened as a garden \nby the lord mayor .... 22 Sept. i?79: \n\nGreat Paul (see under Bells) dedicated . 3 June, 1882: \n\nProfessor Palmer, capt. Gill, and lieut. Charrington \nburied in the crypt .... 6 April, 1883, \n\nThe mutilated statue of queen Anne at the west \nfront by Francis Bird, 1712 ; replaced by a new \none by R. Belt and others ; uncovered by the \nlord mayor 15 Dec. 1S86 \n\nCitizen\'s .jubilee service ... 23 June, 1887 \n\nLord Napier of Magdala buried . . 21 Jan. 189c* \n\nMemorial of Mr. William Bede Dalley, Australian \nstatesman (the first colonial memorial) unveiled \nby the earl of Rosebery . . . . 17 July, , r \n\n" Reconciliation service," on account of the dese- \ncration of the cathedral by the> suicide of Edward \nEaston on 28 Sept 13 Oct. ,, \n\nSir F. Edgar Boehm, sculptor, buried , 20 Dec. ,, \nSee Reredos, 1891. \n\nDIMENSIONS. \n\nLength of St. Paul\'s from the grand portico to east feet. \n\nend 51a- \n\nBreadth, north to south portico . . . . 282; \n\nExterior diameter of the dome .... 145. \n\nHeight from ground to top of cross . . . . 404. \n[Stated by surveyor to be 365 feet from the pavement.] \nCampaniles, or bell towers, at each corner, height . 20S \n\nBreadth of western entrance 189 \n\nCircumference of dome 420\' \n\nEntire circumference of the building . ... 2292 \nDiameter of ball <5 \n\nPAUL\'S CROSS, ST. (London), which stood \nat the north side of the cathedral, was a pulpit \nformed of wood, mounted upon steps of stone, and \ncovered with lead, from which the most eminent \ndivines were appointed to preach every Sunday in \nthe forenoon. To this place the court, the mayor,, \nthe aldermen, and principal citizens used to resort.. \nIt was in use as early as 1259, and was appropriated \nnot only to preaching, but to political and ecclesias- \ntical discourses, &c. The cross was demolished in \n1643, by order of the parliament. \n\nPAUL\'S SCHOOL, ST., was endowed i\xc2\xbb \n1512 by John Colet, dean of St. Paul\'s, for 153 boys- \n" of every nation, country, and class," in memory \nof the number of fishes taken by Peter. {John xxi. \nII). The first schoolhouse was burnt in 1666; the \nsecond, by Wren, was taken down in 1824, and \nanother building erected by George Smith. William \nLilly was the first master, and his grammar is still \nused by the school. Timbs, The claim of the Mercers\' \ncompany to be owners instead of trustees of Colet\' s \nestate was set aside by the vice chancellor, 11 \nFeb. 1870. The school ordered to be removed to- \nWest Kensington ; site bought, June, 1878. New \nbuilding designed by Mr. Waterhousc opened by \nlord Selborne, 23 April, 18S4. The number of scho- \nlars has been increased. \n\nSt. Paul\'s Industrial School, Mile End, ordered to \nbe closed by the home secretary in consequence of \nserious charges against the managers ; brought \nforward by Mrs. Surr, member of the metropolitan \nSchool Board, Nov. ; she is warmly commended \nin the home secretary\'s letter, 15 Nov. ; who re- \nmitted the case to the public prosecutor . Nov. 1SS1 \nMr. T. Scrutton, manager, sued Miss Helen Taylor, \nand obtained 1000?. for damages; the charges were \n\nwithdrawn 30 J une, 1S82 \n\nPAUPEES, see Poor. \n\nPA VAN, Pavane, or Paviu, was a slow dance \nof the 1 6th and 17th centuries, sometimes accom- \npanied by singing. \n\n\n\nPAVEMENT. \n\n\n\n730 PEACE PEESEEVATION ACTS. \n\n\n\nPAVEMENT. The Carthaginians are said to \nhave been the first who paved their towns with \nstones. The Komans, in the time of Augustus, had \npavement in many of their streets ; the Appian \nway, a paved road, was constructed 312 B.C. In \nEngland there were few paved streets before Henry \nVII.\' s reign. London was first paved about 1533. \nIt was paved with flagstones between 1815 and \n1825. "Wood and asphalte paving were tried in \n1839, and have been disused since 1847 ; see Wood \nPavement. Asphalte has been much used since \n1869. Wood reported to be the best for London, \nMay, 1876. \n\xe2\x80\xa2Grano-metallic stone laid down in a plastic state in \n\npart of the Strand, London, and in other places, 1885 \n\nPA VIA (N. Italy), the ancient Ticinum or \nFapia. Its university, founded by Charlemagne, \nis said to be the oldest in Europe. Pavia was built \nby the Gauls, who were driven out by the Komans, \nand these in their turn were expelled by the Goths : \nin 568 it was taken 4jy the Lombards, and became \nthe capital of their kingdom. In the 12th century \nit was erected into a republic, but soon after was \n-subjected to Milan and followed its fortunes. On \n.24 Feb. 1525, a battle was fought near here between \nthe French and the Imperialists, when the former \nwere defeated, and their king, Francis I., after \nfighting with heroic valour, and killing seven men \nwith his own hand, was at last obliged to surren- \nder himself a prisoner. It was long asserted that \nFrancis wrote to his mother, Louisa of Savoy, regent \nof the kingdom during his absence, saying, Tout \n.est perdu, madame, fors Vhonneur (All is lost, \nmadam, except honour). The words are now said \nto have been, L\'honneur et la vie qui est saidve. \n\nPAWNBEOKINGr. The Roman emperors \nlent money upon land. The origin of borrowing \n.money by means of pledges deposited with lenders \nis referred to Perugia, in Italy, about 1462. The \ninstitutions were termed monti dipietd (ivhich see). \nSoon afterwards, it is said that the bishop of \n\xe2\x96\xa0Winchester established a system of lending on \npledges, but without interest. The business of \npawnbrokers was regulated in 1756, and licences \nissued in 1783. The rate of interest on pledges was \nhxed in 1800. In London there were, in 1851, 334 \npawnbrokers ; and in England, exclusively of \nLondon, 1127 ; the number is increasing more than \nin proportion to the population. In i860 an act \nwas passed enabling pawnbrokers to charge a half- \npenny for every ticket describing things pledged \nfor a sum under 5.S. The acts relating to pawn- \nbrokers were amended in 1856, 1859, i860. Pawn- \nbrokers in Great Britain: 1851, 1873; in 1861, \n.2578; in 1871, 3540. The law was consolidated in \nthe pawnbrokers\' act passed 10 Aug. 1872. \n\nPAX, a small tablet, generally silver, termed, \ntabula pacts or osculatorium, kissed by the Poman \nCatholic priests and laity; substituted for the \nprimeval kiss of peace in the early church. The \nPax is said to have been introduced about the 12th \n\xe2\x80\xa2century. \n\nPAYMASTEE GENEEAL. In 1836 the \narmy and navy pay departments were consolidated \ninto the paymaster-general\' s-office, sometimes held \n.by a cabinet minister. \n\nPEABODY FUND. Mr. George Peabody, \nan American merchant (born 18 Feb. 1795, died 4 \n\xe2\x80\xa2 Nov. 1869), who had made his fortune in London, \ngave on 12 March, 1862, 150,000/., on 21 Jan. \n1866, 100,000/., on 5 Dec. 1868, 100,000/., and by \nhis will directed his trustees to pay 150,000/. \xe2\x80\x94 hi all \n\n\n\n500,000/. \xe2\x80\x94 to ameliorate the condition of the London \npoor. \n\nAn autograph letter, promising her portrait in \nminiature, was sent him hy the queen, 28 March, 1866 \n\n[Inscription on the miniature sent: \xe2\x80\x94 "V. R. pre- \nsented by the Queen to G. Peabody, Esq., the \nbenefactor of the poor of London."] \n\nThe first block of buildings for working classes, termed \n" Peabody dwellings," in Commercial street, Spital- \nfields, was opened 29 Feb. 1864 ; and others since, in \nSpitalfields, Islington, Shadwell, Westminster, Chel- \nsea, Bermondsey, &c. ; they have been found to be \nself-supporting, 1878. In 1879, net gain, 24,786?. ; 1885, \n23,691?. ; 1887, 24,902?. ; 1888, 29,611?. \n\nMr. Peabody\'s statue, at the east end of the \nEoyal Exchange, was inaugurated by the prince \nof Wales 23 July, 1869 \n\nFuneral service at Westminster abbey . 12 Nov. ,, \n\nFuneral at Portland, U. S., prince Arthur present \n\n8 Feb. 1870 \n\nHe also gave large sums, for educational purposes, in. \nthe United States. \n\n39,763?. expended on land and buildings in 1885, making \nthe total expenditure 1,210,550?. \n\nNet gains, rent and interest in 1890, 28,656/. \n\nPEACE. A temple was dedicated to peace by \n\nVespasian, 75 ; see Fire-tvorks, Treaties, Justices, \n\n&c. \xe2\x80\x94 "Peace of Beligion" (between catholics \n\nand protestants) was signed at Augsburg, 15 Sept. \n\n1555- \n\nA Peace Society, founded 1816, for the promotion \nof universal peace ; holds annual meetings ; pro- \nposed amalgamation with the International Arbi- \ntration and Peace Association (founded by Mr. \nLewis Appletonin 18S0), Dec. 1884. The associa- \ntion divided in May, 1886, when the British arbi- \ntration association was founded by Mr. Appleton. \nA congress of the friends of peace, from all parts of \nthe world, commenced its sittings at Paris, 22 Aug. \ni84\'9- It met in London at Exeter hall, 30 Oct. \nfollowing ; and at Frankfort, in St. Paul\'s church, \n22 Aug. 1850 ; at Birmingham, 28 Nov. 1850 ; and \nat Exeter hall, 22 July, 1851. A meeting was held \nat Manchester, 27 Jan. 1853 ; and at Edinburgh, \n\n12 Oct. 1853 \n\nMr. Bright and Mr. Cobden were among the most \nconspicuous members of the society. A deputa- \ntion from the Peace Society, consisting of Messrs. \nJ. Sturge, A. Pease, and another Quaker friend, \nstated their views to the emperor of Russia at St. \nPetersburg, at an interview granted them in Feb. 1854 \n\nAt the stormy international arbitration and peace \ncongress at Geneva, Garibaldi was present, \n\n9-12 Sept. 1867 \n\nA peace congress met at Berne . . 24 Sept. 1868 \n\nA t the peace congress held at Lausanne, the violence \nof the Communists at Paris in May, was warmly \nreprobated 25 Sept. 1S71 \n\nCongress held at Lugano, 23 Sept. 1872 ; at the \nHague, 25 Sept. 1873 ; at Paris, 6 Sept. 1875 ; at \nGeneva, Oct. 1877 ; at Paris, 25 Sept. 1878; at \nBrussels, 17 Oct. 1S82 ; at Berne . 4-9 Aug. 1884 \n\nMeeting at Crystal Palace near London, 22 July, \n1885 ; another meeting 16 July, 1886 ; at Geneva, \n9 Sept. 1887 ; at Paris, 23 June, 1889 ; in Lon- \ndon, i4July,i89o ; Romen Nov. 1891 ; Berne, Aug. 1892 \n\nThe principle of arbitration in place of war was \nadopted by the Pan-American Congress at Wash- \ninton ; a treaty was signed for several of the \n\nstates 28 April, 1890 \n\nInter-Parliamentary Conferences, on International \nArbitration (members of diiferent legislatures) : \nfirst meeting at Paris, M. Jules Simon president \nJune, 1889 ; London, lord Herschell president, \n22 July, i8;o; Borne 3-7 Nov. 1S91 ; at Berne, \nAug. 29, 30, 31, 1892. \nThe International Arbitration Society meets at \nFrankfort, 17 Sept. 1890 ; at Westminster, 1 \nJuly, 1891 ; again 30 May, 1892 \n\nPEACE PEESEEVATION ACTS (Ire- \nland) : one passed 4 April, 1870, was continued in \n1876 to 31 June, 1880. A new act to last till 1 June, \n\n1886, passed 21 March, 1881, continued till 31 Dec. \n\n1887, 4 June, 1886. See Arms Fills. \n\n\n\nPEACHES. \n\n\n\n731 \n\n\n\nPEEL ADMINISTRATIONS. \n\n\n\nPEACHES are said to have been introduced \ninto this country from Persia about 1562. \n\nPEARLS, mentioned Job xxviii. 18. M. \nBeaumur, in 1717, alleged tbat pearls are formed \nlike other stones in animals. An ancient pearl was \nvalued by Pliny at 80,000/. sterling. One which \nwas brought in 1574, to Philip II., of the size of a \npigeon\'s egg, was valued at 14,400 ducats. A pearl \nnamed the Incomparable, spoken of by Be Boote, \nweighed thirty carats, equal to five pennyweights, \nand was about the size of a muscadine pear. The \npearl mentioned by Tavernier, as beiug in possession \nof the emperor of Persia, was purchased of an Arab \nin 1633, and is valued at a sum equal to 110,400/. \nValue of pearls imported into Great Britain, 1856, \n56,162/. Artificial mother of pearl is said to Lave \nbeen made at Berne by Mr. K. Gehmia. \n\nPEASANTS\' WAR, see Jacquerie. \n\nPEAT, see Bogs. A peat coal and charcoal \ncompany, established iu 1873, when coal was \n4I6\'. a ton. \n\n"PECULIAR PEOPLE," a small sect \nfounded iu London by Wm, Bridges and Jas. Ban- \nyard ini838; chief se it Essex. Two members, Thomas \nand Maryanne Wagstaffe, were tried and acquitted of \nmanslaughter, 29 Jan. 1868. They had neglected \ng itting medical assistance for their sick child, and \ndepended on the efficac3 r of their elders\' prayers and \nanointing it with oil {James v. 14). Many eases of \nhealing by these means are asserted. On 8 May, 1872, \na father was convicted for neglecting to get medical \nadvice for his child who died of small pox ; and the \nsect agreed to modify their practice. Establishments \nfur healing diseases by prayer exist in Germany. \nAt another trial, Thomas Hines was acquitted, in accord- \nance with the opinion of the comt ; Baron Pigott held \nthat the case did not amount to criminal neglect be- \ncause the prisoner had not called in a doctor to his \nsick child, 19 Aug. 1874 ; similar eases since ; 1875-6. \nJohn Robert Downes (for neglect respecting scarlet fever) \nsentenced to 3 months\' imprisonment 21 Sep>t. 1876. \n\nPEDESTRIANISM. Euchidas, a citizen of \nPlatasa, went from thence to Delphi to bring the \nsacred lire. This he obtained, and returned with it \nthe same day before sunset, having travelled 125 \nEnglish miles. No sooner had he saluted his fellow- \ncitizens, and delivered the fire, than he fell dead at \ntheir feet. After the battle of Marathon, a soldier \nwas sent from the field to announce the victory at \nAthens. Exhausted with fatigue, and bleeding \nfrom his wounds, he cried out, " Bejoice, we are \nconquerors!" and immediately expired. \nFoster Powel, the English pedestrian, performed many \nastonishing journeys on foot. His expedition from \nLondon to York and back again, in 1788, is said to \nhave been completed in 140 hours. \nCaptain Barclay, for a wager (on which many thousands \nof pounds depended), walked 1000 miles in 1000 suc- \ncessive hours, each mile in each hour, in forty-two \ndays and nights (less 8 hours). His task was accom- \nplished on 10 July, 1809. \nThomas Standen, aged 60, of Salehurst, walked noo \nmiles in 1100 hours (1 mile in 1 hour), finished, \nJuly, 1811. \nRichard Manks, a native of Warwickshire, undertook (in \nimitation of captain Barclay) to walk 1000 miles in \n1000 hours : the place chosen was the Barrack-tavern \ncricket ground, in Sheffield ; he commenced on Monday, \n17 June, 1850, and completed the 1000 miles, 29 July \nfullowing, winning a considerable sum. \nOn 7 Oct. 1861, a 12 miles foot-race was held, when \nLevett, the champion of England, ran 7 miles in 37 \nminutes 27 seconds ; Deerfoot, a Seneca Indian, ran 12 \nmiles in 65 minutes 5 seconds ; and Mills ran 10 miles \nin 54 minutes 10 seconds ; other races followed. \nOn 11 May, 1863, Deerfoot was beaten by White, who \nran 10 miles in 52 minutes 14 seconds. \n\n\n\nMiss Richards walked 1000 miles in 1000 hours \n\n18 May-29 June, 1874 \n\nEdward Payson Weston (American), at Newark, \nU.S., walked 500 miles in 5 days 23 hours 34 rain. \n\n21-26 Dec. ,, \n\nWm. Perkins, at Lillie Bridge, London, S.W., \nwalked 8 miles in less than one hour . 20 Sept. 1S7.5 \n\nMatch between AVeston and Perkins at Agricul- \ntural Hall, London, N., began 9.25 p.m. 8 Feb. \n1876 ; Perkins walked 50 miles in 9 h. 37 m. 41 s., \nrested 26 m., went on for 65 m., and stopped; \nWeston walked 50 miles in 9 h. 55 m. 52 s. , went \non for 16 h., stopped for 1 h., went on to 24 h. \n(walked 109 miles 758 yards), . . 8-9 Feb. 1S76 \n\nWeston began to walk 500 miles in 6 days at Agri- \ncultural Hall,\' 12.5 a.m. 6 March, had walked 450 \nmiles 11 March; he walked m miles in 24 con- \nsecutive hours at Manchester . . April, ,, \n\nBella St. Clair walked 1000 miles in 950 hours \n\n25 July, et seq. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nWeston engaged to walk 505 miles in 6 days at \nAgricultural hall, London, walked 460 18-23 Dee. ,, \n\nMatch between Weston and O\'Leary, for 1000 gui- \nneas ; won by O\'Leary, who walked 520 miles, \nAVeston 510 miles . . . .2-7 April, 187/ \n\nWm. Gale, aged 45, walked 1500 miles in 1000 con- \nsecutive hours, at Lillie bridge, London, S.W. \n26 Aug. -6 Oct. ; 4000 J-miles in 4000 consecutive \n10 minutes, at Agricultural hall, Loudon ; com- \npleted 17 Nov. ,, \n\nMatch of 17 pedestrians at Agricultural hall; \nO\'Leary won, walked 520 miles 18-23 March, 1878 \n\nGrand match (of 18 competitors) for championship \nand 500L , Agricultural hall ; 6 days and 6 nights ; \nwon by W. Corkey, who walked 521 miles \n\n28 0ct.-2 Nov. ,, \n\nE. P. Weston starts to walk over England 2000 miles \nin 1000 consecutive hours (except on Sundays), 18 \nJan. ; fails by 22J hours . . . .28 Feb. 1879 \n\nWeston walked sscfmiles at the Agricultural hall, \nand won sir John Astley\'s belt . 16-21 June, ,, \n\nBlower Brown walked 553 miles in 6 days (won long \ndistance championship of England, Astley\'s belt, \n&c.) 16-21 Feb. 1SS0 \n\nBelt, &e. won by Rowell . . . 1-6 Nov. ,, \n\nWm. Gale attempts to walk 2500 miles in 1000 horns ; \nwalks 24055 miles. . 20 Nov. 1880, to 1 Jan. 1881 \n\nWeston walks 5000 miles yo. 100 days (on teetotal \nprinciples) . . .21 Nov. 1883-15 March, 1S84 \n\nLittlewood wins sir John Astley\'s belt at Westmin- \nster Aquarium ; 405 miles in six days . Nov. ., \n\nGeorge Littlewood walks 623 miles, 1,320 yards in \nsix days at New York ; declared champion of the \nworld"; concluded 1 Dec. iSSS \n\nPEDLARS, see Hawkers . The Pedlars\' act \npassed, Aug. 1871. \n\nPEDOMETER AND ODOMETER, appa- \nratus for measuring the distance traversed by a \nwalker or carriage. \n\nOdometers, or road-measurers, are said to have \nbeen known in the 15th century ; and improve- \nments in them were made in England by Butter- \nfield, about 1678; and by Meynier, in France \n\nabout 1724 \nWm. Grayson\'s odometer, or road-measurer, to be \n\nattached to carriages, was patented . 1 Dec. 1S51 \nRalph Gouts\' iicdomcUr for indicating the steps \n\ntaken by a walker, was patented . 4 Nov. 1799 \n\nWm. Payne\'s pedometer for the waistcoat pocket, \npatented 15 Feb. 1S31 \n\nPEEL ACTS. Among the most important \nwere the Bank Acts of 1S19 and 1844; the acts \namending the criminal laws, 1827 ; dividing \nparishes into districts, 1843, and the act repealing \nthe corn laws in 1846. \n\nPEEL ADMINISTRATIONS.* The first \n\n\xe2\x99\xa6 Sir Robert Peel was born 5 Feb. 178S ; entered par- \nliament in 1809 ; became under-secretary of the colonies \nin 1811, chief secretary for Ireland in 1812 ; M.P. for \nOxford in 1818 (when he resigned his office); secretary \nfor home department in 1822 ; resigned office and re- \nappointed in 1827 ; resigned again in 1830 ; became \n\n\n\nPEELITES. \n\n\n\n732 \n\n\n\nPELEW ISLANDS. \n\n\n\nsucceeded the Melbourne administration, which, \nwas broken up on the retirement of lord Altliorp, \nthe chancellor of the exchequer, in Nov. 1834. \nSir E. Peel, then in Italy, was summoned home, \nthe duke of Wellington holding the seals of office in \nthe interim. They both resigned in April, 1835. \nIn May, 1841, sir E. Peel carried a vote of want of \nconfidence in the Melbourne cabinet, but did not \ntake office ; and in Sept. of that year, he became \nagain premier. He lost the. support of the conserva- \ntive party by obtaining the repeal of the corn laws, \nand resigned 29 June, 1846. \n\nFirst administration (Dec. 1834). \nSir Robert Peel, first lord of the treasury and chancellor \n\nof the exchequer. \nLord Lyndlmrst, lord chancellor. \nEarl of Rosslyn, lore!, president. \nLord Wharncliffe, privy seed. \nHenry Goulburn, duke of "Wellington, and earl of \n\nAberdeen, home, foreign, and colonial secretaries of state. \nEarl De Grey, first lord of the admiralty. \nLord Ellenborough, and Alexander Baring, board of \n\ncontrol and trade. \nSir Edward Knatchbull, paymaster of the forces. \nJ. C. Hemes, seer -etary-o] -war. \nSir George Murray, master-general of the ordnance, &c. \n\nSECOND ADMINISTRATION (Sept. 1841). \n\nSir Robert Peel, first minister. \n\nDuke of "Wellington in the cabinet without office, aft. \ncommander-in-chief. \n\nLord Lyndlmrst, lord chancellor. \n\nLord Wharncliffe, lord president. \n\nDuke of Buckingham, lord privy-seal (succeeded by duke \nof Buccleueh). \n\nSir James Graham, earl of Aberdeen, and lord Stanley, \nhome, foreign, and colonial secretaries. \n\nHenry Goulburn, chancellor of the exchequer. \n\nEarl of Haddington, first lord of the admiralty. \n\nEarl of Ripon, board\' of trade (succeeded by W. E. Glad- \nstone). \n\nLord Ellenborough, India board (succeeded by lord Fitz- \ngerald ; succeeded by earl of Ripon). \n\nSir Henry Hardinge, sir Edward Knatchbull, sir George \nMurray, &c. \n\n[Terminated 29 June, 1846, by sir Robert\'s resigna- \ntion.] \n\nPEELITES, a name given to gentlemen, whigs \nand tories, who adhered to sir Eobert Peel, after \nhis defeat by the conservative party, on account of \nhis free-trade measures carried in 1846. The \nprincipal were Henry Goulburn, ^Y. E. Gladstone, \nSidney (afterwards lord) Herbert, sir James Gra- \nham, Edward Cardwell, sir George Cleric, lord Lin- \ncoln (afterwards duke of Newcastle), and lords \nCanning and Elgin, and others. Several of them \nbecame members of the Palmerston and Aberdeen \nadministrations (which see). \n\nPEEL PICTURES. The family collection \n(70) were purchased for the National Gallery for \n75,000/. 1871. \n\nPEEP-O\' -DAY-BOYS, insurgentsin Ireland, \n\nwho visited the houses of their antagonists at \nbreak of day, in search of arms. They first appeared \n4 July, 1784, and were long the terror of the \ncountry ; see Defenders. \n\nPEEEESSES of the United Kingdom (in \ntheir own right) : 7 in 1885, Countess of Cromartie \n(duchess of Sutherland), baronesses Berkeley, Ber- \nners, Burdett-Coutts, Le Despencer, Willoughby \nD\'Eresby, Bolsover. In 1892, 6: viscountess Ham- \npremier in 1834 and 1841 (see above). He was thrown \nfrom his horse 29 June, and died 2 July, 1850. He greatly \nrelaxed the severity of our criminal code in 1827, et scq. ; \nestablished the new police, and carried the catholic \nemancipation bill in 1829, and the repeal of the corn laws \nin 1846. Statues have been erected to him~at Salford, \niu 1852 ; at Tamworth, Leeds, Bury, and Manchester, in \n1853 ; and in London and Birmingham in 1855. \n\n\n\nbleden and baronesses Berkeley, Berners, Bolsover, \nBurdett-Coutts and Macdonahf of Earnsclift\'e. \n\nPEEES, see lords. \n\nPEGTJ, a province of Ihe Burmese empire, dis- \ncovered by the Portuguese in 1520. Pegu, the \ncapital, was taken by major Cotton, with 300 men, \nin June, 1852, without loss ; and afterwards \nabandoned. It was again occupied by the Burmese \nand strongly fortified, with a garrison of 4000 men. \nIt was recaptured by general Godwin with 1200 \nmen and two guns, in two hours, with the loss of \nsix killed and thirtj\'-two wounded. The province \nwas annexed to our Indian possessions, by procla- \nmation, 20 Dec. 1852, and has since prospered. In \nFeb. 1862, it was united with Arracan and Tenas- \nserim as British Burmah. \n\nPEIHO, see China, 1859, i860. \n\nPEISHWA, the prime minister of the Mah- \nrattas, seized the sovereign power and settled at \nPoonah, 1749. The title was abolished in 1818. \n\nPEIWAE PASS (Kotul), in the Khoorum \nvalley, Afghanistan. Here general Koberts, with \nthe 72nd highlanders and the Ghoorkas, defeated the \nAfghans, 2 Dec. 1878. Major Anderson and capt. \nKelso were killed, and about 80 men were killed and \nwounded. The enemy\'s loss was very great. \n\nPEKIN, the capital of China, was built by \nKachilai-Khan, grandson of Genghis- [Chan, about \n1267. Here was held the court of the Mongol or \nYuen dynasty, 1280 to 1368. In 1369, Hung-wu, \nof the Ming dynasty, removed to Nankin, which, \nwas the capital till Yung-lo removed his court to \nPekin in 1410 ; and by him and his successors the \ncity was enlarged, fortified, and beautified. It was \nvisited by lord Macartney, Sept. 1793; surrendered \nto the allied English and French armies, 12 Oct. \ni860; and evacuated by them 5 Nov., after peace \nhad been signed 24 Oct. It was described as being in \na very desolate state, and the inhabitants scattered \nand indigent. English and French representatives \nwere settled at Pekin, March, 1861. Preliminary \nPeace with France concluded here, 5 April, 1885. \nThe famous temple or Altar of Heaven burnt 18 \nSept. 1889. Population, estimated 1874, 1)648,814. \n\nPELAGIANS, followers of Pelagius, a Briton, \nappeared at Home about 400. Their doctrines were \ncondemned by councils at Jerusalem, Carthage, and \nother places, 415,530. They maintained : \xe2\x80\x94 \n1. That Adam was by nature mortal, and whether he had \nsinned or not would certainly have died. 2. That the \nconsequences of Adam\'s sin were confined to his own \nperson. 3. That new-born infants are in the same \ncondition with Adam before the fall. 4. That the law \nqualified men for the kingdom of heaven, and was \nfounded upon equal promises with the Gospel. 5. \nThat the general resurrection of the dead does not fol- \nlow in virtue of Christ\'s resurrection. \n\nPELASGI, the primitive inhabitants of Asia \nMinor, Greece, and Italy, appear to have belonged \nto the Indo-Germanie race. They were in Greece \nabout 1900 B.C., and in Italy about 1600 B.C. They \nhave been termed Tyrrheni, Sicanior Siculi, Apuli, \n&c. From the Pelasgi came the Dorians, jEolians, \nand Ionians ; all three being Hellenes or Greeks. \nThe Pelasgi appear not to have had the art of \nwriting, but have left numerous architectural re- \nmains ; they were probably a wealthy, powerful \nand intelligent people. \n\nPELEW ISLANDS (N. Pacific Ocean), dis- \ncovered by the Spaniards in the 17th century. The \nEast India Company\'s packet Antelope, captain \nWilson, was wrecked here in 1783. The king, \nAbba Thullc, allowed captain Wilson to bring prince \n\n\n\nPELHAM ADMINISTRATION. \n\n\n\n733 \n\n\n\nPENNSYLVANIA. \n\n\n\nLe Boo, his sou, to England, where he arrived \nin 1784, and died of the small-pox soon after. The \nEast India Company erected a monument over his \ngrave in Rotherhithe churchyard. \n\nPELHAM ADMINISTRATION. Mr. H. \n\nPelham replaced the eaiiof Wilmington as premier, \n25 Aug. 1743 ; see Wilmington. Iu Nov. 1744, \nthe following ministry was formed (termed " the \nbroad bottom administration," because it compre- \nhended a grand coalition of the parties). It was \ndissolved by the death of Mr. Pelham, 6 March, \n1754- \nHenry Pelham, first lord of the treasury and chancellor of \n\nthe exchequer. \nLord Hardwieke, lord chancellor. \nDuke of Dorset, president of the council. \nEarl Gower, lord privy seal. \nDuke of Newcastle aud the earl of Harrington, secretaries \n\nof state. \nDuke of Montagu, master-general of the ordnance. \nDuke of Bedford, first lord of the admiralty. \nDuke of Grafton, lord chamberlain. \nDuke of Richmond, master of the horse. \nDuke of Argyll, keeper of the great seal of Scotland. \nMarquis of Tweeddale, secretary of state for Scotland. \n\nAll of the cabinet. \nThe duke of Devonshire and duke of Bolton were not of \nthe cabinet. \n\nPELLS (from pellis, skin), receipts on parch- \nment rolls deposited in the court of exchequer. \nBy an act passed in 1834, the office of clerk of the \npells was abolished, and a comptroller-general \nappointed. "Pell Records," or "Issues of the \nExchequer," or payments made out of his revenue \nby James I., were published by the government in \n1836. \n\nPELOPIUM, see Niobium. \n\nPELOPONNESUS (the island of Pelops), a \npeninsula, S. Greece, termed Morea in the 13th \ncentury, said to have been settled by Pelops about \n1283 b.c. Pelopoxnesian War continued for \ntwenty-seven years between the Athenians and the \npeople of the Peloponnesus, with their respective \nallies, and is the most famous of the wars of Greece. \nIt began by an attempt of the Boeotians to surprise \nPlattea, 431 B.C., on 7 May, and ended 404 by the \ntaking of Athens by the Lacedaemonians. \n\nPELTJSIUM (now Tineli), formerly Sin, the \nkey of Egypt. Here, in 525 B.C., Psammeticus III. \nwas defeated by Cambyses, the Persian, Avho thereby \n\xe2\x96\xa0obtained possession of the kingdom. Pelusium \nsurrendered to Alexander, 333 ; was taken by the \nPersians, 309; by Antiochus, 173; by Augustus, \n30 B.C. ; and after a protracted resistance by Am- \nrou, the Saracen, a.d. 638. \n\nPEMBROKE (S. Wales). A county palatine \ntill 1536. The royal dockyai\'d at Milford was \nmoved to Pembrokein 1814. Pembroke College \nand Hall, see under Oxford and Cambridge. Popu- \nlation, i88r, 14,156; 1891, 14,978. \n\nPENAL LAWS, see Criminal Laws and \nRoman Catholics. Penal servitude was substituted \nfor transportation by acts passed in 1853 and 1857, \nand amended in 1864. A penal servitude commis- \nsion appointed, 22 Jan. 1878. \nFirst session of the International Penal Law Union \n\nopened at Brussels 7 Aug. 18S9 \n\nThe Penal Servitude acts, 1853 et seq. combined by \n\nact passed 5 Aug. 1891 \n\nPENANCE, a sacrament in the Roman church, \narose out of the practice of auricular confession \n{which sec). The council of Trent, in its 14th ses- \nsion (1551), decreed that every one is accursed who \nshall affirm that this sacrament was not instituted \nby Christ. \n\n\n\nPENANG, or Pbin-ce op Wales\'s Island, \n\nwas given up to the East India Company in 1786, \nby captain F. Light, who received it as a marriage \nportion with the daughter of the king of Keddah. \nAfter several changes it became one of the Straits \nSettlements {which see). \n\nPENDULUMS. The isochronous property \nof the pendulum is said to have been applied to \nclocks by Galileo about 1639, and by Richard Harris \nabout 1641. Christian Iiuyghens claimed this dis- \ncovery, 1658. See Clocks. George Graham in- \nvented the compensating pendulum, 1715. Experi- \nments were made to determine the density of the \nearth by pendulums by Mr. (aft. sir) G. B. Airy \n(aftds. astronomer royal), and others, in a mine \nin Cornwall, in 1826 and 1828 ; and at Horton \nColliery 1854. In 1851, M. Foucault demonstrated \nthe rotation of the earth by the motion of a \npendulum. \n\nPENGE MYSTERY, Surrey, see Trials, \nSept. 1877. \n\nPENINSULAR WAR, see under Spain, \n1808-14. \nWellington computed that he lost 36,000 men in \n\nthis war \xe2\x80\x94 killed, prisoners, deserters, &c. He \n\ntook great care of his men (1836). \n\nPENITENTIARIES. The London Female \nPenitentiary, Pentonville-road, was established in \n1807 ; and the British Penitent Female Refuge at \nCambridge Heath, Hackney, in 1829. The Church \nPenitentiary Association, founded 185 1. See Jlill- \nbank . \n\nPENITENTS, see Magdalcns. The Penitents \nof the name of Jesus in Spain, were a congregation \nof persons who had led a licentious life, formed \nabout 1550. The penitents of Orvieto were formed \ninto au order of nuns about 1662. \n\nPENNSYLVANIA (N. America), the first \nstate in the Union in regard to mineral wealth. \nThe settlement by the Swedes here in 1643, \nwas taken by the Dutch in 1655, and acquired \n\\>y the British in 166L Pennsylvania was \ngranted by Charles II. to the duke of York, \n1664; and it was sold to the Penn family, \n1681. [Pennsylvania was afterwards purchased \nfrom the Indians by the celebrated William \nPenn (son of admiral Penn), who\' went out from \nEngland with a number of colonists ; from which, \nperiod the settlement gradually increased. Mr. \nPenn granted a charter in May, 1701, but the emi- \ngrants from the Low Countries refused it, and \nseparated themselves from the pr-ovince of Pennsyl- \nvania. They afterwards had their own assembly, \nin which the governor of Pennsylvania presided. \nThis state adopted an independent constitution in \n1787, and established the present iu 1790. Capital, \nEarrisburg ; principal city, Philadelphia. It was \nstrongly unionist during the civil war, 1861-5 ; see \nUnited States of America, anclPetroleum. For strikes \nsee United States, 1877, 1882. Population in i860, \n2,906,370; in 1880, 4,282,891 ; 1890,5,258,014. \nGreat destruction of property and life by a tornado, \n\nespecially at Pittsburg and Reading, 9 Jan. i83g. \nSeveral days\' violent storms and heavy rain in the \nAlleghanies, swelled the rivers awl caused the over- \nflow of the lakes, May, 1889. At 5 p.m. 31 May, the \nSouth Fork reservoir, a lake about 4 miles square burst \nthe huge dam, and a mass of water rushed down the \nSouth Fork, four miles, by the deep circuitous Cone- \nmaugh valley to its junction with the Conemaugfa \nriver, driving all before it. For a distance of about \n12 miles round Johnstown the flood swept out towns \nand villages, destroying all the bridges, railways, and, \nfactories. South Fork, Johnstown, Cambria city, \nMorrelville, Sheridan, and other flourishing towns \nwere completely blotted out. A great mass of floating \nwreckage, which was stopped by a stone railway \n\n\n\nPENNY. \n\n\n\n734 \n\n\n\nPEOPLE. \n\n\n\nbridge at Johnstown, took fire, above five hundred per- \nsons, who were hurled on the burning mass, perished. \nThe most energetic measures were taken by the govern- \nment, by several states and by the railway companies \nfor the relief of the sufferers, and for averting imminent \nfamine and pestilence. Bobbers of the dead and \n" living were lynched by a vigilance committee. Troops \nwere sent to maintain order, liberal subscriptions were \nbegun in London, Paris, and other places, June. \nIt is stated that the dam had previously given visible \nsigns of its being in a very insecure condition, and \nhad not been properly constructed. Several towns \nand villages submerged, June ; many bridges swept \naway ; above 150 deaths reported, \nlatest statistics state the result of the Johnstown \n\ndisaster to be about 6,000 deaths . . 26 July, 1889 \nJohnstown again inundated through heavy rains . \n\nabout 16 Feb. 1891 \nPanic in a theatre at Johnstown, 10 persons killed, \nmany injured . . ... . .10 Dec. 1889 \n\nDestructive storms with loss of life at Pittsburg \n\nand neighbourhood 8 Feb. 1890 \n\nAt Hartford coal-pit, Ashley, "Wyoming valley, 28 \nmen were entombed and 26 perished by a cave-in \n\nand explosion 15 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nA cyclone in the Wyoming valley and neighbour- \nhood, about 54 killed . . . about 19 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nBy an explosion in the Friek mine, ten miles from \nMount Pleasant, 151 out of 160 men perished \n\n27 Jan. 1 891 \nBiotous strikes in the Pennsylvania coke district \nmuch destruction of property, \' reported 30 \nMarch ; desperate fight ; 9 men killed, 2 April ; \n1,000 soldiers maintaining order, 3 April ; rioting \nrenewed with desperate fights about 22 April, ,, \nA train containing 75 men thrown off the line while \nrushing through a burning forest near Conders- \nport, Potter county ; 5 men killed, many \n\ninjured about 12 May, ,, \n\nAfter heavy rains, when the rivers had become torrents, \nearly on 5 June, a cloud burst over the Pittsburg Oil \nregions, causing great inundations. At Titusville the \ntanks of oil and distilled benzine were upset and were \nignited by lightning and the city was fired. A flaming \nstream, with floating wreckage carried all before it, de- \nstroying the bridges. Explosions followed, causing a \npanic, and the people fled to the hills, women and \nchildren being trampled on during the rush. The fiery \nriver reachedOil city 18 miles distant, and a large part \nof it was reduced to ashes or submerged, 1892. \nIt was reported that 150 persons were either drowned or \n\nburnt at Titusville, and about 200 missing. \nThe loss of property at the two cities was estimated at \n3,000,000 dollars ; large sums were immediately sub- \nscribed for the relief of the sufferers, 6 June et seq. \n1892. \n\nPENNY. The ancient silver penny was the \nfirst silver coin struck in England, and the only one \ncurrent among the Anglo-Saxons. The penny until \nthe reign of Edward I. was struck with a cross, so \ndeeply indented that it might be easily parted into \ntwo for halfpence, and into four for farthings, and \nhence these names. Copper penny and two-penny \npieces were coined by Boulton and Watt, at Soho, \nBirmingham, in 1797, and were accounted the \nfinest of our copper currency ; see Coins, &c. \xe2\x80\x94 \nPenny-Post ; see Post-Office. \xe2\x80\x94 The Penny \nMagazine began in 1832; the Penny Cyclopaedia \nin 1833 (supplements in 1846 and 1858). The \nPenny Receipt stamp was appointed in 1853 (post- \nage stamps authorised to be used for receipts after I \nJune, 1881), and in 1858 a penny stamp was directed \nto be placed on bankers\' cheques.\xe2\x80\x94 Penny Banks \n(in 1861 about 200) were established about 1850. \nThey have become numerous, and in 1878 were \nauthorised toinvesttheir funds. \xe2\x80\x94 PennyEeadings, \nfor the working classes, became general in 1859. \nCarpenter\'s "Penny Readings," published in 1865-7. \nThe value of the Roman penny (mentioned Matt. xx. 2), \n\nor denarius, was estimated at jhd. of our money. \nPenny dinners for poor Board school children; organi- \nzation proposed at Society of Arts, 6 Dec. 1884 ; see \nDestitute Children. A similar self-supporting system \nexisted in the provinces. \n\n\n\nPENRUDEOCK\'S REBELLION on be- \nhalf of Charles II. was suppressed, and colonel John \nPenruddock himself executed, 16 May, 1655. \n\nPENSIONS. The crown\'s power of granting \n\nthem, often much abused, was materially checked \n\nby statute 1 Anne, c. 1 (1702). \n\nEnglish pension list fixed at 95,000?. . . . 1781 \n\nIrish pension list said to amount to 489^000?. . . . 1793 \n\nProvision made by parliament to reduce all the pen- \nsion lists of the united kingdom from 145,000?. to \na maximum of 75,000? 1S30 \n\nA committee appointed to define the proper persons \nto whom pensions should be granted : it reported \nin favour of servants of the crown and public, and \nalso of those who " by their useful discoveries\' in \nscience and attainments in literature and the arts, \nhave merited the gracious consideration of their \nsovereign and the gratitude of their country " . 1S34 \n\nThe queen empowered to grant annually new pen- \nsions to the amount of 1200?. .... 1837 \n\nThe political offices pension act passed . 9 Aug. 1S69 \n\nThe pensions commutation acts passed . 29 June, \n\n1871 and 1SS2 \n\nDeath of Rev. Thos. Thurlow, nephew of the lord \nchancellor, whereby pensions for abolished \noffices, said to amount to 11,779?. ceased 26 Sept. 1874. \n\nReport of committee on such pensions published \n\nSept. 1887 \n\nPerpetual pensions were granted to the dukes of \nGrafton, Richmond, Marlborough, and many \nothers in the 17th and 18th centuries. \n\nBy virtue of an act passed in 1873, various perpetual \npensions have been terminated by agreement for \ncompensation 1890 \n\nThe Old Age Pension scheme of Mr. Joseph Cham- \nberlain, M.P., proposed the establishment of a \nstate pension fund to be aided by annual parlia- \nmentary grants and contributions from local \nrates and from the annuitants, was considered by \na committee of the commons, 16 March ; adopted . \n\n17 May, 1892 \n\nPENTAGEAPH, see Pantograph. \n\nPENTAMETER YERSE (five feet), first \nused about the 7th century, B.C. ; see Elegy. \n\nPENTATEUCH, the five hooks of Moses, pro- \nbably written about 1452 B.C. See Bible. \n\nPENTECOST signifies the fiftieth, and is the \nsolemn festival of the Jews, called also " the feast of \nweeks," because it was celebrated fifty days, or seven \nweeks after the feast of the Passover. 1491 B.C. {Lev . \nxxiii. 15 ; JSxod. xxxiv. 22) ; see Whitsuntide. \n\nPENTLAND HILLS (near Edinburgh). \nHere the Scotch presbyterians, since called Came- \nron ians {which see), who had risen against the go- \nvernment on account of the establishment of episco- \npacy, were defeated by the royal troops, 28 Nov. 1666. \n\nPENZANCE, Cornwall. The town was burnt \nby the Spaniards, July, 1595. It was taken by \nFairfax in 1646. Here sir Humphry Davy was \nborn, 17 Dec. 1778, and here was inaugurated his \nmemorial statue, 17 Oct. 1872. Population, 1881, \n12,409; 1891, 12,448. \n\nPEOPLE. The duke of Norfolk and C. J. Pox, \nat a dinner in 1798, gave a toast "the majesty of \nthe people," for which their names were struck off \nthe list of privy councillors. A " people\'s petition " \nwas presented to parliament by Mr. T. Duncombe, \nand rejected, 2 May, 1842. "People\'s Parks," \nprincipally through private liberality, have been \nopened since 1846, at Manchester, Halifax, Bir- \nmingham, Sheffield, Dundee, Bradford, Hull, Bath, \nBolton, Liverpool, Leeds, &c. (which see). \nPeople\'s banks, based on co-operative principles \nhave been successfully introduced into Germany \nand Italy by Dr. Sehulze-Delitzsch ; they begin with \na deposit of z^d. and a monthly subscription of \nSd. In 1387 there were 2,200 of these banks in \n\n\n\nPEOPLE\'S PALACE. \n\n\n\n735 PERKINS\' METALLIC TE ACTORS. \n\n\n\nGermany and in that year, less than half of \nthem dealt with more than 50,000,000^ sterling. \nTheir introduction into Great Britain is warmly \nadvocated. \n\nPeople\'s Cafe Company established 1874, to give \nthe working classes the advantages of club-houses, \nopened their first house in Upper Whitecross- \nstreet, London 16 April, 187s \n\nA " People\'s Tribute" to the earl of Beaconsfield, a \ngold wreath, made by Hunt & Roskell, by sub- \nscription of 52,800 pennies ; collected by the \nagency of Mr. Tracy Turnerelli. Its presentation \nwas declined by the earl . . .16 June, 1879 \nSee Entertainment. \n\nPEOPLE\'S PALACE, see Beaumont Trust. \nPEPPER was used by the Greeks ; licences to \nsell pepper abolished, 1869. Pepper imported into \nthe United Kingdom in 1863, 16,810,467 lbs. ; in \n1883, 31.37S.589 Its. ; in 1887, 29,795,236 lbs. ; in \n1890, 29,691,858 lbs. \n\nPEPSIN, a peculiar organic substance found by \nSchwamrn in the gastric juice, and named by him \nfrom pepsis, digestion. It was experimented on by \nM. Blondlot in 1843, and has since been prescribed \nas a medicine. \n\nPEPYS\' DIARY- Samuel Pepys was born \n23 Feb. 1632 ; became secretary to the admiralty \nabout 1664; president of the Royal Society, 1684; \ndied 26 May, 1703. His "Diary," as published, \nbegins" 1 Jan. 1659-60; ends 31 May, 1669. \nThe MSS. at Magdalene College, Cambridge, was \ndeciphered by the Rev. John Smith. The first \nedition (with a selection from his correspondence) \nby Richard, lord Braybrooke, appeared in 1825. \nThe publication of a new edition, "deciphered \nwith additional notes by the Rev. Mynors Bright," 1 S75-9 \n\nPERA, a suburb of Constantinople, the residence \nof the British and other ambassadors ; has frequently \nbeen destroyed by fire; see Turkey, 2 Aug. 1831, \nand 5 June, 1870. \n\nPERAK, see Straits Settlement. \n\nPERCEVAL ADMINISTRATION". It \n\ncommenced on the dissolution of the duke of Port- \nland\'s, through his death, 30 Oct. 1809. Mr. Per- \nceval was assassinated in the lobby of the house of \ncommons, by Bellingham, n May, 1812. The earl \nof Liverpool succeeded as premier. \nSpencer Perceval [born 1762 ; chancellor of exchequer, \n1807], first lord of the treasu ry, chancellor of the exchequer, \nand chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. \nLord Eldon, lord chancellor. \nEarl Camden, lord president. \nEarl of Westmorland, lord privy seal. \nRichard Ryder, marquis of "Wellesley, and earl of Liver- \npool, home, foreign, and colonial secretaries. \nLord Mulgrave, admiralty. \nMr. Dumas, and earl Bathurst, boards of control and \n\ntrade. \nEarl of Chatham, ordnance. \nViscount Palmerston, secretary -at-war, &c. \n\nPERCUSSION CAPS, see Fire-arms. \n\n\' PERCY FAMILY. William de Percy ob- \ntained lands in Yorkshire from William the Con- \nqueror, and died at Antioch about 1096. \nThe heiress of the last baron Percy married Josceline \nde Louvaine, son of Godfrey, duke of Brabant, in \n\nthe reign of Henry II 1154-S9 \n\nHenry de Percy, their descendant, created earl of \n\nNorthumberland in 1377 \n\nMany of his descendants were slain during the wars \n\nof the Roses. \nLady Elizabeth Percy, the heiress of Josceline \nPercy, who died 1670, married Charles, duke of \nSomerset. \nLady Elizabeth Percy, heiress of their son Algernon \nSeymour, duke of Northumberland, married sir \nHugh Smithson, created duke of Northumber- \nland in 1766 \n\n\n\nTheir descendant, duke Algernon, died without \nissue, 12 Feb. 1865, and was succeeded by his \ncousin, George Percy, earl of Beverley, who dii d \n22 Aug. 1867 ; succeeded by George Algernon, the \npresent duke. \n\nThe Percy Society, for the publication of ancient \nballads, &c, named after Dr. Percy, bishop of \nDromore (died 1811), who published ballads, was \nestablished in 1840, published 94 little volumes, \nand was dissolved 1852- \n\nPcrey Anecdotes, classified, compiled by J. C. Rol \nand Thomas Byerley, under the names of Sholto and \nReuben Percy, 1820-3. \n\nPERED (Hungary)-. Here the Hungarians; \n\nunder Gorgey were defeated by Wohlgemuth and \nthe Russians, 21 June, 1S49. \n\nPEREKOP, an isthmus, five miles broad, \nconnecting the Crimea with the mainland. It was \ncalled by the Tartars Orkapou, " gate of the Isth- \nmus," which the Russians changed to its present \nname, which signifies a barren ditch. The lines \nacross the isthmus were forced by the Russian mar- \nshal Munich, May, 1736, and the fortress was taken. \nby Lacy, July, 1738. It was again strongly fortified \nby the khan, but was again taken by the Russians \nin 1771, who have since retained it. \n\nPERE-LA-CHAISE, see Cemeteries. \n\nPERFECTION, see Illuminati. \n. PERFUMERY. In Exodus xxx. (1490 B.C.), \ndirections are given for making the holy incense, \nPhilip Augustus of France granted a charter to the \nmaster perfumers in 1190. Perfumes became fash- \nionable in England in the reign of Elizabeth. In \ni860 there were about forty manufacturing per- \nfumers in London ; in Paris about eighty. ]S T o \nsuch trade as a perfumer was known in Scotland in \n1763. Creech. A stamp-tax was laid on various- \narticles of perfumery in England, and the vendor \nwas obliged to take out a licence in 1786. At the- \ncorner of Beaufort-buildings, in the Strand, resided \nLilly, the perfumer, mentioned in the Spectator. \n\nPERG-AMOS, see Seven Churches, 3. \n\nPERIODICAL LITERATURE, see News- \npapers, Magazines, and Reviews. "An Index to- \nPeriodical Literature to 1 Jan. 1887." By W. F. \nPoole. Published in two volumes,i882-8. \n\nPERIPATETIC PHILOSOPHY, see Ly- \nceum. \n\nPERIPLUS. The voyage of Hanno, the Car- \nthaginian navigator, probably in the third century \nB.C. His account of his travels, written in the- \nPunic language, was translated into Greek; an \nEnglish translation, edited by Falconer, in London T \n1797. \n\nPERJURY. The early Romans threw the- \noffender headlong from the Tarpeian precipice ; and \nthe Greeks set a mark of infamy upon him. After \nthe empire became Christian, any one who swore- \nfalsely upon the Gospels, was to have his tongue cut \nout. The canons of the primitive church enjoined \neleven years\' penance ; and in some states the false \nswearer became liable to the punishment he charged \nupon the innocent. In England perjury was pun- \nished with the pillory, line, and imprisonment, \n1562. By the Abolition of Oaths bill, persona \nmaking a false declaration are deemed guilty of a \nmisdemeanor ; Act 5 & 6 Will. IV. cc. 60 and 61, r> \nSept. 1835. Perhaps the greatest perjurer in mo- \ndern times was Titus Oatcs ; see Oates. A woman \nnamed Alice Grey was convicted of many perjuries \nin 1856. See Trials, 1873. \n\nPERKINS\' METALLIC TRACTORS, see \n\nAnimal Magnetism. \n\n\n\nPEEMANENT COMMITTEES. \n\n\n\nm \n\n\n\nPEESIA. \n\n\n\nPEEMANENT COMMITTEES. One was \n\nappointed, 15 Sept. 1871, by the French national \nassembly to watch over the proceedings of the go- \nvernment during a recess. It consisted of 25 per- \nsons of various parties. A similar committee of the \nSpanish cortes, appointed 22 March, 1873, was per- \nemptorily dissolved by the government 22 April \nfollowing. \n\nPEEMISSIVE PEOHIBITOEY BILL \n\n((which would give power to two-thirds of the rate- \npayers of a parish to refuse licences for the sale of \nintoxicating liquors) , advocated by the United King- \ndom Alliance party, was rejected by the house of \n\xe2\x80\xa2commons, 8 June, 1864; 12 May, 1869 (193-87) ; 17 \nMay, 1871 (206-124) \'1 \xc2\xa7 Mav > l \xc2\xb07 2 (369-15) ; 7 May, \n1873 (321-81); 17 June, 1874 (301-75); 16 June, \n1875 (371-86) ; 14 June, 1876 (299-81); withdrawn, \n25 July, 1877 ; (278-84) 26 June, 1878. It is \nstrongly advocated by sir "Wilfrid Lawson, late \nM.P.; resolution rejected (252-164) II March, 1879. \n\nResolution to give local option (that is, power to the \ninhabitants of any place to stop licensing public- \nhouses) was rejected by the commons (248-134) 5 \nMarch, 1880; but adopted (229-203) 18-19 June, 1880; \n(196-154) 14 June, 1881 ; (228-141) 27 April, 1883; re- \njected 29 April, 1891. \n\n\'"Local Option," an Americanism, is said not to work \nsatisfactorily in the United States. \n\nPEENAMBUCO, a province of Brazil, with a \ncity of the same name, comprising Recife and \nother towns, founded in 1530 ; seized by the \nBritish, and retained for a month, 1594; insurrec- \ntions here, 1661, 1710, 1817, 1821, and 1829. Popu- \nlation, 1890, 190,000. \n\nPEEONNE (N. France) . Louis XL of France, \nliaving placed himself in the power of the duke of \nBurgundy, here was forced to sign a treaty, con- \nfirming those of Arras and Conflans, and recognising \nthe duke\'s independence ; 14 Oct. 1468. The not- \nables declared the treaty invalid and the duke a \ntraitor, Nov. 1470. \n\nPEEPENDICULAB, see Gothic Archi- \ntecture. \n\nPEEPETUAL EDICTS, see Edicts. \n\nPEEPETUAL MOTION. For this purpose \nmachines have been constructed by the marquis of \nWorcester and many others, although the impossi- \nbility of attaining it was demonstrated by sir Isaac \n.Newton and De la Hire, and affirmed by the academy \nof sciences at Paris, 1775. It is still the object of \n\xe2\x80\xa2experiment by half-taught persons. See Pensions. \n\nPEEEANZABULOE, Perran in the sands \n\xe2\x80\xa2{in sabulo), Mid-Cornwall, named from Perran, the \npatron of tinners. The remains of an ancient \nBritish oratory or church, resembling the arrange- \nment of protestant churches, were discovered in the \n\xe2\x96\xa0Band in 1835, with other interesting relics. \n\nPEESECUTIONS- Historians usually reckon \nten general persecutions of the Christians ; see Jews, \nHeretics, Inquisition, Huguenots, Protestants, Mas- \nsacres, Bartholomew, St., &c. \n\nI. Under Nero, who, having set fire to Rome, threw \nthe odium upon the Christians ; multitudes were \nmassacred ; wrapt up in the skins of wild beasts, \nand torn and devoured by dogs ; crucified, burnt \nalive, &c. 64-68 \n\nII. Under Domitian 95 \n\nIII. Under Trajan 106 \n\nIV. Under Marcus Aurelius 166-177 \n\nV. Under Septimus Severus .... 199-204 \n\nVI. Under Maximus 235-8 \n\nVII. Under Decius, more bloody than any preceding 250-2 \n\nVIII. Under Valerian 258-60 \n\nIX. Under Aurelian 275 \n\n\n\nX. Under Diocletian, who prohibited divine wor- \nship ; houses filled with Christians were set on \nfire, and many of them were bound together with \nropes and cast into the sea .... 303-13 \n\nPEESEPOLIS, the ancient splendid capital of \nPersia. Alexander is accused of settingfire to it, while \nintoxicated, 331 B.C. Ruins of this city still exist. \n\nPEESIA or IRAN, in the Bible called Elain,* \nW. Asia. The early history is mythical; see \nMedia and Magi. Population of the present king- \ndom, about 6,500,000. \n\nCyrus revolts against the Medes, and becomes king \nof Persia, 559 ; overthrows the Medo-Babylonian \nmonarchy, about 557 ; conquers Asia-Minor about \n548 ; becomes master of the east, 536 ; killed in \na war with the Massagetse 529 \n\nCambyses, his son, king, 529 ; conquers Egypt \n{which see) 525 \n\nThe false Smerdis killed ; Darius Hystaspes king, \n521 ; conquers Babylon 517 \n\nConquest of Ionia ; Miletus destroyed . . . . 498 \n\nDarius equips a fleet of 600 sail, with an army of \n300,000 soldiers to invade the Peloponnesus, \nwhich is defeated at Marathon (which see) . . 490 \n\nXerxes (king, 485) ; recovers Egypt, 484 ; enters \nGreece in the spring at the head of an immense \nforce ; battle of Thermopylae 480 \n\nXerxes enters Athens, after having lost 200,000 of \nhis troops, and is defeated in a naval engagement \noff Salamis ,, \n\nPersians defeated at Myeale and Platsea . 22 Sept. 479 \n\nCimon, son of Miltiades, with a fleet of 250 vessels, \ntakes several cities from the Persians, and de- \nstroys their navy, consisting of about 340 sail, \nnear Cyprus 470 \n\nHis victories at the Eurymedon .... 469 \n\nXerxes is murdered in his bed by Artabanus . . 465 \n\nArtaxerxes I. Longimanus, king, 465; marries Esther, 458 \n\nXerxes I. king, slain by Sogdianus, 425 ; who is de- \nposed by Darius II. , Nothus 424 \n\nArtaxerxes II. Mnemon, king, 405 : battle of Cunaxa, \nCyrus the younger killed 401 \n\nRetreat of the 10,000 Greeks (see Retreat) . ,, \n\nWar with Greece, 399 ; invasion of Persia . . . 396 \n\nPeace of Antalcidas (which see) .... 387 \n\nArtaxerxes III. (Ochus) kills all his relations at his \naccession . . . . . . . . 359 \n\nHe is killed by his minister Bagoas, and his son, \nArses, made king 338 \n\nBagoas kills him and sets up Darius III. , Oodoma- \nnus, by whom he himself is killed . . . . 336 \n\nAlexander the Great enters Asia ; defeats the Per- \nsians at the river Granicus, 334 ; near Issus, 333 ; \nat Arbela 331 \n\nDarius III. treacherously killed by Bessus . . . ,, \n\nAlexander dies at Babylon, 323 ; when his empire was \ndivided, Persia with Syria was allotted to Se- \nleucus Nicator, whose successors, the Seleucida;, \nruled Persia, till it was conquered by the Par- \nthians, led by Arsaces I., the founder of the \ndynasty of the Arsacida? about 250 ; his successors \nruled till the Persian revolt .... a.d. 226. \n\nArtaxerxes I. founds the Sassanides dynasty; re- a.d. \nstores kingdom of Persia 226 \n\nReligion of Zoroaster restored and Christianity per- \nsecuted 227 \n\nArtaxerxes murdered ; succeeded by Sapor I. ; Ar- \nmenia becomes independent under Chosroes . 240 \n\nSapor conquers Mesopotamia, 258 ; repels the Ro- \nmans and slays the emperor Valerian . . . 260 \n\nSapor assassinated ; succeeded by Hormisdas I. ; \nwho favours the Manichees 272 \n\nVaranes I. (Baharam) persecutes them and the \nChristians 273 \n\nVaranes II. defeated by the emperor Probus ; makes \npeace 277 \n\nPersia invaded by the emperor Cams, who conquers \nSeleucia and Ctesiphon 283 \n\nVaranes III. king, 293 ; Narses .... 294 \n\nThe emperor Galerius conquers Mesopotamia, &e. . 298 \n\nPeace with Diocletian \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n* Elamite antiquities presented to the British Museum \nby col. Ross, 1S76. , \n\n\n\nPERSIA. \n\n\n\n737 \n\n\n\nPERSPECTIVE. \n\n\n\nHormisdas II. king 301 or 303 \n\nOrmuz built about 303 \n\nSapor II. king, 309 ; proscribes Christianity, 326 : \nmakes war successfully with Koine for the lost \n\nprovinces 337-360 \n\nThe emperor Julian invades Persia ; slain near the \nTigris, 26 June ; his successor Jovian purchases \nhis retreat by surrendering provinces . . . 363 \nSapor annexes Armenia, 365 ; and Iberia, 366 ; \n\nmakes peace with Rome 372 \n\nArtaxerxes II. king, 380 ; Sapor III. . . . 385 \nArmenia and Iberia independent . . . . 386 \nVaranes IV., 390; Yezdejird I., 404; conquers Ar- \nmenia 412 \n\nVaranes V. , 420, persecutes Christians ; conquers \nArabia Felix, 421 ; makes peace with the Eastern \n\nEmpire for 100 years 422 \n\nArmenia again united to Persia .... 428 \n\nWars with Huns, Turks, &c 430-2 \n\nYezdejird II. king, 440 ; Hormisdas III., 457 ; civil \nwar, 458-86 ; Feroze king, 458 ; Pallas, 484 ; Kobad, \n486 ; Jamaspes, 497 ; Kobad again . . . 497 \nHis son, Chosroes I. king ; long wars with Justinian \n\nand his successors, with various fortune . . 531-79 \nSuccessful campaigns of Belisarius . . . 541-2 \n\nHormisdas IV. continues the war ; degrades his \ngeneral, Baharam, who deposes him ; but is \n\neventually defeated 590 \n\nChosroes II. 591 ; renews the war with success, 603 ; \n\nEgypt and Asia Minor subdued . . . 614-6 \nChosroes totally defeated by the emperor Heraclius, \n\nwho advances on Persia 627 \n\nChosroes put to death by his son, Sirocs, 628 ; Ar- \ntaxerxes III. king, 629 ; Purandokt, daughter of \nChosroes, reigns, 630 ; Shenendeh, her lover, 631 ; \nArzcmdokt, her sister, 631 ; Kesra, 631 ; Ferokh- \n\ndad, 632 ; Yezdejird III 632 \n\nPersia invaded by the Arabs ; the king flees, 641 : \nis betrayed to them and is put to death, and his \narmy exterminated ... . . 642 \n\nPersia becomes the seat of the Shiite or Fatimite \n\nMahometans 661 \n\nThe Taherite dynasty established, 813 ; the Sof- \n\nferide, 872 ; the Samanide 902 \n\nPersia subdued by Togrul Beg and the Seljukian \nTurks, 1038 ; who are expelled, 1194 ; subdued by \nGenghis Khan and the Mongols . . . . 1223 \n\nBagdad made the capital 1345 \n\nThe poet Hatiz died about 13S8 \n\nPersia invaded by Timour, 1380 ; ravaged by him . 1399 \n\nThe poet Janii born 1414 \n\nPersia conquered by the Turcomans 1468, who are \nexpelled by the Shiites, who establish the Sophi \n\ndynasty under Ismail I. 1501 \n\nIspahan made the capital 1590 \n\nThe Turks take Bagdad ; great massacre . . 1638 \n\nGeorgia revolts to Russia 1783 \n\nTeheran made the capital 1796 \n\nWar with Russia 18269 \n\nRupture with England through the Persians taking \n\nHerat {which see), 25 Oct. ; war declared 1 Nov. 1856 \nPersians defeated ; Bushire taken . . 8-10 Dec. ,, \nGeneral Outrani defeats the Persians at Kooshab, 8 \n\nFeb. ; and at Mohammerah . . .26 March, 1857 \nPeace ratified at Teheran ... 14 April, ,, \n\nCommercial treaty with France, &c. . June, ,, \n\nHerat given up by the Persians . . . July, ,, \nThe sliah re-organizes the government . 9 Sept. 1858 \nRailways in process of formation .... 1865 \n\nElectric telegraph introduced 1867 \n\nGreat sufferings through three years\' drought, ac- \ncompanied by fever and cholera ; about 16,000 \npersons perished at Ispahan, &c. . July-Oet. 1871 \nCollection in London for relief; above 13,000/. sub- \nscribed Oct. 1871\xe2\x80\x94 Feb. 1872 \n\nConcession to baron Julius de Renter to make rail- \nways, waterworks, &c. for 70 years, with great \n\npower 25 July, ,, \n\nProsperity restored through a good harvest, March, 1873 \nThe shah starts to visit Europe, 19 April ; arrives at \nSt. Petersburg, 22 May ; at Berlin, 31 May ; at \nBrussels, 16 June ; at London, 18 June ; receives \nthe garter at Windsor, 2c June ; at Paris, 5 July ; \nat Turin, 25 July ; at Vienna, 30 July ; at Con- \nstantinople, 19 Aug. ; returned to Teheran 23 Sept. ,, \nThe shah visits Europe in summer ; returned to \nTeheran 9 Aug. 1878 \n\n\n\nRebellious incursions of the Kurds suppressed after \nmuch bloodshed (see Kurdistan) . Oct. \xe2\x80\x94 Dec. 1880 \n\nTreaty with Russia signed . . .22 Dec. 1881 \n\nThe Russians attack the Shohsovan tribes going \ninto winter quarters, killed about 80 . Jan. 7886 \n\nFirst railway constructed in Persia from Teheran \nto Shah-Abdul-Azim opened . . 25 June, 1888 \n\nThe river Karun decreed open to all nations by the \nintervention of England . . . 9 Sept. ,, \n\nThe shah visits Europe ; at St. Petersburg, 23-26 \nMay ; Berlin, 9 June ; Amsterdam, 16 June ; Ant- \nwerp, 22 June ; received by the prince of Wales \nat Gravesend, and sails to Westminster, 1 July ; \nat Windsor, 2 July ; at Guildhall, London \n3 July ; visits Birmingham and other places 7-29 \nJuly ; Paris, 30 July ; Munich, 19 Aug. ; Vienna, \n23 Aug. ; Budapestii, 26 Aug. ; returns to Tehe- \nran . . , 20 Oct. 1889 \n\nImperial bank of Persia established (concession to \nbaron Julius de Reuter, 30 Jan.) . . 23 Oct. ,, \n\nPrince Malcolm Khan, long minister in London, \nrecalled to Persia Dec. ,, \n\nMirza Mahomet Ali Khan, new minister for Eng- \nland, received by the Marquis of Salisbury . \n\n4 March, 1890 \n\nGreat opposition of the priests and people to the \nmonopoly of the Imperial tobacco regie (corpora- \ntion), 14 Dec. ; the monopoly abolished in the \ninterior, 19 Dec. ; by a proclamation . 27 Dec. 1891 \n\nComplete abolition of the monopoly demanded, 4 \nJan., granted 7 Jan. ; compensation to the com- \npany to be paid April, 1892 \n\nThe Russian government offer to lend 500,000/. to \npay the compensation to the tobacco corpora- \ntion, reported 23 April ; the otter declined ; a \nloan from the Imperial Bank of Persia, London, \naccepted about 16 May, ,, \n\n"Persia and the Persian Question," by the lion. \nGeorge N. Curzon, M.P., published . May, ,, \n\nSir H. D. Wolff, British minister . . . 1889 \n\nA. D. SHAHS. \n\n1502. Ismail or Ishmael : conquers Georgia, 1519. \n\n1523. Tamasp or Tliamas I. \n\n1576. Ismail II. Meerza. \n\n1577. Mahommed Meerza. \n\n1585. Abbas I. the Great ; made a treaty with the Eng- \nlish, 1612 ; died in 1628. \n\n1628. Shah Sophi. \n\n1641. Abbas II. \n\n1666. Shah Sophi II. \n\n1694. Hussein ; deposed. \n\n1722. Mahmoud, chief of the Afghans. \n\n1725. Ashraff the Usurper ; slain in battle. \n\n1730. Tamasp or Thamas II. ; recovered the throne of \nhis ancestors from the preceding. \n[Thamas-Kouli-Khan, his general, obtained great \nsuccesses in this and the subsequent reigns. ] \n\n1732. Abbas III., infant son of Tamasp, under the re- \ngency of Kouli-Khan, who afterwards caused \nhimself to be proclaimed king as \n\n1736. Nadir Shah (the victorious king) ; conquers India, \n1739 ; assassinated at Khorassan by his nephew. \n\n1747. Shah Rokh. \n\n1751. [Interregnum.] \n\n1759. Kureem Khan. \n\n1779. Many competitors for the throne, and assassina- \ntions till \xe2\x80\x94 \n\n1795. Aga-Mahommed Khan obtains the power, and \nfounds the reigning (Turcoman) dynasty ; assas- \nsinated, 1797. \n\n1798. Futteh Ali-Shah. \n\n1S34. Mahonimed-Shah, grandson of Futteh : died, 10 \nSept. 1848. \n\n1848. Nasr-ul-Deen, orNassr-ed-Deen, son ; born 4 April, \n1831 ; the present shah of Persia ; said to be \nan able prince and friendly to Britain ; visited \nEurope, 1873, 1878 and 1889. \nffetr : son, Muzafl\'cr-ed-Dccn, born 1S50. \n\nPERSON, Offences against- The statute \n\nlaws respecting these were consolidated and amended \nin 1861. \n\nPERSPECTIVE in drawing was observed by \nthe Van Eycks (1426-46) and treated scientifically \nby Michael\' Angelo, Leonardo da Vinci, and Albert \nDiirer, early in the 16th century. Guido Ubuldp \n\n\n\nPEETH. \n\n\n\n738 \n\n\n\nPEEU. \n\n\n\npublished a treatise in 1608 ; Dubreuil\'s treatise \n(.the " Jesuits\' perspective") appeared in 1642, and \nthe\' mathematical theory was demonstrated by \nBrook Taylor in 1 731. \n\nPEETH (the old capital of Scotland) , said to have \nbeen founded by Agricola, about a.d. 70. It was \nbesieged by the Eegent Robert, 1339. On 20 Feb. \n1437, James I. was murdered at the Black Friars\' \nmonastery here, by Robert Graham and the earl of \nAthol, for which they suffered condign punishment. \nGowrie\'s conspiracy occurred here, 6 Aug. 1600. \nPerth was taken from the French garrison by the \nreformers, 26 June, 1559. The "Articles of Forth" \nrelating to religious ceremonies, were agreed to by \nthe General Assembly of Scotland, 25 Aug. 1618. \nPerth was taken by Cromwell in 1651 ; and by the \nearl of Mar after the battle of Dunblane, in 1715. \nThe statue of the prince consort was inaugurated in \nthe presence of the queen, 30 Aug. 1864. Popula- \ntion, 1881, 25 ; 25o; 1891, 30,760. \n\nPEETH, capital of western Australia {which \nsee), founded 1829. Population, 1891, 9,617. \n\nPEEU (S. America), was long governed by \nincas, said to be descended from Manco Capac, who \nruled in the 1 ith century. Population 1876, 2,6<)9 ; 945. \nCapital, Lima. \nPeru explored and conquered by Francisco Pizarro \n\nand Almagro 1524-33 \n\nThe last inea, Ataliualpa, put to death . 29 Aug. 1533 \nPizarro assassinated at Lima . . 26 June, 1541 \nFruitless insurrection of the Peruvians under Tapac \n\nAmaru, an inca 17S0 \n\nSan Martin proclaims the independence of Peru, \n\n28 July, 1S21 \n\nWar against Spain 14 Jan. 1824 \n\nBolivar made dictator . . . . . Feb. ,, \nMariano Prado president ... 28 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe Spaniards defeated at Ayacuelio, and freedom \n\nof Peru and Chili achieved 9 Dee. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe new Peruvian constitution signed by the presi- \ndent of the republic .... 21 March, 1828 \nWar with Columbia ; treaty of peace 28 Feb. 1829 \n\nAfter a succession of fierce party conflicts, general \nRamon Castilla becomes president ; firm and \n\npolitic 1845 \n\nExportation of guano began \' 1846 \n\nHis successor, Eehenique, deposed ; Castilla again \n\npresident 1S55 \n\nNew constitution, 1856 ; modified . . . . i860 \nPopulation (without Indians) about 2^- millions . 1859 \nMarshal San Ramon president . . 24 Oct. 1862 \n\nGeneral J. A. Pezet president ... 3 April, 1863 \nThe Spanish admiral Pinzon took possession of the \nChincha-isles (valuable for guano) belonging to \nPeru, stating that he would occupy them till the \nclaims of his government on Peru were satisfied, \n\n14 April, 1864 \nAmerican congress at Lima ; plenipotentiaries from \nChili and other states meet to concert measures \nfor defence against European powers . Nov. ,, \nNegotiations followed by peace with Spain, 28 Jan. ; \n\nChincha islands restored ... .3 Feb. 1865 \nRevolt against president Pezet, 28 Feb. ; several \n\nprovinces soon lost May, ,, \n\nThe insurgents declare war against Spain . Oct. ,, \nThey take Lima ; Pezet flies, and Canseco becomes \n\npresident Nov. ,, \n\nPeru joins Chili, and declares war against Spain, \n\nFeb. 1866 \nThe Spanish admiral Nunez, in his attempt to bom- \nbard Callao, repulsed and wounded . 2 May, ,, \nThe Spaniards quit Peruvian waters . 10 Slay, ,, \nRiots at Lima against religious toleration 15 April, 1867 \nInvasion of ex-president Castilla, May ; dies of fever, \n\n30 May, ,, \nMariano-Ignacc Prado resigns dictatorship ; made \n\nprovisional president, 15 Feb. ; proclaimed, \n\n31 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nInsurrection against Prado ; lie resigns, 7 Jan. ; suc- \nceeded by gen. La Puerto. ; Pezet\'s treaty with \nSpain confirmed 18 Jan. 1868 \n\nCol. J. Balta president 1 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\n1873 \n\n1874 \n\n\n\n1876 \n\n\n\nSeveral towns in Peru suffered by great earthquakes \n(see Earthquakes) .... 13-15 Aug. t868 \n\nGold mines discovered at Huaeho . . . Oct. 1871 \n\nIndustrial exhibition opened at Lima . July, 1872 \n\nMilitary insurrection at Lima : Tomas Gutierrez, \nminister of war, makes himself dictator, and im- \nprisons president Balta . . . . 22 July, ,, \n\nUnsupported by the people, and not recognised by \ndiplomatic representatives, he orders Balta to be \nshot : is himself compelled to fly ; caught ; killed \nby the people, and hanged to a lamp-post ; col. \nZavallos, vice-president, assumes the government ; \norder restored ; about 200 lives were lost during \nthe coup d\'etat . . . . 26 July, ,, \n\nManuel Pardo elected president by the people, as- \nsumed office 2 Aug. ,, \n\nArmed riots in Lima at the execution of cols. Ganrio \nand Zevallo;i as rebels .... May, \n\nPresident Pardo escapes assassination . 22 Aug. \n\nInsurrection under Pierola ; he is defeated at \nSorota, near Tarata .... 3 Dec. \n\nTalisman sailed from Cardiff for South America ; \nconsigned to Peruvian rebels ; seized and con- \ndemned as a prize, and English sailors impri- \nsoned, Nov. 1874-Nov. 1875 ; report on ill-usage, \nEnglish government promise inquiry . March, \n\nPresident, Mariana I. Prado ... 2 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nReported insurrection of Nicolas de Pierolas, with \nabout 6000 men, endeavouring to establish a \nsouthern confederacy .... 6-10 Oct. ,, \n\nHe sails away with the Hnascar ironclad, 29 May ; \nthis is attacked by adm. De Horsey, with H.M.S. \nShah and Amethyst, as piratical, for attacking \nmail ships ; it is compelled to go into Lima and \nsurrender ; the Peruvians resent British inter- \nference, and threaten reprisals . . June, 1S77 \n\nPeruvian government issues a circular to the \npowers, 10 June ; demands reparation 25 June, ,, \n\nSir John Holker, att.-general, in house of com- \nmons, said that the Huascar had committed acts \nwhich made her an enemy of Great Britain, and \nhad no belligerent rights ; and that De Horsey \nwas justified in what he did . . 11 Aug. ,, \n\nPierolas and his adherents amnestied . Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nEx-president Pardo, president of the senate, assas- \nsinated at Lima 16 Nov. 1E78 \n\nPeru and Bolivia declare war against Chili, an- \nnounced 2 April, 1879 \n\nFor the events of the war, see Chili, 1879 \xe2\x80\x94 Pi \n\nSanguinary revolution at Lima ; Pierolas proclaimed \n\ndictator ; Prado flees . . 22 Dec. et soj. ,, \nLima occupied by the Chilians . . 17 Jan. 1881 \nSeiior F. G. Calderon provisional president at Mag- \n\ndalena March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAnarchy in Lima March, ,, \n\nPierolas, near Lima, declares for continual war, \n\nApril, ., \nPasco, a seaport, burnt by Peruvian soldiery ; about \n\n1000 inhabitants massacred, announced 20 Feb. 1882 \nPierolas quits Peru, announced . . 10 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \nPresident Montero opposed to truce with Chili; \n\ndisaffection May, ., \n\nPresident Iglesias formed a ministry about 12 \n\nSept.; he signs peace with Chili at Ancon 20 Oct. 1SS3 \nImportant territories surrendered. . . Oct. ,, \nLima evacuated by the Chilians . . 23 Oct. ,, \nArequipa surrendered to the Chilians . 26 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGen. Iglesias\' government confirmed by elections, \n\nabout 29 Jan. 1884 \nTreaty with Chili ratified by the Notables, March ; \n\npartial evacuation of Peruvian territory May, ,, \nGen. Caceres makes himself president in opposition \nto Iglesias ; enters Lima with a rabble, and is \nquickly repulsed .... 27 Aug. ., \nMontero oscillates between the two parties ; civil \nwar continues ; Truxillo captured for Iglesias ; \nsevere fighting announced . . . 17 Oct. ., \nGradual submission to the government . Dee ,, \nInsurrection ; government troops defeated at \n\nAyacuelio, announced . . . .2 May, 18S5 \nGen. Caceres defeated by gen. Iglesias at Huancayo, \n\nabout 28 May, ,, \nCaceres\' army disbanded, announced . 26 June, ,, \nRenewed heavy lighting announced, 9 July ; re- \nported rebel victory .... 15 Aug. \nGovernment troops gain a victory over the forces \nof gen. Caceres, 16 Oct. ; at Jania about 19 Nov ; \n\n\n\nPERUGIA. \n\n\n\n739 \n\n\n\nPETERSBURG, ST. \n\n\n\nCaeeres attacks Lima ; severe lighting ; Iglesias \nsurrenders 2 Dec. ; Dr. Arenas elected president, \n3 Dec. ; Iglesias and Caeeres retire from Lima \nthrough foreign intervention . . 4 Dec. 1885 \n\nGen. Caeeres president .... 3 June, 1886 \n\nCol. Remigio Morales Bermudez, president . \n\n10 Aug. 1890 \n\nRevolutionary attempt of Pierolas\' supporters near \nLima defeated ; about 40 killed . . 2 Dec. ,, \n\nA new ministry formed by seuor Justiniaino Bor- \ngono, 24 Aug. 1891 ; succeeded by sen. Carlos \nElias about 1 July, 1892 \n\nPERUGIA, a city of central Italy ; as Perousia, \nanciently one of the Etruscan confederation. It \nallied itself with the Samnites, but was ruined by \ntwo defeats by the Romans, 309 and 295 B.C. It \nwas taken by Octavius Caesar from the adherents \nof Antony ; many of whom were immolated on altars \nby their victor, 41. Leo X. took Perugia from the \nrival families Oddiand Baglioni, in a.d. 1520. An \ninsurrection here against the pope was put down by \nthe Swiss with great cruelty, 20 June, 1859 Perugia \nwas taken by the Sardinian general Fanti, in Sept. \ni860, when the cruel papal general Schmidt and \n1600 men were made prisoners. \n\nPERUKE or WlG. The ancients used false \nhair, but the present peruke was first worn in France \nand Italy about 1620 ; and introduced into England \nabout 1660, and prevailed more or less till about \n1810. \n\nIt is said that bishop Blomfield (of London), in 1830, \nobtained permission for the bishops to discontinue \nwearing their wigs in parliament, of which they gra- \ndually availed themselves. On account of the heat, sir \nJ. P. Wilde, and other judges and several counsel, \nappeared in court without wigs, 22, 23 July, 1868. \n\nPERUVIAN BARK, see Jesuits\' Bark. \n\nPESCHIERA, a strong Austrian fortress, on \nan island in the Mincio, near the Lago di Garda, \nN. Italy. It has been frequently taken by siege : \xe2\x80\x94 \nby the French, 1796; by the Austrians and Russians, \n1799; by the French again, 1801 ; given up by \nthem, 1814; taken by the Sardinians, May, 1848; \nretaken by Radetsky, March, 1849. The Sardinians \nwere preparing to besiege it in July, 1859, when \npeace was made. It was given up to the Italians, \n9 Oct. 1866 ; see Quadrilateral. \n\nPESSIMISM (from pessimus, the worst), the \nopposite doctrine to optimism (which see). Mr. \nJames Sully\'s " Pessimism, a History and a Criti- \ncism," was published in 1877. Arthur Schopen- \nhauer (1788-1860), an eminent pessimist, says,"AU \nlife is effort, all effort is painful, the pains of life \nmust predominate." \n\nPESTALOZZIAN SYSTEM of education \nwas devised by John Henry Pestalozzi, bom at Zurich \nin Switzerland, in 1746, died 17 Feb. 1827. In 1775 \nhe turned his farm into a school for educating poor \nchildren in reading, writing\', and working ; but he \ndid not succeed. In 1798 he established an orphan \nschool where he began with the mutual instruc- \ntion, or monitorial system, since adopted by Lan- \ncaster; but his school was soon after turned into \na hospital for the Austrian army. In 1802, in \nconjunction with Fellenberg, he established his \nschool at Hofwyl, which at first was successful, but \neventually declined through mismanagement. \n\nPESTH (Hungary), built about 839, on the \neast bank of the Danube, opposite Bada, was re- \npeatedly taken and besieged in the wars of Hungary, \nparticularly with the Turks. The great insurrec- \ntion broke out here, and the minister, count Lam- \nberg, was killed, 28 Sept. 1848. Buda-Pesth was \ntaken by the imperialists, 5 Jan. 1849. The Hun- \n\n\n\ngarians afterwards defeated the Austrians, who were \nobliged to evacuate it 18 April, same year ; see \nHungary. Buda-Pesth formally constituted \ncapital of Hungary, Nov. 1873. \nHungarian national exhibition opened 2 May, 1885.- \n\nPESTILENCE, see Blague. \n\nPETALISM (from the Greek petalon, a leaf), \na mode of deciding upon the guilt of citizens of \nSyracuse, similar to the Athenian ostracism, the \nname being written on a leaf (generally of an \nolive) instead of on a shell, about 460 B.C. If guilt \nwere established the sentence was usually banish- \nment. \n\nPETARD, or PeTAR, an invention as- \ncribed to the Huguenots in 1579. Petards of \nmetal, nearly in the shape of a hat, were employed \nto blow up gates or other barriers, and also in \ncountermines to break through into the enemy\'s \ngalleries. Cahors was taken by Henry IV. by \nmeans of petards, in 1 580, when it is said they were \nfirst used. " Hoised with his own petar." Shak- \nspear e, Hamlet iii. 4. \n\nPETER THE GREAT\'S WILL, see under \nWills. \n\nPETER THE WILD Boy, a savage creature \nfound in the Harzwald, electorate of Hanover, - \nwhen George I. and his friends were hunting. \nHe was found walking on his hands and feet, \nclimbing trees like a squirrel, and feeding on \ngrass and moss, Nov. 1725. At this time he was \nsupposed to be thirteen years old. He died, while \nunder the care of an English farmer, Feb. 1785, \nunchanged in his habits. \n\nPETERBOROUGH, anciently Medesham- \nstede (Northamptonshire) ; obtained its present \nname from a king of Mercia founding an abbey and \ndedicating it to St. Peter about 655. The church, \ndestroyed by the Danes, was rebuilt with great \nbeauty. The tower becoming dangerous, restora- \ntion resolved on, Dec. 1882. Foundation laid of \nnew building, 7 May, 1884. Choir re-opened n \nJuly, 1889 ; Cathedral re-opened, 14 Oct., 1890. \nThe bishopric was erected by Henry VIII., out of \nthe lands of dissolved monasteries in the diocese of \nLincoln. The first bishop was John Chambers, the \nlast abbot of Peterborough, 1 541. The see was \nvalued in the king\'s books at 4191?. 19s. nd. Pre- \nsent income 4500^. Population, 1881, 21,223; \n1891,25,172. \nExhibition of relics of Mary queen of Scots opened \n\n19 July, 1887. \n\nRECENT BISHOPS. \n\n1794. Spencer Madan ; died, 8 Oct. 1813. \n\n1813. John Parsons ; died, 12 March, 1819 \n\n1819. Herbert M irsh ; died, 1 May, 1839. \n\n1839. George D ivys ; died, 8 April, 1864. \n\n1864. Francis Jeune, May ; died 20 Aug. 1868. \n\n1868. Win Connor Magee ; elected 31 Oct. ; translate.! \n\nto York, 1891. \n1 89 1. Mandell Creighten, elected 13 March. \n\nPETERLOO, see Manchester Reform Meeting, \n16 Aug. 1819. \n\nPETERSBURG, ST., the modern capital of \nRussia, founded by Peter the Great, 27 May, 1 703. \nHe built a small hut for himself, and some\'wooden \nhovels. In 1710, the count Golovkin built the first \nhouse of brick; and the next year, the emperor, \nwith his own hands, laid the foundation of a house \nof the same material. The seat of empire was \ntransferred from Moscow to this place in 1712. \nHere, in 1736, a lire consumed 2000 houses; and \nin 1780, another fire consumed 11,000 houses; this \nlast, fire was occasioned by lightning. .Again, hi \n\n3 b 2 \n\n\n\nPETER\'S CHURCH, ST. \n\n\n\n740 \n\n\n\nPETROLEUM. \n\n\n\nJune, 1796, a large magazine of naval stores and \n100 vessels were destroyed. The winter palace was \nburnt to the ground, 29 Dec. 1837. The railway to \nMoscow was finished in 1851 ; to Berlin, opened \n5 May, 1862. On 10 June, 1862, property to the \namount of nearly a million sterling was destroyed \nby fire. Population, 1886: province, 1,660,859; \ncity, 1885, 861,303. See Russia, 1862 et scq. \xe2\x80\x94 \nPetersburg, Virginia, see United States, 1864. \nPeace of St. Petersburg, between Russia and \nPrussia, the former restoring all her conquests to \n\nthe latter, signed 5 May, 1762 \n\nTreaty of St. Petersburg for the partition of Poland \n\n(see article, Partition Treaties) . . .5 Aug. 1772 \nTreaty of St. Petersburg, led to a coalition against \n\nFrance .8 Sept. 1805 \n\nTreaty of Alliance, signed at St. Petersburg, be- \ntween Bernadotte, prince royal of Sweden, and \nthe emperor Alexander ; the former agreeing to \njoin in the campaign against France, in return for \nwhich Sweden was to receive Norway 24 March, 1812 \nGrand new Alexander II. bridge over tlie Neva \n\nopened 12 Oct. 1879 \n\nShip canal to Cronstadt completed, Feb. ; opened \n\nby the czar 27 May, 1885 \n\nWar memorial or glory monument uncovered by the \n\nczar 26 Oct. 1886 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Semi-centennial anniversary of the foundation of \nthe British and American chapel ; Russian digni- \ntaries and foreign ambassadors present . 18 l)ec. 1890 \n\nPETER\'S CHURCH, ST. (Rome), originally \nerected by Constantine, 306. About 1450, pope \nNicholas V. commenced a new church. The present \nmagnificent pile was designed by Bramante; the \nfirst stone laid by pope Julius II. in 1506. In \n1514, Leo X. employed llaphael and two others to \nsuperintend the building. Paul III. committed the \nwork to Michael Angelo, who devised the dome, in \nthe construction of which 30,000 lb. of iron were \nused. The church was consecrated 18 Nov. 1626. \nThe front is 400 feet broad, rising to a height of \n180 feet, and the majestic dome ascends from the \ncentre of the church to a height of 324 feet; the \nlength of the interior is 600 feet, forming one of \nthe most spacious halls ever constructed. The \nlength of the exterior is 669 feet; its greatest \nbreadth within is 442 feet ; and the entire height \nfrom the ground 432 feet, Renewal of the leaden \nenvelope completed, July, 1884. \n\nPETER\'S PENCE, presented by Ina, king \nof the West Saxons, to the pope at Home, for the \nendowment of an English college there, about 725 ; \nso called because agreed to be paid on Peter Mass, \nI Aug. The tax was levied on all families pos- \nsessed of thirty pence yearly rent in land, out of \nwhich they paid one penny. It was confirmed by \nOft\'a, 777, and was afterwards claimed by the popes \nas a tribute from England, and regularly collected, \ntill suppressed by Henry VIII. 1534. Camden. A \npublic collection (on behalf of the pope) was for- \nbidden in France in i860. \n\nPETERS WALDEN (Germany), CONVEN- \nTION OF, between Great Britain and Bussia, by \nwhich a firm and decisive alliance between those \npowers was made against France, and the course of \naction against Napoleon Bonaparte was planned ; \nsigned 8 July, 1813. This alliance led to the over- \nthrow of Bonaparte in the next year. \n\nPETERWARDEIN (in Austria), was taken \nby the Turks, July, 1526. Here prince Eugene of \nSavoy gained a great victory over the Turks, 5 Aug. \n1716. \n\nPETITIONS. The right of petitioning the \ncrown and parliament for redress of grievances is a \nfundamental principle of the constitution. Peti- \n\n\n\ntions are extant of the date of Edward I. In the- \n\nreign of Henry IV. petitions began to be addressed \n\nto the house of commons in considerable numbers. \n\nIn 1837 there were presented to parliament 10,831 \n\npetitions, signed by 2,905,905 persons; in 1859,. \n\n24,386, signed by 2,290,579; in 1867, 12,744, signed \n\nby 1,145,216. See Ab/torrers, and Rights. \n\nA petition from Boulogne for a consul was brought in, \n\nbut not received by the commons . April-May, 1875 \n\nEvidence before a committee of the commons disclosed \n\nsystems whereby vast numbers of fictitious and \n\nforged signatures were obtained, rendering the \n\npetitions for and against the continuance of the \n\nLondon coal and wine dues utterly valueless, May, 1887- \n\nPETO\'S ACT, 13 & 14 Vict. c. 28 (1850), \nrenders more simple and effectual the titles by \nwhich religious bodies hold property. \n\nPETRA, the ancient Sela, in mount Seir, near \nmount Hor, in the land of Edom. In the 4th cen- \ntury B.C. it was held by the Nabathceaus, who- \nsuccessfully resisted Antigonus. About a.d. 70 it \nwas the residence of the Arab princes named \nAretas. It w r as conquered by Cornelius Palma, and \nannexed to the empire under Trajan, 105, to which \nperiod its remarkabls monuments are ascribed. It \nwas an important station for commercial traffic with \nRome. It has been described by Burckhardt and \nother travellers. \n\nPETRARCH AND Laura ; celebrated for \nthe refined passion of the former for the latter, \nbegan in 1327, and the chief subject of his sonnets. \nHe was born 1 304, crowned witli laurel, as a poet \nand writer, on Easter-day, 8 April, 1341 ; and died \nat Arqua, near Padua, 18 July, 1374. Laura died \n6 April, 1348. A commemoration of his death at \nAvignon and other places, 18 July, 1874. \n\nPETRO-BRUSIANS, followers of Pierre de \nBruys, an early reformer, who was burnt at St. \nGilles, Languedoc, as a heretic, in 1130. \n\nPETROLEUM, rock oil or mineral oil \nsimilar to paraffin, has been found in many parts of \nthe world, especially at Rangoon. In 1859 and since, \na number of oil-springs were discovered in the bitu- \nminous coal regions of N. W. Pennsylvania, now \ntermed " Petrolia," and others have been dis- \ncovered in Ohio and other states, and also in Canada. \nNumerous artesian wells were sunk, manufactories \nerected, and an almost unlimited supply obtained ; \nbetween 1859^77, 2,802,500,000 gallons; in 1863, \n8,907,365 gallons. Inconsequence of the importation \nof this oil into this country, and many accidents \nhaving taken place through its inflammability at \nlow temperature, acts for "the safe keeping of petro- \nleum" were passed, 29 July, 1862; July, 1868, Aug. \n187 1, and 1879. Petroleum became an awful weapon \nin the hands of the insurgents in Paris, 23-27 May, \n1871. About fifty killed by explosion at a petroleum \nmanufactory near Rheims, 16 July, 1871. The Pe- \ntroleum Association test petroleum, with the view \nof preventing the importation of that which is \ndangerous. Refined petroleum imported : 1872, \n5,670,674^ gallons; 1877, 33,474,9515 gallons; 1881, \n58,371,386 gallons. Unrefined and refined : 1882, \n59,695,982 gallons ; 1883, 70, 526,996 gallons; 1884, \n52,975,789 gallons; 1885, 73,873,641 gallons; 1886, \n71,251,736 gallons ; 1887, 77,390,435 gallons ; 1888, \n94,401,285 gallons; 1889, 102,881,256 gallons; 1890, \n105,080,863 gallons. \n\nPetroleum oil found in Luneberger Haidee, Han- \nover ; a colony formed named Qilheiin announced \n\nAug. iS3i \nPetroleum fire at Bristol ; fire floated through the \n\ndrains into the river . . . .30 Nov. ,, \nThe great petroleum grounds near Baku, a Russian \ntown on the Caspian, long monopolized, set free. \n\n\n\nPETROLEUSES. \n\n\n\n741 \n\n\n\nPHER.E. \n\n\n\n1872 ; greatly developed by Ludwig (died April \n1888), and Robert Nobel, Swedes, since 1875 ; \n34,000,000 gallons of oil produced in 1875 ; \nRussia supplied 200,000,000 in 1882 ; exporta- \ntion begun and greatly increasing . . 1884-91 \n\nIBaku is the site of the ancient fire worship by \nthe followers of Zoroaster.] \n\nPetroleum largely discovered in Austrian Galicia, 1S85 \n\nMr. Edwin N. Henwood\'s invention for use of \npetroleum for the production of steam announced \nMarch, 1886 ; Spiel\'s petroleum engine an- \nnounced April, 1886 \n\nPetroleum discovered in Egypt on the coast of the \nRed Sea, March, 1886 ; reported successful 22 Aug. 1887 \n\nPetroleum found in Burmah . . . May, ,, \n\nDestructive lire at the Markoff petroleum fountain \nnear Baku 25 July. ," \n\nLarge quantities of natural gas now used as fuel in \nironworks &c. in Pittsburg, &c. . 1884 et seq. \n\nMr. Penn\'s system of lighting by petroleum lamps, \nwas introduced at the Cuxton station, S.E. Rail- \nway Nov. 1890 \n\nMr. Chenhall\'s process for solidifying petroleum to \nform cheap steam fuel reported successful 19 Nov. 1891 \n\nPETROLEUSES, a name given to women \ncharged with throwing petroleum on the burning \nhouses in Paris during the siege by the govern- \nment, Wiry, 1871. \n\nPETROPAULOVSKI, a fortified town on \nthe east coast of Kamtschatka, was attacked by an \nEnglish and French squadron, 30 Aug. 1854. They \ndestroyed the batteries, but failed in taking some \nRussian frigates, except the Sitka, a store-ship \ntaken by the President, and a schooner taken by \nthe Pique. Admiral Price was killed, it is sup- \nposed by the accidental discharge of his own pistol. \nA party of 700 sailors and marines landed to assault \nthe place, but fell into an ambuscade; many were \nkilled, including captain Parker and M. Bourasset, \nEnglish and French officers. The objects of the \nattack were not attained, it is thought from \nwant of stores. After this the Russians greatly \nstrengthened their defences, but on 30 May, 1855, \nthe allied squadron in the Pacific arriving here \nfound the place deserted. The fortifications were \ndestroyed, but the town was spared. The Russian \nships escaped. \n\nPETTY BAG, clerk of the: power was given to \nthe treasury, with consent of the lord chancellor \nand master of the rolls, to abolish this office, by the \nGreat Seal Offices Act, 1874. \n\nPEVENSEY (Sussex), said to be the site of \nthe Roman Anderida, on which a Norman castle \nwas erected. Here William of Normandy landed, \n28 or 29 Sept. 1066. The duke of York, in the \n.reign of Henry IV., was for some time confined \ntvithin the walls of this castle; as was also queen \nJoan of Navarre, the last wife of Henry IV., who, \nwith her confessor, friar Randal, was accused of a \ndesign to destroy Henry V., her step-son. \n\nPEWS in churches. " In a London will we \nread of sedile vocation, pciv" (a seat called pew), \n1453. Pews were censured by Latimer and Brad- \nford, 1553. fPaleot. The church of Geddington \nSt. Mary, Northamptonshire, long contained a pew \ndated 1602. The rev. W. M. II. Church (vicar \n1844-6) restored and re-scated the church, and pre- \nserved the panel with the date in the door of the \neurplice press. Another pew in the chancel was \n-dated 1604. \n\nPFAFFENDORF and Liegnitz (Silesia). \nNear these two places was fought a battle between \nthe Imperialists and Prussians, 15 Aug. 1760. The \nAustrians were defeated by Frederick of Prussia, \nwho thus prevented the junction of the llussian and \nAustrian armies. \n\n\n\nPHALANX, the Greek phalanx consisted of \n8000 men in a square battalion, with shields joined, \nand spears crossing each other. The battalion \nof Philip of Macedon, called the Macedonian pha- \nlanx, was formed by him about 360 B.C. \n\nPHALANSTERY, see Fourierism. \n\nPHALSBOURG (Pfalzburg, Palatine city), a \nstrong town of Alsace, was founded in 1570, by the \nelector palatine George John. It was ceded to France \nin i66r, and its fortress erected by Vauban, 1679. \nIt checked the progress of the victorious armies of \nthe allies both in 1814 and 1815, and withstood the \nGermans from 16 Aug. to 12 Dec. 1870, when it \ncapitulated unconditionally. It was retained at the \npeace in Feb. 187 1. \n\nPHARAOH\'S SERPENTS, a dangerous \nchemical toy, composed of sulpho- cyanide of mer- \ncury, appeared in Paris in the summer of 1865. \n\nPHARISEES, a sect among the Jews; so \ncalled from pharash, a Hebrew word for separated, \nbecause they pretended to a greater degree of holiness \nthan the rest of the Jew r s. Luke xviii. 9-12. The \nTalmud enumerates seven classes of Pharisees. \n\nPHARMACOPOEIA, a book of directions for \nthe preparation of medicine, published by colleges \nof physicians, the earliest in England 1618. In \n1862 the General Medical Council were empowered \nto prepare and sell a new pharmacopoeia, to super- \nsede those of the colleges of London, Edinburgh, \nand Dublin, which was published in June, 1864 ; \nsucceeded by a new one in May, 1867 ; reprinted, \n1890. \n\nPHARMACY : the knowledge of the chemical \nand medical properties of drugs and other things \nemployed medicinally. The Pharmaceutical Society \nof Great Britain, founded I June, 1841, mainly by \nMr. Jacob Bell, obtained its charter in 1843. It \npublishes a weekly journal. \xe2\x80\x94 The pharmacy act, \n1852, regulates the qualifications of pharmaceutical \nchemists. It was amended by the pharmacy act of \n1868 which required all sellers of poisons to be \nregistered after 31 Dec. 1868; act amended in 1869. \nSale of Food and Drugs Act passed . 11 Aug. 1875 \nPharmaceutical Society of Ireland was instituted \n\nby the Irish Pharmacy Act, passed . 11 Aug. ,, \nPharmacy. \xe2\x80\x94 An international pharmaceutical con- \ngress (with an exhibition) was opened in London \n\n1 Aug. 1 88 1 \nInternational Pharmaceutical congress at Brussels, \n\n31 Aug. 1885 \n\nPHAROS, an island on the coast of Egypt, on \nwhich was erected the celebrated lighthouse called \nthe tower of Pharos, begun by Sostratus of Cnidus, \n298, and completed by king Ptolemy Philadclphus \nabout 283 B.C. On the top fires were constantly \nkept to direct sailors in the bay. See Liglithouscs. \n\nPHARSALIA, a strong city in Thcssaly, \nN. Greece. Near it Julius Ciesar defeated his rival \nTompcy, 9 Aug. 48 B.C., and became virtually \nmaster of the known world. Pompey fled to Egypt, \nwhere he was treacherously slain, by order of \nPtolemy the younger, then a minor, and his body \nleft naked on the strand, till it was burnt by his \nfaithful freedman, Philip. \n\nPHENOL, or phenic acid, names for carbolic \nacid {which see). \n\nPHENOPHTHALMOSCOPE, an appara- \ntus for investigating the movements of the eye-bnll, \ninvented by Douders, of Utrecht, and announced in \n1870. \n\nPHER^E (Thcssaly, N. Greece), sec Thcssalij. \n\n\n\nPHIGALIAN MAEBLES. \n\n\n\n742 \n\n\n\nPHILOSOPHY. \n\n\n\nPHIGALIAN MARBLES, in the British \nMuseum, were purchased for it by the prince regent \nin 1815. They consist of portions of the frieze \ntaken from the temple of Apollo Epicurus at \nPhigaleia in Arcadia, and are reputed to be works \nof the earlier school of Phidias, who died 432 B.C. \nThe bas-reliefs represent the conflicts of the Greeks \nand Amazons, and of the Centaurs and Lapithse. \n\nPHILADELPHIA (Asia Minor), see Seven \nChurches. \xe2\x80\x94 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, w.is \nplanned by "William Penn 24 Oct. 1682. The first \nAmerican congress assembled here in 1774, an ^ \npromulgated the declaration of independence on \n4 July, 1776. It was the capital of the Union till \n1800, when Washington was selected in its place. \nThe National Union Convention held its first \nmeeting here 14 Aug. 1866; see United States. \nPopulation 1880,847,170; 1890, 1,046,964. \n\nBeginning of centennial year celebrated witli great \n\ndemonstration 2 Jan. 1876 \n\nInternational exhibition opened by the president, \n\nthe emperor and empress of Brazil present ; very \n\nsuccessful ; about 130,000 persons present \n\n10 May, ,, \nSaid to be the most extensive of all exhibitions \n\nhitherto ; vista of three-eighths of a mile ; main \n\nbuilding 1900 feet long ; 6 other large buildings, \n\nand 200 smaller. \nPrizes awarded to exhibitors ; out of n,oco, 488 \n\ngiven to Great Britain . . . .27 Sept. ,, \nAbout 80,000 persons admitted by payment daily, \n\nSept. ; exhibition closed . . . 10 Nov. ,, \n[Total admitted, 9,789,392 ; daily average, 61,568 ; \n\nreceipts, 3,813,749 dollars.] \nInternational congress respecting education July, ,, \nA permanent exhibition opened by president Hayes \n\n10 May, 1877 \nGreat storm : 384 dwellings, 31 churches, and many \n\npublic buildings destroyed ; 8 ships sunk ; esti- \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nmated loss, 2,000,000 dollars . . 24 Oct. 1878 \nGrand festival to honour gen. Grant on return from \n\nhis long tour 17-24 Dec. 1879 \n\nFoundation of city celebrated . . 24 Oct. 1882 \nGreat Irish convention . . . 25-27 April, 1883 \nFire at lunatic asylum, 28 perish . . 12 Feb! 1885 \nCelebration of the centenary of the adoption of the \n\nfederal constitution (see United States) 15 Sept. 1S87 \nMr. John Bardsley, the defaulting city treasurer, \n\nsentenced to 15 years\' solitary confinement and \n\nheavy fine 2 j\xe2\x80\x9e] v , 1891 \n\nThe Grand Central theatre, the Times offices and \n\nother buildings burnt, several persons perish \n\n27 April, 1892 \n\nPHILANTHEOPIC SOCIETY, for the \nreformation of criminal boys, was established in \n1788, and incorporated in 1806. It supports a farm- \nschool at Eedhill, Eeigate, Surrey ; see Reformatory \nSchools. \n\nPHILHARMONIC SOCIETY (London), \nwas established in 1813; first concert, 8 March. \nNew Philharmonic Society began 1852. \n\nPHILIPHAUGH, near Selkirk, S. Scotland, \nwhere the marquis of Montrose and the royalists \nwere defeated by David Leslie and the Scotch \ncovenanters, 13 Sept. 1645. \n\nPHILIPPI (Macedonia), so named by Philip \nII. of Macedon. Here Octavius Crcsar and Marc \nAntony, in two battles, defeated the republican \nforces of Cassius and Brutus, who both committed \nsuicide, Oct. 42 B.C. Paul preached here, a.d. 48, \nand wrote an epistle to the converts, 64. \n\nPHILIPPICS, the term applied to the orations \nof Demosthenes against Philip II. of Macedon, \n3.S2-34 1 B.C., and also to the orations of Cicero \nagainst Marc Antony (one of which, called divine \nby Juvenal, cost Cicero his life), 44-43 B.C. \n\n\n\nPHILIPPINE ISLES (in the Malay Archi- \npelago), discovered by Magellan, in March, 1521, \nwho here lost his life in a skirmish. They were \ntaken possession of in 1.565 by a fleet from Mexico, \nwhich first stopped at the island of Zeba, and sub- \ndued it. In 1570 a settlement was effected at the \nmouth of the Manilla river, and Manilla became \nthe capital of the Spanish possessions in the \nPhilippines; see Manilla and Earthquakes. The \nPhilippine commercial company was unsuccessful, \n1785. A successful Philippine exhibition was \nopened in Madrid, autumn 1887. \nRebels defeated in a fierce engagement at Lanas . \n\nreported 10 Sept. 189X \nMr. John Foreman\'s "Philippine Islands," was \n\npublished in 1891. \n\nPHILIPPIUM, a metal of the yttrium series, \nfound in Samarslrite earth (in llussia, North Caro- \nlina, &c.) by M. Marc Delafontaine, by means of \nthe spectroscope ; announced Oct. 1878. Also said \nto have been found by Mr. Lawrence Smith, and \nnamed Mosandrium, July, 1878. \n\nPHILIPPOPOLIS, capital of (Eastern) Rou- \nmelia, which see. Population, 18S8, 33,032. \n\nPHILISTINES, a people of Palestine, con- \nquered Israel, 1 156 B.C., and ruled it forty years. \nThey were defeated by Samuel, 11 20; and by Saul \nand Jonathan, 1087. They again invaded Israel \nabout 1063, when David slew their champion, \nGoliath. After David became king he thoroughly \nsubdued them, 1040. In common with Syria their \ncountry was subjugated by the llomans, under \nPompey, about 63. \xe2\x80\x94 In Germany, about 1830, \nHeine and the liberal party applied the temi \n"Philistines" to the opponents of progress, or con- \nservative party. \n\nIn England the term has been applied to the \nopponents of "culture "and refinement, chiefly . \namong the upper middle classes by Mr. Matthew \nArnold and others . ... 1867 ct seq. \n\nPHILOBIBLION SOCIETY, was insti- \ntuted in 1853 by Mr. ^- Monckton Milnes (aft. lord \nHoughton), M. Sylvain Van de "Weyer, the Belgian \nminister, and others. It publishes volumes of \n"Miscellanies," &c. \n\nPHILOLOGY, the science of language, much \nstudied during the present century. \nJohn IIonie-Tooke\'s "Diversions of Parley "pub- \nlished 17S6 \n\nPhilological society of London established 18 May, 1842 \nLorenz Diefenbaeh\'s " Lexicon Comparativum " 1846-51 \n32nd congress of German philologists met at Wies- \nbaden, professor Curtius, president 26-29 Sept. 1877 \n[See Language, Dictionaries, and GrammariaiCs.1 \n\nPHILOSOPHEE\'S STONE, see Alchemy. \n\nPHILOSOPHICAL LAMP, constructed \nby Johann Wolfgang Ddberciner, who applied in \nit the property possessed by spongy platinum of \ncausing the combination of oxygen and hydrogen, \ndiscovered by him in 1823. \n\nPHILOSOPHY (love of wisdom), the know- \nledge of the reason of things (distinguished from \nhistory, the knowledge of facts, and from mathema- \ntics, the knowledge of the quantity of tilings) \xe2\x80\x94 the \nhypothesis or system upon which natural effects are \nexplained. Locke. Pythagoras first adopted the \nname of philosopher (such men having been \npreviously called sages) about 528 B.C. Philoso- \nphers were expelled from Pome, and their schools \nsuppressed, by Domitian, a.d. S3. Philosophy is \nnow divided into: \xe2\x80\x94 1. Moral or Ethical; 2. Intel- \nlectual ; 3. Natural or Physical. \n\n\n\nPHIPPS\' EXPEDITION. \n\n\n\n743 \n\n\n\nPHONOGRAPHY. \n\n\n\nMORAL AND INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY. \n\nAncient Schools. \xe2\x80\x94 Pythagorean, about 500 b. c. ; Platonic \n(the academy), by Plato, 374 ; Peripatetic (the Lyceum), \nby Aristotle, 334 ; Sceptic, by Pyrrho, 334 ; Cynic by \nDiogenes, 330; Epicurean by Epicurus, 306; Stoic, by \nZmo, 290 ; Middle Academy, by Arcesilaus, 278 ; New \nAcademy, by Cameades, 160 ; New Platonists (who \nattempted to combine Piatonism with Christianity) : \nAnimonius Saccas, died a.d. 243 ; Plotinus, died about \n270"; Porphyry, died about 305 ; Jambliehus, died \nabout 333 ; Julian the emperor, died 363. \n\nModern Systems. \xe2\x80\x94 Nominal, Jean Roscellin, about \n1052 ; Abelard, &c. ; Rational, Bacon, about 1624 ; Car- \ntesian, Descartes, about 1560: Reflective or Perceptive, \nLocke, 1690; Idealistic, Berkeley, 1710; Elective, \nLeibnitz, 1710 ; Common Sense, Eeid, 1750-70; Trans- \ncenlent.d, Kant, Hamilton, &c, 1770-1860 ; Scientific, \nFichte, 1800-14 ; Absolute Identity, Sehellmg, 1800-20 ; \nAbsolute Idealism, Hegel, 1810-30 ; Utilitarian, Ben- \ntham, Mill, &c. 1 790-1873 ; Positive, C\'omte, 1830; \nRealism and Evolutionary Materialism, prevalent, Dar- \nwin, Herbert Spencer, &c. 1873. \n\nnatural philosophy. \nGreek and Latin. \xe2\x80\x94 Thales, about 600 B.C. ; Pythagoras, \n590 ; Aristotle and Plato, 350 ; Euclid, 300 ; Archi- \nmedes, 2S7 ; Hipparchus, 150 ; Lucretius, about 100 ; \nJulius 0<esar, 50; Ptolemy, a.d. 150. \nMiddle Ages. \xe2\x80\x94 Arabians: Ben Musa, 800; Alhazen, <fec, \n1 100. Herbert, Decimals, 959. Roger Bacon, Opus \nMajus, 1266. \nInductive Philosophy : \nCopernicus\'s system published .... 1543 \n\nTyeho Brahc 1546-1601 \n\nGilbert\'s researches in electricity and magnetism 1600 \n\nKepler\'s Laws 1609-18 \n\nBacon\'s Novum Organum 1620 \n\nGalileo\'s Dialogues 1632 \n\nRoyal Society begins {which see) . . . . 1645 \nOtto Guericke \xe2\x80\x94 air pump and electi\'ic machine . 1654 \n\nHuyghens on pendulums 1658 \n\nNewton \xe2\x80\x94 Fluxions, 1665 ; Analysis of Light, 1669 ; \nTheory of Gravitation, 1684 ; Principia pub- \nlished, 1687 ; death 1727 \n\nBradley discovers aberration \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nEuler on Perturbation of the Planets . . . 1748 \nBlack on Heat ......... 1762 \n\nLaplace on Tides 1775 \n\nLagrange, Mecanique Analytlque . . . . 1788 \n\nGalvani and Volta\'s researches .... 1791 \n\nLaplace, Mecanique Celeste. : 1799 \n\nCErsted discovers electro-magnetism . . . 1819 \n\nFaraday, magneto-electricity 1831 \n\nHers\'chell, Whcwell, Tyndall, W. Thompson (lord \nKelvin). \n\n[See Acoustics, Astronomy, Optics, Chemistry, \nElectricity, <fcc.] \n\nPHIPPS* EXPEDITION. The hon. captain \nPbipps (afterwards lord Mulgrave) sailed from \nEngland in command of the Sea-Horse and Carcase \nships, to make di-coveries, as near as possible to \nthe North Pole. In August 1773, he was for nine \n(lays environed with barriers of ice, in the Frozen \nOcean, north of Spitsbergen, 80\xc2\xb0 48\' N. hit. A \nbrisk wind in two or three days accomplished their \ndeliverance. They returned to England without \nhaving made any discoveries, 20 Sept. 1773. Nelson \nwas coxswain to the second in command. \n\nPHLOGISTON, a term employed by Stahl to \ndesignate the matter or principle of tire; \'\'the in- \nflammable principle" of bisbop Watson, near the \nclose of the 17th century. The chemical theory \nbased upon it, considered to have been totally \nrefuted by Lavoisier, 1 790, has been recently re- \nvived in a modified form. \n\nPHOCIS, a state in Northern Greece. The \nPhocians seized Delphi 357 B-C, and commenced \nthe second Sacred War. They were opposed by \nThebes and other states, and were utterly subdued \nby Philip 11. of Macedon in 346. \n\nPHOENICIA, on the sea coast of Syria. The \nnatives were the most eminent navigators and \n\n\n\ntraders of antiquity ; their cities or allied states \nbeing Tyre, Sidon, Berytus, Tripoli, Byblos, and \nPtolemais, or Acre. From the 19th to the 13th \ncenturies before Christ, they established colonies \non the shores or isles of the Mediterranean \xe2\x80\x94 Car- \nthage, Hippo, Utica, Gades, and Panormus, and they \nare said to have visited the British Isles. Phoenicia \nwas conquered by Cyrus, 537 B.C.; b} r Alexander, \n332 ; by the llomans, 47 ; and after partaking of \ntiie fortunes of Palestine, was added to the Ottoman \nempire, a.d. 1516. See Sidon and Tyre. \n\nPHQ3NIX CLUBS, of a treasonable charac- \nter, were formed in Ireland in 1858. They met at \nnight to drill. Several persons were arrested and \ntried in March, 1859, at Tralee ; but the jury could \nnot agree on their verdict. Daniel Sullivan was \ncondemned to penal servitude for ten years, April, \n1859. Eventually "some of the prisoners pleaded \nguilty, and were discharged on being bound over to \nkeep the peace. \n\nPHCENIX PAEK MTJKDEKS, see Ire- \nland, 1882-3. \n\nPHONEIDOSCOPE, an instrument for ob- \nserving the colour-figures of liquid films under the \naction of sonorous vibrations, being a visible de- \nmonstration of the vibratory and molecular motion \nof a telephone plate ; invented by Mr. Sedley Tay- \nlor, 1877 ; manufactured by S. C. Tisley & Co., \nLondon, 1878. \n\nPHONOGRAPH, a machine proposed to be \nattached to pianofortes and other keyed instru- \nments, by which any music that is played may be \nwritten down on blank paper, since it rules and \nprints the notes simultaneously. It was patented \nby Mr. Fenby, 13 June, 1863. The motive-power \nis electro-magnetism. Machines with a similar \nobject were projected by Mr. Creed in 1747; Mr. \nJ. F. Unger in 1774 ; and by Mr. Carreyre in \n1827. \n\nA new phonograph by Thomas Elvey Edison, elec- \ntrician of New Jersey, was announced Dec. 1877 \nLinear indentations are made by means of a pin in \na sheet of tinfoil by speaking or singing ; and \nfrom these casts may be taken. When these are \nrdaced upon the diaphragm of a telephone con- \nnected with revolving apparatus, the sounds may \nbe reproduced with a weirdlike effect. Improved \nby Mr. Shelford Bidwell, 1879. See Telephone. \nA greatly improved instrument by Mr. Edison \nadapted for postal communication announced \n21 Nov. 1S37 ; successful experiments reported \n\n12 May, 1888 \nProfessor Graham Bell\'s graplwplwne, a modification \n\nof Edison\'s phonograph, was announced Nov. 1887 \nMr. Emile Berliner (of Washington) announced his \ngramophone, a modification of Leon Scott\'s \n\nplwnautograpli Nov. ,, \n\nThe phonograph and graplwplwne were both exhibited \n\nto the British Association at Bath .\' Sept. 1888 \nExhibitions of Mr. Edison\'s greatly improved \nphonograph, considered perfect in the record, \nreproduction and preservation of sounds of all \nkinds (wax is used in place of tinfoil) Nov. i338 ct seq. \nMr. Edison receives phonograms from the duke of \n\nCambridge, Mr. Gladstone, and others . Jan. 1889 \nMr. Edison adapts his phonograph to a "water \nmotor as well as electricity . reported Sept. 1890 \n\nPHONOGRAPHY (from the Greek phone, \nsound), suggested by Franklin, 1768. The Phonetic \nsociety, whose object was to render our mode of \nwriting and printing more consonant to sound, was \nestablished, I March, 1843 ; sir W. C. Trevelyan, \npresident, and Mr. Isaac Pitman, secretary, the \nlatter being the inventor of the system which was \nmade known in 1837. Among other works pub- \nlished by the promoters of the system, was the \n"Phonetic News," in 1S49; see Visible Sj>cech. \n\n\n\nPHONOPOEE. \n\n\n\n744 \n\n\n\nPHOTOGEAPHY. \n\n\n\nPickwick Papers in shorthand, first of a series, \npublished by Mr. Pitman i May, 1883 \n\nMessrs. Pitman tirst publish in phonography, the \nNew Testament from engraved jjlat.es . 8 Oct. 1886 \n\nSolfa system in shorthand first published 5 Feb. 1887 \n\nThe book of Common Prayer ; and a National \n" Phonographic Library " begun in . April, ,, \n\nMr. Edison\'s talking dolls, which utter about 30 \nwords, by means of a concealed phonograph and \nclockwork, were exhibited at the Savoy Hotel, \nWestminster, 25 J?tly ; Edison\'s phonographic \ntoy company announced . . . .July, 1890 \n\nPHONOPOEE, an arrangement of telegraph \nVires to facilitate transmission of sound, by check- \ning\' the influence of adjoining wires, the invention \nof Mr. C. Langdon Davies, announced, May, 1886. \nSee Telephones. The system was stated to have \nworked successfully on the Sou!h Eastern railway \nbetween London and Folkestone, Feb. 1887, the \nMidland railway, and others, 18S9-92. \n\nPHONOSCOPE, an apparatus for testing the \nquality of musical strings, invented by M. Kcenig, \nand exhibited at the International Exhibition in \n1862. \n\nMr. Edmunds\' phonoscope, exhibited to the British As- \nsociation, Aug. 1878, is an instrument for producing \nfigures and light from the vibrations of sound. \nThe name phonoscope is given to apparatus used \nby M. M. G. Dumeny in photographing the lips \nof a speaker and so combining the images thus \nproduced that they may be understood by a deaf- \nmute, June, 1892. See Photography, 1891. \n\nPHOSPHOE-BEONZE, an alloy of copper, \ntin, and phosphorus, invented by Messrs. Monte- \nriore-Levi and Kiinzel, of Belgium, in 1867. It is \nvery hard, ductile, and elastic, with a colour le- \nsembling gold. \n\nPHOSPHOEESCENCE. The property pos- \nsessed by some bodies of retaining luminosity after \nexposure to light observed by the ancients ; espe- \ncially noticed by Vincenzo Cascariolo (1602), Boyle, \nCanton, "Wilson, and others; and specially studied \nby Edmond Becquerel, and Balmahi. See Lumi- \nnous Paint. \n\nPHOSPHOEUS was discovered in 1667, by \nBrandt, of Hamburg, who procured it from urine. \nThe discovery was prosecuted by John Kunckel, a \nSaxon chemist, about 1670, and by the hon. It. \nBoyle about the same time. Nottv. Diet. Phos- \nphoric acid is first mentioned in 1743, but is said to \nhave been known earlier. Gahn pointed out its \nexistence in bones in 1769, and Sehcele devised \na process for extracting it. Canton\'s phosphorus \nis so called from its discoverer, 1768. Phospho- \nrettcd hydrogen was discovered by Gengembre \nin 1812. The consumption of phosphorus lias \nimmensely increased since the manufacture of \nlucifer matches. In 1845, Schrotter, of Vienna, \ndiscovered allotropic or amorphous phosphorus, \nAvhich ignites more slowly and is less unwholesome \nin working than ordinary phosphorus. \n\nPHOTOGEAPHY. The action of light on \nchloride of silver was known as early as tlie 16th \ncentury. The phenomenon was studied by Seheele \n(1777), Senebier (1790), Bitter and AVollaston \n(1801). From the results of these investigations, \nexperiments were made by Thos. Wedgwood and \nHumphry Davy, in the Royal Institution, London, \nwhich were published in its Journal, 1802. Wedg- \nwood may be regarded as the first photographer. \nHis paper was entitled "an account of a method \nof copying paintings upon glass, and of making \nprofiles by the agency of light upon nitrate of \nsilver." \n\n\n\nFurther discoveries were made by Niepee in 1814, and \nsir J. Herschel in 1819. \n\nLouis J. M.-Daguerre commenced his experiments in \n1824 ; and in 1826 joined Joseph Nicephore Niepee, \nand worked with him till the death of the latter in \n1833. The production of Daguerreotype plates was \nannounced in Jan. 1839 ; and the French chamber of \ndeputies granted a pension to Daguerre and to Nicpee\'s \nson Isidore. \n\nIn 1839 M r - Henry Fox Talbot first published his mode \nof multiplying photographic impressions by producing \na negative photograph (i. e. , with the light and shades \nreversed) from which any number of positive copies \nmay be obtained. His patent for producing the \nTaibotype or Calctype (on paper) is dated Feb. 1841. \n\nIn 1851, Collodion (which see) was applied to photography \nby Mr. F. Archer. \n\nHerr Franz Veress of Klausenburg, Transylvania, \nphotographs colours on glass and paper ; speci- \nmens are exhibited at the Photographic Institute at \nVienna, March, 1890. \n\nThe Photographic Society of London was established in \n1853. It publishes a journal. On 22 Dec. 1852, 774 \nspecimens of photography were exhibited at the rooms \nof the Society of Arts, Adelphi. \n\nCarte de Visite portraits (which sec) taken by M. Ferrier \nat Nice, 1857. \n\nIn 1861 Mr. Thompson, of Weymouth, photographed the \nbottom of the sea. \n\nPhotography was successfully applied to the transfer of \nworks of art to wood blocks by Mr. John Leighton, in \nhis illustrated edition of Lyra Germanica, 1861. \n\nIn 1S61 professor O. M. Rood suggested the application \nof photography to the microscope. \n\nThe tannin process introduced by major Russell about \n1861. \n\nThe copyright of photographs is secured by an act passed \nin 1862. \n\nDr. Henry Wright photographed objects of surgical inte- \nrest in Jan. 1863. \n\nThe Wothlytype process, in which nitrate of silver anil \nalbumen are discarded and a double salt of uranium \nand collodion substituted, invented by Wothly, was \nannounced in the autumn of 1864. \n\nThe light of ignited magnesium was employed for photo- \ngraphs by Mr. Brothers, of Manchester, in the spring \nof 1864. \n\nMr. H. Van der Weyde, an American artist, succeeded in \nmaking electric light very effectual in photography, \n1876-8. \n\nPhotographs of the first page of the Times, containing \nmany French advertisements (ij inch long by 1 inch \nwide), sent to Paris from Bordeaux by balloons, Jan. \n1871. \n\nCriminals ordered to be photographed (by the act for \nprevention of crime), from 2 Nov. 1871. \n\nComposite portraits (in which sometimes 9 components \nwere used) formed by Mr. Francis Galton, by means \nof photography, 1877. \n\nThe Autotype process for transferring and printing reported \nsuccessful, April, 1873. \n\nMr. E. J. Muybridge photographs, instantaneously, \nanimals in rapid motion, 1881 et seq. See Zoopraxiscope. \n\nCapt. Abney photographs a disc in rapid motion by the \nelectric spark, 17 March, 1882. \n\nCelestial Photography began with professor Bond, the \nastronomer, of Cambridge, U.S., who exhibited a \nphotograph of the moon in 1851. Since then, Mr. \nWarren de la Rue, of London, has produced excellent \nphotographs of the moon, and other heavenly bodies, \nand on 18 July, i860, photographed the solar \neclipse. \n\nBy means of the gelatine dry plate, the results of the \nastronomical work of years is now obtained in hours. \nDelicate details are obtained not only of comets \nnebula; and faint stars, but also of stars invisible by \nthe most powerful telescopes. Since 1S76, Dr. W. \nHuggins and Mr. Andrew A. Common in England, and \nMr. Draper in America, have been eminently success- \nful in celestial photography. About 400 stars have \nbeen depicted in the space of two square inches. \n\nPhotography successfully applied to the heavens by \nMM. Paul and Prosper Henry, 1885-6. Charts of the \nwhole heavens expected in ten years. \n\nDecision by justice North that a photographer has no \nright to sell or exhibit photographs of private sitters ; \n"Pollard and wife v. The Photographic Company, \nRochester," 20 Dec. 1888. \n\n\n\nPHOTOMETEE. \n\n\n\n745 \n\n\n\nPHYSIC. \n\n\n\nMr. A. A. Common\'s excellent telescope specially \nadapted for photography, set up at Killing, near \nLondon spring, 1890 \n\nMr. W. B. Woodbury s "Encyclopaedia of Photo- \ngraphy," published 1890 et SP.q. \n\nM. Marey\'s method of photographing the motions of \nliving animals by his chrono-photograph applied \nby M. G. Demeny to the movements of the lips in \nspeech, the results being readable by deaf-mutes ; \n\nreported Aug. 1891 \n\n*.\' Photographie des Couleurs par la Methode inter- \nferentielle de M. Lippmann,"by Aliihonse Berget, \npublished June, ,, \n\nM. Lippmann announced his method of photograph- \ning the spectrum in its natural colours by pro- \nducing iridescence on the film, March, 1891-May, 1892 \n\nMr. F. E. Ives at the Royal Institution, .London, \n10, 17 May, 1892, exhibited his patented method of \nphotographing colours, by which he produced \ncolour prints. \n\nPhotoheliograph, an apparatus for registering the \nposition of the sun\'s spots by means of clockwork \nand photography ; erected at the suggestion of sir \nJohn Herschel at Kew observatory about 1857. It was \nused by Mr. Warren de la Rue to photograph the disc \nof the sun during the eclipse of 18 July, i860. \n\nPhotogalvanography, the art of producing engravings \nby the action of light and electricity, The earliest \nspecimens were produced by Nicephore Niepce, and \npresented by him in 1827 to the great botanist, Robert \n.Brown. Great advances have since been made in this \nArt by MM. Niepce de St. Victor (who published a \ntreatise on it in 1856), Vitry, W. R. Grove, H. Fox \nTalbot, &c. In 1852, Paul Pretsch patented a process \nwhich lie called "Photogalvanography." \n\nPhotoglyphic Engraving (a process by which the light \nactually etches a picture on a plate that may be and \nhas been printed from) was patented by Mr. Fox \nTalbot in 1858, and is described and exemplified in the \nPhotographic News, 9 and 16 Sept. 1859, a specimen \nbeing given in the latter number. \n\nPhotozincography (a process by which photographs \nare transferred to zinc plates which may be printed \nfrom) was devised by sir Henry James, chief of the Ord- \nnance Survey, and made known in i860. By it maps, \ncharts, and engravings may be printed at a small cost. \n\nPhoto-Sculpture : M. Villeme\'s employment of photo- \ngraphs in the formation of sculpture was announced in \n1863. \n\nMessrs. Goupil\'s process of Photogravure, rivalling \nmezzo-tint, reported highly successful ; fine pictures \nreproduced, Feb. 1884. \n\nPHOTOMETER (light measurer) ; one was \nconstructed by Dr. W. Ritchie in 1825. Many im- \nprovements have been made recently in photo- \nmetry. See under Stars. \nMr. A. Vernon Harcourt\'s new liolophotometer highly \n\napproved June, 1888. \nStellar Photometry, the measurement of the light of the \nstars, has been much studied by astronomers, especi- \nally by sir John Herschel, prof. Argelander, prof. C. \nPritchard and others. Mr. W. J. Dibdin, in his " Guide \nto the measurement of light," published in 1889, de- \nscribes his application of terrestrial photometry to \nstellar light. \n\nPHOTOPHONE. In this apparatus, con- \nstructed by professor Graham Bell and Mr. Sumner \nTainter of Washington, in 1880, a thin plane \nmirror is thrown into vibration by the voice ; a \nbeam of light is reflected from this mirror and re- \nceived at a distance by a cell of the metal selenium; \nwhen, by arrangement, this is connected with a \ntelephone, the sounds are reproduced. \n\nPHOTOSPHERE, see Sun, note. \n\nPHOTOTACHOMETER, an instrument for \nmeasuring the velocity of light, invented by Pro- \nfessor Simon Newcomb of Washington, 1879-80. \n\nPHRENOLOGY, see Craniology \n\nPHRYGIA (now Karamania), a province in \nAsia Minor, became part of the Persian empire in \n\n\n\n537 rt.c, and partook of its changes. After their \ndefeat of Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, 190 \nB.C., the Romans added Phrygia to the kingdom of \nPergamus, which was bequeathed to them by \nAttalus III., the last, king, 133 B.C. \n\nPHYLLOXERA, see Vine. \n\nPHYSIC appears to have been first practised \nby the Egyptian priests. Pythagoras endeavoured \nto explain the philosophy of disease and the action \nof medicine, about 529 B.C. Hippocrates, the father \nof medicine, nourished about 422 B.C., and Galen, \nborn a.d. 131, wa3 the oracle of medical science. \nAbout 980 Avicenna, an Arab, wrote a system of \nmedicine. Dr. It. Quain\'s Dictionary of Medicine, \npublished 1882. See Medical. \n\nThe dogmatic age of medicine lasted till the Reforma- \ntion, when it was attacked by Paracelsus (1493- 1 541), \nand Vesalius (1514-64). Since 1800 medical practice \nhas been completely transformed by physiological \nand chemical research. \nThe discovery of the circulation of the blood, by Dr. \nHarvey, furnished an entirely new system of physio- \nlogical and pathological speculation, 1628. See Medi- \ncal and Societies. \nPhysician to the King.\xe2\x80\x94 John, the king\'s chaplain and \nphysician (afterwards bishop of Bath and Wells), men- \ntioned 1090. \nThe earliest mandate or warrant for the attendance of a \nphysician at court is dated 1454, and 33 Henry VI., a \nreign fertile in the patronage which was afforded to \npractitioners in medicine ; but no appointment existed \nwhich can justly be called physician to the royal per- \nson. By this warrant the king, with the consent of \nhis privy council, deputed to three physicians and two \nsurgeons the regulation of his diet, and the administra- \ntion of such medicines and remedies as might be suffi- \ncient for his cure, without any allusion to the previous \nexistence or permanency of the office which they were \nauthorised for a time to fill, or to a remuneration for \ntheir services. \xe2\x80\x94 Life of Linacre. \nMiss Garrett (afterwards Mrs. Anderson) licensed at \nApothecaries\' hall, London, to practise medicine, 2S \nSept. 1865. \nAt a meeting of the Royal Medical and Chirurgical \nSociety, 3 May, 1869, it was resolved that the " Royal \nSociety of Medicine " (including the various sections) \nbe founded ; the resolution was affirmed, 22 Feb. 1870 ; \nbut in 1871 the project dropped. \nSchool of Medicine for Women in London (council : \nProfessors Burdon-Sanderson and Huxley, Mrs. Garrett- \nAnderson, M.D., Mrs. Blackwell, M. D., and others); \nopened, Oct. 1874. \nRegistration of medical women, permitted by Medical \n\nact, 39 it 40 Vict. c. 41, 11 Aug. 1876. \nThe queen lays the foundation of the Medical Examination \nhall on the Victoria Embankment, 24 March, 1886. \nSee Anatomy. \n\nEMINENT MEDICAL MEN. \n\nBom Died \n\nCornilius Celsus 14 a.d. \n\nPaulus iEgineta flourished .... about 630 \n\nAverrhocs . . . . . . 12 Dec. 1198 \n\nThomas Linacre 1460 1524 \n\nParacelsus 1493 1541 \n\nAmbrose Pare, French surgeon . . . 1517 1590 \n\nWilliam Harvey 1578 1657 \n\nThomas Sydenham 1624 1689 \n\nMalpighi 1628 1694 \n\nHermann Boerhaave 1668 1738 \n\nR. Mead 1673 1754 \n\nAlbert von Haller 1708 1777 \n\nWilliam Hunter 1718 1783 \n\nJohn Hunter 1728 1793 \n\nR. T. Laennec 1781 1826 \n\nJohn Abernethy 1764 1831 \n\nAstley Cooper 1768 1841 \n\nSir James Voting Simpson (introducer of \n\nanaesthetics) 1S11 1870 \n\nSir Henry Holland 1788 1873 \n\nHenry Bence Jones 1813 1873 \n\nSir Thomas Watson 1792 1882 \n\nRichard Quain 1803 1887 \n\nSir Wm. W. Gull 1816 1890 \n\nSir Jas. Risdon Bennett 1809 \n\n\n\nPHYSIC GARDENS. \n\n\n\n746 \n\n\n\nPICTS. \n\n\n\nBom \nSir George Paget . . . . . 1809 \n\nSir Jas. Paget 18 14 \n\nSir ffm. Jenner . 1815 \n\n(Sir Richard Qnain 1816 \n\n>Sir Morell Mackenzie 1837 1892 \n\nJohn Eric Erichsen 181S \n\nSir Joseph Fayrer 1824 \n\nSir Andrew Clark 1826 \n\nSir Joseph Lister 1827 \n\nPHYSIC GARDEN\'S. The first cultivated \nin England was by John Gerard, surgeon of \nLondon, in 1567 ; that at Oxford was endowed by \nthe carl of Dauby, in 1652 ; that at Cambridge was \ncommenced about the middle of the last century ; \nand that at Chelsea, originated by sir Hans Sloane, \nwas given to the Apothecaries\' company in 1721 ; \ntli s last was very much admired by Linnaeus. \n\nPHYSICAL SOCIETY, established 14 Feb. \n1874; Dr. J. II. Gladstone, first president. \n\nPHYSICIAN\'S, Royal College op, of \n\nLondon (of England since 1858), was projected by \nDr. Lin acre, physician to Henry VI1L, who, \nthrough his interest with cardinal Wolsey, obtained \nletters patent, constituting a corporate body of \nregular physicians in London, with peculiar privi- \nleges, 23 Sept. 1518. Linacre was elected the first \npresident of the college. Dr. W. Harvey was a \ngreat benefactor to this institution, 1653. He built \na library and public hall, which lie granted for ever \nto the college, with his books and instruments. \nThe college was afterwards held in a building in \nWarwick-lane, erected by sir C. Wren, where it \ncontinued till 1825, when the present elegant stone \nedifice in Trafalgar-square was erected from designs \nby sir It. Smirke. \xe2\x80\x94 The College of Physician?, \nDublin, was founded by charter of Charles II. 1667, \nand was re-incorporated in 1692. The Ro)-al Col- \nlege of Physicians, Edinburgh, 29 Nov. 1681. \n\nRECENT PRESIDENTS OF ROYAL COLLEGE, LONDON. \n\n\n\nDied j PIACENZA, see Placentia. \n\n\n\n1862. Sir Thomas Watson. \n\n1867. Sir James Alderson. \n\n1871. Sir George Burrows. \n\n1876. Sir James Kisdon \n\nBennett. \n\n1881. Sir Win. Jenner. \n\n1888. Sir Andrew Clark. \n\n\n\n1796. Thomas Gisbornc. \n1804. Sir Lucas Pepys. \n1S11. Sir Francis Milman. \n\n1813. John Latham. \n1820. Sir Henry Halford. \n\n18 14. John Ayrton Paris. \n1857. Thomas Mayo. \n\nPHYSICS, see under Philosophy. \nPHYSIOGNOMY, a science which affirms \nthat the dispositions of mankind may be discovered \nfrom the features of the face. The origin of the \nterm is referred to Aristotle; and Cicero was at- \ntached to the science. It became a fashionable \nstudy from the beginning of the 16th century ; and \nin the 18th century, the essays of Le Cat and Per- \nnethy led to the modern system. \nJ. K. Lavater, who endeavoured to raise physiognomy to \nthe rank of a science, published his celebrated work \n" Physiognomische Fragmente," 1775-78, of which an \nEnglish translation by Holcroft was published in 1793. \nThe subject was considered by C. R. Darwin in his \nwork " Expression of the emotions in Man and \nAnimals," 1873, and by Mantegazza in his " Physiog- \nnomy and Expression," 1890. \n\nPHYSIOLOGY is that part of physics which \ntreats of the inner constitution of animals and \nplant*, and the several functions and operations of \nall their organs and tissues. The works of Miillcr, \nMilne-Edwards, Huxley, and Carpenter are much \ncelebrated, and Todd\'s " Cyclopaedia of Physiology " \n(1836-59) is a library in itself. Physiological \nSociety, in London, founded by Dr. Burdon-Sander- \nso:i and others, early in 1876; sec Anatomy, Bi- \nology, Morphology, Poyal Institution. Inter- \nnational congresses of physiology : Basle, 1888 ; \nLiege, Aug. 1892. \n\n\n\nPIANETTE, a small upright piano introduced \nby Bord of Paris in 1857. \n\nPIANOFORTE.^ The invention is attributed \nto Cristofalli (or Cristofori), an Italian, J. C. \nSchroter, a German, and Marius, a Frenchman, \nearly in the 18th century. The strings are struck \nby small hammers, and not by quills, as in harpsi- \nchords. Schroter is said to have presented a model \nof his invention to the court of Saxony, in 1717 ; \nand G. Silberman manufactured pianofortes with \nconsiderable success in 1772. Pianofortes were \nmade in London by M. Zumpie, a German, 1766, \nand have been since greatly improved by Clementi, \nBroadwood, Collard, Kirkman, Erard, Pleyel, and \nothers. \n\nUpright pianos, first made in this country, were sug- \ngested by Isaac Hawkins in 1800, and Thomas Loud, \nin 1802. Win. Southwell patented "cabinet pianos" \nin 1807 ; superseded, from about 1840, by the cottage, \npiccolo, and other pianos. \n\nA keyed instrument at Modena was named "piano e \nforte," 1598. \n\nA "stone pianoforte," formed of a series of flints and \nother stones of various sizes, collected in France aiul \narranged by M. Baudre, was played on by him at the \nRoyal Institution, on 16 March, 1866. \n\nThe new transposing piano, invented by Mr. Henry \nSchallehn, was exhibited at the Savoy hotel, \nWestminster, 10 June, 1890. \n\nThe Janko pianoforte, with a new arrangement of key- \nboard, exhibited in the Portman rooms, London, W., \n24 Nov. et seq. 1S91, said to possess many advantages. \n\nSee Grove\'s " Dictionary of Music," article "1\'ianoforte." \n\nPICARDY (N. France), was conquered by the \nEnglish in 1346, and by the duke of lmrgundy in \n141 7, to whom it was ceded by the treaty of Arras, \n21 Sept. 1435, and annexed to France by Louis XL, \n1463. \n\nPICCADILLY, a fine street, ^Y. London ; the \nname, of uncertain origin, was Pickadilla and Pi- \ngudello, about 1660, when a house of entertain- \nment existed near the Haymarkct, termed Picka- \ndilly hall, after which buildings were gradually \nextended westwards. \n\nPICCOLO, a small piano introduced by Robert \n"Wornum in 1829. \n\nPICENTINES, a Sabine tribe, subdued by the \nRomans, and their capital, Asculum, taken, 268 rs.c. \nThey began the Social war in 90, and were con- \nquered in 89 11. c. \n\nPICHEGRU\'S CONSPIRACY, sec Georges, \n\n&c. \n\nPICKETING, see Trials, Aug. 1867. \nR. Read and four other cabinetmakers imprisoned \n\nfor picketing . . . . . . May, 1875 \n\nPICQUET, a game with cards, invented, \nit is said, by Joquemin, for the amusement of \nCharles VI. of France, then in feeble health, 1390. \nMezeray. \n\nPICTS (possibly from Picti, painted), the name \ngiven to the earliest known inhabitants of the cast \n\n\n\n* The nucleus of the instrument was a little box over \nwhich was stretched strings : such was the citole, the \ndulcimer, and the psaltery. The clavitherium had keys ; \nthe clavichord (about 1500) had dampers; successive \nimprovements were the virginals (on which queen Eliza- \nbeth played), the spinet (about 1700), and the harpsi- \nchord (with two rows of keys), said to have been used \nin the 15th century, for which Bach and Handel com- \nposed in the 17th century. A collection of harpsichords \n(one dated 1555) is in the South Kensington museum. \nA double-pianoforte (with two keyboards reversed), \ngiving remarkable effects (patented by M. M. Mengeot), \nplayed on at Coveut-gardeu theatre, 21 Oct. 1878. \n\n\n\nPICTUEES. \n\n\n\n747 \n\n\n\nPILNITZ. \n\n\n\nof Scotland, by the Eomans, who made expeditions \ninto the country, 296 ct seq. ; see Roman Wall. \n\nPICTUEES, see Tainting. \n\nPIEDMONT (Pedemontiicm, Latin, foot of the \nmountains), a region in N. Italy, formerly the seat \nof government of the kingdom of Sardinia, which \nsee, and Savoy. Population, 1890, 3,234,506. \n\nPIE-POUDEE COUET, the Court of Dusty \nFoot, w hose jurisdiction was established for cases \narising at fairs and markets, to do justice to the \nbuyer and seller immediately upon the spot. By \nstilt. 17 Edw. IV., it had cognizance of all disputes \nin the precincts of the market to which it might be- \nlong, 147;. \n\nPIEE AND HABBOUE ACT, to facilitate \nthe formation, management, and maintenance of \npiers and harbours in Great Britain and Ireland, \nwas passed in 1862. \n\nPIETISTS, a Lutheran sect, instituted in \nLeipsic, by Philip James Spener, a professor of \ntheology, about 1689, with the view of reforming \nthe popular religion. He established "colleges of \npietists," with preachers resembling those of the \nsociety of friends and the methodists in Britain, \nabout 1760. A body resembling the Pietists, named \nChasidim, arose among the Jews in the Ukraine, \nand spread through Poland and European Turkey. \n\nPIETEO BABSANTI Cltjb, see Italy, 1878. \n\nPIEZOMETEE (Greek piezo, I compress), an \nappirams for measuring the compressibility of \nliquids, invented by (Erstcd (died 185 1) ; improved \nby Desprctz & Saigey. \n\nPIGEONS were employed as earners by the \nancients, Hirlius and Brutus corresponded by \nmeans of pigeons at the siege of Mouena. The \npigeons of Aleppo served as couriers at Alexandretta \nand Bagdad. Thirty-two pigeons liberated from \nLondon at 7 o\'clock in the morning, 22 Nov. 1819 ; \nat noon one of them arrived at Antwerp ; a quarter \nof an hour afterwards a second arrived; the re- \nmainder on the following day. Phillips. At a \npigeon race, 25 July, 1872, from Spalding to Lon- \ndon, the speed allowed was 90 seconds a mile ; see \nPost Office, 1870. \n\nTn a pigeon race from Dover to Plymouth, some pigeons \nattained the velocity of 1,233 yards, 1,218 yards and \ni,ooS yards per minute 22 July, 1886. About 300 \npigeon-flying societies exist in France : the organization \nof carrier-pigeon stations ordered -by the minister for \nwar, Jan. 1888. About 350 similar societies exist in \nGermany, stated Jan. 1888. \n\nNational Peristeronic Society (originating from the Co- \nlumbarian Society, founded in 1750), has annual shows. \n\nA bill for prohibiting shooting pigeons rising from a \ntrap, attended with cruelties, passed by the commons \nwith large majorities, in 1883 and 1884(195 \xe2\x80\x94 40), was \nrejected by the lords in 1883 (30 \xe2\x80\x94 17), and on 9 May, \n18S4 (78\xe2\x80\x9448). \n\nThe London Columbarian society opened its 15th \nannual exhibition of pigeons, at the Westminster \nAquarium, 2 Dec. 1891 \n\nPIGMIES, see Divarjs. \n, PILCHAED FISHEEY. Peculiar to Lands \nEnd, Cornwall, reverts to AV. Ireland, after sus- \npension of two centuries (stated July, 1883). \n\nPILGEIMAGE OF GEACE, a name as- \nsumed by religious insurgents in the north of Eng- \nland, who opposed the dissolution of the monasteries. \nThe movement, which commenced in Lincolnshire \nin Sept. 1536, was suppressed in Oct. ; but soon \nafter revived in Yorkshire; and an expedition, \nbearing the foregoing name, having banners on \nwhich were depicted the five wounds of Christ, was \n\n\n\nheaded by Aske, and other gentlemen, and joined \nby priests and 40,000 men of York, Durham, Lan- \ncaster, and other counties. They took Hull and \nYork, with smaller towns. The duke of Norfolk \nmarched against them, and by making terms dis- \npersed them. Early in 1537 they again took \narms but were promptly suppressed, and the leaders,. \nseveral abbots, and many others, were executed. \n\nPILGEIMAGES began with the pilgrimage- \n\nof the empress Helena to Jerusalem, 326. They be- \ncame very frequent at the close of the 10th centuiy. \nEobert II. of France made several pilgrimages ; \namong others one to Rome about the year ioi6 r \nperhaps in 1020, when he refused the imperial \ndignity and the kingdom of Italy. The pilgrimage- \nto Canterbury is described by Chaucer in his Canter- \nbury Tales about 1383. The pilgrimage of Maho- \nmetans to Mecca, the birth-place of the prophet, ia \ncommanded in the Koran. It still continues, and \nis frequently accompanied by great outbreaks of \ncholera, which see. Pilgrimages to shrines of the \nVirgin Mary in France revived in 1873, and since, \nin consequence of miracles alleged to have taken \nplace at La Salette in 1846 and at Lourdes, 11 \nFeb. 1858 ; those of La Salette discredited by Pope \nLeo X., 1879. See Sacred Heart. \n100 American pilgrims received by the pope 9 June, 1S74 \nAbout 100 agricultural labourers (locked out for \nbeing unionists) traversed England as pilgrims, \nreceiving hospitality and money; beginning \n\n30 June, et sc\'i. ,, \nEnglish R.C. pilgrimage to shrine of St. Edmund. \n\narchbishop of Canterbury, at Pontigny Sept. ,, \nEnglish pilgrimage to Lourdes directed by the "Ca- \ntholic Union of Great Britain," start proposed ; \n\ngiven up Aug. iSSo \n\n[See Boulogne] \n\nP1LGEIM FATHEES, the name given irt \nNorth America to a party of 74 English puritans \nand 28 women, members of John Bobinson\'s \nchurch, who sailed in the May Flower from Leyden \nto North America, and landed on I\'lymouth Kock\xe2\x80\x9e \nwhere they founded a colony, 25 Dec. 1620. \n\n"PILGEIM\'S PEOGEESS from this; \nWorld to that which is to Come," written \n\nby John Bunyan, in Bedford gaol, where he was. \nimprisoned twelve years, 1660-72. The first part \nwas published in 1678. A Hebrew version appeared \nin 1 85 1 ; see Bedford. \n\nPILLAE SAINTS, see Monachism. \n\nPILLOEY, a scaffold for persons to stand on, \nto render them publicly infamous. This punish- \nment was awarded against persons convicted of \nforgery, perjury, libelling, &c. In some eases the \nhead was put through a hole, the hands through \ntwo others, the nose slit, the face branded with one \nor more letters, and one or both ears were cut oft". \nThere is a statute of the pillory, 41 Hen. III. 1256. \nMany persons died in the pillory by being struck \nwith stones by the mob, and pelted with rotten eggs \nand putrid offal. It was abolished as a punish- \nment except for perjury, 1815, and totally abolished \nin 1837. The last who suffered at the Old Bailey \nwas Peter Jas. Bossy, for perjury, 22 June, 1830. \n\nPILNITZ (near Dresden, Saxony). The con- \nvention of Pilnitz took place between the emperor \nLeopold and the king of Prussia, 20 July, 1791. On \n27 /lug. the treaty of Pilnitz, or, as some style it, \nthe Partition treaty, was finally agreed upon at \nPavia by the courts\' in concert. It was to the effect \n"that the emperor should retake all that Louis XIV. \nhad conquered in the Austrian Netherlands, and \nuniting these provinces to the Netherlands, give \n\n\n\nPILOT. \n\n\n\n748 \n\n\n\nPITCH. \n\n\n\nthem to his serene highness the elector palatine, to \nbe added to the palatinate ; Bavaria to be added to \nthe Austrian possessions," &c. \n\nPILOT. The act relating to pilots, 16 & 17 \nVict. c. 129 (1853), with other acts, is embodied in \nthe Merchant Shipping act; see Trinity- House. \n\nPILPAY, see Fables. \n\nPIMLICO, S.W. suburb of London, belonging \n\nto the Grosvenor family, who have built largely \n\nupon it since 1830. \n\nOn 20 Dec. 1881, Georgina Moore, 7I years old, living \nwith her parents in Winchester-street, disappeared ; \nher body was found by bargemen in the Medway, near \nYalding, 30 Jan. 1882. Esther Pay, with whom she \nwas last seen, accused of her murder, was acquitted, \n29 April, 1882. \n\nPimlico poisoning case. See Trials, April, 1886. \n\nPINCHBECK, an alloy of 25 per cent, of zinc, \nand 75 copper, used for watch-cases, &c, named \nafter Mr. Christopher Pinchbeck, a toyseller in Cock- \nburn-street, London, who died March, 1783. \n\nPINE-TREES. The stone pine (Pinus Pined), \n\nbrought to these countries before 1548. The cluster \npine (Pintts Pinaster), brought from the south of \nEurope before 1596. The Weymouth pine {Pintts \nStrobus), from North America, 1705. Frankincense \npine (Finns Tceda), from North America, before \n1713. There are other varieties. \n\nPINKIE (near Edinburgh), where the English \nunder the Earl of Hertford, protector, totally de- \nfeated the Scots under the regent Arrun, 10 Sept. \n1547. There fell not 200 of the English, but above \n10,000 of the Scots. Above 1500 were taken prisoners. \n\nPINS have been found in British barrows (Fos- \nbrolce) ; and are mentioned in a statute of 1483. Brass \npins were brought from France in 1540, and first \nused in England, it is said, by Catherine Howard, \nqueen of Henry YIII. Pins were made in England \nin 1543. Stow. They were first manufactured by \nmachinery in England in 1824, under a patent of \nLemuel Wellman Wright, of the United States. \n\nPIOMBINO, a principality, Italy, previously \na-uled by the Appiani family, v as acquit ed by the \nSpaniards, 1589. It was ceded to France, 1801, \nand given by Napoleon to his sister Elise, wife of \nprince Bacciochi, who held it from 1805 1o 1815, \nwhen it was restored to the Buoncampagni family, \nsubject to Tuscany. It became part of the kingdom \nof Italy, i860. \n\nPIPE ROLL SOCIETY, founded in 1884 \nfor printing all extant public records prior to the \nyear a.d. 1200. \n\nPIRACY, Greek pirati, was severely sup- \npressed by the Romans. Pompey destroyed the \nCilician pirates, 67 B.C. ; sec Buccaneers. Many \nacts of parliament have been passed for the sup- \npression of piracy ; the latest in 1837. \n\nPIRAEUS, the port of Athens, was united to \nthe city by two long walls, one erected by \'Ihemisto- \ncles, and the other by Pericles, 456 B.C., which were \ndestroyed by Lysander, 404 B.C. It was fortified by \nConon, 393 B.C. The Piraeus was able to contain \n400 Greek vessels. It was occupied by the French \nduring the Russian Avar in 1854. \n\nPIRMASENS (Bavaria). Here Morcau and \nthe French were defeated by ihe duke of Brunswick \nand the Prussians, 14 Sept. 1793. \n\nPISA, an ancient city in Tuscany, was founded \nabout six centuries before Christ, and was favoured \nby the early Roman emperors as a flourishing re- \n\n\n\npublic. The citizens took an active part in the \nItalian wars of the middle ages, but became subject \nto Florence, after a long siege, 1405-6. In 1494 \nPisa became independent under the protection of \nCharles VIII. of France, but was retaken by tbe \nFlorentines in 1509. The university was founded \nin 1343, and revived by the Medici in 1472 and \n1542. The rival popes, Benedict XIII. and Gre- \ngory XII., were deposed at a council held at Pisa in \n1409, and Alexander V. elected in their room. The \nCampanile or leaning tower was built about 1 154,* \nand the Campo Santo about the same time. \n\nPISCICULTURE, see Fisheries. \n\nPISTOLS, the smallest fire-arms, said to have \nbeen invented at Pistoia in Italy ; were first used by \nthe cavalry of England about 1544. Of late years \nthey have been made with a revolving cylindrical \nbreech, in which are formed several chambers for \nreceiving cartridges, and bringing them in succes- \nsion into a line with the barrel ready for firing. \nThe earliest model of this kind of arm is to be found \nin the museum of the United Service Institution, \nand is supposed to date from the reign of Charles I. \nAn eight-chambered matchlock revolver of the 16th \ncentury is placed in the Royal Artillery Museum, \nWoolwich. The manufacture of pistols by machinery \nwas first introduced into England from the United \nStates, America, in the year 1853, by col. Colt, who in- \nvented the Colt revolving pistol, 1851. This system \nof manufacture induced the British government to \nestablish the Enfield armoury, in 1855 ; see Fire- \nArms. \n\nPIT BROW WOMEN, see Coal, 23 June, \n1887. \n\nPITCAIRN\'S ISLAND, in the Pacific Ocean, \n\nsaid to have been discovered by Pitcairn in 1768, \nseen by Cook in 1773, and since colonised by ten \nmutineers from the ship Bounty, captain Bligh, in \n1789 ; see Bounty. \n\nThe mutineers remained unknown to England until \ndiscovered accidentally in 1814. A ship nearing the is- \nland was hailed by a swarthy youth in the English \nlanguage, when it appeared that the mutineers, soon \nafter settling there, had married some black women from \na neighbouring island, and had become a well-conducted \ncommunity under the care of Adams, the principal \nmutineer. He died in 1829, when George Hunn Nobbs, \nan Englishman, who arrived a few years before, became \nchief. In Aug. 1852 admiral Moresby spent a few days \non the island. By his means Nobbs was sent to England \nand obtained ordination. His death (aged 86; an- \nnounced Jan. 1885. As their numbers increased, the \nisland proved incapable of their support. The English \ngovernment removed them, with all their property, in \nthe ship Morayshire, on 3 May, 1856, and landed them, after \na boisterous passage, on Norfolk Island, prepared pre- \nviously for theirreoeption,8 June. The government stocked \nNorfolk Island with 2000 sheep, 450 head of cattle, and \ntwenty horses, and gave them stores to last twelve \nmonths ; their numbers were 96 males and 102 females. \n\nThe island visited by H.M.S. Peterel was found to be \nprosperous, Dec. 1875. Population, 15 Aug. 1879, 93 ; in \n1890, 126. \n\nPITCH, see under Music. \n\n\n\n* The Campanile was erected to contain bells, and \nstands in a square close to the cathedral. It is built en- \ntirely of white marble, and is a cylinder of eight stories, \neach adorned with a round of columns, rising one above \nanother. It inclines so far on one side from the perpen - \ndicular, that in dropping a plummet from the top, which \nis 188 feet in height, it falls sixteen feet from th base. \nSome thought this was done purposely by the architect ; \nothers attributed it to an accidental subsidence of the \nfoundation. From this tower Galileo made his observa- \ntion on gravitation (about 1635). \n\n\n\nPITT ADMINISTRATIONS. \n\n\n\n749 \n\n\n\nPLAGUE. \n\n\n\nPITT ADMINISTRATIONS.* The first \nadministration was formed on the dismissal of the \nPortland ministry 18 Dec. 1/8?, and termi- \nnated by resignation in 1801. The second was \nformed 12 May, 1804; and terminated (after various \nchanges) by Mr. Pitt\'s death, 23 Jan. 1806. A \npublic- funeral was decreed to him, and 40,000^. to \npay his debts. \n\nADMINISTRATION OF 1 783. \n\nWilliam Pitt, first lord of the treasury and chancellor of \nthe exchequer. \n\nEarl Gower, lord president. \n\nDuke of Rutland, privy seal. \n\nMarquis of Carmarthen, and earl Temple (immediately \nsucceeded by lord Sydney), secretaries. \n\nLord Thurlow, lord chancellor. \n\nViscount Howe, admiralty. \n\nDuke of Richmond, ordnance. \n\nWilliam Wyndham Grenville, Henry Dundas, &e. \n\n[Mr. Pitt was joined by the duke of Portland, earl \nSpencer, and other leading whigs in 1794 ; he continued \nminister until 1801. Many changes occurred in the \nministry in the long period of seventeen years.] \n\nADMINISTRATION OF 1804. \n\nWilliam Pitt, first lord of the treasury. \n\nLord Eldon, lord chancellor. \n\nDuke of Portland, succeeded by lord Sidmouth (late Mr. \nAddington), lord president. \n\nEarl of Westmorland, lord privy seal. \n\nLord Hawkesbury, lord Harrowby (succeeded by lord \nMulgrave), and earl Camden (succeeded by viscount \nCastlereagh), home, foreign, and colonial secretaries. \n\nViscount Melville (succeeded by lord Barham), admiralty. \n\nDuke of Montrose, Mr. Dundas, &c. \n\nPITTSBURG, the second city of Pennsyl- \nvania, founded on the site of Fort Duquesne, which \nsee, in 1759, and named Fort I\'itt, afterwards Pitts- \nburg, in honour of the then British prime minister, \n"William Pitt. See United States, July, 1877. The \nexhibition building burnt, 3 Oct. 1883. Population \nin 1880,156,389; 1890,238,617. \nUpwards of 100 persons perish by a mining explo- \nsion near here . . . about 11 Nov. 1888. \nThe use of coal as fuel gradually superseded in \nPittsburg by inflammable gas rising from the \n\nground 1884 et seq. \n\nStrike of about 10,000 railway men and coal-miners \n\nbegins 1 Oct. 1891 \n\nPITTSBURG LANDING (near Corinth, \nTennessee). On Sunday, 6 April, 1862, a great \nbattle was fought between the American federals \nunder Grant and Prentiss, and the confederates \nunder Albert Sydney Johnston and Beauregard. \nThe latter began the attack and were victorious, \nbut lost their able general Johnston. The federals \nwere reinforced the next day and renewed the at- \ntack ; the confederates maintained their ground ; \nbut soon after retired in good order to Corinth. \nThis engagement is also named the battle of Shiloh. \n\nPIT URINE, a new narcotic, said to have been \ndiscovered in 1882 in Australia. It resembles a \nmixture of opium and tobacco, and is extracted \nfrom the dried leaves of the Duboisia pituri, \n\nPIUS IV., CREED OF, see Confessions. \n\nPLACENTIA (now Piacenza), N. Italy, \nfounded by the Komans about 220 n.c. It suffered \nin all the convulsions attending the fall of the em- \npire, and the wars of the middle ages. In 1254 it \nfell under the rule of the family of the Scotti. In \n1302 Alberto Scotto was overcome, and Placentia \n\nWilliam Pitt, second son of the great carl of Chatham, \nwas born 28 March, 1759; became M.P. 23 Jan. 1782; \nmoved for a reform in parliament, 7 May, 1782 ; became \nchancellor of the exchequer, July, 1782 ; died 23 Jan. \n1 806. \n\n\n\nwas united to Milan, then ruled by the Visconti. \nOn their extinction in 1447, Placentia revolted, but \nwas taken by Sforza duke of Milan, and treated \nvery cruelly. In 1513 it was given to pope Leo X. \nIn 1545, Paul III. gave it with Parma as a duchy to \nhis son Peter Louis Farnese. The French and \nSpaniards were defeated by the Austrians and Sar- \ndinians near Placentia, 16 June, 1746; see Parma. \n\nPLACILLA, Chili, which see. The site of the- \ndecisive victory of the congressists over president \nBalmaceda, 28 Aug. 1891. \n\nPLAGUE. The plagues of Egypt (1491 B.C.) \nare described in Exodus ix., &c. The first recorded \ngeneral plague in all parts of the world occurred \n767 B.C. Petavius. At Home a desolating plague- \nprevailed, 453 b.c. The devastating plague at \nAthens, which spread into Egypt and Ethiopia, 430 \nB.C., is admirably described by Thucydides. Another \nwhich raged in the Greek islands, Egypt, and Syria, \ndestroyed 2000 persons every day, 187 B.C. Pliny. \nSee Cattle. \n\nAt Rome, a most awful plague ; 10,000 persons perished \ndaily, a.d. 80. \n\nAgain ravaged the Roman empire, 167, 169, 189. \n\nAnother in the Roman empire. For some time 5000 per- \nsons died daily at Rome ; many towns entirely depopu- \nlated, 250-265. \n\nIn Britain, a plague swept away such multitudes that \nthe living were scarcely sufficient to bury the dead, \n\n43\xc2\xb0- \n\nA long-continued dreadful one began in Europe in 558,. \nextended all over Asia and Africa. \n\nAt Constantinople, when 200,000 of its inhabitants, \nperished, and in Calabria, Sicily, and Greece, 746-749. \n\nIn London, 962. \n\nAt Chichester, in England, an epidemical disease carried \noff 34,000 persons, 772. Will. Malms. \n\nIn Scotland 40,000 persons perished, 954. \n\nIn London, great mortality, 1094 ; and Ireland, 1095. \n\nAgain, in London ; it extended to cattle, fowls, and other \ndomestic animals, 1111. Holinshed. \n\nIn Ireland ; after Christmas this year, Henry II. was \nforced to quit the country, 11 72. \n\nAgain, in Ireland, when a prodigious number perished, \n1204. \n\nThe " Black Death " in Italy, 1340. \n\nA plague raged throughout Europe, causing extensive? \nmortality. Britain and Ireland suffered grievously. \nIn London alone 200 persons were buried daily in the \nCharterhouse-yard, 1348-9. (That at Florence described \nby Boccaccio.) \n\nIn London and Paris a dreadful mortality prevailed in \n1361-2, 1367, 1369, and in Ireland in 1370. \n\nA great pestilence in Ireland called the Fourth, destroyed \na great number of the people, 1383. \n\n30,000 persons perished of a dreadful pestilence in Lon- \ndon, 1407. \n\nAgain, in Ireland, superinduced by a famine ; great \nnumbers died, 1466 ; and Dublin was wasted by a \nplague, 1470. \n\nAn awful pestilence at Oxford, 1471 ; and throughout \nEngland, a plague which destroyed more people than \nthe continual wars for the fifteen preceding years, 1478. \nRapin : Salmon, \n\nThe Sudor Anglicus, or sweating sickness, very fatal in \nLondon, 1485. Delaune. \n\nThe plague in London so dreadful that Henry VII. and \nhis court removed to Calais, 1499-1500. Stow. \n\nThe sweating sickness (mortal in three hours), in Lon- \ndon, 1506 ; and in 1517. In most of the capital towns \nin England half the inhabitants died, and Oxford was \ndepopulated, 9 Henry VIII. Stoic. \n\nLimerick was visited by a plague, when many thousands \nperished, 1522. \n\nThe sweating sickness again in England, 1528 ; and in \nNorth Germany in 1529 ; and for the fifth time in Eng- \nland, in 1551. \n\n30,578 persons perished of the plague in London alone, \n1603-1604. It was also fatal in Ireland. \n\n200,000 perished of a pestilence at Constantinople in \n1611. \n\nIn London a great mortality prevailed, and 35,417 per- \nsons perished, 1625. \n\n\n\nPLAIN-SONG. \n\n\n\n750 \n\n\n\nPLANETS. \n\n\n\nIn France a general mortality ; at Lyons, 60,000 persons \n\n*Wa-uft>rou<\'lit from Sardinia to Naples : (being intro- \n^SUo^itl. soldiers on board) . ra|e \nwith such violence as to carry off 400,000 ot the mnaoi \n\ntTSaSS^VSn*-, began Dec. x66 4 , which \n\nrWv,\\ve cl till the great conflagration of Sept. 1666. _ \n\xc2\xa3 to SUlescdhSd by De Foe in his partially imagi- \n\nOne ol tt mo\xc2\xb0st awful plagues that ever raged, prevailed \n^S\'a^P^S^ich carried off 80,000 of \n\n^%t^i\xc2\xa3! y -s^r^^a\xc2\xbb \n\n^l^a^at^S&in^ensenumbers we car- \n\nviP.l o f bv a pestilent disease in 1804 and 1805. \nAgafnaSXi- an epidemic fever much resembling \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0gBSBSBSSSiR \n\nA^t^tSKeSSv^ugland, resembling \nA f ypll us, -ear ^don l^nsJmi^^^. ^ ^ \n\nK^"^l>Ei?2fett\xc2\xbb seLre. March \nrSTinTstracan, Jam-April, ,879. \n\n\n\nFalcan (between Mercury and the Sun), said to be \ndiscovered by M. Lescarbault a physician (not \nseen since), 26 March, 1859 ; said to have \xc2\xbb\xc2\xab8nseen \nby Watson during the solar eclipse (doubted t>> \nPeters) \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 2 9> 3\xc2\xb0 Jul >> \n\nA red star seen by M. Trouvelot during the solar \neclipse, most probably Vulcan . . o Aiaj , \n\nMinor Planets (according to Mr. G. F Chambers, \nEoyal Astronomical Society, and others). \n\n1. Ceres, discovered by Piazzi (visible to the naked \n\n2 . Prills, "discovered at Bremen by Others (see \nPallas) . \xe2\x96\xa0\xe2\x96\xa0\xe2\x96\xa0\xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x96\xa0 28 *S \n\n\n\n1S78 \ni33 3 \nthe \n\n\n\n1801 \n\n1802 \n\n\n\nPLAIN-SONG, see Chanting. \n\nPT,AN OF CAMPAIGN, see Ireland Oct. \ntS86 By this plan the tenant of a farm was to pay \nMs rent to the National League instead of to the \nlandlord, and was to be supported if evicted. B \n\n\'Guiway, Oct. 1891. _ . \n\nPT ANE A true plane, so important in \nmSiTeVy 1 as been most successfully obtained by \nSr JoTeph WMtworth. Fine specimens were ex- \nlibited atthe Eoyal Institution in 187* \n\nPLANETARIUM, see Orrery. \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0pt ATSTRTS Jupiter was known as a planet to \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0\xe2\x99\xa6hf Chinese and the Chaldeans, and inserted ma \n\niV.f the heavens, made about 600 B.C., and in \n\ns aid to be in the national library at Paris The \nfour satellites of Jupiter discovered by Galileo, 7 \nS 160, Z Mars, Saturn. We now know nine \nT^Jrv manets termed major; Mercury, Venus, \n^Srit^rs,J-upiter, Saturn Uranus, Nep- \ntuneS Vulcan (doubtful) ; and secondary or \nSr situated between the orbits of Mars and Ju- \n, ter \' The numerical order differs in the lists of \nT l^h Cerman aud French astronomers. In the \nS?\'andSan lists , Aglaia to Pandora are \nnumbered 47 to 55 ; Mcle.te is ^. \nUranus, formerly called ^* \xc2\xbb and \nHerschel; discovered by W. lieiscne ^ ^^ ^ \n\ngiuw, Sidw) \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 Gal \' 1& (hi consequence of the \nJfep^ie hscove i\xc2\xab 1 by Ga .1 k v M. gept< \n\n\n\n3. Juiio, discovered by Harding \n4 Festo, discovered by Oibers . \n\n5. ytsircea, by K. C. HencKe . \n\n6. Hebe, by the same . \n\n7. Iris, by J. R. Hind . \n\n8. Flora, by the same . \no. Metis, by A. Graham . \n\n10. Hygeia, by A. de Gaspans . \n\n11. Parthenojie, by the same . \n10. Fi\'ctoria, by J. R. Hmd . \n\n13. Egeria, by A. de. Gaspans . \n\n14. Irene, by J. R. Hind . . \n\n15. Eunomia, by A. de Gaspans \n\n16. Psyc7ic, by the same \n\n17. Thetis, by R. Luther . . \n\n18. Melpomene, by J. R. Hmd . \nin. Fortuna, by the same \n20. Massilia, by A. de Gaspans . \n21 Lutetia, by H. Goldschmidt . . \n\n22. Calliope, by J. R. Hind . \n\n23. Thalia, by the same . _ . \n\n24. Themis, by A. de Gaspans . \n\n25. Phoccua, by M. Chacornac . \n26 Proserpine, by R. Luther \n\n27. Euterpe, by J. R. Hind \n\n28. Bellona, by R. Luther . . \n2 n Amphitrite, by Mr. Marth . \n\n30. C/raiwa, by J. R. Hind . \n\n31. Euphrosync, by James Ferguson \n32 Pomona, by H. Goldschmidt. \n\n33. Polyhymnia, by M. Chacornac . \n\n34. Circe, by the same . \n\xc2\xab. Leucothca, by R. Luther . . \n-6 Atalanta, by H. Goldschmidt \n37. Fides, by R. Luther . \n-8 Leda, by M. Cliacornac . \n, g . Lcetitia, by the same . \n40. Harmonia, by R. Luther _ . \n41 Daphne, by H. Goldschmidt . \n\n42. Jsis, by Norman Pogson \n\n43. Ariadne, by the same . \n\n44. Nysa, by H. Goldschmidt . \n45 Eugenia, bv the same \n\nI 46. Hestia, by N. Pogson . . \n\n47 *Mclcte, by H. Goldschmidt . \n1 48. Aglaia, by R. Luther . . \nI 4 \xe2\x80\x9e-. Doris, by H. Goldschmidt \nI ro Po?es, by the same . . .. \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n51 Firoittia, by James Ferguson . \n1 c 2 Nemausa, by M. Laurent . \n\n5. Eurojw, by H. Goldschmidt . \n\n54. Calypso, by R. Luther . . \n\nA Alexandra, by H. Goldschmidt \n\n56! Pandora, by Mr. Searle \n\n57. Mnemosyne, by R. Luther \n\n=8. Concoj-Jire, by the same _ . \n\n50. Daitae, by H. Goldschmidt . \n\n60. Olympia, by M. Chacornac . \n\n61 Erato, by MM. Forster and Lessmg \n\n62\' \xc2\xa3<*o (orlg. Titaiua), by J.. Ferguson \n\n63 .Ausonia, by A. de Gaspans . \n\n64. Angelina, by M. Tempel . \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x96\xa0\xe2\x80\x9e,\xe2\x80\x9e\xe2\x80\x9e\xe2\x80\x9e,, \n\n65. (We (orig. Maximihana), by M. JTenvpel, \n\n66. Jtfai\xc2\xab,byH.P.Tuttle . . \xe2\x80\xa2 S 1 Anvil, \n\n67. ^ia, by N. Pogson . . \xe2\x80\xa2 17 A , \n\n68. MR toy R Luther .. . . \xe2\x80\xa2 *9 AP , }> \n69 Hespcria, by M. Scluaparelh \n\n\n\n1 Sept. \n29 March, \n. 8 Dec. \n\n1 July, \n. 13 Aug. \n\n18 Oct. \n. 25 April, \n\n12 April, \n\n. 11 May, \n\n13 Sept. \n\n. 2 Nov. \n\n19 May, \n. 29 July, \n17 March, \n\n17 April, \n\n24 June, \n\n. 22 Aug. \n\n19 Sept. \n\n. 15 Nov. \n\n16 Nov. \n\n. 15 Dec. \n\n. 5 April, \n\n. 6 April, \n\n. 5 May, \n\n8 Nov. \n\n1 March, \n\n. 1 March, \n\n22 July, \n\n. 1 Sept. \n\n. 26 Oct. \n\n. 28 Oct. \n\n6 April, \n\n. 19 April, \n\n19 April, \n\n. 5 Oct. \n\n\n\n1807 \n\n184s \n\n1847 \n\n\n\n1850 \n\n1851 \n\n1852 \n\n\n\n1853 \n\n\n\n1854 \n\n\n\n1855 \n\n\n\n8 Feb. \n\n31 March, \n\n. 22 Slav, \n\n23 May, \n\n. 15 April, \n\n27 May, \n\n. 28 June, \n\n16 Aug. \n\n. 9 Sept, \n\n15 Sept. \n\n. 19 Sept. \n\n19 Sept. \n\n4 Oct. \n\n. 22 Jan. \n\n6 Feb. \n\n4 April, \n\n. 10 Sept. \n\n10 Sept. \n\n. 22 Sept. \n\n24 March, \n\n9 Sept. \n12 Sept. \n\n14 Sept, \n\n15 Sept. \n\n10 Feb. \n4 March. \n\n\n\n1856 \n\n\n\ni\xc2\xa357 \n\n\n\n1858 \n\n\n\n1859 \ni860 \n\n\n\n1S61 \n\n\n\n* It was believed at first to be Daphne, No 4 aid \nhence was called "Pseudo-Daphne," when E. Schubert \nproved It to be a new planet. It was not re-discovered \nbv M Goldschmidt till 1 Sept. 1862 when it received its \npresent name, that of the Muse ot Meditation. \n\n\n\nPLANETS. \n\n\n\n751 \n\n\n\nPLANETS. \n\n\n\n83. \n84. \n85- \n\n86. \n87. \n88. \n89. \ngo. \n91. \n\nQ2. \n\n93- \n94. \n\n95- \n96. \n\n97- \n98. \n99. \n\n100. \n\n101. \n\n102. \n\n103. \n\n104. \n\n105. \n\n106. \n\n107. \n\n108. \n\n109. \n\nno. \n\nin. \n\n112. \n\n"3- \n114. \nUS- \n116. \n\n117. \n11S. \n119. \n\nI20. \n121. \n122. \nI23. \n124. \n125. \nI26. \n127. \n128. \n129. \nI30. \n\n13I- \n\n332. \n\n133- \n\n134- \n135- \n136. \n137- \n138. \n139- \n140. \n141. \n142. \n143. \n144. \n145- \n146. \n147. \n148. \n149. \n150. \n\xc2\xab5i- \n152- \n153- \n\n\n\nPdnopcea, by H. Goldschmidt \nFeronia, by Peters and Safford \nNiobc, by It. Luther . \nClytie, by II. P. Tuttle . \nGalatea, by M. Tompel \nEurydicc, by C. H. P. Peters \nFreia, by M. d\'Arrest \nFrigga, by C. H. F. Peters . \nDiana, by R. Luther \nEurynome, by Jas. C. Watson \nSappho, by N. Pogson \nTerpsichore, by M. Tempel . \nAlcmene, by R. Luther \nBeatrix, by A. de Gasparis . \nClio, by R. Luther . \nlo, by C. II. F. Peters . \nSemele, by P. Tietjen \nSylvia, by N. Pogson . \nThisbe, by C. H. P. Peters \nJulia, by M. Stophan . \nAntiope, by R. Lutlier \nAZgina, by Alphonse Borelly \nUndina, by C . H. F. Peters \nMinerva, by J. C. Watson . \nAurora, by the same \nArethusa, by It. Luther \nJEgU, by M. Coggia . \nClotlw, by M. Tempel . \nlanthe, by C. II. F. Peters \nDike, by A. Borelly . . \nHecate, by J. C. Watson . \nHelena, by the same \nMiriam, by C. II. F. Peters \nHera, by J. C. Watson . \nClymene, by the same \nArtemis, by J. C. Watson \nDionc, by J. C. Watson . \nCamilla, by N. Pogson . \nHecuba, by R. Luther* . \nFelicitas, by C. H. F. Peters. \nLydia, by Alphonse Borelly \nAte, by C. II. F. Peters . \nJphigenia, by C. H. F. Peters . \nAmalthcea, by R. Luther \nCassandra, by C. II. F. Peters . \nThyra, by J. C. Watson \nSirona (by R. Luther, 14 Sept.) \n\nPeters \n\nLomia, by A. Borelly . \nPeitho, by R. Lutlier . . \nAlthaea, by J. C. Watson \nLachesis, by A. Borelly \nHermione, by J. C. Watson . \nGerda, by C. H. F. Peters \nBrunhilda, by C. H. F. Peters \nAlceste, by C. H. F. Peters. \nLiberatrix, by Prosper Henry \nVelleda, by Paul Henry . \nJohanna, by Prosper Henry . \nNemesis, by J. C. Watson . \nAntigone, by C. II. F. Peters \nElectra, by C. H. P. Peters \nVala, bv C. H. F. Peters \nJEthra, by J. C. Watson . \nCyrene, by J. C. Watson \nSophrosyne, by R. Luther . \nHcrtha, by C. H. F. Peters . \nAustria, by J. Palisa . \nMelibcca, by J. Palisa . \nTolosa, by M. Perrotin \nJuewa, by J. C. Watson. \nSuva, by J. Palisa \nLumen, by Paul Henry . \nPolana, by J. Palisa . \nAdria, by J. Palisa \nVibilia, by C. II. F. Peters \nAdeona, by C. II. F. Peters . \nLucina, by A. Borelly . \nProtogeneia, by L. Schulhof \nGallia, by Prosper Henry \nMedusa, by M. Perrotin \nNuwa, by J. C. Watson . \nAb iindantia, by J. Palisa . \nAUila, by Paul Henry \nHilda, by J. Palisa \n\n\n\n1863 \n1864 \n\n1865 \n\n1866 \n\n1807 \n\n\n\n5 May, \n29 May, \n\n13 Aug. \n7 April, \n\n29 Aug. \n\n22 Sept. \n\n21 Oct. \n\n12 Nov. \n15 March, \n\n14 Sept. \n2 May, \n\n30 Sept. \n\n27 Nov. \n26 April, \n\n25 Aug. \n19 Sept. \n\n4 Jan. \n\n16 May, \n\n15 June, \n. 6 Aug. \n\n1 Oct. \n\n. 4 Nov. \n\n7 July, \n\n24 Aug. \n\n6 Sept. \n\n23 Nov. \n\n17 Feb. \n17 Feb. \n\n, 18 April, \n\n28 May, \n\n11 July, \n\n15 Aug. \n\n22 Aug. \n. 7 Sept. \n\n13 Sept. \n\n16 Sept. \n10 Oct. \n\n17 Nov. \n\n2 April, \n. 9 Oct. \n\n. 19 April, \n\n14 Aug. \n. ig Sept. \n\n12 March, \n\n. 23 July, \n\n. 6 Aug. \n\n>y 0. H. F. \n\n. 8 Sept. \n\n12 Sept. \n15 March, \n\n3 April, \n. 10 April, \n\n12 May, \n. 31 July, \n\n31 July, \n. 23 Aug. \n\n11 Sept. \n\n5 Nov. \n. 5 Nov. \n\n. 25 Nov. \n\n. 5 Feb. \n\n. 17 Feb. \n\n24 May, \n. 13 June, \n\n16 Aug. \n. 27 Sept. \n\n18 Feb. \n18 March, ,, \n\n21 April, ,, \n\n. 19 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n10 Oct. ,, \n\n. 13 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n13 Jan. 1875 \n. 28 " \n\n\n\n1S70 \n1871 \n\n1872 \n\n\n\n1873 \n\n\n\n1874 \n\n\n\n!Ji \n\n\n\n23 \n\n\n\n_an. \nFeb. \n\n\n\n3 June, \n3 June, \n\n\n\n8 Jun \n10 Jul \n\n\n\ny> \n\n\n\n7 An.,. \n21 Sept. \n18 Oct. \n\n1 Nov. \n\n2 Nov, \n2 Nov. \n\n\n\n* Atropos said to have been discovered by R. Luther, \n14 April, 1869. Not observed since. \n\n\n\n154- \n155- \n156. \n!57- \n158. \n159- \n160. \n161. \n162. \n163. \n164. \n165. \n166. \n\n!6 7 . \n\n168. \n\n169. \n170. \n\n171. \n\n172. \n\n173- \n174. \n\n175- \n176. \n177. \n178. \n179. \n1 So. \n181. \n182. \n183. \n184. \n1S5. \n186. \n1S7. \n\n\n\n190. \n191. \n\n192. \n\nJ 93- \n194. \n\n195\' \n\n\n\n200. \n201. \n202. \n203. \n204. \n205. \n206. \n207. \n208. \n209. \n210. \n211. \n212. \n213. \n214. \n\n215- \n\n216. \n217. \n218. \n219. \n220. \n221. \n222. \n223. \n224. \n225. \n226. \n227. \n228. \n229. \n230. \n231. \n232. \n=33- \n234- \n235- \n236. \n\n2 37- \n238. \n\n=39- \n240. \n241. \n\n\n\nBertha, by Prosper Henry . . 4 Nov. 1875 \n\nScylla, by J. Palisa s Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nXanthippe, by J.- Palisa . . . 22 Nov. \n\nDejanira, by A. Borelly . . 1 Dec. " \n\nKoronis, by V. Knorre ... 4 Jan. 1876 \n\nAemilia, by Paul Henry . . 26 Jan. ,, \n\nUnci, by C. H. F. Peters . . .20 Feb. ,, \n\nAthor, by J.C. Watson . . 18 April, ,, \n\nLaurentia, by Prosper Henry . 21 April, ,, \n\nErigone, by M. Perrotin . . 26 April \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nEva, by Paul Henry . . .12 July, ,, \n\nLoreley, by C. H. F. Peters . . 10 Aug. ,, \n\nBhodope, by C. H. F. Peters . -17 Aug. ,, \n\nUrda, by C. H. F. Peters . . 29 Aug. ,, \n\nSibylla, by J. C. Watson . . 27 Sept. ,, \n\ny.elia, by Prosper Henry . . 2S Sept. ,, \n\nMaria, or Myrrha, by M. Perrotin 10 Jan. 1877 \n\nOphelia, by Alphonse Borelly . 13 Jan. ,, \n\nBaucis, by Alphonse Borelly . . 5 Feb. ,, \n\nIno, by Alphonse Borelly . . 2 Aug. ,, \n\nPhmdra, by J. C. Watson . . .3 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAndromache, by J. C. Watson . . 1 Oct. ,, \n\nIdunna, by C. H. F. Peters . . 14 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nIrma, by Paul Henry .... 5 Nov. ,, \n\nBelisana, by J. Palisa . . . 6 Nov. ,, \n\nClytcmnestra, by J. -C. Watson . 12 Nov. ,, \n\nGarumna, by Mv Perrotin. . . 29 Jan. 1878 \n\nEucharis, by Cottenot ... 2 Feb. ,, \n\nElsa, by J. Palisa .... 7 Feb. ,, \n\nIstria, by J. Palisa .... 8 Feb. ,, \n\nDciopeia, by J. Palisa ... 28 Feb. ,, \n\nLunik?, by C. H. F. Peters . 1 March, ,, \n\nCcluta, by Prosper Henry . . 6 April, ,, \n\nLamberta, by Coggia . . . n April, ,, \n\nMenippe, by C. H. F. Peters . 18 June, ,, \n\nPhthia, by C. H. F. Peters 9 Sept. ,, \n\nIsmene, by C. H. F. Peters . 22 Sept. ,, \n\nKolga, by C. H. F. Peters . . 30 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNausikaa, by J." Palisa . . . 17 Feb. 1879 \n\nAmbrosia, by Coggia ... 28 Feb. ,, \n\nProcne, by C. H. F. Peters . 21 March, ,, \n\nEurykleia, by J. Palisa . . .22 April, ,, \n\nPhilomela, by C. H. F. Peters . . 14 May, ,, \n\nArete, by J. Palisa . . . 21 May, ,, \nAmpella, by Borellv ... 13 June, \n\nByblis, by C. H. F.. Teters . . 9 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDynamene, by C. H. F. Peters . 27 July, ,, \n\nPeneliipe, by J.- Palisa . . . 7 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nChrysei<, by C. H. F. Peters . . n Sept. ,, \n\nPompeia, by C. H. F. Peters . . 25 Sept. ,, \n\nCallisto, by J. Palisa ... 8 Oct. ,, \n\nMartha, by J. Palisa .... 13 Oct. ,, \n\nHcrsilio, by C. H. F. Peters . . 13 Oct. ,, \n\nHedda, by J. Palisa .... 17 Oct. ,, \n\nLacrimosa, by J. Palisa . . . 21 Oct. ,, \n\nDido, by C. H. F. Peters ... 22 Oct. ,, \n\nIsabella, by J. Palisa . . . 12 Nov. ,, \n\nIsolda, by J. Palisa . . . .10 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nMedea, by J. Palisa ... 6 Feb. \nLilcca, by C. H. F. Peters . . 16 Feb! \nAschera, by J. Palisa. . . . 1 March, \nCEuone, by V. Knorre . . . . 7 April, \nCleopatra, by J. Palisa . . . 10 April, \nEudora, by Coggia . . . .30 Aug. \nBianca, by J. Palisa ... 4 Sept. \nThusnelda, by J. Palisa . . .30 Sept. \nStephania, by J. Palisa ... 19 May, \n\nEos, by J. Palisa 18 Jan. \n\nIsucia, by J. Palisa .... 9 Feb. ,, \n\nBosa, by\' J. Palisa ... 9 March, \',, \nOceana, by J. Palisa . . .30 March, \nHenrietta, by J. Palisa . . . 19 April, \nWeringia, by J. Palisa . . . 19 July, \n\nJ\'hilosophia, by Paul Henry . . 12 Aug. ,\' \nA git the, by J. Palisa . . . .19 Aug. \nAdelinda, by J/Palisa . . . . 22 Aug. \',\' \n\nAthavwntis, by L. De Ball . . 3 Sept. ,\' \n\nVindobona, by J. Palisa . . 10 Sept. ,, \n\nRussia, by J. Palisa .... 31 Jan. 1883 \n\nAsterope, by Borelly . . . n May, ,, \n\nBarbara, by C. H. F. Peters . . 12 Aug. ,] \n\nCarolina, by J. Palisa ... 28 Nov. ,, \n\nHonoria, by J. Palisa . . . 26 April, 1S84 \n\nCaslestina, by J. Palisa . . . 27 June, ,, \nHypatia, by V. Knorre. . . . 1 July, ,, \n\nAdrastea-, by J. Palisa . . . 18 Aug. ,, \n\nVanadis, by Borelly ... 27 Aug. ,, \nGermania, by R. Luther . . . 12 Sept. \',, \n\n\n\niSCo \n\n\n\n1S81 \n18S2 \n\n\n\nPLANETS. \n\n\n\n752 \n\n\n\nPLATE. \n\n\n\n242. \n-243. \n244. \n\n2 45- \n246. \n247- \n248. \n249. \n250. \n251. \n252. \n253- \n=54- \n255- \n256. \n257- \n\n\n\n261. \n262. \n263. \n264. \n265. \n266. \n267. \n268. \n269. \n270. \n271. \n272. \n\n273- \n274. \n275- \n276. \n277. \n\n2 7 8. \n\n279. \n280. \n281. \n282. \n283. \n\n\n\n290. \n\n291. \n\n292, \n\n293\' \n\n294. \n\n295\' \n296, \n297 \n\n2j8. \n\n\n\n3\xc2\xb04\' \n3\xc2\xb05\' \n306. \n3\xc2\xb07> \n\n\n\n3i4 \n3i5\' \n316. \n3 J 7- \n\n\n\n324\' \n32S\' \n\n326. \n327- \n32S. \n\n329. \n\n\n\nKriemMM, by J. Palisa . \nIda, by J. Palisa \nSite, by J. Palisa . \nVera, by J. Palisa \nAsporind, by Borelly \nEnkrale, by Luther \nl.ameia, bv J. Palisa . \nUse, by C." H. F. Peters . \nBetliita, by J. Palisa . \nSophia, by J. Palisa \nClementina, by Perrotin . \nMathilde, by J. Palisa . \nAugusta, by J. Palisa \nOppavia, by J. Palisa . \nWalpurga, by J. Palisa \nSilesia, by J. Palisa \nTyche, by Luther . . . \nAletheia, by C. H. F. Peters \nHuberla, by J. Palisa \nPryw.no, by C. H. F. Peters \nVcdda, by J. Palisa . \nDresda, by J. Palisa \nLibussa, by C. H. F. Peters . \nAnna, by J. Palisa \nAline, by J. Palisa . \nTirza, by Charlois \nAdorea, by A. Borelly \nJustitia, by J. Palisa . \nAnahita, by C. H. F. Peters . \nPenthesilea, by V. Knorre . \nAntonia, by Charlois \nAtropos, by J. Palisa . \nPhilagoria, by J. Palisa . \nSapientia, by J. Palisa \nAdelheid by J. Palisa \nElvira, by Charlois . \nPaulina, by J. Palisa . \nThule, by J. Palisa . \nPhilia, by J. Palisa \nLvcre\'ia, by J. Palisa \nEmma, by Charlois \nAmelia, by Charlois \n\n, by uharlois . \nKegina, by J. Palisa . \nIdea, by Charlois or J. Palisa \nNephthys, by C. H. F. Peters \nGlauke, by R. Luther \nNenetta, by M. Charlois \nBmna, by J. Palisa \nAlice, by J. Palisa \nLvdovica, by J. Palisa . \nBrasilia, by M. Charlois . \nFelicia, by M. Charlois . \nTheresa, by J. Palisa . \nPhaetusa, by M. Charlois \n(\'axilla, by M. Charlois \nBrtptistina, by M. Charlois \nThova, by J. Palisa \nGeraldina, by Charlois . \nBavaria, J. Palisa \n( larisa, by Charlois . \nJosephine, by prof. Millosevich \nC%\xc2\xab, by J. Palisa \n\n, by Charlois . \nUnitas, by prof. Millosevich . \n\n,\'by M. Charlois \n\n, by Mr. Borelly . \nFraternitas, by J. Palisa \n\n, by Charlois \n\n, by Charlois \n\n, by M. Charlois . \nChuldaea, by J. Palisa . \n\n, by Charlois \nConstantia, by Palisa . \n\n, by Charlois \n\n, by Charlois, . \n\n, by Charlois \n\n, by Charlois . \n\n, by J. Palisa \n\n, by J. Palisa . \n\n, by Borelly \nBrucia, by Dr. Wolf . \nHeidelberga, by Dr. Wolf. \n\n, by Dr. Palisa \nllmatar, by Dr. Wolf \n\n, by Dr. Wolf . \n\n, by Dr. Wolf . \n\n, by Dr. Wolf. \n\n\n\n22 S \n29 \n14 \n\n6 \n\n\n\nSept. 1884 \n\nSept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nI. Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n. o Feb. 1885 \n\n. 6 March, ,, \n\n14 March, ,, \n\n. 5 June, ,, \n\n16 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n. 3 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n. 4 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n. 27 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n12 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n31 March, 1886 \n\n31 March, ,, \n\n. 3 April, ,, \n\n5 April, ,, \n. 4 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n28 June, ,, \n\n. \xe2\x80\xa2 3 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n31 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n3 Nov. ,, \n. 3 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n22 Dec. ,, \n\n. 27 Feb. 1887 \n\n17 May, ,, \n27 May, ,, \n\n9 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n21 Sept. ,, \n\n8 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n. 16 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n4 Feb. 1888 \n8 March, ,, \n\n3 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n15 April, ,, \n\n. 17 April, ,, \n\n. . 3 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n16 May, ,, \n\n. 25 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n29 Oct. ,, \n. 31 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n. 28 Jan. 1889 \n\n8 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n. 29 May \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n. 3 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n3 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n. 25 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n20 Feb. 1890 \n\n10 March, ,, \n\n, 20 March, ,, \n\n25 April, ,, \n\n. 25 April, ,, \n\n. 20 May, ,, \n\n15 July, ,, \n\n. 17 Aug. ,, \n\n19 Aug. ,, \n. 9 Sept. ,, \n\n9 Sept. ,, \n\n. 6 Oct, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n3 Oct, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n16 Nov. ,, \n\n14 Nov. ,, \n\n. 12 Feb. 1891 \n\n. 14 Feb. ,, \n\n. 16 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n. 1 March, ,, \n\n5 March, ,, \n\n31 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n6 April, ,, \n. 16 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n11 June, ,, \n\n. 28 Aug. ,, \n\n30 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n. 1 Sept, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n4 Sept. ,, \n. 8 Sept, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n11 Sept, ,, \n\n. 24 Sept. ,, \n\n. 8 Oct. ,, \n\n. 12 Oct, ,, \n\n.15 Oct, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n27 Nov. ,, \n\n28 Nov. ,, \n\n20 Dec. ,, \n25 Feb. 1892 \n\n. 4 March, ,, \n\n18 March, ,, \n\n19 March, ,, \n19 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\n330. , by Dr. Palisa . . .19 March, 1892 \n\n331. , by Dr. Wolf ... 21 March, ,,, \n\n332. Columbia, by M. Charlois . . 22 March, ,, \n\n333. , by M. Charlois . . .1 April, ,, \n[The later numbers are uncertain.] \n\nPLANIMETEB,, a machine for measuring the \narea of any figure by the passage of a tracer round \nabout its perimeter. Amsler\'s planimeter (in use \nfor several years) was described at the British \nAssociation meeting at Brighton, Aug. 1872. \n\nPLANING -MACHINE. One for wood was \nconstructed by Bramah, about 1802 ; and one fo* \niron by Joseph Clement in 1825. \n\nPLANTAGENET,* House of, to which \nbelonged fourteen English kings, from Henry II\xe2\x80\x9e \n1 154, to Eichard III., 1485 ; sec England, Kings. \n\nPLANTATIONS, sec Trade. \n\nPLASSEY, in Bengal, India, the site of a \nbattle fought between the British under Clive, ans} \nthe Hindoos under Surajah Dowlah, 23 June, 1757 ; \n68,000 men were vanquished by 1000 British and \nabout 2000 sepoys. The victory laid the foundations \nof our empire in India. \n\nPLASTEE OF PARIS. Gypsum, sulphate of \nlime, used for moulds, statuary, &c, first found at \nMontmartre, near Paris, whence its name. The \nmethod of taking likenesses by its use was first \ndiscovered by Andrea del Verrochio, about 1466. \n\nPLATA, LA, see Argentine Republic. \n\nPLATJEA (Bceotia, N. Greece), site of the- \nbattle between Mardonius, commander of the army \nof Xerxes of Persia, and Pausanias, commander of \nthe Lacedaemonians and Athenians, 22 Sept.479n.Cy \nthe same day as the battle of Myeale. Of 300,000 \nPci-sians scarce 3000 escaped with their lives. The* \nGrecian army, about 110,000, lost but few men^ \nThe Greeks obtained immense plunder, and were* \nhenceforth delivered from the fear of Persian in- \nvasions. Platsea, as an ally of Athens, was destroyed \nby the Thebans, 372 ; and rebuilt by Philip II. after \nhis victory at Chferonea, 338. \n\nPLATE. In England, plate, with the excep- \ntion of spoons, was prohibited in public-houses by \nstatute 8 Will. III. (1696). The celebrated Plate \nact passed in May, 1756. This act was repealed in \n1780. The act laying a stamp-duty upon plate- \npassed in 1784; see Goldsmiths\' Company. By \n17 & 18 Vict, c. 96 (1854), gold wares were allowed \nto be manufactured at a lower standard ; but a later \nact excepted marriage rings. \xe2\x80\x94 The art of covering \nbaser metals with a thin plate of silver, either for \nuse or for ornament (plating), said to have been \ninvented by a Birmingham spur-maker, who began \nwith making the branches of a pair of spurs hollow, \nand filling the hollow with a slender rod of steel. \nHe continued to make the hollow larger and the iron; \nthicker, till at last he merely coated the iron spur \nwith silver ; see Electrotype. \n\nMr. Wilfred Joseph Cripps\' "Old English Plate," a valu- \nable work, containing the researches of Mr. O. Mor- \ngan, published, 1878. His "Old French Plate," 18S0. \n\n\n\n* Fulke Martel, earl of Anjou, having contrived the \ndeath of his nephew, the earl of Brittany, in order to\xc2\xbb \nsucceed to the earldom, Ins confessor sent him, in atone- \nment for the murder, to Jerusalem, attended by only two- \nservants, one of whom was to lead him by a halter to the? \nHoly Sepulchre, the other to strip and whip him there, \nlike a common malefactor. Broom, in French genet, in \nLatin genista, being the only tough, pliant shrub in. \nPalestine, the noble criminal was smartly scourged with, \nit, and from this instrument of his chastisement he was- \ncalled Planta-genisto, or Plantagenet; other accounts are: \ngiven. Skinner and Meseray. \n\n\n\nPLATE-WAYS. \n\n\n\n7o3 \n\n\n\nPLUM. \n\n\n\nDuty on silver plate to be reduced gradually till abolished, \nfrom i June, 1881 ; abolished 17 April, 1890. \n\nPLATE-WAYS, on ordinary roads for waggons \ncarrying goods, proposed at Liverpool about 1880, \nto supersede railways lor cheapness ; not adopted, \nJan. 1883. \n\nPLATFORM, see Public Meetings. \n\nPLATINUM, the heaviest of all the metals, \nexcept iridium. The name originated with the \nSpaniards on account of its silvery colour ; Plata \nsignifying silver. It was found in the auriferous \nsand of the river Pinto, in South America, and was \nunknown in Europe until 1741, when don Antonio \nUlloa announced its existence in the narrative of his \nvoyage to Peru. Grcig. In its ore have been found \nthe metals palladium, rhodium, osmium, iridium, \nand ruthenium (which see). In 1859, M. H. S\'.e.- \nClaire Deville made known a new method of obtain- \ning platinum from its ore, in great abundance and \npurity; and at the international exhibition of 1862 \nwas shown a mass worth 3840;., weighing 2665 lb., \nof a metal hitherto considered infusible, obtained \nby his process, employing the oxy-hydrogen flame. \nSee Philosophical Lamp, \nDode\'s process for coating iron with platinum to prevent \n\nrust, shown at Johnson <fc Matthey\'s, 11 Jan. 1879. \n\nPLATONIC PHILOSOPHY, the most \npopular of all systems (see Philosophy). Plato\'s \ndialogues have been termed " Philosophy backed by \nexample." He was a disciple of Socrates, 409 B.C., \nand died 347. The leading feature of his mind was \ncomprehensiveness. \n\nPLATONIC YEAR, (he period of time which \nthe equinoxes take to finish their revolution, at the \neud of which the stars and constellations have the \nsame place with regard to the equinoxes that they \nhad at first. Tycho Brahe says that this year or \nperiod requires 25,816 common years to complete \nit ; Ricciolus computes it at 25,920 ; and Cassini at \n24,800; at the end of which time some imagined \nthat there would be a total and natural renovation \nof the whole creation. \n\nPLATTSBURG. A British expedition against \nthis place, a town of New York, on Lake Champlain, \nwas designed under general sir George Prevost, but \nwas abandoned after the naval force of England had \nsuffered a defeat in an engagement with the \nAmericans, 11 Sept. 1814, when the British \nsquadron in Lake Champlain was captured ; see \nUnited States. \n\nPLAY-GROUNDS. In 1858 a society was \nestablished by the carl of Shaftesbury and other \nbenevolent persons to provide play-grounds for the \nrecreation of adults and the children of the humble \nclasses. Ground was liberally ottered by the govern- \nment, and by 1he marquis of "Westminster and \nothers ; and in 1859 an act of parliament was passed \nto facilitate grants of lands for this purpose, for \nwhich part of Smithfield was to be reserved. The \nscheme was not successful. \n\nThe Metropolitan Public Garden, Boulevard, and Play- \nground association formed by lord Brabazon (aft. carl \nof Meath) and others in 1882 lias done good service \nin the east of London. \nThe London Playing-fields Association founded ; very \nactive in obtaining places, Feb. et seq. 1890-2 \n\nPLAYS, sec Drama and Theatres. \n\nPLEADINGS. In the early courts of judi- \ncature in England, pleadings were made in the \nSaxon language; and in Norman- French from the \nperiod of the conquest in 1066 until 1362. Pleadings \nwere ordered to be in English by 36 Edward III. \n\n\n\n1362, and Cromwell extended the rule to all legal \nproceedings 1650. In English law the proceedings \nare the mutual statements of the plaintiff\'s cause \nof action, and the defendant\'s ground of defence. \n\nPLEBEIANS, Plebes, or Plebs, the commons \nof Pome, as distinguished from the Patricians ; \nsee Pome, 494-366 is.c. \n\nPLEBISCITUM, a term given to a law passed \nby the comitia tribute/, an assembly of the Roman \npeople in their tribes, first established in 491 B.C. \nThe term has been recently revived in France and \nItaly, and applied to Universal Suffrage {which see). \n\nPLETHYSMOGRAPH. an apparatus for \ndetecting the state of the mind by observing the \nrelations of the circulation of the blood from the \nheart to the brain, invented by M. Mossol, of Turin, \n1882. \n\nPLEVNA, Bulgaria, 27 miles N.N.W. of Nico- \npolis ; near the river Vid ; the site of very fierce \nconflicts duiing the llusso- Turkish war, 1877. \nOccupied by the Russians, 6 July, but retaken by \nOsman Pacha, 18 July, and held by him after \nsevere combats, with Schildncr-Sehuldner, 19, 20 \nJuly; with Krudeiur . . . 29-31 July, 1877 \n\nThe Russians lost about 2000 killed, 4000 wounded. \nThe Russian attack was considered rash, like that \nat Balaclava, and a disastrous check. \nOsman Pacha defeated in a desperate sortie, about \n\n30 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nGen. Scobeleff gained a great advantage by captu- \nring Lovatz (or Lofteha) ... 3 Sept. ,, \nSiege began, 7 Sept., with an artillery duel lasting \n\nto 10 Sept. ,, \n\nFruitless sanguinary conflicts . 11, 12 Sept. ,, \n\nChefket Pacha carried in reinforcements to Plevna, \n\nabout 22 Sept. ,, \n\nTodlebcn takes command of the staff . 28 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nPlevna completely invested ; reported 8 Nov. ,, \n\nRussian attacks repulsed . . 12, 15 Nov. ,, \nOsman Pacha, reduced by want of supplies, despe- \nrately endeavours to break out at night, 9 Dec. ; \nsurrounded and defeated with great slaughter ; \nsurrenders unconditionally (30,000 prisoners, 128 \nofficers, 100 guns) .... 10 Dec. ,, \n\nPLOTS, see Conspiracies, and Rebellions. \n\nPLOUGH. "Thou shalt not plough with an \nnx and au ass together." Beut. xxii. 10 (1451 B.C.). \nThe Roman plough is minutely described by Virgil, \nabout 31 B.C. Engines to plough grounds, whether \ninland or upland, were patented by David Ramsay \naud Thomas Wildgoose, in 1618; and many im- \nprovements in ploughs have been patented since. \nThe application of steam power to ploughing was \npatented by John Upton in 1837, and by others since, \nmore especially by lord Willoughby P/Eresby, the \nmarquis of Twceddale, and the earl of Caithness ; \nsee Steam- Plough. \nInternational trial of ploughs, <fcc. at Haarlem; prizes \n\nwon by English makers (Howards, Ransomes, &c), \n\n17-19 Sept. 1879. \n\nPLOUGH MONDAY, in January, the first \nMonday after the Epiphany. It received the appel- \nlation from its having been fixed upon by our fore- \nfathers as the day upon which they returned to the \nduties of agriculture after enjoying the festivities \nof Christmas. Ashe. On Plough Monday, too, \nthe ploughmen of the north country used to draw \na plough from door to door and beg plough money \nto drink. Bailey. \n\nOn Plough Monday, the lord mayor of London holds \nannually at Guildhall a grand court of wardmote, \nat which the election of the common council and other \nofficers on St. Thomas\' day , 21 Dec. is confirmed. \n\nPLUM. We have two native plums ; our finer \n1 kinds came from Italy and Flanders about 1522. \n\n3 c \n\n\n\nPLUMBAGO. \n\n\n\n754 \n\n\n\nPOICTIEES. \n\n\n\nThe Diospyros Lotus, the date plum, was brought \nfrom Barbary, before 1596; the Pishamin plum, \n.jpiospyros virginiana, from America, before 1629. \nFormerly damsons, apricots, and peaches went by \nthis name, as raisins do to this day. \n\n. PLUMBAGO, see Graphite. \n\nPLURALITIES. Clergymen have been re- \nstrained from holding move than one benefice by \nseveral statutes; the first being 21 Henry VIII. \n1529.. In 1838 an act was passed prohibiting the \nholding of more than two benefices except they were \nat a distance less than ten miles ; and the law on \n\'this subject was still further amended in 1S50, 1855, \narid 1885, provisions being made for the amalgama- \ntion of neighbouring benefices. See .Electors. \n\nPLUBAL NUMBEE, see We. \n\nPLUS ( + ) AND MINUS (\xe2\x80\x94 )\xe2\x80\xa2 Professor De \nMorgan attributes these signs to either Christopher \nRudolf, who published a book on algebra about 1522, \nor Michael Stifelius, about 1544. \n\nPLYMOUTH, a fortified seaport in Devon- \nshire, originally Sutton, was incorporated as Ply- \nmouth in 1439. It was in 1588 the rendezvous of \nthe English fleet of 120 sail under Howard, Drake, \n&c., which pursued the Spanish armada. The fine \nhotel and assembly-rooms were burnt 6 Jan. 1863 ; \nloss about 50,000! The National Association for \nSocial Science met here, Sept. 1872. See Armada, \n1888, 1890, Breakwater, and Population. \nPlymouth dock constructed, about i6S9,named Devonport \n1824, is now a great naval arsenal extending nearly \n4 miles along the Hamoaze. It has two M. P. \'s. \nThe. new guildhall was opened by the prince of \n\nWales 13 Aug. 1874 \n\nNew wing to British female orphan asylum (esta- \nblished about 1834), founded by the diike of Edin- \nburgh 7 Oct. ,, \n\nArt and industrial exhibition opened . 23 May, 1881 \nTercentenary of the birth of sir Francis Drake \n\ncelebrated, statue unveiled . . .14 Feb. 1884 \nKoyal Agricultural shows, 1865 . . 23-27 June, 1890 \nThe duke of Edinburgh appointed commander-in- \nchief at Devonport, assumes command . 4 Aug. ,, \nTwo fishing-boats, Sunbeam and Alonzo, sunk by \nfiring from the gunboat Plucky, one man drowned, \n30 Oct. Court martial ; lieut. Sydney R. Free- \nmantle acquitted of negligence, 24-27 Nov. Com- \npensation made to the sufferers . . Dec. 1891 \n\nPLYMOUTH BBETHBEN, a body of \nChristians calling themselves "the Brethren," first \nappeared at Plymouth about 1830. In 1851 they \nhad 132 places of worship in England and Wales. \nThey object to national churches as too latitudi- \nnarian, and to other dissenters as too sectarian. \nThey receive into communion all who confess Christ, \nand own the Holy Ghost as his vicar. Their doc- \ntrines agree with those of most evangelical pro- \ntestant churches, but they recognise no order of \nministers. Mr. Darbj\', regarded as their founder, \nafterwards separated from them with some ad- \nherents. \n\nPNEUMATIC DESPATCH COMPANY, \n\nto convey letters and parcels through tubes by means \nof atmospheric pressure and a vacuum. The com- \npany\'s act was passed 13 Aug. 1859, and tubes were \nlaid down in Threadneedle-street on 12 Sept. i860; \nand on 20 Aug. 1861, successful experiments were \nperformed at Battersea. In 1862 tubes were laid \ndown from the Euston railway station to the N. "W. \npost-office in Camden-town, and on 21 Feb. 1863, \nthe conveyance of the mail-bags began. In Oct. \n1865, tubes had been laid down between Euston \nrailway and Holborn; and on 7 Nov. several persons \ntravelled in them. Engineer, Mr. Ilammell. The \n\n\n\ncompany stopped through insufficient support, 1876. \nA pneumatic tube by Siemens, employed to trans- \nmit telegraphic messages, began about Jan. 1871. \n\n. PNEUMATIC LOOM, in which compressed \nair is the motive power, invented by Mr. Harrison, \nwas exhibited in London in Dec. 1864. A company \nwas formed to bring it into general use. \n\nPNEUMATICS, the science which treats of \nthe mechanical properties of air and gases; see Air, \nand Atmospheric Railways. \n\nPODESTA (from potestas, power), an Italian \ngovernor, afterwards a judge; one with supreme \nauthority was appointed at Milan by the emperor \nFrederick I., when he took the city in I15S. \n\nPODOLL (Bohemia), the site of a severe con- \nflict between the Austrians and a part of the army \nof prince Frederick Charles of Prussia, 26 June, \ni860. The Prussians had the advantage. \n\nPODOSCAPHE, see Canoe. \nPOET-LAUEEAT. Selden could not trace \n\nthe precise origin of this office. \n\nWarton, in his History of English Poetry, states that in \nthe reign of Henry III. there was a Versificaior Regis, \nto whom an annual stiiiend was first paid of one hun- \ndred shillings. \n\nChaUcer, on his return from abroad, assumed the title \nof poet-laureat ; and in the twelfth year of Richard II., \n1389, he obtained a grant of an annual allowance of wine. \n\nIn the reign of Edward IV. , John Kay was laure.it ; \n. Andrew Bernard was laureat, temp. Henry VII. ; and \nJohn Skelton, Temp. Henry VIII. \n\nJames I. in 1615, granted to his laureat a yearly pension \nof 100 marks ; and in 1630, this stipend was augmented \nby letters patent of Charles I. to 100I. per annum, with \nan additional grant of one tierce of Canary Spanish \nwine to be taken out of the king\'s store of wine yearly. \nWe believe that on Southey\'s appointment the tierce of \nCanary wine was commuted for 27/\'. \n\nLaurence Eusden commenced a series of Birth-Day and \nNew Year\'s Odes, which continued till the death of \nPye, in 181 3. \n\nOn the death of Warton its abolition was recommended \nby Gibbon, whose elegant compliment on the occasion \nstill more forcibly applied on Wordsworth\'s death, in \n1850 \xe2\x80\x94 " This is the best time for not iilling up the office, \nwhen the prince is a man of virtue, and the poet just \ndeparted was a man of genius. " \n\nPOETS-LAUREAT. \n\nEdmund Spenser, died 1599. \n\nSamuel Daniel, died 1619. \n\nBen Jonson (born 1574), died 1637. \n\nSir William Davenant, 1637 ; died 1668. \n\nJohn Dryden, 1670 ; deposed at the revolution, 1688. \n\nThomas Shadwell, 1688 ; died 1692. \n\nNahum Tate, 1692 ; died 1715. \n\nNicholas Rowe, died 1718. \n\nRev. Laurence Eusden, 1718 ; died 1730. \n\nColley Cibber, 1730; died 1757. \n\nWilliam Whitehead (on the refusal of Gray), 1757 ; died \n\n1785- \nRev. Dr. Thomas Warton (on the refusal of Mason), 1785 ; \n\ndied 1790. \nHenry James Pye, 1790: died 1813. \nDr. Robert Southey (on the refusal of Scott), 1813 ; died \n\n21 March, 1843. \nWilliam Wordsworth, 1843 ; died 23 April, 1850. \nAlfred (aft. lord) Tennyson (born 1809), installed 1850. \n\nPOETEY. The song of Moses on the deliver- \nance of the Israelites, and their passage through the \nBed Sea, 1491 B.C. (Exodus xv.). Ancient Egyptian \npoetry still extant. Orpheus of Thrace was deemed \nthe inventor of poetry amongst the Greeks; see \nEpics, Odes, Satire, Comedy, Tragedy, Sonnets, \nBallads, Hymns, and Verse. \n\nPOICTIEES (W. France), near which was \nfought the battle between Edward the Black Prince \nand John, king of France, in which the English \narms triumphed, 19 Sept. 1356. The standard of \n\n\n\nPOISONING. \n\n\n\n755 \n\n\n\nPOLAND. \n\n\n\nFrance was overthrown, many of her nobility slain, \nand her king was taken prisoner, and brought to \nLondon; see Tours, and VouyU. \n\nPOISONING. A number of Roman ladies \nformed a conspiracy and poisoned their husbands. \nA female slave denounced 170 of them to Fabius \nMaximus, who ordered them to be publicly exe- \ncuted, 331 B.C. It was said that this was the \nfirst public knowledge they had of poisoning at \nRome. Poisoning was made petty treason in Eng- \nland, and was punished by boiling to death (of \nwhich there are some remarkable instances), 23 \nHenry VIII. 153 1 ; see Boiling to death. The \nfrequency of eases of poisoning by means of arsenic, \nin England, caused the British legislature to pass \na law rendering the sale of arsenic difficult (14 \nVict. c. 13, 6 June, 1851). Thesale of poison is now \nregulated by the Pharmacy act of 1868. Additional \nrestrictions enacted by act passed in 1885. The \nPoisoned Grain Prohibition Act was passed 28 \nJuly, 1863. \n\nA deadly poison freely administered by Italians in the \nseventeenth century, was called aqua to/ana, from the \nname of the woman Tofania, who made and sold it in \nsmall flat vials. She carried on this traffic for half a \ncentury, and eluded the police ; but, on being taken, \nconfessed that she had been a party in poisoning 600 \npeople. Numerous persons were implicated by her, \nand many of them were publicly executed. All Italy \nwas thrown into" a ferment, and many fled, and some \npersons of distinction, on conviction, were strangled \nin prison. It appeared to have been chiefly used by \nmarried women who were tired of their husbands. \nFour or six drops were a fatal dose ; but the effect was \nnot sudden, and therefore not suspected. It was as \nclear as water, but the chemists have not agreed about its \nreal composition. A proclamation of the pope described \nit as aquafortis distilled into arsenic, and others con- \nsidered it as a solution of crystallised arsenic. \nBetween 1666 and 1676, the marchioness de Brinvilliers \npoisoned her father and two brothers and many others. \nShe was executed, 16 July, 1676. \nW. Palmer was executed in 1856, and Miss M. Smith tried \nin 1857, for poisoning ; see \'Trials. Catherine Wilson, \na noted poisoner, was executed on 20 Oct. 1862. \nEdward William Pritchard, M.D., was -.executed at \nGlasgow, 28 July, 1865, for the slow murder of his wife \nand her mother, by antimony. \nNov. 1858, 17 persons died at Bradford through eating \nsweetmeats in which arsenic had been mixed by mis- \ntake. Mr. Hodgson, a chemist, was tried for homi- \ncide, and acquitted. \nWeltmann, a bookbinder at Posen, poisoned 4 wives and \n\n2 children, about 1859. \nChristiana Edmunds, of Brighton, was convicted of \nmurdering a child by poisoned sweetmeats ; other per- \nsons barely escaped (sentence remitted on the ground \nof insanity), 16 Jan. 1872. \nMary Ann Cotton, imprisoned Oct. 1872, suspected of \npoisoning 16 persons, principally children ; convicted \nof poisoning her child, 7 March ; executed at Durham, \n24 March, 1873. \nAbout 25 wives convicted of poisoning their husbands \nat Gross Bedskereh in Hungary ; Theckla Popav was \nsaid to be the head of the conspiracy, Aug. 1882. \nCatharine Flanagan and Margaret Higgins (sisters) con- \nvicted of poisoning Thomas Higgins, to obtain insur- \nance money, 9 Feb. ; other charges not tried ; they \nconfessed, and were executed, 3 March, 1884. \nMad. Van Der Linden convicted of many poisonings at \n\nLeyden, 3 May, 1885. \nAlbert Pel poisoned mother, wife, mistress and others, \n1872, et seq. ; convicted at Paris 13 June ; penal servi- \ntude 14 Aug. 1885. \nDr. Philip Cross convicted at Cork \'of poisoning his wife \nwith arsenic and strychnine 17 Dec. 1887 ; executed \n10 Jan. 1888. \nMrs. Maybrick charged with the murder of her husband \nJames Maybrick by poisoning with arsenic, 6 June, \n1S89; she was tried before Mi-. Justice Stephen at \nLiverpool, and convicted 31 July\xe2\x80\x94 7 Aug.; sentence \nof death commuted to penal servitude" for life, 22 \nAug. 1880. \n\n\n\nTen women tried at Mitrowitz in Hungary for \npoisoning their husbands with arsenic, 30 June ; \nfour sentenced to death, four to penal servitude, \nand two acquitted 5 July, ^90 \n\nPoisoning at a wedding breakfast at Louisville, \nU.S.A. ; 3 persons died . . . 18 April, 189 1 \nSee Bravo case. \n\nPOITOU, an ancient province, "W. France, part \nof the dowry of Eleanor, queen of Henry II. of \nEngland, 1 151. It partook of the fortunes of Aqui- \ntaine. \n\nPOL A (Illyria), a very ancient city, where \nAugustus founded the colony Pietas Julia, which \nflourished during the empire. Off Pola, the Genoese \nfleet, under Doria, defeated the Venetians under \nPisani, 5 or 6 May, 1379, with great loss. \n\nPOLAND (N. E. Europe), part of ancient Sar- \nmatia. It is said to have become a duchy under \nLcchus or Lesko I. 550; and a kingdom under \nBoleslaus, about 992. \'the natives belong to the great \nSclavonic family. The word Pole, from Poliani, \nis not older than the 10th century. Population of \nthe kingdom of Poland (Russian) in 1857 was \n4)789,379 5 iu lg 67, 5,705,607; 1111872,6,528,017; \nin 1885, 7,416,958; in 1890, 8,256,562. \nPiastus, a peasant, is elected to the ducal dignity, \n\nabout 842 \n\n[Piastus is said to have lived to the age of 120, and \nhis reign to have been so prosperous that suc- \nceeding native sovereigns were called Piasts.] \nIntroduction of Christianity, about . . . . 992 \nBoleslas II. murders St. Stanislaus, the bishop of \nCracow, with his own hands, 1079 ; his kingdom \nlaid under an interdict by the pope, and his sub- \njects absolved of their allegiance .... 10S0 \nHe flies to Hungary for shelter ; but is refused it \nby order of Gregory VII., and at length kills \n\nhimself or dies in a monastery 1081 \n\nTartar invasion 1241 \n\nPremislas assassinated 1296 \n\nLouis of Hungary elected king .... 1370 \n\nLadislas VI. defeated and slain by the Turks at \n\nVarna 1444 \n\nWar against the Teutonic knights . . . 1410 ; 1447 \nThe Wallachian invaders carry off 100,000 Poles, \nand sell them to the Turks as slaves . . . 1498 \n\nThe Wallachians defeated 1531 \n\nSplendid reign of Sigismund II 1548 \n\nLithuania incorporated with Poland . . . 1569 \nStephen forms a militia composed of Cossacks, on \n\nwhom he bestows the Ukraine 1575 \n\nPoland conquered by the Swedes and Russians, \n\n1654 ei se C- \n\nRecovered its independence 1660 \n\nAbdication of John Casimir 1668 \n\nVictories of John Sobieski over the Turks at Vienna 1683 \nMany protestants killed after an affray at Thorn . 1724 \n\nStanislaus abolishes torture 1770 \n\nAn awful pestilence destroys 250,000 persons . . 1770 \nCivil war so weakened the kingdom that it fell an \n\neasy prey to Russia, Austria, and Prussia . . 1772 \nThe first partition treaty . . . 17 Feb. ,, \n\nThe public partition treaty, 5 Aug. ; acted on, 18 Sept. ,, \nA new constitution granted by the king 3 May, 1791 \n\nThe Russians, <fcc, on various pretexts enter \n\nPoland . 1792 \n\nSecond partition treaty signed 1793 \n\nInsurrection under Kosciusko . . . March, 1794 \nAfter many successes he is defeated by the Russians \n\nat Maciejoviee and taken prisoner . 10 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nWarsaw and Praga sacked by Suwarrow . 9 Nov. ,, \nCourland is annexed to Russia . 1795 \n\nStanislaus resigns his crown at Grodno; final par- \ntition of his kingdom .... 25 Nov. ,, \nKosciusko set at liberty .... 25 Dec. 1796 \n\nHe arrives in London 30 May, 1797 \n\nThe Poles enter the French army and greatly help \n\nto gain their victories .... 1797 etseq. \nStanislaus dies at St. Petersburg . . 12 Feb. 1798 \n\nNapoleon I. enters Warsaw; his army wintered in \n\nPoland 1S06-7 \n\nThe Poles neglected by the treaty of Tilsit (which \n\nsec) 7 July, 1807 \n\n3 C 2 \n\n\n\nPOLAND. \n\n\n\n756 \n\n\n\nPOLAND. \n\n\n\nGeneral diet at Warsaw .... June, \n\nThe central provinces (the duchy at Warsaw, be- \ntween 1807 and 1813) made the kingdom of Poland \nunder Alexander of Russia . . .30 April, \n\nNew constitution granted and Cracow declared to \nbe a free republic .... 27 Nov. \n\nPolish diet opened Sept. \n\nA revolution at Warsaw; the army declare in \nfavour of the people .... 29 Nov. \n\nThe diet declares the throne vacant . . 25 Jan. \n\nBattle of Grochow, near Praga; the Russians lose \n7000 men ; the Poles, who keep the field, 2000, \n\n19, 20 Feb. \n\nBattle of Wawz (which see) . . 31 March, \n\nInsurrection in Wilna and Volhynia . 3 April, \n\nRussians defeated at Zelieho, 6 April ; Seidleee, 10 \nApril ; at Ostrolenka .... 26 May, \n\nThe Russian general Diebitsch dies . . 10 June, \n\nBattle of Wilna ; Poles defeated . . 19 June, \n\nGrandduke Constantino dies . . .27 June, \n\nBattle of Minsk 14 July, \n\nWarsaw taken by Russians ... 8 Sept. \n\nThe insurrection suppressed . . .5 Oct. \n\nUkase issued by the emperor Nicholas, decreeing \nthat the kingdom of Poland shall henceforth \nform an integral part of the Russian empire, \n\n26 Feb. \n\nAttempted revolution in Austrian Poland," \n\n22-27 Feb. \n\nThe courts of Austria, Russia, and Prussia revoke \nthe treaty of 1815, which constituted Cracow a \nfree republic, and it is declared Austrian terri- \ntory 16 Nov. \n\n[This annexation was protested against by England, \nFrance, Sweden, and Turkey.] \n\nThe kingdom of Poland declared a Russian pro- \nvince May, \n\nGreat popular demonstration in commemoration of \nthe battle of Cracow .... 25 Feb. \n\nSix members of the Royal Agricultural Society \nkilled by the military .... 27 Feb. \n\nGreat excitement at their funeral ; many citizens \nput on mourning; an address to the emperor \nAlexander signed by 60,000 persons ; mild conduct \nof prince Gortschakoff, the governor 1-7 March, \n\nMukhanoff, curator of Poland, who had written a \ncircular exciting the peasantry against their \nlords, quits Warsaw, which is illuminated in con- \nsequence 17 March, \n\nThe government promises reforms and the re-estab- \nlishment of Poland as a separate kingdom ; yet \nabolishes the Agricultural Society . . 7 April, \n\nGreat meeting in consequence ; which is dispersed \nby the military (now 32,000 strong) ; above 100 are \n\nkilled anil wounded 8 April, \n\nGreat agitation in the rural districts ; the Russian \nofficials quit Lublin ; general Chruleff marches \n\nhither April, \n\n80,000 soldiers in Poland ; reign of terror in War- \nsaw May, \n\nDeath of prince Gortschakoff, lieut. -general of Po- \nland 30 May, \n\nNew administrative council appointed . June, \nDeath of prince Adam Czartoryski at Paris, aged 91, \n\nIS July, \n\n\n\n1830 \n1831 \n\n\n\n1832 \n1846 \n\n\n\n1847 \n\n\n\n* On 22 Feb. 1846, an Austrian force under general \nCollin, which had entered Cracow on the approach of \narmed bands of peasantry, was attacked and driven out \nof the town. A provisional government was then pro- \nclaimed by the insurgents, and two days afterwards they \ncrossed the Vistula, expecting to be joined by the pea- \nsantry of Gallicia, who were solicited by the nobles and \nclergy to strike a blow in the cause of liberty. The \nAustrian government, in order to prevent this junction, \nexcited in the peasantry a suspicion of the motives of \nthe nobles, and offered a reward for every noble de- \nlivered up, alive or dead : a general massacre of the \nnobility and clergy in the circle of Tarnow followed : the \ninsurgents from Cracow were defeated at Gdow, whence \nthey retreated to Podgorze, a suburb of Cracow; here \nthey were attacked by general Collin, and driven into \nCracow on the 27th of February. The forces of the three \npowers then began to concentrate on Cracow ; the people \nin the town opened negotiations with the Austrians about \na surrender, and while these were going on a Russian \ncorps entered the town without resistance, and soon \nafterwards the revolution was at an end. \n\n\n\nOppressive regulations issued respecting dress . i86j \nFresh disturbances ; Warsaw put in a state of siege, \n\nOct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nMilitary arrests in churches in AVarsaw ; they are \n\nclosed by the priests . . . -17 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe governor, count Lambert, leaves Warsaw, \n\n23 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nGeneral Gerstenzweig, the military governor, assas- \nsinated 25 Oct. ,. \n\nBialobzeski, catholic archbishop of Warsaw, ar- \nrested, 19 Nov. ; tried and condemned to death \nas a rebel for closing the churches [he died shortly \n\nafter] 18 Dec. ,, \n\nThe new archbishop Felinski exhorts the Poles to \n\nsubmission 15 Feb. 1862 \n\nRigour of the government relaxed ; amnesty granted \n\nto 89 convicted political prisoners . 29 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \nAttempted assassination of Wielopolski, a liberal \n\nPole, president of the council . . 7 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe grandduke Constantine appointed governor, 28 \nMay ; begins with lenient policy, but his life is \nattempted by Jaroszynsky, 3 July, who is executed, \n\n21 Aug. ,, \nCount Zamoyski, an eminent loyal Pole, exiled for \npresenting to the government the report of a \nmeeting of nobles at Warsaw, for which he had \n\nbeen asked Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTelkner, the chief of the secret police, found mur- \ndered 9 Nov. ,. \n\nSevere military conscription without notice, 14 Jan. 1863 \nInsurrection in the night : at Warsaw . 22 Jan. ,, \nMany Russians murdered ; Poland put in a state of \n\nsiege 24 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Polish provisional government issues its first \n\nproclamation 2 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLouis Mieroslawski announces himself as head of \nthe Poles, 19 Feb. ; his band defeated and dis- \npersed 23 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMarian Langiewicz declared dictator of Poland, \n10 March ; after several defeats he enters the \nAustrian territory, is detected and imprisoned, \n\n19 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe insurrection becomes general, and is supported \nby the landed proprietors, Feb. ; successful \nguerilla warfare . . . March and April, ,, \nThe secret central committee assumes the supreme \n\ncommand March, ,, \n\nThe czar offers an amnesty to all who lay down \n\narms before 13 May ; rejected . . 12 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \nEuropean intervention on behalf of Poland, 17 \nApril, &c. ; firmly replied to by the Czar, \n\n26 April, &c. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe secret committee (as a provisional government) \nlevies taxes, 3 May, and forbids payment of taxes \n\nto Russia 9 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n80,000?. taken from the Russian treasury at Warsaw \nfor the provisional government, 12 June; the \nPoles claim the Poland of 1772 . . 26 June, ,, \nFruitless intervention of European powers ; san- \nguinary rule of Mouravieff at Wilna . June, , , \nGeneral Berg replaces the marquis de Wiepolski, as \n\nlieut. -gen., and governs with great rigour, 7 July ,\xe2\x80\x9e \nUnsuccessful invasion of Volhynia by the Poles, \nunder Wysocki and Horodycki, 1 July ; Felinski, \nthe R. C. archbishop of Warsaw, banished, July ; \nfrequent conflicts with varying results ; many \ncaptured priests and nobles executed . . Aug. ,\xe2\x80\x9e \nLelewel, a brave Pole, after several victories, killed \n\nin battle 6 Sept. ,, \n\nEarl Russell decides against armed intervention, \n\nAug. : negotiation ceases . . . Sept. ,, \n\nGen. Berg fired at from the Zamoyski hotel, War- \nsaw, 19 Sept. ; the hotel destroyed . . Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nMany eminent Poles executed, Oct. ; Win. Alger, \nan Englishman, shot at Warsaw for making \ngrenades ; the hotel de ville fired . 9 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMourning forbidden to be worn for the Poles at \nAVarsaw, 27 Oct. ; 41 ladies arrested at night, \n\n3 Nov. ,, \nThe Times correspondent expelled from Warsaw, \n\n27 Nov. ,, \nThe abbe Machiewicz, a warlike priest, venerated \n\nas a martyr, hanged .... 28 Dec. ,, \nMouravieff rules Lithuania with great rigour, Dee. ,, \nNumerous skirmishes, and many executions of \nprisoners captured by the Russians ; the insurrec- \ntion gradually dying out . . Jan. to April, 1864 \n\n\n\nPOLAND. \n\n\n\n757 \n\n\n\nPOLE STAR. \n\n\n\nThe pope promulgates an arrogant encyclical letter \nto the Polish church .... 30 July, 1864 \n\nRomuald Traugott, once a Russian colonel, head \nof the Polish provisional government, since Oct. \n1863, and five others, hanged . . 5 Aug. , , \n\nDecree for reorganising education at Warsaw, \nfounding a university, &c. . . . 11 Sept. ,, \n\nThe secret provisional government, after stating \nthat 50,000 men had been slain, and 100,000 ex- \niled to Siberia, still calls on the Poles to begin a \n" national war " 21 Sept. ,, \n\nMany Roman Catholic convents closed for partici- \npating in the insurrection . . . Nov. \n\nFurther measures for denationalising Poland \nadopted Dec. \n\nThe ex-dictator Langiewicz released by the Aus- \ntrians and sent to Switzerland the died May, 1887] \n\nFeb. 1865 \n\nThe abbe Stanislas Bizoski and his lieutenant, cap- \ntured and executed .... 23 May, ,, \n\nEstates of suspected sympathisers with rebels \nordered to be sold 22 Dec. ,, \n\nChurch property appropriated by the government ; \nthe clergy to be paid by the state . . 9 Jan. 1866 \n\nMilitary government ceases, and state of siege par- \ntially raised 17 Feb. \n\nCount Goluchowski, a Pole, made governor of \nGallicia Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nInsurrection of Polish exiles in Siberia, soon sup- \npressed, July ; many executed . , Nov. ,, \n\nDecree abolishing all political distinctions of Po- \nland as a kingdom 19 Dec. ,, \n\nPromulgated 5 Jan. 1867 \n\nAmnesty to political offenders proclaimed, 31 May, ,, \n\nPoland designated the " Vistula province " in a \nukase Jan. 1868 \n\nIts separate internal government abolished, and \ncomplete union with the empire effected, 29 Feb. ,, \n\nThe distinct financial departments of Poland \nabolished April, ,, \n\nThe Polish language interdicted in public places, \n\nConciliatory policy towards the Poles in Russia and \nAustria proposed March, 1872 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Count Berg, the last lieutenant-general for Poland, \ndies 18 Jan. 1873 \n\nPolish language prohibited in courts of law and \npublic offices in Russian Poland . . June, 1876 \n\nThe Czar and Czarina visit Warsaw (great precau- \ntions) 8-27 Sept. 1884 \n\nAbout 34,700 Poles expelled from Prussia Oct. -Nov. 1885 \n\nMovement for de-nationalising Poland (see Prussia) \n\nFeb. 1886 \n\nCount Ladislaw Platu, active in the revolutions of \ni83oand 1863, dies in Switzerland (aged 83)23 April, 1889 \n\nConciliatory measures towards Polish landowners \nproposed May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe body of Adam Mickiewiez, the great Polish poet \n(1798-1855), brought from France, re-interred at \nCracow 4 July, 1890 \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Second congress of Polish historians and arclueolo- \ngists opened at Leopol ... 17 July, ,, \n\nCentenary of the Polish constitution of 1791, cele- \nbrated in Austrian Poland . . .3 May, 1891 \n\nThe emperor William II. appoints a Polish arch- \nbishop of Posen, 1891, and otherwise favours the \n\nPoles 1892 \n\nSee Cracow, Warsaw, and Russia. \n\nDUKES AND KINGS OF POLAND. \n\n842. Piastus, duke. \n861. Ziemovitus, his son. \n892. Lesko or Lescus IV. \n913. Ziemoniislas, son of Lesco. \n964. Miecislas I. becomes Christian. \n992. Boleslas I., surnamed the Lion-hearted ; obtained \nthe title of King from the emperor Otho III. \nMiecislas II. \n1034. Richense or Riehsa, his consort, regent : driven \n\nfrom the government. \n1037. [Anarchy.] \n\n1041. Casimir I., her son, surnamed the Pacific ; he had \nretired to a monastery, but was invited to the \nthrone. \n1058. Boleslas II., styled the Intrepid. \n1081. Ladislas I., called the Careless, dulcc. \nno2. Boleslas III., surnamed Wry-mouth. \n1138. Ladislas, son of the preceding, \n\n\n\n1 146. Boleslas IV., the Curled. \n\n1 1 73. Miecislas III., the Old ; deposed. \n\n1 1 77. Casimir II., surnamed the Just. \n\n1 194. Lesko V., the White : abdicated. \n\n1200. Miecislas III. : restored. \n\n1202. Ladislas III. : retired. \n\n1206. Lesko V. ; restored ; assassinated : succeeded by \n\nhis son, an infant. \n1227. Boleslas V., surnamed the Chaste. \n1279. Lesko VI. ; surnamed the Black. \n1289. [Horrid anarchy.] \n\n1295. Premislas, styled king of Poland, governs wisely ; \n\nassassinated. \n\n1296. Ladislas I. (IV.), the Short : deposed. \n\n1300. Weneeslas, king of Bohemia, abandons Poland. \n\n1304. Ladislas IV., the Short. \n\n1333. Casimir III., the Great : encourages the arts, and \namends the law : killed by a fall from his horse. \n\n1370. Louis, king of Hungary, elected Hug. \n\n1382. Maria ; and 1384 Hedwige (daughters of Louis), \nami her consort, Jagcllo, duke of Lithuania, by \nthe style of Ladislas V. \n\n1399. Ladislas II. (V.), alone : annexed Lithuania. \n\n1434. Ladislas III. (VI.), son ; succeeded as king of Hun- \ngary, 1440. \n\n1445. [Interregnum.] \n,, Casimir IV. \n\n1492. John (Albert) I. , son. \n\n1501. Alexander, prince of Livonia, his brother. \n\n1506. Sigismund I., brother ; obtained the surname of \nthe Great. \n\n1548. Sigismund II., Augustus, son (last of the Jagellon \ndynasty) ; a splendid reign : added Livonia to \nhis kingdom : died 1572. Interregnum. \n\nELECTED MONARCH\'S. \n\n1573. Henry de Valois, duke of Anjou, brother to the \nking of France ; he afterwards succeeded to the \nFrench throne. \n\n1575. Stephen Bathori, prince of Transylvania : estab- \nlished the Cossacks as a militia. \n\n1586. [Interregnum.] \n\n1587. Sigismund III., son of the king of Sweden, to the \n\nexclusion of Maximilian of Austria, elected by \nthe nobles. \n\n1632. Ladislas IV. (VII.), Vasa, son of Sigismund III. ; \nsucceeded by his brother. \n\n1648. John II., or Casimir V. ; abdicated 1668, and re- \ntired to France, where he died a monk, in 1672. \n\n1668. [Interregnum.] \n\n1669. Michael-Koributh-Wiesnowiski : in this reign the \n\nCossacks join the Turks, and ravage Poland. \n1674. John III., Sobieski ; the last independent king: \n\nillustrious for victories over the Cossacks, Turks. \n\nand Tartars. \n1697. [Interregnum.] \n,, Frederick- Augustus I., son of John-George, electee \n\nof Saxony ; and elector in 1694 ; deprived of his \n\ncrown. \n1704. Stanislas I. (Lezinski) : forced to retire from his \n\nkingdom in 1709. \n1709. Frederick-Augustus I. again. \n1733. Frederick- Augustus II., son of the r.ieceding \n\nsovereign. \n\n1763. [Interregnum.] \n\n1764. Stanislaus II. Augustus Poniatowski, resigned his \n\nsovereignty, 25 Nov. 1795 : died at St. Peters- \nburg, astate prisoner, 12 Feb. 1798. \n\nPOLAR CLOCK. An optical apparatus in- \nvented by professor Whcatstone (about 1849), \nwhereby the hour of the day is found by means of \nthe polarisation of light. \n\nPOLAR CONFERENCES, INTERNA- \nTIONAL, to organize setting up stations round \nthe polar area for continuous scientific inves- \ntigation, met at Hamburg, 1879; at Berne in 1880; \nat St. Petersburg, 1-6 Aug. 1881, and at other \nplaces since. \n\nPOLARISATION OF LIGHT, sec Optics. \n\nPOLAR REGIONS, sec North- West Passage, \nand South Pole. \n\nPOLE STAR or Polar Star, a star of the \nsecond magnitude, the last in the tail of the con- \n\n\n\nPOLICE. \n\n\n\n758 \n\n\n\nPOLITICAL ECONOMY. \n\n\n\nstellation called the Little Bear . As its nearness to \nthe North Pole causes it never to set to those in tlie \nnorthern hemisphere, it is called the seaman\'s \nguide. Two stars in the constellation Ursa Major, \nor Great Bear, are called pointers to the Polar star. \nThe discovery of the Pole star is ascribed by the \nChinese to their emperor, Hong-ti, the grandson \n(they say) of Noah, who reigned and nourished \n1970 B.C. Univ. Hist. \n\nPOLICE. The London police grew out of the \nLondon watch, instituted about 1253. Its jurisdic- \ntion was extended 27 Eliz. 1585, and 16 Chas. I. \n1640; and the system improved by various acts in \nsubsequent reigns. See Magistrates. \n\nPolice offices : \xe2\x80\x94 The jurisdiction of twenty-one magis- \ntrates, three to preside in each of the seven \ndivisional offices, commenced . . .1 Aug. 1792 \n\nThe Thames police was established in . . 1798 \n\nThe Police Gazette (re-modelled by Mr. Howard \nVincent in 1884) established 1828 \n\nThe London police, remodelled by Mr. (afterwards \nsir Robert) Peel, by 10 Geo. IV. 19 June, com- \nmenced duty 29 Sept. 1829 \n\nThe London police improvement acts passed 3 Vict. \n1839, 4 Viet. 1840, which were amended by 19 & 20 \nVict. c. 2 1856 \n\nIn 1857 the total expenditure was 445,212?. for the \nmetropolitan police, consisting of 17 superinten- \ndents, 140 inspectors, 630 sergeants, and 5296 \nconstables. \n\nThe total efficient police force in England and \nWales, exclusive of the metropolis, in Sept. 1859, \nwas 11,309, and in Sept. 1863, 14,661 (see Con- \nstabulary). \n\nDivision X was established to attend the Interna- \ntional Exhibition in 1862 \n\nThe whole jiolice and constabulary in England and \nWales amounted to 23,032 men ; metropolitan \npolice, 6590 ; city of London police, 743 ; dock- \nyard police, &c, 743 .... 29 Sept. 1863 \n\nMetropolitan police, 7493, 1 Jan. 1866 ; 7548, i Jan. \n1867 ; great increase proposed in . . Dec. 1867 \n\nCol. Rowan and Richard Mayne, commissioners of \nmetropolitan police, appointed, 1829 ; Mayne died \n\n26 Dec. 1868 \n\nColonel (after sir Edmund) Henderson appointed \ncommissioner in room of sir R. Mayne . Feb. 1869 \n\nResigns in consequence of the riots of 8 Feb. 1886 \n(sw Riots), 22 Feb. 1886 ; succeeded by sir Charles \nWarren, 12 March, i8\xc2\xa36, who resigned 8 Nov. 1888 ; \nsucceeded by Mr. James Monro, 26 Nov. 1888; \nresigns 10 June, 1890; succeeded by sir Edward \nRidley C. Bradford, 20 June, 1890. \n\nThe commissioner of the City of London police, sir \nJames Frazer, appointed in 1863, resigned about \n26 June ; succeeded by col. Henry Smith, 28 July, \n1890. \n\nThe ttrst annual report of the commissioner issued, 1870 \n\nState : 8883 police constables for a radius of 15 miles \nfrom Charing Cross (exclusive of the city of Lon- \ndon), including 3,563,410 inhabitants . Dec. 1869 \n\nThe detective police, only 15 men in June, 1869, has \nbeen since raised to 266 men and a superinten- \ndent, with good effect Oct. 1870 \n\nState: 9655 of all ranks, Dec. 1871 ; 9958 . Dec. 1874 \n\nLarge meetings of police to agitate for an increase \nof pay 17-24 Oct. 1872 \n\nRequest granted ; meeting of some constables \nthrough misapprehension . . . 16 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSome constables prosecuted, 18 Nov. ; 109 dis- \nmissed ; 65 reduced in rank . . 20 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSeveral policemen censured for misconduct and \nover-zeal, autumn 1873 \n\nPolice Detectives prosecution, see Trials . . 1877 \n\nAppointment of commission to investigate detec- \ntive system in metropolitan police (sirH. Sehvyn- \nIbbetson, lion. col. Win. Fielding, and others), \nabout I3 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPay : first class constable, 30s. per week ; reserve, \n31s. 6d. ; lirst class sergeant, 36s. ; second class, \n34\xc2\xab- 1878 \n\nDiscontent among police respecting pay (crime said \nto have increased ; apprehensions diminished). \n\nCommittee of inquiry (sir M. W. Ridley and Mr. J. \n\n\n\nB. Maule) appointed to inquire into the pay and \norganisation, about .... 8 Aug. 1878 \n\nVarious changes (with increase of pay in some \ncases) were ordered by the home secretary \n\nend of Aug. ,, \n\n20,000 peculiarly made whistles, received for distri- \nbution among the police .... March, 1884 \n\nMetropolitan police 13,319 ; cost 1,059,628?. in . 1885 \n\nPolice arrangements north of Thames remodelled \n\n1 April, 1886 \n\nReport of committee on the police, with vague \nrecommendations, issued . . about 2 Oct. ,, \n\nPolice Disabilities Removal Act-enabling police to \nvote at parliamentary elections passed 23 May, 1887 \n\nMiss.Cass arrested in mistake by police-constable \nEndacott in Regent St. about 9.15 p.m. 28 June ; \ninquiry refused by home secretary July ; govern- \nment defeated in commons (153-148) 5 July; \nEndacott acquitted of perjury . . 1 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMedals presented to the metropolitan police for \ntheir conduct during the jubilee celebrations in \nJune, ordered 3 Sept. ,, \n\nA testimonial to the police for their conduct at \nTrafalgar Square (see under Riots) ; combination \nof two funds Nov. ; appropriated to their con- \nvalescent asylum at Dover .... Feb. 1888 \n\nCharges against the police of levying black mail \nmade by Mr. W. S. Caine and others in July, i887_ ; \ninvestigated and declared not proved by sir \nCharles Warren, Times .... 6 Feb. ,, \n\nAgitation respecting pay, pension, and hours \n\nMay, June, 1890 \n\nBow-street station. Insubordination; 130 men for \nan hour refused to go on duty, 10 p.m. ; some \ntransferred to another district, 40 dismissed, \n5 July ; rioting of dismissed men and roughs \nquickly stopped by the foot-guards, 7 July ; per- \nfect order in tlie force reported . . 8 July, ,, \n\nIncrease of pay begun .... 17 Dec. ,, \n\nMetropolitan police, 14,081 ; cost 1,096,2777. 31 Dec. 1887 \n\nPolice of England and Wales, year 1871-2, 27,999 \nmen, cost 2,372,888?. (84?. 15s. a man) ; 1872-3, \n28,550 men, cost 2,567,481?.; 1874-5, 29,460 men, \ncost 2, 742,526?. ; 1875-6, 29,719111611, cost2, 849, 073?. ; \n1 87^-7, 3\xc2\xb0i\xc2\xb0i6 men, cost 2,902,635?. (per man, \n96?/. 14s.); 1877-8, 30,673 men, cost 2,980,592?. \n(per man, 97?. 3s. 51?.) ; 1878-9, 31,407 men, cost \n3,058,671?. (per man, 98?. 10s. 4\'i.); 1881-2, 33,173 \nmen, cost 3,264,337?. ; 1882-3, 34,488 men, cost \n3*367,678?. ; 1886-7, 36,912 men, cost 3,711, 933?. ; \n1887-8, 37,296 men, cost 3,727,942?. ; 1888-9,37,957 \nmen, cost 3,734,916?. ; 1889-90, 39,221 men, cost \n3,846,508. \n\nPolice of the United Kingdom, 1890 :\xe2\x80\x94 England and \nWales, 39,221 ; Scotland, 4,103 ; Ireland, 13,921. \n\nPOLICIES OF ASSUBANCE ACT, \npassed 20 Aug. 1867 ; see Insurance. \n\nPOLITICAL ECONOMY, the science \nwhich has for its object the improvement of the \ncondition of mankind, and the promotion of civili- \nsation, wealth, and happiness. Its history in this \ncountry may be dated from the publication of sir \n"Win. Petty\'s "Treatise on Taxes,\'\' 1662, and \n" Political Arithmetic," 1691 ; Dr. Adam Smith\'s \n"Wealth of Nations," 1776. The works of Mill, \nM\'Culloch, and Fawcett are celebrated. A pro- \nfessorship of Political Economy was established at \nOxford by Mr. Henry Drummond, M.P., 1825 ; \nand at Cambridge, first by Mr. G. Pryme, in 1828 ; \nbut regularly established by the university in 1863, \nHenry Fawcett (blind) being the first professor. \nArchbishop Whately endowed a professorship at \nTrinity College, Dublin ; Isaac Butt first pro- \nfessor 1832 \n\nThe Political Economy Club, London, founded in \n1821, by Tlios. Tooke and others, to propagate \nfree trade principles, kept the hundredth anni- \nversary of the publication of Smith\'s "Wealth of \n\nNations " 31 May, 1876 \n\nMr. R. H Inglis Palgrave\'s "Dictionary of Political \n\nEconomy," published 1891, et seq. \nImaginary systems: Plato\'s "Republic;" he died 347 \nB.C. Sir T. Mores " Utopia" 1548 ; sir P. Sidney\'s \n"Arcadia," 1690; James Harrington\'s "Oceana/ \n\n\n\nPOLITICAL OFFICES. \n\n\n\n7-59 POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTION. \n\n\n\n1656 ; Win. Morris\'s "News from Nowhere," 1891 ; \nand E. Bellamy\'s " Looking Backwards," 1888. \n\nPOLITICAL OFFICES PENSIONS \nACT passed 9 Aug. 1S69. \n\nPOLITICAL UNIONS were formed in Eng- \nland in 1831 to cany the Reform Bill : the most \nimportant was that of Birmingham. \n\nPOLITICIANS. A politician is described as \na man well versed in policy, or the well regulating \nand governing of a state or kingdom ; a wise and \ncunning man. A man of artifice ; one of deep \ncontrivance. Soui/t. The term was first used in \nFrance about 1569. A new faction appeared, \nknown by the name of Politicians, headed by the \ndue d\'Alenc.on and the Montmoreneies, and \nstrengthened by the accession of the Huguenots in \n1574. The duke was arrested and the MonUnoren- \ncies sent to the Bastile. \n\nPOLKA, a dance snid to li\'ive been invented \nbetween 1830 and 1834 in Bohemia, and to have \nobtained its name in Prague in 1835. It became \nvery popular, and was introduced into England \nabout 1844. \n\nPOLL ACT passed in Ireland by the Junto of \nthe f ale, putting a price upon the heads of certain \nIrish ; the earl of Desmond being then deputy, 5 \nEdward IV. 1465. This act long endured, see \nIreland, 1465. \n\nPOLLENTIA (Piedmont, N. Italy), the site \nof a great victory of Stilicho, the Imperial general, \nover Alaricthc Goth, 29 March, 403. \n\nPOLL-TAX or Capitation Tax, existed \n\namong the ancient ltomans. It was first levied in \nEngland in 1380; and occasioned the rebellion of \nWat Tyler (see Tyler), 1381. It was again levied \nin 1513. By the iSth Charles II. every subject \nwas assessed by the head, viz., a duke 100L, a \nmarquis Sol., a baronet 30/., a knight 20I., an \nesquire lol., and every single private person I2cl., \n1667. This grievous impost was abolished by \nWilliam III. 16S9. \n\nPOLLUTION OF RIVERS, see Rivers. \n\nPOLO, the game of ball termed hockey played \non horseback, became popular in England in 1872, \nhaving been introduced from India. Games were \nplayed by lancers and life-guards at Woolwich, 16, \n19 July. 1872. A polo club was formed, and inter- \nnational contests held ; at Brighton one opened \n3 Aug. 1878. Polo is said to have been an old \nRussian game, mentioned 1492 under the name of \nChugan, as brought from Persia. \n\nPOLOTSK (Russia). The French under mar- \nshal Oudinot were here defeated by the Russians \nunder general Wittgenstein, 30 and 31 July, 1812; \nthe next day, the Russians were defeated. After \nseveral smaller actions with various results, Polotsk \nwas stormed by the Russians, and retaken Oct. 1812. \n\nPOLTOWA, see Fuliowa. \n\nPOLYGAMY, &c., was permitted among the \nearly nations, and now by Mahometans. In Media, \nit was a reproach to a man to have less than seven \nwives. Among the Romans, Mare Antony is \nmentioned as the first who took two wives. The \npractice was forbidden by Areadius, 394. The \nemperor Charles V. punished polygamy with death. \nIn England, by stat. 1 James I. 1603, it was made \nfelony, with benefit of clergy. It was formerly \npunished with transportation, but now by im- \nprisonment or penal servitude; see Marriages. \nPolygamy exists among the Mormons {which see). \n\n\n\nAbolished in the United States, 23 March, 1882.\xe2\x80\x94 \nPolyandry (where one woman has several hus- \nbands) is permitted in some eastern countries, the \nchildren having equal rights. \n\nPOLYGLOT, from two Greek words denoting \n" many languages," is chiefly applied to editions of \nthe Bible in several languages. \nGiustiniani published a polyglot psalter, 1576. \n\n1. The Complutensian Polyglot, in six vols, folio, wa3 \nprinted at Alcala (Complutensis), in Spain, 1502-14 ; \nthe first edition published in 1522, at the expense of \nthe celebrated cardinal Ximenes, costing 250,000 \nducats. Six hundred copies of it were printed ; three \non vellum. Count MacCarthy, of Toulouse, paid 483?. \nfor one of these copies at the Pinelli sale. \n\n2. The Polyglot, printed *at Antwerp, by Montanus, 8 \nvols, folio, in 1559-69, at the expense of Philip II. of \nSpain. \n\n3. Printed at Paris, by Le Jay, in 10 vols, folio, 1628-45. \n\n4. Edited by Bryan Walton, in 6 vols, folio, 1654-7. \nCopies of all four are in the library of the British and \n\nForeign Bible Society. \n\n5. Edited by Dr. Samuel Lee, published by S. Bagster,\' i \nvol. folio, 183T. \n\n6. Hexaglot bible : begun by Henry Cohn ; conr- \npleted by the Rev. Edwd. It. De Levante and others; \n6 vols. 4to, 1874. \n\nPOLYNESIA, a name recently given to the \nisles in the great Pacific Ocean, see Owhyhes, \nOtnheite, Sandwich Islands, Fiji Isles, &c. These \nislands have been classified as Micronesia, Melanisia, \nand East Polynesia. The Polynesian society, Wel- \nlington, New Zealand, was founded in 1892. \n\nPOLYPES, also named Hydra; {many-footed \nanimals), on account of their property of repro- \nducing themselves when cut in pieces, every part \nsoon becoming a perfect animal ; first discovered by \nLeeuwenhoek, and described by him in the Philo- \nsophical Trans. 1703. The polypes are of the order \nZoophytes, and are partly animal and vegetable. \n\nPOLYTECHNIC INSTITUTION, \n\nROYAL, Regent-street, London, was erected by \nThompson in 1838, opened 6 Aug. 1839, ancl \nenlarged in 1848. it contained a hall of manufac- \ntures with machines worked by steam-power, \nlecture theatres, &c., diving-bell, electric machine, \n&c. Timbs. The institution did not prosper com- \nmercially, and its decline was hastened by the fall \nof a staircase on 3 Jan. 1859, when one person was \nkilled and many injured. The institution Avas \nclosed in May, 1859, but was re-opened by a new \ncompany on 12 Nov. i860; see Ecole l\'olytech- \nnique. Professor Pepper, the director for many \nyears, resigned in 1872 ; returned, 1878. The \nclasses were formed into a college, which was in- \naugurated by the carl of Shaftesbury, 7 Oct. 1872. \nPolytechnic institution announced to be closed on \n27 Aug. 1881 ; affairs wound up. Plant sold for \nabout 2000/. 23 March, 1882. In 1882 it was \noccupied by the Polytechnic young men\'s chris- \ntian institute, principally by the instrumentality \nof Mr. Quintin Hogg, for educational purposes, with \nabout 2000 members. \nProf. John Pepper lectured hereon Australia (from \n\nwhich he had just returned) . . . 9 Nov. 18S9 \nPolytechnic Institutions established in south \nLondon promoted by the charity commissioners \nand liberally subscribed for .... 1888-9 \nPolytechnic Institute or People\'s palace for S.W. \nLondon, Westminster, Chelsea, Fulham, &c, \nproposed and liberally supported by the duke of \nWestminster, president, earl Cadogan, Mr. H. C. \nAntrobus, and others . .... 1889-90 \n\nWith reference to the City of London Parochial \nCharities act of iSS^, the committee of Council \non Education, reports approval of schemes for \nthe management of the following institutions :\xe2\x80\x94 \n1, the City Polytechnic, comprising the North \n\n\n\nPOMEGEANATE TEEE. \n\n\n\n760 \n\n\n\nPONTUS. \n\n\n\nampton and Birkbeck Institutes, and the City of \nLondon college ; 2, the Regent-street Polytech- \nnic Institute ; 3, the Battersea Polytechnic Insti- \ntute ; 4, the South-western Polytechnic Insti- \ntute ; 5, the Borough-road Polytechnic Institute \n\nApril, 1891 \n\nMemorial stone oftheBatterseaPolytechnic, the first \nof the series laid by the prince of Wales 20 July, ,, \n\nThe Goldsmiths\' Company\'s Technical and Reerea- \ntivelnstituteatNew-eross, Surrey, was opened by \nthe prince and princess of Wales, 22 July, 1891 ; \nsee Goldsmiths\' Company. \n\nPolytechnic at Chelsea ; foundation stone laid by \nthe prince and princess of Wales . 23 July, ,, \n\nSee Beaumont Trust and GoldsrnWis\' Company. \n\nPOMEGEANATE TEEE (Ftmica Grana- \ntin) was brought to England from Spain before \n1584. \n\nPOMEEANIA, a Prussian province, N. Ger- \nmany, was held by the Poles, 980, and by Den- \nmark, 1210; made an independent duchy, 1479; \nand divided between Sweden and Brandenburg, \n1648. The Swedish part, awarded to Denmark in \n1814, was given up to Prussia for Lauenburg, 1815 ; \nsee Denmark ; Wrecks, 1878. \n\nPOMFEET or Pc-NTEFRACT (S. York). At \nthe castle (built 10S0), Richard II. was confined \nand murdered, 10 Feb. 1400. Some writers assert \nthat Richard escaped and died in Scotland. In this \ncastle also, the earl Rivers, lord Grey, sir Thomas \nVaughan, and sir Richard Haut or Hause, were \nput to death by order of the duke of Gloucester, \nthen protector of England (afterwards Richard III.) \nabout 26 June, 1483. The castle, which had stood \nfour sieges, was dismantled in 1649. The first \nparliamentary election by ballot took place here, \n15 Aug. 1872, very quietly. It lost one of its two \nmembers in 18J5. Population, 1S81, 8,798; 1891, \n9,702. \n\nPOMPEII (S. Italy), an ancient city of Cam- \npania, was partly demolished by an earthquake in \na.d. 63. It was afterwards rebuilt, but was over- \nwhelmed by an eruption of Vesuvius, accompanied \nby an earthquake, on the night of 24 Aug. 79. The \nprincipal citizens were then assembled at a theatre \nwhere public spectacles were exhibited. The \nashes buried the whole city and covered the \nsurrounding country. After a lapse of fifteen \ncenturies, a countryman, as he was turning up the \nground, found a bronze figure ; and this discovery \nled to further search, which brought numerous \nother objects to light, and at length the city was \nuncovered. The part first cleared was supposed \nto be the main street, 1750. The kings of Naples \ngreatly aided in exploring Pompeii, and the present \nItalian government resumed the work in 1863. \n\nA commemorative meeting of antiquaries and philo- \nsophers met at Pompeii, 25 Sept. 1879. \n\nFurther discoveries made, autumn 1882 el seq. \n\nThe remains of a handsome five-storied house were \nuncovered July, 1890 \n\nPOMPEY\'S PILLAE stands about three- \nquarters of a mile from Alexandria, between the \ncity and the lake Mareotis. The shaft is fluted, \nand the capital ornamented with palm-leaves ; the \nwhole, which is highly polished, composed of three \npieces, and of the Corinthian order. The column \nmeasures, according to some, 94 feet ; to others \n141, and even 160 feet; but of its origin, name, \nuse, and age, nothing is certain. \nIt is generally believed that the column has no reference \nto Pompey, to whom a mark of honour was, neverthe- \nless, set up somewhere about this part. One supposes \nthe. edifice was dedicated to Vespasian, another to \nSevcras ; and Mr. Clarke, from a half-effaced inscrip- \n\n\n\ntion on the base, considered that Adrian is the \nperson honoured ; while many assert, from the same \ninscription, that it is dedicated "to Diocletian \nAugustus, most adorable emperor, tutelar deity of \nAlexandria. " \n\nPONDICHEEEY (S.E. India), the capital \nof French India, and first settled by the French in \n1674. It was taken from them by the Dutch in \n1693, restored 1697 ; besieged by the English, 1748; \ntaken by them, Jan. 1761 ; restored, 1763; again \ntaken, Oct. 1778; restored in 1783; taken 23 Aug. \n1793, and in 1803 ; restored, 181 5. Visited by the \nViceroy of India (Earl Dufferin), Dec. 1886. \nProsperous state of the colony reported Jan. 1889. \nPopulation in 1890, 283,053. \n\nPONDOLAND, the coast between Cape Colony \nand Natal, S. Africa, the British protectorate was \nproclaimed and notified, 6 Jan. 1885. \nSevere fighting among the natives reported, Feb.- \nMarch-April ; the chief Umhlangaro surrenders \nto the Cape authorities .... April, 1891 \n\nPONT-A-CHIN, see Espierres. \n\nPONT-A-NOYELLES. .At this place, near \nAmiens, took place a tierce indecisive conflict, \nlasting from n a.m. to 6 p.m., between the Germans \nunder Manteuffel and the French army of the north \nunder Faidherbc, 23 Dec. 1870. Both sides claimed \na victory; the French general asserted that he \nremained master of\' the field. \n\nPONTEFEACT, see Fomfret. \n\nPONTIFFS (Latin Foniijiccs), the highest \nRoman sacerdotal order, established by Numa. The \ncollege first consisted of 4 patricians, with a chief \n(rontifex Maximus) ; to these 4 plebeians were \nadded, by the Ogulnian law, 300 B.C. Sylla in- \ncreased the number to 15 (8 majores, 7 minorcs), \n(81), and Julius Caesar to 16. T. Coruncanius, a \nplebeian, obtained this office, 254 li.c. \n\nPONTUS, in Asia Minor, seems to have been a \nportion of Cappadocia, and received its name fiom \nits vicinity to the Font us Euxinus. Artabazus Avas \nmade king of Pontus by Darius II\\ staspes in \nthe 4th century rs.c. His successors were mere \nsatraps of the kings of Persia. \n\nReign of Mithridates I B.C. 383 \n\nAriobarzanes invades Pontus 363 \n\nMithridates II. recovers it 336 \n\nMithridates III. reigns . . . . . . . 301 \n\nAriobarzanes II. reigns 266 \n\nMithridates IV. is besieged in his capital by the \n\nGauls, &c 252 \n\nMithridates attacks Sinope, and is obliged to raise \n\nthe siege by the Rhodians 219 \n\nReign of Pharnaces, 190 ; betakes Sinope, and makes \n\nit the capital of his kingdom 183 \n\nReign of Mithridates V. . . . . . 157 \n\nHe is murdered in the midst of his court . . . 123 \nMithridates VI. sumamed the Great, or Eupator, \n\nreceives the diadem at 12 years of age . . . ,, \n\nMarries Laodice, his own sister 115 \n\nShe attempts to poison him ; he puts her and ac- \ncomplices to death 112 \n\nMithridates conquers Scythia, Bosphorus, Colchis, \n\nand other countries m \n\nHe enters Cappadocia 97 \n\nHis war with Rome 89 \n\nTigranes ravages Cappadocia . . . . .86 \nMithridates enters Bithynia, and makes himself \n\nmaster of many Roman provinces, and puts 80,000 \n\nRomans to death ,, \n\nArchelaus defeated by Sylla, at Cluvronea ; 100,000 \n\nCappadocians slain . . . . . . ,, \n\nVictories and conquests of Mithridates up to this \n\ntime 74 \n\nThe fleet of Mithridates defeats that under Lucullus \n\nin two battles 73 \n\nMithridates defeated by Lucullus . . . 69 \n\n\n\nPOONAH. \n\n\n\n761 \n\n\n\nPOOR. \n\n\n\nMithridates defeats Fabius 68 \n\nBut is defeated by Ponipey 66 \n\nMithridates stabs himself, and dies .... 63 \n\nReign of Pharnaces ,, \n\nCattle of Zela (see Zela) ; Pharnaces defeated by \n\nCaesar 47 \n\nDarius reigns 39 \n\nPolemon, son of Zeno, reigns 36 \n\nPoleinon II. succeeds his father . . . a.d. 33 \n\nJlithridates VII. reigns 40 \n\nPontus afterwards became a Roman province. \nAlexis Comnenus founded a new empire of the \nGreeks at Trebisond, in this country, 1204, which \ncontinued till the Turks destroyed it in 1459. \n\nPOONAH, a province, S.W. India, formerly \nthe seat of the power of the peishwa of the \nMahrattas, 1749. It was captured by Wellesley \nfrom Ilolkar, 19 April, 1803, for Bajce ltao, who \nhad claimed British protection. Bajee resigned his \noffice, 3 June, 1818, for a pension. Visited by the \nprince of "Wales, 13 Nor. 1875. \n\nPOOR CHILDREN\'S AID SOCIETY, \n\nfor providing food, clothing, &c., established 1887. \n\nPOOR KNIGHTS of Windsor, or Alms \n\nKNIGHTS. Soon after his institution of the order \nof the Garter, Edward III. founded this charity, for \nthe provision of 24 (afterwards 26) poor persons \neminent for military services. Edward IV. dis- \ncharged the college from the support of the alms- \nknights, but Elizabeth re-established the charity \nfor 13 knights, 1559. King "William IV. changed \nthe name to the " Military Knights of Windsor," \nin consequence of their all having held commissions \nin the army, Sept. 1833. \xe2\x80\x94 The "Naval Knights of \n"Windsor" are maintained on a distinct foundation, \nunder the bequest of Samuel Travers, 1724. The \ncorporation was established in 1 798. An act making \nlieutenants and widowers eligible was passed in \n1867. Alterations made by act passed in 1885. \nAn act to dissolve the corporation was pasicd iu \n1892. \n\nPOOR. The poor of England, till the time of \nHenry VIII. , subsisted as the poor of Ireland until \n1838, entirely upon private benevolence. By statute \n23 Edw. III. 1349, it was enacted that none should \ngive alms to a beggar able to work. By the com- \nmon law, the poor were to be sustained by " par- \nsons, rectors of the church, and parishioners, so that \nnone should die for default of sustenance ; " and by \n15 llich. II. impropriators were obliged to distribute \na yearly sum to the poor; but no compulsory law \nwas enacted till the 27th Hen. VIII. 1535. The \norigin of the present rooit law is referred to the \n43rd of Elizabeth, 1601, by which overseers were \nappointed for parishes. \n\nFirst Poor Law commission, E. Chadwick assistant com- \nmissioner, 1832-3. \nNew Poor Law Board appointed (E. Chadwick, sec), \n\n1834 ; dissolved, 1846. \nAdditional workhouses ordered to be erected, 1819, 1834. \nPoor Law Amendment bill passed 1834 ; * forming \n\n" Unions," &c, amended in 1836, 1838, 1846 and 1847. \nPoor Law (Ireland) act passed 1838 ; amended 1839. \nA Poor Law system established in Scotland, 1845. \nPoor Law (Ireland) Rate in aid act passed in 1849. \nIn Scotland, in the year ending May, 1851, the number \nrelieved was 141,870, at an average cost of 2/.\' is. $d. \nand the expenditure was 535,943?. \n\n* "The principle of the poor law of 1834 (now in \nforce): \xe2\x80\x94 (1) No one shall be allowed to perish through \nwant of what is necessary for sustaining life and health ; \n(2) every destitute parent is bound to demand and obtain \nfrom the guardians what .is necessary for sustaining the \nhealth and life of his children ; neglect of this duty is \ncriminal ; (3) it is obligatory on the guardians of the \npoor to afford sufficient relief to all persons unable to \nmaintain themselves ; refusal an indictable Offence." \n(F. Petk.) \n\n\n\nIn Ireland, the poor\'s rate for the year ending Sept. 1851, \n\nwas 1,101,878!. \nMr. Henry Mayhew publishes his " London Labour and \nthe London Poor," 1851-2. \nI An agitation for the equalisation of poor\'s rates throughout \n\nthe kingdom, began in 1857. \n1 The Times drew attention to the condition of the house- \nless poor in London, which led to measures for tlreir \nrelief, Dec. 1858. \n] Society for relief of distress, St. James\'s, established i860. \nI Laws respecting removal of the poor amended in 1861. \nj Union relief act passed to enable certain unions to obtain \ntemporary aid (on account of the distress in Lanca- \nshire through suspension of cotton manufactures), 1862. \nMetropolitan houseless poor act (authorising guardians to \nreceive destitute persons into workhouses, anil the \nmetropolitan board to reimburse them) passed, 29 \nJuly, 1864. \nS Annual report of Poor Law board for 1864, shows great \ndecrease of pauperism \xe2\x80\x94 issued Sept. 1865. \n40 refuges for houseless poor established in London, 1864-5. \n, " Casual wards " in London workhouses receive 1000 per \n\nnight, Jan. 1865. \n! Union chargeability act passed, 1865. \nI Field-lane Refuge : new building formally opened by \n\nearl of Shaftesbury, 6 June, 1866. \n1 Metropolitan Poor act passed for establishment of asy- \nlums for the sick, insane, &c. , 29 March, 1867. \n! Poor Law Amendment act makes Poor Law board per- \nmanent ; passed, 20 Aug. 1867. \n1 Much excitement respecting the bad condition of London \nworkhouse infirmaries, June, 1866 ; of Farnham work- \nhouse, Oct. 1867. \ni Poor Law Amendment act passed . 31 July, 1868 \nj Divided Parishes and Poor Law Amendment act \n\npassed 15 Aug. 1876 \n\n1 Presidents of tlie Poor Law board: Gathorne Hardy, \n9 July, 1866 ; earl of Devon, May, 1867 ; G. j. \nGbschen, 9 Dec. 1868 to March, 1871 ; see Local \nGovernment Board. \n; Minute of the poor law board defining limits of \nrelief, and recommending organisation of metro- \npolitan charitable institutions, 20 Nov., which is \nadopted by several parishes . . . Dec. 1869 \nGeneral order for boarding-out pauper children, \n\nissued 25 Nov. 1070 \n\nCharity Organisation Society (see Charitable Relief), \n\nestablished, 1869 ; reported very successful Jan. 1878 \nThe act for more equal distribution of charge for \nrelief of in-door poor (passed 20 June) came into \n\noperation 29 Sept. ,, \n\nCircular of poor law board respecting farming out \n\npauper children 25 Nov. ,, \n\nNew regulations for casual poor published in Times \n\n27 Nov. ,, \nPoor rate assessment acts amended . . . 18S2 \n\nPoor law conference act passed . . iS June, 1883 \nCommission to inquire into the state of the poor \nappointed ; abp. of Canterbury, earls Spencer, \nOnslow and others .... March, 1S8S \nNew poor law act passed . . . .30 Aug. 1889 \nSir Edwin Chadwick, eminent poor law reformer, \n\naged 90, died 5 July, 1890 \n\nHousing of the poor, see Artisans. \nReceived, for relief of the poor, in 1869, in England \nand Wales, 11,776,153?. ; in Scotland, 892,712/. ; in \nIreland, 927,046/. : total, 13,595,911/. \nPaupers receiving relief 1 Jan. 1878 : England and \nWales, 742,703 ; Ireland, 85,530 ; 14 May, 1877, \nScotland, 96,404 ; total, 924,437 ; Feb. 1889, \nEngland and Wales, 762,853. \nPaupers in the metropolis receiving relief :\xe2\x80\x94 Dec, \n1869, 152,557; Dec, 1870, about 147,000; Dec, \n1871, about 124,000; July, 1872, 104,280; April, \n114,644 ; Aug., 104,578; Oct., 1873, 97,287 ; Sept., \n1874, 104,983; June, 1875,84,598 (indoor 32,661, \nout 51.937)\'. D\xc2\xab-., 1875, 84,782 (indoor 35.673. \nout 49,109); July, 1876, 77,498 (indoor, 33,735, \n01^43,763); Jan. 1877, 82,950; June, 78,203 (in- \ndoor, 35,903); 8 Dec. 81,986 (indoor, 42,242); 27 \nMarch, 1878, 84,753 (indoor, 41,403); 27 July, \n76,709 (indoor, 38,043) ; 31 Dec. 83.674 ; 8 Feb. \n1879, 94,765 (indoor, 45,095) ; 19 April, 83,075 ; 28 \nJune, 78,680 ; 27 Sept. 79,674 ; 717 vagrants ; 27 \nDec. 92,495. 1880, last week, March, 88,893 : \n(indoor, 46,738) ; June, 84,137 (vagrants, 931); \nSept. 82,188; Dec 92,654 (vagrants, 697); 1881, \nlast week March, 95,767 ; indoor, 32,012 ; vag- \n\n\n\nPOPE. \n\nrants, 780; June, 86,404 (indoor, 48,293); 1881, \nOct., 89,740 (indoor, 50,792, vagrants, 932) ; Dec. \n1st, 93,170 ; vagrants, 883 ; 1882, 1 April, 92,233 \n(indoor, 51,480, vagrants, 788) ; June, 86,417 (in- \ndoor, 48,363, vagrants, 643); Sept. 88,581 (indoor, \n50,174, vagrants, 915); Dec. 96,687 (indoor, \n54,373, vagrants, 696); 1883, March, 97,743 (in- \ndoor, 54,836, vagrants, 497) ; June, 85,555 ] i- \ndoor, 49,713, vagrants, 386); Sept. 85,849 (indoor, \n50,917, vagrants, 461) ; 1884, Jan. 94,540 (indoor, \n55,965, vagrants, 471) ; April, 89,540 (indoor, \n54,122, vagrants, 528) ; Aug. 85,069 (indoor, \n51,849. vagrants, 482) ; Dec. 94,041 (indoor, 57,092, \nvagrants, 374); 1885, March, 94,047 (indoor 56,491, \nvagrants, 540); June, 85,555 (indoor, 49,713, vag- \nrants, 592) ; Sept. 86,119 (indoor, 51,968, vagrants, \n562) ; 26 Dec. 94,902 (indoor, 56,002, vagrants, \n322); 1886, 27 March, 101,982 (indoor, 56,507, \nvagrants, 463); 26 June, 87,171 (indoor, 51,570, \nvagrants, 454); 25 Sept. \xc2\xa37,604 (indoor, 52,628, \nvagrants, 650); 25 Dee. 98,611 (indoor, 57,520, \nvagrants, 475) ; 1887, 26 March, 103,726 (indoor, \n58,221, vagrants, 627) ; 27 Aug. 88,274 (indoor, \n53,164, vagrants, 619) ; 26 Nov. 101,852 (indoor, \n59,066, vagrants, 1,054); 1888, 28 Jan. 108,783 \n(indoor, 60,883, vagrants, 1,165); 28 April, 102,617 \n(indoor, 58,273, vagrants, 1,151); 28 July, 90,510 \n(indoor, 52,875, vagrants, 976) ; 27 Oct. 96,030 \n(indoor, 58,070, vagrants, 1,182); 1889, 26 Jan. \n124,734 (indoor, 61,521, vagrants, 1,119) J 2 7 April, \n\n\n\n762 \n\n\n\nPOPE. \n\n\n\n95,600 (indoor, 58,509, vagrants, 1,114); 29 June, \n88,699 (indoor, 54,460 ; vagrants, 605) ; 28 Sept. \n92,012 (indoor, 56,805; vagrants, 1,169); 28 Dee. \n97,661 (indoor, 60,111; vagrants, 775); 1890, \n5 April, 93,596 (indoor, 58,216; vagrants, 707); \n28 June, 87,600 (indoor, 54,267 ; vagrants, 765); \n27 Sept. 88,147 (indoor, 55,273 ; vagrants, 1,014) \xc2\xbb \n27 Doc. 97,128 (indoor, 59,588; vagrants, 525); \n1891, 28 March, 92,395 (indoor, 58,364 ; vagrants, \n748); 27 June, 86,109 (indoor, 53,981 ; vagrants, \n772) ; 26 Sept. 86,072 (indoor, 54,478 ; vagrants, \n814); 31 Dec. 94,639 (indoor, 60,169; vagrants, \n743); 1S92, 26 March, 92,936 (indoor, 59,612; \nvagrants, 771); 26 June, 85,731 (indoor, 54,838; \nvagrants, 740). \nThe powers and duties of the Poor Law board \nmerged into the Local Government hoard by act \npassed 14 Aug. 1871 ; president, James Stansfeld ; \nG. Sclater-Booth Feb. \n\n\n\nA Poor-law \n\n\nact passed . \n\n\n\n\n\n\n15 Aug. 1879 \n\n\n\n\nENGLAND AND \n\n\nWALES. \n\n\n\n\nExjicnde 1. \n\n\nPoor rates. \n\n\nExpended. \n\n\nPoor rateSi. \n\n\nIn 1580 \n\n\n. \xc2\xa3188,811 \n\n\nIn \n\n\n1820 \n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 \xc2\xa37>329,594 \n\n\n1680 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 665,562 \n\n\n\n\n1830 . \n\n\n. . 8,111,422 \n\n\n1698 . \n\n\n819,000 \n\n\n\n\n1835 - \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 6,356,345 \n\n\n1760 . \n\n\n. . 1,556,804 \n\n\n\n\n1840 . \n\n\n. . 5,468,699 \n\n\n1785 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n. 2,184,950 \n\n\n\n\n1845 \n\n\n. 5,543,650 \n\n\n1S02 .\xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n. . 4,952,421 \n\n\n\n\n1853 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n. . 6,522,412 \n\n\n1815 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 5,418,845 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nEngland & Wales, 1 Jan. \nScotland . about 14 May \nIreland . . 1 Jan.: \n\nTotal . \n\n\n\n1849. \n934,4 T 9 \n82,357 \n620,747 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2. 1,637,523 \n\n\n\nPAUPERS RECEIVING RELIEF (NOT VAGRANTS). \n\nl8 7 5- \nSl5,58 7 \n\n\n\n,217 \n\n\n\n932,400 \n78,433t \n59,541 \n\n\n\n1,079, 39\' \n126,187 \n73,921 \n\n\n\nYears ended \nLady-do y. \n\n\n\n1S63 \n\n\n\n; (1 Jan.) \n\n\n\n1870 \n1871 \n1872 \n\n1873\' \n1874 \n1875 \n1876 \n1877 \n1S7S \n\n\n\ni38 7 \ni383 \n\n\n\ni8co \n\n\n\nENGLAND AND WALES. \n\nAverage number of paupers. \n\nIndoor. Outdoor. \n\n122,613 786,263 \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 121,232 744,214 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 113,507 731,126 \n. 125,866 758,055 \n\n. . 132,236 784,906 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 136,907 942,475 \n. . 133,761 881,217 \n\n131,313 820,586 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 132,776 783,376 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 137,310 794,236 \n158,723 876,100 \n163,071 876,478 \n\n. . 165,324 914,067 \n\n165,289 916,637 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 154,233 823,431 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 i54, 17 1 736,201 \n\xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x80\xa2 149,558 679,723 \n\n- I 53,7 11 661,876 \n148,931 600,662 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 157,191 57 1 >i59 \n. . 166,875 575,828 \n\n- 175,345 625,081 \n. 189,394 648,636 \n\n189,438 613,688 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 188,433 \' \n\n\n\ni"7,593 \n190,184 \n194,440 \n196,853 \n200,666 \n198,191 \n195,04s \n\n\n\n608,910 \n586,717 \n593,971 \n6i3,i93 \n620,436 \n624,343 \n611,941 \n59 2 ,497 \n\n\n\n\',070,374 \n* 1857. \n\n\n\nExpendi- \nture. \n\n\xc2\xa35,878,542 \n5,558,689 \n5,454,964 \n5,778,943 \n6,077,922 \n6,527,036 \n6,423,381 ] \n6,264,966 \' \n6,439,517 I \n6,959,840 \n7,498,059 \n7,673,100 \n7,644,307 i \n\n7,886,724 ; \n8,007,403 [ \n7,692,169 ; \n7,664,957 \n7,488,481 \n7,335,858 \n7,400,034 \n7,688,650 \n\n7,829,819 : \n\n8,015,010 \n\n8,102,136 \n\n8,232,472 \n\n8,353,292 \n\n8,402,550 \n\n8,491,600 \n\n8,296,230 \n\n8,176,768 \n\n8,440,821 \n\n8,366,477 \n\n8,434-345 \n\n\n\n\',993 \n\n\n\n799,296 \n92,618 \n115,684 \n\n\n\n825,509 \n"3,947! \n\n\n\n1889. ] 1890. ] 1S91. \n810,132787,545 774,905 \n90,918 88,606 \n109, 957; 107, 774\' 106,972; \n\n\n\n1,031,449 1,011,007,903,925 \n\n\n\nPOPE (from the Greek Pappas and Papa, a \nfather or grandfather), considered by Bomanists to \nbe the visible chief\'of the church, the vicar of Jesus \nChrist, and the successor of St. Peter. Ho stvles \nhim elf " servant of the servants of God." The \ntitle 1 ope was formerly given to all bishops. It \nwas first adopted by Hyginus, 139; and pope Boni- \nface III. induced Phocas, emperor of the east, to \nconfine it to the prelates of Home, 6c6. By the \n\n\n\n79,499 1,002,475 1,007,598 \nt 1S61. \n\nI connivance of Phocas also, the pope\'s supremacy \n\nover the Christian church was established ; see \n\nItaly, Reformation, and Home, Modern. \n\nWilfrid, abp. of York, expelled from his diocese, \nappeals to the pope \n\nCustom of kissing the pope\'s too introduced . . \n\nAdrian I. caused money to be coined with his name \n\nSergius II. the first pope who changed his name on \nhis election, 844 ; some contend that it was \nSergius I. 687, and others John XII. \n\nIndulgences for the pardon of sin granted by pope \nLeo III. about \n\nJohn XVIII. a layman, made pope .... \n\nThe first pope who kept an army, Leo IX. . . . \n\nGregory VII. (Hildebrand) obliges Henry IV., em- \nperor of Germany, to stand three days, in the \ndepth of winter, barefooted at the gate of the \ncastle of Canossa, to implore his pardon \n\nThe pope\'s authority fixed in England . . . \n\nAppeals from English tribunals to the pope intro- \nduced (Viner), 19 Stephen . . . . . 1154 \n\nHenry II. of England holds the stirrup for pope \nAlexander III. to mount his horse . . . 1161 \n\nCelestine III. kicked the emperor Henry VI. \'s \ncrown off his- head while kneeling, to show his \nprerogative of making and unmaking kings . . 1191 \n\nJohn king of England did homage to the pope\'s \nlegate for his dominions, and bound himself and \nhis successors to an annual payment to the pope, \n\n15 May, 1213 \n\nThe pope collected the tenths of the whole kingdom \nof England 1226 \n\nThe papal seat was removed for seventy years to \nAvignon in France 1308 \n\nThe pope\'s demands on England refused by parlia- \nment 1363 \n\nAfter the discovery of America, pope Alexander VI. \ngranted to the Portuguese all the countries to the \neast, and to the Spanish all the countries to the \nwest, of Cape Non, Africa, they might conquer . \n\nPope Leo X. published the sale of general indul- \ngences throughout Europe \n\nAppeals to Rome from England abolished (Viner) . 1533; \n\nThe words "Lord Pope " struck out of all English \nbooks 154* \n\nKissing the pope\'s toe and other ceremonies abo- \nlished by Clement XIV. 1773 \n\n\n\n679 \n708. \n780 \n\n\n\n956 \n\n\n\n1024 \n1054 \n\n\n\n1077 \n1079 \n\n\n\nM93 \n\n\n\n1517 \n\n\n\nPOPE. \n\n\n\n7G3 \n\n\n\nPOPE. \n\n\n\nThe pope\'s political influence greatly diminished by \n\nthe French revolution .... 1789-18 14 \nHis temporal power lost, see Rome . . .Dec. 1870 \nSee Pius IX. under Popes. \n\nBISHOPS AND POPES OF ROME \n\n(the navies in italics were antipopes) : \n42. St. Peter : (said to have been the first bishop of \nRome, and to have been crucified, head down- \nwards, in 66.) \n* * St. Clement (Clemens Romanus) ; according to \nTertullian. \n\nSt. Linus :* martyred ? \n\nSt. Cletus, or Anacletus ? martyred ? \n\nSt. Clement II. : abdicated? \n\nSt. Evaristus : martyred; multiplied churches. \n\nSt. Alexander : martyred. \n\nSt. Sixtus I. : martyred ? \n\nSt. Telesphorus : martyred. \n\nSt. Hyginus : condemns Gnostics ; called himself \npope. \n\nSt. Pius : martyred. \n\nSt. Anicetus. \n\nSt. Soterus : martyred under Marcus Antoninus. \n\nSt. Eleutherius : opposed the Valentinians. \n\nSt. Victor I. : martyred under Severus. \n\nSt. Zephyrinus : claimed to be Peter\'s successor. \n\nSt. Calixtus : martyred. \n\n[The chair vacant.] \n\nSt. Urban I. : beheaded. \n\nSt. Pontianus : banished by the emperor Maximin. \n\nSt. Anterus : martyred. \n\nSt. Fabian : martyred under Decius, 250. \n\n[The chair vacant. ] \n\nSt. Cornelius : died. \n\nSt. Lucius: martyred 252. Novatianus: (denied \nrestoration to the repentant lapsed). \n\nSt. Stephen I. : martyred in the persecution of \nValerian. \n\nSt. Sixtus II. (his coadjutor) : martyred three days \nbefore his disciple St. Laurence, in the persecu- \ntion of Valerian, 258. \n\n[The chair vacant] \n\nSt. Diou\'ysius : opposed the heresy of Sabellius. \n\nSt. Felix I. died in prison. \n\nSt. Eutychianus. \n\nSt. Cams : a relative of the emperor Diocletian. \n\nSt. Marcellinus : said to have lapsed under a severe \npersecution ? ; canonised. \n\n[The chair vacant. ] \n\nSt. Marcellus : banished from Rome by the emperor \nMaxcntius. \n\nSt. Eusebius : died the same year. \n\nSt. Miltiades or Melchiades : coadjutor to Eusebius. \n\nSt. Silvester : commencement of temporal power \nby gifts of Constantine. \n\nSt. Marcus : died the next year. \n\nSt. Julius I. : of great piety and learning ; main- \ntained the cause of St. Athanasius. \n\nLiberius : banished. \n\nFelix II., antipope : placed in the chair by Con- \nstans, during the exile of Liberius, on whose \nreturn he was driven from it with ignominy. \n\n[The emperor would have the two popes reign \ntogether ; but the people cried out, " One God, \none Christ, and one bishop!\'\'] \n\nLiberius again : abdicated. \n\nFelix became pope. \n\nLiberius again : martyred 365. \n\nSt. Damasus : oppose\'! the Arians : St. Jerome, \nhis secretary, corrected Latin Bible. \n\nUrsinus : expelled by Valentinian. \n\nSiricius : combated heretics. \n\nSt. Anastasius : proscribed works of Origen. \n\nSt. Innocent I. : condemned Pelagians. \n\nSt. Zozimus : ditto. \n\nSt. Boniface I. : maintained by the emperor Hono- \nrius, against liidalius. \n\nSt. Celestine I. : sent missions to Ireland. \n\nSixtus III. : opposed Nestorius and Eutyches. \n\n\n\n66. \n\n73. \n\n91. \n100. \n109. \n119. \n127. \n139- \n\n142. \n\n157- \n168. \n\n177- \n193- \n202. \n219. \n222. \n223. \n230. \n235- \n236. \n250. \n251. \n252. \n\n\n\n258. \n259- \n269. \n275- \n2S3. \n296. \n\n3\xc2\xb04- \n\n\n\n310. \n3\xc2\xab- \n314- \n\n336- \n337- \n\n352- \n3SS- \n\n\n\n358. \n\n359- \n366. \n\n367- \n384- \n398- \n402. \n417. \n418. \n\n422. \n432- \n\n\n\n* St. Linus is frequently set down as the immediate \nsuccessor of St. Peter ; but Tertullian maintains that \nit was St. Clement. In the first century neither the \ndates nor order of succession of bishops are reconcilable \nby even the best authorities. Some assert that there \nwere two or ti.rje bishops of Rome at the same \ntime. \n\n\n\n483. \n492 \n496. \n\n\n\n5*4\' \n523 \n\n526 \n\n\n\n53\xc2\xb0. \n533\' \n\n535\' \n53& \n\n\n\n537. \n555. \n560. \n\n573\' \n574\' \n\n57S. \n\n\n\n604 \n\n606 \n607 \n614 \n617 \n625. \n639 \n640. \n\n642 \n649 \n\n654 \n\n657 \n672 \n676 \n\n\n\n683. \n684. \n\n\n\n701. \n7\xc2\xb05- \n\n\n\n715- \n73i- \n\n\n\n741. \n752- \n\n\n\n757- \n76;. \n768. \n772. \n795- \n816. \n817. \n824. \n827. \n\n844. \n847. \n855- \n\n\n\n867. \n872. \n\n\n\nSt. Leo I. the Great : zealous ; restrained Alaric \n\nan able writer. \nSt. Hilary ; rich, liberal. \nSt. Simplicius : wise, prudent. \nSt. Felix III. : opposed emperor Zeno respecting \n\nthe Henoticon. \nSt. Gelasius : opposed heresy ; fixed, the canon o\xc2\xa3 \n\nScriptures ; compiled the mass. \nSt. Anastasius II. : congratulated Clovis. \nSymmachus : zealous against the Henoticon. \nLaurentius ; antipope. . \nHormisdas : opposed Eutychians. \nJohn I. : sent to Constantinople by Theodoric ; \n\ntolerant. \nFelix IV. : introduced extreme unction as a sacra- \nment. \nBoniface II. \xe2\x80\x94 Dioscorus. \nJohn II. : called Mercurius. \nAgapetus : converted Justinian. \nSt. Silverius : son of pope Hormisdas, who had \n\nbeen married ; the empress Theodora procured \n\nhis banishment into Lycia (where he died oT \n\nhunger), and made Vigilius pope. \nVigilius : banished, but restored. \nPelagius I. : an ecclesiastical reformer. \nJohn III. : great ornainenter of churches. \n[The see vacant.] \nBenedict I., surnamed Bonosus. \nPelagius II. ; died of the plague. \nSt. Gregory the Great : revised the liturgy ; sent \n\nAugustin to convert the Anglo-Saxons. \nSabinianus : said to have introduced church \n\nbells. \nor 607. Boniface III. : died in a few months, \nor 608. Boniface IV. \nor 615. St. Deusdedit \nor 618. Boniface V. \n\nHonorius I. : interested in British churches. \n[The see vacant.] \nSeverinus : ~v \n\n, >condemned Monothelites. \n\nliberal, \nfavoured education in England. \n\n\n\nJohn IV. : \nTheodorus I. \nMartin I. : \nEugenius I. : \nVitaliamis : \n\n\n\nAdeodatus, the gift of God. \n\nDomnus I. : ornamented churches. \n\nSt. Agathon : tribute to the emperor ceased. \n\nSt. Leo II. : instituted holy water; favoured \nmusic. \n\n[The see vacant. ] \n\nBenedict II. \n\nJohn V. : learned and moderate. \n\nConon. \xe2\x80\x94 Theodore and Pascal. \n\nSergius : " governed wisely." \n\nJohn VI. : redeemed captives ; firm and wise. \n\nJohn VII. : moderate. \n\nSisinnius : died 20 days after election. \n\nConstantine : wise and gentle ; visited Constanti- \nnople. \n\nSt. Gregory II. : sent Boniface to convert Ger- \nmans. \n\nGregory III. : independent- ; first sent nuncios to- \nforeign power. 3 . \n\nSt. Zaeharias, a Greek. \n\nStephen II. elected : died before consecration. \n\nStephen II. or III. : temporal power of the church \nof Rome commenced. \n\nPaul I. : moderate and pious. \n\nConstantine TheophylacUis : killed by Lombards. \n\nStephen III. or IV. : literary. \n\nAdrian I. : sanctioned images. \n\nLeo III. : crowned Charlemagne, 800. \n\nStephen IV. or V. \n\nPascal I. : ascetic, anil built churches. \n\nEugenius II. : "father of the afflicted."- Zosimus. \n\nValentinus. \n\nGregory IV. ; pious and learned. \n\nSergius II. \n\nLeo IV. : defeated the Saracens. \n\nPope Joan\'s election fabulous (which sec). \n\nBenedict III. \xe2\x80\x94 A imstnsi us. \n\nNicholas I., the Great: conversion of Bulgarians. \n\nAdrian II. : eminent for sanctity. \n\nJohn VIII. : crowned 3 emperors. \n\nMarinus or Martin II. : condemned Photius. \n\nAdrian III. : ditto. \n\n\n\nPOPE. \n\n\n\n764 \n\n\n\nPOPE. \n\n\n\n885. Stephen V. or VI. : very charitable. \nS91. Formosus : political. \xe2\x80\x94 Sergius. \n\n596. Boniface VI. : deposed. \n\n597. Stephen VI. or VII. : vicious ; dishonoured the corpse \n\nof pope Formosus ; strangled by the people. \n\n,, Romanus.\xe2\x80\x94 Se/\'jrtMS. \n\xc2\xa998. Theodoras II. : governed 22 days. \n\n\xe2\x80\x9e John IX. \n900. Benedict IV. : " a great pope." \n\n903. Leo V. : expelled : died in prison. \n,, Christopher. \n\n[Several popes made by the infamous Marozia.] \n\n904. Sergius III. : disgraced by his vices. \n911. Anastasius III. \n\n913. Landonius, or Lando. \n\n914. John X. : stifled by Guy, duke of Tuscany. \n\n928. Leo VI. : considered an intruder. \n\n929. Stephen VII. or VIII. \n\n931. John XI. : son of Marozia ; imprisoned in the castle \n\nof St. Angelo, where he died. \n\xe2\x96\xa0936. Leo VII. : great for zeal and piety. \n939. Stephen VIII. or IX. : " of ferocious character. " \n942. Marinus II. or Martin III. : charitable. \n946. Agapetus II. : of holy life ; moderate. \n556. John XII., the infamous : deposed for adultery and \n\ncruelty ; and murdered. \n563. Leo VIII. : an honour to the chair \n964. Benedict V. : chosen on the death of John XII., \n\nbut opposed by Leo VIII., who was supported \n\nby the emperor Otho : died at Hamburg. \n565. John XIII. , elected by the authority of the emperor \n\nagainst the popular will. \n\xe2\x96\xa0972. Benedict VI. : murdered in prison. \n\xe2\x96\xa0974. Domnus II. \xe2\x80\x94 Boniface VII. \n975. Benedict VII. \n\n984. John XIV. : imprisoned by Boniface VII. \n\xe2\x80\x9e John XV. : died before consecration. \n\n985. John XVI. : loved gain. \n\n996. Gregory V. \xe2\x80\x94 John XVII. : expelled by the emperor, \n\nand barbarously used. \n999. Silvester II. (Gerbert) : learned and scientific ; said \nto have introduced the Arabic numerals, and \ninvented clocks. \n1003. John XVII. : legitimate pope, died same year. \n\n,, John XVIII. abdicated. \n1009. Sergius IV. (original name "Bocca di Porco," Pig\'s \n\nSnout). \n1012. Benedict VIII. : supported by the emperor against \n\n\xe2\x80\x94 Gregory. \n1024. John XIX. : elevated by bribery. \n1033. Benedict IX. ; became pope, by purchase, at \n\n12 years of age ; expelled for vices. \n1044. Sylvester III. : 3 months. \n,, Gregory VI. : deposed. \xe2\x80\x94 Sylvester; and John XX. \n[The emperor very influential.] \n\n1046. Clement II. died the next year (Clemens Romanics \n\nthe first Clement). \n\n1047. Benedict IX. again : again deposed. \n\n1048. Damasus II. : died soon after. \n\n\xe2\x80\x9e St. Leo IX.: a reformer of simony and incontinence. \n\n1054. [The throne vacant one year.] \n\n1055. Victor II. : a reformer. \n\n1057. Stephen IX. or X. \n\n1058. Benedict X. ; expelled. \n\n,, Nicholas II. : increased the temporal power. \n\n1061. Alexander II. : raised the papal power. \xe2\x80\x94 Hono- \nring II. \n\nX073. St. Gregory VII. (Hildebrand) : vigorous reformer ; \nopposed the emperor Henry IV. respecting in- \nvestitures ; and excommunicated him, 1076 ; re- \nstored him at Canossa, 1077; died, in exile, \n1085. \n\n1080. Clement III. (Guibert). \n\n1085. I The throne vacant one year.] \n\n1086. Victor III. (Didier) : learned. \n1088. Urban II. ; crusades commenced. \n\n1099. Pascal II. (Ranieri) : Tuscany given to the papacy \nby the countess Matilda. \n\n1118. Gelasius II. : retired to a monastery. \xe2\x80\x94 Gregory \n\nVIII. \n\n1119. Calixtus II. : settled investiture question, \nj 124. Honorius II. \n\n1130. Innocent II.: condemned heresies: held 2nd \n\nLateran council. \xe2\x80\x94 Anacktus II. \n1 138. Victor IV. \n\n1143. Celestine II. : ruled 5 months. \n\n1 144. Lucius II. : killed by accident in a popular com- \n\nmotion. \n\n\n\n1 145. Eugenius III. : ascetic. \n\n1 153. Anastasius IV. \n\n1154. Adrian IV., or Nicholas Brakespeare, the only \n\nEnglishman elected pope : born at Abbot\'s Lang- \nley, near St. Alban\'s ; Frederick I. prostrated \nhimself before him, kissed his foot, held his \nstirrup, and led the white palfrey on which he \nrode. \n\n1 159. Alexander III.: learned; canonised Thomas a \nBecket ; resisted Frederick I. ; 11 59, Victor V. ; \n1164, Pascal III.; 1168, Calistus III. ; 1178, Inno- \ncent III. \n\n1181. Lucius III. \xe2\x80\x94 The cardinals acquire power. \n\n1 185. Urban III. : opposed Frederick I. \n\n1 187. Gregory VIII. : ruled only 2 months. \n,, Clement III. : proclaimed 3rd crusade. \n\n1 191. Celestine III. \n\n1 198. Innocent III. (Lothario Conti) : endeavoured to free \nRome from foreign influence ; excommunicated \nJohn of England ; pireached crusade against the \nAlbigenses, 1204. \n\n1216. Honorius III. : learned and pious. \n\n1227. Gregory IX. : preached a new crusade ; collected \ndecretals. \n\n1241. Celestine IV. : died 18 days after his election. \n[The throne vacant 1 year and 7 months.] \n\n1243. Innocent IV. : opposed Frederick II. : gave the red \nhat to cardinals. \n\n1254. Alexander IV. : established inquisition in France. \n\n1261. Urban IV. : instituted feast of " Corpus Christi." \n\n1265. Clement IV., an enlightened Frenchman, pre- \nviously legate to England ; discouraged the \ncrusacles. \n\n1268. [The throne vacant 2 years and 9 months.] \n\n1271. Gregory X. : held a council at Lyons to reconcile \nthe churches of the east and west. \n\n1276. Innocent V. : died shortly after. \n\n,, Adrian V. : legate to England in 1254 ; died 36 days \n\nafter election. \n\xe2\x80\x9e Vicedominus : died the next day. \n\xe2\x80\x9e John XX. or XXI. : died in 8 months. \n\n1277. Nicholas III. : died in 1280. \n\n1281. Martin IV., French : supported Charles of Anjou. \n\n1285. Honorius IV. : supported the French. \n\n1288. Nicholas IV. : endeavoured to stir up a new \n\ncrusade. \n1292. [The throne vacant 2 years and 3 months.] \n1294. St. Celestine V. : ascetic ; resigned. \n,, Boniface VIII.: proclaimed that "God had set \n\nhim over kings and kingdoms : " imprisoned his \n\npredecessor ; quarrelled with Philip of France ; \n\nlaid France and Denmark under interdict. \n\n1303. Benedict XI. : a pious and liberal pontiff: said to \n\nhave been poisoned. \n\n1304. [The throne vacant 11 months.] \n\n1305. Clement V. (Bcrtrand de Got) : governed by \n\nPhilip of France ; removed the papal seat from \n\nRome to Avignon, 1309. \n1314. [The throne vacant 2 years and 4 months.] \n13 16. John XXII. \n\n1334. Benedict XII. (Nicholas V. at Rome.] \n1342. Clement VI. : learned. \n1352. Innocent VI. : favoured Rienzi. \n1362. Urban V. : charitable ; a patron of learning. \n1370. Gregory XI. : protector of learning ; restored the \n\npapal chair to Rome ; proscribed Wicklifle\'s \n\ndoctrines. \n\nSchism \xe2\x80\x94 1378-1447. \n1378. Urban VI. : so severe and cruel that the cardinals \nchose Robert of Geneva, as \n\xe2\x80\x9e Clement VII. \nT389. Boniface IX. \n\n1394. Benedict (called XIII.) at Avignon. \n1404. Innocent VII. : died in 1406. \n1406. Gregory XII. Angelo Corario. \n\n1409. Alexander V. : died, supposed by poison. \n\n1410. John XXIII. : deposed. \n1417. Martin V. Otho Colomia. \n1424. Clement VIII. : resigned 1429. \n\n1431. Eugenius IV. Gabriel Condolmera : deposed by the \ncouncil of Basil, and Amadeus of Savoy chosen \nas Felix V., in 1439, who resigned 1449. \n\n1447. Nicholas V. : learned ; proposed crusade against \nTurks. \n\n1455. Calixtus HI. Alfonso Borgia : courageous. \n\n1458 Pius II. jEneas Silvius Piccolomini : learned. \n\n1464. Paul II. Pietro Barbo : preached a crusade. \n\n\n\nPOPE. \n\n\n\n765 POPE. \n\n\n\n1471. Sixtus IV. : tried to rouse Europe against the \nTurks. \n\n1484. Innocent VIII. \n\n1492. Alexander VI. Roderic Borgia : poisoned at a feast \nby drinking of a bowl lie had prepared for \nanother. \n\n1503. Pius III. Francisco Piccolomini : 21 days pope. \n,, Julius II. Julian della Rovere : martial ; began St. \nPeter\'s. \n\n1513. Leo X. Giovanni de\' Medici : his grant of indul- \ngences for crime led to the Reformation ; patron \nof learning and art. \n\n1522. Adrian VI. : just, learned, frugal. \n\n1523. Clement VII. Giulio de\' Medici : refused to divorce \n\nCatherine of Aragon, and denounced the marriage \nof Henry VIII. with Anne Boleyn. \n\n1534. Paul III. Alexander Farnese : approved the Jesuits. \n\n1550. Julius III. Giovanni M. Giocchi. \n\n1555. Mareellus II. : died soon after his election. \n,, Paul IV. John Peter Caraffa. He would not ac- \nknowledge Elizabeth queen of England ; insti- \ntuted " the Index" (which sec), and leagued with \nFrance against Spain. \n\n1559. Pius IV. Cardinal de\' Medici: founded Vatican \npress. \n\n1566. St. Pius V. Michael Ghisleri : pious ; energetic. \n\n1572. Gregory XIII. Buoncampagno : great civilian and \ncanonist : reformed the calendar. \n\n1585. Sixtus V. Felix Peretti : an able governor ; excom. \nHenry III. and Henry IV. of France. \n\n1590. Urban VII. ; died 12 days after election. \nGregory XIV. Nicholas Sfrondrate. \n\n1591. Innocent IX. : died in two months. \n\n1592. Clement VIII. Hippolito Aldobrandini : learned \n\nand just : published the Vulgate. \n\n1605. Leo XI. : died same month. \n., Paul V. Camille Borghese ; quarrelled with Venice. \n\n1621. Gregory XV. Alexander Ludovisio : founded the \nPropaganda. \n\n1623. Urban VIII. Maffei Barberini : condemned Jan- \nsenism. \n\n16 (.4. Innocent X. John Baptist Panfili : ditto. \n\n1655. Alexander VII. Fabio Chigi : favoured literature. \n\n1667. Clement IX. Giulio Rispogliosi : governed wisely. \n\n1670. Clement X. Emilio Altieri. \n\n1676. Innocent XI. Odescalchi : condemned Gallicanism \nand Quietism. \n\n1639. Alexander VIII. Ottoboni, 6 Oct. ; helped Leopold \nagainst Turks. \n\n1691. Innocent XII. Antonio Pignatelli : 12 July; con- \ndemned Fenelon. \n\n1700. Clement XI. John Francis Albani : 23 Nov. ; issued \nthe bull Unigenitus. \n\n1721 Innocent XIII. Michael Angelo Conti : the eighth \nof his family ; 8 May ; pensioned Jas. Ed. \nStuart. \n\n1724. Benedict XIII. Orsini : 29 May; favoured J. E. \nStuart. \n\n1730. Clement XII. Orsini : 12 July; restored San Marino \n(republic). \n\n1740. Benedict XIV. Lambcrtini : 17 Aug.; learned, \namiable. \n\n1758. Clement XIII. Chas. Rezzonico : Avignon lost. \n\n1769. Clement XIV. Ganganelli : 19 May ; suppressed the \nJesuits. \n\n1775. Pius VI. Angelo Braschi, Feb. 15: dethroned by \nBonaparte ; expelled from Rome, and deposed in \nFeb. 1798 ; died at Valence, 29 Aug. 1799. \n\niSoo. Plus VII. Barnabo Chiaramonte ; elected 13 March ; \nagrees to a concordat with France, 15 July, 1801 ; \ncrowns Napoleon, 2 Dec. 1804 ; excommunicates \nhim, 10 June, 1809 ; imprisoned, 6 July, 1809; \nrestored in 1814; died, 20 Aug. 1823. (He re- \nstored the Jesuits, 1S14.) \n\n1823. Leo XII. Annibale della Genga, 28 Sept. \n\n1829. Pius VIII. Francis Xavier Castiglioni, 31 March. \n\n1831. Gregory XVI. Mauro Capellari, 2 Feb. : died, 1 June, \n1846. \n\n1846. Pius IX. Giovanni Maria Mastai-Ferretti (born 13 \nMay, 1792): elected, 16 June. See Rome, 1846-71. \n\n1848. His diplomatic relations with Great Britain au- \nthorised by parliament. \n[Act repealed, 1875.] \n\n1860-65. His powers in France greatly checked. \n\n1869. The " Late Sentential," regarding excommunica- \n\ntion and limiting absolution, signed, 12 Oct. ; \nissued, Dec. \n\n1870. TIic pope opens a general council (3 Dec. 1869), \n\n\n\nwhich propounds the doctrine of papal infalli- \nbility and list of anathemas (see Councils), Feb. ; \ndeprived of the remains of his temporal power \n(see Rome), Dec. \n\n1871. Visited by the prince and princess of Wales, 27 \n\nMarch ; celebrates a jubilee (25th anniversary \nof election), 16 June; nominates 14 Italian pre- \nlates, 24 Nov. \n\n1872. Perforins no Easter solemnities 31 March ; in hi* \n\nallocution complains of the persecution of the \nchurch in Italy, Germany, and Spain, Dec. 23. \n\n1873. Letter from the pope to the emperor of Germany \n\ncomplaining of his persecuting the bishops, ami \nasserting his authority over all baptized per- \nsons, 7 Aug. ; the emperor replies in justifica- \ntion, and asserts that there is no mediator be- \ntween God and man but Jesus Christ, 3 Sept. ; en- \ncyclical letter of the pope on wrongs of the church, \n21 Nov. ; he appoints 12 new cardinals, 22 Dec- \n\n1874. The papal nuncio expelled from Switzerland ; pro- \n\ntests by letter, 1 7 Jan. ; a bull (said to be forged), \naltering mode of electing a pope, &c, dated 28 \nMay, 1873; appears, Jan.; 3,600/. (from poor \ngirls in Great Britain) presented to the pope by \nlady Herbert of Lea, 9 April ; the pope receive* \n100 American pilgrims, 9 June ; the English un- \nofficial secretary of legation at the papal court \nwithdrawn; leaves, n Nov.; in his allocution, \nthe pope exhorts the faithful to patience, and \nforbids priests meddling with politics, 21 Dec. \n\n1875. The pope re-appears at St. Peter\'s, after four years- \n\nseclusion, 9 Feb. ; he dedicates the universa \nchurch to "the sacred heart," 16 June; his \nnuncio issues a circular against religious tolera- \ntion in Spain, Sept. ; allocution : new cardinals, \nannounced, 17 Sept. \n\n1876. Announces an exhibition of sacred objects at the- \n\nVatican (in celebration of his jubilee) on 21 May, \n1877, Aug. ; perforins a requiem for the souls of \nhis enemies, 2 Nov. ; death of his cardinal-secre- \ntary, Antonelli, 6 Nov. ; succeeded by Simeoni,. \nabout 15 Nov. \n\n1877. Creates n new cardinals, and issues a warm allo- \n\ncution against the Italian government, 12 March ; \nand circular to foreign powers, on account of the- \nbill to repress clerical abuses, 21 March; creates. \n\n3 cardinals, 22 June ; 2 cardinals, &c, 28 Dee. \nDied 7 Feb. 1878. \n\n1878. Leo XIII. Gioacehino Pecci (born 2 March, 1810); \n\nelected, 20 Feb. 1878. \nReduces his guards : holds a consistory, with an \nallocution; revives R. C. hierarchy in Scotland, \n\n4 March. \n\nPublishes encyclical endorsing policy of prede- \ncessor, but moderate, 25 April. \n\nMakes his secretary of state cardinal Franchi, 5 \nMarch ; cardinal Nina, Aug. \n\nIssues an encyclical letter condemning commun- \nism, socialism, and nihilism, as results of the \nReformation ; dated 28 Dec. \n\n1879. Appoints 10 cardinals (including J. H. Newman), \n\n12 May. \n\nIssues encyclical against modern false, philosophy ; \nrecommends Thomas Aquinas, early in Aug. \n\n1880. Issues encyclical on marriage, as a sacrament, ami \n\nagainst divorce ; published 18 Feb. \nDelivers an allocution censuring the government \n\nof Belgium (which see), and praising the bishops, \n\n20 Aug. \nCardinal Nina, secretary, resigns for bad health, \n\n13 Oct.; cardinal Jacobini successor, 17 Nov. ; \nhe resigned Dec. 1886 (died 28 Feb. 1S87). \n\n1881. Proclaims an extra jubilee for the distressed \n\nChurch, 15 May, \n\nIssues an encyclical letter, asserting that all \ngovernment is of divine origin, and that wars \nare consequences of the Reformation, July. \n\nCanonizes De Rossi and three others, 8 Dee. \n\n1882. Encyclical letter against heresy, socialism, &c. , \n\nread in London Churches, 5 Nov. \n\n1883. Circular to Irish bishops enjoining abstinence from \n\ndisaffection to the government, 11 May. \n\nLetter to president Grevy censuring the re- \npublican warfare against religion, 23 June. \n\nCourteous, firm answer delivered, 8 Aug. \n\nL?tter from the Pope defending the papacy, and \nrecommending the study of ecclesiastical history, \nSept, \n\n\n\nPOPE. \n\n\n\n766 \n\n\n\nPOPULATION. \n\n\n\nThe Pope addresses 20,000 pilgrims in St. Peter\'s, \nand recognises Italian unity, 7 Oct. \n\nVisited by the crown prince of Germany, 18 Dec. \n1884.. Encyclical letter to French bishops, commending \nearly French devotion to religion, and exhorting \nthe bishops to re-double their vigilance in regard \nto heresy and infidelity, 11 Feb. \n\nIn a letter to cardinal Jacobin! he offers 40,000?. \nto erect an hospital for cholera at Rome which \nhe would visit, 10 Sept. \n\nAllocution, 8 cardinals and many bishops \ncreated, 10 Nov. \n11885. The Pope\'s messenger, father Giulianelli, well re- \nceived by the emperor of China, April. \n\nLetter from the pope to the emperor of China, 1 \nFeb. ; reply agreeing to receive a papal agent to \nprotect R.C. missionaries, July. \n\nEncyclical letter condemning liberalism, &c. 6 Nov. \nE887. Monsignor Rampolla becomes pontifical secretary \nof state, March. \n\nAllocution 23 May. \n\nLetter from the pope asserting his territorial \nrights, 15 June. \n\nThe pope\'s jubilee (on being ordained priest 31 \nDec. 1837). \n\nThe duke of Norfolk, envoy extraordinary from \nqueen Victoria, appointed, Dec. ; received by the \npope 17 Dec. ; a massive basin and ewer of gold \npresented to the pope, 25 Dec. \na888. The pope\'s grand jubilee ; masses at St. Peter\'s : \npresent48 cardinals, 238 archbishops and bishops, \nand about 30,000 persons, 1 and 5 Jan. \n\nThe pope\'s speech demanding the independence of \nthe church, 3 Jan. \n\nThe pope condemns the plan of campaign and boy- \ncotting on moral grounds, announced 27 April. \n\nThe emperor William II. visits the pope 12 Oct. \n\nAddress of English R.C. bishops to the pope pro- \ntesting against Italian repressive legislation \nrespecting his temporal power, 10 Nov. \n1889. The pope receives French pilgrims, 20 Oct. \xe2\x80\x94 Nov. \n1850. The pope\'s encyclical letter on the moral duties of \nCatholics now much neglected, issued, 6 Jan. ; \npublished, 16 Jan. \n\nNegotiations respecting the Roman Catholics in \nMalta, between the British government and the \nliope, carried on by sir John Liutoni Simmons, \nconcluded ; he leaves Rome, 7 April. \n1891. Encyclical concerning socialism and the Labour \nquestion issued about 16 May. \n\n\n\n1892. Encyclical to the French bishops enjoining on all \ngood Catholics entire submission to the govern- \nment of the republic, 16 Feb. ; obedience enforced \nby a brief, dated 3 May. \n\nPOPE, A-, poet (1688\xe2\x80\x94 1744). His bi-centenary \nwas celebrated by an exhibition of books, pictures, \nand other relics, and a lecture by professor II. \nMorley at Twickenham Town Hall, 31 July, 1888. \n\nPOPE JOAN. It is falsely asserted that, in \nthe 9th century, a female named" Joan, having con- \nceived a passion for Felda, a young monk, in order \nto be admitted into his monastery assumed the \nmale habit, and that on the death of her lover she \nentered upon the duties of professor, and, being \nvery learned, was elected pope, when 1 eo IV. died, \nin 855. Other scandalous particulars follow, ; "yet, \nuntil the reformation, the tale was repeated "and \nbelieved without offence." Gibbon. \n\nPOPISH PLOTS, see Gunpowder Plot and \nOates\'s Plot. \n\nPOPLAE TEEES. The Tacamahac poplar \n(Populus Balsamifera) was brought hither from \nNorth America before 1692. The Lombardy poplar \nfrom Italy about 1758. \n\nPOPLIN (or Tabinet), an elegant rich fabric \ncomposed of silk and worsted, introduced by the \nHuguenot refugees from France about 1693 ; first \nmanufactured in Dublin. Irish poplins are still \ndeservedly esteemed. \n\nPOPULAE CONCEPTS, see under Music. \n\nPOPULATION". The population of the \nworld was estimated in 1869 at 1,228,000,000; \n(at- Washington, 1874), 1,391,032,000; 1882, \n1,433,887,500; 1890, 1,468,000,000 "( Havenstein) ; \n1891, 1,480,000,000 (Behm and Wagner). For the \nPopulation of Countries, see the table (after the \nPreface) facing page 1 . \n\n\n\nEurope \n\nAsia . \n\nAfrica \n\nAmerica \n\nAustralia \n\nPolynesia \n\n\n\n275,806,741 . \n\n755,000,000 . \n\n200,000,000 . \n\n67,896,041 . \n\n1,445,000 1 \n\n1,500,000 j \n\n\n\n312,39^,480 \n831,000,000 \n205,219,500 \n86,116,000 \n\n4,411,300 \n\n\n\n357,379:\xc2\xb0oo \n825,954,000 \n163.953,000 \n121,713,000 \n3,230,000 \n7,420,000 \n\n\n\nESTIMATED POPULATION OF ENGLAND AND WALES. \n\n\n\n1377 \n1483 \n1696 \nz 700 \n\n\n\nPopulation. \n\n. 5,240,000 \n\n. . 5,565,000 \n\n. 5,796,000 \n\n. 6,064,000 \n\nEstimated population of Ireland in 1652, 850,000; in 1712, 2,099,094; in 1754, 2,372,634 \n\nPOPULATION OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND BY CENSUS. \n\n(The earlier returns given below are approximate, and have been corrected in subsequent Reports.) \n\n\n\nPopulation, \n\n\n\n\n. 2,092,978 \n\n\n1710 \n\n\n. 4,689,000 \n\n\n1720 \n\n\n. 5,250,000 \n\n\n1730 \n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 5,475.ooo \n\n\n1740 \n\n\n\n1750 \n\n1760 \n\n1770 \n\n\n\nPopulation. \n. 6,467,000 \n. 6,736,000 \n. 7,428,000 \n\xe2\x80\xa2 7,953.ooo \n\n\n\nPopulation. \n\n1790 . . . 8, 67;, 000 \n\nEstimated population of \n\nScotland in 1751, \n\n1,255,663. \n\nin 1805, 5,395,456. \n\n\n\nDivision, \n\n\n1801. \n\n\n1811. \n\n\n1S21. \n\n\n1831. \n\n\n1841. \n\n\n1851. \n\n16,854,142 \n\n1,060,626 \n\n2,870,784 \n\n142,916 \n\n\n1861. \n\n\n1871. \n\n\nEngland . . . \nWales .... \nScotland . . . \nArmy, Navy, &c. \n\nTotal . . . \nIreland . . . \nIslands in Bri- ) \n\ntish seas . j" \n\n\n8,33i,434 \n\n541.546 \n\n1,599,068 \n\n470,598 \n\n\n9,551,888 \n611,788 \n\n1,805,688 \n640, 500 \n\n\n11,261,437 \n\n717,438 \n\n2,093,456 \n\n319,30\xc2\xb0 \n\n\n13,089,338 \n\n805,236 \n\n2,365,807 \n\n277,017 \n\n16,537,398 \n7>784,934 \n\n\n14,995,138 \n\n916,619 \n\n2,620,184 \n\n312,493 \n\n\n18,949,130 \n\ni,in,795 \n\n3,061.251 \n\n162,021 \n\n\n21,487,688 \n\nI,2l6,i20 \n\n3,358,613 \n\n207,198 \n\n\n10,942,646 \n\n\n12,609,864 \n5.937,856 \n\n\n1:4,391,631 \n8,175,124 \n\n\n18,844,434 \n8,175,124- \n\n\n20,936,468 \n\n6,515,794 \n\n143,126 \n\n\n23,284,197 \n\n5,764,543 \n\n143,779 \n\n\n26,269,910 \n\n5,402,759 \n\n144,430 \n\n\n27,595,388 \n\n\n29,192,419 \n\n\n3I,8l7,I0S \n\n\n\nDivision. \n\n\nYear. \n\n\nMales. \n\n\nFemales. \n\n\nInhabited Houses. \n\n\nEngland and Wales . \n\n\n1861 \n\n\n9,776,259 \n\n\n10,289,965 \n\n\n3,739,505 \n\n\n,, ,, ,, \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n1871 \n\n\n11,058,934 \n\n\nn,653,33 2 \n\n\n4,259, II 7 \n\n\n!, ,,!!\xe2\x80\xa2\xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n1881 \n\n\n12,639,902 \n\n\n13,334,537 \n\n\n4,831,519 \n\n\n!, ,, ,, \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n1891 \n\n\n14,050,620 \n\n\n14,950,398 \n\n\n5,460,976 \n\n\nScotland .... \n\n\n1861 \n\n\n1,446,982 \n\n\n1,614,269 \n\n\n393,289 \n\n\n\n\n1871 \n\n\n1,601,633 \n\n\n1,756,980 \n\n\n419,635 \n\n\nIreland \n\n\n1861 \n\n\n2,804,961 \n\n\n2,959,582 \n\n\n905,156 \n\n\n" \n\n\n1871 \n\n\n2,634,123 \n\n\n2,768,636 \n\n\n960,352 \n\n\n\nBehm and Wagner. \n\n\n\nPOPULATION. \n\n\n\n767 \n\n\n\nPOPULATION. \n\n\n\nAbstract of the Census of 4 April, 1S81, and of 5 April, 1S91 : England and Wales, 1881, 25,974,439 ; 1S91, 29,001,018. \nScotland, 1881, 3,734,370 ; 1891,4,033,103. Ireland, 188 1, 5,159,839; 1891,4,706,162. [Wales, 1881, 1,360,503; \n1891, 1,518,914.] Channel Isles, 1881, 87,702; 1891, 92,272; Isle of Man, 1881, 53,558; 1891, 55,598; total of \nthe United Kingdom, 1881, 35,246,561 ; 1891, 37,888,153. \n\n\n\nAccording to Reports published Aug., 1892: Scotland, 1881, 3, \n\n1891, 4,704,75c \n\n\n\n735,573 ; 1891, 4,025,647. Ireland, 1SS1, 5=174,236 ; \n\n\n\nPOPULATION\' OF THE PRINCIPAL TOWNS OF GREAT BRITAIN. \n\n\n\nTowns. \n\n\n1801. \n\n\n1811. \n\n\n1821. \n\n\n1831. \n\n\n1S41. \n\n\n1851. \n\n\ni86i.t \n\n\n1S71.T \n\n\n1881. \n\n\n1891. \n\n\nLondon \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nand suburbs . \n\n\n864,845 \n\n\n1,009,546 \n\n\n1,225,694 \n\n\n1,474,069 \n\n\n1,873,676 \n\n\n2,362,236* \n\n\n2,803,034 \n\n\n3,251,804 \n\n\n3,83t,i94 \n\n\n4,23i,43i \n\n\nManchester, &c. \n\n\n94,876 \n\n\n115,874 \n\n\n161,635 \n\n\n237,832 \n\n\n242,583 \n\n\n404,465 \n\n\n357,979 \n\n\n383,843 \n\n\n462,303 \n\n\n505,303 \n\n\nGlasgow, &c. . \n\n\n77.385 \n\n\n100,749 \n\n\n147,043 \n\n\n202,426 \n\n\n274.533 \n\n\n34 ,653 \n\n\n394,857 \n\n\n477,144 \n\n\n\n\n792,728 \n\n\nLiverpool . . \n\n\n79,722 \n\n\n100,240 \n\n\n131,801 \n\n\n189,244 \n\n\n286,487 \n\n\n375,955 \n\n\n443,938 \n\n\n493,346 \n\n\n552,508 \n\n\n5i7,95i \n\n\nEdinburgh, &c. \n\n\n82,560 \n\n\n102,987 \n\n\n138,235 \n\n\n162,403 \n\n\n168,182 \n\n\n193,929 \n\n\n168,098 \n\n\n196,500 \n\n\n\n\n261,261 \n\n\nBirmingham . \n\n\n73-670 \n\n\n85,753 \n\n\n106,721 \n\n\n142,251 \n\n\n182,922 \n\n\n232,841 \n\n\n296,076 \n\n\n343,696 \n\n\n400,774 \n\n\n429,171 \n\n\nLeeds, (fee. . . \n\n\n* * \n\n\n* * \n\n\n83,796 \n\n\n123,393 \n\n\n152,054 \n\n\n172,270 \n\n\n207,165 \n\n\n259,201 \n\n\n309,119 \n\n\n367,506 \n\n\nBristol, &c. \n\n\n63,645 \n\n\n76,433 \n\n\nS7>779 \n\n\n103,886 \n\n\n122,296 \n\n\n137,328 \n\n\n154,093 \n\n\n182,524 \n\n\n206,874 \n\n\n221,665 \n\n\nSheffield . \n\n\n1 * * \n\n\n* * \n\n\n69,479 \n\n\n91,602 \n\n\n111,091 \n\n\n135,310 \n\n\n185,172 \n\n\n239,947 \n\n\n284,508 \n\n\n324,243 \n\n\nPlymouth . . \n\n\n43,194 \n\n\n56,060 \n\n\n61,212 \n\n\n75,534 \n\n\n80,059 \n\n\n. 102,380 \n\n\n62,599 \n\n\n69,414 \n\n\n73,794 \n\n\n84,179 \n\n\nPortsmouth \n\n\n43,461 \n\n\n52,769 \n\n\n56,620 \n\n\n63,026 \n\n\n63,032 \n\n\n72,096 \n\n\n91,799 \n\n\n112,954 \n\n\n127,989 \n\n\n159,255 \n\n\nNorwich . \n\n\n36,832 \n\n\n37,256 \n\n\n50,288 \n\n\n61,116 \n\n\n72,344 \n\n\n68,195 \n\n\n74,891 \n\n\n80,390 \n\n\n87,842 \n\n\n100,964 \n\n\nAberdeen . . \n\n\n27,608 \n\n\n35,37\xc2\xb0 \n\n\n44,796 \n\n\n58,019 \n\n\n63,288 \n\n\n71,945 \n\n\n73,794 \n\n\n88,125 \n\n\n\n\n121,905 \n\n\nNewcastle - \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\non-Tyne \n\n\n36,963 \n\n\n36,369 \n\n\n46,948 \n\n\n57,937 \n\n\n70,860 \n\n\n87,784 \n\n\n109,108 \n\n\n128,160 \n\n\n145,359 \n\n\n186,345 \n\n\nPaisley . . \n\n\n3i,i79 \n\n\n36,722 \n\n\n47,003 \n\n\n57,466 \n\n\n60,487 \n\n\n69,951 \n\n\n47,419 \n\n\n48,257 \n\n\n\n\n66,427 \n\n\nNottingham . \n\n\n28,861 \n\n\n34,253 \n\n\n40,415 \n\n\n50,680 \n\n\n57,407 \n\n\n71-344 \n\n\n74,693 \n\n\n86,608 \n\n\n186,575 \n\n\n211,984 \n\n\nHull . \n\n\n34,964 \n\n\n32,467 \n\n\n41,874 \n\n\n49,461 \n\n\n71,629 \n\n\n84,690 \n\n\n97,661 \n\n\n123,111 \n\n\n86,502 \n\n\n95,422 \n\n\nDundee . . \n\n\n26,084 \n\n\n29,616 \n\n\n3o,575 \n\n\n45,355 \n\n\n62,794 \n\n\n77,829 \n\n\n90,425 \n\n\n118,974 \n\n\n\n\n155,640 \n\n\nBrighton . . \n\n\n7-339 \n\n\n12,012 \n\n\n24,429 \n\n\n40,634 \n\n\n46,661 \n\n\n65,573 \n\n\n87,317 \n\n\n103,760 \n\n\n107,546 \n\n\n115,402 \n\n\nBath \n\n\n3o,n3 \n\n\n32,214 \n\n\n36,811 \n\n\n38,063 \n\n\n3S,30 4 \n\n\n54,240 \n\n\n52,528 \n\n\n53,714 \n\n\n51,814 \n\n\n51,843 \n\n\nYork . . . \n\n\n23,692 \n\n\n26,422 \n\n\n29,527 \n\n\n34,46i \n\n\n38,321 \n\n\n40,359 \n\n\n45,385 \n\n\n50,761 \n\n\n61,789 \n\n\n66,984 \n\n\nPreston . \n\n\n11,887 \n\n\n17,065 \n\n\n24,575 \n\n\n33, II2 \n\n\n50,131 \n\n\n69,542 \n\n\n82,985 \n\n\n85,428 \n\n\n96,537 \n\n\n107,573 \n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Cambridge . . \n\n\n13,360 \n\n\n13,802 \n\n\n14,142 \n\n\n20,917 \n\n\n24,453 \n\n\n27,815 \n\n\n26,361 \n\n\n34,029 \n\n\n35,363 \n\n\n36,983 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Oxford . \n\n\n15,124 \n\n\n15,337 \n\n\n16,364 \n\n\n20,432 \n\n\n23,834 \n\n\n27,843 \n\n\n27,560 \n\n\n34,5M \n\n\n40,872 \n\n\n45,74i \n\n\n\nIn 1S51, 1,106,558 males, and 1,255,678 females. t 1S61 and 1871 : parliamentary limits of the boroughs. \n\n\n\n[The returns for 1S91 are taken from the Preliminary Report of the census.] \n\n\n\nDublin, 18S1, \n\n\n\n249,602 ; 1891, 254,709. \nWaterford, 1891, 21,6 \n\n\n\nIreland. \nBelfast, 1881, 208,122; 1891, \n13. Londonderry, 1891, 32,89 \n\n\n\n255,896. Cork, iS \n. Limerick, 1801 \n\n\n\n,124; 1891, 75,070. \n\n\n\nPOPULATION OF THE CHIEF CITIES OF THE WORLD. \n\n\n\nFrom latest returns in " AlnutiUKh de Gotlw," etc. \n\n\n\nCities. \nAdelaide, .1891 . \nAlexandria, Egypt, \nAmsterdam, 1890 \nAntwerp, 1890 . \nAthens, 1889 \nBaltimore, U.S., 18 \nBarcelona, 1887 \nBasle, 1888 \nBelgrade, 1890 \nBerlin, 1890 \nBerne, 1888 \nBologna, 1890 \nBombay, 1891 \nBordeaux, 1891 \nBoston, U.S., 1 \nBremen, 1890 \nBreslau, 1890 \nBrooklyn, 1890 \nBrussels, 1S90 \nBuda-Pesth, 1890 \nBuffalo, 1890 \nCadiz, 1887 \nCairo, 1883 \nCalcutta, 1891 \nCanton, 1890 \nChicago, 1890 \nChristiania, 1891 \nCincinnati, 189a \nCleveland, 1890 \nCologne, 1890 \nConstantinople, 188 \nCopenhagen, 1890 \nDresden, 1890 \nFlorence, 1890 . \nFnvnkfort-on-Main, \n\n\n\n[88 : \n\n\n\nInhabitants. \n133,220 \n227,064 \n\n417,539 \n227,225 \n107,846 \n\n434,439 \n\n272,481 \n\n69,809 \n\n54,458 \n\n1,579,244 \n\n46,009 \n\n143,607 \n\n804.470 \n\n238,899 \n\n448,477 \n\n125,684 \n\n335,174 \n806,343 \n182,305 \n506,384 \n255,664 \n\n62,531 \n\n368,10s \n\n840,130 \n\nabout 1,600,000 \n\n1,099,850 \n\n150,444 \n\n\n\n261,353 \n281,273 \n873,565 \n375,251 \n276,085 \n191,453 \n179,850 \n\n\n\n1890 \n\n\n\nCities. \n\nGeneva, 1888 \nGenoa, 1890 \nGhent, 1890 \nHague, 1890 \nHamburg, 1890 . \nHanover, 1890 . \nKonigsberg, 1890 \nLeipsic, 1890 \nLiege, 1890. \nLille, 1891 . \nLima, 1876 \nLisbon, 18S5 \nLubcek, 1890 \nLyons, 1891 \nMadras, 1891 \nMadrid, 1887 \nMalaga, i83 7 \nMarseilles, 1891 . \nMelbourne, 1891 \nMessina, 1890 \nMexico, 1888 \nMilan, iSco \nMontreal, 1881 . \nMoscow, 1885 \nMunich, 1890 \nNankin, estimated \nNantes, 1891 \nNaples, 1890 \nNew Orleans. 1890 \nNew York, 1890 . \nOdessa, 1885 \nOporto, 1878 \nPalermo, 1S90 . \nParis, &c, 1891 . \nPekin, 1874 \n\n\n\nInhabitants. \n\n\nCities. I \n\n\nihabiiants \n\n\n71,807 \n\n\nPhiladelphia, 1890 \n\n\n1,046,964 \n\n\n\n\n206,485 \n\n\nPittsburg, i3go . \n\n\n238,617 \n\n\n\n\n153,740 \n\n\nPrague, 1890 \n\n\n184,109 \n\n\n\n\n160,531 \n\n\nQnebec, 1891 \n\n\n63,090 \n\n\n\n\n323,923 \n\n\nKio Janeiro, 1S90 \n\n\n500,000 \n\n\n\n\n165,499 \n\n\nRome, 1890 \n\n\n423,217 \n\n\n\n\n161,528 \n\n\nRotterdam, 1890 \n\n\n209,136 \n\n\n\n\n353,272 \n\n\nRouen, 1891 \n\n\n109,541 \n\n\n\n\n149,789 \n\n\nSan Francisco, 1890 . \n\n\n298,997 \n\n\n\n\n200,935 \n\n\nSantiago, 18S5 \n\n\n189,332 \n\n\n\n\n101,488 \n\n\nSeville, 18S7 \n\n\n143,182 \n\n\n\n\n243,010 \n\n\nSmyrna, 1SS5 \n\n\n186,510 \n\n\n\n\n63,590 \n\n\nStockholm, 1890 \n\n\n246,154 \n\n\n\n\n403,322 \n\n\nSt. Etienne, 1891 \n\n\n133,443 \n\n\n\n\n449,95o \n\n\nSt. Louis, 1890 . \n\n\n451,770 \n\n\n\n\n470,283 \n\n\nSt. Petersburg, 1S85 . \n\n\n861,303 \n\n\n\n\n134,106 \n\n\nStuttgart, 1890 . \n\n\n139,659 \n\n\n\n\n375,378 \n\n\nSydney, 1891 \n\n\n386,400 \n\n\n\n\n491,378 \n\n\nTeheran, estimated . \n\n\n210,000 \n\n\n\n\n142,000 \n\n\nTien-tsin, 1S87 . \n\n\n950,000 \n\n\n\n\n350,000 \n\n\nTokio, 1887. \n\n\n1,552,457 \n\n\n\n\n414,551 \n\n\nToronto, 1S91 \n\n\n181,220 \n\n\n\n\n140,747 \n\n\nToulouse, 1891 . \n\n\n148,220 \n\n\n\n\n753,469 \n\n\nTunis, estimated \n\n\n150,000 \n\n\n\n\n348,377 \n\n\nTurin, 1890 \n\n\n320,80s \n\n\n\n\nr, 000,000 \n\n\nUpsal, 1890 \n\n\n21,5" \n\n\n\n\n121,054 \n\n\nUtrecht, 1890 \n\n\n86,116 \n\n\n\n\n530,872 \n\n\nValencia, 1887 . \n\n\n170,763 \n\n\n\n\n242,039 \n\n\nValparaiso, 1885 \n\n\n104,952 \n\n\n\n\n1,515,301 \n\n\nVenice, 1830 \n\n\n158,019 \n\n\n\n\n240,000 \n\n\nVienna, 1890 \n\n\n1,364,548 \n\n\n\n\n105,838 \n\n\nWarsaw, 1890 \n\n\n443,426 \n\n\n\n\n267,416 \n\n\nWashington, U.S., i3;o \n\n\n230,392 \n\n\n\n\n2,423,946 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1,648,814 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nPORCELAIN. \n\n\n\n768 \n\n\n\nPORTLAND ISLE. \n\n\n\nPORCELAIN, see Pottery. \n\nPORPHYROGENITITS, "bom in the pur- \nple," a term applied to emperors of the east, born \nwhile their fathers were reigning. \n\nPORT BRETON, an isle near New Caledonia, \n\nSouth Pacific. \n\nIn 1877 the marquis Du Breil de Rays purchased of the \nking Maragano a quantity of land on which to found \na colony. Glowing prospectuses were issued in \nFrance, a company was formed, and, the scheme being \nfavoured by the legitimists, a large number of shares \nwere purchased and much money received. Other \nspeculating companies were formed, and colonial \ngovernment officers nominated. In spite of warning \nand prohibition several vessels sailed in 1879 with \nemigrants to meet with misery, disease, and, to a \nlarge extent, with death. A few who had been landed \nin New Caledonia got back to France and published \nan account of their sufferings. The marquis and some \nof his associates were brought to trial 27 Nov. \n1883 ; he was sentenced to four years\' imprisonment \nand a fine of 3000 francs his associates to shorter im- \nprisonment, 2 Jan. 1884; on appeal, sentence con- \nfirmed, 14 March, 1S84. \n\nPORTE, or Sublime Porte, official name \n\nof the court of the sultan of Turkey. Mostasem, \nthe last of the Abbasside caliphs (1243-58), fixed in \nthe threshold of the principal entrance to his palace \nat Bagdad a piece of the black stone adored at \nMecca, and thus this entrance became the " porte " \nby eminence, and the title of his court. The sul- \ntans, successors of the caliphs, assumed the title. \n\xe2\x80\x94 Jlou\'dlct, \n\nPORTEOL S MOB. Capt. Porteous, at Edin- \nburgh, on 15 April, 1736, commanded the guard at \nthe execution of Wilson, a smuggler, who had \nsaved the life of a fellow criminal, by springing \nupon the soldiers around them, and by main force \nkeeping them back, while his companion fled. This \nexcited great commiseration, and the spectators \npelted the guard with stones. Fearing a rescue, \nPorteous ordered his men to fire upon the mob, and \nseventeen persons were killed or wounded. He \nwas found guilty of murder, 22 June, 1736; but the \nqueen granted him a reprieve (the king being then in \nHanover). The people, at night, broke open the \nprison, took out Porteous, and hanged him on a \ndyer\'s sign-post, in the Grass-market, 7 Sept. 1736. \nNone of the rioters were ever detected. \n\nPORTER. Dr. Ashe says that this beverage \nobtained its appellation on account of its having \nbeen drunk by porters in the city of London, about \n1730.* The number of licensed brewers in 1850, \nin England, was 2257; in Scotland, 154; and in \nIreland, 96\xe2\x80\x94 total, 2507. On 17 Oct. 1814, at Meux\'s \nbrewhouse two large vats of porter burst, destroy- \ning neighbouring houses. Several lives were lost ; \nand the loss was between 8000 and 9000 barrels. \n\nChief Brewers. In 1760. Barrels. \n\nCalvert & Co. brewed 74.734 \n\nWhitbread. . 63,408 \n\nTruman 60,140 \n\nSir William Calvert .- . 52,785 \n\nGifford & Co 41,410 \n\n\n\n* The malt liquors previously in use were ale, beer, \nand twopenny, and it was customary to call for a pint or \ntankard of half-and-half,\xe2\x80\x94 i.e., half of ale, and half of \nbeer. In the course of time it also became the practice \nto ask for a pint of three-thirds, meaning a third of ale, \nbeer, and twopenny. To avoid trouble, Harwood, a \nbrewer, made a liquor which partook of the united \nflavours of ale, beer, and twopenny, calling it entire, or \nentire butt beer, meaning that it was drawn entirely \nfrom one cask or butt. Being relished by porters and \nother wo.\'king people, it obtained its name of porter, \nand was first retailed at the " Blue Last," Curtain-road. \n\xe2\x80\x94Leigh. \n\n\n\nChief Brewers. In 1760. Barrels. \n\nLady Parsons 34>\xc2\xb0Q8 \n\nThrale 3\xc2\xb0>74\xc2\xb0 \n\nHuck & Co 29,615 \n\nHarman 28,017 \n\nMeux & Co 10,012 \n\nIn 1815. \n\nBarclay & Perkins 337,621 \n\nMeux,\'Reid, & Co 282,104 \n\nTruman, Hanbury, <fc Co. . . . . 272,162 \n\nWhitbread & Co. 261,018 \n\nHenry Meux & Co 229,100 \n\nF. Calvert & Co 219,333 \n\nCombe, Delafield, & Co 105,081 \n\nIn 1840. \n\nBarclay, Perkins, and Co 361, 3 21 \n\nTruman, Hanbury, &; Co 263,235 \n\nWhitbread & Co 218,828. \n\nKeid and Co 196,442 \n\nCombe, Delafield, & Co 177,542 \n\nFelix Calvert & Co 136,387 \n\nSir Henry Meux & Co "6,547 \n\nPORTERAGE ACT, regulating the charge for \nporterage of small parcels, passed 1799- \n\nPORT HAMILTON, see Corca. \n\nPORT JACKSON (New South Wales), thir- \nteen miles north of Botany Bay, was so named by \ncapt. Cook in 1 770; see Sydney. Here the duke- \nof Edinburgh was shot by O\'Farrell, a Fenian, \n12 March, 1868, but soon recovered. The assassin \nwas hanged, 21 April. \n\nPORTLAND ADMINISTRATIONS. \n\nThe first was the " Coalition ministry," of which \nWilliam Henry Cavendish, duke of Portland,* as \nfirst lord of the treasury, was the head. It obtained \nthe name of the "Coalition" ministry, and in- \ncluded, lord North with Mr. Fox, formerly in- \nveterate opponents. Formed 5 April, 1783 ; dis- \nsolved by Mr. Titt\'s coming into power, Dec. same \nyear. \n\nFIEST ADMINISTRATION. \n\nDuke of Portland, first lord of the treasury. \n\nViscount Stormont, president of the council. \n\nEarl of Carlisle, privy seal. \n\nFrederick, lord North, and Charles James Fox, home and \n\nforeign secretaries. \nLord John Cavendish, chancellor of the exchequer. \nViscount Keppel, admiralty. \nViscount Townshend, ordnance. \nLord Loughborough, chief commissioner of great seal. \nCharles Townshend, Edmund Burke, Richard Fitz- \n\npatrick, Richard B. Sheridan, &e. \n\nSECOND ADMINISTRATION, 25 March, 1807. \n\nEarl Camden, lord president. \n\nLord Eldon, lord chancellor. \n\nEarl of Westmorland, lord privy seal. \n\nHon. Spencer Perceval, lord Hawkesbury (afterwards earl \n\nof Liverpool), Mr. Canning, and viscount Castlereagh \n\n(afterwards marquis of Londonderry), home, foreign, and! \n\ncolonial secretaries. \nEarl Bathurst and Mr. Dundas, boards of trade and \n\ncontrol. \nLord Mulgrave, admiralty. \nEarl of Chatham, ordnance. \n\nPORTLAND CEMENT, first mentioned in \na patent granted to Joseph Aspden, a bricklayer of \nLeeds, 1824. His son made the true cemeut at \nNorthfleet. Its value as a building material was \nestablished by Mr. John Grant\'s tests, 1859-71. \nPortland cement concrete was used by Mr. E. A. \nBernay in 1867. \n\nPORTLAND ISLE (off Dorset), the English \nGibraltar. Fortified before 1142. Portland castle- \nwas built by Henry VIII. about 1536. Off this \npeninsula a naval engagement commenced between \n\n* Bom 1738; became lord chamberlain, 1765; lord \nlieutenant of Ireland, 1782; premier, 1783; home secre- \ntary, 1794; lord president, 1801 ; premier again, 1807; \ndied, 1809; when Mr. Spencer Perceval became premier. \n\n\n\nPORTLAND. \n\n\n\nF69 \n\n\n\nPORTSMOUTH. \n\n\n\nthe English and Dutch, 18 Feb. 1653, which con- \ntinued for three days. The English destroyed \neleven Dutch men-of-war and thirty merchantmen. \nVan Tromp was admiral of the Dutch, and Blake of \nthe English. \xe2\x80\x94 Here is found the noted freestone \nused for building our finest edifices. The Portland \nlights were erected 17 16 and in 1789. The pier, \nwith nearly half a mile square of land, was washed \ninto the sea hi Feb. 1792. Prince Albert laid the \nfirst stone of the Portland breakwater, 25 July, \n1849, and the last stone was laid by the prince of \nWales, 10 Aug. 1872. Mr. James Rendel, the first \nchief engineer, was succeeded on his death in 1856 \nby Mr. (aft. sir) John Coode. The breakwater and \nother harbour works cost 1,033,600/. exclusive of \nconvict labour. The Portland prison was established \nin 1848. A mutiny among the convicts here in \nSept. 1858, was promptly suppressed. \n\nPORTLAND (or Babbeeixi) VASE. This \nbeautiful specimen of Greek art (composed of a \nglass-like substance, with figures and devices raised \non it in white enamel ; height 10 mches ; diameter \nin the broadest part, 7 ; with a handle on each \nside) was discovered about the middle of the 16th \ncentury, in a marble sarcophagus in a sepulchre at \na place called Monte del Grano, about 2\\ miles \nfrom Pome. The sepulchre was supposed to have \nbeen that of the Roman emperor, Alexander Se- \nverus (222-235), aiw his mother Mammaea, and the \nvase is supposed to have been the cinerary urn of \none of these royal personages. It was placed in the \npalace of the Barberini family, at Rome, where it \nremained till 1770, when it was purchased by sir \n"William Hamilton, from whose possession it passed \nto that of the duchess of Portland, 1787; at the \nsale of her effects, it is said to have been bought \nby the then duke of Portland, who, in 1810, de- \nposited it (on loan) hi the British Museum. On \n27 Feb. 1845, this vase was smashed to pieces with \na stone by a man named "William Lloyd ; it has \nbeen skilfully repaired, and is now shown to the \npublic in a special room. Josiah "Wedgwood made \na mould of it, and took a number of casts. \n\nPORT MAHON, see Minorca. \n\nPORTO BELLO (S. America), discovered by \nColumbus, 2 Nov. 1502, was taken by Morgan the \nBuccaneer hi 1668 ; by the British under admiral \nVernon, from the Spaniards, 21 Nov. 1739, and the \nfortifications destroyed. Before the abolition of the \ntrade by the galleons, in 1748, it was the great mart \nfor the rich commerce of Peru and Chili. \n\nPORTO FERRAJO, capital of Elba {which \nsee); built and fortified by Cosmo I. duke of \nFlorence, in 1548. The fortifications were not \nfinished till 1628, when Cosmo II. completed them \nwith great magnificence ; see France. \n\nPORTO NOVO (S. India). Here sir Eyre \nCoote, with about 9500 men and 55 light field- \npieces, skilfully defeated Hyder Ali, ruler of the \nCamatic, with 80,000 men and some heavy cannon, \nI July, 1 781. Hyder lost about 10,000, the British \n587 killed and wounded. POETO NOVO, W. \nAfrica, a French settlement on the coast of Daho- \nmey, which sac (1890 et scq.). \n\nPORTO RICO, a West India island, belong- \ning to Spain ; discovered by Columbus in 1493. \nAttacks on it by Drake and Hawkins repulsed, \n1595. Revolt suppressed, 1823. Slavery abolished, \n23 March, 1873. \n\nPORT PHILLIP (New S. Wales), original \nname of the colony of Victoria (xchiclt sec). \n\n\n\nPORTRAIT GALLERY, &c, see National \nPortrait Gallery, and Composite Portraits. \nThe, Society of Portrait Painters held its first exhi- \nbition at the Institute of Painters in Water \nColours in Piccadilly, July 1891. The society \nincludes the most eminent artists. Second exhi- \nbition June, 1892 \n\nThe formation of a " Britisli Museum of Portraits " \n(photographs), was proposed by Mr. James \nGlaisher in 1864, and partly begun. The under- \ntaking resumed mainly by the exertions of Mr. \nGlaisher and the Amateur Photographic Associa- \ntion, and a collection of portraits deposited in \nthe art department at South Kensington museum, \n\nJuly, i8gt \nPORTREEVE (derived from Saxon words \nsignifying the governor of a port or harbour) . The \nchief magistrate of London was originally so styled ; \nbut Richard I. appointed two bailiffs and afterwards \nLondon had mayors. Camden ; see Mayors. \n\nPORT ROYAL (N. America), capital of the \nFrench colony, Acadie, founded in 1604; after \nhaving been taken and restored several times, it was \nfilially acquired by the British iu 1710, and named \nAnnapolis. \n\nPORT ROYAL (Jamaica), once a consider- \nable town, was destroyed by earthquakes in 1602 \nand 1692; laid in ashes by tire in 1702; reduced to \nruins by an inundation of the sea in 1722 ; and \ndestroyed by a hurricane in 1774. After these \ncalamities, the custom-house and public offices were \nremoved to Kingston. Port Royal was again greatly \ndamaged by fire in 1 750; by another awful stomi \n111 1784 ; and by a devastating fire in July, 1815 ; \nin 1850 it suffered by cholera. \n\nPORT ROYAL DES Champs (near Paris) \nwas a French Cistercian convent, founded by Odo, \nbishop of Paris, at the wish of king Philip Augus- \ntus, 1204. Having fallen into decay, it was revived \nand reformed hi 1608 by Angelica Amauld. In \n1625 the increased community removed to Paris. \nThe Port Royal des Champs,\' in 1656, became the \nretreat of the Arnaulds, Tillemont, Pascal, Lance- \nlot, and other eminent Jansenists, who devoted \nthemselves to education, and produced the Port \nRoyal grammars, logic, and other works. This \ninstitution was condemned by the pope iu 1709, \nand the buildings were pulled down, and tombs \ndesecrated, by the order of Louis XIV., in 1710. \nThe Port Royal at Paris was suppressed, with other \nmonasteries, in 1790. \n\nPORTSMOUTH (Hampshire), the most con- \nsiderable haven for men-of-war, and most strongly \nfortified place in England. The dock, arsenal, and \nstorehouses were established in the reign of Henry \nVIII. See Population. \n\nThe French under D\'Annebaut attempted to destroy \nPortsmouth, but were defeated by viscount Lisle, \nin the then finest war-ship in the\' world, the Great \n\nHarry IS4 5 \n\nHere George Villiers, duke of Buckingham, was \n\nassassinated by Felton ... 23 Aug. 1628 \n\nAdmiral Byng (see Byng) on a very dubious sen- \ntence was shot at Portsmouth . . 14 March, 1757 \nThe dockyard was fired, the loss estimated at \n\n400,000? \'3 July, 1760 \n\nAnother lire occasioned loss of 100,000?. 27 July, 1770 \n[The French were suspected both times, but there \n\nwas no actual proof.] \nFire caused by James Aitken (John the Painter) \n\n7 Dec. 1776; executed . . . . 10 March, 1777 \nRoyal George {which see) sunk . . 29 Aug. 1782 \nGrand naval mock engagement and parade of the \nfleet, the king being present, 22 to 25 June, 1773, \n\nand 30 June, 1794 \n\nAnother great fire occurred . . . . 7 Dec. 177c \nThe king of the French with a fleet arrives at \nPortsmouth, sec France . . . 6 Oct. iGn. \n\n\n\nPORTUGAL. \n\n\n\n770 \n\n\n\nPORTUGAL. \n\n\n\nA great naval review was held near Portsmouth on \n\n25 April, 1856 \nVisited by a French fleet amid great rejoicings, \n\n29 Aug.-i Sept. 1865 \nEaster Monday volunteer review, &c, very successful \n\n13 April, 1868 \nNaval review at Spithead before the shah of Persia. \n\n23 June, 1873 \nExplosion at Priddy\'s Hard ; 5 killed . 5 May 18S3 \n\nSee Navy of England, 1887, 1889, 1890, 1891. \nThe emperor William II. visited Portsmouth, 5 \n\nAug. 1889, and 6 Aug. 1890 \n\nThe prince of Wales opens the new town-hall \n\n9 Aug. ,, \nThe Amphitheatre music-hall burnt (cost, 10,000/.) \n\n25 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe Royal Arthur and the Eoyal Sovereign launched \n\nby the queen, see Navy ... 26 Feb. 1891 \nVisit of the French fleet, see France . 19-26 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPORTUGAL, the ancient Lusitania. The pre- \nsent name is derived from Porto Callo, the original \nappellation of Oporto. After a nine years\' struggle, \nunder Yiriathes, a brave able leader, the Lusi- \ntanians submitted to the Roman arms about 137 B.C. \nPortugal underwent the same changes as Spain on \nthe fall of the Roman empire. There are in \nPortugal two universities, that of Coimbra, founded \nin 1308, and the smaller one of Evora, founded in \n1533. Lisbon has also its royal academy, and the \nsmall town of Thomar has an academy of sciences ; \nbut, in general, literature is at a low ebb in \nPortugal. The poet Camoens, called the Virgil \nof his country, and author of the Lusiad (1569), \ntranslated into English by Mickle, was a native of \nLisbon. Population of the kingdom and colonies, \n3iDec.l863, 8,037,194; in 1872, kingdom 011 the con- \ntinent, with Madeira and Azores, 4,390,589; colonies, \n3,258,140 ; in 1878, kingdom and colonies, 8,031,831 ; \n1881, kingdom, 4,708,178. Estimated revenue, \n1890-1, 8,817,040/.; expenditure, 9,574,150?. The \nconstitution granted in 1826 was revised in 1852. \nSettlement of the Alains and Visigoths here . . 472 \n\nConquered by the Moors 713 \n\nThe kings of Asturias subdue some Saracen chiefs, \n\nand Alfonso III. establishes bishops . . . 900 \nThe Moors, conquered by Alfonso VI. the Valiant, of \nCastile, assisted by many other princes and volun- \nteers ; Henry of Besancon (a relative of the duke \nof Burgundy and king of France), very eminent ; \nAlfonso bestowed upon him Theresa, his natural \ndaughter, and Portugal as her marriage portion, \nwhich he was to hold of him as count . . . 1095 \nAlfonso Henriquez defeats live Moorish kings, and \n\nproclaimed king ; see Owrique . . 25 July, 1139 \nAssisted by a fleet of Crusaders on their way to the \nHoly Land, he takes Lisbon from the Moors, \n\n25 Oct. 1 147 \nPart of Algarve taken from the Moors by Sancho I. 1189 \nReign of Dionysius I. or Denis, father of his coun- \ntry, who builds 44 cities or towns in Portugal . 1279 \nUniversity of Coimbra founded .... 1308 \nMilitary orders of Christ and St. James instituted, \n\n1279 and 1325 \n\nIiies de Castro murdered 1355 \n\nJohn I., surnamed the Great, carries his arms into \n\nAfrica 1415 \n\nMaritime discoveries 1419-30 \n\nMadeira and the Canaries seized .... 1420 \n\nCode of laws digested 1425 \n\nLisbon made the capital .... about 1433 \nPrince Henry, the navigator, dies .... 1460 \nPassage to the East Indies by the Cape of Good \nHope discovered by Vasco de Gama . 20 Nov. 1497 \n\nDiscovery of the Brazils 1499 \n\nBrazil discovered by Cabral .... April, 1500 \nCamoens, author of the Lusiad, born . about 1520 \n\nThe Inquisition established 1526 \n\nUniversity of Evora founded . . . 1451 or 1533 \n\nAfrican expedition ; king Sebastian defeated and \n\nslain in the battle of Alcazar . . . 4 Aug. 1578 \nThe kingdom seized by Philip II. of Spain . . . 1580 \nThe Dutch seize the Portuguese settlements in India, \n\n1602-20 \n\n\n\nThe Portuguese throw off the yoke, and place John, \nduke of Braganza, on the throne . . Dec. \n\nThe Portuguese defeat the Spaniards at Villa Viciosa, \n1665 ; war ended by the treaty of Lisbon . \n\nMethuen treaty {which see) \n\nThe great earthquake destroys Lisbon . 1 Nov. \n\nJoseph I. narrowly escapes death by assassins \n\n[Some of the first families were tortured to death ; \ntheir very names being forbidden to be mentioned ; \nthe innocence of many was soon afterwards made \nmanifest ; the Jesuits were also expelled.] \n\nJoseph, having no son, obtains a dispensation from \nthe pope to enable his daughter and brother to \nintermarry, which took place . . 6 June, \n\nThe Spaniards and French invade Portugal, which \nis saved by the English . . .1 762 and \n\nJohn, prince of Brazil, marries his aunt, Maria \nFrancesea \n\nRegency of John (afterwards king), owing to the \nlunacy of queen Maria \n\nWar with Spain, 3 March ; peace . . 6 June, \n\nTreaty between France and Spain for the partition \nof Portugal, Oct. ; French invasion ; Junot arrives \nat Lisbon, 27 Nov. ; the court sail for Brazil, \n\n29 Nov. \n\nRise of the Portuguese ; several times defeated, \nJune and July ; arrival of Wellington at Oporto, \nJuly; he defeats Junot at Vimiera, 21 Aug.; con- \nvention of Cintra confirmed . . 30 Aug. \n\nOporto taken by Soult ... 29 March, \n\nAlmeida taken by Massena ... 27 Aug. \n\nMassena defeated at Busaco . . 27 Sept. \n\nWellington secures the lines of Torres Vedras Oct. \n\nMassena defeated at Fuentes de Onoro ; retreats, \n\n5 May, \n\nThe British parliament grants the sufferers by war \nin Portugal ioo,ooo\xc2\xa3. \n\nPortugal cedes Guiana to France .... \n\nUnion of Portugal and Brazil \n\nRevolution begins in Oporto ... 29 Aug. \n\nConstitutional Junta established . . 1 Oct. \n\nReturn of the court 4 July, \n\nIndependence of Brazil ; the prince regent made \nemperor; see Brazil 12 Oct. \n\nThe king modifies the constitution . . 5 June, \n\nDisturbances at Lisbon ; Miguel departs 1-9 May, \n\nTreaty with Brazil 29 Aug. \n\nDeath of John VI 10 March, \n\nDom Pedro grants a constitutional charter, and con- \nfirms the regency 26 April, \n\nHe relinquishes the throne in favour of his daughter, \nDonna Maria da Gloria . . . .2 May, \n\nMiguel takes oath of fealty at Vienna . 4 Oct. \n\nMarquis of Chaves\' insurrection at Lisbon in favour \nof Dom Miguel 6 Oct. \n\nDom Miguel and Donna Maria betrothed 29 Oct. \n\nPortugal solicits the assistance of Great Britain, \n3 Dec. ; departure of the first British auxiliary \ntroops for Portugal . . . . .17 Dec. \n\nBank of Lisbon stops payment . . 7 Dec. \n\nDom Miguel made regent ; he arrives in London, 30 \nDec. 1827; takes the oath at Lisbon 22 Feb. \n\nThe British armament quits Portugal, 28 April; \nforeign ministers withdraw ... 3 May, \n\nSir John Doyle, a partisan of Donna Maria, arrested, \n\n13 June, \n\nDom Miguel assumes the title of king . 4 July, \n\nHe dissolves the three estates . . .12 July, \n\nHis troops take Madeira ... 24 Aug. \n\nRelease of sir John Doyle .... 7 Sept. \n\nThe queen Donna Maria arrives in London 6 Oct. \n\nMiguel\'s expedition against Tcrccira defeated, \n\n11 Aug. \n\nDuke of Palmella appointed regent . March, \n\nDom Pedro arrives in England . . .16 June, \n\nInsurrection in Portugal in favour of the queen ; \nmore than 300 lives lost . . . 21 Aug. \n\nDom Pedro\'s expedition sail from Belle-isle, 9 Feb. ; \nat Terceira proclaims himself regent, 2 April ; \ntakes Oporto S July, \n\nThe Miguelites attack Oporto and are defeated \nwith considerable loss on both sides 19 Sept. \n\nMount Cavello taken .... 9 April, \n\nAdmiral Napier takes Dom Miguel\'s squadron oil\' \nCape St. Vincent 5 July, \n\nLisbon evacuated by the duke of Cadaval; the \nqueen proclaimed, 24 July ; enters Lisbon, \n\n22 Se2it. \n\n\n\n1640 \n\n166S \n1703 \n1755 \n1758 \n\n\n\n17C0 \n!7 6 3 \n1777 \n\n\n\n1S14 \n1815 \n1820 \n\n\n\n1024 \n1825 \n1826 \n\n\n\n1827 \n1S2S \n\n\n\n1S29 \n1830 \n1S31 \n\n\n\n!8 3 2 \n1833 \n\n\n\nPOETUGAL. \n\n\n\n771 \n\n\n\nPOETUGAL. \n\n\n\nAfter various conflicts Dom Miguel capitulates to \nthe Pedroites, and Santarem surrenders, 26 May ; \nDom Miguel embarks at Evora for Genoa, 31 May, 1834 \nMassacres take place at Lisbon . . .9 June, ,, \nThe Cortes declare the queen of age . 15 Sept. ,, \n\nDom Pedro dies 24 Sept. ,, \n\nOporto wine company abolished . . . ,, \n\nPrince Augustus (duke of Leuchtenberg) prince con- \nsort; married, 1 Dec. 1834; dies . 28 March, 1835 \nThe queen marries Ferdinand of Saxe Coburg, \n\n9 April, 1836 \nRevolution at Lisbon .... 9 Aug. ,, \nAnother outbreak there . . . .8 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe duke of Terceira attempts to restore Dom \n\nPedro\'s charter 18 Aug. 1837 \n\nHe and Saldanha fail, and embark for England, \n\n18 Sept. ,, \nOporto wine company re-established . 7 April, 1838 \nThe northern province in a state of insurrection \n\nabout this time 20 April, 1846 \n\nThe duke of Palmella resigns . . .31 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nAction at Evora, the queen\'s troops defeat the in- \nsurgent forces 31 Oct. ,, \n\nBritish squadron under admiral Parker arrives in \nthe Tagus, at the queen\'s request . 31 Oct. ,, \n\nPalmella banished 26 Nov. ,, \n\nMarquis of Saldanha defeats count Bomnnn at \n\nTorres Vedras 22 Dec. , \n\nThe insurgents enter Oporto . . .7 Jan. 1847 \nLondon conference : England, Prance, and Spain \ndetermine to assist the queen of Portugal to ter- \nminate the civil war . . . .21 May, ,, \nSubmission of Sa. da Bandeira . . 11 June, ,, \nA Spanish force enters Oporto, and the Junto capi- \ntulates 26 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAn American squadron in the Tagus to enforce \n\nclaims against the Portuguese . 22 June, 1850 \n\nMilitary insurrection, headed by the duke of Sal- \ndanha, who, being outstripped in his march on \nSantarem by the king of Portugal, flees northward \n\n10 April, 1851 \nOporto declares for the duke, who had left the city \nfor Vigo to embark for England ; but is called \nback by the insurgents . . .24 April, ,, \nSaldanha\'s entry into Oporto . . 29 April. ,, \n\nThe conde de Thomar, prime minister, resigns ; \n\narrives in England .... 16 May, ,, \nSaldanha, prime minister . . . .23 May, ,, \nDom Miguel marries the princess Adelaide of \n\nLowenstein-Rosenberg ... 24 Sept. ,, \nRevision of the charter by the Cortes sanctioned by \nthe queen ; the prince royal takes the oath to \n\nthe constitution 18 July, 1852 \n\nConversion of the public debt . . 18 Dec. ,, \nDeath of the queen Maria II. . . . 15 Nov. 1853 \nKing-consort recognised as regent . 19 Dec. ,, \n\nThe young king visits England . . . June, 1854 \nThe slaves on royal domains freed . 30 Dec. ,, \nThe king visits France .... May, 1855 \nInauguration of the king . . . 16 Sept. ,, \nResignation of Saldanha ministry . . 5 June, 1856 \nFirst Portuguese railway (from Lisbon to Santarem) \n\nopened 26 Oct. ,, \n\nFever rages in Lisbon ; the king very active in \n\nrelieving the sufferers . . Oct. and Nov. 1857 \nThe French emigrant ship for negroes, Charles-et- \n\nGeorges, seized ..... 29 Nov. ,, \nAnger of the French government ; its ultimatum \nsent, 13 Oct. ; and ships of war to the Tagus; the \nvessel restored (see Charles-et-Georges) . 25 Oct. 1858 \nDeath of the duke of Terceira, prime minister, \nApril 26 ; succeeded by the senhor Aguiar, May 2, \n\nwho resigns 2 July, i860 \n\nDeath of the king, Pedro V. ; succeeded by his \n\nbrother the duke of Oporto . . . n Nov. 1861 \nDeath of John, the king\'s brother . . 29 Dec. ,, \nThe law of succession altered in favour of the king\'s \n\nsisters 3 Jan. 1862 \n\nThe due de Louie becomes minister . 21 Feb. ,, \nThe king married to Princess Maria Pia of Savoy by \n\nproxy, at Lisbon 6 Oct. ,, \n\nElections : majority for the government . Nov. ,, \nBirth of Dom Carlos, heir to the throne . 28 Sept. 1863 \n\nMinisterial changes Jan. 1864 \n\nDeath of the celebrated statesman the duke of \n\nPalmella 2 April, ,, \n\nFree-trade measures introduced . . .1 June, ,, \nFrontier treaty with Spain concluded . 29 Sept. ,, \n\n\n\n1SC9 \n\n\n\n1S69 \n1S70 \n\n\n\n1S74 \n1875 \n1876 \n\n\n\nU.S. vessels Niagara and Sacramento in the Tagus \nfired on, through suspicion of their sailin<\' after \nthe confederate vessel Stonewall, 27 March \xe2\x80\xa2 the \ndifficulty with the U.S. government arranged. \n\nThe premier, De Louie, resigns ; marquis Sa da *" $ \n\nBandeira forms a ministry . . 17 April \nConstitutional privileges granted to the colonies\' \' \n\nam \xe2\x96\xa0 -u Ma y\' \xc2\xbb \n\nAnother prince born . . . .31 July, \n\nNew ministry formed ; Aguiar premier . 4 Sept! ,\',\' \nThe international exhibition at Oporto opened by \n\nthe king 18 Sept, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe king visits England and France . . Dec. \nGeneral Prim enters Portugal, 20 Jan. ; ordered to \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 depart 17 Feb. iS\'\'6 \n\nDeath of Dom Miguel, the ex-king . . 14 Nov. \nThe king and queen of Spain visit Lisbon n Dec. " \nKing and queen at the Paris exhibition, July-Aug. 1807 \nNew ministry under count d\'Avila . 5 Jan. i3C8 \n\nunder Sa da Bandeira . . . 21 July, \n\nunder the duke de Saldanha . . 7 Jafi! \n\nunder the duke de Louie . . u Aug! \n\nViolent opposition of Saldanha ; ordered back to \n\nParis as ambassador there ; he resigns Dec. \n\nCortes dissolved j an . \n\nSaldanha heads a military insurrection ; seizes the \n\nroyal palace ; forms a new ministry . 19 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nNeutrality in the French war proclaimed . July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nManifestation against Saldanha in Lisbon and \n\nOporto . . .... 2 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe French republic recognized . . . Sept. \nNew ministry under the bishop of Vizeu, 30 Oct, \nNew ministry under the marquis d\'Avila, 30 Jan. ; \n\nunder Fontes Pereira de Mello . 13 Sept.\' 1S71 \n\nGreat fire at Lisbon I3 June, 1S72 \n\nConspiracy against the government ; officers in tin\'\' \n\narmy arrested .... about 26 Aug. \nDeath of Joaquim A. Aguiar, statesman (see i860, \n\n1865) 2 6 May, \n\nThe duke of Coiinbra visits England . . Aug. \nThe prince of Wales at Lisbon . . . 1 May, \nFinancial crisis: banks of Oporto and Portugal \n\nsuspend payment ; confidence soon returns, about \n\n19-24 Aus;. ., \nDeath of the duke de Saldanha (buried in state at \n\nLisbon) 2I Nov. ,, \n\nMarquis D\'Avila forms a new ministry 5 March, 1S77 \nResigns after vote of censure ; new ministry formed \n\nunder Fontes Pereira de Mel! i . . 29 Jan. 1S7S \nMinistry resigns, 30 May, new one formed by sen! \n\nA. J. Braamcamp .... 1 July 1S77 \nGreat demonstration in honour of Camoens and \n\nVasco da Gama at Lisbon . . . June, 18S0 \nDiscussion in the chambers respecting treaty with \n\nGreat Britain,respecting Loureneo Marques (wh ich \nsee), E. Coast of Africa; ministry resigns; suc- \nceeded by sen. Sampayo , . . 21-26 March, 1SS1 \nElections; majority in favour of ministry 21 Aug. \nThe kings of Portugal and Spain open a new rail- \nway between Lisbon and Madrid . . 8 Oct. ,, \nVisit of the king and queen of Spain 10 Jan. et seq. 1SC2 \nNational art exhibition at Lisbon opened \n\nabout 15 April, ,, \nReform bill introduced abolishing hereditary \n\npeerage end of Fell. i"3; \n\nThe king and queen visit Madrid . . 22 May, \nMinistry reconstructed by Pontes Pereira de Mello \n\n20 Oct. ,, \nCircular affirming Portuguese rights over the Congo \n\nissued Oct, ,, \nThe crown prince returned from a visit to England \n\n21 Dec. ,, \nGovernment bill fur reform of constitution adopted \n\nby the deputies 8 Feb. 1884 \n\nMr. John Dixon\'s claims on the Guimaraes railway \ncompany for compensation for their taking the. \nMinlio railway, constructed by him; complaint \nof judicial delays ; British intervention ; discussed \n\nMay, \xe2\x80\x9e \nDeath of the king consort Ferdinand aged 69, \n\n15 Dec 18S5 \nThe de Mello ministry resigns, succeeded by that of \n\nsenhor Jose de Castro ... 19 Feb. 1886 \n\nThe king visits Great Britain, Denmark, and the \n\ncontinent (warmly received) Aug.-Scpt. 1886 ; \n\nreturns f.o Lisbon . . . .26 Sept. ,, \n\nStrike and riots at Oporto (irt Ich see), about 30 May, 1S39 \n\n3 I) 2 \n\n\n\nPOETUGAL. \n\n\n\n772 \n\n\n\nPOETUGAL. \n\n\n\nDispute respecting the Delagoa railway (which see) \n\nJune, et seq. i \n\nThe wine trade much disturbed by bounties to \nwine-growers ; granted by the chamber, 12 June, \n\nDeath of king Luis I., 19 Oct. ; funeral . 26 Oct. \n\nBritish remonstrances on Portuguese encroach- \nments in East Africa (see Zambesi) . Nov., Dec. \n\nThe king Carlos inaugurated ... 28 Dec. \n\nThe king opens the cortes with a Ann temperate \nspeech respecting B. Africa ... 2 Jan. 1 \n\nTelegrams : lord Salisbury demands the immediate \nrecall of the Portuguese forces from places in \nAfrica under British protection or influence \n\nS Jan. \n\nSen. Barros Gomes accedes, under conditions ; \ndelays, 6 \xe2\x80\x94 8 Jan. Ultimatum from lord Salisbury \nrequiring immediate submission, threatening sus- \npension of diplomatic relations ; the council of \nstate accede to all the British demands, under \nprotest 11, 12 Jan. \n\nExcitement in Lisbon and the provinces against \nthe British, promptly suppressed ; about 63 \narrests, 13 \xe2\x80\x94 16 Jan. ; the De Castro ministry \nresigns ; sen. Serpa Pimental forms a cabinet ; \nsen. Hintze Ribeiro, foreign minister . 14 Jan. \n\nSen. Serpa Pimental informs the chamber that he \nsubmits to England, who has might while \nPortugal has right . . . . 15 Jan. \n\nThe Blue-book containing correspondence between \nlord Salisbury and sen. Barros Gomes, 22 June, \n1387 to 20 Jan., 1890, published . . 12 Feb. \n\nCapt. Neves Perreira resigns, about . 18 Jan. \n\nManifesto of the republican party, about . 19 Jan. \n\nThe cortes dissolved .... 20 Jan. \n\nNational defence fund started, 23 Jan. ; 55,000/. \nreceived up to 4 March (nearly 33,000?. subscribed \nby the king and royal family), about . n March, \n\nDearees respecting public meetings, liberty- of the \npress, judicial reforms, &c, issued . 7 April, \n\nThe new cortes opened by the king ; friendly \nrelations with Great Britain, reported . 19 April, \n\nMajor Serpa Pinto arrives at Lisbon, 20 April ; \nmade one of the king\'s adjutants . 27 April, \n\nAnglo - Portuguese agreement respecting Africa, \nsettled in London 20 Aug. \n\nResignation of sen. Serpa Pimental ministry, 1 7 Sept. \n\nGen . Chrysostomo d\' Abreue-Sousa forms a ministry, \n13 Oct., opposed to the proposed convention; \ncortes closed 15 Oct. \n\nA modus vivendi agreed on for six months ; the \nagreement of 20 Aug. withdrawn ; the status quo \nante maintained, 10 Nov. ; signed . 14 Nov. \n\nEast Africa : Capt. Paiva and the Bihe expedition \nresisted on the river Caquiema ; fighting with \nthe natives, with great loss . . . 1 Nov. \n\nCelebration of the 250th anniversary of the re- \nestablishment of the monarchy . . 1 Dec. \n\nFor the disputes with the S. Africa company \nrespecting the Manica company, see under \nZambesi ..... Sept. \xe2\x80\x94 Dec. \n\nMilitary expedition fo. the defence of Manica, sails \nfrom Lisbon . . . 15 Jan. and 12 Feb. \n\nArrival of col. Paiva d\'Andrade, complaining of the \nconduct of the British in Manica (see Zambesi, \n\nNov. 1890) 19 Jan. \n\nMilitary revolt at Oporto (which see) . 31 Jan. \nThe Malange steamer, with 700 men, arrives at \n\nZanzibar 9 Feb. \n\nThe cortes opened .... 4 March, \n\nThe Countess of Carnarvon, steamer, seized by the \n\nPortuguese, see under Zambesi . . March, \n\nLoan of 10,000,000?. on the tobacco monopoly voted \n\n19 March, \n\nThe cortes closed . . . . 20 March, \n\nMinisterial crisis ends, no change . . 17 April, \n\nFinancial crisis ; heavy fall in the funds, through \n\nincrease of the national debt and great depression \n\nof trade ; run upon the banks met by large coinage \n\nof silver, about .... 8 May, et seq. \n\nDecree authorising the suspension of payments by \n\nthe banks ; the Bank of Portugal suspends cash \n\npayments for 60 days . . . . 11 May, \n\nTreaty extending the modus vivendi for one month, \n\nsigned 14 May, \n\nFinancial improvement reported . . 14 May, \n\nNew ministry formed by senhor Joao Chrysostomo, \n\npresident and war general . . . 21 May, \n\n\n\nNew Anglo-Portuguese convention signed (after- \nwards ratified) 11 June, 1891 \n\nMonetary crisis ; sovereigns sold at a high price ; \ntraffic in silver coin . . " 20 July \xe2\x80\x94 20 A.ug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMeeting of the cortes ; the king states that the \ntreaty of June with England is being duly \nexecuted 2 Jan. 1892 \n\nExpiration of the treaty of Goa (which see) . 14 Jan. ,, \n\nNew cabinet formed by sen. Jose Dias Ferreira \n\n15 Jan. , t \n\nThe minister of finance reports great deficiency in \nthe revenue and great increase of debt, and pro- \nposes large reductions in the expenditure and \nincrease of taxation ; accepted by the king, who \nproposes to largely reduce his civil list, and by \nthe cortes .... 20 Jan. \xe2\x80\x94 23 Feb. , r \n\nViolent cyclone at Lisbon, much damage ; esti- \nmated loss, 45,000?., 19 Feb. Great loss of life \n(105) and property on the coast by a violent gale \n\n27 Feb. and 6 March, ,, \n\nRevolts against the expedition to lake Nyassa in \nE. Africa, reported . . 3 March, et seq. , r \n\nThe cortes closed by the king . . 2 April, ,, \n\nMinistry reconstituted by sen. Ferreira . 27 May, , r \n\nDecree reducing the temporary payments to foreign \nbondholders then due to one-third the amount ; \nprotest of the bondholders . . 14 June, , r \n\nSOVEREIGNS OF PORTUGAL. \n\n1095. Henry, count or earl of Portugal. \n\n1112. Alfonso, his son, and Theresa. \n\n1128. Alfonso, count of Portugal, alone. \n\n1139. Alfonso I. declared king, having obtained a signal \nvictory over a prodigious army of Moors on the \nplains of Ourique. \n\n1 185. Sancho I., son of Alfonso. \n\n1212. Alfonso II., surnamed Crassus, or the Fat. \n\n1223. Sancho II., or the Idle : deposed. \n\n1248. Alfonso III. \n\n1279. Denis or Dionysius, the father of his country. \n\n1325. Alfonso IV. , the Brave. \n\n1357. Peter, the Severe. \n\n1367. Ferdinand I., son. \n\n1385. John I., the Bastard and the Great ; natural \nbrother ; married Pliilippa, daughter of John of \nGaunt, duke of Lancaster. \n\n1433. Edward or Duarte. \n\n1438. Alfonso V., the African. \n\n1481. John II., the Great and the Perfect. \n\n1495. Emmanuel, the Fortunate ; cousin. \n\n1521. John III., son ; admitted the Inquisition, 1536, \nand the Jesuits, 1540. \n\n1557. Sebastian ; drowned after the great battle of Alea- \nzarquivir, in Africa, 4 Aug. 1578. \n\n1578. Henry, the cardinal, son of Emmanuel ; great uncle. \n\n1580. Anthony, prior of Crato, son of Emmanuel ; de- \nposed by Philip II. of Spain, who united Portu- \ngal to his other dominions. \n\n\n\n1580. \n1598. \n1621. \n1640. \n\n\n\n1656. \n16S3. \n\n\n\nPhilip II. ) \nPhilip III. Hvi: \n\n\n\n1792. \n1S16. \n\n\n\n1826. \n\n\n\n1826. \n1828. \n\n\n\nPhilip III. }\xe2\x96\xa0 kings of Spain. \n\nPhilip IV. ) \n\nJohn IV., duke of Braganza ; dispossessed the- \nSpaniards in a bloodless revolution, and was \nproclaimed king, Dec. 1. \n\nAlfonso VI. ; deposed in 1667, and his brother \nPeter made regent. \n\nPeter II. , brother. \n\nJohn V., son. \n\nJoseph Emmanuel ; son. The daughter and suc- \ncessor of this prince married his brother, by \ndispensation from the pope, and they ascended \nthe throne, as \n\nMaria I. and Peter III. jointly. \n\nMaria I. alone : this princess afterwards falls into a \nstate of melancholy and derangement ; dies, 1816. \n\nRegency \xe2\x80\x94 John, son (afterwards king) ; declared \nregent, 1791. \n\nJohn VI., previously regent. He had withdrawn \nin 1807, owing to the French invasion of Portu- \ngal, to his Brazilian dominions ; but the discon- \ntent of his subjects obliged him to return in 1821 ; \ndied in 1826. \n\nPeter IV. (Dom Pedro), son ; making his election \nof the empire of Brazil, abdicated the throne of \nPortugal in favour of \n\nMaria II. (da Gloria) ; daughter ; seven years of age. \n\nDom Miguel, brother to Peter IV, usurped the \n\n\n\nPOET VICTORIA. \n\n\n\n773 \n\n\n\nPOST-OFFICE. \n\n\n\ncrown, which he retained, amid civil conten- \ntions, until 1833. \n1833. Maria II. restored ; declared in Sept. 1834 to be of \nage ; married Augustus, duke of Leuchtenberg, \n\n1835 ; 2nd, Ferdinand of Saxe Cobnrg, 9 April, \n\n1836 (who died, 15 Dec. 1885) ; died, 15 Nov. \n1853. \n\n1853. Peter V. (Doni Pedro), son ; born 16 Sept. 1837 ; \n\ndied, 11 Nov. 1861. \n1861. Luis I., brother ; born 31 Oct. 1838 ; married Maria \n\nPia, daughter of Victor Emmanuel, king of \n\nItaly (born 16 Oct. 1847), 6 Oct. 1862 ; a judicious \n\nreformer; died, 19 Oct. 1889. \n1889. Dom Carlos (son), born 28 Sept. 1863 ; married \n\nMarie Amelie, daughter of the comte de Paris, \n\n22 May, 1886. \nHeir : Louis Philippe, born 21 March, 1887. \n\nPOET VICTORIA, on the Medway, Kent, a \nnew port for London, established by the South \nEastern Railway Company; communications opened, \nSept. 1884. \n\nPOSEN, a Polish province, annexed to Prussia \n1772 and 1793; made part of the duchy of Warsaw, \n1807; restored to Prussia, 1815. An insurrection \nhere quelled, May, 1848. \n\nAbout 2,000 Austrian Poles expelled Oct.-Nov. 1835. \nPrince Bismarck\'s plan for Germanizing Posen, see \n\nPrussia, Feb. 1886. \n\nPOSITIVE PHILOSOPHY set forth by \n\nAuguste Comte, an eminent mathematician, born \nabout 1795; died at Paris, 1852. M. P. Emile \nLittre, the great French philologist, ardently em- \nbraced the system, and published "De la Philo- \nsophic Positive," in 1845. \n\nComte\'s "Cours de Philosophic Positive," published \n1830-42 ; " Systeme de Politique Positive, ou Traite \nde Sociologie, instituant la Religion de l\'Humanite \n(l\'amour pour principe, l\'ordre pour base, et le pro- \ngres pour but)," 1851-4. \nJt professes to base itself wholly on positive facts or \nobserved phenomena, and rejects all metaphysical \nconceptions, which it considers negatives, haying \nnothing real or true in them ; and dispenses with the \nscience of mind. It sets aside theology and meta- \nphysics as two merely preliminary stages in life ; and \nabandons all search after causes and essences of \nthings, and restricts itself to the observation and \nclassification of phenomena and the discovery of their \nlaws. Comte asserted that Europe had now arrived \nat the third stage of its progress. \nPositivism does not recognise the supernatural or the \n\nfuture state. \nThe Society of Positivists in London meet in Newton- \nhall, in Fleur-de-Lys-court, near Gough-square, on \nSunday evenings, when discourses on philosophy, \nmorality, science, politics, <fcc, are delivered. Their \nprofessed object is to promote the perfection of man \ntoy means of education in its widest sense, aiming at \nthe attaining of universal brotherhood independently \nof all professed religious sects ; concerts are occa- \nsionally given; Frederick Harrison, president (Pull \nMall Gazette, 29 Nov. 1883). \n\'\' The Church of Humanity " is a modified form of \npositivism, described by Mr. Richard Congreve (Pull \nMall Gazette, 17 Jan. 1884). \n\nPOSSIBILISTS. A section of the liberal \nparty in Spain; aiming at reforms: Sen. Castelar, \na chief, Oct. 1883. \n\nThe name is also given to the workmen\'s party in Paris, \nwho aim at effecting social reforms by legal methods ; \nthey are said to have prevented a revolutionary out- \nbreak of the violent Blanquists, or Autonomists, at \nthe presidential election, 3 Dec. 1887. \n\nPOSTAL UNION. General, was esta- \nblished by the Treaty of Berne, signed 9 Oct. 1874, \nand took effect from 1 July, 1875. From time to \ntime conferences have been held at Berne, Jan. \n1876; Paris, 1878 and 1880; Lisbon, 1885. At \nthe congress at Vienna, 20 May \xe2\x80\x94 4 July, 1S91, the \nBritish Australasian colonies were added to the \nunion. \n\n\n\nPOSTING. Post-chaises were invented by the \nFrench, and, according to Grainger, were intro- \nduced into this country by Mr. "William Tell, son of \nthe writer on husbandry. Posting was fixed by \nstatute of Edward VI. at one penny per mile, 1548. \nBy a statute, re-establishing the post-office, none \nbut the postmaster or his deputies could furnish \npost-horses for travellers, 1660. The post-horse \nduty was imposed in 1 779. Post-horse duty yielded, \nin 1852, in England, 128,501^., and in Scotland, \n16,933^. \n\nPOSTS, said to have originated in the regular \ncouriers established by Cyrus, who erected pot- \nhouses throughout the kingdom of Persia, about \n550 B.C. Augustus was the first who introduced \nthis institution among the Romans, 31 B.C. This was \nimitated by Charlemagne about a.d. 800. \xe2\x80\x94 Ashe. \nLouis XI. first established post-houses in France \nowing to his eagerness for news, and they were the \nfirst institution of this nature in Europe, 1470. \xe2\x80\x94 \nIlenaidt. An international commission respecting \npostal arrangements met at Paris, 1 1 May, and broke \nup 9 June, 1863. \n\nPOST-OFFICE of England. In England, \n\nin the reign of Edward IV. 1481, riders on post- \nhorses went stages of the distance of twenty miles \nfrom each other, in order to procure the king the \nearliest intelligence of the events that passed in the \ncourse of the war that had arisen with the Scots.\xe2\x80\x94 \nGale. Richard III. improved the system of couriers \nin 1483. In 1543 similar arrangements existed in \nEngland. \xe2\x80\x94 Sadler\'s Letters. Post communications \nbetween London and most towns of England, Scot \xe2\x80\xa2 \nland, and Ireland, existed in 1635. \xe2\x80\x94Stri/pe. \nThe first chief postmaster of England, sir Thomas \n\nRandolph, appointed by queen Elizabeth . . 15S1 \nJames I. appointed Matthew de l\'Equester as \nforeign postmaster, 1619 ; and Chas. I. appointed \n"William Frizell and Thomas Witherings . . . 1632 \nA proclamation of Chas. I., "whereas to this time \nthere hath been no certain intercourse between \nthe kingdoms of England and Scotland, the king \nnow commands his postmaster of England for \nforeign parts to settle a running post or two to \nrun night and day between Edinburgh and Lon- \ndon, to go thither and come back again in six \n\ndays" 1631 \n\nThe king commanded his "postmaster of England \nfor foreign parts," to open a regular communica- \ntion by running posts between the metropolis \nand Edinburgh, West Chester, Holyhead, Ireland, \nPlymouth, Exeter, &c (Rates of postage \xe2\x80\x94 1 letter \ncarried under 80 miles 2d. ; under 140 miles, 41/. ; \nabove that distance in England, 6d. ; to any part \nof Scotland, 8&). \nAn enlarged office erected by the parliament in \n1643 ; and one more considerable in 1657, with a \nview " to benefit commerce, convey the public \ndispatches, and as the best means to discover and \nprevent many dangerous wicked designs against \nthe commonwealth by the inspection of the cor- \nrespondence " 1C57 \n\nThe Post-office as at present constituted was \n\nfounded 12 Chas. II 27 Dec. 1660 \n\nFarmed to John Mauley, 1653 ; to Daniel O\'Neil . 1663 \nPenny Post first set up in London and its suburbs \n\nby a Mr. Robert Murray, upholsterer . . . 1681 \nHe assigned his interest in the undertaking to Jlr. \nDockwra, a merchant, 1683 ; but on a trial at the \nKing\'s Bench bar it was adjudged to belong 1o \nthe duke of York, as a branch of the general pose, \nand was thereupon afterwards annexed to the \n\nrevenue of the crown ifijo \n\nThis institution considerably improved and made a \n\ntwopenny post, July, 1704. etscq. \nCross posts established by Ralph Allen . . . 1720 \nBetween 1730 and 1740, the p \xc2\xbbst was only trans- \nmitted three days a week between Edinburgh an I \nLondon : and the metropolis, on one oc \xe2\x80\xa2\xe2\x96\xa0\xe2\x96\xa0usioii, \nsent a single letter, which was for an Edinburgh \nbanker, named Ramsay. \n\n\n\nPOST-OFFICE. \n\n\n\n774 \n\n\n\nPOST-OFFICE. \n\n\n\nA penny post was first set up in Dublin . . . 1774 \n\nThe mails conveyed by coaches ; the first mail left \nLondon for Bristol (see Mail Coaches) . 2 Aug. ,, \n\nThe mails first conveyed by railway, 1830; by the \noverland route to India 1835 \n\nPost-office acts consolidated ... 12 July, 1837 \n\nEarly in 1837, Mr. Rowland Hill broached his plan \nof penny postage, which was adopted after a full \ninvestigation by a committee of the house of \ncommons 1839 \n\nThe new postage law, by which the uniform rate of \n4(1. per letter was tried as an experiment, came \ninto operation ...... 5 Dec. ,, \n\nThe uniform rate of id. per letter of half an ounce \nweight, &c, commenced . . . 10 Jan. 1840 \n\nStamped postage covers came into use . 6 May, ,, \n\nAdhesive stamps invented by Mr. James Chalmers \nof Dundee, 1834 ; they came into use, superseding \nMulready\'s allegorical envelope (of 1 May, 1840) 1841 \n\nReduction in postage. \xe2\x80\x94 to be id. instead of zd. for \nevery ounce above the first . . . April, 1865 \n\nBook-Post. \xe2\x80\x94 A treasury warrant issued, providing \nfor the carriage by post of books, pamphlets, &c, \nunder certain restrictions \xe2\x80\x94 4 oz. for id. ; 8 oz. for \nid. , &c. 5 June, 1855 \n\nAltered to under 2 oz., M. ; every additional 2 oz., \nor part of 2 oz. , %d. ; begun ... 7 Oct. 1870 \n\nA Money-order Office, set up in 1792, was little used \non account of the expense, till 1840. In 1839, \n188,291 money orders were issued for 313,1247.; in \n1861, 7,580,455 orders for 14,616,3487.; in 1865, \norders were issued for 17,829,290/.; in 1870, for \n19.993.987Z- \n\nThe Postal ( Snide first appeared in 1856 ; in which year \nLondon and the vicinity were divided into districts \nfor postal purposes ; viz. , East, AVest, &c. The \npostmaster-general has issuedAnnualReports since 1854 \n\nPostmaster empowered to purchase the electric \ntelegraphs by act passed 31 July, 1868 ; work \nbegun 5 Feb. 1869 \n\nPost-office money order system applied to France \nby virtue of a convention signed . . 5 Aug. 1870 \n\nHalfpenny stamped cards issued to the public, iOct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBy the post-office act (passed 9 Aug. 1870) the \nnewspaper stamp for posting was abolished; re- \ngistered newspapers and pamphlets or patterns \nunder 2 oz. to be sent for M. on and after 1 Oct. 1870 \n\nl\'ostage lowered : Letters sent at the rate of id. for \n1 oz., i^d. for 2 oz., &c, from . . 5 Oct. 1871 \n\nShort strike of telegraph clerks at Manchester, \nLiverpool, and Dublin .... Dec. ,, \n\nPigeon post between London and Tours during the \nsiege of Paris (48 day mails and 1186 night mails \nsent) . . . .18 Nov. 1870 \xe2\x80\x94 28 Jan. ,, \n\nPost-office scandal, money spent from other funds on \ntelegraph service without authority of parliament; \ncensured by commons . . . 29 July, 1873 \n\nPayment for registered letters reduced from ^d. to \n2d. ; charge for money orders raised ; new postal \nwrappers issued 1 Jan. 1878 \n\nTelegraph acts consolidated and amended by 41 & \n42 Viet. c. 76 16 Aug. ,, \n\nMessrs. Warren de la Rue & Co.\'s tender for supply \nof postage-stamps accepted . . . 17 June, 1879 \n\nNew postage stamps issued . . .6 Jan. 1880 \n\nPet in- ned letters, &c: 1867, 3,618,838; year 1878-9, \n\'4,286,648 ; 1883-4, 5>73 2 .3 10 . 1890-1, 5,750,527. \n\nNew system of receiving small sums for savings- \nbanks by stamps tried in some counties ; gene- \nrally adopted \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNew rates for money orders from is. . . 1 Jan. 1881 \n\nInternational postal congresses met at Paris, 7 \n\nApril, 1878 ; and 9 Oct. 1880 ; at Lisbon, 16 \n\nMarch, 1885 ; (agreement signed 21 March). \n\nPostage Stamps for id. authorised to be used for \n\nreceipts after 1 June ; and for telegrams after \n\n1 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nReduction of 6rf. for 480 Id. newspaper wrappers \n\n1 Jan. 1882 \nReply post-cards authorized, 16 March ; issued \n\n2 Oct, ,, \nLate letters received in the sorting carriage of mail \n\ntrains at stations on and after . . 1 Nov. ,, \nParcel post comes into operation . . 1 Aug. 1883 \n\nPost-office protection act passed . . 14 Aug. 1884 \nPostal orders (like bankers\' cheques) largely used \n\n(since 1880) 1885 \n\n\n\nSpecial postal trains established ; letters received \n\nlater and delivered earlier ; beginning 1 July, 1885 \nPrivate posting boxes in London sanctioned April, 1886 \nAfter negotiation conveyance of American mails \ntransferred from the Cunard and White Star \ncompanies to Inman, North German Lloyd and \nothers till 28 Feb. 1887, Dec. 1886 ; amicable \n\nsettlement Feb. 1887 \n\nNew sets of postage stamps issued ; the penny \n\nstamp unchanged 1 Jan. ,, \n\n" London Postmen\'s Rest," Dover, established by \n\nlord Wolverton, late postmaster . . Feb. ,, \nRented night letter-boxes authorised after 1 Aug. 188S \nThe government authorised to purchase the sub- \nmarine electric telegraph with France 21 May, 1889 \nPost cards to be sold 10 for 6d. or s|d. 1 July, ,, \n\nPayment of money, 10?., at post-offices by tele- \ngraph authorised after 2 Sept., Aug. 1889 ; autho- \nrised for il. to 10/. from 1 March ; announced \n\nabout 18 Feb. 1890- \nMeeting of postmen\'s union in Hyde park to dis- \ncuss grievances 20 Oct. 1889 \n\nJubilee of the establishment of the penny post \n\ncelebrated 10 \xe2\x80\x94 15 Jan. 1890. \n\nUniform colonial and India postage (2 J(7,), long advo- \ncated by Mr. J. Henniker Heaton, M.P., adopted \nby the government .... 17 April, ,, \nGrand conversazione given by the lord mayor at \nthe Guildhall ; present, the prince of Wales, \nMr. Raikes, the postmaster-general, and other \nofficers, 16 May. There was an interesting exhi- \nbition of objects connected with the postal service \n\n16\xe2\x80\x9419 May, , T \nExhibition of the Philatelic society\'s collection of \npostage stamps of all nations, at the Portman \nrooms, Baker-street, W., opened by the duke of \nEdinburgh, a zealous collector . . 19 May, ,\xe2\x80\x9e \nJubilee fete for the Roland Hill benevolent fund at \nSouth Kensington museum ; the queen patron, \nthe duke of Edinburgh president. Exhibition of \nold and new postal operations and telegraphic \ncommunications in the United Kingdom, the \ncolonies, and the United States, &c. Messrs. De \nla Rue\'s artistic Jubilee envelope, of which only \na limited number were printed, was sold for is. \n\neach 2 July, ,, \n\nAgitation among the London postmen respecting \n\npay, pension, and hours . . May \xe2\x80\x94 July, ,, \nMass meeting of the postmen\'s union 7, 8 July, ,, \nAbout 100 postmen at the parcel post depot at \nClerken well dismissed for attacking and expelling \nabout 70 non-unionists, 10 July ; about 130 men \ndismissed for insubordination in other districts \n\nabout 10 July, ,, \n\n[435, out of 6,000, dismissed up to 12 July, 1890.] \n\nNew general post-office, north, near St. Martin\'s-le- \n\nGrand ; memorial stone laid by Mr. H. C. Raikes, \n\npostmaster-general .... 20 Nov. ,, \n\nUniform colonial and India postage reduced to 2UI. \n\nfor 5 oz., begins 1 Jan. 1891 ; to foreign countries, \n\n1 July, 1S92 \nAbout 240 clerks in the Savings-bank department \nsuspended for refusing to work overtime, 2 Jan. ; \nreinstated after apology ... 8 Jan. 1891 \n" The Boy Messengers " and " District Messengers " \ncompanies, for the quicker conveyance of single \nletters for short distances, stopped by the post- \noffice as illegal March, ,, \n\nThe post-office express delivery service, for the \nquicker delivery of letters and parcels, by boy \nmessengers, begins, 25 March ; at Edinburgh, \nDublin, and other places, 26 March, et seq. ; ex- \ntended to the whole United Kingdom . 1 Aug. ,, \n\n[The actions against the companies in the \n\nqueen\'s bench division stopped by arrangement, \n\nthe companies submit, and agree to take out \n\nlicences from the post-office, 14 April, 1891.] \n\nAutomatic stamp distributors attached to the \n\npostal pillars, began ... 29 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nInternational postal union congress, meeting at \nVienna ; sir A. Blackwood present ; various \nchanges made to promote free communication \n\n20 May \xe2\x80\x94 4 July, ,, \nVarious improvements in the postal service begun \n\n1 Jan. and 1 June, 1892 \nPost-office acts passed . 5 Aug. 1891, and 27 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nPOST-OFFICE. \n\n\n\n775 \n\n\n\nPOST-OFFICE. \n\n\n\nNUMBER OF LETTERS, &C. , DELIVERED IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. \n\ni?39 (including 6,563,024 franks) . . 82,470,596 I 1851-5 (average) 410,000,000 \n\n1840 ......... 168,768,344 I 1861-5 \xe2\x80\x9e ...... 648,000,000 \n\n1351 ........ 360,651,187 1866-70 ,, ...... 800,000,000 \n\nScotland, 36,512,649. Ireland, 35,982,782. Scotland, 76,000,000. Ireland, 60,000,000. \n\n\n\n1 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nNet Rev \n\n\nsnue. \n\n\n\n\nLetters. \n\n\nPost Cards. \n\n\nBooks, \n\nCirculars, \n\n<fcc. \n\n\nNews- \npapers. \n\n\nMoney \nOrders. \n\n\nTelegrams. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nPostage & \nMoney \nOrders. \n\n\nTele- \ngrams. \n\n\n1871 . \n\n\n867,000,000 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\x94 \n\n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\x94 \n\n\n\xc2\xa322,573,547 \n\n\n12,473,796 \n\n\n\xc2\xa31,289,754 \n\n\n\xc2\xa33 3,457 \n\n\n: 1872 . \n\n\n885,000,000 \n\n\n76,000,000 \n\n\n114,000,000 \n\n\n109,000,000 \n\n\n25,019,683 \n\n\ni5,535,78o \n\n\n1,523,976 \n\n\n159,835 \n\n\n1873 . \n\n1874 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n1875 . \n\n\n907,000,000 \n\n964,253,300 \n\n. 1,008,392,100 \n\n\n72,000,000 \n79,000,000 \n87,116,300 \n\n\n129,000,000 \n141,967,100 \n158,666,600 \n\n\n113,016,500 \n117,032,900 \n121,049,400 \n\n\n26,802,264 \n27,507,672 \n27,688,255 \n\n\n17,821,530 \n\ni9> 2 53> 12 \xc2\xb0 \n20,973,535 \n\n\n1.555,361 \n1,836,387 \n1,894,141 \n\n\nii4,975! \n115,676 \n245,116 \n\n\n1876 . \n1877-8 \n\n\n. 1,018,955,200 \n\xe2\x80\xa2 1,057,732,3\xc2\xb0\xc2\xb0 \n\n\n92,935,700 \n102,237,300 \n\n\n173,724,900 \n189,300,600 \n\n\n125,065,900 \n128,558,000 \n\n\n28,749,512 \n29> I 53>452 \n\n\n21,720,143 \n22,171,867 \n\n\n1,947,066 \n2,056,692 \n\n\n189,317 \n169,428 \n\n\n1878-9 \n\n1879-80 \n\n1880-1 \n\n1882-3 \n\n1883-4 \n\n\n. 1,097,372,800 \n\xe2\x80\xa2 i, I2 7,997,5 00 \n. 1,165,166,900 \n. 1,280,636,200 \n. 1,322,086,900 \n\n\n111,445,700 \n114,458,400 \n122,884,000 \n144,016,000 \n153,586,100 \n\n\n197,070,500 \n213,963,000 \n240,356,200 \n288,206,400 \n294,594>5oo \n\n\ni3\xc2\xb0> 8 95,3oo \n130,518,400 \ni33,796,ioo \n140,602,600 \n142,702,300 \n\n\n27,303,093 \n26,371,020 \n26,003,582 \n27,597,883 \n27,629,879 \n\n\n24,459,775 \n26,547,137 \n29,411,982 \n32,092,026 \n32,843,120 \n\n\n2,434,374 \n2,497,687 \n2,597,768 \n2,755,562 \n2,610,026 \n\n\n257,500 \n341,006 \n368,815 \n235,859\' \n51,255 \n\n\n1887-8 \n\n\n. 1,512,200,000 \n\n\n188,800,000 \n\n\n389,500,000 \n\n\n152,300,000 \n\n\n26,334,126 \n\n\n53,403,425 \n\n\n2,771,517 \n\n\n31,247 \n\n\n1888-9 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1,558,100,000 \n\n\n201,400,000 \n\n\n412,000,000 \n\n\n151,900,000 \n\n\n26,618,052 \n\n\n57,765,347 \n\n\n3,039,874 \n\n\n124,952 \n\n\n1889-90 \n1890-91 \n\n\n. 1,650,100,000 \n. 1,705,800,000 \n\n\n217,100,000 \n229,700,000 \n\n\n441,900,000 \n481,200,000 \n\n\n1 59, 300,000 \n161,000,000 \n\n\n27,165,905 \n27,867,887 \n\n\n62,403,399 \n66,409,211 \n\n\n3,208,511 \n3,163,989 \n\n\n145,794 \ni5o,33S \n\n\n\nREVENUE OF THE POST-OFFICE. \n\n\n\n1643. \n\n\nIt yielded . \n\n\n\xc2\xa35,000 \n\n\n1835. \n\n\nU. Kingdom^, 353,340 \n\n\n1653. \n\n\nFarmed \n\n\n10,000 \n\n\n1839. \n\n\nDitto \n\n\n\n\n2,522,495 \n\n\n1663. \n\n\nFarmed \n\n\n21,500 \n\n\n1840. \n\n\nNew 1 \n\n\nate . \n\n\n471,000 \n\n\n1674. \n\n\nFarmed for \n\n\n43,000 \n\n\n\'845. \n\n\nNetrevenue \n\n\n761,982 \n\n\n168=;. \n\n\nIt yielded . \n\n\n65,000 \n\n\n1850. \n\n\nDitto \n\n\n\n\n803,898 \n\n\n1707. \n\n\nDitto . . \n\n\n111,461 \n\n\n1855. \n\n\nDitto \n\n\n\n\n1,137,220 \n\n\n1714. \n\n\nDitto \n\n\n145,227 \n\n\n1859. \n\n\nDitto \n\n\n\n\n1,150,960 \n\n\n1723. \n\n\nDitto . . \n\n\n201,805 \n\n\ni860. \n\n\nDitto \n\n\n\n\n1,102,479 \n\n\n1744. \n\n\nDitto . . \n\n\n235,492 \n\n\n1861. \n\n\nDitto \n\n\n\n\n1,161,985 \n\n\n1764. \n\n\nDitto . . \n\n\n432,048 \n\n\n1862. \n\n\nDitto \n\n\n\n\n1,236,941 \n\n\n1790. \n\n\nDitto . . \n\n\n480,074 \n\n\n1863. \n\n\nDitto 1 \n\n\n\n\n1,037,404 \n\n\n1S00. \n\n\nDitto . . \n\n\n745,313 \n\n\n1864. \n\n\nDitto \n\n\n\n\n1,153,261 \n\n\n1805. \n\n\nGt. Britain \n\n\n1,424,994 \n\n\n1865 \n\n\nDitto \n\n\n\n\n1,482,522 \n\n\n1 8 10. \n\n\nDitto . . \n\n\n1,709,065 \n\n\n1866. \n\n\nDitto \n\n\n\n\n1,397,986 \n\n\n1815. \n\n\nDitto . . \n\n\n1,755,898 \n\n\n1867. \n\n\nDitto \n\n\n\n\n1,421,364 \n\n\n1820. \n\n\nU. Kingdom \n\n\n2,402,697 \n\n\n1868. \n\n\nDitto \n\n\n\n\n1,416,922 \n\n\n1825. \n\n\nDitto . . \n\n\n2,255,239 \n\n\n1869. \n\n\nDitto \n\n\n\n\n1,305,348 \n\n\n1830. \n\n\nDitto . . \n\n\n2,3\xc2\xb0Ir43 2 \n\n\n1870. \n\n\nDitto \n\n\n\n\n1,493,610 \n\n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 ; After payment for foreign and colonial mails. \n\nPOST-OFFICES. \n\nThe General Post-office of London was originally \nestablished in Cloak-lane, near Dowgate-hill, whence \nit was removed to the Black Swan, in Bishopsgate- \nstreet. After the great lire of 1666 it was removed to \nthe Two Black Pillars, in Brydges-street, Covent- \ngarden, and afterwards (about 1690) to sir Robert \nViner\'s mansion in Lombard-street. It was transferred \nto the building in St. Martin\'s-le-Grand, erected on the \nsite of an ancient college, from designs by R. Smirke, \n23 Sept. 1829. Foundation of a new general post-office \nlaid 16 Dec. 1870 ; occupied 1873. \n\nThe new post-office of Dublin opened, 6 Jan. 1818. \n\nThe foundation of a new post-office at Edinburgh was \nlaid by the prince consort in Oct. iS6i. \n\nPublic receptacles for letters before 1840, 4,028 ; in 1865, \n16,246; in 1876, 24,171; in 1877, 25,082; Jan. 1879, \n25,767 ; in 1884, 31,700 ; 18S8, 36,750; 1891, 40,643. \n\nIn i860, there were in the United Kingdom, 11,412 post- \noffiees; 1862, 11,316 ; 1875, 13,226 ; 1877, 13,447 ; Jan. \n1879, 13,881 ; 1884, 15,951 ; 1888, 17,587 ; 1S91, 18,806. \n\nHead ojji&s: 1870, 844; 1875, 886; Jan. 1879, 9\xc2\xb05 ; ^84, \n921. \n\nThe street Letter-boxes were erected in March, 1855. The \nfirst one was placed at the corner of Fleet-street and \nFavringdon-street. There were in i860, 1,958 ; in 1875, \n10,186; Jan. 1879, 11,880; 1891, 21,837. \n\nStaff employed: 1862, 25,285; in 1872, 28,959; 1874, \n43,982; 1875, 44,644 ; 1879, 45,947; 1888, 56,460; 1891, \n63,868. \n\nPost-office Savings-banks established by parliament \n1861 (began Sept. 16); interest 2I- per cent.; govern- \nment responsible to depositors. The number of these \nbanks and the amount of deposits received on 31 March, \ni362, were\xe2\x80\x94 \n\n\n\n3wiiks. \n\n\nDeposits. \n\n\n1795 \n\n\n. \xc2\xa3668,879 10 2 \n\n\n129 . \n\n\n28,392 2 10 \n\n\n299 \n\n\n10,237 9 8 \n\n\n300 . \n\n\n. 26,064 18 8 \n\n\n9 \n\n\n1,679 *5 \n\n\n\nEngland . \nWales . \nScotland . \nIreland \nThe Islands \n\n\n\n2532 \xc2\xa3735,253 16 4 \n\nLondon district .... 267,329 13 8 \n\n1866. Computed total amount of capital held by these \nbanks in the United Kingdom, 8,121,175?. \n\nDec. 1870, 1,183,153 depositors in United Kingdom ; total \nsum held, 15,099,104?.; 10 Dec. 1871, total sum, \n17,303,815?. ; 31 Dec. 1874, 23,157,469?. 18s. iod. ; \n31 Dec. 1877, 29,713,529?.; 31 Dec. 1878, 30,946,962?. \nin 1883, 6,297,378 depositors ; total sum held, \n43,294,949?. ; 31 Dec. 1887, 6,916,327 ; total sum \nheld, 53,974,065?. ; 31 Dec. 1890, 7,634,807?. ; \n8,776,566 depositors. \n\npostmasters. \n\nThe number of postmasters (2) reduced to 1, 1822. \n\nThe offices of postmaster-general of England and of Ire- \nland united in one person, 1831. \n\nAct passed permitting postmaster to sit in house of \ncommons, July, 1866. \n\n1 323. Thomas, earl of Chichester. \n\n1826. Lord Frederick Montague. \n\n1S27. William duke of Manchester. \n\n1830. Charles duke of Richmond. \n\n1834. Francis marquis of Conyngham \n\n1835. William lord Maryborough. \n1835. Francis marquis of Conyngham. \n\n,, Thomas earl of Lichfield. \n\n1841. William viscount Lowther. \n\n1846. Edward earl of St. Germans. \n\n\xe2\x80\x9e Ulick marquis of Clanricarde. \n\n1852. Charles Philip earl of Hardwicke. \n\n1853. Charles John earl Canning. \n1855. George duke of Argyll. \n1358. Charles lord Colchester. \n1859. James earl of Elgin. \n\ni860. Edward lord Stanley of Alderley. \n1866. James duke of Montrose (July). \n1868. Spencer marquis of Hartingtou (Dec). \n1871. Win. Monsell (Jan.). \n\n1873. Dr. Lyon Playfair(i8 Nov.). \n\n1874. Lord John Manners (21 Feb.). \n\n1883. Henry Fawcett (3 May) ; died 6 Nov. 1884. \n\n1884. Geo. Shaw-Lefevre (18 Nov.). \n\n1885. Lord John Manners (a^yTune). \n\n1886. George Grenfell Glyn, lord Wolverton (abou \n\n6 Feb.). \n,, Henry Cecil Raikes, 26 July I died, 24 Aug. 1891. \n\n1891. Sir James Fergusson, about 21 Sept. \n\n1892. Arnold Morley, iS Aug. \n\n\n\nPOST-OFFICE ACT. \n\n\n\n776 \n\n\n\nPOTTERY AND PORCELAIN. \n\n\n\nCHIEF SECRETARIES. \n\n1797. Francis Freeling. \n\n1836. Win. L. Maberley. \n\n1854. Rowland Hill (sec. to postmaster-general, 30 Nov. \n1846); received national testimonial, 17 June, \n1846; resigned 29 Feb. 1864; made K.C.B. i860, \nwith a grant of 2o,ooo2. and 2000J. pension ; died \n27 Aug. ; buried in Westminster Abbey, 4 Sept. \n1879 (see Rowland Hill Memorial). \n\n1864. John Tilley (March). \n\n1880. Sir Stevenson Arthur Blackwood. \n\nPOST-OFFICE ACT, passed 14 June, 1875, \nconsolidates previous acts (1840. et seg.), and \nenacts some new regulations. The Tost- office \n(Parcels) act was passed 18 Aug. 18S2. \n\nPOST-OFFICE DIRECTORY for London, \npublished by Kelly & Co., since 1800. County \ndirectories and trade now published. \n\nPOST-OFFICE Money-Orders Acts, \n11 & 12 Vict. c. 88 (1848), 43 & 44 Yict. c. 33 (1880). \n\nPOSTMAN AND TUBMAN, ancient offices \nin the court of exchequer held by barristers with \ncertain privileges. \n\nPOTASSIUM, a remarkable metal, discovered \nby Humphry Davy, who first succeeded in sepa- \nrating it from its oxide, potash, by means of a \npo werf ul voltaic battery, in th e laboratory of tiic Hoy al \nInstitution, London, about 19 Oct. 1807 ; and also \nthe metals Sodium from soda, Calcium from lime, \n&c. The alkalies and earths had been previously \nregarded as simple substances. Potassium ignites \non contact with moisture. \n\nPOTATOES, natives of Chili and Peru, gene- \nrally considered to have been brought to England \nfrom Santa Fe, in America, by sir John Hawkins, \n1565. Others ascribe their introduction to sir Francis \nDrake, in 1586; their general introduction, 1592. \nTheir first culture in Ireland is referred to sir Walter \nRaleigh, who had large estates in that country, \nabout Youghal, in the county of Cork. It is said \nthat potatoes were not known in Flanders until \n1620. A fine kind of potato was first brought from \nAmerica by Mr. Howard, who cultivated it at Car- \ndington, near Bedford, 1765 ; and its culture be- \ncame general soon after. The failure of the potato \ncrop in Ireland, several years, especially in 1846, \ncaused famine, to which succeeded pestilent disease \nof which multitudes died ; among them many priests \nand physicians. Parliament voted ten millions \nsterling; and several countries of Europe, and the \nUnited States of America, forwarded provisions and \nother succours; see Ireland. In 1868 it was reported \nthat in England and Wales 500,000 acres, and in \nIreland 1,000,000 acres, were under cultivation for \npotatoes. Potato disease prevailed greatly in Eng- \nland, autumn of 1872. In consequence the value of \npotatoes imported in 1872 was 1,054,240/.; in 1871, \nonly 225,732/. ; in 1877, 7,964,84.0 cwt., value, \n2,348,749/.; in 1883, 5,149,509 cwt., value 1,585,260/.; \nin 1887, 2,763,357 cwt. ; in i883, 2,383,807 cwt. ; \nin 1889, 1,864,426 cwt ; in 1890, 1,940,100 cwt. \nTemporary alarm respecting the American Colorado \nbeetle or bug, autumn, 1876. Acres cultivated for \npotatoes in Great Britain in 1867, 492,217; 1S71, \n627,691; 1877, 512,471; 18S3, 543>4555 in 1887, \n559,652; in 1890,529,661. \n[Mr. W. Carruthers considers that the disease, did not \n\nappear in Britain before 1844; Mr. Thiselton-Byer \n\nthinks that it did.] \nInternational potato exhibition, Crystal Palace, 17-18 \n\nSept. 1879 ; another 7-8 Oct. 1885. \nRain and want of sunshine greatly injured the crops in \n\n1879. \nReport of a select committee on the failure of the potato \n\ncrop, Aug. 1880. \n\n\n\n7th potato show (the 1st, 1874) at the Crystal Palace, \nvery good, 23 Sept. 1880 ; 8th exhibition, 20 Sept. 1882. \n\nSolanum maglia successfully cultivated in wet land by \nMr. A. Sutton of Reading, 1884. \n\nTercentenary of the introduction of the potato into \nEngland celebrated at Westminster ; exhibition and \nconference, about 500 varieties exhibited, 1-4 Dee. 1886. \n\nFailure of the potato crop in Cork, &c, see Ireland, \n1890. \n\nThe bouillie Bordelaise treatment of the disease by dres- \nsings of salts of copper recommended by Dr. Girard \n(1890), was tried by Messrs. Sutton, of Reading, with \ndoutful results, June, et sen. 1391. Favourable results \nreported by some persons. \n\nPOTID.ZEA, a town in Macedonia, a tributary \nof Athens, against which it revolted 432 B.C.\', but \nsubmitted in 429. It was taken from the Athe- \nnians after three years\' siege, by Philip II. of Mace- \ndon in 356 B.C. \n\nPOTOMAC, see United States, Aug. 1861. \n\nPOTOSI (Peru). Silver mines here were dis- \ncovered by the Spaniards in 1545 ; they are in a \nmountain in the form of a sugar-loaf. \n\nPOTSDAM (near Berlin), the Versailles of \nPrussia. It was made an arsenal in 1721. Here is \nsituated the palace of Sans Souci (built, 1660-73), \nembellished by Frederick II., and occupied by Na- \npoleon I. in Oct. 1806; and the new palace, erected \nby Frederick the Great, 1763-9, was the residence \nof the emperor Frederick III., when prince \nFrederick "William of Prussia and his wife the \nprincess royaJ of England, married 25 Jan. 1858. \nPopulation, 1890, 54,161. \n\nPOTTERY AND PORCELAIN. The manu- \nfacture of earthenware (the ceramic art) existed \namong the Jews as an honourable occupation (see \n1 Chron. iv. 23), and the power of the potter over \nthe clay as a symbol of the power of God is de- \nscribed by Jeremiah, 605 B.C. (ch. xviii.) Earth- \nenware was made by the ancient Egyptians, Assy- \nrians, Greeks, Etruscans, and Bomans. \nThe Majolica, Raffaelle, or Umbrian ware of the 15th \ncentury was probably introduced into Italy from \nthe Moors from Majorca. Raffaelle and other \nartists made designs for this ware. \nPottery manufactured at Beauvais, in France, in \n\nthe 12th century. \nEnamelled pottery made at St. Cloud . . about 168S \nLuca della Robbia (born about 1410) applied tin \nenamel to terra-cotta. Fayencc ware was made \nin France by Bernard Palissy (died, 1589) and his \nfamily. \nPorcelain, formed of earth kaolin, was made in \nChina in the 2nd century after Christ. Chinese \nporcelain is mentioned in histories of the 16th cen- \ntury, when it was introduced into England, and \neagerly sought after. \nPorcelain made at Bow, near London, early in the \n\niSth century, and at Chelsea, before . . . 169S \nBirch\'s "History of Ancient Pottery" (1858); Mar- \nryat\'s "History of Pottery and Porcelain, Medi- \naeval and Modern" (1857); and Brongniart\'s \n"Arts Ceramiques," are valuable works. \nThe first European porcelain was made at Dresden \nby Bottcher ... ... about 1700 \n\n[The manufacture was fostered by the king Augus- \ntus II.] \nThe Capo di Monte factory at Naples established . 1736 \nThomas Frye painted porcelain, 1749 ; and Dr. Wall \n\nestablished the manufacture at Worcester . . 1750 \nThe St. Cloud China manufactory removed to \n\nSevres 1736 \n\nJosiah Wedgwood\'s patent ware was first made . 1702 \nThe Royal Porcelain manufactory, at Copenhagen, \nstarted in 1775, was soon after taken up by the \nState and carried on till 1867, when it reverted \ninto private hands. In 1882 it was purchased by \nthe Ahuninia company of Copenhagen. \nThe British manufacture greatly improved by Her- \nbert Minton, who died 1858 \n\n\n\nPOTWALLOPEES. \n\n\n\n777 \n\n\n\nPEAGUE. \n\n\n\nThe duty on earthenware taken off . . . . i860 \n\nLord Dudley\'s collection of china sold for 40,856?. \n\n21 May, 1886 \n\nGreat improvements in form and colour in deco- \nrative stoneware, &c, were made in Messrs. \nDoulton\'s Lambeth pottery works, 1871, etseq., \nin connection with the Lambeth School of Art. \nLambeth faience was introduced in 1S73. Sir \nHenry Doulton was knighted in . . . . 1887 \n\nThe potter\'s wheel has greatly superseded moulding \nas producing more original work . ... 1S88 \n\nThe sale of the collection of oriental porcelain, &c, \nof the late Mr. Wells, of Redleaf, realized \ni2,8nZ. 12s. 6d. . . . . 13, 14 May, 1890 \n\nGreat lock-out in the pottery district, Staffordshire, \nrespecting wages, 5 May ; settled by compromise \n\nabout 19 May, 1892 \n\nPOTWALLOPEES (or boilers). Before the \npassing of the reform act of 1832, persons who had \nboiled a pot for six months claimed ihe right to vote \nfor the election of members of Parliament. \n\nPOULTEY. An exhibition of poultry was held \nin London, Jan. 1853, when nearly IOOO cocks were \nexhibited ; and similar exhibitions have been held \nat the Crystal palace since. \n\nPOULTEY COMPTEE (London) was one \nof the most noted of the old city prisons. The \ncompter of Wood-street belonged to the sheriff of \nLondon, and was made a prison-house in I\'W. \nThis latter and Broad-street compter were re-built \nin 1667. The Giltspur-street prison, built to supply \nthe place of the old city compters, was pulled down \nin 1855. The Poultry chapel was erected on the site \nof the Poultry compter, in 1819. \xe2\x80\x94 Leigh. \n\nPOUND, from the Latin Pond us. The value \nof the Roman pondo is not precisely known, though \nsome suppose it was equivalent to an Attic mina, or \n2,1. 4s. yd. The pound sterling was in Saxon times, \nabout 671, a pound troy of silver, and a shilling was \nits twentieth part; consequently the latter was three \ntimes as large as it is at present. \xe2\x80\x94 Tcacham. Our \navoirdupois pound weight came from the French, \nand contains sixteen ounces; it is in proportion \nto our troy weight as seventeen to fourteen ; see \nunder Standard. \n\nPOWDEEING THE HAIE, see Hair. \n\nPOWEE-LOOMS, see Zooms, and Cotton. \n\nPOYNINGS\' LAW, named after sir Edward \nFoynings, lord deputy of Ireland at the time of its \npassing, at Drogheda, 13 Sept. 1494. By thislaw r all \nlegislation in the Irish parliament was confined to \nmatters first approved of by the king and the English \ncouncil. The act was repealed, together with the \nEnglish Declaratory act of the 6th of Geo. I. and \nother obnoxious Irish statutes, April, 1782. \n\nPEJ3MONSTEATENSIAN OEDEE, or \n\nWHITE CANONS, founded in 1120 by Norbert, a \nmonk, at Pre Montre, near Laon. Its first house \nin England was founded by Peter de Gousla or \nGousel, at Newsham, in Lincolnshire, 1143 \xe2\x80\x94 \nTanner ; according to others in 1146. The order \nspread widely through England soon after. The \nhouse at Newsham was dedicated to St. Mary and \nSt. Martial. \xe2\x80\x94 Lewis. \n\nPE^EMUNIEE, Law of. This law (which \n\nobtained its name from the first two words " Pree- \nmoneri," or " Prconuniri facias," "Cause to be \nforewarned," which is applied to any offence in the \nway of contempt of the sovereign or his govern- \nment) derived its origin from the aggressive power \nof the pope in England. The offence introduced a \nforeign power into the land, and created an \nimpcrium in imperio. The first statute of Praemu- \n\n\n\nnire was enacted 35 Edward I. 1306. \xe2\x80\x94 Coke. The \npope bestowed most of the bishoprics, abbeys, &c., \nbefore they were void, upon favourites, on pretence \nof providing the church with better qualified suc- \ncessors before the vacancies occurred. To put a \nstop to these encroachments, Edward III. enacted \na statute in 1353. The statute commonly referred \nto as the statute of Praemunire is the 16th of \nRichard II. 1392. Several similar enactments \nfollowed. The assertion that parliament is indepen- \ndent of the sovereign was declared a praemunire, 1661 . \n\nPEJETOEIAN GUAEDS, instituted by the \nemperor Augustus (13 B.C.) ; their numbers en- \nlarged by Tiberius, Vitellius, and then - successors. \nAt first supporters of the imperial tyrants, they \neventually became their masters, actually putting \nup the diadem for sale (as in March, 193 A.B., \nwhen it was bought by Didius Julianus). They \ncommitted many atrocities, and were finally dis- \nbanded by Constanthie in 312. \n\nPE2ETOES, Roman magistrates, afterwards \ntermed consuls {which sec), were elected at the \nestablishment of the republic, 509 B.C. In 366 \nthe prcetor urbanus was appointed for the city, and \nthe prcetor peregrinus for foreigners, 246 B.C. Two \npraetors were appointed for the provinces, 227, and \ntwo more, 197. Sylla, the dictator, added two, and \nJulius Ccesar increased the number to 10, which \nafterwards became 16. After this, their number \nfluctuated, being sometimes 18, 16, or 12 ; till, in \nthe decline of the empire, their dignity decreased, \nand their numbers were reduced to three. \n\nPEAGA, a suburb of "Warsaw, where a bloody \nbattle was fought, 4 Nov. 1794 ; 30,000 Poles were \nkilled by the Russian general Suwarrow. Xear \nhere, on 25 Feb. 1831, the Poles, commanded by \nSkrznecki, defeated the Russians, under general \nGiemsar, who lost 4000 killed and wounde 1, 6000 \nprisoners, and 12 pieces of cannon. \n\nPEAGMATIC SANCTION, an ordinance \n\nrelating to church and state affairs. The ordinances \n\nof the kings of France are thus called ; in one the \n\nrights of the Gallican church were asserted against \n\nthe usurpation of the pope in the choice of bishops, \n\nby Charles VII. in 1438. The Pragmatic Sanction \n\nfor settling the empire of Germany in the house of \n\nAustria, 1439. The emperor Charles VI. published \n\nthe Pragmatic Sanction, whereby, in default of \n\nmale issue, his daughters should succeed in prefer- \n\nI ence to the daughters of his brother Joseph I., \n\n19 April, 171 3 ; and he settled his dominions on \n\nI his daughter Maria Theresa, in conformity thereto, \n\nI 1723. She succeeded in Oct. 1740; but it gave rise \n\nI to a war, in which most of the powers of Europe \n\nI were engaged, and which lasted till 1748. \n\nPEAGUE, the capital of Bohemia {which sec). \n\nj The old city was founded about 759 ; the new city \n\n! rebuilt in 1348 by the emperor Chaiics IV., who \n\nmade it his capital and erected a university. Prague \n\nhas suffered much by war. Population, 18S0, \n\n162,323; 1890, 184,109. \n\nVictory of the Hussites under Ziska . 14 July, 1420 \nFrederick, the king, totally defeated by the Aus- \n\ntrians near Prague .... 8 Nov. 1620 \n\nPrague taken by the Swedes in 1648, and by the \n\nFrench in 1741 ; they left it 1742 \n\nTaken by the king of Prussia ; obliged to abandon it, 1744 \nGreat battle oj Pragite (the Austrian s defeated by \nprince Henry of Prussia, ami their whole camp \ntaken ; their commander, general Braun, mor- \ntally wounded, and the Prussian marshal \n\nSchwerin killed) 6 May, 1757 \n\nInsurrection in Prague ; soon suppressed . June, 1S4S \n\n\n\nPEAGUEEIE. \n\n\n\n778 \n\n\n\nPEEEOGATIYE EOYAL. \n\n\n\nA treaty of peace between Austria and Prussia signed \nat Prague (by its articles Austria consented to \ntlie breaking up of the Germanic confederation, \nand to Prussia\'s annexing Hanover, Hesse Cassel, \nNassau, and Frankfort ; and gave up Holstein, \nand her political influence in North Germany), \nand North Schleswig to Denmark if the people \nvote for it ; (the last not carried out) 23 Aug. 1866 ; \nabrogated . .... Feb. 1879 \n\nRiots of Czech and German students ; Marshal \nKrausc appointed governor about . 10 July, 1881 \n\n45 socialists sentenced to imprisonment . . Dec. 1882 \n\nDestructive floods ; the ancient bridge over the \nMoldau greatly injured, 1 \xe2\x80\x94 5 Sept., by the col- \nlapse of a wall of the bridge ; 40 labourers were \ncast into the river and 23 drowned . 13 Oct. 1890 \n\nBohemian Industrial exhibition opened, 15 May ; \nclosed . 18 Oct. 1891 \n\nVisit of the emperor, warmly received . 26 Sept. ,, \n\nSerious Czech rioting suppressed by the, police, \nafter fighting 28 March, 1892 \n\nPEAGUEEIE, WAR OF (so named from \nPrague, then celebrated for its civil disorders) ; \nthe revolt of the dauphin, afterwards Louis XL, \nagainst his father Charles VII., aided by Alexander, \nthe bastard of Bourbon, and other nobles. It was \nsoon que. led ; Louis was exiled, and Alexander put \nto death by drowning, July, 1440. \n\nPEATEIAL INSUBBECTIOX at Paris. \n\nOn 1, 2, 3 Prairial, year 3 (20, 21, 22 May, 1795), \nthe faubourgs rose against the directory, and were \nquelled by the military. \n\nPEAISE - GOD - BAEEBONES\' PAE- \nLIAMENT, see Barebones. \n\nPEASLLN" MUEDEE. The duchessc de \nChoiscul-Praslin was murdered by her husband, \nthe due de Praslin. at his own house, in Paris, 17 \nAug. 1847. She was the only daughter of the \ncelebrated marshal Sebastiani, the mother of nine \nchildren, and in her forty-first year. Circum- \nstances were so managed by him as to give it the \nappearance of being the act of another. During \nthe arrangements lor the trial, the duke took \npoison. \n\nPEAYEE-BOOK, see Common Prayer. The \nPrayer-! o)k and llomily Society, London, was \nfounded in 18 12. \n\nPraye:--book Revision Society, established 1854, for pro- \nmoting a revision of the book of common prayer, and \nsuch liturgical reforms in the church of England as \nwill strengthen its Protestant and scriptural character. \n\nPEAYEES. "Then began men to call upon \nthe name of the Lord " {Gen. iv. 26), 3875 B.C. The \nmode of praying with the face to the east was \ninstituted by pope lionil\'ace II. a.d. 532. Prayers \nfor the dead, first introduced into the Christian \nchurch about 190, arc advocated by some ministers \nof the English church. Prayers addressed to \nthe Virgin Mary and to the saints are said to have \nbeen introduced by pope Gregory, 593. See \nLiturgies. \n\nPEEBENDAEY a clergyman attached to a \ncathedral or collegiate church, who receives an \nincome termed prebenda for officiating at stated \ntimes. The office slightly differs from that of a \ncanon. \n\nPEECEDENCE was established in very early- \nages, and was amongst the laws of Justinian. In \nEngland the order of precedency was regulated \nchiefly by two statutes, 31 Hen. VIII. 1539, and 1 \nGeo. I. 1714. \n\nPEECEPTOES, COLLEGE OF, Blooms- \nbury, London, established in 1846, and incorporated \nby royal charter 28 March, 1849, for promoting \n\n\n\nsound learning, especially among the middle classes, \nby the instruction of teachers, and by the exami- \nnation of pupils at stated times. \n\nNew building in Bloomsbury Square opened by the prince \nof Wales, 30 March, 1887. \n\nPEEDESTINATION {Eplm. i.). The doc- \ntrine concerning this is defined in the seventeenth \narticle of the Church of England {Ephes. i. and \nRomans ix.). It was maintained by St. Augustin, \nand opposed by Pelagius, in the early part of the \n5th century. In later times it has been maintained \nby the Augustinians, Jansenists, the church of \nScotland, and many dissenters (termed Calvinistic), \nand opposed by the Dominicans, Jesuits, and dis- \nsenters (termed Armitiian), especially^ by the Wes- \nleyan methodists. \n\nPEEHISTOEIC AECH^EOLOGY began \nin Sweden, and first systematised by Mr. Nillson. \nDaniel "Wilson\'s " Archaeology and Pre-historic \nAnnals of Scotland," published 1851. An inter- \nnational congress for treating prehistoiical subjects \nmet at Neuchatel in 1866, and at Paris in 1867. At \nthe third meeting at Norwich, Aug. 1868, it assumed \nthe name of " International Congress for Prehistoric \nArchaeology," and published its transactions in 1869. \nA meeting was held at Stockholm 7-14 Aug. 1874. \nSee Barrows, 3fa\xc2\xbb^ and Ancient Monuments. \nSir John Lubbock divides prehistoric arclueology into \n\nfour great epochs : 1. The Drift or Palaeolithic or old \n\nstone age ; 2. The Neolithic or polished stone age ; 3. \n\nThe Bronze age ; 4. The Iron age, when bronze was \n\nsuperseded. \xe2\x80\x94 (1880.) \n\nPEE-EAPHAELITE SCHOOL, a name \ngiven about 1850, to J. E. Millais, Win. Holman \nHunt, D. G. Rossetti, and other artists, who opposed \nthe routine conventionality of academic teaching, \nand resolved to study nature as it appeared to \nthem, and not as it appeared in the antique. Eor \na short time they published " The Germ, or Art and \nPoetry," beginning in 1850. Their works have \nbeen much criticised, but their influence has been \nbeneficial. Their principles are much advocated \nby the great art-critic, John Euskin. \n\nPEEEOGATIYE COUET, in which for- \nmerly all wills were proved, and all administrations \ntaken, which belonged to the archbishop of Canter- \nbury by his prerogative, a judge being appointed by \nhim to decide disputes.* Appeals from this court, \npreviously to the pope, were commanded to be \nmade to the king in chancery, 1533 ; to the privy \ncouncil in 1830-2. This court was abolished, and \nthe Probate Court established in 1857. Sir John \nDodson, the last judge, died in 1858. \n\nPEEEOGATIYE, EOYAL. In England \nthe sovereign is the supreme magistrate, and it is a \nmaxim that he can do no wrong. He is the head \nof the established church, of the army and navy, \nand the fountain of office, honour, and privilege, \nbut is subject to the laws, unless exempted by \nname. The royal prerogatives were greatly exceeded \nby several despotic sovereigns, such as Elizabeth, \nJames I., and Charles I. Elizabeth used the phrase \n" We, of our Royal prerogative, which we will net- \nhave argued or brought in question" (1^91). \nJames I. told his parliament "that as it was blas- \nphemy to question what the Almighty could do \nof His power, so it was sedition to inquire what a \n\n\n\n* The records date from 1383 ; but the testamentary \n.jurisdiction from that year to 1433 was exercised by the \ncourt of arches. Then abp. Stafford transferred it to a \nnew court ; president, the commissary of the prerogative \ncourt of Canterbury. There was also a prerogative \ncourt of the archbishop of York. \n\n\n\nPBESBUBG. \n\n\n\n779 \n\n\n\nPEESTON. \n\n\n\nking could do by virtue of his prerogative." \nThese extreme doctrines were nullified by the \nrevolution of 1688, and the exercise of the preroga- \ntive is now virtually subject to parliament ; see \nLords. \n\nPBESBUBG, the ancient capital of Hungary, \nwhere the diets were held and the kings crowned. \nOn 26 Dec. 1805, a treaty was signed between \nFrance and Austria, by which the ancient states of \nVenice were ceded to Italy; the principality of \nEichstadt, part of the bishopric of Passau, the city \nof Augsburg, the Tyrol, all the possessions of \nAustria in Suabia, in Brisgau, and Ortenau, were \ntransferred to the elector of Bavaria, and the duke \nof Wiirteniberg, who, as well as the duke of Baden, \nwere then created kings by Napoleon. The inde- \npendence of the Helvetic republic was also stipu- \nlated. A new iron and stone railway and passenger \nbridge over the Danube was inaugurated by the \nemperor, 30 Dec. 1890. Population, 1890, 52,444. \n\nPBESBYTEEIANS are so called from their \nmaintaining that the government of the church \nappointed in the New Testament was by presby- \nteries, or association of ministers and ruling ciders, \nequal in power, office, and in order. " The elders \n((jrreek, presbyteros) I exhort, who am also an \neldei (sympresbyteros)." 1 Peter v. 1. Presby- \nterianism was accepted by parliament in place of \nepiscopacy in England in 1648, but set aside at the \nrestoration in 1660. It became the established \nform of church government in Scotland in 1696. \nIts tenets were embodied in the formulary of faith \nsaid to have been composed by John Knox, in 1560, \nwhich was approved by the parliament, and ratified, \n1567, and finally settled by an act of the Scottish \nsenate, 1696, afterwards secured by the treaty of \nunion with England in 1 707. The first Presby- \nterian meeting-house in England was established \nat Wandsworth, Surrey, 20 Nov. 1572. \nA pan-presbyterian congress held in London. Repre- \nsentatives of about fifty bodies, British, Ame- \nrican, and foreign, agreed to form an "Alliance of \nPresbyterian churehes " . . . 19-22 July, 1875 \nThe presbyterian church of England re-constituted \nat Liverpool (in union with the United Presbyte- \nrian Church of Scotland) . . .13 June, 1876 \nA pan-presbyterian congress, held at Edinburgh, \nbegan 3 July, 1877; at Philadelphia, U.S.A., \n\n23 Sept 1S80 \nThe delegates to the pan-presbyterian council \nassemble at Exeter Hall . . .4 July, 1888 \n\nSee Chwch of Scotland, Camerouians, Burghers, \nRelief, Glasites, Free Church, &c. \n\nPEESCOTT (Upper Canada). On 17 Nov. \n1838, the Canadian rebels were attacked by the \nllritish under major Young, and (on the 18th) by \nlieut. -colonel Dundas, who dispersed the insurgents, \nseveral of whom were killed, and many taken pri- \nsoners, and the remainder surrendered. The troops \nalso suffered considerably. \n\nPEESEEVED MEAT see Provisions. \n\nPBESIDENT, see Court of Session, Privy \nCouncil; United Stales, 1789; France, 1848,1871; \nWrecks, 1841.\xe2\x80\x94 PRESIDENT OE THE COUNCIL, \nLORD, the fourth great officer of state, is appointed \nunder the great seal, durante bcneplacito, and, by his \noffice, is to attend the sovereign\'s royal person, and \nto manage the debates in council, to propose matters \nfrom the sovereign at the council-table, and to \nreport to his majesty the resolutions taken there- \nupon . \n\nPEESS ASSOCIATION (a company "limi- \nted") was established by the newspaper proprie- \ntors of Loudon and the provinces, at a meeting at \n\n\n\nManchester, 29 June, 1868, to make arrangements \nto enable them to avail themselves of the increased \nfacilities for the speed}\' transmission of news \nafforded by the post office, in consequence of the \npurchase of the rights of all the telegraph com- \npanies, authorised by the Telegraph Act of 1868. \nThe organisation of the association was completed\' \nat a meeting in London, 3 March, 1869. The Pro- \nvincial Newspaper Society, out of which it sprang, \nwas founded in 1836, and became the Newspaper \nSociety in 1889. Since 1868 the number of good \ndaily provincial newspapers, containing the latest \nnews of the world, has very greatly increased. \n\nPEESS, Liberty oe the. The imprimatur \n\n"let it be printed" was much used on the title- \npages of books printed in the sixteenth and seven- \nteenth centuries. The liberty of the press was \nseverely restrained, and the number of master- \nprinters in London and Westminster limited by the \nStar Chamber, 13 Charles L, July 1, 1637. John \nMilton published his noble work, " Areopagitica ; \nor, a Speech for the Liberty of Unlicensed! \nPrinting," 1644. Sec Fourth Estate. \n"Disorders in printing" were repressed by the \n\nparliament in 1643 and 1649, and by Charles II. . 1662 \nThe censorship of the press (by a licence established \n\nin 1655 and 1693) abandoned 1695 \n\nThe toast, "The liberty of the press ; it is like the \nair we breathe \xe2\x80\x94 if we have it not we die," was \nfirst given at the Crown and Anchor tavern, at a \n\nWhig dinner 1795 \n\nPresses licensed, and the printer\'s name required to \nbe placed on both the first and last pages of a \n\nbook July, 1799 \n\nThe severity of the restrictions on the French press \nrelaxed by M. Persigny, minister of the interior, \n\nbut soon restored Dec. i860 \n\nThe liberty of the press in the United States greatly \n\nchecked during the civil war . . . 1861-1865 \nCertain restrictions on printers in the United King- \ndom removed by act passed . . . July, 1869 \nBill greatly freeing the press in Prance introduced \n\ninto the chamber .... 24 Jan. 1881 \n\nPress (newspaper), a revolutionary journal, pub- \nlished in Dublin : commenced in Oct. 1797 ; \nArthur O\'Connor, Mr. Emmett, the barrister \n(whose brother was executed in 1803), and other \nconspicuous men, contributors to it ; it inflamed \nthe public mind in Ireland on the eve of the \nrebellion in 1798. The paper was suppressed by \na military force .... 6 March, 1798 \n\n- PEESS-GANG for the royal navy was regu- \nlated by statute, 1378, and by 5 & 6 Will. IV. 1835; \nthe compulsory service is limited to five years, see \nImpressment. \n\nPRESSING TO DEATH, see Mute. \n\nPEESTON (Lancashire). Near here Cromwell \ntotalty defeated the royalists under sir Marmaduke \nLangdale, 17 Aug. 1648. Preston was taken in \n1715 by the Scotch insurgents, under Forster, who \nproclaimed king James VII. They were defeated \nin a battle on 12, 13 Nov. by generals Willes and \nCarpenter, who with the royal army invested \nPreston on all sides. The Scots laid down their \narms, and their nobles and leaders were secured ; \nsome were shot as deserters, and others sent to \nLondon pinioned and bound together, to intimidate \ntheir party.\xe2\x80\x94 The stoppage of the cotton manu- \nfacture in 1861 and 1862, through the civil war in \nAmerica, occasioned great suffering in Preston. See \nPopulation. \n\n" The Preston guild Merchant festival," said to have \nbeen instituted in Saxon times, recorded as be- \nginning 1328, and to have been kept once in 20 \nyears regularly since 1562, was duly celebrated in \n\nSept. 1862, and Sept. 1882 \nA fine art and industrial exhibition here opened \n\n2i Sept. 1865 \n\n\n\nPRESTON-PANS. \n\n\n\n780 \n\n\n\nPRIMROSE LEAGUE. \n\n\n\nThe new town hall opened, by the duke of Cambridge \n\n3 Oct. 1867 \n\nStatue of the late earl of Derby publicly inaugurated \n\n3 June, 1873 \n\nPreston strikes. \xe2\x80\x94 In 1853, a great number of strikes \ntook place among the workmen in the north of \nEngland. Those at Preston struck for an increase \n\nJ of 10 per cent, on their wages. On 15 Oct. the \nmasters, in consequence, closed forty-nine mills, \nand 20,000 persons were thrown out of employ- \nment, who were mostly maintained for a long \ntime by subscriptions from their fellows. In the \nweek ending 17 Dec. 14,972 were relieved, a* the \ncost of 2820Z. 8s. The committee of workmen \naddressed lord Palmerston, 15 Nov., who gave \nthem his advice 24 Dec. 1853 \n\nAfter many attempts at reconciliation, the strike \nclosed for want of funds . . . 1 May, 1854 \n\nAnother strike was closed in May, 1869 \n\nThe executors of Mr. E. C. Harris, a solicitor, \nawarded 70,0002. for a free library, museum, <fcc. , \nSept. 1879 ; of which the foundation was laid by \nthe earl of Lathom .... 5 Sept. 18S2 \n\nThe foundation of the Lancashire county hall laid \nby the earl of Derby ... 14 Sept. ,, \n\nMr. Rich. Newsham bequeaths his pictures and art \ntreasures, worth about 70,000/. to Preston \n\nannounced Dec. 1883 \n\nPRESTON-PANS, near Edinburgh, the scene \nof a battle between the Young Pretender, prince \nCharles Stuart, and his Scotch adherents, and the \nroyal army under sir John Cope, 21 Sept. 1745. \nThe latter was defeated with the loss of 500 men, \nand fled. \n\nPRETENDERS. A name given to the son \nand grandsons of James II. of England. \n\nThe Old Pretender, James Francis Edward \n\nStuart, Chevalier de St. George, born 10 June, \n\n1688, was acknowledged by Louis XIV. as James \n\nIII. of England, in 1701 \n\nProclaimed, and his standard set up, at Braemar \n\nand Castletown, in Scotland . . 3 Sept. 1715 \nLanded at Peterhead, in Aberdeenshire, from \nFrance, to encourage the rebellion that the earl \nof Mar and his other adherents had prompted, \n\n25 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThis rebellion having been soon suppressed, the \nPretender escaped to Montrose (from whence he \nproceeded to Gravelines) . ... 4 Feb. 1716 \n\nDied at Rome 50 Dec. 1765 \n\nThe Young Pretender, Charles Edward, was \n\nborn in 1720 \n\nLanded in Scotland, and proclaimed his father king \n\n25 July, 1745 \nGained the battle of Preston-pans, 21 Sept. 1745, \n\nand of Falkirk 17 Jan. 1746 \n\nDefeated at Culloden, and sought safety by flight, \n\n16 April, ,, \nHe continued wandering among the wilds of Scot- \nland for nearly six months ; and as 30,000?. were \noffered for taking him, he was constantly pursued \nby the British troops, often hemmed round by \nhis enemies, but still rescued by some lucky \naccident, and at length escaped from the isle of \nUist to Morlaix in Sept. He died . 31 Jan. 1788 \nHis natural daughter assumed the title of duchess \n\nof Albany; died in 1789 \n\nHis brother, the cardinal York, calling himself \nHenry IX. of England, born March, 1725; died \n\nat Rome in Aug. 1807 \n\nHis alleged grandson, Charles Edward Stuart cohite \n\nd\'Albanie, died 24 Dec. 1880 \n\nSee France, Louis XVII. ; and Impostors, 1606. \n\nPREVENTION OF CRIME ACTS, n \nAug. 1871, 15 Aug. 1879, and 12 July, 1882. See \nIreland, May, 1882, 1887 et acq. \n\nPREVENTIVE t MEDICINE. The dis- \ncoveries of Pasteur, Koch, and others, relative to \nthe propagation of disease by minute germs (see \nGerm Theory), led to the gradual formation of a \nBritish Institute of Preventive Medicine by a com- \nmittee of eminent physiologists and medical men. \n\n\n\nSir Joseph lister was proposed as the first president, \nand Cambridge as the site of the Institute, Dec. 1890. \nPRICES, see Com, Bread, and Provisions. \nMr. T. Tooke, in 1838, published a "History of \nPrices from 1793 to 1856." He was latterly aided \nby Mr. W. Newmarch. " History of Agriculture \nand Prices" (1259-1702). By Mr. J. E. T. Rogers; \nsix volumes published 1866-87; he died 13 Oct. 1890. \n\nPRIDE\'S PURGE. On the 6th Dec. 1648, \ncolonel Pride, with two regiments, surrounded the \nhouse of parliament, and seizing in the passage \nforty-one members of the Presbyterian party, sent \nthem to a low room, then called hell. Above 160 \nother members were excluded, and none admitted \nbut the most furious of the Independents. The \nprivileged members were named the Rump parlia- \nment, which was dismissed by Cromwell, 20 April, \nI653- \n\nPRIENE,one of the twelve cities of the Ionian \nleague in Asia Minor. The temple of Minerva \nPolias, founded here by Alexander the Great, and \nthe work of Pythios, was excavated by Mr. 11. P. \nPullan, for the Dilettanti Society, in 1868-9. \n\nPRIEST (derived from prcsbyteros, elder), in \nthe English church the minister who presides over \nthe public w r orship. In Gen. xiv. 18, Melchizedek \nking of Salem is termed "priest of the most high \nGod." (1913 B.C. ; see Hebrews vii.) The Greek \nhicreus, like the Jewish priest, had a sacrificial \ncharacter, which idea of the priesthood is still \nmaintained by the Romanists and those who favour \ntheir views. Among the Jews, the priests assumed \ntheir office at the age of thirty years. The dignity \nof high or chief priest was fixed in Aaron\'s family, \n1491 B.C. After the captivity of Babylon, the civil \ngovernment and the crown were superadded to the \nhigh priesthood ; it was the peculiar privilege of \nthe high priest, that he could be prosecuted in no \ncourt but that of the great Sanhedrim. The \nheathens had their arch-fiamen or high piiest, \nresembling the Christian archbishop. For " Priest \nin Absolution," see Soli/ Cross. \n\nPRIMER. A book so named from the Bomisli \nbook of devotions, and formerly set forth or pub- \nlished by authority, as the first book children \nshould publicly learn or read in schools, containing \nprayers and portions of the scripture. Primers were \nprinted 1535, 1539- Hemy VIII. issued a prayer- \nbook called a "primer" in 1545. The three were \npublished by Dr. Burton in 1834. \n\nPRIMITIVE CULTURE, see Civilisation. \n\nPRIMOGENITURE, Right of. A usage \nbrought down from the earliest times. The first- \nborn in the patriarchal ages had a superiority over \nhis brethren, and in the absence of his father was \npriest to the family. In some parts of England, \nby the ancient customs of gavel-kind and borough- \nEnglish, primogeniture was superseded. It came \nin with the feudal law, 3 Will. I. 1068. The \nrights of primogeniture abolished in France, 1 790. \n\nPRIMROSE LEAGUE, formed in 1SS4 in \nmemory of the late lord Beaconsfkld (with whom \nthe primrose is said to have been a favourite flower) \nand in support of conservative principles, he died \n19 April, 1881, and the anniversary of that day is \ntermed "Primrose Day," when the flower is gene- \nrally worn by his admirers. The marquis of \nSalisbury became grand master. \nThe league, which began with under a thousand \nmembers, was declared to consist of 810,228 \nknights, dames, and associates, with 1,992 \n" habitations," on .... 20 May, 1389 \n\n\n\nPEINCE OF THE PEACE. \n\n\n\n781 \n\n\n\nPEINTING. \n\n\n\nThe lengtCe issues great number of political leaflets \nand songs. " Habitations " have been established \nin Scotland and Ireland. \nNumber of members reported, 1,002,097 . April, 1891 \nGreat meeting in Covent Garden theatre, the \nmartinis of Salisbury in the chair . 6 May, 1892 \n\nPEINCE OF THE PEACE, a title conferred \non Manuel Godoy by Charles TV. of Spain, for \nconcluding the Treaty of Basic. \n\nPEINCE EDWABD ISLAND (North \n\nAmerica), was discovered by Cabot, in 1497 ; was \nfinally taken from the French by the British, in \n1758 ;" united with Cape Breton as a colony in 1763 ; \nbut separated in 1768. Population 1881, 108,894, \n1891, 109,088. Capital, Chaiiottetown. Lieut- \ngovernors: W. F. Bobinson, Aug. 1870; sir Bobert \nHodgson, 1874; hon. Thomas Heath Haviland, 1879; \nhon. A. A. Macdonald, 1884; J. S. Carvell, 1889. \n\nPEINCE OF WALES\'S ISLAND, see \nBenanrj. \n\nPEINCE EUPEET\'S LAND, sec Rupert\'s \nLand, and Hudson\'s Bay. \n\nPEINCESS ALICE, an iron saloon steamer, \nbelonging to the London steamboat company, while \ncarrying, it is supposed, above 900 persons, princi- \npally women and children, on their return from \nSheerness, was immediately sunk by collision with \nthe Bywell Castle, a large iron screw steamer, about \n7.40 p.m. on Tuesday, 3 Sept. 1878, in the Thames, | \nin (Jallion\'s reach, about a mile below Woolwich j \narsenal. Alout 200 persons were saved, hut of I \nthese about 16 died afterwards. About 640 bodies j \nwere recovered and buried ; many at Woolwich. \nThe Princess Alice was 251 tons gross ; 219ft. 4111. long; \neoft. 2 in. broad; 8 ft. 4 in. deep. Engines, 140 horse \npower, by Caird, of Glasgow. Capt. Win. Grinstead \n(lost), with (it is said) 6 sailors, 2 engineers, 3 firemen, \n6 stewards, and 5 boys. \nThe Bywell Castle, 1376 tons gross; 254ft. 3 in. long; \n32 ft. 1 in. broad ; 19 ft. 6 in. deep. Engines, 120 horse \npower. Owners, Hall Brothers, London. Captain \nThomas Harrison. \nMansion House Belief Fund opened, 5 Sept. The queen \nsent 105?. ; subscriptions came from royal family ; \n38,246/. 2.?. 6<1 received; final meeting, 30 Dec. 1878. \nBoard of Trade Inquiry. \xe2\x80\x94 Result : Officers of Bywell \nCastle and Princess Alice not considered responsible for \nthe accident, but some were censured for carelessness, \n28 Oct. The Princess Alice considered to be equal to her \nload; inquiry concluded, 31 Oct. Decision: "that \nthe cause of the casualty was the breach of Rule 29 \nof the Thames Conservancy Regulations, by the \nPrincess Alice not porting her helm when she came \nend on to the Byu\'cll Castle, a vessel coming in the \nopposite direction." Report dated 6 Nov. 1878. \nCoroner\'s Inquest. \xe2\x80\x94 Verdict : " Bywell Castle did not take \nnecessary precautions in time, of easing, &c. ; Princess \nAlice contributed to the collision by not stopping her \nengines and going astern, -&c." ; 14 Nov. 1878. \nAn action for damage against owners of Bywell Castle, in \nAdmiralty division began 27 Nov. ; decision that both \nvessels were to blame, n Dec. 1878 ; decision on \nappeal that the Princess Alice was solely to blame, 15 \nJuly, 1879. \n\nPEINCESS\'S THEATEE, see under \n\nTheatres. \n\nPEINCETON, New Jersey, N. America. \nHere Washington defeated the British, 3 Jan. 1777. \n\nPEINTED GOODS, see Calico. \n\nPEINTEES\' PENSION SOCIETY, (now \ntermed "Printers\' Corporation"), founded 1827; \nchartered, 1865; almshouses instituted, 1841 ; \norphan schools have been set up. \n\nPEINTING. Block printing is said to have \nbeen invented by the Chinese about 593 a.t>., \nmovable types made in the 10th century. The \n\n\n\nhonour of first printing with single types in Europe \n\nhas been appropriated to Mentz, Sti asburg, Haarlem, \n\nVenice, Koine, Florence, Basle, and Augsburg ; but \n\nthe names of the three first only are entitled to \n\nattention ; see JPress. \n\nAdrian Junius awards the honour of the invention \nto Laurenzes John Koster, of Haarlem, " who^ \nprinted with blocks, a book of images and letters, \nSpeculum Huinance Salvationis, ami compounded \nan ink more viscous and tenacious than common \nink, which blotted, about 1438." \n\n[The leaves of this book, being printed on one side \nonly, were afterwards pasted together.] \n\n[In 1859, Mr. Samuel Leigh Sotheby issued an \nelaborate work compiled by his father and him- \nself, entitled " Principia Typographica," con- \ntaining fac-similes, &c, of the block-books of the \n15th century; and Mr. J. Russell Smith published: \na fac-simile of the Biblia Pauperum, a very early \nblock-book.] \n\nJohn Fust established a printing-office at Mentz, \nand printed the Tractatus Petri Hispani . . 1442- \n\nJohn Gutenberg invented cut metal types, and \nused them in printing the earliest edition of the \nLatin bible (termed the Mazarin, from the dis- \ncovery of a copy in the cardinal\'s library) at \n\n\n\nMentz \n\n\n\n1450-55 \n\n\n\n[At the sale of the Perkins library, 6 June, 1873, a * \ncopy of this bible on vellum sold for 3400?. , one on \npaper sold for 2690?. ; a copy belonging to sir John \nTliorold, of Syston-park, sold for" 3900?.. 13 Dee. \n1884 ; a copy belonging to the earl of Crawford \nsold for 2,650?., 15 June, 1887; lord Hopetoun\'s \ncopy sold for 2,oooL, 25 Feb. 1889.] \n\nBook of Psalms, by Fust andSchosffer . 14 Aug. 1457 \n\nSir John Thorold\'s copy on vellum sold for 4950?. \n[formerly sold for 136?.] 19 Dec. 1884. \n\nThe Durandi Rationale, first work printed with cast \nmetal types I+59 , \n\n[Printing was introduced into Oxford, about this \ntime. Collier. Denied by Dibdin.] \n\nA Livy printed. Du Fresnoy 146a \n\nThe first Latin bible with a date completed at \nMentz by Fust and Sehceffer 14 6 3 \n\nMentz taken and plundered, and the art of printing \nin the general ruin, is spread to other towns "\'. * * \n\nThe types were uniformly Gothic, or old German \n(whence our old English or Black Letter), until . 1465 \n\nGreek characters (quotations only) first used, same \nyear \n\nCicero de Officiis ru-inted by Fust at Mentz . \n\nRoman characters, first at Rome . . ". i\xc2\xb16t \n\nA Chronicle, said to have been found in the arch- \nbishop of Canterbury\'s palace (the fact disputed), \nbearing the date "Oxford, anno 1468." \n\nLactantius, by Sweynheym and Pannartz, near \nRome, 1465 ; Livy by the same .... 1469, \n\nWilliam Caxton, a mercer of London, set up the \nfirst press at Westminster 1470 \n\n[To the west of the Sanctuary in Westminster \nAbbey, stood the Eleemosynary or Almonry, \nwhere the first printing press in England was \nerected in 1471, by William Caxton, encouraged \nby the learned Thomas Miling, then abbot.] \n\nHe printed Willyam Caxton\' s Secuyel of the Hysioryes \nof Troy, by Raoul le Feure. Phillips . . . \n\nHis early pieces were, A Treatise on the Game of \nChessc and Tully\'s Otfccs (see below). Dibdin . 1474 \n\nJEsop\'s Fables, printed by Caxton, is supposed to be \nthe first book with its leaves numbered . . 1484 \n\nAldus cast the Greek Alphabet, and a Greek book \nprinted ap. Aldi 1476 \n\nHe introduces the Italics * * \n\nThe Pentateuch, in Hebrew I .g 2 \n\nGerman Bible at Nuremberg I4 s~ \n\nHomer, in folio, beautifully done at Florence, \neclipsing all former printing, by Demetrius . \'. 14S3 \n\nCaxton prints the Boke of Eueydos . . . 1490 \n\nAldus Manutius begins printing at Venice . . . 1494 \n\n\n\nPrinting used in Scotland \n\n\n\n1507 \n\n\n\nThe first edition of the whole bible was, strictly \nspeaking, the Complutensian Polyglot of cardinal \nXimenes (see Polyglot) I5I7 \n\nThe Liturgy, the first book printed in Ireland, by \nHumphrey Powell 1550 \n\nPrinting in Irish characters introduced by Nicholas \nWalsh, chancellor of St. Patrick\'s . . . 1571 \n\n\n\nPRINTING. \n\n\n\n782 \n\n\n\nPRINTING. \n\n\n\nThe first newspaper said to be printed in England \n\n(see Nevjspapers) \'S 88 \n\nFirst patent granted for printing . . . .1591 \nFirst printing press improved by William Blaeu, at \n\nAmsterdam . . . \xe2\x80\xa2\xe2\x96\xa0,\xe2\x96\xa0,;\xe2\x96\xa0 i6qi \nFirst printing in America, in New England, when \nthe Freeman\'s Oath and an almanack were \nprinted . . . \xe2\x80\xa2 A \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x96\xa0 . , \xe2\x80\xa2 - \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x96\xa0 T \xc2\xb039 \n\xe2\x80\xa2" Bav Psalm-book" printed at Cambridge, Mass. . 1640 \nFirst bible, printed in Ireland was at Belfast. \n\nHardy\'s Tour . . \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x96\xa0 I7 \xc2\xb0 4 \n\nFirst types cast in England by Caslon. Plulhps \xe2\x96\xa0 172\xc2\xb0 \n.Stereotype printing practised by William Ged, ot \n\nEdinburgh about 1730 \n\n[Specimen at Royal Institution, London.] \nThe present mode of stereotype invented by Mr. \n\nTilloch aljout J 779 \n\n[Stereotype printing was in use in Holland 111 the \n\nbust century. Phillips.\'] \nLogographie printing in which words cast , i 11 one \npiece were employed: patented by H. Johnson \nand Mr. Walter of the Times; (soon disused) . 1783 \nMachine-printing (which sec) first suggested by \n\nNicholson . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2\xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x96\xa0 i I79 \xc2\xb0 \n\nThe Stanhope press invented about 1800 ; 111 general \n\nnse o r \n\nAlbion press introduced . . \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x80\xa2 - \xe2\x80\xa2 - 1810 \nThe roller, which was a suggestion of Nicholson, \n\nintroduced . . \xe2\x96\xa0 \'\' \n\nCowper\'s and Applegath\'s rollers . . . . 1817 \nColumbian press of Clymer patented \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 . \xe2\x80\xa2 >> \nPrinting for the blind (by raised characters) begins 1827 \nAnastatic Printing, in which written or printed \nmatter is transferred upon zinc plates, was inven- \nted by Baldermus of Berlin about 1841, and made \nknown in London ; lectured on by Faraday in \n!8d<; \xe2\x80\xa2 and improved by Strickland and Delamotte \n\nin "\' 1 \' V lS4S \n\n","A similar process was invented by Mr. Cocks of \n\nFalmouth in 1836.] \nPrinting-types electro-faced with copper about 1850 \n\nEngraved copper-plate electro-faced with iron and \n\nnickel . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x96\xa0 , \xe2\x96\xa0 " l8 5 8 \nTupe-camposing Machines.\xe2\x80\x94 By James 1 ! oung s several \n\' numbers of the "Family Herald "were set up, \nben-inning 17 Dec. 1842 ; Hatterslcy\'s appeared at \nthe Exhibition of 1862; Hart\'s was shown at the \nmeeting of the British Association at Cambridge \n\n6 Oct. 1862 \nW H Mitchel\'s composing machine was tried at \nMessrs. Spottiswoode\'s, 1861 ; these machines \nwere said to be in use in America in . Jan. 1863 \nKastenbein\'s composing and distributing machines \n(in use at the Times office) shown at the Inter- \nnational exhibition . . \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 1872 \nThe "Clowes" type-composing machine (Hookers \npatent) in which electro-magnets arc employed, \nwas shown at the Caxton celebration exhibition, \nSouth Kensington . . ... July, 1877 \nIto 000 types per hour may be set up in page form.] \nAlexander Mackie\'s type-composing machine in use \n\' at his office in Warrington, and at Messrs. Clay\'s, \nLondon, in 1871. It was said to be able to set up \n4 columns of the Times in an hour. \nj jjiotBue.\xe2\x80\x94 An American composingand distributing \n\'machine, in which type matrices are employed \ninstead of type. The manipulator brings letters, \npoints and spaces together in one line of the \n\xe2\x96\xa0\'alley this is passed into a casting-box, and a \nsolid\' line of type is produced in stereo metal ; \nthis is repeated till the galley is full. The New \nYork Herald has used about 40 machines. In \nJuly, 1889, it was freely shown in London, for \nthe purpose of forming a company. _ \nMiss Emily Faithfull established the Victoria \nprinting-office in Great Coram-street, London, in \nwhich female compositors are employed: the \n"Englishwoman\'s Journal" printed there Aug. \n1861 -appointed printer and publisher in ordinary \nto her Majesty . \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 Ju , ne > l862 \nMr William Blades, learned printer, printed fac- \ns\'imilies of several of Caxton\'s works, 1858, et seq. \n"Life of Caxton," 1861-3, and 1877; and other \nvaluable works connected with printing; bom, \n\n!82 4 ; died 2 7 April, 1890 \n\nSec Printing Machine, Stereotype, and Nature Printing.] \n\n\n\nTitles of the earliest Books of Caxton and \nWynkvn de Worde. \n\nThe Game and Playe of the Chesse. Translated out \nof the Frenche and emprynted by me William Caxton. \nFynysshid the last day of Marvhe the yer of our Lord Ood \na thousand foure hondred and Ixxiiij. \n\n[A fac-simile of this book was printed by Mr. Vincent \nFiggins in 1859.] \n\nThe Dictes and Wise Sayings of the Philosophers, \nis stated to be the first book printed by Caxton in \nEngland, 1477. (Fac-simile published by Elliot Stock, \n1877.) \n\nThe Boke of Tulle of Olde Age Emprynted by me \nsimple persone William Caxton into Englysshe as the \nplaysir solace and reverence of men growing in to old age \nthe xij day of August the yere of our Lord M. cccc. Ixxxj. \nHerbert. \n\nThe Polycronycon conteyning the Berynges and Dedes \nof many Tymes in eyght Pokes. Imprinted by William \nCaxton after having someivhat clutunged the rude and olde \nEnglysshe, that is to wete [to wit] certayu Words which \nin\'these Dayes be neither vsyd nc imderstanden. Ended \nthe second day of Juyll at Westmest/re the assy yerc of the \nPegnc of Kynge Edward the fourth, and of the Jncarna- \ncion of oure Lord a Thousand four hondred four- Score \nand tweyne [1482]. Dibdin\'s Typ. Ant. \n\nThe Cronicles of Englond Empnted by me Wyllyam \nCaxton thabbcy of Westmynstre by londonthe v day of \nJuyn the yere of thincamacion of our lord god \n\nM. CCCC. LXXX. \n\nPolycronycon. Ended the thyrtenth daye of Apryll the \ntenth yere of the reyne of hinge Harry the seuenth And \nof the Jncarnacyon of our lord mcccclxxxxv. Empryn- \nted by Wynkyn The worde at Wesmestre. \nThe Hylle of Perfection emprynted at the instance of \nthe reverend relygyous fader Tho. Prior of the hous of \nSt. Ann, the order of the charterouse Accomplysshe[dL] \nthey fynysshe[d] att Westniynstcr the uiii day of Jancuer \nand ere of our lord Thousandc cccc. lxxxxvii. And in \nthe xii yere of kynge Henry the vii by me wynkyn de \nworde. Ames, Herbert, Dibdin. \nThe Descripcyon of Englonde Walys Scotland and \nIrlond speaking of the Noblesse and Worthyncsse of the \nsame Fynysshed and emprynted in Flete strete in the syne \nof the Sonne by me Wynkyn de Worde the yere of our \nlord a m ceccc and ij. mensis Mayiis [mense Maiij. \nDibdin\'s Typ. Ant. \nThe Festyvall or Sermons on sondays and holidais taken \nout of the golden legend enprynted at london in Flete-strete \nat y" sygne of y Sonne by wynkyn de worde. In the \nyere of our Lord st.ccccc.vin. And ended the :d daye \nof Maye. Ames. \nThe lord\'s prayer [As printed by Caxton in 1483. 1 \nFather our that art in heavens, hallowed be thy name: \nthy kingdome come to us ; thy will be done in earth as is \nin heaven: our every day bread give us to day; ami \nforgive us oure trespasses, as we forgive them that trespass \nagainst us ; and lead us not in to temptation, but deliver \nus from all evil sin, amen. Lewis\'s Life of Caxton. \nA Placard. [As printed by William Caxton.] 7/ it \nplcse ony man spiritual or temperel to bye ony pies <f two \nor three comemoracios of Salisburi me* enprynted after \nthe forme of this preset lettre whiche ben vel and truly \ncorrect, late him come to westmonester in to the almoncstye \nat the reed pale [red pale] and he shall have them good \n\xc2\xbb there. Dibdin\'s Typ. Ant. \n\nCaxton Celebration of 400th anniversary of discovery \nof printing : First meeting at Westminster abbey ; dean \nStanley in chair ; Messrs. Spottiswoode, Rivington, \nClowes, and others present, 17 Feb. 1877. \nExhibition (at South Kensington) of early printed books, \nbibles, and engravings ; printing, paper-making, ste- \nreotyping, electrotyping, in operation ; opened by Jlr. \nW. E. Gladstone, 30 June ; closed 1 Sept. 1877. \n1116?. profit given to the Printers\' Pension Corporation, \n\n30 July, 1878. \nThe catalogue contains valuable information. \nPrinting-machines. \xe2\x80\x94 William Nicholson, editor of the \nPhilosophical Journal, first projected (1700-1), but Mr. \nKdnig first contrived and constructed a working \nprinting machine, which began with producing the \nTimes of 2S Nov. 1S14, a memorable day in the annals \nof typography. \n\n* Romish Service-books, used at Salisbury, by the \ndevout called Pies (Pica, Latin), as is supposed from \nthe different colour of the text and rubric. Our printing- \ntype Pica is called Cicero by foreign printers.-\xe2\x80\x94 II heathy. \n\n\n\nPRIORIES. \n\n\n\nrS3 \n\n\n\nPRISONS. \n\n\n\nIn 1818, Mr. E. Cowper patented improvements. t \n\nKonig\'s machine printed 1800 an hour on one side ; \nCowper\'s improvements increased this number to \n4200. This was raised to 15,000, by Mr. Applegath\'s \nmachine, winch printed the Times. \n\nHoe\'s American machine, introduced into London 1858, \nprints 20,000 an hour. \n\nJflarinoni\'s machine at Paris said to print 36,000 an hour ; \nDee. 1868. \n\nWalter press, invented for the rimes by J. C. Macdonald \nand Mr. Calverley, between 1862-9, Points about 17,000 \nan hour perfected ; 1872. \n\nAmerican Campbell press said to print 50,000 sheets per- \nfected in an hour, Feb. 1876. \n\nIngram web rotary machine, invented by Mr. W. J. In- \ngram, M. P., for printing illustrated papers ; lirst used \nto print Illustrated London Xews, 4 Oct. 1877. \n\nPrinting in Colours was first commenced by the \nemployment of several blocks, to imitate the initial \nletters in MSS. (for instance, the Mentz Psalter of \nFust, 1455, which has a letter in three colours). \nImitations of chiaroscuro soon followed ("Repose in \nEgypt," engraving on wood after Louis Cranach, in \n1519, in Germany ; others by Ugo da Carpi, in Italy, \n1518). \n\nJ. B. Jackson (1720-54) attempted, without success, to \nimitate water-colour drawings, and to print paper- \nhangings. \n\nAbout 1783, John Skippe, an amateur, printed some \nchiaroscuros. \n\nIn 1S19-22, Mr. William Savage produced Lis remarkable \nwork, "Hints on Colour Printing," illustrated by \nimitations of chiaroscuro, and of coloured drawings, \ngiving details of the processes employed. \n\nIn 1836. Mr. George Baxter produced beautiful specimens \nof Picture-Printing, and took out a patent, which \nexpired in 1855. In some of the illustrations to the \n"Pictorial Album" (1S36), he employed twenty dif- \nferent blocks. \n\n8t has been applied to Lithography (hence Chromo- \nlithography). \n\nIn 1849, Mr. G. C. Leighton produced imitations of \nwater-colour drawings, by means of modifications and \nimprovements of Savage\'s processes. In 1S51 he com- \nmenced colour-printing by machinery, and has since \n.availed himself of aqua-tinted plates, and also of elec- \ntrotyped silver and copper surfaces to obtain purity of \ncolour as well as durability. \n\nThe large coloured prints of the Illustrated London News \nwere lirst issued in Dec. 1S56. \n\nMr. E. Meyerstein explained his process of printing \nmany colours at one impression (stenochromy), So- \nciety of Arts, 13 Dec. 1S76. \n\nPrinting surfaces. Vulcanised india-rubber was first em- \nployed fortius purpose by Mr. John Leighton, F.S.A., \nabout 1862, and patented in the name of Alfred Leigh- \nton, 1864. The application is much used for hand- \nstamps for books, &e. \n\nPrinting Exhibition (of specimens, apparatus, mate- \nrials, stationery, and machinery), at Agricultural Hall, \nLondon, include 5-17 July, 1880 ; 14 July et seq. 1881 ; \nand 30 July et se /. 1883. \n\nInternational exhibition of printing at Stationers\' hall, \nLondon, opened by the lord mayor, 14 Oct. 1889. \n\nPRIORIES, at first dependent on the great \nabbeys, are mentioned in 722 in England ; see \nAbbeys, and Monasteries. Alien priories were seized \nby the king (Edward I.) in 1285, and in succeed- \ning reigns on the breaking out of war with France ; \nbut were usually restored on the conclusion of \npeace. These priories were dissolved, and their \nestates vested in the crown, 3 Henry V. 1414. \xe2\x80\x94 \nMy titer\'s Fcederti. \n\nPRISCILLIANISTS, disciples of Priscillian. \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2a Spanish bishop who propagated doctrines alleged \nto contain Gnosticism and Manicheism, 372. When \ncondemned he appealed from the pope to the \n\xe2\x96\xa0emperor, but was beheaded at Treves, 385. \n\nt In 1817 was published Blumenbaeh\'s Physiology \nby Elliotson, the first book printed by machinery. The. \nmachine employed was Kdnig\'s, one which printed both \ntKides in one operation at the rate of 900 sheets an hour \n\xe2\x80\xa2(1816). \n\n\n\nPRISONERS OF WAR, among the ancient \nnations, when spared, were usually enslaved. About \nthe 13th century, civilized nations began t> ex- \nchange their prisoners. \nThe Spanish, French, and American prisoners of \n\nwar in England were 12,000 in number, 30 Sept. 1779 \nThe number exchanged by cartel with Frame, from \n\nthe commencement of the then war, was 44,000 \n\nJune, 17S1 \nThe English prisoners in France estimated at 6000, \n\nand the French in England 27,000 . . Sept. 1798 \nThe English in France amounted to 10,300, and the \n\nFrench, &c, iu England to 47,600, in . . . 1S11 \nGreat numbers made by the Germans in the war 1S70-1 \n\nPRISONERS\' COUNSEL ACT, 6 & 7 \n"Will. IV. c. 114 (1836), allows counsel to persons \ntried for felony ; hitherto prohibited. \n\nPRISONS of England and "Wales. Annual \ncost: 1867-8,482,414/. ; 1869-70,501,348/.; 1880-1, \n421,686/.; 1881-2,375,548/.; 18S3-4, 334,674/.; \n1887-8, 340,483/. ; 1890-1, 326,551/. \nEngland and Wales; in prisons, March, 1882, 18,392; 1S83, \n\n16.913; in 18S7, 15,457; March, 1890, 14,558. \n\nPRISONS OF London, see Fleet, King\'s \nBench, Xeicgate, Poultry, Glerkemvell. \n\nHorsemonger-lane. gaol was built in 1791 ; closed, \n\n1878 ; opened as a playground . . 5 May, 1S84 \nThe state of prisons greatly improved after the \n\nexertions of Howard.* Cold-Bath Fields prison \n\nwas built on his suggestion, 1794 ; converted int 1 \n\noffices for the parcels post .... 1SS7-91 \nThe atrocities of governor Aris in this prison were \n\nexposed in parliament . . . .12 July, 1S00 \nSheriffs\' fund society for assisting discharged \n\nprisoners established by aldermen C. Smith and \n\nsir R. Phillipps 1S07 \n\nWhitecross-street prison for debtors erected . 1S13-15 \nMilbank prison (see Milbank) received convicts as a \n\npenitentiary 27 June, 1816 \n\nBorough compter mean and confined till visited \n\nby a parliamentary committee in . . . . 1S17 \nSavoy prison, for the confinement of deserters from \n\nthe Guards, formerly situated in the Strand, was \n\npulled down to make room for Waterloo-bridge . 1819 \nNew Bridewell prison was erected as a substitute \n\nfor the City Bridewell, Blaekfriars, in . . 1S29 \n\nTothill Fields Bridewell, built in 161S, rebuilt . 1S36 \nThe old Marshalsea prison, Southwark, built in the \n\n13th century, taken down ^42 \n\nPentonville Model prison completed . . . ., \nMilbank penitentiary reported a failure ; changed \n\nto au ordinary prison ,5:^, \n\nMiddlesex House of Detention, Clerkenwell, erected \n\nin 1S47 \n\nCity prison, Holloway, opened . . 6 Feb. 1S52 \nRoyal Discharged Prisoners\' Aid society established 1858 \nAct passed for abolishing Queen\'s Bench prison . 1S62 \nPrison Ministers\' act passed .... iS;.; \n\nActs to consolidate and amend the law relating to \n\nprisons, passed . . .5 July, 1865 ; Aug. 1866 \nHoward Association (whicli see) instituted . . \n\nA National Prison Association was organized in \n\nNew York ^69 or 1S70 \n\nMilbank made a military prison ....,, \nInternational prison congress met at the Middle \n\nTemple, London 3 j u i V) ^72 \n\nPrison Discipline Society, by the philanthropic \n\nlabours of sir T. F. Buxton, M.P., was instituted \n\nin 1815, and held its first public meeting in iS.-o. \n\nIts objects were the amelioration of gaols, flic \n\nclassification and employment of die \'prisoners, \n\nand the prevention of crime. \nWhitecross-street prison ; ordered to be pulled down \n\nand materials sold .... n Oct. 1S70 \n\n* John Howard was born 2 Sept. 1726; made sheriff \nOf Bedford, 1773; investigated into the state of English \nprisons, 1773-5; and gave evidence thereon before\' the \nhouse of commons, which led to amen lments by law, \n1774 ; he visited prisons all over the continent, and died \nat Kherson, 20 Jan. 1790. Centenary celebrated 2> Jan. \n1890. \n\n\n\nPEIVATE BILLS. \n\n\n\n784 \n\n\n\nPEOBATE COUET. \n\n\n\nA prisons bill brought forward, i June ; withdrawn \n\n31 July, 1876 \n\nThe Prison Acts, for England, Ireland, and Scot- \nland, passed 12 July and 14 Aug. 1877. They trans- \nfer management of prisons, after 1 April, 1878, . \n\n.- from local authorities to the home secretary ; \nprovide for re-distribution and reduction of \nnumber of prisons, &c. \n\nOther gaols closed 1878 \n\nAn international Prison Congress met at Stockholm \n\n20-24 Aug. , , \n\nPrisoners\' aid societies, prison charities act passed \n\n18 Aug. 1882 \n\nDischarged prisoners\' aid societies are now attached \nto all prisons. The " metropolitan" society was \nestablished 1864 \n\nA receiving house for discharged prisoners was \nopened by gen. Booth at 30, Argyle-square, W.C. \n\n30 Jan. 1 89 1 \n\nThe committee appointed to inquire respecting \nprison rules, reported in favour of their continu- \nance in regard to dress and hair-cutting, for \nsanitary, disciplinary and general reasons . June, 1889 \n\nInt\'irnational congress respecting prisons at St. \nTetersburg, 550 delegates ; president, prince of \nOldenburg .... 19 June, et seq. 1890 \n\nfA continuation of the " Commission Peniten- \ntiaire Internationale," founded in 1872, which has \nmet in London, Rome, and Stockholm.] \n\nPEIVATE BILLS, see Acts of Parliament. \n\nPBIVATEEB, a ship belonging to private \nindividuals, sailing with a licence (termed a Letter \nof Marque), granted by a government in time of \nwar, to seize and plunder the ships of the enemy. \nThe practice, said to have been adopted by Ed- \nward I. against the Portuguese in 1295, was gene- \nra! during the war between Spain and the Nether- \nlands in the 17th century, and during the last \nFrench war. Privateering was abolished by the \ngreat sovereigns of Europe by treaty, 30 March, \n1856. The United States government refused to \nagree unless the right of blockade was also given up. \nThe British government declined this, asserting \n" that the system of commercial blockade was \nessential to its naval supremacy." On 17 April, \n1861, Jefferson Davis, president of the southern \nconfederacy, announced his intention of issuing \nletters of marque, and on the 19th president Lin- \ncoln proclaimed that all southern privateers should \nhe treated as pirates. This decree was not carried \nout: see United States. All the great powers for- \nb ide privateering during the American civil war \n{which see). By the treaty of "Washington priva- \nteering was prohibited. \n\nPBIVILEGED PLACES, see Asylums. \n\nPEIVY COUNCIL. A council said to have \nbeen instituted by Alfred, 895. The number of the \ncouncil was about twelve when it discharged the \nfunctions of state, now confined to the members of \nthe cabinet ; but it had become of unwieldy amount \nbefore 1679, in which year it was remodelled upon \nsir William Temple\'s plan, and reduced to thirty \nmembers: Anthony Ashley, earl of Shaftesbury, \nbeing president. The number is now unlimited. \nTo attempt the life of a privy councillor in the \nexecution of his office was made capital, occasioned \nby (juiscard\'s stabbing Mr. Harley while the latter \nwas examining him on a charge of high treason, 9 \nAnne, 1711. \n\' The Proceedings and Ordinances of the Privy Council \n\nof England from 10 Richard II. to 33 Hen. VIII. , \n\nedited by sir H. Nicolas, 7 vols," were published by \n\nthe record commissioners, 1834-7. \nThe "Acts of the Privy Council," edited by Mr. J. R. \n\nDasent, beginning with 1542, Vols. I.\xe2\x80\x94 IV., issued in \n\n1890 2. \nJudicial Committee of the Privy Council.\xe2\x80\x94 In lieu of \n\nthe Court of Delegates, for appeals from the lord chan- \n\n\n\ncellors of Great Britain and of Ireland in cases of \nlunacy \xe2\x80\x94 from the Ecclesiastical and Admiralty Courts \nof England, and the Vice-Admiralty courts abroad \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\xa2 \nfrom the Warden of the Stannaries, the courts of the \nIsle of Man, and other islands, and the Colonial courts, \n&c., \xe2\x80\x94 fixed by statute 3 & 4 Will. IV.. c. 41, 1833 ; \namended by other acts in 1844, 1851, 1852. \n\nJudges. \xe2\x80\x94 The lord president, lord chancellor, master of \nthe rolls, vice-chancellor, lords justices in appeal, lord \nchief justice of the queen\'s bench and common pleas, \nlord chief baron, judges of the courts of bankruptcy, \nprobate, and admiralty, and others appointed by the \nqueen. In consequence of the increase of business, \nand consequent delay, the queen was empowered to\xc2\xbb \nappoint four new judicial members of the committee, \nby 34 & 35 Vict. c. 91 (21 Aug. 1871). The attorney- \ngeneral, sir R. Collier, was made a judge of the Common \nPleas, 7 Nov., and a member of the judicial committee \n22 Nov. 1871. \n\nThese proceedings were considered contrary to the spirit \nof the act by several judges and the legal profession \ngenerally. A vote of censure on the Gladstone ministry \nwas negatived in the house of lords (89-87), 15 Feb. ; \nin the commons (268-241), 19 Feb. 1872. \n\nOther changes were made by an act passed in 1876. \n\nPEIVY SEAL, THE Lord, the fifth great \nofficer of state, has the custody of the privy seal, \nwhich he must not put to any grant, without good \nwarrant under the king\'s signet. This seal is used \nby the king to all charters, grants, and pardons, \nsigned by him before they come to the great seal. \nRichard Fox, bishop of Winchester, held this office \nin the reign of Henry VIII. previously to 1523^ \nwhen Cuthbert Tunstall, bishop of London, was- \nappointed. The privy seal has been on some \noccasions in commission. \xe2\x80\x94 Beatson. See under \nLiverpool, Canning, Wellington, and succeeding- \nAdministrations. Present lord, George Henry \nCadogan earl Cadogan appointed 26 July, 1886. \n\nPRIZE-FIGHTING, see Boxing. \n\nPEIZE MONEY, arising from captures made- \nfrom the enemy, was decreed by government to be- \ndivided into eight equal parts, and distributed by \norder of ranks, 17 April, 1793. The distribution of \narmy prize-money is regulated by an act passed in \n1832. Naval prize-money is nowregulated by royal \nproclamation; the last, 19 May, 1866. \n\nPEOBABILITY, Theory of (termed by \n\nButler, "the guide of life" ; by Laplace, "good \nsense reduced to calculation"), was originated by \nPascal, and taken up by Fermat, in their corre- \nspondence in 1654. \n\nIts object is "the determination of the number of ways \nin which an event may happen or fail, in order that \nwe may judge whether the chances of its happening or \nfailing are greater."\xe2\x80\x94 Jevons. \nIt has been treated upon by the most eminent mathema- \nticians, viz. , the Bernouillis, De Moivre, D\'Alembert, \nEnter, Lagrange, Laplace, and Gjuetelet. \nIsaac Todhunter\'s copious "History of Probability,"\' \npublished 1S65. \n\nPEOBATE COUET, established in Aug. 1857 \nby 20 &21 Vict. c. 77, which abolished all powers- \nexercised by the ecclesiastical courts in the granting \nof probates of wills, &c. ; see Prerogative Court. \nThe first judge appointed, 5 Jan. 1858, was sir \nCresswell Cresswell, who took his seat on 12 Jan.. \nOn his death, sir James P. "Wilde (aft. lord Pen- \nzance) was appointed judge, 28 Aug. 1863 ; see Su- \npreme Court. The president of the probate, divorce,, \nand admiralty division, sir James Hannen (1872), \nsucceeded by sir Charles P. Butt, Jan. 1891 (died \n2; May, 1892) ; sir Francis Henry Jeune; 30 May, \n1892. By the Judicature Act of 1873, tnc probate,, \ndivorce, and admiralty courts were constituted the \n5th division of the Supreme Court. A probate and \nmatrimonial division of the high court of justice of \n\n\n\nPEOCEDUEE EULES. \n\n\n\n785 \n\n\n\nPROTECTIONISTS. \n\n\n\nIreland was established by Judicature act, 1877; \npresent judge, Robert Richard Warren (1889). Pro- \nbate is the exhibiting and proving a will before the \nproper authority. The probate registry is now at \nSomerset House (1889). \nProbate duties transferred to relieve local taxation by \n\nLocal Government Act, 1888\xe2\x80\x94 amount received 1887-8, \n\n4,596,620?. \n\nPEOCEDUEE EULES, see under Parlia- \nment 1882 and 1888, 189O. \n\nPEOCESSIONS ACT, 13 Vict. c. 2, passed \n12 March, 1S50, prohibited party processions, with \nbanners, &c. It was repealed in 1872. Processions \nof workmen and others, for demonstrations in Hyde \nPark, prohibited in the great thoroughfares of \nLondon, by the police, 31 May, 1S90. \n\nPEOCLAMATIONS, Eoyal, " have only \na binding force when grounded upon and to enforce \nthe laws of the realm." \xe2\x80\x94 Coke. Henry VIII., in \n1539, declared that they were as valid as acts of \nparliament. This was annulled, 1547. \n\nThe lord lieutenant of Ireland has power by procla- \nmation to place districts under the provisions of the \nCriminal Law Procedure Acts, 1881 and 1887, which \ndistricts are then said to be proclaimed. \n\nPEOCONSUL, a Roman consul, whose tenure \nof office was extended beyond his legal term. Q. \nPublilius was the first proconsul appointed during \nthe war with Parthenope, 327 ji.e. The name was \nafterwards given to governors of provinces. \n\nPEOCTOE (from procurator), an office in \necclesiastical courts, corresponding to, that of an \nattorney or solicitor in courts of common law. It \nwas abolished by the Judicature act, 1873. The \npersons chosen to represent the clergy in convoca- \ntion are termed proctors. The university proctors \nenforce discipline. \n\nPEOFILES. The first profile taken, as recorded, \nwas that of Antigonus, who, having but one eye, his \nlikeness was so taken, 330 B.C. \xe2\x80\x94 Ashe. " Until the \nend of the 3rd century, I have not seen a Roman \nemperor with a full face ; they were always painted \nor appeared in profile, which gives us the View of a \nhead in a very majestic manner." \xe2\x80\x94 Addison. \n\nPEOGEESISTAS, a political party in Spain, \nheaded by Espartero, duke of Victory, and latterly \nby general Prim. Since 1865 they adopted a policy \nof inaction in public affairs; by uniting with the \nunionists and republicans in Sept. 1868, the govern- \nment were overthrown, see Spain. \nA pai-ty in Servia and also in Portugal are termed Pro- \ngressists, and in England a radical party is termed \nProgressives, 1888 et seq. \n\n"PEOGEESS AND POVEETY," see \n\nZand Nationalization. \n\nPEOGEESSIONIST THEOEY supposes \nthat the existing species of animals and plants were \nnot originally created, but were gradually developed \nfrom one simple form ; see Species. \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 PEOM1SSOEY NOTES were regulated and \nallowed to be made assignable in 1705. First taxed \nby a stamp in 1782 ; the tax was increased in 1804, \nand again in 1808, and subsequently; see Pills oj \nExchange. \n\n" PEO NIHILO," a pamphlet, said to be by \ncount Henry Arnim, attacking count Bismarck ; \npublished Nov. 1875. He was prosecuted for it in \n1876 ; see Prussia. \n\nPEONUNCIAMENTO, a revolution (in \nSpain or South America) effected by a military \n\n\n\nleader; in France, termed a coup d\'etat. See \nFrance and Spain. \n\nPEOPAGANDA FIDE, Congregatio \n\nDE (congregation for the propagation of the faith of \nthe Romish church), was constituted at Rome by \nGregory XV. in 1622 ; the college in 1627. \n\nPROPAGATION of the Gospel Society \n\nreceived its charter, 16 June, 1701. Its sphere is \ngenerally limited to the British colonies. General \nincome in 1867, 114,1546/.; in 1879, 145,240/.; in \n1884, 109,572/. ; in 1891, 116,520/. \n\nPEOPEETY. The assessments on real \nproperty, under the property tax of 1815, were \n51,898,423/. ; of which Middlesex was 5,595,537/. ; \nLancashire, 3,087,774/. ; and Yorkshire, 4,700,000/. ; \nWales, 2,153,801/. Estimated wealth of the country \n(1878), 8,500,000,000/. See Income Tax, Capital. \n\nPEOPHESYING. About 1570 the puritanical \npart of the clergy, particularly at Northampton, \nheld meetings (termed prophesyings) for prayer and \nexposition of the scriptures. These were forbidden \nby queen Elizabeth, 7 May, 1577, and immediately \nceased. \n\nThe Prophecy Investigation society, formed about 1840, \nheld a special meeting at the Mansion-house, London, \n30 April, 1891. \n\nPEOPHETS, see under Jews. \n\nPEOPOETIONAL EEPEE- \nS E N T A T I O N. The scheme propounded by \nMr. Thomas Hare in 1857, in a pamphlet on " Rep- \nresentation," and perfected in his "Treatise on the \nElection of Representatives," published in 1859, \nwhich was well received by Mr. J. Stuart Mill. \nA society to introduce this principle was formed in \nFeb. 1884. It included sir John Lubbock (presi- \ndent), Mr. Leonard H. Courtney, and many other \nM.P\'s. \n\nIt proposed that "in all cases where au elector is \nentitled to one vote only, to enable the elector to \nnominate more than one* candidate to whom, under \ncertain circumstances, that vote might be transferred \nin the manner indicated bj the elector." Negatived by \nthe commons, 134\xe2\x80\x9431, 3 March, 1885. \n\nPEOEOGATION op Parliament. By an \n\nact passed 12 Aug. 1867, her majesty was enabled \nto issue a proclamation for the prorogation of par- \nliament during the recess. \n\nPEOSECUTOE. By the Prosecution of Of- \nfences Act, 42 &43 Vict. c. 22 (3 July, 1879), the \nappointment of a director of public prosecutions \nwith assistants was enacted, somewhat resembling \nofficers in Scotland and Ireland. It came into ope- \nration 1 Jan. 1880. John Blossett Maule, appointed \ndirector of public prosecutions, Dec. 1879; succeeded \nby sir Augustus Stephenson, 1884. \nA committee reported the plan to be a failure, and \n\nrecommended changes, June ; act amended, 1884. \nA public prosecutor, "iirocureur du roi," in France, is \nmentioned in the 14th century ; replaced by "accusa- \nteur publique" (elected), 1791 ; by " commissaire na- \ntional," 1793; "procurer" restored by Napoleon I. \n\nPEOTECTION OF LIFE AND PEO- \nPEETY ACT (for part of Ireland), passed 16 \nJune, 1871 ; another, 3 March, 1881. See Ireland. \n\nPEOTECTIONISTS, that section of the con- \nservative party which opposed the repeal of the corn \nlaws, and which separated from sir Robert Peel in \n1846. The name was derived from a " Society for \nthe Protection of Agriculture," of which the duke \nof Richmond was chairman, and which had been \nestablished to counteract the efforts of the Anti-Corn \nLaw League, 17 Feb. 1844. Lord George Bentinck \n\n3 E \n\n\n\nPROTECTORATES. \n\n\n\n786 \n\n\n\nPROVISIONS. \n\n\n\nwas the head of the party from 1846 till his death, \n21 Sept. 1848. The Derby administration not pro- \nposing the restoration of the corn-laws, the above \nsociety was dissolved, 7 Feb. 1853. \xe2\x80\x94 The protection \nof native manufactures has been maintained in the \nUnited States since 1868, and in France, Germany, \nItaly, and other countries. See France, March, \n1887. See United States, Oct. 1890. \nThe revival of protection negatived by the liouse of \ncommons without a division, 14 May, i386. The \nnational association for the preservation of agriculture \nand other- industries held a meeting in London, S Dec. \n1887. \nSee Fair Trade and Free Trade. \n\nPROTECTORATES in England. That \nof the earl of Pembroke, 19 Oct. 12 16, ended by his \ndeath, 1218. Of Humphry, duke of Gloucester, \nbegan 31 Aug. 1422; he was seized 11 Feb. 1447, \nand found dead a few days after. Of Richard, duke \nof Gloucester, began May, 1483, and ended by his \nassuming the royal dignity, 26 June the same year. \nOf Somerset began 28 Jan. 1547, and ended by his \nresignation in 1549. Of Oliver Cromwell began 16 \nDec. 1653, and ended by his death, 3 Sept. 1658. \nOf Richard Cromwell began 3 Sept. 1658, and ended \nby his resignation, 25 May, 1659 ; see England. \n\nPROTEIN, from the Greek (protcion, princi- \npal) ; a chemical term introduced by Mulder about \n1844, for the basis of albumen, fibrin, and casein. \n\nPROTESTANT REFORMATION SO- \nCIETY, established 1820 ; it employs mission- \naries and readers. \n\nPROTESTANTS. The emperor Charles V. \ncalled a diet at Spires in 1529, to request aid from \nthe German princes against the Turks, and to devise \nmeans for allaying the religious disputes which \nthen raged owing to Luther\'s opposition to the \nRoman catholic clergy. Against a decree of this \ndiet, to support the doctrines of the church of Rome, \nsix Lutheran princes, with the deputies of thirteen \nimperial towns, formally and solemnly protested, 19 \nApril, 1529. Hence the term protestants was given \nto the followers of Luther ; it afterwards included \nCalvinists, and other sects separated from the see of \nRome. The six protesting princes were : John, \nelector of Saxony ; George, margrave of Branden- \nburg ; Ernest and Francis, tne dukes of Lunenburg; \nthe landgrave of Hesse ; and the prince of Anhalt ; \nthese were joined by the citizens of Strasburg, \nNuremberg, Ulm, Constance, Heilbron, and seven \nother cities ; see Luther anism, Calvinism, Hugue- \nnots, Germany, Church of England, &c. \nProtestants persecuted in Scotland and Germany . 1546 \nEdward VI. established Protestantism in England . 1548 \nMary re-establishes Romanism, and persecutes the \n\nProtestants : above 300 put to deatli . . 1553-8 \nRidley, bishop of London, and Latimer, bishop of \nWorcester, were burnt at Oxford, 16 Oct. 1555 ; \nand Cranmer, abp. of Canterbury . 21 March, 1556 \n[During three years of Mary\'s reign, 277 persons were \nbrought to the stake ; besides those punished by \nimprisonment, fines, and confiscations. Among \nthose who suffered by fire were 5 bishops, 21 \nclergymen, 8 lay gentlemen, 84 tradesmen, 100 \nhusbandmen, servants, and labourers, 55 women, \nand 4 children. The principal agents of the queen \' \nwere the bishops Gardiner and Bonner.] \nElizabeth restores Protestantism . . . . 1558 \n\nProtestant settlements formed in Ulster, N. Ireland \n\n1608-11 \nThe Protestant union of princes in Germany, 4 May, \n\n1608; met last May, 1621 \n\nThirty years\' war between Romanists and Protestants \n\nin Germany 1618-48 \n\nProtestants persecuted at Thorn, in Poland . . 1724 \nProtestant Association (see Gordon\'s " No-Popery" \nMob) \xe2\x96\xa0, 1780 \n\n\n\nA society for planting communities of the poorer \nProtestants on tracts of land, particularly in the \nnorthern counties of Ireland, established in Dub- \nlin in Dec. 1829 \n\n(London) Protestant Society, established 1827 ; Pro- \ntestant Association, 1835 ; Protestant Alliance . 1849 \n\nProtestant Conservative Society established 9 Dee. 1831 \n\nProtestant Alliance formed at Armagh . 7 Nov. 1845 \n\nPan-protestant conference held at Worms (about \n1000 delegates) 3 1 Ma J% l86 9 \n\nMeeting of a general synod of the Reformed Church \nof France (M. Guizot present), to propose return \nto early doctrine and discipline held at Paris, \n7 June ; the "liberal party" attack the doctrines \nof the authority of the Bible, the divinity and \nresurrection of Christ, &c. ; an orthodox confes- \nsion is carried amid strong opposition (61-45) \n\n20 June, 1872 \n\nProtestant churchmen\'s alliance formed, see Church \nof England 25 Feb. 1S90 \n\nDeath of M. Edmond de Pressense, eminent free \nchurch pastor, at Paris, aged 67 . 8 April, 1891 \n\nNational Protestant congress meets at Brighton \n\n13 Oct. ,, \n\nPROTOPLASM, the material of the minute \nultimate particles of all animal and vegetable tis- \nsues, formerly termed sarcode ; by Von Mohl, proto- \nplasm (1884), "the physical basis of life," by Huxley \n(1868). The protamcoba, the lowest form of life, i* \na structureless mass of protoplasm ; the amoeba, a \nsimilar mass, contains a nucleus. Protoplasm is \ncomposed of carbonic acid, water, and ammonia. \n\nPROTYLE, see Elements. \n\nPROVENCE (the Roman Provincia), S. E. \nFrance, was made a kingdom by the emperor Lo- \nthaire for his son Charles. It afterwards became \npart of the kingdom of Aries as a feudal fief, and \nwas re-united to the German empire in 1032 by \nConrad II. On the fall of the Hohenstaufens it \nwas acquired by Charles of Anjou, who married the \nheiress of the count in 1245, and became king of \nNaples, in 1268 ; and was held by his successors \ntill its annexation to France by Charles VIII. in \n1487. \n\nPROVERBS. The book of Proverbs by Solo- \nmon is dated about 1000 B.C. The latter part was \ncollected by order of Hezekiah, about 700 P...C. \nRay\'s collection of English proverbs appeared in \n1672, and Bonn\'s general collection in 1857. Martin \nF. Tupper\'s "Proverbial Philosophy" first appeared \nin 1839. Alfred Henderson\'s "Latin Proverbs," \n1869. A society for the Revision of Proverbs \nexisted in 1886. \n\nPROVIDENCE, capital of Rhode Island, U.S. \n{which see), 1636. Population, 1890, 132,146. \n\nPROVIDENT KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY \n\nestablished in 1872, to forward the post-office finan- \ncial schemes ; by establishing penny banks, sending \nout lecturers, and publishing papers for the promo- \ntion of thrift among the lower classes. It held its \nfirst annual meeting, 9 May, 1873, the earl of Derby \nin the chair. \n\nPROVISIONS OF OXFORD, see Oxford. \n\nPROVISIONS\xe2\x80\x94 Remarkable State- \nments CONCERNING THEM. The high value \nof money at the time must be borne in mind. \nSale of Food and Drugs act passed 11 Aug. 1875 (see \n\nAdulteration). \nWheat for food for 100 men for one day worth only one \nshilling, and a sheep fourpenee, Henry I. about 1130. \nThe price of wine raised to sixpence per quart for red, \nand eightpenee for white, that the sellers might be \nenabled to live by it, 2 John, 1200. \xe2\x80\x94 Burton\'s Annals. \nWhen wheat was at 6s. per quarter, the farthing loaf was \nto be equal in weight to twenty-four ounces (made of \nthe whole grain), and to sixteen the white. When \nwheat was is. 6d. per quarter, the farthing white loaf \n\n\n\nPROVISOES. \n\n\n\n787 \n\n\n\nPEUSSIA. \n\n\n\nwas to weigh sixty-four ounces, and the whole grain \n(the same as standard now) ninety-six, by the first \nassize, 1202.- \xe2\x80\x94 Mat. Paris. \n\nA remarkable plenty in all Europe, 1280.\xe2\x80\x94 Dufresnoy. \n\nWheat is. per quarter, 14 Edw. I., 1286.\xe2\x80\x94 Stow. \n\nThe price of provisions fixed by the common council of \nLondon as follows : two pullets, three half-pence ; a \npartridge, or two woodcocks, three half-pence ; a fat \nlamb, sixpence from Christmas to Shrovetide, the rest \nof the year fourpence, 2q Edw. I., 1299.\xe2\x80\x94 Stow. \n\nPrice of provisions fixed by parliament: at the rate of \n2I. 8s. of our money for a fat ox, if fed with corn, 3Z. 12s. ; \na shorn sheep, 5s. ; two dozen of eggs, 3d ; other \narticles nearly the same as fixed by the common council \nabove recited, 7 Edw. II., 1313.\xe2\x80\x94 ito/. Pari. \n\nWine the best sold for 20s. per tun, 10 Rich. II., 1387. \n\nWheat being at is. id the bushel m 1390, this was deemed \nso high a price that it is called a dearth of com by the \nhistorians of that era. \n\nBeef and pork settled at a halfpenny the pound, and veal \nthree farthings, by act of parliament, 24 Hen. VIII., \n1533. \xe2\x80\x94 A nderso n. \n\nDocument from a "Book of the Joint Diet, Dinner and \nSupper, and the charge thereof, for Cranmcr, Latimer, and \nRidley," kept by the bailiffs of Oxford, while they were \nin their custody : \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nI Oct. 1554. DINNER. \n\nBread and Ale . . . .\xc2\xa3002 \nOysters - ...001 \n\nButter 002 \n\nEggs ... ...002 \n\nLyng .... .008 \n\nA piece of fresh salmon - . . o \n\nWine o \n\nCheese and pears . . . . o \n\n\n\no 10 \n\xc2\xb0 3 \n\n\n\nThe three dinners . 026 \n\nMilk sold, three pints ale-measure for one halfpenny, 2 \n\nEliz. 1560. Stow\'s Chronicle. \nLiebig\'s discovery of his "Extractum Carnis," extract of \n\nmeat, announced 1847. \nSince the autumn of 1865, meat, milk, and butter greatly \n\nincreased in price owing to the cattle-plague, &c. \nThe "Food Committee" of Society of Arts first met 21 \n\nDec. 1866. \nMeat very dear in England, 1868-73. Introduction of \n\nAustralian preserved meat by Mr. John McCall in 1865 ; \n\nimported in 1866, 91 cwt. ; in 1871, 237,160 cwt. Meat \n\nimported herein 1863, 3283 cwt. ; in 1877, 599,181 cwt. \nCarcases frozen by Harrison\'s method ; cargo sent to \n\nEngland from Melbourne, Australia, 23 July ; arrived, \n\n18 Oct. ; proved a failure, 2 Nov. 1873. \nGood preserved American meat sold in London, 27 Dec. \n\n1875. Great influx of meat preserved by cold, 1877. \nBell & Coleman\'s patent refrigerators reported successful \n\nin preserving meat, (fee, Aug. Sept. 1878. \nMeat to the amount of about 2,500,000?. imported \n\nannually, 1885. \nFresh meat brought from Australia, Feb. 1880. \n5,000 frozen sheep arrived from New Zealand, 2% May, \n\n1882. \xe2\x80\xa2 \nMr. Coleman explained his process at the Royal Institu- \ntion, London, and showed that by these machines \n\natmospheric air could be cooled down to 80\xc2\xb0 below \n\nzero Fahrenheit, whereby the vitality of microphytes \n\nwas completely destroyed, 29 May, 1885. \nRefrigerator railway car conveyed fresh herrings from \n\nWick to London, 15 Aug. 1883. \nio,oooZ. worth of fresh meat imported from Libau, Russia, \n\nduring July, 1883. \nThe Elderslic with 25,000 frozen sheep from New Zealand, \n\narrives in London, Dec. 1884. \nRefrigerating barges for the distribution of imported \n\nfrozen provisions, and constructed by the Pulsometer \n\nEngineering company, announced Jan. 1890. \nA new system of refrigeration by cold air, published by \n\nthe British and Foreign Refrigerating company, \n\nLondon. The system is mechanical and single, Dec. \n\n1890. \xe2\x80\xa2 \nFor the price of Bread since 1735, see Bread. \nSee Milk, Cattle. \n\nPROVISOES, Statutes of, beginning 25 \n\nEdward III., 1 351-2, prohibited the pope from ap- \npointing aliens and others to benefices before they \nwere vacant \n\n\n\nPEOVVEDIMENTO SOCIETIES in \n\nItaly, formed to aid in acquiring Rome and Venice, \nelected Garibaldi as their chief, 10 March, 1862. \nThey were tolerated by Eicasoli, and warned to be \nmoderate by Kattazzi. \n\nPEOVOST, the chief municipal magistrate of \na city or burgh in Scotland, corresponding to the \nEnglish mayor. The provosts of Edinburgh, \nGlasgow, Aberdeen, Perth, and in 1892 Dundee, are \nstyled " lord provosts." \n\nPEOXIES. Voting by proxy, an ancient privi- \nlege of the house of peers, was very frequently \nabused. _ In the reign of Charles II., when the duke \nof Buckingham sometimes brought 20 proxies in his \npocket, it was ordered that no peer should bring \nmore than two proxies. From 1830 to 1867, both \ninclusive, proxies were only called 73 times. In \nconformity with the recommendation of a committee, \na new " standing order" was adopted, 31 Marc-]], \n1868, by which it was ordered "That the practice of \ncalling for proxies on a division shall he discon- \ntinued." \n\nPEUD\'HOMMES, Conseils de (from \n\nprudens homo,& prudent man), trade tribunals in \nFrance, composed of masters and workmen, were \nconstituted to arbitrate on trade disputes in 1806. \nSimilar bodies with this name existed as far back as \n1452 at Marseilles, and at Lyons in 1464. \n\nPEUSSIA. This country was anciently pos- \nsessed by the Venedi. They were conquered by the \nBorussi, who inhabited the Bipha:au mountains ; \nand from these the country was called Borussia. \nThe Porussi afterwards intermixed with the fol- \nlowers of the Teutonic knights, and latterly with \nthe Poles. The constitution, established 31 Jan. \n1850, was modified 30 April, 1851 ; 21 May, 5 June, \n1852 ; 7 and 24 May, 1853; 10 June, 1854; 30 May, \n1855 > and r 5 May, 1857. Population, withLauen- \nbu\'rg (annexed 14 Aug. 1865), 19,304,843; with \nHanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, and Frankfort, \nDec. 1867, 24,039,543 ; 1875, 2 5>74 2 > 20 4 ! tSSo? \n27,279,111; 1885,^46,855,704; 1890, 29,959,388. \n1891-2, budget estimates, revenue, 79,580,650/. ; \nexpenditure, 79,580,650/. President of the ministr>j t \n&c, prince Bismarck, Sept. 1862. See bclotc, 1890, \n1892. \n\nSt. Adalbert arrives in Prussia to preach Chris- \ntianity, and is slain about 997 \n\nBoleslas of Poland revenges his death by dreadful \n\nravages 1018 \n\nThe Prussians resist the Poles, and renounce \n\nChristianity about 1061 \n\nBerlin built by a colony from the Netherlands, in \n\nthe reign of Albert the Bear 1163 \n\nThe Teutonic knights returning from the holy wars, \nundertake the conquest and conversion of Prus- \nsia 1225 \n\nThorn founded by them 1231 \n\nPrussia subjugated by the Teutonic knights . . 1283; \nKonigsberg, lately built, made the capital . . 1286 \nLargely re-peopled by German colonists i2-i3th \n\ncentury. \nFrederick IV. of Nuremberg (the founder of the \nreigning family) obtains by purchase from Sigis- \nmund, emperor of Germany, the margraviate of \n\nBrandenburg 141 5 \n\nCasimir IV. of Poland assists the natives against \n\nthe oppression of the Teutonic knights . . 1446 \nAlbert of Brandenburg, grand master of the Teutoni c \norder, seizes its territories, renounces the Roman \ncatholic religion, embraces Lutheranism, and is \nacknowledged duke of East Prussia, to be held as \n\na fief of Poland 1525 \n\nSuccessful rebellion against the knights consum- \nmated by the treaty of Thorn .... 1466 \nUniversity of Konigsberg founded by duke Albert, 1544, \nJohn Sigismond created elector of Brandenburg and \n\nduke of Prussia i6o8> \n\n3 e 2 \n\n\n\nPRUSSIA. \n\n\n\nPRUSSIA. \n\n\n\nThe principality of Halberstadt and the bishopric \nof Mindeu transferred to the house of Branden- \nburg 1648 \n\nPoland obliged to acknowledge Prussia as an inde- \npendent state, under Frederick "William, sur- \n\nnaraed the Great Elector 1657 \n\nOrder of Concord instituted by Christian Ernest, \nelector of Brandenburg and duke of Prussia, to \ncommemorate the part he had taken in restoring \n\nX>eace to Europe 1660 \n\nFrederick III. in an assembly of the states, puts a \ncrown upon his own head and upon the head of \nhis consort ; is proclaimed king of Prussia by the \nname of Frederick I., and institutes the Order of \n\nthe Black Eagle 18 Jan. 1701 \n\nGueldres taken from the Dutch .... 1702 \nFrederick I. seizes Neufchatel or Ncunburg, and \n\npurchases Tecklenburg 1707 \n\nThe principality of Meurs added to Prussia . . 1712 \nFrederick II. the Great, king, who made the Prus- \nsian monarchy rank among the first powers of \n\nEurope 174\xc2\xb0 \n\nBreslau ceded to Prussia 1741 \n\nSilesia, Glatz, &c, ceded 1742 \n\n\' \'Seven years\' war" (see Battles) . . . 1756-63 \nFrederick II. victor at Prague, 6 May ; defeated at \n\nKolin, 18 June ; victor at Rosbach . 5 Nov. 1757 \nGen. Lacy, with an Austrian and Russian army, \nmarches to Berlin ; the city is laid under contri- \nbution, &c. ; magazines destroyed . . Oct. 1760 \nPeace of Hubertsburg (ends "seven years\' war"); \n\nSilesia gained by Prussia . . . 15 Feb. 1763 \nPrussia shares in the first partition of Poland . . 1772 \nFrederick the Great dies ... 17 Aug. 1786 \nFrederick William II. invades France . . . . 1792 \nJoins the coalition against France . . . . 1793 \nThe Prussians seize Hanover . . 1801 and 1806 \nPrussia joins the allies of England against France, \n\n6 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nFatal battles of Jena and Auerstadt . . 14 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n[Nearly all the monarchy subdued.] \nBerlin decree promulgated ... 20 Nov. ,, \nPeace of Tilsit (which sec) .... 9 July, 1807 \nFormation of the Tugendband (which see), a patriotic \nsociety (promoted by Von Stein) ....,, \n\nConvention of Berlin 5 Nov. 1808 \n\nSchaunliorst secretly restores the army by the sys- \ntem of reserves ; forming a nation of soldiers 1809-13 \nThe people rise to expel the French from Germany \nat the king\'s appeal, and form the "landwehr" or \n\nmilitia 17 March, 1813 \n\nTreaty of Paris 11 April, 1814 \n\nThe king visits England .... 6 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nMinistry of education established . . . . 1817 \nCongress of Carlsbad . \' . . . 1 Aug. 1819 \nBliicher dies in Silesia, aged 77 . . 12 Sept. ,, \n\nfFrom this time Prussia pursued a peaceful and un- \ndisturbed policy until 1848.] \nGovernment disputes with R. C. clergy begin, \nthrough ultramontanism of the Radziwill family \n\nsince 1830 1840 \n\nSerious attempt made on the life of the king, by an \nassassin named Tesch, who fired two shots at him \n\n26 July, 1S44 \nInsurrection in Berlin . . . .18 March, 1848 \nBerlin declared in a state of siege . . 12 Nov. ,, \nThe constituent assembly meets in Brandenburg \n\ncastle 29 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThis assembly dissolved ; the king issues a new \n\nconstitution 5 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe German National Assembly elect the king of \nPrussia "hereditary emperor of the Germans" \n\n28 March, 1849 \nThe king declines the imperial crown . 29 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe kingdom put under martial law . . 10 May, ,\', \nThe Prussians enter Carlsruhe . . 23 June, ,, \nArmistice between Prussia and Denmark . 10 July\' ,\', \nBavaria declared for an imperial constitution with \nthe king of Prussia at its head . . 8 Sept. \nTreaty between Prussia and Austria . 30 Sept. " \nAustria protests against the alliance of Prussia with \nthe minor states of Germany . . . 12 Nov. \nPrince Charles Anthony Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, \n\nminister, resigns 6 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNew constitution, 31 Jan. ; the king takes the oath \n\nrequired by it 6 Feb. 1850 \n\nHanover withdraws from the Prussian alliance, \n\n25 Feb. ,, \n\n\n\nTreaty signed at Munich between Austria, Bavaria, \nSaxony, and Wurtemberg to maintain the German \nunion 27 Feb. 1850 \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Wurtemberg denounces the insidious ambition of \nthe king of Prussia, and announces a league be- \ntween AVurtemberg, Bavaria, aud Saxony, under \nthe sanction of Austria . . . 15 March, ,, \n\nAttempt to assassinate the king . . 22 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nHesse-Darmstadt withdraws from the Prussian \nleague 30 June, ,, \n\nTreaty of peace between Prussia and Denmark, \n\n2 July, ,, \n\nA congress of deputies from the states included in \nthe Prussian Zollverein opened at Cassel \n\n12 July, ,, \n\nPrussia refuses to join the restricted diet of Frank- \nfort 25 Aug. ,\xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Prussian government addresses a despatch \nto the cabinet of Vienna, declaring its resolve \nto uphold the constitution in Hesse-Cassel, \n\n21 Sept. ,, \n\nCount Brandenburg, prime minister, dies, 6 Nov. , t \n\nDecree, calling out the whole Prussian army, \n223,000 infantry, 38,000 cavalry, and 29,000 artil- \nlery, with 10S0 field-pieces ... 7 Nov. ,, \n\nThe Prussian troops in Hesse occupy the military \nroad in that electorate .... 9 Nov. ,, \n\nThe Prussian forces withdraw from the grand \nduchy of Baden 14 Nov. ,, \n\nGeneral Radowitz, late foreign minister, visits \nqueen Victoria at Windsor . . .26 Nov. ,, \n\nConvention of Olmutz for the pacification of Ger- \nmany 29 Nov. ,. \n\nThe Prussian troops commence their retreat from \nHesse-Cassel 5 Dec. ,, \n\nPrince Schwartzenberg visits the king . 28 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe king celebrates the 150th anniversary of the \nPrussian monarchy 18 Jan. 185s \n\nThe king visits the czar of Russia . . 18 May, ,, \n\nStatue of Frederick the Great, by Rauch, inaugu- \nrated at Berlin 27 May, , \n\nThe king and czar leave Warsaw for Olmutz to meet \nthe emperor of Austria . . . . 31 May, ,, \n\nThe king revives the council of state as it existed \nbefore the revolution of 1848 . . .12 Jan. 1852; \n\nA Prussian industrial exhibition opened at Berlin, \n\n28 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPrussia repudiates a customs\' union with Austria, \n\n7 June, ,, \n\nBut agrees to a commercial treaty . . 19 Feb. 1853. \n\nDemocratic plot at Berlin detected . . April, ,, \n\nDeath of Radowitz . .... 25 Dec. ,, \n\nVacillation of the government upon the Eastern \nquestion March and April, 1854 \n\nAgrees to a protocol for preservation of the integrity \nof Turkey, which is signed at Vienna . 7 April, ,, \n\nDeclares neutrality in the war 6 Sept. and Oct. ,, \n\nExcluded from the conferences at Vienna . Feb. 1855, \n\nDisputes with Switzerland (see Neufchatel) \n\nNov. 1856, to May, 1857 \n\nAlarming illness of the king, the prince of Prussia \nappointed regent 23 Oct. ,, \n\nChevalier Bunsen ennobled . . . Jan. 1858 \n\nPrince Frederick William of Prussia married to the \nprincess royal of England . . . 25 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nQueen Victoria visits them at Potsdam . 10 Aug. ,,. \n\nPrince of Prussia permanent regent . . 7 Oct. , r \n\nResignation of Manteuffel ministry ; succeeded by \nthat of prince Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (liberal): \nthe elections end in favour of the new government \n\nNov. , r \n\nPrince Frederick William, son of the princess royal \nof England, born 27 Jan. 1859. \n\nItalian war \xe2\x80\x94 Prussia declares its neutrality, but \narms to protect Germany . May and June, ,,. \n\nThe regent announces that " the Prussian army \nwill be in future the Prussian nation in arms," \n\n12 Jan. 1S60 \n\nThe regent and several German sovereigns meet \nthe emperor of the French at Baden (see Baden), \n\n15-17 June, ,, \n\nBaron Bunsen dies (aged 70) ... 27 Nov. ,, \n\nDisclosures respecting the oppressive system of \nPrussian police ; Stieber, the director, prosecuted \nand censured, but. not punished . . Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDeath of Frederick William IV. Accession of Wil- \nliam I. 2 Jan 186s \n\nMeeting of the chambers : on the motion for the \n\n\n\nPRUSSIA. \n\n\n\n789 \n\n\n\nPRUSSIA. \n\n\n\naddress, M. von Vincke carries an amendment in \nfavour of Italian Unity and "a firm alliance with \nEngland " 6 Feb. \n\nOn 12 Sept. i860, capt. Macdonald was committed \nto prison at Bonn, for resisting the railway autho- \nrities there ; the English residents appealed and \nwere censured ; a correspondence ensued between \nthe Pi\'ussian government and the British foreign \nsecretary ; and strong language was littered in \nthe house of commons, 26 April, and in the Prus- \nsian chambers 6 May, \n\nThe Macdonald affair settled by a firm yet concilia- \ntory despatch from the Baron von Schleinitz, \n\nMay, \n\nAttempted assassination of the king by Becker, a \nJLeipsie student, 14 July ; who is sentenced to 20 \nyears\' imprisonment .... 23 Sept. \n\nThe king meets the emperor Napoleon at Compiegne \n\n6-8 Oct. \n\nThe king and queen crowned at Konigsberg; he \ndeclares that he will reign by the "Grace of \nGod" 18 Oct. \n\nBill for making the ministry responsible, passed \n\n6 March, \n\nThe chamber of representatives oppose the govern- \nment in regard to the length of military service, 6 \nMarch ; and resolve on discussing the items of \nthe budget ; the ministry resigns ; the king will \nnot accept the resignation, but dissolves the \nchambers - . ... n March, \n\nThe ministry (liberal) resigns, and a reactionary \ncabinet formed under Van der Heydt, 18 March- \n\n12 April, \n\nElections go against the government ; only one \nminister elected May, \n\nParliament opens ; ministers appeal to the patriotism \nof the members 19 May, \n\nSevere discussion on military expenditure ; the \nchamber reduces the vote for the maintenance of \nthe army from 200,000 to 135,000 men n-16 Sept. \n\nVan der Heydt resigns ; succeeded as premier \nby the count Bismarck Schonhausen, 23 Sept. ; \nwho informs the chamber that the budget is \ndeferred till 1863 ; the chamber protests against \nthis as unconstitutional . . .30 Sept. \n\nThe chamber of peers passes the budget without \nthe amendments of the chamber of representa- \ntives ; which (by 237 against 2) resolves that the \nact is contrary to the letter and spirit of the con- \nstitution 11 Oct. \n\nThe king closes the session (65th) saying, " The \nbudget for the year 1862, as decreed by the cham- \nber of representatives, having been rejected by \nthe chamber of peers on the ground of in- \nsufficiency, the government is under the necessity \nof controlling the public affairs outside the con- \nstitution" 13 Oct. \n\nAgitation in favour of the constitution proceeding ; \npassive resistance adopted ; several liberal papers \nsuppressed Nov. \n\nThe chambers reassemble ; unconciliatory address \nfrom the king, 14 Jan. ; bold reply of the depu- \nties ; adopted 23 Jan. \n\nThey recommend neutrality in the Polish war \n\n28 Feb. \n\nViolent dissension between the deputies and the \nministry May \n\nThe chamber of deputies address the king on their \nrelation with the ministry, and the state of the \ncountry, 22 May ; the king replies, that his minis- \nters possess his confidence, and adjourns the \nsession 27 May, \n\nThe king resolves to govern without a parliament . \n\nThe press severely restricted, 1 June : the crown \nprince in a speech disavows participation in the \nrecent acts of the ministry, 5 June ; and censures \nthem in a letter to the king, 6 July ; reconciled to \nthe king 8 Sept. \n\nThe liberal members feted in the provinces \n\n18, 19 July, \n\nThe chamber of deputies dissolved, 2 Sept. ; a \nliberal majority re-elected .... Oct. \n\nA motion in favour of maintaining the rights of \nthe duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, carried 2 \nDec. ; but the chamber obstinately refused its \nassent to it or to defray the expenses of war, Dec. \n\nChambers dissolved Jan. \n\n[For the events of the war, sec Denmark.] \n\n\n\n1862 \n\n\n\n1863 \n\n\n\nPreliminaries for peace with Denmark . 1 Aug. 18C4 \n\nPeace with Denmark signed . . .30 Oct. ,, \n\nThe opening of the chambers, 14 Jan. ; revival of \nthe constitutional agitation for control over the \narmy budget 16 Jan. 1865 \n\nInternational exhibition at Cologne opened by the \ncrown prince 2 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe deputies having rejected the budget, the bills \nfor reorganizing the army and increasing the fleet, \nand meeting the expense of the war with Denmark, \nthe chamber is prorogued ; the government will \nrule without it 17 June, ,, \n\nThe king at Carlsbad issues a despotic decree ap- \npropriating and disposing of the revenue, 5 July, ,, \n\nA political dinner of the liberal deputies prohibited \nat Cologne, and forcibly prevented at Oberlahn- \nstein, in Nassau .... 24 July, ,, \n\nConvention of Gastein (see Gastein), signed 14 Aug. ,, \n\nNavigation treaty with Great Britain concluded, \n\n16 Aug. ,, \n\nThe king takes possession of Lauehburg, purchased \nfrom Austria with his own money . 15 Sept. ,, \n\nBismarck visits the emperor Napoleon at Biarritz, \n\nNov. ,, \n\nThe chambers opened with a supercilious speech \nfrom M. Bismarck . . . .15 Jan. 1866 \n\nThe opposing chamber prorogued . 22 Feb. ,, \n\nDecree asserting Prussian jurisdiction overHolstein, \n\n11 March, ,, \n\nPrussian circular calling on German states to decide \nwhether they will support Austria or Prussia \n(they profess neutrality) . . 24 March, ,, \n\nPrussia prepares for war ... 27 March, ,, \n\nTreaty between Prussia and Italy, said to have been \nconcluded 27 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe French government professes neutrality, April, ,, \n\nAustria demands the demobilisation of the Prussian \narmy, 7 April ; Bismarck proposes a German \nparliament 9 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGreat meeting at Berlin in favour of peace, 15 April, ,, \n\nBlind\'s attempt to assassinate Bismarck fails, \n\n7 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRecriminatory correspondence between Mensdortf \n(Austrian) and Bismarck, calling for disarmament, \n\nApril, May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAlliance with Italy May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Prussians enter Holstein ; Austrians retire, \n\n7 Ju\xc2\xbbc, \xc2\xbb \n\nMeeting of the Federal diet at Frankfort; the \ndemobilisation of the Prussian army proposed by \nAustria ; voted for by Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, \nHesse - Cassel, Nassau, and others ; Prussia \ndeclares the Germanic confederation to be dis- \nsolved 14 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPrince Alexander of Hesse appointed to command \nthe Federal army June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Prussians declare war against Hanover and \nSaxony 15 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nJustificatory manifestoes issued by Austria and \nPrussia 17 June, ,, \n\nPrussia declares war ; royal manifesto to the people \n\n18 June, ,, \n\nThe Prussians occupy Hanover and Hesse-Cassel, \nSaxony and Nassau .... 16-20 June, ,, \n\nThe Austrian northern army enters Silesia, 18 June ; \njoined by the Saxons about . . . 19 June, ,, \n\nNearly all the northern states join Prussia about \n\n23 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPrince Frederick Charles and the first army, and \nthe army of the Elbe enter Bohemia, 23 June ; \nvictorious in severe engagements at Liebenan, \nTiiruau, and Podoll, 26 June ; Hiihnewasser, 27 \nJuue ; Miinchengratz, 28 June ; Gitschin, 29 June, ,, \n\nThe crown prince and the second army (of Silesia) \nenter Bohemia, 22 June ; repulsed at Trautenau, \n27 June ; victorious at Soor and Trautenau, 28 \nJune ; Koniginhof . . . .29 June, ,, \n\nThe left column of the crown prince\'s army defeat \nthe Austrians at Nachod, 27 June ; Skalicz, 28 \nJune : Sehweinschadel . . . 29 Juno ,, \n\nFruitless victory of the Hanoverians at Langensalza, \n27June; they capitulate to the Prussians, 29 June, , \n\nCommunications opened between the two armies, \n\n30 June, ,, \n\nThe command assumed by the king . . 1 .Inly, ,, \n\nBattle of Koniggratz, or Sadowa ; total defeat of \nthe Austrians under Benedek . . .3 July \n\n\n\nPEUSSIA. \n\n\n\n790 \n\n\n\nPEUSSIA. \n\n\n\nBenedek superseded by tlie archduke Albreeht, \n\n8 July, \n\nCampaign of the army under Vogel von Falken- \nstein against the army of the confederation, \nunder princes Charles of Bavaria and Alexander \nof Hesse ; Prussian victories at Wiesenthal and \nDermbach, 4 July ; Hammelburg and Kissingen, \n\n10 July, \n\nAdvance of the united armies under the king ; \ncavalry skirmish at Saar ; Austrians retire, \n\n10 July, \n\nPrince Frederick Charles enters Briinn, capital of \nMoravia 12 July, \n\nCampaign on the Maine: Prussian victories at \nLaufach, 13 July, and Aschatfenburg 14 July, \n\nThe members of the German diet retire from Frank- \nfort to Augsburg 13 July, \n\nAustrians defeated at Tobitschau . . 15 July, \n\nFrankfort occupied by Falkenstein . .16 July, \n\nSevere fight at Blumenau stopped by the news of an \narmistice 22 July, \n\nPreliminaries of peace signed at Nikolsburg, \n\n26 July, \n\nThe Prussians occupy Wiesbaden, 18 July ; vic- \ntorious at Tauberbischofsheim, Hochhausen, Wer- \nbacli, 24 July ; Neubrimn, Helmstadt, Gerscheim, \n25 July ; "VViirzburg, 28 July ; armistice granted, \n\n30 July, \n\nThe army reviewed by the king fifteen miles from \nVienna, 31 July ; begin their return home, \n\n1 Aug. \n\nFranconia occupied by the Prussian army of reserve, \nunder the grand duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, \n23 July-i Aug. ; armistices granted 1-3 Aug. \n\nThe diet at Augsburg recognised the dissolution of \nthe Germanic confederation ... 4 Aug. \n\nBohemia and Moravia cleared by . . 18 Aug. \n\nThe treaty of peace signed at Prague . 23 Aug. \n\nMeeting of special committee of the chamber of de- \nputies ; cost of the war stated, 88,000,000 dollars, \n\n29 Aug. \n\nPeace with Wiirtemburg concluded, 13 Aug. ; with \nBaden, 17 Aug. ; with Bavaria, 22 Aug. ; with \nHesse-Darmstadt (ceding Hesse-Cassel, Hesse- \nHomburg, <fec.) 3 Sept. \n\nFormation of the North German confederation (see \nGermany) Aug. \n\nIndemnity bill for the ministry passed . 8 Sept. \n\nEntry of the army into Berlin ; enthusiastic reception, \n\n20 Sept. \n\nDecree for the annexation of Hanover, Electoral \nHesse, Nassau, and Frankfort . . 20 Sept. \n\nPossession taken of Hanover, 6 Oct. ; of Hesse, \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 Nassau, and Frankfort .... 8 Oct. \nTreaty of peace with Saxony . . . 21 Oct. \nElectoral law for new German parliament promul- \ngated at Berlin 23 Oct. \n\nPrussian chambers reassemble . . .12 Nov. \nSchleswig and Holstein incorporated with Prussia \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 by decree ; promulgated ... 24 Jan. \n\nChambers closed 9 Feb. \n\nNorth German parliament meet at Berlin, 24 Feb. ; \n\nadopt a federal constitution ; closed . 17 April, \n\nPrussian chambers opened by the king 29 April, \n\nThey accept the North German constitution (sacri- \nficing Prussian civil rights to German unity), \n\n8 May, \n\nLuxembourg question settled by a conference at \nLondon (see Luxembourg) . . .7-11 May, \n\nThe king visits Paris ; leaves it . . 14 June, \n\nThe Prussian chambers approve North German \nconstitution ; closed by the king. . 24 June, \n\nThe new Prussian parliament opened by the king, \n\n15 Nov. \n\nTreaty with the United States respecting naturalisa- \ntion of aliens signed at Berlin . . .22 Feb. \n\nThe parliament closed .... 29 Feb. \n\nMuch of the king of Hanover\'s property seques- \ntrated, on account of his maintaining a Hano- \nverian legion, &c March, \n\nPrince Napoleon Jerome visits Berlin ; left, March, \n\nNorth German parliament opened by the king, \n\n23 March, \n\nCount Bismarck defeated in the North German \nparliament; his bill withdrawn . . 22 April, \n\nKb\'ni.g Willwlm, a noble ironclad, originally con- \nstructed for the sultan by Mr. E. Reed, the chief \n\n\n\n1867 \n\n\n\nconstructor of the British admiralty, bought by \nPrussia, launched at Blackwall . . 25 April, \n\nCustoms\' parliament at Berlin . 27 April-23 May, \n\n21 Hanoverians convicted of incipient treason \nagainst Prussia 20 May, \n\nCount von Bismarck\'s temporary retirement through \nill-health June, \n\nNorth German parliament closed by the king, \n\n20 June, \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Workmen\'s congress at Berlin, to promote centrali- \nsation 26-29 Sept. \n\nPrussian chamber opened with a pacific speech \nfrom the king 4 Nov. \n\nOpposition in the chambers ; violent speech of the \nminister, Leonhardt 1 Dec. \n\nBismarck, recovered, returns to Berlin . 8 Dec. \n\nThe property of the king of Hanover sequestrated \nfor his opposition 15 Feb. \n\nThe parliament closed .... 6 March, \n\nThe Prussian army exercised in manoeuvring at \nStettin, Konigsberg, &c. in presence of the king, \n\nSept. \n\nThe parliament meet, 6 Oct. ; rejects the proposal \nfor disarmament 21 Oct. \n\nThe crown prince visits Vienna . . .7 Oct. \n\nPrince Leopold, of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, con- \nsents to become candidate for the throne of Spain, \n\nabout 5 July, 1870 \n\nIn consequence of the virulent opposition of the \nFrench government he, with the king\'s consent, \nrelinquishes the candidature . .12 July, ,, \n\nThe French government requiring guarantees from \nthe king against the future, the king repulses \nand declines to receive the French minister, \nBenedetti, 13 July ; and issues a circular to his \nrepresentatives at foreign courts . 15 July, ,, \n\nThe emperor of the French declares for war, \n\n15 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe North German parliament meet, and vote to \nsupport Prussia 19 July, ,\xc2\xbb \n\nProclamation of the king, granting "amnesty for \npolitical offences," and " accepting the battle for \nthe defence of the fatherland," 31 July ; and to the \narmy, undertaking the command of the whole \narmy 3 Aug. ,\xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFor the events of the war see Franco-Prussian War. \n\nOrder of the "Iron Cross" (distributed in the war \nof 18 13) revived ; given to the crown prince for \nhis victory at Wissembourg on . . .4 Aug. \n\nPrussian bishops protest against infallibility of the \npope end of Aug. \n\nGreat rejoicing at Berlin, <fec, at the surrender of \nthe emperor Napoleon ... 3 Sept. \n\nMunich, Stuttgardt, and other southern cities, de- \nmand union with North Germany . 6 Sept. \n\nM. Jacoby arrested at Konigsberg by Von Falcken- \nstein for speaking against the annexation of Alsace \nand Lorraine .... early in Sept. \n\nRestriction on democratic meetings rescinded by \ngen. Von Falckenstein .... 7 Oct. \n\nHerr Twesten, the liberal opponent of government \nin the chamber, dies . . . .14 Oct. \n\nJacoby and other liberals released by royal decree \n(Jacoby died 7 March, 1877) . about 26 Oct. \n\nElection of new parliament, Nov. ; opened with \nspeech promising internal reforms, 14 Dec. ; aris- \ntocratic address from the peers congratulating \nthe king as nominated emperor (see Germany), \n\n21 Dec. ,, \n\nThe king proclaimed emperor of Germany at Ver- \nsailles 18 Jan. 1871 \n\nThe Prussian parliament closed . . .17 Feb. ,, \n\nThe emperor arrives at Berlin . . . 17 March, ,, \n\nThe new imperial diet opened at Berlin 21 March, ,, \n\nBismarck created a prince ... 22 March, ,, \n\nThe czar arrives at Berlin . . . 8 June, ,, \n\nTriumphal entry of the German army into Berlin ; \ninauguration of the statue of Frederick William \nIII 16 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe bishop of Ermeland excommunicates Dr. Woll- \nner for denying the pope\'s infallibility, 5 July ; \nsimilar acts disapproved by the government, \n\nJuly, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe imperial prince and princess arrive in London, \n\n6 July, ,, \n\nConvocation of the evangelical church at Berlin, \n\n2 Aug. ,,. \n\nMeeting of the parliament . . . 27 Nov. ,, \n\n\n\nPRUSSIA. \n\n\n\n791 \n\n\n\nPRUSSIA. \n\n\n\nVon Miihler, minister of public instruction, ultra- \nconservative, forced to resign . . .17 Jan. 1872 \n\nClerical interference with schools opposed in the \nparliament 8-10 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMeeting of German princes at Berlin on the em- \nperor\'s birthday .... 22 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe new "national conservative party" formed, \n\nabout May, ,, \n\nLaw for expulsion of the Jesuits, published 5 July, ,, \n\nMemorial to Von Stein, the statesman (see 1807), \nat Nassau, inaugurated . . . 9 July, ,, \n\nGovernment disputes with the R. C. clergy sup- \nporting papal infallibility ; the bishop of Ercne- \nland\'s salary ordered to be suspended, from 1 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe government defeated in the house of peers on \nthe district administrations bill (145 \xe2\x80\x94 18) (the bill \nwould deprive the peers of power in the provinces \nby granting representatives to the peasants in the \nlocal assemblies) 31 Oct. ,, \n\nThe parliamentary session closed, 1 Nov. ; re- \nopened, government firm ... 12 Nov. ,, \n\n24 new peers created 2 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe principle of the reform bill jiassed by the peers \n(114\xe2\x80\x9487) 7 Dec. ,, \n\nBismarck resigns the presidency ; continues the \nforeign department ; announced . . 18 Dec. ,, \n\nCount Roon to be chairman of the ministry Dec. ,, \n\nGreat financial prosperity ; surplus revenue said to \nbe 187,000,000 thalers (3s. each) . . . . ,, \n\nDeclaration of the E. C. archbishops of Cologne \nand Posen against prox>osed legislation on church \naffairs Feb. 1873 \n\nSubjection of the church to the state affirmed by \nthe legislature \'. . . . 12 March, ,, \n\nLaws introduced by M. Falk, minister of public \nworship, establishing aroyal tribunal of ecclesias- \ntical affairs, in opposition to the authority of the \npope, 9 Jan. ; passed . . . .11 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe emperor recognises the " old Catholic " bishop, \nReinkens, about Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLetter from the pope to the emperor complaining of \nthe ecclesiastical prosecutions, and asserting his \nauthority over all baptized persons, 7 Aug. ; the \nemperor replies justifying them, and asserting \nthat there is no mediator between God and man \nbut Jesus Christ 3 Sept. ,, \n\nParliament dissolved, 11 Oct. ; new parliament \nelected Nov. ,, \n\nThe emperor visits Vienna . . . 17 Oct. ,, \n\nArchbishop Ledochowski of Posen fined for threat- \nening to excommunicate a professor ; and arch- \nbishop Melchers fined for instituting priests with- \nout government permission . . . Oct. ,, \n\nThe pope (by letter) encourages archbishop Ledo- \nchowski to resist 3 Nov. ,, \n\nParliament opened : (votes for government, 432 ; \nopposition, 121) 12 Nov. ,, \n\nGovernment defeated in attempt to restrict the \npress ; the ultramontanes join the opposition \n\n3 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nA new oath of implicit obedience to the state pro- \nposed for the clergy ; the civil marriage bill passed \n\nDec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSeveral bishops fined for disobedience to the law \n\nDec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nArchbishop Ledochowski imprisoned, 3 Feb. ; de- \nprived 15 April, 1874 \n\nSerious illness of Bismarck, March ; recovering \n\nJune, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNew ecclesiastical laws, restraining authority of \nbishops, with punishment for disobedience, pro- \nmulgated May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nVan der Ileydt, statesman (see 1862) dies 14 June, ,, \n\nMartin, bishop of Paderborn lesists the ecclesias- \ntical laws to July, ,, \n\nBismarck wounded by Kullmann, a fanatical cooper, \nnear Kissingen 13 July, ,, \n\nCatholic associations in Berlin closed . 21 July, ,, \n\nBishop of Paderborn, summoned to resign, refuses, \n7 Sept. ; sentenced to imprisonment for sedition \n\n21 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nLaunch of the iron-clad Fried/rich der Grosse at Kiel, \n\nin the presence of the emperor . 20 Sept. ,, \n\nArrest of count Harry Arnim and confinement in \nBerlin for refusing to give up documents sent to \nhim as ambassador, 4 Oct. ; for illness released \non bail, 28 Oct. ; again arrested . . 12 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nKullmann sentenced to 14 years\' imprisonment 30 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nGovernment defeated in parliament on a bank-note \nbill 16 Nov. 1874 \n\nUltramontanes attack Bismarck in parliament ; he \nreplies 4 Dec. ,, \n\nBismarck\'s proffered resignation not accepted \n\n17, 18 Dec. ,, \n\nArnim\'s trial, 9 Dec. ; convicted of making away \nwith ecclesio-political documents ; acquitted of \nother charges ; sentence, 3 months\' imprisonment \n\n19 Dec. ,, \n\nCatholic bishops and priests imprisoned for infrac- \ntion of ecclesiastical laws . . . Jan. 1875 \n\nDeprivation of the bishop of Paderborn 5 Jan. ,, \n\nParliament opened 16 Jan. ,, \n\nCivil marriage adopted by the parliament 25 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nEncyclical of the pope to the bishops encouraging \nfirmness, protested against by the R. C. deputies \nof parliament 5 Feb. ,, \n\nExportation of horses prohibited . . 4 March, ,, \n\nClerical control over parish funds taken away ; bill \nfor depriving the R. C. clergy of state aid brought \nin 16 March, ,, \n\nAlarm of war with France arises . . April, ,, \n\nPrussian bishops at Fulda appeal to the emperor \nagainst ecclesiastical legislation, 2 April ; rebuked \nfor not submitting to the law . . . 9 April, ,, \n\nVisit of the czar to Berlin ; war panic in Europe, \n10 \xe2\x80\x94 13 May ; diplomatic intervention of Great \nBritain leads to assurances of peace about 24 May, ,, \n\nBismarck abolishes the semi-oflicial press \n\nabout 26 May, ,, \n\nKing and queen of Sweden arrive at Berlin 28 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGeorge von Vincke, an eminent constitutional states- \nman, dies June, ,, \n\nCount Arnim\'s new trial, 15 June ; verdict, confirm- \ning sentence 20 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPartial submission of the bishops : announced \n\nAug. ,, \n\nLaunch of the Wilhchn, iron-clad . . 17 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFdrster, prince-bishop of Breslau, sentenced to de- \nprivation 6 Oct. ,. \n\nThe emperor warmly received by the king of Italy \nat Milan (prince Bismarck too ill to go) 18-23 Oct. ,, \n\nStatue of Von Stein (see 1807 above) inaugurated \nby the crown prince .... 26 Oct. ,, \n\nGerman parliament opened by the emperor ; firm \nand pacific speech read . . . . 27 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLetter from count Arnim rebutting accusations in \nthe rimes of 19 Nov - >> \n\nHe is to be prosecuted for treason in a pamphlet \nentitled " Pro Nihilo," published at Zurich Nov. ,, \n\nPrussian diet opened 16 Jan. 1876 \n\nAsserted deficiency in revenue of about 2,500,000?. \n\nabout 25 Jan. ,, \n\nArchbishop Ledochowski released from prison (pro- \nceeds to Rome) 3 Feb. ,, \n\nThe empress visits England . . 3 May- June, ,, \n\nParliament dissolved, 14 Oct. ; liberal majority in \nnew parliament 27 Oct. ,, \n\nThe emperor celebrates his 70th military anniversary, \n1 Jan. ; eightieth anniversary birthday 22 Jan. 1S77 \n\nChambers opened 12 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBerlin Conference on Eastern question (emperor of \nEussia, prince Gortsehakoff, and count Andrassy). \nSee Berlin 11, 12 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPrince Bismarck\'s resignation not accepted ; he \nretires temporarily for his health . . April, ,, \n\nCount Eulenburg\'s policy as minister of interior dis- \nl>leases prince Bismarck ; the count\'s resignation \nnot accepted : he is granted six months\' absence, \n\nSept \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nParliament opened ; loan for military purposes pro- \nposed 21 Oct. ,, \n\nResolutions against government defeated in parlia- \nment through promised administrative changes, \n\n27 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nPrince Bismarck resumes his active duties as chief \nof ministry, 15 Feb. : in the German parliament, \nasserts strict neutrality and non-interference \nwith Russia in the Eastern question . 19 Feb. 1878 \nMinisterial crisis : resignation of Camphausen, \nfinance minister .... 6 March, ,, \n\nMinistry unsettled May, , \n\nHudel (called Lehman), a socialist, fires at the cm \n\nperor and misses, at Berlin . . . 11 May, ,, \nThe emperor wounded by shots by Dr. Nobiling, 2 \n\nJune ; gradually recovered . . June\xe2\x80\x94 Sept. ,, \nHbdel executed at Berlin . . . 16 Aug \n\n\n\nPEUSSIA. \n\n\n\n792 \n\n\n\nPEUSSIA. \n\n\n\nStatue of Frederick- William III. unveiled by the \nemperor at Cologne . . . .26 Sept. \n\nCount Arnim publishes " Quid faciamus nos?" Jan. \n\nMarriage of princess Louise Margaret of Prussia to \nthe duke of Connaught . . 13 March, \n\nThe emperor\'s golden wadding kept . n June, \n\nNew Parliament opened by the emperor (majority \nfor Bismarck) 28 Oct. \n\nLetter from the pope to Melchers, abp. of Cologne, \nrecommending submission of names of priests to \nthe government, dated . . . -24 Feb. \n\nEcclesiastical laws (Falk) amendment bill, pro- \nmoted by prince Bismarck ; much discussed, \nMay ; passed (maimed ; 206-202) . 28 June, \n\nParliament opened 28 Oct. \n\nDiscussion on the social movement against the Jews \nthrough jealousy ; no vote . . 20-22 Nov. \n\nAnti-Semitic league very active ; much opposed by \nthe prince imperial and others . . . Jan. \n\nThe minister of the interior, count Eulenburg, re- \nsigns through offence of prince Bismarck, \n\nabout 19 Feb. \n\nPrince William, grandson of the emperor and of \nqueen Victoria., married to princess Augusta Vic- \ntoria of Schleswig-Holstein . . 27 Feb. \n\nDeath of count Arnim at Nice . . 19 May, \n\nDr. Felix Korum nominated bishop of Treves, at \nRome ; approved by Bismarck . 14 Aug. et seq. \n\nRevenue surplus announced . . .18 Jan. \n\nBismarck\'s tobacco bill rejected by his economic \ncouncil 21 March, \n\nLiberals rather weakened by elections about 29 Oct. \n\nProspect of reconciliation with the Vatican ; amend- \nments of the ecclesiastical laws of May, 1873, \nintroduced 5 June, \n\nBill passed ; diet closed ... 2 July, \n\nRevival of the Prussian Council of State, the crown \nprince president, royal family members 18 June, \n\nParliament opened 15 Jan. \n\nDeath of prince Frederick Charles, the "Red \nPrince " aged 57 . ... . 15 Jan. \n\nPrince Charles Anthony Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, \ndies aged 73 2 June, \n\nGeneral Manteuffcl dies aged 76 . . 17 June, \n\nProf. Graff acquitted of perjury, 9 days trial, 3 Oct. \n\nTwenty-fifth anniversary of the king\'s accession \ncelebrated 3 Jan. \n\nPrince Bismarck puts forth his plan for Germanizing \nPosen by purchasing Polish estates to be settled \nby Germans ; 5,ooo,oooZ. to be raised for the \npurpose, Feb. ; finally passed . . 7 April, \n\nBill for greatly amending the ecclesiastical laws \n(see May, 1873) passed by the upper house, \n\n13 April, \n\nPolitical meetings without permission prohibited \nby decree 14 May, \n\nConvention signed between Prussia and the Vatican \nabout 1 1 Aug. \n\nThe emperor\'s 90th birthday celebrated at Berlin, \n\n22 March, \n\nPrince Bismarck introduces Church and State Bill, \nsoftening Falck laws .... March, \n\nDeath of emperor William I. ; succeeded by his \nson Frederick III 9 March, \n\nAmnesty for certain political offences proclaimed, \n\n31 March, \n\nPrince Bismarck opposes the project of a marriage \nbetween prince Alexander of Batteuberg and \nprincess Victoria of Prussia ; favoured by the \nemperor and empress ; he withdraws his resigna- \ntion and the project deferred . early April, \n\nMarriage of prince Henry of Prussia and princess \nIrene of Hesse, grandchildren of queen Victoria \nof England 24 May, \n\nParliamentary quinquennial bill promulgated, \n\n7 June, \n\nDeath of emperor Frederick III ; succeeded by his \nson William II 15 June, \n\nPublication in the Deutsche Rundschau (Oct.) of \nalleged extracts from the diary of the emperor \nFrederick III., when crown prince asserting that, \nit washe who suggested the unity of Germanyand \nthe empire, with other statements ; said.by prince, \nBismarck at first to be apocryphal and after- \nwards to be notes falsified anil coloured ; the \nwork ordered to be prosecuted for publishing \n\nstate secrets Sept. \n\n[The books were found locked up in the house at \n\n\n\n1879 \n\n\n\nSan Remo where the crown prince resided : the \ndiary contains details of the war with E\'rance, \n1870-1 : it was stated that the books were \ngiven or shown by the prince to baron von \nRoggenbach, the Baden statesman.] \n\nDr. Geficken arrested at Hamburg 29 Sept. 1888 \n\nA part of the prince\'s diary published in the Kider \nZeitunfj Sept. ,, \n\nThe Klilnische Zeitung 16 Dee. accuses the British \nambassador at St. Petersburg (sir Robert B. D. \nMorier) when charge d\'affaires at Darmstadt, of \ngiving information to marshal Bazaine of the \nmovements of the Prussian army in 1870. Sir \nRobert writes to count Herbert Bismarck re- \npelling the charge (and sends a letter from the \nmarshal to himself to the same effect) 19 Dec. The \ncount refuses 25 Dec. 1888. Sir Robert publishes \nthe correspondence in the Times, 4 Jan.; much \ndiscussion ensues Jan. 1389 \n\nDr. Geffcken acquitted of criminal intents, 7 Jan. ,, \n\nPrince Bismarck publishes the indictment and \nevidence 16 Jan. ,, \n\nThe king of Italy, his son, and signor Crispi at \nBerlin 21-26 May, ,, \n\nDeath of the empress Augusta, 7 Jan. ; grand \nfuneral n Jan. 1S90 \n\nThe emperor-king convokes the council of state \nrespecting the working-classes, see Germany and \nBerlin, 4 Feb. ; delivers an address ; propositions \nconsidered 14-28 Feb. ,, \n\nPrinc.3 Bismarck resigns the offices of premier and \nforeign minister, 18 March ; succeeded by gen.- \nGeorge von Caprivi . . about 20 March, ,, \n\nDeath of count Moltke. see Germany 24 April, 1891 \n\nMuch discussion on the primary education bill, \nwhich enacts, that in all schools some form of \nChristianity should be taught, to counteract \nsocialism ; read first time ... 30 Jan. 1892 \n\nMinisterial crisis in relation to the education bill ; \ncount Caprivi resigns the premiership, but re- \nmains foreign minister and chancellor of the \nempire 22 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCount Botho von Eulenburg becomes premier \n\n24 March, ,, \n\nThe government withdraw the education bill, about \n\n28 March, ,, \n\nCertain privileges of the nobility abolished with \n\ncompensation May, ,, \n\n(See Germany 1871 ct seq.) \n\nMargraves, Electors, Dukes, and Kings. \nmargraves or electors of brandenburg. \n1 134. Albert I., the Bear, first elector of Brandenburg. \n1 1 70. Otho I. \n1 184. Otho II. \n1206. Albert II. \n1221. John I. and Otho III. \n1266. John II. \n1282. Otho IV. \n1309. Waldemar. \n\n1319. Henry I. the Young. \n\n1320. [Interregnum.] \n1323. Louis I. of Bavaria. \n1352. Louis II. the Roman. \n1365. Otho V. the Sluggard. \n1373. Wenceslas, of Luxemburg. \n1378. Sigismund, of Luxemburg. \n1388. Jossus, the Bearded. \n1411. Sigismund, again emperor. \n\n1415. Frederick I. of Nuremberg (of the house of Kohen- \n\nzollern). \n1440. Frederick II., surnamed Ironside. \n1470. Albert III. surnamed the German Achilles. \n1476. John III. his son ; as margrave ; styled the Cicero \n\nof Germany. \n14S6. John III. as elector. \n1499. Joachim I. son of John. \n1535. Joachim II. poisoned by a Jew. \n1571. John-George. \n1598. Joachim-Frederick. \n1608. John-Sigismund. \n\nDUKES OF TRUSSIA. \n\n1618. John-Sigismund. \n\n1619. George-William. \n\n1640. Frederick-William, his son, the " Great Elector. " \n16S8. Frederick III., son of the preceding ; crowned kino-, \n18 Jan. 1 701. \n\n\n\nPRUSSIC ACID. \n\n\n\n793 PUBLIC LOAN COMMISSIONERS. \n\n\n\nKIXGS OF PRUSSIA. \n\n1701. Frederick I. ; king ; died. \n\n1713. Frederick-William I., son of Frederick I. \n\n1740. Frederick II. (or Frederick III. ; styled the Great), \nson ; made Prussia a military power. \n\n1786. Frederick- William II., nephew of the preceding. \n\n1797. Frederick-William III. (he had to contend against \nthe might of Napoleon, and after extraordinary \nvicissitudes, he aided England in his overthrow), \ndied 7 June, 1840. \n\n1840. Frederick-William IV., son; born 15 Oct. 1795; \ndied, 2 Jan. 1861. \n\n1861. William I., brother (born, 22 March, 1797) ; pro- \nclaimed emperor of Germany at Versailles, iS Jan. \n1871) ; married princess Augusta of Saxe-Weimar, \n11 June, 1829 ; golden wedding kept, 11 June, \n1879 ; died 9 March, i883 ; she died 7 Jan. 1890. \n\nj888. Frederick III. (William) son, " the noble " ; born \n18 Oct. 1831 ; (married Victoria, princess-royal \nof England, 25 Jan. 1858;; died 15 June, 1888. \n,, William II., son ; born 27 Jan. 1859 (married \nprincess Augusta Victoria of Seldeswig-Holstein, \n27 Feb. 1881). \nHeir: William; born 6 May, 1882. \n\nPRUSSIC ACID (hydrocyanic acid), acci- \ndentally discovered by Diesbach, a German chemist, \nin 1709, and first obtained in a separate state by \nSchcele about 1782. It is colourless, smells like \npoach flowers, freezes at 5 Fahrenheit, is very \nvolatile, and turns vegetable blues into red. Simple \n\xe2\x96\xa0water distilled from the leaves of the lauro-cerasus \nfirst ascertained to be a most deadly poison by Dr. \nMadden of Dublin; see Blue. \n\nPRUTH, a river in Moldavia, the boundary of \nTurkey. Peter the great crossed the Pruth, was \n.surrounded by the Turks, and lost much by a con- \nvention, June, 1 71 1. The Itussians crossed it 2 \nJuly, 1853, and war ensued. \n\nPRYTANIS, a magistrate of Corinth, annually \n\xe2\x80\xa2elected from 745 B.C. till the office was abolished by \nCypselus, a despot, 655 B.C. \n\nPSALMS OF DAVID were collected by \nSolomon, IOOO B.C. ; others added, 580 and 515 B.C. \nThe Church of England Old Version in metre by \nSternhold and Hopkins was published in 1562 ; the \nNew Version by Tate and Brady in 1698. \nThe version of Francis Rous, provost of Eton, first pub- \nlished in 1641, was ordered to be used, by the parliament \nin 1646. It is the basis of the Scotch version, which \nappeared in 1650. The marquis of Lome published a \nversion in 1877. Many other versions published. \n\nPSEUDONYM LIBRARY, a name given \nto a series of books by eminent writers in which the \nname of the publisher was substituted for that of \nthe author. The publication began in 1891. \n\nPSEUDOSCOPE (from pscudos, false), a \nname given by professor Wheatstone (in 1852) to \nthe stereoscope, when employed to prouuee \xe2\x96\xa0\' con- \nversions of relief," i.e., the reverse of the stereo- \nscope : a terrestrial globe appears like a hollow \nhemisphere. \n\nPSYCHIC FORCE, see Spirihialism. \n\nPSYCHOLOGY, the science of the soul and \nits phenomena, studied by Aristotle, Tlato, Des- \ncartes, Leibnitz, Locke, Hume, James Mill, J. S. \nMill, Herbeit Spencer, sir Wm. Hamilton, Alex. \nBain, and others. \n\nPsychological Society founded by sent. Cox, 1875-79. \nProfessor Balfour Stewart, lord Rayleigh, and the \n\nbishops of Carlisle and Ripon were members, 1886. \n\nSee Telepathy. \nSociety for Psychological Research founded, 1882. \nInternational congress of Experimental Psychology, \n\nParis, 1889; Loudon, 1 Aug. 1892. \nProf. Wm. James\' "Principles of Psychology," 1802. \n\nPSYCHROMETER (h-omps>,chros, cold), an \napparatus for measuring the amount of elastic \n\n\n\nvapour in the atmosphere ; invented by Gay Lussae \n(1778-1850), and modified by Regnault (about 1848). \nAn electric psychrometer was described by Edmond \nBecquerel, 4 Feb. 1867. \n\nPTOLEMAIC SYSTEM. Claudius Ptolemy \nof Pelusium, in Egypt (about A.r>. 140), supposed \nthat the earth was fixed in the centre of the uni- \nverse, and that the sun, moon, and stars moved \nround once in twenty-four hours. The system (long \nthe official doctrine of the church of Home) was uni- \nversally taught till that of Pythagoras (500 B.C.) \nwas revived by Copernicus, a.d. 1530, and demon- \nstrated by Kepler (1619) and Newton (1687). \n\nPUBLICANS, farmers of the state revenues \nof Home. Soon after the battle of Cannas they were \nso wealthy as to be able to advance large sums to \nthe government, payable at the end of the war. No \nmagistrate was permitted to be a publican. \n\nPUBLIC BATHS, &c, see Baths, Education. \n\nPUBLIC DEPARTMENTS, Royal Com- \nmission to inquire generally into their state was \nappointed about 13 Sept. 18S6. It consisted of sir \nM. "W. Ridley (chairman), lords Brownlow, Lingen, \nRothschild, Messrs. Sclater Booth, H. Fowler, Ky- \nlands, sir E. Guinness, and others ; Mr. "Walpole \n(secretary); first report issued, Oct. 1887; second, \nSept. 1888. Important changes recommended. \n\nPUBLIC ENTERTAINMENTS ACT, \n\n38 Vict. c. 21, passed 14 June 1875, amends the Act \n25 Geo. II. c. 36, 1752. \nPUBLIC GOOD, see Leagues. \n\nPUBLIC HEALTH ACTS. New act. con- \nsolidating all the previous sanitary and nuisance \nacts, passed, 11 Aug. 1875; another act passed in \n1883. Amendment acts pa-sed in 1890, and 1892. \nThe Public Health (London) act, passed 5 Aug 1891, \nmade very important changes. It came into opera- \ntion 1 Jan. 1892 ; it repealed 16 acts entirely, and \npartially 19 more, and consclidated their best pro- \nvisions. The Public Health acts, relating to Scot- \nland and Ireland, were amended in 1891. An act \nrelating to supply of water passed 4 July, 1878. \nSee Health, Sanitation. \n\nRATE OF DEATHS PER 1,000. \n\nEngland in 1660-79, 8\xc2\xb0 ; 1840-74, 22J. \n\nGeneral death rate per 1,000 (published in the Registrar- \nGeneral\'s weekly report)\xe2\x80\x94 1889, April, 20-3 ; June, \n17-3 ; Sept. 17*9 ; Nov. 18-2 ; Dec. 21-9. 1890, 15 Jan. \n28-1 ; 15 Feb. 25-3 ; 15 March, 23-6 ; 12 April, co - 6 ; \n\n10 May, 19-2 ; 14 June, 17^2 ; 12 July, 177 ; 16 Aug. \n2i\'o; 13 Sept. 18-6; 11 Oct. 19-8; 15 Nov. 21-1; 13 \nDec. (frost), 2T3 ; 20 Dec. 26-0; 27 Dec. 26-3. 1S91, \n3 Jan. 287; 17 Jan. 27-3; 24 Jan. 25 - i ; 31 Jan. \n(warmer). 22-3 ; 7 Feb. 19-8 ; 14 Feb. 19-9 ; 14 March, \n22 - i ; 11 Aprfl, 22 - 9 - , 2 May (influenza), 26 - S ; 16 May, \n30-1 ; 13 June, 23-8; n July, i6 - 8 ; 15 Aug. iS\'S; 19 \nSept. 177 ; 17 Oct. i8 - 2 ; 14 Nov. 2C6 ; 12 Dec. 19-8. \n1892, 16 Jan. 33-0 (influenza); 23 Jan. 35 - 4 ; 13 Feb. \n23\'i ; 12 March, 22-9 ; 16 April, 20^9 ; 14 May, 20*4 ; \n\n11 June, 17*9; 16 July, 17-9 ; 20 Aug. i8"o. \n\n11 June, 1892 \xe2\x80\x94 Birmingham, i9 - S ; Blackburn, 22^2; \nBradford, 16-9 ; Brighton, iS\'S ; Bristol, 17-0 ; Derby, \n12-5 ; Hull, 13-2 ; Leeds, 15-1 ; Leicester, 14-2 ; Liver- \npool, 2i*4 ; London, i7 - s; Manchester, 237; Xew- \ncastle-on-Tyne, 2o - 6 ; Norwich, 13-2 ; Nottingham, \ni2 - 8; Plymouth, 177; Portsmouth, 147; Sheffield, \n16-5. \nPUBLIC HOUSES, see Victuallers, and \n\nSunday. \nPUBLIC LIBRARIES ACTS, passed 1855 \n\nand 1871; amended in 1877, 1S87 and 18S9. A \n\nPublic Works Loans act was passed 1890. \nPUBLIC LOAN COMMISSIONERS \n\nwere constituted bv the act passed 13 Aug. 1875. \n\nOther acts passed 1879-83. \n\n\n\nPUBLIC MEETINGS. \n\n\n\n794 \n\n\n\nPULLEY. \n\n\n\nPUBLIC MEETINGS, for political purposes, \nwore occasionally held in England in the latter part \nof the 17th century, but became very important in \nt v ;e reign of George III. The meetings in Devon- \nshire in 1763 to protest against the Cider Tax, were \nvery effective, and set an example speedily followed, \nwith, the warm approbation of Burke, Fox, and \nother statesmen. These meetings were prohibited \nhy the Gagging acts, which see, passed in 1795 ; see \nSedition. In the reign of George IV., the right of \npublic meetings was fully assured, and they were \nvery effectual in relation to the passing the Reform \nacts, the Repeal of the Corn Laws, and other impor- \ntant measures. See Hyde Park. The place on \nwhich the speakers stand is termed a "platform," \ncorresponding to the Roman rostrum, and the \nFrench tribune. "The Platform," by Mr. H. \nJephson, was published in 1792. The term "plat- \nform " is also applied to a set of political or religious \nopinions held by a party ; such as the "platform of \nGeneva." Hooker. \n\nPUBLIC OFFICES SITE ACT (for the \nAdmiralty and War) passed 24 July, 1882. \n\nPUBLIC PROSECUTOR, see Prosecutor. \n\nPUBLIC EECOBDS, see Records. \n\nPUBLIC SAFETY, Committee of, was \nestablished at Paris during the French Revolution \non 6 April, 1 793, with absolute power, in conse- \nquence of the coalition against France. The severe \ngovernment of this committee is termed the Reign \nof Terror, which ended with the execution of Robes- \npierre and his associates, 28 July, 1794. A similar \ncommittee was established at Paris by the com- \nmunists, March-May, 1871. \n\nPUBLIC SCHOOLS ACT, 1S68, amended \nby acts passed 1870 and 1872 ; see Education. \n\nPUBLIC STORES. The laws relating to \ntheir protection were consolidated and amended by \nan act passed 29 June, 1875. \n\nPUBLIC. WORKS ACT, passed 21 July, \n1863, to provide work for the unemployed persons \nin the manufacturing districts at the time of the \ncotton famine. Ii enabled corporate bodies to raise \nloans, and proved very successful. It was continued \nin 1864-75, I S86 and 1892. See under Local Loans. \n\nPUBLIC WOE SHIP REGULATION- \nACT, 37 & 38 Vict. c. 85, principally for the re- \npression of ritualism in the church of England, was \nintroduced into the House of Lords by the archbishop \nof Canterbury, 21 .April, and after very much dis- \ncussion, rcctived the royal assent, 7 Aug. 1874. \nBy it a new judge in the provincial courts of Canter- \nbury and York whs appointed : the first being \nlord Penzance ; the act came into operation \n_,. 1 July, 1875 \n\nFirst cause, the parish of Folkestone v. rev. C. J. \nRidsdale, the vicar, 4 Jan., 1876 ; tried at Lam- \nbeth palace ; verdict, for plaintiffs . . 3 Fell. 1876 \nRev. Arthur Tooth of Hatcham, and rev. T. Pelham \nDale of St. Vedast\'s, London ; monition to dis- \ncontinue practices .... 18 July, \nKev. A. Tooth disregards monition ; justifies him- \' \nself and denies authority of court, 21 Dee. 1876 ; \ncarries on ritualistic services up to 14 Jan. ; pro- \nnounced contumacious by lord Penzance in court \nof Arches, 13 Jan. ; imprisoned in Horselnonger- \nlane gaol from 22 Jan. to 17 Feb. The church was \nforcibly entered, and ho celebrated holy com- \nmunion in the censured form . . M May, 1877 \nProceedings against him quashed by the Queen\'s \nBench on appeal, because the trial did not take \nplace in the diocese of Rochester . 19 Nov. \nSentence upon Rev. T. P. Dale set aside through \nlegal difficulty; he resumes service . 22 July, \n[Again convicted and admonished, 8 Feb. 1879.] \n\n\n\nThe Queen\'s Bench division asseit the public wor- \nship regulation court is a new court, and not a \nmodification of the court of Arches . 19 Nov. 1077 \n\nRev. John Edwards of PresUmry suspended for six \nmonths, and Rev. A. H. Mackonochie warned, \n\n23 March, 1878 \nj Rev. A. H. Mackonochie sentenced by court of \nArches to three years\' suspension from benefice \nand otfice, for disobedience to monition of the \ncourt 1 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nEnforcement of the sentence prohibited by the \nQueen\'s Bench 8 Aug. ,, \n\nRev. J. Edwards\' suspension also set aside . Aug. ,, \n\nSentence of court of Arches against Mr.Mackonochie \naffirmed by court of Appeal, 28 June ; he is sen- \ntenced to 3 years\' suspension from benefice (from \n23 Nov. 1879), he protests ... 15 Nov. 1879 \n\nMr. Sinclair, nominated to officiate, retires ; Mr. \nMackonochie officiates as usual . . 23 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMartin v. Mackonochie, new trial ; lord Penzance \ndeclines to decide, as the former sentence has not \nbeen carried out 5 June, 1880 \n\nRev. T. Pelham Dale is imprisoned in Holloway \ngaol for contempt of court . . .30 Oct. ,, \n\nRev. Sidney F. Green, rector of Miles Platting, Man \nChester, and Rev. Rd. Win. Enraght, of Bor- \ndesley, Birmingham, convicted 20 Nov. ; Mr. \nEnraght imprisoned in Warwick gaol 27 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMr. Dale applies to Queen\'s Bench for release on \nground of illegal proceedings ; his detention \naffirmed 6-13 Dec , t \n\nMr. Dale on appeal to house of lords released till 11 \nJan. 1881 ; Mr. Enraght prefers to remain \n\n18 Dec. , t \n\nMr. Dale (and consequently Mr. Enraght) dis- \ncharged through technical irregularity respecting \nthe writ by decision of Appeal court 15 Jan. i88t \n\nRev. A. H. Mackonochie\'s appeal to the house of \nlords dismissed ; sentence of 1878 to take effect \n\n7 April, ,,, \n\nThe judicial committee of privy council grant him \na new trial, 3 Feb. ; remit to Lord Penzance to \ndecree suitable punishment . . .22 Feb. 1882 \n\nRev. S. F. Green imprisoned in Lancaster Castle \nMarch 1881 ; released . . . .5 Nov. ,, \n\nSir Percival Heywood, v. the bishop of Manchester, \nfor refusing to institute Rev. Mr. Cowgill, curate \nof Rev. S. F. Green, as his successor, 10, 12 Dec. \n1883 ; Baron C. Pollock decides for the bishop \n\n21 Jan. 1884 \n\nMr. Mackonochie sentenced to deprivation by court \nof Arches, 21 July, 18S3. He resigns the benefice \nof St. Peter\'s, London Docks 31 Dee. 1883. \nDied, aged 62, by exposure to cold, having lost his \nway near Kinlochmore, Scotland about 15 Dec. T887 \n\nRev. James Bell Cox suspended for ritualistic \npractices after much litigation ; committed to \nWalton gaol, by error for contempt of court, 5 \nMay ; release ordered by writ of lutbeits corjms, \n20 May; this set aside on appeal, 22 Nov.; but \naffirmed by the house of lords . . 5 Aug. 1890 \n\nA trial of the bishop of Lincoln, see under Canter- \nbury. \n\nPUBLISHERS\' CIRCULAR, first issued \ntwice a month, weekly since Dec. 1890; organised \nchiefly by Mr. William Longman (died 1877), \ngreatly assisted by Mr. Sampson Low, who first \npublished it, 2 Oct. 1837. \n\nIn 1890 the London publishing firm of Messrs. Longman, \nwhich existed as Osinan and Longman in 1726, pur- \nchased the business of Messrs. Rivington, which was \nestablished by Mr. Charles Rivington in 1710. \n\nPUDDLING, making the walls of canals \nwater-tight by means of clay, was largely adopted \nby Brindley in constructing the Bridgewater canals, \n1761 ct seq. ; see also under Lron Manufacture. \n\nPUEBLA, see Mexico, 1863. \n\nPUERTO, see Porto. \n\nPUGILISM, see Boxing. \n\nPULLEY, vice, and other mechanical instru- \nments, are said to have been invented by Archytas \nof Tarcntum, about 400 B.C., or by Archimedes, \n\n\n\nPULLMAN CARS. \n\n\n\n795 \n\n\n\nPURITANS. \n\n\n\n287-212. la a single movable pulley the power \ngained is doubled : in a continued combination the \npower is equal to the number of pulleys, less one, \ndoubled. \n\nPULLMAN CARS, see under Railways. \n\nPULTOWA (Eussia), where Charles XII. of \nSweden was entirely defeated by Peter the Great \nof Russia, 8 July, 1709. He tied to Bender, in \nTurkey. \n\nPULTUSK (Russia), where a battle was fought \nbetween the Saxons, under their king Augustus, and \nthe Swedes, under Charles XII., in which the \nformer were signally defeated, 1 May, 1703. Here \nalso the French under Napoleon fought the Russian \nand Prussian armies : both sides claimed the victory, \nbut it inclined in favour of the French, 26 Dec. \n1806. \n\nPUMPS. Ctesibius of Alexandria is said to \nhave invented pumps (with other hydraulic instru- \nments), about 224 B.C., although the invention is \nascribed to Danaus, at Lindus, 1485 B.C. Pumps \nwere in general use in England, A.u. 1425. An in- \nscription on the \'pump in front of the late Royal \nExchange, London, stated that the well was sunk \nin 1282. The air-pump was invented by Otto \nGuericke in 1654, and improved by Boyle in 1657 ; \nsee Air and Hells. \n\nPUNCH, the puppet show, borrowed from the \nItalian Pulichinello, is descended from a character \nwell known in the theatres of ancient Rome. Fos- \nhroke. The satirical weekly publication, Fundi-, or \nthe London Charivari, was es\'ablishcd by Henry \nMayhew, Mark Lemon, Douglas Jcrrold, Gilbert \na\' Beckett, and others : amongst its early contribu- \nte s were Win. M. Thackeray ; Prof. E. Forbes, and \nother eminent writers; first published 17 July, 1841. \nMark Lemon, the first editor, died 23 May, 1870 ; \n2nd, Shirley Brooks, died 23 Feb. 1874; 3 ru \\ Tom \nTaylor, died July, 1880; 4th, Francis Cowley Bur- \nnand. Richard Doyle, who designed the wrapper, \nand was a frequent contributor, died 11 Dec. 1883 ; \nJohn Leech died 1864, and was succeeded by Mr. du \nMaurier. Mr. Percival Leigh, an early and long- \ncontinued contributor to Punch, died 24 Oct. 18S9, \naged 77. Charles S. Keene, artist, a contributor \nsince 1850, died 4 Jan. 1891. An interesting jubilee \nnumber of Punch was published 17 July, 1891. See \nCaricatures and Charivari. \n\nPUNCTUATION. The Hebrew accents for \npunctuation are very ancient. The period (.) is the \nmost ancient ; the colon (:) was introduced about \n1485 ; the comma (,) was first seen about 1521, and \nthe semicolon (;) about 1570. In sir Philip Sid- \nney\'s "Arcadia" (1587), they all appear, as well as \nthe note of interrogation (?), asterisk (*), and \nparentheses ()\xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nPUNIC WARS, see Carthage, 264-241; 218- \n201 ; 149-146 b.c. \n\nPUNISHMENTS, see Beheading, Blinding, \nBoiling, Death, Browning, Flogging, and Poison- \ning. \n\nPUNJAUB (N. W. Hindostan) was traversed by \nAlexander the Great, 327 B.C. ; by Tamerlane, \na.d. 1398 ; by Mahmoud of Ghizni, about 1000. It \nwas an independent state under Runjeet Singh, \n1791-1839. Our wars with the Sikhs began here, \n14 Dec. 1845, and were closed on 29 March, 1849, \nwhen the Punjaub was annexed ; see India. The \nPunjaub has since greatly flourished, and on 1 Jan. \nI.S50, was made a distinct presidency (to include the \nSu\'ilcj states and the Delhi territory) ; sec Durbar. \n\n\n\nThe Sirhind canal (502 miles) opened by the vice- \nroy, marquis of Ripon, 24 Nov. 1882. Local self- \ngovernment bill passed 10 Oct. 1883. Population in \n1881, 18,843,186; in 1891, 20,803,000. Capital \nLahore! \n\n[Plmleep Singh (son of Runjeet Singh), born \n1838, received a pension of 40,000?. ; he resided \nm England till 1886 when he sailed for India ; \nin consequence of an indiscreet proclamation to \nthe Sikhs he was stopped at Aden about 3 May, \n1886. After his release he wandered about \nEurope ; in May 1889 he married a European in \nParis ; his manifesto to the Sikhs, inciting; \nthem to rebellion, indignantly rejected with \nstrong censure, Nov. 1889. After severe illness, \nhe expresses deep regret for his conduct, 27 \nJuly, and is pardoned by queen Victoria, 1 Aug. \n1890 ; received by her at Grasse, 31 March, \n1891.] \nLieut.-governors : sir James Lyall, 1887 ; sir Dennis \nFitzpatrick March, 1892- \n\nPUPPETS (Italian, puppi ; French, marion- \nnettes), of which the eyes, arms, &c, were moved by \nstrings, were used by the ancients, and are men- \ntioned by Xenophon, Horace, and others.^ Skilful \ntheatrical performances with puppets have been \nseveral times exhibited in London (at the Ade- \nlaide gallery, 1852). A performance with pup- \npets as large as life, began at St. James\'s-Lall,. \nJuly, 1872. M. Ch. JIagnin published a " Histoirc \ndes Mario7i)iettes," 1852. \n\nPURCELL CLUB, formed Aug. 1836; dis- \nsolved 1863. \n\nPURCELL SOCIETY, founded 21 Feb- \n1876, to publish and perform the works of Henry \nPurcell. \n\nPURCHASE OF LAND, see under Zand. \n\nPURCHASE SYSTEM in the army. The \npayment of a present or gratuity for a commission \nwas prohibited by William III., 1693 ! hutin 1702pm - - \nchase was legally re-organised. In 1711 the sale of \ncommissions was forbidden without the royal permis- \nsion ; in 1719-20 regulations were issued; and a \nfixed scale of prices was adopted in consequence of \na commission in 1765. Large over-regulation pay- \nments continued to be paid. Commissions of inquiry \nwere held frequently since 1858; and in 1871 the \nsystem was abolished, with compensation, by royal \nwarrant, 20 July, 1871, the bill for the purpose- \nhaving been rejected by the house of lords. For \namounts paid, see under Army. \n\nPURGATIVES of the mild species (aperients), \nparticularly cassia, manna, and senna, are ascribed \nto Actuarius, a Greek physician, 1245. \n\nPURGATORY, the_ middle place between \nheaven and hell, where, it is believed by the Roman \ncatholics, the soul passes through the tire of purifi- \ncation before it enters the kingdom of God. The \ndoctrine was known about 250 ; was introduced into \nthe Roman church in the 5th century, and made a \nreligious dogma by Gregory I., 590-604. It was \nfirst set forth by a council at Florence, 1439 ; en- \nforced by the council of Trent, Dec. 1563 ; see In- \ndulgences. \n\nPURIFICATION, after childbirth, was or- \ndained by the Jewish law, 1490 B.C. {Lev. xii.) ; see \nChurching. The feast of the purification was insti- \ntuted, 542, in honour of the Virgin Mary\'s going to \nthe temple. {Luke ii.) Pope Scrgius I. ordered \nthe procession with wax tapers, whence Candlemas- \nday. \n\nPURITANS, the name first given, it is said, \nabout 1564, to persons who aimed at greater purity \n\n\n\nPUELEY. 796 \n\n\n\nPYX. \n\n\n\nof doctrine, holiness of living, and stricter discipline \nthan others. They withdrew from the established \nchurch, professing to follow the word of God alone, \nand maintaining that the church retained many \nhuman inventions and popish superstitions; see \nCathari, Nonconformists, and Presbyter ianism. \n\nPUELEY, see Diversions. \n\nPUEPLE, a mixed tinge of scarlet and blue, \ndiscovered at Tyre. It is said that Hercules Tyrius \nhaving observed his dog\'s lips to be stained, after \neating a shell-fish named murex or purpura, was \nthereby led to invent the dye. Purple was anciently \nused by the princes and great men for their gar- \nments^ It was restricted to the emperor by \nJustinian I. 532, and porphyrogenitus attached to \nthe names of some emperors signifies "born to the \npurple." \n\nPURVEYANCE, an ancient prerogative of \nthe sovereigns of England of purchasing provisions, \n&c, without the consent of the owners, led to much \n\xe2\x96\xa0oppression. It was regulated by Magna Charta, \n121 15, and other statutes, and was only surrendered \nby Charles II. in 1660, for a compensation. \n\nPUSEYISM, a name attached to the views of \ncertain clergymen and lay members of the church \n"f England, who proposed to restore the practice of \nthe church of England to what they believed to \nhe required by the language of her Liturgy and \nEubrics, but which were considered by their oppo- \nnents to be of a llomish tendency. The term was \nderived from the name of the professor of Hebrew \nat Oxford, Dr. Edwd. Pusey. The heads of houses of \nthe university of Oxford passed resolutions censuring \nDr. Pusey\'s attempts to renew practices which are \nnow obsolete, 15 March, 1841 ; and his celebrated \nsermon was condemned by the same body, 30 May, \n1843; he died 16 Sept. 1882 ; see Tractarians, and \nMitualism. \n\nPUTNEY, anciently Putilei and Putenheath, \nN.E. Surrey, on the Thames, opposite Fulham. A \nKiew granite bridge, founded by the prince of Wales \n(to replace the wooden one completed in 1729), 12 \nJuly, 1884. Opened by the prince, 29 May, 1886. \n\nPYDNA (Macedon), where Perseus, the last \nking of Macedon, was defeated and m;ide prisoner \nby the llomans, commanded by JEmiiius Taulus, 22 \nJune, 168 B.C. \n\nPYEAMLDS OF EGYPT, about 75 in number, \nof various sizes, constructed for the preservation of \nmummies of the kings and their families. \nThe Stepped Pyramid of Sakkara is conjecturally \nassigned to Ouenephes of the first dynasty, see Egypt. \nThree \'great pyramids are situated near Gizeh on the \nW. bank of the Nile. The first or greatest, is said to \nhave been erected as the tomb of Choofoo, fourth dy- \nnasty, the Cheops of Herodotus, dated by Brugsch, \n3733-3666 B.C. Its height is said to have been origin- \nally 481 feet, and its base 774 square feet. The \nsecond pyramid is ascribed to Chafra, or Chepliren, \n3666-3633 b.c. The third pyramid is said to have \nbeen built by Menkaura or Myeerinus, 3633 B.C. \nThe pyramids have been visited and described by Bel- \nzoni, 1815 ; Vyse, 1836 ; C. Piazzi Smith, and others, \nsee Etjt/pt Exploration, Finxd. \nSome of the eleven pyramids at Sakkara have been ex- \nplored by M. Maspero, 1880 et seq. \nAt the battles of the Pyramids, Napoleon Bonaparte de- \nfeated the Mamelukes, and thereby conquered Lower \nEgypt, 13 and 21 July, 1798. \n\nPYEENEES. After the battle of Vittoria \n(fought 2 1 June, 18 13), Napoleon sent Soult to super- \nsede Jourdan, with instructions to drive the allies \nacross the Ebro; Soult retreated in to France with aloss \nof more than 20,000 men, having been defeated by \n\n\n\nWellington in a series of engagements from 25 July \nto 2 Aug. One at the Pyrenees on 28 July. A \nrailway through the Pyrenees (from Bilbao to \nMiranda) was opened 21 Aug. 1862. \xe2\x80\x94 The Peace \nof the Pyrenees was concluded between France \nand Spain, by cardinal Mazarin, for the French \nking, and don Louis de Haro, on the part of Spam, \nin the island of Pheasants, on the Bidassoa. By \nthis treaty Spain yielded Koussillon, Artois, and her \nlight to Alsace ; and France ceded her conquests in \nCatalonia, Italy, &c, and engaged not to assist \nPortugal, 7 Nov. 1659. \n\nPYEOLETEE, a mechanical and chemical \napparatus for extinguishing fires, especially in ships, \ninvented by Dr. Paton ; tried at Greenhithe, and \nreported successful, 1 June, 1S75. \n\nPYEOMETEE (fire-measurer), an apparatus \nemployed to ascertain the temperature of furnaces, \n&c, where thermometers cannot be employed ; \nMuschenbroek\'s pyrometer (a metallic bar) was \ndescribed by him in 1731. Improvements were \nmade by Ellicott and others. Wedgwood employed \nclay cylinders, 1782-6. In 1830 professor Daniell \nreceived the Eumford medal for an excellent pyro- \nmeter made in 1821. Mr. Ericsson\'s pyrometer \nappeared in the Great Exhibition of 185 1. {Enij. \nCyc.) Mr. (aft. sir) C. W. Siemens employed electric \nresistance in his pyrometers, exhibited in 1871. \n\nPYEOPHONE (Greek, pur, tie; phone, voice), \na musical instrument, invented by M. Frederic \nKastner, of Paris. It consists of glass tubes of \nvarious lengths ; the tones being produced by \nwhat are termed " singing flames." It is based \nupon the "chemical harmonicon." Keys are \nattached for playing, as in the piano. The inven- \ntion was reported to the French Academy of \nSciences, 17 March, 1873; exhibited at Vienna, \nsame year ; and at the Society of Arts, 1 7 Feb. \n1875. M. Kastner died aged 31, 6 April, 1882. \n\nPYEOXYLIN, the chemical name of Gun \nCotton {which see) . \nPYEEHONISM, see Sceptics. \n\nPYTHAGOREAN PHILOSOPHY. \n\nPythagoras, of Samos, head of the Italic sect, \nflourished in the 6th century B.C. He is said to \nhave taught the doctrine of metempsychosis, or \ntransmigration of the soul from one body to another, \nforbidden his disciples to eat flesh and beans, in- \nvented the multiplication table, improved geometry, \nand taught the present system of astronomy. \n\nPYTHIAN GAMES, in honour of Apollo, \nnear the temple of Delphi ; asserted to have been \ninstituted by himself, in commemoration of his \nvictory over the serpent, Python. Also said to have \nbeen established by Agamemnon; or Diomedes, or \nAmphictyon, or lastly, by the council of the \nAmphictyons, 1263 B.C. They lasted till 394. \n\nPYX, the casket in which Catholic priests keep \nthe consecrated wafer. In the ancient chapel of the \npyx, at Westminster abbey, are deposited the \nstandard pieces of gold and silver, under the joint \ncustody of the lords of the treasury and the comp- \ntroller-general. The " trial of the pyx" signifies \nthe verification by a jury of goldsmiths of the \ncoins deposited in the pyx or chest by the master of \nthe mint; this took place on 17 July, 1S61, at the \nexchequer office, Old Palace-yard, in the presence \nof twelve privy councillors, twelve goldsmiths, and \nothers, and on 15 Feb. 1870. This trialis said to have \nbeen ordered in the reign of Henry II., 1154-89; \nKing James was present at one in loll. The first \nannual trial of the pyx, appointed by the Coinage \nact of 1870, took place 18 July, 1871. \n\n\n\nQ. \n\n\n\nQUACKERY. \n\n\n\nQUAKERS. \n\n\n\nQUACKERY, or medical imposture, is very- \nancient. Quack medicines were taxed in 1783 \net scq. An inquest was held en the body of a \nyoung lady, Miss Cashiu, whose physician, St. \nJohn Long, was afterwards tried for manslaughter, \n21 Aug. 1830 ; he was found guilty, and sentenced \nto_ pay a fine of 2C.0I., 30 Oct. following. He was \ntried for manslaughter in the case of Mrs. Catherine \nLloyd, and acquitted, 19 Feb. 183 1. Dr. Vries, \n" the black doctor," a professed cancer-curer, at \nTari-, was condemned to fifteen months\' imprison- \nment as an impostor in Jan. 1S60. \n\nQUADRAGESIMA SUNDAY, first Sun- \nday in Lent and 40th day before Good Friday; see \nLent, and Quinquagesima. \n\nQUADRANT, a mathematical instrument in \nthe form of a quarter of a circle. The solar quad- \nrant was introduced about 290 B.C. The Arabian \nastronomers under the caliphs, in 995, had a quad- \nrant of 21 feet 8 inches radius, and a sextant 59 feet \n9 inches radius. Davis\'s quadrant for measuring \nangles was produced about 1600; Hadley\'s quadrant \nabout 1 73 1 ; see Navigation. \n\nQUADRILATERAL or Quadrangle, \n\nterms applied to four strong fortresses in N. Italy, \nlong held by the Austrians, but surrendered to the \nItalians, Oct. 1866; \xe2\x80\x94 Peschiera, on an island in the \nMincio ; Mantua on the Mincio ; Verona and Leg- \nnago, both on the Adige ; see Italy, Peschiera, &c. \n\nThe Turkish Quadrilateral "was Slramla, Varna, Rustchuk, \nand Silistria, lost to the sultan by the treaty of Berlin, \nwhich established the autonomy of Bulgaria. \n\nQUADRILLE, a dance (originally quadrille \nde con t re clause, introduced into French ballets \nabout 1745), i J1 its present form became popular in \nFrance about 1804. It was introduced into this \ncountry about 1808 (Miss Berry), and promoted \nby the duke of Devonshire and others, in 1813. \nliaikes. \n\nQUADRIVIUM, see Arts. \n\nQUADRUPLE ALLIANCE. That be- \ntween Great Britain, France, and the emperor \n(signed at London, 22 July, 1718), on the accession \nof the states of Holland, 8 Feb. 17 19, obtained its \nname. It guaranteed the succession of the reign- \ning families of Great Britain and France, settled \nthe partition of the Spanish monarchy, and led to \nwar. \n\n^ QUADRUPLE TREATY, concluded in \nLondon 22 April, 1834, by the representatives of \nGreat Britain, France, Spain, and Portugal, gua- \nranteed the possession of her throne to Isabella II., \nthe young queen of Spain. \n\nQUADRUPLEX TELEGRAPHY, see \n\nunder Electricity. \n\nQUAESTORS (seekers) . Two qnmslores parri- \ntidii, public prosecutors, in cases of murder and \nother capital crimes, acted in Rome under the \nkings ; two quastores classici, who had the man- \nagement of the public treasure ; appointed about \n484 B.C. The number of qurestors was raised from \ntime to time, as circumstances demanded. Ple- \n\n\n\nbeians were first elected in 409 B.C. There were \neight quaestors in 265. Sylla raised the number to- \ntwenty ; Julius Cajsar to forty. \n\nQUAKERS or Society of Friends, origin- \nally called Seekers, from their seeking the truth, \nand afterwards Friends (3 John, 14). Justice Ben- \nnet, of Derby, gave the society the name of Quakers- \nin l650,_ because George Fox (the founder) admon- \nished him and those present to quake at the word \nof the Lord. This sect was commenced in England \nabout 1646, by George Fox (then aged 22), who- \nwas joined by George Keith, William Penn, and \nRobert Barclay, of TJry, and others. Fox rejected \nall religious ordinances, explained away the com- \nmands relative to baptism, &c. ; discarded the- \nordinary names of days and months, and used thee \nand thou for you, as more consonant with truth- \nHe published a book of instructions for teachers and \nprofessors, and died 13 Jan. 1691. Sir H. Nicolas \nexplains the Quaker calendar in his Chronology of \nHistory. The first meeting-house in London was- \nin "White Hart-court, Gracechurch-strcet. \nTheir principles are contained in " Extracts of minutes " \n(from the beginning) published 1782: revised 1S02 \n1S61, and 1883. \nThe Quakers early suffered grievous persecutions. At- \nBoston, U.S., where the first Friends who arrived were- \nfemales, they (even females) were cruelly scourged and \nhad their ears cut off; some put to death. \nIn 1659 they stated in parliament that 2000 Friends had \nendured sufferings and imprisonment in Newgate : ami; \n164 Friends offered themselves at this time,1jy name \nto government, to be imprisoned in lieuo\'fa\'n equal \nnumber in danger (from confinement) of death i6sq \nFifty-five (out of 120 sentenced) were transported to- \n\nAmerica, by an order of council, 1664. \nThe masters of vessels refusing to carry them for some- \nmonths, an embargo was laid on West India ships \nwhen a mercenary wretch was at length found for the- \nservice. The Friends would not walk on board nor \nwould the sailors hoist them into the vessel, and sol- \ndiers from the Tower were employed. In 166= the \nvessel sailed ; but it was immediately captured by t lie \nDutch, who liberated twenty-eight of the prisoners in, \nHolland, the rest having died of the plague. Few \nreached America. \nFirst meeting of Quakers in Ireland in Dublin in \n1658; and their first meeting-house there was \nopened in Eustace-street . . , _ 1602- \nThe solemn affirmation of Quakers enacted to be \ntaken in all cases in the courts below, wherein \noaths are required from other subjects (see Affir- \nmation) x g g \n\nWilliam Penn, with a company of Friend\'s, colon\'- \n\nised Philadelphia \' _ 1682- \n\nJohn Archdale, a Quaker, elected M.P. for Chipping \nWycombe; refused to take the oaths, and his \nelection was declared void . . . ifi \n\nQuakers emancipated their negro slaves . \' 1 Jan\' t 7 ss \nA schism in the society was begun in America \nabout 1827, by Elias Hicks publishing his opinions \ndenying the divinity of Christ and his atonement \nand the authority of the Holy Scriptures. His \nnumerous followers are styled Hicksite Friends \nJoseph Pease, a Quaker, was admitted to parliament \n\n\n\n15 Feb. 1833 \n\n\n\non his affirmation \n\nThe Quakers had in England" 4 i 3 meeting-houses!., \n1800, and 372 in lS \n\nAt an annual assembly it was agreed to recommend \nthat mixed marriages should lie permitted, and \nthat many of the peculiarities of the. see! in speech \nand costume should be no longer insisted on. \n\n2 Nov. tSs3- \n\n\n\nQUALIFICATION. \n\n\n\n793 \n\n\n\nQUEEN. \n\n\n\nAn act passed rendering valid Quaker marriages \nwhen only one of the persons is a Quaker. May, i860 \n\nTiie Quakers publish an address deprecating the \ncontinuance of the war .... Jan. 1871 \n\nSaid to be 14,441 Quakers in Great Britain, May, \n1877 ; about 14,700, May, 1880 ; 15,381 . May 1885 \n\nQUALIFICATION for Office Aboli- \ntion ACT, passed May, 1866, rendered it unneces- \nsary to make and subscribe certain declarations. \n\nQUAE AN TINE: the custom observed at \nVenice as early as 1 127, whereby all merchants and \nothers comiug from the Levant were obliged to \nremain in the house of St. Lazarus, or the Lazar- \netto, forty days before they were admitted into the \ncity. Various southern cities have now lazarettos ; \nthat of Venice is built in the water. In the times \nof plague, England and all other nations oblige \nthose that come from the infected places to perform \nquarantine with their ships, &c, a longer or shorter \ntime, as may be judged most safe. Quarantine acts \nwere passed in 1753 and in 1825. By order of coun- \ncil, 10 Nov. 1866, foreign cattle were made subject \nto quarantine. \n\nQUAETEE SESSIONS were established, \n55 Edw. III. 1350-1. The days of sitting were \nappointed, 2 Hen. V. 1413. In 1830 it was en- \nacted that quarter sessions of the peace should be \nheld in the first week after II Oct., 28 Dec, 31 \nMarch, and 24 June. Further regulated, 1S42, 1848, \nand 1858. \n\nQUAETEELY EE VIEW, the organ of the \nTory party. The publication was proposed to Mr. \n\xe2\x96\xa0George Canning, and his support solicited by Mr. \nJohn Murray, the publisher, in a letter dated 25 \nSept. 1807, in opposition to the opinions of the \nEdinburgh Jtevieio. Mr. Murray was ably assisted \nby Walter Scott, Robert Southey, John Gibson \nLockhart (editor 1825-53), J. W. Croker, aud other \n\xe2\x80\xa2eminent persons. The review first appeared in \nFeb. 1809, under the editorship of William Gilford, \nthe celebrated translator of "Juvenal." He died \n31 Dec. 1826. \n\nQUASI MODO, a name given to Low Sunday \n{the first Sunday after Easter) from the commence- \nment of a hymn sung on that day. \n\nQUATEENIONS, an important mathemati- \ncal method or calculus, invented by Sir Win. \nRowan Hamilton, about 1843. \n\nIt is based upon the separation of multiplication from \naddition, and its fundamental idea is mental trans- \nference or motion by what he termed vectors. He \nattributed to addition motion from a point ; to mul- \ntiplication about a point. Four numbers are generally \ninvolved, hence the name quaternion. Hamilton\'s \n" Lectures on Quaternions," was published 1853: his \n"Elements," 1866. Other works by professors Kelland \nand Tait, published since. \n\nQUATEE-BEAS (Belgium). Here on 16 \nJune, 1815, two days before the battle of Waterloo, \na battle was fought between the British and allied \narmy under the duke of Brunswick, the prince of \nOrange, and sir Thomas Picton, and the French \nunder marshal Ney. The British:" ought with re- \nmarkable intrepidity, notwithstanding their inferi- \nority in number, and their fatigue through march- \ning all the preceding night. The 42nd regiment \n(Royal Highlanders) suffered severely in pursuit of \n.a French division by cuirassiers posted in ambush \nbehind growing corn. The duke of Brunswick was \nkilled. \n\nQUEBEC a province of the dominion of \n<Canadd, formerly called Lowjr Canada, was \n\n\n\nsettled by the French in the 16th and 17th cen- \nturies. Quebec the capital, was founded by th 1 11 \nin 1608. Population of the province, iSSi, \n1,359,027; 1891, 1,489,062. Town, 1881^62,446; \n1 89 1, 63,090. \nQuebec reduced by the English, with all Canada, in \n\n1629, but restored 1632 \n\nBesieged by the English, but without success . 1711 \n\nConquered by them after a battle memorable for the \ndeath of general Wolfe in the moment of victory, \nand of the French general Montcalm 13 Sept. 1759 \nBesieged in vain by the American provincials, under \n\ngeneral Montgomery, who was slain . 31 Dec. 1775 \nBishopric established . . . 1793 \n\nPublic and private stores and several wharfs de- \nstroyed by lire ; the loss estimated at upwards of \n\n260,000? Sept. 1815 \n\nAwful fire, 1650 houses, the dwellings of 12,000 per- \nsons, burnt to the ground . . .28 May, 1845 \nAnother great tire, 1365 houses burnt . 28 June, ,, \nFire at the theatre, 50 lives lost . . 12 Jan. 1846 \nQuebec made the seat of government . 17 April, 1856 \nVisited by the prince of Wales . . 18-23 Aug. i860 \nGreat fire in French quarter ; 2500 houses and 17 \nchurches destroyed, and nearly 20,000 persons \n\nmade homeless 14 Oct. 1866 \n\nGreat tire ; 500 houses burnt ... 24 May, 1870 \nGreat fires at St. John\'s \xe2\x80\x94 commercial district ; 9 \nchurches and 7 hotels said to be destroyed. \n\n18 June, 1876 \nDissensions between the lieut. -governor Luc Letel- \n\nlier de St. Just and his ministers . . . . ,, \n600 small wooden houses destroyed by fire . June, 1881 \nParliament buildings burnt (incendiary) 19 April, 1883 \nDynamite explosions destroying new parliament \n\nbuildings . . . , . . .11 Oct. 1884 \nDestructive fire in the citadel ; the powder maga- \nzine saved ; about 30,000?. damage . 6-7 July, 1887 \nA. Real Angers appointed lieut. -governor . . ,, \n\nThunderstorm with great loss of life and property, \n\n16 Aug. 1888 \nFire in the suburb St. Sauveur ; above 700 houses \n\ndestroyed; great distress . . 15-16 May, 1889 \nJesuits\' Estate act passed, see Canada . Aug. , \nLandslip below the citadel, 7 dwellings fell, 19 \n\nSept. ; 30 bodies recovered, 36 missing 21 Sept. ,, \nThe duke and duchess of Connaught received warmly \n\n10 June, 189c \nVisit of the Comte de Paris, banquet . 28 Oct. ,, \nAt St. Joseph de Levis, a railway train, crossing \nthe bridge, is thrown into the river, about 10 lives \n\nlost 18 Dec. ,, \n\nDestructive boiler explosion at Hare Point, about \n\n30 persons killed 12 Feb. 1891 \n\nThe Hon. Honore Mercier, premier of Quebec, and \nMr. Joseph Adolphe Chapleau, secretary of state, \ncharged with misappropriating public money in re- \nlation to the Chaleurs Bay railway, &c. ; the \ncharge accepted by the Senate . . 14 Sept. ,, \nIn consequence of the interim report of the Royal \nCommission of inquiry (three judges) appointed \nby lieut. -governor Real Angers (issued Nov.), lie \ndismisses the ministry . . . .16 Dec. ,, \nMr. C. B. de Boucherville forms a ministry 21 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nRoyal commission to inquire into the conduct of \nthe ministry, 11 Jan. 1892 ; the report censures \nseveral persons and blames Mr. Mercier for negli- \ngence. ... .17 Feb. 1892 \nInvestigations respecting the Mercier ministry . ,, \n\nApril, \xe2\x80\x9e \nXew parliament opened (conservatives 55, opposi- \ntion 17) 27 April, ,, \n\nTrial of Mr. Charles Langelier and Mr. Ernest Pa- \ncaud for conspiracy and fraud ; judgment re- \nserved 21 May, ,, \n\nMr. Mercier and Mr. Pacaud committed for trial for \nconspiracy to defraud the province of money . ,, \n\n9 June, ,, \n(See Canada and Montreal.) \n\nQUEEN (Saxon, civen ; German, konigin). \nIn 1554 an act was passed " declaring that the regall \npower of this realine is in the queues majestic \n[Mary] as fully and absolutely as ever it was in \nany of her moste noble progeiiilours kinges of this \nrealme." The Hungarians culled a queeu-regnant \n\n\n\nQUEEN ANNE\'S BOUNTY. \n\n\n\n799 \n\n\n\nQUEENSLAND. \n\n\n\nking; see Hungary. John Knox\'s "Monstrous \nltegiment of Women," published 1555, against \nMary queen of Scots, greatly offended Elizabeth of \nEngland. \n\nQUEEN ANNE\'S BOUNTY, established \nby her in Nov. 1703, being the first fruits with the \ntenths, to increase the incomes of the poorer clergy. \nThere were 5597 clerical livings under 50^. per \nannum found by the commissioners under the act of \nAnne capable of augmentation. Chalmers. Act to \nconsolidate the offices of first fruits, tenths, and \nqueen Anne\'s Bounty, passed I Vict. 1838. Amount \nof the fund, 1S92, 388,946^. \n\nQUEEN ANNE\'S FAETHINGS. . The \npopular stories of the great value of this coin are \nfabulous, although some few of particular dates \nhave been purchased by persons at high prices. \nThe current farthing, with the broad brim, when \nin fine preservation, is worth \\l. The common \npatterns of 1 7 13 and 1714 are worth \\l. The two \npatterns with Britannia under a canopy, and Peace \non a car, r r k, are worth 2I. 2s. each. The \npattern with Peace in a ear is more valuable and \nrare, and worth 5^. Finkerton (died 1826). \n\nQUEEN CAROLINE\'S TRIAL, &c. \n\nCaroline Amelia Elizabeth, second daughter of \nCharles William Ferdinand, duke of Brunswick, \nbom 17 May, 1768; married to George, prince of \n\nWales 8 April, 1795 \n\nTheir daughter, princess Charlotte, born 7 Jan. 1796 \nThe "Delicate Investigation" (which sec) 22 May, 1806 \nCharges against her again disproved . . . 1813 \nThe princess embarks for the continent . Aug. 18 14 \nBecomes queen, 20 Jan. ; arrives in England, \n\n6 June, 1S20 \nA secret committee in the house of lords, appointed \nCo examine papers on charges of incontinence, \n\n8 June, ,, \nBill of pains and penalties introduced by lord \n\nLiverpool 5 July, ,, \n\nThe queen removes to Brandenburg-house 3 Aug. ,, \n.Receives an address from the married ladies of the \n\nmetropolis (and many others afterwards) 16 Aug. ,, \nHer trial commences .... 19 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLast debate on the bill of pains and penalties, when \nthe report was approved by 108 against 99 ; the \nnumerical majority of nine being produced by the \nvotes of the ministers themselves. Lord Liver- \npool moves that the bill be reconsidered that day \n\nsiv months 10 Nov. 1820 \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Great public exultation ; illuminations for three \n\nnights in London . . . 10, n, 12 Nov. ,, \nThe queen goes to St. Paul\'s in state . 29 Nov. ,, \nShe protests against her exclusion from the corona- \ntion, 19 July ; taken ill at Drury-lane theatre, 30 \nJuly ; dies at Hammersmith ... 7 Aug. 1821 \nHer remains removed on their route to Brunswick ; \nan alarming riot occurs ; two persons were killed \nin an affray with the guards . . 14 Aug. ,, \n\nQUEEN CHARLOTTE Ship of War, \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2a first-rate ship of the line, of 1 10 guns, the flag- \nchip of lord Keith, then commanding in chief in \nthe Mediterranean, was burnt by an accidental fire, \n\xe2\x80\xa2off the harbour of Leghorn, and more than 700 \nBritish seamen out of a crew of 850 perished by fire \nor drowning, 17 March, 1800. \n\nQUEEN\'S ADVOCATE, prosecutes or de- \nfends on the part of the crown in all cases in the \n\xe2\x96\xa0court of admiralty. Sir R. J. Phillimore, ap- \npointed in 1862, was succeeded by sir Travers \nTwiss, Aug. 1867, who resigned in March, 1872 ; \nno successor appointed. \n\nQUEENS BENCH COURT and PRI- \nSON, sec King\'s Bench. \n\nQUEEN\'S COLLEGES, see Cambridge and \n\xe2\x80\xa2Oxford. Queen\'s colleges, Ireland, from their un- \n\xe2\x80\xa2eectarian character termed the " Godless Colleges," \n\n\n\nwere instituted in 1845, to afford education of the \nhighest order to all religious denominations. They \nwere placed at Belfast, "Cork, and Gal way; the last \nwas opened on 30 Oct. 1849. \xe2\x80\x94The " Queen\'s Uni- \nversity in Ireland," comprehending these colleges, \nwas founded by patent, 15 Aug. 1850 ; the earl of \nClarendon, lord lieutenant, the first chancellor. \nThese were "condemned" by the Propaganda and \nthe pope, and by a majority (a small one) of the \nIrish bishops hi a synol held at Thurles, in Sept. \n1850. A supplemental charter, granted in June, \n1866, created much dissension when acted upon in \nOctober following, and was suffered to expiie, 31 \nJan. 1868; see Colleges. \n\nA government commission of inquiry into the col- \nleges was appointed about . . . May, 1876 \nDissolution of the Queen\'s University enacted, ano- \nther to be created, by 42 & 43 Vict. c. 65, passed \n15 Aug. 1879. \n\nQUEENSLAND, Moreton - bay, a Biitish \ncolony, comprising the whole of the north-eastern \nportion of Australia ; was separated from New South \nWales and made a distinct colony, in 1859, when \nBrisbane, the capital, founded by Oxley, 1823, was \nmade a bishopric. Chinese immigrants are virtually \nexcluded. \n\nSir George Fergusson Bowen, the first governor, \nsucceeded by Mr. Blackall, 1868 ; the marquis of \nNormanby, 1871 ; Mr. Wm. Wellington Cairns, \n1874 ; sir Arthur E. Kennedy, Jan. 1877; sir An- \nthony Musgrave, March, 1883 ; died 9 Oct. 1S88 ; sir \nHenry Arthur Blake Nov. (objected to by the \ncolony) ; resigns about 27 Nov. ; sir Henry \nWylie Norman appointed Nov. 1888 ; well \nreceived 1 May. ; opens the parliament with \nspeech noticing the prosperity of the colony \n\n21 May, 1889 \nReport of royal commission, 25 April, 1885 ; on \nrecruiting in South Pacific Isles for labourers for \nsugar plantations in North Queensland, discloses \nmuch deceit aid cruelty, especially in the ship \nHopeful, capt. Slnw, May; Neil McNeil, agent, \nand Williams, bDatswain, were convicted of \nmurder (not executed) 1884; 404 islanders sent \nhome, announced . . 6 June ; others in July, 1885 \nNorth Queensland made a bishopric 187S ; agitation \n\nof North Queensland for separation July, ct set/. ,, \nLoan of 1,554,000/. authorised . . .15 Nov. 1889 \nMount Morgan, a grazing district of 640 acres, in \ncentral Queenslan 1, bought, by Donald Gordon \nfor 5s. an acre, was sold by him to Messrs. Morgan \nfor 1/. an acre : in 1882 they discovered gold, and \nformed a partnership with Messrs. Hall and others. \nThe product of gold enormously increased, and \nin 1886, a new company was formed with a capital \nof 1,000,000/., which is said to have paid very \n\nlarge dividends. Nov. ., \n\nDisastrous floods, about 800 miles of land submerged \n\nthrough heavy rains . . announced 5 Jan. 1890 \nThe cabinet re-arranged ; hon. B. D. Morehead still \n\npremier announced 6 Jan. ,, \n\nDestructive cyclone ; Cardwell, a small town- \nship, nearly destroyed . . about 31 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \nResignation of Mr. Morehead\'s ministry, 7 Aug. ; \n\nsucceeded by Sir S. W. Griffith\'s . \' 8 Aug. ,, \nLabour disputes and riots in central Queensland, \n\nabout 21 March ; suppressed . . 26 March, 1891 \nThe Shearers\' Union, very active . . 1S90-1 \n\nStrike of the shearers collapses reported 14 June, 1891 \nVery large crop of wheat and wool reported 8 Dee. ,, \nMisunderstanding between sir Thomas M\'llwraith \nand the Bank of England respecting a loan, Sept.- \nDec, 1891 ; explanations given, March ; amicable \nsettlement ... . . 3 May, 1892 \n\nNorth and Central Queensland petition for separa- \ntion from tire colony ; the British government \n\nrecommends delay May, , \n\nRevival of the employment of Kanaka labourers, \n\nunder restrictions ; bill passed reported 6 May ,, \nThe separation question deferred by government \n\nAug. ., \nPopulation in 1859, about 23,450; in 1871, 125,146 ; \nin 1875, about 163,182; in 1884, 301,577; in 1891, \n393. 7\'S. \n\n\n\nQUEENS OF ENGLAND. \n\n\n\n800 \n\n\n\nQUIEINUS. \n\n\n\nChief exports, wool, gold, copper, tallow, lire stock, \ncotton, and sugar ; value in 1871, 2,560,383?. ; \n1883, 5,276,608/.. Imports in 1887, 5,821,611/. ; \nexports, 6,453,945/. \n\nRevenue 1887, 3,032,463/. ; expenditure, 3,350,049/. \ni888-g,revenue, -s, 636,000/. ; expenditure 3,510,000/. \n1889-go, revenue, 3,260,308/.; expenditure, \n3,745,217/.; imports,5,o66,7oo/.; exports,8,554,5i2/. \n\nQUEENS OF ENGLAND, see under Eng- \nland. \nQUEEN\'S THEATRE, see Opera House. \nQUEEN\'S TITLE, see Royal Style. \n\nQUEENSTOWN (Upper Canada) . This town , \non the river Niagara, was taken in the war with \nAmerica by the troops of the United States, 13 Oct. \n18 1 2 ; but was retaken by the British forces, who \ndefeated the Americans with considerable loss in \nkilled, wounded, and prisoners, on the same- day. \nQueenstown suffered severely in this war. \xe2\x80\x94 The \nCove of Cork was named Queenstown, 3 Aug. 1849., \nby the queen on her visit. \n\nQUEEN\'S UNIVERSITY (see Queen\'s Col- \nleges) , was directed to be dissolved by 42 & 43 Vict. \nc. 65 (1879), and was dissolved by proclamation, 31 \nJan. 1882; see University of Ireland. \n\nQUEEN VICTORIA Steam Ship. \n\nWrecked 15 Feb. 1853 ; see Wrecks. \n\nQUENTIN, ST. (N. France). The duke of \nSavoy, with the army of Philip II. of Spain, as- \nsisted by the English, defeated the French under \nthe constable De Montmorency, at St. Quentin, 10 \nAug. 1557. In fulfilment of a vow made before \nthe\xc2\xb0 engagement, the king built the monastery, \npalace, &c, the Escurial, considered by the Span- \niards the eighth wonder of the world ; see Escurial. \nDuring the Franco-German war the army of the north, \nunder Faidherbe, was defeated here by the Ger- \nmans after seven hours\' fighting, on 19 Jan. 1871 ; \ntotal loss about 15,000 : the German loss about \n3100. \n\nQUERETARO (Mexico), was besieged and \ntaken (through the treachery of Lopez) by the \nliberal general Escobedo, 15th May, 1867. The \nemperor Maximilian and his generals Miramon and \nMejia, were taken prisoners, and, after trial were \nshot 19 June following. \n\nQUERN or HANDMILIi, is probably the im- \nplement spoken of in Isaiah xlvii. 2, about 712 B.C. \nSo-called .Roman querns have been found in York- \nshire. \n\nQUESNOY (N. France), was taken by the \nAustrians, II Sept. 1793, but was recovered by the \nFienc\'n, 16 Aug. 1794- It surrendered to prince \nFrederick of the Netherlands, 29 June, 1815, after \nthe bittle of Waterloo.\xe2\x80\x94 It was here that cannon \nwere first used, and called bombards. He\'nault. \n\nQUETTAH, see JBcloocJdslan. \n\nQUIBERON BAY (W. France). A British \nforce landed here, Sept. 1746, but was repulsed. In \nthe bay admiral Hawkc gained a complete victory \nover the French admiral Conflans, and thus defeated \nthe projected invasion of Great Britain, 20 Nov. \n1759. Quiberon was taken by some French regi- \nments in the pay of England, 3 July, 1795 ; but on \n21 July, through treachery, the French republicans, \nunder \'lloche, retook it by surprise, and many emi- \ngrants were executed. About 900 of the troops, \nand nearly 1500 royalist inhabitants who had joined \ntne regiments in the pay of Great Britain, effected \ntheir embarkation on board the ships. \n\n\n\nQUICKSILVER, in its liquid state, mercury. \nIts use in refining silver was discovered, 1540. \nThere are mines of it in various parts, the chief of \nwhich are at Almaden, in Spain, and\'atldria, in \nIllyria ; the latter, discovered by accident in 1497, \nfor several years yielded 1200 tons. A mine was \ndiscovered at Ceylon in 1797; and at New Almaden \nand other places in California. Quicksilver was- \ncongealed in winter at St. Petersburg, in 1759. It \nwas congealed in England by a chemical process, \nwithout snow or ice, by Mr. AValker, in 1787. Cor- \nrosive sublimate, a deadly poison, is a combination- \nof mercury and chlorine ; see Calomel. \n\nQUICUNQUE VULT, see Athanasian. \nCreed. \n\nQUIETISM, the doctrine of Miguel Molmos* \na Spaniard (1627-96), whose work, the "Spiritual \nGuide," published in 1675, w r as the foundation of a, \nsect in France. He held that religion consisted in \nan internal silent meditation on the merits of \nChrist and the mercies of God. Madamede la. \nMothe-Guyon, a quietist, was imprisoned in the- \nBastile for her visions and prophecies, but released \nthrough the interest of Fenelon, archbishop of \nCambray, between whom and Bossuet, bishop of \nMeaux, arose a controversy, 1697. Quietism was- \nfinally condemned by pope Innocent XII. in 1699. \n\nQUILLS are said to have been first used for \npens in 553 ; some say not before 635. \n\nQUINCE, the Pyrus Cydom\'a, brought to this \ncountry from Austria, before 1573. The Japan \nquince, or Pyrus Japonica, brought hither from \nJapan, 1796. \n\nQUINDECEMVIRI, fifteen men, chosen to \nkeep the Sybilline books. The number, originally \ntwo (duumviri), about 520 B.C., was increased to \nten in 365 B.C., and afterwards (probably by Sylla) \nto fifteen, about 82 B.C. Julius Caesar added one J \nbut the precedent was not followed. \n\nQUININE or QuiNlA, an alkaloid (much \nused in medicine), discovered in 1820 by Pelletier \nand Caventou. It is a probable constituent of all \ngenuine cinchona barks, especially of the 3\'ellow \nbark; see Jesuits\' Bark. Artificial quinine w r as \nprepared (synthetically) by Mr. W. L. Scott, in \nOct. i36S- \xe2\x80\x94 Quinoidixe, see Fluorescence. John \nEliot Howard, promoter of the cultivation of cin- \nchona in India, and author of " Quinologia " (1862) \ndied 22 Nov. 1883. \n\nQUINQUAGESIMA SUNDAY. The ob- \nservation is said to have been appointed by Gregory \nthe Great (pope, 590-604). The first Sunday in \nLent having been termed Quadragesima, and the \nthree weeks preceding having been appropriated to \nthe gradual introduction of the Lent fast, the three \nSundays of these weeks were called by names sig- \nnificant of their position in the calendar: and \nreckoning by decades (tenths), the Sunday pre- \nceding Quadragesima received its present name, \nQuinquagesima, the s\xc2\xabcond Sexagesima, and the \nthird Septuageslma. \n\nQUINTILIANS, heretics in the 2nd century, \nthe disciples of Montanus, who took their name \nfrom Quintilia, a lad]\' whom he had deceived by \nbis pretended sanctity, and whom they regarded as \na prophetess. They made the eucharist of bread \nand cheese, and allowed women to be priests and \nbishops. Pardon. \n\nQUIRINUS, a Sabine god, whose name was \ngiven to Romulus after his death. L. Papirius \nCursor, general in the Roman army, first erected a \n\n\n\nQUITO. \n\n\n\n801 \n\n\n\nQUO WARRANTO ACT. \n\n\n\nsun-dial in the temple of Qnirinus, from which time \nthe days began to be divided into hours, 293 B.C. \nAspin. The sun-dial was sometimes called the \nQuirinus, from the original place in which it was \nset up. Ashe. The Sabines who became Eoman \ncitizens were termed Quirites. \n\nQUITO (capital of the republic of Equator), \nfounded in 1534, was the scene of the measure- \nment of a degree of the meridian, by the French \nand Spanish mathematicians, 1736-42. Forty thou- \nsand persons perished by an earthquake which \nalmost overwhelmed the city of Quito, 4 Feb. 1797. \nSince then violent shocks, but not so disastrous, \noccurred ; till one, on 22 March, 1859, when about \n5000 persons were killed; see Earthquakes and \nEquator. \n\nQUIXOTE, see Bon Quixote. \n\nQUOITS, a game said to have originated with \nthe Greeks, and to have been first played at the \nOlympic games, by the Idsei Dactyli, fifty years \nafter the deluge of Deucalion, 1453 b. c. 1\'erseus, \nthe grandson of Acrisius, by Danae, having inad- \nvertently slain his grandfather, when throwing a \nquoit, exchanged the kingdom of Argos, to which \n\n\n\nhe was heir, for that of Tirynthus, and founded the \nkingdom of Mycenre, about 1313 B.C. \n\nQUOTATIONS. Athenseus\'s "Deijmosophistce \nor Banquet of the Learned" (compiled about 228), \nand Burton\'s "Anatomy of Melancholy" (1621), \ncontain masses of extracts. Henry Ainsworth\'s \n" Communion of Saints" (died 1622), is a mosaic of \nScripture quotations. \n\nMaedonnel\'s "Dictionary of Quotations," 1796; \nMoore\'s 1831 \n\nRiley\'s "Dictionary of Latin Quotations," with, a \nSelection of Greek, published by H. Bohn . . 1856 \n\nCollections of English Quotations are now numerous : \nFriswell\'s " Familiar Words," 2nd ed. . . 1866 \nBartlett\'s " Familiar Quotations " . . . 1869 \nAdams\' " Cyclopaedia of Poetical Quotations " . 1853 \nBohn\'s "Dictionary of Poetical Quotations " . . 1881 \n\nQUO WARRANTO ACT, passed 1280. By \nit a writ may be directed to any person to inquire \nby what authority he holds any office or franchise. \nCharles II. directed a writ against the corporation of \nLondon in 1683, and the court of king\'s bench de- \nclared their charter forfeited. The decision was \nreversed in 1690. The proceedings have been regu- \nlated by various acts, 1710, 1792, 1837, 1843. \n\n\n\n3 F \n\n\n\nE. \n\n\n\nEABBITS. \n\n\n\nEADCLIFFE LIBBABY. \n\n\n\nEABBITS, see New South Wales, 1887. \n\nEABELAIS CLUB, to promote the study of \nRabelais and the illustration of his works; \'lord \nHoughton, sir W. Frederick Pollock and his sons, \nWalter Besant, and others ; first meeting, Dec. 1879. \nRabelais Gallery, Pall Mall Bast, opened to the \npress, 13 Oct. ; at the instance of the National \nVigilance Association, four pictures were seized \n. as indecent by the police, 3 Nov. ; Mr. J. F. \nSutton and Mr. H. Scarborough, the exhibitors, \nwere prosecuted at Bow Street, 5 Nov. ; corn- \nmi ted for trial; 21 pictures ordered to be de- \nstroyed, 12 Nov. ; Messrs. Sutton & Scarborough \nconvicted, 18 Dec. 1890 ; fined 25?. each ; the pic- \ntures ordered to be returned to France 18 April, 1891 \n\nEABIES, see Hydrophobia. \n\nEACES, one of the ancient games of Greece. \nHorse-races were known in England in very \nearly times. Fitz-Stephen, in the days of Henry \nII., mentions the delight taken by the citizens \nof London in the diversion. In James I.\'s \nreign Croydon in the south, and Garterly in the \nnorth, were celebrated courses. Near York there \nwere races, and the prize was a little golden bell, \n1607. Camden. In the end of Charles I.\'s reign, \nraces were performed at Hyde Park. Charles II. \npatronised them, and instead of bells, gave a silver \nbowl, or cup, value 100 guineas. William III. \nadded to the plates (as did queen Anne) , and founded \nan academy for riding. \n\nThe first racing calendar is said to have been pub- \nlished by John Cheney I727 \n\nAct for suppressing races by ponies and weak \nhorses, 19 Geo. 11 I73 n \n\nThe most eminent races in England are those at \nNewmarket {which see), established by Charles IT. \n1667; and at Epsom, begun about 1711 ; by Mr. \nParkhurst (annual since 1730, Allen\'s Surrey). \n[The earl of Derby began the Oaks, 1779; the \nDerby, 1780 (first won by Diomed)]. See Derby \nDay. \n\nAt Ascot, begun by the duke of Cumberland, uncle \nto George III. ; mentioned 1727 \n\nAt Doncaster, by col. St. Leger(the St. Leger stakes \nwere founded in 1776, and so named in 1777) . 1776 \n\nAt Goodwood, begun by the duke of Richmond, in \nhis park l8o 2 \n\nLord Stamford, said to have engaged Jemmy Grim- \nshaw, a light-weight jockey, at a salary of 1000Z. \na year March, 1865 \n\n"Tattersall\'s," the "high-change of horse-flesh," \nwas established by Richard Tattersall, near Hyde \nPark Corner (hence termed "the Corner") in 1766, \nfor the sale of, horses. The lease of the ground \nhaving expired, the new premises at Brompton \nwere erected and opened for business on \n\nv 10 April, 1865 \n\nThe Jockey Club, which now chiefly regulates races \nand the betting connected with them, was founded \nin 1750. Its gradually accumulating rules were \nmodified in 1828 and revised in . . . ^57 \n\nAlterations recommended by a committee appointed \nin April ; adopted by the club 16 July following . 1870 \n\nRules revised, Nov. 1876; reforms made . . 1880 \n\nResolved that a shorthand-writer be present at the \nmeetings t 6 April, 1890 \n\nJohn Scott, a most eminent trainer, died, aged 77, \n\nOct. 1871 \n\nBetting. Between 1858 and 1868, 7S,oooZ. and \n115,000?. have been won upon a single race. \nBetting is now much reprobated ; see Betting. \n\n\n\nGate-meetings : Races held in fields by publicans \nand others ; Metropolitan Race-course Act (42 & \n43 Vict. c. 18), to check them, passed . 3 July, 1879 \n\nTom Chaloner, celebrated jockey, dies March, 1886 \n\nFred. Archer, very successful jockey, winner of \n2,746 races, aged 29, committed suicide with a \nrevolver when in a state of high fever (left by will \n70,000?.) 8 Nov. ,, \n\nCharles Wood, jockey, v. Cox, for libel in Licensed \nVictuallers\' Gazette, charging Wood with pulling \nthe head of Success in two races ; nine days\' \ntrial in queen\'s bench division ; verdict for \nplaintiff damages one farthing and no costs \nallowed 29 June, 18.8S \n\nSir George Chetwynd v. the earl of Durham, see \nTrials 29 June, 1880 \n\nSuspected poisoning of the duke of Westminster\'s \nOrme, to prevent his running . . 28 April, 1892 \n\nRACE-HORSES \n\nFlying Cliilders, bred in 1715 by the duke of Devon- \nshire, was allowed by sportsmen to have been the fleetest \nhorse that ever ran at Newmarket, or that was ever bred \nin the world ; he ran four miles in six minutes and forty- \neight seconds, or at the rate of 35^ miles an hour, carry- \ning nine stone two pounds. "He died in 1741, aged \n26 years. \n\nEclipse was the fleetest horse that ran in England since \nthe time of Childers ; he was never beaten, and died in \nFebruary, 1789, aged 25 years. His heart weighed 141b., \nwinch accounted for his wonderful spirit and courage. \nChristie White\'s Hist, of the Turf. \nOn the accession of queen Victoria, the royal stud \n\nwas sold for 16,476?.. on . . . .25 Oct. 1837 \nThe comtede la Grange\'s stud (in consequence of the \n\nwar) was sold for 23,730?. Gladiateur fetched 5800?. 1870 \nMiddle-park stud (property of Mr. Blenkiron, de- \nceased) sold for 102,005 guineas ; Blair Athol, for \ni2,oooZ. (to the English Stud Company) ; 4 days\' \n\nsale 26 July, 1872 \n\nLieut. Lubowitz, Hungarian, rode from Vienna to \nParis, on his horse Caradoc, in 15 days, winning \n\na wager, arriving 9 Nov. 1874 \n\nDeath of Comte Frederic Lagrange, eminent French \n\nstudmaster 22 Nov. 1883 \n\nLord Falmouth\'s stud sold for 36,420 guineas ; (Har- \nvester 8,600 guineas ; Busybody 8,800 guineas) \n28 April ; and for 75,440 guineas . 30 June, 18S4 \n\nBACK, an engine of torture, for extracting a \nconfession from criminals, mentioned by Demos- \nthenes, de Corona, B.C. 330, and in later times an \ninstrument of the Inquisition. Lord Coke states \nfrom tradition that the duke of Exeter, in the reign \nof Henry VI., erected a rack of torture (thence called \nthe duke of Exeter\'s daughter, now seen in the \nTower, 1447). In the case of Felton, who murdered \nthe duke of Buckingham, the judges of England \nprotested against the proposal of the privy council \nto put the assassin to the rack, as contrary to the \nlaws, 1628 ; the use of the rack was abolished 1640. \nSee Ravaillac and Torture. \n\nEADCLIFFE Library, Oxford, founded \n\nunder the will of Dr. John Kadcliffe, an eminent \nphysician. He died 1 Nov. 1714, leaving 40,000^. \nto the university of Oxford for the founding a \nlibrary, the first stone of which was laid 17 May, \n1737, and the edifice was opened 13 April, 1749. \xe2\x80\x94 \nThe Kadcliffe Observatory, Oxford, founded by \nthe exertions of Dr. Hornsby, Savilian professor of \nastronomy, about 1771, was completed in 1794. The \npublication of the observations was commenced in \n1842, by Mr. Manuel J. Johnson, the director, ap- \npointed in 1839. \n\n\n\nEADIATION. \n\n\n\n803 \n\n\n\nEAILWAYS. \n\n\n\nEADIATION, see Seat. \n\nEADICALS or "Eadical Eeformers," \n\npersons who professed to aim. at procuring a thorough \nreformation in the government and policy of Eng- \nland, became prominent in 1816, when Hampden \nclubs were formed, of which sir Francis Burdett, \nlord Cochrane, major Cartwright, and William \nCobbett were prominent members. Samuel Bam- \nford\'s " Life of a Radical," published in 1842, gives \nmuch information ; he died 13 April, 1872. Many \nradicals were severely punished, 1817-20. Win. \nHarris\'s " History of the Radical Party," published \nearly in 1885. \xe2\x80\x94 The "Radicals" in the United \nStates were the party headed by Thaddeus Stevens, \nbitterly opposed to the policy of president Johnson, \nas too favourable to the subdued Southern States. \n\nThe Radical Programme, advocated by the rt. hon. \nJoseph Chamberlain, widely circulated, first \nappeared July, 1885, in the Fortnightly Review; \nit included reform of the land laws, free education, \nincreased local government, reform in taxation \nand finance, improvement of condition of agri- \ncultural labourers and of the poor, and religious \nequality and dis-establishment of national \nchurches. Which tended to disorganise the \nliberal party. \n\nMr. C. C. Greville (Journal, 25 Aug. 1837) describes \n"Tory Radicals." Some politicians were so \ntermed in 1885 \n\nThe National Radical Union at its fourth anniver- \nsary at Birmingham, Mr. Chamberlain in the \nchair, changed its name to National Liberal \nUnion 24 April, 1889 \n\nEADICLE, see Compound. \n\nEADIOMETEE, &c. (termed a light-mill), a \nlittle instrument constructed by Mr. Wm. Crookes, \nF.R.S., 1873-6. Two little disk arms, mounted on a \npivot and placed in an exhausted glass-bulb, revolve \nwhen placed in bright light. The motion was \nattributed to heat-absorption, 1877; see Light. \nRadiophone. By this apparatus professor Bell, at Phila- \ndelphia, showed how a ray of strong light, acting on a \nselenium cell, conveyed sound 500 feet, Sept. 1884. \n\nEADSTADT, Austria. Here Moreau and the \nFrench defeated the Austrians, 5 July, 1796. \n\nEAFFAELLE WAEE, see Pottery. \n\nSAGGED SCHOOLS, free schools for out- \ncast destitute ragged children, set up in large towns. \nThe instruction is based on the scriptures, and most \nof the teachers are unpaid. John Pounds, a cobbler, \nof Portsmouth, who died in 1839, opened a school of \nthis kind ; and one was set up by Andrew Walker, \nin "Devil\'s Acre," Westminster, in 1839. Knight. \nThey did not receive their name till 1844, when the \n" Ragged school union" was formed, principally by \nMr. S. Starey and Mr. Wm. Locke (afterwards hon. \nsecretary). The earl of Shaftesbury was chairman. \nIn 1856 there were 150 Ragged school institutions. \nSunday ragged schools reported in London in \n1867, 226; in 1878, 177; day schools, in 1867, \n204; in 1878,58; week evening schools, in 1867, \n207, in 1878, 147. Ragged school buildings were \nexempted from rates, 1869. The clay schools are \nbeing gradually superseded by those established by \nthe London school board ; but the Sunday and \nnight schools, mother\'s meetings, &c, are still \nmaintained in very great efficiency (r886). The \nunion has many affiliated institutions (1892). Dr. \nGuthrie, a founder of ragged schools in Edinburgh, \n&c., died 24 Feb. 1873. The earl of Shaftesbury \npresided at the 40th anniversary of the Ragged \nSchool Union, 12 May, 1884. See Shoe-Black. \n\nEAGMAN EOLL (said to derive its name \nfrom Ragimunde, a papal legate in Scotland) con- \n\n\n\ntains the records of the homage and fealty to \nEdward I., sworn to by the nobility and clergy of \nScotland at Berwick in 1296. The original was \ngiven up to Robert Bruce, king of Scotland, in 1328, \nwhen his son David was contracted in marriage to \nthe princess Joanna of England. \n\nEAGUSA, a city on the Adriatic, on the south \nconfines of Dalmatia, was taken by the Venetians, \n1 171, but became an independent republic, 1358. \nTt suffered much \\>y an earthquake, 1667 ; was \ntaken by the French in 1806, and given up to \nAustria in 18 14. \n\nEAID OF Euthven, see Ruthven. \n\nEAILWAY COMMISSIONEES; seeRail- \nivays, 1873 and 1880. \n\nEAILWAYS. Short roads, in and about New- \ncastle, laid down by Mr. Beaumont, so early as \n1602, are thus mentioned in 1676 : \xe2\x80\x94 "The manner \nof the carriage is by laying rails of timber from the \ncolliery to the river, exactly straight and parallel ; \nand bulky carts are made with four rollers fitting \nthose rails, whereby the carriage is so easy that one \nhorse will draw down four or five chaldron of coals, \nand is an immense benefit to the coal merchants." \nRoger North. They were made of iron at White- \nhaven, in 1738. See Gauges, Tramroads. For \nelectric railways see Electricity. \n\nAn iron railway laid down near Sheffield by John \nCurr (destroyed by the colliers) . . . . 1776 \n\nThe first considerable iron railway was laid down \nat Colebrook Dale 1786 \n\nThe first iron railway sanctioned lay parliament (ex- \ncept a few undertaken "by canal companies as \nsmall branches to mines) was the Surrey iron \nrailway (by horses), from the Thames at Wands- \nworth to Croydon 1801 \n\nTrevethick and Vivian obtained a patent for a high \npressure locomotive engine 1802 \n\nWilliam Hedley of Wylam colliery made the first \ntravelling engine (locomotive), or substitute for \nanimal power in a colliery 1813 \n\nThe first locomotive constructed by George Stephen- \nson, travelled at the rate of 6 miles per hour . 1814 \n\nThe Rocket travelled at the rate of 25 and 35 miles \nper hour 1829 \n\n(It obtained the prize of 500?. offered by the directors \nof the Liverpool and Manchester railway com- \npany for the best locomotive, Oct. 1829.) \n\nThe Firefly attained a speed of 20 miles per hour . 1834 \n\nThe North Star moved with a velocity of 37 miles \nper hour 1839 \n\nAt the present time locomotives have attained a \nspeed of 70 miles per hour. \n\nStockton and Darlington railway, constructed by \nEdw. Pease and George Stephenson, first opened \nfor passengers (see 1875-1881, below) . 27 Sept. 1825 \n\nThe Liverpool and Manchester railway commenced \nin Oct. 1826, and opened (Wm. Huskisson, M.P., \nkilled) 15 Sept. 1830 \n\nAct for transmission of mails by railways . . . 1838 \n\nDuty on Railways: \xe2\x80\x94 hi. a mile for 4 passengers \n(2 & 3 Will. IV. c. 120), 1832 ; 5 per. cent, on gross \nreceipts (5 & 6 Vict. c. 59) 1842 \n\nRailway clearing house established . . . . ,, \n\nThe examination of railway schemes, before their \nintroduction into parliament, by the Board of \nTrade, was ordered 1844 \n\n7 & 8 Vict. c. 85, required companies to run cheap \ntrains every day, and to permit erection of elec- \ntric telegraphs, and authorised government, after \n1 Jan. 1866, to buy existing railways with the \npermission of parliament ,, \n\nGeorge Hudson, a draper, mayor of York in 1839, \nby his successful management as chairman of \nthe Leeds and York railway and others, was styled \nthe " railway king " ,, \n\nAn act passed 10 Vict, for constituting commis- \nsioners of railways, who have since been incor- \nporated with the Board of Trade . . 28 Aug. 1846 \n\nThe Railway Mania and panic year, when 272 rail- \nway acts passed . . . . - , . \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n3 F 2 \n\n\n\nEAILWAYS. \n\n\n\n804 \n\n\n\nEAILWAYS. \n\n\n\nAct for compensating families of persons killed by \n\naccidents (see Campbell\'s Act) .... 1846 \nGeorge Stephenson died ... 12 Aug. 1848 \n\nAct for the better regulation of railways . . . 1854 \nBailway Benevolent\'lnstitution, instituted May, 1858 \nAct to enable railway companies to settle differences \n\nwith other companies by arbitration . . . 1859 \nEailway Clauses Consolidation act passed . . . 1863 \nJoint committee of both houses of parliament ap- \npointed to report on railway schemes . 5 Feb. 1864 \nMurder of Mr. Briggs in a railway carriage (see \nTrials 1864) 9 July \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n(See Atmospheric and Street Railways.) \n\nPeriod of " contractors\' lines " .... 1859-66 \n\nLondon, Chatham, and Dover company suspend \npayment; directors censured for their policy . 1866 \n\nBailway Companies Securities act passed . Aug. ,, \n\nA Welsh railway train (about to start) seized for \ndebt 27 Nov. ,, \n\n250 railway bills passed, 1865 ; only 98 ... 1867 \n\nStrike of 350 men on London and Brighton line, \n\n25-27 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nStrike of 500 on North Eastern line, 11 April ; over- \ncome by the company ... 25 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBailway commission report against the government \nbuying the railways, &c. . . . May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBailway acts amended by act passed . 20 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nA climbing locomotive, by means of central rails, \nascended Mont Cenis in 1865. [The experiments \nwere first tried on the High Peak railway, Sept. \n1863 and Feb. 1864.] The railway completed and \ntraversed by a locomotive and two carriages, con- \ntaining Mr. Fell, the inventor of the plan, and \nothers ; an unexampled journey in regard to steep- \nness of gradients and the elevation of the summit \nlevel, 6700 feet, 21 Aug. 1867. After successful \ntrials in May, the railway was opened 15 June, 1868 \n\nLord Cairns (on appeal) decides that holders of de- \nbentures are responsible as qualified proprietors, \n\n28 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCapt. Yolland, government inspector, reports that \nin his opinion electric communication between \nthe passengers and the railway servants on trains \nstopping only at long intervals is necessary and \npracticable March, ,, \n\nBailway Regulation acts passed . . . 1868, 1871 \n\nConference of railway shareholders at Manchester, \n\n14, 15 April, 1868 \n\nSouthern Railways Amalgamation bill ; opposed in \nthe lords ; withdrawn .... June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMont Cenis railway opened for traffic . 15 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNew act to amend the laws relating to railways, \n30 &, 31 Viet. e. 119 ; (it orders smoking compart- \nments, and communication between passengers \nand railway servants in certain trains ; and pro- \nhibits trains for prize-fights, &c.) passed, 31 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMidland railway station, St. Pancras (which see), \nopened 1 Oct. ,, \n\nNew route to Liverpool (by a viaduct over the Mer- \nsey at Buncorn), opened . . . 1 April, 1869 \n\nPacific railway : from the Atlantic to the Pacific ; \nopened 12 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n"Abandonment of Railways act " passed n Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRailway Companies Powers act (1864) and Con- \nstruction Facilities act (1864) amended by act \npassed 20 June, 1870 \n\n"Bailway Association" established: (it consists of \ndirectors and representatives of shareholders, to \nwatch legislation, &c.,) inaugural dinner, 21 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nUnder the London, Dover, and Chatham railway \nact, the arbitrators, the marquis of Salisbury and \nlord Cairns, decide for the amalgamation of the \ngeneral undertaking; extensions for award pub- \nlished Aug. 1871 \n\nRigi Mountain railway (up to 4000 feet above sea \nlevel), opened 23 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMansion-house station of the Metropolitan District \nrailway inaugurated x July, ,, \n\nEuropean and North American railway opened at \nBangor, Maine tS Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nProposed amalgamation of the Midland and Glas- \ngow and South- Western . . . . . \n\nAmalgamation of the London and North-Western \nand the Lancashire and Yorkshire railways, voted \nby companies 20 Oct. ,, \n\nForged telegram announcing proposed amalgama- \ntion of the Midland and Manchester, Sheffield, \n\n\n\nand Lincolnshire railways (led to purchase of \nshares, and affected the market), about 23 Nov. 1871 \n\nGeorge Hudson, the "railway king," died, aged 71, \n\n14 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nStrike of porters of London and North-Western \ncompany; settled . . . 26, 27 July, 1872 \n\nDeath of Thos. Brassey, who made 6600 miles of \nrailways,whichcost78,ooo,oooL (able, honest, kind) ,, \n\nParliamentary committee report in favour of rail- \nway amalgamation, pmblished . . . Aug. ,, \n\nFirst railway in Japan opened . . 12 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nOne-rail railway laid down at Paris by M. Larmen- \njat, reported successful for short distances Aug. ,, \n\nAmalgamations already accomplished: London and \nNorth-Western, 61 branch lines ; Great Northern, \n37 ; Great Eastern, 27 ; London and Brighton, 22 ; \nLondon and South- Western, 22 ; Midland, 17 . ,, \n\nBailway proposed by M. de Lesseps from Orenburg \nto Peshawur (2500 miles), to connect by means of \nBussian and East Indian railways Calais and \nCalcutta May, 1873 \n\nBill for amalgamation of London and North- Western \nand Lancashire and Yorkshire companies rejected \nby the commons committee . . .23 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNew Regulation of Bailways Act passed (commis- \nsioners to be appointed to carry out the Act of \n1854), 21 July; commissioners: sir Frederick \nPeel, Mr. Price, and Mr. Macnamara ; met first \ntime it Nov. ,, \n\nFirst railway in Persia begun at Besht . 11 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRailway accidents investigated by Capt. Tyler ; 1871, \n171 ; in 1872, 246 ; in the United Kingdom in \n1872, 541 railway servants killed, 499 injured. \n\nCircular from the Board of Trade, by Mr. Chichester \nFortescue, to the railway companies respecting \nthe increase of preventable accidents and un- \npunctuality 18 Nov. ,, \n\nThe justificatory replies of sir Edward Watkin for \nthe London and Brighton Co., and of B. Moon \nfor the L. and N. W. Co. ; from other companies \n\nDec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTen railway servants convicted of robbing the lug- \ngage, severely sentenced . . . .19 Nov. ,, \n\n120 persons killed ; 48 without their own fault ; in \nsix months 1873-4 \n\nThe Board of Trade\'s reply (by Mr. Malcolm) to \nthe railway companies, published about 24 Feb. 1874 \n\nThe Pullman palace saloon cars (American) intro- \nduced on the Midland railway, 21 March ; opened \nto the public . . . . . . 1 June, ,., \n\nCommission to inquire into causes of railway acci- \ndents agreed to by government, 27 April ; nomi- \nnated (duke of Buckingham and others) 11 June, ,, \n\nCircular from sir C. Adderley, recommending punc- \ntuality and care, to avoid accidents . July, ,, \n\nBailway Travellers\' Protection Society organised ; \nduke of Manchester, president . . 23 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBoard of Trade Arbitration Act passed . 30 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNew standing orders respecting labourers\' houses \nremoved for making railways, passed 30 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nStatement of railway servants : that 632 were killed \nin 1872, and 773 killed in 1873 ; many injured ; \n[asserted to be less than the truth] . . Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMidland railway company announces change of \nfares : first-class to ihd. a mile ; second class \nabolished ; no return tickets at lower fares ; \nbegan 1 Jan. 1875 \n\nOther companies announce reductions in fares Jan. ,, \n\nPersons employed on railways : England, 228,958 ; \nScotland, 31,023 ; Ireland, 14,554 > total, 274,535 ; \n(L. & N. W. company, about 40,000) ; announced \n\nJan. ,, \n\nHouse of lords on appeal decide that railway com- \npanies are responsible for negligence in conveying \npersons and goods, although they disclaim it on \ntickets 1 June, ,, \n\nGreat trial of continuous railway brakes on Midland \nrailway, near Lowdham ; Westinghouse auto- \nmatic air pressure break considered the best June \xe2\x80\x9e\' \n\nExtension of Metropolitan railway to Great Eastern \n\nopened, 10 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBailway jubilee at Darlington ; 50th anniversary of \nopening of the Stockton and Darlington railway ; \nstatue of Joseph Pease unveiled . . 27 Sept. ,, \n\nDr. Strousberg, " German railway king," tried for \nfraud, <fec, at Moscow j.876 \n\nMetropolitan extension to Aldgate opened . 11 Nov. ,, \n\n\n\n. \n\n\n\nRAILWAYS. \n\n\n\n805 \n\n\n\nRAILWAYS. \n\n\n\nElevated street railways erected in New York, \n\nU.S. A 1877-8 \n\nFirst railway in China, from Shanghae to Oussoon \n(11 miles), constructed by Europeans; at first \nopposed ; trial trip, 16 March ; publicly opened, \n30 June, 1876; much opposed; stopped; plant \n\ntaken to Formosa 1877-8 \n\nFolkestone and Dover tunnel injured by rains ; \n\nfallings in I2) I5 j an . 1877 \n\nFusion of South-eastern and London, Chatham, & \nDover companies, voted by former . . 18 Jan. ,, \n\nEailway accident commission report : recommend \nthat the companies\' responsibilities be not \ndiminished, &c Feb. \n\n- Proposed fusion of the Great Northern and Great \nEastern, fails June ; of the Manchester and Shef- \nfield and Lincolnshire with the Great Northern \nand Midland, fails Nov. \n\nMany embarrassed subsidiary lines purchased by \nthe French government (for about n,ooo,oooZ.) . 1878 \n\nGreat increase of 3i-d-elass passengers, receipts, \nabout 7,000,000?. 1869; about 14, 000,000?. . . 1879 \n\nSudden strike of goods-guards on Midland railway \nthrough alteration of mode of payment, 3 Jan., \nfoils about 20 Jan. ,, \n\nSouth-Eastern railway company v. Eailway Commis- \nsioners (who had given orders for enlarging station \nat Hastings, &c), Queen\'s Bench ; verdict restrict- \ning powers of the commissioners (see above, 1873), \ntwo judges against one ... 13 Jan. 1880 \n\nEnlarged dividends on the principal lines for half- \nyear 1 Jan. to 30 June, ,, \n\nExpended on railways in the United Kingdom, about \n720,000,000?. (since 1829); gross annual receipts \nabout 62,000,000?., net earnings about 30,000,000?. \nreported Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPacket of dynamite placed on rails between Bushey \nand Watford (L. <fc N. W. Eailway), night, 12-13 \n\nSept. ,, \n\nBoard of Trade circular respecting precautions \nagainst accidents, &c. (accidents of 10, 11 Aug. \nattributed to neglect) . . . .20 Sept. ,, \n\nEailway rates select committee meet . 10 March, 1881 \n\nSiemens\' & Halske\'s electrical railway at Berlin, \ni3^ miles an hour, tried 12 May ; opened to the \npublic .... . X 6 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCentenary of George Stephenson\'s birth celebrated \nat Newcastle, Chesterfield, the Crystal Palace, \nLondon, and throughout the counties of Durham \nand Northumberland . . . .9 June, ,, \n\nMurder of Mr. Fk. Isaac Gold in a carriage on \nLondon and Brighton railway . . 27 June, ,, \n\n[Percy Lefroy alias Mapleton arrested on suspicion, \n8 July; committed for trial, 21 July ; convicted, \n8 Nov. ; executed .... 29 Nov.] ,, \n\nPassenger duty received, 507,076?. for year 1872-3 ; \n736,369?. for year 1875-6; 728,718?. for 1876-7; \n741,919?. for 1877-S; 748,506?. for 1880-1 ; 798,364?. \nfor 1881-2 \n\nInternational congress for the unification of the \nrolling stock on the railways at Berne opened \n\n16 Oct. 1882 \n\nThe committee on railway and canal rates for the \nconveyance of persons, merchandise, <fec, defer \ntheir report, recommend re-appointment of the \ncommittee, and also the establishment of a tri- \nbunal to decide questions and enforce decisions ; \nrevision of rates, &c, early Aug. 1881 ; issue \nreport with few recommendations . 27 July, ,, \n\nA Pullman car burned near Hunslet, Dr. Arthur \nperishes 29 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nEailway passengers\' protection association estab- \nlished \n\nCaledonian railway strike, traffic partly suspended ; \nGlasgow, &c 15, 16, 17 Jan. 1883 \n\nA compromise ; strike ends . . . 21 Jan. ,, \n\nProposed reduction of duty on third class passengers \n\nApril, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMetropolitan railway carried 36,753,321 passengers \nin six months without accident . \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAssociation of railway shareholders established; \nmeeting held in London . . . .8 Aug. ,, \n\nExisting: railway and canal, railway companies, \nrailway shareholders, associations . . . ,, \n\nAnother cheap trains act passed . . 20 Aug. ,, \n\nNorthern Pacific railway (2,500 miles) opened 3 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n4,000?. awarded to Rev. Joseph Lloyd Brereton, and \n6,500?. to gen. Brereton for injuries caused by \n\n\n\nderangement of machinery, <fcc, 28 July, 1882 ; \n\n25, 26 Feb. \n\nParks railway bill rejected by committee 20 May, \n\nRailway regulation bill making it a permanent \ncourt of record, enlarging powers, &c, read first \ntime, 22 May; dropped . . . .10 July, \n\nM. Lartigue\'s balance railway, (single rail) re- \nported successful in Normandy . . June, \n\nEenewed agitation respecting brakes ; the board of \ntrade\'s recommendations neglected \n\nMetropolitan Inner Circle completed ; opened 1 Oct. \n\n312,047 railway servants in England . . Oct. \n\nCommunication of the Canadian Pacific railway \n(Halifax, Nova Scotia, to Port Moody, British \nColumbia) 18 May ; work completed . 7 Nov. \n\nDeath of Dr E. H. Gilbert, inventor of the ele- \nvated rail system used in New York, very poor \n\nAug. \n\nEeceipts of twelve leading companies, about \n25,084,000?. ..... Jan-June, \n\nWin. H. Vanderbilt, "Eailway King, \' dies suddenly \nat New York, aged 64 . . . . 8 Dee. \n\nLawrie v. L. & S. W. Eailway ; companies may \nincrease their fares on days of extra traffic such \nas Ascot races n Dec. \n\n459 railway servants killed in \n\nInternational railway congress, Brussels, opens 8 \nAug. 1885 ; at Berne, July, 1886 ; and June, \n\nMr. Mundella introduces bill for constituting a \nnew court of record for railway affairs with great \npowers ; read first time n, 12 March ; second \ntime 6 May, 1886 ; introduced (modified) into the \nlords by lord Stanley . . . .1 March, \n\nThe South-Eastern railway company\'s present of \n1,000?. to the Imperial Institute March ; declared \nto be illegal 6 May, \n\nMidland Eailway ; strike of 2,713 drivers, firemen, \n&c. ; traffic continued 5 Aug. ; strike gradually \nfails Aug. -Sept. \n\nInternational railway congress at Rome opens \n\n17 Sept. \n\nThirty-four principal railway lines of the United \nKingdom ; net divisible profit for ordinary share- \nholders first six months, 1886 4,390,517?. ; 1887, \n5,357,891?. \n\n15th annual congress of Amalgamated society of \nEailway Servants at Newcastle-ou-Tyne ; prudent \ndiscussion ; Midland strike censured 4-7 Oct. \n\nTrumpets employed for signalling near Glasgow, \nand introduced into the greater lines autumn, \n\nLeinwather, an Austrian, publishes his improve- \nments in portable railways for military purposes \n\nDee. \n\nA railway between Listowel and Ballybunion, \ncounty Kerry, on the Lartigue single-rail system \nopened 27 Feb. \n\nEailway and Canal Traffic Bill passed 14 Aug. \n\nState purchase of the railways negatived by the \ncommons without a division . . 4 May, \n\nL. & N. W. company run trains between London \nand Edinburgh and Glasgow in 9 hours from \n1 June ; in eight hours 6 Aug ; the Great Northern \nmakes similar reductions . June and Aug. \n\nFirst railway constructed in Persia, from Teheran to \nShah-Abdul-Azim, opened . . 25 June, \n\nDirect railway communication between Constanti- \nnople and Vienna completed . . . Aug. \n\nCentral Asian railway from the Caspian to Samarcand \nopened May, \n\nMr. Justice Wills appointed president of the railway \ncommission Dec. \n\nFirst regular railway in China, 86 miles, opened Nov. \n\nThe new railway and canal commission begins 1 Jan. \n\nEailway up Mount Pilatus, Switzerland, inaugu- \nrated 4 June, \n\nBill for the regulation of railways relating to the \nblock system, brakes, &c, passed . . Aug. \n\nGreat swing railway bridge, span 140 ft., over the \nDee declared open by Mrs. Gladstone . 2 Aug. \n\n[It gives a direct route to the Manchester, Sheffield \nand Lincolnshire Railway into Wales, ami also to \nthe Great Northern and Midland systems.] \n\nInternational railway Congress at Paris . 14 Sept. \n\nDeatli of sir Daniel Gooeh, aged 73, able chairman \nof the Great Western .... 15 Oct. \n\nIncreased dividends through improvement in trade \n\nJuly-Dec. \n\nInternational railway conference at Rome 15 Jan. \n\n\n\n1890 \n\n\n\nEAILWAYS. \n\n\n\n806 \n\n\n\nEAILWAYS. \n\n\n\nCity and South London Electric railway (see \nTunnels) . . . 4 Nov. and 18 Dec. 1 \n\nUnderground Central London Electric Railway bill \n(from Uxbridge-road to the Bank), passed by the \ncommons \n\nLynton and Lynmouth cliff railway, steep ascent, \nworked by water, opened . . 7 April, \n\nDispute between the South-Eastern and the London \nChatham & Dover railway companies, on appeal \ndecided by the house of lords in favour of the \nlatter company 5 May, \n\nBoard of Trade inquiry (by lord Balfour of Burleigh \nand Mr. Courtenay Boyle) as to the rates of \ncharges for the carriage of goods, concluded \n\nJan. -21 May \n\nTables of maximum rates issued . . . July, \n\nProposed establishment of the New Grand Junction \ncompany to unite the Manchester, Sheffield and \nLincolnshire railway, with the Metropolitan and \nother railways, so as to form a new line to the \nnorth, Oct. 1890 ; bill rejected . . . . 1 \n\nCity and South London Electric railway formally \nopened by the prince of Wales, 4 Nov., to the \npublic 18 Dec. 1 \n\nFirst annual congress of railway employes of all \ngrades opened at the Hope Town -hall, Bethnal- \ngreen-road 18 Nov. \n\nStrike of the men employed in the Caledonian, \nNorth British, Glasgow and S.W. railways, for \na ten hours\' day, &e. . 22 Dec. 1890-31 Jan. 1 \n\nBy thegreat exertions of Mr.Thompson, manager \nof the Caledonian railway, and Mr. Walker, \nmanager of the Nortli British railway, the pas- \nsenger traffic was continued with much difficulty, \nbut the goods traffic almost suspended. About \n9,000 men were out at one time. Rioting at Mother- \nwell, at the eviction of railway tenant strikers, \nwas quelled by military and police, 5 Jan. et. seq. \nThe strike ended by the submission of the men, \nNorth British, 29 Jan., Caledonian 31 Jan. \n\nSelect committee of the commons on the working \nhours of railway servants, sir M. H. Beach chair- \nman, meets 10 March et seq. \n\nThe Gliding railway, which is moved by hydraulic \npower over a thin layer of water was exhibited \nM. A. Barre, at the Crystal Palace . 26 March \n\nThe nine Railway Rates and Charges bills passed . \n\n5 Aug. \n\nBrienzer Rothhornbahn railway on the Alps, the \nhighest in Europe, opened . . early Nov. \n\nReceipts of 12 great companies, 33,028,558?. *. \n\nJuly-Dec. \n\nMr. Christopher Anderson\'s (of Leeds) invention \nfor carrying off smoke and foul air in underground \nrailways by tubes, tried and reported successful \nat Neasden, near Willesden . . 26 March, 1 \n\nDeath of sir James Joseph Allport, the eminent \nrailway manager, especially of the Midland, aged \n81 25 April, \n\nGreat demonstration of railway servants in Hyde- \npark, for shorter hours and increased wages \n\n15 May, \n\nThe broad gauge totally superseded, on the Great \nWestern 20-23 Ma y, \n\nSir James Brunlees, eminent railway engineer, \ndies, aged 76 \xe2\x96\xa0 2 June, \n\nLancashire, Derbyshire, and East Coast (East and \nWest) railway begun (incorporated 1891) 7 June, \n\nRailway traffic amendment act, passed 27 June, \n\nCentral London railway act passed . 28 June, \n\nManchester, Sheffield & Lincolnshire railway (with \nextension to London) ; third reading in the lords \nsuspended by dissolution . . .28 June \n\nRAILWAYS OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. \n\nNet \nReceipts. \n\n\xc2\xa311,009,519 \n\n14.579.254 \n18,602,582 \n23,362,618 \n28,016,272 \n2 9.n5,35o \n29.731,430 \n31,890,501 \n32,255,000 \n33,206.688 \n\n\n\n\n\nCapital \n\n\nMiles \n\n\nYear. \n\n\npaid-up. \n\n\nopened. \n\n\n1851. \n\n\n\xc2\xa3240,897 \n\n\n6,890 \n\n\n1854. \n\n\n286,068,794 \n\n\n8,054 \n\n\ni860. \n\n\n348,130,127 \n\n\n10,433 \n\n\n1865. \n\n\n455,478,143 \n\n\n13,289 \n\n\n1870. \n\n\n529,908,673 \n\n\n15,537 \n\n\n1875. \n\n\n630,223,494 \n\n\n16,658 \n\n\n1877. \n\n\n6 74,059,\xc2\xb048 \n\n\n17,077 \n\n\n1879. \n\n\n7!7. 003,469 \n\n\n17,696 \n\n\n1880. \n\n\n728,316,848 \n\n\n17,933 \n\n\n1881. \n\n\n745,528,162 \n\n\n18,175 \n\n\n1882. \n\n\n767,899,57\xc2\xb0 \n\n\n18,457 \n\n\n\nYear. \n\n\n\nCapital \n\n\nMiles \n\n\nNet \n\n\npaid-up. \n\n\nopened. \n\n\nReceipts. \n\n\n\xc2\xa3784,921,312 \n\n\n18,681 \n\n\n\xc2\xa333,693,708 \n\n\n801,464,367 \n\n\n18,864 \n\n\n33,3 5,446 \n\n\n815,858,055 \n\n\n19,169 \n\n\n32,767,817 \n\n\n828,344,254 \n\n\n19,332 \n\n\n33,073,706 \n\n\n845,971,654 \n\n\n19,578 \n\n\n33,880,110 \n\n\n864,695,963 \n\n\n19,812 \n\n\n30,851,320 \n\n\n876,595, 166 \n\n\n29,976 \n\n\n33,622,941 \n\n\n897,472,026 \n\n\n20,073 \n\n\n36,760,146 \n\n\n\nWorking expenses: 1854,9,206,205?. ; 1861, 13,843,337?. ; \n\n1870, 21,715,525?. ; 1874, 32,612,712?. ; 1877, \n\n33,857,978?.; 1880,33,601,124?.; 1883, 37,368,562?.; \n\n1887, 37,063,266?. ; 1888, 37,063,266?. ; 1889, \n\n40,094,116?. ; 1890, 43,188,556?. \nNumber of passengers : 1845, 33,791,253 ; 1854, \n\n111,206,707; i860, 163,483,572; 1865, 251,959,862; \n\n1870,331, 701, 801; 1874,478,316, 761; 1877, 549, 541, 325; \n\n1880,603,885,025; 1883,683,718,137; 1887,733,678,531 \n\n(not season-ticket holders). \n\n\n\nMiles opened. \n\n\n\nEngland & \n\nWales 1775 \nScotland 225 \nIreland . 31 \n\n\n\n13,215 \n2,964 \n2,502 \n\n\n\n13,825 \n3,079 \n2,674 \n\n\n\n7820 11,622 12,547 \n1626 ! 2,700! 2,864 \n1423 I 2,1271 2,285 \n\nFor 1847-9, ^ was calculated that out of 4,782,188 \ntravellers by railway, one person was killed, from \ncauses beyond his own control; for 1856-9, one \nin 8,708,411 ; 1866-8, one in 12,941,170. In 1878, \none in 7,503,000. Passengers killed from causes \nbeyond their control : in 1871, 12 ; 1862-72, 271 ; \n1872, 24 ; 1876, 811. \n\nUnited Kingdom. \n\n1874, 1424 killed \xe2\x80\x94 211 passengers (not their fault, \n\n86) ; 788 servants, 425 trespassers ; 5041 injured. \n\n1876, 1286 killed\xe2\x80\x94 138 (by own fault, 101) passen- \ngers ; 61 12 injured, 1883 passengers. \n\n1877, 1175 killed \xe2\x80\x94 126 passengers; 3705 injured, \n1283 passengers. \n\n1878, 1112 killed ; 6507 injured by various causes. \n\n1879, 1032 killed; 160 passengers ; 3513 injured, 1307 \npassengers. \n\n1882, 1,121 killed; 127 passengers; 4,601 injured, \n1,739 passengers; 1884, 11 35 killed; 4100 injured; \n\n1885, 957 killed, 3,467 injured ; \n3,539 injured. \n\n1887, 919 killed, 3,590 injured ; \n3,826 injured. \n\n1889. 1,076 killed ; 4,836 injured. \n\n1890. 1,076 killed; 4,721 injured. \n\n1891. 1,168 killed, 5,060 injured. \n\nRailway servants killed : annual average (1872-5) \n740; 1880, reduced to 483. \n\nCompensation paid for injuries by companies. \n\n\n\n14,119 \n3,162 \n2,792 \n\n\n\n938 killed, \n3, 905 killed, \n\n\n\nPassengers \nGoods \n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \xc2\xa3364,509 \n231,707 \n\n\n\n\xc2\xa3247,032 \n197,941 \n\n\n\n\xc2\xa3176,406 \n169,633 \n\n\n\nPRINCIPAL RAILWAYS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. \n\nThe railways are generally named after their termini. \nRailways. Date of Opening. \n\nArbroath and Forfar .... 3 Jan. 1839 \n\nAtmospheric Railway (which see) . . . . 1840 \n\nBangor and Carnarvon .... July, 1852 \n\nBelfast and county of Down . . . April, 1850 \n\nBirmingham and Derby . . . .12 Aug. 1839 \n\nBirmingham and Gloucester . . 17 Dec. 1840 \n\nBirmingham, Wolverhampton, and Stour Valley, \n\nJuly, 1852 \n\nBrighton and Chichester .... 8 June, 1846 \n\nBrighton and Hastings . . . 27 June, ,, \n\nBristol and Exeter . . " . . . 1 May, 1844 \n\nBristol and Gloucester .... July, 1845 \n\nCaledonian Feb. 1848 \n\nCanterbury and Whitstable . . . May, 1830 \n\nCharing Cross Railway, London, opened n Jan. 1864 \n\nCheltenham and Swindon . . .12 May, 1845 \n\nChester and Birkenhead . . . .22 Sept. 1840 \n\nChester and Crewe 1848 \n\nCity and South London, opened 4 Nov. and 18 Dec. 1890 \n\nCockermouth and Workington . . 28 April, 1847 \n\nColchester and Ipswich . . , .15 June, 1846 \n\nCork and Bandon 8 Dec. 1851 \n\n\n\nEAILWAYS. \n\n\n\n807 \n\n\n\nEAILWAYS. \n\n\n\nRailways. Date of Opening . \n\nCornwall i May, 1859 \n\nCoventry and Leamington .... 2 Dec. 1844 \n\nCroydon and Epsom .... 17 May, 1847 \n\nDevon and Somerset 7 Nov. 1873 \n\nDover and Deal, begun ... 29 June, 1878 \n\nDublin and Belfast Junction . . . June, 1852 \n\nDublin and Carlow 10 Aug. 1846 \n\nDublin and Drogheda . . . .26 May, 1844 \n\nDublin and Kingstown .... 17 Dec. 1834 \n\nDundee and Newtyle Dec. 1831 \n\nDundee and Perth 22 May, 1847 \n\nDurham and Sunderland ... 28 June, 1839 \n\nEastern Counties 18 June, ,, \n\nEastern Union (London and Colchester), 29 March, 1843 \n\nEast London . . ... 10 April, 1876 \n\nEdinburgh and Berwick ... 18 June, 1846 \n\nEdinburgh and Glasgow . . . . 8 Feb. 1842 \n\nEly and Peterborough .... Jan. 1847 \n\nExeter and Plymouth (part) ... 29 May, 1846 \n\nGlasgow and Ayr 19 Sept. 1840 \n\nGlasgow and Greenock . . . .24 March, 1841 \n\nGlasgow, Garnkirk, and Coatbridge . . July, 1845 \n\nGloucester and Chepstow .... Sept. 185 1 \n\nGrand Junction (Birmingham to Newton) . July, 1837 \n\nGravesend and Rochester ... 10 Feb. 1845 \n\nGreat Northern 1852 \n\nGreat Western to Maidenhead, 4 June, 1838 : to \n\nBristol 30 June, 1841 \n\nHertford branch of Eastern Counties . 31 Oct. 1843 \n\nHighland 186=; \n\n\n\nInner Circle, London \nIpswich and Bury St. Edmunds \nIsle of Man .... \nKendal and Windermere . \nLancaster and Carlisle . \nLancaster and Preston \nLeeds and Bradford \nLeeds and Derby \nLiverpool and Birmingham . \nLiverpool and Manchester \nLiverpool and Preston . \nLondon and Birmingham . \nLondon and Blackwall . \nLondon and Brighton. \nLondon and Bristol \nLondon and Cambridge \nLondon, Chatham, and Dover \nLondon and Colchester \nLondon and Croydon . \nLondon and Dover \nLondon and Greenwich \nLondon and Richmond \nLondon and Southampton . \nLondon and Southend \nLondon and Warrington \n\n\n\n21 July, 1882-4 \n\n24 Dec. 1846 \n\n1 July, 1873 \n\n. 21 April, 1847 \n\n16 Dec. 1846 \n\n. 30 June, 1840 \n\n1 July, 1846 \n\nJuly, 1840 \n\n. 4 July, 1837 \n\n. 15 Sept. 1830 \n\n31 Oct. 1838 \n\n. 17 Sept. ,, \n\n. 2 Aug. 1841 \n\n. 21 Sept. ,, \n\n30 June, , , \n\n. 30 July, 1845 \n\n29 Sept. i860 \n\n29 March, 1843 \n\nI June, 1839 \n7 Feb. 1844 \n\n26 Dec. 1838 \n. 27 July, 1846 \n\nII May, 1840 \n\n\n\nJune, 1856 \nbranch of the Great \n\nNorthern Aug. 1850 \n\nLowestoft branch ; Norwich and Yarmouth . . 1847 \n\nLynn and Ely \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nManchester and Birmingham ... 10 Aug. 1842 \n\nManchester and Leeds 1 March, 1841 \n\nManchester and Sheffield ... 22 Dec. 1845 \n\nMetropolitan, London ; act obtained, 1853 ; con- \n\n\n\nstruction began, i860 ; opened \nMidland Counties \nNewcastle and Berwick \nNewcastle and Carlisle \nNewcastle and North Shields \nNewmarket and Cambridge \nNorthampton and Peterborough \nNorth and South- Western Junction \nNorth British .... \n\nNorth Eastern July, 1854 \n\nNorwich and Yarmouth . . . . 1 May, 1844 \nNottingham to Grantham .... July, 1850 \nNottingham and Lincoln .... 3 Aug. 1846 \nNottingham branch ; Rugby and Derby . 30 May, 1 \nOxford branch of London and Bristol \nOxford, Worcester, and Wolverhampton \nPenzance to Camborne ... \nRugby and Derby .... \n\nRugby and Leamington Feb. 1851 \n\nSt. Andrew\'s July, 1852 \n\nSt. Helen\'s ; first act passed ..... 1830 \nSalisbury branch of the London and Southampton. 1847 \n\nSettle and Carlisle 1 May, 1876 \n\nSouthampton and Dorchester . . .1 June, ,, \nSouth Devon 1850 \n\n\n\n10 Jan 1863 \n\n30 June, 1840 \n\n. July, 1847 \n\n18 June, 1839 \n\n18 June, ,, \n\n. Oct. 1851 \n\n. 2 June; 1845 \n\n. Dec. 1852 \n\n\n\n12 June, 1844 \nMay, 1852 \n. Jan. ,, \nJuly, 1840 \n\n\n\nRailways. Date of Opening. \n\nSouth Eastern (London and Dover) . . 7 Feb. 1844 \nSouth Eastern ; North Kent line .... 1849 \nStockton and Darlington . . . .27 Sept. 1825 \n\nTrent Valley 26 June, 1847 \n\nUlster Aug. 1839 \n\nWest and East India Docks and Birmingham Junc- \ntion from the Blackwall railway to Camden Town, \n\nAug. 1850 \nWorcester and Droitwich .... Jan. 1852 \nYork and Darlington (N. Eastern) . . 4 Jan. 1841 \nYork and Newcastle ,, . . 17 June, 1847 \n\nYork and Normanton ,, . . .30 June, 1840 \nYork and Scarborough ,, . . . 7 July, 1845 \nYarmouth and Norwich 1 May, 1844 \n\nAlleged Extent or Railways (in miles), 1890-1 :\xe2\x80\x94 \nAustrian dominions, 16,712 ; Belgium, 2,830; Denmark, \n1,247; France, 33,547 kilometres; Germany, 27,000; \nGreat Britain and Ireland, 20,073 ; Greece, 374 ; Hol- \nland, 1,705; India, 16,996; Italy, 13,163 kilometres; \nNorway, 971 ; Portugal, 1,334 ! Russia, 16,759; Prussia, \n18,058; Spain (1889), 6,043; Sweden, 1,980; Turkey, \n1,512 ; United States of America, 171,000(1892). \n\nMEMORABLE RAILWAY ACCIDENTS.* \n\nVery many (ivhere only 2 persons killed) are not noted ; \nin nearly all cases a large number were injured. \n\nW. Huskisson, M.P., killed at the opening of the \nLiverpool and Manchester railway . 15 Sept. 1830 \n\nGreat Corby (Newcastle and Carlisle) ; train runs \noffline; 3 killed 3 Dec. 1830 \n\nBrentwood (Eastern Counties) : carriages over- \nturned ; 3 killed 21 Aug. 1840 \n\nCuckfield (London and Brighton) : engine runs off \nline ; 4 killed 2 Oct. 1841 \n\nSonninghill cutting, near Reading : engine forced \noff line ; 8 killed .... 24 Dec. ,, \n\nVersailles : carriages take fire, passengers locked in; \n52 or 53 lives lost, including admiral D\'Urville, \n\n8 May, 1842 \n\nMasborough (Midland Counties) : collision ; Mr. \nBoteler and others killed, many injured, 20 Oct. 1845 \n\nStratford (Eastern Counties) : collision through great \ncarelessness ; Mr. Hind killed, many mutilated, \n\n18 July, 1846 \n\nPevensey (Brighton and Hastings) : collision ; 40 \ninjured 24 Aug. ,, \n\nClifton (Manchester and Bolton) : express runs off \nline ; 2 killed, many injured . . 15 Dec. ,, \n\nChester (Chester and Shrewsbury) : train runs \noff bridge ; 4 killed ; greater number injured, \n\n18 May, 1847 \n\nWolverton (North Western) : collision ; 7 killed, \nmany injured 5 June, ,, \n\nShrivenham (Great Western) : collision ; 7 killed, \nmany injured 10 May, 1848 \n\nCarlisle (Caledonian) : axletree of carriage breaks ; \n5 killed 10 Feb. 1849 \n\nFrodsham Tunnel (Chester and Warrington Junc- \ntion) : collision ; 6 killed . . .30 April, 1851 \n\nNewmarket Hill (Lewes and Brighton) : train runs \noff line ; 4 killed 6 June, ,, \n\nBicester (Oxfordshire) : collision ; 6 killed, 6 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBurnley (Great Northern) : collision ; 4 killed, \n\n12 July, 1852 \n\nDixonfold (Great Northern) : engine wheels broke ; \n7 killed 4 March, 1853 \n\nNear Straffan (Great Southern and Western, Ire- \nland) : collision; 13 killed . . . 5 Oct. ,, \n\nNear Harling, Norfolk (Eastern Counties) : colli- \nsion ; 6 killed 12 Jan. 1854 \n\nCroydon (Brighton and Dover) : collision ; 3 killed, \n\n24 Aug. ,, \n\nBurlington, between New York and Philadelphia : \n21 killed 29 Aug. ,, \n\nReading (Gt. Western): collision ; 5 killed, 12 Sept. 1855 \n\nNear Paris : collision; 9 killed . . 9 Oct. ,, \n\nBetween Thoret and Moret : collision ; 16 killed \n\n23 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCampbell (N. Pennsylvania) : collision ; above 100 \nkilled 17 July, 1856 \n\nDunkett (Waterford and Kilkenny) : collision ; 7 \nkilled 19 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n* On Dec. 27, 1864, the queen wrote to the directors of \nthe railway companies of London, requesting them " to \nbe as careful of other passengers as of herself." \n\n\n\nRAILWAYS. \n\n\n\n808 \n\n\n\nRAILWAYS. \n\n\n\nKirby (Liverpool and Blackpool) : collision ; 200 \ninjured ; none killed ... 27 June, \n\nLewisliam (North Kent): collision ; nkilled, 28 June, \n\nBetween Pyle and Port Talbot : collision ; 4 killed \n\n14 Oct. \n\nAttleborough, Warwickshire (North Western) : \ntrain thrown off the line through a cow crossing \nthe rails ; 3 killed .... 10 May, \n\nNear Mons, Belgium : coke waggon on the rails ; \n21 killed June, \n\nChilham (South Eastern) : either too great speed or \n"broken axletree ; 3 killed ... 30 June, \n\nNear Round Oak Station (Oxford and Wolver- \nhampton) \xe2\x80\x94 excursion train : collision ; 14 killed, \n\n23 Aug. \n\nTottenham (Eastern Counties) : engine wheel \nbreaks ; 6 killed 20 Feb. \n\nHelmshore (Lancashire and Yorkshire) \xe2\x80\x94 excursion \ntrain : collision ; n killed ... 4 Sept. \n\nAtherstone (North Western) : collision of mail and \ncattle trains ; n killed ... 16 Nov. \n\nNear Wimbledon : Dr. Baly killed . . 28 Jan. \n\nRailway tunnel falls in near Haddon Hall, Derby- \nshire ; 5 men killed 2 July, \n\nClayton Tunnel (London and Brighton) : collision ; \n23 killed, 176 injured .... 25 Aug. \n\nKentish Town (Hampstead Junction) : 16 killed, \n320 injured 2 Sept. \n\nMarket Harborough : collision ; 1 killed and 50 \ninjured 28 Aug. \n\nNear Winchburgh (Edinburgh and Glasgow) : colli- \nsion ; 15 killed, 100 wounded . . 13 Oct. \n\nNear Streatham (London and Brighton) : explosion \nof boiler through attempting too great speed ; 4 \nkilled ; above 30 injured ... 30 May, \n\nNear Lynn (Lynn and Hunstanton): carriages upset \nthrough bullock on the line ; 5 killed 3 Aug. \n\nEgham (South Western) : collision ; 5 killed, above \n20 injured 7 June, \n\nCanada : train ran off a bridge at St. Hilaire in \ncrossing ; about 83 killed, 200 wounded, \n\n29 June \n\nBlackheath Tunnel : fast train ran into a ballast \ntrain ; 6 killed . . . . .16 Dec. \n\nNear Rednal (on a branch of Great Western) : train \nran off insecure rails ; 13 killed, about 40 injured, \n\n7 June, \n\nNear Staplehurst (South Eastern) : train ran off in- \nsecure rails, &c. ; 10 killed and about 50 injured, \n\n9 June, \n\nNear Colney Hatch (Gt. Northern) : collision with \ncoal trucks : above 50 persons injured . 30 Aug. \n\nPall of a bridge at Sutton (S. coast line): 6 men killed, \n\n28 April, \n\nNear Caterham junction (London and Brighton) : 3 \nkilled, 12 injured .... 30 April, \n\nIn Welwyn Tunnel (Great Northern) : a steam tube \nburst ; collision of three goods trains ; and a great \nfire ; 2 lives lost . . . . 9, 10 June, \n\nNear Royston (Great Northern) : train ran off line ; \n3 lives lost 2 July, \n\nBrynkir station (Carnarvonshire) : points said to \nhave been tampered with ; train ran off line ; 6 \npersons killed 6 Sept. \n\n20 miles from Carlisle (Lancaster and Carlisle) : an \naxle of carriage of goods train broke ; collision \nwith another goods train ; fire, and explosion of \nS tons of gunpowder ; 2 killed . . 25 Feb. \n\nBetween Bhosawul and Khundwah (Great Indian \nPeninsular) : train precipitated into a chasm \nmade in an embankment by a river torrent ; many \nlives lost 26 June, \n\nWalton Junction, Warrington (London and North \nWestern) : collision with coal train ; error of \npointsman ; 8 lives lost . . .29 June, \n\nAt Brayhead, near Enniscorthy (Dublin, AVicklow, \nand Wexford) : went off the line into a gorge ; 2 \nkilled, many injured .... 9 Aug. \n\nBetween New Mills and Peak Forest : 2 collisions\'\'; \n5 lives lost 9 Sept. \n\nFrench Great Northern, about 14 miles from Paris : \nseveral killed, many wounded . . 27 Oct. \n\nLake Shore railway, New York : embankment fell ; \n41 persons burnt to death ... 18 Dec. \n\nCarr\'s Rock, on river Delaware ; Erie railway : \ncarriages precipitated down an embankment; \n26 persons killed, 52 very seriously injured, \n\n14 April, \n\n\n\n1857 \n\n\n\nAbergele, N. Wales (London and North-Western) : \ncollision between Irish mail train and luggage \ntrain ; barrels of petroleum ignited ; 33 persons \nburnt to death (see Abergele) . . 20 Aug. 1868 \n\nNear Birdingbury station (Rugby and Leamington):, \ncarriages went over Draycot embankment ; 2 \npersons killed 1 Oct. ,. \n\nNear Bull\'s Pill, S. Wales (Great Western) : mail \ntrain ran into a cattle train ; 1 person and much \ncattle killed 6 Nov. ,, \n\nNear Copenhagen tunnel, Holloway (Great North- \nern) : coal train ran off the line ; 2 killed, 18 Jan. 1869 \n\nNear Khandalla, Bombay (Great Indian Peninsular) \ntrain ran off the line ; about 18 killed 26 Jan. .. \n\nArch fell in at Bethnal Green (Great Eastern) : \ncoal train passing ; 5 killed . . 25 Feb. , , \n\nNewcross (London and Brighton) : collision ; 2 \nkilled, many injured ; loss to the company by \ncompensation, about 70, oool. . . 23 June, ,, \n\nNear Barnet (Great Northern): collision; 1 man \nburnt to death 16 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLong Eaton Junction (Midland) : collision ; 7 killed \n\n9 Oct. \n\nNear Welwyn (Great Northern) : collision; 3 killed \n\n24 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nEureka, St. Louis, Missouri ; collision ; 19 killed, \n\n12 May, 1870 \n\nNear Newark (Great Northern) : collision ; a \nwaggon of a goods train, through the breaking of \nan old axle, went off the rails and met an excur- \nsion train ; 19 deaths ; 1.30 a.m. . 21 June, ,, \n\nNear Carlisle : collision; skilled . 10 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTamworth (London and North Western) : Irish \nmail (late), sent into a siding ; broke down a \nbuttress and ran into the river Anker (error of a \npointsman); 3 deaths . . 4.7 A.M. 14 Sept. .,, \n\nPlessis near Tours : collision ; between two trains ; \nseveral killed .... 4 a.m. 20 Sept. ,, \n\nHarrow (London and North-Western) : collision \nwith coal waggons ; 7 killed . . .26 Nov. , , \n\nBrockley Whins (North Eastern) : collision through \nmistake of Hedley, a pointsman ; skilled 6 Dec. ,, \n\nBarnsley (Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincolnshire \nrailway) : collision ; goods trucks broke loose ; \n14 killed, many injured .... 12 Dec. ,, \n\nBell-bar, near Hatfield (Great Northern) : tire of \nwheel broke ; break and carriages overturned ; 8 \nkilled 26 Dec. ,, \n\nBetween Bandoz and St. Nizaire : explosion of gun \npowder in casks ; 60 killed . . . 25 Feb. 1871 \n\nRevere (Boston and Portland, U.S.): collision; \nabove 20 killed 26 Aug. ,, \n\nNear Champigny (Lyons Company) : a spring \nbroke ; n killed . . . . 16 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFerry-hill (North British) : collision ; 2 killed?. \n\n16 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAntibes railway between Nice and Cannes : train \nthrown into the river Brague : 12 said to be killed \n\n24 Jan. 1872 \n\nBelleville (Grand Trunk of Canada) : engine broke \noff the line ; many burnt, scalded, &c. ; about \n30 killed 22 June, ,, \n\nConnellsville (Baltimore and Pittsburg) : collision ; \nmany hurt, 3 killed .... 22 June, ,, \n\nJuvisy (Orleans railway) : express ran into luggage \ntrain ; boiler exploded ; 5 burnt to death (includ- \ning mother of the duchess of Malakoff) 26 June, ,, \n\nRose-hill junction (Newcastle and Carlisle) : colli- \nsion ; 4 killed 5 July, ,, \n\nRed-hill junction (Great Western and L. &N.W.), \nnear Hertford ; 2 killed ... 29 July, ,, \n\nClifton junction (Lancashire and Yorkshire): col- \nlision ; 4 killed 3 Aug. ,, \n\nKirtlebridge, Dumfries (Caledonian) : collision ; \nexpress train late ; error of pointsman ; 12 killed, \n\n2 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nKelvedon, near Chelmsford (Great Eastern) : loco- \nmotive driven off the line by a raised rail ; 1 \nkilled, many hurt .... 17 Oct. ,, \n\nNear Woodhouse junction (Manchester, Sheffield, \nand Lincolnshire) : collision ; two killed, 18 Oct. ,, \n\nCorry, Pennsylvania, U.S. : train broke through a \nbridge ; about 20 killed ... 24 Dec. , , \n\nNear Pesth : train run off line ; 21 killed, \n\nabout 7 May, 1873 \n\nNear Shrewsbury (Great AVestern and London & \nN. W. Junction) : axle of engine broke ; car- \nriages driven off the line ; 4 killed . . 8 May, ,. \n\n\n\nEAILWAYS. \n\n\n\n809 \n\n\n\nEAILWAYS. \n\n\n\nNear Higham, Derbyshire (Midland); engine-tire \nbroke; train ran off the line; 2 killed 21 June, \n\nWigan (London and North Western) : carriages \nthrown off the line ; sir John Anson and others \n(13 persons) killed .... 23 Aug. \n\nKeti\'ord Junction (Great Northern, Manchester, and \nSheffield) : collision ; 3 killed . -23 Aug. \n\nNear Hartlepool (North Eastern) : train thrown off \nthe line ; 3 killed 2 Sept. \n\nPeamarsh crossing, near Guildford (Southwestern) : \n\n. collision with a bullock ; train thrown off the \n\nline ; 3 killed . . . . . 9 Sept. \n\nBarkston Junction, near Grantham (Great North- \nern) : 2 killed 10 Jan. \n\nNear Manuel and Bo\'ness Junction, between Edin- \nburgh and Glasgow (North British) : collision of \nLondon express with mineral train ; 16 killed \n\n27 Jan. \n\nEuxton Junction, between Preston and Wigan ; col- \nlision through fog and too great speed ; 2 killed \n\n20 Feb. \n\nMerthyr-Tydvil (Great Western) : coupling broke, \ncausing collision ; about 40 seriously injured ; \n\nI death 18 May, \n\nBargoed (Rhymney railway) : collision ; train ran \n\naway through brakes not acting ; 2 killed ; much \n\ndamage 12 Aug. \n\nThorpe, near Norwich (East Norfolk) : collision ; \ntwo trains met (mistake of Cooper and Bobson, \ntelegraph clerks, committed for trial for man- \nslaughter) ; 26 deaths ; about 50 injured ; 8.30 p. m. \n\n10 Sept. \n[Cost the company above 13,000?., Cooper sen- \ntenced to 8 months\' imprisonment, 7 April, 1875.] \nShipton, near Oxford (Great Western) ; tire of car- \nriage-wheel broke ; train driven over an embank- \nment ; 34 deaths ensued, about 70 injured \n\n24 Dec. \n[Verdict of inqxiiry, accidental deaths ; 16 March, \n\n1875-] \n\nBothbury, near Morpeth (North Eastern) : train \nran off embankment ; 4 killed . . 3 July, \n\nELildwick, near Skipton, Yorkshire (Midland): \nScotch express ran into an excursion train ; \n7 deaths, 11.30 p.m ... 28 Aug. \n\nBetween Mutford and Somerleyton ; train ran off \nthe line ; 3 killed .... 1 Jan. \n\nNear Odessa : train ran over embankment ; about \n68 killed 8 Jan. \n\nAbbot\'s Bipton (Great Northern), near Hunting- \ndon ; 2 collisions; first, Scotch express with coal \ntrain ; and second, with Leeds express from Lon- \ndon, whereby 14 deaths ; including Mr. Thos. \nMure, Scotch advocate, a son of Mr. Noble, the \nsculptor ; a son of Mr. Dion Boucicault, dramatist ; \nbrother and 2 nieces of Dr. Burdon Sanderson ; \nduring a snow storm .... 21 Jan. \n[Coroner\'s inquest : verdict, virtually accidental \ndeaths ; directors censured for not having a sepa- \nrate line for mineral traffic, 3 Feb. 1876.] \n\nNear Long Ash ton (on Great Western), " Flying \nDutchman " express : about 57 miles an hour ; \ndriver and stoker killed ; defective condition of \npermanent way 27 July, \n\nBetween Badstock and Wellow ; about 4 miles from \nBath (Somerset and Dorset), single line ; collision \nbetween excursion trains ; 14 killed ; about \n\nII p.m .7 Aug. \n\n[Inquest : verdict, manslaughter against James \n\nSleep, station-master, 12 Sept. 1876.] \n\nWaiiibrechie, near Lille (French great northern) : \ncollision with a conveyance on level crossing, 6 \nkilled 5 Nov. \n\nAlisey siding, near Hitchin (Great Northern) : col- \nlision of Manchester express with goods train, 5 \n\nkilled 23 Dec. \n\n[Verdict of inquest : neglect of Thos. Pepper, \nthe driver (killed), in not observing the signal, \n\nr 5 Jan. 1877.] \n\nNear Ashtabula, U.S., Pacific express from New \nYork : a bridge over a creek broke down during \na snow storm, above 100 perished by drowning, \nburning, &c 29 Dec. \n\nNear Morpeth (North Eastern) : Scotch express \nwent off the line; 5 lulled . early 25 March, \n\nNear Billing, Northamptonshire (London and North \nWestern) : collision, 2 deaths . . 18 Oct. \n\n\n\n1S73 \n\n\n\n1874 \n\n\n\n1875 \n\n\n\nBuckstone Junction, near Grantham (Gt. Northern): \nexpress ran off the rails ; 2 killed . 7 Dec. \n\nHolcombe, near Leeds (Midland): collision of trains ; \n2 killed 24 Dec. \n\nChester : 2 carriages went off rails ; 1 death ; above \n30 hurt 8 July, \n\nNewcross : collision between carriages of Brighton \nand S. Eastern Cos. : several injured, 7.45 p.m. \n(Bank Holiday) 5 Aug. \n\nSittingbourne (London, Chatham, & Dover): cheap \nfast train, bringing home holyday-makers ; run \ninto luggage trucks ; mistake of pointsman ; \n\nmidday 31 Aug. \n\n[Jacob Moden and Charles Clarke, committed \nfor trial for manslaughter, 3 Sept. 1878.] \n\nCurragheen, near Cork : engine uncoupled ; ran off \nline ; 3 killed and many injured . 8 Sept. \n\nNear Pontypridd junction (Rhondda branch of Taff \nVale line) ; collision through error of signals ; \n13 killed ; about 40 hurt ... 19 Oct. \n\nTalybont (Brecon and Merthyr) ; engines uncon- \ntrolled ; ran down steep descent ; 4 killed ; great \ndestruction of property .... 2 Dec. \n\nBloomfield, near Tipton, Staffordshire (London and \nNorth Western) ; collisions ; about 30 severely \ninjured 31 May, \n\nNear Manniugtree (Great Eastern) ; train ran off \nline ; 1 killed ; several injured . . 8 Dec. \n\nTay bridge, Dundee ; bridge and train blown into \nthe river ; about 74 lives lost . . 28 Dec. \n\nBrickfield siding, Burscough junction (Lancashire \nand Yorkshire) ; collision ; through error of \nsignalman ; 8 deaths . .... 15 Jan. \n\nArgenteuil, near Paris ; collision ; 7 killed 4 Feb. \n\nLofthouse, near Wakefield (Great Northern) ; train \nruns off line ; 2 deaths ... 20 March, \n\nA bridge fell near Hereford (Midland) ; 1 death \n\n18 June, \n\nMarshall Meadows, 2 or 3 miles N. of Berwick \n(North British); "Flying Scotchman" engine \nran off the line ; carriages precipitated down em- \nbankment ; guard, driver, and fireman killed ; \nmuch damage to carriages ; few passengers ; (al- \nleged cause, loose rails), about 11 a.m. 10 Aug. \n\nNear Wennington Junction, 12 miles N. of Lan- \ncaster (Midland) ; train went off the rails ; 8 \ndeaths 11 Aug. \n\nNear Manchester (Midland) ; train went off rails ; \n17 injured 2 Sept. \n\nNear Nine Elms station, Vauxhall (South Western) ; \ncollision of train with a left engine ; 5 killed ; 20 \ninjured 11 Sept. \n\nKibworth : Leicestershire (Midland) ; Scotch ex- \npress ; driver by mistake reversed the engine ; \ncollision with advancing train ; several severely \ninjured 9 Oct. \n\nLeeds (Midland) ; collision ; 2 deaths ; many in- \njured 21 Dec. \n\nDalston Junction (North London) ; collision ; \nthrough error in signalling ; 2 deaths ensued ; \nabout 30 hurt 26 Feb. \n\nMexico ; Morelos railway ; through fall of bridge \nnear Cuartla ; train precipitated into river San \nAntonio ; about 200 lives lost ; night of 24 June \n\nBlackburn (Lancashire and Yorkshire); collision; \nS deaths ; about 40 injured . . 8 Aug. \n\nBow Station (Great Eastern) ; collision ; 2 killed \n\n3 Sept. \n\nCharenton (Lyons Railway) ; collision ; about 20 \nkilled 5 Sept. \n\nDesford, near Leicester (Midland); collision; 5 \nkilled, 22 Oct. ; (Butler, pointsman, arrested for \nmanslaughter) 6 Nov. \n\nTayport, File (North British) ; collision with goods \ntrain ; 4 deaths . . . . 25 Nov. \n\nHighbury Tunnel, near Canonbury (North London) ; \ncollision of 3 trains; 5 deaths . . 10 Dee. \n\nSlough (Great Western) ; express runs into a goods \ntrain ; 12 killed 24 Dec. \n\nBetween Middlesbrough and Stockton; explosion \nof locomotive ; 4 deaths .... 26 Dec. \n\nHudson river railway, near New York ; collision \nand lire ; 8 or 9 killed, including senator Wagner \nburned to death 13 Jan. \n\nHornsey (Great Northern) ; collision ; fog; 2 deaths \n\n25 Jan. \n\nNear Old Ford Station ; collision of train with broken \nup coal trucks ; 6 deaths . . . .28 Jan. \n\n\n\n1877 \n\n\n\nEAILWAYS. \n\n\n\n810 \n\n\n\nEAILWAYS. \n\n\n\nNear Cork ; collision ; about 40 injured . 9 July, 1882 \nBetween Tcherny and Bastigeur (Moscow Kursk- \nline) ; 8 carrriages run oft\' the rails ; about 178 \n\nkilled 13 July, \xe2\x80\xa2 ,, \n\nStreatham Fen (Great Eastern) : destruction of the \nexpress train, &c, by being thrown off the line \n\n28 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nHugstetten, between Freiburg and Colmar, Baden ; \nexcursion train ran off the line ; about 70 \n\nkilled 3 Sept. ,, \n\nCrewe (London and North Western) ; collision ; \n\nmany injured 30 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBromley (London, Chatham and Dover) ; fall of a \n\nbridge ; 7 killed 24 Nov. ,, \n\nNear Auchterless (Macduff and Turiff section of \nGreat North of Scotland) ; train wrecked by fall \nof a bridge ; about 5 killed . . . 27 Nov. , \nVriog, near Barmouth (Cambrian) ; cliff gave way, \n\npart of train falls over ; 2 killed . . 1 Jan. 188; \nNear the Eglinton Street Station, Glasgow; col- \nlision ; 4 killed .... 19 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \nNear Lockerbie (Caledonian) ; collisions ; 8 deaths, \n\n11.30 p.m. 14 May, ,, \n\nWatford (London and North Western) ; express runs \n\ninto empty carriages ; 1 death . . 31 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNear Toronto, Canada (Grand Trunk) ; collision ; \n\nabout 31 killed 2 Jan. 188. \n\nStepney ; collision ; about 30 persons injured \n\n22 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \nBetween Breamore and Downton (South Western) ; \ncoupling broke, train falls over embankment ; \n5 killed and 41 injured . . . .3 June, ,, \nNear Sevenoaks Station (South Eastern); collision ; \n\nof goods trains ; 2 killed . . . .7 June, ,, \nBullhouse Bridge, near Penistone (Manchester, \nSheffield, and Lincolnshire) ; express, 55 miles an \nhour ; crank-axle of locomotive engine broke, \ntrain wrecked over an embankment; sharp \ncurve ; 24 deaths, afternoon . . .16 July, ,, \nNear Penistone ; coal waggon, by breaking of an \naxle, thrown into the way of an excursion train ; \n4 deaths, many injured . . . .1 Jan. 188 \nEarl\'s Court, Kensington (District), collision ; one \n\nkilled 23 Aug. ,, \n\nWhitland and Cardigan Railway, train went off the \n\nline through fast driving, 3 lives lost 25 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nFinsbury Park station, collision of Great Northern \nand North London trains through fog ; many \ninjured ; 1 death (March) ... 11 Feb. i8\xc2\xa3 \nRoccabrunna, between Monte Carlo and Mentone \n(Riviera) collision ; about 8 killed ; many injured \n\n10 March, ,, \nPortadown (Great Northern of Ireland), 4 killed \n\n30 June, ,, \nCollision near Niagara Falls ; 18 killed 14 Sept. ,, \nNear Woodstock, Vermont, U.S. (Vermont Central) \nBoston and Montreal express ; carriages fall over \na bridge over the White River (frozen) and catch \nfire ; about 45 lives lost ... 4 Feb. i8i \nNear Boston (Boston and Providence) U.S. ; train \n\nbroke through bridge ; 32 killed . 14 March, ,, \nIbrox station (Glasgow and Paisley joint line), 4 \n\nsurfacemen killed by an accident . 22 March, , \nCollision at St. Thomas\'s, Ontario ; ignition and \nexplosion of petroleum, 14 killed and about 100 \n\ninjured 16 July, , \n\nEast of Chatsworth, Illinois ; excursion to Niagara ; \ntrain overthrown by a burning bridge ; 83 killed \nand many died afterwards . . . 11 Aug. , \nHexthorpe, near Doncaster ; a Manchester and \nSheffield train runs into a Midland excursion train \nduring collection of tickets ; 25 deaths 16 Sept ; \nSamuel Taylor (driver) and Robert Davis (fireman) \ncommitted\' for manslaughter 23 Sept. ; acquitted ; \nthe directors and other officials censured 15 Nov. , \nHyde ; (Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire) ; \ncollision with a goods train ; 4 women killed, \n\nmidnight 14-15 July, 18 \n\nHampton Wick (London and South Western), \ncollision with a light engine, 4 persons killed near \nmidnight, officers censured for recklessness \n\n6 Aug. | \nVelars, between Blaisy and Lyons, train went off \nthe rails, 9 persons killed, early . 5 Sept. \nLehigh Valley Railway, collision between excursion \ntrains above Pennhaven ; about 61 persons killed \n10 Oct. ; another collision on the same railway, \n14 persons killed 16 Oct. \n\n\n\nLandslip between Salandra and Grassam, Italy ; \ndestruction of an excursion train, about 22 persons \n\nkilled 20 Oct. 1888 \n\nNear Borki Station in S. Russia, the engine of the \nimperial train (with the czar) ran off the line with \nfour carriages (weak rails) ; 21 persons killed ; \nthe czar slightly injured . . . .29 Oct. ,, \nBy the falling in of Abergwynfi tunnel of the \nRhondda and Swansea Bay railway, 7 persons, \nwere killed . . " . . . . 22 Jan. 188c \nNear Grbnendal, Brussels ; train crushed by col- \nlision with a bridge, about 12 lives lost 3 Feb. ,, \nNear St. George, Ontario, Canada, by collapse of a \n\nbridge, 11 persons killed . . . .27 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nPenistone station (Manchester, Sheffield and Lin- \ncolnshire), excursion train ran off the line, 1 life \n\nlost . 30 March, ,, \n\nNear Hamilton, Ontario (Grand Trunk), excursion \ntrain from Chicago to New York ; carriages run \noff the line and burnt ; 17 killed . 28 April, ,, \nKillooney near Armagh (Gt. Northern of Ireland), \ncollision between Sunday School excursion trains; \nabout 80 deaths ; 400 injured (officials charged with \nculpable negligence) . . . .12 June, ,, \nNear Bucharest ; collision of passenger and luggage \n\ntrains, about 15 deaths .... 8 July, ,, \nNearWildpark Station, between Stuttgart and Bob- \nlingen, train went down embankment ; 7 killed . \n\n1 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nLongsight, near Manchester (London & North- \nwestern), collision of passenger and goods train, 6 \n\ndeaths 4 Oct. ,, \n\nStirling, California, collision between Burlington \nand Union Pacific trains, about 30 deaths . \n\n16 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nAt Jams Run, West Virginia, train upset by spread- \ning rails ; 10 killed \'28 Dec. ,, \n\nNear Cincinnati, U.S.A., collision of express train \n\nto New York ; 6 persons killed . .17 Jan. 189 \nNear Salem, U.S.A., train runs offline ; 6 killed . ,, \n\n27 Jan. ,, \nAt Burninouth, near Berwick (North British), colli- \nsion ; 3 deaths 25 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCarlisle station (London & North Western), Scotch \nexpress ran into engine approaching (attributed \nto failure of vacuum or pneumatic brake through \ncold), 4 persons killed, 3 a.m. . . 4 March, ,, \nNear Hamburg, U.S.A., Lake Shore railway, colli- \nsion ; 6 killed 5 March ,, \n\nQuincey, near Boston, U.S.A., engine and cars left \n\nthe rails ; about 20 deaths . . . 20 Aug. ,, \nAt Schuylkill valley, near Reading, U.S. A.,\'collision \n\nof coal and goods trains ; 23 deaths . 20 Sept. ,, \nAt Norton Fitzwarren, near Taunton (Great \nWestern), collision of special express train from \nPlymouth and a shunted goods train ; 10 passen- \ngers (from the Cape) killed ; George Rice, signal- \nman, through forgetfulness had declared the line \nclear, about 1.30 a.m. 11 Nov. ; acquitted of \n\nmanslaughter 22 Nov. ,, \n\nEdinburgh, Georgia station (Suburban railway), \ncollision of passenger and goods trains, through \nneglect of signalman ; many persons injured . \n\n11 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nPrimrose-hill tunnel (London & North-Western), \ncollision of passenger and goods trains ; guard \n\nkilled 13 Nov. ,, \n\nAt Topsin, near Salonica, train runs off the line; \n\nabout 40 retired soldiers killed . . 14 Nov. ,. \nWreay, 5 miles S. of Carlisle (London and North- \nWestern), express goods train ; axle of a wagon \nbroke, 20 wagons thrown over the embankment \n\n25 feet high, 2 a.m 3 April, 18 \n\nNorwood Junction (London & Brighton), express \ntrain wrecked by the collapse of Portland bridge, \nthrough defect in the ironwork ; about 10 a.m. ; \n\n6 persons injured 1 May, , \n\nMoenchenstein, near Bale, Switzerland, excursion \ntrain ; by the collapse of a bridge several carriages \nthrown into the river Birse ; about 70 persons \n\nperish 14 June , \n\nRavenna, Ohio, collision between heavy freight \ntrain and the Erie express for New York, above \n25 persons perish . . " . .3 July, , \nCharleston, W. Virginia, collapse of a trestle bridge, \npart of a train falls over, 13 persons killed . \n\n4 July , \n\n\n\nEAINBOW. \n\n\n\n811 \n\n\n\nEAPHOE. \n\n\n\nSt. Mande, near Paris, collision of a goods and an \nexcursion train ; about 44 killed . 27 July, 1891 \n\nNear Port Byron, New York ; collision ; 11 persons \nkilled 6 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPonty-pridd (Taff Vale) collision ; 15 persons in- \njured 15 Aug. ,, \n\nAt a junction between Miinchenbuchsee and Zolli- \nkofen, near Berne ; collision ; about 14 deaths . \n\n17 Aug. ,, \n\nTrestle bridge over the Catawba river, N. Carolina, \ntrain plunged into the river ; above 20 deaths . \n\n26 Aug. ,, \n\nNear Burgos, Old Castile, collision of express and \nmixed trains ; 25 deaths (including Mr. Maurice \nLong, British vice-consul at Malaga, and Mr. Win. \nCotton) 24 Sept. ,, \n\nKohlfurt (between Breslau and Berlin) ; collision ; \n5 deaths, midnight 19 Oct. ,, \n\nNear Nagpur, Bombay ; train went off the line \nthrough wheel breaking ; n British soldiers and \n5 others killed $ Nov. ,, \n\nNear Domnino station on the Kosloff, &c, rail- \nway, Central Russia ; train ran off the line on a \nbridge, 31 persons killed ... 2^ Nov. ,, \n\nAbout 70 miles from Lahore, the N. W. railway of \nIndia ; collision ; about 30 persons killed . \n\nabout 8 Dec. ,, \n\nAt Barnby (Great Eastern) collision of Lowestoft \nand Beccles trains ; 3 persons killed . 24 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNear Hastings, New York Central ; collision of \nBuffalo and Niagara Falls, and St. Louis express \ntrains; 10 persons killed . . . . 24 Dec. ,, \n\nNear Medill, Missouri ; train falls in the river \nthrough breaking down of the bridge ; 7 per- \nsons killed 4 May, 1892 \n\nOn the Cottonbelt, Arkansas, U.S.A., collision, 7 \npersons killed . .... 20 May, , , \n\nBirmingham, collision between the L. & N. W. \nexpress train and a Midland train entering the \nstation at the same time and partly on the same \nline ; 2 deaths, many injured 27 May, [T. E. Fear, \nthe Midland] driver, charged with man- \nslaughter] . . . . - . .8 June, , , \n\nNearSouth Carrollton, Kentucky, collision, 4 deaths \n\n5 June, ,, \n\nEsholt junction near Leeds (Midland) collision ; 4 \ndeaths 9 June, ,, \n\nBishopsgate-station (Great Eastern) ; collision of \nworkmen\'s trains from Walthamstow and Enfield, \ncontaining 1,800 persons ; 4 deaths, about 40 in- \njured ; between 6 and 7 a.m., 14 June ; signal- \nmen censured by the coroner . . . 17 June ,, \n\nHarrisburg, U.S.A., collision ; 10 deaths . 25 June ,, \n\nEAINBOW. Its theory was developed by \nKepler in 161 1, and by Rene Descartes in 1629; \nsee Spectrum. \n\nEAIN-FALL. Mr. G. J. Symons printed a \ntable of rain-fall in Britain for 140 years, 1726-1865, \nin the Reports of the British Association in 1866 ; \nand another table in 1883 for the years 1866\xe2\x80\x94 1880. \nThe wettest year was 1852, being 38 percent, above \nthe average ; but 1872 was 58 per cent. He began \nto publish his "Annual Kainfall in the British \nIsles " in 1866. In 1867 he published, " Bain : \nHow, When, Where, Why, it is Measured." It con- \ntains an attempt at a rainfall table of the world. \nRainfall observers in Britain for the tables, 168 in i860 ; \n\nabout 2,000 in 1888. \nDeficient rainfall in 1887 ; average yearly fall at Bolton, \n\nLancashire, for 56 years 47^7 in. ; in 1887, 27^92 in. \nAugust 1891, the wettest in Britain for many years. \nExperiments for the artificial production of rain \nby means of explosives at El Paso in Texas . \n\n18, 19 Sept. 1 89 1 \nMelbourne, " the rain-maker," contracts to water \n\nN.-W. Kansas in June- Aug. 1892 . . Oct. ,, \nRain-making experiments made in Madras presi- \ndency Nov. ,, \n\nEALEIGH\'S CONSPIEACY, termed the \n\nMain Plot {which see) . \n\nEAMADAN, the Mahometan month of fasting, \nin 1889 began 2 May. It is followed by the \nfestival of Bairam {which see). \n\n\n\nEAMBOUILLET, a royal chateau, about 25 \nmiles from Paris. Here Francis I. died 31 March, \n1547 ; and here Charles X. abdicated, 2 Aug. 1830. \nAfter being owned by the count of Thoulouse and the \ndue de Penthievre, it was bought by Louis XVI. 1 778- \n\nEAMILLIES (Belgium), the site of a brilliant \nvictory gained by the English under the duke of \nMarlborough and the allies over the French com- \nmanded by the elector of Bavaria and the marshal \nde Villeroy, on "Whitsunday, 23 May (o.s. 12), 1706. \nThe French were soon seized with a panic, and a \ngeneral rout ensued : about 4000 of the allied army \nwere slain in the engagement. This accelerated \nthe fall of Louvain, Brussels, &c. \n\nEAMSGATE, Kent, a fishing village in the \n17th century, became important through commerce \nafter 1689. The erection of the pier began in 1750 ; \nthe harbour was formed by George Smeaton, 1780- \n95, and the lighthouse erected soon after. Popula- \ntion, 1881, 22,683 ; iSgij 24,676. \n\nBANEEAGH (near Chelsea), a public garden \nfor concerts and dancing, occupying the grounds of \nEanelagh House (built by Jones, earl of Banelagh, \nabout 1691), was opened with a breakfast, 5 April, \n1742. The music for the orchestra was frequently \ncomposed by Dr. Arne. The gardens were closed, \nand the buildings taken down, in 1804. \n\nBANGES ACT, 1891. See under Commons. \n\nBANGOON, maritime capital of the Burmese \nempire, built by Alompra, 1753, was taken by sir \nA. Campbell on 11 May, 1824. In Dec. 1826, it \nwas ceded to the Burmese on condition of the pay- \nment of a sum of money, the reception of a British \nresident at Ava, and freedom of commerce. Oppres- \nsion of the British merchants led to the second \nBurmese war, 1852. Bangoon was taken by storm \nby general Godwin, 14 April, and annexed to the \nBritish dominions in December. An English \nbishopric founded, 1877. Destructive fire for two \ndays about 18 April, 1884. Foundation stone of \nCathedral laid by lord DufFerin, viceroy, 24 Feb. \n1886. Prince Albert Victor of Wales hospitably re- \nceived, 20 Dec. 1889. See Burmah. \n\nBANSOME\'S AETIFICIAL STONE, the \ninvention of Mr. Fred. Ransome, 1848, is made by \ndissolving common flint (silica) in heated caustic \nalkali, adding fine sand. The mixture is pressed \ninto moulds and heated to redness. \n\nEANTEES, a sect which arose in 1645, similar \nto the Seekers, now termed Quakers. The name \nis now applied to the Primitive Methodists, separated \nfrom the main body in 1810 ; see Wesleyans. \n\nEAPE was punished with death by the Jews, \nRomans, and Goths ; by mutilation and loss of \neyes in William I.\'s reign. This was mitigated by \nthe statute of Westminster 1, 3 Edw. I. 1274. \nMade felony by stat. Westminster 2, T2 Edw. III. \n1338 ; and without benefit of clergy, 18 Eliz. 1575. \nRape made punishable by transportation in 1841 ; \nby penal servitude for life, or a less period, 1861. \n\nEAPHIA, a port of Palestine. Here Antiochus \nIII. of Syria was defeated by Ptolemy Philopater, \nking of Egypt, 217 r.c. \n\nEAPHOE, a bishopric in N. Ireland. St. \nColumb-kille, a man of great virtue and learning, \nand of royal blood, founded a monastery in this \nplace, and it was afterwards enlarged by other holy \nmen : but it is the received opinion that St. Eunan \nerected the church into a cathedral, and was the \nfirst bishop of the see in the 8th century. Raphoe \nwas united to the bishopric of Derry by act, 3 <fc 4 \nWill. IV. 1833 ; see Bishops. \n\n\n\nBAPPAHANNOCK. \n\n\n\n812 \n\n\n\nEEBECCA EIOTS. \n\n\n\nBAPPAHANNOCK, see Chancdlorsville, and \n\nTrials, 1865. \n\nBASPBEBEY, not named among the fruits \nearly introduced into this country from the conti- \nnent. The Virginian raspberry (Rubus occiden- \ntal-is) before 1696, and the flowering raspberry \n(Btibus odoratus), about 1700, came from North \nAmerica. \n\nEASTADT, Baden. Here the preliminaries of \na peace were signed, 6 March, 17 14, by marshal \nVillars on the part of the French king, and by \nprince Eugene on the part of the emperor; the \nGerman frontier was restored to the terms of the \npeace of Eyswick.\xe2\x80\x94 The CONGRESS of BAS- \nTADT, to treat of a general peace with the \nGermanic powers, was commenced 9 Dec. 1797 ; \nand negotiations were carried on throughout 1798. \nThe atrocious massacre of the French plenipoten- \ntiaries at Eastadt by the Austrian regiment of \nSzeltzler took place 28 April, 1799. \n\nBATCLIFFE HIGHWAY (now St. George\'s \nstreet), East London. Mr. Marr, a shopkeeper here, \nwith his wife, child, and boy, Avere brutally mur- \ndered in a few minutes, 7 Dec. 181 r. In the \nsame neighbourhood, on ri Dec, Mr. and Mrs. \nWilliamson, then - child, and servant, were also \nmurdered. A man, named "Williams, arrested on \nsuspicion, committed suicide, 15 Dec. \n\nBATHMINES (near Dublin) . Colonel Jones, \ngovernor of Dublin castle, made a sally out, routed \ntbe marquis of Ormond at Bathmines, killed 4000 \nmen, and took 2517 prisoners, with their cannon, \nbaggage, and ammunition, 2 Aug. 1649. \n\nEATING ACT, 37 & 38 Vict. c. 54, passed \n7 Aug. 1874 \' abolishes exemptions from the poor \nlaw act, 43rd of Elizabeth ; and provides for the \nrating of woods, mines, rights of fowling, fishing, &c. \n\nEATIONALISM, the doctrine of those who \nreject a divine revelation and admit no other means \nof acquiring knowledge but experience and reason. \nThe leading writers are Eeimarus of Hamburg (died \n1768), Paulus of Heidelberg, Eichhorn, Eeinhard, \nand Strauss. W. Lecky\'s " History of nationalism \nin Europe" appeared, July, 1865; and Dr. J. \nHurst\'s, April, 1867. \n\nBATISBON (in Bavaria), was made a free \nimperial city about 1200. Several diets have been \nheld here. A peace was concluded here between \nFrance and the emperor of Germany, by which was \nterminated the war for the Mantuan succession, \nsigned 13 Oct. 1630. In later times, it was at \nBatisbon, in a diet held there, that the German \nprinces seceded from the Germanic empire, and \nplaced themselves under the protection of the \nemperor Napoleon of France, 1 Aug. 1806. Eatis- \nbon was made an archbishopric in 1806 ; secularised \nin 1810 ; was ceded to Bavaria in 1815 ; became \nagain an archbishopric in 1817. Population 1S90, \n37,567- \n\nBATTENING (from ratten, provincial for rat), \nthe _ removing and hiding workmen\'s tools as a \npunishment for nonpayment to trades unions, or \nopposition to them. Much "rattening" was dis- \nclosed at the commission of inquiry at Sheffield in \nJune 1867 ; and at Manchester Sept. following,- ; see \nSheffield. \n\nEAUCOUX (Belgium). Here marshal Saxe \nand the French army totally defeated the allies \nunder prince Charles of Lorraine, 11 Oct. 1746. \n\nEAVAILLAC\'S MUEDEE of Henry IV. of \nFrance, 14 May, 1610. The execution of the assassin \n\n\n\non 27 May was accompanied by most elaborate \ntortures. \n\nBAVENNA (on the Adriatic), a city of the \nPapal states, founded by Greek colonists, fell under \nthe Eoman power about 234 B.C. It was favoured \nand embellished by the emperors, and Honorius \nmade it the capital of the Empire of the West about \na.d. 404. In 568 it became the capital of an \nexarchate. It was subdued by the Lombards in \n752, and their king, Astolphus, in 754 surrendered \nit to Pepin, king of France, who gave it to the pope \nStephen, and thus laid the foundation of the tem- \nporal power of the holy see. On the nth of April, \n15 12, a battle was fought between the French, \nunder Gaston de Foix (duke of Nemours and \nnephew of Louis XII.), and the Spanish and Papal \narmies. De Foix perished in the moment of his \nvictory, and his death closed the good fortune of the \nFrench in Italy. Eavenna became part of the king- \ndom, of Italy in i860. \n\nMany of the Accoltellatcri, a secret society of as- \nsassins (said to have been formerly followers of \nGaribaldi), .who long kept the city in terror, \narrested, Sept. \xe2\x80\x94 Oct. ; condemned to life im- \nprisonment 12 Dec. 1874 \n\nBE, ISLE OF (W. coast of France, near Eochelle). \nOyster beds planted here in 1862 have flourished. \nSee liochelle. \n\nBEADEES, a new order of ministrants in the \nchurch of England, received the assent of the \narchbishops and bishops in July, 1866. They were \nnot to be ordained or addressed as reverend. \n\nBEADING (Berkshire) . Here Alfred defeated \nthe Danes, 871. The abbey was founded in 1121 \nby Henry I. The last abbot was hanged in 1539 \nfor denying the king\'s supremacy. The palace \nprison was erected 1850. New town hall, free \nlibrary, &c. opened 31 May, 1882. Population, 1881, \n48,769 ; 1891, 60,054. \n\nEEAL ACTIONS Limitation Act, passed \n\n1874, comes into operation 1 Jan. 1879. \nBEALISTS, see Nominalists. \n\nEEAL PBESENCE, see Transubstantia- \n\ntion. \n\nEEAPING-MACHINES. One was invented \nin this country early in the present century, but \nfailed from its intricacies. At the meeting of the \nBritish Association at Dundee, Sept. 1867, the rev. \nPatrick Bell stated that he invented a reaping- \nmachine in 1826, which was used in 1827 ; the \nprinciple being that on which the best American \nmachines are now constructed. On 15 Jan. 1868, \nhe was presented with a valuable testimonial, and \n1000^. in money. McCormick\'s American machine \nwas invented about 1831, and perfected in 1846; he \nreceived a gold medalfrom the jurors of the Exhibi- \ntion of 1851 ; and also at the Eoyal Agricultural \nSociety\'s competition at Bristol, 6 Aug. 1878. The \nsheaves are bound by these reaping machines. \nAbout 200 patented ; few good. Hussey\'s machine, \nalso American, exhibited in 1851, was highly \ncommended. \nJohn Ridley, the inventor of the reaping machine \n\nlargely used in Australia, died 28 Nov. 1887. \n\nEEASON was decreed to be worshipped as \na goddess by the French republicans, 10 Nov. \n1793, and was personified by an actress. \xe2\x80\x94 Thomas \nPaine\'s " Age of Reason" was published in 1794-5 ; \nImmanuel Kant\'s " Critique of Pure Eeason," \n(" Kritik der reinen Vernunft "), 1781. \n\nEEBECCA EIOTS, see Wales, 1843, 1878. \n\n\n\nREBELLIONS. \n\n\n\n813 \n\n\n\nRECORDS, PUBLIC. \n\n\n\nREBELLIONS or Insurrections in \n\nBRITISH HISTORY. Details of many are given \nin separate articles. See Conspiracies. \n\nAgainst William the conqueror, in favour of Edgar \n\nAtlieling, aided by the Scots and Danes, 1069. \nBy Odo of Bayenx and others, against William II. in \n\nfavour of his brother Robert, 10S8 ; suppressed, 1090. \nIn favour of the empress Maude, 11 39. Ended, 11 53. \nThe rebellion of prince Richard against his father Henry \n\nII. 11S9. \nOf the Barons, April, 1215. Compromised by the grant \n\nof Magna Charta, 15 June following. \nOf the Barons, 1261-67. \nOf the lords spiritual and temporal against Edward II. \n\non account of his favourites, the Gavestons, 1312. \n\nAgain, on account of the Spencers, 1321. \nOf Walter the Tyler, of Deptford, vulgarly called Wat \n\nTyler, occasioned by the brutal rudeness of a poll-tax \n\ncollector to his daughter. He killed the collector in \n\nhis rage, and raised a party to oppose the tax itself, \n\n1381 ; see Tyler. \nIll Ireland, when Roger, earl of March, the viceroy and \n\nheir presumptive to the crown, was slain, 1398. \nOf Henry, duke of Lancaster, who caused Richard II. to \n\nbe deposed, 1399. \nAgainst king Henry IV. by a number of confederated \n\nlords, 1402-3. \nAgainst Henry V. by earl of Cambridge and other lords, \n\n1415- \n\nOf Jack Cade, against Henry VI. 1450 ; see Cade\'s Insur- \nrection. \n\nIn favour of the house of York, 1452, which ended in the \nimprisonment of Henry VI. and seating Edward IV. of \nYork on the throne, 1461. \n\nUnder Warwick and Clarence, 1470, which ended with \nthe expulsion of Edward IV. and the restoration of \nHenry VI. the same year. \n\nUnder Edward IV. 1471, which ended with the -death of \nHenry VI. \n\nOf the earl of Richmond, against Richard III. 1485, which \nended with the death of Richard. \n\nUnder Lambert Simnel, i486, who pretended to be \nRichard III. \'s nephew, Edward Plantagenet, earl of \nWarwick ; his army was defeated, leaders slain, and he \nwas discovered to be a baker\'s son ; he was pardoned, \nand employed by the king as a menial. \n\nUnder Perkin Warbeck, 1492 ; defeated ; executed 1499. \n\nUnder Thomas Flammock and Michael Joseph, in Corn- \nwall, against taxes levied to pay the Scottish war ex- \npenses. They marched towards London, and lord \nAudley took the command at Wells. They were de- \nfeated at Blackheath, 22 June, and the three leaders \nwere executed, 28 June, 1497. \n\nThe "Pilgrimage of Grace" against Henry VIII. 1536-7. \n\nOf the English in the West, to restore the ancient liturgy, \n&e., 1549 ; suppressed same year. \n\nIn Norfolk, headed by Ket, the tanner, but soon sup- \npressed, Aug. 1549. \n\nIn favour of lady Jane Grey, against queen Mary. Lady \nJane was proclaimed queen of England on the death of \nEdward VI. 10 July, 1553 ; but she resigned the crown \nto Mary a few days afterwards : she was beheaded for \nhigh treason, in the Tower, 12 Feb. 1554, aged 17. \n\nOf sir Thomas Wyatt, son of the poet, and others, against \nqueen Mary\'s marriage with Philip of Spain, &c. , fails ; \nhe is beheaded n April, 1554. \n\nOf the Roman catholic earls of Northumberland and \nWestmoreland against queen Elizabeth, Nov. and Dec. \n1567. The former fled to Scotland, but was given, up \nby the regent Morton and executed. \n\nOf the Irish under the earl of Tyrone, 1599, suppressed \nin 1601. \n\nUnder the earl of Essex, against queen Elizabeth, 1600 ; \nit ended in his death, 1601. \n\nOf the Irish under Roger More, sir Phelim O\'Neil, &c, \nagainst the English in Ireland, 1641-5. \n\nThe "Great Rebellion," 1641-60. \n\nRebellion of the Scots Covenanters, 1666 ; soon put \ndown. \n\nUnder the duke of Monmouth, 1685 ; executed 15 July. \n\nOf the Scots in favour of the Old Pretender, 1715 ; quelled \nin 1716. \n\nOf the. Scots under the Young Pretender, 1745 ; suppressed \nin 1746 ; lords Lovat, Balmerino, and Kilmarnock be- \nheaded. \n\nOf the Americans on account of taxation, 1774. This \nrebellion led to the loss of our chief North American \n\n\n\ncolonies, and the independence of the United States, \n1782. \n\nIn Ireland, called the Great Rebellion, when great num- \nbers took up arms, commenced 24 May, 1798 ; sup- \npressed next year. \n\nAgain in Ireland, under Robert Emmett, a gifted enthu- \nsiast, 23 July, 1S03, when lord Kihvarden was killed \nwith several others by the insurgents. \n\nCanadian Insurrection (which see), Dec. 1837 to Nov. 1838. \n\nOf Chartists at Newport (ivhich see), 4 Nov. 1839. \n\nSmith O\'Brien\'s silly Irish rebellion ; terminated in the \ndefeat and dispersion of a multitude of his deluded \nfollowers by sub-inspector Trant and about sixty police \nconstables, on Boulagh common, Ballingary, co. Tip- \nperary, 29 July, 1848 ; see Ireland. \n\nSepoy mutiny in India (see India), 1857-8. \n\nOf Fenians in Ireland ; see Fenians and Ireland, 1865-7. \nSee Chili. \n\nRECEIPTS FOR MONEY were first taxed by \na stamp duty in 1783. The act was amended in \n1784, 1791 et seq., and receipts were taxed by a \nduty varying according to the amount of the money \nreceived, in all transactions. Stamps required on \nbills of exchange, notes, and receipts in Ireland, by \nstat. 35 Geo. III. 1795 ; see Bills of Exchange. \nThe uniform stamp of one penny on receipts, for all \nsums above 2L, was enacted by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 59 \n(4 Aug. 1853) ; see Stamps. Penny postage-stamps \nused for receipts after 1 June, 1881. \n\nRECIDIVISTS, the French term for habitual \ncriminals. The proposal of the French govern- \nment to transmit many of these to New Caledonia, \nwith partial freedom, was opposed in France as \ndangerous to liberty, and very warmly protested \nagainst by our Australian colonies, especially \nQueensland and New South "Wales, fearing their \nintrusion as dangerous to public security, 1883-4. \n\nFrench legislation resumed; bill passed 12 May; \ncame into operation . . . . 1 Dec, 1885 \n\nRECIPROCITY ASSOCIATION, founded \nat Manchester Sept. 1869, in consequence of the \nrestrictions on the importation of British manu- \nfactures into their territories imposed by foreign \ngovernments. \nReciprocity, a form of protection, was advocated by lord \n\nBateman and others in 1878-9. His resolution was \n\nnegatived by the lords, 29 April, 1879. \n\nRECIPROCITY TREATY between Great \nBritain and the United States, regulating the rela- \ntion between the latter and Canada, in regard to \ntrade, fisheries, &c, negotiated by lord Elgin, and \nratified 2 Aug. 1854. Its abrogation, proposed by the \nUnited States government in 1864, was effected 17 \nMarch, 1866. Its renewal was desired in the states \nin 1867. See Canada and United States, 1891. \n\nRECITATIVE, a species of singing differing \nbut little from ordinary speaking, and used for nar- \nratives in operas, is said to have been first employed \nat Rome by Emilio del Cavalierc, who disputed the \nclaim of Rinuccini to the introduction of the opera, \n1600 ; see Opera. \n\nRECORD, Evangelical, or Low Church, weekly \nnewspaper, established 1828. \n\nRECORDER, the principal judicial officer of \ngreat corporations. The first recorder of London \nwas Jeffrey de Norton, alderman, 1298 ; right hon. \nRussell Gurney, Q.C., recorder, Dec. 1856\xe2\x80\x94 Jan. \n1878. Sir Thomas Chambers, Feb. 1878\', died 24 \nDec. 1891, succeeded by sir Charles Hall, 8 Feb. 1892. \nThe salary, originally 10^. per annum, is now3000/. \n\nRECORDS, Public, in England, began \n\nto be regularly preserved in 1 100, by order of Henry \nI. The repositories which possessed materials the \nmost ancient and interesting to the historian were, \n\n\n\nEECEEATION. \n\n\n\n814 \n\n\n\nEEFOEM IN PAELIAMENT. \n\n\n\nthe Chapter-house of Westminster Abbey, the Tower \nof London, the Rolls Chapel, and the Queen\'s Re- \nmembrancer\'s offices of the exchequer. The early \nrecords of Scotland, going from London, were lost \nby shipwreck in 1298. In Ireland, the council- \nchamber and most of the records were burned, 1 7 1 1 . \nPublic records Act, 2 Vict. c. 94 (to Aug. 1838). \xe2\x80\x94 \nA new Record Office has been erected on the Rolls \nestate, between Chancery and Fetter lanes, to which \nthe records have been gradually removed. The \nRecord Commissioners commenced their publica- \ntions in 1802. Mr. F. Thomas\'s valuable "Hand- \nbooks to the Public Records," was published in 1853 ; \nMr. Ewald\'s " Our Public Records," in 1873. Acts \nrelating to the Public Records of Ireland, passed \n1867 and 1875. \n\nEECEEATION, see Playground. \nThe Recreative Evening Schools Association for boys who \n\nhave left school, founded, under royal patronage, 1886. \n\nEECEEATIVE BELIGIONISTS, a name \ngiven to an association of gentlemen for diffusing a \nknowledge of natural religion by the aid of science, \nformed in Dec. 1866. In Jan. 1867 lectures were \ngiven on Sunday evenings at St. Martin\'s Hall, \nLondon, by professor Huxley, Dr. W. B. Carpenter, \nand others, sacred music being performed at intervals \nduring the evening. This was decided not to be an \ninfraction of the Sunday act, 21 Geo. III. c. 49, in \nthe trial, Baxter v. Baxter Langley, 19 Nov. 1868. \nSee Sunday Lecture Society. \n\nBECEUITINGr, see Army, 31 Oct. 1866. \nRecruits: 1878, 28,325; 1879, 25,662; 1880, \n25,622; 1881,26,258; 1882,23,802; 1883,33,096 \n(new regulations); 1884, 35,653; 1885, 39,97!; \n1886,39,409; 1887, 31,225; 1888, 25,153; 1890-1, \n(for the regular army), 32,923. \n\nEECUSANTS, persons who refuse_ to attend \nchurch, 1 Eliz. c. 2, 1559 ; dissenters relieved from \nthis act, 1689; it was repealed, 1844. \n\nEED AN, a field fortification, consisting of two \nfaces meeting in a salient angle directed towards \nthe enemy; see Russo- Turkish War, 1855. \n\nEED CEAG, deposits of fossil remains on the \ncoast of Essex and Suffolk, so designated by Edward \nCharlesworth about 1835. They are much used in \nthe manure manufacture. \n\nEED CEOSS on a white ground, the flag of \nthe Geneva Convention {which see). Third inter- \nnational convention at Geneva, 1 Sept. 1884. The \nRussian Red Cross Society, with others, was very \nactive during the Servian war, July-Aug. 1876. \nThe order of the Royal Red Cross for ladies who \nhave acted as nurses in war, &c, and others, in- \nstituted by queen Victoria, 23 April, 1883. The \nprincess of Wales and other ladies nominated, 25 \nMay, 1883 ; conferred on Mrs. Grimwood for her \nservices in the retreat of the troops from Manipur \n{which see), June, 1891. \n\nEEDE LECTUEE, Cambridge ; sir Robert \nRede, chief justice of common pleas, in 1524 en- \ndowed some lectureships. In 18^9 these were \nreplaced by an annual lecture : which has been \ngiven bj\' professors Owen, Phillips, Ansted, Tyndall, \nand other eminent persons. \n\nEEDEMPTOBISTS, see Liguorians. \n\nBEDHILL, see Reformatory Schools. \n\nEEDISTEIBUTION OF SEATS ACT, \neec Reform, 1885. \n\nBEDOWA, a Bohemian dance in 3-4 time, in- \ntroduced in 1846 or 1847, at Paris, and soon after in \nLondon. \n\n\n\nEED EIVEE SETTLEMENTS, a name \ngiven to part of the Hudson bay settlements. \n\nEED SEA, the Mare Erythraeum of the " \nancients, between Arabia and Africa, crossed by the \nPhoenicians and others in commerce, and by the \nIsraelites in their escape from Egypt, 1491 B.C. In \n1826 Ehrenberg discovered that the colour was due \nto marine plants, the Trichodesmium ErythrcRum ; \nsee Suez and Soudan. \xe2\x80\x94 Red Sea Littoral, Suahin, \n&c, governor-general, col. Holled Smith, appointed \n1888, resigned June, 1892. \n\nEEFEEENDUM, the name given to an \narticle in the Swiss constitution of 29 May, 1874, \nby which certain laws passed by the Cantonal and \nFederal legislations might be referred to the people \nat large by plebiscite. \n\nEEFLECTOES, see Burning-glass. \n\nEEFOEM ASSOCIATION, instituted at \nWestminster to protect electors, 20 May, 1835. \nNational Reform Union: at the annual meeting at Man- \nchester it was said to have 411 affiliated societies, \n22 May, 1889. \n\nEEFOEM BANQUETS, see France, 1847. \n\nEEFOEM CLUB, established in 1836, to \nsucceed the Westminster Club, 1834-6. The \nbuilding in Pall Mall, designed by sir Charles \nBarry, was completed in 1841. \nJubilee ball; the prince of Wales and son, and above \n\n2,000 persons of all parties present, 15 June, 1887. \n\nEEFOEM m Parliament. Mr. Pitt\'s mo- \ntion for a reform in parliament was lost by a majority \nof 20, 7 May, 1782; of 144, 7 May, 1783 ; and of 74, \n18 April, 1785 ; see Radicals. The measure of reform \nby earl Grey\'s administration was proposed in the \nhouse of commons by lord John Russell, 1 March, 183 1. \n\nbill of 1831. \n\nFirst division ; second reading : for it, 302 ; against it, \n301 ; 22 March. \n\nOn motion for a committee, general Gascojaie moved an \namendment, "that the number of representatives for \nEngland and Wales ought not to be diminished. \' \' Amend- \nment carried 011 a division, 299 to 291 ; 19 April. \n\nThe bill abandoned, and parliament dissolved, 23 April. \n\nA new parliament assembled, 14 June. Bill again intro- \nduced, 24 June. \n\nDivision on second reading : for it, 367 ; against it, 231 \xe2\x80\x94 \nmajority, 136 ; 7 July. \n\nDivision on third reading of the bill : for it, 345 ; against \nit, 236 \xe2\x80\x94 majority, 109 ; 22 Sept. \n\nIn the Lords : \xe2\x80\x94 first division, on second reading ; lord \nWharncliffe moved, " that the bill be read that day six \nmonths." For the amendment, 199 ; against it, 158 \xe2\x80\x94 \nmajority, forty-one ; 8 Oct. [Parliament prorogued, \n20 Oct. 1831.] \n\nact of 1832.* \n\nRead in the Commons a, first time without a division, 12 \nDec. 1831. Second reading ; division, viz. : for the bill, \n324 ; against it, 162 \xe2\x80\x94 majority, 162 ; 17 Dec. 1831. Third \nreading ; division, viz. : for the bill, 355 ; against it, \n239 \xe2\x80\x94 majority for it, 116; 23 March, 1832. \n\nIn the Lords : \xe2\x80\x94 read a, first time on motion of earl Grey, \n27 March. Second reading : for the bill, 184 ; against \nit, 175 \xe2\x80\x94 majority, nine ; 14 April. In the committee \nlord Lyndhurst moved, " that the question of enfran- \nchisement should precede that of disfranchisement." \nThe division was 151 and 116 \xe2\x80\x94 majorit3 r against minis- \nters, thirty-five, 7 May. \n\nResignation of ministers, 9 May; great public excitement \nensued, and they were induced to resume office on the \nking granting them full power to secure majorities by \nthe creation of new peers. \n\n*By this "Act to amend the Representation of the \nPeople in England and Wales " (2 & 3 Will. IV. c. 45), 56 \nboroughs in England were disfranchised (schedule A.), 30 \nwere reduced to one member only (B.) ; 22 new boroughs \nwere created to send two members (C), and 20 to send \none member (D.) and other important changes made. \n\n\n\nEEFOEM IN PAELIAMENT. \n\n\n\n815 \n\n\n\nEEFOEMATION. \n\n\n\nIn the Lords, the bill was carried through the committee, \n30 May ; read a third time : 106 against 22 \xe2\x80\x94 majority, \neighty-four ; 4 June. Received the royal assent, 7 \nJune, 1832. \n\nThe royal assent given to the Scotch reform bill, 17 July ; \nand to the Irish one, 7 Aug. 1832. \n\nABORTIVE REFORM BILLS. \n\nLord John Russell introduced a new reform bill, 13 Feb. \n1854, which was withdrawn, 11 April, 1854, in conse- \nquence of the war with Russia. \n\nOn 28 Feb. 1859, M r - Disraeli brought in a reform bill, \nwhich was rejected by the commons on 31 March, by a \nmajority of 39. This led to a dissolution of parlia- \nment, and eventually to a change of ministry. \n\nThe new government (lords Palmei\'ston and J. Russell) \nbrought forward a new bill, 1 March, i860; but with- \ndrew it, 11 June. No reform bill was brought forward \nby the government, 1 861-5; see Commons. \n\nThe discussion respecting parliamentary reform was re- \nvived in the autumns of 1864 and 1865. \n\nMr. Baines\' reform bill was rejected by the commons, 8 \nMay, 1865. \n\nMr. Gladstone introduced a. franchise bill, 12 March, 1866 ; \nafter much discussion, it was read a second time, 28 \nApril. A re-distribution of seats bill was introduced, \nand incorporated with the franchise bill, 7 May ; an \namendment (on a clause, substituting " rateable " for \n" clear yearly value ") was passed, in opposition to the \ngovernment, 19 June ; which led to the resignation of \nthe government, 26 June ; and the withdrawal of the \nbill (see Adullam), 19 July, 1866. \n\nNumerous great reform meetings : London, Hyde-park \n(riotous), 23, 24 July ; Agricultural Hall, 30 July ; and \nGuildhall, 8 Aug. ; Manchester, 24 Sept. ; Leeds, 8 \nOct. ; Glasgow, 16 Oct. ; Edinburgh, 17 Nov. ; Con- \nference at Manchester, ig Nov. 1866. \n\nReform demonstration of trades-unions in London ; pro- \ncession of about 25,000 ; great order observed, 3 Dec. , \n1866. \n\nProcession of about 18,000 men to Agricultural Hall, \nIslington: good order kept ; 11 Feb. 1867. \n\nMr. Disraeli announced his plan of proceeding with re- \nform by 13 resolutions, n Feb. ; these withdrawn, 26 \nFeb. 1867. \n\n"Ten Minutes\' bill" introduced and withdrawn, 25 Feb. \n1867. \n\n[It comprised a 61. franchise for boroughs, and 20I. for \ncounties. Said by sir John Pakington to have been \nagreed to in the last ten minutes of a cabinet council.] \n\nNew bill (with household suffrage) introduced 18 March ; \nread second time, 27 March, 1867. \n\nThe "Tea-room meeting" of liberals (Messrs. Owen Stan- \nley, Dillwyn, Grant Duff, and others), who agree to \nsupport the bill in opposition to Mr. Gladstone\'s reso- \nlution, which is withdrawn, and the bill goes into \ncommittee, 8 April ; Mr. Gladstone\'s amendment re- \njected by 22 (for 288, against 310), 12 April, 1867. \n\nPeaceable reform meetings at Birmingham, 22 April ; \nHyde Park, 6 May ; National Reform Union \' (first \nmeeting), 15 May, 1867. \n\nacts of 1867-8. \nThe new Reform bill passed by the commons, 15-16 July ; \nby the lords (with amendments, when lord Derby said, \nthat it was "a great experiment," and "a leap in the \ndark ") 6 Aug. ; received the royal assent, 15 Aug. \n1867.* \n\n* This act is divided into three parts : \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nI. Franchises. Boroughs : All householders rated for \nrelief of the poor ; lodgers, resident for twelve months, \nand paying 10?. a year. Counties : Persons of property of \nthe clear annual value of 5?. ; and occupiers of lands or \ntenements paying izl. a year. At a contested election for \nany county or borough represented by three members,no \nperson to vote for more than 2 candidates ; in London, \nto vote for 3 only. \n\nDisfranchised: Totnes ; Reigate ; jGrcat Yarmouth; \nLancaster. \n\nII. Distribution of Seats : Boroughs with less than \n10,000 population, to return one member only (38 in \nSchedule A.). Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham, and \nLeeds, to have 3 members instead of 2. \n\nChelsea (with Fulham, Hammersmith, and Kensington) \nmade a borough : Merthyr Tvdvil, and Salford, to return \ntwo members ; Tower Hamlets divided into two boroughs \n\xe2\x80\x94 Hackney, and Tower Hamlets. (Other new boroughs \n\n\n\nScotch reform bill introduced by lord advocate, 17 Feb \xe2\x96\xa0 \npassed 13 July, 1868. \n\nIrish bill introduced by the earl of Mayo, 19 March ; \npassed 13 July, 1868. \n\nThe Reform league was dissolved 13 March, i860 \xe2\x96\xa0 re- \nvived, Oct. 1876. \n\nBill for extending household suffrage to counties brought \nin annually by Mr. G. O. Trevelyan, see Household. \nSuffrage. \n\nacts of 1884-5. \n\nNew bill for Representation of the People of the United \nKingdom extending household and lodger suffrage to \ncomities uniform with boroughs, adding about 2,000,000 \nvoters introduced by Mr. Gladstone, the premier, 28 \nFeb., read first time 3 March ; lord John Manners\' \namendment, declining to pass the bill without know- \nledge of re-distribution of seats, 24 March; negatived, \n(340-210), bill read second time, 7-8 April ; third time, \n27 June. Lords, first time, 27 June : rejected by earl \nCairns\'s amendment (conservatives led by Marquis of \nSalisbury), (205-146), 8-9 July ; earl of Wemyss\'s com- \npromise rejected (182-132); earl Cadogan\'s amendment, \n(adjournment, instead of prorogation of parliament till \nthe autumn), adopted 17 July. Commons, bill read \nfirst time, 24 Oct.; second time, (372-232) 7-8 Nov*. ; \nthird time, 11 Nov. Lords bill road first time, 14 Ni > v. ; \nsecond time, 18 Nov. ; (compromise with the govern- \nment) ; third time, 5 Dec. ; passed 6 Dec. 1884. \n\nRedistribution of Seats Act ; commons, read first time, \n1 Dec. ; second time, 4 Dec. 1884 ; third time (116-33), \n11-12 May, 1885. Lords, read first time, 12 May; second \ntime, 15 May ; third time, 12 June ; Royal assent, 25 \nJune, 1885. \n\nRedistribution of Seats Act.\xe2\x80\x94 Boroughs to cease as such \n(having less than 15,000 inhabitants) : England, 80 ; \nScotland, 2 ; Ireland, 22. To be included in their \ncounties: Berwick, Lichfield, Carrickfergus, and Drog- \nheda. Disfranchised for corruption : Macclesfield, Sand- \nwich. To lose one member (having less than 50,000 in- \nhabitants) : England, 34; Ireland, 3. To have addi- \ntional members (with more than 50,000 inhabitants) ; \nEngland, 12 ; Scotland, 3 ; Ireland, 2. New boroughs: \nEngland, 43. 160 seats obtained by disfranchisement \nto be divided among counties and boroughs now under- \nrepresented. Certain boroughs and counties return- \ning more than one member, formed into new sub- \ndivisions, returning one member. London only to have \ntwo members. Total number of members to be raised \nfrom 652 to 670 ; England to have 6 more, Scotland 12 \nmore. \n\nMr. Stansfeld\'s resolution advocating the principle of \n"one man, one vote," negatived in the commons \n(291 \xe2\x80\x94 189), 3 March, 1891. \n\nEEFOEMATION, THE. Efforts for Hie \nreformation of the church may be traced to the \nreign of Charlemagne, when Paulinus, bishop of \nAquileia, emploj\'ed his voice and pen to accomplish \nit. The principal reformers were AVickliffe, Huss, \nJerome of Prague, Savonarola, Erasmus, Luther, \nZuinglius, Tyndal, Calvin, Melanchthon, Cranmer, \nLatimer, Knox, and Browne. Luther thus charac- \nterised himself and his fellow reformers : " Ees non \nVerba \xe2\x80\x94 Luther." "Verba non Ees \xe2\x80\x94 Erasmus." \n" Ees et Verba \xe2\x80\x94 Melanchthon." "Nee Verba nee \nEes \xe2\x80\x94 Carlstadt .;" see Wichliffites, Protestants, Cal- \nvinists, Lutherans, Prcsbi/tcrianism, &c. The eras \nof the reformation are as follows : \xe2\x80\x94 \nIn France (Albigcnses), said to have been a surviving \n\ngnostic sect, not Christian reformers . about 1177 \n\nIn England (Wickliffe) 1360 \n\nIn Bohemia (Huns) 1405 \n\nIn Italy (Jerome Savonarola) 1498 \n\nIn France (by Farel) before 1512 \n\nIn Germany (Luther) 1517 \n\nIn Switzerland (Zuinglius) 1519 \n\nIn Denmark (Andreas Bodenstein) .... 1521 \n\nin Schedule B.) University of Loudon to return one \nmember. \n\nIII. Supplementary Provisions : Registration, &c. \nBoundary Commissioners (which sec). Parliament not to \nbe dissolved on any future demise of the crown. Mem- \nbers holding offices of profit from the crown not to vacate \ntheir seats on acceptance of another office. \n\n\n\nBEFOBMATOBY SCHOOLS. \n\n\n\n816 \n\n\n\nBEGGIO. \n\n\n\nIn Prussia 1527 \n\nIn France (Calvin) ; see Huguenots . . . . 1529 \n\nProtestants first so called , \n\nIn Sweden (Petri) 1530 \n\nIn England (Henry VIII.) 1534 \n\nI11 Ireland (Archbishop George Browne) . . . 1535 \nIn England, completed (Cranmer, Bucer, Fagius, \n<fec), 1547; annulled by Mary, 1553; restored by \n\nElizabeth 1558 \n\nIn Scotland (Knox), established 1560 \n\nIn the Netherlands, established .... 1562 \n\nBEFOBMATOBY SCHOOLS, for juvenile \ndelinquents.* The Reformatory School at Mettray, \nnear Tours in France, was founded in 1839 by \nM. de Metz, formerly a councillor of Paris, warmly \nseconded by the vicomte de Courcelles, who gave \nthe estate on which the establishment is placed. \nThe one at Kedhill, Surrey, is situated on land \npurchased in 1849 by the Philanthropic Society, \nand under the direction of the rev. Sydney Turner. \nThe first stone of the building was laid 30 April, \n1849, by the prince consort. The inmates of these \nestablishments are instructed in farm labour, and \ndivided into so-called families. In 1854 the Juvenile \nOffenders act was passed. In 1851 and 1853 great \nmeetings were held on this subject ; and in Aug. \n1856, the first grand conference of the National \nReformatory Union was held. See Industrial \nSchools. \n\nNorth-West London Preventive and Reformatory \nInstitution in the New-road, established : all kinds \n\nof trades taught 1852 \n\nReformatory and Refuge Union founded . . 1856 \n\nActs for establishing reformatory schools passed, \n\n1857, 1858, 1866, 1868 ; amended .... 1872 \nFifty-one reformatory schools in England (and nine \nin Ireland), 1863 ; 53 reformatory schools (with \n4,674 boys; 1165 girls), 1872; Reformatory \nschools in England and Wales, 1889-90, 46 ; in- \ndustrial schools, 1889, 134 ; 1890, 141. \nAn international exhibition of the works of these \nschools at the Agricultural Hali, Islington, near \nLondon, opened by the prince of Wales . . . 1865 \nMr. T. Barwick Lloyd Baker, an eminent promoter of \nthe reformatory system, died Dec. 1886. \n\n"BEFOBMED CHUBCH" (Calvinistic), \nestablished in Holland and in some parts of Ger- \nmany. For the Reformed Presbyterian Church in \nScotland, see Cameronians, note. \n\nBEFOBMED EPISCOPAL CHUBCH, \n\nfounded in the United States of North America in \n\n1873 ; in this country a secession from the Free \n\nChurch of England in 1877. \n\nDr. Cummins, assistant bishop of Kentucky, after re- \nvising the prayer-book, consecrated C. E. Cheney as \nbishop, 14 Dec. 1873 ; others since consecrated and \nchurches formed. \n\nEEFEACTION, see Light. \n\nEEFBESHMENT HOUSES for the sale \nof wine, &c, are licensed in pursuance of an act \npassed in i860, amended in 1861 : a new act passed \nin 1864, 1865. See Licences. \n\nEEFEIGEBATOES, sec Provisions. \n\nEEFUGE FOB THE DESTITUTE (cri- \nminal young females), Dalston, London, E. ; \ninstituted 1805, incorporated 1838. \n\nEEFUGEES\' BENEVOLENT FUND, \n\ninstituted in consequence of the Franco-German \nwar, at a great meeting held at the Mansion-house, \nLondon, 21 Oct. 1870. It afforded temporary relief \nto many sufferers. \n\n* It was calculated (about 1S56) that there were in \nLondon 30,000, and in England 100,000 youths under \n17 leading a vagabond life, and that out of 15,000 of those \nwho were committed for trial nearly half were in custody \nfor the first time. \n\n\n\nBEFUGES, see Poor, 1864. Refuges for Desti- \ntute boys and girls, established in Great Queen - \nstreet in 1852. See Chichester. \n\nBEGALIA, see Crown. \n\nBEGATTA. A public boat race, introduced \ninto this country from Venice in 1775 : and in that \nyear one took place on the Thames. \n\nBEGELATION. See Ice. \n\nBEGENCY BILLS. One was passed 1751. \nOne was proposed to parliament in consequence of \nthe mental illness of George III., and debated 10 \nDec. 1788. It was relinquished on his majesty\'s \nrecovery, 26 Feb. 1789. The return of the malady \nled to the prince of Wales (afterwards George IV.) \nbeing sworn in before the privy council as regent of \nthe kingdom, 5 Feb. 181 1. The Regency Bill pro- \nviding for the administration of the government, \nshould the crown descend to the princess Victoria \nwhile under eighteen years of age, passed 1 "Will. \nIV., 2g Dec. 1830. A Regency Bill appointing \nprince Albert regent in the event of the demise of \nthe queen, should her next lineal successor be under \nage ; passed 4 Aug. 1840. \n\nBEGENTS, see Protectorates. \n\nBEGENT\'S CANAL, "begun at Paddington, \nwhere it joins a cut to the Grand Junction, passes \nunder Maida-hill, continues its course by the Re- \ngent\' s -park to Islington, where another subterranean \nexcavation, about three-quarters of a mile in length, \nwas formed for its passage. It then proceeds by \nHoxton, Hackney, Mile-end, to Limehouse, where \nit joins the Thames. The whole length of -it is \nnine miles; it comprises twelve locks and thirty- \nseven bridges. Begun, 1812 ; opened 1 Aug. 1820. \nGreat explosion of gunpowder (which see), 2 Oct. \n1874. New bridge, near Gloucester gate, Regent\'s \npark, opened by the duke of Cambridge, 3 Aug. 1878. \nRegent\'s Canal and City Railway Co. act passed, \n1882. \n\nBEGENT\'S PABK, originally part of the \ngrounds belonging to a palace of queen Elizabeth, \nnear to the north end of Tottenham court-road, \npulled down in 1791. Since 1600, the property was \nlet to various persons, but the leases having expired \nit reverted to the crown ; and in 1814 great im- \nprovements were commenced under the direction of \nMr. Nash. The park consists of about 450 acres ; \nwithin it are the gardens of the Zoological Society \nand the Royal Botanical Society. During a frost \non 15 Jan. 1867, the rotten ice of one of the lakes \ngave way, and about 200 persons were immersed, of \nwhom above 40 perished. Addition of 20 acres \nmade to the public park, 1883. \n\nJoseph Rumbold was murdered near York Gate, 24 May. \nEight youths, George Gallesly, 17, William Elvis, 16, \nFrancis Cole, 18, Peter Lee, 17, William Joseph Graefe, \n17, William Henshaw, 16, Charles Henry Govier, 16, \nand Michael Duling, 15, all described as labourers, \nwere charged with the wilful murder, 1 Aug. ; Gallesly \nwas convicted ; the rest acquitted of murder, 2 Aug. ; \nthey pleaded guilty to minor changes, and were sen- \ntenced to various terms of penal servitude, 4 Aug. \nThe evidence disclosed the existence of local bands of \nyoung roughs carrying on internecine warfare. Joseph \nRumbold was not the intended victim ; Gallesly \nreprieved, Aug. 1888. \n\nBEGENT STBEET, London, "W. ; designed \nand executed by John Nash ; authorised by act, 53 \nGeorge III. 1813. The colonnades of the quadrant \nwere removed in 1848. \n\nBEGGIO, see Mhcgium. \n\n\n\nBEGICIDES. \n\n\n\n817 \n\n\n\nEEIGNS OF SOVEREIGNS. \n\n\n\nEEGICIDES, in English history, are the com- \nmissioners appointed to try king Charles I., 150 in \nnumber; of whom 70 acted, and 59 signed the \ndeath-warrant, Jan. 1649. Of these last, 29 were \ntried, and 10 executed : Harrison, 13 Oct. ; Cook \nand Peters, 16 Oct. ; Scott, Scroop, Clement, and \nJones, 17 Oct. ; Axtelland Hacker, 19 Oct. 1660. \nThey asserted themselves to be martyrs. Others \nwere imprisoned. See -Assassinations. \n\nForeign Regicides. \nJames I. of Scotland, by nobles . . 20 Feb. 1437 \nJames III. ,, \xe2\x80\x9e . . 11 June, 1488 \n\nHenry III. of France, by Clement, 1 Aug. ; d. 2 Aug. 1589 \nHenry IV. ,, by Ravaillac . . 14 May, 1610 \n\nGustavus III. of Sweden, by Ankarstrom, 16 March ; \n\nd. 29 March, 1792 \nLouis XVI. ,, by convention . 21 Jan. 1793 \n\nPaul of Russia, by nobles . . .24 March, 1801 \n\nEEGIMENTAL EXCHANGE ACT, \n\npassed 28 May, 1875. \n\nEEGIMENTS OF Infantry were formed in \nFrance about 1588 ; see Infantry. The following \nare the approximate dates of the establishment of \nseveral British regiments : \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nCAVALRY. \n\nOxford Blues are erroneously said to have been \nformed in the reign of Henry VIII. ; they derive \ntheir name from their colonel, the earl of Oxford, \nin 1661 \n\nThree Indian regiments (19th, 20th, and 21st) added \n\nAug. 1861 \n\nThe Dragoon Guards, the Scots Greys, and the \nRoyal Irish were formed about . . . 1683-6 \n\nSeveral regiments of Light Dragoons were armed \nwith lances and termed Lancers . . Sept. 1816 \n\ninfantry (see Guards). \n1st Royal or Royal Scots regiment, 1633 ; the old title \n\nresumed Dec. 1871 \n\nColdstream Guards, established by Monk, in . 1660 \n\n3rd Buffs, represent London train bands and have \n\nspecial privileges ,, \n\n2nd Queen\'s Royal 1661 \n\n4th King\'s Own 1685 \n\n5th Northumberland Fusiliers . . . ,, \n\n26th Cameronian 1689 \n\n100th Canadian 1858 \n\n101st to 109th (Indian) added . . . Aug. 1861 \nThe Highland regiments are the 42nd, 71st, 72nd, \n\n78th, 79th, 92nd, and 93rd. See Army Organization. \n\nEEGISTEES. The registering of deeds and \nconveyances disposing of real estates was ap- \npointed to be effected in Yorkshire and in Middlesex, \n2 Anne, 1703, et seq. Greater security was thus \ngiven to purchasers and mortgagees; and the value \nof estates increased in those counties. Wills have \nbeen for a series of years kept and registered, in \nLondon, at Doctors\' Commons; see Wills. The \nregistering of shipping in the Thames was com- \nmenced, 1786; and throughout England, 1787; and \nseveral acts and amendments of acts have since \nfollowed for keeping and improving registers. \nThe duties and payments of the Lord Clerk Register \n\nof Scotland and his deputy were regulated by 42 \n\n6 43 Vict. c. 44 1879 \n\nEEGISTEES, PAROCHIAL, were established \nby Cromwell, lord Essex, by which the dates of \nbirths, marriages, and burials, became ascertain- \nable, Sept. 1538. This measure was opposed \nby the people, who feared some new taxation. A \nstamp-tax was laid on registers in 1784. Laws for \ntheir better regulation were enacted in 1813 et seq. \nThe great Registration act (introduced by lord John \nRussell), 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 86, passed 17 Aug. 1836, \nsee Bills of Mortality, &c. \nA new registration act for births and deaths, passed \n\n7 Aug. 1874, came into operation . .iJan. 1875 \n\n\n\nBirths and Deaths Registration act for Ireland \npassed 2 Aug. 1880 \n\nMajor George Graham, the first registrar-general \n(1838), was succeeded by sir Brydges Powell \nHenniker, appointed .... Jan. ,, \n\nEEGISTEATION of Voters was enacted \n\nby the Reform act, passed 7 June, 1832, and by \nacts passed in 1868 and 1885; see Revising \nBarristers. \n\nNew Parliamentary and Municipal Registration act \npassed 22 July, 1878 \n\nEEGIUM DONUM (Royal gift), an allowance \nfrom the sovereign for the maintenance of the Pres- \nbyterian ministers in Ireland, commenced by \nCharles II. in 1672, and revived by William III. in \n1690, was commuted by the Irish Presbyterian \nChurch act passed June, 187 1. The allowance to \ncertain protestant dissenting ministers in Ireland \nwas given up by them in 1857, in deference to the \nwishes of English dissenters. \n\nEEGULATION OF PUBLIC WOE- \nSHIP, see Public Worship. \n\nEEGULATION of the Forces Act passed \n17 Aug. 1871. See Army. \n\nEEICHENBACH (Prussia). Here Duroc \nwas killed during the conflicts between the French \nand the allies, 22 May, 1813 ; see Bautzen. Here \nwas signed a subsidy treaty between Russia, Prussia, \nand England, whereby the last engaged to provide \nmeans for carrying on the war against Napoleon I. \non certain conditions, 14, 15 June, 1813. Austria \njoined the alliance soon after. \n\nEEICHSEATH, the representative council of \nthe empire of Austria, reconstituted by decree 5 \nMarch; met on 31 May, i860. In May, 1861, the \nupper house consisted of 17 spiritual, 55 hereditary, \nand 39 peers. The lower house consisted of 136 \nelected deputies. No representatives came from \nHungary, Transylvania, Venetia, the Banat, Sla- \nvonia, Croatia, and Istria. The Reichsrath was \nabolished by a rescript, 21 Sept. 1865, with the \nview of restoring autonomy to Hungary and other \nprovinces. It again met 20 May, 1867. The \nReichstag of Germany, the imperial parliament or \ndiet, first met at Berlin, 21 Mar. 1871. \n\nEEIGATE (Surrey), sent two members to \nparliament in the reign of Edward I. ; lost one by \nthe Reform Act of 1832, and was wholly disfran- \nchised for corruption by that of 1867. Population, \n1881,18,662; 1891,22,646. \n\nEEIGN OF TEEEOE. Maximilien Robes- \npierre headed the populace in the Champ de Mars, \nin Paris, demanding the dethronement of the king, \n17 July, 1 791. He was triumphant in 1793, and \nnumbers of eminent men and citizens were sacrificed \nduring his sanguinary administration. Billaud \nVarennes denounced the tyranny of Robespierre in \nthe tribune, 27 July, 1794. The next day he \nsuffered death, with many of his companions; \nsee France. This has been termed the Med Terror. \nThe reaction after the restoration of the Bourbons, \n1815, disgraced by many atrocious acts of wanton \ncruelty, has been termed the White Terror. The \nJesuits were then conspicuous in the destruction \nof their adversaries. \n\nEEIGNS OF SOVEEEIGNS. The average \nduration, according to Newton, is 19 years each; \naccording to Hales 22^ years ; that of the sovereigns \nof England being 23 1 years, and that of the popes,. \n7^ years. Pius IX. was the first pope who reigned \nabove 25 years, 1846-78. \n\n\n\nEELICS. \n\n\n\n818 \n\n\n\nREPORTING. \n\n\n\nRELICS, the trade in these became general in \nthe 7th century, fragments of bones, &c. being \nbrought from Jerusalem. The sale of relics was \nprohibited by pope Innocent III. 1 198, without \neffect. \n\nEELIEF CHURCH, a secession from the \nchurch of Scotland, founded by Thomas Gillespie, \nwho was deposed from his ministry for opposing the \ndoctrine of passive obedience to the law of the \nchurch of Scotland respecting the settlement of \nministers, 23 May, 1752. The church was consti- \ntuted as the "presbytery of relief," 22 Oct. 1761. \nThe Eelief and Secession churches were united as \nthe United Presbyterian Church, 13 May, 1847. \n\nEELIEF OF DISTRESS (Ireland) \nACT, 43 & 44 Vict. c. 14, passed 2 Aug. 1880. See \nIreland, Pec. 1890. \n\nRELIGION (from religo, I bind again, in the \nsense of a vow or oath) comprehends a belief in the \nbeing and perfections of God, and obedience to his \ncommandments. The Jewish religion is set forth in \nthe Old, and the Christian religion in the New, Testa- \nment. Departure from these scriptures has been \nthe origin of\' all corrupt forms of religion, as foretold \nin them. Buddhism differs from this. See Maho- \nmetanism, and other religions and sects under their \nnames. The population of the globe with reference \nto religious worship, is given by Balbi (who assumed \nthe total population to be 1,050,000,000), and \nDieterici (who assumed it to be 1,288,000,000), as \nfollows : \n\nBalbi (1836). Dieterici (1859) \nJews ...... 4,500,000 5,000,000 \n\nChristians .... 225,000,000 335,000,000 \n\nRoman Catholics . . . 160,000,000 170,000,000 \nMahometans .... 155,000,000 160,000,000 \n\nIdolaters, <&c. not professing the \nJewish, Christian, or Mahome- \ntan worship .... 665,500,000 800,000,000 \n\nEstimate in 1869 : 1,375,000,000. \n\nRoman Catholics 195,460,200 \n\nProtestants 100,385,000 \n\nEastern church 81,478,000 \n\nBuddhists 360,000,000 \n\nOther Asiatic religions .... 260,000,000 \n\nPagans 200,000,000 \n\nMahometans 165,000,000 \n\nJews ........ 7,000,000 \n\nIn Europe (estimated) 1869 (Almanack cle Gotha.) \n\nRoman Catholics 144,000,000 \n\nProtestants 68,500,000 \n\nGreek Church 68,000,000 \n\nJews . 4,400,000 \n\nMahometans 6,642,000 \n\nRELIGION" OF HUMANITY, see Posi- \ntive Philosophy and Secularism. \n\nRELIGIOUS TRACT SOCIETY, founded \n1799; receipts (1887), including sales, &c, 203,446^. \n\nREMISSION OF PENALTIES ACT, \n\nsee Sunday. \n\nREMONSTRANCE, The Grand, drawn \n\nup by the house of commons, and presented to king \nCharles I., I Dec. 1641. It consisted of 206 articles, \ndwelt bitterly on all the king\'s illegal and oppres- \nsive acts, and was printed by order of the house. \n\nREMONSTRANTS, see Arminians. \n\nRENAISSANCE, aterm applied to the revival \nof the classic style of art in the 15th and 16th cen- \nturies, under the patronage of tbe Medici and \nothers ; see Painters, and Sculptors. \n\n\n\nRENDSBURG (Holstein), was taken by the \nimperialists in 1627 ; by the Swedes in 1643 ; and by \nthe Prussians and confederate troops in 1848. The \nfirst diet of Schleswig and Holstein met here 3 \nApril, 1848. It was re-occupied by the Danes in \n1852, and taken by the Prussians after a serious \nconflict, 21 July, 1864. \n\nEENNES (capital of Brittany, N. W. France). \nHere was established by Henry II., in 1553, the \nparliament so celebrated for its independence, \nespecially in its struggle with the court, 1788-89. \nOn 20 May, 1788, it declared infamous every one \nwho should take part in the cour pleniere then pro- \nposed, but afterwards suppressed. \n\nEENTS said to have been first made payable in \nmoney, instead of in kind, about 1 135. Numerous \nstatutes have been enacted in various reigns to \ndefine the relations and regulate the dealings \nbetween landlord and tenant. 8 & 9 Vict. c. 106 \n(1845) regulates leases. By the act 8 Anne, 1709, \nno goods are removable from tenements under an \nexecution until the rent shall have been paid to the \nlandlord by the sheriff, 1 709. The rental of England, \nincluding land, houses, and mines, was 6,000,000^. \nabout the year 1600, and twelve years\' purchase the \nvalue of land. About 1690, the rental amounted to \n14,000,000^., and the land was worth eighteen \nyears\' purchase. Pavenant on the Revenues, The \nrental of the United Kingdom has been estimated \nin the present century at 127,000,000^.; Great anti- \nrent agitation in Ireland, 1879, et seq. ; see Land \nand Ireland, &c. \n\nEEPEAL of the Union, Ireland. An \n\nIrish association was formed with this object under \nthe auspices of Mr. O\'Connell, in 1829. See Some \nRule and Ireland. \n\nA proclamation of the lord lieutenant prohibited the \nmeetings of a society " leagued for the purpose of \nprocuring a repeal of the union, under the name \nof the Irish Society for Legal and Legislative \nRelief, or the Anti-Union Society " . 18 Oct. 1830 \n\nThe commons, by a majority of 484, reject Mr. \nO\'Connell\'s motion for repeal . 27 April, 1834 \n\nA new association in 1841, 1842, and 1843 became \nmore violent. Assemblies of the lower classes \nof the people were held in the last-named year, \nin various parts of Ireland, some of them \namounting to 1 50, 000 persons, and called \' \' monster \nmeetings." \n\nA great meeting at Trim, 16 March ; other meetings \nwere held at Mullingar, Cork, and Longford, \non 14, 21, and 28 May, respectively ; atDrogheda, \nKilkenny, Mallow, and Dundalk, on 5, 8, 11, and \n29 June ; at Donnybrook and Baltinglass, 3 and \n20 July ; at Tara, 15 Aug. ; at Loughrea, Clifton, \nand Lismore, 10, 17, and 24 Sept. ; and at \nMullaghmast 1 Oct. 1843 \n\nA meeting to be held at Clontarf, on 8 Oct. was \nprevented by government ; and Mr. O\'Connell and \nhis chief associates were brought to trial for \npolitical conspiracy, 15 Jan. 1844 : bsA convicted \n12 Feb. ; but the sentence was reversed by the \nhouse of lords, 4 Sept. ; see Trials. \n\nThe association for the repeal of the union con- \ntinued for some time under the direction of Mr. \nJohn O\'Connell, but was little regarded. \n\nThe total "repeal rent" is said to have amounted \nto 134,379?. \n\nA fruitless attempt was made in Dublin to revive \nrepeal agitation 4 Dec. i860 \n\nEEPLENISHEE, see Electricity {FrhctionaT) . \n\nREPORTING. The publication of the debate \nin parliament is forbidden as a breach of privilege \nbut was virtually conceded, after a severe struggle, \n\n\n\nREPRESENTATION. \n\n\n\n819 \n\n\n\nRETREAT. \n\n\n\nin 1 77 1.* Reporters\' galleries were erected in the \nhouses of parliament after the fire of 1834. To the \nunfettered liberty of reporting we doubtless owe \nmuch of our freedom and good government; see \nunder Law. By the verdict for the defendant in \nthe case of Wason v. The Times (for libel) reports \nof parliamentary debates were decided to be privi- \nleged, Nov. 1868. For the attempted exclusion of \nreporters, see Parliament, 1875. A commons com- \nmittee on reporting recommend continuance of \nHansard\'s debates with improvement, May, 1879- \n\nThe publication of Hansard\'s parliamentary debates \nbegan 1803 and closed in 1888 ; the publication \nof tlie debates was taken up by Messrs. Macrae, \nCurtice & Co., Feb. 1889 ; and continued by the \nHansard Publishing Union, limited, 1889; the \nUnion ordered to be wound up, 13 May. See \nTrials, 1892. \n\nMr. Thomas Curson Hansard, formerly editor of \nthe "debates," aged 78, dies . . 12 Nov. 1891 \n\nGovernment contract with Reuter\'s Telegram com- \npany for printing and publishing reports of par- \nliamentary debates, <fec, 21 Dec. 1891 ; published \n\n26 Feb. 1892 \n\nREPRESENTATION of the People \n\nACT FOE ENGLAND, passed 15 Aug. 1867 ; for \n\nIreland and Scotland, 13 July, 1868 ; a new act \n\npassed, 6 Dec. 1884. See Reform. \n\nThe Representative, a daily Tory paper, was started \nby Mr. John Murray, the bookseller, in opposition \nto the Times, in 1826. Although he was assisted \nby Mr. Benjamin Disraeli and other eminent per- \nsons, the project was unsuccessful ; the first \nnumber appeared 25 Jan., the last . 29 July, 1826 \n\n" REPTILE BUREAUCRACY," term ap- \nplied in Germany to certain journalists writing for \ngovernment pay, 1871, et seq. \n\nREPUBLICANS, see Democrats. The name \nadopted by the Northern party in the United States, \nN.A., opposed to the democrats in the South. Sir \nCharles Dilke, M.P. professed himself a republican \nat public meetings and was much applauded, Nov. \n1 87 1; but at some places his appearance led to riotous \nproceedings. His motion for returns respecting the \nexpenditure of the civil list by the queen was nega- \ntived in the house of commons (2 \xe2\x80\x94 276), 19 March, \n1872. A national republican conference of delegates \nwas held at Sheffield, 1 Dec. 1872, when a national \nflag was adopted. \n\nREPUBLICS, see Athens, Home, Genoa, \nVenice, France (1792, 1848, 1870), Spain (1873), \nBrazil (1889), and America. \n\nREQUESTS, COURTS of; see Conscience. \n\nREQUIEM, a solemn mass, sung for the \ndead, so called from the introit " Requiem \niEteniam," &c. Palestrina\'s Requiem was printed \nat Rome, 1591 ; Vittoria\'s at Madrid, 1605 ; Mo- \nzart\'s last work was a requiem, 1791. \n\nREREDOS, the screen or decorated portion of \n\nthe wall behind the altar in a church. \n\nA highly sculptured reredos, designed by sir G. G. \nScott, was erected in Exeter cathedral, by sub- \nscription 1873 \n\n* Very inaccurate reports of parliamentary debates \nwere inserted in the Gentleman\'s Magazine and other \nperiodicals in the middle of the last century. Miller, \nprinter of the London Evening Mail, was arrested in the \ncity of London, by order of the house of commons, for \npublishing the debates, but was discharged by the lord \nmayor, who for doing this was sent to the Tower, where \nlie remained until the end of the session. No opposition \nwas made to the publication of the debates in the next \nsession, 1777. \n\n\n\nPrebendary Philpotts, the chancellor, and others \nwho objected, brought their objections before the \nbishop\'s visitation court, on 7 Jan. ; it was decided \nthat the bishop had jurisdiction in the matter, \nand he ordered the reredos to be removed, 15 \nApril, 1874. Dean Boyd appealed to the court of \narches, and sir R. Phillimore reversed the pre- \nvious decision 6 Aug. 1874 \n\nPrebendary Philpotts appealed to the judicial com- \nmittee of the privy council, who decided that the \nreredos should remain ... 24 Feb. 1875 \n\nThe magnificent reredos set up in St. Paul\'s \nCathedral, London, was protested against as \nidolatrous by some of the London clergy, April, \n1888. An action against the dean having been \nstopped by the bishop, the queen\'s bench divi- \nsion ordered the bishop to withdraw his veto \nupon the prosecution, 1 June, 1889. After further \nlitigation, the house of lords sustained the \nbishop\'s veto 20 July 1891 \n\nRESERVE FORCES. In the summer of 1859, \nacts were passed to provide for the establishment \nof a military reserve force of men Avho have been in \nher majesty\'s service (not to exceed 20,000), and a \nvolunteer reserve force of seamen not to exceed \n30,000. These acts were consolidated and amended \nin 1867 and 1882. The reserve forces called out by \nproclamation, on account of possible war with Russia, \n2 April, 1878. About 35,000 good soldiers appeared, \nand were commended. They were disbanded 31 \nAug. 1878. Again called out on account of war in \nEgypt, 25 July, 1882, and prospect of war with \nRussia, 27 March, 1885. Average of army reserve: \n1888, 55,068 ; 1890, 56,082. \n\nRESOLUTE, ship, see Franklin Search, \n1854. \n\nRESONATOR, a small apparatus, placed in \nthe mouth to strengthen and increase the volume of \nthe voice in singing, invented by signor Alberto \nBach, who exhibited its effects at the Royal \nAcademy of Music, 29 June, 1880. \n\nRESPIRATORS, see Charcoal and Fireman. \n\nRESTITUTION BILL, of Mr. Jesse Col- \nlings, proposes the surrender of lands illegally \ntaken from commons, to be given to small culti- \nvators, to become peasant proprietors, Jan. 1885. \n\nRESTORATION, The, of king Charles II. \nto the crown of England, after an interregnum of \neleven years and four months, between 30 Jan. 1649, \nwhen Charles I. was beheaded, and 29 May, 1660, \nwhen Charles II. entered London amidst the accla- \nmations of the people. The annual form of prayer, \nwith thanksgiving, then appointed, was ordered \nto be disused by 22 Vict. c. 2, 25 March, 1849. \nSee France, 1814, 1815. \n\nRETREAT of the Ten Thousand \n\nGREEKS, who had joined the army of the younger \nCyrus in his revolt against his brother, Artaxerxes \nMnemon. The Greeks were victors, but Cyrus was \ndefeated and slain at the battle of Cunaxa, 401 B.C. \nArtaxerxes having enticed the Gi - eck leaders into \nhis power and killed them, Xenophon was called to \nthe command of his countrymen. Under continual \nalarms from sudden attacks, he led them across \nrapid rivers, through vast deserts, over the tops of \nmi \'intains, till he reached the sea. The Greeks re- \nturned home after a march of 1 155 parasangs or \nleagues (3465 miles), which was performed in 215 \ndays, after the absence of fifteen months. TMs \nretreat has been immortalised by the account given \nby its conductor, in his "Anabasis Cyri" (Expedi- \ntion of Cyrus). \n\n3 g 2 \n\n\n\nEEUNION. \n\n\n\n820 \n\n\n\nEEVIEWS. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nGross \n\n\n\n\nGross \n\n\nExpenditure, \n\n\n\n\nRevenue. \n\n\nexclusive of \nFortifications. \n\n\n1859, 31 March, gross \n\n\n\xc2\xa365,477,284 \n\n\n\xc2\xa364,663,883 \n\n\ni860. \n\n\n72,089,669 \n\n\n69,502,289 \n\n\n1863 .... \n\n\n70,603,561 \n\n\n69,302,008 \n\n\n1864 .... \n\n\n70,208,964 \n\n\n67,056,286 \n\n\n!86 S .... \n\n\n7\xc2\xb0.3i3>437 \n\n\n66,462,207 \n\n\n1866 .... \n\n\n67,812,292 \n\n\nf\'S^\'i^Sl \n\n\n1867 .... \n\n\n69,434,568 \n\n\n66,780,396 \n\n\n1868 .... \n\n\n69,600,219 \n\n\n71,236,242 \n\n\n1869 .... \n\n\n72,591,991 \n\n\n72,069,961 \n\n\n1870 .... \n\n\n75,454,252 \n\n\n68,864,752 \n\n\n1871 .... \n\n\n69,945,220 \n\n\n69,548,539 \n\n\n1872 .... \n\n\n74,708,314 \n\n\n71,490,020 \n\n\n1873 .... \n\n\n76,608,770 \n\n\n70,714,448 \n\n\n1874. \n\n\n77\xc2\xbb335.657 \n\n\n76,466,510 \n\n\n1875 .... \n\n\n75,434.252 \n\n\n74,328,040 \n\n\n1876. \n\n\n77,131,693 \n\n\n76,621,773 \n\n\n1877 . \n\n\n78,565,036 \n\n\n78,125,227 \n\n\n1878 .... \n\n\n79,763,298 \n\n\n82,403,495 \n\n\n1879 .... \n\n\n83,115,972 \n\n\n85,407,789 \n\n\n1880. \n\n\n81,265,055 \n\n\n84.105,754 \n\n\n1881 .... \n\n\n84,041,288 \n\n\n83,107,924 \n\n\n1882. \n\n\n85,822,282 \n\n\n85,472,556 \n\n\n1883 .... \n\n\n89,004,456 \n\n\n88,906,278 \n\n\n1884. \n\n\n87,205,184 \n\n\n86,999,564 \n\n\n1885 .... \n\n\n88,043,660 \n\n\n89,092,883 \n\n\nVote of Credit, 27 \n\n\n\n\n\n\nApril, 1885 . . \n\n\n\n\n11,000,000 \n\n\n1886 s \n\n\n89,581,301 \n\n\n92,223,844 \n\n\n1887 .... \n\n\n90,772,758 \n\n\n89,996,752 \n\n\n18S8 .... \n\n\n89,802,254 \n\n\n87,423,645 \n\n\n1889 .... \n\n\n88,472,812 \n\n\n87,683,830 \n\n\n1890 .... \n\n\n89,304,316 \n\n\n86,083,314 \n\n\n1891 .... \n\n\n89,489,112 \n\n\n87,732,855 \n\n\n1892 .... \n\n\n90,995,000 \n\n\n89,928,000 \n\n\n1893 . . . \n\n\n90,477,000 \n(estimated.) \n\n\n90,253,000 \n\n\n\nEEUNION, see Order. \n\nEEUSS-GEEIZ and EETJSS-SCHLEIZ, \n\ntwo principalities in central Germany, with a united \npopulation of 166,502 in 1885 ; in 1890, 182,565. \nThe reigning family sprang from Ekbert, count of \nOsterode, in the 10th century. The princely dignity \nwas conferred by the emperor Sigismond in 1426. \n\n1859. Henry XXII. , prince of Reuss-Greiz, 8 Nov. ; bom \n28 March, 1846. \n\nEEVELATION, see Apocalypse. \n\nEEVENUE and Expenditure of Eng- \nland. The revenue collectedforthecivillist,audfor \nall the other charges of government, as well ordinary \nas extraordinary, was 1,200,000?. per annum, in \n1660, the first after the restoration of Charles II. In \n1690 it was raised to 6,000,000?., every branch of the \nrevenue being anticipated ; this was the origin of \nthe funds and the national debt, 2 "William and \nMary. Salmon. The revenue laws were amended \nin 1861. Previously to 1854 there had been an \naverage surplus of 2,500,000?. since 1849. In con- \nsequence of the Russian war the deficiency in 1854 \nwas 3,209,059?.; in 1855, 21,141,183?.; in 1856, \n10,104,412?. In 1857 there vt&sa, surplus of $6, 097 1. ; \nin 1858, of 1,127,657?.; in 1859, a deficiency of \n2,019,584?. \n\nPUBLIC REVENUE. \n\nWilliam I. estimated \xc2\xa3400,000 \n\nWilliam Rufus 350,000 \n\nHenry 1 300,000 \n\nStephen 250,000 \n\nHenry II . . . 200,000 \n\nRichard 1 150,000 \n\nJohn 100,000 \n\nHenry III 80,000 \n\nEdward I. 150,000 \n\nEdward II 100,000 \n\nEdward III 154,000 \n\nRichard II 130,000 \n\nHenry IV. 100,000 \n\nHenry V 76,643 \n\nHenry VI 64,976 \n\nEdward IV * * * \n\nEdward V 100,000 \n\nRichard III 130,000 \n\nHenry VII 400,000 \n\nHenry VIII . 800,000 \n\nEdward VI 400,000 \n\nMary 450,000 \n\nElizabeth . . . 500,000 \n\nJames I. 600,000 \n\nCharles I. 895,819 \n\nCommonwealth . 1,517,247 \n\nCharles II 1,400,000 \n\nJames II 2,001,855 \n\nWilliam III 3,895,205 \n\nAnne (at the Union) 5,691,803 \n\nGeorge 1 6,762,643 \n\nGeorge II 8,522,540 \n\nGeorge III., 1788 15,572,971 \n\n,, 1800, about ... . 38,000,000 \nUnited Kingdom, 1820 .... 65,599,570 \n\nGeorge IV. , 1825 62,871,300 \n\nWilliam IV., 1830 SSHS 1 ^ 1 ? \n\n\xe2\x80\x9e, J ... 1835 50,494,732 \n\nVictoria, 1845, net 53.060,354 \n\n,, 1850 52,810,680 \n\nl8 53 54,430,344 \n\n\n\n\n\nRevenue. \n\n\nExpenditure. \n\n\n1855, net . \n\n1856 .... \n\n1857- \n\n1858 .... \n\n\n\xc2\xa363,364,605 \n68,008,623 \n66,056,055 \n61,812,525 \n\n\n\xc2\xa365,692,962 \n\n88,428,345 \n75,588,667 \n68,128,859 \n\n\n\n* Revised in relation to army, navy, and India. \n\nThe weekly instead of the quarterly publication of the \npublic revenue and expenditure was begun by Mr. Robert \nLowe, the chancellor of the exchequer, 16 Feb. 1870. \n\nBy an act passed 31 July, 1868, revenue officers are per- \nmitted to vote for the election of members of parliament. \n\nAbove 100 statutes relating to inland revenue fell into \ndisuse 1 Jan. 1871. \n\nThe revenue friendly societies, and national debt act, \n45 & 46 Vict., c. 72, passed 18 Aug. 1882. New revenue \nact passed, 1884. \n\nEEVEEEND, an honorary appellation given \nto the clergy, since the middle of the 17th century. \n\nIn Tamworth parish register the minister is first \nstyled "reverend," in 1657, occasionally after- \nwards ; but regularly so after 1727. It first ap- \npears in the registry of All Hallows, Barking . 1732 \n\nThe prefix on a family tombstone was refused \nto Mr. Keet, a Wesleyan preacher, by the bishop \nof Lincoln, but given by the archbishop of Can- \nterbury ... 1874 \n\nOn trial, Mr. Walter G. F. Phillimore, the chancellor \nof Lincoln, decided against Mr. Keet, who gave \nnotice of appeal, 3 June. Sir R. Phillimore gave \na similar decision in the court of arches, 31 July, 1875 \n\nOn appeal to the privy council these decisions were \nreversed. It was decided that there is no law or \nusage restricting the epithet to ministers of the \nChurch of England ; it is merely laudatory. \n\n21 Jan. 1876 \n\nEEVIEWS. The Journal des Scavans, pub- \nlished on 5 Jan. 1665, by Denis de Salo, under the \nname of Hedouville, was the parent of critical \njournals. It was soon imitated throughout Europe, \nand was itself translated into various languages. It \nis still published. George III. spoke of this publi- \ncation to Dr. Johnson, in the private interview with \nwhich he was honoured by his majesty, in the \nlibrary of the queen\'s house, in Feb. 1767. Boswell. \nThe Bibliotheque Anglaise came out in 1716-27. \n\n\n\nEEVISEES. \n\n\n\n821 \n\n\n\nRHETORIC. \n\n\n\nFor Military Reviews, see Aldershot, Army and \nVolunteers. For Naval Reviews, see Navy. \n\n\n\nMonthly Review \n\nCritical \n\nAnti-Jacobin . \n\nEdinburgh . \n\nQuarterly \n\nEclectic \n\nNorth American \n\nRetrospective . \n\nWestminster . \n\nAthenaeum . . \n\nDublin \n\nNorth British \n\nBritish Quarterly \n\nNational \n\n\n\n1749 \n1756 \n\n\n\n1813 \n1815 \n\n\n\n1844 \n1855 \n\n\n\nSaturday . \nFortnightly . \nContemporary . \nAcademy \nChurch Quarterly \nNineteenth Century \nNational Keview . 1883 \nLaw Quarterly . . 1885 \nEnglish Historical Re- \nview. . . . 1886 \nUniversal Review 1888-90 \n" New Review " . . i88g \nPaternoster Review \nAlbemarle Review \n\n\n\n1855 \n1865 \n\n\n\n1875 \n1877 \n\n\n\n1890 \n\n\n\nREVISERS, see under Bible. \n\nREVISING- BARRISTERS\' COURTS, to \n\nexamine the lists of voters for members of parlia- \nment, were instituted by the Reform Act of 1832. \n\nREVISION, see under Bible. Advocates of \nthe revision of the French constitution, chiefly \nBonapartists or Jeroinists, termed Revisionists, \nFeb. 1884. \n\nREVIVALS on the subject of religion arose in \nthe United States in 1857. In the autumn of 1859, \nthey began in Scotland, the north of Ireland (par- \nticularly Belfast), and England. Many meetings \nwere held for prayers and preaching throughout the \nweek, as well as on Sundays. The " twelve clays\' \nwission," a series of revival services, took place in \nmany London churches during advent, 1869. \n\nMr. Moody, preacher, and Mr. Sankey, singer, Ame- \nrican Revivalists, visited many towns in the United \nKingdom, 1874-5. Their meetings in London began \nat the Agricultural Hall, 9 March, about 15,000 pre- \nsent; at the Queen\'s theatre, Haymarket, 12 April- \n31 May ; farewell meeting, 12 July, 1875. Moody and \nSankey again in London, 6 Oct. 1881 ; 3 Nov. 1883- \n23 June 1884. See Salvation Army. \n\nREVOLUTIONARY CALENDAR, see \n\nFrench Revolution, and Calendar. \n\nREVOLUTIONARY TRIBUNAL, esta- \nblished at Paris, Aug. 1792. \n\nUp to 27 July, 1794, when Robespierre was deposed, it \nhad put to death 2774 persons, including queen Marie \nAntoinette, the princess Elizabeth, and a large number \nof nobility and gentry, male and female. The oldest \nvictim was counsellor Dupin, aged 97 ; the youngest, \nCharles Dubost, aged 14. From 27 July to 15 Dec. \n1794, only Robespierre and his accomplices (about \n100) suffered by it. \n\nREVOLUTIONS :\xe2\x80\x94 \n\nThe Assyrian empire destroyed, and that of the \nMedes and Persians founded by Cyrus the Great, \n\n536 \n\n\n\nThe Macedonian empire founded on the destruction \nof the Persian, by the defeat of Darius Codoma- \n\nnus, by Alexander the Great 331 \n\nThe Roman empire established on the ruins of the \n\nrepublic by J ulius Osesar 47 \n\nThe empire of the Western Franks begun under \n\nCharlemagne a.d. 800 \n\nIn Portugal 1640 \n\nIn England 1649 and 1688 \n\nIn Russia 1730 and 1762 \n\nIn North America 1775 \n\nIn Venice 1797 \n\nIn Sweden 1772 and 1809 \n\nIn Holland, 1795 ; counter-revolution . . . 1813 \nIn Poland .... 1704, 1795, and 1S30 \n\nIn the Netherlands ,, \n\nIn Brunswick ,, \n\nIn Brazil 1831 \n\nIn Hungary 1848 \n\nIn Rome 1798 and 1848 \n\nIn France . . 1789, 1830, 1848, 1851, 1870, and 1871 \n\nIn Italy 1859 and i860 \n\nIn United States 1860-5 \n\n\n\nIn Danubiau principalities 1866 \n\nIn Papal States, suppressed .... Oct. 1867 \n\nIn Spain Sept. 1868 and Dec. 1874 \n\nIn Brazil 15 Nov. 1889 \n\nIn Chili Jan. \xe2\x80\x94 Sept. 1891 \n\n[See the countries respectively.] \nAmong the results of the Revolution of 1688 in Great \nBritain, were the toleration act, the establishment of \nthe presbyterian kirk of Scotland, the power of grant- \ning supplies limited to the house of commons, the \npurification of the administration of justice, and un- \nlicensed printing. \n\nREVOLVERS, see Pistols. \n\nREVUE DES DEUX MONDES,. the \n\nFrench literary and historical periodical published \non the 1st and 15th of each month, first appeared in \n1831. It includes among its contributors the most \neminent writers in France. \n\nREYNARD THE FOX, "Reineke \nFuCHS,\'\' a satirical epic in low German, in which \nbeasts are actors and speakers, was first printed as \nReineke Vos, at Lubeck in 1498, and professes to be \nwritten by Hinreck van Alkmer. It has been fre- \nquently translated. Goethe\'s version in High (or \nliterary) German hexameters appeared in 1794. \nJacob Grimm has shown that the subject-matter of \nthis " Thier-sage" or "beast-fable" is very ancient, \nmany incidents being found in Pilpay and other \noriental writers. The early French had a " Roman \nde Renart," and " Renart le Nouvel." A poem, \nentitled " der Reinaert," in Flemish, was known in \nthe nth century; Caxton\'s translation in English \nprose was printed 1481; a poetic English translation \nof Goethe\'s version, by T. J. Arnold, appeared in \n1855- \n\nREZONVILLE, Battle of, 18 Aug. 1870, \nsee Aletz. \n\nRHiETIA (or R^ETIA), an ancient Alpine \ncountry, comprising the modern Grisons, Tyrol, \nand part of Lombardy, inhabited by a wild rapa- \ncious people, after a long struggle was conquered \nby Drusus and Tiberius, B.C. 15. \n\nRHE, Isle OF, see Re and Rochelle. \n\nRHEA, see China Grass. \n\nRHEGIUM (now Reggio), S. Italy, a Greek \ncolony, flourished in the 5th century, B.C. It was \nheld by the Campanian legion, 281-271, afterwards \nseverely punished for its rebellion. Reggio was \ntaken by Garibaldi, Aug. i860. \n\nRHEIMS (N. France). The principal church \nhere, built before 406, rebuilt in the 12th century, \nis now very beautiful. The corpse of St. Remy, the \narchbishop, is preserved behind the high altar, in a \nmagnificent shrine. The kings of France were \ncrowned at Rheims ; probably because Clovis, the \nfounder of the French monarchy, when converted \nfrom paganism, was baptized in the cathedral in \n496. Several ecclesiastical councils have been held \nhere. The city was taken and retaken several \ntimes in the last months of the French war, 1814. \nUniversity founded by cardinal Lorraine, 1547, \nsuppressed about 1790. Strike of the workmen of \nMr. Jonathan tiolden, mill owner, a great benefactor \nto the town, May, 1890. Population, 1891, 104,186. \n\nRHEOMETER, see under Electricity. \n\nRHETORIC. Rhetorical points and accents \nwere invented by Aristophanes of Byzantium, 200 \nB.C. Rhetoric was first taught in Latin at Rome by \nPhotius Gallus, about 87 b.c He taught Cicero, \nwho said " We are first to consider what is to be \n\n\n\nRHINE. \n\n\n\n822 \n\n\n\nRICHMOND. \n\n\n\nsaid ; secondly, how ; thirdly, in what words ; and \nlastly, how it is to he ornamented." A regius pro- \nfessor of rhetoric was appointed in Edinburgh, \n20 April, 1762, when Dr. Blair became first pro- \nfessor. \n\nRHINE (Latin, Rlienus ; German, Rhein ; \nFrench, Rhin), a river, about 760 miles long, rising \nin Switzerland, receiving the Moselle, Main,Meuse, \nNeckar, and other rivers, terminating in many \narms in Holland, and falling into the German \nocean. On its banks are Constance, Basel, Stras- \nbourg, Spires, Mannheim, Cologne, Dusseldorf, \nUtrecht, and Leyden. The possession of the banks \nof the Rhine has been the cause of many wars, and \nit has been crossed by the French above twenty \ntimes in a century. In the beginning of the revo- \nlutionary war, Custine invaded Germany by crossing \nit in 1792; and at the close of the war iu 1815, \nFrance retained the left bank, but lost it at the close \nof the Franco-Prussian war, 1 870-1 (which see). \nA navigation treaty with other powers was signed by \nFrance, 17 Oct. 1868. A central committee for the \nnavigation exists, formed by members for Alsace, \nLorraine, Baden, Bavaria, Hesse, Holland, and \nPrussia. Very great damage (about 4,000,000^.) \nand loss of life, caused by the rising of the river \nthrough excessive rain, end of November and De- \ncember, 1882 ; relieved by government grants. \nBecker\'s German song " They shall not have it, the free \nGerman Rhine ; " and Alfred de Musset\'s reply, in \nFrench, "We have had it, your German Rhine," ap- \npeared in 1841. Max Schneckenburger, author of "The \n"Watch on the Rhine," died 1851. All were popular \nduring the war, 1870-71. \n\nRHODE ISLAND (N. America), settled by \nRoger Williams about 1636, was taken in the war \nof independence by the British, 8 Dec. 1776; but \nwas evacuated by them, 25 Oct. 1779. Capitals, \nProvidence and Newport. Population in 1880, \n276,531; 1890,345,506; see United States. \n\nRHODES, an island on the coast of Asia \nMinor, is said to have been peopled from Crete, as \nearly as 916 B.C. The Rhodians were great navi- \ngators, and institutors of a maritime code after- \nwards adopted by the Romans. The city was built \nabout 408 and nourished 300-200 B.C. ; see Colossus. \nRhodes, long an ally of the Romans, was taken by \nthe emperor Vespasian, a.d. 71. It was held by the \nKnights Hospitallers from 1309 to 1522, when it \nwas conquered by the Turks, who still retain it. \nThe knights retired to Malta {which see). Rhodes \nsuffered severely by an earthquake on 22 April, \n1863. \n\nRHODIUM, a rare metal, discovered in pla- \ntinum ore, by Dr. Wollaston in 1804. It has been \nused for the points of metallic pens. \n\nRHODOPE MOUNTAINS (Turkish, Des- \n\npoto Dagh), a plateau in Roumelia. \n\nIn these about 150,000 Mahometans took refuge \nduring the Russo-Turkish war, on the approach of \nthe Russians in Dec. 1877, and Jan. 1878 ; and re- \nsisted the invaders. The Russians were accused \nof killing and outraging thousands of men, women, \nand children. A European commission of inquiry ; \nmet 21 July ; closed, 26 Aug. ; confirmed the\' \nstatements, but issued no united report; some \nmembers seceded _ jg-g \n\nThe insurgents asserted that they were not resisting \nthe sultan himself, but maladministration. They \nare governed by an English chief, col. St. Clair, \nwho receives the taxes, &c, and is styled "com- \nmander-in-chief of the national army of the \nRhodope" Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAbout 40,000 destitute ; reported . . 18 Jan. 1870 \n\nThe insurrection gradually subsided. \n\n\n\nRHUBARB. This plant was first cultivated \nfor its stalks to be used as food by Mr. Myall, of \nDeptford, about 1820, and soon after came into \ngeneral use. \n\nRHUDDLAN, statute of, see Wales, 1283. \n\nRIALTO, BRIDGE OP THE, at Venice (men- \ntioned by Shakspeare in his " Merchant of Venice"), \nbuilt about 1590, consists of a marble arch across \nthe Grand Canal, 90 feet wide and 24 feet high. \n\nRIBBONISM, a term given to the principles \nof a secret society in Ireland, organised about 1820, \nto retaliate on landlords any injuries done to their \ntenants. To the ribbonmen are attributed many \nof the agrarian murders, 1858-71-79. An act was \npassed to repress them, 16 June, 1871. \n\nRICE, the Oryza sativa of botanists, in the \nhusk termed paddy ; largely grown in intertro- \npical regions, occupying the same place as wheat \nin the warmer parts of Europe. It was conveyed \nto South Carolina near the end of the 17th century, \nand its cultivation greatly increased. \nThe duty on foreign, rice, 15s., on colonial rice, is. per \ncwt., was reduced by sir Robert Peel in 1842 to 6s. 3d. \nand 6\xc2\xa3,d. respectively. Further reductions were made \nin 1846, and in i860 the duty was totally abolished. \nImported into Britain : 1846, 770,604 cwt.; 1856, 3,724,695 \ncwt. ; 1866, 2,309,494 cwt. ; 1856, 3,700,124 cwt. ; 1866, \n2,276,792 cwt. : 1877, 6,6i7,739cwt. ; 1879, 6,857,330 cwt. > \n1881, 8,500,062 cwt. ; 1883, 7,747,725 cwt. ; 1885, \n5,588,650 cwt. ; 1887, 5,019,512 cwt. ; 1889, 6,585,779 \ncwt. ; 1890, 5.957;555 cwt. \n\nRICHMOND (Surrey), anciently called Sheen, \nwhich in the Saxon tongue signifies resplendent. \nHere stood a palace in which Edward I. and II. \nresided, and Edward III. died, 1377. Here also \ndied Anne, queen of Richard II., 1394. The palace \nwas repaired by Henry V., who founded three re- \nligious houses near it. In 1497 it was destroyed by \nfire; but Henry VII. rebuilt it, and commanded \nthat the village should be called Richmond, he \nhaving borne the title of earl of Richmond (York- \nshire) before he obtained the crown : and here he \ndied in 1509. Queen Elizabeth was a prisoner in \nthis palace for a short time during the reign of her \nsister. When she became queen it was one of her \nfavourite places of residence ; and here she died \n24 March, 1603. It was afterwards the residence of \nHenry, prince of Wales. The beautiful park and \ngardens were enclosed by Charles I. The obser- \nvatory was built by sir W. Chambers in 1769. In \nRichmond, Thomson "sang the Seasons and their \nchange;" and died 27 Aug. 1748. \nThe Star and Garter tavern burnt ; W. Lever, the \n\nmanager, perished .... 12 Jan. 1870 \nMrs. Julia Martha Thomas was murdered at Rich- \nmond, her body cut up, put in bags and cast into \nriver Thames, by Katherine Webster, aged 30, \nabout 2 March ; John Church, a publican, arrested \non suspicion, discharged 17 April ; Webster com- \nmitted for trial, 16 May ; convicted, 8 July ; con- \nfessed ; executed at Wandsworth . 29 July, 1879 \n\nRichmond incorporated 1890 \n\nMunicipal buildings : foundation-stone laid by the \n\nmayor, sir J. Whittaker Ellis, M.P. . 31 Oct. 1S91 \nPopulation, 1881, 19,066 ; 1891, 22,684. \n\nRICHMOND (Virginia, U.S.) became the \ncapital of the southern confederate states. The \ncongress adjourned from Montgomery, Alabama, to \nRichmond, where it met 20 July, 1861. After a \nsiege of 1452 days and many desperate battles, Rich- \nmond was evacuated by the confederates, 2,3 April, \n1865; see United States. By the fall of the flooring \nin the state capital building, about 60 persons were \nkilled. 27 April, 1870. A statue of " Stonewall " \nJackson (subscribed for by Englishmen) , was un- \n\n\n\nEIDING. \n\n\n\n823 \n\n\n\nEIOTS. \n\n\n\nveiled here in presence of his wife aud child, 26 \nOct. 1875. A statue of gen. Eobt. Lee at -Richmond, \nwas unveiled 29 May, 1890. Population 1880, \n63,600; 1890, 81,388. \n\nELDING, see Races. \n\nLeon, a Mexican, rode 100 miles, consecutively, \nin 4 hours 57 minutes, using 6 " Mustang horses," \n15 July, 1876 ; 505 miles in 49 h. 51^ min. \n\nS-10 Feb. 1877 \n\nEIFLE COEPS, see Volunteers, aud Fire- \narms. Rifle Brigade formed, 1800. International \nrifle meeting, Washington, began, 26 Sept. 1876. \nAnother at Creedmoor, near New York, began 14 \nSept. ; the British victors, 1882. For Rifle Ranges, \nsee Commons. \n\nEIGHTS, Bell OF. To the Petition of \nRights, preferred 17 March, 1627-8, Charles I. \nanswered, " I will that right be done according to \nthe laws and customs of the realm." Both houses \naddressed the king for a fuller answer to their \npetition of rights, whereupon he gave them an \nanswer less evasive, " Soit droit fait comme il est \ndesire," 7 June, 1628. The petition thus became a \nstatute 13 Car. 1. c. I. An important declaration \nwas made by the lords and commons of England to \nthe prince and princess of Orange on 13 Feb. 1689, \nin an act " declaring the rights and liberties of the \nsubject, and settling the succession of the crown." \nThe Bill of Rights, virtually the same as the de- \nclai - ation, was passed by parliament. It totally \nabolished the dispensing power of the crown, Oct. \n1689. See Claim of Right. \n\nEIG-VEDA. See Yedas. \n\nEIMNIK (near Martinesti, Wallachia). Here \nthe Austrians and Russians under prince Coburg \nand gen. Suwarrow, gained a great victory over the \nTurks, 22 Sept. 1789. \n\nEINDEEPEST, German for cattle plague \n{which see). \n\nEING DES NIBELUNGEN, see Nihe- \nlange Not. \n\nBINGS anciently had a seal or signet engraved \non them, to seal writings, and they are so used to \nthis day. In Genesis xli. 42, it is said that Pharaoh \ngave Joseph his ring. Rings are now put upon \nwomen\'s fourth finger at marriage; but the Jews \nused them at the espousal or contract before mar- \nriage. Wedding-rings are to be of standard gold by \nstatute, 1855. \n\nEINK (from the Gaelic rian, or Saxon hrinc, a \ncourse) , a term used in the Scotch game, " curling." \nThe Belgravia skating rink, London, S.W., was \n\nopened to the public .... 2 Aug. 1875 \nOthers since at Brighton and other places. Skates \nwith rollers (said to have been introduced in a \nscene of Meyerbeer s "Prophete," at Paris, 16 \nApril, 1849), are used. Mr. Plimpton, an Ame- \nrican, patented roller-skates in 1865 ; his right \nwas affirmed on a trial for infringement. 28 Jan. 1876 \nSee Glaciarium. \n\nEIO DE JANEIEO (S. America), discovered \nby JDe Sousa, 1 Jan. 1531 ; see Brazil, 1889. In \n1807 it was made capital of the empire of Brazil. \nPopulation of the city, 1885,357,332; 1890, 500,000. \n\nEIOTS. The riotous assembling of twelve or \nmore persons, and their not dispersing upon pro- \nclamation, was first made high treason by a statute \nenacted 2 & 3 Edw. VI. 1548-9. The present Riot \nAct was passed I Geo. I. 17 14. \n\nRiots against Jews in London 1189 \n\nSome riotous citizens of London demolished the \n\n\n\nconvent belonging to Westminster abbey ; the \nringleader was hanged, and the rest had their \nhands and feet cut off, 6 Hen. Ill \n\nGoldsmiths\' and Tailors\' companies fought in the \nstreets of London ; several killed ; the sheriffs \nquelled it ; and thirteen hanged .... \n\nA riot at Norwich ; the rioters burnt the cathedral \nand monastery ; the king went thither, and saw \nthe ringleaders executed \n\nRiot of Evil May-day (which see) .... \n\nDr. Lamb killed by the mob . . . June, \n\nA riot on pretence of pulling down houses of ill- \nfame ; several of the ringleaders hanged . . . \n\nAnother, at Guildhall, at the election of sheriffs ; \nseveral considerable persons, who seized the lord \nmayor, were concerned \n\nAt Edinburgh and Dumfries, on accoimt of the \nUnion \n\nIn London, on account of Dr. Henry Sacheverel, for \npreaching two sermons (one 5 Nov. 1709), voted \nby the house of commons to be scandalous and \nseditious ; several dissenting meeting-houses were \nbroken open and destroyed . . . Feb. \n\nRiot of the Whig and Tory mobs, called Ormond \nand Newcastle mobs . . . -29 May, \n\nThe Mug-hoitse riot, in Salisbury-court, between the \nWhigs and Tories ; the riot quelled by the guards ; \nfive rioters hanged .... 24 July, \n\nOf the Spitalfields weavers, on account of employing \nworkmen come over from Ireland ; quelled by the \nmilitary, but many lives lost .... \n\nPorteous riot at Edinburgh (see Porteous) 7 Sept. \n\nThe nailers in Worcestershire march to Birming- \nham, and make terms with iron merchants there \n\nOf the Spitalfield weavers ; the duke of Bedford \nnarrowly escaped death ; lives lost . . May, \n\nA mob in St. George\'s-fields, to see Mr. Wilkes in \nthe King\'s Bench prison ; the military aid indis- \ncreetly called for by the justices of the peace, and \nseveral innocent persons, particularly young Allen, \nfired upon, and killed .... 10 May, \n\nGordon\'s " No Popery " riots . 10 May, 2-9 June, \n\nAt Birmingham, on account of commemorating the \nFreneh revolution, when several houses were \ndestroyed 14 July, \n\nIn various parts of Scotland, on account of the \nmilitia act, when several were killed . Aug. \n\nAt Maidstone, at the trial of Arthur O\'Connor and \nothers, 22 May, 1798 ; the earl of Thanet, Mr. \nFerguson, and others, were active in endeavouring \nto rescue O\'Connor, for which they were tried and \nconvicted 25 April, \n\nAt Liverpool, occasioned by a quarrel between a \nparty of dragoons and a press-gang . 27 June, \n\nO. P. riot (which see) at Co vent-garden . . Sept. \n\nIn Piccadilly, in consequence of the house of com- \nmons committing sir Francis Burdett to the \nTower 6 April, \n\nMachinery destroyed by rioters at Nottingham from \nNov. 1 81 1 to Jan. \n\nIn various parts of the north of England, by the \nLuddites, during 181 1 and \n\nAt Sheffield, during which 800 muskets belonging \nto the local militia were destroyed . 14 April, \n\nAt the Theatre Royal, Dublin, on account of the \ncelebrated Dog of Moiitargis, several nights, Dec. \n\nAlarming riots at Westminster, on account of Corn \nbill ; lasted several days . . . March, \n\nAt the depot at Dartmoor, in quelling which seven \nAmerican prisoners of war were killed, and thirty- \nfive wounded April, \n\nPopular meetings at Spa-fields, when the shops of \nthe gunsmiths were attacked for arms. Mr. Piatt \nshot in that of Mr. Beekwith, on Snow-hill (Wat- \nson tried for high treason, but acquitted, June, \n1817) ........ 2 Dec. \n\nIn St. James\'s park, on the prince-regent going to \nthe house of lords ; it was said that an air-gun \nwas fired at him 28 Jan. \n\nAt Manchester, at a popular meeting . 3 March, \n\nAffray at Manchester, called the " Field of Peterloo" \n(see Manchester reform meeting) . . 16 Aug. \n\nAt the Theatre Royal, Dublin, of several nights\' \nduration \n\nRiot at Paisley and Glasgow ; many houses plun- \ndered 16 Sept. \n\nAt Edinburgh, on the acquittal of queen Caroline, \n\n19 Nov \n\n\n\n1271 \n1517 \n1628 \n\n\n\n16S2 \n1707 \n\n1710 \n\n1715 \n\n1716 \n\n1736 \n\n1737 \n1765 \n\n1768 \n1780 \n\n1791 \n1797 \n\n\n\n1812 \n1S14 \n1S15 \n\n\n\nRIOTS. \n\n\n\n824 \n\n\n\nEIPON. \n\n\n\nIn London, at the funeral of the queen 14 Aug. 1821 \n\nAt Knightsbridge, between the military and the \npopulace, on the funeral of Honey and Francis, \n(killed 14 Aug.) 26 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAt the theatre in Dublin ; the riot called the " Bottle \nconspiracy," against the marquis Wellesley, lord- \nlieutenant 14 Dec. 1822 \n\nRiot at Ballybay ; Lawless arrested . . 9 Oct. 1828 \n\nRiot at Limerick ; the provision-warehouses plun- \ndered and mischief done ... 15 June, 1830 \n\nFatal affrays at Castlepollard, 23 May ; and Newtown- \nbarry (which see) 18 June, 1831 \n\nAlarming riots at Mertlryr-Tydvil among the iron- \nworkers ; several fired upon by the military, killed \nand wounded 3 June, ,, \n\nRiot at the Forest of Dean (see Dean) . 8 June, ,, \n\nNottingham castle burnt by rioters . . 10 Oct. ,, \n\nReform riots at Bristol (see Bristol) . . 29 Oct. ,, \n\nAffray at Castleshock, county Kilkenny, when a \nnumber of police, attacked by the populace, were, \nwith their commander, Mr. Gibins, killed, \n\n14 Dec. ,, \n\nRiot at Boughton, near Canterbury, produced by \npersons called Thomites, headed by a fanatic, \nThorn, or Courtenay, who, with others, was killed \n(see Thomites) 28-31 May, 1838 \n\nGreat riots throughout the country, occasioned by \nthe chartists (which see); Llanidloes, Montgomery- \nshire, 30 April, suppressed by military, 4 May ; \na proclamation 12 Dec. ,, \n\nRiots in Birmingham ; much mischief . July, 1839 \n\nChartist riot at Newport (which see) . 4 Nov. ,, \n\nMeditated chartist outbreak at Sheffield, with most \ndestructive objects, providentially discovered, \nand many persons arrested . . . n Jan. 1840 \n\nRebecca riots against turnpikes in Wales . . . 1843 \n\nChartist demonstration (see Cluirtists) 10 April, 1848 \n\nFatal affray at Dolly\'s Brae, near Castlewellan, in \nIreland, between the Orangemen and the Roman \ncatholics ; several of the latter lost their lives, \nand some of their houses were ransaeked and \nburnt 12 July, 1849 \n\nSerious riots at Yarmouth, through a dispute be- \ntween the shipowners and the seamen 23 Feb. 1851 \n\nRiots occasioned by a procession of Orangemen at \nLiverpool, and several lives lost . . 14 July, ,, \n\nRiot at Stockport, Cheshire ; two catholic chapels \ndestroyed and houses burnt . . 29 June, 1852 \n\nFierce religious riots at Belfast, in Ireland, occur, \n\n14 July, ,, \n\nFatal election riot at Six-mile-bridge, in the county \nof Clare, in Ireland ; five persons shot dead by \nthe military 22 July, ,, \n\nRiots at Wigan, among the coal-miners, suppressed \nby the military without loss of life . 28 Oct. 1853 \n\nBread riots at Liverpool .... 19 Feb. 1855 \n\nRiots at Hyde-park, about Sunday bill, July, 1855 ; \nabout dearness of bread . . 14, 21, 28 Oct. ., \n\nRiots at Belfast through the open-air preaching of \nthe rev. Hugh Hanna . . .6, 13, 20 Sept. 1857 \n\nReligious riots at St. George\'s-in-the-East, London, \non Sundays in ... Sept. and Nov. 1859 \n\nBreak-out of the convicts at Chatham, suppressed \nby the military . ... n Feb. 1861 \n\nViolent riots at Belfast begin, through an Orange \ndemonstration I7 Sept. 1862 \n\nFierce rioting (caused by the Irish against the \nfavourers of Garibaldi) at Hyde-park, London, 28 \nSept. and 5 Oct. ; and at Birkenhead, Cheshire, \n\n8 and 15 Oct. 1862 \n\nRioting at Staleybridge (on account of the mode of \nrelief to the unemployed cotton-workers), princi- \npally Irish ; put down by the military, 21 March, 1863 \n\nFierce conflicts between Romanists and\' Protestants \nat Belfast ; 9 persons killed, and about 150 injured \n\nio-27 Aug. 1864 \n\nReform riots in Hyde-park, London ; much damage, \nand many hurt 23) 24 July\' 1866 \n\nAnti-popery riots at Birmingham, through the lec- \nturing of Murphy : much damage done to houses, \n\n17, 18 June, 1867 \n\nCol. Kelly and Dcasy committed for trial as Fenians ; \n\nrescued from the prisoners\' van ; Brett, a police \n\nsergeant, shot dead . . . . 2 s Sept. \n\nAt Wigan ; colliers on strike . . end of April, 1S68 \n\nFierce riots against a colliery manager at Mold, \n\nFlintshire, put down by the military ; 4 deaths, \n\n2 June, 1869 \n\n\n\nViolent rioting at a colliery at Thorncliffe, near \nSheffield ; quelled by intervention of lord Wharn- \ncliffe and others 21 Jan. 1870 \n\nRioting at Armathwaite, near Carlisle, between \nEnglish and Irish navvies . . 15, 16 Oct. ,, \n\nViolent riots at Belfast ... 19, 20 Aug. 1872 \n\nRiots at Northampton, because Mr. C. Bradlaugh was \nnot elected M. P. ; suppressed by military 6 Oct. 1874 \n\nAt Blackburn, Burnley, Accrington, Preston, and \nother places, through cotton strike and lock-out ; \nseveral mills and houses destroyed ; riots quelled \nby the military . . . . 14, 15 May, 1878 \n\nAt Camborne, Cornwall, against the Irish ; a \nRomanist church destroyed . . 17-18 April, 1882 \n\nAt Wrexham, of coal miners . . . 19 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nWestminster colliery .... 19 April, ,, \n\nIn Skye, cottars against rent about 19 April-Sept. ,, \n\nAt Tredegar, Monmouthshire, Salvationists at- \ntacked by Irish roughs, retaliate with great \nviolence ; Irish quarter sacked, 8, 9 July ; 1 \nIrishman died ; 600 destitute Irish landed at \nQueenstown, 14 July ; 6 rioters sentenced to \n3 months\' imprisonment ... 2 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nIn Dublin, through resignation of police, suppressed \nby the military 1 Sept. ,, \n\nAt Kidderminster 4-8 April, 1884 \n\nPeaceable mass meeting of the unemployed in \nTrafalgar-square, joined by the social democrats \nwith red flag led by Hyndman, Burns, and \nChampion, who, unchecked for about two hours \n(4 to 6 p.m.), from Pall Mall to Oxford-street and \nneighbourhood, smash windows, ransack shops, \nattack and rob private carriages : finally dis- \npersed : police organisation inefficient (except by \nsuperintendent Cuthbert) ; estimated damage \nn,oooL, 8 Feb. ; other meetings; rioting checked \n9, 10 Feb. ; rioters sentenced to various terms \nof imprisonment March, 1886 \n\nRiots at Leicester occasioned by a strike ; de- \nstruction of factories, &c. ; partially checked by \nthe police, n, 12 Feb. ; rioting continued \n\n13-16 Feb. ,, \n\nRiots Damages Act passed ., \n\nDestructive riot of coal-miners at Plas-Power \ncolliery near Wrexham . . , . 30 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nViolent riots of Lanarkshire miners at Hamilton, \nAirdrie, &c. ; 74 men arrested . 8-10 Feb. 1887 \n\nRiot at Lillie Bridge, West Brompton ; structures \ndestroyed and burnt by a crowd (about 5,000) \ndisappointed at the non-performance of a race \nand their money not returned . . 19 Sept. ,, \n\nRiotous assemblage of the unemployed in Trafalgar- \nsquare dispersed 17 Oct. ; meeting at Hyde Park \ndispersed by the police after severe conflict, \n18 Oct. ; again dispersed 19 Oct. ; meeting in \nTrafalgar-square, about 2,000 went to Westminster \nAbbey ; disorderly, 23 Oct. ; quiet meetings 24-27 \nOct. and since ; arrests for seditious language, &c, \n4-8 Nov. ; meetings in Trafalgar-square prohibited, \n8 and 18 Nov. ; processions of disorderly mob \ndispersed, and meetings in Trafalgar-square \nprevented by mounted and foot police aided by \nthe 1st life guards ; several severe conflicts with \nmen using iron bars and knives ; many seriously \ninjured, chiefly police; Mr. Cuninghame Graham, \nM.P., a magistrate, and Mr. John Burns and \nmany others arrested ; moderate conduct of the \npolice ; sir C. Warren\'s arrangements thoroughly \nsuccessful, Sunday, 13 Nov. ; many sentenced to \npenal servitude 14 Nov. ,, \n\nFuneral procession of Alfred Linnell, a law writer, \naccidentally killed in a crowd in Northumberland- \navenue on Sunday, 20 Nov., from Soho to Bow \ncemetery : Messrs. Cuninghame Graham, M.P., \nWin. Morris the poet, and others present ; order \nwas only maintained by a large body of police \n\n18 Dec. 1887 \n\nMuch rioting connected with strikes . . . 1890-92 \n\nSee Strikes, 1881 ; Ireland ; Crofters, 1887-8 ; Belfast, \nSouthampton, and Cardiff. \n\nBJPON (Yorkshire), an ancient town. About \n661 an abbey cell was built here by Eata. Ripon \nwas made a bishopric by archbishop Wilfred, in \n690, but did not endure so. It suffered much by \nthe ravages of the Danes, the Normans (1069), anil \nthe Scots (13 19 and 1323). The present see was \n\n\n\nRITCHIE\'S ACT. \n\n\n\n825 \n\n\n\nROCHDALE. \n\n\n\nerected 5 Oct. 1836, out of the archdeaconry of York \nin the West Riding. Income 4,200^. The cathedral \nwas restored by sir G. G. Scott : the choir was re- \nopened 27 Jan. 1869. The thousandth anniversary \nof its incorporation was celebrated 25-27 Aug. 1886. \nPopulation, 1881,7,390; 1891,7,512. \n\n\n\n1836. Charles Thos. Longley, trans, to Durham, 1856. \n1856. Robert Bickersteth, died 15 April, 1884. \n1884. Win. Boyd Carpenter, May. \n\nRITCHIE\'S ACT, see under Local Govern- \nment. \n\nRITUALISTS, a name given in 1866 to a \nparty in the church of England, formerly termed \nPuseyites, for endeavouring to give a more im- \nposing character to public worship, by the use of \ncoloured vestments, lighted caudles, incense, &c., \nprofessing to go back to the practices of the church \nin the time of Edward VI. An exhibition of these \nthings was held during the church congress at York \nin Oct. 1866, but was not officially connected with \nit. The practices of the ritualists (said by Mr. \nDisraeli to be symbolical of doctrines they were \nbotind to renounce), were censured in several \nepiscopal charges in Dec. 1866; in two reports \nof the ritualistic commission, 19 Aug. 1867, and \nApril, 1868, and by the judicial committee of \nthe privy council on appeal, 23 Dec. 1868. See \nChurch of England and Trials, 1867-9. At a gene- \nral convocation of the American episcopal church at \nPhiladelphia, 27, 28 Oct. 1868, after a warm dis- \ncussion on ritualism, the discussion was adjourned. \nIt was renewed at the convocation 10 Oct. 1874, \nand the ritualists were decidedly beaten by the \nevangelical party, a stringent canon on ceremonies \nbeing passed 27 Oct. The " Public Worship Regu- \nlation Act" was passed 7 Aug. 1874, f\xc2\xb0 r the re- \npression of ritualism in England. See Public \nWorship. \n\nRIVERS COMMISSIONS, first appointed, \n1865, Messrs. R. Rawlinson, J. T. Harrison, and \nProfessor Way ; second, 1868 ; sir Wm. Denison, \nMr. J. Chalmers Morton, and Professor Frankland. \n\nPublished six blue books 1874 \n\nAssociation for preserving the rivers of Scotland, \n\nformed Jan. 1875 \n\nThe Pollution of Rivers Act passed . .15 Aug. 1876 \n\nRIVOLI (near Verona, N. Italy). Near here \nthe Austrians defeated the French, 17 Nov. 1796; \nand were defeated by Bonaparte 14, 15 Jan. 1797. \nMassena was made duke of Rivoli for his share in \nthe actions. \n\nROAD CLUB, established in the autumn of \n1874 \xe2\x84\xa2 London, by gentlemen interested in the \nrevival of coaching. \n\nROAD MURDER. On the night of 29-30 \nJune, i860, Francis Savile Kent, four years old, \nwas murdered, and his body hid in a garden \nwater-closet at Road. His sister Constance Kent \n(aged sixteen), and the nurse Elizabeth Gough \n(the first suspected), were discharged for want \nof evidence. The coroner was severely blamed \nfor charging the jury improperly, but the court of \nqueen\'s bench, in Jan. 1861, refused to issue a writ \nfor a new inquiry. Constance Kent, on 25 April, \n1865, before sir Thomas Henry at Bow-street, and \nat her trial at Salisbury, on 21 July following, con- \nfessed herself to be guilty of the murder. Her \npunishment was commuted to penal servitude for \nlife. Let out on ticket-of-leave, 18 July, 1885. \nRoad is near Frome, Somerset. \n\nROADS, see Roman Roads. The first general \n\n\n\nrepair of the highways of this country was directed \nabout 1285. Acts were passed for the purpose in \n1524 and 1555, followed by others in Elizabeth\'s \nand succeeding reigns. Roads through the High- \nlands of Scotland were begun by general Wade in \n1726. Loudon M Adam\'s roads were introduced \nabout 1818. Wooden pavements were tried with \npartial success in the streets of London : at White- \nhall in 1839, and in other streets in 1840 ; asphalte \npavement soon after. An act " for the better man- \nagement of the highways" was passed in 1862 \nafter much opposition; another, 16 Aug. 1878; \nalso regulated the use of locomotives on roads. \nSteam road-rollers were tried in 1867; used in \nLondon 18 March, 1868: see Macadamising, Tolls, \nand Wooden Pavements. \n\nROAD STEAMERS. Mr. R. W. Thomson, \nof Edinburgh, in 1868, by adding india-rubber to \nthe tires of the wheels of locomotives is considered \nto have solved the question of steam traction on \ncommon roads. Road steamers have been success- \nfully employed in Edinburgh andLeith for drawing \nheavy waggons up inclined planes, and are adapt- \nable to any draught work. They were tried at \nWoolwich, I Oct. 1870, and reported successful by \neminent authorities ; and tbeirapplicationto plough- \ning by lord Dunmore was exhibited 1 Feb. 1871. \n\nROANOAKE, an island off N. Carolina, U.S., \ndiscovered by sir Walter Raleigh, 1584, and settled \nby him, 1585, without success. Other settlers also \nfailed. \n\nROASTING ALIVE. An early instance is \nthat of Bocchoris, king of Egypt, by order of Saba- \ncon of Ethiopia, 737 B.C. Lenglet. Sir John Old- \ncastle, lord Cobham, was thus put to death in 1418, \nand Michael Servetus for heresy at Geneva, 27 Oct. \n1553 ; see Burning Alive, and Martyrs. \n\nROBBERS were punished with death by \nEdmund I.\'s laws, which directed that the eldest \n-robber should be hanged. Remarkable robbers in \nEngland were Robin Hood, 1 189 (see Robin Hood), \nand Claud Du Val, "executed at Tyburn," says an \nhistorian quaintly, "to the great grief of the \nwomen," Jan. 1670. In Ireland, the famous Mac- \nCabe was hanged at Naas, 19 Aug. 1691. Gallop- \ning Hogan, the rapparee, flourished at this period. \nFreney, the celebrated highwayman, surrendered \nhimself, 10 May, 1749. The accomplished Barring- \nton was transported, 22 Sept. 1790. See Trials. \n\nROBIN HOOD, captain of a band of robbers, \nin Sherwood forest, Nottinghamshire ; traditionally \nreported to have been the earl of Huntingdon, dis- \ngraced and banished the court by Richard 1. at his \naccession (1189). Robin Hood and Little John and \ntheir band are said to have continued their depre- \ndations till 1247, when Robin died. Stow. Lord \nTennyson\'s drama, "The Foresters; Robin Hood \nand Maid Marian," first represented at New York \non account of the American copyright law, end of \nMarch, 1892. \n\n" ROBINSON CRUSOE," by Daniel De \nFoe; the first part appeared in 1719. See Juan \nFernandez. Three old ladies, Mary Ann, Jane \nAmelia, and Sarah Frances De Foe, lineally de- \nscended from De Foe, pensioned by the queen, \nMay, 1877. \n\nROBURITE, a new German explosive invented \nby Dr. Carl Roth, reported 1888. \n\nROCHDALE, Lancashire. A charter was \nobtained for a market by Edmuud de Lacy, 1241, \n\n\n\nEOCHEFOET. \n\n\n\n826 \n\n\n\nEOHILCUND. \n\n\n\nand the grammar school was founded 1564. Koch- \ndale canal was opened 1804. The new town was \ncommenced in 1865. Eocbdale first sent a member \nto parliament in 1832. The woollen manufacture \nwas carried on in the 16th century. The first \ncotton mill was erected in 170=;. Population, 1881, \n68,866; 1891, 71,458. \n\nEOCHEFOET (W. France), a seaport on the \nCharente. The port was made by Louis XIV. in \n1666. In Aix-roads or Basque-roads, near iioche- \nfort, capt. lord Cochrane attacked the French fleet \nand destroyed four ships, 11-12 April, 1809. Near \nEochefort, the emperor Napoleon surrendered him- \nself to capt. Maitland of the Bellerophon, 15 July, \n1815. \n\nEOCHELLE (W. France), a seaport on the \nAtlantic, belonging to the English for some time, \nbut finally surrendered to the French leader, i)u \nGuesclin, in 1372. As a stronghold of the Calvinist \nparty, it was vainly besieged by the duke of Anjou \nin 1573 j an d was taken after a siege of thirteen \nmonths by cardinal .Richelieu in 1628. The duke \nof Buckingham was sent with a fleet and army to \nrelieve it; but the citizens declined to admit him. \nHe attacked the isle of She, near Eochelle, and \nfailed, 22 July, 1627. He was repulsed 8 Nov. fol- \nlowing. A conspiracy here in 1822 caused loss of \nlife to sergeant Bories and others. \nThe new harbour opened by president Carnot \n\n19 Aug. 1890 \n\nEOCHESTEE, in Kent, the Eoman Duro- \nbrivce. The bishopric, founded by Augustin, 604, \nis the next in age to Canterbury. The first cathe- \ndral was erected by Ethelbert, king of Kent. St. \nJustus was bishop in 604. Alterations were made \nin the diocese in 1845. Eochester is valued in the \nking\'s books at 358^. 3s. 2\\d. per annum. Present \nincome 3,000^. The cathedral re-opened after \nrepairs of the choir, n June, 1875. The old castle \nand grounds were purchased for the public by the \nCorporation, 1883. The " ten churches fund," \nbegun by the bishop, 1884. Population, 1881, \n21,307 ; 1891, 26,309. \n\nRECENT BISHOPS. \n\n1793. Samuel Horseley, trans, to St. Asaph\'s, 1802. \n\n1802. Thomas Dampier, translated to Ely, 1808. \n\n1809. Walter King, died 22 Feb. 1827. \n\n1827. Hugh Percy, translated to Carlisle, 27 Oct. \n\n1827. George Murray, died 16 Feb. i860. \n\ni860. Joseph Cotton Wigram, died 6 April, 1867. \n\n1867. Thos. Legh Claughton, translated to St. Albans. \n\n1877. Anthony Wilson Thorold, consecrated, 25 July ; \n\ntranslated to Winchester, 1890. \n1890. Randall Thomas Davidson, D.D., Nov. \n\nEOCKETS, destructive war implements, were \ninvented by sir William Congreve about 1803. The \ncarcase-rockets were first used at Boulogne, 8 Oet.< \n1806, when they set the town on fire, their powers \nbeing previously demonstrated in the presence of \nMr. Pitt and several of the cabinet ministers, 1806. \nImproved rockets were made by Hales in 1846. \nBoxer\'s life-saving rope-carrying rocket, for com- \nmunicating with stranded vessels, described in 1878. \nSee Wrecks, March, 1892. \n\nEOCKINGHAM ADMINISTRATIONS. \n\nIhe first succeeded the administration of Mr. Geo, \nGrenville ; the second succeeded that of lord North. \n\nFIRST ADMINISTRATION, 13 July, 1765 to 30 July, 1766. \n\nCharles, marquis of Rockingham,*7i?-s\xc2\xab lord of the trea- \nsury. \n\n* Charles Watson Wentworth, marquis of Rockingham, \nwas born 13 May, 1730 ; succeeded his father as marquis, \n1750. He died without issue, 1 July, 1732 ; and his \nestates passed to his nephew, earl Fitzwilliam. \n\n\n\nWilliam Dowdeswell, chancellor of the exchequer. \n\nEarl of Winchilsea and Nottingham, lord president. \n\nDuke of Newcastle, privy seal. \n\nEarl of Northington, lord, chancellor. \n\nDuke of Portland, lord chamberlain. \n\nDuke of Rutland, master of the horse. \n\nLord Talbot, lord steward. \n\nHenry Seymour Conway and the duke of Grafton, secre- \ntaries of state. \n\nLord Egmont, admiralty. \n\nMarquis of Granby, ordnoAice. \n\nViscount Barrington, secretary-at-ivar. \n\nViscount Howe, treasurer of the navy. \n\nCharles Townshend, paymaster of the forces. \n\nEarl of Dartmouth, first lord of trade. \n\nLords Bessborough and Grantham, lord John Cavendish, \nThomas Townshend, &c. \n\nSee Chatham administration. \n\nsecond administration, March to i July, 1782, when the \n\nmarquis died. \nMarquis of Rockingham, first lord of the treasury. \nLord John Cavendish; chancellor of the exchequer. \nLord Camden, president of the council. \nDuke of Grafton, privy seal. \nLord Thurlow, lord choAicellor. \n\nWilliam, earl of Shelburne and Charles James Fox, secre- \ntaries of state. \nAugustus viscount Keppel, first lord of the admiralty. \nDuke of Richmond, master-general of the ordnance. \nThomas Townshend, secretary -at-war. \nIsaac Barre, Edmund Burke, John Dunning, <fcc. \n\nEOCEOY (N. France). Here, 19 May, 1643, \nthe Spaniards were totally defeated by the French, \ncommanded by the great Conde. \n\nEODNEY\'S VICTOEIES. Admiral Eodney \nfought, near Cape St. Vincent, the Spanish admiral, \nDon Langara, whom he defeated and made prisoner, \ncapturing six of his ships, one of which blew up, \n16, 17 Jan. 1780. On 12 April, 1782, he encountered \nthe French fleet in the West Indies, commanded by \nthe count de Grasse, took five ships of the line, and \nsent the French admiral prisoner to England : \nRodney was raised to the peerage, June, 1782. \n\nEOGATION WEEK. Eogation Sunday, the \nSunday before Ascension-day, received its title from \nthe Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday following it, \ncalled Eogation days, derived from the Latin rogare, \nto beseech. Extraordinary prayers and supplica- \ntions for these three days are said to have been \nappointed in the third century, as a preparation for \nthe devout observance of our Saviour\'s ascension on \nthe next day succeeding to them, denominated \nHoly Thursday or Ascension-day. The whole week \nin which these days happen is styled Eogation \nweek ; and in some parts it is still known by the \nother names of Crop week, Grass week, and Pro- \ncession week. The perambulations of parishes have \nusually been made in this week. \n\nEOHAN, an illustrious family, descended from \nthe ancient sovereigns of Brittany. Henri de \nEohan, son-in-law of the great Sully, after the \ndeath of Henry IV. (14 May, 1610), became head of \nthe Protestant party, and sustained three wars \nagainst Louis XIII. He eventually entered the \nservice of the duke of Saxe- Weimar, and died of \nwounds received in battle in 1638. Of this family \nwas the cardinal de Eohan ; see Diamond Neck- \nlace, \n\nEOHILCUND, a tract of country, N.E.India, \nwas conquered by the Bohillas, an Afghan tribe, \nwho settled here about 1747. After aiding the \nsovereign of Oude to overcome the Mahrattas, they \nwere treated with much treachery by him, and \nneaidy exterminated. Rohilcund was ceded to the \nBritish in 1801. After the great mutiny, Eohilcund \nwas tranquillised in July, 1858. \n\n\n\nROLLER SKATES. \n\n\n\n827 \n\n\n\nEOMAN CATHOLICS. \n\n\n\nROLLER SKATES, see Rink. \n\nROLLING-MILLS, in the metal manufac- \ntories, were in use here in the 17th century, and in \n1 784 Mr. Cort patented his improvements. \n\nROLLS, see Master of the Rolls, and Records. \n\nROLLS\' CHAPEL (London), founded by \nHenry III., about 1233, for receiving Jewish rabbis \nconverted to Christianity. On the banishment of \nthe Jews in 1290 the buildings now called the Eolls, \nand the chapel, were annexed by patent to the \noffice of the keeper or master of the rolls of chan- \ncery, from which circumstance they took their \nname. A number of public records from the time \nof Richard III., kept in presses in this chapel, have \nbeen removed to the Record Office {which see) . The \nRolls chapel was pulled down in July, 1892. \n\nROLT\'S ACT, 25 & 26 Vict. c. 42 (1862), \n\nrelates to the Chancery Court. \n\nROMAGNA, a province of the papal states, \ncomprised in the legations of Bologna, Ferrara, \nFori! and Ravenna. It was conquered by the Lom- \nbards ; but taken from them by Pepin, and given to \nthe pope, 753. Csesar Borgia held it as a duchy in \n1501, but lost it in 1503. In 1859 the Romagna \nthrew off the temporal authority of the pope, and \ndeclared itself subject to the king of Sardinia, who \naccepted it in March, i860. It now forms part of \nthe province of Emilia, in the new kingdom of Italy. \nPopulation, 1890, 1,218,392. See Rome. \n\nROMAINVILLE and Belleville, heights \n\nnear Paris, where Joseph Bonaparte, Mortier, and \nMannont were defeated by the allies after a \nvigorous resistance, 30 March, 18 14. The next day \nParis capitulated. \n\nROMAN CATHOLICS, Romanists and \nPapists. Their religion was the established one \nin Britain till the Reformation. Since then many \nlaws were made against them, which have been re- \npealed ; see Rome, Religion, Leagues, Maynooth. \nAmong other disabilities, Roman Catholics were \nexcluded from corporate offices, 1667 ; from parlia- \nment, 1691 ; forbidden to many protestants, 1708; \nto possess arms, 1695, &c. The church of the Ora- \ntory opened at South Kensington, 25 April, 1884. \nRoman Catholic Church in England and Wales, 1878 ; \nH. E. Manning, archbishop of Westminster, metro- \npolitan, 1865 ; cardinal, 1875. 12 bishops \n(Beverley, Birmingham, Clifton, Hexham, Liver- \npool, Newport, Northampton, Nottingham, \nPlymouth, Salford, Shrewsbury, Southward). \nScotland, hierarchy revived, 4 March, 1878. \nIreland, 4 archbishops (metropolitan, Paul \nCullen, archbishop of Armagh, 1850 ; of Dublin, \n1852) ; 24 bishops. England, 17 bishops, 2,380 \npriests; Scotland, 6 bishops, 341 priests (1888). \nRoman Catholics in Great Britain and Ireland, \n5,640,891 ; in Europe, 146,335,603 ; Asia, 9,234,000; \nAfrica, 2,656,000; America, 51,033,790; Australia \nand Polynesia, 672,000 ; in the world, estimated \n\nnearly 210,000,000 1891 \n\nBishop Fisher, sir Thomas More, and others, exe- \ncuted for denying the king\'s supremacy . . . 1535 \nCatholics absolved from their allegiance to the king \n\nby Paul III. 1535 ; by Pius V 1570 \n\nThey rebel in 1549 and 1569 \n\nThe Gunpowder Plot (whicli sec) 1605 \n\nThey suffer by Oates\'s fictitious popish plot . . 1678 \nThey are excluded from the throne . . . . 1689 \nThey suffer by the Gordon riots . . June, 1780 \n\nVarious disabilities removed in . . 1780 and 1791 \nMr. Pitt proposes measures for their relief, which \n\nhe gives up 1801-4 \n\nRoman Catholic Association organised in Ireland, \nwith the object of removing the political and civil \ndisabilities of Roman catholics, "Catholic \nrents " subscribed 1823 et seq. \n\n\n\nBills in their favour frequently brought in without \neffect from 1813 to 182S \n\nAn act of parliament passed for the suppression of \nthe Catholic Association (it had voted its own \ndissolution, 12 Feb.) .... 5 March, 1829 \n\nThe duke of Wellington and sir Robert Peel carry \nthe Catholic emancipation bill (10 Geo. IV. c. 7) \nin the commons, 30 March ; in the lords, 10 April; \nreceived the royal assent . . . 13 April, ,, \n\nThe duke of Norfolk and lords Dormer and Clifford, \nthe first Roman catholic peers, take their seats, \n\n28 April, ., \n\nThe first English R. C. member returned, the earl \nof Surrey, for Horsham .... 4 May, ,, \n\nMr. O\'Connell elected for Clare, 1828, takes his seat \n(first Roman catholic M. P. since T689) . Aug. ,, \n\nMr. Alexander Raphael, the first Roman catholic \nsheriff of London .... 28 Sept. 1834 \n\nSir Michael O\'Loghlen, thefirst Roman catholic judge \n(as Master of the Rolls in Ireland),appointed, 30 Oct. 1836 \n\nSt. George\'s cathedral, Southwark, erected by A. \nW. Pugin ; founded 1840 \n\nTablet newspaper established \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMr. O\'Connell elected first Roman catholic lord \nmayor of Dublin 1841 \n\n" Catholic Poor School Committee " established . 1847 \n\nThe "Papal Aggression" {which see); cardinal \nNicholas Wiseman appointed archbishop of West- \nminster 3\xc2\xb0 Se Pt- 1850 \n\nRoman catholic university, Dublin, originated 5 May, 1851 \n\nUniverse newspaper established .... i860 \n\nAgitation in favour of the pope .... 1860-2 \n\nMissionary college founded at Drumcondra, Ire- \nland - . .20 July, 1862 \n\nRoman catholic chaplains permitted for gaols, by \nPrison Ministers act July, 1863 \n\nSerjeant Wm. Shee made a justice of the Queen\'s \nBench, the first Roman catholic judge since the \nReformation [died 19 Feb. 1868] . . 15 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDeath of cardinal Wiseman, aged 63 ; 7th English \ncardinal since the Reformation . . 15 Feb. 1865 \n\nHenry Manning (formerly an archdeacon in the Eng- \nlish church) consecrated archbishop of West- \nminster 8 June, ,, \n\nConference of Roman catholic bishops at Dublin ; \npublish resolutions declining state help (in accor- \ndance with the papal injunctions, 1801 and 1805), \nand condemning mixed education and secret \nsocieties 17 Oct. 1867 \n\nIn Great Britain 1639 Roman catholic priests ; 1283 \nchapels and churches ; 227 convents for women \n(principally educational) ; 21 colleges and large \nschools Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nA proposal of the Derby government to endow a \ncatholic university for Ireland, Oct. 1867, failed \nthrough the catholic bishops claiming the entire \npractical control .... 31 March, 1868 \n\nMr. Justice Thomas (aft. lord) O\'Hagan, appointed \nlord chancellor of Ireland, is the first Roman \ncatholic who has held that office since the revolu- \ntion of 1688-9 Dec. ,, \n\nCatholic truth society by Dr. Vaughan, established \n\nabout ,, \n\nCatholic union of Great Britain, president the duke \nof Norfolk, constituted 1871 \n\nA Roman catholic made M.A. at Oxford, after the \nabolition of the test .... 22 June, ,, \n\nThe catholics opposing the dogma of papal infalli- \nbility term themselves " old catholics " {which see) ,, \n\nThe Ecclesiastical Titles act (see Papal Aggression) \nrepealed 24 July, ,, \n\nPastoral issued by the R. C. bishops in Ireland \nclaiming endowment for colleges, &c. under their \nsole control Oct. ,, \n\n" Catholic Education Crisis Fund " established . ,, \n\nTwo R. C. bishops consecrated at Salford 28 Oct. 1872 \n\n" Catholic Union," Dublin, re-organised to obtain \neducation under ecclesiastical control, about \n\n4 Dec. 1873 \n\nA catholic union in Dublin formed ... ,, \n\nRoman Catholic university senate meet . 21 May, 1874 \n\nArchbishop Manning made a cardinal . . . 1S75 \n\nCatholic Congress at Venice met . . 12 June, ,, \n\nThe marquis of Ripon becomes a Roman Catholic \n\n7 Sept. ,, \n\nRoman Catholic university college, Kensington ; \nmonsignor Capel, principal ; opened . 15 Oct. ,, \n\nSeveral English clergymen secede to Rome . Oct. ,, \n\n\n\nROMAN LAW. \n\n\n\n828 \n\n\n\nEOME. \n\n\n\nNew Catholic club opened in London by the duke \nof Norfolk, lords Denbigh and Petre, and others \n\n27 Nov. 1875 \n\nMr. Gladstone\'s pamphlet, " The Vatican Decrees " \noccasions declarations respecting papal infalli- \nbility, from abp. Manning, monsig. Capel, the \nCatholic Union and others for it ; from lords Acton, \nCamoys, and sir George Bowyer, against it, Nov. ,, \n\nE. C. hierarchy re-established in Scotland, by pope \nLeo XIII 4 March, 1878 \n\nFor the dissension between Church and State re- \nspecting the doctrine of papal infallibility, see \nPrussia and Germany. \n\nChurch in low state in Germany, 3 dioceses (of 12) \noccupied: 200 parishes without priests; 1500 \npriests expelled, reported . . . April, 1879 \n\nLord Petre, a R. C. priest, takes his seat in the house \nof lords 3 Nov. 1884 \n\nCatholic congresses : Madrid, president, archbishop \nof Saragossa, 25 April et seq. ; at Vienna, the high \nclergy and nobility present, 29 April, 1889 ; Ma- \nlines 8 Sept. 1891 \n\nCentenary of the establishment of the first R. C. \ndiocese in the United States celebrated at Balti- \nmore, 10 Nov. et seq. ; cardinal Gibbons dedicates \nthe new Catholic university at Washington \n\n13 Nov. 1889 \n\nRev. J. H. Newman, Anglican, professed Romanism, \nOct. 1845 ; made cardinal, 12 May, 1879 ; died, \naged 89 n Aug. 1890 \n\nNew Spanish church, Manchester-square, London, \nW., opened 29 Sept. ,, \n\nMr. Gladstone\'s bill to enable a Roman Catholic to \nbe lord chancellor of England or lord lieutenant \nof Ireland, rejected by the commons (256\xe2\x80\x94223) \n\n4 Feb. 1 89 1 \n\nDeath of cardinal Manning, aged 83, 14 Jan. ; \nsolemn funeral .service at the Brompton oratory ; \nburied at the R. C. cemetery at Kensal Green \n\n21 Jan. 1892 \n\nDr. Herbert Vaughan, bishop of Salford, appointed \narchbishop of Westminster by the pope ; con- \nfirmed, 3 April ; enthroned ... 8 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nROMAN LAW, see Codes; Roman Litera- \nture, see Latin. \n\nROMAN ROADS in ENGLAND. Our \n\nhistorians maintain, but are mistaken, that there \nwere but four of these roads. Camden. " The \nRomans," says Isidore, "made roads almost all \nover the world, to have their marches in a straight \nline, and to employ the people ;" and criminals were \nfrequently condemned to work at such roads, as we \nlearn from Suetonius, in his life of Caligula. They \nwere commenced and completed at various periods, \nbetween the 2nd and 4th centuries, and the Roman \nsoldiery were employed in making them, that inac- \ntivity might not give them an opportunity to raise \ndisturbances. Bede. \n\n1st, Watling-street, so named from Vitellianus, who is \n\nsupposed to have directed it, the Britons calling him \n\nin their language Guetalin (from Kent to Cardigan \n\nBay). \n\n2nd, Iknield, or Ikenild-street, from its beginning \n\namong the Iceni (from St. David\'s to Tynemouth). \n3rd, Fosse, or Fosse Way, probably from its having \nbeen defended by a fosse on both sides (from Cornwall \nto Lincoln). \n4th, Ermin-street, from Irmunsul, a German word, \nmeaning Mercury, whom our German ancestors wor- \nshipped under that name (from St. David\'s to South- \nampton). \n\nROMAN WALLS- One was erected by \nAgncola (79 to 85) to defend Britain from the in- \ncursions of the Picts and Scots ; the first wall ex- \ntended from the Tyne to the Sol way frith (80 miles) ; \nthe second from the frith of Forth, near Edinburgh\' \nto the frith of Clyde, near Dumbarton (36 miles)! \nThe former was renewed and strengthened by the \nemperor Adrian (121), and by Septimus Severus \n(208). It commenced at Bowness, near Carlisle, \nand ended at Wallsend near Newcastle. It had \nbattlements and towers to contain soldiers. The \n\n\n\nmore northern wall was renewed by Lollius Urbicus, \nin the reign of Antoninus Pius, about 140. Many \nremains of these walls still exist, particularly of the \nsouthern one; Dr. J. C. Bruce\' s \'\xe2\x96\xa0\'\xe2\x80\xa2Roman Wall," \npublished 1853-1868. \n\nROMANCE, originally a composition in the \nRomance or Provencal idiom. The term in the \nmiddle ages was extended to narrative poetry in \ngeneral. Heliodorus, a bishop of Tricca, in Thessaly, \nabout 398, was the author of JEthiopica (relating to \nthe loves of 1\'heagenes and Charicleia), the first work \nin this species of writing. The first part of the \n"Roman de la Rose" was written by Guillaume de \nLories (1226-70) ; the second, a separate poem, by \nJean de Meung (1285-1314), the Decameron of Boc- \ncaccio was published, 1358; Don Quixote, by Cer- \nvantes, 1605; GilBlas, by Le Sage, 1715. Dunlop\'s \n" History of Fiction," published 1814. See English \nAuthors ; "Reynard the Fox." \n\nROME. The foundation of the city, by \nRomulus, was laid on the 20th April,* according to \nVarro, in the year 3961 of the Julian period (753 \nyears before the birth of Christ, and in the fourth \nyear of the sixth Olympiad. Other dates given : \nCato, 751; Polybius, 750; Fabius Pictor, 747; \nCincius, 728 B.C.). The Romans conquered nearly \nthe whole of the then known world. In the time \nof Julius Caesar, the empire was bounded by the \nEuphrates, Taurus, and Armenia on the east ; by \nEthiopia on the south; by the Danube on the \nnorth ; and by the Atlantic on the west. Numerous \necclesiastical councils have been held at Rome, from \n197 to 1869-70. Population, 1872, about 240,000 ; \n1877, 250,000; 1881, 300,467; 1890, 423,217. \nChielly through the exertions of Mr. John Henry \nParker of Oxford, the Roman exploration fund was \nestablished, for the preservation of ancient archi- \ntectural remains. His "Archaeology of Rome" (with \nmany photographs) published, 1874-8. Professor \nJ. H. Middleton\'s works on "Ancient Rome," pub- \nlished 1885, 1888, and 1892. The Italian govern- \nment votes 1200I. a year for a similar purpose. \nThe early history of Rome is legendary, and the \ndates purely conjectural. It has been greatly eluci- \ndated by the researches of B. Or. Niebuhr, whose \nRoman history was published 181 1, and 1827-30. \nFoundation of the city by Romulus . . . b. c. 753 \nThe Romans seize on the Sabine women at a public \n\nspectacle, and detain them for wives . . . 750 \nRome taken by the Sabines ; the Sabines incor- \nporated with the Romans as one nation . . 747 \nRomulus said to have been murdered by senators . 716 \nNuma Pompilius elected king, 715 ; institutes the \n\npriesthood, the augurs and vestals . . . 710 \nThe Romans and the Albans contesting for supe- \nriority, agreed to choose three champions on \neach part to decide it. The three Horatii, Roman \nknights, overcame the three Curiatli, Albans, and \n\nunited Alba to Rome about 667 \n\nWar with the Fidenates ; the city of Alba destroyed 665 \nOstia, at the mouth of the Tiber, built . about 627 \n\nThe capitol founded 615 \n\nThe first census of the Roman state taken . . . 566 \nPolitical institutions of Servius Tullius . . . 550 \nTarquinius II. and his family expelled for tyranny \nand licentiousness, royalty abolished : the Patri- \ncians establish an aristocratical commonwealth . 509 \n\n* In its original state, Rome was but a small castle on \nthe summit of mount Palatine ; and the founder, to give \nhis followers the appearance of a nation or a barbarian \nhorde, was obliged to erect a standard as a common \nasylum for criminals, debtors, or murderers, who fled \nfrom their native country to avoid the punishment which \nattended them. From such an assemblage a numerous \nbody was soon collected, and before the death of the \nfounder, the Romans had covered with their habitations \nthe Palatine, Capitoline, Aventine, and Esquiline hills, \nwith Mounts Coelius and Quirinalis. \n\n\n\nEOME. \n\n\n\n829 \n\n\n\nEOME. \n\n\n\nJunius Brutus and Tarquinius Collatinus first B.C. \npraetors or consuls ; first alliance of the Romans \n\nwith Carthage 509 \n\nThe capitol dedicated to Jupiter Capitolinus . . 507 \n\nFirst dictator Titus Lartius 501 \n\nThe Latins and the Tarquins declare war against \n\nthe republic, 501 ; defeated at lake Regillus . 496 \nSecession of the Plebeians to the sacred mount ; \n\nestablishment of tribunes of the Plebeians . . 494 \nFirst agrarian law passed by Spurius Cassius ; he \n\nis put to death by Patricians .... 486-5 \nWars with the iEquians and Yolscians ; exploits \nand exile of Coriolanus ; he besieges Rome, but \nretires at the intercession of his mother and wife \n\nabout 491 \nVictory of Cincinnatus over the iEquians by strata- \ngem, liberating the Roman army . . . 458 \nDestructive pestilences . . 472, 466, 463 and 451 \nWars with Veii and the Etruscans, indecisive, 475, \n465 ; slaughter of the patriotic Fabii (which \n\nsee) 477 \n\nThe Aventine mount allotted solely to the \n\nplebeians 456 \n\nThe appointment and fall of the Decemvirs (which \nsee), 451 \xe2\x80\x94 448. The Decemvirs were tried, Appius \nClaudius and Spurius Oppius died in prison, \n\nothers were banished 448 \n\nThe Canuleian law passed, permitting marriages be- \ntween Patricians and Plebeians . . . . 445 \n\nMilitary tribunes first created 444 \n\nOffice of censor instituted 443 \n\nThe Veientes defeated, and their king Tolumnius \n\nslain 437 \n\nGreat defeat of the Sabines 447 \n\nSpurius Mcelius, a benefactor during famine, ju- \ndicially murdered by the patricians . . . 436 \n\nWar with the Etruscans 434 \n\nJEqui and Volsci defeated by Tubertus, dictator . 428 \n\nTwo more quajstors appointed 421 \n\nAnother dreadful famine at Rome . . . . 411 \nThree qusestors are chosen from the Plebeians for \n\nthe first time 409 \n\nVeii taken by Camillus after ten years\' siege . . 396 \n\nBanishment of Camillus 391 \n\nGreat victory of the Gauls near the Allia, 16 July ; \nthey sack Rome, which is deserted, but are re- \npulsed in an attack on the Capitol, which they \nblockade ; they accept a heavy ransom, and \n\nretire 390 \n\nProposed removal of the state, to Veii, rejected . 389 \n[Rome gradually rebuilt amid great distress and \n\nwars with neighbouring states.] \nM. Manlius, liberal to poor debtors, is executed as \n\na traitor 384 \n\nPassing of the Licinian laws (which see) ; by \nthem, one consul is to be a plebeian (much re- \nsisted) 365 \n\nMarcus Curtius leaps into the gulf which had opened \n\nin the forum 362 \n\nThe Gauls defeated in Italy 360 \n\nTreaty with Carthage to repress Greek piracy . . 348 \nWar with the Etruscans, ended by a truce \', war \n\nwith the Latins ; league renewed . . . 365-342 \nFirst Samnite war, indecisive . . . . 343-340 \nMutiny in the army in Campania, and rise of the \ncommons in Rome ; peace restored by conces- \nsions and the general abolition of the debts \ncaused by the Gaulish invasion .... 341 \nThe Publilian law passed, equalising the plebeians \n\nwith the patricians in political rights . . . 339 \nThe second Samnite war, a severe struggle, 326, ct \nseq. ; the Roman army, entrapped in the Cordine \nForks (which see), 321 ; victories of L. Papirius \nCursor ; the Samnites and their allies compelled \n\nto submit 304 \n\nWar with Etruria, 311 ; victories of Q. Fabius \nMaximus at the Yadimonian lake, &c. ; the \nEtrurians and Umbrians submit .... 309 \nAppius Claudius Csecus, Censor, favours the lower \nclasses ; with the public money makes the road \nfrom Rome to Capua, termed the " Appian way," \nand erects the first aqueduct .... 312-308 \nConquest of the TEquians, Marsians, &c. . . 304-302 \n\nThird Samnite war \'300 \n\nCoalition of the Samnites, Etruscans, and Gauls \n(not continuous) against Rome ; nire campaigns, \nwith many conflicts and alternate invasions ; \ngreat Roman victory at Sentinum (which see), \n\n\n\n295 ; the Samnites subdued after desperate B.C. \nstruggles, 294-291 ; their general, C. Pontius, \n\nput to death at Rome 2 ao \n\nConquest of the Sabines by M. Curius Dentatus \'. ,, \nGreat distress of the Plebeians, through war, pesti- \nlence and famine 300, et sen. \n\nSecession of the people to the Janiculum ; tlie \n\nHortensian laws (which see) passed . . . 286 \nCensus: 262,322 Roman citizens .... 293 \n\nSeven new temples erected, with statues by Greek \nartists ........ 302-292 \n\nThe Etruscans defeated at the Vadimonian lake . 283 \n\nThe Tarentines form a coalition against Rome, and \n\ninvite Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, to join them, 281 ; \n\nhe defeats the Romans at Pandos\'ia, 280 ; and at \n\nAsculum, 279 ; defeated by them at Beneventum 275 \n\nSubjugation of Tarentum, Samnium, Bruttium and \n\ntheir allies, 272-265 ; Rome supreme in Italy . 265 \nFirst Punic war (see Carthage) . . . 264-241 \n\nFirst Roman fleet built 260 \n\nTemple of Janus closed 235 \n\nCorsica and Sardinia annexed .... 238 ct seq. \n\nInvasion of the Gauls ; beaten by the consuls . . 225 \n\nSecond Punic war, 218-201 ; Rome saved by the \n\nadhesion of 18 colonies, by the free-will offerings \n\nof gold, silver and money by the senate and \n\npeople, and by the defeat of Hasdrubal at the \n\nMetaurus (see Carthage) 207 \n\nSyracuse taken by Marcellus 212 \n\nThe Macedonian wars with Philip begin, 213 and \n\n200 ; his defeat at Cynoscephalse . . . . 197 \nDeath of Scipio Africanus the elder .... 185 \nThird Macedonian war begins 171 ; Perseus beaten \n\nat Pydna ; Macedon annexed 16S \n\nFirst public library erected at Rome . . . 167 \nPhilosophers and rhetoricians banished from \n\nRome i(5j \n\nThird Punic war begins i 49 \n\nCorinth and Carthage destroyed by the Romans (see \n\nCorinth and Carthage) 146 \n\nCeltiberian and Numantine war in Spain . . 153-133 \nAttalus III. of Pergamos bequeaths his kingdom \n\nand riches to the Romans 133 \n\nThe Servile war in Sicily .... . 132 \n\nTwo Plebeian consuls chosen \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAgrarian disturbances : Gracchus slain . . . 121 \n\nThe Jugurthine war 112-106 \n\nThe Mithridatic war (v>hich see) .... 108-63 \nThe Ambrones defeated by Marius .... ioz \n\nThe Social war 90-88 \n\nRome besieged by four armies (viz. : those of \n\nMarius, Cinna, Carbo, and Sertorius) and taken 87 \n\nSylla defeats Marius : becomes dictator ; sanguinary \n\nproscriptions, 82 : abdicates 79- \n\nBithynia bequeathed to the Romans by king Nico- \n\nmedes 74 \n\nRevolt of Spartacus and the slaves . . . .73-71 \n\nSyria conquered by Pompey 65 \n\nThe Catiline conspiracy suppressed by Cicero . . 63 \nThe first triumvirate : Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus 60 \nCaesar\'s campaigns in Gaul, 58 ; in Britain . \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 55 \nCrassus killed by the Parthians . . . -53 \nGaul conquered and made a province . . . . 51 \nWar between Csesar and Pompey .... 50 \nPompey defeated at Pharsalia (which sec) . . . 48 \nCsesar defeats Pharnaces at Zela ; and writes home \n\n"Veni, vidi, vici " 47 \n\nCato kills himself at Utiea ; Csesar dictator for ten \n\nyears 4 6 \n\nCsesar killed in the senate-house . . 15 March, 44 \nSecond triumvirate : Octavius, Antony, and Lepidus 43 \nCicero killed, proscribed by Antony . . . ,, \n\nBattle of Philippi ; Brutus and Cassius defeated . 42 \nLepidus ejected from the triumvirate, 36 ; war be- \ntween Octavius and Antony, 32 ; Antony defeated \n\ntotally at Actium 2 Sept. 31 \n\nOctavius emperor, as Augustus Cccsar ... 27 \nThe empire now at peace with all the world ; the \ntemple of Janus shut ; Jesus Christ born. (See \n\nJews) 4 April, 5 \n\nVarus defeated by Hermann and the Germans a.d. 9 \n\nOvid banished to Tomi \n\nDeath of Ovid and Livy 18 \n\nTiberius retires to Caprea ; tyranny of Sejanus . 26 \nA census being taken by Claudius, the emperor and \ncensor, the inhabitants of Rome are stated to \namount to 6,944,000.\xe2\x80\x94 [It is now considered that \n\n\n\nROME. \n\n\n\n830 \n\n\n\nEOME. \n\n\n\nthe population of Rome within the walls was a. v. \n\nunder a million.] 48 \n\nCaractaeus brought in chains to Rome ... 50 \n\nSt. Paul arrives in bonds at Rome . . . . 62 \nNero burns Rome to the ground, and charges the \n\ncrime upon the Christians 64 \n\nSeneca, Lucan, &c. , put to death .... 65 \n\nPeter and Paul said to be put to death . . . 67 \n\nJerusalem levelled to the ground by Titus 8 Sept. 70 \n\nColiseum founded by Vespasian 75 \n\nThe Dacian war begins (continues 15 years) . . 86 \nPliny, junior, proconsul in Bithynia, sends Trajan \n\nhis celebrated account of the Christians . . . 102 \nTrajan\'s expedition into the East against the Par- \ntisans, &e. ; subdues Dacia 106 \n\nTrajan\'s column erected at Rome 114 \n\nAdrian resides in Britain, and builds the wall . . 121 \n\nThe capitol destroyed by lightning . . . . 188 \nByzantium taken ; its walls razed . . . .196 \n\nThe Goths are paid tribute 222 \n\n[The Goths, Vandals, Alani, Suevi, and other \nNorthern nations attack the empire.] \n\nPompey\'s amphitheatre burnt 248 \n\nInvasion of the Goths 250 \n\nPestilence throughout the empire .... 252 \nGreat victory over the Goths obtained by Clau- \ndius II. ; 300,000 slain 269 \n\nDacia relinquished to the Goths . . . .270 \n\nPalmyra conquered, and Longinus put to death . 273 \n\nThe era of Martyrs, or of Diocletian . ... 284 \n\nThe Pranks settle in Gaul. Freret .... 287 \n\nConstantius dies at York 306 \n\nFour emperors reign at one time .... 308 \nConstantine the Great, it is said, in consequence of \na vision, places the cross on his banners, and \n\nbegins to favour the Christians . . . . 312 \nConstantine defeats Licinius, at Chrysopolis, and \n\nreigns alone 18 Sept. 323 \n\nHe tolerates the Christian faith ,, \n\nPuts his son Crispus to death 324 \n\nConstantine convokes the first general council of \n\nChristians at Nice 325 \n\nThe seat of empire removed from Rome to Byzan- \ntium, 321 ; dedicated by Constantine . . . 330 \nConstantine orders the heathen temples to be \n\ndestroyed , \n\nRevolt of 300,000 Sarmatian slaves suppressed . 334 \n\nDeath of Constantine, soon after being baptized . 337 \n\nThe army under Julian proclaims him emperor . 360 \nJulian, who had been educated for the priesthood, \nand had frequently officiated, abjures Christianity, \nand re-opens the heathen temples, becoming the \n\npagan pontiff . ... 361 \nJulian killed in battle in Persia ; Christianity \n\nrestored by Jovian 363 \n\nThe empire divided into Eastern and Western by \nValentinian and Valens, brothers : the former has \n\nthe Western portion, or Rome 364 \n\n(See Western and Eastern Empires ; and Italy.) \n\nRome placed under the exarchate of Ravenna . 404 \n\nTaken by Alaric 24 Aug. 410 \n\nTaken and pillaged by Genseric . . 15 July, 455 \n\nOdoacer takes Rome, and becomes king of Italy . 476 \n\nRome recovered for Justinian by Belisarius . . 536 \nRetaken by Totila the Goth, 546 ; recovered by \n\nBelisarius, 547 : seized by Totila .... 540 \nRecovered by Narses, and annexed to the eastern \n\nempire ; and the senate abolished . . . . 553 \n\nRome at her lowest state .... about 600 \n\nRome independent under the popes . . about 72S \nPepin of France compels Astolphus, king of the \nLombards, to cede Ravenna and other places to \n\nthe Holy Church 755 \n\nConfirmed and added to by Charlemagne . . 774 \nCharlemagne crowned emperor of the West by the \n\npope at Rome 25 Dec. 800 \n\nRome taken by Arnulf and the Germans . . . 896 \n\nOtho I. crowned at Rome .... 2 Feb. 962 \nThe emperor Henry IV. takes Rome . March, 1084 \nArnold of Brescia, endeavouring to reform church \nand state and to establish a senate, is put to \n\ndeath as a heretic 11 55 \n\nThe pope removes to Avignon 1309 \n\nNicola di Rienzi, tribune of the people, establishes \na republic, 20 May; is compelled to abdicate, \n\n15 Dec. 1347 \nReturns ;made senator, 1 Aug.; assassinated, 8 Oct. 1354 \nPapal court returns to Rome 1377 \n\n\n\nRise of the families, Colonna, Orsini, &c. about 1377 \nJulius II. conquers the Romagna, Bologna, and \n\nPerugia 1503-13 \n\nThe city greatly embellished by pope Leo X. 1513-21 \n\nIt is captured by the constable de Bourbon, who is \n\nslain 6 May, 1527 \n\nFerrara annexed 1597 \n\nSt. Peter\'s dedicated .... 18 Nov. 1626 \nExpulsion of the Jesuits .... 16 Aug. 1773 \nHarassed by the French, German, and Spanish \nfactions . from the 16th to the 18th century. \nThe French invasion ; the Legations incorporated \n\nwith the Cisalpine republic 1796 \n\nThe French proclaim the Roman republic, 20 March, 1798 \nRecovered for the pope by the Neapolitans, Nov. 1799 \nRetaken by the French, 1800 ; restored to Pius VII. \n\nJuly, 1 801 \nAnnexed by Napoleon to the kingdom of Italy, and \n\ndeclared second city of the empire . May, 1808 \nRestored to the pope, who returns . 23 Jan. 1814 \n\nHe re-establishes the Inquisition and the Jesuits, \n\n7 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe papal government endeavour to annul all inno- \nvations, and thus provoke much opposition ; the \nCarbonari increase in numbers . . .1815-17 \n\nPolitical assassinations in the Romagna . . .1817 \nThe " Young Italy " party established by Joseph \nMazzini ; temporary insurrections at Bologna \n\nsuppressed by Austrian aid 1831 \n\nElection of Pius IX. . . . .16 June, 1846 \n\nHe proclaims an amnesty ; and authorises a national \n\nguard and municipal institutions . . . . 1847 \nThe Romans desire to join the king of Sardinia \nagainst the Austrians ; the pope hesitates ; the \nAntonelli ministry retires ; and the Mamiani \n\nministry is formed 1848 \n\nCount Rossi, minister of justice of the pontifical \ngovernment, assassinated on the staircase of the \nChamber of Deputies at Rome . . 15 Nov. ,, \n\nInsurrection at Rome, the populace demand a \ndemocratic ministry and the proclamation of \nItalian nationality ; the pope (Pius IX.) hesi- \ntates, the Romans surround the palace, and a \nconflict ensues. The pope accepts a popular \nministry (Cardinal Palma, the pope\'s secretary, \nshot in this conflict) .... 16 Nov. ,, \nA free constitution published . . 20 Nov. ,, \nThe pope escapes in disguise from Rome to Gaeta, \n\n24 Nov. ,, \nM. de Corcelles leaves Paris for Rome, a French \narmed expedition to Civita Veechia having \npreceded him, to afford protection to the pope, \n\n27 Nov. ,, \nProtest of the pope against the acts of the provi- \nsional government .... 28 Nov. ,, \nA constituent assembly meets at Rome . 5 Feb. 1849 \nThe Roman National Assembly divests the pope \nof all temporal power, and adopts the republican \nform of government .... 8 Feb. ,, \nMazzini, Armellini, and Safli appointed triumvirs \n\nFeb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe pope appeals to the Catholic powers, \n\n18 Feb. ,, \nCivita Veechia occupied by the French force under \n\nMarshal Oudinot .... 26 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \nA French force repulsed with loss . . 30 April, ,, \nEngagement between the Romans and Neapolitans ; \n\nthe former capture 60 prisoners and 400 muskets, \n\n5 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe assembly refuses to receive the French as allies, \n\n19 May, ,, \nThe French under marshal Oudinot commence an \n\nattack on Rome 3 June, ,, \n\nAfter a brave resistance, the Romans capitulate to \n\nthe French army 30 June, ,, \n\nThe Roman assembly dissolved . . . 4 July, ,, \nAn officer from Oudinot\'s camp arrives at Gaeta, to \npresent the pope with the keys of the two gates \nof Rome by which the French army had entered \n\nthe city 4 July, ,, \n\nThe re-establishment of the pope\'s authority pro- \nclaimed at Rome .... 15 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nOudinot issues a general order stating that the \npope (or his representative) now re-possesses \nthe administration of affairs, but that public \nsecurity in the pontifical dominions still remains \nunder the special guarantee of the French army, \n\n3 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nEOME. \n\n\n\n831 \n\n\n\nEOME. \n\n\n\nThe pope arrives at Portici on a visit to the king of \nNaples 4 Sept. 1849 \n\nHe arrives at Rome ; cardinal Antonelli becomes \nforeign minister April, 1850 \n\nHe issues the bull establishing a Roman catholic \nhierarchy in England (see Papal Aggression), \n\n24 Sept. , , \n\nImportant concordat with Austria . 18 Aug. 1855 \n\nThe pope visits his dominions . . May-Sept. 1857 \n\nInsunection in the Romagna, at Bologna, and Ferrara \n\nJune, 1859 \n\nThe pope appeals to Europe for help against Sardinia \n\n12 July, ,, \n\nThe Legations form a defensive alliance with \nTuscany, Parma, and Modena . . 20 Aug. ,, \n\nThe queen of Spain engages to send troops to \nRome, if the French retire . . 26 Aug. , , \n\nThe assembly at Bologna vote annexation to Pied- \nmont, 7 Sept. ; the king engages to support their \ncause before the great powers, 15 Sept. ; the pope \nannuls the acts of the assembly at Bologna ; and \nannounces the punishment due to those who \nattack the holy see, 26 Sept. ; and dismisses the \nSardinian charge d\'affaires at Rome . 1 Oct. ,, \n\nThe Romagna, Modena, and Parma formed into a \nprovince, to be called iEmilia . . 24 Dec. ,, \n\nThe Sardinian government annul the Tuscan and \nLombard concordats . . 27 Jan. , 20 March, i36o \n\nRiots at Rome suppressed by the police with great \ncruelty 19 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe pope excommunicates all concerned in the \nrebellion in his states ... 26 March, ,, \n\nGeneral Lamoriciere takes command of the papal \narmy, March ; which is re-organised, and in- \ncreased by volunteers from Ireland, &c. . May, ,. \n\nTuscan volunteers enter the papal states and are \nrepulsed 19 Mav . \xc2\xbb\xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nIrish volunteers are severely treated for insubor- \ndination ; many dismissed . . . July, ,, \n\nThe papal army estimated at 20,000 . . Aug. ,, \n\nInsurrection in the Marches, 8 Sept. ; Fossembrcne \nsubdued by the papal troops ; the people appeal \nto the Sardinian government, whose troops, \nunder Cialdini and Fanti, enter the Papal States, \n\n11 Sept. ,, \n\nFanti takes Pesaro, 12 Sept. ; and Perugia, in- \ncluding general Schmidt and 1600 prisoners, \n\n14 Sept. ,, \n\nAncona besieged by sea and land . . 17 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSevere allocution of the pope against France and \nSardinia ; he appeals to Europe for help, 28 Sept. ,, \n\nCialdini defeats Lamoriciere at Castel-Fidardo, \n18 Sept. ; and takes Ancona . . 29 Sept. ,, \n\nAdditional French troops sent to Rome . Oct. ,, \n\nThe Marches vote for annexation to Sardinia, Nov. ,, \n\nSubscriptions raised for the pope in various coun- \ntries ; the formal collection forbidden in France \nand Belgium ; permitted in England ^ . Nov. i860 \n\nMonastic establishments suppressed in the Lega- \ntions ; the monks pensioned; educational institu- \ntions founded Dec. ,, \n\nThe French emperor advises the pope to give up his . \nrevolted provinces .... 21 Dec. ,, \n\nPublication of Rome et Us Eveques, 6 Jan. ; and of \nLa France, Rome et Vltalie, 15 Feb. ; great excite- \nment, and strong advocacy of the pope\'s temporal \ngovernment (attacked by prince Napoleon) in the \nFrench chambers .... March, 1861 \n\nCavour claims Rome as capital of Italy, 27 March, ,, \n\nPetition to the emperor Napoleon to withdraw \nFrench troops from Rome ... 10 May, ,, \n\nThe emperor of France declines a union with \nAustria and Spain for the maintenance of the \npope\'s temporal power .... June, ,, \n\nGrand ceremony at the canonization of 27 Japanese \n\nmartyrs (see Canonization) . . . 8 June, ,, \nThe pope declares a severe allocution against the \n\nItalians 9 June, ,, \n\nGaribaldi calls for volunteers, taking as his watch- \nword, " Rome or death ! " . . . 19 July, 1862 \nRailway between Rome and Naples completed ; its \n\nopening opposed by the papal government, Nov. ,, \nEarl Russell\'s offer to the pope of a residence at \n\nMalta, 25 Oct. ; declined . . .11 Nov. ,, \nAntonelli\'s resignation of his office not accepted, \n\nS March, 1863 \nConvention between France and Italy : French \ntroops to quit Rome within two years, 15 Sept. 1864 \n\n\n\nEncyclical letter of the pope, publishing a "sylla- \nbus," censuring 80 errors in religion, philosophy, \nand politics ; (caused much dissatisfaction, and \nwas forbidden to be read in churches in France \nand other countries) .... 8 Dec. 1864 \nJews persecuted at Rome .... Dec. ,, \nFruitless negotiations between the pope and the \nking of Italy (by Yegezzi) ; mutual concessions \nproposed . . . .21 April to 23 June, 1865 \nPope\'s severe allocution against secret societies \n\n(Freemasons, Fenians, &c.) . . 25 Sept. ,, \nMerode, the papal minister of war, dismissed, 20 Oct. ,, \nA part of the French troops leave the papal dominions \n\nNov. ,, \nRupture with Russia . . Dec. 1865 \xe2\x80\x94 Jan. 1866 \nA Franco-pontifical legion (1200 men) formed at \n\nAntibes, arrives ; blessed by the pope, 24 Sept. ,, \nPope\'s severe allocution against Italy and Russia, \n\n29 Oct. ,, \nThe pope invites all catholic bishops to meet at \nRome to celebrate the 18th centenary of the \nmartyrdom of Peter and Paul . . 8 Dec. ,, \nThe pope\'s blessing given to French troops, 6 Dec, \nwho all quit Rome .... 2-12 Dee. ,, \n\nRome tranquil 13 Dec. ,, \n\nLaw prohibiting protestant worship except at \n\nembassies in Rome enforced . . 31 Dee. ,, \nNegotiation with Italy fruitless ; the Italian coun- \ncillor, Tonello, quits Rome . . . April, 1867 \n599 bishops and thousands of priests present at the \npope\'s allocution, 26 June ; and canonization of \n\n25 martyrs 29 June, ,, \n\nThe pope receives an album and address from 100 \n\ncities of Italy 8 July, ,, \n\nCholera in Rome ; death of cardinal Altieri, while \n\nassisting the afflicted . . . n Aug. ,, \n\nThe pope\'s allocution censures the sacrilegious \naudacity of the Sub-alpine kingdom, in confisca- \nting ecclesiastical property . . .20 Sept. ,, \nGaribaldi arrested at Shialunga, near the Roman \n\nfrontier 23 Sept. ,, \n\nIrruption of Garibaldians in Viterbo \xe2\x80\x94 conflicts with \nvarious results ; reported appeal of Antouelli for \nhelp from the great powers . . . Oct. ,, \n\nZouave barracks at Rome blown up, many killed, \n\n22 Oct. ,, \nAttempt at insurrection in Rome suppressed, 22 \nOct. ; state of siege proclaimed ; Garibaldi within \n20 miles of Rome, 24 Oct. ; takes Monte Rotondo \n\n26 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nFrench brigades enter Rome . . .30 Oct. ,, \nItalian troops cross the frontier, 30 Oct. ; occupy \n\nseveral posts 1 Nov. ,, \n\nGaribaldians defeated by the papal and French \n\ntroops at Mentana (wh ieh sec) . . . 3 Nov. ,, \nItalian troops retire from the papal states Nov. ,, \' \nThe Roman committee of insurrection issue a narra- \ntive, and state that their watchword is "Try \nagain and do better " .... Dec. ,, \nThe papal army increased to about 15,000 . Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe pope\'s short allocution (thanking and blessing \n\nthe French government) ... 19 Dec. ,, \nNine cardinals made ; Lucien Bonaparte one \n\n13 March, 1868 \nSudden death of cardinal Andrea . . 15 May, ,, \nThe pope, in his allocution, censures the Austrian \n\nnew civil marriage law ... 22 June, ,, \nArrangement respecting the papal debt made with \n\nItaly 30 July, ,, \n\nEncyclical letter of the pope, summoning an oecu- \nmenical council at Rome on 8 Dec. 1869, and in- \nviting ministers of the Greek and other \'churches \n\n13 Sept. ,, \nThe patriarch of the Greek church declined to attend \n\nabout 3 Oct \n\nMonti and Tognetti (for complicity in the explosion \n\nof the Zouave barracks, 22 Oct. 1867), executed \n\n24 Nov. ,, \nThe pope celebrates a jubilee . . n April, 1869 \nIn his allocution he deplores the opposition to the \n\nchurch in Austria and Spain . . 25 June, ,, \nHe declares, in a letter to archbishop Manning, \nthat no discussions on disputed points can take \n\nplace at the council 4 Sept. ,, \n\nThe council opened, see Council XXI. . 8 Dec. \nAn exhibition of objects of Christian art opened by \n\nthe pope 7 Feb. 1870 \n\nBritish and American bishops protest against dis- \n\n\n\nSOME. \n\n\n\n832 \n\n\n\nEOME. \n\n\n\ncussing the dogma of papal infallibility in the \ncouncil, ii April; the discussion begins 14 May, iE \n\nCount Arnim, on behalf of the North German con- \nfederation, protests against the dogma . May, , \n\nPapal infallibility adopted by the council and pro- \nmulgated (533 for ; 2 against ; many retire) ; the \ncouncil adjourns to 11 Nov. . . 18 July, , \n\nRome completely evacuated by French troops in \nconsequence of the war ; 8 mortars and 15,000 \nshells said to be ceded to the pope, 8 Aug. ; the \ntroops sent from Civita Vecchia . .21 Aug. , \n\nConciliatory letter from Victor Emmanuel to the pope \n\n8 Sept. . \n\nAgitation in the papal provinces ; the Italian \ntroops invited to enter . . about 10 Sept. , \n\nThe pope refuses terms offered him by the king of \nItaly (sovereignty of the Leonine city and reten- \ntion of his income) .... 11 Sept. , \n\nSkirmish with papal Zouaves ; several killed \n\n14 Sept. \n\nThe Italians occupy Civita Vecchia without resist- \nance about 15 Sept. . \n\nGen. Cadorna crosses the Tiber at Casale ; sends \nflags of truce to gen. Kanzler, commander of the \nZouaves, who refuses to surrender ; baron Arnim \nin vain negotiates between them . 17 Sept. \n\nLetter from the pope to gen. Kanzler directing that \na merely formal defence be made at Rome, and \nthat bloodshed be avoided . . 19 Sept. \n\nAfter a brief resistance from the foreign papal \ntroops, stopped by order of the pope, the Italian \ntroops under Cadorna make a breach and enter \nRome amid enthusiastic acclamations of the \npeople 20 Sept. \n\n[Reported Italian loss, about 22 killed, 117 \nwounded ; papal troops, 55 killed and wounded.] \n\nCardinal Antonelli issues a diplomatic protest \nagainst the Italian occupation of Rome 21 Sept. \n\nThe papal troops surrender arms ; about 8500 \nforeigners march out with honours of war ; they \ninsult the Italians ; the native troops retained, \n\n22 Sept. \n\nAbout 10,000 persons assemble in the Coliseum, \nchoose 44 names for a provisional government \n(giunta) 22 Sept. \n\nProtest of the pope 26 Sept. \n\nCastle of St. Angelo occupied by Italian troops at \n\nthe pope\'s request .... 28 Sept. \n\nCircular letter from the pope to the cardinals \n\ncomplaining of the invasion and of his loss of \n\nliberty, and interference with his private post bag \n\n29 Sept. \nA giunta of 14 (the duke Gaetani chief) selected from \n\nthe 44 names chosen ; approved by Cadorna \n\n30 Sept. \nGeneral Masi in command of Rome and the pro- \nvinces ; S.P.Q.R appears on the proclamations \n\n30 Sept. \n\nPlebiscite : out of 167,548 votes, 133,681 for union \nwith the kingdom of Italy ; 1507 against ; the \nremainder did not vote . . . .2 Oct. \n\nCardinal Antonelli issues a protest ; published \n\n4 Oct. \n\nThe pope said to have accepted 50,000 crowns (his \nmonthly civil list) from the Italian government \n\n4 Oct. \n\nThe result of the plebiscite sent to the king, 8 Oct. , \nRome and its provinces incorporated with the \nkingdom by royal decree ... 9 Oct. \n\nGeneral La Marmora enters Rome as viceroy ; \nhe proclaims that the pope shall be guaranteed \nin his sovereign powers as head of the churcl \n\n11 Oct. \n\nThe Roman provinces united into one by decree \n\n19 Oct. \n\nThe pope issues an encyclical letter adjourning the \nmeeting of the council ... 20 Oct. \n\nAntonelli protests against the occupation of the \nQuirinal by the king . . . .10 Nov. \n\nBill introduced into the Italian parliament respect- \ning the transfer of the seat of government to \nRome in about six months, and the preservation \nof the spiritual and temporal sovereignty of the \np p e about 12 Dec. \n\nInundation of the Tiber ; great suffering of the \npeople, 27, 28 Dec. ; the king gives 200,000 lire ; \nvisits Rome suddenly, the city illuminated \n\n4 a.m. 31 Dec. \n\n\n\nLaw guaranteeing to the pope full xiersonal liberty \nand honours, a revenue of 3,225,000 livres &c, \n13 May ; rejected by the pope in his allocution \n\n15 May, 1871 \n2624th anniversary of the city kept ; the pope cele- \nbrates a jubilee on the 25th anniversary of his \n\nelection 16 June, ,, \n\nThe Italian government remove to Rome, 2, 3 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nAllocution of the pope, appointing some Italian \n\nbishops ; still rejecting guarantees . 27 Oct. ,, . \nGrand reception of the king . . 21 Nov. ,, \n\nHe opens the parliament, saying, "The work to \nwhich we have consecrated our life is completed " \n\n27 Nov. ,, \nThe pope receives an address from nobles and others \n\n27 Nov. ,, \nCommission appointed to dredge the bed of the \n\nTiber to recover antiquities . . . Dee. ,, \nEaster solemnities not performed by the pope \n\n31 March, 1872 \nThe pope delivers an allocution complaining of per- \nsecution of the church in Italy, Germany, and \n\nSpain 23 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAmerican Protestant church dedicated to St. Paul ; \n\nfounded 25 Jan. 1873 \n\nFirst Anglican church within the walls opened \n\n25 Oct. 1874 \nAssassination of Raffaele Sonzogno, a republican \nprinter and manager of "II Capitale," 6 Feb. ; \ntrial of Pio Frezza, the murderer caught in the \nact with liUciani, Armati, and others, as incitors \nto the crime ; convicted "with extenuating cir- \ncumstances ; " penal servitude for life . 13 Nov. 1875 \nRe-interment on the Janiculum hill of remains of \nAngelo Brunetti (termed Cieeruaechio) and other \nunarmed Italian patriots (shot by the Austrians \n\n10 Aug. 1849) 12 Oct. 1879 \n\nInternational exhibition of fine art, opened 21 Jan. 1883 \nThe German crown prince arrives at Rome, 17 Dec. ; \n\nvisits the pope 18 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n2,637th anniversary of the foundation of Rome \n\n21 April, 1884 \nFirst Italian " Derby day " . . . 24 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \nA sale of part of the Castellani collection, 21 days, \n\nabout 48,000?. realized .... April, \xe2\x80\x9e \nDispute ; a cardinal stopped from visiting a cholera \n\nhospital without quarantine . . . Oct. ,, \nDiscoveries about the Temple of Vesta in the \n\nForum by Prof. H. Jordan, announced April, 1885 \nDeath of prince Torlonia, a great benefactor, \n\naged 86, 7 Feb. 1886 \nStatue of Giordano Bruno, philosopher (burnt as a \n\nheretic at Venice, 17 Feb. 1600); unveiled, 9 June, 1889 \nSig. Aurelio Saffi, one of the triumvirs of Feb. 1849, \n\ndies at Forli, aged 71 . . . 10 April, 1890 \nGreat explosion of the powder magazine at Fort \nMonteverde, 4 persons killed and about 150 \nwounded ; the Vatican and several churches \ninjured, and much property destroyed ; the \nplace visited by the king to relieve the sufferers \n\n23 April, 1801 \n" Labour day," rioting suppressed with bloodshed ; \n\n4 persons killed, many wounded. . 1 May, ,, \nPopular demonstration against foreign pilgrims for \nsupposed insults to the memory of king Victor \nEmanuel ; 3 pilgrims arrested . . 2-4 Oct. ,, \nSee Fopes, Pius IX. et seq., and Italy. \n\n\n\nKINGS OF ROME. \n\nX. (Dates conjectural.) \n\n735. Romulus ; murdered by the senators. \n\n[Titus Tatius, king of the Sabines, had removed to \n\nRome in 747, and ruled jointly with Romulus \n\nsix years.] \n716. [Interregnum.] \n715. Numa Pompilius, son-in-law of Tatius the Sabine, \n\nelected ; died at the age of 82. \n673. Tullus Hostilius ; murdered by his successor, by \n\nwhom his palace was set on fire ; his family \n\nperished in the flames. \n640. Aneus Martius, grandson of Numa. \n616. Tarquinius Priscus ; son of Demaratus, a Corinthian \n\nemigrant, chosen king. \n578. Servius Tullius, a manumitted slave ; married the \n\nking\'s daughter ; and succeeded by the united \n\nsuffrages of the army and the people. \n\n\n\nEOME. \n\n\n\n833 \n\n\n\nEOOF. \n\n\n\n534. Tarquinius Superbus, grandson of Tarquinius Pris- \neus ; assassinates bis father-in-law, and usurps \nthe throne. \n\n510. [The rape of Lucretia, by Sextus, son of Tarquin, \nand consequent insurrection, leads to the aboli- \ntion of royalty and the establishment of the \nconsulate.] \n\n\n\n510-82. First period. From the expulsion of Tarquin to \nthe dictatorship of Sylla. \n2-27. Second period. From Sylla to Augustus. \n48. Caius Julius Caesar ; perpetual dictator ; assassi- \nnated, 15 March, 44 B.C. \n31. Octavianus Caesar. \n\n\n\n27. \n\nA.D. \n14. \n\n37- \n41. \n\n54- \n68. \n6 9 . \n\n\n\n117. \n138. \n161. \n\n\n\nAugustus Imperatok, died 19 Aug. a.d. 14. \n\nTiberius (Claudius Nero). \n\nCaius Caligula : murdered by a tribune. \n\nClaudius I. (Tiberius Drusus) : poisoned by his wife \n\nAgrippina, to make way for \nClaudius Nero ; deposed ; kills himself, 68. \nServius Sulpicius Galba ; slain by the praetorians. \nM. Salvius Otho ; stabbed himself. \nAulus Vitellius ; deposed by Vespasian, and put to \n\ndeath. \nTitus Flavius Vespasian. \nTitus (Vespasian), his son. \nTitus Flavius Domitian, brother of Titus ; last of \n\nthe twelve Caesars ; assassinated. \nCocceius Nerva. \nTrajan M. Ulpius (Crinitus). \nAdrian or Hadrian (Publius iElius). \nAntoninus Titus, surnamed Pius. \nMarcus Aurelius (a philosopher) and Lucius Verus, \n\nhis son-in-law ; tlie latter died in 169. \n180. Commodus (L. Aurelius Antoninus), son of Marcus \n\nAurelius ; poisoned by his favourite mistress, \n\nMartia. \n193. Publius -Helvius-Pertinax ; put to death by the prae- \ntorian band. \n[Four emperors now start up : Didianus Julianus, \n\nat Rome ; Pescennius Niger, in Syria ; Lucius \n\nSeptimius Severus, in Pannonia; and Clodius \n\nAlbinus, in Britain.] \n,, Lucius Septimius Severus ; died at York in Britain, \n\nin 211 ; succeeded by his sons, \n211. M. Aurelius Caracalla and Septimius Geta. Geta \n\nmurdered by Caracalla, 212 ; who is slain by his \n\nsuccessor \n\n217. M. Opilius Macrinus, prefect of the guards ; be- \n\nheaded in a mutiny. \n\n218. Heliogabalus (M. Aurelius Antoninus), a youth ; put \n\nto death for his enormities. \n222. Alexander Severus ; assassinated by some soldiers \n\ncorrupted by Maximums. \n235. Caius Julius Verus Maximums ; assassinated in his \n\ntent before the walls of Aquileia. \n\n237. M. Antonius Gordianus, and his son ; the latter \n\nhaving been killed in a battle with the par- \ntisans of Maximums, the father strangled him- \nself in a fit of despair, at Carthage, in his 80th \nyear. \n\n238. Balbiims and Pupienus ; put to death. \n\n,, Gordian III., grandson of the elder Gordian, in his \n\n16th year ; assassinated by the guards, at the \n\ninstigation of his successor. \n244. Philip the Arabian ; assassinated by his own soldiers ; \n\nhis son Philip was murdered at the same time, in \n\nhis mother\'s arms. \n249. Metius Decius ; he perished with his two sons, \n\nand their army, in an engagement with the \n\nGoths. \n251. Gallus Hostilius, and his son Volusianus ; both slain \n\nby the soldiery. \n253. iEmilianus ; put to death after a reign of only four \n\nmonths. \n,, Valerianus, and his son Gallicnus ; the first was \n\ntaken prisoner by Sapor, king of Persia, and \n\nflayed alive. \n260. Gallienus reigned alone. \n\n[About this time thirty pretenders to imperial power \n\narise in different parts of the empire ; of these \n\nCyriades is the first, but he is slain.] \n\n\n\n= 75- \n276. \n\n\n\n284. \n286. \n3\xc2\xb05- \n\n306. \n\n\n\nClaudius II. (Gallienus having been assassinated by \nthe officers of the guard) succeeds ; dies of the \nplague. \n\nQuintillus, his brother, elected at Rome by the senate \nand troops ; Aurelian by the army in Illyrieum. \nQuintillus, despairing of success against his \nrival, who was marching against him, opened his \nveins and bled himself to death. \n\nAurelianus ; assassinated by his soldiers on his \nmarch against Persia, in Jan. 275. \n\n[Interregnum of about nine months. ] \n\nTacitus, elected 25 Oct. ; died at Tarsus in Cilicia, \n13 April, 276. \n\nFloriauus, his brother ; his title not recognised by \nthe senate. \n\nM. Aurelius Probus ; assassinated by his troops at \nSirmium. \n\nM. Aurelius Cams ; killed at Ctesiphon by light- \nning ; succeeded by his sons \n\nCarinus and Numerianus ; both assassinated, after \ntransient reigns. \n\nDiocletian ; who associated as his colleague in the \ngovernment, \n\nMaximianus Hercules ; the two emperors resign in \nfavour of \n\nConstantius I. Chlorus and Galerius Maximianus; \nthe first died at York, in Britain, in 306, and the \ntroops saluted as emperor his son, \n\nConstantine, afterwards styled the Great ; whilst \nat Rome the piraetorian band proclaimed \n\nMaxentius, son of Maximianus Hercules. Besides \nthese were \n\nMaximianus Hercules, who endeavoured to recover \nhis abdicated power. \n\nFlavius Valerius Severus, murdered by the last- \nnamed pretender ; and \n\nFlavius Valerianus Licinius, the brother in-law of \nConstantine. \n\n[Of these, Maximianus Hercules was strangled in \nGaul,in 310; Galerius Maximianus died wretchedly \nin 311 ; Maxentius was drowned in the Tiber in \n312; and Licinius was put to death by order of \nConstantine in 324.] \n\nConstantine the Great now reigned alone ; died on \nWhitsunday, 22 May, 337. \n\n^Sons of Constantine ; divided \nthe empire between them ; the \nfirst was slain in 340, and the \nsecond murdered in 350, when \nthe third became sole em- \nperor. \n\nJulian, the Apostate, so called for abjuring Chris- \ntianity, having been educated for the priesthood ; \nmortally wounded in a battle with the Persians, \n\n363- \nJovian ; reigned eight months ; found dead in his \n\nbed, supposed to have died from the fumes of \n\ncharcoal. \nValentinian and Valens. \nValens with Gratian and Valentinian II. \nTheodosius I., &c. \nTheodosius alone. \nThe Roman empire divided ; see Eastern Empire, \n\nWestern Empire, Popes, and Italy. \n\nEOMILLY\'S ACT, Sir Samuel, 52 Geo. \n\nIII. c. IOI (1812) relates to charities. \n\nEONCESVALLES (in the Pyrenees), where, \nit is said, Charlenmgne\'s paladin, Roland, or \nOrlando, was surprised, defeated and slain by the \nGascons, 778. On 25 July, 1813, marshal Soult \nwas defeated here by tlie British entering France. \n\nEONDO- A short piece of music having one \nprominent subject to which returns are made, many \ncomposed by Beethoven, Chopin, and others. \n\nEOOF. The largest in the world was said to be \nthat over a riding-school at Moscow, erected in \n1791, being 235 feet in span. The roof of the \nLondon station of the Midland railway, in Kuston- \nroad, London, N.W., is 240 feet wide, 6oofee1 long, \n12c; feet high. The extent of ground coveied is \nabout 165,000 square feet. \n\n3 H \n\n\n\nC Constantine II. \n\n-j Constans. \n\n( Constantius II. \n\n\n\n360. \n\n\n\nROPE-MAKING MACHINE. \n\n\n\n834 \n\n\n\nKOSICETJCIANS. \n\n\n\nROPE-MAKING MACHINE. One was \npatented by Richard March in 1784, and by Edmd. \nCartwright, in 1 792. Many improvements have been \nmade since. \n\nRORKE\'S DRIFT, boundary of British terri- \ntory of Natal, in South Africa and Zululand. \nBehind extemporised trenches a handful of British \nsoldiers here successfuUy resisted a large Zulu \narmy, and probably saved the colony, 22 Jan. 1879. \nSee Zululand. \n\nROSAMOND\'S BOWER. Rosamond was \ndaughter of lord Clifford, and mistress of Henry II. \nabout 1 154. A conspiracy against her was formed by \nthe queen, prince Henry, and the Icing\'s other sons. \nHenry kept her in a labyrinth at Woodstock, where \nhis queen, Eleanor, it is said, discovered her apart- \nments by the clue of a silk thread, and poisoned her. \nShe was buried at Godstow church, from whence \nHugh, bishop of Lincoln, had her ashes removed, \n1191. \n\nROSARY, see Beads. \nIn a brief of pope Pius IX., 30 Sept. 1852, it was asserted \nthat 40 repetitions in a rosary of 40 beads of " Sweet \nHeart of Mary, be my salvation ! " will obtain a large \nnumber of days of indulgence for souls in purgatory \n(23,300 days calculated). \n\nROSAS (N. E. Spain), Bay of, where a brilliant \nnaval action was fought by the boats of the Tiff re, \nCumberland, Yolontaire, Apollo, Topaze, Philomel, \nScout, and Tuscan, led by lieut. John Tailour (of \nthe Tiff re), which ended in the capture or destruc- \ntion of eleven armed -vessels in the bay, 1 Nov. \n1809 ; for which purpose lord Collingwood had \norganised the expedition commanded by capt. Hallo- \nwell. Rosas was gallantly defended by lord Coch- \nrane, 27 Nov. ; but surrendered, 4 Dec. 1809. \n\nROSBACH (Rosebecque), Flanders. Here \nCharles VI. of France beat the Flemings, who had \nrevolted against their count, 27 Nov. 1382. \xe2\x80\x94 At \nRosbach, in Prussia, a great battle was fought \nbetween the Prussians, commanded by Frederick \nthe Great, and the combined army of French and \nAustrians, in which the latter were defeated with \nsevere loss, 5 Nov. 1757. \n\n" ROSCIUS, INFANT," \xc2\xa5m. Henry West \nBetty, born 13 Sept. 1791. After acting at Belfast, \n16 Aug. 1803, and at other places, with much ap- \nplause, he appeared at Covent-garden, 1 Dec. 1803, \nas Selim, in " Barbarossa," and is said to have \ngained in his first season, 17,210^. \nAfter several years\' retirement, lie re-appeared, but \n\nsoon after left the stage, not being successful. \n\nHe retired on the fortune he had amassed, and \n\ndied Aug. 1874 \n\nHis portrait may be seen at the Garriek club. \n\nROSE, see under Flowers. The rose, a symbol \nof silence, gave rise to the phrase sub rosii, " under \nthe rose ; \' \' said, by Italian writers, to have risen \nfrom the circumstance of the pope\'s presenting \nconsecrated roses, which were placed over the con- \nfessionals at Rome, to denote secrecy, 1526. The \npope sent a golden rose to the queen of Spain, which \nwas given to her with much solemnity, 8 Feb. 1868. \nA "national rose society" opened its first annual \n(-how, St. James\'s hall, 4 July, 1877. \nThe League of the JRosc, under the patronage of the \nComtesse de Paris, formed to promote the restoration \nof the monarchy in France, autumn 188S. \n\nROSE\'S ACT, 33 Geo. III. c. 54 (1793) brought \nb \xe2\x96\xa0uefit societies under the control of government. \n\nROSES, WARS OF TIIE, between the Lan- \ncastrians (who chose the red rose as their emblem) \n\n\n\nand the Yorkists (who chose the white rose), 1455-. \n\n1485. It is stated that in the "Wars of the Rose \n\nthere perished 12 princes of the blood, 200 nobles, \n\nand 100,000 gentry and common people. The union \n\nof the roses was effected in the marriage of Henry VII. \n\nwith the princess Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV. \n\ni486. \n\nRichard II., who succeeded his grandfather Edward \nIII. in 1377, was deposed and succeeded in 1399 \nby his cousin Henry IV. (son of John of Gaunt, \nduke of Lancaster, the fourth son of Edward IH.), \nin prejudice to the right of Roger Mortimer \n(grandson of Lionel, duke of Clarence, Edward\'s \nthird son), who was declared presumptive heir to \nthe throne in 1385 \n\nRoger\'s grandson, Richard duke of York, first \nopenly claimed the crown in 1449 \n\nAttempts at compromise failed, and the war began \n\n\n\n1455 \n\n\n\nThe Lancastrians were defeated at St. Alban\'s ; the \nprotector Somerset was slain ; a trace was made, \nand Richard was declared successor to Henry VI. \n\n23 May,- ,, \n\nThe war was renewed, and the Yorkists defeated the \nLancastrians at Bloreheath . . 23 Sept. 14S9 \n\nThe Yorkists eventually dispersed, and the duke \nwas attainted. \n\nHe defeated his opponents at Northampton, took \nHenry prisoner, and was declared heir to the \ncrown ; but fell into an ambuscade near "Wake- \nfield, and was put to death ... 31 Dec. 1460 \n\nHis son (Edward) continued the struggle ; was in- \nstalled as king 4 March, 1461 \n\nDefeated the Lancastrians at Towton . 29 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nWas deposed by Warwick, who restored Henry VI. \n\nSept. 147c \n\nEdward defeated the Lancastrians at Barnet, 14 \nApril, and finally at Tewkesbury . . 4 May, 1471 \n\nThe struggle ended with the defeat and death of \nRichard III. at Bosworth ... 22 Aug. 1485 \n\nROSETTA (in Egypt), taken by the French in \n1798 ; and by the British and Turks, 19 April, 1801. \nThe Turks repulsed the British here, 22 April, 1807. \nNear Rosetta was fought the battle of the Nile, \nI Aug. 1798; see Nile. Mehemet Ali rendered great \nservice to his country by constructing a caDal \nbetween Rosetta and Alexandria. \nThe Rosetta Stone, discovered by the French in 1799, was \nbrought from Rosetta in a French vessel, from whence \nit was taken by Mr. Wm. R. Hamilton, who deposited \nit in the British Museum. In 1841, Mr. Letronne pub- \nlished the text and a translation of the Greek inscrip- \ntion. It is a piece of black basalt, about 3 feet long \nand 2^ feet wide, with an inscription in three languages, \nviz., hieroglyphics, modified hieroglyphics (demotic or \nenchorial), and Greek, setting forth the praises of \nPtolemy Epiplianes (about 196 b.c.). It was studied \nby Dr. T. Young and especially by J. F. Champollion, \nwhose works were published 1814-1845. Champollion\'s \nmethod was adopted by Rosellini, and extended by \nLepsius, Bunsen, Birch, Brugsch, and others. Cham- \npollion discovered that the hieroglyphs represented \nsounds by an initial letter, and after studying the \n"Ritual of the dead," published a grammar and dic- \ntionary. \n\nROSICRUCIANS,. a sect of mystical philo- \nsophers who appeared in Germany in the 14th \ncentury. It is asserted that their founder was a \nnoble German monk named Christian Bosencreutz, \nborn 1378, who travelled in Arabia, Egypt, Africa, \nand Spain; returned to Germany and founded the \nfraternity of the Rosy Cross, and died aged 102. \nThe Fama F rater nitidis and the Confessio Rosece \nCrucis, 1615, the latter attributed to Johann Valen- \ntin Andreas and others, arc important works. \nThey swore fidelity, promised secrecy, and wrote \nhieroglyphieally, and affirmed that the ancient \nphilosophers of Egypt, the Chaldeans, Magi of \nPersia, and Gynmosophists of the Indies, taught \nthe same doctrine. \n\nMr. Arthur E. Waite\'s elaborate work " The Real History \nof the Rosicrucians " published in 1887. \n\n\n\nEOSS. \n\n\n\n835 \n\n\n\nKOIJMANIA. \n\n\n\nEOSS, Cork (S. Ireland) j a bishopric founded, \nis supposed, by St. Fachnan, in the beginning of \nthe 6th century. It was united to Cork in 1340 , \nand Cloyne to both, by the Irish Church Temporali- \nties act (1833) ; see Bishops ; Xew Boss. \n\nEOSTEUM (plural rostra), a beak, the name \ngiven to the prows of ships, which were affixed to \ni he front of the platform (hence termed rostra), \nerected between the comitium aud the forum iu \nRome, whence the tribunes addressed the people. \nThe custom is said to have begun with the ships of \nAntium, taken during the L ttin war, which ended \n33 B - c - \n\nEOTA CLUB, a society who met at Miles\'s \nCoffee-house in New Palace-yard, "Westminster, \nduring the administration of Oliver Cromwell ; \ntheir plan was that all the great officers of state \nshould be chosen by ballot: and that a certain \nnumber of members of parliament should be changed \nannually by rotation, from whence they took their \ntitle. Sir William Petty Avas one of the members \nin 1659. Biog. Brit. \n\nEOTHESAT, capital of the Isle of Bute. The \nruined castle, founded about 1098, was repaired by \nthe marquis of Bute, 1871-77". After 1393, the \neldest son of the Scottish sovereign was styled duke \nof Rothesay. The Glenburn hydropathic "establish- \nment destroyed by fire, estimated loss, 45,000?., 10 \nJuly, 1891. Population, iS3l, 8,329; 1891, 9,034. \n\nEOTHESAY CASTLE, see Wrecks, 1831. \n\nEOTHSCHILD FAMILY. Meyer Am- \nschel, or Anselm, was born at .No. 148, Judengas.se \n(Jew-lane), Frankfort, in 1743. In 1772 he began \nbusiness as a money-lender and dealer in old coins, \nin the same house, over which he placed the sign \nof the red shield (in German, Both Schild). Hav- \ning had dealing\'s with the landgrave of Hesse, that \nprince entrusted him with his treasure (said to have \nbeen 250,000/.) in 1806, when the French held hits \ncountry. With this sum as capital, Anselm traded \nand made a large fortune, and restored the 250,000/. \nto the landgrave in 1815. At his death his sons \ncontinued the business as partners. His son, Na- \nthan, began at Manchester in 1798, removed to \nLondon in 1803 ; and died immensely rich, 28 July, \n1836. The baron, James, head of the family, died \nat Paris, 15 Nov. r868. \n\nSir Nathaniel de Rothschild, son of Lionel, created a \npeer; takes his seat, 9 July, 1S85. \n\nHannah, daughter and heiress of the late baron Ainschel \nde Rothschild, married to the earl of Rosebery, 1878, \na, great benefactress, dies, aged 39, 19 Nov. 1890. \n\nEOTTEEDAM, the second city in Holland. \nIts importance dates from the 13th century. The \ncommerce of Antwerp was transferred to it in 1509- \nIn 1572, Rotterdam was taken by the Spaniards by \nstratagem, and cruelly treated. It suffered much \nfrom the French revolutionary wars, and from in- \nundations in 1775 and 1825. Desiderius Erasmus \nwas born here in 1467. The museum and picture- \ngallery of Rotterdam were destroyed at the fire of \nthe Schieland palace, 16 Feb. 1864. Strike of dock \nlabourers about 27 Sept. -14 Oct. 1889. Population, \n1887,193,658; 1890,209,136. \n\nEO UEjNT (N. France), an archbishopric, 260, be- \ncame the capital of Normandy in the 10th century. \nIt was held by the English kings till 1204 ; and was \nretaken by Henry V., 19 Jan. 1419. Joan of Arc, \nthe Maid of Orleans, was burnt here, 30 May, 1431. \nIt was taken by Charles VII. of France in 1449; \nand by the dulce of Guise from the Huguenots, Oct. \n1562 and 1591. Rouen, after slight conilicts, 4, 5 \n\n\n\nDee. 1870, surrendered to general Von Gol \n6 Dec. It was ordered to pay a contribution of \n17,000,000 francs. Population, 1886, 107,163; 1891, \n109,541. \n\nThe theatre, destroyed by fire ; many persons in- \njured, and 13 killed .... 25 April, 1S76 \n\n" EOTJGH TEEEOE," a term given in 1874 \nto the prevalence of brutal assaults on women, \nchildren, and unprotected persons among the lower \nclasses, especially in Lancashire and other manu- \nfacturing districts, for the repression of which the \nlaw appeared to be inadequate. \n\nEOUMANIA, a kingdom, the name assumed \n\nby the Hanubian principalities {which sec) on 23 \n\nDec. i36i, when their union was proclaimed at \n\nBucharest and Jassy. Population in 1888, 5,376,006. \n\nM. Catargi, the president of the council of minis- \nters, assassinated as he was leaving the chamber \nof deputies 20 June, 1862 \n\nThe united chambers of the two principalities meet \nat Bucharest 5 Feb. ,, \n\nCoup d\'etat of prince Couza against the aristocrats ; \na plebiscite for a new constitution, 2 May ; which \nis adopted 28 May, 1864 \n\nLaw passed enabling peasants to hold land Aug. ,, \n\nRevolt at Bucharest suppressed, 15 Aug. ; amnesty, \n\n11 Sept., 1865 \n\nRevolution at Bucharest ; forced abdication of \nprince Couza ; and provisional government esta- \nblished 22 Feb., 1866 \n\nThe offered crown declined by the count of Flan- \nders, Feb. ; prince Charles of Hohenzollern-Sig- \nmaringen elected hospodar by plebiscite, 20 \nApril ; enthusiastically received at Bucharest, \n22 May ; sworn to observe the constitution \n\n12 July, ,, \n\nRecognised hereditary hospodar by the sultan, and \nreceived at Constantinople . . 24 Oct. ,, \n\nRoumania unsettled ; " nationality " projects, Nov. 1867 \n\nThe legislature proposes to repudiate the just claims \nof the German shareholders in the Roumanian \nrailways ; the prince assents reluctantly ; Bis- . \nmarch appeals to the Porte, which declines to \ninterfere July- Aug. 1S71 \n\nPeace between the prince and chambers . Nov. ,, \n\nAustria, Germany, and Russia inform Turkey that \nthey claim the right to conclude separate treaties \nwith Roumania ; the sultan objects . Oct. 1874 \n\nConvention with Russia, giving permission to cross \nRoumania, signed 16 April ; Russians enter Mol- \ndavia 24 April, 1877 \n\nThe Senate vote a declaration of independence and \nwar with Turkey .... 21 May, ,, \n\nThe Roumanians actively engaged before Plevna. \nSee Russo-Tv/rkisTi War, 1877. \n\nRoumania declared independent by treaties of San \nStefano (3 March) and of Berlin (losing the part \nof Bessarabia acquired in 1S56, in exchange for \nthe Dobrudseha) .... 13 July, 1878 \n\nIndependence recognised by England, France, and \nGermany . . . \xe2\x80\xa2 . . . 20 Feb. 1SS0 \n\nThe prince and princess crowned king and queen, \n\n23 May, 1881 \n\nTemporary rupture with Austria respecting the \nDanube, about 1-27 Dee. \n\nRoumanian troops enter Silistria and seize terril ory, \n\n3 Sept. 1885 \n\nRioton i n"\' tmg af Bueharesi suppressed with 1 >ss \nof life, 25-27 .March ; M. Bratiano resigns (I welve \nyears minister) . . . about 27 March, \n\nM. Bosetti forms a ministry . . 3 April, \n\nInsurrection in the country (owns and agricultural \ndistricts; increase reported ; military called out ; \nBucharest threatened ; revolt said to lie 1 n- \ncouraged by Russian emissaries 16 April; de- \ncrease, 24 April; the elections support the \ngovernment, Oct. ; assembly u ts . 13 Nov. \n\nM. Catargi, minister, 12 April, resigns; succeeded \nbygeuMano 16 Nov. 1^89 \n\nProposed impeachment of M. Jean Bratiano, re- \njected by the chamber (86V-67) . . 12 Feb. iF?o \n\nResignation of gen. Manos ministry . 27 Feb. i\xc2\xa3c 1 \n\nGen. Floresco forms a cabinet m . 5 March, ,\', \n\n3 11 2 \n\n\n\nROUMELIA. \n\n\n\n836 \n\n\n\nROYAL ACADEMY. \n\n\n\nPrince Ferdinand, heir presumptive, said to be \nengaged to Mile. Vacaresco, maid-of-honour ; \npublic disapproval . . . June, et seq. 1891 \n\nMile. Helene Vacaresco leaves the queen at Venice \n\n2 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe king visits the German emperor at Potsdam \n\n28 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNew ministry formed by M. Catargi . . 9 Dec. ,, \n\nVote of want of confidence in the ministry carried \n(78\xe2\x80\x9474) 21 Dec. ,, \n\nThe senate and chamber dissolved . 23 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCoalition of parties ; M. Catargi\'s ministry recon- \nstructed about 30 Dec. ,, \n\nThe government supported by a majority in the \nelections Feb. 1892 \n\nPrince Ferdinand betrothed to the princess Marie \nof Edinburgh, 2 June ; received in London, 21 \nJune ; the king invited by queen Victoria, arrives \nwith his brother, 27 June ; at Windsor, 29 June ; \nmade K.G., 30 June ; leaves England . 4 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPRINCES AND KING OF ROUMANIA. \n\n1859. Alexander Couza ; abdicated 1866. \n\n1866. Charles I. (of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen) ; born \n20 April, 1839 ; elected 20 April, 1866 ; mar- \nried Elizabeth, daughter of prince Hermann \nvon Wied, 15 Nov. 1869 ; [scholar, poetess, \npopularly named Carmen Sylva, and "Mother \nof her people," visited Wales, at the Eisteddfod, \nSept., received by queen Victoria, 2-4 Oct. ; \nleft England, 7 Oct. 1890], nominated kino 26 \nMarch, 1881, and crowned with the queen, 23 \nMay, 1881. \n\nHeir, Prince Ferdinand (of Hohenzollern), nephew; born \n24 Aug. 1865 : declared heir, 18 March, 1889 ; betrothed \nto princess Marie of Edinburgh, 2 June, 1892. \n\nKOUMELIA or ROMANIA (Turkey), part of \n\nThrace (wh ich see) . The Rounielian railway opened \n\n17 June, 1873. Population, 1880, 815,946; 1888, \n\n960,901. \n\nBy the treaty of Berlin, the province of Eastern \nRoumelia (termed South Bulgaria in 1886) was \nconstituted, to be partly autonomous, with a \nChristian governor, nominated by the sultan \n\n13 July, 1878 \n\nSir H. D. Wolff appointed H.M.\'s European com- \nmissioner for organisation of the province, \n\n10 Aug. ,, \n\nRussian prince Dondoukoff Khorsakoff rules here \n\nJuly-Nov. 1878 \n\nScheme for government of the province approved \nby the sultan and the allied commissioners Nov. ,, \n\nRussian evacuation begins ... 5 May, 1879 \n\nAleko Pasha (prince Alexander Vogorides, a Bul- \ngarian) installed as governor at Philippopolis \n\n30 May, ,, \n\nMuch political disorganisation reported Sept. ,, \n\nTranquillitj 7 restored Dec. ,, \n\nGreat prosperity reported .... Sept. 1883 \n\nM. Chrestovitch (Gavril Pasha) appointed governor- \ngeneral by the Porte, about . . .10 May, 1884 \n\nBloodless revolution at Philippopolis ; re-union \nwith Bulgaria proclaimed 18 Sept. ; prince \nAlexander at Philippopolis ; all Bulgaria and \nRoumelia arming .... Sept.-Oct. 1885 \n\nAbout 75,000 Roumelians armed, . . Nov. ,, \n\n(see Turkey and Bulgaria for the war.) \n\nTurkish delegates sent to Philippopolis . 2 Dec. ,, \n\nPrince Alexander appointed governor for five years, \n(see Bulgaria) 5 April, 1886 \n\nState of siege at Philippopolis on account of \nbrigandage and Russian agency . . 4 Nov. ,, \n\nDiplomatic rupture with Greece respecting the \nnationality of a person who died at Bucharest, \n\n13 Nov. 1887 \n\nA band of about 150 Montenegrins invading \nBourgas repulsed with loss ... 4 Jan. 1888 \n\nAmnesty granted to the insurgent peasantry, \n\n15 Jan. 1889 \n\nFirst Bulgarian exhibition opened at Philippo- \npolis by prince Ferdinand . , .27 Aug. 1892 \n\nROUND- A sp?cies of musical canon in regular \nrhythm. Ancient rounds for six voices were com- \n\n\n\nposed in Italy, and introduced into England by the \nearl of Essex, about 15 10. The first printed col- \nlection appeared in 1609. Warren\'s collection pub- \nlished 1763-94. Round, Catch, and Canon club \nfounded in 1843. \n\nROUND-HEADS. In the civil war which \nbegan in 1642, the adherents of Charles I. were \ncalled Cavaliers, and the friends of the parliament \nRound-heads. The term, it is said, arose from those \npersons who had a round bowl or dish put upon \ntheir heads, and their hair cut to the edge of the \nbowl ; see Cavaliers. \n\nROUND TABLE, see under Garter and \nLiberals, 1887. \n\nROUND WAY DOWN (near Devizes, Wilt- \nshire) . Here the royalists defeated the parliamen- \ntarians with great slaughter, 13 July, 1643. \n\nROVEREDO (Austrian Tyrol) was held by \nthe Venetians from 1416 till 1609, Avhen it was ac- \nquired by Austria. It was taken by Bonaparte and \nthe French, 4 Sept. 1796, after a brilliant victory. \n\nROWING, see Boat Ltaces, Doggett, and Uni- \nversity. \nOn 16 Oct. 1873, Mr. Reginald Herbert undertook to row \n\non the Thames, from Maidenhead to Westminster \n\nbridge (47 miles 3 furlongs), in twelve hours, for 1000Z. \n\nHe did it in ioh. 2m. 19 sec. \n\nROWLAND HILL MEMORIAL FUND. \n\nSee Mansion House. Mr. W. D. Keyworth was \nchosen to make a bust of sir .Rowland Hill for \nWestminster abbey, March, t88i. A benevolent \nfund for the widows and orphans of postmen \nestablished 1882. A statue of him at the Royal \nExchange uncovered by the prince of Wales, 17 \nJune, 1882. \n\nROXBURGHE CLUB was instituted in \n1812 by earl Spencer, for the republication of rare \nbooks, or unpublished MSS., in memory of John \nduke of Eoxburghe. \n\nROYAL Agricultural, Astronomical, \nGeographical, Horticultural, &c.; see \n\nunder Agriculture, Astronomy, Geography, Horti- \nculture, Niger, &c. \n\nROYAL ACADEMY. A society of artists \nmet in St. Peter\'s-court, St. Martin\'s-lane, about \n1739, which Hogarth established as the society ot \nIncorporated Artists, who held their first exhibition \nat the Society of Arts, Adelphi, 21 April, 1760. \nFrom this sprang the Royal Academy, in con- \nsequence of a dispute between the directors and the \nfellows. On 10 Dec. 1768, the institution of the \npresent Royal Academy was completed under the \npatronage of George III. ; and sir Joshua Reynolds, \nknighted on the occasion, was appointed its first \npresident. Leigh. The first exhibition of the \nacademicians (at Pall-Mall) was on 26 April, 1769, \nwhen 136 works appeared. In 1771 the king \ngranted them apartments in old Somerset-house, \nand afterwards, in 1780, in new Somerset-house, \nwhere they remained till 1838, when they removed \nto the National Galler y. Among the professors have \nbeen Johnson, Gibbon, Goldsmith, Macaulay, and \nHallam. Turner, the painter, gave funds to the \nacademjr for the award of a medal triennially for \nlandscape-painting, which was awarded to Mr. N. \n0. Lupton in 1857. A commission of inquiry into \nthe affairs of the academy, appointed in 1862, re- \ncommended various changes in July, 1863, which \nwere carried into effect. The hundredth anniversary \nof the foundation of the academy was celebrated \n\n\n\nEOYAL ACADEMY. \n\n\n\n837 \n\n\n\nEOYAL INSTITUTION. \n\n\n\n10 Dec. 1868. The Royal Academy held its first \nexhibition in the new building, 3 May, 1869. The \nannual exhibition of pictures by the old masters, \nwith some British, began 3 Jan. 1870. The money \nreceived has been devoted to the establishment of \na professorship of chemistry and a laboratory, &c. \nIn 1874 the exhibition included many of Landseer\'s \npictures. \n\nSir Francis Chantrey, sculptor, died 25 Nov. 1841. At \nthe death of his wife Jan. 1875, in conformity with \nhis will, about 3000L a year accrued to the Academy \nfor the purchase of works of art for the nation, and \nother purposes. \nThe court of appeal upholds Mr. justice North\'s decision \nthat the works of sculpture purchased must be \nfinished in marble or bronze, and not models, \n4 June, 1889. \nThe gallery containing the sculptures of John Gibson, \n\nbequeathed by him, was opened free, 27 Nov. 1876. \nThe number of the works of art exhibited in 1789 was \nabout 620, in 1889, 2196, including sculptures. \n\n\n\n1768. \n1792. \n\n\n\n1820. \n1830. \n1850. \n\n\n\nPRESIDENTS. \n\nSir Joshua Reynolds. \n\nBenjamin West. \n\nJames Wyatt. \n\nBenjamin West. \n\nSir Thomas Lawrence. \n\nSir Martin A. Shee. \n\nSir Charles Eastlake, died 23 Dec. 1S65. \n\nSir Edwin Landseer elected ; declines, 24 Jan. \n\nSir Francis Grant, Feb. 1 ; died 5 Oct. 1878. \n\nSir Frederick Leighton, 13 Nov. \n\n\n\nEOYAL ACADEMY of MUSIC was es- \ntablished in 1822, mainly by the exertions of lord \nBurghersh (afterwards earl of Westmorland, who \ndied 16 Oct. 1859), and was incorporated by charter \n23 June, 1830. The first concert took place 8 \nl)ec. 1828. Its reconstruction was proposed in 1866, \nand since effected. Sir George Macfarren prin- \ncipal, 1876; died, 31 Oct. 1887; succeeded by Dr. \nA. C. Mackenzie, Feb. 1888. \nThe academy unites with the Royal College of \n\nMusic in regard to local examinations, announced \n\n13 Nov. 1889 \nFirst meeting for the purpose at Marlborough- \n\nhouse 29 July, 1890 \n\nEOYAL ADELAIDE, see Wrecks, 1850. \n\nEOYAL ASSENT. If the king assent to a \npublic bill, the clerk of the parliament declares in \nNorman French, li Le roy le veult," the king wills \nit so to be. If the king refuses his assent, it is in the \ngentle language of "Ze roy s\'avisera," the king \nwill consider it. Sale. By the statute ^ Hen. \nVIII., 1 541, the king may give his assent by letters- \npatent. Blackstone\' s Com. \n\nEOYAL BOUNTY, a fund from which sums \nare granted to female relatives of officers killed or \nmortally wounded during service. \n\nEOYAL CHAETEE, see Wrecks, 1859. \n\nEOYAL COLLEGE, see Music, 1878, and \nScience and Art, 1890. EOYAL ENGLISH \nOPERA HOUSE, see under Theatres. \n\nEOYAL EXCHANGE (Cambium Regis), \nLondon. The foundation of the original edifice was \nlaid by sir Thomas Gresham, 7 June, 1566, on the \nsite of the ancient Tun prison. Queen Elizabeth \nopened it on 23 Jan. 1571, and her herald named it \nthe lioyal Exchange. Ificme. It was totally de- \nstroyed by the great fire, Sept. 1666. Charles II. \nlaid\' the foundation-stone of the next edifice, 23 Oct. \n1667, which was completed by Mr. Hawkcsniore, a \npupil of sir Christopher Wren, in about three \nyears; it was repaired and beautified in 1769. This \nalso was burnt, 10 Jan. 1838. The new Royal Ex- \n\n\n\nchange, erected under the direction of Mr. Tite, was \nopened by the queen, 28 Oct. 1844. \xe2\x80\x94 The Royal \nExchange, Dublin, commenced 1769, opened 1779. \n\nEOYAL GEOEGE, a man-of-war of 108 \nguns, lost off Spithead. While keeled over to repair \na pipe, a sudden gust of wind washed the sea into \nher ports, and she went down. The rear-admiral \nKeinpenfeldt, the crew, many marines, women, and \nJews, in all about 600 persons, were drowned, 29 \nAug. 1782. By the use of the diving-bell, the ship, \nembedded in the deep, was surveyed in May, 1817 \net seq. Tortious of the vessel and its cargo werq \nbrought up in 1839-42, under the superintendence \nof sir Charles Pasley, when gunpowder was ignited \nby the agency of electricity. \n\nEOYAL GEANTS to members of the royal \n\nfamily -. \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nThe queen on July 2 applied to parliament for a \ngrant to prince Albert Victor of Wales for his \nmaintenance, and for one to the princess Louise \nof Wales on her proposed marriage with the earl \nof Fife, a select committee was appointed con- \nsisting of 23 members (including Mr. Goschen, \nMr. W. H. Smith, lord Hartington, Mr. J. Cham- \nberlain, Mr. jGladstone, Mr. John Morley, Mr. \nLabouchere, Mr. Burt, Dr. Cameron, Mr. Parnell, \nand Mr. Sexton), 8 July, the committee first met \n\n10 July, 1889 \n\nAfter several meetings at which there was much \ndiscussion on various propositions, a report was \nsubmitted to the house of commons, who even- \ntually resolved, after several amendments had \nbeen rejected, that 36,000^., out of the consoli- \ndated fund should be paid annually (through \ntrustees) to the prince of Wales for the support \nand maintenance of his family, the same to con- \ntinue till six months after the queen\'s decease, \n29 July, 1889. An act of parliament to this \neffect was passed . . . . 12 Aug. ,, \n\nEOYAL HUMANE SOCIETY (London), \nsee Humane Society. \n\nEOYAL INSTITUTION of Great \n\nBRITAIN, the earliest of the kind in London, was \nfounded 9 March, 1799, by count Rumford, sir \nJoseph Banks, earls Spencer and Morton, and several \nother noblemen and gentlemen. It received the \nimmediate patronage of George III., and was in- \ncorporated 13 Jan. 1800, by royal charter, as " The \nRoyal Institution of Great Britain, for the diffusing \nknowledge, and facilitating the general introduc- \ntion of useful mechanical inventions and improve- \nments, and for teaching, by courses of philosophical \nlectures and experiments, the application of science \nto the common purposes of life." It was enlarged \nand extended by an act of parliament in 1810; the \noriginal plan, as drawn up by count Rumford, in \n1799, having been considerably modified. The mem- \nbers are elected hy ballot, and pay ten guineas on \nadmission, and five guineas annually, or a com- \nposition of sixty guineas. " The Royal Institution, \nits Founder, and its first Professors," by Dr. Bence \nJones, hon. sec, published 1871. \nThe House (in Albemarle-street, Piccadilly) was pur- \nchased in June, 1799, and the present front was added \nby subscription in 1838. The Lecture theatre was \nerected in 1803, under the superintendence of Mr. T. \nWebster. \nThe Laboratory established in 1800 ; was rebuilt, with \n\nthe modern improvements, 1872. \nThe Libkary was commenced in 1S03, by the munificent \nsubscriptions of the proprietors of the institution. \nIt now OS89) comprises about 50,000 volumes. Clas- \nsified catalogues (by W. Harris) wove published in \n1809 and 1821; new ones(byB. Vincent)in i857and 1882. \nThe Museum contains original philosophical apparatus \nof Young, Cavendish, Davy, Faraday, and Do la Rue. \nThe first Lecture was delivered 4 March, 1801, by Dr \n\n\n\nEOYAL INSTITUTION. \n\n\n\nEOYAL SOCIETY. \n\n\n\nGarnett, he being the first professor of natural philo- \nsophy and chemistry. \n\nIn Aug. he was succeeded by Dr. Thomas Young, so cele- \nbrated for his researches in optics, resulting in the \ndiscovery of the interference of light, and the estab- \nlishment of the theory of undulation. His " Lectures \non Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts," first \npublished in 1807, are still considered a text-book of \nphysical science. His works on antiquarian literature \n(hieroglyphic inscriptions, &c.) are highly esteemed. \n\nIn Feb. 1801, Mr. (afterwards sir Humphry) Davy was \nengaged as assistant lecturer and director of the labo- \nratory, and on 31 May, 1802, he was appointed pro- \nfessor of chemistry. His lectures were eminently \nsuccessful, and his discoveries in chemistry and elec- \ntricity have immortalised his name, and conferred \nhonour on the institution. By him the alkaline metals \npotassium and sodium, were discovered in 1807 ; the \nnature of chlorine was determined in 1810, and the \nsafety-lamp invented in 1815. \n\nWilliam Thomas Brande succeeded sir Humphry Davy as \nprofessor of chemistry in 1813, and held that office till \nhis resignation in- 1852, since which time, till his death \n(Feb. 1S66), he was hon. professor. From 1S16 to 1850 \nhe delivered, in the laboratory of this institution, his \ncelebrated chemical lectures to students. \n\nlu 1813 Michael Faraday (born 22 Sept. 1791), on the \nrecommendation of sir H. Davy, was engaged as as- \nsistant in the laboratory, and in 1825 as its director ; \nin 1827 he became one of the permanent lecturers of \nthe institution. In 1820 he commenced those researches \nin electricity and magnetism which form an era in tli3 \nhistory of science. In 1823-4 lie discovered the con-, \ndensability of chlorine and other gases; in 1831 he \nobtained electricity from the magnet ; in 1845 he ex- \nhibited the two-fold magnetism of matter, compre- \nhending all known substances, the magnetism of gases, \nflame, &c. ; in 1850 he published his researches on \natmospheric magnetism : died, 25 Aug. 1867. \n\nJjhil Tyndall, F.B.S., professor of natural philosophy, \nJuly, 1853, hon. professor, 9 May, 1887, is eminent for \nhis researches on magnetism, heat, glaciers, &c. \n\nL.ord Rayleigh, F.B.S., professor of natural philosophy, \nq May, 1887 ; is eminent for his researches on sound, \nlight, &c. \n\nl\'.dward Frankland, F. B. S. , professor of chemistry 1863-8, \nis eminent for his discoveries in organic chemistry. \n\nIn 1804, sir J. St. Aubyn and other gentlemen proposed \nto form a school of mines at this institution ; but the \nplan, although warmly supported by the members, was \nwithdrawn for want of encouragement by the govern- \nment and by mining proprietors. \n\nThe weekly evening meetings, on the Fridays, from \nJanuary to June, as now arranged, commenced in \n1826. Discourses (of which abstracts are printed) are \ngiven at these meetings by the professors of the insti- \ntution, and other eminent scientific men. \n\nEndowments. In 1833, John Fuller, esq., of Rosehill, \n\n- endowed two professorships, of chemistry and physio- \nlogy ; the former bestowed on Mr. Faraday for life ; \nsucceeded by Dr. Wm. Odling, 1868-73 ; by Dr. John \nHall Gladstone, 1874 ; by James Dewar, 1877. The \nlatter on Dr. Eogetfor three years, to be filled up after- \nwards by triennial election. \xe2\x80\x94 The Fullerian professors \nof physiology have been P. M. Boget, B. E. Grant T \nB. Jones, W. B. Carpenter, W. W. Gull, T. W. Jones, \nT. H. Huxley (twice), B. Owen, J. Marshall, Michael \nFoster, Wm. Rutherford, Alfred II. Garrod, and E. A. \nSchafei (1878-81), J. G. McKendrick, 1S81-4; A. Gamgee, \n1884; G. J. Romanes, 1888, Victor Horsley, 1S91.\xe2\x80\x94 In \n1828, Mrs. Acton gave 1000Z. to be invested for paying \nevery seven years 100 guineas for the best essay on the \nbeneficence of the Almighty, as illustrative of a de- \npartment of science ; which have been awarded \xe2\x80\x94 in \n1844 to Mr. G. Fownes; in 1S51 to Mr. T. Wharton \nJones ; in 185s no award was made ; in 1865 to Mr. \nGeorge Warington ; in 1S72 to Rev. George Henslow \nand B. Thompson Lowne ; in 1879, to Mr. G. S. Boulger ; \nin 1886, to Prof. (aft. sir) G. G. Stokes, Pres. B.S. \n\nThe "Fund for the Promotion of Experimental Be- \nsearch" was founded on 6 July ,1863, by sir Henry \nHolland, Professor Faraday, sir R. I. Murchisoii, Dr. \nBence Jones, and others. \nThe first officers were sir Joseph Banks, president, till the \ncharter was granted, afterwards the earl of Winchilsea ; \nMr. (afterwards sir Thomas) Bernard, treasurer; rev.\' \nDr, Samuel Glasse, secretary. \xe2\x80\x94 Algernon duke of \nNorthumberland, E.G., elected president, 1S42; suc- \n\n\n\nceeded by sir Henry Holland, in 1S65 (died 27 Oct. \nl8 73) i by Algernon George, duke of Northumberland \nE.G., 1873. W. Pole, esq., treasurer, elected 1849 ; suc- \nceeded by Wm. Spottiswoode, esq., in 1865 ; by George \nBusk, esq., 1873; by sir Henry Pollock, esq., 1886; by \nsir James Crichton Browne, 1889. The rev. John \nBarlow, secretary, elected 1842 ; succeeded by Henry \nBence Jones, M.D., i860; by Wm. Spottiswoode, \nl8 73 ; by Warren de la Bue, 1879 ; by sir Wm. Bow- \nman, Bart., 1882; by sir Frederick Bramwell, Bart., \n1885. Librarians: Vim. Harris, 1803-23; S. Weller \nSinger, 1826-35: Win. Mason, 1835-48; Benjamin Vin- \ncent, 1849-89 (hon. librarian, 1889); Henry Young, 1889. \n21 eminent foreign scientific men were elected honorary \nmembers, 4 May, 1S91, in relation to the Faraday \ncentenary, which see. \n\nEOYAL MAEEIAGE ACT, &c, see Mar- \nriage Act ; Royal Military and Naval Asylums ; \nNavy, and Prerogative. \n\nEOYAL NAVAL COLLEGE, see Naval. \n\nEOYAL SOCIETY (London). In 1645 \nseveral learned men met in London to discuss philo- \nsophical questions and report experiments ; the \nNovum Organon of Bacon, published in 1620, hav- \ning given great impulse to such pursuits. Some of \nthem (Drs. Wilkins, "Wallis, &c.), about 1648-9, \nremoved to Oxford, and with Dr. (afterwards bishop) \nSeth Ward, the hon. Robert Boyle. Dr. (afterwards \nsir) W. Petty, and several doctors of divinity and \nph}\'sic, frequently assembled in the apartments of \nDr. Wilkins, in Wadham college, Oxford. They \nformed what has been called the Philosophical \nSociety of Oxford, which only lasted till 1690. The \nmembers were, about 1658, called to various parts \nof the kingdom, on account of their respective pro- \nfessions ; and the majority coming to London, con- \nstantly attended the lectures at Gresham college, \nand met occasionally till the death of Oliver Crom- \nwell, 3 Sept. 1658 ; see Societies. \n\nThe society was organised in 1660, and constituted by \nCharles II. a body politic and corporate, by the appella \ntion of " The President, Council, and Fellowship of the \nBoyal Society of London, for improving Natural Enow- \nledge," 22 April, 1662. \n\nEvelyn records the first anniversary meeting, St. An- \ndrew\'s-day, 30 Nov. 1663. \n\nThe Philosophical Transactions begin 6 March, 1664-5. \n\nIn 1668 Newton invented his reflecting telescope (now in \nthe possession of the society), and on 28 April, 1686, \npresented to the society the MS. of his Principia, \nwhich the council ordered to be printed. This was \ndone under the superintendence and at the expense of \nHalley the astronomer, at that time clerk to the \nsociety. \n\nThe society met for some years at Gresham College, and \nafterwards at Arundel House (1606), where it came \ninto possession of a valuable library, presented by Mr. \nHoward, grandson of its collector, the earl of Arundel. \nAfter various changes the fellows returned to Gresham \nCollege, where they remained till their removal to \nCrane-court, in a house purchased by themselves, \n8 Nov. 1710. \n\nThe Bakerian lecture was established by Henry Baker, \n1774- \n\nThe first Copley medal was awarded to Stephen Gray in \n1731 ; the royal medal to John Dalton, 1826 ; the Rum- \nford medal (instituted in 1797) to count Rumford him- \nself in 1800. \n\nThe society remove to apartments granted them in Somer- \nset-house, 1780; to apartments in Burlington-house, \nPiccadilly, 1857. \n\nParliament votes annually 4000?. to the Boyal Society \nfor scientific purposes. \n\nRegulations made by which only fifteen fellows are to be \nannually elected, who pay ten pounds on admission, and \nfourpounds annually, ora composition of sixty pounds, \nMarch, 1S47. In consequence, the number of fellows \nwas reduced from 839 in 1847, to 626 in 1866 ; to 567 in \n1875 ; to 552 in 1S77 ; to 523 in 1888. \nThe. entrance fee abolished, and the annual payment re- \nduced to 3/., announced, Nov. 1878. \n\n\n\nEOYAL SOCIETY. \n\n\n\n839 \n\n\n\nRUNES. \n\n\n\nThe "Royal Society Scientific Fund" was founded in \nimitation of the "Literary Fund" in 1859 ; see Scien- \ntific Fund. \nThe Davy Medal (which see) first awarded, Nov. 1877 \nThe Darwin medal (see Development) first awarded, 1S90. \n\nPRESIDENTS. \n\n1660. Sir Robert Moray. | 1772. Sir John Pringle. \nLord Brouncker. \n\n\n\n!66 3 . \n\n1677. Sir Joseph Williamson \n\n1 680. Sir Christopher Wren. \n\n1682. Sir John Hoskyns. \n\n1683. Sir Cyril Wyche. \n\n1684. Samuel Pepys, author \n\nof Diary. \n1686. John, earl of Carbery. \n\n1689. Thomas, earl of Pem- \n\nbroke. \n\n1690. Sir Robert Southwell. \n1695. Chas. Montague (afts. \n\nearl of Halifax). \n1698. John, lord Somers. \nSir Isaac Newton \n(M.P. for Cam- \nbridge University, \n1688-1705). \nSir Hans Sloane. \nMartin Folkes. \nGeorge, earl of Mac- \nclesfield. \n1764. James, earl of Morton, \n1768. James Burrow. \n\n,, James West. \n1772. James Burrow. \n\n\n\nJ7\xc2\xb03- \n\n\n\n1727. \n1741. \n\n\'752\' \n\n\n\n1778. Sir Joseph Banks. \n\n1820. Dr. W. H. Wollaston. \n,, Sir Humphry Davy. \n\n1827. Davies Gilbert. \n\n1830. Duke of Sussex. \n\n1838. Marquis of North- \nampton. \n\n1848. Earl of Rosse. \n\n1854. Lord Wrottesley. \n\n1858. Sir Benj. C. Brodie. \n\n1861. Maj.-gen. sir Edward \nSabine. \n\n1871. Sir G. B. Airy. \n\n1873. Dr., afterwards sir, \nJoseph Dalton \nHooker. \n\n1878. Wm. Spottiswoode, \ndied 27 June, 1883. \n\n1883. T. H. Huxley, 5 July. \n\n1885. Sir George G. Stokes, \n30 Nov. (M.P., \n18S7), Bart., 1889. \n\n1890. Sir William Thomson, \n1 Dec. (created \nBaron Kelvin, Feb. \n1892.) \n\n\n\nEOYAL SOCIETY of Edinburgh, incor- \nporated 29 March, 1783, arose out of the Philoso- \nphical Society of Edinburgh, founded in 1739. It \nreceived a second charter in 1811. \n\nEOYAL SOCIETY of Literature was \n\nfounded under the auspices of king George IV. in \n1823, and chartered 13 Sept. 1826. \n\nEOYAL STYLE, Sec, see Style, Royal, and \nTitles. \n\nEOYAL UNIVEESITY of Ireland, see \n\nUniversity. \n\nEUBICON, a small river flowing into the \nAdriatic sea, separated Cisalpine Gaul from Italy \nproper. Roman generals were forbidden to pass \nthis river at the head of an army. Julius Crcsar \ndid so, Jan. 49 B.C., and thereby began a revolt and \ndeadly civil war. \n\nEUBLDIUM, an alkaline metal, discovered by \nBunsen by means of the spectrum analysis, and \nmade known in 1861. \n\nEUBEICS, directions in church offices, often \nprinted in red. New ones for the English service \nagreed to by convocation, 4 July, 1879. \n\nEUBY MINES OF Burmaii, Tavernier \n(middle of the 17th century) describes it as a place \nwhere rubies and other precious stones are largely \nobtained, iu a country difficult of access. Similar \naccounts were given by Father Giuseppe d\'Amato, \nabout 1830. The largest stones were royal property. \nMr. Biedemcyer had charge of these and other \nmines in 1868. Ecvcnue about 1855, from 12,500/. \nto 15,000/. per annum. These mines are now \nBritish property (sec under Burmah, 1885), and \nfor the use of them a revenue is paid by the Shan \ntribes, 1887. An agreement respecting them \nmade between the Indian Government and Messrs. \nStrceter & Co. of London, announced May, 1887; \nsuspended July, 1887. "Working licences issued to \npersons on the spot, 1887. Lease for seven years \nto the Strceter Syndicate sinned at the India office, \n22 Feb. 18S9; formation of a company headed by \nMessrs. Rothschild, March et seq., 1889. Visit of \nsir Lepel Uriffin to the mines, satisfactory to the \ncompany, reported March, 1S90. \n\n\n\nEUEFLES became fashionable about 1520; \nand went out about 1790. \nEUGBY SCHOOL (Warwickshire), was \n\nfounded in 1567 by Lawrence Sheriff, a London \ntradesman ; its arrangements were affected by the \nPublic Schools act 1868. Dr. Thomas Arnold, the \nhistorian, entered on the duties of head-master he.\' \nin August, 1828, and under him the school greatly- \nprospered. He died 12 June, 1842. Ilis successors \nwere Drs. Tait, Goulbourn, Temple, and Hayman. \nSee Nexv Rugby. \n\nDr. H. Hayman was opposed by the masters of the \nschool, and after much dissension and discussion, was \ndismissed by the trustees, Dec. 1873, and Dr. Jex \nBlake elected in his room, Feb. 1874. Succeeded by \nRev. J. Percival, Nov. 1886. Vice-Chancellor Malius \ndecided against Dr. Hayman in his attempt to set \naside his dismissal, but expressed his own opinion 011 \n"the grievous hardship of Dr. Hayman\'s case," 21 \nMarch, 1874. \nMr. Disraeli, the premier, presented Dr. Hayman to \n\nthe living of Aldingham, Lancashire, April, 1874. \nPopulation of Rugby in 1881, 0,891 ; 1891, 11,262. \n\nBUGEN, an island in the Baltic, has frequently \nchanged masters, having been held by the Danes, \nSwedes, and Erench. It was transferred to Prussia \nin 1815. \n\nEUHMKOEFF\'S INDUCTION COIL, \n\nsee Induction. \n\n"EULE, BEITANNIA." Nearly all the \nwords are by James Thomson ; the music, ascribed \nto Dr. Arne, is said by Schoelcher (in his life of \nHandel) to have been taken from an air in Handel\'s \n" Occasional Oratorio " composed 1746, but the song \nand music were really printed in Dr. Arne\' s masque \nof "Alfred," 1740. Grove. \n\nEULE-OF-THE-EOAD, see Seas. \n\nEULING MACHINES, used for ruling \npaper with faint lines, for merchants\' account- \nbooks, &c. They were invented by an ingenious \nDutchman, resident in London, in 1782, and were \nsubsequently greatly improved by Woodmason, \nPayne, Brown, and others. They were improved \nin Scotland in 1803. An invention has lately ren- \ndered account-books perfect by the numbering of \nthe pages with types, instead of the numbers being \nwritten by a pen, so that a page cannot be torn out \nfrom them without being discovered. The late Herr \nF. A. Nobert devised a ruling machine in 1845 for \nthe production of microscopical test plates, durras- \ntion gratings, and micrometers, specimens of which \nwere exhibited in 185 1. The test plates contain \nbands of lines in a graduated scries of fineness from \nTomT *\xc2\xb0 20000 \xc2\xb0f a Paris line. \n\nEUM (French rhum), ardent spirit distilled \nfrom sugar lees and molasses, deriving its peculiar \nflavour from a volatile oil. Rum is principally \nmade in the West Indies. The duty (since 1858) on \ncolonial rum imported into the United Kingdom is \n8s. 2cl. per gallon. The duty on rum to be employed \nas methylated spirits was reduced in 1863. \n\nImported. Gallons. \n\n1881 . . 4,816,887 \n\n1882 . . . 7,305,671 \n\n1883 . . 5,979,490 \n\n1884 . . . 7.376,47^ \n\n1885 . . 6,877,581 \n\n1886 . . . 5, 100,010 \n\n1887 . . 6,362,070 \n1890 . . . 6,237,77 1 \n\nEUMFOED MEDAL, see Royal Society. \nEUMP PAELIAMENT, sec Pride\'s Purge. \nEUNES. Alphabetic characters, probably of \nrhtenician origin, but popularly ascribed to the god \n\n\n\nImported. \n\n\nGallons. \n\n\n1848 \n\n\n6,858,981 \n\n\n1851 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 4.745.244 \n\n\n1857 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 6,5x5,683 \n\n\n1863 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 7- I 94,738 \n\n\n1871 \n\n\n7,526,890 \n\n\n1S77 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 7.9 2 \xc2\xb0. I 50 \n\n\n1879 \n\n\n6,946,657 \n\n\n1880 . \n\n\n. 6,107,661 \n\n\n\nBUNNY-MEDE. \n\n\n\n840 \n\n\n\nKUSSIA. \n\n\n\nOdin, cut or scratched on stone monuments, wea- \npons, ornaments, implements, &c, which have been \nhypothetically dated from iooo B.C. to iooo a.d. ; \nprincipally found in Scandinavia and England, and \nsometimes in Western Europe. Professor George \nStephens, of Copenhagen, in his " Old Northern \nEunic Monuments in Scandinavia and England " \n(1866-84), nas given the results of forty years\' \nstudies. \n\nEUNNY-MEDE (council-mead), near Egham, \nSurrey. Here king John granted Magna Charta, \n15 June, 1215. \n\nEUPEBT\'S LAND (N. America), or Bed \nBiver Settlement, formerly the territories of the \nHudson\'s bay company, was made a bishopric in \n1849. See Hudson\'s Bay, Canada, and Manitoba. \n\nEITPTUEE SOCIETY, London, established \n1804; see Truss. \n\nEUEAL CONFEBENCES. A meeling in \nLondon of delegates from rural districts, organised \nin connection with the National Liberal Federation, \nclaiming reform, 10 Dec. 1891. Mr. AY. E. Glad- \nstone addressed the conference, II Dec. 1891. \nA congress of labourers, &c, organized by the \nEastern Counties Conservative Associations, was \nheld at Ely. The Rt. Hon. Henry Chaplin, \n\npresent 29 Jan. 1892 \n\nRural Labourers\' League : Mr. Jesse Collings, \npresident ; 3rd annual meeting, at Westminster ; \nthe duke of Devonshire and Mr. Joseph Chamber- \nlain, present . . \xe2\x80\xa2 . . . 17 Feb. ,, \nRural conference at Leicester . . .2 April, ,, \n\nBUSKIN MUSEUM, see Sheffield, 1881-90. \nBuskin society of London, formed for the promotion \nof Mr. Ruskin\'s opinions in relation to art, in- \naugurated at the London Institution . 21 March, 1890 \n\nEUSSELL ADMINISTBATIONS,* see \n\nBalmerston Administration, &c. \n\nfirst administration (formed on the resignation of sir \nRobert Peel), July, 1846. \n\nFirst lord of the treasury, lord John Russell. \n\nLord chancellor, lord Cottenham (succeeded by lord \nTruro). \n\nLord president of the council, marquis of Lansdowne. \n\nPrivy seal, earl of Minto. \n\nChancellor of the exchequer, Mr. (aft. sir Charles) Wood. \n\nForeign, home, and colonial secretaries, viscount Pal- \nmerston, sir George Grey, and earl Grey. \n\nBoards of control and trade, sir John Hobhouse (aft. lord \nBroughton), and earl of Clarendon (succeeded by Mr. \nLabouchere). \n\nAdmiralty, the earl of Auckland (succeeded by sir \nFrancis Thornhill Baring). \n\nDitchy of Lancaster, lord Campbell (succeeded by the earl \nof Carlisle, late viscount Morpeth). \n\nSecretary at war, Mr. Fox Maule. \n\nPostmaster, marquis of Clanricarde. \n\nPaymaster-general, T. B. Macaulay. \n\nLord John Russell and his colleagues resigned their \noffices, 21 Feb. 1851 ; but were induced (after the \nfailure of lord Stanley\'s party to form an adminis- \ntration) to return to power, 3 March following. \n\n* Lord John Russell, third son of John, duke of \nBedford, was born 19 Aug. 1792; M.P. for Tavistock, \n1813 ; for London, 1841-61 ; was paymaster of the forces, \n1830-34 ; secretary for home department, 1835-9 : f\xc2\xb0 r the \ncolonies, 1839-41 ; first minister, July 1846 to March \n1852 ; secretary for foreign affairs, Dec. 1852 to Feb. \n1853; president of the council, June 1854 to Feb. 1855; \nsecretary for the colonies, March to Nov. 1855 ; secretary \nfor foreign affairs, June 1859 to Oct- 1865, when he suc- \nceeded lord Palmerston as premier ; created a peer, as \nearl Russell, 30 July, 1861. His motion for reform in \nparliament was negatived in 1822 ; adopted 1 March, \n1831 ; he introduced the registration bill and a new \nmarriage bill in 1836 ; introduced and withdrew a reform \nlull, i860; died, 28 May, 1878. \n\n\n\nsecond administration (or continuation of his first)\xc2\xbb \nMarch, 1851. \n\nFirst lord of the treasury, lord John Russell. \n\nPresident of the council, marquis of Lansdowne. \n\nLord privy seal, earl of Minto. \n\nChancellor of the exchequer, sir Charles Wood. \n\nHome, foreign, and colonial secretaries, sir George Grey, \nviscount Palmerston (succeeded by earl Granville, 22 \nDec), and earl Grey. \n\nLord chancellor, lord Truro. \n\nFirst lord of the admiralty, sir Francis T. Baring. \n\nBoard of control, lord Broughton. \n\nBoard of trade, Mr. Labouchere. \n\nSecretary at war, Mr. Fox Maule (aft. lord Panmure, and \nearl of Dalhousie). \n\nPostmaster-general, marquis of Clanricarde. \n\nPaymaster-general, earl Granville. \n\nLord Seymour, earl of Carlisle, <fec. \n\nThis ministry resigned 21 Feb. 1852 ; see Derby Adminis- \ntration. \n\nthird administration. (On the decease of lord Pal- \nmerston, 18 Oct. 1865, earl Russell received Her \nMajesty\'s commands to reconstruct the adminis- \ntration.) \n\nFirst lord of the treasury, John, earl Russell. \n\nLord chancellor, Robert, lord Cranworth. \n\nPostmaster-general, John, lord Stanley of Alderley. \n\nPresident of the poor-law board, Chas. Pelham Villiers. \n\nLord president of the council, George, earl Granville. \n\nJiord privy seed, George, duke of Argyll. \n\nChancellor of the exchequer, Wm. E. Gladstone. \n\nSecretaries\xe2\x80\x94 foreign affairs, George, earl of Clarendon ; \ncolonies, Edward Cardwell ; home, sir George Grey ; \nwar, George, earl de Grey and Ripon, succeeded by \nSpencer, marquis of Hartington, Feb. 1866 ; India, sir \nCharles Wood, resigned (created viscount Halifax); \nsucceeded by earl De Grey, Feb. 1866. \n\nFirst lord of the admiralty, Edward, duke of Somerset. \n\nPresident of the board of trade, Thos. Milner Gibson. \n\nChancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, George J. Gbschen. \n\nSecretary for Ireland, Chichester Fortescue. \n\nThis ministry resigned, 26 June, 1866, in consequence of \na minority on 19 June (see under Beform, and Derby \nAdministrations). \n\nEUSSELL INSTITUTION (Great Coram- \nstreet, London), was founded in 1808 by sir Samuel \nEomilly, Erancis Horner, Dr. Mason Good, Henry \nHallam, sir James Scarlett (aft. lord Abinger), and \nothers. The building comprises a library, news \nroom, billiard room, &c. \n\nEUSSELL . TEI AL. William, lord Eussell\'a \ntrial for complicity in the Eye-house plot was \nmarked by a most touching scene. When he re- \nquested to have some one near him to take notes to \nhelp bis memory, he was answered, that any of \nhis attendants might assist him ; upon which he \nsaid, " My wife is here, and will do it for me." \nHe was beheaded in Lincoln\' s-Inn-Fields, 21 July, \n1683. Lady Eussell survived him forty years, \ndying 29 Sept. 1 723, in her eighty-seventh year, \nHis attainder was reversed, 1 Will. III. 1689. \n\nEUSSIA, the eastern part of ancient Sarmatia. \nThe name is generally derived from the Eoxolani, \na Slavonic tribe. Euric, a Varangian chief, \nappears to have been the first to establish a govern- \nment, 862. His descendants ruled amid many \nvicissitudes till 1598. The progress of the Eussian \npower under Peter the Great and Catherine II. is \nunequalled for rapidity in the history of the world. \nThe established religion of Eussia is the Greek \nchurch, with toleration of other sects, even Mahome- \ntans. By an imperial ukase, in 1802, six universi- \nties were established, viz., at St. Petersburg, \nMoscow, Wilna, Dorpat (in Livonia), Charcov, and \nKasan ; but literature made little progress till the \npresent centuiy, the native publications being \nvery few, and the best books being translations. \nThe Eussian language, though not devoid of \n\n\n\nRUSSIA. \n\n\n\n841 \n\n\n\nEUSSIA. \n\n\n\nelegance, is, to a foreigner, of very difficult pro- \nnunciation : the number of letters and diphthongs is \nforty-two. The population of the empire in 1867, \n82,159,630; in 1872, about 85,685,9.15; in 1877 \n(estimated), 86,952,347; in 1885, 108,843,192. By \nthe first itussian budget (1862), the estimated \nrevenue was 34, 500,000^. ; expenditure, 37,850,000^. \nBesides about 560 cathedrals, about 35,000 churches \n(Greek church, which see). \n\nRussia invaded by the Huns . . . a.d. 376 \nRuric the Norman or Varangian, arrives at Novgorod \n(or New City), and becomes grand duke [anni- \nversary kept 20 Sept. 1862] 862 \n\nOleg successfully invades the Greek empire . . 907 \nBaptism of Olga, widow of duke Igor, at Con- \nstantinople, about 955 \n\nVladimir the Great marries Anne, sister of the \n\nemperor Basil II., and is baptized . . - 988 \nThe Golden Horde of Tartars conquer a large part \n\nof Russia about 1223 \n\nThe grand duke Jurie killed in battle . . \' . 1237 \nAlexander Newski defeats the invading Danes . 1241 \nThe Tartars establish the empire of the khan of \n\nKaptschak, and exercise great influence in Russia 1242 \nHe is made grand duke of Russia by the Tartars . 1252 \n\nMoscow made the capital 1300 \n\nTartar war, ^80 ; Moscow burnt 1383 \n\nTamerlane invades Russia, but retires . . . 1395 \nAccession of Ivan III. the Great\xe2\x80\x94 able and despotic, \n\nfounds the present monarchy 1462 \n\nIvan introduces fire-arms and cannon into Russia . 1475 \nGreat invasion of the Tartars ; consternation of \n\nIvan 1479 \n\nHis general Svenigorod annihilates their power . 1481 \n\nWar with Poland 1506-23 \n\nThe English "Russian company" established . 1553 \n\nRichard Chancellor sent to open the trade . . 1554 \n\nDiscovery of Siberia ,, \n\nThe royal body-guard (the Strelitz) established . 1568 \nIvan solicits the hand of queen Elizabeth of \n\nEngland 1579 \n\nMurder of Feodor I. , last of the race of Ruric, which \n\nhad governed Russia for 700 years . . . . 1598 \nThe imposition of Demetrius (see Impostors). \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nMatins of Moscow . . . .29 May, 1606 \n\nMichael Fedorovitz, of the house of Romanoff, \n\nascends the throne 1613 \n\nFinland ceded to Sweden 1617 \n\nRussian victories in Poland 1654 \n\nSubjugation of the Cossacks 1671 \n\nReign of Ivan and Peter I. or the Great . . . 1682 \n\nPeter sole sovereign 1689 \n\nHe visits Holland and England, and works in the \n\ndockyard at Deptford 1697 \n\nRecalled by a conspiracy of the Strelitz, which he \ncruelly revenges ; 2000 tortured and slain ; he be- \nheads many with his own hand .... 1698 \nThe Russians begin their new year from 1 Jan. (but \n\nretain the old style) 1700 \n\nWar with Sweden ; Peter totally defeated by Charles \n\nXII. at Narva 30 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPeter founds St. Petersburg as a new capital, 27 May, 1703 \n\nThe Strelitz abolished 1704 \n\nCharles XII. totally defeated by Peter at Pultowa, \n\nand flees to Turkey 8 July, 1709 \n\n14,000 Swedish prisoners sent to Siberia ,, \n\nWar with Turkey : Peter and his army cross the \n\nPruth, and are surrounded by the Turks ; they \n\nescape by the energy of the empress Catherine, \n\nwho obtains a truce .... June, 1711 \n\nEsthonia, Livonia, and a large part of Finland \n\nadded to the empire 1715 \n\nPeter visits Germany, Holland, and France . . ,, \n\nThe Jesuits expelled 1718 \n\nConspiracy and mysterious death of prince Alexis \n\n7 Jlll >\', >j \nPeter II. (last of the Romanoffs) deposed, and the \n\ncrown given to Anne of Courland . . . 1730 \n\nElizabeth, daughter of Peter I., reigns, in prejudice \n\nof Ivan VI. , an infant, who is imprisoned for life 1741 \nrefer III. dethroned and murdered, succeeded by \n\nCatherine his wife 1762 \n\nIvan VI., the rightful heir, till now immured, put \n\nto death i7 6 4 \n\nTreaty of KutschOUC Kainardji ; independence of \nthe Crimea and freedom of Black sea . July, 1774 \n\n\n\nRebellion of the Cossacks, 1774 ; suppressed . . 1775 \nSuccessful invasions of the Crimea . . . 1769-84 \nDismemberment of Poland ; commenced by Cathe- \nrine (see Poland), 1772 ; completed . . . 1795 \nCatherine gives her subjects a new code of laws ; \nabolishes torture in punishing criminals ; and \n\ndies J796 \n\nUnsuccessful war with Persia \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRussian treaty with Austria and England . . 1798 \nSuwarrow, with an army joins the Austrians, and \n\nchecks the French in Italy 1799 \n\nMental derangement of Paul, 1800; murdered, \n\n24 March, 1801 \nAlexander I. makes peace with England . May, , , \nHe joins the coalition against France . 11 April, 1805 \nAllies defeated at Austerlitz . . . 2 Dec. ,, \n\nTreaty of Tilsit with France ... 7 July, 1807 \nRussians defeated by the Turks, near Silistria, \n\n26 Sept. 1809 \n\nWar with France June, 1812 \n\nThe Russians defeated at Smolensko, 17 Aug. ; and \n\nat the Borodino 7 Sept. ,, \n\nMoscow burnt by the Russians, 14 Sept. ; retreat of \n\nthe French begins 15 Oct. ,, \n\nAlexander present at the battle of Leipsic, Oct. 1813; \n\nentered Paris March, 1814 \n\nHe visits England June, ,, \n\nForms the Holy Alliance 1815 \n\nThe grand duke Constantine renounces the right of \n\nsuccession 26 Jan. 1822- \n\nDeath of Alexander, 1 Dec. ; Pestal\'s conspiracy \nagainst Nicholas I. ; insurrection of troops at \nMoscow ; suppressed . . . 26-29 Dec. 1825 \nNicholas crowned at Moscow . . .3 Sept. 1826- \n\nWar against Persia 28 Sept. ,, \n\nNicholas visits England ; invested with the order of \n\nthe Garter . . . . \' . \xe2\x80\xa2 9 Jul 3\'. lS2 7 \nPeace between Russia and Persia . . 22 Feb. 182S \nWar between Russia and the Ottoman Porte declared \n(see Turkey and Battles) . . . 26 April, ,, \n\nPeace of Adrianople 14 Sept. 1829 \n\nThe war for the independence of Poland against \n\nRussia (see Poland) .... 29 Nov. 1830 \nFailure of the expedition against Khiva . Jan. 1840 \n\nTreaty of London (see Syria) . . 15 July, ,, \nThe emperor Nicholas arrives in London . 1 June, 1844 \nThe grand duke Constantine arrives at Portsmouth \n\nin the Ingermanland, of 74 guns . 9 June, 1846 \n\n[For the participation of Russia in the Hungarian \n\nwar of 1848-9, see Hungary.] \nRussia demands the expulsion of the Hungarian \nand Polish refugees from Turkey (see Turkey) \n\n5 Nov. 1849 \nThey are sent to Konieh, in Asia Minor . Jan. 1850 \nConspiracy against the emperor detected 6 Jan. ,, \nHarbour of Sebastopol completed . . Feb. ,, \nThe emperor decrees seven men in each thousand \nof the population of Western Russia to be enrolled \nin the army, giving a total increase of 180,000 \n\nsoldiers Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSt. Petersburg and Moscow railway begun . . 1851 \n\nThe czar visits Vienna .... 8 May, 1852 \nConcentrates forces on frontiers of Turkey . Feb. 1853 \nOrigin of the Russo-Turkish war (which see, and \n\nHoly Places) March, ,, \n\nConference between the emperors of Russia and \n\nAustria at Olmutz . . . .24 Sept. ,, \n\nAnd king of Prussia at Warsaw . . . 2 Oct. ,, \nInterview of Mr. J. Sturge aud other quakers with \n\nthe czar to obtain peace .... Feb. 1854 \nThe northern provinces put iu a state of siege, \n\nS March, ,, \nThe czar issues a manifesto to his subjects ; he will \ncombat only for the faith and Christianity, \n\n23 April, ,, \nDeath of the czar Nicholas, and accession of Alex- \nander II. ; no change of policy . . 2 .March, 1855 \nMost extensive levy ordered by the czar (at \n\nNicolaieff) 3 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nHe visits his army at Sebastopol . . 10 Nov. ,, \nDeath of prince Ivan Paskiewitsch, aged 74 1 Feb. 1856 \nTreaty of peace at Paris . . . 30 March, ,, \nAlexander Gortschakoll" foreign minister and chan- \ncellor 29 April, ,, \n\nAmnesty granted to the Poles, 27 May : live poli- \ntical offenders, &c. ; Alexander II. crowned at \nMoscow 7 Sept. \n\n\n\nKUSSIA. \n\n\n\n842 \n\n\n\nKUSSIA. \n\n\n\nManifesto on account of the English and French \ninterference in the affairs of Naples . 2 Sept. 1856 \n\nSt. Petersburg and Warsaw railway begun by go- \nvernment, 1851 ; ceded to Great Russian railway \ncompany (about 335 miles, the half completed) . ,, \n\nGrand duke Constantine visits France and England, \n\n.April, 1857 \n\nThe czar meets the emperor Napoleon at Stutgardt, \n25 Sept. ; and the emperor of Austria at Weimar, \n\n1 Oct \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPartial emancipation of the serfs on the imperial \ndomains . . . . . . .2 July, 1858 \n\nA Russian naval station established at Villa Franca, \non the Mediterranean, creates some political ex- \ncitement Aug. ,, \n\nNew commercial treaty with Great Britain 12 Jan. 1859 \n\nRussia reproves the warlike movements of the Ger- \nman confederation duringthe Italian war, 27 May, ,, \n\nThe czar protests against the recognition of the \nsovereignty of peoples 13 Feb. 1S60 \n\nFruitless meetings of the emperors of Russia and \nAustria and the regent of Prussia at Warsaw \n\n20-25 Oct. ,, \n\nTreaty with China for enlargement of commerce \n\n1 Jan. 1S61 \n\nDecree for the total emancipation of the serfs \n(23,000,000) throughout the. empire in two years \n\n- (19 Feb.) ........ 3 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDemonstrations and repression in Poland (which sec) \n\nFeb. -April, \xe2\x80\x9e \nDisturbances in South Russia, caused by an im- \npostor asserting himself to be a descendant of \n\n- Peter III. ; many peasants shot or flogged \n\nMay and June, ,, \nInundations at Kiev, Moscow; 615 houses under \n\nwater May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDeath of prince Michael Gortschakoff, governor of \nPoland ... . . . 14 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nStudent riots at the university of St. Petersburg, \n\nwhich is closed, 6-9 Oct. .; reopened . 24 Oct. ,, \nThe nobles sign a petition for a political constitution \n\nNov. ,, \nIncreased privileges granted to the Jews . 26 Jan. 1862 \nDeath of Nesselrode, the chancellor of the empire, \n\n20 March, ,, \nAlarming increase of fires at St. Petersburg and \nMoscow ; the government suppresses various edu- \n. cational institutions .... June, ,, \n\nRussia recognises the kingdom of Italy 10 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n1000th anniversary of the foundation of the Rus- \nsian monarchy at Novgorod, celebrated 20 Sept. ,, \nRe-organisation of the departments of justice de- \n\xe2\x96\xa0 creed ; juries to be enrployed in trials, &c. 14 Oct. ,, \nTrade tax bill introduced, admitting foreigners to \n]nerchants\'"guilds, &c. . . . 26 Nov. ,, \n\nInsurrection in Poland . . . 22-24 J an - 1863 \n\n[For events, see Poland.] \nTermination of serfdom . . . 3 March, ,, \n\nProvincial institutions established throughout \n\nRussia 13 Jan. 1864 \n\nGreat victory over the Oubykhs in the Caucasus, 31 \n\nMarch ; emigration of the Caucasian tribes into \n\nTurkey, April ; submission of the A\'ibgas ; the \n\nwar declared to be at an end ... 2 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe cesarevitch betrothed to the princess Dagmar \n\nof Denmark ..... 28 Sept- ,, \n\nSerfdom abolished in the Trans-Caucasian provinces : \n\nnew judicial system promulgated . . Dec. ,, \nThe Russian nobles request the emperor to esta- \nblish two houses of representatives [declined] \n\n24 Jan. 1865 \nNew province, " Turkestan," in central Asia, created \n\n14 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe cesarevitch Nicholas dies at Nice . 24 April, ,, \nIndustrial exhibition at Moscow closes . 16 July, ,, \nCensorship of the press relaxed ; law begins, 13 Sept. ,, \nRupture with the pope, on account of Russian \n\nseverity to Polish clergy . . Jan. and Feb. 1866 \nAssembly of the nobility ; short, stormy session \n\nMarch, ,, \nInauguration of. trial by jury in Russia . 8 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nKarakozow attempts to assassinate the czar, 16 \nApril ; after long investigation into the origin of \nthe plot, he is executed ... 15 Sept. ,, \nWar with Bokhara ; conflicts with varying results ; \n\nRussians advance in May, ct seq. ; ended . Nov. ,, \nMarriage of prince Alexander, heir to the crown, to \nprincess Dagmar of Denmark . \xe2\x80\xa2 . \xe2\x80\xa2 9 Nov. ,, \n\n\n\nEmancipation of many state serfs in Poland, n Nov. 1866 \nThree decrees for abolishing the remains of Polish \n\nnationality 1 Jan. 1S67 \n\nCongress of Slavonian deputies at Moscow 5 May, ,, \nRussian America sold to the United States for \n7,000,000 dollars, by treaty, 13 March; ratified \n\niS May, ,, \nAmnesty in favour of the Poles . . 29 May, ,, \nThe czar visits Paris (which see) . . . June, ,, \nEscapes assassination by Berezowski, a Pole, \n\n6 June, ,, \nDecree for the use of the Russian language in the \n\nBaltic provinces 7 July, ,, \n\nA Romanist college to replace the authority of the \n\npope, established at St. Petersburg . 2 Aug. ,, \nThe separate interior government in Poland sup- \npressed 29 Feb. 1868 \n\nSamarcand taken by Kaufmann . . 26 May, ,, \nAmnesty for political offences granted . 6 June, ,, \nPolish language interdicted in public places in \n\nPoland July, ,, \n\nThe Government Messenger, official journal, published \n\nat St. Petersburg 13 Jan. 1869 \n\nSocialist secret conspiracy among the students, \nheaded by Sergius Netschajew, detected ; the in- \nformer assassinated Jan. 1870 \n\nBurlingame, Chinese envoy, arrives . 2 Feb. ,, \nDies at St. Petersburg . . . .22 Feb. ,, \n\nRussia neutral in the Franco-Prussian war July, ,, \nSaid to be arming, 20 Sept. ; contradicted 27 Sept. ,, \nFruitless visit of M. Thiers at St. Petersburg on \n\nbehalf of the French government . 27 Sept. ,, \nDiplomatic circular of prince Gortschakoff, foreign \nminister, repudiating the clauses of the treaty of \n30 March, 1856, respecting the Black Sea, 31 Oct. ; \nreceived by earl Granville, 9 Nov. , who replies, \nmaintaining the force of the treaty . 10 Nov. ,, \nVigorous protest of British and Austrian govern- \nments 16 Nov. ,, \n\nDecree for forming military reserves, about 16 Nov. ,, \nConciliatory despatch from prince Gortschakoff to \nearl Granville, agreeing to a conference for revi- \nsion of the treaty of 1856 . . . 20 Nov. ,, \nPrussian government expresses surprise at Gortscha- \nkoff s circular, and proposes a conference \n\nabout 26 Nov. ,, \nFirm courteous despatch from earl Granville, con- \nsenting to a conference which shall "assemble \nwithout any foregone conclusion " . 28 Nov. ,, \nThe other powers agree to a conference 7 Dec. ,, \nRe-organisation of the army ordered . . Jan. 1871 \nThe conference meets in London . .17 Jan. ,, \nThe Black Sea clauses abrogated (see Black Sea), by \n\ntreaty, signed 13 March, ,, \n\nSchamyl, the Circassian chief, dies about April, ,, \nThe grand duke Wladimir visits England . June, ,, \nMilitary exercises, sham battles round St. Peters- \nburg, 30,000 engaged ; emperor present, \n\n15-23 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nTrial of persons implicated in a socialist conspiracy \n(at St. Petersburg) ; many condemned to impri- \nsonment . Sept. ,, \n\nElectric telegraph between St. Petersburg and Naga- \nsaki, Japan, completed .... Nov. ,, \n\n200th anniversary of the birth of Peter the Great, \n30 May, 1672 (o.s.), solemnly observed by the court \nand nation . . . . . .11 June, 1S72 \n\nPeter the Great ironclad (incomplete) launched at \n\nSt. Petersburg Aug. ,, \n\nGreat Russian Encyclopaedia undertaken by prof. \n\nBeresina autumn ,, \n\nReconnoitring expedition to Khiva ; defeat of gen. \n\nMarkosoff announced .... Dec. ,, \nDiplomatic visit of count Schouvaloff to London \nrespecting this ; presented to the queen ; Russian \nconcessions reported satisfactory . 13 Jan, 1S73 \nExpeditions against Khiva start . . March, ,, \nThe emperor of Germany warmly received at St. \n\nPetersburg 27 April, ,, \n\nThe Shah of Persia visits St. Petersburg 22-31 May, ,, \nKhiva surrenders, 10 June ; a rebellion suppressed, \xe2\x96\xa0 \n\nJuly, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nJumuden Turcomans defeated at Tsehandyr \n\n25* 27 July, ,, \nNew treaty with Bokhara, published . . Dec. ,, \nMarriage of the grand duchess Marie with the duke of \n\nEdinburgh 23 Jan. 1874 \n\nVisit of the emperor of Austria at St. Petersburg, \n\n\n\nKUSSIA. 843 \n\n\n\nRUSSIA. \n\n\n\n13 Feb. ; the czar in proposing his he.ilth, says, \n"111 the friendship which binds us and also tlie \nemperor William and the queen Victoria, I see a \nmost sure guarantee of peace" . . 15 Feb. 1874 \nThe czar visits England . . . 13-21 May, ,, \nCount Sehouvaloff succeeds Bruunow as ambas- \n. sador in London .... autumn, ,, \nNew law for organization of the army . . Sept. ., \nSon born to the duke of Edinburgh and grand- \nduchess Marie 15 Oct. ,, \n\nVisit of the empress and the cesaievitch to England \n\n15 Oct.-24 Nov. ,, \nMitrophania, mother abbess, of Serpouehow, Mos- \n. cow, prosecuted for fabricating commercial bills ; \nconvicted, and sentenced to 14 years\' exile, Nov. ,, \nInternational telegraphic conference at St. Peters- \nburg; 1 \xe2\x80\x94 19 July, 1375 \n\nExpedition (with scientific men) to Krasnovodsk, \n\nCentral Asia, spoken of ... . Aug. ,, \nWar with Khokand (wJiich see) . 4 Sept. \xe2\x80\x94 Oct. ,, \nCommercial panic through failure of Dr. Strousberg, \na German railway speculator, at Moscow, Prague, \n\nand Berlin Nov. ,, \n\nAt a dinner of " Knights of St. George," the czar \ndeclares that the three emperors are united to \n\nmaintain peace 8 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBaltic provinces (formerly a provincial federation \nwith a governor), incorporated with the empire \nunder the ministry of the interior, on the death \nof the governor Bagration . . . 29 Jan. 1376 \nKhokand, formally annexed (as Ferghana) 29 Feb. ,, \nProsecution of-a sect "White Doves" (Skoptzi) \n\nApril, ,, \nWarlike enthusiasm : . Russian volunteers in the \n\nServian army July-Sept. ,, \n\nDepression through Servian defeats . . Oct. ,, \nPacific declaration of the czar to lord Aug. Loftus \n\n2 Nov. ,, \n\nThe czar, in an address at Moscow, says that if suf- \n\nlicient guarantees are not given by Turkey, he \n\nwill act independently ... 10 Nov. ,, \n\nDr. Strousberg and others tried for fraud, &c, Nov. ; \n\nhe- is sentenced to banishment from Russia \n\n14 Nov. ,, \nEnthusiasm for Bulgarians ; partial mobilisation of \n\nthe army ordered . . . about 14 Nov. ,, \nInternal loan of 10 million roubles . 19 Nov. ,, \nGreat enthusiasm for Bulgarians ; war declared, and \n\nbegun 24 April, 1S77 \n\nSee Turkey ; and Russd-Turhish War, 1877. \nThe czar warmly received at Moscow, 4 May ; and \n\nSt. Petersburg 7 May, ,, \n\nGreat trial of Nihilists for revolutionary propa- \n\ngandism, begun about .... 31 Oct. ,, \nRussian loan of 15,000,000?. at 5 per cent, announced \n\n12 Nov. ,, \nThe czar at St. Petersburg ; celebrates centenary \n\nanniversary of birth of Alexander I. 23 Dec. ,, \n\nIll-feeling against Bulgarians . . . Dec. ,, \nNihilist trial ended ; about 160 sentenced to hard \n\nlabour ; about 90 acquitted, . about 9 Feb. 1878 \nTreaty of peace with Turkey signed at San Stefano ; \n\nEurope dissatisfied .... 3 March, ,, \nVera Zasulitch (or Sassulitch), a young woman, who \nacknowledged firing at gen. Trepotf, prefect of St. \nPetersburg (5 Feb.), for severity to prisoners, ac- \nquitted by jury 12 April, ,, \n\nBeported spread of Nihilism in Kieff, Moscow, &c. \n\nApril, \xe2\x80\x9e \nPublic depression : feeling against Bulgarians ; de- \nsire to get quit of the Eastern question \n\nMay- June, ,, \nConference at Berlin (whicli scr) meets 13" June; \n\ntreaty signed 13 July, ,, \n\nCen. Kaufmaim\'s advance on the Oxus to occupy \n\nBalkh ; reported Aug. ,, \n\nNihilists tried and condemned at Odessa ; riots \n\nensued 5 Aug. ,, \n\nGeneral disaffection to the government ; general De \nMesentzoff, chief of police, assassinated in the \nstreet in St. Petersburg . . . 16 Aug. ,, \nNew 5 per cent, loan (300,000,000 roubles) issued on \n\nbonds 2 g, 30, 31 Aug. ,, \n\nUkase decreeing state offences to be punished by \n\nmilitary law .... end of Aug. ,, \n\nGen. Drentelen made chief of police . . 6 Oct. ,, \nStudents at a college in St. Petersburg present an \naddress to the cesarevitch complaining of griev- \n\n\n\nances, 11 Dec; they are attacked and punished \nby the police and cossacks, 12 Dec; they issue an \n\naddress soon after Dec. \n\nPrince Demetrius Krapotkine, governor, assassi- \nnated while returning from a ball at Kharkoff, \n\n21 or 22 l-\'eli. \n\nAttempted assassination of Drentelen, 25 March ; and \n\nof the czar by Alexander Solovieff, a schoolmaster, \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0with a revolver 14 April, \n\nThe poll tax abolished by ukase . . . April, \nRiots at Rostoff on the Don suppressed by military, \n\n14 April, \nUkase establishing martial law in the provinces of \nSt. Petersburg, Moscow, Kieff, Odessa, and War- \nsaw, dated 17 April, \n\n"Land and Liberty," a Nihilist newspaper, freely \n\n..yet surreptitiously circulated . . . April\'. \n\nSolovieff condemned, 7 June ; executed . 9 June \n\nDiscontent at the small results of the war . July, \n\nTrials, convictions, and executions of Nihilists at \n\nKieff and Odessa .... May-Aug. \n\nGen. Lazareff, commander of expedition against the \n\nTekke Turkomans, dies at Tehat about 13 Aug. \n\nGen. Lomakine succeeds in command ; severe battle \n\nat Geok Tepe .or Dengli Tepe ; Russians said to \n\n. be victorious, yet retreat with heavy loss \n\n28 Aug. (O.S.), 9 Sept. \nTergukasoff succeeds Lomakine in command, 25 Sept. \nLeon Mirsky condemned to death for attempted \nassassination of gen. Drentelen, chief of police \n\n27, 28 Nov. \nCount Sehouvaloff, ambassador at London, resigns, \n\n27 Nov. \nAttempted assassination of the czar, by undermin- \ning railway train near Moscow ; none hurt ; bag- \ngage carriages destroyed . . . 1 Dec. \nThe newspaper Gofos suspended for 6 months, 4 Dec. \nProclamation of the executive revolutionary com- \nmittee justifying the attempted assassination on \n\n1 Dec 4 Dec. \n\nPlot to blow up the Winter Palace, St. Petersburg, \n\ndiscovered 12 Dec. \n\n"Will of the People" revolutionary paper freely \n\ncirculated Nov. Dec. \n\nExplosion in a guard-room filled with dynamite and \ngun-cotton under the dining-room of the Winter \nPalace, St. Petersburg ; the czar and family escape \nthrough, being a little late for dinner ; 11 soldiers \nkilled ; 47 wounded; between 6.0 and 7.0 I\'.\'m., \n\n17 Feb. \n\nHartmann, owner of a house near the explosion, \n\narrested at Paris .... about 20 Feb. \n\nPanic at St. Petersburg ; ukase issued ; appointing \n\nsupreme executive commission, gen. Loris Meli- \n\nkoff, president, with extensive powers ; virtual \n\ndictator 24 Feb. \n\nExtradition of Hartmann requested by Russia ; \n\ndeclined March, \n\nTwenty-fifth anniversary of the czar\'s accession cele- \nbrated at St. Petersburg ... 2 March, \nHippolyte Molodzoff (Mladetsky, or Wladitsky, or \nMlodecki), a converted Jew, fires at gen. Loris \nMelikoff, 4 March ; hanged . . .5 March, \nHartmann expelled from France ; goes to England ; \nPrince Orlotf, ambassador, quits France, \n\nabout 6 March, \nNihilist trials at St. Petersburg : sentences In death \nand imprisonment (Dr. Weimar and others) ; com- \nmuted May, \n\nDeath of the empress after a long illness, 3 June, \n21 extreme Nihilists convicted at Kieff (capital sen- \ntences remitted) . . . . about 7 Aug. \nUkase of 24 Feb. superseded ; Melikoff, who had \ngoverned well, appointed minister of the interior, \nwith charge of the police . . . 18 Aug. \nCount Loris Melikoff\'s scheme for administrative \nreform sanctioned by the czar ; announced 3 Oct.; \nput into action . . . . 2; < let. > \' , \n" liussia," new national daily paper, published Oct \nGreat Nihilist trial at St. Petersburg for assassina- \ntions, explosion at Winter Palace. \\c ; sentences, \nKviatofski and 4 others condemned to death: \n8 men and 3 women to imprisonment . to Nov. \nMlat \xe2\x96\xa0.-! 1 11 I I\'ll, ssu ;koll It nig :1 n V\\ \n\nGen. Skobeleff\'s expedition into Central Asia, \n\ns 1 Dec. \nSevere conflicts with the Tekke Turkomans, 14 Jan. 1 \nGeok Tepe besieged ; taken . . . 24 Jan. \n\n\n\nEUSSIA. \n\n\n\nBUSSIA. \n\n\n\nAssassination of the czar Alexander II. "by explosion \nof a "bomb ; assassin himself killed ; Risakoff \nseized ..... 2 p.m. 13 March, ] \n\nA mine for explosion discovered in the middle of St. \nPetersburg .... about 15 March, \n\nCircular of the new czar Alexander III. to foreign \npowers ; he will aim at moral and material de- \nvelopment of Russia, and a pacific foreign policy \n\n16 March, \n\nManifesto from the Nihilist executive committee to \nthe czar offering peace, if an amnesty with a legis- \nlative assembly to be elected by universal suffrage, \nfree press, &c, be granted . . 22 March, \n\nSophie Peroffskaja, and other Nihilists, arrested \n\n23 March, \n\nThe czar\'s magnificent funeral at St. Petersburg ; \nthe prince and princess of Wales present, 27 March, \n\nA representative council for St. Petersburg elected \nabout 31 March, \n\nTrial of Risakoff, Sophie Peroffskaja, Jelaboff, Jessie \nor Hessie Heljmann, Kibaichick, and Michailoff \n(four men and two women), all condemned to \ndeath 8, 9 April, \n\nThe Tekkes submit ; maraudings cease ; object of \nSkobeleff\'s expedition accomplished ; announced \n\n9 April, \n\nRisakoff and others hanged ; Heljmann {enceinte) \nreprieved 15 April, \n\nTreaty of peace with China announced . April, \n\nNihilist manifesto styling the assassins " martyrs," \n&e. 16 April, \n\nChanges in ministerial offices ; tendency to reduce \nautocracy of the czar announced . about 4 May, \n\nUkase supplementary to that of 19 Feb. 1861, for \nemancipating serfs, remitting payments to many \npeasant proprietors ; announced . early May, \n\nReactionary proclamations in favour of autocracy \n(29 April), 11 May ; resignation of count Loris \nMelikoff and other liberal ministers soon after, \n\nabout 13 May, \n\nGeneral Ignatieff, chief minister, issues manifesto, \ndeclaring for suppression of rebellion, and promis- \ning reforms ; manifesto from Nihilists offering \npeace if reforms be granted . . 23 May, \n\nThe czar, closely guarded, living in close seclusion ; \ncontinued policy of repression . . . June, \n\nThe czar well received at Moscow, <fcc. , 30 July ; \nthe czar meets the emperor of Germany at Dantzic \n3 Sept. ; stringent decree respecting public order \n\n21 Sept. \n\nTreaty with Persia signed . . .22 Dec. \n\nNihilist trials at St. Petersburg; 10 sentenced to \ndeath, 28 Feb. ; commuted to penal servitude \n(except Suchanoff, to be shot) . . March, \n\nGen. Strelnikoff, public prosecutor, assassinated at \nOdessa by two students, 30 March ; executed \n\n3 April, \n\nRetirement of the chancellor and foreign minister, \nGortschakoff (his policy war-like); succeeded by \nhis assistant De Giers . . about 9 April, \n\nMine discovered under Moscow cathedral ; 80 work- \nmen arrested .... about 15 April, \n\nGeneral Kaufmann died, aged 64 . .16 May, \n\nDecree for the gradual abolition of the poll tax \n(imposed by Peter the Great) . beginning June, \n\nIgnatieff resigns ; succeeded by count Tolstoi \nabout 12 June, \n\nDeath of general Scobeleff, the hero of Plevna, aged \n\n39 7 July. \n\nGeneral Tchernaieff appointed to command in Cen- \ntral Asia \n\nSuccessful exhibition of Russian arts and manu- \nfactures summer, \n\nRevival of the Russian navy determined on . \n\nTranquillity restored ; great festivities through the \nvisit of the duke and duchess of Edinburgh \n\nJan.\xe2\x80\x94 Feb. \n\nDeath of prince Gortschakoff, aged 85 n March, \n\nArrest of 200 persons at St. Petersburg \n\nabout 20 March, \n\nTrial of Nihilists at St. Petersburg: some sentenced \nto death (remitted), others to imprisonment \n\n19 April, \n\nThe emperor and empress crowned with great cere- \nmony at Moscow 27 May, \n\nPatriotic and pacific manifesto, and amnesty, 27 \nMay ; and popular festival . . 2 June, \n\n\n\nPoll tax abolished for the poorest, reduced for \nothers (1 Jan. 1884) on . . . .8 June, 1 \n\nThe czar and the kings of Denmark and Greece \nbreakfast with Mr. Gladstone on board the Pem- \nbroke Castle, Copenhagen ... 18 Sept. \n\nReported discovery of a great conspiracy at St. \nPetersburg ; many arrests . . about 27 Sept. \n\nGovernment projects for re-modelling the com- \nmunes published Oct. \n\nGrand funeral of Tourgenieff at St. Petersburg 9 Oct. \n\nFoundation of memorial church at the place where \nAlexander II. was assassinated at St. Petersburg \nlaid by the czar 16 Oct. \n\n63 Nihilists sentenced to Siberia . . 19 Oct. \n\nLieut. Sudeikin, chief of secret police, and his \nnephew, M. Sadovsky, assassinated at St. Peters- \nburg ; attributed to Nihilists aided by Jablonsky, \na subordinate, whose life he had saved \n\nnight of 28-29 Dec. \n\n37 students at Moscow arrested announced 9 Jan. : \n\nLoyal address of the nobles to the czar, advocating \nunion of nobles and peasantry . . .25 Jan. \n\nSurrender of Merv to Russia, effected by general \nKomaroff .... announced 14 Feb. \n\nProposals for state loan not taken up, Nov. 1883 ; \nanother loan at 6 per cent, offered in open market \nabout 3 Dec. 1883 ; taken up . . April, \n\nConvention with Persia for cession of Sarakhs \n(threatening to Afghanistan) reported 6 May, \n\nThe majority of the cesarevitch (aged 16) declared \n\n18 May, \n\nDeath of general Todleben, born 1818 . 1 July, \n\nAlleged dynamite conspiracy against the czar at \nWarsaw 8 Sept. \n\nMaria Wassilieona Kaliouchnaia, at Odessa, sen- \ntenced to 20 years\' hard labour for attempt to \nshoot colonel Katensky . . . about 11 Sept. \n\nThe czar meets the emperois of Germany and \nAustria at Skiernievice, near Warsaw 15,16 Sept. \n\nThe letters of "Stepniak" and others expose the \ncruel, dishonest, and unscrupulous conduct of \ngovernment officials in prohibiting the diffusion \nof knowledge and literature ; proposed united op- \nposition of the nobility and peasantry Sept.-Oct. \n\nThe circulation of many religious books prohibited \n\n14 Nihilists (including officers and 3 women, one, \nMary F. Figner) convicted by secret court martial ; \n8 sentenced to death at St. Petersburg, 11 Oct. ; \ntwo men executed 18 Oct. \n\nThe Nihilist journal, Narodnaia Volia, reappears \n\nabout 27 Oct. \n\nSir Robert Morier, British ambassador at St. Peters- \nburg \n\nGreat discontent among workmen and peasantry Jan. \n\nMission of M. Lessar, engineer-diplomatist to London \nrespecting central Asian boundaries . Feb. \n\nShip canal from St. Petersburg to Cronstadt com- \npleted, Feb. ; opened . . . .27 May, \n\nRussians advance to about 90 miles from Herat, \nand hold Zulfikar pass .... Feb. \n\nThree courses before them : to retire ; to remain \nand negotiate ; to make war . . .1 March, \n\nArrangement that no further advance on the \n"debated or debatable ground" be made by \nRussians or Afghans (since termed a " solemn \ncovenant") .... 16 or 17 March, \n\nGen. Komaroff attacks the Afghans at Aktapa, on \nthe river Kushk, alleging provocation ; hundreds \nof Afghans killed, others perish from exposure, \nand the rest retire from their camp ; 53 Russians \nkilled and wounded, 30 March ; his statements \ncontroverted by sir Peter Lmnsden, 14 April, \n\nBritish government announce agreement to arbitra- \ntion (by Denmark) .... 4 May el seq. \n\nThe Russian general Komaroff, near the Kushk and \nMurghab rivers, commands the Afghans to \nretire ; on their refusal, attacks them at Ak- \ntapa (or Aktepe or Pul-i-khusti), near Penjdeh ; \ndefeats them with much slaughter, and captures \nartillery and stores ; many Afghans perish in the \nretreat through exposure, 30 March ; sir Peter \nLumsden reports the attack on the Afghans to \nhave been unprovoked . . about 21 April \n\nThe British government prepares for war with \ngreat energy ; strongly supported by the colonies \nand Indian princes. \n\nBritish government statement : new agreement \nwith Russia ; arbitration respecting fight on \n\n\n\nRUSSIA. \n\n\n\nS45 \n\n\n\nRUSSIA. \n\n\n\nMarch 30 accepted 4 May ; Denmark accepts \nwork of arbitration .... May, 1885 \n\nAgreement on delimitation settled by earl Gran- \nville and earl of Kimberley, with MM. de Staal \nand Lessar ; approval reported . 30 May, ,, \n\nCordial meeting of the czar and the emperor of \nAustria at Kremsier in Moravia . 25, 26 Aug. ,, \n\nThe Afghan boundary question settled 10 Sept. ,, \n\nDiscovery of plot against the czar ; arrest of \nmilitary officers and others . . . April, 1886 \n\nTchcsme ironclad launched by the czar at \nSebastopol (other vessels constructing) 18 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRussia violates treaty of Berlin by declaring \nBatoum not to be a free port . . July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nHonours and income of the younger members of \nthe imperial family much diminished, announced \n\nJuly, n \n\nEussian interference in Bulgaria (which see) \n\nSept-Dec. ,, \nPlot against the czar ; students with dynamite \nand other explosives, detected 13 March ; 200 \n\narrested March, 1S87 \n\nThree plotters executed 31 March ; seven political \noffenders sentenced to death, the rest to various \nterms of imprisonment, 1 May ; more arrests \nabout 18 May ; five executed . . 16 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nPrince Nicholas, the cesarevitch, made chief \nAtaman (Hetman) of all the Cossacks at Novo- \n\nTcherkask 18 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nN. Katkoff, journalist and politician, editor of the \nMoscow Gazette, Russophile, died, aged about 69, \n\n1 Aug. ,, \nStatement in the Cologne Gazette of the existence of \nforged letters purporting to come from prince \nBismarck (see Germany) .... Nov. ,, \nBaron Hirsch\'s present of 2,000,000?. for the \nestablishment of primary Jewish schools in \nRussia, accepted by the czar ; the money to be \npaid into the bank of England, trustees, barons \nRothschild and Henry de Worms, announced \nNov. ; said to be premature . . . Dee. ,, \nMovement of troops on the Galician border causes \n\nexcitement in Berlin and Vienna . Nov. -Dec. ,, \nThe Involute Eusse, a government organ, declares \nthat Russia desires peace but is prepared for war, \n\n15 Dec. ,, \nThe stringent restrictions on the studies of the \nuniversities lead to much insubordination among \nthe students, and severe punishment ; the \nuniversities of Moscow, St. Petersburg, Odessa, \nand many other academical institutions closed ; \nnearly all the undergraduate class in a state of \n\nrebellion Nov.-Dec. ,, \n\nLord Randolph Churchill visits Russia ; received \n\nby the czar 26 Dec. ,, \n\nReported conspiracy ; many arrests about 9 Jan. 188: \nReported surplus in the budget, yet a loan asked \n\nfor ; unsuccessful at Paris and Berlin . Jan. ,, \nMoscow and other universities re-opened . Feb. ,, \nFor prince Ferdinand\'s position (see Bulgaria) \n\nFeb. -March, ,, \nThe highest courts of law decide against the claim \nof prince Hohenlohe to inherit the vast Wittgen- \nstein estates in Lithuania, as a foreigner (in \naccordance with the Ukase, 14 March, 1887), \n\nMarch, ,, \nAttempted assassination of the czar by lieut. \n\nTimofeieff (mad ?) May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nVisit of the emperor of Germany to the czar at \n\nPeterhof. 19-23 July. >> \n\nNinth centenary of the introduction of Christianity \n\ncelebrated at Kieff .... 27 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nCentral Asian (or Transcaspian) railway opened ; \n\npromoted by general Anhenkoff . . May, ,, \nNear Borki station in S. Russia, the engine of the \nimperial train (with the czar) ran off the line with \nfour carriages (weak rails); 21 persons killed, \nthe czar slightly injured ... 29 Oct. ,, \nAgreement for 20,000,000?. loan signed at St. Peters- \nburg, 18 Nov. ; chiefly taken up by the French \n\nDec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nTh i grand council disapproves of the administrative \nchanges proposed by count Tolstoi substituting \ncentralization for local self-government which, \nhowever, are approved by the czar (1 ); the \nZemstvo, established about 1864, being virtually \nabolished, Feb. 18 \n\n\n\nLoau of 700,000,000 francs concluded with the \nRothschilds and other bankers for the conversion \nof five per cent loans into four per cent . Feb. 188 \n\nCaptain Atchinoff, with a company of S. Cossacks \n(145 men with muskets and guns, also priests, \nwomen and children), evading French and \nItalian cruisers, landed at Tadjourah, in the bay \nof Obock, near the French settlement, on the \nRed Sea, on 18 Jan., professing to combine \nmissionary and commercial enterprise in Abys- \nsinia. He took possession of a fort at Sagallo, and \nhoisted the Russian flag. After useless negotia- \ntion, theFrenchadmiralOlry on iSFeb. bombarded \nthe fort, killing 6 Russians ; the party then sur- \nrendered and were eventually conveyed to Russia. \nThe French government virtually apologised for \nthe precipitate conduct of the admiral Feb. ,. \n\nAlleged discovery of a dynamite conspiracy, \nespecially in the south, originating in Zurich \n(discredited) March, ,. \n\nDeath of count Tolstoi, minister of the interior, \n\n7 May. . \nSecond four per cent loan announced, completing \n\nthe financial scheme .... 13 May, , \nThe czarewitch, aged 21, appointed to military and \n\npolitical office 18 May, , \n\nMarriage of the archduke Paul and the princess \n\nAlexandra of Greece . . . .16 June, [", \nM. Dournovo, minister of the interior, continues \n\ncount Tolstoi\'s reactionary policy . July, Aug. , \nMarriage of the grand duke Peta with princess \n\nMilitza, of Montenegro ... 7 Aug. , \nThe czar visits Berlin . . . 11-13 Oct. . \n\nGreat epidemic of influenza among all classes in \n\nSt. Petersburg, spread . . . Nov., Dec. , \nCapt. Solotouchine, chief of the Moscow secret \npolice, assassinated by a female Nihilist, who \n\ncommits suicide n Jan. iS \n\nUkase for a conversion loan of 90,000,000 roubles, \n\ntaken up, especially in France . . Feb. . \nCount Tolstoi\'s administrative changes carried \ninto effect, together with increased Russilication \nof the German provinces and Finland . Feb. \nThe czar threatened (by letter, signed Maria \nTshebrikova, a popular writer on education, &c), \nfor continuing to supxiress liberty, 5 March ; she \nis arrested, about 10 March ; transported to the \n\nCaucasus April, \n\nStrong demonstrations of the students of Moscow, \nSt. Petersburg, Kieff, Charkoff, and other uni- \nversities and schools, demanding changes ; many \narrests and police supervision, about Feb., \n\nMarch, \nThe czar releases about 60 imprisoned soldiers. \nThe man chosen to assassinate the czar by lot, \ncommits suicide, leaving a letter incriminating \nassociates ; many arrests, reported . 31 March, \nInquiry by special commission ; some students ex- \npelled and others set at liberty, at St. Peters- \nburg, &c, ; order restored . . 7 April, \nGreat fires in the Ural district, iron works at \nUfaleisk and Newjansk, about 1,000 houses \ndestroyed; about 40 persons perish, about \n\n10 June, \n\nRevival of severe edict against the Jews (which see) \n\nreported July, \n\nThe czar and the German emperor inert at Nava ; \n\nmilitary manoeuvres . . 17 Aug., et seq. \n\nA monster literary protest against the persecution \n\nof the Jews in preparation, headed by count \n\nLeon Tolstoi; publication forbidden by the \n\ngovernment Nov. \n\nDecree, for the revision of all foreign titles of \n\nnobility about 15 Dec. \n\nGregory Petrovitch Danilesky, historian and \n\nnovelist, dies 24 Pee. \n\nTrial of 47 Nihilists . . . about 11 Jan. \nCoal-mine explosion near Jusoveja, about .) 1 men \n\nkilled 17, 1 8 Jan. \n\nArrest of Dedajeff, charged with the murdtr of \ncol. Sudeikin in 1883 (see above), and other \nNihilists, at Kostroma . . . end ol Feb. \nNew law for the legitimatising of bastards promul- \ngated April, \n\nRescript from the czar, placing thi n > Siberian \n\nrailway under the direction of the cesarevitch \n\nah hi .\'4 May, \n\n\n\nRUSSIA. \n\n\n\n846 \n\n\n\nRUSSIA. \n\n\n\nCloudburst at Ekaterinoslav, great destruction of \nlife and property ... .6 July, \n\nCount Tolstoi\'s administrative changes relative to \nthe peasantry effected at St. Petersburg and \nother provinces July, \n\nA French naval squadron, under admiral Gervais, \nwarmly received at Cronstadt, 23 July; the czar \nvisits the fleet, 25 July ; which leaves . 4 Aug. \n\nFailure of crops ; exportation of grain (especially \nrye) forbidden (from 27 Aug.) ; relief works \nordered and grants of money . about 11 Aug. \n\nThe cesarevitch returns to Moscow after a tour \n\n16 Aug. \n|He visited Vienna, 6 Nov. ; at Athens, 12 \nNov. ; at Cairo, 23 Nov. ; at Bombay, 23 Dec. \n1890 ; received by the viceroy at Calcutta, 26-2S \nJan. 1891 ; at Madras, 6 Feb. ; Ceylon, 13 Feb. ; \nBankok, Siam, 26 March; travels in China, \nJapan, April, May ; at Otsu, in Japan, he is \nwounded by a fanatical officer in a theatre, n \nMay, 1891 ; traverses Siberia, June, July, 1891.] \n\nGreat distress through famine in certain districts \nof the Volga and other places, about 2 Sept. et seq. \n\nNew 3 per cent, loan for 500,000,000 francs (for \nrailways) negotiated in Paris, about 17 Sept. ; \nopposed in Berlin, about 2S Sept. ; taken up well \n\nOct. \n\nIvan Alexandrovitch Gontcharoff, popular novelist, \naged 80, dies 27 Sept. \n\nIn order to relieve famine, the czar forbids all state \nballs and festivities ; great economy adopted by \nall classes Oct. \n\nDisputes with Great Britain respecting the Pamir \nridge (which see) Aug. \n\nThe famine very severe in the central and eastern \n\n\n\nprovinces \n\n\n\nOct. \n\n\n\nDiscovery of a political conspiracy at Moscow, 60 \npersons arrested, reported ... 12 Nov. \n\nDecree issued prohibiting the exportation of wheat \nand all its products .... 22 Nov. \n\nTour of M. de Giers in Italy, France, and Germany \n\nSept. \xe2\x80\x94 Nov. \n\nThe cesarevitch appointed president of a committee \nto deal with the effects or the famine by means \nof private charity, the ministry, the holy synod, \nand others, 5 Dec. ; public relief works estab- \nlished Dec - \n\nThe grand duke Constantine (brother of the czar, \nAlexander II.), learned, able and liberal, some- \ntime viceroy of Poland, removed on suspicion \nof favouring the Poles, 1886 ; dies, aged 64 \n\n24 Jan. : \n\nCount Tolstoi (the novelist), active reliever of the \ndistressed people . . . early March, \n\nStoppage of the (baron) Giinzburg bank of St. \nPetersburg and Paris, 15 March, et scq. ; liquida- \ntion arranged, reported . 21 March, ei seq. \n\nRussian Jewish emigrants prohibited from entering \nGermany . . \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x96\xa0 25 March, \n\nLarge supplies of Amcucan wheat, flour and pro- \nvisions, transmitted for the relief of the famine \nby the citizens of Philadelphia, in the Indiana; \nfrom Minnesota, in the Missouri, arrive atLibau, \nCourland, March, April; transmitted to the \ndistressed districts . . . .4 A P ril > \n\nSociety of Friends famine fund : 3S,9 8 9 f - received \nup to . \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 iMay \n\nMeeting of the czar and German emperor at Kiel \n\n7 June, \n\nAbout 125,370,500 roubles expended in relief of the \nsufferers by famine, Dec. 1891-May, 1892 ; re- \nported . .... \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 .*3. j \xe2\x84\xa2e. \n\nRemoval of the restrictions on the exportation of \ngrain, except rye, 21 June ; of rye . 23 Aug. \nSee article Cholera in the Addenda. \n\nSovereigns oe Russia. \n\n\n\n879. \n9*3- \n945- \n955- \n973- \n980. \n1015. \n\n\n\nDUKES OF KIOW Or KIEF. \n\n1 Rnric. \nOleg. \nIgor I. \n\nOlga, widow ; regent. \n\nSwiatoslaw I. \xe2\x80\x94victorious. \n\nJaropalk I. \n\nVladimir, Wladimir, the Great. \n\nSwiatopalk. \n\n\n\n\',{ \n\n\n\n1018. Jaraslaw, or Jaroslaf I. \n\n1054. Isiaslaw I. \n\n1073 Swiatoslaw II. \n\n1078. Wsewolod I. \n\n1093. Swiatopalk II. \n\n1 1 13. Vladimir II. \n\n1 1 25. Mitislaw. \n\n1 1 32. Jaropalk II. \n\n1 138. j Wiatsclielaw. \n\n1 139. t Wsewolod II. \n\n1 146. I Isiaslaw II. and Igor II. \n1153. 1 Rostislaw. \n\n1149. Jurie or George I. ; the city of Moscow was built \nby this duke. \n\nGRAND-DUKES AT WLADIMIR. \n\nAndrew I. until 11 75 ; first grand-duke. \nMichael I. \nWsewolod III. \n\n( Jurie or George II. \n18. ( Constantine. \n\nJaraslaw II. ; succeeded by his son, \nAlexander-Nevski or Newski, the Saint. \nJaraslaw III. \nVasali or Basil I. \nDmitri or Demetrius I. \nAndrew II. \nDaniel- Alexandrovitz. \nJurie or George III. ; deposed. \nMichael III, \nVasali or Basil II. \nJurie or George III : restored. \nAlexander II. \n\n[The dates are doubtful, owing to the difficulty \nthat occurs at every step in early Russian \nannals.] \n\nGRAND-DUKES OF MOSCOW. \n\nIvan or John I. \n\nSimeon, the proud. \n\nIvan or John II. \n\nDemetrius II. prince of Susdal. \n\nDemetrius III. Donskoi. \n\nVasali or Basil III. Temnoi. \n\nVasali or Basil IV. \n\nCZARS OF MUSCOVY. \n\nIvan (Basilovitz) or John III. : took the title of \n\nczar, 1482. \nVasali or Basil V. obtained the title of emperor \n\nfrom Maximilian I. \nIvan IV. the terrible ; a tyrant. \nFeodor or Theodor I. ; and his son, Demetrius,. \n\nmurdered by his successor \nBoris-Godonof, who usurped the throne. \nFeodor II. , murdered. \nDemetrius, the Impostor, a young Polish monk \' r \n\npretended to be the murdered prince Demetrius ; \n\nput to death. \nVasali-Chouiski, or Zouinski. \nLadislaus of Poland ; retired 1613. \nMichael-Feodorovitz, of the house of Romanoff, \n\ndescended from the czar Ivan-Basilovitz. \nAlexis, son ; styled the father of his country. \nFeodor or Theodor II. \nJ Ivan V. and \n\\ Peter I. brothers of the preceding. \n\nEMPERORS AND EMPRESSES. \n\nPeter I. the Great, alone ; took the title of emperor \n22 Oct. 1721 ; founded St. Petersburg. \n\nCatherine I. his widow ; at first the wife of a. \nSwedish dragoon, said to have been killed on the \nday of marriage. \n\nPeter II. son of Alexis-Petrovitz, and grandson of \nPeter the Great : deposed. \n\nAnne, duchess of Courland, daughter of the czar \nIvan. \n\nIvan VI. an infant, grand-nephew to Peter the \nGreat ; immured in a dungeon for 18 years ; mur- \ndered in 1764. \n\nElizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great, reigned \nduring Ivan\'s captivity. \n\nPeter III. son of Anne and of Charles-Frederick, \nduke of Holstein-Gottorp : deposed, and died \nsoon after, supposed to have been murdered. \n\n\n\n1157. \n1175 \n1177. \n1213. \n1217- \n1238. \n1245. \n1263. \n1270. \n1275. \n1281. \n1294. \n1303- \ni3\xc2\xb05- \n1320. \ni3 2 5- \n1327- \n\n\n\n1328. \n1340. \nI3S3- \n1359- \n1362. \n1389. \n1425. \n\n\n\n1533- \n15S4. \n\n\n\n1605. \n1606. \n\n\n\n1610. \n1613. \n\n\n\n1645. \n1676, \n\n\n\nI725- \n\n1727. \n1730. \n1740. \n\n1741. \n1762. \n\n\n\nRUSSIA COMPANY. \n\n\n\n847 \n\n\n\nRUSSO-TURKISII WAR. \n\n\n\n1762. Catherine II. his consort : a great sovereign ; ex- \ntended the Russian territories on all sides ; died \n17 Nov. 1796. \n\n1796. Paul, her son, murdered, 24 March, 1801. \n\n1801. Alexander I., son (who, after many adverse battles, \nand a forced alliance with France, at length \naided in the overthrow of Napoleon Bonaparte), \ndied 1 Dec. 1825. \n\n1825. Nicholas I. brother ; died 2 March, 1855. \n\n1855. Alexander II. son, born 29 April 1818 ; married 28 \nApril, 1841, Mary princess of Hesse (she died \n3 June, 1880) ; said to have married (morganatic), \nprincess Dolgorouki, 19 (31) July ; marriage \nannounced, Oct. 1880 ; assassinated at St. \nPetersburg, 2 p.m., 13 March, 1881. \n\ni83i. Alexander HI., born 10 March, 1845 ; married Mary \n(formerly Dagmar), princess of Denmark, 9 Nov. \n1866. \nHeir : Nicholas, son, born 18 May, 1868. \n\nRUSSIA COMPANY, sec Eussla, 1553-4. \nSee America. \n\nRUSSO-TURKISH WAR.* The Russian \n\nand French governments having each taken a side \nin the dispute between the Greek and Latin \nChurches as to the exclusive possession of the \nHoly Places {which see) in Palestine, the Porte \nadvised the formation of a mixed commission, \nwhich decided in favour of the Greeks, and a \nfirman was promulgated accordingly, 9 March, \n1853 : to this decision the French acceded, although \ndissatisfied. \nThe Russians make further claims, and prince Men- \n\nschikoff (who arrived at Constantinople 28 Feb. \n\n1853), by various notes (between 22 March and \n\n18 May), demands that a convention should be \nsigned by the sultan granting to the czar such a \nprotectorate over the Greek Christians in Turkey, \nas the sultan considered inimical to his own \nauthority . . . .22 March-18 May, 1853 \n\nMenscliikoffs ultimatum rejected; he quits Con- \nstantinople 21 May, ,, \n\nThe sultan issues a hatti-scherif confirming all \nthe rights and privileges of the Greek Christians, \nand appeals to his allies .... 6 June, ,, \n\nThe English and French fleets anchor in Besika Bay \n\n13 June, ,, \n\nThe Russians, under gen. Luders, cross the Pruth \nand enter Moldavia 2 July, ,, \n\nCircular of count Nesselrodein justification, 2 July ; \nlord Clarendon\'s reply . . . .16 July, ,, \n\nThe conference of representatives of England, \nFrance, Austria, and Prussia meet at Vienna, \nagree to a note, 31 July; accepted by the czar, \n10 Aug. ; the sultan requires modifications, \n\n19 Aug. ; which the czar rejects. . .7 Sept. 1853 \nTwo English and two French ships enter the Darda- \nnelles 14 Sept. ,, \n\nThe sultan (with consent of a great national council) \ndeclares war against Russia . . .5 Oct. ,, \n\nThe Turkish fortress at Issaktocha fires 011 a Russian \nflotilla (the first act of war) . . . 23 Oct. ,, \n\n\n\n* In 1844, when the czar was in England, he conversed \nwith the duke of Wellington and lord Aberdeen (whom \nhe find known many years) respecting the dissolution of \nthe Turkish empire ; and on his return he embodied his \nviews in a memorandum drawn up by count Nesselrode, \nwhich was transmitted to London, but kept secret till \nMai\'Ch, 1854. In January and February of that year the \nczar had several conversations on the subject with the \nBritish envoy at St. Petersburg, sir G. IT. Seymour, in \nour of which (Jan. 14) he compared Turkey to a "sick \nman" in a state of decrepitude, on the point of death, \nand made proposals to the British government as to the \ndisposal of his property. He stated frankly that he \nwould not permit the British to establish themselves at \nConstantinople; but said in another conversation, lie \nwould not object to their possessing Egypt. The pur- \nport of these conversations was conveyed in despatches \nto lord John Russell, who replied that the British govern- \nment declined to make any provision for the contingency \nof the fall of Turkey. The czar made similar proposals \nto the French government with the same result. \n\n\n\nThe Turks cross the Danube at Wi Idin and occupy \nKalafat 28 (Jet, -3 Nov. \n\nRussia declares war against Turkey . . 1 Nov. \n\nEnglish and French fleets enter Bosphorus 2 Nov. \n\nRussians defeated at Olteuitza . . .4 Nov. \n\nTurks (in Asia) defeated at Bayandur, Atskur, and \nAchaltzik 14, 18, 26 Nov. \n\nTurkish fleet destroyed at Sinope . . 30 Nov. \n\nCollective note from the four powers requiring to \nknow on what terms the Porte will negotiate for \npeace 5 Dec. \n\nContests at Kalafat . . 31 Dec. 1853-9 J fln - \n\nAt the request of the Porte (5 Dec), the allied fleets \nenter the Black Sea 4 Jan. \n\nRussians defeated at Citate ... 6 Jan. \n\nReply of the Porte to the note of Dec. 5, containing \nfour points as bases of negotiation: viz., 1. The \npromptest possible evacuation of the principali- \nties. 2. Revision of the treaties. 3. Maintenance \nof religious privileges to the communities of all \nconfessions. 4. A definitive settlement of the \nconvention respecting the Holy Places (dated \n31 Dec), \xe2\x80\x94 approved by the four powers 13 Jan. \n\nVienna conferences close ... 16 Jan. \n\nKalafat invested by the Russians . 28-31 Jan. \n\nProposal in a letter from the emperor of the French \nto the czar (29 Jan.) declined . . .9 Feb. \n\nTurkish flotilla at Rustchuk destroyed by the \nRussians under Schilders . . .15 Feb. \n\nUltimatum of England and France sent to St. \nPetersburg 27 Feb. \n\nThe czar " did not judge it suitable to give an \nanswer " 19 March, \n\nBaltic fleet sails, under sir C. Napier . 11 March, \n\nTreaty between England, France, and Turkey, \n\n12 March, \n\nRussians under Gortschakoff pass the Danube and \noccupy the Dobr.udseha ; severe conflicts; the \nTurks retire . . . . 23, 24 March, \n\nFrance and England declare war against Russia, \n\n27, 28 March, \n\nRupture between Turkey and Greece 28 March, \n\nGen. Canrobert and French troops arrive at Galli- \npoli, soon after followed by the English, \n\n31 March, \n\nRussians defeated by the Turks at Karalcai 30 May, \n\nEnglish vessel Furious, with a flag of truce, fired on \nat Odessa 8 April, \n\nFour powers sign a protocol at Vienna guaranteeing \nthe integrity of Turkey and civil and religious \nrights of her Christian subjects . . 10 April, \n\nRussians defeated at Kostelli by Mustaplia Pacha, \n\n10 April, \n\nOffensive and defensive alliance between England \nand France 10 April, \n\nTreaty between Austria and Prussia . . 20 April, \n\nBombardment of Odessa by allied fleet 22 April, \n\nRussians, under gen. Schilders, assault Kalafat ; \nrepulsed ; the blockade raised . 19-21 April, \n\nThe Tiger steamer run aground near Odessa, cap- \ntured by the Russians .... 12 May, \n\nRussians defeated at Turtukai . . 13 May, \n\nSiege of Silistria begun .... 17 May, \n\nAllied armies disembark at Varna . 29 May, \n\nMouths of the Danube blockaded by allied fleets, \n\n1 June. \n\nRussians repulsed at Silistria; Paskiewitsch and \nmany officers wounded .... 5 June, \n\nTurks defeated at Ozurgheti (in Asia) . 16 June \n\nSevere conflict before Silistria; the siege raised, \n\n18-26 June, \n\nBatteries at the Sulina mouths destroyed by capt. \nParker 26, 27 June, \n\nCaptain Parker killed .... 8 July, \n\nRussians defeated at Ginrgevo . . . 7 July, \n\n10,000 French troops embark at Boulogne for the \nBaltic 15 July, \n\nTurks defeated at Bayazid in Armenia, 29, 30 July ; \nand near Ears \n\nSurrender of Bomarsund . . . 16 Aug. \n\n[In July and August the allied armies and fleets in \nthe east suffered severely from cholera. | \n\nThe Russians defeated by SChomy] in Georgia, \n\nabout \\ i\': \n\nThey evacuate the principalities . Aug...,. Si pt. \n\nBy Virtue of a treaty with Turkey (June 14) the \nAustrians, under count Coronini, enter Bucharest, \n\n6 Sept. \n\n\n\n1853 \n\n\n\nBUSSO-TUBKISH WAE. \n\n\n\nEUSSO-TUEKISH WAE. \n\n\n\nAllies sail from Varna, 3 Sept. and land at Old Fort, \nnear Eupatoria* . . . . 14 Sept. \n\nSkirmish at the Bulganac . . . .19 Sept. \nBattle of the Alma (see Alma) . . 20 Sept. \nRussians sink part of their fleet at Sebastopol. \n\n23 Sept. \nAllies occupy Balaklava . . . .26 Sept. \nDeath of marshal St. Arnaud . . 29 S . \nGeneral Canrobert, his successor . . 24 Nov. \nSiege of Sebastopol commenced\xe2\x80\x94 grand attack \n(without success) .... 17 Oct. \n\nBattle of Balaklava- charge of the light cavalry, \n\nwith severe loss 25 Oct. \n\nSortie from Sebastopol repulsed by generals Evans \nand Bosquet . . . . . . 26 Oct. \n\nRussian attack at Inkerman ; defeated . 5 Nov. \nMiss Nightingale and nurses arrive at Scutari, \n\n6 Nov. \n\nGreat tempest in the Black Sea, loss of the Prince \n\nand store vessels .... 14-16 Nov. \n\nTreaty of alliance between England, France, Austria, \nand Prussia\xe2\x80\x94 a commission to meet at Vienna ; \n\nsigned 2 Dec. \n\nRussian sortie 2 \xc2\xb0 vee. \n\nOmar Pacha arrives in the Crimea (followed by the \n\nTurkish army from Varna) ... 5 Jal1 - \n\nSardinia joins England and France . 26 Jan. \n\nGreat sufferings in the camp from cold and sickness, \n\nJan. & Feb. \nRussians defeated by the Turks at Eupatoria, \n\n17 Feb. \nDeath of emperor Nicholas; accession of Alex- \nander II. (no change of policy) . . 2 March, \nSortie from the Malakhoff tower . . 22 March, \nCapture of Russian rifle-pits . . .19 4:P rd > \nArrival of Sardinian contingent . . -8 May, \nResignation of gen. Canrobert, succeeded by gen. \n\nPelissier l6 ?J ay \' \n\nDesperate night combats . . \xe2\x80\xa2 22-24 May, \nExpedition into the sea of Azoff (under sir E. Lyons \nand sir G. Brown); destruction of Kertch and \nlarge amount of stores . . 24 May-3 June, \nTaganrog bombarded . . \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x96\xa0 3 June, \n\nMassacre of an English boat\'s crew with flag of truce \n\natHango 5 June, \n\nRussians evacuate Anapa . . 5 June, \n\nThe White Works and Mamelon Vert taken, \n\n6, 7 June, \nUnsuccessful attack on the Malakhoff tower and \n\nRec i an iS June, \n\nDeath of lard Raglan ; succeeded by general Simpson, \n\n28 June, \nRussians invest Ears in Armenia, defended by gen. \n\nWilliams J 5 Jul y> \n\nBombardment of Sweaborg ... 9 Aug. \n\nDefeat of the Russians at the Tchernaya 16 Aug. \n\nAmbuscade on the glacis of the Malakhoff taken ; \n\nRussian sortie repulsed . . \xe2\x96\xa0 18 Aug. \n\nThe French take the Malakhoff (u-luchsce) by assault ; \n\nthe English assault the Redan without success ; \n\nthe Russians retire from Sebastopol to the Nortn \n\nForts and the allies enter the city ; the Russians \n\ndestroy or sink the remainder of their fleet, \n\n8 Sept. &c. \n\nTanan and Fanagoria captured . .24 Sept. \n\nThe Russians assaulting Ears are defeated with \n\ngreat loss . \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x96\xa0 , \xe2\x80\xa2 . \xe2\x96\xa0 n \xe2\x80\xa2 2 9 SeP*: \n\nRussian cavalry defeated (50 killed, 105 prisoners) \n\nat Eoughil, near Eupatoria, by the French, \n\n29 Sept. \n\nEinburn taken \xe2\x80\xa2.\xe2\x96\xa0\xe2\x80\xa2\xe2\x80\xa2\xe2\x80\xa2\xe2\x96\xa0 I7 Q 2\xc2\xb0+ \n\nRussians blow up Oczakoff . . \xe2\x80\xa2 . 18 OCT. \nLar^e stores of corn destroyed near Gheisk, in the \n\nsea of Azoff . . - \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x96\xa0 4 Nov. \nDefeat of the Russians, and passage of the Ingoui \n\nby the Turks under Omar Pacha . . 6 Nov. \nThe czar visits his army near Sebastopol 10 Nov. \nSir Wm Codrington takes the command in room of \n\ngen. Simpson . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x96\xa0 . -. \xe2\x96\xa0 "4 Nov. \nExplosion of 100,000 lb. of powder in the French \n\nsieee-train at Inkerman, with great loss of life, \n\n\xc2\xb0 15 Nov. \n\nSweden joins the allies by a treaty . 21 Nov. \n\nCapitulation of Ears to gen. Mouravieff, after a \n\n4llant defence by gen. Williams . . 26 tvov. \n\n\n\n854 \n\n\n\n1S55 \n\n\n\n* 40,000 men, a large number of horses, and a powerful \nartillery, were landed in one day. . \n\n\n\nDeath of admiral Bruat . . . . 27 Nov. 1855 \nRussian attack on the French posts at Ba\'idar re- \npulsed 8 Dec. ,, \n\nProposals of peace from Austria, with the consent \n\nof the allies, sent to St. Petersburg . 12 Dec. ,, \nCentre dock at Sebastopol blown up by the English, \n\n2 Jan. 1856 \nCouncil of war at Paris .... 11 Jan. ,, \nProtocol signed accepting the Austrian propositions \n\nas a basis of negotiation for peace . . 1 Feb. ,, \nDestruction of Sebastopol docks . . 1 Feb. ,, \nReport of Sir John M\'Neill and col. Tulloeh on \nstate of the army before Sebastopol, published \n\n5 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nPeace conferences open at Paris, an armistice till \n\n31 March agreed 011 ... 25 Feb. ,, \n\nSuspension of hostilities .... 29 Feb. ,, \nTreaty of peace concluded at Paris . 30 March, ,, \nProclamation of peace in the Crimea, 2 April ; in \n\nLondon 29 April, ,, \n\nThe Crimea evacuated .... 9 July,* ,, \n\nEUSSO-TUEKISH WAE, 1877. For the \ninsurrections, Servian Avar, and the negotiations, \nsee Turkey. \n\nThe czar addresses the army near Kischeneff, saying \nthat " he has done everything in his power to avoid \nwar, and patience is exhausted ; " the Russian \nembassy quits Constantinople . . 23 April 1877 \n\nWar declared ; the czar\'s manifesto says that he \nis compelled, by the haughty obstinacy of the \nPorte, to proceed to more decisive acts ; a justifi- \ncatory circular to foreign poweis sent out by prince \nGortschakoff ; the Russians enter the Turkish do- \nminions in Roumania and Armenia . 24 April, ,, \n\nThe saltan\'s circular protests against the war, and \nrefers to his reforms and the treaty of Paris \n\n25 April, ,, \n[Russian generals-in-chief in Bulgaria, grand duke \n\nNicholas ; in Armenia, grand duke Michael ; \nTurkish generals : Abdul-Kerim in Europe ; \nMukhtar Pasha, in Asia Minor.] \nRussians defeated at Tchuruk Sou, near Batoum \n\n26 April, ,, \nThe Russians, under the grand duke Michael and \n\nLoris Melikoff, advance into Armenia, defeat \nTurks and occupy Bayazid (deserted) 29, 30 April, , , \n\nThe Turks stop the passage of the Danube, and \nblockade the Black Sea ... 3 May, ,, \n\nThe earl of Derby replies to the Russian circular ; \nhe refers to the treaty of 1856 as broken ; does not \nconsider that the war will benefit the Christians, \nand asserts that Russia has separated herself from \nEuropean concert ; the British government gives \nneither concurrence nor approval to the war \n\n1 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nEalafat occupied by Roumanians . . 3 May, ,, \n\nRussians defeated in attacking Batoum . 4 May, ,, \n\nThe Lufti-Djelil, Turkish monitor, with 300 men, \nblown up near Ibraila, or Braila, on the Danube \n(said to be by Russian shells) . . 11 May, , \n\nMuch artillery firing down the river . .May, ,, \n\nSulchum Khaieh, Russian fortress in the Caucasus, \ncaptured by Turks .... 14 May, ,, \n\nArdahan, near Ears, Armenia, stormed by Melikoff \n\n17 May, ,, \n\nInsurrection in the Caucasus supported by the \nsultan 18 May, et seq. ,, \n\nExplosion of Turkish monitor Dar-Matoin, by \nlieuts. T. Daubassoff and Sheshlakoff, with tor- \npedoes 26 May. ,, \n\nNeutrality of the Suez Canal assured : correspond- \nence May- June, ,, \n\nEars invested by Russians ... 3 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n* The English lost : killed in action and died of wounds \nabout 3500 ; died of cholera, 4244 ; of other diseases \nnearly 16,000; total loss nearly 24,000 (including 270 \nofficers) ; 2873 were disabled. The war added to the , \nnational debt 41,041,000?. The French lost about 63,500 \nmen ; the Russians about half a million. The army \nsuffered greatly by sickness ; see Scutari, Times, and \nNightingale. The remains of the British soldiers and \nsailors were removed from Beicos to the Scutari Crimean \nMemorial cemetery with military honours, for which the \nqueen returns thanks to the sultan, Feb. 1892. \n\n\n\nKUSSO-TUllKISH WAK. \n\n\n\n849 \n\n\n\nRUSSO-TUItKISH WAR. \n\n\n\nThe czar arrives at Plojesto (Ployesto) in Roumania \n\n6 June 1877 \nTurks defeated at Taliir, or Taghir, Armenia 16 June \xe2\x80\x9e \nTurks victors at Zewin D002, Eshek-Khalian, Deli- \n\nbaba, and other places ; Russians retreating \n\n20 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nTurks successful in Montenegro ; country reported \n\nsubdued 12-20 June, ,, \n\nRussians cross Lower Danube by bridges at Galatz \nand Braila ; 6 hours\' conflict ensues ; Turks re- \ntire, 22 June ; Russians occupy Matchin, 23 June, \nand Hirsova . . . . 25, 26 June, ,, \n\nThe grand duke Nicholas crosses the Danube at \nSimnitza by 20S pontoons, and enters Bulgaria ; \nthe Turks retire after severe conflicts ; 289 Rus- \nsians said to be killed . . .27 June, ,, \nThe czar in his proclamation to Bulgarians en- \ncourages Christians and warns Mahometans \n\n28 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe Simnitza bridge destroyed by a storm or by \n\nTurks about 30 June, ,, \n\nThe British fleet arrives at Besika bay . 3 July, ,, \nBiela, Bulgaria, taken by Russians about 5 July, ,, \nPlevna, Bulgaria, occupied by Russians 6 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nTirnova, ancient capital of Bulgaria, captured by \n\nRussians under gen. Gourko . . 6, 7 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nBayazid re-occupied by Turks . . .12 July, ,, \nRussians compelled to retire from Kars by Mukh- \n\ntar Pasha 13 July, ,, \n\nThe invasion of Armenia considered a failure July, ,, \nGourko crosses the Balkans and enters Roumelia, \n\n13 July ; (this movement censured), several skir- \nmishes 14, 15, 20 July, ,, \n\nNicopolis (Nikopol) surrenders (after severe con- \nflicts, 12-14 July) i capture of 2 pashas, 6000 men, \n2 monitors, and 40 guns . . 15, 16 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Turkish commander Abdul-Kerim replaced by \nMehemet Ali (Jules Detroit, of French extrac- \ntion) ; Russians retreating . . . July, ,, \n\nSuleiman Pasha brought from Montenegro to the \nSchipka Passes .... about 21 July, ,, \n\nAziz Pasha (able and popular) killed in a rash \nconflict at Esirje, near Rasgrad . 26 or 28 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRussians severely defeated ; Plevna retaken by \nOsman Pasha, 19, 20 July ; Russians again de- \nfeated . . . . . . 30, 31 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nHostilities revive in Montenegro ; the Turkish \nfortress Niksich besieged .... July, ,, \n\nThe Roumanian army joins the Russians 9 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSevere conflicts between Russians and Suleiman \nPasha ; the Turks eventually victors : Eski \nSaghra and Yeni Sagra, July ; Kezanlik and \nKalofer, 30 July, ct seq. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRussians under Gourko expelled from Roumelia ; \nretreat to Schipka passes . . about 11 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRussians in the Schipka Passes relieved byRadetzky \n\n21 Aug. ,, \n\nRussians defeated at Kara Silar, near Osman Bazar, \n\n14 Aug. ; in the valley of the Lorn, by Mehemet \nAli about 22-24 Aug, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRussians defeated by Mukhtar Pasha at Kurukdara, \nor Kizil Tepe, between Kars and Alexandropol \n\n24, 25 Aug. ,, \n\nDesperate fruitless attempts of Suleiman Pasha to \ngain the Schipka Pass held by Gourko and \nRadetzky ; great slaughter . . 20-27 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSevere twelve hours\' battle in valley of the Lorn, \nnear Szedina ; Karahassankoi taken and re-taken \nsix; times; Russians (under the Czarewitch) retire \nin good order 30 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPrince Charles with Roumanians crosses the \nDanube about 31 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFarther successes of Mehemet Ali on the Lorn at \nKatzelevo, Ablava, &c. . . . 4-6 Sept. ,, \n\nLovatz or Lufteha (important) captured by Prince \nImeritinsky and Russians after a sharp conflict \n\n3 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNiksich (left by Turks) captured by Montenegrinea \n\n7 Sept. ,, \nSanguinary conflicts at Plevna, greatly strengthened \n\nby Osman Pasha ; artillery duel . 7-10 Sept. ,, \nFierce assault by Russians and Roumanians; they \ngain the strong Gravitza redoubt (with others, \nwhich are re-taken) ; the czar present ; Russian \nhiss about 20,000 .... ii, 12 Sept. ,, \nFori st. Nicholas in Schipka Pass taken by Sulei- \nman Pasha and quickly lost; much bloodshed \n\n17 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nMehemet Ali repulsed in his attack on positions at \nTchercovna, fifteen miles from Biela . 21 Sept. 1S77 \n\nSiege of Plevna; Chetket Pasha enters with re- \ninforcements after several skirmishes 22 Sept. ,, \n\nMontenegriue successes continued . . Sept. ,, \n\nBattles of the Yagni ; severe conflicts ; Russians \nrepulsed near Ardahan, Asia about 27, 30 Sept. ,, \n\nRussian losses, killed, wounded, and missing, \n47,400 reported ... up to 20 Sept. ,, \n\nMehemet Ali retires to Kara Loin about 25 Sept. ,, \n\nGen. Todleben made chief of staff before Plevna \n\n28 Sept. ,, \n\nMehemet AH rejdaced by Suleiman Pasha ; Raouf \nPasha sent to Schipka . . . . 2, 3 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBattles near Kars; army of grandduke Michael \nattacks Turks under Mukhtar Pasha ; severely \ndefeated 2-4 Oct. ,, \n\nTurkish monitor in the Danube exploded by \ntorpedoes 8 Oct. ,, \n\nRelief and supplies received by Turks at Plevna \n\nabout 9 Oct. ,, \n\nBattle of Alad.ja Dagh before Kars ; Russians, under \ngrand duke Michael, and generals Loris Melikoff, \nLazareff, and Hermann, totally defeat Ahmed \nMukhtar, taking 10,000 prisoners . 14, 15 Oct. ,, \n\nGravitza battery, near Plevna, captured by Rou- \nmanians, is quickly re-taken . . 19-20 Oct. ,, \n\nSuleiman and his army said to be retreating from \nKadikoi to Rasgrad .... 22 Oct. ,, \n\nBattle at Gornij Dubnik, near Plevna ; Russians \nunder Gourko said to be victorious ; losses about \nequal (2,500) 24 Oct. ,, \n\nRussians said to be defeated near Kara Ourgan, \nArmenia 24 Oct. ,, \n\nBattle of Sofia Road, near Plevna ; Turkish position \nat Teliche captured . . . .28 Oct. . \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMukhtar Pasha defeated by Heimann and Tergu- \nkasoff at Deve-Boyun, Armenia, after nine hours\' \nconflict 4 Nov. ,, \n\nRussians severely defeated at Azizi, before Erzc- \nroum, by Mukhtar Pasha ... 9 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nChange in Turkish generals : Suleiman ordered to \ncommand the army of Roumelia, replaced by \nAzli Pasha ; Mehemet Ali organises army to re- \nlieve Plevna .... early in Nov. ,, \n\nRussian attack on Plevna repulsed . 12 Nov. ,, \n\nTurks thrice repulsed near Plevna . 15 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nKars taken by storm ; the Russians climbed steep \nrocks ; fierce conflict from 8 p.m. to 8 a.m. ; 300 \nguns and 10,000 prisoners taken ; about 5000 \nTurks killed and wounded ; Russian loss about \n2,500; the grand-duke Michael present 17-18 Nov. ,, \n\nRussians said to be severely repulsed at Orchanie, \n\n16 Nov. ,, \n\nPlevna said to be thoroughly invested (30 miles \nround, with 120,000 men) . . . Nov. ,, \n\nOsman Pasha, invited to surrender at Plevna, re- \nfuses about 16 Nov. ,, \n\nRahova on the Danube taken by Roumanians, \n\n21 Nov. ,, \n\nEntrepol (fortified) near Plevna taken by Russians, \n\n24 Nov. ,, \n\nIndecisive fighting in the valley of the Lorn between \nthe czarewitch and Mehemet Ali ; Russians said \nto be defeated 30 Nov. ,, \n\nTurks capture Elena with guns and prisoners, after \nsharp conflict 4 Dec. ,, \n\nSkirmishing on the Loin . . .4-6 Dec. ,, \n\nOsman Pasha endeavours to break out of Plevna, \nabout 7 p.m. 9 Dec. ; six hours\' fierce conflict ; \nsurrounded ; unconditional surrender ; said to be \n30,000 prisoners, 128 officers, 100 guns ; great \nslaughter on both sides . . . 10 Dec. ,, \n\nThe Servians declare war against Turkey, 12 Dec. ; \ncross the frontier and capture villages 15 Dec. et seq. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTurkish circular note to the great powers, request- \ning mediation, 12 Dec. ; merely acknowledged, \naction declined .... about 12 Dec. ,, \n\nMontenegrinea successful .... Dec. ,, \n\nSuleiman made general of the army of Roumelia ; \nand Todleben of that of Rustchuk, about 19 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSuleiman retires on the quadrilateral ; visits Con- \nstantinople ; armies concentrating near Adria- \nnople about 20 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nServians said to have taken Ak Palanka alter 3 \nhours\' fight 24 Oec. ,, \n\nErzeroum, Armenia, nearly invested ; brave resist- \nance by Mukhtar Pasha . . about 24 Dee. ,, \n\n3 I \n\n\n\nRUSSO-TURKISH WAR. \n\n\n\n850 \n\n\n\nRYSWICK. \n\n\n\nMany Turkish wounded prisoners perish from cold \nduring removal Dec. \n\nTurkish steamer with 875 men, said to be captured \nin Black Sea .... about 25 Dec. \n\nAlleged Russian losses, 80,435 men ; Turkish much \nmore, and 80,000 prisoners . . . Dec. \n\nMukhtar Pasha recalled to Constantinople, about \n\n29 Dec. \n\nThe sultan requests mediation of England ; the \nBritish government only convey to Russia the \nsultan\'s desire to make peace ; Russia declines \nmediation ..... 26 \xe2\x80\x94 31 Dec. \n\nServians advancing successfully . end of Dec. \n\nGourko crosses the Balkans and advances on \nSofia ; Turks defeated in an engagement, about \n\n31 Dec. \n\nCol. Baker gallantly protects the retreating Turkish \narmy, defeating the Russians. . . .1 Jan. \n\nSofia taken by Russians after an engagement, 3 Jan. \n\nRussians said to be defeated near Erzeroum, about \n\n5 Jan. \n\nServians defeated ; Kurschumli reoccupied by \nTurks . - 6, 7 Jan. \n\nGen. Radetzky crosses the Balkans; the Trojan \npass taken about 9 Jan. ; the Turkish army \n(about 32,000) and cannon taken by Skobeleff and \nRadetzky, after conflicts, 8, 9, 10 Jan. (see Senova); \nGourko advances towards Adrianople . 11 Jan. \n\nNisch taken by the Servians ; Antivari by the Mon- \ntenegrines about 10 Jan. \n\nRussians advance successfully ; Turkish euvoys \nproceed to treat for peace . about 16-18 Jan. \n\nGourko advances toward Philippopolis ; totally \ndefeats Suleiman Pasha, who retreats to the sea, \nlosing many prisoners and much cannon, \n\n16, 17 Jan. \n\nAdrianople abandoned ; occupied by Russians, \n\n19, 20 Jan. \n\nSuleiman with remains of his army at Karala on \nthe jEgean transporting his troops, about 21 Jan. \n\nServians occupy nearly all Old Servia . 29 Jan. \n\nRussian attack on Batoum defeated . . 30 Jan. \n\nAfter much delay, an armistice signed at Adrianople, \n\n31 Jan. \n\nRussian losses announced 89,879 men . Feb. \n\nContinued advance of Russians towards Constanti- \nnople ; great panic ; flight of many Turks ; many \ndeaths and great sufferings . . Jan., Feb. \n\nPart of Britisli fleet ordered to Constantinople to \nprotect British life and property, 8 Feb. ; enters \nDardanelles without permission of the Porte, \n\n13 Feb. \n\nErzeroum evacuated by Turks . 17-21 Feb. \n\nRustchuk occupied by Russians . . 20 Feb. \n\nTreaty of peace signed at San Stefano (see Stefano), \n3 March ; ratified at St. Petersburg . 17 March, \n\nThe war lasted 322 days, 12 April, 1877, to 3 March, \n\nLong negotiation respecting a European congress, \n\nMarch-May, \n\nGrand duke Nicholas in Roumelia replaced by gen. \nTodleben, who assumes command . 30 April, \n\n\n\n1877 \n\n\n\nConference at Berlin, meets 13 June ; treaty signed \n(see Berlin), 13 July ; ratified . . 3 Aug. 1878 \n\nGrand review of about 80,000 Russians near Con- \nstantinople 17 Aug. ,, \n\n40,000 Russians have sailed for home . 12 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDefinitive treaty of peace with Turkey signed at \nConstantinople 8 Feb. 1879 \n\nEstimated cost of the war to Russia, 120,000,000?. \n\nRUSTCHUK, Turkish town on the Danube, \none of the " quadrilateral" fortresses lost to Turkey \nwith Bulgaria by treaty of Berlin, 13 July, 1878. \n\nRUTHENIUM, a rare metal, discovered in \nan ore of platinum by M. Claus, in 1845. \n\nRUTHERFURD\'S ACT, Lord (13 & 14 \nVict. c. 36), for simplifying law proceedings in \nScotland, passed 1 850. \n\nRUTHVEN, RAID OF, a term applied to the \nseizure of the person of James YI. of Scotland by \nWilliam Ruthven, earl of Gowrie, and other nobles, \nin 1582, to compel the king to dismiss his favourites, \nArran and Lennox. Ostensibly for this, Gowrie \nwas judicially put to death by his two opponents in \n1584. \n\nRUTLAND, Statute of, 10 or 12 Edw. I. \n\n1282 or 1284. \n\nRYE-HOUSE PLOT, a plot (some think \npretended) to secure the succession of the duke of \nMonmouth to the throne in preference to the duke \nof York (afterwards James II.), a Roman catholic. \nSome of the conspirators are said to have projected \nthe assassination of the king, Charles II., and his \nbrother. This design is said to have been frus- \ntrated by the king\'s house at Newmarket acciden- \ntally taking fire, which hastened the ro)\'al party \naway eight days before the plot was to take effect, \n22 March, 1683 ; see Newmarket. The plot was \ndiscovered 12 June following. Lord William \nRussell on 2 1 July, and Algernon Sidney on 7 Dec. \nfollowing, suffered death for being concerned in this \nconspiracy. The name was derived from the con- \nspirators\' place of meeting, the Rye-house at Brox- \nbourne, Hertfordshire. \n\nRYSWICK (Holland), where the celebrated \npeace was concluded between England, Eranee, \nSpain, and Holland, signed, by their representa- \ntives, 20 Sept., and by the emperor of Germany, 30 \nOct. 1697. \n\n\n\ns. \n\n\n\nSAALFIELD. \n\n\n\nSACRAMENT. \n\n\n\nSAALFIELD (Saxony, N. Germany). Here \nthe Prussians, under prince Louis of Prussia, were \ndefeated and their leader slain by the French under \nLannes, 10 Oct. 1806. \n\nSAARBRUCK, the Roman Augusti Muri or \nSara pons, an open town on the left bank of the \nSaar, in Rhenish Prussia, founded in the tenth \ncentury, long subject to the bishops of Metz, after- \nwards ruled by counts (about 1237), and by the \nhouse of Nassau about 1380. It was captured by \nthe French and retaken by the Germans 1676, \nreunited to France 1794-1814, and ceded to Prussia, \n1815. On 2 Aug. 1870, it was bombarded by the \nFrench under Frossard (between 1 1 and 1 in the \ndaytime), and the Prussians in small force were \ndislodged, and the town occupied by the French \ngeneral Bataille. The mitrailleuses were said to be \nvery effective. The emperor Napoleon, who was \npresent with his son, said in a telegram to the \nempress, " Louis has gone through his baptism of \nfire. He has not been in the least startled. "We \nstood in the foremost rank, and the rifle balls were \ndropping at our feet, and Louis picked up one that \nfell near him. His bearing was such as to draw \ntears from the soldiers\' eyes." On the 6 Aug. the \nPrussian generals Goeben and Von Steinmetz, with \nthe first army, recaptured Saarbruck, after a \nsanguinary conflict at the village of Spicheren. \nThe heights taken by the French on the 2nd are in \nGermany, those taken by the Germans on the 6th \nare in France, and both battles were fought between \nSaarbruck and the town of Forbaeh, which was \ncaptured and has given a name to the second con- \nflict. The loss was great on both sides. The \nFrench general Franqois was killed, and the 2nd \ncorps under Frossard nearly destroyed. The French \nretreated to Metz. They were greatly superior in \nnumbers at the beginning of the fight, but were \nbadly commanded. \n\nSABBATARIANS. Traces exist of Sabba- \ntarii, or Sabbathaires, among the sects of the iGth \ncentury on the continent. Upon the publication of \nthe "Rook of Sports" in 1618, a violent contro- \nversy arose among English divines on two points : \nfirst, whether the Sabbath of the fourth command- \nment was in force among Christians ; and \nsecondly, whether, and on what ground, the first day \nof the week was entitled to be distinguished and \nobserved as " the Sabbath." In 1628, Theophilus \nRraboume, a clergyman, published the first work \nin favour of the Seventh-day or Saturday, as the \ntrue Christian Sabbath. He and several others \nsuffered great persecution for this opinion ; but \nafter the restoration there were three or four con- \ngregations observing the last day of the week for \npublic worship in London, and seven or eight in \nthe country parts of England. In 185 1 there were \nthree Sabbatarian or Seventh-day Baptist congre- \ngations in England ; but in America (especially \nin the New England states) they are more nume- \nrous. \xe2\x80\x94 Joseph Davis suffered imprisonment in 1670. \nHe and his son bequeathed property to maintain \nthe sect ; and litigation respecting its disposal wa3 \neettled by vice-chancellor Stuart in conformity with \nfieir intentions in June, 1870. Very few Sabba- \ntarians then remained. \n\n\n\nSABBATH: ordained by God. Gen. ii. ; \nExod. xx. 8; Isaiah lviii. 13. Jews observe the \nseventh day in commemoration of the creation of \nthe world, and of their redemption from the bondage \nof the Egyptians ; Christians observe the first day \nof the week in commemoration of the resurrection \nof Christ from the dead, and the redemption of \nman ; see Sunday. \n\nSABBATH SCHOOLS, see Sunday Schools. \n\nSABBATICAL YEAR : a Jewish institution, \n1491 n.c. Exodus xxiii. During every seventh \nyear the very ground had rest, and was not tilled ; \nand every forty-ninth year all debts were forgiven, \nslaves set at liberty, and estates, &c, that were \nbefore sold or mortgaged, returned to their original \nfamilies, &c. \n\nSABELLIANISM, from Sabcllius (of Ptole- \nmais in Egypt), who flourished in the 3rd century, \nand who taught that there was but one- person in \nthe Godhead, the other persons of the Trinity being \nbut different names of the same person. This \ndoctrine was condemned at a council at Rome, 260. \n\nSABINES, an ancient people of central \nItaly, from whom the Romans, under Romulus, \ntook away their daughters by force, having \ninvited them to some public sports or shows \non purpose. When the Sabines determined to \nrevenge this affront, the women became mediators \nto their fathers in behalf of then- husbands, the \nRomans, and a lasting peace was made between \nthem, 750 B.C. The Sabines, who had supported the \nSamnites in their war with Kerne, were thoroughly \ndefeated by M. Curius Dentutus, and their lands \nannexed 290 B.C., and eventually the Sabines were \ncombined with the Roman people. One of the \necclesiastical provinces is still called Terra Sabina ; \nchief town, Magliano. \n\nSACCHARINE, see Benzoic. \n\nSACCHAROMETER, an instrument for de- \ntermining the amount of sugar in solutions. \nSoleil, an optician, of Paris, in 1847 made use of \nrotary polarised light for this purpose in a saceharo- \nnieter, since improved by Duboscq. \n\nSACHEVEREL RIOTS, see Riots, 17 10. \n\nSACKVILLE INCIDENT, see United \n\nStates, Oct. 1888. \n\nSACRAMENT (from sacramentum, an oath, \n\nobligation, also mystery). The Christian sacra- \nments are baptism and the Lord\'s Supper. The \ncouncil of Trent, in 1547, affirmed the doctrine of \nthe schoolmen that there are seven sacraments : \nbaptism, the Lord\'s Supper, confirmation, penance, \nholy orders, matrimony, and extreme unction. The \nname was given to the Lord\'s Supper by the Latin \nfathers. The wine was restricted to the clergy about \nthe beginning of the I2th century. Communion in \none kind only was authoritatively sanctioned by the \ncouncil of Constance, 15 June, 1415. Henry VI I. \nof Germany was poisoned by a priest by the conse- \ncrated wafer, 24 Aug. 1313. The sacramental wine \nwas poisoned by the gravedigger of the church at \nZurich, by which sacrilegious deed a number of \n\n3 1 2 \n\n\n\nSACRAMENTO. \n\n\n\n852 \n\n\n\nSAGE. \n\n\n\npersons lost their lives, 4 Sept. 1776. In 1614 \nmembers of both houses of parliament were ordered \nto take the sacrament, as a guard against the intro- \nduction of Roman Catholics. In 1673 the test act \nwas passed ; repealed in 1828 ; see Transubstantia- \ntion. \n\n" Society of the Blessed Sacrament " (English church- \nmen), London, founded, i860; "Confraternity of the \nBlessed Sacrament," founded 1862 ;\'the two united, 1867. \nSacramentarians, followers of Zwingli (1487-1531), \nwho differed from the Komanists and Lutherans ill \nregard to the sacrament. \n\nSACEAMENTO, ST., a Portuguese settle- \nment in S. America, claimed by Spain in 1680, but \nrelinquished in 1713 ; several times seized ; ceded in \n1777 ; acquired by Brazil in 1825. \n\nSACEED BAND, see Thebes. \n\nSACEED BOOKS of the East. The \n\npublication of translations of the sacred books of the \nreligion of the Brahmans, Buddhists, and Moham- \nmedans, and of the followers of Khung-fu-tze and \nLao-tze, edited by professor Max Miiller, began in \n1879. Thirty volumes have been published, 1889. \n\nSACEED HAEMONIC SOCIETY, see \n\nMime. \n\nSACEED HEAET of Jesus ; a form of \ndevotion said to have been instituted in England in \nthe seventeenth century, and much promoted by \nMarguerite Marie Alacoque, an enthusiastic French \nnun, who asserted that Christ had appeared to her, \nand taken out her heart, placed it in his own, glow- \ning in flame, and then returned it. She died in 1690. \nHer book " Devotion an Cceur de Jesus," published \nin 1698, much advocated by father Joseph Gallifet \nabout 1726 ; and introduced into France, by \n\nrequest 1765 \n\nA pilgrimage from England, specially blessed by \nthe pope, and headed by the duke of Norfolk, \nwent to the shrine of Marguerite, at Paray-le- \nMonial, and returned . . .1-6 Sept. 1873 \n\nThe R.C. diocese of Salford dedicated to the Sacred \nHeart, 4 Sept. 1873 : and a church at Mont- \nmartre, near Paris, founded for the same purpose, \n\n16 June, 1875 \nThe pope dedicated the universal church to " the \nSacred Heart" 15 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSACEED WARS\xe2\x80\x94 I. Declared by the Am- \nphictyons against Cirrha, near Delphi, for robbery \nand outrage to the visitors to the oracle, 595 b.c. \nCirrha was razed to the ground, 586. \xe2\x80\x94 II. Between \nthe Phocians and Delphians for the possession of \nthe temple at Delphi, 448, 447.\xe2\x80\x94 III. The Phocians, \non being fined for cultivating the sacred lands, \nseized the temple, 357. They were conquered by \nPhilip of Macedon, and their cities depopulated, \n346. See Crusades. \n\nSACEIFICE was offered to God by Abel, 3875 \nB.C. Sacrifices to the gods Avere introduced, into \nGreece by Phoroneus, king of Argos, 1773 b.c. \nHuman sacrifices seem to have originated with the \nChaldeans, from whom the custom passed into other \nEastern nations. All sacrifices to the true God were \nto cease with the sacrifice of Christ, 33 a.d. Heb. \nx. 12-14. Pagan sacrifices were forbidden by the \nemperor Constantius II. 341. \n\nSACEILEGE. In 1835, the punishment (for- \nmerly death) was made transportation for life. By \n23 & 24 Vict. c. 96, s. 50 (1861), breaking into a \nplace of worship and stealing therefrom was made \npunishable with penal servitude for life. \n\nSACEIPOETUS (Lathing Italy). Here \nSylla defeated the younger Marius and Papirius \nCarbo with great slaughter, B.C. 82, and became \ndictator, 81. \n\n\n\nSADDLES. In the earlier ages the Romans \nused neither saddles nor .stirrups. Saddles -were in \nuse in the 3rd century, and are mentioned as made \nof leather in 304, and were known in Eugland about \n600. Side-saddles for ladies were introduced by \nAnne, queen of Richard II. in 1388. Stow. \n\nSADDTJCEES, a Jewish sect, said to have \nbeen founded by Sadoc, a scholar of Antigonus, \nabout 200 B.C., who, misinterpreting his master\'s \ndoctrine, taught that there was neither heaven nor \nhell, angel nor spirit ; that the soul was mortal, and \nthat there was no resurrection of the body from the \ndead. The Sadducees rejected the oral law, main- \ntained by the Pharisees. See Matt. xxii. 23 ; Acts \nxxiii. 8. \n\nSADLEE\'S WELLS (N. London), so called \nafter Mr. Sadler, who built an orchestra to entertain \nthe invalids who used the waters medicinally, 1683. \nIn time the orchestra was enclosed, and the build- \ning became a place for dramatic performances. \nThe theatre was opened in 1765. Eighteen \npersons were trampled to death at this theatre, \non a false alarm of fire, 18 Oct. 1807 ; see under \nTheatres. The theatre put up to auction and not \nsold, 31 Aug. 1875 \'\xe2\x96\xa0> and 3\xc2\xb0 July, 1878. \n\nSADOWA, see Koniggriitz. \n\nSAEES. A National Safe Company, London, \nopened vaults for storage of valuables, 1876. \n\nSAFETY LAMP. One was invented in 1815 \nby sir Humphry Davy, to prevent accidents which \nhappen in coal and other mines. The safety-lamp \nis founded on the principle that flame, in passing \nthrough iron- wire meshes, loses so much of its heat \nas to be incapable of igniting inflammable gases. \nThe father of all safety-lamps was Dr. Reid Clanny,, \nof Sunderland, whose invention and improvements \nare authenticated in the Transactions of the Society \nof Arts for 1817 . The " Georcly," constructed by \nGeorge Stephenson, the engineer, in 1815, is said \nto be the safest. A miner\'s electric light, "by MM. \nDumas and Benoit, was exhibited in Paris on 8 \nSept. 1862. On 14 Aug. 1867, safety-lamps were \nrigidly tested by several mining engineers, and; \nserious doubts thrown upon their complete efficac)\'. \nCol. Shakespear\'s safety lamp (light extinguished \nby opening) exhibited at Royal Institution, &c, \nMay, 1879. Messrs. Fleuss and Foster\'s new safety \nmining lamp approved, Jan. 1884. \nMr. J. Wilson-Swan\'s electric safety lamp, weighing 6\\ lt> \nexhibited at Aberdeen meeting of British Association \nSept. 1885. \nMr. Charles D. Aria\'s safety lamp reported successful ; \nthe supply of mineral oil is isolated from the burner, \ni88q. \nThe Thornbury miners\' lamp tried at Aldwarke Main, \nCollieries by Mr. C. E. Rhodes, and subjected to* \nexperiments by prof. Dewar and sir Frederick Abel, \nwho declare that this lamp fulfils the conditions re- \nquired by the royal commission in 1886. Paraffin and \nother mineral oils may be used in this lamp, reported \nNov. 1889. \n\nSAEFEON {saffran, French; sqfrano, Italian), \nthe flower of crocus, was first brought to England in \nthe reign of Edward III. by a pilgrim, about 1339, \nprobably from Arabia, as the word is from the- \nArabic saphar. Miller. It was cultivated in Eng- \nland in 1582. \n\nSAGE (Saugc, French ; Salvia, Latin), a whole- \nsome herb. Mortimer. The Mexican sage, Salvia \nmexicana, was brought from Mexico, 1724. The \nblue African sage, Salvia africana, and the golden \nAfrican sage, Salvia aurea, were brought to Eng- \nland from the Cape of Good Hope in 1731. \n\n\n\nSAGUNTUM. \n\n\n\n853 SALISBURY ADMINISTRATIONS. \n\n\n\nSAGUNTUM, or ZacYjSTTHUS, now Mur- \nviedro, in Valentia, E. Spain, renowned for the \ndreadful siege it sustained, 219 B.C. The citizens, \nafter performing incredible acts of valour for eight \nmonths, chose to be buried in the ruins of their city \nrather than surrender to Hannibal. They burnt \nthemselves, with their houses, and the conqueror \nbecame master of a pile of ashes, 218 B.C. \n\nSAHARA, a great sandy desert, North Africa, \nsouth of Barbary States. A project for making an \ninland sea here was entertained in 1883, and the \nconstruction of a railway was proposed in Algeria, \nOct. 1890. A large natural reservoir of water at \nEl Golea in the desert, was discovered early 1891. \n\nSAIGON, French colony in Cochin China, \nfounded in i860, after a defeat of the Chinese, 17 \nFeb. 1859. \n\nSAILORS\' HOME, in Well-street, London \nDocks, established by Mr. George Green, 1 830 ; \nopened, 1835; enlarged, 1865. In one year it \nadmitted 5444 boarders, who, besides home, had \nevening instruction, the use of a savings\' bank, &c. \nThe establishment is self-supporting, aided by \nsubscriptions. Similar institutions have since been \nestablished. Sailors\' orphan girls\' school and \nhome, Hampstead, established 1829. Sailors\' and \nFiremen\'s Union, see Shipping. \n\nSAINT. For names with this prefix, see the \nnames themselves throughout the book. See Acta \nSanctorum. \n\nSAKYA MUNI, see Buddhism. \n\nSALADO, a river, S. Spain; see Tar if a. \n\nSALADS, are stated to have been in use in \nthe middle ages ; lettuces are said to have been \nintroduced into England from the Low Countries, \n1520-47. \n\nSALAMANCA (W. Spain), taken from the \nSaracens 861. The university was founded 1240, \nand the cathedral built 15 13. Near here the British \nand allies, commanded by lord Wellington, totally \ndefeated the French army under marshal Mamiont, \n22 July, 1812. The loss of the victors was most \nsevere, amounting in killed, wounded, and missing, \nto nearly 6000 men. Marmont left in the victor\'s \nhands 7141 prisoners, 11 pieces of cannon, 6 stands \nof colours, and 2 eagles. This victory was followed \nby the capture of Madrid. Population, 1887,22,199. \n\nSALAMIS (near Athens). In a great sea-fight \nhere, 20 Oct. 480 B.C., Thcmistocles, the Greek com- \nmander, with only 310 sail, defeated the fleet of \nXerxes, king of Persia; which consisted of 2000 \nBail. \xe2\x80\x94 Near Salamis, in Cyprus, the Greeks defeated \nthe Persian fleet, 449 B.C.; and Demetrius Polior- \ncetes defeated the fleet of Ptolemy and his allies, \n\n306 B.C. \n\nSAL A SSI, a turbulent Alpine tribe, were \nthoroughly subdued by Terentius Varro, 25 B.C., \nand a Roman colony established in their territories j \n(now Aosta) . \n\nSALDANHA BAY, S. Atlantic Ocean; north- \\ \nWind of the Cape of Good Hope. Here on 17 Aug. ; \n1796, a Dutch squadron, under admiral Lucas, was ( \ncaptured \\>y vice-admiral sir George Keith Elphin- \nstone, without resistance ; sir George was created t \nlord Keith. \n\nSALE OF FOOD AND DRUGS ACT, \npassed II Aug. 1875; repeals all adulteration acts, j \nand makes new arrangements. \n\n\n\n. SALENCKEMEN on the Danube. Here a \nvictory was gained by the imperialists, under prince \nLouis of Baden, over the Turks, commanded by the \ngrand vizier Mustapha Kiuprigli, 19 Aug. 1691. \n\nSALERNO (Salernum, S. Italy), an ancient \nRoman colon y. Its university, with a celebrated \nschool of medicine, reputed to be the oldest in \nEurope, was founded by Robert Guiscard the Nor- \nman, who seized Salerno in 1077. Salerno suffered \nmuch in the wars of the middle ages. \n\nSALFORD, near Manchester. Population, \n1881,176,235; 1891,198,136. \nAn mcendiary.explosion at the barracks caused one \n\ndeath ; Fenians suspected . . .14 Jan. i\xc2\xa3Si \n\nSALIQUE or \xc2\xbbSalic Law, by which females \nare excluded from inheriting the crown of France, \nis said to have been instituted by Pharamond, 424, \nand ratified in a council of state by Clovis I., the \nreal founder of the French monarchy, in 511. \nHenault. This law, introduced into Spain by the \nBourbons 1700, was formally abolished by decree \n29 March, 1830 ; and on the death of Ferdinand VII. \nhis daughter succeeded as Isabella II. , 29 Sept. 1833 ; \nsee Spain. By this law also Hanover was separated \nfrom England, when queen Victoria ascended the \nEnglish throne, 1837. \n\nSALISBURY (Wilts), founded in the begin- \nning of the 13th century, on the removal of the \ncathedral hither from Old Sarum. National councils \nor parliaments were repeatedly held at Salisbury, \nparticularly in 1296, by Edward I. ; in 1328, by \nEdward III. ; and in 1384. Henry Stafford, duke of \nBuckingham, was executed here by order of Richard \nIII., in 1483. \xe2\x80\x94 On Salisbury Plain is Stone- \nhenge (ichich see). This plain was estimated at \n500,000 acres. On it w r ere so many cross roads, and \nso few houses to take directions from, that Thomas, \nearl of Pembroke, planted a tree at each milestone \nfrom Salisbury to Shaftesbury, for the traveller\'s \nguide. The autumn military manoeuvres took place \non Salisbury Plain, Aug., Sept. 1872; see under \nArmy. \xe2\x80\x94 The first seat of the Bishopric was at \nSherborne, St. Aldhelm being prelate, 705. Her- \nman removed the seat to Old Sarum. about 1072; \nand the see was removed to Salisbury by a papal \nbull, in 1217. It has yielded to the church of Rome \none saint and two cardinals. The building of the \ncathedral commenced 28 April, 1220, and was com- \npleted in 1258. This edifice is reckoned one of our \nfinest ecclesiastical erections. Its spire, the loftiest \nin the kingdom, was considered in danger in April, \n1864, and subscriptions were begun for its im- \nmediate repair. The choir was re-opened, after \nrestoration by sir G. G. Scott, I Nov. 1876. The \nbishopric is valued in the king\'s books at 1367/. \niis.&d. Present income 5000\'. Population, 180I, \n14,792 ; 1891, 15,980. \n\nEECENT BISHOPS. \n\n1797. John Fisher, died 2 July, 1825. \n\n1825. Thomas Burgess, died io Feb. 1837. \n\n1837. Edmund Denison; died 6 March, 1S54. \n\n1854. Walter Kerr Hamilton, died 1869. \n\n1869. George Moberly, elected 9 Sept., died 6 July, 1SS5. \n\n1885. John Wordsworth, Aug. \n\nSALISBURY ADMINISTRATIONS.\xe2\x80\x94 \n\nMr. Gladstone resigned in consequence of a defeat \nin the house of commons on the Budget Bill (j(>4 \xe2\x80\x94 \n252), 8-9 June, and was succeeded by the marquis \nof Salisbury, whose ministry received the seals, 24 \nJune, 1885. \n\nPrime Minister and Foreign Secretary \xe2\x80\x94 Robert Arthur \nTalbot Gascoigne-Cecil, marquis of Salisbury.* \n\n* He was born 3 Feb. 1830; lord Cranborne, on the \n\ndeath of his brother, 1865 ; BUCCOeded his father as mar- \n\n\n\nSALISBUEY ADMINISTRATIONS. 854 \n\n\n\nSALT.\' \n\n\n\nFirst lord of the treasury \xe2\x80\x94 Sir Stafford Northcote (earl of \n\nIddesleigh). \nLord chancellor\xe2\x80\x94 Sir Hardinge Giffard (lord Halsbury). \nLord president of the council \xe2\x80\x94 Gathorne Gathorne-Hardy, \n\nviscount Cranbrook. \nLord privy seal\xe2\x80\x94 Dudley Francis Stuart Ryder, earl of \n\nHarrowby. \nSecretaries : home\xe2\x80\x94 Sir Richard Assheton Cross. \n\nthe colonies \xe2\x80\x94 Col. Frederick Arthur Stanley. \nIndia \xe2\x80\x94 Lord Randolph Henry Spencer- \nChurchill. \nwar\xe2\x80\x94 William Henry Smith; G. Gathorne \nHardy, viscount Cranbrook, about 23 Jan. \n1886. \nScotland\xe2\x80\x94 Charles Henry, duke of Richmond, \nabout 14 Aug. 1885. \nFirst lord of the admiralty \xe2\x80\x94 Lord George Francis \n\nHamilton. \nChancellor of the exchequer\xe2\x80\x94 Sir Michael Edward Hicks- \nBeach. \nLord lieutenant of Ireland\xe2\x80\x94 Henry H. M. Herbert, earl of \n\nCarnarvon; resigned Jan. 1886. \nLord Chancellor of Ireland \xe2\x80\x94 Edward Gibson (lord Ash- \nbourne). \nPresident of board of trade\xe2\x80\x94 Charles Henry Gordon- \nLennox, duke of Richmond ; Edw. Stanhope, about 17 \nAug. 1885. \nPostmaster-general \xe2\x80\x94 Lord John Manners. \nVice-president of the council \xe2\x80\x94 Edward Stanhope. \n\nThe above form the cabinet. \nChancellor of duchy of Lancaster \xe2\x80\x94 Henry Chaplin. \nPresident of local government board \xe2\x80\x94 Arthur J. Balfour. \nChief secretary for Ireland \xe2\x80\x94 Sir William Hart-Dyke, \n\nresigned ; W. H. Smith, about 23 Jan. 1886. \nFirst commissioner of works \xe2\x80\x94 David Robert Plunket. \nAttorney-general \xe2\x80\x94 Sir B. E. Webster. \nSolicitor-general\xe2\x80\x94 -John E. Gorst. \n\nliesigncd 27 Jan., in consequence of Mr. Jesse Collings\' \namendment on the address being carried (329-250) \n26-27 J an - rtSS- \n\nSecond Administration (26 July, 1886) \xe2\x80\x94 \nPrime minister and foreign secretary (Jan. 1887) \xe2\x80\x94 Robert \nArthur Talbot Gascoigne-Cecil, marquis of Salisbury. \nFirst lord of the treasury and leader of the commons \xe2\x80\x94 -Win. \nHenry Smith, 3 Jan. 1887 ; died 6 Oct. 1891. Arthur \nJ. Balfour, 9 Nov. 1891. \nLord chancellor \xe2\x80\x94 Hardinge Stanley Giffard, lord- Halsbury. \nLord president of the council \xe2\x80\x94 Gathorne Gathorne-Hardy, \n\nviscount Cranbrook. \nChancellor of the exchequer \xe2\x80\x94 Lord Randolph Henry \nSpencer Churchill ; resigned 22 Dec. 1886 ; t George \nJoachim Goschen, 3 Jan. 1887. \nSecretaries: home \xe2\x80\x94 Henry Matthews (R.C.). \n\nforeign \xe2\x80\x94 Stafford Henry Northcote, earl of \nIddesleigh (died 12 Jan. 1887) ; marquis of \nSalisbury, Jan. 1887. \nthe colonies \xe2\x80\x94 Edward Stanhope ; sir Henry \nThurstan Holland, ; baron Knutsford, Feb. \n1888 (Jan. 1887). \nIndia \xe2\x80\x94 Sir Richard Cross (viscount Cross). \nwar \xe2\x80\x94 William Henry Smith ; Edward Stan- \nhope, 6 Jan. 1887. \nFirst lord of the admiralty \xe2\x80\x94 Lord George Francis Hamilton. \nLord chancellor of Ireland \xe2\x80\x94 Edward Gibson, lord Ash- \nbourne. \nChief secretary for Ireland \xe2\x80\x94 Sir Michael Edward Hicks- \nBeach ; resigns, but remains in the cabinet (retires Jan. \n1 888); succeeded by Arthur J. Balfour, 5 March, 1887. \nWm. L. Jackson, 9 Nov. 1891. \nChancellor of the duchy of Lancaster \xe2\x80\x94 Lord John Manners, \n\nduke of Rutland, 4 March, 1888. \nPresident of the board of trade\xe2\x80\x94 -Sir Frederick Stanley \n(lord Stanley of Preston); succeeded by sir M. E \nHicks-Beach, 15 Feb. 1888. \nPresident of the board of agriculture, Henry Chaplin, 5 \nSept. 1889. \n\nThe above form the Cabinet. \nLord privy seal \xe2\x80\x94 George Henry Cadogan (earl Cadogan). \n\n\n\nqnis in 1868 ; M.P. for Stamford, 1853-68 ; secretary for \nIndia, July, 1866, to March, 1867 ; and Feb. 1874 to \nApril, 1878 : for foreign affairs, April, 1878, to May, \n1880 ; special ambassador to Constantinople, Nov. 1876 ; \nchancellor of the University of Oxford, i86q. Manifesto \nrespecting the election issued, Times, 28 June, 1892. \n\nt The marquis of Hartington and the liberal unionists \ndeclined to form part of a coalition ministry, 30 Dec. 1886. \n\n\n\nLord lieutenant of Ireland \xe2\x80\x94 Charles Stewart Vane \nTempest Stewart, marquis of Londonderry : succeeded \nby Laurence Dundas, earl of Zetland, 30 May, 1389. \n\nSecretary for Scotland \xe2\x80\x94 Arthur J. Balfour; succeeded by \nSchomberg Henry Kerr, marquis of Lothian, 8 March, \n1887. \n\nPresident of local government board \xe2\x80\x94 C. T. Ritchie. \n\nPostmaster-general \xe2\x80\x94 Henry Cecil Raikes, died 24 Aug. \nT891 ; sir James Fergusson, about 21 Sept. 1891. \n\nFirst commissioner of works \xe2\x80\x94 David Robert Plunket. \n\nAttorney-general \xe2\x80\x94 Sir Richard Everard Webster, Q.C. \n\nSolicitor -general \xe2\x80\x94 Sir Edward Clarke, Q.C. \n\nMesigned 12 Aug., in consequence of want of confidence; \nvoted by the commons, Mr. Asquith\'s amendment \n(350-310), 11 Aug. 1892. For chief measures, see Educa~ \nlion , Ireland, Local Govern/men t, Navy, and National Debt. \n\nSALISBURY\'S ACT, see Artisans. \nSALLEE, a port of Morocco, long a haunt for \npirates, destroyed by the British in 1632, and about \n300 captives released. \n\nSALLENTINI, allies of the Samnites, the \nonly Italian tribe not subject to Kome, were over- \ncome in war in 267 and 266 B.C., and Brundisium, \ntheir port, taken. \n\nSALMON FISHEEIES. The laws relating \nto them were consolidated and amended in i86r, \nand the report of a commission of inquiry (in- \ncluding sir Wm. Jardine) was published, in Feb. \n1862. An act restricting the capture of salmon at \ncertain times, passed in 1863, was amended in 1869- \n1870, and 1873. During the "salmon fence," \n14 Sept. to 1 Feb., it is unlawful to catch fish of \nthe salmon kind. A salmon-fishery congress opened \nat South Kensington, 7 June, 1867. Salmon eggs \nsent to New Zealand, Jan. 1878. \nSalmon Ova, packed in boxes with moss, charcoal, \nand ice, to retard development \xe2\x80\x94 a plan suggested \nand proved practicable by Mr. E. H. Moscrop in \n1863 \xe2\x80\x94 adopted successfully by Mr. J. A. Youl, \nwho sent ova to Australia in the " Norfolk," . 1864 \nSalmon disease, in rivers, announced, 1879 ; commis- \nsion of inquiry appointed, Mr. F. Buckland and \n\nothers Jan. i83o \n\nVery great increase in the number of salmon caught, 1883 \nSALONICA, see Thcssalonica. \nSALT (chloride of sodium, a compound of the \ngas chlorine and the metal sodium) is procured from \nthe rocks in the earth, from salt-springs, and from \nsea-water. The famous salt-mines of Wielitzka, \nnear Cracow in Poland, have been worked 600 \nyears. The salt-works in Cheshire, called the \nwiCHES (Nantwich, North wich, and Middlewich), \nwere of great importance in the time of the Saxon \nheptarchy. The salt-mines of Staffordshire were \ndiscovered about 1670. Salt duties were first ex- \nacted in 1702; they were renewed in 1732; re- \nduced in 1823 ; and in that year were ordered to \ncease in 1825. During the French war the duty \nreached to 30/. per ton. For the salt-tax in France \nsee Gabelle. The government salt monopoly in India \nwas abolished in May, 1863, by sir C. Trevelyan. \nSince 1797 salt has been largely employed in the \nmanufacture of chloride of lime or bleaching \npowder (by ob tabling its chlorine), and soap (by \nobtaining its soda). On this are based the chemical \nworks of Cheshire, Lancashire, and other places. \nSee under Alkalies. \n\nMuch distress in the salt districts of Cheshire through \nthe subsidence of land, 1887-8. The proprietors of \nthe Cheshire salt mines combined to form a " trust " or \nsyndicate in the autumn of 1888 ; central office, \nNorthwich ; the trade being nearly ruined by great \ncompetition, first meeting 27 Sept. 1888. \nGreat advance in the price of salt Oct. 1888. \nA "salt museum" presented to the town of Northwich \n\nby Mr. Brunner, M.P., March, 1889. \nSalt exported from the United Kingdom: 1876, 865,804 \ntons ; 1880, 1,051,240 tons ; 1885, 921,869 tons ; 1890, \n726,021 tons. \n\n\n\nSALTAIEE. \n\n\n\n8-55 \n\n\n\n"SALVATION ARMY." \n\n\n\nSALTAIEE, see Alpaca. \n\nSALT LAKE, see Mormon ites. \n\nSALT-PETEE (from sal petrce, salt of the \nrock), or Nitre, is a compound of nitric acid and \npotash (nitrogen, oxygen, and potassium), and \nhence is called nitrate of potash. It is the explo- \nsive ingredient in gunpowder, many detonating \npowders, and Lucifer matches. Boyle in the 17th \ncentury demonstrated that salt-petre was composed \nof aqua fortis (nitric acid) and potash; the dis- \ncoveries of Lavoisier (1777) and Davy (1807) showed \nits real composition . Its manufacture in England \nbegan about 1625. During the French revolu- \ntionary war, the manufacture was greatly increased \nby the researches of Berthollct. \n\nSALUTE AT SEA. It is a received maxim at \nsea, that he who returns the salute always tires \nfewer guns than he receives, -which is done even \nbetween the ships of princes of equal dignity ; but \nthe Swedes and Danes return the compliment with- \nout regarding how many guns are fired to them. \nThe English claim the right of being saluted first \nin all places, as sovereigns of the seas; the Vene- \ntians claimed this honour within their gulf, &c. \nThe admiralty issued a code of rules for salutes, \nDec. 1876. See Flag, and Naval Salute. \n\nSALVADOR, SAN, one of the Bahamas, and \nthe first point of land discovered in the West Indies \nor America by Columbus. It was previously called \nGuanahani, or Cat\'s Isle, and Columbus (in ac- \nknowledgment to God for his deliverance) named it \nSan Salvador when he first saw it, 11 Oct. 1492. \nThe capital, San Salvador, was destroyed by an \nearthquake, 16 April 1854, and is now abandoned. \n\nSALVADOE, SAN, one of the republics of \nCentral America, with a constitution established \n24 Jan. 1859. Capital, Libertade. General Barrios \nelected president I Feb. i860, was compelled to flee \nin Oct. 1863 ; when Francis Duerias became provi- \nsional president ; his formal election took place April, \n1865. The ex-president, Gerard Barrios, was sur- \nrendered by Nicaragua, tried and shot, Aug. 1865. A \nreattempted revolution failed; Zaldivarfled; general \nGonzales president, 1 Feb. 1872 ; K. Zaldivar, May, \n1876; Gen. Menendez, June, 1885; re-elected \n1 March 1887 for four years. Population, \n1886, 651,130. The capital, San Salvador, was \nnearly destroyed by an earthquake, 19 March, 1873, \nabout 50 persons perished. The convulsion began \n5 March and thus gave timely warning. A rebellion \nsuppressed, 6 \xe2\x80\x94 10 Sept. 1887. \nGeneral Rivas and an insurgent army defeated by \ngovernment troops, announced . . 31 Dec. 1889 \n\nInsurrection ended Jan. 1890 \n\nGen. Menendes dies suddenly, 22 June ; revolution, \nsen. Carlos Ezeta becomes provisional president, \n\n25 June ,, \nGuatemala ami Honduras declare war against pre- \nsident Ezeta, several sanguinary battles ; in- \nvading troops defeated, July ; Guatemala in- \nvaded, July ; gen. Rivas revolts against president \nE/.eta, and is, aftera severe engagement, defeated \nby gen. A. Ezeta, captured, and publicly shot, \n\n1 Aug. ,, \nGen. Ezeta re-elected president . about 13 Sept. ,, \nPeace with Guatemala signed, announced | 17 Nov. ,, \nGen. Ezeta continued as president for four years, \n\n1 March, 1891 \nRebellion in the island of Amapala suppressed, \n\nand the leader, gen. Bardales, killed . 6 May, ,, \nViolent earthquake, great destruction of life and \n\nproperty 9 Sept. ,, \n\nAbout 40 persons killed in the capital ; Comasagua \nnearly destroyed ; shocks still continue 13 Sept. ,, \n\n"SALVATION ARMY," a name assumed \nby a body of persons terming themselves tho \n\n\n\n"Christian Mission" (formed by the combination \nof seveial revival societies in 1865, for the evan- \ngelization of the very lowest classes. Mr. "William \nBooth was nominated "general" of the army. \nDeeds constituting Mr. Booth general superin- \ntendent of the affairs of the " Cbristian Mission" \nwith plenary powers, and trustee of its property and \nincome, and" also with power to name his successor, \nwere enrolled in Chancery, Aug. 1878. \n\nA gieat "Hosanna" meeting to celebrate the formation \nof the 104th corps at Northampton, was held at the \nheadquarters (with prayers, addresses, and singing), \n272, Whitechapel-road, 30 June, 1879. \n\nGen. Booth set forth his principles in the Contem- \nporary Review for August, 1882 ; he upholds the \ngospel, opposes sectarianism, and requires from \nhis soldiers implicit obedience, aiming at the re- \nformation of drunkards and other reprobates.* \n\nThe Eagle Tavern and Grecian Theatre, City Road, \nLondon, purchased; occupied, early 12 Aug.; de- \nvoted, 14 Sept. 1882 ;\xe2\x96\xa0 conditions of sale not kept, \nordered to quit 6 July, 1883 \n\nIndian contingent (major Tucker and others), land \nat Bombay ; fined ; imprisoned on non-payment, \n\n28 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTheir "invasion" opposed by the authorities in \nSwitzerland, Jan. et seq. ; severely opposed, June; \nMiss Booth imprisoned at Neufehatel, Sept.; ac- \nquitted, 1 Oct.; expelled . . .11 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGreat fighting between Salvation and Skeleton \narmies at Gravesend [and other places] 15 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n"553 army brigades in the United Kingdom; 182 \nabroad."\xe2\x80\x94 (Vert. Booth .... April, 1884 \n\nWest-end centre building founded . . 14 June, ,, \n\nSevere rioting at Worthing ; the army attacked by \nthe Skeleton army, 18-20 Aug.; a man wounded \nby a revolver fired by Mr. G. Head, 7 Sept.; \nrioting at Brighton .... 7 Sept. ,, \n\nInternational congress in London 28 May-4 June, 1886 \n\nGeneral Booth appeals to the army for a subscrip- \ntion of 5,000/ 20 Aug. ,, \n\nAnother appeal Dec. 1887 \n\nHe reports "advance of the army " throughout the \nworld with varying success, opposition and in- \ndifference ; about 100,000/. received in . . . 1887 \n\nCelebration of the 23rd anniversary of the organiza- \ntion of the army at the Alexandra Palace 9 July, 1888 \n\nSevere decree against the army in Berne, 2 Sept. ; \nunconstitutional peisecution, Aug. -Sept. 1884, \ncontinued 1888-9 \n\nThe offices in Queen Victoria Street, London, \npartly burnt ...... 3 Dec. 1889 \n\n17th anniversary kept at the Alexandra Palace, \n3 July, 1882 ; \'25th at Crystal Palace . . . 1890 \n\nDeath of Mrs. Catherine Booth, aged 6t . 4 Oct. ,, \n\nGreat funeral demonstration at Olympia, 13 Oct. ; \nAbnev Park 14 Oct. ,, \n\nGen. Booth publishes his book " In Darkest \nEngland, and the Way Out," to renovate the \nvery lowest classes ("the submerged tenth"); \nhe proposes the formation of city, farm, and over \nthe sea colonies (cost about 1,000,000/.) . Oct. ,, \n\nGreat meetings of the army at Exeter Hall, 43, 171/. \ncontributed . ... . \xe2\x80\xa2 i7> l8 Js *" v - >\xe2\x96\xa0 \n\nAbove 106,000/. subscribed or promised . Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGreat progress of the army in India and tin 1 colo- \nnies reported 13 Nov. ,, \n\nForce of the army : 0,416 officers, 1,375 corps at \nhome, and 1,499 in the colonies, capital, 750,000/., \nreported Dec. ,, \n\nGeneral Booth visits Copenhagen, Hamburg, Ber- \nlin, and other places to inspect his army, Feb. ; \nS. Africa, the East, and Australia, Aug. ct so/. \n1891 ; his welcome home, 12 days\' festivities, \n\n12 Feb. et seq. 1892 \n\nMrs. David Bell, of Glasgow, bequeaths about \n58,193/. and a hall in Dollar to gen. Booth in \nsupport of his work, announced . . 8 May, 1891 \n\nGen. Booth urgently appeals for funds, \n\nabout 11 May, 1892 \n\n* The army has officers of various grades; head- \nquarters, 101, Queen Victoria Street, London ; publish- \ning offices, <vc, Paternoster Square ; official gazette, the \nWar Cry, price Jd., in various languages, of which \nmillions are sold. The propngandism is very vigorous. \n\n\n\nSALZBACH. \n\n\n\n853 \n\n\n\nSANDEMANIANS. \n\n\n\nSALZBACH (Baden) . Here the French gene- \nral Turenne was killed, at the commencement of a \nbattle, 27 July, 1675. \n\nSALZBUBG, an ancient city of Germany, was \nannexed to Austria, 1805; to Bavaria, 1809; to \nAustria again 18 15. It was the birthplace of \nMozart, 1756. The meetings of the emperors of \nAustria and France here, 18 Aug. 1867, and the \nemperors of Austria and Germany, 6 Sept. 1871, \nwhich caused some anxiety, were reported to be in \nfavour of peace. Population, 1890; province, \n173,510; city, 27,741. \n\nSAMAJ, or SOMAJ, see Deism. \n\nSAMANIDE DYNASTY, began with Ismail \nSamaui, who overcame the army of the Safferides, \nand established himself in the government of \nPersia, 902 ; his descendants ruled till 999. \n\nSAMABCAND (in Tartary) was conquered by \nthe Mahometans, 707 ; by Genghis Khan, 1220, and \nby Timur, or Tamerlane, who ruled here in great \nsplendour. Samarcand was occupied by the Rus- \nsians under Kaufinairn 26 May, 1868, after a con- \nflict on the previous day. The garrison left, resisted \na fierce siege till relieved by Kaufniann, 13-20 June, \n186S. J \' J \n\nSAMABITANS. Samaria was built by Omri, \n925 B.C. ; and became the capital of the kingdom \nof Israel. On the breaking up of that kingdom \n(721 B.C.), the conqueror Shalmaneser placed natives \nof other countries at Samaria. The descendants of \nthese mixed races were abominable to the Jews, and \nmuch more so in consequence of the rival temple \nbuilt on Mount Gerizim by Sanballat the Samaritan, \n332 B.C., which was destroyed by John Hyrcanus, \n130 B.C. ; see John iv. & viii. 48, and Luke x. 33. \nThe Samaritan Pentateuch (of uncertain origin) \nwas published in his Polyglot by Morinus, 1632. \n\nThe Samaritan Free hospital, Marylebone ; memorial \nstone laid by the prince of Wales, 24 July, 1889. \n\nSAMNITES, a warlike people of S. central \nItaly, who strenuously resisted the Koman power, \nand were not subjugated till after three sangui- \nnary wars, from 343 to 290 B.C. They afterwards \njoined Pyrrhus, Hannibal, and other enemies of \nHome, without benefit to themselves. Their brave \nleader, Caius Pontius, who spared the Romans at \nCaudium, 320, having been taken prisoner, was \nbasely put to death, 292. They did not acquire \nthe right of citizenship till 88 B.C. See Caudine \nForks and Rome. \n\nSAMOAN ISLES (or Navigators), (nine in- \nhabited), near the Fiji islands; christianized by \nrev. John Williams, 1830. King Malietoa suc- \nceeded, 8 Nov. 1880. The isles have a political con- \nstitution ; their parliament voted annexation to \nNew Zealand, March, 1885. Population about \n35,000. \n\nKing Malietoa deposed for alleged robbery and \ninsult by Germans, and replaced by Tamatese, \nthe British and French consuls protest, announced \n\n8 Sept. 1887 \nInsurrection against Tamatese, headed by Mataafa \n\nOct. 1S8S \nVictory of Mataafa, after a fierce battle 29 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nA party of Germans land, attacked by Mataafa\'s \n\nforces ; 16 killed and the rest rescued 18 Dec. ,, \nDifficulties regarding Samoa have arisen between \nthe German, British, and United States govern- \nments Jan. 1889 \n\nThe Germans declare war against Mataafa ; 31 Jan. ,, \nPrince Bismarck yields to United States claims \n\nFeb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nCessation of hostilities reported . 5 March, ,, \n\nBy a great storm three German and three American \nwar vessels were driven ashore at Apia on the \n\n\n\nisland of Upola and destroyed ; about 50 \nAmericans and 96 Germans drowned ; H.M.S. \nCalliope escaped by steaming out 15, 16 March, 1889 \n[Capt. Kane of the Calliope was thanked by the \nadmiralty for his skill and seamanship.] \n\nConference on Samoan affairs at Berlin; plenipoten- \ntiaries : England, sir Edward Malet ; Germany, \ncount H. Bismarck ; United States, Mr. John \nKasson ; first met 29 April ; closing conference, \nagreement signed subject to legislative ratification \n\n14 June, ,, \n\nThe convention declares the Samoan Isles to be \nindependent neutral territory ; the three powers \nto have equal rights ; Malietoa recognized as \nking ; a supreme court created, with other pro- \nvisions. \n\nMataafa supports Malietoa, who is warmly received, \non his return to Apia, 11 Aug. ; he resigns king- \nship to Mataafa ,, \n\nMataafa elected king, and Malietoa vice-king, an- \nnounced 14 Oct. ,, \n\nMalietoa re-instated as king, with the assent of \nforeign powers 10 Dec. ,, \n\nDeath of Tamasese, reported. . . 28 April, 1891 \n\nThe powers promise the king needed help . Aug. 1892 \n\nSAMOS, an island on the W. coast of Asia \nMinor. Colonised by Ionians about 1043 B.C. The \ncity was founded about 986. Polycrates, ruler of \nSamos (532-22 B.C.), was one of the most able, \nfortunate, and treacherous of the Greek tyrants, \nand possessed a powerful fleet. He patronised \nPythagoras (born here) and Anacreon. Samos was \ntaken by the Athenians. 440 ; and, with Greece, \nbecame subject to Rome, 146. It was taken by the \nVenetians, a.d. 1125, who here made velvet (samet), \nand became subject to the Turks, about 1459. Popu- \nlation, 1891, 44,953. \n\nIt was made a principality by sultan Mahmoud in 1832. \nPrince Constantine Adossides, born 23 Feb., 1822 ; \n\nappointed 4 March, 1879. Alexander Karatheodory, \n\nborn 20 July, 1833, appointed 1885. \n\nSAMPFOBD COITBTENAY (Devon). \nHere John, lord Russell, defeated the Cornish and \nDevonshire catholic rebels, the middle of Aug. 1549. \n\nSAN- For names with this prefix, see the \nnames themselves throughout the book. \n\nSANCTION, sec Pragmatic. \n\nSANCTUABIES, see Asylums. Privileged \nplaces for the safety of offenders are said to have \nbeen granted by king Lucius to churches and their \nprecincts. St. John\'s of Beverley was thus pri- \nvileged in the time of the Saxons. St. liurian\'s, \nin Cornwall, was privileged by Athelstan, 935 ; \nWestminster, by Edward the Confessor; St. Mar- \ntin\'s-le-Grand, 1529. Being much abused, the pri- \nvilege of sanctuary w r as limited \\>y the pope in 1503 \n(at the request of Henry VII.), and much reduced \nin 1540. In Loudon, persons were secure from \narrest in certain localities : these were the Minories, \nSalisbury - court, AVhitefriars, Fulwood\'s- rents, \nMitre-court, Baldwin\'s-gardens, the Savoy, Clink, \nDeadman\'s-place, Montague-close, and the Mint. \nThis security was abolished 1697, but lasted in some \ndegree till the reign of George II. (1727). \n\nSANDALS, sec Shoes. \n\nSAND-BLAST. Gen. B. C. Tilghman, of \nPhiladelphia, has invented a method of cutting stone \nor hard metal by a jet of quartz sand impelled by \ncompressed air or steam. A hole of 1 7 inch diameter \nand 1 h inch deep was bored through a block of \ncorundum, nearly as hard as diamond, in 25 \nminutes. The inven/ion was submitted to the Frank- \nlin Institute, Philadelphia, 15 Feb. 1871. It may \nbe employed in the arts, for etching, &c. ; for this \npurpose a company was at work, 1874. \n\nSANDEMANIANS, see Glasiles. \n\n\n\nSANDHURST. \n\n\n\n857 \n\n\n\nSANITATION. \n\n\n\nSANDHURST, Royal Military \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0COLLEGE, founded, first at High Wycombe, in \n1799; removed to Great Marlow in 1802. and to \nSandhurst in 1812. It consists of the staff college \nand cadets\' college. Competitive examination for \n\xe2\x96\xa0entrance into the latter began in Feb. 1858. A wing \n\xe2\x80\xa2of the college was destroyed by fire, 21 Jan. 1868. \n\nSANDRINGHAM HOUSE, N. E. Norfolk, \n\xe2\x96\xa0was purchased by the prince of Wales, 1861, re- \nbuilt ; occupied, 1871 ; much injured by fire, 1 Nov. \n1891. Here the duke of Clarence and Avondale \n\xe2\x80\xa2died, 14 Jan. 1892. \n\nSANDWICH (Portits Rntitpcnsis, Kent). It \nsuffered by Danish invaders in 851, 993, and 1014, \nbut was rebuilt by Canute, and became prosperous ; \nit became chief of the cinque ports about 1066. It \ncontributed 22 ships and 504 mariners to Edward \nIII.\'s French expedition. It was taken and plun- \ndered by the French under Breze in Aug. 1457. \nFlemish silk and woollen manufactories were set- \ntled here by Elizabeth in 1561. Disfranchised \n1885. Population, 1881, 2,846; 1891, 2,796. \n\nSANDWICH ISLANDS or Hawaii Ar- \nchipelago, a group in the Pacific Ocean, discovered \nby captain Cook in 1778. In Owlujhcc or Hawaii, one \nof these islands, he fell a victim to the sudden re- \nsentment of the natives, 14 Feb. 1779. The king \nand queen visited London in 1824, and died there \nin July. These people have made great progress in \ncivilisation, and embraced Christianity before any \nmissionaries were settled among them. Population \nin 1884, 80,578; 1890, 89,990. Numbers of native \npopulation said to be stationar}\'. King Kamehameha \nIV. married Miss Emma Hooker, 1856. She came \nto England in 1865 ; landing at Southampton, 13 \nJuly, and visited our queen, 9 Sept. An English \nbishopric was established at Honolulu in 1861, \nfor which Dr. Thomas Staley was consecrated, J 8 \nAug. 1862. \n\nThe king died ; Kameliameba V. king . Nov. 1863 \nThe duke of Edinburgh warmly received at Hono- \nlulu 21 July, 1869 \n\nBishop Staley resigns, Aug. 1870; bishop Alfred \n\nWillis consecrated 2 Feb. 1872 \n\nKamehameha V. died, unmarried . 11 Dec. ,, \n\nWin. C. Lunalilo crowned, 8 Jan. 1873 ; died, 3 Feb. 1874 \nReciprocity treaty concluded between Hawaii and \n\nthe United States 1875 \n\nDavid Kalakaua (born 16 Nov. 1836), elected king, \nin opposition to queen Einnia 12 Feb. ; visits the \npresident at Washington 12 Dec. 1876; visits \nEurope ; at Rome, 1 July ; received by the queen \nat Windsor, 12 July, 1881 ; crowned . 12 Feb. 1883 \nQueen Kapioiani arrives at Liverpool to be present \nat the royal jubilee service 2 June ; arrives in \n\nLondon 8 June, 1887 \n\nRevolution against a corrupt ministry 25 June ; \nthe ministry deposed 30 June ; the king powerless \nappeals to the foreign representatives, who \nrecommend the formation of a new constitution ; \nthe king signs a new constitution 7 July ; new \nministry formed .... 10 July, ,, \n\nMr. Wilcox, a government military pupil, with 100 \nmen, attempts the seizure of the palace at Hono- \nlulu, 30 July ; lighting ensues, 6 rebels killed ; \nWilcox surrenders .... 31 July, 1889 \nDeath of the king David Kahikaua at San Fran- \ncisco, 20 Jan. ; succeeded by his sister, Lilino- \nkalani (who visited England in 1887), proclaimed \n\n29 Jan. 1891 \nPolitical troubles : the late king\'s ministers refuse \nto resign, Feb. ; opposition to the queen ; Ameri- \ncan intervention against Civil war about 4 March, ,, \nThe ministry resigns ; new one formed, 26 Feb. ; \n\nprincess Kaiulani declared heirappai\'ent, 9 March, ,, \nThe queen nominates her privy council of 40 mem- \nbers, including her husband, Mr. John Owen \nDominis, reported c8 March; Mr. Dominis died, \n\n27 Aug. ,, \n\n\n\nMr. Robert Wilcox heads a native party against \n\nthe government, desiring a republic . Dec. 1891 \nConspiracyof Wilcox and others suppressed, 20 May, 1892 \nSANGIR ISLANDS, a group lying between \nthe Philippines and Celebes, subject to the Dutch. \nGreat Sangir has suffered much by volcanic erup- \ntions. By one in 1856 about 2,000 persons perished, \nand by others, 7 June ct .scq. 1892, it was said that \nnearly all the population, about 1 2,000, was destroyed. \nSANHEDRIM. An ancient Jewish council \nof the highest jurisdiction, of seventy, or, as some \nsay, seventy-three members, usually considered to \nbe that established by Moses, Num. xi. 16, \xe2\x80\x94 1490 \nB.C. It was yet in being at the time of Jesus \nChrist, John xviii. 31. A Jewish Sanhedrim was \nsummoned by the emperor Napoleon I., 23 July, \n1806. A meeting of Jewish deputies was held 18 \nSept , and the Sanhedrim assembled, 9 March, [807. \nSANITARY INSTITUTE of Great \nBRITAIN, founded 13 July, 1876; president, the \nduke of Northumberland. Congress at Leamington, \n1 Oct. 1877; at Stafford, 2 Oct. 1878; at Croy- \ndon, 21 Oct. 1879; at Exeter, 1880; opened a School \nof Hygiene in London Nov. 1879. Congress at \nNewcastle, 1882; at Glasgow, 27 Sept. 1883: at \nDublin, 30 Sept. 1884 ; at Leicester, 22 Sept. 1885 ; \nYork, 21 Sept. 1886: Bolton, 20 Sept. 1887; \nWorcester, 24 Sept. 1889 ; Brighton, 24 Aug. 1890 ; \nPortsmouth, 12 Sept. 1892; incorporated Aug. 1888. \nSee under Sanitation. \n\nSANITATION, the preservation of health. \nStrict cleanliness is enjoined in the law of Moses, 1490 \nb.c. Great attention hasbeen paid to the public health \nin France since 1802. Tardieu published his " Dic- \ntionnaire de Hygiene," 1852-54. Sanitary com- \nmissions were appointed in i83Sand 1844. To Dr. \nSouthwood Smith is mainly attributable the honour \nof commencing the agitation on the subject of public \nhealth in England about 1832 ; his " Philosophy of \nHealth" having excited much attention. Since \n1838 he has published numerous sanitary reports, \nhaving been much employed by the government. \nProfessors of hygiene are now appointed. See \nHealth, Public Health, and Hygiene (Congresses). \nInvestigations of the Poor Law Commissioners and con- \nsequent disclosures and the reports of the registrar- \ngeneral lead to legislation, 1834 et seq. \nNuisances Removal act passed (repealed) . 1845-1860 \nBaths and Washhouses act .... 1846-1S47 \nPublic Health act (subsequent Supplemental acts). \n\nSee Health, Board of 1S48 \n\nCommon Lodging Houses act . . . 1851-1853 \nLabouring Classes Lodging Houses act . . . 1851 \nSmoke Nuisance Abatement act .... 1853 \n\nDiseases Prevention act 1855 \n\nPublic Health act passed \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMetropolitan Interments acts . . . 1S50-1855 \nInternational sanitary conferences at Paris, 1851 ; \n\nat Constantinople 1S60 \n\nLabouring Classes Dwelling-house act passed, March, 1S66 \nNew Sanitary act (stringent) passed Aug. 1866 ; \n\namended 1S6S, \n\nPublic Health act passed . . . 10 Aug. \nNational health society founded .... \nInternational sanitary congress at Vienna, closed \n\n1 Aug. \nPublic Health act for Ireland passed . 7 Aug. \nSanitary Laws Amendment act passed . 7 Aug. \n\nNew Consolidated Public Health act passed . \nAn international exhibition of objects relating to \npublic health and safety was opened by the king \nOf Belgium at Brussels, 26 June ; a congress net \n\n27 Sept. \nSee Hygiene. \nParkes "museum of hygiene," instituted 1S76, at \nUniversity college, London ; incorporated and \nremoved to Margaret-street, Cavendish-square, \n1882; opened by the duke of Albany .-6 May, 1883 ; \nincorporated with the Sanitary institute of Great \nBritain Aug, \n\n\n\n1870 \n1872 \n1873 \n\n1874 \n\n\n\n1S75 \n\n\n\n1S76 \n\n\n\nSANITAS. \n\n\n\n853 \n\n\n\nSARAGOSSA. \n\n\n\nSanitary Assurance Association, formed by sir Jo- \nseph Fayrer, Drs. Andrew Clark, Oorfield, Tyn- \ndall, and others ; constituted . . .14 Dec. 1880 \n\nLondon Sanitary Protection Association, founded by \nsir Wm. W. Gull, professor Huxley, and others . 1881 \n\nInternational sanitary exhibition, royal Albert hall, \n\n16 July \xe2\x80\x94 13 Aug. ,, \n\nNational health society\'s exhibition opened 2 June, 1883 \n\nInternational health exhibition, 1884; proposals \nadopted, Nov. 1883 ; opened by the duke of Cam- \nbridge, 8 May ; closed, 30 Oct. ; conferences held \nabout 12 June ; the juries inaugurated by the \nprince of Wales, 17 June; admitted, 4,153,390; \nmedals awarded (242 gold, 5096 silver, and others), \n27 Oct. 1884; estimated surplus, 19,000?. . Feb. 1885 \n\nInternational sanitary conferences at Washington, \n1881 ; at Rome . 1S85 \n\n.Stated result of fifty years\' sanitation saving of \nabout 5or>,ooo lives ; death rate reduced from \nabove 22 to 19 per thousand . . . Nov. 1886 \n\nThe College of State Medicine for the training of \npersons officially employed in matters relating to \npublic health inaugurated ; address by Mr. \nBrudenell Carter 2 May 1888 \n\nCongress of Hygiene met at Paris . . . 4 Aug. 18S9 \n\nSir Edwin Chad wick, a great promoter of sanitation, \ndied, aged 90 5 July, 1890 \n\nInternational sanitary conference at Venice, 5 Jan. \net seq. ; convention respecting quarantine, &c, \nsigned by some of the delegates . . 30 Jan. 1892 \n\nSanitary conference at Paris . . about 24 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSANITAS (health), a new antiseptic and dis- \ninfectant, invented by Mr. C. T. Kingzett, about \n\n1875- \n\nHaving discovered that the salubrity of the air surround- \ning certain trees, such as the Eucalyptus globulus and \npines, is due to their volatile oils producing peroxide \nof hydrogen and camphoric acid, he devised a method \nfor procuring these re-agents by the decomposition of \ncommon turpentine, and in 1877 they were manufac- \ntured and sold as " Sanitas." \n\nSAN JUAN ISLAND, see Juan. \n\nSAN SALVADOE, see Salvador. \n\nSANSCULOTTES, a term of reproach applied \nto the leaders of the French republicans about 1790, \non account of their negligence in dress, and after- \nwards assumed by them with pride. The comple- \nmentary days of their new calendar were named by \nthe Mountain party Sansculottides. \n\nSANSKRIT, the language of the Brahmans of \nIndia, spoken at the time of Solomon, has been \nmuch studied of late years. Sir Wm. Jones, who \npublished a translation of the poem Sakuntala, in \n1783, discovered that a complete literature had been \npreserved in India, comprising sacred books (the \nVedas), history and philosophy, lyric and dramatic \npoetry. Texts and translations of many works have \nbeen published by the aid of the East India Com- \npany, the Oriental Translation Fund, and private \nliberality. The professorship of Sanskrit at Ox- \nford was founded by colonel Boden. The first pro- \nfessor, H. H. Wilson, appointed in 1832, translated \npart of the Rig-veda Sanhita, the sacred hymns of \nthe Brahmins, and several poems, &c. Professor \nMonier Williams (elected i860) published an Eng- \nlish and Sanskrit dictionary, 1851. Professor Max \nMi\'tller published his history of Sanskrit Literature \nin 1859, and has edited the original text of the \nVedas. Philologists have discovered an intimate \nconnection between the Sanskrit, Persian, Greek, \nLatin, Teutonic, Slavonian, Celtic, and Scandi- \nnavian languages. \n\nSAN STEFANO, see Stefano. \n\nSANTA CEUZ (Teneriffe, Canary Isles). Here \nadmiral Blake, by daring bravery, entirely destroyed \nsixteen Spanish ships, secured with great nautical \nskill, and protected by the castle and forts on the \nshore, 20 April, 1657. Clarendon. In an unsuc- \n\n\n\ncessful attack made upon Santa Cruz by Nelson, \nseveral officers and 141 men were killed, and the \nadmiral lost his right arm, 24 July, 1797.* See- \nunder Virgin Isles. \n\nSANTA FE DE BOGOTA, see New Gra- \nnada. \n\nSANTA HERMANDAD, see Sermandad. \n\nSANTIAGO DE COMPOSTELLA(N.W. \n\nSpain), was sacked by the Moors in 995, and held by \nthem till it was taken by Ferdinand III. in 1235. \nThe order of Santiago, or St. James, was founded \nabout 1 1 70 to protect pilgrims to the shrine of St. \nJames the Greater (Acts, xii. 2), said to be buried in \nthe cathedral. The town was taken by the French in \n1809, and held till 1814. \xe2\x80\x94 Santiago, the capital of \nChili, S. America, founded by Yaldivia in 1541, has \nsuffered much by earthquakes, especially in 1822 \nand 1829. Population, 1885, 189,332. \nAt a festival in honour of the Virgin Mary, 8 Dec. 1863, \nwhen the church of the Campania, brilliantly illumi- \nnated, was crowded, the combustible ornaments took \nfire, and above 2,000 persons, principally women, \nperished. On 20 Dec. the government ordered the \nchurch to be razed to the ground. See Chili, 1891. \n\nSAPPERS AND MINERS, a name given in \n1812 to the non-commissioned officers and privates \nof the corps of Royal Engineers. Brande. \n\nSAPPHIC VERSE, invented by Sappho, the \nlyric poetess of Mitylene. She was equally cele- \nbrated for her poetry, beauty, and a hopeless passion \nfor Phaon, a youth of her native country, on which \nlast account it is said she threw herself into the sea \nfrom Mount Leucas, and was drowned, about 590 \nB.C. The Lesbians, after her death, paid her divine \nhonours, and called her the tenth muse. Some \nconsider the story fabulous. \n\nSAPPHIRE, a precious stone of an azure \ncolour, and transparent ; in hardness it exceeds the \nruby, and is next to the diamond. One was placed \nin the Jewish high priest\'s breast-plate, 1 49 1. \nThamas Kouli Khan is said to have possessed a \nsapphire valued at 300,000/., 1733. Artificial sap- \nphires were made in 1857 by M. Gaudin. Equal parts \nof alum and sulphate of potash were heated in a \ncrucible. \n\nSARABAND. A stately dance invented by \nSarabanda, a dancer of Seville, in the 16th century. \n\nSARACENS, a name of doubtful origin, popu- \nlarly applied in the middle ages and since to the \nArabs, Moors, and other Mahometans who conquered \nthe East, Spain, Sicily, and parts of Africa, and re- \nsisted the Crusaders. See Mahometanism. \n\nSARAGOSSA (N.E. Spain), anciently Csesarea \nAugusta, founded 27 B.C., was taken by the Goths-, \n470 ; by the Arabs, 712 ; by Alfonso of Spain, 1 1 18. \nHere Philip V. was defeated by the archduke \nCharles, 20 Aug. 1710. On 17 Dec. 1778, 400 of the \ninhabitants perished in a fire at the theatre. Sara- \ngossa, after successfully resisting the French in \n1808, was taken by them after a most heroic defence \nby general Palafox, 20 Feb. 1809. The inhabitants, \n\n* Captain Fremantle, the friend of Nelson, and his com- \npanion in most of his brilliant achievements, was also \nwounded in the arm immediately before Nelson had re- \nceived his wound in the same limb. The following note, \naddressed to the lady of Captain Fremantle (who was on \nboard with her husband at the time he wrote), has been \npreserved , as being the first letter written by the hero with \nhis left hand: \xe2\x80\x94 " My dear Mrs. Fremantle, \xe2\x80\x94 Tell me \nhow Tom is, I hope he has saved his arm. Mine is off; \nbut thank God ! I am as well as I hope he is. Ever yours, \n"Horatio Nelson." \n\n\n\nSAEAH SANDS. \n\n\n\n859 \n\n\n\nSAEMATIA. \n\n\n\nof both sexes, resisted until worn out by fighting, \nfamine, and pestilence. Population, 1887, 92,407. \n\nSAEAH SANDS, see Wrecks, 1857. \n\nSAEAKHS, see Russia, 1884. \n\nSAEATOGA (New York State, N. America). \nHere general Burgoyne, commander of a body of the \nBritish army, after a severe engagement with the \nAmericans at Gernianstown, in which he was vic- \ntorious, 3, 4 Oct., being surrounded, surrendered all \nhis army (5791 men) to the American general Gates, \n17 Oct" 1777. This was the greatest check the \nBritish suffered in the war. \n\nSAEAWAK, see Borneo. \n\nSAEDINIA, an island in the Mediterranean, \nsuccessively possessed by the Phoenicians, Greeks, \nCarthaginians (about 500 B.C.), Romans (238), \nVandals (a.d. 456), Saracens (720-40), Genoese \n(1022), Pisans (1165), Aragoncse (1352), and \nSpaniards. From settlers belonging to these \nvarious nations the present inhabitants derive their \norigin. Victor Amadeus, duke of Savoy, acquired \nSardinia in 1720, with the title of king ; see Saroi/. \nPopulation of the Sardinian dominions in 1858, \n5,194,807; of Sardinia alone, 1887, 723,833. The \nking of Sardinia was recognised as king of Italy by \nhis parliament in Feb. 1861 ; see Italy. \nConquered by the English naval forces, under sir \n\nJ dim Leake and gen. Stanhope . . . . 1708 \n\nCeded to the emperor Charles VI 1714 \n\nRecovered by the Spaniards . . 22 Aug. 1717 \nCe led to the duke of Savoy with the title of king, \n\nas an equivalent for Sicily \n\nVictor Amadeus abdicates in favour of his son . . \nAttempting to recover his throne, lie is taken, and \n\n1 lias in prison mf \n\nThe court kept at Turin, till Piedmont is overrun \n\nby the French \n\nCharles Emmanuel resigns to his brother, duke of \n\nAosta 4 June, 1802 \n\nPiedmont annexed to Italy ... 26 May, 1805 \n\nThe king resides in Sardinia .... 1798-1814 \nPiedmont restored to its sovereign, with Genoa \n\nadded Dec. ,, \n\nKing Charles-Albert promulgates a new code . . 1837 \nCavour establishes the newspaper "II Risorgi- \n\nniento "(" the Revival") 1847 \n\nTiie king grants a constitution, and openly espouses \n\nthe cause of Italian regeneration against Austria, \n\n23 March, 1848 \nDefeats the Austrians atGoito; and takes Peschiera \n\n30 May, ,, \nIncorporation of Lombardy with Sardinia 28 June, \n\nand Venice 4 July, ,, \n\nSardinian army defeated by Radetzky . 26 July, ,, \nSardinians at Milan capitulate to Radetzky 5 Aug. ,, \n\nArmistice signed 9 Aug. ,, \n\nHostilities resumed 12 March, 1849 \n\nRadetzky defeats a division of the Sardinians, and \n\noccupies Mortara .... 21 March, ,, \nComplete defeat of the Sardinians by the Austrians \n\nat Novara 23 March, ,, \n\nCharles-Albert abdicates in favour of his son, \n\nVictor-Emmanuel .... 23 March, ,, \nThe Austrians occupy Novara, &c. . . 25 March, ,, \nAnother armistice .... 26 March, ,, \nDeath of Charles-Albert, at Oporto . 28 July, ,, \nTreaty of Milan between Austria and Sardinia, \n\n.signed 6 Aug. ,, \n\nAdoption of the Siccardi law, which abolishes \n\necclesiastical jurisdictions . . . 9 April, 1850 \nArrest of the bishop of Turin . . . 4 May, ,, \nHe is released from the citadel . . 2 June, ,, \nCavour minister of foreign affairs .... 1851 \nPill for suppression of convents and support of \n\nclergy by the state passed , . . 2 March, 1855 \nConvention with England and France signed; a \n\nc.ontingentof 15,000 troops to be supplied against \n\nRussia 10 April, ,, \n\n1 d.ooo troops under general La Marmora arrive in \n\nthe Crimea 8 Mar. \n\n\n\n1720 \n1730 \n\n\n\n1732 \n\n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 1792 \n\n\n\nWho distinguish themselves in the battle of the \nTchernaya 16 Aug. 1855 \n\nThe king visits London, &c. . . 30 Nov. &e. ,, \n\nImportant note on Italy from count Cavour to \nEngland 16 April, 1856 \n\nRupture with Austria ; subsequent war (see A ustria, \n1857, et seq.) \n\nCavour declares in favour of free trade . June, 1857 \n\nPrince Napoleon Jerome marries princess Clotilde \n(see Italy) 30 Jan. 1859 \n\nPreliminaries of peace signed at Villa Franca, n \nJuly ; count Cavour resigns, 13 July ; Rattazzi \nadministration formed . . . .19 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe emperor Napoleon\'s letter to Victor-Emmanuel \nadvocating the formation of an Italian confedera- \ntion : the latter declares it to be impracticable, \nand maintains his engagements with the Italians, \n\n20 Oct. ,, \nTreaty of peace signed at Zurich . . Nov. ,, \nGaribaldi retires into private life . . 17 Nov. ,, \nCount Cavour returns to office . . . 16 Jan. i86\xc2\xbb \nThe Sardinian government refers the question of \n\nannexation of Tuscany, &c, to the vote of the \n\npeople 29 Feb. ,, \n\nAnnexation of Savoy and Nice proposed by the \n\nFrench government ; the Sardinian government \n\nrefer it to the vote of the people . . 25 Feb. ,, \nAnnexation to Sardinia voted almost unanimously \n\nby xEmilia, 14 March ; by Tuscany, 16 March ; \n\naccepted by Victor-Emmanuel . 18-20 March, , r \nTreaty ceding Savoy and Nice to France, signed \n\n24 March, ,, \nPrussia protests against the Italian annexations \n\n27 March, ,, \nNew Sardinian parliament opens . . 2 April, ,, \nAnnexation to France almost unanimously voted \n\nfor by Nice, 15 April ; by Savoy . 22 April, ,, \nThe government professes disapproval of Garibaldi\'s \n\nexpedition to Sicily (which see) . . r8 May, ,, \nThe chambers ratify treaty of cession of Savoy and \n\nNice 29 May, ,, \n\nThe Sardinian troops enter the papal territories \n\n(sec Italy, and Home) . . . . 11 Sept. ,, \nVictor-Emmanuel enters the kingdom of Naples \n\n15 Oct. ,, \nNaples and Sicily vote for annexation to Sardinia \n\n21 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nRailway from Sassari to the sea opened 9 April, 1872 \nGreat storm ; at Quarto, 200 houses, and at Quar- \n\ntuccie, 3 houses fell, about 15 people killed; at \n\nPizzi, 10 houses destroyed ... 7 Oct. 18S9) \nA destructive hurricane, four bridges and many \n\nbuildings destroyed, 12 persons killed, reported, \n\n7 Dec. 1890 \n[For the disputes, and war with Austria, and the \n\nevents of 1859-61, see Austria, France, Itovie, \n\nSicily, and Naples.] \n[For later history see Italy.\'] \n\nkings or Sardinia. See Savoy. \n1720. Vietor-Amadeus I. king (as duke II.) ; resigned, in \n\n1730, in favour of his son ; died in 1732. \nCharles-Emmanuel I. (III. of Savoy), son. \nVietor-Amadeus II., sou. \nCharles-Emmanuel II., sou ; resigned his crown \n\nin favour of his brother. \nVictor-Emmanuel I., brother; 4 June. \n[Sardinia merged in the kingdom of Italy, of which \n\nthe emperor Napoleon was crowned king, 26 \n\nMay, 1805.] \nVictor-Emmanuel restored ; resigned in March, \n\n1821 ; and died in 1824. \nCharles-Felix. \nCharles- Albert ; abdicated in favour of his son, 25 \n\nMarch, 1849. Died at Oporto, 28 July, 1849. \nVictor-Emmanuel II., son; born 14 March, 1820; \n\ndied, 9 Jan. 1878. \nHumbert, king of Italy ; born, 14 March 1844. \n\nSee Italy, end. \n\nSAEDIS, see under Seven Churches. \n\nSAEMATIA, the ancient name for the country \nin Asia and Europe between the Caspian Sea and \nthe Vistula, including Russia and Poland. The \nSarmattB or Sauromatse troubled the early Roman \nempire by incursions. After subduing the Scythians. \n\n\n\n1730. \n\n1773- \n1796. \n\n\n\n1821. \n1831. \n\n\n\n1849, \n\n\n\nSAENO. \n\n\n\n860 \n\n\n\nSAVINGS\' BANKS. \n\n\n\nthey were subjugated by the Goths, in the 3rd and \n4th centuries. \'I hey joined the Huns and other \nbarbarians in invading Western Europe in the 5th \n\xe2\x96\xa0century. \n\nSAENO (S.Italy). Near this river, Teias, king \nof the Goths, Avas defeated and slain by Justinian\'s \ngeneral Narses, March, 553. \n\nSAEUM, OLD (Wiltshire), an ancient British \ntown, the origin of Salisbury {which see). Although \ncompletely decayed, it returned two members to \nparliament till 1832. \n\nSASSANLDES, descendants of Artaxerxes or \nArdishir, whose father, Babek, was the son of \nSassan. He revolted against Artabanus^ the king \n\xe2\x80\xa2of Parthia ; defeated him on the plain of Hormuz, \n226 ; and re-established the Persian monarchy. This \ndynasty was expelled by the Mahometans, 652 ; \n\n\n\nSATAN, see Devil Worship. \n\nSATELLITES, see Planets, Jupiter, Mars, \n\xe2\x96\xa0Saturn. \n\n_ SATIEE. About a century after the introduc- \ntion of comedy, satire made its appearance at Pome \nin the writings of Lucilius, called the inventor of it, \n116 B.C. Livy. The Satires of Horace (35 b.c), \nJuvenal (about a.d 100), and Persius (about a.d. \n\xe2\x96\xa060), are the most celebrated in ancient times, and \nthose of Churchill (1761) and Pope (1729), m \nmodern times. Butler\'s "Hudibias," satirizing \nthe presbyterians, first appeared in 1663. Satire \nMenippee, a celebrated satirical pamphlet, partly \nm verse and partly in prose, attacking the policy of \nthe court of Spain and the league, written in the \nstyle of the biting satires of the" cynic philosopher \nMemppus. The first part, " Catholieon d\'Espagne," \nby Leroy, appeared in 1593 ; the second, "Abrege \ndes Etats de la Ligue," by Gillot, Pithou, Papin, \nand Passerat, appeared in 1594. Bouillet. \n\nSATEAPIES, divisions of the Persian empire, \nformed by Darius Hystaspes about 516 B.C. \n\nSATTAEA (W. India) was long a flourishing \nstate, founded by Sevajee about 1646; subjugated \nfcy_ the Mahrattas about 1749; conquered by the \nBritish, 1818 ; ruled by a rajah under the protection \nof the company. The last rajah died without issue \nin 1848 ; when the country was annexed. \n\nSATURDAY (the last, or seventh dav of the \nweek ; the Jewish Sabbath; see Sabbath), "it was \nso called from an idol worshipped on tins day by \nthe Saxons, and according to Yerstegan, was named \nby them Saterne\'s day. Pardon. It is more \nprobably from Saturn, dies Saturni. Saturday \nMcview, an independent literary weekly journal, \nwas first published, 3 Nov. 1855. See Hospital. \n\nSATUEN, the planet, ascertained to be about \n990 millions of miles distant from the sun, and its \ndiameter to be about 77,230 miles. One of the \neight satellites was discovered by Huvghens (25 \nMarch, 1655) J four by Cassini (1672-84) ; two by \nsir William Herschel (1789), and one by Bond and \nLassells (1848) . The ring was observed\' by Galileo, \nabout 1610; its annular form determined\' by Huy- \nghens, about 1655 ; and discovered to be two-fold \nby Messrs. Ball, 13 Oct. 1665; an inner ring was \ndetected in 1850 by Dawes in England (29 Nov.), \nand by Bond in America. \n\nSATUEN ALIA, festivals in honour of Saturn, \nfather of the gods, were instituted long before the \nfoundation of Rome, in commemoration of the \nfreedom and equality which prevailed on the earth \nin his golden reign. Some, however, suppose that \nthe Saturnalia were first observed at Pome in the \n\n\n\nreign of Tullus Hostilius (673-640 B.C.), after a \nvictory obtained over the Sabines: whilst others \nsuppose that Janus first instituted them in gratitude \nto Saturn, from whom he had learned agriculture. \nOthers assert that they were first celebrated after a \nvictory obtained over the Latins by the dictator \nPosthumius, when he dedicated a temp\'e to Saturn, \n497 B.C. During these festivals no business was \nallowed, amusements were encouraged, and dis- \ntinctions ceased. Lenglet. \n\nSAVAGE CLUB, instituted by various \nliterary men, in 1857, facetiously terming them- \nselves "savages," on account of their freedom from \nconventionalism. On some occasions they gave a \nwar-whoop. Sala. Mr. W. E. Gladstone was pre- \nsent at the 22nd anniversary, 14 June, 1879, and \nthe prince of Wales has been a visitor (1882). \n\nSAVANDEOOG (Mysore, S. India), a strong \nfortress, was captured by the British without loss, \n21 Dec. 1791. \n\nSAVINGS\' BANKS. The first of these was \ninstituted at Berne, in Switzerland, in 1787, by the \nname of caisse de domestiques, being intended for \nservants only ; another was set up in Basel, in 1792, \nopen to all depositors. The rev. Joseph Smith, of \nWendover, began a Benevolent Institution in 1799; \nand in 1803 -4, a " charitable bank" was instituted \nat Tottenham by Miss Priseilla Wakefield. The rev. \nHenry Duncan established a parish bank at Ruthwel I \nin 1810. One was opened in Edinburgh in 1814. \nThe benefit clubs, among artisans, having accumu- \nlated stocks of money for their progressive purposes, \na plan was adopted to identify these funds with the \npublic debt of the country, and an extra rate of \ninterest was held out as an inducement ; hence were \nformed savings\' banks to receive small sums, re- \nturnable with interest on demand. \nEt. hon. Geo. Rose developed the system, and brought it \n\nunder parliamentary control, 1S16. \nIn 1S40 tliere were 550 banks ; 766,354 depositors ; amount, \n\n22,060,904?. \nActs to consolidate and amend previous laws relating to \nsavings\' banks were passed in 1828 and 1847 ; extended \nto Scotland in 1835 ; again consolidated and amended \nin 1863, 1880 and 1887. \nOn 20 Nov. 1851, the number of savings\' banks in Great \nBritain and Ireland was 574, besides above 20,000 \nfriendly societies and charitable institutions. The \ndepositors (in the banks) were 1,092,581, while the \nsocieties embraced a vast but unknown number of \npersons : the amount of deposits was 32,893,511?. \nAmount of computed capital of savings\' banks in the \nUnited Kingdom : \xe2\x80\x94 1853, 33,362,260?. ; 1S60, 41,258,368?. ; \n1870, 37,958,549?. \xe2\x80\x94 1871, England, 31,413,002?. ; Wales, \n1,066,543?. ; Scotland, 4,119,735?. ; Ireland, 2,220,383?. ; \ntotal, 38,819,663?. In 1877, England, 34,750,747?.; \nWales, 1,189,254?. ; Scotland, 6,026,802?. ; Ireland, \n2,271,883?.; total, 44,238,686?, In 1883, England, \n34,441,787?.; Wales, 1,103,201?.; Scotland, 7,359,586?.; \nIreland, 2,082,549?. ; total, 44,987,123?. In 1887, Eng- \nland, 35, 595,889/.; Wales, 915, 171?.; Scotland, 8^88,354?.; \nIreland, 2,062,808?. ; total, 47,262,222?. In 1890, Eng- \nland, 31,232,451?.. ; Wales, 852,455?. ; Scotland, \n9,533,971?.; Ireland, 2,011,675?. ; total, 43,650,552?. \n\n1877. Received by Trustees. Paid. \n\nEngland . . .^6,590,428 . . .^7\xc2\xbb\xc2\xb03 1 . 2 33 \n\nWales . . . . 178,260 . . 224,434 \n\nScotland . . \xe2\x80\xa2 2,090,480 . . . 1,927,283 \n\nIreland . ... 504,463 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 472,185 \n\n9.363*631 9>655.i35 \n\n\n\n1887. \nEngland . \nWales \nScotland \nIreland \n\n\n\nleceived by Trustees. \n\n. \xc2\xa36,871,807 . \n. . 122,814 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 2.472.59\xc2\xb0 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 409.350 \n\n\nPaid. \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \xc2\xa37,756,255 \n\n183,641 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 2,340,033 \n\n428,673 \n\n\n\n9,876,561 \n\n\n\n10,708,602 \n\n\n\nSAVOXA. \n\n\n\n861 SAXE-COBURG AND GOTIIA. \n\n\n\nEngland . \nWales \nScotland \nIreland \n\n\n\nReceived hy Trustees. \n. \xc2\xa36,234,996 . \n. . 124,055 \n\n. 2,824,391 . \n. . 380,965 \n\n\n\nPaid. \n\n\xc2\xa38,607,201 \n\n165,502 \n\n2,870,407 \n\n483,290 \n\n\n\nFor Post-Office Savings\' Battles, established in 1861, see \n\nunder Post Office. \nSavings\' Banks Investment acts, passed March, 1866, \n\nand Aug. 1869. \n449 old Savings\' Banks in the United Kingdom, 1,506,714 \n\naccounts, deposits, 43,797,805?., 1880. \nNew Savings\' Bank Act, 43 cfc 44 Vict. c. 36, passed, 1880, \n\ncame into effect, interest to depositors reduced to \n\n\xe2\x96\xa02.1. 15s. per cent. 1 Nov. 1880. \n409 savings banks in the United Kingdom, 1884. 380 in \n\n1888. \nA new Savings Banks act was brought in and withdrawn \n\nin 1390; passed, 3 July, 1891. \n\nCLASSIFICATION OF THE FIRST 20,000 DEPOSITORS. \n\nDomestic servants . 7245 \n\nPersons in trade, mechanics, &c 7473 \n\nLabourers and porters 672 \n\nMiners 1454 \n\nFriendly and charitable societies . . . . 58 \n\nPersons not classed, viz., widows, teachers, sailors, \n\n&e 3098 \n\nSee Cardiff. \n\niSAVONA (a manufacturing town, N. Italy, \nlong held by the Genoese) was captured by the king \nof Sardinia in 1746; by the French in 1809, and \nannexed ; restored to Sardinia at the peace. Pope \nPius VII. was kept here by Napoleon I., 1809-12. \nSoap is said to have been invented here, and hence \nits French name savon. \n\nSAVOY, the ancient Sapaudia or Sdbaudia, \nformerly a province in N. Italy, east of Piedmont. \nIt became a Roman province about 1 18 B.C. The \nAlemanni seized it in a.d. 395, and the Franks in \n490. It shared the revolutions of Switzerland till \nabout 1048, when Conrad, emperor of Germany, \ngave it to Humbert, with the title of count. Count \nThomas acquired Piedmont in the 13th century. \nAmadeus, count of Savoy, having entered his \ndominions, solicited Sigismund to erect them into \na duchy, which he did at Canibray, 19 Feb. 1416. \nVictor-Amadeus, duke of Savoy, obtained the \nkingdom of Sicily from Spain, by a treaty, in 1713, \nbut afterwards exchanged it with the emperor \nfor the island of Sardinia, with the title of king, \n1720. The French subdued Savoy in 1792, and \nmade it a department of France, under the name of \nMont Blanc, in 1800. It was restored to the king \nof Sardinia in 1814; but with Nice annexed to \nFrance in i860, in accordance with a vote by uni- \nversal suffrage, 23 April, i860. Savoy was visited \nby the emperor and empress of the French in \nAugust, i860. The annexation Avas censured in \nEngland. \n\nDUKES OF SAVOY. \n\n1391. Count Amadeus VIII. is made duke in 1416 ; he was \nnamed pope, as Felix V. He abdicated as duke \nof Savoy, 1439 : renounced the tiara, 1449 ; died \nin 1451. \n\n1439. Louis. \n\n1465. Amadeus IX. \n\n1472. Pliilibert I. \n\n1482. Charles I. \n\n1489. Charles II \n\n1496. Philip II. \n\n1497. Philibert II. \n1504. Charles III. \n\n1553. Emmanuel-Philibcrt. \n\n1580. Charles-Emmanuel I. \n\n1630. Victor-Amadeus I. \n\n1637. Francis-Hyacinthe. \n\n1638. Charles-Emmanuel II. \n\n1675. Victor-Amadeus II. became king of Sicily, 1713 \nexchanged for Sardinia {which see) in 1720. \n\n\n\nSAVOY PALACE (London), was built by \nPeter of Savoy, uncle of Eleanor, queen of Henry \nIII., in 1245, on land granted to him. He gave it \nto the fraternity of Mountjoy (Monte Jo vis), from \nwhom it was purchased by queen Eleanor for her \nson Edmund. Here resided John, lung of France, \nwhen a prisoner, 1357 ct seq. The Savoy was burnt \nby Wat Tyler and his followers, 1381. It was- \nrestored as an hospital of St. John the Baptist by \nHenry VII. about 1505. The fruitless Confeuknce \nof bishops and eminent puritans for the revision of \nthe liturgy was held at the Savoy, April-July, 1661. \nThe hospital was dissolved in 1 702, and the" build- \nings (then used as a military prison) removed for \nWaterloo-bridge and its approaches, 1817-19. The \nancient Chapel (which once possessed the privilege of \nsanctuary), after several restorations, was destroyed \nby fire, 7 July, 1864, and was rebuilt at the queen\'s \nexpense, and re-opened 26 Nov. 1865. The privi- \nlege of sanctuary, much abused, was abolished by \nparliament, 1697. The rev. Henry White, 30 years- \nchaplain, died 7 Oct. 1890. \n\nSavoy Theatre, erected for Mr D\'Oyly Carte by Mr. C. \nJ. Phipps, opened 10 Oct. 1881 ; lit by Swan\'s incan- \ndescent electric light successfully (1194 lamps) ; 1000th \nperformance of "Patience," by Sir A. Sullivan, libretto- \nby W. G. Gilbert, 28 Deo. 1881. See Operas. \nA list of the operas produced by sir A. Sullivan and Mr. \nW. G. Gilbert is given in the article Operas. The <!on- \ndoliers, 7 Dee. 1889-20 June, 1891 ; The JS T avtch Girl, \n30 June, 1891-16 Jan. 1892 ; The Vicar 0/ Bray (re- \nvived), 28 Jan. -18 June, 1892. \nThe Savoy Hotel on the Thames Embankment opened \nby a company, 6 Aug. 1889 ; the directors include the- \nearl of Lathom, Mr. R. D\'Oyly Carte, and sir Arthur \nSullivan. \n\nSAW. Invented by Dasdalus. Pliny. Invented \nby Talus. Apollodorus. Talus, it is said, having \nfound the jaw-bone of a snake, employed it to cut \nthrough a piece of wood, and then formed an instru- \nment of iron like it. Saw-mills were erected in \nMadeira in 1420 ; at Breslau in 1427. Norway had \nthe first saw-mill in 1530. The bishop of Ely, \nambassador from Mary of England to the court of \nRome, describes a saw-mill there, 1555. The \nattempts to introduce saw-mills in England were \nviolently opposed, and one erected by a "Dutchman \nin 1663 was forced to be abandoned. Saw-mills- \nwere erected near London about 1770. The \nexcellent saw-machinery in Woolwich dockyard is \nbased upon the invention of the elder Brunei, \n1806-13. The circular saw was introduced into- \nEngland about 1 790. The saw-gin for separating \ncotton wool from the pod, invented by Eli Whitney, \nan American, in 1793, led to the immense growth of \ncotton in the southern states of the Union. Powis \nand James\'s band-saw was patented in 1858. \n\nSAXE-ALTENBUEG (formerly Hildburg- \nhausen), a duchy in central Germany. The dukes \nare descended from Ernest the Pious, duke of \nSaxony. Erncst,the first duke, died in 1715. The \nduke, Ernest, bom 16 Sept. 1826 ; succeeded \nhis father, George, 3 Aug. 1053 ; he entered into- \nalliance with Prussia, 18 Aug. 1866. Heir, brother, \nMaurice, born 24 Oct. 1829. See page XII. \n\nSAXE-COBURG AND GOTHA (central \nGermany), capitals Gotlia and Coburg. The reigning \nfamily is descended from John Ernest (son of Ernest \nthe Pious, duke of Saxony), who died in 1729. \n\nDUKES. \n\n1826. Ernest I. duke of Saxe-Saalfcld-Onburg : born, 2 \nJan. 1784; married Louisa, heiress of Augustus, \nduke of Saxe-Gotha, and became by c.mvintioii \nduke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 12 Nov. 1826 ; died, \n29 Jan. 1844. \n\n\n\nSAXE-MEININGEN. \n\n\n\n862 \n\n\n\nSCARLET FEVEE. \n\n\n\n[His brother, Leopold, married the princess Char- \nlotte of England, 2 May, 1816 ; became king of \nthe Belgians, 12 July, 1831 ; and Ferdinand, the \nson of his brother Ferdinand, married Maria da \nGloria, queen of Portugal, 9 April, 1836.] \n1844. Ernest II. son (brother of Albert, prince consort of \nGreat Britain) ; born 21 June, 1818 ; married \nAlexandrina, duchess of Baden, 3 May, 1842 ; no \nissue. He entered into alliance with Prussia, 18 \nAug. 1866. Published Memoirs, 3 vols. 1887-9. \n\nHeir (presumptive) : Prince Alfred of England, \nduke of Edinburgh ; born, 6 Aug. 1844 (in whose \nfavour the prince of Wales resigned his rights, \n19 April, 1863.) \n\nSAXE-MEININGEN (a duchy in central \nGermany). The dukes are descended from \n.Ernest the Pious, duke of Saxony. The first duke, \nBernard (1680), died in 1706. Bernard (duke, 24 \nDec. 1803, died 3 Dec. 1882), abdicated in \nfavour of his son George II., 20 Sept. 1866, who \nprofessed his adhesion to the Prussian policy; he was \nhorn, 2 April, 1826. Heir, his son, Bernard, horn \n1 April, 1851. By a fire at Meiningen, about 3000 \npersons became houseless, 6 Sept. 1874. \n\nSAXE-WEIMAE- EISENACH (central \nGermany). The grand-dukes are descended from \nJohn Frederic, the Protestant elector of Saxony, \nwho was deprived by the emperor in 1548 ; see \n\xe2\x96\xa0Saxony. The houses of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Saxe- \nGotha, Hilburghausen, and Saxe-Meiningen also \nsprang from him. They are all termed the senior \nor Ernestine branch of the old family. \xe2\x80\x94 Saxe- \n\xe2\x96\xa0Weimar became a grand duchy in 1815. The dukes \nhave greatly favoured literature and their capital \nWeimar has been called the Athens of Germany. \n\nGRAND-DUKES. \n\n1815. Charles Augustus. \n\n1828. Charles Frederic ; died, 8 July, 1853. \n\n-1853. Charles Alexander; born, 24 June, 1818. He \n\nentered into alliance with Prussia, 18 Aug. \n\n1866. \nHeir: Charles Augustus : born, 31 July, 1844. \n\nSAXONY, a kingdom in N. Germany. The \nSaxons were a fierce warlike race, the terror of the \ninhabitants of the later western empire, frequently \nattacked France, and conquered Britain (which see). \nAfter a long series of sanguinary conflicts they were \n\xe2\x80\xa2completely subdued by Charlemagne, who instituted \nmany fiefs and bishoprics in their country. Witi- \nkind, their great leader, who claimed descent from \n"Woden, professed Christianity about 785. From \nIiim descended the first and the present ruling family \n\xe2\x96\xa0of "Wettin (the houses of Supplinburg, Guelf, and \nAscania intervened from 1106 to 1421). Saxony \nbecame a duchy, 880 ; an electorate, 1180; and a \n(kingdom, 1806. It was the seat of war, 1813; the \nking being on the side of Napoleon. In the conflict \nof 1866 the king took the side of Austria, and the \narmy fought in the battle of Kcmiggratz, 3 July. \nThe Prussians entered Saxony 18 June. Peace \n"between Prussia and Saxony was signed 21 Oct. \n(subjecting the Saxon army to Prussia), and the \nking returned to Dresden, 3 Nov. Constitution of \n4 Sept. 1831 ; modified, 1849, 1851,1860, 1861, 1868, \nand 1874. Population, 1861, 2,225,240; 1871, \n2,556,244; 1880,2,972,805; 1885,3,182,003; 1890, \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Oc.tocente.nary of the house of Wettin was celebrated at \nDresden with great magnificence 15-19 June, 1889 ; the \nmany branches of the royal family and its connections \nwere represented ; the emperor William II., prince \nAlfred of Edinburgh for England, and princes repre- \nsenting Portugal and Belgium, and deputations from \nAustria and Bussia were, present. The festivities \nincluded church services, military equestrian per- \nformances, historical pageants and a procession of \n12,000 costumed characters. The people presented \n\n\n\nabout 150,000?. to the king, for the restoration of his \npalace. \n\n\n\n1423\' \n1428. \n\n1464. \ni486. \nI525- \n\n1532. \n\n\n\nELECTORS. \n\nFrederic I., first elector of the house of Misnia. \nFrederic II. \n[His sons Ernest and Albert divide the states. ] \n\n\n\nErnest. 1464. Albert. \n\nFrederick III. 1500. George. \n\nJohn. 1539- Henry. \n\n1541. Maurice. \n\nJohn Frederic ; deprived by the emperor Charles \nV. ; succeeded by \n1548. Maurice (of the Albertine line). \n1553. Augustus. \n1586. Christian I. \n1591. Christian II. \n1611. John George I. \n1656. John George II. \n1680. John George III. \n1 69 1. John George IV. \n\n1694. Frederic Augustus I., king of Poland, 1697. \n1733. Frederic Augustus II., king of Poland. \n1763. Frederic Augustus III. becomes king, 1806. \n\nKINGS. \n\n1806. Frederic Augustus I. ; increased his territories by \n\nalliance witli France, 1806-9 ; suffered by peace \n\nof 1814. \n1827. Anthony Clement. \n1836. Frederic Augustus II., nephew (regent, 1830) ; died \n\n9 Aug. 1854. \n1854. John, brother (born 12 Dec. 1801) ; celebrated his \n\ngolden wedding (50 years), 10 Nov. 1872; died, \n\n29 Oct. 1873. \n1873. Albert ; born, 23 April, 1828 ; married, 18 June, \n\n1853, Caroline of Wasa. \nHeir : George, brother : born 8 Aug. 1832. \n\nSCANDALUM MAGNATUM, a special \nstatute relating to any wrong, by words or in \nwriting, done to high personages of the land, such \nas peers, judges, ministers of the crown, officers in \nthe state, and other great public functionaries, by \nthe circulation of the scandalous statements, false \nnews, or horrible messages, by which any debate \nor discord between them and the commons, or any \nscandal to their persons, might arise. Chambers. \nThis law was first enacted 2 Rich. II. 1378. \n\nSCANDINAVIA, the ancient name of Sweden, \nNorway, and great part of Denmark (which see). \nwhence proceeded the Northmen or Normans, who \nconquered Normandy (about 900), and eventually \nEngland (1066). They were also called Sea-kings, \nor Vikings. They settled Iceland and Greenland, \nand, it is thought, visited the northern regions of \nAmerica, about the 9th century. A " National \nScandinavian Society " has been formed at Stock- \nholm; see Sweden, Dec. 1864. \n\nSCAEBOEOUGH, Yorkshire (anciently \nSkardeburge), was ravaged by the Danes 1066. \nIncorporated by Henry II., 11*81. The town was \nmade a bonding port in 1841. A new drive and \npromenade, a great engineering work, costing \n50,000^., opened by the duke of Clarence and the \narchbishop of York, 27 June, 1890. Population, \n1881,30,504; 1891,33,776. \n\nSCAELET, or kermes d}-e, was known in the \nEast in the earliest ages; cochineal dye, 1518. \nKepler, a Fleming, established the first dye-house \nfor scarlet in England, at Bow, 1643. 1\' ne art of \ndyeing red was improved by Brewer, 1667. BceJc- \nmann. \n\nSCAELET FEVEE, was very prevalent in \nthe metropolis from August, 1887, to Feb. 1888. \nPatients admitted into the hospitals, April, 1887 \xe2\x80\x94 \nMarch, 1888, 7614. Arrangements for the crisis \nwere made by the Metropolitan Asylums Board. \nIncrease of fever in the metropolis ; scarlet fever, \n\n\n\nSCEPTICS. \n\n\n\n863 \n\n\n\nSCIENTIFIC APPARATUS. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1.426, 8 Aug.; decreasing Dec. 1890; outbreak of \nlever, June, 1892; 3,006 cases in hospitals, 27 June; \n-^,428 (3,022 scarlet fever), 20 Aug. ; 3,671 (3277 scarlet \nfever), 6 Sept. ; 3,833 (3407 scarlet fever), 23 Sept. \n\nSCEPTICS, the sect of philosophers founded \nby Pyrvho, about 334 B.C. He gave ten reasons for \ncontinual suspense of judgment; he doubted of \neverything, never made any conclusions, and when \nhe had carefully examined the subject, and inves- \ntigated all its parts, he concluded by still doubting \nof its evidence. He advocated apathy and un- \nchangeable repose. These doctrines were held by \n13a vie (died 1706). \n\nSCEPTEE, an emblem of royalty mentioned in \nthe Bible {Gen. xlix. ro, Psalm xlv. 6, Esther \niv. 11, etc.), and in Homer. The sceptre, origi- \nnally a staff, was gradually ornamented till it \nassumed its present form. \n\nSCHAFFHATJSEN (N. Switzerland), a fish- \ning village in the 8th century, became an imperial \ncity in the 13th; was subjected to Austria, 1330; \nindependent, 1415 ; became a Swiss canton, 1501. \nPopulation, 1888; canton, 37,783 ; city, 12,315. \n\nSCHAUMBTJRG LIPPE (Germany), was \nformed into a county by Adolphus, of Sondersleben, \n1033. In 1640, on the death of count Otho IV., \nhis mother, Elizabeth, transferred the domains to \nPhilip of Lippe, from whom descended the reigning \nprince (the title assumed in 1807). Adolphus, born \n1 Aug. 1817, succeeded his father, 21 Nov. i860. \nHeir, son, George, born 10 Oct. 1846. Population \nofthe principality, 1882,35,753; 1885,37,204; 1890, \n39,163- \n\nSCHELDT TOLLS were imposed by the \ntreaty of Munster (or Westphalia), 1648. The tolls \nwere abolished for a compensation, 1867. The house \nof commons voted 175,650^. for the British portion, \non 9 March, 1864. The Scheldt was declared free \non 3 Aug. with much rejoicing at Antwerp and \nBrussels. \n\nSCHIEHALLIEN, a mountain in Perthshire, \n\nwhere Dr. Neville Maskelyne, the astronomer- \nroyal, made his observations with a plumb-line, \n24 Oct. 1774, from which Hutton calculated that \nthe density of the earth is five times greater than \nwater. \n\nSCHIPKA PASSES, on the Balkans, Tur- \nkey. Through these the Bussian general Gourlto \nentered Boumelia. After his retreat, they were \nfortified, and desperately, but on the whole unsuc- \ncessfully, assailed by the Turks under Suleiman \nPasha, with great slaughter on both sides, 20-27 \nAug. He took and lost fort St. Nicholas, 17 Sept. \n1877. The ltussians re-entered Roumelia, Jan. \n1878. \n\nSCHISM, see Heresy, and Popes. \n\nSCHISM ACT, 13 Anne, c. 7, introduced by \nlord Bolingbroke, 1713 ; repealed by 5 Geo. I. c. 4, \nin 1 719. By it teachers were required to declare \ntheir conformity to the established church. \n\nSCHLESWIG, see Holstein, Denmark, and \nGastrin. \nSCHOOL BOARD, see Education. \n\nSCHOOLMEN or Scholastic Philoso- \nphy, began in the schools founded by Charlemagne, \n\xe2\x96\xa0800-14; all( l prevailed in Europe from the 9th to \nthe 15th centuries ; see Doctors. \n\nSCHOOLS. Charity schools were introduced \ninto London to prevent the seduction of the infant \npoor into lloman catholic seminaries, 3 James II. \n\n\n\n1687. Rapin. Charter schools were instituted in \nIreland, 1733. Scully. In England there were, in \n1847, 13,642 schools (exclusively of Sunday schools) \nfor the education of the poor ; and the number of \nchildren was 998,431. The parochial and endowed \nschools of Scotland were (exclusively of Sunday \nschools) 4836; and the number of children, 181,467. \nThe schools in "Wales were 841, and the number of \nchildren, 38,164; in Ireland, 13,327 schools, and \n774,000 children. In 185 1 there were 2310 schools \nin connection with the Education Committee \nactually inspected in England and Scotland. They \nincluded: 1713 church of England schools in \nEngland and Wales; 282 protestant dissenting \nschools in England and Wales; 98 Boman catholic \nschools in Great Britain ; and 2 1 7 presby terian \nschools in Scotland, whereof 91 were of the free \nchurch : the whole affording accommodation for \n299,425 scholars; see Education, Design, Ascham,&.c. \nFor Schoolboy Strikes, see Strikes, Oct. 1889. \n\nSCHOOL SHIPS, see Chichester. Com- \n\xe2\x96\xa0wall, off Purfleet, established 1859, accommodates \nbetween 250 and 300 vagrants (1878). \n\nSCHWARZBURG (the seat of two princi- \npalities, N. Germany). Gunther, count of Schwarz- \nburg, whose family dates from the 12th century, was \nelected emperor of Germany in 1349. From the \ntwo sons of count Gunther, who died 1552, sprang \nthe present rulers. \n\nSCHWARZBURC.-RUDOLSTADT \n\n(a principality, 1697). \n1807. Albert (28 June), born 30 April, 179S ; died 26 Nov. \n\n1869. \n1869. George (born 23 Nov. 1838), 26 Nov. ; died 19 Jan. \n\n1890. \n1890. Gonthier, brother (born, 21 Aug. 1852). \n\nSCHWARZBURG-SONDERSHAUSEN \n\n(a principality, 1710). \n1835. Gunther (19 Aug.), born 24 Sept. 1S01 ; abdicated. \n1880. Charles, sou (born 7 Aug. 1830), 17 July. \n\nSCHWEIDNITZ, Prussia, often besieged and \ntaken in the thirty years\' and seven years\' wars. \nNear it Frederick II. defeated the Austrians under \nmarshal Daun, 16 May, 1762. \n\nSCHWEIZ, a Swiss canton, which with Uri \nand Unterwalden renounced subjection to Austria, \n7 Nov. 1307. The name Switzerland, for all the \ncountry, dates from about 1440. \n\nSCIENCE, see Education, Chemistry, and \n\nother branches. \n\nScience and Art Department began as the Normal School \nof Design, 1 Jan. 1837, with a grant of 1,500/. See \nunder Design. The grant in 1885-6 was 391,573?. ; \n1888-9, 445!3\xc2\xb03^\'\xc2\xbb 1891-2; estimate 530.9S6/. \n\n100,000/. voted for the purchase of a site for new build- \ning, 25 Feb. 1890. \n\nThe Normal School of Science and Royal School of \nMines, were directed to be called the Royal College of \nScience, London, Oct 1890. \n\nMiss Marshall, of Warwick gardens, Kensington, be- \nqueaths to the department 1,000/. for a scholarship \nand scientific books and instruments, announced \n5 May, 1891. \n\nThe 36th report states that in 188S the departim ill sup. \nported 1,952 schools, and 6,579 classes were examined \nin elementary science, with 112,80s pupils ; the South \nKensington museum is in the charge of the depart- \nment. \n\n. SCIENTIFIC APPARATUS. The Interna- \ntional Loan Exhibition, at South Kensington, con- \nsisting of about 17,000 objects, many of great \nhistorical interest, from all countries except Ame- \nrica, was opened (by the queen,) 1} May. and \nclosed 30 Dec. 1876. Conferences wereheld. i(j May \n\xe2\x80\x94 2 June, and many free lectures given by eminent \npersons. Reopened 30 June, 1877. \n\n\n\nSCIENTIFIC ASSOCIATION". \n\n\n\n861 \n\n\n\nSCOTLAND. \n\n\n\nSCIENTIFIC ASSOCIATION,. for pro- \nmotion of research ; proposed at the meeting of the \nAmerican Association at Philadelphia, Sept. 1884. \nMrs. Elizabeth Thompson promised liberal support. \n\nSCIENTIFIC FRONTIER (in reference to \nAfghanistan), a term used by Lord Beaeonsfield, 9 \nNov. 1878. \n\nSCIENTIFIC INDUSTRY, Society foe \nPromoting, established at Manchester, in 1873. \nIt proposed setting up a library and museum, the \ndelivery of lectures, and the publication of reports. \n\nSCIENTIFIC EELIEF FUND. In 1859, \nseveral fellows of the ltoyal Society (Messrs. \nGassiot, Wheatstone, Miller, Tyndall, and others) \ncommenced the collection of subscriptions with the \nview of establishing a permanent fund to be ex- \npended in aiding necessitous men of science and \ntheir families, in imitation of the "Literary Fund." \nIn the spring of i860, 3365^ had been subscribed ; \nin Jan. 1865, 5320^. ; in 1867, 60K2I. ; in 1877, \n6428/. ; and many cases had been relieved. \n\nSCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES\' HOUSE \nCOMPANY proposed March, 1873. \n\nSCIENTIFIC SURVEYING EXPEDI- \nTION, see Deep Sea. \n\nSCILLY ISLES (the Cassiterides or Tin- \nislands) . They held commerce with the Phoenicians ; \nand are mentioned by Strabo. They were con- \nquered by Athelstan, 936 ; and given to the monks. \nThey were granted by Elizabeth to the Godolphin \nfamily, by whom they were fortified; the works \nwere strengthened in 1649 by the royalists, from \nwhom they were taken by Blake, 1651. Mr. Augus- \ntus Smith, the owner, and termed the king of these \nisles, after a long paternal rule, died in Aug. 1872. \nMr. Dorrien Smith was the proprietor in 1892. The \nappointment of a county council for 1 April, 1891, \nwas ordered by the local government board, June, \n1890. Population, 1891, 2,044. \n\nA British squadron under sir Cloudesley Shovel were \nwrecked here, when returning from an expedition \nagainst Toulon ; he mistook rocks for land, and struck \nupon them. His ship, the Association, in which were \npersons of rank, and 800 brave men, went instant!}\' to \nthe bottom. The Eagle, captain Hancock, and the \nI\'omney and Firebrand, were also lost ; the rest of the \nfleet escaped, 22 Oct. 1707. Sir Cloudesley\'s body was \nconveyed to London, and buried in Westminster abbey, \nwhere a monument was erected to his memory. \n\nSCINDE, see Sinde. \n\nSCIO MASSACRE, 11 April, 1822, see Chios. \n\nSCLAVONIA, see Slavonia, \n\nSCONE (near Perth). The Scotch coronation \nchair was brought from Scone to Westminster abbey \nby Edward I. in 1296. Here Charles II. was \ncrowned, I Jan. 1651. \n\nSCOPTZI, see White Doves. \n\nSCORE, MUSICAL, was Avritten by the monk \nHucbald, who wrote "Enchiridion Musicae ; " he \ndied 930. Specimens written in the 13th century \nexist in the British Museum. \n\nSCOTTISH - IRISH CONVENTION, \n\nsee United States, May, 1889. \n\nSCOTISTS. Those Avho adopted the doctrines \nof John Duns Scotus (who died 8 Nov. 1308) \non divine grace, freewill, the origin of the moral \nlaw, the Conception of the A r irgin Mary, &c, \nstrongly opposed by the Thomists, disciples of St, \nThomas Aquinas, who died 7 March, 1274. \n\n\n\nSCOTLAND, see Caledonia. At the death of \nqueen Elizabeth, 24 March, 1C03, James VI. of \nScotland, as the most immediate heir, was called to \nthe throne of England, and proclaimed king of Great \nl \'ritain, 24 Oct. 1604. Each country had a separate \n\narliament till 1707, when the kingdoms were \n\nmited ; see England and Population. \n\nCamelon, capital of the Picts, taken by Kenneth II. and \nevery living creature put to the sword or destroyed, 843 \n\nThe Norwegians occupy Caithness 9th century. \n\nScotland ravaged by Athelstan 933 \n\nThe feudal system established by Malcolm II. . . 1004. \n\nInvaded by Canute 1031 \n\nDivided into baronies 1032 \n\nThe Danes driven out of Scotland .... 1040 \n\nDuncan I. is murdered by his kinsman Macbeth, by \nwhom the crown is seized ,, \n\nMalcolm III., aided by Edward the Confessor, de- \nfeats the usurper at Dunsinane, 1054 ; Macbeth \nkilled by Macduff 1056 or 1057 \n\nThe Saxon-English language introduced into Scot- \nland by fugitives from England escaping from the \nNormans 1080 \n\nSiege of Alnwick : Malcolm III. killed . . . 1093 \n\nReign of David I., a legislator .... 1124-53, \n\nScotland invaded by Haeho, king of Norway, with 160 \nships and 20,000 men ; the invaders are defeated by \nAlexander III., who now recovers the Western Isles 1263 \n\nDeath of Margaret of Norway, heiress to the throne, \n\n7 Oct. 1290 \n\nJohn Balliol and Robert Bruce contend for the \nthrone, 1291 ; Edward I. of England, as umpire, \ndecides in favour of John .... Nov. 1292 \n\nJohn Balliol, king of Scotland, appears to a sum- \nmons, and defends his own cause in Westminster \nhall against the earl of Fife 1293 \n\nEdward, wishing to annex Scotland to England, \ndethrones John, ravages the country, destroys \nthe muniments of Scottish history, and seizes the \nprophetic stone (see Coronation) .... 1296 \n\nWilliam Wallace defeats the English at Canibus \nKenneth, and expels them, 1297 ; is defeated at \nFalkirk, 22 July, 1298 ; taken by the English, and \nexecuted at Smithfield . . . -23 Aug. 1305 \n\nRobert Bruce, crowned, 1306 ; he defeats the Eng- \nlish, 1307 ; and takes Inverness, 1313; defeats the \nEnglisn at Bannoekburn ... 24 June, 1314 \n\nEdward Balliol gains the throne for a little time \nby his victory at Dupplin, 11 Aug. 1332 ; and \nby the victory at Halidon-hill . . 19 July, 1333 \n\nDavid II. taken prisoner at the battle of Durham \n(and detained in captivity 11 years) . . . . 1346 \n\nBattle of Chevy Chase, between Hotspur Percy and \nearl Douglas (see Olterburn) ... 10 Aug. 1388 \n\nMurder of duke of Rothesay, heir of Robert III., by \nstarvation 3 April, 1401 \n\nThe Scots defeated at Homildon-hill . 14 Sept. 1402 \n\nJames I. captured by the English near Flamborough \nhead on his passage to France . . 30 March, 1406 \n\nSt. Andrews university founded by bishop William \nTurnbull 1451 \n\nUniversity of Aberdeen founded 1494 \n\nJames IV. invades England, slain at Flodden Field, \nand his army cut to pieces ... 9 Sept. 1513 \n\nJames V. banishes the Douglases . . . . 1528; \n\nHe establishes the court of session .... 1532 \n\nOrder of St. Andrew, or the Thistle, is revived . 1540 \n\nMary, the queen of Scots, born 7 Dec. ; succeeds \nher father, James V., who dies . . 14 Dec. ,, \n\nThe regent, cardinal Beaton, persecutes the re- \nformers, 1539, 1546 ; he is assassinated at St. \nAndrews 29 May, 1546 \n\nThe Scots defeated at Pinkie . . 10 Sept. 1547 \n\nMary marries the dauphin of France . April, 1558 \n\nThe parliament abolishes the jurisdiction of the \npope in Scotland .... 24 Aug. 1560 \n\nFrancis II. dies, leaving Mary a widow . Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Reformation in Scotland, by John Knox, and \nothers, during the minority of Mary, between 1550& \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMary, after an absence of thirteen years, arrives at \nLeith from France .... 21 Aug. 1561 \n\nUpon an inquisition, which was officially taken, by \norder of queen Elizabeth, only 58 Scotsmen were \nfound in London. Stow. ...... 1562 \n\nMary marries her cousin, Henry Stuart, lord Darn- \nley 29 July, 1565 \n\n\n\nSCOTLAND. \n\n\n\n865 \n\n\n\nSCOTLAND. \n\n\n\nDavid Rizzio, her confidential secretary, murdered \nby Darnley in her presence . . 9 March, 1566 \n\nLord Darnley blown up by gunpowder, in his house \n(Mary accused of conniving at his death), 10 Feb. 1567 \n\nJames Hepburn, earl of Bothwell, carries off the \nqueen, who marries nim . . . 15 May, ,, \n\nMary made prisoner at Carberry hill by her nobles, \n\n15 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nResigns her crown to her infant son James VI. ; \n\nthe earl of Murray appointed regent . 22 July, ,, \nMary escapes from prison, and collects a large \narmy, which is defeated by the regent Murray, at \nthe battle of Langside, 13 May ; enters England, \n\n16 May, 1568 \nThe regent Murray murdered ... 23 Jau. 1570 \nThe earl of Lennox appointed regent . 12 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe earl of Lennox murdered, 4 Sept. ; the earl of \n\nMar chosen regent Sept. 1571 \n\nDeath of the reformer John Knox . 24 Nov. 1572 \n\n[His funeral in Edinburgh is attended by most of \nthe nobility, and by the regent Morton, who ex- \nclaims, " There lies he who never feared the face \nof man ! "] \nThe university of Edinburgh founded . . . . 1582 \nThe Raid of Ruthven (see Rutliven) . . . ,, \n\nMary having taken refuge in England, 16 May, 1568, \nis after a long captivity, beheaded at Fotheringay \ncastle (see Fotheringay) .... 8 Feb. 1587 \nGowrie\'s conspiracy fails 5 Aug. 1600 \n\nUnion of the crown of Scotland with that of Eng- \nland by the accession of James VI. . 24 March, 1603 \nJames proclaimed "king of Great Britain, France, \n\nand Ireland " 24 Oct. 1604 \n\nCharles I. attempts in vain to introduce the Eng- \nlish liturgy ; tumult at Edinburgh . 23 July, 1637 \nSolemn league and covenant subscribed 1 March, 1638 \n\nA Scotch army enters England 1640 \n\nCharles joins the Scotch army, 1646 ; betrayed into \n\nthe hands of the Euglish parliament . 30 Jan. 1647 \nMarquis of Montrose defeated at Philiphaugh, 13 \n\nSept. 1645 ; executed at Edinburgh . 21 May, 1650 \nCharles II. crowned at Scone, 1 Jan. ; defeated at \n\nWorcester 22 Aug. 1651 \n\nScotland united to the English commonwealth by \n\nOliver Cromwell Sept. ,, \n\nCharles II. revives episcopacy in Scotland . . 1661 \n\nArgyll beheaded 27 May, ,, \n\nScottish hospital, London, incorporated . . . 1665 \nThe Covenanters defeated on the Portland hills . 1666 \nAbp. Sharpe murdered near St. Andrews, by John \n\nBalfour of Burley and others . . 3 May, 1679 \nThe Covenanters defeat Claverhouse at Drumclog \n\n1 June ; are routed at Bothwell bridge 22 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nRichard Cameron\'s declaration for religious liberty \n\n22 June, 1680 \nResolution of a convention in favour of William III. ; \n\nre-establishment of presbytery . . 14 March, 1689 \nThe " claim of right " accepted by William and \n\nMary 11 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nInsurrection of Claverhouse : killed at Killiecrankie, \n\n27 Jul)\', >\xc2\xbb \nMassacre of the Macdonalds at Glencoe 13 Feb. 1692 \n\nParish schools established by the parliament. . 1697 \nLegislative union of Scotland with England 1 May, 1707 \nInsurrection under the earl of Mar in favour of the \n\nson of James II. (see Pretender) .... 1715 \nThe rebels defeated at Preston, 12 Nov. ; and at \n\nDumblane (or Sheriffmuir) . . .13 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nCaptain Porteous killed by a mob in Edinburgh (see \n\nPorteous) 7 Sept. 1736 \n\nPrince Charles Edward proclaimed at Perth, 4 \nSept. ; at Edinburgh, 16 Sept. ; with the High- \nlanders defeats sir John Cope at Prcstonpans, 21 \nSept. ; takes Carlisle, 15 Nov. : arrives at Man- \nchester, 28 Nov. ; at Derby, 4 Dec. ; retreats to \n\nGlasgow 25 Dec. 1745 \n\nDefeats general Hawley at Falkirk, 17 Jan. ; is \n\ntotally defeated at Culloden . . 16 April, 1746 \nThe Highland dress prohibited by parliament, 12 Aug. ,, \nLords Kilmarnock and Balmerino executed for high \n\ntreason on Tower-hill .... 18 Aug. ., \nSimon Fraser, lord Lovat, aged 80, executed 9 April 1747 \nHeritable jurisdictions abolished by parliament \nThomson, the poet, dies .... 27 Aug 1748 \nThe Old Pretender, "Chevalier de St. George," dies \n\nat Rome 30 Dee. 176 s \n\nPrince Charles Edward Louis Casimir, the Young \nPretender, dies at Rome . . . .31 Jan. 1788 I \n\n\n\nDeath of Robert Burns . . . .21 July, 1796 \nScott\'s " Lay of the Last Minstrel " published . 1806 \n\nCardinal Henry duke of York (last of the Stuarts) \n\nilies 31 Aug. 1807 \n\nThe Court of Session is formed into two divisions . \xe2\x80\x9e \nRoyal Caledonian asylum, London, founded . .1813 \n\nScott\'s " Waverley " published 1814 \n\nThe establishment of a jury court under a lord \n\nchief commissioner 1815 \n\nVisit of George IV. to Scotland . . . Aug. 1822 \n\nSir Walter Scott dies 21 Sept. 1832 \n\nSeven ministers of the presbytery of Strathbogieare \ndeposed by the General Assembly of the Church of \nScotland for obeying the civil in preference to the \necclesiastical law. (Their deposition was formally \nprotested against by the minority of ministers and \nelders, headed by Dr. Cook) . . . 28 May, 1841 \nThe General Assembly condemn patronage as a \ngrievance to the cause of true religion that ought \n\nto be abolished 23 May, 1842 \n\nVisit of the queen, prince Albert, and the court ; \n\nshe landed at Granton pier . . . 1-13 Sept. ,, \nSecession of the non-intrusion ministers of the \nchurch of Scotland (about 400) at the General As- \nsembly (see Free Church) ... 18 May, 1843 \n\nDeath of Jeffrey 26 Jan. 1850 \n\nNational Association for vindication of Scottish \n\nrights formed Nov. 1853 \n\nAct for better government of the universities passed \n\nAug. 1858 \nSalmon Fisheries act passed . . . July, 1864 \nThe queen\'s visit to the borders, Kelso, Melrose, &c. \n\n21-24 Aug. 1867 \nScotch reform bill introduced into the commons, \n\n17 Feb., passed 13 July, 1868 \n\nProcedure in court of session and justiciary and \n\nother courts amended July, ,, \n\nScotch Reform act passed . . . .13 July, ,, \nLand Registers and Titles to Land act passed July, ,, \nCommission appointed to inquire into the adminis- \ntration of justice Oct. ,, \n\nMunicipal elections amendment act passed, 9 Aug. 1870 \nAct to unite counties for sheriffs\' duties passed \n\n9 Aug. ,, \nRobert Chambers, author and publisher, died aged 69 \n\n17 March, 1871 \nScott centenary celebrated in Edinburgh, <fec. (Scott \n\nborn 15 Aug. T771) 9 Aug. ,, \n\nScotch Education Act passed . . 10 Aug. 1872 \nReturn of owners of land and heritages, 1872-3 (a \nkind of Domesday book), published by govern- \nment April, 1S74 \n\nPatronage in the established church (see 1S42) \n\nabolished by act passed . . . 7 Aug. ,, \nScottish Church Disestablishment Association : first \n\nannual meeting . ... 8 March, 1875 \n\nVisit of the queen to Edinburgh ; the Scottish \nnational monument, by J. Steell, to prince Albert, \n\nunveiled by her 17 Aug. 1876 \n\nRomanist hierarchy revived by the pope ; arch- \nbishopric of Glasgow, bishopric of Dunkeld, &c. \n4 March ; the Scotch protestant bishops protest \n\nagainst this 13 April, 1S78 \n\nPublic Parks Act passed . . . 18 March, ,, \nMarriage Notice Act passed ... 8 Aug. ,, \n\nEducation Act amended, by act . . 16 Aug. ,, \nVisit of Mr. Gladstone to Mid-Lothian, Edinburgh, \n\nGlasgow, &c, many speeches . 24 \xe2\x80\x94 29 Nov. 1879 \nAbout 40,000 Scottish volunteers reviewed in the \n\nQueen\'s Park, Edinburgh, by the queen 25 Aug. 1881 \nAgitation respecting rents in Aberdeen, Banff, &c. \n\nSept. -Oct. ,, \nFarmers\' alliance founded at Aberdeen by delegates \n\nIVi 11 11 above 4000 farmers . . . 1 Dee. ,, \nMovement for home rule (which sec) begun 4 April, 1882 \nOld Scottish regimental colours deposited in St. \nGiles\'s cathedral, Edinburgh, by the duke of \n\nCambridge 13 Nov. 1883 \n\nDeath of Walter, duke of Buccleuch, aged 78 ; mu- \nnificent patron of public works, agriculture, \nscience, literature, and art . . 15 April, 1884 \nAgitation for the dis-establishmcnt of the church \n\n(see Church of Scotland) . . . autumn, 1885 \nSecretary for Scotland Act passed . 14 Aug. ,, \n\nCharles Henry, duke of Richmond, appointed \nsecretary Aug. 1885; succeeded by G. O. Trevclyau \nabout 6 Feb. ; by Arthur J. Balfour 26 July, \n\n3 K \n\n\n\nSCOTLAND. \n\n\n\n866 \n\n\n\nSCOTLAND. \n\n\n\n1886; by Scliomberg H., marquis of Lothian \n\n8 March. 1887 \nLocal government bill for Scotland introduced by \n\nJ. P. B. Kobertson, 8 April ; passed . 26 Aug. 1889 \nScotch universities bill, giving more freedom to \n\nteaching and increasing state grant to 42,000?. a \n\nyear, passed 30 Aug. \n\nNew national portrait gallery for Scotland in Edin- \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nburgh, opened by the marquis of Lothian 15 July, ,, \nThe new universities commision and the special \n\ncommission on the Western Highlands and \n\nislands, meet in Edinburgh . . . Jan. 1890 \nGreat railway strike, see Railways, 22 Dec. 1890 \xe2\x80\x94 \n\n31 Jan. 1891 \nDeath of lord justice-general John Inglis, eminent \n\nlawyer, aged about 81, 20 Aug. ; succeeded by \n\nrt. hon. James P. B. Robertson about . 17 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nDestructive plague of field-mice, or voles, in some \n\nagricultural districts, reported . April \xe2\x80\x94 June, 1892 \nEducation and Local Taxation Relief act passed \n\n27 June, ,, \nSir George Trevelyan, secretary for Scotland, 1 8 Aug. , , \nSee Edinburgh. \n\nKINGS OF SCOTLAND. \n\nBEFORE CHRIST. \n\n[The early accounts of the kings are in a great measure \nfabulous. The series of kings is carried as far back as \nAlexander the Great.] \n330. Fergus I. : ruled 25 years ; lost in the Irish Sea. \n\n[Fergus, a brave prince, came from Ireland with an army \nof Scots, and was chosen king. Having defeated the \nBritons and slain their king Coilus, the kingdom of the \nScots was entailed upon his posterity for ever. He \nwent to Ireland, and, having settled his affairs there, \nwas drowned on his return, launching from the shore, \nnear the harbour, called Carrick-Fergxis to this day, \n3699 a.m. Anderson.] \n\nAFTER CHRIST. \n\n357. Eugenius I., son of Fincormachus ; slain in battle \nby Maximus, the Roman general, and the Picts. \n*** With this battle ended the kingdom of the Scots, \nafter having existed from the coronation of \nFergus I. , a period of 706 years ; the royal family \nfled to Denmark. Boece ; Buchanan. \n[Interregnum of 27 years.] \n\n404. Fergus II. (I.) great grandson of Eugenius, and \n40th king ; slain in battle with the Romans. \n\n420. Eugenius II. or Evenus : reigned 31 years. \n\n451. Dongardus or Domangard, brother : defeated and \ndrowned. \n\n457. Constantine I. , brother : assassinated. \n\n479. Congallus I. nephew; just and prudent. \n\n501. Goranus, brother ; murdered. Boece. Died while \nDonald of Athol was conspiring to take his life. \n\n535. Eugenius III. nephew; "none excelled him in \njustice." \n\n558. Congallus II. brother. \n\n569. Kinnatellus, brother ; resigned for \n\n570. Aidanus or Aldan, son of Goranus. \n\n605. Kenneth, sou of Congallus II. \n\n606. Eugenius IV. son of Aidanus. \n\n621. Ferchard or Ferquhard I. son ; confined for mis- \ndeeds to his palace, where he laid violent hands \nupon himself. Scott. \n\n632. Donald IV. brother ; drowned in Loch Tay. \n\n646. Ferchard II. son of Ferchard I. ; " most execrable. " \n\n664. Malduinus, son of Donald IV. ; strangled by his wife \nfor his supposed infidelity, for which crime she \nwas immediately afterwards burnt. \n\n684. Eugenius V. brother. \n\n688. Eugenius VI. son of Ferchard II. \n\n698. Amberkeletus, nephew ; fell by an arrow from an \n\nunknown hand. \n\n699. Eugenius VII. brother; some ruffians designing \n\nthe king\'s murder, entered his chamber, and, he \n\nbeing absent, stabbed his queen, Spontana, to \n\ndeath. Scott. \n715. Mordachus, son of Amberkeletus. \n730. Etfinus, son of Eugenius VII. \n761. Eugenius VIII. son of Mordachus ; sensual and \n\ntyrannous ; put to death by his nobles. \n764. Fergus III. son of Etfinus ; killed by his jealous \n\nqueen, who afterwards stabbed herself to escapie \n\na death of torture. \n767. Solvathius, son of Eugenius VIII. \n\n\n\n787. Aehaius : just and wise. \n\n819. Congallus III. ; a peaceful reign. \n\n824. Dongal or Dougal, son of Solvathius ; drowned. \n\n831. Alpine, son of Aehaius ; beheaded by the Piets. \n\n834. Kenneth II. son ; sumamed Mac Alpine ; defeated \n\nthe Picts, slew their king, and united them and \n\nthe Scots under one sceptre, and became the first \n\nsole monarch of all Scotland, 843. \n854. Donald V. brother : dethroned ; committed suicide. \n858. Constantine II. son of Kenneth II. : taken in battle \n\nby the. Danes and beheaded. \n874. Eth\' or Ethus, surnamed Lightfoot ; died of grief in \n\nprison ; confined for sensuality and crime. \n876. Gregory the Great ; brave and just. \n893. Donald VI. son of Constantine II. ; excellent. \n904. Constantine III. son of Ethus ; became a monk, and \n\nresigned in favour of \n944. Malcolm I. son of Donald VI. ; murdered. \n953. Indulfus or Gondulph ; killed by the Danes in an \n\nambuscade. \n961. Duff or Duffus, son of Malcolm ; murdered by \n\nDonald, the governor of Forres castle. \n965. Cullen or Culenus, son of Indulfus ; avenged the \n\nmurder of his predecessor ; assassinated \n970. Kenneth III. brother of Duffus ; murdered by \n\nFenella, the lady of Fettercairn. \n\n994. Constantine IV. son of Cullen : slain. \n\n995. Kenneth IV. or Grimus, the Grim, son of Duffus ; \n\nrouted and slain in battle by Malcolm, the \nrightful heir to the crown, who succeeded. \n\n1003. -Malcolm II. son of Kenneth III. ; assassinated on \nhis way to Glamis ; the assassins in their flight \ncrossing a frozen lake were drowned. \n\n1033. Duncan I. grandson ; assassinated by his cousin. \n\n1039. Macbeth, usurper; slain by Macduff, the thane of Fife. \n\n*** Historians so differ up to this reign, in the number \nof the kings, the dates of succession, and the \ncircumstances narrated, that no account can be \ntaken as precisely accurate. \n\n1057. Malcolm III. (Canmore), eon of Duncan; killed \nwhile besieging Alnwick castle. \n\n1093. Donald VII. (Donald Bane), brother; usurper; fled \n\nto the Hebrides. \n\n1094. Duncan II. natural son of Malcolm ; murdered. \n,, Donald VII. again ; deposed. \n\n1098. Edgar, son of Malcolm (Henry I. of England \nmarried his sister Maud). \n\n1 107. Alexander I. the Fierce, brother. \n\n1 124. David I. brother; married Matilda, daughter of \nWaltheof, earl of Northumberland. \n\n1153. Malcolm IV. grandson. \n\n1165. William the Lion ; brother. \n\n1214. Alexander II. son; married Joan, daughter of John, \nking of England. \n\n1249. Alexander III. married Margaret, daughter of \nHenry III. of England ; dislocated his neck, when \nhunting near Kinghorn. \n\n1285. Margaret, the "Maiden of Norway," grand-daughter \nof Alexander, "recognised by the states of Scot- \nland, though a female, an infant, and a foreigner ; " \ndied on her passage to Scotland. \n\nA competition for the vacant throne ; Edward I. of Eng- \nland decides in favour of \n\n1292. John Balliol, who afterwards surrendered his \ncrown, and died in exile. \n[Interregnum.] \n\n1 306. Robert (Bruce) I. a great prince. \n\n1329. David (Bruce) II. son; Edward Balliol disputed \nthe throne with him. \n\n1332. David II. again ; a prisoner in England, 1346-57 \n(Edward Balliol king, 1332-4.) \n\n1371. Robert (Stuart) II. nephew; died 19 April. \n\n1390. Robert (John Stuart) III. son ; died 4 April. \n\n1406. James I. second son; imprisoned 18 years in Eng- \nland ; set at liberty in 1424 ; conspired against, \nand murdered at Perth, 21 Feb. \n\n1437. James II. son ; killed at the siege of Roxburgh \ncastle by a cannon bursting, 3 Aug. \n\n1460. James HI. son ; killed in a revolt of his subjects at \nBannockburn-field, n June. \n\n1488. James IV. son ; married Margaret Tudor, daughter \nof Henry VII. of England ; killed at the battle of \nFlodden, 9 Sept. \n\n1513. James V. son ; succeeded when little more than a \nyear old ; a sovereign possessing many virtues ; \ndied 14 Dec. \n\n1542. Mary, daughter; born, 7 Dec. 1542 succeeded \n14 Dec. ; see Annals, above. \n\n\n\nSCOTT CENTENARY. \n\n\n\n867 \n\n\n\nSCULPTURE. \n\n\n\n1567. James VI. son ; succeeded to the throne ot England, \nand the kingdoms were united, 1603. \nSee England. \n\nSCOTT CENTENARY, celebrated in London \nand throughout Scotland, 9 Aug. 1S71. Sir Walter \nScott was bom 15 Aug. 1771. \n\nSCOTTISH CORPORATION (charitable), \nestablished 1665. The old hall, Crane-court, Fleet- \nstreet, built by Wren, burnt 14 Nov. 1877 ; new hall \ninaugurated 21 July, 1880. \n\nSCOURERS, see Mohocks. \n\nSCOURING of the White Horse, see \n\nAsh dozen. \n\nSCREW, was known to the Greeks. The \npumping-screw of Archimedes, or screw-cylinder \nfor raising water, invented about 236 B.C., is still \nin use. It is stated that with the assistance of the \nscrew, one man can press down or raise up as much \nas 150 men can do without it. \xe2\x80\x94 The Screw-Pro- \npeller consists of two or more twisted blades, \nlike the vanes of a windmill, set on an axis, run- \nning parallel with the keel of a vessel, and revolving \nbeneath the water at the stem. It is driven by \na steam-engine. The principle was shown by \nHooke in 1681, and since by Du Quet, Bemouilli, \nand others. Patents for propellers were taken out \nby Joseph Bramah in 1784; by Wm. Lyttelton in \n1794; and by Edward Shorter in 1799. But these \nled to no useful result. In 1836 patents were ob- \ntained by Francis Pettit Smith (knighted July, \n187 1 ; died, 12 Feb. 1874) and captain John Erics- \nson (died, aged 86, March, 1889) ; and to them the \nsuccessful application of the screw-propeller must \nbe attributed. The first vessels with the screw were \nthe Archimedes, built on the Thames in 1838 by \nII. Wimshurst, and the Rattler, built in the United \nStates (1844), and tried in England in 1845. \nDouble screw-propellers are now employed. A new \nform of screw-propeller invented by col. W. H. \nMallory, of IT. S. A. army, was tried on the Thames \nand reported successful, Aug. 1878. \n\nSCRIBLERUS CLUB, a literary club, \nfounded by Swift in 1 7 14, included amongst its \nmembers, Bolingbroke, Pope, Gay, and Arbuthnot. \n\nSCRIPTURE KNOWLEDGE INSTI- \nTUTION, Bristol, was founded by George Muller, \na Prussian (bom in 1805). He came to Bristol as a \nminister of the "Brethren" in 1832, and on 5 March, \n1834, founded this institution, the objects of which \nare: I. Assistance of schools giving instruction on \nscriptural principles; 2. Circulation of the scrip- \ntures; 3. Assistance to missions ; 4. Circulation of \ntracts ; 5. Provision for destitute orphans, see \nOrphan-houses. Without application, Mr. Muller, \nsince he began, up to 1868, had received by volun- \ntary contribution, 430,000?. \n\nSCROFULA, see Kimfs-evil. \n\nSCRUTIN (French for ballot). In scrutin de \nliste the voter writes on his paper as many names \nas there are persons to be elected, for instance for \nthe whole department. In scrutin cV \' arrondissement, \nthe members are elected separately. The adoption \nof one of these modes was much discussed in France \nin 187?. The conservatives prefer the latter, the \nradicals the former. See France, Nov. 1875. The \nscrutin de liste was adopted in the elections of \n1848, 1849, 1871, and 1875. \n\nII. B.irdoux\'s lull for adopting the scrutin dellste (warmly \nadvocated by M. Gambetta), was passed by the cham- \nber of deputies (243-235), 18 May, i\xc2\xa33i ; rejected by \nthe senate (148-114), 9 June, 1881 ; again rejected, Jan. \n1882. \n\n\n\nM. Welbeck Rousseau\'s bill for the scrutin de liste passed \nby the deputies (412-99), 24 March, finally passed, 8 \nJune, 1885. \n\nThe bill for the restoration of the scrvimd\'arrondUsement \n\npassed by the chamber 11 Feb. and senate 1? Feb. \n1889. \nThe scrutin de liste was adopted by the Italian chamber, \n14 Feb. 1882. \n\nSCULLABOGUE, see Massacres, 1798. \n\nSCULPTURE is said to have begun with the \nEgyptians. Bezaleel and Aholiab built the taber- \nnacle in the wilderness, and made all the vessels and \nornaments, 1491 B.C., and then- skill is recorded as \nthe gift of God. Exod. xxxi. 3. Dipcenus and \nScyllls, statuaries at Crete, established a school at \nSicyon. Pliny speaks of them as being the first \nwho sculptured marble and polished it ; all statues \nbefore their time being of wood, 568 B.C. Alex- \nander gave Lysippus the sole right of making his \nstatues, 326 b.c. He left no less than 600 pieces, \nsome of which were so highly valued in the age of \nAugustus, that they sold for their weight in gold. \nSculpture did not flourish among the Romans, and \nin the middle ages with some fine exceptions, was \ngenerally degraded. With the revival of painting, \nit revived also ; and Donato di Bardi, bom at Flo- \nrence, a.d. 1383, was the earliest professor among \nthe modems. An institute of sculptors was estab- \nlished in 1861. See Royal Academy and Statues. \n\nEMINENT SCULPTORS. \n\nPheidou flourished b.c. 869 \n\nMyron 4 8o \n\nPhidias (the greatest) 442 \n\nPraxiteles 363 \n\nLysippus 32S \n\nChares 288 \n\nMichael Angelo Buonarotti . . .a.d. 1474-1564 \n\nBenvenuto Cellini 1500- 15 70 \n\nGiovanni L. Bernini 1598-1680 \n\nCams Gabriel Cibber 1630-1700 \n\nFrancis Bird 1667-1731 \n\nJohn Henry Danneker 1758-1741 \n\nLouis Roubiliac (statue of sir I. Newton) . died 1762 \n\nPeter Scheemakers 1691-1769 \n\nJohn M. Rysbrack 1693-1770 \n\nJohn Bacon 1740-1799 \n\nThomas Banks 1735-1805 \n\nJoseph Nollekens 1737-1S23 \n\nAntonio Canova 1757-1822 \n\nJohn Flaxman 1754-1826 \n\nJ. C. F. Rossi 1762-1839 \n\nPeter Turnerelli 1774-1S39 \n\nWilliam Pitti 1790-1840 \n\nFrancis Chantrey 1781-1841 \n\nAlbert Thorwaldsen 1770-1S44 \n\nSir Richard Westmacott 1775-1S56 \n\nChristian Raueh 1777-1S57 \n\nThos. Campbell 1790-1858 \n\nM. Cortes Wyatt . 1777-1S62 \n\nJohn E. Jones 1806-1862 \n\nJohn Thomas 1813-1862 \n\nWm. Behnes 1790- 1864 \n\nC. Kiss 1802-1S65 \n\nJohn Gibson 17C1-1S66 \n\nEdw. Hodges Baily 178V1S67 \n\nRichd. Westmacott 1799-1872 \n\nHiram Powers 1805 1S73 \n\nJohn Henry Foley 1818-1874 \n\nAlfred Geo. Stevens 1817-1S75 \n\nMatthew Noble 1820-1S76 \n\nThos. Woolner 1825 \n\nSir Joseph Edgar Boehni 1834-1S90 \n\nMary Thornycroft 1S14 \n\nHamo Thornycroft 1S52 \n\nAlfred Gilbert 1852 \n\nJohn Mossman 1816-1S90 \n\nWilliam Thecd 1804-1891 \n\nSir John Steel 1807-1891 \n\nPrince Victor of Hohcnlohc (formerly count \nGleichcn) 1S33-1891 \n\n3 K 2 \n\n\n\nSCUTAGE. \n\n\n\n868 \n\n\n\nSEBASTIAN, ST. \n\n\n\nSCUTAGE or EsciTAGE. The service of the \nshield (scutum) is either uncertain or certain. \nKscuage uncertain is where the tenant by Ms tenure \nis bound to follow his lord ; and is called Castleward, \nwhere the tenant is bound to defend a castle. \nEscuage certain is where the tenant is set at a \ncertain sum of money to be paid in lieu of such un- \ncertain services. The first tax levied in England to \npay an army, 5 Hen. II. 1159. Cowel. \n\nSCUTARI, Asiatic Turkey, opposite Constanti- \nnople, of which it is a suburb. It was anciently \ncalled Chrysopolis, golden city, in consequence, it \nis said, of the Persians having established a treasury \nhere when they attempted the conquest of Greece. \nNear here Constantine finally defeated Licinius, 323. \nThe hospital was occupied by the sick and wounded \nof the Anglo-French army, in 1854-5, whose suffer- \nings were much alleviated by the kind exertions of \nMiss Florence Nightingale and a band of nurses \nunder her, aided by a large fund of money (15,000?.) \nsubscribed by the public and placed in the care of \nthe proprietors of the Times newspaper ; see Times. \nExplosion of powder magazine by lightning, about \n150 killed, 8 June, 1883. \n\nSCYTHIA, situate in the most northern parts \nof Europe and Asia. The boundaries were unknown \nto the ancients. The Scythians made several irrup- \ntions upon the more southern provinces of Asia, \nespecially 624 B.C., when they remained in posses- \nsion of Asia Minor for twenty-eight years, and at \ndifferent periods extended their conquests in Europe, \npenetrating as far as Egypt ; see Tartary. \n\nSEA. Lieut. Maury first published his " Physi- \ncal Geography of the Sea" in 1854, and other im- \nportant works since ; he died Feb. 1873 ; see Deep \nSea. \n\nSEA BIRDS\' PRESERVATION" ACT, \n\npassed 24 June, 1869. \n\nSEA FIGHTS see Naval Battles. \n\nSEA FISHERIES, see Fisheries, and \nBehring Straits. \n\nSEAL FISHERY ACT, passed 14 June, 1875. \n\nSEALS or SIGNETS. Engraved gems were used \nas such by the Egyptians, Jews, Assyrians, and \nGreeks; see Exod. xxviii. 14. Ahab\'s seal was \nused by Jezebel, 899 B.C. (1 Flings xxi. 8.) The \nKomans in the time of the Tarquins (about 600 B.C.) \nhad gemmed rings. They sealed rooms, granaries, \nbags of money, &c. The German emperor, Frederick \nI. (a.d. 1152) had seals of gold, silver, and tin. Im- \npressions of the seals of Saxon kings are extant ; \nand the English great seal is attributed to Edward \nthe Confessor (1041-66). "A seal with armorial \nbearings before the nth century, is certainly false." \nFosbroke. The most ancient English seal with arms \non it is said to be that of Eichard I. or John. White \nand coloured waxes were used. Our present sealing- \nwax, containing shellac, did not come into general \nuse in Germany and England until about 1556. \nRed wafers for seals came into use about 1624 ; but \nwere not used for public seals till the 18th century. \nA seal acquired by the British Museum made of \nblack hematite, thought to be Hittite, found at \nYuzgat in Asia Minor, announced Nov. 1886. \niSeal Society, for publication of fac-similes of an- \ncient seals, was established in 1883. \xe2\x80\x94 For Sealed \nLetters, see Great Seal and Lettres de Cachet. \n\nSEAMEN". In consequence of the great loss of \nlife by wrecks of merchant vessels, attributed to bad \nships and overloading, a commission of inquiry was \nagreed to by parliament on the motion of Mr. S. \n\n\n\nPlimsoll (who published "Our Seamen: an Ap- \npeal"), 4 March, 1873. The duke of Edinburgh \nwas on the commission; the duke of Somerset, \nchairman. Mr. Plimsoll has been censured for \nexaggeration. \n\nThe report issued in September tended to justify the \npublic apprehensions, but suggested no remedy. The \nreport presented to parliament, 2 July, 1874, con- \ndemned the present insurance system, and recom- \nmended increased responsibility of owners and others, \nand strengthening the powers of the Board of Trade for \ninvestigation. \nThe Merchant Shipping Survey Bill was rejected \n\n(173 \xe2\x80\x94 170) 24 June, 1874 \n\nAfter much excitement, an Act was passed to give \nfurther powers to the Board of Trade to stop un- \n\nseaworthy ships 13 Aug. 1875 \n\nAnother Merchant Shipping Act (which see) passed \n\n15 Aug. 1876 \nStrong circular issued by the Board of Trade (Mr. \nChamberlain) ; deaths of the employed in ships \nasserted to be 1 in 60 ; in coal mines 1 in 315 ; \npresent system stated to be ineffectual . Jan. 1S84 \nFirst annual congress of the National Seamen\'s and \nFiremen\'s union held at Cardiff (Mr. Plimsoll \n\npresent) 8 Oct. 1889 \n\nSee Shipping. \nSeamen\'s hospital society, see Dreadnought. \n\nSEAS, Sovereignty of the. The claim \n\nof England to rule the British seas is of very ancient \ndate. Arthur is said to have assumed it, and Alfred \nafterwards supported this claim. It was maintained \nby Selden, and measures were taken by government \nin consequence, 8 Chas. I. 1633. The Dutch, after \nthe death of Charles I., made some attempts to \nobtain it, but were roughly treated by Blake and \nother admirals. Russia and other powers of the \nnorth armed to avoid search, 1780; again, 1800; \nsee Armed Neutrality and Flag. The international \nrule of the road at sea was settled in 1862?; (new \nrules were issued in 1879 and 19 Aug. 1884), yet near \nGreat Britain alone there have been 13,000 collisions \nin six years. Mr. Vm. Stirling Lacon proposed to \nreduce the rules from 749 words to 144, for sim- \nplicity and security. His form had been nine times \nbefore parliament, 1873. Revised rules issued by \nthe admiralty in a " Fleet Circular," Nov. 1885. \nThe British Board of Trade appointed a committee, \nconsisting of admirals N. Bowden Smith, sir \nRobert Molyneux, sir George S. Nares, and \nothers, to consider measures for the prevention \nof collisions at sea ; first meeting . 1 Aug. 1800 \n\nSEASONS. The four natural divisions of the \nyear. \n\nIn the north temperate regions in 1884 the spring \nquarter began 20 March, 5 a.m., the summer, 21 June, \n1 a.m., the autumn, 22 Sept. 3 p.m., the winter, 21 Dee \n10 a.m. See Lapland seasons under Year. \n\nJames Thomson\'s "Seasons" published: "Winter, 1 \n1726; "Summer," 1727; "Spring," 1728; "Autumn," 1730. \n\nHaydn\'s "Seasons" first performed, 1801. \n\nSEATS BILL, see under Reform, \nSEBASTIAN, ST. (N. Spain), was taken by \nthe French, under the duke of Berwick, in 1719. \nIt was besieged by the British and allied army under \n"Wellington. After a most heavy bombardment, by \nwhich the whole town was laid nearly in ruins, it \nwas stormed by general Graham (afterwards lord \nLynedoch), and taken 31 Aug. 1813. \xe2\x80\x94 On 5 May, \n1836, the fortified works, through the centre of \nwhich ran the high road to Hemani, were carried \nby the English auxiliary legion under general \nEvans, after very hard fighting. The British naval \nsquadron, off St. Sebastian, under lord John Hay, \nlent very opportune aid to the victors in this con- \ntest. \xe2\x80\x94 A vigorous assault was made on the lines of \ngeneral De Lacy Evans, at St. Sebastian, by the \nOarlists, 1 Oct. 1836. Both parties fought with \n\n\n\nSEBASTOPOL. \n\n\n\n869 \n\n\n\nSEDAN. \n\n\n\nbravery. The Carlists were repulsed, after suffer- \ning severely. The loss of the Anglo-Spanish force \nwas 376 men and 37 officers, killed and wounded, \nGeneral De Lacy Evans was slightly wounded. See \nunder Leagues. The queen regent of Spain meets \nqueen Victoria here, 27 March, 1889. Population, \n1887, 29,047. \n\nSEBASTOPOL or Sevastopol, a town and \n\nonce a naval arsenal, at S.W. point of the Crimea, \nformerly the little village of Aktiar. The buildings \nwere commenced in 1784, by Catherine II. after the \nconquest of the country. The town is built in the \nshape of an amphitheatre on the rise of a large hill \nflattened on its summit, according to a plan laid \ndown before 1 794, which has been since adhered to. \nThe fortifications and harbour were constructed by \nan English engineer, colonel Upton, and his sons, \nsince 1830. The population in 1834 was 15,000. \nThis place underwent eleven months\' siege, by the \nEnglish and French in 1854 and 1855. Immediately \nafter the battle of the Alma, 20 Sept. 1854, the allied \narmy marched to Sebastopol, and took up its position \non the plateau between it and Balaklava, and the \ngrand attack and bombardment commenced 17 Oct. \n1854, without success.* After many sanguinary \nencounters by day and night, and repeated bombard- \nments, a grand assault was made on 8 Sept. 1855, \nupon the Malakhoff tower and the Redans, the most \nimportant fortifications to the south of tbe town. \nThe French succeeded in capturing and retaining \nthe Malakhoff. The attacks of the English on the \ngreat Redan and of the French upon the little Redan \nwere successful, but the assailants were compelled \nto retire after a desperate struggle with great loss of \nlife. The French lost 1646 killed, of whom 5 were \ngenerals, 24 superior and 116 inferior officers, 45CO \nwounded, and 1400 missing. The English lost 385 \nhilled (29 being commissioned and 42 non-commis- \nsioned officers), 1886 wounded, and 176 missing. \nIn the night the Russians abandoned the southern \nand principal part of the town and fortifications, \nafter destroying as much as possible, and crossed \nto the northern forts. They also sank or burnt the \nremainder of their fleet. The allies found a very \ngreat amount of stores when they entered the place, \n9 Sept. The works were utterly destroyed in April, \n1856, and the town was restored to the Russians in \nJuly; gen. Todleben, the able defender, died 1 \nJul}\', 1884, and was buried here; his monument \nuncovered 28 June, 1890. See Russo- Turkish War. \nl\'opulation of Sebastopol, 1885, 33,803. \n\nSECEDERS; SECESSION CHURCH, \nsee Burghers. \n\nSECONDARY OF Loxdox, an ancient \noffice, resembling that of under-sheriff in counties. \nThe place was purchaseable till early in the present \ncentury, when it was bought up by the corporation. \n\nSECRET SOCIETIES, Assassins, Fenians, \nRibbomsm, VcJtiuic Tribunal, Rosierucians, Illu- \nminati, Carbonari, Mary-Aime, Nihilists. \n\n* In consequence of the sufferings and disasters of the \narmy in the winter of 1854-5, the Sebastopol Inquiry \nCommittee was appointed, and the Aberdeen administra- \ntion resigned, Feb. 1855. l\'he committee sat from \n1 March to 15 May, lord Aberdeen being the last person \nexamined. Its report was presented 18 June. Mr. Roe- \nbuck, the chairman, moved on 17 July that the house \nshould pass a vote of severe reprehension "n every mem \nber of the Aberdeen administration. On 19 July his \nmotion was lost by a majority of 107 against it. In 1855 \nthe government sent sir. John M\'Neill and col. Tullueh \nto inquire into the stair, of tin- armies in the Crimea. \nTheir report was presented to parliament in Feb. 1856. \nA commission was appointed to consider the statements \nin the report (which wire very unfavourable to many \nofficers), but the substance of the report was unshaken. \n\n\n\nSECRETARIES OF State. The earliest \nauthentic record of a secretary of state is in the \nreign of Henry III., when John Maunsell is de- \nscribed as " Secretarim Koster," 1253. Rymer. \nTowards the close of Henry VIII. \'s reign, two \nsecretaries were appointed ; and upon the union \nwith Scotland, Anne added a third as secretary for \nScotch affairs; this appointment was afterwards laid \naside ; but in the reign of George III. the number \nwas again increased to three, one for the American \ndepartment. In 1782 this last was abolished by act \nof Parliament ; and the secretaries were appointed \nfor home, foreign, and colonial affairs. "When there \nwere but two secretaries, one held the portefeuille \nof the Northern department, comprising the Low \nCountries, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Poland, \nRussia, &c. ; the other, of the Southern department, \nincluding France, Switzerland, Italy, Spam, Portu- \ngal, and Turkey ; the affairs of Ireland belonging to \nthe elder secretary; both secretaries then equally \ndirected the home affairs. Beatson. There are now \nsix secretaries \xe2\x80\x94 home, foreign, colonial, war, (in \n1858) India, and(in 1885) Scotland, all in the cabinet \nSecretary of State for Scotland act passed 14 Aug. \n1885, amended 1887, explained 1889. See Adminis- \ntrations, and separate articles. \nThe Institute of Secretaries was started at a meeting \nin London, 4 July, 1890, to collect information \nrespecting the position, duties, and responsi- \nbilities of secretaries to be applied for their \nbenefit. First dinner ... 24 June, 1892 \nSECTS, RELIGIOUS, see under Worship, \nand their respective titles. \n\nSECULAR GAMES (Ludi Sceculares), very \nancient Roman games, celebrated on important \noccasions. Horace wrote his " Carmen Saeculare " \nfor their celebration in the reign of the emperor \nAugustus (17). They took place again in the reign \nof Claudius (47), of Lomitian (88), and for the last \ntime, of Philip (248), believed to be 2000 years after \nthe foundation of the city. \n\nSECULARISM, a name given to the prin- \nciples advocated by G. J. and Austin Holyoake, \nabout 1846, and since by Mr. Bradlaugh. \nIts central idea is free, not lawless thought, and it con- \nsiders scepticism to he scrutiny. It advocates liberty \nof action without injury to others. It is not against \nChristianity, but independent of it. Its standard is \nutilitarian ; it is the religion of the present life only ; \nteaching men to seek morality in nature, and happi- \nness in duty. Mr. Austin Holyoake and other secu- \nlarists repudiated atheism ; Mr. Bradlaugh and others \nprofess it. \n\nSECURITY fiiom Violence Act, passed \n\nin 1863, appointed whipping as part of the punish- \nment for attempts at garottiug. \n\nSEDAN, an ancient fortified city iu the valley \nof the Meuse, N.E. of France, the seat of a princi- \npality long held by Uie dukes of Bouillon. On 6 \nJuly, 1641, a victory was gained at La Marfee, near \nSedan, by the count of Soissons and the troops of \nBouillon and other French princes, over the royal \narmy supporting Richelieu ; but the count was slain \non 23 June, 1642. The duke was arrested in the \nmidst of his army, and was made to cede Sedan tc \nthe crown. The protestant university was abolished \nafter the revocation of the edict of Nantes, 22 Oct. \n1685. Around this place a series of desperate con- \nflicts on 29, 30, and 31 Aug. between the French \narmy of the north, under marshal MacMahon (about \n150,000 men), and the greater part of the three \nGerman armies under the king and crown-prince of \nPrussia and the crown-prince of Saxony (about \n250,000 men) was brought to a close on 1 Sept. 1870. \nThe battle began with attacks on the French right and \n\nleft about 5 a.m., and was very severe at 2 p.m. At + \n\n\n\nSEDAN CHAIES. \n\n\n\n870 \n\n\n\nSELEUCIDES. \n\n\n\np.m. tlie Germans remained masters of the field, and \nthe crown-prince of Prussia announced a complete \nvictory, the chief part of the French army retreating \ninto Sedan. \n\nThe emperor Napoleon was present during the battle, \nand, it is said, stood at Iges, near Sedan, exposed for \nfour hours to the German grenades. The impossibility \nof further resistance was then evident. The Germans \nhad contracted their circle close round Sedan ; their for- \nmidable artillery held all the heights, from which they \ncould at pleasure wholly destroy the town and the \narmy, and only 2000 men were in a condition to \nrespond to their commander\'s call, and to make a \nsupreme effort to break through the enemy with the \nemperor and escape to Montmedy. \n\nAt first general de Wimpffen (called to the command \nwhen MaeMahon was wounded) indignantly rejected \nthe terms offered by the victor, and the emperor had \na fruitless interview with count Bismarck to endeavour \nto mitigate them. \n\nOn 2 Sept. the emperor wrote in autograph to the king of \nPrussia, " Hon frere, n\'ayant pu mourir a la tete de \nmes troupes, je depose mon epee au pied de votre \ninajeste. Napoleon." A capitulation of Sedan and \nthe whole army therein was signed by generals Von \nHoltke and De \'Wimpffen at the chateau of Bellevue, \nnear Frenois, at 11.30 a.m., and at 2 p.m. an interview \ntook place between the king and the emperor, who \nwas downcast but dignified. \n\nThe conflict was principally carried on by the artillery, \nin which (according to the emperor) the Germans had \nthe advantage, not only in number (600 to 500), but \nalso in weight, range, and precision. The carnage was \nawful, and the field the next clay was a mass of shat- \ntered bones, torn flesh, and coloured rags. \n\nAbout 25,000 French prisoners were taken in the battle, \nand 83,000 surrendered the next day, together with \n70 mitrailleuses, 400 field-pieces, and 150 fortress guns. \nAbout 14,000 French wounded were found lying in \nthe neighbourhood, and about 3000 escaped into \nBelgium and laid down their arms. The great army \nof the north had ceased to exist. Among the killed \nwas lieut.-eol. . Pemberton, a correspondent of the \nTimes, who had approached too near the conflict. \n\nThe French emperor and his suite arrived at WUhelms- \nhohe, a castle near Cassel appointed for his residence, \n(formerly inhabited by his uncle Jerome, when king \nof Westphalia), in the evening of 5 Sept. \n\nOn 1 Sept. the village of Bazeilles was stormed by the \nBavarians and burnt, it was said, because the inhabi- \ntants fired on the ambulances ; many women and \nchildren perished. The French denied the provocation. \nThe place had been previously twice bombarded and \nstormed by the maddened combatants. \n\nIn a letter dated 12 Hay, 1872, the emperor Napoleon \ntook upon himself the whole responsibility of the \nsurrender of Sedan. \n\nSEDAN CHAIES (so called from Sedan), \nwere first seen in England in 1581. One used in \nthe reign of James I., by the duke of Buckingham, \ncaused great indignation, and the people exclaimed \nthat he was employing his fellow-creatures to do \nthe service of beasts. Sedan chairs came into \nLondon in 1634, Avhen sir Francis Duncomb ob- \ntained the sole privilege to use, let, and hire a \nnumber of such covered chairs for fourteen years. \nThey came into very general use in 1649. \n\nSEDANGS, a tribe dwelling on the borders of \nAnnam. M. de Mayrena, an ex-officer of the \nFrench navy, having made himself their king, came \nto Paris. He was set aside, and the Sedangs were \nbrought under French protection by the French \nresident-general in Indo-China ; reported Oct. 1889. \n\nSEDGMOOB (Somersetshire), where the duke \nof Monmouth (natural son of Charles II. by Lucy \nWalters), who had risen in rebellion on the acces- \nsion of James II., was completely defeated by the \nl-oyal army, 6 July, 168$. The duke was made a \nprisoner in the disguise of a peasant, at the \nbottom of a ditch, overcome with hunger and \nfatigue. He was tried and beheaded on 15 July \nfollowing. \n\n\n\nSEDITION". Sedition acts were passed in the \nreign of George III. The proclamation against \nseditious writings was published May, 1792. The \ncelebrated Sedition bill passed Dec. 1795. Sedi- \ntious societies were suppressed by act, June, 1797- \nThe Seditious Meetings and Assemblies\' bill passed \n31 March, 1817. In Ireland, during the Roman \nCatholic and Repeal agitation, acts or proclamations \nagainst sedition and seditious meetings were pub- \nlished from time to time until 1848. \n\nSEEDS. An act was passed to prevent the \nadulteration of seeds (a common practice), II Aug. \n1869 ; amended in 1878. \n\nSEEKEES, see Quakers. \n\nSEGEDIN, or SZEGEDIN, Hungary. Here \nwas concluded a treaty between Ladislaus IV. and \nAmurath II., 12 July, 1444. It was treacherously \nannulled at the instigation of cardinal Julian, who \nwithLadislaus perished in the fatal battle of Vama, \n10 Nov. 1444. See Varna. \n\nSEICENTO, see under Italian. \n\nSEIDLICE (Poland) , where a battle was fought \n10 April, 1831, between the Poles and Russians. \nThe Poles obtained the victory after a bloody con- \nflict, taking 4000 prisoners and several pieces of \ncannon ; but this success was soon followed by fatal \nreverses. \n\nSEISMOMETEE (from seismos, Greek for \nearthquake), an apparatus for measuring the vio- \nlence of the shocks. One is described \\>y Sir. Robert \nMallet in his work on earthquakes, published iu \n1858. Many described by Prof. J. A. Ewing, 1880-8. \n\nSELA, see Fetra. \n\nSELBOBNE SOCIETY, for the preserva- \ntion of birds, plants, and pleasant places, originated \nin the Selborne league (afterwards society) formed \nby Mr. and Mrs. G. A. Musgrave in Nov. 1885. It \nhas included the plumage league since Jan. 1886, \n(see under Birds). \n\nSELDEN SOCIETY, founded 29 Jan. 1887, \nfor the study of English legal history, and pub- \nlication of ancient MSS. and books, by lords \njustice Fry, Coleridge, and Lindley, and other \neminent lawyers. John Selden, legal antiquary, \nborn 16 Dec. 1^84, died 30 Nov. 1654. \n\n\' SELECT-MEN", the earliest officers of the \ntownships formed by the first colonists of New \nEngland about 1635. \n\nSELECTION, Natural, see Species. \n\nSELENIUM, a grayish-white elementary sub- \nstance (chemically resembling sulphur), discovered \nin the stone riolite by Berzelius, in 181 7. \n\nThe variation in its resistance to the electric current \nwhen subjected to light was observed by Mr. \nWilloughby Smith in 1873, and utilised in the photo- \nphone (which see). Dr. C. Wm. Siemens constructed a \n"selenium eye." \n\nSELEUCIA (Syria), made the capital of the \nSyrian monarchy by its builder, Seleucus Nicator, \n312 B.C. On the fall of the Seleucidse, it became a \nrepublic, 65 B.C. It was taken by Trajan, a.d. \n116; several times given up and retaken; subju- \ngated by the Saracens, and united with Ctesiphon, \n636. \n\nSELEUCIDES, Era OF THE, dates from \nthe reign of Seleucus Nicator. It was used in Syria \nfor many years, and frequently by the Jews until \nthe 15th century, and by some Arabians. Opinions \nvary as to its commencement. To reduce it to our \n\n\n\nSELF-DENYING OEDINANCE. 871 \n\n\n\nSEPHAEDIaL \n\n\n\nera (supposing it to begin I Sept. 312 B.C.), sub- \ntract 311 years 4 months. \n\nSELF-DENYING OEDINANCE, which \nordained that no member of parliament should hold \nany civil or military office or command conferred by \neither or both of the houses, or by authority derived \nfrom them, after much discussion, was passed 3 \nApril, 1645, by the influence of Cromwell, who thus \nremoved the earl of Essex and other Presbyterians \nout of his way. A somewhat similar ordinance was \nadopted by the parliament at Melbourne in Aus- \ntralia, in 1858. The name was given to an arrange- \nment made respecting British naval promotions and \nretirements in 1870. \n\nSELLASIA (Laconia). Here the Spartans \nunder Cleomenes were defeated by Antigonus Doson \nand the Achseans, 221 B.C. \n\nSELSEY, see Chichester. \n\nSEMAPHOEE, see Telegraphs. \n\nHEMATOLOGY (Greek sema, a sign), the \nscience of signs, a term proposed by B. H. Smart, \nwho died 1872. \n\nSEMINAEA (Naples). Near here Gonsalvo \nde Cordova, the great captain, was defeated by \nthe French, in 1495; but defeated them, 21 April, \nI503- \n\nSEMINCAS, see Simancas. \n\nSEMPACH (Switzerland). Here the Swiss \ngained a great victory over Leopold, duke of \nAustria, 9 July, 1386, under Arnold von Winckel- \nried ; the duke and Arnold were slain, and the \nliberty of Switzerland was established. The day \nis still commemorated. Especially on 5 July, 1886. \n\nSEMPEE EADEM ("Always the same"), \none of the mottoes of queen Elizabeth, was adopted \nby queen Mary and queen Anne, 13 Dec. 1702. \n\nSEMPEEINGHAM, see Gilbertines. \n\nSENATE {Senatus). In the ancient republics \nthe government was divided between the senatus \n(from senis, old ; in Greek, gerousia, from germ, \nold), an assembly of elders, and the popular \nassembly {comitia, Latin; ecclcsia, Greek), the \nking being merely the executive. The Roman \nsenate, said to have originally been composed of \n100 members, was raised to 300 by Tarquinius \nI\'riscus ; to about 600 by Sylla, about 81 B.C. ; and \nto 900 by Julius Caesar. It was reformed and \nreduced to 600 by Augustus ; and gradually lost its \npower and dignity under the emperors. The mere \nform existed in the reign of Justinian. A second \nsenate, formed at Constantinople by Constantine, \nretained its office till the 9th century. S.P.Q.R. on \nthe Roman standard stood for "Senatus Popnlusque \nllomanus," "the Roman senate and people." A \nsenatus consultum was a law enacted by the senate. \nThe French senate was created by the constitution of the \nyear 8, promulgated 24 Dec. 1799, to watch over the \nadministration of the laws. The number of senators \nwas raised gradually from 60 to 137. The senate was \nreplaced by the chamber of peers in 1814 ; re-estab- \nlished by Napoleon III. 14 Jan. 1852 ; and abolished, \nsSept. 1870. Its re-establishment was proposed in 1873. \nEstablishment of a senate of 300 voted ; 225 to be elected \nfor 9 years by the departments ; 75 (for life) by national \nassembly, 22 Feb. 1875. \nThe 75 elected, 9-21 Dec, 1875. \n\nThe congress of 13 Aug. 1884, ordered the gradual abo- \nlition of life senators as vacancies occurred ; new \nsenators were to be elected for 9 years by the depart- \nments ; enacted, 5 Nov. ; bill passed by the deputies \nand senate, 4-9 Dec. 1884. See France. \n\n\n\nSENEFFE (Belgium). Near here was fought \na severe but indecisive battle between the Dntcb, \nunder the prince of Orange (afterwards our William \nIII.), and the French, led by the great Conde, 11 \nAug. 1674. \n\nSENEGAL, French colonies on the river of \n\nthat name in Senegambia, "W. Africa, settled about \n\n1626; several times taken by the British, but \n\nrecovered by the French, to whom they were Anally \n\nrestored in 18 14. \n\nThe French opposed by two powerful chiefs, Samori \nand Ahmadoo, sultan of Toucouleurs ; Samori, \ndefeated by the French, makes a treaty . . 1885 \n\nVery great loss of life and property by unexampled \nfloods ; towns and villages wholly submerged \n\nAug., Sept. 1890 \n\nFrench war with the natives, 1890 ; the chief Ah- \nmadoo\'s army defeated in sharp battles ; the \nFrench, under col. Archinard, enter Nioro, 1 Jan. 1891 \n\nAhmadoo again defeated by col. Archinard ; many \nprisoners taken ; Ahmadoo fled ; Nioro restored \nto the chiefs, reported ... 18 Jan. ,, \n\nThe rebel tribes defeated, near Dienia ; 600 rebels \nkilled, 24 Feb. Dienia and Kinian taken by \ncol. Archinard, reported . . . March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nWar with Samori renewed ; he retires to his \nsouthern territories, after much carnage and \ndesolation April \xe2\x80\x94 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nIntestine wars between the native chiefs, Ahmet- \nSaloum and Amar-Saloum, Ahmet-Saloum victor, \n\nreported Aug. , , \n\nExpedition of colonel Humbert against Samori in \nFrench Soudan, 1 Jan., whom he defeats, \n9, 11 Jan., and takes two strongholds, 25 Jan. ; \nfresh conflicts ; capt. Menard killed, reported \n6 April ; colonel Humbert victorious, 14 March ; \nthe French repulsed by Samadou, reported \n\n7 May, 1892 \n\nSENESCHAL, a high officer of the French \nroyal household. In the reign of Philip I. 1059, \nthe office was esteemed the highest place of trust. \n\nSENLAC, see Hastings. \n\nSENONES (see Gauls), defeated by Camillus, \n367 b.c. They defeated Metellus the consul at \nArretium, 284, but were almost exterminated by \nDolabella, 283. They invaded Greece in 279; were \ndefeated by Antigonus Gonatas, 278 ; and sued for \npeace. \n\nSENOVA, near Schipka, in the Balkans. \nHere Suleiman Pasha and the Turks were defeated \nby the Russian general Skobeleff, 9 Jan. 1878. \nThis victory virtually closed the war, and opened \nthe road to Adrianople. About 26,000 Turks and \n283 officers were made prisoners, with 40 Krupp \nguns. About 8000 Turks and 2000 Russians were \nkilled or wounded. \n\nSENTINTJM (central Italy). The site of a \ngreat victory of the Romans under Fabius Maxim US, \nover the Samnites and Gauls, whose general, Gellius \nEgnatius, was slain, 295 B.C. P. Dccius the other \nconsul, devoted himself to death during the conflict. \n\nSEPAEATISTS, a term applied to the Irish \nNational Party, headed by Mr. Parncll, about \n1883. In 1884 it vehemently attacked carl Spenser \nand the Irish executive. \xe2\x80\x94 The name is also assumed \nby a small Christian sect in Dublin, and some \nother places ; originated by John Walker, a clas- \nsical scholar, somewhat resembling the Glasitcs \n(Prov. xviii. 1) ; he died 25 Oct. 1833, aged 66. \n\nSEPHAEDIM, the name given to the descen- \ndants of the highly civilised Jews of Spain and \nPortugal, who tied from the persecutions of the \nInquisition, 1492-1505. The Jews interpret Sepha- \nrad, in Obadiak 20, as Spain. \n\n\n\nSEPOYS. \n\n\n\n872 \n\n\n\nSERVANTS. \n\n\n\nSEPOYS (a corruption of sipdhi, Persian, a \nsoldier), the term applied to the native troops in the \nBritish Service in India. The Turkish cavalry is \nnamed Spahis, a name also given to native cavalry \nin Algeria in the French service in 1834. Under able \ngenerals they greatly aided in establishing British \nrule in India. For their mutinies, see Vellore, \n1806; Madras, 1809; and India, 1857. \n\nSEPTEMBER, the seventh Eoman month \nreckoned from March (from Septimus, seventh). It \nbecame the ninth month when January and \nFebruary were added to the year by Numa ; 731 \nB.C. The Eoman senate would have given this \nmonth the name of Tiberius, but the emperor \nopposed it ; the emperor Domitian gave it his own \nname Germanicus ; the senate under Antoninus Pius \ngave it that of Antoninus ; Commodus gave it his \nsurname, Herculeus ; and the emperor Tacitus his \nown name, Tacitus. \xe2\x80\x94 "September 4 government," \nsee France, Sept. 1870. \n\nSEPTEMBRIZERS. In the French revolu- \ntion a dreadful massacre took place in Paris, 2-5 \nSept. 1792. The prisons were broken open, and the \nprisoners butchered, among them an ex-bishop, and \nnearly 100 non-juring priests. Some accounts \nstate the number of persons slain at 1200, others at \n4000. The agents in this slaughter were named \nSeptembrizers. \n\nSEPTENNALISTS, the party in France who \nsupport the septennate or seven years\' government \nof marshal MacMahon, enacted by the assembly, \n19, 20 Nov. 1873. See France, 1874. \n\nSeptennate, in the German constitution, is the stipula- \ntion that every German fit for the duty is liable to \nserve for seven years in the Imperial army 4 May, \n1871. \n\nSEPTENNIAL PARLIAMENTS. Ed- \nward I. held but one parliament every two years. \nIn the 4th Edward III. it was enacted, "that a \nparliament should be holden every year once." \nThis continued to be the statute-law till 16th \nCharles I. 1641, when an act was passed for holding \nparliaments once in three years at least ; repealed \nin 1664. The Triennial act was re-enacted in 1694. \nTriennial parliaments thence continued till the \n2 Geo. I. 1716, when, in consequence of the allega- \ntion that "a popish faction were designing to renew \nthe rebellion in this kingdom, and the report of an \ninvasion from abroad," it was enacted that "the \nthen parliament should continue for seven years." \nThis Septennial act, entitled " an act for enlarging \nthe continuance of parliaments" (1715 in the \nstatutes, 4to, given as 1 Geo. I. stat. 2, c. 38), was \npassed 7 May, 1716; see Parliaments. Several \nunsuccessful motions have been made for its repeal ; \none in May, 1837; again 24 Feb. 1880, and 8 \nApril, 1892 (188-142). \n\nSEPTIMANIA, a Eoman province, S. France ; \n\nsee Languedoc. \n\nSEPTUAGESIMA SUNDAY; see Quad- \nragesima Sunday, and Week. Septuagesima is the \nseason between Epiphany and Lent. \n\nSEPTTJAGINT VERSION of the Bible, \n\nmade from Hebrew into Greek, 277 n.c. Seventy- \ntwo translators were shut up in thirty-six cells ; \neach pair translated the whole ; and on subsequent \ncomparison the thirty-six copies did not vary by a \nword or letter. Justin Martyr. St. Jerome affirms \nthat they translated only the Pentateuch ; others \nsay they translated the whole. Ftolemy Philadel- \nphus gave the Jews about a million sterling for a \ncopy of the Old Testament, and seventy translators \n\n\n\nhalf a million more for the translation. Josephns. \nFinished in seventy-two days. Hewlett. The above \nstatements are merely traditional ; see Bible, anJ \nAlexandrian Codex. \n\nSEQUESTRATION of Benefices Act passed \n13 July, 1871. \n\nSERAING, Belgium, on the Meuse, near \nLiege, formerly the site of a palace of the prince \nbishops of Liege ; now containing great iron works, \nestablished in 1817, by John Cockerill, an English- \nman. His father, who had works at Liege, died \nin 18 1 3. Nearly the whole town has been built \nby Cockerill. \n\nSERAJEVO, capital of Bosnia and Herzego- \nvina, with about 50,000 inhabitants, was founded \nin 1465, by two nobles. It was taken by Mathias, \nking of Hungary, in 1480, and by prince Eugene, of \nSavoy, in 1698. In pursuance of the treaty of \nBerlin, 13 July, 1878, the Austrians entered Sera- \njevo, after a sharp conflict with the Bosnians, and \nbombardment of the city, 19 Aug. 1878. By a fire \n8, 9 Aug. 1879 above 20,000 persons were rendered \nhomeless. \n\nSERAPHINE, a free-reed musical instrument, \na precursor of Debaine\'s harmonium, brought out \nby John Green in London, 1833. \n\nSERAPIS, TEMPLE OE (near Naples), was \nexhumed in 1750. The remains of his temple at \nMemphis, termed Serapeum, were discovered by \nMariette, 1850 et seq. \n\nSERASKIER, the Turkish minister of war. \n\nSERFS, see Slavery (note), and Russia, 1861, \n1863. - \n\nSERINGAPATAM (S. India), the capital of \nIlyder Ali, sovereign of Mysore (which see). The \nbattle of Seringapatam, called also the battle of \nArikera, in which the British defeated Tippoo Sahib, \nwas fought 15 May, 1 79 1. The redoubts were \nstormed, and Tippoo was reduced by lord Corn- \nwallis, 6 Feb. 1792. After this capture, prelimin- \naries of peace Avere signed, and Tippoo agreed to \ncede one half of Mysore, and to pay 33,000,000 of \nrupees (about 3,300,000/. sterling) to England, and \nto give up to lord Cornwallis his two eldest sons as \nhostages. \xe2\x80\x94 In a new war the Madras army, under \ngeneral Harris, arrived before Seringapatam, 5 \nApril, 1799; it was joined by the Bombay army 14 \nApril ; and the place was stormed and carried by \nmajor-general Baird, 4 May, same year. In this \nengagement Tippoo was killed. See Mysore. \n\nSERJEANTS-AT-LAW are pleaders from \namong whom the judges are ordinarily chosen, and \nwho are called Serjeants of the coif. The judges \ncall them brothers ; see Coif. Their exclusive rights \nof addressing court of common pleas suspended, \n1834; restored, 1840; abolished, 1846. By the \nSupreme Court of Judicature Act, judges on their \nappointment need not be made Serjeants, 1873. See \nInns of Court. \n\nSERPENT, an ancient wind instrument, \nparent of the Cornet family. A " contra serpent" \nwas shown in the Exhibition, 1851, made by Jor- \ndan, of Liverpool. The " serpentcleid " was pro- \nduced by Beacham in Jullien\'s orchestra about 1840. \nFor H.M. cruiser Serpent, see JS^ary, 18S7 and 1890, \nand Mansion House Fund. \n\nSERPENTINE, see Hyde Park. \n\nSERVANTS. An act levying a duty on male \nservants was passed in 1777, which was augmented \n\n\n\nSERVIA. \n\n\n\n873 \n\n\n\nSERVIA. \n\n\n\n\n\n\nin 1781, et seq. A tax on female servants, imposed \nin 1785, was repealed in 1792. The tax on servants \nyielded in 1830 about 250,000/. per annum; in 1840 \nthe revenue from it had fallen to 201,482/. ; in 1850 \nit produced about the same sum. The licence duty \nfor male servants is now 15s. each. It produced iu \nthe year 1876-7, 167,004/. ; 1877-8, 154,641/. ; \n1878-9, 146,061/. ; 1883-4, 139,631/. ; 1887-8, \n136,287/. The law respecting- servants was amended \nby the Master and Servants\' act passed in 1867. \n\nSERVIA, an independent kingdom, south of \nHungary. The Servians or Serbs are of Slavonic \norigin. They embraced Christianity about 640. \nThe emperor Manuel subjugated them in 1150; \nbut they recovered their independence in 1 180. \nPopulation in 1854, 985,000 ; 1873, r >338\'5\xc2\xb05 i \n1890, 2,162,759. Belgrade is the capital (whiefi see). \nOld Servia is still subject to Turkey. \n\nStephen Nemanya, a Servian chief, founds the \nRacian dynasty, under whom the country pro- \ngressed 1159, etscq. \n\nStephen Dusliau subdues Bulgaria, &c., and aims \n\nat resisting the Turks 1336-56 \n\nThe Servians, weakened by dissensions, defeated \n\nby the Turks 1371 \n\nThe sultan Amurath I. defeated the combined \nChristian army of Servians, Hungarians, Alba- \nnians, &e., and was himself killed by a wounded \nServian soldier in the plain of Cossova, or Kos- \n\nsova 15 June, 1389 \n\nServia, subdued by the sultan Mahomet II., is \nrigorously ruled, 1459, et seq. ; ceded to Austria, \n1718 ; regained by Turkey . 1739 \n\nThe Servians aid Austria by free companies . 1788-90 \nAgain rebel, and capture Belgrade . \xe2\x80\xa2 1806 \n\nKara George, chosen leader, 1801 ; aided by the \n\nRussians, establishes a government . . 1807-n \nThe Turks break a treaty, and Kara George flees . 1814 \nTheir governor Milosch rebels . . . March, 1815 \nKara George returning, is executed . . . . 1816 \nAlexander Milosch I. Obrenovitch recognised as \n\nhereditary prince by the sultan . . 15 Aug. 1829 \nMilosch becoming despotic, made to abdicate, and \n\na new constitution established . 13 June, 1839 \nHis son and successor Milan soon dies, whose bro- \nther Michael also retires ; Alexander, son of Kara \nGeorge, chosen prince . . . -14 Sept. 1842 \nAlexander becoming unpopular, made to abdicate \nby the national party ; Alexander Milosch re- \nelected prince 23 Dec. 1858 \n\nPlot against Milosch frustrated, n July; the \n\nServian assembly meets . . . 13 July, i860 \n\nMilosch dies ; succeeded by his son Michael Obre- \nnovitch (born 4 Sept. 1825) . . 26 Sept. ,, \nRising movement to render Servia independent of \n\nTurkey March, 1861 \n\nDisputes between the Servians and the Turkish \ngarrison at Belgrade, which lead to bloodshed : \nthe city bombarded, 15 June ; submits 17 June ; \nthe Turkish pacha dismissed , . 19 June, 1862 \n\nA conference of the representatives of the great \npowers at Constantinople, Aug. ; the Porte agrees \nto liberal concessions to the Servians, which their \n\nprince accepts 7 Oct. ,, \n\nServians demand withdrawal of Turkish garrisons \n\nfrom Belgrade and other fortresses . 5 Oct. 1866 \nWhich are evacuated, March ; prince Michael, at \n\nConstantinople, thanks the sultan 30 March, 1867 \n\nPrince Michael assassinated in Belgrade 10 June, 1868 \nMilan IV. grand-nephew of prince Michael, chosen \nhis successor, 22 June ; 14 of the murderers were \n\nexecuted 28 July, ,, \n\nConstitution affirming the hereditary rights of the \n\nObrenovitch family 1869 \n\nPrince Karageorgevitch accused of complicity with \nminder; imprisoned at Pesth, Jan. ; acquitted, \n\nMay, 1S71 \nThe regents surrender the government to prince \n\nMilan at Belgrade .... 22 Aug. 1872 \nExcitement through insurrection in Herzegovina, \nnew ministry hostile to Turkey, formed, about \n31 Aug.; resign; annonuced, 4 Oct.; peace \nministry formed 9 Oct. 1875 \n\n\n\nRistitch, premier, opposed to Turkey . . July, 1876 \n\nSee Turkey, for the war declared . . 1 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nMilan proclaimed king by Tchernayeff and the army \nat Deligrad ; not approved ... 16 Sept. \nPeace with Turkey ratified . . 4 March, 1877 \n\n[Servian losses in the war, about 8000 killed, 20,000 \n\nwounded.] \nServians again declare war and enter Turkey (see \n\nRusso-Turkish war) ... 14, 15 Dec. , \nSultan deposes prince Milan . . 22 Dee. ,\\ \nServia declared independent, with new frontiers, \nby treaty of San Stefano, 3 March, and of Ber- \nlin 13 July, 1878 \n\nExecution of Markovitch and other rioters \n\nend of May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nProclamation of peace and national independence \n\nat Belgrade 22 Au^. \n\nThe ministry re-modelled by Ristitch, about 15 Oct. " \nResignation of Ristitch (virtual dictator) announced \n\n25 Oct. 1880 \nMilan proclaimed king by the Assembly \n\nabout 6 March, 1S82 \n[Married Natalie Keschko(born 1859), 17 Oct. 1875.] \nEscaped assassination by mad. Markovitch 23 Oct. ,, \nResignation of the Pirochanitz ministry, 27 Sept. ; \n\nsucceeded by Nicolas Christitch . . 3 Oct. 1883 \nNew military organization leads to insurrection in \nS.E. Servia ; soon suppressed . announced \n\n5-10 Nov. ,, \nInsurgents defeated . . . about 10 Nov. ,, \n18 members of the Radical committee arrested Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nGeneral tranquillity reported . . . 13 Nov. ,, \n18 rebel leaders executed, about 19 Nov. ; many \n\nothers reprieved ..... Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nRebels enter Bulgaria ; disputes with that country \n\nensue ; prospect of war .... June, 1884 \nM. Garachanine, premier .... 23 Oct. ,, \nDispute settled by arrangement . about 10 Nov. ,, \nPolitical dissensions : Panslavist agitation by M. \n\nRistitch Sept. 1885 \n\nMilitary movements consequent upon the coup \n\nd\'itat in Roumelia Oct. ,, \n\nDeclaration of war against Bulgaria (wliich see) \n\n13 Nov. ., \nInvasion : success followed by disastrous retreat \n\n14-24 Nov. ,, \nRoyal decree calling out the army . ix Feb. 1886 \nPeace between Servia and Bulgaria signed at \nBucharest 3 March ; ratified by the sultan \n\n13 March, ,, \nM. Ristitch fails to form a new ministry \n\nabout 3 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \nM. Garachanine resigns ; succeeded by M. Ristitch \n(pro-Russian) about 13 June, 1887 ; by colonel \n\nGruies T Jan. i883 \n\nStrong independent speech of the king 13 Dec. 1887 \n\nNew ministry under M. Nicolas Christitch \n\n26-27 April, 1888 \nThe king demands a divorce from the queen for \ndisagreements ; he favours Austria, she Russia ; \nshe refused the deed of terms offered ; she gi\\ es \nup the crown prince and goes to Paris 18 July, ,, \nQueen Natalie protests agai nst the divorce 20 Aug. & \n30 Oct. ; the divorce decreed by the metropolitan \nTheodosius, abp. of Belgrade (authority question- \nable) Oct, ,, \n\nA royal commission recommends universal suffrage, \nall electors eligible to the Skuptsehina, indepen- \ndence of the church, all religions free and pro- \ntected, liberty of the press, &c . . 24 Oct. ,, \nThe king proclaims coming constitutional changes \n\n26 Oct. ,, \nElections of the chambers annulled by the king as \n\nnot free 2 S Nov. ,, \n\nNew elections give majority to the radicals, headed \nby M. Ristitch, against the progressists under W. \nChristitch, the minister . ". . 16 Dec. ,, \nTlir Skuptsehina opened .... 30 Deo. ,, \nThe king informs a deputation desiring changes in \ntin\' proposed constitution thai the deputies must \naccept it unaltered; otherwise he will sei if \naside and rule absolutely . . . 1 Jan. 1889 \n\nThe new constitution passed (494-73) 2 Jan. ; the \n\nses -i"ii closed 3 Jan. ,, \n\nAn amnesty proclaimed for political offences \' Jan. ,, \nThe Christitch ministry resigns; but continues \nafter others fail .... 8 Jan. etseq. ,, \n\n\n\nSERVILE WARS. \n\n\n\n874 \n\n\n\nSEVEN CHURCHES. \n\n\n\nThe formation of a radical ministry stopped by the \nking on suspicion of conspiracy . 13 Feb. \n\nAbdication of the king; his son Alexander pro- \nclaimed ; liberal regency-M. Ristitch, gen. Boli- \nmarkovitch, and gen. Protitch ; radical cabinet \nheaded by M. Taushanovitch . . 6 March, \n\nThe Servians celebrate with mourning the quin- \ncentenary of the battle of Cossova . 27 June, \n\nThe king founds a monument in memory of the \nslain. The king was anointed by the metro- \npolitan Michael in the church of JZitcha, near \nKraljevo 2 July, \n\nQueen Natalie arrives at Belgrade, 29 Sept. ; inter- \nview with her son .... 13 Oct. \n\nElections : a great radical majority, 1 Oct. ; new \nparliament meets . . \' . . I3 Oct. \n\nMinisterial crisis averted by arrangement between \nradicals and liberals March, \n\nM. Patchitch, Kussophil radical leader, president \nof the Skuptschina .... 20 March, \n\nMinistry re-constructed ; gen. Gruitch premier, \n\n28 March, \n\nThe Servian vice-consul at Pristina, M. Marin- \nkovite, assassinated, 1 July. The arrested assas- \nsins confess and are tried ; the excessive de- \nmands of the Servian government refused by \nTurkey ; the affair arranged . about 28 July, \n\nElections : radicals 113, liberals 18, progressists 2 \n\n27 Sept. \n\nQueen Natalie agitates to annul her isolation from \nher son ; her memorandum (22 Nov.) to the \nparliament dismissed ... 8 Dec. et seq. \n\nGen. Sava Gruitch\'s cabinet resigns, 29 Jan. , but \nremains, 1 Feb. ; again resigns . . 20 Feb. \n\nM. Ristitch writes to the queen, opposing her \nefforts to obtain political power ; increasing agi- \ntation against her ... 9 Feb. et seq. \n\nM. Patchitch forms a radical ministry . 23 Feb. \n\nKing Milan agrees to live out of Servia, till his \nson\'s majority, on receipt of a sum of money and \na pension, about 14 April ; he arrives at Vienna \n\n19 April, \n\nQueen Natalie requested by the government to \nleave the country, refuses about 10 May : at- \ntempted expulsion stopped by students and \npeople ; 2 persons killed and several wounded by \nthe troops, 18 May. The queen forcibly con- \nveyed to Seriilin in Hungary, early . 19 May, \n\nThe king starts for St. Petersburg, 22 July ; at \nMoscow, 29 July ; St. Petersburg, 4 Aug. ; at \nVienna, 10 Aug. ; received by the emperor at \nIschl, 11, 12 Aug. ; returns to Belgrade . 15 Sept. \n\nKing Milan resigns definitely all his military and \npolitical rights, reported ... 18 Nov. \n\nThe ministry resigns, 3 March ; re-constituted under \nM. Patchitch 2 April, \n\n\n\n1891 \n\n\n\n1892 \n\n\n\nHEREDITARY PRINCES. \n\n1829. Milosch (Obrenovitch) I., recognised by Turkey, \n15 Aug. 1833 ; abdicates 13 June, 1839. \n\n1S39. Michael II., son ; dies 1840. \n\n1840. Michael III., brother ; abdicates 1842. \n\n1842. Alexander (Kara-Georgevitch), son of Kara George ; \nchosen, 14 Sept. ; deposed 23 Dec. 1858 ; died 3 \nMay, 18S5. \n\n1858. Milosch (Obrenovitch), re-elected, 23 Dec; dies, \ni860. \n\ni860. Michael III., son ; succeeds, 26 Sept. ; assassinated, \n10 June, 1868. \n\n1868. Milan (Obrenovitch) IV., grand-nephew, born, 22 \nAug. 1854 ; married to Natalie Keschko, 17 Oct. \n1875 ; again proclaimed, 2 July, 186S ; he abdi- \ncated 6 March, 1889. \n\n1889. Alexander, son, born 14 Aug. 1876. \n\nSERVILE WARS insurrections of slaves \nagainst their masters. Two were quelled in Sicily, \nafter much slaughter, 132, 99 B.C.; see Spartans. \n\nSESSION COURTS in England were ap- \npointed to be held quarterly in 1413, and the times \nfor holding them regulated in 1831 ; see Quarter \nSessions, and Court of Session. The kirk session in \nScotland consists of the minister and elders of each \nparish. They superintend religious Avorship and \ndiscipline, dispense money collected for the poor, &e. \n\n\n\nSESTUS, on the Thracian Chersonesus; see \nHellespont. Near Sestus was the western end of \nXerxes\' bridge, across the Hellespont, 480 B.C. \nSestus was retaken from the Persians by the Athe- \nnians, 478, and held by them till 404, giving them \nthe command of the trade of the Euxine. \n\nSETTLED ESTATES ACT- 40 & 41 Vict. \n\nc. 18, consolidates and amends the law relating to \n\ntheir leases, - sales, &c. (passed 28 June, 1877). \n\nOther acts passed, 1882, 1884 and 1890. \n\nIn conformity with these acts, the earl of Radnor \nwas authorised to sell pictures which were heir- \nlooms for the National gallery, in 1890, which \nsee. An appeal was disallowed by the court, \n7 Aug. 1890. \xe2\x80\x94 The marquis of Ailesbury, on \nappeal, was authorised to sell the mortgaged \nfamily mansion, Savernake hall and estate 12 Dec. \n1891 ; affirmed by the house of lords . 9 Aug. 1892 \n\nSETTLEMENT, ACT OF, for securing the \nsuccession to the British throne, to the exclusion, \nof Roman catholics, was passed in 1689. This name \nis also given to the statute by which the crown, \nafter the death of William III. and queen Anne, \nwithout issue, was limited to Sophia, electress of \nHanover, grand-daughter of James I., and her heirs \nbeing protestants, 1702. The Irish act of settle- \nment, passed in 1662, was repealed in 1689; see \nHanover. \n\nSETTLEMENT, Law of, of the poor, the \nsubject of many statutes since 1535, was somewhat \nchanged by the poor law act of 1834. \n\nSEVEN BISHOPS, see Bishops, 1688. \n\nSEVEN BROTHERS, martyrs at Eome, \nunder Antoninus ; their feast is kept 10 July. \n\nSEVEN CHURCHES of ASIA, to the. \nangels (ministers) of which the apostle John was \ncommanded to write the epistles contained in the \n2nd and 3rd chapters of his Eevelation, viz., Ephesus, \nSmyrna, Pergamos, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, \nand Laodicea, 96. \n\n1. Ephesus (which see). Paul founded the church here, \n57. In 59, he was in great danger from a tumult created \noy Demetrius ; to the elders of this church he delivered \nhis warning address, 60 (Acts xix. xx.). Ephesus was \nin a ruinous state even in the time of Justinian (527), \nand still remains so. \n\n2. Smyrna. An ancient Greek city, claiming to be the \nbirth-place of Homer ; was destroyed by the Lydians ; \nabout 627 B.C. rebuilt by Antigonus and Lysimachus. \nIts first bishop, Polycarp, was martyred here about \n169. It has been frequently captured. It was sacked \nby Tamerlane in 1402 ; and finally taken by the Turks, \n1424. It is now the chief city of Asia Minor, and the \nseat of the Levant trade. Earthquake, above 2000 \nperish, 12 May, 1875. Great fire ; about 700 houses \ndestroyed, 18 July, 1882. Population, 1885, 186,510. \n\n3. Pergamos. Capital of the kingdom of the same name, \nfounded by Philetferus, whom Lysimachus, one of \nAlexander\'s generals, had made governor, 283 B.C. He \nwas succeeded by Eumenes I., 263 ; Attains (who took \nthe title of king), 241 ; Eumenes II. (who collected a \ngreat library), 197; Attalus II., 159; Attalus III., 138. \nHe bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans, 133. It \nrevolted, was subdued, and made the Roman province, \nAsia. Pergamos is still an important place, called \nBergamo. Parchment is said to have been invented \nhere. The explorations of the ancient citadel, insti- \ntuted by the German government in 1878, resulted in \nthe discovery of Greek marble statuary, which has \nbeen deposited in the museum at Berlin. \n\n4. Thyatira. Now a mean town of 2000 houses, called \nAk-hissar, "White Castle." \n\n5. Sardis. Formerly the capital of Lydia, the kingdom \nof Croesus (560 b. c. ) ; taken by Cyrus, 548 ; burnt by th c \nGreeks, 499 ; it flourished under the Roman empire ; \nwas taken by the Turks; and destroyed by Tamerlane \nabout 1462 ; it is now a miserable village, named Sart. \n\n6. Philadelphia was built by Attalus (III.) Philadelphia, \n\n\n\nSEVEN DAYS\' WAE. \n\n\n\n875 SHAFTESBUEY MEMORIALS. \n\n\n\nking of Pergamos (159-138 b. c.) ; was taken by Bajazet I. , \nA.D. 1390. It is now called Allah Shehr, "The eity of \nGod," and is a miserable town of 3000 houses. \n7. Laodicea. In Phrygia, near Lydia ; has suffered much \nfrom earthquakes. It is now a deserted place, called \nEske-hissar, "The old castle." \n\nSEVEN DAYS\' WAE, see Army, 1871. \n\nSEVEN SAGES, see Greece, 590 b.c. \n\nSEVEN-SHILLING PIECES in gold were \nauthorised to be issued 29 Nov. 1797. \n\nSEVEN SLEEPEES. According to an early \nlegend seven youths, in 251, commanded to worship \na statue set up in Ephesus by the emperor Decius, \nrefused, and tied to a cavern in the mountain, where \nthey were enclosed, and slept, according to Durandus, \nfor 300 years. Other writers give shorter periods, \nand various accounts of the incidents which accom- \npanied the awakening. A festival in their honour \nis kept by the Roman church on 27 July. \n\nSEVEN WEEKS\' WAE, see Prussia, 1866. \n\nSEVEN WONDEES, see Wonders. \n\nSEVEN YEAES\' WAE, the conflict main- \ntained by Frederick II. of Prussia against Austria, \nRussia, and France, from 1756 to 1763 ; see Battles. \nHe gained Silesia ; see Hubertsburg . \n\nSEVENTH-DAY BAPTISTS, see article \nSabbatarians, Adventisls, &c. \n\nSEVEEN, see under Tunnels. \n\nSEVEENDEOOG, see Savandroog. \n\nSEVEEUS\'S WALL, see Roman Walls. \n\nSEVILLE (S.W. Spain), the Hispalis of the \nPhoenicians, and the Julia of the Romans, was the \ncapital until Philip II. finally established his court \nat Madrid, 1563. It opened its gates to the Saracens \nin 712, and was taken from them by the Christians in \n1247, after an obstinate siege. The peace of Seville \nbetween England, France, and Spain, and also a \ndefensive alliance to which Holland acceded, signed \n9 Nov. 1729. In the peninsular war, Seville sur- \nrendered to the French, 1 Feb. 1810 ; and was taken \nby assault by the British and Spaniards, after the \nbattle of Salamanca, 27 Aug. 1812. It was besieged \nbut not taken by Espartero, July, 1843. Visit of \nPrince of Wales, 20 April, 1876. The ancient \ncathedral was much renovated, 1889-90. Popula- \ntion, 1887, 143,182. \n\nSEVEES, see Pottery. \n\nSEWEES, see Cloaca Maxima. An act was \npassed in 1847 enforcing the conveyance of the \nsewage of houses in London into the public sewers. \nThe commissioners of sewers in London were super- \nseded by the metropolitan commissioners of sewers, \nnominated by the government. They abolished the \nlarge brick sewers, introducing pipe drains, and \nturned the contents of 30,000 cesspools into the river \nThames. The necessity for purifying the defiled \nriver led to the construction of a new system of \ndrainage, under the superintendence of the Metro- \npolitan Board of Works {which see). The main \ndrainage (the plan of Mr. J. W. Bazalgette) con- \nsists of the Northern High-level, Middle-level, and \nLow-level, and Southern High-level and Low- \nlevel. On 14 March, 1865, the works were said to \nbe completed, except the low-level sewer on the \nnorth side, which was waiting for the completion \nof the Thames embankment, &c. On 4 April, 1865, \nthe prince of Wales started the engines which com- \nmenced lifting the waters of the southern outfall, at \n\n\n\nCrossness Poiut, near Erith.* The main drainage \nworks of the metropolis (82 miles), were finally \ncompleted Aug. 1875. The sewage is carried 14 \nmiles down the river. Total cost, 4,500,000^ See \nCarbolic Acid. \n\nRoyal commission on the Metropolitan Sewage discharge \n(lord Bramwell, sir John Coode, prof. A. W. William- \nson and others), appointed 22 June, 1882 ; reports on \nthe great contamination of the Thames at the outfalls, \nand need of change ; approves of the combination of \nchemical precipitation with filtration through earth, \nJune and Dec. 1884. \nMr. Win. Webster\'s method of decomposing London \nsewage by electricity set up at Crossness ; reported \nsuccessful on inspection, March, 1889. \nMr. H. Wollheim\'s process, the "Amines" (or \nammonia compounds), reported successful; ex- \nhibited at Wimbledon Sewage farm, Aug. ; \nbefore the lord mayor and others . 18 Sept. 1889 \n\nSEWING-MACHINE. It is said that \nThomas Saint patented one for boots and shoes in \n1790. Similar inventions are ascribed to Duncan \n(1804) ; Adams and Dodge (American, 1818) ; \nThimonnier (French, 1834); and Walter Himt \n(1834). The first really practical sewing-machine \nwas the invention of Elias Howe, an American \nmechanic, of Cambridge, in Massachusetts, about \n1841, who died at Brooklyn, 2 Oct. 1867, aged 47. \nIt is now known under an improved form as \nThomas\'s shuttle machine, by whom it was intro- \nduced into England in 1846. Many improvements \nhave been since made and new machines invented. \n\nSEXAGESIMA SUNDAY, see Quadra- \ngesima Sunday, and Week. \n\nSEXTANT, an instrument used like a quadrant, \ncontaining sixty degrees, or the sixth part of a \ncircle, invented by Tycho Brahe, at Augsburg, in \n1550. The Arabian astronomers are said to have \nhad a sextant of fifty-nine feet nine inches radius, \nabout 995. \n\nSEYCHELLES ISLES. (Indian Ocean), \nsettled by the French about 1 768 ; captured by the \nBritish, 1794; ceded to them, 1815. \n\nSFAXEES, see Tunis. \n\nSHADOWING, a term applied in Ireland to \n\nthe practice of the police, closely following persons \nsuspected of boycotting, or intimidating persons \nopposed to the National League, 1889-91. \n\nSHAFTESBUEY S ACT,. Lord, 18 & 19 \nVict. c. 86 (1855), relates to religious worship. \n\nSHAFTESBUEY MEMOEIALS, relating \nto the earl of Shaftesbury, celebrated for his life- \nlong exertions to ameliorate the condition of the \nworking classes, the poor and destitute, women and \nchildren. He died I Oct. 1885, aged 84. A large \nsum was subscribed for two statues and a national \nconvalescent home, Oct. 1885. A statue uncovered \nin Westminster Abbey by the baroness Burdett- \nCoutts, I Oct. 1888. A memorial fountain by Alfred \nGilbert is to be set up in Piccadilly circus (Aug., \n1892). \xe2\x96\xa0 \n\n* The utilization of disinfected sewage as manure is now \nmuch advocated. Great success is said 1o have been \nattained at Edinburgh, Carlisle, Croydon, and other \nplaces. Much hot controversy has arisen respect ing 1 his \ndisposal of the London sewage. On 15 Nov. 1864, the \nMetropolitan board accepted a contract for its disposal \nfrom Messrs. Hope and Napier. Sewage 1 tilisation acts \nwere passed in 1865 and 1867, and the Metropolitan \nSewage and Essex Reclamation acts were passed in June, \n1865. The sewage farm, near Barking, Essex, was re- \nported to be nourishing in 186! \xe2\x96\xa0 od : rass and emu \ncrops raised. \n\n\n\nSHAFTESBURY PAEK ESTATE. 876 \n\n\n\nSHEEP. \n\n\n\nSHAFTESBURY PARK ESTATE, near \n\n"Wandsworth, London, S.W., a model village, and \ntermed " a workman\'s city ; " built here for clerks, \nartizans, and labourers, by a company, was opened \nby the earl of Shaftesbury, 3 Nov. 1873, and 18 \nJuly, 1874. \n\nSHAKERS, an English sect, now chiefly found \nin America, arose in the time of Charles!., and \nderived its name from their voluntary convulsion. \nIt existed for a short time onty, but was revived by \nJames Wardley in 1747, and still more by Ann Lee \n(or Standless), expelled quakers, about 1757. The \nsect emigrated to America, May, 1772, and settled \nnear _ Albany, New York, 1774. They denounce \nmarriage as sinful, regard celibacy as holy, oppose \nwar, disown baptism and the Lord\'s Supper, and \nuse dancing as part of their worship. Marsden. \nOne of their elders, Fred. W. Evans, lectured in \nLondon, Aug. 1871. \n\nAbove a hundred of them settled in the New Forest, \nnear Lymington, Hampshire, on property obtained for \nthem by a Miss Wood ; not paying the interest of \na mortgage they were ejected in severe weather, and \nsuffered much ; end of Dec. 1874. They are called \nGirlingites, from Mrs. Girling, a leader among them, \nwho died 18 Sept. 1886. The community then \ngradually dispersed. \nGoods seized for debt, about 27 July ; expelled, 22 Aug. ; \npermitted to remain in the neighbourhood, Oct. 1878. \nMiss Wood was confined as a lunatic, 27 Feb. 1875. \n\xe2\x96\xa020 men and 40 women half-starved in the New Forest ; \nwill not work for hire, Jan. 1884. \n\nSHAKSPEARE\'S PLAYS. WilliamShak- \n\nspeare was born at Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwick- \nshire, (23) April, 1564, and died 23 April, 1616. [An \nact to incorporate the Trustees and Guardians of \nShakspeare\'s birthplace was passed 26 March, 1891.] \nThe first collected edition of his works is dated 1623 \n[a facsimile of this edition was published, 1862-5] ; \nthe second, 1632;* the third, 1664; the fourth, \n[685 ; all in folio. Critical editions of the text, \nedited by Alexander Dyce, were published in 1857 \nand 1864-6 ; Boydell\'s edition, with numerous \nplates, was published in nine vols., folio, in 1802. \nAyscough\'s Index to Shakspeare was published in \n1790; Twiss\'s Index, in 1805, and Mrs. Cowden \nClarke\'s Concordance, 1847 ; " Key to Shakspeare," \n1879 > Shakspeare-Lexicon, by Alexander Schmidt, \nI874-5- \n\nShakspeare\'s first plays were probably produced about \n1590, and soon after represented, himself frequently \ntaking a part at the "Theatre," or the "Curtain," \nnear Shoreditch, E. London, and after 1594, at the \nnew " Globe" theatre, Bankside, Southwark, of which \nShakspeare himself was part proprietor. It was of a \nhorse-shoe form, partly covered with thatch. After it \nwas licensed, the thatch took fire, through the negligent \ndischarge of a piece of ordnance, and the whole build- \ning was consumed, 29 June, 1613. The house was \ncrowded to excess, to witness the play of Henry VIII. , \nbut the audience escaped unhurt. \nShakspeare\'s Jubilee, projected by David Garrick, \nwas celebrated at Stratford-upon-Avon, 6-8 Sept. 1769. \nA similar festival was kept 23 April, 1836. The tercen- \ntenary of Shakspeare\'s birth was celebrated, with \nmany festivities, at Stratford-upon-Avon, 23-29 April, \n1864. \nShakspeare\'s House. In 1847, a number of persons of \n\n* In 1849, Mr. J. P. Collier, editor of an edition of \nShakspeare, purchased a copy of the second folio, on \nwhich was written in pencil, a number of corrections, \nsupposed to have been made soon after the time of pub- \nlication. At first he thought little of these marks ; but \nin 1853 he was induced to publish " Notes and Emenda- \ntions " derived from this volume. Much controversy \nensued as to the authenticity of these corrections ; and \nin 1859 it was generally agreed that they were of modern \ndate, and consequently of little value. Mr. Collier died \naged 94, 17 Sept. 1883. \n\n\n\ndistinction interested themselves for the preservation \nof the house in which Shakspeare was born, then \nactually put up for sale : they held a meeting at the \nThatchecl-House tavern, London, 26 Aug. in that year, \nand took measures for promoting a subscription set on \nfoot by the Shakspearian Club at Stratford-upon-Avon ; \nand a committee was appointed to carry out their \nobject. In the eud Shakspeare\'s house was sold at \nthe Auction Mart in the city of London, where it was \n" knocked down " to the United Committee of London \nand Stratford for the large sum of 3000Z. 16 Sept. 1847. \nIn 1856, a learned oriental scholar, John Shakspeare \n(no relation of the poet), gave 2500?. to purchase the \nadjoining house, that it might be pulled down, in \norder to ensure the poet\'s house from the risk of \nfire. \n\nShakspeare Fund, established in Oct. 1861, to pur- \nchase Shakspeare\'s garden, birth-place estate, and to \nerect and endow a public library and museum at \nStratford-upon-Avon. The catalogue of the library and \nmuseum was published, Feb. 1868. \n\nShakspeare Memorial Association established 1875 ; \neleventh annual meeting at Stratford-upon-Avon 28 \nApril, t8S6. A monument surmounted by a statue of \nShakspeare, including statues of Shakspearian charac- \nters, executed by lord Ronald Gower, presented by him \nto the association, set up at Stratford-upon-Avon, \nunveiled by lady Hodgson (the mayoress) 10 Oct. 1888. \n\nBronze statue of Shakspeare (presented by Mr. William \nKnighton) erected in the boulevard Haussmann, \nParis, unveiled 14 Oct. 1888. \n\nThe lion. Ignatius Donnelly, an American, reports his \ndiscovery of a cryptogram of Francis Bacon in the \ntext of one of the plays in the folio of 1623, and \nthereon asserts his belief that Bacon was the author \nof the Shakspeare plays, autumn 1887. His book \nentitled "The Great Cryptogram: Francis Bacon\'s \ncipher in the so-called Shakspeare Plays " was \npublished in 1888. \n\nThe Shakspeare Library, at Birmingham, was founded \nin 1864, and formally opened, 23 April, 1868 ; burnt 11 \nJan. 1879. \n\nShakspeare Forgeries, see Ireland. \n\nShakspeare Gallery, see Boydell. \n\nShakspeare Memorial Theatre, Stratford (capable of \nholding 800) ; foundation laid by lord Leigh, 23 April, \n1877 ; opened with ceremonies, 23 April 1879. \n\nShakspeare Society, issued 20 volumes, 1841-53. \n\nNew Shakspeare Society issues works, 1874, et SC Q- \n\nShakspearian Show at the Royal Albert Hall, 30 May, \n1884. \n\nHalliwell-Phillipps " Shakspearean Rarities " (por- \ntraits, personal relics, books, &e.), offered for sale, \nJan. 1890. \n\nSHAMROCK. It is said that the shamrock \nused by the Irish was adopted by Patrick \nM\' Alpine, since called St. Patrick, as a simile of the \nTrinity, about 432. \n\nSHANGHAI, or SHANGHAE (China), \ncaptured by the British, 19 June, 1842 ; by the Tae- \nping rebels, 7 Sept. 1853 ; retaken by the imperial- \nists, 1855. The rebels were defeated near Shanghai \nby the English and French, allies of the emperor, 1 \nMarch, 1862. Population, 1890, about 380,000; see \nChina. \nVisit of the duke and duchess of Connaught ; he \n\nunveils a statue of sir H. Parkes, . 9 April, 1890 \n\nSHARPSBURG (Maryland), see Antietam. \n\nSHAWLS, of oriental origin, were introduced \ninto Paris after the return of Napoleon Bonaparte \nfrom Egypt, 1801. The manufacture was intro- \nduced by Barrow and Watson, in 1784, at Norwich. \nIt began at Paisley and Edinburgh about 1805. \nUre. \n\nSHEEP were exported from England to Spam, \nand, the breed being thereby improved, produced \nthe fine Spanish wool, which proved detrimental to \nour woollen manufacture, 1467. Anderson. Their \nexportation was prohibited on pain of fine and im \xe2\x80\xa2 \nprisonment, 1522. The number of sheep in the \nUnited Kingdom has been variously stated \xe2\x80\x94 by some \n\n\n\nSHEEPSHANKS\' DONATIONS. \n\n\n\n877 \n\n\n\nSHERIFF. \n\n\n\nat 43,000,000, by others at 49,000,000, and by more \nat 00,000,000, in 1840. In 1851 there were imported \ninto England 201,859 sheep and lambs; in 1858, \n184,482; in 1864,496,243. See under Cattle. In Aug. \nand Sept. 1862, many sheep in Wiltshire died of \nsmallpox ; and on Sept. II, government declared for \nenforcing the act for the prevention of contagion. \nThe evil soon abated. In April, 1866, the disease \nreappeared and the regulations were re-issued. \nMortality amongst sheep through flukes, &c., April, 1880 \nIn 1865, 914,170 sheep and lambs were imported ; \n\nin 1868, 341,155 ; in 1871, 916,799 ; 1874, 758,915 ; \n\n1875, 985,652 ; 1876, 1,041,329 ; 1877, 874,055 ; 1878, \n\n892,125 ; 1879, 944,888 : \n\n935,144 ; 1882, 1,124,391 \n\n\n\n750,880 ; 1007, 97 i j4\xc2\xb04i \n677.958; 1890, 358,458. \nBritain, see under Cottle. \n\n\n\n1S80, 941,121 , 1881, \n1883, 1,116,115 ; 1885, \n1888, 956,210 ; 1889, \nFor number in Great \n\n\n\nSHEEPSHANKS* DONATIONS. On 2 \n\nFeb. 1857, Mr. John Sheepshanks, by a deed of gift, \npresented to the nation his valuable collection of \npaintings and drawings, valued at 6o,000\xc2\xa3. In ac- \ncordance with the donor\'s directions, the pictures \nwere placed in the South Kensington Museum. The \ncollection is rich in the works of Mulready, Land- \nseer, and Leslie. He died 5 Oct. 1863. \xe2\x80\x94 On 2 Dec. \n1858, the trustees of his brother, the late rev. \nRichard Sheepshanks, presented 10,000^. stock to \nTrinity college, Cambridge, for the promotion of \nthe study of astronomy, meteorology, and mag- \nnetism. \n\nSHEEENESS (N. Kent), a royal dockyard, \nplanned by Charles II. in 1663, was taken by \nthe Dutch, under De lluyter, 9 June, 1667. Im- \nproved since 1815 ; new fortifications still in pro- \ngress. Population, 1881, 14,286; 1891, 13,281. \nThe old dock church burned ; 3 persons killed, \n\n26 Nov. 1881 \n\nSHEFFIELD, on the river Sheaf, "West \nRiding, Yorkshire ; renowned for cutlery, plated \ngoods, &c. Sheffield thwytles are mentioned by \nChaucer, in the time of Edward III. Sheffield in \nthe time of the Conqueror was obtained by Roger de \nBuisli, and has since been held by the Lovetots, \nNevils, Talbots, and Howards. See Population. \nSt. Peter\'s church built temp. Henry I. \nHospital and almshouses erected by the earl of \n\nMalmesbury 1616 \n\nCutlers\' company incorporated .... 1624 \nThe castle (built in the 13th century) was taken by \nthe parliamentarians in 1644, and demolished . 1648 \n\nCutlers\' hall built 1726 \n\nPlate assay office established 1773 \n\nMade a borough by the Reform act .... 1832 \n\nWesley college opened 1838 \n\nSheffield and Manchester railway opened . . 1845 \nAthenreum and Mechanics\' Institution opened . . 1849 \nJohn A. Roebuck (grandson of Dr. Roebuck of \n\nSheffield), M. P. for Sheffield . . May, 1849-68 \nEmbankment of the Bradlield water reservoir broke \ndown, and flooded Sheffield and the country 12 or \n14 miles round ; about 250 lives were lost ; many \nbuildings and much property destroyed ; esti- \nmated loss, 327,000/. . . . 11 March, 1864 \n52,751?. collected for the sufferers by . 29 April, ,, \nThe Surrey music hall burnt . . 25 March, 1865 \nHouse of Feamehough, a non-unionist saw-grinder, \nblown up, attributed to unionists (no deaths), \n\n8 Oct. 1866 \nGreat excitement ; meetings held ; subscriptions \nmade ; a Sheffield manufacturers\' protection \nsociety formed ; and rewards offered, 12 Oct, &C. 1866 \nA commission (headed by Mr. Overend) to enquire \n\ninto trade outrages met . . 3 June-8 July, 1867 \n[Several murders and outrages (including the above) \nconfessed to by Crookes, Hallam, and others, \ninstigated and paid by Wm, Broadhcad, secretary \nto the saw-grinders\' union ; indemnity granted.] \n\n\n\nA meeting of workmen expresses abhorrence, 8 July, 1867 \nMr. Roebuck loses his election (through opposing \n\nrattening) Nov. 1868 \n\nGreat loss of life and property by storm of wind \n\n16 Dee. 1873 \nMr. Roebuck re-elected M.P. . . . Feb. 1874 \nFive board schools opened by the abp. of York, \n\nMr. Roebuck, Mr. Forster, and others, 18 Aug. ,, \nPrince and princess of Wales open Firth park, the \ngift of Mark Filth, the mayor; most enthusiasti- \ncally received 16 Aug. 1875 \n\nPublic museum and hall opened . . 6 Sept. ,, \nEighteenth Church Congress held here, 1-4 Oct. 1878 \nGreat distress through stoppage of work, winter, 1878-9 \nInstitution for the blind, endowed by Mr. Daniel \n\nHoly ; opened 24 Sept. 1879 \n\nFirth College, built by Mr. Mark Firth, for 20,000?. ; \nendowed by the town ; inaugurated by prince \n\nLeopold 20 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDeath of Mr. Roebuck, M.P. for Sheffield, 30 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBuskin Museum of Art, &c. founded by Mr. John \n\nRuskin, by gifts of historical sculpture, paintings, \n\nbooks, &c, 1881 ; lent to the corporation for 20 \n\nyears ; removed from Walkley to Meersbrook hall ; \n\nre-opened April, 1890 \n\nNew corn exchange, built by the duke of Norfolk, \n\ncost 55,000?., opened .... 13 Dec. ,, \nRuskin Society formed .... Feb. 1882 \n\nGreat conservative demonstration (marquis of Salis- \nbury and others) .... 22 July, 1884 \nReturns five M.P\'s. by act passed . 25 June, 1885 \nTechnical school opened . . . . 1 Feb. i386 \nExplosion at Don steel works, Brightside, while \n\ncasting a gun ; 9 killed ... 6 Sept. 1887 \nSevere epidemic of small pox March 1887, -April, 1888 \nThe 266th annual Cutlers\' feast . . 5 Sept. 1889 \nNew municipal buildings founded . . 9 Oct. 1891 \n\nSHELBURNE ADMINISTRATION, \n\nformed at the death of the marquis of Rockingham, \n\nJuly, 1782; terminated April, 1783; the " Coali- \ntion" administration followed. \n\nThe earl of Shelbume* (afterwards marquis of Lans- \ndowne), first lord of the treasury. \n\nWilliam Pitt, chancellor of the exchequer. \n\nLord (afterwards earl) Camden, president of the council. \n\nDuke of Grafton, privy seal. \n\nThomas, lord Grantham, and Thomas Townshend (after- \nwards lord Sydney), secretaries. \n\nViscount Keppel, admiralty. \n\nDuke of Richmond, ordnance. \n\nLord Thurlow, lord chancellor. \n\nHenry Dundas, Isaac Barre, sir George Yonge, &c. \n\nSHELLEY SOCIETY, founded by Dr. F. \nJ. Furnivall, and Messrs. H. Sweet, W. M. Rossetti, \nTodhunter, and others, 1885. In July, 1892, it was \nproposed by lord Tennyson and others, to celebrate \nthe centenary of the birth of Shelley, by establish- \ning a library and museum at Horsham, Sussex, \nnear which place he was bom. A mural tablet \ncommemorating his birth, 4 Aug., 1792, and \nhis death, 8 July, 1822, was set up publicly in the \nparish church 4 Aug., 1892. \n\nSHELLS, see Bombs. \n\nSHERIFF, or shire-reeve, governor of a shire \nor county. London had its sheriffs prior to \n"William I.\'s reign; but some say that sheriffs were \nfirst nominated for every county in England by \nWilliam in 1079. According to\' other historians, \nHenry Comhill and Richard Rcyncre were the first \nsheriffs of London, 1 Rich. I., 1189. The nomina- \ntion of sheriffs, according to the present mode, took \nplace in 1461. Stow. Anciently sheriffs were \nhereditary in Scotland, and in some English coun- \nties, as Westmoreland. The sheriffs of Dublin (first \ncalled bailiffs) were appointed in 1308, and obtained \nthe name of sheriff by an incorporation of Edward \nVI. 1548. Thirty-five sheriffs were fined, and \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 William Petty, earl of Shelbume, born 1737 ; secre- \ntary of state under lord Chatham, July, 1766; premier, \n1782-3 ; created first marquis of Lansdowne, 1784 ; died, \n7 May, 1805. \n\n\n\nSHERIFFMUIR. \n\n\n\n878 \n\n\n\nSHIPPING. \n\n\n\neleven excused in one year, rather than serve the \noffice for London, 1 734 ; see Bailiffs. The high \nsheriffs of the counties of England and Wales, ex- \ncept Middlesex and Lancaster, are nominated on the \nmorrow of St. Martin, Nov. 12. This somewhat \nvice-regal office, of Saxon origin, has gradually \nlost much of its importance. \nThe sheriffs\' act passed 1887 \n\nSHERIFFMUIR, see Dumblane. \n\nSHERIFF\'S FUND, see Prisons. \n\nSHETLAND ISLES, see Orkneys. \n\nSHIBBOLETH, the word by which the fol- \nlowers of Jephthah tested their opponents the \nEphraimites, on passing the Jordan, about 1 143 \nB.C. Judges xii. The term is now applied to any \nparty watchword or dogma. \n\nSHIITES, the Mahometan sect predominating \nin Persia ; see Mahometanism. \n\nSHILLING. The value of the ancient Saxon \ncoin of this name was fivepence, but it was reduced \nto fourpence about a century before the conquest. \nAfter the conquest the French solidus of twelve \npence, in use among the Normans, was called \nshilling. The true English shilling was first corned, \nsome say, in small numbers, by Henry VII., 1504. \nEnding. A peculiar shilling, value nine pence, but \nto be current at twelve, was struck in Ireland, \n1560 ; and a large but very base coinage in England \nfor the service of Ireland, 1598. Milled shillings \nwere coined 13 Chas. II. 1662 ; see Coins. \n\nSHILOH, see Pittsburg. \n\nSHIP -BUILDING, &c, according to the \nGreek legends, began with the Egyptians, and \nancient drawings of their rude vessels are extant. \nThe Greeks, Phoenecians, and Carthaginians were \nskilful shipbuilders, and Solomon\'s "navy of ships " \n(1 Kings ix. 26), was doubtless! constructed by \nTyrians, 992 B.C. The ships of Tarshish (probably \nin Spain), are mentioned in Psalm xlviii. 7, \nIsaiah ii. 16, &c. The Romans built their first \nfleet of boats, by copying a Carthaginian vessel \nwrecked on their coast, 260 B.C. The dangers of \nnavigation are described in Psalm cvii. 23-30, and \nActs xxvii. Strong vessels were constructed by \nthe Norsemen for invasion and piracy in the 5th \ncentury, a.d. et seq., and by the Venetians and other \nItalians, for commerce and war in the Middle Ages. \nThe first double-decked ship built in England was of \nIOOO tons burthen, by order of Henry VII., was \ncalled the Great Harry, and cost 14,000/. Stow. \nPort-holes and other improvements were invented \nby Descharges, a French builder at Brest, in the \nreign of Louis XII., about 1500. Ship-building \nwas treated as a science by Hoste, 1696. Iron and \nsteel are now greatly used in ship-building. \n\nA prehistoric ship cut out of solid oak, 48 feet \nlong, 4 feet 4 inches wide, and 2 feet deep, was \nfound by the Brigg gas company while excavating \nnear the river Ancholme in Lincolnshire, April, \n1885. Mr. Justice Chitty decided 6 July, 1886, \nthat the ship was the property of the owner of \nthe land, Mr. Elwes. \n\nThe France, a great sailing ship, was built on the \nClyde by Messrs. Henderson for a Bordeaux firm ; \nfive masts, 360 feet long, 48 feet wide, bowsprit \n50 feet long ; carrying power over 6,000 tons \n\nSept. 1890 \n\nShips, originally made of wood, and latterly of \niron, are now frequently made of steel. \n\nSee Navy, Steam, Carraeh, &c. \n\n\n\nSHIPKA, see Schipka. \n\nSHIP-MONEY was first levied about 1007, to \nform a navy to oppose the Danes. This impost, \nlevied by Charles I. in 1634-6, was much opposed, \nand led to the revolution. He assessed London in \nseven ships, of 4000 tons, and 1560 men; York- \nshire in two ships, of 600 tons or 12,000/.; Bristol \nin one ship of 100 tons ; Lancashire in one ship, of \n400 tons. Among others, John Hampden refused \nto pay the tax ; he was tried in the Exchequer in \n\n1636. The judges declared the tax legal, 12 June, \n\n1637. Ship-money was included in the grievances \ncomplained of in 1641. The five judges, who had \ngiven an opinion in its favour, were imprisoned. \nHampden received a wound in a skirmish with \nprince Rupert, at Chalgrove, 18 June, and died \n24 June, 1643. \n\nSHIPPING, British. Shipping was first \n\nregistered in the river Thames in 1786; and \nthroughout the empire in 1787. In the middle of \nthe 18th century, the shipping of England was but \nhalf-a-million of tons \xe2\x80\x94 less than London now. In \n1830, the number of ships in the British empire \nwas 22,785. The merchant shipping act of 1854 \nwas amended in 1867 ; see Merchant Shipping \nAct, Navy, and Navigation Acts. \n\nShipwrights\' Company International Exhibition, \nopened at Fishmongers\' Hall, London, by the \nduke of Edinburgh .... 2 May, 1882 \n\nCluimber of Shipping of the United Kingdom was \nestablished in 1878, mainly by H. J. Atkinson, \nM.P., the first president. Meetings are held for \ndiscussing matters relative to shipping and to dis- \nseminate information. It holds annual meetings ; \n1878, Hull ; 1879, Liverpool ; 1880, London ; \n1881, Cardiff; 1882, London; 1883, Sunderland; \n1884, London ; 1885, Belfast ; 1886, London ; \n1887, Newcastle-on-Tyne ; London : 1888, 1889, \n1890(13 Feb.), 1891 (20 Feb.), 1892 (10 Feb.). The \nchamber has an office in London. \n\nThe National Seamen\'s and Firemen\'s Union estab- \nlished 1889 \n\nFederation of shipowners of the United Kingdom, \nestablished to resist strikes and maintain free \nlabour, Sept. ; joined by the London Association \nof shipowners, Nov. 1890 ; and by those of Liver- \npool Feb. 1S91 \n\nBoycotting of free labour in the docks of London \nstopped by the Shipping Federation, Dee. 1890 \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nFeb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCardiff : strike of the shipping trades ; conflicts \nbetween the Shipping Federation and the Sea- \nmen\'s Union ; the latter defeated, Feb. ; rioters \npunished ; strike ends ... 14 March, 1831 \n\nThe crisis on the Thames ends ; work resumed \n\nMarch, ,, \n\nThe Shipping Federation proposes a scheme for the \ninsurance of the lives of its sailors and firemen \nagainst death by accident, about 14 April ; the \nscheme adopted, May, 1891 ; carried into effect \n\n1 Jan. 1892 \n\nNUMBER OF VESSELS REGISTERED IN THE BRITISH \nEMPIRE ON JAN. I, 1840. \n\nCountry. Vessels. Tonnage. Seamen. \n\nEngland .... 15,830 1,983,522 114,593 \n\nScotland . . . . 3,318 378,194 25,909 \n\nIreland .... 1,889 169,289 11,288 \nGuernsey, Jersey, and \n\nMan . . . . 633 39.630 4,473 \n\nBritish Plantations . 6,075 497>798 35,020 \n\n\n\nTotal \n\n\n\n27>74S \n\n\n\n191, 2S3 \n\n\n\nThe following are the numbers of the Registered \nSailing and Steam Vessels (exclusive of River \nSteamers) of the United Kingdom, engaged in the \nhome and foreign trade : \xe2\x80\x94 \n\n\n\nSHIP-RAILWAY. \n\n\n\n879 \n\n\n\nSHREWSBURY. \n\n\n\n1849. \n\n\n1 \n\n1861. \n\n\n1871. \n\n\n1877. \n\n\ni f \n1887. \n\n\n\n\nVessels* \n\n\nTonnage. \n\n\nVessels t \n\n\nTonnage. ! \n\n\nVessels t \n\n\nTonnage. \n\n\nVessels \xc2\xa7 Tonnage. \n\n\ni \n\nVessels|| Tonnage. \n\n12,694 3,"4,43\xc2\xb0 \n5,029 | 4,009,324 \n\n\nSailing . \nSteamers. \n\nTotal . \n\n\n17,807 \n414 \n\n\n2,988,021 \n108,321 \n\n\n19,288 \n997 \n\n\n3,918,511 \n441,184 \n\n\n19,650 \n2,557 \n\n\n4.343,558 \n1,290,003 \n\n\n17,101 \n3,218 \n\n\n4,138,149 \n\n!, 977,489 \n\n\n18,221 \n\n\n3,096,342 \n\n\n20,285 \n\n\n4.359. 6 95 \n\n\n22,207 \n\n\n5.633.5 61 \n\n\n20,319 \n\n\n6,115,638 \n\n\ni7,7 2 3 7.123,754 \n\n\n\n1890: Sailing vessels, 11,570; Steamers, 5,855; men employed, 236,108. \n\n\n\nSHIP-RAILWAY, see Railways, Oct. 1889. \n\nSHIPWRECKS, see Wrecks. \n\nSHIRES, see Counties and under Horse. \n\nSHIRTS are said to have been first generally \nworn in the west of Europe earl y in the 8th century. \nDu Fresnoy. Woollen shirts were commonly worn \nin England until about 1253, when linen, but of a \ncoarse kind (fine coming at this period from abroad), \nwas first manufactured in England by Flemish \nartisans. Stow. \n\nSHODDY, a kind of soft woollen goods, manu- \nfactured from old woollen rags, or the refuse, to \nwhich new wool is added, is stated to have been first \nmanufactured about 1813, at Batley, near Dews- \nbur y, Yorkshire. \n\nSHOEBLACK SOCIETY Brigades (Blue, \nRed, and Yellow) were established at various times, \nespecially in 1851, by the Ragged School Union \n{which see), founded 1844. In 1855, 108 boys had \ncleaned 544,800 pahs of boots and shoes, and thus \nearned 2270/. ; of which 1235/. had been paid to the \nboys, 519^. to their bank, and 516/. to the society. \nThe brigades earned 4548/. in 1859; 11,031/. in \n1871; 10,936/. (in nine districts) in 1886. There \nwere eleven shoeblack societies in the metropolis in \n1888. \n\nSHOEBURYNESS (Essex). Some ground \nhere, purchased in 1842 and 1855, by an act of par- \nliament in 1862 was set apart as "ranges for the use \nand practice of artillery," and a school for gunnery \nwas established; see Cannon, note. Experiments \nwith Mr. Whitworth\'s projectiles on 12 Nov. 1862, \nshowed their great improvement in form and mate- \nrial. Shells were sent through 5! inch plate and \nthe wood-work behind it. It was objected, that \nthey might not do this with ships in motion. The \nNational Volunteer Artillery Association began \ntheir annual meetings here in July, 1865. \nDuring shell experiments with a new sensitive fuse, col. \n\nFrancis Lyon (the inventor), col. Fox-Strangways, \n\ncapt. Francis M. Goold- Adams, and four others were \n\nkilled, 26 Feb. 1885. \n\nSHOES, among the Jews were made of leather, \nlinen, rush, or wood. Moons were worn as orna- \nments in their shoes by Jewish women. Isaiah iii. \n18. Pythagoras would have his disciples wear shoes \nmade of the bark of trees ; probably that they might \nnot wear what were made of the skins of animals, as \nthey refrained from the use of everything that had \nlife. The Romans wore an ivory crescent on their \nshoes; and Caligula enriched his with precious \nstones. In England, about 1462, the people wore \nthe beaks or points of their shoes so long that they \nencumbered themselves in walking, and were forced \n\n\n\nto tie them up to their knees; the fine gentlemen \nfastened theirs with chains of silver or silver gilt, \nand others with laces. This was prohibited, on the \nforfeiture of 20s. and on pain of being cursed by the \nclergy, 7 Edw. IV. 1467 ; see Dress. Shoes, as at \npresent worn, were introduced about 1633. The \nbuckle was not used till 1668. Stoiv ; Mortimer. \nThe buckle-makers petitioned against the use of \nshoe-strings in 1 791. A strike of London shoe- \nmakers respecting wages, April, 1884. \n\nSHOOTING STARS, see under Meteors. \n\nSHOP HOURS\' REGULATION ACT \n\n(Sir John Lubbock\'s), for the protection of young \npersons, passed, 1886. The Shop Hours\' bill passed \n1892. \n\nSHOP-TAX enacted in 1785; caused so great \na commotion, particularly in Loudon, that it was \ndeemed expedient to repeal it in 1789. The statute \nwhereby shoplifting was made a felony, without \nbenefit of clergy, was passed 10 & 1 1 Will III. 1699. \nThis statute has been some time repealed. \n\nSHORE, JANE, the mistress of Edward IV. \nand afterwards of lord Hastings. She did public \npenance in 1483, and was afterwards confined in \nLudgate; but upon the petition of Thomas Hyniore, \nwho agreed to marry her, king Richard III., in \n1484, restored her to liberty: and sir Thomas More \nmentions having seen her. Harleian MSS. \n\nSHORT-HAND, see Stenography. \n\n\' \' SHORT - LIVED " ADMINISTRA- \nTION\xe2\x80\x94 that of William Pulteney, earl of Bath, \nlord Carlisle, lord Winchilsea, and lord Granville, \nexisted from 10 Feb. to 12 Feb. 1746. \n\nSHOT. In early times various missiles were \nshot from cannon. Bolts are mentioned in 1413 ; \nand in 1418 Henry V. ordered Iris clerk of the ord- \nnance to get 7000 stone shot made at the quarries at \nMaidstone. Since then chain, grape, and canister \nshot have been invented, as well as shells , all of \nwhich are described in Scoffern\'s work on " Pro- \njectile Weapons of War, and Explosive Compounds," \n1858; see Bombs and Cannon. For Palliser\'s chilled \nshot, see Cannon. \n\nSHREWSBURY ADMINISTRATION. \n\nCharles, duke of Shrewsbury, was made lord trea- \nsurer, 29 July, 1 7 14, two days before the death of \nqueen Anne. His patent was revoked soon after the \naccession of George I., 29 Oct. following, when the \ncarl of Halifax became first lord of the treasury ; see \nHalifax. The office of lord treasurer has been exe- \ncuted by commissioners ever since. \n\nSHREWSBURY (Shropshire), arose after the \nruin of the Roman town Uriconium (see TFroxcter), \n\n\n\n* Men employed\xe2\x80\x94 sailing vessels, 144,165 ; steamers, 8,446; total, 152,611. \n\nu >> )> 11 I 44>949; ji 27,008; ,, 171,957. \n\n>> i! i) >. 141.035; \xe2\x80\x9e 58,703; 11 I99.738. \n\n\xc2\xa7 >> >> .. .. I2 3.563; .\xc2\xbb 72.999\'. .. 196,562. \n\nII \xc2\xbb >> u J. 81,442 ; ,, 121,101 ; ,, 202,543. \n\n\n\nSHEOPSHIEE. \n\n\n\n880 \n\n\n\nSICILY. \n\n\n\nand became one of the chief cities of the kingdom, \nhaving a mint till the reign of Henry III. Here \nEichard II. held a paiiiament in 1397. \xe2\x80\x94 On 23 July, \n1403, was fought a sanguinary ia^fe at Hateley field, \nnear Shrewsbury, between the army of Henry IV. \nand that of the nobles, led by Percy (surnamed \nHotspur), son of the earl of Northumberland, who \nhad conspired to dethrone Henry. Henry was seen \nin the thickest of the fight, with his son, afterwards \nHenry V. The death of Hotspur by an unknown \nhand gave the victory to the king. Hume. \xe2\x80\x94 Shrews- \nbury grammar school was founded by Edward VI. \nin 1551, endowed by Elizabeth, and opened 1562. \nIts arrangements were modified by the public school \nact, 1868. Population in 1881,26,481; 1891,26,962. \n\nSHEOPSHIEE ; by battles in this county the \nBritons were completely subjugated, and Caractacus, \nthe king of the Silures, became, through the \ntreachery of the queen of the Brigantes, a prisoner \nto the Komans, about 50. \n\nSHEOVE TUESDAY, the day before Ash- \nWednesday, the first day of the Lent Fast; see \nCarnival. \n\nSIAM, a kingdom in India, bordering on \nthe Burmese empire. Siam was governed by \ntwo kings, one inferior, till Jan. 1887, when \nthe second king being dead, the dignity was \nabolished. Siam was re-discovered by the \nPortuguese in 1511, and a trade established, in \nwhich the Dutch joined about 1604. A Biitish \nship arrived about 1613. In 1683, a Cephalonian \nGreek, Constantine Phaulcon, became foreign min- \nister of Siam, and opened a communication with \nFrance ; Louis XIV. sent an embassj - in 1685 with \na view of converting the king, without effect. After \nseveral ineffectual attempts, sir John Bowring suc- \nceeded in obtaining a treaty of friendship and com- \nmerce between England and Siam, which was \nsigned 30 April, 1855, and ratified 5 April, 1856. \nTwo ambassadors from Siam arrived in Oct. 1857, \nand had an audience with the queen ; they brought \nwith them magnificent presents, which they de- \nlivered crawling, on 16 Nov. Tbey visited Paris \nin June, 1861 . By a treaty with France, the French \nprotectorate over Cambodia was recognised ; signed \n15 July, ratified 24 Oct. 1867. The king Khoula- \nlonkorn, born 21 Sept. 1853, nas reigned since \n1 Oct. 1868; the king was entertained at Calcutta, \n7-12 Jan. 1872; a political constitution was decreed, \n8 May, 1874. Queen Victoria receives the order of \nthe White Elephant from the Siamese minister at \nWindsor, 2 July, 1880. Population of Siam (1891) \nabout 9,000,000. \nKing : Khoulalonkorn (born 21 Sept. 1853) : succeeded \n\nhis father Mongkout, 1 Oct. 1868. \nVarious changes and political reforms were begun by the \nking, 16 Nov. 1873. On 9 Oct., 1874, he invited astro- \nnomers to Bangkok to view the eclipse of 5 April, 1875. \nDeath of the able ex-regent Somdetch Chau, 19 Jan. \n\n1883. \nTelegraphic communication with France opened, 14 July, \n\n1883. \nGradual abolition of slavery nearly completed Aug. 1886. \nRebellion in N. Siam, headed by Phya Phraph Song \n\nKuam, Sept. 1889 ; revived, May, 1890. \nBritish boundary commission : complications, 1889-90. \nThe king and queen visit the Strait Settlements, May, \n\nJune, 1890. \nThe king turns the first sod for the Bangkok-Pankam \nrailway (other railways promoted), announced 16 July, \n1891. \nPrince Damrong, half-brother of the king, minister of \neducation (on a mission), arrives at Paris, 27 Aug. ; \ntravels in Great Britain ; received by the queen at \nBalmoral, 24 Sept. ; arrives at Berlin, 6 Nov. ; \nreceived by the Czar at Livadia, 15 Nov., ; by the \nsultan at Constantinople, 19 Nov. ; at Athens by the \n\n\n\nking, 28 Nov. ; at Rome by the king, 3 Dee. ; by the \nkhedive at Cairo, 24 Dec. 1891 ; at Bombay, 11 Jan. ; \nat Rangoon, 12 March, 1392. \nSiamese Twins. Two persons born about 1811, enjoy- \ning all the faculties and powers usually possessed by \nseparate and distinct individuals, although united to- \ngether by a short cartilaginous band at the pit of the \nstomach. They were named Chang and Eng, and were \nfirst discovered on the banks of the Siam river by an \nAmerican, Mr. Robert Hunter, by whom they were \ntaken to New York, where they were exhibited. Cap- \ntain Coffin brought them to England. After having \nbeen exhibited for several years in Britain, they went \nto America, where they settled on a farm, and mar- \nried two sisters. In 1865 they were in North Carolina \nin declining health. Their exhibition in London \nbegan again 8 Feb. 1869. Their death in America, \nwithin two hours of each other, took place 16, 17 Jan. \n1874. \n\nSIBEEIA (N.Asia). In 1580 the conquest was \nbegun by the Cossacks under JermakTimofejew. In \n1 7 10 Peter the Great began to send prisoners thither. \nAn insurrection broke out among th e Poles in Siberia \nin June, 1866, and was soon suppressed. Univer- \nsity founded, 1886. Population in 1885, 4,313,680. \nSince 1863 efforts have been made to open up a sea route \nto central Siberia, especially by capt. Wiggins and his \nfriends, 1874, et seq. In 1890 two vessels from London \nreached Karaoul on the Yenessei, stayed there 19 days, \nand returned in October. \nThe construction of a railway to Siberia, in ten years, \n\nwas authorised, Feb. 1890. \nA party of about 30 political exiles, including women \nand children, at Yakutsk, N.E. Siberia, were sus- \npected of mutiny, very severely treated, and some \npersons were killed, 4 April. The exiles were tried by \ncourt-martial in May, and all were convicted, 18 June. \nThree men were hanged, 20 Aug. 1889. The story \nprinted in the Times, 26 Dec. 1889, was at first contra- \ndicted and afterwards said to be exaggerated, March, \n1890. \n\nSIBYLS, Sibyllae, women believed to be in- \nspired, who flourished in different parts of the \nworld. Plato speaks of one, others of two, Pliny \nof three, iElian of four, and Varro of ten. An Ery- \nthrean sibyl is said to have offered to Tarquin II. \nnine books containing the Eoman destinies, de- \nmanding for them 300 pieces of gold. He denied \nher ; whereupon the sibyl threw three of them into \nthe fire, and asked the same price for the other \nsix, which being still denied, she burnt three more, \nand again demanded the same sum for those that \nremained , when Tarquin conferring with the pon- \ntiffs was advised to buy them. Two magistrates \nwere created to consult them on all occasions, 531 \nB.C. ; see Quindecemvirs. \n\nSICILIAN VESPEES, the term given to the \nmassacre of the French (who had conquered Sicily, \n1266), commenced at Palermo, 30 March, 1282. \nOn Easter Monday conspirators assembled at Palermo ; \nand while the French were engaged in festivities, a \nSicilian bride passed by with her train. One Drochet, \na Frenchman, used her rudely, under pretence of \nsearching for arms. A young Sicilian stabbed him \nwith his own sword ; and a tumult ensuing, 200 French \nwere instantly murdered. The populace ran through \nthe city, crying out, " Let the French die !" and, with- \nout distinction of rank, age, or sex, slaughtered all of \nthat nation they could find, to the number of about \n8000. Even the churches proved no sanctuary, and \nthe massacre became general throughout the island. \n\nSICILY (anciently Trinacria, three-cornered). \nThe early inhabitants were the Sicani, or Siculi, a \npeople of Spain, andEtruscans, who came from Italy. \nThe Phoenicians and Greeks settled some colonies \nhere (735-582) ; see Syracuse. In modern times \nits government has frequently been united with \nand separated from that of Naples (ivhich see) ; the \ntwo now form part of the kingdom of Italy. Popu- \n\n\n\nSICILY. 881 \n\n\n\nSICILY. \n\n\n\nlution of Sicily in 1856,2,231,020; 1871, 2,565,323; \n1875, 2,698,672 ; 1887, S*^ 2 , 108 ; l8 9\xc2\xb0> 3, 28 5>47 2 - \nNaxos built, by the Greeks from Euboea, about . B.C. 735 \nSyracuse founded by Arcliias from Corinth . . 734 \nLeontini and other cities founded. . . 730 et seq. \nAgrigentum founded by a Dorian colony, 579 ; ruled \n\nby Phalaris (see Brazen Bull), about . . .563 \nGelon, tyrant of Gela, becomes supreme at Syra- \ncuse; the Carthaginians enter Sicily to found \ncolonies, but are severely defeated by Gelon, at \n\nHimera 4 8 \xc2\xb0 \n\nGelon succeeded by his brother Hiero . . . 478 \nSyracuse becomes predominant in Sicily . . 453 \n\nGreat Athenian expedition under Nicias, 315 ; de- \nfeated by the aid of Gylippus, the Lacedemonian 413 \nAn excellent code of laws established by Diodes . 412 \nDionysius the elder, able and ambitious, becomes \ncaptain-general at Syracuse, 406 ; subdues the \naristocracy, becomes tyrant, and gradually \nsupreme in Sicily, 405 ; makes successful war \nwith the Italian Greeks ; declares war against \n\nCarthage 397 \n\nSyracuse closely besieged by the Carthaginians ; \ntheir army is crippled by a pestilence ; their \nfleet destroyed by Dionysius , a treaty made . 395 \nWar renewed, 393 ; peace made .... 392 \nDionysius plants colonies in Italy, 387 ; dies ._ . 367 \nHis dissolute son, Dionysius II., succeeds him, \n367 ; receives Plato and other philosophers ; he \nis dethroned by Dion, his banished relative, who \n\nbecomes ruler 356 \n\nDion rules severely and becomes unpopular ; is \n\nassassinated by Calippus 353 \n\nDionysius II. (tyrant at Socri 10 years) recovers \nhis authority at Syracuse, 346 ; rules till his ex- \npulsion by Timoleon with a small Corinthian \narmy, and retires to Corinth .... 343 \n\nTimoleon restores the republic, deposes the other \nSicilian tyrants, and becomes supreme, 3436*865. ; \ntotally defeats the Carthaginians at the Crimis- \nsus, 339 ; rules Sicily till his death . . . . 337 \nAgathocles overthrows the republic with bloodshed, \nand becomes "autocrat," and afterwards king, \n317 ; defeated by the Carthaginians at the Himera, \n310 ; he invades Africa, gains victories over the \nCarthaginians, but is compelled to return to \n\nSicily by revolts, 307 ; dies 289 \n\nPolitical dissensions ; Pyrrhus, king of Epirns, \nenters Sicily, and defeats the Carthaginians, 278 ; \n\nretires 276 \n\nHiero II. made king of Syracuse, 270 ; makes war \n\nwith the Romans, is defeated, and makes peace . 263 \nThe first Punic war begins, see Cartilage . . . 264 \n\nHiero II. dies 216 \n\nHieronymus, his grandson succeeds, 216 ; renounces \n\nthe alliance with Rome ; and is assassinated . 214 \nThe Roman consul, Marcellus, invades Sicily, and \nbesieges Syracuse, which is vigorously defended \nby the aid of Archimedes, 214 ; it is taken, when \n\nArchimedes is slain 212 \n\nSicily becomes a Roman province . . . . 210 \nThe Servile wars ; much slaughter . . 135, 134, 132 \nTyrannical government of Verres (for which he was \n\naccused by Cicero) 73-71 \n\nSicily held by Sextus Pompeius, son of the great \nPompey, 42 ; defeated ; expelled, 36 ; killed . 35 \n\nInvaded by the Vandals, a.d. 440; by the Goths, \n493 ; taken for the Greek emperors by Belisarius, 1 \n\na.d. 536 \n\nConquered by the Saracens and held . . . 832-78 \n\nGreatly recovered by the Greek emperor by the aid \nof Normans 1038 \n\nThe Greeks and Arabs driven out by a Norman \nprince, Roger I., son of Tancred, 1058 ; who takes \nthe title of count of Sicily .... 1061-1090 \n\nRoger II., son of the above-named, unites Sicily \nwith Naples, and is crowned king of the Two \nSicilies 1131 \n\nCharles of Anjou, brother of St. Louis, king of \nFrance, conquers Naples and Sicily, deposes the \nNorman princes, and makes himself king . . 1266 \n\nThe French massacred (see Sicilian Vesper*) . . 1282 \n\nSicily seized by a fleet sent by the kings of Aragon ; \nNaples remains to the house of Anjou . . . ,, \n\nAlphonso, king of Aragon, takes possession of \nNaples 1435 \n\n\n\nThe kingdom of Naples and Sicily united to the \nSpanish monarchy under Ferdinand the Catholic 1501 \n\nVictor, duke of Savoy, by the treaty of Utrecht, \nmade king of Sicily 1713 \n\nWhich he gives up to the emperor Charles VI., and \nbecomes king of Sardinia 1720 \n\nCharles, son of the king of Spain, becomes king of \nthe Two Sicilies 1735 \n\nThe throne of Spain becoming vacant, Charles, who \nis heir, vacates the throne of the Two Sicilies, in \nfavour of his third son Ferdinand, agreeably to \ntreaty 1759 \n\nDreadful earthquake at Messina, in Sicily, which \ndestroys 40,000 persons 1783 \n\nThe French conquer Naples {which see); Ferdinand \nIV. retires to Sicily 1806 \n\nPolitical disturbances 1810 \n\nNew constitution granted, under British auspices . 1812 \n\nThe French expelled ; kingdom of Two Sicilies re- \nestablished ; Ferdinand returns to Naples ; abol- \nishes the constitution 1815 \n\nRevolution at Palermo suppressed .... 1820 \n\nThe great towns in Sicily rise and demand the con- \nstitution ; a provisional government proclaimed \n\n12 Jan. 1848 \n\nThe king nominates his brother, the count of Aquila, \nviceroy, 17 Jan.; promises a new constitution \n\n29 Jan. ,, \n\nThe Sicilian parliament decrees the exclusion of the \nBourbon family, 13 April; and invites the duke \nof Genoa to the throne . . . 11 Jul}\', ,, \n\nMessina bombarded and taken by the Neapolitans \n\n7 Sept. ,, \n\nCatania taken by assault, 6 April; Syracuse sur- \nrenders 23 April ; and Palermo . . 15 May, 1849 \n\nInsurrections suppressed at Palermo, Messina, and \nCatania, 4 April et seq. ; the rebels retire into the \ninterior . . . . 21 April et seq. i860 \n\nGaribaldi and his followers (2200 men) embark at \nGenoa, 5 May; and land at Marsala, n May; he \nabandons his ships ; and assumes the dictatorship \nin the name of the king of Sardinia 14 May, ,, \n\nHe defeats the royal troops at Calataflmi, 15 May; \nstorms Palermo, 27 May ; which is bombarded by \nthe royal fleet, 28 May ; an armistice agreed to \n\n31 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nA provisional government formed at Palermo, \n3 June ; which is evacuated by the Neapolitans \n\n6 June, ,, \n\nGaribaldi defeats the Neapolitans at Melazzo, \n\n20, 21 July, ,, \n\nConvention signed, by which the Neapolitans agree \nto evacuate Sicily (retaining the citadel of Mes- \nsina) 3\xc2\xb0 July. )\xc2\xbb \n\nNew Sicilian constitution proclaimed . 3 Aug. ,, \n\nGaribaldi embarks for Calabria (see Naples) \n\n19 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nProfessor Saffi (late of Oxford), a short time dic- \ntator Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Sicilians by universal suffrage vote for annexa- \ntion to Sardinia (432,054 against 667) 21 Oct. ,, \n\nVictor-Emmanuel visits Sicily . . .1 Dec. ,, \n\nCitadel of Messina blockaded, 28 Feb. ; surrenders \nto general Cialdini ... 13 March, 1861 \n\nKing Victor-Emmanuel warmlyreceived at Messina \n\nMay, 1862 \n\nImprudent speeches of Garibaldi at Marsala, 19 \nJuly ; he*enters Catania, and establishes a pro- \nvisional government, 19 Aug.; embarks for Italy \n\n24 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSicily placed under blockade; removed in Sept.; \ntranquil Oct. ,, \n\nInsurrection in Palermo, attributed to the priests \nand brigands, 16 Sept. ; suppressed with blood- \nshed by Italian troops . . . 21-26 Sept. 1866 \n\nRevival of brigandage and murder . . Aug. 1872, \n\nMartial law established in some places . Sept. 1874 \n\nAliano, a brigand, tried at Potenza, for numerous \nmurders, and other crimes . . . . Nov. ,, \n\nCapraro, great brigand, killed during capture \n\nabout 2 Oct. 1875 \n\nMr. Forester Rose carried off by brigands, 3 Nov. ; \nransomed for about 4000/. . . . Nov. 1876 \n\nLeone and other brigands surrounded and shot \n\n1 June, 1877 \n\nFive chief brigands surrender ; abatement of \nbrigandage announced . . . about 6 Nov. ,, \n\n3 L \n\n\n\nSICK CHILDEEN. \n\n\n\nSIEGES. \n\n\n\nSuccessful visit of the king and queen ; arrive at \n\nPalermo 4 Jan. 1880 \n\nExplosion in sulphur mine at Gessolungo, near \n\nCaltanissetta, about 30 killed . . 12 Nov. 1881 \nViolent cyclone in Catania,about 27 killed; 200,000^. \n\ndamage 7 Oct. 1884 \n\nGrand banquet to sig. Crispi, Italian premier, at \n\nPalermo 14 Oct. 1889 \n\nOpening of the Italian National Exhibition at \n\nPalermo (which see) .... 15 Nov. 1891 \n\nSICK CHILDEEN, Hospital pop, Great \n\nOrmond- street, London; established 1851. The \nprincess of Wales laid the foundation of new build- \nings, 11 July, 1872. A branch has been set up at \nHighgate. \n\n"SICK MAN," an epithet applied to Turkey, \nby the czar Nicholas, 14 Jan. 1854; see Jiusso- \nTurkish War, note. \n\nSICYON, an ancient Grecian kingdom in the \nPeloponnesus, founded, it is said, about 2080 B.C. \nIts people took part in the wars in Greece, usually \nsupporting Sparta. In 252 it became a republic \nand joined the Achsean league formed by Aratus. It \n\xe2\x80\xa2was the country of the sculptors Polycletes (436) \n\' and Lysippus (328 B.C.). \n\nSIDEEOSTAT (from sidus, Latin for a star), \n\n\n\nan apparatus constructed by M. Leon Foucault, \nshortly before his death, 11 Feb 1868, for observing \nthe light of the stars in precisely the same way in \nwhich the light of the sun may be studied in the \ncamera obscura. It consists of a mirror moved by \nclockwork, and a fixed objective glass for concen- \ntrating the rays into a focus. \n\nSIDON or ZlDON (Syria), a city of Phoenicia, \nto the north of Tyre. It was conquered by Cyrus \nabout 537 B.C. ; and surrendered to Alexander, 332 \nB.C. ; see Phoenicia. The town was taken from the \npacha of Egypt by the troops of the sultan and of \nhis allies, assisted by some ships of the British \nsquadron, under commodore Charles Napier, 27 Sept. \n1840 ; see Syria, and Turkey. \n\nSIEGES. Azoth, which was besieged by Psam - \nmetichus the Powerful, held out for nineteen years. \nUsher. It held out for twenty-nine years. Hero- \ndotus. This was the longest siege recorded in the \nannals of antiquity. The siege of Troy was the \nmost celebrated, and occupied ten j\'ears, 1 184 B.C. \nOther ancient sieges: Tyre, 572,332; Syracuse, \n396,212; Saguntum, 219; Jerusalem, 590; a.d. 70. \nThe following are the most memorable sieges since \nthe 12th century ; for details of many of them see \nseparate articles. \n\n\n\nAcre, 1192, 1799, 1832, 1840. \nAlgesiras, 1341. \n\nAlgiers, 1681 (Bomb vessels first used \nby a French engineer named Rcnau); \n\n1816. \nAlkmaer, 1573. \nAlmeida, 27 Aug. 1810. \nAmiens, 1597. \nAncona, 1174, 1799, i860. \nAntwerp, 1576, 1583, 1585, 1746, 1832. \nArras, 1640. \nAzoff, 1736. \n\nBadajoz, n March, 1811 ; 6 April, 1812. \nBagdad, 1258. \nBarcelona, 1697, 1714. \nBelgrade, 1439, 1456, 1521, 1688, 1717, \n\n1739, 1789. \nBelle-Isle, 1761. \n\nBergen-op-Zoom, 1622, 1747, 1814. \nBerwick, 1333, 1481. \nBethune, 17 10. \nBilbao by Carlists, 1874. \nBois-le-Duc, 1603, 1794. \nBologna, 1512, 1796, 1799. \nBommel : the invention of the covered \n\nway, 1794. \nBonn, 1672, 1689, 1703. \nBouchain, 171 1. \nBoulogne, 1544. \nBreda, 1625. \n\nBrescia, 1238, 1512, 1849. \nBreslau, 1807. \nBrisac, 1638, 1704. \nBrussels, 1695, 1746. \nBomarsund, 1854. \nBuda, 1 54 1, 2 Sept. 1686. \nBurgos, 1812, 1813- \nCadiz, 1812. \nCalais 1347 (British historians affirm \n\nthat cannon were used at Cressy, \n\n1346, and here in 1347. First u,sed \n\nhere in 1388. Rymer\'s Fced.), 1558, \n\n1596. \nCalvi, 1794. \nCandia : the largest cannon then known, \n\nin Europe, used here by the Turks, \n\n1667. \nCarthagena, 1706-7, 1740, 1873-4. \nChalus, 1199. \nCharleroi, 1693. \nCharleston, U.S., 1864-5. \nChartres, 1568. \nCherbourg, 1758. \nCiudad Rodrigo, 1810, 1S12. \nColchester, 1648. \n\n\n\nOomorn, 1849. \n\nCompiegne (Joan of Arc), 1430. \n\nConde, 1676, 1793, 1794- \n\nConi, 1691, 1744. \n\nConstantinople, 1453. \n\nCopenhagen, 1658, 1801, 1807. \n\nCorfu, 1716. \n\nCourtray, 1646. \n\nCracow, 1702. \n\nCremona, 1702. \n\nDautzic, 1734, 1793, 1807, 1813, 1814. \n\nDelhi, 1857 \n\nDouay, 1710. \n\nDresden, 1756, 1813. \n\nDrogheda, 1649. \n\nDublin, 1500. \n\nDunkirk, 1646, 1793 \n\nFamagosta, 1571. \n\nFlushing, 15 Aug. 1809. \n\nFrederickshald : Charles XII. killed, \n\n1718. \nGaeta, 1435, 1734, 1860-1. \nGenoa, 1747, 1800. \nGerona, 1809. \nGhent, 1708. \nGibraltar, 1779, 1782-3. \nGliitz, 1742, 1807. \nGottingen, 1760. \nGraves, 1674. \nGrenada, 1491, 1492. \nGroningen, 1594. \nHaerleni, 1572, 1573. \nHarfleur, 1415. \nHeidelberg, 1688. \nHerat, 1838. \nHumaita, 1868. \nIsmail, 1790. \nKars, 1855- \nKhartoum, 1884. \nKehl, 1733, 1796. \nLandau, 1702 et seq., 1792. \nLandrecy, 1712, 1794. \nLaon, 988, 991. \nLeipsic, 1757 et seq., 1813. \nLeith, 1560. \n\nLerida, 1647, 1707, 1810. \nLeyden, 1574. \nLiege, 1408, 1688, 1702. \nLille, 1 70S, 1792. \nLimerick, 1651, 1691. \nLondonderry, 1689. \nLouisbourg, 1758. \nLucknow, 1857. \nLuxemburg, 1795. \nLyons, 1793. \n\n\n\nMaestricht, 1579, 1673; Vauban first \ncame into notice; 1676, 1748. \n\nMagdala, 1868. \n\nMagdeburg, 1631, 1806. \n\nMalaga, 1487. \n\nMalta, 1565, 1798, 1800. \n\nMantua, 1797, 1799. \n\nMarseilles, 1524. \n\nMenin, 1706. \n\nMentz, 1689, 1793. \n\nMessina, 1282, 1719, 1848, 1861. \n\nMetz, 1552-3, 1870. \n\nMons, 1691, 1709, 1792. \n\nMontargis, 1426. \n\nMontauban, 1621. \n\nMontevideo, Jan. 1807. \n\nMothe: the French, taught by a Mr. \nMidler, first practised the art of \nthrowing shells, 1634. \n\nNamur, 1692, 1746, 1794. \n\nNaples, 1435, 1504,\' 1557, 1792, 1799, \n1806. \n\nNewark, 1644-5. \n\nNew Orleans, 1814. \n\nNice, 1706. \n\nNovogorod, 1478. \n\nNieuport, 1600. \n\nOlivenza, 1801, 1S11. \n\nOlmutz, 1758. \n\nOrleans, 1428, 1563. \n\nOstend, 1601, 1798. \n\nOudenarde, 1706. \n\nPadua, 1509. \n\nPampeluna, 1813. \n\nParis, 1420, 1594, 1S70, 1871. \n\nParma, 1248. \n\nPavia, 1524, 1655. \n\nPerpignan, 1542, 1642. \n\nPhalsbourg, T814, 1815, 1870. \n\nPhilipsburg, 1644, 1676, 1688, first ex- \nperiment of firing artillery a ricochet, \n\ni734\xc2\xbb i799- \nPlevna, 1877. \nPondicherry, 1748, 1793. \nPrague, 1741-1744. \nQuebec, 1759-60. \nQuesnoy, 1793-1794. \nRheims, 1359. \nRhodes, 1521. \nRichmond, U.S., 1864-5. \nRiga, 1700, 1710. \nRochelle, 1573, 1628. \nRome, 1527, 1798, 1849. \nRomorantin ; artillery first used in \n\nsieges (Voltaire), 1356. \n\n\n\nSIENA. \n\n\n\n883 \n\n\n\nSILESIA. \n\n\n\nRouen, 1419, 1449, 1591. \n\nRoxburgh, 1460. \n\nSt. Sebastian, 1813. \n\nSaragossa, 1710, 1808, 1809 ; the two \nlast dreadful. \n\nSebastopol, 1854-5. \n\nSchweidnitz : first experiment to reduce \na fortress by springing globes of com- \npression, 1 757-1 762. \n\nScio (see Greece), 1822. \n\nSeringapatam, 1799. \n\nSeville, 1247-8. \n\nSilistria, 1854. \n\nSmolensko, 1632, 1812. \n\nSoissons, 1870. \n\nSt. Quentin, 1557. \n\nStralsund : the method of throwing red- \n\n\n\nhot balls first practised with certainty, \n\n1715- \nStrasfourg, 1870. \nTarragona, 181 1. \nTemeswar, 1716. \nTherouenne, 1513. \nThiouville, 1792. \nThorn, 1703. \nTortosa, 1811. \nToulon, 1707, 1793. \nToulouse, 1217. \nTournay, 1340, 1513, 1583, 1667, 1700 \n\n(this was the best defence ever drawn \n\nfrom counter mines), 1792. \nTreves, 1635, 1673, 1765. \nTunis, 1270, 1535. \nTurin, 1640, 1706. \n\n\n\nValencia, 1705, 1707, 1712. \n\nValenciennes, 1677, 1793, 1794. \n\nVanues, 1342. \n\nVenice, 1879. \n\nVenloo, 1702. \n\nVerdun, 1792. \n\nVieksbuxg, U.S., 1863. \n\nVienna, 1529, 1683. \n\nWakefield, 1460. \n\nWarsaw, 1831. \n\nXativa, 1246. \n\nXeres, 1262. \n\nYork, 1644. \n\nYpres, 1648. \n\nZurich, 1544. \n\nZutphen, 15S6. \n\n\n\nSIENA (the ancient Sena Julia), Italy, in the \nmiddle ages a powerful republic rivalling Florence \nand Pisa ; see Tuscany. It was incorporated with \nFrance, 1808-14. Population, 1881, 23,445. \n\nThe Sienese thoroughly defeated the Florentines at \nMontaperto in 1260; placed themselves under the \nduke of Milan, 1399 ; were ruled by Pandolfo Petrueci, \n1487-1512 ; submitted to the emperor Charles V. 1524 ; \n\xe2\x96\xa0rebelled, called in the French, 1555 ; were defeated \nand given up to Cosimo de Medici, 1557 ; who annexed \nSiena to Tuscany. \n\nSIERRA LEONE (W. Africa), discovered by \nthe Portuguese navigator, P. de Cintra, in 1462. \nAn attempt to form a settlement here made by the \nBritish government by sending out from London \nabout 400 freed negroes and 60 whites, Dec. 1786, \nfailed ; a second attempt by the Sierra Leone Com- \npany in 1791, was not much more successful, and in \n1807 the settlement was given up to the crown. \nCapital, Freetown. The settlement was attacked \nby the French, Sept. 1794; by the natives, Feb. \n1802. Sir Charles Macarthy, governor of the \ncolony, was defeated and killed by the Ashantee \nchief, 21 Jan. 1824. \xe2\x80\x94 16 & 17 Vict. c. 16, relates to \nthe government, (fee, of this colony. It was made \na bishopric in 1852 ; see Ashantees and West \nAfrica. Population in 1891, 74,835. \n\nRobarrie, the stronghold of the insurgent Yonnie \ntribe, captured by sir Francis De Winton, 21 Nov. 1887 \n\nThe king was captured and the rebellion suppressed \n\nNov-Dee. , , \n\nThe Gambia territory isolated and made an inde- \npendent colony 22 Dec. 1888 \n\nLargoh, capital of the chief Mackiah captured by \nthe British under governor Hay ; 700 prisoners \nliberated ; announced ... 14 Feb. 1889 \n\nIn accordance with an agreement with the French \ngovernment, 10 Aug. I889, a commission was ap- \npointed for the delimitation of the British and \nFrench possessions in West Africa . . Oct. 1890 \n\nThe commissioners meet .... Dec. 1891 \n\nGovernors : sir James Shaw Hay, 1888 ; sir Francis \nFleming 1892 \n\nBritish expedition sent to punish aggressions in \nMay, 1891 ; fighting at Tambi ; the British re- \ntreat ; Tambi taken and destroyed . 7 April, ,, \n\nSIGNALS are alluded to by Polybius. Eliza- \nbeth had instructions drawn up for the admiral \nand general of the expedition to Cadiz, to be an- \nnounced to the fleet in a certain latitude ; this is \nsaid to have been the first set of signals given to \nthe commanders of tbe English fleet. A system \nfor the navy was invented by the duke of York, \nafterwards James II. 1665. Guthrie; see 1\'oij- \nsignals. \nBlock system of signalling on railways, introduced 1853 \n\nSIGNBOARDS were used by the Greeks and \nRomans. A "History of Signboards," by Jacob \nLarwood and John Ilotten, was published in 1866. \n\nSIGNETS, see Seals. \n\n\n\nSIGN MANUAL, ROYAL, a stamp, imitat- \ning the royal signature, employed when the sove- \nreign was so ill as to be unable to write : in tne \ncase of Henry VIII. 1547 ; James I. 1625 ; and \nGeorge IV., 29 May, 1830. Rosse. \n\nSIKHS, originally a Hindu religious sect (about \n1500) a people of N. India, invaded the Mogul \nempire, 1703-8; see Punjab, and India, 1849. \n\nSIKKIM, a small Himalayan State, joining \n\nTibet, allied to the Indian government since 1814. \n\nBy a treaty in 1 861 free trade and passage through \n\nthe country were secured. \n\nThe erection of a fort by the Rajah under the \ninfluence of Tibetans in contravention of the \ntreaty, led to a military demonstration ; 1,000 \ntroops sent ostensibly to repair the road to \nTibet, Jan. ; the rajah proving contumacious, \nthe viceroy intervened ineffectually, March ; \nabout 2,000 men concentrated at Pedong, March ; \nLingtu fort quickly captured ; flight of the \nTibetans, 20 March ; destruction of the fort \nordered 21 March ; slight skirmishes with the \nTibetans, 24 killed, May ; col. Graham defeats \nthe attacking Tibetans, who are said to have \nlost 200 men 23 May, 18S8 \n\nTroops ordered to return to Darjeeling 17 June, ,, \n\nReturn to Sikkim on appearance of Tibetan \naggression July, ,, \n\nThe Tibetans defeated at Jelapla pass ; about 400 \nkilled and wounded, 25 Sept. ; col. Graham\'s \nadvance suspended and the expedition recalled, \n\nSept. ,, \n\nA Chinese amban, or resident, at Lhassa, arrives \nwith a large following at Calcutta, n March. A \ntreaty signed at Calcutta, 17 March, 1890 ; Sik- \nkim is to be treated as a British feudatory state. \n\nThe rajah goes secretly to Tibet ; arrested in \nNepaul, April ; lives in retirement . . . 1S92 \n\nSILCHESTER, Hants. Here are the remains \nof the Roman town Calleva (built on the site of the \nBritish Caer Segeint or Segont) ; including walls of \nexcellent masonry, a basilica and forum, private \ndwellings, &c. Many discoveries have been made \nduring excavations made by the rev. Mr. Joyce, \nunder the patronage of the duke of "Wellington, \nsince 1863. Coins of Claudius I. and later emperors \nhave been found. \n\nA systematic investigation of these remains was \nbegun, 23 June, 1890, under the superintendence \nof Mr. G. E. Fox and other fellows of the Society \nof Antiquaries, London. \nMr. Laurence Gomme, Mr. Hilton Price, gen. Pitt- \nRivers, and Mr. St. John Hope co-operate in the \n\nwork Sept. 1890 \n\nMany vases, tools and implements discovered; \nthese remains constitute a veritable British and \n\nRoman Pompeii ,, \n\nExhibition of relics, models, &c. . . . Jan. 1891 \nThe work was recommenced . . . April, 1892 \nThe remains of a presumed Romano-British church, \nprobable date 4th century, discovered in . June, ,, \n\nSILESIA, formerly a province of Poland, was \ninvaded by John of Bohemia, 1325, and ceded to \n\n3 l 2 \n\n\n\nSILICON. \n\n\n\nSILVEE. \n\n\n\nhim, 1355- It was taken by the king of Hungary, \n1478, and added to the Austrian dominion, 1526. It \nwas conquered and lost several times during the \nSeven years\' war by Frederick of Prussia, but was \nretained by him at the peace in 1763. The emperor \nWilliam was most enthusiastically received during \nhis visit, Sept. 1875. \n\nStrike of about 3,000 miners in the Strau district ; \norder kept by the military . . 24 Sept. 1890 \n\nSILICON or SlLICITJM (from silex, flint), a \nnon-metallic element, nest to oxygen the most \nabundant substance in the earth, as it enters into \nthe constitution of many earths, metallic oxides, \nand a great number of minerals. The mode of pro- \ncuring pure silicon was discovered by Berzelius in \n1823. Gmelin. See Water-glass, and Hansome\'s \nStone. \n\nSILISTMA, a strong military town in Bul- \ngaria, European Turkey. It was taken by the \nRussians, 30 June, 1829, and held some years by \nthem as a pledge for the payment of a large sum by \nthe Porte ; but was eventually returned. In 1854 \nit was again besieged by the Russians, 30,000 strong, \nunder prince Paskiewitch, and many assaults were \nmade. The Russian general was compelled to re- \ntire in consequence of a dangerous contusion. On \n2 June, Mussa Pacha, the brave and skilful com- \nmander of the garrison, was killed. On 9 June, \nthe Russians stormed two forts, which were retaken. \nA grand assault took place on 13 June, under prince \nGortschakoff and general Schilders, which was \nvigorously repelled. On the 15th, the garrison as- \nsumed the offensive, crossed the river, defeated the \nRussians, and destroyed the siege works. The siege \nwas thus raised, and the Russians commenced their \nretreat as Omar Pacha was drawing near. The gar- \nrison was ably assisted by two British officers, \ncapt. Butler andlieut. Nasmyth, the former of whom, \nafter being wounded, died of exhaustion. They \nwere highly praised by Omar Pacha and lord Har- \ndinge, and lieutenant Nasmyth was made a major. \nPopulation, 1888, 11,414. \n\nSILK. "Wrought silk was brought from Persia \nto Greece, 325 B.C. Known at Rome in Tiberius\'s \ntime, when a law passed in the senate prohibiting \nthe use of plate of massive gold, and also forbidding \nmen to debase themselves by wearing silk, fit only \nfor women. Heliogabalus first wore a garment of \nsilk, a.d. 220. Silk was at first of the same value \nwith gold, weight lor weight, and was thought to \ngrow in the same manner as cotton on trees. Silk- \nworms were brought from India to Europe in the \n6th century. Charlemagne sent Ofl\'a, king of \nMercia, a present of two silken vests, 780. The \nmanufacture was encouraged by Roger, king of \nSicily, at Palermo, 1146, when the Sicilians not \nonly bred the silk- worms, but spun and wove the \nsilk. The manufacture spread into Italy and Spain, \nand also into the south of France, a little before \nthe reign of Francis I. about 1510; and Henry IV. \npropagated mulberry-trees and silk-worms through- \nout the kingdom, about 1600. In England, silk \nmantles were worn by some noblemen\'s ladies at a \nball at Kenilworth castle, 1286. Silk was worn by \nthe English clergy in 1534. Manufactured in Eng- \nland in 1604 ; and broad silk wove from raw silk \nin 1620. Brought to perfection by the French \nrefugees in London at Spitalfields, 1688. A silk- \nthrowing mill was made in England, and fixed up \nat Derby, by sir Thomas Lombe, merchant of \nLondon, modelled from the original mill then in \nthe king of Sardinia\'s dominions, about 17 14. He \nobtained a patent in 1718, and died 3 Jan. 1739. \n\n\n\nSix new species of silk- worm were rearing in France, \n\n1861* \n\nThe Silk association of Great Britain and Ireland begun, \n1886-7 : fi fs t exhibition St. James\'s square, London, \nS. W. (opened by the duchess of Teck), 6-21 May, 1890. \n\nSilkwokm Disease. In 1853 the annual produce of \nsericulture in South France was estimated at about \n4,680,000?. Soon after a disease broke out in the \nworms, which reduced the value of the silk crop to \nabout one-third that amount. In 1858 a commission \nwas appointed to inquire into the nature of the disease, \nthen termed pebrine; and M. Quatrefages, in 1869, \nproved that it is hereditary, contagious, and infectious. \nM. Filippi discovered in the blood of the deceased \nworms a multitude of cylindrical corpuscles, since \nnamed panhistophyton, which Pasteur, who took up \nthe study in 1865, has demonstrated to be parasitica], \nand the cause of the disease. He has since devised a \nway by which, it is hoped, the organic germs may be \ngot rid of, and the disease extirpated. \n\nSILOTVOE, a new explosive invented by M. \nRouckteshell, who asked 50,000^. for the patent, \n1887. \n\nSILTTEES, a British tribe, occupying the \ncounties of Monmouth and Hereford, was subdued \nby the Roman general Ostorius Scapula, 50 ; see \n/Shropshire. From this tribe is derived the geolo- \ngical term " Silurian strata," among the lowest of \nthe paleozoic or primary series, from their occur- \nrence in the above-mentioned counties. Murchison\' s \n" Siluria " was published 1849. \n\nSILVEE, exists in most parts of the world, and \nis found mixed with other ores in various mines in \nGreat Britain. The silver mines of South America \nare far the richest. A mine was discovered in the \ndistrict of La Paz in 1660, which was so rich that \nthe silver of it was often cut out with a chisel. In \n1749, one mass of silver weighing 370 lbs. was sent \nto Spain. From a mine in Norway, a piece of silver \nwas dug, and sent to the Royal Museum at Copen- \nhagen, weighing 560 lbs., and worth i68o\xc2\xa3. In \nEngland silver-plate and vessels were first used by \nWilfrid, a Northumbrian bishop, a lofty and am- \nbitious man, 709. Tyrrell. Silver knives, spoons, \nand cups, were great luxuries in 1300 ; see Mirrors. \nThe act of 18 16 restricted the use of silver as legal \ntender to 40s. In 1855, 561,906 oz., in 1857, \n532,866 oz., in 1865, 724,856 oz., in 1870, 784,562 \noz. ; in 1876, 483,422 oz. ; in 1882, 372,544 oz. ; \nin 1887, 320,345 oz. ; in 1888, 321,425 oz. ; in \n1889, 306,149 oz. ; in 1890, 291,724 oz.. were ob- \ntained from mines in Britain. Pattinson\'s process \nfor obtaining silver from lead ore was introduced in \n1829. See Bullion, Coins, Goldsmiths, Mirrors, \nPlate, India, 1876, United States, 1878, 1890-2. \nFall in price of silver through introduction of gold \ncoinage in Germany, and increased produce from \nSouth American mines .... spring, 1876 \nThe report of a commission on the subject was \n\nissued in July, ,, \n\nAnother commission appointed, see under Currency, \n\n7 Sept. 1886 \nPure silver: United States, N. A., 1,000; England, \n\n925, alloy 75 ; Europe, 900, 100 alloy ; reported . 1890 \nAverage price in London, 1845-9, 59^- anc ^ a fraction \nper oz. ; 1850-72, 6id. ; 1871, 6o T \\d. ; 1875, 56Jd ; \n1880, 52}.d. ; 1883, 5o T B s tf. ; price 49|rf. 7 May, 1885 ; \n1886, 46^. ; 1887, 44f&; 1888, 43rsrf.; 1889, Jan- \nMarch, 42j 9 s ci ; 7 May, 42^. ; 22 July, 4?Tc,d. ; \n13 Sept., 42 T %(7. ; 1890: 9 Jan., 4451?. ; 3 April, \n43|c?. ; 3 July, 47id. ; 4 Sept., 54\xc2\xa7<i. ; 1891 : 1 Jan., \n48Jrf. ; 2 April, 44ft?-. ; 11 July, 45\xc2\xa7d. ; 3 Sept., \n45tV c ?- ! 1892 : 7 Jan., 43M : 1 April, 39J ; 1 July, \n403^. ; 4 Aug., 39c?. ; 2 Sept., 3&\xc2\xa7d. \n\n\n\n* In 1858, M. Guerin-Meneville introduced into France \na Chinese worm termed the Cynthia Bovibyx, which feeds \non the Ailanthus glandulosa, a hardy tree of the oak kind. \nThe cynthia yields a silk-like substance termed Ailantine. \nIt was brought to Turin by Fantoni in 1856. \n\n\n\nSILVEE BOOK. \n\n\n\nSIX CLEEKS- \n\n\n\nSILVEE BOOK (Codex Argenteus), see under \nBible. \n\nSIMANCAS (Castile, Spain). Near it Rami- \nrez II. of Leon, and Fernando of Castile, gained a \ngreat victory over Abderahman, the Moorish king of \nCordova, 6 Aug. 939. \n\nSIMLA CASE, see India, 1866. \n\nSIMNEL CONSPIRACY, see Rebellions, \ni486. \n\nSIMONASAKI, see Japan, 1864. \n\nSIMONIANS, a sect named after the founder, \nSimon Magus, the first heretic, about 41. A sect of \nsocial reformers called St. Simostians, after their \nfounder, Claude H. comte de St. Simon (born 1760), \nsprang up in France in 1819, and attracted consider- \nable attention; the doctrines were advocated in \nEngland, particularly by Dr. Prati, who lectured \nupon them in London, 24 Jan. 1834. St. Simon \ndied in 182 c;, and his follower, Pere Enfantin, died \n1 Sept. 1864. \n\nSIMONY (trading in church offices), derives its \nname from Simon desiring to purchase the gift of \nthe Holy Spirit (Acts viii. 18, 19). It is forbidden \nin England by the canon law, and by statute \n31 Eliz. c. 6, "for the avoiding of simony and cor- \nruption in presentations, collations, and donations \nof and to benefices," &c, 1588-9 ; and by statute of \n12 Anne 2, stat. 12 (1713). The rev. James John \nMerest was convicted of simony, 26-29 Nov. 1869, \nand deprived. \n\nThe bishop of Peterborough (Dr. Magee), moved for \na committee on the laws relating to simony ; ap- \npointed 21 April, 1874 \n\nSIMPLON, a mountain road, leading from \nSwitzerland into Italy, constructed by Napoleon in \n1801-7. It winds up passes, crosses cataracts, and \npasses by galleries through solid rock, and has eight \nprincipal bridges. The number of workmen em- \nployed at one time varied from 30,000 to 40,000. \n\nSINAI, MOUNT. Here the ten command- \nments were promulgated, 1491 B.C. Exod. xx. \nAf ter much investigation and discussion by many \npersons, Dr. Beke stated that he had discovered the \ntrue Sinai, Feb. 1874. \n\nSINALUNGA or AsiNALTTNGA (near Siena, \nItaly). Here Garibaldi, when about to enter the \npapal territory, was seized and conveyed to Ales- \nsandria, 23 Sept. 1867 ; see Italy. \n\nSINDE (N. W. India), was traversed by the \nGreeks under Alexander, about 326 B.C. ; conquered \nby the Persian Mahometans in the 8th century a.d. ; \ntributary to the Ghaznevide dynasty in the nth \ncentury; conquered by Nadir Shah, 1739; reverted \nto the empire of Delhi after his death, 1747 ; after \nvarious changes of rulers, Sinde was conquered by \nthe English, and annexed, March, 1843. \n\nSINGAPOEE, see Straits Settlements. \n\nSINGING, see Music, and Hymns. \n\nSINKAT, see under Soudan, 1884. \n\nSINKING FUND. First projected by sir \nRobert Walpole to redeem the debt to the bank of \nEngland; act passed in 171O. The act establishing \nthe sinking fund of Mr. Pitt, devised by Dr. Price, \nwas passed in March, 1786. A then estimated sur- \nplus of 900,000^. in the revenue was augmented by \nnew taxes to make up the sum of 1,000,000/. which \nwas to be invariably applied to the reduction of the \n\n\n\nnational debt. The fallacy of the scheme was \nshown by Dr. Hamilton in 1813. In July, 1828, \nthe sinking fund was limited to one-fourth of the \nactual surplus of revenue. \n\nA new sinking fund was established by Act passed \n2 Aug. 1875. The annual charge of the national debt \nof the year ending 31 March, 1877 to be 27,700,000?. ; \nsubsequent years to be 28,000,000?. \n\nSINOPE, an important Greek colony on the \nEuxine, after resisting several attacks was con- \nquered by Mithridates IV., king of Pontus, and \nmade his capital. It was the birth-place of \nDiogenes, the cynic philosopher. On 30 Nov. 1853, \na Turkish fleet of seven frigates, three corvettes, \nand two smaller vessels, was attacked by a Russian \nfleet of six sail of the line, two sailing vessels, and \nthree steamers, under admiral Nachimoff, and \ntotally destroyed, except one vessel, which con- \nveyed the tidings to Constantinople. Four thou- \nsand lives were lost by fire or drowning, and Osman \nPacha, the Turkish admiral, died at Sebastopol of \nhis wounds. In consequence of this act (considered \ntreacherous) the Anglo-French fleet entered the \nBlack Sea, 3 Jan. 1854. \n\nSION COLLEGE Am) Hospital, situated \n\non the site of a nunnery, which, having fallen to \ndecay, was purchased by William Elsynge, a citizen \nand mercer, and converted into a college and hos- \npital, called from his name Elsynge Spital. In \n1340 he changed it to an Austin priory, which was \nafterwards granted by Henry VIII. to sir John \nWilliams, master of the jewel-office, who, with sir \nRoland Hay ward, inhabited it till its destruction \nby fire. In 1623, Dr. Thomas White having be- \nqueathed 3000/. towards purchasing and building a \ncollege and alms-house on the ancient site, his \nexecutors erected the present college. It is held by \ntwo charters of incorporation, 6 Chas. I. 1630 and 16 \nChas. II. 1664. It contains a valuable library (easily \naccessible to the public), and an almshouse for ten \nmen and ten women. New buildings erected on \nthe Thames Embankment ; memorial stone laid 21 \nApril, 1885 ; opened by the prince of Wales, 15 \nDec. 1886. \n\nSIEENE, an instrument for determining the \nvelocity of aerial vibrations corresponding to the \ndifferent pitches of musical sounds, was invented \nby baron Cagniard de la Tour of Paris hi 18 19. \nThe principle was shown in an apparatus exhibited \nby Robert Hooke before the Royal Society, 27 July, \n1681. \n\nSISTEEHOODS in the English church were \nbegun by Lydia Priscilki Sellou about 1846, in \nDevonshire ; she died, Nov. 1876. \n\nSISTEES OF "CHARITY, an order for the \nservice of the sick poor, was founded by Vincent de \nPaul, in 1634. Their establishment in London \nbegan in 1834. \n\nSIX ACTS, a term given to certain acts, also \nnamed " Gagging Acts," 60 Geo. III. & I Geo. IV. \n<,c. 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 9, passed in 1819-1820 to suppress \nseditious meetings and publications. \n\nSIX AETICLES, see Articles. \n\nSIX CLEEKS, officers of the court of chan- \ncery, who were anciently clerici or clergy. They \nwere to conform to the laws of celibacy, and forfeit \ntheir places if they married; but when the consti- \ntution of the court began to alter, a law was made \nto permit them to marry; statute 24 <fc 25 Ben. \nVIII. 1 S33- The six clerks continued for many \nyears officers of the chancery court, and held their \nolfiics in Chancery-lane, London, where proceed- \n\n\n\nSIXTEEN. \n\n\n\nSLAVEEY. \n\n\n\n"34 \n1180 \n\niSSS \n\n\n\n1662 \n1772 \n\n\n\nings by bill and answer were transacted and filed, \nand certain patents issued. Law Diet. The six \nclerks were discontinued by 5 & 6 Vict. c. 103, 1841. \n\nSIXTEEN {seize), a large French political \nclub, in the reigns of Henry III. and IV., sixteen \nmembers of which took charge of the sixteen \nquarters of Paris. They at first supported the \ncatholic league, and attempted to overthrow Henry \nIII. in 1587, but vacillating in their policy, and \ncommitting many crimes, their power was annihi- \nlated by Mayenne in 1591, and several of them \nwere executed. \n\nSKALITZ (Bohemia), was stormed by the \nPrussian general Steinmetz, 28 June, 1866; whereby \nthe junction of the divisions of the Prussians was \ngreatly facilitated, \n\nSKATING (with blunt skates) is said to have \nbeen practised in prehistoric times by northern \nnations. See Rinks. \n\nMentioned by the Danish historian Saxo Gramma- \n\nticus about \n\nWilliam Fitz Stephens speaks of it in London, about \n\nFigures of skates in Olaus Magnus\'s history, printed \n\nBlade-skates, probably introduced from Holland, \n\nabout 1660, were seen in St. James\'s-park by \n\nEvelyn and Pepys 1 Dec. \n\nRobert Jones\'s "Art of Skating," published . \nLondon Skating club, 1830 ; Oxford club . . 1838 \nSevere frost, much skating .... Jan. 1880 \nInternational skating contest at Vienna . Jan. 1882 \n\nSKIEENIEVICE, Poland; see Russia, 15, 16 \n\nSept. 1884. \n\nSKINS- The raw skins of cattle were usually \nsuspended on stakes and made use of instead of \nkettles to boil meat, in the north of England and \nin Scotland, 1 Edw. III. 1327. Leland. \n\nSKUPTSCHINA, the Servian legislative \nassembly. \n\nSKYE, ISLE OF, N.W. Scotland. See Crofters. \n\nSLADE PEOFESSOESHIP of Fine \nART, Cambridge, established in pursuance of the \nwill of Felix Slade, 24 June, 1869, sir Matthew \nDigby Wyatt, the first professor, 1869-73 \'\xe2\x96\xa0> Sidney \nColvin, 1873-1885; Mr. J. H. Middleton, 1886. \n\nSTANDEE of Women, act passed 5 Aug. 1891. \nSLANG, see Dictionaries. \n\nSLATE. Fifteen persons were killed by the fall \nof a mass of rock and rubble at the Delaboll slate \nquarries, Cornwall, 21 April, 1869. \nGreat strike at lord Penrhyn\'s slate quarries \n\nBethesda, Wales, in Sept.-Oct. ; end . . Nov. 1874 \n\nSLAUGHTEE HOUSES ACT for the \n\nmetropolis, passed 7 Aug. 1874. \n\nSLAVEEY. The traffic in men came from \nChaldeea into Egypt, Arabia, and all over the East. \nIn Greece, in the time of Homer, all prisoners of \nwar were treated as slaves. The Lacedamionian \nyouths, trained up in the practice of deceiving and \nbutchermg slaves, were from time to time let loose \nupon them to show their proficiency ; and once, for \namusement only, murdered, it is said, 3000 in one \nnight, see Helots. Alexander, when he razed Thebes \nsold the whole people for slaves, 335 b.c. There \nwere 400,000 slaves in Attica, 317 b.c. In Eome \nslaves were often chained to the gate of a great \nman\'s house, to give admittance to the guests in- \nvited to the feast. By one of the laws of the XII. \nTables, creditors could seize their insolvent debtors, \nand keep them in their houses, till by their services \nor labour they had discharged the sum they owed. \n\n\n\nC. Pollio threw such slaves as gave him the slightest \noffence into his fish-ponds, to fatten his lampreys, \n42 B.C. Caecilius Isidorus left to his heir 41 16 \nslaves, 12 B.C. The first Janissaries were Christian \nslaves, 1329. \nSlavery abolished in the French colonies by the \n\nagency of M. Sehoslcher ..... 1848 \nSerfdom was abolished by Frederick I. of Prussia \nin 1702 ; by Christian VII. of Denmark in 1766 ; \nby Joseph II. emperor of Germany, in his heredi- \ntary states in 1781 ; by Nicholas I. of Russia in \nthe imperial domains in 1842 ; and by his suc- \ncessor, Alexander II. throughout his empire, \n3 March, 1861. \nSlavery ceased in the Dutch "West Indies on 1 July, \n\n1863. \nSlavery abolished in Porto Rico . 23 March, 1873 \nImmediate suppression of slavery in the colonies \n\nof St. Thomas, &c. by Portugal, announced, Feb. 1876 \nGradual emancipation in Cuba ; bill passed in \nSp mish senate, 24 Dec. 1879 ; by deputies, 21 Jan. \npromulgated, 18 Feb. 1880 ; total abolition by \n\ndecree 6 Oct. 1886 \n\nSlavery to be abolished in Egypt . end of July, 1881 \nAbolition of slavery in Brazil (which see) . . 1867-8S \nSlavery abolished in Zanzibar (which sec), Oct. 1889 \n\nand Aug. 1890 \nAnti-slavery Conference at Brussels: meeting of \nforeign plenipotentiaries and delegates from 17 \nstates, 18 Nov. 1889. Conferences : 19 Nov.-Dec. \n1889 ; 27 Jam-28 May, 1890. Regulations for the \nsuppression of the slave trade, and rules relating \nto the traffic in spirit agreed to. After much \nnegotiation, the general act was ratified by all \nthe powers for immediate effect . 2 April, 1892 \n\nSLAVEEY IN ENGLAND- Laws respecting \nthe sale of slaves were made by Alfred. The English \npeasantry were commonly sold for slaves in Saxon \nand Norman times ; children were sold in Bristol \nmarket like cattle for exportation. Many were sent \nto Ireland and to Scotland. Under the Normans \nthe vassals (termed villeins, of and pertaining to \nthe vill) were devisable as chattels during the \nfeudal times. \n\nSevere statutes were passed in the reign of Richard \nII., 1377 and 1385; the rebellion of Wat Tyler, \n1381, arose partly out of the evils of serfdom. \nA statute was enacted by Edward VI. that a runa- \nway, or any one who lived idly for three days, \nshould be brought before two justices of the \npeace, and marked V with a hot iron on the \nbreast, and adjudged the slave of him who bought \nhim for two years. He was to take the slave and \ngive him bread, water, or small drink, and refuse \nmeat, and cause him to work by beating, chain- \ning, or otherwise ; and, if within that space, he \nabsented himself fourteen days, was to be marked \non the forehead or cheek, by a hot iron, with an \nS, and be his master\'s slave for ever; second de- \nsertion was made felony. It was lawful to put \na ring of iron round his neck, arm, or leg. A \nchild might be put apprentice, and, on running \naway, become a slave to his master . . . . 1547 \nQueen Elizabeth ordered her bondsmen in the \n\nwestern counties to be made free at easy rates . 1574 \nSerfdom was finally extinguished in 1660, when \ntenures in capite, knights\' service, &c, were \nabolished. \nA slave named Somerset, brought to England, \nwas, because of his ill state, turned adrift by \nhis master. By the charity of Mr. Granville \nSharp he was restored to health, when his mas- \nter again claimed him. A suit was the con- \nsequence, which established, by decision of the \nCourt of King\'s Bench, in favour of Somerset, \nthat slavery coidd not exist in Great Britain \n\n22 June, 1772 \nAct for the abolition of slavery throughout the \nBritish colonies, and for the promotion of in- \ndustry among the manumitted slaves, and for \ncompensation to the persons hitherto entitled to \nthe services of such slaves by the grant from \nparliament of 20,000,000^ sterling, passed \n\n28 Aug. 1833 \n\n\n\nSLAVERY. \n\n\n\n887 \n\n\n\nSLAVE TEADE. \n\n\n\nSlavery terminated in the British possessions ; \n770,280 slaves became free . . . 1 Aug. 1834 \n\nSlavery was abolished in the East Indies 1 Aug. 1838 \n\nBritish and Foreign anti-slavery society established, 1839 \n\nIn 1853 John Anderson, a runaway slave, killed \nSeptimus Digges, a planter of Missouri, who at- \ntempted to arrest him, and escaped to Canada. \nThe American government claimed him as a mur- \nderer. The Canadian judges deciding that the \nlaw required his surrender, Mr. Edwin James, \nQ.C. (15 Jan.), obtained a writ of habeas corpus \nfor his appearance before the court of queen\'s \nbench. Anderson was discharged on technical \ngrounds 16 Feb. 1861 \n\nCircular from the Admiralty concerning the sur- \nrendering fugitive slaves on board British ships \nto their owners, dated 31 July ; much censured \nby the public, Sept., Oct. ; withdrawn Nov. 1875 \n\nA revised circular issued near end of Dec, 1875 ; \nmet with much adverse criticism . . Jan. 1876 \n\nGovernment commission appointed (the duke of \nSomerset, chief justice Cockburn, sir Henry S. \nMaine, and others), Feb. ; report unfavourable to \nthe circulars ; published . . .13 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNew admiralty instructions : fugitive slaves to be \nreceived and not given up ; action left to captain\'s \ndiscretion ; breach of international faith and \ncomity to be avoided ; issued . . 10 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nJubilee meeting to celebrate the abolition of slavery \nin the British colonies at Guildhall, London, the \nprince of Wales in the chair . . 1 Aug. 1884 \n\nSLAVERY in United States. . Before the \n\nwar of independence all the states contained slaves. \nIn 1783 the statement in the Massachusetts Bill of \nRights, "All men are born free and equal," was \ndeclared in the supreme court at Boston to bar \nslave-holding in that state. Slaves in the United \nStates in 1790, 697,897; in 1810, 1,191,364; in \n1820, 2,009,031; in 1850, 3,204,313; in i860, \n4,002,996. In 1870, 4,889, 193, free coloured persons. \n\nCongress passes unanimously the celebrated ordin-- \nanee "for the government of the territory to the \nN. W. of the Ohio," which contained an "unaltera- \nble" article, forbidding slavery or involuntary servi- \ntude in the said state, 13 July, 1787; after 1800, \nseveral of the states prayed, without effect, to \nbe relieved from this prohibition. \n\nLouisiana purchased, which was considered by \nmany as fatal to the constitution .... 1803 \n\nThe enormous increase in the growth of cotton in \nthe southern states (see Cotton) led to a corre- \nsponding increase in the demand for slave labour. \nThe Missouri Compromise (drawn up by Henry \nClay, by which slavery was permitted in that \nstate, but was prohibited in all that part of it to \nthe north of 36\xc2\xb0 30\' N. lat.), carried . Feb. 1820 \n\nContest between the slave-holders aud their oppo- \nnents at the annexation of Texas ; a similar \ndivision to that of Missouri obtained 25 Dec. 1845 \n\nAnother compromise effected ; California admitted \nas a free state : but the Fugitive Slave act passed \n{which see) . ...... 1850 \n\nThe Missouri compromise was abrogated by the \nadmission of Nebraska and Kansas as slave- \nholding states ; civil war ensued (see Kansas) . 1854 \n\nDred Soot\'s case (see United States) .... 1857 \n\nJohn Brown\'s attempt to create a slave rebellion in \nVirginia failed (see United States) . . Nov. 1859 \n\nAbraham Lincoln, the anti - slavery candidate, \nelected president of the United States 4 Nov. i860 \n\nSecession of South Carolina (see United States), Dec. ,, \n\nSlavery abolished in the district of Colombia \n\n16 April, 1S62 \n\nPresident Lincoln proclaims the abolition of \nslavery in the southern states, if they have not \nreturned to the union on 1 Jan. 1863 22 Sept. ,, \n\nThe total abolition of slavery in the United States \nofficially announced .... 18 Dec. ,, \n\nMr. William Lloyd Garrison, a fervent champion for \nemancipation, entertained at St. James\'s-liall, \nLondon (he started the Liberator in 1831, and \nhad suffered much for his zeal) . . 29 June, 1867 \n\nA negro judge present in a court at New Orleans, \n\n18 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nNegro equality with the whites completely recog- \nnised Feb. 1S70 \n\nSee United States, 1860-5. \n\nSLAVE TRADE. The slave trade from Con- \ngou and Angola was begun by the Portuguese in \n1481. The commerce in man lias brutalised a tract \nfifteen degrees on each side of the equator, and forty- \ndegrees wide, or of 4,000,000 of square miles; and \nmen and women have been bred for sale to the \nChristian nations during the last 250 years, and \nwar carried on to make prisoners for the Christian \nmarket. The Abbe Raynal computed (1777) that, at \nthe time of his writing, 9,000,000 of slaves had been \nconsumed by the Europeans. The slave-trade is \nnow approaching extinction. \n\nIn 1768 the slaves taken from Africa amounted to \n104,100. In 1786 the annual number was about 100,000. \n\nIn 1807 it was shown by documents, produced by govern- \nment, that since 1792 upwards of 3,500,000 Africa us \nhad been torn from their country, and had either per- \nished on the passage or been sold in the West Indies. \n\nSlave Trade of England : begun by sir John Hawkins. \nHis first expedition, with the object of procuring \nnegroes on the coast of Africa, and conveying them \nfor sale at the West Indies, took place in Oct. 1562 ; \nsee Guinea, and Assiento. \n\nEngland employed 130 ships and carried off 42,000 slaves, \n1786. \n\nThos. Clarkson, at a spot in Wadesmill, Hertford, de- \nvotes his life to the abolition of the slave-trade, June, \n17S5. \n\nThe "Society for the Suppression of the Slave Trade," \nfounded by Clarkson, Wilberforce, and Dillwyn, 1787. \n\nSlave-trade question debated in parliament, 1787. \n\nThe debate for its abolition ; two days, April, 1791. \n\nMr. Wilberforce\'s motion lost by a majority of 88 to 8?, \n3 April, 1798. \n\nThe question introduced under the auspices of Lord \nGrenville and Mr. Fox, then ministers, 31 March, 1806. \n\nThe trade abolished by parliament, 25 March, 1807. \n\nThomas Clarkson, died, aged 85, Sept. 1846. \n\nAn obelisk as a memorial of Thos. Clarkson, erected by \nMr. Arthur Giles Puller, at Wadesmill, inaugurated o \nOct. 1879. \n\nA statue unveiled at Wisbeaeh, Cambridge, n Nov. 1881. \n\nForeign countries : the trade was abolished by Austria \nin 1782 ; by the French convention in 1794 ; by the \nUnited States in 1808. \n\nThe allies at Vienna declared against it, Feb. 1815. \n\nNapoleon, in the hundred days, abolished the trade, 29 \nMarch, 1815. \n\nTreaty for its repression with Spain, 1817 ; with the \nNetherlands, May, 1818 ; with Brazil, Nov. 1826 ; pro- \nhibition, 1831 ; not effected till 1852. \n\nIts revival was proposed in the congress of the United \nStates of America, 14 Dec. 1856, and negatived by 1S3 \nvotes to 58. \n\nIn June, 1857, the French government gave permission to \nM. Regis to convey free negroes from Africa to Qua la- \nloupe and Martiuido, French colonies. \n\nThis having led to abuses and consequent troubles (see \nCharles et Georges), was eventually given up in Jan. \n1859. \n\nIt is said that about 40,000 slaves were landed at Cuba in \ni860. \n\nA treaty between Great Britain and the United States for \nthe abolition of the slave trade, was signed 7 April ; \nratified 20 May. 1862. \n\nThe Spanish government denounce the slave trade as \npiracy, Nov. 1865. \n\nSir Samuel Baker headed an expedition to put down \nslave-trading on the Nile (see Egypt), Jan. 1870 ; reported \nto be partially successful, 30 June, 1873. He pub- \nlished " Ismailia," a history of the expedition, 1874. \nHe estimates that at least 50,000 arc captured aud \nsold as slaves, Nov. 1874. \n\nA species of slave trade has lately risen in tin 1 Ninth \nSeas; the natives being enticed on board certain \nBritish vessels and shipped to Queensland, Australia, \nand ths l\'i.]i isles th: sutj: -t wis brought Defers pi r- \nliament (see Melanesia), 1S71-2. \n\nThe ship Carl (owner, Dr. .lames F. Murray; master, \nJoseph Armstrong) lefi Melbourne for South Sen isles ; \nit anchored oil\' Malokolo, Solomon\'s and Bougainville \n\n\n\nSLAVONIA. \n\n\n\nSMALLPOX. \n\n\n\nisles and kidnapped many natives as labourers for the \nFiji isles ; while about 20 miles from land, the prisoners \nrose and attempted to set fire to the ship ; were fired \non ; about 50 killed and 20 wounded were cast into the \nsea. At Melbourne Murray gave evidence, and Arm- \nstrong was committed for trial, 16 Aug. ; the master \nand mate sentenced to death, Nov. 1872. \n\nSir Bartle Frere went to Zanzibar on a mission to suppress \nthe East African slave trade ; see Zanzibar, 1872-3. \n\nAn act of parliament for consolidating with amendments \nthe acts for carrying into effect treaties for the more \neffectual suppression of the slave trade (36 & 37 Viet. \nc. 88), was passed, 5 Aug. 1873. \n\nSeveral African kings and chiefs, at Cape Coast Castle, \nagreed to give up slave trade, at an interview with \ngovernor Strahan, 3 Nov. 1874. \n\nThe slave-trade on the Gold Coast abolished, by procla- \nmation of governor Strahan, 17 Dec. 1874. \n\nConvention with Egypt forbidding the traffic, 4 Aug. \n1877 ; col. Gordon\'s efforts in the Soudan reported suc- \ncessful, 1879. \n\nSlave trade prohibited at West African conference, 7 Jan. \n1885. \n\nSlave trade in East Africa checked by British cruisers, \n1886. \n\nUnited action of England and Germany and other \npowers to check the maritime slave-trade and importa- \ntion of arms on the east coast of Africa, which is to \nbe blockaded for that purpose from Suakin to \nZanzibar, Oct.-Nov. ; proclamation of the commence- \nment of the blockade, 2 Dec. 1888. See Zanzibar. \n\nMr. Sydney Buxton\'s resolution for urgent suppression \nof the slave trade passed in the house of commons, \n26 March, 1889. \n\nSlave trade reported nearly extinct in Egypt, and few \nslaves there, May, 1889. \n\nLaw for the repression of the slave trade published in \nTurkey, 30 Dec. 1889. \n\nDealing in slaves prohibited in Zanzibar, 1 Aug. 1890. \n\nSLAVONIA or SCLAVONIA, a province of \nAustria, derives its name from the Slaves, a Sarma- \ntian people who replaced the Avars in Pannonia \nearly in the 9th century. In 864 Cyril and Metho- \ndius, Greek missionaries, preached here, and adapted \nthe Greek alphabet to the Slavonian language ; the \nletters of which have since been a little altered. \nThe country, after having been held at times by the \nGreeks, Turks, and Hungarians, and the cause of \nsanguinary conflicts, was ceded finally to Hungary \nin 1699, at the peace of Carlo witz. Deputies from \nthe Slavonian provinces of Austria were entertained \nat Moscow and St. Petersburg, May, 1867. The \nCroatian-Slavonian diet, at Agram, was dissolved, \nMay, 1867. It protested against incorporation with \nHungary. The Slavonian family of languages in- \ncludes Eussian, Polish, Servian, Bohemian, Bul- \ngarian, Wendic, Slovak, and Polabic. For the war, \nsee Turkey, 1875-6. \n\nEstimated number of Slavs in Europe in 1875 : 90,365,633 ; \nRussians and Ruthenians, 66,129,590; Serbo-Croats, \n5,940,539; Bulgarians, 5,123,952; Slovenes, 1,260,000; \nSlovaks,2,223,83o; Czechs, 4,815,154 ; Poles, 9,492,162. \nLord Ilchester\'s bequest to promote the study of Slavo- \nnian literature at Oxford; lectures first given, May, \n1876. \nAgitation against the Germans in Slavonic provinces of \nAustria, Aug. Sept. 1883. \n\nSLEEP, see Seven Sleepers. M. Chauffat, \nawoke after a nineteen days\' sleep at the Alexandra \nPalace, 28 Nov. 1888; many similar cases are \nreported. Johann Latus, at Myslowitz, in Silesia, \nis said to have slept four-and-a-half months, being \nkept alive by imbibing milk, reported 31 Jan. ; he \nawoke about 9 Feb., 1892. The case was ascribed \nto catalepsy. \n\nSLESWIG, see Holstein. \nSLIDING-SCALE, see Com Laws. \n\nSLING. In Judges xx. 16, is mentioned the \nskill of the Bcnjamite slingers (about 1406 B.C.), \nand with a sling David slew Goliath 1063 b.c. (i \n\n\n\nSam. xvii.) The natives of the Balearic isles \n(Majorca, Minorca, and Ivii^a) were celebrated \nslingers, and served as mercenaries in the Cartha- \nginian and Roman armies. Slings are said to have \nbeen used by the Huguenots at the siege of San- \ncerre, in 1672, to economise their powder. \n\nSLOANE\'S MUSEUM, see British Museum. \n\nSLOUGH, near Eton, Bucks, Mrs. Ann Reville, \na butcher\'s wife, w r as barbarously murdered early \nin evening, 11 April, 1881. Alfred Payne, a lad, \nwas tried and acquitted, same month. \n\nSLOYD ASSOCIATION of Great \nBritain and Ireland, its object to promote \n\nthe training of the eye and hand; first meeting \nheld in London, the earl of Heath in the chair, \n5 Dec. 1888. The "Sloyd" system is reported \nsuccessful in Scandinavia. \n\nSLUYS (Holland), near which Edward III. \ngained a signal naval victory over the French. The \nEnglish had the wind of the enemy, and the sun at \ntheir backs, and began this sanguinary action. Two \nhundred and thirty French ships were taken ; thou- \nsands of Frenchmen were killed, with two of their \nadmirals ; the loss of the English was inconsider- \nable : 24 June, 1340. \n\nSMALCALD (Hesse), TREATY OF, entered \ninto between the elector of Brandenburg and the \nother princes of Germany in favour of Protestantism, \n31 Dec. 1530; see Protestants. The emperor, ap- \nprehensive that the kings of France and England \nwould join this league, signed the treaty of Passau, \n31 July, 1532, allowing liberty of conscience. \n\nSMALLPOX, variola (diminutive of varus, a \npimple), a highly contagious disease, supposed (0 \nhave been introduced into Europe from the East by \nthe Saracens. Bhazes, an Arabian, described it \naccurately, about 900. From Europe it was carried \nto America, soon after its disco very, and raged there \nwith great severity, destroying the Indians by thou- \nsands. In 1694, queen Mary of England died of \nsmallpox, as did in 1711 and 1712 the emperor of \nGermany, the dauphin and dauphiness of France and \nthen- son, in 1730 the emperor of Bussia, in 1741 \nthe queen of Sweden, and in 1774 Louis XV. of \nFrance. It is stated that in the middle of the last \ncentury two millions perished by it in Bussia. In \nLondon in 1723 one out of fourteen deaths was \ncaused by small pox, and in France in 1754 the rate \nwas one in ten. For the attempts to alleviate this \nscourge, see Inoculation, introduced into England \nin 1722, and Vaccination, announced by Dr. Jenner \nin 1790. Smallpox Hospital, established 1746. \nSmallpox raged in parts of London, and \nthousands died, 1870- 1 ; a temporary hospital was \nestablished at Hampstead {tuhich see). The Anti- \nVaccination society has been active, and many \nparents have been fined for opposing the vaccina- \ntion of their children, 1870-6. In Sept. and Oct. \n1862, a great many sheep died of smallpox in the \n"West of England, till successful preventive measures \nwere resorted to. Many cases in London, 1876-8 ; \ndeaths principally of unvaccinated persons. \nSmallpox prevalent in London, 88 deaths 1 \xe2\x80\x94 7 May; 103 \n\ndeaths 15 \xe2\x80\x94 21 May; diminishing July, 1881. \nDeaths, June, 1880 \xe2\x80\x94 June, 1881, 1532 deaths, 637 not \nvaccinated ; in N.E. London, May, deaths, about 36 a \nweek, June, 1884 ; deaths decreasing reported, 24 \nJuly ; reappears, but subsides, Dec. 1884. \nSevere epidemic of smallpox at Sheffield and neighbour- \nhood, March, 1887 ; still prevalent, Jan. 1888 ; dis- \nappearing, April, 1888. \n\nSee Vaccination. \n\n\n\nSMALL TENEMENTS ACTS. \n\n\n\n889 \n\n\n\nSNEEZING. \n\n\n\nSMALL TENEMENTS ACTS (59 Geo. III. \nc. 12, 1819) ; 1850 (13 & 14 Vict. c. 99), provided \nfor owners paying\' rates of nouses instead of the oc- \ncupiers. This was annulled by the new Reform \nact, 30 & 31 Vict. c. 102, s. 7 (1867). \n\nSMECTYMNUUS, the initials of certain non- \nconformist writers against episcopacy in the seven- \nteenth century: Stephen Marshall, Edmund Cala- \nmy, Thomas Young, Matthew Newcomen, William \nSpurstow. They were answered by bishop Hall in \nhis " Divine Right of Episcopacy," 1640. \n\nSMITH\'S CHAEITY (foe poor kin). \n\nAlderman Henry Smith, by will dated 26 April, \n1647, left IOOO/. for relief of captives held by \nTurkish pirates, and iooctf. for his poor kinsmen. \nThe former object having become obsolete, an act was \npassed in 1772 to divert all the property to the poor \nkinsmen. In 1868 these were 412 in number. The \nvalue of the property is now 17,000?. a year (1889). \nThe master of the rolls decided in Dec. 1877, \nthat the funds should be applied to general chari- \ntable purposes. On appeal, the decision was in favour \nof the "poor Smiths," 12 Feb. 1878. \n\nSMITHFIELD, WEST, in the heart of \nLondon, was once a favourite walk of the London \ncitizens, outside the city walls. Sir W. "Wallace \nwas executed here, 23 Aug. 1305. On 15 June, \n1381, Wat Tyler was met by Richard II. at this \nplace, and was stabbed by Walworth the mayor. \nMany tournaments were also held here. In the \nreign of Mary (1553-8), many persons perished by \nfire ; and Bartholomew Leggatt, an Arian, was \nburnt here, 18 March, 1612. \xe2\x80\x94 Bartholomew fail- was \nheld here till 1853.\xe2\x80\x94 This place is mentioned as the \nsite of a cattle market as far back as 1150. The \nspace devoted to this purpose was enlarged from \nabout three acres to four and a half, and in 1834 to \nsix and a quarter. The ancient regulations were \ncalled the "statutes of Smithfield." In one day \nthere were sometimes assembled 4000 beasts and \n30,000 sheep. The annual amount of the sales was \nabout 7,000,000^. \n\nSold here 226,132 beasts, 1,593,270 sheep andlambs, \n26,356 calves, 33,531 pigs. (About 160 sales- \nmen) 1846 \n\nThe contracted space of the market, the slaughter- \ning places adjoining, and many other nuisances, \ngave ground to much dissatisfaction, and after \ninvestigation, an act was passed appointing \nmetropolitan market commissioners with powers \nto provide a new market, slaughtering places, &c. ; \nand to close the market at Smithfield . 1 Aug. 1851 \nSmithfield was used as a cattle market for the last \ntime on n June ; and the new market in Copen- \nhagen-fields was opened on 13 June (see Metro- \npolitan Market) 1855 \n\nA dead-meat and poultry market ordered to be \nerected in Smithfield, and Newgate market to \n\ncease . . . 1861 \n\nA tender for its erection, from designs by Horace \nJones, accepted from Messrs. Browne and Robin- \nson for 134,460? Nov. 1866 \n\nThe market inaugurated by the lord mayor Law- \nrence, 24 Nov. ; opened to the public . 1 Dec. 1868 \nNew poultry market, inaugurated by lord mayor \nCotton ....... 30 Nov. 1875 \n\nNew central fruit and vegetable market determined \non . . . . \' . \' . . 14 July, 1879 \n\nA new poultry and provision market was opened in \nFarringdon road by lord mayor Isaacs, n Dec. \n1889 ; the new fruit and vegetable market opened \nby lord mayor Evans . . . 13 June, 1892 \nThe Smithfield Club, to promote improvements in Hie \nbreed of cattle, was established 17 Dec. 1798 ; first pre- \nsident, Francis, duke of Bedford ; first secretary, \nArthur Young. The members established an annual \ncattle show, held first in Dolphin-yard. Smithfield, Dec. \n1799 ; next in Barbican, 1805 ; in Goswell-street, 1806 ; \nremoved to Baker-street, 1839 ; and to the new Agri- \ncultural hall, Liverpool-road, Islington, 1862. \n\n\n\nThe show, suspended in Dec. 1866, on account of the \ncattle plague, was partially resumed Dec. 1S67 ; wholly, \nDec. 1868. \n\nThree of the highest prizes were awarded to the queen ; \n110,000 visitors, 10-14 Oec. 1883. \n\nSMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, "for the \nincrease and diffusion of knowledge among men," \na handsome building at Washington, U.S., was \nfounded in 1846, by means of a legacy of above \n100,000^. bequeathed for the purpose to "the United \nStates government by James Smithson, illegitimate \nson of sir Hugh Smith=on, who became duke of \nNorthumberland in 1766. It publishes and freely \ndistributes scientific memoirs and reports. The \nlibrary was burnt on 25 Jan. 1865. Professor \nJoseph Henry, the first secretary, died, 13 May, \n1878 ; succeeded by Mr. Spencer F. Baird, died, 19 \nAug. 1887 ; succeeded by Professor S. P. Langley. \n\nSMOKE NUISANCE. An act was passed in \n1853 to abate this nuisance, proceeding from chim- \nney shafts and steamers above London bridge. In \n1856 another act, obtained for its further application \nto steamers below London bridge, and to potteries \nand glass-houses previously exempted, came into \noperation, 1 Jan. 1858; enactments have been made \nfor all the kingdom. \nMeeting at Mansion-house for the abatement of smoke in \n\nLondon, 7 Jan. 1881. \nAn exhibition of appliances for this purpose in the \nRoyal Albert Hall, opened 30 Nov. 1881 ; closed 14 \nFeb. 1882 ; opened at Manchester, 17 March, 1882. \nNational Smoke Abatement Institution founded, and Mr. \nR. E. W. Coles appointed smoke inspector, autumn, \n1882. \nSmoke abatement fund opened, 1883. \nThe Thompson smoke consuming furnace tried success- \nfully on the Thames, 15 July, 1886. \nMessrs. Ashworth and Kneen patent a furnace which \nsaves about 35 per cent, of coal and consumes smoke, \nautumn, 1887. \nA bill to abate the nuisance was rejected by the lords, \n\n2 March, 1891. \nA smokeless fuel, invented by Herr Koopmann, was ex- \nhibited before the prince of Wales and others at \nMessrs. Brewis\' premises, King\'s cross, London, N., \n7 April, 1891. The fuel consists of coal-dust incor- \nporated with pitch and other mineral substances in \nsmall proportions. \n\nSMOLENSKO ( Russia) . The French in most \nsanguinary engagements here were three times re- \npulsed, but ultimately succeeded in entering Smo- \nlensko, and found the city, which had been bom- \nbarded, burning and partly in ruins, 16, 17 Aug. \n1812. Barclay de Tolly, the Russian commander- \nin-chief, incurred the displeasure of the emperor \nAlexander because he retreated after the battle, and \nKutusoff succeeded to the command. \n\nSMUGGLEES- The customs duties, institu- \nted to enable the king to afford protection to trade \nagainst pirates, afterwards became a branch of \npublic revenue, and gave rise to much smuggling \nThe Smugglers\' act was passed in 1736, and its \nseverity was mitigated in 178 1 and 1784. A re- \nvision of these statutes took place 1826 and 1835. \nLieut, the lion. H. N. Shore\'s " Smuggling Days \nand Smuggling Ways," published 1892. \n\nSMYENA, see Seven Churches. \n\nSNEEZING. The custom of saying "God \nbless you" to the sneezer originated, according to \nStrada, among the ancients, who, through an \nopinion of the danger attending it, after sneezing \nmade a short prayer to the -mis, as "Jupiter, help \nme." The custom is mentioned by Homer, the \nJewish rabbis, and others, and is found among \nsavages. Polydorc Vergil says it took its rise at \nthe time of the plague, 558, when the infected fell \n\n\n\nSNIDEE GUN. \n\n\n\n890 \n\n\n\nSOCIAL WAES. \n\n\n\ndown dead sneezing, though seemingly in good \nhealth. \n\nSNIDEE GUN, see under Firearms. \n\nSNUFF-TAKING took its rise in England \nfrom the captures made of vast quantities of snuff \nby sir George Kooke\'s expedition to Vigo in 1702, \nand the practice soon became general. In 1839 \nthere were imported 1,622,493 lbs. of snuff, of which \n196,305 lbs. were entered for home consumption ; \nthe duty was 88,263/. ; see Tobacco. In 1853, \n2,573,925 lbs. of snuff and cigars, in 1861, 2,110,430 \nlbs. ; in 1871, 3,852,236 lbs. ; 1877, 3,762,831 lbs.; \n1883, 3,121,174 lbs.; 1887, 3,595,071 lbs. were im- \nported. \n\nSOANE MUSEUM, &c. No. 13, Lincoln\' s-inn- \nfields, was gradually formed by sir J ohn Soane, the \narchitect, who died in 1837, after making arrange- \nments for its being open to the public by an act \npassed in 1833. It contains Egyptian and other \nantiquities, valuable paintings, rare books, &c. \n150/. are distributed annually to distressed archi- \ntects or their widows and children. \nOne of two sealed closets in the museum was \n\nopened 29 Nov. 1886 ; chiefly private legal \n\ndocuments discovered. \n\nSOAP is a salt, a compound of a fatty acid with \nan alkali, soda or potash. The Hebrew borith, \ntranslated soap, is merely a general term for \ncleansing substances. Job ix. 30 ; Jer. ii. 22. \nPliny declares soap to be an invention of the Gauls, \nthough he prefers the German to the Gallic soap. \nNausicaa and her attendants, Homer tells us, \nwashed clothes by treading upon them with their \nfeet in pits of water. Odyssey, book vi. The \nEomans used fuller\'s earth. Savon, the French \nword for soap, is ascribed to its having been manu- \nfactured at Savona, near Genoa. The manufacture \nof soap began in London in 1524, before which \ntime it was supplied by Bristol at one penny per \npound. The duty upon soap, imposed in 1711, \nafter several reductions from 3d. per pound, was \ntotally repealed in 1853. It then produced, accord- \ning to the chancellor of the exchequer, Mr. Glad- \nstone, about 1,126,000/. annually. Exported from \nthe United Kingdom : 1876, 254,853 cwts. ; 1880, \n391,808 cwts.; 1885, 402,112 cwts.; 1890,496,930 \ncwts. \n\nSOBEAON (N.W. India). The British army, \n\n35,000 strong, under sir Hugh (afterwards viscount) \nGough, attacked the Sikh force on the Sutlej, 10 \n.Feb. 1846. The enemy Avas dislodged after a \ndreadful contest, and all their batteries taken ; and \ninattempting the passage of the river by a floating \nbridge in their rear, the weight of the masses that \ncrowded upon it caused it to break down, and \nthousands of Sikhs were lolled, wounded, or \ndrowned. The British loss was 2338 men. \n\n_ SOCIALISM, which proposes the re-organisa- \ntion of society for the benefit of the community at \nthe expense of the individual, was warmly ad- \nvocated in London, 24 Jan. 1834, by Bobert Owen. \nHe had, beginning at New Lanark, in Scotland, \nabout 1 801, established a settlement at New Har- \nmony in America in 1824. He died 17 Nov. 1858, \naged 90. The French socialists, termed Communists, \nbecame a powerful political body in that country, \nwere implicated in the revolution of 1848, and \nmade an insurrection at Paris, 187 1. See France, \nGermany, 1878 et seq., Positive Philosophy, and \nWorking-men (who, in Great Britain, have received \nby legislation nearly all they require). \n\n\n\nThe Rev. Charles Kingsley, Mr. Thomas Hughes, \xe2\x96\xa0 \nand others, endeavoured to set up Christian \nSocialism, about 1855-60 \n\nP. J. Proudhon, an eminent socialist, to whom is \nascribed the saying " la propriete e\'est le vol " ; died \n\n20 Jan. 1865 \n\nCommunist manifesto issued by Carl Marx, 1848 ; \n(he died 14 March, 1883). \n\nSocial democratic party organised by Ferdinand \nLassalle 1863 \n\nInternational workmen\'s association formed . . 1864 \n\n" Gotha programme " (exalting labour) . . . 1875 \n\nA grand congress of socialists met at Ghent, Sept. 1877 \n\nSocialism said to be increasing in Germany . ,, \n\nStringent bill to repress it passed in the parliament ; \nsocialists expelled from Germany by decree, Nov. \nmany papers suppressed, Nov., Dec, 1878. Ex- \npulsions renewed .... autumn, 1S80 \nSee Germany, 1890. \n\nIllegal meeting of socialists permitted in Dod- \nstreet, Limehouse, London . . 27 Sept. 1885 \n\nSocial democratic federation holds meetings which \ntend to riots, see Puots . . 8 and 21 Feb. 1886 \n\nPeaceable meetings held in Trafalgar-square 29 Aug. \n\nand 21 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTheir proposal for a procession on 9 Nov. forbidden, \n\nOct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAbout the end of 1886 they began "church parades" \ndisturbing the service at several churches ; \nineffectually at St. Paul\'s cathedral . 27 Feb. 1887 \n\nThe general council of the social democratic \nfederation issues a manifesto exhorting to con- \nstant organized agitation for adequate relief \nworks &c, to be provided by the government \nand local authorities ; see Hyde Park and Riots, \n\n13 Nov. ,, \n\nMr. William Morris, poet, author of the " Earthly \nParadise," Mr. H. M. Hyndman, Mr. H. H. \nChampion, and Mr. John Burns became leaders \nof the " socialist league " formed in 1886. \n\nA kind of state socialism instituted in Germany ; \nsee under Working Men, 1889. \n\nThe attempts of the federation to hold open-air \nmeetings at Chelsea on Sunday evenings, pre- \nvented by the police, Oct., Dee. 1891, and . Jan. 1892 \n\n.SOCIAL SCIENCE. The National Asso- \nciation for the Promotion of Social Science origin- \nated in a meeting at lord Brougham\'s in May, 1857. \nIts object was to promote improvements in the \nadministration of law, in education, in public \nhealth, and in social economy. It held annual \nmeetings, and published its proceedings. \n\nMr. Wm. Ellis and Mr. John Stuart Mill began to \n\npromote the study about 1S23 \n\nBirmingham, meeting opened ... 12 Oct. 1857 \n\nLiverpool . . . \'. . . . 11 Oct. 1858 \n\nBradford 10 Oct. 1859 \n\nGlasgow 24 Sept. i860 \n\nDublin 14 Aug. 1861 \n\nLondon 6 June, 1862 \n\nEdinburgh 7 Oct. 1863 \n\nYork 22 Sept. 1S64 \n\nSheffield 4 Oct. 1865 \n\nManchester 2 Oct. 1866 \n\nBelfast 18 Sept. 1867 \n\nBirmingham 30 Sept. 1868 \n\nBristol 29 Sept. 1869 \n\nNewcastle-on-Tyne 21 Sept. 1870 \n\nLeeds 4 Oct. 1871 \n\nPlymouth n Sept. .1872 \n\nNorwich 1 Oct. 1873 \n\nGlasgow 30 Sept. 1874 \n\nBrighton 6 Oct. 1875 \n\nLiverpool 11 Oct. 1876 \n\nAberdeen 19 Sept. 1877 \n\nCheltenham 23 Oct. 1878 \n\nManchester 1 Oct. 1879 \n\nEdinburgh 5 Oct. 1880 \n\nDublin 3 Oct. 1S81 \n\nNottingham 20 Sept. 1882 \n\nHuddersfield 3 Oct. 1883 \n\nBirmingham (the last congress) . . . 17 Sept. 1884 \n\nSOCIAL WAES, see Athens, and Marsi. \n\n\n\nSOCIETIES. \n\n\n\n891 \n\n\n\nSOCIETIES. \n\n\n\nSOCIETIES and Institutions, LITE- \nRARY AND SCIENTIFIC, in Great Britain. \nFurther details of many of these will be found \nunder their respective heads. All in the list below \nare in London, except otherwise stated. An act \nwas passed n Aug. 1854, "to afford facilities for \nthe establishment of institutions for the promotion \nof literature and science," by grants of land, &c. ; \nand for their regulation. The Koyal and London \nInstitutions were exempted from the operation of \nthe act. \n\nThe "Year-Book of Scientific aud Learned Societies \n\nfirst appeared in 1884 \n\nRoyal Society Charter 1662 \n\nChristian Knowledge Society 1698 \n\nSociety of Antiquaries . . . (Charter 1751) 1717 \n\nSociety of Dilettanti 1734 \n\nSociety of Arts .... (Charter 1847) 1753 \n\nMedical Society of London 1773 \n\nBath and West of England Society .... 1777 \n\nGaelic Society of London ,, \n\nManchester Literary and Philosophical Society . . 1781 \nRoyal Society of Edinburgh . (Charter 1783) 1782 \n\nHighland Society 1785 \n\nRoyal Irish Academy \'. . . . Charter 1786 \n\nLinnaean Society .... (Charter 1802) 1788 \nNewcastle Literary and Philosophical Society . . 1793 \nRoyal Institution (Act of parliament, 1810) Charter 1800 \n\nGlasgow Philosophical Society 1802 \n\nRoyal Horticultural Society . . (Charter 1809) 1804 \nRoyal Medical and Chirurgical Society \n\n(Charter 1834) 1805 \n\nLondon Institution \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGeological Society .... (Charter 1826) 1807 \n\nRussell Institution 1808 \n\nSwedenborg Society 1810 \n\nLiverpool Literary and Philosophical Society . . 1812 \n\nRoxburghe Club \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nInstitution of Civil Engineers . (Charter 182S) 1818 \nLeeds Literary and Philosophical Society . . \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nEgyptian Society 1819 \n\nCambridge Philosophical Society . (Charter 1832) ,, \n\nHunterian Society ,, \n\nRoyal Astronomical Society . . (Charter 1831) 1820 \n\nMedico-Botanical Society 1821 \n\nRoyal Scottish Society of Arts \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nHull Literary and Philosophical Society . . . 1822 \nYorkshire Philosophical Society ....,, \nSheffield Literary and Philosophical Society . . ,, \nRoyal Society of Literature . . (Charter 1826) 1823 \nRoyal Asiatic Society . . . (Charter 1824) ,, \n\nBannatyne Club, Edinburgh \n\nMechanics\' Institution, London \n\nAthenaeum Club \n\nWestern Literary Institution \n\nEastern Literary Institution \n\nZoological Society .... (Charter 1829) \n\nIncorporated Law Society . . (Charter 1831) 1827 \n\nSociety for Diffusion of Useful Knowledge . \n\nAshmolean Society, Oxford .... \n\nMaitland Club, Glasgow .... \n\nRoyal Geographical Society \n\nRoyal United Service Institution (Charter 1 \n\nRoyal Dublin Society \n\nHarveian Society \n\nBritish Association \n\nMarylebone Literary Institution \nBritish Medical Association \n\nEntomological Society \n\nStatistical Society \n\nWestminster Literary Institution \n\nSurtees Society, Durham \n\nRoyal Institute of British Architects (Charter 1837) \nLeicester Literary and Philosophical Society \nAbbotsford Club, Edinburgh . \nNumismatic Society .... \nOrnithological Society .... \n\nElectrical Society \n\nEtching Club \n\nEnglish Historical Society . \n\nRoyal Agricultural Society (Charter 1840) \n\nCamden Society \n\nMicroscopical Society (Royal, 1866) \nEcclesiological Society .... \nSpalding Club, Aberdeen \n\n\n\n1824 \n1825 \n\n\n\n26 \n\n\n\n1828 \n\n\n\n1830 \n1831 \n\n\n\n1833 \n1834 \n\n\n\n183s \n\n183S-7 \n\n1836 \n\n1837 \n1837-8 \n\n\n\n838-56 \n1838 \n\n\n\nRoyal Botanical Society of London . . . . 1839 \n\nParker Society 1840-55 \n\nPercy Society 1840-52 \n\nIrish Archaeological Society, Dublin . . . . 1840 \n\nLondon Library \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nShakespeare Society ,, \n\nChemical Society 1341 \n\nPharmaceutical Society ,, \n\nWodrow Society, Edinburgh .... 1841-7 \n\nPhilological Society 1842 \n\nj-Elfric Society 1843-56 \n\nChetham Society, Manchester 1843 \n\nSpottiswoode Society, Edinburgh ....,, \nBritish Archaeological Association . . . . ,, \n\nRoyal Archaeological Institute \n\nSydenham Society ,, \n\nEthnological Society ,, \n\nLaw Amendment Society ,, \n\nHandel Society 1844 \n\nSyro-Egyptian Society , , \n\nRay Society ,, \n\nCaxton Society 1844-54 \n\nCeltic Society, Dublin 1845-53 \n\nPathological Society 1846 \n\nSussex Archaeological Society, Lewes . . . ,, \nCambrian Archaeological Association . . . . ,, \n\nCavendish Society ,, \n\nHakluyt Society , \n\nPalaeoutographical Society 1847 \n\nInstitute of Mechanical Engineers (Birmingham) . ,, \n\nInstitute of Actuaries 1848 \n\nArundel Society ,, \n\n(British, now Royal) Meteorological Society \n\n(Charter 1866) 1S50 \n\nEpidemiological Society ,, \n\nNorth of England Institute of Mining Engineers, \n\nNewcastle 1851 \n\nPhotographic Society 1852 \n\nPhilobiblon Society 1853 \n\nJuridical Society 1855 \n\nOdontological Society 1856 \n\nGenealogical Society 1857 \n\nNational Association for Social Science . . . ,, \n\nHorological Institute 1858 \n\nSociety for the Encouragement of Fine Arts . . ,, \nInstitution of Naval Architects .... i860 \n\nClinical Society 1861 \n\nAnthropological Society 1863 \n\nEarly English Text Society ; began to publish . 1864 \n\nVictoria Institute 24 May, 1865 \n\nLondon Mathematical Society ,, \n\nAeronautical Society .... 12 Jan. 1866 \n\nDialectic Society . . * 1867 \n\nChaucer Society ,, \n\nHolbein Society 1S68 \n\nRoyal Historical Society ,, \n\nColonial Institute (Royal Charter, 1882) . . . \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nIron and Steel Institute 1869 \n\nHarleian Society . . . . , . . . ,, \n\nAmateur Mechanical Society ,, \n\nChristian Evidence Society 1871 \n\nBiblical Archaeology Society ,, \n\nAnthropological Institute (which see) . . . . ,, \nInstitution of Electrical Engineers Qatc Society of \n\nTelegraph Engineers) . . . . . . ,, \n\nMarine Engineers\' Institution 1872 \n\nSociety for Organization of Academical Study . ,, \nLondon Anthropological Society (extinct) . 1873-5 \n\nPalaeographical Society 1873 \n\nEnglish Dialectic Society .... ,, \n\n(New) Shakspeare Society \n\nPhysical Society 1874 \n\nMusical Association , \n\nPublic Analysts ,, \n\nPsychological Society 1875 \n\nEducation Society ,, \n\nRoyal Aquarium Society \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMineralogical Society 1876 \n\nSanitary Institute of Great Britain , \n\nPhilosophical Society (Birmingham) . . . . \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n[library Association 1877 \n\nIndex Society ,, \n\nInstitute of Chemistry of Great Britain . . . \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nZetetical Society 1878 \n\nPolk-Lore Society \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAstrological Society ...... 1879 \n\nCarlyle Society \n\nHellenic Society , \n\n\n\nSOCIETY ISLANDS. \n\n\n\nSOLFERINO. \n\n\n\nSociety for promoting Hellenic Studies . . . 1879 \n\nRabelais Club . . . . . . . . ... . . . ,, \n\nWilloughby Society ,, \n\nInstitute of Bankers \n\nBalloon Society 1880 \n\nAristotelian Society . \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nWordsworth Society , , \n\nTopographical Society of London . . . . ,, \n\nAscham Society ,, \n\nChemical Industry Society 1881 \n\nBrowning Society ,, \n\nSociety for Psychical Research .... 1882 \n\nWy cliff e Society . . . . . . . ,, \n\nSeal Society 1883 \n\nMarine Biological Association 1884 \n\nSociety of Authors . \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPipe Roll. Society \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMiddlesex County Record Society . . . , , \n\nSociety of Medallists 1885 \n\nBacon Society \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSelborne Society \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nShelley, Society . . . .. ., . . \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGoethe Society 1886 \n\nSelden Society 1887 \n\nNeurological Society ,, \n\nAnatomical Society , \n\nGilbert Club 1889 \n\nRuskin. Society 1890 \n\nBritish Artronomical Society ,, \n\nJapan Society 1892 \n\nSOCIETY ISLANDS, Pacific Ocean, dis- \ncovered by De Quiros in 1606; re-discovered by \ncapt. Wallis, 1767, who gave Otaheite or Tahiti \nthe name of King George\'s Island. Capt. Cook, \nwho visited them in 1769 and 1777, named them \nSociety Islands in honour of the Royal Society. \nSee Otaheite. \n\nSOCINIANS, persons who accept the opinions \nof Faustus Socinus (died 1562), and his nephew \nLselius (died 1604), Siennese noblemen. They held \n\xe2\x80\x94 1. That the Eternal Father was the one only God, \nand that Jesus Christ was no otherwise God than \nby his superiority to all other creatures; 2. That \nChrist was not a mediator ; 3. That hell will endure \nfor a time, after which the soul and body will be \ndestroyed ; 4. That it is unlawful for princes to \nmake war. Hook. The Socinians established a \nchurch at Rakow, in Poland, and made proselytes \nin Transylvania, 1563. They were expelled from \nPoland in 1658. The Rakovian catechism was \npublished in 1574; see Unitarians. \n\nSOCOTBA (Dioscoridis insula), an island in \nthe Indian ocean, belonging to the imam of Muscat, \n120 miles E. of cape Guardafui, Eastern Africa. \nIn the\' summer of 1878, it was said to have been \ngiven up to the British; formally annexed, Nov. \n1886. \n\nSODIUM, a remarkable metal, first obtained \nin 1807 by sir Humphry Davy, from soda (which \nwas formerly confounded with potash, but proved \nto be a distinct substance by Duhamel in 1736). \nThis metal, like potassium, was obtained by the \nagency of the electric battery. In consequence of \nDeville\'s improved processes, sodium manufac- \ntured by Bell Brothers, of Newcastle, at 10s. a pound \n(1868). It is an important agent in the modern \nproduction of aluminium. Common salt (chloride \nof sodium) is a compound of sodium and chlorine. \nMr. H. Y. Casther\'s (of New York) new process for \nthe enlarged production of sodium, and through \nsodium of aluminium and magnesium, announced \nin June, 1887. His works were set up at Oldbury, \nnear Birmingham ; the price of sodium in 1889 was \nabout 4s. 40!. a pound. See Alkalies and Alu- \nminium. \n\nSODOM AND GOMORRAH (Palestine), with \n\n\n\ntheir inhabitants, were destroyed by fire from \nheaven 1898 B.C., Gen. xix. \n\nSODOR, said to be derived from Sodor-eys, or \nsouth isles (the iEbrides or Hebrides) , in distinc- \ntion from Orkneys, the north isles. The southern \nor western isles were made an episcopal diocese by \nMagnus, king of Norway, 1098, and joined to the \nisle of Man about n 13. See Man. \n\nSOFIA, a manufacturing town in Bulgaria; \nfounded by Justinian on the ruins of the ancient \nSardica ; became the capital of the new principality. \nA palace and other buildings were erected, Aug. \n1 88 1. It contains 30 mosques and 10 churches. \nDestructive thunderstorm with loss of life, 31 May, \n1890 ; see Bulgaria. Population, 1890, 42,000. \n\nSOFFARIDES DYNASTY reigned in Per- \nsia, 872-902. \n\nSOFTAS, Mahometan students devoted to the \nKoran only. See Turkey, Maj r , 1876. \n\nSOHO BAZAAR AND THEATRE, see \n\nBazaars and Theatres. \n\nSOISSONS (France), capital of the Gallic \n\nSuessiones, was subdued by Julius Caesar, 57 B.C. \nIt was held by Syagrius, after his father JEgidius, \ntill his defeat by Clovis, a.d. 486. Several councils \nhave been held at Soissons (in 744, 1092, 1122). \nIts academy was established in 1674. During the \nFranco-Prussian war, Soissons, after three weeks\' \ninvestment and four days\' bombardment, surren- \ndered to the Germans under the grand-duke of \nMecklenburg, 16 Oct. 1870. 99 officers, 4633 men, \n128 guns, &c, were said to be taken. The Germans \nthus obtained a second line of railway from Chalons \nto Paris. \n\nSOLAR SYSTEM, nearly as now accepted, \nis said to have been taught by Pythagoras of Samos, \nabout 529 B.C. He placed the sun in the centre, \nand all the planets moving in elliptical orbits \nround it \xe2\x80\x94 a doctrine superseded by the Ptolemaic \nsystem (which see). The system of Pythagoras, \nrevived by Copernicus (1543), is called the Coper- \nnican system. Its truth was demonstrated by sir \nIsaac Newton in 1687. See Planets. \n\nSOLDIERS\' DAUGHTERS\' HOME was \n\nestablished at Hampstead, near London, in Aug. \n1857, by the surplus of the money collected by the \ncentral association in aid of the wives and families \nof soldiers in active service during the Crimean war, \nand opened by the prince consort, 18 June, 1858. \nIt has been much indebted to the exertions of major \nPowys. \n\nSoldiers\' and Sailors\' Families Association founded 1885 \nIn Nov. 1890 ct scq. it received subscriptions for the \nsufferers by the wreck of H.M.S. Serpent, see Navy \n\nNov. 1890 \n\nSOLEBAY or Southwold BAY (Suffolk), \nwhere a fierce naval battle was fought between the \nfleets of England and France on one side, and the \nDutch oh the other, the former commanded by the \nduke of York, afterwards James II., 28 May, 1672. \nThe English lost four ships, and the Dutch three ; \nbut the enemy fled, and were pursued to their \ncoasts. The earl of Sandwich was blown up, and \nthousands were killed and wounded. \n\nSOL-FA SYSTEM, see Music. \n\nSOLFERINO (in Lombardy), the site of the \nchief struggle on the great battle of 24 June, 1859, \nbetween the allied French and Sardinian army \ncommanded by their respective sovereigns, and the \nAustrians under general Hess ; the emperor being \n\n\n\nSOLICITOE. \n\n\n\n893 \n\n\n\nSOMNATH GATES. \n\n\n\npresent. The Austrians, after their defeat at \nMagenta, gradually retreated across the Mincio, \nand took up a position in the celebrated quadrila- \nteral, and were expected there to await the attack. \nBut the advance of Garibaldi on one side, and of \nprince Napoleon and the Tuscans on the other, in- \nduced them to recross the Mincio and take the \noffensive, on 23 June. The conflict began early on \nthe 24th, and lasted fifteen hours. At first the \nAustrians had the advantage ; but the successful \nattack of the French on Cavriana and Solferino \nchanged the fortune of the day, and the Austrians, \nafter desperate encounters, were compelled to \nretreat. The French attribute the victory to the \nskill and bravery of their emperor and the generals \nMacMahon and Niel ; the Austrians, to the destruc- \ntion of their reserve by the rifled cannon of their \nadversaries. The Sardinians maintained a fearful \ncontest of fifteen hours at San Martino, it is said \nagainst double their number. Loss of the Austrians, \n630 officers, and 19,311 soldiers; of the allies, 8 \ngenerals, 936 officers, and 17,305 soldiers killed \nand wounded. This battle closed the war; pre- \nliminaries of peace being signed at Villa Franca, \n12 July. On 24 June, 1870, on the site of the \nbattle, three ossuaries, containing the bones of \nthousands of the slain, were consecrated in the \npresence of representatives of Austria, France, and \nItaly. \n\nSOLICITOR, see Attorney. By the Supreme \nJudicature Act, attorneys in future are to be styled \nsolicitors; an act for regulating their examination \nwas passed, 23 July, 1877. \n\nSOLICITOR-GENERAL, the legal officer \nnext in rank, and deputy to the attorney-general, \nvhoni he frequently succeeds. \n\n839. Sir Thomas Wilde (afterwards lord Truro), 5 Dec. \n\n841. Sir William Follctt (second time), 6 Sept. \n\n844. Sir Frederick Thesiger (since lord Chelmsford), 17 \n\nApril. \n\n845. Sir Fitzroy Kelly, 17 July. \n\n846. Sir John Jervis, 4 July. \n\n,, Sir David Dundas, 18 July. \n\n848. Sir John Romilly, April 4, aft. lord Romilly. \n\n850. Sir Alex. J. E. Cockburn, n July. \n\n851. Sir W. Page Wood, 28 March, aft. lord Hatherley. \n\n852. Sir Fitzroy Kelly, Feb. \n\n\xe2\x80\x9e Sir Richard Bethell, Dec, aft. lord Westbury. \n\n856. Rt. Hon. James Stuart Wortley, Nov. \n\n857. Sir Henry Keating, May. \n\n858. Sir Hugh M. Cairns, 26 Feb., aft. earl Cairns. \n\n859. Sir Henry Keating, 18 June. \n\xe2\x80\x9e Sir William Atherton, Dec. \n\n861. Sir Roundell Palmer, 27 June, aft. lord Selborne. \n863. Sir Robert Porrett Collier, 2 Oct. \n\n866. Sir William Bovill, 13 July. \n\n,, Sir John Burgess Karslake, 29 Nov. \n\n867. Sir Charles Jasper Selwyn, July. \n\n868. Sir Win. Baliol Brett, Feb. (made judge, Sept.) \n\xe2\x80\x9e Sir Richard Baggallay, 14 Sept. \n\n,, Sir John Duke Coleridge, i2Dec, aft. Id. Coleridge. \n871. Sir George Jessel, Nov. \n\n873. Sir Henry James, 26 Sept. \n\n,, Sir Wm. Vernon Harcourt, Nov. \n\n874. Sir Richard Baggallay, Feb. \n,, Sir John Holker, 22 April. \n\n875. Sir Hardinge Stanley Giffarcl, 25 Nov., aft. lord \n\nHalsbury. \n880. Sir Farrer Herschell, 3 May, aft. lord Herschell. \n\n885. John E. Gorst, June. \n\n886. Sir Horace Davey, 15 Feb. \n\xe2\x80\x9e Sir Edward Clarke, 26 July. \n\n1892. John Rigby, 18 Aug. \n\nSOLICITORS\' ACT, passed 24 Dec. 1888. \n\nSOLICITORS\' REMUNERATION ACT, \n\n44 & 45 Vict. c. 44; passed in 1881. \n\nSOLIFIDIANS (from solus, only, and fides, \nfaith) a name given to the Antinomians {which \nsee). \n\n\n\nSOLOMON\'S TEMPLE, see Temple. \n\nSOLWAY MOSS (Cumberland, bordering on \nScotland). On 13 Nov. 177 1, it swelled, owing to \nheavy rains. Upwai-ds of 400 acres rose to such a \nheight above the level of the ground, that at last \nit rolled forward like a torrent above a mile, sweep- \ning along with it houses, trees, &c. It covered 600 \nacres at Netherby, and destroyed about 30 small \nvillages. Near Solway Moss the Scots were defeated \nby the English, 25 Nov. 1542. \n\nSOMAJ, see Deism. \n\nSOMBRERO (West Indies). On this desert \nisle, Bobert Jeffery, a British man-of-war\'s man, \nwas put ashore by his commander, the hon. captain \nW. Lake, for having tapped a barrel of beer when \nthe ship was on short allowance. After sustaining \nlife for eight days on a few limpets and rain-water, \nhe was saved by an American vessel, 13 Dec. 1807 ; \nand returned to England. Sir Francis Burdett \nadvocated his cause in parliament, and he received \n600/. as a compensation from captain Lake, who was \ntried by a court-martial, and dismissed the service, \n10 Feb. 1810. \n\nSOMERSET-HOUSE (London), formerly a \npalace, founded on the site of several churches \nand other buildings levelled in 1549, by the pro- \ntector Somerset, whose residence fell to the crown \nafter his execution, 22 Jan. 1552. Here resided at \ntimes queen Elizabeth, Anne of Denmark, and \nCatherine, queen of Charles II. Old Somerset- \nhouse, a mixture of Grecian and Gothic, was de- \nmolished in 1775, and the present edifice, from a \ndesign by sir VVilliam Chambers, was erected for \npublic offices. The Boyal Academy of Arts first \nassembled in the apartments given to the members \nby the king, 17 Jan. 1771. The Koyal Society \nmet here, 1780-1857 ; and apartments here were \nalso held by the Society of Antiquaries and the \nGeological Society ; all three now at Burlington \nHouse. Large suites of government buildings were \nerected in 1774. The Navy-office, Pipe-office, \nVictualling and other offices, were removed here in \n1788, and various government departments since. \nThe east wing forming the King\'s College (see \nKing\'s College) was completed in 1833. By an act \npassed in 1854, the offices of the duchy of Cornwall \nwere transferred to Pimlico. \n\nCHIEF OFFICES AT \n\nProbate and Divorce Divi- \nsion of high court of jus- \ntice and Registry Offices. \n\nAppeals Registry Office. \n\nRegister of Births, Deaths, \nand Marriages. \n\nExchequer and Audit De- \npartment. \n\nProperty and Income Tax \nOffices. \n\n\n\nSOMERSET HOUSE. \n\nStamp Offices, &c. \nExcise and Tax-Offices. \nLegacies and Succession \n\nDuty Offices. \nInland Revenue Offices. \nBank Returns Office. \nLaboratory Department. \nSolicitors\' Offices. \nCoinpanies\'Register Offices, \n\n&c, &c. \n\nSOMERSET THE BLACK, sec Slavery in \n\nEngland. \n\nSOMERS-TOWN, a populous district in St. \nPancras parish, N. London : named after carl \nSomcrs, whose family acquired the property about \n1695. The building began about 1786; ami many \nFrench refugees settled in it. Much of the district \nhas been occupied by the railway companies. \n\nSOMNATH GATES, the gates of an ancient \nHindoo temple at Guzerat, which was destroyed by \nMahmoud ot Ghuznee in 1025. The priests wished \nto preserve the idol ; but Mahmoud broke it to \npieces and found it filled with diamonds, &0. He \ncarried the gates to Ghuznee. When that city was \ntaken by general Nott, 6 Sept. 1842, lord Ellen- \n\n\n\nSOMOEEOSTEO. \n\n\n\n894 \n\n\n\nSOUDAN. \n\n\n\nborough ordered the gates to be restored after an \nexile of 800 years, and issued a proclamation much \ncensured at the time. The gates are made of \nsandal wood, and are described and figured in the \nArchseologia of the Society of Antiquaries, vol. \n\nXXX. \n\nSOMOEEOSTEO, see Spain, 1874. \n\nSONATA (Italian, sound-piece), the highest \nform of instrumental music, consisting of three or \nfour movements, intending to express diverse kinds \nof human feelings. \n\nIt was developed from the suite, varied dance music \n(Tartini, 1624, aud others). The form fixed by Corelli \n(1653-1713), was adopted and modified by Scarlatti, the \nBachs, Handel, Mozart, Haydn, and culminated in the \nmaster-pieces of Beethoven (1770-1827). Fine sonatas \nhave been composed by Dussek, M. Clemcnti, Weber, \nSchubert, Mendelssohn, Schumann, Wm. Sterndale \nBennett, Chopin, Liszt, and Rubenstein. \n\nSONDEEB UND, see Switzerland, 1846. \n\nSONNET, a poem in fourteen lines, with \nrhymes adjusted by rules, was invented, it is said, \nby Guido d\'Arezzo, about 1024. The most cele- \nbrated sonnets are those by Petrarch (about 1327), \nShakspeare (1609), Milton (about 1650), and \nWordsworth (1820). \n\nSONNITES, the orthodox Mahometans who \nnow possess the Turkish empire ; see Maho- \nmetanism. \n\nSONS OF THE CLEEGY, see Clergy. \nSONTAY, see Tonquin, Dec. 1883. \n\nSONTHALS, a tribe of Northern India, \nbrought to Bengal about 1830, where they pros- \npered, till, partly from the instigation of a fanatic, \nand partly from the exactions of money-lenders, \nthey broke out into rebellion in July, 1855, and \ncommitted fearful outrages. They were quite sub- \ndued early in 1856, and many were removed to the \nnewly- conquered province of Pegu. \n\nSOOLOO, see Sulu. \n\nSOPHIA, ST. (in Constantinople). The first \nchurch was dedicated to St. Sophia (holy wisdom) \nby Constantius II., 360 ; this having been destroyed, \ntbe second, the present edifice, was founded by \nJustinian, 531, and dedicated 537. Since tbe \nMahometan conquest in 1453, it has been used as \nan imperial mosque. Its length is 269 feet, and its \nbreadth 243 feet. Six of its pillars are of green \njasper, from the temple of Diana, at Ephesus ; and \nof porphyry, from the temple of the Sun, at Rome. \nFour minarets were added by Selim II., who reigned \nin 1566. The interior of the dome is beautifully \nornamented with mosaic work. \n\nSOPHIA, see Sofia. \n\nSOPHISTS, teachers of youth in Athens, who \nwere censured by Socrates, and consequently were \ninstrumental in causing his judicial murder, 399 \nB.C. The controversy against them was carried on \nby Plato and Ids disciples. \n\nSOEBONNE, a society of ecclesiastics at \nParis, founded by Robert de Sorbonne in 1252. \nThe members lived in common, and devoted them- \nselves to study and gratuitous teaching. They \nsoon attained a European reputation as a faculty of \ntheology, their judgment being frequently appealed \nto, from the 14th to the 17th centuries. The influ- \nence of the Sorbonne was declining when the society \nwas broken up in 1789. The buildings are now \ndevoted to education. The new Sorbonne Build- \nings were opened on 5 Aug. 1889 ; this is the virtual \n\n\n\nreconstruction of the university of Paris. Gymnastic \neducation introduced, 1892. \n\nSOECEEEES Aim Magicians. A law \n\nwas enacted against then- seductions, 33 Hen. VIII. \n1541; and another statute equally severe was \npassed, 5 Eliz. 1563. The pretension to sorcery \nwas made capital, 1 James I. 1603 ; see Witchcraft. \n\nSOEGHTJM, see under Sugar. \n\nSOUDAN or SoiJJAH, the title of the lieu- \ntenant-generals of the caliphs, which they bore in \ntheir provinces and armies. The officers afterwards \nmade themselves sovereigns. Saladin, general of \nthe forces of Noureddin, king of Damascus, was the \nfirst that took upon him this title in Egypt, 1165, \nafter having killed the caliph Caym. \n\nSOUDAN or NlGRITIA, a region of Central \n\nAfrica, partly subjected to the Khedive of Egypt \n\nsince 1874, capital Khartoum. It was well governed, \n\nby col. Gordon, till 1879. See Egypt. \n\nInsurrection headed by Sheik Mahomed Ahmed of \nDongola, declaring himself to be a prophet \n(Mahdi or Muhdi, foretold by Moslem prophets), \n\nJuly, 1881 \n\nDefeated ; retires up the Blue Nile ; crosses White \nNile with increased army . . . winter, ,, \n\nDefeats the Egyptians .... Nov. ,, \n\nSurrounds and massacres 6000 Egyptians under \nYussuf Pasha, 14 June ; occupies Shala, July ; \ndefeated at Bara, 19 Aug. ; at Duem, 28 Aug. ; \nrepulsed at Obeid, 8, 14 Sept. ; defeats the \nEgyptians, 15 Sept.-24 Oct. ; rebels defeated at \nBara, 4 Nov. ; Col. Stewart at Khartoum, \n\n16 Dec. 1882 \n\nThe Mahdi captures Bara and Obeid, 5 Jan. ; he is \nrepulsed 23-26 Feb. 1883 \n\nCol. Hicks pasha with an army starts for the Kor- \ndofan; arrives at Berber, 1 March ; totally defeats \nthe Mahdi with great loss ; the enemy pursued \n\n29 April, ,, \n\nThe Mahdi defeated at Khartoum about 14 May, ,, \n\nThe Sennaar chiefs submit ; announced 25 June, ,, \n\nHicks marches up the Nile, 9 Sept. ; arrives at \nDuem 20 Sept. ,, \n\nSurprise and defeat of Egyptian detachment at \nTokar, near Suakin ; about 150 killed, including \nthe brave and able British consul . . 6 Nov. ,, \n\nBattle of El-Obeid, or Kashgal ; col. Hicks decoyed \ninto a defile ; about 11,000 men attacked by over- \nwhelming multitudes, they form squares and \nresist till nearly all are killed, including col. \nHicks, col. Farquhar, and other European \nofficers, only two said to have escaped ; reported \ndesertion of some of Hicks\' troops ; the Mahdi \ngains cannon and much ammunition 3-5 Nov. ,, \n\nEgyptian force concentrated at Khartoum under \ncol. Coetlogon Nov. ,, \n\nGeneral rising throughout the country ; the British \ngovernment sends gunboats to defend Suakin \nand Red Sea ports, about 23 Nov. ; attack on \nSuakin forts, 26 Nov. \xe2\x80\x94 t Dec. ; about 720 Egyp- \ntians surrounded and 682 killed (asserted) 2 Dec. ,, \n\nV. Baker pasha sent to Suakin with plenary powers \n\nabout 18 Dec. ,, \n\nKhartoum garrison strengthened about 26 Dec. ,, \n\nOsman Digma, a ruined slave-dealer, commander \nfor the Mahdi Dee. ., \n\nGeneral (Chinese) Gordon sent to the Soudan (to \nreport) 18 Jan., starts 19 Jan. ; appointed \ngovernor-general of the Soudan by the Khedive \n\n25 Jan. 1884 \n\nSinkat closely besieged . . Nov. 1883 \xe2\x80\x94 Jan. ,, \n\nTokar besieged by rebels; surrenders, 21 Feb.; \nBaker pasha with 3500 men defeated near Tokar, \nloses about 2250 men (demoralised), with the \nremnant retreats to Trinkitat, 4 Feb. ; received \nby H.M.S. Ranger, 5, 6 Feb. ; reinforcements \nordered to be sent to adm. Hewett at Suakin, \n6 Feb. ; Baker pasha recalled ; remains ; Suakin \nin state of siege ; adm. Hewett in full command, \n7-9 Feb. ; desperate sortie of the garrison, headed \nby Tewfik bey, from Sinkat, all killed ; women \nand children prisoners, town taken . 8 Feb. ,, \n\n\n\nSOUDAN. \n\n\n\n895 \n\n\n\nSOUDAN. \n\n\n\nReinforcements sent to Suakin . n, 12 Feb. 1 \n\nGeneral Gordon arrives at Berber, 11 Feb. ; enthu- \nsiastically received as a deliverer at Khartoum ; \nproclaims the Mahdi sultan of Kordofan ; remis- \nsion of half the taxes, and non-interference \nwith the slave trade, releases prisoners, remits \ndebts 18 Feb. \n\nRestoration of the former sultanate of Darfour \nproposed; Kassala besieged by Osnian Digma Feb. \n\nThe Black troops at Suakin mutiny and disperse ; \nannounced 25 Feb. \n\nBattle of El-Teb, near where Baker pasha was \ndefeated, 4 Feb. After fruitless attempt at \nnegotiation, gen. Gerald Graham, with about \n4000 men (consisting of 10th and 19th Hussars, \nGordon Highlanders, the Black Watch, Lanca- \nshire and Yorkshire battalions, and Marines), at \n11 a.m., advanced on the rebels, about 12,000, \nwho, after a most desperate, heroic resistance, \nwere totally defeated with the loss of about 2000 \nmen, at 2.30 p.m. ; the British loss was major \nM. M. Slade, lieuts. F. H. Probyn, F. A. Free- \nman, and Frank Koyds, and quartermaster James \nWilkius and 24 men killed, and 142 wounded, \n\n29 Feb. \n\nTokar surrendered, and the rebel garrison fled \n\n1 March, \n\nOsman Digma at Tamanieb ... 3 March, \n\nSeveral Arab sheikhs come into Suakin, 6, 7 March, \n\nOsman Digma disregards gen. Graham\'s proclama- \ntion, about 8 March. Osman Digma disdainfully \nrejects British proposals, and proclaims death to \ninfidels about 10 March, \n\nBattle of Tamanieb. The British advance to capture \nOsman Digma\'s camp at Tamasi, near El-Teb, 7.20 \na.m. ; the British were massed in oblong squares, \none square broken into by a violent onslaught of \nhidden Arabs, who creep under and capture the \nGatling and other guns, desperate hand to hand \nconflict ; the British driven back ; no panic ; col. \nWood with 700 cavab-y charges the Arabs in flank, \nand drives them back, the infantry rally and re- \ncover the guns, the other square perfectly success- \nful; the camp taken, 12.30 p.m. The British loss, \nkilled, capts. H. G. V. Ford, Walker, and Aitken ; \nlieuts. Moutresor, Almack, and Houston Stewart, \nand 86 men, in wounded, and 19 missing; 2000 \n:if the enemy killed out of above 10,000. The \nBlack Watch and Naval Brigade suffered much \n\n13 March, \n\nOsman Digma\'s camp with stores captured on \n4 Feb. ; burnt .... 14 March, \n\nGordon defeats rebels and brings off garrison of \nHalfyeh .... about 15 March, \n\nThrough cowardice and treachery Gordon\'s troops \n(1500) defeated by about 60 rebels with great \nslaughter 16 March, \n\nReward of 5000 dollars offered for capture of \nOsman Digma, alive or dead, 15 March; counter- \nmanded from home . . . .17 March, \n\nTroops march to Handoub wells . 18 March, \n\nFriendly sheikhs coming in . . . 20 March, \n\nHassan and Said pashas, Turko-Egyptian generals, \ntried and shot 23 March, \n\nThe Mahdi rejects Gordon\'s offers ; announced \n\n23 March, \n\nGeneral Graham advances on Tamanieb ; slight \nskirmish ; the Arabs flee ; Osman Digma\'s vil- \nlages burnt 27 March, \n\nThree regiments -at Suakin, embark for home, &c. \n\n29 March, \nMarch to Berber reported safe . 29 March, \nGordon contending with the rebels, with varying \n\nsuccess ; Kassala closely besieged, announced \n\n30 March, \nKhartoum said to be closely invested ; the rebels \n\nfrequently defeated .... April, \n\nGeneral Gordon, col. Stewart, and Mr. Power, the \n\nTimes correspondent, the only British there \n\n8 April, \n\nThe Mahdi said to have been twice defeated by the \n\n- Jagalla tribes ; reported . . . 9 April, \n\nEgyptian troops arrive at Suakin . . 10 April, \n\nAdm. Hcwett\'s mission well received by lias Aloola \n\nabout 13 April, \n\nThe Marines depart . . . about 15 April, \n\nShendy closely besieged ; 51 fugitives from it killed \n\nby Arabs ; announced . . . . 19 April, \n\n\n\nBerber said to be closely invested . 20 April, \n\nReported evacuation of Berber; troops withdrawn \nto Korosko ; announced . . .26 April, \n\nThe whole country in insurrection; Egyptian \ntroops joining the\' Mahdi . . . April, \n\nThe government declining to send help, Gordon \nwrites to sir Evelyn Baring, "I shall hold on \nhere as long as I can, and if I can suppress the \nrebellion, I will do so. If I cannot, I shall \nretire to the equator." \n\nCol. Stewart and Mr. Power decide to remain with \nhim May, \n\nSubscriptions proposed to support Gordon . May, \n\nAdm. Hewett well received by the king of Abys- \nsinia at Adowa ; treaty signed . about 26 May, \n\nFruitless attacks on Suakin checked by Marines, \n27, 28, 31 May, 2, 4, 10 June, \n\nGordon said to have been opposed by government \nin all his propositions . . . April, May, \n\nHighly successful sally from Khartoum ; major \nChermside made governor of Suakin ; refugees \nfrom Korosko arrive at Assouan ; reported rise of \nanother Mahdi 28 May, \n\nThe Mudir of Dongola said to have defeated the \nrebels May, \n\nAdvance of Egyptian troops . . . . May, \n\nFall of Berber announced . . . .10 June, \n\nAssouan fortified . . . . June, \n\nRebels defeated at Debbeh with great loss, \n\n29-30 J une, \n\nAdvance of the Mahdi said to be checked by another \nMahdi; announced 2 July, \n\nAssouan occupied by the British . 12 July, \n\nAdditional troops sent to Alexandria from Malta, \n\nJuly, \n\nGordon dominant and successful at Khartoum ; re- \nported 22 July, \n\nContinued desertion of Egyptian troops, announced \nJuly ; Gordon reports Khartoum and Sennaar \nholding out 2 Aug. \n\nMudir of Dongola said to have greatly helped Gor- \ndon July, Aug. \n\nGen. Gordon repulses severe attack. 10 Aug. ; de- \nfeats rebels 12 Aug. \n\nOsman Digma, near Suakin, frequently defeated, \n\nAug. \n\nPreparation for the expedition to relieve Khartoum, \ngen. Earle commander ; British troops arrive at \nWady Haifa 23 Aug. et seq. \n\nThe expedition to ascend the Nile in about 800 flat- \nbottomed boats, navigated by Canadian Indians \n(voyageurs) ; Sarras .... Sept. Oct \n\nDefeat of the Mahdi\'s troops by the Mudir of Don- \ngola at Ambikol 8 Sept. \n\nGen. Earle to be at Wady Haifa ; col. Stewart and \nlord Airlie at Dongola ; col. Maurice at Assiout \n\nSept \n\nAnother defeat of Mahdi\'s troops reported 15 Sept. \n\nTelegrams from Gordon requiring assistance Sept. \n\nFriendly tribes defeat rebels, and relieve Suakin, \nabout 17 Sept. \n\nVictories of Gordon on 24 July and 30 Aug., and \nraising of the siege of Khartoum reported, \n\n20 Sept. \n\nBritish army in Egypt, 13,559 . about 22 Sept. \n\nLord John Hay arrives with the fleet at Alexandria, \n\n24 Sept. \n\nSeveral camel corps start from Woolwich for the \nSoudan about 25 Sept. \n\nMr. Power\'s journal of the siege of Khartoum, from \nApril to 31 July published in the Times, 29 Sept. \n\nLord Wolseley arrives at Wady Haifa . 5 Oct. \n\nShendy taken 6 Oct. \n\nCol. J. D. Stewart, with Mr. Power and M. Heroin, \nand about 40 men in a steamer, wrecked near \nWady Qarna, fifth cataract ; land ; massacred by \nArabs offering guidance ; announced about 6 Oct. \n\nGordon defeats rebels and returns to Khartoum ; \nannounced 1 Nov. \n\nI. oi-.l Wolseley arrives at Dongola . . 3 Nov. \n\nAttacks on Suakin repulsed . . 3,4 x0V. \n\nGordon reports all well at Khartoum . 4 Nov. \n\nRebels often repulsed Nov. \n\nAbove 200 whalers on the Nile conveying troops, &c. \n\n15 Nov. \n\nTwo steamers disabled by rebels near Khartoum ; \nannounced . .... 18 Nov. \n\n\n\n1884 \n\n\n\nSOUDAN. \n\n\n\n896 \n\n\n\nSOUDAN. \n\n\n\nLord Wolseley\'s proclamation to the soldiers and \nsailors issued i Dee. \n\nTwo hours\' attack of the rebels on Snakin without \neffect, 3 Dec. ; rebels defeated with loss 8 Dec. \n\nLord Wolseley arrives at Korti . . 15 Dec. \n\nSuccessful sally of the garrison of Kassala, 26 Dec. \n\nForward movement of the army . . 28 Dec. \n\nBapid marches of gen. sir Herbert Stewart . Dec. \n\nSuccessful march in the desert . . . Jan. \n\nGen. Earle proceeding up the Nile, and gen. Stewart \ncrossing the desert with troops, towards Metam- \nmeli Jan. \n\nNear Abu Klea wells, about 120 miles from Khar- \ntoum, gen. Stewart, with 1500 men, defeats about \n10,000 Arabs, who retire after a fierce conflict \n\xe2\x96\xa0within the square, leaving about 800 dead. The \nBritish lose 9 officers (col. Fred. Gns. Burnaby, \nmajors Atherton, Carmichael, and Gough, capts. \nLaw and Darley, lieuts. Pigott, Delisle, and \nWolfe), and 65 men killed, with 85 wounded \n\n17 Jan. \n\nGen. Stewart, marching towards Metammeh, is \nseverely wounded by hidden sharpshooters; 12 \nkilled, including correspondents of the Morning \nPost and Standard, Thos. St. Leger Herbert, and \nJohn A. Cameron; sir Charles Wilson takes com- \nmand .... . . 18 Jan. \n\nAt Gubat, near Metammeh, fierce Arab onset on \nthe British square is repulsed with very heavy \nloss . 19 Jan. \n\nMessage from gen. Gordon received, dated 29 Dec. : \n"Khartoum is all right; could hold out for a \nyear" about 19 Jan. \n\nCommunications opened with Khartoum . 24 Jan. \n\nGen. Earle with army marches to Handoub for \nBerber 24 Jan. \n\nSuccessful skirmishes of gen. Earle . . Jan. \n\nGen. Stewart succeeded by sir Redvers Buller Jan. \n\nSurrender of Khartoum ; Gordon and his faithful \nfollowers killed .... early 26 Jan. \n\nSir Charles Wilson sails up the Nile . 28 Jan. \n\nReconnaissances of gen. Fremantle ; heavy Arab \nloss, about 30 Jan. ; Handoub captured and burnt \nby a party which is intercepted by Arabs, and \nlose 12 men 2 Feb. \n\nThe Italian flag hoisted beside Egyptian at Masso- \nwah {which see) . . . 6 Feb. \n\nSir Charles Wilson and party, within 800 yards of \nKhartoum, fired upon ; retreats ; his steamer is \nwrecked by treachery of Arab pilots ; lands on an \nisland ; is rescued from peril by the daring cour- \nage of lord Charles Beresford in face of batteries; \narrives at Korti 9 Feb. \n\nVictory at Kirbekan : the Arabs on a ridge, sur- \nrounded by gen. Earle\'s column (the Black \nWatch and Staffordshire regiments), many killed; \ngen. Earle and lieut.-cols. Eyre and Coveney, and \nnine others killed ; attack well planned and gal- \nlantly executed ; gen. Brackenbury takes the \ncommand 10 Feb. \n\nGen. Buller retreats from Gubat to Abu- Klea wells, \n\n13-15 Feb. \n\nDeath of sir H. Stewart at Gakdul . . 16 Feb. \n\nRailway between Suakin and Berber ordered to be \nconstructed Feb. \n\nNear Abu Klea, Arabs demoralised by skilful feat of \nmajor Wardrop, who takes the heights after much \nskirmishing ; Arabs flee . . . 17 Feb. \n\nSir Evelyn Wood arrives at Gakdul . .17 Feb. \n\nGen. Gerald Graham, with Coldstream and Grena- \ndier Guards and others, start for the Soudan; fare- \nwell given by the queen and prince of Wales, \n\n19-21 Feb. \n\nOsman Digma massing his forces near Suakin, \nabout 21 Feb. \n\nRebels\' attack on Kassala garrison defeated with \ngreat loss ; announced ... 22 Feb. \n\nGen. Brackenbury \\s column reaches Gakdul, 26 Feb. \n\nGen. Buller\'s column marches to Korti 1 March, \n\nGen. Graham\'s staff and 15th Sikh regiment arrive \nat Suakin 4 March, \n\nSuccessful sally from Kassala announced 4 March, \n\nThe queen\'s address of thanks read to the army at \nKorti by lord Wolseley ... 7 March, \n\nThe 17th Bengal Infantry and the Royal Engineers \nballoon corps arrive at Suakin . 7 March, \n\nArab raids on Suakin camp ; sentries killed \n\n11 March, \n\n\n\nThe bulk of lord Wolseley\'s army at Korti, \n\n12 March, \nGen. Graham arrives at Suakin with 5th Lancers, \n\n12, 13 March, \nThe last of the desert troops arrive at Korti, \n\n16 March, \nGen. Graham calls on Osman Digma to surrender, to \navoid bloodshed . . . about 16 March, \nBattle of Hasheen : Graham, with part of his \narmy, starts at daybreak ; several of Osman \nDigma\'s positions on the hills taken after con- \nflicts : about 21 British killed 20 March, \n\nGen. McNeil\'s brigade unexpectedly attacked by \nabout 4500 Arabs, about 6 miles from Suakin ; \nthey are repulsed with heavy loss (about 1500), \nafter a severe fight; British loss about 100 killed, \nincluding lieuts. Swinton, Seymour, and New- \nman, capt. Romilly and others 22 March, \n\nManifesto of the Mahdi claiming the caliphate pub- \nlished March, \n\nFever at Korti ; evacuated by the army, \n\nabout 23 March, \n\nArab attacks repulsed by the guards 24 March, \n\nAttacks on British convoy repulsed 24-26 March, \n\nThe last Egyptian troops leave Suakin 26 March, \n\nZebehr Pasha arrested at request of lord Wolseley, \n14 March ; sent to Gibraltar . . 29 March, \n[Released under conditions, 3 Aug. 1887.] \n\nNew South Wales contingent arrives at Suakin \n\n29, 30 March, \n\nGraham advances ; finds Tamai deserted ; burns it \nand returns to Suakin . . . 2, 3 April, \n\nThe railway to Berber constructing under military \nprotection April, \n\nHandoub (deserted) occupied by the British 8 April, \n\nSuccessful raid of capt. Briggs, capturing prisoners, \ncattle, &c 15 April, \n\nNumerous night attacks .... April, \n\nRebellion against the Mahdi ; his troops said to be \ndefeated near Kordofan . . . April, \n\nLord Wolseley arrives at Suakin . . 2 May, \n\nTakool burnt and cattle captured by gen. Graham ; \norganised force of Arabs dispersed \n\nmidnight, 5-6 May, \n\nProposed armed defence of line from Assouan \nto Wady Haifa announced . . 11 May, \n\nGeneral Graham with British troops, and the \nIndian (part) and New South Wales contingents, \nquit Suakin .... 17 May et seq. \n\nMajor-gen. sir G. Greaves assumes command at \nSuakin, 18 May; leaves . . . 15 June, \n\nHandoub evacuated by the British, 22 May ; occu- \npied by the Arabs, many of whom join Osman \nDigma June, \n\nDongola evacuated .... 15 June, \n\nSir. F. Stephenson, commander-in-chief 6 July, \n\nLord Wolseley arrives in London . 13 July, \n\nRepulse of attack on Kassala, about 3,000 of the \nrebels killed ; the garrison capture much cattle \nin a sortie 15, 16 June, \n\nDeath of the Madhi by small pox, reported \nJune 20, 21, or 22 ; said to be succeeded by his \nkinsman Khalifa Abdulla .... June, \n\nOlivier Pain sent by the Irish in Paris to join the \nMahdi at El Obeid, July, 1884; reported death, \ntime uncertain ; Selikovitch, an interpreter dis- \nmissed by the British, asserts without any \nevidence that Pain was executed by order of col. \nKitchener in April, 1885 ; no British inves- \ntigation ; much excitement in Paris caused by M. \nRochefort, Aug. -Sept. \n\nSennaar surprised and taken . . 16 Aug. \n\nRebels defeated and stores captured near Suakin, \n\n19 Aug. \n\nMajor Chermside sent to relieve Kassala . Aug. \n\nKhalifa Abdulla El Taashi reported successor of \nthe Mahdi autumn, \n\nSuccessful skirmish of the hussars and Egyptians \nwith Arabs near Giniss ; fighting on the Nile ; \nannounced 3 Dec. \n\nAdvance of rebels northward ; two battalions sent \nfrom Britain .... about 10 Dec. \n\nAttack of 3,000 Arabs on Mograkeh, near Kosheh ; \nrepulsed 12 Dec. \n\n6,000 Arabs defeated at Giniss, near Kosheh, 3J \nhours\' fight ; one officer (lieut. Soltau) killed ; 19 \nEgyptians killed and wounded ; about 600 Arabs \nkilled 30 Dec. \n\n\n\nSOUDAN. \n\n\n\n897 \n\n\n\nSOUDAN. \n\n\n\nAttack on Suakin repulsed n Feb. 1886 \n\nOsman Digmaand the rebels active, about 2 March, ,, \nRebels defeated by friendly Arabs and the British, \n\n13 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \nSir C. Warren appointed governor at Suakin, about \n16 Jan. ; [made commissioner of police, London] ; \ngen. Dixon left in command . . March, ,, \nCountry south of Wady Haifa abandoned by the \nEgyptians, announced .... April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGeneral Watson nominated governor of the Red \n\nSea territories about 14 April ; arrives 8 May, ,, \nBritish evacuation of Suakin completed 16 May, ,, \nFighting near Sheik Barghut ; victory of friendly \nArabs who take prisoners and recover captives, \n\nabout 28 May, ,, \nMajor Kitchener succeeds general Watson, Aug. ; \narrives ....... 7 Sept. ,, \n\nBy judicious advice of gen. Watson and col. \nKitchener, the Arabs combine to overthrow \nOsmaii Digma ; after serious losses he quits his \nstronghold at Tamai, which, with all its military \nstores is captured, with much slaughter of his \n\nfollowers 7 Oct. ,, \n\nEmin Bey (Austrian physician), an associate of gen. \nGordon, holds Wadelai as governor of Equatorial \nAfrica since 1878, with black troops ; news \nbrought by Dr. Junker .... Nov. ,, \nRetreat of the rebels on British advance, 3 Dec. ,, \nExpedition of Mr. Henry Morton Stanley on behalf \nof the Emin Pasha committee (which see), with a \nsmall armament with able volunteer officers, \nstarts from London . . . .21 Jan. \'\'1887 \nMessengers from the new Mahdi with arrogant \nmessage, received and dismissed by the khedive, \n\n19 April. ,, \nCol. Chermside, with the Egyptians, defeats the \nDervishes at Sarras, near Wady Haifa, after \nstubborn resistance ; about 190 killed, 29 April, ,, \nGreat defeat of the Dervishes announced about \n\n29 Aug. ,, \nSuccessful skirmish of col. Wodeliouse with the \n\nDervishes 24 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nArab attack on Wady Haifa repulsed, 25 Oct. ; \n\nreinforcements sent .... 27 Oct. ,, \nExpedition of the lion. Montague Kerr to Emin \nPasha\'s station at Wadelai, starts . . Nov. ,, \n[He is struck down by fever ; returns to Europe ; \ndies in France, 23 April, 1888.] \nOsman Digma defeated with great loss by the \n\nfriendly tribes 29 Dec. ,, \n\nUnsuccessful attacks on Suakin Dec. 1887.-3 Jan. 1888 \n\nHis camp at Handoub captured and his followers \n\ndispersed ; they return and retake the camp ; \n\nthe friendly tribes forced to retreat, col. Kitchener \n\nand major Mc Mnrdo wounded . . 17 Jan. ,, \n\nColonel Kitchener leaves for Cairo ; succeeded by \n\ncol. Shakspear 19 Jan. ,, \n\nA band of Dervishes dispersed after tierce conflict \n\nnear Suakin, col. Tapp killed . . 4 March, ,, \nReturn of col. Kitchener to Suakin . 15 March, ,, \nAffairs quiet ; Osman Digma\'s followers dispersing \n\nApril, ,, \nCol. Kitchener leaves for England . 26 May, ,, \nDefeat of the Dervishes near Wady Haifa about \n\n20 July, ,, \n\n* They embarked with a number of natives at Zanzi- \nbar for the west coast, 25 Feb., and sailed up the river \nCongo. After undergoing great dangers and much \nsuffering through famine, disease and native opposition, \nMr. Stanley fell in with Emin Pasha on lake Nyanza, \n29 April, 1888 ; and eventually, with him and the re- \nmains of his party, arrived at the German station Boga- \nmoya, 5 Dec. 1889. Mr. Stanley and his officers arrived \nat Cairo, 14 Jan. 1890; at Rome, n April; at Brussels, \n19 April; in London, 26 April; dined with the queen, \n6 May; with his companions, lieut. Stairs, surgeon \nThomas II. Parke, cant. Nelson, Mr. A. M. Jephson, \nand Mr. Bonny, received the gold medals of the Royal \nGeographical Society, from the prince of Wales, 5 May. \nBesides other honours Mr. Stanley was presented with \nthe freedom of the city of London, 13 May ; of Edin- \nburgh, 11 June ; and of Glasgow, Dundee, Aberdeen, \nNeweastle-on-Tyne, and Manchester, in June. His \nbook, entitled "In darkest Africa; or, the Quest, \nRescue and Retreat of Emin, governor of Equatoria," \nwas published, 28 June. He married Miss Dorotliy \nTeimant at Westminster Abbey, 12 July, 1890. \n\n\n\nThe Dervishes severely defeated in an attack on \n\nFort Khormoussa . . midnight, 27 Aug. iSi \nAttempted raid of Osmaii Digma checked 12 Sept. ,, \nLt. col. Holled Smith succeeds col. Kitchener as \ngovernor-general and commandant at Suakin, \n\n13 Sept. ,, \nContinued investment of Suakin by Arabs (Der- \nvishes) witli guns, &c. ; severe night attacks ; \nreinforcements ordered . . 22 Sept., Oct. ,, \nGerman expedition for the relief of Emin Pasha \norganized ; supported by prince Hohcnlohe \nLangenburg and other nobles . . Sept. ,, \nA sharp attack on Suakin vigorously repulsed, \n\n30 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nGeneral Grenfell with reinforcements arrives at \n\nSuakin 5 Nov. , \n\nDefeat of the nominal Mahdi by the sultan of \nWadai\'s people ; gen. Grenfell reconnoitres ; \nthe enemy very strong ; the Mahdi afterwards \ncaptures Wadai, and the sultan flees . Nov. , \nMore British troops sent to Suakin . . Dec. , \nThe enemy\'s redoubts stormed by the black \nbrigade under gen. Grenfell ; great slaughter, \nslight British loss ; total flight of the enemy \nwith loss of about 400 ; 7.30 a.m. . 20 Dec. , \nGeneral Grenfell and part_of his army leave Suakin, \n\n4 Jan. iS \nHandoub abandoned and burnt . . 11 Feb. , \nSuakin declared open to commerce . . 20 Feb. , \nDr. Carl Peters, with 100 soldiers, &c, starts to \n\nrelieve Emin Pasha . . . .26 Feb. , \nThe Dervishes repulsed with loss after their \nattack on Haliab, 19 April ; again repulsed, \n29, 30 April ; again repulsed, and an outpost \n\ncaptured 2 June, \n\nColonel Wodeliouse, with three Egyptian black \nbattalions, &c, defeats about 3,500 Dervishes at \nArguin near Wady Haifa ; they lose about, 500 \nkilled, Egyptian loss about 70 killed and \n\nwounded 2 July, \n\nThe Dervishes repulsed with the loss of about \n\n100 men, 4 July ; they break up their camp, 7 \n\nJuly ; which is occupied by the British 8 July \n\nReinforcements from Malta ; which is proclaimed \n\nto the natives by gen. Grenfell, 10 July \nReinforcements sent from Malta to strengthen the \ngarrison at Assouan .... July, \nDervish deserters come in ; prisoners sent to Cairo ; \ntheir loss estimated to be since 1 July 2,500 killed \nand wounded .... about 14 July, \nGen. sir F. W. Grenfell arrives at Col. Wodehouse\'s \ncamp at Bellana ; the enemy hold a strong posi- \ntion at Khor ; their fighting force estimated at \n\n2,500 15 Jul>*i \n\nThe R. Irish Rifles arrive at Assouan . 16 July, \nGen. Grenfell summons Wad El N\'juini to sur- \nrender, all lives to be spared ; the messenger \n\nbeaten 17 July, \n\nWad-el-N\'jumi calls on the Egyptians to surrender, \nand threatens them with the fate of gen. Gordon, \n\nreported 19 July, \n\nA large number of additional troops sent from Cairo \n\n20 July, \nBritish field force at Assouan commanded by \nmajor-gen. lion. R. H. de Montmorency, 23 July, \nParty of 300 Dervishes repulsed with loss ; re- \nported 21 July, \n\nFrequent skirmishes ; many killed and prisoners \n\n25-31 July, \nDervishes defeated with loss of 70 men by lieut. \n\nD\'Aguilar at Anabi 31 July, \n\nBattle of Toski ; after seven hours\' hard fighting \nabout 3,000 Dervishes are defeated by gen. sir \nFrancis Grenfell. Wad-el-N\'jumi with his prin- \ncipal emirs, and about half his army arc killed, \nthe other half are. either wounded or fugitives; \nthe repeated desperate charges of the Dervishes \nare chiefly repulsed by the 20th Hussars and the \nEgyptian cavalry who pursue them till they are \nutterly routed and their arms and standards \ncaptured. (The commanders under gen. Grenfell \nwere col. Kitchener mounted troops; col. Wode- \nliouse, infantry ; Bundle artillery, Irwin and \nBeech, English and Egyptian cavalry; Settle, \nsen. staff offiicer; the British loss 17 killed \n(1 English 16 Egyptians) ; wounded, 131 ; above \n1,000 Dervishes prisoners and wounded; parts \nof bhe Shropshire and Lancashire regiments and \n\n3 M \n\n\n\nSOULAGES COLLECTION. \n\n\n\n898 \n\n\n\nSOUTHAMPTON. \n\n\n\nthe Royal Irish Rifles were engaged 3 Aug ; gen. \n\xe2\x96\xa0 Grenfell arrives at Cairo . . . 17 Aug. 1889 \n\nThe Egyptian troops occupy Matuka ; the British \nordered to return to Cairo ... 7 Aug. ,, \n\nEmin pasha, after a long illness, occasioned by a \nfall from a window at Bogamoya, 5 Dec, closely \nattended by Dr. Parke, arrives at Zanzibar, 2 \nMarch ; accepts the offers of major Wissmann, \nenters the German service, and proceeds with a \nmilitary expedition to Victoria Nyanza \n\n31 March et seq. 1890 \n[For his connection with capt. Casati, see Italy, \n14 July, 1890.I \n\nMilitary movements of the Mahdi, reported, 8 May, ,, \n\nFamine and great distress in E. Soudan through \ndrought, partly relieved by government and \nothers Jan.\xe2\x80\x94 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Khalifa Abdulla reported supreme in the \nsouth July, ,, \n\nOsinan Digma\'s forces broken up by desertion, \nreported Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nEmin Pasha, in good health at Tabora, Aug. ; his \nletter received at Brunswick, about 25 Nov. ; he \nestablishes German stations on the shores of lake \nVictoria Nyanza, reported 7 Dec. ; recalled to the \ncoast by major von Wissmann, the imperial com- \nmissary, reported .... 19 Dee. ., \n\nA raid of the Dervishes on Suakin ; they are pur- \nsued and debated, 27 Jan. ; after a sharp engage- \nment, the governor-general takes possession of \nHaudoub, 28 Jan. ; several Dervish leaders cap- \ntured, peace restored . . . about 4 Feb 1891 \n\nCol. Holled Smith, governor-general of the Red Sea \nLittoral, conducts an expedition of 2,000 Soudanese \nand Egyptian troops, aided by friendly Arabs ; \nEl Teb occupied and fortified . . 17 Feb. ,, \n\nCol. H. Smith, with brigade of Egyptian troops, \nadvances at daybreak from El Teb against Tokar, \nstrongly held by Osman Digma with 2,000 Der- \nvishes ; after a desperate fight of one and a half \nhours, Tokar is occupied ; all the principal emirs \nand about 700 Dervishes killed ; Osman Digma \nfled south with 30 horsemen. Our loss\xe2\x80\x94 capt, Hugh \nLusada Barrow, of South Lancashire regiment, \nand 15 Egyptian soldiers killed ; the Egyptians \nfought bravely and steadily ; guns, ammunition \nand other stores captured. After the action, the \ntroops advance 4 miles to Osman Digma\'s de- \nserted camp at Afafil, a large village, where \nabout 100 Arabs surrender . . . 19 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Red Sea Littoral reported clear of rebels ; the \nsheikhs solicit and obtain pardon, general rejoic- \ning, reported 2 o Feb \n\nGen. Grenfell, col, Holled Smith, with the troops\', \' \n&c, return to Suakin, 7 March; an amnesty \nproclaimed ; joyfully received by the sheikhs \n\n8 March, ,, \n\nCapt. Haekett Pain appointed governor of the \nTokar sub-district . . . about 8 March, \n\nThe country reported quiet and prosperous. 5 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDefeat of the Dervishes by the Shilluks about the \nend of Nov. , reported . . . . 17 Dec. \n\nFather Ohrwa\'.der and two R. C. sisters, long \nprisoners in the Mahdi\'s camp, Omdurman, Kar- \ntoum, escape, 29 Nov., and arrive at Cairo \n\nRupture between Khalifa Abdulla and two other \' \nchiefs, reported 2I j an l8g \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nIncursion of about 100 Dervishes near Wady Haifa \nled by Osman Azrak . . about 12 May) ,, \n\nSOULAGES COLLECTION. About 1827, \nM. Soulages of Toulouse, collected 790 specimens \nof Italian art and workmanship, &c. These were \nbought for 11,000/. by 73 English gentlemen, with \nthe view of first exhibiting them to the public, and \nafterwards selling them to the government (who \ngradually purchased them between 1858 and 1861;) \nThey formed part of the " Art Treasures " exhibited \nat Manchester in 1857. \n\nSOUND, see Acoustics. \n\nSOUND DUTIES. Till the year i8c>> no \nmerchant ship was allowed to pass \'the Sound (a \nnarrow channel separating Zealand from Sweden) \n\n\n\nwithout clearing at Elsinore and paying toll. \nThese duties had their origin in an agreement \nbetween the king of Denmark and the llanse towns \n(1348), by which the former undertook to maintain \nlighthouses, &c, along the Cattegat, and the latter \nto pay duty for the same. The first treaty with \nEngland in relation to this was in 1450; other \ncountries followed. In 1855 the United States \ndetermined to pay the dues no more ; and in the \nsame year the Danish government proposed that \nthese dues should be capitalised ; which was \neventually agreed to, the sum being 30,476,325 rix- \ndollars. In Aug. 1857, the British government \npaid 10,126,855 rix-dollars (1,125,206/.) to the Danes \nas their proportion. \xe2\x80\x94 The passage of the Sound was \neffected, in defiance of strong fortresses, by sir Hyde \nParker and lord Nelson, 31 March, 1801 ; see \nBaltic Expedition. \n\nSOUNDINGS AT SEA. Captain Ross, of \nH.M.S. CEdipus, in 1840, took extraordinary \nsoundings at sea. In the latitude 33 S. and longi- \ntude 9\xc2\xb0 W. about 300 miles from the Cape of Good \nHope, 2266 fathoms were sounded ; the weight \nemployed amounted to 450 lbs. On 13 July, 1857, \nlieut. Joseph Dayman, in the North Atlantic Ocean, \nlat. 51\xc2\xb0 9\' N., long. 40 2\' W., in sounding, found \na bottom at 2424 fathoms. The deepest sounding \nknown (3875 faths.) was taken by the Challenger, \ncapt. Nares, 24 March, 1873, in the North Atlantic, \nnorth of St. Thomas\'s. See Beep Sea Soundings. \n\nSOUTH AFEICAN ASSOCIATION, es- \ntablished July, 1881, to promote the commercial \nand social interests of the South African colonies. \n\nSOUTH AFEICA CONFEDERA- \nTION : to comprise the three British colonies \xe2\x80\x94 \nCape Town, Natal, and West Griqua Land (1873) \n\xe2\x80\x94and the two Dutch republics, Orange Biver free \nstate, and the South Africa or Trans- Yaal republic \n(1852). The formation was proposed by the earl of \nCarnarvon, colonial secretary, in a despatch to sir \nHenry Barkly, governor of Cape Town, 4 May, 1875, \nand advocated by the historian, J. A. Eroude, on a \nvisit. It was much opposed at the Cape. See \nCape. A conference of delegates in London was \nopened, 5 Aug. 1876. \n\nThe South Africa Act "for the union under one govern- \nment of such of the South Africa colonies and states \nas may agree thereto," was passed 10 Aug. 1877. \n\nSOUTH AFEICAN EXHIBITION, \n\nInternational, proposed to be opened at \n\nKimberley, in Griqualand West, Sept. 1892. Sir \nH. B. Loch, president, hon. Cecil Bhodes, vice- \npresident. \n\nSOUTH AFEICA EEPUBLIC, name \nassumed by the Boers in the Transvaal (which \nsee) in 1880-1, and adopted by treaty in Feb. \n\n\n\nSOUTH AMEEICA, see America. \n\nSOUTHAMPTON, a seaport (S. England), a \ncounty of itself, near the Boman Clausentum and \nthe Saxon Hamtune. It frequently suffered by \nDanish incursions: Canute, when king, occasionally \nresided here. The charter was granted by Henry I. \nand confirmed by Bichard I. and John ; and the free \ngrammar school was founded by Edward YI. On \n17 July, 1861, a monument to Dr. Isaac Watts, \na native, was uncovered; and on 15 Oct. 1862, the \nHartley institution was opened by lord Pal- \nmerston. The prince of Wales laid the foundation \nof the parish church of St. Mary, built as a memo- \n\n\n\nSOUTH AUSTRALIA. \n\n\n\n899 \n\n\n\nSOUTHPORT. \n\n\n\nrial of Samuel Wilberforce, bishop of Winchester, \n12 Aug. 1878; consecrated 19 June, 1879. The \nBritish Association met here 1846 and 1882. Popu- \nlation 1881, 60,051 ; 1891, 65,325. \n\nNew deep-water dock inaugurated as the Empress \ndock, by the queen .... 26 July, 1890 \n\nGreat strike of dock labourers, seamen and firemen \nbegun ; trade paralysed ; violent rioting ; conflict \nwith the military, 8, 9 Sept. ; gun-boats sent for ; \norder restored, 10 Sept. The strike, not recog- \nnized by London union, fails, n Sept. ; work \nresumed, 17 Sept. The Union Steamship com- \npany import 46 foreign seamen from Hamburg as \na check to strikes .... 21 Sept. ,, \n\nSOUTH AUSTRALIA was visited by capt. \nSturt in 1830, and explored shortly after by capt. \nParker and Mr. Kent, the former of whom was \nkilled by the natives. The boundaries of the pro- \nvince were fixed by 4 & 5 "Will. IV. c. 95 (1834) ; \nand it was occupied 26 Dec. 1836, by capt. Hind- \nmarsh, the first governor. It was colonised accord- \ning to Mr. E. Gibbon "Wakefield\'s scheme, which \nwas carried out by the South Australian Colonisa- \ntion Association. The colony for several years \nunderwent severe trials through the great influx \nof emigrants, land-jobbing, building speculations, \n&c, which produced almost universal bankruptcy \nin 1839. In five years after, the energy of the \ncolonists had overcome their difficulties, and the \n\nfrosperity of the colony appeared fully established. \nn 1842 the highly productive Eurra Burra copper \nmines were discovered, and large fortunes were \nsuddenly realised; but in 185 1 the discovery of \ngold in New South "Wales and Victoria almost \nparalysed this province by chawing oft\' a large \npart of the labouring population. Very little gold \nwas found in South Australia ; but a reaction took \nplace in favour of the copper mines and agricul- \nture, &c. Before the discovery of gold, little \ntrade existed between Adelaide (the capital of \nSouth Australia) and Melbourne ; but in 1852 \ngold was transmitted from the latter to the former \nto the amount of 2,215,167^. principally for bread- \nstuffs, farm produce, &c. The bishopric of Ade- \nlaide was founded in 1847. Discovery of allu- \nvial gold at Tatulpa, Waukaringa, Oct. ; favour- \nable report Dec. 18S6. Sir Dominic Daly, \nappointed governor in Nov. 1861, died 19 Feb. \n1868 ; succeeded by sir James Fergusson, Dec. \n1868; by Anthony Musgrave, Jan 1873; by "Wm. \nWellington Cairns, Jan. 1877 ; Sir W. F. D. Jer- \nvois, June, 1877 ; sir W. Bobinson, Nov. 1882 ; \nthe earl of Kintore, Dec. 1888. Population in \n1855,85,821; in 1865, 156,605; in 1871, 185,626; \nin 1877, 225,677; in 1882, 293,509; in 1891, \n315,048. \n\nfcsee Adelaide. 1887, revenue, 2,014,102?. ; expendi- \nture, 2,145,133?. Imports, 1887, 5,096,293?. ; \nexports, 5,330,780?. 1890, revenue, 2,557,772?. ; \nexpenditure, 2,579,258?. 1890, imports, 8,262,673?.; \nexports, 8,827,378?. \nResignation of the ministry ; new one formed by \n\nthe hon. J. A. Cockburn . . 24, 25 June, 1889 \nHe resigns ; succeeded by hon. T. Playford, re- \nported 18 Aug. 1890 \n\nThe earl of Kintore and party cross the continent \nfrom Port Darwin to Adelaide (sec Australia) \n\n9 April-23 May, 189J \nResignation of Mr. Playford, 17 June; Mr. Holder \nforms a ministry .... 20 June, 1892 \n\nSOUTHCOTT, JOANNA, a fanatic, born \nin 1750, came from Exeter to London, where her \nfollowers at one period amounted to many thou- \nsands, the low and ignorant being her principal \ndupes. In 1792 she announced herself as the \nwoman spoken of in Revelation, chap. xii. ; and \na disease favoured the delusion that she would be \n\n\n\nthe mother of the promised Shiloh. She died 27 \nDec. 1814. In 1851 there existed in England f. iur \ncongregations, professing to expect her return. \nHer successor, Mrs. Peacock, died March, 1875, \naged 103G\'). \n\nSOUTH-EASTERN RAILWAY, from \nLondon to Folkestone, opened, 28 June, 1843; to \nDover, 7 Feb. 1844. \n\nSOUTHERN CONFEDERATE STATES, \n\nsee Confederates. \n\nSOUTHERN CONTINENT. Tho Southern \nOcean was first traversed by Magellan in 1520 ; \nand explored by Wallis and Carteret in 1766; unci \nby Cook in 1773 and 1774. Of the southern con- \ntinent little more is known than that it is ice- \nbound, and contains active volcanoes. It was dis- \ncovered in the first instance by capt. John Biseoe, \non 27 Feb. 1831, in lat. 65 57\' S., long. 47 20\'E., \nextending east and west 200 miles, \xe2\x80\x94 this he mimed \nEnderby Land, after the gentleman who had \nequipped him for the voyage. Capt. Biseoe also \ndiscovered Graham\'s Land on 15 Feb. 1832, \nsituated in lat. 67 1\' S., long. 71 48\' W. The \nMessrs. Enderby equipped three other expeditions \nin search of the southern continent, the last (in \nconnection with some other gentlemen) in 1838, \nwhen capt. Balleny had command, who, on 9 Feb. \n1839, discovered the Balleny Islands, in lat. 6}" \nS., long. 165\xc2\xb0 E., and in March, 1839, Sahrina \nLand, in lat. 65\xc2\xb0 10\' S., long. n8\xc2\xb030\' E. In 1840, \na French expedition, under the command of admiral \nD\'Urville, and an American expedition, under the \ncommand of commodore Wilkes, greatly added to \nour knowledge in respect to the existence of a \nsouthern continent, and this was again increased \nby the expedition which sailed from England in \n1839, under the command of capt. sir James \nClark Boss, who discovered Victoria Land in 1 84 1, \nand subsequently penetrated as far south as \n78 11\'. Antarctic expedition proposed oy the Ar- \ngentine republic and the Genoese, Sept. 1881 ; the \nobjects collected to be divided. Italian expedition \nunder lieut. Booe, 1881-2. \n\nNew South Polar expedition proposed by the \nAntarctic Exploration committee at Melbourne, \nsupported by the governor and others . Aug. 1S90 \nThe sum required for the expedition is 15,000 . \nSir Thomas Elder subscribed 5,000?. , other per- \nsons 5,000?. ; appeal for the other 5,000?. \nSee Antarctic Pole. \n\nSOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM, \nnear Brompton old church (containing the pic- \ntures presented by Mr. Vernon, Mr. Sheepshanks, \nMrs. Ellison, and those bequeathed by Turner, \nthe great painter, as well as specimens of sculpture \nand art, educational collections, products of the \nanimal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms, &c.),was \nopened on 22 June, 1857. A special exhibition of \nworks of art, of immense value, lent for the occasion, \nwas opened here in the summer of 1862, and closed \nin November. In July, 1873, a testimonial to Mr. \n(aft. sir) Henry Cole, C.B., was proposed for his \nexertions in organizing this museum, and in pro- \nmoting its objects. \n\nMr. John Forster, biographer of Dickens, be- \nqueathed his library of books, MSS., paintings, \nand drawings to this museum. He died 1 Feb. . 1876 \nScientific Apparatus Loan Exhibition (which see) \n\nopened 13 May, closed .... 30 Dee. ,, \nMr. John Jones\' bequeaths a collection of works of \nart, &c. ; estimated value, 500,000?. announced, \n\nJan. 18S2 \n\nSOUTHPORT, Lancashire, a watering place, \nfounded in 1792 on a sandy waste, has rapidly pro- \n\n3 M 2 \n\n\n\nSOUTH-SEA BUBBLE. \n\n\n\n900 \n\n\n\nSPAIN. \n\n\n\ngreased, now possessing an esplanade 3 miles long, \nand many fine buildings. It was made a municipal \nborough in 1867, and received the British Associa- \ntion 19 Sept. 1883. Population, 1851, 4,765 ; 1871, \n18,085 ; 1891, 43,026. \n\nSOUTH-SEA BUBBLE commenced with \nthe establishment of the South-sea company in \n1 7 10, which was at first unwisely and afterwards \ndishonestly managed. It exploded in 1720, ruining \nthousands of families; and the directors\' estates, \nto the value of 2,014,000/., were seized in 1721 and \nsold. Mr. Knight, the cashier, absconded with \n100,000/. ; but he compounded the fraud for \n10,000/. and returned to England in 1743. Almost \nall the wealthy persons in the kingdom had become \nspeculators ; the artifices of the directors having \nraised the shares, originally 100/., to the price of \n1000/. A parliamentary inquiry toojr_ place in \nNov. 1720, and Aislabie, chancellor of the exche- \nquer, and several members of parliament were \nexpelled the house in 172 1 ; see Law\'s Bubble. \n\nSOUTHWARK (S. London), was governed by \nits own bailiffs till 1327. The city, however, found \ngreat inconvenience from the number of malefac- \ntors who escaped thither, in order to be out of the \nreach and cognizance of the city magistrates ; and \na grant was made of Southwark to the city of \nLondon by the crown, for a small annuity. In \nEdward VI. \'s reign it was formed into a cityward, \nand was named Bridge Ward Without, 1550. \xe2\x80\x94 \nSouthwark bridge was designed by John Bennie, \nand built by a company, 1815-19, at an expense \nof 800,000/. It consists of three great cast-iron \narches, resting on massive stone piers and abut- \nments ; the distance between the abutments is 708 \nfeet; the centre arch is 240 feet span, the two \nothers 210 feet each; and the total weight of iron \n5308 tons. The bridge was freed from toll on 8 \nNov. 1864, the company receiving a compensation \nfrom the city. An act for the payment of divi- \ndends to shareholders was passed in 1872. \xe2\x80\x94 South- \nwark park was opened, 19 June, 1869. By the \nSeats Act (1885), Southwark sends three mem- \nbers to parliament. \nCity and South London Electric Railway (see \n\nTunnels) opened . . 4 Nov. and 18 Dec. 1890 \nThe priory church of St. Marie Overie, dating from \nthe 13th century, was leased from the crown to \nthe united parishes of St. Margaret and St. Mary \nMagdalene, and became the parish church as St. \nSaviours in 1540. Since then many changes have \nheen made ; Mr. G. Gwilt repaired\' the tower, the \nlady chapel, and the choir, 1818 et seq. The roof \nof the nave was removed in 1831, and in 1839 re- \nplaced by lath and plaster. The prince of Wales \nlaid the memorial stone of a new nave, 24 July, \n1890, about 31.000L subscribed for the work up to \n\n17 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe prince and princess of Wales visit the Evelina \nhospital ; he lays the foundation stone of the \nnew buildings of the R. S. London Ophthalmic \nHospital 24 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSOUTHWELL, Nottinghamshire, an ancient \nSaxon town, where a church was founded by Pau- \nlinus, archbishop of York, 627; made collegiate \nbefore the conquest, refounded by Henry VIII., \nand made a bishopric by Henry VIII., 1541 ; dis- \nsolved by Edward VI. Collegiate church restored \nby Elizabeth, 1586. Near here Charles I. surren- \ndered himself to the Scotch army in 1646. The \nBishoprics act, authorising the establishment of a \nsee at Southwell, was passed, 16 Aug. 1878. Con- \nstituted (to consist of the counties of Derby and \nNottingham), 2 Feb. 1884. The restored minster \nre-opened as cathedral, 2 Feb. 1888. \n\nFIRST BISHOP. \n\nGuorge Ridding, consecrated 1 May, 1884. \n\n\n\nSOUTHWOLD, seeSolebatj. \n\nSOVEREIGN, an ancient and modern British \ngold coin. In 1489 22J pieces, in value 20s., " to \nbe called the sovereign," were ordered to be coined \nout of a pound of gold. Muding. In 1542 sove- \nreigns were coined in value 20s., which afterwards, \nin 1550 and 1552 (4 & 6 Ed. VI.), passed for 24s. \nand 30*. "Sovereigns" of the new coinage were \ndirected to pass for 20s. 1 July, and half-sovereigns \nfor 10s. 10 Oct. 181 7; see Coin, and Gold. By the \nCoinage act, 1870, the weight of the sovereign is \nfixed at 123-27447 grains troy; specific gravity, \n17-57; (916-67, gold being 1000) ; half-sovereigns, \n61-63723 grains. The dragon sovereigns were re- \nissued in 1871. \n\nSPA-FIELDS (N. London). Here about \n30,000 persons assembled to vote an address from \nthe distressed manufacturers to the prince regent, \n15 Nov. 1816. A second meeting, 2 Dec. following, \nterminated in an alarming riot ; the shops of \nseveral gunsmiths were attacked for arms by the \nrioters ; and in the shop of Mr. Beckwith, on Snow- \nhill, Mr. Piatt was wounded, and much injury was \ndone before the tumult was suppressed. For this \nriot, Cashman, a seaman, was hanged, 12 March, \n181 7. Watson, the ringleader, escaped to America. \nSpafidds Chapel, a dome building, originally a place \nof entertainment named the- Pantheon, erected, \n1770, was after several changes purchased by the \ncountess of Huntingdon and used as a place of \nworship for her " connection," (see iVhitefieldites). \nThis chapel was pulled down in 1887 \n\nSPAHIS, see Se^ioys. \n\nSPAIN (the ancient Iberia and Hispania), the \nS. W. peninsula of Europe. The Phoenicians and \nCarthaginians successively planted colonies on the \ncoasts which were all conquered by the Eoman\'s,, \n206 B.C. Population of Spain in 1857, 15,464,078 ; \nof the colonies, 6,333,887 ; 1883, total 25,022,880; \nin 1887, 17,564,588. Bevenue : 1822, about \n6,000,000/.; 1856, 12,722,200/.; 1871, about \n26,000,000/.; 1883-4, 32,095,075/.; 1891,32,222,055/.; \nexpenditure, 32,456,530/. \nThe Carthaginians, enriched by the mines of Spain b.c \n\n(480 b.c. et seq.) form settlements .... 360 \nNew Carthage (Carthagena) founded by Hasdrubal 242 \nHamilcar extends their dominions in Spain . 238-233 \nAt his death, Hannibal, his son, takes the com- \nmand, 221 ; prepares for war, 220 ; takes Sagim- \n\ntum, 219 ; crosses the Alps, and enters Italy . 218 \nThe Romans carry the war into Spain ; two Scipios \n\ndefeated and slain by Hasdrubal . . . . 212 \nPub. Cornelius Scipio Africanus takes New Carthage, \n\n210 or 209 ; drives the Carthaginians out of Spain 207 \nCeltiberian and Numantine war . . . 153-133. \n\nYiriatlms, general of the Celtiberians and Lusi- \n\ntanians, subdued all West Spain, 145 ; makes \n\npeace with the consul Fabius Servilianus, 142 ; \n\nassassinated by order of the Romans . . . 140 \nInsurrection of Sertorius, 78 ; subdued by Pompej\', \n\nand assassinated 72 \n\nJulius Caesar quells an insurrection in Spain . . 67 \n\nPompey governs Spain 60-50 \n\nRevolt through the rapacity of Crassus . . 48-47 \n\nEra of Spain : conquest by Augustus begun, 1 Jan. 3S \nThe Vandals, Alani, and Suevi wrest Spain from \n\nthe Romans a.d. 409. \n\nAdolphus founds the kingdom of the Visigoths . . 414. \nThe Vandals pass over to Africa .... 429. \nTheodoric I. vanquishes the Suevi . . . . 452 \nAssassinated by his brother Euric, who becomes \n\nmaster of all Spain 466 \n\nRecared I. expels the Franks 5S7 \n\nHe abjures Arianism, and rules ably . . till 601 \nWamba\'s wise administration ; he prepared a fleet \n\nfor defence against the Saracens . . 672-677 \nThe Arabs invited into Spain against king Roderic. 709. \nHis defeat and death at Xeres 711 \n\n\n\nSPAIN. \n\n\n\n901 \n\n\n\nSPAIN. \n\n\n\nEstablishment of the Saracens at Cordova . . 711 \n\nVictorious progress of Musa and Tarik . . 712-13 \nEmirs rule at Cordova ; Pelayo, of Gothic blood, \n\nrules in Asturias and Leon 718 \n\nThe Saracens defeated at Tours by Charles Mattel, \n\n732 or 733 \nAbderahman the first king at Cordova . . . 755 \n\nInvasion of Charlemagne 777~7S \n\nSancho Ifiigo, count of Navarre, ifcc. . . . 873 \nSaneho of Navarre becomes king of Castile . . 1026 \nThe kingdom of Aragon commenced under Rami- \nrez 1 1035 \n\nLeon and Asturias united to Castile . . . . 1037 \nPortugal taken from the Saracens by Henry of \n\nBesaneon (see Portugal) 1095 \n\nThe Saracens, beset on all sides by the Christians, \ncall in the aid of the Moors from Africa, who seize \nthe dominions they came to protect, and subdue \n\nthe Saracens 1091 et seq. \n\nExploits of the Cid Rodrigo ; dies . . about 1099 \nDynasty of the Almoravides at Cordova . 1094-1144 \nThe Moors defeated in several battles by Alfonso of \n\nLeon 1 144 \n\nDynasty of the Almohades at Cordova . 1144-1225 \nCordova, Toledo, Seville, &c. , taken by Ferdinand \n\nof Castile and Leon 1233-48 \n\nThe kingdom of Granada begun by the Moors, last \n\nrefuge from the power of the Christians . . . 1238 \nThe crown of Navarre passes to the royal family of \n\nFrance 1274 \n\n200,000 Moors arrive to assist the king of Granada . 1327 \nThey are defeated at Tarifa by Alfonso XL of Cas- \ntile with great slaughter 1340 \n\nReign of Pedro the Cruel 1350 \n\nHis alliance with Edward the. Black Prince . . 1363 \nDefeated at Montiel and treacherously slain . . 1369 \nFerdinand II. of Aragon marries Isabella of Castile, \n18 Oct. 1469 ; and nearly the whole Christian \ndominions of Spain are united in one monarchy . 1479 \nEstablishment of the Inquisition . . . 1480-4 \n\nPersecution of the Jews 1492-8 \n\nGranada taken after a two years\' siege ; and the \npower of the Moors is finally extirpated by Ferdi- \nnand 1492 \n\nJews expelled ,, \n\nColumbus is sent from Spain to explore the western \n\nocean 17 April, ,, \n\nMahometans persecuted and expelled . . 1499- 1502 \n\nDeath of Columbus 20 May, 1506 \n\nFerdinand conquers great part of Navarre . . 1512 \nAccession of the house of Austria to the throne of \n\nSpain ; Charles I. of Spain 1516 \n\nAble administration of Ximenes ; ungratefully \n\nused, 1516; his death 1517 \n\nCharles elected emperor of Germany . . . . 1519 \n\nInsurrection in Castile 1520-21 \n\nPhilip of Spain marries Mary of England 25 July, 1554 \nCharles abdicates and retires from the world . 1556 \n\nWar with France ; victory at St. Quentin 10 Aug. 1557 \nPhilip II. commences his bloody persecution of the \n\nprotestants 1561 \n\nThe Escurial begun building 1563 \n\nRevolt of the Moriscoes, 1567 ; suppressed . . . 1570 \nNaval victory of Lepanto over the Turks 7 Oct. 1571 \nPortugal united to Spain by conquest . . . 15S0 \n\nThe Spanish Armada destroyed ; see Armada. . 1588 \nPhilip III. banishes the Moors (900,000) . 159S-1610 \nMinistry of the duke of Lerma . . . . 1598-1613 \n\nMinistry of Olivarez 1621-43 \n\nPhilip IV. loses Portugal 1640 \n\nDeath of Charles II., last of the house of Austria; \naccession of Philip V. of the house of Bourbon . 1700 \n\nWar of the Succession 1702-13 \n\nGibraltar taken by the English 1704 \n\nSiege of Barcelona 171 3 \n\nAble government of cardinal Alberoni ; he re-estab- \nlished the authority of the king, reformed many \nabuses ; and raised Spain to the rank of a first \npower, 1715-20 ; ordered to quit Spain . . . 1720 \nparies, son of Philip V., conquers Naples . . 1735 \nparies III. king of the Two Sicilies, succeeds to \n\nJie crown of Spain 1759 \n\nw r with England, 1762-3 ; and .... 1796 \n^ \'.tie of Cape St. Vincent . . . 14 Feb. 1797 \n\na iiish treasure-ships, valued at 3,000,000 dollars, \n^\'^izedbv the English .... Oct, 1804 \n\n_, s \xc2\xa3.e ofTrafalgar (see Trafalgar) . . 21 (Jet. 1805 \nliattl fGodov .prince of the peace . . . . 1806 \nSway \n\n\n\nThe French enter Spain ; a Spanish army sent to \n\nthe Baltic . . . \nConspiracy of the prince of Asturias against his \n\nfather 25 July, \n\nTreaty of Fontainebleau .... 27 Oct. \n\nThe French take Madrid . . . March, \n\nThe prince of peace dismissed . . 18 March, \n\nAbdication of Charles IV. in favour of Ferdinand, \n\nig March ; and at Bayonne, in favour of his \n\n"friend and ally" Napoleon, when Ferdinand \n\nrelinquished the crown . . . 1 May, \n\nRevolution : the French massacred at Ma hid, \n\n2 .May, \nThe province of Asturias rises en masse . 3 May, \nNapoleon assembles the notables at Bayonne \n\n25 May, \nJoseph Bonaparte enters Madrid as king of Spain, \n\n12 July ; retires 29 July, \n\nBattle of Vimiera ; French defeated . 21 Aug. \nSupreme Junta installed .... Sept. \nMadrid taken by the French, and Joseph restored \n\n2 Dec. \n\nNapoleon enters Madrid . . . .4 Dec. \n\nThe royal family of Spain imprisoned in the palace \n\nof Chambery in Savoy .... 5 Dec. \n\nThe French defeated at Corunua, 16 Jan. ; take \n\nFerrol, 27 Jan. ; Saragossa, 21 Feb. ; Oporto, \n\n29 Feb. ; Cordova and Seville, Nov. ; Gerona, \n\n12 Dec. \nNey takes Ciudad Rodrigo ... 10 July, \nThe Spanish cortes meet . . . .24 Sept. \nWellington defeats Masseua at Fuentes de Onoro, \n\n5 May, \n\nSoult defeated at Albuera ... 16 May, \n\nConstitution of the cortes (democratic) . 8 May, \n\nWellington takes Ciudad Rodrigo, 19 Jan. ; storms \n\nBadajoz, 6 April ; defeats Marmont at Salamanca, \n\n22 July, \nHe occupies Madrid, and totally defeats the French \nat Vittoria, 21 June ; defeats Soult in the Pyre- \nnees, 28 July ; takes St. Sebastian, 31 Aug. ; anil \n\nenters France 8 Oct. \n\nFerdinand VII. restored (constitution set aside), \n\n14 May, \nSlave trade abolished for a compensation \nInsurrection at Valencia repressed . . . . \nSpanish revolution begun by Riego . . Jan. \n\nFerdinand swears to the constitution of the cortes, \n\n8 March, \nThe cortes remove the king to Seville, and thence \n\nto Cadiz March, \n\nThe French enter Spain, 7 April ; and invest Cadiz, \n\n25 June, \nBattle of the Trocadero .... 31 Aug. \nDespotism resumed ; the cortes dissolved ; execu- \ntions of liberals Oct. \n\nRiego put to death 7 Nov. \n\nThe French evacuate Cadiz ... 21 Sept. \nCadiz made a free port .... 24 I\'d 1. \nSalique law abolished, 29 March ; Carlist and \n\nChristina parties formed \n\nQueen of Spain appointed regent during the king\'s \nindisposition ; change in the ministry, 25 Oct. \nDon Carlos declares himself legitimate successor to \nthe king . . . . . -29 April, \nDeath of Ferdinand VII. ; his queen assumes the. \ntitle of governing queen until Isabella II., her \ninfant daughter, attains her majority 29 Sept. \nConstitution termed "Estatuto Real" granted by \nadvice of Martinez de la Rosa ..... \nThe royalist volunteers disarmed with some blood- \nshed at Madrid 27 Oct. \n\nQueen Christina marries Ferdinand MuJloz (after- \nwards duke of Rianzares) . . . 2S Hcc. \nThe quadruple treaty establishes the right of \nIsabella to the throne .... 22 April. \nDon Carlos suddenly appears in Spain. 10 July, \nThe peers vote his exclusion . 30 Aug. \nMendizabal, prime minister ; Mina and Espai\'toro \ncommanded the royalists ; the rebel leader. \nZumalacarregui, killed near Bilbao . June, \nSir De Lacy Evans and others raise a British legion \n\nfor the queen of Spain \n\nThey defeat the Carlists at st. Sebastian 1 Oct \nEspartero gains the\' battle of Bilbao . 25 Dec. \nGeneral Kvans takes Iran ... 17 .May, \n\nConstituent cortes proclaimed \n\nDissolution of the monasteries .... \n\n\n\n1S07 \n\n\n\n1808 \n\n\n\n1808 \n\n\n\n1809 \n1S10 \n\n\n\n1811 \n\n1812 \n\n\n\n1H13 \n\n1814 \n1817 \n1819 \n\n1820 \n\n\n\n1S23 \n\n\n\n1828 \n1829 \n\n1S30 \n\n1S32 \n\n1S33 \n\n\n\n1S34 \n\n\n\n*S35 \n\n\xc2\xbb8 3 6 \n1837 \n\n\n\nSPAIN. \n\n\n\n902 \n\n\n\nSPAIN". \n\n\n\nThe Carlists under Maroto desert Don Carlos and \nconclude a treaty of peace with Bspartero. at \nVergara 31 Aug. 1839 \n\nDon Carlos seeks refuge in France . 13 Sept. ,, \n\nSurrender of Morello . . . .28 May, 1840 \n\nCabrera, the Carlist general, unable to maintain the \nwar, enters France . . . , .7 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe British auxiliaries evacuate St. Sebastian and \nPassages 25 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRevolutionary movement at Madrid : the authorities \ntriumphant . . . . . .1 Sept. 1840 \n\nDismissal of the ministry, and dissolution of the \ncortes ....... 9 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nEspartero, minister, makes his triumphal entry into \nMadrid 3 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe queen regent appoints anew ministry, who are \nnominated by Espartero, 5 Oct. ; she abdicates \nand leaves the kingdom ; visits France and Sicily ; \nreturns to France .... 12 Oct. ,, \n\nEspartero, duke of Victory, expels the papal nuncio \n\n29 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Spanish cortes declare Espartero regent during \nthe queen\'s minority ... 12 April, 1841 \n\nQueen Christina\'s protest . . . -19 July, ,, \n\nInsurrection in favour of Christina commenced at \nPampeluna by general O\'Donnell and Concha, \n\n2 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDon Diego Leon attacks the palace at Madrid ; his \nfollowers repulsed, and numbers slain by the \nqueen\'s guards, 7 Oct. ; he is shot at Madrid, \n\n15 Oct. ,, \n\nZurbano captures Bilbao . . . 21 Oct. ,, \n\nJftodil, constitutional general, enters Vittoria, 21 Oct. ,, \n\nMontes de Oca shot .... 21 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGeneral O\'Donnell takes refuge in the French terri- \ntory 21 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nEspartero decrees the suspension of queen Chris- \ntina\'s pension 26 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFueros of the Basque provinces abolished 29 Oct. ,, \n\nBorio and Gobernado, implicated in the Christina \nplot, put to death at Madrid . . 9 Nov. ,, \n\nEspartero enters Madrid ... 23 Nov. ,, \n\nGeneral pardon of all persons not yet tried, con- \ncerned in the events of October . . 13 Dec. ,, \n\nThe effective strength of the army fixed at 130,000 \nmen 28 June, 1842 \n\nAn insurrection at Barcelona ; the national guard \njoins the populace, 13 Nov. ; battle in the streets \nbetween the national guard and the troops : the \nlatter lose 500 in killed and wounded, and retreat \nto the citadel . . . . . 15 Nov. ,, \n\nBarcelona blockaded, 26 Nov. ; Espartero arrives \nbefore it, 29 Nov. ; its bombardment and surren- \nder 3, 4 Bee. ,, \n\nThe disturbances at Malaga ... 25 May, 1843 \n\nThe revolutionary junta is re-established at Barce- \nlona u June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n[Corunna, Seville, Burgos, Santiago, and numerous \nother towns, shortly afterwards "pronounce" \nagainst the regent Espartero.] \n\nArrival of general Narvaezat Madrid, which surren- \nders 15 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nEspartero bombards Seville . . .21 July, ,, \n\nThe siege is raised 27 July, ,, \n\n[The revolution is completely successful, and Espar- \ntero flees to Cadiz, and embarks on board her \nMajesty\'s ship Malabar.] \n\nThe new government deprives Espartero of his \ntitles and rank, 16 Aug. ; he arrives in London, \n\n23 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nReaction suppressed at Madrid . . . Aug. ,, \n\nIsabella II. 13 years old, is declared by the cortes to \nlie of age ; Narvaez (friend of the queen-mother), \nlieutenant-general .... 8 Nov. \n\nThe queen-mother returns to Spain . \' 23 March, 1844 \n\nZurbauo\'s insurrection, 12 Nov. 1844 : l\' e is shot, \n\n21 Jan. 1845 \n\nDon Carlos relinquishes his right to the crown in \nfavour of his son .... 18 May \n\nReactionary constitution \n\nEngland removed from "favoured nation" clause \n(treaty of Utrecht, 17x3) \n\nNarvaez and his ministry resign, 12 Feb. ; return \nto i>ower, 17 March ; again resign . 28 March, 1846 \n\nEscape of Don Carlos from France . . 14 Sept. ,, \n\nMarriage of the queen to her cousin, Don Francisco \nd\'Assiz, duke of Cadiz, and marriage also of the \ninfanta Louisa to the due de Montpensier, 10 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\n[The Spanish marriages disturb the friendly rela- \ntions of the French and English governments.] \n\nAmnesty granted to political offenders . 18 Oct. 1846 \n\nTwo shots fired at the queen by an assassin, La Riva, \n\n4 May, 1847 \n\nHe suffers " death by the cord " . .23 June, ,, \n\nEspartero restored . . . \xc2\xbb .3 Sept. ,, \n\nSir Henry Lytton Bulwer, British envoy, ordered \nto quit Spain in 48 hours ... 17 May, 1848 \n\nNarvaez dismissed and recalled .... 1849. \n\nDiplomatic relations with England restored, \n\n18 April, 1850. \n\nThe queen of Spain delivered of a male child, which \nlives but ten minutes ... 12 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe American expeditions under Lopez against \nCuba (see Cuba, and the United States) . 1850, 1853 \n\nResignation of Narvaez .... 10 Jan. \n\nThe infante don Henrique permitted to return to \nSpain 2 Feb. \n\nMadrid-Aranjuez railway opened . . 9 Feb. \n\nLaw respecting the public debt (which has since \nexcluded Spain from the European money-mar- \nkets) 1 Aug. \n\nDeath of Godoy, prince of the peace . . 4 Oct. \n\nThe queen pardons the prisoners taken in the \nattempt upon Cuba . . . . 11 Dec. \n\nHer majesty gives birth to a princess . 20 Dec. \n\nAttempt made on the life of the queen ; she is \nslightly wounded by the dagger of Merino, a \nFranciscan 2 Feb. 1852 \n\nGen. Castanos, duke of Baylen, renowned in the \nFrench war, dies, aged 95 . . . 23 Sept. ,, \n\nNarvaez exiled to Vienna .... Jan. 1853 \n\nMinisterial changes \xe2\x80\x94 Lersundi forms a cabinet, \n11 April ; resigns : Sartorius\'s cabinet . Sept. ,, \n\nBirth and death of a princess ... 5 Jan. 1854 \n\nGeneral O\'Donnell, Concha, and others banished, \n\n17 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDisturbances at Saragossa, &c. . . . Feb. ,, \n\nDon Francisco (father of the king consort), marries \nan " unfortunate " woman . . . March, , y \n\nMilitaryinsurrection, under O\'Donnell, near Madrid, \n\n28 June, ,, \n\nThe movement headed by Espartero : Barcelona \nand Madrid pronounce against the government ; \nbarricades in Madrid . . . 1-17 July, ,,. \n\nTriumph of the insurrection : resignation of the \nministry ; the queen sends for Espartero, 19 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPeace restored : the degraded generals reinstated, \n&c. ; Espartero forms an administration, 31 July, , r \n\nThe queen mother impeached ; she quits Spain \n\n28 Aug. , r \n\nMinisterial crisis ; Espartero resigns, but resumes \noffice 21-30 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNew constitution of the cortes . . 13 Jan. 1855 \n\nThe cortes vote that all power proceeds from the \npeople ; they permit liberty of belief, but not of \nworship Feb. ,, \n\nDon Carlos dies 10 March, ,, \n\nInsurrection of Valencia . . . .6 April, 1856" \n\nResignation of Espartero ; new cabinet formed, \nheaded by marshal O\'Donnell ; insurrection in \nMadrid, 14 July ; O\'Donnell and the government \ntroops subdue the insurgents ; the national \nguard suppressed .... 15-16 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nInsurrection at Barcelona and Saragossa quelled by \nO\'Donnell, as dictator . . . 15-23 July, , T \n\nO\'Donnell compelled to resign ; Narvaez becomes \nminister 12 Oct. ,, \n\nAmnesty granted to political offenders . 19 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nEspartero resigns as senator ... 1 Feb. 1857 \n\nInsuiTection in Andalusia ; quickly suppressed ; \ncruel military executions : 98 insurgents shot (24 \nat Seville) .... June and July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMinisterial changes : Armero minister . 26 Oct. ,, \n\nBirth of the prince royal . . . 28 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nIsturitz, minister, 14 Jan. ; O\'Donnell, minister, \n\n1 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCessation of state of siege at Barcelona, &c. 20 Sept. 1858 \n\nJoint French and Spanish expedition against Cochin \nChina announced 1 Dec. ,, \n\nWar with Morocco {lohich see) . . Nov. -Dec. 1859, \n\nAn association for reforming the tariff, &c. formed . ,, \n\nO\'Donnell commands the army in Africa ; indecisive \nconflicts reported ; battle at Castillejos ; a Spanish \n" Balaklava " charge .... 1 Jan. i860 \n\nThe Moors defeated near Tetuan, which surrenders \n\n4 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nSPAIN. \n\n\n\n903 \n\n\n\nSPAIN. \n\n\n\nAn ineffectual truce .... 16-23 Feb. i860 \nThe Moors defeated at Guad-el-ras . 23 March, ,, \nTreaty of peace signed ; 400,000,000 reals to be \npaid by Moors, and Tetuan to be held till paid \n\n26 Mar. ,, \nGeneral Ortega, governor of the Balearic Isles, lands \n\nnearTortosa, in Valencia, with 3000 men, and pro- \nclaims the comte de Montemolin king, as Charles \nVI. ; his troops resist, and he is compelled to flee, \nwith the comte and others, 3 April ; Ortega shot \n\n19 April, i860 \nThe comte de Montemolin and his brother Ferdi- \nnand arrested at Tortosa, 21 April ; renounce their \nclaim to the throne . . . .23 April, ,, \nAn amnesty proclaimed . . . .2 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nTheir brother Juan asserts his right, 5 June ; and \nthe}\', when at Cologne, annul their renunciation, \n\n28 June, ,, \nThe emperor Napoleon\'s proposal to admit Spain as \na first-class power is opposed by England, and \n\ngiven up Aug. ,, \n\nThe comte de Montemolin and his wife die at Trieste \n\n14 Jan. 1861 \nThe annexation of St. Domingo to Spain ratified ; \n\nslavery not to be re-established . . 19 May, ,, \nInsurrection at Loja suppressed . . . July, ,, \nThe cpieen said to be governed by the nun Patrocvnio \n\nDec. ,, \nIntervention in Mexico (see Mexico) . 8 Dec. ,, \nMuch church property in course of sale . April, 1862 \nJose Alhama and Manuel Matamoras, protestant \npropagandists, sentenced to 10 years\' imprison- \nment 14 Oct. ,, \n\nDon Juan de Bourbon renounces his right to the \n\nthrone 8 Jan. 1863 \n\nResignation of the premier, marshal O\'DonneU, 26 \n\nFeb. ; marquis de Miraflores minister 4 March, ,, \nInsurrection in St. Domingo ; war ensues (see Do- \nmingo) 1 Sept. ,, \n\nEmpress of France visits the queen . . Oct. ,, \nRupture with Peru (which see) . . . April, 1864 \nGeneral Prim exiled for conspiracy . . 13 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nArrazola ministry, Jan. ; Mon forms a ministry, i \nMarch ; resigns, 13 Sept. ; Narvaez forms a cabinet \n\nSept. ,, \nQueen Christina returns to Spain . . 26 Sept. ,, \nEnglish government recognises the insurrection at \nSt. Domingo ; Narvaez advises abandonment of \nthe contest ; the queen refuses ; the ministry re- \nsign ; but resume oftiee . . . 14-18 Dec. ,, \nPeace with Peru, which has to pay a heavy indemnity \n\n27 Jan. 186 = \nThe queen orders the sale of crown lands, giving up \n\nthree-fourths to the nation . . 20 Feb. ,, \n\nStudent riots at Madrid ; several persons killed, \n\n10 April, ,, \n[Bravo Murillo accused of cruelty on this occasion.] \nDecree relinquishing St. Domingo . . 5 May, ,, \nSuppression of a conspiracy at Valencia to re-unite \n\nSpain and Portugal .... 10 June, ,, \n\nResignation of Narvaez, 19 June ; O\'DonneU forms \n\na liberal cabinet 22 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nKingdom of Italy recognised by Spain 26 June, ,, \n\nFather Claret dismissed from court . . 20 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nDispute with Chili ; M. Tavira\'s settlement (20 \n\nMay) disavowed by the government . 25 July, ,, \nEmperor Napoleon visits the queen at St. Sebas- \ntian, 9 Sept. : she visits him at Biarritz, n Sept. ,, \nDisturbances at Saragossa suppressed . 3 Oct. ,, \nAdmiral Pareja, at Valparaiso, insults the Chilian \ngovernment, 18 Sept. ; which declares war, 25 \nSept. ; Pareja declares a blockade . . Oct. ,, \nThe Chilian captain Williams captures the Spanish \nvessel CovadongafPaxeja. commits suicide) 26 Nov. ,, \n\nIntervention fruitless Dec. ,, \n\nClaret returns to court . . . . 25 Dec. ,, \n\nNew cortes elected ; the great Progresista party \nstill abstains from action in public affairs ; queen \n\nopens cortes 27 Dec. ,, \n\nMilitary insurrection at Aran.juez, headed by gen. \nPrim, 3 Jan. ; martial law in Madrid, 4 Jan. ; \nConcha and Zabala march against rebels, 4 Jan. ; \n&e. ; riots at Barcelona, 9, 10 Jan. ; state of siege \nin New Castile, Catalonia, and Aragon 6-12 Jan. 1866 \nPrim enters Portugal and lays down arms ; the in- \nsurrection ends 20 Jan. ,, \n\nQueen Victoria,, British sloop, seized by a guarda- \ncosta \xe2\x80\xa2 .... 15 Jan. ,, \n\n\n\nAdmiral Mendez bombards Valparaiso, destroying \nmuch property, 31 March ; he is repulsed at Callao \n\nwith loss 2 May, 1866 \n\nThe queen declares the campaign in the Pacific ended, \n\n15 June, ,, \nGreat military revolt in favour of Prim at Madrid ; \nabout 1200 men, headed by non-commissioned \nofficers, with cannon, quelled summarily by mar- \nshals O\'DonneU and Narvaez, with much blood- \nshed ; 200 prisoners shot, 22 June ; 21 sergeants \n\nshot . 26 June, ,, \n\nMilitary revolts at Barcelona and at various other \n\nplaces 23 -June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nResignation of O\'DonneU as minister, succeeded by \nNarvaez and Bravo, who adopt severe measures \n\nagainst the liberals July, ,, \n\nThe queen said to be subject to the influence of \nthe " bleeding nun," Patrocinio, and the priests, \n\nJuly, \xe2\x80\x9e \nFreedom of the press abolished, and writers trans- \nported to the colonies; a \'/reign of terror," \n\nAug. -Sept. ,, \nBritish screw steamer Tornado, com. E. Collier, \nseized by Spaniards (charged with aiding Chili), \nand carried to Cadiz .... 21-22 Aug. ,, \n33 persons condemned to death, many of whom had \n\nfled 23 Sept. ,, \n\nRe-establishment of tranquillity declared at Madrid \n\n3 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nPublic instruction placed under the clergy Oct. ,, \nReform of the municipal institutions decreed on \n\naccount of revolutionary proceedings . .Oct. ,, \nCrew of Tornado detained as prisoners, 31 Oct. \n\nthe case referred to law .... Nov. ,, \nKing and queen visit Lisbon . . . 11 Dec. ,, \nTaxes for 1867 received in advance . . Dec. ,, \nThe queen dismissed the cortes (and imprisoned \nmany eminent deputies for petitioning against it) \n\n30 Dec. ,, \nO\'DonneU and his colleagues residing in Paris Jan. 1867 \nDecision in Tornado case \xe2\x80\x94 the ship a prize and the \ncrew prisoners of war, 18 Dec. 1866 ; lord Stanley \nprotests against the proceedings . . 8 Feb. ,, \nDecree for making secret publication of journals \n\nand pamphlets penal .... 16 Fell. ,, \nThe Tonutdo prisoners released . . . Feb. ,, \nState of siege raised .... 7 March, ,, \n\nQueen Victoria sloop declared by Spain to have \nbeen wrongfully seized and reparation tobe made, \n\n21 April, ,, \nAmnesty to revolters of June 1866 . 25 April, ,, \n\nSon of duchess of Montpensier born . 1 May, ,, \nAttempted insurrection in different parts (attributed \nto Prim) failed through want of organisation, \n\nabout 15 Aug. ,, \nInsurrectionary movements reported in Catalonia \n\nand Aragon .... July, Aug. ,, \n\nState of siege proclaimed .... 17 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nInsurrection suppressed ; amnesty . . Sept. ,, \nDeath of marshal O\'DonneU, duke\' of Tetuan 5 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMartial law annulled 16 Nov. ,, \n\nParliament opened by the queen in person 27 Dec. ,, \nAn armament bill adopted by the chamber of de- \nputies .22 Jan. iBGS \n\nProposed settlement with national creditors at 20 \n\nper cent, of the debt .... Jan. ,, \nGeneral amnesty proclaimed ... 23 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \nDeath of marshal Narvaez, duke of Valencia (aged 67) \n\n23 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \nNew ministry formed by Gonzalez Bravo Murillo, \n\n24 April, ,, \nMarriage of princess Isabella, the queen\'s eldest \n\ndaughter, to the count of Girgenti, brother of ex- \nking of Naples 13 May, ,, \n\nLaw enacted abolishing normal schools and subject- \ning education to the priests . . 2 June, ,, \n\nMinisterial changes 16 June. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDuke and duchess of Montpensier arrested and \nexiled 6 July, ,, \n\nMarshal Serrano, general Dolce, and others exiled \n\nabout 10 July, ,, \n\nInsurrection begins in the licet. iS Sept. : joined by \nthe garrison and city of Cadiz, tg Sept. ; accepted \nby -nearly all Spain .... 19-30 Sept. ,, \n\nPrim arrives at Cadiz, 17 Sept. ; announces a provi- \nsional government .... 10 Sept, ,, \n\nThe ministers resign, 19, 20 Sept. ; Jose Concha be- \n\n\n\nSPAIN. \n\n\n\n904 \n\n\n\nSPAIN. \n\n\n\ncomes president of the council, 22 Sept. ; Bravo \n\nMurillo and his colleagues flee to Bayonne 23 Sept. \n\n[Royalist leaders: Jose Concha, marquis de Havana, \n\nManuel Concha, marquis de Duero, at Madrid ; \n\nthe marquis de Pezuela at Barcelona ; Eusebio \n\nde Calonge in the north ; Pavia y Lacy, marquis \n\nde Novaliches in Andalusia.] \n\nNovaliches, the royalist general, defeated at Alcolea \n\nby Serrano, 27 Sept. ; surrenders . 28 Sept. \n\nThe queen flies to Bayonne and thence to Pan, and \n\nprotests 29, 30 Sept. \n\nThe deposition of the queen declared at Madrid, \n\n29 Sept. \nA national guard organised . . .30 Sept. \nDon Juan, son of Don Carlos, renounces his heredi- \ntary rights in favour of his son, Carlos, 3 Oct. \nSerrano enters Madrid, 3 Oct. ; Serrano, Prim, \nand Olozaga constitute a provisional government \n\n5 Oct. \nPrim enthusiastically received at Madrid 7 Oct. \nThe education law of 2 June annulled ; the Jesuits \nand other religious orders suppressed ; the laws \nexpelling the Jews abrogated ; freedom of reli- \ngious worship decreed . about 12, 13 Oct. \nAll the local juntas dissolved by manifesto of the \nprovisional government ... 20 Oct. \nThe provisional government recognised by the \nUnited States, 13 Oct. ; by England, France, and \nPrussia, 25 Oct. ; by Austria, Sweden, and Belgium \nabout 31 Oct. \nManifesto of the government declaring for universal \nsuffrage, and free press and education 26 Oct. \nPrim created a marshal . . about 6 Nov. \nThe queen arrives at Paris ... 6 Nov. \nThe joint electoral committee at Madrid declare in \nfavour of a limited monarchy . . 14 Nov. \nDecree for formation of a citizen force of the Volun- \nteers of Freedom j8 Nov. \n\nLoan of 20,000,000?. proposed by Figueroa, minister \nof finance ; 4,000,000?. said to be undertaken by \nRothschilds ; about 2,000,000 subscribed in \n\nSpain about 25 Nov. \n\nInsurrection against the provisional government \nbreaks out at Cadiz, 5 Dec. ; murderous conflicts, \n6 Dec. ; the city invested ; surrenders ; entry of \ngeneral Caballero de Roda, general of the army of \n\nAndalusia I2 Dec. \n\nPeaceful elections for constituent cortes, 19, 20 Dec. \n\nManifesto of the due de Montpensier, justifying his \n\nrecent entry into Spain . . dated 19 Dec. \n\nViolent insurrection at Malaga suppressed with \n\nmuch slaughter 3I Dec. \n\nElection of members for the cortes . 17 Jan. \n\nThe Spanish envoy at Rome not received 23 Jan. \nGutierez de Castro, civil governor of Burgos, mur- \ndered in the presence of priests while taking an \ninventory of the artistic treasures of the cathedral \n\n24 Jan. \nInsurrection in Cuba increasing . . Feb. \n\nMeeting of the cortes, n Feb. ; Rivero elected \n\npresident I3 Feb. \n\nThe provisional government resign ; Serrano re- \nappointed head of the government with same \n\nministry 25 . 2 6 Feb. \n\nRiots at Xeres on account of conscription, 16 March, \nSpanish Protestant religious service at Madrid \n\n28 March, \nInsurrection in Cuba fomented by Americans April, \n61st anniversary of the Madrid revolution and mas- \nsacre of the French (1808) . . .2 May, \nThe cortes vote for a monarchy (214 to 71), 21 Ma\\% \nThe new constitution promulgated . 6 June\', \nMarshal Serrano elected regent by the cortes 15 \n\nJune : sworn l8 Ju \xe2\x80\x9e e> \n\nIs ew ministry under Prim . . about iS June \nCarlist risings in La Mancha and at Ciudad Real\' \n\nsuppressed July-Aug. \n\nUnited States\' overtures respecting Cuba \'indig- \nnantly rejected .... about 18 Sept. \nCandidature ofthe duke of Genoa discussed Sept. Oct. \nRepublican risings at Tarragona, Barcelona,\' and \nother places, suppressed with bloodshed, Sept, ; \nrepublicans defeated near Reus, 4 Oct. ; Sara^-ossa \n. cannonaded, 8 Oct. ; Valencia surrendered, 16 \nOct.; tranquillity generally restored . 20 Oct* \nWarm discussions respecting the election of a kin"" \n. Topcte, minister of marine, resigns . 2 Nov.\' \nGeneral Dulce dies 23 Nov. \n\n\n\n1869 \n\n\n\nPowerful republican speech of Castelar in the cortes \nabout 18 Dec. \n\nResignation of Prim and the ministry on the Italian \ngovernment opposing the nomination of the duke \nof Genoa as king of Spain ... 4 Jan. \n\nPrim resumes office with Topete and Rivero 10 Jan. \n\nMajority in the assembly for Prim against the com- \nbined unionists and liberals . . 3 April, \n\nConscription riots at Barcelona ; soon suppressed \n\n7, 8 April, \n\nThe due de Montpensier, after great provocation, \nkills don Enrique de Bourbon, brother of the ex- \nking, in a duel, 12 March ; tried, condemned, and \nfined 12 April, \n\nThe offered crown declined by Espartero . May, \n\nBill for gradual abolition of slavery in the colonies \npresented to the cortes ... 28 May, \n\nTwo Englishmen of Gibraltar seized by brigands ; \nransomed for 5200?. ; brigands afterwards attacked \nby the Spanish civil guard ; several of them killed, \nand part of the ransom recovered . . June, \n\nRojo Arias carries a resolution requiring an abso- \nlute majority in the cortes for any proposed sove- \nreign (179 out of 356) ; this excludes all present \ncandidates June, \n\nIsabella II. abdicates in favour of her son Alfonso, \n\n25 June, \n\nPrince Leopold of Hohenzollern Sigmaringen nomi- \nnated king, accepted by the regent and ministry, \n6 July ; this justified by the government in a cir- \ncular, 7 July ; on the strong opposition of France \nhe resigns 12 July, \n\nNeutrality in the war announced . . 27 July, \n\nRenewed agitation for a republic about 9 Aug. \n\nAmnesty for all political offences since 29 Sept, 1868, \npublished 10 Aug. \n\nIrruption of Carlists into Navarre, 27 Aug. ; defeated \n\n28 Aug. \n\nThe Basque provinces put into a state of siege, \n\n28 Aug. \n\nThe French republic warmly recognised . Sept. \n\nMinisterial crisis 15 Sept. \n\nClaret, the ex-queen\'s confessor, dies . . 4 Oct. \n\nAmadeus, duke of Aosta(born 30 May, 1845), accepts \nthe candidature for the crown . . 20 Oct. \n\nElected by the cortes by 191 votes : (63 for a repub- \nlic ; 27 for the due de Montpensier) . 16 Nov. \n\nProclaimed king 17 Nov. \n\nThe ex-queen, on behalf of her son Alfonso, protests \nagainst the election ... . . 21 Nov. \n\nThe duke accepts the crown from a deputation of \nthe cortes at Florence, and says " that his honesty \nshould rise above the struggle of parties, and that \nhe had no other object than the peace and pros- \nperity of the nation" .... 4 Dec. \n\nStormy session in the cortes respecting arrange- \nments for the new king, 19 Dec. ; Rivero, the pre- \nsident, resigns 25 Dec. \n\nPrim fired at and wounded in his carriage by six \nmen, who escaped ; great indignation at Madrid, \n27 Dec. ; Topete rejoins the ministry ; vote of con- \nfidence in it 28 Dec. \n\nPrim dies in the evening (aged 56) ; the king received \nby Topete at Cartagena . . . " 30 Dec. \n\nFuneral of Prim 31 Dec. \n\nThe king enters Madrid, visits the body of Prim, \nand takes the oath .... 2 Jan. \n\nNew ministry under Serrano ... 5 Jan. \n\nWarm reception of the: queen at Madrid 19 March, \n\nNew cortes opened ; the king\'s speech much ap- \nplauded 3 April, \n\nDel Castillo and other Alfonsists recognise the \nking April, \n\nOlozaga elected president of the cortes 4 April, \n\nThe Tornado difficulty settled (Aug. Nov. 1866) \ncompensation to be paid by the Spanish govern- \nment May, \n\nMinisterial crisis through financial affairs ; settled \nby the king June, \n\nMarshal Serrano fails in forming a cabinet, 23 July ; \na ministry formed by Zorrilla . . 24 July, \n\nThe king visits the provinces ; warmly received, \n1 Sept. et seq. ; welcomed by Espartero at Logrofio, \n\n30 Sept, \n\nCortes opened, 1 Oct, ; Sagasta elected president in \nopposition to Rivero (123-113), 3 Oct, ; the Zorrilla \nministry resigns, 4 Oct. ; Malcampo forms a \nministry 5 Oct. \n\n\n\niS\xc2\xa39 \n1S70 \n\n1870 \n\n\n\nSPAIN. 905 \n\n\n\nSPAIN. \n\n\n\nRepublican meeting at Madrid ; strong resolutions \npassed 15 Oct. 1871 \n\nDefeat of the ministry in the cortes; dissolution, \n\n24, 25 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nArigulo, the finance minister, proposes to tax the \nforeign national creditors 18 per cent. 27 Nov. ,, \n\nSuicide of the count of Girgenti . . 27 Nov. ,, \n\nMinistry formed under Sagasta . . 21 Dec. ,, \n\nBfspartero, duke of Victory, made prince of Vergara, \n\nJan. 1872 \n\nKesignation of Sagasta and the ministry for a \ntrifling defeat ; refused by the king, dissolution \nof the cortes; much excitement; troops under \narms 25, 26 Jan. ,, \n\nMinistry reconstituted by Sagasta and Topete, \n\n20 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nUnion of the opposition against the ministry, who \ndetermine to support the throne, about 8 March, ,, \n\nElections ; majority of about 100 for ministers ; \nMadrid elects for the opposition . 4-6 April, ,, \n\nInsurrection of Carlists incited by priests in \nNavarre, Leon, &c. ; manifesto of don Carlos, \nduke of Madrid ; Diaz de Eada, his general \n\nabout 20 April, ,, \n\nThe new cortes opened ; the king says, " I will never \nimpose myself on the Spanish people, but neither \nwill I allow myself to be accused of deserting the \n\'post which I occupy by their will " . 24 April, ,, \n\nNavarre, <fcc, in state of siege . . 23 April, ,, \n\nMarshal Serrano enters Navarre with an army; \ndon Carlos, calling himself Carlos VII., crosses \nthe frontiers near Vera, and takes the command, \nRada retiring, 2 May; totally defeated at Oro- \nquieta (which sec) 4 May, ,, \n\nThe Carlists surrender by hundreds, or disperse, \n\n8, 9, 20, 21 May, ,, \n\nReported small defeats at Ouate, <fce. . 13, 20 May, ,, \n\nResignation of the Sagasta ministry . . 22 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBand of Carlists defeated near Gerona, about 22 May, ,, \n\nNew ministry (supported by Serrano), adm. Topete \npresident 25 May, ,, \n\nSerrano offers amnesty to Carlists who surrender, \n25 May; it is accepted, 27 May; he is censured, \nbut exonerated by the cortes, 8 June ; he assumes \nthe presidency of the ministry . . 4 June, ,, \n\nCaiiism increases ; the ministry propose martial \nlaw; the king opposes it; the ministry resign, \n\n12 June, ,, \n\nRuiz Zorrilla (who had just retired from political \nlife) becomes president of a new ministry, 14 June, ,, \n\nLetter of the due de Montpensier advocating the \nrightsof prince Alfonso, 17 April ; published, June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDissolution of the cortes ... 20 June, ,, \n\nDon Carlos calls on Catalonia, Arragon, and Valen- \ncia, to rise, promising to restore their ancient \nliberties 16 July, ,, - \n\nAttempted assassination of the king and queen by \nabout 15 men ; one assassin killed, two taken ; a \nlittle after midnight of . . . 18-19 July, ,, \n\nThe king\'s popular visit to the provinces, travelling \nnearly 2000 miles . . .26 July-24 Aug. ,, \n\nElections for the cortes; highly favourable to the \nZorrilla ministry . . . .25 Aug. et scq. ,, \n\nThe cortes opened by the king with a line speech, \n\n15 Sept. ,, \n\nRepublican rising at Fcrrol; red flag displayed; \n1500 men under Montqjo and Bozas, n Oct. ; \ntown captured by the captain-general of Galicia, \n\n13 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe insurgents disperse or surrender; about 500 \nprisoners 17 Oct. ,, \n\nImpeachment of the Sagasta ministry for financial \ncorruption proposed in the cortes ; much agitation, \n\nend of Oct. ,, \n\nThe country disturbed by Carlists and republicans, \n\nNov. -Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGen. Hidalgo appointed to a military command ; \n\'the artillery officers resigned : punished . Nov. ,, \n\nOutbreak in Madrid suppressed . . 11 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nChanges in the ministry announced . 20 Dec. ,, \n\nBill for abolition of slavery in Porto Rico, for com- \npensation, brought into congress . 24 Dec. ,, \n\nCarlist bands defeated and several generals killed, \n\nJan. 1873 \n\nKing Amadeus\' message to the cortes, announcing \nhis abdication ; he states that he sees Spain in a \ncontinual struggle, the era of peace more distant ; \nlie sought for remedies within the law, ami did \n\n\n\nnot find them ; his efforts were sterile. The two \nchambers combine as the sovereign cortes of \nSpain, and vote for a republic (126-32) . 11 Feb. I \n\nReported success of the Carlists ; agitation for the \ndue de Montpensier among the Orlcanists in \nFrance 12 Feb. \n\nNew ministry under Figueras . . 12 Feb. \n\nKing Amadeus arrives at Lisbon . . 13 Feb. \n\nIrruption of Carlists ; they hold part of Catalonia ; \ndemonstrations in favour of a federal republic, \n\n22, 23 Feb. \n\nMinistry reconstituted ; Figueras chief, 24, 25 Fell. \n\nPowerful circnlarto European powers from Castelar, \nforeign minister 27 Feb. \n\nAppointment of a permanent committee of the \ncortes 22 March, \n\nGreat dissensions between the radicals and repub- \nlicans; fighting with Carlists in the provinces, \nearly in March, \n\nSlavery in Porto Rico abolished . . 23 March, \n\nProclamation of the government calling for volun- \nteers against the Carlists . . . 25 March, \n\nMutinous spirit in the army . . . April, \n\nThe Carlists beaten in several encounters; don \nAlfonso de Bourbon re-enters France 23 April, \n\nThe old "monarchical volunteers" take possession \nof the bull-ring at Madrid ; are disarmed and dis- \npersed by the government troops ; the " perma- \nnent committee" dissolved by the government, \nwhich assumes supreme power . . 26 April, \n\nSerrano and Sagasta have left Spain . 29 April, \n\nMore defeats of the Carlists; Madrid tranquil, \n29, 30 April-4 May, \n\nElections for the cortes commence ; monarchists \nabstain from voting . . . .10 May, \n\nMr. Bradlaugh, the English republican, entertained \nat Madrid 24 May, \n\nMore Carlist defeats reported ; their alleged cruelties \ndenied by the Carlist committee . May, June, \n\nThe Intransigentes or Irreconeilables (extreme re- \npublicans) very powerful . . . June, \n\nThe new cortes opened ; a speech by Figueras, \n\n1 June. \n\nThe federal republic voted by the cortes (210-2) and \nproclaimed, 8 June ; Pi y Margall, president of a \nnew ministry, rejected ; Figueras and his ministry \nresume office 9 June. \n\nCarlists besieging Irun .... 7 June, \n\nMinisterial crisis renewed, 10 June; Pi y Margall \nbecomes minister; Figueras quits Spain, n June, \n\nCarlists defeat Castaiion near Murieta . 26 June, \n\nCadiz, Seville, Malaga, and Valencia very insub- \nordinate 29 June, \n\nThe Intransigentes withdraw from the cortes, 1 July, \n\nDefeat and death of Calvinety by Carlists ; insur- \nrection at Alcoy, promoted by Internationalists; \nthe mayor and others killed, announced, n Julj \n\nDon Carlos (as Carlos VII.) enters Spain, " to save \nthe country " 13 July, \n\nDesperate fighting at Igualada, Catalonia \n\n17, iS July, \n\nFour prevailing parties : \xe2\x80\x94 1. The government, hi^hh \ndemocratic; 2. The Intransigentes, or irreconeil- \nables : extremely democratic ; 3. The Interna- \ntional, or communists ; 4. The legitimists, \nCarlists. \n\nMurcia and Valencia proclaim themselves federal \ncantons iS July, \n\nPi y Margall compelled to resign ; Salmeron forms \na ministry opposed to the Intransigentes, 18 July, \n\nIgualada taken by the Carlists under Don Alfonso, \n\n19 July, \n\nThe government determine to put down insurrec- \ntion ....... 24 July, \n\nDon Carlos enters Biscay . . . 31 July, \n\nCarlists hold chief of N. Spain . . Aug. \n\nInsurgents repulsed in their attack on Almeria ; \nbeaten in tights at Seville, 28-30 July ; gen. Pavia \nwarmly received 31 July, \n\nCadiz surrenders to him .... 4 Aug. \n\nTroops attack Valencia, 26 July ; it surrenders, \n\n8 Aug. \n\nNew constitution printed, 27 July; discussed, Aug. \n\n[118 Articles ; includes separation of church and \nstate; free religious worship ; nobility abolished : \n15 states in and near peninsula : 2 in the Antilles ; \ncortes (senate and congress) to have legislative \npower; one deputy to 50,000 souls; cortes to be \n\n\n\nSPAIN. \n\nrenewed in 2 years ; members to be paid ; execu- \ntive : president and ministry ; president elected \nfor 4 years.] \nEombardment of Malaga stopped by the British \nand German admirals . . . . 1 Aug. \n\nAlleged Carlist victories at Elgueta, &c. 5-10 Aug. \n\nReported total defeat of the insurgents at Chin- \nchilla, while inarching on Madrid . . 10 Aug. \nCartagena, held by Intransigentes, besieged, 22 Aug. \nThe Deerhuund, English yacht, conveying stores to \nCarlists, seized by the Spaniards, 11J miles off \nBiarritz ; crew imprisoned, and captain sent to \n_. F errol 13 Aug. \n\nCapt.\'H erner, of German ship, Friedrich Karl, cap- \ntures Aimanza and Vittoria, Spanish ironclads, \nheld by rebels, gives them up to adin. Yelverton, \nwho prepares for action against Intransigentes, \nclaiming them, and sends them to Gibraltar un- \nmolested r Sept. \n\nCarlists aeteat republicans at Arrichulegui, near \nBenteria, many killed . . . . 21 Aug. \n\nThey take Estella after a conflict at Dicastillo, \n\n25 Aug. \n\nCastelar elected president of the cortes . 26 Aug. \n\nThe ministry propose abolition of capital punish- \nment in the army, defeated in the cortes ; resign \n. S Sept. \n\nCastelar heads a ministry ; proposes calling out \n150,000 men, to end the war . . 7, 8 Sept. \n\nCm-lists successful ; yet do not advance . 5-8 Sept. \n\nSalmeron elected president of the cortes 9 Sept. \n\nCastelar made virtually dictator . . 15 Sept. \n\nFerdinand Mufloz, duke of Rianzares, husband of \nqueen Christina, dies at Havre . . 12 Sept. \n\nThe Deerhound and crew given up ; announced \n\nabout 18 Sept. \n\nReported victories of Loma over Carlists 18 Sept. \n\nSpeech of Castelar, the cortes to be closed 2 Jan. \n1874 18 Sept. \n\nCarlist attack on Tolosa repulsed by Loma, 19 Sept. \n\nThe cortes prorogued . . . .21 Sept. \n\nThe Carlist Merendon killed andhis band dispersed \nabout 26 Sept. \n\nThe Vittoria and Aimanza given up to the Spanish \ngovernment 26 Sept. \n\nCarlists in Navarre defeated by Moriones, 27 Sept. \n\nThe Intransigentes\' ironclads, Mendez Nunez and \nNumancia, bombarding Alicante, repulsed \n\n28 Sept. \n\nCombination of parties to support Castelar, \n\nabout 6 Oct. \n\nBattle at Manem, near Puenta de la Reyna, in \nNavarre, between republicans, under Moriones, \nand Carlists, under Olio ; both claim a victory ; \nadvantage with Carlists ... 6 Oct. \n\nCarlists said to be repulsed at La Junquera, in \nCatalonia about 8 Oct. \n\nBattle of Escombrera bay ; the Intransigentes\' ships \nattempt to break blockade of Cartagena ; repulsed \nby admiral Lobo 11 Oct. \n\nMany Carlists escape into France . about Oct. \n\nLobo declines to fight, and retires, pursued by the \nIntransigentes, 13 Oct. ; justifies himself at \nMadrid 22 Oct. \n\nCollision of the Intransigentes\' vessels Nttmancia \nand Fernando del Catolico, the latter sunk and \n66 drowned 18 Oct. \n\nUnsuccessful sortie at Cartagena . . 21 Oct. \n\nTristany, with 2,500 Carlists, defeated by Salamanca \n\n_ , 25 Oct. \n\nDeath of Rios Rosas, statesman . . 3 Nov. \n\nThe Murillo (see Wrecks, 1873), captured; con- \ndemned to be sold by the British court of ad- \nmiralty N 0V . \n\nIndecisive conflicts at Monte JurreandMonjardin, \nvictories claimed by Carlists . . 7, 8, 9 Nov. \n\nCartagena bombarded . . .26 Nov. et sen. \n\nReported victory of Moriones near Tolosa, 7 Dec! \n\nLopez Dominguez becomes commander before \nCartagena 13 Bee. \n\nTetuan, insurgent vessel, at Cartagena, blew u" \n(? purposely) 30 Dec. \n\nProHiinciamento :\xe2\x80\x94 Meeting of the cortes; speech \nof Castelar ; vote of confidence in him lost by 20 ; \nlie resigns ; Salmeron attempts to form a ministry, \n2-3 Jan. ; Pavia, captain general of Madrid, \nforcibly dissolves the cortes . . . \' 3 Jan. 1 \n\nMarshal Serrano made president of a new ministry! \n\n\n\n906 \n\n\n\nSPAIN. \n\n\n\nincluding Topete ; the national guard of Madrid \n\ndisarming 4 Jan. 1874 \n\nInsurrection at Saragossa; suppressed with blood- \nshed 4 Jan. ,, \n\nThe new government issue a moderate manifesto, \n\n9, 10 Jan. ,, \nCartagena captured by Lopez Dominguez, 12 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \nInsurrection at Barcelona quelled . 12, 13 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNumancia ironclad, with Intransigentes leaders and \nconvicts, escapes ; they land at Mers el Kebir, \nnear Oran, on the African coast ; are interned \nby the French 12 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBlockade of the coast of Spain announced 31 Jan. ,, \n\nThe Carlists besiege Bilbao. Moriones defeated at \nSomorrostro 25 Feb. \n\nMarshal Serrano resigns presidency of the ministry, \nand becomes chief of the executive, succeeded \nby Zabala ; Serrano proceeds to Bilbao, \n\n28 Feb. etseq. ,, \n\nSerrano assumes command . . about 8 March, ,, \n\nThe blockade of the coast (31 Jan.) raised 2 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAsserted victory of the Carlists at San Felice, \nBurgos 15 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThree days\' conflict at Somorrostro, near Bilbao ; \nthe Carlists defeated, but retain their positions \n(about 2000 killed and wounded on both sides) \n\n25, 26, 27 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nArmistice for three days ... 28 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGeneral Manuel da Concha, joins Serrano at \nSantander .... about 8 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGreat national effort to relieve Bilbao ; union of \nparties ; hostilities resumed . . 20 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAfter several days\' conflict, Carlists retreat ; marshal \nConcha enters Bilbao, which is much injured by \nlong bombardment .... 2 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nA battle at Prats de Llusanes, indecisive 6 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNew ministry formed under Zabala . . 13 May, ,, \n\nCarlists repulsed in severe attack at Ramales, \n\nabout 20 May, ,, \n\nCarlists defeated at Gondesa . about 6 June, ,, \n\nRepublicans repulsed before Estella . 25-27 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nConcha- killed (succeeded by Zabala) . 27 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCarlists accused of butchering prisoners, June and \n\nJul>% \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAlleged Carlist victories at Pefia Mura (or Plata), \nntar Abarzuza .... 25-27 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSchmidt, a German correspondent, shot as a spy by \nCarlists about 28 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGerman intervention for killing of captain Schmidt \nby Carlists . . . . . . July, ,, \n\nCarlists hold Navarre, Guipuscoa, Biscay, and \nAlara July, \xc2\xbb \n\nThe Carlists capture Cuenca (about 80 miles from \nMadrid) . .\' 13 July, ,, \n\nDon Carlos\'s manifesto promising constitutional \ngovernment 16 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMassacre of 86 republican prisoners by Carlists \nunder Saballo at Valfogona . . 17 Jul y, ,, \n\nAll Spain placed under martial law ; levy of 125,000 \nmen about 18 July, , s \n\nGovernment circular to foreign courts respecting \nCarlist atrocities 29 July, ,, \n\nThe government appeals to the French government \nrespecting French assistance to Carlists ; justifi- \ncatory reply 3 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe British Mediterranean squadron under admiral \nDrummond sails from Malta for Barcelona, 4 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDon Carlos appeals to the chief powers not to inter- \nvene ; justifies Dorregaray\'s severities, and the \nexecution of Schmidt .... 6 Aug. ,, \n\nMoriones\' alleged defeat of Mendiri and Carlists at \nOteiza 12 Aug. ,, \n\nDuty of 5t7. a ton on imported iron granted to \nBilbao for repairs .... 13 Aug. ,, \n\nSerrano\'s government recognised by Great Britain, \nGermany, France, and other powers (not by \nRussia) .... about 14 Aug. ,, \n\nLetter of sympathy and encouragement from the \ncomte de Chambord to don Carlos . Aug. ,, \n\n185 prisoners of war at Olot said to be shot by \nCarlists Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPuycerda vigorously besieged by Carlists, \n\nAug.-Sept. ,, \n\nZabala resigns ; ministry formed under Sagasta, \n\n4 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCarlists fire on German gunboats Nautilus and \nAlbatross near San Sebastian; the Germans fire \nshells into the town . . . about 5 Sept. ,, \n\n\n\nSPAIN. \n\nLopez Dominguez said to hare defeated Carlists five \ntimes, and relieved Puyeerda . about 6 Sejit. \n\nCarlists fire on German and Austrian ambassadors \non the road to Madrid . . . . C Sept. \n\nCarlists defeated by Lopez Pinto near Mora, about \n9 Sept.; by Moriones at Barasoam near Tafalla, \nabout 25 Sept. \n\nThe ruthless Carlist general Dorregaray retires to \nBayonne ; said to have beeu superseded by Men- \ndir\'i Oct. \n\nPavia superseded by Jovellar in Valencia, \n\nearly in Oct. \n\nNote sent to French government complaining of \nneglect respecting the Carlists on the frontiers, \nearly in Oct. \n\nCarlists said to have been defeated at Fortuna, in \nMurcia, 11 Oct.; and at Villa Fortuna, 30 Oct. \n\nCarlists begin to bombard Irun, 4 Nov.; repulsed, \n\n10 Nov. \n\nSerrano commander of the army in the north, Nov. \n\nPrince Alfonso issues a manifesto in reply to \naddress, declaring himself tobe "a true Spaniard, \ncatholic, and liberal " . . . . 1 Dec. \n\nThe army at Murviedro pronounces in favour of \nAlfonso ; he is proclaimed king by gen. Martinez \nCampos, 29 Bee. ; recognised by the other armies \nand the nav.y, 30 Dec; proclaimed by gen. Primo \nda Rivera at Madrid ; Antonio Canovas del Cas- \ntillo head of a royal ministry . . 31 Dec. \n\nThe president marshal Serrano withdraws to France, \n\n1 Jan. \n\nProclamation of Carlos against Alfonso . 6 Jan. \n\nAlfonso XII. recognised throughout Spain ; well \nreceived at Barcelona, 9 Jan. ; enters Madrid, \n\n14 Jan. \n\nOrders of knighthood re-established ; payments to \nclergy to be renewed Jan. \n\nIncreased barbarities of the Carlists reported, Jan. \n\nAlfonso reviews 30,000 troops near Tafalla, 22 Jan.; \nissues proclamation to northern provinces, pro- \nmising amnesty, and respect to local rights,22 Jan. \n\nSerrano returns to Madrid .... Feb. \n\nCarlists surprise and defeat royalists at Lucar, \n\n3 Feb. \n\nCarlists retreat from Pampeluna ; entered by the \nking, 6 Feb. ; he exchanges decorations with \nEspartero at Logroilo ... .9 Feb. \n\nDesignation of generals Moriones, Loma, and \nBlanco ; Concha sent for from Cuba . . Feb. \n\nSerrano received by the king . . .8 March, \n\nCabrera, an old Carlist general (see 1840; publishes \nan address, declaring for Alfonso XII., 11 March, \n\nSeveral professors seized and exiled for liberal \nopinions March, April, \n\nEight prisoners shot by Carlist general Mendiri, in \nreprisal 7 April, \n\nPapal nuncio received by the king . . 3 May, \n\nAguirre, Carlist general, joins the royalists, \n\nabout 9 May, \n\nJovellar, commander of royal army, about 7 June, \n\nMartinez Campos said to have taken fortress of \nMiraveti 24 June, \n\nVigorous action of the government troops ; Carlists \nexpelled from Castile ; stringent measures or- \ndered against those who favour them . July, \n\nCarlists defeated by Qucsada and others 31 July, \n\nStrong citadel at Urgel surrendered by Carlists to \nCampos, after a gallant defence ; the bishop and \nthe brave general Lizarraga captured, 26 Aug. \n\nNew conscription ordered, 12 Aug; reported suc- \ncessful Sept. \n\nDesignation of "conciliation ministry," n Sept; \nliberal cabinet headed by gen. Jovellar, 12 Sept. \n\nThe papal nuncio issues a circular against toleration, \nabout 13 Sept. \n\nDorregaray said to be nominated to the chief com- \nmand ; declaration from don Carlos stating that \nhis mission is " to quell the revolution, and that \nit will die" Sept. \n\nBombardment of San Sebastian, 28 Sept.-2 Oct. ; \nresumed, n Oct. \n\nThe government declare the civil war at an end, \nami purpose summoning the cortes to assist the \nking in re-organising the country, early in Oct. \n\nReported defection of Mendiri from the Carlists, \nand trial of Dorregaray and Caballi for miscon- \nduct ; and Carlist successes . . . Oct. \n\n\n\n907 \n\n\n\n1874 \n\n\n\n\'875 \n\n\n\nSPAIN. \n\nReported interference of United States respecting \nCuba Oct.. Nov. 1873 \n\nAlleged victories of Quesada, near Pennacerada, \n\n4, 5. Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCorrespondence of ministry with the pope respect- \ning ecclesiastical affairs .... Nov. ,, \n\nLetter from Don Carlos to the king proposing a \ntruce, and offering help if war occurs with the \nUnited States (not answered) . . 9 Nov. ,, \n\nFormation of a new constitutional party under \nSagasta Nov. ,, \n\nNew proclamation of don Carlos to encourage his \nsupporters 23 Nov. ,, \n\nSerrano and Sagasta greet the king on his birthday, \n\n28 Nov. ,, \n\nMinistry reconstructed under Canovas del Castillo, \n\n27 Nov. ,, \n\nCortes elected, 364 nominal ministerialists out of 406, \n\nJan. 1876 \n\nCortes opened by the king ... 15 Feb. ,, \n\nCarlists defeated at Estella, Vera, and Tolosa, by \nQuesada and Moriones .... Feb. ,, \n\nThe king assumes command ; Estella surrenders to \nPrimo da Rivera : severe loss . . 18 Feb. ,, \n\nReported letter from the pope recommending Carlos \nto retire from the contest ... 22 Feb. ,, \n\nMany Carlists submit or flee into France, 24-26 Feb. ,, \n\nDon Carlos with general Lizarraga and five batta- \nlions surrender to the governor of Bayonne, at \nSt. Jean Pied de Port, 27 Feb. ; he lands with \nsome officers at Folkestone, and proceeds to \nLondon 4 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTriumphal entry of Alfonso XII. into Madrid, \n\n20 March, ,, \n\nDraft of new constitution submitted to the cortes, \n\n28 March, ,,. \n\nThe pope opposes moderate religious toleration in \nArt. 11 of the constitution . . . April, , r \n\nThe Jews (expelled in 1492) petition for re-admission \n\nApril, , r \n\nThe prince of Wales at Madrid by invitation, \n\n25-30 April, , r \n\nOutbreaks in the Basque provinces reported ; mar- \ntial law about 27 May, ,, \n\nLong debate in the cortes ; confidence in ministry \nvoted (211-26) ; the constitution passed; cortes \nadjourns about 21 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nQueen Isabella received by the king at Santander ; \ndeclares that " her share in public affairs is at an \nend " 31 July, ,, \n\nRepression of public worship of protestants by \nauthority Sept. ,, \n\nEx-queen Isabella quietly received at Madrid, 1 3 Oct . , , \n\nAlleged federalist conspiracy of Ruiz Zorrilla and \nSalmeron ; about 1 =o arrests . . . 23 Oct. ,, \n\nState of siege in Old Castile raised . . 1 Feb. 1877 \n\nTreaty favoured nation clause in regard to England \nabrogated \n\nRoyal progress in the provinces ; the king well re- \nceived March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGeneral amnesty to Carlists and others surrender- \ning April, ,, \n\nMeeting of the new cortes ; cheerful royal speech, \n\n25 April, ,, \n\nThe cortes suddenly closed . . . 11 July, ,, \n\nNew tariff passed; customs duties raised in respect \nto Great Britain, France, and United States, \n\n17 July, ,, \n\nThe ex-queen, after visiting her son, disapproves \nof his proposed marriage, and associates with don \nCarlos in Paris, who is privately forbidden to \nremain, and goes to England ; she is forbidden to \nreturn to Spain ; her pension stopped, end of Dec. ,, \n\nThe king married to his cousin Mercedes, daughter \nof the due de Montpensier . . . 23 Jan. 1878 \n\nEnd of the insurrection in Cuba announced, 21 Feb. ,, \n\nDeath of queen Mercedes, deeply lamented, 26 June, ,, \n\nBudget receipts, 30,025,208?., expendit. 30,127,114?. \nannounced Aug. ,, \n\nDeath of the queen dowager Christina . 21 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe king fired at (not injured) by Juan Oliva Mon- \ncasi, a member of the international Society, aged \n23 25 <\xc2\xbbct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMoncasi executed 4 Jan. 187^ \n\nEspartero, duquc de Victoria, dies . . 8 Jan. ,, \n\nCastillo ministry (1874) resigns ; marshal Campos \nforms a ministry 3 March, ,, \n\nThe cortes dissolved, 16 March ; to meet, \' 1 June, ,, \n\n\n\nSPAIN. \n\n\n\n908 \n\n\n\nSPAIN. \n\n\n\nHeavy rains, 14 Oct. ; consequent disastrous inun- \ndations in the provinces of Malaga, Almeria, \nGranada, Seville, and especially in Murcia and \nAlicante ; about 1000 persons perish ; about \n10,000 houseless .... 15-17 Oct. : \n\nfresh storms and inundations ; 21 persons drowned \nat Vera, in Almeria . . . . 29, 30 Oct. \n\nThe king married to the archduchess Maria Chris- \ntina of Austria 29 Nov. \n\nVines attacked by phylloxera in Malaga, &c. Nov. \n\n.Resignation of the Campos ministry ; Canovas del \nCastillo forms a cabinet ... .9 Dec. \' \n\nAttempted assassination of the king and queen by \nFrancisco Otero y Gonzalez by shooting, 30 Dee. \n\nPromulgation of law for gradually abolishing \nslavery in Cuba . . . . . 18 Feb. \n\nManifesto from 279 senators and deputies claiming \nliberty of religion, the press, &c, and education, \nuniversal suffrage, &c. ... 6 April, \n\nOtero executed 14 April, \n\nResignation of ministry ; Sagasta forms a ministry \n(liberal), 8 Feb. ; the chambers adjourned, 9 Feb. \n\nCalderon centenary, Madrid, begins . 23 May, \n\nConference of advanced radicals at Biarritz to or- \nganize the party 13 June, \n\nPermission said to be given to about 60,000 Rus- \nsian Jews to come to Spain . . . June, \n\nDon Carlos expelled from France for expressing sym- \npathy with legitimists (goes to London) 17 July, \n\nElections ; majority for the ministry . . Aug. \n\nThe cortes opened by the king . . 20 Sept. \n\nConsolidation of the National debt (60,000,000?.) \nproposed, Sept. ; law published . 10 Dec. \n\nThe kinginvested with the order of theGarter,7 Oct. \n\nThe kings of Spain and Portugal open a new rail- \nway between Madrid and Lisbon . . 8 Oct. \n\nGreat agitation against the free trade policy of the \nminister Camacho, in Catalonia, <fcc. (see Bar- \ncelona) \n\nTreaty with France passed by the cortes (237-65), \n\n22 April, \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Continued disputes with England respecting tariff, \n\nAug. et seq. \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0"Dynastic Left," a new party formed by marshal \nSerrano and others, constituted (dividing the \nliberals) 27 Oct. \n\nGen. Maceo and Ave Cuban insurgent leaders sur- \nrendered at Gibraltar to the Spaniards (they had \nescaped from Cadiz, 20 Aug.) ; they petition \n\xe2\x96\xa0queen Victoria to ask for their release ; applica- \ntion made for inquiry ; gen. Baylies, colonial \nsecretary at Gibraltar, and Mr. Blair, the chief \ninspector of police, dismissed for exceeding their \nauthority, announced .... 4 Dec. \n\nThe "Dynastic Left" in cortes pronounce in favour \nof advanced liberalism . . . 15 Dec. \n\nMajority for government in elections for councils \ngeneral 17 Dec. \n\nResignation of the ministry . . .6 Jan. \n\nNew cabinet formed by Sagasta . . 8 Jan. \n\nSocialist and anarchist disturbances in Seville, &c. \n\nFeb. \n\nA secret society, entitled the " Black Hand (Mano \nNegra)," reported; airests, 28 Feb.; total sup- \npression reported .... 4 March, \n\nRelease of two Cuban refugees ; Maceo retained, \n\nMarch, \n\nThe king and queen of Portugal at Madrid, 22 May, \n\nTemporary republican military insurrection at \nBadajoz, said to lie planned by Ruiz Zorrilla, \non the approach of troops ; mutineers enter Por- \ntugal, and are disarmed . . 4, 5, 6 Aug. \nBrief military outbreaks near Logrofio and at Bar- \n\' celona, 8 Aug. ; Seo-de-Urgel . . .9 Aug. \n\nSpain reported tranquil ... 13 Aug. \n\nThe king\'s military tour, Valencia, Barcelona, Sara- \ngossa, &c. well received . . 17 Aug. et seq. \n\nHe visits Vienna, 10 Sept. ; Berlin, Homberg, and \nBrussels 27 Sept. \n\nThe king honourably received by president Grevy, \nbut hissed and reviled by the Paris mob (on \nAccount of his having been made a colonel of \nUhlans by the emperor William); behaved with \ndignity and courage . . 29, 30 Sept. 1 Oct. \nResignation of Sagasta ami his ministry ; succeeded \nby Posada Herrera and others . 11-13OCL \n\nThe crown prince of Germany arrives at Madrid, \n\n23 Nov. \n\n\n\nAmnesty granted to insurgent soldiers announced, \n\n27 Nov. \n\nTreaty for new commercial tariff signed . 1 Dec. \n\nThe king opens the cortes, with speech promising \nimportant reforms .... 15 Dec. \n\nTreaty with England condemned by the council of \nstate ; freetraders indignant . . . Jan. \n\nGovernment defeated in the cortes (221-126) 17 Jan. \n\nMinistry resigned ; Canovas del Castillo (conser- \nvative) forms a ministry . . . 18 Jan. \n\nDissolution of the cortes . . . 31 March, \n\nSuspected military insurrection ; about 25 persons \narrested, about 17 March ; 7 of 15 condemned ; \nBlack Hand conspirators garrotted at Xeres, 14 \nJune; Commander Fernandez and lieut. Telles \nshot as rebels . . . . . 28 June, \n\nFall of the Alcudia railway bridge near Badajoz, \ngreat loss of life (said to be 90) ; believed to be \ndue to criminal work of republicans . 26 April, \n\nNew cortes (three-fourths conservative) meets, 20 \nMay ; business begun ... 10 June, \n\nSir Robert Morier, British envoy, 1881 ; succeeded \nby sir Francis Clare Ford . . . . \n\nLast section of the Great Asturian railway opened \nby the king 15 ^ u g- \n\nIndiscreet speech of Sen. Pidal Y. Mon, minister \nof instruction, causes revival of agitation in \nfavour of the Pope ; resented by Italy ; apology \nmade Aug. Sept. \n\nSpeech of professor Moraytor against clericals ; \nuniversity students at Madrid forbidden to attend \nhis lectures by Sen. Pidal, resist : conflict with \nthe police ; many wounded, 20 Nov. ; professors \nand students expelled from the university ; many \nliberal newspapers suspended; otheruniversities \nagitated Nov. \n\nPassive resistance of the students . 1 Dec. et seq; \n\nMuch sufferings by Earthquakes, which see, \n\n25-31 Dec. \n\nNational subscription proclaimed by the king, \n\n3 Jan. \n\nThe king- visits the afflicted districts, 11-23 Jan. ; \nliberal subscriptions in London . n Jan. \n\nProtocol restoring Great Britain to position of \nmost "favoured nation" in regard to commerce \n(lost since 1845); wine duties modified; signed \nat Madrid, 21 Dec. 1884 ; gazetted . 6 Feb. \n\nCommercial treaty with England ratified by the \ndeputies, 11 March ; by the senate, 28 March ; \nby the king 1 April, \n\nFailure of the negotiations for the treaty announce! I , \n\n18 May, \n\nBreak out of cholera in Valencia (see Cholera), May, \n\nThe ministers resign on account of the kings \nintention to visit Valencia ; he gives in ; they \nresume office . . . . 20, 21 June, \n\nRiots at Madrid through the Germans occupying \nYap, a Caroline isle ; the German \xe2\x80\xa2 legation \nattacked, 4, 5 Sept. ; quiet restored 6 Sept ; \nSpanish note of apology sent to Berlin about 26 \nSept. ; mediation of the pope accepted (see \nCaroline Islands) . . . about 26 Sept. \n\nBritish legation insulted by claim of taxes, \nabout 29, 30 Sept. \n\nAttempted military insurrection at Cartagena, \n1 Nov. ; suppressed . . about 4, 5 Nov. \n\nDeath of king Alfonso XII., 25 Nov, ; resignation \nof Canovas del Castillo ; ministry formed by \nsenor Sagasta .... 26, 27 Nov. \n\nDeath of marshal Serrano ... 26 Nov. \n\nAmnesty granted to press and political offenders, \n\n10 Dec. \n\nManifesto of the Spanish bishops to their dioceses, \ndeclaring the distinction to be observed between \nreligion and politics, and the submission of the \nchurch to any lawful form of government, \nmonarchical or republican ... 6 Jan. \n\n50 soldiers at Cartagena mutiny ; most escape \nto a ship, 10, n Jan. ; general Fajardo wounded ; \ndies 27 Jan. ; ringleader of mutiny shot, 3 March, \n\nSuspected intrigue of Zorilla and his followers, \n\nJan. \n\nThe duke of Seville sentenced to eight years\' \nimprisonment, &c, for insulting, &o., the queen \nregent. about 27 Feb. \n\nAssassination of the bishop of Madrid (see Madrid), \n\n19 April, \n\nThe commercial treaty with England (till 1892) \n\n\n\n1884 \n\n\n\n1SS5 \n\n\n\nSPAIN. \n\nagain accepted by the cortes, May ; ratified, \n24 July; royal assent, 29 July; comes into \noperation 15 Aug. \n\nDestructive cyclone at Madrid (which see), 12 May, \n\nDon Carlos protests against recognition of Alphonso \nXIII. ...... 20 May, \n\nRevolt of 300 of Madrid garrison under brigadier \nVillacainpa ; unsupported, quickly suppressed ; \nthree officers killed, 19 Sept. ; capital punish- \nment of insurgents commuted . . Oct. \n\nRepublican manifesto of the duke of Seville issued \nat Tarbes about 30 Sept. \n\nChanges in M. Sagasta\'s cabinet . . 10 Oct. \n\nSolemn commemoration of the death of king \nAlphonso XII 25, 26 Nov. \n\nAttempted assassination by a Frenchman of \nmarshal Bazaine .... 18 April, \n\nThe regent queen Christina visits the N. provinces ; \nwell received Aug. \n\nThe Philippine exhibition at Madrid ; the queen \ndistributes the prizes .... 17 Oct. \n\nOpening of the cortes ; the infant king enthroned ; \nspeech of the queen regent ; the country \nprosperous and quiet . . . . 1 Dec. \n\nSir Francis Clare Ford, British envoy, &c, nomi- \nnated ambassador ; received by the queen \nregent ....... 21 Jan. \n\nRioting at the Rio Tinto mines suppressed with \nbloodshed 4, S Feb. \n\nTrial by .jury introduced by the senate . 27 Feb. \n\nRuiz Korrilla\'s revolutionary manifesto issued, \ndemanding a plebiscite for the form of national \ngovernment 4 March, \n\nResignation of the ministry . . 13 June, \n\nSenor Sagasta forms a new ministry . 14 June, \n\nRepublican outbreak at Saragossa against con- \nservatives ; senor Canovas del Castillo attacked, \n20 Oct. ; outbreak at Seville, 7 Nov. ; outbreak \nat Madrid 11 Nov. \n\nResignation of the ministry, 9 Dec. ; reconstituted \nby senor Sagasta 10 Dec. \n\nAmnesty to political offenders and mutinous \nsoldiers decreed 23 Jan. \n\nThe queen regent meets queen Victoria at San \nSebastian 27 March, \n\nLong debate in the chamber, victory of ministers \n(227-65) 22 May, \n\nTrial by jury first put in force (at Madrid), 29 May, \n\nParliamentary deadlock, the session closed by \nthe queen regent 2 June, \n\nPowerful speech by senor Sagasta to his supporters, \n12 June ; the cortes reopened . . 14 June, \n\nVictory of senor Sagasta over senor Canovas del \nCastillo and the combined conservatives and \ndissentient liberals, reported . . 14 July, \n\nDispute with Morocco (which see) settled 29 Sept. \n\nThe cortes opened 29 Oct. \n\nDeath of sen. Julian Gayarre, a popular tenor \nsinger 2 Jan. \n\nResignation of the ministry, 3 Jan. ; Senor Sagasta \nforms a slightly modified cabinet . 20 Jan. \n\nIllness of the king, 4 Jan.; serious, 9 Jan. ; con- \nvalescent. - 16 Jan. \n\nDeath of the due dc Montpensier, 4 Feb. ; buried \nin the Escurial 7 Feb. \n\nThe duke of Seville, who had escaped from prison \n(sec above, 1886), pardoned by the queen regent, \n\n27 Feb. \n\nStrike of about 40,000 workmen in Barcelona and \nother parts of Catalonia, chiefly for reduction of \ntii it\'labour 30 March, \n\nBarcelona placed under martial law ; the anarchists \nami soeialists opposed by the people, 1 May et \nseq. ; tranquillity restored . . 5 May fl s\xc2\xab/. \n\ni: isignation of the Sagasta ministry . . 3 July, \n\nSen. Canovas de Castillo forms a coalition ministry, \n\n5 July et seq. \n\nStrikes of workmen in Catalonia . 15 July et seq. \n\nInfanta Marie Teresa, first class belted cruiser \nlaunched at Bilbao by the queen regent 30 Aug. \n\nCholeraic disease in Valencia and other places, \na bout 2,840 deaths . . . May\xe2\x80\x94 Sept. \n\nThe Cortes dissolved 30 Dec. \n\nDeath of sen. Alonzo Martinez, eminent statesman, \n\n14 Jan. \n\nPatrocinio, the "bleeding nun," who had been \nbanished and returned 1875, lived in retirement, \nand died, aged 91 28 Jan. \n\n\n\n909 \n\n\n\nSPAIN. \n\n\n\nConservative majority at the general election\xe2\x80\x94 of \nthe deputies 1 Feb., of the senate . . 15 Feb. \n\nThe Cortes opened by the queen regent 2 March, \n\nRepublican disturbances at Corunna, supported by \nthe corporation ; its powers suspended, 8 Sept. ; \naffair settled 16 Sept. \n\nViolent storms, causing great floods, especially in \nthe province of Toledo ; all the towns and villages \non the banks of the Ainarguillo, especially Con- \nsuegra, 30 miles S.E. of Toledo, inundated; \ndeaths estimated at 2,000, n, 12 Sept. et seq. \nThe queen regent sends immediate relief, and \norders a national subscription . 13 Sept. et seq. \n\nDestructive storm at Valencia ; inundations at \nAlmeria with loss of life ; grape harvest destroyed, \n\n15 Sept. \n\nConsuegra nearly destroyed, above 1,781 deaths ; \nthe minister of public works visits the place ; \nlarge subscriptions for relief, 16 Sept. ; railway \nand telegraphic communications greatly sus- \npended ; the staple crops in many places almost \nannihilated n Sept. et seq. \n\nSpanish inundation fund started in London \n\nabout 14 Sept. \n\nAbove 100,000 persons homeless through floods of \nthe Amarguillo, Tagus, Guadalquivir, and other \nrivers ; palaces and country houses open to re- \nceive sufferers, reported . . .18 Sept. \nSee Railway accidents, 24 Sept. 1891 \n\nReported government financial difficulties ; the \nqueen attends a meeting of the cabinet, \n\nabout 14 Nov. \n\nResignation of the ministry, 21 Nov. ; reconsti- \ntuted by sen. Canovas del Castillo . 22 Nov. \n\nDecree for new loan of 250,000,000 pesetas, at 4 per \ncent., 18 Dec. ; opened ... 28 Dec. \n\nAnarchist attack on Xeres suppressed with blood- \nshed, 9 Jan. ; 4 rioters sentenced to death, others \nto imprisonment, 4 Feb. ; executed . 10 Feb. \n\nSir Henry Drummond Wolff succeeds sir Francis \nClare Ford as British ambassador about 15 Jan. \n\nRupture with France through the new commercial \ntariff 1 Feb. \n\nAnarchist disturbances at Barcelona ; evidence of \nplots at other places ; the military employed, \nabout 10 Feb. ; 7 anarchists arrested at Reus, \nCatalonia 30 March, \n\nAlleged discovery of a plot to blow up the chamber \nof deputies, the palace, and other places ; Jean \nMarie Delboche, a Frenchman, and Manuel \nFerriera, a Portuguese, arrested with documents, \n4 April ; 13 anarchists arrested at their club, 5 \nApril. Philip Munoz, an anarchist chief ar- \nrested, 10 April ; released . . 24 April, \n\nExplosions or attempts at Barcelona and other \nplaces, arrests made . . .16 April et seq. \n\nA commercial modus Vivendi with France signed \nby the queen 28 May, \n\n\n\nSovereigns of Spain. \n\n\n\n411. \n415. \n\n\n\n451. \n452- \n466. \n483- \n506. \n511. \n53i- \n543- \n549- \n5.54- \n5 fi 7- \n568. \n\n586. \n601. \n603. \n610. \n612. \n621. \n\n631. \n\n\n\nGOTHIC SOVEREIGNS. \n\nAtaulfo ; murdered by his soldiers. \n\nSigerico ; reigned a few days only. \n\nValia, or Wallia. \n\nTheodoric I. ; killed in a battle, which he gained, \n\nagainst Attila. \nThorismund, or Torrismund ; assassinated. \nTheodoric II. ; assassinated by \nEurie, the first monarch of all Spain. \nAlaricII. ; killed in battle. \nGesalric ; his bastard son. \nAmalric, or Amalaric : legitimate son of Alaric. \nTheudis, or Theodat ; assassinated by a madman. \nTheudisela, or Theodisele ; murdered. \nAgila ; taken prisoner, and put to death. \nAtanagildo. \nLiuva, or Levua I. \nLeuvigildo; assoeiated on the throne with Liuva. \n\nin 568 ; and sole king in 572. \nRecaredo I. \n\nLiuva II. ; assassinated. \nVitericus; also murdered. \nGundeniar. \n\nSisibut, or Sisebuth, or Sisebert. \nRecaredo II. \nSuintila ; dethroned. \nSisenando. \n\n\n\nSPAIN. \n\n\n\n910 SPAIN. \n\n\n\n636. Chintella. \n\n640. Tulga, or Tulca. \n\n642. Cindasuinto ; died in 652. \n\n649. Recesuinto ; associated ; in 653 became sole king. \n\n672. Vamba, or Wamba ; dethroned, and died in a \nmonastery. \n\n680. Ervigius, or Ervigio. \n\n6S7. Egica, or Egiza. \n\n698. Vitiza, or Witiza, associated ; in 701 sole king. \n\n711. Eodrigo, or Roderic ; slain in battle. \nJ Six independent Suevic kings reigned 409-469 ; and \nTwo Vandalic kings : Gnnderie 409-425 ; his successor \nGenseric with his whole nation passed over to Africa.] \n\nMahometan Spain. \n\nCORDOVA. \n\n\'Emirs. The first, Abdelasis: the last, Yussuf-el-Tehri : \n\nA.D. 714-755. \n\nKings. The first, Abderahman I. ; the last, Abu All; \n755-1238. \n\nGRANADA. \n\nKings. The first, Mohammed I.; the last, Abdalla; \n\n1238-1492. \n\nChristian Spain. \n\nkings of asturias and leon. \n\n778. Pelagius, or Pelayo; overthrew the Moors, and \n\nchecked their conquests. \n737. Favila; killed in hunting. \n739. Alfonso the Catholic. \n757. Froila; murdered his brother Samaran, in revenge \n\nfor which he was murdered by his brother, and \n\nsuccessor, \n768. Aurelius or Aurelio. \n774. Mauregato, the Usurper. \n788. Veremundo (Bermuda) I. \n791. Alfonso II., the Chaste. \nS42. Ramiro I. : he put 70,000 Saracens to the sword in \n\none battle. Rabbe. \n\xe2\x80\xa2S50. Ordoiio II. \n866. Alfonso III., surnamed the Great; relinquished his \n\ncrown to his son, \n910. Garcias. \n914. Ordoiio II. \n923. Froila II. \n\n925. Alfonso IV., the Monk; abdicated. \n930. Ramiro II., killed in battle. \n950. Ordoiio III. \n\n955. Ordono IV. \n\n956. Sancho I. , the Fat ; poisoned with an apple. \n967. Ramiro III. \n\n983. Veremundo II. (Bermuda), the Gouty. \n999. Alfonso V. ; killed in a siege. \n2027. Veremundo III. (Bermuda); killed. \n\nKINGS OF NAVARRE. \n\nSancho Ifiigo. Count. \n\nGarcia I. , king. \n\nSancho Garcias ; a renowned warrior. \n\nGarcias II., surnamed the Trembler. \n\nSancho II., surnamed the Great (king of Castile \n\nthrough his wife). \nGarcias III. \nSancho III. \n\nSancho IV. , Ramirez, king of Aragon. \nPeter of Aragon. \nAlfonso I. , of Aragon. \nGarcias IV. , Ramirez. \nSancho V. , surnamed the Wise. \nSancho VI. , surnamed the Infirm. \nTheobald I. , count of Champagne. \nTheobald II. \nHenry Crassus. \n\nJoanna; married to Philip the Fair of France, 1285. \nLouis Rutin of France. \nJohn ; lived but a few days. \nPhilip V. , the Long, of France. \nCharles I., the IV. of France. \nJoanna II., and Philip, count d\'Evreux. \nJoanna alone. \nCharles II., or the Bad. \nCharles III., or the Noble. \nBlanche and her husband John II., afterwards king \n\nof Aragon. \nEleanor. \n\nFrancis Phoebus de Foix. \nCatherine and John d\'Albret. \nNavarre conquered by Ferdinand the Catholic, and \n\nunited with Castile. \n\n\n\n873- \n885. \n9\xc2\xb05- \n924. \n970. \n\n1035. \n1054. \n1076. \n1094. \n3104. \ni\'34- \n1 1 50. \n1194. \n1234. \n1253- \n1270. \n1274. \nI3\xc2\xb05- \n1316. \n\nJ322. \nJ 328. \n1343- \nJ349- \n1387. \nI42S- \n\n1479. \n\n1483. \n\nJ5I2- \n\n\n\n1035- \n1065. \n\n1072. \n1 109. \n1 126. \n"57- \n\n\n\n1214. \n1217. \n\n\n\n1295. \n1312. \ni35\xc2\xb0- \n\n\n\n1369. \n\n1379\' \n1390. \n1406. \n1454 \nM74 \n\n\n\nKINGS OF LEON AND CASTILE. \n\nFerdinand the Great. \n\nSancho II., the Strong, son of Ferdinand ; Alfonso \nin Leon and Asturias, and Garcias in Galicia. \n\nAlfonso VI., the Valiant, king of Leon \n\nUraca and Alfonso VII. \n\nAlfonso VII., Raymond. \n\nSancho III. , surnamed the Beloved. \n\nAlfonso VIII., the Noble. \n\n[Leon is separated from Castile under Ferdi- \nnand II., 1157-88.] \n\nAlfonso IX., of Leon. \n\nHenry I. \n\nFerdinand III., the Saint and the Holy. By him \nLeon and Castile were permanently united. \n\nAlfonso X., the Wise (the Alphonsine Tables were \ndrawn up under his direction). \n\nSancho IV. , the Great and the Brave. \' \n\nFerdinand IV. \n\nAlfonso XL \n\nPeter the Cruel : deposed ; reinstated by Edward \nthe Black Prince of England; slain by his \nnatural brother and successor, \n\nHenry II. , the Gracious ; poisoned by a monk. \n\nJohn I. : lie united Biscay to Castile. \n\nHenry III., the Sickly. \n\nJohn II. , son of Henry. \n\nHenry IV. , the Impotent. \n\nIsabella, sister (had married Ferdinand of Aragon, \n18 Oct. 1469). \n\n1504. Joanna (daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella), and \nPhilip I. of Austria. On her mother\'s death \nJoanna succeeded, jointly with her husband \nPhilip ; but Philip dying in 1506, and Joanna \nbecoming imbecile, her father Ferdinand con- \ntinued the reign ; and thus perpetuated the \nunion of Castile with Aragon. \n\nKINGS OF ARAGON. \n\n1035. Ramiro I. \n\n1065. Sancho Ramirez (IV. of Navarre). \n\n1094. Peter of Navarre. \n\n1 104. Alfonso I., the Warrior, king of Navarre. \n\n1 134. Ramiro II. , the Monk. \n\n1 1 37. Petronilla, and Raymond, count of Barcelona. \n\n1 163. Alfonso II. \n\n1 196. Peter II. \n\n1213. James I. ; succeeded by his son, \n\n1276. Peter III. ; conquered Sicily (which sec) in 12S2. \n\n1285. Alfonso III., the Beneficent. \n\n1291. James II., surnamed the Just. \n\n1327. Alfonso IV. \n\n1336. Peter IV., the Ceremonious. \n\n1387. John I. \n\n1395. Martin. \n\n1410. [Interregnum.] \n\n14 1 2. Ferdinand the Just, king of Sicily. \n\n1416. Alfonso V., the Wise. \n\n145S. John II., king of Navarre, brother of Alfonso ; died \n1479. \n\n1479. Ferdinand II., the Catholic, the next heir; by \nmarriage with Isabella of Castile (styled the \nCatholic kings), the kingdoms were united. \n\nSPAIN. \n\n1512. Ferdinand V. (of Castile), the Catholic ; having \nconquered Granada and Navarre, became king \nof all Spain. \n\n1516. Charles I., grandson, son of Joanna of Castile and \nPhilip of Austria (emperor of Germany, as Charles \nV., in 1 5 19); resigned both crowns, and retired \nto a monastery. \n\n1556. Philip II., son, king of Naples and Sicily; a merci- \nless bigot ; married Mary, queen-regnant of \nEngland ; died covered with ulcers. \n\n1598. Philip III., son, drove the Moors from Granada \nand the adjacent provinces. \n\n1621. Philip IV, son : wars with the Dutch and French ; \nlost Portugal in 1640. \n\n1665. Charles II., son; last of the Austrian line; nomi- \nnated, by will, as his successor \n\n1700. Philip V., duke of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV. \nof France: hence arose the "war of the Succes- \nsion," terminated by the treaty of Utrecht in \n1713; resigned. \n\n1724. Louis I., son ; reigned only a few months. \n,, Philip V. again. \n\n1746. Ferdinand VI., the Wise, son ; liberal and beneficent. \n\n\n\nSPALATO. \n\n\n\n911 \n\n\n\nSPARTA. \n\n\n\n1759. Charles III. , brother, king of the Two Sicilies, which \nhe gave to his third son, Ferdinand. \n\n1788. Charles IV., son ; the influence of Godoy, prince of \nthe Peace, reached to almost royal authority in \nthis reign; Charles abdicated in favour of his \nson in 1808, and died in 1819. \n\n1808. Ferdinand VII., whom Napoleon of France also \nforced to resign. \n\xe2\x80\x9e Joseph Bonaparte, brother of Napoleon ; forced to \nabdicate. \n\n1813. Ferdinand VII. restored ; married Maria Christina \nof Naples, 11 Dec. 1829; died 29 Sept. 1833; \nsucceeded by \n\n1833. Isabella II., daughter (born, 10 Oct. 1830) ; declared \nof age, 8 Nov. 1843 ; married her cousin, Don \nFrancis d\'Assisi, 10 Oct. 1846 ; deposed 30 Sept. \n1868 : separated from her husband, March, \n1870; and abdicated, 25 June, 1870, in favour of \nher son, Alfonso, prince of Asturias (born, \n2S Nov. 1857). Visits queen Victoria at Windsor, \n20 May ; leaves England 29 May, 1890. \n\n1S70. Amndco I. (duke of Aosta, son of Victor-Emanuel IT. \nking of Italy); born, 30 May, 1845; married \nMaria Victoria of Pozzo della Cisterna, 30 May, \n1867 ; accepted the crown offered him by the \ncortes, 4 Dec. 1870; abdicated 11 Feb. 1873; \ndied 18 Jan. 1890. \n\nRepublic founded, n Feb. 1873. Very unsettled, \n1873-4- \n\nKINGS. \n\n1874. Alfonso XII. son of Isabella II. (born 28 Nov. \n1857); proclaimed 30 Dec. 1874; married 1st, \nhis cousin Mercedes, daughter of the due de \nMontpensier (born 24 June, i860), 23 Jan. 1878 ; \nshe died 26 June, 1878 ; 2nd, archduchess Maria \nChristina of Austria (born 21 July, 1858), 29 \nNov. 1S79. He died 25 Nov. 1885. \n\n1885. Maria Mercedes Isabella, born n Sept. 18S0 ; re- \n\nplaced by her brothel". \n\n1886. Alphonso (Leon &c.) XIII., born 17 May. \n\nCARI.IST LEGITIMIST PRETENDERS. \n\n(See above 1833 et seq.) \nCarlos V., brother of Ferdinand VII., born 29 March, \n\n1788 ; died, 10 March, 1855. \nCarlos VI., his son (conde de Montemolin), died 14 Jan. \n\n1861. \nCarlos VII. (son of don Juan, brother of Carlos VI., \n\nwho renounced his right, 8 Jan. 1863) ; bom, \n\n30 March, 1848 ; see above 1873-6. \n\nSPALATO (Dalmatia), the ancient Spalatuni, \nand Salona. At his palace here, Diocletian spent Lis \nlast nine years, and died July, 313. It. Adam pub- \nlished the "Antiquities of Diocletian\'s Palace," \n\n1764. \n\nSPANISH AMERICA, ARMADA, &c, \n\nsee America, Armada, and Eras. \n\nSPANISH EXHIBITION of Arts and In- \ndustries, Earl\'s Court, West Brompton, London, W., \nchairman, the duke of AVellington, a grandee of \nSpain. \nThe exhibition, although unfinished, was informally \n\nopened with a fine display of pictures, 1 June, 1S89 \nIn July, 1889, it included representations of the \nAlhambra, Madrid market-place, cosmorama of a \njourney through Spain, a Spanish band and \nstrolling players, &c, closed . . 31 Oct. 1889 \n\nSPANISH. GRANDEES, the higher \n\nnobility, at one time almost equal to the kings of \nCastile and Aragon, and often setting their autho- \nrity at defiance, were restrained on the union of the \ncrowns by the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella \nin 1474, who compelled several to relinquish the \nroyal fortresses and domains which they held. \nCharles V. reduced the grandees to sixteen families \n(Mcdina-Sidonia, Albuquerque, &c), dividing them \ninto three classes. \n\nSPANISH LANGUAGE (Lengua Castel- \nlana), is a dialect of Latin largely intermingled \n\n\n\nwith Arabic, which was the legal language till the \n14th century. Spanish did not become general fill \nthe 16th century. \n\n\n\nEMINENT SPANISH AITIIORS. \n\n\n\nBorn \n\n\nDied \n\n\niS\xc2\xb03 \n\n\n1536 \n\n\n1496 \n\n\n1543 \n\n\n1520 \n\n\n1562 \n\n\nr 474 \n\n\n1566 \n\n\n\'533 \n\n\n\'595 \n\n\n\'547 \n\n\n1616 \n\n\n1536 \n\n\n1623 \n\n\n1565 \n\n\n1625 \n\n\n1561 \n\n\n1627 \n\n\n\n\n\'634 \n\n\n1568 \n\n\n\'635 \n\n\n1570 \n\n\n1647 \n\n\n1.S8.S \n\n\n1648 \n\n\n1601 \n\n\n1682 \n\n\n1610 \n\n\n1686 \n\n\n1 701 \n\n\n1765 \n\n\n1750 \n\n\n1798 \n\n\n1760 \n\n\n1828 \n\n\n1809 \n\n\n1837 \n\n\n1796 \n\n\n1S73 \n\n\ni8!S \n\n\n\n\n1830 \n\n\n\n\n\nGarcilasso de la Vega . \n\nBoscan \n\nJorge de Montemayor ... \nLas Casas \n\nErcilla \n\nCervantes (author of Don Quixote) . \n\nMariana \n\nHerrera \n\nGongora \n\nAlarcon y Mendoza \n\nLope de Vega .... \n\nQuevedo ... \n\nGabriel Tellez \n\nCalderon \n\nSolis ... \n\nFeyjos \n\nYriarte \n\nLeandro F. Moratin . . . \nJose de Larra .... \nManuel Breton de los Herreros \n\nJose Zorilla \n\nAntonio Canovas del Castillo . \n\nSPANISH REFORMED CHURCH, con- \nstituted at Gibraltar, 25 April, 1868. By permission \nof general Prim its missionaries entered Spain soon \nafter the revolution, in Sept. following. \n\nSPANISH SUCCESSION and MAR- \nRIAGES, see Spam, 1700, and 10 Oct. 1846. \n\nSPARTA, the capital of Laconia (Greek, \nLaconica), or Larediemon, the most considerable \nrepublic of the Peloponnesus, and the rival of \nAthens. Though without walls, it resisted the \nattacks of its enemies by the valour of its citizens \nfor eight centuries. Lclex is supposed to have \nbeen the first king. From Laccdamion the fourth \nking, and his wife Sparta, who are also spoken of \nas the founders of the city, it obtained names. \nThe Lacedaemonians were a nation of soldiers, \nand cultivated neither the arts, sciences, commerce, \nnor agriculture. The early history is traditional. \' \nSparta founded. Pausanias. . . . e c 1400 \nTyndarus marries Leda : Helen born . . 1-S8 \n\nHelen stolen by Theseus, king of Athens, but re- \n\ncovered by her brothers I22 8 \n\nThe princes of Greece demand Helen in marriage\'; \n\nshe makes choice of Menelaus of Mycenaj . \xc2\xb0 .\' 1216 \nParis, son of Priam, king of Troy, carries off Helen 1204 \n\nThe Trojan war x * \n\nAfter a war often years, and a disastrous voyage of \n\nnearly eight, Menelaus and Helen return to" Sparta 1176 \nThe kingdom seized by the Heracluhe . . .not \nEstablishment of two kings, Eurysthenes and \n\nProoles, by their father Aristodemus . . . I10o \nRule of Lycurgus, who establishes the senate, ami \n\nenacts a code of laws. EuseUus. (Mythical) SS4-S,o \nCharilaus declares war against Polymncstor, kin" \n\nof Arcadia \xe2\x96\xa0\xe2\x96\xa0..... \xc2\xb0 \nAlcamenes, known by his apophthegms, make\'s war \n\nupon the Messenians .... \nNicander succeeds his father, Charilaus; war with \n\nthe Argives \n\nTheopompus introduces the Ephori, about \' . ! \nWar declared against the Messeni ins, and Amphia \n\ntaken \n\nThe progeny of the Partheniai, the sons of Virgins ! \n\nBattle of Ithome ; Messenians beaten . \n\nIthome taken; the Messenians become vassals to \n\nSparta, and the war of nineteen years ends . \nConspiracy of the Parthenke with the Helots to \n\ntake Sparta \n\nTlie Partheniaj colonise Tarentum . . . ) \nThe Messenians revolt, and league with Elis, Argos] \n\nand Arcadia, against the Lacedaemonians, [this \n\nwar lasted fourteen years.] ..... \nf\'aniian festivals instituted \n\n\n\n848 \n\nS13 \n\n\n\n743 \n733 \n\n\n\n707 \n706 \n\n\n\nC75 \n\n\n\nSPARTACUS\'S INSURRECTION. 912 \n\n\n\nSPECIAL CONSTABLES. \n\n\n\nThe Messenian\'s settle in Sicily 669 \n\nWar with the Argives, and celebrated battle be- \ntween 300 select heroes of each nation . . . 547 \n\n"War with Athens 505 \n\nThe Spartans resist the king of Persia . . . 491 \n\nThe states of Greece unite against the Persians . 482 \nLeonida s, at the head of 300 Spartans, withstands \nthe Persian arms at the defile of Thermopylae (see \n\nThermopylae) 480 \n\nPersians defeated by Pausanias, king of Sparta, at \n\nPlatsea 479 \n\nHe is put to death for treason ; the Grecian armies \n\nchoose an Athenian general 472 \n\nAn earthquake at Sparta destroys 30,000 persons ; \n\nrebellion of the Helots 466 \n\nSparta .joins Macedon against Athens . . . . 454 \n\nBeginning of the Peloponnesus war . . . 431 \n\nPlataea taken by the Spartans 428 \n\nThe Spartans, under Agis, enter Attica, and lay \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0waste the country 426 \n\nAgis (king 427) gains a great victory over the Argives \n\nand the Mantinaeans 418 \n\nThe Lacedaemonian fleet, under Mindarus, defeated \n\nat Oyzicum, and Mindarus slain . . . . 410 \nThe Spartans, defeated by land and at sea, sue for \n\npeace, which is denied by the Athenians . . 409 \n\nReign of Pausanias 408 \n\nThe Athenians defeated at iEgospotami by Lysander 405 \n\nAthens taken by him ; end of Peloponnesian war . 404 \n\nAgesilaus (king 398) enters Lydia . . . . 396 \nThe Athenians, Thebans, Argives, and Corinthians \nenter into a league against the Spartans, which \n\nbegins the Corinthian war 395 \n\nAgesilaus defeats the allies at Coronea . . . 394 \nThe Lacedaemonian fleet, under Lysander, defeated \nby Conon, the Athenian commander, near Cnidos; \n\nLysander killed in an engagement . \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPeace of Antaleidas 387 \n\nThe Thebans drive the Spartans from Cadmea . 378 \nThe Spartans lose the dominion of the seas ; their \n\nfleet totally destroyed by Timotheus . . . 376 \nThe Spartans defeated at Leuctra . . . . 371 \nEpamiuondas, heading 50,000 Thebans, appears be- \nfore Sparta 369 \n\nBattle of Mantinea ; the Thebans victors 27 June, 362 \n\nPhilip of Macedon- overcomes Sparta . . . . 344 \n\nPyrrhus defeated before Sparta .... 294 \n\nAgis IV. endeavours to revive laws of Lycurgus . 244 \n\nLeonidas II. vacates the throne, and flies . . . 243 \n\nRecalled : becomes sole sovereign ; Agis killed . 241 \n\nReign of Cleomenes III. the son of Leonidas . . 236 \n\nHe re-establishes most of the laws of Lycurgus . 225 \n\nAntigonus defeats Cleomenes, and enters Sparta . 222 \n\nCleomenes retires to Egypt \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Spartans murder the Ephori . . . . 221 \nMachanidas ascends the throne, and abolishes the \n\nEphori 210 \n\nHe is defeated and slain by Philopcemen, praetor of \n\nthe Achaean league 207 \n\nCruel government of Nabis ,, \n\nThe Romans besiege Sparta ; Nabis sues for peace 197 \n\nThe iEtolians seize Sparta : Nabis assassinated . 192 \n\nThe laws of Lycurgus abolished .... 188 \nSparta, under the protection or rather subjugation \n\nof Rome, retains its authority for a short time . 147 \n\nTaken by Alarie a.d. 396 \n\nTaken by Mahomet II 1460 \n\nBurnt by Sigismund Malatesta .... 1463 \nRebuilt at Misitra ; it is now called Sparta, and is \n\npart of the kingdom of Greece. \nAncient buildings discovered here during excava- \ntions by Dr. Waldstein . . . March, 1892 \n\nSPARTACUS\'S INSURRECTION .(or \nServile War). Spartacus was a noble Thracian, \nwho served in an auxiliary corps of the Roman \narmy. Having deserted and been apprehended, he \nwas "red need to slavery and made a gladiator. With \nsome companions he made his escape, collected a \nbody of slaves and gladiators, 73 B.C. ; ravaged \nsouthern Italy ; and defeated the Roman forces \nunder the consuls sent against him. Knowing the \nimpossibility of successfully resisting the republic, \nhe endeavoured to conduct his forces into Sicily, \nbut was defeated and slain by Crassus, 71 15. c. \n\n\n\n"SPASMODIC SCHOOL" of poetry, a \nname sarcastically given to Alex. Smith, Sydney \nDobell (died in Aug. 1874), Gerald Massey, and \nothers (precursors of Morris, Algernon Swinburne, \nand Eossetti, sarcastically termed the " fleshly \nschool"), ridiculed by professor Aytovm in his- \n" Firmilian," published 1854. \n\nSPEAKERS of the House op Commons. \n\nPeter de Montford, afterwards killed at the battle \nof Evesham, was the first speaker, 45 lien. III., \n1260 ; Sir Thos. Hungerford is said to have \nbeen the first named " Speaker," 1372 ; but \nsir Peter de la Mare is supposed to have been the \nfirst regular speaker, 50 \xc2\xa3dw. III., 1376. The \nking refused his assent to the choice of sir \nEdward Seymour, as speaker, 6 March, 1678 ; and \nserjeant William Gregory w r as chosen in his room. \nSir John Trevor was expelled the chair and the \nhouse for taking a gratuity after the act for the \nbenefit of orphans had passed, 12 March, 1694-5 > a \ndeputy speaker was appointed Aug. 1853. \n\nRECENT SPEAKERS. \n\n1789. Henry Addington (aft. viscount Sidmouth), 5 June \n\n1801. Sir John Mitford (aft. baron Redesdale), 15 Feb. \n\n1802. Charles Abbot (aft. lord Colchester), 10 Feb. \n1817. Charles Manners Sutton (afterwards viscount Can- \nterbury), 2 June. \n\n1835. James Abercromby (afterwards baron Dunferm- \nline), 19 Feb. \n1839. Charles Shaw Lefevre (afterwards viscount Evers- \n\nley), 27 May. \n1857. John Evelyn Denison, 30 April (afterwards viscount \n\nOssington). \n1872. Sir Henry Wm.Bouverie Brand (afterwards viscount \n\nHampden), 9 Feb. -25 Feb. 1884. \n1884. Arthur Wellesley Peel, 26 Feb. ; re-elected, 1892. \nThe Speaker, a weekly liberal (Gladstonian) newspaper, \nedited by Mr. T. Wemyss Reid, first appeared, 4 Jan. \n1890. \n\nSPEAKER\'S COMMENTARY, a name \n\ngiven to an edition of the Bible with a revised text \nand a commentary by several bishops and other \ntheologians edited by F. C. Cook. The under- \ntaking originated, it is said, chiefly with Mr. John \nEvelyn Denison, speaker of the house of commons, \nwith the view of opposing the interpretations of Dr. \nColenso, and was announced in Nov. 1863. The \npublication, begun in 1871, was completed in 1881- \nThe Apocrypha published in 1888. \n\nSPEAKING-TRUMPET, used by ships at \nsea. One is said to have been used by Alexander, \n335 B.C. One was constructed from Kircher\'s de- \nscription by Saland, 1652 ; philosophically explained \nand brought into notice by Morland, 1670. \n\nSPECIAL COMMISSION ACT, passed 13 \nAug. 1888. A commission constituted to try \ncertain charges and allegations against certain \nmembers of parliament. See Parnellites and \nIreland, 1888. \n\nSPECIAL CONSTABLES are sworn in for \nthe preservation of the public peace when disturb- \nances are feared. The laws relative to their ap- \npointment were amended in 1831 and 1835. Louis \nNapoleon, afterwards emperor, aided as a special con- \nstable in London, 10 April, 1848 ; see Chartists, and \nLondon, Dec. 1867. Instructions for their organisa- \ntion were issued, 13 Jan. 1868. On 28 Jan. 52,974 \nin the metropolis, and 113,674 in the United King- \ndom, had been sworn in. Their services were not \nrequired, and they w r ere honourably dismissed by ais \norder issued 31 March, 1868. \nSpecial constables were sworn in in relation to the \n\ndisturbances in Trafalgar Square (see Riots) 17 Nov. \n\nct seq. ; 1,500 held Trafalgar Square, Sunday, 20 Nov. \n\n1887 ; served till 18 Jan. 1S88, and thanked.\' \n\n\n\nSPECIES. \n\n\n\n913 \n\n\n\nSPINNING. \n\n\n\nSPECIES. - Much controversy among natural - \nists arose in consequence of the publication, in 1859, \nof Mr. Charles Darwin\'s " Origin of Species," in \nwhich he suggests that all the various species of \nanimals were not created at one time, but have \nbeen gradually developed by what he terms \' \' natural \nselection," and the struggle for life in which the \nstrong overcome the weak. \n\n\' This preservation of favourable individual differences \nand variations, and the destruction of those which are \ninjurious, I have called natural selection, or the sur- \nvival of the fittest." \xe2\x80\x94 Darwin. \n\nThe idea was put forth by Lamarck in his "Philosophic \nZooloaique," 1809. Similar views appear in the \n" Vestiges of Creation," 1844. Mr. Darwin says, that \nhe infers " from analogy that probably all the \norganic beings which have ever lived on the earth \nhave descended from some one primordial form, into \nwhich life was first breathed hy the Creator." See \nDevelopment and Evolution. \n\nCharles Darwin was born 12 Feb. 1809 ; and died 19 \nApril, 1882. \n\nStatue of Darwin by J. E. Boelim, paid for by universal \nsubscription, received at the British Museum of \nNatural History by the prince of Wales, and uncovered \nby professor Huxley, 9 June, 1885. \n\nHis Life and Letters edited by his son Francis Darwin, \npublished Nov. 1887. \n\nProfessor G. J. Romanes\' elaborate work, "Darwin and \nafter Darwin," was published in 1892. \n\nSPECIFIC GEAVITIES. See under \n\nWeights. \n\nSPECTACLES, unknown to the ancients, are \ngenerally supposed to have been invented by Alex- \nander de Spina, a monk of Florence, in Italy, about \n1285. According to Dr. Plott, they were invented \nby Boger Bacon, about 1280. Manni attributes \nthem to Salvino, who died 13 1 7. On his tomb at \nFlorence is the inscription, " Qui giace Salvino \ndegli Armati, inventore degli occhiali : Dio gli per- \ndoni le peccata" (" Here lies Salvino degli Armati, \ninventor of spectacles : May God pardon his sins"). \n\nSPECTATOE. The first number of this peri- \nodical appeared on 1 March, 171 1; the last was \nNo. 635, 20 Dec. 1714. The papers by Addison have \none of the letters c l 1 at the end. The most of \nthe other papers are by sir Eichard Steele, a few by \nHughes, Budgell, Eusden, Miss Shephard, and \nothers. \xe2\x80\x94 The Spectator newspaper (philosophical, \nwhig), begun 5 July, 1828. \n\nSPECTEUM, the term given to the image of \nthe sun or any other luminous body formed on a \nwall or screen, by a beam of light received through \na small hole or slit, and refracted by a prism. The \ncolours thus produced are red, orange, yellow, green, \nblue, indigo, and violet. The phenomena were first \nexplained by Newton, whose "Optics" was pub- \nlished in 1704. Several of these colours are con- \nsidered to be compounds of three primary ones : by \n.Mayer (1775), red, yellow, and blue ;\xe2\x80\x94 by Dr. Thos. ! \nYoung (1801), red, green, and violet; \xe2\x80\x94 by Prof, j \nClerk Maxwell (i860), red, green, and blue. As \nthe colour of a flame varies according to the sub- \nstance producing it or introduced into it, so the \nspectrum varies. This led to the invention of a \nmethod of chemical analysis by professors Bunsen \nand Kirchhoff (i860), by which they discovered \ntwo new metals, and drew conclusions as to \nthe nature of the atmosphere of the sun and stars, \nand of the light of the nebula;, by comparing the \nspectrum with that produced by flames into which \niron, sodium, and other substances have been intro- \nduced. For the invisible rays of the spectrum, see \nCalorcscencc, Fluorescence, and Bolometer. \nFraunhofer\'s Lines. In 1802 Dr. Wollaston observed \n\nseveral dark lines in the solar spectrum ; in 1815 Joseph \n\n\n\nFraunhofer not only observed them, bui constructed a \nmap of them, giving 590 lines or dark bands. By the \n\nresearches of Brewster and others the number observed \nis now above 2000. \n\nMr. Fox Talbot observed the orange line of strontium in \nthe spectrum in 1826; and sir David Brewster ob- \nserved other lines, 1S33-42-3. In 1862-3 Mr. William \nHuggins analysed the light of the fixed stars and of \nthe nebulse ; and in 1865 Dr. Bence Jones, by means of \nspectrum analyses, detected the presence of minute \nquantities of metals in the living body, introduced only \na few minutes previously. \n\nA spectroscopic society iu Italy published a journal early \nin 1872. \n\nH. Schellen\'s " Spectralanalyse " published 1870; new \nedition 1883. \n\nSirH. Roscoe\'s "Spectrum Analysis" published 1867-85. \n\nLecoq de Boisbaudran\'s " Spectres Lumineux" . 1874 \n\nOxygen detected in the solar spectrum by Mr. \nDraper ^77 \n\nThe experiments of professor Dewar and others have \nshown that the spectra of various gases are affected by \ntemperature and pressure 1888-9. \n\nSPECULATIVE SOCIETY, Edinburgh \n(which had included among its members David \nHume), celebrated its hundredth anniversary on \n14 Oct. 1863 ; see Fhilosophij . \n\n" SPELLING-BEES," meetings to test the \nproficiency in correct spelling ; introduced into \nLondon from the United States of America ; the \nfirst at Hollo way, London, N., in the autumn of \n1875. Geographical, musical, and other bees \nfollowed, and all soon ceased. \n\nSPELLING EEFOEM. A resolution in \nfavour of it was adopted by the London School Board, \nin 1877 ; a conference and public meeting were held \nat the Society of Arts, 29 May, 1877. \nA Spelling Reform Association formed ; Dr. Temple, \nbishop of Exeter, Robert Lowe, E. B. Tylor, and \nMax Midler were among the members, 1879 ; \nanother association formed in the United States ; \nprofessor F. A. March, president, . . . iS3 7 \n\nMr. T. B. Sprague\'s article on a Marriage and Mor- \ntality Table, in the Journal of the Institute of \nActuaries, is printed according to phonetic spelling \n\nJuly, 1879 \nSPHEEES.. The celestial and terrestrial \nspheres and sun-dials are said to have been in- \nvented by Anaximander, 552 B.C. ; and the armil- \nlary sphere by Eratosthenes, about 225 B.C. The \nplanetarium was constructed by Archimedes before \n212 B.C. Pythagoras maintained that the motions \nof the twelve spheres must produce delightful \nsounds, inaudible to mortals, which he called the \nmusic of the spheres. \n\nSPHYGMOGEAPH (from the Greek, sphyg- \nmos, a pulsation), an instrument for investigating \ndisease, by showing the state of the pulse, invented \nby M. E. J. Marey, of Faris, and described by him \nin 1863. \n\nSPICES. Imported into Great Britain: cinna- \nmon and other spices, exclusive of pepper ; 184O, \n1,910,584 lbs. ; 1856, 4.154,167 lbs. ; 1807, \nI2",83i,953 lbs.; 1877, 17,186,572 lbs.; 1879, \n19,340,817 lbs.; 1883, 24, ^44>.S()5 lbs.; 1887, \n23>7\xc2\xbb3>96o lbs. ; 1890, 23,508,4^3 Lbs. \n\nSPICHEEEN, sec Saarbruck. \n\nSPINET, a clavichord or keyed instrument, \nused, in the 17th century, a modification of the \nvirginals, which sec. Bull, Gibbous, Purcell, and \nespecially Uomcnico Scarlatti composed for this \ninstrument. \n\nSPINNING was ascribed by the ancients to \nMinerva, the goddess id\' wisdom. Areas, king of \nArcadia, taught his subjerts the ail abuit 1500 H.c. \nTradition reports that Lucretia with her maids was \n\n3 N \n\n\n\nSPIRES. \n\n\n\n914 SPONTANEOUS GENERATION. \n\n\n\nfound spinning, when her husband Collatinus paid \na visit to her from the camp, that the wife of Tar- \nquin was an excellent spinner, and that a garment \nmade by her, worn by Servius Tullius, was pre- \nserved m the temple of Fortune. Till 1767, the \nspinning of cotton was performed by the hand \nspinning-wheel, when Hargreaves, an ingenious \nmechanic, near Blackburn, made a spinning jenny, \nwith eight spindles, and also erected the first card- \ning machine, with cylinders. Arkwright\'s machine \nfor spinning by water was an extension of the prin- \nciple of Hargreaves ; but he also applied a large \nand small roller to expand the thread, for which he \ntook out a patent in 1769. At first he worked his \nmachinery by horses ; but in 177 1 he built a mill \non the stream of the Derwent, at Cromford. In \n1774-9, Crompton invented the mule {which see). \n\nSPIRES (in Bavaria). The emperors held \nmany diets at Spires since 1 309, and it was the seat \nof the imperial chamber till 1689, when the city \nwas burned by the French, and not rebuilt till after \nthe peace of Byswick, in 1697. The diet to con- \ndemn the reformers was held at Spires, called there \nby the emperor Charles V. 1529 ; see Protestants. \n\nSPIRIT-LEVEL. The invention is ascribed \nto J. Melchisedec Thevenot, who died 1692. \n\nSPIRIT-MOTOR, Mr. Yarrow explained to \nthe Institute of Naval Architects his method of em- \nploying vaporised spirit instead of steam in the \npropulsion of steam launches thus dispensing with \nthe use of a boiler, &c, March, 1888. Petroleum \nis used as fuel. \n\nSPIRITS, see Distillation. In all nations \n\nspirituous liquors have been considered as a proper \n\nsubject of heavy taxation for the support of the \n\nstate ; see Alcohol, Brandy, Bum, Methylated \n\nSpirits, &c. \n\nIn 1840 England made about ten millions of gallons of \nspirits, Scotland about seven millions of gallons, and \nIreland about nine millions of gallons. \n\nIn 1851 the number of gallons on which duty was paid \nfor home consumption was 23,976,596. The total \namount paid was 6,017,2182., of which 3,758,186?. were \npaid by England, 1,252,297?. by Scotland, and 1,006,735?. \nby Ireland. \n\nThe total duty on home consumption paid in 1853 was \n6,760,422?. \n\nIn 1858, 9,195,154?. were paid as duty on 27,370,934 \ngallons. \n\nIn 1855, methylated spirits of wine, for use in the arts and \nsciences, were made duty free. \n\nIn 1859, 2 7>657,72i gallons of spirits were distilled in the \nUnited Kingdom. The uniform duty of 8s. per gallon \nwas paid on 24,254,403 gallons for home consumption, \nproducing 9,701,764?. In the year 1865-6 the tax pro- \nduced about 13,955,000?., being the largest sum then ever \nraised by indirect taxation. In 1871-2, 16,798,344?. \n(customs and excise) ; in 1875-6, 21,295,663? ; in 1877-8, \n20,675,928?. ; in 1883-4, 18,435,957?. > m 1887-8, \n1 7>3 I2 !55\xc2\xb0^ 1 m 1888-9, 17,175,797?. ; in 1889-90, \n18,531,277?. ; in 1890-1, 19,263,541?. \n\nIn 1861 an act was passed repealing wholly or in part \n26 previous acts, and embodying all regulations for the \nguidance of manufacturers and dealers in spirits. \n\nIn 1870, about 89,000,000?. spent in spirits; 58,000,000?. \nby working classes. \n\nProof spirits distilled in the United Kingdom in 1873, \n36,479,648 gallons (England, 9,531,058 ; Scotland, \n16,421,701; Ireland, 10,526,889); in 1874, 35,352,232 \ngallons ; duty paid, 10s. a gallon. \n\nExported from the United Kingdom : 1876, 1,308,456 \ngallons; 1880, 2,060,193; 1885, 2,760,041; 1889, \n3,431,320; 1890, 3,658,658. \n\nAdditional duty of 6c?. per gallon on spirits imposed, 17 \nApril, 1890. \n\nSPIRITS ACT (43 & 44 Vict. c. 24), passed \n26 Aug. 1880, consolidated and amended the law \nrelating to the manufacture and sale of spirits. \n\n\n\nSPIRITUALISM or SPIRIT-RAPPING. \n\nSpiritual manifestations (so called) began, it is said, \nin America about 1848, and attracted attention in \nthis country about 1851, in the shape of rapping, \ntable-turning, &c. Many inquisitive or credulous \npersons visited Mr. Daniel Dunglas Hume or Home \nand Mr. Forster, noted "spiritual mediums." Mr. \nHome, secretary of the Spiritual Athenaeum, Sloane- \nstreet, Chelsea, published, in 1863, "Incidents of \nmy Life," in which he states that the only benefit \nhe derived from the "gift" was the convincing \nmany unbelievers of the certaintj- of a life to come ; \nthe Trials, April, May, 1868. The "Spiritual \nMagazine" began Jan. i860; the "Spiritualist," \n9 Nov. 1869. The London Dialectical society pub- \nlished a report on spiritualism in Nov. 1871. Mr. \nAY. Crookes, in 1871, investigated the phenomena, \nand ascribed them to "psychic force" ("Quarterly \nJournal of Science," July and Oct. 1871). Miss \nKate Fox, said to be the earliest American medium \n(about 1852) was married to Mr. H. D. Jencken, in \nLondon, Dec. 1872. \nThe impostures of the Davenport brothers exposed in \n\n1865. \nIn 1874 Messrs. Maskelyne and Cooke, and Dr. Lynn, \nexhibited tricks by which they said they demonstrated \nthe imposture of spiritualism. \nSpiritualism discussed by a section of the British Asso- \nciation at Glasgow (supported by Messrs. Wm. Crookes, \nA. Russel Wallace, and other eminent men), without \nresult, 12 Sept. 1876. \n20 spiritualist journals publishing, 1876. \nDr. Henry Slade, a medium, and Geoffrey Simmons, his \nassistant, charged at Bow-street by prof. E. Kay Lan- \nkester and others, with "unlawfully using certain \nsubtle and crafty means and devices to deceive"; \ndealt with under Vagrant Act ; 2, 10, 20 Oct. ; Sim- \nmons discharged, Slade sentenced to 3 months\' im- \nprisonment with hard labour, 31 Oct. 1876; appeal \nto sessions ; sentence quashed for a technical error, \n29 Jan. 1877. \nWin. Lawrence sentenced to 3 months\' imprisonment for \nreceiving money as a "medium," 16 Jan. 1877. \nSee Trials, 1881. \n\nSPITALFIELDS (East London), so named \nfrom the priory of St. Mary Spittle, dissolved 1534. \nHere the French protestant refugees settled and \nestablished the silk manufacture in 1685. In con- \nsequence of commercial changes the weavers en- \ndured much distress about 1829. \n\nSPITHEAD, a roadstead near the Spit, a sand- \nbank between Portsmouth and the Isle of Wight. \nSee Naval Reviews, under Navy of England. \n\nSPITZBERGrEN, an archipelago in the \nArctic ocean, discovered in 1553 by sir Hugh AYil- \nloughby, who called it Greenland, supposing it to \nbe a part of the western continent. In 1595 it was \nvisited by Barents and Cornelius, two Dutchmen, \nwho pretended to be the original discoverers, and \ncalled it Spitzbergen, or sharp mountains, from the \nmany sharp pointed and rocky mountains with \nwhich it abounds ; see Bhipps. \nA scientific expedition to Spitzbergen organized by \nHerr Stanglin of Stuttgart, left Bremen about 29 \nJuly ; returned 26 Aug. 189T \n\nSPITZCAP, see Majuba. \n\nSPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION of the \n\nhuman body, declared by most chemists to be im- \npossible, although many cases have been recorded. \nThe case of the countess of Gorlitz, 1847, disproved \nby confession of her murderer, March, 1850. \n\nSPONTANEOUS GENERATION. The \n\norigin of the germs of infusorial animalcules deve- \nloped during putrefaction, &c, has been warmly \ndebated by naturalists. Spallanzani (about 1766), \nand especially M. Pasteur and others assert that these \n\n\n\nSPORTING NEWSPAPERS. \n\n\n\n915 \n\n\n\nSTAMP-DUTIES. \n\n\n\ngerms are really endowed with organic life existing in \nthe atmosphere. Needham (about 1747), and espe- \ncially M. Pouchet and his friends in our day, assert \nthat these germs are spontaneously formed out of \norganic molecules. \xe2\x80\x94 Pouchet\'s "Heterogenic" ap- \npeared in 1859. Bastian\'s "Beginnings of Life," \n1872. The researches of professor Tyndall, supporting \nPasteur, and opposing Bastian, were published \n1876-8. \n\n"Spontaneous generation" (also termed generatio cequi- \n\n1 voca and epigenesis), lias been still further disproved \n\nby the laborious microscopic investigations of the Rev. \n\nW. H. Dallinger, 1875-S. He found germs to stand a \n\nmuch greater heat than perfect organisms. \n\n. SPORTING NEWSPAPERS : Bell\'s Life \nin London, began 1820 ; Sporting Life, 16 March, \n18159 ; Sporting Gazette, 1862 ; Sporting Times, \n1865 ; Sportsman, Aug. 1865 ; The Field, 1853 ; \nIllustrated Sporting and Dramatic News, 1874 ; \nKeferee, 1877. \n\nSPORTS. The first " Book of Sports," under \nthe title of " The King\'s Majestie\'s Declaration to \nhis Subjects concerning Lawful Sports to be used" \non Sundays after evening prayers, was published by \nking James I., 24 May, 1618. The second "Book \nof Sports,\' \' with a ratification by his majesty Charles \nI., is dated 18 Oct. 1633. On the publication of the \nfirst "Book of Sports," there arose a long and \nviolent controversy among English divines on certain \npoints ; see Sabbatarians, Sunday, &c. \xe2\x80\x94 The book \nwas ordered to be burnt by the hangman, and the \nsports were suppressed by the parliament. The \nsportsman\'s annual exhibition, at the Agricultural \nHall, London, began in 1882. \n\nSPOTTSYLVANIA (Virginia), see United \nStates, May, 1864. \n\nSPRINGFIELD (Missouri), near which was \nfought the desperate battle of Wilson\'s Creek, in \nwhich the federals had the advantage over the con- \nfederates, but lost their brave general, Nathaniel \nLyon, 10 Aug. i86r. \n\nSPURS. Anciently the difference between the \nknight and esquire was, that the knight wore gilt \nspurs (eques auratics), and the esquire silver ones. \nTwo sorts of spurs seem to have been in use at the \ntime of the Conquest, one called a pryck, having \nonly a single point, the other a number of points of \nconsiderable size. Spurs nearly of the present kind \neame into use about 1400 ; see Plating. \n\nSPURS, BATTLE OF. Henry VIII. of Eng- \nland, the emperor Maximilian, and the Swiss, in \n1513, entered into an offensive alliance against \nFrance. Henry VIII. landed at Calais in the \nmonth of July, and soon formed an army of 30,000 \nmen. He was joined by the emperor with a good \ncorps of horse and some foot, the emperor as a mer- \ncenary to the king of England, who allowed him a \nhundred ducats a day for his table ! They invested \nTeroiienne with an army of 50,000 men ; and the \ndue de Longueville, marching to its relief, was \nsignally defeated on the 16th of August, at Guine- \ngate. This battle was called the battle of Spurs, \nbecause the French used their spurs more than they \ndid their swords. The English king laid siege to \nTournay, which submitted in a few days. Henault. \nSee Courtrai, for another "battle of spurs." \n\nS. S., sec Collar. \n\nSTABAT MATER, a Latin hymn, by Jaco- \npone, 14th century, sung during Passion week in \nCatholic churches. Rossini\'s music to this hymn \n(1842) is often performed. \n\n\n\nSTADE DUES. At a castle near the town of \nStade, in Hanover, certain dues on goods were \ncharged by the Hanoverian government. The \nBritish government settled these dues in 1844. \nThey were resisted by the Americans in 1855, \nand were abolished in June, 1861. Great Britain \npaid i6o,OOo\xc2\xa3. as her share of the compensation \n(3,000,000?.). \n\nSTADTHOLDER, see Holland. \n\n.STAFF COLLEGE (Sandhurst), for pro- \nviding an education to qualify military officers for \nthe duties of the staff. The foundation stone was \nlaid by the duke of Cambridge on 14 Dec. 1859. \n\nSTAFFORD, Staffordshire, a Saxon town. A \ncastle was erected here by Ethelfleda, countess of \nMercia, 913. A charter was granted by king John, \n1207, and the grammar-school was rebuilt and en- \ndowed by Edward VI., 1550. Population, 1881, \n19,977 ; 1891, 20,270. \n\nSTAGE COACHES, so called from the stages \nor inns at which the coaches stopped to refresh \nand change horses. Bailey. The stage-coach duty \nact passed in 1785. These coaches were made sub- \nject to salutary provisions for the safety of passen- \ngers, in 1810; to mileage duties, 1815. The acts \nwere consolidated in 1832, and amended in 1833 and \n1842. See Mail Coaches, &c. \n\nSTAGYRITE, properly Stagirite, see Aris- \ntotelian. \n\nSTAMFORD BRIDGE (York). In 1066 \nTostig, brother of Harold II., rebelled against his \nbrother, and joined the invading army of Harold \nHardrada, king of Norway. They defeated the \nnorthern earls and took York, but were defeated at \nStamford-bridge by Harold, 25 Sept., and were both \nslain. The loss by this victory no doubt led to his \ndefeat at Hastings, 14 Oct. following. The claim of \nMr. "William Grey for the earldom of Stamford, \nwas granted by the house of Lords, 3 May, 1892. \n\nSTAMP-DUTIES. By 22 & 23 Charles II \n(1670-1) duties were imposed on certain legal docu- \nments. In 1694 a duty was imposed upon paper, \nvellum, and parchment. The stamp-duty on news- \npapers was commenced in 1711, and every year \nadded to the list of articles upon which stamp-duty \nwas made payable. \nStamp act, which led to the American war, passed \n\n22 March, 1765 ; repealed in 1766 \n\nStamp duties in Ireland commenced . . . . 1774 \nStamps on notes and bills of exchange in . . 1782 \n\nThe stamp-duties produced in England, in 1800, a \n\nrevenue of 3,126,535?. \nMany alterations made in 1853 and 1857. I\' 1 June, \n1855, the stamp-duty on newspapers as such was \ntotally abolished ; the stamp on them being hence- \nforth for postal purposes. \nIn July and Aug. 1854, 19, 115,000 newspaper stamps \nwere issued ; in the same months, 1855, only \n6,870,000. \nDrafts on bankers to he stamped . . . . 1858 \n\nAdditional stamp duties were enacted in i860 (on \nleases, bills of exchange, dock warrants, extracts \nfrom registers of births, &c.) ; in 1861 (on leases, \nlicences to house-agents, <fec.). \nStamp-duties reduced in 1864, 1865. \nAll fees payable in the superior courts of law, after \n31 Dec. 1865, are to be collected by stamps, by an \nact passed in June, 1865. Also in Public Record \n\noffice 1868 \n\n144,623,014 inland revenue penny stamps sold, be- \nsides other stamps 1869 \n\nBy the Stamp acts, 10 Aug. 1870, newspaper stamps \n\nwere abolished after . . . . 1 Oct. 1870 \nNew stamp duties imposed ; eame into effect 1 Jan., \\%t\\ \nid. receipt and postage stamps used for each other \n\nafter 1 June, ^8^\xc2\xbb. \n\n3k? \n\n\n\nSTAND AED. \n\n\n\n916 \n\n\n\nSTAECH. \n\n\n\nStamp-duties imposed on foreign or colonial share \n\ncertificates, bonds, &c. by Customs Act, 1888. \nA new consolidating act relating to stamps passed, \n\n21 July 18 \n\n\n\nAMOUNT OP STAMP DUTIES RECEIVED IN THE \nUNITED KINGDOM. \n. \xc2\xa36,726,817 \n\n\n\n\xc2\xa312,348,175 \n. 11,691,025 \n. 11,681,431 \n\n\n\n1845 . . . 7,7io,oS3 \n\n1850 . . . 6,558,332 \n\n1855 . . 6,805,605 \n\ni860 (to 31 Mar.) 8,040,091 1886 . . . 11,600,614 \n\n1865 . . . 9,542,645 1887 . . . 11,780,333 \n\n1870 . . . 9,288,553 1888 . . . 13,056,950 \n\n1876 . . 11,023,374 1889 . . . 12,270,000 \n\n1880 . . . 11,306,914 1890 . . . 13,060,000 \n\ni83i . . 11,933,114 1891 . . . 13,460,000 \n* Fee and patent stamps now omitted. \n\nSTAND AED for gold and silver in England \nfixed by law, 1300. Standard gold is 22 parts out \n\xe2\x96\xa0of 24 of pure gold, the other two parts or carats \nbeing silver or copper. The standard of silver is \nII oz. 2 dwts. of fine silver alloyed with 18 dwts. of \ncopper, or 37 parts out of 40 pure silver, and three \nparts copper. In 1300 these 12 oz. of silver were \ncoined into 20 shillings ; in 1412 they were coined \ninto 30 shillings; and in 1527 into 45 shillings. In \n1545 Henry VIII. coined oz. of silver and 6 oz. of \nalloy into 48 shillings ; and the next year he coined \n4 oz. of silver and 8 oz. of alloy into the same sum. \nElizabeth, in 1560, restored the old standard in \n60 shillings; and in 1601 in 62 shillings. The \naverage proportions of silver to gold at the royal \nmint are 153 to 1. The standard of plate and silver \nmanufactures was affirmed, 6 Geo. I. 1719 et seq.; \nsee Gold, Goldsmiths, Silver, Coinage, and Currency. \n\nSTAND AED, BATTLE OF THE, see North- \nallerton. \n\nSTANDAED MEASUEES. In the reign \nof Edgar a law was made to prevent frauds arising \nfrom the diversity of measures, and for the esta- \nblishment of a legal standard measure to be used \nin every part of his dominions. The standard \nvessels made by order of the king were deposited in \nthe city of Winchester, and hence originated the \nwell-known term of " Winchester measure" of the \ntime of Henry VII. (1487). The bushel so made \nis still preserved in the museum of that city. \nHenry I. also, to prevent frauds in the measure- \nment of cloth, ordered a standard yard of the length \nof his own arm to be made and deposited at Win- \nchester, with the standard measures of king Edgar. \nThe Guildhall contains the standard measures of \nsucceeding sovereigns. Camden. \xe2\x80\x94 The standard \nweights and measures were settled by parliament \nin 1824. The pound troy was to be 5760 grains, \nand the pound avoirdupois 7000 grains. The \n"Standard yard of 1760," in the custody of the \ncleric of the house of commons, was declared to be \nthe Imperial Standard yard and the unit of mea- \nsures of extension. This standard having been \ndestroyed by the fire in 1834, a new commission \nwas appointed to reconstruct it, and researches for \nthis purpose, in conformity with the act, which \ndirected the comparison of the standard with a \npendulum vibrating seconds of time in the latitude \nof London, were begun by Francis Baily (died in \n1844), continued by the rev. R. Sheepshanks till \nhis death m 1855, and completed by G. B. Airy, \nastronomer royal. In 1855 was passed " an act for \nlegalising and preserving the lost standards of \nweights and measures." The parliamentary copies \nof the standard pound and yard are deposited at \nthe Royal Observatory, Greenwich. The standard \nweights and measures act was passed Aug. 1866. \nThe Standard Commission published reports, 1866 \n\xe2\x96\xa0ft seq. \n\n\n\nThe old standard yard and other measures and weights, \nsupposed to have been burnt at the fire of the parlia- \nment houses in 1834, were discovered by Mr. Bull\'s \nagents in the Journal Office, where they had been \ndeposited and left unnoticed, July, 1891. The rud \nstandards of the reign of Henry VII. and Elizabeth \nare still in existence. \n\n"STANDAED," conservative newspaper; \nbegun, morning, 1827; evening, 29 June, 1857. \n\nSTAND AEDS, see Banners, Flags, &c. The \npractice in the army of using a cross on standards \nand shields is due to the asserted miraculous appear- \nance of a cross to Constantine, previously to his \nbattle with Maxentius ; Eusebius says that he re- \nceived this statement from the emperor himself, \n312. The standard was named Labarum. For \nthe celebrated French standard, see Auriflamme. \xe2\x80\x94 \nStandard of Mahomet ; on this ensign no infidel \ndared look. Christians have been massacred by the \nTurkish populace for looking on it. \xe2\x80\x94 The British \nImperial Standard was first hoisted on the Tower \nof London, and on Bedford Tower, Dublin, and \ndisplayed by the Foot Guards, on the union of the \nkingdoms, 1 Jan. 1801. \n\nSTANFOED COUET, Worcestershire, the \nancient mansion of sir Francis Winnington, burnt \n5-7 Deo. 1882 ; valuable portraits, books, MSS. \n&c, destroyed. \n\nSTANHOPE ADMINISTEATION was \n\nformed by James (afterwards earl) Stanhope and \nthe earl of Sunderlaud, 15 April, 1717. Stanhope \nwas premier and chancellor of the exchequer; lord \n(afterwards earl) Cowper, lord chancellor; earl of \nSunderland and Joseph Addison, secretaries of \nstate, &c. In March, 17 18, Addison resigned, and \nthe earl of Sunderland became premier. \n\nSTANHOPE DEMONSTEATOE, see \n\nLogic. \n\nSTANLEY, and Apkioan Exhibition. \n\nPatrons, queen Victoria and the king of the Bel- \ngians; Mr. Joseph Thomson, the traveller, chief \nsuperintendent, opened at Victoria Gallery, Regent \nstreet, 24 March ; closed 8 Nov. 1890. \nThe exhibition included pictures and portraits, African \nweapons, historical maps, and many interesting ob- \njects collected by Livingstone, Grant, Speke, John- \nstone, and other travellers. \nStanley Fund. Mr. Stanley\'s wish that the surplus \nof the receipts from the exhibition should form a fund \nfor placing a steamer on the lake Victoria Nyanza \n(17 May), agreed to at a meeting at the Mansion \nhouse, 5 June ; 50Z. given by the q een, 16 July ; \n2,300?. received Oct. 1890. \n\nSTANNAEY COUETS of Devon and Corn- \nwall for the administration of justice among the \ntin miners, whose privileges were confirmed by \n33 Edw. I. 1305. They were regulated by parlia- \nment in 1641, and at many times since. A " Stan- \nneries act" was passed in 1869; another act in 1887. \n\nSTAPLE (literally that which is fixed). The \nchief English staple commodities which were traded \nin by privileged merchants, and on which customs \nwere levied, were avooI, skins, leather tin, lead \nand sometimes cloth, butter, and cheese ; certain \ntowns were appointed for the collection of the \nduties ; statutes relating to the staple were passed \nby Edward III., Richard II., and Henry VI. \nEdward III. \'s "ordinacio stapularum " (ordinance \nof the staple) was enacted in 1353. \n\nSTAECH is a sediment produced at the bottom \nof vessels wherein wheat has been steeped in water : \nit is soft and friable, easily broken into powder, \nand is used to stiffen and "clear linen, with blue; \nits powder is employed to powder the hair. The art \n\n\n\nSTAE-CHAMBEE. \n\n\n\n917 \n\n\n\nSTATUES. \n\n\n\nof starching linen was brought into England by Mrs. \nDinghein, a Flemish woman, r Mary, 1553. Stotv. \nPatents for obtaining starch from other substances \nhave been taken out : from potatoes by Samuel \nNewton and others in 1707 ; from the horse-chest- \nnut by Win. Murray in 1796; from rice by Thomas \nWickhani in 1823 ; from various matters by Orlando \nJones in 1839-40. \nSTAE-CHAMBEE, Court of. So called \n\nhaply from its roof being garnished with stars. Coke. \nThis court of justice was called Star-Chamber, not \nfrom the stars on its roof (which were obliterated \neven before the reign of queen Elizabeth), but from \nthe Starra, or Jewish covenants, deposited there by \norder of Richard I. No star was allowed to be \nvalid except found in those repositories, and here \nthey remained till- the banishment of the Jews by \nEdward I. \xe2\x96\xa0 The court was instituted or revived, \n3 Hen. VII. i486, -for trials by a committee of the \nprivy council, which was in violation of Magna \nCharta ; as it dealt with civil and criminal causes \nunfettered by the rules of law. In Charles I.\'s \nreign it exercised its power upon several bold inno- \nvators, who gloried in their sufferings, and con- \ntributed to render government odious and con- \ntemptible. It was abolished in 1640. There were \nin this court from 26 to 42 judges, the lord chan- \ncellor having the casting voice. The judicial com- \nmittee of the privy council is the Star-chamber \nl\'evived under another name. \n\nSTAE OF -INDIA, a new order of knight- \nhood for India, instituted by letters patent 23 Feb., \ngazetted 25 June, 1861, and enlarged in 1866. It \ncomprised the sovereign, the grand master, 25 \nknights (Europeans and natives), and extra or \nhonorary knights, such as the prince consort, the \nprince of Wales, &c. The queen invested several \nknights on 1 Nov. 1861. The prince of Wales held \na grand chapter at Calcutta, 1 Jan. 1876. \n\nSTAES, THE FIXED. They were classed \ninto constellations {which see), it is supposed, \nabout 1200 B.C. Hicetas, of Syracuse, taught \nthat the sun and the stars were motionless, \nand that the earth moved round them, about \n344 B.C. (this is mentioned by Cicero, and per- \nhaps gave the first hint of this system to Coper- \nnicus). Job, Hesiod, and Homer mention several \nof the constellations. The Royal Library at Paris \ncontains a Chinese chart of the heavens, made \nabout 600 B.C., in which 1460 stars are correctly \ninserted. The aberration of the stars was discovered \nby Dr. Bradley, 1727; see Astronomy, and Solar \nSystem. Maps of the stars were published by the \nSociety for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge in \n1839, and a set of Celestial Maps, issued under the \nsuperintendence of the Royal Prussian Academy, \nwas completed in 1859. See Photometer. \nA list of about 200 stars, which vary in their bright- \nness and sometimes disappear, has been published \nby Mr. G. F. Chambers in his " Handbook on \nAstronomy," 1889-90. A variable star, named \na Ceti, or Mira Ceti, observed by David Fabricius \nin Aug. 1596, disappeared in Oct. following. It \nwas observed again in 1603 and 1638, and since. \nBessel discovered the annual parallax of star \n61 Cygni (hence he calculated its distance from \nthe earth to be about 60 billions of miles) 12 Feb. 1841 \nStruve made it 40 billions [supported by Briinnow \n\nand R. 8. Ball] 1853 \n\nThe calculations of T. Henderson (at the Cape) 1832 \nsupported byD. Gill and others showed that pro- \nbably a Centauri, is the star nearest to the earth 1883-4 \nA new star in Auriga in the Milky Way was dis- \ncovered at Greenwich, by telescope, 1 Feb. 1892. \nIt had been photographed by prof. Pickering, 1, \n10, 20 Dec. 1891. It has been named Nova Auriga-. \nIts brilliancy diminished, May ; revived Aug. 1892 \n\n\n\nSTAEVATION : Deaths attributed to it in \nthe metropolitan districts, 1873, 107; 1875, 46; \n1879, 80; 1888, 29. In London, 1889, 27. In \nEngland and Wales : 1887, 250 ; 1888, 237. See \nAbstinence. \n\nSTATE MEDICINE, see under Sanitation, \n2 May, 1888. \n\nSTATE PAPEE OFFICE was founded in \n1578, now merged into the Public Record Office. \nIn 1856 the British government began the publica- \ntion of Calendars of State Papers, invaluable to \nfuture historians. \n\nSTATES-GENEEAL of FEANCE. An \n\nancient assembly of France, first met, it is said, in \n1302 to consider the exactions of the pope. Pre- \nvious to the Revolution, it had not met since 1614. \nThe states consisted of three orders, the clergy, \nnobility, and commons. They were convened by \nLouis XVI., and assembled at Versailles, 5 May, \n1789 (308 ecclesiastics, 285 nobles, and 621 deputies \nor tiers e\'tat, third estate). A contest arose whether \nthe three orders should make three distinct houses, \nor but one assembly. The commons insisted upon \nthe latter, and assuming the title of the National \nAssembly, declared that they were competent to \nproceed to business, without the concurrence of the \ntwo other orders, if they refused to join them. \nThe nobility and clergy found it expedient to con- \ncede the point, and they all met in one hall ; see \nNational Assembly.- Centenary, see France, 5 \nMay, 1889. \n\nSTATES OF THE CHUECH, see Tope, and \nRome. \n\nSTATIONEES. Books and papers were \nformerly sold only at stalls ; hence the dealers were \ncalled stationers. The company of stationers of \nLondon is of great antiquity, and existed long \nbefore printing was invented, yet it was not in- \ncorporated until 3 Philip & Mary, 1557. Their old \ndwelling was in Paternoster-row. \n\nSTATISTICS, the science of the state, political \nknowledge, is said to have been founded by sir \nWm. Petty, who died in 1687. The term is said to \nhave been invented by professor Achemvall of \nGottingen in 1749. The first statistical society in \nEngland was formed at Manchester in 1833 ; the \nRoyal Statistical Society of London, which pub- \nlishes a quarterly journal, was established 15 March, \n1834, for the purpose of procuring, arranging, and \npublishing " facts calculated to illustrate the condi- \ntion and prospects of society." Jubilee kept, 22, \n23, 24 June, 1885 ; incorporated, 1887. Similar \nsocieties have been established on the continent. \nInternational Statistical Institute constituted in \n1885, met at Rome, 12-16 April, 1887. International \nStatistical Congresses are now held occasionally. \nThe 1st at Brussels, cliicfly through the agency of \nM. Quetelet, in 1853; 2nd at Paris, 1855; 3rd at \nVienna, 1857 ; 4th at London, under the presidency \nof the prince consort, 16-21 July, i860; 5th at \nBerlin ; 6th at Florence ; 7th at the Hague ; \n8th at St. Petersburg, was opened 22 Aug. 1872 ; \n9th at Pesth, 31 Aug. 1876 and since; one at \nVienna 28 Sept. 1891. The eminent statistician. \nDr. Wm. Farr, died 14 April, 1883. Statistical \nAbstracts have been published annually by the \ngovernment for many years. Mr. M. G. Mulhall 8 \n" Dictionary of Statistics" published 1891. \n\nSTATUES, see Sculpture, &c. Two statues of \nBarneses II. and one of his queen (aboul 13:2 B.C.), \n10 feet high, discovered at Aboukir by Danmos \nPasha, Oct. 1891. Phidias, whose statue of \n\n\n\nSTATUES. \n\n\n\n918 \n\n\n\nSTEAM ENGINE. \n\n\n\nJupiter passed for one of the wonders of the world, \nwas the greatest statuary among the ancients, \n440 B.C. He had previously made a statue of \nMinerva at the request of Pericles, which was \nplaced in the Parthenon. It was made of ivory \nand gold, and measured 39 feet in height. Acilius \nraised a golden statue to his father, the first that \nappeared in Italy. Lysippus invented the art of \ntaking likenesses in plaster moulds, from which he \nafterwards cast models in wax, 326 B.C. Michael \nAngelo was the greatest artist among the modems. \nThe first equestrian statue erected in Great Britain \nwas that of Charles I. in 1678.* By 17 & 18 Vict. \nc. 10 (10 July, 1854), public statues were placed \nunder the control and protection of the Board of \nWorks. The following are the chief public statues \nin London: \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nAchilles, Hyde-park, in honour of the duke of Wel- \nlington, by the ladies of Great Britain 18 June, 1822 \nAlbert, prince consort, Royal Exchange, 1850 ; Hor- \nticultural Society gardens, 1863; Hofborn circus, 1873 \nAnne, queen, St. Paul\'s Churchyard, 1712 ; replaced, 1886 \n\nBarry, sir Charles, Westminster 1865 \n\nBedford, duke of, Russell-square .... 1809 \nBentinck, lord George, Cavendish-square . after 1848 \nBurns t, Thames embankment . . 26 July, 1884 \nByron, lord, Hamilton-place, Hyde-park, 24 May, 1880 \nCanning, Geo., New Palace-yard, Westminster . . 1832 \nCarlyle, Thos., embankment, Chelsea . Oct. 1882 \nCartwright, major, Burton-crescent . . . .1831 \n\nCharles I. , Charing-cross 1678 \n\nCharles II., Soho-squaie t *** \n\nClyde, lord, Waterloo-place 1868 \n\nCobden, Richard, Camden-town . . June, 1868 \nCumberland, duke of, Cavendish-square . . . 1770 \nDerby, Edward, earl of, Parliament-square . . 1874 \nDisraeli, Benj., lord Beaconsfield, Parliament- \nsquare 19 April, 1883 \n\nElizabeth, queen, St. Dunstan\'s, Fleet-street . . 1586 \nFaraday, Michael, Royal Institution . ... 1876 \nForster,\',W. E. , Victoria embankment . 1 Aug. 1890 \nFox, Charles James, Bloomsbury-square . . . 1816 \nFranklin, sir John, Waterloo-place , . . . 1866 \n\nGeorge I. , Grosvenor-square 1726 \n\nGeorge III. , Somerset-house 1788 \n\nGeorge III. , Cockspur-street 1836 \n\nGordon, gen. C. G., Trafalgar-square . 25 Sept. 1888 \nHavelock, sir Henry, Trafalgar-square . . . 1861 \nHerbert, lord, Pall Mall .... 3 June, 1867 \nHill, Rowland, Royal Exchange .... 1882 \nHoward, John ; first erected in St. Paul\'s . . . 1796 \n\nJames II., Whitehall 1687 \n\nJenner, Edward, Trafalgar-square, 1858 ; removed \n\nto Kensington-gardens 1864 \n\nLawrence, lord, Waterloo-place (a new statue since) \n\nApril, 1885 \nMacgregor, sir James, Chelsea hospital . . . 1868 \nMill, John Stuart, Thames Embankment, 26 Jan. 1872 \nMyddelton, sir Hugh, Islingcon-green . . . . 1862 \nNapier, gen. sir Chas. J., Trafalgar-square . . 1856 \nNapier of Magdala, lord, Waterloo-place, uncovered \n\n8 July, 1 89 1 \nNelson, lord, Trafalgar-square, by E. H. Baily [the \nlions at the base, designed by sir E. Landseer, \n\nwere uncovered 31 Jan. 1867] 1843 \n\nOutram, sir James, Thames embankment 17 Aug. 1871 \nPalmerston, viscount, Parliament-street . 29 Jan. 1876 \nPeabody, George, Royal Exchange .... 1869 \nPeel, sir Robert, Cheapside, 1855 ; near Westminster \nabbey, 1868 ; Parliament-square . . ... 1877 \n\nPitt, William, Hanover-square 1831 \n\nPrince of Wales, Temple-bar site 1880 \n\n\n\n* This statue is of brass, cast by Le Sueur, in 1633, \nat the expense of the Howard-Arundel family. During \nthe civil war, the parliament sold it to John River, a \nbrazier, in Holborn, with strict orders to break it to \npieces ; but he concealed it underground till the Restora- \ntion, when it was erected, in 1678, on a pedestal executed \nby Grinling Gibbons. The first equestrian statue of \nbronze, founded at one cast, was that of Louis XIV. of \nFrance, 1699 ; it was elevated about 1724. \n\nt By sir John Steell, the gift of Mr. John Gordon \nCrawford \n\n\n\nQueen Victoria, Royal Exchange, 1845 ; Temple-bar \n\nsite 1880 \n\nRaikes, Robert, Thames embankment . 3 July, ,, \nRichard Cosur de Lion, near Westminster abbey . i860 \nShakespeare, &c, Leicester-square .... 1874 \nStephenson, Robert, Euston-road, near L. & N. W. \n\nstation 1871 \n\nTyndale, Wm., Thames embankment . . . 1884 \n\nWellington, duke of, Royal Exchange . . . 1844 \nWellington, duke of, arch, Hyde-park-corner, 1846 ; \nequestrian statue, height 27 feet, weight 40 tons, \nchiefly gun metal (cannon taken by the duke) \ndesigned by Matthew Cotes Wyatt, set up 1 Oct. \n1846; taken down, 24 Jan., 1883; set up at \n\nAldershot camp 1848 \n\nWellington, duke of, new equestrian statue with \nfigures of four Waterloo soldiers at the base, by \nsir J. E. Boehm, facing Hyde Park Corner, set up \n13 Nov. ; unveiled by the prince of Wales 21 Dec. 1888 \nAVilliam III. , St. James\'s-square .... 1717 \nWilliam IV., King William-street . . . . 1845 \nYork, duke of, Waterloo-place 1834 \n\nSTATUTES, see Acts of Parliament, Clarendon, \nMerton, &c. Statute Law Bevision acts were passed \nin 1863-1892. The subject was referred to a joint \ncommittee of both houses, 14 March, 1892. Statute \nLaw Bevision and Civil Procedure act, 44 & 45 Vict, \nc. 59, passed 27 Aug. 1881. "Statutes: Revised \nEdition: (1325-1878)," in 18 volumes, published \n1870-85. The number of volumes since greatly re- \nduced. Select commons\' committee on the subject,, \nmet 17 July, 1891. \n\nSTATUTORY DECLARATIONS. Bys& \n6 "Will. IV. c. 62 (1835), persons objecting to oaths are- \npermitted to make declarations before magistrates, \n\njudges, &c; commencing: "I , do solemnly \n\nand sincerely declare that" \xe2\x80\x94 an indulgence some- \ntimes abused. \n\nMr. Alexander Chaffers having made a declaration \nagainst the character of Lady Twiss, wife of sir \nTravers Twiss, was prosecuted for libel. She with- \ndrew during the examination, and the prosecution \nceased : but Chaffers was severely censured by the \nmagistrate, and by the attorney -general in parlia- \nment March, 1872- \n\nSTEAM CARRIAGE (for ordinary roads), \ninvented by the earl of Caithness, was said to be \nsuccessful in i860. It travels over rough roads at \nthe rate of 8 miles an hour, at a cost of less than \\d, \nper mile. His lordship made a journey of 140 miles \nin two days ; see Road Steamers. \n\nSTEAM ENGINE* and NAVIGATION. \n\nHero of Alexandria, in his " Pneumatics," describes \nvarious methods of employing steam as a power ; \nand to him is ascribed the JEolopile, which, although \na toy, possesses the properties of the steam-engine : \nhe flourished about 284-241 B.C. Boger Bacon ap- \npears to have foreseen the application of steam- \npower ; see Railivays, Locomotives, Poad Steamers, \nSee. \n\nSolomon de Caus, a French protestant, publishes a \nwork which Arago on insufficientgrounds considers \nto have contained the germs of the steam-engine . 1615 \nThe marquis of Worcester describes his steam-engine \nin his " Century of Inventions " . . . . 1663 \n\nPapin\'s digester invented 1681-2 \n\nCaptain Savery\'s engine constructed for raising \n\nwater 1698 \n\nPapin\'s engine exhibited to the Royal Society about 1699 \n[He is said to have made a steamboat which was \n\ndestroyed by boatmen of the Weser. ] \nThomas Newcomen, of Dartmouth, is stated to have \nconstructed "the first self-acting steam-engine ; " \n(used for nearly a century without alteration or \n\namendment) 1712 \n\n[He died in London while endeavouring to obtain \na patent, 1729.] \n\n* " The best known mechanical arrangement for con- \nverting heat into work." A. Sigg, 1878. \n\n\n\nSTEAM ENGINE. \n\n\n\n919 \n\n\n\nSTEAM ENGINE. \n\n\n\nFirst idea of steam navigation, set forth in a patent \nobtained by Jonathan Hulls 1736 \n\nWatt\'s invention of performing condensation in a \nseparate vessel from the cylinder .... 1765 \n\nHis first patent, 1769 ; his engines erected in manu- \nfactories, and his patent renewed by parliament . 1775 \n\nThomas Paine proposes steam navigation in America 1778 \n\nEngines made to give a rotary motion . . . . ,, \n\nWatt\'s expansion engine ,, \n\nDouble-action engines proposed by Dr. Falck on \nNewcomen\'s principle 1779 \n\nWatt\'s double engine and his first patent for it . 1781 \n\nHornblower\'s double-cylinder engine . . . . ,, \n\nClaude \xe2\x96\xa0 comte de Jouffroy constructed an engine \nwhich propelled a boat (pyroscaphe) on the Saone. 1783 \n\nWin. Patrick Miller patented paddle-wheels . . 1787 \n\n[He and Mr. Symington are said to have constructed \na small steamboat which travelled at about 4 miles \nan hour soon after.] \n\nW. Symington made a passage on the Forth and \nClyde canal 1790 \n\nFirst steam-engine erected in Dublin by Henry \nJackson 1791 \n\nFirst experiment with steam navigation on the \nThames 1801 \n\nTrevethick\'s high-pressure engine . . . . ,, \n\nWoolfs double -cylinder expansion engine con- \nstructed 1804 \n\nManufactories warmed by steam 1806 \n\nFulton\'s steamboat Clermont on the Seine, 9 Aug. \n1803 ; at New York, 1806 ; started a steamboat \non the river Hudson, America 1807 \n\nSteam power to convey coals on a railway employed \nby Blenkinsop 1811 \n\nComet, built by Henry Bell, sailed on the Clyde \n[John Bobertson, who made the engine, died \n20 Nov. 1868, aged 86] . . . 18 Jan. 1812 \n\n[The Comet sailed from Glasgow to Greenock three \ntimes a week ; fares, 3s. and 4s. ; speed, -]\\ miles \nan hour.] \n\nSteam applied to printing in the Times office (see \nPrinting machines) 1814 \n\nThere were five steam-vessels in Scotland (Pari. Re- \nturns) \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFirst steam- vessel on the Thames, brought by Mr. \nDodd from Glasgow 181 5 \n\nFirst steamer built in England (Pari. Returns) . . ,, \n\nRising Sun, a steamer built by lord Cochrane, \ncrossed the Atlantic i3i8 \n\nThe Savannah, aided by steam, of 350 tons, came \nfrom New York to Liverpool in 26 days 15 July, 1819 \n\nFirst steamer in Ireland 1820 \n\nSteamboats established between Dover and Calais \nand London and Leith 1821 \n\nSteam-gun, invented by Perkins .... 1824 \n\nSteam-jet applied by George Stephenson, 1814 ; by \nTimothy Hackworth, about 1825 \n\nCaptain Johnson obtained 10,000?. for making the \nfirst steam voyage to India, in the Enterprise, \nwhich sailed from Falmouth . . 16 Aug. ,, \n\nThe locomotive steam-carriages on railways at Liver- \npool Oct. 1829 \n\nThe railway opened (see Liverpool) .... 1830 \n\nThe Royal William, steamship, built at Quebec by \nMr. James Grondie in 1830-1, said to have crossed \nthe Atlantic in 21 days 1833 \n\nCapt. Ericsson\'s screw steamer, " Francis Bogden," \nspeed 10 miles an hour, constructed : see Screw- \nPropeller 1837 \n\nThe Sirius sailed from Queenstown 4 April ; \narrived at New York ... 21 April, 1838 \n\nThe Great Western sails from Bristol to New York, \nbeing her first voyage . . . 8-23 April, ,, \n\nWar-steamers built in England ,, \n\nWar-steamers built at Birkenhead, named the Ne- \nmesis and Phlegethon, carrying each two thirty-two \npounders, sent by government to China . . 1840 \n\nHall\'s method of economising fuel introduced about ,, \n\nThe first Cunard steamer, the Britannia, sailed * \n\n4 July, ,, \n[Sir Sam. Cunard died 28 April, 1865, aged 78.] \n\n* Since then many great steamers have been wrecked \nor burnt : viz., Governor Fenner, 19 Feb., 1841 ; Presi- \ndent, March, 1841 ; Ocean Monarch, Aug. 1848 ; St. \nGeorge, 24 Dec. 1852 ; George Canning, 1 Jan. 1855 ; \nPacific, 1856 ; Austria, 13 Sept., 1858 ; Indian, 21 Nov., \n1859; Hungarian, Feb., i860; Anglo-Saxon, 27 April, \n\n\n\nThe Peninsular Company was formed in 1837 ; be- \ncame the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Naviga- \ntion Company in ... . . 1840 \n[They possessed 53 steamers and a fleet of tugs, \nDec. 1866.] \nThe Great Britain sailed from the Mersey 26 July, 1845 \n[She arrived at New York 10 Aug. During her \nsecond voyage, she ran aground in Duudrum \nbay, Ireland, 22 Sept. 1846. Her passengers \nwere landed ; and she was extricated with \nlittle injury, after long-continued and strenu- \nous efforts, by I. Brunei, jun. and Bremner, \n27 Aug. 1847.] \n\nThe Collins steamers began 1850 \n\nIn/man Company : began by Wm. Inman, first vessel \nCity of Glasgow, 1850 ; the company became the \nLiverpool, New York, and Philadelphia company, \n1857 \xe2\x80\xa2 (-\'My \xc2\xb0f Richmond, sailed from Liverpool \n6 p.m. 15 July, arrived at New York 12.30 p.m. \n\n24 July, 1875. (Apparent time 7 days, 19 hours, 45 \nminutes; average 365 miles a day, isknotsanhour.) \n\nThe Pacific crosses the Atlantic in 9 days, 19 hours, \n\n25 minutes, arriving at Holyhead . 20 May, 1851 \nManchester Steam- Users Association established about 1855 \nSteam packets leave Galway for America . . . 1853 \nThe merits of an attacking vessel termed a steam- \nram, advocated by sir G. Sartorius, discussed 1859-60 \n\nGiffard\'s valuable steam-injector invented about 1859 \n\nAn iron-plated frigate, La Gloire, completed in \nFrance (see Navy, French) i860 \n\nThe Warrior, an iron-plated vessel, launched 29 Dec. ,, \n\nThe Far East, a vessel with two screws, launched at \nMUlwall 31 Oct. 1863 \n\nA cigar ship, a steam yacht, designed by Mr. Winan, \nbuilt by Hepworth, launched on the Thames \n\n19 Feb. 1866 \n\nTrial trip of the Nautilus, with a hydraulic propeller \nworked by steam, Ruthven\'s patent ; no paddle or \nscrew required 24 March, ,, \n\nSuccessful trial trip of the Water-witch, a govern- \nment hydraulic propeller iron-clad gun-vessel \n(Ruthven\'s patent), on the Thames . 19 Oct. ,, \n\nMr. Ruthven patented his system in 1849, an d exhibited \nhis machinery at the International Exhibition in 1851. \nHis object is to increase speed and save fuel. In the \nWater-witch a steam-engine gives the power of absorb- \ning and expelling the water, and no screw or paddle is \nrequired. The water-wheel is 14^ feet in diameter. \n\nTrial trip of H.M. gun-boat Thistle; explosion of \nboiler, 8 killed 3 Nov. 1869 \n\nChannel Steamers : " Twin-ship " Castalia, steamer (two \nhulls, separated by 26 feet), 290 feet long ; invented by \ncapt. W. T. Dicey, for the English Channel steam com- \npany, to prevent sea-sickness when crossing the \nChannel ; (really a single ship, with the middle part of \nher bottom raised out of the water throughout her \nwhole length) ; launched, 2 June ; tried in calm wea- \nther ; reported successful but slow, 2 Aug, 1875 ; suc- \ncessful, June, 1876 ; sold Nov. 1876. \n\nBessemer, saloon steamer, designed by Mr. Bessemer and \nE. J. Reed ; built by the Earles company ; launched \nat Hull, 24 Sept. 1874; first voyage from Hull to \nGravesend, 5 March, 1875 ; sailed to Calais, 10 April, 1875. \n[Success doubtful, 1876.] Modified by Mr. E. J. Reed ; \ntrial near Hull, reported successful, 26 March, 1877. \n\nExpress, twin steamer ; built by A. Leslie, of Newcastle : \nsailed from the Tyne\'to Coquet Island, 22J miles, \nin ih. 22m., reported satisfactory, 13 March, 1878. \n\nFolkestone, twin steamer, launched at Hull, 23 March, 187S. \n\nPizarro, steamer (the first built of Siemens-Martin steel ; \n340 feet long by 40 feet broad, 3400 tons, launched at \nNapier\'s yard, Govan, near Glasgow, 5 Aug. 1879. \n\nLivadia, a turhot-shaped steam yacht (broad and flat), \nbuilt by Elder & Co. of Glasgow for the czar of Russia, \nlaunched on the Clyde, 7 July, 1880. \n\nFaraday, steam-ship (for laying electric cables, \n360 feet long, 52 feet wide, 36 feet deep, 5000 tons \nregister ; to carry 6000 tons dead weight) ; next \nin size to Great Eastern ; built for Messrs. \nSiemens by Messrs. Mitchell, at Newcastle ; \nlaunched (much employed, 1881 el scq.), 17 Feb. \n1874 ; she laid cables from Nova Scotia to New \nYork Dec. i83.> \n\nOrient, steamer, built by Elders of Glasgow, for \n\n1863; City of Boston, Feb., 1870; Germania, 21 Dee. \n1872; Atlantic, April, 1873; VilU de Havre, 22 No\\.. \n1873 ; Cashmere, 5 July, 1S77 ; Elen, 15 July, 1877, &c. \n\n\n\nSTEAM .ENGINE. \n\n\n\n920 \n\n\n\nSTEAM-PLOUGHS. \n\n\n\nAustralian traffic ; length, 460 feet ; breadth, \n46 feet ; depth, 37^ feet ; sailed from Greenock \nto West India Dock, London . . 10-12 Sept. 1S79 \n\nServia, Cunard royal mail steamer, 530 feet long, \n52 feet broad, 44 feet depth ; gross tonnage, 8500 \ntons ; s decks and promenade ; next in size to \nGreat Eastern ; launched in the Clyde, 1 March, 1881 \n\nServia, sailed from America to Liverpool (by long \nroute) in 7 days, 8 hours, 15 min. quickest \npassage hitherto made ... 26 Jan. 1882 \n\nCity of Rome, mail steamer, length 586 feet, breadth \n52 feet, left the Clyde ... 28 Sept. 1881 \n\nAlaska, Guion mail steamer crossed the Atlantic, \n6 days, 22 hours ... 31 May-6 June, 1882 \n\nThe Guion steamer Arizona, left Queenstown at \n2.10 p.m. Sept. 11, and reached Sandy Hook at \n6.20 p.m. on the 18O1, which, including the dif- \nference in time, 4 hours, 22 min., makes the \npassage 7 days, 8 hours, 12 min. On the return \npassage she made the voyage in 7 days, 7 hours, \n48 min. \n\nThe Guion steamer Alaslca arrived at Sandy Hook on \nSunday, in 7 days, 17 min. . . 31 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBlack Star Line of steamers between Grimsby and \nAmerica 11882 \n\nVictoria, steamer (jubilee of the P. and O. company), \nbuilt by Messrs. Caird & Co. ; length 465 feet, \nbreadth 52 feet, depth 37 feet; sailed from \nGreenock to Southampton ... 16 July, 1887 \n\nMr. Thomas Lishman\'s steam generator said to \neconomize fuel without producing smoke, em- \nployed at Elswick Works, Newcastle, and other \nplaces \n\nArcadia (P. and O. steamer), arrived at Albert \nDocks 3:8 May, 1888 \n\nEtruria, Cunard line, sailed from Roches Point, Cork, \nto New York in 6 days, 1 hr., 47 minutes 2 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nParisian, boat of the Allan line, said to have \ncrossed the Atlantic from land to land in 4 days, \n17 hours and 10 minutes .... Aug. \n\nCity of New York, length 560 feet, breadth 63} feet, \nfirst voyage across Atlantic . . .1 Am;. ,, \n\nSaid to have crossed from New York to Queenstown \nin 5 days, 23 hours, and 14 minutes . 17-23 Sept. 1890 \nSee Navy, and Shipping. \n\nLARGE STEAM VESSELS OF ENGLAND. \n\nLong. Broad. \n\nGreat Western 236 feet 35 feet \n\nDuke of Wellington . . . . 240 feet 60 feet \n\nBritish Queen 275 feet 61 feet \n\nGreat Britain 322 feet 51 feet \n\nHimalaya 370 feet 43 feet \n\nPersia 3 qo feet 45 feet \n\nServia S3 o f ee t 52 feet \n\nGreat Eastern, for a short time \n\n(1857-8) called Leviathan . . 692 feet 83 feet \n\nHorse Power: \xe2\x80\x94 Paddles, 1000 ; screw, 1600 : \n\nWeight of ship, 12,000 tons ; ordinary light \n\ndraught, 12,000 tons ; said to have cost 732,000? \n\nShe was designed by Mr. I. K. Brunei [who died 15 Sept\'. \n\n1859], and built by Messrs. Scott Russell and Co., at \n\nMillwall ; launching lasted from 3 Nov. 1857, to 31 Jan \n\n185S. \n\nThe capital subscribed having been all expended, a new \n\ncompany was formed to fit her for sea. \nOn 7 Sept. 1859, sne left her moorings at Deptford for \nPortland-roads. On the voyage an explosion took place \n(off Hastings), through some neglect in regard to the \ncasing of one of the funnels, when ten firemen were \nkilled and many persons seriously injured. After re- \npairs she sailed to Holyhead, arriving there 10 Oct \xe2\x80\xa2 \nshe endured the storm of 25-26 Oct. well ; and pro- \nceeded to Southampton for the winter, 4 Nov. \nShe was fitted up to convey 5000 persons from London \nto Australia, a distance of 22,500 miles, with accom- \nmodation for 800 1st class passengers, 2000 2nd class, and \n1200 3rd class. Her able captain (Harrison) \'was \ndrowned in the Solent 22 Jan. i860, deeply regretted \nShe sailed for New York 17 June, under command of \ncaptain Vine Hall, and arrived there 28 June. After \nbeing exhibited she left New York 16 Aug. and returned \nto England 26 Aug. \nOwing to a lawsuit in April, the ship came into the hands \nof sheriff\'s officers ; but was released and sailed for New \nYork on 1 May, 1861. On 12 Sept. she suffered much \nloss through a violent gale. \nIn 1862 she performed several voyages to and from New \n\n\n\nYork ; but in Aug. ran on a rock near Long Island and \ninjured her bottom. \n\nShe was repaired and arrived at Liverpool 17 Jan. 1863, \nand sailed to New York (16-27 May). \n\nShe was bought by Glass, Elliot, and Co. in March or \nApril, 1864, and was chartered to convey the Atlantic \ntelegraph cable ; sailed from Sheerness 15 July : and \nreturned 19 Aug. 1865 ; see under Electric Telegraph. \n\nShe sailed for New York, prepared for 2000 passengers, \n\n26 March, and returned with 191. She was seized by \nthe seamen, claiming their wages, May, 1867 ; and the \ncase was carried into Chancery in July. \n\nAt the meeting of the shareholders 10 Feb. 1868, no divi- \ndend was declared. \n\nShe conveyed the French Atlantic telegraph cable, \nsuccessfully laid Oct. 1869 \n\nArrived at Bombay with Bombay and Suez cable, \n\n27 Feb. ; returned to Sheerness . . June, 1870 \nSailed with the fourth Atlantic telegraph cable \n\n8 June ; which was completely laid . 3 July, 1873 \nSailed with the fifth Atlantic telegraph cable : \n\nlaid Aug., Sept. 1874 \n\nPut up for sale at 30,000?. ; not bought 19 Oct. 1881 \n\n[John Scott Russell died, aged 74] . 8 June, 1882 \nProposed to be employed as a coal hulk in Gibraltar \n\nBay April, 1884 \n\nSold by auction to Mr. Frederick de Mattos for \n\n26,200?. for the London traders (limited) 28 Oct. 1S85 \nThe ship reported in good condition . 20 April, 1886 \n\nSold to Mr. Worsley for 26,000? ,, \n\nIn the Mersey .... 12 May-12 Oct. ,, \nLargely visited ; drink licence refused . April, 1887 \nSold to Mr. Craik for 21,000?. . . 20 Oct. ,, \n\nIn the Clyde, sold to Messrs. Henry Bath, metal \n\nbrokers, for 16,500?. .... Dec. ,, \n\nMessrs. Henry Bath and Sons cause the vessel to \n\nbe moved to the Mersey, where she is beached \n\n25 Aug. 1888 \nTotal receipts of the sale at Liverpool 58,000?. \n\n24 Nov. ,, \n\nSTEAM GUN ; suggested by Wm. Murdoch, \n1803. One patented by Messrs. Perkins, in 1824, \nwas ineffectual. \nIn Oct. 1870, Mr. H. Bessemer proposed the application \n\nof steam power to artillery. \n\nSTEAM HAMMEE, invented by Mr. James \nNasmyth in 1838, and patented by him 18 June, \n1842. Its main feature is the absolutely direct \nmanner by which the elastic power of steam is \nemployed to lift up and let fall the mass of iron \nconstituting the hammer, which is attached direct \nto the end of a piston-rod passing through the \nbottom of an inverted steam cylinder placed imme- \ndiately over the anvil. \n\nIn 1842, Mr. Nasmyth applied his steam-hammer to \ndriving piles, which has importantly assisted in the \nexecution of great public works. Owing to its vast \nrange of power, forged iron-work can now by its means \nbe executed on a scale, and for a variety of purposes, \nwith an ease and perfection not previously possible. \nParts of gigantic marine steam-engines, anchors, and \nArmstrong guns, as well as the most minute details of \nmachinery, as in Enfield rifles, are executed by the \nsteam-hammer. \nA steam-hammer, said to be the then largest in the \nworld, completed at Woolwich : the falling portion \nweighs 40 tons, and when used with top steam (51 tons) \nhas the force of 91 tons, April, 1874. One at Schneider\'s \nworks, Creuzot, France ; weight between 75 and 80 tons, \nDec. 1877. \nMr. Nasmyth, aged 81, died 7 May, 1890. His Auto- \nbiography, edited by Dr. S. Smiles, was published in \n1S83. \n\nSTEAM-MAN. A figure constructed to drag \na phaeton received this name in New York in \nMarch, 1868. \n\nSTEAM NAVIGATION, see under Steam. \n\nSTEAM-PLOUGHS were patented by G. \nCallaway and E. A. Purkes, 1849 ; H. Cowing, \n1850; and others. John Fowler\'s of 1854 is much \napproved. \n\n\n\nSTEAM-EAM. \n\n\n\n921 \n\n\n\nSTEPHEN\'S CHAPEL, ST. \n\n\n\nSTEAM-EAM (to be used in naval warfare), \nwas invented by Mr. James Nasmyth in 1836, and \ncommunicated to the Admiralty in 1845. Steam- \nrams built bj Mr. James Laird of Birkenhead for \nthe Confederates in N. America, were stopped and \neventually bought by the British government, 1864. \n\nSTEAM-WHISTLES and STEAM- \nTRUMPETS, used in factories to summon or dismiss \nworkmen, prohibited by an act passed Aug. 1872. \n\nSTEAEINE (from stear, suet), that part of \noils and fats which is solid at common temperature. \nThe nature of these substances was first made \nknown by Chevreul, in 1823, who showed that they \nwere compounds of peculiar acids, with a base \ntermed glycerine; of these compounds the chief are \nstearine, margarine, and elaine ; see Candles. \n\nSTEEL, metal, a compound of iron and carbon, \nexists in nature, and has been fabricated from the \nearliest times. It was certainly used by the Egyp- \ntians, Assyrians, and Greeks. It now largely \nreplaces cast iron in ship building, &c. \nReaumur discovered the direct process of making \nsteel by immersing malleable iron in a bath of \n\ncast iron 1722 \n\nA manufactory for cast steel is said to have been \nset up by Benjamin Huntsman at Handsworth, \n\nnear Sheffield 1740 \n\nThe manufacture of shear steel began in Sheffield, \n\nabout 1800 \nGerman steel was made at Newcastle previously by \n\nMr. Crawley. \nThe inventions of Mushat (1800), Lucas (1S04), and \nHeath (1839), were important steps in this manu- \nfacture ; see Engraving. \nReipe patented his " puddled steel " . . . 1850 \nMr. H. Bessemer made steel by passing cold air \nthrough liquid iron, 1856. By this method 20 tons \nof crude iron have been converted into east steel \nin 23 minutes.* \nTungsten steel was made in Germany, 1859 ; and M. \nFremy made steel by bringing red-hot iron in con- \ntact with carbonate of ammonia .... 1861 \nM. Alfred Krupp exhibited an ingot of steel weigh- \ning 4500 lbs. in 1851, and one weighing 20 tons in 1862 \n[about 15,000 men are employed at his works at \nEssen, 1887] \nThe subject much investigated by M. Caron, 1861-5 ; \nmuch attention was excited by cutlery made from \na metallic sand, brought from Taranaki or New \n\nPlymouth, in New Zealand i860 \n\nA steel bridge, in connection with the exhibition, \n\nconstructed at Paris by M. Joret .... 1866 \nMr. John Heaton published his process . . 1867-8 \nDr. Siemens, by means of his " regenerative gas \nfurnaces," produced excellent steel, cheaply, in \n\nlarge masses 1876, el seq. \n\nCutlers\' Company, London, opened an exhibition, \n\n1 May, 1879 \nMessrs. Bolckow, Vaughan & Co. of Middlesbrough, \nby Thomas and Gilchrist\'s process, convert Cleve- \nland iron ore into Bessemer steel, by lining the \nfurnace with radial bricks of magnesian limestone \nand adding cold basic material, phosphorus being \n\nthereby removed ,, \n\nThe process reported successful . . . Oct. 1880 \nMr. J. S. Jeans published his important work, \n" Steel : its History, Manufacture, Properties, \n\nand Uses" Feb. ,, \n\nThe Garfield, a steel sailing ship, 2,220 tons, 292 ft. \nlength, 24 ft. 9 in. depth, 41ft. breadth, launched \n\nat Belfast 7 Jan. 1882 \n\nUmbria, Canard liner, above 8,000 tons, 520 ft. long, \n57 ft. 3 in. broad, 41 ft. deep, launched on the \n\nClyde Sept. 1884 \n\nMr. B. H. Thwaite, of Liverpool, and Mr. A. \nStewart, of Bradford, introduce an improved \n"rapid" process for the manufacture of steel, \n\nannounced Oct. 1887 \nSee under Steam. \n\n* For this invention he had received by royalties \n1,057,748/. lip to 1879; also many foreign honours; \nknighted June, 1879. \n\n\n\nSTEEL PENS- "Iron pens" are mentioned \nby Chamberlayne in 1685. Steel pens, made long \nbefore, began to come into use about 1820, when the \nfirst gross of three-slit pens was sold wholesale for \n7 1. 4s. In 1830 the price was 8s., and in 1832, 6s. \nA better pen is now sold for 6d. a gross. Birming- \nham in 1858 produced about 1000 million pens per \nannum. Women and children are principally em- \nployed in the manufacture. Perry, Mitchell, and \nGillott are eminent makers. Joseph Gillott, origin- \nallj T a mechanic, made a large fortune by steel-pen \nmaking. He died 5 Jan. 1872, aged 72. \n\nSTEEL- YAED. An ancient instrument, the \nsame that is translated balance in the Pentateuch. \nThe Statcra Romana, or Roman steel-yard, is men- \ntioned, in 315 B.C. \xe2\x80\x94 The Steel-yaud or Still- \nyard Company, London merchants, who had the \nsteel-yard in Thames-street assigned to them by \nHenry III., about 1232, were Flemings and Ger- \nmans, and the only exporters, for many years after, \nof the staple commodities of England. Anderson. \nThe company lost its privileges, finally, in 1578 ; \nand the merchants were expelled from England in \n1597- \n\nSTEENKIEK, see Enghien. \n\nSTEFANO, SAN, a small village on the sea \nof Marmora, S.W. of Constantinople ; here the \ngrand duke Nicholas established his head quarters, \n24 Eeb. ; and here was signed a treaty of peace \nwith Turkey, 3 March, 1878, much modified by \nthe treaty of Berlin, signed 13 July, following. \nThe Russians quitted San Stefano, 22 Sept. 1878. \n\nIt established independence of Montenegro, Servia, and \nRoumania ; constituted Bulgaria a tributary princi- \npality ; required a heavy indemnity from Turkey for \nRussia, who was to gain a port on the Black Sea and \nKars ; to exchange the Dobrudscha for Bessarabia ; to \nobtain rights for Christians ; to open the Bosphoms \nand Dardanelles in peace and war ; &c. \n\nSTELLA-LAND, see Trans-vaal and Bech- \nuana-land. \n\nSTENOCHEOMT, see Printing in Colours. \n\nSTENOGEAPHY (from stenos, narrow), the \nart of short-hand, said to have been practised by \nthe ancients. Its improvement is attributed to the \npoet Ennius, to Tyro, Cicero\'s freedman, and still \nmore to Seneca. The Ars Scribendi Charactcris, \nwritten about 1412, is the oldest system extant. \nDr. Timothy Bright\' s " Characterie, or the Arte of \nShorte, Swifte, and Secrete Writing," published in \n1588, is the first English work on short-hand. \nPeter Bales, the famous penman, published on \nstenography in 1590; and John Willis published \nhis "Stenographic" in 1602. There are now \nnumerous systems : John Byrom\'s (1767), T. Gur- \n\n\n\n\n(1881) ; J. M. Sloan\'s (1882). Sec Phonography. \n\nThe Shorthand Society met . . . 1 Nov. 1S81 \n\nSig. A. Michela\'s stenographic machine for the \ngraphic representation of phonetic sounds (about \n200 words per minute) ; like a harmonium with a \nkey-hoard, exhibited at the Turin exhibition of \n1884, successfully adopted by the Italian Senate. \n\nInternational Shorthand Congress a1 the Geological \nMuseum, London, S.W. (482 systems noticed) \n26 Sept.-i Oct. 1887; others since ; Paris, 1S89; \nMunich, 1890 ; Berlin . \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x96\xa0 3oSept. 1891 \n\nSTEPHEN\'S CHAPEL, ST. (Westminster}, \nbuilt by kins Stephen, about 1135. It was rebuilt \nby Edward III. in 1347; aml b l lmu m:ldc a col_ \n\n\n\nSTEPNEY. \n\n\n\n922 \n\n\n\nSTIRRUPS. \n\n\n\nlegiate church, to which a clean and twelve secular \npriests were appointed. Soon after its surrender to \nEdward VI., about 1548, it was applied to the use of \nParliament ; see Parliament. It was destroyed by \nfire, 16 Oct. 1834. The Society of Antiquaries pub- \nlished memorials of it about 1810; and Mr. Mac- \nkenzie\'s work appeared in 1844. The restoration of \nthe beautiful crypt was complete in Jan. 1870. \n\n.STEPNEY, a parish, E. London, the Steben- \nhide_ of Domesday book. Edward I. summoned a \nparliament here, 1299. Stepney suffered severely \nby the plague, 1625 and 1665. Stepney-green was \nrestored and opened as a park by the Metropolitan \nBoard of "Works, Aug. 1872. Population, 1881, \n58,543 ; 1891, 57,599- \n\nSTEREOCHROMY, a mode of painting in \nwhich water-glass (an alkaline solution of flint, \nsilex) serves as the connecting medium between the \ncolour and the substratum. Its invention is ascribed \nto Von Fuchs, who died at Munich on 5 March, \n1856. Fine specimens of this art by Kaulbach and \nEchter exist in the Museum at Berlin, and also at \nMunich. \n\nSTEREOMETER, by which is compassed the \nart of taking the contents of vessels of liquids by \ngauging, invented about 1350. Anderson. M. Say\'s \nstereometer, for determining the specific gravity of \nliquids, porous bodies, and powders as well as solids, \nwas described in 1797. \n\nSTEREOSCOPE (from stereos, solid, and \nshopein, to see), an optical instrument for repre- \nsenting in apparent relief natural objects, &c., by \nuniting into one image two plane representations \nof these objects as seen by each eye separately. The \nfirst stereoscope by reflection was constructed and \nexhibited by professor Charles Wheatstone in 1838, \nwho had announced its principle in 1833. Since \n1854 stereoscopes have been greatly improved. \n\nSTEREOTYPE, a cast from a page of mov- \nable printing-types, so named by the Parisian \nprinter, Didot, 1798. It is said that stereotyping \nwas known in 1711. It was practised by fm. Ged \nof Edinburgh, about 1730. Some of Ged\'s plates \nare at the Koyal Institution, London. A Mr. James \nattempted to introduce Ged\'s process in London, \nbut failed, about 1735.* Nichols. Stereotype print- \ning was in use in Holland, in the last century ; and \na quarto Bible and a Dutch folio Bible were printed \nthere. Phillips. It was i-evived in London by \nWilson in 1804. Since 1850 the durability of stereo- \ntypes has been greatly increased by electrotyping \nthem with copper or silver. Stereotyping used for \nprinting the Times, 1856, et seq. \nIn the library of the Royal Institution is an edition of \nSallust, with this imprint: "Edinburgi, Gulielmus \nGed, ami faber Eclinensis, non typis mobilibus, ut \nvulgo fieri solet, seel tabellis seu laminis fusis, excude- \nbat. 1744." (Printed at Edinburgh by William Ged of \nEdinburgh, goldsmith, not with moveable types, as is \ncommonly done, but with cast tablets or plates.) \n\nSTERLING (money). Ducange says (1733), \n" Esterlingus, sterlingus, are English words re- \nlating to money, and hence familiar to other \nnations, and applied to the weight, quality, and \nkind of money." " Denarius Anglise, qui vocatur \nsterlingus," stat. Edw. I. (The penny of England, \nwhich is called sterling.) Camden derives the word \nfrom easterling or esterling, observing that the \nmoney brought from Germany, in the reign of \nRichard I., was the most esteemed on account of \nits purity, being called in old deeds u nummieaster- \n\n* It was hotly opposed by the journeymen printers. \n\n\n\nling." Others derive the word from the Easterlings, \nthe first moneyers in England. \n\nSTETHOSCOPE. In 1816 Laennec, of Paris, \nby rolling a quire of paper into a kind of cylinder, \nand applying one end to the patient\'s chest and the \nother to his own ear, perceived the action of the \nheart in a much more distinct manner than by the \nimmediate application of the ear. This led to his \ninventing the stethoscope, or "breast-explorer," \nthe principle of which, now termed "auscultation," \nwas known by Hippocrates (357 B.C.), and by \nRobert Hooke, 1681. \n\nSTETTIN (Pomerania), an ancient city, for- \nmerly held by the Sidini and Venedes, was taken \nby Boleslas of Poland in 1 121. After being con- \nquered by the Swedes, Russians, and French, it was \nawarded to Prussia in 1814. Population, 1890, \n116,239. \nVisited by emperor William during military manoeuvres, \n\n12 Sept. 1887. \n\nSTEWARD of England, Lord High. \n\nThe first grand officer of the crown. This office \nwas established prior to the reign of Edward the \nConfessor, and was formerly annexed to the lord- \nship of Hinckley, Leicestershire, belonging to the \nfamily of Montfort, earls of Leicester, who were, in \nright thereof, lord high stewards of England ; but \nSimon de Montfort, the last earl of this family, \nhaving raised a rebellion against his sovereign, \nHenry III., was attainted, and his estate forfeited \nto the king, who abolished the office, 1265. It is \nnow revived only pro hue vice, at a coronation, or \nthe trial of a peer. The first afterwards appointed \nwas Thomas, second son of Henry IV. The first for \nthe trial of a peer was Edward, earl of Devon, on \nthe arraignment of the earl of Huntingdon, in 1400. \nThe last was lord Denman at the trial of the earl of \nCardigan, 16 Feb. 1841. The duke of Hamilton \nwas lord high steward at the coronations of \nWilliam IV. 1831, and Victoria, 1838. \n\nSTEWARD of the Household, Lord \n(an ancient office), has the sole direction of the \nking\'s house below-stairs ; he has no formal grant \nof his office, but receives his charge from the \nsovereign in person, who, delivering to him a white \nwand, the symbol of his office, says, " Seneschal, \ntenez le baton de notre maison." This officer has \nbeen called lord steward since 1540 ; previously to \nthe 31st of Henry VIII. he was styled grand master \nof the household. His function as a judge was \nabolished in 1849. \n\nSTEWART, see Stuart. \n\nSTICKLESTADT (Norway) . Here Olaf II. , \naided by the Swedes, was defeated in his endeavours \nto recover his kingdom from Canute, king of Den- \nmark, and slain, 29 July, 1030. He was after- \nwards sainted, on account of his zeal for Christianity. \n\nSTIPENDIARY MAGISTRATES, see \n\nMagistrates. \n\nSTIRLING (S. Scotland). The strong castle \nwas taken by Edward I. of England, 1304. Here \nJames II. stabbed the earl of Douglas, 13 Feb. 1452, \nand here James VI. was crowned, 24 July, 1567. \nStirling surrendered to Monk, 14 Aug. 1651. The \nstatue of king Robert Bruce unveiled, 24 Nov. 1877. \nA gigantic bronze statue of sir William Wallace unveiled \n\nat the National Wallace Monument 25 June, 1887. \nPopulation, 1881, 16,013 ; 1891, 16,895. \n\nSTIRRUPS were unknown to the ancients. \nGracchus fitted the highways with stones to enable \n\n\n\nSTOCKACH. \n\n\n\n923 \n\n\n\nSTOCKS. \n\n\n\nthe horsemen to mount. Warriors had projections \non their spears for the same purpose. Stirrups \nwere used in the 5th century, but were not common \neven in the 12th. \n\nSTOCKACH, a town in Baden, near which \nthe Austrians, under the archduke Charles, de- \nfeated the French, 25 March, 1799; and Moreau \ndefeated Kray, 3 May, 1800. \n\nSTOCKHOLM, capital of Sweden (built on \nJiolmen, or islands), was fortified by Berger Jarl \nabout 1254. Here the Swedish nobility were mas- \nsacred by Christian II. in 1520 ; see Sweden. \nPopulation, 1887, 227,964; 1890, 246,154, \nPeace of Stockholm, between the king of Great \nBritain and the queen of Sweden, by which the \nformer acquired the duchies of Bremen and Ver- \nden as elector of Brunswick . . .20 Nov. 1719 \nTreaty of Stockholm, between Sweden and Kussia, \nin favour of the duke of Holstein-Gottorp, \n\n24 March, 1724 \nAnother between England and Sweden . 3 March, 1813 \nAud one between England, France, and Sweden, \n\n21 Nov. 1855 \n\nSTOCKINGS of silk are said to have been first \nworn by Henry II. of France, 1547. In 1560 queen \nElizabeth was presented with a pair of knit black \nsilk stockings, by her silk-woman, Mrs. Montague, \nand she never wore cloth ones any more. Howell. \nHe adds, " Henry VIII. wore ordinary cloth hose, \nexcept there came from Spain, by great chance, a \npair of silk stockings ; for Spain very early abounded \nwith silk." Edward VI. was presented with a pair \nof Spanish silk stockings by his merchant, sir \nThomas Gresham ; and the present was then much \ntaken notice of. Idem. Others relate that William \nEider, a London apprentice, seeing at the house of \nan Italian merchant a pair of knit worsted stockings \nfrom Mantua, made a pair like them, the first made \nin England, which he presented to the earl of Pem- \nbroke, 1564. Stoiv. The art of weaving stockings \nin a frame was invented in England by the rev. \nMr. Lee, of Cambridge, in 1589, twenty-five years \nafter he had leamt to knit them with wires or \nneedles. Cotton stockings were first made in 1 730 ; \nsee Cotton. Digitated stockings (like gloves), in- \ntroduced 1882. \n\nSTOCKPOET (in Cheshire) has become emi- \nnent on account of the cotton trade. Heaton \nNorris, in Lancashire, is united to it by a bridge \nover the river. Here the Manchester blanketeers \nwere dispersed, 11 March, 1817; and here was a \nserious religious riot, when two Bonian catholic \nchapels were destroyed, and the houses of many \nRoman catholics gutted, and their furniture and \nother contents smashed or burnt, 29 June, 1852. \n\nSTOCKS, in which drunkards were placed. \nThe last in London was removed from St. Clement \nDanes, Strand, 4 Aug. 1826. \n\nSTOCKS. The public funding system originated \nin Venice, about 1173, and was introduced into \nFlorence in 1340. The English funding system \nmay be said to nave had its rise in 1690. See Panics. \n\nThe Forged Transfer of Stock Act was passed \n\n5 Aug. 1891 \n"Bulls" are persons who buy stock and thus cause \n\nthe market to rise ; "Dears" those who sell and cause \n\nit to fall. \nAct to prevent stoch-juhbing passed March, 1734 ; \n\nrepealed i860 \n\nStockbrokers\' rents to the city of London abolished \n\n1884 ; came into effect .... Sept. 1886 \nThe foundation of the Stock Exchange, in Capel- \n\ncourt, the resilience of the lord mayor, sir Win, \n\nCapel, in 1504, was laid on 18 May, 1801. It was \n\nstated on the first stone that the public debt was \n\n\n\nthen 552,730,924?. Members, 1864, about 1100; \nabove 2000 in . . . . . . . . 187S \n\nThe memorable Stock Exchange hoax, for which ad- \nmiral lord Cochrane (afterwards lord Duudonald), \nJohnstone, and others, were convicted, 22 Feb. \n1814. Lord Cochrane was in consequence expelled \nthe house of commons. His innocence was after- \nwards proved, and he was restored to his rank by \nking William IV., and to the honours belonging \nto it by queen Victoria. \nStock-exchange coffee-house destroyed by fire, nFeb. 1816 \nRoyal Commission (lord Penzance, justice Black- \nburn, Mr. Spencer Walpole, and others) to ex- \namine into the constitution and management of \nthe London stock exchange, agreed to, 20 March, \n1877 ; report issued ; the majority recommend \nincorporation and other changes ; signed 31 July, 1878 \nThe number of stock-holders in 1840 amounted to \n\n337,48i. \nThree per cent, annuities created .... 1726 \n\nThree per cent, consols created 1731 \n\nThree per cent, reduced 1746 \n\nThree per cent annuities, payable at the South Sea- \nhouse 1751 \n\nThree-and-a-half per cent, annuities created . . 1758 \n\nLong annuities 1761 \n\nFour per cent consols 1762 \n\nFive per cent, annuities . . . 1797 and 1802 \nFive per cents, reduced to four .... 1822 \nOld four per cents, reduced to three-and-a-half in 1824 \nFurther reductions made in 1825, 1830, 1834, 1841, \nand 1844; the maximum being now three per cent. \nFurther reductions proposed by Mr. Gbsohen (2$ to \n2i in 15 years under specified conditions) 9 March ; \nnew threes all converted or paid off 6 April, i8S3 \n\nMessrs. Thomas and Co., bankrupts, for a large \n\namount, suspected frauds . . .31 Jan. 1834 \nThree per cents, convertible into 2J, and 2J per \n\ncent, by Act of 2 Sept., 1884. \nThe local loans stock exchangeable for the three \nper cents, consols created by the National Debt \nand Local Loans Act passed . . . 12 July, 1887 \n\nBy a return of the average price of the public funds \nby the Commissioners for the reduction of the \nnational debt, it appears that Consols (i. e., consoli- \ndated annuities, paying 3 per cent, per annum) \naveraged in the year \xe2\x80\x94 \n\n\n\n1749 \n\n\n. \xc2\xa3100 \n\n\n\n\n\n1815 \n\n\n\xc2\xa358 13 9 \n\n\n1780 \n\n\n. . . 63 \n\n\n13 6 \n\n\n1820 \n\n\n68 12 \n\n\n1785 \n\n\n6S \n\n\n6 6 \n\n\n1825 \n\n\n. 90 8 \n\n\n1790 \n\n\n. . 71 \n\n\n2 6 \n\n\n1S30 \n\n\n89 15 7 \n\n\n179s \n\n\n74 \n\n\n8 6 \n\n\n1840 \n\n\n. 89 17 6 \n\n\n1798 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 59 \n\n\n10 \n\n\n1845 \n\n\n93 2 6 \n\n\n1800 \n\n\n66 \n\n\n3 3 \n\n\n1848 \n\n\n. 86 15 \n\n\n1805 \n\n\n. . . 58 \n\n\n14 \n\n\n1850 \n\n\n96 10 \n\n\n1810 \n\n\n. . 67 \n\n\n16 3 \n\n\ni852(Dec. ioi?.ios.)99 12 6 \n\n\nThe \n\n\nwice of \xc2\xa3100 stock v: \n\n\niried \n\n\nLll \n\n\n1853, \n\n\nfrom \xc2\xa3101 to \n\n\n\xc2\xa390! \n\n\n1882, \n\n\naverage iooJ June iooj \n\n\n1854, \n\n\n\xe2\x80\x9e 96 ,, \n\n\n85? \n\n\n1883, \n\n\n\xe2\x80\x9e ioiyst ;, 100J \n\n\n1855, \n\n\n,, 93! >, \n\n\n86 1 \n\n\n1884, \n\n\nhighest 102J ; lowest, \n\n\n1856, \n\n\n., 96J ,, \n\n\n87S \n\n\n3 1 \n\n\nDec. 98 J-;;. \n\n\n1857. \n\n\n95i \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n86J \n\n\n1S85, \n\n\naverage . . 99J \n\n\n1858, \n\n\n98t \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n94 \n\n\n1886, \n\n\n\xe2\x80\x9e ioot;i3May, \n\n\n1859, \n\n\n97s ., \n\n\n89, \n\n\n(hi \n\n\nghest price recorded) \n\n\n1861, \n\n\n,, 94i ,, \n\n\n89I \n\n\n10- \n\n\ni- \n\n\n1862, \n\n\n94i >\xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n9\xc2\xb0\xc2\xbb \n\n\ni88 7 ; \n\n\naverage . . . 101 -J \n\n\n1863, \n\n\n94 >> \n\n\n90 \n\n\n\n\nNYw Consols (:\'D \n\n\n1864, \n\n\n\xe2\x80\x9e 91? >> \n\n\n87* \n\n\n1888, \n\n\n9 June . . 99! \n\n\n1865, \n\n\n8 7 3 \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\nS6V \n\n\n\n\nAverage - \n\n\n1866, \n\n\naverage 88 June 86} \n\n\n1889, \n\n\n2 Jan. 99\'-; ; 28 June \n\n\n1867, \n\n\n93 \xc2\xbb \n\n\n94* \n\n\n981 \n\n\n\n\n1868, \n\n\n>, 934 1 \n\n\n94\xc2\xa7 \n\n\n\n\nAverage 98. \n\n\n1869, \n\n\n., 92J > \n\n\n925 \n\n\n1S90, \n\n\n2 Jan. . . 07I \n5 Feb. . . . 97J \n\n\n1870, \n\n\nn 9 2 \xc2\xbb , \n\n\n92! \n\n\n\xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n1871, \n\n\n92f , \n,. 92i , \n\n\n92 \n\n\n,, \n\n\n6 March . . 97^ \n\n\n1872, \n\n\n925 \n\n\n,, \n\n\n10 April . . 98 \n\n\n1873, \n\n\n.. 9zi . \n\n\n\') \'! \n\n\n,, \n\n\n2 May . . 98 \n\n\n1874, \n\n\n,, 92^ , \n\n\n928 \n\n\n,, \n\n\n5 June . . . 97.J \n\n\n1875. \n\n\n\xc2\xbb 93* . \n\n\n93, \n\n\n,, \n\n\n3 July . . 963 \n\n\n1876, \n\n\n.. 95 \n\n\n94l \n\n\n,, \n\n\n7 Aug. . . . 96 \n\n\n1S77, \n\n\n953 . \n\n\n94* \n\n\n,, \n\n\n4 Sept . . 95S \na Oct . . . 94I \nfi Nov. . . 943 \n\n\n1878, \n\n\n95,: ; , \n\n>> 97* , \n\n\n955 \n\n\n,, \n\n\n1879, \n\n\n97l \n\n\n,1 \n\n\n1880, \n\n\n98J , \n\n\n98* \n\n\n\xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n. (Baring \n\n\n1881, \n\n\ni) 100 > \n\n\n100J \n\n\n\n\ndifficulty) . 93; \n\n\n\nSTOICS. \n\n\n\n\n9 \n\n\nq6 \n\n\ni8qi \n\n\n1 Oct. \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 94J \n\n\n7S* \n\n\n,, \n\n\n5 Nov. . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 94* \n\n\n97s \n\n\n\xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n3 Dec. \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 95 , \n\n\nQ6 \n\n\n1892 \n\n\n7 Jan. . \n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 95s \n\n\n96* \n\n\n,, \n\n\n4 Feb. \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 955 \n\n\nQS# \n\n\n,, \n\n\n3 Marcli \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 95l \n\n\n945 \n\n\n,, \n\n\n1 April \n\n\n. 96* \n\n\nQb \n\n\n,, \n\n\nS May . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 97s- \n\n\nQ6 \n\n\n,, \n\n\n2 June \n\n\n. 96* \n\n\n95 \n\n\n,i \n\n\n1 July, 4 Aug. \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 97 \n\n\n\n924 \n\n\n\nSTOEMS. \n\n\n\n1090 \n\n\n4 Dec. \n\n\ni8qi \n\n\n2 Jan. . \n\n\n\n\n5 Feb. \n\n\n,, \n\n\n5 Marcli \n\n\n,, \n\n\n2 April \n\n\n,, \n\n\n7 May . \n\n\n,, \n\n\n4 June \n\n\n\xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n2 July . \n\n\n,, \n\n\n6 Aug. \n\n\n\xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n3 Sept, . \n\n\n\n"During the greatest crisis ever developed in the \nhistory of the world the funds remain day after day \nwithout a fractional movement." Times, 11 Oct. 1870. \n\nPurchase of stock for 10I. legalised, 1880. \n\nH. C. Burdett\'s "Official Intelligence of British, \nAmerican, and Foreign Securities," published under the \nsanction of the Stock Exchange Committee,. 1882 et seq. \n\nSTOICS, disciples of Zeno, the philosopher \n(about 29b B.C.) ; obtained the name because they \nlistened to his instructions in a porch (Greek, stoa) \nat Athens. Zeno taught, that man\'s supreme hap- \npiness consisted in living agreeably to nature and \nreason, and that God was the soul of the world. \nStanley. \n\nSTOKE, EAST (near Newark, Nottingham- \nshire). Near here, on 16 June, 1487, the adherents \nof Lambert Simnel, who personated Edward, earl \nof Warwick, and claimed the crown, were defeated \nby Henry VII. John de la Pole, the earl of \nLincoln, and most of the leaders, were slain. \nSimnel was afterwards employed in the king\'s \nhousehold. \n\nSTONE. Stone buildings erected in England by \nBenedict Biscop about 670. A stone bridge built at \nBow, in the nth or 12th centuries, is accounted the \nfirst ; but a bridge exists at Crowland, which is said \nto have been built in 860 ; see Bridges. The first \nstone building in Ireland was probably a round \ntower ; see Building. Stone china-ware was made \nby Wedgwood in 1762. Artificial stone for statues \nwas manufactured by a Neapolitan, and introduced \ninto England, 1776. Stone paper was made in \n1776; see Ransomets Artificial Stone, and Lit hotomy. \nFor stone implements, see Flints, and Piano-forte. \nAn orchestra composed of wind instruments made of \nterra-cotta appeared in London in 1874. \n\nSTONEHENGE (on Salisbury Plain, Wilt- \nshire) is said to have been erected on the counsel of \nMerlin, by Aurelius Ambrosius, in memory of 460 \nBritons, who were murdered by Hengist the Saxon \nabout 450. Geoffrey of Monmouth. Erected as a \nsepulchral monument of Ambrosius, 500. Polydore \nVergil. An ancient temple of the Britons, in which \nthe Druids officiated. Dr. StuJceley. The Britons \nare said to have held annual meetings at Abury and \nStonehenge, when laws were made and justice \nadministered. The cursus near Stonehenge was \ndiscovered by Dr. Stukeley, 6 Aug. 1723. The \norigin aud object of these remains are still very \nobscure. See AV. M. Flinders Petrie\'s " Stone- \nhenge : Plans, Description, and Theories." 1880. \nThe thorough preservation of Stonehenge strongly \n\nadvocated Aug. 1886. \n\nSTONEWALL BEIGADE, see United \nStates, 1862, note. \n\nSTOEM-WAENINGS, see under Meteor- \nology. \n\nSTOEMS, sec Meteorology, Cyclones, and \nWaterspouts. The following are recorded : \xe2\x80\x94 \nIn London a storm raged which destroyed 1500 houses, \n\n944- \nIn several parts of England, the sky being very dark, \n\nthe wind coming from the S.W. ; many churches were \n. destroyed ; and in London 500 houses fell, 5 Oct. 1091. \n\n\n\nOn the coast of Calais, when Hugh de Beauvais and \n\nseveral thousand foreigners, on their voyage to assist \n\nking John against the barons, perished, 1215- Holiu- \n\nshed. \n\nIt thundered 15 days successively, with tempests of rain \n\nand wind, 1233. \nStorm with violent lightnings ; one flash passed through \na chamber where Edward I. and his queen were con- \nversing, did them no damage, but killed two of their \nattendants, 1285. Hoveden. \nViolent storm of hail near Chartres, in France, which \nfell on the army of Edward III. then on its march. \nThe hail was so large that the army and horses suffered \nvery much, and Edward was obliged to conclude a \npeace, 1339. Matt. Paris. \nWhen Richard II. \'s queen came from Bohemia, on her \nsetting foot on shore an awful storm arose, and her \nship and a number of others were dashed to pieces in \nthe harbour, Jan. 1382. Holinshed. \nRichard\'s second queen also brought a storm with her to \nthe English coasts, in which the king\'s baggage was \nlost, and many ships cast away, 1396. Holinshed. \nHurricane, throughout Europe, which did very con- \nsiderable damage, on 3 Sept. 1658, the day that \nCromwell died. Mortimer. \nStorm on east coast of England : 200 colliers and coasters \n\nlost, with most of their crews, 1696. \nThe " Great Storm," one of the most terrible that ever \nraged in England. The devastation on land was im- \nmense ; and in the harbours and on the coasts the loss \nin shipping and in lives was still greater, 26-27 Nov. \n1703. The loss sustained in London alone was calcu- \nlated at 2,ooo,oooL sterling. The number of persons \ndrowned in the floods of the Severn and Thames, and \nlost on the coast of Holland, and in ships blown from \ntheir anchors and never heard of afterwards, is thought \nto have been 8000. Twelve men-of-war, with more than \n1800 men on board, were lost within sight of their \nown shore. Trees were torn up by the roots, 17,000 \nof them in Kent alone. The Eddystone light-house \nwas destroyed, and in it the ingenious contriver of it, \nWinstanley, and the persons who were with him. The \nBishop of Bath and Wells and his lady were killed in \nbed in their palace in Somersetshire. Multitudes of \ncattle were also lost : in one level 15,000 sheep \nwere drowned. \nSnow-storm in Sweden, when 7000 Swedes, it is said, \nperished upon the mountains, in their march to attack \nDrontheim, 1719. \nOne in India, when many hundreds of vessels were cast \naway, a fleet of Indiamen greatly damaged, and some \nships lost, and 30,000 persons perished, 11 Oct. 1737. \nDreadful hurricane at the Havannah : many public \nedifices and 4048 houses were destroyed, and 1000 \ninhabitants perished, 25 Oct. 1768. \nAwful storm in the north of England, in which many \nvessels were destroyed, and four Dublin packets \nfoundered, 29 Oct. 1775. \nOne at Surat, in the East Indies ; destroyed 7000 of the \n\ninhabitants, 22 April, 1782. \nOne hundred and thirty-one villages and farms laid waste \n\nin France, 1785. \nOne general throughout Great Britain : several hundred \n\nsail of shipping destroyed or damaged, 6 Oct. 1794. \nOne which did vast damage in London, and throughout \n\nalmost the whole of England, 8 Nov. 1800. \nA tremendous storm throughout Great Britain and \nIreland, by which immense damage was done, and \nmany ships wrecked, 16-17 Dec, 1814. \nAn awful gale, by which a great number of vessels were \nlost, and much damage was done to the shipping in \ngeneral on the English coast, 31 Aug. 1816. \nDreadful hurricane, ravaged the- Leeward Islands, from \nthe 20th to the 22nd Sept. 1819. At the island of \nSt. Thomas alone, 104 vessels were lost. \nGreat storm along the coast from Durham to Cornwall ; \n\nmany vessels lost, Nov. 1821. \nIn Ireland, particularly in the vicinity of Dublin, many \nhouses were thrown down, and vast numbers unroofed, \n12 Dec. 1822. \nAwful storm on the coast of England : many vessels lost, \nand 13 driven ashore and wrecked in Plymouth alone, \n12-13 J an . 182S. \nAt Gibraltar, where more than 100 vessels were de- \nstroyed, 18 Feb. 1828. \nDreadful storm at the Cape of Good Hope, where \n\nimmense property was lost, 16 July, 1831. \nA hurricane visited London and its neighbourhood, \n\n\n\nSTOKMS. \n\n\n\n92.5 \n\n\n\nSTOEMS. \n\n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0which did great damage to the buildings, but without \n\nthe destruction of human life, though many serious \n\naccidents occurred, 28 Oct. 1838. \nAwful hurricane on west coast of England, and in \n\nIreland. The storm raged through Cheshire, Stafford- \nshire, and Warwickshire ; 20 persons were killed in \n\nLiverpool, by the falling of buildings, and 100 were \n\ndrowned in the neighbourhood ; the coasts and har- \nbours were covered with wrecks, the value of two of \n\nthe vessels lost being nearly half-a-million sterling. \n\nIn Limerick, Galway, Athlone, and other places, more \n\nthan 200 houses were blown down, and as many more \n\nwere burnt, the winds spreading the fires. Dublin \n\nsuffered dreadfully ; London and its neighbourhood \n\nscarcely sustained any damage, 6-7 Jan. 1839. \n[The winter of 1852-3 (Dec. and Jan.) was oneof storms, \n\nmany of which were very destructive.] \nGreat storm in the Black Sea, 13-16 Nov. 1854, causing \n\nmuch loss of life, shipping, and stores sent for the \n\nallied armies in the Crimea. \nGreat storm on N. coast of Europe, &c, 31 Dec. 1854. \nGreat storm on N.E. coast of Scotland ; 42 fishermen \n\nlost, 23 Nov. 1857. \nDreadful storm on the night 25-26 Oct. ; the Royal \n\nCharter totally lost, and many other vessels ; another \n\nstorm, 31 Oct. and 1 Nov. 1859. \nGreat storm in the channel, causing much loss of life \n\nand property, 1 Jan. i860. \nDreadful gales, doing much mischief, 26, 27, 28 Feb. ; \n\n28 May ; and 2 June, i860. \nGreat storm ; part of the Crystal Palace blown down ; \n\nChichester cathedral steeple fell, 20-21 Feb. 1861. \nGreat storm on British coasts, 143 wrecks, 28 May, 1861. \nStorm on the north-east ; 50 wrecks, 13-14 Nov. 1861. \nAt Market Laverton, &c. ; much damage to crops by \n\nhail, 2 Sept. 1862. \nStorm on British coasts ; many wrecks, 19, 20 Oct. 1862. \nThere were severe gales, doing much damage, and loss of \n\nlife, 19 Jan. <fcc. 1863 ; and 14 Jan. <fec. 1865 (see under \n\nWrecks). \nDreadful hurricane in the Indian Ocean, &c. (see \n\nCalcutta), 5 Oct. 1864. \nHurricane at Lisbon, causes much damage, worst for \n\nmany years, 13 Dec. 1864. \nSevere gales ; many vessels and lives lost (see Wrecks), \n\n6-1 1 Jan. 1866; 2-4 Dec. 1867; 22 Jan. and 31 Jan. and \n\n1 Feb. 1868: 11-12 Sept. 1869. \nSevere storm ; much damage ; barometer very low, \n\n24 Jan. 1872. \nAfter several days\' intense heat, violent storms, and \n\ndeluges of rain in midland and southern counties ; \n\nseveral persons killed, 24-26 June, 1872. \nVery stormy in July and August, 1872. \nViolent gale ; much destruction (wind, greatest velocity \n\n57 miles an hour), 8 Dec. 1872. \nAwful storms in Scotland, and N. England ; loss of life, \n\nand much damage, 22, 23 July ; in Lancashire and \n\nYorkshire, 16 Dec. 1873. \nAwful storm, N. E. London ; several persons killed ; \n\nchurches and buildings fired ; railways flooded, 11 \n\nJuly, 1874. \nViolent gales, with destruction of life and property, 21 \n\nOct. ; Nov. 29 ; 7, 8, 10, 11 Dec. 1874. \nMuch destruction by typhoon at Macao, Hong Kong, &c, \n\n22 Sept. 1874. \nSevere snowstorms in Scotland, several lives lost, 1, 3 \n\nJan. 1875. \nDestructive storms at Buda-Pesth, about 200 killed, \n\n26 June, 1875. \nOn coast of Texas : Galveston, and other places much \n\ninjured ; villages washed away by the sea; great loss \n\nof life, 15-18 Sept. 1875. \nSevere snowstorm, south England ; destruction of life \n\nand property ; telegraph wires broken, 12 March, 1875. \nSevere storms ; great loss of shipping, 11-13 Nov. ; 2, 3, \n\nand 22-24 L> cc - \'876, and 2 Jan. 1877. \nMost violent gale ; great destruction of property on land \n\nand shipping throughout England, with loss of life, \n\n14, 15 Oct. 1877. \nAgain ; much damage on S.E. coast, &c, 24, 25 Nov. \n\n1877. \nStorm and heavy rain in London; inundations, 10, 11 \n\nApril, 1878. \nMany thunderstorms, destroying life and property in \n\nEngland, Aim. 1878. \nAt Kew and neighbourhood, 2, 3 Aug. ; in Cheshire and \n\nWales, 16, 17 Aug. 1879. \n\n\n\n% lolent gale ; Tay bridge {which see) blown down, 28 Dec \n\n1879. \nDestructive tornadoes, <fcc., western states North Ame- \nrica; great loss of life and property, about 18 April \n\n1880. * \n\nMany thunderstorms in England, Julv, 1880. \nSevere storms in England, with much" destruction by in- \nundations, 27, 28 Oct. 1880. \nSevere snowstorm, or blizzard ; railways and other traffic \n\nlargely stopped ; great loss of life at sea, 17-21 Jan. 1881 \nViolent hurricane in England: great destruction of life \n\nand property : houses thrown down or unroofed ; lar<*e \n\ntrees torn up by the roots ; telegraph wires and poles \n\nblown down; about 130 wrecks (105 British), &c. 14- \n\n19 Oct. 1881. \nMany wrecks on south and west coasts of England with \n\nmuch loss of life, 19-20 Oct. 1881. \nGreat destruction of life and property by gales 26 27 \n\nNov. 1881. \' \' \n\nLighthouse, Calf Rock, in Bantry Bay destroyed, 27 Nov. \n\n1881. \nSix men left on the rock got off, 9 Dec. 1881. \nBy a typhoon in Haifong, &c, China, about 300,000 per- \nsons perished, 8 Oct. 1881. \nDestructive gales in England, &e. ; many wrecks and less \n\nof life by sea and land, 17-21 Dec. 1881. \nSevere gale ; much destruction in England and Scotland, \n\n6 Jan. ; another, 29 April, 1882. \nTornado in Iowa, .fee., Grinnell and other towns nearly \n\ndestroyed ; great loss of life, about 16 June, etseq., 18S2. \nViolent gales with damage, 22, 23 Aug.; 24 Oct. 1S82 ; 26, \n\n27, 28 Jan., 10 Feb., 6 March, 1883. \nTornadoes in southern states, U.S.A., about 150 killed, \n\nApril, 1883. \nViolent gale in British channel, &c.; many wrecks, 1-2 \n\nSept. 1883. \nDestructive gale on the Scotch and Irish coasts, 26 Sept. \n\n1883. \nAnother with great loss of life and damage in London \n\nand other parts of Britain, morning, 12 Dec. 1883. \nViolent S.W. gales; destruction of" life and property: \n\n23-24 Jan. 1884 ; very severe ; many disasters, 26, 27 \n\nJan. 1884. \nTornadoes in southern states, U.S.A. ; about 600 killed \n\nabout 18 Feb. 1884. \nStorm in Catania, Sicily (see Sicily), 7 Oct. 1884. \nDestructive snowstorms in Piedmont (see Italy), 16 Jan. \n\net seq. 1885. \nHeavy storms on the Labrador coast, about 80 craft \n\nwrecked and about 300 lives lost 12-15 Oct. 1885. \nStorm off Colon, Panama, 15 vessels wrecked, 50 lives \n\nlost 2 Dec. 1885. \nHeavy snowstorm, N.E. England, &c. ; locomotion \n\nstopped 1, 2, 3 March, 1886. \nDestructive hurricane at Madrid, 32 lives lost, 320 \n\nwounded 12 May, 1886. \nDestructive tornadoes in S. Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, \n\n&c, U.S.A. 12-15 May, 1S86. \nViolent storm N.E. France, much damage at Rheims, \n\nNancy, &c. 10 Aug. 1886. \nHurricane at St. Vincent; great loss of life and \n\nproperty 16 Aug. 1886. \nViolent gale in Texas, &c, causing inundation, above 250 \n\npersons drowned, 12 Oct. 18S6. \nSevere gale ; very destructive on sea and land (see \n\nWreclx) 15-16 net. 1886. \nDestructive gale and storm, especially in S. & W. \n\nEngland ; many wrecks and hiss of life 8, 9 Dec. 1886 \n\n(see under Lift bo it). \nDestructive snowstorm, specially E. and S. England; \n\nmany wrecks ; telegraphic and railway communications \n\nstopped ; trees blown down, &c, 26-27 Dec. 1886. \nDestructive hurricane at Bordeaux and 8. Prance with \n\nlos - of life 16 Aug. 1887. \n\nViolenl thunderstorm in London with destruction of \nproperty, several persons lulled, about 5.30 p.m.; \nlasted about 4 hours 17 Aug. ; many storms thro \nout the country. 1; Air:. 1 \' 7. 1887. \n\n\\Y. gale ; destruction of life and property in France, the \nchannel, and s. England 30 Oct. , another gale on the \n\nW. coast, destruction at Holyhead, Liver] 1 and in \n\nthe Bristol channel 31 Oct. 1 Nov. : another gale on \nthe S.E. coast, s Nov. 1SS7. \n\nSnowstorm (blizzard) in N.W. "!\' United states; about. \n235 persons perish and much cattle n-13 Jan. ; \n.\' 1 her iii New Jforlt 6 Jan, 1 388. \n\nCycl in Illinois. I .s.A. ; n it destruction of life and \n\nproperty ig Fi b. 1S88. \n\n\n\nSTOEMS. \n\n\n\n926 \n\n\n\nSTORTHING. \n\n\n\nViolent gale ; several wrecks and loss of life, 9-1 1 March, \n\n1888. \nA destructive blizzard from the N.W. desolated the \n\neastern coast of United States ; communication \n\nbetween New York, Philadelphia and Boston sus- \npended ; many wrecks ; great loss of life (about 400) \n\nand property ; food at famine prices n-13 March, \n\n1888. \nTown of Ninneseah in Kansas destroyed by a gale 27 \n\nMarch, 1888. \nGreat storm and a tidal wave, much destruction, near \n\nWellington, New Zealand 28 March, 1888. \nDestructive hurricane in Dacca, N.E. India ; about 69 \n\npersons killed 7 April, 1888. \nGreat storm in Ontario and Quebec, many persons killed \n\nby lightning and fright, estimated loss in Quebec, \n\n1,500,000 dollars 16 Aug. 1888. \nDestructive cyclone in the West Indies (Cuba, &c), 4 \n\nSept. 1888. \nDestructive gale ; Scotland, N. England and Ireland ; \n\nmany shipwrecks ; Forth bridge damaged, 15-16 \n\nNov. 1888. \nSevere storm on the N. American E. coast ; more than \n\n50 vessels wrecked and about 45 lives lost 25 Nov. \n\n1888. \nTornado in eastern states U.S., especially in Pennsyl- \nvania ; great destruction and loss of life in about 200 \n\nmiles, especially at Pittsburg (14 killed) and at \n\nBeading (24 killed), through collapse of a silk-mill ; \n\nsuspension-bridge, Niagara, wrecked 9 Jan. 1889. \nDestructive gales over Britain ; wrecks and loss of life \n\n2, 3, 8 Feb. 1889. \nViolent hurricane in the Pacific (see Samoan Isles) 15, 16 \n\nMarch, 1889. \nDestructive storm on the east coast of the United States \n\n10 May, 1889. \nGreat storm in South Germany, especially in Austria, \n\nBohemia, &c, great loss of life and property, 17 \n\nMay ; in Switzerland 3-4 June, 1889. \nDestructive storm, Flintshire, Cheshire and Lancashire ; \n\nheavy rain and large hail causing floods, crops much \n\ninjured, buildings struck and fired 2 June, 1889. \nGreat storms over the United Kingdom ; wrecks with \n\nloss of life, 21 Aug. and 5-7 Oct. 1889. \nEasterly gales on the Atlantic coast ; wrecks with loss \n\nof life off Long Island, New Jersey, &c, 11-12 Sept. \n\n1889. \nsg vessels wrecked in Delaware Bay, about 31 lives lost, \n\n13 Sept. 1889. \nGreat storm in Sardinia (which see), 7 Oct. 1S89. \nDestructive storm on the coast of Carolina, 26, 27 Oct. \n\n1889. \nDestructive storms in the Western States, U.S.A., 12 \n\nJan. ; in Canada, 14 Jan. 1890. \nDestructive gale with loss of life in the Atlantic and on \n\nBritish coast, especially S. and S.W., high tides and \n\nfloods, 17-27 Jan. 1890. \nDestructive storm on the continent from Paris to Vienna, \n\n23, 24 Jan. 1890. \n[68 British wrecks and 67 lives lost in Jan. 1890.] \nTornadoes in the Ohio valley, from Cincinnati to Cairo ; \n\nvery great destruction at Louisville, where about 93 \n\npersons perish ; many places in Illinois, Missouri and \n\nIndiana, suffer greatly ; total loss of life about 175, \n\n27 March, 1890. \nCyclone in Texas, much destruction, 15 persons killed, \n\n4 May, 1890. \nTornado in Lee county, Illinois, 15 deaths, 20 June, \n\n1890. \nGreat cyclone at Muscat, causing floods, about 700 per- \nsons said to have perished, reported 9 July, 1890. \nTerrible cyclone in Minnesota (which see), July, 1890. \nDestructive cyclone at Sloiiim, Russia, 19 lives lost, 20 \n\nJuly, 1890. \nCyclone in south Lawrence, Merrimac valley, Massa- \nchusetts, 100 buildings destroyed, 9 deaths, 26 July, \n\n1890. \nDestructive storms in Austria, France, Switzerland and \n\nin the United States, August, 1890. \nViolent gale over Great Britain and Ireland, great \n\ndestruction of life and property, especially at sea ; \n\n114 lives saved by lifeboats ; viscount Cantelupe \n\ndrowned and his yacht wrecked in Belfast Lough, 7 \n\nNov. 1890. \nViolent N.W. gale in the channel, several wrecks on the \n\nS. coast, 23 Nov. 1890. \nViolent gales throughout Europe (see l7iundations), 23- \n\n25 Nov. 1890. \n\n\n\nGale in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 40 vessels said to be \nwrecked, reported 3 Dec. ; much destruction of ship- \nping and buildings, Newfoundland, reported 8 Dec. \n1890. \n\nViolent storms in the N. Atlantic, above 60 vessels lost, \nreported, 24 Dec. 1890. \n\nViolent blizzard in Nebraska, South Dakota, &c, U.S.A., \nmany perished, 7 Feb. et seq. 1891. \n\nDestructive cyclone over the Fiji and Navigation Isles, \ngreat loss of life and shipping, 12, 13 Feb. 1891. \n\nAnother blizzard in Minnesota, Iowa, Illinois and Wis- \nconsin, 8, 9 March, 1891. \n\nGreat snow storm, or blizzard, throughout England, \nespecially in the south and west ; railway traffic, post \nand telegraph greatly impeded, in some places \ntotally stopped ; many wrecks and loss of life in the \nchannel ; hurricanes near Dover and Plymouth ; \nwrecks of fishing boats at Hastings and other places. \nThe Victoria (capt. Shirley) had a long dangerous pas- \nsages from Dover to Calais. Great Western and \nSouth- Western railways disorganized ; 14 ships lost ; \nabout 60 lives lost, 9-13 March, 1891. \n\nDestructive cyclone in S. Dakota, 2 June, 1891. \n\nBy a cyclone, the village of Ponikwa in Galicia de- \nstroyed and about 30 persons killed, 10 June, 1891. \n\nDestructive storm in Iowa, Minnesota, and other states, \nabout 24 June, 1891. \n\nDestructive storm and cloud-burst in the Rhine pro- \nvinces, 26 June ; and over a large part of Germany, \nchiefly in the Crefeld district and in Brunswick, 1 \nJuly ; Salzburg, 9 July, 1891. \n\nDestructive storm at Baton Rouge, Louisiana, with loss \nof life, 6 July, 1891. \n\nViolent hurricane and rain in lower Austria, Moravia, \nand Upper Hungary ; the season\'s vintage destroyed, \n5 Aug. 1891. \n\nCloud-burst at Kollmann, between Botzen and Brixen \n(Tyrol), the lowlands flooded, about 60 deaths, 18 \nAug. 1 89 1. \n\nDestructive storms and floods in Great Britain, espe- \ncially on the N.W. coast, 24-26 Aug. 1891. \n\nDestructive storm off Nova Scotia, about 20 vessels \nwrecked, with loss of life, about 9 Sept. 1891. \n\nGreat storm throughout S. Spain (which sec), n-13 Sept. \n1891. \n\nViolent storms with loss of life in midland and northern \nEnglish counties, and parts of Scotland, 20, 21 Sept. \n1891. \n\nViolent cyclone over the British Isles ; much destruc- \ntion of houses, shipping, trees, &c. ; moderate loss of \nlife, 13-15 Oct. 1891. \n\nSevere storm on the S. and W. coasts of England, and in \nSpain and S. France, 22-24 Oct. 1891. \n\nDestructive cyclone in the bay of Bengal, <fec., with loss \nof life (see Andaman Islands and Wrecks), 2 Nov. 1891. \n\nDestructive gale in England, especially on the S. and W. \ncoasts ; many wrecks, with loss of life, off Sandgate, \nDover, Folkestone, St. Leonards, Brighton, &c. ; \ntelegraphic communication greatly suspended 10 \n(night), 11 Nov. 1891. \n\nGreat damage by the gale at Boulogne, Paris, Havre, \nRoubaix, Rouen, Bilbao, Madrid, and other places, \n11 Nov. et seq. 1891. \n\nViolent gale at Liverpool and on the Irish coasts, with \nloss of life, 11 Nov. 1891. \n\nViolent gales in the channel, causing wrecks and loss of \nlife, 7-11 Dec. 1891. \n\nViolent gales, causing wrecks and loss of life in the \nEnglish Channel and France, 8, 9 Dec, over N.W. \nEurope and the British Isles, 10-13 Dec. 1891. \n\nViolent blizzard in Omaha and other N.W. states, U. S. A. \n26 Dec. 1891. \n\nDestructive cyclone in Georgia, 6 Jan. 1892. \n\nDisastrous blizzard in Wisconsin, Minnesota, and North \nDakota, 9, 10 March, 1892. \n\nDestructive tornado in the N.W. states, U.S.A., above \n30 persons killed, 31 March. 1892. \n\nDisastrous hurricane in Mauritius (which see), 29 April, \n1892. \n\nDestructive storms in Minnesota, &c, and in Canada, \nwith great loss of life, 15, 16, June, 1892. \n\nSee United States and Pennsylvania, 1889. \n\nSTORTHING, the Norwegian parliament, \nsaid to have been, first held at Bergen by Haco "V. \nin 1223. \n\n\n\nSTOVES. \n\n\n\n927 \n\n\n\nSTEATHCLUYD. \n\n\n\nSTOVES. The ancients used stoves which \nconcealed the fire, as the German stoves yet do. \nThey lighted the fire also in a large tube in the \nmiddle of the room, the roof being open. Apart- \nments were warmed by portable braziers. Stoves \non this old principle, improved, continue in use in \nmany houses and public establishments in England, \nand generally on the continent. Dr. Franklin and \ncount Eumford (who invented a stove) pointed out \nthe waste of fuel in our open fires ; and Dr. Neil \nAmott patented his " improvements in the produc- \ntion and agency of heat," 14 Nov. 182 1. Dr. C. \nWilliam Siemens described his smokeless stove in \n\'\xe2\x96\xa0\'\xe2\x96\xa0Nature\'" for 11 Nov. 1880. See Chimneys, and \nCottager\' s Stove. \nMr. T. Pridgin Teale publishes his inventions, in which \n\nhe revives the principles of count Rumford with \n\nadditions, 1885-6. \n\nSTOWMAEKET EXPLOSION, see Gun- \nCotton, 187 1. \n\nSTEAIGHT-OUT DEMOCEATS, a party \nwhich advocated limiting the powers of a govern- \nment to police purposes arose in the United States \nof America in 1872, and nominated Charles O\'Connor \nfor the presidency. A state convention was con- \nvoked to meet at Harrisburg, 16 Oct. 1872. \n\nSTEAITS SETTLEMENTS, including \nMalacca, Penang or Prince of Wales island, and \nSingapore, secured to Great Britain in 1824, were \nmade a separate dependency in 1853, and placed \nunder the governor-general of India. They were \nseparated from India, and constituted an indepen- \ndent settlement by an act passed 10 Aug. 1866, \nwhich took effect April, 1867. Governor, sir Harry \nSt. George Ord, 1867 ; sir Andrew Clarke, 1873 ; \nsir William F. D. Jervois, Oct. 1875 ; sir W. C. F. \nEobinson, 1877 ! & 1 Frederick A. Weld, 1880 ; sir \nCecil Clementi-Smith, Aug. 1887. Population, \n1891, 506,577. \n\nSingapore, the capital, founded by sir T. Stamford \nRaffles in 1819, who compiled the constitution, \nlaws, &c. \nTraders complained to Sir H. Ord, governor, who \n\nsaid they must submit to their risks . . . 1872 \nSir Andrew Clarke made a treaty establishing Ab- \ndullah as sultan in place of Ismail, and a \nBritish resident as his adviser, with plenary \n\npowers at Perak Jan. 1874 \n\nMr. J. W. Birch, the resident, issues a proclama- \ntion, 1 Nov. ; is suddenly attacked and killed, \n\n2 Nov. 1875 \n\nThe Malays rise, and besiege the residency, which \n\nis relieved by Capt. Innes, 6 Nov. He is killed in \n\nattacking a stockade . . . .15 Nov. ,, \n\nThe Malays thoroughly defeated by troops from \n\nHong Kong and Calcutta, under Gen. Colborne, \n\n7 and 22 Dec. ,, \nKinti taken ; Ismail retreats . . . 17 Dec. ,, \nBritish power supreme at Perak . . .27 Dec. ,, \nMajor Hawkins killed in an ambuscade ; the village \n\nburnt 4 Jan. 1876 \n\nIsmail surrenders, about 21 March; Birch\'s assassin \n\nhanged 20 May, ,, \n\nGreat prosperity of the settlement reported, Aug. 1884 \nSecret societies successfully suppressed by the \n\ngovernor, reported .... June, 1890 \n\nFive prosperous protected states on the Malay \n\npeninsula are subject to the governor . . . 1891 \nThe neighbouring state of Pahang was much dis- \nturbed by turbulent miners and others in Dec. \n1891 at seq. Order only restored by the help of \nthe British .... Dec. 1891\xe2\x80\x94 July 1892 \nSubstitution of the British rale for that of the \nsultan proposed July, ,, \n\nSTEALSUND(Pomerania), a strongly fortified \nHanse-town, built about 1230. It resisted a fierce \nsiege by Wallenstein in 1628; was taken by Frede- \nrick William, of Brandenburg, in 1678; restored to \n\n\n\nthe Swedes, 1679 ; re-captured by the Prussians and \ntheir allies, Dec. 1 7 15. It surrendered to the French \nunder Brune, 20 Aug. 1807 > was awarded to Prussia, \n1815. \n\nSTEAND (London). Houses were first built \nupon the Strand about 1353, at which period it was \nthe court end of the town, or formed the communi- \ncation between the two cities of London aud West- \nminster, being then open to the Thames and to the \nfields. Somerset and other palaces were erected \n1547-1605.\xe2\x80\x94 Stow. The Strand bridge was com- \nmenced 11 Oct. 181 1 ; see Waterloo bridge. The \nStrand improvements were commenced in 1829. \nStrand returns one M.P. by act passed in 1885. \nStrand improvements bill proposed by the " London \n\ncounty council," much opposed Dec. 1889 and Jan. \n\n1890; the bill brought in, but withdrawn, 15 Aug. \n\n1890. \n\nSTEANGEES in house of commons ; see Par- \nliament, Hay, 1875. \n\nSTEASBUEG, the Roman Argcntoratum, the \ncapital of Alsace. Here Julian defeated the Ale- \nmanni, 357, who captured it, 455. It was annexed \nto Germany, 870. Louis XIV. seized it 28 Sept. \n1681, and retained it by the treaty of Kyswick, 1697. \nThe citadel and fortifications, which he constructed, \nhave been so much augmented that Strasburg may \nbe considered one of the strongest places in Europe. \nIt was confirmed to France by the peace of Ryswiek \nin 1697, but captured by the Germans, 28 Sept. 1870, \nand retained at the peace, May, 187 1. The cathe- \ndral, an epitome of Gothic art, was founded by \nClovis, and reconstructed by Pepin and Charle- \nmagne. After destruction by lightning, 1007, it was \nprincipally rebuilt by Erwin de Steinbach and his \nson in the 14th century. The lofty tower was com- \npleted in 1439. The celebrated astronomical clock, \nafter a long stoppage, was repaired by M. Schwii- \ngue, and inaugurated 1 Jan. 1843. Population, \n1890, 123,499. \n\nAn attempt at insurrection in the city was made by \nprince Louis Napoleon (afterwards president of \nthe French republic, and emperor), aided by two \nofficers and some privates . . 30 Oct. 1836 \n\nIt was instantly suppressed by their arrest, and the \nprince was slopped off to America by the French \ngovernment. \nStrasburg invested by the Germans, principally from \n\nBaden, during the Franco-Prussian war 10 Aug. 1870 \nGen. von Werder assumed the command of the be- \nsiegers, and the bombardment began 14 Aug., \nand a vigorous sally was repulsed . 16 Aug. ,, \nGen. Uhrich, the commander, declared that he \nwould not surrender except upon a heap of \nashes; but after a heroic resistance, and when a \nbreach had been made and an assault was im- \npending, notice was given, and the place surren- \ndered at 2 a.m.; at 8 a.m. 17,150 men and 400 \nofficers laid down their arms . . 27 Sept. ,, \nThe German loss was said to be 906 men, of whom \n\n43 were officers 28 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Germans entered Strasburg on the anniversary \nof its surrender to the French in 1681 by a sur- \nprise 30 Sept. ,, \n\nUhrich received the grand cross of the legion of \n\nhonour Oct ,, \n\nThe invaluable library was destroyed and the cathe- \ndral much injured. About 400 houses were de- \nstroyed, and 8000 persons rendered homeless. \nVisit of the emperor of Germany well received ; \n\nbut " France is still there " . . . 19 Sept, 1879 \nWilliam II. very well received . . 20 Aug. 1S89 \n\nSTEATFOED - UPON - AVON ( Warwick- \nshire), sec Shakspeare. \n\nSTEATHCLUYD, a kingdom formed by the \nBritons, who retired northward after the Saxon eon- \nquest, about 560. It extended from the Clyde to \n\n\n\nSTKATHCLYDE CASE. \n\n\n\n928 \n\n\n\nSTEIKES. \n\n\n\nCumberland. The Britons in it submitted to Ed- \nward the Elder, in 924. \nSTEATHCLYDE CASE, see Wrecks, 1876. \n\nSTBATHFIELD-SAYE, in Hampshire, in \nwhich is situate the estate bought of lord Rivers \nby the nation for 263,000?., and presented to the \nduke of Wellington, 1817. An act to provide a \nsuitable residence for his grace and Ms heirs was \npassed II July, 18 15. \n\nSTEATHMOEE ESTATES. Miss Bowes\' \nof Durham, the then richest heiress in Europe\' \nwhose fortune was 1,040,000?., with vast additions \non her mother\'s death, and immense estates on the \ndemise of her uncle, married the earl of Strathmore, \n25 Feb. 1766. Having, after the earl\'s death, mar- \nried Mr. Stoney, she was forcibly carried off by him \nand other armed men, 10 Nov. 1786. She was \nbrought up to the King\'s Bench by habeas corpus \nand released, and he committed to prison, 23 Nov. \nThe lady recovered her estates, which she had as- \nsigned to her husband under the influence of terror, \nin May, 1788. \n\nSTBATTON-HILL, Battle of, in Corn- \nwall, 16 May, 1643, between the royal army under \nsir Ralph Hopton, and the forces of the parliament \nunder the earl of Stamford. The victory was gained \nover the parliamentarians, who lost numbers in \nkilled and wounded. \n\nSTEAWBEEEY, see Fruits. \n\nSTEAWBEEEY-HILL, Surrey, the Gothic \nvilla of Horace Walpole, constructed 1750, at Twick- \nenham, near London. In April and May, 1842, his \ncollection of pictures and articles of taste and \nvirtu were sold by auction for 29,615?. 8s. gd. \nThe villa was enlarged by Mr. Chichester For- \ntescue, created lord Carlingford, and the countess of \n"Waldegrave, daughter of John Braham, the singer. \nShe died 5 July, 1879. The place bought by baron \nH. de Stern, July, 1883. \n\nSTEEET MUSIC. An act was passed in \n1864 for the better regulation of street music in the \nmetropolitan police districts. \n\nSTEEET BAIL-WAYS, see Tramways, \n\nSTEELITZ, the imperial guard of Russia, \nestablished by Ivan IV. about 1568. Becoming fre- \nquently seditious, it was suppressed by Peter the \nGreat ; great numbers were put to death, many by \nthe czar\'s own hand, 1698-1704. \n\nSTEIKES, see under Agriculture, Preston, \nLondon, 1859-61 ; Newcastle, Trials, Aug. 1867 ; \nRailways, Shipping and Goal, Cotton, Bristol, and \nother seaports and towns. \nStrikes in 1888, 504 (249 reported successful, 332 settled \n\nby conciliation). In 1889, 1,145 ; iu 1890, 1,028; in \n\n1891, 875; in 1892, Jan. 63, Feb. 48, March 39, April \n\n65, May 93, June 59, July 35. \nThe tailors of London struck for increase of wages ; \n\nthey yield April, 1834 \n\nThe strike of the calico printers of Glasgow . . \xe2\x80\x9e \nStaffordshire potters\' strike; obtained an advance \n\nafter much loss . . Nov. 1834-March, 183s \n\nThe strike of the amalgamated engineers took place 1852 \nStrike of the London cabmen . . 27-30 July, 1853 \n\nBuilders\' strike Aug. -Oct. 1859 \n\nA strike among the silk-workers at Coventry came \n\nto an end 3\xc2\xb0 Aug. i860 \n\nAn unsuccessful attempt to get up a strike in the \n\nbuilding trade began . . . -23 March, 1861 \nA strike of the puddlers in the iron trade occurred \n\nin the spring of (see Iron, and Railways) . . 1S65 \nStrike of London west-end tailors (about 2000), \n\nlasted . .22 April-Oct. 1867 \n\n\n\nGreat strike of colliers near St. Helens, April, 1867 ; \nabout 40,000 men on strike . . . April, 186S \n\nColliery strike at Thorncliffe, near Sheffield ; dread- \nful riots and devastation . . . 21 Jan. 1870 \n\nStrike of 10,000 miners at Le Creuzot, Burgundy, \nthe property of M. Schneider ; soon over Jan. 1871 \n\nEngineers\' strike at Newcastle (see Newcastle) \n\nMay-Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nStrike of builders employed by Messrs. Brass and \nJackson &, Shaw, for a 9 hours\' day, at 9c?. an \nhour, 1 June ; after negotiation led to a look-out \nby the masters, beginning . . 19 June, 1S72 \n\nThe lock-out of the masons ceased, the carpenters \ngoing on, q July ; arrangements were made, and \nstrike ceased about 27 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nStrike of London journeymen bakers, 23 Sept. -9 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nStrike of firewood cutters .... Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLock-out of miners in Wales for their excessive \ndemands ...... Oct. ,, \n\nStrike of London gas-stokers (see Gas) . 2 Dec. ,, \n\nStrike of about 60,000 colliers in S. Wales, refusing \nto submit to 10 per cent, reduction in wages, \n1 Jan. Strike ended . . about 25 March, 1873 \n\nPowerful speech of earl Fitzwilliam to his colliers \nof Low Stubbin after a strike . . 5 June, , \n\nStrike of about 50,000 miners, South Wales, 2 Jan. ; \nled to a lock-out, 1 Feb. ; given up ; gradual re- \nturn of men to work end of . . . May, \n\nStrike of Warwickshire miners . . May-Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nStrikes at Oldham and Dundee . July-August \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nStrike of earl Fitzwilliam\'s colliers on account of \nthe compulsory use of safety lamps ; he closes \nhis mines and rejects their submission . Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nErith, strike of workmen of Eastons and Anderson, \nengineers, in opposition to piece-work, 18 Dec. ; \nsupported by amalgamated engineers, Dec, 1875 ; \non trial for conspiracy, the men plead guilty ; no \nsentence passed 14 July, 1876 \n\nStrike of 1600 miners against 15 per cent, reduction \nof wages, Bolton . 24 Aug. ,, \n\n" Operative Spinners\' Association " of N. and N.E. \nLancashire propose to set aside the " standard \nlist of prices " after 1 Nov. The masters there- \nupon announced a lock-out of about 80,000 men \n(after 23 Nov.), 26 Oct. The association submits \n\n18 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nStrike of Doulton\'s bricklayers respecting employ- \nment of others on terra-cotta work (settled) Oct. ,, \n\nGreat strike and lock-out of about 10,000 ship- \nwrights, &c, on the Clyde, May ; closed, Oct. ; \nthe arbitrator, lord Moncrieff, decided against \nthe men Nov. 1877 \n\nNorthumberland miners (about 12,000), began, 29 \nMay ; over about .... 12 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGreat railway strike, see United States . July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBolton cotton workers\' strike, about 1 Sept. ; closed \nby agreement . \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRailway strike on Great Southern and Western line, \nIreland, about .... 14-22 Sept. ,, \n\n181 strikes, result mostly against workmen . . ,, \n\nLock-out of about 8000 miners in Northumberland, \nabout 15 Dec. 1877 ; closed . . . Feb. 1878 \n\nStrike of masons of London (employed on the law \n\n. courts, &c), demanding increased pay and less \nworking hours, 31 July ; some firms yield, about \n20 Sept. ; Germans and others engaged, Oct. \xe2\x80\x94 \nDee. 1877. Strike ends (cost about 60,000?.) \n\n14 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nStrike and lock-out of cotton spinners in N. and \nN.E. Lancashire (about 120,000 men); masters \nrequired reduction of 10 per cent, on wages ; be- \ngan about 18 April ; ended by the men submit- \nting to arrangements . . about 17 June, ,, \n\nPartial strike and lock-out of labourers in Kent and \nSussex Oct. Dec. ,, \n\nCotton strike at Oldham, at reduction of wages 5 \nper cent., 25 Nov. ; submission . . 28 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n277 strikes in the year \n\nMidland railway ; sudden strike of goods guards \n\n3-20 Jan. 1879 \n\nLondon engineers, 18 firms, against reduction of \nwages, begau about 7 Feb. ; closed . 4 Oct. ,, \n\nDurham coal miners, against reduction of wages, \nbegan 5 April ; stoppage of Cleveland and other \niron works ; about 70,000 men unemployed, April ; \nsettled by arbitration . . about 16 May, ,, \n\nBristol builders\' 2 months\' strike ends . 30 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nStrike of cotton-workers at Blackburn, 15 May et seq. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nSTRIKES. \n\n\n\n929 \n\n\n\nSTRONTIUM. \n\n\n\nStrike of Lancashire miners ; about 40,000 out, 12 \nJan. ; rioting with loss of life near Bolton, 25-28 \nJan. ; strike reported over . . 21 Feb. \n\nStrike in the potteries, 70 firms and 30,000 men, be- \ngun about 25 Nov. \n\nThe men agree to arbitration ... 6 Dec. \n\nIronworkers\' strike at Hox>ton and Darlington, \n\n2 Feb.-o June, \n\nStrike of Staffordshire colliers, about 8000, 12 May, \nends about 3 Sept. \n\nGreat strike of South Staffordshire ironworkers at \nreduction of wages .... about 5 July, \n\nMany submit, about 17 July ; strike closed, 24 July, \n\nCotton weavers on strike, opposition to the reduction \nof wages, in the N.W. districts, about 18,500, 18 \nDec.1883; men yield under conditions, about 8 Feb. \n\nStrike in the cotton trade ; mass meeting at Burn- \nley reject the masters\' terms . .16 July, \n\nDetermined to maintain the strike against reduction \nof wages 24 July, \n\nEnd of Bavnsley coal miners\' long strike 23 Dec. \n\nStrike of about 2000 miners ill west Cumberland, \n\n16 March, \n\nStrike of about half the colliers in S. and W. York- \nshire 1 April-May, \n\nChorley, Lancashire, about 3,000 cotton weavers \n\n16 July, \nCotton weavers on strike at Oldham (25,000 out) \n\nagainst 10 per cent, reduction, 20 July, et seq. ; \n\n. compromise 5 per cent, accepted for three months \n\nabout 16 Oct. \n\nStrike of 4,700 men at Elswick Iron Works, New- \ncastle ; ascribed to two managers, 2 Sept. ; closed \n\n17 Sept. \nClose of engineers\' strike (2-J years) at Sunderland ; \n\ncost above 200,000?. .... Nov. \n\nStrike of shipwrights in the Tyne and Wear about \n6 Jan. -24 Feb. \n\nIncrease of strikes in France, Belgium, Germany, \nand United States .... March, \n\nShropshire ironworks strike (twenty weeks) ends ; \nmasters yield 14 July, \n\nNorthumberland miners\' strike about 30 Jan ; terms \narranged at a conference, and work resumed, \ntwelve weeks .... 23-28 May, \n\nStrike (wrought nail trade) in South Staffordshire \nof about 15,000 operatives . . 12 Sept. \n\nStrike of engineers at Bolton respecting wages, \novertime, &c. 14 May ; intimidation and boy- \ncotting of men at work ; strike closes by con- \nciliation 27 Oct. \n\nShoemakers\' strike at Northampton ; about 20,000 \nout 3 Dec. ; closed by arbitration, about 24 Dec. \n\nStrike of engineers at Blackburn, 21 weeks, closed \nby compromise .... 12 March, \n\nStrike of match-girls at Bryant and May\'s factory \n(see Luclfers) 5 July, \n\nColliery strikes begin 22 Oct. ; about 30,000 miners \non strike in S. W. Yorkshire and the Midland \ncounties 24 Oct. ; the colliers\' demands, 10 per \ncent, increase generally, acceded to, the owners \ngradually yield .... 27-31 Oct. \n\nStrike of coal miners in Westphalia (i/7< ich see) May, \n\nStrikes in Silesia, Bohemia and Belgium, May, June, \n\nTemporary strikes of seamen and firemen in the \nsteamers in the ports of Glasgow (ended 27 June), \nLeith. Aberdeen (ended), and Dundee for an \nadvance of wages, end of May ; gradually col- \nlapsing, end of June, et seq.; Liverpool May-July, \n\nStrike of the dock labourers of the port of London, \ndemanding not less than 4 hours\' engagement, \npay to be raised from yl. to 6cl. per hour, and \nredress of other grievances, 15 Aug. ; they are \njoined by stevedores, lightermen, and nearly \nevery class of riverside workers ; about 25,000 \nmen out, 22 Aug. ; negotiations of the London \nami India docks committee (for tin; directors, \nMr. C. M. Norwood, Mr. H. Morgan, sec.) ; with \nthe dock labourers\' strikes committee (leaders, \nMessrs. John Burns, Benjamin Tillett, sec, \nHenry Champion, and Tom Mann), demands re- \nfused, 27 Aug. ; 80,000 said to be out, 30 Aug. ; \ndock directors reject the compromise proposed \nby shipowners and others, 31 Aug. Close of the \nstrike; greatly due to the intervention of the \nlord mayor Whitehead, cardinal Manning, (In\' \nbishop of London, sir John Lubbock, Mr. Syd- \nney, and others : terms of agreement, pay for \n\n\n\nIS\xc2\xab2 \n\n1883 \n\n\n\nordinary work raised from 41?. to 6d. per hour, \n8d. per hour overtime, contract work to i" \nchanged to piece work, with other concessions, \nto begin on 4 Nov., 14 Sept. ; work at the docks \n\nresumed 16 Sept. 1889 \n\n[During the strike there were many processions \nof labourers and sympathisers through the \nstreets. Great meetings woe held in Hyde \npark on Sundays 25 Aug., 1, 8, 15 Sept. There \nwas much picketing; the extreme distress in \nthe east end was relieved by liberal public sub- \nscriptions, and the Australian colonies gave \nabout 31,000?. ; received in December from \nMelbourne, 3,792?. ; from Sydney 720?., Dec. \n1889.] \n\nGreat strike of Jewish tailors and other operatives \nin East London, 3 Sept., about 10,000 out ; they \ndemand an increase of pay, and reduction of time \nand labour to 12 hours daily ; settled by com- \npromise 2 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRidiculous strike of schoolboys for shorter hours \n\n., and fewer lessons, in Hawick, Dundee, Aber- \ndeen, Glasgow, Greenock, Edinburgh, Cardiff, \nLiverpool, Leeds, Northampton, parts of London \nand Brighton, and other places . . . (Jet. ,, \n\nStrike of Messrs. Silvers\' india-rubber works at \nSilvertown Nov.-Dec. ,, \n\nMany strikes and much agitation in London, and \nthroughout the country . . Sept.-Dec. ,, \n\nStrike of about 1,000 of the stokers and others em- \nployed by the South Metropolitan gas company, \nagainst " the bonus " system successfully resisted \nby Mr. G. Livesey, the secretary, 12 Dec. 1889 ; \nthe strike ends 5 Feb. 1890 \n\nStrike of about 11,000 bootmakers, E. London, \n\n29 March-29 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nStrike of Kentish bargemen and lock out of brick- \nmakers, early March\' ; closed . about 28 April, ,, \n\nStrike of Thames shipjoiners . 1 March-3 May, ,, \n\nStrike at Cardiff of the servants of the Taff Vale, \nRhymney and Barry railways dockers and others, \nrespecting time-working; the merchants and \nother employers, support the railway companies, \n7 Aug. ; traffic suspended, 8 Aug. ; great meet- \ning, sir E. Read, M.P., president; no result, 9 \nAug. ; about 50,000 men out, 10 Aug. ; com- \npromise effected, the strike ends . 15 A.ug. ,, \n\nStrikes in Australia (see Melbourne and Sydney), \n\nAug. et seq. ,, \n\nStrike at Manningham Mills, see Bradford, 1891. \n\nGreat strike of colliers in Durham, on account of \nthe eviction of miners at Silksworth, lord Lon- \ndonderry\'s colliery, 20 Feb. et seq. ; strike ends, \n\n20 March, 1891 \n\nFive weeks\' great strike of cotton-spinners at \nHuddersfield, closed ... 20 March, ,, \n\nClose of the strike of the Scotch furnace men (21 \nworks) 5 March, ,, \n\nStrike in the building trades in London, leading \nfirms; mass meeting in Hyde park, 3 May; re- \nferred to arbitration, 20 Oct. ; award given (no \nincrease of pay), about 19 Nov. ; work resumed, \n\nNov, ,, \n\nStrikes in Belgium, France, Austria, Westphalia, \nGreat Britain April, May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMany strikes in London and-the provinces, \n\nMay et seq. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nEnd of 11 weeks\' strike at Messrs. Wostinholm, \ncutlers, Sheffield .... 27 June, ,, \n\nStrike of tailorsat Southport, Liverpool, July ; the \ndelegates of (lie Master Tailors\' Association of \nthe Fiule.l Kingdom at Liverpool, order a \ngeneral lock-out throughout tic United King- \ndom unless the strikers return to work before \nthe 29th, 22 July : settlement . about 29 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nEnd of the strike at Brooks\' cotton mill, Olitll \n(25 weeks) ....\'. 12 Aug. ,, \n\nStrike of Durham coal-miners, see under Con!, \n\n11 March, 1892 \n\nEnd of three months\' strike of seamen and Bremen \nat Sunderland 13 June, ,, \n\nKTROME CASE, see Trials, 1883. \n\nSTRONTIUM. The native carbonate of \nstrontia was discovered at Strontium in Argyle- \nshire, in 1 787. Sir Humphry Davy first obtained \nfrom it the metal strontium in 1808. \n\n?, o \n\n\n\nSTRYCHNIA. \n\n\n\n930 \n\n\n\nSUEZ CANAL. \n\n\n\nSTRYCHNIA, a poisonous vegetable alkaloid, \ndiscovered in 1818 by Pelletier and Caventou in tbe \nseeds of the strychnos ignatia and nux vomica, and \nalso in the upas poison. Half a grain blown into \nthe throat of a rabbit occasions death in four \nminutes ; its operation is accompanied by lock-jaw. \nMuch attention was given to strychnia in 1856, \nduring the trial of William Palmer, who was exe- \ncuted for the murder of Cook, 14 June, 1856. \n\nSTUART (properly Stewakt), House or, \n\nsee under Scotland, England ; and Pretenders. \n\nA collection of portraits and relics of the lioxise of \nStuart ras exhibited in the New Gallery, Regent \nStreet, autumn, 1888. The surplus receipts amount- \ning to about i,8oo\xc2\xa3. were judiciously distributed. \n\nSTUCCO WORK was known to the ancients, \nand was much prized by them, particularly by the \nRomans, who excelled in it.- \xe2\x80\x94 Lenglet. It was re- \nvived by D\'TJdine, about 1550 ; and in Italy, France, \nand England in the 18th century. \n\nSTUD Company, to improve the breed of British \nhorses, held its first annual meeting, 20 Sept. 1873. \n\nSTUHM (W. Prussia). Here Gustavus Adol- \nphus of Sweden defeated the Poles, 1628. \n\nSTUNDISTS, a puritan sect in south Eussia, \nsaid to be descendants of Russian soldiers converted \nfrom the Greek church by German missionaries ; \nsome were cruelly persecuted by the bigoted pea- \nsantry of Vossnessensk in Kherson in 1879; thirteen \nof the ringleaders were tried for the crime, 8 Nov. \n1879. Strong repressive measures against the sect, \nwith persecution, were taken by the government, \nautumn, 189 1 et seq. \n\nSTURGES BOURNE\'S ACT, 58 Geo. III. \nc. 69 (18 1 8), relates to parish vestries. \n\nSTUTTGART (Wtirtemburg), first mentioned \nin 1229, was made his residence by count Eberhard, \n1320; enlarged by TJlric, 1436; and made capital of \nthe state, 1482. It has been greatly adorned during \nthe last and present centuries. International rifle \nmeeting here, 1 Aug. 1875. Population, 1885, \n125,901 ; 1890, 139,659. \n\nSTYLE, see New Style. \n\nSTYLE ROYAL, see England, King, Majesty, \nand Titles. The styles of the English sovereigns \nare given in the later editions of Nicolas\' s " Chron- \nology of History." The Royal Style and Titles Act, \ngiving power to add to the" queen\'s titles "empress \nof India," after much opposition in the commons, \nreceived royal assent 27 April ; proclamation issued \n28 April ; announced in India, by the viceroy, 19 \nAug. 1876. \n\nSTYLITES, see Monachism. \n\nSTYRIA (Austria), part of the ancient Noricum \nand Pannonia, was held successively by the Romans, \nOstrogoths, and Avars. It was conquered by Charle- \nmagne, and divided among his followers, styled \ncounts, among whom the count of Styria, about \n876, was the most powerful. The count became \nmargrave about 1030 ; and Ottocar VI., in 1180, was \nmade duke. At his death, 1 192, Styria was annexed \nto the duchy of Austria. In 1246 it was acquired \nby Bela IV. of Hungary ; in 1253, by Ottocar II. of \nBohemia ; after whose defeat and death, at March- \nfeld, in 1278, it reverted to Rudolph of Austria, and \nwas annexed to his possessions. Population 1890 \n1,282,708. \n\nSUAKIN, a seaport town of the Red Sea on \nan island off its "W. coast. See Soudan, 1883, et seq. \n\n\n\nUnder the rule of colonel Kitchener and lieut. \nGordon, R.E., Suakin has become a nearly impreg- \nnable fortress and commerce has revived, 1888. \n\nSUBMARINE BOAT, see under Boats. \n\nSUBMARINE LAMP, one invented by \nSiebe and Gorman, has been in use since 1850, \nespecially at Cherbourg. Heinke and Davis\'s lamp \nwas exhibited, 1871. \n\nSUBMARINE TELEGRAPH, see Tele- \ngraph (under Electricity). \n\nSUBSCRIPTION ACT, see Clerical Sub- \nscription Act. \n\nSUBSIDIES to the kings of England were- \nformerly granted in kind, particularly in wool ; \n30,000 sacks were voted to Edward III. on account \nof the war with France, 1340. \xe2\x80\x94 Anderson. Subsi- \ndies were raised upon the people of England by \nJames I. 1624 ; but they were included in a bill for \nthe redress of grievances, 1639. Four subsidies (the? \nlast) were granted to Charles II. in 1663.* \n\nSUBWAY, see Tunnels. \n\nSUCCESSION ACTS, see Settlement. \n\nSUCCESSION, War oe (1702-1713), distin- \nguished by the achievements of the duke of Marl- \nborough and the earl of Peterborough, and their \nunprofitable results, arose on the question whether \nan Austrian prince or a French prince should suc- \nceed to the throne of Spain. The British court \nopposed Louis, and Marlborough was victorious; but \nthe allies withdrew one after another, and the French \nprince succeeded ; see Spain, and Utrecht. \n\nSUCCESSION DUTY ACT (16 & 17 Vict, \nc. 51), after much discussion, was passed 4 Aug.. \n1 8 S3- By this act the legacy duty was extended to- \nreal estate, and was made payable on succession to \nboth landed and personal property. Received year \n1887-8,830,503/.; 1889, 906,469/.; 1890,1,065,170/.;. \n1891, 1,209,227/. Additional duties imposed by \ncustoms, ifec., acts of 1888 and 1889. \n\nSUDBURY, in Suffolk, chartered by queen, \nMary, 1554, was disfranchised for bribery in 1844. \n\nSUEVI, a warlike Gothic tribe, which, with the- \nAlani and the Visigoths, entered Spain about 408, \nwere overcome by the latter, and absorbed into their \nkingdom about 584. \n\nSUEZ CANAL. The caliph Omar about 640 \nopposed cutting the isthmus. A plan for a canal \nbetween the head of the Red Sea and the bay of \nPelusium was brought forward by 51. Ferdinand de \nLesseps in 1852. He undertook to cut a canal \nthrough 90 miles of sand, to run out moles into the- \nMediterranean ; to deepen the shallow waters ; to \ncreate ports to receive the ships from India and \nAustralia, and to adapt the canal to irrigation. The \nconsent of the Egyptian, Turkish, Russian, French, \nand Austrian governments was gradually obtained, \nbut not that of the British. A company was formed \nfor the purpose, and the work commenced in 1858 \nby Mr. Daniel Lange (knighted 1870). The cost \nwas estimated at 8,000,000/. Engineer, M. L. \nMonteit. \n\nMc Delacour, a French engineer, after viewing the \nworks which were " employing 25,000 men in the \ndesert," expressed his conviction that they would \nbe completed in four or five years . . 7 Nov. 1862 \n\n* England granted subsidies to foreign powers in seve- \nral wars, particularly in the war against the revolutionists \nin France, and against Bonaparte. \n\n\n\nSUEZ CANAL. \n\n\n\n)31 \n\n\n\nSUGAR. \n\n\n\nThe waters of the Mediterranean admitted into a \nnarrow channel communicating with Lake Tim- \nsah Dec. 1862 \n\nThe new town Timsali named Ismaila 4 March, 1863 \n\nThe works visited by the Sultan and by Mr. Hawk- \nshaw ,, \n\nThe company compelled by the Egyptian govern- \nment to give up employment of compulsory \nlabour ; litigation ensued .... Aug. ,, \n\nM. de Lesseps reported that a vessel containing 30 \npersons had been tugged along the canal the \nwhole distance between the two seas . Feb. 1865 \n\nDelegates from the British chambers of commerce \nvisited the works, and reported that the success \nof the scheme was only an affair of time and \nmoney 17 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe flood gates of the smaller Suez canal were \nopened, the fresh water of the Nile admitted ; a \ncoal vessel passed from the Mediterranean to the \nRed Sea 15 Aug. ,, \n\nThe Primo, 80 tons burden, passed through the \ncanal from the Mediterranean into the Red Sea, \n\n17 Feb. 1867 \n\nA loan raised in France ,, \n\nFrench and English vessels enter the canal Nov. 1868 \n\nMr. John Fowler, the engineer, reported the canal \nas suitable for steamers and mail traffic, but not \nfor vessels requiring tugs . . . .5 Feb. 1869 \n\nWater of the Mediterranean admitted to the salt \nlakes 18 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe works visited by the prince and princess of \nWales 23 March, ,, \n\nThe canal successfully opened in the presence of the \nemperor of Austria, the empress of the French, \nthe viceroy of Egypt, and others . . 17 Nov. ,, \n\nM. de Lesseps etitertained in London . 4 July, 1870 \n\nTraffic in 1870-1 doubled 1872-3 \n\nCharges upon vessels passing through the canal in- \ncreased 50 per cent. ; the British appeal for a \nnational conference April, 1873 \n\nInternational conference on Suez dues met at Con- \nstantinople ; 21 sittings ; report dated 18 Dec. \nProposals of the sultan accepted by European \npowers Dec. ,, \n\nM. de Lesseps protests ; the lords of the admiralty \ninformed (by D. A. Lange) that the canal will be \nclosed unless the old dues are paid, 22 April ; he \ngives way about .... 26 April, 1874 \n\nCol. Stokes, after a survey, reported to the earl of \nDerby that the canal generally was in a satisfac- \ntory state 20 April, ,, \n\nBritish government authorise Messrs. Rothschild to \nbuy for 4,080,000?. the Khedive\'s shares (176,602 \nshares of 20?., out of 400,000) in the canal ; (5 per \ncent, to be paid till 1 July, 1894, after which divi- \ndends will be received) .... Nov. 1875 \n\nM. de Lesseps in a circular says he regards "as a \nfortunate circumstance the powerful union be- \ntween English and French capitalists for the \npurely industrial and necessarily peaceful work- \ning of the universal maritime canal." . 29 Nov. ,, \n\nThe subject discussed in the commons, 14 Feb. ; \nmoney (4,080,000?.) voted, 21 Feb.; act passed \n\n15 Aug. 1876 \n\nNeutrality of the canal claimed by Great Britain \n\nMay, June, 1877 \n\nFreedom of the canal secured by settlement of \nEgypt 1882-3 \n\nReceipts about 5,000,000 francs, 1870; 60,523,815 \nfrancs i832 \n\nSecond canal determined on by British shipowners ; \nsyndicate appointed .... 10 May, 1883 \n\nArrangements made by the government for the con- \nstruction of the canal and advancement of capital, \nto be virtually under control of De Lesseps\' cmii- \npany, announced, 11 July : great dissatisfaction \nand opposition in England, 12 July ; the proposed \nconvention withdrawn by the government, \n\n23 July, ,, \n\nSir Stafford Northcote\'s resolution against De Les- \nseps\' monopoly negatived (284-185) 31 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nDe Lesseps visits London ; agrees with the steam \nshipowners to enlarge tin 1 present canal, or \ncreate a new one, giving additional power and \ninfluence in the direction of the company, and to \n\nreduce dues, &c 30 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe agreement approved by the British government, \n\n\n\n25 Feb.; the shareholders at Paris protest aj \n\nit, but ratify it (2608-556) . . . 29 May, 1SS3 \n\nInternational commission sits at Paris ; English and \nFrench schemes discussed, April \xe2\x80\x94 May, 1SS5 ; \nparts of these schemes incorporated in treaty, \nMay, 1885 ; last sitting .... 13 June, 1886 \n\nThe widening of the present canal decided (in, after \ninvestigation by commission, Dec. 1884 ; plans \nadopted by the commission 9 Feb. 1835; arrange- \nments with the Egyptian government completed \n\n27 Dec. ,, \n\nConvention signed at Paris for England and France \nneutralising the canaland placing it under a joint \ncommission ...... 24 Oct. 1837 \n\nAdhesion of the other powers announced July ; \nratified by the sultan 25 Oct. ; by the powers \n\n29 Oct. and 22 Dec. 1888 \n\nTraffic passed through canal : \n\n\n\nYear. \n\n\nNo. of \nShips. \n\n\nGross Tonnage. \n\n\nGross Receipts. \n\n\n1870 \n\n\n486 \n\n\n435,9" \n\n\n\xc2\xa3255,488 \n\n\n1871 \n\n\n765 \n\n\n761,467 \n\n\n464,091 \n\n\n1872 \n\n\n1,082 \n\n\n1,439,169 \n\n\n758,659 \n\n\n1873 \n\n\nI.I73 \n\n\n2,085,073 \n\n\n971,882 \n\n\n1874 \n\n\n1,264 \n\n\n2,423,672 \n\n\n1,029,492 \n\n\n1875 \n\n\n*,494 \n\n\n2,940,709 \n\n\n1,204,387 \n\n\n1876 \n\n\ni,4S7 \n\n\n3,072,107 \n\n\n1,229,157 \n\n\n1877 \n\n\n1,663 \n\n\n3,418,950 \n\n\n1,337,617 \n\n\n1878 \n\n\ni,593 \n\n\n3,291,535 \n\n\n1,272,435 \n\n\n1879 \n\n\ni,477 \n\n\n3,236,942 \n\n\n1,214,443 \n\n\nTotal I \n10 years. ) \n\n\n12,454 \n\n\n23,105,535 \n\n\n\xc2\xa39>737,65i \n\n\n1880 \n\n\n2,026 \n\n\n4,344,519 \n\n\n\xc2\xa31,672,836 \n\n\n1881 \n\n\n2,727 \n\n\n5,794,401 \n\n\n2,187,047 \n\n\n1882 \n\n\n3,198 \n\n\n7,122,125 \n\n\n2,536,343 \n\n\n1883 \n\n\n3,307 \n\n\n8,051,307 \n\n\n2,645,506 \n\n\n1884 \n\n\n3,284 \n\n\n8,319,967 \n\n\n2,480,000 \n\n\n1885 \n\n\n3,624 \n\n\n8,985,411 \n\n\n2,601,998 \n\n\ni336 \n\n\n3,100 * \n\n\n8,183,313 \n\n\n2,241,095 \n\n\ni38 7 \n\n\n3^37 \n\n\n8,430,043 \n\n\n2,314,494 \n\n\n1888 \n\n\n3,444 \n\n\n9,437,957 \n\n\n2,680,000 \n\n\n1890 \n\n\n3,389 \n\n\n9,749,129 \n\n\n2,679,340 \n\n\n\nSUFFRAGAN BISHOPS. Power to ap- \npoint them was given by parliament in 1534 to \nHenry VIII. as head of the church; see JJLs/top.i \nand Supremacy. \n\nSUGAR* {Saccharum officinarum) is supposed \nto have been known to the ancient Jews. Found in \nthe East Indies by Nearchus, admiral of Alexander, \n325 B.C. \xe2\x80\x94 Strabo. An oriental nation in alliance \nwith Pompcy used the juice of the cane as a common \nbeverage. \xe2\x80\x94 Lucan. It was prescribed as a medicine \nby Galen, 2nd century. Brought into Europe from \nAsia, A. n. 625; \xe2\x80\x94 in large quantities, 1 150. Attempted \nto be cultivated in Italy; not succeeding, flic Portu- \nguese and Spaniards carried it to America about \n1510. \nThe sugar-cane transported from Syria to Cyprus \n\nabout 1148 ; from Madeira about 1420 ; and to the \n\nWest Indies about 1506 \n\nIt is not known at what date sugar was introduced \n\n* Sugar, long considered a neutral substance, wil \ncongeners, has ofdate years become the head of a nume- \nrous family, viz. : Cane-sugar (sucrose, from the sugar- \ncane ; boiled with dilute acids it becomes gl >. l-\'i uit- \nsugar (from many recenl fruits); Grape-sugar (\xe2\x96\xa0 \n\nfrom dried fruits and altered starch): sugar "I milk ; \n\nMelitose (from eucalyptus, by Berthelot in 1856); s \n(from the berries of the mountain ash, by Pelou 1 \n(from muscular tissue. Scherer) ; dulcost (by Lament); \nmannite (from manna, obtained from the fraxinus ornus, \na kind of ash) ; qiiercite (from acorns); to these have been \nadded mycose, by M. Mitseherlich, and mdeestos* ami \nreliulosc, by M. Berthelot. \n\n3 2 \n\n\n\nSUICIDE. \n\n\n\n932 \n\n\n\nSUICIDE. \n\n\n\ninto England, "but it seems to have been prior to \nthe reign of Henry VIII. Mr. Whittaker, in the \nHistory of Whalley, p. 109, quotes an instance in 1497 \n\nA manuscript letter from sir Edward Wotton to \nlord Cobham, dated Calais, advertises him that \nsir Edward had taken up for his lordship twenty- \nfive sugar-loaves at six shillings a loaf, "whiche \nis eighte pence a pounde " . . . 6 March, 1546 \n\nSugar first taxed (by James II.) 1685 \n\nDuties on free and slave-grown sugars equalized, \n\nAug. 1846 \n\nDuties reduced and regulated .... Sept. 1848 \n\nDuty increased (war) 1855 \n\nReduced, 1857, 1864 ; modified, 1867 ; greatly re- \nduced, 1 Aug. 1870 ; further reduced, May, 1873 ; \nabolished from 1 May, 1874 \n\nSugar industries committee recommend a protective \nduty on the import of sugar from certain coun- \ntries Aug. 1880 \n\nSugar-refining was made known to Europeans by a \nVenetian, 1503, and was first practised in England \nin 1659, though some say we had the art a few \nyears earlier. The invaluable vacuum-pan was \ninvented by Howard, 1812. Dr. Scoffern\'s pro- \ncesses were patented in 1848-50, but not adopted \nin Britain. \n\nSugar manufactured from sorghum in United States \nDec. 1882 ; success reported . . March, 1888 \n\nManufacturers and colonies protest strongly against \nFrench and German bounties on beet sugar 1882-9 \n\nInternational Conference on Sugar Bounties, repre- \nsentatives from Germany, France, Austria and \nothers, not United States ; first meeting, baron \nH. de Worms chosen president 24 Nov. ; a pro- \ntocol with a convention signed condemning \nbounties and recommending legislation for their \nabolition ig Dec. 1887 \n\nThe mission of baron de Worms to various courts \nreported successful Feb. 1888 \n\nFinal meeting, another protocol with convention \nsigned 12 May, ,, \n\nFinally signed for Great Britain, Germany, Austria- \nHungary, Italy, Russia, Spain, Belgium, and the \nNetherlands , declined at present by France, \nDenmark and Sweden ... 30 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nInternational commission to examine the laws to \nenforce, the convention meet . . 1 May, 1889 \n\nReport adopted and signed at the 12th meeting ; \nto be referred to the respective legislatures \n\n1 June, ,, \n\nBill for the adoption of the convention brought into \nthe commons May ; deferred by the government \n\n17 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nA secret process of refining sugar by electricity said \nto have been invented by prof. Henry C. Friend \nof New York announced 1885. He succeeded in \norganizing the New York Electric Sugar Refining \ncompany to carry out the invention ; the scheme \ncollapsed and occasioned much loss in America \nand England by credulous persons, the whole \naffair being an imposture 1888 \n\nIt caused a temporary panic in Liverpool Jan. ; \nMrs. Friend, then a widow, and her daughter \nwere arrested in Michigan . . . Feb. 1889 \n\nWilliam E. Howard, one of the company, was \nsentenced to imprisonment for "grand larceny " \n\n21 June, ,, \nFor Saccharine, see Benzole. \n\nRaw Sugar imported into United Kingdom. \xe2\x80\x94 1833, \n7,284,290 cwts. ; i860, 8,817,277 cwts. ; 1865, \n10,250,524 cwts. ; 1871, 12,126,508 cwts. ; 1875, \n16,264,711 cwts.; 1877, 16,620,944 cwts. ; in 1879, \n17.734,223 cwts.; in 1883, 20,366,627 cwts; in \n1887, 18,010,366 cwts. ; in 1890, 15,717,476 cwts. \n\nRefined Sugar exported from the United King- \ndom : 1876, 1,192,277 cwts. ; 1880, 965,446 cwts. ; \n1885, 994,353 cwts. ; 1890, 709,416 cwts. \nSee Beet-root. \n\nSUICTDE (from sui, self; ccedere, to kill), the \nslayer of himself. The first instances recorded in \nJewish history are those of Samson, about 1120, \nand Saul, 1055 15-C \' ^ ne Greek and Roman philoso- \nphers deemed it a crime, and burned the offending \nhand apart from the rest of the body. In the reign \nof Tarquin I., the Roman soldiers, thinking them- \n\n\n\nselves disgraced by being ordered to make common \nsewers, destroyed themselves, 606 B.C. Cato com- \nmitted suicide, 46 B.C.* In the Roman catholic \nchurch, in the 6th century it was ordained that no \ncommemoration should be made in the Eucharist \nfor such as committed self-murder. This ecclesias- \ntical law continued till the Reformation, when it \nwas admitted into the statute law of England by the \nauthority of parliament, with the confiscation of \nland and goods. Till 1823 the body of the suicide \nwas directed to be buried in a cross-road, and a \nstake to be driven through it. A new act, suppres- \nsing the barbarous customs, was passed in 1882. It \nis now usually buried in consecrated ground With- \nout a religious ceremony. Thomas Cooper, the \neminent Chartist, author of " The Purgatory of \nSuicides,\'\' an epic poem, published in 1845, died, \naged 87, 15 July, 1892. Dr. Henry Morselli pub- \nlished "Suicides: an Essay," 1881. There were \n7,572 suicides in France in 1887. \n\nMEMORABLE RECENT CASES OF SUICIDE. \n\nGen. Pichegru 7 April, 1804 \n\nMiss Champante 15 Aug. ,, \n\nSellis, valet of the duke of Cumberland . 31 May, 1810 \nAbraham Goldsmid, an eminent merchant . . . \xe2\x80\x9e \nWilliams, supposed murderer of the Marr family \n\nand others 15 Dec. 181 1 \n\nLord French 9 Dec. 1814 \n\nMarshal Berthier 1 June, 1815 \n\nSamuel Whitbread, esq 6 July, ,, \n\nSir Richard Croft 13 Feb. ,, \n\nSir Samuel Romilly 2 Nov. 1818 \n\nChristophe, king of Hayti ... 8 Oct. 1820 \n\nAdm. sir George Campbell . . . .23 June, 1821 \n\nMarquis of Londonderry .... 12 Aug. 1822 \n\nHon. colonel Stanhope . . . .26 Jan. 1825 \nMr. Montgomery in Newgate (see Prussic Acid), \n\n4 July, 1828 \n\nMiss Charlotte Both 3 Jan. 1830 \n\nLord Greaves 7 Feb. ,, \n\nColonel Brereton 13 Jan. 1832 \n\nMajor Thompson 13 June, ., \n\nMr. Simpson, the traveller ... 24 July, 1840 \n\nLord James Beresford . . . .27 April, 1841 \nGen. sir Rufane Shaw Donkin . . .1 May, ,, \n\nThe earl of Munster 20 March, 1842 \n\nLord Congleton 8 June, ,, \n\nLaman Blanchard 15 Feb. 1845 \n\nColonel J. Gurwood, editor of "Wellington\'s De- \nspatches " 25 Dec. ,, \n\nRear-admiral Collard . . . .18 March, 1846 \nHaydon, the eminent painter . . 22 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCount Bresson 2 Nov. 1847 \n\nColonel King, in India . . . .12 July, 1850 \nWalter Watts, lessee of Olympic theatre, 13 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRev. Dr. Rice 20 Jan. 1853 \n\nLieut. -col. Layard 27 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRev. T. Robinson (threw himself off Shakspere\'s \n\nCliff, Dover) 16 Aug. 1854 \n\nDr. Franks, late editor of the Allgemeine Zeitung, \n\nafter killing his son 3 Nov. 1855 \n\nJohn Sadleir, M.P. (in 1852, a lord of the treasury\'), \n\nby prussic acid ; on Hampstead Heath. (He was \n\nfound to have been guilty of enormous frauds upon \n\nthe Tipperary bank", <fee.) ... 16 Feb. 1856 \n\nA. Smart, a watchmaker, threw himself from the \n\nwhispering-gallery in St. Paul\'s . 14 March, ,, \nCharles Russell, esq., late chairman of Great \n\nWestern Railway 15 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nHugh Miller, geologist, author of The Old Red Sand- \nstone (insane, through overwork) . . 23 Dec. ,, \n\n* Three instances of self-destruction by fire : the philo- \nsopher Empedocles threw himself into the crater of Mount \nEtna ; a Frenchman threw himself, in 1820, into the \ncrater of Vesuvius ; and an Englishman, who jumped \ninto the furnace of a forge about the year 181 1. Plutarch \nrelates that an unaccountable passion for suicide seized \nthe Milesian virgins, from which they could not be pre- \nvented by the tears and prayers of their friends ; but a \ndecree being issued that the body of every young maid \nwho did self-murder should be drawn naked through the \nstreets, a stop was soon put to the extraordinary frenzy. \n\n\n\nSUICIDE. \n\n\n\n933 \n\n\n\nSULTAN. \n\n\n\nMajor-gen. Stalker, C.B., of Indian army (14 March), \nand commodore Ethersey, of the Indian navy. \n(Both through physical and mental depression \nwhile on the expedition against Persia : see \n\nBushire) 17 March, 1857 \n\nMajor Warburton, M.P. for Harwich, brother of \n\nEliot, lost in the Amazon ... 23 Oct. ,, \nHenry M. Witt, a promising young chemist, at the \n\nGovernment School of Mines . . .19 June, 1858 \nDr. Sadleir, Senior Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin, \n\nJuly, \xe2\x80\x9e \nRev. G. Martin, chancellor of the diocese of Exeter, \n\n27 Aug. i860 \nLord Forth, son of earl of Perth . . . 8 Oct. 1861 \nWin. G. Prescott, banker . . . .29 April, 1865 \nAdmiral Robert Fitz-Roy (see Neiu Zealand, and \n\nMeteorology) 30 April, ,, \n\nCol. Hobbs (connected with the suppression of \n\nJamaica outbreak) on his way to England, 9 May, 1867 \nG. W. Green, merchant, jumped off Clifton Suspen- \nsion bridge 11 May, ,, \n\nDr. A. W. Warder, murderer of Ins wife, at Brighton, \n\n12 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThos. Lee, threw himself from the north tower of \n\nthe Crystal palace 18 Feb. 1868 \n\nTheodore, emperor of Abyssinia . . 13 April, ,, \nMr. Stephenson, bettor on races ; the " leviathan \n\nbook-maker " 9 Feb. 1869 \n\nG. H. Townsend, historical scholar . . 25 Feb. ,, \n\nLord Cloncurry 3 April, ,, \n\nSir Robert H. J. Harvey, Norwich banker, 15 July ; \n\ndied 19 July, 1870 \n\nM. Prevost-Paradol, the accomplished French \nminister at Washington, formerly a correspondent \n\nfor the Times 19 July, ,, \n\nMr. Robert K. Bowley, 15 years manager of the \n\nCrystal palace company ... 25 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nDr. Augustus Matthiessen, eminent chemist, pro- \nfessor at St. Bartholomew\'s hospital . 6 Oct. ,, \n\nLord Walsingham 31 Jan. 1871 \n\nSir James Shaw Willes, justice of common pleas \n\n(overwrought mind) .... 2 Oct. 1872 \n\nEarl Delawarr (insane) .... 22 April, 1873 \nRev. Arthur Holmes, dean of Clare College, Cam- \nbridge, a great scholar ; (overwrought mind) \n\n17 April, 1875 \nGeorge Lord Lyttelton, eminent scholar ; tempo- \nrary insanity ; 18 April ; died . . 19 April, 1876 \nAbdul Aziz, sultan of Turkey, deposed 29 May ; said \nto have committed suicide (see Turkey, 1881), \n\n4 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nDr. Sam. Butcher.bishop of Meath ; insane, 29 July, ,, \nHarriet Mary, dowager countess Howe ; insane \n\nthrough grief 29 Jan. 1877 \n\nRaphael Brandon, architect . . .8 Oct. ,, \nJ. W. Stevens, insane ; threw himself from whisper- \ning gallery, St. Paul\'s ... 10 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \nE. M. Ward, genre painter ;. insane . . 15 Jan. 1879 \nIsaac Fletcher, M.P., F.R.S. . . .3 April, ,, \nRev. W. Gunson, able tutor of Christ\'s College, \n\nCambridge (insane) .... 30 Sept. 1881 \nCarl Engel (musical archaeologist) . . 18 Nov. 1882 \nDr. William Whitfield Edwards, surgeon at Houns- \n\nlow 27 Dec. ,, \n\nCount Wimpffen, Austrian ambassador at Paris, \n\n30 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nMorris Simeon Oppenheim, barrister . . 3 Jan. 1883 \nJoseph Dimsdale, Gutter Lane, E.C. . 13 Jan. ,, \nSir John Savage, formerly mayor of Belfast, \n\n15 June, ,, \nRev. Alexr. Taylor, preacher of Gray\'s Inn n April, 1884 \nII. T. Edwards, dean of Bangor . . 24 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe eighth earl of Shaftesbury (insane) in a cab in \n\nRegent-street 13 April, 1886 \n\nFred Archer, celebrated jockey (insane) 8 Nov. ,, \nLouis II. king of Bavaria ". . . 13 June, ,, \nNagayori Asana, Japanese prince, law student \n\n(melancholia) at south Kensington . 24 Dec. ,, \nJohn K. Cross, formerly M.P. and under secretary \n\nfor India (1883-5) .... 20 March, 1887 \nDr. Ridley of Tullamorc gaol (see under Ireland,) \n\n20 July, 1888 \nArchduke Rodolph, crown prince of Austria, \n\n30 Jan. 1889 \nRichard Pigott (see Ireland) . . 1 March, ,, \nM. Dcnfert-Rochereau, manager of the Comptoir \n\nd\'Escompte (sen Frniier) . . . 5 March, ,, \n\nSir Wm. Tindal Robertson M.P. . 6 Oct, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nSir Thos. Sidgreaves .... 23 Dec. \nProfessor Lant Carpenter (insane) . . 23 Dec. \nThe duke of Bedford (insane) . . 14 Jan. \n\nCharles Verrall Willett, M.D. (insane) . 6 March, \nLord James E. Sholto Douglas (insane) 5 .May, \n\nSen. Jose M. Balmaceda, president of Chili 19 Sept. \nGeorges E. J. M. Boulanger (see France) 30 Sept. \nDr. Philip H. Carpenter, at Eton College 21 Oct, \nArthur Goring Thomas, musical composer (insane), \n\n20 March, \nMr. J. H. Ferris, deputy-coroner of Cornwall, \n\nthrough grief 26 March, \n\nM. Henri Dupeyrier, African explorer . April, \nM. Anatole de la Forge, French author . 6 June, \n\nINQUESTS ON SUICIDES IN ENGLAND AND WALES. \n\nMales. \n\n\n\n18S9 \n1800 \n1891 \n\n\n\n1802 \n\n\n\n1856 \n1853 \n\n\n\n1865 \n1866 \n1867 \n1868 \n1869 \n1870 \n\n\n\n1874 \n1875 \n1876 \n1877 \n1878 \n1879 \n\n\n\n919 \n909 \n\n\n\n961 \n\n\n\n1028 \n973 \n985 \n113S \n1165 \n"35 \ni\xc2\xb073 \n1057 \n1099 \n1106 \n1170 \n1270 \n\n1253 \n1279 \n1461 \n\n145\xc2\xb0 \n\n1440 \n1388 \n*437 \n1537 \niS\xc2\xb04 \n1663 \n1672 \n1720 \n1603 \n1610 \n\n\n\nFemales. \n395 \n366 \n396 \n363 \n346 \n337 \n359 \n369 \n387 \n37i \n408 \n\n397 \n382 \n\n39 1 \n39S \n382 \n\n383 \n407 \n\n443 \n383 \n43\xc2\xb0 \n480 \n480 \n478 \n502 \n\n5\xc2\xb07 \n482 \n484 \n559 \n555 \n577 \n535 \n544 \n\n\n\nTotal. \n\n1314 \n\n1275 \n\n1357 \n1324 \n1284 \n1335 \nJ 337 \n1397 \n1360 \n1356 \n1546 \n1562 \n1517 \n1464 \n1455 \n1481 \n\n*549 \n1577 \n1713 \n1636 \n1709 \n1941 \n1930 \n1918 \n1890 \n1944 \n2019 \n1988 \n2222 \n2227 \n2297 \n\n\n\nSUITORS\' FUND (in the court of chancery) \nin 1862 amounted to 1,290,000^. As this money has \nno specific owner, a proposal was made by govern- \nment to apply it to the building of new law-courts, \npayment of all legal claims being guaranteed, which \nwas directed by the "Courts of Laws Fees" act, \npassed 20 Aug. 1867. \n\nSULPHUR has been known from the earliest \ntimes. Basil Valentine mentions its production \nfrom green vitriol. Sulphuric acid (vitriol), pro- \nduced by him from burning sulphur, was introduced \ninto England about 1720. Sulphur has been the \nobject of research of many eminent chemists during \nthe present century, and many discoveries have \nbeen made, such as its allotropic condition, &c. It \nis the inflammable constituent in gunpowder, and a \ndeleterious ingredient in coal gas. The sulphur \nmines of Sicily have been wrought since the 16th \ncentury, but the exportation was inconsiderable till \nabout \'1820 ; in 1838 the trade increased so much \nthat Great Britain alone imported 38,654 tons. In \nthat year the Neapolitan government was induced \nto grant a monopoly of the trade to a French \ncompany; but a firm remonstrance from the British \ngovernment led to a discontinuance of this impolitic \nrestriction in 1841, which, however, gave a great and \nlasting impetus to the British sulphur manufacture. \n\nSULTAN", or ruler, a Turkish title, from the \nArabic, given to Mahometan rulers and especially \nto the grand signior or emperor of Turkey. \nFor the wreck of II. M.S. Sultan (see Navy of \n\nEn ilo.nd) .... ... i33g \n\n\n\nSULTT. \n\n\n\n934 \n\n\n\nSUNDAY. \n\n\n\nSULU, Sooloo or Soluk Archipelago, a group of \nabove 60 islands in the Malay Archipelago. The \nSpanish under colonel Arolas, the governor, defeated \nthe rebels at Maiburg, and burnt the town, an- \nnounced I May, 1887. \n\nSUMATRA, an island in the Indian ocean, \ncalled Java Minor by Marco Polo, and visited by \nNicolo di Conti prior to 1449. Mainly on account \nof the pepper trade, the Dutch formed a settlement \nat Padang about 1649, an( i the British at Bencoolen \nabout 1685. The Dutch possessions with Java were \nacquired by the British in 181 1 ; but were restored \nin 1816. In 1824 the Dutch acquired all the British \nsettlements in Sumatra, in exchange for Malacca \nand some possessions in India. Restrictions on \ntheir progress in Sumatra were removed by treaty \nFeb. 1872. Severe fighting between the Dutch and \nthe Achinese natives with varying results, mostly in \nfavour of the Dutch, April 1873 to J 879- Dutch \nsuccessful in war, peace announced, Aug. 1879. \nNew -war ; great victory of the Dutch, 13 Sept. \n1882. Sumatra suffered much by the volcanic \neruptions and earthquakes of 26-27 -A- u o- J 883. See \nJava. \n\nSUMMARY JURISDICTION Act, 42 & \n43 Vict. c. 49, 11 Aug. 1879. ^ amends the law \nrespecting the jurisdiction of magistrates, in regard \nto fines, imprisonments, &c. It came into operation \n1 Jan. 1880. Amended 1881 and 1884. \n\nSUMPTUARY LAWS restrain excess in \ndress, furniture, eating, &c. The laws of Lycurgus \nwere severe against luxury, probably 9th century B.C. \nThose of Zaleucus ordained that no sober woman \nshould go attended by more than one maid in the \nstreet, or wear gold or embroidered apparel, 450 B.C. \n\xe2\x80\x94 Diog. Laert. The Lex Orchia among the Romans \n(181 B.C.) limited the guests at feasts, and the \nnumber and quality of the dishes at an entertain- \nment; and it also enforced that during supper, \nwhich was the chief meal among the Romans, \nfie doors of every house should be left open. The \nEnglish sumptuary laws, chiefly of the reigns of \nEdward III. and Henry VIII., were repealed in \n1856; see Dress. \n\nSUN.* Pythagoras taught that the sun was one \nof the twelve spheres, about 529 B.C. The relative \ndistances of the sun and moon were first calculated \ngeometrically by Aristarchus, who also maintained the \nstability of the sun, about 280 b. c Numerous theories \nwere ventured during fifteen centuries, and astronomy \nlay neglected till about a.d. 1200, when it was \nbrought into Europe by the Moors of Barbary and \nSpain. The Copernican system was made known in \n1530; see Copernican. System, and Solar System. \nGalileo and Newton maintained that the sun was an \nigneous globe. The transit of Mercury was observed \nby Gassendi. For recent discoveries, see Eclipses, \nSpectrum, and Venus. \n\n\n\n* The estimated diameter is 840,000 miles, and the dis- \ntance from the earth, till lately given as 95,000,000 miles \nnas been recently corrected to 94,000,000, by the result of \nthe experiments and calculations of MM Pizeau and \nFoucault (1864). "The error corrected corresponds to \nthe apparent breadth of a human hair at io S feet or of a \nsovereign 8 miles off."\xe2\x80\x94 Herschel. Distance computed \nby sir G. B. Airy from results of the observation of tran- \nsit of Venus ( 9 Dee. 1874), 93,321,000 miles, Oct. 1877 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n92,600,000, June, 187S. From the transit of 188" by \nprofessor Harkuess(an American), 92,385,000 miles, Octo- \nber, 18S8. The sun is now described as consisting of a \nsolid or liquid nucleus, surrounded by a luminous en- \nvelope (photosphere) over which is a dense atmosphere \ncontaining the vapours of various metals and other ele- \nments ; see Spectrum. \n\n\n\nBy the observations of Dr. Halley on the spot which \ndarkened the sun\'s disc in July and August, 1676, \nhe established the certainty of its motion round \nits own axis. \n\nParallax of the sun, Dr. Halley 1702 \n\nSolar spots were observed by Fabrieius and Harriot \nin 1610. A macula three times the size of the earth \npassed the sun\'s centre, 21 April, 1766, and fre- \nquently since. \n\nDr. Wilson observed the motion of a spot . . 1769 \n\nHerschel measured two spots, whose length together \nexceeded 50,000 miles .... 19 April, 1779 \n\nMany sun spots observed .... early 1892 \n\nSchwabe discovered that a cycle of changes (from \nmaximum to minimum and minimum to maxi- \nmum) in the number of spots occurs in 11 years, \nconfirmed by Wolf and others . . . 1826-51 \n\nMr. Warren de la Rue took two photographs at the \ntime of total obscuration . . .18 July, i860 \n\nMr. James Nasmyth discovers the lenticular-shaped \nobjects 011 the sun (termed by him " willow- \nleaves," by Stone "rice-grains ") . . 28 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRed flames, or protuberances, during an eclipse of \nthe sun, observed by capt. Stannyaii, 1706 ; by \nHalley, 1715 ; by F. Baily (hence termed "Baily\'s \nbeads,") 1842. \n\nDetermined by M. Janssen to be due to the accu- \nmulated hydrogen of the photosphere, at the solar \neclipse (see Eclipses) .... 18 Aug. 1868 \n\nMouchot constructed a solar boiler for distillation, \n&c Oct. i860 \n\nMr. Ericsson proposed condensation of the sun\'s \nrays and their employment as a motive power, \n\nOct. 1868 \n\nThe observations of the eclipse of 22 Dec. 1870 and \n12 Dec. 1871 led to the opinion that an unknown \nsubstance (represented in the spectrum by line \n1474) existed in the sun. \n\n" Solar physics " especially studied by Messrs. War- \nren de la Rue, Balfour Stewart, <fec. . . 1865-6 \n\nApparatus for cooking by the condensed solar rays \nin the Paris exhibition 1878 \n\nSolar eclipse well observed in the United States ; \nthe corona much brighter than in 1871 ; 29, 30 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nM. Mouchot at Algiers, by a mirror, collected solar \nrays, and boiled water, drove an engine, &c, \nMarch, 1880 ; see under Heat. \n\nIntensely red sunsets and after-glow, and very red \nsun-rises, seen in England and other parts of the \nglobe, Nov. and Dec. 1883 ; attributed by Dr. \nMeldrum, Dr. Norman Lockyer and others, to \nthe volcanic dust projected by the eruptions of \nRrakatoa (see Java, Aug. 1883), Dec. 1883 ; other \ncauses, such as cosmic dust, were suggested. \nSimilar sunsets in the autumn . 1884 and 1885 \n\nInteresting photographs of the sun\'s corona exhi- \nbited by Dr. Huggius at the Royal Institution^ \n\n20 Feb. 18S5 \n\nEclipse of 19 Aug. 1887 not well observed through \nunfavourable weather, except at Moscow and \nother places in Russia and Germany. \n\nSUNCION, Treaty OF, between general \nUrquiza, director of the Argentine confederation, \nand G. A. Lopez, president of the republic of Para- \nguay, recognising the independence of Paraguay, 14. \nJuly, 1852. \n\nSUNDA ISLES, include Java and Sumatra \n\n(which see) . \n\n_ SUNDAY was the day on which, anciently, \ndivine adoration was paid to the Sun. Among \nChristians it is commonly called Dies Dominica, or \nLord\'s day, on account of our Saviour\'s appearance \non that clay, after his resurrection. The first civil \nlaw that was issued for the observance of this day, \ncombined it with that of the seventh-day Sabbath \nand other festivals (Easebius, Life of Constantine), \nand it .was followed by several imperial edicts, in \nfavour of this day, which are extant in the body of \nRoman law, the earliest being that of Constantine \nthe Great, dated 7 March, 321. See Sabbath, Sab- \nbatarians, Sports, Book of &c. \xe2\x80\x94 For Sunday \nLetter, see Dominical Letter. \n\n\n\nSUNDAY LECTUEE SOCIETY. 935 \n\n\n\nSUPREME COUET. \n\n\n\nThe council of Orleans prohibited country labour . 538 \n\nThe Sabbath-day was ordained to be kept holy in \nEngland, from Saturday at three in the afternoon \nto Monday at break-of-day, 4th Canon, Edgar . 960 \n\nAct of parliament, levying one shilling on every \nperson absent from church on Sundays, 3 James I. 1606 \n\nJames I. authorised certain sports after divine ser- \nvice on Sundays (see Sports) 1618 \n\nAct restraining amusements, 1 Charles I. . . 1625 \n\nAct restraining the performance of servile works, \nand the sale of goods except milk at certain hours \nand meat in public-houses, and works of necessity \nand charity, on forfeiture of five shillings, 29 \nCharles II 1676 \n\nThe Sunday act (of bishop Porteus) 21 Geo, III. \nc. 49, passed 1781 \n\nLord Robert Grosvenor (aft. lord Ebury), in- \ntroduced a bill to suppress Sunday trading. (It \nmet with much opposition and was withdrawn), \n\nApril-July, 1855 \n\nThe Jews released from the compulsory observance \nof Sunday began 28 May, 1871 \n\nSunday act (1676) amended . . -17 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nOpening of public museums and galleries on Sun- \nday often proposed in parliament ; negatived \n(271-68), 19 May, 1874 ; (229-87) . 8 June, 1877 \n\n"Sunday Society" established 6 Aug. 1875, "to \nmaintain and enhance the value and importance \nof the English Sunday." Annual meeting; Dr. \nA. P. Stanley, the dean of Westminster, pro- \nfessors Tyndall and Huxley, &c, present 12 May, ,, \n\nThe Brighton Aquarium Company fined for opening \non Sunday, 27 April ; much agitation ; petitions \nto government for and against, May ; an act was \npassed to enable the Home Secretary to remit \nthe penalties, 13 Aug., 1875; the company again \nfined 28 April, ,, \n\nGrosvenor gallery and other collections opened on \nSundays, summer 1878 \n\nAct for closing public-houses in Ireland on Sun- \ndays, passed 16 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFree libraries opened on Sundays at Manchester \nand other places Sept. ,, \n\nProposed opening of museums and galleries in Lon- \ndon, negatived in the lords (67-59), 5 May, 1879 ; \n(34-41), 22 Feb. 1880 ; (91-67) 8 May, 1883 ; \nassented to (76-62) . . . .19 March, 1886 \n\nOpening of Guildhall library on Sundays, negatived \nby the common council . . . .16 Oct. 1879 \n\n"Welsh Sunday Closing Act passed . . . .1881 \n\nAlexandra Palace religious services on Sundays for \na time Sept. -Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nJubilee memorial to the queen signed by 1,132,608 \nwomen of England, requesting the prohibition of \nthe sale of intoxicating liquors on Sundays, \n\ngiven in 30 Dec. 1887 \n\nProtest of the bishops in convocation against \nincreasing desecration of the Lord\'s day by the \n\nupper classes 2 March, 1888 \n\nClosing of public houses in England on Sunday \nfrequently negatived ; Sunday closing bill read \nsecond time in the commons . . 27 March, 1889 \nSunday Rest League formed at Paris . . . ,, \n\nSUNDAY LECTUEE SOCIETYwas \n\nfounded 25 Nov. 1869. It began its proceedings by \na lecture delivered by Dr. W. B. Carpenter at St. \nGeorge\'s -hall, Regent - street, 16 Jan. 1870. Its \nsuccess was reported at the first annual meeting, \n7 July, 1870. See Recreative Religionists. \n\nSUNDAY NEWSPAPERS, see Newspapers. \n\nSUNDAY SCHOOLS. Cardinal Sr. Charles \nBorromeo introduced Sunday instruction of children \nat Milan, about 1580; in the next century his example \nwas followed in England by the rev. Joseph Allcine; \nby rev. David Blair, at Brechin, about 1760 ; by the \nrev. Theophilus Lindsey, at Catterick, Yorkshire, \nabout 1763; and more especially organised by \nRobert llaikes, an eminent printer of Gloucester, \nconjointly with rev. Thos. Stock, 1780. Ludweeli \nHacker set up a Sabbath school at Ephrata, Penn- \nsylvania, between 1740 and 1747. \nSunday-school buildings exempted from rates . 1869 \n\nChurch of England Sunday-school Institute . . 1843 \n\n\n\nSunday-school union was founded in 1802; it sup- \nported 4204 schools, 1878 ; 6,162 schools in . . 1892 \n\nMonument in memory of twelve originators of Sun- \nday-schools, Essex-street, Strand (names in- \nscribed, 1st., cardinal Borromeo, Milan, 1580; \nlast, rev. Thomas Stock and Robert Raikes, \nGloucester, 1780) ; inaugurated by Henry Richard, \nM.P., the Italian ambassador, and others 26 June, 1880 \n\nNational centenary celebration of the establishment \nof Sunday-schools, in London, <fec, promoted by \nthe royal family, archbishop of Canterbury, the \nlord mayor, and others . 27 June \xe2\x80\x94 3 July, ,, \n\nGrand reception of scholars at Lambeth palace-gar- \ndens by the archbishop ; prince and princess of \n\nWales, cfec, present 3 July, ,, \n\nSee Education, and Sabbath Schools. \n\nSUNDEELAND, seaport, N.E. Durham, \nanciently South Wearino\', made a borough by Re- \nform Bill, 1832. Returns two members (1885). \nThe magnificent bridge over the "Wear, designed \nby Wilson, 236 feet in span, was built 1 793-6. \nPopulation, 1881, 1 16,542 -,"1891, 130,921. \nOn 16 June, 1883, 186 children were crushed to death \nagainst a doorway whilst rushing down from a gallery \nin Victoria Hall to obtain toys given away by Fay, a \nconjuror, at the close of his performances. \nGreat distress of the unemployed, Sept. et seq. 1884. \nSee Strikes, 1892. \n\nSUNDEELAND ADMINISTEATION, \n\nformed in 1718, arose out of a modification of the \n\nStanhope ministry. After various changes, it was \n\nbroken up in 1 721. \n\nCharles, earl of Sunderland, first lord of the treasury. \n\nEarl Cowper, lord chancellor. \n\nEarl Stanhope and Mr. Craggs, secretaries. \n\nMr. Aislabie, chancellor of the exchequer, <fcc. \n\nSUNDEELAND LIBEAEY, see under \nLibraries. \n\nSUN DIALS, see Dials. \n\nSUNNITES, or SONNITES (ivhich see). \n\nSUNSHINE EECOEDEE, a sphere of \nglass so disposed as to char a marked piece of paper, \nby concentrating the sun\'s rays. The instrument \n(invented by Mr. J. F. Campbell in 1857), in its \npresent form was devised by prof. G. G. Stokes, \nand made by Mr. R. J. Lecky (1880). A more deli- \ncate form of instrument for recording photometri- \ncally the duration and intensity of sunshine has \nbeen invented by Mr. J. B. Jordan, 1884 ; much \nimproved, April, 1888. \n\nSUPEEANNUATION ACTS for the Civil \nService were passed in April, 1859, Aug. 1866, Juno, \n1892. \n\nSUPPEE, see Lord\'s Supper. \n\nSUPEEMACY over the church was claimed \nby pope Gclasius I. as bishop of Rome, 494. On \nic Jan. 1535, Henry VIII. by virtue of the act 26 \nHen. VIII. c. 1, formally assumed the style of "on \nearth supreme head of the church of England," \nwhich was retained by Edward VI., Mary I. (for a \ntime), but was refused by Elizabeth, and has never \nbeen revived by succeeding sovereigns. The \nbishop of Rochester (Fisher) and the ex-lord \nchancellor (sir Thomas More) and many others \nwere beheaded for denying the king\'s supre- \nmacy in 1535; and in 1578, John Nelson, a priest, \nand Thomas Sherwood, a young layman, were \nexecuted at Tyburn for the same offence. The " acl \nof Supremacy," repealed by 1 & 2 Phil, and Mary, \nc. 8 (1554), was re-enacted 1 Eliz. e. 1 (i550)- \n\nSUPEEME COUET OF JUDICATURE \n\nwas constituted by the Judicature Act 36 & 3; \n\nI Vict. c. 66, passed 5 Aug. 1873, to come into opera- \n\nI tion I Nov. 1874. In 1874 this was deferred to \n\n\n\nSUPEEME COUET. \n\n\n\n936 \n\n\n\nSURINAM. \n\n\n\nI Nov. 1875. The " Council of Judges " appointed \n\nby this act met to consider questions relating to the \n\nreform of the law, 18 Jan. 1892. See under Judges. \n\nThe existing courts were to be united into One \nSupreme Court, divided into the High Court of \nJustice and the Court of Appeal. The High Court \nto consist of the lord chancellor, the two lord chief \njustices, the vice-chancellors, and the other \njudges: (hereafter the court to consist of 21 judges.) \n\nFive divisions : 1. Chancery, 2. Queen\'s Bench, 3. \nCommon Pleas, 4. Exchequer, and 5. Probate, \nDivorce, and Admiralty ; subject to alteration. \n\nThe Court of Appeal to consist of five ex-officio \njudges (viz. , lord chancellor, two lord chief jus- \ntices, lord chief baron, master of the rolls), and \nsuch others as may be appointed (\xc2\xa7\xc2\xa7 20, 21, 22). \n\nAppeals to the house of lords or the judicial com- \nmittee of the privy council to be discontinued. \n\nLaw and equity to be concurrently administered ; \nlaw terms abolished ; and sittings in vacation pro- \nvided for. See under Terms. \n\nThe act passed n Aug., 1S7S, suspended \xc2\xa7\xc2\xa7 20, 21, \nand 55, converted the proposed court of appeal \ninto an intermediate court till 1 Nov., 1876. (See \nbelow). \n\nThe Supreme Court of Judicature (comprising the \nHigh Court of Justice, Chancery division, Queen\'s \nBench, Common Pleas, and Exchequer subdivi- \nsions, Probate, Divorce, and Admiralty division \n(all which see) began .... 2 Nov. 1875 \n\nAfter one term, it was said in the Times, " Its opera- \ntion has tended to economise judicial power and \nto prevent delay of justice " . . 29 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBy the Appellate Jurisdiction Act (1876) the house \nof lords retains its powers as a court of ultimate \nappeal ; the court to consist of the lord chancel- \nlor, two lords of appeal (to be created peers for \nlife, with 6000J. salary) and any peers who are or \nhave been lawyers. Act to come into opera- \ntion 1 Nov. 1876 \n\nThe court may sit during prorogation of parliament. \nThe statute relating to the judicial committee of \nthe privy council and to the intermediate court \nof appeal is amended ,, \n\nBy this act also the Queen\'s Bench, Common Pleas, \nand Exchequer divisions of the Supreme Court \nare converted into 15 courts of first instance or \nprimary courts. \n\nAdditional judge for chancery division appointed. \n\nStyle of ordinary judges :\xe2\x80\x94 of the court of appeal to \nbe, "lord justices of the appeal;" other judges, \n"justices of the high court;" by act passed \n\n24 April, 1877 \n\nAn amendment act (42 <& 43 Vict. c. 78), relating to \noffices, fees, <fcc, passed ... 15 Aug. 1879 \n\nAt a meeting of the judges it was resolved to recom- \nmend the abolition of the exchequer and common \npleas, and their consolidation into one, termed the \n"queen\'s bench division," under the lord chief \njustice of England, 30 Nov. ; order in council \n\n16 Dec. 1880 \n\nCarried into effect ; old divisions at an end ; judi- \ncature act carried out for the first time 7 March, 1881 \n\nFurther changes made by the act 44 & 45 Vict. sec. \n68, passed 27 Aug. 1881, by it the master of the \nrolls was made a judge of appeal only, and the \nchief justice of England was endowed with the \npowers of the chief justice of common pleas and \nthe chief baron of the exchequer. \n\nNew code of rules of procedure issued about 9 \nJuly ; came into force 24 Oct. 18S3. See Circuits. \nAmendment act passed (combining other acts), 14 \nAug. 1884; other acts passed 14 Aug. 1890, 11 \n\nMay, and 5 Aug. 1891 \n\nSUPEEME COUET OF JUDICA- \nTURE FOE IEELAND constituted by act \npassed 14 Aug. 1877. Amended by an act passed \n23 May, 1887, by which the titles of chief baron of \nthe exchequer and chief justice of the common \npleas are to be abolished at the next vacancies. \nCourt of Appeal : ex-officio members, lord chancellor, \nlord chief justice of Ireland, master of the rolls, lord \nchief justice of common pleas, and lord chief baron of \nexchequer. Ordinary m.embcrs, two lords justices of \nappeal. \n\n\n\nHigh Court of Justice : Chancery division, lord chan- \ncellor, master of the rolls, vice-chancellor, and two \nland judges. \n\nQueen\'s Bench division : lord chief justice, and three \njudges. \n\nCommon Pleas division : lord chief justice, and two \njudges. \n\nExchequer division : lord chief baron, and two judges. \n\nProbate and Matrimonial division : one judge. \nSee under Chancery and the other divisions. \n\nSURAT (E. Indies). Before the English East \nIndia company obtained possession of Bombay, the \npresidency of their affairs on the coast of Malabar \nwas at Surat; and they had a factory here estab- \nlished under captain Best in 161 1. The Great \nMogul had here an officer who was styled his ad- \nmiral. An attack of the Mahratta chief Sivajee, \non the British factory, was defeated by sir George \nOxenden, 1664. The English were again attacked \nin 1670 and 1702, and often subsequently. The \nEast India company, in 1759, fitted out an arma- \nment, which dispossessed the admiral of the castle ; \nand, soon after, the possession of this castle was \nconfirmed to them by the court of Delhi. Surat \nwas vested in the British in 1800 and 1803. A \nfourth part of Surat was destroyed by fire 6, 7 \nApril, 1889. \n\nSURGEONS. Barbers and surgeons were united \nin one company in 1540 ; but it was enacted that " no \nperson using any shaving or barbery in London shall \noccupy any surgery, letting of blood, or other matter \nexcepting only the drawing of teeth." In 1745 \nthe surgeons and barbers of London were made dis- \ntinct corporations. The college of surgeons obtained \ncharters in 1745, 1800, and 1843 (when it was styled \nthe " Boyal College of Surgeons of England"), 1852, \nand 1859. Since that period, various legislative and \nother important regulations have been adopted to \npromote then- utility and respectability ; and no per- \nson is legally entitled to practise as a surgeon in the \ncities of London and Westminster, or within seven \nmiles of the form er, who has not been examined at this \ncollege. The college in Lincoln\' s-inn-fields was \nre-modelled in 1836, and the interior completed in \n1837. The premises were enlarged in 1852-3. The \nmuseum began with the Hunterian collection, 1800; \nand the library was founded in 1801. Mrs. Mary \nEmily Dowson, the first lady surgeon duly qualified \nto act, was invested with the letters testimonial of \nthe Irish college of surgeons, June, 1886. See Ana- \ntomy, Physic, and Medical Council. \nKoyal college of surgeons, Dublin, incorporated \n\n17S6 ; Edinburgh 1803 \n\nSUEGEEY. It was not until the age of Hip- \npocrates that diseases were made a separate study \nfrom philosophy, &c, about 410 B.C. Hippocrates \nmentions the ambe, the ancient instrument with \nwhich they reduced dislocated bones. Celsus flour- \nished about a.d. 17; Galen, 170; Aetius, TOO; \nPaulus JEgineta, in 640. The Arabians revived \nsurgery about 900; and in the 16th century a new \nera in the science began ; between these periods \nsurgery was confined to ignorant priests and bar- \nbers. Anatomy was cultivated under Vesalius, the \nfather of modern surgery, in 1538. Surgeons and \ndoctors were exempted from bearing arms or serving \non juries, 15 13, at which period there were only \nthirteen in London; see Physic. \n\nSURGICAL AID SOCIETY, founded \n1862 ; supplies the poor with instruments, water- \nbeds, &c. \n\nSUEINAM (Dutch Guiana), discovered by \nColumbus, 1498. The factories established by the \nEnglish in 1640 were occupied by the Portuguese, \n\n\n\nSURNAMES. \n\n\n\n937 \n\n\n\nSWANSEA. \n\n\n\n1643; by the Dutch, 1654; taken by the British, \n1799, 1804; and restored to the Dutch, 1802, 1814. \n\nSURNAMES were introduced into England by \n\nthe Normans, and were adopted by the nobility \nabout 1 100. The old Normans used Fite, which \nsignifies son, as Fitz-herbert. The Irish used 0, \nfor grandson, O\'Neal, O\'Donnell. The Scottish \nHighlanders used Mac, as Macdonald, son of Donald. \nThe "Welsh used Ap, as Ap Rhys, the son of Rhys ; \nAp Richard. The prefix Ap eventually was combined \nwith the name of the father, hence Prys, Pritchard, \n&c. The northern nations added the word son to the \nfather\'s name, as "Williamson. Many of the most \ncommon surnames, such as Johnson, Wilson, Dyson, \nNicholson, &c, were taken by Brabanters and other \nFlemings, who were naturalised in the reign of \nHenry VI., 1435. M. A. Lower\'s " Dictionary of \nEnglish Surnames" was published in i860. \n\nSURPLICES were first worn by the Jewish \npriests, and are said to have been first used in \nchurches in the fourth century, and encouraged by \npope Adrian, 786. " Every minister saying public \nprayers shall wear a comely surplice with sleeves," \nCanon 58. The garb prescribed by stat. 2 Edw. "VI. \n1547 ; again 1 Eliz. 1558 ; and 13 & 14 Chas. II. \n1662 ; see Ritualism. \n\nSURREY CHAPEL, Blackfriars-road, was \nbuilt for Calvinistic dissenters in 1783; the rev. \nRowland Hill, their minister, who died in 1833, \nwas buried in a vault here. The congregation \nunder the rev. Newman Hall removed to Christ \nChurch, in "Westminster-road, July, 1876. See \nLincoln Toiver. \n\nSURREY HOUSE MUSEUM, Forest \nHill, containing the collections of Mr. F. Horniman, \ncost about 100,000^., presented by him to the public, \nwas opened by sir Morell Mackenzie, 24 Dec. 1890. \n\nSURREY ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS \n\n(near London) were established in 1831, by Mr. \nEdward Cross, who brought hither the menagerie \nformerly at Exeter change. Various picture models \nhave been exhibited here since 1837, viz., Vesuvius, \nIceland, &c, accompanied by fireworks. In 1856, \na company which had taken the gardens, erected a \nlarge yet elegant building for concerts ; the archi- \ntect being Mr. Horace Jones. On 19 Oct. 1856, \nwhen the hall contained about 9000 persons, attend- \ning to hear the rev. C. H. Spurgeon, seven were \nkilled and thirty seriously injured, by a false alarm \nof fire. It was burnt II June, 1861 ; see Fires. \nIn 1862 the hall was temporarily taken for the re- \nception of the patients of St. Thomas\'s hospital. \n\nSURTEES SOCIETY for publishing MSS. \nrelating to the northern counties, established 1834 ; \n84 volumes have been published, 1889. \n\nSURVEY ACT, passed 12 May, 1870. See \nOrdnance Survey. \n\nSURVEYORS, INSTITUTION OF, Lon- \ndon, founded in 1868, to promote the "knowledgi \nwhich constitutes the profession of a surveyor." \nIncorporated as " The Surveyors\' Institution " in \n1881. The number of members, 1,200 in 1886. \n\nSUSA, or SnusnAN, capital of Susiana, a pro- \nvince of Persia, was taken by Alexander the Great. \n331 B.C. \n\nSUSPENDING POWER, see Dispensing \nPower. \n\nSUSPENSION BRIDGES are ancient in \nChina. The Hungerford (or Charing-cross) suspen- \nsion bridge, opened May 1, 1845, was removed to \n\n\n\nClifton and opened there, 8 Dec. 1864. Parliament \nempowered the commissioners of woods to erect \n(among other improvements there) a suspension \nbridge at Battersea, Sept. 1846 ; and many bridges \nof similar construction have been erected in various- \nparts of the kingdom. Lambeth and Westminster \nsuspension bridge was opened 10 Nov. 1862 ; sec \nMenai Strait, Hungerford, Clifton, &c. \n\nSUSPENSORY BILL, the name given to \n"a bill to prevent for a limited time [to I Aug, \n1869] new appointments in the church of Ireland ; \nand to restrain, for the same period, in certain \nrespects, the proceedings of the Ecclesiastical Com- \nmissioners for Ireland." This bill was introduced \ninto the commons by Mr. Gladstone, 14 May, and \npassed through committee, 5 June ; rejected by the \nlords (192 to 97), 30 June, 3 a.m., 1868. \n\nSUSSEX, see Britain. \n\nSUTLEJ, a river in N.W. India, the ancient! \nHyphasis or Hypana, on the banks of which were- \nfought the desperate battles of Aliwal, 28 Jan., and \nSobraon, 10 Feb. 1846 {which sec). \n\nSUTTEE, the burning of widows. This cus- \ntom began in India from one of the wives of \n" Bramah, the Son of God," sacrificing herself at \nhis death, that she might attend him in heaven. \nSeventeen widows have burnt themselves on the \nfuneral pile of a rajah ; and in Bengal alone, 70a \nhave thus perished in a year. The English govern- \nment, after long discouraging suttees, by the agency \nof lord William Bentinck, formally abolished them, \n7 Dec. 1829; but they have since occasionally taken \nplace. The wife of the son of the rajah of Beygoon- \nthus perished, June, 1864, and several wives of sir \nJung Bahadoor, minister of Nepaul, I March, 1877, \nSuttees still occur ; one, voluntary, at Poona, Nov. \n1890. \n\nAbout 20,000,000 women in enforced widowhood ; \nmuch profligacy, 1885. Legislative interference \nwith the Hindoo marriage laws declared by lord \nDufferin, viceroy, to be ineffectual and un- \nnecessary ; moral influence progressing (see \nBrahmo Somaj, under Deism) announced Oct. 1886 \n\nSUWANOW, or (SUWOROFF), a group of \nsmall uninhabited isles in the Pacific, about 450 \nmiles NNW. of the Samoan isles, annexed by \nGreat Britain, 1889. \n\nSWABIA, a province in S. Germany; was con- \nquered by Clovis, and incorporated into the king- \ndom of the Franks, 496. After various changes of \nrulers, it was made a duchy by the emperor Conrad \nL, in 912, for Erchanger; according to some, in \n916, for Burckhardt. The duchy became hereditary \nin the house of Hohcnstaufcn in 1080. Duke \nFrederick III. became emperor of Rome, com- \nmonly styled of Germany, as Frederick I. (usu- \nally styled Barbarossa, " red beard), in 1 1 5 2 . \nConradin his descendant, was defeated at the \nbattle of Tagliacozzo (which sec), in 1268, and \nbeheaded shortly after. The breaking up of the \nduchy gave rise to many of the small German \nstates; part of Swabia is included in Wurtemberg \nand Switzerland. Swabia was made a circle of the \nempire in 13S7 and 1500. A league, composed of \nSwabian cities and states, about [254, was the germ \nof the great Swabian league, formed for the preser- \nvation of the peace of Germany, under the auspices \nof the emperor Frederick, in 1488. \n\nSWAN RIVER SETTLEMENT, see \nWestern Australia. \n\nSWANSEA, Glamorganshire, an ancient \nWelsh town ; seat of the copper trade since 1719. \n\n\n\nSWAT. \n\n\n\n938 \n\n\n\nSWEDEN. \n\n\n\nNew dock opened by the prince of Wales, 18 Oct. \n1881. Population, 1881, 76,430; 1891, 90,423. \nThe British Association met here Aug. 1848, and Aug., \n\nSept. 1880. \nLewis L. Dillwyn, 37 years M.P. for Swansea, died \n\nsuddenly, 19 June, 1892. \n\nSWAT, or SVAT, a river, N.W. India. The \nAkhond, Abdul Ghafur, originally an austere Ma- \nhometan fanatic, about 1822, gradually obtained \ntemporal power over the tribes in the hills near \nAfghanistan, dying in high reputation, about 1878. \n\nSWAZILAND, South Africa, a tract of about \n\n8,000 square miles, nearly surrounded by the \n\nTransvaal territory; population, about 60,000 \n\nnatives and 600 whites, 1889. \n\nGreat disorders through the weakness of the king, \nUmbandeni ; influenced successively by opposing \nwhite factions, English and Boers ; the king dies, \n\n_,\'.... 6 Oct. 1889 \n\nTo settle the government of the country, sir Francis \nde Winton was appointed British commissioner, \nsailed 8 Oct. ; at Pretoria, about 12 Nov. ; Boer \ncommissioners were appointed . about 21 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBoon, eldest son of Umbandeni, elected king ; \nMr. Shepstone appointed to take charge of Euro- \npean affairs about 23 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSir Francis de Winton and the Transvaal commis- \nsioners meet 100 head-men of the Swazis ; results : \nthe independence of the nation to be preserved ; \nthe accession of the king recognized ; the queen- \nmother to be regent during his minority ; Mr. \nShepstone to be adviser ; the commissioners to \ngovern the whites during their stay, to be suc- \nceeded by 3 delegates ; a legal tribunal to be \nappointed to enquire respecting concessions of \nland to the whites . . . n Dec. \n\nThe queen-regent (by Mr. Shepstone) proclaims \nsubmission to the commissioners, about 16 Dec. ; \nthe commissioners appoint 3 delegates (British, \nBoer, and Swazi) to help the queen, pending the \ndecision of the British and Transvaal govern- \nments, and leave Dec. \n\nAt a conference with president Kriiger at Blignauts \nPont, it was agreed to defer the settlement for \nfour months I2 March, 1890 \n\nIndependence of the Swazis re-affirmed by a con- \nvention ; a joint administration over the white \nsettlers to be established with other conditions ; \nsigned by president Kriiger ; reported 4 Aug. ; \n^ ratified by the volksraad. ... 8 Aug. ,, \n\nCol. Martin, British commissioner, introduced to \nQueen Victoria x July, ^92 \n\nSWEABORG, a strong fortress in Finland, the \nGibraltar of the north, 31 miles south of Helsing- \nfors; it is situated on seven rocky islands; the \nfortifications were commenced by the Swedes in 1748, \nand completed after Finland was united to Russia \nm 1809. On 6 Aug. 1855, the English and French \nfleet anchored oft\' Sweaborg, and bombarded it by \nmortar and gun-boats from the 9th to the nth, \ncausing the destruction of nearly all the principal \nbuildings, including the dockyard and arsenal. Few \ncasualties and no loss of life ensued in the allied \nsquadron, but this success was not followed up. \n\nSWEABING on the Gospels, first used \n\nabout 528, and introduced in judicial proceedings \nabout 600.\xe2\x80\x94 Rapin. Profane Swearing made \npunishable by fine ; a labourer or servant forfeiting \nis., others 2s. for the first offence; for the second \noffence, 4.S. ; the third offence, 6s. ; 6 Will. Ill \n1695 ; see Oaths. \n\nSWEATING SICKNESS, see Plague. \nSweating System, a term applied, especially in \nthe east end of London, to the practice carried \non by large tradesmen of entrusting orders to \nmiddlemen termed "sweaters," who employ \nmen, women, and children (principally foreigners) \nto make up clothes, boots, and furniture in their \nown houses at excessively low wages with many \n\n\n\nevil consequences. Lord Dunravens motion for \na select committee of inquiry was carried in the \nlords, 28 Feb. ; archbishop of Canterbury, earl of \nDerby, and others appointed 9 March, 1888. \nPainfully distressing evidence was obtained. \nThe origin of the evil is attributed to the great \ncompetition in producing extreme cheapness. \nThe new and foreign workmen are termed \n"greeners." It is stated that about 5s. are \nsometimes paid for a week of days of 14 hours, \nMay. The sufferings of the Cradley Heath chain- \nmakers, nailmakers, and others, were disclosed \nto the committee .... March, 1889 \nAnti-sweating league formed in London. 1 Oct. ,, \nThe fifth and final report recommends that where \nlegislation cannot intervene capitalists should \nenquire into the way in which their work is \ncarried on, with the view of improvement 5 May, 1S90 \nBlue Book published .... 19 May ,, \n\nSWEDEN (N. Europe). The ancient inhabi- \ntants were the Fins, now the modern inhabitants of \nFinland, who retired to their present territory on \nthe appearance of the Scandinavians or Goths, who \nhave ever since been masters of Sweden ; see \nScandinavia, and Norioay, 1891. The internal \nstate of this kingdom is little known previous \nto the nth century. By the union of Calmar \nin 1397, Sweden became a province of Denmark, \nand was not wholly rescued from this sub- \njection till 152 1, when Gustavus Vasa recovered \nthe kingdom from the Danish yoke. He became \nking in 1523, and his descendants ruled till \n1809. The government of Sweden is a limited \nmonarchy. The diet consists of four orders, the \nnobles, the clergy, the peasants, and the burghers, \nand meet every three years. The king is, as in \nBritain, the head of the executive. There are two \nuniversities, Upsal and Lund; and Sweden can \nboast, among its great men, Linnasus, Celsius, \nScheele, Bergman, Berzelius, Thorwaldsen, and \nAndersen. Population (31 Dec. 1887) of Sweden, \n4,734,901; of Norway (1875), 1,806,900. Sweden, \n1890,4,784,675. Norway, 1891, 1,988,997. Sweden, \n1890-91, 4,911,894?.; Norway, 1891-2, estimated \nrevenue, 2,733,333?. ; expenditure, 2,738,889?. \n\nOdin said to arrive in the north, and died . B.C. \n\nHis son Skiold reigns 40 \n\nThe Skioldungs reign till Olaf the infant is baptized, \nand introduces Christianity among his people, \n\nabout a. d. 1000 \nWaldeinar I. of Denmark subdues Rugen, and de- \nstroys the pagan temples 1168 \n\nStockholm founded 1260 \n\nMagnus Ladultes establishes a regular form of \n\ngovernment 1279 \n\nThe crown of Sweden, which had been hereditary, \nis made elective ; and Steenchel Magnus, sur- \nnamed Snuek, or the foolish, king of Norway, is \n\nelected 1319 \n\nWaldemar lays Gothland waste .... 1361 \n\nAlbert of Mecklenburg reigns 1363 \n\nTreaty or union of Calmar (which see), by which \nSweden is united to Denmark and Norway, under \n\nMargaret 1 397 \n\nUniversity of Upsal founded 1476 \n\nChristian II. of Denmark, " the Nero of the North," \n\nmassacres the Swedish nobility .... 1520 \nThe Swedes delivered from the Danish yoke "by the \n\nvalour of Gustavus Vasa 1521 \n\nGustavus Vasa raised to the throne .... 1523 \nHe introduces Lutheranism and religious liberty . 1527 \n\nMakes the crown hereditary 1544 \n\nGustavus Adolphus heads the protestant cause in \n\nGermany 1628 \n\nHe takes Magdeburg and Munich, 1630 ; slain at \n\nLutzeu 16 Nov. 1632 \n\nRugeu ceded to Sweden by Denmark . . . 1648 \nAbdication of Christina . . . 16 June, 1654 \n\nCharles X. overruns Poland 1655 \n\nArts and sciences begin to flourish . . . . 1660 \n\nUniversity of Lund founded 1666 \n\nCharles XII. "the Madman of the North," begins \n\n\n\nSWEDEN. \n\n\n\n939 \n\n\n\nSWEDEN. \n\n\n\nhis reign ; he makes himself absolute ; abolishes \nthe senate, 1699 ; and defeats the Russians at \nNarva ....... 30 Nov. 1700 \n\nBattle of Pultowa, where Charles is defeated by the \n\nczar of Russia (see Pultowa) . . . 8 July, 1709 \nHe escapes to Bender, where, after three years\' pro- \ntection, he is made a prisoner by the Turks . _ . 171 3 \nHe is restored ; and after ruinous wars, and fighting \nnumerous battles, is killed at the siege of Frede- \n\nrickshald 11 Dec. 1718 \n\nQueen Ulrica abolishes despotism . . . .1719 \nBremen and Verden ceded to Hanover . . Nov. ,, \nRoyal Academy founded by Linnaaus . . -1741 \nConspiracy of counts of Brahe and Home, who are \n\nbeheaded 1756 \n\nThe Hats and Caps (French and Russian parties), \n1738-57 : put down by Gustavus HI. . . . 1770 \n\nDespotism re-established 1772 \n\nOrder of the Sword instituted ,, \n\nAssassination of Gustavus III. by count Anker- \n\nstroin, at a ball, 16 March ; he expired 29 March, 1792 \nThe regicide was scourged with whips of iron \nthongs three successive days ; his right hand \nwas cut off, then his head, and his body impaled, \n\n18 May, ,, \nGustavus IV. dethroned and the government as- \nsumed by his uncle the duke of Sudermania \n(Charles XIII.) .... 13 March, 1809 \n\nRepresentative constitution established . 7 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nSweden cedes Finland to Russia . . 17 Sept. ,, \nMarshal Bernadotte, the prince of Ponte Corvo (one \nof Bonaparte\'s generals), chosen the crown prince \nof Sweden ...... 21 Aug. 1810 \n\nGustavus IV. arrived in London . . .12 Nov. ,, \nSwedish Pomerauia seized by Napoleon . 9 Jan. 1812 j \nAlliance with England . . . 12 July, ,, \n\nSweden joins the grand alliance against Napoleon, \n\n13 March, 1S13 j \nNorway is ceded to Sweden by the treaty of Kiel, \n\n14 Jan. ; carried into effect . . . Nov. 1814 \n\nBernadotte king, as Charles John XIV. . 5 Feb. 1818 \n\nCanals and roads constructed 1822 \n\nTreaty of navigation between Great Britain and \n\nSweden 19 May, 1826 \n\nDeath of Charles John ; his son Oscar I. king, 8 Mar. 1844 \nAlliance with England and France . 21 Nov. 1855 \n\nBanishment decreed against catholic converts from \n\nLutheranism Oct. 1857 \n\nDemonstration in favour of Italy . . 17 Dec. 1859 \n\nIncreased religious toleration . . . May, i860 \n\nThe king visits England and France . . Aug. 1861 \nHe is warmly received in Denmark . 17 July, 1862 \nTreaty of commerce with Italy, signed . 14 June, ,, \nDemonstration in favour of Poland . . April, 1863 \nInauguration of free trade .... 1 Jan. 1864 \nSweden protests against the occupation of Sleswig \n\nby the allies 22 Jan. ,, \n\nExcitement throughout the country ; March : pre- \nparation for war ; (no result) . . . April, ,, \nFoundation of a " National Scandinavian Society" \nat Stockholm to obtain by legal means a confede- \nration of the three kingdoms for military and \nforeign affairs, reserving independent interior ad- \nministration Dec. ,, \n\nNew constitution passed by the chambers, 4-8 Dec. ,, \nCommercial treaty with Fiance approved . Feb. 1866 \nSevere famine in North Sweden . . Oct. -Dec. 1867 \nResignation of ministers, 9 April ; new ministry \n\nunder M. Wachtmeister ... 4 June, 1868 \nIrineess Louisa was married to Frederic, crown- \nprince of Sweden .... 28 July, 1869 \nNeutrality in the Franco-Prussian war was pro- \nclaimed 4 Aug. 1870 \n\nThe queen dies 13 March, 1S71 \n\nPrince Oscar visits England ; lays foundation of a \n\nScandinavian church at Rotherhithe 27 July, ,, \nRe-organization of the army proposed, Aug. ; nega- \ntived Oct. ,, \n\nDeath of king Charles XV. . . . 18 Sept. 1872 \n\nThe diet opened by king Oscar II. . 20 Jan. 1873 \n\nThe king and queen crowned . . . 12 May, ,, \nMinistry under baron de Geer . . n May, 1875 \nThe king and queen visit Copenhagen and Berlin ; \n\nwarmly received .... 26-28 May, ,, \nMinistry under Dr. Porssell . . . 19 April, 1880 \nThe king with the queen at Bournemouth for his \nhealth May, i83i \n\n\n\nMinistry of count Posse defeated on the army bill, \n\nresigns 25 May, 1883 \n\nM. Thyselius appointed premier . . 13 June, ,, \nThe crown prince made viceroy of Norway \n\n19 March, 1884. \nM. O. R. Themptander appointed premier 16 May, ,, \nThe king visits Britain, July, Aug. 1884 ; at Con- \nstantinople 9 April, 1885 \n\nNew ministry formed under baron Bildt, 6 Feb. 1888 \nPrince Oscar married to Miss Munck at Bourne- \nmouth, England ; his mother present 15 March, ,, \nThe king visits England . . . early June, ,, \nNorway agitates for autonomy in foreign affairs ; \nopposed by Sweden Feb. 1892 \n\nkings of sv,\'edets (previously Kings of Upsal). \n\n1001. Olaf Sehotkonung, or Olif Schcetkonung the Infant. \nis styled king, 1015. \n\n1026. Edmund Colbrenner. \n\niosi. Edmund Slemme. \n\n1056. Stenkill. \n\n1066. Halstan. \n\n1090. Ingo I. the Good. \n\n1112. Philip. \n\n1 1 18. Ingo II. \n\n1 1 29. Swerker or Suercher I. \n\nH55. St. Eric IX. \n\n1 161. Charles VII. ; made prisoner by his successor. \n\n1 167. Canute, son of Eric I. \n\n1 199. Swerker or Suercher II. ; killed in battle. \n\n1210. Eric X. \n\n1216. John I. \n\n1222. Erie XI. the Stammerer. \n\n1250. Birger Jarl, regent. \n,, Waldemar I. \n\n1275. Magnus I. Ladultes. \n\n1290. Birger II. \n\n1319. Magnus II. Smtek ; dethroned. \n\n1350. Eric XII. \n\n1359. Magnus restored ; deposed 1363. \n\n1363. Albert of Mecklenburg : his tyranny causes a re- \nvolt of his subjects, who invite Margaret of Den- \nmark to the tlu\'one. \n\n1389. Margaret, queen of Sweden and Norn-ay now also \nof Denmark, and Eric XIII. \n\n1397. [Union of Calmar, by which the three kingdoms \nare united under one sovereign. ] \n\n1412. Eric XIII. governs alone ; deposed. \n\n1440. Christopher III. \n\n1448. Charles VIII. Canuteson, king of Sweden ouTy. \n\n1471. [Interregnum.] Sten Sture, Protector. \n\n1483. John II. (I. of Denmark). \n\n1502. [Interregnum.] \n\n1503. Swante Sture, Protector. \n1512. Sten Sture, Protector. \n\n1520. Christiern, or Christian II., of Denmark, styled \nthe "Nero \xc2\xa9f the North ;" deposed for his cruel- \nties. \n\n1523. Gustavus I. Vasa ; by whose valour the Swedes are \ndelivered from the Danish yoke. \n\n1560. Eric XIV., son ; dethroned and slain by \n\n1569. John III., brother. \n\n1592. SigisnumdIII., king of Poland, son; disputes for \nthe succession continued the whole of this \nreign. \n\n1604. Charles IX. brother of John III. \n\n1611. Gustavus II. Adolphus, the Great, son ; fell at the \nbattle of Lutzen, 16 Nov. 1632. \n\n1632. [Interregnum.] \n\n1633. Christina, daughter of Gustavus. Resigned the \n\ncrown to her cousin, 16 June, 1654; died at \n\nRome in 1689. \n1654. Charles X. Gustavus, son of John Casimir, COUllI \n\npalatine of the Rhine \n1660. Charles XI. , son ; thearts and sciences flourished in \n\nthis reign. \n1697. Charles XII., son ; styled the " Alexander, "and the \n\n"Madman of the North ;" killed at Fredericks- \n\nhald, 11 Dec. 1718. \n1718. Ulrica Eleanora, sister, and her consort, Fr - \n\nrick I. landgrave of Hesse Cassel. Ulrica rcl.n- \n\nquishes the crown, and in \n1741. Frederick reigned alone. \n1751. Adolphus Frederick of Holsteir* < cended \n\nfrom the family of Vasa. \n1771. Gustavus ill. Adolphus, son ; assassinated by \n\ncount Ankerstroin at a masked ball, 16 March; \n\ndied 29 March, 1792. \n\n\n\nSWEDENB OEGI ANS . \n\n\n\n940 \n\n\n\nSWITZEBLAND. \n\n\n\n1792. Gustavus IV. Adolphus, son ; dethroned, and the \ngovernment assumed by his uncle, the duke of \nSudermania. \n\n1809. Charles XIII. duke of Sudermania. \n\n[Treaty of Kiel (1814) by which Norway falls under \nthe sovereignty of Sweden.] \n\n1818. Charles (John) XIV. Bernadotte, the French prince \nof Ponte Corvo ; died 8 March, 1844. \n\n1844. Oscar I., son ; born 4 July, 1799 ; died 8 July, 1859. \n\n1859. Charles XV., son ; born 3 May, 1826 ; died 18 Sept. \n1872 ; a poet ; brieve and impulsive ; much be- \nloved. \n\n1872. Oscar II., brother; born 21 Jan. 1829; married \nprincess Sophia of Nassau, 6 June, 1857. \nHeir : Gustavus, son, born 16 June, 1858 ; married \nto Victoria of Baden, 20 Sept. 1881. \n\nSWEDENB OEGI ANS, or New Jerusalem \nChurch, are those who adopt the theological teach- \nings of Emanuel Swedenborg (born at Stockholm, \n29 Jan. 1688 ; died in London, 29 March, 1772). \nHe claimed to have had his spiritual sight opened, and \nto have been introduced into heaven and hell by the \nLord that he might disclose their true nature and the \nscience of correspondences by which the internal sense \nof Scripture, which is the Word as it exists in the \nheavens, may be known to men : this he did in the \nArcana Ccelestia and other works. \nHis disciples first meet as an organized body in London \n\nin 1788. \nThere were 70 churches in Great Britain in 1879. \nTheir belief is that the sole deity is centred in Jesus \nChrist, in whom is a trinity of essentials ; that salva- \ntion is effected by faith and works combined ; that as \nman\'s soul is a spiritual body he will never resume the \nmaterial body ; that the Last Judgment was effected \nin the spiritual world during Swedenborg\'s lifetime ; \nand that the Lord\'s Second Coming has taken place \nthrough the revelation of a new system of truth from \nthe inner sense of Scripture. \nThe Swedenborg Society instituted, 1810. \nThe Missionary and Tract Society of the New Church, \n\n1821. \nCentenary of the establishment of the New Jerusalem \nchurch celebrated in London, 13 Aug. 1883. \n\nSWEET-BAY, Laurus nobilis, was brought to \nthese realms from Italy before 1548. Laurus inclica, \nor Royal Bay, was brought from Madeira in 1665. \nThe Sweet-Fern bush, Comptonia asplenifolia, came \nfrom America, 1714. Laurus aggregata, or the \nGlaucous Laurel, came from China in 1806. \n\nSWIMMING- Leander is said to have swum \nacross the Hellespont, between Sestos and Abydos, \nabout one mile ; and Lord Byron, and lieut. Eken- \nhead did the same, 3 May, 1810. On 24 Aug., 1872, \nMr. Johnson, styled the "hero of London- bridge," \nand swimming champion of the world, attempted to \nswim from Lover to Calais, but was prevented by \ncold. He was said to have swum seven miles in \nabout sixty-five minutes. \n\nPublic swimming bath on the Thames opened, \n\n6 July, 7875 \n\nCapt. Matt. Webb swam from Blackwall to Graves- \nend, 20 miles, in 4 hours 53 minutes, 3 July ; and \nfrom Dover to Calais(22^ miles) in 23:! hours, 24-25, \nAug. 1875 ; drowned while attempting to cross \nthe rapids of Niagara . . . 24Ju.lv, 1882 \n\nAgnes Beckwith, aged 14, swam from London \nbridge to Greenwich, 5 miles, in ill. 8min.i Sept. 1875 \n\nEmily Parker, aged rs, swam from London bridge \nto Blackwall, 7 miles, in 1 h. 35 min. . 4 Sept. ,, \n\nMr. Cavill swam from Dover to Calais in 12 hours \n\n20, 21 Aug. 1877 \n\nMiss Beckwith said to have swum 30 continuous \nhours 7, 8 May, 1880 \n\nTaylor wins the amateur swimming championship \nof Great Britain at Birmingham . 19 Aug. 18S2 \n\nDavis Dalton, an American aged 3S, swam on his \nback across the Channel, accompanied by a life- \nboat from Boulogne to Folkestone 17-18 Aug. 1890 \n\nBoy/on\' s apparatus, see under Life Boat. \n\n\n\nSWING. Between 1830 and 1833 many hay- \nstacks and barns were fired in the rural districts of \nEngland, and attributed to an imaginary person \nnamed " Swing." Many persons were caught and \npunished. The probable cause was disputes between \nthe farmers and their deluded labourers. \n\nSWISS GUABDS, Royal, in France, formed \nin 1616 ; massacred while defending the Tuileries, \n10 Aug. 1792; re-organised Sept. 1815 ; defeated \nduring the insurrection, 28 July, 1830 ; dismissed \nby Charles X. Aug. 1830. \n\nS WITHIN\' S DAY, ST., 15 July. St. S within \nlived in the 9th century; and, having been the \npreceptor to king Ethelwulf, was made bishop of \nWinchester in 852, and died 2 July, 862. The \ntradition states that it rained forty days in conse- \nquence of the proposed removal of his remains from \nthe churchyard to the cathedral. \n\nSWITZEBLAND was in ancient times in- \nhabited by the Helvetii, which see. The country \nwas colonised by the Romans after Caesar\'s victory \nover the Helvetii in their invasion of Gaul, 58 b.c , \nand the people were gradually combined with the \nEomans, and partook of the fortunes of their empire. \nThe canton Schwt itz has given name to the whole \nconfederacy. \xe2\x80\x94 The present national council is \nelected every third year, at the rate of one mem- \nber for 2000 persons. The president of the con- \nfederation is elected annually. The revised federal \nconstitution was voted 19 April, 1874. \xe2\x80\x94 Population, \nLee. i860, 2,507,170; 1870, 2,669,147; 1880, \n2,846,102; June 1888, 2,917,754. Revenue, 1890, \n2,704,850/. ; expenditure, 2,667,535/. \n\n" The Swiss Confederation," by sir F. O. Adams \nand C. D. Cunningham ; published by Mac- \nmillan & Co 1889 \n\nSWISS CONFEDERATION OF 1815. \n\n\n\nUri, 1307 \\ first con- \n\nSehweitz > federa- \n\nUnterwalden ) tion. \n\nZurich \n\nBerne \n\nLucerne \n\nSolotlmrn \n\nBasle \n\nGrisons \n\nAargau \n\nThurgau \n\n\n\nSchaffhausen \n\nAppenzell \n\nSt. Gall \n\nGlaris \n\nZug \n\nFreiburg \n\nTessins \n\nPays de Vaud \n\nValais \n\nNeufchatel \n\nGeneva \n\n\n\nHelvetia ravaged by the Huns \n\nBecomes subject to Germany \n\nFriburg built by Berthold IV \n\nBerne built \n\nTyranny of Gesler, heroism of William Tell, and re- \nvolt (demonstrated to be mythical), dated . \n\nConfederation against Austria ; declaration of Swiss \nindependence 4 Nov. \n\nThe men of Uri, Unterwalden, and Schwytz made \na solemn defensive league and covenant for ever \nagainst the Austrians ; this is regarded as the \nfoundation of the Swiss Confederation, 1 Aug. \n1291 ; said to have been confirmed by the leaders, \nWerner Stauffacher (of Schwytz), Walter Fiirst \n(Uri), and Arnold von Melchthal (Unterwalden), \ndetermined to free their country from a foreign \nj\'oke 17 Nov. \n\nA malignant fever carries off, in the canton of Basle, \n1100 persons \n\nForm of government made perpetual . . . . \n\nLeopold of Austria defeated at Morgarten, 15 Nov. \n\nLucerne joins the confederacy \n\nThe canton of Zurich joins and becomes head of the \nleague ......... \n\nBerne, Glaris, and Zug join \n\n8 cantons form a perpetual league . . . . \n\nLeopold II. of Austria defeated and slain at Sempach, \n\n9 July, \n\nThe Austrians defeated at Nafels, 9 April, 1388 : \nmake i>eace \n\n\n\n9C9 \n1032 \n1179 \n1191 \n\n1306 \n\n1307 \n\n\n\n1314 \n1315 \n\n\n\n1350 \n1351 \n\n1386 \n1389 \n\n\n\nSWITZERLAND. \n\n\n\n941 \n\n\n\nSWITZERLAND. \n\n\n\nThe Grisons league (see Caddee) .... 1400 \n\nSecond league of the Grisons 1424 \n\nThe third league of the Grisons .... 1436 \n\nBattle of St. Jacobs on the Birs, near Basle (1600 \nSwiss resist 30,000 French, and are all killed, the \nenemy losing 10,000) .... 26 Aug. 1444 \n\nThe Swiss defeat Charles the Bold at Granson, 5 \n\nMarch ; and at Morat . . . .22 June, 1476 \nAnd aid the duke of Lorraine at Nancj% where \n\nCharles is slain 5 Jan. 1477 \n\nSwiss soldiers first enter into the pay of France, \n\nunder Louis XI 1480 \n\nFribourg and Soleure join ; confederation formed . 1481 \nMaximilian I. emperor, acknowledges Swiss inde- \npendence 1499 \n\nSchaffhausen and Basle join the union . . . 1501 \nThe Swiss invade Milan and defeat the French at \n\nNovara 6 June, 1513 \n\nDefeated by them at Marignano . 13, 14 Sept. 1515 \nThe Swiss confederacy acknowledged by France and \n\nother powers 1516 \n\nThe Reformation begins at Basle ; the bishop com- \npelled to retire 1519 \n\nThe Reformation adopted by some cantons ; battle \nof Cappel, Zwingli killed and reformers defeated, \n\n12 Oct. 1531 \nThe Grison leagues join the Swiss confederacy as \nallies ......... 1544 \n\nAppenzel joins the other Cantons . . . . 1597 \n\nCharles Emanuel of Savoy attempts Geneva by sur- \nprise, scales the walls, and penetrates the town, \n\nbut in the end is defeated 1602 \n\n[This circumstance gave rise to an annual festival \n\ncommemorative of their escape from tyranny.] \nIndependence of Switzerland recognised by the \n\ntreaty of Westphalia (see Westpludia) . . . 1648 \nPeace of Aargau, end of religious war . .Aug. 1712 \n[From this period until the French revolution the \ncantons enjoyed tranquillity, disturbed only by \nthe changes arising out of their various constitu- \ntions.] \n\nAlliance with France 25 May, 1777 \n\nStrife in Geneva, between the aristocratic and demo- \ncratic parties ; France interferes . . . . 1781 \n1000 fugitive Genevese seek an asylum in Ireland \n\n(see Geneva) 1782 \n\nSwiss guards ordered to quit France . . . . 1792 \nHelvetic confederation dissolved ; its subjugation \n\nby France 1798 \n\nHelvetian republic formed , \n\nSwitzerland the seat of war .... 1799-1S02 \nThe number of cantons increased to 19 ; the federal \ngovernment restored ; and a landamman appointed \n\nby France 12 May, ,, \n\nUri, Schweitz, and Uuderwald separate from the \n\nrepublic 13 July, ,, \n\nSwitzerland joins France with 6000 men 24 Aug. 1811 \nThe allies entered Switzerland in the spring of . 1814 \nThe number of cantons increased to 22, and the in- \ndependence and neutrality of Switzerland \nsecured by the treaty of Vienna . . . .1815 \nRevision of the constitution of the cantons . . 1S39 \nLaw to make education independent of the clergy . 1830 \nleads to dissensions between the catholics and \n\nprotestants 1840-4 \n\nDispute about the convents of Aargau, 1844 ; to put \neducation into the hands of the Jesuits, <fec. ; op- \nposition of the protestant cantons . . . . 1846 \nLucerne, Uri, Schweitz, Unterwalden, Freiburg, \nZug, and Valais (Roman catholic cantons), form a \nseparate league (Sonderbuud) to support educa- \ntion by the Jesuits, &c \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nInsurrection at Geneva against Jesuit teaching ; a \ntemporary provisional government established, \n\n7 Oct. ,, \nThe diet declares the Sonderbund illegal, and dis- \nsolves it, 20 July ; the seven cantons protest, 22 \nJuly ; the diet orders the expulsion of the Jesuits, \n3 Sept. ; communal assemblies held to resist it, \n26 Sept.; 3, 10 Oct. ; appeal to arms 21 Oct. 1847 \n\nThe diet prepares to repress the Sonderbund, 4 \nJNov. ; Friburg surrenders, 14 Nov.; civil war; \nthe Sonderbund defeated by gen. II. Dufour, near \nLucerne, 23 Nov. ; end of the Sonderbund ; it sub- \nmits to the expulsion of the Jesuits, and the secu- \nlarisation of monastic property . . 29 Nov. ,, \nNew federal constitution . . . .12 Sept. 1848 \nDispute about Neufchatcl (which see) . . . . 1857 \n\n\n\nDeclaration of neutrality in the coming Italian war, \n\n14 March, 1859 \n\nMutiny and punishment of the Swiss mercenary \ntroops at Naples ; the confederation forbid foreign \nenlistment July and Aug. ,, \n\nSwiss government protests against the annexation \nof Savoy to France . . . . 15 March, 1S60 \n\n150 Swiss attempt to enter Savoy ; stopped by \nGenevese government ... 30 March, ,, \n\nM. Thorel, a Swiss, obtains a prize at the national \nshooting match at Wimbledon . . July, ,, \n\nThe government forbid the Swiss to enlist in foreign \nservice without permission . . .30 July, ,, \n\nProposed European congress to preserve Swiss \nneutrality, put off July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGlarus destroyed by fire ... 3 May, 1861 \n\nFrench troops occupy Vallee des Dappes, 28 Oct. ; \nthe Swiss announce the violation of their territory, \n\n5 Nov. ,, \n\nTreaty of France settles the question of the Vallee \ndes Dappes by mutual cession of territory ; no \nmilitary works to be constructed on territory \nceded ; signed 8 Dec. 1S62 \n\nSerious election riots at Geneva, with bloodshed, \n22 Aug. ; federal troops arrive . . 23 Aug. 1864 \n\nFederal troops quit Geneva . . . 11 Jan. 1865 \n\nInternational Social Science Congress meets at \nBerne 28 Aug. ,, \n\nRevision of the constitution ; deliberations begin \n\n23 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNearly all the revised articles of the federal consti- \ntution rejected by the vote of the Swiss burgesses \n\n14 Jan. 1866 \n\nJ. J. Stehlen elected president . . 1 July, 1867 \n\nWorkmen\'s international congress at Lausanne, \n\n2-7 Sept. ,, \n\nMeeting of the federal assembly . 6-25 July, 1S68 \n\nQueen Victoria visits Lucerne . . Aug. Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nInternational peace and liberty congress, at Geneva, \n9-12 Sept. 1867 ; at Berne, 22-26 Sept. . . . ,, \n\nNeutrality in the Franco-Prussian War proclaimed, \n\nJuly, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNew constitution adopted by Zurich . 18 April, 1869 \n\nThe French army under Clinchant (84,000), crosses \nthe frontiers and is disarmed . . .1 Feb. 1871 \n\nThe French soldiers interned at Zurich, and oppose \nGerman demonstrations . . 9-12 Mar. ,, \n\nExtraordinary session of the federal assembly to \nrevise the constitution ... 6 Nov. ,, \n\nPlebiscite respecting a new constitution, re-organ- \nizing the army, and promoting uniform educa- \ntion, <fec. rejected by majority of 4967 out of \n509,921 ...... 12 May, 1872 \n\nM. Favre engaged to construct a tunnel through St. \nGothard in 8 years, for 2.ooo,ooo(. . . 8 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe papal nuncio, Mermillod, expelled . 16 Jan. 1S73 \n\nRevised federal constitution vottd (321,870 for, \n177,800 against) 19 April, 1S74 \n\nSwiss national catholic church constitute/ 1 June, ., \n\n19 Catholic priests deprived for refusal to take \nconstitutional oath .... .5 Sept. ,, \n\nInternational postal congress at Berne, 15 Sept. ; \nprotocol signed (see postal convention) 9 Oct. ,, \n\nCivil marriage law and registration adopted by uni- \nversal suffrage (212,854 \xe2\x80\x94 204,700) . . 23 May, 1875 \n\nPresident of the national council for three years, \nJ. Philippin, elected\' .... 6 June, 1S77 \n\nContinued deficit in revenue, announced 16 March, 1S78 \n\nDeath of James Fazy, eminent statesman, 6 Nov. ,, \n\nNational voting for St. Gothard, railway and tunnel \n(161,000 majority) 19 Jan. 1S79 \n\nSuicide of Herr Anderwert, the president elect, \n\n27 Dec. 18S0 \n\nOpening of St. Gothard railway from Milan to \nLucerne 20, 21 May, 1882 \n\nInvasion of the salvation army (which sec), autumn, \n1 884, much resisted at Berne, Geneva, &c, Jan. et seq. 1S83 \n\nThe watch-tool making village, Vallorbcs, almost \ndestroyed by lire . . . . 7 April, ,, \n\nNational exhibition at Zurich . 1 May \xe2\x80\x94 27 Dec. ,, \n\nM. Schenck elected president . . . Dec. 1884 \n\nVillage Of Mulligan, Aargau, destroyed by (i re, 23A pill, 1885 \nFifth centenary of t lie battle of Scmpach (9 July, \n\n1386) celebrated 5 July, 1886 \n\nGrand funeral of Mr. Hertenstein, the president al \nBerne, who died alter a surgical operation, 30 \nNov.; vice-president Bernard Hammer elected \npresident 13 Dec. 1C88 \n\n\n\nSWOEDS. \n\n\n\n942 \n\n\n\nSYNDICATE. \n\n\n\nThe German government protests against the \nexpulsion of its police officer, Wohlgemuth, \nfrom Switzerland, May ; the great powers pro- \ntest against the asylum given to political \ncriminals ; the Swiss propose new legal measures, \nJune ; the Swiss government repels the charge, \nbut prepares legal measures for redress, June, 1889 \n\nThe Swiss government in a reply note to Berlin, \nstands firm 14 July, ,, \n\nLoan for 25,000,000 francs, to supply new arms for \nthe Federal troops, subscribed for by Berne \nalone reported 23 July, ,, \n\nM. Ruchonnet elected President for 1890 \n\nabout 10 Dec. ,, \n\nDestructive storms in the poorest districts, much \ndistress 18-23 Aug. 1890 \n\nInsurrection at Ticino, which see . 12-14 Sept. ,, \n\nRailway Accident near Bale ; by the collapse of a \nbridge several carriages of an excursion train \nwere thrown into the river Birse. Above 70 \npersons perish 14 June, 1891 \n\n600th anniversary of the foundation of the Swiss \nConfederation celebrated in the province of \nSchwytz 1-2 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMeiringen, canton of Berne, totally burnt; 2 deaths, \nabout 2,000 persons homeless . . 25 Oct. ,, \n\nPresident, A. A. Lachenal . . . 1 June, ,, \n\nBill for giving effect to the popular vote of July, \naffirming the right of the people to take the \ninitiative in constitutional reforms, considered \nby the national council ... 7 Dec. ,, \n\nDr. E. Welti, president of the confederation, \nresigns in consequence of a plebiscite on 6 Dec, \nrefusing to purchase the Swiss railways \n\nreported 8 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nM. Walter Hauser, president . . .1 Jan. 1892 \n\nThe commercial treaties with Germany and Austria- \nHungary adopted by the states council 28 Jan. ,, \n\nSWORDS- The Roman swords were from 20 \nto 30 inches long. The broadsword and scimitar are \nof modern adoption. Damascus steel swords were \nmost prized; the next the sword of Ferrara steel. \nThe Scotch Highlanders, from the artificer Andrea \ndi Ferrara, called their swords Andrew Ferraras. \nThe large sword shown at Dumbarton castle as \nWallace\'s is asserted to be one of Edward IVth\'s. \nThe broadsword was forbidden to be worn in Edin- \nburgh in 1724. \n\nSYBAEIS, a Greek colony in S. Italy, founded \nabout 720 B.C.; destroyed by the Crotonians about \n5 10 B. c. The people were greatly addicted to luxury; \nhence the term Sybarite. \n\nArchaeological investigations disclosed evidences \nof the existence of a great city and civilization \nanterior to the Greek invasion .... 1888 \n\nSYCAMORE, or SYCOMORE TREE, \n\nIn Mrs. Jameson\'s "Memoirs of Female Sove- \nreigns" we are told that Mary queen of Scots \nbrought over from France a little sycamore tree, \nwhich she planted in the garden at Holyrood, and \nthat from this have sprung all the beautiful groves \nof sycamore now to be seen in Scotland. \n\nSYDNEY, capital of New South Wales; \nfounded by governor Phillip, on a cove on Port \nJackson, 26 Jan. 1788, as a British settlement for \nthe colony of convicts originally intended for Botany \nbay. It was named after lord Sydney, secretary \nfor the colonies. Population 1891, 386,400. See \nAustralia, New South Wales, Convicts. \nA legislative council first held . . 13 July, 1829 \nSydney erected into a bishopric (afterwards an arch- \nbishopric) 1836 \n\nLit with gas, the first place so lit in Australia, May, 1841 \nishop of Australia made bishop of Sydney and \n\nmetropolitan 1S47 \n\nUniversity founded 1852 \n\nRoman Catholic cathedral burnt, and valuable pro- \nperty destroyed .... 29 June, 1865 \nVisited by the duke of,Ediuburgh . , Feb. 1868 \n\n\n\nAt Port Jackson he narrowly escaped assassination ; \nO\'Farrell, a Fenian, who shot him in the back on \n12 March, was convicted on 31 March, and executed \n\n21 April, 1S68 \n\nThe duke sailed for England 4 April, and arrived \n\n26 June, ,, \n\nNew cathedral consecrated . . .30 Nov. ,, \n\nFoundation of capt. Cook\'s monument laid by the \nduke of Edinburgh .... 28 March, 1869 \n\nA conference of delegates from the Australian \ncolonies met here for customs, postal and railway \xe2\x80\xa2 \npurposes, without effect .... Jan. 1S73 \n\nExhibitions opened here, April, 1873, and 11 April, 1874 \n\nCaptain Cook\'s statue uncovered . . 2 Feb. 1878 \n\nInternational exhibition opened by the governor, \nlord A. Loftus 17 Sept. 1879 \n\nDirect railway to Melbourne completed . June, 1883 \n\nCanon Barry consecrated bishop of Sydney and \nmetropolitan 1 Jan. 1884 ; resigns, . . \' Dec. 1888 \n\nMeetings of loyalists opposing the home rule \ndelegates (Mr. Dillon, sir Thomas Esmonde, and \nMr. Deasy, M.P.\'s) May 18^9 \n\nDeath at Sydney of Mr. J. B. Watson (aged 64) \ntermed the Australian " Quartz Reef King," said \nto have left to his family about 30,000,000?. the \nresults of gold digging at Bendigo, Victoria, and \nother places and of railway and other specula- \ntions . \xe2\x80\xa2 about 12 July, ,, \n\nRev. canon William Saumarez Smith, D.D. , an- \nnounced as the new bishop and metropolitan of \nAustralia, 9 Aug. 1889, elected 21 March \n\narrived 30 Sept. i\xc2\xa3go \n\nStrike of men connected with shi pping, about \n5,000 ; reported 20 Aug. ; rioting in Newcastle \nchecked by military .... 27 Aug. ,, \n\nConference of Australian employers, 9 Sept. ; \nlabour conference . . . 11-24 Sept. ,, \n\nGreat fire in Pitt-street and other streets ; esti- \nmated damage 750,000? 1 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDeparture of lord Carrington ; grand demonstra- \ntion in his honour . . . . 1 Nov. ,, \n\nThe strike practically closed . . .5 Nov. ,, \n\nReception. of the earl of Jersey . . 15 Jan. 1891 \n\nMeeting of the National Australasian Federation \nConvention, see Australasia . , 2 March, ,, \n\nStrike of 5,000 miners of Broken Hill against con- \ntract labour 4 July, 1892 \n\nSYLLABUS OF ERRORS in modem times. \n80 paragraphs divided into 10 chapters, issued by \npope Pius IX., with an encyclical letter, 8 Dec. \n1864. It condemned heresy, modem philosophj\', \nand liberalism in politics ; was forbidden to be read \nin French churches, and was generally opposed, but \nwas adopted by the council at Home 1870. \n\nSYMPHONIES. Short pieces of instru- \nmental music between songs in operas ; early in the \n17th century. These were gradually developed by \nthe great masters, such as Lulli, into independent \npieces ; of these the symphonies of Corelli, Handel, \nMozart, Haydn, and Beethoven are eminent \nexamples. \n\nSYMPHONION, an improved form of the \nmusical box capable of performing many more \ntunes, invented by Mr. Ellis Parr, 1887. \n\nSYMPIESOMETER, a species of barometer \ninvented by Adie of Edinburgh in 1819. \n\nSYNAGOGUE (literally an assembly), a con- \ngregation of the Jews, and the place where such \nassembly is held for religious purposes. When \nthese meetings were first held is uncertain ; some \nrefer them to the times after the Babylonish cap- \ntivity. In Jerusalem were 480 synagogues. In \n1 85 1 there were in London 10 synagogues, in \nEngland and Wales, 53. A magnificent synagogue \nwas consecrated at Berlin, 5 Sept. 1866; see Jews. \n\nSYNDICATE, originally a body of syndics, \nofficers of a government or any ruling body ; the \nterm is now frequently used as synonymous with a \ncompany or body of trustees, 1888. See Trusts. \n\n\n\nSYNOD. \n\n\n\n943 \n\n\n\nSYRIA. \n\n\n\nSYNOD. The first general synods were called \nby emperors, and afterwards by Christian princes ; \nbut the pope ultimately usurped this power, one of \nhis legates usually presiding ; see Councils. The \nfirst national synod held in England was at Hert- \nford, 673 ; the last was held by cardinal Pole in \n1555. Made unlawful to hold synods but \\>y royal \nauthority, 2^ Henry VIII. 1533; see Dort, and \nThurles. \n\nSYNONYM, a word having the same or \nnearly the same meaning as another, as valour, \ncourage. Books of Greek and Latin synonyms were \nearly compiled. G. Crabbe\'s dictionary appeared, \n1816; Dr. P. M. Roget\'s excellent "Thesaurus of \nEnglish Words and Phrases," 1852. \n\nSYPHILIS, a disease said to have been intro- \nduced into Europe at the siege of Naples, 1495 ; but \nwas probably known to the ancients. \n\nSYEACITSE, S. E. Sicily, founded by Archias, \n734 B.C. The city gradually included five towns, \nOrtygia (an island, containing the citadel, or \nacropolis), Achradina, Tyche, Neapolis, andEpipolae. \nThe ancient history is given in the article Sicily. \n\nSyracuse taken by the Saracens and ransomed 669 ; \n\nburnt by them 878 \n\nRetaken by count Roger, the Norman . . . 10S8 \nDestroyed by earthquakes in 1542, Jan. 1693 ; and \n\nnearly destroyed 6 Aug. 1757 \n\nIn the insurrection, Syracuse surrendered to the \n\nNeapolitan trooi>s 8 April, 1849 \n\nSYREN, see Sirenc. \n\nSYRIA, a country of ~W. Asia. The capital was \noriginally Damascus ; but after the battle of Ipsus, \nSeleucus founded Antioch. \n\nAlliance of David king of Israel and Hiram king of \nSyria ........ B.C. 1049 \n\nSyria conquered by David 1040 \n\nLiberated by Rezin 980 \n\nBenhadad, king of Syria, makes war on the Jews . 898 \n\nBenhadad II. reigns about 830 \n\nSyria subjugated by Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria 740 \n\nSyria conquered by Cyrus 537 \n\nAnd by Alexander 333 \n\nSeleucus Nicator enters Babylon 312 \n\n./Era of the Seleucidae (which see) . . . . \' ,, \nGreat battle of Ipsus ; death of Antigonus, defeated \nby Ptolemy, Seleucus, and Lysimachus . . . 301 \n\nThe city of Antioch founded 299 \n\nAntiochus, son of Seleucus, falling in love with his \nfather\'s queen, Stratonice, he pines away nearly \nto death ; but the secret being discovered, she is \ndivorced by the father, and married by the son . 297 \nBattle of Cyropedium ; Lysimachus slain by Seleu- \ncus 281 \n\nSeleucus foully assassinated by Ceraunus ; Anti- \nochus I. king 280 \n\nAntiochus I. (Soter, or Saviour,) defeats the Gauls . 275 \nAntiochus II. surnamed by the Milesians Theos \n\n(God) king \xe2\x96\xa0 . . 261 \n\nPoisoned by Laodice 246 \n\nSeleucus II. (king, 246) makes a treaty of alliance \n\nwith Smyrna and Magnesia 243 \n\nSeleucus III. Ceravmus (or Thunder), king . . 226 \nAntiochus III. the Great (king, 223), conquers Pales- \ntine, but is totally defeated at Raphia . .217 \nAgain conquers Palestine, 198; but gives it to \n\nPtolemy 193 \n\nEnters Greece, 192 ; defeated by the Romans at \n\nThermopylae, 191 ; and at Magnesia . . 190 \n\nMakes peace with the Romans, giving up to them \n\nAsia Minor 188 \n\nSeleucus Philopator, king 187 \n\nAntiochus IV. king, who assumes the title of Theos- \n\nEpiphanes, or the illustrious God . . . . 175 \nHe sends Apollonius into Judea ; Jerusalem is \ntaken ; the temple pillaged ; 40,000 inhabitants \ndestroyed, and 40,000 more sold as slaves . . 168 \nAntiochus V. Eupator (king, 164), murdered by De- \nmetrius Soter, who seizes the throne . , \n\n\n\nDemetrius is defeated and slain by his successor \nAlexander Bala, 150; who is also defeated and \nslain by Demetrius Nicator .... B.C. 146 \nAntiochus VI. Sidetes (son of Demetrius Soter) \nrules during the captivity of his brother Deme- \ntrius Nicator (after slaying the usurper Trypho) . 137 \nAntiochus grants peace to the Jews, and placates \nthe Romans, 133; invades Parthia, 129; and is \n\ndefeated and slain 128 \n\nDemetrius Nicator restored ,, \n\nCleopatra, the queen, murders her son Seleucus with \n\nher own hand 124 \n\nHer son Antiochus VII. Grypus (king, 125), whom \nshe attempts to poison ; but he compels his \nmother to swallow the deadly draught herself . 123. \nReign of Antiochus VIII. Cyzicenus at Damascus, \n\nand of Grypus at Antioch m \n\nSeleucus, king 95 \n\nAntiochus IX. Ensebes, king 94 \n\nDethroned by Philip 85 \n\nTigranes, king of Armenia, acquires Syria . . 83 \nAntiochus X. Asiaticus, solicits the aid of the \n\nRomans 75 \n\nDefeat of Tigranes by Lucullus, 69 ; he submits to \nPompey, who enters Syria, and dethrones Anti- \nochus Asiaticus 63 \n\nSyria made a Roman province 63. \n\nSyria invaded by the Parthians . . . a.d. 162- \n\nBy the Persians 256 \n\nViolent earthquakes 341 \n\nInvaded by the Saracens, 497, 502, 529 ; by the Per- \nsians 607 \n\nConquered by the Saracens 638 \n\nConquest of Syria by the Fatimite caliphs . . . 970 \nRevolt of the emirs of Damascus .... 1067 \n\nThe emirs of Aleppo revolt 1068 \n\nThe crusades commence (see Crusades) . . . 1095 \nDesolated by the Crusades (which see) . 1096-1272 \n\nNoureddin conquers Syria 11C& \n\nSaladin dethrones the Fatimite dynasty . . . 1171 \n\nThe Tartars overrun all Syria 1259 \n\nThe sultans of Egypt expel the Crusaders . . . 1291 \n\nSyria overrun by Tamerlane 1400 \n\nSyria and Egypt conquered by the Turks . . 1516-17 \nSyria continued in possession of the Turks till the \ninvasion by the French, 1799; Bonaparte overruns \nthe country, Gaza and Jaffa taken March, 1799 \n\nSiege of Acre begun by the ^French, 16 March; \n\nraised 20 May, ,, \n\nBonaparte returns to France from Egypt 23 Aug. ,, \nEgypt and Syria evacuated by the French army, \n\n10 Sept. 1801 \nMehemet Ali attacks and captures Acre, and over- \nruns the whole of Syria . . . . 1S31 \nIbrahim Pacha, his son, defeats the army of the \n\ngrand signior at Konieh ... 21 Dec. 1832 \nNumerous battles and conflicts follow with various \nsuccess ; the European powers intervene, and \n\npeace is made 6 May, 1833 \n\nThe war renewed, May; Ibrahim defeats the Turks \n\nat Nezib 24 June, 1839 \n\nThe Turkish fleet deserts to Mehemet Ali, and ar- \nrives at Alexandria .... 14 July, ,. \nThe five powers unite to support the Porte July, ,, \nDeath of lady Hester Stanhope . . 23 June, 1840 \nTreaty of London (not signed by offended France), \n\n15 July, ,, \nCapture of Sidon (see Sirfon) . . . 27 Sept. ,, \nFall of Beyrout (see Bcyrovt) . . . 10 Oct. ,. \nFall of Acre (see Acre) .... 3 Nov. .. \nLong negotiations ; the sultan grants hereditary \n\nrights to Mehemet, who gives up Syria . Jan. 1841 \nThe Druses said to have destroyed 151 Christian \nvillages and killed 1000 persons (see Drusrs), \n\n29 May tii 1 July, i860 \nThe Mahometans massacre Christians at Damascus; \nabout 3300 slain ; many saved by Abd-el-Kader, \n\n9 July, &c. ,, \nThe English and French government intervene; a \nconvention signed at Taris; 12,000 men tobeseni \n\nby France 3 Aug. ,, \n\nVigour of Fuad Pacha ; he punishes the Mahome- \ntans implicated in the massacres at Damascus \nvery severely ; 167 of all ranks, including the \ngovernor, executed . . . 20 Aug., ct seq. \n4000 French soldiers, under general Hautpoul, land \nat Beyrout 22 Aug. \n\n\n\nSYEIA. \n\n\n\n944 \n\n\n\nSZEGEDIN. \n\n\n\nLord Dufferin, tlie British commissioner in Syria, \narrives at Damascus . . . , 6 Sept. \n\nThe French and Turks advance against Lebanon ; \n14 emirs surrendered ... . .Oct. \n\nPacification of the country effected . Nov. \n\n"The French occupation ceases . . 5 June, \n\nPrince of "Wales visits Syria . . . April, \n\nInsurrection of Joseph Karam, Maronite, in Le- \nbanon; suppressed .... March, \n\nAnother suppressed ; Karam flies to Algeria, \n\n31 Jan. \n\nMidhat Pasha appointed governor-general to in- \naugurate reforms, Nov. 1878 ; experiences great \ndifficulty, Oct.; resigns, hut continues, \n\nOct. 1 879- June, \n\n\n\n1S67 \n\n\n\nHamed Pasha, governor of Smyrna, and Midhat \nPasha change places Aug. 1080 \n\nMidhat Pasha, charged with complicity in the \nmurder of the sultan Abdul Aziz, surrenders \n(see Turkey, 1881) . \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 about 17 May, 1881 \n\nSYSTON, see under Libraries. \n\nSZEGEDIN (Hungary), on the Theiss at its \njunction with the Maros, the seat of revolutionary \ngovernment, 1849. Kebuilt under superintendence \nof Ludwig Tisza. Grand festival, the emperor \npresent, 16 Oct. 1883. See Inundations, 1879 and \n1887. \n\n\n\nT. \n\n\n\nTABERNACLE. \n\n\n\nTAMMANY FRAUDS. \n\n\n\nTABERNACLE, the Holy Place of the Israel- \nites, till the erection of Solomon\'s temple, was con- \nstructed by Divine direction, 1491 B.C. The taber- \nnacle set\' up at Shiloh by Joshua, 1444 B.C. was \nreplaced by the temple erected by Solomon, 1004 \nB.C. The chapel erected for George Whitefield in \nMoorfields in 1741, being of a temporary nature, \nreceived the name of Tabernacle, which was after- \nwards given to their chapels by the Calvinistic \nMethodists. Whitefield\' s Tabernacle in Totten- \nham-court-road was erected in 1756, and enlarged \nin 1760. His lease expired in 1828; the chapel was \nopened by the Independents in 1830, and taken down \nin 1890. A large metropolitan tabernacle, erected \nfor the ministrations of Mr. C. H. Spurgeon, a \nBaptist, near the " Elephant and Castle," Kenning- \nton-road, Surrey, was opened on 31 March, 1861. \n\nTABINET, see Poplin. \n\nTABLES, see Decemvirs. \n\nTABLET, Roman Catholic weekly paper, esta- \nblished 1840. \n\nTABLE TURNING. This delusion, which \ncame from America, and was popular in 1853, was \nattributed by Faraday and others to involuntary \nmechanical action. See Spirit-Mapping. \n\nTABOR, in Bohemia, was founded by Ziska in \n1420, and became a chief seat of the Hussites; see \nHussites. \n\nTADMOR, see Palmyra. \n\nTAEPINGS, see China, 1851, note. \n\nTAFFETY, an early species of silken manu- \nfacture, more prized formerly than now, woven \nvery smooth and glossy. It was worn by our \nelder queens, and was first made in England by \nJohn Tyce, of Shoreditch, London, 41 Eliz. 1598. \n\xe2\x80\x94 Stow\'s Chron. \n\nTAGLIACOZZO, in the Abruzzi mountains, \nS. Italy, where, on 23 Aug. 1268, Charles of Anjou, \nthe usurping king of Naples, defeated and made \nprisoner the rightful monarch, young Conradin \n(the last of the Hohenstaufens, and grandson of the \nemperor Frederick II.), who had been invited into \nItaly by the Ghibelline or Imperial party; their \nopponents, the Guelfs, or papal party, supporting \nCharles. Conradin was beheaded, 29 Oct. fol- \nlowing. \n\nTAGLIAMENTO, a river in Lombardy, N. \nItaly, near which the Austrians, under the arch- \nduke Charles, were defeated by Bonaparte, 16 \nMarch, 1797. \n\nTAHERITES, a dynasty of Fersia, 813-872. \nTAHITI- The French abbreviated name for \nOtaheite ; see Otaheite. \n\nTAILLEBOURG (W. France). Near here \nHenry III. of England was defeated and nearly \ncaptured by Louis IX. of France, 20 July, 1242. \n\nTAKU FORTS, China, taken by the allies, \n21 Aug. i860. \n\nTALAVERA de la Reyxa (central Spain), \nwas taken from the Mahometans by Ordoiio, Icing \nof Leon, 913. Here a battle was fought 27, 28 \nJuly, 1809, between the united British and Spanish \narmies under sir Arthur Welleslcy, and the French \n\n\n\narmy commanded by marshals Victor and Sebas- \ntiani. After a conflict on the 27th, both armies \nremained on the field during the night, and the \nFrench at break of day renewed the attack, and \nwere again repulsed by the British with great \nslaughter. At noon Victor charged the whole \nBritish line, was repulsed at all points, and retreated \nwith a heavy loss. As Soult, Ney, and Mortier \nwere in the rear, the British retired after the \nvictory. \n\nTALBOTYPE, see Photography. \n\n"TALISMAN " affair, see Peru, 1874-6. \n\nTALKING-MACHINE, see Automatons. \n\nTALLY OFFICE in the Exchequer took its \nname from the French word tattler, to cut. A tally \nis a piece of wood written upon both sides, contain- \ning an acquittance for money received ; which, \nbeing cloven asunder by an officer of the exchequer, \none part, called the stock, was delivered to the \nperson who paid, or lent, monev to the government ; \nand the other part, called the counter-stock, or \ncounter-foil, remained in the office, to be kept till \ncalled for, and joined with the stock. This manner \nof striking tallies is very ancient. \xe2\x80\x94 Beatson. The \npractice was ordered to be discontinued in 1782. \nSee Fjxchequer. On 16 Oct. 1834, the houses of \nparliament were burnt down by too many of these \ntallies being used in heating the stoves in the house \nof lords. \n\nTALMUD (from lamad, to teach), the compen- \ndium of ancient Jewish oral or unwritten law, as \ndistinguished from the Pentateuch, or written law ; \nits origin is coeval with the return from the Baby- \nlonish captivity, 536 B.C. Its compilation in \nHebrew was begun by the Scribes, and by their \nsuccessors the work was carried on till 220 B.C. It \nis composed in prose and poetry, and contains two \nelements, legal and legendary. The morality \nresembles that of the New Testament, and the \nphilosophy is rather Platonic than Aristotelian. \nThe Mischna, comprising the work of the rabbis, termed \nThanaim, was compiled by Jehuda Hanassi, in the \nmiddle of the second century, a.d., and forms the \nJerusalem Talmud, written at Tiberias, in Palestine, \nabout 230. The Babylonian Talmud contains also the \nGemera or Ghemara, the work of the rabbis termed \nAmorai\'m, criticisms and comments on the Mischna. \nThe part named Ihdacha, is dogmatic, legal, and \ndoctrinal ; the Agaba, is illustrative, narrative, and \nlegendary. \nAfter being almost universally condemned, and the MSS. \noften burnt, the defence of the Talmud was undertaken \nby the German reformer Reuchlin, in the 16th century, \nand between 1520 and 1523, the " Talmud Babyloni- \ncum," in 12 vols, fob, and the "Talmud Hierosolyta- \nmun," in one vol. fol., were printed at Venice. A \ndiscourse on the Talmud was given at the Royal Insti- \ntution, 15 May, 1868, by Mr. Emanuel Deutsch, whose \narticle in the "Quarterly Review," Oct. 1867, had \nattracted much attention. \nVol. 1. of the first English translation of the Jerusalem \nTalmud by Dr. Moise Schwab, appeared in 1SS5 : lie \nhad published part of a French translation. \n\nTAMANIEB, or TAMASI, battle of, 13 \nMarch, 1884 ; see Soudan. \n\nTAMATAVE, sec Madagascar, 1883. \n\nTAMMANY FRAUDS, see New York, 1871. \n\n3 p \n\n\n\nTANAGEA. \n\n\n\n946 \n\n\n\nTAEIEA. \n\n\n\nTANAGEA (Bceotia). Here the Spartans \ndefeated the Athenians 457 B.C., but were defeated \nby them in 456 and in 426, when Agis II. headed \nthe Spartans and Nicias the Athenians. \n\nTANCEED\'S CHAEITIES. Valuable ex- \nhibitions for students at Cambridge are maintained \nby Christopher Tancred\'s endowment, 1721; esta- \nblished by chanceiy, 1757. \n\nTANDY AEEEST.. James Napper Tandy \nproposed a plan of reform in 1791. In the French \nexpedition against Ireland he acted as a general, \nAug. 1798. After its failure he fled to Hamburg, \nand was there delivered up to the English, 24 Nov.; \nfor which Bonaparte declared war upon Hamburg, \n15 Oct. 1799. Tandy was liberated after the peace \nof Amiens in 1802. \n\nTANGIEE (Morocco, N. W. Africa), besieged \nby prince Ferdinand of Portugal, who was beaten \nand taken prisoner, 1437. It was conquered by \nAlfonso V. of Portugal in 1471, and given as a dower \nto princess Catherine, on her marriage with Charles \nII. of England, 1662 ; who, in 1683, caused the \nworks to be blown up, and the place abandoned. \nTangiers afterwards became a piratical station. See \nMorocco. \n\nTANISTEY (in Ireland), the equal division of \nlands, after the decease of the owner, amongst his \nsons, legitimate or illegitimate. If one of the sons \ndive], his son did not inherit, but a new division was \nmade by the tanist or chief. Abolished 1604. \nDuvies. \n\nTANJOEE (W. India). About 1678, Vencajee, \na Mahratta chief, brother of tbe great Sevajee, \nmade himself rajah. In 1749 a British expedition \nendeavoured to restore a deposed rajah without \nsuccess ; the reigning prince bought them off by the \ncession of territories. Much intervention ensued. \nIn 1799 the company obtained possession of the \ncountry, engaging to support the rajah with nominal \nauthority, The last is said to have died in 1855. \n\nTANNENBEEG (E. Prussia). Here Ladis- \nlaus V. Jagellon of Poland defeated the Teutonic \nknights with great slaughter, the grand master being \namong the slain, 15 July, 1410. The order never \nrecovered from this calamity. \n\nTANNING leather with the bark of trees was \nearly practised. Great improvements have been \nrecently made in tanning by means of chemical \nknowledge. \n\nTANTALUM, a rare metal, discovered in an \nAmerican mineral by Hatchett, in 1801, and named \nby him columbiu.ni ; and in a Swedish mineral by \nEkeberg, who gave it its present name. Wollaston \npointed out the identitjr of the two metals in 1809 ; \nand Berzelius prepared pure metallic tantalum in \n1824. In 1840 Hose discovered that tantalum was \nreally a mixture of three metals, which he named \ntantalum, niobium, and pelopium. \xe2\x80\x94 Gmelin. \n\nTANZIMAT, see Turkey, 1839-44. \n\nTAOISM, oue of the three religions of China. \nThe name is derived from the Tao, or " Way," a \ntreatise written by Li Urh, a contemporary of Con- \nfucius in the sixth century B.C. The ""Way" is \nthe quiet, passionless discharge of all our duties, \n" Heaven" not being a ruler, but a pattern. Taoism \nwas modified by the introduction of Buddhism. \n\nTAPESTEY. An art of weaving borrowed \nfrom the Saracens, and hence its original workers in \nFrance were called Sarazinois. The invention of \ntapestry hangings belongs [the date is not men- \n\n\n\ntioned] to the Netherlands. \xe2\x80\x94 Guicciardini. Manu- \nfactured in France under Henry IV. by artists \ninvited from Flanders, 1606. The art was brought \ninto England by William Sheldon; and the first \nmanufactory of it was established at Mortlake by \nsir Francis Crane, 17 James I. 1619. \xe2\x80\x94 Salmon. \nUnder Louis XIV. the art of tapestry was much \nimproved in France ; see Gobelin Tapestry. V ery \nearly instances of making tapestry are mentioned by \nthe ancient poets, and also in Scripture ; so that the \nSaracens\' manufacture is a revival of the art. For \nthe tapestry said to have been wrought by Matilda, \nqueen of England, see Bayeux Tapestry. \nTapestry manufactory established at Windsor lay Mr. H. \nHenry, supported by the royal family, and others ; ex- \nhibition opened in the town-hall, 6 December, 1878 ; \nworks said to be closed, June, 1892. \nManufacture revived by Messrs. Trollope of London, \n\n1882-3 \n\nTAPIE, the American water-hog, a pachyder- \nmatous animal. The first born in England at Zoo- \nlogical Gardens, London, 12 Feb. 1882. \n\nTAE- The chemist Becher first proposed to make \ntar from pit-coal ; the earl of Dundonald\'s patent \nwas granted 1781. The mineral tar was discovered \nat Coalbrookdale, Shropshire, 1779; and in Scot- \nland, Oct. 1792. Tar-water was first recommended \nfor its medicinal virtues by the good Dr. Berkeley, \nbishop of Cloyne, about 1744. From benzole, dis- \ncovered in coal-tar, many brilliant dyes are now \nproduced; see Benzole. \n\nTAEA, a hill in Meath, Ireland, where the early \nkings of Ireland were inaugurated. Near here, on \n26 May, 1798, the royalist troops, 400 strong, \ndefeated the insurgent Irish (4000 men), 500 killed. \nOn 15 Aug. 1843, Daniel O\'Connell held a monster \nmeeting here (250,000 persons said to have been \nassembled) . \n\nTAEBES (S. France, near the Pyrenees), \ncapital of Bigorre, the property of the English kings \nin the middle ages. The French, under Soult, \nwere forced from their position at Tarbes, with con- \nsiderable loss, by the British army commanded by \nWellington, 20 March, 1814. See Toulouse. \n\nTAEENTUM (now Taranto, S. Italy), was \nfounded by the Greek Phalantus, B.C. 708. The \npeople of Tarentum, assisted by Pyrrhus, king of \nEpirus, supported a war which had been undertaken \nB.C. 281 by the llomans, to avenge. the insults the \nTarentines had offered to their ships when near \ntheir harbours ; it was terminated after ten years ; \n300,000 prisoners were taken, and Tarentum became \nsubject to Borne. Except the citadel, Tarentum \nwas captured by Hannibal, 212, but recovered by \nFabius, 209 B.C. Tarentum has shared in the \nrevolutions of Southern Italy, ancl only ruins \nremain. \n\nTAEGUMS or Explanations, names given \n\nto certain ancient Chaldee paraphrases of the Old \nTestament. The most remarkable are those df \nOnkelos, Jonathan-ben-Uzziel, and Joseph the Blind. \nThe Targum of Onkelos is referred by some writers \nto the first century a.d. \n\nTAEIFA (S. Spain), the ancient Joza and Julia \nTraducta, where M.uza landed when invading Spain, \n712. It was taken from the Moors by Sancho IV. \nof Castile, 1291 or 1292 ; and was relieved, when \nbesieged by them, after a great victory over the \nkings of Morocco and Granada, by Alfonso XL of \nCastile *and Alfonso IV. of Portugal, 28 or 30 Oct. \n1340. The conflict is called the battle of Salado, \nhaving been fought on the banks of that river. \nTarifa was taken by the French in 1823. \n\n\n\nTARIFF. \n\n\n\n917 \n\n\n\nTAY BRIDGE. \n\n\n\nTAEIFF (said to have been derived from \nTarifa, where duties were formerly collected), a \nbook of duties charged on goods exported or imported. \nOur tariff in 1840 comprised 1042 articles; the \nnumber was reduced (by sir Eobert Peel) in 1845 \nand 1847. It comprised 439 articles in 1857 ; this \nnumber was greatly reduced in i860. For Mr. \nMcKinley\'s tariff bill, see United States, Oct. 1890. \n\nInternational office for the publications of all \ncustoms tariffs, in the five principal European \nlanguages at Brussels, begins the work of transla- \ntion, &e 1 April, 1891 \n\nWhat is called "the war of tariffs," very injurious \nto free trade, began in . . . Oct. 1890 \n\nTARPELAJST ROCK (Rome), owed its name \nto the tradition that Tarpeia, daughter of Tarpeiu-, \nthe keeper of the Roman citadel, was here crushed to \ndeath by the shields cast on her by the Sabines, \nwhom she treacherously admitted, having bargained \nfor the gift of what they wore on their left arms, \nmeaning then- bracelets ; about 750 B.C. \n\nTARRAGONA (N.E. Spain), occupied as a \nnaval station by the British before then- capture of \nGibraltar in 1704. It was stormed and sacked by \nthe French under Suchet, 29 Jan. 1811, and the \ninhabitants put to the sword. Population, 1887, \n27,225. \n\nTARTAN or Highland Plaid, the dress of \n\nthe Scottish Highlanders, said to have been derived \nfrom the ancient Gauls, or Celtag, the Galli non \nbraccati. \n\nTARTARIC ACID is said to have been the \nfirst discovery of the eminent chemist, Scheele, \nwho procured it in a separate state by boiling tar \nwith lime, and in decomposing the tartrate of lime \nthus formed by means of sulphuric acid, about 1 770. \nIn 1859 baron Liebig formed tartaric acid from \nother sources. \n\nTARTARY (Asia). The Tatars, or Tartars, or \nMongols, or Moguls, were known in antiquity as \nScythians. During the decline of the Roman \nempire, these tribes began to seek more fertile \nregions ; and the first who reached the frontier of \nItaly were the Huns, the ancestors of the modern \nMongols. The first acknowledged sovereign of this \nvast country was the famous Genghis Khan. His \nempire, by the conquest of China, Persia, and all \ncentral Asia (1206-27), became one of the most \nformidable ever established ; but it was split into \nparts in a few reigns. Timur, or Tamerlane, again \nconquered Persia, broke the power of the Turks in \nAsia Minor (1370-1400), and founded the Mogul \ndynasty in India, which began with Baber in 1525, \nand formed the most splendid court in Asia till the \nclose of the 1 8th century; see Golden Horde. The \nCalmucks, a branch of the Tartars, expelled from \n(Jhina, settled on the banks of the Volga in 1672, \nbut returned in 1771, and thousands perished on the \njourney. \n\nTASIMETER, see Micro-tasimeter. \n\nTASMANIA, the name now given to the \nBritish settlement in Van Diemcn\'s Land {which \nsee). \n\nTATTERS ALL\'S, see Laces. \n\nTAUNTON (Somerset), was taken by Perkin \nWarbeck, Sept. 1497 ; and here lie was surrendered \nto Henry VII. 5 Oct. following. The duke of \nMonmouth was proclaimed king at Taunton, 20 \nJune, 1685 ; and it was the scene of the " bloody \nassize" held by Jeffreys upon the rebels in August. \nPopulation, 1881, 16,614; 1891, 18,026. \n\n\n\nTAVERNS may be traced to the 13th century. \n"In the raigne of king Edward the Third, only \nthree taverns were allowed in London : one iii \nChepe, one in Walbrok, and the other in Lombard- \nstreet." \xe2\x80\x94 Spelman. The Boar\'s Head, in East- \ncheap, existed in the reign of Henry IV., and was \nthe rendezvous of prince Henry and his dissolute \ncompanions. Shakspeare mentions it as the resi- \ndence of Mrs. Quickly, and the scene of Falstaffs \nmerriment. \xe2\x80\x94 Shakspeare, " Henry IV." The White \nHart, Bishopsgatc, established in 1480, was rebuilt \nin 1829. Taverns were licensed in 1752. \nTaverns were restricted by 7 Edward VI. 1552-3, to 40 in \nLondon, 8 in York, 4 in Norwich, 3 in Westminster, 6 \nin Bristol, 3 in Lincoln, 4 in Hull, 3 in Shrewsbury, 4 \nin Exeter, 3 in Salisbury, 4 in Gloucester, 4 in Chester, \n\n3 in Hereford, 3 in Worcester, 3 in Southampton, 4 in \nCanterbury, 3 in Ipswich, 3 in Winchester, 3 in Oxford, \n\n4 in Cambridge, 3 in Colchester, 4 in Newcastle-upon- \nTyne. \n\nTAXES were levied by Solon, the Athenian legis- \nlator, about 594 B.C. The first class of citizens paid \nan Attic talent of silver, about 55?. of our money. \nDarius, the son of Hystaspes, levied a land -tax by \nassessment, which was deemed so odious that his \nsubjects styled him, by way of derision, Darius the \nTrader, 480 B.C. \xe2\x80\x94 I)\' Eon. Taxes in specie were \nfirst introduced into England by William I., 1067, \nand he raised them arbitrarily ; yet subsidies iu \nkind, as in wool, leather, and other products of the \ncountry, continued till the accession of Richard II., \n1377- \xe2\x80\x94 Camden; see Revenue and Income Tax. \n" Taxes ox Knowledge " (see Advertisement \nDuty, Newspaper Stamp, and Paper Duty) . For his \nexertions in repealing these, a testimonial was pre- \nsented to Air. T. Milner Gibson in 1861. The as- \nsessed taxes now include land tax, house duty, and \nproperty and income tax. The Taxes Management \nAct, 43 & 44 Vict. c. 19, passed 6 Aug. 1880 (see \nbelow). Mr. Stephen Lowell\'s " History of Taxa- \ntion and Taxes in England," published in 1884. \nReceipts from general taxation, 1887-8, 75,660,0:0/. \n\nAssessed Taxes. Land Tux. \n\n1800 . . . \xc2\xa33,468,131 1800 . . . \xc2\xa31,307,941 \n\n1805 . . . 4,508,752 1805 . . . 1,596,481 \n\n1810 . . . 6,233,161 1810 . . . 1,418,337 \n\n1815 . . . 6,524,766 j 1815 . . . 1,084,251 \n\n1820 . . . 6,311,346 1S20 . . . 1,192,257 \n\n1825 . . . 5,176,722 1825 . . . 1,288,393 \n\n1830 . . . 5,013,405 1830 . . . 1,189,214 \n\n1835 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 3.733.997 183s \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x80\xa2 1.203.579 \n1840 . . . 3,866,467 1840 . . . 1,298,622 \n\nAssessed Taxes. \xe2\x80\x94 Gross Amount. \n\n1851 (to Jan. 5) \xc2\xa34,365,0.33 \n\n1S55 (year ending March 31) 3,160,641 \n\ni860 ,, ,, ..... 3,232,000 \n\n1865 ,, ,, 3,292,000 \n\n1866 ,, ,, 3,350,000 \n\n1S67 ,, ,, . \' . . . . . 3,468,000 \n\n1868 ,, ,, 3,509,000 \n\n1869 ,, ,,...... 3,494,000 \n\n1870 ,, ,, ..... 4.500,000 \n\n1871 ( Land tax - and house duty only, ) 2,725,000 \n\n1872 j. see Licences. j 2,330,000 \n1873 2,337,000 \n\n1874 ........ 2,324,000 \n\n1875 . . . . . . . . . 2 440,000 \n\n1876 . 2,496,000 \n\n1877 2,532,000 \n\n1878 2,670,000 \n\n1879 . 2,720,000 \n\n18S0 2,6/0,000 \n\n1883 2,843,154 \n\n1884 2,899,223 \n\n1886 ......... 2,890,000 \n\n1888 2,970,000 \n\nSee House Duly and Land Tax. \n\nTAY BRIDGE at Dundee, above two miles \n\nacross the Tay ; act passed 1870, work begun June, \n\n3 r 2 \n\n\n\nTCHERNAYA. \n\n\n\n948 \n\n\n\nTECHNICAL EDUCATION. \n\n\n\n187 1 ; Mr. De Bergue, first contractor, died, suc- \nceeded by Messrs. Hopkins, Gilke & Co., of Middles- \nbrough. Engineer, sir Thomas Bouch. It was \nmuch injured by a gale, 4 Feb. 1877 ; completed, \n30 Aug. ; tried, 25 Sept. 1877 ; opened, 31 May, \n1878. Length, 10,612 feet ; it consisted of 85 \nspans, some above 90 feet above water level ; cost \nsaid to be 350,000\'. Above 20 lives lost during its \nconstruction. \n\nThe bridge was partly destroyed by a gale, while a \n\nN. British mail-train was passing over it ; a gap \n\nof about 3,000 feet was made ; between 75 and 90 \n\npersons perished ; about 7. 15 p.m. Sunday, 28 Dec. 1879 \n\n46 bodies were recovered \' . . up to 27 April, 1880 \n\nLiberal collections were made for sufferers by the \n\nloss of relatives. \nAfter the Board of Trade inquiry, Mr. H. C. Rothery, \nill the report, stated "that the bridge had been \nbadly designed, badly constructed, and badly \n\nmaintained" 3 July, ,, \n\nSir Thomas Bouch died . ... 30 Oct. 1880 \n\nMr. Barlow\'s iilans for a new bridge approved, May, 1881 \nPlans for new bridge approved . . . Jan. 1882 \n\nFourteen piers erected Dec. 1885 \n\nOpened for public traffic . . . .20 June, 1887 \n\nTCHERNAYA, a river in the Crimea. On \n16 Aug. 1855, the lines of the allied army at this \nplace were attacked by 50,000 Russians under prince \nGortschakoff, who was repulsed with the loss of \n3 329 slain, 1658 wounded, and 600 prisoners. The \nbrunt of the attack was borne by two French \nregiments under general D\'Herbillon. The loss of \nthe allies was about 1200 ; 200 of these were from \nthe Sardinian contingent, which behaved with great \ngallantry, under the command of general La Mar- \nmora. The Russian general Bead, and the Sardinian \ngeneral Montevecchio, were killed. The object of \nthe attack was the relief of Sebastopol, then closely \nbesieged by the English and French. \n\nTEA was brought to Europe by the Dutch, 1610. \n\nIt is mentioned as having been used in England on \n\nvery rare occasions prior to 1657, and sold for 61. \n\nand even wl. the pound. Price of inferior kinds, \n\n1801, 4s. 2hd. the pound; in 1871, is. lod. For \n\nTheine, see Gafeine. \n\nSamuel Pepys records his first " cup of tea," \n\n25 Sept. 1660 \n\nA duty of 8c?. was charged upon every gallon of tea \nmade for sale (12 Ch. II. c. 13) . . . . \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe East India Company first import it . . 1669 \n\nBrought into England in 1666, by lord Ossory and \nlord Arlington, from Holland : and being admired \nby persons of rank, it was imported from thence, \nand generally sold for 60 shillings per pound, till \nour East India Company took up the trade. \xe2\x80\x94 \nAnderson. \n\nGreen tea began to be used i 7 i 5 \n\nPrice of black tea per lb. 13s. to 20s. ; of green, 12s. \nto 30s 1728 \n\nThe duty imposed on tea in America, 1767: this tax \noccasioned the destruction of 17 chests at New \nYork, and 340 at Boston, Dec. 1773, and ulti- \nmately led to the American war (see Boston). \n\nThe tea-plant brought to England . . about 1768 \n\nTea-dealers obliged to have sign-boards fixed up, \nannouncing their sale of tea . . . Aug. 1779 \n\nCommutation act for reducing the duty on tea from \n50 to 12J per cent. ; taxing windows in lieu, June, 1784 \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0\' Millions of pounds\' weight of sloe, liquorice, and \nash-tree leaves, are every year mixed with Chinese \nteas in England."\xe2\x80\x94 Report of the House of Commons, 1818 \n\n"The consumption of the whole civilised world, \nexclusively of England, is about 22,000,000 of \npounds, while the annual consumption in Great \nBritain is 30,000,000." \xe2\x80\x94 Evidence in House of \nCommons . . ^30 \n\nTlte first tea-sale in London on the abolition of the \nexclusive privilege of the East India Company \ntook place iu Mincing-lane . \xe2\x96\xa0 . .19 Aug. 1834 \n\nNew duties were charged, 1796 ; the duty was 96 and \n100 per cent., made 2S. id. per pound . ... 1836 \n\n\n\nThe duty derived from the import of tea in 1850 \namounted to 5,471,461?. ; and the amount was \n\n5,902,433? in 1852 \n\nVarious changes made in 1854, 1855 . . and 1856 \nDuty of is. 5c?. per pound begun . . April, 1857 \nDuty upon tea gradually reduced from 2s. 2^d. to \nis. per pound; reduced to 6c?. per pound, 1 June, 1865 \n\nLicences to sell tea abolished 1869 \n\nTea duty 6c?., continued 1871 \n\nProduced, 3,709,450?. year 1875-6 ; 4,002,210?. \n\n1877-8:4,268,734?. 1883-4:4,613.311?. . . 1887-8 \nThe duty reduced to 4c?. per pound . 17 April, 1890 \n\nTEA IMPORTED INTO ENGLAND. \n\n\n\n1726 . \n\n\n\n\nlb 700,000 \n\n\n1870 \n\n\n\n\n. lb 141,020,767 \n\n\n1766 \n\n\n\n\n7,000,000 \n\n\n1871 . \n\n\n\n\n. 169,898,303 \n\n\n1792 . \n\n\n\n\n. 13,185,000 \n\n\n1872 \n\n\n\n\n. 184,927,128 \n\n\n1800 \n\n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 23,723,000 \n\n\n1873- \n\n\n\n\n. 163,765,269 \n\n\n1805 . \n\n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 24,133,000 \n\n\n1874 \n\n\n\n\n. 162,782,810 \n\n\n1810 \n\n\n\n\n. 25,414,000 \n\n\n1875- \n\n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 197,505.316 \n\n\n1815 . \n\n\n\n\n. 26,368,000 \n\n\n1876 \n\n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 185,536,371 \n\n\n1820 \n\n\n\n\n. 25,662,474 \n\n\n1877: \n\n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 187,515,284 \n\n\n1825 . \n\n\n\n\n. 24,803,668 \n\n\n1878 \n\n\n\n\n. . 204,872,899 \n\n\n1830 \n\n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 3o.544.404 \n\n\n1879. \n\n\n\n\n. 184,076,472 \n\n\n1835 \xe2\x96\xa0 \n\n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 44.360,550 \n\n\n1880 \n\n\n\n\n. 206,971,570 \n\n\n1840 \n\n\n\n\n. 38,068,555 \n\n\n1881 \n\n\n\n\n. 209,801,522 \n\n\n1845 . \n\n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 44,193,433 \n\n\n1882 \n\n\n\n\n. . 210,663,133 \n\n\n1850 govt. \n\n\nretns. 50,512,384 \n\n\n1883 \n\n\n\n\n. 222,262,431 \n\n\n1856. \n\n\n\n\n86,200,414 \n\n\n1884 \n\n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 213,877,759 \n\n\n1858 . \n\n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 75.432,535 \n\n\n1885. \n\n\n\n\n. 212,143,820 \n\n\n1861 . \n\n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 96,577,383 \n\n\n1886 \n\n\n\n\n. 230,669,292 \n\n\n1864 . \n\n\n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 124.359,243 \n\n\n1887. \n\n\n\n\n. 221,841,490 \n\n\n1866. \n\n\n\n\n. 139,610,044 \n\n\n1888 \n\n\n\n\n. 222,758,296 \n\n\n1867. \n\n\n\n\n. 128,028,726 \n\n\n1889 . \n\n\n\n\n. 222,147,661 \n\n\n1868 . \n\n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 154,845.863 \n\n\n1890 \n\n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 223,494,511 \n\n\n1869 . \n\n\n\n\n. 139,223,298 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nThe importation of tea grown in \n\n\nIndia has very \n\n\ngreatly \n\n\ninci \n\n\neased. \n\n\n\n\n\n\nA consignment of tea from the Gallebodde Estate, \n\n\nCeylon \n\n\nwas \n\n\nsold in London at \n\n\nthe \n\n\nrate of 87s. \n\n\nper pound, \n\n\n13 Jan. ; re-sold for \n\n\n1 1 os \n\n\nper pound, \n\n\nto the \n\n\nUnited Kingdom Tea \n\n\n3ompany, Jan. ; \n\n\nsome tea, Ceylon, sold for 10?. 12s. 6c? \n\n\nper pound, \n\n\n10 March ; \n\n\n17?. per pound, 5 May ; \n\n\n25?. 10s. per \n\n\npound \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n7 May, 1891 \n\n\n\nTEACHERS, National Union op Ele- \nmentary, established about 1869, held their 23rd \nannual conference, April 1892. The Teachers\' \nAssociation held their 3rd annual conference at \nUniversity College, London, 9 Jan. 1878. The \nTeachers\' Guild held its first public meeting, Mr. \nMundella in the chair, 23 Jan. 1884. Conferences \noccasionally held; one at Manchester, 9-1 1 Sept. \n1891. \n\nTEACHING, see Apostles and University. \n\n"TEARLESS VICTORY," was won by \nArchidamusIIL, king of Sparta, over the Arcadians \nand Argives, without losing a man, 367 B.C. \n\nTEA-ROOM MEETING of members of the \nhouse of commons, 8 April, 1867. See Reform, 1867. \n\nTEB, Battle of, 29 Feb. 1884. See Soudan. \n\nTECHNICAL EDUCATION, defined as \n" science and art applied to industry." Polytechnic \nschools in Darmstadt established 1830 ; in Hanover \n1835 ; the trade association of the grand duchy of \nHesse, 1836 ; Berlin working mens\' union, 1843 ; \n\'Wurtemburg workmen\'s school, 1848 ; Society for \npromoting the interests of the working classes at \nAmsterdam, 1854. The first real practical technical \nschool in England was formed in the Chester \nDiocesan Training College, by the rev. Arthur \nBigg, principal, 1839-69. \n\nConference of masters of city companies at the \nMansion-house to promote technical education \n\n5 Nov. 1869 \nNational university for industrial and technical \n\ntraining, proposed Oct. 1870 \n\nCity and Guilds of London Institute for the ad- \nvancement of technical education formally con- \n\n\n\nTE DEUM. \n\n\n\n949 \n\n\n\nTELEPATHY. \n\n\n\nstituted, ii Nov. 1878 ; foundation laid by prince \nLeopold 10 May, 1881 \n\nCentral Institution of City and Guilds Institute, \nSouth Kensington ; foundation laid liy the prince \nof Wales 18 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nA royal commission (Mr. B. Samuelson, prof. H. E. \nKoscoe (since knighted) and others) to inquire as \nto technical instruction in foreign countries Aug. ,, \n\nTechnical college, Pinsbury, opened . 19 Feb. 1883 \n\nTechnical schools (Scotland) act passed . . . 1887 \n\nNational association for the promotion of technical \neducation formed, lord Hartington (since Duke \nof Devonshire), president . . . 1 July, ,, \n\nRoyal commission on technical instruction ap- \npointed (Mr. Bernhard Samuelson, prof. H. E. \nKoscoe, and four others), to inquire abroad and \nat home, 5 Aug. 1881 ; reports (reassuring as to \nEnglish work), about 17 Feb. 1882, and 16 May, 1884 \n\nTechnical instruction bill introduced in Parlia- \nment; dropped 10 July, 1888 \n\nGreat meeting at the Mansion House to promote \ntechnical education in the metropolis, 27 March, 1889 \n\nThe technical instruction act, authorising local \nauthorities to supply aid for the purpose, passed \n30 Aug. 1889 ; another act passed 26 March, 1891. \nSee Polytechnic Institution and Whitworth. \n\nTE DEUM, a song of praise used by the Romish \nand English churches, beginning " Te Deum Lau- \ndamus \xe2\x80\x94 "We praise thee, OGod," supposed to be the \ncomposition of Augustin and Ambrose, about 390. \nThe original music is very ancient. \n\nTEETOTALEE, a term applied to an ab- \nstainer from all fermented liquors, originated with \nRichard Turner, an artisan of Preston, who, con- \ntending for the principle at a temperance meeting \nabout Sept. 1833, asserted " that nothing but te-te- \ntotal will do." The word was immediately adopted. \nHe died 27 Oct. 1846. These facts are taken from \nthe " Staunch Teetotaler," edited by Joseph Live- \nsey, of Preston (an originator of the movement in \n1832, he died, aged 90, 2 Sept. 1884), Jan. 1867. \nSee Encratites, Good Templars, Temperance, and \nUnited Kingdom. \n\nTEFLIS, see Tiflis. \n\nTEGYEA, Bceotia. Here Pelopidas defeated \nthe Spartans, 375 B.C. \n\nTEHEEAN became capital of Persia about 1795. \nEstimated population, 210,000. \n\nTELEGEAPHS (from the Greek, tele, afar, \nand (/rap ho, I write). JEschylus, in his Agamemnon \n(B.C. 500), describes the communication of intel- \nligence by burning torches as signals. Polybius, \nthe Greek historian (who died about 122 B.C.), calls \nthe different instruments used by the ancients for \ncommunicating information, pi/rsice, because the \nsignals were always made by fire. In 1663, a plan \nwas suggested by the marquis of "Worcester, and a \ntelegraph was suggested by Dr. Hooke, 1684. M. \nAmontons is also said to have been the inventor of \ntelegraphs about this period. James II., while duke \nof York, originated a set of navy signals, which \nwere systematised by Kempenfeldt in 1780; and a \ndictionary was compiled by sir Home Popham. \nM. Chappe then invented the telegraph first used \nby the French in 1792, and two were erected over \nthe Admiralty-office, London, 1796. The sema- \nphore was erected there 1816. The naval signals \nby telegraph enabled 400 previously concerted sen- \ntences to be transmitted from snip to ship, by \nvarying the combinations of two revolving crosses. \nBaron Router\'s telegraph agency founded at Aix la \nChapelle, 1 85 1. Acts relating to telegraphs were \npassed in 1863 and 1866. The telegraph act, passed \n31 July, 1868, enabled the postmaster-general to \npurchase existing electric telegraphs (not less than \n\n\n\nI*, for a telegram, 20 words). Mr. Scudamore was \nappointed director, Jan. 1872. The principle of a \n6d. telegram adopted by the commons, 29 March, \n1883, and enacted to come into operation 1 Oct. \n1883, deferred; bill introduced by Mr. Shaw- \nLefevre 30 March ; act passed 14 Aug. ; came into \noperation 1 Oct. 1885. Another telegraph act \npassed 28 June, 1892. Great destruction of tele- \ngraph posts and wires by gale and snowstoi m ; \nLondon streets blocked by fallen wires 26-27 ^>ec. \n1886. The Society of Telegraph Engineers founded \n1871; held first general meeting, 28 Feb. 1872, \nChas. Wm. Siemens, president; incorporated 188?. \nPresent title " Institution of Electrical Engineers"" \n(1889). See Electric Telegraph, under Electricity, \nand Telegraphs, under Post Office, 1869, et seq. \nThe Telecjrap hie Journal began 15 Nov. 1873. \n\nInternational Telegraph Conferences (commercial), \nhave been held at Brussels, 1858 ; Paris, March, \n1865 ; Vienna, 1868 ; Rome, 1871-2 ; St. Peters- \nburg, 1 June, 1875 ; London, 18 June, 1879 ; \nParis, 16 Oct. 1882 ; Berlin, 10 Aug.-i7 Sept. \n1885 ; Paris (114 delegates representing 38 states, \nand 23 great companies) . 15 May-21 June, 1S90 \n\nTELEKOlTPHONON, or speaking tele- \ngraph, consisted of piping of gutta percha, \ncaoutchouc, glass, or earthenware, with a terminal \nmouthpiece of ivory, bone, wood, or metal. It was \nused for dockyards and lai-ge establishments. It \nwas described by Mr. Francis Whishaw at the \nmeeting of the British Association at Swansea, \nAugust, 1848. \n\nTEL-EL-KEBIE, Egypt, the site of the en- \ntrenched camp of the rebel general, Arabi Pasha, \nhis force being about 17,500 regular infantry, 2,500 \ncavalry, 6000 Bedouins and other irregulars, and 70 \nguns; captured by the British 13 Sept. 1882. \nSir Garnet Wolseley broke up his camp at Ismailia on the \nnight of 12 Sept. and began his advance at 1.30 a.m., \nhis force being about 11,000 infantry, 2000 cavalry, and \n40 guns ; the troops marched rapidly in the dark, each \nregiment endeavouring to be first. At daybreak they \narrived at the camp. The surprised Egyptians filled \nthe trenches and fought well under cover ; but when \nthe British scaled the parapets, they at first resisted \nbravely, but afterwards fled, being hotly pursued by \nthe British cavalry, leaving all their guns, ammimi- \nuition, &c. in the hands of the victors. Thousands \nwere killed or made prisoners. Arabi Pasha fled to- \nwards Cairo. Among our killed were majors Colville, \nUnderwood, and Somervell, and lieut. McNeill. The \nBritish general\'s masterly plans of the campaign were \nthus successfully carried out by his efficient staff and \ngallant army, which included many young soldiers. \nThe Irish and Highland regiments and the Guards \nbeing specially distinguished. Arabi Pasha\'s army \nwas completely broken up, and the British entered \nCairo the next day, 14 Sept. British killed about 52, \nand 380 wounded ; Egyptian killed and wounded about \n1500. The Highlanders bore the brunt of the action. \n\nTELEMETEE, &C, an instrument for deter- \nmining the distance between a gun and the object \nfired at. Lieut, von Ehrenbcrg and major Mon- \ntaudon, in Baden, constructed a telemeter the size \nof a watch, by which the distance is determined and \nshown on a dial by the action of sound, 1S78-85. \nTeletopometer, another apparatus for ascertaining \nthe distance from point to point, invented by Dr. \nLuigi Cerebotani, was announced in Sept. 1885 ; \ntwo telescopes are employed. \n\nTELEPATHY, "the supersensory transference \n\nof thoughts and feelings from one mine! to another\'\' : \n\nthe principal subject of " Phantasms of the Living," \nedited by Messrs. Edmund (Junicy, Frederic Myers, \nand Frank Podmorc, and issued by the society for \npsychical research about 30 Oct. 18S6. \n\n\n\nTELEPHONE. \n\n\n\n950 \n\n\n\nTELESCOPES. \n\n\n\nTELEPHONE (from Greek, tele, afax, pJione, \nvoice, sound), a mime now given to apparatus for \ntransmitting articulate and musical sounds, by \nmeans of wire, vibrating rods, threads, or magneto- \nelectricity. See Electrophone, in article Electricity, \nPhonograph, Microphone, Phonopore. \n\nRobert Hooke conveyed sounds to a distance by dis- \ntended wire 1667 \n\nWheatstone conveyed the sounds of a musical-box \nfrom a cellar to upper rooms by means of a deal \nrod (termed "Enchanted Lyre") . . . 1821 \n\nPage produced galvanic musical tones by magnetis- \ning and demagnetising an iron bar . . . . 1837 \nThe principle advanced by De la Rive . . . 1843 \nProfessor Pepper lectured on Wheatstone\'s tele- \nphone before the queen at the Polytechnic, 10 May 1S55 \nPhilip Reis exhibited a partially articulate electric \n\ntelephone at Frankfort . . . .25 April 1861 \nCromwell Varley produced a musical one, 1870 ; \nplayed on at the Queen\'s theatre, Long Acre \n\n12 Feb. 1S77 \nElisha Gray improved Reis\'s telephone, and is said \n\nto have anticipated prof. Bell\'s discovery . . 1873 \nProfessor A. Graham Bell\'s articulating telephone \nproduced : (he employs a thin disk of iron vibrat- \ning in front of a permanent magnet, surrounded \nby a coil of insulated copper wire ; the sound \nor voice causes the vibration of the disk, thereby \ngenerating a current of electricity which, sent \nround a similar coil on a distant magnet, sets \nvibrating another disk, and thus the sound is re- \nproduced ; sound is converted into electricity \nand electricity reconverted into sound ;) experi- \nments at Boston and Salem, United States (18 \nmiles apart) ; speech, music, singing, laughing, \n&c, distinctly heard .... 12 Feb. 1877 \nThis telephone exhibited by Mr. W. H. Preece before \nthe British Association, Plymouth, 23 Aug. 1877 ; \nbefore the queen at Osborne, Isle of Wight \n\n14, 15 Jan. 1878 \nDebates in the House of Commons, reported by it \n\nfor Daily Neius (unsuccessful) . . 22 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \nTelephone company established . . summer ,, \nEdison\'s carbon "loud speaking" telephone ; con- \nversation heard "between London and Norwich ; \n115 miles of wire .... n Nov. ,, \nMr. Frederick Allen Gower improves Bell\'s tele- \nphone ; shown at Royal Institution, London \n\n20, 21 March, 1879 \nTelephone Exchange (Edison\'s system), Lombard- \nstreet ; ten offices connected ; private conversa- \ntion between two persons in either a loud or low \ntone carried on ; successfully tried . 6 Sept. ,, \nThe Bell and Edison companies become the United \n\nTelephone Company ; announced . 26 July, 1880 \nThe telephone tried by lord Elphinstone in his \n\ncoalmines near Carberry, Scotland . Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nTelephone communication established between \nLiverpool and Manchester ; exchange of mes- \nsages between the mayors ... 9 Nov. ,, \n20,000 Gower-Bell telephones said to have been \n\nordered by the post office . . . Dee. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe attorney-general applies for injunction against \nthe Telephone o impany and the Edison telephone \ncompany ; case deferred ; the companies directed \nto keep accounts, 20 Jan. 1880 ; decision that \nthe Telephone company is an infraction of the \nelectric telegraph monopoly bought by the act of \n1868, 20 Dec. 1880 ; legal arrangements with the \n\ncompany n April, 1881 \n\nThe postmaster-general now grants licences . ,, \n\nProfessor Dolbear of Tuft\'s college, Massachusetts \nannounced a new system, with improved tele- \nphone receiver (an articulating air condenser), \ndifferent to Bell\'s and Edison\'s . . . Aug. ,, \nOpera at Royal Comedy theatre, Panton street, \nLondon, heard at Bristol hotel, Burlington \n\nGardens 21 Dec. ,, \n\nNational Telephone company 2nd annual meeting, \nreport gross revenue 30 June, 1881, 15,050?. ; \n30 June, 1882, 26,996?. ; dividend 6 per cent. \n\nannounced Aug. 1882 \n\nTelephonic communications between Brighton and \n\nLondon established 21 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe system largely developed in Europe and \nAmerica in . . \n\n\n\nUnited Telephone company v. Harrison, Cox, \nWalker <fe Co., for infringements of patents \n(Gordon, Bell and Edison) ; verdict for plaintiffs \non appeal 6 Feb. 1883 \n\nDistinct communication between New York and \nChicago 1000 miles (by steel wire coated with \ncopper) reported 24 March, ,, \n\nSermons at churches and chapels transmitted at \nBradford " Aug. ,, \n\nThe Post office makes large concessions to the \ncompanies Sept. 1884 \n\nSuccessful experiments between Uxbridge and \nLiverpool (200 miles) .... 9 July, 1885 \n\nSimple mechanical telephone of Messrs. A. A. \nKnudson and T. G. Ellsworth of New York \nannounced Aug. ,, \n\nTelephonic communication between Brussels and \nParis opened by means of Dr. Cornelius Herz\'s \nmicro-telephone 2 Feb. 1887 \n\nA telephone palace at Stockholm with excellent \narrangements Feb. ,, \n\nCommunication by telephone between Paris and \nMarseilles opened .... 6 Aug. 1888 \n\nProposed ainalgamation of the United Telephone \nCompany\' with other companies opposed by the \npostmaster-general in regard to their licences \nfrom government June, 1889 \n\nThe Pulsion telephone, in which sounds are com- \nmunicated by an ordinary wire, without elec- \ntricity, invented by Mr. Lemuel Mellett, \nsuccessfully used on railways in America, 1888 ; \ntried with good results on the Midland railway \nnear London Dec. 18S9 \n\nMr. Edison, said to have invented a process of \ncombining jmotography with the telephone, Feb. 1890 \n\nTelephonic communications open between London, \nBirmingham and Liverpool, 11 July; Manchester \n\n30 Sept. ,, \n\nThe telephone almost universally adopted . 1890-2 \n\nTelephone communication between London and \nParis, proposed by the French, and assented to \nby the English Government; the necessary works \nwere completed by the construction of the first \nsub-marine telephonic cables, and their submerg- \ning by the Monarch, 14 March ; officially tested \nby the engineers, 17 March ; the first communi- \ncations were from the prince of Wales and presi- \ndent Carnot exchanging congratulations ; others \nfollowed between Mr. Raikes, the postmaster- \ngeneral, and M. Roche, French minister of com- \nmerce, and other officials, 18 March ; opened to \nthe public (day and night) . . 1 April, 1891 \n\nTelephonic communication from London to Mar- \nseilles and Brussels, completed 19 April, 1891 ; \nbetween Dublin and Belfast, opened . 5 April, 1892 \n\nTreasury minute to promote the development of \nthe telephone system in the United Kingdom, \nby promoting the co-operation of the post-office \nand the telephone companies, &c. . 23 May, \n\nThe government authorised to raise 1,000,000?. to \npurchase the trunk lines of the telephone com- \npanies, by act passed .... June, ,, \n\nTELEPHOTOGRAPHY, a process for \ntransmitting to a distance images of objects by the \nagency of electricity and selenium, was invented by \nMr. Shelford.Bidwell, early in 188 1. \n\nTELEEADIPHONE, an arrangemeut of \napparatus in which M. Mercadier has adapted prof. \nGraham Bell\'s photophone to telegraphy, announced \nJan. 1882. \n\nTELESCOPES. Their principle was de- \nscribed by Roger Bacon about 1250, and Leonard \nDigges (who died about 1573) is said to have \narranged glasses so that he could see very distant \nobjects. \n\nTelescopes constructed by John Lipperhey and \nZaeharias Jansen, spectacle-makers of Middle- \nburg, and James Metius of Alkmaer . . about 1608 \nGalileo (from a description of the above) constructed \ntelescopes (May, 1609), gradually increasing in \npower, till he discovered Jupiter\'s satellites, &c, \n\nJan. 1610 \nThe telescope explained by Kepler . . . .1611 \n\n\n\nTELL, WILLIAM. \n\n\n\n951 \n\n\n\nTEMPLARS. \n\n\n\nHuyghens greatly improved the telescope ; dis- \ncovered the ring and satellites of Saturn, &e. 1655-6 \n\nTelescopes improved by Gregory, about . . . 1663 \n\nReflecting telescope invented by Newton . 1668 \n\nAchromatic telescopes made by Chester More Hall, \nabout 1723 ; re-invented by John Dollond . . 1758 \n\nSir Wm. Herschel (originally an organist at Bath) \ngreatly improves telescopes, and discovers the \nX>lanet Uranus (which see), 21 March, 1781, and a \nvolcanic mountain in the moon, in 1783 ; he com- \npletes his forty-feet focal length telescope in \n1789, and he discovers two other volcanic moun- \ntains ; he lays before the Royal Society a cata- \nlogue of 5000 nebula? and clusters of stars . . 1802 \n\nA telescope made in London for the observatory of \nMadrid, which cost 11,000?., in 1802 \n\nTelescopes improved by Guinand and Fraunhofer, \n\n1805-14 \n\nThe great telescope taken down, and one of twenty- \nfeet focal length erected by sir John Herschel \n(who afterwards took it to the Cajie of Good \nHope, and made with it his observations) . . 1822 \n\nThe earl of Rosse erected at Parsonstown, in Ire- \nland, a telescope (at a cost exceeding 20,000?.) \n6 feet in diameter, and 54 feet in length; it is \nmoved with ease "1823-45 \n\nMr. Lassell constructed a telescope by which he \ndiscovered the satellite of Neptune, 1846 ; and the \neight satellites of Saturn 1848 \n\nOne of gigantic size, 85 feet in length (very imper- \nfect), completed at AVandsworth by the rev. John \nCraig 1852 \n\nMagnificent ecpiatorial telescopes set up at the \nnational observatories at Greenwich and Paris . i860 \n\nM. Foucault exhibits at Paris a reflecting telescope, \nthe mirror 31 A- inches in diameter ; the focal \nlength 17! feet 1862 \n\nMr. R. S. Newall\'s telescope (with object glass 25 \ninches diameter ; tube nearly 30 feet), set up at \nGateshead by Cookes of York 1870 \n\nOne at United States Observatory, \'Washington ; \nobject-glass, 26 inches diameter, 33 feet length. \n\nMr. A. Ainslie Common\'s reflecting telescope ; spe- \nculum 37J inches diameter ; length, 20 feet ; said \nto be the most powerful in r existence ; Eal- \ning, Middlesex ; completed . . . Sept. 1879 \n\nThe largest refracting telescope yet made ; by \nHoward Grubb at Dublin (for Vienna) ; approved \nby the commissioners . . .16 March, 1S81 \n\nA very large refracting telescope by Messrs. Clark \nof America was set up in the observatory at \nMount Hamilton, California, named after Mr. \nLick (who left money for its foundation) . .1888 \n\nTELL, "WILLIAM. The popular stories re- \nspecting him were demonstrated to be mythical by \nProfessor Kopp of Lucerne, 1872. \n\nTELLERS, see under Exchequer. \n\nTELLURIUM, a rare metal, in its natural \nstate containing small quantities of iron and gold, \nwas discovered by Mailer of Reichenstein, in 1782, \nand named by Klaproth. \n\nTELODYNAMIC TRANSMITTER, in- \nvented by M. Him, is an arrangement of water- \nwheels, endless wires, and pulleys, for conveying \nand using the power of water-falls at a distance, \nand has been much used since 1 850. The apparatus \nwas shown at Paris in 1862. \n\nTELPHERAGE, an application of electrical \nmotion, invented by professor Fleeming Jenkin, \naided by professors Ayrton and Perry, for conveying \nheavy goods, 2d. a ton per mile, 4 miles an hour, \nshown at Millwall, 1884. \n\nA Telpherage company was formed. A Telpher line \nat the estate dl\' lord Hampden at Glynde near \nLewes, opened 17 Nov. 1885 \n\nTEMESWAR (Hungary), capital of the Banat, \noften besieged by the Turks. On 10 Aug. 1849, \nHaynau totally defeated the Hungarians besieging \nthis town, and virtually ended the war. \n\n\n\nTEMNOGRAPH, an instrument designed to \nplot to any accurate scale a section of the ground \nover which it travels. It works by ft-ietional \nmotion governed by two pendulous weights. In- \nvented by A. M. Kymer-Jones in 1879. \n\nTEMPERANCE SOCIETIES originated \nwith Mr.. Calhoun, who, while he was secretary of \nwar in America, in order to counteract the habitual \nuse of ardent spirits among the people, prohibited \nthem altogether in the United States\' army, 1818. \nSee Teetotaler, and Permissive Bill. \n\nThe first public temperance society in America was \nprojected in 1825, and formed . . 13 Feb. 1826 \n\nMany temperance societies immediately afterwards \nformed in America, England, and Scotland. \n\nBritish and foreign temperance society formed, \n\n29 June, 1831 \n\nThe " Rechabites " (see Jer. xxxv.) began . \' about 1838 \n\nIn Ireland, the rev. Dr. Edgar, of Belfast, published \nupon temperance in 1S29-31 ; and Father Theobald \nMathew, a Roman catholic clergyman, affirmed \nthat he had made more than a million of converts \nto temperance 1841 \n\nFather Mathew arrived in America in July, 1849 ; \nwas not so successful there ; he died, aged 66, 8 Dec. \n1856 ; centenary of his birth celebrated \n\n10 Oct. et seq. 1890 \n\nIn England, the National temperance society, \nformed 1843 \n\nLondon temperance league 185 1 \n\nThe United Kingdom alliance for the legislative \nsuppression of the sale of intoxicating licpiors, \n\n1 June, 1853 \n\nThe National Temperance league, formed . . 1856 \n\nMr. J. B. Gough lectures in London, &c. . . ,, \n\nUnited Kingdom Band of Hope Union formed, 1855 ; \n11,400 societies with 1,414,900 members . . 1888 \n\nThe National union for suppression of intemperance \nby means of "few houses, shorter hours, and \nbetter provisions," established end of . . . 1871 \n\nChurch of England temperance society inaugurated \nby the archbishop of Canterbury and others at \nLambeth 18 Feb. 1S73 \n\nA Temperance hospital, where no alcoholic drinks \nare to be given for disease, was opened . 6 Oct. ,, \n\nBritish Women\'s temperance association inaugu- \nrated at Neweast!e-on-Tyne . . . April 1876 \n\nMr. J. B. Gough lectures in London, \n\nSept. 1878 ; Oct. 1879 \n\nLondon Temperance Hospital, Hampstead-road, \nLondon, building (21,000?. out of 30,000?. sub- \nscribed) Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nInternational exhibition of objects connected with \ntemperance opened at the Agricultural hall, Is- \nlington 2= Aug. 1881 \n\nThe Green and Blue Ribbon Armies of persons advo- \ncating temperance were prominent in . . . 1802 \n\nA Yellow Army of moderate drinkers proposed (gen. \nHicks) about Sept, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNational Temperance Jubilee at the Crystal Palace; \nabove 50,000 present .... 5 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nInternational temperance conferences : Brussels, \n1880 ; London 1882 ; Antwerp .... 1S85 \n\nMr. J. B. Gough dies in Philadelphia, aged 69, \n\nabout 17 Feb. 1S86 \n\nBritish and colonial congress in London, bishop \nof London president . . . 14-16 July, ,, \n\n"National Prohibition Party," Mr. Alex. Gus- \ntafson, in the Christian Commonwealth, strongly \nurges the total abolition of alcohol . April, 1887 \n\nTEMPERED GLASS, see Glass. \n\nTEMPLARS. The military order of " soldiers \nof the Temple," to protect pilgrims, was founded \nabout 1 1 18 by Baldwin II., king of Jerusalem, \nconfirmed by pope Honorius II., 1128. The Tem- \nplars were numerous in several countries, and came \nto England before 1 185. Their wealth having ex- \ncited the cupidity of tlie French kings, the order \nwas suppressed by the council of Vienne, and part \nof its revenues was bestowed upon other orders about \nI 1312. Numbers of the order were tried, condemned \n\n\n\nTEMPLE. \n\n\n\n952 \n\n\n\nTEEMS. \n\n\n\nand burned alive or hanged in 1308-10, and it \nsuffered much persecution throughout Europe; 68 \nknights were burnt at Paris, 1310. Pope Clement \nV. abolished the order, April, 1312. The grand \nmaster Molay was burnt alive at Paris, 18 March, \n1314. Their property in England was given to the \nHospitallers, and the\'head of the order in England \ndied in the Tower. See Good Templars. \n\nTEMPLE (London), the dwelling of the \nKnights Templars, consecrated by Heraclius, patri- \narch of Jerusalem, 1185, at the suppression of the \norder, was purchased by the professors of the \ncommon law, and converted into inns, 131 1, after- \nwards called the Inner and Middle Temple. Essex \nhouse, also a part of the house of the Templars, \nwas called the Outer Temple, because it was \nsituated without Temple-bar. \n\nThe Temple hall was built in 1572 \n\nSt. Mary\'s, or the Temple Church, situated in the \nInner Temple, is a Gothic stone building, erected \nby the Templars in 1240, and is remarkable for its \ncircular vestibule, and for the tombs of the \ncrusaders, who were buried here. The church \nwas recased with stone by Mr. Smirke in . . 1828 \n\nThe Middle Temple new library was opened by the \nprince of Wales, 31 Oct. 1861 ; he becomes trea- \nsurer of the Middle Temple . . . Nov. 1886 \n\nNew Inner Temple hall opened by princess Louise, \n\n14 May, 1870 \n\nAnniversary of consecration, celebrated by Mr. E. \nJ. Hopkins 10 Feb. 1885 \n\nTemple bar, erected outside the gates ; ordered to \nbe rebuilt 27 June, 1669 ; erected by sir C. Wren ; \ncompleted March 1672-3; cost 1397/.. io\xc2\xab. ; room \nabove contained books of Child and Co. for 200 \nyears ; reported dangerous March, 1868 ; began \nto sink 30 July ; shored up 1868 \n\nIts removal voted by the common council, 27 Sept. \n1876 ; the removal began 2 Jan., 1878 ; last stones \nremoved 13 June, 1879 \n\nThe stones, &c, given to sir H. B. Meux to be \nerected at Theobald\'s Park, near Cheshunt, June, \n1887; the bar set up Nov. 1888 \n\nThe memorial to mark the site (including statues \nof the queen and prince of Wales) ; cost about \n11,550?. ; inaugurated by prince Leopold, 8 Nov. 1880 \n\n" Temple" at Paris, formerly an asylum for debtors, \nand a prison during the republic, was made the \nsite of a market in 1809, and rebuilt in 1864. \n\nThe " City Temple," a dissenters\' chapel (minister, \nDr. Parker), Holborn Viaduct, was opened, 19 May, 1874 \n\nTEMPLES- The Egyptians were the first \nwho erected temples to the gods. \xe2\x80\x94 Herodotus. The \nfirst erected in Greece is ascribed to Deucalion. \n\xe2\x80\x94 Apollonius. \n\nThe temple of Jerusalem built by Solomon, 1012B.C. \nconsecrated 1004 ; pillaged by Shishak, 971 ; repaired \nby Joasli, 856 ; profaned by Ahaz, 740 ; restored by \nHezekiah, 726 ; pillaged and fired by Nebuchadnezzar, \n588, 587; rebuilt, 536; pillaged by Antiochus, 170; \nrebuilt by Herod, 18 ; destroyed by Titus, a.d. 70. \nThe temple of Apollo, at Delphi, first a cottage with \nboughs, built of stone by Trophonius, about 1200 B.C. ; \nburnt by the Pisistratidas, 548 ; a new temple raised by \nthe family of the AlcniEeonidEe, about 513. \nTemple of Diana at Ephesus, built seven times ; planned \nby Ctesiphon, 544 b.c. ; fired by Eratostratus or \nHerostratus, to perpetuate his name, 356 b.c. ; to re- \nbuild it employed 220 years ; destroyed by the Goths \n\nA.D. 260. \n\nThe temple of Piety was built by Acilius, on the spot \nwhere once a woman had fed with her milk her aged \nfather, whom the senate had imprisoned, and excluded \nfrom all aliments. \xe2\x80\x94 Vol. Max. \n\nTemple of Theseus, built 480 b.c, is at this day the most \nperfect ancient edifice in the world. \n\nMost of the heathen temples were destroyed throughout \nthe Roman empire byConstantine the Great and Theo- \ndosius, 331-392, See separate articles. \n\n. TENANT, see Rent. Bills to amend the posi- \ntion of Irish tenants in relation to their landlords \n\n\n\nwere brought into parliament by Mr. Sharman \nCrawford, 1835, su \' Joseph Napier, 1852, Mr. Card- \nwell, i860, Mr. Chichester Fortescue, 1866, Lord \nNaas, 1867. The Irish land bill settling the ques- \ntion passed 8 July, 1870. See Ulster. \nThe Tenants\' Defence Association, was formed in con- \nsequence of a declaration by Mr. Parnell, and his \nparty, at a meeting in the house of commons, that a \nnew league was necessary to defend the Irish tenant \nfarmers against their landlords, 14 July, 1889. The \ntenants were invited to contribute to the fund, and \npreliminary meetings were held. The association was \ninaugurated at Thurles, Tipperary, by Mr. Sexton, \nMr. Redmond, and other M.P.\'s. 600 delegates being \npresent, 28 Oct. 1889. 40,000?. had been subscribed \nup to 30 Jan. 1890. In April, 1891, the scheme was \nreported unsuccessful. \n\nTENASSEBIM (N.E. India), ceded by Bur- \nmah to the British, 24 Feb. 1826. \n\nTENEEIFFE (Canaries, N.W. coast of Africa). \nThe peak of Tenerifl\'e, 12, 198 feet above the level of \nthe sea, was ascended in 1856 by professor C. Piazzi \nSmyth for astronomical observations. An earth- \nquake in this island destroyed several towns and \nmany thousands of people in 1704. See Santa Cruz. \nThe governor, col. Pedro Bastanica was hanged for \nmurder of his mother-in-law, 28 Oct. 1890. \n\nTEN MINUTES\' BILL, see Reform. \n\nTENNESSEE, a southern state of North \nAmerica, was settled about 1760, and admitted into \nthe union 1 June, 1796. An ordinance of secession \nfrom the union was passed\xe2\x80\x94 it is asserted illegally \n\xe2\x80\x94on 6 May, 1861. On 23 Feb. 1862, the federal \ngeneral Nelson entered Nashville, and in March, \nAndrew Johnson (afterwards the president of the \nUnited\' States) was made military governor over a \nlarge part of Tennessee. In Sept. 1863, Bosencrans \nexpelled the confederate government. The repre- \nsentatives of Tennessee were re-admitted to the \ncongress, July, 1866. Population, 1880, 1,542,359 ; \n1890, 1,767,518; capital, Nashville. \nRiots at Knoxville, through the employment of con- \nvicts in the mines ; about 500 liberated by the mob, \n30 Oct. et seq. ; recaptured, 4 Nov. 1S91. \nSee United States, 1892. \n\nTENNIS- This game, brought from France, \nbecame fashionable in England in the reign of \nCharles II. 1660-85 ; see Jeu de Fanme. "Lawn \nTennis" became fashionable in 1877, replacing \ncroquet. Julian Marshall\'s "Annals of Tennis" \npublished June, 1878. \nA National Lawn Tennis Association started Jan. 1888 \n\nTEN TABLES, see Decemvirs. \n\nTENTERDEN\'S ACT, Lord, 2 & 3 Will. IV. \nc. 7 X > for shortening the time of prescription in \ncertain cases (such as rights cf way, and use of \nlight), passed 1 Aug. 1832. \n\nTEN THOUSAND, see Retreat. \n\nTENTHS, see Tithes. \n\nTENUEES, the mode in which land is held. \nMilitary tenures in England were abolished in \n1660, Lyttelton\'s book on Tenures is dated 1481. \n\nTEEBIUM, a metal sometimes found with \nyttrium {which see). \n\nTEECEIEA, see Azores. \n\nTEEMS of Law and Vacations. They \n\nwere instituted in England from the Norman usage, \nthe long vacation being suited to the time of the \nvintage in France, 14 Will. I. 1079. \xe2\x80\x94 Glanvitte de \nLeg. Ai/r/lic. They were gradually formed. \xe2\x80\x94 Spel- \nman. The terms were fixed by statute II Geo. IV. \n\n\n\nTERNOVA. \n\n\n\n953 \n\n\n\nTHAMES. \n\n\n\nand i Will. IV. 22 July, 1830: Hilary Term to \nbegin n Jan. and end 31 Jan.; Easter, 15 April, \nto end 8 May; Trinity, 22 May, to end 12 June ; \nMichaelmas, 2 Nov. to end 25 Nov. This act was \namended 1 Will. IV. 15 Nov. 1830. New law terms \n(now sittings) were appointed under the Supreme \nCourt of Judicature Act, passed 5 Aug. 1873. \nMichaelmas sittings : 2 Nov. to 21 Dec. \nHilary ; n Jan. to Wednesday in Passion week. \nEaster : Thursday in Easter week to Friday before Whit- \n\nSunday. \nTrinity: Tuesday after Whit-Sunday to 8 Aug. \nThe new legal vacations ordered to be as follows : \xe2\x80\x94 \nChristmas: 24 Dec. to 6 Jan. Easter: Good Friday \nto Easter-Tuesday. Wli itsv/n : Saturday before Whit- \nSunday to Whit-Tuesday. Long vacation : 10 Aug. to \n24 Oct. \n\nTERNOVA, see Tirnova. \n\nTERRITORIAL WATERS JURISDIC- \nTION ACT, passed, 16 Aug. 1878. It regulates \nthe law relating to the trial of offences committed \non the sea within a certain distance of the coasts of \nher majesty\'s dominions. \n\nTERROR, seeHeiynof. \n\nTEST ACT, directing all officers, civil and mili- \ntary, under government, to receive the sacrament \naccording to the forms of the church of England, \nand to take the oaths against transubstantiation, \n&c. ; enacted 29 March, 1673. The Test and Cor- \nporation acts were repealed, 9 May, 1828. See \nUniversity Tests. \n\nTESTAMENT, see Bibles, and Wills. \n\nTESTER, testone, a silver coin struck in France \nby Louis XII. 15 13 ; and also in Scotland in the \ntime of Francis II. and of Mary, queen of Scots, \n1559. It was so called from the head of the king, \nstamped upon it. In England the tester was of izd. \nvalue in the reign of Henry VIII., afterwards of \n6d. (still called a tester) . \n\nTESTRI (N. France). Pepin d\'Heristal, in- \nvited by malcontents, here defeated and captured \nThierry III., king of Austrasia, and established \nldmself as duke, 687. \n\nTETTENHALL (Staffordshire). It was pro- \nbably at this place, then named Teotenheal, that \nthe Danes were defeated by the Saxon king, Edward \nthe Elder, 6 Aug. 910. \n\nTETUAN (Morocco) was entered by the Span- \niards 6 Feb. i860, after gaining a decisive victory \non 4 Feb. The general O\'Donnell, was made a \ngrandee of the first class. \n\nTEUTOBERG FOREST (theTeutobergiensis \nsaltus, Tacitus), probably situate between Detmold \nand Paderborn, where Hermann, or Arminius, and \nthe Germans defeated the Romans under Varus, \nwith very great slaughter, A.D. 9. Varus and many \nof his officers preferred suicide to captivity. This \ndefeat was regarded at Rome as a national calamity, \nand Augustus, in agony, cried, " Varus, give me \nmy legions!" \n\nTEUTONES, a people of Germany, who with \nthe Cimbri made incursions upon Gaul, and cut to \npieces two Roman armies, 113 and 105 B.C. They \nwere at last defeated by the consul Marius at Aix, \nand a great number made prisoners, 102 B.C. (see \nCimbri), with whom authors commonly join the \nTcutones. The appellation came to be applied to \nthe German nation in general (hence Deutsche). \n\n\' TEUTONIC ORDER, military blights estab- \nlished in the Holy Land about II91, through the \n\nhumanity of the Germans (Tcutones) to the sick \n\n\n\nand wounded of the Christian army in the Holy \nLand, under Guy of Lusignan, before Acre. The \norder w r as confirmed by a bull of pope Coeles- \ntine III. On their return to Germany, the knights \nwere invited to subdue and christianise the country \nnow called Prussia and its neighbourhood, which \nthey gradually accomplished. Their territories were \ninvaded, and their army was defeated, with great \nslaughter, near Tannenherg, in East Prussia, by \nJagellon, duke of Lithuania, 15 July, 1410, when the \ngrand master and many of the knights were slain. \nA large part of their possessions was incorporated \ninto Poland in 1466, and into Brandenburg about \n1521. In 1525, the grand master was made a \nprince of the empire, and the order much weakened. \nIts remaining possessions were seized by Napoleon I. \nin 1809. See Prussia, &c. \n\nTEWKESBURY (Gloucestershire), where Ed- \nward IV. gained a decisive victory over the Lan- \ncastrian\'s, 4 May, 147 1. Queen Margaret, the consort \nof Henry VI. , was taken prisoner and her son killed. \nThe queen was conveyed to the Tower of London, \nwhere king Henry expired soon after this fatal engage- \nment; being, as is generally supposed, murdered \nby the duke of Gloucester, afterwards Richard III. \nThe queen was ransomed in 1475 by the French \nking, Louis XL, for 50,000 crowns. Population, \n1881, 5,100 ; 1891, 5,269. \n\nThe abbey, founded by Robert Fitz-Hamon, cousin of \nWilliam I., completed and consecrated 1123 ; grandly \naltered, 14th century ; a monastery destroyed by \nHenry VIII. ; the abbey spared ; restored by G. G. \nScott, 1877-9. \n\nTEXAS (N. America) was settled by the French, \n1687, who were expelled soon after. It revolted \nfrom Mexico in 1835 ; was helped by the Americans \nin 1836. Its independence was acknowledged in \n1840. Its proposed annexation led to war between \nMexico and the United States. It was admitted \ninto the Union by the latter in 1845 ; seceded from \nit in 1 86 1 ; submitted in 1865 ; re-admitted to state \nrights, March, 1870. The coast was desolated by a \ngreat storm, 15-18 Sept. 1875. Population 1880, \n1,591,749; 1890, 2,235,523; capital, Austin. See \nStorms. \nGreat fire at Galveston, above 700 residences burnt, \n\nloss about 8oo,oooZ 13 Nov. 1SS5 \n\nAbout 1 ,000 Mexicans entered Rio Grande and caused \n\ndisturbances, soon quelled, . . . Sept. iSSS \nDiplomatic correspondence respecting the conduct \nof Mr. Lyall, British consul at Galveston, in re- \nlation to an Englishman convicted of burglary ; \nhe defends himself Dee. 1S90 \n\nTEXEL (at the mouth of the Zuyder Zee, Hol- \nland). Its vicinity has been the scene of memorable \nnaval engagements. An engagement between \nthe English under Blake, Dean, and Monk, and \nthe Dutch under Van Tromp and Do Punter, in \nwhich the latter were worsted and admiral Van \nTromp was killed, 31 July, 1653. Again, in the \nmouth of the Texcl a sharp indecisive action took \nplace between the allied English and French fleets \nunder prince Rupert and comte d\'Estrees, and the \nDutch fleet under Do Ruyter, 11 Aug. 1673. \'J-\' 10 \nDutch fleet was vanquished by admiral Duncan \non ir Oct. 1797; see Camperdown. The Dutch fleet \nof 12 ships of war and thirteen Indiamen surren- \ndered to admiral Mitchell, who, entering the Texcl, \npossessed himself of them without tiring a shot, 30 \nAug. 1799. \n\nTHALLIUM, a metal, occurring in the sulphu- \nric acid manufacture, discovered by Mr.Wm.Crookes, \nby means of the spectrum analysis, March, iS6i. \n\nTHAMES (London), the Roman Tamesis or \nTamesa, Saxon Temesc, Temesa, rises in four \n\n\n\nTHAMES. \n\n\n\n954 \n\n\n\nTHANKSGIVINGS. \n\n\n\nsprings, at Ullen farm, near Coates, Gloucestershire. \nThe head of the river in "Wiltshire is about 170 \nmiles from London bridge, and its Avhole course \nfrom source to mouth about 220 miles. See London, \nLondon-bridge, and Frosts. \n\nThe river rose so high at Westminster that the \nlawyers were brought out of the hall in boats . . 1235 \n\nIt rose to a great height, 1736, 1747, 1762 . . 1791 \n\nThe conservation of the Thames was given to the \nmayors of London 1489 \n\nThe Thames was made navigable to Oxford . . 1624 \n\nIt ebbed and flowed twice in three hours, 1658 ; \nagain, three times in four hours, 22 March, 1682 ; \nagain, twice in three hours ... 24 Nov. 1777 \n\nAn act of parliament gave the conservation of the \nThames to the corporation of London ; twelve \nconservators were to be appointed \xe2\x80\x94 three by the \ngovernment 1857 \n\nIn consecpienee of the great contamination of the \nThames by the influx of the sewage of London, \nand the bad odours emanating from it in the \nsummer of 1858, an act was passed empowering \nthe Metropolitan Board of Works {which see) to \nundertake its purification by constructing new \ndrainage 1858 \n\nThe Thames Angling Preservation Society (estab- \nlished about 1838) is revived in .... 1863 \n\nMr. Leach, engineer of the conservators, reported \nthat "the river is dreadfully mismanaged from its \nsource to its mouth " . . . .23 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Thames navigation acts, appointing five more \nconservators, &c, and prohibiting pollution by \nsewage, &c. , passed .... Aug. 1866 \n\nThe powers of the act extended up to Staines . . 1867 \n\nNew bye-laws to protect the fish in the Upper \nThames passed by the conservators . 14 June, 1869 \n\nHighest tide known for many years ; river over- \nflowed from Gravesend to its tidal limit ; great \ndamage and distress in Blackfriars and Lambeth ; \nWoolwich arsenal flooded and suffered ; river \nsaid to have risen above 29 feet . 15 Nov., 1875 \n\nThe lord mayor and others (with carriages and \nhorses) cross by ferry from Rotherhithe to Wap- \nping i Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThames SteamFerry ; first pile of a landing-place at \nWapping struck by Lord Mayor Stone, n Oct., \n1875 ; first steam ferry boat, Jessie May, \nlaunched 26 Feb. 1876 \n\nIn consequence of the wreck of the saloon steamer \nPrincess Alice, by collision with the Bywell Castle, \n3 Sept., a committee appointed by the Board of \nTrade to inquire into matters connected with \nsafety of navigation, &c, in the river . Sept. 1878 \n\nThames traffic committee of the Board of Trade \nappointed 1879 \n\nFloods on the south side, through heavy rains and \nhigh tides, 2, 3, Jan. 1877 ; during severe frost, \n\n18, 19 Jan. 1881 \n\nVery high tide, 19 Feb. ; another, very destructive, \nCharing Cross pier carried away . . 28 Oct. 1882 \n\nAppointment of committee to inquire into the acts \nfor preserving the Thames for recreation agreed \nto ...... . 11 March, 1884 \n\nThames Preservation Act passed . . 14 Aug. 1885 \n\nGreenwich great steam-ferry formally opened 13 \nFeb. 1888 ; one between North and South Wool- \nwich\' (free) formally opened by lord Bosebery \n\n23 March, 1889 \n\nThames Tunnel. One proposed, 1799 ; shaft \nsunk, 1804. The\'present one proposed by I. K. \nBrunei to form a communication between \nRotherhithe and Wapping, 1823. The bill re- \nceived the royal assent ... 24 June, 1824 \n\nThe shaft was begun, and the first brick laid by Mr. \nSmith, 2 March ; the excavation commenced, 1 \nApril ; the first horizontal excavation in Dec. 1825 \n\nAt a distance of 544 feet from the shaft, the first \nirruption took place . . . .18 May, 1827 \n\nThe second irruption, by which six workmen \nperished 12 Jan. 1828 \n\nThe tunnel was opened throughout for foot-passen- \ngers, 25 March, 1843. [The length of the tunnel \nis 1300 feet ; its width is 35 feet ; height, 20 feet ; \nclear width of each archway, including foot-path, \nabout 14 feet ; thickness of earth between the \ncrown of the tunnel and the bed of the river, about \n15 feet.] \n\n\n\nThe Thames Tunnel Company was dissolved in . 1866 \nThe tunnel, transferred to the East London railway \n\ncompany, was closed . . . .21 July, ,, \nThe Tower subway, an iron tube tunnel beneath the \nThames, constructed by Messrs. Barlow, was \nbegun 16 Feb. 1869, and privately opened, April, \n\n1870. It was said to have cost only i6,oool. \n\nA tubular Thames tunnel, chiefly for workmen, be- \ntween North and South Woolwich, begun 23 Aug. , 1876 \n\nThames Embankment : recommended by sir \nChristopher Wren, 1666, and by Win. Paterson, \nfounder of the bank of England, about 1694. The \ncorporation embanked a mile in 1767. It was \nfurther recommended by Gwynne, 1767 ; by sir \nFrederick Eden, 1798 ; by sir Frederick Trench, \n1824; by James Walker; by the duke of New- \ncastle, 1844 : ancL by John Martin the painter, \n1856. In i860, the Metropolitan Board of Works \nrecommended that the north bank of the Thames \nshould be embanked, whereby the bed of the \nriver would be improved; a low-level sewer \ncould be easily constructed beneath a broad \nroadway ; docks to be constructed within the \nembankment wall ; the expense to be defrayed by \nthe city duties on coal, and by means provided by \ngovernment. The principle of this recommenda- \ntion was approved by parliament, and a committee \nwas appointed, which sat for the first time, \n\n30 April, 1861 \n\nAn act for " embanking the North side of the \nThames from Westminster bridge to Blackfriars \nbridge, and for making new streets in and near \nthereto," passed 7 Aug. ; the work begun in Nov. 1862 \n\nFirst stone of the northern (Victoria) embank- \nment (designed by Mr. Joseph W. Bazalgette) \nlaid by Mr. Thwaites near Whitehall stairs, \n20 July, 1864 ; the footway opened to the public, \n30 July, 1868 ; the roadway opened by the prince - \nof Wales 13 July, 1870 \n\nThe proposal to build public offices upon the re- \nclaimed land negatived by the house of commons, \n\nJuly, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n" Cleopatra\'s Needle " (see Obelisk), set up on the \nembankment 12 Sept. 1878 \n\nMr. J. W. Bazalgette presented a report, with a \nplan for embanking the South side of the Thames, \n6 Nov. 1862 ; act for carrying it out passed, \n\n28 July, 1863 \n\nSouthern (Albert) Embankment. First stone laid by \nMr. (aft. sir Wm.) Tite, 28 July, 1866 ; partially \nopened 24 Nov. 1869 \n\nThames Mystery. See London, 1873. \n\nChelsea (Victoria) Embankment. Authorised by \nparliament, 13 July, 1868; commenced 5 Aug. , \n\n1871, opened by the duke of Edinburgh 9 May, 1874 \nKingston, Kew, Hampton Court, and other bridges \n\nfreed from the toll by acts passed 1869 and 1874, \n\n1870-1878 \nAvenue theatre opened ... 11 March, 1882 \nThe Thames at Windsor and other places frozen, \n\nend of Dec. 1890 \nSteamboat service stopped, about 26 Dec. 1S90 ; \n\nresumed about 30 Jan. 1891 \n\nThe Thames, from Westminster to London Bridge, \n\nnearly closed by ice 6 Jan. ,, \n\nThames Embankment tramways act passed, \n\n27 June, 1892 \n\nTHANE, a Saxon title of nobility, abolished in \nEngland at the conquest, upon the introduction \nof the feudal system, and in Scotland by king Mal- \ncolm III., when the title of earl was adopted, 1057. \n\nTHANET (Kent) was the first permanent \n\nsettlement of the Saxons, about 449. The Danes \n\nheld a part of it, 853-865, and ravaged it 980, 988 \net seq. \n\nTHANKSGIVINGS, special national, were \noffered up at St. Paul\'s cathedral for the defeat of \nSpanish Armada, queen Elizabeth present, 8 Sept. \nand 24th Nov. 1588; for Marlborough\'s victories, \n12 Nov. 1702, and 7 Sept. 1704; for George III.\'s \nrecovery from illness, 23 April, 1789; for Duncan\'s \nand other naval victories, 19 Dec. 1797; and for \nthe recovery of the prince of Wales, 27 Feb. 1872. \n\n\n\nTHAPSUS. \n\n\n\n955 \n\n\n\nTHEATRES. \n\n\n\nTHAPSUS (N. Africa). Near here Julius \nCassar totally defeated the army of the party which \nsupported the policy of Pompey, Feb. 46 B.C. The \nsuicide of Cato followed soon after. \n\nTHEATINES, a religious order, the first who \nassumed the title of regular clerks, founded by \nCaraffa, bishop of Theate, or Chieti, in. Naples \n(afterwards pope Paul IV.), 1524, to repress heresy. \nThey first established themselves in France, ac- \ncording to Henault, in Paris, 1644. TheTheatines \nvainly endeavoured to revive among the clergy the \npoverty of the apostles. \n\nTHEATRES. That of Bacchus, at Athens, \nbuilt by Philos, 420 B.C., is said to have been the \nfirst erected. Marcellus\' theatre at Kome was \nbegun by Caesar, and dedicated by Augustus, 12 \nB.C. Theatres were erected in most cities of Italy. \nMost of the inhabitants of Pompeii were assembled \nat a theatre on the night of 24 Aug. 79, when an \neruption of Vesuvius covered the city. Scenes were \nintroduced into theatres, painted by Balthazar \nSienna, a.d. 1533. See Drama, Plays, &c. \n\nTHEATRES IN ENGLAND. The first royal \nlicence for a theatre in England was in 1574, to \nmaster Burbage and four others, servants of the \nearl of Leicester, to act plays at the Globe, Bank- \nside. It is stated the first play-house in London \nwas erected at Shoreditch, and called the "Theatre " \nin 1576, and that the Curtain near it, was erected \nin 1577. The Blackfriars was built in 1596. The \nother London theatres in Elizabeth\'s reign were \nAVhitefriars, Rose, Hope, Swan, Bed Bull, Cockpit \nor Phoenix, and several othei-s. Shakespeare and \nhis fellow actors erected the Globe theatre on Bank- \nside, about 1594. The prices of admission are said \nto have been \xe2\x80\x94 gallery, 2d. ; lords\' rooms, is. ; see \nDrama, Drury Lane, and other theatres. The \ntheatres were closed by parliament, 1642-60. \nThe first play-bill was dated 8 April, 1663, and \nissued from Drury-laue ; it runs thus: "By his \nMajestie his company of Comedians at the New \nTheatre in Drury-lane, will be acted a comedy \ncalled the Humovrous Lievtenant." After detailing \nthe characters, it concludes thus : " The play will \nbegin at three o\'clock exactly " . . 8 April, 1663 \nLincoln\'s-inn theatre (the duke\'s theatre) opened by \nsir Wm. Davenant\'s patent, 25 April, 1662 ; \n\nrebuilt 1695 \n\nActs for licensing plays and play-houses (placing \nthem under the lord chamberlain) 10 Geo. II. \n\n\n\nc. 28 \n\n\n\nAct for regulating theatres (6 & 7 Vict. c. 68). \n\n22 Aug. \nSee Independent Theatre, 1891-2. \nSee Trials, 1843. \n\nMarionettes or Puppets produced at the Adelaide \nGallery \n\nSeveral of the theatres first opened on Sunday \nevenings for religious worship, and filled . Jan. \n\nLord Chamberlain warned managers against inde- \ncent dances and scanty dresses 28 Jan. 1869 and \n\n21 Dec. \n\nIntroduction of the queue, as at French theatres, \nby Mr. D\'Oyly Carte, at the Savoy . 29 Dec. \n\nThe employment of children under ten years <>f \n\nage forbidden in theatres by the Home Secretary \n\nabout s Dec. \n\nTheatres in Great Britain, 166 ; in London, 33, \nsummer of \n\nIn London, Jan. 1876, 45 ; Jan. 1885, 43 ; Dec. 1891, \n\nActors\' Association (protective) initiated at Man- \nchester, constituted at the Lyceum, London, \n\n16 March, \n\nParliamentary committee on theatres and music- \nhalls appointed, March ; recommend in their \nreport that the lord chamberlain\'s control be \ncontinued 2 June, \n\n\n\n1843 \n\n\n\n1852 \ni860 \n\n1874 \n1882 \n\n18S6 \n1868 \n\n\n\n1891 \n\n\n\nDRURY LANE. \n\nKilligrew\'s patent 25 April, 1662 \n\nOpened 8 April, 1663 \n\nNell Gwynn performed 1666 \n\nTheatre burnt down with 60 houses . . Jan. 1672 \nRebuilt by sir C. Wren, and opened 26 March, 1674 \n\nCibber, \'Wilkes, Booth 1712 \n\nGarriek\'s debut here 1742 \n\nGarrick and Lacy\'s tenure (revival of Shakspeare) . 1747 \nTheatrical fund founded by Mr. Garrick, 1766 ; in- \ncorporated 1775 \n\nInterior rebuilt by Adams ; opened . 23 Sept. \n\nGarriek\'s farewell 10 June, 177& \n\nSheridan\'s management ,, \n\nMrs. Siddons\' debut as a star . . .10 Oct. 1782 \nMr. Kemble\'s debut as Hamlet . . .30 Sept. 1783. \nThe theatre rebuilt on a large scale, and re-opened, \n\n12 March, 1794 \nCharles Kemble\'s first appearance (as Malcolm in \n\nMacbeth) 21 April, ,, \n\nDowton\'s first appearance (as Sheva in the Jev:), \n\n11 Oct. 1796 \nHatfield fired at George III. . . . 11 May, 1800 \n\nThe theatre burnt 24 Feb. 1809 \n\nRebuilt by Wyatt, and re-opened with a prologue \n\nby lord Byron . . ... 10 Oct. 1812 \n\nEdmund Kean\'s appearance (as Shylocl) 26 Jan. 1814 \n\nMr. Elliston, lessee 3 Oct. 18 19 \n\nMadame Vestris\'s first appearance . 19 Feb. 1820 \nReal water introduced in the Cataract of the Ganges, \n\n27 Oct. 1823 \n\nMr. Price, lessee July, 1826 \n\nEllen Tree\'s appearance (as Violante) . 23 Sept. ,, \nCharles Kean\'s appearance (as Xorval) . 1 Oct. 1827 \nMrs. Nisbet\'s first appearance (as the Widow CheerliJ) \n\n9 Oct. 1829 \nMr. Alexander Lee\'s and captain Polhill\'s manage- \nment 1830 \n\nMr. Alfred Bunn, lessee 1831 \n\nMr. Forrest\'s first appearance (as Spartaciis), \n\n17 Oct. 1836 \n\nMr. Hammond\'s management 1839 \n\nGerman operas commenced here . . 15 March, 1841 \n\nMr. Macready\'s management ,, \n\nMr. Bunn, again lessee 1843 \n\nMiss Clara Webster burnt on the stage, 14 Dec. ; \n\nand died 16 Dec. 1844 \n\nMr. Anderson\'s management 1849 \n\nMr. Macready\'s farewell ... 26 Feb. 1851 \n\nMr. Bunn, lessee and manager 1852 \n\nMr. E. T. Smith 1853-9 \n\nEnglish opera (Mr. Harrison and Miss Pyne) . . 1858 \nItalian opera, part of . . ... . \xe2\x80\xa2 1859-78 \n\nOpened by Mr. E. T. Smith . . . . 15 Oct. i860 \n\nSuddenly closed 20 April, 1861 \n\nMr. G. V. Brooke appears (as Othello) . 27 Oct. ,, \n[Drowned in the London: see Wrecks, 11 Jan. 1866.] \n\nMr. Falconer Dec. 1862-1865 \n\nMessrs. Falconer and Chatterton, managers, Jan. 1866 \nRe-opened with Halliday\'s King of Scots, 26 Sept ,, \nRe-opened with Antony and Cleopatra . 20 Sept. 1S73 \nBabe\'s posthumous Talisman produced 11 June, 1874 \nBalfe\'s statue uncovered . . . .25 Sept. 1874 \nSalvini as Othello 1 April ; as Hamlet . 31 May, 1875 \nWagner\'s Lohengrin .... 12 June, ,, \n\nBoucicaulfs new drama the Shaughraun produced \n\n4 Sept. ,, \nManager and lessee, F. B. Chatterton . . . 1876-78 \nRe-opened with Richard III. . . 23 Sept. 1876 \n\nMr. Wills\'s Charles II 24 Sept. 1877 \n\nTheatre suddenly closed ; strike of actors, &c. \n\n4 Feb. 1S79 \nSaxe-Meiningen Court Company (Germans), Julius \n\nCassar 30 May et scq. 1881 \n\nMad. Ristori as Lady Macbeth . . . July, 1882 \nMr., afterwards sir, Augustus Harris, lessee and \n\nmanager Sept. 1879-92 \n\nCarl Rosa\'s Opera Company . . . part of 1883-5 \nRe-opens the House (Le Nozze de Figaro) 31 May, 1886 \nRe-i>pnis wiih the TheSpanish Armada by Messrs. \n\nH. Hamilton and A. Harris . . 22 Sept. 18S8 \n\nThe Royal Oak performed . 23 Sept.\xe2\x80\x94 30 Nov. 1889 \nJack and the Beanstalk . . . 26 Dec. et seq. ,, \nCarl Rosa company, Mr. Henry I\'.nnv, dnvetm-, \n\nGounod\'s Romeo and Juliet, &c. 5 April \xe2\x80\x94 to May, 1890 \nMr. Cowen\'s new opera Thorgrim 22 April et seq. ,, \n\nHouse closed 7 June, ,, \n\nRe-opened ; A Million of Money . 6 Sept. ct seq. ,, \n\n\n\nTHEATEES. \n\n\n\n956 \n\n\n\nTHEATEES. \n\n\n\n26 Dec. 1890\xe2\x80\x944 April, \n\n11 April \xe2\x80\x94 23 May, \n\n. 26 May et seq. \n\n23 June \xe2\x80\x94 4 Aug. \n\n\n\nBeauty and the Beast \n\nNever too Late to Mend \n\nBoucicault\'s Formosa \n\nDrink \n\nHouse closed. \n\nA Sailor\'s Knot, new drama by Henry Pettitt, \n\n5 Sept.\xe2\x80\x94 5 Dec. \nSpecial English opera performances on Saturdays, \n26 Sept. \xe2\x80\x94 17 Oct. \nHumpty-Dumpty . . 26 Dec. 1891 \xe2\x80\x94 9 April, 1892 \nOverflow from Covent Garden, foreign operas, \noccasionally . . 13 June \xe2\x80\x94 29 July, ,, \n\nCOVENT GARDEN. \n\nThe theatre opened by Rich ... 7 Dec. 1732 \nBeef-steak Society, founded by Rich and Lambert . 1735 \nTheatrical fund instituted 1760 ; incorporated . 1764 \n\nMr. Harris\'s tenure 1767 \n\nLewis\'s first appearance (as Belcour) . 15 Sept. 1773 \nMiss Reay killed by Mr. Hackman, coming from \n\nthe house 7 April, 1779 \n\nJack Johnstone\'s first appearance in Irish characters \n\n3 Oct. 1783 \nMunden\'s appearance .... 2 Dec. 1790 \nFawcett\'s first appearance (as Caleb) . 21 Sept. 1791 \nG. P. Cooke\'s appearance (as Richard III.), 31 Oct. 1800 \nBraham\'s appearance .... 9 Dec. 1801 \n\nMr. Kemble\'s management 1802 \n\nAppearance of Master Betty, the Infant Roscius, \n\n1 Dec. 1804 \nLewis\'s last appearance (as the Copper Captain), \n\n28 May, 180S \n\nTheatre burnt down 20 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRebuilt by R. Smirke, R.A., and re-opened with \n\nMacbeth ,18 Sept. 1809 \n\nThe O. P. Riot (which see) . 18 Sept. to 10 Dec. ,, \n\nHorses first introduced ; in Bluebeard . 18 Feb. 1811 \nThe farewell benefit of Mrs. Siddons (immense house) \n\n29 June, 1812 \nMrs. Siddons performed once afterwards, in June, \n\n1819, for Mr. and Mrs. C. Kemble\'s benefit. \nMiss Stephens\' first appearance (as Mandane), \n\n7 Sept. 1813 \nMiss Foote\'s appearance here (as Amanthis), \n\n26 May, 1814 \nMiss O\'Neill\'s appearance (as Juliet) . 6 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nMiss Kelly fired at by George Barnet, in the house, \n\n7 Feb. 1816 \nMr. Macready\'s first appearance (as Orestes), \n\n16 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nMr. J. P. Kemble\'s farewell (as Coriolanus), \n\n23 June, 1817 \n\nHenry Harris\'s management 1818 \n\nCharles Kemble\'s management .... 1823 \n\nMiss Fanny Kemble\'s appearance (as Juliet), 5 Oct. 1829 \nMr. Fawcett\'s farewell .... 21 May, 1830 \n\nCharles Young\'s farewell . . . .30 May, 1832 \n\nMr. Macready\'s management 1837 \n\nMadame Vestris\'s management .... 1839 \nMiss Adelaide Kemble\'s appearance (as Norma), \n\n2 Nov. 1841 \nCharles Kemble again .... 10 Sept. 1842 \nMr. Laurent\'s management . . . .26 Dec. 1844 \nOpened by F. Gye for Italian opera . 6 April, 1847 \nDestroyed by fire (during a bal masque, conducted \n\nby Anderson the Wizard) ... 5 March, 1856 \nNew theatre (by Barry) opened by Mr. F. Gye (Les \n\nHuguenots) 15 May, 1858 \n\nEnglish opera (Miss Pyne and Mr. Harrison), Oct. 1859 \nAll principal actors perform parts of plays for the \n\nbenefit of the Dramatic College . 29 March, i860 \nBalfe\'s L\'ianca brought out ... 6 Dec. ,, \nItalian opera (Mr. Gye) .... April, 1861 \n\nLast appearance of Grisi .... 3 Aug. ,, \nEnglish opera (Pyne and Harrison) . . 31 Oct. ,, \nItalian opera (Mr. Gye) .... April, 1862 \nEnglish opera (Pyne and Harrison) . 25 Aug. ,, \n\nItalian opera (Mr. Gye) .... 7 April, 1S63 \n\nGounod\'s Faust July, ,, \n\nEnglish opera (Pyne and Harrison . . 12 Oct. ,, \nItalian opera (Mr. Gye) .... April, 1864 \nEnglish opera, &c. (Opera Company, Limited), \n\n17 Oct. 1864 \nItalian opera (Mr. Gye) ... 28 April, 1865 \nBecomes the property of a company, Mr. Gye, \n\nmanager Aug. ,, \n\nReopened (Mr. Gye) April, 1866 ; 2 April, 1867 ; \n\n31 March, 1868 \n\n\n\nOpened by Mr. Mapleson\'s company . 24 Oct. 1868 \nOpera season (Gye and Mapleson) . 29 May, 1869 \n\nMr. Dion Boucicault lessee and manager 29 Aug. 1872 \n\nItalian opera 1873-8 \n\nMr. F. Gye, many years lessee, died through acci- \ndent with gun 5 Dec. 1878 \n\nA. & S. Gatti, managers .... Dec. ,, \n\nMr. Lionel Gye, lessee 1878-81 \n\n" Royal English opera" under Mr. T. H. Friend; \n\nshort season 7 Jan. 1884 \n\nSig. Salvini\'s company, Othello, &c. . 28 Feb. ,, \n\nGrand International cirque . . 26 Dec. et seq. \xe2\x80\x9e \nWilliam Holland, lessee and manager . . . 1884-5 \nMr. Mapleson, with Italian opera June and July, 1885 \nGrand demonstration to Madame Adelina Patti \n\n25 July, ,, \nRevival of Italian opera, signor Bevignani, con- \nductor 25 May, 1886 \n\nItalian opera, opened under Mr. Mapleson (Verdi\'s \n\nTraviata performed) ... 12 March, 1887 \n\nDonizetti\'s La Favorita performed . 24 May, ,, \nDonizetti\'s Lucrczia Borgia performed 14 May ; \n\nsuccessful season ; closed . . 21 July 1888 \n\nItalian opera season, Mr. A. Harris, director, \n\n20 May-27 July, 1889 \nPromenade concerts, Mr. F. Thomas Sept. \xe2\x80\x94 Nov. ,, \nCinderella and grand circus . 26 Dec. et seq. ,, \nItalian opera, Guonod\'s laust, &c. \n\n19 May\xe2\x80\x94 28 July, 1890 \nPromenade concerts (Mr. F. Thomas), \n\n9 Aug. \xe2\x80\x94 4 Oct. ,., \nItalian opera (Sig. Lago) . . 18 Oct. \xe2\x80\x94 29 Nov. ,, \nMillion of Money . . 15 Dec. 1890 \xe2\x80\x94 17 Jan. 1891 \n\nCarnival Balls . . . 3, 17 Feb ; 4, 8 March, ,, \nLent oratorios, Elijah, &c. . 14 Feb.\xe2\x80\x94 7 March, ,, \nItalian opera (Mr. , afterwards sir, A. Harris), Orfeo, \n\n&c. . . . " . 6 April \xe2\x80\x94 27 July, , , \nPromenade concerts . . . 12 Sept.\xe2\x80\x94 10 Oct. -,, \nOpera season : Romio et, Juliette, &c. 20 Oct. \xe2\x80\x94 20 Nov. ,, \nCarnival Balls, 30 Dec. 1891 ; 13 Jan., 10 Feb., 1 \n\nMarch, 23 March, 20 April, 1892. \nItalian Opera . - . . . . 16 May, 1892 \nCavalleria Rusticana, by Mascagni, and other pieces, \n\n16 May, ,, \nGerman opera, &c. ... 8 June \xe2\x80\x94 28 July, ,, \n\nHER MAJESTY\'S THEATRE, OR ITALIAN OPERA-HOUSE. \n\nOpera-house opened. Pennant. (See Opera-house). 1705 \nMadame Rachel\'s appearance . . 10 May, 1841 \n\nMr. Lumley\'s management . 1842 \n\nJenny Lind\'s first appearance . . .4 May, 1847 \nAssociation formed for conducting financial affairs \n\nof the house 1S52 \n\nJullien\'s concerts Oct. 1857 \n\nFestive performances on the marriage of the prin- \ncess royal Jan. 1859 \n\nMacfarren\'s Robin Hood brought out . . 11 Oct. i860 \n\n[Not opened in 1861.] \nItalian opera (Mr. Mapleson) .... 1862-67 \nBurnt down ; great loss . . . .6 Dec. 1867 \nRebuilt \xe2\x80\x94 its affairs in Chancery .... 1872 \n\nSold for 31,000! 20 May, 1874 \n\n[Lease to earl Dudley, till 1891.] \nOpened for Italian opera by Mr. Mapleson 1877 et seq. \nCarl Rosa\'s company, Wagner\'s operas, &c.,part of 1879-80 \nCarl Rosa, Wagner\'s Lohengrin . 14 Jan. et seq. 1882 \n\nSig. Rossi as Lear 10 June, ,, \n\nOpened by M. Carillon (Cargill) ; Gounod\'s Faust ; \nperformance stopped by strike of unpaid com- \npany, carpenters, &c. , riot . . 6 March, 18S6 \nMr. Mayer, lessee ; appearance of madame Sarah \nBernhardt in Fedora, &c. . 26 April, et seq. ,, \n\nFrench opera 22 Nov. ,, \n\nPromenade concerts inaugurated by colonel Maple- \nson 20 Aug. ; by Mr. Van Biene . . 12 Nov. 1887 \nItalian opera season begins (under Mr. Mapleson) \n\n1 June, 1889 \n\nThe establishment of a company "Her Majesty\'s \n\nTheatre (limited)," with a capital of 40,000?. to \n\nrestore the theatre to its original position, \n\nproposed by lord Hay, Mr. Henry J. Leslie, and \n\nothers June, ,, \n\nPromenade concerts . . . 17 Aug. \xe2\x80\x94 Oct. 1889 \nOpera company (lessees), Cinderella 26 Dec. et seq. ,, \nThe house suddenly closed ; the company bank- \nrupt 29 Jan. 1890 \n\nFrench plays. Gynmase company, including S. \n\n\n\nTHEATEES. \n\n\n\n957 \n\n\n\nTHEATEES. \n\n\n\nBernhardt, 2-16 June. Mr. M. L. Mayer, mana- \nger .......... 1890 \n\nHouse closed, 12 July, 1890; pulled down . . 1892 \n\nHAYMARKET. \n\nBuilt 1702 \n\nOpened by French comedians ... 29 Dec. 1720 \n\nFielding\'s Mogul company 1 734-5 \n\nA French company prohibited from acting by the \n\naudience 1738 \n\nMr. Foote\'s patent 1747 \n\nThe Bottle-conjuror\'s dupery (see Bottle Conjuror), \n\n16 Jan. 1748 \n\nThe theatre rebuilt 1767 \n\nMr. Column\'s tenure 1 Jan. 1777 \n\nMiss Farren\'s appearance here (afterwards countess \n\nof Derby) \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRoyal visit \xe2\x80\x94 great crowd \xe2\x80\x94 16 persons killed and \n\nmany wounded 3 Feb. 1794 \n\nMr. Elliston\'s debut here . . . 24 June, 1796 \nFirst appearance of Mr. Mathews (as Lingo) 16 May, 1803 \n\nMr. Morris\'s management 1805 \n\nAppearance of Mr. Liston (as Sheep/ace) . 8 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe tailors\' riot 15 Aug. ,, \n\nAppearance of Mr. Young (as Hamlet) . 22 June, 1807 \nOf Miss F. Kelly (as Floretta) . . 12 June, 1810 \nPresent theatre rebuilt by Nash; opened 4 July, 1821 \nMiss Paton\'s (Mrs. Wood) appearance (as Susannah), \n\n3 Aug. 1822 \nMr. Webster\'s management ... 12 June, 1837 \nMr. Charles Kean\'s appearance here . . . 1839 \n\nMr. Webster\'s management (16 years) terminated \n\nwith his farewell appearance . . 14 March, 1853 \nFirst appearance of Our American Cousin(sa.id to be \nby Tom Taylor, and to have been acted 800 times \nin America), Mr. Sothern, Lord Du ndrea ry (played \n\n496 nights) 11 Nov. 1861 \n\nMr. Buckstone\'s management .... 1853-76 \n\nMr. John S. Clarke 1878 \n\nF.e-opened ; pit removed, and other changes ; tem- \nporary riot 31 Jan. 1880 \n\nMr. <fc Mrs. Bancroft 1879-85 \n\nGrand closing performance . . .20 July, 1885 \nOpened by Messrs. Russell and Bashford 26 Sept. ,, \nInterior re-constructed and re-opened by Mr. Beer- \n\nbohm Tree, lessee .... Sept. 1887-9 \nA Man\'s Shadow (from the French), by Mr. R. \n\nBuchanan . . 12 Sept. 1889 \xe2\x80\x94 29 March, 1890 \nThe Village Priest, by Mr. S. Grundy, 3 April \xe2\x80\x94 12 \n\nJuly; 6 Oct- 6 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nBeau Austin, by W. E. Henley and R. L. Steven- \nson 3 Nov. el seq. ,, \n\nCalled Back, by Hugh Conway and Comyn Carr, 10 \nNov., and other pieces on different days, Nov., \n\nDec. 1890 \xe2\x80\x94 Jan. 1891 \nThe Dancing Girl . . -15 Jan. \xe2\x80\x94 27 June, ,, \nHouse closed, 27 June ; re-opened with The Dancing \n\nGirl 5 Oct. 1891\xe2\x80\x94 15 Jan. 1892 \n\nMr. Beerbohm Tree, lessee and manager . Jan. ,, \nHamlet, with Peril occasionally in the afternoon, \n\n21 Jan. \xe2\x80\x94 27 May, ,, \nPeril, with Hamlet occasionally in the afternoon, \n\n28 May \xe2\x80\x94 5 July, ,, \nHamlet, season terminates . . . . 6 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nLYCECM, FORMERLY ENGLISH OPERA-HOUSE. \n\nBuilt by Dr. Arnold \n\nWinsor experiments with gas-lighting . \n\nOpened as the Lyceum in \n\nAppearance of Mr. Wrench (as Belcour) . 7 Oct. \nRe-opened with an address by Miss Kelly 15 June, \nHouse destroyed by lire . . . . 16 Feb. \nRebuilt, and re-opened . .... 14 July, \nEquestrian performances . . . .16 Jan. \nAirs. Keeley\'s management . . . S April, \nMadame VestriS and Mr. C. Mathews\' management, \n\nOct. 18 \nRetirement of Mr. C. Mathews . . . March, \nAppearance of Madame Ristori . . .June, \nTaken by Mr. Gye for Italian opera for forty nights, \n\n14 April, \nOpened for English opera by Miss Louisa Pyne ami \n\nMr. Harrison 21 Sipl. \n\nBalfe\'s opera, Rose of Castile, produced . . Oct. \nMr. G. Webster and Mr. Falconer, July, 1858 ; closed, \n\nApril, \nOpened by Madame Celeste Nov. 1859, and Oct. \n\n\n\n794-5 \n803-4 \n\n\n\n1816 \n1830 \n1834 \n1844 \n\n\n\n\xe2\x99\xa67-56 \n185s \n1856 \n\ni3 5 7 \n\n\n\n1859 \n\n1S60 \n\n\n\nThe "Savage Club" perform before the queen and \n\nprince 7 March, i860 \n\nItalian opera 8 June, 1861 \n\nMr. Falconer, manager (English comedy) 19 Aug. ,, \nPeep o\'Day brought out .... 9 Nov. \' \n\nMr. Fechter 10 Jan. et seq. 1863 \n\nJapanese troupe Spring, 1868 \n\nLord Lytton\'s Rightful Heir brought out 3 Oct. \nMr. H. Irving as Hamlet (long run) . . 31 Oct. 1874 \n\xe2\x80\x9e Macbeth ... 25 Sept. 1875 \n\n,, Othello .... 14 Feb. 1876 \n\nTennyson\'s Queen Mary performed 19 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMr. H. L. Bateiuan, lessee and manager . . 1873-6 \nMrs. Bateman, ditto . . . 1876-8 \n\nMr. H. Irving, lessee and manager . Sept. et seq. 1878 \nRe-opens with Hamlet .... 30 Dec. ,, \nMr. Chippendale\'s benefit (68 years on the stage), \n\n24 Feb. 1879 \nMuch Ado about Nothing; grand scenery . n Oct. 1882 \nMiss M. Anderson and American actors . 1 Sept. 1883 \nFaust, adapted by W. G. Wills, 19 Dec. 1885 ; 250th \n\nperformance 22 Nov. 1886 \n\nMiss Mary Anderson, autumn season . 10 Sept. 1887 \nRevival of Macbeth with new rendering by Mr. \n\nIrving and Miss E. Terry . . .29 Dec. 1888 \nHis company performs the Bells before the queen \n\nat Sandringham 26 April, 1889 \n\nMr. Mayer with Italian opera and French plays : \n\nVerdi\'s Otello, 5 July-27 July ; Madame Sarah \n\nBernhardt in Lena 9 July, ,, \n\nThe Dead Heart revived .... 9 May, 1890 \n\nThe Bells, Louis XI., Olivia . . . May, ,, \nMr. Augustin Daly\'s company, from New York, \n\n10 June \xe2\x80\x94 16 Aug. ,, \nRavenswood, by Herman Merivale . 20 Sept. et seq. ,, \nMuch Ailo About Nothing, Charles L, Corsican \n\nBrothers, and other pieces . 5 Jan. \xe2\x80\x94 25 March, 1891 \nMr. Augustin Daly\'s company . 9 Sept. \xe2\x80\x94 13 Nov. ,, \nKing Henry VIII., with Richelieu occasionally in \n\nthe afternoon or evening . . 5 Jan. \xe2\x80\x94 30 July, 1892 \n\nADELPHI THEATRE. \n\nFormerly called the Sans Pareil, opened under the \n\nmanagement of Mr. and Miss Scott . .27 Nov. 1806 \nUnder Rodwell and Jones, who gave it the present \n\nname 1820-21 \n\nTerry and Yates ^25 \n\nMessrs. Mathews and Yates\' management join \n\n(Mathctvs at Home) 1828 \n\nNew front 11840 \n\nMadame Celeste\'s management . . 30 Sept. 1S44 \n\nRebuilt and opened, with improved arrangements, \n\n27 Dec. 1858 \nColleen Bawn represented . . . 10 Sept. i860 \n\n[Immense run ; above 360 nights.] \nMiss Bateman appears as Leah, 1 Oct. 1863, to \n\n11 June, 1864 \nMessrs. F. B. Chatterton and Mr. B. Webster, \n\nlessees 1844-73 \n\nMessrs. Gatti, lessees and managers . . 1873-92 \nLondon Day by Day, by G. R. Sims and Mr. Pettit, \n\n14 Sept. et seq. 1889 \nGreen Bushes revived . . . ig April et seq. 1890 \nThe Bride of Love, by R. Buchanan . May et seq. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe Englich Rose, by G. R. Sims ami R. Buchanan, \n\n2 Aug. 1890\xe2\x80\x942 May, 1891 \nThe Streets of London, by D. Boucicault 7 May et seq. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe Trumpet Call, by G. R. Sims and R. Buchanan, \n\n1 Aug. 1891\xe2\x80\x94 21 April, 1892 \nThe White Rose, by G. R. Sims and R. Buchanan, \n\n2:5 April \xe2\x80\x94 10 June, ,, \nLights of Home, by same authors . 30 July et seq. ,, \n\nST. James\'s, late prince\'s. \nThis theatre was built by and opened under the \n\nmanagement of Mr. Braham . . . 14 Dec. 1835 \nGerman operas performed here under the manage- \nment of Mr. Bunn 1840 \n\nMr. Mitchell\'s tenure ; performance of French plays, \n\n22 Jan. 1S44 \n\nGerman plays 1852 \n\nAirs. Seymour\'s tenure . . . .22 Oct. 1S54-5 \n\nFrench plays 1857 \n\nNeapolitan buffo-opera Nov. \n\nItalian plays 1858 \n\nFrench operas Jan. 1859 \n\nFrench plays May, ,, \n\n\n\nTHEATRES. \n\n\n\n958 \n\n\n\nTHEATEES. \n\n\n\nEnglish comedy, under Mr. P. Cliatterton, manager, \n\nOct. 1859 \n\nFrench plays 28 May, i860 \n\nEnglish plays ". 12 Aug. ,, \n\nMr. Wigan, manager 1860-2 \n\nFrench plays .... May, 1868, April, 1869 \n\nFrench plays 1871-3 \n\nThe Iron Master 17 April, 1884 \n\nMessrs. Hare & Kendal, lessees and managers . .1885 \n\nMr. Rutland Barrington 1888 \n\nMrs. Langtry March, 1890 \n\nAsYouLilcelt April, ,, \n\nMsther Sandraz, by Sydney Grundy . 3 May ct seq. \xe2\x80\x9e \nHouse closed, 7 June ; re-opened (Mr. Bouchier, \n\nmanager), Your Wife .... 26 Jun3, ,, \nMr. Mayer, French plays . . 27 Oct. et seq. \xe2\x80\x9e \nMr. G. Alexander (from the Avenue) lessee and \n\nmanager 15 Ma y> \xc2\xbb \n\nSunlight and Shadow, 100th time . . 31 Jan. 1891 \n\nThe Idler 26 Feb.\xe2\x80\x94 17 July, ,, \n\nMoliere, new piece ..... 17 July, ,, \nHouse closed. \n\nThe Idler (Moliere sometimes) . 30 Sept.\xe2\x80\x94 4 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nLord Anerley, by Mark Quinton and Henry Hamil- \nton 7 Nov.\xe2\x80\x94 23 Dee. ,, \n\nForgiveness, by J. C. Carr . 30 Dec. 1891\xe2\x80\x94 10 Feb. 1892 \nLady Windermere\'s Fan, by Oscar Wilde, \n\n20 Feb. \xe2\x80\x94 29 July, ,, \n\n\n\nprincess\'s theatre, oxford street. \nFirst opened for concerts .... Sept. \nSold for 16,400? 9 Sept. \n\n\n\nOpened for plays by Mr. J. Maddox \n\nMr. Bartley\'s farewell here \n\nMr. Charles Kean\'s management, \n\n\n\n1850: \n\n\n\n26 Dec. \n\n18 Dec. \n\nclosed, \n\n29 Aug. \n\n29 Sept. \n\n23 Jujy, \n\n20 March, \n\n\n\n1842 \n\n\n\n1862 \n>3-66 \n72-78 \n1875 \n\n\n\nMr. A. Harris\'s management ; opened \n.Zouave Crimean company . \nMr. Fechter appears (as Hamlet) \n\nMr. Harris, lessee *\xe2\x96\xa0 \n\nMr. Lindus, manager .... 20 Oct. \nMr. G. Vining, lessee and manager . . May, 18 \n\nMr. F. B. Cliatterton, lessee 18 \n\nCarl Rosa\'s Opera company \n\nMr. "Walter Gooch, lessee and manager . . 18 \nClosed for rebuilding, 19 May; rebuilt; opened (1st \nappearance of Edwin Booth) . . .6 Nov. \nG. R. Sims\' Lights 0\' London . . . Sept. \nMr. Wilson Barrett, lessee and manager . . Aug. 1883 \nClaudian, by Herman and Wills . . 6 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nMiss G. Hawthorne, lessee . . . Jan. 1888-9 \nMr. Wilson Barrett closes his season, going to \n\nAmerica for a year .... 18 May, 1889 \n\nSole lessee, Miss Grace Hawthorne ; manager, Mr. \n\nW. W. Kelly 1889 \n\nGold Craze 30 Nov.\xe2\x80\x94 14 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTheodora, by Sardou .... 5 May, 1890 \nMrs. Langtry, sole lessee and manageress . Nov. ,. \nAnthony and Cleopatra . 18 Nov. 1890\xe2\x80\x94 Feb. 1891 \nLady Barter, by Mr. Coghlan . 28 Feb.\xe2\x80\x94 20 March, ,, \n\nLinda Grey 8 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nHouse closed 17 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nManager, Mr. Sidney Herberte-Basing ; Fate and \n\nFortune .... 27 July\xe2\x80\x94 28 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nRevival of Arrah-na-Pogue . 29 Aug.\xe2\x80\x94 7 Nov. ., \nAfter Dark, by D. Boucicault . 9 Nov.\xe2\x80\x94 19 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nAlone in London . . 21 Dec. 1891\xe2\x80\x94 16 Jan. 1892 \nThe Swiss Express (previously matinee), \n\n18 Jan. \xe2\x80\x94 3 Feb. ,, \nThe Great-Metropolis . . 11 Feb.\xe2\x80\x94 9 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe Life we Live . . . . 16 April et seq. \xe2\x80\x9e \nStratlilogan, new piece . . . 9 June et seq. \xe2\x80\x9e \nHouse to let, advertised . . . .22 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nRoyal Divorce, altered by Miss Grace Hawthorne \n\n25 July et seq \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nOLYMPIC, NOW NEW OLYMPIC. \n\nErected by the late Mr. Astley, and opened with \n\nhorsemanship . . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 18 Sept. 1806 \n\nHere the celebrated Elliston (1813), and afterwards \nMadame Vestris, had managements ; the latter \n\nuntil t8 39 \n\nMr. George Wild\'s tenure 1840 \n\nMiss Davenport\'s tenure .... 11 Nov. 1844 \n\nMr. Watts\'s management 1848 \n\nThe theatre destroyed by fire . . 29 March, 1849 \n\n\n\nRebuilt and opened \xe2\x80\x94 Mr. Watts resumes his man- \nagement 26 Dec. 1849 \n\nMr. William Farren\'s management .... 1850 \nLessee and manager, Mr. A. Wigan . 17 Oct. 1853-7 \nMessrs. Robson and Embden\'s management, \n\nAug. 1857-62 \nMr. Horace Wigan, manager .... 1S64-68 \n\nLessee, Mr. B. Webster - 1868 \n\nLessee and manager, Miss Ada Cavendish . . 1873 \nMr. Wills\'s Buckingham produced . . . Dec. 1875 \n\nMr. Henry Neville 1873-78 \n\nMrs. A. Conover, lessee . ... 1885 \n\nMr. J. Pitt-Hardacre 1889 \n\nOpened by Mr. Wilson Barrett; The People\'s Idol, \nand other pieces, by Mr. Barrett and Mr. V. \n\nWednell 4 Dec. ct seq. 1890 - \n\nLights 0\' London 9 Feb. 1891 \n\nHamlet 13-18 April, ,, \n\nThe Acrobat, or Belphegor . . . 21 April, ,, \nHouse closed, 9 May ; re-opened by Mr. Charles \n\nWilmot; manager, Mr. W. W. Kelly . . . ,, \nTheodora, by Sardou 1 Aug.\xe2\x80\x94 8 Sept. ., \n\nA Royal Divorce, by W. G. Wills 10 Sept. \xe2\x80\x94 19 Dec. ,, \nOliver Twist . . . . . 21 Dec. et seq. ,, \nEast Lynne .... 2 Feb.\xe2\x80\x94 5 March, 1892 \nThe Black Flag .... 7 March et seq. \xe2\x80\x9e \nCalled Back .... 22 March\xe2\x80\x94 2 April, ,, \nTheodora revived .... 4 April et seq. ,, \nLessee and manager, Mr. Edmund Tearle ; Julius \nCesser, Richard III., Virginias, Othello, \n\n16 April\xe2\x80\x94 28 May, ,, \n\nSavoy Theatre, see under Savoy. Opened 10 Oct. 1S81. \n\nSTRAND THEATRE. \n\nFirst opened \xe2\x80\x94 Mr. Rayncr and Mrs. Waylett . . 1S31 \nMr. William Farren\'s management . . . . 1849 \nLessee, Mr. F. Allcroft ; manager, Mr. T. Payne . 1855 \n\nLessee, Miss Swanborough 1858-61 \n\nMr. Swanborough, sen Dec. 1862 \n\nMrs. Swanborough, 1865-88 ; she died (aged 84) \n\n6 Jan. 1889 \nRebuilt ; re-opened . . . .18 Nov. 1882 \n\nMr. J. S. Clarke, lessee Jan. 1888 \n\nRe-opens , Mr. C. Wyndham and Mr. Win. Duke, \n\nmanagers 6 Feb. 1889 \n\nMr. Arthur Rousbey\'s opera company perform \n\nFigaro 14 March, ,, \n\nLessee, J. S. Clarke Sept. ,, \n\nMr. Willie Edouin 13 March, 1890 \n\nOur Flats, 645th and last performance . 3 Jan. 1S91 \nPrivate Inquiry, by F. C. Burnand 7 Jan. \xe2\x80\x94 13 Feb. ,, \nTurned Up . . .14 Feb.\xe2\x80\x94 18 April, ,, \n\nOur Daughters . . . .22 April \xe2\x80\x94 9 May, ,, \nA Night\'s Frolic .... 1 June et seq. ,, \n\nKatti 27 Jun \xe2\x96\xa0, ,, \n\nThe Late Lamented . . . 1 Aug. 1891 \xe2\x80\x94 8 Jan. 1892 \nThe New Wing, by H. A. Kennedy 9 Jan. \xe2\x80\x94 9 April, ,, \nNiobe (All Smiles), a mythological comedy, by H. \n\nand E. Paul ton .... 11 April et seq. ,, \n\nROYAL ENGLISH OPERA HOUSE. \n\nErected for Mr. SD\'Oyly Carte by Mr. T. E. Col- \ncutt in Cambridge Circus, Shaftesbury Avenue, a \nmagnificent fireproof building to accommodate \n2,000 persons, opened with Ivanlwe, music by sir \nArthur Sullivan, libretto by Mr. Julian Sturgis, \n\n31 Jan. \xe2\x80\x94 31 July, 1S91 \n\nHouse closed 31 July, ,, \n\nThe Basoche, composer M. Andre Messager ; libret- . \ntist, M. Albert Carre ; Ivanhoe (on some inter- \nvening days), 3-28 Nov. 1891 ; 5 Dec. 1891 \xe2\x80\x94 \n\n16 Jan. 1892 \nHouse closed. \n\nMadame Sarah Bernhardt ; Sardou\' s Cleopatra, &c. \n\n28 May\xe2\x80\x94 23 July, ,, \n\nASTLEY\'S AMPHITHEATRE. \n\nBuilt by Philip Astley, and opened .... 1773 \nDestroyed by fire, with numerous adjacent houses, \n\n17 Sept. 1794 \n\nRebuilt 1795 \n\nBurnt again, with forty houses . . 1 Sept. 1803 \n\nDuerow\'s management 1825 \n\nAgain destroyed by fire .... 8 June, 1841 \n\nRebuilt and re-opened by Mr. Batty . 17 April, 1S43 \nLessee and manager, Mr. AV. Cooke . . . 1855-60 \n\n\n\nTHEATRES. \n\n\n\n9.59 \n\n\n\nTHEATRES. \n\n\n\nMr. W. Cooke\'s farewell benefit . . .30 Jan. 1S60 \nA man killed by a lion .... Jan. 1861 \n\nOpened by Mr. Batty 6 Dec. ,, \n\nOpened by Mr. Boueicault, as the Theatre Royal, \n\nWestminster 26 Dec. 1862 \n\nHorsemanship and opera (under Mr. E. T. Smith), \n\nJune, 1S65 \nSold by auction 1S68 \n\nSURREY THEATRE (FORMERLY CIRCUS). \n\n[Originally devoted to equestrian exercises, under \n\nMr. Hughes] 4 Nov. 1782 \n\nOpened for performances ... 4 Nov. 1783 \n\nDestroyed by Are 12 Aug. 1805 \n\nMr. Eliiston\'s management 1809 \n\nMr. Elliston again 4 June, 1827 \n\nMr. Davidge\'s tenure 1833 \n\nMr. Shepherd and Mr. Anderson, managers, \n\n12 Sept. 1863-5 \nDestioyed by fire, 31 Jan. ; rebuilt and opened, \n\n26 Dec. 1865 \nUsed for melodramas, pantomimes, &c. at low prices 1889 \n\n\n\nVICTORIA (FORMERLY COBURG). \n\n[The erection was commenced under the patronage \nof the late princess Charlotte and the prince Leo- \npold of Saxe-Coburg] 1816 \n\nThe house was opened iSiS \n\nMessrs. Egerton and Abbott had the management in 1833 \n\nMr. Osbaldiston\'s tenure 1840 \n\nAlarm of fire, sixteen persons killed . 27 Dec. 1858 \nNow Victoria Hall, used for popular lectures, \n\nconcerts, &c. 1889 \n\nSadler\'s wells. \n\nOpened as an orchestra 1683 \n\nPresent house opened 1765 \n\nEighteen persons trampled to deatli on a false \n\nalarm of fire 15 Oct. 1807 \n\nManagement of Mrs. Warner and Mr. Phelps, \n\n20 May, 1844-59 \nManagement of Mr. Josephs . . . 25 March, 1861 \nRe-opened by Mr. Phelps .... 7 Sept. ,, \nLessee, Miss C. Lucette ... 27 Sept. 1S62 \n\nMiss Marriott, manager . 5 Sept. 1863 \xe2\x80\x94 20 May, 1864 \n\n31iss C. Lucette, for opera 1865 \n\nMiss Marriott, legitimate drama (with intervals) 1865-8 \nMiss Hazlewood, Miss Marriott, and others . 1868-73 \nOpened by Mrs. Bateman as New Sadler\'s Wells, \n\n9 Oct. 1879 \nMrs. Bateman dies (Miss I. Bateman succeeds), \n\nr3 Jan. 1881 \nOpened by Miss Roze de Vane . . 12 April, 1884 \nClosed and re-opened occasionally . . . 1887-92 \n\n\n\nother theatres. \nQueen\'s Theatre, Tottenham-court-road . . . 1828 \nGarrick Theatre, Goodman\'s-fields .... 1830 \n\nCity Theatre, Norton-Folgate 1837 \n\nMiss Kelly\'s Theatre (since named Soho and New \n\nRoyalty) 1840 \n\nMarylebone, opened 1842 \n\nStandard Theatre, built 1854 ; burnt, 21 Oct. 1866 ; \n\nrebuilt 1868 \n\nPavilion Theatre burnt .... 23 Feb. 1856 \nAlhambra, Leicester-square, opened, 1858; burnt, \n\n7 Dec. 1882 ; and re-opeued ... 3 Dec. 18S3 \n\nNew Royalty (Soho) 31 Aug. 1863 \n\nHolborn Theatre (afterwards called the Mirror, and \n\nthe Duke\'s), opened, 16 Oct. 1866; burnt, 4 July, 18S0 \nRoval Amphitheatre (for horses, &c), Holborn, \n\nopened 25 May, 1867 \n\nNew Bast London, opened ... 12 Oct. ,, \n" New Queen\'s Theatre," formerly St. Martin\'s hall, \n\nopened by Alfred Wigan . . . .24 Oct. ,, \nSt. George\'s Opera-house, Langham-place, opened \n\nby Mr. German Reed .... 18 Dec. ,, \nThe Globe, Strand, opened . . . 28 Nov. 1868 \nThe Gaiety, Strand, opened . . . 21 Dec. \nCharing Cross, opened . . . .19 June, 1869 \nVaudeville, opened .... 16 April, 1870 \n\nOpera Comique, 299, Strand, opened (for Molle. \n\nDe.jazet) 29 Oct. ,, \n\nCourt Theatre, Chelsea, opened . . 25 Jan. 1871 \n\n\n\nRoyal Alexandra Theatre, Park-street, Camden- \n\ntown, opened, 31 May, 1873 ; burnt . 10 Sept. iS:i \nCriterion, Regent\'s Circus, Piccadilly, opened by \n\nSpiers andPond, 21 March, 1874; closed, Feb. \n\n1883; re-opened 4 Oct. 1C34 \n\nNational Opera House (which see), founded 7 Sept. \n\nami 16 Dec. 1875 \nCharing Cross re-opened as the " Folly " . 16 Oct. 1876 \n"Imperial theatre," at Westminster Aquarium . 1878 \nHolborn theatre reopened as the " Royal Connaught \n\ntheatre " 1 Nov. 1879 \n\nSavoy Theatre opened (which sec) . . 10 Oct. 1881 \nToole\'s Theatre, formerly the Folly, opened in . 1882 \nAvenue Theatre, Thames Embankment, opened, \n\n11 March, 1882 \nPrince\'s Theatre, Coventry Street (Mr. Bruce), \n\nopened 18 Jan. 1883 \n\nNew Alhambra Theatre opened . . 3 Dec. ,, \nEmpire Theatre, formerly Pandora, opened 14 April, 1884 \nMr. Terry\'s new theatre, Strand, opened 17 Oct. 1887 \nGrand Theatre, Islington, opened 4 Aug. 1883 ; \n\nburnt 29 Dec. 1887 ; rebuilt 18S8 \n\nNew Court Theatre opened . . .24 Sept. 1888 \nShaftesbury Theatre, London, opened . 20 Oct. 1S88 \nLyric Theatre, London . . . .17 Dec. ,, \nGarrick Theatre, Charing-cross Road, opened by \n\nMr. Hare 24 April, 1889 \n\nTrafalgar Theatre, St. Martin\'s-lane, opened 10 Sept. 1892 \n\nDUBLIN THEATRES. \n\nWerburg-street, commenced 1635 \n\nOrange-street, now Smpck-alley .... 1662 \n\nAungier-street (Victor) 1723 \n\nDitto, management of Mr. Hitchcock . . . 1733 \n\nCrow-street Music-hall - . . 1731 \n\nRainsford-street Theatre 1732 \n\nSmock-alley Theatre, rebuilt 1735 \n\nFishamble-street Music-hall 1741 \n\nCapel-street Theatre 1745 \n\nCrow-street, Theatre Royal 1758 \n\nPeter-street, Theatre Royal 1789 \n\nHawkin\'s-street, Theatre Royal .... 1821 \n\nDestroyed by fire 9 Feb. 1880 \n\nQueen\'s Theatre, Brunswick-street .... 1844 \n\nEDINBURGH THEATRES. \n\nTheatre of Music 1672 \n\nAllan Ramsay\'s 1736 \n\nThe Caledonian Theatre 1822 \n\nAdelphi Theatre burnt down . . 24 May, 1S53 \n\nRoyal Theatre burnt down (several lives lost), \n\n13 Jan. 1865, again 6 Feb. 1875 \n\n\n\nFIRST OR LAST APPEARANCES. \n\nQuin\'s first appearance \n\nMaeklin at Lincoln\'s-inn-fields \n\nGarrick\'s at Goodman\'s-fields, as Richard HI., \n\n19 Oct, \nMiss Farren (afterwards countess of Derby) first ap- \npears at Liverpool . . . . " . . . \nGarrick\'s last appearance . . . .10 June, \nMrs. Robinson, Perdita: her last appearance, 14 Doc \nBraham\'s first appearance at the Royalty, 20 April, \nMadame Storace ; her first appearance in London, \n\n24 Nov. \n\nIncledon\'s first appearance \n\nMiss Mellon, her first appearance as Lydia Languish, \n\n31 Jan. \nMaster Betty (Infant Roscius) debut in London, en- \nthusiastically received . . . . 1 !><\xe2\x96\xa0,\'. \nListon\'s first appearance in London . 1 June, \nMiss F. M. Kelly\'s first appearance .... \nRomeo Coates appears as Lothario . to April, \n\n.Airs. Jordan\'s last appearance, as Lady Teazle, \n\n1 June, \nMiss O\'Neill, as Juliet .... 6 Oct. \nMr. Macready\'s first appearance at Bath, as /; \n\n29 Dec. \nBooth\'s first appearance .... 12 Feb. \n\nw. Farren\'s first appearance \n\nMunden\'s last appearance .... May, \nFanny Kemble\'s first appearance . . 5 Oct. \nEdmund Kcau\'s last appearance, a.s 01 \n\n25 March, \nListon\'s last appearance . . . 31 May, \n\nAdelaide Kemble\'s first appearance . . 2 Nov. \n\n\n\n1716 \nI 7 2 5 \n\n1741 \n\nr 773 \n\n1776 \n1779 \n17S7 \n\n17S9 \n\n1790 \n\n\n\n1807 \niSir \n\n1814 \n\n\n\n1S17 \n1818 \n1824 \n1829 \n\n1S33 \n\n\n\nTHEATRES. \n\n\n\n960 \n\n\n\nTHEBES. \n\n\n\nJenny Land\'s first appearance . . 4 May, 1847 \n\nMrs. Glover\'s farewell . . . .12 July, 1850 \n\nMr. Bartley\'s farewell .... 18 Dec. 1852 \n\nMr. W. Farren\'s farewell 1855 \n\nClara Novello\'s farewell .... 21 Nov. i860 \nAdelina Patti\'s first appearance at Covent Garden, \n\n14 May, 1861 \n\nMiss Bateman appears as Leah . . . 1 Oct. 1863 \n\nHer farewell at H.M.\'s theatre . . . 22 Dec. 1865 \nMadlle. Nillson\'s first appearance at H.M.\'s theatre \n\nas VioUtta . . . . . .8 June, 1867 \n\nMiss Kate Terry\'s last appearance (Juliet at the New \n\nAdelphi) 31 Aug. ,, \n\nMadlle. Kellogg\'s debut at Drury-lane . 2 Nov. ,, \n\nMr. Bandmann\'s debut .... 17 Feb. 1868 \nMr. Paul Bedford\'s farewell at New Queen\'s theatre, \n\n16 May, ,, \n\nMadlle. Marimon\'s debut, as Amino, . . 6 May, 1871 \nMario\'s farewell in La Favorita at Italian opera, \n\n19 July, ,, \n\n. Miss Isabella Bateman\'s debut . . . 12 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nMr. and Mrs. Alfred Wigan\'s last appearance (at \n\nDrury Lane) 6 July, 1872 \n\nMr. H. Irving first appears as Hamlet, 31 Oct. 1874, \n\n200th performance 29 June 1875 \n\nOur Boys by H. J. Byron, 1st time 16 Jan. 1875 \n\n(at the Vaudeville); 1350th, 1 April; and last \n\n18 April, 1879 \n\nMr. Byron\'s The Girls, 1st performance 19 April, ,, \nMr. Sims Beeves\' farewell at the B. Albert Hall, \n\n11 May, 1891 \n\nMEMOEAND.A. \n\nDavid Garrick died 1779 \n\nCharles Macklin died 1797 \n\nMr. Palmer died on the stage at Liverpool, 2 Aug. 1798 \n\nBannister retired from the stage 1815 \n\nJohn P. Kemble died 1823 \n\nTalma died in Paris 1826 \n\nWeber came to London Feb. ,, \n\nThe Brunswick theatre fell, owing to the weight of \n\na newly-ereeted roof, and numbers of persons \n\nwere wounded and some killed . . 29 Feb. 1828 \n\nSarah Siddons died 1831 \n\nEdmund Kean died 1833 \n\nCharles Mathews died . . . .28 June, 1835 \nMadame Malibran died at Manchester . 23 Sept. 1836 \n\nPaganini died 27 May, 1840 \n\nPower lost in the President steamer, about 13 March, 1841 \nElton lost in the Pegasus ... 18 July, 1843 \nTheatres\' Registry Act passed -. . . 22 Aug. ,, \nMadlle. Mars died at Paris ... 23 March, 1847 \nMadame Catalini died at Paris . . .13 June, 1849 \nW. C. Macready retired ... 26 April, 1851 \n\nAlexander Lee died 9 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMrs. Warner died 5 Sept. 1854 \n\nCharles Kemble died .... 12 Nov. ,, \nJohn Braham died .... 17 Feb. 1856 \n\nMadame Vestris died .... 8 Aug. ,, \n\nMadlle. Rachel died 4 Jan. 1858 \n\nMrs. Nisbet (lady Boothby) died . . 16 Jan. ,, \nLouis Lablache (buffo singer) died . . 23 Jan. ,, \nJohn Pritt Harley died .... 22 Aug. ,, \nFlexmore, celebrated clown, died . . 20 Aug. i860 \n\nMrs. Yates died 30 Oct. ,, \n\nAlfred Bunn died 20 Dec. ,, \n\nWilliam Farren died 25 Sept. 1861 \n\nMr. Vandenhoff died 4 Oct. ,, \n\nM. Tree (Mrs. Bradshaw) died .... Feb. 1862 \nSubscription testimonial (value 2000?.) i>resented to \n\nC. J. Kean : Mr. Gladstone in the chair, 22 March, 1862 \nSheridan Knowles died .... 30 Nov. ,, \nMrs. Wood (Miss Paton) died . . .21 July, 1864 \nMr. F. Robson died .... n Aug. ,, \nMadame Pasta died, aged 66 . .1 April, 1865 \n\nCharles J. Kean died .... 23 Jan. 1868 \n\nRobert Keeley died, aged 74 . .3 Feb. 1869 \n\nMadame Grisi died .... 25 Nov. ,, \n\nWm. Brough, burlesque-writer, died, aged 44, i3Mar. 1870 \n\nPaul Bedford died 11 Jan. 1871 \n\nT. W. Robertson, dramatist, died . . .3 Feb. ,, \nLady Wrixon Becher (Miss O\'Neill, Juliet), died \n\n29 Oct. 1872 \nWilliam C. Macready died ... 27 April, 1873 \nWm. Hy. West Betty (the Infant Kosciu-s) died, \n\naged 82 Aug. 1874 \n\nCharles James Mathews died . . 24 June, 1878 \n\n\n\nAlfred Wigan died 29 Nov. 1878 \n\nFrederick Gye, died (accidentally shot), nearly 30 \n\nyears lessee and manager of Royal Italian Opera, \n\nCovent Garden 5 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nWm. H. Seholield Payne, "King of Pantomime" \n\n(aged 70), died 18 Dec. ,, \n\nMrs. Wybrow Rousby died . . .19 April, 1879 \nJ. B. Buckstone died .... 31 Oct. ,, \nMrs. Charles Kean (Miss Ellen Tree), died 20 Aug. 1880 \nCountess of Essex, formerly Miss Stephens, died, \n\n22 Feb. 1882 \nBenjamin Nottingham Webster died . 8 July, ,, \nMiss Francis M. Kelly, aged 92, died . . 6 Dec. ,, \nGrand dinner to Mr. H. Irving . . .4 July, 1883 \nMiss Mary Anderson\'s debut . . . 1 Sept. ,, \nSig. Giuseppe Mario, aged 75, died . .11 Dec. ,, \nH. J. Byron, author, died ... 11 April, 1884 \nMr. Frederick Balsir Chatterton, lessee of Drury \n\nLane, &c. died 18 Feb. 1886 \n\nJenny land (Madame Lind Goldschmidt) died, aged \n\n67 2 Nov. 1887 \n\nMrs. Swanborough died .... 6 Jan. 1889 \nMrs. Dallas, known as Miss Glyn, died, aged 66 \n\n18 May, ,, \nJames Albery, dramatist, died . about 16 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nH. B. Farnie, dramatist, died . . 22 Sept. ,, \nFrederick Ernes Clay, operatic composer, died, ^ ! \n\nabout 24 Nov. ,, \nWestland Marston, dramatist, died . . 6 Jan. 1890 \nJohn Barnett, operatic composer, died, aged 87, \n\n17 April, ,, \nDion Boucicault, dramatist, died . . 18 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nWm. Gorman Wills, dramatist, died, announced, \n\n15 Dec. 1891 \nMaddison Morton, drama tisi, author of " Box and \n\nCox," <&c, died 19 Dec. ,, \n\nTHEATEICAL FUNDS. The Theatrical \nfund of Covent Garden was established in 1760, \nincorporated 1774; that of Drury Lane by Garrick \n1766; incorporated 1775. They grant pensions to \nmembers and their families. The General Thea- \ntrical fund was established in 1839, incorporated \n1853- \nThe Tliecdrieal Mission and Institute for the benefit of \n\ntheatrical employed, started in 1876. The princess \n\nChristian inaugurated for them "Macready" house, \n\nCovent Garden 30 Nov. 1887. \n\nTHEATROPHONE, a form of the telephone \nspecially adapted for hearing theatrical perform- \nances at a distance. The apparatus of the " com- \npagnie du theatrophone " of Paris was exhibited at \nthe Savoy Hotel, and by its means the performance \nof the "Nautch Girl" at the Savoy theatre was \nsaid to be well heard, 11 Dec. 1891. \n\nTHEBAN LEGION, according to tradition, \nwas composed of Christians, and submitted to martyr- \ndom rather than attack their brethren during the \npersecution of the emperor Maximin, or sacrifice \nto the gods, about A.D. 286. Their leader Maurice \nwas canonised. \n\nTHEBES or LlTXOR, in Upper Egypt, called \nalso Diospolis, as being sacred to Jupiter. Homer. \nIts foundation is mythically attributed to Osiris. It \nis said to have been the magnificent capital of \nEgypt about 1600 B.C., having a circuit of about 14 \ngeographical miles. It was then the chief seat of \nthe worship of Amnion, or Ammun, the Zeus Amnion \nof the Greeks, and the Jupiter Ammon of the \nEomans, and hence was called No Ammon by the \nHebrews. Thebes was ruined by Cambyses, king \nof Persia, 525 B.C., and by the foundation of \nAlexandria, 332 B.C.; it rebelled and was taken by \nPtolemy Lathyrus, 86 B.C., and few traces of it \nwere seen in the age of Juvenal ; see Mcmnoncium. \nAfter centuries of neglect, its wonderful ruins have \nbeen greatly visited since the exploitations of Bel- \nzoni, 1817. \xe2\x80\x94 Thebes, N. Greece (the capital is \n\n\n\nTHEFT. \n\n\n\n961 \n\n\n\nTHEEMOPYLiE. \n\n\n\nmythically said to have been founded by Cadmus.) \nThe legendary history of CEdipus and his family, cele- \nbrated by the Greek tragic poets, belongs to Thebes. \nIt became a republic about 1 120 B.C., and flourished \nunder Epaminondas 378-362 B.C. The " sacred \nband" formed by him, 377 B.C., was revived in 1877. \nThebes\' seven gates are mentioned by Homer. See \nBoeotia and Greece. \n\nTHEFT was punished by heavy fines among \nthe Jews ; by death at Athens, by the laws of Draco ; \nsee Draco. The Anglo-Saxons nominally punished \ntheft with death, if above I2d. value ; but the \ncriminal could redeem his life by a ransom. In the \n9th of Henry I. this power of redemption was \ntaken away, 1108. The punishment of theft was \nvery severe in England, till mitigated by Peel\'s \nacts 9 & 10 Geo. IV. 1829. The laws respecting \ntheft were consolidated in 1862. \n\nTHEINE, see Cafeine. \n\nTHEISTS (Theos, God), a name given to deists \nabout 1660. \xe2\x80\x94 Dean Martin. See Deism, Unitarians, \nand Voysey. \n\nTHELLUSSON\' S WILL, a most singular \ndocument. Mr. Peter Isaac Thellusson, a Gene- \nvese and an affluent merchant of London, left \n100,000^. to his widow and children ; and the re- \nmainder of his property, more than 600,000/., he \nleft to trustees, to accumulate during the lives of \nhis three sons, and the lives of their sons ; then \nthe estates, directed to be purchased with the pro- \nduce of the accumulated fund, were to be conveyed \nto the eldest lineal male descendant of his three \nsons, with the benefit of survivorship. Should no \nheir then exist, the whole was to be applied, by \nthe agency of the sinking fund, to the discharge of \nthe national debt. It is said that Mr. Thellusson \nheld much property in trust, and that he desired a \nsufficient interval of time to elapse for the appear- \nance of just claimants. He died 21 July, 1797. \nHis will incurred much public censure, and was \ncontested by the heirs-at-law, but finally estab- \nlished by a decision of the house of lords, 25 June, \n1805. The last surviving grandson died in Feb. \n1856. A dispute then arose whether the eldest male \ndescendant or the male descendant of the eldest \nson should inherit the property. The question was \ndecided on appeal by the house of lords (9 June, \n1859), in favour of the latter, lord Rendlesham \nand Charles S. Thellusson confirming the decision \nof the Master of the Rolls in 1858. In consequence \nof the legal expenses the property is said not to ex- \nceed greatly its value in the testator\'s lifetime. On \n28 July, 1800, the Thellusson act was passed, re- \nstraining testators from devising their property for \npurposes of accumulation for longer than 21 years \nafter death ; any other direction to be void. \n\nTHEOCEACY, government by God, existed \namong the Israelites till Saul was made king, about \n1095 B.C. (Sam. viii. 7 ) \n\nTHEODOLITE, an instrument for measuring \nhorizontal angles, used in surveying, consists of a \ntelescope and a divided circle. It was probably \nfirst constructed in the 17th century. Jesse Rams- \nden, in 1787, completed the great theodolite em- \nployed in the trigonometrical survey of England and \nWales by general Roy. \n\nTHEODOSIAN CODE, see Codes. \n\n"THEOLOGIA GEEMANICA," or \n\n" Tcutsche Theologey " (printed 1528; Latin and \nFrench editions, 1558), a German mystical work, \nwritten about the 14th century. In it the "good \nman," disgusted with the corruptions in church \nand state, is led to seek for God in the temple of \n\n\n\nthe heart. Luther is said to have placed the work \nnext to the Bible and St. Augustin. \n\nTHEOLOGY (from the Greek Theos, God), \nthe science which treats of the nature and attributes \nof God, of his relations to man, and of the manner \nin which they may be discovered. It is generally \ndivided into two heads. 1. Inspired, including the \nHoly Scriptures, their interpretation, &c. 2. \nNatural; which lord Bacon calls the first part of \nphilosophy. \xe2\x80\x94 Butler\'s "Analogy of Religion" \n(1736) and Paley\'s "Natural Theology" (1802) \nare eminent books on the latter subject. \xe2\x80\x94 Abelard \n(died 1 142) wrote "Theologia Christiania." The \n" Summa Totius Theologise" by Thomas Aquinas \n(born about 1224), a standard Roman catholic work, \nwas printed with commentaries, &c, in 1596. \n\nTHEOPHILANTHEOPISTS (lovers of God \nand man), a sect formed in France in 1796; and \nheaded by one of the five directors, Lepaux, in \n1797 ; was dissolved in 1802. \n\nTHEOSOPHISTS, followers of Paracelsus in \n\nthe 1 6th century. \n\nThe Theosophical Society was founded in America by \nMadame Blavatsky, aided by colonel Oleott, about \n1875-6. Aims at universal brotherhood and the study \nof Eastern philosophy. It has a station in London, \nand many branches in India and other parts. Mrs. \nAnna Kingsford, M.D., president, in 1883, died 22 Feb- \n1888. \n\nMrs. Besant\'s lecture on Theosophy and Occultism at \nSt. James\'s hall, London, 9 Oct. 1891, related especially \nto " Esoteric Buddhism " as described by Mr. Sinnett. \n\nTHEEMIDOE EEVOLTJTION. On the \n\n9th Thermidor of the 2nd year (27 July, 1794), \nthe Convention deposed Robespierre, and on the \nnext day he and twenty-two of his partisans were \nexecuted. \n\nTHEEMO-ELECTEICITY and Thermo- \npile, see under Electricity, and Heat. \n\nTHEEMOMETEE. Freezing point: Fah. \n\n32\xc2\xb0; R. 0\xc2\xb0 ; ft 0\xc2\xb0. Boiling point: Fah. 212\xc2\xb0, JR. \n\n8o\xc2\xb0, C. 100\xc2\xb0. \n\nInvented by Galileo, before 1597. Libri. \n\nInvented by Drebbel of Alcmaer, 1609. Boerhaave. \n\nInvented by Paulo Sarpi, 1609. Fulgentio. \n\nInvented by Sanctorio in 1610. Borelli. \n\nFahrenheit\'s thermometer invented about 1726; Reau \nmur\'s and Celsius\'s (the latter now termed centigrade) \nsoon after. [Fahrenheit\'s scale is usually employed in \nEngland, and Reaumur\'s and\' the centigrade on the \ncontinent.] \n\nThe mode of construction by substituting quicksilver for \nspirits was invented some years subsequently. Halley \nproposed it in 1697. \n\nMr. L. M. Casella issued a minimum thermometer in \nSept. 1861. It registers degrees of cold by means of \nmercury. \n\nNegretti and Zambra\'s registering minimum thermo- \nmeters, adapted for deep sea purposes, made known \nearly in 1874. \n\n_ THEEMOPHONE, in which sonorous vibra- \ntions are produced by the expansion of heated bo- \ndies connected with an electro-magnet. The appa- \nratus was constructed by Theodor Wiesendanger, \nand described by him in October, 1878. \n\nTHEEMOPYLiE (Doris, N. Greece) . Leoni- \ndas, at the head of 300 Spartans and 700 Thes- \npians, at the defile of Thermopylae, withstood the \nwhole force of the Persians during three days, 7, \n8, 9 Aug. 480 B.C., when Ephialtes, a Traclunian, \nperfidiously leading the enemy by a secret path \nup the mountains, brought them to the rear of the \nGreeks, who, thus placed bet ween two assailants, \nperished gloriously on heaps of their slaughtered \nfoes. One Greek only returned home, and he was \n\n3 o. \n\n\n\nTHEEMUM. \n\n\n\n962 \n\n\n\nTHIONVILLE. \n\n\n\nreceived with reproaches for having fled.* Here \nAntiochus the Great, king of Syria, was defeated \nby the Romans, 191 B.C. \n\nTHEEMUM, Thermits, or Therma \n\n(Greece), a strong city, the Acropolis of iEtolia, N. \nGreece, was captured and ravaged by Philip V. \nof Macedon, 218 and 206 B.C., on account of its \nfavouring the Romans. \n\nTHESAUEUS (treasury), a title given in the\' \n17th and 18th centuries to large collections of small \nworks on history and archaeology. The most cele- \nbrated are \xe2\x80\x94 \n\n" Thesaurus Antiquitatum Grsecorum," lay J. Grono- \n\nvius. 13 vol. fol 1697-1702 \n\n" Thesaurus Autiquitatum Ronianoruni," by J. G. \n\nGreevius. 12 vol. fol 1694 \n\n" Thesaurus Antiquitatum et Historicum Italise, \n\nSieilise," &c. , by G. Greevius and P. Burmannus. \n\n45 vol. fol. 1725 \n\n" Thesaurus Antiquitatum Sacrarum," by B. Ugo- \n\nlinus. 34 vol. fol . 1744-69 \n\nTHESPLE, a city of Bceotia, N. Greece. 700 \nof its citizens perished with Leonidas at Thermo- \npylae, Aug. 480 B.C. It suffered through the jealousy \nof the Thebans, who destroyed its walls in 372 B.C. \n\nTHESSALONICA (now Salonica), a city in \nMacedonia, N. Greece, originally Therme, but re- \nbuilt by Cassander, and said to have been named \nafter his wife, Thessalonica, daughter of Philip, \nafter 315 B.C. Here Paul preached, 53 ; and to the \nchurch here he addressed two epistles in 54. In \nconsequence of seditions, a frightful massacre of \nthe inhabitants took place in 390, by order of the \nemperor Theodosius. Thessalonica partook of the \nchanges of the Eastern empire. Thessalonica was \ntaken, by the Saracens, with great slaughter, 30 \nJuly, 904; by the Normans of Sicily, 15 Aug. 1 185; \nand after various changes was taken from the \nVenetians by the Turks under Amurath, 1430. \nPopulation, 1885, 159,000. \n\nA young Bulgarian Christian girl, said to be an unwilling \nconvert to Mahometanisrn, was rescued from the Turks \nand taken to the American consul\'s, 5 May ; riots en- \nsued on 6 May ; the German and French consuls, \nAbbott and Moulin, were murdered ; the Western \npowers intervened ; reparation was ordered by the \nSultan ; several murderers were executed 16 May ; \nother persons were imprisoned ; and 40,000?. said to be \npaid to the families of the victims, Aug. 1876. \nDestructive fire ; 10,000 persons homeless ; the mosque \nand church, &c, destroyed ; estimated loss, 800,000?., \n4 Sept., see Mansion House Fund, 1890. \n\nTHESSALY (N. Greece), the seat of many of \nthe adventures described by the poets. The lirst \nking of whom we have any certain knowledge was \nHellen, son of Deucalion, from whom his subjects \nwere called Hellenists, a name afterwards extended \nto all Greeks. From Thessaly came the Achaeans, \nthe iEtolians, the Dorians, the Hellenes, &c. The \ntwo most remarkable events in the early history \nof this country are the deluge of Deucalion, 1548 B.a, \nand the expedition of the Argonauts, 1263 B.C. ; \nsee them severally. Thessaly long aimed at neu- \ntrality in Grecian affairs, but became involved \nthrough its rulers, the tyrants of Pherae ; \xe2\x80\x94 Lyco- \nphron, about 404 B.C. ; his son Jason, 374, assassi- \nnated 370; Alexander, the most eminent, defied \nAthens and Thebes; assassinated 359. Philip of \nMacedon, after a defeat (353 B.C.), gamed a victory \nover the tyrants, 352 ; and subjugated the country \nAvholly, 343. The Romans gave a nominal freedom \n\n* The distich, in the Greek Anthology, by Simonides \ntheir contemporary, is thus translated by Bowles : \xe2\x80\x94 \n" Go, tell the Spartans, thou that passest by, \nThat here, obedient to their laws, we lie." \n\n\n\nto Thessaly after their victory at Cynoscephalae, \n197. It is now included in the kingdom of Greece \nby the treaty of 24 May, signed 2 July, and occu- \npied Aug. \xe2\x80\x94 Sept. 1881. Railway from Volo to \nLarissa opened by the king, 4 May, 1884. See \nInundations, 1883. \n\nTHETFOED (Norfolk), said to have been the \nRoman Sitomagus, and an important Saxon town, \nwas a bishopric from 1075 to 109 1, when the see \nwas removed to Norwich. It was made a suffragan \nbishopric by H enry VIII. ; the power given him 1 534. \nPopulation, 1881,4,032; 1891,4,247. \n\nTHIBET or Tibet (central Asia), is said to \nhave been a kingdom 313 B.C., conquered by \nGenghis Khan 1206, and gradually subdued by and \nannexed to China, 1255- 1720. Buddhism became \nthe dominant religion about 905 ; and the Lamas \nhave absolute power in religious and temporal \naffairs. Thibet was visited by Marco Polo, \n1278 ; by Jesuits about 1661-2 ; Bogle and \nHamilton, 1774; and Thomas Manning, 1810. \nAn astronomical survey was carried on surrep- \ntitiously by two pundits of semi-Thibet origin, \nunder the superintendence of capt. Montgomerie, \n1865-7. War with Nepaul, May; peace, June, \n1884. Hon. Colman Macaulay\'s expedition to \nLachen vallej\', to promote commerce ; well received, \nannounced 30 Nov. 1884. \n\nA mission to Tibet, including Mr. Macaulay with scien- \ntific assistance, organised in India ; scheme suspended \nJuly, 1886. See Sikkim. \nThe progress of the Russian exploring expedition under \n\ncolonel Pevtsoff reported, summer 1890. \nMuch geographical knowledge has been obtained, and \nmaps constructed. The Chinese oppose the expedi- \ntion. \nM. Gabriel Bonvalot, prince Henry of Orleans, and \nfather Dedeken, gave an illustrated account of their \nrecent exploration of Thibet, &c, to the French \nGeographical society, at Paris, 31 Jan. 1891. \n"Across Thibet," by M. Bonvalot, was published in \n\n1891. \nCapt. Bower, Dr. Thorold and party cross Thibet, June, \n1891, and arrive at Simla, April, 1892. \n\nTHIEVES\' ISLAND, see Ladrones. \n\nTHIEVES\' SYNOD, at Ephesus, 349 or 449, \nwhere the doctrines of Eutyches respecting Christ\'s \nincarnation were approved, received the name \nbecause his opponents were silenced or excluded. \n\nTHIMBLES are said to have been found at \n\nHerculaneum, and long ago used by the Chinese. \nThe bi-centenary of their invention in Europe by \nNicolas van Benschoten was celebrated at Amster- \ndam, Dec. 1884. The art of making them was \nbrought to England by John Lofting, a mechanic, \nfrom Holland, who set up a workshop at Islington, \nnear London, and practised the manufacture in \nvarious metals with profit and success, about 1695. \nA Thimble League patronised by the queen 1886 ; the \nobject being to provide employment for distressed \nneedlewomen ; there was a sale of the work at lady \nWinchilsea\'s house, 23, Ennismore Gardens, 24-25 Oct. \n1888. \n\nTHIONVILLE, the ancient Theodonis villa, \na fortified city on the Moselle, N. E. France. It \nwas the occasional residence of Charlemagne and \nhis successors, and on the extinction of his race it \nwas successively held by private lords, the counts \nof Luxemburg, the dukes of Burgundy, the house \nof Austria, and the kings of Spain. It was taken \nby the duke of Guise, 23 June, 1558, after an \nobstinate defence, and returned to Philip II. bj- the \npeace of Chateau Cambresis. It successfully resisted \nthe marquis de Feuquieres in 1637, but was taken \nafter four months\' siege by the due d\'Enghien, 10 \n\n\n\nTHIRTY-NINE ARTICLES. \n\n\n\n933: \n\n\n\nTHRACE. \n\n\n\nAug. 1643, and remained with France. It success - \nfulh\' resisted the Austrians in 1 792, and the Prussians \nin 1814. It was invested by the Germans in Aug. \n1870, and after bombardment, being in flames, \nsurrendered 24 Nov. following. \n\nTHIRTY-NINE ARTICLES, see Articles. \n\nTHIRTY TYRANTS, a term applied to the \ngovernors of Athens, in 404 B.C., who were ex- \npelled by Thrasybulus, 403 ; and also to the \nnumerous aspirants to the imperial throne of Home \nduring the reigns of Gallienus and Aurelian, a.d. \n259-274. \n\nTHIRTY YEARS\' WAR, in Germany, \nbetween the catholics and protestants. It began \nin Bohemia in 1618, and ended with the peace of \n"Westphalia in 1648. It is renowned for the \nvictories of "Wallenstein and Gustavus Adolphus \n\xe2\x80\xa2of Sweden, and for its history by Schiller, published \n1790-93. See Battles, 1618-48. \n\nTHISTLE,* Order of the, Scotland, \n\nfounded by James V. 1 540. It consisted originally \nof himself, as sovereign, and twelve knights, in \nimitation of Christ and his twelve apostles. In \n1542, James died, and the order was discontinued, \n\xe2\x80\xa2about the time of the Reformation. The order was \n\xe2\x96\xa0renewed by James VII. of Scotland and II. of Eng- \nland, by making eight knights, 29 May, 1687 ; \nincreased to twelve by queen Anne in 1703 ; to \n\xe2\x96\xa0sixteen by George IV. in 1827. The original knights \n\xe2\x96\xa0of 1687 were \n\xe2\x80\xa2George, duke of Gordon. \n\xe2\x80\xa2John, marquis of Athol. \nJames, earl of Arran, afterwards duke of Hamilton ; \n\nkilled in a duel, 1712. \nAlexander, earl of Moray. \nJames, earl of Perth ; attainted. \nKenneth, earl of Seaforth ; attainted. \n\xe2\x80\xa2George, earl of Dumbarton. \nJohn, earl of Melfort ; attainted. \n\nTHISTLE WOOD\'S CONSPIRACY, see \n\n\'Cato- street Conspiracy . \n\nTHOMAS\'S HOSPITAL, ST. (Southwark), \nwas founded as an almshouse by Richard, prior of \nBermondsey, in 1213, and surrendered to Henry \nVIII. in 1538. In 1551 the mayor and citizens of \nLondon, having purchased of Edward VI. the \n\xe2\x96\xa0manor of Southwark, including this hospital, \n\xe2\x80\xa2repaired and enlarged it, and admitted into it 260 \npoor, sick, and helpless objects; upon which the \nking, in 1553, incorporated it, together with Beth- \nlehem, St. Bartholomew\'s, &c. It was rebuilt in \n1693. In 1862, the site was sold to the South- \n\xe2\x96\xa0eastern railway company, and the patients were \nremoved to the Surrey music hall. The foundation \nstone of the new hospital, erected at Stangate, near \nthe Surrey side of Westminster-bridge, was laid by \nthe queen, 13 May, 1868; and the new hospital \nwas opened by her majesty, 21 June, 1871. \nThe appointment of a paid resident treasurer, instead of \n\nan honorary one, and other changes recommended by \n\ncommittees, were negatived by the general committee, \n\nNov. 1877. \nEstablishment of wards for paying-patients, settled \n\n20 Nov. 1878 \n\n* Some Scottish historians make the origin of this \n\xe2\x80\xa2order very ancient. The abbot Justinian says it was \ninstituted by Achaius I. of Scotland, 809, when that \nmonarch made an alliance with Charlemagne, and then \ntook for his device the thistle. It is stated that tin\' king \nHungus, the Pict, had a dream, in which Si. Andrew \nmade a midnight visit, and promised him a sure victory \nover his foes, the Northumbrians ; and that the next, \nday St. Andrew\'s Cross (x) appeared in the air, and the \nNorthumbrians were, defeated. On this story, it is \nsaid, Achaius framed the order more than 700 years be- \nfore James V. \n\n\n\nTHOMAS, ST., see Virgin Isles. \n\nTHOMISTS, see Scotists. \n\n. THOMITES or TOMITES, a body of enthu- \nsiasts who assembled at Boughton, near Canter- \nbury. An insane Cornish publican named John \nNicholls, called Thom, or Tom, assumed the name \nof sir W. Courtenay, knight of Malta and king of \nJerusalem, came into Kent, was an unsuccessful can- \ndidate for parliament, and incited the rabble against \nthe Poor Law act. On 31 May, 1838, a farmer of \nthe neighbourhood, whose servant had joined the \ncrowd which attended Thorn, sent a constable to \nfetch him back ; but on his arrival on the ground \nhe was shot dead by Thom. The military were then \ncalled out, and lieut. Bennett proceeded to take the \nmurderer into custody ; but Thom advanced, and, \nfiring a pistol, killed the lieutenant on the spot. \nOne of the soldiers fired at Thom, and laid him dead \nby. the side of lieut. Bennett. The people then \nattacked the military, who were compeUed to fire, \nand eight more persons were killed before the mob \ndispersed. \n\nTHORACIC DUCT, discovered first in a \nhorse, by Eustachius, about 1563 ; in the human \nbody, by 01. Rudbec, a Swedish anatomist. Thomas \nBarthohne, of Copenhagen, and Dr. Joliffe, of \nEngland, also discovered it about 1654. See \nLacteals. \n\nTHORINUM, a very rare metal (a heavy gray \npowder), discovered by Berzelius in 1828. \n\nTHORN (on the Vistula, Poland) was founded \nby the Teutonic Knights in 123 1. Here they \nacknowledged themselves to be vassals of Poland in \n1466. Thom was taken by Charles XII. of Sweden \nin 1703. Many protestants were slain here (after a \nreligious riot) at the instigation of the Jesuits, 7 \nDec. 1724. Thorn was acquired by the Prussians in \n1793; taken by the French in 1806; restored to \nPrussia at the peace in 1815. Population, 1890, \n27,007. \n\nTHOROUGH. The name given by Thos. \n\\Ventworth, earl of Strafford, to his unsuccessful \nscheme for making Charles I. an absolute monarch. \nHe was attainted and beheaded, 12 May, 1641. \nTHORPE, see Railway Accidents, 1874. \nTHOUGHT READING. In 1881 Mr. \\V. \nIrving Bishop professed to be able to read a person\'s \nthoughts by touching some part of the skin. On \nJune 1 1 in the presence of Mr. G. J. Romanes, pro- \nfessor E. Ray Lankester, Mr. F. Galton, and others ; \nhe was successful with some persons, and failed \nwith others {Xatitre, No. 608). \n\nIn 1883 he was challenged by Mr. Labouehere, M.P., to \noperate under certain conditions, at St. James\'s Hall \non 12 June, but virtually declined the tests. Other \nexperiments by Mr. Bishop, 3, 4 June, 1884 ; success \ndoubted. \nMr. Bishop sentenced to pay 10,000/. damages to Mr. \nMaskelyne for libel in Truth (23 July, 1884), 15 Jan.; \nappeal disallowed, 28 Jan. ; damages reduced to 500?., \n2 July, 1885. He died of catalepsy at New York, 13 \nMay, 1889. \nExperiments by Mr. Stuart Cumberland reported success- \nful on the prince of Wales and others, 19 July, 1884. \n\nTHRACE (now Eoumelia, in Turkey) derived \nits name from Tlirax, the son of Mars. \xe2\x80\x94 Aspin. The \nThracians were a warlike people, and therefore \nMars was said to have been born and to have had \nhis residence among them. \xe2\x80\x94 Euripides. See \nOdrysee. \nByzantium, the capital, founded by the Megarians, \n\nabout b.0. 675 \nInvasion of Darius I. 513; Thrace subdued by \n\nMegabazus 508 \n\n3 <a 2 \n\n\n\nTHRASHING-MACHINES. \n\n\n\n961 \n\n\n\nTHTJEOT\'S INVASION. \n\n\n\nXerxes marches against Greece through Thrace, and \n\nretreats 480 \n\nOther Greek colonies established . . . 450-400 \n\nWars between Macedon and the Odrysse (which see) \n\n429-343 \nPhilip II. acquires Amphipolis, 358 ; and gradually \n\nall the Greek colonies .... 357-341 \n\nDeath of Alexander ; Thrace allotted to Lysima- \n\nchus, 323 ; who builds Lysimachia . . . 309 \nLysimachus defeated and slain by Seleucus at Coru- \n\npedion 281 \n\nThrace overrun by the Gauls 279 \n\nLysimachia and the chief towns seized by the fleet \n\nof Ptolemy Euergetes 247 \n\nRecovered by Philip V. of Macedon . . 205-200 \n\nLost by him to the Romans - . . . . . 196 \nSeized by Antiochus III. of Syria, who is defeated \n\nat Magnesia, 190 ; and surrenders Thrace . . 188 \nPerseus defeated in his attempt to regain Thrace, \n\n171-168 \nThe Thracian kings rule nominally under the Romans \n\n148 et seq. \nRebellion of Vologaesus quelled .... 14 \nRhoemetalces II. last king . . . . A.D. 38 \nThrace made a Roman province, about ... 47 \n\nInvaded by the Goths . \' 255 \n\nSettled by Sarmatians \xe2\x96\xa0 334-376 \n\nRavaged by Alaric, 395 ; by Attila .... 447 \nConquered by the Turks, who made Adrianople \n\ntheir capital 1341-53 \n\nConstantinople captured by Mahomet II. , 29 May, 1453 \n\nTHRASHING-MACHINES. The flail was \nthe only instrument formerly in use for thrashing \ncorn. The Eomans used a machine called the \ntrihilum, a sledge loaded with stones or iron, \ndrawn over the corn-sheaves by horses. The first \nmachine attempted in modern times was invented \nby Michael Menzies, at Edinburgh, about 1732 ; \nAndrew Meikle invented a machine in 1776. Many \nimprovements have been since made, and steam \nis employed. An act for the prevention of accidents \nby these machines was passed in 1879. \n\nTHEASYMENE or TRASIMENE (more \ncorrectly Trasimenus), a lake (N. Italy). A \nmost bloody engagement took place near the \nTrasimene lake between the Carthaginians under \nHannibal and the Romans under Flaminius, 217 \nB.C. No less than 15,000 Eomans were left dead \non the field of battle, and 10,000 taken prisoners ; \nor, according to Livy, 6000 ; or Polybius, 15,000. \nThe loss of Hannibal was about 1500 men. About \n10,000 Eomans made their escape, all covered with \nwounds. Flaminius was killed during the fight. \n\xe2\x80\x94 Livy; Polybius. On the same day, an earthquake \noccurred, which desolated several cities in Italy. \n\nTHEEATENING LETTEES. Sending \nletters, whether anonymously written, or with a \nfictitious name, demanding money, or threatening \nto kill a person, or fire his house, was made punish- \nable as a felony, without benefit of clergy, by the \nBlack Act, in 1722. Persons extorting money by \nthreatening to accuse others of such offences as are \nsubjected to death, or other infamous punishments, \nwere to be adjudged imprisonment, whipping, or \ntransportation, by 30 Geo. II., 1756, and other acts ; \nthe latest 24 & 25 Vict. cc. 96, 97 (1861). \n\nTHEEE DENOMINATIONS, see Denomi- \nnations. \n\nTHEEE CHOIES (Gloucester, Worcester, \nand Hereford). Festivals held in 1724, if not \nearlier, at Gloucester, for the performance of cathe- \ndral music on a grand scale for charitable purposes \nstill continued. \n\nTHEEE F.\'S, see \xc2\xa5. \n\nTHEEE ACEES AND A COW, see Land, \n\n188;. \n\n\n\nTHEIFT, see under National. \n\nTHEOAT AND EAE DISEASES, a \n\nhospital for them opened near Gray\'s-inn-road, \nMarch, 1874 ; foundation of a new building laid by \nmadame Adelina Patti, marchesa de Caux, 16 Sept. \n1875- \n\nTHUGS, organised secret fanatical murderers \nin India, who considered their victims to be sacri- \nfices to their goddess Kali or Bhowain. The English \ncommenced suppressing them about 1810, but did \nnot succeed till about 1830, when a plan for the pur- \npose was adopted by lord Wm. Bentinck. \n\nTHUMB-SCEEW, an instrument used in the \nfirst stages of torture by the Spanish inquisition.. \nIn Great Britain, rev. Wm. Carstares, a presbyterian- \nminister, was the last who suffered by it, before \nthe Scotch privy council, to make him divulge \nsecrets entrusted to him, which he firmly resisted- \nAfter the revolution in 1688, the thumb-screw was; \npresented to him by the council. King William \nexpressed a desire to see it, and tried it on, bidding \nthe doctor to turn the screw ; but, at the third turn,, \nhe cried out "Hold \xe2\x80\x94 hold! doctor: another turn \nwould make me confess anything." \n\nTHTJNDEEEE, see Navy of England, 1872,. \n1876, 1879. \n\nTHUNDEEING LEGION. During a con- \ntest with the invading Marcomanni, the prayers of \nsome Christians in a Eoman legion are said ta \nhave been followed by a storm of thunder, light- \nning, and rain, which tended greatly to discomfit \nthe enemy; and hence the legion received the \nname, 174. \n\nTHUEII or Thurium, a Greek city, S. Italy, \nfounded after the fall of Sybaris, about 443 B.C. \nIt suffered from the incursions of the Lucanians, by \nwhom the Thurians were severely defeated, 390 \nB.C. It became eventually a dependent ally of \nEome ; was ravaged by the troops of Hannibal, \n204 ; was established as a colony by the Eomans, \n194; and was captured by Spartacus in the Ser- \nvile war, who levied upon it heavy contributions, \n72. \n\nTHTJEINGIA, an early Gothic kingdom in \ncentral Germany, was overrun by Attila and the \nHuns, 451 ; the last king, Hermanfried, was \ndefeated and slain by Thierry, king of the Franks, \nwho annexed it to Ms dominions, 530. It formed) \ntwo duchies, 630-717, and 849-919 ; a margraviate, \n960-1090; landgraviate and countj\', 1 130-1247; \nand was, after various changes and many conflicts, \nabsorbed into Saxony in the 15th century. In 1815 \nit was surrendered to Prussia. \n\nTHUELES (S. Ireland). Here was held a \nsynod of the Eoman catholic archbishops, bishops, \ninferior clergy, and religious orders, under the \ndirection cf archbishop Cullen the Eoman catholic \nprimate, 22 Aug. 1850. It condemned the Queen\'s \nColleges, and recommended the foundation of a \nEoman catholic university, 10 Sept. following. The \nacts were forwarded to Eome for approval of the \npope, Pius IX., and published, 1 Jan. 1852. \n\nTHUEOT\'S INVASION. Thurot, an Irish \ncommodore in the French service, became a terror \nto all the merchant-ships of this kingdom. He had \nthe command of a small armament, and landed \n1000 men at Carrickfergus in Ireland, and plun- \ndered the town. He reached the Isle of Man, and \nwas overtaken by captain Elliot, with three frigates, \nwho engaged his little squadron, which was taken, \nand the commodore killed, 28 Feb. 1760. Thurot\' s \n\n\n\nTHURSDAY. \n\n\n\n\xc2\xa365 \n\n\n\nTILES. \n\n\n\nstrue name was O\'Farrell. His grandfather had \nfollowed the fortunes of James II. ; but his mother \nbeing of a family of some dignity in France, he \nassumed her name. \xe2\x80\x94 Bums. \n\nTHURSDAY, the fifth day of the week, named \nfrom Thor, the most valiant son of Odin, a deified \nhero worshipped by the northern nations, particu- \nlarly by the Scandinavians and Celts. His autho- \nrity was said to extend over the winds, seasons, \n\xe2\x80\xa2thunder and lightning, &c. Thursday is in Latin \ndies Jo vis, or Jupiter\'s day. \n\nTHYATIRA (Asia Minor), the place assigned \nfor the battle at which the rebel Procopius was \ndefeated by the army of the emperor Valens, 366. \n\xe2\x96\xa0See Seven Churches. \n\nTHYMBRA (Asia Minor). Here Cyrus the \nGreat defeated the confederate army aiding Croesus, \n\xe2\x96\xa0and obtained supremacy in Asia, B.C. 548. \n\nTIARA, head ornament of the ancient Persians. \nThe name is given to the triple crown of the pope \n(anciently called regnum), indicative of his civil \nrank, as the ke3 r s are of his ecclesiastical jurisdic- \ntion. The right to wear a crown is said to have \nbeen granted to the bishops of Home by Constantine \nthe (ireat, and by Clovis, founder of the French \nmonarchy. Their ancient tiara was a high round \n\xc2\xabap. Pope Damasus II. first caused himself to be \n\xe2\x80\xa2crowned with a tiara, 1048. " Boniface VIII. \nencompassed the tiara with a crown; Benedict \nXII. added a second; and John XXIII. a third." \n\xe2\x80\x94 Bees. \n\nTIBER, (central Italy), the river on whose \nhanks Home was built. In the nourishing times of \nthe city the navigation of the river was enormous. \nLivy states that the Tiber was frozen over, 398 \nB.C. A commission was appointed to dredge the \nbed of the river near Rome. Dec. 1871. Garibaldi\'s \n.scheme for improving the river, making a new port, \n&c.,laid befure the Italian parliament, 25 May, 1875; \nworks beguu, March, 1877. \n\nTIBERIAS, a city in Palestine, built by \nHerod Antipas, and named after the emperor \nTiberius, 39. Near it Guy de Lusignau, king of \nJerusalem, and the crusaders, were defeated by \nSaladin, 3, 4 July, 1187; and Jerusalem fell into \nhis hands. \n\nTIBET, see Thibet. \n\nTIBUR (now Tivoli), a Latin town more ancient \nthan Rome, and frequently at war with it. The \nTiburtines were defeated 335 B.C., and the subjec- \ntion of all Latium followed ; for which Furius \nCamillus obtained a triumph and an equestrian \nstatue in the forum. \n\nTICHBORNE CASE, see Trials, 1871-4. \nDr. Kenealy, the claimant\'s counsel, elected M.P. \nfor Stoke, moves for a royal commission to inquire \ninto the trial ; rejected, 433 to 3 (Dr. Kenealy, Mr. \nWhalley, and the 0\' Gorman) ; 26 April, 1875. \n\xe2\x80\xa2See Englishman. \n\nTICINO or TESSIN, a Swiss canton south of \nthe Alps, conquered by the Swiss early in the 16th \ncentury; made a separate canton in 18 15. It \nsuffered by internal disputes 1839 and 1841. Popu- \nlation, 1888, 126,751. \n\nInsurrection in Bellinzona and Lugano, the con- \nservative ultramontane government overthrown \nby the liberals, ami a provisional government \nformed. M. Rossi, director of the interior, found \n\nkilled. Revision of the constitution demanded, \n\n11 Sept. Intervention of federal troops. The \ninsurrection suppressed ; the provisional govern- \nment superseded by a federal commission, \n\n12-14 Sept. 1890 \n\n\n\nChange in the constitution voted by the people, 5 \nOct. ; the conservative government reinstated, \n\n14 Oct. 1390 \n\nAngelo Castioni, accused of the murder of council- \nlor Rossi, arrested in London, 3 Oct. ; extradition \ndemanded by Switzerland, not granted by the \nqueen\'s bench division . . . .11 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nReconciliation of the parties effected . 26 Nov. ,, \n\nRevised ultramontane constitution accepted liy \npopular vote 8 March, 1891 \n\nTrial of the revolters of 1890, 30 June ; acquitted, \n\n14 July, ,, \n\nTICINUS, a river, N. Italy. Here Hannibal \ndefeated the Romans, 218 B.C. \n\nTICKETS OF LEAVE, see Transportation, \nand Crime. \n\nTICONDEROGA (N. America). The French \nfortress here was unsuccessfully besieged by Aber- \ncromby in July, 1758; taken 26 July, 1759. The \nAmericans took it 10 May, 1775, but retired \nJuly, 1777. The British retired from it shortly \nafter. \n\nTIDES. Homer is the earliest profane author \nwho speaks of the tides. Posidonius of Apamea \naccounted for the tides from the motion of the \nmoon, about 79 B.C. ; and Caesar speaks of them in \nhis fourth book of the Gallic war. The theory of \nthe tides was first satisfactorily explained by Kepler, \n1598; but the honour of a complete explanation of \nthem was reserved for sir Isaac Newton, about \n1683 ; see Thames. Sir Win. Thomson, at the Royal \nInstitution, 9 April, 1875, described a valuable \ntide-calculating machine. \n\nTIEN-TSIN, see China, June, 1858-Jan. 1861, \nand 1870. \n\nTIERRA DEL FUEGO, see under Missions. \n\nTierra del Fuego (The Land of Fire) \xe2\x80\x94 A group of five \nlarge islands, and many smaller ones, the extreme \nS.W. of South America, misnamed by Magellan from \nthe fires seen on the coast 1520. Recent discoveries \nhave shown that the country is not so inhospitable and \nthe natives not so degraded as was formerly supposed. \n\nTIERS-ETAT, see States- General. \n\nTIFLIS (Asiatic Russia), built about 469 by \nVakhtang ; became the capital of Georgia. It was \ntaken by Genghis Khan in the 12th century ; by \nMustapha Pacha, 1576; by the Persians, 1796; and \nby the Russians, 1801, who have made it the capital \nof their Trans-Caucasian possessions. Population \nin 1885, 89,551. \n\nBy the fall of a temporary bridge over the river \nKura, during a religious ceremony, a number of \npersons were drowned or crushed to death, \n\n18 Jan. 1892 \nCollision of two petroleum trains on the Trans- \ncaucasiau railway ; 6 men burnt to death, \n\n21 Jan. ,, \n\nTIGRANO-CERTA, capital of Armenia, \nbuilt by Tigraries the Great, and taken by Lucullus \nand the Romans, after a great victory, B.C. 69. \n\nTIGRIS, a river forming the eastern boundary \nof Mesopotamia, celebrated for the cities founded \non its banks: Nineveh, Seleucia, Ctesiphon, and \nIiugdad. It was explored by an English steamer \nin 1838. Colonel Chesney, in 1850, published an \naccount of his survey in 1836-7. \n\nTILBURY (Essex). The cam]) formed lure \nill 1588 to resist the Spanish invasion was visited \nby queen Elizabeth. See Docks, 1886. \n\nTILES are said to have been lirst made iii \nEngland about 1246. They were taxed in 1784. \nThe number of tiles taxed in England in 1820 \\va s \n\n\n\nTILSIT. \n\n\n\n966 \n\n\n\nTIMES NEWSPAPEE. \n\n\n\n81,924,626 ; and in 1830, 97,318,264. The tax was \nrepealed in 1833. \n\nTILSIT (,on the Niemen), on -which river, on a \nraft, the emperors of France and Eussia met, 25 June, \n1807. By a treaty concluded between France and \nEussia, signed 7 July, Napoleon restored to the \nPrussian monarch one-half of his territories, and \nEussia recognised the Confederation of the Ehine, \nand the elevation of Napoleon\'s three brothers, \nJoseph, Louis, and Jerome, to the thrones of Naples, \nHolland, and Westphalia. \n\nTILTS, see Tournaments. \n\nTIMBEE- The annual demand of timber for \nthe royal navy, in war, was 60,000 loads, 01-40,000 \nfull-grown trees, a ton each, of which 35 will stand \non an acre ; in peace, 32,000 tons, or 48,000 loads. \nA 74 gun ship consumed 3000 loads, or 2000 \ntons of trees, the produce of 57 acres in a century. \n\xe2\x80\x94 Allnutt. Iron is now largely used in pre- \nference to timber. In 1843 we imported 1,317,645 \nloads of timber (cut and uncut) ; in 1857, 2,495,964 \nloads; in 1866, 3,638,344 loads ; in 1871, 4,497,136 \nloads; in 1875,5,092,394 loads; in 1877, 6,788,789 \nloads ; in 1883, 6,609,942 loads ; in 1887, 5,653,791 \nloads. In 1866, we imported 53,458 tons of \nmahogany; in 1871, 29,256 tons; in 1875,80,705 \ntons; in 1877, 53,600 tons; in 1883, 50,158 tons ; \nin 1887, 37,650 tons. The duties on timber were \nmodified in 1851. \n\nTIMBEE BENDING. Apparatus was in- \nvented for this purpose by Mr. T. Blanchard, of \nBoston, U.S., for which a medal was awarded at \nthe Paris Exhibition of 1855. A company was \nformed for its application in this country in 1856. \n\nTIMBUCTOO (N. Africa), a city built by \nMansa Suleiman, a Mahometan, about 12 14, \nand frequently subjugated by the sovereigns of \nMorocco. Since 1727 it has been partially inde- \npendent. \n\nTIME. See Hour, Day, Month, Year, Geodesy, \nDials, Clocks and Watches. \n\nTIMES NEWSPAPEE. On 1 Jan. 1785, \nMr. John Walter published the first number of the \nDaily Universal Register, price 2\\d., printed on the \nlogographic system (invented by Henry Johnson, a \ncompositor), in which types containing syllables \nand words were employed instead of single letters. \n\nOn 1 Jan. 1788, the paper was named the Times. \n\nIn 1803, when Mr. John Walter gave up the paper to his \nson John, the circulation was about 1000 ; that of the \nMorning Post being 4500. \n\nMr. John Walter (1) died 16 Nov. 1812. \n\nDr. Stoddart (satirised as Dr. Slop by Moore the poet) \nbecame editor in 1812, but five years after retired and \nset up in opposition the New Times, an unprofitable \nspeculation. Thomas Barnes became next editor. He \ndied 7 May, 1841, and was succeeded by his assistant \nJohn Thaddeus Delane (son of W. F. A. Delane, \nfinancial manager) who retired in 1877, and died 22 \nNov. 1879. \n\nOn 28 Nov. 1814, the Times was first printed by steam \npower (the invention of F. K6nig), 1200 per hour, \nafterwards increased to 2000 and 4000. \n\nIt is asserted that the Times was termed the "Thunderer " \nin consequence of an article by Edward Sterling in \nwhich are the words, " We thundered forth articles \non reform, &e." when Barnes was editor. \n\nOn 19 Jan. 1829, the first double number appeared. \n\nIn July, 1834, an attack of Mr. O\'C.onnell in the house of \ncommons on the correctness of the reports of the \ndebates in the Times was signally defeated. \n\nShortly after began the convenient summary of the de- \nbates, written in the first instance by* Mr. Horace \nTwiss. \n\nIn 1841 the Times was instrumental in detecting and expos- \ning a scheme organised by Allan George Bogle and \n\n\n\nothers, to defraud by forgery all the influential bankers \nof Europe. This brought on the proprietors an action for \nlibel (in the case Bogle v. Lawson). The jury found the \ncharge to be true,giving a verdict of onefavthing damages, \nbut the judges refused costs. Subscriptions were set on. \nfoot at the Mansion-house and in all parts of Europe to- \nreimburse the proprietors for the immense outlay in \ndefending the action. This they firmly declined ; and \nthe money was exjjended in establishing Times Sclwlar- \nships at Oxford and Cambridge, and atChrist\'s Hospital, \nand other schools ; a marble tablet also, commemorating \nthe event, was set up in the Royal Exchange and at the \nTimes office. These were the greatest honours ever- \nconceded to a newspaper. \n\nIn Oct. 1845, the Times express was for the first time \nconveyed to India overland, by the agency of lieut. \nWaghom. \n\nOf the number of the Times containing the life of the \nduke of Wellington for 19 Nov. 1852, 70,000 were sold \xe2\x80\x94 \nthe ordinary number being then 36,000 ; the circula- \ntion is stated to vary from 50,000 to 60,000 (1868). \n\nThe Ti7H.es (a slip) announcing permission to relax re- \nstriction of issue of bank-notes, published 24 Oct. \n1847. \n\nMr. John Walter (2) died 28 July, 1847 ; Mr. Joha \nWalter (3) born in 1818. \n\nIn 1854, the proprietors sent Mr. W. H. Russell as their \nspecial correspondent to the seat of war in the Crimea ; \nin 1857 to India. \n\nTimes Fund.\xe2\x80\x94 On the 12th of Oct. 1854, sir Robert Peel \noriginated by a letter in the Times a subscription for \nthe sick and" wounded in the Crimean war, and in less \nthan a fortnight 15,000?. were sent to the Times office \nto be thus appropriated. Mr. MacDonald was sent out \nby the proprietors as special commissioner to adminis- \nter the fund, from which large quantities of food and \nclothing were supplied to the sutt\'erers, with inestimable \nadvantage ; see Scutari, and Nightingale. \n\nIn Dec. 1858, the Ti??tes drew attention to the state of the \nhouseless poor of London ; and iu a few days 8000L \nwere subscribed for their relief. \n\nIn 1851, 13,000,000 copies were sold ; in 1857, 16,100,000; \nin 1859, 16,900,000 ; in i860, 16,670,000. \n\nThe Times of 21 June, 1861, contained 4076 advertise- \nments (about 1810 it contained 150 advertisements). \n\nStereotypes from papier-mache moulds introduced, \n1856 ; much improved i860. \n\nThe "Walter press "invented by John Cameron Mac- \nDonald (aft. Manager) & Joseph Calverley, prints about \n15,000 an hour, perfected, 1862-71. \n\nA list of the contents, inserted over the first leader, ap- \npeared first, 3 Feb. 1869. \n\n3^ pages tables of metropolitan charities appeared \n11 Feb. 1869. \n\nSpecial train for conveying the Times, North-Western \nRailway, began to run, 4.55 a.m., 16 Feb. 1875. \n\nAnnual summaries, 1S51-75, reprinted, price is. (type \nset-up by composing-machines). \n\n12,000 perfect sheets per hour xuinted by " Waltey \nPress," Jan. 1876. \n\nWeekly issue, price 2d., began, 5 Jan. 1877. \n\nThe Rapieff electric lamp adopted in the machine-room, \nNov. 1878. \n\nMr. Palmer\'s "Index to the Times" begun 1867; now \nprinting for Tt7;ies from 1838 and continuing 1892. \n\nSummary of the Times published daily, |d. about 26 \nJuly, 1883 ; stopped, Oct. 1884. \n\nDeath of Thomas Chenery, six years editor, long cor- \nrespondent, 11 Feb.; succeeded by G. E. Buckle, Feb. \n1884. \n\nThe Times consisted of 24 pages 21, 26 Jane, 1861 ; 14 \nJune, 1884 ; 5 times in 1886 ; 3 times in 1887 ; 6 times \n\nI -in 1888 ; 11, 18, 25 May, 1, 22, 29 June, 1889 ; 3, 10, 17 \nMay, 7, 14 June, 1890 ; 30 May, 6, 13, 20, 27 June, \n1891 ; 7, 14, 21, 28 May, 4, 11, 18, 25 June, 2 July, 1S92. \n\nDeath of Chas. Ross, aged 84, 63 years a parliamentary \nreporter and 30 years a chief, 6 Dec. 1884. \n\nEdwin Murray (watch dealer) v. Times, libel case, farthing; \n\'damages, 26-27 Oct. 1886. \n\nArticles " Parnellism and Crime," published 7, 10, 14 \nMarch ; article on Mr. Dillon, 2 May, declared by the \ncommons not to be a breach of privilege, 4-6 May, 1887. \n\nCentenary of the publication of the Times; special \nleader 2 Jan. 1888. \n\nO\'Donnell v. Walter and another (see under ParndlUes)\'; \nverdict for the defendant 2-5 July, 1888. \n\nNo. 31,725 (5 April, 1886) published as a book at Leipsic \nwith German notes by Dr. F. Landmaun, Oct. 1888; \n\n\n\nTIN". \n\n\n\n967 \n\n\n\nTITLES ROYAL. \n\n\n\nthe number for 14 Nov. 1888, published as a book at \nParis, with French notes by M. M. A. & G. Blwall, \nDec. 1889. \n\nFor the trial by the special commission see under \nPamellites. \n\n"Rev. lord Sidney G. Osborne (S.G.O.), long a philan- \nthropic writer to the Times, dies 9 May, 1889. \n\nDeath of Mr. J. C. Macdonald, aged 67, successively \nreporter, writer, and manager (see above, 1854 et seq.% \n10 Dec. 1889. \n\nWalter v. Steinkoppf, see Trials, 2 June, 1892. \n\nTIN- The Phoenicians traded with England for \nmore than 1100 years before the Christian era. \nUnder the Saxons, our tin mines appear to have \nbeen neglected ; but under the Normans, they pro- \nduced considerable revenues to the earls of Corn- \nwall, particularly to Richard, brother of Henry III. \nA charter and various immunities were granted \nby Edmund, earl Richard\'s brother, who framed the \nStannary Laws (which see), laying a duty on the \ntin. Edward III. confirmed the tinners in their \nprivileges, and erected Cornwall into a dukedom, \nwith which he invested his son, Edward the Black \nPrince, 1337. Since that time the heirs-apparent \nto the crown of England, if eldest sons, have en- \njoyed it successively. Tin mines were discovered \nin Germany, which lessened the value of those in \nEngland, till then the only tin mines in Europe, \n1240. \xe2\x80\x94 Anderson. Discovered in Barbary, 1640; \nin India, 1740; in New Spain, 1782. In 1857, \n9783 tons; in i860, 10,462 tons; in 1864, 10,108 \ntons; in 1865, 10,039 tons; in 1870, 10,200 tons \nin 1874, 9942 tons ; in 1876, 8500 tons ; in 1879, \n9532 tons; 1882, 9158 tons; in 1884, 9,574 tons ; \nin 1887, 9,282 tons; in 1888, 9,241, in 1889, 8,912, \nin 1890, 9,602 tons of metallic tin were procured \nfrom British mines. Of tin plates we exported \nin value, in 1847, 484,184/. ; in 1854, 1,075,531/. ; hi \ni860, 1,500,812/.; in 1864, 1,263,246/.; in 1866, \n1,896,192/.; in 1871,2,900,625/.; in 1873, 3,953,042/ ; \nin 1877, 3,033,126/.; in 1879, 3,507,977/.; in 1883, \n4,705,403/.; in 1887,4,792,854/.; in 1888,5,546,228/.; \nin 1889, 6,030,005/. ; in 1890, 6,361,477/. \nThe great tin-plate manufacture in S. Wales suffered \n\ngreatly by the operation of the McKinley tariff, 1 July \n\net seq. 1891. \n\nTINCHEBEAY (N. W. France), where a \nbattle was fought between Henry I. of England \nand his brother Robert duke of Normandy. Eng- \nland and Normandy were reunited under Henry, \nat the decease of William Rufus, who had already \npossessed himself of Normandy bj r a m< rtgage from \nhis brother Robert, at Ms setting out for Pales- \ntine. Robert, on his return, recovered Normandy \nby an accommodation with Henry ; but having \nafterwards quarrelled, Robert was defeated in the \nbattle of Tinchebray, 28 Sept. 1106, and Normandy \nwas annexed to the crown of England. \xe2\x80\x94 Henault. \n\nTIPPERARY, S. Ireland, made a county by \nking John, 1210. \n\nThe shopkeepers of the town of Tipperary, tenants \nof Mr. Smith Barry, accepted the plan of cam- \npaign, paid no rent, and were evicted. New Tip- \nperwry, built to receive them, was inaugurated \nby Mr. W. O\'Brien, M. P., and others 12 April, 1890 \n\nSome of the tenants make terms and return to \ntheir homes .... Dec, 1890, Jan. 1891 \n\nFailure of New Tipperary, the property put up for \nsale, June ; buildings pulled down . . Aug. 1S92 \n\nMr. Smith Barry warmly received by his tenants, \n\n16 Sept. ,, \n\nTIPPERMUIR (near Perth). Here the mar- \nquis of Montrose defeated the covenanters under \nlord Klcho, I Sept. 1644. \n\nTIRNOVA on the Jantra a tributary of the \n\nDanube, capital of the ancient kingdom of Bulgaria. \n\n\n\nIt was occupied without resistance by general \nGourko, 6, 7 July, 1877, and made the Russian \nhead-quarters. \n\nTIRYNS, an ancient city of Greece, S.E. of \nArgos, with massive cyclopoean remains. Excava- \ntions of Dr. Schliemauu in 1884 led to the discovery \nof what he termed " the Prehistoric Palace of the \nkings of Tiryns." His book on Tiryns was \npublished in 1886. As Byzantine remains are also \nfound some of his conclusions are disputed by \neminent antiquaries. \n\nTITANIUM, a rare metal, discovered by Gregor \nin meuaccanite, a Cornish mineral, in 1 79 1, and in \n1794 by Klaproth. \n\nTITHES or TENTHS, were commanded to be \ngiven to the tribe of Levi, 1490 B.C. (Lev. xxvii. \n30) . Abraham returning from Ms victory over the \nkings (Gen. xiv.), gave tithes of the spoil to \nMelcMsedek, king of Salem, priest of the most \nhigh God (1913 B.C.) For the first 800 years of \nthe CMisiian church they were given purely as \nalms, and were voluntary. \xe2\x80\x94 Wickliffe. " I will \nnot put the title of the clergy to tithes upon any \ndivine right, though such a right certainly com- \nmenced, and 1 believe as certainly ceased, with the \nJewish theocracy." \xe2\x80\x94 Bluckstonc. They were estab- \nlished M France by Charlemagne, about 800, and \nabolished 1789. Tenths were confirmed hi the \nLateran councils, 1215.\xe2\x80\x94 Rainailda. The payment \nof tithes appears to have been claimed by Augustin, \nthe first archbishop of Canterbury, and to have been \nallowed by Ethelbert, king of Kent, under the term \n"God\'s fee," about 600. \nThe first mention of them in any English written law \n\nis a constitutional decree made in a synod strongly \n\nenjoining tithes, 7S6. \nOffa, king of Mercia, gave unto the church the tithes of \n\nall his kingdom, to expiate the death of Ethelbert, \n\nking of the East Angles, whom he had caused to be \n\nbasely murdered, 794. \nTithes were first granted to the English clergy in a gene- \nral assembly held by Ethelwold, 844. Henry. \nIn England, in 1545, tithes were fixed at the rate of 2s. gd. \n\nin the pound on rent ; since then, many acts have \n\nbeen passed respecting them. \nThe Tithe Commutation act, passed 13 Aug. 1836. It \n\nwas amended in 1837, 1840, 1846, i860, and 1878. \nA rector is entitled to all the tithes ; a vicar to a small \n\npart only, frequently to none. \nSeveral acts relating to tithes in Ireland have been passed \n\nin 1832-47, altering and improving the tithe system. \nTithe redemption trust appointed, 1846. \nAgitation against " extraordinary tithes," n Aug. et scq. \n\n1881. \nAn Anti-Extraordinary Association existed in 1882. \nExtraordinary Tithe Redemption Act passed 1SS6. \nRiotous opposition to tithes in Wales, Aug. ; anti-tithe \n\nleague formed Sept. 1886 ; riots (see [Vales) 1887. \nTithe Bill brought in ; dropped Aug. 1887. \nMuch agitation against tithes in Wales, 1889. A tithes \n\nrecovery bill withdrawn, 16 Aug. 1880 \nRoyal commission on Tithe Redemption nominated: \n\nlord Basing and others, 30 Jan ; met 6 March et scq. \n\n1891. \nAn act for the recovery of tithe rent charge in England \n\nand Wales passed, 26 March, 1891. The liability for \n\nthe payment of tithes is transferred from the tenant \n\nto t In\' landowner. \n\nTITHING. The number or company of tm \nmen with their families knit together in a society, \nall of them being bound to the king for the peace- \nable and good behaviour of each of their society; \nof these com panics there was one chief person, who, \nfrom Ms office, was called (toothiiigman) tithing- \nman ; but now he is nothing but a constable, \nformerly called the headborough. Cniccl. \n\nTITLES ROYAL. Henry IV. had the title \nof "Grace" and "My liege," 1399. Henry VI., \n\n\n\nTITLES TO LAND. \n\n\n\n968 \n\n\n\nTOLENTINO. \n\n\n\n"Excellent Grace," 14.22. Edward IV., "Most \nHigh and Mighty Prince," 1461. Henry VII., \n" Highness," 1485 ; Henry VIII. the same title, \nand sometimes " Grace," 1509 et seq. Francis I. of \nFrance addressed Henry as " Your Majesty" at their \ninterview in 1520 ; see Field of the Cloth of Gold. \nHenry VIII. was the first and last king who was \nstyled " Dread Sovereign." James I. coupled to \n" Majesty " the present " Sacred," or "Most Ex- \ncellent Majesty." "Majesty" was the style of \nthe emperors of Germany ; the first king to whom \nit was given was Louis XL of France, about 1463. \n\nTITLES TO LAND CONSOLIDATION \n\nACT (Scotland), passed 31 July, 1868, and amended \nin 1869. \n\nTIVOLI, see Tibur. \n\nTOBACCO,* Nicotiana tabacum, received its \nname from Tabacco, a province of Yucatan, New \nSpain ; some say from the island of Tobago, one oi \nthe Caribbees ; others from Tobasco, in the Gulf ol \nFlorida. It is said to have been first observed at St. \nDomingo, in Cuba, 1492 ; and to have been used \nfreely by the Spaniards in Yucatan in 1520. \nTobacco was either first brought to England in \n1565, by sir John Hawkins; or by sir Walter \nllaleigh and sir Francis Drake, in 1586. It was \nmanufactured only for exportation for some years. \nStoiv\'s Clvron. The Pied Bull inn, at Islington, is \nsaid to have been the first house in England where \ntobacco was smoked. In 1584 a proclamation was \nissued against it. James I. published " A Counter- \nhlaste against Tobacco," and the star-chamber \nordered the duties to be 6s. lod. per pound, 1614. \nIts cultivation was prohibited in England by \nCharles II., 1684. Act laying a duty on the im- \nportation was passed 1684. The cultivation was \nallowed in Ireland, 1779. The tax was increased \nand put under the excise, 1789. Anderson; Ashe, \nVarious statutes have passed relative to tobacco. \nAct to revive the act prohibiting the culture of \ntobacco in Ireland passed 2 Will. IV., Aug. 1831. \nAct directing that tobacco grown in Ireland be pur- \nchased in order to its being destroyed, 24 March, \n1832. The quantity consumed in England in 1791 \nwas nine millions and a half of pounds, and in 1829 \nabout fifteen millions of pounds. We imported in \n1850, 35,166,358 lbs., and 1,557,558 lbs. manufac- \ntured (cigars and snuff) ; in 1855, 36,820,846 lbs., \nand 2,651,544 lbs. manufactured; in 1860,48,936, \n4.71 lbs., and 2,110,430 lbs. manufactured; in 1864, \n61,042,667 lbs., and 6,578,707 lbs., manufactured; \nin 1866, 54,374,800 lbs., and 3,171,906 lbs. manu- \nfactured; in 1871, 73,042,305 lbs., and 3,852,236 \nmanufactured; in 1876, 76,814,974 lbs., and \n3,818,682 lbs. manufactured; in 1879,38,861, 220lbs., \nand 3,591,558 lbs. manufactured; in 1883, 56,475,199 \nlbs., and 3,121,174 lbs. manufactured; in 1887, \n72,178,994 lbs. and 3,595,071 manufactured; in \n1890, 65,729,970 lbs.; and 3,678,846 lbs. manu- \nfactured. The tobacco duties were modified in 1863 ; \nraised April, 1878. 2d. a lb. extra duty on cigars \nadded, April, 1879. Net customs duties paid for \ntobacco and snuff in the year 1875-6, 7,744,977/.; \n1877-8, 8,006,836/. ; 1883-4, 8,991,205/. ; 1886-7, \n9,367,186/.; 1887-8,8,713,944/; 1888-9,8,858,781/.; \n1889-90, 9,061,984/. ; 1890-91, 9,533,888/. \n\nPermission to grow tobacco in England with conditions \ngranted by the Board of Trade, April, 1886. \n\nTobacco successfully cultivated by Messrs. James \nCarter and Co., near Bromley, Essex, Sept. 1886 ; and \nby others in 1887. \n\n* British Anti-Tobacco Crusade, originated by the late \nThos. Reynolds in 1853. 60,000 of its publications had \nbeen circulated gratuitously in 1S76. \n\n\n\nDuty per lb on unmanufactured tobacco reduced from \n3s. 6d. to 3s. 2d. ; cigars 5s. ; snuff 3s. gd. or 4s. 6d. \n1887. \n\nTOBAGO (West Indies), discovered by Colum- \nbus in 1498; settled by the Dutch 1642. Taken by \nthe English, 1672, retaken, 1674. In 1748, it was \ndeclared a neutral island ; but in 1763 it was ceded \nto the English. Tobago was taken by the French \nunder De Crasse in 1781, and confirmed to them \nin 1783. Again taken by the English, 14 April, \n1793, but restored at the peace of Amiens, 6 Oct. \n1802. The island was once more taken by the \nBritish under general Grinfield, 1 July, 1803, and \nwas confirmed to them by the peace of Paris, in \n[814. Population in 1887, 19,937. Tobago is one \nof the Windward isles, which see. Tobago was \nunited with Trinidad by parliament in 1887. \nPopulation of Tobago, 1891, 18,353. \n\nTOBITSCHATJ (Moravia). In a sharp action \nhere, on 15 July, 1866, the Austrians were defeated \nby the army of the crown prince of Prussia with \nthe loss of 500 killedand wounded and 500 prisoners, \nand seventeen guns. \n\nTOISON D\'OB or Golden Fleece (which \n\nsee) . \n\nTOKAB, in the S >udan. Here Osman Digma\'s \nforces were defeated by col. Holled Smith, 19 Feb. \n1891 ; see under Soudan. \n\nTOKAY, a town in Upper Hungary, celebrated \nfor its wines, made here by dressers, brought from \nItaly by Bela IV., king, 1235-70. The wine is \nprincipally used by sovereigns, and 50 bottles were \npresented to queen Victoria at her jubilee, 1887. \nThe town, with its six churches and public buildings, \n\nwas destroyed by fire, 26 Aug. 1890. About 4,000 \n\npersons rendered homeless. \n\nTOKENS, BANK, silver pieces issued by the \nBank of England, of the value of 5s., 1 Jan. 1798. \nThe Spanish dollar had a small profile of George III. \nstamped on the neck of the Spanish king. They \nwere raised to the value of 5.*. 6d. 14 Nov. 1811. \nBank tokens were also current in Ireland, where \nthose issued by the bank passed for 6s. and lesser \nsums until 1817. They were called in on the revi- \nsion of the coinage. Tradesmen were permitted to \nissue tokens as small coins from 1648 till 16 Aug. \n1672, when their circulation was prohibited by royal \nproclamation. These tokens are figured and de- \nscribed in a work by Wm. Boyne, 1858. \n\nTOKIO, the name given to Jedo, the capital cf \nJapan, about 1869. Great fire ; 5,000 houses de- \nstroyed, and 45 persons perish, 10 April, 1892. See \nJedo. Population, 1887, 1,552,457. \n\nTOLBIAC (now Zulpich), near the Rhine, \nwhere Clovis totally defeated the Allemanni, 496. \n\nTOLEDO, the ancient Toletum (Central Spain), \nmade capital of the Visigothic kingdom by Athana- \ngild, 554 ; taken by the Saracens, 712. \'loledo was \ntaken after the war begun 1081, by Alfonso I. of \nCastile, 25 May, 1085. In 1088 the archbishop was \nmade primate of Spain. The university was founded \nin 1499. Toledo sword-blades have been famed \nsince the 15th century. Population, 1887. 20,837. \nThe alcazar, ancient Moorish palace, used by the \n\nemperor Charles V., destroyed by tire, 9-10 Jan. 1887. \n\nTOLENTINO (Italy, formerly in the Papal \nstates), where a treaty was made between the pope \nand the French, 19 Feb. 1797. Here Joachim Murat, \nhaving resumed arms against the allies, was de- \nfeated by the Austrians, 3 May, 1815, taken pri- \nsoner, and shot. \n\n\n\nTOLEKATION ACT. \n\n\n\n969 \n\n\n\nTONQUIN. \n\n\n\nTOLERATION ACT, passed in 1689, to re- \nlieve Protestant dissenters from the church of Eng- \nland. Their liberties were, however, greatly en- \ndangered in the latter days of queen Anne, who \ndied on the day that the Schism bill was to become \na law, 1 Aug. 17 14. \n\nThe toleration granted was somewhat limited. It \nexempted persons who took the new oath of allegiance \nand supremacy, and made also a declaration against \npopery, from the penalties incurred by absenting \nthemselves from church and holding unlawful conven- \nticles ; and it allowed the quakers to substitute an \naffirmation for an oath, but did not relax the provi- \nsions of the Test act (which see). The party spirit of \nthe times checked the king in his liberal measures. \n\nTOLLS were first paid by vessels passing the \nStade on the Elbe, 1109. They were first demanded \nby the Danes of vessels passing the Sound, 1341 ; see \ntitadc, and Sound. Tollbars in England originated \nin 1267, on the grant of a penny for every waggon \nthat passed through a certain manor ; and the \nfirst regular toll was collected a few years after for \nmending the road in London between St. Giles\'s \nand Temple-bar. Gathered for repairing the high- \nways of Holborn-inn-lane and Martin\' s-h:ne (now \nAldersgate-street), 1346. Toll-gate or turnpikes \nwere set up in 1663. In 1827, 27 turnpikes near \nLondon were removed by parliament ; 81 turnpikes \nand toll-bars ceased on the north of London on \nI July, 1864; and 61 on the south side, ceased on \n31 Oct. 1865; and many others on the Essex and \nMiddlesex roads ceased on 31 Oct. 1866; the re- \nmainder on the north of London ceased 1 July, 1872. \nThe tolls on the Commercial roads, London, E., \nwere abolished 5 Aug. 1871. The tolls on Waterloo \nand other metropolitan bridges abolished, 1 878-9. \nThe high road from Brighton to London free from \ntoll, 31 Oct. 1881. See Wales, 1843 and 1889. \n\nTOLOSA- On the plain named las Navas de \nTolosa, near the Sierra Morena, S. Spain, Alfonso, \nking of Castile, aided by the kings of Arragon and \nNavarre, gained a great victory over the Moors, \n16 July, 12 12. This conflict is sometimes termed \nthe battle of Muradal. \n\nTONGA ISLES, Pacific Ocean. The king, \nGeorge I., concluded a treaty with Germany, 1 \nNov. 1876; with Great Britain, 29 Nov. 1879. \n\nTONIC SOL FA SYSTEM. See Music. \n\nTONK, Rajpootana, India. The nawab and his \nminister, for a massacre of Hindoo chiefs, 1 Aug. 1867, \nwere deposed by the British. In 1872 he demanded \ninvestigation, and Ms ca^e came before parliament \nwithout any issue. \n\nTONNAGE. The Tonnage Act of 1694 esta- \nblished the Bank of England {which sec). See \nTunnage. \n\nTONOMETER, a delicate apparatus (consist- \ning of 52 forks) for tuning musical instruments, by \nmarking the number of vibrations, was invented by \nH. Soheibler of Crefeld, and described in his " Ton- \nmesser," 1834. It received little notice till M. \nKcenig removed some of the difficulties opposed to \nits successful use, and exhibited it at the Inter- \nnational Exhibition of 1862. \n\nTONQUIN, S.E. Asia, the delta of the river \nSongkoi, a province of Annum, subject to China. \nHere a French missionary bishop, Melchior, was \nmurdered with great barbarity 27 July, 1858: the \nabbe Neron was also murdered, 3 Nov. 18O0; see \nAnnam. \n\nSuccessful attack and death of lieut. Gamier . . 1873 \nNaomdink captured by the French announced, \n\n11 April, 1G33 \n\n\n\nLin-Yang- Fu declares war against French aggres- \nsors, 8 May ; a new expedition voted for 15 May, 1883 \n\nCommander K. T. Riviere (French), and 32 others \nbesieged by the Black Flags* at Hanoi ; capture* I \nand killed in a sortie .... 20 May, ,, \n\n[He was buried at the Madeleine, Paris, 30 Jan. 1885.] \n\nGen. Bouetarrives 7 June; fortifies Hanoi 16 June, ,, \n\nChina firmly opposed to French aggression ; Tu \nDue, emperor of Annam, opposed to the French. ,, \n\nSuccessful French sortie from Nam Din ; much \nslaughter 19 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nProclamation of capt. Morel Beanlieu offering pro- \ntection to the people, deserted by Annam, an- \nnounced 20 July, ,, \n\nThe Black Flags severely defeated . 7 Aug. ,, \n\nFrench advance, under gen. Bouet, checked at \nCachao 15 Aug. ,, \n\nBombardment and capture of the Hue forts, great \nslaughter of natives .... 18-20 Aug. ,, \n\nArmistice granted, submission of the Annamite \ngovernment ; treaty signed, recognising French \nprotectorate, ceding province of Bin Huaui, &c. \n\n25 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Black Flags defeated at Phokhai by gen. Bouet \nwith great loss, the French suffer severely 1-2 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNegotiations of Jules Ferry and Mandarin Tseng re- \nspecting the protectorate of Tonquin . Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDisbandment of the Annamite troops yellow flags \nopposed to the French . . about 15 Sept. ,, \n\nGen. Bouet replaced by adm. Courbet as commander \nof the French forces . . announced 20 Sept. ,, \n\nAdmiral Courbet begins actual occupation of \nTonquin about 3 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNinh-Birih and Kuang Yen occupied by the French \nwithout resistance . . . announced 4 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Black Flags repulsed in a violent attack on the \nFrench gun-boat Carabine and on Haidzuong, \n\n17 Nov. ,, \n\nThe Yellow book on Tonquin, published . 5 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe French take forts on the Red river opposite \nSontay about 16 Dec. ,, \n\nSontay captured, the Black Flags retire, alleged \nFrench loss, about 77 killed, 231 wounded \n\n16, 17 Dec. ,, \n\nSontay fortified and left .... Dec. ,, \n\nThe unarmed native Tonquinese suffer on all sides \nby the war Aug. -Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNamdinh attacked by pirates, houses burnt, people \nkilled 1,2 Jan. 1884 \n\nArrival of Chinese troops to defend Hainan against \nthe French about 20 Jan. ,, \n\nGen. Millot (successor in command to adm. Courbet) \ncaptures Bacninh, after hard lighting Chinese \nflee, 25 French killed ... 12 March, ,, \n\nGen. Briere de LTsle captures citadel of Thai- \nNguyen 22 March, ,, \n\nRainy season .... March\xe2\x80\x94 Oct. ,, \n\nHonghoa fired by the Chinese and quitted \n\nabout 9 April, ,, \n\nTreatv signed by capt. Fournier and Li-hung- \nChang at Tientsin ; French protectorate of Ton- \nquin and Annam recognised . . 11 .May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Chinese garrison of Langson resist capt Du- \ngenne anda French column (700), (unauthorised), \nadvancing to occupy it; 10 killed; a violation \nof the treaty of 11 May . . . 23 June, ,, \n\nThe French appeal to lvkin for indemnity : tic \nChinese deny the ratification of the treaty about \n1 July ; but order the evacuation of Langson and \nother places, announced . . . 18 July, ,, \n\nden. .Millot resigns, succeeded by gen. Briere de \n1\'Isle 3\xc2\xb0 Au \xc2\xab- .. \n\nFighting resumed Oct. ,, \n\n( Ihinese regulars, attacks, repulsed with great loss ; \nFrench sutler little (at Kep) ; gen. Negrier in \ncommand 6-8 Oct. ,, \n\nVictory of col. Donnier, .great Chinese loss ; 20 \nFrench killed . . . . 10, 11 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nChinese hold .strong camps with reinforcements; \n\n\n\n* The Black Flags originated with Li-Hung-Chang, \n\nan able leader of the Canton rebels, who about [863 witli \nhis followers took refuge in Tonquin, where he was at \n\ntirst tolerated by the emperor of Annam, but afterwards, \nbeing strengthened by many adherents, established an \n\nindependent despotic government. He strenuously op \nposed the French. \n\n\n\nTONSURE. \n\n\n\n970 \n\n\n\nTOEPEDO SHELLS. \n\n\n\ntheir attacks repulsed at Tuguen Quari-hung with \n\ngreat loss 13 Oct. 1884 \n\nFighting : the Black Flag defeated about 20 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nChinese pirates said to toe severely defeated, an- \nnounced Dec. ,, \n\nGen. Negrier defeats 12,000 Chinese E. of Chu, \n\nannounced 6 Jan. 1885 \n\nDong Song camp captured by the French after \n\nsevere conflict 5 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSeveral forts captured . . . 10-25 J an - \xc2\xbb \nSevere conflict with about 10,000 Chinese, who are \ncompelled to retreat 12 Feb.; the French flag \nplaced on the captured citadel of Langson 13 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nMutiny on the Bayard on account of deficient \nrations, &c; 12 sailors shot ; announced \n\nend of Jan. ,, \n39 French killed and many wounded 9-12 Feb. ,, \n\nChinese 18 days\' siege of Thuyen-Quan raised after \n\n18 desperate assaults ... 2 March, ,, \nThe Chinese defeated by col. Duchesne, 4-7 March, ,, \nFrench attack Dong-dang, successful 22 March, ,, \nHeavy Chinese attack on French positions ; gen. \nNegrier wounded, compelled to retreat ; Lang- \nson evacuated 28 March, ,, \n\nPreliminaries of peace signed at Pekin ; Tonquin \n\nto be abandoned by the Chinese, &c. . 5 April, ,, \nLuh Vinh Phuoc, chief of the Black Flags, re- \nwarded for his services by the Chinese govern- \nment April, ,, \n\nThe Chinese troops retiring . . . May, ,, \n\nReported massacre of christians . . Aug. ,, \nThe Black Flag Bands very troublesome Oct. ; \n\ndefeated by Negrier .... Dec. ,, \nBeported massacre of 700 christians ; and destruc- \ntion of 30 villages Aug. 1886 \n\nRenewed warfare ; French successes . Nov. ., \nM. Paul Bert, French resident, appointed 21 Jan. ; \n\ndies 11 Nov. 1886 ; succeeded by M. Bibourd Jan. 1887 \nMuch fighting ; insurgents defeated by the French \n\nJan. ,, \nCol. Bosc captured Muong losing 9 men 19 April, 1888 \nEstablishment of the civil native guard for sup- \npression of piracy, and other organizations \n\nreported Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRenewed fighting by pirates ; defeated by gen. \n\nBorgnis des Bordes with French loss 17 Jan. 1889 \nSurrender of Doivan, chief of the Bac Ninh pirates ; \n\ncountry reported quieter . . .16 March, ,, \nFrench success against the pirates March, April, 1890 \nPirates defeated in several engagements, followed \n\nby executions, 21 April \xe2\x80\x94 28 July ; again 15 Dec. 1891 \nSharp fighting witli the pirates, who are dispersed \nwith heavy loss, reported, 2 July ; 3 French \nofficers and 10 men killed in a sharp conflict, \n\n9 July, 1892 \n\nTONSURE, the clerical crown, adopted, it is \nsaid, in imitation of St. Peter, or of Christ\'s crown \nof thorns, was disapproved of in the fourth century \nas pertaining only to penitents, and not made \nessential till the end of the fifth or beginning of the \nsixth century. \n\nTONTINES, loans given for life annuities with \nbenefit of survivorship, invented by Laurence Tonti, \na Neapolitan. They were first set on foot at Paris \nto reconcile the people to cardinal Mazarin\'s \ngovernment, by amusing them with the hope of \nbecoming suddenly rich, 1653. Voltaire. Tonti died \nin the Bastile after seven years\' imprisonment. A \nMr. Jennings was an original subscriber for a 100/. \nshare in a tontine company; and being the last \nsurvivor of the shareholders, his share produced \nhim 3000/. per annum. He died aged 103 years, \n19 June, 1798, worth 2,115,2447.; see Alexandra \nPark. \n\nBy the termination of a tontine begun by M. Lafarges \nin 1791 to diminish the national debt the F\'reuch \ngovernment received 1,218,000 francs Dec. 1888. \n\nTOPLITZ (Bohemia). Here were signed, in \n1813, two treaties \xe2\x80\x94 one between Austria, Russia, \nand Prussia, 9 Sept. ; and one between Great Britain \nand Austria, 3 Oct. \n\n\n\nTOPOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY of Lon- \ndon was founded 1879 ; inaugurated at the Man- \nsion-house, 28 Oct. 1880. \n\nTORBANEHILL MINERAL. Mr. Gil- \nlespie, of Torbanehill, granted a lease of all the \ncoal in the estate to Messrs. Russell. In the course \nof working, the lessees extracted a combustible \nmineral of considerable value as a source of coal- \ngas, and realised a large profit in the sale of it as. \ngas-coal. The lessor then denied that the mineral \nwas coal, and disputed the right of the lessees to \nwork it. At the trial in 1853 there was a great \narray of scientific men and practical gas engineers, \nand the evidence was most conflicting. One side \nmaintained the mineral to be coal, the other that \nit was a bituminous schist. The judge set aside the \nscientific evidence, and the jury pronounced it to \nbe coal. The authorities in Prussia have since \npronounced it not to be coal. Percy. \n\nTORDESILLAS (near Vail adolid). Here was \nsigned, 7 June, 1494, a treaty modifying the \nboundary line which pcpe Alexander VI. had as- \nsigned, in May, 1493, in his division of the new \nworld between Spain and Portugal. \n\nTORGAU (Saxony, N. Germany), the site of a \nbattle between Frederick II. of Prussia and the \nAustrians, in which the former obtained a signal \nvictory; the Austrian general, count Daun, being \nwounded, 3 Nov. 1760. He had, in 1757, obtained \na great victory over the Prussian king. Torgau \nwas taken by the allies in 18 14 ; and given to \nPrussia, 181 5. \n\nTORIES, a term given to a political party \nabout 1678 ; see Whig. Dr. Johnson defines a Tory \nas one who adheres to the ancient constitution of \nthe state, and the apostolical hierarchy of the \nChurch of England. The Tories long maintained \nthe doctrines of "divine hereditary indefeasible \nright, lineal succession, passive obedience, prero- \ngative," &c. Bolingbrohe ; sea Conservatives. For \nthe chief Tory administrations, see Pitt, Perccval } \nLiverpool, Wellington, Peel, Perby, and P/israeli. \nFor Tory Democracy see Fourth Party. \n\nTORNADOS. See Storms. \n\nTORONTO, the capital of Canada West, \n\nnow Ontario, founded in 1794 as York; it received \n\nits present name in 1834. It was made a bishopric \n\nin 1839. Population 1886, 118,403; 1891,181,220. \n\nOpera-house burnt, 8 Feb. 1883. \n\nIndustrial exhibition opened by marquis of Lome, 12 \nSept. 1883 ; another opened by lord Lansdowne, 6 \nSept. 1887. \n\nDynamite cartridges found under the parliament-house; \nmuch excitement, 30 April, 1884. \n\nThe university, with its hall, library, and museum, \ndestroyed by fire, 14 Feb. ; a committee was \nformed in London, including the marquis of \nSalisbury, the archbishop of Canterbury, repre- \nsentatives of the universities, the lord mayor, \nand other eminent persons, to restore the \nlibrary, March ; an appeal was liberally re- \nsponded to, the queen being among the con- \ntiibutors; donations were received from other \ncountries .... reported 15 May, 1890 \n\nThe duke and duchess of Connaught warmly re- \nceived at Toronto .... 29 May, ,, \n\nTORPEDO SHELLS, a name given to ex- \nplosives placed under ships, an invention ascribed \nto David Bushnell, an American, in 1777- Efts: at- \ntempt to destroy H.M.S. Cerberus failed. The \naction of Fulton\'s torpedoes was successful in \nBritain 1 805 ; but their use was declined by the \ngovernment. Torpedo sbells ignited by electricity \nwere successfully employed in the war in the \n\n\n\nTOKQUAY. \n\n\n\n971 \n\n\n\nTOUEAINE. \n\n\n\nUnited States, 1861-5. On 4 Oct. 1865, Messrs. \nM\'Kay & Beardslee tried them at Chatham before \nthe duke of Somerset and others. An old vessel, \nthe Terpsichore, was speedily sunk. Torpedoes, \nmade by professor (aft. sir Frederick) Abel, of Wool- \nwich, were tried in May, 1866. A torpedo invented \nby Mr. Wightman and an Austrian, tried and re- \nported successful at Sheerness; an old hulk was sunk, \n8 Oct. 1870. Torpedoes to be ignited from a dis- \ntance by an electric battery are now made at \nWoolwich. A Turkish monitor in the Danube was \nblown up by a torpedo (see Susso- Turkish war, II.), \n26 May, 1877. Whitehead\'s fish torpedoes, pro- \njected by compi-essed air from a boat ; very destruc- \ntive if skilfully directed ; described Nov. 1884. \nThe new torpedo boat Peacemaker invented by prof. \n\nJ. H. L. Tuck announced . . . Aug. 1886 \nNordenfelt\'s submarine torpedo boat tried in South- \nampton Water (see under Boats) . 19, 20 Dec. 1887 \nSeveral severe accidents with torpedo boats July, 1888 \nMr. A. Lege\'s torpedo, based upon the principle of \na flying kite, announced . . 16 March, 1889 \n\nSee under Cannon 1889. \nThe powerful Brennan Torpedo, with the Watkin \nposition finder, successfully tried at Cliff End \nPort, on the western side of the Solent . 5 July, 1890 \nThe controllable torpedo of Mr. Scott Sims and \nMr. Edison tried at Portsmouth and reported \nsuccessful 3, 15 Feb. 1892 \n\nTORQUAY, a seaport in Devonshire. The \npier harbour was made in 1803-7, and enlarged in \n1870. Torre Abbey was founded in 1196. The \nprince of Orange landed at T\xc2\xbbrbay, 5 Nov. 1688. \nPopulation, 1881, 24,767 ; 1891, 25,534. \nIn Kent\'s Hole, a cavern near Torquay, the rev. Mr. \nMeEnery discovered a quantity of bones of extinct \nand recent animals, 1825-9. The investigations were \ncontinued by Mr. Godwin- Austen, 1840 ; by the Tor- \nquay Natural History Society, and by a committee \nof the British Association, 1S65, by whom the results \nwere published. Mr. William Pengelly, of Torquay, \nwas actively engaged in the researches. \nThe princess Louise laid the memorial stone of the new \n\npier and harbour works, 6 May, 1890. \nCharter granted to Torquay, Aug. 1892. \n\nTOEEES STEAIT, dividing Australia from \nPapua or New Guinea, was discovered by Torres, \na Spaniard, in June, 1606. \n\nTOEEES VEDEAS (a city of Portugal). \nNear here Wellington, retreating from the French, \ntook up a strong position, called the Lines of \'Torres \nVedras, 10 Oct. 1810. \n\nTOETOLA, see Virgin Isles. \n\nTOETUEE was only permitted by the Romans \nin the examination of slaves. It was applied to \nheretics by the Roman catholic clergy, and was \nused in England so late as 1640 (when Archer, \nwho took part in an attack on Laud\'s palace, was \nracked), and in Scotland until 1690. The trial by \ntorture was abolished in Portugal, 1776 ; in France, \nby Louis XVI., in 1789; and in Sweden by Gus- \ntavus III., 1786. General Picton was convicted of \nallowing Louisa Calderon to be tortured in Trini- \ndad, in accordance with the old law of the island, \nat his trials, 21 Feb. 1806, and 11 June, 1808. \n\nTOSKI, battle of, see Soudan, 3 Aug. 1889. \n\nTOTAL ABSTINENCE, see Teetotaller. \n\nTOTNES (Devon): thought to be the Roman \n\nAd Durium Ainnem. It was held by Judhael de \nTotneis, who built the castle about 1085. It was \ndisfranchised for gross corruption and briber)-, by \nthe Reform act, 15 Aug. 1867. \n\nTOUGHENED GLASS, see Glass. \n\nTOUL, the Roman Tulli Leucorum, a fortified \ntown on the Moselle, N. E. France, one of the most \n\n\n\nancient in the empire. The city and diocese ac- \nquired great privileges from Charles the Simple, \n925, when it was united with the German empire. \nIt was reunited with France, 1552. The fortifica- \ntions, begun in 1238, were rebuilt and enlarged in, \n1700, according to the plans of Vauban. After a \nvigorous resistance to the Germans, commencing \n14 Aug. 1870, Toul surrendered with its garrison of \n3000 men, 23 Sept., when the town was burning in, \ntwenty- three places. The Germans thus acquired \nan uninterrupted railway communication to Paris. \n\nTOULON, the ancient Telo Martius (S. Fiance) , \nan important military port. It was taken by the \nconstable of Bourbon, 1524, and by the emperor \nCharles V. in 1536. In 1707 it was bombarded by \nthe allies, both b}\' laud and sea, by which almost \nthe whole town was reduced to a heap of ruins, and \nseveral ships burned; but the allies were at last \nobliged to raise the siege. It surrendered 27 Aug. \n1793, to the British admiral, lord Hood, who took \npossession both of the town and slapping, in the \nname of Louis XVII., under a stipulation to assist \nin restoring the French constitution of 1789. A \nconflict took place between the English and French \nforces, when the latter were repulsed, 15 Nov. 1793. \nToulon was retaken by Bonaparte, 19 Dec, when \ngreat cruelties were exercised towards such of the \ninhabitants as were supposed to be favourable to \nthe British. \xe2\x80\x94 A naval battle oft\' this port was fought \nII Feb. 1744, between the English under Mathews \nand Lestock, against the fleets of France and Spain: \nin this engagement the brave captain Corncwall \nfell. The victory was lost by a misunderstanding \nbetween the English admirals. Mathews was after- \nwards dismissed for misconduct. See Cholera, 1884. \nVisit of Queen Victoria . . . 13 April, 1892 \n\nTOULOUSE, the ancient TOLOSA (S. France), \nfounded about 615 B.C.; was the capital of the \nVisigothic kings in a.d. 419 ; and was taken by \nClovis in 508. The dukes of Aquitaine reigned \nhere, 631-761. A university was established here, \n1229, and a parliament, 1302. The inquisition was \nestablished here to extirpate heretics, 1229. The \ntroubadours, or rhetoricians of Toulouse, had their \norigin about 850, and consisted of a fraternity of \npoets, whose art was extended throughout Europe, \nand gave rise to the Italian and French poetry; \nsee Troubadours. The allied British and Spanish \narmy entered this city on 12 April, immediately \nafter the Battle of Toulouse, fought between \nthe British Peninsular army under lord Welling- \nton, and the French led by marshal Soult, 10 April, \n1814. The French were forced to retreat, after \ntwelve hours\' fighting. Neither of the com- \nmanders knew that Napoleon bad abdicated the \nthrone of France. Population, 1886, 147,617; \n1891, 148,220. \n\nTOULOUSE. The county was created out, of \nthe kingdom of Aquitaine by t harlemagne, in 77S. \nIt enjoyed great prosperity till the dreadful war of \nthe Albigenses {which see), when the count Ray- \nmond VI. was expelled, and Simon de Montfort \nbecame count. At bis death, in 1218, Raymond VII. \n\nobtained bis inheritance. Mis daughter Jane and \nher husband, Alphonse (brother of Louis IX. of \nFrance), dying without issue, the county of Toulouse \nwas united to the French monarclly in 1271. A \nlarge pint of Toulouse destroyed by an inundation \nof the Uaronne ; St. Cyprien like a Bepulchre; 23 \nJune, 1875. \n\nTOUEAINE, the garden of France, was con- \nquered by the Visigoths aboul 480. It was ceded \n\nto Geoffrey count of Anjou, 1044, and thus became \n\n\n\nTOURNAMENTS. \n\n\n\n972 \n\n\n\nTOWTON. \n\n\n\nthe property of the Plantagenet kings of England. \nIt was seized by Philip Augustus in 1203, and was \nmade a duchy by John, 1360. It was finally united \nto the crown on the death of the duke of Aniou, \nI584. \n\nTOURNAMENTS, or JoxiSTS, were martial \nsports of the ancient cavaliers. Tournament is \nderived from the French word tonrner, " to turn \nround." Tournaments were frequent about 890; \n\xe2\x80\xa2and were regulated by the emperor Henry I., about \n919. Tournaments were introduced into England \nearly in the 12th century ; prohibited by Henry II., \nbut revived by Richard I., his son. Solemn tourna- \nments were held by Edward III., 2s Sept. 1329, in \nLondon ; and 19 Jan. 1344, at Wmdsor ; and by \nRichard II. in Smithfield, London, 10 Oct. 1319 ; \nand also by Henry VIII., in May 1513. The \nLateran council published an article against their \n^continuance in 1136. Henry II. of France, in a \ntilt with the comte de Montgomerie, had his eye \nstruck out, an accident which caused the king\'s \ndeath in a few days, 29 June, 1559. Tournaments \nwere then abolished in France. \xe2\x80\x94 A magnificent \nfeast and tournament, under the auspices of Archi- \nbald, earl of Eglintoun, took place at Eglintoun \ncastle, 29 Aug. 1839, and the following week : \nmany of the visitors (among whom was the late \nemperor of the French) assumed the characters of \nancient knights, lady Seymour, aft. duchess of \n"Somerset, being the " Queen of Beauty." She died \n14 Dec. 1884. Among the festivities at the marriage \nof prince Humbert, at Turin, was a tournament, \n24 April, 1868. Tournaments held at the Agricul- \ntural hall, London, N. (for benefit of soldiers\' \nwidows, &c), 21 June et seq. 1880 ; 11 June, 1887 ; \nid June, 1888; 20 June, 1889; 18 June, 1890 ; 26 \nMay, 1891 ; 17 May, 1892. (Amount received by \nthe chanties 1880-8 about 21,000^.) jn Oct. 1883, \nthese tournaments were organized as "Royal \nMilitary Tournaments" for development of skill in \narms in the army. Tournaments on Woolwich \ncommon, directed by col. Curzon, 21-23 ^ u o- 1889. \n\nTOURNAY (S. Belgium) was very flourishing \ntill it was ravaged by the barbarians in the 5th \n\xe2\x80\xa2century. It has sustained many sieges. Taken by \nthe allies in 1709, and ceded to the house of Austria \nby the treaty of Utrecht; but the Dutch were \nallowed to place a garrison in it, as one of the \nharrier towns. It was taken by the French under \ngeneral La Bourdonnaye, 8 Nov. 1792. Several \n\'battles were fought near Tournay in May, 1793, \nand May, 1794. Population, 1890, 35,403. \n\nTOURNIQUET (from tourner, to turn), an \ninstrument for stopping the flow of blood into a \nlimb, by tightening the bandage employed in ampu- \ntations, is said to have been invented by Morel li at \nthe siege of Besancon, 1674. J. L. Petit, in France, \ninvented the screw tourniquet in 1718. \n\nTOURS, an ancient city, central France, near \nwhich Charles Martel gained a great victory over \nthe Saracens, and saved Europe, 10 Oct. 732, and \nfrom which he acquired the name of Martel, signi- \nfying hammer. This conflict is also called\' the battle \n\xe2\x96\xa0of Poitiers. When Paris was invested by the Ger- \nmans, M. Cremieux and several of the members of \nthe French government of defence went to Tours, \ntogether with the representatives of foreign pftwers, \n18 Sept., 1870. On 9 Oct. these were joined by \nGambetta, minister of the interior, afterwards of \nwar (who escaped from Paris by a balloon, 7 Oct.). \nIn consequence of the defeat of the army of the \nLoire near Orleans, the government removed to \nBordeaux, 11 Dec. \n\n\n\nTOWERS. That of Babel, the first of which we \nread, built in the plains of Shinar {Gen. xi.) 2247 \nB.C. ; see Babel. Ihe Tower of the Winds at \nAthens, built 550 B.C. The Tower of Pharos (see \nPharos), 280 B.C. The round towers in Ireland \nw r ere the only structures of stone found at the \narrival of the English, 1169, except some buildings \nin the maritime towns founded by the Danes. \nThese towers are tall hollow pillars, nearly cylin- \ndrical, but narrowing towards the top, pierced with \nlateral holes to admit the light, and covered with \nconical roofs. Fifty-six of them still remain, from \n50 to 130 feet high ; see Pisa. \n\nTOWER OF LONDON. The tradition that \nJulius Caesar founded a citadel here (about 54 B.C.) \nis veiy doubtful. A royal palace, consisting of no \nmore than what is now called the White Tower, \nwhich appears to have been first marked out by \nWilliam the Conqueror, 1076, was commenced in \n1078, and completed by his son, William Rufus, \nwho, in 1098, surrounded it with walls and a broad \ndeep ditch. Several succeeding princes made addi- \ntions to it, and king Edward III. built the church. \nIn 1638, the old White Tower was rebuilt; and \nunder king Charles II., it was thoroughly repaired, \n1680-5, an d a great number of additional build- \nings made to it. Here are the Armoury, Jewel- \noffice, and various other divisions and buildings of \npeculiar interest. Here took place many executions \nof illustrious persons, and many murders (king \nHenry VI., 147 1 ; king Edward V. and his brother, \n1485; sir Thomas Overbury, 1613). The armoury \nand 280,000 stand of arms, &c., were destroyed by \nfire, 30 Oct. 1841. The "New Buildings" in the \nTower were completed in 1850. See Blood ; for \nToicer-Sabicays, see Thames. The more recent \nconstables of the Tower have been the duke of Wel- \nlington, lord Combermere, and sir John Burgoyne. \nSir George Pollock, constable Oct. 1871, died 6 \nOct. 1872 ; sir Wm. Gomm, 31 Oct. 1872, died 15 \nMarch, 1875; su \' Charles Yorke, April, 1875, died \n20 Nov. 1880; sir W. Fenwick Williams, April, \n1881 ; gen. sir R. J. Dacres, Aug. 1881. died 6 Dec. \n1886 ; lord Napier of Magdala, Dec. 18S6, died 14 \nJan. 1890; gen. sir Daniel Lysons, 3 March, 1890. \nThe menagerie, long here, was removed to the Zoological \n\nGardens, 1831 ; the state papers were removed to the \n\nRecord Office, 1857. \nOpened free to the public (Mondays and Saturdays\') from \n\n3 April, 1875. \nLanthorne Tower rebuilt and other restorations, 1884-5. \nThe White Tower and other parts greatly damaged by an \n\nexplosion of dynamite ; about 16 visitors seriously \n\nhurt, about 2 p.m. 24 Jan. John Gilbert Cunningham \n\nand Harry Burton apprehended, 24 Jan. ; committed \n\nfor trial, 27 March, 1885. See Trials. \nTower Bridge act passed, 14 Aug. 1885 ; foundation of \n\nthe bridge laid by the prince of Wales, 21 June, 1886. \n\nTOWN HOLDINGS in Great Britain and \nIreland. A commit\' ee appointed in 1886-9 (Mr. \nLewis Fry, sir H. James, sir Wm. Marriott and \nother.--), to enquire into terms of occupation, faci- \nlities for purchase by tenants, rating, improvements, \n&c. The report issued 13 Julj r , 1889, was stated to \nbe a compromise. \n\nReport of the committee, dealing with questions \nrelating to local taxation, the liability of ground \nrents, &c, published ... 20 May, 1892 \n\nTOWNLEY MARBLES, in the British \nMuseum, were purchased in 1805 and 1814. \n\nTOWTON (Yorkshire), where a sanguinary \nbattle was fought, 29 March, 1461, between the \nhouses of York (Edward IV.) and Lancaster (Henry \nVI.), to the latter of whom it was fatal, and on \nwhose side more than 37,000 fell. Edward issued \n\n\n\nTOXOPHILITES. \n\n\n\n973 \n\n\n\nTRAFALGAR. \n\n\n\norders to give no quarter, arid the most merciless \nslaughter ensued. Henry and his queen, Margaret, \nfled to Scotland; and Edward IV. was settled on \nthe throne. \n\nTOXOPHILITES (from toxon, a bow, and \nphilos, a lover), a society established by sir Aston \nLever in 1781. The Toxophilites formed a division \nof the Artillery Company about 1784-1803. In 1834 \nthey took grounds in the inner circle of Regent\' s- \npark, and built the archery lodge. They possess a \nvery curious piece of plate, given by Catherine, queen \nof Charles II., to be shot for by the Finsbury archers, \nof whom the Toxophilites are the representatives. \n\nTOYNBEE HALL, see under University \nTeaching. \n\nTRACT SOCIETIES. The Society for Pro- \nmoting Christian Knowledge was founded in 1698 ; \nthe Religious Tract Society, London, in 1799; and \nother similar societies since. \n\nTRACT ARIANISM, a term applied to certain \nopinions on church matters propounded in the \n" Tracts for the Times," of which ninety numbers \nwere published, 1833-41. The principal writers \nwere the revs. Dr. E. Pusey, J. H. Newman, \nJ. Keble, J. Fronde, and I. VVilliams \xe2\x80\x94 all of the \nuniversity of Oxford; see Puseyism. The tracts \n(specially No. 90, ascribed to rev. J. H. Newman) \nwere condemned by the authorities at Oxford, 15 \nMarch, 1841. \n\nTRACTION-ENGINES were used on com- \nmon roads in London in i860, but afterwards re- \nstricted. In Aug. 1862 one of Bray\'s traction- \nengines conveved through the city a mass of iron \nwhich would have required 29 horses ; see Road- \nsteamers, and Railways. \n\nTRADE OF GREAT BRITAIN, see Ex- \nports and Imports. In 1861 the value of the two \namounted to 377,01 7, 522/. ; in 1871 to 614,590,180^.; \nin 1875 to 655,551,900/. ; in 1877, to 646,705,702/. ; \nin 1879, 611,775,239/.; in 1881, 694,105,264/.; in \n1883, 732,328,649/.; 1884, 685,986,152/.; 1885, \n642,442,263/. ; 1886, 618,822,935/. ; 1887, \n643,490,449/. ; 1888, 686,213,284/. ; 1889, \n743,230,274/.; 1890,748,944,115/. Bee Commerce. \nTrade with the United States doubled in value in ten \n\nyears. 1877, 77,805,000^. ; 1878, 89,070,000?. \nRoyal commission for enquiry into causes of depression \nof trade, 31 Aug. 1885. Earls of Iddesleigli and \nDunraven, Mr. G. Sclater Booth, prof. Bonamy \nPrice, and twenty others. First meeting 7 Oct. \n1885 ; final report issued Feb. 1887. The majority \nrefer to over-production, rise in value of gold, and in \nregard to agriculture, fall of prices, as probable causes ; \nimproved condition of the working classes noted, Jan. \n1887. \n\nTRADE AND PLANTATIONS, Board \nOF. Cromwell seems to have given the first notions \nof a board of trade: in 1655 he appointed his soil \nRichard, with many lords of his council, judges, \nand gentlemen, and about twenty merchants of \nLondon, York, Newcastle, Yarmouth, Dover, &c, \nto meet and consider by what means the trade and \nnavigation of the republic might be best promoted. \nThomas\'s Notes of the Rolls. Charles II., on his \nrestoration, established a council of trade for keep- \ning a control over the whole commerce of the \nnation, 1660; he afterwards instituted a board of \ntrade and plantations which was remodelled by \nWilliam III. This board was abolished in 1782"; \nand a new council for the affairs of trade on its \npresent plan was appointed, 2 Sept. 1 786. \nThe parliamentary recommendation in 1880 In appoint a \n\n" minister of trade and commerce," was dropped by \n\nMr. Gladstone in March, 1881. \n\n\n\nBoard of trade journal of tariffs &c. published is Sept \n\n1886. \n\nTRADE CONGRESSES, see Working men. \n\nTRADE MARKS REGISTRATION \nACT, passed 13 Aug. 1875. Th c registration office, \nQuality-court, Chancery-lane (Mr. H. Reader Lack \nregistrar), was opened 1 Jan. 1876; a similar act \npassed in the United States, 1881. See Merchandise \nMarks Act. \n\nTRADES\' MUSEUMS. The formation of \none was undertaken in 1853, jointly by the com- \nmissioners of the Great Exhibition of 1851, and the \nSociety of Arts. The animal department was opened \n17 May, 1855, when a paper on the mutual rela- \ntions of trade and manufactures was read by pro- \nfessor E. Solly. The contents of this museum were \nremoved to the South Kensington Museum, which \nwas opened 24 June, 1857. The French " Con- \nservatoire des Arts et Metiers," was established \n1795- \n\nTRADES\' UNIONS. The steam engine \nmakers\' society, Manchester, established in 1824 \nBy 6 Geo. IV. e. 129 (1825), the combination laws \nwere repealed, and other provisions made. As trades-\' \nunions formed for maintaining the rate of wa^es &c. \nare not recognised by law, a commission (including \nlord Elcho, Thomas Hughes, and others, with sir \nWm. Erie as chairman) was appointed to inquire into \ntheir constitution, 14 Feb. 1867, and an act to \nfacilitate their proceedings was passed 5 April fol- \nlowing. Their reports were issued during the year, \ndisclosing the existence of murderous practices \nwith great intimidation ; see Sheffield, and Man- \nchester. An act to protect union \'funds from em- \nbezzlement was passed in 1869. A trade union act \npassed 29 June, 1871, amended by act passed 30 \nJune, 1876. To counteract the influence of trades\' \nunions, the National Federation of Employers was \nformed Dec. 1873; see Employers, and Worhina \nmen. \n\nio-j trades unions in England in 1885. \nTrades Union Congress opened at Liverpool, 18 Jan \n1875, 1876 ; at Leicester, 17 Sept. 1877 ; at Bristol\' \n9 Sept. 1878 ; at Edinburgh, 15 Sept. 1879 ; Dublin\'" \n13 Sept. 1880; London, 12 Sept. 1881 ; Manchester 18 \nSept. 1882 ; Nottingham [134 unions, 552,091 mem- \nbers], 10 Sept. 1883 ; Aberdeen, 8 Sept, 18S4 \xe2\x80\xa2 South- \nport, 7 Sept. 1885; Hull, 6 Sept. 1886; Swansea \n5 Sept. 1887 ; Bradford, 3 Sept. 1888 ; Dundee, 2 \nSept. 1889; Liverpool, 1 Sept. 1890: Xewcastle-on- \nTyne, 7 Sept. 1891 ; Glasgow, 5 Sept. 1892. \n\nTRAFALGAR (Cape S. Spain), off which a \ngreat naval victory was gained by the British, under \nNelson, over the combined fleets of France and \nSpain, commanded by admiral Villeneuve and two \nSpanish admirals, 21 Oct. 1805. The enemy\'s force \nwas eighteen French and fifteen Spanish vessels \nall of the line: that of the British, twenty-seven \nships. After a protracted fight, Villeneuve "and the \nother admirals were taken, and nineteen of their \nships captured, sunk, or destroyed. Nelson was \nkilled, and admiral Collingwood succeeded to the \ncommand. Nelson\'s ship was the Victory ; and bis \nlast signal was, "England expects every man will \n\ndo his duty;" see Nelson. Trafalgar-square, \n\nLondon, begun 1829; completed 1845. A.I passed \nin 1844, declaring that the square is Crown pro- \nperty, the charge of it pi iced in the hands of the \nCommissioners of Woods and Forests and under \npolice regulations. In [851, the charge \xc2\xabas trans- \nferred tn the Commissioners of Works. The riirhl \nof preventing public meetings in the square by the- \nexecutive affirmed by the Commons (316 224) 2 \nMarch, 1888. Grand Hotel opened by Lord Mayor" \n29 May, 1880. See Riots. J J \' \n\n\n\nTRAFFIC. \n\n\n\n974 \n\n\n\nTRANSPORTATION. \n\n\n\nTRAFFIC in the metropolis is now regulated \nbj the Metropolitan Streets act, passed 20 Aug. \n1867. \n\nTRAGEDY, see Drama. \n\nTRAINING SCHOOLS, begun by the Na- \ntional Society, 1811. One was founded at Battersea in \n1840, by sir J. Kay Shuttleworth, and Mr. E. C. \nTufnell ; the latter, who was then in the Poor Law \nCommission, devoting a year\'s salary towards the \nexpenses. Mr. Mann stated, in 1855, that there \nwere about forty of these schools in different parts \nof the country. \nMaria Grey training college, established 1878 ; extension \n\nfund started, 1891. \nFiusbury training college established about 1883. \n\nTRAINING SHIPS, see Marine Society \nand Chichester. \n\nTRAJAN\'S COLUMN (hi Kome), erected \n5:14, by the Eoman senate and people, to com- \nmemorate his victories, and executed by Apollo- \n\xe2\x80\xa2dorus. It was built in the square called the Forum \nTrajanum ; it is of the Tuscan order, and from \nits base, exclusive of the statue and pedestal, is \n127^ feet high. \n\nTRAM-ROADS. The name is probably de- \nrived from being made of trams or bars of wood ; the \nstatement that it was derived from Mr. Benjamin \nOutram (the father of sir James Outram, the Indian \ngeneral), who improved the colliery railroads about \n\n1800, is very doubtful. The iron tram-road from \nCroydon to Wandsworth was completed on 24 July, \n\n1801. Street railways or tramways for omnibuses \ndrawn by horses, previously established by Mr. Train \nin New York, were opened by him at Birkenhead, \nCheshire, 30 Aug. i860, and at Bayswater, London, \n23 March, 1861. (See Ireland, 1868.) A street rail- \nway bill was rejected by the house of commons in \nApril, 1 861. Several of these railways existed for a \ntime in various parts of the metropolis in 1861, but \nwere all taken up in 1862. An act to facilitate the \n\xe2\x80\xa2construction of tramways passed 9 Aug. 1870. Tram- \nways from Brixton to Kennington, and from White- \n\xe2\x80\xa2chapel to Bow, were opened 9 May, 1870 ; and \n\xe2\x80\xa2others since. Their introduction into the city was \nmuch recommended but opposed, March- May, \n1873. Dividend of the North Metropolitan tram- \nways company, 8 per cent. Aug. 1876. The use of \nsteam locomotives proposed : approved in Paris, \nJuly, 1876. \n\nElevated street railways erected in New York, 1877-8. \n\n233 miles of tramways constructed in England and Wales, \n1870-80. \n\nSteam cable tramway on Highgate Hill, N. London (the \nfirst in Europe), opened 29 May, 1884. \n\nSteam employed by the North London Tramways Com- \npany, 1 April, 1885. See under Air. \n\nS80 miles of tramways in the United Kingdom in 1887. \n904 miles in 1888 ; 949 miles in 1889 ; neb receipts, \n713, 543Z., 1889. 948 miles; 811, 943Z. net receipts in \n1890. \n\nAn international tramway congress opened at Brussels, \n5 Sept. 1888. \n\nMr. Lineff\'s mode of traction on tramways by magneto- \nelectricity was tried at Chiswick, 25 June, 1890. His \npatent has been purchased by a syndicate. \n\nOverhead electric tramway opened at Leeds, 29 Oct. \n1891. \n\nTRANQUEBAR (East Indies), the Danish \nsettlement here, founded in 1618, was purchased by \nthe English in 1845. \n\nTRANSCASPIAN RAILWAY, see under \nRailways, 1888. \n\nTRANSFIGURATION. The change of \nChrist\'s appearance on Mount Tabor, in the pre- \n\n\n\nsence of Peter, James, and John, a.d. 32 {Matt. \nxvii.). The feast of the Transfiguration, kept on \n6 Aug., was instituted in the East before 700, and \nseems to have been observed in the West as early as \n450. Pope Calixtus III. in 1456 issued a bull \nmaking it a " feast of obligation " to be generally \nobserved in honour of the defeat of the Turks at \nBelgrade in that year. \n\nTRANSFORMATION PRINTS. A \n\nmethod of printing one picture over another, the \nformer being easily effaced, patented by Mr. \nAndrew Beid of Newcastle-on-Tyne, and others, \n1885. \n\nTRANSFUSION OF BLOOD, see Blood. \n\nTRANSIT, see Mercury and Venus. \n\nTRANSLATION TO HEAVEN. The trans- \nlation of Enoch to heaven at the age of 365 years, \n3017 B.C. The prophet Elijah was translated to \nheaven in a chariot of fire, 896 B.C. \xe2\x80\x94 The possibility \nof translation to the abode of eternal life has been \nmaintained by some extravagant enthusiasts. The \nIrish house of commons expelled Mr. Asgill from \nhis seat, for his book asserting the possibility of \ntranslation to the other world without death, 1703. \n\nTRANSPADANE REPUBLIC, comprising \n\nLombardy and part of the Venetian territories, was \nestablished by Bonaparte after his victory at Lodi, \n10 May, 1796. With the Cispadane republic, it \nmerged into the Cisalpine republic, Oct. 1797. \n\nTRANSPORTATION, see Banishment. \nJudges were given the power of sentencing offenders \nto transportation " into any of his majesty\'s domi- \nnions in North America," by 18 Charles II. c. 3 \n(1666), and by 4 Geo. I. c. 11 (1718). Transporta- \ntion ceased in 1775, but was revived in 1786. The \nreception of convicts was successfully refused by the \nCape of Good Hope (in 1849) and by the Australian \ncolonies (1864). Transportation, even to West \nAustralia, where labour is wanted, ceased after a \nfew years, through the fierce opposition of the \neastern colonies. In consequence of the difficulty \nthen experienced in transporting felons, 16 & 17 \nVict. c. 99 was passed to provide other punishment, \nnamely, penal servitude, empowering her majesty \nto grant pardon to offenders under certain condi- \ntions, and licences to others to be at large : such \nlicences being liable to be revoked if necessary ; \nand many have been. These licences are termed \n"tickets of leave." The S3\'stem is said to have \noriginated in Australia under the superintendence \nof captain Maconochie. It was much assailed \nin Oct. and Nov. 1862, on account of violent crimes \nbeing traced to ticket-of-leavers ; and was modified \nby the Penal Servitude Act, 1864; and the Pre- \nvention of Crimes Acts, 1871 and 1879. It is now \nconsidered successful. See Crime. \n\nJohn Eyre, esq. , a man of fortune, was sentenced to \ntransportation for stealing a few quires of paper. \n\xe2\x80\x94 Phillips 1 Nov. 1 771 \n\nThe Rev. Dr. Hall oran, tutor to the earl of Chester- \nfield, was transported for forging a frank (iod. \npostage) 9 Sept. 1818 \n\nThe first transportation of felons to Botany Bay was \nin May, 1787 ; where governor Phillip arrived \nwith about 800 on 20 Jan. 1788 ; convicts were \nafterwards sent to Van Diemen\'s Land, Norfolk \nIsland, &c. \n\nReturning from transportation was punishable with \ndeath until 5 Will. IV. c. 67, Aug. 1834, when an \nact was passed making the offence punishable by \ntransportation for life. \n\nA shipment of convicts to West Australia (which \nhad already received 10,000) in 1867. \n\n\n\nTRANSITBSTANTTATION. \n\n\n\n975 \n\n\n\nTRANSVAAL EEPUBLIC. \n\n\n\nTEANSUBSTANTIATIOiSr, the doctrine of \nthe " real presence." That the bread and wine in \nthe Eucharist are changed into the very flesh and \nblood of Christ by the consecration, was broached in \nthe da3 r s of Gregory III. (731), and accepted by \nAmalarius and Radbertus (about 830), but rejected \nby Rabanus Maurus, Johannes Scotus Erigena, \nBerengarius, "Wieliffe, and others. In the Lateran \ncouncil, held at Rome by Innocent III., the word \n" Transubstantiation " was used to express this \ndoctrine, which was decreed to be incontrovertible ; \nand all who opposed it were condemned as heretics. \nThis was confirmed by the council of Trent, 18 Jan. \n1562. John Huss, Jerome of Prague, and other \nmartyrs of the reformation, suffered for denying \nthis dogma, which is renounced by the church of \nEngland (28th article), and by all protestant dis- \nsenters. The declaration against transubstantia- \ntion, invocation of the saints, and the sacrifice of \nthe mass, on taking any civil office, was abolished \nby an act passed 25 July, 1867 ; see Sacrament. \nLuther maintained the doctrine of con-substantiation, \nviz., that after consecration the body and blood of \nChrist are substantially present in the bread and wine. \nHe was opposed by Bucer, Carlstadt, Zwingle, and \nothers (termed saeramentarians), who asserted that the \nLord\'s supper is only a commemorative rite. \n\nTRANSVAAL REPUBLIC, named South \nAfrica Republic in 1883, founded bj Dutch Boers \n(farmers) in 1848, after several years\' severe con- \nflict with the natives. Its independence was de- \nclared 17 Jan. 1852, S. J. P. Kriiger elected presi- \ndent 7 May, 1853 ; and its constitution proclaimed \n13 Feb. 1858 ; capital Pretoria. President for four \nyears, T. F. Burgers, 27 May, 1872. Population \nabout 38,000 Boers, 5000 English settlers, 770,000 \nblacks (1881). Total population in 1886, 370,848; \nin 1890, 119,128. \n\nWar with the Kaffirs begun ; Cetywayo, king; Seco- \ncoeni (Siekakuni), an eminent chief . July, 1876 \nRepublican government blamed ; its troops defeated ; \n\nSir Theophilus Shepstone sent to mediate Sept. ,, \nDutch boers assisted by the Amazwasies, a warlike \n\ntribe, who check Kaffirs . . . Sept. ,, \n\nSevere dispatch of the earl of Carnarvon, censuring \n\nBurgers for aggression on Kaffirs . . Oct. ,, \nSecoeceni threatening Leydenburg . . Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nSehliekman, the Dutch general, killed in an attack \n\n17 Nov. ,, \nSir T. Shepstone well received ; a desire expressed \n\nfor federation, Feb. ; opposition to it March, 1877 \nAnarchy in the Transvaal ; annexation of the \nTransvaal(for protection) to the British dominions \nproclaimed by sir T. Shepstone, 12 April ; he is \nsworn in as administrator . . 30 May, ,, \nConflict with Secocoeni (disapproved) ; some volun- \nteers killed 17 June, 1878 \n\nSir Win. Owen Lanyon made governor of the \n\nTransvaal March, 1879 \n\nGreat opposition to the British rule ; appeased \n\nafter much discussion ... 12 April, ,, \nSirG.Wolseleyappointedgoveriiorof Natal, &c, May ,, \nWar with Seeoeomi continues . Aug. ct scq. ,, \n\nHis stronghold captured by col. Baker Russell \n(under sir Garnet Wolseley), with British and \n\nnative troops 28 Nov. ,, \n\nSecocoeni surrenders .... 2 Dec. ,, \n\nThe Transvaal declared a crown colony Dec. ,, \n\n\'The Boers meet and claim independence ; Bok, \nKriiger, and Preforms arrested for signing a \ndocument issued by the Boer committee \n\nDec. 1879, and Jan. 1880 \n\'The Boers seize Heidelberg, 16 Dec. ; establish the \nSouth Africa republic, Paul Kriiger president \n\n17 Dec. ,, \nA party of Boers stop at Bronker\'s Spruit about 250 \nBritish troops of the 94th regiment, who resist ; \nsome killed or wounded ; others disarmed and \n\ndismissed 20 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPotchefstrom seized by Boers, who retire when \nthe place is shelled; col. Bellairs besieged in it \n\n27 Dec. ct seq. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nCapt. J. M. Elliot said to be treacherously killed \nwhile fording the Vaal ... 29 Dec. \n\nThe South Africa Republic proclaimed by a trium- \nvirate ; Kriiger, Joubert, and Pretorius 30 Dee. \n\nTroops sent from Britain, (fee., Dee., 1880, and Jan. \n\nSir George P. Colley (appointed governor of Natal \n1880) takes command in the war . . Jan. \n\nGen. Colley\'s attack on Laing\'s Nek, a pass, re- \npulsed with heavy loss ; col. Bonar Millet Deane, \nmajors Ruscombe Poole and Win. Hunt Hin- \ngeston killed 2 8 Jan. \n\nSevere conflict on the Ingogo river ; the British 12 \nhours under fire ; repulsed with heavy loss, \n\n8 Feb. \n\nSir Evelyn Wood arrives with reinforcements and \njoins gen. Colley 17 Feb. \n\nThe Orange Free State proclaim neutrality and \nmediation . . . . about 22 Feb. \n\nGen. Colley marches in the night to Majuba hill \n(which see) ; defeated and killed after a desperate \nconflict 26-27 Feb. \n\nGen. sir F. Roberts sent to Africa . . 28 Feb. \n\nArmistice proposed by the Boers ; accepted for 6-14 \nMarch ; armistice extended, 14 March ; Boers \nagree to British terms, 21, 22 March ; peace pro- \nclaimed ; the Boers disperse ; gen. Roberts recalled \n\n24 March, \n\nPotchefstrom surrenders with honours of war, 21 \nMarch ; given up as occupied by mistake April, \n\nVote of censure on the Government policy in the \ncommons negatived (314-205) . 25, 26 July, \n\nCommissioners to carry out treaty of peace ap- \npointed 5 April, agree to convention ceding virtu- \nally all the territory to "The Transvaal State" \non 8 August, subject to suzerainty of the Queen, \nand a British resident ; with "debt of about \n420, 867Z. , &c. ; independence of the Swazies \nguaranteed ; signed by Royal commissioners and \nMartin W. Pretorius and Peter J. Joubert, \n(Stephen J. P. Kriiger not present), 3 Aug. ; \neffected s Aug. \n\nMeeting of the Volksraad, 2 1 Sept. ; treaty confirmed , \n\n25 Oct. \n\nMr. G. Hudson appointed first British resident, \n\nNov. \n\nDeparture of the British troops . about 28 Dec. \n\nFighting with the natives .... Feb. \n\nSecocoeni killed by a rival chief . . . Aug. \n\nWar with the insubordinate chief Mapoch . Oct. \n\nRenewed troubles with the natives . Sept. -Oct. \n\nFighting with the natives, who are repulsed, under \ntheir chief Mapoch . . . 16-17 Nov. \n\nAgain defeated Jan. \n\nCombination of chiefs against the Boers announced, \n\nMarch, \n\nNegotiations for peace begun by Mapoch announced, \n\n5 April, \n\nPaul Kriiger, president . 9 May, 1883, and 8 May, \n\nPeace concluded July, \n\nTransvaal deputies, Paul Kriiger and others re- \nceived by lord Derby . . . . 7 Nov, \n\nDefinite proposals submitted to the government \n22 Dec. ; amended boundary lines accepted \n2 Feb. : convention signed, the republic to be \nstyled the "South Africa Republic" undfer \nBritish suzerainty .... 27 Feb \n\nThe convention adopted by the Transvaal assembly \n\nS Aug. \n\nThe filibustering settlers of Goshen and Slelhi-lnnd, \nbreak the convention ; seize and annex Montsioa\'s \nlands in Bechuanalaml ; sanctioned by a p ro . \nclamation ; withdrawn on remonstrance, \n\nSept.\', Oct. \n\nSir H. Robinson\'s ultimatum from Cape Town \nrequiring protection of the frontiers . about \n\n14 Oct. \n\nShort war with the natives, refusing to pay taxes ; \nMamusa taken; battle . . . , 2 Dec! \n\nJohannesburg founded through the development \nof gold mining ; inhabitants chiefly Knglish \n\nDefensive treaty with the Orange Pree \n\nabout 1 ; March, \n\nA great commercial development of commerce \nsince the discovery of goldflelds, rapid growth \nof Johannesburg . . . reported Sept. \n\nFamine in Johannesburg, relieved by government. \n\nabout 23 Oct! \n\n\n\n1882 \n\n\n\n1885 \n1887 \n\n\n\nTRANSYLVANIA. \n\n\n\n976 \n\n\n\nTREASURER. \n\n\n\nVisit of president Kriiger to Johannesburg, resisted \n\nby a violent crowd .... 4 March, 1890 \nHe signs the agreement for Swaziland, about 4 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nGen. Joubert entertained in London . Dec. ,, \n\nHeavy rains and destructive floods ; Johannesburg \n\nsuffers greatly, .... middle Jan. 1891 \nAbout 100 Boers prevented by the police from \ncrossing the Limpopo . . about 2 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTRANSYLVANIA, an Austrian province, \nwas part of the ancient Dacia (which see). In \n1526, John Zapoly rendered himself independent of \nthe emperor Ferdinand I. by the aid of the .Turks. \nHis successors ruled with much difficulty till Jan. \n1699, when the emperor Leopold I., by the treaty \nof Carlowitz, finally incorporated Transylvania \ninto the Austrian dominions. The Transylvanian \ndeputies did not take their seat in the Austrian \nparliament till 20 Oct. 1863. A decree for the \nconvocation of the Transylvanian diet was issued \n12 Sept. 1865. The inhabitants are about 1,100,000 \nignorant Koumans, 1,500,000 Saxon colonists, and \n550,000 Magyars, the last being the ruling class. \nThe union of Transylvania with Hungary in 1848, \nwhich has caused much discontent, was ratified by \nthe Transylvanian diet, 25 Dec. 1866. \nSerious agrarian riots at Foeldvar suppressed with \n\nbloodshed, 27 June, 1888. \n\nPRINCES OF TRANSYLVANIA. \n\n1526. John Zapoly. \n\n1540. John Sigismund. \n\n1571. Stephen Zapoly I. Bathori. \n\n1576. Christopher Bathori. \n\n1581. Sigismund Bathori. \n\n1602. Emperor Rodolph. \n\n\' 1605. Stephen II. Bottskai. \n\n1607. Sigismund Ragotzski. \n\n1608. Gabriel I. Bathori. \n\n1613. Gabriel II. (Bethlem Gabor). \n1631. George I. Ragotzski. \n1648. George II. Ragotzski. \n1660. John Kemin. \n1662. Michael I. Abaffi. \n1690-99. Michael II. Abaffi. \n\nTRAPPISTS- The first abbey of La Trappe \nin Normandy was founded, in 1140, by Ilotrou, \ncomte de Perche. The present order of Trappists \nowes its origin to the learned Jean le Bouthillier \nde la Ranee (editor of Anacreon when aged 14), \nwho renounced the world, and sold all his property, \ngiving the proceeds to the abbey of La Trappe, to \nwhich he retired in 1662, to live there in great \nausterity. After several efforts he succeeded in \nreforming the monks, and in establishing a new \nrule, which commands silence, prayer, reading, and \nmanual labour, and which forbids study, wine, fish, \n&c. Ranee was born in 1620, and died in 1700. \nThe Trappists\' new building was consecrated in \nAug. 1833. \n\nA number of these monks, driven from France in the \nrevolution of 1790, were received by Mr. Weld, of Lul- \nworth, Dorsetshire, who gave them some land to culti- \nvate and a habitation, where they remained till 1815. \nThis order was charged with rebellion and conspiracy \nin France, and sixty-four English and Irish Trappists \nwere shipped by the French government at Paimbceuf, \n19 Nov., and were landed from the Hebe, French \nfrigate, at Cork, 30 Nov. 1831. They established them- \nselves at Mount Melleray, county of Waterford. \n\nTRASIMENE, see Thrasymene. \n\nTRAUTENAU (Bohemia). On 27 June, 1866, \nthe first corps of the army of the crown-prince of \nPrussia seized Trautenau, but was defeated and \nrepulsed by the Austrians under Gablenz ; on the \n28th, the \'Prussians defeated the Austrians with \ngreat loss. \n\nTRAVELLERS\' CLUB (Pall-mall), estab- \nlished in 1815. A member must have "travelled \n\n\n\nout of the British islands to a distance of at least \n500 miles from Loudon, in a direct line." \n\nTRAVELLING in England. In 1707 it \ntook in summer one day, in winter nearly two days, \nto travel from London to Oxford (55 miles) . In \n181 7 the journey was accomplished in six or seven \nhours. By the Great Western Railway express (63 \nmiles) it is done in 1 j hour. In 1828, a gentleman \ntravelled from Newcastle to London (273 miles) \ninside the best coach in 35 hours, at an expense of \n61. 15s. 3d. or 6d. per mile (including dinner, &c.). \nIn 1857, the charge of the Great Northern railway \n(275! miles) first-class express (6 hours) was \n50s. gd. \n\nTRAWLING. Deep-sea fishing with a boat \n(sometimes driven by steam) having a very large \nnet attached to it, and thereby catching the fish \nwhich mostly live at the bottom of the sea ; princi- \npally practised on the N.E. coast of Britain. \nCommissions reported in 1864 and since, that trawling \nwas not injurious to the supply of fish as suggested ; \nbut another commission, with scientific advice, re- \nported in Feb. 1885, that there was some ground for \nthe fishermen\'s complaints. \n\nTREAD-MILL, an invention of the Chinese, \nto raise w r ater for the irrigation of the fields. The \ncomplicated tread-mill introduced into the prisons \nof Great Britain is the invention of Mr. (afterwards \nsir William) Cubitt, of Ipswich. It w r as erected at \nBrixton gaol, 181 7, and soon afterwards in other \nlarge prisons. \n\nTREASON, see High Treason. Petty \nTREASON (a term abolished in 1828, defined by \nthe statute c.f 25 Edw. III. 1352) was a wife\'s mur- \nder of her husband ; a servant s murder of his mas- \nter; and an ecclesiastical person\'s murder of his \nprelate or other superior. \n\nTREASON-FELONY. By the Crown and \nGovernment Security Act, n Vict. c. 12 (1848), \ncertain treasons heretofore punishable with death \nw r ere mitigated to felonies, and subjected to trans- \nportation or imprisonment. The Fenians in Ire- \nland were tried under this act ; see Trials* \n1865. \n\nTREASURER of England, Lord High, \n\nthe third great officer of the crown, a lord by virtue \nof his office, having the custody of the king\'s trea- \nsure, governing the upper court of exchequer, and \nformerly sitting judicially among the barons. The \nfirst lord high treasurer in England was Odo, earl \nof Kent, in the reign of William I. This great \ntrust is now confided to a commission, and is vested \nin five persons, called "lords commissioners for \nexecuting the office of lord high treasurer," and of \nthese the chancellor of the exchequer is usually \none ; the first lord being usually the premier ; see \nAdministrations, for a succession of these officers. \nSir Stafford Northcote (aft. Earl of Iddesleigh) was \nfirst lord of the treasury and not premier, 24 June, \n1885, as was Mr. W. H*. Smith, 26 July, 1886 ; see \nSalisbury Administrations. A third lord of the \ntreasury (Mr. Stansfeld) was appointed, Dec. 1868, \nsucceeded by Mr. W. H. Gladstone, Dec. 1869. \n\nThe first of this rank in Ireland was John de St. John, \nHenry III. 1217; the last, William, duke of Devon- \nshire, 1766; vice-treasurers were appointed till 1789; \nthen commissioners till 1816, when the revenues of \nGreat Britain and Ireland were united. \n\nThe first lord high treasurer of Scotland was sir Walter \nOgilvie, appointed by James I. in 1420 ; the last, in \n1641, John, earl of Traquair, afterwards commissioners \nwere appointed. \n\n\n\nTEEASUEER. \n\n\n\n977 \n\n\n\nTREATIES. \n\n\n\nTEEASUEEE OF THE Chamber, for- \nmerly an officer of great consideration, and always \na member of the privy council. He discharged the \nibills of all the king\'s tradesmen, and had his office \nin Cleveland-row, in the vicinity of the royal \npalace. His duties were transferred and the office \nsuppressed at the same time with the offices of \nmaster of the great wardrobe and cofferer of the \nhousehold in 1782. Beatson. \n\nTEEATIES. A formal and written treaty \n\n\n\nmade in England with any foreign nation was \nentered into at Kingston * between Henry III. \nand the dauphin of France (then in England and \nleagued with the barons), 11 Sept. 12 17. The first \ncommercial treaty was with Guy, earl of Flanders, \n2 Edw. 1274 : the second with Portugal and Spain, \n1308. Anderson. The chief treaties of the nation? \nof Europe will be found described in their respec- \ntive places : the following forms an index ; see \nCoalitions, Commerce, Leagues, &c. Hertslet\'s \n" Commercial Treaties," 16 vol. 1820-85. \n\n\n\nAbo, peace . . 7 Aug. 1743 \nAdriauople, peace . 14 Sept. 1829 \nAix-la-Chapelle . 2 May, 1668 \nAix-la-Chapelle, peace . . 1748 \nAkermann, peace . 4 Sept. 1826 \nAllahabad (Baliar, &c, ceded to \n\nE. I. Company) . . . 1765 \nAlt Radstadt, peace 24 Sept. 1706 \nAmerica, peace . . 3 Sept. 1783 \nAmieus, peace . 25 liar. 1802 \n\nAncon (Chili and Peru) 20 Oct. 1883 \nAnglo-French, etc. agreements, \n\nwhich see 1890 \n\nAnglo-Spanish convention, \n\n29 July, 1886 \nAnglo-Turkish convention, \n\n4 June, 1878 \nAntwerp, truce . . 4 April, 1609 \nArmed Neutrality, convention, \n\n16 Dee. 1800 \nArras . . . 22 Sept. 1435 \nArras ...... 1482 \n\nAugsburg, league of . . 1686 \nAustria with England, conven- \ntion ; the latter agrees to \naccept 2,500,000?. as a compo- \nsition for claims on Austria, \namounting to 30,000,000?. ster- \nling 1824 \n\nBaden, peace . . Sept. 1714 \n\nBagnalo (Venice, Naples, &c.) . 1484 \nBalta Liinan . . 1838 and 1849 \nBarcelona (France and Spain) . 1493 \nBarrier treaty . . 15 Nov. 1715 \nBarwalde (France and Sweden) . 1631 \nBasel, peace (France and Spain) \n\n22 July, 1795 \nBassein (Great Britain and Mah- \n\nrattas) 1802 \n\nBayonne ... 5 May, 1808 \nBelgrade, peace . 18 Sept. 1739 \nBerlin, peace . . 28 June, 1742 \nBerlin, decree . 29 Nov. 1806 \n\nBerlin convention . 5 Nov. 1808 \nBerlin, peace (Prussia & Saxony) \n\n21 Oct. 1866 \nBerlin treaty (Russia, Turkey, \n\n&c) . . . 13 July, 1878 \nBeyara ... 31 Aug. 1839 \nBreda, peace . . 25 July, 1667 \nBretigny, peace . 8 May, 1360 \n\nBucharest, 2S May, 1812 ;(Serv\'ia \n\nand Bulgaria) . . 3 March, 1886 \nCambray, league . 10 Dee. 1508 \n\'Cambray, peace . . 5 Aug. 1529 \nCainpo Formio . 17 Oct. 1797 \n\nCanton . . . .29 Aug. 1842 \nCapua, convention . 20 May, 1815 \nCarlowitz, peace . 26 Jan. 1699 \nCarlsbad, congress of 1 Aug. 1819 \nCh&teau-Cambresis, peace. . 1559 \nChaum\'ont . . . 1 Mar. 1814 \nChefoo, convention 17 Sept. 1876 \nChunar, [ndia . . . . 1781 \nCintra, convention . 22 Aug. 1808 \nClosttTscveii, convi\'iitiiniS Sept. 1757 \nCoalition, first, against France \n\n26 June, 1792 \nCoalition, \'Second . 22 June, 1799 \nCoalition, third . s Sept. 1805 \n\nCoalition, fourth . 6 Oct. 1806 \nCoalition, fifth . 9 April, 1809 \nCoalition, sixth . . 1 March, 1813 \n\n\n\nCommerce (Great Britain and \n\nTurkey) . . 16 Nov. 1839 \nCommerce (Great Britain and \n\nthe Two Sicilies) 25 June, 1845 \nConcordat, with France, 15 July, 1801 \n\nOonflans 1465 \n\nConstantinople, peace, 16 April, 1712 \nConstantinople . 8 July, 1833 \n\nConstantinople . . 8 May, 1854 \nConstantinople (Russia and Tur- \nkey, definitive) . . 8 Feb. 1879 \nConstantinople (settling boun- \ndaries of Greece) \n\n24 May and 2 July, 1881 \nCopenhagen, peace 27 May, 1660 \n\nCopenhagen (composition for \nSound dues) . 14 March, 1857 \n\nCrecy 1544 \n\nDover ..... 1670 \nDresden, peace . 25 Dec. 1745 \nEgypt, viceroy and admiral Cod- \n\nrington, convention 6 Aug. 1828 \nEliot convention . April, 1835 \nEngland, convention with Aus- \ntria, Russia, Prussia, and Tur- \nkey, for settlement of the East \n\n15 July, 1810 \nEngland and United States, \n\nconvention . . 13 Nov. 1826 \nEvora Monte . . 26 May, 1834 \nFamily Compact . . 15 Aug. 1761 \nFommanah (Ashantee war) \n\n13 Feb. 1874 \nFontainebleau, peace 2 Sept. 1679 \nFontainebleau . . 8 Nov. 1785 \nFontainebleau, concordat 25 Jan. 1813 \nFrance and England, convention \nrespecting the slave trade \n\n29 May, 1845 \nFrance and Italy, convention \nrespecting the occupation of \nRome . . -15 Sept. 1864 \nFrankfort (peace between Ger- \nmany and France) 10 May, 1871 \nFrench commercial treaty, \n\n23 Jan. i860 \nFriedwald . . .5 Oct. 1551 \nFuessen, peace . . 23 April, 1745 \nGandamak (with Afghanistan), \n\n26 May, 1879 \nGastein convention 14 Aug. 1865 \n\nGhent, pacification . 8 Nov. 1576 \nGhent, peace (America) 24 Dec. 18 14 \nGolden Bull .... 1356 \nGrand alliance . 12 May, 1689 \nHague . . .21 May, 1659 \nHague ... 7 May, 1669 \n\nHalle 1610 \n\nHamburg, peace . . 2 May, 1762 \nHanover . . . 3 Sept. 17-5 \nHanover and England 22 July, 1834 \nHoly affiance . . 26 Sept. 1S15 \nHubertsburg, peace 15 Feb. 1763 \nHue (France and Aiinatii) \n\n25 Aug. 1883 \n" interim " . . -15 -May, 1548 \n[talo-Abyssinian . . < >ct. 1 1 \nJapan and Great Britain 26 Aug. 4858 \nJaj \'s 1 reaty . . tg Nov. 1 794 \nKaynardji, or Koutschouc Kaj - \n\nnardji . . .21 July, 1774 \nKiel ... 14 Jan. 1814 \nLaybach, congress . 6 May, 1S21 \n\n\n\nLeague, holy \n\nLeipsic, alliance . . April, \n\nLeoben, peace . . . . \n\nLisbon, peace . \xe2\x96\xa0 \' 13 Feb. \n\nLondon (settlement of Greece) \n6 July, \n\nLondon (separating Belgium \nfrom Holland) . 15 Nov. \n\nLondon (convention respecting \nBelgium) . . 19 April, \n\nLondon (Turkey and Egypt) \n\n15 July, \n\nLondon (succession to crown of \nDenmark) .... \n\nLondon (neutrality of Luxem- \nburg settled) . 11 May, \n\nLiibeck, peace . . 22 May, \n\nLuneville, peace . . 9 Feb. \n\nMadrid, concord \n\nMethuen treaty . . . . \n\nMilan decree . . 17 Dec. \n\nMilan (Austria and Sardinia) \n\n6 Aug. \n\nMinister, peace . 24 Oct. \n\nNankin, peace . 29 Aug. \n\nNantes, edict . . 13 April, \n\nNaumberg \n\nNice \n\n\n\nNimeguen, peace \nNoyon \nNuremberg \nNystadt . \nOliva, peace . \nParis, peace (Paris) \nParis . \xe2\x80\xa2 . \n\nParis . \n\n\n\n10 Aug. \n16 Aug. \n\n2 Aug. \n\n30 Aug. \n\n3 May, \n10 Feb. \n\n20 June, \n15 May. \n\n\n\nParis, peace (Sweden) 6 Jan. \nParis ... 11 April, \nParis . . . .10 June, \nParis .... April, \nParis (settlement of Neufehatel \naffair) . . . 26 May, \nPartition, first . n Oct. \n\nPartition, second \nPassarowitz, peace . 13 .Alar. \nPassau . . .12 Aug. \nPekin, peace, 24 Aug. i860 ; \n\n. 5 April, \n\nPersia, peace . . 3 Match, \nPetersburg, St., peace 5 May, \nPetersburg, St. . 5 Aug. \nPetersburg, St. . . 8 Apru, \n\nIYlrisw.il. 1. i vention S .July, \n\nPilnitz, convention . 20 July, \nPoland, partition . 25 Nov. \n\nPrag t ic s.i mi ion . \n\nPragmatic sanction 17 April, \n\nPrague, peace . . 30 May. \nPrague (peace between Austria \nand Prussia) . 23 Aug. \nPresburg, peace . . 26 lie.-. \nPretoria (see Fran -runt) -. Aug. \n\nPublic g 1, league for the \n\nPyrenees, peace . . 7 Nov. \nQuadruple alliance . \\n \n\nRadstadt, peace . 6 March, \nRadstadt, congress . 9 I >ec. \n\nRatisbon, peace . 1 ; 1 let. \n\nRatisbon . . 1 Aug. \n\nReicheubach, t treaties . June, \nReligion, peace of \nRhine, confederation . 1 Aug. \nI Ryswick, peace . \n\n3 R \n\n\n\n1576 \n\n1631 \n\n1797 \n1668 \n\n1829 \n\n1831 \n1839 \n\n1840 \n\n1852 \n867 \n\n629 \n\n801 \n526 \n703 \n807 \n\n\n\n554 \n518 \n678 \n5i6 \n532 \n721 \n660 \n763 \n784 \n796 \n810 \n814 \n817 \n856 \n\n8.57 \n698 \n700 \n718 \n552 \n\n\n\n857 \n762 \n772 \n80s \n\n8.3 \n791 \n\n795 \n438 \n713 \n635 \n\n866 \n805 \nS81 \ni\' 1 \n659 \n718 \n7*4 \n797 \n630 \n806 \n813 \n555 \n806 \n697 \n\n\n\n\n\nTEEBIA. \n\n\n978 \n\n\n\n\n\n\nTRIALS. \n\n\n\n\nSt. Cloud, convention 3 July, \n\n\n1815 \n\n\nToplitz \n\n\n9 Sept. \n\n\n1813 \n\n\nVienna (Austria & Great Britain, \n\n\n\n\nSt. Germains, peace \n\n\n\n\n1570 \n\n\nTriple alliance \n\n\n. 28 Jan. \n\n\n1668 \n\n\ncommercial) . .16 Dec. \n\n\n1865 \n\n\nSt. Germain-en-Laye \n\n\npeace \n\n\n\n\nTriple alliance . \n\n\n4 Jan. \n\n\n1717 \n\n\nVienna (peace between Austria \n\n\n\n\n\n\n20 June, \n\n\n1679 \n\n\nTriple alliance. (Austria, Ger- \n\n\n\n\nand Italy) . . 3 Oct. \n\n\n1866 \n\n\nSt. Ildefonzo, alliance 19 Aug. \n\n\n1796 \n\n\nmany, and Italy), \n\n\n13 March, \n\n\n\n\nVilla Franca (prelim.) 12 July, \n\n\n18591 \n\n\nSan Stefano (peace between Rus- \n\n\n\n\n1887 \n\n\n28 June, \n\n\n1891 \n\n\nVossem, peace . .16 Jan. \n\n\n1673. \n\n\nsia & Turkey), see \n\n\nBerlin \n\n\n\n\nTroppeau, congress \n\n\n. 20 Oct. \n\n\n1820 \n\n\nWarsaw, alliance . 31 March, \n\n\n1683 \n\n\n\n\n3 March, \n\n\n1878 \n\n\nTroyes \n\n\n21 May, \n\n\n1420 \n\n\nWarsaw . . . .24 Feb. \n\n\n1768; \n\n\nSiorod, peace \n\n\n\n\n1613 \n\n\nTurin (cession of Savoy and \n\n\n\n\nWashington, reciprocity treaty \n\n\n\n\nSistowa, peace . \n\n\n. 4 Aug. \n\n\n1791 \n\n\nNice) . \n\n\n24 March, \n\n\ni860 \n\n\nbetween Great Britain and the \n\n\n\n\nSmalcald, league . \n\n\n31 Dec. \n\n\n1529 \n\n\nTurkmauchay, peace \n\n\n22 Feb. \n\n\n1828 \n\n\nUnited States, respecting New- \n\n\n\n\nSpain, pacification \n\n\n. 22 April, \n\n\n1834 \n\n\nUlm, peace \n\n\n3 July, \n\n\n1620 \n\n\nfoundland fishery, commerce, \n\n\n\n\nSpain, convention, \n\n\nsatisfying \n\n\n\n\nUnkiarskelessi \n\n\n. 8 July, \n\n\n1833 \n\n\n&c. ... 2 July, \n\n\n1854 \n\n\nBritish claims . \n\n\n. 26 June, \n\n\n1828 \n\n\nUtrecht, union \n\n\n22 Jau. \n\n\nJ 579 \n\n\nWashington (settling Alabama \n\n\n\n\nStettin, peace \n\n\n13 Dec. \n\n\n1570 \n\n\nUtrecht, peace \n\n\n11 April, \n\n\n1713 \n\n\nclaims, &c.) . 8 May, \n\n\n1871 \n\n\nStockholm, peace \n\n\n. 20 Nov. \n\n\n1 719 \n\n\nValencay . \n\n\n8 Dec. \n\n\n1813 \n\n\nWashington (Fishery dispute), \n\n\n\n\nStockholm \n\n\n24 March, \n\n\n1724 \n\n\nVerona, congress. \n\n\n. 25 Aug. \n\n\n1822 \n\n\n15 Feb. \n\n\n1888 \n\n\nStockholm . \n\n\n. 3 March, \n\n\n1813 \n\n\nVersailles, peace \n\n\n20 Jan. \n\n\n1783 \n\n\nWestminster, peace . 19 Feb. \n\n\n1674 \n\n\nStockholm, treaty \n\n\nof (Sweden \n\n\n\n\nVienna \n\n\n30 April, \n\n\ni7 2 5 \n\n\nWestminster (with Holland) \n\n\n1716 \n\n\nand allies) \n\n\n. 21 Nov. \n\n\n1856 \n\n\nVienna, alliance \n\n\n16 March, \n\n\nI73i \n\n\nWestphalia, peace . 24 Oct. \n\n\n1648. \n\n\nSuncion . \n\n\n15 July, \n\n\n1852 \n\n\nVienna peace \n\n\n. 18 Nov. \n\n\n1738 \n\n\nWilna, treaty of . . . \n\n\n15611 \n\n\nTemeswar, truce \n\n\n7 Sept. \n\n\n1664 \n\n\nVienna, peace . \n\n\n14 Oct. \n\n\n1809 \n\n\nWurms, edict of \n\n\n1521 \n\n\nTeschen, peace \n\n\n12 May, \n\n\n1779 \n\n\nVienna, convention \n\n\n28 Sept. \n\n\n1814 \n\n\nWurtzburg league . . . . \n\n\n1610 \n\n\nTeusin, peace \n\n\n. 18 May, \n\n\n*S95 \n\n\nVienna, 25 March ; 3 \n\n\nMay; \n\n\n\n\nZurich, convention- . 20 May, \n\n\n1815 \n\n\nTien-Tsin, China, peace 26 June, \n\n\n\n\n\n\n9 June, \n\n\n1815 \n\n\nZurich (Austria, France, and \n\n\n\n\n1858; . . \n\n\n11 May, \n\n\n1884 \n\n\nVienna (Austria and \n\n\nPrussia), \n\n\n\n\nSardinia) . . 10 Nov. \n\n\n1859, \n\n\nTilsit, peace \n\n\n. 7 July, \n\n\n1807 \n\n\ncommercial \n\n\n. 19 Feb. \n\n\n1853 \n\n\n\n\n\n\nTolentino \n\n\n. 19 Feb. \n\n\n1793 \n\n\nVienna \n\n\n30 Oct. \n\n\n1864 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nTREBIA, now Trebbia, a river in North Italy, \nnear which Hannibal defeated the Roman consul \nSempronius, 218 B.C. ; and Suvarrow, after a \nstruggle, defeated the French marshal Macdonald \nand compelled him to retreat, 17-19 June, 1799. \n\nTREBIZOND, a port of Asia Minor in the \nBlack Sea, was colonised by the Greeks, and became \nsubject to the kings of Pontus. It enjoyed self- \ngovernment under the Soman empire, and when \nthe Latins took Constantinople in 1204, it became \nthe seat of an empire which endured till 1461, \nwhen it was conquered by the Turks under Ma- \nhomet I. Population in 1885, 45,000. \n\n\n\n1204. \n\n\nAlexis I. Comnenus. \n\n\n1332. \n\n\nManuel IT. \n\n\n1222. \n\n\nAndronicus I. \n\n\n\n\nBasil. \n\n\n1235- \n\n\nJohn I. \n\n\n1340. \n\n\nIrene. \n\n\nI238. \n\n\nManuel I., great cap- \n\n\n1341. \n\n\nAnna. \n\n\n\n\ntain. \n\n\nI 343- \n\n\nJohn III. \n\n\nI263. \n\n\nAndronicus II. \n\n\n1344- \n\n\nMichael. \n\n\nI266. \n\n\nGeorge. \n\n\n1349- \n\n\nAlexis III. \n\n\n1280. \n\n\nJohn II. \n\n\n1390. \n\n\nManuel III. \n\n\nI285. \n\n\nTheodora. \n\n\n1417. \n\n\nAlexis IV. \n\n\n,, \n\n\nJohn II. \n\n\n1446. \n\n\nJohn IV. (Calo-Jo \n\n\nI297. \n\n\nAlexis II. \n\n\n\n\nannes). \n\n\n133\xc2\xb0- \n\n\nAndronicus III. \n\n\n1458- \n\n\n61. David. \n\n\n\nTRECENTO, see Italian. \n\nTREES in London. Many were planted by \nJohn Evelyn in the Mall, St. James\'s, &c. He re- \ncommended this in his " Fumifugium," published \n1661. The planting of rows of trees in suburban \nroads began in 1875. \n\nTrees of Liberty were planted in Paris and other parts \nof France during the revolutionary eras, 1790 and \n1848. These trees were cut down in Paris in\' Jan. \n1850, when riots ensued, put down by the military. \n\nThe celebrated tree Fcvricr, planted "in 1789 near the \nNational Library, Paris, was felled early in 1884. \n\nTRENT (the ancient Tridentum), in the Tyrol, \nbelongs to Austria. The council held here is \nreckoned in the Eoman catholic church as the 18th \ngeneral council. Its decisions have been implicitly \nreceived as the standard of faith, morals, and disci- \npline in that church. It first sat 13 Dec. 1545, \nand continued (with interruptions) under pope \nPaul III., Julius III., and Pius IV. to 4 Dec. 1563 ; \nits last sitting (the 25th). A jubilee in relation to \nthis council was celebrated in June, 1863. Trent was \nseveral times taken during the French war. Popu- \nlation, 1890, 21,653. \n\n\n\nAt this council was decreed, with anathemas : th& \ncanon of scripture (including the apocrypha), and the; \nchurch its sole interpreter ; the traditions to be equal \nwith scripture ; the seven sacraments (baptism, con- \nfirmation, the Lord\'s supper, penance, extreme unction, \norders, and matrimony) ; transubstantiation ; purgatory - \nindulgences ; celibacy of the clergy ; auricular confes- \nsion, &c. \n\nTRENT STEAMER, see United States, Not.- \nDec. 1861. \n\nTREVECCA, see Cheshunt. \n\nTREVES, or TRIER, the Eoman Treviri, ir* \nRhenish Prussia, Avas a prosperous city of the Gauls \n12 B.C. The emperor Gallienus held his court here \nA.D. 255. The church of St. Simeon dates from the \n4th century. Treves was made an electorate in the \n14th century, and became subject to the archbishop \n1111585. Councils held here, 385-1423. The arch- \nbishopric is said to have been founded before the \n7th century and to be the oldest in Germany, \nAfter various changes, Treves was acquired by \nPrussia, June 18 15. In 1844 much excitement was \noccasioned by miracles said to have been wrought \nby a " Holy Coat " in the cathedral. The coat was- \nexhibited to thousands, Aug., Sept. 1891. Popula- \ntion, 1890, 36,162. \n\n" TRIA JUNCTA IN UNO" (three joined \nin one), the motto of the knights of the military \norder of the Bath, signifying "faith, hope, and \ncharity ;" see Bath. \n\nTRIAL AT BAR, signifies by the whole court \nor a plurality of judges. This plan was adopted at \nBristol after the riots in 1832 ; also at O\'Connell\'s \ntrial, 1844 i anu arranged for the trial of the \nclaimant of the Tichborne estates for perjury, m \nApril, 1873. See Juries. \n\nTRIALS. Regulations for conducting trials \nwere made by Lothaire and Edric, kings of Kent, \nabout 673 to 680. Alfred the Great is said to have \nbegun trial by jury ; but there is good evidence of \nsuch trials before his time. Arrangements were \nmade for more speedy trials by " the "Winter As- \nsizes Act,\'\' 1876. See Appeal. \n\nREMARKABLE TRIALS. \n\nKing Charles I. : 20 Jan. ; condemned . 27 Jan. 1649 \nOates\'s Popish Plot: Edward Coleman, convicted, \n\n27 Nov. ; Wm. Ireland and other priests 17 Dec. 1678 \nBobt. Green and others, 10 Feb. ; Thos. Whit- \nbread and other Jesuits, 13 June ; Richard \nLanghome, counsellor, 14 June ; convicted . . 1679 \n\n\n\nTEIALS. \n\nSir George Wakeman, the queen\'s physician ; ac- \n\nfr> quitted *"*. . . , . . 13 July, 1679 \n\nViscount Stafford : convicted . 30 Nov. -7 Dec. 1681 \n\nBye House Plot : convicted ; William lord Russell, \n13 July; Algernon Sidney ... 21 Nov. 1683 \n\nThe Seven Bishops ; acquitted . . 29 June, 1688 \n\nCaptain Porteous, for murder, seePorteo\xc2\xabs,22 June, 1736 \n\nJenny Diver, for felony, executed . 18 March, 1740 \n\nWilliam Duell, executed for murder at Tyburn, but \nwho came to life when about undergoing dissec- \ntion at Surgeons\' Hall ... 24 Nov. ,, \n\nLords Kilmarnock and Balmerino for high treason \n\n28 July, 1746 \n\nMary Hamilton, for marrying with her own sex, 14 \nwives 7 Oct. ,, \n\nLord Lovatt, 80 years of age, for high treason ; \nbeheaded 9 March, 1747 \n\nFreney, the celebrated Irish robber, who surren- \ndered himself 9 July, 1749 \n\nAmy Hutchinson, burnt at Ely, for the murder of \nher husband 5 Nov. 1750 \n\nMiss Blandy, the murder of her father (hanged) \n\n3 March, 1752 \n\nAnn Williams, for the murder of her husband, \nburnt alive 11 April, 1753 \n\nEugene Aram, for murder at York ; executed \n\n13 Aug. 1759 \n\nEarl Ferrers, for the murder of his steward ; exe- \ncuted 16 April, 1760 \n\nMr. MacNaughten, at Strabane, for the murder of \nMiss Knox 8 Dec. 1761 \n\nAnn Bedingfield, for the murder of her husband; \nburnt alive 6 April, 1763 \n\nMr. Wilkes, alderman of London, for an obscene \npoem (" Essay on Woman ") . . 21 Feb. 1764 \n\nMurderers of captain Glas, his wife, daughter, \nmate, and passengers, on board the ship Earl of \nSandwich, at sea .... 3 March, 1766 \n\nElizabeth Brownrigg, for the murder of one of her \nfemale apprentices ; hanged . . 12 Sept. 1767 \n\nLord Baltimore, the libertine, and his female accom- \nplices, for rape .... 28 March, 1768 \n\nGreat cause between the families of Hamilton and \nDouglas 27 Feb. 1769 \n\nGreat Valencia cause in the house of peers, in Ireland \n\n18 March, 1772 \n\nCause of Somerset the slave (see Slavery) 22 June ,, \n\nElizabeth Herring, for the murder of her husband ; \nhanged, and afterwards burnt at Tyburn 13 Sept. 1773 \n\nMessrs. Perreau brothers, bankers, forgery ; hanged \n\n17 Jan. 1776 \n\nDuchess of Kingston, for marrying two husbands ; \nguilty (see Kingston) . . . .15 April, ,, \n\nDr. Dodd, for forging a bond of 4200?. in the name \nof the earl of Chesterfield, 22 Feb. (see Forgery ;) \nexecuted 27 June, 1777 \n\nAdmiral Keppel, by court-martial ; honourably ac- \nquitted 11 Feb. 1779 \n\nMr. Hackman, for the murder of Miss Reay, when \ncoming out of the theatre-royal, Covent-garden \n\n16 April, ,, \n\nLord George Gordon, on a charge of high treason ; \nacquitted 5 Feb. 1781 \n\nMr. Woodfall, the celebrated printer, for a libel on \nlord Loughborough, afterwards lord chancellor \n\n10 Nov. 1786 \n\nLord George Gordon, for a libel on the queen of \nFrance ; guilty 28 Jan. 1788 \n\nMr. Warren Hastings : a trial which lasted seven \nyears and three months (see Hastings, Trial of), \ncommenced 13 Feb. ,, \n\nThe printer of the Times newspaper, for libels on \nthe prince of Wales, and dukes of York and Cla- \nrence ; fined 200?. and imprisoned one year, 3 Feb. 1790 \n\nRenwiek Williams, called the Monster, for stabbing \nwomen in London 8 July, ,, \n\nBarrington, the pickpocket, most extraordinary \nadept ; transported . . . .22 Sept. ,, \n\nThomas Paine, political writer and deist, fur libels \nin the Bights of Man; guilty . . . 18 Dec. 1792 \n\nLouis XVI. of France (see France) . . . 1792-3 \n\nArchibald Bamilton Rowan, for libel; imprisoned \nand fined 29 Jan. 1794 \n\nMr. Purefoy, for the murder of colonel Roper in a \nduel : acquitted 14 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMr. Robert Watt and Downie, at Edinburgh, for \ntreason 3 Sept. \n\n\n\n979 \n\n\n\nTEIALS. \n\n\n\nMessrs. Hardy, Home Tooke, Thelwall, and Joyce, \nfor high treason ; acquitted . . 29 Oct. 1794 \n\nEarl of Abingdon, for his libel on Mr. Serman ; \nguilty 6 Dec. ,, \n\nMajor Semple, alias Lisle, for felony . 18 Feb. 179; \n\nRedhead Yorke, at York, libel . . .27 Nov. ,, \' \n\nLord Westmeath v. Bradshaw, for crim. con. ; dam- \nages, 10,000? 4 March, 1796 \n\nLord Valentia v. Mr. Gawler, for adultery, damages, ,. \n2000? 16 June, ,, \n\nDaniel Isaac Eaton, for libels on kingly government ; \nguilty 8 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSir Godfrey Webster v. lord Holland, for adultery ; \ndamages, 6000I 27 Feb. 1797 \n\nParker, the mutineer at the Nore, called admiral \nParker (see Mutinies) . . . 27 June, ,, \n\nBoddington v. Boddington, for crim. con. ; damages, \n10,000?. ....... 5 Sept. ,, \n\nWilliam Orr at Carrickfergus, for high treason ; \nexecuted 12 Oct. ,, \n\nMrs. Phepoe, alias Benson, murderess . 9 Dec. ,, \n\nThe murderers of col. St. George and Mr. Uniacke, \nat Cork 15 April, 1798 \n\nArthur O\'Conner and O\'Coigley, at Maidstone, for \ntreason; latter hanged .... 21 May, ,, \n\nSir Edward Crosbie and others for high treason ; \nhanged 1 June, ,, \n\nBeauchamp Bagenal Harvey, at Wexford, for high \ntreason 21 June, ,, \n\nTwo Messrs. Sheares, at Dublin, for high treason ; \nexecuted 12 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTheobald Woulffe Tone, by court-martial (he com- \nmitted suicide, died on the 19th) . 10 Nov. ,, \n\nSir Harry Brown Hayes, for carrying off Miss Pike \nof Cork 13 April, 1800 \n\nHatfield, for shooting at George HI. ; see Hatfield \n\n26 June, ,, \n\nMr. Tighe of Westmeath v. Jones, for crim. con. ; \ndamages, 10,000? 2 Dec. ,, \n\nMutineers at Bantry Bay, hanged ; see Bantry Bay \n\n8 Jan. 1802 \n\nGovernor Wall, for cruelty and murder, twenty years \nbefore (tried under 33 Hen. VIII. c. 23) (see Goree) \n\n20 Jan. , , \n\nCrawley, for the murder of two females in Peter\'s- \nrow, Dublin 6 March, ,, \n\nColonel Despard and his associates, for high treason ; \nhanged on the top of Horsemonger-lane gaol (see \nDespard) .7 Feb. 1803 \n\nM. Peltier, for libel on Bonaparte, first consul of \nFrance, in VAmbigue : guilty . . 21 Feb. ,, \n\nRobert Aslett, cashier at the bank of England, for \nembezzlement and frauds ; the loss to the bank, \n320,000?. ; found not guilty, on account of the in- \nvalidity of the bills .... 18 July, ,, \n\nRobert Emmett, at Dublin, for high treason ; exe- \ncuted next day 19 Sept. ,, \n\nKeenan, one of the murderers of lord Kilwarden ; \nhanged 2 Oct. ,, \n\nMr. Smith for the murder of the supposed Hammer- \nsmith Ghost 13 Jan. 1S04 \n\nLockhart and Laudon Gordon for carrying off Mrs. \nLee 6 March. \n\nRev. C. Massy v. marquis of Headfort, for crim. \ncon. ; damages, 10,000?. ... 27 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nWilliam Cooper, the Hackney Monster, for offences \nagainst females 17 April, 1805 \n\nGeneral Pieton, for applying the torture to Louisa \nCalderon, to extort confession, at Trinidad, tried \n(under 42 Geo. III. e. 85) in the court of King\'s \nBench ; guilty [new trial, same verdict, 11 June, \n1808] 24 Feb. 1806 \n\nMr. Patch, for the murder of his partner, Mr. \nBligh 6 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLord .Melville, impeached by the house of com- \nmons ; acquitted .... 12 June, ,, \n\nHamilton Rowan, in Dublin: pleaded the King\'s \npardon 1 July, ,, \n\nThe Warrington gang, for unnatural offences : \nexecuted S3 Aug. \n\nPalm, the bookseller, by a French military com- \nmission at Brennau .... 26 Aug. ,, \n\nJudge Johnson, lev a libel on the earl of Bard \nwicke ; guilty 23 Nov. ,, \n\nLord Cloncurryy. Sir John B. Piers, for 1 \ndamages, 20.000? ig Feb. 1807 \n\nHolloway and Haggerty, the murderers of Mr. \n\n3 R 2 \n\n\n\nTEIALS. \n\n\n\n980 \n\n\n\nTEIALS. \n\n\n\nSteele ; thirty persons were crushed to death at \ntheir execution, at the Old Bailey . 20 Feb. 1807 \n\nSir Home Popham, by court-martial ; repri- \nmanded- 7 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nKnight v. Dr. Wolcot, alias Peter Pindar, for crim. \ncon 27 June, ,, \n\nLieut. Berry, of H.M.S. Hazard; for an unnatural \noffence ....... 2 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLord Elgin v. Ferguson, for crim. con. ; damages, \nio,oooi. ...... 22 Dec. ,. \n\nSimmons, the murderer of the Boreham family, at \nHoddesdon 4 March, 1808 \n\nSir Arthur Paget, for crim. con. with Lady Bor- \nrington 14 July, ,. \n\nMajor Campbell, for killing Captain Boyd in a duel ; \nhanged . . . . . . 4 Aug. ,, \n\nPeter Finnerty and others, for a libel on the duke \nof York 9 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe duke of York, by inquiry in the house of \ncommons, on charges preferred against him by \ncolonel "VVardle, from 26 Jan. to 20 March . . 1809 \n\nWellesley v. Lord Paget, for crim. con. ; damages, \n20,000? 12 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe king v. Valentine Jones, for breach of duty as \ncommissary-general .... 26 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nWright v. colonel Wardle, for Mrs. Mary Ann \nClarke\'s furniture . . . . 1 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe earl of Leicester v. Morning Herald, for a libel; \ndamages 1000Z 29 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n"William Cobbett, for a libel on the German legion ; \nconvicted 9 July, ,, \n\nHon. captain Lake, for putting Robert Jeffery, a \nBritish seaman, on shore at Sombrero ; dismissed \nthe service (see Sombrero) ... 10 Feb. 1810 \n\nMr. Perry for libels in the Morning Chronicle ; ac- \n- quitted 24 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Vere-street gang, for unnatural offences; \nguilty 20 Sept. , , \n\nPeter Finnerty, for a libel on lord Castlereagh ; \n\n31 Jan. 1811 \n\nThe king v. Messrs. John and Leigh Hunt, for \nlibels ; guilty 22 Feb. ,, \n\nEnsign Hepburn, and White the drummer ; both \nwere executed 7 March, ,, \n\nWalter Cox, in Dublin, for libels ; he stood in the \npillory 12 March, ,, \n\nThe king v. W. Cobbett, for libels ; convicted \n\n15 June, ,, \n\nLord Louth, in Dublin ; sentenced to imprison- \nment and fine, for oppressive conduct as a ma- \ngistrate .19 June, ,, \n\nThe Berkeley cause, before the house of peers, \nconcluded 28 June, ,, \n\nDr. Sheridan, physician, on a charge of sedition ; \nacquitted 21 Nov. ,, \n\nGale Jones, for seditious and blasphemous libels ; \nconvicted 26 Nov. ,, \n\nWilliam Cundell and John Smith, for high treason \n(see High Treason) .... 6 Feb. 1812 \n\nDaniel Isaac Eaton, on a charge of blasphemy ; \nconvicted . . . . . . 6 March, ,, \n\nBellingham, for the murder of Mr. Perceval, prime \nminister 15 May, ,, \n\nThe king v. Mr. Lovell, of the Statesman, for \nlibel ; guilty . . . . 19 Nov. , \n\nMessrs. John and Leigh Hunt, for libels in the \nExaminer; convicted .... 9 Dec. ,, \n\nMarquis of Sligo, for concealing a sea-deserter \n\n16 Dec. ,, \n\nThe murderers of Mr. Horsfall ; at York ; exe- \ncuted 7 Jan. 1813 \n\nMr. Hugh Fitzpatrick, for publishing Scully\'s His- \ntory of the Penal Laws .... 6 Feb. ,, \n\nThe divorce cause against the duke of Hamilton \nfor. adultery 11 April, ,, \n\nMr. John Magee, in Dublin, for libels in the Even- \ning Post; guilty \'26 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNicholson, the murderer of Mr. and Mrs. Bonar ; \nhanged 21 Aug. ,, \n\nTuite, murder of Mr. Goulding ; executed 7 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe celebrated Mary Ann Clark, for a libel on the \nright lion. Win. Vesey Fitzgerald, afterwards lord \nFitzgerald 7 Feb. 1814 \n\nLord Cochrane, Cochrane Johnstone, Berenger, \nButt, and others, lor frauds in the public funds, \n22 Feb. ; convicted (see Sturls) . 8, 9 June, ,, \n\nAdmiral Bradley, at Winchester, for frauds in ship \nletters 18 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nColonel Quentin, of the 10th Hussars, by court- \nmartial 1 Nov. 1814 \n\nSir John Henry Mildmay, bart., for crim. con. \nwith the countess of Rosebery ; damages, \ni5,oooZ 5 Dec - 11 \n\nGeorge Barnett, for shooting at Miss Kelly, of \nCovent Garden theatre ... 8 April, 1816 \n\nCaptain Hutchinson, sir Robert Wilson, and Mr. \nBruce, in Paris, for aiding the escape of count \nLavalette (see Lavalette) ... 24 April, ,, \n\n" Captain Grant," the famous Irish robber at Mary- \nborough 16 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nVaughan, a police officer, Mackay, and Browne, for \nconspiracy to induce men to commit felonies to \nobtain the reward ; convicted . . 21 Aug. ,, \n\nColonel Stanhope, by court-martial, at Cambray, \nin France 23 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCashman, a seaman, for the Spaflelds riots and \noutrages on Snowhill ; convicted and hanged (see \nSpafields) 20 Jan. 18 17 \n\nCount Maubreuil, at Paris, for robbing the queen \nof Westphalia 2 May, ,, \n\nMr. R. J. Butt, for a libel on lord chief-justice \nEllenborough 23 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMr. Wooler, for libels on the government and \nministers 6 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThistlewood, Dr. Watson, Hooper, and others, for \ntreason 9 June, ,, \n\nThe murderers of the Lynch family at Wildgoose-\' \nlodge, Ireland 19 July, ,, \n\nMr. Roger O\'Connor, on a charge of robbing the \nmail ; acquitted 5 Aug. ,, \n\nBrandreth, Turner, and others, at Derby, for high \ntreason 15 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nHone, the bookseller, for parodies ; three trials \nbefore Lord Ellenborough : extemporaneous and \nsuccessful defence ... 18, 19, 20 Dec. ,, \n\nMr. Dick, for abduction and rape of Miss Crockatt \n\n21 March. 1818 \n\nAppeal of murder case ; Ashford, the brother of Mary \nAshford, against Abraham Thornton, accused \nof her murder (see Appeal) and acquitted 16 April, ,, \n\nRev. Dr. O\'Halloran, for forging a frank (see Trans- \nportation) . . ... . . 9 Sept. , , \n\nRobert Johnston, at Edinburgh ; his dreadful exe- \ncution 30 Dec. ,, \n\nSir Manasseh Lopez, for bribery at Grampound \n(see Bribery) 18 March, 1819 \n\nMosely, Woolfe, and other merchants, for conspiracy \nand fraud 20 April, ,, \n\nCarlile, for the publication of Paine\'s Age of \nReason, &c. . . . . . . 15 Oct. ,, \n\nJohn Scanlan, at Limerick, for murder of Ellen \nHanly 14 March, 1820 \n\nSir Francis Burdett, at Leicester, for a seditious \nlibel 23 March, ,, \n\nHenry Hunt, and others, for their conduct at the \nManchester meeting ; convicted (see Manchester \nReform Meeting) .... 27 March, ,, \n\nSir Charles Wolseley and rev. Mr. Harrison, for \nsedition ; guilty .... 10 April, ,, \n\nThistlewood, Ings, Brunt, Davidson, and Tidd, for \nconspiracy to murder the king\'s ministers ; com- \nmenced (see Cato-street) ... 17 April, ,, \n\nLouvel, in France, for the murder of the duke de \nBerri 7 June, \n\nLord Glerawley v. John Burn, for crim. con. \n\n18 June, ,, \n\nMajor Cartwright and others at Warwick, for sedi- \ntion 3 Aug. ,, \n\n"Little Waddington," for a seditious libel; ac- \nquitted 19 Sept. ,, \n\nLieutenant-colonel French, 6th dragoon guards, by \ncourt-martial 19 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCaroline, queen of England, before the house of \nlords, for adultery, commenced 16 Aug. ; it ter- \nminated (see Queen Caroline\'s Trial) . 10 Nov. ,, \n\nThe female murderers of Miss Thompson, in \nDublin: hanged 1 May, 1821 \n\nDavid Haggart, an extraordinary robber, and a man \nof singularly eventful life, at Edinburgh, for the \nmurder of a turnkey .... 9 June, ,, \n\nSamuel D. Hayward, the favourite man of fashion, \nfor burglary 8 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe murderers of Mrs. Torrance, in Ireland, con- \nvicted and hanged . . . . 17 Dec. ,, \n\nCussen, Leahy, and others, for the abduction of \nMiss Gould. 29 July, 1822 \n\n\n\nTEIALS. \n\n\n\n9S1 \n\n\n\nTRIALS. \n\n\n\nBarthelerai, in Paris, for the abduction of Elizabeth \n\nFlorence 23 Sept. 1822 \n\nCuthbert v. Browne, singular action for deceit \n\n28 Jan. 1823 \nThe famous " Bottle Conspirators," in Ireland, by \n\nex-officio 23 Feb. ,, \n\nThe extraordinary "earl of Portsmouth\'s case" \n\ncommenced 18 March, ,, \n\nProbert, Hunt, and Thurtell, murderers of Mr. \nWeare ; Probert turned king\'s evidence ; after- \nwards hanged for horse-stealing (see Executions) \n\n5 Jan. 1824 \n\nMr. Henry Fauntleroy, banker of London, for for- \ngery ; hanged . . . . \xc2\xbb. 30 Oct. ,, \n\nFoote v. Hayne, for breach of promise of mar- \nriage ; damages, 3000Z. ... 22 Dec. \n\nMr. Henry Savary, a banker\'s son at Bristol, for \nforgery 4 April, 1825 \n\nO\'Keefe and Bourke, murderers of the Franks \nfamily . 18 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe case of Mr. Wellesley Pole, and the Misses \nLong; commenced .... 9 Nov. ,, \n\nCaptain Bligh v. the lion. Win. Wellesley Pole, for \nadultery 25 Nov. ,, \n\nFisher v. Stockdale, for libel in Harriette Wilson \n\n20 March, 1826 \n\nEdward Gibbon Wakefield, and others, for abduc- \ntion of Miss Turner ... 24 March, 1827 \n\nRev. Robert Taylor for blasphemy ; found guilty \n\n24 Oct. ,, \n\nRichard Gillan, for the murder of Maria Bagster, \nat Taunton 8 April, 1828 \n\nMr. Montgomery, for forgery ; he committed suicide \nin prison on the morning appointed for his exe- \ncution 4 July, ,, \n\nBrinklett, for the death of lord Mount Sandford \nby a kick ... . . 16 July, \n\nWilliam Corder, for murder of Maria Marten ; exe- \ncuted ... . 6 Aug. ,, \n\nJoseph Hunton, a quaker merchant, for forgery ; \nhanged 28 Oct. ,, \n\nBurke, at Edinburgh, for the Burking murders ; \nHare, his accomplice, became approver (see \nBurking) 24 Dec. ,, \n\nThe king v. Buxton, and others, for fraudulent \nmarriage 21 March, 1829 \n\nJonathan Martin, for setting fire to York minster \n\n31 March, ,, \n\nStewart and his wife, noted murderers, at Glasgow ; \nhanged 14 July, ,, \n\nReinbauer, the Bavarian priest, for murders of \nwomen . 4 Aug. , , \n\nCaptain Dickenson, by court-martial, at Ports- \nmouth ; acquitted .... 26 Aug. ,, \n\nMr. Alexander, editor of the Morning Journal, for \nlibels on the duke of Wellington; convicted 10 Feb. 1830 \n\nClune, &c, at Eimis, lor cutting out the tongues of \nthe Doyles 4 March, ,, \n\nMr. Comyn, for burning his house in the county of \nClare; hanged 6 March, ,, \n\nMr. Lambrecht, for murder of Mr. Clayton in a \nduel 2 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCaptain Moir, for murder of William Malcolm ; \nhanged 30 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCaptains Smith and Markham, for killing Mr. \nO\'Grady in a duel .... 24 Aug. ,, \n\nCaptain Helsham, for murder of lieut. Crowther in \na duel 8 Oct. ,, \n\nMr. St. John Long, for manslaughter of Miss \nCashin (see Quacks) .... 30 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPolignac, Peyronnet, and others, ministers of \nFrance (see France) .... 21 Dec. ,, \n\nCarlile, for a seditious libel, inciting to a riot ; \nguilty 10 Jan. 1831 \n\nMr. D. O\'Connell, for breach of proclamation; \npleaded guilty 12 Pel 1. ,, \n\nSt. John Long, for manslaughter of Mrs. Lloyd (see \nQuacks) 19 Feb. ,, \n\nMajor Dundas, for the seduction of Miss Adams; \ndamages, 3000/.. ..... 26 May, ,, \n\nRev Robert Taylor (who obtained the revolting \ndistinction of " the Devil\'s Chaplain"), for reviling \nthe Redeemer : convicted . . . 6 July, ,, \n\nMr. Cobbett, for a seditious libel ; tin\' jury could \nnotagree 7 .July, ,, \n\nMr. and .Mrs. Deacle v. Mr. Bingham Baring, M.P. \n\n14 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nJohn Any Bird Bell, 14 years of age, for the murder \n\n\n\nof Richard Taylor, aged 13; hanged at Maidstone \n\n1 Aug. \n\nThe great cause, earl of Kingston v. lord Lorton ; \ncommenced g Nov. \n\nBishop and Williams, for murder of the Italian boy \n(see Burking) 3 Dec. \n\nEarl of Mar, in Scotland, for shooting at Mr. \nOldham 17 Dec. \n\nElizabeth Cooke, for murder of Mrs. Walsh, by \n"Burking" 6 Jan. \n\nColonel Brereton, by court-martial, at Bristol (see \nBristol) g Jan. \n\nThe murderers of Mr. Blood, of Applevale, county \nof Clare . . \' . . . . 28 Feb. \n\nWilliam Duggan, at Cork, for murder of his wife \nand others 26 March, \n\nMr. Hodgson (son of the celebrated Miss Aston) v. \nGreene 26 July, \n\nMayor of Bristol, for neglect of duty in the \nBristol riots 26 Oct. \n\nRev. Mr. Irving, by the Scots church, for heresy \n\n13 March, \n\nLord Teynham, and Dolan, a tailor, for swindling ; \nguilty 10 May, \n\nAttorney-general v. Shore (lady Hewley\'s charity, \nwhich is taken from the Unitarians) . 23 Dec. \n\nCaptain Wathen, 15th hussars, by court-martial, at \nCork ; honourably acquitted ; his colonel, lord \nBrudenell, cashiered .... Jan. \n\nProprietors of the True Sun, for libels; guilty, 6 Feb. \n\nMary Ann Burdock, the celebrated murderess, \nat Bristol 10 April, \n\nSir John de Beauvoir, for perjury ; acquitted, 29 May, \n\nFieschi, at Paris, for attempting the life of the \nking, Louis Philippe, by exploding an infernal \nmachine (see Fieschi) .... 30 Jan. \n\nHon. G. C. Norton v. lord Melbourne, in court of \nCommon Pleas, for crim. con. with the hon. Mrs. \nNorton ; verdict for defendant . . 22 June, \n\nLord de Roos v. dimming, for defamation, charg- \ning lord de Roos with cheating at cards ; verdict \nin favour of Mr. Cumming ... 10 Feb. \n\nJames Greenacre and Sarah Gale, for the murder of \nHannah Browne ; Greenacre convicted and \nhanged ; Gale transported . . 10 April, \n\nBolam, for murder of Mr. Millie ; verdict, man- \nslaughter 30 July, \n\nRev. Mr. Stephens, at Chester, for inflammatory \nlanguage 15 Aug. \n\nJohn Frost, an ex-magistrate, and others, for high \ntreason ; guilty: sentence commuted to transpor- \ntation (see Newport) .... 31 Dec. \n\nBenjamin Courvoisier, for murder of lord William \nRussell ; hanged .... 18-20 June, \n\nGould, for murder of Mr. Templeman ; transported \n\n22 June, \n\nEdward Oxford, attempted the life of the queen ; \nadjudged insane, and confined in Bethlehem (see \nOxford) 9, 10 July, \n\nMadame Lefarge, in France, for the murder of her \nhusband ; guilty ... .2 Sept. \n\nPrince Louis Napoleon, for his descent upon Prance \n(see Fro nee) 6 Oct. \n\nCaptain J. W. Reynolds, nth huss.\'irs. by court- \nmartial; guilty : the sentence excited great popu- \nlar displeasure against his colonel, lord Cardigan \n\n20 Oct. \n\nLord Cardigan before the house of peers, capitally \ncharged for wounding captain Harvey Tucket in \n\na duel ; acquitted .... 16 Feb. \n\nThe Wallaces, brothers, merchants, for having wil- \nfully caused the destruction of the ship Dryad at \nsea, to defraud the underwriters; transported \n\n1 March, \n\nJosiah Mister, for attempting the life of Mr. \nMackreth ; guilty .... 23 March, \n\nBartholomew Murray, at Chester, for the murder of \nMrs. Cook 5 April, \n\nEarl of Waldegrave and captain Duff, tor an aj gi 1 \nvated ass;mlt on a police eoustable ; guilty : judg- \nment, six months\' imprisonment, and lines of \n200/.. and 20?. 3 May, \n\nMadame Lefarge again, for robbery of diamonds \n\n7 A.UK. \nThe great case, Allen Bogle V. Mr. Lawson, pub- \nlisher of the Times newspaper, for an alleged \nlibel, in stating the plaintitfto be connected with \n\nnumerous bank forgers throughout Europe in \n\n\n\n1834 \n\n\n\n1836 \n\n\n\n1S37 \n\n\n\n1S41 \n\n\n\nTEIALS. \n\n\n\n982 \n\n\n\nTEIALS. \n\n\n\ntheir schemes to defraud Messrs. Glyn and Com- \npany, bankers of London, by means of fictitious \nletters of credit : damages, one farthing. This \nexposure, so honourable to the Times, led to the \nTimes Testimonial . . . . 16 Aug. \n\nMr. MacLeod, at Utica, America, for taking part \nin the destruction of the Caroline, commenced : \nacquitted after a trial that lasted eight day?, 4 Oct. \n\nRobert Blakesley, for murder of Mr. Burdon, of \nEastcheap ; hanged . - . . . 28 Oct. \n\nMr. Beaumont Smith, for forgery of Exchequer \nbills to an immense amount ; he pleaded guilty, \nand was sentenced to transportation for life 4 Dec. \n\nSophia Darbon v. Rosser ; breach of promise of \nmarriage ; damages, 1600J. ... 8 Dec. \n\nMr. John Levick and Antonio Mattei, principal and \nsecond in the duel in which lieut. Adams was \nkilled at Malta : both acquitted . 10 March, \n\nVivier, courier of the Morning Herald, at Boulogne, \nfor conveying the Indian mail through France, \nfor that journal, contrary to the French regula- \ntions 13 April, \n\nDaniel Good, for murder of Jane Jones ; the Roe- \nhampton murder ; found guilty, and sentenced to \nbe hanged 13 May, \n\nJohn Francis, for attempting to assassinate the \nqueen (see Francis) .... 17 June, \n\nThomas Cooper, for the murder of Daly, the police- \nman ; hanged 4 July, \n\nNicholas Suisse, valet of the late marquis of Hert- \nford, at the prosecution of that nobleman\'s exe- \ncutors, charged with enormous frauds ; acquitted \n\n6 July, \n\nM\'Gill and others, for abduction of Miss Crellin ; \nguilty 8 Aug. \n\nNicholas Suisse again, upon like charges, and again \nacquitted 24 Aug. \n\nBean, for pointing a pistol at the queen : 18 months\' \nimprisonment ..... 25 Aug. \n\nThe rioters in the provinces, under a special com- \nmission, at Stafford 1 Oct. \n\nThe Cheshire rioters, under a special commission, \nbefore lord Abinger .... 6 Oct. \n\nThe Lancashire rioters, also under a special com- \nmission 10 Oct. \n\nAlice Lowe, at the prosecution of lord Frankfort ; \nacquitted 31 Oct. \n\nMr: Howard, attorney, v. sir William Gosset, ser- \njeant-at-arms 5 Dec. \n\nMr. Egan, in Dublin, for the robbery of a bank \nparcel ; acquitted . . . . 17 Jan. \n\nRev. W. Bailey, LL.D., for forgery; guilty : trans- \nportation for life 1 Feb. \n\nMac Naughten, for the murder of Mr. Drummond, \nsecretary to sir Robert Peel : acquitted on the \nground of insanity .... 4 March, \n\nThe Rebeccaites, at Cardiff, under a special com- \nmission 27 Oct. \n\nSamuel Sidney Smith, for forgery ; sentenced to \ntransportation for life ... 29 Nov. \n\nEdward Dwyer, for the murder of his child at \nSouthwark ; guilty . . . . 1 Dec. \n\nMr. Holt, of the Age ; libel on the duke of Bruns- \nwick ; guilty 29 Jan. \n\nLieut. Grant, second to lieut. Munro, in his duel \nwith col. Fawcett ; acquitted . . 14 Feb. \n\nFraser v. Bagley, for crim. con. ; verdict for the de- \nfendant 19 Feb. \n\nLord William Paget v. earl of Cardigan, for crim. \ncon. ; verdict for defendant . . 26 Feb. \n\nMary Furley, for the murder of her child in an \nagony of despair .... 16 April, \n\nThe will-forgers, William Henry Barber (since de- \nclared innocent), Joshua Fletcher, Georgiana \nDorey, William Saunders, and Susannah his wife : \nall found guilty, 15 April : sentenced 22 April, \n\n[In 1848 Mr. Barber returned to England with a \nfree pardon, and an acknowledgment of his inno- \ncence by his prosecutors : he was re-admitted to \npractise as an attorney ; and on the 3rd of \nAugust, 1859, ill conformity with the recom- \nmendation of a select committee of the house of \ncommons, the sum of 5000J. was voted him "as \na national acknowledgment of the wrong he had \nsuffered from an erroneous prosecution."] \n\nCrouch, for the murder of his wife ; found guilty, \n8 May ; hanged 27 May, \n\nMessrs. O\'Connell, sen., O\'Connell, jun., Steele, \n\n\n\n1843 \n\n\n\nRay, Barrett, Grey, Duffy, and rev. Thomas \nTierney, at Dublin, for political conspiracy : the \ntrial commenced 15 Jan., and lasted twenty-four \ndays : all the traversers were found guilty, 12 Feb. \nProceedings on motions for a new trial, &c, ex- \ntended the case into Easter term ; and sentence \nwas pronounced upon all but the clergyman, on \nwhom judgment was remitted . . 30 May, 1844 \n\nAugustus Dalmas, for the murder of Sarah Mac- \nfarlane ; guilty 14 June, ,, \n\nWm. Burton Newenham, for the abduction of Miss \nWortham ; guilty . . . . 17 June, ,, \n\nBellamy, for the murder of his wife by prussic \nacid; acquitted 21 Aug. ,, \n\nJohn Tawell, for murder of Sarah Hart ; hanged \n\n13, 14 March, 1845 \n\nThomas Henry Hocker, for murder of James De- \nlarue 11 April, ,, \n\nJoseph Connor, for murder of Mary Brothers, 16 May, , , \n\nThe Spanish pirates, for murder of ten Englishmen \nat sea ....... 26 July, ,, \n\nRev. Dr. Wetherall, for crim. con. with Mrs. Cooke, \nhis own daughter . . . . 16 Aug. ,, \n\nCaptain Johnson, of the ship Tory, for the murder \nof several of his crew .... 5 Feb. 1846 \n\nMiss M. A. Smith v. earl Ferrers ; breach of pro- \nmise of marriage 18 Feb. ,, \n\nLieut. Hawkey, for the murder of Mr. Seton, in a \nduel ; acquitted . . . . . 16 July, ,, \n\nRichard Dunn, for perjury and attempted fraud on \nMiss A. Burdett Coutts . . . 27 Feb. 1847 \n\nMitchell, the Irish confederate ; transported for 14 \nyears (see Ireland) .... 26 May, 1848 \n\nWm. Smith O\'Brien, Meagher, and other confede- \nrates, sentenced to death ; the sentence after- \nwards commuted to transportation (pardoned in \n1856) 9 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBloomfield Rush, for murder of Messrs. Jermy, at \nNorwich ; hanged .... 29 March, 1849 \n\nGorham v. the bishop of Exeter; ecclesiastical \ncase ; judgment given in the court of Arches \nagainst the plaintiff .... 2 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n[The bishop had refused to^institute the rev. Mr. \nGorham into the living of Brampton-Speke, in \nDevonshire, alleging want of orthodoxy in the \nplaintiff, who denied that spiritual regeneration \nwas conferred by baptism ; the court held that \nthe charge against the plaintiff of holding false \ndoctrine was proved, and that the bishop was \njustified in his refusal. Mr. Gorham appealed to \nthe Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, \nwhich pronounced its opinion (8 March, 1850) \nthat " the doctrine held by Mr. Gorham was not \ncontrary or repugnant to the declared doctrine of \nthe church of England, and that Mr. Gorham \nought not, by reason of the doctrine held by him, \nto have been refused admission to the vicarage of \nBrampton-Speke." This decision led to subse- \nquent proceedings in the three courts of law, suc- \ncessively, for a rule to show cause why a prohi- \nbition should not issue, directed to the judge of \nthe Arches court, and to the archbishop of Can- \nterbury, against giving effect to the judgment of \nher majesty in council. The rule was refused in \neach court, and in the end Mr. Gorham was insti- \ntuted into the vicarage in question, 7 Aug. 1850.] \n\nManning and his wife, for murder of O\'Connor ; \nguilty : death 27 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nWalter Watts, lessee of the Olympic theatre, for \nforgery, &c 10 May, 1850 \n\nRobert Pate, a retired lieutenant, for an assault on \nthe queen n July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Sloanes, man and wife, for starving their ser- \nvant, Jane Wilbred .... 5 Feb. 1851 \n\nThe Board of Customs v. the London Dock Com- \npany, on a charge of defrauding the revenue of \nduties ; a trial of 11 days ended in a virtual ac- \nquittal 18 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSarah Chesham, for murder of husband, by poison ; \nshe had murdered several of her children and \nothers by the same means ; hanged . 6 March, ,, \n\nThomas Drory, for the murder of Jael Denny: \nhanged 7 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDoyle v. Wright, concerning the personal custody \nof Miss Augusta Talbot, a Roman catholic ward, \nof chancery, before the lord chancellor : pro- \ntracted case 22 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nTEIALS. 983 \n\n\n\nTRIALS. \n\n\n\nThe murderers of the rev. George Edward Holiest, \n\nof Frimley, Surrey ; guilty . . 31 March, 1851 \nAchilli v. Newman, for libel ; tried before lord \nchief justice Campbell in the Queen\'s Bench : \nverdict for the plaintiff, Nov. 1851 ; . 31 Jan. 1852 \nMiller v. aid. Salomons, M.P., for voting as a mem- \nber without having taken the required oath ; ver- \ndict against the defendant . . 19 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe case " Bishop of London v. the rev. Mr. Glad- \nstone :" judgment of the Arches court against \n\nthe defendant 10 June, ,, \n\nLord Frankfort, for scandalous and defamatory \n\nlibels ; guilty 3 Dec. ,, \n\nRichard Bourke Kirwan, for the murder of his wife ; \n\nguilty 10 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nEliot Bower, for murder of Mr. Saville Morton, at \n\nParis ; acquitted 28 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nHenry Horler, for murder of his wife ; hanged at \n\nthe Old Bailey 15 Jan. 1853 \n\nJames Barbour, for murder of Robinson ; hanged \n\nat York 15 Jan. ,, \n\nGeorge Sparkes and James Hitchcock, for the mur- \nder of William Blackmore at Exeter ; guilty \n\n19 March, ,, \nFive Frenchmen (principal and seconds) for the \nmurder of a sixth Frenchman in a duel at Egham ; \nverdict, manslaughter ... 21 March, ,, \nMoore and Walsh, for the murder of John Black- \nburn, at Stafford ; hanged . . 21 March, ,, \nSaunders, for murder of Mr. Toler ; hanged at \n\nChelmsford 30 March, ,, \n\nThe Stackpole family, four in number ; two of them \nfemales, and wives to the others, for the murder \nof their relative, also a Stackpole ; hanged at \n\nEnnis 28 April, ,, \n\nCase of Holy Cross Hospital, Winchester, decided \n\nagainst rev. earl of Guildford . 1 Aug. ,, \n\nSmyth v. Smyth, ended in the plaintiff being com- \nmitted on a charge of forging the will on which \nhe grounded his claim . . 8, 9, 10 Aug. ,, \nThe Braintree case respecting liability to church- \nrates, decided by the house of lords, against the \n\nrate 12 Aug. ,, \n\nCase of Lumley v. Gye, respecting Madlle. Wagner ; \n\ndecided 22 Feb. 1854 \n\nMr. Jeremiah Smith, mayor of Rye, convicted of \n\nperjury 2 March, ,, \n\nDuchess of Manchester\'s will case . . April, ,, \nMr. Garden, for abduction of Miss E. Arbuthnot, \nand assault upon John Sniithwick ; convicted \n\n28, 29 July, ,, \nMary Anne Brough, for murdering her six children; \n\nnot guilty (insanity) .... 9 Aug. ,, \nCase of Pierce Somerset Butler v. viscount Mount- \ngarret ; verdict for plaintiff, who thus came into \na peerage, defendant being proved illegitimate \n\nAug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nCourts-martial on lieuts. Perry and Greer; sen- \ntences reversed by lord Hardinge 29 July-Aug. ,, \nCourts-martial on sir E. Belcher, captain McClure, \n&C, for abandoning their ships in the Arctic \n\nregions ; acquitted Oct. ,, \n\nEmanuel Barthelemy, for murder of Charles Col- \nlard and Mr. Moore (executed) . . 4 Jan. 1855 \nHandcock v. Delaeour, otherwise De Burgh (cruelty \nto Mrs. Handcock, and charges against lord \n\nClanricarde) ; compromised ,, \n\nEarl of Sefton v. Hopwood (will set aside) \n\n3-10 April, ,, \nLuigi Baranelli, for murder of Joseph Latham (or \n\nLambert); (executed 30 April) . 12 April, ,, \n\nCharles King, a great thief-trainer ; transported \n\n13 April, ,, \nWm. Austin (governor), for cruelties in Birming- \nham gaol ; acquitted .... 3 Aug. ,, \nSir John Dean Paul, William Strahan, and Robert \nM. Bates, bankers, for disposing of their cus- \ntomers\' securities (to the amount of 113,625!.): \n\nconvicted 27 Oct. ,, \n\nJoseph Wooler, on charge of poisoning his wife; \n\nacquitted 7 Nov. ,, \n\nWesterton v. Liddell (on decorations, &c, in \nchurch in Knightsbridge ; decision against them) \n\n5 !>\'\xe2\x80\xa2\xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\x9e \n[Decided again by privy council, partly for both \nparties ; each to pay his own costs, 21 March, \n1857-] \n\n\n\nCelestina Sommers, for murder of her child ; \n\nconvicted (but reprieved) . . . 6 March, 1856 \nWm. Palmer, for murder of J. P. Cook by poison \n\n14-27 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n[He was executed at Stafford on 14 June, in the pre- \nsence of 50,000 persons. If he had been ac- \nquitted, he would have been tried for the murder \nof his wife and brother. ] \nWm. Dove, for murder of his wife (executed 9 Aug.) \n\niq July, ,, \n\nDitcher v. archdeacon Denison, respecting the doc- \ntrine of the eucharist ; defendant deprived, ami \nappeal disallowed [verdict set aside by privy \ncouncil] 22 Oct. ,, \n\nW. S. Hardwicke and H. Attwell ; convicted of \nforgery 31 Oct. ,, \n\nWm. Robson, for frauds of Crystal Palace Com- \npany (to the amount of about 28,000!.) ; trans- \nported for twenty years . . . 1 Nov. ,, \n\nEarl of Lucan v. Daily News, for libel ; verdict for \ndefendant 3 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPearce, Burgess, and Tester; see Gold Robbery, \n\n14 Jan. 1857 \n\nLeopold Redpath, for forgeries (to the amount of \n150,000!.) upon Great Northern Railway Com- \npany : transported for life \xe2\x96\xa0 . . 16 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nJem Saward, a barrister (called the Penman), Wm. \nAnderson, and others, convicted of extensive \nforgery of bankers\' cheques . . 5 March, ,, \n\nMiss Madeline Smith, on charge of poisoning \nEmile L\'Angelier, at Glasgow ; not proven \n\n30 June-9 July, ,, \n\nThos. Fuller Bacon, for poisoning his mother, con- \nvicted 25 July, ,, \n\n[He was acquitted on a charge of murdering two \nchildren, 13, 14 May, same year. His wife con- \nfessed the murder, but appeared to be insane.] \n\nJames Spollen, on charge of murder of Mr. Little, \nnear Dublin ; acquitted . . . 7-1 1 Aug. ,, \n\nW. Attwell and others, convicted of stealing the \ncountess of Ellesmere\'s jewels (value 15,000!.) \nfrom the top of a cab .... 15 Dec. , , \n\nStrevens v. Campion, for slander, in charging the \nplaintiff with complicity in the murder of his \naunt, Mrs. Kelly ; damages 6>l. . . 31 Dec. ,, \n\nThe directors of the British Bank, Humphry Brown, \nEdw. Esdaile, H. D. Macleod, alderman R. H. \nKennedy, W. D. Owen, James Stapleton, and \nHugh Innes Cameron,for fraud (see under Banks) ; \nconvicted 13-27 Feb. 185S \n\nRev. S. Smith and his wife, for murderous assault \non John Leech ; convicted . . 6-7 April, ,, \n\nEdw. Auchmuty Glover, M.P., for false declaration \nof qualification of M.P 9 April, ,, \n\nSimon Bernard, as accessory to the conspiracy \nagainst the life of the emperor Napoleon ; acquitted \n\n12-17 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe earldom of Shrewsbury case ; earl Talbot\'s claim \nallowed 1 June, ,, \n\nJames Seal, for the murder of Sarah Guppy ; con- \nvicted (and executed) . . . .23 July, ,, \n\nThe Berkeley peerage case, see Berkeley 23 July, ,, \n\nPatience Swynfen v. F. H. Swynfen ; a will case; \nthe will affirmed 27 July, ,, \n\n[The plaintiff was Patience Swynfen, widow of Henry \nJohn Swynfen, son of the testator, Samuel Swyn- \nfen. Her husband died 15 June, 1854, and his \nfather on 16 July, following, having made a will \n19 days before his death, devising the Swynfen \nestate (worth about 60,000!.) to his son\'s wife, \nbut leaving a large amount of personal estate un- \ndisposed of. The defendant, F. 11. Swynfen, son \nof the testator\'s eldest half-brother, claimed the \nestate as heir-at-law on the ground of t lie testator\'s \ninsanity. The issue was brought to trial in March, \n1856; but proceedings were stayed by Mrs. Swyn- \nfen\'s counsel, sir F. Thesiger, entering into an \nagreement with the opposite counsel, sir Alex- \nander Cockburn, without her consent, and in de- \nfiance of her instructions. Alter various pro- \n(\xe2\x80\xa2ecilings, tin 1 court of chancery ordered a new \ntrial. She gained her cause, mainly through the \nenergy of her counsel. Mr. Chas. R. Kennedy, to \nwhom she had promised to pay 20,000!. for his \nextraordinary services. Mrs. Swynfen, however, \nmarried a Mr. Broun, and repudiated Mr. Ken- \nnedy\'s claim. The latter, in an action against \nher," obtained a verdict in his favour on 29 March, \n\n\n\nTEIALS. \n\n\n\n984 \n\n\n\nTEIALS. \n\n\n\n1862, which was. on appeal, finally reversed in \nFeb. 1864. Mrs. Swynfen was non-suited in an \naction brought against her counsel (afterwards \nlord Chelmsford and lord chancellor), in Jul}\', \n1859, an(1 June, i860.] \n\nLemon Oliver, a stockbroker, convicted of exten- \nsive frauds 10 Nov. \n\nMarchmont v. Marchmont ; a disgraceful divorce \ncase, begun 30 Nov. \n\nW. H. Guernsey, for stealing Ionian despatches \nfrom the Colonial Office ; acquitted . 15 Dee. \n\nEvans v. Evans and Rose, divorce case . Dec. \n\nLieut. -col. Dickson v. earl of Wilton, for libel ; ver- \ndict for the plaintiff .... 14 Feb. \n\nBlack v. Elliott, 850 sheep poisoned by a sheep- \nwash sold by defendant ; damages 1400L 23 Feb. \n\nWagner, Bateman, and others, a gang of bank \nforgers ; convicted 13 May, \n\nEarl of Shrewsbury v. Hope Scott, and others ; the \nearl gains the Shrewsbury estates . 3 June, \n\nThellusson will case decided (see Thellusson) 9 June, \n\nT. R. Marshall, E. A. Mortimer, and H. S. Eicke, \nconvicted of illegal sale of army commissions, \n\n29 June, \n\nThomas Smethurst, a surgeon, for the murder by \npoison of Isabella Bankes, whom he had married \nduring his wife\'s lifetime ; convicted 15-19 Aug. \n\n[He was reprieved on the ground of insufficient evi- \ndence ; but was tried and found guilty of bigamy, \n16 Nov. 1859. On 11 Nov. 1862, he proved Miss \nBankes\'s will, and obtained her property.] \n\nOakley v. the Moulvie Ooddeen, "ambassador of \nthe king of Oude." Verdict for the defendant, \nwho seems to have fallen among bill-sharpers, \n\n17 Dec. \n\nDavid Hughes, an attorney, convicted of gross \nfrauds upon his clients .... Jan. \n\nGeorge Pullinger, cashier of the Union Bank of \nLondon, sentenced to 20 years\' imprisoment for \nfraud, see Banks, foot-note . . 15 May, \n\nEugenia Plummer, aged n years, convicted of per- \njury against rev. Mr. Hatch . . .14 May, \n\nMr. W. H. Leatham, M.P., convicted of bribery at \nWakefield 19 July, \n\nThomas Hopley, a schoolmaster, convicted of man- \nslaughter of Reginald Cancellor, by flogging, \n\n23 July, \n\nNottidge v. Prince (see Agapemone) . 25 July, \n\nRev. J. Bonwell, of Stepney, degraded for immorality, \n\n29 Aug. \n\nJames Mullens, convicted for the murder of Mrs. \nElmsley ; by endeavouring to inculpate one Ems, \nhe led to his own conviction . . 25 Oct. \n\nMiss Shedden- v. Patrick. (The plaintiff ably \npleaded her own cause when the case was opened ; \nher object, to prove the legitimacy of her father, \nwas not attained) . . . .9 Nov. et seq. \n\nHooper v. Ward ; disgraceful profligacy of a magis- \ntrate; verdict for plaintiff . . . 19, 20 Dec. \n\nConstance Kent inquiry ; trial refused, see Road \nMurder Jan. \n\nThelwall v. hon. Major Yelverton. The plaintiff \nsued for expenses incurred by defendant\'s wife ; \nthe major denied the validity of his marriage \nwith Miss Longworth, having since married the \nwidow of professor Edward Forbes, the eminent \nnaturalist. The court in Dublin supported the \nfirst marriage . . .21 Feb. to 4 March, \n\n[Miss Longworth endeavoured to establish her. \nmarriage. On appeal, the Scotch court annulled \nthe marriage, July, 1862, and this judgment was \naffirmed by the house of lords, 28 July, 1864, and \nagain finally, 30 July, 1S67. An attempt to set \naside the judgment of the house of lords rejected \nby the court of session, 29 Oct. 1868.] \n\nBrook v. Brook; see Marriage with Wife\'s Sister. \nThe house of lords on appeal decided against the \nvalidity of such marriages, even when celebrated \nin a foreign country ... 18 March, \n\nReade v. Lacy ; the dramatising a novel restrained, \n\n17 April, \nBeamish v. Beamish ; the lords on appeal decide \nthat a clergyman cannot perform the ceremony of \nmarriage for himself . . . .22 April, \nEmperor of Austria v. Day; verdict for plaintiff. \nThe defendant had printed 100 millions florin \nnotes on the bank of Hungary, for Louis \nKossuth. The notes were ordered to be destroyed \n\n\n\n^59 \n\n\n\nwithin one month, 6 May judgment affirmed \n\n12 June, \n\nCardross case. John MacMillan, a free-church \nminister, was expelled for drunkenness and mis- \nconduct, May, 1858. The Glasgow synod and \nthe general assembly of the free church affirmed \nthe sentence. He appealed to the court of \nsession, which set aside the decree (which in- \nvolved temporalities), asserting that the assembly \nhad only spiritual authority . . . July, \n\nW. B. Turnbull v. Bird, secretary of protestant \nalliance ; libel ; verdict for defendant 8-10 July, \n\nJ. C. Charlesworth, M.P., convicted of bribery at \nthe Wakefield election . . . .20 July, \n\nBaron de Viclil ; convicted of wounding his son ; the \nlatter refused to give evidence against his father, \n\n23 Aug. \n\nVincent Collucci : convicted of obtaining money on \nfalse pretences, from Miss F. Johnstone 23 Oct. \n\nJohn Curran, a Dublin cabman ; convicted of a \nviolent assault on Miss Jolly, who heroically de- \nfended herself 25-30 Oct. \n\nPatrick McCaffery; shot col. Crofton and capt. \nHanham, at Preston ; convicted . . 13 Dec. \n\nInquiry into sanity of Wm. Fred. Wyndham (on \nbehalf of his relatives), with a view of annulling \nan injudicious marriage; trial lasted 34 days : 140 \nwitnesses examined ; verdict sane mind (see \nLunacy) . . .16 Dec. 1861, and 30 Jan. \n\n[Each party adjudged to pay its own costs, March, \n1862.] \n\nCapt. Robertson, by court-martial ; convicted of \nsubmitting to ungentlemanly conduct from his \nbrother officers : \xe2\x80\x94 30 days\' inquiry : ended, \n\n24 March, \n\n[The court was much blamed by the public and the \nsentence was annulled.] \n\nMrs. A. C. Vyse for poisoning her two children ; \nacquitted as insane .... 9 July, \n\nRoupell v. Waite; during the trial, W. Roupell, \nM.P. , a witness, confessed himself guilty of \nforging a will, and other frauds . iS, 19 Aug. \n\nJessie McLachlan; convicted for the murder of \nJessie Macpherson, at Glasgow ; she confessed to \nbeing accessory after the murder, which she im- \nputed to Mr. Fleming, a gentleman 80 or 90 years \n\nold 17-20 Sept. \n\n[She was respited 27 Oct. 1862.] \n\nWm. Roupell, M.P., for forgery; convicted on his \nown confession (released Sept. 1876) . 24 Sept. \n\nCatherine Wilson, convicted of poisoning Mrs. \nSoames in 1856 25-27 Sept. \n\n27 indictments and 24 convictions for savage per- \nsonal outrages in the streets of the metropolis \nduring the month Nov. \n\nWm. Digby Seymour, M.P. , v. Butterworth; libel; \nverdict for plaintiff, damages 40s. . . 3 Dec. \n\nHall v. Semple; verdict for plaintiff, who had been \nconsigned to a lunatic asylum through his wife\'s \ngetting the defendant to sign a certificate of lunacy \nwith culpable negligence ; damages 150 J. 10 Dec. \n\nGeorge Buncher, Wm. Burnett, Riehd. Brewer, and \nJames Griffiths, for forging bank-notes, printed \non paper stolen from the paper-mill at Laver- \nstoke; convicted 7-12 Jan. \n\nClare v. The Queen ; petition of right for infringe- \nment of a patent ; verdict for defendant 2-6 Feb. \n\nRev. John Campbell v. Spottiswoode (as printer of \nulihel m Saturday Review): verdict for plaintiff, \n\n27 Feb. \n\nQueen on appeal of earl of Cardigan v. col. Calthorpe \nfor libel, charging the earl with deserting his \nmen at Balaclava, 25 Oct. 1855 ; verdict for de- \nfendant (who, however, admitted his error), \n\n9, 10 June, \n\nAttorney-general v. Sillim and others, for having \nbuilt the Alexandra for the Confederates, against \nthe Enlistment act; verdict for defendants, \n\n25 June, \n\n[Decision finally affirmed on appeal to the house of \nlords, 6 April, 1864.] \n\nCol. Lothian Dickson v. viscount Combermere, earl \nof Wilton, and gen. Peel, for conspiracy to expel \nhim from the army; verdict for defendants, \n\n27 June, et seq. \n\nMorrison (Zadkiel) v. sir Edward Belcher; libel; \nverdict, 20s. damages .... 29 June, \n\n\n\n1S63 \n\n\n\nTEIALS. \n\n\n\n985 \n\n\n\nTEIALS. \n\n\n\nRichard Roupell v. Haws : arising out of Roupell \nforgeries; no verdict . . . 16-24 July, z ^3 \n\nWoolley v. Pole, for San Fire Office; verdict for \nplaintiff, awarding him his claim for 29,000?. for \nhis insurance of (Jampden-house ; burnt 23 March, \n1862 29 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGeorge Victor Townley, for murder of Miss Good- \nman, through jealousy ; convicted . . 12 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n[He escaped execution through a certificate of in- \nsanity, too hastily signed : and committed suicide \nin prison, 12 Feb. 1865.] \n\nLieut. -col. Crawley, by court-martial at Aldershot, \nfor alleged oppression and cruelty to sergeant- \nmajor John Lilley, in consequence of a court- \nmartial at Mhow, in India ; honourably acquitted, \n\n17 N0V.-23 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFranz Miiller, for murder of Mr. Briggs in a railway \ncarriage, 9 July ; convicted . . 27-29 Oct. 1864 \n\nGedney v. Smith, a supposititious child detected \nand deprived of much property . . 10 Nov. ,, \n\nE. K. Kohl, for murder of Theodore Fuhrkop; con- \nvicted 11, 12 Jan. 1865 \n\nQueen v. Win. Rumble, for infringement of Foreign \nEnlistment act, in equipping the Rappahannock \nfor the Confederate government ; acquitted, \n\n4 Feb. ,, \n\n"Woodgate v. Ridout (for Morning Post), for libel \nrespecting the great will case of the earl of Bg- \nmont v. Darell ; verdict for plaintiff, 1000?. , 10 Feb. ,, \n\nBishop Colenso\'s appeal to privy council against \ndecision of bishop of Capetown, deposing him, \nwhich is annulled .... 21 March, ,, \n\nRoberts, Jeft\'ery, Casely, and others, for jewel rob- \nberies in London ; convicted . . 13 April, ,, \n\nJ. W. Terry and Thos. Burch, for misdemeanor \nin connection with the Unity Bank; acquitted, \n\nApril, ,, \n\nEdw. \'Wm. Pritchard, M.D., for murder of his wife \nand her mother, by poisoning; guilty 3-7 July, ,, \n\nCharlotte Winsor, a child-murderer, convicted on \nthe evidence of an accomplice . . July, ,, \n\n[On account of legal irregularities in her trial, her \nexecution was long deferred, and her sentence was \n.commuted to life-imprisonment, 23 May, 1866.] \n\nConstance Kent tried (see Road Murder) 21 July, ,, \n\nTrials of Fenians for treason-felony ; Thos. Clarke \nLuby, convicted and sentenced to 20 years\' penal \nservitude, 28 Nov.-i Dee. ; O\'Leary and others \nconvicted ; O\'Donovan Rossa (previously con- \nvicted) sentenced to imprisonment for life, 13 Dec. ; \nothers convicted at Cork .... Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nStephen Forwood (or Ernest Southey), for murder \nof his wife and children : guilty . 20-21 Dec. ,, \n\nOther Fenians convicted at Dublin (see Fenians), \n\nJan. 1866 \n\nBreadalbane peerage : succession decided in favour \nof Campbell of Glenfalloch. . . 26 Jan. ,, \n\nRyves and Ryves v. the attorney-general ; an en- \ndeavour to prove the marriage of king George III. \nwith Hannah Wilmot, and that of his brother \nHenry, duke of Cumberland, with Olive Wilmot; \nthe jury decided that the claim was not made out, \nand\' that Olive Serres, the alleged mother of Mrs. \nRyves, was not the legitimate daughter of the \nduke of Cumberland, and that the 82 documents \nbrought in evidence were forged (Mrs. Ryves died \n7 Dec. 1871) 13 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBanda and Kirwee prize case (Indian mutiny); \ncourt of admiralty decide that 700,000?. are to be \ndivided between the soldiers commanded by \ngenerals Whitelocke, Rose, Roberts, and others, \n\n30 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBishop Colenso v. Gladstone and others, trustees of \ncolonial bishopric fund (fur withholding his \nstipend); vewlict for plaintiff, with costs 6 Nov. ,, \n\nHunter v. Sharpe (Pall Mall Gazette), for libel \n(charging him with quackery); one farthing \ndamages gained by plaintiff . . 1 Dec. ,, \n\nJames F. Wilkinson, manager of joint stock discount \n\ncompany, convicted of fraud . getseq.J&n. 1867 \n[Liberated with free pardon, after investigation, \n\nJuly, 1868] \nBryants. Foot; decision against prescriptive right \n\nof a rector to claim a marriage-fee . 23 Jan. ,, \n\nC. W. Lee Webb, Lionel Holdsworth, and others, \n\nconvicted of fraud (scuttling a ship, and claiming \n\ninsurance) ...... 4 Feb. ,, \n\n\n\nC. Anderson, a Swede ; convicted of murdering a \nmulatto, from superstition . . 12 April. \n\nBreadalbane peerage ; Wm. J. Campbell declared \nheir, on appeal to house of lords . 16 July, \n\nSmith v. Tebbitt and others ; a will ease, disposing \nof upwards of 400,000\'. ; verdict for defendants, \nannulling the will of Ann Thwaites, who is de- \nclared of unsound mind, after a long trial, in \nApril and May; judgment given . 6 Aug. \n\nOakes v. Turquand, and others ; appeal case, house \nof lords; decision affirming liability of share- \nholders of the company of Overend, Gurney, and \nCo. (limited) 15 Aug. \n\nGeo. Druitt, M. Lawrence, and John Anderson, \nleaders of the operative tailors\' association, con- \nvicted of a misdemeanor (organising the system \nof "picketing," or watching men on strike ; and \nintimidating non-unionists ; which began 24 \nApril, 1867) 21 Aug. \n\n13 tailors convicted of " picketing" . 22 Aug. \n\nFenian trials at Manchester, Allen, &c. (see \nFenians) 30 Oct-12 Nov. \n\nFrederick Baker convicted of brutal murder of a \nchild 6 Dec. \n\nMr. Rigby Wason v. Walter (for publication of an \nalleged libel in the Times ; viz. , a correct report \nof a debate in the house of lords, <fec.) ; verdict \nfor defendant, settling that such a report is \nprivileged 18-20 Dec. \n\n[Verdict affirmed again, 25 Nov. 1868. Mr. Wa- \nson died July, 1875.] \n\nMartin v. Mackonoehie (for ritualistic practices) ; \nbefore dean of arches, 4 Dec. 1867, and 14 days ; \nrecommenced; closed . . . 18 Jan. \n\nFlamank v. Simpson ; similar case ; begun 5 Feb. ; \nverdict condemning elevation of sacrament, use \nof incense, and mixture of water with the wine in \nthe communion service . . 28 March, \n\nCrossley v. Elsworthy for fraudulent misrepresen- \ntation ; verdict for plaintiff, damages 35,000?. \n\n18 Feb. \n\nTrial of Fenians for Clerkenwell outrage (see \nFenians), begun 20 April ; all acquitted except \nMichael Barrett .... 20-27 April, \n\nRichard Burke (alias Geo. Berry, &c), Theobald \nCasey, and Henry Shaw (alias Mullady), Fenians, \nfor treason felony, at Old Bailey ; Burke and \nShaw convicted, Casey acquitted 28-30 April, \n\nMornington v. Wellesley, and Wellesley r. Morning- \nton, a 29 years\' suit in chancery, decided (costs \nabove 30,000?.) ; 22,000?. awarded to the countess \nof Mornington 7 May, \n\nLyon v. Home (the spiritual medium). The plain- \ntiff, a widow, sought to recover 60,000?. stock, \ngiven to Home at the alleged command of her \ndeceased husband\'s spirit, between Oct. 1866 and \nFeb. 1867; suit instituted 15 June, 1867; trial, \n21 April to 1 May, 1868; verdict given for \nplaintiff, by the vice-chancellor, sir G. M. Giffard, \n\n22 May, \n[The judge, in concluding, said, regarding \nspiritualism, that "the system, as presented \nby the evidence, is mischievous nonsense ; \nwell calculated on the one hand to delude \nthe vain, the weak, the foolish, and the \nsuperstitious ; and on the other to assist the \nprojects of the needy, and the adventurer."] \n\nEsmonde will case, Dublin ; Lady Esmonde \n\nbequeathed property to support protestantism in \n\nIreland, by endowing a college, &e. : will disputed \n\nby her family ; no verdic.1 by jury 3-13 June, \n\n[New trial; will affirmed, Aug. 1S69.] \n\nThomas Edgeley, convicted of fraud against Leeds \nBanking Company . . . n-i^June. \n\nRisk Allah v. Whitehurst (for Daily Telegraph): \nlibel case; damages for plaintiff, 960?., 19 June, \n\nAttorney-general v. Dakin : appeal case; decision \nthat privilege of exemption from execution of \n\nlegal process does nut extend to li.unpton Court \npalace . . . . . . 20 J une, \n\nMadame Sarah Rachel Leverson convicted of con- \nspiracy 25 Sept \n\n[Writ of error : new trial refused, 11 May, 1869.] \n\nChornford v. Lingo: female suffrage declared illegal \n\n7.; Nov. \n\nBaxter v. Langley; Sunday evening lectures \ndeclared not illegal .... 19 Nov, \n\n\n\n1867 \n\n\n\nTEIALS. \n\n\n\n986 \n\n\n\nTRIALS. \n\n\n\nMartin v. Mackonochie : see Church of England, \n\n23 Dec. 18 \nPhillips v. Eyre : verdict for defendant ; see \n\nJamaica 20 Jan. 18 \n\nSaurin v. Star and another (convent ease ; a sister \nsued her mother superior, for ill-usage and ex- \npulsion); verdict for plaintiff, damages 500J. \n\n3-26 Feb. , \n[Case compromised, April, 1870.] \n\nJames Thos. Gambier, admiralty clerk, and Wm. \nBumble, engineer, convicted of fraud and seeking \nbribes from contractors . . .9 April, , \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Cooper v. Gordon : verdict for plaintiff ; the vice- \nchancellor decides that the majority of a congre- \ngation of dissenters may dismiss their minister \nfor any cause 28 May, , \n\nMajor Frederick Beswick, constable of Birkenhead, \nconvicted of forgery . . . .10 June, , \n\nFarrer (president of the Amalgamated Carpenters\' \nSociety) v. Close (the secretary), for misappro- \npriation of money. In 1867 the justices dismissed \nthe charge because the society had illegal rules. \nAt the trial at the Queen\'s bench the court was \nequally divided, and no verdict given . 3 July, , \n\nSTanny F. M. Oliver convicted of murder of her \nhusband 20 July, , \n\nLyons v. Rev. N. Thomas and others, for abduction \nof Esther Lyons, a Jewish girl, a proselyte ; \ndamages 50? 31 July, , \n\nFrederick Hinson convicted of murder of his para- \nmour, Maria Death, and Wm. Douglas Boyd \n\n24 Nov. , \nStev. James John Merest, convicted of simony ; \n\ndeprived 26-29 Nov. , \n\nMartin v. Mackonochie : before judicial committee \nof privy council , defendant censured for evading \nverdict, and condemned in costs . . 4 Dec. , \n\nMrs. Kelly v. Rev. J. Kelly ; judicial separation for \nill usage (not violence) decreed . . 7 Dec. , \n\nMessrs. Gurney and others, for conspiring to de- \nfraud ; acquitted .... 13-23 Dec. , \n\nSmith v. Earl Brownlow : after long litigation de- \ncision against the enclosure of the common at \nBerkhampstead by lord of the manor 14 Jan. 18 \n\nJames Clifford, a retired artilleryman, convicted of \n" sweating" sovereigns by the voltaic battery, \n\n1 Feb. ,. \n\nJacob Spinass, a Swiss, convicted of murder of \nCecilia Aldridge, an unfortunate . . 3 March, , \n\nDr. Kinglake convicted of bribery on behalf of his \nbrother at Bridgewater . . .26 March, ,. \n\nWicklow peerage case : claim for an infant declared \nto be unfounded by House of Lords (remarkable \nevidence) 31 March, ,, \n\nDemetrius Pappa, a bank manager, sentenced to \nS years\' penal servitude for embezzlement, 6 May, ,. \n\nSir Charles Mordaunt v. lady Mordaunt, and others, \nfor divorce: preliminary trial of her sanity (de- \nclared insane on 30 April, 1869), 16-25 Feb. 1870; \nappeal, 27 April, 1870; judgment affirmed 2 June, ,. \n\nBishop Goss (R.C.) v. Hill and Whittaker: will \ncase; Mr. Moreton\'s will, bequeathing the chief \nof his property to the bishop, set aside 16 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPhillips v. Eyre, for imprisonment during Jamaica \nrebellion ; verdict for defendant . . 23 June, ,, \n\nChelsea Murders : Walter Miller convicted of murder \nof Rev. Elias Huelin and Anne Boss, his house- \nkeeper (8 or 9 May, 1870) . . .13, 14 July, ,, \n\nMichael Davitt and John Wilson, treason felony ; \nsee Fenians 18 July, ,. \n\nJohn Jones or Owen, convicted of murder of Ema- \nnuel Marshall and family (7 persons, early 22 May, \n1870), at Denham, near Uxbridge . 22 July, , \n\nShepherd v. Bennett (Arches) ; decision that defen- \ndant had retracted heresy; appeal to privy council, \n\n23 July, , \n\nMargaret Waters convicted of murder of John \nCowen, infant; her sister and accomplice, Sarah \nEllis, was convicted of fraud, 22 Sept. (baby \nfarming case ; see Infanticide) . 21-23 Sept. , \n\nBev. C. Voysey v. Noble: appeal to privy council \njudicial committee against condemnation for \nheresy 10 Nov. , \n\nEbdy v. McGowan : verdict against an architect for \nrefusing to give up the plans of a building he was \naboiit to erect 16 Nov. , \n\nCatcli v. Sliaen: for libel on master of Lambeth \n\n\n\nworkhouse; verdict for plaintiff, 600I. damages; \nexecution stayed .... 15 Dec. 1870 \n\nDiamond Robbery : London and Ryder\'s man made \ninsensible and robbed of diamonds, 12 Jan.; Mar- \ntha Torpey acquitted, 1 March ; , James Torpey \npleaded guilty (sentenced to 8 years\' penal servi- \ntude) 1 May, 1871 \n\nE. Boulton, L. C. Hurt, F. W. Park, and others \n(frequently dressed as women) tried for a conspi- \nracy; acquitted . . . : 9-15 May, ,, \n\nTichborne v. Lushington : the plaintiff declared \nhimself to be sir Roger Charles Tichborne, sup- \nposed to have been lost at sea; and claimed the \nbaronetcy and estates, worth about 24,000^. \na year. \n\nRoger Charles Tichborne, son of sir James, born . 1829 \n\nEducated in France till . . . . about 1843 \n\nEntered the army 1849 \n\nProposed marriage to his cousin Kate Doughty; \ndeclined Jan. 1852 \n\nSailed from Havre for Valparaiso (March), and ar- \nrived there 19 June, 1853 \n\nSailed from Rio Janeiro in the Bella, which foun- \ndered at sea 20 April, 1854 \n\n[A Chancery suit was instituted, and his death legally \nproved.] \n\nHis mother advertised for her son . 19 May, 1865 \n\nThe claimant (found by Gibbes and Cubitt in Aus- \ntralia) asserted that he and eight of the crew were \nsaved from the wreck of the Bella; that he went \nto Australia, and lived there, roughly, 13 years \nunder the name of Castro; married as Castro, \nJan.; as Tichborne 3 July, 1866 \n\nHe set up his claim ; and was accepted by the dow- \nager lady Tichborne as her son at Paris . Jan. 1867 \n\n[No others of the family accepted him ; but sir \nClifford Constable and some brother officers did.]* \n\nHis claim was resisted on behalf of sir Henry (a \nminor), son of sir Alfred Tichborne; and after \nchancery proceedings (begun March, 1867) a trial \nbegan in the court of common pleas before chief \njustice Bovill 11 May, 1871 \n\nThe claimant was examined 22 days ; the trial ad- \xe2\x80\xa2 \njourned on 40th day, 7 July; resumed, 7 Nov.; \ncase for claimant closed ... 21 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTrial resumed, 15 Jan.; the attorney-general, sir J. \nD. Coleridge, spoke 26 days ; on 4 March the \njury expressed themselves satisfied that the claim- \nant was not sir Roger ; on the 103rd day he was \ndeclared nonsuited . . . . .6 March, 1872 \n\nThe law proceedings are said to have cost the estate , \nnearly 92,0002. \n\nHe was lodged in Newgate to be tried for perjury, \n7 March; indicted as Thos. Castro, otherwise \nArthur Orton, for perjury and forgery 9 April, ,, \n\nThe court of queen\'s bench decide that he may be \nadmitted to bail, 23 April; released . 26 April, ,, \n\nThe trial of the claimant for perjury and forgery \nbegun before chief justice Cockburn, and justices \nMellor and Lush at bar 23 April ; case for the \nprosecution closed, 10 July : resumed (for defence) \n\n21 July, ,, \n\nLady Doughty, mother of sir Henry Tichborne, dies \n\n13 Dec. ,, \n\n[Up to 27 June (47th day of the trial), out of 150 \nwitnesses above 100 had sworn that the claimant \nwas not Tichborne ; and about 40 that he was \nArthur Orton.] \n\nThe claimant forbidden to attend public meetings, \n\n19 Sept. 1873 \n\nCase for the defence closed on 124th day, 27 Oct., \nadjourned from 31 Oct. to 17 Nov., then to \n27 Nov. ; rebutting evidence heard, 27, 28 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDr. Kenealy\'s summing-up, f 2 Dec-14 Jan. 1874 ; \nMr. Hawkins\'s reply ... 15 Jan. -28 Jan. 1874 \n\n[Mr. Whalley, M.P., fined for contempt of court, \n250Z., 23 Jan.] \n\nThe chief-justice\'s summing-up, 29 Jan. -28 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nVerdict : that the claimant did falsely swear, \xe2\x80\x94 that \nhe was Roger Charles Tichborne, that he se- \nduced Catherine N. E. Doughty in 1851, and that \n\n\n\n* Mr. Guildford Onslow, who spent about 15,000?., iu \nsupporting the claimant, died 20 Aug. 1882. \nt See Englishman. \n\n\n\nTEIALS. \n\n\n\n987 \n\n\n\nTRIALS. \n\n\n\nhe was not Arthur Orton ; * sentence, 14 years\' \nimprisonment with hard labour . . 28 Feb. 1874 \n[Longest trial known in England.] \nNew trial refused by the judges . . 29 April, ,, \nOn appeal, sentence affirmed by the house of lords, \n10, 11 March, 1881; released on ticket of leave \n\n20 Oct. 1884 \nEltham Murder: E. W. Pook for murder of Jane \n\nMaria Clousen ; acquitted . . 12-15 July, ^l 1 \n\nHannah Newington, or Flora Davey; convicted of \nmanslaughter of Frederick Moon; she was his \nmistress, and excited by insult . . 15 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCapt. H. Hamilton Beamish and others tried for \nstranding the Agincourt (see Navy), 26 July ; re- \nprimanded by the court ... 8 Aug. ,, \n\nRobert Kelly : for murder of Talbot (a police-con- \nstable and informer against Fenians) on night of \n12 July; acquitted (extraordinary verdict) \n\n30 Oct.-io Nov. ,, \n\nPeek v. Gurney and others (Overendand Co.) plain- \ntiffs claim for loss incurred through misrepresen- \ntations in the company\'s prospectus ; disallowed \nby master of rolls on account of his neglecting to \nverify the prospectus and his too late claim; \ncosts refused to defendants . . .6 Nov. ,, \n\nMr.Pigott condemned to imprisonment for illegal \ncomments on a trial, in the Irishman . 13 Nov. ,, \n\nKev. John Selby Watson, eminent scholar, killed \nhis wife in a fit of passion, 8 Oct. ; convicted and \nimprisoned for life .... 10-12 Jan. 1872 \n\nChristiana Edmunds ; convicted of poisoning at \nBrighton ; she purchased chocolate creams, and \nreturned poisoned ones to the confectioner, and \nthus caused death to one child and nearly killed \nother persons ; reprieved as insane 15,16 Jan. ,, \n\nThe Queen v. the Lords of the Treasury : for not \nrepaying expenses for prosecutions to the county \nof Lancaster; mandamus refused . . 29 Jan. ,, \n\nPark-lane Murder: Margaret Dixblancs, a Belgian \nemigrant, murdered her mistress, madanie Riel, \non Sunday, 7 April; escaped; taken at Paris; \nconfessed to killing her mistress in a quarrel; \nconvicted, but recommended to mercy, 11-14 \nJune ; sentence commuted to penal servitude for \nlife 21 June, ,, \n\nEllen Kettel : charged with poisoning her husband\'s \nfirst wife in order to marry him ; acquitted, \n\n24, 25 Oct. ,, \n\nChelsea Tragedy: Hermann Nagel and Paul May, \nyoung Prussians, came to London to avoid con- \nscription ; their money being spent, they agreed \nto commit suicide; after wounding May, Nagel \nshot himself dead, 21 Aug.; May recovered, and \nwas indicted for murder, tried, and acquitted, \n\n21 Nov. ,, \n[He was convicted and punished for forgery at \n\nBerlin, Feb. 1873.] \n\nBaker v. Loader : widow, to whom 107,000?. had \nbeen bequeathed; in ten years is reduced to \npoverty by imposition; she sues the widow of \nher friend Loader and solicitors; verdict of vice- \nchancellor Malins, ordering deeds to Loader to \nbe cancelled; the solicitor to pay his own costs, \n\n20 Nov. ,, \n\nMr. Hepworth Dixon v. Smith (Pall-Mall Gazette), \nfor libel ; damages, one farthing . 26-29 Nov. .. \n\nMr. Guildford Onslow and Mr. G. H. Whalley, \nM.P.\'s, fined for contempt of court in speeches \nrespecting the Tichboriie case, 20 Jan. ; Mr. \nSkipworth, barrister, for same offence, condemned \nto three months\' imprisonment and fined; the \nclaimant made to give securities for xoool., fur a \nsimilar offence . . . . 29 Jan. 1873 \n\nParke v. Harvey Lewis, sir Joseph McKenna, and \nothers: for misuse of a company\'s funds while \ndirectors; jodays\'trial; verdictforplaintiff^oJan. ,, \n\nOmagh Murder: (of Mr. Glass, 29 June, 1871); \nsub-inspector Montgomery tried ; 12 days; strong \nevidence; jury not agreed . . . 19 March, ,, \n\nBroughton v. Knight: will of Mr. Knight set aside \non account of unsound mind . 31 March, ,, \n\nAndrews v. Salt: decision by lord-chancellor that a \nchild shall be educated as a protestant by grand- \nmother, not by Roman catholic uncle; confirmed \non appeal 6 May, ,, \n\n* Charles Orton declared the claimant to be his \nbrother Arthur, at the Globe office, 10 March, 1874. \n\n\n\nRev. O\'Keeffe v. Cardinal Cullen (for libel, and \nvirtually suspending him from his office) ; consi- \nderation of demurrer; judges (at Dublin) divided \nin opinions ; three decide that the papal ordi- \nnance on which the cardinal relied was prohi- \nbited by the statutes of Elizabeth ; demurrer set \naside, 7 May; the trial begun 12 May; verdict for \nplaintiff; the jury gave one farthing damages, \n\n27 May, \n\n[Mr. O\'Keeffe submitted to the cardinal, May, 1876.] \nSub-inspector Montgomery, at his third trial for \nthe brutal murder of Mr. Glass, at Newton- \nStewart, Ireland, on 8 June, 1871 ; convicted and \nconfessed, 28 July [executed, Aug. 26] \n\nGreat jewellery frauds ; Michael and Rebecca \nGoldsmid convicted . . . .8 July, \n\nFarrell v. Gordons ; much property left to R. C. \nChurch ; will affirmed .... 9 July, \n\nTodd v. Lyne (father Ignatius) ; son of the plaintiff \nrescued from convent (where he had taken vows) \nby chancery 25 July, \n\nBank Forgery : Austin Biron Bidwell, George Mac- \ndonnell, George Bidwell, and Edwin Noyes, \nAmericans, forged bills for discounting at the \nBank of England, West-Branch, and obtained \n102,217?. ; detected through not dating one bill; \nconvicted ; penal servitude for life [their plot to \nescape by bribing the warders failed] 18-26 Aug. \n\nRev. John Berrington (after 30 years\' swindling) \nsentenced to 15 years\' penal servitude 22 Aug. \n\nCheltenham Chronicle fined 150?. for commenting on \ntrial of the Tichborne claimant . . 23 Sept. \n\nMarshal Bazaine ; see France ... 6 Oct. \n\nGilbert v. Enoch (for Pall Mall Gazette) for libel in \ncritique on " The Wicked World," a play ; verdict \nfor defendant (both regarded harmless) 27 Nov. \n\nCapt. Charles S. Maunsell sentenced to a month\'s \nimprisonment with hard labour for assaulting \nthe duke of Cambridge on 6 Jan. . 4 Feb. \n\nMiss Fairland gave her fortune to St. Mary\'s Domi- \nnican convent, Belfast ; her trustees oppose the \ntransfer ; the master of the rolls affirms the gift, \n\n24 Feb. \n\nDr. Hayman v. the governing body of Rugby \nschool ; judgment for the defendants . 21 March, \n\nJeanLuie (Lindgren) and "capt." Brown convicted \nof perjury in the Tichborne case (7 years and \n5 years\' penal servitude) . . . 9, 10 April, \n\nMordaunt case (see 1870), divorce court ; 3 judges \nhold that insanity is no bar to suit for divorce ; \n2 judges hold that it is .... 15 May, \n\nCallan, M.P., v. O\'Reilly Dease ; for libel (termed \n" wilful and malicious " by ch. -just. Whiteside), \nDublin ; damages one farthing . 2 July, \n\nE. Welby Pugin, convicted of libel against J. R. \nHerbert, R.A., 23 Sept. ; not sentenced, 24 Sept., \n\nEpping forest case ; decision against the enclosures \nof the lords of the manors as illegal ; see Commons, \n\n10 Nov. \n\nFrederick v. Attorney-General : col. Charles Edward \nFrederick declared\' heir to baronetcy ; the validity \nof the marriage of his grandi>arents affirmed in \ndivorce court 18 Dec. \n\nRubery v. baron Albert Grant and M. B. Sampson \n(long city editor of the IVmcs) for libel ; the article \nin Times, 18, 20 Nov. and 20 Dec. 1872, charged \nRubery with connection with a fraud in a certain \ndiamond mine in Colorado ; 10 days\' trial ; Grant \ncleared ; Sampson fined 500/. . . .18 Jan. \n\n[By these articles the public were protected from a \nbad scheme.] \n\nAlleged False Prospechts Case : (Canadian Oil-Works \nCorporation), Charlton v. sir John Hay, Mr. East- \nwick, and others grossly deceived ; 17 days\' trial ; \njury divided ; discharged ; no verdict 24 Feb. \n\n[Oil-wells in Ontario, Canada, property of Prince\'s \ncompany got up to buy them, by Longbottom ; \nscheme not accepted in the city; taken up at \nwest-end: sir John Hay, Mr. M\'Cullagh Torrens, \nMr. Eastwick, and others induced to become \ndirectors ; wells bought; company collapsed.] \n\nPhilpotts r. Boyd: see Rere&os : settled by judicial \ncommitteeofprivycounr.il . . . 24 Feb. \n\nMordaunt v. Mordaunt and viscount Cole, (see \nabove, May, 1874); divorce granted 11 March, \n\nTerry r. Brighton Aquarium Company, for opening \non Sundays ; verdict ; penalty 200?., (see Sunday), \n\n27 April, \n\n\n\n1S74 \n\n\n\n1875 \n\n\n\nTEIALS. \n\n\n\nTRIALS. \n\n\n\nJackson v. Grand Junction Canal Company, (see \nGunpowder Explosion, 2 Oct. 1874) ; company ad- \njudged responsible for damages . 14 May, \n\nKeith Johnston v. Proprietors of Athencenm, for \nlibel in criticism of an atlas ; Edinburgh ; \ndamages, 1275L : 24 March, new trial ; damages \nreduced to 100J 16 June, \n\nJohn Neave, Arthur Keen (or Murrell) and Annie \nBolwell, convicted of coining and uttering false \ncoin at railway stations . . . 12, 13 July, \n\nJenkins v. Rev. Flavel Cook (for excluding him \nfrom the communion for heresy (denying per- \nsonality of Satan and eternal punishment) ; ver- \ndict for defendant in Court of Arches) . 16 July, \n\nCol. Valentine Baker sentenced to tine of 500Z., and \n12 months\' imprisonment for indecently assaulting \nMiss Dickenson in a railway carriage 2 Aug. \n\nMrs. Gladstone v. capt. Gladstone (long case con- \ncluded) ; divorce granted . . . .6 Aug. \n\nWin. Thompson Hunt convicted of manslaughter \nfor administering strychnia to Mrs. Hudson (who \ndied) and others, as a remedy for intoxication ; \n5 years\' penal servitude . . . .25 Sept. \n\nWm. Talley, a solicitor, for dissuading a person \nbound over to prosecute from fulfilling his en- \ngagement ; sentence 1 year\'s imprisonment \n\n25 Sept. \n\nSugden and others v. St. Leonards, will case (lord \nSt. Leonards\' will missing ; many codicils left) ; \nverdict for plaintiffs, affirming the lost will on \nhis daughter\'s, Miss Sugden\'s, recollection of its \n\nprovisions 17-26 Nov. \n\n[Verdict affirmed on appeal, 14 March, 1876.] \n\nWhitechapel Murder (which see). \n\nHenry Wainwright for murder of Harriet Lane, and \nhis brother Thomas as accessory before and after \nthe fact ; before chief justice Coekburn (nine \ndays) ; Henry sentenced to death ; Thomas, as \naccessory after fact, to 7 years\' penal servitude \n22 Nov. -1 Dec. \n\nSmith v. Union Bank of London (see Drafts) ; ver- \ndict for defendants . . . , 29 Nov. \n\nRev. H. Keet v. Rev. G. E. Smith (see Reverend) ; \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 appeal to privy council ; verdict for the plaintiff \n\n21 Jan. \n\nPersons representing the parish of Folkestone v. \nRev. C. J. Ridsdale, vicar (for ritualistic prac- \ntices) ; verdict for plaintiffs ; the vicar to be ad- \nmonished and pay costs . . . 3 Feb. \n\nJenkins v. Rev. F. S. Cook, appeal from the dean of \nArches to the privy council judicial committee ; \nverdict for plaintiff; (Rev. F. Cook resigned) \n\n16 Feb. \n\nEupion Gas Company (1874) < Queen v. Aspinall and \nothers, directors, for fraud ; long trial ; verdict, \nAspinall- and another convicted of improperly \nobtaining settlement of quotation on Stock Ex- \nchange ; acquitted of charge of fraud . 17 Feb. \n\n[The lord chief justice declared the company to be \n"a fiction and a sham from beginning to end ; " \nsentence, Joseph Aspinall and Charles Knocker, \n12 months\' imprisonment, John Saunders Muir \nand William Whyte, 2 months\' imprisonment, 1 \nJuly, 1876.] \n\nW.K. Vance and Ellen Snce, conspiracy to murder \n(ostensibly herself) ; singular case ; sentenced to \nimprisonment .... .1 June, \n\nRobert Buchanan, the poet, v. P. A. Taylor, M. P. , \nproprietor of Examiner, libels in papers 27 Nov. \nand 1 Dec. (letter said to be by Mr. A. Swinburne, \nthe poet) ; damages, 150?. 1 July, \n\nTwycross (representing many others) v. baron \nAlbert Grant and others, to recover money paid \nfor shares in Lisbon tramway company, promoted \nby defendant and others ; long trial ; able speech \nof Grant ; verdict, 700L damages . 13 July, \n[Judgment affirmed on appeal, 2 June, 1877.]\' \n\nBuckhurst peerage, claimed by earl Delawarr and by \nhis brother, Mortimer Sackville West ; house of \nlords decide in favour of the earl . 18 July, \n\nBlackburn Murder ; Wm. Fish convicted of murder \nand violation of Emily Mary Holland, aged 7 (28 \nMarch); pleaded temporary insanity . 28 July, \n\nRichard Banner Oakley, manager of Co-operative \nCredit Bank, convicted of obtaining money by \nfalse pretences ; much credulity in victims ; 5 \nyears\' penal servitude .... 9-12 Aug. \n\nWill Frauds : Charles Howard (count von Howard, \n\n\n\n1875 \n\n\n\n&c), sentenced to 5 years\' penal servitude for ob- \ntaining 380?. from John Harvey, for a pretended \nwill, (other cases) .... 26 Oct. \n\nFrederick Henry Vane v. sir Henry Ralph Va.ne \n(his nephew) ; verdict for defendant, maintain- \ning his father\'s legitimacy ; chancery division \n\n25 Nov. \n\nLewis v. Higgins, for alleged slander in speech as \ncounsel ; verdict for defendant, affirming privi- \nlege of counsel . . . . . 4 Dec. \n\nCoe (stage manager, Haymarket, dismissed as ac- \ncused of receiving payments from actors engaged) \nv. Sothern and Buckstone ; verdict for plaintiff ; \ndamages, 1035! i3"Dec. \n\nLord Longford v. Wellington Purdon ; will giving \nproperty to the plaintiff\'s young son set aside ; \nthe testator, Cooke, having been underthe undue \ninfluence of Rev. Wm. Lyster (plaintiff not \nblamed) ; 25 days\' trial .... Feb. \n\nLynall Thomas v. the Queen (petition of right) ; \nfor patent of cannon, <fcc. ; verdict for plaintiff, \nwith damages .... io March, \n\nGreat Turf Frauds : forgery of cheques for io,oooi., \n&c. ; about 13,000?. obtained ; five sentenced to \npenal servitude ; Henry Benson, 15 years ; Wm. \nand Fred. Kerr and Chas. Bate, 10 years ; Ed- \nwin Murray, accessory, 18 months 12 \xe2\x80\x94 23 April, \n\nCresswell and others v. Walrond ; will of Bethell \nWalrond set aside by arrangement (he had be- \nqueathed his property to strangers and dogs, had \nbeen cruel to his children, decorated his bed \nwith skulls and hearse plumes, &c.) 13 June, \n\nQueen v. Charles Bradlaugh and Annie Besant, for \npublication of "Fruits of Philosophy," by Dr. \nKnowlton, which\' they defended, on grounds of \nhumanity, in long speeches ; verdict, the book \ncalculated to deprave, but not intended, 18 \xe2\x80\x94 21 \nJune ; sentence (through the defendants not sub- \nmitting to the court), 6 mouths\' imprisonment, \n\xe2\x96\xa0200I. fine for both, 28 Jane ; appeal, on ground \nof legal informality, disallowed by queen\'s bench \n\n16 Nov. \n\nNathaniel Drnseovitch, John Meiklejolm, andWm. \nPalmer, police inspectors, and Edward Froggatt, \nsolicitor, charged with conspiracy to defeat the \nends of justice in respect to turf frauds (see above, \n12 \xe2\x80\x94 23 April); examination began, 12 July; \nFroggatt committed, 6 Sept. ; chief inspector \nClarke arrested, 8 Sept.; 28 days\' examination ; \ncommitted, 22 Sept. ; trial began, 24 Oct. ; all \nconvicted except Clarke ; sentence, 2 years\' im- \nprisonment with hard labour . . 20 Nov. \n\nWm. Swindlehurst, secretary, and Dr. John Baxter \nLangley, director of Artisans\' Dwelling Com- \npany, and Edward Saffery, convicted of defraud- \ning shareholders of about 24,312;.; officers sen- \ntenced to 18 months\', Saffery 12 months\' impri- \nsonment 23 \xe2\x80\x9426 Oct. \n\nThos. Hyslop (aged 19) and John Denham (aged 18) \nconvicted of high way robbery at Blaekheath 23 Oct. \n\nPenge Case : Louis A. E. Staunton, Patrick L. \nStaunton his brother, and Eliz. Ann, his wife, \nand her sister, Alice Rhodes, mistress of Louis ; \ntried for murder by starvation of Harriet, wife of \nLouis (a woman of weak intellect, married for \nher property, and soon deserted), 19 Sept. ; all \nconvicted, 26 Sept.; respited, 13 Oct.; Alice \nRhodes pardoned ; the others sentenced to penal \nservitude for life ; announced . . 30 Oct. \n\nCoote (solicitor) v. Kenealy ; for payments ; ver- \ndict for plaintiff ..... 14 Nov. \n\nForged Leases: Frederick Dimsdale, solicitor, Chas. \nBurrell Moore, clerk, and others ; forged leases, \nand borrowed money on them (above 300,000/.); \nmany lenders did not appear ; pleaded guilty ; \nsentence, Dimsdale, penal servitude for life ; \nMoore, 7 years ; others less . \\6, 17 Jan. \n\nRev. H. J. Dodwell fired at the master of the. rolls, \nsir George Jessel, 22 Feb.; acquitted as insane \n\n15 March, \n\nMadame Rachel (Levison, or Leverson), convicted \nof misdemeanour; obtained money and jewels \nfrom Mrs. Pearce, for "beautifying;" 5 years\' \npenal servitude . . . 10, 11 April, \n\nEugene Marie Chantrelle, Frenchman, convicted of \nmurder of wife, at Edinburgh ; much cruelty \ndisclosed 10 May, \n\nWill case, Dublin ; Christopher Neville Bagot, \n\n\n\n1876 \n\n\n\n1877 \n\n\n\nTEIALS. \n\nmade a fortune in Australia ; made will, disin- \nheriting his son as illegitimate ; died, 23 May, \n1877 ; trial, 23 days ; painful disclosures ; the \nwill set aside (se- below, 1879) . . 20 May, 18; \n\nHarrington v. Victoria Graving Dock Company ; \nhe claimed remainder of commission for obtain- \ning an order from Great Eastern railway com- \npany ; nonsuited ; such commissions declared \nillegal by queen\'s bench ... 4 June, ,. \n\nJas. T. Northcott, Geo. Thompson, Thos. G. Wood \n(of the Albion Life Insurance company) ; sen- \ntenced to 5 years\' penal servitude for conspiracy, \nand obtaining money on false pretences ; subor- \ndinates sentenced to less imprisonment 8 June, ,, \n\nCharles Marvin, copying-clerk of foreign office, ex- \namined for copy of an Anglo-Russian agreement \npublished in Globe, 14 June, 27 June ; discharged \n\n16 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTaylor v. Gwyn ; claim for Jermy estates (see \njenny murders by Rush, Trials, 1849) ; claim \ndenied ; trial set aside by statute of limitations \n\n5 Aug. ,, \n\nIn re Agar Ellis ; the husband\'s promise before \nmarriage that his children should be brought up \nRomanists, permitted to be withdrawn by chan- \ncery 6 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Board of "Works v. rev. F. G. Lee, of All Saints, \nLambeth ; queen\'s bench division decide that the \nincumbent of a church is not its owner, and \ntherefore not responsible for keeping it in repair, \n\n11 Nov. ,, \n\nAnnie Louisa lady Gooch (with Ann Walker) ; she \ntried to pass a child as her own and her husband\'s, \ncommitted for trial 30 Nov., indictment ignored, \n\n11 Dec. ,, \n\nPaul and others v. Summerhayes ; appeal ; sentence \nagainst plaintiffs affirmed (foxhunters may not \ntrespass), queen\'s bench . . . .16 Nov. ,, \n\nQueen v. Bandmann (for assault on Mrs. Rousby), \nnot guilty . . . 19-20 Nov. ,, \n\nHenry Sturt Marshall, asst. sec. of curates\' augmen- \ntation fund, convicted of embezzling about 7,000^. ; \nconfessed 24 Oct. , \n\nWhistler v. Ruskin, for libellous criticism in "Fors \nClavigera," one farthing damages . 25, 26 Nov. , \n\nHill and others v. managers of Metropolitan Asylums \nDistrict 11 (days), verdict, that Hampstead small- \npox hospital was a nuisance (verdict affirmed on \nappeal, 28 Jan. 1879) . .- .29 Nov. ,. \n\nMr. Wybrow Robertson (manager of Westminster \nAquarium) v. Labouchere, for libel in Truth, \n27 Nov., verdict for defendant . . 20 Dec. ,, \n\nMuir and others ; court of session, decides that trus- \ntees who have invested in the "City of Glasgow \nbank," are responsible [affirmed on appeal to house \nof lords, 7 April, 1879] . . . 20 Dec. , \n\nStephen Gambrill for murder of Mr. Arthur Gillow \n(on 5 Dec. when defending agricultural ma- \nchinery), at Wednesborough, near Sandwich, Kent, \nconvicted 14-15 Jan. i\xc2\xa3 \n\nLong firm forgeries, Kettle and others convicted, \nsentenced to various terms of imprisonment, \n\n16-17 Jan. , \n\nCity of Glasgow Bank directors and managers (see \nunder Banks, note) convicted . 20 Jan. -1 Feb. , \n\nCharles Peace (or John Ward), committed many \nburglaries in skilful manner, convicted of at- \ntempting life of policeman, 19 Nov. ; convicted of \nmurder of Arthur Dyson, at Bannercross near \nSheffield, 29 Nov. 1876 . . . .4 Feb. , \n\n[He jumped from a moving railway train near Shef- \nfield, and was nearly killed, 22 Jail. ; confessed to \nmurders, &c. ; exonerated William Habron, con- \nvicted as an accomplice in a murder (therefore \nreleased, 18 March); executed at Leeds, 25 Feb.] , \n\nDr. .Julius r. Bishop of Oxford (for noi prosecuting \nrev. T. T. Carter of C\'lewer for ritualistic prac- \ntices), queen\'s bench, (verdicl lor plaintiff, set \naside on appeal, jo May, Mr. Carter resigned ?.\\ \n\nMarch, 1880) ..\'... 8 March, , \n\nKentish /\'"\xc2\xbb\xe2\x80\xa2\xc2\xbb murder, Thomas ferryman convicted \nof murder of his mother . . 2 April, , \n\nQueen v. Booker & Wyman (for libel in Truth, \nagainst Mr. Lambri), verdict against Wyman ; long \ntrial 30 April, , \n\nDuke of Norfolk v. Arhuthnot, claiming ownership \n\n\n\n989 \n\n\n\nTEIALS. \n\n\n\nof Fitz-alan chapel in Arundel church, verdict for \nplaintiff, common pleas ... 17 May, 1879 \n[Decision affirmed on appeal, 7 June, 1880.] \n\nBagot will case, appeal, new trial ordered 5 June, ,, \nShepherd v. Francis (for libel in a review in the \n\n" Athenseum "), damages, 1 50I. . . 16 June, ,, \nThe Queen v. sir Charles Reed ; the queen\'s bench \ndecide that the metropolitan school board have \npower to borrow money . . -27 June, ,, \nSturla v. Freccia : Antonio Mangini, born 1735, con- \nsul here about 1771, died 1803 ; his daughter \nmarried Aquila Brown, 1792 ; after 8 years \ncontest established her disputed legitimacy, \n1811 : died intestate in London, aged 93, 1871, her \nproperty, after a trial, awarded to the Freccia \nfamily, 1876. the claim of Madame Sturla set \naside by vice-chancellor . . .24 June. ,, \n\nRichmond murder ,Katherine Webster, convicted of \nmurder of Mrs. Julia Martha Thomas (see Rich- \nmond) 8 July, ,, \n\nEdmund Galley convicted of murder, by error, \nand transported ; declared innocent by the house \nof commons 25 July, ,, \n\nEuston-square mystery, Hannah Dobbs, for murder \nof Matilda Hacker, acquitted . . 23 July, ,, \n\nThe mutilated remains of Matilda Hacker, eccentric, \nabout 50 years old, were found in a coal-cellar, \nNo. 4, Euston-square. Hannah Dobbs was maid- \nservant there. She published her autobiography \nin which she attacked her former master, Sewerin \nBastendorff, who, after bringing an action for \nlibel, was convicted of perjury . . Dec. ,, \n\n(He was awarded by consent 500J. damages for the \nlibel), 27 Jan. 1881 \n\nRev. Christopher Newman Hall v. Mrs. Hall, and \nMr. Richardson, long trial, divorce granted, 8 Aug. ,, \n\nJonathan Gaydon (or Geyden), for murder of Miss \nMary White at Chingford, 21 June, 1857, confessed, \nretracted, convicted (reprieved) . . 24 Oct. ,, \n\nAdolphus Rosenberg, for libel against Mrs. Langtry \nand Mrs. West, in Town Talk, convicted, 18 \nmonths\' imprisonment . . .25, 27, Oct. ,, \n\nTranmere baby-farming ccrse(near Birkenhead), John \nand Catherine Barns, convicted of manslaughter ; \n(they received illegitimate infants with premiums \nof3o?.,&c.) 28, 29 Oct. 1879 \n\nDr. Arthur H. Nowell v. George Williams (for plac- \ning him in a lunatic asylum), verdict for the de- \nfendant, medical men censured bythejury, 13 Nov. ,, \n\nPhillips, surgeon, v. S. W. railway company, for \ninjury, awarded 7000L by justice Field; new \ntrial, awarded i6,oooZ. by lord ch. justice Cole- \nridge, common pleas, new trial refused 6 Dec. \n\nSmee^. Smee and corporation of Brighton, will set \naside, Brighton loses a free library bequeathed, \n\n5 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nHilliard v. Rose & Todd, will affirmed, singular case, \n\n12 Dec. ,, \n\nEdward Froggatt (see above, 20 Nov. 1877), sen- \ntenced to 7 years\' penal servitude for fraudulent \nconversion of trust property (8000?.) . 17 Dec. ,, \n\nJames Lewis Paine and Fanny Matthews, for mur- \nder of Miss Annie Maclean, aged 34, daughter of \ncol. Maclean, C.B., a deformed lady of property, \nby starving, administering spirits, and ill-usage, \ncommitted 15 Dec; Fanny .Matthews acquitted \n16 Feb. Paine sentenced to penal servitude for \nlife . . . . . . 24 Feb. 1SS0 \n\nRailway commissioners, powers limited (see Rail- \nways, 1880) 13 .Ian. ,, \n\nMartin v. Mackonochie, new action for deprivation, \nfirst movement, see Public Worship . 17 Jan. ,, \n\nAlexander Schosser attempted to kill priests in the \nItalian chapel, Hatton-garden, to Jan., tried, scu- \ntei .1 io imprisonment for life . 10, 11 Peh. ., \n\nWin. Henry Waller, forger by chemicals, &c, sen- \ntenced to 20 years\' penal servitude . 23 March, ,, \n\nDr. Caleb Charles whitefoord sentenced to 2 \nmonths\' imprisonment and line of 50/. for forging \nletter to stop execution of Charles Shurety, \n\n24 March, \n\nGreat West of England bank directors (.lei,, me \nMurchand others), for publishing false balance- \nsheets, acquitted . . . 28 April \xe2\x80\x94 5 May, ,, \n\nLambri <\xe2\x96\xa0. Labouchere, for libel in Frui . verdici \nfor defendant 15 May, ,, \n\nTiehbornt case, writ of error before court of appeal, \ngranted 1 3 Jan., sentence affirmed . 24, 25 June, ,, \n\n\n\nTRIALS. \n\n\n\n990 \n\n\n\nTRIALS. \n\n\n\nNorthern Counties Insurance Company, James E. \nCrabtree, manager, Geo. Edw. Nesbitt, ac- \ncountant, and four directors, sentenced to impri- \nsonment for making and circulating false accounts, \n\n22 July, i \n\nPleasanee Louisa Ingle, nurse at Guy\'s hospital, \nconvicted of manslaughter (she putting Louisa \nMorgan, a patient, into" a cold bath and leaving \nher), 3 months\' imprisonment . . g Aug. \n\nHenry Perry, for robbing Clarence Lewis in a Ken- \nsington railway carriage, and attempting to throw \nhim out of the carriage, &c. ; whipping and 20 \nyears\' penal servitude . . . 15 Sept. \n\nThomas Wheeler for murder of Edward Anstee at \nMarshall\'s Wick farm, near St. Alban\'s, 22 Aug. \nconvicted 6, 8 Nov. \n\nSergeant Wm. Marshman (by court-martial), for \nalleged fraudulent marking at the volunteer rifle \nmeetings at Wimbledon, 1S78, 1879, 1880, ac- \nquitted . 13 Aug. \xe2\x80\x94 16 Sept. \n\nGeorge Pavey convicted of murder of Ada Shepherd, \naged ten (Acton murder), and Wm. Herbert, con- \nvicted of murder of Jane Messenger in Finsbury \npark 24 Nov. \n\nMr. P. Callan, M.P., convicted of libel against Mr. \nA. M. Sullivan, M.P. (fine 50I.) . . 30 Nov. \n\nDebenham & Preebody v. Mellon, appeal, house of \nlords decide that a husband is not responsible \nfor wife\'s debts if he allow her sufficient means, \n\n27 Nov. \n\nAttorney-general v. Edison Telephone company, 29 \nNov. etseq., verdict against company, establish- \ning monopoly bought by Government 20 Dec. \n\nTrial of Charles Stewart Parnell, Thomas Sexton, \nTimothy Daniel Sullivan, John Dillon, Joseph \nGillis Biggar, all M.P.\'s, Thomas Brennan, Pat- \nrick Egan and Michael O\'Sullivan, secretary, \ntreasurer, and assist, secretary of the land league, \nMichael Boyton, Patrick Joseph Gordon, Matthew \nHarris, John W. Mally, John W. Walsh, and \nP. J. Sheridan, indicted for conspiracy to prevent \ntenants paying rent, <fec. Queen\'s Bench, Dublin ; \nlord chief justice May retires, as having been \nalleged to have given an opinion on the case \npreviously ; trial began 28 Dec. 1880, jury dis- \n\n\xe2\x80\x9e agreeing were discharged . . -25 Jan. \n\nJones and others (trustees) v. rev. John Turner \nStannard, nonconformist minister, and others, to \ndismiss him for doctrine contrary to trust deed ; \nverdict for plaintiffs, chancery division 1 Feb. \n\nMary Annie Wilmot, nurse, attempt to poison Mrs. \nBooth (whose son and daughter had died under \ndoubtful circumstances), at Sheffield, strong \ncase, acquitted 16 Feb. \n\nHampstead small-pox hospital case (see above, \n1878-9), on appeal, to the house of lords, preced- \ning judgments reversed . . .7 March, \n\nDysart peerage legitimacy case, Wm. John Manners \nclaims by an English marriage of lord Hunting- \ntower, Albert Edwin Tollemache by a Scotch mar- \nriage, -which is declared not proved, house of \nlords (painful details) ... 7 March, \n\nClarke v. Bradlaugh, suit for penalty of 500L for \nsitting and voting as M.P. without taking the \noath, on July 2, 1880; verdict for plaintiff ; ap- \npeal, sentence confirmed* . . 30, 31 March, \n\nEdward Levi Lawson v. Labouchere, M.P. for libels \nin Truth, seven days\' trial, jury disagree, no \nverdict 28 March, \n\nSpiritualist case, Susan Wills Fletcher (wife of a \nspiritualist doctor in America, who was concerned \nin the case), convicted of obtaining by false pre- \ntences about io,oooi. (in jewellery, &c), of Mrs. \nHart-Davies, long trial, twelve months\' imprison- \nment with hard labour . . .12 April, \n\nJohann Most, convicted of libel against Alexander \nII. of Bussia, and incitement to murder in the \nFreiheit for 19 March, 25 May; sentence \naffirmed on appeal, 18 June ; 16 months\' impri- \nsonment with hard labovu- . . 29 June, \n\nSaunders v. Richardson, 5 judges decide that pa- \nrents must either pay board-school fees for child \n\n\n\n* Verdict affirmed (see Barratry), 22 July ; Bradlaugh \nappeals, 12 \xe2\x80\x94 14 Nov. ; new trial granted, 2\', 3 Dec. 1881 ; \nappeal allowed by lords justices, 22\xe2\x80\x94 24 Feb. ; sentence \nconfirmed, 30 March, 1882 ; sentence reversed by the \nlords, 9 April, 1883. \n\n\n\nbeforehand or apply for pecuniary help ; coming \nwithout fee considered non-attendance 27 June, 18S \n\nBend Or libel, Barrow v. "Morning Post," for accu- \nsation of doctoring the horse, verdict for plain- \ntiff, damages 1750? 27, 28 June, ,, \n\nBig Ben libel, Stainbank (for Mears) v. sir E. C. \nBeckett, 27 June, verdict for plaintiff, 200I. da- \nmages 5 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPercy Lefroy alias Mapleton committed for trial \nfor murder of Mr. Fk. I. Gold on the London and \nBrighton railway (27 June), 21 July ; convicted, 8 \nNov.; confessed; executed-. . . 29 Nov. ,, \n\nNotting Hill Fire, William Nash and Maria Wright, \nfor murder of Elizabeth Jane Clark and others by \nfire, 30 May; he sentenced to death (reprieved), \nshe acquitted 3, 4 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLedru Rolin Reynolds, adventurer, with many \naliases, convicted of remarkable frauds connected \nwith the silver mine company, two years\' penal \nservitude 15 Sept ,, \n\nMabel Wilberforce, an adventuress, convicted of \ngross perjury in action against Mr. Philip ; nine \nmonths\' penal servitude . . . 24 Oct. ,, \n\nKate Dover, for murder of Chas. Skinner, artist, \nat Sheffield, convicted of manslaughter . 7 Feb. 18S \n\nDr. G. H. Lamson, for murder of Percy M. John \n(see Wimbledon) ; convicted, 8 \xe2\x80\x94 14 March ; exe- \ncuted 28 April , t \n\nRoderick Maclean, for shooting at the queen, ac- \nquitted as insane .... 19 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nEsther Pay, for murder of Georgiana Moore (see \nPimlico), acquitted . . . 27 \xe2\x80\x94 29 April, ,, \n\nAlbert Young, for threatening to shoot at the \nqueen, 10 years\' penal servitude . 26 May, , y \n\nMr. Thomas Scrutton v. Miss Helen Taylor, a libel \nconcerning St. Paul\'s industrial school ; damages \nzoool. . . . . . . .30 June, ,, \n\nSir Henry Tyler, M.P., v. Wm. Jas. Ramsey, Geo. \nWm. Foote, and Edwd. Wm. Whittle, also Chas. \nBradlaugh, for blasphemous libel in the Free- \nthinker (lord mayor, 1 1 July), committed for trial, \n\n21 July, ,, \n\nNext of Kin Fraud, J. E. Rogers, A. Mc.Kenzie, J. \nH. . Shakspear, and W. Evans sentenced to im- \nprisonment 21 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThomas Walsh, for treason-felony (see Fenians), 7 \nyears\' penal servitude . . . 7 \xe2\x80\x94 9 Aug. ,, \n\nJohn Saunders, desperate ruffian, convicted of bur- \nglary and attempt to murder at Stamford-hill ; \npenal servitude for life ... 19 Oct. ,, \n\nCharles Soutar, for stealing the body of the earl of \nCrawford ; Edinburgh ; 5 years\' penal servitude, \n\n23, 24 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nWm. Meager Bartlet, a manager of mines, con- \nvicted of murder of illegitimate child, Exeter, \n\n27 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCharles Brookshaw, for threatening to kill the \nprince of Wales, 10 years\' penal servitude, \n\n21 Nov. ,, \nSt. Luke\'s Mystery, Franz Felix Stum, convicted of \n\nforgery of signature of Urban Napoleon Stanger, \nbaker, who had disappeared ; 10 years\' penal \nservitude n Dec. ,, \n\nPlumstead Murder, Louisa Jane Taylor, convicted \nof poisoning Mary Ann Tregillis, aged 81, 15 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMaxwell Heron, commander of H.M.S. Clyde, at \nAberdeen sentenced by court-martial to dismissal \nfor embezzlement and misconduct . 21 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRichard Claude Belt (sculptor) v. Charles Lawes \n(sculptor), for libel in Vanity Fair, 20 Aug. 1881, \net seq. ; (charges of fraudulent imposture, &c.,) \nbefore Baron Huddleston, Exchequer division, \n21 June, et seq., 14 Nov., et seq. ; verdict on 43rd \nday for plaintiff, damages 5000Z. . 28 Dec. , : \n\nGoodacre v. Watson, to restrain deposition of pes- \ntilential refuse on building ground, as a nuisance \nat Fulham ; injunction granted with costs, \n\n22 Feb. 18; \nBethell v. Sir Percy Shelley, for infringement of \n\nthe Theatre act, verdict for defendant, is. damages \n\n23 Feb. ,, \nG. W. Foote, editor, W. J. Ramsey, printer, and \n\nH. A. Kemp, publisher, sentenced to imprison- \nment for blasphemous libels in the Freethinker, \n\n5 Mar. \xe2\x80\x9e \nClarke v. Bradlaugh, verdict for defendant on ap- \npeal to lords (see above, March, 1881) 9 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nTEIALS. \n\nC. Bradlaugh, for blasphemy in the Freethinker, \n10 April, acquitted . . . .14 April, : \n\nBradlaugh v. Newdegate, for supporting an action \nby a common informer, verdict for plaintiff with \ncosts 23 April, \n\nPhoenix park murders (sec under Ireland) . April, \n\nMay, \n\nBelt v. Lawes : appeal for new trial, 24 May \xe2\x80\x94 9 June, \n\nDynamite Plot (see Birmingham, England, and \nLondon, 1883), Thomas Gallagher, Henry Wilson, \nJohn Curtin, and Alfred Whitehead, for treason- \nfelony, sentenced to .penal servitude for life ; \nWilliam Ansburgh and Bernard Gallagher, ac- \nquitted 11 \xe2\x80\x94 14 June, \n\nStrome Ferry Case, Ten men were sentenced to \nfour months\' imprisonment for violently stopping \nthe transmission of fish by Highland railway on \nSunday, 3 June 23 July, \n\nDynamite conspiracy, Timothy Featherstone, and \nthree other Fenians, convicted at Liverpool, \n\n7\xe2\x80\x949 Aug. \n\nWm. Gouldstone convicted of murder of his five \nchildren at Walthamstow (on 8 Aug.), 14 Sept. ; \nrespited as insane .... 3 Oct. \n\nBournemouth case. Mrs. Miller, the Joy breach of \npromise ; conflicting evidence ; damages for \nplaintiff, 2350Z 15 Nov. \n\nFrench Date Coffee Co., Bel lairs v. Haymen and \nothers, promoters ; misleading prospectus, ver- \ndict for plaintiff 22 Nov. \n\nLondon and River Plate Bank robbery, George Warden \npleads guilty to robbery of securities (about \n116,000?.), 26 Nov., and John Davis Watters con- \nvicted of receiving the same ; both sentenced to \n12 years\' penal servitude . . -27 Nov. \n\nDobbs v. Grand Junction water works co. ; on ap- \npeal the house of lords decides that houses are to \nbe rated for water on the rated, not the gross \nvalue 30 Nov. \n\nPatrick O\'Donnell, convicted of murder of James \nCarey, the informer (see Ireland), 30 Nov., \n\n1 Dec. \n\nPriestman v. Thomas: Whalley will case; incredi- \nble incidents ; verdict for plaintiff; a forged will ; \nfraudulent compromise, proposed by defendant ; \n15 days\' trial 4 Dec. \n\nCentral News v. Judy, for libel respecting telegrams, \nverdict for defendant . . . .13 Dec. \n\nBelt v. Lawes, again ; the judges decide for a new \ntrial unless Mr. Belt accepts 500^. instead of \n5,oooL ; Belt accepts, defendant objects, 21 Dec. \n\nWm. Wolff and Edwd. Bondurand, for plot to blow \nup German embassy, arrested in Westminster, \n22 Nov. 1883 ; jury disagree, 14 \xe2\x80\x94 19 Jan. ; \nprisoners discharged . . . .28 Jan. : \n\nBradlaugh v. Gosset ; verdict for defendant (see \nParliament) 9 Feb. \n\nAttorney-general v. Birkbeck, for contravention of \nthe Bank act of 1844 ; verdict for the crown, \n\n9 Feb. \n\nLiverpool poisoning case, Catherine Flanagan and \nMargaret Higgins, convicted of the murder of \nThomas Higgins ; other charges, 16 Feb. ; exe- \ncuted 3 March, \n\nBelt v. Lawes, appeal before Master of the Rolls \nand others, 3 March, sentence of the other court \naffirmed with costs ... 17 March, \n\nLondon Financial Association v. Kelk and others ; \ncase dismissed (see Alexandra park) 8 March, \n\nEarl v. countess of Euston, divorce sought on \nground that she had a husband living when she \nmarried ; as it was proved that this man had a \nwife living when he married her, and that thus \nshe was free, divorce was refused . 4 April, \n\nParks-place Club declared by the Queen\'s Bench to \nbe a gaming-house ; Mr. Jenks, the proprietor \nand others fined .... 24 June, \n\nMrs. Weldon v. Dr. Semple, for signing certificate \nof lunacy ; ten days ; verdict for plaintiff, 1000/. \ndamages 28 July, \n\nDaley and Egan, Aug. 1884 (see Dynamite) . May, \n\nThomas Henry Orrock, convicted of murder of po- \nliceman Cole (on 1 Dec. 1882) ; remarkable evi- \ndence 19, 20 Sept. \n\nTicliliorne Claimant (see above, 1871 \xe2\x80\x94 4) released on \nticket-of-leave 20 Oct. \n\nMignonette Case (see Wrecks) . . 6 Nov \n\n\n\n991 \n\n\n\nTEIALS. \n\n\n\nMiss Finney v. viscount Garmoyle ; breach of pro- \nmise of marriage ; a verdict by consent for io,oooL \n\n20 Nov. \n\nDefence society for innocent prisoners; Morley \nJervis sentenced to 2 years\' penal servitude, \nVernon Garland 15 months\' and Charles Kemp \n\xe2\x80\xa2 9 months\', for fraud ... 21 Nov. \n\nAdams v. Hon. B. Coleridge, for libel in a letter to \nMiss M. Coleridge ; verdict of jury for plaintiff, \n3,ooo\xc2\xa3. ; verdict by judge Manisty for defendant, \nthe letter being privileged . . 21, 22 Nov. \n\nWhalley Will Case (see Dee. 1883), Charles Thomas \nand Thomas William Nash, convicted of forgery, \n15 years\' penal servitude, Edward Gunnell ac- \nquitted . , . . . 24 Nov.\xe2\x80\x94 2 Dec. \n\nMrs. Weldon v. Dr. Forbes Winslow, for treating \n\nher asa lunatic, 500I. awarded to plaintiff, 4th trial, \n\n25 \xe2\x80\x94 29 Nov. \n\nEliz. Gibbons, for murder of husband ; she asserted \nhis suicide, 18-19 Dec..; life imprisonment,3i Dec. \n\nMr. Edmund Yates sentenced to 4 months\' im- \nprisonment, for libel against the earl of Lonsdale \n(in The World), July, 1883- April, 1884; appeal dis- \nallowed 16 Jan. \n\nMr. Irving Bishop fined, io,oooZ. for libel (reduced \nto 500L on appeal) (see Thought Reading) 15 Jan. \n\nJohn Lee, footman, convicted of murder of Miss \nEmma A. W. Keyse, his mistress (at Babbicombe, \nnear Torquay, 15 Nov.), 2-4 Feb. ; when about to \nbe hanged at Exeter, the drop failed three times, \nand Lee was removed and reprieved . 23 Feb. \n\nThe earl of Durham\'s petition for annulling his mar- \nriage, on account of his wife\'s alleged insanity \nat the time of their union dismissed with costs \nby sir James Hannen, after 8 days\' trial, \n\n10 March, \n\nMrs. Georgina Weldon sentenced to 6 months\' im- \nprisonment for libel on M. Jules Prudence Ri- \nviere 30 March, \n\nJames Lee, convicted of murder of Inspector Sim- \nmons at Romford (25 Jan.) . . 28 April \n\nJohn Gilbert Cunningham and Harry Burton con- \nvicted of treason-felony (see under Tower), and \nfor complicity with criminal explosions (25 Feb. \net seq.) ; sentenced to penal servitude for life, \n\n11-18 May, \n\nWeldon v. Gounod for libel ; io,oooL awarded 7 May, \n\nEugene Loraine, engraver, an accomplished \nswindler, and chief of a seminary of crime, \nconvicted of attempted fraud by forgery, \n\n22 May, \n\nBenj. Wai\'burton\'s will ; Warburton v. Childs, \nHobson & Moss ; testator declared insane and \nintestate ; legacies lost by Royal Society and \nothers ; seven days\' trial ... 23 June, \n\nMrs. Lotinga v. Commercial Union Insurance Co. \nPolicy of her husband Isaac for 2,oooL estab- \nlished ; conflicting evidence respecting his death \nand temperance (14 days\' trial) . . 2 July, \n\nJames Malcolm (otherwise capt. Macdonald) for \nbigamy (gross case), Emma Dash, at Brighton, 4 \nApril ; doubtful identity ; jury disagree 25 Sept. ; \nsecond trial, 16 Oct.; convicted, seven years\' \npenal servitude 24 Oct. \n\nW. T. Stead, editor of Pall Mall Gazette, (2) \nSampson Jacques (assistant) (3), Bramwell Booth, \nof Salvation Army, (4) Rebecca Jarrett, and (5) \nLouise Mourey, connection with abduction of \nEliza Armstrong, under 16, and indecent assault: \n(1) three months\' imprisonment, (2) one month, \n(3) acquitted, (4) six months\', (5), six months\' \nwith hard labour . . . 23 Oct.-io Nov. \n\nMrs. Weldon r. sir Henry De Bathe fur slander, \n19 Nov. ; 1,000?. damages awarded . 23 Nov. \n\nAnthony Benjamin Rudge, James Baker, and \nJohn Martin convicted for burglary at Xetherby \nHall, Cumberland, 28 Oct., and murder of police \nconstable Byrnes at Plumpton, 29 Oct. (captured \nby railway servants) . . . 18-20 Jan. 1 \n\nJohnMagee, photographer, sentenced toseven years\' \npenal servitude for threatening the prince of \nWales 15 Jan. \n\nRichard Belt, sculptor, sentenced to twelve \nmonths\' imprisonment with hard labour for \nfraudulent sale of jewellery i" sir Win. Abdj ; \nhis brother Walter acquitted . . 15 March, \n\nJohn Burns, limn Byde Champion, Henry \nMayers llyndiiian, and John Edward Williams \n\n\n\nTEIALS. \n\n\n\n992 \n\n\n\nTEIALS. \n\n\n\nfor seditious words ; acquitted but censured, \n\n6-10 April, 18 \n\nMrs. Adelaide Bartlett tried for the murder of her \nhusband by chloroform ; (Rev. George Dyson \ncharged as an accessory before the fact discharged, \n12 April ); Mrs. Bartlett acquitted 12-17 April, > \n\nDr. Lyell, for heirs-at-law, v. Kennedy, agent for \nAnne Duncan, intestate ; long litigation re- \nspecting property ; verdict for plaintiff, 22 June, , \n\nCrawford v. Crawford ; divorce of Mrs. Crawford, \ndecreed, 12 Feb. ; confirmed ; serious charges \nagainst sir Charles Dilke, denied by him but \naccepted by jury .... 23 July, , \n\nDiamond robbery with violence to Mr. Julius \nTabak, the owner, 25 March ; conviction and \nsentences : Adolphe Weiner, instigator, seven \nyears\' penal servitude ; James Palmer, perpe- \ntrator ten years\'"; accomplices, Leon Weiner, \nDaniel Jacoby, and Samuel Scandland, each five \n\nyears, 1-4 Nov. , \n\n[Principal witness, Toussaint or Denuncis, who \nwas sentenced to 15 years\' penal servitude in \nJune for his joint action with Palmer, who \nescaped when Toussaint was taken.] \n\nMary Lena Sebright (formerly Scott) v. Arthur \nSebright ; a merely formal marriage contract \nentered into by the terrorised plaintiff annulled, \n\n16 Nov. , \n\nAdams v. lord Coleridge and his son, the lion. B. \nColeridge, for libel in letters sent to an arbitrator \n(lord Monkswell), wrongly delivered ; verdict \nfor defendants with costs . . 17-25 Nov. ,. \n\nLord and lady Colin Campbell divorce, double \nsuit (previous judicial separation ; numerous \ncharges on both sides not proved) ; suits for \ndivorce dismissed ... 27 N0V.-20 Dec. , \n\nMiss Allcard v. Miss Skinner (superior of the \n"Sisters of the Poor", an Anglican convent, \nKev. Henry Nihill, director), to recover property \ngiven as under undue influence ; verdict for \ndefendant, 31 Jan. ; appeal rejected . 9 July, 18: \n\nThomas William Carroll convicted for atromous \nmurder of Lydia Green, at 8, Baches - street, \nHoxton, 5 Feb. ... 30 March-2 April, ,. \n\nMr. Dillon and other M.P\'s. for conspiracy ; jury \ndisagree (see Ireland) . . . i4 _2 4 Feb- >. \n\nCol. Sandoval sentenced to one month\'s imprison- \nment and fined 500Z. for fitting out vessel \nagainst Venezuela .... 21 March, , \n\nMr- James Davis, proprietor of the Bat, convicted \nfor libel against Mr. Robert Peck ; three months\' \nimprisonment, and fine of 500?. . 30 March, ,, \n\nMr. Edward St. John Brenon v. Messrs. Kidgway, \npublishers of the "Black Pamphlet" (relating \nto Irish republican brotherhood &c.) ; 500Z. \nawarded as damages .... 3 May, ,. \n\nProfessor Caird v. Syme (a bookseller) ; after \ndiffering decisions of the courts, the house of \nlords, on appeal, decides against the publication \nof university lectures without the consent of the \nlecturers 13 June, ,, \n\nBeyfus v. Jonas and others, charge of fraudulent \nconspiracy ; thirteen days\' trial ; verdict for \nplaintiff, 40s. damages 5 July, .1 \n\nSamuel Taylor, driver, and Robert Davis, fireman, \ntried for manslaughter (see Railway Accidents, \nDoncaster) 14 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPolice constable Endacott acquitted of perjury \n(see under Police) ... 31 Oct.-i Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nJoyce (the marquis\'s agent) v. the marquis of \nClanricarde, for libel in a letter ; verdict for \nplaintiff ; damages 2,500?. . . 6, 7 Dec. ,, \n\nLong firm fraud ; thirteen men convicted ; sentenced \nto various terms of imprisonment . 21 Dec. ,, \n\nCuninghame Graham, M.P., and John Burns \ntried for assaulting police, &c, on 13 Nov. 1887 \n(see Riots) ; convicted of taking part in an \nunlawful assembly ; six weeks\' imprisonment \nwithout hard labour . . . 16-18 Jan. i8i \n\nDynamite conspiracy (see under Dynamite), Thomas \nCallan and Michael Harkins sentenced to fifteen \nyears\' penal servitude .... 3 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSlater v. Slater ; a chancery forgery case ; the \ncourt defrauded of about 4,000?., the property of \nMiss Rose Maud Maxwell, by the forgeries of \nWilliam Bowdeu, a solicitor\'s clerk : the money \nordered to be paid to her by the court of \nchancery ; Bowden in Nebraska ; John Francis \n\n\n\nLidiard, a solicitor, his friend, ordered to repay \n\nthe money to the court ... 4 Feb. 1888 \n\nMarquis of Abergavenny v. bishop of Llandaff, \nafter much litigation, verdict for the bishop who \nhad refused to induct the Rev.- Robert W. Gosse \ninto a living, being ignorant of the Welsh \nlanguage 22 Feb. ,, \n\nMajor Borrowes fined 400?. and costs for assaulting \nhis brother-in-law, lord Howard de Walden, \n\n10 March, ,, \n\nMajor Templer honourably acquitted of charge of \ndivulging secret information concerning military \nballooning, &c. ..... g April. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMr. Samuel Peters t>. Mr. C. Bradlaugh, M.P., for libel \nrespecting cheques given him by lord Salisbury \nand others for the relief of the unemployed ; \n300?. awarded to the plaintiff . . 18 April, ,, \n\nWarne & Co. v. Seebohm (see Copyright), 10 May, ,, \n\nHutt and another v. The governors of Haileybury \ncollege (see under Haileybury) . . 19 June, ,, \n\nWood v. Cox (see under Races) . . 29 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nO\'JJonnell v. Walter and another (for libel in the \nTimes) ; verdict for the defendants (see under \nParnellites) 2-5 July, ,, \n\nTrials respecting electric light patents (see under \nElectricity) 1886-8 \n\nGeorge and Kelynge Greenway, bankers, of \nWarwick and Leamington, sentenced to imprison- \nment, &c, for frauds. . . . 31 July, 1888 \n\nTrial of Regent\'s Park murderer (see Regent\'s Park), \n\nJuly, ,, \nR. P. B. Frost and his presumed wife, Annie \nFrost (clever and fascinating), who as Mrs Gordon \nBailie and other names, had carried on a long \nseries of frauds at home and abroad by means of \nfictitious cheques, convicted of cheating trades- \nmen of goods and money ; he sentenced to eigh- \nteen months\' imprisonment, with hard labour, she \nto five years\' penal servitude . . .24 Oct. ,, \nAnthony Isidor Glika sentenced to ten years\' penal \nservitude for defrauding his employers, Messrs. \nVagliano Bros., and the Bank of England, of \n71,500?., 27 June, -7 July ; in a subsequent trial \ntrial the Queen\'s Bench Division adjudged the \nbank to bear the loss . " . . . 2 Nov. ,, \n[Sentence confirmed by court of appeal, 21 May, \n1889 ; reversed by the House of Lords, 5 March \n\n!8 9 i.] \n\nMrs. Weldon v. M. Riviere and others ; verdict for \ndefendants 15 Nov. ,, \n\nCharles Richardson and Edgell, who had\' con- \nfessed to burglary at Edliugham vicarage, near \nAlnwick, on 7 Feb. 1879 ; sentenced to five years\' \n\npenal servitude 24 Nov. ,, \n\n[Michael Brannagham and Peter Murphy, who \nhad been wrongfully convicted for this crime, \nand attempt to murder, had been sentenced to \nrienal servitude for life, April, 1879 ; each \nreceived 800Z. as compensation, Dec. 1888 ; the \npolice were acquittecl of perjury, and doubts \nwere thrown on the confession of Richardson \nand Edgell, Feb. 1889.] \n\nLyster, Burdett, and Clarke convicted of burglary \nand attempt to murder Mr. George Atkin at \nMuswell Hill ; sentenced to penal servitude for \nlife 7 March, ,, \n\nMrs. Sophia Irwin v. Pall Mall Gazette for libel ; \ndamages awarded, 1,000?. ... 4 April, 1889 \n\nSir George Chetwynd v. the earl of Durham, for \nlibels relating to racing transactions, the damages \nclaimed, 20,000?. After some litigation and \nmuch discussion, the case was referred to the \narbitration of the stewards of the jockey \nclub, Mr. Jas. Lowther, M.P., the earl of March, \nand prince Soltikoff ; they awarded sir George \nChetwynd \\d. damages, each person to pay his \n\nown costs 29 June, ,, \n\n[Sir George Chetwynd, who was exonerated from \nthe graver, but censured for the lighter charges, \nquitted the club, 5 July, 1S89.] \n\nW. O\'Brien, M.P., v. the marquis of Salisbury for \nlibel in a speech at Watford, 10 March ; charging \nhim with inciting to crime in a speech at \nBallyneale near Clonmel, 30 Sept. 1888 ; damages \nclaimed, 10,000?.; trial at Manchester; verdict \nfor defendant . . . . . .20 July, ,, \n\n[New trial refused by the queen\'s bench, 21 Dec. \n1889 ; appeal disallowed, 8 May, 1890.] \n\n\n\nTEIALS. \n\n\n\n993 \n\n\n\nTRIALS. \n\n\n\nMrs. Florence Elizabeth Maybriek charged with \n.poisoning her husband, James Maybriek, at \nAigburth, by arsenic, tried at Liverpool by Mr. \njustice Stephen ; convicted 21 July-7 Aug. ; \nsentence of death commuted to penal servitude \nfor life 22 Aug. \n\nRweedore trials, see Ireland . . . Oct. \n\nJohn Watson Laurie (at Edinburgh) convicted of \nthe murder of Edwin Robert Rose, his fellow \ntraveller, in the Island of Arran (on 15 July), \n8, 9 Nov. 1889 ; respited as of unsound mind, \n28 Nov. ; sentenced to penal servitude for life \n\nabout 1 Dec. \n\nitev. Percy G. Benson, vicar of Hoo, Kent, sus- \npended from duty for one year for excluding \nMrs. Swayne from the communion, for schism, \n25 Oct. ; directed by the bishop of Rochester to \nreceive her, yields 29 Nov. \n\nMr. Herbert J. Gladstone v. Colonel George B. \nMalleson, for libel in Allahabad Morning Post, \ndamages awarded 1,000?. ... 16 Jan. : \n\nMr. Ernest Parke, sentenced to one year\'s imprison- \nment for libel against the earl of Euston in the \nNorth London Press . . . .16 Jan. \n\nTrial of the bishop of Lincoln, see under Canter- \nbury 4 Feb. \n\n<Crewe murder ; Richard and George Davies, youths, \naged 19 and 16, convicted of the murder of their \nfather, Richard Davies, a clothier, on 25 Jan. \nwhile riding home in a pony chaise, 20, 21 \nMarch ; Richard executed, George reprieved \n(penal servitude for life) ... 8 April, \n\nMiss Florence Jennie Day !\'. Mr. Morris Roberts, \nfor breacli of promise of marriage, Birmingham ; \ndamages awarded, 2,500?. . . 26 March, \n\nMiss Emily Mary Hairs v. sir George Elliot, M.P. \n(aged 75), for breach of promise of marriage ; \ndamages claimed 5,000?. ; jury disagree, 18 April, \n\nLord Dunlo (son ol the earl of Clancarty) v. lady \nPunlo and Mr. T. E. Wertheimer, six days\' trial ; \ndivorce refused 30 July, \n\nMiss Gladys Knowles v. Mr. Leslie Duncan, pro- \nprietor and editor of the Matrimonial News, for \nbreach of promise of marriage ; damages awarded, \n10,000?. ...... 11, 12 Aug. \n\nHeginald John Birchall convicted of the murder of \nMr. F. J. Benwell, see Canada, 29 Sept. ; exe- \ncuted 14 Nov. \n\nCapt. O\'Shea\'s suit against his wife, Mrs. C. \nO\'Shea, and Mr. C. S. Parnell, M.P. ; divorce \n\xe2\x80\xa2granted 15-17 Nov. \n\nCatherine Theresa Riordan sentenced to six years\' \npenal servitude for attempting to kill Dr. James \nFrank Bright, master of University College, \n\xe2\x96\xa0Oxford (6 Nov.) . - . . . .15 Nov. \n\nMr. R. Buchanan v. Mrs. Langtry, respecting a non- \naccepted play ; damages awarded, 150?. 21 Nov. \n\n.Mary Eleanor Wheeler (otherwise Pearcey) con- \nvicted of the murder of Mrs. Phoebe Hogg and \n\ninfant 1-3 Dec. \n\n[Mrs. Wheeler had been connected with her \nvictim\'s husband, Frank S. Hogg, before their \nmarriage ; she invited Mrs. Hogg to her rooms \n\xe2\x80\xa2at No. 2, Priory-street, Kentish-town, and there \nmurdered her; she then in a perambulator con- \nveyed (lie body of the mother to near Crossfield- \nroad, Hampstead, and that of the child to a field \nnear Finchley-road, 24 Oct. 1890; her motive ap- \npears td have been. jealousy, executed 23 Dec. 1890.] \n\nBellamy v. Wells, proprietor of the Pelican Club, \nGerrard-street, Soho, to restrain a nuisance by \nnoise caused by boxing matches, concerts, &c. ; \njustice Romer, in the chancery division, forbids \nthe assembling of crowds and calling cabs be- \ntween midnight and 7 a.m. . . . 6 Dec. \n\nThomas Macdonald, convicted on his own confes- \nsion of the murder of Miss Elizabeth Ann Holt, \nat Belmont, near Bolton . . . i2Dec. \n\nMr. Harry II. Marks (editor of the Financial News) \nV. Mr. George Washington Butterheld, for libel \nrespecting gold mines ; verdict, not guilty ; \nlibel proved, but publication justified 8-17 Dec. \n\nWnbir Alfred [Iargan, tried for murder, convicted \nof manslaughter, for killing two roughs in King \nland, London, N.E., in alleged self-defence \nsentenced by Mr. justice Charles to 20 years \npenal servitude, 8 Sept.; commuted to 12 months\' \n\n17 Dec. \n\n\n\nCharles Lyddon, acquitted of the murder of his \nhalf brother, William Reeks-Lyddon, of Faver- \nsham, who had been much ill-used 18-21 March, \n\nClitheroe case (see under Wives) \n\nBaccarat ease ; sir William Gordon-Cumming v. \nMr. and Mis. Lycett Green and others, for \nslander, charging him with cheating in the game \nof baccarat, in the house of Mr. Arthur Wilson, \nTranby Croft, near Doncaster, Sept. 1890 ; counsel \nfor plaintilf, sir Edward Clarke ; sol. gen. for the \ndefendants, sir Charles Russell, and others ; \nqueen\'s bench division, lord Coleridge ; evidence \nwas given by the prince of Wales ; verdict for \nthe defendants .... 1-9 June, \nCoombs v. Barber and others, in relation to the \nGreat Eastern Steamship company ; queen\'s \nbench division ; the case stopped ; Mr. Barber \nexculpated from criminal charges . 26 June, \nThe Cathcart case ; after 17 days\' investigation, \nMrs. Cathcart is declared to be of sound mind \nby Mr. Bulwer, a master in lunacy, and a special \njury, and ordered to be released from custody \n\n23 July, \nBerkeley Peerage case, ivhich see ; decision 31 July, \nMr. Francis Du Bedat, president of the Dublin \nStock Exchange, pleads guilty to charges of \nfraud relating to bankruptcy and breaches of \ntrust ; sentence, one year\'s imprisonment with \nhard labour, and seven years\' penal servitude \n\n20 Oct. \nThe rev. James C. Clutterbuck, D.C.L., an in- \nspector of workhouse schools, convicted of ob- \ntaining money on false pretences, on his own \nci mfession ; sentenced to 4 years\' penal servitude ; \n\nWells 21 Nov. \n\nThe petition of Mabel Edith, countess Russell, to \nthe divorce court, for judicial separation from \nearl Russell, on account of cruelty, dismissed \n\nwith costs 1-4 Dec. \n\nPinnock v. Chapman &; Hall, for libel in " West \nAfrican Stories," by major A. B. Ellis ; 200?. \ndamages awarded .... 7-9 Dec. \nMiss Ethel Florence Elliot (afterwards Mrs. Os- \nborne) v. major and Mrs. Hargreaves, for slander \nin charging her with stealing jewels while their \nguest at Torquay, 9-18 Feb. ; verdict by consent \nfor the defendants . . . 15-22 Dec. \n[It was proved that Miss Elliot sold the jewels \nto Messrs. Spinks, in Gracechurch street, for \n550?.., 19 Feb. ; that she cashed the cheque at \nthe bank of Messrs. Glyn, Mills & Co., receiv- \ning gold, 23 Feb. ; that through Messrs. Benja- \nmin, of Conduit street, W., she changed gold \nfor bank notes, at the National and provincial \nbank, in St. James\'s square, early in March ; \nand that she endorsed one of these notes for \n50?., and paid it to Messrs. Maple, which note \nwas passed into the Bank of England. Infor- \nmation was given to the judge, Mr. Justice \nDenman, and the trial was suspended, 19 Dec. \nIt was admitted by all the parties concerned \nthat capt. Osborne, the plaintiff\'s husband, \nhad acted throughout as an honourable and \nchivalrous gentleman. Mrs. Osborne, at her \ntrial for larceny and perjury, was sentenced to \nmonths\' imprisonment, with some hard la- \nbour, 9 March ; released in the summer, [892. \nThe jewels were sold by auction tor major 1 lar- \ngreaves for 1,076?., 29 March, 1892.] \nMr. Alexander Jacob, a jeweller of Simla, charged \nat Calcutta by the Nizam of Hyderabad of cri- \nminally misappropriating 23 lakhs of rupees \n(above 100,0000) deposited by his highness as \nearnest money for the purchase of the gem known \nas the "imperial diamond," after a long trial, \n\nwas acquitted 22 Dec. \n\nNettlefold (limited), Birmingham screw-makers v, \nReynolds, an American agent, for alleged in- \nfringement of patent ; 14 days\' trial ; veroicl for \ndefendant with costs .... 22 Jan. \nMr. GeorgeVW. Hastings, M.P., misappropriating \nto himself, a trustee, about 20,000?., the property \nof the children of major John Brown, pleaded \nguilty ; sentenced to 5 years\' penal servitude, \n\n1 1 March, \nMaitland Francis Morland, .1 law tutor at Cam- \nbridge, not connected with the university, \ncharged with sending threatening letters lo \n\n3 s \n\n\n\n1892 \n\n\n\nTRIBUNES. \n\n\n\n994 \n\n\n\nTRINIDAD. \n\n\n\nextort money, pleaded guilty ; sentenced to 10 \nyears\' penal servitude . . . n March, 1892 \n\nMiss Mary E. T. Knox v. canon Hayman, D.D., and \nco-directors of the Canadian Pacific Colonization \ncorporation ; verdict for plaintiff ; to be repaid \n258?., the amount claimed . . . 25 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nConcha, pauper, v. Concha and wife ; a series of \nintricate suits respecting property, which com- \nmenced in 1858, closed by the house of lords \nvarying the decision of the court of appeal, \n\n28 March, ,, \n\nFrederick Charles, Victor Cailes, John Westley, \nWilliam Ditchfield, Joseph Thomas Deakin, and \nJean Battolla, anarchists, tried for unlawfully \npossessing explosive substances (with evil inten- \ntions) at Walsall, 1 Nov. 1891\xe2\x80\x947 Jan. ; Charles, \nBattolla, and Cailes, at Stafford, sentenced to \n\n10 years\' penal servitude, Deakin to 5 years\' \npenal serviiude, Westley and Ditchfield acquitted, \n\n30 March \xe2\x80\x94 4 April, ,, \nHansard Publishing Union, sir Henry and Mr. \nJoseph M. Isaacs, Mr. Charles Dollman, Mr. \nHoratio Bottomley, directors, charged with de- \nfrauding the company and applicants for shares ; \n\n11 days\' examination ; committed for trial, \n\n6 April, ,, \nMr. Lane Fox v. \xe2\x96\xa0 Kensington Electric Lighting \ncompany for infringement of patent ; verdict for \ndefendants with costs . . -30 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \nMrs. Montagu sentenced at Dublin to one year\'s \nimprisonment for cruel manslaughter of her \ndaughter, aged 3 years ... 4 April. ,, \nDavid John Nicoll, journalist, sentenced to 18 \nmonths\' imprisonment, with hard labour, for \ninciting persons to murder Mr. H. Matthews, the \nhome secretary, and others, by writing in the \nCommonweal, condemning the punishment of the \nWalsall anarchists (Jan.) ... 6 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nWalter (the Times) v. Steinkoppf (the St. James\'s \nGazette), to restrain the copying of articles ; ver- \ndict for plaintiff with some of the costs, \n\n13, 17 May ; 2 June, ,, \nBuckley v. Edwards, see under Judges . 21 May, ,, \nMr. Henry de Vere Vane\'s claim to the ancient \nbarony of Barnard in Durham, vacant by the \ndeath of the duke of Cleveland, granted by the \n\nhouse of lords 30 May, ,, \n\nMrs. Carlill v. the Carbolic Smoke Ball company, \nclaiming 100I., which the company had engaged \nto give to any person who had tried the smoke \nball as a preventive of influenza without suc- \ncess (by advertisement, 13 Nov. 1891) ; verdict \n\nfor plaintiff 4 July, ,, \n\nMr. Bottems, contractor v. corporation of York ; \nthe court of appeal decides (against the plaintiff) \nthat the terms of a ruinous contract must be \n\nfulfilled 16 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSee Executions. \n\nTRIBUNES of the People {TribuniPlebis), \nmagistrates of Home, first chosen from among the \ncommons to represent them, 494 B.C., when the \npeople, after a quarrel with the senators, had retired \nto Mons Sacer. The first two tribunes were C. \nLicinius and L. Albums; but their number was \nsoon after raised to five, and 37 years after to ten, \nwhich number remained fixed. The office was \nannual, and as the first had been created on the 4th \nof the ides of December, that day was chosen for \nthe election. In a.d. 1347, Nicolo di Eienzi \nassumed absolute power in Rome as tribune of the \npeople, and reformed many abuses ; but committing \nextravagances, he lost his popularity and was com- \npelled to abdicate. He returned to Rome and was \nassassinated, 8 Sept. 1354. \n\nTRICHURIASIS, a fatal disease, occasioned \nhy eating raw or underdone pork containing a \nminute worm named Trichina spiralis. Professor \nOwen discovered these worms in cysts, in human \nmuscle, in 1832. The trichinae are thoroughly \ndestroyed by proper cooking. The disease excited \nmuch attention in 1865, and was the subject of a \nlecture by Dr. Thudichum at the Society of Arts on \n18 April,\' 1866. \n\n\n\nTRICOLOR FLAG (red, white, and blue, \nwhite representing the ancient monarchy ; red and \nblue, Paris) invented by La Payette, adopted by \nPrance, 1789. \n\nTRICOTEUSES (knitters), a name given ta \na number of Prench republican females, who zeal- \nously attended political meetings and executions irs \n1792, knitting at intervals. \n\nTRIDENTINE, see Trent, and Catechism. \n\nTRIENNIAL PARLIAMENTS- On 15 \nFeb. 1641, an act was passed providing for the meet- \ning of a parliament at least once in three years. \nThis law was broken by the Long Parliament, and \nwas repealed in 1664. Another triennial bill, passed \nin 1694, was repealed by the Septennial act, 1716 - f \nsee Parliaments, and Septennial Parliaments. \n\nTRIESTE, an Austrian port on the Adriatic, \ndeclared a free port by the emperor Charles VI., \n1719, confirmed by Maria Theresa in 1750. It was \nheld by the Prench in 1797 and 1805. Since the \nestablishment of the overland mail to India, it has- \nrisen to great commercial importance. After \nvarious changes of rulers it was restored to Austria \nU11814; see Lloyd\'s, note. The emperor and em- \npress were warmly received here mid. Sept. 1882, \nPopulation of city and territory in 1890, 157,466. \nCordial reception of the duke of Edinburgh and \nthe Mediterranean fleet ... 15 Sept. 1887 \n\nTRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY, see \n\nOrdnance. \n\nTRIMMER, a term applied to George Savile, \nearl of Halifax, and others who held similar \npolitical opinions, midway between those of the \nextreme Whigs and Tories, about the latter part of \nthe 17th century. He assumed the title as an \nhonour, asserting that it could be rightly given to> \nthe British constitution and church. Macaulay \nsays that Halifax was a trimmer on principle, and \nnot a renegade. He died in 1695. See Opportunists. \n\nTRINACRIA, a name of Sicily. The title \n"King of Trinacria," was temporarily assumed by \nFrederick II. (1302), and Frederick III. (1373). \n\nTRINCOMALEE (Ceylon), was taken from \nthe Dutch, by the English, in 1782 ; it was retaken \nby the French the same year ; but was restored to \nthe Dutch by the peace of 1783. It surrendered to \nthe British, under colonel Stewart, 26 Aug. 1795, \nand was confirmed to England by the peace of \nAmiens, in 1802 ; see Ceylon. Of a series of actions \noff Trmcomalee between sir Edward Hughes and \nthe Prench admiral Suffren, one was fought i8> \nFeb. 1782, the enemy having eleven ships to nine ; \non 12 April following, they had eighteen ships to \neleven, and on 6 July, same year, they had fifteen \nships to twelve. In all these conflicts the French \nwere defeated. \n\nTRINIDAD, an island in the "West Indies-, \ndiscovered by Columbus in 1498, was taken from the \nSpaniards by sir Walter Raleigh in 1595; by .the \nFrench from the English in , 1676. Taken by the \nBritish, with four ships of the line, and a military \nforce under command of sir Ralph Abercromby, to \nwhom the island capitulated, 18 Feb. 1797; they \ncaptured tw r o, and burnt three Spanish ships of war \nin the harbour. This possession was confirmed to \nEngland by the peace of Amiens in 1802. The in- \nsurrection of the negroes occurred 4^ Jan. 1832. \nPopulation in 1861, 84,438; in 1881, 153,128; \nin 1891, 196,172. Governor, Hon. Arthur H. \nGordon, 1866; James R. Longden, 1870; sir H. T. \nIrving, 1874; sir Sandford Preeling, 1880; sir Win. \nRobinson, Aug. 1885 ; sir Frederick Napier Broome, \n\n\n\nTRINITY. \n\n\n\n995 \n\n\n\nTRIUMVIRATES. \n\n\n\nJuly, 1891. Trinidad united with Tobago by \n\nparliament in 18S7. \n\nPort of Spain nearly destroyed by fire 28 Jan. et seq. 1884 \n\nThe Indian coolies at San Fernando forbidden to \ngo in festival procession to cast their taboots \n(small shrines) on the last day of Mohurram, dis- \nobey, and are fired upon by the police and \nsoldiers ; 12 killed, and many wounded 30 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThis course was justified, after due investigation, \nby sir Henry Norman, governor of Jamaica ; blue \nbook published .... 14 April, 1885 \n\nTRINITY and Trinitarians. Theopbilus, \nbishop of Antioch, who flourished in the 2nd cen- \ntury, was the first who used the term Trinity, to \nexpress the three sacred persons in the Godhead. \nHis "Defence of Christianity" was edited by \nGesner, at Zurich, in 1546. Tratkins. An order of \nthe Trinity, termed Mathurins, was founded about \n1 198 by John de Matha and Felix de Valois. _ See \nCrutched Friars. The Trinity fraternity, origin- \nally of fifteen persons, was instituted at Kome by \nSt. Philip Neri, in 1548. The act to exempt from \npenalties persons denying the doctrine of the Trinity \n(such as Unitarians and Swedenborgians) passed in \n1813. Trinitarian Bible Society founded, 1831. \n\nTRINITY COLLEGES, see Cambridge, \nOxford, Dublin, Glenahnond, &c. Trinity College, \nDublin, called the University : grant of the \nAugustine monastery of All Saints within the \nsuburbs for erecting this college, conferred by queen \nElizabeth, 1591. First stone laid by Thomas Smith, \nmayor of Dublin, 1 Jan. 1593. New charter, 1637. \nMade a barrack for soldiers, 1689. Bums. The \nprincipal or west front erected, 1759- Library \nerected, 1732. This college grants degrees upon \nexamination without residence. The Koman \nCatholics desire exemption from mixed education \nand special privileges. Great changes were pro- \nposed by the Irish University bill, which was \nbrought into parliament Feb. 1873, but withdrawn. \nEeligious tests were abolished in the same year. \nA proposal to establish a Roman catholic college \n\nwithin the university was negatived by the \n\nsenate (74-7) 18 May, 1874 \n\nThe church choral society incorporated as Trinity \n\nCollege, London .... ... 1875 \n\nTRINITY HOUSE, London, founded by \n\nsir Thomas Spert, 1512, as an "association for \npiloting ships," was incorporated in 1 5 14, and re- \nincorporated in 1604, 1660, and 1685. The present \nTrinity House was erected in 1795. By their charter \nthe brethren of the Trinity House have the power \nof examining, licensing, and regulating pilots, and \nof erecting beacons and lighthouses, and of placing \nbuoys in the channels and rivers. Spert, the first \nmaster, died 8 Sept. 1541.\xe2\x80\x94 Trinity Houses, \noriginally guilds or fraternities, founded at Dept- \nford, Hull, and Newcastle, were incorporated by \nHenry YUL, 1536-41. \n\nRECENT MASTERS. \n\nWilliam Pitt 1790 \n\nPari Spencer 1806 \n\nDuke of Portland 1807 \n\nEarl Camden 1809 \n\nEarl of Liverpool 1815 \n\nMarquis Camden 1828 \n\nDuke of Clarence 1829 \n\nMarquis Camden 183 1 \n\nDuke of Wellington 1836 \n\nThe Prince Consort 1852 \n\nViscount Palmerston .... 16 June, 1862 \nLuke of Edinburgh .... 15 March, 1866 \n\nTRINITY SUNDAY, the Sunday following \n"Whitsunday. The festival of the Holy Trinity was \ninstituted "by pope Gregory IV. in 828, on his \nascending the papal chair, and is observed by the \n\n\n\nLatin and protestant churches on the Sunday next \nfollowing Pentecost or Whitsuntide, of which, \noriginally, it was merely an octave. The observance \nof the festival was first enjoined in the council of \nAries, 1260. It was appointed to be held on the \npresent day by pope John XXI. in 1334. \n\nTRINOBANTES, a British tribe which occu- \npied Middlesex and Essex, and joined in opposing \nthe invasion of Julius Ca3sar, 54 B.C. , but soon \nsubmitted. They joined Boadicea and were defeated \nby Suetonius PauLinus near London, a.d. 61. \n\nTRIPARTITE TREATY, name given to \ntreaty of Paris, 1856. \n\nTRIPLE ALLIANCE was ratified between \nthe States-General and England against France, for \nthe protection of the Spanish Netherlands ; Sweden \nafterwards joining the league, it was known as the \nTriple Alliance, 23 Jan. 1668. \xe2\x80\x94 Another Triple \nAlliance was that between England, Holland, and \nFrance against Spain, Jan. 1717. \xe2\x80\x94 Another between \nGreat Britain, Russia, and Austria, 28 Sept. 1795. \nAnother between Germany, Austria, and Italy, said \nto have been proposed June, 1882, and adopted \n1883, and signed 13 March, 1887 : to expire 1892 ; \nrenewed for six years, 28 June, 1891. The alliance \nwas strengthened by commercial treaties, ratified \nDec. 1891. \n\nTRIPOLI (three cities). I., in Syria, com- \nprised three quarters built by the Tyrians, Sidonians, \nand Arabians; was taken by the Crusaders 1 109, \nand made a county for Raymond of Toulouse. It \nwas conquered by the Egyptians in 1832 ; restored \nto the Porte 1835 ; surrendered to the British 1841. \nII., a Turkish province, N. Africa, comprised the \ncities Sabrata, ffia (the present Tripoli, the capital), \nand Leptis (the ancient Tripolitana), after having \nbeen held by Greeks, Romans, Vandals, and Sara- \ncens, was conquered and annexed by the Turks \n1551. Hamet Bey, pacha in 1741, made himself \nindependent, and the government remained in his \nfamily till 1835, when Tripoli was restored to nomi- \nnal subjugation to the sultan. Population (1884) \nabout 1,000,000. Panic through fear of insurrec- \ntion about 20 July, 1882. In conflicts with the \ntroops, about 160 natives were killed, reported 19 \nDec. 1891. \n\nTRIPOLITZA (Greece), was stormed by the \nGreeks, who committed dreadful cruelties, 5 Oct. \n1821 ; retaken by the Egyptians, 30 June, 1825 ; \ngiven up to the Greeks, 1828. \n\nTRIREMES, galleys with three banks of oars, \nare said to have been invented by the Corinthians, \n784 or 700 B.C. \n\nTRISTAN D\'ACUNHA, a small island in \nthe S. Atlantic, inhabited by about 80 persons. \nBefore the opening of the Suez Canal, the island \nprospered, through the visits of ships, now very \nrare ; tbe duke of Edinburgh was there in 1867, and \nshowed great kindness to the people. \n\nTRIUMPHS were granted by the Roman senate \nto generals of armies after they had won great vic- \ntories. They were received into the city with great \nmagnificence and public acclamations. There were \ntlio great, called the Triumph; and the less, the \nOvation; see Ovation. \n\nTRIUMVIRATES, Roman. In Go n.c, \nJulius Csesar, Pompey, and Crassus formed a coali- \ntion to rule the state. This lasted ton years, and \nthe civil war ensued. The second triumvirate, 43 \nB.C., was formed by Octavius Csesar, Mark Antony, \nand Lepidus, through whom the Romans totally lost \n\n3 s 2 \n\n\n\nTEIVIUM. \n\n\n\n996 \n\n\n\nTEUEO. \n\n\n\ntheir liberty. Lepidus was expelled in 36 ; Antony \nwas subdued in 31, and Octavius made himself \nabsolute ; see Borne. In Feb. 1849, a triumvirate \nwas appointed at Bome, consisting of Joseph Maz- \nzini, Armellini, and Saffi, which resigned on 1 July, \n1849, when the city was taken by the French. \n\nTEIVIUM, see Arts. \n\nTEOCADEEO, Paris, a mount on the right \nbank of the Seine, so named in memory of a fort \nnear Cadiz, captured by the French while sup- \npressing the insurrection in 1823. On this ground \nwas erected the palace of the " Trocadero," in con- \nnection with the international exhibition of 1878 ; \nsee Paris. \n\nTEOPPATJ, CONGRESS OP, in Austrian \nSilesia. The emperors Francis of Austria and \nAlexander of Bussia met at Troppau, 20 Oct. 1820. \nThe congress between them and the king of \nPrussia, against Naples, took place 10 Nov. ; and \nthe conference was transferred to Laybach, as nearer \nto Ital3 T , 17 Dec. 1820; see Laybach. \n\nTEOUBADOUES and Trotjveres (from \ntroubar, trouver, to find or invent), the poets of the \nmiddle ages (from the nth to the 15th century). \nThe former flourished in the south of France and \nnorth of Spain, and used the Langue d\'oc (that is, \noc for oui, yes) ; the latter flourished in the north of \nFrance, and used the Langue d\'oil (that is, oil for \noui). The Troubadours produced romances, but \nexcelled chiefly in lyric poetry ; the Trouveres ex- \ncelled in romances, several of which are extant ; as, \nthe Brut d\'Angleterre, and the Ron, by Wace; the \n" Eomance of the Eose," by Guillaume de Lorris \nand Jean de Meung. The Troubadours were usually \naccompanied by Jongleurs, who sang then- masters\' \nverses, with the accompaniment of the guitar. \nHistories of these French poets, and specimens of \ntheir works, have been published in France. These \npoets, although frequently very licentious, tended \nto promote civilisation during those warlike times. \n\nTEOY (or Troja), the common name of ILIUM, \ncapital of the Troas, Asia Minor ; see Homer. Its \nhistory mythical. \n\nTeucer succeeds his father I5 o 2 \n\nDardanus succeeds ; builds Dardania . . . 1480 \n\nReign of Eriehthonius I4+9 \n\nReign of Tros ; from whom the people are called \n\nTrojans, and the city Troas 1374 \n\nIlus, his son, reigns ; the city called Ilium . . . 1314 \n\nReign of Laomedon I2 6o \n\nArrival of Hercules in Phrygia. Hesione delivered \n\nfrom the sea monster. Blair ; Usher . . . 1225 \nWar of Hercules and Laomedon .... 1224 \n\nReign of Priam or Podaroes \n\nRape of Helen, by Alexander Paris, son of Priam, \n20 years before the sacking of Troy. Homer\'s \n\nIliad, book xxiv. I20 4 \n\nCommencement of the invasion of the Greeks to \n\nrecover Helen Ilg3 \n\nTroy taken and burnt in the night of tile nth of J \nJune, i.e., 23rd of the month Thargelion. Parian \nMarbles. 408 years before the first Olympiad. \nApolloilorus, Hales, and Clinton, 1183 ; others . . 1184 \nMr. W. E. Gladstone dates the war . . 1^16-1307 \niEneas arrives in Italy. Lenglet. . . .. ^33 \n\nLSome time after the destruction of Troy, a new \ncity was built with the same name, about thirty \nstadia distant from the old site. It was favoured \nby Alexander the Great in his Asiatic expedition \nbut never rose to much importance, an. I in the \nage of Strabo was nearly in ruins. Priestley. ] \nDr. II. Schliemann, during his excavations at Hissar- \nlik in the Troad, discovered the remains of a very \nancient city with temples, which he named \n\n"Novum Ilium" a.d. 1872-3 \n\nHe published \'Troy and its Remains (trans by Ur P \nSmith) ! 1875 \n\n\n\nHis Trojan antiquities arranged at South Kensing- \nton Museum, for exhibition . . . Dec. 1877 \n\nDr. Schliemann resumes excavations at Hissarlik ; \ndiscovers Trojan houses and many antiquities, a \ndagger, earrings, bracelets, \' idols, shells, &c, \n\n30 Sept. -1 Dec. 1878 \n\nAgain with professor Virchow and M. Burnouf, 1 \nMarch ; makes fresh discoveries described in letter \n5 June, 1879 ; desists investigation ; published \nhis book Ilios, 1880, and Troja .... 1883 \nSee Mycence, 26 Dec. 1890. \n\nTEOY WEIGHT. The Eomans introduced \ntheir ounce, our avoirdupois ounce, into Britain. \nThe present ounce was brought from Grand Cairo \ninto Europe, about the time of the Crusades, 1095, \nand was first adopted at Troyes, a city of France, \nwhence the name. It is used to weigh gold, silver, \nand precious stones. The Troy weight, Scots, was \nestablished by James VI. (our James I.) in 1618 ; \nsee Standard. \n\nTEOYES (Central France), where a treaty was \nconcluded between England, France, and Burgundy, \nwhereby it was stipulated that Henry V. should \nmarry Catherine, daughter of Charles VI., be ap- \npointed regent of France, and, after the death of \nCharles, should inherit the crown, 21 May, 1420. \nTroyes was taken by the allied armies, 7 Feb. ; re- \ntaken by Napoleon, 23 Feb. ; and again taken by \nthe allies, 4 March, 18 14. \n\nTEUCE OF GOD {Br era or Treuga Dei), a \nterm given to a cessation of the private feuds and \nconflicts so general during the middle ages all over \nEurope, said to have been strongly advocated by the \nbishop of Aquitaine, in 1032. The clergy strenu- \nously exerted their influence for the purpose. A \nsynod at Eoussillon, 1027, decreed that none should \nattack his enemy between Saturday evening (at \nnones) and Monday morning (at the hour of prime). \nSimilar regulations were adopted in England, 1042 \n(sometimes Friday and Wednesday being chosen for \nthe time). The truce of God was confirmed by \nmany councils of the church, especially the Lateran \nCouncil, in 1179. \n\nTEITCK SYSTEM of paying workmen\'s \nwages in goods (sold at " tommy shops") instead \nof money, was prohibited by parliament in 1831. \nBy the Truck act a commission to inquire into its \nalleged prevalence was appointed ; act passed 10 \nAug. 1870; amended 1887. \n\nTEUMPET. Some of the Greek historians \nascribe the invention of the trumpet to the Tyr- \nrhenians, and others to the Egyptians. It was in \nuse in the time of Homer. First torches, then \nshells of fish, sounded like trumpets, were the \nsignals in primitive wars. Batter. The Jewish \nfeast of trumpets was appointed 1490 B.C. (Lev. \nxxiii. 24). Otfa, king of Mercia, is said to have \nhad trumpets sounded before him when travelling, \nabout a.d. 790. The speaking trumpet is said to \nhave been used by Alexander the Great in 335 B.C. ; \nimproved by Kirc\'her in a.d. 1652 ; by Salland, 1654 ; \nand philosophically explained by Morland, 1671. \nTrumpet blasts employed for railway signalling in \n\nScotland . 1887 \n\nTEUMPET-FLOWEE, Bignonia radicans, \nwas brought hither from North America, about \n1640. The Trumpet Honeysuckle, Lonicera semper- \nvirens, came from North America in 1656. The \nBignonia cavensis was brought to England from the \nCape in 1823. The Large - flowered Trumpet- \nflower, or Bignonia grandiflora, was brought from \nChina in 1800. \n\nTEUEO, W. Cornwall. The town was founded \nby Eichard de Lucy, chief justice of England in \n\n\n\nTRUSS. \n\n\n\n997 \n\n\n\nTUBULAR BRIDGES. \n\n\n\nthe 1 2th century, and chartered by Keginald, earl \nof Cornwall, illegitimate son of Henry I. An act \nto provide for the foundation of a bishopric of Truro \npassed n Aug 1 . 1876, and money sufficient for its \nendowment having been subscribed, the see was \nconstituted by order in council, 9 Dec. same year. \nAct amended in 1887. Truro was made a city, Aug. \n1877 i absorbed into the county, 1885. Population, \n1881, 10,619; I \xc2\xa79 1 ) II ) I 3 I - \nFoundation of new cathedral (St. Mary\'s) laid by \nthe prince of Wales, 20 May, 1880 ; it includes \npart of the old parish church ; the eastern part \nerected, consecrated and opened for public \nworship in the presence of the prince of Wales \nand the archbishop of Canterbury, 3 Nov. 1887 ; \narchitect, Mr. Pearson ; the first cathedral erected \nsince St. Paul\'s, London. \n\nSee Mansion, House Fund. \n\nBisnors. \n\n1877. Edward White Benson, consecrated, 25 April ; \n\ntrans, to Canterbury, Dec. 1882. \n1883. George Howard Wilkinson, consecrated 25 April ; \n\nresigned 1891. \n1891. John Gott, D.D., June. \n\nTRUSS. A transverse spring-truss for ruptures \nwas patented by Robert Brand in 1771, and by \nmany other persons since. The National Truss \nSociety to assist indigent persons, was established \nin 1786 ; and many similar societies since. \n\nTRUSTEES, see Fraudulent. \n\nTrustees\' act passed, 1888, and Trust Funds\' act . 1889 \nThe Trustees\' Appointment act (1850 to 1899), \n\n25 July, 1890 \nThe Trustees\' and Executors\' Association initiated, \n\nAug. 1 89 1 \n\nTRUSTS and COMBINES. Terms applied in \nthe United States to the union of manufacturers \nand traders as corporate bodies for the purpose of \ncreating and maintaining strict monopolies and \nthereby controlling the output and the prices of \ngoods of all kinds and the wages of workmen, a \nS3 r stem injurious to all classes of society. \nIn the autumn of 1888, legislation for the re- \npression of the evil was urgently demanded. \nThere is a petroleum trust, a cotton trust, a \nsteel rail trust &c. (see Corner). The proprietors \nof the salt mines in Cheshire combined to form a \n"trust" in the autumn of 1888. Similar trusts \nhave been projected and opposed. \n\nTSAR, see Czar. \n\nTUAM (W. Ireland). St. Jarlath, the son ot \nLoga, who lived about 501, is looked upon as the \nfirst founder of the cathedral of Tuam, though the \nabbey is said to have been founded in 487. The \nchurch was anciently called Tuaim-da-Gualand. \nIn 1 151, Kdan O\'Hoisin was the first archbishop, at \nleast the first who received the pall, for some of his \npredecessors are sometimes called bishops of Con- \nnaught, and sometimes archbishops, by Irish his- \ntorians. The see of Mayo was annexed to Tuam in \n1559. Tuam is valued in the king\'s books, by an \nextent returned anno 28 Fliz., at 50^. sterling per \nannum. Beatson. It ceased to be archiepiscopal, \nconformably with the statute 3 & 4 Will. IV., 1833; \nand is now a bishopric only, to which Killala and \nAchonry, a joint see, has been added ; see Arch- \nbishops. New protestant cathedral of St. Mary, \nconsecrated by the bishop, the Hon. Dr. Charles \n15. Bernard, 9 Oct. 1878. \n\nTUBERCULOSIS, a disease caused by the \ndevelopment of tubercles, small masses of diseased \nmatter in the lungs (phthisis or consumption), in \nthe face and other parts (lupus). \n\nBr. Robert Koch, of Berlin, announced, in 1882, \nthat in: had discovered a minute organism, \n\n\n\nnamed baccillus tuberculosis, to whose action \nhe attributed the diseases. In the autumn \nof 1890, he reported his invention of a lymph \n(see below, 15 Jan. 1S91), by the injection of \nwhich into the system, as in vaccination, he \nhoped to cure the diseases. In Berlin he made \nmany experiments on tuberculosed guinea-pigs \nand human beings, with some success in respect \nto lupus, but not to phthisis. Dr. Koch was \nmuch honoured by the emperor, and was aided \nby the state. Dr. Koch\'s full account of his \nmethod was published in the British Medical \nJournal, London, 15 Nov., and other papers. \nMedical men flocked to Berlin from all parts of \nthe world, to obtain the lymph. Exaggerated \ncases of successful application were published, \nand it soon appeared that time was required to \ntest the efficacy of the remedy. Much discus- \nsion ensued. Dr. Koch, on 15 Jan. 1891, published \nthe statement that his lymph, named tubercu- \nline, was a glycerine extract from the pure culti- \nvation of the tubercle bacilli. Boyal commis- \nsion on tuberculosis (Dr. Koch\'s method, &c), \nactively inquiring at home and abroad Dec. 1890 et seq. \n\nProfessor Badenheuer, of Cologne, asserted that \nout of 100 surgical cases no perfect cure had \nbeen effected by the lymph . . end of Jan. 1891 \n\nProf. Virchow, Berlin, in regard to 21 cases of in- \njection of the lymph, reported unfavourable re- \nsults Jan. ,, \n\nDrs. Bertin, Picq, and Bernheim proposed the cure \nof tuberculosis by the transfusion of goat\'s blood, \n\nJan., Feb. ,, \n\nDr. Lannelongue at Paris, proposed a new remedy, \nwhich he explained and illustrated to the mem- \nbers of the second congress for the study of \ntuberculosis 27 July, ,, \n\nDr. Koch appointed director of the Institute for \nInfectious Diseases at Berlin . . July, ,, \n\nHe acknowledges the failure of his remedy, and \nproposes an improvement by the addition of \n\nalcohol 22 Oct. ,, \n\nSee Ozone, 1891. \n\nTUBINGEN SCHOOL of rationalistic \ncriticism was founded by professor F. C. Baur about \n1835. \n\nTUBMAN, see Postman. \n\nTUBULAR BRIDGES. The Britannia Tu- \nbular Suspension Bridge, then the most wonderful \nenterprise in engineering in the world, was con- \nstructed, 1846-50 (Mr. K. Stephenson and Mr, Fair- \nbairn, engineers), about a mile southward of the \nMenai Strait Suspension Bridge.* \nOn the Britannia rock, near the centre of the Menai \nStrait, the surface of which is about ten feet \nabove low water level, is built a tower two hun- \ndred feet above high water (commenced building, \nMay, 1846), and on which rest two lines of tubes \nor hollow girders strong enough to bear their \nweight and laden trains in addition, the ends \nresting on the abutments on each shore ; each \ntube being more than a quarter of a mile in \nlength. The height of .the tube within is thirty \nfeet at the Britannia tower, diminishing t<> \ntwenty-three feet at the abutments. The lifting \nof these tubes to their places was a most \ngigantic operation, successfully performed, \n\n27 June, 1849 \nThe first locomotive passed through . March, 1850 \nThe Conway tubular bridge, a miniature copy of \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 * The Britannia tubular bridge was intended to supply \nthe place of one of the finest bridges in the kingdom; \nand the railway, of which (lie tubular bridge tonus a \npart, is in like manner a substitute tor one of the (inesl \n\nmail-coach roads ever constructed. The road from \nLondon to Holyhead has been long regarded as the \nhighway from the British metropolis to Dublin ; and the \nlaic Mr. Telford was applied to by the government t<> \nperfect this route by I lie London and Holyhead mail- \ncoach road, which lie did \\>\\ erecting a beautiful suspen- \nsion bridge over the river Conwaj and over the Menai \nStrati ; commenced in July, iSiS. and finished in July, \n1825. \n\n\n\nTUDELA. \n\n\n\n998 \n\n\n\nTUNIS. \n\n\n\nthe Britannia (principal engineers, Mr. Robt. \nStephenson and Mr. Fairbairn) erected . . 1846-8 \nAt Chepstow, a railway tubular bridge . . . 1852 \nA bridge or viaduct on tne tubular principle (called \nthe Albert viaduct) over the river Tamar at Ply- \nmouth, opened by the prince consort . 2 May, 1859 \nSee Victoria Railway Bridge and Tay Bridge. \n\nTUDELA (N. Spain). Near here marshal \nLannes totally defeated the Spaniards, 23 Nov. \n1808 ; see Ebro. \n\nTUDOE SOVEREIGNS ; see England, 1485- \n1603. \n\nTudor Exhibition, New Gallery, Regent street ; \npatron, the queen ; committee, the prince of \nWales, and other eminent persons. The collec- \ntion included portraits and miniatures by Hol- \nbein and others, armour and weapons, personal \nrelics, plate, bibles, prayerbooks, Shakespeare\'s \nand other books. Opened 1 Jan. 1890, and con- \ntinued several months. A similar exhibition \nwas opened at the British Museum about 22 Jan. 1890 \n\nTUESDAY, in Latin Dies Martis, the day of \nMars, the third day of the week, so called from \nTuisto, Tiiv, or Tuesco, a Saxon deity, worshipped \non this day. Tuisto is mentioned by Tacitus ; see \nWeek Days. \n\nTUGENDBUND ("league of Virtue"), \nformed in Prussia soon after the peace of Tilsit, \nJune, 1807, ostensibly for relieving the sufferers by \nthe late wars, and for the revival of morality and \npatriotism. Its head-quarters were at Konigsberg. \nIt excited the jealousy of Napoleon, who demanded \nits suppression in 1809. It was dissolved at the \npeace in 1815. \n\nTUILEEIES (Paris), the imperial palace of \nPrance, commenced by Catherine de Medicis, after \nthe plans of Philibert del\'Orme, 1564; continued \nby Henry IV. ; and finished by Louis XIV. This \npalace was stormed by the mob, 10 Aug. 1792; \nand ransacked in the revolutions of July, 1830, and \nFeb. 1848. Louis Napoleon made it his residence \nin 1 85 1, and greatly renovated it. The restoration \nof the Tuileries (much injured by fire by the com- \nmunists, May 187 1) was determined on, Oct. 1872 ; \nnot proceeded with. The ruins were sold for \n32,200^. to M. Picard, 4 Dec. 1882. \n\nTULCHAN BISHOPS; a mere nominal \nepiscopacy set up in Scotland by the regent Morton, \nwho, with other nobles, absorbed the larger por- \ntion of the revenue, 1572-3. Tulehan was a stuffed \ncalf\'s skin set before a cow to facilitate milking. \n\nTULIPS, indigenous in the east of Europe, came \nto England from Vienna about 1578. It is recorded \nin the register of Alkmaer in Holland, that in 1639, \n120 tulips, with the onsets, sold for 90,000 florins : \nand that one, called the Viceroy, sold for 4203 \nguilders! The States stopped this ruinous traffic. \nThe tulip tree, Liriodmclrontulipifera, was brought \nto England from America, about 1663. \n\nTUNBRIDGE WELLS (Kent). The springs \nwere discovered, it is stated, by Dudley, lord North, \nwho, when very ill, was restored to health by the \nuse of the waters, 1606. The wells were visited by \nthe queens of Charles I. and II., and by queen \nAnne, and soon became fashionable. Population, \n1881,24,119; 1891,27,895. \nThe town was incorporated by royal charter \n\nearly in . ^89 \n\nTUNGSTEN (also called wolfram and schee- \nlium), a hard whitish brittle metal. From tungstate \nof lead, Scheele in 1781 obtained tungstic acid, \nwhence the brothers De Luyart in 1786 obtained \nthe metal. In 1859 it was employed in making a \nnew kind of steel.\' \n\n\n\nTUNIS (N. Africa) stands nearly on the site of \nCarthage. Tunis was besieged by Louis IX., of \nFrance, who died near it 25 Aug. 1270. It remained \nunder African kings till taken by Barbarossa, for \nSolyman the Magnificent, 1531. Barbarossa was \nexpelled by the emperor Charles V., when 10,000 \nChristian slaves were set at liberty, June, 1535- \nThe country was recovered by the Turks under \nSelim II. 1575. The bey of Tunis was first appointed \nin 1574; Tunis was reduced by admiral Blake, on the \nbey refusing to deliver up the British captives, \n1655. The Hussein dynasty was founded 1705. In \nJuly, 1856, the bey agreed to make constitutional \nreforms. He died 22 Sept. 1859 ; and his brother \nand successor Mohamed-es-Sadok took the oath of \nfidelity to the constitution. He died, and was suc- \nceeded by his brother Sidi Ali, 28 Oct. 1882. Tunis \nis now under French protection. \nInsurrection, 18 April ; ships of war sent to protect \n\nEuropeans May, 1864 \n\nTunis decreed to be an integral part of the Turkish \n\nempire 25 Oct. 1871 \n\nA dispute with France settled by submission of the \n\nbey Jan. 1879 \n\nThe bey, embarrassed by debt (s,ooo,oooL), places his \n\nfinances in hands of an international commission 1880 \nDisputes between France and Italy respecting rail- \nway concessions Aug. ,, \n\nDispute between a British subject here and a French \ncompany respecting purchase of the Enfida estate, \ndecision left to the legal tribunals . . Feb. 1881 \nDispute with France ; predatory incursions of the \nKroumirs, nomadic shepherd tribes, on Algerian \nterritory, March : the bey appeals to Turkey, 1 1 \nApril ; and the Great Powers, 27 April : military \nexpedition sent from France ; lands in Tabarka, \nbombards fortress, and occupies Bizerta, 30 April, ,, \nThe Kroumirs said to be enclosed by the French ; \n\nthe bey\'s army retreats . . . early May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nAlleged battle with the Kroumirs . about 2 May, ,, \nThe French approach Tunis, alleging the object to \nbe to restrain warlike tribes and protect their \n\nfrontier 11 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTreaty with France signed ; it assures to France the \nright to occupy the positions which the French \nmilitary authorities might deem necessary for the \nmaintenance of order and the security of the fron- \ntier and the coast, and to send a resident minister \nto the capital. The French government guaran- \ntees to the bey the security of his person, his \nstates, and his dynasty, and the maintenance of \nexisting treaties with the European powers ; while \nthe bey undertakes not to conclude any interna- \ntional convention without a previous understand- \ning with the French government, and to prevent \nthe introduction of arms into Algeria through \nTunis. The financial system of the regency to be \nregulated by France in concert with the bey, \n\n12 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nReported conflict between the French under gen. \nBreart and the Arabs ; the French enter Mater, \n\n18 May, ,, \nThe Sultan of Turkey protests againstthe treaty, May, ,, \nM. Seguin, a news correspondent, murdered at Beja \n- by a fanatic (who is executed) . . 28 May, ,, \nM. Brangard, inspector of telegraphs, and assistants, \n\nmurdered by Arabs, near Oran . about 5 June, ,, \nM. Roustan, the consul, appointed French resident \nminister (said to be virtual ruler, replacing bey), \nFrench army returning home . . June, ,, \nMustapha Ben Ismail, the bey\'s chief minister, re- \nceived by president Grevy, at Paris . 21 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nInsurrection at Sfax, revolt of great chief Ali Ben \n\nKhalifa, announced .... 30 June, ,, \nEuropeans attacked, nearly all flee to ships, alleged \n\nmassacres 31 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSfax bombarded by the French, 5 July, et seq. ; \n\ncaptured after severe conflict . . 16 July, ,, \nArabs revolting ; anarchy reported . 20 July, ,, \nEnrida case; decision against the English, Mr. \n\nLevy Aug. ,, \n\nCollapse of bey\'s authority . . about 15 Aug. ,, \nAsserted conflict at Hammamet, the French re- \npulsed about 3 1 Aug. ; the French retreating about \n\n8 Sept. ,, \n\n\n\nTUNNAGE. \n\n\n\n999 \n\n\n\nTURIN. \n\n\n\nArrival of 2,000 French troops at Goletta 9 Sept. 1881 \n(General Saisattier with troops at Zaghouan sur- \nrounded by Arabs .... about 13 Sept. ,, \n58,000 men sent to Tunis announced . 26 Sept. ,, \n\nAlleged defeat of the bey\'s troops under Ali Bey ; \n\n4 hours\' conflict .... about 25 Sept. ,, \nAli Bey\'s army surrounded . about 4 Oct. etseq. ,, \nUnion of the French and Ali Bey\'s army, about \n\n8 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nTunis occupied by the French . . .10 Oct. ,, \nGen. Sabattier defeats the Arabs ; six hours\' con- \nflict ; 800 killed, French loss slight . . 13 Oct. ,, \nContinued fighting .... about 22 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe French under Gen. Etienne enter Kairwan, \n\nwithout resistance 26 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe French treaty with the bey (11 May) confirmed \n\nby the chambers 9 Nov. ,, \n\nAlleged defeat of Arabs, near Gerid, by Gen. \n\nLogerot about 16 Nov. ,, \n\nGen. Saussier reports his capture of a large rebel \n\nconvoy about 17 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe insurrection virtually suppressed ; army of \n\noccupation to be 20,000 . announced 29 Nov. ,, \nM. Levy (see Aug. 1 881) expelled . about 14 Dec. ,, \nM. Roustan in Paris ; M. H. Rochfort acquitted of \n\nbitter libel against M. Roustan . . 15 Dec. ,, \nM. Roustan returns . . . about 29 Dee. ,, \n\nTransferred to Washington . . about 23 Feb. 1882 \nVictory of insurgents . . . about 1 April, ,, \nEnflda case amicably settled . . . May, ,, \nTreaty with France (taking over debt about \n\n5,000,000?.) draft July, ,, \n\nRenewed Arab incursions . . about 3 Oct. ,, \n\nFrench courts of law established ; foreign consular \n\njurisdictions abolished (capitulations) 1 Jan. 1884 \n\nFrench residents, 1891, about 10,000. \n\nTUNNAGrE AND POUNDAGE were ancient \n\xe2\x96\xa0duties levied on every tun of wine and pound of \n\xe2\x80\xa2other goods, imported or exported, and were the \n\xe2\x80\xa2origin of our "customs." They commenced in \nEngland about 1346, and were granted to the kings \nfor life, beginning with Edward IV. Charles I. \ngave great offence by levying them on his own \nauthority, 1628. They were granted to Charles II. \nfor his lifetime, 24 June, 1660. By the act 27 \nGeo. III. c. 13, these and other duties were repealed, \n1787, and a new arrangement of excise and customs \nwas introduced. \n\nTUNNELS, for drainage, are ancient. The \nearliest tunnel for internal navigation was executed \nfey M. Riguet, in the reign of Louis XIV., at Bezieres \nin France. The first in England was by Mr. \nBrin dley, on the duke of Bridgewater\'s canal, \nnear Manchester, about 1766. Project of the \nGravescnd tunnel, 1800\xe2\x80\x94 the report upon it, 1801. \nThe Thames Tunnel was projected by Mr. Brunei \nin 1823, and opened for foot passengers, 25 March, \n1843 ; see Thames Tunnel. Innumerable tunnels \nhave been made for railways. The railway tunnel \nat Liverpool was completed in the middle of 1829, \nlit up with gas, and exhibited once a week. On the \nLondon and Birmingham railway there are eight \ntunnels (the Primrose-hill, Watford, Kilsby, &c), \ntheir total length being 7336 yards. Smiles. It \nwas computed by Mr. Fowler, that there were 80 \nmiles of tunnels in the United Kingdom in 1S65, \nwhich cost about 6,500,000/., at the average of 45/. \na yard; see Alps [Mont Cenis, etc.] and Thames. \n\nTunnel between Dover and Calais, suggested by M. \nMathieu about 1802 \n\nTunnel for a railway beneath the channel from \nDover to Calais, proposed by Messrs. J. K. Bate- \nman and J. Revy .... 30 Aug. 1869 \n\nM. Thome de Gamond, after many years\' study, ex- \nhibited his plans in Paris, 1867; his scheme re- \nvived in France, July, 1871 and Nov. 1873 ; a \nconvention in its favour was signed for France \n\nby M. Michel Chevalier, .tan., 1S75 I engii rs, \n\nsir John Hawkshaw and M. LavaUy : monopoly \nfor 30 years granted; chairman for English com- \n\n\n\npany, lord Richard Grosvenor ; plan of boring \nthrough 20 miles chalk by Mr. D. Brunton. \n\nM. ThonnS de Gamond died .... Feb., 1876 \n\nBoring at Sangatte, near Calais, begun 25 Feb. ; 200 \nfeet deep 3 June, ,, \n\nMemorandum of basis of proposed treaty between \nEngland and France issued . . . Aug. ,, \n\nOther plans have been proposed by G. Remington, \nP. J. Bishop, A. Austin, &c. \n\nThe French government\'s concession for prelimi- \nnary works granted in 1875, renewed for 3 years \n\nfrom 2 Aug. 1880 \n\nExperimental boring going on, April, 1881 ; 800 \nmetres from the coast .... May, 1883 \n\nMeeting of Channel Tunnel Company 2 Feb. ; of \nsubmarine Continental railway company 3 Feb. 1882 \n\nChannel Tunnel near Dover ; about 1 mile exca- \nvated ; visited by Mr. Gladstone and others \n\n11 March, ,, \n\nThe Channel Tunnel disapproved of by sir G. \nWolseley, and other officers, British and foreign \n\nMarch, at seq. ,, \n\nThe works stopped by government about 1 May ; \nby order of Mr. Justice Kay . . . 6 July, ,, \n\nTwo channel tunnel bills discharged in the commons \n\n16 Aug. ,, \n\nReport of a commission on the channel tunnel (sir \nA. Alison, chairman) unfavourable on political \ngrounds issued 11 Oct. ,, \n\nThe question referred to a committee of lords and \ncommons 4, 6 April, which meets 24 April ; decide \nagainst the tunnel (6-4) . . about 10 July, 1883 \n\nThe company resolutely determine to wait 17 Aug. ,, \n\nBill rejected by the commons (222-84) J 4 May, 1884; \n(281-99) 12 May, 1885 \n\nBoring of the channel tunnel still continued, 2 Feb. 1887 \n\nThe channel tunnel bill again rejected by the \ncommons (153-107) .... 3 Aug. ,, \n\nSir E. Watkin\'s bill for experimental works \nopposed by the government and rejected in the \ncommons (307-165), 27 June, 1888 ; again rejected. \n(234-153) 5 June, 1890 \n\nMersey tunnel, between Liverpool and Birkenhead, \none mile long, projected i860, execution fre- \nquently suspended, boring renewed by the energy \nof major Samuel Isaac, 1880, boring completed \nunder his superintendence, 17 Jan. 1884 (he died, \n22 Nov. 1886) ; tunnel opened, 13 Feb. 1S85 ; first \npassenger train run through, 22 Dec. 1S85 ; \nformally opened by the prince of Wales, 20 Jan. 1886 \n\nThe Severn tunnel near Bristol, constructed by W. \nC. Richardson, for the Gt. Western company\'s \nrailway begun, March, 1873 ; official train passed \nthrough, 5 Sept. 1885 ; opened for traffic, 1 Sept., \nfor passengers 1 Dec. ,, \n\n" Joseph II. mining adit," Schemnitz, begun 1782, \nafter many delays, finished, 16,538 metres long, \n\n5 Sept. 1S78 \n\nArlberg tunnel, Austria, 10,270 metres long ; begun \nJune, 1880; completed, and train passed through, \n\n13 Nov. 1883 \n\nTwo tunnels for the City and South London Elec- \ntric Railway, from the Monument to Stockwell, \ncompleted, March ; the railway opened by the \nprince of Wales, 4 Nov. ; to the public 18\' Dec. 1890 \n\nThe construction of a tunnel under the Irish Chan- \nnel recommended by sir Roper Lethbridgc at the \nSociety of Arts .\' . . . . n Feb. 1891 \n\nTUKAN, see Turkestan. \n\nTURCKHEIM, see Tiirkheim. \n\nTURIN, the ancient Augusta Taurinorum in \nPiedmont, capital of the Sardinian .States, and of \nthe kingdom of Italy, till 1864, when it was super- \nseded by Florence. Its importance dates from the \npermanent union of Savoy and Piedmont in 1416. \nThe French besieged this city ; but prince Eugene \ndefeated their army, and compelled them to raise \nthe siege, 7 Sept. 1706. In [798, the French \nrepublican arm} - took possession of Turin, seized all \nthe Strong places and arsenals of Piedmont, and \n\nobliged the king and his family to remove to the \n\nisland of Sardinia. In 1 7\')\'), the French were \ndriven out by the Austrians and Russians; but the \n\n\n\nTURKESTAN. \n\n\n\n1000 \n\n\n\nTURKEY. \n\n\n\ncity and all Piedmont surrendered to the French, \nJune 1800. In May 1814, it was restored to the \nking of Sardinia; see Italy, 1864. Here prince Hum- \nbert was married to his cousin Margherita amidst \ngreat rejoicing, 22 April, 1868. The monument to \nCavour was inaugurated, 8 Nov. 1873. An exhibition \nopened by the king, 25 April, 1880. See Treaties, \nand Italy, 1884. Population, 1890, 320,808. \n\nTURKESTAN, called by the Persians Turan, \nIndependent Tartary, the original country of the \nTurks, in Central Asia, was reached by Alexander, \n331 B.C. The Eussians are gradually encror.ching \non this country ; on 14 Feb. 1865, a new province, \nTurkestan, was created by decree, and gen. Kauff- \nmann made governor, 26 July, 1867; died 16 May, \n1882. The rule of the czar accepted by the chief \ntribes at Merv, {which see), announced 8 Feb. 1884. \n\nTURKEY. The Turks were originally a \ntribe of Tartars; but, by incorporation with the \npeoples they have conquered, have becomea-mixed \nrace. About 760, they obtained possession of a \npart of Armenia, called from them Turcomania. \nThey gradually extended their power ; but in the \n13th century, being harassed by other Tartar tribes, \nthey returned to Asia Minor. The Turkish empire \ntill 1878 comprehended the almost independent \nprincipalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, Servia, \nand Montenegro, the hereditary vice-royalty of \nEgypt, and Tunis. The Turkish quadrilateral for- \ntresses were Shumla, Varna, Silistria, and Bust- \nchuck. The population of the empire was estimated \nin 1887 at 32,978,100. (Immediate Possessions, \n21, 633, OOO, tributariesand protect orates, 1 1, 345, 100); \nin Europe, 8,987,000; Asia, 16,174,100; Africa, \n7,817,000. By the treaty of Berlin (13 July, 1878) \nTurkey is said to have \n\nSquare Inhabi- Moham- \nMiles. tants. medans. \nCeded to Bouinania . . 5,93s 246,000 142,000 \n., Servia . . . 4,326 264,000 75,000 \n,, Montenegro . . 1,549 40,000 9,000 \n,, Austria . . . 15 2,000 \xe2\x80\x94 \n\n,, Greece (?) . . . 5,300 750,000 40,000 \nTo be occupied and adminis- \ntered by Austria . . 28,125 1,061,000 513,000 \nFormed into the Principality \n\nof Bulgaria . ... 24,404 1,773,000 681,500 \nIncluded in Eastern Bou- \n\nmelia. .... 13,646 746,000 265,000 \n\nIf we exclude the provinces " indefinitely " to be \noccupied by Austria, Bulgaria, and Eastern Boume- \nlia, there remain to Turkey in Europe only 74>79\xc2\xb0 \nsquare miles, with 4,779,000 inhabitants, of whom \n2,521,500 are Mohammedans. In Armenia Eussia \ntakes 10,000 square miles, with about 350,000 in- \nhabitants. Cyprus, entrusted to the keeping of \nEngland, has an area of 3,584 square miles, and \n186,173 inhabitants in 1881. Thessaly ceded to \nGreece by convention, 24 May; treaty signed, \n2 July, 1 88 1. \nAlp Arslan and the Turks conquer Armenia and \n\nGeorgia 1065-8 \n\nAsia Minor conquered, 1074-84 ; Jerusalem taken . 1076 \nSoliman Shah drowned in the Euphrates, while on \nthe march ; his son Ertoghul, granted territories \n\nnear Angora, dies 1288 \n\nOthman, his son, emir of the sultan of Iconium, \nfounded the Ottoman empire at Prusa, Bithynia, \n\nby policy and conquest, in 1299 \n\nOrganisation of Janissaries by Orcan about . . 1330 \nNic\xc2\xaba conquered, 1330 ; and the Morea . . . 1346 \nThe Turks enter Thrace, and take Adrianople . 1361 \nAmurath I. remodels the Janissaries . . . . 1362 \nBajazet I. overruns provinces of the Eastern empire \n\n1389 et seq. \nHe defeats Sigismund of Hungary at Nioopolis \n\n28 Sept. 1396 \n\n\n\nHe besieges Constantinople ; but is interrupted by \nthe approach of Tamerlane (or Timour), by whom \nhe is defeated and made prisoner, at An cyra, 28 July, 1402 \n\nMacedonia annexed i43P- \n\nLadislas of Hungary defeated and slain at Varna \n\nby Amurath 10 Nov. 1444; \n\nAmurath defeats John Huniades at Kossova Oct. 1448 \nThe Turks, invading Hungary, repelled by Huni- \nades I 4S\xc2\xb0 \n\nConstantinople taken by the Turks under Mahomet \nII., which ends the Eastern Boman empire, \n\n29 May, 1453 \nBelgrade relieved by Huniades\' victory over the \n\nTurks July, 1456 \n\nGreece subjected to the Turks (see Greece) . 1458-60. \nThe Turks take Otranto, diffusing terror through- \nout Europe 1480 \n\nSelim I. raised to the throne by the Janissaries ; \n\nmurders his father, brothers, &c 1512 \n\nHe takes the islands of the Archipelago . . . 151-4 \n\nHe overruns Syria iSiS \n\nGains Egypt by defeat of Mamelukes . . Aug. 1516 \nSolyman takes Belgrade, Aug. 1521 ; and Bhodes, \n\nDec. 1532 \nDefeats Hungarians at Mohatz . . 29 Aug. 15Z6 \n\nRepulsed before Vienna Oct. 1529 \n\nPeace with Austria 1533, \n\nCyprus taken from the Venetians . . Aug. 157.1 \nGreat battle of Lepanto (which see) . . 7 Oct. ,, \nTreaty of commerce with England . . . . 157,9 \nTurks driven out of Persia by Shah Abbas . . 1585 \n\nGreat fire in Constantinople 1606 \n\nWar with the Cossacks, who take Azof . . . 1637 \nThe Turks defeat the Persians and. take the city of \n\nBagdad 1638 \n\nCandia (Crete) taken from Venice, after a 25 years\' \n\nsiege . . 1669 \n\nVienna besieged by Mahomet IV. but relieved by \n\nJohn of Poland 12 Sept. 16&3 \n\nPeace of Carlovitz 26 Jan. 1699 \n\nMustapha II. deposed by Janissaries . . . . 1703 \nThe Morea retaken by the Turks .... 1715 \nThe Turks defeated at Peterwardein . . . . 1716 \nThey lose Belgrade ; and their power declines . 1717 \n\nPeace of Eri van (with Persia) 1732 \n\nBelgrade taken from Austria; and Bussia relin- \nquishes Azof I 739 \n\nThe Turks defeated at Kars 1745 \n\nInsurrection of Wahabees 174a \n\nGreat sea-fight in the channel of Seio ; the Russian \n\nfleet defeats the Turkish 1770 \n\nThe Crimea ceded to Russia .... Jan. 1784 \nDisastrous war with Russia and Austria, the Turks \nlose more than 200,000 men . . . 1787-91 \n\nCession of Oczacow 1791 \n\nWar with the French, who invade Egypt . . . 1798 \nInsurrection of Mamelukes at Cairo .... 1S03 \nWar against Russia and England . . 7 Jan. 180? \nPassage and repassage of the Dardanelles effected \nby the British fleet, but with great loss ; seeDar- \n\ndanelles 19 Feb. , r \n\nMurder of Hali Aga 25 May, \xe2\x80\x9e. \n\nThe Janissaries massacre the newly disciplined \n\ntroops i8o3 \n\nThe Russians defeated at Silistria .... 180a; \n\nTreaty of Bucharest (which see) . . 28 May, 1S12 \n\nA caravan, consisting of 2000 souls, returning from \nMecca, destroyed by a pestilential wind in the \ndeserts of Arabia ; 20 saved . . 9 Aug. ,, \n\nSubjugation of the AValiabees (which see) . 181S-29. \nAli Pacha of Janina, in Greece, declares himself \nindependent ........ 1820 \n\nInsurrection in Moldavia and Wallachia, 6 March, 182s \nPersecution of Christians, 6 March ; the Greek \npatriarch put to death at Constantinople, \n\n23 April, ,, \n[For the events in connection with the independ- \nence of Greece, see Greece.] \nHorrible massacre at Seio (see Chios) . 23 April, 1822 \nSea-fight near Mitylene ; Turks defeated . 6 Oct. 1824, \nNew Mahometan army organised . . 29 May, 1826 \nInsurrection of the Janissaries at Constantinople ; \n\nthey are suppressed and massacred, 14-16 June, ,, \n6000 houses burnt at Constantinople. . 30 Aug. ,, \nBattle of Navarino ; the Turkish fleet destroyed \nby the fleets of England, France, and Bussia (see \nNavarino) 20 Oct. 1823 \n\n\n\nTUEKEY. \n\n\n\n1001 \n\n\n\nTUEKEY. \n\n\n\nBanishment of 132 French, 120 English, and 85 \nRussian settlers from the empire . 5 Jan\'. 1828 \n\nWar with Russia 26 April, ,, \n\nThe czar Nicholas takes the field . . 20 May, ,, \nCapitulation of Brahilow .... 19 June, ,, \nSurrender of Anapa .... 23 June, ,, \nEminences of Shumla taken by Russians, 20 July, ,, \nThe czar arrives before Varna . . 5 Aug. ,, \n\nBattle of Aklialzic 24 Aug. ,, \n\nFortress of Bajazet taken ... 9 Sept. ,, \nThe sultan proceeds to the camp with the sacred \n\nstandard 26 Sept. ,, \n\nDardanelles blockaded 1 Oct. ,, \n\nSurrender of Varna 11 Oct. ,, \n\nRussians retreat from Shumla . . 16 Oct. ,, \n\nSurrender of the castle of the Morea to the French, \n\n30 Oct. ,, \nSiege of Silistria raised by Russians . 10 Not. ,, \nVictory of the Russians at Kuleftscha, near Shumla \n\n11 June, 1829 \nBattle near Erzeroum .... 2 July, ,, \nAdriauople is entered by the Russians, 20 Aug. ; \n\narmistice agreed on . . -29 Aug. ,, \n\nTreaty of peace at Adrianople . . 14 Sept. ,, \nFire at Constantinople ; extinguished by the men \n\nof H.M.S. Blonde .... 22 Jan. 1830 \n\nThe porte acknowledges the independence of Greece \n\n25 April, ,, \nTreaty with America .... 7 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nGreat fire at Pera ; British embassy destroyed, \n\n2 Aug. 1831 \nNew military " order of glory " (Nischan) founded \n\n19- Aug. ,, \nSt. Jean d\'Acre taken by Ibrahim Pacha, son of \n\nMehemet Ali 2 July, 1832 \n\nHe defeats the army of the sultan at Konieh, \n\n21 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nIbrahim Pacha marches within eighty leagues of \nConstantinople, and the sultan asks the aid of \nRussia ....... Jan. 1833 \n\nThe Russians enter Constantinople . 3 April, ,, \nTreaty with Russia, offensive and defensive, \n\n8 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nOffice of grand vizier abolished . . 30 March, 1838 \nTreaty of commerce with England, concluded by \n\nlord Ponsonby, ratified ... 16 Aug. ,, \n[For the events of 1839 and 1840 in relation to \n\nSyria ; see Syria.] \nHaiti Sherif promulgated decreeing many reforms, \ntermed the Tanzimat (regulations) 3 Nov. 1839 ; \nagain, at Rhodes 6 Jan. 1840; again 1844. \nChristians admitted to office in Turkey . June, 1849 \nThe Turkish government refuses to surrender the \nHungarian and Polish refugees on the joint de- \nmand of Russia and Austria . . 16 Sept. ,, \n[The porte (countenanced by England) firmly resists \n\nthis demand.] \nRussia suspends .intercourse with the Porte, \n\n12 Nov. ,, \nThe British fleet, under sir W. Parker, anchors in \n\nBesika bay 13 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDiplomatic relations between Russia and the porte \nresumed, 31 Dec. ; the latter sending the refugees \n\nto Konieh Jan. 1850 \n\nTurkish Croatia in a state of rebellion . . Jan. 1851 \nTreaty with France respecting the Holy Places \n\n(which see) 13 Feb. 1852 \n\nImperial order of Medjidie founded . . Aug. ,, \nPrince Menschikoff repairs to Constantinople as \nRussian negotiator, 28 Feb. ; lus peremptory \n\ndemands rejected 19 April, 1853 \n\nReschid Pacha becomes foreign minister; the \nultimatum being rejected, Meuschikolf quits \n\nConstantinople 21 May, ,, \n\nHatti-slieriff issued, confirming the rights of the \n\nGreek Christians 6 June, ,, \n\nRussian manifesto against Turkey . . 26 June, ,, \nRussian army crosses the 1\'ruth . . 2 July, ,, \n\nGrand national council \xe2\x80\x94 war to be declared if the \n\nprincipalities are not evacuated . . 26 Sept. ,, \nWar declared against Russia . . .5 Oct. ,, \n\n[See Russo-Turkish War.] \nCommencement of national debt (see Tjoans, 1854) . 1854 \nInsurrection in Epirus and Albania, favoured by \nthe Greek government at Athens\xe2\x80\x94 Hellenic em- \npire proclaimed 27 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nVolunteers from Athens join it . . 14 March, ,, \nRupture between Greece and Turkey 28 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\n[Several conflicts ensue with varied success.] \nOsman Pacha storms Peta, the central point of the \n\ninsurrection 25 April, 1854 \n\nEnglish and French governments, after many \nremonstrances, send troops, which arrive at the \nPirreus ; the king of Greece submits, and pro- \nmises strict neutrality : the Greek volunteers \nare recalled .... 25 and 26 May, ,, \nAbdi Pacha and Fuad Effendi take the intrenched \ncamp at Kolampaka, and the insurrection shortly \n\nafter ceases 18 June, , T \n\nReschid Pacha, having retired (3 June), resumes \n\nhis office 1 July, ,, \n\nConvention between Turkey and Austria 14 June, ,,. \nThe Russians retire from the principalities, which \nare thereupon occupied by the Austrians, Sept. ,, \n\nTurkish loans Aug. 185s \n\n[See Loans 1854-5] \nFirman authorising free exercise of religion 18 Feb. 185.6 \nPeace with Russia by treaty of Paris . 30 March, ,, \nGreat Britain, France, and Austria guarantee integ- \nrity of Turkish empire . . . 15 April, ,, \nAustrians quit the principalities . . March, 1857 \nMisunderstanding among the allied powers re- \nspecting Moldavian elections, which are annulled, \n\nJuly, \xe2\x80\x9e \nDeath of Reschid Pacha .... 7 Jan. 185)8 \nMassacre of Christians at Jedda (which see), \n\n15 June, ,, \nLord Stratford de Redeliffe, many years English \nambassador at Constantinople, returned to Eng- \nland, Jan. ; he is succeeded by sir H. Lytton \nBulwer; accredited .... 12 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nIndecisive conflicts in Montenegro between the \n\nnatives and the Turks .... July, , T \nTurkish financial reforms begun . . Aug. ,, \n\nThe first Turkish railway opened (from Aidan to \n\nSmyrna) 19 Sept. ,,. \n\nBase coinage called in ; a fictitious Turkish coinage \n\nbegun at Birmingham suppressed . \xe2\x80\xa2 Oct. ,, \nThe allied powers determine the Montenegrine \nboundaries ... ... 8 Nov. ,, \n\nPrince Alexander Cousa elected hospodar of both \n\nMoldavia and Wallachia . . 5 and 7 Feb. 1859 \n[The porte at first objects, but afterwards accedes \n\nto the double election.] \nElectric telegraph completed between Aden and \n\nSuez May, ,\xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGreat fire at Constantinople ; 1000 houses destroyed \n\n10-14 Sept. ,, \nConspiracy against the sultan, 17 Sept.; his brother \nimplicated ; several condemned to die ; reprieved, \n\nSept. and Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nGreat agitation for financial reform . . Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nAlleged ill treatment of Christians in Turkey ; pro- \nposed intervention of the great powers, 5 May ; \nthe Turkish government promises investigation \nand redress, 30 May ; all the powers satisfied \n\nexcept Russia June, i860 \n\nWar between the Druses and Maronites in Lebanon ; \n\nmassacres (see Druses) .... June, ,, \nMassacre of Christians at Damascus (see Damascus, \n\nand Syria) 9-1 1 July, ,, \n\nConvention on behalf of the Great Powers at Paris ; \narmed intervention of the French agreed to, \n\n2 Aug. ,, \nInundations at Galatz ; loss about 175,000?. \n\n24 Feb. i86j \nChristians revolt in the Herzegovina, aided by the \n\nMontenegrins March, ,, \n\nGreat need of financial reform : the British am- \nbassador, sir H. Lytton Bulwer, proposes a \n\nscheme April, ,, \n\nDiscussion respecting the French occupation of \n\nSyria; it ceases 5 June, ,, \n\nDeath of the sultan, Abdul-Medjid ; accession of \n\nAbdul-Aziz, his brother . . . 25 June, ,, \nEconomical reforms begun; Fuad Pacha made \n\npresident of the council .... July, , r \nThe late sultan\'s jewels sold in London . Aug. ,, \nimperial order of knighthood (< ismaneh) to include \n\ncivil as well as military persons, founded, Sept. ,, \nimperial guard reorganised . . . Oct. \nFuad Pacha made grand vizier . . 22 Nov. ,, \nHi\' puis forth a budget ; treaties hi\' commerce with \n\nSweden, Spain, &c. .... March, iS6a \n\nA Turkish loan (8,000,000/.) taken up in London, \n\nMay, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nTUEKEY. \n\n\n\n1002 \n\n\n\nTUEKEY. \n\n\n\nSecularisation of the property of the mosques, \n(value about 3,000,000!) said to be determined, on, \n\nOct. 1S62 \ninsurgents in the Herzegovina submit ; peace made \n\nwith Montenegro .... 23 Sept. ,, \nDispute with Servia (which see) settled . 7 Oct. ,, \n.Ministerial crisis through the sultan\'s attempt at \nreaction; Fuad Pacha and others resign, but \n\nresume office 7 Jan. 1863 \n\nA new bank established .... 28 Jan. ,, \nFuad Pacha becomes seraskier . . 12 Feb. ,, \n\nThe sultan visits Egypt . . . 7-17 April, ,, \nFuad Pacha made grand vizier . . 1 June, ,, \nExhibition of the produce of the empire opened in \n\nMarch ; closed 26 July, ,, \n\n<Great immigration of the Caucasian tribes April\' 1864 \nFinancial reforms ; conversion and verification of \n\nthe Turkish debt . Aug. 1865 \n\nCholera rages at Constantinople, nearly 50,000 \ndeaths, Aug. ; cholera subsides, Sept. ; great fire \nthere, about 2500 buildings (mosques, dwellings, \n\n&c.) destroyed 6 Sept. 1865 \n\nFuad Pacha proposes confiscation of the property \nof the mosques : opposition of the Sheikh-ul-Islam \n\n21 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nLord Lyons, ambassador at Constantinople . Oct. ,, \nKevolt of the Maronites under Joseph Karam, \n\n30 Dec. ,, \nThe grand vizier, Fuad Pacha, superseded by \n\nMehemet Buehdi .... 5 June, 1866 \n\nRevolution in Bucharest (see Danubian, princi- \npalities). \nInsurrection in Candia (which see) . . Aug. ., \nInternational conference respecting cholera at Con- \nstantinople . . . . 13 Feb. -26 Sept. ,, \nEuropean Turkey very unsettled . . Jan. 1867 \nMaronite revolt, under Joseph Karam, suppressed ; \n\nhis flight, Jan. ; Turks leave . . 28 March, ,, \nMinisterial changes : Ali Pacha becomes grand- \nvizier ; Fuad Pacha, foreign minister 11 Feb. ,, \nThe recommendation of the European powers to \nthe sultan to give up Candia finally declined \n\n31 Mar. ,, \nOmar Pacha, commander-in-chief of the Turkish \n\narmy April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDestruction of the dockyards in the Golden Horn by \nfire 2 April, ,, \n\nThe sultan, with his son and nephew, visits Paris, \n1-12 July; arrives at Buckingham Palace, \nLondon, 12 July; entertained by the queen at \nWindsor, 13 July; by the lord mayor, 18 July; \nat a ball at New India House, 19 July; gives \n2500Z. to the poor of London, 22 July ; sails from \nDover, 23 July ; at Vienna, 27 July-i Aug. ; re- \nturns to Constantinople . . . 7 Aug. \n\nThe Sultan declines the proposition of Russia, for \nthe suspension of hostilities in Crete, and an in- \nternational commission ... 4 Sept. \n\nMinisterial crisis; Fuad Pacha resigns, but re- \nsumes his office Jan. 1868 \n\nMeeting of the new council of state (including \nJews and Christians), with legislative, but not \nexecutive, functions .... 18 May, \n\nArrival of prince Napoleon Jerome at Constanti- \nnople 26 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nArrests on account of a supposed plot against the \nsultan 3 o Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDispute with Greece for intervention in the Cretan \ninsurrection ; see Oreece .... Dee \n\nFuad Pacha dies Feb! i860 \n\nThe prince and princess of Wales\'s visit April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMemorial of the porte to the European powers de- \nsiring the abolition of the consular jurisdictions \ntermed "capitulations" . . . June \n\nThe khedive or viceroy of Egj^pt censured for \nassuming sovereign powers encroaching on those \nof the sultan A U<T \n\nSystem of compulsory education promulgated, Oct " \n\nArrival of the empress of the French at Constanti- \' \nno l lle 15 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nInauguration of the Suez canal . . 17 Nov. \n\nThe khedive submits to the sultan . . Dec.\' " \n\nModification of the "capitulations" . April, 1870 \n\nGreat fire at Pera ; British embassy and about 7900 \nhouses destroyed ; great loss of life . 5 June, \n\nAnother fire at Constantinople : about 1500 houses \nbui\'ut 11 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nChange in the cabinet ; Mustapha Fazyl, finance \n\nminister 14 Aug. 1870 \n\nReported treaty between Turkey and Greece to re- \nsist European aggression in the East . 21 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nRussia repudiates the treaty of Paris, 1856, 31 Oct. ,, \nA note delivered to the porte (see Russia), 15 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe sultan agrees to. a conference on the Black Sea \n\nquestion alone about 3 Dec. ,, \n\nMustapha Fazyl, replaced by Mehemet Ruchdi \n\nabout 15 Jan. 1871 \nThe Black Sea question settled by the conference \n\nat London (see Russia) . . . 13 March, ,, \nOmar Pacha, general, dies ... 18 April, ,, \nInsurrection in Yemen, subdued . . May, ,, \nGreat fires at Constantinople . . 7 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAali Pacha, grand vizier, an able statesman, dies \n\n6 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nMahmoud Pacha, grand vizier . . . Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nTunis made an integral part of the empire, by de- \ncree ....... 23 Oct. ,, \n\nPolitical reforms inaugurated by the new ministry \n\nNov. 1871 \nImportant speech of the sultan to his council re- \nspecting the finances .... 16 May, 1872 \n\nMahmoud Pacha, grand vizier, having made \nenemies through dismissing foreign employes, &c, \nis dismissed and replaced by Miclhat Pacha, \n\nabout 30 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nMidhat Pacha, who favoured Austria, dismissed ; \n\nreplaced by Mehemet Ruchdi . . . 19 Oct. ,, \nEssad Pacha, grand vizier, 15 Feb.; Mehemet \n\nRuchdi again April, 1873 \n\nThe Roumelian railway connecting Constantinople, \n\nAdrianople, &c, opened ... 17 June, ,, \nThe sultan\'s jewels, &e. (valued at 8,ooo,oooL) ex- \nhibited at Vienna Aug. ,, \n\nThe shah of Persia arrives at Constantinople \n\n19 Aug. ,, \nInability to raise a loan : the sultan gives up a large \n\nsum; great financial reforms proposed . Oct. ,, \nTurkish aggressions on South Arabia checked by \n\nGreat Britain Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGreat improvements in the army ; formation of re- \nserves ........... \n\nHussein Avni, pacha ; made grand vizier . Feb. 1874 \nImproved financial arrangements reported April, ,, \nThe sultan ill ; he recognises his nephew Murad \n\nas successor about 5 Oct. ,, \n\nAustria, Germany, and Russia inform Turkey that \nthey consider they have the right to conclude \nseparate treaties with Roumania . . 20 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nMesondive or Mesoucliye, Turkish ironclad, launched \n\nat Blackwall 28 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTurkish debt 3,000,000/.. in 1854 ; 180,000,000?. . \xe2\x80\x9e \nBudget : estimated receipts, 21,711,764?. ; expendi- \nture, 26,299,178?. June, 1875 \n\nInsurrection in Herzegovina (\xe2\x96\xa0which see) ; great ex- \ncitement in Bosnia, Servia, and Montenegro \n\nJuly- Aug. ,, \nMahmoud Pacha made grand vizier, with a strong \n\nministry, about 25 Aug. ,, \n\nDecree (in consequence of the deficit of 5,000,000?. \nin the budget) that for 5 years half the interest on \nthe debt be paid in cash and half in 5 per cent. \n\nbonds 6 Oct. ,, \n\nCircular note remitting taxes and promising eco- \nnomical and commercial reform, 7 Oct. ; another \nstating object of the government to stop onerous \nloans, develop the resources of the empire, &c, \n\n20 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nRemonstrances of British and Russian ambassadors \nwith the government respecting expenditure and \ntreatment of Christian subjects . Sept. -Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nRaschid Pasha new foreign minister . . Nov. ,, \nMidhat Pasha, reformer, resigns . . 4 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nFirman issued ; ordering great reforms, equality \n\nof rights to Christians, &c. . . . Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nNote of Andrassy, Austrian minister, respecting \nreforms, 30 Dec. ; adopted by Germany and Russia, \nJan.; by Great Britain, 18 Jan. ; transmitted \nto the porte, about 7 Feb., agreed to . 10 Feb. 1876 \nPayment of April dividends deferred to July \n\nApril 11 ,, \nInsurrection in Bulgaria, promoted by foreign \nagitators, 1, 2 May ; quickly suppressed by troops \nsent 7 May ; about 65 villages burnt by the Bashi- \nbazouks, and other Turkish troops ; several towns \ndestroyed; about 15,000 persons killed ; atrocious \n\n\n\nTUEKEY. \n\n\n\n1003 \n\n\n\nTUEKEY. \n\n\n\ncruelties to women and children ; a few Turks \nkilled by Bulgarians in self-defence (report by \nMr. Schuyler, see belovj) .... May, 1876 \nRiots at Constantinople ; the softas, fanatical stu- \ndents, and others, demand reforms ; their cry, \n"Turkey for the Turks;" ministerial changes; \nMahmoud Pacha, the grand vizier, replaced by \nMehemet Ruchdi ; Europeans much alarmed \n\n10 May et seq. ,, \nBritish fleet arrives in Besika Bay . . 26 May, ,, \nMeeting at Berlin of ministers of Austria, Germany, \nand Russia ; they agree to a note to Turkey, re- \nquiring an armistice of two months, and other \nmeasures, n, 12 May; the note accepted by \nFrance and Italy, not by Great Britain, 19 May ; \nnot presented through the revolution . 30 May, ,, \n\nThe grand vizier Mehemet Ruchdi, Hussein Avni, \nand Midhat Pacha, request the sultan to give up \nsome of his treasure to save the nation from \nruin ; he refuses and is deposed, 29 May ; his \nnephew proclaimed as Murad V. ; joyfully ac- \ncepted by the people, and recognised by the \nwestern powers . . 30 May, et seq. , , \n\nManifesto recognising the danger of the empire \nthrough misgovermnent, and promising amend- \nment 2 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAbdul-Aziz recognises Murad ; said to have com- \nmitted suicide by cutting arteries in the arm ; \nsaid to be insane ; (decided, by trial, to have been \nmurdered ; .see below, June, 1881) . 4 June, ,, \n\nAssassination of Hussein Avni, the war minister, \nRaschid Pacha, the foreign minister, and others, \nby Hassan, a disgraced Circassian officer, 15 June, \nwho is hanged 17 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDeclaration of war by Servia, 1 July ; by Monte- \nnegro 2 July, ,, \n\nTchernayeff and Servians enter Turkey ; battle at \nSaitschar or Zaicar ; Turks said to have the advan- \ntage .3 July, ,, \n\nSevere conflict of Turks with Servians at Yavor, \nnear Novi Bazar, 6 July ; with Montenegrins at \nNevesinje 27 July, ,, \n\nLeague in aid of Turkish Christians formed in Lon- \ndon 27 July, ,, \n\nMukhtar Pacha defeated by prince Nikita at Urba \nor Urbitza in Herzegovina . . 28 July, ,, \n\nIssue of paper money announced . . 28 July, ,, \n\nSeveral clays\' conflict ; the Turks enter Servia, and \ncapture Gurgosavatz ; Servians retreat 7 Aug. ,, \n\nTurkish barbarities in Bulgaria reported by Daily \nNews\' correspondent, substantiated by report of \nMr. Schuyler, the American commissioner from \nConstantinople, dated . . . .10 Aug. ,, \n\nAsserted victory of prince Nikita at Medun, near \nKutchi, about 14 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAdvance of the Turks under Abdul-Kerim Pacha \nupon Alexinatz ; severe fighting, 9 Aug. \n\n19-30 Aug, \n\nServia invites the mediation of the guaranteeing \npowers, about 24 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMurad V. deposed on account of bad health ; his \nbrother Abdul-Hamid II. proclaimed 31 Aug. ,, \n\nThe great powers propose an immediate armistice, \nthe restoration of the status quo ante helium, pay- \nment of an indemnity by Servia, &c. ; memoran- \ndum presented 3, 4 Sept. ,, \n\nServians said to be severely beaten before Alexinatz \n1, 2 Sept. ; continued indecisive fighting . . ,, \n\nArmistice till 25 Sept. agreed to about . 17 Sept. ,, \n\nPrince Milan proclaimed king by the army at Deli- \ngrad ; disapproved .... 16 Sept. ,, \n\nReport of Mr. Baring, the British commissioner in \nBulgaria, published . . . .19 Sept. ,, \n\n[It establishes the facts "that a ferocious Mussul- \nman soldiery, in revenge for a feeble and abortive \ninsurrection, were let loose on the inhabitants of a \nlarge province; that the population were bar- \nbarously massacred, men, women, and children \nincluded ; and that during the storm of savage \nfury crimes of all descriptions and outrages un- \nmentionable were perpetrated on the inhabi- \ntants." \xe2\x80\x94 Times.] \n\nFirm incisive despatch from Lord Derby to Sir H. \nElliot, referring to Mr. Baring\'s report, proposing \nlonger armistice, &c 21 Sept. ,, \n\nThe porte receives the propositions of the six great \n. powers 26 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nLord Derby informs the deputation from the city \nof London that, in regard to the Eastern question, \nthe government is labouring for local self-govern- \nment for the Turkish provinces in Europe, equal \ntreatment of Mahometans and Christians, better \nadministration for both, security for life and pro- \nperty, and effectual guarantees against repetition \nof outrages 27 Sept. \n\nServia rejects the renewal of the armistice ; Tcher- \nnayeff \'and army dominant; fighting renewed, \n\n26, 27 Sept. \n\nServian attacks on the Turks near Alexinatz severely \nrepulsed 28, 29 Sept. \n\nIn reply to the great powers the porte declines an \narmistice, opposes administrative autonomy to \nthe provinces as impracticable, proposes a senate, \nand guarantees incisive reforms . . 2 Oct. \n\nMukhtar Pacha said to defeat Montenegrines. 7 Oct. \n\nMontenegrine victory at Danilograd . 13 Oct. \n\nTurkey\'s proposal of an armistice for 6 months, \n10 Oct. ; declined by Russia, who proposes 4 to \n6 weeks, longer being injurious to commerce, \n&c 14 Oct. \n\nContinued fighting, generally unfavourable to Ser- \nvians 15-19 Oct. \n\nAlexinatz bombarded .... 16-19 Oct. \n\nMedun surrenders to Montenegrines . 20 Oct. \n\nKrevet taken by Turks . . . . 21 Oct. \n\nResult of fighting very favourable to Turks 19-24 ct. \n\nAlleged conspiracy at Constantinople against the \nreform ministry ; many arrests . about 23 Oct. \n\nImportant Turkish successes iu the valley of the \nMorava 19-24 Oct. \n\nServians and Russians defeated ; armies under \nTchernayeff and Horvaritch divided, 19-24 Oct. ; \nDjunis taken by Turks ; Deligrad untenable ; \nsevere Russian loss . . . .29 Oct. \n\nNeutral despatch of lord Derby . dated 30 Oct. \n\nAlexinatz captured by Turks ; Russian ultimatum \ngiven, demanding 6 weeks\' armistice within 48 \nhours dated 31 Oct. \n\nArmistice for two months signed . . 1 Nov. \n\nDeligrad captured by Turks, now virtually masters \nof Servia 1 Nov. \n\nPacific declaration of the czar to lord Aug. Loftus, \n\n2 Nov. \n\nDeligrad evacuated by Turks ; farewell address of \nTchernayeff to officers, exhorting to constancy, \n\n4 Nov. \n\nCzar\'s speech at Moscow ; he will act independently \nif guarantees are not obtained . . 10 Nov. \n\nMarquis of Salisbury appointed special ambassador \nfor conference at Constantinople ; he arrives at \nParis, 18 Nov. ; Berlin, 20 Nov. ; Vienna, 24 Nov.; \nRome, 29 Nov. ; Constantinople . . 5 Dec. \n\nAlleged abortive conspiracy to restore Murad, about \n\n8 Dec. \n\nPreliminary meetings of conference of representa- \ntives of six great powers begin (Great Britain, \nRussia, Austria, Germany, France, and Italy), \n\n12 Dec. \n\nRuchdi Pacha, grand vizier, replaced by Midhat \nPacha, a reformer ... .19 Dec. \n\nArmistice extended to Feb. 1877 . . Dec. \n\nNew political constitution proclaimed : (chief \nprovisions : indivisibility of the empire ; the sultan \nsupreme; individual-liberty; freedom of all creeds, \n\xe2\x80\xa2of the press, and of education ; equal legal taxa- \ntion ; a senate and two chambers ; general elec- \ntions by ballot every fourth year ; irremovable \njudges, &c.) 23 Dec. \n\nOpening of the conference ... 23 Dec. \n\nFinancial decree of 6 Oct. 1875, abrogated, 27 Dec. \n\nArmistice extended to 1 March . . 28 Dec. \n\nThe great national council of Turkey rejects the \npropositions of the conference, 18 Jan.; it closes, \n20 Jan. ; chief ambassadors leave soon after \n\n22 Jan. \n\nNegotiations for peace opened with Servia and Mon- \ntenegro about 26 Jan. \n\nMidhat Pacha, the grand vizier, dismissed and \nbanished ; succeeded by Edhem Pacha (educated \nat Paris) ; reforms to go on . . . 5 Feb. \n\nGortschakoff\'s circular to great powers, inquiring \nwhat they intend to do, signed 19 Jan. ; pub- \nlished about 7 Feb. \n\nProtocols of the conference published in Times, &c. \n\nearly in Feb. \n\n\n\n1S77 \n\n\n\nTUEZEY. \n\n\n\n1004 \n\n\n\nTUKKEY. \n\n\n\nIn Turkey " there is no aristocracy, no governing \nclass ; no organised democracy ; no representa- \ntive government," (marquis of Salisbury) 20 Feb. \n\nPeace with Servia signed . . .1 March, \n\nFirst Turkish parliament opened : 30 senators, 90 \ndeputies ; speech from the sultan read, 19 March, \n\nGen. Ignatieff visits Berlin, Paris, London, Vienna, \n&c March, \n\nProtocol signed for six powers : principles \xe2\x80\x94 to wait \nfor Turkish reforms and watch ; conditional dis- \narmament in Russia and Turkey (voidable under \ncertain conditions) . . . . 31 March, \n\nProtocol rejected by Turkey, 12 April ; justificatory \ncircular sent to the powers ; Mr. Layard sent as \ntemporary ambassador to Turkey . . April, \n\nInsurrection of Mirdites or Miridites, April ; armis- \ntice with Montenegro not renewed . 13 April, \n\nArrival of Mr. Layard as ambassador, at Constanti- \nnople ; he affirms the neutrality of Great Britain, \nabout 24 April, \n\nWar declared by Russia (see Russo-TurJcish war, \n1877) 2 4 April, \n\nRiotous manifestation by the softas, soon subsides, \n\n24 May, \n\nA jihad or holy war against Russia propounded by \nthe sheikh-ul-islam . . . about 28 May, \n\nSuleiman Pacha successful in Montenegro ; relieves \nNicksies, besieged ... . May, et seq. \n\nMiridite h aders captured .... June, \n\nThe parliament closed without a speech . 28 June, \n\nSafvet Pacha, foreign minister, replaced by Aarifi \nPacha about 18 July, \n\nOther ministerial changes .... July, \n\nProtests against alleged Russian atrocities, July, \n\n\xe2\x80\x94Aug. \n\nBosnian revolt reported to be ended . Aug. \n\nProclamation for increase of army by 150,000 \xe2\x80\x94 \nChristians and others to serve , . .26 Nov. \n\nReported intrigues at Constantinople by peace and \nwar parties Nov. \n\nThe sultan issues a rather vague proclamation of \namnesty to Bulgaria . . about 27 Nov. \n\nSurrender of Plevna, 10 Dec. ; circular note to the \ngreat powers requesting mediation . . 12 Bee. \n\nParliament opened ; the sultan\'s speech censures \nthe war, and praises his generals and soldiers, \n\n13 Bee. \n\nThe ministry censured, resigns ; still holds office ; \nSuleiman dismissed ; crisis at Constantinople, \n\n5, 6, 7 Jan. \n\nHamed Pacha, grand vizier . . . 11 Jan. \n\nNew ministry under Ahmed Nefik ; grand viziership \nabolished 4, 5 Feb. \n\nBritish fleet enter the Bardanelles without permis- \nsion of the sultan .... 13 Feb. \n\nThe parliament dissolved by the sultan . 14 Feb. \n\nInsurrection in Crete, Thessaly, Epirus, &c. (see \nGreece) Feb., March, \n\nTreaty of peace with Russia signed at San Stefano \n(see Stejano), 3 March ; ratified at St. Petersburg, \n\n17 March, \n\nOsman Pacha honourably received by the sultan, \n\n24 March, \n\nGrand-duke Nicholas and the sultan exchange visits \nat Constantinople . . . .26 March, \n\nAhmed Nefik replaced by Sadyk as prime minister, \nabout 18 April, \n\nInsurrection near Rhodope, in Roumelia, against \nRussians going on ; see Ehodope . . April, \n\nInsurrection (said doubtfully to be in favour of the \nex-sultan Murad) in Constantinople, suppressed ; \nAli Suavi, a softa and fanatical reformer, with \nothers, killed 20 May, \n\nPublic offices, &c, at Constantinople destroyed by \nfire ; attributed to incendiaries . 22 May, \n\nOffice of grand vizier revived for Mehemet Ruehdi, \nMay ; soon replaced by Safvet . . 29 May, \n\nSecret agreement between the marquis of Salisbury \nand count Scliouvaloff, Russian ambassador, \n\n30 May, \n\nSecret British convention with Turkey (defensive \nalliance) : if by the treaty of Berlin, Russia ac- \nquires Kars, Ardahan, or Batoum, Great Britain \nis to join the sultan in arms in defending his \ndominions, he engaging to reform his government ; \nCyprus to be held by Great Britain till Russia \nreturns its acquisitions . . . 4 June, \n\nCyprus ceded to Great Britain . . 3 July, \n\n\n\n1877 \n\n\n\nBerlin conference meets, 13 June ; treaty, signed \n(see Berlin) 13 July, \n\nA conspiracy against the sultan suppressed, about \n\n10 July, \n\nA ministerial crisis ends ; the vizier Safvet Pacha\'s \npolicy approved by the sultan, who gives him a \npresent ; ratification of the treaty of Berlin an- \nnounced 4 Aug. \n\nTrial of Suleiman Pacha for misconduct during the \nwar begun ...... Aug. \n\nThe Turks said to be grossly ill-treated in Bulgaria, \nand other surrendered places . . . Aug. \n\nSafvet Pacha\'s circular to foreign powers refusing \nto recognise Greek proposal for annexation of \nCandia, Thessaly, &c 8 Aug. \n\nMurder of Mehemet Ali Pacha at Ipek, near Scutari, \nby Albanian rioters .... 6 Sept. \n\nAlleged conspiracies on behalf of the ex-sultan \nMurad ; instigated by the ulemas, about 10 Sept. \n\nAlbanian leader with 40,000 men said to be ruling \nfrom Janina to Montenegro . . . 12 Sept. \n\nGerman circular to the powers on Turkish delays \nin carrying out the Berlin treaty . middle Sept. \n\nThe sultan accepts the reforms proposed by the \nBritish government ; announced . 24 Oct. \n\nInsurrectionary movements in Macedonia Oct. \n\nMidhat Pacha appointed governor-general of Syria, \nto inaugurate reforms . . about 11 Nov. \n\nSuleiman Pacha sentenced to degradation and im- \nprisonment, 2 Dec. ; absolved the sultan 4 Dec. \n\nNew ministry ; Kheredine Pacha (grand vizier) ; \nCaratheodori, and others ... 4 Dec. \n\nMacedonian insurrection ended . . .3 Jan. \n\nDefinitive treaty of peace with Russia, signed \n\n8 Feb. \n\nBritish fleet leaves the sea of Marmora March, \n\nDefinitive treaty with Austria, published 26 May, \n\nMahmoud Nedem, old statesman, returns to Con- \nstantinople on invitation ... 30 June, \n\nKheredine, Caratheodori, and others compelled to \nresign through opposition of the assembly of \nUlemas (their policy said to be against the \nKhoran) ; succeeded by Aarifi Pacha \n\n28, 29 July, \n\nThe Russians evacuate Turkey . July, Aug. \n\nNew ministry under Said Pacha . . 18, 19 Oct. \n\nPressure for reforms put upon the government by \nthe British ; admiral Hornby and the fleet enter \nTurkish waters ; quit . . early in Nov. \n\nBaker Pacha appointed inspector-general of gen- \ndarmerie in Asia Minor . announced 18 Nov. \n\nGreat financial depression . . Nov. Bee. \n\nOfficial relations with Great Britain temporarily \nsuspended on account of the Imprisonment of Dr. \nKoller, a German missionary, and Ahmed Tewfik, \nwho assisted him in translations 31 Dec. \n\nSuccessful intervention of sir A. H. Layard \n\n1-10 Jan. \n\nNote of Savas Pacha to the Powers acknowledging \ncorruptions in judicial affairs and promising effi- \ncient reforms (in Times) ... 30 Jan. \n\nCol. and Mrs. Synge (distributors of relief to Mus- \nsulmans) captured by Greek brigands, near Salo- \nnica, about 19 Feb. ; released for io,ooo\xc2\xa3. \n\nabout 24 March, \n\nMr. Goschen sent as temporary ambassador ; \narrives at Constantinople . . . 28 May, \n\nNew ministry under Kadri Pacha about 8 June, \n\nIdentic note from European powers, 11 June; \ngiven in ...... 12 June, \n\nOsman Pacha, war minister, dismissed \n\nabout 10 July, \n\nNaval demonstration by the European powers at \nDulcigno, suggested by earl Granville Jnly, \n\nCollective note of the Berlin conference presented \n\n15 July, \n\nMadame Skobeleff, mother of the Russian general, \nrobbed and murdered near Philippopolis by \nOuzalis, a Russian . . . . 18 July, \n\nMidhat Pacha, governor of Syria, and Hamed \nPacha of Smyrna exchange offices . . Aug. \n\nCollective note from the powers urging cession of \nDulcigno, <fec, to Montenegro, and proposing to \naid the prince in taking possession . 3 Aug. \n\nThe ministry modified under Said Pacha, premier \n\n12 Sept. \n\nA final note from the powers respecting cession of \nDulcigno to Montenegro, delivered 15 Sept. \n\n\n\n1879 \n\n\n\nTURKEY. \n\n\n\n1005 \n\n\n\nTURKEY. \n\n\n\nAdmiral Beauchamp Seymour, commander of com- \nbined fleet at Ragusa, sent to make a demonstra- \ntion near Dulcigno . . ... 20 Sept. \nThe sultan refuses to surrender Dulcigno ; the \nFrench decline to partake in attack on the town, \nabout 27 Sept. \nNote from the sultan limiting his concessions and \nresisting coercion ; presented . . 3 Oct. \nImmediate cession of Dulcigno ordered by the \nsultan, about 23 Oct. ; effected . . 26 Nov. \nThe combined fleet disperses ... 4 Dec. \nNote from the sultan to the powers respecting the \n\nGreeks arming 14 Dec. \n\nCircular from the powers recommending arbitra- \ntion, 24 Dec. 1880 ; declined by Turkey and \n\nGreece early in Jan \n\nCircular from Turkey proposing conference at Con- \nstantinople &c. . . . about 15 Jan. \nNotes from the powers presented . .21 Feb. \nConference at Constantinople ; agreement between \nTurkey and the powers ; proposals referred to \n\nAthens 30 March, \n\nMr. Henry Suter, engaged in mines, seized by \nbrigands at Cassandra, in Salonica, about 8 April, \nRebellion in Albania (which see) suppressed May, \nMidhat Pacha\'s palace surrounded by soldiers ; he \nescapes and appeals to the powers . 17 May, \nThe sultan jsrotests against French invasion of \n\nTunis (which sec) May, \n\nMidhat surrenders, claiming a fair trial \n\nabout 17 May, \nTurkey protests against the Tunis treaty of 12 May \n\nMay, \nMr. Suter\'s release for 15,000?. ransom announced \n\n23 May, \n\nConvention between Turkey and Greece arranged at \n\nConstantinople settling frontiers ; Thessaly ceded \n\nby Turkey 24 May, \n\nMr. Goschen leaves Constantinople ; his mission \nsuccessful ; succeeded by lord Dufferiu, 26 May ; \nwho arrives at Constantinople, . 15 June, \nTrial of Midhat Pacha and others for murder of the \nlate sultan Abdul-Aziz ; convicted ; Mustapha \nFahri Bey and Had. j Mehmed actual assassins ; \nothers, Mahmoud and Nouzi Pachas, the sultan\'s \nbrothers-in-law, Midhat Pacha, and others ac- \ncomplices 27, 28 June, \n\nSentence ; death to all except two subordinates to \n\nimprisonment 29 June, \n\nTurco-Greek convention ceding Thessaly to Greece, \n\nsigned at Constantinople ... 2 July, \n\nThe trial of Midhat and others said to be a mockery ; \n\npunishment commuted to exile on intercession \n\nof the British Government ; announced 31 July, \n\nThe captors of Mr. Suter taken in Greece, about \n\n15 Aug. \nTurkish mission at Cairo .... 7-18 Oct. \nContinued negotiations at Constantinople respect- \ning national debt .... Oct. et seq. \nThe German vessel Vulcan laden with dynamite \n(said to belong to Russia) cargo unshipped near \n\nConstantinople about 8 Oct. \n\nDecree signed for a satisfactory settlement of the \n\nnational debt 28 Dec. \n\nCapt. Selby, R.N. , wounded by Albanians at Artaki, \n\nannounced 16 Feb. ; died ... 20 Feb. : \n\nMehemet Ruchdi Pasha dies . . .26 March, \n\nRussian-war indemnity convention ratified 6 May, \n\nThe minister Said Pasha dismissed, succeeded by \n\nAbdurrahman Pasha, about 2 May ; who resigns \n\n7 July. \n\nSaid Pasha reinstated . . . about 8 July, \n\nSultan protests against bombardment of forts at \nAlexandria (see Egypt) . . about n July, \n\nProtracting negotiations respecting a military con- \nvention ; agreed to 29 Aug. \n\nAlleged conspiracy of Fuad Pasha and others to \ndethrone the sultan . . . about 28 Nov. \n\nSai I Pasha dismissed ; Circassian guard dismissed \n\n29 Nov. \n\nFrontier disputes with Montenegro . . Nov. \n\nSaid Pasha restored with honours, made grand \nVizier 3 Dec. Fuad Pasha restored to favour \n\n7 Dec. \n\nExcitement of the sultan through dread of assas- \nsination about 13 Dec. \n\nFight among the sultan\'s body guard, (Albanians \nami Negroes) about 30 killed or wounded 17 Jan. 1 \n\n\n\nTurkish note to the powers against British Egypt- \n\ntian circular about 23 Jan. \n\nDifficulties with the Greek church respecting poli- \ntical reforms ; resignation of the (Ecumenical \nPatriarch Yoachim 1L. ; not accepted ; concilia- \ntion proposed . . . .29 Dec. -3 Jan. \n\nResignation maintained . . . .9 Jan. \n\nAmicable settlement of dispute, announced April, \n\nThe Imperial prince and princess of Austria hospi- \ntably entertained by the sultan . . April, \n\nDeath of Midhat Pasha, great statesman and re- \nformer in exile, aged 62 ... May, \n\nCircular to the six great powers announcing the \nstoppage of the post offices in Constantinople, \n20 July, resisted ; the Turkish arrangements fail, \nand are withdrawn Aug. \n\nSir Edward Thornton appointed to succeed lord \nDufferin Sept. \n\nGreek patriarch elected . . . . 13 Oct. \n\nMutiny of troops at Monastir, for want of pay and \nclothing ; settled by concession . about 21 Nov. \n\nPetitions to the sultan from Macedonia, respecting \nTurkish atrocities signed . . . .12 Oct. \n\nHassan Fehmy Pasha sent to London to confer on \nthe Egyptian question; his proposals not re- \nceived, end of Jan. \n\nTurkey protests against Italian occupation of Mas- \nsowah on the Red Sea . . about 23 Feb. \n\nNew tariff with England signed . . 9 July, \n\nSir H. D. Wolff arrives at Constantinople on a \nmission respecting Egypt, 22 Aug. ; wellreceived \nby the Sultan 29 Aug. \n\nRevolution in Roumelia (which see), 18 Sept ; \nfirm Turkish note to the powers about 22 Sept. \n\nSaid Pasha, grand vizier, and other ministers \ndismissed ; succeeded by Kiamil Pasha, 24 Sept. \n\nConference of ambassadors, 4 Oct. ; the ambassadors \npresent a collective note condemning the revolu- \ntion in Roumelia as breaking the treaty of Berlin, \n\n14 Oct. \n\nDecree for Turkish commission to go with sir \nH. D. Wolff to Cairo, about 12 Oct. ; convention \nsigned 24 Oct. \n\nTurkey asks assistance of the powers to settle the \nRoumelian affair ig Oct. \n\nConference of ambassadors at Constantinople, \n5 Nov. ; collective declaration for maintenance \nof status quo ante, about 7 Nov. ; division of \nopinion as to enforcement . . . n Nov. \n\nRustem Pasha succeeds Musurus Pasha (1856-85) \nas ambassador in London . . . Nov. \n\nThe Sultan ratifies the treaty between Bulgaria \nand Servia 13 March, \n\nSir Edward Thornton, British ambassador, received \nby the Sultan n March, \n\nHobart Pasha, Turkish admiral, dies, aged 64, \n\n19 June, \n\nSir William White appointed British ambassador, \nOct. ; received 2 Nov. \n\nFour English gentlemen captured near Smyrna by \nbrigands who demand 3,000?. ransom, 24 Sept. ; \nreleased by payment of a ransom of 750?. 26 *<-},\\ . \n\nReported deficit of i,ooo,oooL in the budgel ; \nincrease of brigandage .... Nov. \n\nAfter the celebration of the feast of Mevlud, the \nSultan delivers an. optimist speech to the \nofficials on the state of the empire . 27 Nov. \n\nDirect railway communication between London \nand Constantinople via Dover and Calais in j \nhours ; first train from Vienna . 12-14 Aug. \n\nThe government contracts a loan for 1,350,000?. \nfrom the "German " bank ; consequent ."rupture \nwith the Ottoman bank, its usual financial agent, \n\nOct. \n\n80,000 men of the reserve called out . . Aug. \n\nThe ottoman bank, sir Edgar Vincent, director, \nlends the sultan 150,000?., reported . 28 Oct. \n\nTrial ofMoussa Hey, see Armenia 2; Nov. et seq. \n\nThe German emperor and empress warmly received \nl>y the sultan at Constantinople, z Nov. ; a \nreview, <Sic 3-6 Nov. \n\nFive new war vessels launched at Constantinople, \n\n30 Jan. \n\nNew 5 percent, conversion loan al 03, successfully \neffected by the grand vizier, aided by sir Edgar \nVincent ; agreement signed . . 30 April, \n\nThe Russian government demands payment Of the \n\n\n\n18S5 \n\n\n\n1SC6 \n\n\n\n1S87 \n\n\n\niSSS \n\n\n\nTURKEY. \n\n\n\n1006 \n\n\n\nTURRET SHIPS. \n\n\n\narrears of the Eusso-Turkish war indemnity, \n\nabout 15 May, 1890 \n\nTroubles in Old Servia by bands of Arnauts ; severe \nfight, with much slaughter . . . June, ,, \n\nTurkey defers payment of indemnity till Nov., \nKussia demands immediate payment ; note sent, \n\nabout 18 June, ,, \n\nBritish cotton and woollen yarn-spinning factory \nopened at Constantinople .... 22 June, ,, \n\nFor Armenian troubles see Armenia, 1889-90. \n\nThe government frigate Ertogrul founders on the \nS. coast of Japan, during a gale ; out of 653, 584 \npersons perish, including vice-admiral Osman \nPasha 18 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSir "Edgar Vincent thanked by the leading mer- \nchants of Constantinople, for his services to \nthem 12 Jan. 1891 \n\nArnaut revolt in Old Servia; the government \nbuildings in Drenitza burnt, reported, \n\nabout 4 Feb. ,, \n\nDeath of Musurus pasha, diplomatist, aged 84 ; 33 \nyears ambassador in London . . 12 Feb. ,, \n\nThe Arnauts again attack the Christians in Old \nServia, who bravely resist, but are defeated with \nloss about 14 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nEailway train at Tcherkesskeni, near Constanti- \nnople, attacked by brigands ; two persons killed ; \nfive carried off for ransom, 1 June ; active mea- \nsures taken by the porte, June ; captives liberated, \n\n4-8 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nM. Eugene de Raymond, sub-manager of a vineyard \ncompany captured by brigands at Ormoudja, 7 \nAug. ; ransomed by the sultan . . 12 Aug. ,, \n\nDismissal of Kiamil pasha, president of ministry \nor grand vizier (appointed 1890) by the sultan, \n3 Sept. 1891 ; succeeded by Djevad pasha. \n\nSir William A. White, the able British ambassador, \ndies at Berlin, while on a visit, 28 Dec. 1891 ; \nsucceeded by the right lion, sir Francis Clare \nFord about 8 Jan. 1892 \n\nPayment of the war indemnity resumed, reported, \n\n27 Jan. ,, \n\nSir Francis Clare Ford arrives at Constantinople, \n26 Feb. ; received by the sultan . 8 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \nSee Candia, Egypt, Greece, Montenegro, and Servia. \n\nTURKISH SULTANS. \n\n1299. Othman, Osman, or Ottoman, founded the empire, \n\nretained the title emir, but ruled despotically. \n1326. Orchan, son, took the title " sultan." \n1360. Amurath (or Murad), I. ; stabbed by a soldier, of \n\nwhich wound he died. \n1389. Bajazet I., Ilderim, son; defeated by Tamerlane, \n\nand died imprisoned. \n1403. Solyman, son : dethroned by his brother. \n1410. Musa-Chelebi : strangled. \n1413. Mahomet I., son of Bajazet. \n1421. Amurath II. , son. \n\n1451. Mahomet II., son : took Constantinople, 1453. \n1481. Bajazet II., son. \n1512. Selim I., son. \n\n1520. Solyman I. or II., the Magnificent, son. \n1566. Selim II., son. \n1574. Amurath III. , son : killed his five brothers ; their \n\nmother, in grief, stabbed herself. \n1595. Mahomet III., son: strangled all his brothers, \n\nand drowned his father\'s wives. \n1603. Alimed (or Achmet) I., son. \n\n1617. Mustapha I., brother : deposed by the Janissaries \n\nand imprisoned. \n\n1618. Osman II., nephew ; strangled by Janissaries. \n\n1622. Mustapha I. again : again deposed, sent to the \n\nSeven Towers, and strangled. \n\n1623. Amurath IV. , brother of Osman II. \n\n1640. Ibrahim, brother : strangled by the Janissaries. \n\n1648. Mahomet IV, son : deposed by \n\n1687. Solyman II. or III., brother. \n\n1691. Ahmed (or Achmet) II., son of Ibrahim, nephew. \n\n1695. Mustapha II., eldest son of Mahomet IV. : de- \nposed. \n\n1703. Ahmed (or Achmet) III., brother: deposed, and \ndied in prison in 1736. \n\n1730. Mahmud I. (or Mahomet V.), son of Mustapha II. \n\n1754. Osman III., brother. \n\n1757. Mustapha III., brother. \n\n1774. Abdul-Ahmed or Hamid I. (or Achmet IV.) \nbrother. \n\n\n\n1789. Selim III., son of Mustapha III. ; deposed by the \nJanissaries. \n\n1807. Mustapha IV., son of Abdul- Ahmed; deposed, \n\nand, with the late sultan Selim, murdered. \n\n1808. Mahmud II., or Mahomet VI., brother. \n\n1839. Abdul-Medjid (son), 2 July (born 23 April, 1823) ; \n\ndied 25 June, 1861. \n1861. Abdul-Aziz, brother, born 9 Feb. 1830, deposed 29 \n\nMay ; alleged suicide 4 June, 1876 (see 1881). \n1876, Amurath V. (Murad) son of Abdul-Medjid, born \n21 Sept. 1840 ; proclaimed 30 May ; deposed for \nbad health, 31 Aug. \n\xe2\x80\x9e Abdul-Hamid II., brother, 31 Aug. born 21 Sept., \n1842. \n[" He is not a tyrant ; he is not dissolute ; he is \nnot a bigot or corrupt." \xe2\x80\x94 Lord Beaconsfield, 27 \nJuly, 1878.] \nSon: Mehemed Selim, born n Jan. 1870. \n\nTURKEY TRADE, commenced in the year \n1550. The Turkey or Levant Company of London \nwas instituted by charter of Elizabeth, in 1579. \n\nTURKEYS and Guinea Fowls, first \n\nbrought to England about 1523, and to France in \n1570. Turkeys are nathses of America, and were \nconsequently unknown to the ancients. \n\nTURKHEIM (E. France). Here the elector \nof Brandenburg and the Imperialists were defeated \nby the French under Turenne, 5 Jan. 1675. \n\nTURKISH BATHS, see Baths. \n\n. TURKISH COMPASSIONATE FUND, \n\ninstituted by the Daily Telegraph, and supported \nby lady Burdett-Coutts, the abp. of Canterbury, and \nothers, to relieve sufferers by the war, Aug. 1877. \n\nTURKOMANS, see White Sheep, and Tur- \nkestan. \n\nTURNER\'S ACT, 13 & 14 Vict. c. 35 (1850), \n\nrelates to the court of chancery. \n\nTURNER\'S LEGACIES. Joseph M. W. \nTurner, a great landscape painter, was born in April, \n1775, and died 19 Dec. 1851. He bequeathed to the \nnation all the pictures and drawings collected by \nhim and deposited at his residence, 47, Queen Anne- \nstreet, London, on condition that a suitable gallery \nshould be erected for them within ten years ; and \ndirected his funded property to be expended in \nfounding an asylum at Twickenham for decayed \nartists. The will was disputed by his relatives, but \na compromise was made. The oil-paintings (100 in \nnumber) and the drawings (1400) were obtained by \nthe nation, and the engravings and some other pro- \nperty were transferred to the next of kin. The \ndrawings were cleaned and mounted under the \ncareful superintendence of Mr. Buskin, and the \npictures were sent to Marlborough-house for ex- \nhibition. In 1861, many of the pictures were re- \nmoved from the South Kensington Museum to the \nNational Gallery, others in 1869. The sketches, \nplates, &c, of Turner\'s Liber Studiorum, were \nsold for about 20,000^. 28 March, 1873. \n\nTURNING, see Lathe. In our dockyards, \nblocks and other materials for our ships of war are \nnow produced by an almost instantaneous process, \nfrom rough pieces of oak, by the machinery of Mr. \n(afterwards sir Mark Isambard) Brunei (died 1849) ; \nsee Blocks. \n\nTURNPIKES, see Tolls. \n\nTURPENTINE TREE, Pistacia TereMnthus, \ncame from Barbary, before 1656. Spirits of turpen- \ntine were first applied, with success, to the rot in \nsheep ; one-third of the spirit diluted with two-thirds \nwater, 1772. \n\nTURRET SHIPS, see Navy of England. \n\n\n\nTUSCAN OEDEE. \n\n\n\n1007 \n\n\n\nTYLEE\'S INSUEEECTION. \n\n\n\nTUSCAN OEDEE of Architecture, a \n\ndebased Doric, used in Tuscany for buildings in \nwhich strength is chiefly required. JFotton. \n\nTUSCANY, formerly a grand duchy in Central \n\nItaly, the northern part of the ancient Etruria \n\n(which see) . It formed part of the Lombard king- \n\ndom, after the conquest of which by Charlemagne, \n\n774, it was made a marquisate for Boniface about \n\n820. His descendant, the great countess Matilda, \n\nbequeathed the southern part of her domains to the \n\npope (1115). In the northern part (then called \n\nTuscia), the cities, Florence, Pisa, Sienna, Lucca, &c, \n\ngradually became flourishing republics. Florence \n\nbecame the chief under the government of the \n\nMedici family ; see Florence. The duchy in that \n\nfamily began in 1531 ; and the grand-duchy in \n\n1569. After the extinction of the Medicis in 1737, \n\nTuscany was given by the treaty of Vienna (1738) \n\nto Francis, duke of Lorraine (married to Maria \n\nTheresa of Austria in 1736), who had ceded his \n\nhereditary estates to France. Population in 1882, \n\n2,226,265, Population, 1890, 2,274,191. \n\nThe French enter Florence . . 28 March, 1799 \n\nThe grand-duke is dispossessed, and his dominions \n\ngiven to Louis duke of Parma (of the royal house \n\nof Spain), with the title of king of Etruria . 1801 \n\nTuscany incorporated with the French empire . 1807 \n\nThe grand-duchy given to Eliza, sister of Xapoleon 1808 \n\nFerdinand III. restored 1814 \n\nLucca united to Tuscany 1847 \n\nLeopold II. grants a free constitution . 15 Feb. 1848 \nInsurrection at Florence ; republic proclaimed ; the \n\ngrand-duke flies 11 Feb. 1849 \n\nHe is restored by the Austrians . . July, 1850 \nRigorous imprisonment of the Madiai, husband \nand wife, converts to protestantism, for reading \n\nthe Bible May, 1852 \n\nThe earls of Shaftesbury and Roden and others in \n\nvain intercede for them at Florence . Oct. ,, \nThey are released after the intervention of the \n\nBritish government .... March, 1853 \n[An annuity was provided for them by subscription.] \nThe Tuscan army demand alliance with the Sar- \ndinians ; the grand-duke refuses, and departs to \nBologna ; the king of Sardinia is proclaimed dic- \ntator, and a provisional government formed \n\n27 April, 1859 \nThe king assumes the command of the army, but \n\ndeclines the dictatorship ... 30 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe Sardinian commissary Buoncompagni invested \n\nwith the powers of government . n May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nPrince Napoleon arrives at Leghorn, addresses the \n\nTuscans, and erects his standard . 23 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe grand-duke Leopold II. abdicates in favour \n\nof his son Ferdinand ... 21 July, ,, \nTuscan constituent assembly meets . n Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nIt declares against the house of Lorraine, and \n\nvotes for annexation to Sardinia . . Sept. ,, \nPrince Eugene of Savoy-Carignan elected governor- \ngeneral of central Italy ; he declines : but recom- \nmends Buoncompagni, Nov. ; who is accepted by \n\nthe Tuscans 8 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAnnexation to Sardinia voted by universal suffrage, \n\n11, 12 March; decreed . . . 22 March, i860 \nPrince Eugene appointed governor . 26 March, ,, \nFlorence made the capital of Italy, by decree pub- \nlished ....... 11 Dec. 1864 \n\n(See Italy, and Florence.) \n\nSOVEREIGNS OF TUSCANY. \n\nDUKES. \n\n1531. Alexander I. \n1537. Cosmo I. \n\nGRAND-DUKES. \n\n1569. Cosmo I., Medici. \n\n1574. Francis I. \n\n1587. Ferdinand I. \n\n1608. Cosmo II. \n\n1621. Ferdinand II. \n\n1670. Cosmo III. (visited England, and wrote an ac- \ncount of his travels). \n\n1723, John Gaston (last of the Medici). \n\n1737. Francis II. (duke of Lorraine), became emperor of \nGermany in 1745. \n\n\n\n1765. Leopold I. (emperor in 1790). \n1790. Ferdinand III. (second son of Leopold I ) \xe2\x80\xa2 ex- \npelled by the French in 1800. \n\nKINGS OF ETRURIA. \n\n1801. Louis I., duke of Parma. \n1803. Louis II. \n\nGRAND-DUCHESS. \n\n1808-14. Eliza Bonaparte (married to Bacciochi, made- \nprince of Lucca). \n\nGRAND-DUKES. \n\n1814. Ferdinand III. restored. \n\n1824. Leopold II., 18 June (born 3 Oct. 1797; abdicated,. \n21 July, 1859), \'lied 29 Jan. 1870. \n\n1859. Ferdinand IV., 21 July (born 10 June, 1835); pro- \ntested against the annexation of his grand 5 \nduchy, 26 March, i860; died 29 July, 1891. \nSon : Leopold Ferdinand, born 2 Dee. 1868. \n\nTUSCULUM (now Frascati), a city of Latiura \n(b. Italy). The Tusculans supported Tarquinius- \nbuperbus against the Romans, by whom they were \ntotally defeated, 498 B.C. The Tusculans, on ac- \ncount of their friendship with Rome, suffered much \nfrom the other Latins, who took their city, 374, but \nwere severely chastised for it. Here Cicero during- \nhis retirement wrote his "Tusculanas Disputationes,\'^ \nabout 46 B.C. \n\nTWELFTH-DAY, the feast of the Epiphany, \nor manifestation of Christ to the Gentiles, 6 Jan. = \nsee Epiphany. \n\nTWELVE TABLES, see Decemviri. \n\nTWINS, joined together, have been bom fre- \nquently, but seldom lived long. Helen-Judith, \njoined Hungarian twins, were bora in 1715, and \ndied in 1723. Millie-Christine, negro twins, born \nm North Carolina in 1851, were wholly distinct in \nthe upper part of the body, but one in the lower \npart of the spinal column and pelvis ; the four legs, \nobeying nerves from a common centre. They san*- \nand danced well, and were named the " Two-headed. \nNightingale." The will, understanding, and con- \nscience were distinct. Exhibited in London IT \nFeb. 1885. See Siamese Twins. \n\nTWIN-SHIP, see under Steam. \n\n"TWOPENNY TEASH," a term given to \nW. Cobbett\'s Weekly Political Register, after 2 Not. \n\n1816, when he reduced the price from 12k/. to 2d. \nthe sale greatly increased. \n\nTYBURN (W. London), at the west end of \nOxford-road (now street), the chief place in London \nfor the execution of malefactors till 1783. Pennant \n(who died 1798) remembered Oxford-street as "a \ndeep, hollow road, and full of sloughs, with here and \nthere a ragged house, the lurking-place of cut- \nthroats." \n\nIn conformity with an act passed in 1697, a so-called \n" Tyburn ticket " was given to the prosecutor of a cri- \nminal executed at Tyburn. The ticket gave exemption \nfrom serving on juries and parochial offices. The ac \nwas repealed in 1818. \n\n"TYBUBNIA" (aN.W. suburb of London),. \nwas built between 1839 and 1850, on the green \nfields and nursery grounds in Paddington belonging; \nto the see of London. \n\nTYLEE\'S INSUEEECTION, in opposition \nto the poll-tax imposed on all persons above 15,. \nq Nov. 1380. One of the collectors, acting with in- \ndecent rudeness to "Wat Tyler\'s daughter, was struck \ndead by the father, June, 1381. His neighbours- \ntook arms, and in a short time almost the whole of \nthe population of the southern and eastern 1 ounties \nrose, extorting freedom from their Lords, and plun- \ndering. On 12 June, 1381, they gathered upon \nBlackheath to the number of 100,000 men, and on \n\n\n\nTYNDALE MEMORIAL. \n\n\n\n1003 \n\n\n\nTYEEHENL \n\n\n\n14 June murdered Simon of Sudbury, archbishop of \nCanterbury, and sir Eobert H ales, the royal trea- \nsurer. The king, Eichard II., invited Tyler to a \nparley, which took place on the 15th at Smithfield, \n\xe2\x96\xa0where the latter addressed the king in a menacing \nmanner, now and again lifting up his sword. On \nthis the mayor, Walworth, stunned Tyler with a \nblow of his mace, and one of the king\'s knights \nnamed Cavendish, dispatched him. Eichard tem- \nporised with the multitude by promising a charter, \nand thus led them out of the city, when sir E. \nKnollys and a band of knights attacked and dis- \npersed them with much slaughter. The insurrection \nin Norfolk and Suffolk was subdued by the bishop \nof Norwich, and 1500 of the rebels were executed. \n\nTYNDALE MEMOEIAL. A statue of \nWilliam Tyndale, protestant martyr, translator of \nthe new testament, published 1525, was set up on \nthe Thames Embankment in 1883. Sculptor, Mr. \nJ. E. Boehm. \n\nTYNEMOUTH, Northumberland. Here are \nremains of a monastery built by king Edwin, 625 ; \ndestroyed by the Danes ; rebuilt by king Egfrid, \n671-85; often ravaged by Danes, 795-993; re- \nfounded and made a castle, by Eob. de Mowbray, \n1090; plundered by Scots, 13 16 and 1389; fortified \nfor Charles I., 1642; taken by Scots, 1644; finally \nruined, 1665; and made a depot, 1783. The cha- \npel has been restored. Tynemouth was made a \nborough, returning one member to parliament, \n1832. An aquarium, winter-garden, &c, was \n\xc2\xa9pened, 27 Aug. 1878. Eopulation, 1881,44,118; \n1891, 46,267. \n\nTYPE-COMPOSING MACHINES, see \n\nunder Printing, 1842-72. \n\nTYPE-FOUNDING, see under Printing, \n1452, 1720. \n\nTYPE-WEITEES- M. Foucault sent to the \nParis exhibition of 1855, a writing-machine for the \nblind ; and several were invented by Wheatstone. \nAfter successive improvements, Messrs. Eemington, \nin America, in 1873, contracted to construct 25,000. \nThe speed is said to have been raised to seventy- \nfive words a minute. \n\nThe action of the type-writer somewhat resembles that \nof a pianoforte. Pressure upon a key marked with a \nletter raises a hammer with a type-cut letter, which \npresses upon paper ; provision is made for inking the \ntype, shifting, &c. \nThe Hall type- writer exhibited in London, 1883. \nMr. E. Peacock\'s new compact and expeditious type \n\nwriter exhibited in April, 1885. \nT. G. and H. Daw\'s type-writer for reporters com- \nmended May, 1885. \nHammond type- writer 1886. \n\nThe "Simplex" type-writer (cost about io.s. 6d.) intro- \nduced into London by a company April, 1887. \nA speed contest with the Remington type-writer at St. \nJames\'s Hall ; several prizes awarded by the proprie- \ntors Messrs. Wyckott\'& Co. Jan. 1889. \nThe Bar-lock type-writer exhibited by Messrs. Richard- \nson & Co., in London, 14 Dec. et seq., 1889. \n\n\n\nTYEANT. In early Greek history, the term \nwas applied to any man who governed with irre- \nsponsible power. Solon objected to the term, and \nchose the name Archon (ruler), 594 B.C. The \nearliest tyrants were those at Sicyon, beginning \nwith Cleisthenes, in the 7th century B.C. Tyranny \ndeclined in Greece about 490 B.C., and revived after \nthe close of the Peloponnesian war, 404 B.C.; see \nThirty Tyrants. \n\nTYEE (Phoenicia), a great city, said to have \nbeen first built by Agenor. Another city was built \n1257 (about 2267, Hales) B.C. It was besieged by \nthe Assyrians, who retired from before it, after a \nsiege of upwards of five years, 713 B.C. Taken by \nNebuchadnezzar, 572 B.C., and the city demolished, \nwhen the Tyrians removed to an opposite island, \nand built a new and magnificent city. It was taken \nby Alexander \xe2\x96\xa0with much difficulty, after a siege of \nseven months, Jul) r , 332 B.C. He joined the island \nto the continent by a mole. Strabo. Tyre was \ncaptured by the Crusaders, 7 July, 1124; by the \nFrench, 3 April, 1799; and by the allied fleet, \nduring the war against Mehemet Ali, 1841. \n\nTYEE, ERA OF, began on 19 Oct. 125 B.C., \nwith the month of Hyperberetseus. The months \nwere the same as those used in the Grecian era, \nand the year is similar to the Julian year. To \nreduce this era to ours, subtract 124; and if the \ngiven year be less than 125, deduct it from 125, and \nthe remainder will be the year before Christ. \n\nTYEOL, the eastern part of ancient Ehastia, \nnow a province of the Austrian empire, was ceded to \nthe house of Hapsburg in 1363 by Margaret, the \nheiress of the last count. It became an appanage \nof the younger (or Tyrol) branch of the imperial \nhouse, which came to the throne in the person of \nMaximilian IE, in 1618. The French conquered \nthe Tyrol in 1805, and united it to Bavaria ; but in \n1809 an insurrection broke out, headed by Andrew \nHofer, an innkeeper, who drove the Bavarians out \nof the Tyrol, thoroughly defeated some French de- \ntachments, but laid down his arms at the treaty of \nVienna. He was subsequently accused of corre- \nsponding with the Austrians, captured and sent to \nMantua, and there shot by order of the French \ngovernment, 20 Feb. 1810. The Austrian emperor \nennobled his family in 1819, and erected his statue \nin Innsbruck in 1834. The Tyrolese riflemen were \nvery effective in the Italian war in 1859. The \nArlberg tunnel railway from Innsbruck to Bregenz \ninaugurated by the emperor 20 Sept. 1884. Popu- \nlation in 1890, 812,696. \n\nTYEONE (near Ulster, N. Ireland), formerly \nthe territories of the O\'Neills, and the seat of the \ninsurrection in 1641. \n\nTYEEHENI, included the ancient Etruscans, \nand other tribes, said to have come from Lydia, Asia \nMinor. \n\n\n\nu. \n\n\n\nUBIQUITARIANS. \n\n\n\nULTRAMONTANISTS. \n\n\n\nUBIQUITARIANS or Ubiquarians, . a \nsmall German sect, originated by John Brentius \nabout 1560, who asserted that the body of Christ \nwas present everywhere (ubique). \n\nUGANDA. A kingdom in Equatorial Africa, \nnear the head of tbe Nile ; capital, Meugo. \n\nMissionaries sent out by the Church Missionary- \nsociety July, 1877 \n\nFrench R. C. missionaries arrive 1879 \n\nThe king Mtesa, friendly to Grant, Stanley, and \n\nother travellers and missionaries, dies . 10 Oct. 1884 \nHis son M\'wanga, jealous and suspicious, kills \nbishop Hannington, for advancing by a new \n\nroute about 29 Oct. 1885 \n\nPersecutions well endured ; native Christians killed, \n\nJune et seq. 1886 \nEevolution with bloodshed, Sept. 1888 ; M\'wanga \ndeposed and replaced by his brother Kawewa \n(Oct.), whose attempts to revive his father\'s \npolicy are frustrated by the Arab slave-dealers ; \nmuch persecution ensues ; the Europeans flee and \ntheir settlements are destroyed Nov. 1888. King \nKawewa resists the Arabs, and is expelled, they \nset up his brother Kalema ; civil war . Nov. 1888 \nM\'wanga defeated in an attempt to recover his \ncrown ; Kalema burns his own relatives, reported, \n\n2 Sept. 1889 \nM\'wanga severely defeats the Arabs, 4 Oct. ; takes \nRubaga, 5 Oct., and re-establishes his power ; \nKalema a fugitive .... 11 Oct. ,, \nM\'wanga professes himself a Christian, and ap- \npoints Catholic officials, reported . 5 March, 1890 \nHe places Uganda under the influence of the \nBritish East African company, by treaty with \nMr. Jackson, reported . . . .30 April, ,, \nM\'wanga driven from the capital by Kalema ; re- \ntires with the missionaries to Sesse island, re- \nported 9 May, ,, \n\nFinal defeat of Arabs by M\'wanga, who regains all \n\nhis kingdom, reported ... 15 June, ,, \nUganda placed within the sphere of British in- \nfluence by the Anglo-German treaty . 1 July, ,, \nCapt. F. D. Lugard and capt. W. H. Williams lent \nby the British war-office to assist the company ; \n\nthey arrive 31 Dec. ,, \n\nThey strenuously endeavour to maintain peace \nbetween the French Catholics and British Pro- \ntestant missionaries and their converts ; they \nhold Kampala, a fortified station near Mengo, \nhaving been reinforced by Selim bey, with a part \nof the Soudanese garrison, formerly under Eniiu \nPasha at Wadelai ; capt. Bugard constructs and \ngarrisons several forts in the country Jan. et seq. 1891 \nRevival of religious feuds and outrages ; a Pro- \ntestant murdered in the street, 20 Jan. ; capt. \nLugard demands redress, the king refuses it, and \nthreatens him and his party ; fruitless negotia- \ntions ; other murders of Protestants ; the Catho- \nlics arm and attack Kampala, and are repulsed \nwith severe loss by capt. Williams, who is com- \npelled to use Maxim guns, 24 Jan. ; the Catholic \nhouses wrecked; bishop Uirth and the priests \ntaken to Kampala, 24 Jan. ; the king, with 300 \nof the Catholic party, flees to the isle of Bureu- \nguge, where he is joined by the bishop; the isle \nis token by capt. Williams, with bloodshed ; the \nking and bishop flee to Sesse . . -3\xc2\xb0 Jan. 1892 \n[Reported in capt. Lugard\'s letter of 11 Feb., \nreceived 15 July.]. \nLetters received from bishop Hirth by the French \ngovernment, accusing the British of outrages, \nand claiming compensation; on appeal, the \nBritish government promises investigation, \n\nJune, July, ,, \n\n\n\nThe king rejoins the Protestants; order restored at \nMengo, about 30 March ; the company predomi- \nnant, reported 27 July, 1892 \n\nUHLANS, the German lancers, very effective \nin the war in 1870. \n\nUKRAINE (Polish for a frontier), a vast \nfertile plain in Russia, ceded to the Cossacks by \nPoland in 1672, and obtained by Russia in 1682. \nThe country was divided, Poland having the west \nside of the Dnieper, and Russia the east. The \nwhole country was assigned to Russia by the treaty \nof partition in 1795. \n\nULM, in Wiirtemberg, S. Germany, where a \npeace was signed, 3 July, 1620, by which Frede- \nrick V. lost Bohemia (having been driven from it \npreviously). Ulm was taken by the French in \n1796. After a battle between the French and \nAustrians, in which the latter, under general Mack, \nwere defeated with dreadful loss by marshal Ney, \nUlm surrendered with 28,000 men, the iiower of the \nAustrian army, 17-20 Oct. 1805. The cathedral was \nbuilt 1377-1494; the spire, 530 feet high, said to be \nthe loftiest in the world, was completed 31 May, \n1890, with great rejoicings. Population, 1890, \n36,201. \nULPHILAS\'S BIBLE, see under Bible. \nULSTER, the N. division of Ireland. After \nthe death of Strong-bow, 11 76, John de Courcy was \nmade earl of Ulster; Hugh de Lacy was earl, 1243 ; \nand Walter de Burgh, 1264; whose descendant, \nElizabeth, married Lionel, son of Edward III., \n1352. He thus became earl of Ulster. In 161 1, \nthe British colonisation of the forfeited lands \n(termed the Ulster settlements or plantations) \nbegan, much land being granted to the corpora- \ntion of London ; see Irish Society. The consequent \nrebellion of the Irish chieftains, Roger More, Phelim \nO\'Neale, McGuire, earl of Inniskillen, and others, \nbroke out on 23 Oct. 1641 (see Ireland).\xe2\x80\x94 Ulster \nKing of Arms appointed for Ireland, I553-\xe2\x80\x94 By the \nancient "Ulster tenant-right," the outgoing tenant \nof a farm received from his successor a sum of money \nfor the privilege of occupancy. A modified form \nof this right was adopted in the Irish land act, \npassed 8 July, 1870. \n\nThe Ulster Convention, proposed 8 April, met a1 \nBelfast 17 June, 1892, in a large pavilion erected for \nthe purpose. 12,000 delegates of various classes and \nopinions, from all parts of the province, with many \nother persons, were present, the duke of Abercorn \nbeing in the chair. The proceedings, which were of a \ngrave, earnest character, began with a prayer and the \nsinging of part of Psalm XLVI. Five resolutions for \nfirmly maintaining the Union of Great Britain and \nIreland in opposition to the scheme for Home Rule \nwere passed unanimously. \nUlster Convention League formed (2,000?. subscribed), \n2 Aug. 1892. \n\nULTRAMONTANISTS (from ultra monies, \nbeyond the mountains), a term originally applied in \nFrance to those who upheld the extreme authority \nof the pope in opposition to the freedom of the \nGallican church, which had been secured by various \nhulls, and especially by the concordat of 15 July, \n1801. Ultramontanists now are those who main- \ntain the official infallibility of the bishop of Rome. \n\n3 T \n\n\n\nULUNDI. \n\n\n\n1010 \n\n\n\nUNION OF ENGLAND. \n\n\n\nULUNDI, Zululand, South Africa. On 4 July, \n1879, the Zulus, commanded by their king, Cety- \nwayo, who had refused the conditions of peace, were \ntotally defeated near here by lord Chelmsford, after \na severe conflict. Capt. Wyatt-Edgell, 17 Lancers, \nand 9 men were killed, and about 53 wounded. The \nBritish were attacked in the open country by the \nZulus, who enveloped our hollow square and charged \non all sides up to within 60 yards, when they broke \nand fled under the heavy fire. They were pursued \nand routed by cavalry. About 23,000 Zulus engaged, \n1,500 killed. The British showed much firmness \nand the Zulus displayed great courage. The royal \nkraal at Ulundi and other military kraals were burnt. \n\nUMBRELLA, described in early dictionaries \nas "a portable pent-house to carry in a person\'s \nhand to screen him from violent rain or heat." \nUmbrellas appear in the carvings at Persepolis. \nNiebuhr saw a gi*eat Arabian prince returning from \na mosque, he and each of his family having a large \numbrella carried by his side. Old chinaware shows \nthe Chinese shaded by umbrellas. Tt is said that \nthe first person who generally used an umbrella in \nthe streets of London was the benevolent Jonas \nHanway, who died in 1786. \n\nJohn Macdonald, a footman, who wrote his own life, in- \nforms us that he had "a fine silk umbrella, which he \nbrought from Spain ; but he could not with any comfort \nto himself use it, the people calling out, \' Frenchman ! \nwhy don\'t you get a coach ? \' " The hackney-coachmen \nand chairmen were clamorous against their rival. The \nfootman says he " persisted for three months, till they \ntook no farther notice of this novelty. Foreigners \nbegan to use theirs ; and then the English." 1778. \nMr. Samuel Fox, inventor of the hollow-steel paragon \nframe, strong, light, and elastic, having made a great \nfortune, especially at Lille in France, died 25 Feb. 1887. \nIn 1885 Mr. Gladstone\'s political programme was termed \nhis umbrella, by lord Rosebery. \n\nUNCLAIMED MONEY, &c, a pamphlet \nwith this title, by Mr. Edward Preston, was pub- \nlished in 1883, describes six classes and recommends \nlegislation to facilitate publication for the benefit \nof claimants. \n1. \xe2\x80\x94 Dividends on government, East India and Colonial \n\nstocks (government stocks 4 Jan. 1887, 537,815?.). \n2. \xe2\x80\x94 Dividends of companies, surplus assets in bank- \nruptcy, &c. \n3. \xe2\x80\x94 Army and navy prize-money. \n4. \xe2\x80\x94 Funds in chancery (28 Feb. 1886, 77,677,581?.). \n5. \xe2\x80\x94 Intestates\' estates in the United Kingdom, India, \n\nand the colonies. \n6. \xe2\x80\x94 Deposits in banks (including plate, jewellery, &c.). \nMr. Sidney H. Preston published similar returns in the \nTimes, 22 Aug. 1890. \n\n"UNCLE TOM\'S CABIN," a story by \nMrs. H. Beecher-Stowe, published in portions in a \nnewspaper in 1850; complete in March, 1852; set- \nting forth the evils of negro slavery. The sale was \nenormous, and the translations numerous, and it \ngreatly contributed to emancipation. The Bev. \nJosiah Uenson, the original "Uncle Tom," was \nreceived by the queen at Buckingham palace, \n2 March, 1877, and was much benefited by his visit \nto Britain ; he died May, 1883, aged 93. \n\nUNCTION, EXTREME, see Anointing. \n\nUNDULATORY THEORY of Light, \n\nsupposes a progressive wave-like motion between \nthe eye and the luminous body seen. It is said to \nhave been suggested by Francisco Grirnaldi about \n1665, and was propounded by Bobert Hooke and \nHuyghens, about 1672 ; opposed by Newton ; but \nconfirmed by Thomas Young by experiments in \n1801, and is now generally adopted. "Die Wellen- \nlehre auf Experimente gegriindet," by Ernst and \nWilhelm Weber, published in 1825 ; see Emission, \nand Light. \n\n\n\nUNEMPLOYED, see under Riots, 1886-7, \n\nand Mansion House Funds, 1886. \n\nA plan for providing work proposed by the bishops of \nLondon, Rochester and Bedford, cardinal Manning, Mr. \nSpurgeon and Mr. Reaney Nov. 1886. A conference \nof poor-law guardians at Exeter Hall declare that \nthere is no exceptional distress in the country 8 Dec. \n1886. \n\nDisorderly demonstrations of so-called unemployed in \nLondon early Oct. 1887 ; conference at Memorial Hall, \nlord Herschel in the chair 5 Dec. 1887. \n\nDeputation (not unanimous) to lord Salisbury recom- \nmending public works, inquiry, and registration, \nstate-aided emigration and repression of alien pauper \nimmigrants 1 Feb. 1888. \n\nLord mayor de Keyser, aided by the earl of Meath and \nrev. Harry Jones, puts forth a scheme for employ \nment of the London poor in making open spaces \ngardens and recreation grounds with due stipulations \n(20,000?. wanted) Times 22 Dec. 1887. \n\nThe Gardens and Pleasure Grounds Fund started (see \nunder Mansion House) about 24 Dec. 1887. \n\nThe scheme in action reported partially successful Aug. \n1888. \n\nMeeting of the unemployed at Tower hill, led by Mr. \nPower (after an attempt at the Royal Exchange), 4 \nOct. 1890. \n\nAttempt in St. Paul\'s Churchyard, Power arrested, 11 \nOct. 1890. \n\nMeetings at Tower hill renewed, 8 April, 1892. \n\nUNIFORMITARIANS, see Continuity. \n\nUNIFORMITY ACTS. That of 2 & 3 Ed- \nward VI., 15 Jan. 1549, ordained that the order of \ndivine worship, drawn up by Cranmer and others, \n" with the aid of the Holy Ghost," should be the \nonly one used after 20 May. The penalties for \nrefusing to use it were fine and imprisonment. \nThis act was confirmed in 1552; repealed by Mary, \n1554; and re-enacted by Elizabeth in 1559. The \nact of Uniformity, 14 Charles II. c. 4, was passed in \n1662. It enjoined uniformity in matters of religion, \nand obliged all clergy to subscribe to the thirty- \nnine articles, and use the same form of worship, \nand same book of common prayer. Its enforcement \non 24 Aug. 1662, termed Black Bartholomew\'s day, \ncaused, it is said, upwards of 2000 ministers to quit \nthe church of England. This day was commemo- \nrated by dissenters in 1862. The Act of Uniformity \nAmendment act, whereby shortened services were \nauthorised, and other changes made, was passed 18 \nJuly, 1872. The Uniformity of Process act, which \nmade many law changes, was passed 23 May, 1832. \n\nUNIFORMS. Military uniforms were first \nused in Erance, "in a regular manner " by \nLouis XIV. about 1668. In England the uniform \nwas soon afterwards adopted in the military service, \nbut with little analogy to the modern dress. See \nunder Navy. \n\nUNIGENITUS, see Bull. \nUNINFLAMMABLE SALTS- At the \n\nBritish Association, 15 Sept. 1859, MM. Vcrsmann \nand Oppenheim announced their discovery that \nfabrics steeped in solutions of tungstate of soda, or \nsulphate or phosphate of ammonia, burn without \nflame. \n\nUNION CHAPEL, see under Islington. \n\nUNION OF CALMAR, 1397; of Utrecht, 1579- \n\nUNION of England and Scotland by \n\nthe accession of James VI. of Scotland as James 1. \nof England, 24 March, 1603. The legislative union \nof the two kingdoms (as Great Britain) was at- \ntempted, but failed in 1604 and 1670 ; in the reign \nof Anne, commissioners were appointed, the articles \ndiscussed, and, notwithstanding a great opposition \nmade by the Tories, every article in the union was \napproved by a great majority, first in the house of \n\n\n\nUNION OF GEEAT BRITAIN. 1011 \n\n\n\nUNITED SERVICE. \n\n\n\ncommons, and afterwards by the peers, 22 July, \n1706 ; was ratified by the Scottish parliament, 16 \nJan. 1707, and became law, 1 May, same year. \n\nUNION of Great Britain and Ireland \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0effected, 2 July, 1800. \n\nProposed in the Irish parliament . . 22 Jan. 1799 \n\nRejected by the commons of Ireland, the votes \nbeing 105 for, to 106 against the union, 24 Jan. ,, \n\nPassed 7 June, 1800 \n\nThe English house of commons on the same question \ndivided, 140, 141, and 149 for the union ; against \nit, 15, 25, and 28 respectively . . . ,, \n\nLord Castlereagh detailed his plan of the union, in \nthe Irish house of lords, founded on the resolu- \ntions of the British parliament thereon 5 Feb. 1800 \n\nVotes of the commons agreeing to it, 161 against \n115, T 7 Eeb. ; and again, 152 against 108 21 Feb. ,, \n\nThe houses of lords and commons wait on the lord \nlieutenant with the articles of union, 27 March, ,, \n\nThe act passed in the Irish parliament, 13 June, and \nin the British parliament ... 2 July, ,, \n\nThe imperial united standard first displayed at \nthe tower of London, and upon Bedford Tower, \nDublin Castle, on the act of legislative union be- \ncoming an operative law . 1 Jan. i8ot \n\n5?or attempts to dissolve this union, see Repeal, \nIreland 1886 \n\nNational Union Club, Albemarle Street, London, \nestablished 18 Jan. 1887 \n\nUNION JACK. The original flag of England \nwas the banner of St. George, i.e., white with a red \n>cross, which, 12 April, 1606 (three years after \nJames I. ascended the throne) was incorporated with \nthe banner of Scotland, i.e., blue with a white \n\xe2\x96\xa0diagonal cross. This combination obtained the name \n\xe2\x96\xa0of " Union Jack," in allusion to the union with \nScotland, and the word Jack is considered a corrup- \ntion of the word Jacobus, Jacques, or James. This \narrangement continued until the union with Ire- \nland, 1 Jan. 1801, when the banner of St. Patrick, \ni.e., white with a diagonal red cross, was amalga- \nmated with it, and forms the present Union flag. \n\nUNION CHAEGEABILITY ACT, pro- \nviding for the better distribution of the charge for \nrelieving the poor in unions, was passed in June, \n18615. One object of the act is the improvement of \nthe dwellings of agricultural labourers. \n\nUNION BELIEF ACT, passed in 1862, con- \ntinued in 1863, to enable boards of guardians of \n\xe2\x96\xa0certain unions to obtain temporary aid to meet the \nextraordinary expenditure for relief occasioned by \nthe distress in the cotton manufacturing districts. \n\nUNION REPEAL ASSOCIATION, Ire- \nland, see Repeal of the Union. \n\nUNIONIST LIBERALS, opposed to Mr. \nGladstone, see Liberals, 1886, et seq. \nIrish Unionist Alliance formed in Dublin . April, 1891 \nLiberal Unionist Association, 3rd anuual meeting \n\nof the council at Westminster . . 16 Feb. 1892 \n\nUNIONISTS. A Spanish political party, long \nheaded by marshal Serrano. In 1869 they advocated \nthe election of the due de Montpensier as king. See \nProgresistas and Spain. \n\nUNIONS, see Poor, and Trades. \n\nUNION GENERALE, see France, Dec. 1882. \n\nUNIT, a gold coin, value 20s. , issued by James I. \nin 1604. \n\nUNITARIANS, termed Socinians fromLoclius \nSocinus, who founded a sect in Italy about 1546. \nThey profess to believe in and worship one only \nself-existent God, in opposition to those who wor- \nship the Trinity in unity. They consider Christ to \nhave been a mere man ; and do not admit the need \nof an atonement or of the complete inspiration of the \n\n\n\nScriptures. Michael Servetus printed a tract in dis- \nparagement of the doctrine of the Trinity. In 1553, \nproceeding to Naples through Geneva, Calvin in- \nduced the magistrates to arrest him on a charge of \nblasphemy and heresy. Servetus, refusing to re- \ntract his opinions, was condemned to the flames, \nwhich sentence was carried into execution, 27 May, \n1553. Servetus is numbered among those anato- \nmists who made the nearest approach to the doctrine \nof the circulation of the blood, before Harvey estab- \nlished that doctrine. Matthew Hamont was burnt \nat Norwich for asserting Christ not to be the Son \nof God, I June, 1579. The Unitarians were nume- \nrous in Transylvania in the 17th century ; they \ncame to England about 1700, and many of the \noriginal English presbyterian churches became \nUnitarians about 1730. They were not included in \nthe Toleration act till 1813. There were 229 con- \ngregations in England in 1851. Their tenets re- \nsemble those of the Arians and Socinians (which see). \nThe Unitarian marriage bill was passed, June, 1827. \nla Dec. 1833, by a decision of the vice-chancellors \nthe Unitarians (as such) lost the possession of lady \nHewley\'s charity; the decision was affirmed on ap- \npeal in 1842. British and Foreign Unitarian \nAssociation founded, to promote Unitarianism, \n1825; meeting in London, 64th anniversary kept \nin London, 12 June, 1889. There were 320 Unitarian \nchurches in the United Kingdom in Feb. 1884. \n\nUNITED BRETHREN, e ee Moravians. \n\nUNITED EMPIRE TRADE LEAGUE, \n\nformed for the advancement of British Industry \nthroughout the world, by abandoning free trade \ndoctrines, and substituting a differential tariff for \ncolonial produce. This scheme which was originated \nby Mr. Hofrneyr, was opposed by sir Thomas Farrer \nand others in London, March 1891. First annual \nreport by col. Howard Vincent. There are 5,120 \nmembers April, 1892. \n\nUNITED IRISHMEN, a political society \nfounded in 1791, was at first loyal, but afterwards \nmet secretly, to establish a republic, became active \nin 1795. Theobald Wolf Tone, the founder, was \ncaptured by sir John "Warren in the Hoche, one of \nsix frigates destined to support the rebellion, in Oct. \n1798. He anticipated his punishment by suicide in \nprison Nov. 1798. \nUnited Ireland newspaper first published July i88r. \n\nSee under Ireland. \n\nUNITED KINGDOM. England and Wales \nwere united in 1283 ; Scotland to both in 1707 ; and \nthe British realm was named the United Kingdom \non the union of Ireland, 1 Jan. 1801 ; see Union \nand article Population\xe2\x80\x94 The United Kingdom \nAlliance, for the total suppression of liquor traffic, \nwas founded, 1 June, 1853. See Permissive Bill. \nThe subscribed manifesto of this alliance occupied \na page of the Times, 11 Dec. 1871. United \nKingdom Beneficent Association, founded 1863, \ngrants annuities to poor persons of a better class. \n\nUNITED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, \n\nin Scotland, was formed 13 May, 1847, see \nBurghers, and Relief Church. \n\nUNITED PROVINCES (Holland, Zealand, \nUtrecht, Friesland, Groningen, Ovcryssell, and \nGuelderland), the deputies of which mot at Utrecht, \n23 Jan. 1579, and signed a treaty l\'nr their mutual \ndefence ; sec Holland. \n\nUNITED SERVICE INSTITUTION, \n\nROYAL, Whitehall, London, was established in \n183 1. its museum contains many remarkable \n\n3 t 2 \n\n\n\nUNITED STATES. \n\n\n\n1012 \n\n\n\nUNITED STATES. \n\n\n\nmilitary and naval relics. The lectures given are \nreported in its journal, which first appeared in 1857. \nThe Institution first met in the Whitehall Chapel \nKoyal, which see 7 March, 189 1. \n\nThe United Service Gazette first published 9 Feb. 1833. \n\nUNITED STATES of AMERICA were \nso styled by the congress of the revolted British \nprovinces, 9 Sept. 1776. Their flag was declared \nto be thirteen stripes, alternately red and white \nand thirteen stars in a blue field, corresponding with \nthe then number of states of the union, 20 June, \n1777. There are now 44 states. The government \nof the United States is a pure democracy. Each \nof the states has a separate and independent legis- \nlature for the administration of its local affairs, but \nall are ruled in matters of imperial policy by two \nhouses of legislature, the senate, elected for six \nyears, and the house of representatives (356 \nmembers in 1891) elected for two years, to which \ndelegates are sent from the different members of the \nconfederacy. The president of the United States is \nelected every fourth year by the free voice of the \npeople. He and his ministers have no seat in the \nlegislative assemblies. His veto may be nullified \nby the vote of two-thirds of the house. The election \nof Abraham Lincoln as president on 4 Nov. i860, \nwas followed by the secession of eleven slaveholding \nstates, and led to the great civil war, 1861-5 ; see \nConfederates, and below. \n\nThe thirteen states of the union at the declaration of \nindependence in 1776; the italics indicate the then \nslaveholding states ; those with a * prefixed seceded \nfrom the federal government in i860 and 1861, and \nwere subdued in 186=;. \n\n\n\nNew Hampshire. \nMassachusetts. \nKliode Island. \nConnecticut. \n\n\n\nNew York. \nNew Jersey. \nPennsylvania. \nDelaware. \n\n\n\nMaryland. *South Carolina. \n\n^\'Virginia, j ^Georgia. \n\n*North Carolina. | See separate articles. \n\nThe following have been added : \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nVermont (from New York) i7or \n\n^Tennessee (from North Carolina) . . . . 1796 \n\nKentucky (from Virginia) 1792-: \n\nColumbia district (under the immediate government \nof congress) contains Washington, the seat of \n\ngovernment 1790-r \n\nOhio (created) 1802.- \n\n^\'Louisiana (bought from France in 1803) . . . 1812 \n\nIndiana (created) 1816 \n\n* Mississippi (from Georgia) 1817- \n\nIllinois (created) 1818 \n\n* Alabama (from Georgia) ...... 1819 \n\nMaine (from Massachusetts) 1820- \n\nMissouri (from Louisiana 1821 \n\n*Arlcansas 183& \n\nMichigan 1837 \n\n^Florida (ceded by Spain, 1820) ; made a state . 1845 \n\n*Texas ,, \n\nIowa 1846\' \n\nWisconsin 1848 \n\nCalifornia 1850 \n\nNew Mexico (territory) 1850 \n\nMinnesota (territory, 1849) > state . . . . 1857- \nOregon (territory, 1850); state .... 1859 \n\nKansas (territory, 1854) ; state 1861: \n\nUtah (territory) 1850 \n\nWashington (territory 1853) ; state . . . . 1889 \nNevada (territory, 1S61) ; state .... 1864 \n\nColorado (territory 1861) ; state 1876\' \n\nDakota (territory 1861) ; north and south state . 1889 \n\nArizona (territory) 1863: \n\nIdaho (territory 1863) ; state 1890- \n\nWest Virginia (from Virginia) ; sta\'e . . . . 1863. \nMontana (territory 1864) ; state .... 1889 \n\nNebraska (territory 1854) ; state 1867 \n\nWyoming (territory 1868) ; state .... 1890 \n\nAlaska (territory) 1868. \n\nElectoral College in 1872, 366 members ; 40 for New- \nEngland, 95 for the southern States, 12 for the Pacific \nStates, 84 for the middle States, and 135 for the-, \nwestern States. \n\n\n\n1776 \n1800 \n1810 \n\n\n\n1,191,364 \n2,009,050 \n\n\n\nTotal. \n2,614,300 \n5.3\xc2\xb09,756 \n7,239,903 \n12,858,670 \n\n\n\nPopulation. See Slavery in America. \n\nSlaves. Total. \n\n1840 \xe2\x80\xa2 17,069,453 \n\nl8 5\xc2\xb0 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 3,204,313 . 23,191,876 \n\n1860 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 3>952,8oi . 31,445,980 \n\n\n\nSlaves. Total. \n\nno slaves . 38,558,371. \n... 5\xc2\xb0>497>\xc2\xb057 \n. 62,622,250. \n\n\n\nThe Census of 1880 thus classifies the population : Males, \n25,518,820 ; females. 24,636,963. Native born, 43,475,840 ; \nforeign born, 6,679,043. Whites, 43,402,970 ; coloured, \n6,580,793. The remaining 339,098 are composed of \nIndians not in tribal relations and under Government \ncare, Chinese, and other Asiatics. The Chinese are esti- \nmated at 105,613. \n\nThe senate is composed of 2 members for each state, \nelected for 6 years. The representatives in congress \nwere formerly elected for 2 years in the ratio of 1 in \n93,423 persons (five slaves were counted as three per- \nsons); but this system ended with the abolition of \nslavery. In 1872 the number of representatives was \nraised from 233 to 283, to commence 3 March, 1873. \n\n\n\nevenue. \xe2\x80\x94 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nDollars. \n\n\nTotal receipts, \n\n\nyear \n\n\nending 30 June, 1855, \n\n\n65,003,930 \n\n\nditto \n\n\n\n\nditto \n\n\n1859. \n\n\n53,405,071 \n\n\nditto \n\n\n\n\nditto \n\n\n1863, \n\n\n8S8,o82,i28 \n\n\nditto \n\n\n\n\nditto \n\n\n1866, \n\n\n1,273,960,215 \n\n\nditto \n\n\n\n\nditto \n\n\n1875, \n\n\n284,020,771 \n\n\nditto \n\n\n\n\nditto \n\n\n1877, \n\n\n269,000,586 \n\n\nditto \n\n\n\n\nditto \n\n\n1880, \n\n\n333,526,610 \n\n\nditto \n\n\n\n\nditto \n\n\n1884, \n\n\n348,519,869 \n\n\nditto \n\n\n\n\nditto \n\n\n1888, \n\n\n379,266,072 \n\n\nditto \n\n\n\n\nditto \n\n\n1889, \n\n\n388,591,675 \n\n\nditto \n\n\n\n\nditto \n\n\n1891, \n\n\n392,612,447 \n\n\nxpenditurt \xe2\x80\x94 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nYear ending 30 \n\n\nJune \n\n\n, 1855 . \n\n\n\n\n56,365,393 \n\n\nditto \n\n\n\n\n1859 . \n\n\n\n\n66,346,226 \n\n\nditto \n\n\n\n\n1863 \n\n\n\n\n714,709,996 \n\n\nditto \n\n\n\n\n1 866 \n\n\n\n\n1,141,072,666 \n\n\nditto \n\n\n\n\n1875 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n\n\n274,623,392 \n\n\nditto \n\n\n\n\n1877 . \n\n\n\n\n238,660,008 \n\n\n\nYear ending 30 June, 1880 \nditto 1884 \n\nditto 1888 \n\nditto 1889 \n\nditto 1 891 \n\nPublic Debt- \n\n\n\n267,642,957 \n244,126,244 \n267,924,801 \n300,064,795 \n355,37 2 ,684 \n\n\n\nJune, 1867, 2,515,615,936 dollars. \nJune, 1871, 2,292,030,835 dollars. \nJune, 1875, 2,237,813,048 dollars. \nJune, 1876, 2,176,947,758 dollars. \nJune, 1880, 2,120,415,370 dollars. \nJune, 1884, 1,830,528,923 dollars. \nDec. 1888, 1,690,975,251 dollars. \nJune, 1891, 1,610,620,103 dollars. \n\n\n\near ending \n30 June. \n1872 \n\n1875 \n\n1877 \n1880 \n\n\nVALUE OF IMPORTS. \n\n\nEXPORTS. \n\n\n\xc2\xa3114,502,161 \n106,600,905 . \n90,261,510 . \n133,59 >66o . \n\n\n\xc2\xa3112,361,676 \n109,013,805. \n117,933,898 \n164,789,270 \n\n\n1884 \n1888 \n1891 \n\n\n133,539,538 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 $723,957,H4 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n844,916,196 . \n\n\n144,992,970 \n\n$683,862,104 \n\n872,270,283 \n\n\n\nArmy. \xe2\x80\x94 That which achieved independence was dis- \nbanded at the end of the war. In 1789, a war depart- \nment was established, and in 1790 the army consisted 1 \nof 1216 men for the Indian frontier. In 1808, the \nmilitia was newly equipped. When war with Great \nBritain was declared on iS June, 1812, 35,000 men were \nvoted ; and this army was disbanded at the peace in \n1815. Armies were voted for the wars in 1833 and \n1835, afterwards disbanded. \n\n\n\nUNITED STATES \n\n\n\n1013 \n\n\n\nUNITED STATES. \n\n\n\nIn 1855, Army, 11,658. Militia, 1,873,558. Fleet, 72 \n\nvessels (2290 guns). \nIn i860, the United States Militia were 3,070,987. Fleet, \n\n92 vessels (of all kinds); in Oct. 1862, 256 vessels of war. \nFederal Army, 29 July, 1861, estimated at 660,971. In \nDee. 1862. nearly 1,000,000 men. In April, 1865, about \n1,500,000, at the end of the war, when the reduction \n"began at once. Number of soldiers in 1867, 54,890; in \nJuly, 1871, 32,135; 1875, 27,525 men; in 1883, 25,478 \nmen ; in 1888, 26,270 men ; in 1891, 26,073 men. \nFleet, ill July, 1867, 261 vessels of all kinds, 2218 guns ; \nJan. 1871, 179 vessels, 1440 guns ; 1875, 155 vessels, 1203 \nguns; 1S84, 92 vessels ; 1888, 66 vessels; 1891,69 vessels. \nIn 1890 and 1891, the congress authorised the construc- \ntion ol three battleships, two protected cruisers, and \none torpedo cruiser, and one torpedo boat. The Texas \nbattleship was launched, 28 June, 1892. \nRailways, miles : 1839, 23 ; 1861, 31,286 ; 1873, 73,533 ; \n\nin 1S84, 121,532 ; in 1888, 150,710; in 1891, 171,000. \nAct of the British parliament, imposing new heavy \n\nduties on imports .... 11 March, 1764 \nObnoxious stamp-act passed . . 22 March, 1765 \nFirst American congress held at New York, June; \n\nthe stamp-act resisted .... 1 Nov. ,, \nStamp-act repealed .... 18 March, 1766 \nBritish act, levying duties on tea, paper, painted \n\nglass, <fcc 14 June, 1767 \n\nGen. Gage sent to Boston .... Oct. 1768 \n\n840 chests of tea destroyed by the populace at \n\nBoston, and 17 chests at New York . 18 Dec. 1773 \n\nBoston port bill (port rights annulled) 25 March, 1774 \nDeputies from the states meet at Philadelphia, \n\n5 Sept. ; Declaration of Rights issued 4 Nov. ,, \n\nFirst action between the British and Americans, at \n\nLexington ; British retreat . . . 19 April, 177.5 \nAct of perpetual union between the states 20 May, ,, \nGeorge Washington appointed commander-in-chief, \nMay; battle of Bunker\'s-hill, the Americans \nretire after a severe conflict . . 17 June, ,, \nAmerica declared "free, sovereign, and inde- \npendent " 4 July, 1776 \n\nGeneral Howe takes Long Island, 27 Aug. ; new \nYork, 15 Sept. ; victor at White Plains, 20 Oct. ; \n\ntakes Rhode Island 8 Dec. ,, \n\nThe Hessians surrender to Washington 25 Dec. ,, \n\nLa Fayette and other French officers join the \n\nAmericans 1777 \n\nWashington defeated at Brandy wine . 11 Sept. ,, \nLord Cornwallis takes Philadelphia . . Sept. ,, \nBurgoyue victor at Germantown, 3, 4, Oct. ; sur- \nrounded; capitulates at Saratoga . . 17 Oct. ,, \nA federal government adopted by congress 15 Nov. ,, \nThe states recognised by France . . 16 Dec. ,, \n\nAlliance with France 6 Feb. 1778 \n\nThe king\'s troops quit Philadelphia . . June, ,, \nAmericans defeated at Brier\'s Creek . 3 March, 1779 \nCharleston surrenders to the British. . 13 May, 1780 \nCornwallis defeats Gates at Camden . 16 Aug. ,, \n\nMajor Andre hanged as a spy ... 2 Oct. ,, \nAndre (born 175 1) was an adjutant-general in the \nBritish army, and was taken in disguise on his \nreturn from a secret expedition to the traitorous \nAmerican general Arnold, 23 Sept. 1780. He was \nsentenced to execution as a spy by a court of \ngeneral Washington\'s officers at Tappan, New \nYork, and suffered death, 2 Oct. following. His \nremains were removed to England in a sarco- \nphagus, 10 Aug. 1821, and interred in Westminster \nabbey. Impartial judges justify the severity of \nthis punishment.] \nAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciences at Boston \n\nfounded ,, \n\nThe federal government accepted by all the states, \n\n1 March; congress assembles . . 2 March, 1781 \nCornwallis defeats Green at Guildford, 15 March ; \n\nArnold defeats the Americans at Eutaw 8 Sept. ,, \nSurrender of lord Cornwallis and his whole army of \n7000 men to generals Washington and Rocham- \n\nbeau, at Yorktown 19 Oct. ,, \n\nArrival of sir Guy Carleton to treat for peace, 5 May ; \nprovisional articles signed at Paris by commis- \nsioners 30 Nov. 1782 \n\nDefinitive treaty of peace signed at Paris, 3 Sept. \n\n1783; ratified by congress . . . 4 Jan. 1784 \nSamuel Seabury consecrated bishop of the episcopal \n\nchurch in America at Aberdeen . . 14 Nov. ,, \nJohn Adams, first Am erica 11 ambassador\'s first in- \nterview with the king of England . . 1 June, 1785 \n\n\n\nThe cotton plant introduced into Georgia . . 1786 \nNew constitution signed by a convention of states, \n\n17 Sept. 1787 \n\nThe same ratified 23 May, 1788 \n\nThe quakers of Philadelphia emancipate their slaves, \n\n1 Jan. ,, \nNew government organised, 4 March ; George Wash- \nington, 1st president, 6 April ; present depart- \nments of state established . . . 27 July, 1789 \n\nAn act protecting native industry passed . . ,, \nDeath of Benjamin Franklin . . . 17 April, 1790 \nBank instituted ; capital, 10,000,000 dollars, 7 June, 1791 \nCity of Washington chosen the capital of the states, \n\n8 July, 1792 \nEli Whitney\'s invention of the cotton-gin gives an \nimmense impetus to the growth of American \n\ncotton 1793 \n\nRe-election of general Washington as president, \n\n4 March, 1793 ; resigns . . . 17 Sept. 1796 \nJohn Adams, 2nd president . . . 4 March, 1797 \nWashington dies ; universal sorrow . 14 Dec. 1799 \nThe seat of government removed to Washington . 1800 \nThomas Jefferson, 3rd president . . .4 March, 1801 \nLouisiana purchased from the French . 30 April, 1803 \nDiscussion between England and America respect- \ning the rights of neutrals 1807 \n\nAmerican ports closed to the British, July ; trade \n\nsuspended 9 Dec. 1807 \n\nImportation of slaves abolished . . .1 Jan. i8c8 \nJames Madison, <\\th president . . 4 March, 1809 \n\n"War with Great Britain (New England States \n\nopposed to it, threatened to secede) . 18 June, 1812 \nAction between the American ship Constitution, and \nthe British frigate Guerriere, an unequal contest, \n\n19 Aug. ,, \n\nFort Detroit taken 21 Aug. ,, \n\nThe British sloop Frolic taken by the American \nsloop Wasp, 18 Oct. ; the privateer Defiance also \n\ncaptured by the Wasp , \n\nThe ship United States of 54 guns, great calibre \n(commodore Decatur), captures the British frigate \nMacedonia . . . . . . 25 Oct. ,, \n\nBattles of Frenchtown (which see) . . 12-24 Jan. 1813 \nThe Hornet captures the British sloop of war Peacock \n\n25 Feb. ,, \nFort Erie and Fort George abandoned by the British, \n\n27 May, ,, \nThe American frigate Chesapeake captured by the \n\nShannon frigate, captain Broke . . 1 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nAt Burlington Heights, Americans defeated, \n\n6 June, ,, \nH.M. sloop Pelican takes the sloop Argus 14 Aug. ,, \nBuffalo town burnt by the British . . Dec. ,, \nAmerican frigate Essex taken by the Phoibe and \n\nCherub 29 March, 1814 \n\nThe British defeat the Americans in a severe conflict, \n\n2 July, ,, \n[Several engagements with various success followed.] \nThe British, under Ross, defeat the Americans at \n\nBladeusburg ; the city of Washington taken and \npublic edifices burnt .... 24 Aug. ,, \n\nThe British sloop of war A von sunk by the American \n\nsloop Wasp 8 Sept. ,, \n\nThe British squadron on Lake Champlain captured, \n\n11 Sept. ,, \nAttack on Baltimore by the British; general Ross \n\nkilled . . . .\' . . - 12 Sept. ,, \nTreaty of peace with Great Britain, signed at Ghent, \n\n24 Dee. ,, \nThe British repulsed at New Orleans . 8 Jan. 1815 \nThe British ship Endymion captures the President, \n\n15 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe Ghent treaty ratified .... 17 Feb. ,, \nJames Monroe, 5th president . . . 4 March, 1817 \nTreaty with Canada respecting fisheries . . . 1818 \nCentre foundation of the capitol of Washington laid, \n\n24 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe "Missouri Compromise" of Henry Clay, re- \ngarding slavery, passed .... Feb. 1820 \nSpain cedes Florida to the American States 24 <><\xe2\x80\xa2!. ,, \nThe States acknowledge the independence of South \n\nAmerica 8 March, 1822 \n\nTreaty with Columbia .... 3 Oct. 1824 \nJohn Quincey Adams, 6th president . 4 March, 1825 \nDeath of the two ex-presidents, Adams and Jeffer- \nson, on the 50th anniversary of the independence \nof the American States . . . . 4 July, 1826 \n\n\n\nUNITED STATES. \n\n\n\n1014 \n\n\n\nUNITED STATES. \n\n\n\nConvention with Great Britain concerning indemni- \nties for war 1812-14 13 Nov. 1826 \n\nAmerican Tariff Bill imposing heavy duties on \nBritish goods, termed the \' \' tariff of abominations " \n\n13 May, 1828 \nGeneral Jackson, yth president . . .4 March, 1829 \nTreaty between the United States and the Ottoman \n\nPorte 7 May, 1830 \n\nPorts re-opened to British commerce . 5 Oct. ,, \nPirst railway made . . . . . . ,, \n\nNew tariff laws 14 July, 1832 \n\nCommercial panic ,, \n\nGreat fire at New York, 674 houses and many public \nedifices burnt ; loss estimated at 20,000,000 dol- \nlars 16 Dec. 1835 \n\nNational debt paid off 1836 \n\nMartin Van Buren, 8th president . . 4 March, 1837 \nIn the Canadian insurrection, many Americans \n\nassist the insurgents . . . Oct. to Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe American steamboat Caroline is attacked and \nburnt by the British, near Schlosser, to the east \nof the Niagara, on the territory of the United \n\nStates 29 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nProclamation of the president against American \n\ncitizens aiding the Canadians ... 5 Jan. 1838 \nThe Great Western steam-ship first sails from Bristol \n\nto New York 8-15 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAmerican banks suspend cash payments . Oct. 1839 \n\nAlex. MacLeod, charged with aiding in the de- \nstruction of the Caroline; true bill found against \nhim for murder and arson . . . . 6 Feb. 1841 \nThe United States Lank again suspends payment, \n\n7 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nGen. W. H. Harrison, gth president . . 4 March, ,, \n\nDied 4 April, ,, \n\nMr. Fox, British minister, demands the release of \n\nMr. MacLeod 12 March, ,, \n\nJohn Tyler, 10th president .... April, ,, \nThe case of MacLeod removed to supreme court at \n\nNew York 6 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nA party of British volunteers from Canada carry off \n\ncol. Grogan 9 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDesignation of all the United States ministers, with \n\nthe exception of Mr. Webster . . . n Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nPresident\'s proclamation against lawless attempts of \nAmerican citizens to invade British possessions, \nand to suppress secret lodges, clubs, and associa- \ntions 25 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGrogan restored to the Americans . . 4 Occ. ,, \nTrial of MacLeod at Utica, 4 Oct. ; acquitted, 12 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nColossal statue of Washington placed in the capitol \n\nat Washington 1 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAffair of the Creole ; dispute with England Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n[This American vessel was on her voyage_to New \nOrleans with a cargo of slaves : they mutinied, v \nmurdered the owner, wounded the captain, and \ncompelled the crew to take the ship to Nassau, \nNew Providence, where the governor, considering \nthem passengers, allowed them, against the pro- \ntest of the American consul, to go at liberty. ] \nAnnouncement of lord Ashburton\'s mission to the \n\nUnited States 1 Jan. 1842 \n\nArrest of Hogan, implicated in the Caroline affair, \n\n2 Feb. ,, \nLord Ashlrarton arrives at New York . 1 April, ,, \nWashington treaty, defining the boundaries between \nthe United States and the British American pos- \nsessions, and for suppressing the slave trade, and \ngiving up fugitive criminals ; signed at AVashing- \nton, by lord Ashburton and Mr. Webster, 9 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe tariff bill is passed \' . . ... 30 Aug. \nLord Ashburton leaves the United States . 5 Sept! " \nDeath of Dr. Channing .... 2 Oct. \n\nJames Knox Polk, nth president . . 4 March, 1845 \n\nWar declared against the United States by Mexico,\' \non account of the proposed annexation of Texas, \n\n4 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n[Several actions are fought between the belligerents, \n\nadverse to Mexico.] \nBesolution of the senate and house of representa- \ntives for terminating the joint occupancy of \n\nOregon 20 April, 1846 \n\nAnnexation of New Mexico to the United States, \n\nafter a protracted war . . . .23 Aug. \n\nMexicans defeated by Taylor at Falo Alto, 8, 9 May, ,\',\' \n\nTreaty fixing the north-west boundary of the U.S. \n\nat the 49th parallel of latitude, and giving the \n\n\n\nBritish possession of Vancouver\'s island, the free \nnavigation of the Columbia river, &c, signed \n\n12 June, 1846 \n\nTreaty with Columbia guaranteeing neutrality of \nthe isthmus of Panama ,, \n\nThe Mexicans defeated by general Taylor, at Bueno \nVista 22, 23 Feb. 1847 \n\nVera Cruz taken by storm, 29 March ; the Mexicans \neverywhere worsted. Great battle of Sierra Gorda ; \nthe Mexicans signally defeated by general Scott, \n\n18 April, ,, \n\nTreaty between Mexico and the United States, rati- \nfied 19 May, 184a \n\nGen. Zachary Taylor, 12th president . 4 March, 1849 \n\nBiot at the theatre, New York, occasioned by the \ndispute between Mr. Forrest and Mr. Macready, \n\n10 May, ,, \n\nProclamation of the president against the maraud- \ning expedition to Cuba . . . .11 Aug. ;> \n\n[Lopez, a Spanish adventurer, landed 600 men at \nCuba ; after a short but obstinate struggle they \ntook the town of Cardenas ; and soon after had a \nland engagement with some Spanish soldiers, in \nwhich many of them were killed or taken pri- \nsoners ; the others embarked with Lopez in the \nCreole steamer, and thus escaped from a Spanish \nwar steamer, the Pizarro, May, 1850.] \n\nThe French ambassador dismissed from Washington, \n\n14 Sept. ,, \n\nTreaty with England for a transit way across Pana- \nma (see Bulwer), 19 April ; ratified . 4 July, 1850 \n\nPresident Zachary Taylor dies ; death of M. Cal- \nhoun 31 March, ,, \n\nMillard Fill in ore, 13th president. . . March, , y \n\nCalifornia admitted a state . . . 15 Aug. ,, \n\nFugitive slave bill passed .... Aug. ,, \n\nPresident Fillmore issues a second proclamation \nagainst the promoters of a second expedition to \nCuba, and the ship Cleopatra, freighted with \nmilitary stores destined for that island, is seized, \n\n25 April, 1853 \n\nCensus of the United States taken, the population \nascertained to amount to 23,347,884, in the whole \nunion 16 June, ,, \n\nHenry Clay, American statesman, dies . 29 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFailure of the second expedition against Cuba by \nLopez and his followers ; they are all defeated and \ntaken : 51 are shot by the Cuban authorities, \nLopez is garotted, and the rest are sent prisoners \nto Spain, where, after some negotiation, they are \nmercifully set at liberty (see Cuba) Aug.-Sept. ,\xe2\x80\x9e \n\nJ. F. Cooper, American novelist dies . 14 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe president issues a proclamation against the \nsympathisers with the revolutionary movement \nin Mexico . . . . . .22 Oct. ,, \n\nPart of the capitol of Washington, and the whole of \nthe library of the United States congress, de- \nstroyed by fire 24 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e. \n\nM. Kossuth the Hungarian chief, arrives at Wash- \nington, on the invitation of the United States \nlegislature 30 Dec. ,, \n\nPublication of "Uncle Tom\'s Cabin," by Mrs. \nStowe 20 March, 1852 \n\nThe dispute with England relating to the Fisheries \noccurs about this time ; Mr Webster\'s note upon \nthe subject ...... 14 July, ,, \n\nLone Star Society (see Lone Star). . . Aug. , r \n\nThe United States Ship Crescent City boarded at \nHavannah, and not allowed to land her mails or \npassengers 3 Oct. ,, \n\nDeath of the eminent statesman Daniel Webster in \nhis 70th year 24 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nExpedition to Japan ,, \n\nAddress to the women of America on slavery, \nadopted by the duchess of Sutherland and other \nladies (signed afterwards by 576,000 English- \nwomen) 26 Nov. ,, \n\nGen. Franklin Pierce, 14th president . 4 March, 1853 \n\nAffair of Koszta at Smyrna (see Koszta) 21 June, ,, \n\nCrystal palace opens at New York . .14 July, ,, \n\nDuel between M. Soule (American minister at \nMadrid) and M. Turgot ... 18 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGreat fire at New York\xe2\x80\x94 Great RepxMic clipper de- \nstroyed 26 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAstor Library, New York, opened . . 9 Jan. 1854 \nWilliam Walker proclaims the republic of Sonora \ndivided into two states\xe2\x80\x94 Sonora and Lower Cali- \nfornia 18 Jan. ,, \n\n\n\nUNITED STATES. \n\n\n\n1015 \n\n\n\nUNITED STATES. \n\n\n\nAmerican steamer Black Warrior seized at Cuba. \n\n28 Feb. \nThe Spanish government remitted the flue, but con- \nsidered the seizure legal .... April, \nCommercial treaty concluded between Japan and \nUnited States by commodore Perry (sent there \n\nfor the purpose) 23 March, \n\nReciprocity treaty between Great Britain and \n\nUnited States (respecting Newfoundland fishery, \n\ninternational trade, &c.) concluded . 7 June \n\nCaptain Hollins in American sloop Cyanc, bombards \n\nSan Juan de Nicaragua . . . 13 July, \n\nNegotiation for the annexation of the Sandwich \n\nIslands Oct. \n\nDreadful election riots in Kansas, March and April, \nIndian war : they are defeated . 25, 29 April, \nDispute with British government on enlistment (see \n\nForeign Legion) July \n\nGen. Harney gains a victory over the Sioux Indians, \n\n3 Sept. \nSenator Charles Sumner savagely assaulted by \nsenator Preston Brooks in the senate-house for \nspeaking against slavery ... 2 May, \nMr. Crampton, British envoy, dismissed, 28 May, \nJohn C. Fremont nominated the "Republican" can- \ndidate for the presidency . . .17 June, \nBattle in Kansas ; the slavers (under Capt. Reid) \ndefeat Brown and the abolitionists . 30 Aug. \nJames Buchanan, elected 15th president . 4 Nov. \nThe Resolute presented to queen Victoria (see Frank- \nlin) 12 Dec. \n\nLord Napier appointed British envoy to United \nStates (16 Jan.) ; warmly received 18 March, \n\nCentral American question settled . . March, \nJudgment given in the " Dred Scott" case in the \nsupreme court. (He was claimed as a slave in a \nfree state : 2 judges declared for his freedom, 5 \nagainst it, which causes great dissatisfaction \nthroughout the free states) . . . March, \nDisorganised state of Utah ; troops march to sup- \nport new governor . . . May and June, \nRiots in Washington against Irish electors ; and in \nNew York on account of changes in the police \n\narrangements June, \n\nInsurrection in Kansas quelled . . July, \n\nCommercial panic in New York . . . Aug. \nOutrage at Staaten Island ; quarantine house burnt, \n\nV Sept. \nThe import duties of the protective tariffs reduced \n\nfrom 23 to 15 per cent \n\nDispute respecting right of search, settled May, \n\nTranquility restored in Utah . . . June, \n\nGreat rejoicing at the completion of the Atlantic \n\ntelegraph (see Electric Telegraph) . . Aug. \n\nA massacre of emigrants at Mountain Meadows, \n\nUtah (Mormons suspected) . . .18 Sept. \n\nLieut. Moffat seizes the American slave ship Echo \n\nand takes her to Charleston . . . Sept. \n\nDeath of W. H. Prescott, the historian . 28 Jan. \n\nDaniel Sickles, a government official, killed Philip \n\nBarton Key, for adultery with his wife ; acquitted \n\nof murder . \xe2\x80\xa2 26 Feb. \n\nThe American commodore Tatnall assists the Eng- \nlish at the Chinese engagement on the rivei-Peiho, \nsaying, " Blood is thicker than water," 25 June, \nGen. Ward, the United States envoy, goes to Pekin, \nbut does not see the emperor . . . July, \nGen. Harney sends troops to San Juan Island, near \nVancouver\'s Island, " to protect the American \nsettlers;" moderation of the British, who have a \nnaval force at hand ; governor Douglas also sends \n\ntroops 27 July, \n\nInsurrection at Harper\'s Ferry . . .16 Oct. \n[John Brown, called captain Brown and old Brown, \nwas a prominent leader in the violent conflicts in \nKansas, during the agitation respecting the ques- \ntion of its becoming a slave state. He was a \nmonomaniac on the slavery question, and con- \ntended that all means for annihilating slavery were \njustifiable. He gathered together a band of despe- \nrate characters, who so much annoyed Missouri \nand other slave states, that a reward was offered \nfor his head. He had arranged for the successful \nissue of the insurrection above mentioned, so far \nas to devise a provisional government and a new \nconstitution. On 16 Oct. he and his band, aided \nby a mob, seized the arsenal at Harper\'s Ferry, a \ntown on the borders oi Virginia and Maryland, \n\n\n\n1855 \n\n\n\n1856 \n\n\n\n1857 \n\n\n\nstopped the railway trains, and cut the telegraph \nwires ; a conflict with the military ensued, when \nmany of the insurgents were killed. Temporary \npanic in southern states.] \n\nGen. Harney superseded by Gen. Scott at San Juan, \nwho makes conciliatory overtures ; accepted by \ngovernor Douglas Nov. \n\nDeath of Washington Irving . . .28 Nov. \n\nJohn Brown captured and tried ; executed 2 Dec. \n\nGreat agitation in the congress, Nov. 1859 ; no \nspeaker elected till 1 Feb. \n\nPresident Buchanan protests against a proposed in- \nquiry into his acts .... 28 March, \n\nCompanions of John Brown executed . March, \n\nThe national republican convention meet at \nChicago ; Abraham Lincoln chosen as candidate \nfor the presidency . . . . 16 May, \n\nJapanese embassy received by the president at \nWashington 17 May, \n\nFresh disputes at San Juan, through gen. Harney, \nwho is recalled May, \n\nWilliam Goodrich (Peter Parley) dies . May, \n\nThe national democratic convention meet at Balti- \nmore ; a large number of delegates secede ; the \nremainder nominate Stephen Douglas as presi- \ndent ; the seceders nominate John Breckinridge, \n\n18 June, \n\nThe Great Eastern arrives at New York 23 June, \n\nThe prince of Wales arrives at Detroit in the United \nStates, 20 Sept. ; visits Washington, 3 Oct. ; \nPhiladelphia, 9 Oct. : New York, 11 Oct. ; Bos- \nton, 17 Oct ; embarks at Portland . 20 Oct. \n\nAbraham Lincoln, the republican candidate, elected \n16th president (see Southern Confederacy), 6 Nov. \n\n[303 electors are appointed to vote for a president , \n152 to be a majority. The numbers were, for A. \nLincoln, 180 ; John C. Breckinridge, 72 ; John \nBell, 39; Stephen A. Douglas, 12.] \n\nIntense excitement at Charleston, South Carolina, \nand in other southern states . . . Nov. \n\nSouth Carolina secedes from the union . 20 Dec. \n\nMajor Anderson, of United States army, occupies \nFort Sumter in Carolina . . . .26 Dec. \n\nDelegates from South Carolina not received by the \npresident 30 Dec. \n\nVacillating policy of president Buchanan ; the secre- \ntaries Cass, Cobb, Floyd, and Thompson resign, \nDec. 1860-Jan. \n\nNew York and other northern states protest against \nthe secession ; a general fast proclaimed ; observed \non 4 Jan. \n\nVicksburg, Mississippi, fortified . . .12 Jan. \n\nKansas admitted a state .... 21 Jan. \n\nSecession (by convention) of Mississippi, 8 Jan. ; \nAlabama, Florida, n Jan. ; Georgia, 19 Jan. ; \nLouisiana, 26 Jan. Texas (by legislature), \n\n1 Feb. \n\nJefferson Davis, elected by the six seceding states, \n8 Feb. ; is inaugurated president of the "southern \nconfederacy," at Montgomery, Alabama, 18 Feb. \n\nNew (Morrill) tariff bill passed (nearly prohibits \ncommerce with England) . . .2 March, \n\nPresident Davis prepares for war (100,000 men to \nbe raised) March, \n\nAbm. Lincoln, inaugurated president at Washing- \nton, says, "the central idea of secession is the \nessence of anarchy " .... 4 March, \n\nSouthern commissioners not received by the presi- \ndent at Washington .... 12 March, \n\nGen. Winfield Scott, in a letter to president Lin- \ncoln, sets before him four courses: either, I., to \nsurrender to slavery half the territory acquired or \nto be acquired ; 11., to blockade all revolted ports; \nIII., to say to seceding states, " Wayward sisters, \ngo in peace ! " or IV., to conquer the south, which \nwould require 300,000 men and afterwards a resi- \ndent army [the letter became public Oct. 1862] \n\nMarch, \n(Statement denied in 1S74.) \nGreat excitement at the operation of the new \nMorrill tariff, which begins . . .1 April, \n\nThe war begins : Major Anderson refuses to surren- \nder Port Sumter, Charleston, when summoned, n \nApril; it is taken by the secessionists, alter a \nbloodless conflict \'. . . . 13 April, \n\nPresident Lincoln summons the congress to meet \n\non 4 July; issues a proclamation, calling on the \n\n\n\n1859 \n\n\n\nUNITED STATES. \n\n\n\n1016 \n\n\n\nUNITED STATES. \n\n\n\nstates to furnish a contingent of 75,000 men, &c. \n\n15 April, ] \n\nMassachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, and \nother states zealously respond, with vigorous \npreparations for war ; Kentucky, North Carolina, \nVirginia, Tennessee, and Missouri, decidedly re- \nfuse, asserting the proposed coercion to be wicked, \nillegal, and unconstitutional . . April, \n\nThe mob in Baltimore, Maryland, attack some \nMassachusetts regiments on their way to Wash- \nington ; several persons killed in the conflict, \n\n19 April, \n\nPresident Davis issues letters of marque, 17 April ; \npresident Lincoln proclaims the blockade of the \nports of seceding states . . .19 April, \n\nU.S. Arsenal at Harper\'s Perry, Virginia, tired by \ncommand, and 15,000 stand of arms destroyed, \n18 April; 9 ships of war and naval stores in the \nnavy yard, Norfolk, Va. , burnt to prevent them \nfalling into the hands of the southern confede- \nrates, who occupy the place . . 21 April, \n\nVirginia (except West Virginia) secedes by ordi- \nnance (the 8th state) . \xe2\x96\xa0 . . 25 April, \n\nLincoln calls for 42,034 volunteers for three years, \n3 May, and informs foreign powers of his inten- \ntion to maintain the union by war . 4 May, \n\nThe confederates under Beauregard and Johnston, \nin Virginia, threaten Washington, defended by \nthe federals under generals Winfield Scott and \nGeorge McClellan May, \n\nThe British queen commands her subjects to be \nneutral in the ensuing war . . .13 May, \n\nThe federals enter Virginia ; Beauregard calls on \nthe Virginians to rise and expel them 1 June, \n\nFormal secession of Arkansas, 6 May ; North Caro- \nlina, 20 May; Tennessee (9 th, 10th, and nth), \n\n8 June, \n\nSeveral British vessels seized while endeavouring to \nbreak the blockade ; the southern privateer \nSavannah captured .... June, \n\nNeutrality announced by the French emperor 10 Jun e, \n\nFast-day in confederate states . . 13 June, \n\nMissouri. \xe2\x80\x94 Gen. Lyon raises a federal army, and \ndefeats the state troops, 17 June ; the federals \nsuccessful at Carthage, 5 July ; Fremont takes \ncommand in West Missouri, 26 July ; federals \nvictorious at Athens, 5 Aug. ; at Wilson\'s Creek \n(gen. Lyon killed), 10 Aug. ; Fremont proclaims \nmartial law, and freedom to slaves or rebels, 31 \nAug. ; Lexington surrenders to confederates, 20 \nSept. ; Fremont blamed, retires ; succeeded by \nHunter 2 Nov. \n\nVirginia. \xe2\x80\x94Federals defeated at Big Bethell, 10 \nJune ; occupy Harper\'s Ferry, evacuated by the \nconfederates, 16 June ; col. Pegrim and 600 con- \nfederates surrender at Beverley . 13 July, \n\n[Very many skirmishes, with various results.] \n\nMcClellan defeats confederates at Rich Mountain, \nn July; Paterson permits the junction of the \nconfederates under Johnston and Beauregard \nnear Manassas, 15 July ; who are repulsed at \nBlackburn\'s Ford, near Centreville . 18 July, \n\nBattle of Bull Run {which see) or Manassas, Vir- \nginia; the federals, seized with panic, flee in \nutter disorder 21 July, \n\nMeeting of U. S. Congress, 4 July ; a loan of 250 \nmillion dollars authorised . . .17 July, \n\nMeeting of confederate congress at Richmond, \nVirginia 20 July, \n\nPassport system introduced into the northern \nstates, and the liberty of the press greatly re- \nstricted Auc. \n\nThe charges in the Morrill tariff greatly raised\'; \nthe confederates prohibit exportation of cotton \nexcept by southern ports . . . Aug. \n\nBattle of Springfield or Wilson\'s Creek; confede- \nrates defeated 10 Au<t. \n\nMcClellan assumes command of the army of the \nPotomac . . 20 Aug. \n\nFederal gen. Butler takes Fort Hatteras, N. Carolina \n(700 prisoners and 1000 stand of arms), 29 Aug. \n\nFast-day in federal states ... 26 Sept. \n\nGaribaldi declines command in the federal army, \n\nSept. \n\nBattle of Ball\'s Bluff; federals defeated and gen. \nBaker killed, near Leesburg, Virginia ; hundreds \ndrowned 21 Oct. \n\n\n\nThe federals and confederates enter Kentucky ; \nthe governor protests; many skirmishes, Sept. -Dec. : \n\nResignation of lieut.-gen. Scott, 31 Oct. ; George \nMc.Clellf.n made commander-in-chief of the \nfederal army t Nov. \n\nThr> federal general Sherman takes Port Royal forts, \nS. Carolina 7, 8 Nov. \n\nCapt. Wilkes, of federal war steamer San Jacinto, \nboards the Royal British mail packet Trent, \nand carries off Messrs. Mason and Slidell, con- \nfederate commissioners, and their secretaries, 8 \nNov., and conveys them to Boston . 19 Nov. \n\nGreat rejoicings in the northern states at the \ncapture of Mason and Slidell . . . Nov. \n\nMcClellan reviews 70,000 men . . .20 Nov. \n\nCapt. Pegram, of confederate steamer Nashville, \nburns the federal ship Harvey Birch, 19 Nov. , and \nbrings the crew on to Southampton . 21 Nov. \n\nA secession ordinance passed by a party in Mis- \nsouri, 2 Nov. ; the same in Kentucky . 30 Nov. \n\nDissensions increase between the republicans (abo- \nlitionists) and the democrats in New York, &c. \n\nNov. \n\nJefferson Davis elected president of confederate \nstates for six years .... 30 Nov. \n\nPresident Lincoln states that the federal armies \ncomprise 660,971 men . . . .2 Dec. \n\nMeeting of congress, which votes thanks to capt. \nWilkes, 2 Dec. ; the foreign envoys at Washington \nprotest against his act .... 3 Dee. \n\nThe federals commence sinking hulks filled with \nstones to block up Charleston harbour (S. Caro- \nlina) [much indignation in England] 21 Dec. \n\nBanks at New York, &c, suspend cash payments, \n\n30 Dec. \n\nA firm despatch from the British government \narrives, 18 Dec. 1861 ; Mason, &c, surrendered, \nsail for Europe 1 Jan. : \n\nPhelps\' fruitless expedition to Ship Island, Missis- \nsippi Sound . . . .3 Dec. 1861-Jan. \n\nConfederate general Zollicoffer defeated by Thomas \nand slain at Mill Springs or Somerset, Kentucky, \n\n19 Jan. \n\n\'Tennessee. \xe2\x80\x94 The federals (Grant) take Fort Henry, \n6 Feb. ; Fort Donnelson, with 15,000 prisoners, \n16 Feb. ; and Nashville ... 23 Feb. \n\nConfederates defeated at Pea Ridge, Arkansas, \n6, 7, 8 March, \n\nConfederate iron-plated ship Merrimac destroys \nfederal vessels Cumberland and Congress in Hamp- \nton roads, 8 March ; is repulsed by federal iron- \nclad floating battery Monitor . . 9 March, \n\nMcClellan and his army (100,000) cross the Potomac \nand find the confederate camp at Bull Run \nevacuated 10 March, \n\nMcClellan resigns general command, and assumes \nthat of the army of the Potomac only ; Fremont \nthat of the Mountain department ; and Halleck \nthat of the Mississippi . . . n March, \n\nBurnside\'s expedition sails, 11 Jan. ; takes Roanoke, \nN. Carolina, 7, 8 Feb. ; Newbern . 14 March, \n\nCapt. Wilson (British) boldly rescues his vessel, \nEmily St. Pierre, a merchantman, from the federals \n\n21 March, \n\n[She was sailing from Calcutta to New Brunswick, \nand while attempting to inquire whether a block- \nade existed, was captured off Charleston bar by a \nfederal ship of war. Her captain, and his cook \nand steward, were permitted to remain on board \non her voyage to Philadelphia. On 21 March, \nWilson with his two associates succeeded, by \nstratagem and courage, in recovering the com- \nmand of the vessel, overcoming two U.S. officers \nand 13 sailors, and brought her into Liverpool. \nThe owners of the ship gave him 2000 guineas, \nand the Liveipool merchants presented him with \na magnificent testimonial of their admiration of \nhis gallantry. The British government refused \nto restore the vessel when claimed by the \nAmericans.] \n\nConfederates defeated at Winchester 23 March, \n\nGeneral Burnside occupies Beaufort and Fort Macon \n\n1 April, \n\nSlavery abolished in district of Columbia, 4 April, \n\nMcCleilan advances into Virginia, with the view of \ntaking Richmond ; he besieges Yorktown, held \nby 30,000 confederates ... 5 April, \n\n\n\nUNITED STATES. \n\n\n\n1017 \n\n\n\nUNITED STATES. \n\n\n\nCorrespondents of English newspapers excluded \nfrom federal array 5 April, 18 \n\nGreat battles of Shiloh or Pittsburg Landing, near \nCorinth, Tennessee ; confederates victorious, but \nlose their able gen. Albert Johnston; they retire \n\n6, 7 April, , \n\nTreaty between Great Britain and the United \nStates for the suppression of the slave trade, \n\n7 April, , \n\nFederals take Fort Pulaska on the Savannah, n \nApril ; and New Orleans . . 25-28 April, , \n\nYorktown evacuated by confederates . 3 May, . \n\nThe Seward-Lyous treaty between Great Britain \nand the United States, for suppression of the \nslave trade, signed 7 April ; ratified . 20 May, , \n\nConfederates repulsed at Williamsburg, 5 May ; their \nnaval depot at Norfolk, Virginia, surrenders, 10 \nMay ; they burn the Merrimac . . 11 May, . \n\nCommodore Farragut with a flotilla ascends the \nMississippi May, , \n\nLittle Rock, Arkansas, taken by federals . May, . \n\nStonewall Jackson defeats Banks at Winchester, \n\n18 May, , \n\nMcClellan takes Hanover court-house . 27 May, \n\nSkirmishes in Virginia ; success varying . May, , \n\nSevere battles of Fair Oaks, before Richmond \n(indecisive) . . . .31 May, 1 June, . \n\nBeauregard and the confederates retreat from \nCorinth, Tennessee, 30 May ; pursued byHalleek \nand the federals June, , \n\nMemphis, on the Mississippi, taken . 6 June, , \n\nFederals defeated near Charleston . . 16 June, , \n\nFederal forces under Fremont, Banks, and \nMcDowell, placed under Pope ; Fremont resigns, \n\n27 June, , \n\nFederals suffer through several severe engagements \nin Virginia 25-30 June, , \n\nGeneral Butler excites great indignation by his \nmilitary rigour at New Orleans May and June, , \n\nSeven days\' conflict on the Chickahominy before \nRichmond ; the confederate gen. Lee compels \nMcClellan to abandon the siege and retreat 17 \nmiles, taking up a position at Harrison\'s Land- \ning, on James\'s river . . 25 June-i July, \n\nThe tariff still further raised .... July, \n\nMany conflicts in Kentucky, Missouri, and Ten- \nnessee, through confederate guerilla parties. \n\nJune and July, \n\nLincoln visits and encourages the army of McClellan, \nand calls for 300,000 volunteers . . July, \n\nLincoln\'s assent to a bill confiscating the property \nand emancipating the slaves of all rebels in arms \nafter 60 days 17 July, \n\nHalleck supersedes McClellan as commander-in-chief \n\n26 July, \n\nSlow volunteering ; many emigrations to Canada \nand Europe ; habeas corpus suspended ; the pre- \nsident ordains a draft if the volunteers are not \nready by 15 Aug July, \n\nPublic debt of United States estimated at \n1,222,000,000 dollars . . . . 1 July, \n\nPope takes command in Virginia . . 14 July, \n\nLincoln\'s proclamation of confiscation of property \nof rebels 26 July, \n\nFierce attack of Breckenridge (confederates) on \nBaton Rouge ; the federals soon after retire, 5 Aug. \n\nPope\'s troops ravage Virginia ; Banks, his subordi- \nnate, defeated at Cedar Mountain by gen. Thos. \n" Stonewall " Jackson . . . .9 Aug. \n\n[According to some accounts he obtained the name \nby premising Beauregard, at the battle of Bull \nRun, that his brigade should stand like a " stone \nwall ; " others say that Beauregard gave the name \nhimself.] \n\nMcClellan retreats from Harrison\'s Landing (said \nto have lost 70,000 men, killed, wounded, prison- \ners, and deserters) .... 16 Aug. \n\nThe federals surprised, and Pope loses his baggage, \n\n25 Aug. \nJackson turns the flank of Pope\'s army, and attacks \nhim at Grovcton, 29 Aug. ; and when reinforced \nby Lee, defeats him and McDowell ;it Bull Run, \n30 Aug. ; Pope retreats to Centreville 1 Sept. \nThe remains of Pope\'s armj Bee behind the lines \nof Washington, 2 Sept ; he is removed to tin\' \nnorth-west to act against tin\' Indian insurrection \n\n3 Sept. \n\n\n\nMcDowell superseded ; charged with treachery, he \nclaims a trial Sept. 1 \n\nMcClellan appointed commander-in-chief, saves \nWashington, and marches against the confede- \nrates under Lee, who have crossed the Potomac \nand entered Maryland . . . 5, 6 Sept. \n\nSevere conflicts at South Mountain Gap (or Middle- \ntown), 14-16 Sept. ; confederates, after a great \nfight near Antietam Creek and Sharpsburg road, \nretreat 17 Sept. \n\nHarper\'s Ferry surrendered to Jackson, 15 Sept. ; \nhe crosses Potomac and joins Lee\'s army 17 Sept. \n\nFederal cause declining in the- west ; they lose \nLexington, Aug. ; and Munsfordville 17 Sept. \n\nThanksgiving-day in southern states, 18 Sept. \n\nRosen craus defeats the confederates at Iuka 19 Sept. \n\nConfederates re-enter Virginia laden with stores \n\n22 Sept. \n\nLincoln proclaims freedom to the slaves in the con- \nfederate states, on 1 Jan. 1S63, if the states have \nnot returned to the union . . 22 Sept. \n\nSecret convention of 16 governors of states at \nAltoona, Pennsylvania, approve Lincoln\'s policy \n\n24 Sept. \n\nDraught of 40,000 men ordered in New York state \nby 12 Oct Sept. \n\nLincoln suspends habeas corpus\' writ, and authorises \nsevere measures agaiiistdisloyalpersonS25-27Sept. \n\nDesperate but indecisive conflicts near Corinth. \nTennessee, 3-5 Oct. ; and at Perrysville, Kentucky \n\n8, 9 Oct. \n\nConfederate gen. Stuart crosses Upper Potomac, \nand enters Pennsylvania ; enters Chambersburg \nand other places, carrying off horses, ammunition, \n<fec. ; rides round the federal army, and returns to \nhis camp 10, 13 Oct. \n\nGold at 29 premium at New Tork . . Oct. \n\nGreat democratic meeting at New York, condemning \nthe president\'s policy . . . .12 Oct. \n\nAt New Orleans Butler compels all persons who \nrefuse to take the oath of allegiance to send in \ntheir names and register their property to the \nprovost marshal .... 12 Oct. \n\nMcClellau\'s head-quarters at Harper\'s Ferry 17 Oct. \n\nRaid of confederate gen. Morgan in Kentucky ; he \ncarries off 80 federal waggons of ammunition, &c \n\niS Oct. \n\nTen confederate prisoners at Palmyra shot by order \nof gen. McNeil in consequence of the disappear- \nance of Abraham Allsman . .18 Oct. \n\nRosen crans supersedes Buell in the west 30 Oct. \n\nElections for next congress ; great majority for the \ndemocratic (opposition) candidates in New York \nand several other states . . . .4 Nov. \n\nMcClellan, while advancing towards Richmond, \nis superseded by gen. Burnside, 5 Nov., who \nadvances towards Richmond . . 7 Nov. \n\nM. Drouyn de Lhuys, on behalf of the French \ngovernment, proposes joint mediation in the \nAmerican conflict to Great Britain and Russia, \n30 Oct. ; declined by Gortschakoff, 8 Nov. ; by \nearl Russell 13 Nov. \n\nThe confederate steamer Alabama, capt. Semmes, \ncaptures many U.S. vessels, and excites much \nalarm at New York . . . Oct. -Dec. \n\nPresident Davis threatens reprisals if general \nMcNeil is not surrendered (see 18 Oct.) 17 Nov. \n\nBurnside summons Fredericksburg to surrender; \nconfederate gen. Lee with about 80,000 men near \n\n22 Nov. \n\n100,000 federal soldiers on the sick list . Nov. \n\nGreat honour shown to .McClellan; he is proposed \nas the next president .... Nov. \n\nThe federal government orders release of disaffected \npersons in prisons . . . .25 Nov. \n\nAnnual session of U.S. congress; the president \nrecommends compensated emancipation of all \nslaves in t lie loyal states before the year 1 900 1 Dec. \n\nBattle of Fredericksburg {which see); Burnside \ncrosses the Rappahannock, 10 Doc. ; bombards \nFredericksDurg, 11 Dee.; a series of desperate \nattacks on the confederates; Burnside totally \ndefeated, 13 Dec. ; recrosses the river 13 Dec. \n\nEngagements in Tennessee with varying results. Pee. \nDiscovery of frauds in the U.S. urmy financial \naccounts; public dissatisfaction with the govern- \nment ; secretaries Chase and Seward resign, but \nresume office Dec. \n\n\n\nUNITED STATES. \n\n\n\n1018 \n\n\n\nUNITED STATES. \n\n\n\nHomestead and Pre-emption act (relating to settle- \nment of free land) passed \n\nBattles near Murfreesboro\', or Stone River, between \nRosenerans and the federals and Braxton Bragg \nand the confederates : begin 29 Dec. ; severe but \nindecisive, 31 Dec. ; battle continued, 1 Jan. ; \nBragg defeated, retreats ... 2 Jan. \n\n[\'\xe2\x80\xa2 There have been about 2000 battles and skirmishes \nsince the commencement of the war. " \xe2\x80\x94 American \nAlmanack.\'] \n\nPresident Lincoln proclaims the freedom of slaves \nin the rebel states, except in parts held by the \nU. S. army 2 Jan. \n\nBurnside superseded by Joseph Hooker in com- \nmand of army of the Potomac . . 26 Jan. \n\nThe French government\'s offer of mediation, 9 Jan. \ndeclined 6 Feb. \n\nThe George Griswold, a vessel containing provisions \nand other relief for the distressed cotton workers \nin Lancashire, arrives ... 9 Feb. \n\nA conscription bill (for men between 18 and 45) \npassed 25 Feb. \n\nThe congress authorises the suspension of the \nhabeas corpus act, 3 March ; and establishes a \nNational Academy of Sciences at Washington \n\n4 March, \n\nConfederate loan for 3,000,000?. well taken up in \nEurope March, \n\nCharleston, South Carolina, attacked by monitors \nand gunboats ; the Keokuk, a monitor, sunk \n\n7 April, \n\nBattle of Chancellorsville {which see) ; the federals \nunder Hooker cross the Rappahannock, 28 April ; \ndefeated (gen. Stonewall Jackson is mortally \nwounded), 2-4 May ; Hooker recrosses the Rappa- \nhannock 5 May, \n\nStonewall Jackson dies ... 10 May, \n\nGrant\'s successful campaign in Tennessee ; he defeats \nthe confederates under Joseph Johnston at \nJackson, 14 May ; and under Pemberton at \nChampion Hills, 16 May ; and invests Vicksburg, \nMississippi, which is strongly fortified, 18 May, \na dreadful assault on it repelled . . 22 May, \n\nGreat peace meeting at Norfolk . 5 June, \n\nConfederate invasion under Lee ; invade Maryland \n\nand Pennsylvania, and take various towns \n\n14 June, el seq. \n\nThe federal gen. Hooker superseded by George \nH. Meade 27 June, \n\nMeade advances against Lee ; great battle of \n\n\' Gettysburg, indecisive ; but the confederates \n\nevacuate Pennsylvania and Maryland 1-3 July, \n\nVicksburg bombarded, 3 July ; surrendered by \nPemberton to Grant and Porter . 4 July, \n\nPort Hudson, a confederate fortress on the \nMississippi, surrenders ... 8 July, \n\nFierce riots at New York against the conscription ; \nmany negroes murdered, and much property \ndestroyed 13-16 July, \n\nThe Sioux defeated, 7 Aug. ; gen. Pope reports that \nthe Indian war is ended .... Aug. \n\nNew York rioters tried and convicted, 12 Aug. ; \nconscription going on peaceably . .21 Aug. \n\nSiege of Charleston ; defended by Beauregard - \nattacks with varied, success, July ; Fort Sumter \nbombarded and destroyed (and so-called Greek \nfire employed) ; attacks on the ruins repulsed \n\n21, 22 Aug. \n\nKnoxville occupied by Burnside . . 10 Sept. \n\nA Russian squadron warmly received at New York \nSept. and Oct. \n\nBattles of Chickamauga, Tennessee ; Rosenerans \ndefeated by Bragg . . . . 19, 20 Sept. \n\nMason, the confederate commissioner in England, \nprotests against the mode of his reception, and \nquits 22 Sept. \n\nConfederates defeated at Blue-Springs, Tennessee \n\n10 Oct. \n\nLincoln calls for 300,000 volunteers . 17 Oct. \n\nRosenerans\' command of the. federal army in Tennes- \nsee superseded by Grant, and Thomas, and \nSherman 19 Oct. \n\nThe steam rams FA. Tnusson and El Monassir, built \nby Mr. Laird at Birkenhead, and suspected to be \nfor the confederates, are placed under charge of a \ngovernment vessel in the Mersey . 31 Oct. \n\nBritish consuls dismissed from southern states Oct. \n\n\n\n1862 \n\n\n\n1863 \n\n\n\nMeade captures a part of Lee\'s army on the N. side \nof the Rappahannock . . . .7 Nov. 3 \n\nThe chief justices Lowrie, Woodward, and Thomp- \nson declare that the Conscription act is uncon- \nstitutional 12 Nov. \n\nLongstreet defeats Burnside, and compels him to \nretire into Knoxville . . . 14-17 Nov. \n\nSherman and Thomas defeat Bragg at Chattanooga \n\n23, 24 Nov. \n\nLongstreet\'s attack on Knoxville, defended by \n\nBurnside, fails, and he retreats into Virginia \n\n29 Nov. and 1 Dec. \n\nThe confederate general Bragg superseded by \nHardee 2 Dec. \n\nLincoln\'s message to congress warlike ; he proffers \namnesty to all except heads of governments, &c, \n4 Dec. ; Davis\'s message, firm, but acknow- \nledging reverses 7 Dec. \n\nGen. Joseph Johnston takes command of the con- \nfederate army in Georgia ... 27 Dec. \n\nPresident Lincoln orders a draft of 500,000 men in \n3 years 1 Feb. \n\nFederal expedition into Florida.; defeated at \nOlustee 20 Feb. \n\nFailure of attack of Kilpatrick and Dahlgren on \nRichmond .... 27 Feb. -4 March, \n\nUlysses Grant made commander-in-chief, succeeding \nHalleck - 12 March, \n\nConfederate raids into the Western states March, \n\nSherman\'s expedition against Mobile, 2 March, \ndefeated by Kirby-Smith ... 5 April, \n\nJames E. Stuart, the celebrated confederate cavalry \nofficer, killed 11 May, \n\nCampaign in Virginia ; the army of the Potomac \ncrosses the Rapidan ; advance of Lee (now sup- \nported by Longstreet), 2 May ; severe battle in the \n"Wilderness" (near Chancellorsville), indecisive, \n5, 6 May; battle of Spottsylvania ; the federals \nremain on the field ; much carnage 10-12 May, \n\nSherman (in Georgia) beats the confederates at \nResacca, 14 May, and at Dallas . 28 May, \n\nFugitive slave act repealed by the house of represen- \ntatives \' 13 June, \n\nAfter a succession of attacks on both sides, Grant \ncompels Lee to retire gradually, and by a flank \nmovement marches to the other side of Richmond, \nand faces Petersburg, 15 June ; where, having \ntaken the first intrenehments after desperate \nassaults, he is repulsed with considerable loss \n\n18 June, \n\nThe confederate steamer Alabama (capt. Semmes) \nattacked and sunk by the U. S. corvette Kearsage \n(capt. Winslow) near Cherbourg, France, 19 June, \n\nMr. Chase, secretary to the U.S. treasury, resigns; \nsucceeded by Mr. Fessenden . . July, \n\nPart of Lee\'s army invades Maryland, 1 July ; \ndefeats Wallace near Monocracy river, 9 July ; \nthreatens Baltimore and Washington, and retreats \n\n12, 13 July, \n\nSherman\'s 3 battles at Atlanta (Georgia), 20, 22 July ; \nvictory remains with the federals . 28 July, \n\nConfederates again invade Maryland and Pennsyl- \nvania, and destroy Chambersburg . 30 July, \n\nGrant orders the explosion of a mine at Petersburg, \nwhereby 250 confederates are killed ; but the \nassault following is repulsed with great slaughter \n\n30 July, \n\nThe Tallahassee confederate steamer(built in London) \ndestroys many U.S. merchantmen July, Aug. \n\nSevere conflicts in the Shenandoah valley : the \nfederals victors Aug. \n\nThe confederate flotilla near Mobile destroyed by \nFarragut, 5 Aug. ; Fort Gaines taken 8 Aug. \n\nMcClellan nominated for the. presidency by the \n" Democratic" Chicago convention 1 Sept. \n\nSherman occupies Atlanta ; the confederate general \nHood retires 1 Sept. \n\nSherman orders the depopulation of Atlanta, \n\n7 Sept. \n\nMcClellan declares for maintaining the union ; the \ndemocratic party divided . . 13 Sept. \n\nSheridan (federal) defeats Early at Winchester, in \nthe Shenandoah valley, but with very great loss \n\n19 Sept. \n\nLongstreet replaces Early in the command of the \nconfederates Oct. \n\nLongstreet defeats the federals at Cedar Creek ; \n\n\n\nUNITED STATES \n\n\n\n1019 \n\n\n\nUNITED STATES. \n\n\n\nSheridan arrives, rallies his troops, and defeats \nthe confederates . . . . 19 Oct. \n\nSt. Alban\'s Maid. \xe2\x80\x94 Between 20 :and 30 armed men \nenter St. Alban\'s, Vermont ; rob the bank and \ncarry off horses and stores ; fire on and kill \nseveral persons, and flee to Canada, 19 Oct. ; \nwhere 13 of them are arrested . . 21 Oct. \n\nLincoln re-elected president ; McClellan resigns his \ncommand in U.S. army ... 8 Nov. \n\nSherman destroys Atlanta and begins his march \nthrough Georgia to Savannah . .13 Nov. \n\nHood\'s attack on Thomas (federal), at Franklin, \nrepulsed with severe loss . . -30 Nov. \n\nLincoln\'s message to congress considered "bold" \n\n6 Dec. \n\nThe St. Alban\'s raiders discharged by Judge \nCoursol ; general Dix issues an intemperate order \nfor reprisals (disannulled by the president) \n\n14 Dec. \n\nHood defeated by Thomas (federal) near Nashville \n\n14-16 Dec. \n\nSherman storms fort M\'Allister, 13 Dec. ; enters \nSavannah 21 Dec. \n\nWilmington bombarded ; the attack of general \nButler and admiral Porter repulsed 24, 25 Dec. \n\nThe St. Alban\'s raiders recaptured and committed \nfor trial 27 Dec. et seq. \n\nThe federal congress abolishes slavery in the United \nStates 1 Feb. \n\nFruitless meeting of president Lincoln and secretary \nSeward with the confederate secretary Stephens, \nand 2 commissioners to treat for peace at Fort \nMonroe 2, 3 Feb. \n\nThe Canadian government surrenders Burley, a \nraider, to the federals ; . . 3 Feb. \n\nLee takes the general command of the confederate \narmies ; he recommends enlistment of negroes \n\n18 Feb. \n\nWilmington captured by Schofield ; Charleston \nevacuated by the confederates ; retreat of Beaure- \ngard 22 Feb. \n\nThe confederate congress decree the arming of the \nslaves 22 Feb. \n\nAbraham Lincobi and Andrew Johnson inaugurated \nas president and vice-president . . 4 March, \n\nA new stringent tariff comes into operation, \n\n1 April, \nThree clays\' sanguinary conflict at Five Forks, be- \ngan 31 March; Sheridan turns Lee\'s front, and \ntotally defeats him, 1 April ; Lee retreats, \n\n2 April, \nRichmond and Petersburg evacuated by the con- \nfederates and occupied by Grant . 2, 3 April, \n\nSheridan overtakes and defeats Lee at Sailor\'s \nCreek, 6 April ; Lee surrenders with the army of \nNorthern Virginia to Grant, at Appomatox court- \nhouse 9 April, \n\nMobile evacuated by the confederates 12 April, \n\nThe Union flag replaced at Fort Sumter, Charleston, \n\n14 April, \nPresident Lincoln shot at Ford\'s Theatre, \n\nWashington, about n o\'clock, p.m., 14 April, \nby Wilkes Booth, who escapes ; Mr. Seward, the \nforeign secretary, and his son, wounded in his \nown house by an assassin about the same time ; \nLincoln dies at 7.30 a.m., 15 April; Andrew \nJohnson, vice-president, sxvom in as i-jth president, \n\n15 April, \nThe convention between Sherman and Johnston \n\n(favourable to confederates), 17 April, disavowed \nby the government, 21 April ; Johnston surren- \nders on same terms as Lee . . 26 April, \n\nWilkes Booth shot, and his accomplice Han-old \ncaptured, in a farmhouse . . 26 April, \n\nThe confederate general Dick Taylor (near Mobile) \nsurrenders 4 May, \n\nPresident Jefferson Davis captured at Irwinsville, \nGeorgia; imprisoned .... 10 May, \n\nThe confederate general Kirby Smith, in Texas, \nsurrenders ; end of the war . . 26 May, \n\nPresident Johnson proclaims the opening of the \nsouthern ports, 22 May; and an amnesty with \ncertain exemptions . . . . 29 May \n\nSolemn fast observed for death of president Lincoln, \n\n1 June, \n\nThe armies on both sides rapidly disbanding; fierce \nriots at New York between whites and negroes, \n\nJune, \n\n\n\n1S64 \n\n\n\n1865 \n\n\n\n[Registered loss of the Federals 359,496 ; of which \n\nofficers 9,584.] \n\nGalveston, Texas, the last seaport held by the \n\nsouth, surrendered by Kirby-Smith . 5 June, \n\nThe British and French governments rescind their \n\nrecognition of the confederates as belligerents, \n\n2, 6 June, \nPresident Johnson, uniting with the democrats, \nand acting leniently towards the south ; reorgan- \nisation of the state governments . . June, \nClose of the long trial of the assassination conspira- \ntors, 29 June; execution of Payne, Atzerott, \nHarrold or Herold, and Mrs. Suratt 7 July, \n\nThe president declines recognition of the emperor \n\nof Mexico 18 July, \n\nAll southern prisoners of war to be released on \nparole on taking oath of allegiance . 29 July, \nFederal debt declared 2,757,253,275 dollars, \n\n31 July, \n\nThe confederate privateer Shenandoah (captain \n\nWaddell) captures and destroys many federal \n\nvessels (about 30) Aug. \n\nPacific policy of president Johnson; he declares \nhimself opposed to centralisation and in favour \nof state rights ; and is bitterly opposed by the \n\nradicals Sept. \n\nCorrespondence between earl Russell and Mr. \nAdams (U.S. minister, London) respecting the \nAlabama, confederate privateer; proposal of a \ncommission to whom claims for reparation shall \nbe referred .... 7 April-18 Sept. \nAlex. Stephens and other southern officials par- \ndoned 11 Oct. \n\nGreat meeting of Fenians at Philadelphia ; the Irish \n\nrepublic proclaimed . . . 16-24 Oct. \n\nMuch public discussion respecting equal negro \n\nsuffrage July-Oct. \n\nThe national debt stated to be 6oo,ooo,ooo7. Oct. \nGeneral Robert Lee becomes president of Wash- \nington College, Virginia ... 2 Oct. \nSeveral southern states pass ordinances annulling \nsecession, abolishing slavery, and renouncing \nconfederate debt .... Sept. Oct. Nov. \nNational thanksgiving for the peace . 2 Nov. \nCaptain Waddell arrives at Liverpool, 6 Nov. ; sur- \nrenders the Shenandoah to the British govern- \nment, stating that he had not heard of the end of \nthe war till 2 Aug. ; he and his crew paroled, \n8 Nov. ; the vessel given up to the American \n\nconsul 9 Nov. \n\nCapt. Wirz, after long military trial, executed for \ncruelty to the federal prisoners at Andersonsville, \n\n10 Nov. \nA negro convention at Charleston, appeals for jus- \ntice and generosity . . . -25 Nov. \nEx-president Buchanan publishes his justification, \n\nNov. \nHabeas corpus act restored in N. states 1 Dec. \n\nClose of correspondence between the British and \nU.S. governments respecting depredations of \nAlabama, Shenandoah, &c. The earl of Clarendon \nmaintains that " no armed vessel departed during \nthe war from a British port, to cruise against the \ncommerce of the United States " . . 2 Dec. \nCongress and government protest against the French \nintervention in Mexico, Nov. ; . 6, 16 Dec. \nOpening of 39th congress; president Johnson\'s \nmessage conciliatory and linn (herequires from \nthe southern states \xe2\x80\x94 repeal of their act of seces- \nsion, abolition of slavery, and repudiation of \nconfederate, debt) ... .4 Dee. \n\nThe radical party, opposed to the president, and to \nclemency to the south, predominate in the con- \ngress, and move violent resolutions against resto- \nration of southern states to the union . Dec. \nEstimated federal debt, 600,000,0001. ; revenue, \n80,000,000?. ...... Dec. \n\n85 members for the southern states excluded from \ncongress; the conservative party support the \npresident in his endeavours to reconstruct the \nunion; the radicals violently oppose his policy, \nrequiring the south to undergo previously a \nsevere probation; the president has restored \nstate government to all the southern states ex- \ncept Texas anil Florida ... 2 Dec. \nThi\', radicals demand lor the negroes, personal, \ncivil, and political rights, equal to those of the \n\n\n\nUNITED STATES. \n\n\n\n1020 \n\n\n\nUNITED STATES. \n\n\n\nwhites; the president proposes gradual enfran- \nchisement, in separate states . . Feb. iE \n\nThe president vetoes the Freedmen\'s Bureau bill, \n.21 Feb.; and the bill for the civil rights of the \nblacks 27 March, , \n\n\'The president fiercely opposed by the radicals ; the \nconservatives and democrats unite to support \nhim March, , \n\nHe proclaims the rebellion at an end . 3 April, , \n\nThe Civil Rights bill passed in spite of the veto, \n\n9 April, , \n\nThe veto on the admission of Colorado as a state, \n15 May; set aside . . \' . . . May, , \n\nFenian raids in Canada . . 31 May-7 June, , \n\nThe radical reconstruction clause termed the " con- \nstitutional amendment" (granting negro suffrage \nto be enforced by the different states ; the whites \nand the blacks to be equal in the sight of the \nlaw, &c), passed by the senate . 13 June, ,. \n\nDeath of general Winfield Scott, aged 80, 29 May ; \nand of Lewis Cass, aged 83 . . . 17 June, ,, \n\nContinued dissension between the president and \nthe congress July, ,, \n\nThe representatives of Tennessee re-admitted to \nthe congress (10 states still excluded) . July, ,, \n\nThe Atlantic telegraph completed (see Electric \n"Telegraph) 27 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe congress adjourns .... 28 July, ,. \n\nGreat meeting at Philadelphia of the National \nUnion Convention, consisting of delegates (the \n.moderate men of all the parties, in every state, \nnorth and south, now termed the conservative \nparty), whose object is to establish the national \nunion, restore the south to its rights, and vindi- \ncate the president\'s policy . . 14 Aug. ,, \nTour of the president ; he visits Philadelphia, New \nYork, Chicago, <fcc. ; he is very enthusiastically \nreceived ; and speaks warmly, and often injudi- \nciously .... 28 Aug.-i8 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nElections for congress go in favour of the republi- \ncans Oct. ,, \n\nJThey demand that three-fifths of the blacks in the \n\xe2\x96\xa0south shall be entitled to vote ; that where negro \n\xe2\x80\xa2suffrage is not established, only whites shall \ncount ; and that all persons who have taken any \npart in the rebellion shall be disqualified to \nvote.] \n\nDeath of Martin Van Buren, ex-president Oct. ,. \n\nTrial of Jefferson Davis deferred till spring Oct. ,. \n\nElections in all the states except Delaware and \nMaryland in favour of the radicals (about 2,200,000 \nto 1,800,000) ; two coloured deputies elected in \nMassachusetts Oct.-Nov. ,. \n\nGovernment policy declared to be "dead " Nov. ,\'. \n\nMeeting of congress; president\'s message; he de- \nclares that he adheres to his policy . 3 Dec. ,, \n\nBills to provide territorial governments in southern \nstates ; and restriction of president\'s appointing \npowers proposed 3 Dec. ,. \n\nThe president charged with being " silent and mo- \ntionless ;" congress absorbs all the power Dee. ,. \n\nA bill admitting negroes to the suffrage in district \nof Columbia passed .... 13 Dec. , \n\nVeto of president set aside .... Jan. 18 \n\nSupreme court decides that congress has not power \nto appoint military tribunals . . . Jan. , \n\nImpeachment of president by a judicial committee \nagreed to 7 Jan. ,, \n\nDivision among the radicals ; Stevens successfully \nopposed by Ashley .... 29 Jan. , \n\nDebt of the United States reported 2,543,000,000 \ndollars z Feb. , \n\nNebraska admitted as the 37th state, over presi- \ndent\'s veto 9 Feb. \n\nBill for establishing military government in the \nsouthern states, divided into five districts, dis- \ncussed I3 - IS Feb. , \n\nModified and passed, 20 Feb. ; vetoed by the presi- \ndent 28 Feb. , \n\nMr. Peabody gives 1,000,000 dollars to promote \neducation in the south .... Feb. , \n\n40th congress opened .... 4 March, , \n\nSupplementary reconstruction bill for the south \npassed 20 March, , \n\nTenure of Office act passed . . . March, , \n\nRussian America purchased for 7,000,000 dollars ; \ntreaty ratified by the senate . . .9 April, , \n\n\n\n"Protection" rife: taxation on British manufac- \ntures 80 per cent. ; much smuggling ; public debt \nnot diminishing; many strikes amongst opera- \ntives April, \n\nJefferson Davis released on bail, 13 May; pro- \nceeded to New York, and thence to Canada, \n\n20 May, \n\nSupplementary reconstruction bill adopted over \nthe president\'s veto . . . .15 July, \n\nLong trial of John H. Suratt, for complicity in \nassassination of president Lincoln; jury not \nagreed on verdict (discharged, 6 Nov. 1868), \n\n10 Aug. \n\nInsubordination of gen. Sheridan, favoured by \nEdw. Stanton, secretary of war, who refuses to \nresign at the requisition of the president, 5 Aug.; \nsuspended; succeeded by gen. Grant 12 Aug. \n\nGeneral amnesty proclaimed by the president, \n\n9 Sept. \n\nRemoval of gen. Sheridan from the government of \nLouisiana, and of Sickles from N. Carolina, for \ninsubordination to the president Aug. -Sept. \n\nNational cemetery at Antietam (which see) dedi- \ncated in presence of the president . 17 Sept. \n\nSir Fred. Bruce, British ambassador, died at Boston, \n\n9 Sept. \n\nRussian America ceded . . . .8 Oct. \n\nJefferson Davis\'s trial adjourned . . 26 Nov. \n\nElections in the south give supremacy to the ne- \ngroes; in the north, great majorities for the \ndemocrats Oct.-Nov. \n\nPresident\'s message, maintaining his principles on \nreconstruction 3 Dec. \n\nRevenue of the states fallen off; public debt about \n520,000,000^. ...... Dec. \n\nProposed impeachment of the president negatived \nin congress (108 to 57) . . . .8 Dec. \n\nTreaty for purchase of Danish West Indies (St. \nThomas and St. John), for 7,500,000 dollars, \nsigned Dec. \n\nGreat general storm of snow and sleet; many \nperish ; many wrecks . . .11-15 Dec. \n\nPresident Johnson censured ; and gen. Sheridan \nthanked by house of representatives (see Aug. \n1867) 4 Jan. \n\nGeneral Grant replaced by Stanton (by the senate), \n\n14, 15 Jan. \n\nThe house of representatives declare that there is \nno valid government in the south ; and transfer \nthe jurisdiction from president Johnson to Grant, \nas general of the army . . . 21 Jan. \n\nGreat commercial depression ; Mr. "Wells, the revenue \ncommissioner, recommends " peace, retrench- \nment, and reform" .... Jan. \n\nThe inland cotton tax repealed . about 1 Feb. \n\nEdward Thornton, new British ambassador, and \nCharles Dickens received by the president 7 Feb. \n\nAngry correspondence between the president and \ngen. Grant .... 28 Jan. -14 Feb. \n\nPresident Johnson orders dismissal of Stanton, \nand appoints gen. Thomas secretary of war, 21 \nFeb.: declared illegal by the senate . 22 Feb. \n\nThe impeachment of the president voted by house \nof representatives (126 to 47), 24 Feb.; reported \nat the bar of the senate by Thaddeus Stevens and \nBingham 25 Feb. \n\nNine articles of impeachment (for issuing order for \nremoval of E. M. Stanton from war-office, and \nfollowing proceedings) adopted by representa- \ntives (127 to 47) 2 March, \n\nBill of impeachment of Johnson sent up to the \nsenate by the house of representatives, 4 March, \n\nJudicious speech of lord Stanley in the British \nhouse of commons on the Alabama claims, \n\n6 March, \n\nTrial of president Johnson comes before the senate, \n\n23 March, \n\nImpeachment opened by gen. Butler 30 March, \n\nMr. Dickens sails from New York, after most affec- \ntionate parting 22 April, \n\nNational republican convention at Chicago ; an- \nnounce their "platform"; approving the con- \ngress reconstruction policy; severely condemning \npresident Johnson ; denouncing repudiation of \nthe debt; declaring for protection of naturalised \ncitizens, &c, 20 May; and proposing general \nUlysses Grant as the next president, and Mr. \nColfax as vice-president ... 21 May, \n\n\n\n1867 \n\n\n\nUNITED STATES. \n\n\n\n1021 \n\n\n\nUNITED STATES. \n\n\n\nThe senate reject the nth article of the impeach- \nment 16 May, \n\nReject 2nd and 3rd articles ; and adjourn sine die; \nintense excitement among republicans, 26 May, \n\nMr. Stanton resigns, 27 May ; succeeded by gen. \nSchofield 30 May, \n\nDeath of the ex-president James Buchanan, 1 June, \n\nChinese embassy received by the president, 5 June, \n\nBill for re-admitting North and South Carolina, \nGeorgia, Louisiana, Florida, and Alabama, to \nrepresentation in congress, passed by the senate, \n\n11 June, \n\nMr. Reverdy Johnson nominated ambassador to \nGreat Britain 12 June, \n\nArkansas re-admitted over the president\'s veto, \n\n20 June, \n\nThe democratic convention nominate Horatio Sey- \nmour for president, and Francis P. Blair for vice- \npresident 4 \xe2\x80\x94 7 July, \n\nGeneral amnesty (with exceptions) issued 4 July, \n\nWyoming territory organised ... 22 July, \n\nAct for protection of naturalised citizens abroad \npassed 27 July, \n\nThaddeus Stevens dies .... 12 Aug. \n\nTotal debt declared, 2,641,002,572 dollars . 1 Nov. \n\nGeneral Ulysses Grant, elected 18th president 3 Nor. \n\nGeneral Sheridan\'s victory over insurgent Indians ; \na village burnt 27 Nov. \n\nAny repudiation of debt renounced by the house of \nrepresentatives (154 to 6) . .14 -Dec. \n\nGeneral pardon issued . . . .25 Dec. \n\nCornell university {which see) founded \n\nConvention respecting Alabama claims signed by \nlord Clarendon and Mr. Reverdy Johnson, 14 Jan. \n\nProsecution of Jefferson Davis dropped ; a nolle \nprosequi entered 6 Feb. \n\nIndian war reported over .... Feb. \n\nAlabama treaty rejected by committee of senate, \n\n18 Feb. \n\nSuffrage bill, abolishing all distinctions of race, \ncolour, and property, passed . . 21 Feb. \n\nGeneral Schenk\'s bill, declaring that all national \nobligations shall be paid in coin, passed 3 March, \n\nAdjournment of 40th congress ; meeting of 41st \ncongress ; gen. Grant assumes office . 4 March, \n\nSchenk\'s bill for cash payments passed by senate, \n\n15 March, \n\nConvention respecting Alabama claim rejected by \nthe senate 13 April, \n\nJohn Lothrop Motley appointed minister at London, \n\nApril, \n\nNaturalisation treaty with Great Britain ratified by \nsenate 15 April", \n\nGreat peace jubilee held at Boston ; colossal con- \ncert (10,371 voices, 1094 instruments, with anvils, \nbells, &c.) began . . . . 15 June, \n\n"Wm. Pitt Fessenden, financier, died . 8 Sept. \n\nSteam-boat, Stonewall, burnt on the Mississippi ; \nabout 200 persons perish . . -27 Oct. \n\nFree-trade agitation prevalent . . Oct. \xe2\x80\x94 Dec. \n\nA dm. Charles Stewart, " old iron-side," aged 92, died \n\n6 Nov. \n\nCorrespondence respecting Alabama claims, &c, \nbetween lord Clarendon and Mr. Hamilton Fish \n(June\xe2\x80\x94 Oct. 1869), published . . . Dec. \n\nRenewal of the reciprocity treaty with Canada re- \njected by congress .... 13 Dec. \n\nU. S. corvette Uneida sunk by collision with British \nP. & O. steamer Bombay; 112 lives lost, 24 Jan. \n\n[Capt. Eyre, of the Bombay, severely censured for \nnot waiting to give succour. ] \n\nDarien canal scheme approved by congress, Jan. ; \ntreaty signed 26 Jan. \n\nVirginia (15 Jan.) and Mississippi re-admitted to \ncongress 3 Feb. \n\nPrince Arthur presented to president Grant, 24 \nJan. ; attended Mr. Peabody\'s funeral . 8 Feb. \n\nBill for purchase of St. Thomas\'s isle rejected by \nsenate 23 March, \n\nTexas (15 Mar.) and Georgia re-admitted to congress, \n\n20 April, \n\nBy amendments of the constitution, negroes ad- \nmitted to equal rights with whites . April, \n\nThe tariff bill opposed by freetraders . . May, \n\nNon-recognition of Cuba affirmed . . June, \n\nLincoln state (out of New Mexico) constituted, \n\nJune, \n\n\n\n1870 \n\n\n\nStrong opposition to Chinese immigration ; citizen- \nship refused by the senate . . . 4 July, 1870 \nAdmiral J. A. Dahlgren died . . 12 or 13 July, ,, \nSession of congress closed . . . 15 July, ,, \n\nJ. L. Motley, minister to Great Britain, recalled\', \n\nJuly, ,,. \n\nNew tariff bill passed (new rates take effect, 1 Jan. \n1871) , T \n\nAdmiral David Farragut died, aged 70 . 14 Aug. ,,. \n\nStrict neutrality in the Franco-Prussian war pro- \nclaimed Aug. \n\nSenator Oliver P. Morton accepts the embassy to \nGreat Britain 23 Sept. \n\nGreat loss of life and property through floods in \nVirginia and Maryland, end of . Sept. -2 Oct. ,,. \n\nTotal public debt, the principal and interest, \n2,346,913,652 dollars T Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGreat reduction of the heavy internal taxation \nbegins T Oct. ,, \n\nMovement against the Mormons on account of their \npolygamy x Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMeeting of the southern convention at Cincinnati \nfor political and commercial affairs . 4 Oct. \n\nGeneral Robert Lee dies, aged 62 . . 12 Oct. \n\nPresident Grant issues a proclamation against \' \nFenianism, and attacks on Cuba . . 13 Oct. \n\nMr. Morton declines the embassy to Britain for \nparty reasons .... about 25 Oct. ,\xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe republican majority in the congress greatly \nreduced by the "fall" election (the first in which \nall races are duly represented) . . Nov. \n\nGen. Cox, secretary of interior, dismissed ; quarrel \nbetween him and the president . . Nov. \n\nTotal debt, 2,334,308,494 dollars . . 1 Dec. \'\', \n\nAnnual message of the president : he regrets \nfailure of proposal for annexing St. Domingo; \nand of the non-settlement of the Alabama claims ; \nand complains of Canadian aggression . 5 Dec\' \n\nPopulation: 33,581,680 whites ; 4,879,323 coloured; \nIndians, 25,733; Chinese, 63,196 ; Japanese, 55; \ntotal, 38,549,987 Bee. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMr. Motley terms his recall "an outrage" 7 Dec. \n\nGen. Robert Scheuck appointed minister in Lon- \ndon ; accepts 21 Dec. \n\nNew tariff in operation 1 Jan! 1871 \n\nGeorge Ticknor, historian, dies . . .26 Jan! \n\nStatue of Abraham Lincoln in the capitol at Wash- \nington, unveiled 25 Jan. \n\n42nd congress meets (senate, 47 republicans ; 15 \ndemocrats) March \n\nProclamation against the Ku Klux in N. Carolina\' \' \n. . 5 March, ,\xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCommission to settle disputes with Great Britain \nrespecting the Alabama, &c, fishery question, and \nthe San Juan affair: for the British, the earl de \nGrey (since marquis of Ripon), sir Stafford North- \ncote, and others ; for the Americans, secretary \nFish, gen. Schenck, and others; announced 10 \nFeb. ; meet at Washington, 27 Feb. ; sign treaty, \nagreeing to arbitration at Geneva, &c. (see Ala- \nbama, and San Juan), 8 May ; ratified, 26 May, \n\nGeneral Schenck warmly received at Liverpool, \n\n3 June, \n\nAn American fleet, accompanied by English and \nFrench and German ships, arrives at Corea t.i \nconclude a treaty for protection of mariners ; on \nattempting to explore the island the Europeans \nare assailed from masked batteries; the Corean \nforts are then attacked and destroyed ; and nego- \ntiations renewed > June \n\nFormation of the " new departure " democrat party \' \nadvocating perfect freedom of all males irrespec- \ntive of race and colour, full political restoration \nof the southern states, and free trade ; about July \n\nChicago destroyed by are; great exertions to re\'- \' \nlieve the sufferers ; see Chicago; about 2000 lives \nlost by tires in N. W. forests . . . 8-n Oct \n\nCol. Hodge, paymaster of the regular army, conl \' \nfesses great defalcations since 10 Sept. 1864; con- \ndemned to long imprisonment . . . Nov \n\nEuropeanand North American railway opened at \nBangor, Maine, by lord Lisgar and gen. Grant. \n\nDispute between the U.S. foreign minister, llaniil- \' \nton Fish, and the Russian envoy Katakazy (for \nundue interference); Katakazy dismissed \'Nov. \n\nGrand duke Alexis of Russia warmly received at \' \nNew York. \xe2\x80\xa2 18 Nov. .. \n\n\n\nUNITED STATES. \n\n\n\n1022 \n\n\n\nUNITED STATES. \n\n\n\nCongress opened ; president in his message refers to \n\npeace abroad and prosperity at home . 4 Dec. 1871 \nFormal meeting of the Alabama arbitration commis- \nsion at Geneva (adjourned to 15 June) . 18 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGen. Halleck died Jan. 1872 \n\nGeneral amnesty bill passed . . .16 Jan. ,, \n\nAmerican case under the treaty of Washington ; \nclaims indirect damages by Alabama and other \nvessels ; much excitement in England . Jan. ,, \n\nDespatch from the British minister sent 2 Feb. ; \nreply received (not divulged to parliament), 14 \nMarch ; further correspondence (see Alabama), \n\nMarch, April, ,, \n\n^Formation of Yellowstone National Park (which see) \nauthorised by congress .... March, ,, \n\nHorace Greeley, editor of the New York Tribune, \nnominated president by many republicans, \n\n4 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNew tariff, reduced duties to begin from 1 Aug. ; \npassed 4 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n-General Grant nominated for re-election as president \nby the republicans at Pennsylvania . 6 June, ,, \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Continued negotiations respecting the Alabama \naffair, May ; nothing settled ; congress adjourns \nto December 10 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDispute with Spain respecting unjust imprison- \nment of Dr. Howard, an American citizen, in \nCuba since 13 Dec. 1870 ; settled ; Dr. Howard \nreleased . June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n{Formation of straight-out democrat party, about \n\nJune, ,, \n\nGreat international musical peace jubilee at Boston, \n\n17 June \xe2\x80\x94 4 July, ,, \n\nCoalition between the democrats and the liberal \nrepublicans at Baltimore to support Greeley, \n\n10 July, ,, \n\nTrial of Edward S. Stokes for murder of James \nPisk of the Erie Ring (see New York, 1872), \n\niS Juty. \xc2\xbb \n\n(United States squadron at Southampton, England, \nvisited by the prince of Wales . . 13 Aug. ,, \n\nJudge Barnard convicted of corruption, and removed \nfrom office and disqualified . . .19 Aug. ,, \n\nThe "straight-out democrats" nominate Charles \nO\'Connor for president .... Sept. ,, \n\nAnnouncement of the award of the Geneva arbitra- \ntion on the Alabama, &c. (about 3,229,166?.) Sept. ,, \n\nWm, Henry Seward, statesman, died . 10 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe emperor of Germany, arbitrator in the San \nJuan difficulty, awards the island to the United \nStates . . . 23 Oct. ,, \n\nTotal debt of the States, 2,276,828,101 dollars, 1 Nov. ,, \n\nGen. Grant re-elected president (by 300 electoral \nvotes ; 68 for Greeley) .... 5 Nov. , , \n\nDeath of Horace Greeley, aged 61 . 29 Nov. ,, \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Sergeant William Bates walked from Gretna Green \nto London, carrying the American flag ; warmly \nreceived everywhere (the feat originated in a \nwager) ; arrived 29 Nov. ; rode through London to \nGuildhall. ....... 30 Nov. ,, \n\n<5en. Grant in his message says that the results of \nthe arbitration leave Great Britain and the United \nStates without a shadow upon their friendly rela- \ntions . . , 2 Dec. ,, \n\nModoc Indians," near Oregon, defeat troops sent to \nexpel them 17 Jan. 1873 \n\nVisit of professor Tyndall ; he lectures in Boston, \nPhiladelphia, Washington, New York, <fec. , \n\nSept. 1872\xe2\x80\x94 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nVice-president Colfax accused of perjury Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCivil war in Louisiana, fighting at New Orleans, \n\nFeb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe congress opened, great Credit Mobilier scandal, \nmembers accused of bribery . . March, ,, \n\nDeath of chief justice Chase . . . . 7 May, ,, \n\nGeneral Canby and others massacred (see Modocs), \n11 April; capt. Jack and others captured; end \nof the war 1 June ,, \n\nHiram Powers, sculptor of "the Greek Slave," \ndied at Florence 27 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSteamer Wawasscl takes fire on the Potomac ; about \n70 perish 8 Aug. ,, \n\nCash payments (in silver) resumed . . 28 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGreat excitement through the execution of Ameri- \ncans taken in the Virginius (see Cuba) , Nov. ,, \n\nPublic debt (less money in treasury) 2,141,833,476 \ndollars (about 4s. gold\' per dollar) . 1 Nov. ,, \n\nPresident Grant\'s message : (calm) . , 2 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nGreat deficiency in the revenue (about 17,000,000?.) \n\nannounced Dec. 1873 \n\nAlex. H. Stephens, the great confederate leader, re- \nturns to political life and the legislature Dec. ,, \nWomen\'s whisky-war in S. Ohio : endeavour to sup- \npress the liquor traffic by prayers, singing, &c. , \nopposite the shops, Feb. : in New York 27 Feb. 1874 \nEx-president Fillmore died ... 8 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \nCharles Sumner, senator, died . . n March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nWomen\'s whisky-war resisted ; subsides March, \n\nApril, \xe2\x80\x9e \nPresident Grant\'s veto of the currency bill for creat- \ning inconvertible paper money, advocated by the \n\nButler party 22 April, ,, \n\nTotal debt, 2,285,786,818-89 dollars . 1 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e\xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nFierce white and black riots at Austin, Mississippi, \nquelled by the military (after loss of 15 lives) \n\n12 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nGreat excitement respecting the Beecher-Tilton \nscandal ; the rev. H. Beecher, a great preacher, \naccused of adultery with Mrs. Tilton, July ; ac- \nquitted by a committee of his church . 27 Aug. ,, \nPennsylvania Republican Convention choose go- \nvernor John F. Hartranft for next president \n\nAug. ,, \nInsurrection of negroes at Trenton, Tennessee ; sup- \npressed ; leaders hanged .... Aug. ,, \nCentenary of the meeting of delegates at Philadel- \nphia celebrated Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nInsurrection of whites at New Orleans against R. \nD. Kellogg, the governor of Louisiana, whom \nthey depose, 15 Sept. ; they submit to the presi- \ndent ; and Kellogg is restored . .18 Sept. ,, \nGreat fire at Fall River cotton mills, Mass. , about \n\n60 lives lost 19 Sept. ,, \n\nReported massacre of whites by Indians in N.W. \n\nprovinces Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Republic, new government paper, started 4 Oct. ,, \nLincoln monument, Springfield, Illinois, inaugu- \nrated 15 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTriennial convention of the episcopal church ; canon \n\npassed against ritualism ... 27 Oct. ,, \nMajority for democratic party in elections for con- \ngress reported 4 Nov. ,, \n\nPresident Grant\'s message, moderate\' . 7 Dec. ,, \nThe senate passes a bill for the resumption of cash \n\npayment, 1 Jan., 1879 .... Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nDisturbances in New Orleans : government troops \neject conservative members from the legislative \nassembly as unduly elected ... 4 Jan. 1875 \nNew York, Boston, a.nd other cities protest ; the \n\npresident\'s excuse in his message . . Jan. ,, \nSenate rejects new reciprocity treaty with Canada \n\n4 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nColorado and New Mexico to be made states Feb. ,, \nCivil rights (of negroes) bill passed . . Feb. ,, \n\nThe 44th congress comes into office, 4 March ; (to \n\nmeet on 6 Dec.) ,, \n\nCentenary of battle of Lexington celebrated \n\n19 April, ,, \nCentenary of battle of Bunker\'s hill celebrated \n\nJune, ,, \nTrial of Tilton v. Beecher ends : jury disagreeing, \n\ndischarged . . ... 2 July, ,, \n\nAndrew Johnson, ex-president, dies . 31 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nDemocratic conventions of New York declare in \nfavour of hard money and resumption of cash \n\npayments 16 Sept. ,, \n\nJohn McCloskey, R. C. archbishop of New York, \nmade the first North American cardinal, received \nin his church at Rome .... 30 Sept. ,, \nPresident Grant, in addressing the Tennessee army \nin Iowa, protests against Roman catholic aggres- \nsion 30 Sept. ,, \n\nDemocratic inflationists defeated at elections for \n\ngovernor in Ohio and Iowa . about 12 Oct. ,, \nVirginia city destroyed by fire (see Nevada) 26 Oct. ,, \nState official elections give large majority for repub- \nlicans about 2 Nov. p \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPresident Grant\'s message ; alludes to attacks on \nand defends unsectarian education ; notices un- \nsatisfactory state of Cuba, and hints at ultimate \n\nintervention 7 Dec. ,, \n\nCentennial year begun with great demonstrations \n\nat Philadelphia, &c 1 Jan. 1S76 \n\nGeneral Babcock, secretary to president, acquitted \nof complicity in " Whisky frauds ; " (resigned) \n\n24 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nUNITED STATES. \n\n\n\n1023 \n\n\n\nUNITED STATES. \n\n\n\nMr. Belknap, secretary at war, accused of selling \nofficial places ; resigns ; impeached by congress \n\n2 March, 1876 \n\nGeneral Schenck, minister in London, charged with \ncomplicity in " Emma Mine frauds ; " resigns and \nproceeds to America ; R. H. Dana, appointed in \nhis room (opposed) ; John Walsh appointed next; \nJohn Walsh comes . . . March, et seq. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSalary of next president proposed to be reduced \n\nfrom 50,000 to 25,000 dollars . . March, \xe2\x80\x9e \nIncreased opposition to Chinese immigration, March, ,, \n\nDana\'s appointment as minister to Britain rejected \nby the senate .... about 5 April, ,, \n\nLincoln monument, Washington ; (erected by co- \nloured people) ; unveiled . . .14 April, ,, \n\nOther scandals in government offices reported April, ,, \n\nThe president vetoes the bill for reduction of presi- \ndent\'s salary 19 April, ,, \n\nIssue of silver coin for small notes . . . May, ,, \n\nDispute with Great Britain respecting the extradi- \ntion of Winslow, an American forger March-May, ,, \n\nMr. Pierrepoint, attorney-general, nominated minis- \nter for London 5 May, ,, \n\nInternational exhibition opened (see Philadelphia) \n\n10 May, ,, \n\nPolitical conferences at Philadelphia urge reforms \n\nMay, ,, \n\nGovernor Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, nominated \npresident, and Wm. A. Wheeler vice-pi - esident, by \nthe republican convention, Cincinnati x6 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe arrangements for surrendering fugitive crimi- \nnals in the treaty of 1842 nullified by the release \nof Winslow and Brent (see Extradition) . June, ,, \n\nGeneral Custer and his army attack the Sioux In- \ndians, fall into an ambuscade, and are nearly all \nkilled 25 June, ,, \n\nMr. Tilden nominated president by the democratic \nconvention, St. Louis ... 29 June, ,, \n\nCentenary of the foundation of the republic 4 July, ,, \n\nMassacre of negro militiamen by whites at Ham- \nburg, S. Carolina, 9 July ; 53 whites indicted for \nmurder Aug. ,, \n\nMr. Belknap\'s case in the senate : 35 vote him \nguilty of official corruption ; 25 not ; acquittal \n\n1 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDeath of gen. Braxton Bragg . . . Sept. ,, \n\nThe president\'s proclamation against unlawful com- \nbinations (of whites) in S. Carolina . 17 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nHe declines to receive a centennial address from \nIrish home-rulers Oct. ,, \n\nElection of electors for the president . 7 Nov. ,, \n\nInternational Exhibition at Philadelphia closed \n\n10 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPresident Grant\'s message ; he declares the elec- \ntoral system to have failed ... 5 Dec. ,, \n\nElection for president by delegates ; Mr. Tilden, \n184 ; Mr. Hayes, 185 ; (some votes challenged) \n\n6 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nEnd of dispute with the British Government an- \nnounced (see Extradition) .... Dec. ,, \n\nElectoral tribunal (to settle the election for presi- \ndent) chosen in congress . . .30 Jan. 1877 \n\nPresident in his message urges a speedy return to \ncash payments 3 Feb. ,, \n\nMr. R. B. Hayes\' election confirmed ; Mr. Wm. A. \nWheeler, vice-president, 2 March ; sworn, 4 March ; \ninaugurated ; in his message he professes impar- \ntial devotion to the public good, 5 March ; and \nforms an impartial ministry . . . March, ,, \n\nGen. Grant visits Britain. . . 28 May et seq. ,, \n\n" Molly Maguire," murderous terrorist rioters in \nPeunsylvanian coal-fields ; subdued ; several \nexecuted June, ,, \n\nStrike of railway servants on Baltimore and Ohio \nrailway through reduced pay; violent riots in \nWest Virginia ; reign of terror ; successful resis- \ntance to the military ; many killed and wounded \nat Pittsburg; held by rioters; sheriff killed ; \ncannon used 16-22 July, \n\nStrike extending to New York railways (not in New \nEngland) 24 July, \n\nMob (many foreign communists) beaten by military \nat Chicago (15 killed, about 100 wounded), 26 July, \n\nGen. Sheridan sent to Pittsburg, 22 July ; damage \nabout 8,000,000?. ; tranquillity restored about \n\n4 Aug. \n\nDeath of Brigliam Young ... 29 Aug. \n\n\n\nGeneral movement for the rights of labour during \nthe year. ^77 \n\nPresident Hayes warmly received in the south, Sept. ,, \n\nFormation of a Cuban league on behalf of insur- \ngents, announced Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nOpposition to the president in Ohio, and other \nstates; in elections .... Oct. ,, \n\nThe new congress opened (democratic majority in \nthe house of representatives ; gaining in the \nsenate) ; Sam. J. Randall, democrat, re-elected \nspeaker 15 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMany suspicious failures of commercial companies \nand others Sept., Oct. ,, \n\nReduction of the federal army from 25,000 to 20,000 \nvoted by congress, refused by senate Oct., Nov. ,, \n\nAnti-resumption bill passed by house of represen- \ntatives 23 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPresident Hayes\' message ; recommends resumption \nof cash payments on r Jan. 1879 ; pacification of \nthe south ; good treatment of the negroes, 3 Dec. ,, \n\nThe government defeated in the senate by Conkling \nand party ; opposing civil service reform, cash \npayments, &c 12 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBland\'s " silver bill," making silver the standard \ninstead of gold; (injurious to fundholders, &c.,) \npassed by senate, veto of the president, (specie \npayments in silver to be resumed 1 Jan. 1879 ;) \ndollar 412^ grains said to be 8 percent, less value \nthan gold 16 Feb. 1878 \n\nCommittee appointed to investigate charges of cor- \nruption against boards returning delegates to \nelect the president June, ,, \n\nGen. Butler secedes from the republicans, and \njoins a new "National party" connected with \nKearney, a violent agitator from California ; \n(they are popularly termed "Greenbackers," as \ncontending for soft money, and opposing return to \ncash payments) .... Aug. et seq. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDesire expressed for a new reciprocity treaty with \nCanada Aug. ,, \n\nAmerican association meet at St. Louis . 21 Aug. ,, \n\nMany deaths by yellow fever in southern states \n\nAug., Sept., Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAutumn elections (mostly on 5 Nov.) . . . ,. \n\n46th congress elected ; 149 democrats, 130 repub- \nlicans, 10 greenbackers .... Nov. , \n\nPresident\'s address to congress expresses gratitude \n" for countless blessings " . . .. 2 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGold at par (1st time since 1862) . . iS Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nResumption of cash payments ; no great demand \n\n2 Jan. 1879 \n\nDeath of Caleb Ciishing, U.S. minister at Madrid ; \naged about 79 n Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMeeting of 46th congress . . . 4 March, ,, \n\nGreat emigration of negroes from the southern to \nthe western states . . . March, April, ,, \n\n30,000,000?. 5 per cents converted into 4 per cents \nat par April, ,, \n\nMr. John Walsh, minister in London, resigns, July ; \nleaves England [succeeded by James Russell \nLowell the poet] 19 Aug. \n\n" Knights of Labour," a secret society for protec- \ntion and advancement of workmen, active in the \nmiddle states .... . . \n\nLargest grain crops for many years . autumn, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPublic debt, 2,027,202,452-dollars . . 1 Oct. ,, \n\nElections specially favour republicans . . Oct. ,, \n\nMuch distress of freed negroes in Kansas, &c. 1 Jan 18S0 \n\nThe republican convention at Chicago choose gen. \nGarfield and Mr. Arthur as president and vice- \npresident, 9 June ; the democratic convention at \nCincinnati choose gen. Winfield Scott Hancock \nand Wm. H. English ... 24 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGen. Garfield sets forth his proposed policy in a \nletter ; says, " We legislate for the people of the \nUnited States, not for the whole worli 1 ; " proposes \na check for Chinese immigration, <fcc. . 12 July, ,, \n\n97,000 office holders said to be liable to change Aug. ., \n\nPublic debt reduced to 1,915,594,813 dollars 1 Oct. ,, \n\nGen. Garfield elected president; Mr. Chester A. \n\nArthur vice-president (313-156) . . 2 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTreaty with China 17 Nov. ., \n\nDispute between the president and senator Conk- \nling respecting appointment of collector of cus \ntoms at New York ; Conkling resigns . May, iSSr \nAssassination of president Garfield hy Charles \nJules Guiteau, a lawyer of Chicago, at railway \n\n\n\nUNITED STATES. \n\n\n\n1024 \n\n\n\nUNITED STATES. \n\n\n\nstation, Washington ; two pistol shots ; ball enters \nthe body 2 July, : \n\nDestructive forest iires in Michigan ; about 500 \npersons perish ; 10,000 homeless . . 5 Sept. \n\nGeneral Garfield, after much suffering, died 19 Sept. \n\nQueen Victoria\'s message to Mrs. Garfield : " Words \ncannot express the deep sympathy I feel with \nyou at this terrible moment. May God support \nand comfort you, as He alone can " . 20 Sept. \n\nAfter lying in state at Washington the general is \nburied at Cleveland, in Ohio . . 23 Sept. \n\nCourt mourning in Great Britain . 21\xe2\x80\x9428 Sept. \n\n334,000 dollars collected for Mrs. Garfield up to \n\n30 Sept. \n\nCentenary of the capture of Yorktown celebrated \n(English flag saluted) . . 16 Sept. et seq. \n\nMr. Blaine\'s letter to the European powers asserting \nthe treaty respecting neutrality at Panama in \n1846 to be sufficient, and protesting against then- \ninterference 25 Oct. \n\nThe lion. Sackville West, the new British minister, \nwarmly received at Washington . . 4 Nov. \n\nGuiteau\'s trial begins .... 14 Nov. \n\nMeeting of Congress 5 -Dec. \n\nMr. Frelinghuysen succeeds Mr. Blaine as foreign \nminister 12 Dec. \n\nGuiteau in the prison van shot at by Wm. Jones ; \nhis head grazed, 19 Nov. 1881 ; verdict, guilty \n\n25 Jan. : \n\nChinese immigration suspended for 20 years ; bill \npassed by senate about 10 March; vetoed by \nrepresentatives, March ; by the president about \n\n4 April, \n\nBill abolishing polygamy passed . 23 March, \n\nGreat floods in the west (see Mississippi) March, \n\nUnited States constitution translated into Chinese \nby Tsai Sih Yung, completed . .... \n\nRepresentatives pass immigration bill excluding \nChinese i\'or ten years .... 17 April, \n\nGreat strike of iron-workers (about 150,000) in \nPennsylvania begun 1 June ; going on 13 July, \n\nMeetin CT of masters at Pittsburg to organise resist- \nance 7 J\xe2\x84\xa2e, \n\nGuiteau executed 3\xc2\xb0 June, \n\nThe Chinese exclusion act .comes into operation \n\n4 Aug. \n\nAct imposing a tax of 2s. per head (opposed by \no-overnment) comes into operation . . Aug. \n\nOne of only two copies of a life of general Garfield \npresented to queen Victoria ; the other to Mrs. \nGarfield . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x96\xa0 . \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x96\xa0 \n\nEnd of the iron-workers strike . about 12 Sept. \n\nRobert E. Lee steamer burned on the Mississippi ; \nabout 20 deaths . . \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 29 Sept. \n\nElections greatly in favour of the Democrats \n\n7 Nov. \n\nDeath of Thurlow Weed, politician and journalist, \naged about 85 . . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 22 Nov. \n\nMeeting of Congress ; president s address ; com- \nments on financial prosperity ; recommends re- \nduction of taxation and tariif . . 4 Dec. \n\nCivil service reform bill adopted by the senate \n\n27 Dec. \n\nImmigration, 1881, about 719,000 ; 735,000 in \n\nPresidential succession bill passed . . 9 Jan. \n\nNational debt, net, 1,607,543,676 dollars 1 Jan. \n\nThe marquis of Lome visits Washington . 26 Jan. \n\nReduction in internal revenue and revision of the \n\ntariff by the senate and congress . . 3 March, \n\nLast sitting of the congress ... 4 March, \n\nGreat East River bridge, connecting New York and \nBrooklyn, opened 24 May, \n\nGreat strike of telegraph clerks in various states \nJuly, ends about 15 Aug. \n\nVisit of chief justice Coleridge ; very warmly re- \nceived Sept.\xe2\x80\x94 Oct \n\nGen. Sheridan succeeds gen. Sherman in command \nof the United States army ... 31 Oct. \n\nAutumn elections ; favour republicans . Nov. \n\nThe new congress meets .... 3 Dec. \n\nDeath of Wendell Phillips, energetic abolitionist, \nar , e( i ?2 4 Fe,) - \n\nExcitement concerning the wreck of the Daniel \nSteinmann (see Wrecks) ; investigation 8 April \n\nFinancial embarrassment of gen. Grant through \nendeavouring to support his sou [relieved by \ngovernment, 1885] . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 May, \n\nMr. James G. Blaine and gen. Logan nominated \n\n\n\nrepublican candidates for the presidency and \nvice-presidency at Chicago, 6 June ; great dis- \nsatisfaction thereat June, : \n\nMeetings at New York, and other cities, about \n\n21 June, \n\nColossal statue of Liberty, by Bartholdi, the gift of \nthe French to the United States, delivered at \nParis by M. Jules Ferry, 4 July [received at New \nYork, 19 June, 1885]. \n\nMr. Grover Cleveland, governor of New York, and \nMr. Thomas A. Hendricks, nominated democrat \ncandidates for the presidency and vice-presidency \nat Chicago 11, 12 July, \n\nGen. Butler offers himself as people\'s candidate \n\n19 Aug. \n\nGreat strike of miners in Hocking valley, Ohio, on \naccount of foreigners ; rioting . 1 Sept. et seq. \n\nGovernor Cleveland, president, and Mr. Hendricks, \nvice-president, elected (defeat of the republicans) \n\n4 Nov. \n\nRoman Catholic plenary council at Baltimore \n(about 70 archbishops and bishops) opened 9 Nov. \n\nCattle-men\'s convention at St. Louis (see under \nCattle) 18 \xe2\x80\x94 22 Nov. \n\nAbout 56,000,000 acres appropriated by the Home- \nstead act of 1862, up to 1880 ; announced Jan. : \n\nPublic indignation at the criminal explosions in \nLondon ; stringent dynamite bill introduced in \nthe senate by government . . .26 Jan. \n\nPublic debt, 1,409,128,325 dollars, announced \n\n2 Feb. \n\nThe Chinese expelled from California ; indemnity \nto be claimed by their government ; announced \n\nFeb. \n\nMemorial obelisk of George Washington, 555 feet \nhigh, at Washington, inaugurated . 21 Feb. \n\nPresident Cleveland installed amid great acclama- \ntions 4 March, \n\nA new ministry ; secretary of state, Thomas F. \nBayard 4 March, \n\nMr. Edward J. Phelps appointed U.S. minister in \nLondon, March; arrives at Southampton 16 May, \n\nCurrency crisis ; the banks oppose the Bland Act, \nand the compulsory coinage of silver . July, \n\nDeath of gen. Grant, 23 July ; he lies in state at \nNew York, 5, 6, 7 Aug. ; funeral procession 6 \nmiles long includes the family, president Cleve- \nland, government officials, gen. Hancock, and \nothers of U.S. army ; gen. Jolmson (confederate), \nsoldiers, marines, &c. ; about 400 carriages ; starts \nat 9 a.m. ; arrival at the temporary tomb in \nRiverside Park on the Hudson 5 p.m. 8 Aug. \n\nMurderous attacks on the Chinese workmen at \nRock Springs in Wyoming territory 29 Aug. ; \nquelled by government . . about 3 Sept. \n\nViolent action against Chinese capitalists and work- \nmen in Washington territory ; proclamation for \nits suppression by the president . 9 Nov. \n\nDeath of gen. G. B. McClellan, com. -in-chief Nov. \n1861, aged 59 28 Oct. \n\nDeath of T. A. Hendricks, vice-president U.S., \naged 66 25 Nov. \n\nGen. Sherman elected vice-president . 7 Dec. \n\nWm. H. Vanderbilt, aged 64, "railway king," dies \nsuddenly at New York ; said to be worth about \n50 million pounds 8 Dec. \n\nMeeting of congress .... 8 Dec. \n\nMuch money subscribed for promoting Irish Home \nRule 18 \n\nGreat ovation of Jefferson Davis through the \nSouthern States April, \n\nGerman socialist agitation, eight hours\' movement ; \nriots at Chicago ; dynamite employed ; mob dis- \npersed by police after fighting, 4 May ; riots at \nMilwaukee 5 May; 10 killed, 115 wounded; 25 \narrests, about 6 May ; Herr Most (anarchist) \narrested at New York, 12 May ; convicted of in- \nciting to riot, May ; sentenced to fine and im- \nprisonment 2 June, \n\nGradual cessation of strikes in different states \n\nabout 24 May, \n\nChinese Indemnity Bill passed . . June, \n\nLarge subscriptions to the Parnellite fund for \nelections, &c June, et seq. \n\nThe president promotes civil service reform ; \npolitical action of officials checked . July, \n\nElection tour of Mr. James G. Blaine in Pennsyl- \nvania, &c; strongly advocating Protection 16 Oct. \n\n\n\nUNITED STATES. \n\n\n\n1025 \n\n\n\nUNITED STATES. \n\n\n\nBartholin Statue of Liberty, 150 feet liigh, set up at \nthe harbour of New York, 305 feet above the sea \nlevel, on Bedloe Island, publicly dedicated by the \n\npresident 28 Oct. 1886 \n\nAlien\'s Landlord\'s Bill (almost limiting holding of \nland and mines in "territories" to citizens) \n\npassed 2 Aug. ,, \n\nEx-president Arthur dies . . . .18 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGreat increase of speculation in railway stocks and \ntrade Nov-Dec. ,, \n\nMr. Henry George (see under Land) propagates his \ndoctrines of Land Nationalisation ; much opposed \n\n1886-7 \n\nEdmunds\' Canadian Fisheries Bill passed senate \n(46-1) 24 Jan. 1887 \n\nFisheries Retaliation Bill passed . . 3 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAmerican Exhibition (ichich see) opened in London \n\n9 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSeven socialists sentenced to death for murders \nduring riots at Chicago, May, 20 Aug. 1886 ; \nordered for execution .... 14 Sept. ,, \n\nCentenary of the adoption of the Federal con- \nstitution celebrated at Philadelphia ; five miles \nprocession illustrating the progress of trade and \nindustry ; fall of a great stand, many spectators \ninjured, 15 Sept. ; review of the army by the \npresident, &c 17 Sept. ,, \n\nAfter great efforts for remission of sentence four of \nthe Chicago anarchists executed (two sentenced \nto life imprisonment, one committed suicide) \n\nit Nov. ,, \n\nMr. Barnum\'s menagerie at Bridgport, Connecticut, \nburnt (see Menagerie) .... 10 Nov. ,, \n\nMr. J. Chamberlain warmly received at New York ; \ngrand dinner at the chamber of commerce, 15 Nov. ,, \n\nPresident Cleveland\'s message strongly urges fiscal \nreform, large reduction of protective duties and \nother taxation ; surplus income 1886-7 above \n11,000,000?. (annually increasing) 6 Dec; approved \nby the Democrats, opposed by the Republicans, Dec. , , \n\nNaturalization of British emigrants increasing ; \nstrongly advocated by the British American \nnewspaper to neutralize Irish influence (see \nGeorge, St.) autumn ,, \n\nThe Knights of Labour order strikes of colliers and \nrailway men ; total on strike about 50,000, end \nof Dec. ; end of railway strike repoi-ted 28 Dec. ,, \n\nSnowstorm in the N.W. states ; about 235 persons \nperish and many cattle . . . 11-13 Jan. i88i \n\nReform club at New York to support tariff reform ; \nfirst banquet 21 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTreaty respecting fisheries signed at Washington \n(see Fisheries) 15 Feb. ,, \n\nDestructive blizzard (see Storms) . 11-13 March, ,, \n\nDeadlock in the House of Representatives on the \nDirect Tax Bill ; ended ... 13 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMr. James G. Blaine announces positively his re- \ntirement from his candidature for the presidency \n\n17 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMr. Cleveland nominated by acclamation for re- \nelection as president by the Democratic conven- \ntion at St. Louis, 6 June ; gen. Benjamin Harrison \n(born 20 Aug. 1833) nominated candidate by the \nRepublican convention at Chicago . 25 June, ,, \n\nLock-out of about 100,000 ironworkers near New \nYork 30 June, ,, \n\nPresident Cleveland at New York declares vigor- \nously for reduced import duties and fiscal reform \n\n5 J"iy, ,, \n\nAmerican Tariff Bill passed lower House 21 July, ,, \n\nDeath of gen. Philip Henry Sheridan, commander- \nin-chief of the army, aged 57, 5 Aug. ; succeeded \nby gen. John M. Schofield . . . 14 Aug. ,, \n\nTreaty with China to prohibit Chinese immigvat inn \nfor 20 years 14 March ; bill passed . 20 Aug. ,, \n\nThe senate refuses to ratify the fisheries treaty \n\n21 Aug. ,, \n\nThe president in a message censures this, but \ndeclares for a policy of retaliation against Canada \n\n23 Aug. ,, \n\nRetaliation Bill passed by the House . 8 !S<]>1 . ,, \n\nAgitation against "Trusts and Combines" (which \nsee) autumn, ,, \n\nChinese Exclusion Bill approved by president \nCleveland Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nChinese Exclusion Act vigorously carried out a1 \nBan Francisco and at other places middle Oct. ,, \n\nLord Sackville, British minister at Washington, \n\n\n\ndismissed by president Cleveland for conver- \nsations with a reporter, and for writing a private \n"reply to an alleged " naturalised Englishman in \nCalifornia respecting the presidential election 30 \nOct. ; lord Sackville admitted indiscretion but - \nrepudiated other charges . . .26 Oct. li \nGen. Benjamin Harrison elected president, Mr. \nLevi P. Morton, vice-president ; great defeat of \nthe Democrats (233-168) ... 5 Nov. \n\nResolution introduced into the House proposing \nnegotiations for the annexation of Canada 13 Dec. \n\nTlie American Commonwealth, by professor James \n\nBryce, M.P., an elaborate work published . \nDestructive tornado in the Eastern states (see \nStorms) 9 Jan. 1! \n\nBill introduced in the House for stringent repres- \nsion of immigration, especially labourers and \ncriminals ig Jan. \n\nNew Tariff Bill passed by the senate . 22 Jan. \n\nThe Anglo-American Extradition Treaty rejected \nby the senate (38-15) . . . .1 Feb. \n\nThe senate and house pass the Nicaragua Canal \nBill 7 Feb. \n\nExplosion at Park Central Hotel in Hartford, U.S. ; \nabout 40 persons killed . . . .18 Feb. \n\nGen. Harrison assumes office ; his cabinet formed ; \nMr. Blaine, secretary of state . . 4 March, \n\nDemonstrations and subscriptions in honour of Mr. \nParnell at Philadelphia and other places (see \nIreland) March, \n\nStorm at Samoa ; three American war-vessels with \nloss of 4 officers and 46 men (see, Samoa) 16 March, \n\nOklahoma (irhich see) reserved lands (virgin soil) \nnear Kansas, Arkansas, and Texas proclaimed \nopen to settlers ; thousands of farmers and others \nwith their goods, cattle, &c. , migrate thither ; \nriotous proceedings with bloodshed precede and \nattend the entering .... 22 April, \n\nSir Julian Pauncefote becomes British minister at \nWashington, Feb. ; arrives . . 23 April, \n\nGuthrie and two other towns founded 23 April, \n\nOrder maintained by the military and lynch law \n24 April et seq. \n\nMany unsuccessful settlers return, reported April, \n\nCelebration at New York of the centenary of gen. \n\nWashington\'s inauguration as first president \n\n29 April-i May, \n\nNaval procession ; 300 vessels sail round the har- \nbour 29 April ; military procession (65,000 men) \n30 April , civic and industrial procession 1 May, \n\nA convention met at Columbia, Tennessee, and \norganized an American-Scottish-Irish Association \nto perpetuate race memories and history 8 Slay, \n\nCyclone from Maryland to Connecticut, much \ndamage 10 May, \n\nMr. Robert T. Lincoln, son of Abraham, appointed \nminister to Great Britain, March ; arrives in \nLondon 22 May, \n\nDr. Patrick Henry Cronin, Irish dynamite nation- \nalist (expelled from the Clan-na-Gael, and de- \nnounced as a spy by Alex. Sullivan and the \nleaders, termed the " Triangle," and condemned \nto death by them for accusing them of embezzling \nfunds allotted for dynamiting in England, Feb.) \n4 May ; found murdered at Lake View, Chicago \n22 May ; several men arrested . 29 May et seq. \n\nThe coroner\'s jury declare the murder to be the \nresult of a conspiracy of which Alexander Sulli- \nvan, P. O\'Sullivan, Daniel Coughlin and Frank \nWoodruff (connected with the Clan-na-Gael) \nwere the principals. Alex. Sullivan and others \narrested 12 June ; Alexander Sullivan released \non high bail 15 . 1 mie, \n\nMartin Burke arrested at Winnipeg, Canada, \nindicted about 20 June. The grand jury at \nChicago after 16 days\' investigation, presents an \nindictment against Martin Burke, John F. Beggs, \nDaniel Coughlin, Patrick O\'Sullivan, Frank \nWoodruff, Patrick Cooney, and John Kunz, with \nothers unknown, ofconspiracy and of f he murder \nof Patrick Henry Cronin . . . 29.111111\', \n[The conspiracy is said to have originated in camp \n20 of the Clan-na-Gael. | \n\nAbout 6,000 persons perish by bhe overflow of the \ndam of a lake in Conemaugli valley (see I\', nnsul- \nvania) . . . , . . . 31 May, \n\nDestructive Hoods in the eastern states ; s persons \ndrowned at Harper\'s Ferry, Virginia, and 13 \n\n3 V \n\n\n\nUNITED STATES. \n\n\n\n1026 \n\n\n\nUNITED STATES. \n\n\n\nat Corning, New York ; estimated loss at \nWashington, 1,000,000 dollars ; floods subsiding \n\nend of May, and 1, 2 June, 1889 \n\nMessage of sympathy from queen Victoria to the \npresident 8 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nVisit of American, civil, mechanical, mining and \nelectrical engineers ; well received in London, &c. ; \n\nearly June, ,, \n\nDeath of Simon Cameron, aged go, war secretary \nduring the civil war .... 26 June, ,, \n\nGreat public meeting at Chicago impeaching the \nClan-na-Gael as "an association of assassins," \n\xc2\xbb " existing under the protection of the United \nStates, usurping the highest acts of government, \nin that it decrees death, exacts fealty, and levies \nwar." 2 July, ,, \n\nA meeting of Irish- Americans at Chicago propose the \nformation of an "Irish-American Republican As- \nsociation," to be settled in Lower California 5 July, ,, \n\nInundation in Mohawk Valley, New York ; 14 \npersons drowned at Johnstown . . 9 July, ,, \n\nMartin Burke (otherwise Frank Williams) at \nWinnepeg ordered for extradition 10 July ; given \nup 3 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe British sealer, Black Diamond, seized by the \nU. S. revenue cutter Iiush (captain Shepard), in \nBehring sea (see Behring Straits) . 30 July, ,, \n\nReception at Liverpool of 50 representatives of \nAmerican industries (on a tour of trade observa- \ntion in Europe) 1 Aug. ,, \n\nThe national monument at New Plymouth, Mas- \nsachusetts, commemorating the landing of the \n" Pilgrim Fathers " (ivhich see) dedicated 1 Aug. ,, \n\nThe Sioux and the Chippewa Indians sell a large \npart of their reservations, which are to be opened \nfor settlement Aug. ,, \n\nDavid Terry, formerly a judge, shot dead at La- \nthorp, California, by Marshal Nagle, for striking \njudge Field in revenge ... 14 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n[Nagle was exonerated, 17 Sept.] \n\nDestructive storm on the east coast (see Storms), \n\n11, 13 Sept. ,, \n\nPan-Anglican Congress (which see), meeting of dele- \ngates at Washington .... 30 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMaritime conference (which see) at Washington, \n\n16 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFine evolutionary fleet (4 vessels) sails from New \nYork for the Mediterranean under rear-admiral \nWalker 10 Nov. ,, \n\nPresident Harrison\'s message, moderate and pacific, \n\n3 Dec. ,, \n\nDeath of Mr. Jefferson Davis, aged 81, late presi- \ndent of the Confederate States, 6 Dec. ; solemnly \nburied at New Orleans ... n Dec. ,, \n\nThe new Anglo- American extradition treaty ratified \nby the senate 18 Feb. 1890 \n\nMr. Blaine and sir J. Pauncefote agree to refer the \nBehring sea affair to arbitration, reported, \n\n25 Feb. ,, \n\nInundations in the west through excessive rains, \ndestructive snowstorms on the east coast, \n\nend of Feb. ,, \n\nA national convention of the delegates of the \ncoloured citizens of the U. S., at Washington, \nissues an address 7 Feb. ,, \n\nCronin trials. The case called on 26 Aug. 1889 ; \n1, 11S talesmen were examined before a jury of 12 \ncould be obtained (a plot to corrupt the jury \nhaving been discovered, 4 persons pleaded guilty, \none convicted, Feb. 1890) ... 23 Oct. 1889 \n\nThe trial began at Chicago before judge M\'Connell : \nMr. Longenecker, state attorney, counsel for the \nprosecution, Mr. Forrest for the defence, 24 Oct. ; \nthe jury acquitted John F. Beggs ; found Daniel \nCougldin, Patrick O\'Sullivan, and Martin Burke \nguilty of murder, and sentenced them to im- \nprisonment for life ; John Kunze, as accessory, \nto 3 years\' imprisonment . \xe2\x80\xa2 . 16 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n[Frank Woodruff discharged, April, 1890.] \n\nA new trial granted to John Kunze, the other \nsentences confirmed .... 14 Jan. 1890 \n\n"World\'s Fair " ordered to be in 1893 . March. ,, \n\nBills introduced for greatly raising the minimum \nof the coinage of silver, fixed by the Bland act of \n1878 ; bills dropped through disagreement, re- \nported 19 April, ,, \n\nThe World\'s Fair bill passed ; signed by the presi- \ndent \xe2\x80\xa2 " s . \xe2\x80\xa2 2 . 25 April, ,, \n\n\n\nCongress votes 150,000 dollars for relief of sufferers \nby the Mississippi floods ; sent to the president, \n\n23 April, : \n\nNaval Supply bill passed by the senate ; three \nbattleships to be built . . . .27 May, \n\nThe president proclaims the Behring sea closed to \nunlicensed seal-fishing . . -25 March. \n\nThe president approves of the new silver bill passed \nto enlarge the currency ... 14 July, \n\nJohn C. Fremont, scientist, explorer, statesman, \n&c, dies, aged 77 . . . - . 13 July, \n\nThe British sealing schooners, George R. White and \nAriel, seized in Behring seas reported . 31 July, \n\nSilver purchase circular issued by the secretary of \nthe treasury, offering to sell silver bullion in lots, \nnot under 10,000 ozs., to mints, on and after 13 \nAug 1 Aug. \n\nStrikes of workmen, railway men, &(?:, in New \nYork, Chicago, &c Aug. \n\nLabour day, orderly demonstration in New York, \nChicago, and other cities . . .1 Sept. \n\nMr. McKinley\'s tariff bill, highly protectionist, to \nencourage home manufactures, after long discus- \nsion and opposition from the democrats, passed \nby the congress, 30 Sept. ; approved by the pre- \nsident, 1 Oct. ; comes into operation . 6 Oct. \n[The bill greatly affected Great Britain, Canada. \nFrance, Austria, and other states ; the act in- \ncludes a policy of retaliation and reciprocity.] \n\nThe count of Paris arrives at New York, 3 Oct. ; \nat Philadelphia, 6 Oct. ; at Washinston, 7 Oct. ; \nRichmond, 9 Oct. ; New York, 17 Oct. ; leaves \nfor Canada 21 Oct. \n\nElections for the 52nd congress ; great majority for \nthe democrats" .... 4 Nov. et seq. \n\nFor Indian rising, see Indians . Nov. et seq. \n\nThe president\'s message to congress, defending the \nMcKinley tariff, &c 1 Dec. \n\nConvention at Ocala, Florida, to organize a new \npolitical party to be named the National Union \nparty, to include the Farmers\' Alliance, the \nKnights of Labour and similar bodies, early Dec. \n\nA free- silver coinage bill hastily passed by the \nsenate ....... 15 Jan. \n\nGreat distress in the west attributed to the McKin- \nley act Jan. \n\nDeath of George Bancroft, historian and diplo- \nmatist, aged go 17 Jan. \n\nDestructive snowstorm on the Atlantic coast, \nstarting from Alabama (see Neio Yor k) 24, 25 Jan. \n\nDeath of admiral David Dixon Porter, eminent com- \nmander in the civil war, aged 76 . 13 Feb. \n\nGen. Wm. Tecumseh Sherman, commander-in-chief \n(1869-84) dies, aged nearly 71, 14 Feb. ; funeral \nceremony at New York ; present, president \nHarrison and state officials, chief army officers \nwith about 10,000 troops, 19 Feb. ; burial at St. \nLouis, Missouri . . . . \xe2\x96\xa0 . 21 Feb. \n\nMr. Charles Foster appointed secretary of the \ntreasury 21 Feb. \n\nThe senate\'s free coinage bill defeated by the house, \n22 Feb. ; end of the great speculation in Wall- \nstreet, New York, termed the "silver pool," or \nsyndicate 24 Feb. \n\nGen. Joseph Johnston, confederate, aged 87, dies, \n\n21 March, \n\nPresident Harrison\'s tour to the Pacific coast ; \nvisiting the S. and W. states . April, May, \n\nThe Farmers\' Alliance form a "third party" to \noppose the republicans and democrats, \n\nend of May, \n\nMr. John Bardsley, city treasurer of Philadelphia, \nsentenced to 15 years\' solitary confinement, and \nheavy fine, for defalcations . . 2 July, \n\nThreatened revolt of the Indians (which see), \n\n12 July, \n\nJames Russell Lowell, statesman and popular \nwriter, dies, aged 72 . . . . 12 Aug. \n\nDispute with Chili (which see) . . . Oct. \n\nFight between supporters of the Earmers\' Alliance \nand their opponents, 5 deaths at Bucksport, \nArkansas 28 Oct. \n\nDestructive storm over the city of Washington, \nand a waterspout, much damage done at Balti- \nmore, and along the coast ... 23 Nov. \n\nMeeting of the 52nd congress ; republican majority \nreduced ; president Harrison\'s message . 9 Dec. \n\n\n\nUNITED STATES. \n\n\n\n1027 \n\n\n\nTTNTVEKSITIES. \n\n\n\nA new "reciprocity " party formed, headed by Mr. \n\nBlaine, about 80,000 members . . 9 Jan. \n\nThe arbitration treaty respecting the Behring seas \n\nsigned at Washington, (see Behring Straits) 29 Feb. \n\nDeath of Walter Whitman, national poet, author of \n\n" Leaves of Grass," aged 72 . . 26 March, \n\nDestructive tornado in the N.W. states ; about 30 \n\npersons killed 3 April, \n\nThe difficulty with the Italian government closed \n\n(see New Orleans) .... 14 April, \n\nAbove 450,000,000 of silver dollars in the treasury \n\nvaults, reported .... 25 April, \n\n\'The corner stone of general Grant\'s monument in \n\nBiverside-park, New York, laid by president \n\nHarrision 27 April, \n\n\'The invitation to an international conference on the \nsilver question, accepted by Great Britain and \nother powers .... May, June, \n\'The National Bi-metallic League formed in Wash- \nington May, \n\nResignation of Mr. Blaine as secretary, 4 June ; \nsucceeded by Mr. John W. Foster . 29 June, \nPresident Harrison nominated for re-election by \nthe republican convention at Minneapolis, Mr. \nWhitelaw Reid as vice-president . . 10 June, \nMr. Grover Cleveland (president 1885) nominated \nfor election as president at Chicago, Mr. Adlai \nE. Stevenson as vice-president . 23 June, \nThe Texas, battleship, launched at Norfolk, Vir- \nginia 28 June, \n\nThe "Prohibition" (temperance) Convention at \nCincinnati nominates gen. John Bidwell for \n\npresident 1 July, \n\n\'.Senator W. M. Stewart\'s Free Silver bill passed the \nsenate, 1 July ; rejected by the house . 13 July, \nThe "People\'s Party" convention at Omaha, \nnominates gen. James B. Weavei for president, \nand gen. J. G. Field for vice-president . 5 July, \n(Great heat throughout the greater part of the \nUnited States, about 23 July ; many deaths ; \n99\xc2\xb0-io2\xc2\xb0, 28 July ; the hottest day for 21 years, \n29 July ; traffic impeded by death of horses, 29 \nJuly ; 107 , 223 deaths at New York, 29 July ; 90 \ndeaths, 30 July ; 296 deaths, 31 July ; cooler, \n\n31 July, \n\'The congress adjourns till Dec. 1892 . 6 Aug. \n\'The Marbleheeul, warship, launched at Boston \n\n1 1 Aug. \nsGreat strike on several railways in New York State, \n13 Aug. ; severe conflicts between strikers and \nnon-strikers ; about 150 cars burnt, 14, 15 Aug. ; \nthe Buffalo railway guarded by troops ; traffic \nsuspended ; troops massed ; more strikes, with \nconflicts like civil war, 17 Aug. et seq. ; traffic \nresumed under military protection, 18, 19 Aug. ; \nend of strike reported . . . . 24 Aug. \nRising of miners in Tracy City, Tennessee, against \nthe employment of convicts in state labour, \n13 Aug. ; convicts attacked and expelled and \ntheir stockades demolished ; fighting between \nthe convict guard and the strikers ; the strikers \nvictors at Coal Creek ; much slaughter ; progress \nof troops on the line temporarily stopped ; the \nminers surrender to gen. Carries after severe \nfighting ; order restored at Coal Creek \n\n18, 19 Aug. \nWestern Reserve, steamer, wrecked on Lake Supe- \nrior ; 26 lives lost .... 30 Aug. \nHattie, U.S. fishing schooner, seized by the Cana- \ndian cruiser Curlew, while unlawfully fishing in \nthe Bay of Fundy . . . reported 6 Sept. \nDeath of John Greenleaf Whittier, eminent poet, \nand opponent of slavery, aged 84 . .7 Sept. \nCholera panic on Long Island, New York ; the \nlanding on Fire Island of passengers from foreign \n\n\n\nAberdeen founded \nAbo, Finland \nAdelaide, Australia . \nAndrews, St. , Scotland . \nAngers, chiefly law \nAnjou, 1349; enlarged . \nAthens \n\nBarcelona, revived. \nBasle, Switzerland \n\nBerlin 1810 \n\nBerne 1834 \n\nBesangon, Burgundy . . . 1676 \n\n\n\n1494 \n1640 \n1876 \n1411 \n1364 \n\n\n\n1460 \n\n\n\nBologna, Italy \n\nBonn \n\nBordeaux \n\n\n\nBourges 146. \n\nBreslau \n\nBruges, French Flanders . . \n\nBrussels \n\nCaen, Normandy, 1436; revived . \nCambridge, 12II1 century. \nCambridge, New England, pro- \njected . \nChristiania 181 1 \n\n\n\nvessels violently resisted by au armed mob, \ncausing much distress ; the landing only effected \nby governor Flower and the military, 11-13 Sept. 1892 \n\nPRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. \n\n1789 & 1793. General George Washington, elected first \n\npresident. 6 April. \n1797. John Adams. 4 March. \n1801 & 1805. Thomas Jefferson. 4 March. \n1809 & 1813. James Madison. 4 March. \n1817 & 1821. James Monroe. 4 March. \n1825. John Quincy Adams. 4 March. \n1829 & 1833. General Andrew Jackson. 4 March. \n1837. Martin Van Buren. 4 March. \n1841. General William Henry Harrison. 4 March. Died \n\n4 April, succeeded by \n1841. John Tyler (formerly vice-president). \n1845. James Knox Polk. 4 March. \n\n1849. General Zachary Taylor. 4 March. Died 9 July, \n\n1850, succeeded by the vice-president, \n\n1850. Millard Fillmore. \n\n1853. General Franklin Pierce. 4 March. \n1857. James Buchanan. 4 March. \n\n1861 &, 1865. Abraham Lincoln. 4 March. Shot 14 April; \ndied 15 April, 1865; succeeded by vice-president, \n1865. Andrew Johnson. 15 April. \n1869 & 1873. Ulysses S. Grant. 4 March. \n1877. Rutherford Birchard Hayes. 4 March. \n1881. Gen. James Abram Garfield. 4 March. \n\n,, Gen. Chester A. Arthur. 19 Sept. \n1885. Grover Cleveland. 4 March. \n\n1889. Gen. Benjamin Harrison. 4 March (grandson of \nthe president of 1841). \n\nUNIVEESALISTS, who believe in the final \nsalvation of all men. This doctrine, declared in the \nTalmud, and ascribed to Origen, about 230, was \nadvocated by other early fathers, but opposed by \nSt. Augustin, about 420 ; and condemned by the 5th \ngeneral council at Constantinople, May, June, 553. \nIt was received by the Unitarians in the 17th cen- \ntury, and avowed by numerous clergymen of the \nchurch of England. James Kelly, who published \nhis " Union" in 1760, founded the sect of Univer- \nsalists in Britain ; and John Murray, in America, \nabout 1770. The sect barely exists in Britain, but \nflourishes in America. \n\nUNIVEESAL EEVIEW, edited by Mr. \nHarry Quilter, devoted to fine art, literature, &c, \nfirst published 15 May, 1888. Publication ceased \nDec. 1890. \n\nUNIVEESAL SUFFEAGE (Plebiscitum), \none of the six points of the charter (see Chartists), \nwas adopted by the French in their constitution of \n1 791 ; and used in the election of their president in \n\n1851. and of their emperor in 1852 ; and by the \nItalian States in voting for annexation to Sardinia \nin i860, 1861, 1866, and 1870. \n\nUNIVEESAL TIME, see under Bay. \n\nUNIVEESITIES. The most ancient in \nEurope are said to be those of Bologna, Oxford, \nCambridge, Paris, and Salamanca. In old Aberdeen \nwas a monastery, in which youths were;instructcd in \ntheology, the canon law, and the school philosophy, \nat least\' 200 years before the university and King\'s \nCollege were founded ; see Degrees. The following \ndates arc generally given, many traditional : \n\n. 1116 Cologne, in Germany, refounded 1385 \n\n1784, 1818 Compostella, Spain . . . 1517 \n\nCoimbra, Portugal . . . . 1279 \n\nCopenhagen .... 1476 \n\n1702 Cordova, Spain . . . . 968 \n\n1665 Corfu 1823 \n\n1834 Cracow, Poland, 700; revived . 1364 \n\n1S03 Dijon, France 1722 \n\nDillingen, Swabia . . . 1565 \n\nI )oli.\', Burgundy . . . . I42 2 \n\n1630 Dorpat 1633 \n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 I47 2 \n\n\n\nDouay, French Flanders \n\n3 U 2 \n\n\n\nUNIVEESITIES. \n\n\n\n1028 \n\n\n\nURANIUM. \n\n\n\nLondon University (which see) . \n\nLouvaine, Flanders, 926; en- \nlarged \n\nLyons, France . . 830, \n\nMadrid . \xe2\x80\xa2_ . \n\nMantua \n\nMarlmrg . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nMechlin, Flanders . . . \n\nMelbourne, Victoria . \n\nMentz \n\nMilan \n\nMontpellier . _ . \n\nMoscow, 1754; again . . . \n\nMunich \n\nMunster \n\nNancy \n\nNantes \n\nNaples \n\nOrange \n\nOrleans, France . \n\nOxford (see Oxford) . . . \n\nPaderbor.i . . . . \n\nPadua, Italy . . . . \n\nPalenza, 1209; removed to Sala- \nmanca \n\nPalermo \n\nParis, 792 ; renovated . \n\nParma . . . . . . . \n\nPau \n\nPavia, 1360; enlarged . . . \n\nPerpignan \n\nPerugia, Italy . . . . \n\nPetersburg, St., 1747; again \n\nPisa, 1343; enlarged . \n\nPoitiers \n\nPrague \n\n\n\nDresden, Saxony . . . 1694 \nDublin (see Trinity College) . .1591 \nDublin College (catholic) . . 1851 \n\nDurham 1831 \n\nEdinburgh, founded by James VI. 1581 \nErfurt, Thuringia; enlarged . 1390 \n\nErlangen 1743 \n\nEvora, Portugal . . . . 1533 \nFlorence, Italy, enlarged. . . 1439 \nFrankfort-on-the-Oder . . . 1506 \n\nFraneker 1585 \n\nFribourg, Germany . . . 1460 \n\nGeneva 1368 \n\nGhent 1816 \n\nGlasgow 1450 \n\nGottingen 1735 \n\nGranada, Spain .- \xe2\x96\xa0. . . 1537 \n\nGripswald 1547 \n\nGroningen, Friesland . . . 1614 \nHalle, Saxony . . . . 1694 \n\nHarvard, U.S 1C38 \n\nHeidelberg 1386 \n\nHelmstadt 1575 \n\nIngolstadt, Bavaria . . . 1593 \n\nIrish new 1879 \n\nJena, or Sala, Thuringia . . 1547 \nKiel, Holstein .... 1665 \nKing\'s College, London (wliich \n\nsee) . . . . . . 1829 \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 Konigsberg, Prussia . . . 1544 \nLeipsic, Saxony . . . . 1409 \n\nLeyden, Holland . . . 157s \nLiege .... . . 1816 \n\nLima, in Peru .... 1614 \n\nLisbon, 1290; removed to Coim- \n\nbra 1391 \n\nUNIVEESITIES OF OXFOED AND \nCAMBBIDGE. .Royal commission appointed to \ninquire into their income and property, in 1872 ; \nreported in Oct. 1874, that the united income for \n1871, was 754,405/. 5*. ihd.; see Cambridge and \nOxford. The Universities Act passed, 10 Aug. \n1877, appoints commissioners with power to make \nstatutes and other provisions. \n\nUNIVEESITY BOAT-EACE. The contest \nbetween the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, \nat first near Oxford, afterwards on the river Thames, \nbegan 10 June, 1829, and has been annual since \n1856. In 1864, after 20 contests, the opposing \nparties were equal; but on 8 April, 1865, 24 March, \n1866, 13 April, 1867, 4 April, 1868, and 17 March, \n1869, Oxford won; the last time being the 9th in. \nsuccession. Cambridge won, 6 April, 1870, 1 April, \n1871, 23 March, 1872, 29 March, 1873, and 28 March, \n1874. Oxford won, March 20, 1875; Cambridge \nwon, 8 April, 1876. Dead heat ; neither won, 24 \nMarch, 1877 ; Oxford won, 13 April, 1878 ; Cam- \nbridge won, 5 April, 1879 ; Oxford won on Monday, \n22 March, 1880; Friday, 8 April, 1881 ; Saturday, 1 \nApril, 1882; and Thursday, 15 March, 1883; Cam- \nbridge, Monday, 7 April, 1884 ; Oxford, Saturday, \n28 March, 1885 ; Cambridge, Saturday, 3 April, \n1886; 26 March, 1887 ; 24 March, 1888; 30 March, \n1889. (E. T. Campbell killed at Cambridge, 24 \nFeb. 1888) ; Oxford, 26 March, 1890, 21 March, \n1891, 9 March, 1892. In the international boat-race \nbetween the universities of Oxford and Harvard, \nMassachusetts, U.S., Oxford won, 27 Aug. 1869. \nThe Oxford crew rowed from Dover to Calais in 4J \n\nhours 25 July, 1885 \n\nUNIVEESITY COLLEGE (London), see \nLondon University, and Oxford. \n\nUNIVEESITY EDUCATION (Ireland) \nAct, 42 & 43 Vict. c. 85, passed 15 Aug. 1879. It \nprovides for the dissolution of the " Queen\'s Univer- \nsity,\'" and the foundation of the " Royal University \nof Ireland" the charter of which was signed by the \nqueen, 19 April, 1880. \n\n\n\n1S26 \n\n1426 \n1300 \n1836 \n1625 \n1527 \n1440 \n1855 \n1477 \n1565 \n\n\n\n1826 \n1492 \n\n\n\n1224 \n1365 \n1305 \n879 \ni59 2 \n1228 \n\n1249 \n1447 \n1200 \n1482 \n1722 \n1599 \n1349 \n1307 \n1819 \n1552 \n1431 \n\n\n\nQueen\'s University (Ireland) . . 1850. \nRheims, 1 145; enlarged . . 1548 \n\nRome 1245; \n\nRostock, Mecklenburg . . 1419 \n\nSalamanca 1239* \n\nSalerno J233 \n\nSalzburg 1623-, \n\nSaragossa, Aragon . . . 1474 \n\nSeville i5\xc2\xb04! \n\nSienna 1380 \n\nSiguenza, Spain . ... 1517 \nSorbonne, France . . . 1253 \n\nStrasbourg 1538:\' \n\nStutirardt 1775 \n\nSydney, N. S. W. . . . 1852 \n\nToledo, Spain 1499\' \n\nToulouse 1229 \n\nTreves, Germany . . . . 1473 \nTubingen, Wiirtemberg . , 1477" \n\nTurin 1405 \n\nUpsal, Sweden .... 147& \nUtrecht, Holland . . . . 1634 \nValence, Dauphine . . . 1454- \n\nValeucia 1209 \n\nValladolid .... 1346 \n\nVenice 1592\' \n\nVictoria, N. England . . . 1880 \n\nVienna 1363 \n\nWales 1883.- \n\nWittenburg 1502 \n\nWurtzburg H ? \n\nWilna 1803 \n\nZurich 1832. \n\n\n\nUNIVEESITY ELECTIONS, see Dodson\'s. \n\nAct. \n\nUNIVEESITY TEACHING, Society for \nits Extension formed in London about 1875, and \nsupported by Cambridge, Oxford, and London uni- \nversities ; great meeting for its support at the \nMansion-house, 19 Feb. 1879. Courses of lectures, \ngiven in various parts of London, Oct. 1879. \n\nProposed establishment of a settlement in east \nLondon, by university men of Oxford and Cam- \nbridge, to improve social intellectual condition \nMay, 1884 ; at Toynbee Hall, Whitechapel, volun- \nteer lectures on science, art, &c. given ; also \ninstruction in music, athletic sports &c. ; and a \nsocial club formed. \n\nOxford House, at Betlmal Green ; a kind of club for \nsocial intellectual improvement, and for the ex- \ntension of university teaching, opened by the \narchbishop of Canterbury . . . 18 Feb. 188S" \n\nThe new buildings, founded 30 Nov. 1891, were \nopened by the duke of Connaught . 23 June, 1892: \n\nUNIVEESITY TESTS (Keligious). A bill \nfor their abolition was rejected by the lords, 19 July, \n1869, and 14 July, 1870; passed, and received royal \nassent, 16 June, 187 1. A similar act for Trinity \nCollege, Dublin, was passed in May, 1873. In> \nApril, 1878, on trial it was affirmed, that an endow- \nment with a religious test at Hertford college, \nOxford, was valid. \n\nUNKNOWN TONGUES, see I> \nnote. \n\nUNLEAENED PAELIAMENT, see Par- \nliament, 1404. \n\nUNSEAWOETHY SHIPS COMMIS- \nSION, see Seamen and Merchant Shipping Act. \n\nUPSAL (Sweden). The Swedish rulers were \nkings of Upsal till 1001. The university was \nfounded in 1476, by Sten Sture, the "protector," \nand opened 21 Sept. 1477. Celebration of founda- \ntion of university, Sept. 1877. \n\nUEANIUM, a brittle grey metal discovered by \nKlaproth in 1 789, in the mineral pitch-blende. It \n\n\n\nUKANUS. \n\n\n\n1029 \n\n\n\nUTICA. \n\n\n\n"has lately been employed in the manufacture of \nglass for certain philosophical purposes. \nThe discovery of a new lode in the Union mine, \nGrainpound Road, Cornwall, Sept. 1889, and \nimprovements in treating the ore, have greatly \n\xe2\x80\xa2cheapened the metal .... Feb. 1890 \n\nURANUS, a planet with eight satellites, was dis- \ncovered by William Herschel, 13 March, 1781, first \ncalled Georgium Sidus, after George III.; next \nHerschel; and, finally, Uranus. It is about twice \n.as distant from the sun as the planet Saturn. The \nanniversary of its first revolution (in 84 years \n7 days) since its discovery, was celebrated on \n20 March, 1865. Its perturbations led to the dis- \ncovery of Neptune, in 1846. Uranus has 8 satel- \nlites ; 6 discovered by Herschel, 2 in 1787, 2 in \n1790, 2 in 1794; and \'1 by Lassell, and 1 by Struve, \nin 1847. \n\nURBANISTS, see Clementines, and Glare. \n\nURBINO1 the ancient Urbinum Hortense, \ncentral Italy, capital of a duchy created for \nMalatesta, 1474. It was treacherously seized by \nCsesar Borgia, 1502 ; captured by Julius II., 1503 ; \n.and given to Borgia, 1504; given to Lorenzo de\' \nMedici by Leo X. 1516; after many vicissitudes re- \ncovered by the duke Francesco, 1522; on the duke\'s \nresignation annexed to the papal states, 1631 ; an- \nnexed to Italy, i860. \n\nURGENCY, see Parliament, 1881. \n\nUMCONIUM, see Wroxeter. \n\nURIM AND THUMMIM, Light and \nPERFECTION {Exodus xxviii. 30), words con- \nnected with the breastplate worn by the high priest \nwhen he enteredinto the holy place, with the view \n\xe2\x80\xa2of obtaining an answer from God (1490 B.C.). \n\nURSULINE NUNS (so called from St- \nUrsula), founded originally by St. Angela- of \nBrescia), about 1537. Several communities existed \n\'In England; and some still exist in Ireland. \n\nURUGUAY, Banda Oriental, a republic \n\nin South America, formerly part of the vice-royalty \n\xe2\x80\xa2of Buenos Ayres ; declared its independence, 25 Aug. \n1825; recognised 4 Oct. 1828; constitution pro- \nclaimed 18 July. 1S30. Capital, Montevideo. \nPopulation in 1886 (estimated) 632,250. \nThe president of the executive, G. A. Pereyra, \n\nelected in 1856 ; succeeded by B. P. Berro . . i860 \nCivil war broke out in consequence of the invasion \nof the ex-president, general Venancio Flores, \n\n26 June, 1863 \n\'The vice-president Aguirre became president, \n\n1 March, 1864 \nHe refused to modify his ministry according to the \ndesire of general Flores, who marched towards \n\nthe capital June, ,, \n\nFlores became provisional president. . Feb. 1865 \n\nF. A. Vidal elected president . . 1 March, 1866 \nDuring an Insurrection of the Blanco party (headed \nby Berro), at Montevideo, general Flores was \n\xe2\x80\xa2assassinated; the troops remained faithful; in- \nsurrection soon suppressed, and Berro shot, \n\n19 Feb. 1SG8 \nGen. Lorenzo Battle elected president . 1 March, ,, \nBlanco insurrection repressed, July, 1871; ended, \n\nJan. 1872 \nRevolution at Montevideo ; Ellazio\'s government \noverthrown; Pedro Varela provisional president, \n\nabout 15 Jan. 1875 \n\nCol. L. Latorre president . . .11 March, 1876 \nBr. F. A. Vidal, president, died, 17 March 1880 ; \n\ngen. Maximo Santas, president . 1 March, 1882 \nInsurrection by general Arredondo, 29 March ; \n\nreported defeat of government troops, 30 March, 1886 \nFlight of general Arredondo to Brazil, March-April, \xe2\x80\x9e \nInsurgents completely defeated . . 2 April, ,, \n\n\n\nResignation of general Santas, 18 Nov. ; general \nMaximo Tajes as president . . . 18 Nov. 1886 \n\nDr. Herrera Y Obes . . . . 1 March, 1890 \n\nState financial difficulties ; run on the banks for \ngold ; paper currency authorised, not accepted, \n\n8-19 July, ,, \n\nConversion of the state debt and reduction of \ninterest proposed by the government, accepted \nby the creditors in London . . .31 Aug. 1891 \n\nAttempted revolution at Montevideo by the Blanco \nparty suppressed with bloodshed ; martial law \nset up 11 Oct. ,, \n\nUSEFUL KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY, \n\nsee Diffusion. \n\nUSES, Statute of, 27 Hen. VLTI. c. 10 \n\n(1535-6) ; see Charitable Uses. \n\nUSHANT, an island near Brest, N."W. France, \n\nnear which two naval battles were fought between \n\nthe British and French fleets. \n\n(1.) On 27 July, 1778, after an indecisive action of three \nhours, the French, under cover of the night, withdrew \ninto the harbour of Brest. Admiral Keppel com- \nmanded the English fleet ; the count d\'Orvilliers the \nFrench. The failure of a complete victory was attri- \nbuted to admiral sir Hugh Palliser\'s non-compliance \nwith the admiral\'s signals. Palliser preferred articles \nof accusation against his commander, who was tried \nand acquitted, and the charge against him declared to \nbe " malicious and ill-founded." \n\n(2.) Lord Howe with 25 ships signally defeated the \nFrench fleet (26 ships, under Villaret-Joyeuse), taking \nsix ships of the line, and sinking one (the Vengeur*), \n1 June, 1794. While the two fleets were engaged in \nthis action, a large fleet of merchantmen, on the \nsafety of which the French nation depended for its \nmeans of prosecuting the war, got safely into Brest \nharbour, which gave occasion to the enemy to claim \nthe laurels of the day, notwithstanding their loss in \nships, and in killed and wounded, which was very \ngreat. The day was long termed in England the \n"glorious first of June." \n\nUSURY from a stranger was permitted to the \nJews, but forbidden from their brethren, 1491 B.C. \n{Exod. xxii. 25., Eeut. xxiii. 13.) This law was \nenforced by Nehemiah, 445 B.C. (Neh. v.) Usury \nwas prohibited by the English parliament, 1341. \nUntil the 15th century, no Christians were allowed \nto receive interest of money, and Jews were the \nonly usurers, and therefore often banished and per- \nsecuted; see Jeivs. By the 37th of Henry VIII. \nthe rate of interest was fixed at 10 per cent., 1545. \nThis statute was repealed by Edward VI., but re- \nenacted 13 Eliz. 1570. For later legislation, see \nInterest. \n\nUTAH, a western territory of North America, \nwas organised 9 Sept. 1850; the capital. Salt Lake \nCit} T , became the chief seat of the Mormonites \n{which see). Population in 1880, 143,963; 1890, \n207,905; Salt Lake city, 1890,44,843. \n\nUTICA (N. Africa), an ancient Tyrian colony, \nan ally of Carthage, named in the treat}- with the \nRomans 348 B.C. Here Cato the younger, after the \ndefeat of the partisans of Pompey at Thapsus, com- \nmitted suicide, 46 B.C. Utica nourished greatly \nafter the fall of Carthage, and was made a Roman \ncity by Augustus mi account of its favouring Julius \nCsesar. It suffered by the invasion of the Vandals, \n439 ; and of the Saracens, about 700. \n\nVarious French histories, on the authority of the \nFrench demagogue Barrere, state that the English had \n36 ships of the" line, and the French only 26, and that \nthe crew ni\' the Vengew sang the Marseillaist while the \nship sank, displaying the tricolor Bag. All this was \ndenied in 1802, ami disproved by rear-admiral Griffith in \nNov. iS;3. The Vengmr surrendered to the British, \n\nwho excited themselves to Save the dew. The French \n\nstatement was accepted by Alison, andat first byCarlyle, \nbut afterwards contradicted by both. \n\n\n\nUTILITAEIANISM. \n\n\n\n1030 \n\n\n\nUXBELDGE. \n\n\n\nUTILITAEIANISM, termed the "greatest \nhappiness principle," the philosophy -which pro- \nposes the attainment of the greatest happiness of \nthe greatest number ; a doctrine ascribed to Priestley \nby Bentham. The doctrine is found in the writ- \nings of Locke, Hartley, Hume, and Paley; but \nwas chiefly propounded by Jeremy Bentham in his \n"Introduction to the Principles of Morals and \nLegislation," 1780-89, by John Stuart Mill, who \ndied 9 May, 1873, an< l by sir Edwin Chadwick, \nwho died 5 July, 1890. Mill founded a small \n"utilitarian society," in 1822. He took the name \nfrom an expression in Gait\'s "Annals of the Parish." \n\nUTOPIA, the name given by sir Thomas More \nto an imaginary isle, representing the "best state \nof a public weale," described in a book written in \nLatin, published 1548. The work is considered to \nbe an ironical satire on the state of Europe at the \ntime, Utopia signifying " Nowhere." An English \ntranslation was published in 1551. For the loss of \nthe Utopia, emigrant steamer, see Wrecks, 17 \nMarch, 1891. \n\nUTEAQUISTS, see Calixtins. \n\nUTEECHT (the Roman Trajectum adShenum) \nbecame the seat of an independent bishopric about I \n\n\n\n691;. The last prelate, Henry of Bavaria;, weary off \nhis turbulent subjects, sold his temporal govern- \nment to the emperor Charles V. in 1528. The- \nunion of the Seven United Provinces began here \n(see United Provinces) ; signed 23 Jan. 1579 ; 300th \nanniversary celebrated 23 Jan. 1879. The treaty of \nUtrecht, which terminated the wars of queen Anne, \nwas signed by the ministers of Great Britain and \nFrance, and all the other allies, except the ministers. \nof the empire, 11 April, 1713. This treaty secured \nthe Protestant succession in England, the separation \nof the French and Spanish crowns, the destruction off \nthe works of Dunkirk, the enlargement of the \nBritish colonies and plantations in America, and a \nfull satisfaction for the claims of the allies. Utrecht \nsurrendered to the Prussians, 9 May, 1787; was \nacquired by the French, 18 Jan. 1795, and restored- \nat the peace, 1814. Population, 1887, 81,398 ; 1890, \n86,n6. \n\nUXBEIDGE (W. Middlesex). On 30 Jan.. \n1645, commissioners met here to discuss terms off \npeace between Charles I. and the parliament ; they \nseparated without effect, 22 Feb. The latter re- \nquired absolute control of the army and navy, the- \nabolition of the episcopacy, liturgy, &c, Ux bridge \nmurder, see Trials, Dec. 1884. \n\n\n\nV. \n\n\n\nVACATIONS. \n\n\n\nVALENTINE\'S DAY. \n\n\n\nVACATIONS, see Terms. \nVACCINATION (from Variola Vaccina, the \ncow-pox), discovered by Dr. Edward Jenner. He \n"was born in 1/49, aiw educated for the medical \nprofession, partially under John Hunter. Having \nheard that milkmaids who had had the cow-pox \nnever took the small-pox, he, about 1780, conceived \nthe idea of vaccination. He made the first experi- \nment by transferring to a healthy child on 14 May, \n1 796, the pus from the pustule of a milkmaid who \nhad caught the cow-pox from the cows. He an- \nnounced his success in a memoir published 1798, \nand vaccination, begun 21 Jan. 1799, soon became \ngeneral, after much opposition. For this Dr. Jenner \nreceived io,OOOl. from parliament, 2 June, 1802, and \n20,000^. in 1807. The first national institution for \nvaccination, the Royal Jennerian Institution, was \nfounded 19 Jan. 1803. The emperor Napoleon \nvalued Dr. Jenner so highly, that he liberated Dr. \nWickham, when a prisoner of war, at Jenner\'s re- \nquest, and subsequently whole families of English, \nmaking it a point to refuse him nothing that he \nasked. Vaccination, although much opposed, was \npractised throughout all Europe previously to 1816. \nDr. Jenner died suddenly, 26 Jan. 1823. \nRoyal Jennerian and London Vaccine Institution, \n\nfounded 1802 \n\nThe Vaccination act, 3 <fe 4 Vict, passed . 23 July, 1840 \nMr. John Badcoek, of Brighton, began to inoculate \ncows with small-pox to produce new lymph for \n\nvaccination about ,, \n\nAn important blue-book, entitled " Papers on the \nHistory and Practice of Vaccination," edited by \nMr. John Simon, was published by the board of \n\nhealth in 1857 \n\nA statue, subscribed for by all nations, was erected \n\nto Jenner\'s memory in Trafalgar-square 30 April, 1858 \nIt was removed to Kensington in .... 1862 \nVaccination was made compulsory in England in \n\n1853, and in Ireland and Scotland . . . . 1863 \nA statue was erected by the French at Boulogne, \n\nand inaugurated 11 Sept. 1865 \n\nThese laws were consolidated and amended by \n30 & 31 Vict. c. 84, 12 Aug. 1867 (see Small-pox \nand Inoculation), and amended in. . . . 1871 \nMuch opposition to vaccination ; an anti-vaccina- \ntion society formed, 1870-71 ; a parliamentary \ncommission appointed . . . 13 Feb. ,, \n\nA government bill respecting punishment for com- \npulsory vaccination dropped . . . Aug. 1880 \nVaccination direct from the cow or calf advocated \n\nand practised in Brussels, &c. . . 1879 et seq. \nSuccessful vaccination of 68,900 sheep by M. Pas- \nteur of Paris .... up to 1 Oct. 1881 \nThe Grocer\'s company of London offer prize of \n1000Z. for a plan for propagating vaccine conta- \ngium apart from the animal body . 30 May, 1883 \nGreat anti-vaccination demonstration at Leicester \n\n(many persons had been fined) . . 23 March, 1885 \nLoudon society for abolition of compulsory vaccina- \ntion, held 7th annual meeting . . n May, 1887 \nEstimated : 750,000 infants vaccinated annually ; \n\n50 die of disease in consequence ; stated Oct. ,, \nRoyal commission of inquiry appointed 29 May, 1889 \nInterim report issued May, 1892 \n\nVACUUM, is produced by reducing the pres- \nsure of the atmosphere, whereby its power of ab- \nsorbing moisture is greatly increased, this power \nhas been utilised by M. Emil Passburg, of Breslau, \nin his drying apparatus which has been success- \nfully employed for drying grains by Messrs. \nGuinness, of Dublin since the spring of 1888. \n\n\n\nVADIMONIS LACUS, theVadimonian lake, \nUmbria, central Italy, near which the Etruscans \nwere totally defeated in two severe engagements by \nthe Roman consuls : r, by Fabius Maximus, 309 B.C. ; \n2, by Cornelius Dolabella, 283. \n\nVAGRANTS. By law, after being whipped, a \nvagrant was to take an oath to return to the place \nwhere he was born, or had last dwelt for three \nyears, 1530. A vagrant a second time convicted \nwas to lose the upper part of the gristle of his right \near, 1535 ; a third time convicted, death. A vaga- \nbond to be branded with a V, and be a slave for \ntwo years, 1547. If he absconded and was caught, \nhe was to be branded with S, and be a slave \nfor life. Vagrants were punished by whipping, \ngaoling, boring the ears, and death for a second \noffence, 1572. The milder statutes were those of \n17 Geo. II.; 32, 35, and 59 Geo. III. The present \nVagrant Act (5 Geo. IV. c. 83) was passed in 1824. \nThere were about 33,000 tramps in England and \nWales in 1865. For vagrants in London, see under \nFoor. \n\nVALDENSES, see Waldenses. \n\nVALENCAY, a chateau near Chateauroux, \ncentral France, where Napoleon I. imprisoned \nFerdinand of Spain from 1808 to 1813. His king- \ndom was restored to Ferdinand by a treaty signed \n8 Dec. 1813. \n\nVALENCIA (E. Spain), the Valentia Edeta- \nnorum of the Romans, became the capital of a \nMoorish kingdom, 1000 ; annexed to Aragon 1238. \nIts university, founded, it is said, in the 13th \ncentury, was revived in the 15th. Valencia was \ntaken by the earl of Peterborough in 1705, but \nsubmitted to the Bourbons after the unfortunate \nbattle of Almanza, in 1 707. It resisted the attempts \nmade on it by marshal Moncey, but was talc en from \nthe Spaniards with a garrison of more than 16,000 \nmen, and immense stores, by the French under \nSuchet, 9 Jan. 1812. Population of the city, 1887, \n170,763. \n\nVALENCIENNES (N. France). This city \n(the Roman Valentiame), after many changes, was \ntaken by Louis XIV. in 1677, and annexed 1678. \nIt was besieged from 23 May to 28 July, 1793, when \nthe French garrison surrendered to the allies under \nthe duke of York. It was retaken, together with \nConde, by the French, 27-30 Aug. 1794 ; on capitu- \nlation, the garrison and 1 100 emigrants were made \nprisoners, with immense stores. \n\nVALENTIA, a Roman province, including the \ncountry between the walls of Severus and Adrian, \nwas reconquered from the Picts and Scots by Theo- \ndosius, and named after Valentinian I. the reigning \nemperor, 368. \n\nVALENTINE\'S DAY (14 Feb.). Valentine \nis said to have been a bishop, who suffered martyr- \ndom under Claudius II. at Rome ; others say under \nAurelian, in 271. 618,000 letters passed through \nthe post-office on 14^ Feb. 1856. ^30,300 was the \nestimated number ot valentines delivered in 1864; \nin 1870, 1, S45i7S5- T" c origin of the ancient \ncustom of "choosing a valentine" has been much \ncontroverted ; see Post. \n\n\n\nVALENTINIANS. \n\n\n\n1032 \n\n\n\nVARANGIANS. \n\n\n\nVALENTINIANS, followers of Valentine, a \npriest, who, on being disappointed of a bishopric, \nforsook the Christian faith, declaring there were \nthirty gods and goddesses, fifteen of each sex, which \nhe called Clones, or Ages. He taught in the 2nd \ncentury, and published a gospel and psalms : his \nfollowers added other errors, \n\nVALLADOLID (Spain), the Roman Pintia \nand the Moorish Belad Walid : was recovered for \nthe Christians by Ordono II., the first king of Leon, \n914-23. It became capital of Castile in the 15th \ncentury. It was taken by the French Jan. 1808 ; \nand captured by the English, 4 June, 1813. Here \ndied Christopher Columbus, 20 May, 1506.\' Popula- \ntion, 1887, 62,012. \n\n.VALLOMBROSA (Central Italy). A Bene- \ndictine abbey was founded here by John Gualbert, \nabout 1038. The monks were termed Vallam- \nbrosians. \n\nVALMY (N.E. France). Here the French, \ncommanded by Kellennann, defeated the Prussians, \ncommanded by the duke of Brunswick, 20 Sept. \n1792. The victory was of immense moral advan- \ntage to the republicans ; and Kellermann was made \nduke of Valmy in 1808. \n\nVALOIS, a county (N. France) given by \nPhilip III. to his younger son Charles, whose son \nPhilip became king as Philip IV. hi 1328; see \nFrance. \n\nVALOR ECCLESIASTICUS, a report of \nthe annual value of church property, made by order \nin 1534. wa s published by the Record Commission \nin 1810-34 \n\nVALPARAISO, principal port of Chili, South \nAmerica, was bombarded by the Spanish admiral \nMendez Nunez, on 31 March, 1866, when much \nproperty was destroyed. It suffered by earthquakes \nm 1822, 1829, and 1851. Population, 1885, 104,9152 \nSee Chili, 1891. \n\nVALTELLINE (N. Italy), a district, near the \nRhaetian Alps, seized by the Grison league, 1512, \nand ceded to it, 1530. At the instigation of Spain, \nthe catholics rose and massacred the protestants, \n19-21 July, 1620. After much contention between \nthe French and Austrians, the neutrality of the \nValtelline was assured in 1639. It was annexed to \nthe Cisalpine republic in 1797; to Italy, 1807; to \nAustria, 1814; to Italy, i860. \n\nVALUATION OF PROPERTY ACT, \nto provide for the uniform assessment of rateable \nproperty in the metropolis, was passed 9 Aug. 1869. \n\nVALVASOR (or "Vavasor"). Camden \nholds that the " Vavasor" was next below a baron. \nDu Cange maintains that there were two sorts of \nvavasors : the greater, who held of the king, such \nas barons and counts ; and the lesser, called " val- \nvasini," who held of the former, such as vassals \nholding land under a nobleman himself a vassal \nValvasors are mentioned in the Domesday book, 10S6. \n.VANADIUM (from Vanadis, the Scandina- \nvian Venus), metal discovered by Sefstrom, in 18^0 \ncombined with iron ore. A similar metal, dis- \ncovered m lead ore by Del Rio in 1801, and named \nMrythronium, was proved by "Wohler to be Vana- \ndium. Vanadium was discovered in the copper- \nbearing beds in Cheshire, in 1865, by Mr. (aft. Sir) \nH. E. Roscoe, by whom its peculiarities were further \nstudied, and published in 1867-8. It is useful in \nphotography and dyeing. \n\nVANCOUVER\'S ISLAND, North Pacific \nocean, near the mam land. Settlements were made \nhere by the English in 1781, which were seized by \n\n\n\nthe Spaniards in 1789, but restored. By a treaty \nbetween the British government and that of the \nUnited States in 1846, this island was secured to \nthe former It has become of much greater im- \nportance since the discovery of gold in the neigh- \nbouring main land in 1858, and the consequent \nestablishment of the colony of British Columbia \n(which see) . Victoria^ the capital, wasfoundedin 1857. \nThe island was united with British Columbia by \nact passed in Aug. 1866; and on 24 May, 1868, \nVictoria was declared the capital. Lord Dufferin, \ngovernor-general of Canada, was warmly received \nhere, 15 Aug. 1876. See Juan, San. Chinese \nimmigrants are virtually excluded by a poll-tax, \n1878. \nVancouver nearly destroyed by fire, about 15 June ; \n\nagain 6 July, 1886 \n\nWellington colliery explosion ; 76 lives lost, Jan. 1888 \n\nVANCOUVER\'S VOYAGE. Captain Van- \ncouver served as a midshipman under captain Cook, \nand was appointed to command during a voyage \nof discovery, to ascertain the existence of any \nnavigable communication between the North Pacific \nand North Atlantic oceans. He sailed 7 Jan. 1791, \nand returned 24 Sept. 1795. He compiled an ac- \ncount of this voyage of survey of the north-west \ncoast of America, and died in 1798. \n\nVANDALS, a Germanic race, attacked the \nRoman empire in the 3rd century, and began to \nravage Germany and Gaul, 406-14 ; then kingdom \nin Spain was founded in 411 ; under Genseric they \ninvaded and conquered the Roman territories in \nAfrica, 429, and took Carthage, Oct. 439. They \nwere subdued by Belisarius in 534. They were \ndriven out by the Saracen Moors. The dukes of \nMecklenburg style themselves princes of the \nVandals. \n\nVANDAL KINGS IN AFRICA. \n\n429. Genseric (see Meckleti- 496. Thrasimund. \n\nburg). 523. Hilderic. \n\n477. Hunneric, his son. 531. Gelimer. \n484. Gundamund. \n\n. VAN DIEMEN\'S LAND (called Tasmania \nsince 1853), was discovered by Abel Jansen Tasman, \n24 Nov. 1642, and named after the governor of the \nDutch East Indies. \n\nPopulation, 1857, 81,492 ; 1865, 95,201 (only four \nremained of the aborigines) ; 1870, 99,328 ; 1880, \n114,762; 1891, 146,667. Revenue, 1887-8, \n594,976!. ; expenditure, 668, 759!. ; imports, 1887, \n1,449,371?. ; exports, 1,596,817?. 1890: Revenue, \n753)3\xc2\xb05 Z - ; expenditure, 718,604?. Imports, \n1,897,512?. ; exports, 1,486,992?. \nVisited by Purneaux, 1773; Cook . . . . 1777 \nProved to be an island by Flinders, who explored \n\nBass\'s Straits 1799 \n\nTaken possession of by lieut. Bower . . . . 1803 \nArrival of col. Collins, the first governor, with con- \nvicts ; Hobart Town founded .... 1804 \nBishopric of Tasmania established . . . . 1842 \n\nTransportation abolished 1853 \n\nCol. Tlios. Gore Brown, governor . . . . 1862 \nVisited by the duke of Edinburgh . . 7-18 Jan. 1868 \nCharles Ducane, governor .... Aug. 1868 \nFred. Aloysius Weld, governor .... 1874 \n\nGen. sir John Henry Lefroy, governor . 21 Aug 1880 \nSir George C. Stratum, governor . . Dec. 1881 \nDiscovery of gold at Mount Lyell . . July, 1886 \nSir Robert G. Hamilton, governor . . Nov. ,, \nSilver-field discovered in the Zeehan country about \n1885 or 1886; about 200 mining companies es- \ntablished ; the town Zeehan established ; about \n6,000 people settled in the district . . 1889-91 \nThe Tasmanian exhibition, Lanneeston ; the fine \narts section opened by sir Robert Hamilton, 25 \nNov. 1891 ; exhibition closed . . 22 March, 1892 \n\nVANGUARD, see Wrecks, 1875. \n\nVARANGIANS, or VARAGIANS, a \n\nname given to northern pirates, who invaded \n\n\n\nVAEENNES. \n\n\n\n1033 \n\n\n\nYEII. \n\n\n\nFlanders, about 813 ; France, about 840; Italy, \n852. Their leader, Euric, invited by the Novgo- \nrodians to help them, founded the Eussian mon- \narchy, 862. \n\nVABENNES, a town in N.E. France, is cele- \nbrated for the arrest of Louis XVI., his queen, \nsister, and two children. They fled from the \nTuileries on 21 June, 1791 ; were taken here the \nnest day, and conducted back to Paris, mainly \nthrough Drouet, the postmaster, who, at an inter- \nmediate town, recognised the king. \n\nVARNA, a fortified seaport in Bulgaria, for- \nmerly European Turkey. A great battle was fought \nnear this place, 10 Nov. 1444, between the Turks \nunder Amurath II. and the Hungarians under their \nking Ladislaus and John Hunniades. The latter \nwere defeated with great slaughter : the king was \nkilled, and Hunniades made prisoner, who had \nopposed the Christians breaking the truce for ten \nyears, recently made at Szegedin. The emperor \nNicholas of Russia arrived before Varna, the head- \nquarters of his army, then besieging the place, \n5 Aug. 1828. The Turkish garrison made a vigorous \nattack on the besiegers, 7 Aug.; and another^ on \nthe 2 1st, but were repulsed. Varna surrendered, \nafter a sanguinary conflict, to the Russian anus, \nII Oct. 1828. It was restored at the peace in 1829; \nits fortifications were dismantled, but have since \nbeen restored. The allied armies disembarked at \nVarna, 29 May, 1854, and sailed for the Crimea, \n3 Sept. They suffered severely from cholera. In \nconformity with the treaty of Berlin, Varna was \nevacuated by the Turks, and occupied by Bussians, \nautumn, 1878. Population, 1888, 25,256. \n\nVASSALAGE, see Feudal Laivs, and Slavery. \n\nVASSAE COLLEGE (on the east bank of \nthe Hudson, United States), for the higher education \nof women, was founded by Matthew Vassar in 1861. \n\nVASSY (N.E. France). The massacre of the \nprotestants at tins place by the duke of Guise on \nI March, 1562, led to desolating civil wars. \n\nVATICAN (Rome), the ancient Mons Vati- \ncanus, a hill of Rome. The commencement of the \npalace is ascribed to Constantine, Liberius, and \nSymmaehus, and also to pope Eugenius III., \n1 146. It became the residence of the pope at \nhis return from Avignon, 1377- The palace is \nsaid to contain 7000 rooms, rich in works of art, \nancient and modern. The library, founded by pope \nNicholas V., 1448, is exceedingly rich in printed \nbooks and MSS. \xe2\x80\x94 Tistolesi\'s description of the \nVatican, with numerous plates, was published \n1829-38. \xe2\x80\x94 The phrase "Thunders of the Vatican" \n\xe2\x96\xa0was first used by Voltaire, 1748. \xe2\x80\x94 The ancient \nVatican Codex of the Old and New Testament in \nGreek was published at Rome in 1857. For \n" Vatican Decrees," see Councils. See Observatories. \n\nVAUD, a Swiss canton, after having been suc- \ncessfully held by the Franks, the kings of Burgundy, \nemperors of Germany, dukes of Zahringen, and \ndukes of Savoy, was conquered by the Bernese, Jan. \n1536, and annexed, 1554. Vaud, made independent \nin 1798, joined the confederation in I S 1 5 . A new \nconstitution was obtained in 1830, after agitation. \n\nVATTDOIS, see Waldenses. \n\nVAUXHALL BEIDGE, constructed of iron \nunder the direction of Mr. Walker, at an expense of \n150,000/. (to be defrayed by a toll). The first stone \n\xe2\x80\xa2was laid May, l8ll, by prince Cliarles, eldest son \nof the duke of Brunswick ; and the bridge was \nopened on 4 June, 1816 ; freed from toll, 24 May, \ni\xc2\xa779- \n\n\n\nVAUXHALL GAEDENS (London), were \nso denominated from the manor of Vauxhall, Falkes- \nhall, Fox-hall, or Faukeshall, said to have been the \nproperty of Fulke de Breaute about 1282. The \npremises were the property of Jane Vaux in 161 5, \nand the mansion-house was then called Stockden\'s. \nFrom her it passed through various hands, till it \nbecame the property of Mr. Tyers in 1732. _ The \nNew Spring Gardens at Vauxhall are mentioned \nby John Evelyn in his diary 2 July, 1661, Tepys \n29 May, 1662/Wycherley 1672, and in the Spectator \n171 1, as a place of great resort. The gardens were \nopened for a "ridotto al fresco" 7 June, 1732, by \nJonathan Tyers. The greatest season was in 1823, \nwhen 133,279 persons visited the gardens, and the \nreceipts were 29,590/. The number on the then \nsupposed last night, 5 Sept. 1839, was 1089 persons. \nVauxhall was sold by auction, 9 Sept. 1841, for \n20,200/., and again 26 Aug. 1859. The last per- \nformances at Vauxhall took place on 25 July, 1859. \nThe ground has been sold for building purposes. \nSix persons killed and many injured by fall of stack \nof wood at Buckley\'s saw-mills, 25 Feb. 1880. \nVauxhall park (formerly the lawn, &c, including \nthe residence of Mr. H. Fawcett, M.P., pur- \nchased for 45,000?.) opened by the prince of \n"Wales 7 Jul j\', 1890 \n\nVAVASOE, see Yahasor. \n\nVEDAS, the sacred books of the Hindoos, in \nSanskrit, were probably written about IOOO B.C. \nVeda means knowledge. These books comprise \nhymns, prayers, and liturgical formula?. The edition \nby professor Max Miiller, printed under the patron- \nage of the East India Company, appeared in 1849- \n74. Four volumes of a translation by H. H. \nWilson appeared in 1850-67. \nVol. V. & VI., edited "by professor Cowell & W. F. \n\nWebster, completing the work, appeared in 1889. \nIn 1887 the Maharajah of Vizianagram proposed to bear \n\nthe expense of a new edition of the text, edited by \n\nprofessor Max Miiller. Two vols, of this edition, \n\nprinted at Oxford, appeared in 1890. \n\nVEGETABLES for the table were brought \nfrom Flanders about 1520 ; see Gardening. \n\nVEGETAEIAN SOCIETY, founded 1847, \nwhose members restrict themselves to a vegetable \ndiet, held their fifteenth anniversary in London, 4 \nSept. 1862. \nMeetings held at Manchester, 14 Oct. 1874, and other \n\nplaces since. \n" Fraternia," a settlement of vegetarians, existed in \n\nCalifornia in 1880. International Congress in London, \n\n11 Sept. 1890. \n\nVEHMIC TEIBUNALS : Vekmgerichte, \nFehmgerichte, or Femgerichte, secret tribunals estab- \nlished in Westphalia to\' maintain religion and the \npublic peace, had their origin in the time of Charle- \nmagne, and rose to importance in 1182, when \nWestphalia became subject to the archbishop of \nCologne. Persons of the most exalted rank were \nsubjected to their decisions, being frequently seized, \ntried, and executed. The emperors endeavoured to \nsuppress them, but did not succeed till the 16th \ncentury. Their last court, it is said, was held in \n1568. Sir W. Scott has described them in "Anne \nu[ (ieiersteiu." A remnant of these tribunals was \nabolished by Jerome Bonaparte, king of Westphalia, \nin 1811. \n\nVEIL an independent Etruscan city near Rome. \nThere were frequent wars between Veii and Rome, \nfur above three centuries; see Fabii. Veii was \ntaken by the dictator Camillus, it is .-aid, alter a \nsiege of ten years, 396 B.C. When Rome was des- \ntroyed by the Gauls in 390, the Romans, who had \n\n\n\nVELLOEE. \n\n\n\n1034 \n\n\n\nVENEZUELA. \n\n\n\nfled to Veii, desired to remain there, and make it \ntheir capital, but were dissuaded from it by the \nentreaties of Camillus, and Veii was abandoned. It \nwas restored by the Emperor Augustus, but had \nfallen into decay, at the time of Hadrian. \n\nVELLOEE (S.E. India) became the residence \nof the family of the dethroned sultan of Mysore, and \nwas strongly garrisoned by English troops, 1799. \nThe revolt of the sepoys, in which the family of the \nlate Tippoo took an active part, took place 10 July, \n1806. The insurgents were subdued by colonel Gil- \nlespie, and mostly put to the sword; about 800 \nsepoys were killed. \n\nVELOCIPEDES. A machine of this kind was \ninvented by Blanchard the aeronaut, and described \nin the Journal de Paris, 27 July, 1779; and one \nwas invented by Nicephore Niepce in 1818. The \n" dandy -horse " or " Draisena, a machine called a \nvelocipede," was patented for the Baron von Drais, \nin Paris and London in 1818, and described in \n"Ackermann\'s Bepository," Feb. 1819. These \nmachines came again into use in 1861 ; and since \n1867 have been very common under various forms, \ntermed bicycles and tricycles ; the chief inventor of \nwhich, James Starley, an ingenious mechanic of \nAlbourne, Sussex, was buried at Coventry, June, \n1881. The popular " Otto " bicycle, first patented \nin 1881, much improved since. Velocipede races \ntook place at the Crystal Palace, 26 May, 1869, and \nfrequently since. Mr. John Mayall and two friends \ntravelled to Brighton on velocipedes, 17 Feb. 1869. \n\nMr. Stanton went from London to Bath, 106 miles, \non a bicycle, in 8 h. 28 min. . . 17 Aug. 1874 \n\nSimilar feats since performed. Ordinary speed \nwith bicycles 8 (now 10) miles an hour ; with tri- \ncycles 10 miles may be attained. \xe2\x80\x94 Field. Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nA gentleman said to have travelled 1000 miles in \nIreland and Wales ; expenses 25L . \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBicycle clubs formed in London, &c 1875 \n\nAbove 1500 velocipedes at a meeting at Hampton \nCourt 26 May, 1877 \n\nMiddlesex magistrates decide that a bicycle is a \ncarriage, and fine a rider for damage . 31 July, 1878 \n\nJohn Rankin went from Kilmarnock to London \nand back to Glasgow, with stoppages (112 miles \none day) .... 23 July-10 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Bicycle Union, the National Cyclists\' Union, \n\n!~ and the Cyclists\' Touring club founded . . ,, \n\nSix days\' contest, Agricultural Hall, London, Mr. \nGeorge Waller won prize-belt (100L) and 105Z., \nrode 1172 miles, 28 April \xe2\x80\x94 3 May. Mr. Waller \nagain won, rode 1404 miles (6 days of 18 hours), \n\n1 \xe2\x80\x94 6 Sept. 1879 \n\nIvan Zmertych, Hungarian, travelled on his veloci- \npede from Ostend to Pesth (about 1200 miles), \n\n10 \xe2\x80\x94 30 June, 1880 \n\nMr. Alfred Nixon, hon. sec. London tricycle club, \non \' Premier \' tricycle from John o\' Groat\'s to \nLand\'s End in 13 days, 23 hours, 55 minutes, \n16-30 Aug. 1882 ; Mr. E. Oxborrow did the \nreverse in a week, 1-8 June, 1885 ; Mr. H. R. \nGoodwin, on a bicycle, did the double journey, \n\n1-16 Juue, 1885 \n\nF. J. Lees, of Sheffield, covers 20 miles within an \nhour with a bicycle . . . .18 Aug. 1883 \n\nSwitzerland crossed by bicycles and tricycles \n\nAug. \xe2\x80\x94 Sept. ,, \n\n17th annual exhibition of bicycles, &c, at the \nFloral Hall, Covent Garden . . .4 Feb. 1884 \n\nMr. Alfred Nixon went from London to Edinburgh \non a tricycle in three days . .28 \xe2\x80\x94 31 Aug. ,, \n\nCrypto-dynamic gearing invented by Mr. W. T. \nShaw 1885 \n\nAnnual congress of cyclists held at Colchester, \n\n2 June, 1886 \n\nThe cycling championship of Europe gained by \nMr. E. Hall of Gainsborough at Berlin, \n\n16 Aug. ,, \n\nMr. Thomas Stevens, on a bicycle, travelled 11,700 \nmiles through America, across Europe to Asia, \n\nApril, 1884, -Jan. 1887 \n\n\n\nMessrs. Wilkins\' bicycle for travelling rough roads \nand up hills exhibited at Hanwell, Middlesex, \n\n8 Sept. 1887 \n\nThe Rev. Hugh Callan, of St. Andrews, Glasgow, \ntravelled to Jerusalem, through Euroxse and Asia \nMinor, and back on a bicycle . . autumn, 188S \n\nThe use of bicycles, &c. , regulated by local govern- \nment act of 1888, part I., sect. 84. \n\nThe 13th annual show of the Stanley Cycle Club \n(at the Crystal Palace), 1,500 cycles exhibited, \n\nabout 25 Jan. 1890 \n\n1,036 cyclists observed on the Brighton Road, \n\nGood Friday, April, 1892 \n\nUnder the heading, " tyranny of the road," a great \nmany letters complaining of the danger caused \nby the excessive speed of cyclists, appeared in \nthe Times April \xe2\x80\x94 July, ,, \n\nSpeed and length of rides much increased . 1889-92 \n\nVELVET. The manufacture, long confined to \nGenoa, Lucca, and other places in Italy, was carried \nto France, and thence to England, about 1685. \nVelvet is mentioned by Joinville in 1272 ; and our \nking Bichard II., in his will, directed Ms body to be \nclothed "in velveto," 1399. Jerome Lanyer in \nLondon patented his " velvet paper " in 1634. \n\nVENAISSIN COMTAT, or Comtat (S. \nFrance) , after various changes, was ceded to pope \nGregory X. 1274; and retained by his successors \ntill 1 791, when, with Avignon, it was re-united to \nFrance. \n\nVENDEE, see La Vendee. \n\nVENDEMIAIEE, 12, 13, 14 (3, 4, 5 Oct.), \n1795, Barras and Napoleon Bonaparte suppress a \nroyalist revolt against the convention. \n\nVENDOME COLUMN (132 feet 2 inches \nhigh),, erected in the Place Vendome, Paris, by \nNapoleon I. in 1806, to commemorate his successful \ncampaign in Germany in 1805. On its side were \nbas-reliefs by Launay. It was pulled down by the \ncommunists "in the name of international frater- \nnity," 16 May, 1871 ; restored by the national \nassembly, 31 Aug. 1874 ; statue of Napoleon I. on \nthe top, replaced 28 Dec. 1875. \n\nVENETI, maritime Gauls inhabiting Armorica, \n\nN.W. France. They rose against the Bomans 57 \nB.C., and were quelled by Julius Caesar, who defeated \ntheir fleet, 56, and cruelly exterminated an active \ncommercial race. \n\nVENETIA, see Venice. \n\nVENEZUELA, the seat of a South American \nrepublic. "When the Spaniards landed here in 1499, \nthey observed some huts built upon piles, in an \nIndian village named Cora, in order to raise them \nabove the stagnated water that covered the plain ; \nand this induced them to give it the name of Vene- \nzuela, or Little Venice. This state in July, 1814, \ndeclared in congressional assembly the sovereignty \nof its people, which was recognised in 18 18. It \nformed part of the republic of Columbia till it \nseparated from the federal union, Nov. 1829. The \npopulation in 1881, 2,075,245 ; in 1891, 2,323,527 ; \ncapital, Caracas. \n\nIts independence was recognized by Spain . . 1845 \nGeneral D. T. Monagas was elected president . . 1855 \nA new constitution promulgated . . . Dec. 1858 \nRevolution ; Jose Castro became president, March, \n\n1858 ; compelled to resign in Aug. 1859 ; and \n\nDr. Pedro Gual assumed the government . Aug. 1859 \nGeneral Jose Paez elected president . . 8 Sept. 180s \nHe resigned ; and Juan E. Falcon succeeded, \n\n17 June, 1863 \nGeneral Febres Cordero protested, and set up a \n\nrival government at Porto-Cabello . . Oct. ,, \nMarshal J. C. Falcon proclaimed president, \n\n18 March, 1865 \n\n\n\nVENGEUE STOEY. \n\n\n\n1035 \n\n\n\nVENICE. \n\n\n\nA revolution in Caracas ; president Falcon fled, \n\n22 \xe2\x80\x94 26 June, 1865 \n\nThe president Monagas dies, 18 Nov. , and Pulgar \nbecomes provisional president . . . Dec. ,, \n\nCaracas captured by general Guzman Blanco, after \nthree days\' conflict . .27 April, 1870 \n\nHe is made president, virtually dictator 13 July, ,, \n\nA rebel general, Salazar, tried and shot about i7JVIay, 1872 \n\nBlanco re-elected president . . .20 Feb. 1873 \n\nSeverity towards the church for opposition to civil \nmarriages ; bishop of Merida expelled . Jul}\', 1874 \n\nRenunciation of papal authority announced Sept. 1876 \n\nGen. F. L. Alcantara president, elected . 27 Feb. 1877 \n\nGen. A. Guzman Blanco, president, elected . . 1879 \n\nDispute respecting territories containing gold \nmines ; diplomatic relations broken off with \nGreat Britain Feb. 1888 \n\nDr. J. Pablo Rojas Paul, president, elected \n\n29 June, ,, \n\nThe dictatorship of Don G. Blanco (envoy at \nParis) set aside by the congress, about 10 June, 1889 \n\nSenor Palazio elected president, 20 Feb. 1890 ; in- \nsurrection against him as a dictator, headed by \ngen. Crespo, with about 8,000 men, March ; \nguerilla warfare in the provinces, reports un- \ncertain, April, 1892 ; the government troops \nmassed at Valencia and Puerto Cabello 22 April, 1892 \n\nJunction of gen. Crespo\'s forces with those of gen. \nMora 27 Aprd, \n\nThe government general, Juan Quevedo, killed by \nthe people at Los Teques . . .18 April, \n\nValencia besieged by the insurgents ; sorties de- \nfeated about 6 May, \n\nOutbreaks in Caracas against the president, about \n12 May ; his troops join the insurgents in Bolivia, \nafter several conflicts .... May, \n\nGen. Crespo\'s army increased by desertions from \nthe president\'s army, near Caracas, reported, \n\n12 June, \n\nSeveral conflicts ; president Palacio resigns, ami \nleaves the country ; sen. Villegas provisional \npresident, reported .... 19 June, \n\nGeu. Crespo defeats the government troops and \nadvances towards Caracas, reported . 11-14 Aug. \n(See Columbia; Trials 21 March 1887.) \n\n"VENGEUE STOEY," see Ushant, note. \n\nVENT, VIDI, VICT\xe2\x80\x94 " I came, I saw, I con- \nquered ;" see Zela. \n\nVENICE (K. Italy). The province of Venetia, \nheld by the Veneti, of uncertain origin, was invaded \nby the Gauls about 350 B.C. The Veneti made an \nalliance with the Romans, 215 B.C., who founded \nAquileia, 181, and gradually acquired the whole \ncountry. Under the empire, Venetia included \nPadua, Verona, and other important places. Popu- \nlation of the city of Venice in 1857, 118,173; i n \n1881, 129,445; i Q 1890, 158,019; of the province \nVenetia, 1890, 2,985,036. New line of steamers for \nthe east started from Venice by the Peninsular and \nOriental Company, July, 1872. \n\nVenice, founded by families from Aquileia and \n\nPadua fleeing from Attila . . . about a. d. 452 \nFirst doge (or duke) chosen, Anafesto Paululio . . 697 \n\nBishopric founded 733 \n\nThe doge Orso slain ; an annual magistrate (maestro \n\ndfmiliti, master of the militia) appointed . . 737 \nDiodato, son of Orso, made doge . . . -742 \nTwo doges reign : Maurizio Galbaio, and his son \n\nGiovanni 777 \n\nThe Rialto made the seat of government . .811 \n\nVenice becomes independent of the eastern empire, \nand acquires the maritime cities of Dalmatia and \n\nIstria . 997 \n\nIts navy and commerce increase . . . iooc-noo \nThe Venetians aid at the capture of Tyre and ac- \nquire the third part, 1124; and ravage the Greek \n\narchipelago 1125 \n\nBank of Venice established 1157 \n\nCeremony of wedding the Adriatic instituted, about 11 77 \nZara captured by the Venetians . . 24 Nov. 1202 \nThe Venetians aid tlie crusaders with men, horses, \nand ships 1202 \n\n\n\nCrete purchased 1204; \n\nVenice helps in the Latin conquest of Constanti- \nnople, and obtains power in the East . . 1204-5; \n\nThe four bronze horses by Lysippus, brought from \nConstantinople, ijlaced at St. Mark\'s by the doge \nPietro Ziani, who died 1229. \n\nThe Venetians defeat the Genoese near Negropont, 1263. \n\nWar with Genoa i 20 ^ \n\nThe Venetian fleet severely defeated by the Genoese \nin the Adriatic, 8 Sept. 1298 ; peace between \nthem 1299. \n\nLouis of Hungary defeated at Zara . . 1 July, 1346 \n\nSevere contest with Genoa .... 1350-81 \n\nThe doge Marino Faliero, to avenge an insult, con- \nspires against the republic ; beheaded 17 April 1355, \n\nThe Venetians lose Istria and Dalmatia . . . 1358. \n\nWar with the Genoese, who defeat the Venetians at \nPola, and advance against Venice, which is vigor- \nously defended 1377 \n\nThe Genoese fleet is captured at Chiozza . . . 1380. \n\nAnd peace concluded 1381 \n\nVenice flourishes under Antonio Vernieri . 1382-1400 \n\nWar with Padua ; conquest of Padua and Verona . 1404. \n\nWar against Milan ; conquest of Brescia 1425 ; of \nBergamo i4 2 & \n\nThe city surfers from the plague .... 1447 \n\nWar against Milan, 1430 ; conquest of Ravenna . . 1454, \n\nWar with the Turks ; Venice loses many of its \neastern possessions 1461-77 \n\nThe Venetians take Athens, 1466 ; and Cyprus . . 1475 \n\nVenice excommunicated, 1483 ; joins league against \nNaples, 1493 ; helps to overcome Charles VIII. of \nFrance 149s \n\nInjured by the discovery of America (1492), and the \npassage to the Indies I 497 \n\nThe Venetians nearly ruined by the league of Cain- \nbray formed against them 1508- \n\nThey assist in defeating the Turks at Lepanto, 7 Oct. 1571 \n\nThe Turks retake Cyprus ,, \n\nDestructive fire at Venice *577 \n\nThe Rialto bridge and the Piazza di San Marco \nerected about 159a- \n\nPaul V.\'s interdict on Venice (1606) contemptuously \ndisregarded 1607 \n\nNaval victories over the Turks ; at Scio, 1651 ; and \nin the Dardanelles 1655 \n\nThe Turks take Candia, after 24 years\' siege . . 1669. \n\nVenice recovers part of the Morea, 1683-99 \xe2\x80\xa2 loses it, \n\n1715-39 \n\nVenice occupied by Bonaparte, who, by the treaty \nof Campo Formio, gives part of its territory to \nAustria, and annexes the rest to the Cisalpine re- \npublic 1797 \n\nThe whole of Venice annexed to the kingdom of \nItaly by the treaty of Presburg . . 26 Dec. 1805 \n\nAll Venice transferred to the empire of Austria . 181 4 \n\nVenice declared a free port . . . .24 Jan. 1830. \n\nInsurrection begins 22 March, 1848 ; the city, de- \nfended by Daniel Manin, surrenders to the Aus- \ntrians after a long siege ... 22 Aug. 1849. \n\n[During the Italian war in 1859, the country was \nmuch disorganised, and many persons emigrated \nin 1860-1.] \n\nVenetian deputies will not attend the Austrian par- \nliament at Vienna May, 1861 \n\nVenetia surrendered to France for Italy (by the \ntreaty of Vienna, signed\' 3 Oct.), and transferred \nto Italy 17 Oct. 1866. \n\nPlebiscitum : 651,758 votes for annexation to Italy ; \n69 against 22 Oct. ,, \n\nResult reported by Venetian deputies, and the iron \ncrown given to the king at Turin . 4 Nov. ,, \n\nHe enters Venice 7 Nov. ,, \n\nMaster-piece of Titian ("Death of Peter Martyr") \ndestroyed at the burning of a chapel . 15 Aug. 1867 \n\nThe remains of Daniel Manin (brought from Paris) \nburied in St. Mark\'s .... 33 March, 186& \n\nHis statue unveiled . . . .22 March, 1875. \n\nThe emperor of Austria and king of li:ily at Venice \n\n5-7 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe bronze equestrian statue of Vict or Emmanuel 11. \nby Ferrari unveiled in the presence of the king and \nqueen of Italy ; great festivities . . 1 May, 1887 \n\nArt exhibition opened by the king . 2 May, ,, \n\nThe restoration of the palace of the Doges wis com- \npleted, and the building exposed I" view in Nov. 1889 \n\nLaunch of the ironclad Sicilia, the royal family \npresent 6 July, 1891 \n\n\n\nVENLOO. \n\n\n\n1036 \n\n\n\nVERONA. \n\n\n\n\xc2\xa5 \n\n\n\n^Representations of Venice at the Olympia, London \n(which see), opened 26 Dec. 1891 \n\n.[Venice has had 122 doges ; Anafesto, 697, to JLuigi \nManin, 1797.] / \n\nVENLOO (Holland), surrendered to the allies, \n\xe2\x80\xa2under Marlborough, 23 Sept. 1702 ; and to the \nFrench, under Pichegru, 26 Oct. 1794. \n\nVENNER\'S INSURRECTION, see Ana- \n\xe2\x96\xa0baptists, 1661. \n\nVENTILATORS were invented by the rev. \nDr. Hales, and described -to the Eoyal Society of \nLondon, May, 1741 ; and the ventilator for the use \nof ships was announced by Mr. Triewald, in Novem- \nber, same year. The marquis of Chabannes\' plan \nfor warming and ventilating theatres and houses for \n.\xe2\x96\xa0audiences was applied to those of London about \n\n1819. The systems of Dr. Eeid (about 1834) and \n\xe2\x96\xa0others followed, with much controversy. Dr. \nArnott\'s work on this subject was published\'in 1838. \nA commission on warming and ventilation issued a \noreport in 1859. \n\nJSTew air machine in the house of commons started \n\nS June, 1874 \n\nMr. Tobin\'s plan, a horizontal tube from without \ncommunicating with vertical tube inside ; suc- \ncessful at Leeds ; described (in Times,) 12 April, 1875 \n\nHVIr. D. G. Hoey\'s system was exhibited at Messrs. \nBarclay\'s bank, Lombard-street, London, and \nreported successful Jan. 1891 \n\nVENTRILOQUISM (speakingfrom the belly) , \nis evidently described in Isaiah xxix. 4 (about 712 \nB.C.). Among eminent ventriloquists were baron \nMengen and M. Saint Gille, about 1772 (whose ex- \n)eriments were examined by a commission of the \nT rench Academy) ; Thomas King (about 1 716) ; \nCharles Mathews (1824) ; and M. Alexandre \n.(1822), \n\nVENUS, the Roman goddess of love and beauty \n<the Greek Aphrodite). The transit of the planet \nVenus over the sun was predicted by Kepler, but \nnot observed. The first transit observed, was by \nthe rev. Jeremiah Horrox, or Horrocks, and his \nfriend, Wm. Crabtree, on 24 Nov. 1639, as pre- \ndicted by Horrox in 1633. The astronomer-royal \nMaskelyne observed her transit at St. Helena, \n\xe2\x80\xa26 June, 1 761. Capt. Cook made his first voyage \nin the Endeavour, to Otaheite, to observe a transit \nof Venus, 3 June, 1769; see Cook\'s Voyages. The \ndiurnal rotation of Venus was discovered by Cassini \nin 1667. See Sun, note. Statues : Venus \ntie Medicis, found near Tivoli and removed to \nFrance, 1680; the Venus found at INlilo or Melos, \n\n1820, placed in the Louvre, Paris, 1834. \n-Halley suggested the observation of the transit as \n\na. means of estimating the distance of the earth \nfrom the sun, and devised a method for this pur- \nple 1716 \n\nAnother method was invented by Delisle about . 1743 \nBoth plans were used in ... Dec. 1874 \n\nExpeditions for the accurate observation of the \nphenomena, on 8 Dec. astronomical day ; ordi- \nnary day, 9 Dec. 1874, were sent to different parts \nof the globe by all the great powers, and favour- \nable results have been reported . . . 1875-6 \nThe transit, on 6 Dec. 1882, was observed at Bath, \nPenzance, Cork, Cape Town, Washington, Mel- \nbourne, and many other places. The next transits \nwill take place 8 June, 2004, and 6 June, 2012. \n\nVERA CRUZ (Mexico), built about. 1600; was \ntaken by the Americans in 1847, and by the allies \n\xe2\x80\xa2on 17 Dec. 1861, during the intervention ; retaken \nby the liberals, under Juarez, 27 June, 1867. \n\nVERCELLI, the ancient Vercellse, Piedmont, \nnear which Marius defeated the Cimbri, 101 B.C. It \nwas the seat of a republic in the 13th and 14th cen- \n\n\n\nturies. It was taken by the Spaniards, 1630; \nFrench, 1704; and allies, 1706; and afterwards \npartook of the fortunes of Piedmont. \n\nVERDEN (Hanover). Here Charlemagne \nmassacred about 4500 Saxons, who had rebelled and \nrelapsed into idolatry, 782. \n\nVERDUN (the ancient Verodunum), a first- \nclass fortress on the Meuse, N.E. France, made a \nmagazine for his legions by Julius Cassar. It was \nacquired by the Franks in the sixth century, and \nformed part of the dominions of Lothaire by the \ntreaty of Verdun, 843, when the empire was divided \nbetween the sons of Louis I. It was taken and \nannexed to the empire by Otho I. about 939. It \nsurrendered to France in 1552 ; and was formally \nceded in 1648. It was taken and held by the Prus- \nsians 43 days, Sept. \xe2\x80\x94 Oct. 1792. Gen. Beaurepaire, \nthe commandant, committed suicide before the sur- \nrender, and 14 ladies were executed on 28 May, \n1794, for going to the king of Prussia to solicit his \nclemency for the town. Verdun surrendered to the \nGermans 8 Nov. 1870, after a brave defence; two \nvigorous sallies being made 28 Oct. Above 4000 \nmen were captured, with a large number of arms \nand ammunition. It was the last place held by \nthe Germans; and was given up 15, 16 Sept. 1873, \nand the troops retired. \n\nVERGARA, N. SPAIN. Here the Carlist \ngeneral, Maroto, made a treaty, termed " The paci- \nfication of Vergara," with Espartero, 31 Aug. 1839. \nThe monument to celebrate it was destroyed by the \nCarlists in Aug. 1873. \n\nVERMANDOIS (N. France), a county given \nby Charlemagne to his second son Pepin, whose \nfamily held it till the nth century; in 1156 it \ncame, by marriage, to the counts of Flanders ; and \nin 1 185 it was seized by Philip II., and incorporated \nwith the monarchy in 12 15. \n\nVERMONT, a northern state in North America, \nwas settled by the French, 1724-31 ; and ceded to \nGreat Britain in 1763. It was freed from the autho- \nrity of New York, and admitted as a state of the \nunion in 1791. Population 1880, 332,286; 1890," \n332,422 ; capital, Montpelier. \n\nVERNEUIL (N.W. France), the site of a \nbattle fought 17 Aug, 1424, between the Burgundians \nand English under the regent duke of Bedford, and \nthe French, assisted by the Scots, commanded by \nthe count de Narbonne, the earls of Douglas and \nBuchan, &c. The French at first were successful ; \nbut some Lombard auxiliaries, who had taken the \nEnglish camp, commenced pillaging. Two thousand \nEnglish archers came then fresh to the attack ; and \nthe French and Scots\' were totally defeated, and \ntheir leaders killed. \n\nVERNON GALLERY. _ The inadequate \nmanner in which modern British art was repre- \nsented in the National Gallery was somewhat \nremedied in 1847 by the munificent present to the \nnation, by Mr. Bobert Vernon, of a collection of 157 \npictures, all but two being by first-rate British \nartists. They were first exhibited at Mr. Vernon\'s \nhouse in Pall-mall, next in the vaults beneath the \nNational Gallery, afterwards at Marlborough House, \nand are now at the South Kensington Museum. In \n1857, Mr. John Sheepshanks followed Mr. Vernon\'s \nexample ; see Sheepshanks\' Donations. \n\nVERONA (N. Italy) was founded by the Gauls \nor Etruscaus; see Campus Saudius. The amphi- \ntheatre was built by Titus, a.d. 82. Verona has \nbeen the site of many contiicts. It was taken by \n\n\n\nVEESAILLES. \n\n\n\n1037 \n\n\n\nVESUVIUS. \n\n\n\nConstantine3i2 ; and on 27 Sept. 489 Theodoric de- \nfeated Odoacer, king of Italy. Verona was taken \nby Charlemagne 774. About 1260 Mastino della \nScala was elected podesta, and his descendants (the \nScaligeri) ruled, till subdued by the Visconti, dukes \nof Milan, 1387. Verona was conquered by the \nVenetians 1405, and held by them with some inter- \nmissions till its capture by the French general Mas- \nsena, 3 June, 1796. Near to it Charles Albert of \nSardinia defeated the Austrians 6 May, 1848. \nVerona is one of the four strong Austrian fortresses \ntermed the Quadrangle, or Quadrilateral {which see), \nand here the emperor Francis Joseph, on 12 July, \n1859, in an order of the day, announced to his army \nthat he must yield to circumstances unfavourable to \nhis policy, and thanked his people and army for \ntheir support. It was surrendered to the Italian \ngovernment, 16 Oct. 1866; and the king was re- \nceived by 70,000 persons in the amphitheatre, 18 \nNov. 1866. Above 50,000 coins of Gallienus and \nother emperors, chiefly bronze, discovered near \nVerona, Jan. 1877. Population, 1881, 60,768. \n\nVEESAILLES (near Paris) was a small vil- \nlage, in a forest thirty miles in circuit ; where Louis \nXIII. built a hunting-seat about 1632. Louis XIV. \nbetween 1661 and 1687 enlarged it into a magnificent \npalace, which became the usual residence of the \nkings of France. By the treaty between Great \nBritain and the revolted colonies of British North \nAmerica, signed at Paris, the latter power was ad- \nmitted to be a sovereign and independent state, 3 \nSept. 1783. On the same day a treaty was signed \nat Versailles between Great Britain, France, and \nSpain, by which Pondicherry and Carical, with other \npossessions in Bengal, were restored to France, and \nTrincomalee restored to the Dutch. Here was held \nthe military festival of the royal guards 1 Oct. \n1789, which was followed (on the 5th and 6th) by \nthe attack of the mob, who massacred the guards \nand brought the king back to Paris. Versailles \nbecame the residence of Louis-Philippe in 1830. \nThe historical gallery was opened in 1837. Ver- \nsailles, with the troops there, surrendered to the \nGermans 19 Sept. 1870, and the crown prince of \nPrussia entered the next day ; and on 26 Sept. he \nawarded the iron cross to above 30 soldiers at the \nfoot of the statue of Louis XIV. The palace was \nconverted into an hospital. The royal head-quarters \nwere removed here from Ferrieres 5 Oct. After the \npeace, Versailles became the seat of the French \ngovernment (see France) March, 1871. Eemoved \nto Paris 27 Nov. 1879. The congress for the revi- \nsion of the constitution met here 4 \xe2\x80\x94 13 Aug. 1884. \nSee France, 1889. \n\nVERSE, see Poetry, Hexameter, Elegy, Iambic, \n&c. Surrey\'s translation of part of Virgil\'s JEneid \ninto blank verse is the first English composition of \nthe kind, omitting tragedy, extant in the English \nlanguage (published in 1547). The verse previously \nused in our grave compositions was the stanza of \neight lines, the Ottawa rima (as adopted with the \naddition of one line by Spenser in his Faery \nQiicene), who probably borrowed it from Ariosto and \nTasso. Boccaccio introduced it into Italy in his \nTeseide, having copied it from the old French chan- \nsons. Trissino is said to have been the first intro- \nducer of blank verse among the modems, about \n1508. Vossius. \n\nVEEULAM, see Alton\'s, St. \n\nVEEVINS (N. France). Here was concluded \nthe peace between Philip II. of Spain and Henry \nIV. of France, with mutual concessions, 2 May, \n1598. \n\n\n\nVESEEONCE (S.E. France), near Vienne. \nHere Gondemar, king of the Burgundians, defeated. \nand killed Clodomir, king of Orleans, and revenged \nthe murder of his brother Sigismond and his family, \n524. This conflict is called also the battle of \nVoiron. \n\nVESPEES, see Sicilian Vespers. In the house \nof the French ambassador at Blackfriars, in Lon- \ndon, a Jesuit was preaching to upwards of three\' \nhundred persons in an upper room, the floor of which \ngave way with the weight, when the whole congre- \ngation was precipitated to the street, and tin- \npreacher and more than a hundred of his auditory, \nchiefly persons of rank, were killed. This catas- \ntrophe, termed the Fatal Vespers, occurred 26 Oct, \n1623. Stow. \n\nVESTA. The planet Vesta (the ninth) was dis- \ncovered by Dr. Olbers, of Bremen, on 29 March, \n1807. She appears like a star of the sixth magni- \ntude. \n\nVESTALS, virgin priestesses, took care of the \nperpetual fire consecrated to Vesta. The mother of \nRomulus was a vestal. Nunia is said to have ap- \npointed four, 710 B.C., and Tarquin added two, \nMinutia was buried alive for breaking her virgin \nvow, 337 B.C.; Sextilia, 273 B.C.; and Cornelia \nMaximiliana, a.d. 92. It is said that only eighteen, \nvestals had beeu condemned since the time of Numa. \nThe order was abolished by Theodosius, 389. \n\n"VESTIGES of the Natural History \n\nOF CREATION," a work which upholds the doctrine \nof progressive development as a hypothetic history \nof organic creation, ascribed to Robert Chambers, \nand other persons, first appeared in 1844, and occa- \nsioned much controversy. See Origin of Species. \n\nVESUVIUS, MOTTCTT, S. Italy. Near it, the \nLatin confederacy were totally defeated by the \nRomans, whose general, P. DeciusMus, had devoted \nhimself to death, 340 B.C. By an eruption of Mount \nVesuvius, the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneuni \n{which see) were overwhelmed 24 Aug. 79 a.d., and \nmore than 200,000 persons perished, among them \nPliny the naturalist. Numerous other disastrous \neruptions have occurred. Torre del Greco, with \n4000 persons, was destroyed, 17 Dec. 1631. There \nwas a dreadful eruption took place suddenly, 24 \nNov. 1759, and another 8 Aug. 1767. The violent \nburst in 1767 was the 34th from the time of Titus. \nOne in June, 1 794, was most destructive : the lava \nflowed over 5000 acres of rich \'vineyards and culti- \nvated land, and Torre del Greco was a second time \nburned ; the top of the mountain fell in, and the \ncrater is now nearly two miles in circumference. \nA great eruption in Oct. 1822, and others in Miv, \n1855, May and June, 1858, caused great destruction. \nA series of violent eruptions causing much damage- \noccurred in Dec. 1861, and in Feb. 1865. Torre \ndel Greco was again destroyed in Dec. 1861. \nAnother eruption began 12 Nov. 1867, and con- \ntinued increasing in grandeur and danger, March, \n1868. The phenomena were observed by professors \nTyndall and Miller, sir John Lubbock^ and other \nscientific men, in April, 1868. A great eruption \nbegan 8 Oct. 1868, and continued, causing much \ndestruction, 19, 20 Nov. A severe eruption began \n23 April and ended about 3 May, 1872; above 60 \nlives were lost. The mountain was disturbed in \n1876; and another eruption began about 20 Sept. \n1878 ; lava was spouted to the height of 300 foot ; \nan eruption began ir June, 1879; an intermittent \neruption 2 May, 1885. A new crater formed 8 \nJune; continued flowing of lava, n June; ceases \n16 June, renewed ; a Brazilian tourist fell into the \n\n\n\nVETEBLNABY COLLEGES. \n\n\n\n1038 \n\n\n\nVICTOEIA. \n\n\n\ncrater, July, 1891. Increasing eruptions, 9 June \net seq.; active, 13 Sept. 1892. Professor John \nPhillips\' "Vesuvius" was published 1869. \n\nYETEBINABY COLLEGES. The Eoyal \nCollege of Veterinary Surgeons, at Bed Lion Square \nLondon, which alone grants diplomas, was char- \ntered in 1844. The Veterinary Surgeons act, 44 \n& 45 Vict. sec. 62 ; passed 27 Aug. 1881, deals only \nwith this college. The Royal Veterinary College \nat Camden Town, London, N.W., was founded in \n1791. Centenary festival, the duke of Cambridge \nin the ehair, the prince of Wales present, 19 Oct. \n1891- There are veterinary colleges in Edinburgh \n\xe2\x80\xa2and. Glasgow. \n\nVICE, an instrument of which Archytas of \nTarentum, disciple of Pythagoras, is said to have \nIbeen the inventor, along with the pulley and other \nimplements, 420 B.C. Society for the Suppression \nof Vice, established 1802. \n\nVICE-ADMIKALTYCOTJKTS ACT, 1863, \nwas extended and amended in 1867. \n\nVICE-CHANCELLOB of ENGLAND, \n\nan equity judge, appointed by parliament, first took \nhis seat 5 May, 1813. A new court was erected for \nhim about 1816 contiguous to Lincoln\' s-inn-hall. \nTwo additional vice-chancellors were appointed \nunder act 5 Vict. c. 5, 5 Oct. 1 841. The office of vice- \nchancellor of England ceased in August, 1850, and \na third vice-chancellor was appointed in 1851, when \ntwo more equity judges, styled lords justices, were \n\n\n\nVICE-CHANCELLORS OF ENGLAND. \n\n3813. Sir Thomas Plumer, 13 April. \n\nz8i8. Sir John Leach, 13 Jam \n\n3827. Sir Anthony Hart, 4 May. \n\n2827-50. Sir Lancelot Shadwell, 1 Nov. the last. \n\n\n\n=852. \nS853. \n\n\n\n2871. \n3866. \n\n\n\ne8 7 3 \n\n\n\nVICE-CHANCELLORS. \n\nSir John Stuart, sat last, 27 March, 1871. \n\nSir "Wm. Page Wood, made a justice of appeal, \n\n1868 ; lord chancellor, Dec. 1868. \nSir Geo. Markham Giflard, died 1870. \nSir "Wm. M. James, Jan. ; made a lord justice of \n\nappeal, June, 1870. \nSir John Wickens, April ; died, 23 Oct. 1873. \nSir Riehard Malms, resigned 1881; died 15 Jan.1882. \nSir James Bacon, the last 1 } \n\nof the vice-chancellors, nQW included m the \n\nresigned 10 Nov. 1886. V chancery div j s ion. \nSir Charles Hall, Nov. ; J \n\ndied 12 Dec. 1883. ) \n\n\n\nVICENZA (the ancient Vicentia, N. Italy) was \nthe seat of a republic in the 12th century. It \ngreatly suffered by the ravages of Alaric, 401, and \nAttila, 452. Having joined the Lombard league, it \nwas sacked by Frederic II. 1236. After many \nchanges it was subjected to Venice, and with it fell \nunder the French domination, 1796 ; and was given \nto Austria in 1814. Having revolted, it was re- \ntaken by Radetzky, 11 June, 1848. It was annexed \nto the kingdom of Italy, Oct. 1866. \n\nVICE-PBESLDENT of the Board of \nTRADE. This office was abolished in 1867, and a \nsecretary with a seat in parliament substituted. \n\n"VTCKSBUBG, see United States, 1863. \n\nYICTOBIA, formerly PORT PHILLIP, \n\n\'(Australia), situated between New South "Wales and \nSouth Australia. In 1798, Bass, in his whale-boat \nexpedition, visited Western Port, one of its harbours ; \nand in 1802 Flinders sailed into Port Phillip Bay. \nPopulation of the colony in 1836, 224 ; in 1841, \n\n11,738; in 1846, 32.879 : in l8 5i. 77.345 ; 31 Dec. \n\n1852, about 200,000; in March 1857 there were \n\n\n\n258,116 males and 145,403 females ; in all 403,519. \nIn 1859, in all 517,366 ; in 1861, 540,322 ; Dec. \n1865, 626,639 ; in 1871, 729,654 ; 1877, 849,021 ; \nin 1881, 858,582 ; 1891, 1,140,411. 1886-7, re- \nvenue, 6,733,867?. ; expenditure, 6,665,863?. ^ e_ \nvenue, 1888-9,8,674,000;.; expenditure, 8, 172,000?.; \nimports, 18,530,5752. ; exports, 11,795,321?. \n1889-90, revenue, 8,519,159?. ; expenditure, \n9,811,251?. ; imports, 22,954,015?. ; exports, \n13,266,222?. \nColonel Collins lands with a party of convicts with \nthe intention of founding a settlement at Port \nPhillip, but afterwards removed to Van Diemen\'s \n\nLand 1804 \n\nMessrs. Hume and Hovell, two stock-owners from \nNew South Wales, explore part of the country, \nbut do not discover its great advantages . . 1824 \nMr. Edward Henty (of a Sussex family), comes \nfrom Tasmania with cattle, sheep, shepherds, &c, \nand settles in Portland Bay ; his brothers, \nStephen George and John, follow soon . . 1832 \n\nMr. John Batman enters between the heads of \nPort Phillip, and purchases a large tract of land \nfrom the aborigines for a few gewgaws and \nblankets : he shortly after, with fifteen associates \nfrom Hobarton, took possession of 600,000 acres \nin the present Geelong country . . May, 1835 \nThe Launceston associates and Mr. John Paseoe \nFalkner ascend the Tarra-Tarra (or everflowing) \nriver, and encamp on the site of Melbourne . ,, \nThe colonists (450 in number) possess 140,000 \nsheep, 2500 cattle, and 150 horses ; sir R. Bourke, \ngovernor of New South Wales, visits the colony, \ndetermines the sites of towns, and causes the \nland to be surveyed and resold, setting aside \nmany contending claims ; he appoints captain \nLonsdale chief-magistrate (see Melbourne) . . 1837 \n\nThe colony named Victoria 1839 \n\nMr. C. J. Latrobe appointed lieutenant-governor \n\nunder sir G. Gipps ,, \n\nIts prosperity brings great numbers to it, and in- \nduces much speculation and consequent em- \nbarrassment and insolvency .... 1841-2 \nThe province declared independent of New South \nWales ; a reward of 200?. offered for the discovery \nof gold in Victoria, which was soon after found, \nnear Melbourne, and was profitably worked Aug. 1851 \n7000 persons were at Ballarat, Oct. ; 10,000 round \n\nMount Alexander Nov. ,, \n\nFrom 30 Sept. to 31 Dec. 1851, 30,311 ounces of \ngold were obtained from Ballarat ; and from 29 \nOct. to 31 Dec. 94,524 ounces from Mount \nAlexander \xe2\x80\x94 total 124,835 ounces \nThe production was still very great .... 1859 \nImmense immigration to Melbourne (see Melbourne) 1852 \nSir Charles Hotham, governor . . . June, 1854 \nA representative constitution granted . . . 1855 \n\nSir Henry Barkly appointed governor . . . 1856 \nThe parliament was opened ... 26 Nov. 1857 \nFour administrations had been formed in . 1857-1860 \nExhibition of the products of the colony opened by \n\nthe governor 1 Oct. 1861 \n\nSir Charles Darling appointed governor, May : \n\narrives 10 Sept. 1863 \n\nGreat opposition to reception of convicts in any \npart of Australia ; a ship containing them sent \n\nback Oct. 1864 \n\nImportant land act passed . . 22 March. 1865 \n\nThe assembly passes the new government tariff, \nJan., which is rejected by the legislative council; \nthe governor raises money for the public service \n\nirregularly July, ,, \n\nThe crisis still continues ; appeal to the queen pro- \nposed Oct. ,, \n\nParliament prorogued .... Dec. ,, \n\nSir Charles Darling recalled ... 26 Feb. 1866 \nMinisterial difficulties : Mr. M\'Culloch becomes \n\npremier April, ,, \n\nThe assembly votes 20,000?. to lady Darling ; sir \n\nCharles departs May, ,, \n\nNew governor, sir John H. T. Manners Sutton, \n\n(viscount Canterbury in 1869) arrived 13 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nIntercolonial Exhibition opened . . 25 Oct. ,, \nVote of 20,000?. to lady Darling rejected by legisla- \ntive council 20 Aug. 1867 \n\nMinisterial crisis ; dispute continues between the \n\nassembly and the council . . . Oct. ,, \nDuke of Edinburgh arrives ; great rejoicings 23 Nov. ,, \n\n\n\nVICTOEIA. \n\n\n\n1039 \n\n\n\nVICTOEIA NYANZA. \n\n\n\nAn address presented to him by Mr. Edward \n\nHenty, the first settler, and others . . . 1867 \nParliament dissolved .... 30 Dee. \xe2\x80\x9e \nNew parliament ; ministry resigned because the \ngovernor objected to insertion of the Darling \ngrant in the appropriation bill . 12 March, 1868 \nFirst woollen and paper manufactories established \n\nMay, ,, \nThe M\'Culloch ministry arrange the Darling affair \n\nJuly, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe M\'Pherson ministry announced . . Oct. 1869 \nMr. M\'Culloch forms a ministry including Mr. \n\nM\'Pherson, April ; is knighted . . May, 1870 \nMr. M\'Culloch resigns ... 14 June, ,, \n\nThe federation of the Australian colonies, proposed \nby Mr. Gavan Duffy in 1857, revived by him and \ndiscussed in the legislative assembly . June, ,, \nIndustrial Museum at Melbourne, opened 8 Sept. ,, \n\nMr. Duffy minister July, 1871 \n\nHe resigns on a vote against him . . 29 May, 1872 \nMr. Francis forms a ministry . . . June, ,, \nPayment (300?. a year) to M. P.\'s begins . . \xe2\x80\x9e \nSir George Ferguson Bowen succeeds viscount Can- \nterbury Feb. 1873 \n\nMinisterial crisis : Mr. Kerford premier ; Mr. Ser- \nvice\'s budget; expenditure, 4,500,000?. ; deficit, \nabout 340,000?. ; he proposes a moderate free- \ntrade policy ; reduction of taxation and a loan ; \nrejected by the parliament ; Mr. Kerford resigns, \nas sir Win. Stowell, the acting governor, would \n\nnot dissolve Aug. 1875 \n\nMr. Graham Berry, premier ; would continue pro- \ntection and tax the richer colonists heavily (a \nfinancial coup d\'etat) ; defeated ; resigns Oct. ,, \nSir James M\'Culloch forms a coalition ministry, \nOct. ; proposing tax on income, land, and \n\nrealised property Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPasses his income-tax bill with a majority of 3 \n\nannounced June, 1876 \nDispute of government with Messrs. Stevensons, \nrespecting their alleged undervaluing goods for \npayment of duties ; their letters opened \n\nMarch- June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nElections ; triumph of protectionists ; sir James \nM\'Culloch resigns ; Mr. Berry again premier, \nMay ; a land-tax enacted .... Oct. 1877 \nLegislative council rejects Mr. Berry\'s appropria- \ntions, defence, and exhibition bills, end of Oct. ,, \nCounty court and other judges dismissed by the \ncouneil ; sir G. Bowen, the governor, supports \n\nthe niinistry Jan. 1878 \n\nThe lower house overrules the council ; orders \npublic creditors to be paid on its sole vote, about \n\n13 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nBerry ministry and the lower house predominant \n\nMarch- Aug. ,, \nThe marquis of Normanby appointed governor, Feb. 1879 \nMr. Berry\'s fruitless visit to England . . Feb. ,, \nHe introduces a reform bill, Sept. ; which is with- \ndrawn Dec. ,, \n\nParliament dissolved about 9 Feb.; elections give \nmajority against Mr. Berry, 28 Feb. ; his cabinet \nresign, 2 March ; new ministry under Mr. James \n\nService 3 March, 1880 \n\nMr. Service\'s reform bill rejected, 24 June ; dissolu- \ntion of the assembly, 29 June ; the ministry re- \nsigns 14 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMr. Berry forms a cabinet . . .28 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nNed Kelly and some of his gang of bush-rangers \nafter committing many murders and robberies \n(since autumn of 1878) captiu-ed and sent to \n\nMelbourne 27, 28 June, ,, \n\nInternational exhibition at Melbourne, open 1 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nKelly hanged 11 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nVote of confidence in Mr. Berry in parliament lost ; \n\nsir Brien O\'Loghlen forms a niinistry . July, 1881 \nThe marquis of Normanby resigns, March ; sir \n\nHenry Brougham Loch succeeds . . April, 18S4 \nMr. Service, premier, promotes a confederation bill \n\nabout 30 June ,, \nChinese immigrants are now virtually excluded. 1885 \nProsperity budgets; surplus 392,000?., 22 July, \n\n1885 ; 837,415? 24 July, 1888 \n\nNew ministry under lion. Duncan Gillies, formed \n\n18 Feb. 1886 \nNaval defence act passed with royal assent, \n\n24, 25 Nov. 1887 \n\n\n\nPrevalence of strikes among workmen and oppo- \nsition to Chinese immigration . . autumn, 1888 \n\nParliament opened by Mr. W. C. F. Robinson, \nacting governor. \n\n(Continued three years prosperity reported), 4 June, 1889 \n\nThe earl of Hopetoun appointed governor aboui \n\n22 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe government submits to the protectionists ; \nthe import duties increased, and new ones im- \nposed about 13 Sept. ,, \n\nThe irrigation works of Messrs. Chaffey, Bros., an \nAmerican firm on the Murray river, reported suc- \ncessful ; sir Henry Parkes protests, claiming \nboth sides of the river for New South Wales, \n\nabout 13 Sept. ,, \n\nLarge subscriptions for the dock labourers of \nLondon subscribed, 22,000?. up to . . Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe new tariff bill passed by the council, under \nprotest about 31 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe protectionist budget passed . . 5 Nov. ,, \n\nDeparture of sir Henry B. Loch, much honoured \n(diamond tiara presented to lady Loch by the \nladies of Victoria) .... 15 Nov. ,, \n\nArrival of the earl and countess of Hopetoun, \n\n28 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nIrrigation conference at Melbourne (25 trusts estab- \nlished, 280,000?. advanced by the state), \n\n25 March et seq. 1890 \n\nMr. D. Gillies\' prosperous budget . . 1 Aug. ,, \n\nHis ministry defeated by a majority of 20, 30 Oct. ; \nMr. James Munro foims a niinistry . 4 Nov. ,, \n\nFailure of the British Bank of Australia at Mel- \nbourne (established April, 1888), reported lia- \nbilities, 640,440?. .... 14 Sept. 1891 \n\nThe loan bill for 6,000,000?. passed . . 30 Oct. ,, \n\nBrief monetary crisis at Melbourne . early Dec. ,, \n\nResignation of Mr. James Munro ; new ministry ; \n\n. lion. William Shiels, premier . . 3 Feb. 1892 \n\nDistress through want of work ; relief works \nordered 4 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nParliament dissolved, 7 April ; new parliament \nsupports the ministry ; the labour party de- \nfeated, 20 April et seq. : parliament opened, \n\n11 May, ,, \nVICTORIA, on Vancouver\'s island, founded \n\n1857 ; declared capital of British Columbia, which \n\nsee. \nVICTORIA, see Hong Kong, Vancouver\'s \n\nIsland, Docks, Thames 1870, Wrecks 1852, British \n\nColumbia. \nVICTORIA, a British colony in Anibas bay, on \n\nthe West African coast, originally a Baptist mis- \nsionary settlement, annexed 19 July, 1884. \n\nCeremoniously transferred to Germany by consul \nHewett and annexed to Cameroons 28 March, 1887 \n\nVICTORIA CROSS, a new order of merit, \ninstituted to reward the gallantry of persons of all \nranks in the\' army and navy, 5 Feb. 1856. It is a \nMaltese cross made of Russian cannon from Sebas- \ntopol. The queen conferred the honour on 62 \npersons (of both services) on Friday, 26 June, 1857; \nand on many of the Indian army, 2 Aug. 1858. \nVictoria and Albert Order of Knighthood for ladies, \nIndia, instituted 10 Feb. 1862. \n\nVICTORIA EMBANKMENT, &c, see \n\nunder Thames. \n\nVICTORIA INSTITUTE, or Philosophi- \ncal Society of Great Britain, established \n\n22 June, 1865; its primary object being the attempt \nto reconcile apparent discrepancies between Chris- \ntianity and science. \n\nVICTORIA NYANZA, a lake in E. Central \nAfrica, 300 miles long, 90 miles broad, discovered \nby capt. John H. Speke in 1858, and explored by \nhim and capt. J. A. Grant in 1862 ; circumnavigated \nby Mr. H. M. Stanley in 1875. Col. J. H. Speke \nwas accidentally killed by his own sun, 15 Sept. \n1864. Col. J. A. Grant died ri Feb. 1892. \nAlbert Nyaxza, 140 miles long, and 40 miles broad, \n\nsituated So miles N.W. of Victoria Nyanza. It was \n\n\n\nVICTOEIA PAEK. \n\n\n\n1040 \n\n\n\nVIENNA. \n\n\n\ndiscovered by capts. Speke and Grant, 1862, and \nvisited by Mr. (afterwards sir) Samuel White Baker in \n1864 (see Nile and Africa). \nAlbert Edward Nyanza was discovered by Mi. H. M. \nStanley in 1887, and named in 1889. These lakes are \n\' considered to be reservoirs from which the Nile flows. \n\nVICTOEIA PAEK (E. London), was origi- \nnated by an act passed in 184 1, which enabled her \nmajesty\'s commissioners of woods and forests to \npurchase certain lands for a royal park, with the \nsum of 72,000;. raised by the same act, by the sale \nof York-house to the duke of Sutherland. The \nact described the land to be so purchased, contain- \ning 290 acres, situate in the parishes of St. John, \nHackney; St. Matthew, Bethnal-green ; and St. \nMary, Stratford-le-bow. The park was completed \nand opened to the public in 1845. Lady (then Miss) \nBurdett-Coutts presented a handsome drinking \nfountain, and was present at its inauguration, 28 \nJune, 1862. The park was visited by the queen, \n2 April, 1873 5 and \xe2\x84\xa2 memol 7 0I ner reception, she \npresented a clock and peal of bells to St. Mark\'s \nchurch; recognition service, 21 May, 1874. See \n\nVICTOEIA EAILWAY BRIDGE (tubu- \nlar), over the St. Lawrence, Montreal, erected by \nMr. James Hodges, under the superintendence of \nMr Robert Stephenson and Mr. A. M. Ross, \nengineers, was begun 24 May, 1854, and formally \nopened by the prince of Wales, 25 Aug. i860. It \nforms part of the Grand Trunk railway, which con- \nnects Canada and the seaboard states of North \nAmerica. The length is about sixty yards less than \ntwo English miles, and about 7 J times longer than \nWaterloo bridge, and ten times longer than new \nChelsea bridge ; the height sixty feet between the \nsummer level of the river and the under surface of \nthe central tube. It is supported by 24 piers. The \ncost was 1,700,000/. On 5 Jan. 1855, while con- \nstructing, the bridge was much injured by floating \nice, but the stonework remained firm. \n\nVICTOEIA EEGTA, the magnificent water- \nlily brought to this country from Guiana by sir \nRobert Schomburgk, in 1838, and named after the \nqueen. Fine specimens are at the Botanic Gardens \nat Kew, Regent\'s Park, &c. It was grown in the \nopen air in 1855, by Messrs. Weeks, of Chelsea. \n\nVICTOEIA STEAMEE ; sunk ; see Wrecks, \n24 May, 1881. \nVICTORIAN EXHIBITION, illustrating \n\nthe reign of queen Victoria from 1837 to 1887, was \nopened in the New Gallery, Regent street, 2 Dec. \n1891, and closed 2 April, 1892. The queen was \npatron, and the prince of Wales was active in the \nmanagement. It succeeded the Tudor, Stuart, and \nGuelph exhibitions, which see. \n\nThe Victorian exhibition illustrated events in the life of \n\nthe royal family, and the progress of the nation in \n\npolitics, philanthropy, literature, science, art, and \n\nmanufactures, by means of portraits, pictures, statues, \n\nrelics, books, models, costumes, &c. \n\nVICTOEIA UNIVERSITY constituted; is \n\nto consist of Owen\'s college, Manchester, and others ; \n\nthe charter was granted in April ; the first council \n\nmet, 14 July, 1880. \n\nVICTOEY, Man-of-War, of ioo guns, the \nfinest first-rate ship in the navy of England, was \nlost in a violent tempest near the race of Alderney, \nand its admiral, sir John Balchcn, and 100 gentle- \nmen\'s sons, and the whole crew, consisting of 1000 \nmen, perished, 8 October, 1744.\xe2\x80\x94 The Victory, the \nflag-ship of Nelson, at the "battle of Trafalgar, 21 \nOct. 1805, is kept in fine preservation at Ports- \nmouth. \n\n\n\nVICTUALLEES, an ancient trade in Eng- \nland. The Vintners\' company of London was \nfounded 1437 ; their hall rebuilt in 1823. \n\nNone shall sell less than one full quart of the best \nbeer or ale for id. and two quarts of the smaller \nsort for id. . . 1603 \n\nThe power of licensing public-houses was granted \n\nto sir Giles Mompesson and sir Francis Mitchel . 1621 \nThe number in England then was about 13,000 . ,, \nIn Great Britain about 76,000 public-houses . . 1790 \nEngland, 59,335 ; Scotland, 15,081 ; Ireland, \n\n14,080 ; total, 88,496 in 1850 \n\nIn England and Wales, 23,028 in . . . . 1889 \nPublic-houses allowed to be opened on Sundays \n\nfrom 1 o\'clock till 3, and from 5 till iip.m . 1828 \nThe prescribed time enlarged . \' . . . . 185s \n127,352 licences were issued for the sale of beer, \ncider, and perry in the United Kingdom, produc- \ning a revenue of 304,688?. ; and -93,936 licences \nfor the sale of spirits : revenue 560,557?. . . 1858 \nLicensed Victuallers\' School established . . . 1803 \nLicensed Victuallers\' Asylum established 22 Feb. 1827 \nLicensed Victuallers in the United Kingdom \n\n99.46S 187 2 \n\nBetween 100,000,000?. and 150,000,000?. said to be \ninvested in the liquor trade. The licensed vic- \ntuallers actively opposed Mr. Bruce\'s licensing \nbill, which was withdrawn . . summer of 1871 \nNew licensing act, regulating hours of opening and \nshutting, &c, passed and came into execution \n\n10 Aug. 1872 \n[It caused much irritation, and was said to have conduced \n\nto the fall of the Gladstone ministry, 1874.] \nPublic-houses in Ireland closed on Sundays, by act \n\npassed 16 Aug. 1878 \n\nPayment for licenses raised . . . June, 1880 \n\nVICTUALLING OFFICE (London), for \nmanaging the victualling of the royal navy, was \ninstituted Dec. 1663. The number of commis- \nsioners was five, afterwards seven, and then reduced \nto six. The various departments on Tower-hill, St, \nKatherine\'s, and Rotherhithe, were removed to \nDeptford in Aug. 1785, and the office to Somerset- \nhouse, 1783. In 1832 the office of commissioners \nwas abolished, and the victualling-office made one \nof five departments under the lords of the ad- \nmiralty. \n\nVIENNA (the Roman Tindobona), was capital \nof the margraviate of Austria, 984 ; virtual capital \nof the German empire, 1273 ; since 1806, capital of \nthe Austrian dominions only. Population in 1857, \n476,222; 1872, 901,000; 1880, 1,103,857; 1890, \n1,364,548 ; see Austria. \n\nVienna made an imperial city 1156 \n\nWalled and enlarged with the ransom paid for \n\nRichard I. of England, 40,000? 1194 \n\nBesieged by the Turks under Solyman the Magnifi- \ncent, with an army of 300,000 men ; but he was \nforced to raise the siege with the loss of 70,000 of \n\nhis best troops 1525* \n\nBesieged by the Turks July, 1683 \n\nThe siege raised by John Sobieski, king of Poland, \n\nwho defeats the Turkish army of 100,000, 12 Sept. ,, \nVienna taken by the French under prince Murat, \n14 Nov. 1805, evacuated ... 12 Jan. 1806 \n\nCaptured by Napoleon 1 13 May, 1S09 \n\nRestored on the conclusion of peace . 14 Oct. ,, \nCongress of sovereigns at Vienna . . Nov. 1S14 \nImperial Academy of Sciences founded . . . 1846 \nThe revolt in Hungary induces an insurrection in \nVienna ...... 13 March, 1848 \n\nThe emperor retires, 17 May ; returns . Aug. ,, \nA second insurrection : Count Latour, the war \nminister, is murdered .... 6 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe emperor again takes flight . . .7 Oct. ,, \nVienna is bombarded by Windischgratz and \n\nJellachich, 28 Oct. ; its capitulation . 30 Oct. ,, \nConferences respecting the Russo-Turkish war held \nat Vienna* 1853-5 \n\n* A conference of the four great powers, England, \nFrance, Austria, and Prussia, was held 24 July, when a \n\n\n\nVIENNA. \n\n\n\n1041 \n\n\n\nVIENNE. \n\n\n\nThe fortifications demolished, and the city enlarged \nand beautified 1857-8 \n\n"The imperial parliament (Reichsrath) assembles \nhere 31 May, i860 \n\nThe Prussians encamp near Vienna ; state of siege \nproclaimed July, 1866 \n\nVisited by the sultan .... 27 July, 1867 \n\nNew palace of the fine arts founded by the emperor \n\nabout 18 Sept. 1868 \n\n\'The great international exhibition opened by the \nemperor ; the prince of Wales and many digni- \ntaries present 1 May, 1873 \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0.{The enormous building with annexes was designed \nby Mr. Scott Russell, most ably supported by the \nAustrian engineers ; the grand central rotunda, \n312 feet in diameter, with lofty dome, is an \n\xe2\x80\xa2exaggerated Pantheon, suspended on iron girders \nin place of masonry, and dwarfs St. Peter\'s at \nRome. ] \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Great financial failures ; affect all Europe, 9 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nVisit of the czar, 1-7 June ; of the shah of Persia, \n\n30 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPrizes to exhibitors presented by the archduke \nAlbert 18 Aug. ,, \n\nVisit of Victor Emmanuel, king of Italy, 17-22 \nSept. ; of the emperor of Germany . 17-23 Oct. ,, \n\nWaterworks inaugurated by the emperor 24 Oct. ,, \n\nThe exhibition closed .... 2 Nov. ,, \n\nNew bed of the Danube inaugurated . 30 May, 1876 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Johann Zich throws a stone at Russian ambassador \n\n19 Jan. 1882 \n\nInternational art exhibition opened . 1 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Ring theatre destroyed by fire, caused by the \nfall of a large spirit lamp, 447 persons \nperished out of about 2000, 8 Dec. 1881 ; [accusa- \ntions of culpable negligence] ; imprisonment \ndecreed 16 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTfciot of shoemakers and others suppressed by mili- \ntary 7\xe2\x80\x948 Nov. ,, \n\ninternational exhibition of graphic art, &c. \n\n15 Sept.\xe2\x80\x94 1 Nov. 1883 \n\nElectric exhibition . . .16 Aug. \xe2\x80\x94 3 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nBi-centenary of the siege raised by John Sobieski, \nking of Poland, celebrated . . . 12 Sept. ,, \n\nThe imperial parliament meets in its new grand \nhouse early in Dec. ,, \n\nMuch disaffection, see Austria . . . Jan. 1884 \n\nAwful storm ; destruction of life and property \n\n10 Dec. ,, \n\n-Joseph Pircher, a gilder, secretly climbs up the \nsteeple of St. Stephen\'s cathedral and places a \nbanner on the cross (432 German feet high) and \ndescends safely . . . . 17, 18 Aug. 1886 \n\nAnarchist conspiracy to burn Vienna on the nights \nof 3, 4 Oct. ; detected ; premises in the suburbs \nfired, 27 Sept. ; 17 men arrested and houses \nsearched, bombs, &c. discovered and police \ndisguises ; announced .... 10 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\'Great international hygienic congress opened by \n, crown prince Rudolph ... 26 Sept. ,, \n\nInternational art exhibition opened . 3 March, 1888 \n\nGrand monument of the empress queen Maria \nTheresa inaugurated in the presence of the \nemperor and empress ... 13 May, ,, \n\n.note was agreed on and transmitted for acceptance to St. \nPetersburg and Constantinople, 31 July. This note was \n.accepted by the czar, 10 Aug., but the sultan required \nmodifications, which were rejected by Russia, 7 Sept. \nThe sultan\'s note (31 Dec.) contained four points : \xe2\x80\x94 \nt. The promptest possible evacuation of the princi- \npalities. 2. Revision of the treaties. 3. Maintenance \n\xe2\x80\xa2of religious privileges to the communities of all con- \nfessions. 4. A definite settlement of the convention re- \n.specting the holy places. It was approved by the four \npowers, and the conferences closed on 16 Jan. 1854. \xe2\x80\x94 A \nnew conference of plenipotentiaries, from Great Britain \n\'(lord John Russell), France (M. Dronyn de l\'Huys), \nAustria (count Buol), Turkey (Arif Effendi), and Russia \n(count Gortsehakoff), took place, March, 1854. Two \npoints, the protectorate of the principalities and the free \nnavigation of the Danube, were agreed to ; but the pro- \nposals of the powers as to the reduction of the Russian \npower in the Black Sea were rejected by the czar, and the \n\xe2\x96\xa0conference closed, 5 June, 1854. The E11.14li.sl1 and French \nenvoys\' assent to the Austrian propositions was not ap- \nproved of by their governments, and they both resigned \ntheir official positions. \n\n\n\nNational industrial exhibition opened in honour of \nthe 40th year of the emperor\'s reign, 14 May ; \nclosed 31 Oct. 1888 \n\nGrand funeral of Beethoven on the removal of his \nremains from Wahring cemetery to the central \ncemetery at Simmerung ... 22 June, ,, \n\nGoldsmith\'s exhibition opened . . 22 April, 1889 \n\nStrike of tram-car men, anti-semitic rioting sup- \npressed by the military ; close of strike, \n\n20-24 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe grand Natural History museum opened by the \nemperor 10 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nStrike of about 15,000 masons for increased pay,* \n\n31 March, 1890 \n\nGeneral agitation, with intimidation, of workmen, \n\nApril, ,, \n\nRiots suppressed by military . 8 April et seq. ,, \n\nThe great enlargement of the city by the incorpora- \ntion of the suburbs ordered, Dec. 1890, com- \npleted Dec. 1891 \n\nFrank Schneider and Rosalie his wife, sentenced to \ndeath for the cruel murder of several servant \nmaids, whom they decoyed into a wood near \nVienna June et seq., 16-29 Jan. ; he is executed \n(she is imprisoned for life) . . 17 March, 1892 \n\nInternational musical and dramatic exhibition, \npresident, arch-duke Charles Louis, opened by \nthe emperor 7 May, ,, \n\nVisit of prince Bismarck, 19-23 June ; marriage of \nhis son Herbert 21 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTREATIES OF VIENNA. \n\ni. The treaty between the emperor of Germany and the \nking of Spain, by which they confirmed to each \nother such parts of the Spanish dominions as they \nwere respectively possessed of ; and by a private treaty \nthe emperor engaged to employ a force to procure the \nrestoration of Gibraltar to Spain, and to use means \nfor placing the Pretender on the throne of Great \nBritain. Spain guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction. \n30 April, 1725. \n\n2. Treaty of alliance between the emperor of Germany, \nCharles VI., George II., king of Great Britain, and \nthe states of Holland, by which the Pragmatic Sanc- \ntion was guaranteed, and the disputes as to the \nSpanish succession terminated. (Spain acceded to \nthe treaty on the 22nd of July.) Signed 16 March, \n1731- \n\n3. Treaty of peace between the emperor Charles VI. of \nGermany and the king of France, Louis XV. , by which \nthe latter power agreed to guarantee the Pragmatic \nSanction, and Lorraine was ceded to France. Signed \n18 Nov. 1738 ; see Pragmatic Sanction. \n\n4. Treaty between Napoleon I. of France and Francis \n(II. of Germany) I. of Austria, by which Austria ceded \nto France the Tyrol. Dalmatia, and other territories, \nwhich were shortly afterwards declared to be united \nto France under the title of the Illyrian Provinces, and \nengaged to adhere to the prohibitory system adopted \ntowards England by France and Russia. 14 Oct. \n1809. \n\n5. Treaty between Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and \nPrussia, confirming the principles on which they had \nacted by the treaty of Chaumont, 1 Mar. 1814. Signed \n25 March, 1815. \n\n6. Treaty between the king of the Netherlands on the \none part, and Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and \nPrussia on the other, agreeing to the enlargement of \nthe Dutch territories, and vesting the sovereignty in \nthe house of Orange. 31 May, 1815. \n\n7. Treaty by which Denmark ceded Swedish Pomerania \nand Rugen to Prussia, in exchange for Lauenburg. \n4 June, 1815. \n\n8. Commercial treaty for twelve years between Austria \nand Prussia. Signed at Vienna, 19 Feb. 1853. \n\n9. Treaty for the maintenance of Turkey, by the repre- \nsentatives of Great Britain, France, Austria, and \nRussia. Signed 9 April, 1854. \n\n10. Treaty between Austria and Prussia and Denmark, \nby which Denmark reded the duchies. 30 Oct, 1S64. \n\n11. Treaty of peace between Austria and Italy ; Yenetia \ngiven up to Italy. 3 Oct. 1866. \n\nVIENNE, the ancient Vienna Allobrogum \n(S.E. France). Here the emperor Valentinian II. \nwas put to death by Arbogastes, 15 May, 302, and a \nshort reaction in favour of paganism followed. \n\n3 x \n\n\n\nVIGILANCE ASSOCIATION. \n\n\n\n1042 \n\n\n\nVINE. \n\n\n\nVienne was capital of the kingdom of Burgundy in \n432 and 879, and sometimes gave its name to the \nkingdom. A general council was held here in \n131 1. Vienne was annexed to the French monarchy, \n1448. \n\nVIGILANCE ASSOCIATION, see under \nNational. \n\nVIGILANCE Murder Association, see \n\nIreland, 1883. \n\nVIGO (N. W. Spain) was attacked and burned \nhy the English, under Drake and Norris in 1589. \nSir George Rooke, with the combined English and \nDutch fleets, attacked the French fleet and the \nSpanish galleons in the port of Vigo, when several \nmen-of-war and galleons were taken, and many \ndestroyed, and abundance of plate and other \nvaluable effects fell into the hands of the conquerors, \n12 Oct. 1702. Vigo was taken by lord Cobham \nin 1 7 19, but relinquished after raising contribu- \ntions. It was again taken by the British, 27 March, \n1809. \n\nVIKINGS. Scandinavian chiefs, Swedes, \nDanes, and Norsemen, who in the 4th century \nmigrated \xe2\x80\x94 eastward, to the countries beyond the \nBaltic ; westward and southward, chiefly to the \nBritish isles. \n\nMr. Paul B. Du Chaillu, in his "Viking Age," \ndescribes the Vikings as the ancestors of "the \nEnglish-speaking-Nations "... Oct. 1889 \n\nVILLA FEANCA. Near here, and Llerena, \nSpain, the British cavalry, under sir Stapleton \nCotton, defeated the French cavalry under marshal \n\nSoult, 11 April, 1812. \xe2\x80\x94 Villa Franca, a small \n\nport on the Mediterranean, near Genoa, was bought \nfor a steam-packet station by a Russian company, \nabout Aug. 1858, which caused some political \nexcitement. \xe2\x80\x94 At VlLLA FRANCA, in Lombardy, \nthe emperors of France and Austria met, on 1 1 July, \n1859 (after the battle of Solferino), and on 12 July \nsigned the preliminaries of peace, the basis of the \ntreaty of Zurich (which see) . \n\nVILLA VICIOSA. 1. in Portugal. Here \nthe Portuguese, under the French general Schom- \nberg, defeated the Spaniards, 1665. 2. in Castile, \nSpain. Here the struggle for the Spanish crown \nwas decided in favour of Philip V. by Vendome\'s \n"victory over Staremberg and the Austrians, 10 Dec. \n1710. \n\nVILLAIN, or Villein, see Slavery in \nEngland. \n\nVILLE DE HAVEE, French Atlantic mail \nsteamer, 5,100 tons, sailed from New York for \nHavre, 15 Nov. 1873 ; was run into by a Glasgow \nclipper, Lochearn, about 2 a.m.. 22 Nov., and sank \nin twelve minutes ; 226 out of 313 persons perished. \nThe crew of the Lochearn rescued 87, who were \nconveyed to Cardiff by the American vessel Tri- \nMountain, capt. Urquhart, arriving there 1 Dec. 1873 \nThe Lochearn, beginning to sink, 28 Nov., was aban- \ndoned by her crew, who were rescued by the \nBritish Queen, and brought to Plymouth 7 Dec. ,, \nOn judicial examination,"the Lochearn was exone- \nrated in England, but censured in Prance Jan. 1874 \n\nVILLETA (Paraguay, South America). Here \nLopez and the Paraguayans were totally defeated \nby the Brazilians and their allies, 11 Dec. 1868. \nLopez and 200 men fled ; 3000 prisoners were made ; \nand. the war was considered to be ended. \n\nVIMIEEA (in Portugal), where the British \nand Spanish forces, under sir Arthur Wellesley, \ndefeated the French, under marshal Junot, duke of \n\n\n\nAbrantes, 21 Aug. 1808. The attack, made with \ngreat bravery, was gallantly repulsed ; it was \nrepeated by Kellermann at the head of the French \nreserve, which was also repulsed. The French, \ncharged with the bayonet, withdrew on all points- \nin confusion, leaving many prisoners. \n\nVINCENNES, a strong castle near Paris; \xc2\xbb \nresidence of the French kings from the 12th to the \n14th centuries. Henry V. of England died at the \nBois de Vincennes, 31 Aug. 1422. At the fosse of \nthe castle, Louis due d\' Enghien was shot by order \nof Napoleon, after a hasty trial, early on the morn- \ning of 22 March, 1804. \n\nVINCENT, Cape St. (S. W. Portugal). \n\nSee Cape St. Vincent, and Rodney\'s Victories. \n\nVINCENT, ST. (West Indies), long a neutral \nisland ; but at the peace of 1763, the French agreed \nthat the right to it should be vested in the English. \nThe latter soon after engaged in a war against the \nCaribs, on the windward side of the island, who- \nwere obliged to consent to a peace, by which they \nceded a large tract of land to the British crown. In \n1779 the Caribs greatly contributed to the reduction: \nof this island by the French, who, however, restored \nit in 1783. In 1795 the French landed some- \ntroops, and again instigated the Caribs to an insur- \nrection, which was not subdued for several months. \nThe great eruption of the Souffriere mountain, after \nthe lapse of nearly a century, occurred in 1812. \nPopulation in 1861, 31,755; in 1881, 40,548; itt \n1891, 41,054 ; see Windward Isles. \nGreat destruction of life and property by a \nhurricane 16 Aug. 1886: \n\nVINCENT DE PAUL, ST., Charitable \n\nSOCIETY, founded in 1833, in France, by twelve \nyoung men. It extends its extremely beneficial \noperations into Biitain. Its power excited the \njealousy of the French government, which sup- \npressed its central committee of Paris, in Oct. 1861. \nSt. Vincent de Paul was born, 1576; established\' \nthe congregation of Lazarists, or Vincentines, 1625; \nSisters of Charity, 1634 ; a foundling hospital, 1648,. \nHe died 1660. \n\nVINCY, N. France. Here Charles Martel \ndefeated the Neustrians, 21 May, 717, and acquired! \ntheir country. \n\nVINE. The vine was planted by Noah, 2347- \nB.c. Gen. ix. 20. A colony of vine-dressers from \nPhocea, in Ionia, settled at Marseilles, and in- \nstructed the South Gauls in tillage, vine-dressing,. \nand commerce, about 600 B.C. Some think that \nvines are aborigines of Languedoc, Provence, and \nSicily, and that they grew spontaneously on the \nMediterranean shores of Italy, France, and Spain. \nThe vine was carried into Champagne, and part of \nGermany, by the emperor Probus, about a.d. 279. \nThe vine and sugar-cane were planted in Madeira \nin 1420. In the gardens of Hampton-court palace \nis an old and celebrated vine, said to surpass any \nknown vine in Europe ; see Grapes, and Wine. \nThe Tokay vines were planted in 1350. \nVine Disease. In the spring of 1845, Mr. E. Tucker, of \nMargate, observed a fungus (since named Oiclium \nTuckeri) on grapes in the hot-houses of Mr. Slater, of \nMargate. It is a whitish mildew, and totally destroys \nthe fruit. \nThe spores of this o\'i&iwm were found in the vineries at \nVersailles in 1847. The disease soon reached the trel- \nlised vines, and in 1850 many lost all their produce. \nIn 1852, it spread over France, Italy, Spain, Syria, and \nin Zante and Cephalonia attacked the currants, reduc- \ning the crop to one-twelfth of the usual amount. \nThrough its ravages, the wine manufacture in Madeira \nceased for several years. \n\n\n\nVINEGAR. \n\n\n\n1043 \n\n\n\nVISIGOTHS. \n\n\n\nMany attempts have been made to arrest the progress of \nthis disease, but without much effect. Sulphur dust is \nthe most efficacious remedy. \n\nThe disease had much abated in France, Portugal, and \nMadeira, in 1863. In 1862 Californian vines were \nintroduced into the two latter. \n\nNew malady (microscopic insect, phylloxera vastatrix). \nin S. France, observed 1865 \n\nRemedy, sulphuret of carbon, recommended by \nM. Dumas Aug. 1873 \n\nNot successful ; great destruction ; 12,000?. offered \nfor a remedy July, 1876 \n\nPhylloxera prevalent in Malaga and France; reported \nJuly, Aug. 1878 ; Portugal, Italy, Spain ; Sept.- \nNov. 1879 ; appears in Victoria, Australia, Nov. 1880 \n\nPhylloxera congress at Bordeaux . 10 \xe2\x80\x94 15 Oct. 1881 \n\nThe phylloxera is said to be exterminated in Swit- \nzerland by fire Nov. 1882 \n\nPhylloxera ravaging vines on the Douro ; conse- \nquent emigrations to Brazil ... 7 Feb. 1884 \n\nDisappearance of the phylloxera in W. France \nthrough the experimental researches of M. Pas- \nteur : prosperous vintages reported . . 1883-91 \n\nVINEGAR. The ancients had several kinds, \nwhich they used for drink. The Roman soldiers \nwere accustomed to take it in their marches. The \nBible represents Boaz, a rich citizen of Bethlehem, \nas providing vinegar for his reapers (1312 B.C.), a \ncustom still prevalent in Spam and Italy. \n\nVINEGAR-HILL (near Enniscorthy, in \n"Wexford, S. E. Ireland). Here the Irish rebels, \nheaded by father John, a priest, encamped and com- \nmitted many outrages on the surrounding country. \nThey were gradually surrounded by the British \ntroops, commanded by Lake, 21 June, 1798, and \nafter a fierce struggle, with much slaughter, totally \ndispersed. \n\nVINTNERS, see Victuallers. \n\nVIOL AND VIOLIN. The lyre of the Greeks \nbecame our harp, and the viol of the middle ages \nbecame the violin. The violin is mentioned as early \nas 1200, in the legendary life of St. Christopher. It \nwas introduced into England, some say, by Charles \nII. Straduarius (or Stradivarius) of Cremona, was \na renowned violin-maker (1700 to 1722). The \neminent violinist Paganini visited England, 1831 ; \ndied at Nice, 27 May, 1840. \n\nVIRGINALS; an early keyed instrument of \nthe kind termed clavichords ; used in the 16th and \n17th centuries; played on by queen Elizabeth and \nMary queen of Scots. According to Johnson, it \nowed its name to young women being the usual \n.performers. Tallis, Morley, Purcell, Gihbons, and \nBull composed for this instrument. \n\nVIRGINIA, see Home, 449 b.c. \n\nVIRGINIA, the first British settlement in \nNorth America, was discovered by John Cabot in \n1497, and was taken possession of for Raleigh, and \nnamed after the virgin-queen Elizabeth, 13 July, \n1584. Vain attempts were made to settle it in 1585. \nTwo expeditions were formed by patent in 1606, and \nothers in 1610. In 1626 it reverted to the crown ; \nand a more permanent colony was established soon \nafterwards. George Washington was delegate for \nVirginia in the congress of 1774. Eastern Virginia \nseceded from the Union, 25 April, 1861, but "Western \nVirginia declared for the Union, 13 Feb. and elected \na governor, 20 Feb. 1861 ; became a state 1863. \nVirginia was a chief seat of the war. The state was \nreadmitted to the congress, Jan. -Feb. 1870; see \nUnited Slates, and Richmond. Population in 1880, \n1,512,565; 1890, 1,655,980; capital, Richmond. \nWestern Virginia, population, 1880, 618,457 ; 1890, \n762,794; capital, Wheeling. \n\nVIRGINIA CITY, see Nevada. \n\n\n\nVIRGIN ISLANDS (West Indies), an eastern \ngroup discovered by Columbus, (1494) : Virgin \nGorda, Tortola, Anegada, &c, and the Danish Isles, \nSt. Thomas, Santa Cruz, and St. John. Population \nof the British possessions in 1891, was 4,639. See \nLeeivard Isles. \nTortola settled by Dutch buccaneers about 1648 ; \n\nexpelled by the English (who have held it since) 1666 \nSt. Thomas settled by Danes 1672, and St. John \na few years after; held by the British 1801-2 ; \n1807-15 ; proposed sale to the United States for \n1,500,500?. to be made a "territory." Danish \nproclamation, 25 Oct. 1867 ; purchase declined \nby U. S. senate ... 23 March, May, 1870 \nBy a dreadful hurricane off St. Thomas, the Royal \nMail steamers Rhone and Wye were entirely \nwrecked ; the Conway and Derwent, and above 50 \nother vessels, driven ashore ; about 1000 persons \nsaid to have perished . . . .29 Oct. 1867 \nMuch suffering was occasioned in Tortola ; houses \nblown down or unroofed, <fec. (a report reached \nLondon that the isle was submerged). \nEarthquake at St. Thomas\'s and other isles ; much \n\ndamage ; few lives lost .... Nov. , , \nSanta Cruz. A negro insurrection, in which M. Fon- \ntaine, a planter, was killed ; Fredrikstadt and 36 \nout of 50 sugar plantations were burnt, and about \n3000 whites rendered homeless. During the sup- \npression by col. Garde, the governor, about 200 \nnegroes were killed . . . .1-5 Oct. 1878 \n\nVIRGINIUS, American blockade-runner, see \nCuba, 1873. \n\nVIRGIN MARY. The Assumption of the \nVirgin is a festival in the Greek and Latin churches, \nin honour of the miraculous ascent of Mary into \nheaven, according to their belief, 15 Aug. a.d. 45. \nThe Presentation of the Virgin is a feast celebrated \n21 Nov., said to have been instituted among the \nGreeks in the nth century ; its institution in the \nWest is ascribed to pope Gregory XL 1372 ; see \nAnnunciation, and Conception, Immaculate. \n\nVIRTUE, League OF, see Tugcndbund. \n\nVISCONTI, the name of a noble Italian \nfamily, which ruled in Milan from about 1277 to \n1447 ; the heiress of the family was married to \nFrancesco Sforza, who became duke 1450. \n\nVISCOUNT (Vice Conies), anciently the name \nof the deputy of an earl. The first viscount in \nEngland created by patent was John, lord Beaumont, \nwhom Henry VI. created viscount Beaumont, giving \nhim precedence above all barons, 10 Feb. 1440. \nAshmole. This title is of older date in Ireland and \nFrance. John Barry, lord Barry, was made vis- \ncount Buttevant,\' in Ireland, 9 Rich. II. 1385. \nBeatson. \n\nVISIBLE SPEECH, a term applied by Mr. \nAlex. Melville Bell to his "Universal Self-Inter- \npreting Physiological Alphabet," comprising thirty \nsymbols representing the conformations of the \nmouth when uttering sounds. He stated that about \nfifty differeut types would be required to print all \nknown languages with these symbols. He ex- \npounded his system to the Society of Arts, London, \n14 March, 1866; and published a book in 1867. \n\nVISIGOTHS, separated from the Ostrogoths \nabout 330 ; see Goths. The emperor Valcns, about \n369, admitted them into the Roman territories upon \nthe condition of their serving when wanted in the \nRoman armies; and Thcodosius the Greal permitted \nthem to form distinct corps commanded by theirown \nofficers. In 400, under Alaric, they invaded Italy, \nand in 410 took Rome. They founded their king- \ndom of Toulouse, 414; conquered the Alani, ami \nextended their rule in(<> Spain, 41 1 ; expelled the \nRomans in 468; and finally were themselves con- \n\n3x2 \n\n\n\nVISITATIONS. \n\n\n\n1044 \n\n\n\nVOLSCI. \n\n\n\nquered by the Saracens under Muza, in 711, when \ntheir last king, Roderic, was defeated and slain ; see \nSpain for a list of the Visigothic kings. Their rule \nin France ended with their defeat by Clovis at \nVougle, in 507. \n\nVISITATIONS, see Heralds. \n\nVITAL FORCE, defined by Humboldt " as an \nunknown cause preventing the elements from obey- \ning their primitive affinities." This theory is now \nopposed by many physiologists, and animal motion \nis attributed to muscular and nervous irritability, \nillustrated by the researches of Galvani, Humboldt, \nsir Charles Bell, Marshall Hall, and others. The \nsubject has been much discussed recently by Huxley \nand other eminent physiologists. \n\nVITI ISLES, see Fiji. \n\nVITTOEIA (N. Spain), the site of a victory \nobtained by Wellington over the French army com- \nmanded by Joseph Bonaparte, king of Spain, and \nmarshal Jourdan, 21 June, 1813. The hostile armies \nwere nearly equal, from 70,000 to 75,000 each. \nAfter a long and fearful battle, the French were \ndriven, towards evening, through the town of Vit- \ntoria, and in then- retreat were thrown into irre- \ntrievable confusion. The British loss was 22 officers \nand 479 men killed; 167 officers and 2640 men \nwounded. Marshal Jourdan lost 151 pieces of can- \nnon, 451 waggons of ammunition, all his baggage, \nprovisions, cattle, and treasure, with his baton as a \nmarshal of France. Continuing the pursuit on the \n25th, "Wellington took Jourdan\' s only remaining \ngun. Population, 1887, 27,660. \n\nVIVARIUM, see Aquavivarium. \n\nVIVISECTION- Physiological experiments \nupon living animals having much increased, the \nsocieties for the prevention of cruelty to animals in \nDresden and Paris in 1859 requested the opinion of \na committee of eminent scientific men on the merits \nof the knowledge thus acquired. Their judgment \nwas not unanimous. The London society took up \nthe question in i860 ; and printed a pamphlet by \nMr. G. Macilwain against vivisection. In Aug. \n1862 an international conference to discuss the \nquestion was held at the Crystal Palace, Sydenham. \nThe subject was discussed in 1866, and a prize \nawarded by the London society. Sir Charles Bell\'s \nopinion of vivisection was, that it either obscured \nthe subject it was meant to illustrate, or misled men \ninto practical errors of the most serious character. \nOpposition to vivisection continued, 1892. \nDiscussion revived in consequence of the prosecu- \ntion of Dr. Schiff in Florence, who justified vivi- \nsection when chloroform or any other anaesthetic \n\nis used , . . 1873-6 \n\nKival societies : 1. Society for the abolition of \nvivisection, 1875 ; 2. International Association for \ntotal suppression of vivisection .... 1876 \nCommission (viscount Cardwell, professor Huxley \nand others) to inquire into the practice, appointed \n23 June, 1875 ; report signed, 8 Jan. ; published, \nMarch, 1876; a bill to regulate vivisection (cruelty \nto animals act) brought into parliament ; strongly \nopposed by the medical profession in general, \nJune, July ; passed, 15 Aug. 1876. Vivisectors \nare to have a licence or certificate. \nResolution in favour of vivisection passed by the \n\nInternational Medical Congress, London 9 Aug. 1881 \nThe prosecution of prof. Ferrier (who had experi- \nmented on the brains of monkeys under anaes- \nthetics) and others failed . . . . \' Nov. ,, \nDr. Koch, of Berlin, demonstrates that tubercular \ndisease can be propagated by organisms termed \n\nbacilli 1882 \n\nMr. R. T. Reid\'s bill to prohibit vivisection, talked \n\nout 4 April, 1883 \n\nReport for 1883 : Great Britain, 44 licences ; 535 \n\n\n\nexperiments ; Ireland, 8 licences : 34 experiments ; \nanaesthetics employed when required. \n441 experiments in Great Britain in ... 1884 \n\nReport for 1886 and 1887 : Great Britain 64 \nlicences. In 1888 55 licences and 1,069 experi- \nments. \nInstructed by Dr. Ferrier\'s vivisection experiments, \nDr. Hughes Bennett localized in a man\'s brain a \ntumour, which was removed by Mr. Godlee \n\n25 Nov. 1884 \n\nVIZIANAGRAM, a town in Madras presi- \ndency, formerly a kingdom, among the last bul- \nwarks against the Mahomedan invasion, and a \nrefuge for Hindoo learning. The sovereigns date \nfrom the 14th century. See Vedas. \n\nVIZIER, GRAND, an officer of the Ottoman \nPorte, said to have been first appointed by Amu- \nrath I., about 1386. The office was abolished in \n1838 ; but since been frequently revived and sup- \npressed ; see Turkey. \n\nVLADIMIR (central Eussia), a city founded in \nthe 1 2th century, and the capital of a grand duchy \nfrom 1 157 to about 1328. \n\nVOCALION, a new musical instrument in \nwhich tones are produced from strings made to \nvibrate by currents of air, the joint invention of Mr. \nJames Baillie Hamilton and Mr. John Farmer \nassisted by Mr. Hermann Smith, described and \nillustrated by Mr. Hamilton at the Royal Institu- \ntion, 21 May, 1875, an( l tried successfully at \nHarrow, 23 March, 1882, and soon after at West- \nminster Abbey ; and at other places. \n\nVOIRON, see Veseronce. \n\nVOLAPIIK (from \' world \' and \' speak \') , univer- \nsal commercial language invented by M. Schleyer, \nwho taught it in Paris in Feb. 1886. The Philological \nSociety of London advocated its use in diplomacy \nand science, in 1887. The roots chiefly borrowed \nfrom Romanic, Germanic, and especially English \nlanguages shortened. There is a Volapiik Academy \nat Munich, and about 500,000 people are using or \nlearning it. \nMr. C. E. Sprague\'s handbook of Volapiik \n\npublished Jan. 1888 \n\nVolapiik reported successful and spreading in \n\nEurope and America ,, \n\nMr. P. Hoinix publishes his "Anglo Franca " in \n\nopposition to Volapiik . . . March, 1889 \n\nVOLCANOES. In different parts of the earth \nthere are above 200 volcanoes which have been \nactive in modern times ; see Etna, Vesuvius, New \nZealand, Owhyhee, and Iceland. In Mexico, a plain \nwas filled up into a mountain more than a thousand \nfeet in height by the burning lava from a volcano, \nin 1759. A volcano in the isle of Ferro broke out \n13 Sept. 1777, which threw out an immense quantity \nof red water, that discoloured the sea for several \nleagues. A new volcano appeared in one of the \nAzore islands, 1 May, 1808. \n\nVOLHYNIA, a Polish province, annexed to \nRussia 1793. \n\nVOLSCI, an ancient Latin people, frequently at \nwar with the Romans. From their capital, Corioli, \nCaius Martius (who defeated them about 490 B.C.) \nderived his name Coriolanus. The story of his \nbanishment by his ungrateful countrymen ; of his \nrevenge on them by bringing the Volsci to the gates \nof Rome, yet afterwards sparing the city at the \nentreaties of his mother, Volumnia (487 B.C.), is \nconsidered by many as a poetical legend. The \nVolsci and their allies were totally defeated at \nSutrium by the consul Valerius Corvus (346), and \nincorporated with the Roman people about 338. \n\n\n\nVOLSINIL \n\n\n\n1045 \n\n\n\nVOLUNTEEKS. \n\n\n\nVOLSINII, the inhabitants of an Etrurian city, \nwho, after a sharp contest, were completely over- \ncome by the Roman consul Titus Coruncanius, \n\n280 B.C. \n\nVOLTAIC PILE or Battery, was con- \nstructed by Galvani ; see Galvanism in article \nElectricity. The principle was discovered by Ales- \nsandro Volta, of Como (bom 1745), for thirty years \nprofessor of natural philosophy at Pavia, and an- \nnounced by him to the Royal Society of London in \n1793. The battery was first set up in 1800. Volta \nwas made an Italian count and senator by Napoleon \nBonaparte, and was otherwise greatly honoured. \n"While young he invented the electrophorus, electric \npistol, and hydrogen lamp. He died in 1826, aged \n81. The form of the Voltaic battery has been greatly \nimproved by the researches of modern philosophers. \nThe nitric acid battery of sir W. R. Grove was \nconstructed in 1839 ; Alfred Smee\'s battery in 1840; \nthe carbon battery of professor Robert Bunsen in \n1842. The first is very much used in this country ; \nthat of Bunsen dn the continent, see Copper-Zinc \nCouple. \n\nVOLTURNO, a river in S. Italy, near Capua, \nnear to which Garibaldi and his followers held a \nstrong position. This was furiously assailed by the \nroyal troops on 1 Oct. i860, who were finally re- \npulsed after a desperate struggle, the fiercest in \nwhich Garibaldi had yet been engaged. He was \naided greatly by a band of Piedmontese from \nNaples. On 2 Oct. general Bixio completed the \nvictory by capturing 2500 fresh Neapolitan troops \nand dispersing others. \n\nVOLUNTARY CONTRIBUTIONS. Pub- \nlie contributions for the support of the British \ngovernment against the policy and designs of \nFrance amounted to two millions and a half ster- \nling in 1798. About 200,000(?. were transmitted to \nEngland from India in 1799. Sir Robert Peel, of \nBury, among other contributions of equal amount, \nsubscribed 10,000/. Annual Register; see Pa- \ntriotic Fund. In 1862 nearly a million pounds were \nsubscribed in the British empire for the relief of the \nLancashire cotton spinners ; see Cotton and Mansion \nHouse, where voluntary contributions for beneficent \npurposes are continually received. \n\nVOLUNTEERS were enrolled in England for \nthe American war, 1778, and especially in conse- \nquence of the threatened invasion of revolutionary \nFrance, 1793-4. Besides our large army, and \n85,000 men voted for the sea, we subsidised 40,000 \nGermans, raised our militia to 100,000 men, and \narmed the citizens as volunteers; the yeomanry \nformed cavalry regiments. Between 1798 and 1804, \nwhen this force was of greatest amount, it num- \nbered 410,000, of which 70,000 were Irish ; + Yeo- \nmanry in 1884, 11,400. On 26 Oct. 1803, king \n\n\n\n* The first regiment of Irish volunteers was formed \nat Dublin, under command of the duke of Leinster, 12 \nOct. 1779. They armed generally to the amount of \n20,000 men, and received the unanimous thanks of the \nhouses of lords and commons in Ireland, for their \npatriotism and spirit, for coming forward and defending \ntheir country. At the period when the force appeared, \nIrish affairs bore a serious aspect ; manufactures had \ndecreased, and foreign trade had been hurt by a pro- \nhibition of the expoi-t of salted provisions and butter. \nNo notice of the complaints of the people had been taken \nin the English parliament, when, owing to the alarm of \nan invasion, ministers allowed the nation to arm, and an \nimmense force was soon raised. The Irish took this \noccasion to demand a free trade, and government saw \nthere was no trifling with a country with anus in its \nhands. The Irish parliament unanimously addressed the \nking for a free trade, and it was granted 1779. \n\n\n\nGeorge III. reviewed in Hyde Park 12,401 London \nvolunteers, and on 28 Oct. 14,676 more. The Eng- \nlish volunteers were, according to official accounts, \n341,600 on 1 Jan. 1804; see Naval Volunteers. In \nMay, 1859, in consequence of the prevalence of the \nfear of a French invasion, the formation of volun- \nteer corps of riflemen commenced under the auspices \nof the government, and by the end of the year \nmany thousands were enrolled in all parts of the \nkingdom. The volunteers were said to be " a force \npotentially the strongest defence of England," 19 \nApril, 1870 ; see Artillery Association, and Naval \nArtillery Volunteer Force. \n\nYeomanry were enrolled by lord Chatham in 1761. \nThe present 49 regiments of cavalry (about 300 \n\neach), cost 80,000?. 1870 \n\nThe number of yeomanry - 1876, 12,093 ; 1880, \n11,598; 1885, it, 590; 1890, 10,697. \n\n[The first Middlesex volunteers were formed in \n1803 as the duke of Cumberland\'s sharpshooters. \nThey retained their organisation as a rifle club, \nwhen other volunteers were disbanded. In 1835 \nthey were permitted by the duchess of Kent to \ntake the name of the Royal Victoria Rifle Club.] \n\nCircular letter from col. Jonathan Peel, proposing \norganization of National Volunteer Association for \npromoting the practice of Rifle-shooting, 12 May, \n1859. It was established in London, under the \npatronage of the queen and prince consort, Mr. \nSidney (afterwards lord) Herbert, secretary at \nwar, president, and the earl of Derby, earl Spencer, \nlord Elcho, and other noblemen vice-presidents. \n(Annual subscription one guinea, or a composition \nfor life of ten guineas) . . . 16 Nov. 1859 \n\n2500 volunteer officers presented to the queen; a \ndinner followed, with the duke of Cambridge in \nthe chair; and a ball .... 7 March, i860 \n\nThe queen reviews about 18,450 volunteers in \nHyde-park 23 June, ,, \n\n[Mr. Tower, of "Weaklhall, Essex, aged 80, was pre- \nsent as a private ; he had been present as an \nofficer in a volunteer review in 1803.] \n\nFirst meeting of the National Association for rifle- \nshooting held at Wimbledon. The queen fired the \nfirst shot, a "centre" ; captain Edw. Ros? (North \nYork) obtained the queen\'s prize of 250I. and the \ngold medal and badge of the association 2-7 July, i860 \n[M. Thorel, a Swiss, obtained a prize. J \n\nSuccessful sham-fight at Bromley, Kent 14 July, ,, \n\nAbove 20,000 volunteers reviewed by the queen at \nEdinburgh 7 Aug. ,, \n\nAbove 10,000 Lancashire volunteers reviewed by \nthe earl of Derby at Knowsley . . 1 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLord Herbert stated that the association had a \ncapital of 3000Z. and an annual income of 1500Z., \n\n16 Feb. 1861 \n\nVolunteers in Britain estimated at about 160,000, \n\nMay, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSecond meeting at Wimbledon ; Mr. Jopling (S. \nMiddlesex) gains the queen\'s prize and the asso- \nciation medal 4-10 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nReview of 11,504 volunteers at Wimbledon, 13 July: \nof 9000 at Warwick .... 24 July, ,, \n\nRegistered number of volunteers, 162,681 1 April, 1862 \n\n20,000 volunteers reviewed by lord Clyde at \nBrighton 21 April, 1862 \n\nThird meeting at Wimbledon ; Mr. Pixley (S. Vic- \ntoria) gains the queen\'s prize, <fec. 1-14 July, \' \n\nA commission recommends that an annual grant of \neither 20s. , 30s. , or 34s. , be given to each volun- \nteer according to circumstances . . Oct. , \n\nFourth meeting at Wimbledon, 7 July, &c. : queen\'s \nprize, <fcc., won by sergeant Roberts (12th Shrop- \nshire) 14 July, 1863 \n\nAn act to amend and consolidate the acts relating \nto the volunteer force of Great Britain was passed, \n\n21 July, ., \n[Annual grant of 30s. to each volunteer autho- \nrised.) \n\n22,000 volunteers reviewed by the prince of Wales \nin Hyde-nark (great improvement noticed). \n\n28 May, i\xc2\xa364 \n\nFifth meeting at Wimbledon, n July. &c; the \nqueen\'s prize, &c, won by private .John Wyatt \n(London rifle brigade) ... 23 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nVOLUNTEERS. \n\n\n\n1046 \n\n\n\nVOLUNTEERS. \n\n\n\nVolunteers estimated at 165,000 in 1864. \n\nSixth meeting at Wimbledon, began 11 July; the \nqueen\'s prize was won by private Sharman (4th \nWest York), 18 July; the meeting ended with a \nreview by the duke of Cambridge . 22 July, 1865 \n\nSeoenth meeting at Wimbledon, began 9 July; \nqueen\'s prize won by Angus Cameron (6th Inver- \nness), 17 July; the value of about 7000?. distri- \nbuted in prizes; and review by duke of Cam- \nbridge 21 July, 1866 \n\nThe volunteers reviewed by the prince of Wales at \nBrighton, 2 April; at York, n Aug.; by duke of \nCambridge at Hyde-park ... 23 June, ,, \n\nEstimate of volunteers : 135,000 infantry, 27,000 \nartillery, and 4000 engineers. \xe2\x80\x94 Times . 9 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAbout 1 100 volunteers visit Brussels, headed by col. \nLoyd Lindsay : warmly received ; first prize \ngained by Curtis, of the nth Sussex rifles, \n\n11-22 Oct. ,, \n\nParliamentary vote for volunteers, 361,009?. \n\n6 June, 1867 \n\nMetropolitan and Berkshire volunteers reviewed in \nWindsor Great Park . . . .10 June, ,, \n\nEighth meeting at Wimbledon, began 8 July ; Bel- \ngian Garde civique and volunteers (above 2000) \nreceived by prince of Wales, 13 July; resignation \nof lord Elcho, chairman of the council ; succeeded \nby earl Spencer, 18 July ; grand review by prince \nof Wales, the sultan, cfcc. ; the queen\'s prize given \nto sergeant Lane (Bristol) by the princess of Teck, \n\n20 July, ,, \n\nGrand review in New Sefton park, Liverpool, 5 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAbout 28,000 volunteers reviewed by the queen at \nWindsor 20 June, 1868 \n\nEeview of regulars and volunteers at Edinburgh, \n\n4 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNinth meeting at Wimbledon, 13 July; the queen\'s \nprize gained by lieut. Carslake (5th Somerset), \n\n25 July, ,, \n\nLord Elcho re-elected chairman of the council (earl \nSpencer resigned) ..... Feb. 1869 \n\nMemorial to government respecting the capitation \ngrant ; signed by noblemen and gentlemen, \n\n19 Feb. ,, \n\nVolunteers reported to number 170,000 . . . ,, \n\nBeview of volunteers of southern and western \ncounties at Portsmouth . . 26 April, ,, \n\nTenth meeting at Wimbledon 3 July ; queen\'s prize \ngained by corporal Angus Cameron (6th Inver- \nness), 2nd time, 13 July; grand review 24 July, 1869 \n\nVolunteers\' act, 1863, amended . . 9 Aug. ,, \n\n\'"Army Service. Corps" to be composed of volun- \nteers; established^ by royal warrant 12 Nov. ,, \n\nEleventh meeting at Wimbledon, n July; queen\'s \nprize won by corporal Humphries (6th Surrey), \n\nig July, 1870 \n\nLetter from the lord mayor recommending the en- \nlargement of the volunteer system, and its greater \nefficiency . . . . - . .22 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nEstablishment of an extensive rifle range, drill \nground, armoury, &c, for the London volunteers \nresolved on 3 Oct. ,, \n\nDistribution of breech-loaders commenced Nov. ,, \n\nThe volunteers recognised as part of the national \narmy 1871 \n\nLord Elcho (chairman) resigned ; succeeded by the \nearl of Ducie June, ,, \n\nTwelfth meeting at Wimbledon, 8 July; queen\'s \nprize won by ensign A. P. Humphry, undergra- \nduate (Cambridge university), aged 19 18 July, 1871 \n\nVote for volunteer force, 1872-3, 473,200?. 24 June, 1872 \n\nThirteenth meeting at Wimbledon, 8 July; queen\'s \nprize won by colour-sergeant Michie (London \nScottish) 16 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Elcho shield, the International trophy, and the \nIrish International trophy (all won by the Eng- \nlish) placed in the custody of the lord mayor, \n\n27 July, ,, \n\nSome volunteers visit Ghent . . 14-21 Sept. \n\nFourteenth meeting at Wimbledon, 7 July ; queen\'s \nprize won by sergeant Robert Mcnzies (1st Edin- \nburgh) I5 July, 1S73 \n\nVolunteers visit Havre ; shoot for prizes ; 50 obtain \nprizes, end of May ; given . . 29 June, 1874 \n\nFifteenth meeting at Wimbledon, 6 July ; queen\'s \nprize won by private W. C. Atkinson (1st Durham) \n\n14 July, ,, \n\nAn "efficient volunteer" defined by order in \n\n\n\ncouncil (substitute for schemes of 27 July, 1863, \nand 15 Oct. 1872) Aug. 1874 \n\nResignation of earl of Ducie as chairman . April, 1875 \n\nSixteenth meeting at Wimbledon, 12 July ; queen\'s \nprize won by capt. George Pearse (15th Devon) \n\n20 July, ,, \n\n175,387 enrolled volunteers 1874 ; 181,080, . . ,, \n\n30,000 volunteers reviewed by the prince of Wales \nin Hyde Park (" complete success." \xe2\x80\x94 Times.) \n\n1 July, 1876 \n\nSeventeenth meeting at Wimbledon, 10-22 July ; \nqueen\'s prize won by sergeant Pullman, 2nd \n(South) Middlesex .... 18 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n185,501 enrolled volunteers ,, \n\nEighteenth meeting at Wimbledon, 9-21 July ; \nqueen\'s prize won by private George Jamieson \n(a Scot), of 15th Lancashire corps (Liverpool) \n\n17 July, 1877 \n\nNineteenth meeting at Wimbledon, 8-20 July ; \nqueen\'s prize won by private Peter Ray (a Scot), \nnth Stirling 16 July, 1878 \n\n203,213 enrolled volunteers . . . Nov. ,, \n\nTwentieth meeting at Wimbledon, 14-26 July ; \nqueen\'s prize won by corporal George Taylor, \n47th Lancashire 22 July, 1879 \n\nInternational trophy won by England . 19 July, ,, \n\nStandard of efficiency : 69 per cent. 1863 ; 85 per \ncent. 1868 ; 96 per cent. . . . . . 1880 \n\nEarl Stanhope elected chairman in room of earl \nWharncliffe May, ,, \n\nTwenty-first meeting at Wimbledon, 12 \xe2\x80\x94 24 July; \nQueen\'s prize won by Alexander Ferguson, private \n1st Argyll 21 July, ,, \n\nEast York volunteer artillery corps resign on ac- \ncount of dismissal of col. Humphrey (through \ncontinued personal disagreements), 16 June ; \nresignations said to be illegal . . 29 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSergeant Wm. Marshman, tried by court-martial for \nalleged fraudulent marking at the rifle meetings, \n1878, 1879, 1880, acquitted . 13 Aug. \xe2\x80\x94 16 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nEarl Stanhope, chairman, succeeded by earl Brown- \nlow 4 May, 1881 \n\nAbove 52,000 volunteers reviewed by the queen at \nWindsor, 9 July. ["A magnificent success ; the \ncrowning achievement of the volunteer move- \nment." \xe2\x80\x94 Times, n July] \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAbout 40,000 Scotch volunteers reviewed by the \nqueen, in Queen\'s-park, Edinburgh . .25 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTwenty-second meeting at Wimbledon, 11-23 July: \nqueen\'s prize won by private Thomas Beck, 3rd \nDevon 19 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTwenty-third meeting at Wimbledon, 10 \xe2\x80\x94 22 July ; \nqueen\'s prize won by sergeant Lawrence, 1st \nDumbarton 18 July, 1882 \n\nEnrolled volunteers, 207,336 . . .1 Nov. ,, \n\nTwenty-Jonrth meeting at Wimbledon, 9 \xe2\x80\x94 21 July ; \nqueen\'s prize won by sergeant Mackay, 1st \nSutherland ..... 17 July, 1883 \n\nInternational rifle match between British and \nAmericans : won by British . . 21 July, ,, \n\nTwenty-fifth meeting at Wimbledon, 14 \xe2\x80\x94 26 July ; \nqueen\'s prize won by private Gallant, 8th Mid- \ndlesex 22 July, 1884 \n\nVolunteers exercised in camping out ; sham conflicts \nin Berkshire and other counties . . Aug. ,, \n\nVolunteers Forces\' Benevolent Association, inau- \ngurated 6 July, 1885 \n\nTwenty-sixth meeting at Wimbledon, 13 \xe2\x80\x94 25 July; \nqueen\'s prize won by sergeant Bulmer, 2nd Lin- \ncoln 21 July, ,, \n\nTwenty-seventh meeting at Wimbledon, 12-24 July ; \nqueen\'s prize won by private Jackson, of 1st \nV. B. Lincoln (one of three ties) . 21 July, 1886 \n\nEnrolled volunteers, 224,012, Nov. 1885 ; 226,752 \n\nNov. ,, \n\n28,000 volunteers reviewed by the queen at Bucking- \nham palace ; inarch past in i\\ hours . 2 July, 1887 \n\nTwenty-eighth meeting at Wimbledon, 11-23 July! \nqueen\'s prize won by lieut. R. 0. Warren, 1st \nMiddlesex, (Victoria) rifles, Middlesex 19 July, ,, \n\nLord Wantage elected chairman, 1887 ; active in \nsearch of a site in place of Wimbledon . . . 188S \n\nOrder issued for the formation of 95,000 volunteers \ninto 19 brigades for immediate mobilisation for \nhome defence 3 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTwenty-ninth meeting at Wimbledon, 9-21 July ; \nqueen\'s prize won by private Fulton, 13th \nMiddlesex (queen\'s Westminsters) rifles, 17 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nVOLUNTEERS. \n\n\n\n1047 \n\n\n\nYULGATE. \n\n\n\nBrookwood to be called Bisley common, chosen for \n1890 28 Feb. \n\nEstimated grant for 220,000 men, 742,700?. April, \n\nThirtieth meeting at Wimbledon . . 8-20 July, \n\nQueen\'s prize won by sergeant Eeid (1st Lanark \nEngineers) 16 July, \n\nPatriotic volunteer fund started by lord mayor \nWhitehead in the spring ; he appeals for sub- \nscriptions for the full equipment of a citizen \n.army, equal to that of the regulars. The prince of \nWales 105L, 1 June ; the queen 200L 2 July ; many \nothers ; about 42,000?. subscribed . 20 Nov. \n\nEnrolled volunteers, 224,021 . . . 1 Nov. \n\nOapt. St. John Mildmay, secretary since i860, re- \nsigns, 6 Sept. ; succeeded by Mr. A. P. Humphry, \n\nNov. \n\n"The council determines to appeal to the public for \nfunds, and to obtain a charter of incorporation, \n11 Feb. ; this was granted and signed by the \nqueen . .... 25 Nov. \n\nParliament votes 100,000?. for volunteer equipment, \n\n17 April, \n\nThirty-first meeting (the first at Bisley common), \n12-26 July ; the camp opened, the prince and \nprincess of Wales and the duke of Cambridge \npresent ; the princess fired the first shot, a \n"bull\'s eye" 12 July, \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Queen\'s prize won by sergeant Bates (1st Warwick), \n\n22 July, \n\nMeeting very successful \n\n[The Rifle Association includes 76 county asso- \nciations in Great Britain, 4 in Ireland, and 64 \nin India and the colonies.] \n\nEnrolled volunteers, 221,048 ... 31 Oct. \n\nKeview of about 25,000 volunteers at Wimbledon \nby the German emperor . . . n July, : \n\nThirty-second meeting (the second at Bisley com- \nmon) 13-24 July, \n\nQueen\'s prize w x on by private D. Dear (Queen\'s \nEdinburgh) 21 July, \n\nThirty-third meeting (the third at Bisley common), \nn-23 July ; Queen\'s prize won by major Pollock \n(3rd Renfrew) 23 July, \n\n""The Volunteer Officers\' Decoration" (an oak \nwreath in silver tied with gold, having in the \ncentre the royal cipher and crown in gold) for \ncommissioned officers who have served 20 years, \ninstituted by the queen ... 25 July, \n\nAbout 13,000 volunteers engaged in the army \nmanoeuvres Aug. \n\n\n\nEASTER MONDAY REVIEWS AND SHAM FIGHTS. \n\nBrighton . . 21 April, 1862, and 5 April, 1863 \n\nGuildford 28 March, 1864 \n\nBrighton . . 17 April, 1865 ; and 2 April, 1866 \n\nDover 22 April, 1867 \n\nPortsmouth (the most successful hitherto, 29,490 \n\nvolunteers present) . . . 13 April, 1868 \n\nDover (bad weather) .... 29 March, 1869 \n\nBrighton, 18 April, 1870; (considered a failure) \n\n10 April, 1871 \n\nMock battle between sir Arthur Hors- \n\nford (12,180 men, 22 guns) and gen. Lysons (11,082 \n\nmen, 20 guns) 1 April, 1872 \n\nSmall reviews at Wimbledon and other places, \n14 April, 1873 ; 6 April, 1874 ; 29 March, 1S75 ; \natTring, &c, 17 April, 1876 ; at Dunstable, &c. , 2 \nApril, 1877; at Staines, &c. , 22 April, 1878; at \nDover, Reigate, Wimbledon, &c, 14 April, 1879 ; \nBrighton, battle, successful ; 29 March, 1S80 ; \n18 April, 1881 ; Portsmouth, 20,000 ("Genuine \nsuccess," Times), 10 April, 1882 ; Brighton (evolu- \ntions very successful), 26 March, 1883 ; Dover, \nPortsmouth, &C, (i2-)i4 April, 1884; Brighton \nand Dover, 6 April, 1885 ; at Dover, Portsmouth, \nColchester &c, 26 April, 1886; successful mili- \ntary operations at Dover, Eastbourne, and \nAldershot, 11 April, 1887 ; campaign operations \nand battles, invasions, &c. at Portsmouth, \nDover, Eastbourne &c, 30, 31 March; battles: \ninvaders successful at Portsmouth . 2 April, 1888 \nMeetings fur brigade drill, &c, Eastbourne, Ports- \nmouth, Dover, Brighton, and other places, \n22 April, 1889; Folkestone, Eastbourne, Ports- \nmouth, &c, 7 April, 1890. Portsmouth, hover, \nBrighton, <fcc, 30 March, 1891. At Dover, battle \n\n\n\nof St. Margaret\'s ; invaders under col. J. C. \nRussel, defenders under col. J. B. Sterling. At \nChatham, battle of the Bells ; invaders under \nlieut. gen. Goodenough, defenders under major- \ngen. Dawson Scott .... 18 April, 1892- \n\nElcho Challenge Shield, shot for by teams, \nand kept by the winning nation : \n\nWon by England: 1862, 1863, 1865, 1867, 1868, 1870, \n1871. 1872, 1876, 1881 (July 22), 1882 (July 20), \n1885 (July 23), 1887 (July 21), 1891 (July 23). \n\nScotland: 1864, 1866, 1869, 1874, 1879 (July 24). \n\nIreland : 1873, 1875, 1877, 1878, 1880 (July 22), \n1883 (July 19), 1884 (July 24), 1886 (July 22), 1888 \n(July 19), 1889 (July 18), 1890 (24 July), 1892, (23 \nJuly). \n\nVolunteer Medical Staff Corps established, announced \n\n23 March, 1885 \n\nVOSSEM, PEACE OF, between the elector of \nBrandenburg and Louis XIV. of France ; the latter \nengaged not to assist the Dutch against the elector ; \nsigned 6 June, 1673. \n\nVOTING PAPEES. See Dodson\'s Act. The \n\nproposal to use them was negatived in the debates \non reform in 1867; adopted by the ballot act in 1873. \nSee Ballot. \n\nVOUGLE or VOTJILLE, S.W. France (near \nPoitiers), where Alaric II., king of the Visigoths, \nwas defeated and slain by Clovis, king of France, \n507, who subdued the whole country from the Loire \nto the Pyrenees. A peace followed between the \nFranks and Visigoths, who had been settled above \none hundred years in that part of Gaul called \nSeptimania. Clovis soon afterwards made Paris \nhis capital. \n\nVOYAGES. It is mythically stated that by \norder of Pharaoh-Necho, of Egypt, some Phoenician \npilots sailed from Egypt down the Arabian Gulf, \nround what is now called the Cape of Good Hope, \nentered the Mediterranean by the Straits of Gib- \nraltar, coasted along the north of Africa, and at \nlength arrived in Egypt, after a navigation of \nabout three years, 604 B.C. Herodotus. The first \nvoyage round the world was made by a ship, part \nof a Spanish squadron which had been under the \ncommand of Magellan (who was killed at the \nPhilippine Islands in a skirmish) in 1519-20 ; \nsee Circumnavigators, North-West Passage, and \nPeriplus. \n\nVOYSEY ESTABLISHMENT FUND. \n\nThe Rev. Charles Voysey having been deprived for \nheresy (see Church of England, 187 1), began a series \nof services at St. George\'s hall, Langham-place, 1 Oct. \n1871. The fund for their maintenance was supported \nby Bp. Hinds of Norwich (retired), Sir John Bow- \nring, and other eminent liberals. He termed his \ncongregation a "Theistic Church." \n\nVULCAN, see Planets. The Greek god He- \nphaistos answered to the Roman Vulcan. \n\nVULCANITE (vulcanised india-rubber), also \ntermed Ebonite. \n\nVULGATE (from vulgatus, published), a remi \napplied to the Latin version of the Scriptures \nwhich is authorised by the council of Trent (1546), \nand which is attributed to St. Jerome, about 384. \nThe older version, called the Italic, is said to have \nbeen made in the beginning of the 2nd century. A \ncritical edition was printed by order of pope SixtusV. \nin 1590, which, being considered inaccurate, was \nsuperseded by the edition of pope Clement VIII. in \n1592. The earliest printed vulgate is without date, \nby Grutenburg and Fust, probably about 1455, tho, \nfirst dated (Fust and Schooner) is 1462. \n\n\n\nw. \n\n\n\nWACHT. \n\n\n\nWAHABEES. \n\n\n\nWACHT DES DEUTSCHEN VATEE- \nLAND ("Watch of the German Fatherland"). \nGerman national hymn, by Eeichardt, first per- \nformed 2 Aug. 1825. Very popular during the war \n1870-71. \n\nWADHAM COLLEGE (Oxford). Founded \nby Nicholas Wadham, and Dorothy, his wife, in \n1613. In this college, in the chambers of Dr. Wil- \nkins (over the gateway), the founders of the Eoyal \nSociety frequently met prior to 1658. \n\nWAGEB OF BATTLE, see Appeal. \n\nWAGES m ENGLAND. The wages of \nsundry workmen were first fixed by act of parlia- \nment 25 Edw. III. 1350. Haymakers had but one \npenny a day. Master carpenters, masons, tilers, \nand other coyerers of houses, had not more than 3^. \nper day (about gd. of our money) ; and their ser- \nvants, i\\d. Viner\'s Statutes.* \n\nBy the 23 Henry VI. the wages of a bailiff of hus- \nbandry was 23s. 4& per annum, and clothing of \nthe price of 5s. with meat and drink ; chief hind, \ncarter, or shepherd, 20s. , clothing, 4s. ; common \nservant of husbandry, 15s. , clothing, 40^. ; woman- \nservant, ios., clothing, 4s 1444 \n\nBy the u Henry VII., a like rate of wages with a \nlittle advance: as, for instance, a free mason, \nmaster carpenter, rough mason, bricklayer, mas- \nter tiler, plumber, glazier, carver or joiner, was \nallowed from Easter to Michaelmas to take 6d. a \nday without meat and drink; or, with meat and \ndrink, ^d. ; from Michaelmas to Easter, to abate \n\n\n\nid. A master having under him six men was \nallowed a id. a day extra . . \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x96\xa0 I4 95 \nAgricultural labourers per week : "Warwickshire, \n3s. 6d. and 4s. ; Devonshire, 5s. ; Suflolk, 5s. ana \n6s. ; wool-weavers, about 3s. and 4s. (Macanlay) \n\nabout 1085, \n\nIn 1866 the annual amount of wages paid in the \nUnited Kingdom was estimated by Mr. Gladstone \nat 250,000,000?. ; by Mr. Bass at 350,000,000?. ; and \nby professor Leone Levi at 418,300,000!., earned \nby 10,697,000 workers, ages 20 to 60. \n\nIn 1872-8 many trades struck for increase of wages,, \nand frequently were successful; in 1877-9, unsuc- \ncessful . \n\nIn 1878 professor Levi estimated that 503,000,000?. \nwere earned (by men, 390,000,000?. ; by women.. \n113,000,000?.); after deducting for holidays, &c, \n422,700,000?. \n\nHe says, that "In no other country are wages more- \nliberal, but in no other country are they more \nwastefully used." See Strikes. \n\nPayment of wages in public-houses prohibited by \nact passed in . . .,;\xe2\x80\x9e:.. . . . 1883 \n\nClassified census of wages paid in the United King- \ndom in 1885, published by the Board of Trade at \nvarious times ; part iv. in 1892. \n\n\n\n1824 \n1837 \n\n\n\n1872 \n\n\n\nLABOURERS WAGES \n\nPER WEEK. \n\nS. d. \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 7 7 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n.80. \n.06. \n\n\n\nWAGES OF HARVEST-MEN IN ENGLAND AT DIFFERENT PERIODS. \n\n\n\nYear. \n\n\ns. d. \n\n\nYear. \n\n\ns. d. \n\n\nYear. \n\n\nIn 1350 \n\n\n. per diem 1 \n\n\nIn 1 716 \n\n\nper diem 9 \n\n\nIn 1800 \n\n\n1460 . \n\n\n,, 02 \n\n\n1740 . \n\n\n,, 10 \n\n\n1811 . \n\n\n1568 . \n\n\n04 \n\n\n1760 \n\n\n,, 10 \n\n\n1850 . \n\n\n1632 . \n\n\n6 \n\n\n1788 . \n\n\n\xc2\xbb 14 \n\n\n1857 \xe2\x96\xa0 \n\n\n1688 \n\n\n08 \n\n\n1794 \n\n\n1 6 \n\n\nSince then incr \n\n\n\nPER QUARTER. \n\ns. d. \n\n62 o \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 55 10 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 53 3 \n. 48 2 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 57 1 \n\ns. d.. \n\n. per diem 2 o \n\n\xe2\x80\x9e 2 ih \n\n3\xc2\xb0 \n\n50 \n\n\n\nWAGGONS were rare in the last century. \nThey, with carts, &c, not excepting those used in \nagriculture, were taxed in 1783. The carriers\' \nwaggons are now nearly superseded by the rail- \nways. \n\nWAGHOENS NEW OVEELAND \n\nEOUTE TO INDIA. Lieut. Waghorn devoted \na large portion of his life to connect India with \nEngland. On 31 Oct. 1845, he arrived in London, \nby a new route, with the Bombay mail of the 1st of \nthat month. His despatches reached Suez on the \n19th, and Alexandria on the 20th, whence he pro- \nceeded by steamboat to a place twelve miles nearer \nLondon than Trieste. He hurried through Austria, \nBaden, Bavaria, Prussia, and Belgium, and reached \nLondon at half-past four on the morning of the \nfirst-mentioned day. The authorities of the differ- \nent countries through which he passed eagerly \nfacilitated his movements. The ordinary express, \nviu Marseilles, reached London 2 Nov. following. \nMr. Waghorn subsequently addressed a letter to \nthe Times newspaper, in which he stated that in a \ncouple of years he would bring the Bombay mail to \nLondon in 21 days. He died 8 Jan. 1850. On \n3 Feb. 1884, at a meeting at the Mansion -house, \n\n* Mr. J. E. Thorold Rogers, "Six Centuries of Work \nand Wages," published in 1884. \n\n\n\nLondon, it was determined to erect a national \n\nmonument to his mem or . \n\nThe Overland Mail, which had left Bombay on 1 Dec. \n1845, arrived early on the 30th in London, by way of \nMarseilles and Paris. The speedy arrival was owing \nto the great exertions made by the French government \nto show that the route through Fiance was shorter \nand better. \n\nWAGNEEISM, see under Music. \n\nWAGE AM, a village near Vienna, where \nNapoleon I. totally defeated the archduke Charles, \n5, 6 July, 1809. The slaughter on both sides was \ndreadful ; 20,000 Austrians were taken by the \nFrench, and the defeated army retired to Moravia. \nAn armistice was signed on the 12th; and on 24 \nOct., by a treaty of peace, Austria ceded all her \nsea-coast to France; the kingdoms of Saxony and \nBavaria were enlarged at her expense ; part of \nPoland in Galicia was ceded to Russia ; and Joseph \nBonaparte was recognised as king of Spain. \n\nWAHABEES or WAHABITES, a warlike \nMahometan reforming sect, considering themselves \nthe only true followers of the prophet, established \nthemselves in Arabia about 1750, under the rule of \nAbd-el-Wahab, who died 1787. His grandson, \nSaoud, in 1801, defeated an expedition headed by \nthe caliph of Bagdad. In 1803 this sect seized \n\n\n\nWAHLSTATT. \n\n\n\n1049 \n\n\n\nWALES. \n\n\n\nMecca and Medina, and continued their conquests, \nalthough their chief was assassinated in the midst \nof his victories. His son, Abdallah, long resisted \nMahommed Ali, pacha of Egypt, but in 1818 was \ndefeated and taken prisoner by Ibrahim Pacha, who \nsent him to Constantinople, where he was put to \ndeath. The sect, now nourishing, is well described \nby Mr. W. Giftbrd Palgrave, in his "Journey and \n.Residence in Arabia in 1862-3," published in \n1865. It is influential in India, and is suspected \nof a tendency to insurrection. \n\nWAHLSTATT, see Katzbach. \n\nWAIFS and STEAYS (children). Church \nof England Central Society for providing Homes \nfor Waifs and Strays, founded 1882. The society \nwas very active itr 1892, being supported by the \nbishops and clergy. \n\nWAITS, the night minstrels who perform shortly \nbefore Christmas. The name was given to the \nmusicians attached to the king\'s court. We find \nthat a company of waits was established at Exeter \nin 1400 to " pipe the watch." The waits in London \nand Westminster were long officially recognised by \nthe corporation. \n\nWAKEFIELD (W. Yorkshire), an ancient \ntown. Near it a battle was fought between the ad- \nherents of Margaret, the queen of Henry VI., and \nthe duke of York, in which the latter was slam, and \n3000 Yorkists fell upon the field, 31 Dec. 1460. The \nearl of W ar wick supported the cause of the duke\'s \nson, the earl of March, afterwards Edward IV., \nand the civil war was continued. An art and indus- \ntrial exhibition was opened at Wakefield, 30 Aug. \n1865. The Bishoprics act, authorising the establish- \nment of a see at Wakefield, was passed 16 Aug. 1878. \nThe required funds subscribed Jan. 1888. Popula- \ntion, 188 1, 30,854 ; 1891,33,146. \nBishopric founded by the queen, 17 May, 1888; the \nRev. W. W. How (suffragan bishop of Bedford) \nappointed first bishop .... Feb. 1888 \n\nWAKES, the ancient parish festivals on the saint\' s \nday to commemorate the dedication of the church ; \nregulated in 1536, but gradually became obsolete. \n\nWALBEOOK CHUECH (London), a master- \npiece of sir Christopher Wren, completed in 1679. \nThere was a church here in 1 135, and a new church \nwas erected in 1429. \n\nWALCHEEEN (an island at the mouth of the \nScheldt, Holland). The unfortunate expedition of \nthe British to this isle in 1809 consisted of 35 ships \nof the line, and 200 smaller vessels, principally \ntransports, and 40,000 land forces, the latter under \nthe command of the earl of Chatham, and the fleet \nunder sir Richard Strachan. For a long time the \ndestination of the expedition remained secret ; but \nbefore 28 July, 1809, when it set sail, the French \njournals had announced that Walcheren was the \npoint of attack. Flushing was invested in August; \na dreadful bombardment followed, and the place was \ntaken 15 Aug. ; but no suggestion on the part of the \nnaval commander, nor urging on the part of the \nofficers, could induce the carl to A\'igorous action, \nuntil the period of probable success was gone, and \nnecessity obliged him to return with as many of the \ntroops as disease and an unhealthy climate had \nspared. The place was evacuated, 23 Dec. 1809. The \nhouse of commons instituted an inquiry, and lord \nChatham resigned his post of master-general of the \nordnance, to prevent greater disgrace ; but the \npolicy of ministers in planning the expedition was, \nnevertheless, approved. The following epigram, of \n\n\n\nwhich various readings exist, appeared at the \ntime : \xe2\x80\x94 \n\n"Lord Chatham [or the warrior earl] with [his] sabre \ndrawn, \n\nStood waiting for sir Richard Strachan ; \n\nSir Richard, longing [or eager] to be at \'em, \n\nStood waiting for the earl of Chatham." \n\nWALDECK ANT, PYEMONT, united Ger- \nman principalities, established in 1682. The late- \nreigning family claim descent from the Saxon hero, \nWitikind, who flourished about 772. Prince George \nVictor, bom 14 Jan. 1831, succeeded Ms father, \nGeorge, 15 May, 1845. Heir: Frederic, son, born \n20 Jan. 1865. On 22 Oct. 1867, the states ap- \nproved a treaty of annexation, and the adminis- \ntration was transferred to Prussia, 1 Jan. 1868. \n\nWALDENSES (also called Valdenses, Vallen- \nses, and Vaudois), a sect inhabiting the Cottian \nAlps, derives its name, according to some authors,, \nfrom Peter de Waldo, of Lyons (1 1 70) . They had a. \ntranslation of the Bible. The Waldenses settled in \nthe valleys of Piedmont about 1375, but were fre- \nquently dreadfully persecuted, especially in the 17th \ncentury, when Charles I. of England interceded for \nthem (1627-9) and Oliver Cromwell by threats. \n(1655-6) obtained them some degree of toleration. \nAll the Waldensian Barbes or pastors, save two, \ndied in the great plague of 1630. Gilles and Gros \nwent to Geneva and Lausanne for Swiss Calvinist \nministers to fill the vacancies. The new ministers- \nwere no sooner inducted than thty deposed the \nsurviving Barbes and abolished all the distinctive \nteaching and usages of the community, substituting- \nthe Genevese model. They were permitted to have \na church at Turin, Dec. 1853. In March, 1868, it \nwas stated that there were in Italy 28 ordained. \nWaldensian ministers, and 30 other teachers. \n\nWALES,\' Cambria, Cymru, the land of the \nCymry, called by the Romans Britannia Secunda. \nWelsh and Wales are corruptions of Teutonic \nepithets applied to foreigners, especially Gauls, \nAfter the Roman emperor Honorius gave up Britain, \nVortigem was elected king of South Britain. He \ninvited over the Saxons to defend his country \nagainst the Picts and Scots ; but the Saxons per- \nfidiously sent for reinforcements, consisting of \nSaxons, Danes, and Angles, by which they made \nthemselves masters of South Britain. Many of the \nBritons retired to Wales, and defended themselves \nagainst the Saxons, in their inaccessible mountains, \nabout 447. In this state Wales remained uncon- \nquered till Henry II. subdued South Wales in 1157 ; \nand in 1282 Edward I. entirely reduced the whole \ncountry, an end being put to its independence by the \ndeath "of Llewelyn, the last prince* In 1284 the \nqueen gave birth to a son at Caernarvon, whom Ed- \nward styled prince of Wales, now title of the heir to- \nthe crown of Great Britain. Wales was united and \nincorporated with England by act of parliament, \n1536 ; see Britain, Bards and Population: 1891, \n1,518,914. \nOstorius Scapula, proprietor of Britain, defeats the \n\nCymry a.d. 50 \n\nThe supreme authority in Britannia Secunda in- \ntrusted to Suetonius Paulinas, who caused deso- \nlating wars 58-61 \n\n* The statute of Wales, enacted at Rhuddlan, 10 March, \n1284 (or March, 1283), alleges that\xe2\x80\x94 " Divine Providence \nhasnow removed Till obstacles, and transferred wholly \nand entirely to the king\'s dominion the land of Wales and \nits inhabitants, heretofore subject unto him in feudal \nright," The ancient laws were to be preserved in civil \ncauses; lint the law of inheritance was 1,1 l.e changed, \nand the English criminal law to be put in force. Annals \nof England. \n\n\n\nWALES. \n\n\n\n1050 \n\n\n\nWALES. \n\n\n\n"Conquests by Julius Frontinus 70 \n\nThe Silures totally defeated . ,, \nThe Roman, Julius Agricola, commands in Britain . 78 \nBran ab Llyr, the Blessed, dies about . . . . 80 \nThe Druidieal class gradually dissolved by the influ- \nence of Christianity in 300-400 \n\nThe Britons defeat the Saxons .... 447-448 \n\nVortigern kiag 448 \n\nThe renowned Arthur elected king . . about 500 \n\nDefeats Saxons about 527 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Cadwallawn, king of Gwynedd, defeated and slain \n\nby the Saxons at Denisburn . . . about 634 \nDyvnwal Moelmud, said to have come from Armo- \nrica, and to have established his authority west \nof the Tamar and Severn as king of the Cymry \n\nabout 640 \n\nKeign of Roderic the Great 844 \n\n33e unites the petty states into one principality; \n\nhis death 877 \n\nDivision of Wales \xe2\x80\x94 into north, south, and central \n\n(or Powys-land) . . , ,, \n\nThe Welsh princes submit to Alfred . . . 885 \n\nThe Danes land in Anglesey 900 \n\nlaws enacted by Howel Da, prince of all Wales, \n\nabout 920 \n\nAthelstan subdues the Welsh 933 \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Civil wars at his death about 948 \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Great battle between the sons of Howel Da and \nthe sons of Idwal Voel ; the latter victorious . 954 \n\nEdgar invades Wales about 973 \n\nDevastations committed by Edwin, the son of \n\nEineon 980 \n\nDanes invade Wales ; lay Anglesey waste, &c. \n\n980-1000 \nThe country reduced by Aedan, prince of North \n\nWales 1000 \n\nAedan, the usurper, slain in battle by Llewelyn . 1015 \nPart of Wales laid waste by the forces of Harold . 1063 \nWilliam I. claims feudal authority over Wales . . 1070 \nRbys ab Owain kills king Bleddyn, 1073 ; defeated \n\nand slain 1077 \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Ravaging invasion of Hugh, earl of Chester . 1079-80 \nInvasion of the Irish and Scots .... 1080 \n\nWilliam I. invades Wales 1081 \n\nBattle of Lleehryd 1087 \n\ni[In this conflict the sons of Bleddyn ab Cynvyn \nwere slain by Rhys ab Tewdwr, the reigning \nprince.] \nRhys ab Tewdwr slain ; S. Wales conquered by the \n\nEnglish 1090 \n\ninvasion of the English under William II. . 1005-7 \nThe settlement in Wales of a colony of Flemings . 1106 \nViolent seizure of Nest, wife of Gerald de Windsor, \n\nby Owain, son of Cadwgan ab Bleddyn . . . 1108 \nCardigan conquered by Strongbow .... 1109 \n\nCadwgan assassinated 1112 \n\ndruffydd ab Rhys lays claim to the sovereignty . 1113 \nAnother body of Flemings settle in Pembrokeshire ,, \n|The posterity of these settlers are still distinguished \nfrom the ancient British population by their lan- \nguage, manners, and customs.] \nCivil war in South Wales and Powysland leads to \nthe subjugation of the country by the English ; \nHenry I. erects castles in Wales. . . 1114 et seq. \n\xe2\x96\xa0Owain killed in battle with Gerald de Windsor . 1116 \nRevolt of Owen Gwynedd on the death of Hen. I. ; \n\npart of South Wales laid waste . . . -1135 \nThe English defeated in several battles . . . 1136 \nStrongbow, earl of Pembroke, invested with the \n\npowers of a count palatine in Pembroke . .1138 \nHenry II. invades Wales, receives a stout resistance \n\nfrom Owen Gwynedd, but subdues S. Wales . . 1157 \nConfederacy of the princes of Wales for the recovery \n\nof their independence H64 \n\niPrince Madoc said to have emigrated to America 1169 \n(Southey\'s epic "Madoc "is based on the tradi- \ntion.) \n\nAnglesey devastated II?3 \n\nThe crusades preached in Wales by Baldwin, arch- \nbishop of Canterbury . . ... . _ jjgg \n\nThe earl of Chester\'s inroad into North Wales . . 1210 \nKing John invades Wales, laying waste a great part \nof the principalities ; exacts tribute and alle- \ngiance I2II \n\nThe pope incites the Welsh to resist John . . 1212 \n\nRevolt of the Flemings I22 o \n\nXjlewelyn, prince of North Wales, commits great \nravages ; overcomes Henry III 1228 \n\n\n\nThe earl of Pembroke and othernobles join Llewelyn \n\nagainst Henry III., 1233 ; a truce . . . . 1234 \nPrince David ravages the marches, &c. . . . 1244 \n\nInvasion of Henry III 1245 \n\nAnglesey cruelly devastated by the English Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \nLlewelyn ap Griffith, the last prince . . . 1246 \nWelsh princes combine against the English . . 1256 \nGreat invasion of the English ; threatened extermi- \nnation of the Welsh, compelled to retreat with \nloss ..... ... 1257 \n\nWelsh offers of peace refused .... 1257-62 \n\nLlewelyn\'s incursions into English territory. . 1263 \nReported conference between him and Simon de \n\nMontfort against the Plantagenets . . . 1265 \nLlewelyn does homage to Henry III. for a treaty \n\nSept. 1267 \nEdward I. summons Llewelyn to Westminster ; \non his refusal to come, deposes him, 1276 ; and \n\ninvades Wales June, 1277 \n\nLlewelyn submits and obtains good terms 10 Nov. ,, \nHe marries Eleanor de Montfort . . 13 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe sons of Gruffydd treacherously drowned in the \nriver Dee, by the earl Warrenne and Roger \nMortimer ; great insurrection .... 1281 \nHawarden castle taken by surprise by Llewelyn and \nhis brother David, 21 March ; they destroy Flint \nand Rhuddlan castles. Fruitless negotiations \n\nNov. 1282 \nBattle between Llewelyn and the English near Aber \nEdw : Llewelyn slain, after the battle, by Adam \n\nFrankton 11 Dec. ,, \n\nPrince David surrenders, and is executed . . 1283 \n\nWales finally subdued by Edward I ,, \n\nThe first English prince of Wales, son of Edward, \nborn at Caernarvon castle (see Princes of Wales, \n\np. 1051) 25 April, 1284 \n\nStatute of Wales (see p. 1049) enacted . 19 March, ,, \nMany insurrections suppressed and the leaders \n\nexecuted . 1287-1320 \n\nGreat rebellion of Owain Glyndwr, or Owen \nGlendower (descendant of the last prince, \n\nLlewelyn), commences 1400 \n\nRadnor and other places taken by Owain Glyndwr 1401 \nAllies with the Scots and the Percies : besieges \n\nCaernarvon 1402 \n\nAnd seizes Harlech castle 1404 \n\nMakes a treaty with France . . to May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nHarlech castle retaken by the English forces . . 1407 \nLoses his allies by their defeat at Bramham moor \n\n19 Feb. 1408 \nRavages the English territories .... 1409 \nRefuses to ask for terms or submit ; dies 21 Sept. 1415 \n\nHis son submits 24 Feb. -1416 \n\nMargaret of Anjou, queen of Henry VI., takes \n\nrefuge in Harlech castle 1459 \n\nTown of Denbigh burnt 1460 \n\nThe earl of Richmond, afterwards Henry VII., lands \n\nin Pembroke, and is aided by the Welsh Aug. 1485 \nPalatine jurisdictions in Wales abolished by Henry \n\nVIII 1535 \n\nMonmouth made an English county; counties of \n\nBrecknock, Denbigh, and Radnor formed . . ,, \nAct for " laws and justice to be administered in \nWales in same form as in England," 27 Henry \n\nVIII \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nWales incorporated into England by parliament . 1536 \n\nDivided into twelve counties 1543 \n\nDr. Ferrar, bishop of St. David\'s, burnt at the stake \n\nfor heresy 30 March, 1555 \n\nLewis Owain, a baron of the exchequer, attacked \n\nand murdered while on his assize tour . . . \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe bible and prayer-book ordered to be translated \ninto Welsh, and divine service to be performed in \n\nthat language 1562 \n\nWelsh bible printed 1588 \n\nFirst congregation of dissenters assembled in Wales ; \n\nVavasour Powel apprehended while preaching . 1620 \nBeaumaris castle garrisoned for king Charles I. . 1642 \nPowys castle taken by sir Thos. Myddelton Oct. 1644 \nDr. Laud, formerly bishop of St. David\'s, beheaded \n\non Tower hill 10 Jan. 1645 \n\nSurrender of Hawarden castle to the parliament \n\ngeneral Mytton ,, \n\nCharles I. takes refuge in Denbigh \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRhuddlan castle surrenders ,, \n\nHarlech castle surrenders to Cromwell\'s army under \nMytton 1647 \n\n\n\n"WALES. \n\n\n\n1051 \n\n\n\nWALES. \n\n\n\nBattle of St. Fagan\'s ; the "Welsh defeated by col. \nHorton, Cromwell\'s lieutenant . . 8 May, 1648 \n\nBeaumaris castle surrenders to Cromwell . \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPembroke castle taken ; Colonel Poyer shot, 25 Apr.* 1649 \n\nThe lords marchers court suppressed . . . 1688 \n\n" Charitable society of Ancient Britons " and Welsh \ncharity schools, established (now at Ashford) . 171 5 \n\nCymmrodorioil Society (for charitable purposes), \nestablished 1751-81 \n\nThe French land in Pembrokeshire, and are made \nprisoners Feb. 1797 \n\nRebecca or "Becea" riots broke out against toll- \ngates, Feb. ; an old woman, a toll-keeper, was \nmurdered, 10 Sept. ; many persons were tried and \npunished Oct. 1843 \n\nCambrian Archajological Association founded . 1846 \n\nSubscriptions begun for a university in Wales Dec. 1863 \n\nA national unsectarian University college at \nAberystwyth opened . . . . 9 Oct. 1872 \n\nGreat strike of colliers in S. Wales, 1 Jan. ; ends \nabout 27 March, 1873 \n\nCymmrodorion society, to promote literature and \nart, re-established 1877 \n\nGreat distress in South Wales through decay of \ncoal trade by strikes and commercial depression 1877-8 \n\n" Rebecca " riots ; people of Rhayader on the Wye \ncapture fish out of season illegally ; and resist the \nwater bailiffs .... Dec. 1878-Jan. 1879 \n\nWelsh Sunday closing act 1881 \n\nA Cambrian academy of arts settled to be esta- \nblished at Llandudno .... Jan. 1882 \n\nA university college of South Wales and Monmouth- \nshire established at Cardiff ; professors appointed \n6 Sept. ; opened 4 Oct. 1883 \n\nNorth Wales university college, Bangor, opened, \n\n18 Aug. 1884 \n\nThe college at Aberystwith burnt ; prof. Mac- \npherson and three others perish ; damage about \n50,000^ night, 8, 9 July, 1885 \n\nProposed disestablishment of the church negatived \nin the commons (241-229) . . 9 March, 1886 \n\nAnti-tithe league formed ; intimidation of payers, \n\nAug. -Sept. ,, \n\nTithe riots at Mochdre, Clwyd ; many injured ; \nsuppressed by military and police . 16 June, 1887 \n\nThree weeks Are on Ruabon and Berwyn mountains ; \nextinguished after much destruction of life and \ngame 25 July, ,, \n\nInauguration of the national council of Wales at \nAberystwith ; disestablishment and disendow- \nment of the church, home rule &c. advocated, \nStuart Rendel, M.P. president, 7 Oct. 1887 ; \nannual meeting at Newtown . . 8 Oct. ,, \n\nFormation of a Welsh land league advocated in \nAmerica ; this league issues a manifesto 24 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nA Welsh clergy defence association formed about \n\nNov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMarquis of Abergavenny v. bishop of Llandaff; \nafter much litigation, verdict for the bishop who \nhad refused to induct the rev. Robert W. Gosse \ninto a living, being ignorant of the Welsh \nlanguage 22 Feb. 1888 \n\nDeath of Henry Richard " M.P. for Wales," ardent \nnonconformist and peace advocate . 20 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n1,000 miles of road freed from toll in S. Wales by \nlocal government act .... 2 April, 1889 \n\nMr. Dillwyn\'s motion for disestablishment of the \nchurch in Wales, rejected by the commons \n(284-231) 14 May, ,, \n\n\n\n* At the commencement of the civil war, Pembroke \n\xe2\x96\xa0castle was the only Welsh fortress in the possession of \nthe parliament, and it was entrusted to the command of \ncol. Laugharne. In 1648, he, and colonels Powel and \nPoyer, embraced the cause of the king, and made \nPembroke their head-quarters ; after the defeat at \nSt. Fagan\'s, they retired to the castle, followed by an \narmy led by Cromwell. They capitulated, after having \nendured great sufferings from want of water. Laugharne, \nPowel, and Poyer were tried by a court-martial, ami \ncondemned to death ; but Cromwell having been induced \nto spare the lives of two of them, it was ordered that \nthey should draw lots for the favour, and three papers \nwere folded up, on two of which were written tlie words, \n"Life given by God;" the third was left blank. The \nlatter was drawn by Colonel Poyer, Who was shot in \nLondon accordingly on the above-mentioned day, after \nlong imprisonment. Penna/iit. \n\n\n\nThe Welsh Intermediate Education act passed, \n\n12 Aug. \n\nVisit of the queen ; arrives at Llanderfell, Merio- \nnethshire (resides at Pale, seat of Mr. Henry \nRobertson), 23 Aug. ; went to Bala, 23 Aug. ; to \nWrexham, 24 Aug. ; leaves Llangollen . 27 Aug. \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Welsh Dialect society, prince Louis Lucien Bona- \nparte, president, established, reported . April, \n\nGreat strike of railway servants at Cardiff (see \nStrikes) 7-15 Aug. \n\nTithes collected by the help of the military . Aug. \n\nThe duke of Clarence visits South Wales, \n\n15-18 Sept. \n\nDr. Edward Thomas, of Manchester, bequeaths \n39,500^ to University College of North Wales, \nannounced Oct. \n\nMr. David Evans, the first Welsh lord mayor of \nLondon in the century ... 9 Nov. \n\nProposed dis-establishment of the church in Wales \nnegatived by the commons (235 \xe2\x80\x94 203), 20 Feb. \n1891 ; again negatived (267 \xe2\x80\x94 220) . . 23 Feb. \n\n\n\n877. \n943 \n\n\n\n985 \n992. \n998 \n1015 \n1023 \n1039. \n1067 \n\ni\xc2\xb073 \n1079, \nH37 \n\n\n\n1194. \n1240. \n1246. \n\n\n\n1301. \n\n1343 \n1376. \n\'399- \nH54\' \n\n1471, \n\n1483, \n\n\n\nSOVEREIGNS OF WALES. \n\nCadwallawn, king of Gwynedd. \n\nCadwaladr, his son. \n\nIdwal, son. \n\nRhodri, or Roderic ; heroic defender. \n\nCynan and Howel, sons ; incessant war. \n\nMervyn ; son-in-law, and Essyllt (wife). \n\nRoderic the Great, son. \n\nCES OF GWYNEDD OR NORTH WALES AND FREQUENTLY \nOF ALL WALES. \n\nAnarawd, son of Roderic. \n\nIdwal Voel. \n\nHowel Da the Good, prince of all Wales. \n\nIefan and Iago ; sons of Idwal. \n\nHowel ap Iefan, the Bad. \n\nCadwallon, brother. \n\nMeredith ap Owen ap Howel Da. \n\nIdwal ap Meyric ap Idwal Voel : able, brave. \n\nAedan, a usurper. \n\nLlewelyn ap Sitsyllt, good sovereign. \n\nIago ap Idwal ap Meyric. \n\nGriffith ap Llewelyn ap Sitsyllt ; killed. \n\nBleddyn. \n\nTrahaern ap Caradoc. \n\nGriffith ap Cynan ; able ; warlike ; generous. \n\nOwain Gwynedd ; energetic, successful warrior. \n\nHowel, son. \n\nDavid ap Owain Gwynedd, brother ; married sister \n\nof Henry II. \nLlewelyn, the Great. \nDavid ap Llewelyn. \nLlewelyn ap Griffith, last prince of the blood ; slain \n\nafter battle, n Dec, 1282. \n\nENGLISH PRINCES OF WALES.* \n\nEdward Plantagenet (afterwards king Edward II. ) \nson of Edward I., born in Caernarvon Castle on \nthe 25th April, 1284. It is asserted that imme- \ndiately after his birth he was presented by his \nfather to the Welsh chieftains as their future \nsovereign, the king holding up the royal infant \nin his arms, and saying, in the Welsh language, \n" Eich Dyil," literally in English, "This is your \nman," but signifying, "This is your countryman \nand king." See, however, " Ich Diem." \n\nEdward of Carnarvon made prince of Wales and \nearl of Chester. \n\nEdward the Black Prince. \n\nRichard, his son (afterwards Richard II.). \n\nHenry (afterwards Henry V.). sou of Henry IV. \n\nEdward, son of Henry VI. ; slain at Tewkesbury, \n4 May, 1471. \n\nEdward (aft. Edward V.), son of Edward IV. \n\nEdward, son of Richard III. ; died in 1484. \n\nArthur, son of Henry VII. ; died in 1502. \n\n\n\n* Wales, Princess of. This title was held, some \nauthors say, (lining the. early period i\'l\' her life, bj the \nprincess Mary of England, eldest daughter of Henry \\ Ml.. \n\n:iie I afterwards queen Mary 1. She was created, they state, \n\nby her father princess of Wall\'s, in order to conciliate the \nWelsh people and keep alive the name, and was the only \nprincess of Wales ill her own right. ; a rank she enjoyed \nuntil the birth of a son to Henry, who was afterwards \nEdward VI.. born in 1537. This is denied by Banks. \n\n\n\nWALES. \n\n\n\n1052 \n\n\n\nWALES. \n\n\n\n1503. Henry, his brother (afterwards Henry VIII.). \n\nEdward, his son (afterwards Edward VI.) was duke \nof Cornwall, and not prince of Wales. \n1610. Henry Frederic, son of James I. ; died 6 Nov. 1612. \n1616. Charles, his brother (afterwards Charles I.). \n\nCharles, his son (afterwards Charles II.), never \ncreated prince of Wales. \n1714. George Augustus (afterwards George II.). \n1729. Frederic Lewis, his son ; died 20 March, 1751. \n1751. George, his son (afterwards George III.). \n1 762. George, his son (afterwards George IV.): bom 12 Aug. \n1841. Albert-Edward, son of queen Victoria : born 9 Nov. \n\nBaptized, king of Prussia a sponsor, 15 Jan. 1842. \n\nTravelled on the continent, and studied at Oxford \nand Edinburgh, in 1859. \n\nVisited Canada, with the dignity of a viceroy, and \nthe United States, i860. \n\nEntered the university of Cambridge in Jan. : \nattended the camp at the Curragh, Kildare, July \nto Sept. ; opened New Middle Temple Library, \n31 Oct. 1861. \n\nOrdered to be prayed for as Albert-Edward, \n8 Jan. ; visited the continent, Syria, and Egypt, \nMarch-June; Germany and Italy, Aug-Dec. 1862. \n\nAdmitted to the house of peers, 5 Feb. ; a privy \ncouncillor, 8 Dec. 1863. \n\nMarried to princess Alexandra of Denmark, 10 \nMarch, 1863. \n\nVisited Denmark and Sweden, Sept. -Oct. 1864 ; \nRussia, Nov. -Dec. 1866. \n\nVisited International Exhibition, Paris, May, 1867. \n\nVisited Ireland ; arrived at Dublin, 15 April, 1868. \n\nInstalled knight of St. Fatrick, 18 April, 1868. \n\nOpened Leeds Fine Arts Exhibition, 19 May, 1868. \n\nWith the Princess at Glasgow, laid foundation of \nnew university, 8 Oct. 1868. \n\nSailed for the continent, 17 Nov. ; called at Paris ; \narrived at Copenhagen, 29 Nov. ; visited Berlin, \nVienna, and arrived at Cairo, 3 Feb. 1869. \n\nExamined the Suez canal, Feb. ; arrived at Constan- \ntinople, 1 April; at Sebastopol, 13-17 April; at \nAthens, 19-24 April; landed at Dover, 13 May, \n1869. \n\nInaugurated Victoria Embankment (Thames) 13 \nJuly, 1870. \n\nOpened Workmen\'s International Exhibition, \nIslington, 16 July, 1870. \n\nAttacked with typhoid fever, about 19 Nov. ; greatest \ndanger, 6-13 Dec. ; amendment began i4Dec.,i87i. \n\nWent to St. Paul\'s with the queen for thanksgiving, \n27 Feb.; sailed for the continent, 11 March; \nvisited the Pope, 27 March ; opened new grammar \nschool at Yarmouth, 6 June ; the Bethnal Green \nMuseum, 24 June, 1872. \n\nAt the opening of the great exhibition at Vienna, \n1 May, 1873. \n\nAt the duke of Edinburgh\'s wedding at St. Peters- \nburg, 23 Jan. ; visit to France : entertained by \nthe due de Rochefoucauld Bisaccia, due d\'Au- \nmale, and others,about 17 Oct. ; at Birmingham, \n3 Nov. 1874. \n\nInstalled grand master of the freemasons of Eng- \nland, 28 April, 1875. \n\nii2,oooZ. voted for his visit to India [more than \nsufficient] July, 1875. \n\nSailed from Dover, 11 Oct. ; warmly received at \nAthens, 18 Oct. ; at Cairo, invested Mohammed \nTewfik, the son of the Khedive, with the Star of \nIndia, 25 Oct. 1875. \n\nArrived at Bombay, 8 Nov. ; Poonah 13 Nov. ; \nGoa, 27 Nov. ; Colombo, Ceylon, 1 Dec. ; Madras, \n13 Dec. ; Calcutta, 23 Dec. 1875. \n\nAt Benares, 5 Jan. ; Lueknow, 6 Jan. ; Delhi, M \nJan. ; Lahore, 18 Jan. ; Jummoo, Cashmere\' 2c \nJan. ; Agra, 25 Jan. ; Gwalior, 31 Jan. ; in Ne- \npaul, 12 Feb. ; at Allahabad, 7 March ; sailed \nfrom Bombay, 1 3 March ; arrived in Malta, 6 April; \nGibraltar, 15 April; Seville, 21 April; Madrid, 25 \nApril ; Lisbon, 1 May ; London, with about 500 \nanimals for the Zoological gardens, 11 May; \nbanquet at Mansion house, 19 May ; reviewed \n30,000 volunteers in Hyde Park, 1 July. 1876. \n\nPresident of the British commissioners at the \nParis exhibition, 1878. \n\nPresided at National Water Supply conference, \n21 May; laid foundation of St. Mary\'s, Wilberforce \nmemorial church, Southampton, 12 Aug. 1878. \n\nLaid foundation of new hospital, Norwich, 27 June; \n\n\n\nopened new dock at Great Grimsby, 22 July, \n1879. \nLaid foundation of new cathedral at Truro, 20 \nApril ; opened new dock at Holyhead, 17 June, \n1880. \nLaid foundation of central Institution of City and \nGuilds of London Institute, South Kensington, \n18 July, 1881. \nOpens the Royal College of Music, 7 May, 1883. \nOpens the International Fishery Exhibition, 12 \n\nMay ; closes it 31 Oct. 1883. \nInaugurated the juries at the Health Exhibition, \n\n17 June, 1884. \nVisits Newcastle and opens Armstrong park, mu- \nseum, &c, 20, 21 Aug. 1884. \nVisit to Dublin (enthusiastically received), 8 April ; \nCork, 15 April ; Killarney, 16 April ; Limerick \n(warmly received), 20 April ; from Dublin to Bel- \nfast (warm reception), 23 April ; Londonderry, \n25 April ; sailed from Larne, 27 April, 1885. \nOpens art gallery, &c, at Birmingham, 27, 28 Nov. \n\n1885. \nFormally opens the Mersey tunnel, 20 Jan. 1886. \nKept his silver wedding, 10 March, 1888. \nOpens the international exhibition at Glasgow, \n\n8 May, 1888. \nFounds a technical school at Blackburn, 9 May, \n\n1888. \nVisits Austria and Hungary, Sept. ; Roumania, &c. \n\n4 Oct. ; returns to London, 22 Oct. 1888. \n\xe2\x80\xa2\' Speeches and Addresses," 1863-1888 ; published \n\n12 Jan. 1889. \nUncovers several Jubilee statues of the queen, &c. \n\n(See Jubilee), 1887-9. \nVisits the universal exhibition at Paris, June, \n\n1889. \nActs for the queen at the royal agricultural show \n\n(see Windsor), 24-29 June, 1889. \nReceives and attends the Shah of Persia, 1 July, \n\net seq. \nAnnual payment of 36,000^ to the prince as a \nprovision to his family, voted by the commons \n\' 29 July, 1889. Act passed (see Royal Grants), \n\n12 Aug. 1889. \nThe prince and princess at the marriage of the \n\nduke of Sparta, 27 Oct. 1889. \nVisits the Khedive at Cairo, 1 Nov. et seq. 1889. \nLays foundation stone of the new municipal \nbuildings, &c, of St. Martin\'s, Westminster, 18. \nMarch, 1890. \nVisit to Berlin with prince George, 21-28 March, \n\n1890. \nUnveils statue of the duke of Albany at Cannes, \n\n6 April, 1890. \nVisits Southwark (which see), 24 July, 1890. \nOpens new town hall at Portsmouth, 9 Aug. 1890. \nOpens the City and S. London Electric Railway, \n\n4 Nov. 1890. \nMany similar acts noticed under their respective \nheadings, 1891. \nIssue : Albert-Victor, born 8 Jan. 1864 ; went to sea \nwith prince George in H.M.S. Bacchante, \nvisited West Indies, &c, 1879-82 ; their diaries- \npublished, 1885 ; he receives the freedom of \nLondon, 29 June, 1885 ; opens the new Alexan- \ndra docks at Belfast, 20 May, 1SS9 ; successful \ntour in India (which see), 9 Nov. 1889 \xe2\x80\x94 28 \nMarch, 1890 ; visits Egypt, 7-12 April ; ill \nLondon, 2 May ; created duke of Clarence \nand Avondale, &c, 23 May, 1890; engaged to \nprincess Victoria Mary of Teck, announced, \n5 Dec. 1891 ; died at Sandringham, 14 Jan. \n1892 ; military funeral at Windsor, 20 Jan. \nThe prince and princess of Wales, in a tele- \ngram, express their deep gratitude for the \nuniversal sympathy throughout the empire, \n20 Jan. 1892. (See England, 26 Jan. 1892.) \nGeorge-Frederick, born 3 June, 1865 ; created \nduke of York, earl of Inverness, and baron \nKillarney, 24 May, 1892. \nLouise Victoria, born 20 Feb. 1867. (Married to \nAlexander William George, duke of Fife, 27 \nJuly, 1889.) Issue : Alexandra born 17 May, \n1891. \nAlexandra, born 6 July, 1868. \nMaud, born 26 Nov. 1869. \nAlexander John, born 7 April, died 8 April, 1871, \n\n\n\nWALHALLA. \n\n\n\n1053 \n\n\n\nWAK. \n\n\n\nWALHALLA or Valhalla (the Hall of \n\nGlory), a temple near Eatisbon, erected by Louis, \nking of Bavaria, to receive the statues and \nmemorials of the great men of Germany, com- \nmenced 18 Oct. 1830, and inaugurated 18 Oct. 1842. \nThe name is derived from the fabled meeting-place \nof Scandinavian heroes after death. \n\nWALKERITES, see Separatists. \n\n.WALKING, see Pedestrianism. \n\nWALKING-STICKS, a term satirically ap- \nplied to candidates for the house of commons nomi- \nnated by political associations, and subject to them \nin their parliamentary votes, 1878. \n\nWALLACE MONUMENT, at Abbey Craig, \nnear Stirling, was inaugurated 27 Aug. 1869, and \nsoon after given into the charge of the magistrates \nof Stirling. It cost about 13,000^. The telescope \nthere was presented by the Scotch inhabitants of \nIpswich, 24 June, 1865. \n\nWALLACHIA, see Danubian Principalities. \nOn 23 Dec. 1861, the union of Wallachia and \nMoldavia, under the name of Koumania, was pro- \nclaimed at Jassy and Bucharest. \n\nWALLER\'S PLOT. Edmund Waller, the \npoet, and others, conspired to disarm the London \nmilitia and let in the royalists, May, 1643. The \nplan was detected and punished, June-July, 1643. \nWaller betrayed his confederates, and was suffered \nto emigrate. \n\nWALLIS\'S VOYAGE. Captain Wallis \nsailed from England on his voyage round the world, \n26July, 1766; andretumed to England, i9May,i768. \n\nWALLOON- This name was given to those \ninhabitants of the low countries who retained the \nancient German language, and to those who adopted \nthe Walloon language (based on the Gaulish), \nwhich though surviving as a patois, has been sup- \nplanted in France by the modern French. The \nlanguage of the Walloon protestant refugees in 1556 \n\xe2\x96\xa0was French. \n\nA church was given to Walloon refugees by queen Elizabeth \nat Sandwich, and they still have one at Canterbury. \n\nThe frontier line of Flemish and German towns may be \ntraced from the north through Gravelines to Luxem- \nburg ; that of the Walloon towns from Calais to Metz. \n\nWALLS, see Roman Walls, China. \n\nWALNUT-TREE has long existed in Eng- \nland.* The black walnut-tree (juglans nigra} was \nbrought to this country from North America before \n1629. \n\nWALPOLE\'S ADMINISTRATIONS. \n\n* Near Welwyn, in Hertfordshire, there was the largest \nwalnut-tree on record ; it was felled in 1627, and from it \nwere cut nineteen loads of planks ; and as much was \nsold to a gunsmith in London as cost 10?. carriage ; \nbesides which there were thirty loads of roots and \nbranches. When standing it covered 76 poles of ground ; \na space equal to 2299 square yards, statute measure. \n\n\n\nMr. "VValpole (afterwards sir Robert, and earl of \nOxford) was born in 1676 ; became secretary-at-war \nin 1 708 ; was expelled the house of commons on a \ncharge of misappropriating the public money, 1711 ; \ncommitted to the Tower, 17 Jan. 1712; became \nfirst lord of the treasury and chancellor of the \nexchequer in Oct. 1715. He resigned, on a disunion \nof the cabinet, in 1717, bringing in the sinking \nfund bill on the day of Ms resignation. On the \nearl of Sunderland retiring in 1721, he resumed his \noffice, and held it till Feb. 1742. He died 18 \nMarch, 1745. \n\nSECOND WALPOLE ADMINISTRATION (APRIL, 1721). \n\nSir Kobert Walpole, first lord of the treasury. \n\nThomas, lord Parker, created earl of Macclesfield, lord \nchancellor. \n\nHenry, lord Carleton (succeeded by William, duke of \nDevonshire), lord president. \n\nEvelyn, duke of Kingston (succeeded by lord Trevor), \n\xe2\x96\xa0privy seal. \n\nJames, earl of Berkeley, first lord of the admiralty. \n\nCharles (viscount Townshend), and John, lord Carteret \n(the latter succeeded by the duke of Newcastle), secre- \ntaries of state. \n\nDuke of Marlborough (succeeded by the earl of Cadogan), \nordnance. \n\nGeorge Treby (succeeded by Henry Pelham), secretary-at- \nwar. \n\nViscount Torrington, <fec. \n\nWALRUS- One placed in the Zoological Gar- \ndens in 1853 lived a few days only; another was \nplaced there in the autumn of 1867, and died 25 \nDec. \n\nWALTZ, the popular German national dance, \nwas introduced into England by baron Neuman and \nothers in 1813. Raikes. \n\nWANDEWASH (S. India). Here the French, \nunder Lally, were severely defeated by colonel Eyre \nCoote, 22 Jan. 1760. \n\nWANDSWORTH, Surrey. Here was organised \na "presbytery," 20 Nov. 1572. In Garratt-lane, \nnear this place, a mock election of a mayor of \nGarratt was formerly held, after every general elec- \ntion of parliament, to which Foote\'s dramatic piece, \nThe Mayor of Garratt (1763), gave no small cele- \nbrity. The iron bridge here was opened 26 Sept. \n1873. Population, 1 88 1, 210,434; 1891, 307,389. \n\nWandsworth returns one M.P. by act passed 25 June, \n\n1885. \n\nWAR, called by Erasmus "the malady of \nprinces." Osymandyas of Egypt, the first warlike \nking, passed into Asia, and conquered Bactria, \n2100 b.c. Usher. He is supposed by some to be \nthe Osiris of the priests. It is computed that, up to \nthe present time, no less than 6,860,000,000 of men \nhave perished on the field of battle ; see Battles ; \nSecretaries; Neutral Powers. An international \nconference on " usages of war" began at Brussels, \n27 July, 1874, am l closed without important results. \nSee Brussels Conference. In 1880, about 4,000,000 \nmen in arms, annual cost, 500,000,0001?. \n\n\n\nFOREIGN WARS OF ENOLaXI) SINCE THE CONQUEST. \n\n\n\nWar \n\n\nwith \n\n\n\n\nPeace. \n\n\nWar with \n\n\n\n\nl\'l\'inr. \n\n\nWar with \n\n\n\n\nPi ace \n\n\nScotland \n\n\n\n\n. 1068 . \n\n\n. 1092 \n\n\nFrance \n\n\n. 1422 . \n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 H7I \n\n\nSpain . \n\n\n. I5 88 . \n\n\n. 1604 \n\n\nFrance \n\n\n\n\n. 1116 \n\n\n. 1118 \n\n\nScotland . \n\n\n. 1480 \n\n\n. . i486 \n\n\nSpain \n\n\n. 1624 \n\n\n. 1629 \n\n\nScotland . \n\n\n\n\n. 1138 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 "39 \n\n\nPrance \n\n\n. 1492 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1492 \n\n\nFrance \n\n\n. 1627 . \n\n\n. 1629 \n\n\nFrance \n\n\n\n\n. 1161 \n\n\n. . 1186 \n\n\nFrance \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1512 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 I5M \n\n\nHolland . \n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 1651 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 l( >54 \n\n\nFrance . \n\n\n\n\n. 1194 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 "95 \n\n\nFrance \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1522 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1527 \n\n\nSpain . \n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 1655 . \n\n\n. 1660 \n\n\nFrance \n\n\n\n\n. 1201 \n\n\n. 1216 \n\n\nScotland . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1522 \n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 1542 \n\n\nFrance \n\n\n. 1666 . \n\n\n. 1668 \n\n\nFrance . \n\n\n\n\n. 1224 . \n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 i 2 34 \n\n\nScotlaud \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1542 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1546 \n\n\nDenmark \n\n\n. 1666 . \n\n\n. 1668 \n\n\nFrance \n\n\n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 1294 \n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 1299 \n\n\nSeo1 land . \n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 \'547 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 I550 \n\n\nHolland . \n\n\n. 1666 \n\n\n. 1668 \n\n\nScotland . \n\n\n\n\n. 1296 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1323 \n\n\nPrance \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1549 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 I550 \n\n\nAlgiers \n\n\n. Il\'.ni) . \n\n\n. 1671 \n\n\nScotland \n\n\n\n\n- 1327 \n\n\n. . 1328 \n\n\nFrance \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1557 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1559 \n\n\nHolland . \n\n\n. 1672 \n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 1674 \n\n\nFranco \n\n\n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 1339 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n. 1360 \n\n\nScotland \n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 1557 \xe2\x96\xa0 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1560 \n\n\nPrance \n\n\n. 1689 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 x ^97 \n\n\nFranco \n\n\n\n\n. 1368 \n\n\n. . 1420 \n\n\nFrance \n\n\n1562 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1564 \n\n\nPeace of Ity \n\n\nswick, 20 Se; \n\n\n>t. 1697 \n\n\n\nWAE AFFAIRS. \n\n\n\n1054 \n\n\n\nWARTBURG. \n\n\n\nWar of the Succession, commenced 4 May, 1702. Peace \n\nof Utrecht, 13 March, 1713. \nWar with Spain, 16 Dec. 1718. Peace concluded, 1721. \nWar ; Spanish War, 23 Oct. 1739. Peace of Aix-la-Cha- \n\npelle, 30 April, 1748. \nWar with France, 31 March, 1744. Closed aiso on 30 \n\nApril, 1748. \nWar; the Seven Years\' War, 9 June, 1756. Peace of Paris, \n\n10 Feb. 1763. \nWar with Spain, 4 Jan. 1762. General peace, 10 Feb. 1763. \nWar with the United States of North America, 14 July, \n\n1774. Peace of Paris, 30 Nov. 1782. \nWar with France, 6 Feb. 1778. Peace of Paris, 20 Jan. \n\n1783- \nWar with Spain, 17 April, 1780. Closed same time, 20 \n\nJan. 1783. \nWar with Holland, 21 Dec. 1780. Peace signed, 2 Sept. \n\n1783- \nWar of the Revolution, 1 Feb. 1793. Peace of Amiens, 27 \n\nMarch, 1802. \nWar against Bonaparte, 29 April, 1803. Finally closed, \n\n18 June, 1815. \nWar with America, 18 June, 1812. Peace of Ghent, 24 \n\nDec. 1814. \nWar with Russia, 27 March, 1854. Peace of Paris, 31 \n\nMarch, 1856. \nFor the wars with India, China, Persia. Abyssinia, \n\nAshantee. Afghanistan, Zululand, and Burmah, see \n\nthose countries respectively. \n\n"WAE AFFAIRS- On account of the war with \nKussia, the duke of Newcastle, previously colonial \nsecretary, was appointed a secretary for war affairs, \nand a cabinet minister, 9 June, 1854; see Secre- \ntaries. "War Office act, passed 20 June, 1870, ap- \npoints a financial secretary (who may sit in parlia- \nment) and other officers. An act for the protection \nof war department stores was passed in 1867. By \nthe warrant abolishing purchase in the army, in \n\n1871, Mr. Cardwell became virtually uncontrolled \nminister of war. For War Office Charge, see \nunder Army and Admiralty . \n\nNew war offices erected by virtue of the Public \nOffices site act, passed . . . .24 July, 1882 \n\nWar Exhibition of trophies, &c, from Egypt, \nopened at Knightsbridge ... 14 Feb. 1883 \n\nImportant changes in the war office announced ; \nincreased responsibilities of heads of depart- \nments, &c. ...... Feb. 1888 \n\n"WAR, GAME OF (German, Kriegsjnel), based \non the game of chess, was described in a pamphlet \nin 1780, and rules for it laid down by Domanen- \nrathe von Keisswitz about 1820, and published by \nhis son in 1824-8. Capt. (now sir) Evelyn Baring \npublished a translation of works on the subject in \n\n1872. A society (including von Moltke) was formed \nat Magdeburg to study it. Prince Arthur (now duke \nof Connaught) lectured on this game at Dover, 13 \nMarch, 1872. \n\n"WARBECK\'S INSURRECTION. Perkin \nWarbeck, the son of a Florentine Jew, to whom \nEdward IV. had stood godfather, was persuaded by \nMargaret, duchess of Burgundy, sister to Richard III . , \nto personate her nephew Bichard, Edward Ws \nbrother, which he did first in Ireland, where he \nlanded, 1492. The imposture was discovered by \nHenry VII. 1493. Some writers consider that "War- \nbeck was not an impostor. \nWarbeck attempted to land in Kent, with 600 men, 169 \n\nwere taken prisoners, and executed, July, 1495. \nRecommended by the king of France to James. IV. of \n\nScotland, who gave him his kinswoman, lord Huntley\'s \n\ndaughter, in marriage, when he assumed the title of \n\nRichard IV. James IV. invaded England in his favour, \n\n1496. \nLeft Scotland, and went to Bodmin, in Cornwall, where \n\n3000 joined him, Sept. 1497. \nOn the approach of Henry took sanctuary at Beaulieu ; \n\nsurrendered ; taken to London, Oct. 1497. \nSaid to have been set in the stocks at Westminster and \n\nCheapside, and sent to the Tower, June, 1499. \n\n\n\nAccused of plotting with the earl of Warwick to escape \nout of the Tower, by murdering the lieutenant, Aug. ; \nthe plot failed, and he was hanged at Tyburn, 23 Nov. ; \nthe earl beheaded, 28 Nov. 1499. \n\nWARBURG (N. Germany). Here the French \nwere defeated by the duke of Brunswick and the \nallies, 31 July, 1760. \n\nWARDIAN CASES- In 1829, Mr. N. B. \nWard, from observing a small fern and grass grow- \ning in a closed glass bottle, in which he bad placed \na chrysalis covered with moist earth, was led to con- \nstruct his well-known closely glazed cases, which \nafford to plants light, heat, and moisture, and ex- \nclude deleterious gases, smoke, &c. They are par- \nticularly adapted for ferns. In 1833 they were first \nemployed for the transmission of plants to Sydney, \n&c, with great success, and professor Faraday \nlectured on the subject in 1838. \n\n"WARDMOTES, meetings of the citizens of \nLondon in their wards, where they elect annually \ntheir common councilmen. The practice is said to \nhave begun in 1386. They had previously assembled \nin Guildhall ; see Plough Monday. \n\nWARRANTS, GENERAL, do not specify \nthe name of the accused. They were declared to be \nillegal by lord chief justice Pratt, 6 Dec. 1763, in \nrelation to the seizure and committal of Mr. Wilkes \nfor a libel on the king ; see North Briton. \n\n"WARRIOR, see under Navy of England, i860. \n\nWARSAW, the metropolis of Poland. The diet \n\nwas transferred to this city from Cracow in 1566, and \n\nit became the seat of government in 1689. Popula- \ntion in 1890, 443,426. \n\nThe Poles defeated in three days\' battle by the\' \nSwedes 28-30 July, 1656 \n\nAlliance of Warsaw, between Austria and Po- \nland, against Turkey, in pursuance of which, John \nSobieski assisted in raising the siege of Vienna \n(September following), signed . . 31 March, 1683 \n\nWarsaw surrenders to Charles XII 1703 \n\nTreaty of Warsaw, between Russia and Poland, \n\n24 Feb. 1768 \n\nThe Russian garrison here expelled with the loss of \n2000 killed and 500 wounded, and 36 pieces of \ncannon 17 April, 1794 \n\nThe Poles defeated by the Russians at Maciejovice, \n\n4 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe king of Prussia besieges Warsaw, July ; com- \npelled to raise the siege, Sept. ; it is taken by the \nRussians with great slaughter, especially of the \narmed citizens 9 Nov. ,, \n\nWarsaw constituted a duchy, and annexed to the \nhouse of Saxony Aug. 1807 \n\nThe duchy overrun by the Russians ; Warsaw made \nthe residence of a Russian viceroy . . . 1813 \n\nThe last Polish revolution commences at Warsaw, \n\n29 Nov. 1830 \n\nBattle of Grochow, near Warsaw, in which the Rus- \nsians were defeated, and forced to retreat with the \nloss of 7000 men 25 Feb. 1833 \n\nBattle of Warsaw, when, after two days\' hard \nrighting, the city capitulated, and was taken pos- \nsession of by the Russians ; and great part of the \nPolish army retired towards Ploek and Modlin, \n\n6-8 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe czar meets the emperor of Austria and the \nregent of Prussia ; no result . . 20-25 Oct. 1860- \n\nPanic in a church ; great loss of life . 25 Dec. 1881 \n\nAlexander III. visits Warsaw ; great precautions, \n\n8 Sept. 18S4 \n\nSuspected conspiracy, arrest of 30 students and a \nnovelist named Smolnicky . about 30 Dec. 1891 \n(See Poland, 1861-5.) \n\nWARTBURG, a castle in Saxony (N. Ger- \nmany) , where Luther was conveyed for safety after \nthe diet of Worms, April, 1521, and where he trans- \nlated the Bible into German. \n\n\n\nWARWICK CASTLE. \n\n\n\n1055 \n\n\n\nWATER. \n\n\n\nWARWICK CASTLE (Warwickshire), the \nseat of the Beauchamps, Nevilles, Plantagenets, \nDudleys, Eiches, and Grevilles, successively, and \nfrequently besieged ; suffered much by fire, 3 Dec. \n187 1 ; some of the more ancient part was destroyed. \nThe town, incorporated in 1553, was nearly destroyed \nby fire in 1694. The show of the Agricultural \nsociety here, was opened by the prince of Wales and \nthe duke of York, 20 June, 1892. Population, 1881, \n11,800; 1891, 11,905. \n\nWASH-HOUSES, see Baths. \n\n. WASHING MACHINES. Several have been \ninvented by Americans. At an hotel in New York \nhundreds of garments are washed in a few minutes \nby steam, and dried by a centrifugal machine \n(1862). The ingenious machines of Messrs. Horns- \nby, of Norwich, appeared in the great exhibition \nof London, 1862. \n\nWASHINGTON. A northern state of the \nAmerican Union, first settled in 1845, organized as \na Territory in 1853, as a State 1889 i population in \n1880, 75,1 16 j 1890, 349,390. Capital Olympia. \nThe flourishing town of Seattle was nearly de- \nstroyed by fire about 6 June, 1889 ; estimated \nloss about $15,000,000 ; few lives lost. \nEllensburg, a small town also nearly destroyed by \nfire, 4 July, 1889 ; estimated loss, .$2,000,000 ; also \nSpokane Falls, loss about $10,000,000, about 4 Aug. 1889 \nCoal mine explosion near Koslyn, 43 deaths, \n\n10 May, 1892 \n\nWASHINGTON (in Columbia district, partly \nin Virginia and partly in Maryland, on the bank of \nthe Potomac, N.E. Virginia), the capital of the \nUnited States, founded in 1791, and made the seat \nof government in 1800. The capital was founded in \n1793. Population, 1880, 147,293 ; 1890, 230,392. \nThe house of representatives opened . . 30 May, 1808 \n"Washington was taken by the British forces under \n\ngeneral Ross, after his victory at Bladensburg; \n\nits superb structures and national library burnt, \n\n24 Aug. 1814 \nGeneral Ross killed by some American riflemen, in \n\na desperate engagement at Baltimore 12 Sept. ,, \n\nNaval observatory founded 1842 \n\nSmithsonian institute (which see) founded . . . 1846 \nPart of the capitol and the whole of the library of \n\nthe United States congress destroyed by fire, \n\n24 Dec. 1851 \nThe prince of Wales entertained by the president \n\nhere Oct. i860 \n\nWashington fortified in . . . . April, 1861 \n\nPresident Lincoln shot by Booth in Ford\'s theatre, \n\n14 April ; died 15 April, 1865 \n\nMemorial obelisk to George Washington, 555 feet \n\nhigh, inaugurated 21 Feb. 1885 \n\nNational theatre burnt down . . .27 Feb ,, \nFire at the house of the lion. Benjamin Tracy, sec- \nretary of the navy ; he escapes, but his wife, \n\ndaughter, and a servant perish . . 3 Feb. 1890 \nSee United States. \n\nIMPORTANT TREATIES OF WASHINGTON. \n\nFixing N.W. boundary of British America and \nUnited States, &c 12 June, 1846 \n\n\' \' Reciprocity " treaty regulating trade with Canada, \n\n7 June, 1854 \n\nReferring the Alabama claims and the San Juan \nboundary question to arbitration ; settling dis- \nputes respecting fisheries (see Alabama and Juaii); \nand laying down three rules ; asserting that it is \nthe duty of a neutral state, which desires to re- \nmain at peace with belligerents, and to enjoy the \nrights of neutrality, to abstain from taking any \npart in the war by affording military aid to one \nor both of the belligerents ; and to take care 1 hat \nno acts which would constitute such co-operatioi 1 \nin the war be committed by any one within its \nterritory 8 May, 1871 \n\nWASIUM (named from the royal house of \n\n"Wasa or Vasa),a supposed new metal, discovered by \n\n\n\nF. Bahr, of Stockholm, in 1862. In Nov. 1863 Nickles- \ndeclared it to be a compound of didymium, yttrium, \nand terbium. \n\nWASTE LANDS- The inclosure of waste \nlands and commons, in order to promote agriculture,, \nfirst began in England about the year 1547, and gave- \nrise to Kef s rebellion, 1549. Inclosures were again; \npromoted by the authority of parliament, 1785. The- \nwaste lands in England were estimated in 1 794 to* \namount to 14 millions of acres, of which there were- \ntaken into cultivation, 2,837,476 acres before June r \n1801. lu 1841, there were about 6,700,000 acres of \nwaste land, of which more than half was thought to- \nbe capable of improvement ; see Agriculture. \n\nWATCH OF LONDON, at night, appointed! \n1253, proclaimed the hour with a bell before the in- \ntroduction of public clocks. Hardic. The old watch \nwas discontinued, and a new police (on duty day \nand night) commenced, 29 Sept. 1829 ; see Police. \n\nWATCHES are said to have been first invented \nat Nuremberg, 1477, although it is affirmed that. \nEobert, king of Scotland, had a watch about 1310. \n\nWatches first used in astronomical observations by \nPurbaeh 1500 \n\nAuthors assert that the emperor Charles V. was \nthe first who had anything that might be called a \nwatch, though some call it a small table-clock . 1530 \n\nWatches first brought to England from Germany in 1577 \n\nA watch which belonged to queen Elizabeth is pre- \nserved in the library of the Royal Institution. \nLondon. \n\nSpring pocket-watches (watches properly so-called) \nhave had their invention ascribed to Dr. Hooke \nby the English, and to M. Huyghens by the Dutch. \nDr. Derham, in hia Artificial Clockmaker, says that \nDr. Hooke was the inventor ; and he appears cer- \ntainly to have produced what is called the pendulum \nwatch about 1658 ; manifest, among other evi- \ndences, from an inscription on one of the double- \nbalance watches presented to Charles II., "Rob. \nHooke, inven. 1658 ; T. Tompion, fecit, 1675." \n\nRepeating watches invented by Barlowe . . . 1675 \n\nHarrison\'s first time-piece produced (see Harrison), 1733-. \n\nWatches and clocks were taxed in . . . . 1797 \n\nThe tax was repealed in 1798. See Clocks. \n\nArrangements made at Kew observatory for testing \nhigh class watches, and granting graduated cer- \ntificates ; fees, il. is., ios. 6cl., &c. ; announced \n\nApril, 1S84. \n\nWATER. Thales of Miletus, founder of the \n\nIonic sect, considered water to be the original \n\nprinciple of everything, about 594 B.C. Stanley* \n\nCavendish and Watt demonstrated that water is \ncomposed of 8 parts of oxygen and 1 part of hy- \ndrogen 1781-4. \n\nWater was decomposed into oxygen and hydrogen \ngases by Lavoisier, 1783 ; by the voltaic battery \nby Nicholson and Carlisle, 1S00 ; by the heat of \nthe oxy-liydrogen flame by W. R. Grove . . 1846 \n\nIn freezing, water contracts till it is reduced to 42\xc2\xb0 \nor 40\xc2\xb0 Fahr. ; it then begins to expand till it be- \ncomes ice at 32\xc2\xb0. \n\nWater was first conveyed to London by leaden pipes, \n21 Henry HI. 1237. Stow. It took nearly fifty \nyears to complete it ; the whole being finished, \nand Cheapside conduit erected, only in . . . 1285 \n\nThe New River water brought to London from \nChadwell and Amwell in Hertfordshire, at an im- \nmense expense, by sir Hugh Myddelton, in . 1609-13. \n\nThe city was supplied with its water by convey- \nances of wooden pipes iii the streets ,-iud suull \nleaden ones to the houses, and the New River \n\nCompany was incorporated, 1620. So late as qi n \n\nAnne\'s time there were water-earners at Aldgate- \npump. \n\nThe water-works at Chelsea completed, and the \ncompany incorporated 172:1 \n\nLondon-bridge ancient water-works destroyed bj \nlire ........ 29 Oct, 1779 \n\nAn net to supply the inetrc>|n>Iis with water, 15 & 16 \nVict. e. S4, was passed, 1 July, 1852. This act was \n\n\n\nWATER-BED, CLOCKS. \n\n\n\n1056 \n\n\n\nWATERLOO. \n\n\n\namended by an act passed 21 Aug. 1871. The \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2companies were bound to provide a constant \nsupply when required ; the owner or occupier of \nthe house to provide the prescribed fittings. \n\n([The supply is now considered to be much improved \nin quality and quantity.] \n\nA company was formed to carry out Dr. Normandy\'s \npatent for converting salt water into fresh, in \n\nJan. 1857 \n\nMessrs. Pamphlett & Ferguson\'s process for pro- \nducing fresh from salt water was exhibited at \nMessrs. George Wailes & Co., Euston road, Lon- \ndon, and considered successful . . 15 Oct. 1889 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Commissioners for metropolitan water supply ap- \npointed, 27 April, 1867 ; report signed 9 June, 1869 \n\nLondon supplied by nine companies : the New River \n(the best), East London, Chelsea, Grand Junction, \n1 Southwark and Vauxhall, Kent, West Middlesex, \nLambeth, and South Essex ; who deliver about \n108,000,000 gallons daily, 1867 ; about 116,250,000 \ngallons 1877 \n\nNew schemes for supplying London with water, \n1867 :\xe2\x80\x94 \n\n1. Mt. Bateman ; from the sources of the Severn. \n\xe2\x96\xa02. Messrs. Hemans and Hassard ; from the Cum- \nberland lakes. \n3 Mr. Telford Macneill ; Thames water filtered \nthrough Bagshot sand. \n\n4. Mr. Bailey Denton ; storage reservoirs near the \n\nsources of the Thames. \n\n5. Mr. Remington; from the Derbyshire and \n\nStaffordshire hills. \n\nThe water from the first two sources analysed and \nhighly approved by professors Frankland and \nOdling April, 1868 \n\nWater from the chalk districts softened by Homer- \nsham\'s process strongly recommended, Jan. 1871 \n\nAug. 1878 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2Conference on the national water supply a.t So- \nciety of Arts (suggested by the prince of Wales, \npresident) 21, 22 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLetter from the prince of Wales to the earl of \nBeaconsfield suggesting the appointment of a \ncommission on water supply, dated . 24 March, 1879 \n\nNational Water Supply Exhibition, Alexandra Pa- \nlace ; opened 14 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGovernment proposal to buy companies\' works for \n34,398, yool. (New River company, 9,146,000?. ), \ndropped April, 1880 \n\nAnnual revenue, according to Mr. E. J. Smith\'s cal- \nculations, above 1,500,000? 1881 \n\nAtkins\' process for softening hard water an improve- \nment upon Clarks\' process, announced July, 1882 \n\nWater companies (regulation of powers) act, passed 1887 \n\nThe purchase of the companies\' works recom- \nmended by the London County Council, 1890, \nand by a committee of the London corporation ; \nreport published 17 Oct. 1890 \n\nAt a conference of representatives of the district \nboards of London, it was resolved to support sir \nAlgernon Borthwick\'s bill, which proposes to \nconfer upon an elected Water Trust the exclusive \npowers of supplying water within the metropoli- \ntan area, with an equalization of charges, &c. , \n\n27 Feb. 1891 \n\nHybrid committee in the commons on the London \nWater Commission appointed : sir M. White \nRidley, sir H. E. Roscoe, sir A. Borthwick, and \nsix others 20 March, ,, \n\nReport disapproving of the two bills before parlia- \nment, and requiring further information 14 July, ,, \n\nRoyal commission on the metropolitan water \nsupply appointed : lord Balfour of Burleigh, sir \nG. Barclay Bruce, prof. James Dewar, sir A. \nGeikie, Dr. Wm. Ogle, and others (frequent meet- \nings up to July), reported . . 14 March, 1892 \n\nMr. Francis Gaskell, secretary, appointed, \n\n22 March, ,, \n\nLondon Water act x>assed ... 27 June, ,, \n\nSee Artesian Wells and London Water. \n\n"WATER-BED, CLOCKS, see Beds, Clocks. \n\nWATER-COLOUR PAINTING was gra- \ndually raised from the hard dry style of the last \ncentury to its present brilliancy, by the efforts of \nNicholson, Copley Fielding, Sandby, Varley, the \n\n\n\ngreat Turner, Pyne, Cattermole, Prout, &c, within \nthe present century. The Water-Colour Society\'s \nexhibition which began in 1805, was made Koyal in \n1881, the diplomas were to be signed by the queen \nafter Nov. 1882. The Institute of Painters in Water \nColours,established about 1 83 1 (made Eoyal in 1883), \nopen new galleries in Piccadilly, and propose to give \nfree instruction, 27 April, 1883. \nDr. John Percy\'s unique historical collection of \nwater-colour drawings was sold for 8,230?., re- \nported 26 April, 1890 \n\nWATERFORD (S. Ireland), built about 879, \nwas totally destroyed by fire in 981 . Eebuilt and con- \nsiderably enlarged by Strongbow in 1171, and still \nfurther in the reign of Henry VII., who granted \nconsiderable privileges to the citizens. Kichard II. \nlanded and was crowned here in 1399 ; in 1690, \nJames II. embarked from hence for France, after \nthe battle of the Boyne ; and William III. resided \nhere twice, and confirmed its privileges. Memorable \nstorm here, 18 April, 1792. The cathedral of Water- \nford, dedicated to the blessed Trinity, was first \nbuilt by the Ostmen, and by Malchus, the first \nbishop of Waterford, after his return from England \nfrom his consecration, 1096. This see was united \nwith that of Lismore in 1363. It was valued in \nthe king\'s books, by an extent returned 29 Henry \nVIII., at 72^. 8s. id. Irish per annum. By stat. \n3 & 4 Will. IV., c. 37 (the Irish Church Tempo- \nralities act), the see of Waterford and Lismore was \nunited with the see of Cashel and Emly, 14 Aug. \n1833. The interior of the cathedral, organ, &c., \nwere destroyed by fire, 25 Oct. 1815. Population, \n1891, 21,693. \nWaterford returns three M.P\'s. by act passed \n\n25 June, 1885 \n\nWATER GAS, see Gas-lights. \n\nWATER-GLASS, a name given to a liquid \nmixture of sand (silex) and one of the alkalies \n(potash or soda) . Glauber {Be Lithiase) mentions \na similar mixture in 1644. Dr. Von Fuchs, the \nmodern inventor, gave an account of his process in \n1825 ; and Mr. Frederick Kansome, of Ipswich, \nignorant of Von Fuchs\' s discovery, patented a mode \nof preparing water-glass in 1845, which he has since \ngreatly improved upon. In 1857, M. Kuhlmann, of \nLille, published a pamphlet setting forth the \nadvantageous employment of water-glass in harden- \ning porous stone and in stereochromy {which see). \nIt has been applied to the exterior of many buildings \nin France and England. The memoirs of Von \nFuchs and Kuhlmann were translated and printed \nin England, in 1859, by direction of the prince \nconsort. \n\nWATERING STREETS. Mr. Cooper\'s plan \nfor using solutions of chloride of lime or of sodium \n(which dry slowly and attract moisture and ammonia \nand other gases, and combine them with the material \nof the road) was partially used in the parish of St. \nMary-le-bone in 1868, and also in Liverpool, Boston, \nand other towns. The plan was ordered to be tried \nin Westminster in July, 1870. \n\nWATERLOO, in Belgium, the site of the \ngreat battle, on Sunday, 18 June, 1815, between the \nFrench army, of 71,947 men and 246 guns, under \nNapoleon, and the allies, commanded by the duke \nof Wellington ; the latter, with 67,661 men and \n156 guns, resisted the various attacks of the enemy \nfrom about ten in the morning until five in the \nafternoon. About that time, 16,000 Prussians \nreached the field of battle ; and by seven, the force \nunder Blucher amounted to above 50,000 men, with \n104 guns. AVellington then moved forward his \n\n\n\nWATERLOO BRIDGE. \n\n\n\n1057 \n\n\n\nWAX. \n\n\n\nwhole army. A total rout ensued, and the carnage \nwas immense. Of the British (23,991), 93 officers \nand 1916 men were killed and missing, and 363 \nofficers and 4560 men wounded \xe2\x80\x94 total, 6932 ; and \n"the total loss of the allied army amounted to 4206 \nikilled, 14,539 wounded, and 4231 missing, making \n.22,976 hors de combat. Napoleon, quitting the wreck \nof his army, returned to Paris ; and, finding it \nimpossible to raise another, abdicated. P. Nicolas. \n-Napoleon attributed his defeat to the failures of marshal \n\nGrouchy, Wellington said unjustly. \nProposed monument over the British officers and men \n\nwho died of their wounds, 7 Jan. 1888. \n.By the side of the chapel of Waterloo, which was un- \ninjured by shot or shell on 18 June, 1815, Marlborough \ncut off a large division of the French forces, 17 Aug. \n1705. The conquerors on the same field are the only \nBritish commanders whose career brought them to \ndukedoms. \n\'The Waterloo monument over the remains of the \nofficers and men who fell in the campaign of \n1815, in a cemetery at Brussels, erected by queen \nVictoria, was unveiled by the duke of Cambridge, \n\n26 Aug. 1890 \n\xc2\xabGen. George Whichcote, born 21 Dec, 1794, who \nfought in the Spanish campaigns and at Water- \nloo, died 26 Aug. 1891 \n\nWATERLOO BRIDGE, London. Abridge \nover this part of the Thames was repeatedly sug- \ngested during the last century, but no actual pre- \nparations to carry it into effect were made till 1806, \nwhen Mr. G. Dodd procured an act of parliament, \nand gave the present site, plan, and dimensions of \n:the bridge ; but, in consequence of some disagree- \nment with the committee, he was superseded by \nMr. John Eennie, who completed this noble struc- \nture. It was commenced 11 Oct. 181 1, and opened \n18 June, 1817, on the anniversary of the battle of \n"Waterloo, when the prince regent, the duke of \nWellington, and other distinguished personages, \nwere present. Its length within the abutments is \n1242 feet; its width within the balustrades is 42 \nfeet ; and the span of each arch, of which there are \nnine, is 120 feet. Bought for 475,000/. by metro- \npolitan board of works ; opened toll free, 5 Oct. 1878 ; \nlit by electric light from 10 Oct. 1879. \n\nOn Oct. 9, 1857, two youths, named Kilsby, found on \none of the abutments of the bridge a carpet bag, con- \ntaining human bones and flesh, which had been cut up, \nsalted, and boiled, and some foreign clothes. No clue \ncould be found respecting these remains, which were \ninterred in Woking cemetery. \n\nWATERLOO CUP, see Dogs, 187 1. \n\nWATERLOW PARK, S. Hampstead or \nHighgate, was presented to the metropolis with \n6,000/. to the London county council, by sir S}\'dney \nH. Waterlow, 12 Nov. 1889. The park was opened \nto the public by sir John Lubbock, chairman of the \n\xe2\x96\xa0council, 17 Oct. 1891. \n\nWATER-MILLS, used for grinding corn, are \nsaid to have been invented by Belisarius, the general \nof Justinian, while besieged in Rome by the Goths, \n555. The ancients parched their corn, and pourjded \nit in mortal\'s. Afterwards mills were invented, \nwhich were turned by men and beasts with great \nlabour ; yet Pliny mentions wheels turned by water. \nSee Tclo-dynamic transmitter. \n\nWATERSPOUT. Two waterspouts fell on the \nGlatz mountains in Germany, and caused dreadful \ndevastation to Hautenbach and many other villages; \nmany persons perished, 13 July, 1827. A water- \nspout at Glantiesk, near Killarney, in Ireland, \npassed over a farm of Mr. John Macarthy, destroy- \ning farm-houses and other buildings ; seventeen \npersons perished, 4 Aug. 183 1. The estimated \nlength of one seen near Calcutta, 27 Sept. 1855, was \n\n\n\nIOOO feet. It lasted ten minutes, and was absorbed \nupwards. One seen on 24 Sept. 1856, burst into \nheavy rain. The town of Miskolcz, Hungary, \ndestroyed by a waterspout ; great loss of life and \nproperty, 30 Aug. 1878. 61 persons said to have \nbeen killed by a waterspout in Algeria, Oct. 1881. \nA waterspout at Arequipa, Peru, caused immense \ndamage, several persons drowned, 14 Feb. ; one at \nPachuca, Mexico, 30 deaths, 27 Sept. 1884 ; another \nnear Lagos, very destructive, 6 or 7 June, 1885. \nDestructive waterspout at Swansea 4 Sept. 1886 ; \nanother on Batcombe hills, Dorsetshire, greatly \ndamaged the villages of Chatnole, Ceme, and \nMintem, 7 June, 1889. \n\nWATER TOFANA, see Poisoning. \n\nWATLLNG-STREET, see Roman Roads. \n\nWATTIGNIES (N. Prance). Here Jourdan \nand the French republicans defeated the Austrians \nunder the prince of Coburg, and raised the seige of \nMaubeuge, 14-16 Oct. 1793. \n\nWAT TYLER\'S INSURRECTION, see \n\nTyler. \n\nWAVE PRINCIPLE (in accordance with \nwhich the curves of the hull of a ship should be \nadapted to the curves of a wave of the sea) formed \nthe subject of experiments begun by Mr. John Scott \nRussell in 1832, with the view of increasing the \nspeed of ships. Colonel Beaufoy is said to have \nspent 30,000/. in researches upon this matter. It \nwas also taken up by the British Association, who \nhave published reports of the investigations. The \nprinciple has been adopted by naval architects ; see \nUndulatory Theory, and Yacht. \n\nWAVERLEY NOVELS- The publication \nof the series began with " Waverley ; or, \'Tis Sixty \nYears since," in 1814, and closed with " Tales of \nmy Landlord," fourth series, in 1831. The author- \nship was acknowledged by sir Walter Scott, at a \ndinner, 23 Feb. 1827. The original MSS. of several \nof Scott\'s poems and novels were sold by auction by \nChristie and Manson for 1255 guineas, 6 July, 1867. \n\nWAWZ or WAVER (Poland). The Poles \nunder Skrzynecki attacked the Russians at Wawz, \nand after two days\' hard fighting, all the Russian \npositions were carried by storm, and they retreated \nwith the loss of 12,000 men and 2000 prisoners, \n31 March, 1831. The loss of the Poles was small, \nbut their triumph was soon followed by defeat and \nruin. \n\nWAX came into use for candles in the 12th \ncentury; and wax candles were esteemed a luxury \nin 1300, being but little used. In China, candles of \nvegetable wax have been in use for centuries ; see \nCandleberry. The wax tree, Ligustrum lucidum, \nwas brought from China before 1794. \xe2\x80\x94 Sealing- \nWax was not brought into use in England until \nabout 1556. Its use has been much superseded by \nthe introduction of adhesive envelopes, about 1844. \nWaxwork. \xe2\x80\x94 Exhibition of models in wax were popular \nin the 17th and 18th centuries. The collection of wax \nfigures exhibited by Mrs. Salmon at Aldgate, early in \nthe last century, were removed to Fleet-street, and \nshown there till 1812, when they were sold, it is said, \nfor 50?. Madame Tussaud, a skilful modeller, exhi- \nbited her remarkable collection of models and casts of \neminent persons with costumes and other interesting \nrelics in the boulevard du Temple, Paris, 1785. In 1802 \nshe exhibited her collection at the Lyceum, Strand, \nLondon, and afterwards at other places. The interest \nof tlir exhibition has been energetically sustained for \nmany years at Baker-street, London, \\V.,and latterly at \nMarylebone-road, by madame Tussaud and her family ; \nshe died 15 April, 1850, aged 90. Early in 1889 the \n\n3 T \n\n\n\nWE. \n\n\n\n1058 \n\n\n\nWEIGHTS and MEASURES. \n\n\n\ncollection was purchased by a company, Mr. John \nTussaud being engaged as manager. \nMr. Louis Tussaud opened a new exhibition of wax- \nworks at 207, Regent-street, 24 Dec. 1890 ; it was \ndestroyed by Are, 20 Jnne, 1891, estimated loss, \nio,ooo\xc2\xa3. \n\nWE- Sovereigns generally use we for I, which \nstyle began with king John, 1199. Coke. The \nGerman emperors and French kings used the plural \nabout 1200. \n\nWEALD of Kent and Sussex, the site of \nTery large, ancient forests ; St. Leonard\'s still \nremaining ; near which, in the Wealden formation, \nDr. G. A. Mantell discovered the remains of huge \nextinct animals, 1825 et seq. Mr. E. Furley \npublished an exhaustive "History of the Weald of \nKent," 1871-4. \n\nWEATHEE, see Meteorology. \n\nWEAVING appears to have been practised in \nChina more than a thousand years before it was \nknown in Europe or Asia. The Egyptians ascribed \nthe art to Isis ; the Greeks to Minerva ; and the \nPeruvians to the wife of Manco Capac. Our \nSaviour\'s vest, or coat, had not any seam, being \nwoven from the top throughout, in one whole piece. \nThe print of a frame for weaving such a vest may \nbe seen in Calmet\'s Dictionary, under the word \nVestments. Two weavers from Brabant settled at \nYork, where they manufactured woollens, which, \nsays king Edward, " may prove of great benefit to \nus and our subjects" (1331). Flemish dyers, cloth \ndrapers, linen-makers, silk-throwsters, &c, settled \nat Canterbury, Norwich, Colchester, Southampton, \nand other places, on account of the duke of Alva\'s \npersecution, 1567 ; see Loom, and Electric Loom. \n\nWEDDINGS. Silver weddings are celebrated \nafter a union of 25 years ; golden weddings after a \nunion of 50 years ; and diamond weddings after a \nunion of 60 years, some apply it to 75 years. John, \nking of Saxony, celebrated his golden wedding, 10 \nNov. 1872. \n\nWEDDING-EINGS were used by the \nancients, and put upon the wedding finger, from a \nsupposed connection with a vein there with the \nheart. According to Pliny they were made of iron ; \nin the time of Tertullian of gold. Wedding-rings \nare to be of standard gold, by statute, 1855; see \nAdriatic. \n\nWEDGE-LIKE Characters, see Cunei- \nform. \n\nWEDGWOOD WAEE, pottery and porce- \nlain produced by Mr. Josiah Wedgwood, of Stafford- \nshire, in 1762. His potteries, termed Etruria, were \nfounded in 1 77 1 . Previously to 1 763, much earthen- \nware was imported from France and Holland. \n\nWEDNESDAY, the fourth day of the week, \nso called from the Saxon idol Woden or Odin, \nworshipped on this day. Woden was the reputed \nauthor of magic and the inventor of all the arts, \nand was thought to answer to the Mercury of the \nGreeks and Romans. \n\nWEEDON INQUIEY (Northamptonshire). \nCommissioners were appointed to inquire into the \naccounts of Mr. Elliot, superintendent of the great \nmilitary clothing establishment at this place, in \nJuly, 1858, and commenced sitting in September. \nMany of the statements were afterwards disputed, \nand caused much dissatisfaction. \n\nWEEK, the space of seven days, supposed to be \nfirst used among the Jews, who observed the \nsabbath every seventh day. They had three sorts of \n\n\n\nweeks \xe2\x80\x94 the common one of seven days ; the second \nof years, seven years ; the third of seven times \nseven years, at the end of which was the jubilee. \nAll the present English names are derived from; \nthe Saxon : \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nLatin. French. \n\nDies Solis, Day of the Sun, Dimanche. \n\nDies Lunse, Day of the Moon, Lundi. \n\nDies Martis, Day of Mars, Mardi. \n\nDies Mereurii, Day of Mercury, MercredL \n\nDies Jovis, Day of Jupiter, Jeudi. \n\nDies Veneris,. Day of Venus, Vendredi. \n\nDies Saturni, \' Day of Saturn, Samedi. \n\nEnglish. Saxon. German*. \n\nSunday, Sun\'s day, Sonntag. \n\nMonday, Moon\'s day, Montag. \n\nTuesday, Tiw\'s day, Dienstag. \n\n"Wednesday, Woden\'s day, Mittwoche. \n\nThursday, Thor\'s day, Donnerstag. \n\nFriday, Friga\'s day, Freitag. \n\nSaturday, Saterne\'s day, Samstag, or Sonrs- \n\nabend. \n\nWEEKLY DISPATCH, liberal weekly \nSunday paper, established 1801. \n\nWEIGHTS AND MEASUEES. These and \n\nthe stamping of gold and silver money, are attributed \n\nto Pheidon, tyrant of Argos, 895 B.C. ; see A.run\xe2\x80\x94 \n\ndelian Marbles. Weights were originally taken \n\nfrom grains of wheat, the lowest being still called a \n\ngrain. Chalmers. See Crith. \n\nMuch information is given by Mr. H. W. Chisholia \nin his work "On the Seience of Weighing and\' \nMeasuring." 1877. \n\nThe Jews ascribed weights and measures to Cain ; \nthe Egyptians to Theuth, or Thoth ; the Greeks, \nto Hermes (the Roman Mercury). \n\nThe basis of ancient measures was the natural pro- \nportions of the human body ; the digit, or breadth, \nof the middle part of the first joint of the fore- \nfinger, being the lowest unit of the scale. \n\nThe Egyptian cubit (six palms), under the Pha- \nraohs, was about 18.24 English inches ; the cubit \nof Ptolemy about 21.87 inches; he determined \nthe length of a stadium, and of a degree. \n\nThe sacred cubit of the Jews (Newton), 24.7 inches. \n\nAssyrian weights are described by Mr. Layard in \nhis "Nineveh." \n\nThe standard measure was originally kept at Win- \nchester by the law of king Edgar .... 972- \n\nStandards of weights and measures were provided \nfor the whole kingdom of England by the sheriffs \nof London, 9 Rich. I. 1197 \n\nA public weighing-machine was set up in London, \nand all commodities ordered to be weighed by the \ncity-officer, called the weigh-master, who was to \ndo justice between buyer and seller, stat. 3 Edw. \nII. (Stotv) 1309; \n\nEdward HI. ordered that there should be "one \nweight, measure, and yard," throughout the king- \ndom 1353 \n\nFirst statute, directing the use of avoirdupois \nweight, of 24 Hen. VIII. 1532 \n\nWeights and measures ordered to be examined by \nthe justices at quarter-sessions, 35 Geo. III. . . 1795 \n\nAgain regulated 1800 \n\nStatute for establishing a uniformity of weights and \nmeasures, 1824, took effect throughout the United \nKingdom 1 Jan. 1826 \n\nNew acts relating thereto passed in 1834, 1835, 1855, \nand in 1859 \n\n16 <fc 17 Vict. e. 29, regulates the weights to be used \nin the sale of bullion, and adopts the use of the \nTroy ounce 1S53 \n\nA commission (consisting of Mr. G. B. Airy, gen. \nE. Sabine, lord Rosse, Mr. T. Graham and others), \nappointed to examine the standards . 9 May, 1867/ \n\n3rd report of the Standards commission states that \nerrors exist in official standards, dated 24 July, 186S \n\nA new Weights and Measures act passed to enforce \nuniformity in all markets in the United Kingdom, \nand abolish local measures, 8 Aug. 1878 ; this \nact was combined with another passed 26 July, 1889 \n\nSpecific gravities (unit, pure water) : iridium, 22.38 ; \nplatinum, 21.45 ; osmium, 21.4 ; gold, 19.32 ; lead, \n\n\n\nWEIMAE. \n\n\n\n1059 WELLINGTON\'S VICTORIES- \n\n\n\nii. 35; silver, 10.51; copper, 8.94; iron, 7.87; \ntin, 7.29; zinc, 7.19 ; iodine, 4.95 ; carbon, 3.52 ; \naluminium, 2.56; sulphur, 2; sodium, 0.97; \nlithium, 0.59 ; oxygen, 0.001431 ; nitrogen, \n0.001257; hydrogen, 0.0000896, Dr. 0. J. Broch . 1878 \n(See Standard; and Metrical System.) \n\n"WEIMAR, capital of the grand-duchy of Saxe \nWeimar (which see) . \n\nWEINSBERG, see Guelphs. \n\nWEISSENBURG, see Wissembourg. \n\nWELLINGTON, a town in New Zealand, \nNorth Island, settled in 1840, made a bishopric in \n\n1858, became a seat of government, 24 Dec. 1864. \nPopulation in 1891, 33,224. \n\nWELLINGTON ADMINISTRATION, \n\nsucceeded that of viscount Goderich, Jan. 1828. The \n\nduke resigned 16 Nov. 1830. \n\nDuke of Wellington, first lord of the treasury. \n\nLord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor. \n\nHenry Goulburn, chancellor of the exchequer. \n\nEarl Bathurst, president of the council. \n\nLord Ellenborough, privy seal. \n\nMr. (afterwards sir) Robert Peel, earl Dudley, and Mr. \n\nWm. Huskisson, home, foreign, and colonial secretaries. \nViscount Melville, board of control. \nMr. Charles Grant, board of trade. \nLord Palmerston, secretary-at-war. \nJ. C. Hemes, master of the mint. \nEarl of Aberdeen, duchy of Lancaster. \nMr. Huskisson, earl Dudley, viscount Palmerston, and \n\nMr. Grant quitted the ministry, and various changes \n\nfollowed in May and June same year. \nThe earl of Aberdeen and sir George Murray became, \n\nrespectively, foreign and colonial secretaries. \nSir Henry Hardinge, secretary-at-war. \nMr. Vesey Fitzgerald (afterwards lord Fitzgerald), India \n\nboard. \nLord Lowther, first commissioner of land revenues, &,c, \n\nMay and June, 1828. \nMr. Arbuthnot, Mr. Vesey Fitzgerald, <fcc. \n\nWELLINGTON COLLEGE (Sandhurst), \nwas erected by subscription in memory of the great \nduke of Wellington, for the support and education \nof orphan sons of commissioned officers. The first \nstone was laid by the queen on 2 June, 1856 ; and \nthe building was opened by her majesty on 29 Jan. \n\n1859. Out of the 159,000^. subscribed, 55,000^. were \nexpended on the building, and the rest invested for \nthe maintenance of the institution. \n\nA controversy respecting its management ; certain \ncharges explained or rebutted . . Aug. -Oct. 1878 \n\nProposal for royal commission of inquiry nega- \ntived in the commons . . . . 1 April, 1879 \n\nCommission appointed ; lord Penzance, bishop of \nExeter, Mr. R. Lowe (since lord Sherbrooke), col. \nChesney, &c, June, 1879 ; report recommending \ngreater economy and improvement of income, \n\nAug. 1880 \n\nMuch illness among the boys, 3 deaths ; investiga- \ntion of the premises made dnring 1891 ; the \nscholars were temporarily transferred to Malvern, \n\nearly in 1892 \n\nWELLINGTONIA GIGANTE A (sequoia), \nthe largest tree in the world, a native of California, \nwas discovered by W. Whitehead, June, 1850 ; a \nspecimen first gathered by Mr. W. Lobb in 1853, \nand described by Dr. John Lindley. When full \ngrown it is about 450 feet high, and 1 16 feet in \ncircumference. The prince consort (5 June, 1861) \nand the queen (24 July, 1861) planted Welling- \ntonias at the new gardens of the Itoyal Horti- \ncultural Society. The trees did not live ; the \ngardens were given up in 1887. \n\nWELLINGTON\'S VICTORIES, &c. For \n\ndetails see separate articles. \nArthur Wellesley was born, according to some \nauthorities, in March or April (baptised 30 April); \n\nincorrectly said by others , , 1 May, 1769 \n\n\n\nAppointed to command in the Mahratta war in \nIndia, takes Poonah and Ahmednuggur, 12 Aug. ; \ngains his first victory at Assaye, 23 Sept. ; defeats \nScindiah at Argaum, Nov. ; and at Gawalghur \n\n13 Dec. 1803 \n\nBecomes secretary for Ireland 1807 \n\nTakes the command in Portugal, defeats Junot at \nVimeira 21 Aug. 1808 \n\nDefeats Victor at Talavera, 28 July; created \nviscount Wellington .... 4 Sept. 1809 \n\nRepulses Massena at Busaco, 27 Sept. ; and occupies \nthe lines at Torres Vedras . . .10 Oct. 1810 \n\nDefeats Massena at Fuentes de Onoro, 5 May ; takes \nAlmeida \'10 May, i8ji \n\nPasses the Douro and defeats Soult . 12 May, 1812 \n\nStorms Ciudad Rodrigo, 19 Jan. ; and Badajos, \n6 April ; defeats Marmont at Salamanca, 22 \nJuly ; enters Madrid . . . .12 Aug. \n\nDefeats Joseph Bonaparte and Jourdan at Vittoria, \n21 June ; storms St. Sebastian, 31 Aug. ; enters \nFrance 8 Oct. 1813 \n\nDefeats Soult at Orthez, 27 Feb. ; and at Toulouse \n\n10 April, 1814 \n\nCreated duke of Wellington, with an annuity of \n13,000?. and a grant of 300,000^. . . May, ,, \n\nFirst appeared in the house of lords ; his patents \nof creation as baron, earl, marquis, and duke being \nread at the same time ... 28 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCommands the army in the Netherlands ; repulses \nan attack of Ney at Quatre Bras, 16 June : defeats \nNapoleon at Waterloo, 18 June ; invests Paris \n\n3 July, 1815 \n\nCommands the army of occupation in France \n\nJuly, 1815, till Nov. 1818 \n\nHis assassination attempted by Cantillon, who \nescapes - 10 Feb. 1818 \n\nAppointed master-general of the ordnance . . 1819 \n\nThe Wellington shield and supporting columns \ndesigned by Stothard, commemorating all the \nabove-mentioned victories, presented to the duke \nby the merchants and bankers of London. (It \nwas manufactured by Green and Ward, and cost \nn,oooZ.) 16 Feb. 1822- \n\nThe duke appointed commander-in-chief, 22 Jan. ; \nresigns 30 April, 1827 \n\nBecomes first minister .... 8 Jan. 1828 \n\nAids in carrying the Catholic Emancipation bill \n\nApril, 1829 \n\nAsserts that no reform in parliament is needed, 2 \nNov. ; resigns 16 Nov. 1830 \n\nTransacts all the business of the country, after the \nresignation of lord Melbourne, till the arrival of \nsir R. Peel from Italy, Nov. ; and becomes foreign \nsecretary under sir R. Peel, Dec. 1834 ; resigns \n\nApril, 1835 \n\nAgain commander-in-chief ... 15 Aug. 1842 \n\nDies at Walmer castle* .... 14 Sept. 1852 \n\nRemoved to Chelsea hospital, where he lay in state \n\n10 Nov. \n\nRemoved to the Horse Guards . . 17 Nov. ,, \n\nPublic funeral at St. Paul\'s cathedral . iS Nov. ,, \n\nA multitude of all ranks, estimated at a million and a \nhalf of persons, were congregated in the line of route, \na distance of three miles, to witness and share in the \nimposing spectacle. \n\nThe military consisted of the household regiments of \nhorse and foot guards, the 2nd battalion of the rifles, a \nbattalion of the Royal Marines, the 53rd regiment, the \n17th Lancers, and the 1 Sth Light Dragoons, the regi- \nment of Scots Greys; a body of Chelsea pensioners, and \nmen of different arms of the Indian army. \n\nThe body was placed upon a sumptuous funeral car, \ndrawn by twelve horses richly caparisoned, and the \ncoffin was thus seen by the whole of the crowd. \n\nThe procession moved about seven o\'clock, and it was \nthree o\'clock before the body was lowered into the \nvault beside the remains of Nelson, under the do) \nSt. Paul\'s cathedral. \n\nMemorial by Marochetti creeled by the present duke, his \nson, and tenants at Strathfleldsaj e, July, 1866. \nSee Statues. \n\nWELLINGTON Monument, in St. Paul\'s. \nA number of models exhibited in Westminster hall ; none \nchosen, 1857. \n\n* His favourite old horse, Copenhagen, (born 1808, at \nWaterloo), died 1836. \n\n3 y 2 \n\n\n\nWELLS. \n\n\n\n1060 WEST AFRICAN SETTLEMENTS. \n\n\n\nThe execution of the monument entrusted to Mr. Alfred \nStevens, sculptor, and Mr. Penrose, architect. The \nstone sarcophagus was completed in 1858. \nIn Aug. 1870, above 17,000?. had been expended, and it \nwas stated that 15,000?. more were required. Parlia- \nment had granted 20,000?. Fresh arrangements were \nmade with Mr. Stevens. He died 1 May, 1875. Mo- \nnument reported complete, 1 Feb. ; uncovered, 20 \nApril, 1878. \nThe removal of the monument to a different part of the \ncathedral, and the addition of the equestrian statue \nmodelled by Mr. Stevens, proposed in April ; work \nproceeding, Sept. 1892. \n\nWELLS were dug by Abraham, 1892 B.C., and \nIsaac, 1804 {Gen. xxi. 30, and xxvi. 19). Danaus \nis said to hare introduced well-digging into Greece \nfrom Egypt. Norton\'s " tube-well," patented Oct. \n1867, is said to be the invention of Hiram J. \nMessenger, Stephen Brewer, and Byron Mudge, \nAmericans of the state of New York. The appa- \nratus consists of an iron tube perforated with holes \nat the lower end, and shod with a steel point, which \nreadily enters the hardest soil when forcibly driven. \nIt was used with great advantage during the civil \nwar 1 86 1 -4; by the British in their campaign in \nAbyssinia in 1867-8 ; and by the Eussians in Khiva, \n\n1873- \n\nMessrs. Meux, brewers, New Oxford-street, London, \n\nboring, found water beneath the greensand, about \n\n1000 feet deep, April, 1877. \n\nWELLS (Somerset). The cathedral church \nwas built by Ina, king of the West Saxons, 704, and \nby him dedicated to St. Andrew. Other West \nSaxon kings endowed it, and it was erected into a \nbishopric in 909, during the reign of Edward the \nElder. The present church was begun by Robert, \n1 8th bishop of this see, and completed by his imme- \ndiate successor. The first bishop was jEthelm or \nAdelmus (afterwards bishop of Canterbury). The \nsee was united with Bath {which see) in 1088. \nPopulation, 1881, 4,634 ; 1891, 4,822. \n\nWELSH CHARITY SCHOOLS; esta- \nblished in Gray\'s-inn-road, London, 1715 ; removed \nto Ashford, near Staines, Middlesex, 1852. Welsh \nNational Council, see Wales, Oct. 1887. \n\nWENDS, a branch of the Slavonic family which \nspread over Germany in the 6th century, and settled \nespecially in the north-eastern parts. \n\nWESLEYAN METHODISTS, a sect \n\nfounded by John Wesley (born 1703, died 1791) \nand his brother Charles, who in 1727 with a few \nother students formed themselves into a small society \nfor the purpose of mutual edification by religious \nexercises. From their strictness of life they were called \nMethodists, in 1729. John Wesley went to Georgia \nin America, in 1735, with a view of converting the \nIndians. On his return to England, in 1738, he \ncommenced itinerant preaching, and gathered many \nfollowers. On finding many churches shut against \nhim, he built spacious meeting-houses in London, \nBristol, and other places. The W esleyan Methodist \nsociety, as such, began in 1 739. For some time he was \nunited with George Whiteti eld; but differing with \nhim respecting the doctrine of election, they sepa- \nrated in 1 741; see Whitefield. Wesley was almost \ncontinually engaged in travelling through the \nUnited Kingdom. His two leading doctrines were \nthe instantancousness of conversion, and Christian \nperfection, or deliverance from all sin. His society \nwas well organised, and he preserved his influence \nover it to the last. " His genius for government \nwas not inferior to that of Bichelieu." Macaulay, \nThe deed of declaration, establishing the conference, \nis dated 28 Feb. 1784. In 185 1 there were 428 \ncircuits in Great Britain, with between 13,000 and \n\n\n\n14,000 local or lay preachers, and about 920 itine- \nrant preachers, and 6579 chapels. \n\nThe Conference, the highest Wesleyan court, till \nlately, composed of 100 ministers, who meet \nannually. It was instituted by John Wesley in . 1784 \n\nAt the centenary of the existence of Methodism \n216,000?. were collected, to be expended on the \nobjects of the society 1839 \n\nAn oecumenical conference to be held in the autumn \nof 1881, settled 31 July, 1880 \n\n138th annual conference opened . . 19 July, 1881 \n\nOut of the original connection have seceded :\xe2\x80\x94 \n\nChapels in 1851 \n\nNew Connection (in 1796) 301 \n\nPrimitive Methodists (1810) 2871 \n\nBible Christians, or Bryanites (from Win. O\'Bryan) \n(1815) 403 \n\nWesleyan Methodist Association (1834) . . . 329 \n\nWesleyan Methodist Reformers (1849) \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x80\xa2 2O0 \xc2\xb0 \n\nThe last arose out of the publication of " Fly \nSheets," advocating reform in the body (1844-8). \nThe suspected authors and their friends were ex- \npelled. By these disruptions the main body is \nthought to have lost 100,000 members. \xe2\x80\x94 This \nsect in America numbered about a million in \n1844, when a division took place on the slavery \nquestion. \n\nThe United Methodist Free Churches, an amalgamation \nof the Protestant Methodist (1828), Wesleyan \nMethodist Association (1834) and the Wesleyan \nReform Association (1849) effected in . . . 1857 \n\nWesleyan Methodist church members in Great Bri- \ntain in 1868, 342,380; in 1872, 346,580; in 1876, \n37 2 >S38 ! 1878, 380,867 (1412 ministers) ; 1885, \n413,163 ; March, 1889, 421,784; 1892, 424,959. \n\nLetter from Dr. Pusey requesting aid in opposing \nColeridge\'s bill for admitting dissenters to the \nuniversities, read at the conference, but not \nreceived . . 13 Aug. 1868 \n\nThe establishment of a high school for Wesleyans \nat Cambridge (to prepare for the university) pro- \nposed -. May 1872 \n\nThe chapel in the City-road, London, founded by \nJohn Wesley, 1 April, 1777, was nearly destroyed \nby fire 7 Dec. 1879 \n\nOecumenical Methodist conference (at City-road \nChapel, London), of 400 delegates, ministers and \nlaymen from all parts of the world (representing \nnearly 4,000,000) . . . .6 Sept. et seq. 1881 \n\nCentenary of the death of the celebrated John \nWesley ; his statue by Mr. Adams Acton, in \nfront of the City-road chapel, unveiled by the \nRev. D. Moulton .... 2 March, 1891 \n\nConference at Newcastle-on-Tyne . . 21 July 1885 \n\n,, ,, Camborne, Cornwall . 24 July 1888 \n\n\xe2\x80\x9e Sheffield (146th) . . 23 July 1889 \n\n,, ,, Bristol July, 1890 \n\n\xe2\x80\x9e ,, Nottingham (148th) . 21 July, 1891 \n\n,, ,, Bradford (149th) \'. . \' 1 Aug. 1892 \n\nOecumenical conference at Washington, U. S. N. A., \n\n7 Oct. 1 89 1 \n\nThe chapel in the City-road, London, re-opened \nafter repairs and changes . . . 5 Nov. ,, \n\nWESSEX, see Britain. \n\nWEST AFRICAN SETTLEMENTS- \n\nSierra Leone, Gambia, &c. Governor, sir Arthur \nE.Kennedy, 1867; sir Garnet Wolseley, Aug. 1873; \nCornelius H. Kortright, 1875 ; Dr. Samuel Bowe, \n1876; capt. Arthur E. Havelock, 1881 ; sir \nSamuel Rowe, 1884, died 1888. See Ashantees. \nTurbulent chiefs subdued .... June, 1883 \nInternational conference at Berlin, on West \nAfrican affairs. * Freedom of trade on the Congo ; \nRights of States occupying open territory ; pro- \nposed by Germany, accepted by France, England, \nPortugal, Spain, Holland, Belgium, the United \n\nStates, and Turkey 8 Oct. 1884 \n\nConference opened, prince Bismarck president. \n\n15 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe conference declares free trade in the Congo \nvalley and affirms British protectorate over the \nNiger, and recognises the International African \nAssociation Dec. ,, \n\n* Mr. H. Stanley, at Berlin. \n\n\n\nWESTEEN AUSTEALIA. \n\n\n\n1061 \n\n\n\nWESTEEN ISLES. \n\n\n\nProhibits slave trade 7 Jan. 1885 \n\nApproves rules for future annexations on the coast \n\n1 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nResult of the conference embodied in a general act \n\nsigned 26 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nInternational limitations on the lower Congo, settled \n\nis Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nWESTEEN AUSTEALIA, formerly Swan \n\nELVER SETTLEMENT, which was projected by \ncolonel Peel in 1828. Regulations issued from the \ncolonial office, and Captain Stirling, appointed \nlieutenant-governor, Jan. 17, 1829, arrived at the \nappointed site in August following. The three \ntowns of Perth, Freemantle, and Guildford were \nfounded same year. In March, 1830, fifty ships, \nwith 2000 emigrants, with property amounting to \n1,000,000/., had arrived before hardly any dwellings \nhad been erected or land surveyed. The more \nenergetic settlers left for home, or the neighbouring \ncolonies, and the colony languished for twenty years \nfor want of suitable inhabitants \xe2\x80\x94 the first settlers, \nfrom their previous habits and rank in life, proving \nunfit for the rough work of colonisation. In 1848, \nthe colonists requested that convicts might be sent \nout to them, and in 1849 a band arrived, who were \nkindly received and well treated. The best results \nensued. By 1853, 2000 had arrived, and the in- \nhabitants of Perth had requested that 1000 should \nbe sent out annually. The reception of convicts is \nto cease in after-years, in consequence of the ener- \ngetic opposition of the other Australian colonies \n(1865). \xe2\x80\x94 The settlement of King George\'s Sound \nwas founded in 1826 by the government of New \nSouth Wales. It was used as a military station for \nfour years. In 1 830, the home government ordered \nthe settlement to be transferred to Swan River. \nSince the establishment of steam communication, \nthe little town of Albany here, employed as a coal- \ning station, has become a thriving sea-port. It \npossesses an excellent harbour, used by whalers. A \njournal called the Freemantle Gazette was published \nhere in March, 1831. Bishopric of Perth founded \n1857. Population of Western Australia in 1859, \n14,837; Jan. 1862, 15,555; Dec - 1883,31,233; April, \n1891,49,782 ; 1887, revenue, 377,903/.; expenditure, \n456,897/.; imports, 832,213/. ; exports, 604,656/. ; \n1890, revenue, 414,314/.; expenditure, 401,737/.; \nimports, 874,447/.; exports, 671,813/. Governor \nJohn Stephen Hampton, appointed 1861 ; sir Ben- \njamin C. C. Pine, May, 1868; Frederick A. Weld, \n1869; Wm. C. F. Robinson, 1874; major-gen. sir \nHarry St. George Ord, 1877; sir W. F. Robinson, \n1880 ; sir Frederick Napier Broome, 1882 ; sir \nWilliam C. F. Robinson, Aug. 1889. \n\nNew gold field at Perth discovered, May ; gold dis- \ncovered in n.w. Australia ...(?) May, 1886 \n\nThe egislative council petition for responsible \nself-government instead of being a crown colony, \nautumn, 1887 ; a bill granting this was passed by \nthe house of lords, 16 July, withdrawn in the \ncommons, Aug. 1889; re-introduced and received \nthe royal assent, 25 July ; proclaimed at Perth, \nwith great rejoicings .... 22 Oct. 1890 \n\nThe hon. John Forrest forms the first ministry, 28 \nDec. ; the first parliament meets . 20 Jan. 1891 \n\nWESTEEN CHUECH (called also the \nLatin or Roman) broke off communion with the \nGreek or Eastern Church, 653 ; see Greek Church. \nIts history is mainly comprised in that of the popes \nand of the European kingdoms; see Popes. This \nchurch was disturbed by the Arian heresy about \n345 and 500 ; by Pelagianism, about 409 ; by the \nintroduction of image-worship about 600; by the \ninjunction of the celibacy of the clergy and the rise \nof the monastic orders about 649 ; by the contests \nbetween the emperors and the popes respecting \n\n\n\necclesiastical investitures between 1073 and 1 173; \nby the rise and progress of the Reformation in the \n15th and 16th centuries; by the contests between \nthe Jesuits and Jansenists in the 17th and 18th \ncenturies ; and by the progress of modern philosophy \nand rationalism, and by ultramontanism, in the \n19th ; see Roman Catholics. \n\nWESTEEN EMPIEE. The Roman empire \nwas divided into Eastern and Western by l)io- \ncletian in 296; but was reunited under Constans \nin 340. It was again divided into Eastern and \nWestern by Valentinian and Valens, the former \nhaving the Western portion or Rome, 364; see \nEastern Empire, Italy, and Home. \n\nEMPERORS. \n\n364. Valentinian, son of Gratian, takes the Western, and \n\nhis brother Valens the Eastern empire. \n\n367. Gratian, a youth, son of Valentinian, made a col- \nleague in the government by his father. \n\n375. Valentinian II., another son, also very young, is, on \nthe death of his father, associated with Gratian, \nwho is assassinated by his general, Andragathius, \nin 383. Valentinian murdered by one of his officers, \nArbogastes, in 392. \n\n392. Eugenius, a usurper, assumes the imperial dignity ; \nhe and Arbogastes are defeated by \n\n394. Theodosius the Great, who becomes sole emperor. \n[Andragathius threw himself into the sea, and Arbo- \ngastes died by his own hand.] \n\n395. Hunorius, son of Theodosius, reigns, on his father\'s \n\ndeath, in the West, and his brother Arcadius in \nthe East. Honorius dies in 423. \n\n423. Usurpation of John, the Notary, defeated and slain \nnear Ravenna. \n\n425. Valentinian III. , son of the empress Flacidia, daugh- \nter of Theodosius the Great : murdered at the in- \nstance of his successor \n\n455. Maximus : he marries Eudoxia, widow of Valen- \ntinian, who, to avenge the death of her first \nhusband and the guilt of her second, invites the \nAfrican Vandals into Italy, and Rome is sacked. \nMaximus stoned to death. \n\n455. Marcus Mascilius Avitus ; forced to resign, and dies \nin his flight towards the Alps. \n\n457. Julius Valerius Majorianus ; murdered at the instance \nof his minister, Ricimer, who raises \n\n461. Libius Severus to the throne, but holds the supreme \npower; Severus poisoned by Ricimer. \n\n465. [Interregnum. Ricimer retains the authority, with- \nout assuming the title of emperor.] \n\n467. Anthemius, chosen by the joint suffrages of the \nsenate and army ; murdered by Ricimer, who dies \nsoon after. \n\n472. Flavius-Anicius Olybrius : slain by the Goths soon \n\nafter his accession. \n\n473. Glycerius: forced to abdicate by his successor, \n\n474. Julius Nepos : deposed by his general, Orestes, and. \n\nretires to Salonaj. \n\n475. Romulus (called Augustulus, or Little Augustus), \n\nsou of Orestes. Orestes is slain, and the emperor \ndeposed by \n\n476. Odoacer, king of the Heruli : takes Rome, assumes \n\nthe style of king of Italy, and completes the fall of \nthe Western empire. \n\nSee Italy, Rome, and Germany. \n\nWEST HAM, S.W. Essex, (called London \nover the border) parish containing Plaistow, Strat- \nford, &c, the population in 1841, 12,738; owing to \nthe large increase of factories and other works rose \nto 99,142 in 1871, and 200,752 in 1881 ; 1891, \n\n365. \'3\xc2\xb0- \n\nWest Hani returns two M.P.\'s by the act of 1885 ; and \nwas incorporated by royal charter, July, 1886. West \nHam is outside of the jurisdiction of the metropolitan \nboard of works. The dreadful sanitary condition Of \n1855 gradually improved by the action of a new local \nboard, now succeeded by a municipal corporation. \nRateable value 79,000/. in 1856; nearly 700,000/. in 1886. \n\nWESTEEN ISLES of Scotland.. Royal \n\ncommission to inquire into extreme destitution ap- \npointed 20 March, 1883 (lord Napier and Ettrick, \n\n\n\nWESTERN TERRITORIES. \n\n\n\n1062 \n\n\n\nWESTMINSTER BISHOPRIC. \n\n\n\nMr. Donald Cameron, M.P., and others). See \nMansion Mouse. \n\nWESTERN TERRITORIES, British \nAmerica, contain four districts, Assiniboia, Saskat- \nchewan, Alberta, and Athabasca, formed by the Do- \nminion government in 1882. They were part of the \nHudsonBay territories till 1870, when they were an- \nnexed to Canada. Population in 1891, about 67,554. \nCapital, Begina. Lieut. -gov., Joseph Boyal (1891). \n\nWEST INDIES, islands discovered by Colum- \nbus, St. Salvador being the first land he made in \nthe New World, and first seen by him in the night \nbetween the nth and 12th Oct. 1492. The largest \nare Cuba, Hayti (or St. Domingo), Jamaica, Porto \nBico, Trinidad, and Guadaloupe; see the Islands \nrespectively. \n\nA royal commission to inquire into their condition ap- \npointed in 1882, reported on their great need of im- \nportant judicial and fiscal reforms April, 1884 : De- \npressed condition through increased use of beet sugar ; \ninadmissible remedies proposed by deputation to \nlord Derby, 28 Aug. 1884. \n\nWEST INDIAN SETTLEMENTS, see \n\nJamaica. \n\nWESTMINSTER, so called on account of its \nwestern situation with regard to St. Paul\'s cathe- \ndral, or from there being formerly a monastery \nnamed East Minster, on the hill now called Great \nTower-hill. This city joins London at Temple-bar. \nFormerly Westminster was called Thorney, or \nThomey Island: and in ancient times Canute had \na palace here, burnt in 1263. Westminster and \nLondon were one miie asunder in 1603, when the \nhouses were thatched, and there were mud walls in \nthe Strand. It is said that the great number of \nScotsmen who came over after the accession of \nJames I. occasioned the building of Westminster, and \nunited it with London. Howel\'s Londinopolis. \nSee Parliament, 1834-52, 1884. By the Seats act \nof 1885, Westminster returns one M.P. Population, \nWestminster (borough), 1881, 46,549; 1891, 37,295. \nStrand, 1881, 32,587; 1891, 25,107. St. Georges, \nHanover sq., 1881, 149,748; 1891, 134,122. See \nunder Roman Catholics. \nEarl Grosvenor created marquis of Westminster, \n\n1831 ; the marquis created duke . . . . 1874 \nWestminster industrial exhibition, opened 24 May, \n\nclosed 9 Aug. 1879 \n\nBaroness Burdett-Coutts lays foundation of New \n\nTown Hall, near Victoria Street, 29 March, 1882 ; \n\nopened 19 July, 1883 \n\nThe prince of Wales lays the foundation stone of \n\nSt. Martin\'s municipal buildings, &c, 18 March, \n\n1890 ; which are opened by Mr. A. J. Balfour, \n\n16 July, 1891 \n\nWESTMINSTER ABBEY. Christopher \nWren, in his survey of the present edifice, found \nnothing to countenance the belief that it was erected \non the ruins of a pagan temple. The erection of \nthe first abbey in the 7th century is ascribed to St. \nSebert, king of Essex. \n\nThe church becoming ruinous, splendidly rebuilt by \nEdward the Confessor (1055-65) and filled with \nmonks from Exeter (Pope Nicholas II. constituted \nit the place for the inauguration of the kings of \nEngland) ; dedicated .... 28 Deo. 1065 \n\nRe-built in a magnificent style by Henry III. 1220-69 \n\nIn the reigns of Edward II., Edward III., and \nRichard II. the great cloisters, abbot\'s house, and. \nprincipal monastic buildings, erected . . 1300-1400 \nThe western parts of the nave and aisles rebuilt \n\nbetween 1340 and 1483 \n\nThe west front and the great window built by \nRichard HI. and Henry VII. ; the latter com- \nmenced the chapel which bears his name ; the first \nstone laid 24 Jan. 1502-3 \n\n\n\nThe abbey dissolved and made a bishopric . . 1540 \nMade a collegiate church by Elizabeth . . . 1560 \nMade a barrack for soldiers (Mercurius Busticus), \n\nJuly, 1643 \nThe great west window and the western towers re- \nbuilt in the reigns of George I. and II. . . 1714-60 \nThe choir injured by fire . . . .9 July, 1803 \nMr. Wyatt commenced restoring the dilapidated \n\nparts at an expense of 42, 000Z. in .... 1809 \nA fire, without any serious injury . 27 April, 1829 \nThe evening services for the working classes, when \na sermon was preached by the dean, Dr. Trench, \n\ncommenced on 3 Jan. 1858 \n\nThe 800th anniversary of the foundation celebrated, \n\n28 Dec. 1865 \njoool. voted by parliament to restore the chapter- \nhouse (G. Gilbert Scott employed), 1 May, 1866 ; \n\nre-opened 29 April, 1872 \n\nLectures in the Abbey on foreign missions : pro- \nfessor Max Miiller, a layman, 3 Dec. 1873 ; prin- \ncipal Caird of Scotch church, 30 Nov. 1874 ; rev. \nRobert Moffat, father-iu-law of Livingstone \n\n30 Nov. 1875 \nSir Charles Lyell, sir Wm. Sterndale Bennett, and \nbishop Connop Thirlwall, buried in the Abbey, \n1875 ; G. E. Street, 29 Dec. 1881 ; C. R. Darwin, \n\n26 April, 1882 \n\nRobert Browning 30 Dec. i88q \n\nRepairs connected with the principal entrance after \ndesigns by Gilbert Scott, completed at a cost of \n\nabout 2o,oooZ Nov. 1881 \n\nNew Abbey gardens opened . . .12 April, 1882 \nNew organ set up ..... May, 1884 \n\nThanksgiving jubilee services for the queen ( see \n\nJubilee) 21, 22 June, 1887 \n\nProposed transfer of the charge of restoring and \nmaintaining the abbey to the ecclesiastical com- \nmissioners who are to advance io,oooJ. March; \nlegalised by act passed ... 28 June, 1888 \nRoyal commission appointed to inquire in regard \nto the facilities for the interment of illustrious \npersons : the dean Bradley, sir F. Leighton, Mr. \nAlfred Waterhouse, and others, 29 April ; report \n\nindecisive June, 1891 \n\nRestoration of the exterior of the north transept, as \n\ndesigned by sir Gilbert Scott, completed June, 1890 \nSpecial service on the death of sir John Macdonald, \npremier of Canada . . . .12 June, 1891 \n\nWESTMINSTER AQUARIUM, see \n\nAquarium. \n\nWESTMINSTER BISHOPRICS and \n\nDEANERY. At the dissolution of monasteries, \nWestminster abbey was valued at 3977^ per annum ; \nking Henry VIII. in 1539 erected it into a deanery; \nand in 1540 into a bishopric, and appointed Thomas \nThirlby prelate. He was translated to Norwich in \n1550, and with him ended the bishopric of West- \nminster; Middlesex, his diocese, being restored to \nLondon. The dean presided until the accession of \nMary, who restored the abbot. Elizabeth displaced \nthe abbot, and erected the abbey into a collegiate \nchurch of a dean and twelve prebendaries, as it \nstill continues. On the revival of the order of the \nBath, in 1725, the dean of Westminster w r as ap- \npointed dean of that order, which honour has been \ncontinued. Dr. Nicholas Wiseman was created arch- \nbishop of Westminster by the pope Pius IX. 30 Sept. \n18 50; see Papal Aggression. Dr. Wiseman died 8 \nFeb. 1865; Henry Manning was consecrated his \nsuccessor 8 June, following ; he died 14 Jan. 1892, \nand was succeeded by Dr. Herbert Vaughan about \n30 March; enthroned 8 May; invested with the \npallium, the first since 1556, 16 Aug., 1892. See \nRoman Catholics. \n\nRECENT DEANS. \n\n1793. Samuel Horsley ; bishop of St. Asaph, 1802. \n1802. William Vincent ; died 21 Dec. 1815. \n1815. John Ireland ; died 21 Sept. 1842. \n1842. Thomas Turton; bishop of Ely, 1845. \n\n1845. Samuel Wilberforce ; bishop of Oxford, 1846. \n\n1846. William Buckland ; died 14 Aug. 1856. \n\n1856. Richard C. Trench; abp. of Dublin, 1 Jan. 1864. \n\n\n\nWESTMINSTER BRIDGES. \n\n\n\n1063 \n\n\n\nWHALE-FISHERY. \n\n\n\nC864. Arthur Penrhyn Stanley ; died 18 July, 1881. \n1881. George Granville Bradley ; 14 Sept. \n\nWESTMINSTER BRIDGES. The hand- \nsome old bridge was begun (after a design of M. \nLabelye), 13 Sept. 1738, the first stone laid 29 Jan. \n1738-9; opened for passengers 18 Nov. 1750; cost \n426,65^. It was built of Portland stone, and crossed \nthe river where the breadth is 1223 feet. \nOwing to the sinking of several of its piers, most \nof the balustrades on both sides were removed, to \nrelieve the structure of its weight. \nBy 16 <fe 17 Vict. c. 46 the estates of its commis- \nsioners were transferred to her majesty\'s commis- \nsioners of works, who were empowered to remove \nthe then existing bridge, and build a new \nbridge (near the old one) . . . .4 Aug. 1853 \nThe contract required the completion of the works \n\nby 1 June, 1857 \n\nThe works were suspended for a time, in conse- \nquence of the failure of Messrs. Mare the contrac- \ntors. The government eventually undertook the \nbuilding, which they entrusted to Mr. Thomas \nPage, the engineer. One half of the new bridge \nwas opened for use early in i860; the whole on \n\n24 May, 1862 \n\nWESTMINSTER Confession of Faith \n\nAND CATECHISMS were drawn up by the "Assem- \nbly of Divines" (partly consisting of laymen), who \nsat by authority of parliament in Henry VII. \'s \n\xe2\x80\xa2chapel, Westminster, from 1643 to 1647. These \nhave ever since been the doctrinal standards of \nScotch Presbyterians. \n\nWESTMINSTER HALL (London), first \nibuilt by William Rufus in 1097, for a banqueting- \nhall; and here in 1099, on his return from Nor- \nmandy, "he kept his feast of Whitsuntide very \nroyally." The hall became ruinous before the \na-eign of Richard II., who repaired it in 1397, raised \nthe walls, altered the windows, and added a new \nroof, as well as a stately porch and other buildings. \nIn 1236 Henry III. on New-year\'s day caused 6000 \npoor persons to be entertained in this hall, and in \nthe other rooms of his palace, as a celebration of \nqueen Eleanor\'s coronation; and here Richard II. \nheld his Christmas festival in 1397, when the num- \nber of the guests each day the feast lasted was \nJO,000. Stow. The courts of law were established \nhere by king John. Idem. Westminster hail was \nstated to be the largest room in Europe unsupported \nby pillars (except a hall of justice at Padua) ; it is \n270 feet in length, 74 feet broad. The hall under- \nwent a general repair in 1802. Concurrently with \nthe erection of the palace of Westminster, many \nimprovements and alterations have lately been \nmade in this magnificent hall. The Volunteer \nRifle corps were drilled in the hall in the winter of \n1859, and since. The courts of law removed to the \nnew buildings in the Strand Jan. 1883. Restora- \ntions proposed by Mr. J. L. Pearson, R.A., July, \n1884. The roof and windows greatly damaged by \nan explosion of dynamite (?) about 2 p.m. 24 Jan. \n1885. \n\nWESTMINSTER HOSPITAL, founded, \n1719; chartered, 1836. \n\n-WESTMINSTER PALACE, see under \nPalace of Westminster, and Parliament. \n\nWESTMINSTER REVIEW, liberal in reli- \ngion and politics, first appeared, 1824, as the organ \nof the philosophic radicals, termed the Westminster \nschool, friends of Jeremy Bentham. Sec Utili- \ntarian is in. \n\nWESTMINSTER SCHOOL or St. Peter\'s \nCollege, was founded by queen Elizabeth in 1560, \nfor the education of forty boys, denominated the \nQueen\'s scholars, who are prepared for the univer- \n\n\n\nsity. It is situated within the abbej enclosure. \n\nBesides the scholars on the foundation, many of the \n\nnobility and gentry send their sons to Westminster \n\nfor instruction. A proposal in i860 to remove the \n\nschool was disapproved of in 1861. \n\nWestminster Schools, United, comprise Emanuel and \n\nSt. Margaret\'s hospitals, and rev. James Palmer\'s and \n\nEmery Hill\'s school charities, which were abolished \n\nby the endowed school commissioners 27 June, 1873. \n\nNew schools are to be erected. \n\nWESTMINSTER, Statutes of, are 3 and \n\n13 Edward I., 1275-90 ; see Acts of Parliament. \n\nWESTMORELAND. This county and Cum- \nberland were granted as a fief to Malcolm of Scot- \nland by Edward the Elder in 945 ; but resumed by \nHenry III. in 1237. Neville, earl of Westmore- \nland, revolted against Elizabeth in 1569, and was \nattainted in 1570. \n\nWESTPHALIA (Germany). This duchy be- \nlonged in former times to the dukes of Saxony, and \nafterwards became subject to the archbishop of \nCologne. On the secularisation in 1802, it was \nmade over to Hesse Darmstadt ; and in 1814 was \nceded for an equivalent to Prussia. The kingdom \nof Westphalia, one of the temporary kingdoms of \nBonaparte, composed of conquests from Prussia, \nHesse-Cassel, Hanover, and the smaller states to \nthe west of the Elbe, was created by decree 18 Aug. \n\n1806, and Jerome Bonaparte appointed king, 1 Dec. \n\n1807. _ Hanover was annexed to it, 1 March, 1810. \nThe kingdom was abolished in 1813, and the coun- \ntries were restored to their former rulers. \nThrough strike of the coal miners for increased pay \n\nand shorter hours of labour, Herr Krupp, of Essen, \nhad to stop his iron and steel works at several places \nfor want of coal about 4 May. A conflict took place \nnear Gladbeck between the troops and miners, and \nthree miners were killed, 7 May ; the owners stand firm ; \nabout 39,000 men on strike, 8 May ; nearly 100,000 \nstrikers out, 13 May ; the government intervenes to \neffect a compromise, about 13 May ; the emperor \nreceives three delegates from miners, 14 May, and \nadvises both parties to come to a compromise, about \n15, 16 May ; strike spreading to Silesia &c, 15 May ; \nstrikers in Westphalia about 110,000, in Silesia 10,000, \n16 May \xe2\x80\x94 20 May ; 40 members of the striking com- \nmittee arrested 26 May ; strike ends by a com- \npromise, 31 May, 1889. Fresh demands of the miners \n(increase of 50 per cent, of wages, shorter hours, &c), \nrejected by the masters, 23 Jan. 1890. \n\nExplosion at the Hibernia pit, near Gilsenkirchen, \nabout 44 deaths, reported ... 25 Jan. 1891 \n\nGreat strike of coal miners near Essen, about 15,000 \nmen out, 19 April; close of strike, reported, \n\n3 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nWESTPHALIA or Munster, Peace of ; \n\nthe treaties signed at Osnaburg 6 Aug., and at \nMinister 24 Oct. 1648, between France, the emperor, \nand Sweden ; Spam continuing the war against \nFrance. By this peace (ending the thirty years\' \nwar) the principle of a balance of power in Europe \nwas first recognised ; Alsace given to France, and \npart of Pomerania and some other districts to \nSweden ; the Lower Palatinate restored to the \nelector palatine ; the religious and political rights \nof the German states established ; and the inde- \npendence of the Swiss Confederation recognised by \nGermany. \n\nWEST SAXONS, see Wessex, in Britain. \n\nWEYMOUTH, Dorsetshire, was given by \nHenry I. to St. Swithin\'s, Winchester. Taken \nfrom Charles I., by the parliamentarians, 1644; \nvisited and brought inlo note by George III., 1789. \nFirst Dorset industrial exhibition was opened here, \n25 July, 1878. \n\nWHALE-FISHERY, it is said, was first \ncarried on by the Norwegians in the ninth century. \n\n\n\nWHARNCLIFFE MEETINGS. \n\n\n\n1064 \n\n\n\nWHISKY. \n\n\n\nlenglet. Whales were killed at Newfoundland and \nIceland, for their oil only, 1578; the use of their \nfins and bones was not yet known, consequently (a \nwriter adds") no stays were worn by the ladies. The \nEnglish whale-fishing commenced at Spitzbergen m \n1598; but the Dutch had been previously fishing \nthere. The fishery was much promoted by an act of \nparliament passed in 1749. From 1800 to 2000 \nwhales have been killed annually on the coast of \nGreenland, &c. The quantity of whale-oil imported \nin 1814 was 33,567 tuns ; in 1826, when gas-light \nbecame general, 25,000 tuns; in 1840, about 22,000 \ntuns; in 1850, 21.360 tuns; in 1861, 19,176 tuns; \nin 1864, 14,701 tuns; in 1867, 15,945 tuns ! m l8 7 x \xc2\xbb \n24,679 tuns: in i872 18.719 tuns: in 1878, 20,656 \ntuns; in 1883, 17,156 tuns; in 1887, 17,698 tuns; \nin 1890, 20,307 tuns, A living whale from Labrador, \n9 feet 6 inches long, placed in the Westminster \naquarium, 26 Sept., died 29 Sept. 1877. White \nwhale (Beluga), arrived 28 May ; died in latter part \nof June. 159 bottlenosed whales captured at Barns, \nTankerness, near Kirkwall, 20 Nov. 1889. \n\nWHARNCLIFFE MEETINGS of public \n\ncompanies (held to give enlarged powers under \ncertain prescribed conditions) are so called because \nthe standing orders of the house of lords, under \nwhich they are held, were introduced by lord \nWharnclift\'e, about 1846. \n\nWHEAT- The Chinese ascribe to their empe- \nror, Ching-Noung, who succeeded Fohi, the art of \nhusbandry, and method of making bread from \nwheat, about 2000 years before the Christian era. \nWheat was introduced into Britain in the 6th cen- \ntury, by Coll ap Coll Frewi. Roberts. The first \nwheat imported into England of which we have a \nnote was in 1347. Various statutes have regulated \nthe sales of wheat, and restrained its importation, \nin order to encourage its being raised at home. \nIn 1862 attention was drawn to the probable \nutility of considering the pedigree of wheat. In \n1871 it was estimated that 3,571,894 acres in the \nUnited Kingdom were devoted to wheat; in 1876, \n3,124,342. See Bread, and Corn Laivs. Greatest \nproducers (in order), United States, Bussia, France, \nGreat Britain, &c. The wheat crop fur Great \nBritain is said to have yielded 71,939,647 bushels in \n\n\n\n\n\nIMPORTED INTO \n\n\nTHE \n\n\nUNITED KINGDOM. \n\n\n\n\nWheat. \n\n\n\n\n\n\nFlour. \n\n\n\n\n1854, 2,656,455 q \n\n\nrs. \n\n\n\n\n6,329,038 nuts. \n\n\n\n\n1861, 29,955,532 \n\n\n, \n\n\n\n\n6,152,938 \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\n\n1862, 41,033,503 \n\n\n, \n\n\n\n\n7,207,113 ,, \n\n\n\n\n1864, 23,196,714 civts. \n\n\n\n\n4,512,391 \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\n\n1866, 23,156,329 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n4,972,280 \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\n\n1868, 32,639,768 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n3,093,022 ,, \n\n\n\n\n1871, 39,389,803 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n3.977.933 \xc2\xbb \n\n\n\n\n1872, 42,127,726 \n\n\n,, \n\n\n\n\n4,388,136 \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\n\n1874, 41,527,638 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\n\n6,236,044 ,, \n\n\n\n\n1877, 54,269,800 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\n\n7.377.303 ,, \n\n\n\n\n1878, 49,906,484 \n\n\n,, \n\n\n\n\n7,828,079 ,, \n\n\n\n\n1879, 59,59!. 795 \n\n\n,, \n\n\n\n\n10,728,252 ,, \n\n\n\n\n1880, 55,261,924 \n\n\n,, \n\n\n\n\n10,558,312 ,, \n\n\n\n\n1881, 57,H7,933 \n\n\n,, \n\n\n\n\n11,357,381 ,, \n\n\n\n\n1882, 64,240,749 \n\n\n,, \n\n\n\n\n13.057,403 ,\xc2\xbb \n\n\n\n\n1883, 64,138,631 \n\n\n,, \n\n\n\n\n16,329,312 ,, \n\n\n\n\n1884, 47,306,156 \n\n\n,, \n\n\n\n\n15,095. 3 CI >, \n\n\n\n\n1885, 61,498,864 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\n\n15,832,843 \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\n\n1886, 47,435,806 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\n\n14,689,560 ,, \n\n\n\n\n1887, 55,802,518 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\n\n18,063,234 ,, \n\n\n\n\n1888, 57,261,363 \n\n\n,, \n\n\n\n\n16,910,442 ,, \n\n\n\n\n1889, 58,551,887 \n\n\n,, \n\n\n\n\n14,672,082 ,, \n\n\n\n\n1890, 60,474,180 \n\n\n\xc2\xbb \n\n\n\n\nI 5,773,33\xc2\xb0 ,, \n\n\nVALUE OF WHEAT IMPORTED INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM. \n\n\n1854 \n\n\n. . \xc2\xa311,693, \n\n\n737 \n\n\n1858 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x96\xa0 9.050,467 \n\n\n1855 \n\n\n9,679,578 \n\n\n1859 \n\n\n8,713,532 \n\n\nT856 \n\n\n12,716, \n\n\n349 \n\n\ni860 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 16,554.083 \n\n\n1857 \n\n\n9.563. \n\n\n099 \n\n\n1861 \n\n\n19,051,464 \n\n\n\nJ 863 \n\n\n\n1870 \n\n\n\n1873 \n1874 \n1875 \n\n\n\n1877 \n\n\n\n1881 \n\n\n\n. \xc2\xa323,203,800 \n12,015,006 \n\n10,674,654 \n9,775,616 \n\n12,983,090 \n\n24,985,096 \n\n22,069,353 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 19.515,758 \n\n16,264,027 \n\n. 23,318,883 \n\n26,169,185 \n28,538,746 \n25,236,932 \n, . 27,510,469 \n23,178,011 \n\nAverage Annual Price per Quarter in England and Wales. \n\n\n\n\xc2\xa333,885,437 \n27,433.444- \n31,468,171 \n30,621,711 \n3i,53i,535 \n34,259,126- \n31,454,481 \n19,901,794- \n24,085,913. \n17,909,630 \n2i,337,9iS- \n21,995,974 \n22,510,502. \n23,583,844 \n\n\n\n1805 \n1810 \n1815 \n1820 \n1825 \n\n\n\ns. d. \n119 6 \n\n89 9 \n106 5 \n\n7 \n\n\n\n1830 66 4 \n1835 39 4 \n\n\n\n1850 \n1855 \n\n\n\n1865 \n\n\n\nd. \n40 3 \n74 \n53 \n41 \n49 IJ \n64 5 \n63 9 \n48 2 \n46 10 \n56 " \n\n\n\n1873 \n1874 \n1875 \n1876 \n1877 \n1878 \n1879 \n\n\n\nd. \n\n57 o \n\n58 8 \n\n55 8 \n\n45 2 \n\n46 2 \n\n56 9 \n46 5 \n\n43 IO \n\n44 4 \n\n45 4 \n\n\n\nd. \n\n45 r \n4i 7 \n35 \xc2\xae \nS 2 10 \n\n31 c. \n\n32 6 \n\n31 io> \n29 9> \n\n32 2 \n\n\n\ni\xc2\xbb45 50 10 \n\nWHEEL, Breaking on the. A barbarous \nmode of death, of great antiquity, ordered by \nFrancis I. for robbers, about 1535 ; see Ravaillac. \n\nWHEEL-WORK, see Spinning, Zooms, Auto- \nmaton. \n\nWHIGS. In the reign of Charles II. the name \nWhig was a term of reproach given by the court \nparty to their antagonists for holding the principles \nof the "whigs," or fanatical covenanters in Scot- \nland ; and in return the name Tory was given to> \nthe court party, comparing them to the Tories, or \npopish robbers in Ireland. Baker. The distinction \narose out of the discovery of the Meal-tub plot \n(which see) in 1678. Upon bringing up the meal \nplot before parliament, two parties were formed : \nthe ones who doubted the plot styled those who \nbelieved in it Whigs ; these styled their adversaries \nTories. In time these names, given as marks of \nopprobrium, became honoured distinctions. Hume. \nThe Whigs brought about the revolution of 1688-9, \nand established the protestant succession. They \nwere chiefly instrumental in obtaining the abolition \nof the slave trade and slavery, the repeal of the \nTest and Corporation act. Catholic emancipation, \nparliamentary and municipal reform, the repeal of \nthe corn laws, and similar measures. The Whig \nClub was established by Charles James Fox ; one of \nits original members was the great Francis, duke of \nBedford, who died in 1802. See Liberals. For the \nprincipal Whig ministries, see Halifax, Walpole, \nRockingham, Grenville, Grey, Melbourne, Russell, \nPalmerston, and Gladstone. \n\nWHIP, the popular title of the patronage secre- \ntary of the treasury, whose duty it is to collect mem- \nbers to make a house on important occasions, &c. Sir \nWm. Hayter, the liberal "whip," 1850-8, received \na testimonial for his energetic services, early in 1861 . \nThe right hon. Wm. P. Adam, an able whip, died \ngovernor of Madras, 24 May, 1881. It is the duty \nof both conservative and liberal whips to promote \nthe interest of their party in every conceivable \nway. \n\nThe management of the house of commons by bribery is \nsaid to have begun with Clifford of the "Cabal " minis- \ntry, and continued by Whigs and Tories. Mr. Roberts \n(under Henry Pelham), is said to have paid members \nsums of i,oooL, 500L, &c, to each at the close of a \nsession for their support. Wraxall. \n\nWHISKY, the spirit distilled from malt and \nother com in Scotland and Ireland, of which about \n\n\n\nWHIST. \n\n\n\n1065 \n\n\n\nWHITEHALL. \n\n\n\neight millions of gallons have been distilled \nannually in the former, and upwards of nine mil- \nlions of gallons in the latter. The duty upon this \narticle once produced annually about three millions. \nThe distillation of whisky is referred to the 16th \ncentury ; but some authors state it to have been \nearlier; see Distillation. In 1855 the duties on \nspirits distilled in Scotland and Ireland were \nequalised with those distilled in England. Women\'s \nWhisky War, see United States, 1874. \n\nWHIST, a game at cards, became general at the \nend of the 17th century. \nEdmund Hoyle, who published his " Short \n\nTreatise" about 1742, died in 1769, aged 97; \n\nlord Peterborough introduced short whist early \n\nin the present century ; the laws were revised in 1864 \n\n" Whist," a poem 1791 \n\nLaws by "Cavendish," compiled . . . about 1861 \nJames Clay, M.P., an eminent player, died 26 Sept. 1871 \n\nWHITBY, N.R. Yorkshire. The monastery \nhere, under St. Hilda, founded by king Oswy, 657, \ndestroyed by the Danes 876, was restored by \\V llliun \nde Percy about 1100. The Cholmleys established \nalum works here in 1615. Whitby was made a \nborough in 1832, and absorbed into the county in \n1885. Population, 1881, 14,086; 1891, 13,274. \n\nWHITEBAIT DINNER, when the cabinet \nministers met at the end of each session, is \nsaid to have begun at the end of the last \ncentury, through sir Kobert Preston and Mr. \nGeorge Kose inviting Mr. Pitt and his colleagues \nto dine at Dagenham, and afterwards at Green- \nwich. Another account dates its origin in 1 72 1. The \nannual whitebait dinner, stopped by the Gladstone \nministry, was revived by the Disraeli ministry, \nI Aug. 1874, and continued by the Gladstone, I \nSept. 1880. No dinner, 1884. The whitebait \n(clupea alba) is a subject of controversy. Albert \nGiinther, of the British Museum, in his Catalogue \nof Fishes, says the whitebait is " a purely nominal \nspecies," and that all the examples which he has \nexamined were young herrings (1868). \n\nAt the inquiry in June, 1878, James Henry Cannon, \nfisherman, claimed the discovery of the fish for his \ngrandfather, Richard, who named it 1780. It was \nmentioned in a letter in the life of lord Malmesbury, \n2 July, 1763. \n\nWHITEBOYS, a body of ruffians in Ireland, \nso called on account of then- wearing linen frocks \nover their coats. They committed dreadful outrages \nin 1 761, but were suppressed by a military force, \nand their ringleaders executed in 1762. They rose \nand were again suppressed in 1786-7. The insurrec- \ntion act was passed on their account in 1822. \n\nWHITECHAPEL, a parish in East London, \nwas part of Stepney till 1329. The church, built \nin 1673, was replaced by one consecrated 2 Feb. \n1877, which was burnt 26 Aug. 1880. Population, \n1881,71,363; 1891,74,462. \nNew Loan Art exhibition opened . . 4 April, 1882 \n\nWHITECHAPEL MURDERS, &c. Henry \n\n"Wainwright, abrushmaker, murdered Harriet Lane, \n\nhis mistress, on his premises, 215, Whitechapel-road, \n\nand buried the body, Sept. 1874- \n\nWhile conveying the mutilated remains to be con- \ncealed in his cellars in Southwark, Wainwright \nand Alice Day were apprehended, through the \ncourage and activity of Alfred Philip Stokes, ii \nSept. Day was discharged ; Henry and his \nbrother Thomas were committed for trial 13 Oct. 1875 \n\nNine days\' trial before chief .justice Cockbum ; \nHenry convicted of murder ; Thomas as accessory \n\n\n\nafter the fact (seven years\' penal servitude), 22 \nNov.-i Dec. ; Henry executed . . 21 Dec. 1875 \n\n1232/. subscribed for Henry\'s family. \n\n30J. awarded to Stokes. \n\nMuch excitement was caused by the murder and \nbrutal mutilation of unfortunate women at differ- \nent times \xe2\x80\x94 Smith, 3 April ; Martha Turner, 7 Aug. ; \nNichols, 31 Aug. ; Chapman, 7, 8 Sept. Coroners \nreturn open verdict. The evidence showed the \nmurderer possessed surgical knowledge, his. \nobject being to get possession of certain organs. \nTwo more women murdered in a similar manner \nnear Commercial Road and Aldgate ; E. Watts \nor Stride and C. Conway or Eddowes between 1 \nand 2 a.m. 30 Sept. The lord mayor offers 500Z. \nreward in relation to the murder near Aldgate ; \nMary Jane Kelly\'s body found dreadfully muti- \nlated in 26, Dorset Street, Spitalfields 9 Nov. 188S \n\nRose Milett or Davis (?) strangled at Poplar 28 Dec. ,, \n\nAlice McKenzie found with throat cut, &c, in \nCastle Alley, Whitechapel . . 17 July, 1889 \n\nThe mutilated trunk of a woman discovered under \na railway arch in Ruehin-street . . 10 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nFrances Coles found murdered in an archway, \nOrman-street, Whitechapel-road . 13 Feb. 1891 \n\nJames Thomas Sadler arrested, 16 Feb. ; dis- \ncharged 3 March, ,, \n\nWHITE CROSS ARMY, the shorter title of \nthe Church of England Purity Society, established \nby Miss Ellice Hopkins, supported by the bishops of \nDurham and Lichfield and other prelates, highly \nsuccessful at Oxford, Edinburgh, Liverpool, and \nother places, 1884. \n\nWHITE DOVES, a South Russian religioua \nsect, said to be wealthy and superstitious, strongly \nadvocating celibacy : under a chief named Kou- \ndrine. Members were tried for moral offences about \nApril, 1876. \n\nWHITEFIELDITES. George Whitefield, \nthe founder of the " Calvinistic 3Iet/iodists," bom \n1 7 14, was the son of an innkeeper at Gloucester, \nwhere he received his first education. He was ad- \nmitted a senator at Oxford in 1732, became a com- \npanion of the Wesleys there, and aided them in \nestablishing Methodism. He parted from them in \n1741, on account of their rejection of the doctrine \nof election. He was the most eloquent preacher of \nhis day. His first sermon was preached in 1736, and \nhe commenced field preaching in 1739. He is said \nto have delivered 18,000 sermons during his career \nof 34 years. He visited America in 1737, 1739, and \n1744. His followers are termed "the countess of \nHuntingdon\'s connexion," from his having become \nher chaplain in 1748, and from her energetic support \nof the sect, by establishing a college at Trevecca, \n1767. See Spafields. There were 109 chapels of this \nconnexion in 185 1 ; but many of his followers have \njoined the Independents. He died 30 Sept. 1770* \nand the countess died 17 June 1 791 ; see Tabernacle. \n\nWHITE FLAG, sec Flag. \nWHITE FRIARS, see Carmelites and Sanc- \ntuaries. \n\nWHITEHALL (London), built by Hubert de \nBurgh, earl of Kent, before the middle of the 13th \ncentury. It afterwards devolved, by bequest, to the \nBlack Friars of Holborn, who sold it to the arch- \nbishop of York, whence it received the name of \nYork-place, and continued to be the town residence \nof the archbishops till taken by Henry MIL from \ncardinal Wolsey, in 1530. At this period it became \nthe residence of the court. Queen Elizabeth, who \ndied at Richmond in 1603, was brought from thence \nto Whitehall, by water, in a grand procession. It \nwas on this occasion, Camden informs us, that the \nfollowing quaint panegyric on her majesty was \nwritten : \n\n\n\nWHITE HATS. \n\n\n\n1066 \n\n\n\nWICKLIFFITES. \n\n\n\n"" The queen was brought by water to Whitehall, \nAt every stroke the oars did tears let fall. \nMore clung about the barge : fish under water \n"Wept out their eyes of pearl, and swam blind after. \nI think the bargemen might, with easier thighs, \nHave rowed her thither in her people\'s eyes ; \nFor howsoe\'er thus much my thoughts have scann\'d, \nShe had come by water, had she come by land." \n\nWhitehall was partly burnt 9-10 April, 1691 ; \ntotally destroyed by fire, 4 Jan. 1697-8, except the \nbanqueting-house, which had been added to the \npalace of Whitehall by James I., according to a \ndesign of Inigo Jones, in 1619. In the front of \n"Whitehall Charles I. was beheaded 30 Jan. 1649. \nGeorge L converted the hall into a chapel 1723-4. \nThe exterior of this edifice underwent repair be- \ntween 1829 and 1833. The chapel was ordered to \nbe permanently closed, 28 Oct. 1890; lent during \nthe queen\'s reign, to the Royal United Service \nInstitution, from 1 Jan. 1891 ; first meeting held, \n7 March, 1891. \n\nWHITE HATS, a party in the Low Countries \nformed about 1377, against Louis, count of Flanders. \n\'The struggle lasted till 1384, when it was settled by \nPhilip,, duke of Burgundy. \n\nWHITE HOODS, see Catechumens. \nWHITE HOESE, see Ashdoivn. \n\nWHITE HOUSE (Washington), built of free- \nstone, the residence of the president, gives name to \nthe United States government, as St. James\'s palace \n.does to that of Great Britain. \n\nWHITE LEAD, see Lead. \n\nWHITE LEAGUE, formed in Louisiana and \n\xe2\x80\xa2other southern states of North America, to resist the \n.aggressions of the emancipated negroes and their \nfriends, termed" carpet-baggers." SeeiVew Orleans, \n1874. \n\nWHITE PASHA, see Soudan, July, 1888. \n\nWHITE PLAINS (N. America), where a \n\'battle was fought 28 Oct. 1776, between the revolted \nAmericans and the British forces under sir William \nHowe. It terminated in the defeat of the Americans, \nwho suffered considerable loss in killed, wounded, \nand prisoners. \n\nWHITE EOSE, Ordeb OF THE, includes\' \nanen and women of many shades of opinion, agree- \ning on one point, that all authority comes from \nabove, utterly independent of the will of the people. \n\'They regard the revolution of 1688 as a national \n\xe2\x80\xa2crime, and Jacobitism as true loyalty. The order \n\xe2\x80\xa2has no religious test, its sole object being to main- \ntain the doctrine cf the divine right of kings, and \nrevive public interest in the sufferings of the house \n\xe2\x80\xa2of Stuart. (Feb. 1888.) \n\nWHITE SHEEP, a name given to the Turco- \nmans who conquered Persia about 1468, and perse- \ncuted the Shiites, but were expelled by Ismail, who \nfounded the Soplii dynasty in I "501. \n\nWHITE TOWEE, the keep or citadel in the \n\'Tower of London, a large, square, irregular building, \nerected in 1070 by abbot Gundulph, afterwards \nbishop of Rochester. It measures 116 feet by 96, \nand is 92 feet in height : the walls, which are 1 1 \nfeet thick, having a winding staircase continued \nalong two of the sides, like that in Lover Castle. It \ncontains an extensive armoury. Within this tower \nis the ancient chapel of St. John, originally used by \nthe English monarchs. The turret at the N.E. \nangle, the highest of the four by which the White \nTower is surmounted, was used for astronomical \npurposes by Flamsteed previously to the erection of \nthe royal observatory at Greenwich. \n\n\n\nWHITSUNTIDE, a festival appointed to com- \nmemorate the descent of the Holy Ghost upon the \napostles : the newly-baptized persons, or catechu- \nmens, are said to have worn white garments on \nWhitsunday. This feast is movable, being always \nexactly seven weeks after Easter. Rogation week \n(which see) is the week before Whitsunday. Whit- \nsunday 1892, 5 June; 1893, 21 May; 1894, 13 May ; \n1895, 2 J une ; 1896, 24 May. \n\nWhitsunday, a Scotch quarter-day, is always on. \n15 May, as settled by an act of 1693, but local usage \nvaries. \n\nWHITTINGTON\'S CHAEITIES. Sir \n\nRichard Whittington, a citizen and mercer of Lon- \ndon, served the office of lord mayor three times, the \nlast in 1419. Many false stories are connected with \nhis name, and his munificent charities are little \nknown. He founded his college, dedicated to the \nHoly Ghost and the Virgin Mary, in 1424 ; and his \nalmshouses in 1429 ; the latter, originally built in \nLondon, now stand on Highgate-hill (built i8o8)near \nthe supposed site of the supposed famous stone which \ncommemorated the legend of his return to London, \nafter leaving it in despair. \n\nWHITWOETH FOUNDATIONS. Mr. \n\n(aftd. sir) Joseph Whitworth, the eminent engi- \nneer (born 21 Dec. 1803; died 22 Jan. 1887) \nin a letter to the first lord of the treasury, dated 18 \nMarch, 1868, offered to found 30 scholarships of the \nannual value of 100I. each, to be applied for the \nfurther instruction of young men, natives of the \nUnited Kingdom, selected by open competition for \ntheir intelligence and proficiency in the theory and \npractice of mechanics and its cognate sciences, with \na view to the promotion of engineering and mechani- \ncal industry in this country ; and he expressed hopes \nthat means might be found for bringing science and \nindustry into closer relation with each other than \nat present obtains here. This offer was accepted by \nthe lords of the committee of the privy council, 28 \nMarch, 1868. In 1875, sir Joseph assigned an estate \nto support these scholarships. For the results of sir \nJoseph Whitworth\'s will, see Manchester, 1888-90. \n\nWHO ? WHO ? ADMINISTEATION, \n\nDerby\'s, earl of, Feb. 1852 (which see). \n\n"WHOLE DUTY OF Man;" (the author- \nship doubtfully attributed to abps. Sancroft, \nFrewen, and Sterne ; to bishops Fell and Chapel ; \nto Dorothy, lady Packington, and others ;) first \npublished," 1659. Loivndes. It is attributed by \nsome to John Ischam. \n\nWICKLIFFITES, the followers of John \nWicklitte (born 1324), a professor of divinity in the \nuniversity of Oxford and rector of Lutterworth in \nLeicestershire. He was a forerunner of the reforma- \ntion of the English Church from popery, being \namong the first who opposed the authority of the \npope, transubstantiation, the celibacy of the clergy, \n&c. Wicklifl\'e, protected by John of Gaunt, Ed- \nward\'s son and Richard\'s uncle, was virulently \npersecuted by the church, and only saved from mar- \ntyrdom by a paralytic attack, which caused his \ndeath, 31 Dec. 1384, in his 60th year. The Council \nof Constance, in 1414, decreed his bones to be disin- \nterred and burnt, which was done by the bishop of \nLincoln, and his dust was cast into the river Swift, \n1415. Wicklift\'e\'s English version of the Bible \nwas commenced in 1380 ; a noble edition of it was \nprinted at Oxford in 1850. Wy cliff \'Society ; founded \nin 1882 to publish his works. Quin-centenarv of \nhis death celebrated in London, &c., 21 May, 1884. \nSee Lollards. \n\n\n\nWIDOWS. \n\n\n\n1067 \n\n\n\nWILLS. \n\n\n\nWIDOWS. The Jewish law required a man\'s \nbrother to marry his widow if without children (1490 \nB.C.). For the burning of widows in India, see Sut- \ntee. Among the numerous associations in London \nfor the relief of widows are, one for the widows of \nmusicians, instituted in 1738; for widows of naval \nmen, founded in 1 739 : for widows of medical men, \n1788 : a law society, for widows of professional gen- \ntlemen, 1817; and a society for artists\' widows, 1827. \n\xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x80\x94 Widowers were taxed in England as follows : a \nduke, 12I. 10s. ; lower peers, smaller sums; a com- \nmon person, is. ; 7 Will. III. 1695. \n\nWIEN, see Vienna. \n\nWIFE, see Wives. \n\nWIG, see Peruke. \n\nWIGrAN (Lancashire) . The king\'s troops, com- \nmanded by the earl of Derby, were defeated and \ndriven out of the town in 1643 by the parliamentary \nforces under sir John Smeaton. The earl was again \ndefeated by colonel Ashton, who razed the fortifica- \ntions of Wigan to the ground, same year ; and once \nmore by a greatly superior force commanded by \ncolonel Lilbume, 1 651. In this last engagement, \nsir Thomas Tildesley, an ardent royalist, was slain ; \na pillar was erected to his memory in 1679. The \ncolliers in the neighbourhood struck, and acting \nriotously 17, 18 April, 1868, were quelled by the \nmilitary. Arrangements were soon after made with \nthe employers. The prince and princess of Wales \nat then- visit, 4 June, 1873, opened a new hospital, \n&c, and received a hearty welcome. See Railway \nAccidents, 2 Aug. 1873. Population, 1881, 48,194 ; \n1891, 55,013. \n\nWIGHT, ISLE OF, the Eoman Vecta or Victis, \nwas conquered by Vespasian in the reign of Clau- \ndius. It was conquered by the Saxons under Cerdic \nabout 530; by the Danes, 787, and in 1001, when \nthey held it for several years. It was invaded by \nthe French, July, 1377, and has several times \nsuffered from invasion by them. In 1442, \nHenry VI. alienated the Isle to Henry de \nBeauchamp, first premier earl of England and \nthen duke of Warwick, and afterwards crowned him \nking of the Isle of Wight, with his own hands ; but \ndying without heirs male, his regal title died with \nhim, and the lordship of the isle returned to the \ncrown. Charles I., after his flight from Hampton- \ncourt, was a prisoner in Carisbrook castle, in 1647. \nIn the time of Charles II. timber was very plentiful. \nIn this isle is the queen\'s marine residence, \nOsbome-house. \nPrince Henry of Battenberg appointed governor Jan. \n\n1889, officially received 29 July. \n\nWILD BIRDS\' PROTECTION ACTS, \n\npassed 10 Aug. 1872, 24 July, 1876, and 7 Sept. \n1880. \n\nWILDERNESS BATTLES, see United \nStates, May, 1864. \n\nWILHELMSHAFEN, at Hippens, bay of \nJahde, Oldenburg, the first German military port, \nwas inaugurated by William, king of Prussia, \n17 June, 1869. Since 1871 it has become the \nChatham of Germany. By explosion of a gun on \nthe Mars, 8 men killed and 20 injured, 27 April, \n1881. \n\nWILKES\'S NUMBER, 45, see North Briton, \nand also Warrants, General. \n\nWILLIAMS\' LIBRARY, see Libraries. \n\nWILLIS\'S ROOMS, see AlmacVs. \n\nWILLOW-LEAYES, see Sun. \n\n\n\nWILLS and Testaments are of very high \n\nantiquity, see Genesis xlviii. The private will of \nSennacherib, king of Assyria, 680 B.C., found at \nNineveh, is translated in Records of the Past, \nVol. I. Solon introduced them at Athens, 578 \nB.C. There are regulations respecting wills in \nthe Koran. Trebatius Testa the civilian, intro- \nduced codicils to wills at Pome, 31 B.C. The \npower of bequeathing lands by the last will and \ntestament of the owner was confirmed to English \nsubjects I Henry I. 1100; but with great restric- \ntions and limitations respecting the feudal system, \nwhich were taken off by the statute of 32 Hen. VIII. \n1541. Blackstone\'s Commentaries. The first will \nof a sovereign on record is stated (but in error) to \nbe that of Richard II. 1399 ; Edward the Confessor \nmade a will, 1066. Various laws have regulated \nthe wills and testaments of British subjects. All \nprevious statutes were repealed by the " Wills Act," \n7 Will. IV. & 1 Vict. c. 26, 1837, and the laws \nwith relation to wills amended.* The present \nProbate Court (which see) was established in \n1857. An office for the reception of the wills of \nliving persons was opened in Jan. 1861. See Tltel- \nlussoii\'s Will. In 1869 twenty probates of wOls or \nletters of administration were stamped for personal \nproperty, each exceeding a quarter of a million ; \none had a stamp of 2l,OOo\xc2\xa3. The Wills Office, re- \nmoved from Doctors\' Commons to Somerset House, \nwas opened 24 Oct. 1874. \n\nThe will of Peter the Great, described in the " Memoires \nde la Chevaliere d\'Eon," as a " plan for compassing \nEuropean supremacy," left for his successors, and de- \nposited in the archives of the palace of Peterhoff near \nSt. Petersburg. It advocated "approach as near as \npossible to Constantinople, and towards the Indies : \nwars with Turkey and Persia ; possession of the shores \nof the Black Sea, and the Baltic ; " &c. The existence \nof the will (denied by the czars), was first announced \nby M. Lesur in his " Progres de la Puissance Russe," \npublished at Paris in 1812. In 1863, Dr. Berkholz of \nBiga asserted that the will was a forgery, probably \ndictated by Napoleon I. Mr. W. J. Thorns, the anti- \nquary, and others, contend for the genuineness of the \nwill, June, 1878. \n\nEXTRACTS FROM THE LAST WILL OF NAPOLEON I., \nEMPEROR OF FRANCE, t \n\n[He died 5 May, 1821, eleven days after he had signed \nthese documents. The original in French occupies \nabout twenty-six pages in Peignot\'s " Testarnens Ee- \nmarquables," 1829.] \n\n"This day, 24 April, 1821, at Longwood, in the island \nof St. Helena. This is my testament, or act of my last \n\nwill: \n\n" I leave to the comte de Montholon 2,000.000 francs \nas a proof of my satisfaction for the attentions he has\' \npaid to me for these six years, and to indemnify him for \nthe losses which my residence in St. Helena has occa- \nsioned him. I leave to the comte Bertrand 500,000 \nfrancs. I leave to Marchand, my first valet-de-ehambre, \n400,000 francs ; the services he has performed for me are \nthose of a friend. I desire that he may marry a widow, \nsister, or daughter of an officer or soldier of my old \nguard. To St. Denis, 100,000 francs. To Novarre, 100.000 \nfrancs. To Pijeron, 100,000 francs. To Arehambaud, \n50,000 francs. To Cuvier, 50,000 francs. To Chaudelle, \nidem. \n\n* By this act the testator must be above 21, not a \nlunatic or idiot, not deaf and dumb, not drunk at the \n\nlii if signing, not an outlawed or unpardoned felon. \n\nAll kinds "i\' properly may in\' devised. The will must be \nwritten legibly and intelligibly, ami signed by the \ntestator, or by his direction, in the presence of two or \nmore witnesses, who also must sign. A married woman \nmay bequeath only her pin money or separate mainten- \nance, without the consent of her husband. \n\nt These documents, dated from 15-24 April, deposited \nsince i;;.m in England, have been given 1 1 1 \xe2\x80\xa2 to the autho- \nrities at Paris, at the request 01 the French Govern- \nment. \n\n\n\nWILLS. \n\n\n\n1068 \n\n\n\nWILMOT\'S ACT. \n\n\n\n"To the Abbe Vignali, 100,000 francs. I desire that \nhe may build his house near Ponte Novo de Rossino. To \nthe cointe Las Casas, 100,000 francs. To comte Lava- \nlette, 100,000 francs. To the surgeon-in-chief, Larrey, \n100,000 francs. He is the most virtuous man I havij \nknown. To general Brayer, 100,000 francs. \n\n" To general Lefevre Desnouettes, 100,000 francs. To \ngeneral Drouet, 100,000 francs. To general Cambronne, \n100,000 francs. To the children of general Muton Du- \nvernais, 100,000 francs. To the children of the brave \nLabedoyere, 100,000 francs. To the children, of general \nGirard, killed at Ligny, 100,000 francs. To the children \nof general Chartrand, 100,000 francs. To the children of \nthe virtuous general Travost, 100,000 francs. To general \nLallemand, the elder, 100,000 francs. To general (Jlausel, \n100,000 francs. To Costa Bastilica, also 100,000 francs. \nTo the baron de Menevalle, 100,000 francs. To Arnault, \nauthor of Marius, 100,000 francs. \n\n"To colonel Marbot, 100,000 francs : I request him to \ncontinue to write for the defence and glory of the French \narmies, and to confound the calumniators and the apos- \ntates. To the baron Bignon, 100,000 francs : I request \nhim to write the history of French Diplomacy from 1792 \nto 18 1 5. To Poggi de Talaro, 100,000 francs. To the \nsurgeon Emmery, 100,000. \n\n" These sums shall be taken from the six millions \nwhich I deposited on leaving Paris in 1815, and from the \ninterest at the rate of 5 percent, since July, 1815; the \naccount of which shall be adjusted with the bankers by \nthe counts Montholon and Bertrand and by Marchand. \n\n" These legacies, in case of death, shall be paid to the \nwidows and children, and in their default, shall revert to \nthe capital. I institute the counts Montholon, Ber- \ntrand, and Marchand my testamentary executors. This \npresent testament, written entirely by my own hand, is \nsigned and sealed with my arms. \n\n"NAPOLEON. \n\n" 24 April, 1821, Longwood. " \n\nThe following are part of the eight Codicils to the pre- \nceding will of the emperor : \xe2\x80\x94 \n\n"On the liquidation of my civil list of Italy \xe2\x80\x94 such as \nmoney, jewels, plate, linen, coffers, caskets of which the \nviceroy is the depository, and which belong to me, I dis- \npose of two millions, which I leave to my most faithful \nservants. I hope that without their showing any cause, \nmy son Eugene Napoleon will discharge them faithfully. \nHe cannot forget the forty millions which I have given \nhim in Italy, or by the right (parage) of his mother\'s \ninheritance. \n\n"From the funds remitted in gold to the empress \nMaria Louisa, my very dear and well-beloved spouse, at \nOrleans, in 1814, there remain due to me two millions, \nwhich I dispose of by the present codicil, in order to \nrecompense my most faithful servants, whom I beside \nrecommend to the protection of my dear Maria Louisa. \nI leave 200,000 francs to count Montholon, 100,000 francs \nof which he shall pay into the chest of the treasurer (Las \nCasas) for the same purpose as the above, to be employed \naccording to my dispositions in legacies of conscience. \n\n" 10,000 francs to the sub-officer Cantillon (died July, \n1869), who has undergone a prosecution, being accused \nof a desire to assassinate lord Wellington, of which he \nhas been declared innocent. Cantillon had as much right \nto assassinate that oligarch, as the latter had to send me \nto perish on the rock of St. Helena," &c. &c. &c. \n\nLETTER TO M. LAFITTE. \n\n" Monsieur Lafitte, \xe2\x80\x94 I remitted to you in 1815, at \nthe moment of my departure from Paris, a sum of nearly \nsix millions, for which you gave me a double receipt. I \nhave cancelled one of these receipts, and I have charged \ncomte. de Montholon to present to you the other receipt, \nin order that you may, after my death, deliver to him the \nsaid sum with interest at the rate of five per cent., from \nthe 1st of July, 1815, deducting the payments with which \nyou have been charged in virtue of my order. I have \nalso remitted to you a box containing my medallion. I \nbeg you will deliver it to comte Montholon. \n\n" This letter having no other object, I pray God, Mon- \nsieur Lafitte, that He may have you in His holy and \nworthy keeping. \n\n"NAPOLEON. \n\n"Longwood, in the island of St. Helena, 25 April, \n1821." \n\nThe following Will of Napoleon III. was published \nin the Times, 30 April, 1873: \xe2\x80\x94 \n\n\n\n"April 24, 1865. \n"This is my will. I commend my son and my wife to \nthe high constituted authorities of the state (aux grands \ncorps de l\'Etat), to the people, and the army. The em- \npress Eugenie possesses all the qualities requisite for \nconducting the regency well, and my son displays a dis- \nposition and judgment which will render him worthy of \nhis high destinies. Let him never forget the motto of the \nhead of our family, \' Everything for the French people.\' \nLet him fix in his mind the writings of the prisoner \nof St. Helena; let him study the emperor\'s deeds and \ncorrespondence ; finally, let him remember, when circum- \nstances so permit, that the cause of the peoples is the \ncause of France. Power is a heavy burden, because one \ncannot always do all the good one could wish, and be- \ncause your contemporaries seldom render you justice, so \nthat, in order to fulfil one\'s mission, one must have faith \nin, and consciousness of, one\'s duty. It is necessary to \nconsider that from heaven on high those whom you have \nloved regard and protect you ; it is the soul of my illus- \ntrious uncle that has always inspired and sustained me. \nThe like will apply to my son, for he will always be \nworthy of his name. I leave to the empress Eugenie all \nmy private property. It is my desire that on the ma- \njority of my son she shall inhabit the Elysee and Biar- \nritz. I trust that my memory will be dear to her, and \nthat after my death she will forget the griefs I may have \ncaused her. With regard to my son, let him keep as a \ntalisman the seal I used to wear attached to my watch, \nand which comes from my mother; let him carefully \npreserve everything that comes to me from the em- \nperor, my uncle, and let him be convinced that my heart \nand my soul remain with him. I make no mention of my \nfaithful servants. I am convinced that the empress and \nmy son will never abandon them. I shall die in the \nCatholic, Apostolic, and Roman religion, which my son \nwill always honour by his piety. Done, written, and signed \nwith my hand at the palace of the Tuileries, the 24th of \nApril, 1865. (Signed)- "NAPOLEON." \n\nThe Will of Prince Louis Napoleon, was written \nwith his own hand, and signed 26 Feb. 1879, the night \nbefore Jie sailed for South Africa (where he was killed \nwhile on a reconnoitring party, 1 June, 1879). He states \nthat he dies in the Catholic religion ; expresses his love \nfor his country, his mother the empress, and his friends ; \nand his gratitude to the queen and royal family of Eng- \nland, and to the English people for their cordial hospi- \ntality. He constitutes his mother sole legatee ; bequeaths \nlegacies and memorials to prince J. N. Murat, M. F. \nPietri, baron Corvisart, M. Rouher, and others ; and \nassigns to Victor, the eldest son of prince Napoleon. \nJerome, the task of continuing the work of Napoleon I. \nand Napoleon III. Executors, MM. Rouher and Pietri. \n\nWILLUGHBY SOCIETY, devoted to the \nstudy of birds ; founded in 1879 ; was named after \nFrancis Willughby (1635-72), who wrote Omi- \nt/wloffia, published 1676. \n\nWILMINGTON (N. Carolina, U.S.) was held \nby the confederates ; resisted severe attacks of the \nfederals in Dec. 1864. Fort Fisher was taken by \nassault on 15 Jan., and Wilmington was evacuated \nby the confederates, 22 Feb. 1865. \n\nWILMINGTON ADMINISTRATION, \n\nsucceeded that of sir ltobert Walpole, Feb. 1742. \n\nEarl of Wilmington, first lord of the treasury. \n\nLord Hardwicke, lord chancellor. \n\nEarl of Harrington, president of the council. \n\nEarl Gower, lord privy seal. \n\nMr. Sandys, chancellor of the exchequer. \n\nLord Carteret and the duke of Newcastle, secretaries of \nstate. \n\nEarl of Winchilsea, first lord of the admiralty. \n\nDuke of Argyll, commander of the forces and master-general \nof the ordnance. \n\nMr. Henry Pelham, paymaster of the forces. \n\nWith several of the household lords. \n\n[On lord Wilmington\'s death, 26 July, 1743, Mr. Pel- \nham became prime minister; and in Nov. 1744, he \nformed the " Broad - bottom " administration; see \nPelham. ] \n\nWILMOT\'S ACT (Sir E.), 3 & 4 Vict. c. 77 \n(1840) relates to schools. \n\n\n\nWIMBLEDON. \n\n\n\n1069 \n\n\n\nWINDSOR. \n\n\n\nWIMBLEDON, ancient village 8 miles S.W. \n\nof London. See Volunteers, 1860-89. Population, \n\n1881,15,950; 1891, 25,758. \n\nPercy Malcolm John, Student at Blenheim house, \ndied suddenly at his school at Wimbledon, 3 Dee. \n1881 ; his brother-in-law Dr. George Henry Lam- \nson suspected of poisoning him, with aconitine, \n2 Dec. ; was convicted of the murder, 14 March, \nconfessed his guilt 27 April, and was executed \n\n28 April, 1882 \n\nWINCHESTER (Hampshire), a most ancient \ncity, whose erection may reasonably be ascribed to \nthe Celtic Britons, with the fabulous date 392 B.C. \nIt was made the capital of the West Saxon king- \ndom under Cerdic, about 520 ; and of England by \nEgbert, 827; it became the residence of Alfred, \n879-991. In the reign of William I. London be- \ngan to rival it ; and the destruction of religious \nhouses by Henry VIII. almost ruined it. Several \nkings resided at Winchester, and many parliaments \nwere held there. Memorials of its ancient superi- \nority exist in the national denomination of measures \nof quantity, as Winchester ell, Winchester bushel, \n&c, the use of which has but recently been replaced \nby imperial measures. The cathedral church was \nfirst founded and endowed by Cynegils, or Kene- \ngilsus, the first Christian king of the West Saxons. \nBecoming ruinous, the present fabric was began \nby bishop Walkelyn, the 34th bishop, 1073. The \nchurch was first dedicated to St. Amphibalus, then \nto St. Peter, and afterwards to St. Swithin, once \nbishop here. Dedicated to the Holy Trinity by Henry \nVIII. St. Birinus was the first bishop of the West \nSaxons, his seat Dorchester, 636 ; Wina, in 660, \nwas the first bishop of Winchester. The see is \nvalued in the king\'s books at 2793^. 4s. 2d. annually. \nPresent income, 6,500/. Population, 1881, 17,780; \n1891, 19,073. \nTaken by the Danes, 871-3; ravaged by Sweyn . 1013 \n\nWilliam Rufus buried here 1100 \n\nHospital of Holy Cross, founded by bishop Henry \n\nde Blois 1132 \n\n"Almshouse of Noble Poverty," engrafted on the \n\nHoly Cross by cardinal Beaufort, revived in 1883. \nWinchester school, founded by bishop William of \n\nWykeham 1382-7 ; the 500th anniversary of the \n\nlaying of the first stone of New College, 26 March, \n\n1387, celebrated 26 March, 1887. \nWinchester several times taken and re-taken, 1641-3 ; \n\ntaken by Cromwell and the castle dismantled . 1645 \nCharles II. began a palace here by Wren . . . 1683 \nCharitable Society of Natives founded . . . 1609 \n\nWinchester Cross restored 1866 \n\nNew Guildhall opened by lord-chancellor Selborne, \n\n11 May, 1873 \n700th anniversary of the incorporation of the city, \n\ncelebrated 3, 4 July, 1884 \n\nrecent bishops. (Prelates of the Order of \nthe Garter.) \n\n1781. Brownlow North, died 12 July, 1820. \n\n1820. George Pretyman Tomline, died 1827. \n\n1827. Charles Richard Sumner, resigned 1869 ; died, 15 \nAug. 1874. \n\nT869. Samuel Wilberforce, elected Nov. ; killed, through \nthe fall of his horse, 19 July, 1873. \n\n1873. Edward Harold Browne, translated from Ely, Aug. \n1873 ; resigned, 1890 ; died, 17 Dec. 1891. \n\n1891. Anthony Wilson Thorold, translated from Ro- \nchester, Jan. \n\nWINCHESTER SCHOOL, the oldest of our \ngreat schools, " Seinte Marie College of Wyn- \nchestre," the charter of which is dated Oct. 1382, \nwas founded in 1387 by William (Long) of Wyke- \nham, bishop of Winchester, who had established a \nschool here in 1373. The ancient statutes were \nrevised in 1855 ; and still further altered by the \nPublic Schools act of 1868. In Nov.-Dec. i872there \nwas much published correspondence respecting the \ntunding \xe2\x80\x94 the excessive punishment of the boys by \n\n\n\nboy prefects. In May, 1892, it was arranged that \nthe quincentenary of the school should be celebrated \nin July, 1893. \n\nWINDING-UP ACTS (to facilitate the \nwinding up the affairs of joint -stock companies \nwhich are unable to meet their engagements) were \npassed in 1848, 1849, 1857, and 1862. \n\nWINDMILLS are of great antiquity, and \nstated to be of Roman or Saracen invention. They \nare said to have been originally introduced into \nEurope by the knights of St. John, who took the \nhint from what they had seen in the crusades. \nBaker. Windmills were first known in Spain, \nFrance, and Germany, in 1299. Anderson. Wind \nsaw-mills were invented by a Dutchman, in 1633, \nwhen one was erected near the Strand, in London. \n\nWINDOWS. There were glass windows in \nPompeii, a.d. 79, as is evident from its ruins. It \nis certain that windows of some kind were glazed \nso early as the 3rd century, if not before, though \nthe fashion was not introduced until it was done by \nBenedict Biscop, about 674. Windows of glass \nwere used in private houses, but the glass was im- \nported 1177. Anderson. In England, in 1851, \nabout 6000 houses had fifty windows and upwards in \neach ; about 275,000 had ten windows and up- \nwards ; and 725,000 had seven windows, or less \nthan seven. \nWindow-tax first enacted in order to defray the \n\nexpense of and deficiency in the re-coinage ol silver 1695 \nThe tax increased, 5 Feb. 1746-7; again in 1778; \n\nand again on the commutation-tax for tea 1 Oct. 1784 \nThe tax again increased in . 1797, 1802, and 1808 \n\nReduced 1823 \n\nThe revenue derived from windows was in 1840 \n\nabout a million and a quarter sterling; and in \n\n1850 (to April 5), 1,832,6842. \nThe tax repealed by act 14 &; 15 Vict. c. 36 (which \n\nact imposed a duty upon inhabited houses in lieu \n\nthereof) 24 July, 1851 \n\nWINDSOR (Berkshire). The Castle, a resi- \ndence of the British sovereigns, begun by William \nthe Conqueror, and enlarged by Henry I. about \n1 1 10. Edward III., who was born here, 13 Nov. \n1312, caused the old building, with the exception of \nthree towers at the west end, to be taken down, and \nre-erected the whole castle, under the direction of \nWilliam of Wykeham, 1356, and built St. George\'s \nchapel. He assessed every county in England to \nsend him workmen. James I. of Scotland was im- \nprisoned here, 1406-23. Several additions were \nmade by Henry VIII. Elizabeth made the grand \nnorth terrace ; and Charles II. repaired and beauti- \nfied it, 1676-80. Population, New Windsor, 1881, \n12,273; 1891, 12,327. \n\nThe chapel repaired and opened . . . Oct. 1790 \nThe castle repaired and enlarged, 1824-8 ; George \n\nIV took possession 8 Dec. 1828 \n\nRoyal stables built 1839 \n\nA serious fire in the prince of Wales\'s tower, owing \n\nto some defect in the heating apparatus, \n\n19 March, 1S53 \nOur sovereigns have here entertained many royal \n\npersonages, as the emperor and empress of the \n\nFrench, in April, 1855 \n\nHere died the prince consort . -14 Dec. 1861 \n\nThe Albert memorial chapel, on the site of Wolsey \n\nchapel, was opened . . . .30 Nov. 1875 \nWindsor Forest, situated to the south and west of \n\nthe town of Windsor, was formerly 120 miles in \n\ncircumference; in 1607, it was 77^ miles round, \n\nbut it has since been reduced in its bounds to \n\nabout 56 miles. It was surveyed in 1789, and found \n\nto contain 59,600 acres. \nVirginia Water and the plantations about it were \n\ntaken out of the forest. \nThe marshes were drained and the trees planted for \n\nWilliam, duke of Cumberland, about 1746; and \n\n\n\nWINDSOR KNIGHTS. \n\n\n\n1070 \n\n\n\nWISSEMBOURG. \n\n\n\nmuch was done by George IV. , who often resided \nat the lodge. \n\nOn the south side is Windsor Great Park ; it con- \ntains about 3800 acres. \n\nThe Little Park, on the north and east sides of the \ncastle, contains about 500 acres. The gardens are \nelegant, and have been considerably improved by \nthe addition of the house and gardens of the duke \nof St. Albans, purchased by the crown. \n\nCumberland Lodge partially destroyed by fire ; pic- \ntures burnt 14 Nov. \n\nAlbert Institute, Windsor, opened by the prince of \nWales 10 Jan. \n\nAbout 52,000 volunteers reviewed by the queen, \n\n9 July, \n\nJubilee fetes and illuminations ; the queen uncovers \na statue of herself near the castle ; torchlight \nprocession of the Eton boys . . 22 June, \n\nThe queen being here her 70th birthday is kept with \ngreat enthusiasm .... 24 May, \n\nBoyal Agricultural Society to meet here ; the queen \npresident \n\nThe Royal Agricultural Society held its jubilee \nshow, the greatest one of the kind in the century \nin Windsor Great Park . . 24-29 June, \n\nThe prince of Wales acted on behalf of the queen, \nwho was president for the year ; her majesty \nvisited the show . . . . 27, 28 June, \n\nThe weather was very fine during the week, and the \nshow was reported to be a great success. \n\nMr. Jacob Wilson, the hon. director of the show, \n\nknighted 30 June, \n\n[A fund was started at the Mansion House, \nLondon, in aid of the expenses 24 June; 5,516?. \nhad been received up to 1 Aug., 1889.] \n\nThe royal pavilion with its decorations was pre- \nsented to the queen by Mr. Charlton Humphreys \nand Messrs. Shoolbred and accepted about 29 June, \n\nThe bronze equestrian statue of the prince Consort \n(see under Jubilee) in the great park uncovered \nby the queen 12 May, \n\nSir A. Sullivan\'s opera, "The Gondoliers," per- \nformed before the queen and court, by Mr. R. \nD\'Oyly Carte\'s Savoy company . 6 March, \n\nVisit of the German emperor and empress 4 July, \n\nSilver wedding of the prince and princess Christian, \n5 July ; marriage of their daughter, princess \nLouise, to prince Aribert of Anhalt, 6 July ; \nstate banquet in St. George\'s hall . 7 July, \n\nMilitary funeral of the duke of Clarence and Avon- \ndale 20 Jan. \n\nThe marquis of Lome appointed constable of \nWindsor castle 22 Jan. ,, \n\nWINDSOR KNIGHTS, see Poor Knights. \n\nWINDWARD ISLES (West Indies)-Bar- \n\xe2\x96\xa0 badoes, St. Vincent, Grenada, Trinidad, Tobago, and \nSt. Lucia, {which see). Governor, Eawson W. \nRawson, 1868 ; J. Pope Hennessy, Feb. 1875 ; capt. \nStrahan, Nov. 1876 ; sir Henrv Bulwer, April, 1880 ; \nWilliam Robinson, 1881 ; Walter J. Sendall, May, \n1885 ; hon. sir Walter Hely Hutchinson, Sept. 1889. \n\nWINE. " Noah planted a vineyard, and drank \nof the -wine," 2347 b.c. {Gen., ix. 20); see Vine. \nChing-Noung, emperor of China, is said to have \nmade rice wine, 1998 B.C. Christ changed water \ninto wine at the marriage of Cana in Galilee, a.d. \n30. John ii. 3-10. \n\nWine sold in England by apothecaries as a cordial \nin 1300, and so continued for some time after, \nalthough there is mention of " wine for the king" \nso early as John. \nThe price regulated by statute, 5 Richard II. . . 1381 \nThe price was twelve shillings the pipe in . 1400 \n\nA hundred and fifty butts and pipes condemned, \nfor being adulterated, to be staved and emptied \ninto the channels of the streets, by Rainwell \nmayor of London. Stoic\'s Chron. \' I427 \n\nAn act for licensing sellers of wine in England \n\n_ passed 25 April, 1661 \n\nBy the Methuen treaty, Portuguese wines were \nhighly favoured, and French wines discouraged by \n\nheavy duties " I?03 \n\nWine duties to be 2s. gd. per gallon on Cape wine, \nand 5s. 6<?. on all other wines 18 31 \n\n\n\n1892 \n\n\n\n\n\nGallons. \n\n\n1800 . \n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 3.3\xc2\xb07>46o \n\n\n1815 \n\n\n. . 4,306,528 \n\n\n1830 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 6,879,558 \n\n\n1839 \n\n\n. . 9,909,056 \n\n\n184s . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 8,469,776 \n\n\n1850 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 9.3\xc2\xb04>3i2 \n\n\n1854 . \n\n\n. 10,875,855 \n\n\n1857 \xe2\x96\xa0 \n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x80\xa2 10,336,485 \n\n\n1859 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 8,195,513 \n\n\n1861 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 11,052,436 \n\n\n1864 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 15,451.593 \n\n\n1868 \n\n\n. . 16,953,429 \n\n\n1869 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 17,184,330 \n\n\n1870 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x96\xa0 17,774,782 \n\n\n1871 . \n\n\n. 18,224,900 \n\n\n\nIn year ending 31 March, 1856, the customs duties \non wines produced 1,856, 120?.; in 1858, 1,733,729?.; \n1867,1,391,192?.; 1876,1,755,710?.; 1884,1,268,842?.; \n1888, 1,085,046?.; 1890, 1,302,160?.; 1891,1, 318, 006Z. \n\nBy the French treaty of commerce, i860, the duty \non wines was reduced from 5s. gd. to 2s. 6d. and \nis. according to the alcoholic strength . Jan. i860 \n\nLicences granted to refreshment houses by an aet \npassed in \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Oporto Wine Company (a monopoly), estab- \nlished in 1756, and abolished 1865 \n\nCommission on the wine duties appointed by the \ncommons April, 1879 \n\nThe ancient duties on wine paid to the corporation \non its entering the port of London 4s. g|d. per \n\n. tun of 252 gallons amounted to 8,488?. net, in 1885 \n\nThe abolition of these dues was discussed in 1889 ; \nthe city dues on coal were abolished by parliament \n\n8 July, 1889 \n\nAdditional import duties on wine imposed by \ncustoms 1888 \n\nThe ad valorem duty of 2s. 6d. and is. per gallon on \nsparkling wines, altered to 2s. all round 14 April, 1892: \n\nWINE IMPOETED INTO UNITED KINGDOM. \n\nGallons. \n\n1875 . . . 18,429,305 \n\n1876 . . . 19,950,723 \n\n1879 . . . 15,162,857 \n\n1880 . . . 17,385,496- \n\n1881 . . . 16,297,033 \n\n1882 . . . 15,715,813 \n\n1883 . . . . 15,559,795 \n\n1884 . . . 15,106,271 \n\n1885 . . . 14,629,739 \n\n1886 . . . 14,552,864 \n\n1887 . . . 15,383,641 \n\n1888 . . . 14,745,161 \n\n1889 . . . 15,900,749 \n\n1890 . . . 16,194,107 \n\nWINNIPEG, capital of the province of Mani- \ntoba, Canada, has recently risen to great impor- \ntance. The population, which was 215 in 1870, \nhad risen to 20,238 in 1891, 25,642. A period \nof depression from 1882 to 1884 has been followed \nby great prosperity, especially since the suppression \nof Riel\'s rebellion in 1885. See Canada. \n\nWINTER. Recent mild winters, 1862, 1868, \n1873, 1876, 1881. See Frosts. \n\nWINTER ASSIZES ACT, 39-4\xc2\xb0 Vict. c. 57, \n(11 Aug. 1876), gives power, by order in council, \nto unite counties for the purpose of. winter assizes, \nfor more speedy trials of prisoners. \n\nWIRE. The invention of drawing wire is \nascribed to Rodolph of Nuremberg, about 1410. \nMills for this purpose were first set up at Nurem- \nberg in 1563. The first wire-mill in England was \nerected at Mortlake in 1663. Mortimer. \n\nWIRTEMBERG, see Wiirtemberg. \n\nWISCONSIN, a N.W. state of N. America, \nwas organised as a territory in 1836; and received \ninto the union, 29 May, 1848. Population in 1880, \n1,315,497 ; 1890, 1,686,880. Capital, Madison. \n\nWISSEMBOURG, or Weissenbitrg, N.E. \nFrance, in the department of the Lower Rhine, \nsituate on the right bank of the river Lauter, the \nboundaiy of France and the Palatinate. It was- \nformerly an imperial city of Alsace, and was seized \nby Louis XIV. in 1673, and annexed to France by \nthe treaty of Ryswick, 1697. The "lines" of Wis- \nsembourg, erected by Villars 1705, were taken by \nthe Austrians and retaken by the French, 1793, \nafter Hoche\'s victory at Geisberg. On 4 Aug. \n1870, the crown - prince of Prussia crossed the \nLauter and gained a brilliant but bloody victory \nover the French (a part of MacMahon\'s division), \nstorming the lines, and the Geisberg. General Abel \n\n\n\nWITCHCRAFT. \n\n\n\n1071 \n\n\n\nWIVES. \n\n\n\nDouay was mortally wounded, and about 800 pri- \nsoners were made. The killed and wounded on \nboth sides appear to have been nearly equal. The \nGerman army, composed of Prussians, Bavarians, \nand Wiirtembergers, were, it is said, about 40,000, \nagainst about 10, OOO French, who fought with des- \nperate bravery. \n\nWITCHCRAFT. The Jewish law {Exodus \nxxii. 18), 1491 B.C., decreed, " Thou shalt not \nsutler a witch to live." Saul, after banishing or \ncondemning witchcraft, consulted the witch of \nEndor, 1 056 B.C. (1 Sam. xxviii.) Reginald Scots\' \n" Discoverie of Witchcraft" (against its existence) \npublished 1584. Reprinted, 1886. Bishop Hutch- \ninson\'s historical "Essay on Witchcraft" was pub- \nlished in 1 718. Pope Innocent VIII. issued a bull \nagainst witchcraft in 1484. Thousands of innocent \npersons were burnt, and others killed by the tests \napplied. \n\nMany Templars burnt at Paris for witchcraft, <fcc., 1309. \nJoan of Arc burnt at Rouen as a witch, 30 May, 1431. \nAbout five hundred witches burnt in Geneva, in three \n\nmonths, 15 15. \nMany burnt in the diocese of Como in a year, about \n\n1524- \n\nA great number in France, about 1520, when one sorcerer \n\nconfessed to having 1200 associates. \nNine hundred burnt in Lorraine, 1580-1595. \nOne hundred and fifty-seven burnt at Wurtzburg, old \n\nand young, learned and ignorant, between 1627 and 1629. \nGrandier, the parish priest at Loudon, burnt on a charge \n\nof having bewitched a whole convent of nuns, 1634. \nIn Bretague, twenty poor women put to death as witches, \n\n1654. \nDisturbances commenced on charges of witchcraft in \n\nAmerica, at Massachusetts, 1648-9 ; and persecutions \n\nraged dreadfully in Pennsylvania in 1683. \nAt Salem, in New England, nineteen persons hanged (by \n\nthe Puritans) for witchcraft, eight more condemned; \n\nfifty confessed themselves to be witches and were \n\npardoned, 1692. \nMaria Renata burnt at Wurtzburg in 1749. \nAt Kalisk, in Poland, nine old women charged with \n\nhaving bewitched and rendered unfruitful the lands \n\nbelonging to that palatinate, were burnt 17 Jan. 1775. \nFive women condemned to death by the Brahmins, at \n\nPatna, for sorcery, and executed, 15 Dec. 1802. \n\nWITCHCRAFT IN ENGLAND. \n\nA statute enacted declaring all witchcraft and sor- \ncery to be felony without benefit of clergy. 33 Hen. \nVIII. 1541. Again, 5 Eliz. 1562, and 1 James I. 1603. \n\nThe 73rd canon of the church prohibits the clergy from \ncasting out devils, 1603. \n\nBarrington estimates the judicial murders for witchcraft \nin England in 200 years at 30,000. \n\nMatthew Hopkins, the " witch-finder," causes the judicial \nmurder of about 100 persons in Essex, Norfolk, and \nSuffolk, 1645-7. \n\nSir Matthew Hale burnt two persons for witchcraft in \n1664. \n\nSeventeen or eighteen persons burnt at St. Osyths, in \nEssex, about 1676. \n\nTwo pretended witches were executed at Northampton \nin 1705, and five others seven years afterwards. \n\nIn 1716, Mrs. Hicks, and her daughter, aged nine, were \nhanged at Huntingdon. \n\nNorthamptonshire and Huntingdon preserved the super- \nstition about witchcraft later than other counties. \n\nIn Scotland, thousands of persons were burnt in the \nperiod of about a hundred years. Among the victims \nwere persons of the highest rank, while all orders in \nthe state concurred. James I. even caused a whole \nassize to be prosecuted for an acquittal. The king \npublished his Dwmonologie in Edinburgh, 1597. The \nlast sufferer in Scotland was at Dornoch in 1722. \n\nThe burs against witchcraft had lain dormant for many \nyears, when an ignorant person attempting to revive \nthem (by finding a bill against a poor old woman in \nSurrey for the practice of \'witchcraft), they were repealed, \n10 Geo. II. 1736. \n\nCredulity in witchcraft still abounds in the conntn dis- \ntricts of England. On 4 Sept. 1863, a poor old para- \nlysed Frenchman died in consequence of having been \n\n\n\nducked as a wizard at Castle Hedingham, Essex, and! \nsimilar cases have since occurred. \nAnn Turner, old ; killed as a witch by a half-insane inani \nat Long Compton, Warwickshire, 17 Sept. 1875. \n\nWITENA-MOT or Witena-gemot, the- \nassembling of the wise men, the great council of the- \nAnglo-Saxons. A witena-mot was called in "Win- \nchester by Egbert, 800, and in London, 833, to> \nconsult on the proper means to repel the Danes - \nsee Parliament. \n\nWITEPSK (in Russia), where a battle was. \nfought between the French under marshal Victor, \nduke of Belluno, and the Russians commanded by \ngeneral Wittgenstein. The French were defeated \nafter a desperate engagement, with the loss of about \n3000 men on both sides, 14 Nov. 1812. \n\nWITNESSES. Two or more witnesses were- \nrequired by the law of Moses, 145 1 B.C. (Deut.. \nxvii. 6), and by the early Christian Church in cases- \nof discipline (2 Cor. xiii. 1), a.d. 60. The evidence \nof two witnesses required to attaint for high treason, \n25 Edw. III. 1352. In civil actions between party \nand party, if a man be subpoenaed as a witness on a \ntrial, he must appear in court on pain of 100^. to be \nforfeited to the long, and 10/., together with the \ndamages equivalent to the loss sustained by the \nwant of his evidence to the party aggrieved. Lord \nEllenborough ruled that no witness is obliged to- \nanswer questions which may tend to degrade him- \nself, 10 Dec. 1802. New act relating to the exam- \nination of witnesses passed 13 Geo. III. 1773, \nAct to enable coui-ts of law to order the examination \nof witnesses upon interrogations and otherwise, \nI Will. IV. 30 March, 1831. The Witnesses Protec- \ntion act (see under Parliament, April, 1892), passed \n28 June, 1892. \n\nWITU, or Titu. See Zanzibar, 1890. \n\nWIVES, see Marriage. By the Divorce ancif \nMatrimonial Causes Act, passed in 1857, the con- \ndition of married women has been much benefited .. \nWhen ill-used they can obtain a divorce or judicial \nseparation ; and while in the latter state any \nproperty they may acquire is secured to them per- \nsonally, as if unmarried. By another act passed in \n1857, they are enabled to dispose of reversionary \ninterests in personal property or estates. An act \nto amend the law relating to the property of married \nwomen was passed 9 Aug. 1870. By it the separate- \nearnings of a wife were secured to her own use, as- \nwell as personal and freehold property bequeathed \nto her. She may maintain an action at law, and \nacquires other rights. The husband is declared not \nliable for debts contracted by his wife prior to> \nmarriage, and she may be sued for them. This act \nwas amended in 1874. Husband and wife may be \njointly sued for her debts before marriage. By the \nMatrimonial Causes Act, 1878, a magistrate can \ngrant judicial separation, with maintenance, to a \nwife suffering from her husband\'s ill-usage. \nHouse of lords decide that the husband is not re- \nsponsible tor his wile\'s debts if lie allofl sufficient \nfor dress, &c. Debenham v. Mellon . 27 Nov. 1880 \nMarried Women\'s Property Act, 45 & 46 Vict, \nc. 75, passed 18 Aug. 1882, making thcii powers \nalmost equal to those of single women, and in- \ncreasing their responsibilities in regard to debt, \n\n<fec, came into effect 1 Jan. 1885 \n\nProvision made for deserted wives made by Act \n\npassed in 1886 \n\nOlitheroe ease.\xe2\x80\x94 Miss Emily Hall (born i860) was \nmarried to Mr. E. Haughton Jackson at Black- \nburn, 5 Nov. 1887. They never lived together; \nshe returned to her friends, and he soon after \nwent to New Zealand, l le rei timed to England, \n17 July, 18S8. After some correspondence ami \n\n\n\nWIVES\' POISON. \n\n\n\n1072 \n\n\n\nWOMEN. \n\n\n\none interview (16 Jan. 1889) she steadily refused \nto live with him. Some litigation ensued, and a \ndecree against her was obtained, 30 July, 1889. \nOn 8 March, 1891, Mr. Jackson and others seized \nher when coming from church at Clitheroe, and \n\xe2\x96\xa0carried her off to his house at Blackburn, where \nshe was closely confined in charge of a nurse. \nBy means of a writ of habeas corpus, she was \nbrought before the court of appeal, who decided \nthat a husband has no legal power to detain his \n-wife against her will, 19 March. Mrs. Jackson \nthen returned to her friends. \n\nWIVES\' POISON or Water Tofana, see \n\n\n\nWIZAKD: Wizard of the North, a \n\nname given to sir "Walter Scott, ou account of his \nromances ; also to Mr. Anderson, the conjurer, \nwho died 3 Feb. 1874, see Covent Garden. \nRobert - Houdin\'s Confidences cl\'un Prestidigitateur \n\npublished in 1859. \nHerr Hermann, an eminent rich beneficent conjurer \n\nor prestidigitateur, died at Carlsbad aged 71, June, \n\n1887. See Automaton Figures. \nThe feats of Maskelyne and Cooke in recent years are \n\nwell known. \n\nWOERTH STJR Satjer, a town in the depai t- \nsnent of the Lower Rhine, N.E. France. After \nstorming Wissenibourg (which see) on 4 Aug. 1870, \nthe crown-prince of Prussia, with the 3rd army \n(about 150,000) marched rapidly forward and \nsurprised part of the French army under Marshal \nMacMahon, including the corps of Canrobert and \npart of that of Failly (about 47,000), and defeated it \nin a long, desperate, and sanguinary engagement \nnear this place 6 Aug. The battle lasted from 9 a.m. \ntill 4 p.m. The chief struggles occurred in the \ncountry round Keichshoffen and in the village of \nFroesehweiller ; the French are said to have charged \nthe German line eleven times, each time breaking \nit, but always finding a fresh mass behind. The \nridge on which Woerth stands was not captured \nuntil the French were taken in flank by the \nBavarians and Wihtembergers. Nearly all Mac- \nMahon\' s staff were killed, and the marshal himself, \nunhorsed, fell fainting into a ditch, from which he \nwas rescued by a soldier. He then, on foot, directed \nthe retreat towards Saverne, to cover the passes of \nthe Vosges. The victory is attributed to the very \ngreat numerical superiority of the Germans as well \nas to their excellent strategy. The French loss has \nbeen estimated at 5000 killed and wounded, and \n5000 prisoners, 2 eagles, 6 mitrailleuses, 35 can- \nnon, and much baggage. The Germans are stated \nto have had above 8000 men put hors de combat. \nIt was admitted that MacMahon had acted as an \nable and brave commander, \n\nWOLVERHAMPTON (Staffordshire), an old \ntown formerly named Hamton ; owes its present \nname to the foundation of a college here by \nWulfrana, sister of king Edgar, and widow of \nAldhelm, duke of Northampton, 996. The queen \nwas present at the inauguration of the prince con- \nsort\'s statue here, 30 Nov. 1866, and the church \ncongress was opened here 1 Oct. 1867. Wolver- \nhampton is eminent for its manufactures in metal. \nStatue of hon. C. P. Villiers (its M.P., 1835-92) \nwas uncovered, 6 June, 1879; he voted personally, \nwhen aged 90, for confidence in the Salisbury \nministry, n Aug. 1892. Population, 1881, IK, 766: \n1891,82,680. \nWolverhampton returns three M.P.\'s by act passed 25 \n\nJune, 1885. \n\nWOLVES were once very numerous in England. \nTheir heads were demanded as a tribute, particu- \nlarly 300 yearly from Wales, by king Edgar, 961, \nby which step they were falsely said to be totally \n\n\n\ndestroyed. Carte. Edward I. issued his mandate \nfor the destruction of wolves in several counties of \nEngland, 1289. Ireland was infested by wolves for \nmany centuries after their extirpation in England; \nfor there are accounts of some being found there so \nlate as 1710, when the last presentment for killing \nwolves was made in the county of Cork. Wolves \nstill infest France, in which kingdom 8384 wolves \nand cubs were killed in 1828-9. They were trouble- \nsome in the Vosges, Oct. 1875. 701 wolves killed \nin France in 1887 ; 404 killed in 1891. \n\nWOMEN. The employment of women is regu- \nlated by the Factory and Workshop Regulation Acts \n\n(which see) . \n\n(See Degrees, Female Medical School, Jubilee, Marriage, \nand Wives.) \n\nMary Wollstonecraft\'s Vindication of the Rights of \nWomen, published 1791 \n\nGreat advances in the legal rights, position, and \nemployment of women 1837-89 \n\nWomen\'s hospitals founded : Soho .... 1842 \n\nJ. S. Mill\'s Subjection of Women, published . . 1869 \n\nFemale medical society and obstetrical college \nfounded about 1864 \n\nFemale suffrage for members of parliament was pro- \nposed by J. S. Mill, and negatived by 196 against \n73 20 May, 1867 \n\nLily Maxwell, a shopkeeper at Manchester, voted \nfor Jacob Bright 26 Nov. ,, \n\nFirst annual meeting of the Manchester national \nsociety for women\'s suffrage . . 30 Oct. 1868 \n\nFemale suffrage decided to be illegal, by the court \nof common pleas .... 7, g Nov. ,, \n\nWomen\'s Club and Institute, Newman-street, \nLondon, W. opened .... Jan. 1869 \n\nWomen\'s Disabilities removal bill rejected by the \ncommons (220 to 94) 12 May, 1870 ; (222-143) * \nMay, 1872 ; (223-155) 30 April, 1873 ; withdrawn, \n1874-; (187-152) 7 April, 1875 ; (239-152) 26 April, \n1876; hustled out, 6 June, 1877; (219-140) \n19 June, 1878 ; (217-103) 7 March, 1879 ; (130-114) \n\n6 July, 1883 \n\nMiss Garrett and Miss Davies elected members of \nthe metropolitan school-board . . 29 Nov. 1873 \n\nMedical school for women opened (see Physic) Oct. 1874 \n\nWorking womens\' college (see under Working-men), \n\n12 Oct. ,, \n\nWomen\'s Protective and Provident League founded \nby Mrs. Paterson and others, Great Queen Street, \n(out of this has arisen several independent trades \nunions, book-binders, upholsterers, &c.) . . ,, \n\nMiss Merington elected guardian of the poor for \nKensington (the first case in London) . April, 1876 \n\nWomen\'s Whisky War, see United States, 1874. \n\nWomen permitted to be registered under " Medical \nAct," by 39 & 40 Vict. c. 41 . . .11 Aug. ,, \n\nWomen\'s Education Union, president, the princess \nLouise, founded at the Society of Arts, in 1871, \nto promote the better education of women ; said \nto be languishing in .... Oct. 1877 \n\nUniversity of London : senate vote for granting \ndegrees to women, 28 Feb. : convocation vote \nagainst it, 8 May, and July 1877 ; vote for a sup- \nplemental charter granting it (242-132), 15 Jan. ; \ncharter granted 28 March, 1878 \n\nGreat meeting for female suffrage ; St. James\'s Hall, \n\n6 May, 1880 \n\nWomen excluded from government employment \nin the United Staces, by order . about 27 Dec. 1881 \n\nWomen to be admitted to examinations for honours \nat Oxford ; by statute . . . .29 April, 1884 \n\nFemale householders\' suffrage (widows and spins- \nters), proposed by Mr. Woodall in the commons, \n10 June ; negatived (271-135) 12-13 June; in con- \nsequence Miss H. M tiller refuses to pay queen\'s \ntaxes, and her goods are distrained . 2 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nWomen\'s suffrage bill ; lords read 1st time, 3 July ; \nnegatived 10 July, 1884 ; again 28 July, 1885 ; \nread second time commons 18-19 Feb. ; blocked \nMarch ; negatived by the lords 16 March, 1886 ; \nagain 13 Sept. 1887; 13 April, 1888 ; and 18 March, \n1889 ; again 1891 and 1892 \n\nFemale suffrage granted in Madras presidency \n\nannounced 28 Sept. 1885 \n\n\n\nWONDEES. \n\n\n\n1073 \n\n\n\nWOOL-COMBERS. \n\n\n\nEnactments for the protection of women and girls \nformed part of the Criminal Law Amendment \nAct passed I4 Aug. 1885 \n\nWomen\'s Suffrage Society annual meeting July, 1886 \n\nMany women\'s liberal associations (Unionist and \nGladstonian) formed 1886-89 \n\nMiss A. P Ramsay and Miss B. M. Hervey, obtain \nhigh university honours (see Cambridge), 18 June, \n1887 ; and Miss G. P. Fawcett . . 7 June, 1890 \n\nInternational "council of women," advocating \nwomen\'s rights met at Washington, U.S. 25 \nMarch, 1888 ; a similar congress met at Paris \n\n25 June, 1889 \n\nWomen s hospital with female practitioners begun \nn Marylebone 1871 ; the new building in Euston \nRoad founded by the princess of Wales 7 May, ,, \n\nMrs. Scharlieb made M.D. . . . 16 May, ,, \n\nTwo ladies elected for the London County Council ; \nthis declared illegal, a bill to legalise it rejected \nby the lords, 20 May, 1889, and 9 June, 1890 ; by \nthe commons 26 May, 1891 \n\nWomen\'s trades association, proposed by the bishop \nof Bedford and others at a meeting held in the \nAssembly-hall in the Mile-End-road . 8 Oct. 1889 \n\nAnother meeting at Piccadilly ... 10 Feb. 1890 \n\nWomen in New Zealand authorized to serve in \nparliament and vote at elections ; bill passed, 4 \nSept. ; rejected by the legislative council, \n\n10 Sept. 1891 \n\nSlander of Women Act passed . . 5 Aug. ,, \n\nDiscrimination of sex in elections abolished by act \npassed in New York .... 15 April, 1892 \n\nSir Albert Rollit\'s bill for the extension of the par- \nliamentary franchise to women, rejected by the \ncommons (175 \xe2\x80\x94 152) .... 27 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nWONDEES of the World, i. The pyra- \nmids of Egypt. 2. The mausoleum or tomb built for \nMausolus, king of Caria, by Artemisia, his queen. \n3. The temple of Diana, at Ephesus. 4. The walls \nand hanging gardens of the city of Babylon. 5. \nThe vast brazen image of the suri at Rhodes, called \nthe Colossus. 6. The ivory and gold statue of \nJupiter Olympus. 7. The pharos or watch-tower, \nbuilt by Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt; \nsee separate articles. \n\nWOOD-CUTS, see Engraving on Wood. \n\nWOODITE, a combination of india-rubber, \ncork, and other substances for the coating of life- \nboats and other vessels to defend hem against \ncollision and attacks of guns, &c; invented by \nMrs. A. M. "Wood, recommended by sir E. J. Reed, \nJuly, 1886. \n\nWOODS, FORESTS, &c, see Forests. The \nboard of woods, forests, and land revenues was con- \nstituted in 1810. The oversight of works and \npublic buildings was added to its duties in 1832, but \ntransferred to a separate board of commissioners in \n185 1. In 1874 the annual revenue of the crown \nwoods and forests was 487,695/. ; 1882-3, 380,000/. , \n1886, 492,624/. \n\nWOOD\'S HALF-PENCE, for circulation in \nIreland and America, were coined by virtue of a \npatent, passed 1722. Against them, Dr. Jonathan \nSwift, by his letters signed M. B. Drapier pub- \nished about 1723, raised such a spirit of opposition \nthat the patent was withdrawn. Wood received a \ncompensation, but was virtually banished the king- \ndom. The half-pence were assayed in England by \nsir Isaac Newton, and proved to be genuine, in 1724 \n\nWOODHALL SPA, Lincolnshire, celebrated \nfor mineral waters, especially containing iodine. \nOn 22 May, 1888, Mr. E. Stanhope, M.P., sir \nRichard Webster, M.P., and others, inspected the \npump-room, baths, hotel, and other buddings re- \ncently erected to promote the use of the waters by \nall classes of invalids. A hospital was opened 29 \nMay, 1890. \n\n\n\nWOOD PAVEMENT was laid down a \nWhitehall in 1839; and in Oxford-street, the \nStrand, and other streets. The principal part was \nsoon taken up. In Nov. 1872, the improved wood \npavement company put forth a prospectus ; and \nin May, 1876, wood had been largely laid down, \nand was said to be the best pavement in London. \n\nOxford-street was paved by Henson\'s street paving \ncompany, with a compound of wood, asphalt, felt, and \nPortland cement in 1876 ; with wood, 1878. Bond-street \nand many other streets paved with wood, 1879-81. \n\nWOODSTOCK (Oxfordshire). In Wocd- \nstock, now Blenheim-park, originally stood a \nroyal palace, in which king Ethelred held a par- \nliament, and Alfred the Great translated Boetkius \nde Consolatione Philosophies, 888. Henry I. beau- \ntified the palace; and here resided Ilosamond, \nmistress of Henry II. 1 154. In it were born \nEdmund, second son of Edward I., 1301, and \nEdward, eldest son of Edward III., 1330 ; and here \nthe princess Elizabeth was confined by her sister \nMary, 1554. A splendid mansion, built at the \nexpense of the nation, for the duke of Marlborough, \nwas erected here to commemorate his victory at \nBlenheim in 1704. At that time every trace of the \nancient edifice was removed, and two elms were \nplanted on its site ; see Blenheim. Scott\'s romance, \n" Woodstock," was published, June, 1826. Mar- \nshall\'s " History of Woodstock," 1873. \n\nWOOL. From the earliest times to the reign \nof queen Elizabeth the wool of Great Britain was \nnot only superior to that of Spain, but accounted \nthe finest in the universe ; and even iu the times \nof the Bomans a manufacture of woollen cloths was \nestablished at Winchester for the use of the em- \nperors. Anderson. In later times wool was manu- \nfactured in England, and is mentioned 1 185, but \nnot in any quantity until 1331, when the weaving \nof it was introduced by John Kempe and other arti- \nzans from Flanders. This was the real origin of \nour now unrivalled manufacture, 6 Edw. III. 133 1. \nRgmer\' s Feeder a. \nDuties on exported wool were levied by Edw. I. . 1275 \n\nThe exportation prohibited 1337 \n\nStaples of wool established in Ireland, at Dublin. \n\nWaterford, Cork, and Drogheda, 18 Edw. III. . . 1343 \nSheep were first permitted to be sent to Spain, \n\nwhich has since injured our manufacture. Stow. 1467 \nFirst legislative prohibition of the export of wool \n\nfrom Ireland 1521 \n\nThe exportation of English wool, and the importa- \ntion of Irish wool into England, prohibited . 169 \nThe export forbidden by act passed . . . . 1718- \nBill to prevent the running of wool from Ireland to \n\nFrance 1738 \n\nThe duty on wool imported from Ireland taken off 1739 \n\nWoolcombers\' act, 35 Geo. Ill 1794 \n\nThe non-exportation law was repealed, 5 Geo. IV. . 1824 \nIn 1851 we imported 83,311,975 tb. of wool and \nalpaca ; in 1856, 116,211,392 tb. ; in 1859, \n133,284,634 th. ; in 1861, 147,172,841 tb. ; in 1864, \n206,473,645 tb. ; in 1866, 239,358,689 lb.; in 1871, \n323,036,299 lb. ; in 1875, 365,065.578 lb. ; in 1877, \n409,949,198 ft).; in 1879, 417,110,099 th.; in 1881, \n450,141,735 lb.; in 1883, 495,946,779ft; in 1887, \n577,924,661 tb. ; in 1S88, 639,267,975 th.; in 18S9, \n700,903,057 tb. ; in 1890, 633,028, 131 tb. \nWe imported from Australasia, in 184:-. 12,97^,856 tb. ; \nin 1856, 56,052,139 tb. ; in 1861, 68,506,222 lb. ; in \n1866, 113,773,694 11). ; in 1871, 182,710,5671b. ; in \n1875, 238,631,824 lb. ; in 1877, 281,247,190 tb. ; in \n1879, 287,831,804 lb.; in 1881,329,665,855 tb.; in \n1883, 351,685,606 tb. ; in 1887, 383,506,395 lb. ; in \n1888, 427,974,038 tb. ; in 1889, 431,303,391 lb. in \n1890, 418,771,604 lb. \n\nWOOL-COMBEES in several parts of Eng- \nland have a procession on 3 Feb., in commemoration \nof bishop Blaise, who is reported to bave discovered \n\n3 z \n\n\n\nWOOLLEN CLOTH. \n\n\n\n1074 \n\n\n\nWORKING MEN. \n\n\n\ntheir art. He is said to have visited England, and \nto have landed at St. Blazy, in Corn-wall. He was \nbishop of Sebaste, in Armenia, and is said to have \nsuffered martyrdom in the Diocletian persecution, \n289. \n\nWOOLLEN CLOTH. Woollen cloths were \nmade an article of commerce in the time of Julius \nCaesar, and are familiarly alluded to by him ; see \nWeaving. \n\nThe Jews were forbidden to wear garments of \nwoollen and linen together .... B.C. 1451 \n\n70 families of cloth-workers (from the Netherlands) \nsettled in England by Edward III. Ryrner. a.d. 1331 \n\nWorsted manufacture in Norfolk . . . . 1340 \n\nA kind of blankets were first made in England. \n(Camden) about ,, \n\nWoollens made at Kendal 1390 \n\nNo cloth but of Wales or Ireland to be imported \ninto England 1463 \n\nMedleys, or mixed broad-cloth, first made . . . 1614 \n\nManufacture of fine cloth began at Sedan, in France, \nunder the patronage of Cardinal Mazarine . . 1646 \n\nBroadcloth first dressed and dyed in England, by \nBrewer, from the Low Countries . . . . 1667 \n\nBritish and Irish woollens prohibited in France . 1677 \n\nAll persons obliged to be buried in woollens, and \nthe persons directing the burial otherwise to for- \nfeit 5!. , 29 Charles II 1678 \n\nThe manufacture of cloth greatly improved in Eng- \nland by Flemish settlers 1688 \n\nInjudiciously restrained in Ireland, n Will. III. . 1698 \n\nThe exportation from Ireland wholly prohibited, \nexcept to certain ports of England . . 1701 \n\nEnglish manufacture encouraged by 10 Anne, 1712, \nand 2 Geo. 1 1715 \n\nGreater in Yorkshire in 1785 than in all England at \nthe revolution. Chalmers. \n\nValue of woollen manufactures of all kinds exported \nin 1847, 6,896,038?. ; in 1854, 9,120,759!. ; in 1861, \n11,118,692!. ; in 1864, 18,569,089!. ; in 1871, \n27,182,385?. ; in 1875, 21,659,325!. ; in 1877, \ni 7.343.203\'m in 1879, 15,861,166!.; in 1881, \n18,128,756!.; in 1883, 18,315,575!.; in 1887, \n20,594,962!. ; in 1888, 19,992,672!. : in 1889, \n21,324,892?. ; in 1890, 20,418,482!. \nInternational Woollen Exhibition at the Crystal \nPalace, Sydenham, opened by the duke of Con- \nnaught 2 June, 1881 \n\nAssociation for the encouragement of British \nwoollen manufactures founded by the countess \nof Bective and about 200 other ladies \n\nDr. Jager\'s "Sanitary Woollen System of Cloth- \ning " was published in 1887 \n\nWOOLSACK, the seat of the lord high chan- \ncellor of England in the house of lords, so called \nfrom its being a large square bag of wool, without \nback or arms, covered with red cloth. Wool was \nthe staple commodity of England in the reign of \nEdward III., when the woolsack first came into use. \n\nWOOLWICH (Kent), the most ancient mili- \ntary and naval arsenal in England. Its royal \ndockyard, where men-of-war were built in tbe \nreign of Henry VIII., was closed, 1 Oct. 1869. Here \nHarry Grace de Dieu was built, 1512 ; and here \nshe was burnt in 1552. The royal arsenal was \nformed about 1720, on the site of a rabbit-warren ; \nit contains vast magazines of great guns, mortars, \nbombs, powder, and other warlike stores; a foundry, \nwith many furnaces, for casting ordnance; and a \ngreat laboratory, where fireworks, cartridges, gren- \nades, &c, are made for the public service. The \nRoyal Military Academy was erected in the royal \narsenal, but the institution was not completely \nformed until 19 Geo. II. 1745. Woolwich returns \none M.P., by act of 1885. Population, 1881, 80,845 ; \n1891, 107,324. \nThe arsenal, storehouses, &c, burnt (loss of 200,000!.) \n\n20 May, 1802 \nAnother great fire .... 30 June, 1805 \n\nFatal explosion of gunpowder . . 20 Jan. 1813 \n\n\n\nThe hemp-store burnt down . . .8 July, 1813 \nAnother explosion by gunpowder . . 16 June, 1814 \nThe Royal Military Academy nearly destroyed by \n\nfire ; loss about 100,000!. 1 Feb. 1873 \n\nVisited by the shah of Persia . . 21 June, ,, \nSubway beneath the Thames between North and \n\nSouth Woolwich, begun ... 23 Aug. 1876 \n\nExplosion in the rocket factory ; the town bom- \nbarded, with little damage ; the armoury burnt, \nonly two men killed in the factory, 10 a.m.24 Sept. 1883 \nConstruction of great free steam ferry authorized \n\nby the commons 1 May, 1885 \n\nFree steam-ferry (between North and South Wool- \nwich) inaugurated in great state by lord Rosebery \n\n23 March, 1889 \n(Woolwich Infant, see Cannon, 1872.) \n\nWORCESTER, successively an important \nBritish, Roman, and Saxon town, was burnt by \nthe Danes (1041) for resisting the tribute called \nDanegelt. William I. built a castle, 1090. The \ncity was frequently taken and retaken during the \ncivil wars of the middle ages, and by Cromwell in \n1651. \xe2\x80\x94 The Bishopric was founded by Ethelred, \nking of the Mercians, 680, and taken from the see \nof Lichfield, of which it composed a part. The \nmarried priests of the cathedral were displaced, and \nmonks settled in their stead, 964. The church was \nrebuilt by St. Wulstan, 25th bishop, 1030 ; the \nremains of his hospital are described by the rev. T. \nH. Marsh, in its " Annals," published in 1890. The \nsee has yielded to the church of Rome four saints, \nand to the English nation five lord chancellors and \nthree lord treasurers. It is valued in the king\'s \nbooks at 1049^. 16s. 3j<\xc2\xa3. per annum. Present \nincome, 5000/. Population, 1881, 38,270; 1891, \n42,905. \n\nThe renovated cathedral opened . . 8 April, 1874 \nMuch excitement through the refusal of the dean \nand chapter to permit the cathedral to be used as \na concert room for the three choirs festival \n\nOct. -Nov. ,, \nThe festival held as strictly religious services \n\n22, 23 Sept. 1875 \n\nRECENT BISHOPS. \n\n1781. Richard Hurd, died 28 May, 1808. \n\n1808. Folliott H. Cornwall, died 5 Sept. 1831. \n\n1831. Robert James Carr, died 24 April, 1841. \n\n1841. Henry Pepys, died 13 Nov. i860. \n\n1861. Henry Philpott, resigned Aug. 1890, died 10 Jan., \n\n1892. \n1890. John James Stewart Perowne, D.D., Oct. \n\nWORCESTER, Battle of, 3 Sept. 1651, \n\nwhen the Scots army which came to England to \nreinstate Charles II. was defeated by Cromwell, \nwho called it his croicning mercy. Charles with \ndifficulty escaped to France. More than 2000 of the \nroyalists were slain,- and of 8000 prisoners most \nwere sold as slaves to the American colonists ; see \nBoscobel. \n\nWORDSWORTH SOCIETY, formed "as \na bond of union among those who are in sympathy \nwith the general teaching and spirit of Wordsworth \' \' \nand " to promote and extend the study of the poet\'s \nworks," &c, was inaugurated at Grasmere, West- \nmoreland, 30 Sept. 1880. First President, Dr. \nCharles Wordsworth, bishop of St. Andrews. The \nsociety dissolved 7 July, 1886. \n\nWORKHOUSES, see under Poor. \n\nWORKING MEN. Since the great Exhibi- \ntion of 1 85 1, much has been done to benefit the \nlabouring classes by organisation. See Artisan. \nWorking Men\'s Clubs considered to have begun with \nthe Working Men\'s Mutual Improvement and \nRecreation Society, established in Lancaster by \nthe instrumentality of the rev. H. Solly in . . i860 \nThe Westminster Working Men\'s Club, in Duck-lane, \noriginated with Miss Adeline Cooper ; opened in \n\nDee. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\nWORKING MEN. \n\n\n\n1075 \n\n\n\nWORKING MEN. \n\n\n\nThe Working Men\'s Club and Institute Union for \nthe promotion of clubs, institutes, and similar \n\xe2\x96\xa0societies for the instruction and recreation of the \nworking classes, was mainly established by the \nstrenuous exertions of the rev. Henry Solly, \naided by lord Lyttleton, sir Harcourt Johnstone, \nsir Hugh Owen, lord Frederick Cavendish, and \nothers ; the Union was constituted at a meeting, \nlord Brougham in the chair, 14 June, 1862. It \nhas been eminently successful. \n\nThe Working Men\'s Club and Lodging-house, Old \nPye-street, Westminster, was opened 20 April, 1866 \n\nWorking Men\'s Colleges, &c. The first, established \nin Sheffield, by working-men. The second, in \nLondon, by the rev. professor Frederick D. \nMaurice, as principal, in Oct. 1854 (died 1 April, \n3872) ; a third in Cambridge ; and, in 1855, a \nfourth at Oxford ; all wholly for the working \n\xe2\x80\xa2classes, and undertaking to impart such know- \nledge as each man feels he is most in want of. \nThe colleges engage to find a teacher wherever 10 \n\xe2\x80\xa2or 12 members agree to form a class, and also to \n.have lectures given. There were eleven classes \n\xe2\x96\xa0at the one in Bloomsbury, London, in 1856 ; Mr. \nRuskin gave lessons in drawing. Some of these \ncolleges have been found to be self-supporting. \n\nA Working Women\' sCollege, begun at Queen\'s-square, \nBloomsbury 1864 \n\n\'The two colleges amalgamated as the " New College \nfor men and women," inaugural meeting 12 Oct. 1874 \n\nWorking Women\'s College, Fitzroy-street, inaugu- \nrated 16 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAct to establish councils of conciliation, to adjust \ndifferences between masters and workmen, passed \n\n20 Aug. 1867 \n\nThe Arbitration (Masters and "Workmen) Act passed \n\n6 Aug. 1872 \n\nWorking Men\'s College, for South London, opened \nwith a lecture by professor Huxley . 4 Jan. 1868 \n\nWorkmen\'s International Exhibition proposed by \nthe duke of Argyll, lord Elcho, and others, \nMarch, 1868 ; meeting for arrangements, 10 Jan. \n11870, held in the Agricultural Hall, Islington (16 \n\xe2\x80\xa2classes and a fine arts department) ; opened by \nthe prince of Wales, 16 July ; closed by Mr. Glad- \nstone 3 1 Oct. l8 7\xc2\xb0 \n\nNational trades societies congress meet at Man- \nchester, 1868 ; at Birmingham . . . Aug. 1869 \n\n{Demonstration of working men in Hyde park \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 against certain clauses relating to masters and \nservants in the Criminal Law Amendment Act, \n\n2 June, 1873 \n\nInternational Working Men\'s Association (termed \nthe International) owes its origin to some German \n\xe2\x96\xa0socialists in London, 1847, and was much pro- \nmoted by the foreign visitors to the great exhibi- \ntion in 1862. It was definitely organised, 28 Sept. \n1864, George Odger first president. Its professed \n\xe2\x80\xa2object is the complete emancipation of labour \nfrom the tyranny of capitalists. It has held \n\xe2\x80\xa2congresses at Geneva, Sept. 1866 ; Lausanne, \n-Sept. 1867; Brussels, 6-13 Sept. 1868 ; Basel. 6-11 \nSept. 1869: Barcelona, June, 1870 ; at the Hague, \n\xe2\x80\xa2when great dissensions arose between the "autho- \nritarians," who consider a government needful, \nand the "anarchists," who deny it. One party \nincluding the council seceded from the trade \nportion, and adjourned to New York, 3-10 Sept. 1872 \n\nFour of its members were elected into the French \nnational assembly Feb. 1871 \n\nThe association took part in the communist insur- \nrection at Paris Bee. ,, \n\n[It made a demonstration at New York . 18 Mar. 1872 \nIt is said to have about 2,500,000 members in all \ncountries, and to be allied with several secret \nsocieties, such as Fenians, the Mary Anne, <&c. \n\nA proposal from Spain that European governments \nshould combine for its suppression, 9 Feb., was \ndeclined by Great Britain, 8 March. It was pro- \nscribed in France by the national assembly, \n\n14 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe British section met at McQueen\'s club-house, \nParliament-street .... 21 July, ,, \n\nOne party took the name of International Associa- \ntion, and held annual congresses : Geneva, Sept. \n1873; Brussels, 7 Sept. 1874; Berne, 1876; Ver- \nviers, 7 Sept. 1877. A congress of socialists met \nat Ghent (partly united the two divisions), Sept. 1878 \n\n\n\nInternational congress Paris assembled 2-12 Sept. \n\nReport of an alliance between conservative peers \nand the working men for the improvement of the \ncondition of the latter, about 15 Oct. ; explained \nby Mr. Scott Russell (Times, 14 Nov. 1871), who \nissued a programme .... Jan. \n\nWorkmen\'s Peace Association held its first annual \nmeeting in London . . . .20 Sept. \n\nA " Workman\'s city," Shaftesbury Park, Clapham, \nwas inaugurated by the earl of Shaftesbury \n\n3 Nov. \nAnnual trade congress at Sheffield . 12-17 Jan- \nAlex. Macdonald and Thos. Burt, working-men, \n\nelected M. P. \'s for Stafford and Morpeth . Feb. \n\nRoyal commission on labour laws appointed (chief \njustice Cockburn, lord Winmarleigh, Messrs. \nRoebuck, T. Hughes, Alex. Macdonald and \nothers) . March, \n\nDwellings of working classes protected from rail- \nway bills by new standing orders . 30 July, \n\nEmployers and Workmen Act passed . 13 Aug. \n\nAnnual trade congress at Glasgow . n-i6 0ct. \n\nChurch of England JVorking Men\'s Society founded \nat St. Alban\'s, Holborn ... 5 Aug. \n\nWorking-Lads\' Institutes, London; meeting at the \nMansion House to found them, 27 Oct. ; first in- \nstitute opened at Whitechapel . . 14 Nov \n\nWorkmen\'s Social Education League, founded \nJune, 1879 ; professor J. R. Seeley, president, \nannounced 10 June, \n\nEmployers\' Liability Act (to compensate workmen \nfor injuries) passed . . . . .7 Sept. \n\nInternational conference of workmen at Paris \ncloses 29 Oct. \n\nInternational trades union congress at Paris ; main \nobjects, shorter hours, safety and comfort ; \nBritish, most moderate 29 Oct. et seq. 1883 ; again \n23 Aug. 1886 ; London, (79 English and 44 foreign \ndelegates) 6 Nov. \n\nWorkmen, &c, of the United Kingdom, about \n9,000,000 ; average wages each 19^. per annum \n(1835); about 13,000,000, average wages each nearly \n42I. per annum (1885). B. Giffen . iq Jan. \n\nWorking Men\'s Jubilee Festival held at the Crystal \nPalace 25 June, \n\nAccounts of a new International formed to replace \nthe old one, which had gradually disappeared, \nwere published in the autumn of 1888. It was \nstated to have branches in the United States, and \nin various cities in Europe. \n\nThe German parliament, influenced by prince \nBismarck, passed bills to compel the working \nclasses, with the assistance of their employers \nand the state, to provide for sickness (1883), for \naccidents (1884), for old age and infirmity 24 May, \n\nInternational congress of workers, respecting acci- \ndents, etc., at Paris .... 14 July, \n[Second congress at Berne, 21 Sept. 1891.] \n\nThe grand council of the National Federation of \nall Trades and Indxistries, recommends that a \ndemonstration be made to promote improvement \nin the condition of working men on 1 May, to be \ntermed "Labour day," 15 April. A moderate \ndemonstration was made at the Victoria-embank- \nment and Hyde-park ; a very large and orderly \nmeeting was held at Hyde-park, Sunday \n(speakers, Messrs. M. Davitt, John Burns, Cun- \ninghame Graham, Mrs. Aveling, and others), \n\n4 May, \nThe great May-day demonstration of the working \n\nclasses throughout Europe in favour of an eight \nhours\' labour day and other improvements in \ntheir condition, passed off with general tran- \nquHlity, adequate precautions having been taken \nat Paris, Vienna, Berlin, and other towns, \n\n, May, \n\nInternational congress of miners at Jolimont, Bel- \ngium (see Mineralogy) . \xe2\x96\xa0 20 May et beq. \n\nFormation of the " Factory, Operative, and General \nLabour union " projected by Messrs. John Burns \nand Tom Mann Aug. \n\nFirst congress of Bock, Wharf, and Riverside \nLabourers\' union ... 30 Sept. \xe2\x80\x94 4 Oct. \n\n"Labour day" generally peaceably observed \nthroughout Europe, except in France and Home \n(which sec), 1 Mav ; meetings in Hyde-park \n\n{Which see) c-3 May \n\n3 z 2 \n\n\n\n1872 \n1871 \n\n1873 \n\n1874 \n\n\n\n1875 \n1876 \n\n1879 \n\n\n\nWOEKS. \n\n\n\n1076 \n\n\n\nWEECKS. \n\n\n\nInternational Labour Congress at Brussels, \n\n16-22 Aug. 1891 \n"Labour day" on the continent peaceably kept \nthrough precautionary measures (see Hyde-park), \n\nSunday, 1 May, 1892 \n\nSee Co-operative Societies, Employers, and Trades- \nUnions. Berlin conference, 1890. \n\n"WOEKS and Public Buildings, see \nWoods. \nWOEKSHOPS, see Ateliers and Factories. \n\nWOEKSHOP EEGULATION ACT, sup- \nplement to Factory Acts, passed 21 Aug. 1867 ; \namended, 1871. \n\nWOELD, see Creation, and Globe. World \nweekly newspaper began 8 July, 1874. The World\'s \nColumbian Exposition, see Chicago, 1890 et seq. \n\nWOEMS, a city on the Rhine, in Hesse-Darm- \nstadt. The Roman city, Borbetomagus, was \nplundered by the Alemanni, 354, and by Attila, \n451 ; rebuilt by Clovis I. about 475. Here Charle- \nmagne resided in 806. Here was held the \nimperial diet before which Martin Luther was \nsummoned, 4 April, 1521, and by which he was \nproscribed. Luther was met by 2000 persons on \nfoot and on horseback, at the distance of a league \nfrom Worms. When Spalatin sent to warn him of \nbis danger, he answered, "If there were as many \ndevils in Worms as there are tiles upon the roofs \nof its houses, I would go on." He appeared before \nthe emperor, the archduke Ferdinand, six electors, \ntwenty-four dukes, seven margraves, thirty bishops \nand prelates, and many princes, counts, lords, and \nambassadors, 17 April, acknowledged his writings \nand opinions, and left Worms, in fact, a conqueror. \nTet, to save his life, he had to remain in seclusion \nunder the protection of the elector of Saxony for \nabout a year. The edict putting him under the \nban of the empire was issued 26 May, 1521. \nWorms was burnt, by order of Louis XIV., 1689, the \ncathedral excepted ; and was taken by the French, \nunder Custine, 4 Oct. 1792. A memorial statue of \nLuther at Worms was uncovered, 25 June, 1868, \nin the presence of the king of Prussia and other \nsovereigns. Population, 1890, 25,504. \n\nWOESHIP. The first worship mentioned is \nthat of Abel, 3872 B.C. (6r0w.1v.) "Men began \nto call on the name of the Lord," 3769 B.C. (Gen. \niv.) The Jewish order of worship was set up by \nMoses, 1490 B.C. Solomon consecrated the temple, \n1004 B.C. To the corruptions of the simple worship \nof the patriarchs all the Egyptian and Greek idola- \ntries owed their origin. Athotes, son of Menes, \nking of Upper Egypt, is supposed to be the Copt \nof the Egyptians, and the Toth, or Hermes, of the \nGreeks, the Mercury of the Latins, and the Teutates \nof the Celts or Gauls, 21 12 B.C. Usher. \n\nWOESHIP IN ENGLAND. The Druids were \nthe priests here, at the invasion of the Romans \n(55 B.C.), who eventually introduced Christianity, \nwhich was almost extirpated by the victorious \nSaxons (455), who were pagans. The Roman \ncatholic form of Christianity was introduced by \nAugustine, 596, and continued till the Reformation \n(which see). See Hymns, Liturgies, Prayers, \nPublic Worship, Ritualists. \n\nPLACES OF WORSHIP IN ENGLAND AND WALES \nIN 1851. \n\nPlaces of Worship. Sittings. \n\nChurch of England .... 14,077 3.317,915 \n\nWesleyan Methodists . . . . 6,579 2,194*298 \n\nIndependents 3,244 i,o67,\' 7 6o \n\nBaptists 2,789 752,343 \n\nRoman Catholics .... 570 186,111 \n\n\n\nPlaces of Worship. Sittings^ \n\nSociety of Friends . . . . 371 91, 559 \n\nUnitarians 229 68,554 \n\nScottish Presbyterians . . . 160 86,692 \n\nLatter day Saints (Mormonites) . 222 30,783 \n\nBrethren (Plymouth) . . . . 132 (?) 18,529. \n\nJews 53 8,438: \n\nNew Church (Swedenborgians) . . 50 12,107 \n\nMoravians 32 9,3\xc2\xb05 \n\nCatholic and Apostolic Church ) \n\n(Irvingites) . j 32 7 \' 437 \n\nGreek Church 3 291 \n\nCountess of Huntingdon\'s Con- ) \n\n\xc2\xb0 >\xe2\x80\xa2 100 35,210 \n\nnexion J ^ 53\xc2\xbb""- \n\nWelsh Calvinistic Methodists. . 828 198,242 \n\nVarious small bodies, some with- ) , \n\nout names . . . . | 54$ IO S\'5S7 \n\nJune, 1884, total sittings in the metropolis (populations \n\n4,019,361), 1,388,792 ; Church of England, 677,645. \nSee Wesleyan Methodists, note. \n116 sects having 20,330 places of worship, Oct. 1871. \nCertified Places of Worship, registered, 4 Nov. 1884, 23,341 J \n\n1 Nov. 1891, 27,253. \n\nWOESTED, spun wool, obtained its name from \nhaving been first spun at a town called Worsted, in \nNorfolk, in which the inventor lived, and where \nmanufactures of worsted are still extensively carried \non, 14 Edw. III. 1340. Anderson. " A worsted- \nstocking knave" is a term of reproach or contempt \nused by Shakspeare. \n\nWOETH, see Woerth. \n\nWOETHIES, NINE, a term long ago given, \nto the following eminent men: \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nJews. Died. \n\nJoshua B.C. 1426 \n\nDavid 1015 \n\nJudas Maccabseus 161 \n\nHeathens. \n\nHector of Troy 1184 \n\nAlexander the Great 323 \n\nJulius Csesar \xe2\x96\xa0 . 44 \n\nChristians. \nKing Arthur of Britain . . . . a.d. 532 \n\nCharlemagne of France 8oo> \n\nGodfrey of Bouillon 1100 \n\nIn some lists, Gideon and Samson are given, instead \nof Hector and Arthur. In Shakspeare\'s Love\'s Labour\'s- \nTjost, act v. sc. 2, Hercule^ and Pompey appear as \nworthies. \n\nWOTHLYTYPE, see under Photography. \n\nWOUNDED IN BATTLE, see Geneva \n\nConvention, and Aid to Sick and Wounded. \n\nWOUNDING. Malicious wounding of another \nwas adjudged death by the English statutes. The \nCoventry Act was passed in 1671 ; see Coventry Act. \nBy lord Ellenborough\'s Act, persons who stab or \ncut with intent to murder, maim, or disfigure \nanother were declared guilty of felony without \nbenefit of clergy. Those guilty of maliciously \nshooting at another in any dwelling-house or other \nplace, are also punishable under the same statute \nin the same degree, 43 Geo. III. 1802. This offence \nis met by some later statutes, particularly the act \nfor consolidating and amending the acts relating to \noffences against the person, 9 Geo. IV., June, 1828. \nThis last act is extended to Ireland by 10 Geo. IV., \n1829. An act for the prevention of maliciously- \nshooting, stabbing, &c, in Scotland, 6 Geo. IV., \n1825; amended by 10 Geo. IV., 4 June, 1829, \nfor the prevention and punishment of assaults on \nwomen and children. \n\nWRECKS. The loss of merchant and other \nships by wreck upon lee-shores, coasts, and disasters \nin the open sea, was estimated at Lloyd\'s, in 1800, \nto be about an average of 365 ships a year. In \n\n\n\nWEECKS. \n\n\n\n1077 \n\n\n\nWRECKS. \n\n\n\n1830, it appeared by Lloyd\'s Lists that 677 British \nvessels were totally lost, under various circum- \nstances, in that year. The lawa respecting wrecks \nwere consolidated in 1846 and 1854. See Seamen \n{commission of inquiry) . \n\nAbstracts of the returns made to the Board of Trade of \nshipping casualties on or near the coast, &c, of the \nUnited Kingdom, and also of the casualties to British \nvessels elsewhere, and also to foreign vessels, pub- \nlished annually since 1855. \n\n"Wrecks on British coasts : July, 1887 \xe2\x80\x94 July 1888, 4,004 ; \n1888-9, 4> 2 7 2 i 1889-90, 4,344. \n\nBetween 1861 and the 30th June, 1890, 4,742 British, \ncolonial, and foreign vessels were wrecked on our \ncoast, 21,426 lives lost. \n\nBritish vessels wrecked in 1848, were, sailing vessels, \n501 ; steamers, 13; tonnage, 96,920. \n\nIn 1851, there were wrecked 611 vessels, of which number \n11 were steamers : the tonnage of the whole being \n111,976. \n\nThe year 1852-3, particularly the winter months (Dec. \nand Jan.), was very remarkable for the number of \ndreadful shipwrecks and fires at sea : but a few of them \nare recorded. Wrecks in 25 years (1854-79), 49>3 2 2 ; \nlives lost, 18,319. \n\nMany vessels were lost in the great storms, 25, 26 Oct. \n1859 ; 28 May, 1861 ; 19, 20 Oct. 1861 ; and 13, 14 Nov. \n1862 : by a cyclone, India, 5 Oct. 1864 ; in the West \nIndies, Oct. 1867. \n\nSee under Life Boat. \n\nBritish vessels (exclusive of the Royal Navy) \ntotally lost at sea : \n\n\n\n\n\nVessels. \n\n\nLives \n\n\n\n\nVessels. \n\n\nLives \n\n\n\n\n\n\nlost. \n\n\n\n\n\n\nlost. \n\n\n1875. \n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 657 . \n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 1,694 \n\n\n1883. \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 793 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n. 2,698 \n\n\n1876 . \n\n\n. 661 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 i>97\xc2\xb0 \n\n\n1884 \n\n\n. . 616 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1.644 \n\n\n3877. \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 677 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 i>73 2 \n\n\n1885. \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 557 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 I .43i \n\n\n1878 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 637 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 i,3\xc2\xb0 2 \n\n\n1886 \n\n\n. 644 . \n\n\n. 1,340 \n\n\nT879 . \n\n\n. 621 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 I ,6s 2 \n\n\n1887. \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 5\xc2\xb0\xc2\xb0 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n. 1,888 \n\n\n1880 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 835 \xe2\x96\xa0 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 2,075 \n\n\n1888 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 543 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 i,9 r 7 \n\n\nIS8I . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 973 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 3,165 \n\n\n1889 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 447 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 1,045 \n\n\n1882 . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 733 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 J^^ \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nREMARKABLE CASES OF BRITISH VESSELS WRECKED \nOR BURNT. \n\nMary Rose, 60 guns, going from Portsmouth to Spit- \nhead, upset in a squall ; all on board perished, \n\n20 July, 1545 \n\nCoronation, 90 guns, foundered off the Ramhead ; \ncrew saved : Harwich, 70 guns, wrecked on \nMount Edgcumbe ; crew perished . 1 Sept. 1691 \n\nRoyal Sovereign, 100 guns ; burnt in the Medway, \n\n29 Jan. 1696 \n\nStirling Castle, 70 guns ; Mary, 70 guns ; Northum- \nberland, 70 guns, lost on the Goodwin ; Vanguard. \n70 guns, sunk at Chatham ; York, 70 guns, lost \nnear Harwich ; all lost but four men ; Resolution. \n60 guns, coast of Sussex ; Newcastle, 60 guns, at \nSpithead, 193 drowned ; Reserve, 60 guns, at Yar- \nmouth, 173 perished ; in the night of 26 Nov. 1703 \n\nAssociation, 70 guns, and other vessels, lost with \nadmiral sir C. Shovel, off the Scilly isles {which see) \n\n22 Oct. 1707 \n\nSolebay, 32 guns, lost near Boston neck ; crew \nperished 25 Dec. 1709 \n\nEdgar, 70 guns, blew up at Spithead ; all on board \nperished 15 Oct. 1711 \n\nWager : part of commodore Anson\'s South Sea \nexpedition ; wrecked on desolate island, lat. 47\xc2\xb0 S. \n\n14 May 1 74 1 \n\nVictory, 100 guns, near the isle of Alderney ; all \nperished 5 Oct. 1744 \n\nColchester, 50 guns, lost on Kentish Knock ; 50 men \nperished 21 Sept. ,, \n\nNamur, 74 guns, foundered near Fort St. David, \nEast Indies; all perished except 26 persons; \nPembroke, 60 guns, near Porto Novo ; 330 of her \ncrew perished 13 April, 1749 \n\nPrince George, 80 guns, burnt in lat. 48 N., 011 way \nto Gibraltar ; about 400 perished . 13 April, 1758 \n\nLichfield, 50 guns, lost on the coast of Barbary ; 130 \nof the crew perished .... 29 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTilbury, 60 guns, lost off Louisbourg ; most of the \ncrew perished 25 Sept. 1759 \n\nRamilics, 90 guns, lost on the Bolt-head; only 26 \n\n\n\npersons saved ; Conqueror, lost on St. Nicholas\'s \nIsland, Plymouth . . . . 15 Feb. 1760 \n\nDucd\'Aquitaine, 64 guns, and Sunderland, 60 guns, \nlost off Pondicherry ; all perished . 1 Jan. 1761 \n\nRaisonnable, 64 guns, lost at the attack of Marti- \nnique 3 Feb. 1762 \n\nRepulse, 32 guns, foundered off Bermuda ; crew \nperished 1775 \n\nThunderer, 74 guns ; Stirling Castle, 64 ; Defiance, \n64 ; Phoenix, 44; La Blanche, 32; Laurel, 28; \nShark, 28 ; Andromeda, 28 ; Deal Castle, 24 ; Pene- \nlope, 24 ; Scarborough, 20 ; Barbadoes, 14 ; Came- \nleon, 14 ; Endeavour, 14 ; and Victor, 10 guns : all \nlost in the same storm, in the West Indies, in \n\nOct. 1780 \n\nGen. Barker, Indiaman, off Scheveling . 17 Feb. 1781 \n\nGrosvenor, Indiaman, coast of Caffraria . 4 Aug. 1782 \n\nSwan, sloop of war, off Waterford ; 130 drowned, \n\n4 Aug. ,, \nR oyal George ; above 600 perished . 29 Aug. ,, \nCentaur, 74 guns, foundered on her passage from \n\nJamaica ; capt. Inglefield and 11 of the crew saved \n\n21 Sept. ,, \nVilla de Paris, of 104 guns, one of admiral Rodney\'s \n\nprizes ; the Glorieux, of 74 guns, lost in the West \n\nIndies 5 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSuperb, 74 guns, wrecked in Tellicherry roads, East \n\nIndies 5 Nov. 1783 \n\nCato, 50 guns, admiral sir Hyde Parker, on the \n\nMalabar coast ; crew perished ....,, \nCount Belgioioso, Indiaman, off Dublin Bay ; 147 \n\nsouls perished 13 March, ,, \n\nMenai, ferry-boat, in the Menai Strait 60 drowned, \n\n5 Dec. 1785 \nHalsewell, E. Indiaman ; 386 persons perished, \n\n6 Jan. 1786 \nHartwell, Indiaman, with immense wealth onboard \n\n24 May, 1787 \nCharlemont Packet, from Holyhead to Dublin ; 104 \n\ndrowned 22 Dec. 1790 \n\nPandora, frigate on a reef ; 100 perished . 28 Aug. 1791 \nUnion, packet of Dover, lost off the port of Calais ; \na similar occurrence had not happened for 105 \n\nyears before 28 Jan. 1792 \n\nWi>iterton, E. Indiaman : many perished 20 Aug. ,, \nPmpetucux, 74 guns, burnt at Portsmouth 24 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nScorpion, 74 guns, burnt at Leghorn . 20 Nov. 1793 \nArdent, 64 guns, burnt off Corsica . . April, 1794 \nBoyne, by fire, at Spithead (see Boyne) . 4 May, 1795 \nCourageux, -ja, guns, capt. B. Hallowell, near Gib- \nraltar ; crew, except 124, perished . 18 Dec. 1796 \nLa Tribune, 36 guns, off Halifax ; 300 souls perished \n\n16 Nov. 1797 \nProserpine frigate ; in the Elbe ; 15 lost . 1 Feb. 1798 \nResistance, blown up in the straits of Banea, \n\n24 July, ,, \nRoyal Charlotte, East Indiaman, blown upatCulpee, \n\n1 Aug. ,, \nH.M.S. Lutine, 32 guns, was wrecked off Vlieland, \ncoast of Holland ; only one saved, who died be- \nfore reaching England * . . . 9-10 Oct. 1799 \nImpregnable, 98 guns, wrecked between Langstone \n\nand Chichester 19 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNassau, 64 guns, on the Haak Bank ; 100 perished, \n\n25 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nSceptre, 64 guns, wrecked in Table Bay, cape of Good \n\nHope ; 291 of the crew perished . . 5 Nov. ,, \nEthalion, frigate, 38 guns, on the Penmarks, \n\n24 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nQueen, transport, on Trefusis Point ; 369 souls \n\nperished 14 Jan. 1800 \n\nMastiff, gunbrig, on the Cockle Sands . 19 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \nRepulse, 64 guns, off Ushant . . .10 March, ,, \n\n* La Lutine was a French ship captured by admiral \nDuncan. She contained much bullion and money, be- \nlonging to merchants ; a great loss to the underwriters \nat Lloyd\'s. The Dutch government claimed the wreck, \n;ind granted one third of the salvage in 1801 to the \n\nbullion lishcrs. Alter much discussion, and occasional \n\nrecoveries, the king of tin\' Netherlands ceded to Great \n\nBritain (for Lloyd\'s) half the remainder of the wreck. A \nDutch salvage company began operations in Aug. 1857. \nAt the end of 1859, Lloyd\'s had received 22,162/. 6s. yd. \nAboul 99, 893 J. recovered; about 1,175,000/. remaining. \nA chair and table at Lloyd\'s were made of the rudder \nrecovered in 1859. Martin\'s History of Lloyd\'s \n\n\n\nWRECKS. \n\n\n\n1078 \n\n\n\nWRECKS \n\n\n\nQueen Charlotte {which see), burnt ; 673 perish \n\n17 March \nQueen, W. Indiaman, by fire, off Brazil . 9 July, \nBrazen, sloop of war, off Newhaven ; all lost except \n\none man \n\nInvincible, 74 guns, near Yarmouth ; capt. John \n\nEennie, and the crew, except 126 souls, perished, \n\n16 March, \nMargate, Margate-hoy", near Reeulver ; 23 persons \n\nperished 10 Feb. \n\nBangalore, E. Indiaman, Indian Sea . 12 April, \nActive, West Indiaman, in Margate Roads 10 Jan. \nHindostan, East Indiaman, went to pieces on the \n\nCulvers n Jan. \n\nLa Determinie, 24 guns, in Jersey Roads, many \n\ndrowned .... .26 March, \n\nResistance, 36 guns, off Cape St. Vincent . 31 May, \nLady Hobart, packet, on an island of ice \n\n28 June, \nSeine, frigate, 44 guns, off Schelling . 31 July, \nAntelope, capt. Wilson, off Pelew Islands 9 Aug. \nVictory, Liverpool ship, at Liverpool ; 27 drowned, \n\n30 Sept. \n\nCirce, frigate, 32 guns, off Yarmouth . 16 Nov. \n\nNautilus, E. Indiaman, on Ladrones . 18 Nov. \n\nFanny, in Chinese Sea : 46 souls perish 29 Nov. \n\nSuffisante, sloop, 16 guns, off Cork . . 25 Dec. \n\nApollo, frigate, on coast of Portugal . 1 April, \n\nCumberland Packet, on Antigua coast . 4 Sept. \n\nJtomney, 50 guns on Haak Bank, Texel 18 Nov. \n\nVenerable, 74 guns, at Torbay ; lost 8 men 24 Nov. \n\nSevern, on a rock, near Grouville . . 21 Deo. \n\nBoris, frigate, on the Diamond Rock, Quiberon Bay, \n\n12 Jan. \n\nAbergavenny, East Indiaman, on the Bill of Port- \nland ; more than 300 persons perished 6 Feb. \n\nNaias, transport, on Newfoundland coast 23 Oct. \n\nJEneas, transport, off Newfoundland ; 340 perished, \n\n23 Oct. \n\nAurora, transport, on the Goodwin Sands; 300 \nperished ... ... 21 Dec. \n\nKing George, packet, from Park-gate to Dublin, lost \non the Hoyle bank; 125 persons, passengers and \ncrew drowned 21 Sept. \n\nAthenien, 64 guns, near Tunis ; 347 souls perished, \n\n27 Oct. \n\nGlasgow, packet, off Farm Island ; several drowned, \n\n17 Nov. \n\nFelix, 12 guns, near Santander; 79 souls lost \n\n22 Jan. \n\nBlenheim, 74 guns, admiral sir T. Troubridge, and \nJava, 23 guns, foundered near island of Rodriguez, \nEast Indies 1 Feb. \n\nAjax, 74 guns, by fire, off the island of Tenedos ; \n250 perished 14 Feb. \n\nBlanche, frigate, on the French coast; 45 men \nperished 4 March, \n\nGanges, East Indiaman, off the Cape of Good Hope, \n\n29 May, \nPrince of Wales, Park-gate packet, and Rochdale, \n\ntransport, on Dunleary point, near Dublin ; nearly \n\n300 souls perished .... 19 Nov. \nBoreas, man-of-war, upon the Hannois rock in the \n\nChannel 28 Nov. \n\nAnson, 44 guns, wrecked in Mount\'s Bay; 60 lives \n\nlost 29 Dec. \n\nAgatha, near Memel; lord Royston and others \n\ndrowned 7 April, \n\nAstrea, frigate, on Anagada coast . . 23 May, \nFrith, passage-boat, in the Frith of Dornoch; 40 \n\npersons drowned . . . . 13 Aug. \nFoxhound, 18 guns, foundered on passage from \n\nHalifax ; crew perished .... 31 Aug. \nSiruis, 36 guns, and Magicienne, 36 guns, wrecked \n\nwhen advancing to attack the French, off Isle of \n\nFrance 23 Au\xc2\xb0\\ \n\nSatellite, sloop of war, 16 guns, upset, and all on \n\nboard perished I4 D ec \n\nMinotaur, of 74 guns, wrecked on the Haak Bank \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n360 persons perished .... 22 Dec\' \n\nPandora, sloop of war, off Jutland; 30 persons \n\nperished I3 Feb. \n\nSaldanha, frigate, on the Irish coast ; 300 persons \n\nperished 4 Dec. \n\nSt. George, of 98, and Defence, of 74 guns, and the \n\nHero, stranded on the coast of Jutland, adm. \n\nReynolds and all the crews (about 2000 persons) \n\nperished, except 18 seamen . . .24 Dec. \n\n\n\n1801 \n1802 \n1803 \n\n\n\n1805 \n\n\n\n1807 \n\n\n\nManilla, frigate, on the Haak Sand; 12 persons \nperished 28 Jan. \n\nAtalante ; H.M. frigate off Nova Scotia . 10 Nov. \n\nBritish Queen, packet, from Ostend to Margate, \nwrecked on the Goodwin SansJs, aad all \xc2\xa9n board \nperished 17 Eec - \n\nDuchess of Wellington, at Calcutta, by fire 21 Jan. \n\nSeahorse, transport, near Tramore Bay ; 365 persons, \nchiefly soldiers of the 59th regiment, and most of \nthe crew, drowned .... 30 Jan. \n\nLord Melville and Boadicea, transports, with up- \nwards of 200 of the 82nd regiment, with wives and \nchildren, lost near Kinsale ; almost all perished, \n\n31 Jan. \n\nHarpooner, transport, near Newfoundland ; 200 per- \nsons drowned 10 Nov. \n\nWilliam and Mary, packet, struck on the Willeys \nrocks, near the Holmes lighthouse, Bristol Chan- \nnel; nearly 60 persons perished . . 23 Oct. \n\nQueen Charlotte, East Indiaman, at Madras ; all on \nboard perished 24 Oct. \n\nAriel, in the Persian Gulf; 79 souls perished, \n\n18 March, \n\nBlendonHall, on Inaccessible Island, many perished, \n\n23 July, \n\nEarl of Moira, on the Burbo Bank, near Liverpool \n40 drowned 8 Aug. \n\nJuliana, East Indiaman, on the Kentish Knock ; 40 \ndrowned 26 Dec. \n\nThames, Indiaman, off Beachey Head; several \ndrowned 3 Feb. \n\nDrake, 10 guns, near Halifax; several drowned, \n\n20 June, \n\nEllesmere, steamer; 11 persons lost . 14 Dec. \n\nAlert, Dublin and Liverpool packet; 70 souls \nperished 26 March, \n\nRobert, from Dublin to Liverpool ; 60 souls perished, \n\n16 May, \n\nKent (which see) ; East Indiaman ; burnt . March \n\nFanny, in Jersey Roads ; lord Harley and many \ndrowned 1 Jan. \n\nVenus\', packet, from Waterford to Dublin, near \nGorey ; 9 persons drowned . . 19 March, \n\nNewry, from Newry to Quebec, with 360 passengers ; \ncast away near Bardsy, about 40 persons were \ndrowned 16 April, \n\nLady Sherbrooke, from Londonderry to Quebec ; lost \nnear Cape Ray ; 273 souls perished ; 32 only were \nsaved 19 Aug. \n\nExperiment, from Hull to Quebec; wrecked near \nCalais 15 April, \n\nHibernia, burnt in W. long. 22\xc2\xb0, S. lat. 4\xc2\xb0; 150 per- \nsons (out of 232) perished . . . 15 Feb. \n\nEarl of Wemyss, near Wells, Norfolk : the cabin filled, \nand 11 ladies and children were drowned; all on \ndeck escaped 13 July, \n\nAmphitrite, ship with female convicts to New South \nWales; lost on Boulogne Sands; out of 131 per- \nsons, 3 only were saved. . . . . 30 Aug. \n\nUnited Kingdom, W. Indiaman, with rich cargo ; run \ndown by the Queen of Scotland steamer off North- \nfleet, near Gravesend .... 15 Oct. \n\nWaterwitch, steamer, on the coast of Wexford; 4 \ndrowned 18 Dec. \n\nLady Munro, from Calcutta to Sydney; of 90 \npersons on board, not more than 20 were saved, \n\n9 Jan. \n\nCameleon, cutter, run down off Dover by the Castor \nfrigate; 13 persons drowned . . 27 Aug. \n\nEarl of Eldon ; East Indiaman ; burnt . 27 Sept. \n\nKillarney, steamer, off Cork ; 29 persons perished, \n\n26 Jan. \n\nForfarshire, steamer, from Hull to Dundee ; 38 per- \nsons drowned. Owing to the courage of Grace \nDarling and her father, 15 persons were saved (see \nForfarshire) 6 Sept. \n\nProtector, E. Indiaman, at Bengal; of 178 persons on \nboard, 170 perished .... 21 Nov. \n\nDiligence, naval cutter, capt. sir J. Reid, hart., and \n56 souls perish in the Irish channel . 7 Jan. \n\nWilliam Huskisson, steamer, between Dublin and \nLiverpool; 93 passengers saved by capt. Clegg, of \nthe Huddersfield n Jan. \n\nLord William Bentinck, off Bombay; 58 recruits, \n20 officers, and 7 passengers perished ; the Lord \nCastlereagh also wrecked, most of her crew and \npassengers lost 17 June, \n\nH.M.S. Fairy, captain Hewitt ; sailed from Harwich \n\n\n\n1B14 \n1816 \n\n\n\n1017 \n181S \n1820 \n1823 \n\n\n\n1823: \n\n1825-, \n182a \n\n1830 \n1833s \n\n\n\nWEECKS. \n\n\n\n1079 \n\n\n\nWEECKS. \n\n\n\non a surveying cruise, and was lost next day in a \nviolent gale, off the coast of Norfolk . 13 Nov. 1840 \n\nCity of Bristol, steam packet, 35 perished \n\n18 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThames, steamer, captain Gray, from Dublin to \nLiverpool, wrecked off St. Ives ; the captain and \n55 persons perished .... 4 Jan. 1841 \n\nGovernor Fenner, from Liverpool for America ; run \ndown off Holyhead by the Nottingham steamer out \nof Dublin; 122 persons perished . " 19 Feb. ,, \n\nAmelia, from London to Liverpool ; lost on the \nHeme Sand 26 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPresident, steamer, from New York to Liverpool, \nwith many passengers on board ; sailed on 1 1 \nMarch, encountered a terrific storm two days \nafterwards, and has never since been heard of, \n\n13 March, ,, \n\n[In this vessel were, Mr. Tyrone Power, the come- \ndian ; a son of the duke of Richmond, &c] \n\nWilliam Browne, by striking on the ice ; 16 passen- \ngers who had been received into the long boat \nwere thrown overboard by the crew to lighten her \n\n19 April, ,, \n\nIsabella, from London to Quebec ; struck by an \niceberg 9 May, ,, \n\nSolway, steamer, on her passage between Belfast \nand Port Carlisle ; crew saved . . 25 Aug. ,, \n\nAmanda, off Metis ; 29 passengers and 12 of the \ncrew lost 26 Sept. ,, \n\nJames Cooke, of Limerick, coming from Sligo to \n> Glasgow 21 Nov. ,, \n\nAbercrombie Robinson and Waterloo transports, in \nTable Bay, Cape of Good Hope : of 330 persons \non board the latter vessel, 189, principally con- \nvicts, perished 28 Aug. 1842 \n\nSpitfire, war-steamer, off Jamaica . . 10 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nReliance, East Indiaman, from China to London, off \nMerlemont, near Boulogne : of 116 persons on \nboard, seven only were saved . . 13 Nov. .\xe2\x80\x9e \n\nHamilton, on the Gunfleet sands, near Harwich; 11 \nof the crew perished .... 15 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nConqueror, East Indiaman, homeward bound, near \nBoulogne ; crew and passengers lost . 13 Jan. 1843 \n\nJessie Logan, East Indiaman, on the Cornish coast ; \nmany lives lost 16 Jan. ,, \n\nSolway, royal mail-steamer, near Corunna; 28 lives \nlost, and the mail .... 7 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCatherine, trader, blown up off the Isle of Pines ; \nmost of the crew were massacred by the natives, \nor afterwards drowned . . . 12 April, ,, \n\nAmelia Thompson, near Madras, part of crew saved \n\n23 May, ,, \n\nAlbert, troop-ship, from Halifax, with the 64th \nregiment on board, which was miraculously saved \n\n13 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPegasus, steam-packet, from Leith ; off the Fern \nIslands ; of 59 persons (including Mr. Elton, the \nactor), 7 only were saved ... 19 July, ,, \n\nPhcenix, in a terrific snow-storm, off the coast of \nNewfoundland ; many lives were lost 26 Nov. ,, \n\nElberfeldt, iron steam-ship, from Brielle 22 Feb. 1844 \n\nManchester, steamer, from Hull to Hamburg, off the \nVogel Sands, near Cuxhaven about 30 lives lost, \n\n16 June. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nJohn Lloyd, by collision, in the Irish sea ; several \nlives lost 25 Sept. 1845 \n\nMargaret, Hull and Hamburg steamer ; many lives \nlost . ...... 22 Oct. ,, \n\nTweed, steamer ; off Yucatan . . 12 Feb. 1846 \n\nGreat Britain, iron steam-ship, grounded in Dun- \ndrum bay (see Great Britain) . . .22 Sept. ,, \n[Recovered by Brunei, &c, 27 Aug. 1847.] \n\nTweed, W. India mail-packet ; 72 souls perished, \n\n19 Feb. 1847 \nExmouth, emigrant-ship, from Londonderry to \n\nQuebec ; of 240 persons on board, nearly all were \n\ndrowned 28 April, ,, \n\nCarrick, brig ; a gale in the St. Lawrence ; 170 \n\nemigrants perished .... 19 .May, ,, \nAvenger, H.M. steam-frigate; off N. coast of \n\nAfrica; officers and crew (nearly 200) lost \n\n20 Dee. ,, \nOcean Monarch (\xc2\xbb>7i ich see) . . . . 24 Aug. 1848 \nForth, steamer ; off Campeachy . . 13 Jan. 1849 \nCaleb Grimshaw, emigrant-ship, fire; 400 persons \n\nmiraculously escaped .... 12 Nov. ,, \nRoyal Adelaide, steamer, wrecked on the Tongue \n\n\n\nSands, off Margate, above 400 lives lost, \n\n30 March, 1850 \nOrion, steam-ship, off Portparrick (see Orion), \n\n18 June, ,, \nRosalind, from Quebec ; a number of the crew \n\ndrowned 9 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nEdmund, emigrant-ship, with nearly 200 passengers \nfrom Limerick to New York (of whom more than \none-half perished), wrecked off the Western coast \nof Ireland 12 Nov. ,, \n\nAmazon, W. India mail-steamer (see Amazon), \n\n4 Jan. 1852 \n\nBirkenliead, troop-ship, iron paddle-wheeled, and \nof 556 horse-power, sailed from Queenstown, 7 \nJan. 1852, for the Cape, having on board detach- \nments of the 12th Lancers, 2nd, 6th, 12th, 43rd, \n45th, and 60th Rifles, 73rd, 74th, and 91st regi- \nments. It struck upon a pointed pinnacle rock \noff Simon\'s bay, South Africa, and of 638 persons \nonly 184 were saved by the boats ; 454 of the crew \nand soldiers perished . . . .26 Feb. ,, \n\nVictoria, steam-packet, wrecked near Wings beacon \noff Gottenburg ; many lives lost . 8, 9 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLily, stranded and blown up by gunpowder, on the \nCalf-of-Man ; by which more than 30 persons \nlost their lives 24 Dee. ,, \n\nSt. George, steam-ship, bound from Liverpool to \nNew York, with 121 emigrant passengers (chiefly \nIrish), and a crew consisting of twenty-nine sea- \nmen (the captain inclusive), was destroyed by fire \nat sea. The crew and seventy of the passengers \nwere saved by the American ship Orlando, and \nconveyed to Havre, in France; 51 supposed to \nhave perished 24 Dec. ,, \n\nQueen Victoria, steam-ship, bound from Liverpool, \nwas wrecked off the Bailey lighthouse, near Dub- \nlin ; mistook her course in a snow-storm : 67 lost \nout of 120 15 Fen. 1853 \n\nIndependence, on the coast of Lower California, and \nwhich afterwards took fire : 140 persons were \ndrowned or burnt to death, a few escaping, who \nunderwent the most dreadful additional sufferings \non a barren shore .... 16 Feb. ,, \n\nDuke of Sutherland, steamer, from London to Aber- \ndeen ; struck on the pier at Aberdeen, and the \ncaptain (Edward Howling) and 16 (of the crew \nand passengers) perished . . .1 April, ,, \n\nRebecca, on west coast of Van Diemen\'s Land, capt. \nShephard and many lives lost . . 29 April, ,, \n\nWilliam and Mary, an American emigrant ship, \nnear the Bahamas. She struck on a sunken rock ; \nabout 170 persons perished . . . 3 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAurora, of Hull ; sailed from New York, 26 April, \nand foundered ; about 25 lives lost . 20 May, ,, \n\nBoumeuf, Australian emigrant vessel ; struck on a \nreef near Torres Straits ; the captain (Bibby) and \nsix lives lost 3 Aug. ,, \n\nAnnie Jane, of Liverpool, an emigrant vessel, \ndriven on shore on the Barra Islands, on west \ncoast of Scotland ; about 348 lives lost 29 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nHarwood, brig, by collision with the Trident \nsteamer, near the Mouse light near the Nore ; \nfoundered; six of the crew perished . 5 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDalhousie, foundered off Beachey Head : the cap- \ntain (Butterworth), the passengers, and all the \ncrew (excepting one), about 60 persons in all, \nperished ; the cargo was valued at above 100,000?. \n\n19 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMarshall, screw-steamer, in the North Sea\', ran \ninto the barque IVoodhonse ; about 48 persons \nsupposed to have perished . . 28 Nov. ,, \n\nTayleur, emigrant ship, driven on the rocks off \nLambay Island, north of Howth ; about 380 lives \nlost 20 Jan. 1854* \n\nFa von rile, in the Channel, on her way from Bremen \nto Baltimore, came into violent contact with the \nAmerican barque Hesper, off the Start, and imme- \ndiately went down; 201 persons were drowned \n\n20 April, ,, \n\nLady Nugent, troop-ship, sailed from Madras, 10 \n\nMay. 1S54; foundered in a hurricane; 350 rank \n\nanil file of the Madras light infantry, officers, and \n\ncrew, in all 400 souls, perished . . May, ,, \n\nForerunner, African mail-steamer, struck on a \n\n* Arctic, U.S. mail strainer, by collision in a fog with \nthe l\'i :tn, French steamer, oil\' Newfoundland; above 300 \nlives lost, 27 Sept. 1854. \n\n\n\nWEECKS. \n\n\n\n1080 \n\n\n\nWRECKS. \n\n\n\nsunken rock off St. Lorenzo, Madeira, and went \ndown directly afterwards, with the total loss of \nship and mails, and 14 lives . . 25 Oct. 1854 \n\nNile, iron screw-steamer, struck on the Godevry \nrock, St. Ives\' Bay, and all perished . 30 Nov. ,, \n\nCity of Glasgow, a Glasgow steamer, with 480 persons \non board, disappeared in ,, \n\nIn the storm which raged in the Black Sea, 13-16 \nNov. 1854, eleven transports were wrecked and \nsix disabled. The new steamship Prince was lost \nwith 144 lives, and a cargo worth 500,000?. indis- \npensable to the army in the Crimea. The loss \nof life in the other vessels is estimated at 340 . \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGeorge Canning, Hamburg and New York packet, \nnear the mouth of the Elbe : 96 lives lost, and \nStately, English schooner, nearNeuwiek, in a great \nstorm 1 Jan. 1855 \n\nMercury, screw-steamer, by collision with a French \nship : passengers saved . . . 11 Jan. \n\nJanet Boyd, bark, in a storm off Margate Sands ; 28 \nlives lost 20 Jan. \n\nWill 0\' the Wisp, screw-steamer, on the Burn Rock, \noff Lambay ; 18 lives lost ... 9 Feb. \n\nMorna, steamer on rocks near the Isle of Man ; 21 \nlives lost 25 Feb. \n\nJohn, emigrant vessel, on the Muncles rocks off \nFalmouth ; 200 lives lost . . . .1 May, \n\nPacific, Collins steamer, left Liverpool for New \nYork, with 186 persons on board ; never since \nheard of (supposed to have struck on an iceberg) \n\n23 Jan. 1851 \n.Josephine Willis, packet-ship, lost by collision with \nthe screw-steamer Mangerton, in the Channel ; \n\nabout 70 lives lost 3 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n.John Rutledge, from Liverpool to New York, ran on \nan iceberg and was wrecked ; many lives lost \n\n20 Feb. ,, \n\'. Many vessels and their crews totally lost 1-8 Jan. 1857\' \n\nViolet, royal mail-steamer, lost on the Goodwin ; \nmany persons perished ... 5 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nTyne, royal-steamer, stranded on her way to South- \nampton from the Brazils . . . 13 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSt. Andrew, screw-steamer, totally wrecked near \n\nLatakia ; loss about 145,000?. . , 29 Jan. \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 Charlemagne, iron clipper, wrecked by the coast of \n\nCanton: passengers saved; loss, about 110,000?. \n\n20 March, ,, \n\nH.M.S. Raleigh, 50 guns, wrecked on south-east \ncoast of Macao 14 April, \n\nCatherine Adamson, Australian vessel, wrecked \n25 miles from Sydney, 20 lives lost \n\nabout 3 June, ,, \n\nErin, P. & O. Co\'s steamer, wrecked on coast of \nCeylon j unej it \n\nH.M.S. Transit, wrecked on a reef in the Straits of \nBanca 10 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDunbar, clipper wrecked on the rocks near Sydney : \n121 persons, and cargo valued at 22,000?., lost ; \none person only saved, who was on the rocks 30 \nhours 20 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSarah Sands, an iron screw-steamer, sailed from \nPortsmouth to Calcutta, in Aug. 1857 \'\xe2\x80\xa2 3\xc2\xb0\xc2\xb0 soldiers \non board. On n Nov. the cargo (government \nstores) took fire. By the exertions of major Brett \nand captain Castle, the master of the vessel, who \ndirected the soldiers and the crew, the flames \nwere subdued, although a barrel of gunpowder \n.exploded during the conflagration. A new danger \nthen arose\xe2\x80\x94 the prevalence of a strong gale \xe2\x80\xa2 water \nwas shipped heavily where the port quarter had \nbeen blown out. Nevertheless, after a fearful \nstruggle, the vessel arrived at the Mauritius 21 \nNov., without losing a single life n- 2 i Nov \n\nWindsor, emigrant-ship, struck on a reef near the " \n\nCape de Verde Islands ... j j) ec \n\nAva, Indian mail-steamer, with ladies and others " \nfrom Lucknow on board, wrecked near Ceylon \n\nEastern City, burnt about the equator on herNvayto * \' \nMelbourne ; by great exertions all on board were \n\n\n\nsaved \n\n\n\n23, 24 Aug \n\n\n\nAustria, steam-emigrant ship, burnt in the middle \n\n\n\nA large American vessel, Northern Belle was \nwrecked near Broadstairs, The American government \nsent 21 silver medals and 2 7 ol. to be distributed among \nthe heroic boatmen of the place, who saved the cre\\v\xc2\xb0 \n5 6 Jan. 1857. \n\n\n\nof the Atlantic. Of 538 persons on board, only \n67 were saved. The disaster due to carelessness \n\n13 Sept. 1858 \n\nSt. Paul, captain Pennard, from Hong Kong to \nSydney, with 327 Chinese emigrants, wrecked on \nthe island of Rossel, 30 Sept. 1858. The captain \nand eight of the crew left the island in search of \nassistance, and were picked up by the Prince of \nDenmark schooner. The French steamer Styx was \ndespatched to the island, and brought away one \nChinese, 25 Jan. 1859. All the rest had been \nmassacred and devoured by the natives . . ,, \n\nCzar, steamer, wrecked off the Lizard ; 14 lives lost \n\n23 Jan. 1859* \n\nEastern Monarch, burnt at Spithead ; out of 500, \neight lives lost. The vessel contained invalid \nsoldiers from India, who, with the crew, behaved \nadmirably 2 June, ,, \n\nAlma, steamer, grounded on a reef near Aden, Bed \nSea, about 35 miles from Mocha ; all persons \nsaved ; after 35 days\' exposure to the sun, with- \nout water, they were rescued by H.M.S. Cyclops: \nsir John Bowring, who was on board, lost valua- \nble papers 12 June, ,, \n\nAdmelia, steamer, running between Melbourne and \nAdelaide, struck on a reef ; of about 72 persons, \nonly 23 were saved; many perished through ex- \nposure to cold 6 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRoyal Charter, screw-steamer, captain Taylor, totally \nwrecked off Moelfra, on the Anglesea coast ; 446 \nlives lost. The vessel contained gold amounting \nin value to between 700,000?. and 800,000?. ; much \nof this has been recovered night of 25-26 Oct. ,, \n\nIndian, mail-steamer, wrecked off the coast of \nNewfoundland ; out of 116, 27 lives lost 21 Nov. ,, \n\nBlervie Castle, sailed from London docks for \nAdelaide ; lost in the Channel and all on board, \n57 persons ; last seen on . . . 25 Dec. ,, \n\nNortherner, steamer, wrecked on a rock near Cape \nMendorino, between San Francisco and Oregon ; \n38 lives lost 6 Jan. i860 \n\nEndymion, sailing-vessel, burnt in the Mersey ; loss \nabove 20,000?. ..... 31 Jan. ,, \n\nDreadful gales; and many wrecks on the coast, t \n\n15-19 Feb. ,, \n\nOndine, steamer; lost through collision with the \nHeroine, of Bideford, abreast of Beachey Head ; \nthe captain and about 50 persons perished 19 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLuna, American emigrant vessel, wrecked on rocks \noff Barfleur ; about 100 lives lost . 19 Feb. ,, \n\nHungarian, new mail-steamer, wrecked off coast of \nNova Scotia ; all on board (205) lost on the night of \n\n19-20 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNimrod, steamer, wrecked on rocks near St. David\'s \nHead ; 40 lives lost 28 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMalabar, iron ship, on her way to China, with lord \nElgin and baron Gros : wrecked off Point de Galle, \nCeylon. The ambassadors displayed much heroism ; \nno lives lost. Of much specie sunk, a good deai \nwas recovered ..... 72 May, ,, \nLady Elgin, an American steamer, sunk through \ncollision with schooner Augusta on lake Michigan ; \nof 385 persons on board, 287 were lost, including \nMr. Herbert Ingram, M.P., founder of the "Illus- \ntrated London News," and his son; morning of \n\n8 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nArctic, Hull steamer, wrecked off Jutland; many \n\npersons saved by Mr. Earle, who lost his own life \n\nwhile endeavouring to save others . . 5 Oct. , , \n\nConnaught, steamer, burnt; crew saved through \n\nthe gallantry of the crew of an American brig, \n\n7 Oct. ,, \nJuanita, wrecked through collision with an Ameri- \ncan vessel, Joseph Fish, 13 lives lost . 15 March, 1861 \nCanadian, steamer, struck on a field of ice in the \nstraits of Belle-isle, and foundered in half an hour ; \n35 lives lost 4 June, ,, \n\n\n\n* Pomona, an American ship, captain Merrihew ; 419 \npersons on board, from Liverpool to New York ; was \nwrecked on Blackwater Bank, through the master \nmistaking the Blackwater for the Tuskar light, only 24 \npersons saved, night of 27-28 April, 1859. \n\nt American barque Lima, with emigrants, wrecked off \nBarfleur ; above 100 lives lost, 17 Feb. i860. Ou the \nsame rock, on 25 Nov. 1120, was wrecked the Blanche \nNef, containing the children of Henry I. and a large \nnumber of attendants ; in all 363 persons perished. \n\n\n\nWEECKS. \n\n\n\n1081 \n\n\n\nWRECKS. \n\n\n\nH.M.8. Conqueror, stranded on Rum Cay, near \nBahamas, and lost [the captain and master were \ncensured for neglect of duty] . . 29 Dec. 1861 \n\nHarmony, lost with all hands off Plymouth 27 Feb. 1862 \n\nOcean Monarch, 2195 tons, sailed from New York, \n5 March, laden with provisions ; foundered in a \ngale 9 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nUpwards of 60 merchantmen lost during gales in \n\nMarch, ,, \n\nMars, Waterford steamer, struck on a rock near \nMilford haven ; about 50 lives lost . . April, ,, \n\nBencoolen, East Indiaman, 1400 tons ; struck on \nsands near Bude haven, Cornwall ; about 26 lives \nlost 19 Oct. ,, \n\nLotus, merchantman, off Chale Bay, in the great \nstorm; crew all lost except two . . 19 Oct. ,, \n\nMany vessels lost during storm . . .19 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nColombo, Bast India mail steamer, in thick weather, \nwrecked on Minicoy Island; 440 miles from Point \nde Galle, Ceylon; no lives lost (the crew and pas- \nsengers taken off by the Ottawa from Bombay, \n30 Nov.) 19 Nov. ,, \n\nLifeguard, steamer, left Newcastle, with about 41 \npassengers; never since heard of; supposed to \nnave foundered off Flamborough head 20 Dec. ,, \n\nOrpheus, H. M.S. steamer, new vessel, 1700 tons; \ncommander Burnett ; wrecked on Manakau bar, \nW. coast New Zealand ; 70 persons saved ; about \n190 perished 7 Feb. 1S63 \n\nAnglo-Saxon, mail steamer, captain Burgess, in \ndense fog, wrecked on reef off Cape Race, New- \nfoundland ; about 237, out of 446, lives lost, \n\n27 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAll Serene, Australian ship; gale in the Pacific; \nabove 30 lives lost (the survivors suffered much \ntill they reached the Fiji isles in a punt) 21 Feb. 1864 \n\nMany shipwrecks in consequence of the cyclone at \nCalcutta 5 Oct. ,, \n\nH.M.S. Racehorse, off Chefoo Cape, Chinese coast; \n\n99 lives lost 4 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe Stanley, Friendship, &o. , in the gale off Tyne- \n\nmouth ; and the Dalhousie, screw steamer, mouth \nof the Tay ; same gale ; 34 lives lost 24 Nov. ,, \n\nH.M.S. Bombay, burnt off Flores Island, near \nMonte Fideo; 91 lives lost . . . 14 Dec. ,, \n\nLelia, cutter, off Great Orme\'s Head, during a gale ; \nseveral lives lost ; 7 persons drowned by upsetting \nof the life-boat 14 Jan. 1865 \n\nEagle Speed, emigrant vessel, foundered near Cal- \ncutta; 265 coolies drowned; great cruelty and \nneglect imputed . ^ . . . 24 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDuncan Dunbar, wrecked on a reef at Las Rooas, \nS. America ; no lives lost . . . 7 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSamphire, mail-steamer; collision with an American \nbarque; several lives lost . . . 13 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nIbis, steamer, machinery damaged, off Ballycroneen \nbay ; 15 lives lost; sailed from Cork . . 18 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLondon, steamer, on her way to Melbourne; foun- \ndered in Bay of Biscay; about 220 persons \nperished (including captain Martin, Dr. Woolley, \nprincipal of the university of Sydney, G. V. \nBrooke, the tragedian); about the same time the \n\nAmalia steamer went down with a cargo worth \n200,000?. ; no lives lost . . . .11 Jan. 1866 \n\nMany wrecks and much loss of life during gales, \nespecially off Torbay . . . . 6-11 Jan. ,, \n\nSpirit of the Ocean, steamer; wrecked on a rock \nnear Dartmouth ; all lost except 4 . 23 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGeneral Grant, on voyage from Melbourne to London, \nwrecked off Auckland isles; only 13 out of about \n\n100 saved May, ,, \n\nAmazon, H.M. screw sloop, and screw steamer \n\nOsprey, sunk by collision near Plymouth ; several \n\npassengers and sailors drowned . 10 July, ,, \nBruiser, steamer, sunk by collision with the Has- \n\nwell, off Aldborough; about 15 lives lost 19 Aug. ,, \nBhima, Indian steamer; foundered through collision \n\nwith Nana, steamer, between Bombay and Suez; \n\n19 lives lost n Sept. ,, \n\nH.M.S. Berenice, burnt in Persian Gulf; none \n\nperished 13 Oct. ,, \n\nCeres, near Canisoe, Ireland; about 36 lives lost \n\n[captain Pascoe censured for neglecting to sound] \n\n10 Nov. \nMany wrecks in the Channel . . .5,6 Jan. 1867 \nJames Crosjield, iron ship ; wrecked off Langness, [sle \n\nof Man ; all on board lost .... 5 Jan. ,, \nSingapore, Peninsular and Oriental steamer, struck \n\n\n\non a sunken rock, and went down ; no lives lost, \n\n20 Aug. 1867 \nRhone and Wye, Royal Mail steamers, totally lost, \nand about 50 other vessels driven ashore ; great \nloss of life by a hurricane, off St. Thomas (see \nVirgin Islands) 29 Oct. ,, \n\nHibernia, screw steamer ; the shaft of screw pro- \npeller broke, 600 miles off coast of Ireland ; many \nlives lost . . . . 24 or 25 Oct. or Nov. 1868 \n\nMany wrecks on the Cornish coast during a gale, \n\n19-20 March, 1869 \n\nItalian, merchant steamer, struck on a rock near \nFinisterre ; about 26 lives lost about 21 March. ,, \n\nCamatic, Peninsular and Oriental steamer, wrecked \noff Shadwan in the gulf of Suez ; about 25 lives lost, \n\n13 Sept. ,, \n\nOneida, American vessel, run down by collision with \nP. & O. steamer Bombay off Yokohama ; about 115 \nlives lost (captain of Bombay suspended for 6 \nmonths) 24 Jan. 1870 \n\nCity of Boston, sailed from New York, long miss- \ning; a board stating that she was sinking \nfound in Cornwall .... n Feb. ,, \n\nNormandy, S. W. company\'s steamer, by collision \nwith the steamer Mar y, off the Isle of Wight, sunk ; \nthe captain, C. B. Harvey, and 33 others perish, \n\n17 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nH.M.S. Slaney, wrecked by a typhoon near Hong \nKong ; about 42 lives lost . . . . 9 May, ,, \n\nH.M.S. Captain, iron-clad, sank in a squall off \nFinisterre (see Navy of England) . . 7 Sept. \n\nCambria, iron screw-steamer, lost in a storm off \nInishtrahul island, N.W. Ireland; about 170 lives \nlost 19 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nQueen of the Thames, magnificent vessel, Sailed from \nLondon to Sydney by the Cape in 58 days ; re- \nturning, was lost by striking on sands off Cape \nAgulhas, Africa; 4 lives and valuable cargo lost; \nthe captain was censured ... 18 March. 1871 \n\nCornwall, wrecked by collision with the Himalaya \nsteamer off Hartlepool . . . 19 March. ,, \n\nMegrera, government iron screw-steamer, sailed \nwith about 400 on board for Australia, Feb. 1871; \nsprang a leak, 8 June; when it was discovered \nthat her bottom was nearly worn away by corro- \nsion ; she was beached on St. Taul\'s Isle, in the \nIndian ocean, 16 June ; huts were erected, and the \ncrew settled, and stores landed ; lieut. Jones was \ntaken on board a Dutch vessel, 16 July; the \nOberon brought provisions, 26 Aug. ; the crew was \ncarried off during a storm, the stores being left \nbehind, by the Malacca ... 3 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n[The vessel was reported unfit for service in \n1867; capt. Thrupp was tried and acquitted \nof blame, 17 Nov.; sir Spencer Robinson and \nvarious admiralty officials were censured by a \ngovernment commission, 6 March, 1872.] \n\nRangoon, Peninsular and Oriental steamer, valued \nat 78,000^., wrecked on Kadir rock, off Point de \nGalle; cargo lost; no lives lost . . 1 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNorfolk Hero, fishing lugger, lost off Norfolk coast, \n\n2 Dec. ,, \n\nDelaware, large steamer; wrecked off Scilly rocks; \nonly 2 out of 47 saved .... 20 Dec. ,, \n\nSevere gales; many wrecks, and lives lost. \n\nKinsale, steamer, off Waterford ; Albion, schooner, \notTLooe; Dee, schooner, <fec. . . 22-23 Nov. 1872 \n\nRoyal Adelaide, emigrant vessel; went ashore on \nChesil beach, between Weymouth and Portland ; \n5 lost 25 Nov. ,, \n\nGermania, mail packet; wrecked off La Roehelle; \nabout 24 perished .... 21 Dec. ,, \n\nNorthfleet, vessel laden with railway iron for Van \nDiemen\'s Land, and railway navvies, run into by \na foreign steamer (probably the Murillo,* a \nSpanish vessel) off Dungeness, about 10.30 p.m.; \nabout 300 lost 22 Jan. 1873 \n\nClinriihiirtt, iron ship; sunk in the Channel, 15 miles \nfrom Orme\'s head, by collision with the Torch \nsteamer; 24 lost . . . . 1 March, ,, \n\nBoync, barque; wrecked off Moliilo bay, Cornwall; \nabout 20 lost 1 March, ,, \n\nAtlantic, steamer, of White Star company, struck \non Meagher rock, west of Sambro; said to have \n\n\n\n* This vessel was captured near Dover, 22 Kept, and \ncondemned by the couH of admiralty to be sold; (the \n\nofficers severely censured) ; 4 Nov. 1873. \n\n\n\nWEECKS. \n\n\n\n1082 \n\n\n\nWEECKS. \n\n\n\nfallen short of coals steaming for Halifax; 442 \n(including capt. Williams) saved ; about 560 lost, \n1 April, 1873 ; many on the rigging perished \nthrough cold and want. The case was investi- \ngated, and the captain was suspended for two \nyears 18 April, 1873 \n\nEden, ship, with 150 tons of gunpowder, sailing for \nValparaiso ; set on fire by her mad captain, and \nblew up : (the crew in a boat were rescued by the \nJuanita) 7, 8 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNagpore, from Calcutta, took fire and ran into Kings- \ntown harbour, doing much damage till it went to \npieces ; the captain of the Echo and some sailors \nwere drowned 9 Nov. ,, \n\nLochearn lost, through collision with the Ville de \nHavre (which see), 22 Nov. ; quitted by her crew \n\n28 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nElla, London and Hamburg steamer ; crew, 32 ; left \nThames 14 Dec, supposed to have foundered in a \ngale 16 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nQueen Elizabeth, Glasgow steamer from India ; went \nashore near Tarifa ; about 20 perished ; middle of \n\nMarch, 1874 \n\nTacna, steamer, from Valparaiso ; foundered ; about \n19 lost (see Chili) March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLiberia, British and African Steam-ship Co. ; \nwrecked by collision with Barton steamer, off \nScilly isles ; probably all lost on boaxd both vessels \n\nabout 13 April, ,, \n\nBritish Admiral, emigrant ship ; wrecked on King\'s \nisland, Bass\'s strait ; about 80 out of 89 lost \n\n23 May, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMilbanke, iron steamer ; laden with zinc from Car- \nthagena ; sunk through collision with Hankow \nsteamer off Dungeness ; 14 perish ; 1.30 a.m. \n\n28 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCalcutta, ship, from Shields to Aden ; took fire ; \nnearly all lost . . . . about n Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMalvern, barque, from Sunderland ; foundered off \nSingapore ; all hands lost ... 23 Sept. ,, \n\nKingsbridge, iron ship, sunk off the Lizards, by col- \nlision with the Candahar, iron ship ; the master, \nhis wife and daughter, and 8 of the crew perish \n\n14 Oct. ,, \n\nMaju, iron ship, of London ; new clipper ; wrecked \noff the Hebrides in a gale ; crew, about 24, lost \n\n20 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nChusan, from Glasgow for Shanghai ; sunk in a gale \noff Ardrossan ; about 7 lost . . .20 Oct. \n\nCutter of H.M.S. Aurora swamped in the Clyde; \nis lost ig Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLa Plata, steamer (capt. Dudden), 1600 tons ; sailed \nfrom Gravesend with telegraph cable for Brazil, \n26 Nov. ; foundered in a gale in the Bay of Biscay ; \n17 escape out of 85 . . . .29 Nov. \n\nCospatrick, emigrant vessel (capt. Emslie), on her \nway to Auckland, New Zealand ; took fire, mid- \nnight, 17-18 Nov. ; only 5 or 6 (out of 476) escaped ; \npicked up, 27 Nov. ; arrived at St. Helena \n\n6 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nJapan, Pacific Mail steamer, from Yokohama ; took \nfire off Hong Kong ; many lost about 17 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDelfine, steamer ; struck on sunken rock, west coast \nof Africa ; nearly all lost \n\nScorpio, steamer, from Cardiff to Charente ; not \nheard of, 30 Dec 4 Dec. \n\nCortes, of London, foundered in Bay of Biscay\'; \nladen with coal for Aden ; capt. E. King ; about \n\nIr 2 5 lost 16 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nHong Kong, steamer ; wrecked on sunken rock near \nAden ; about 12 lost .... 22 Feb. 1875* \n\nStuart Hahnemann, sailed from Bombay, 4 April ; \ncapsized ; about 40 drowned ; (some rescued by \nBlandina, Austrian barque, 27 April) . 14 April \n\nCadiz, London steamer ; wrecked on Wizard Rock \' \nBrest ; about 62 lost 8 May\' \n\nVicksburg, steamer, left Quebec, 27 May ; struck on \' \nice, 30 May ; sank, 1 June ; between 40 and 50 \nl ^ 1 June, ,, \n\nbtrathmore, emigrant vessel, wrecked in a fog near \nthe Crozet isles, South Indian ocean, on way to \nNew Zealand ; 45 out of 89 lost . . 1 July, \n\nBoyne, mail steamer, from Brazil ; ran on a rock \' \n\n\n\n* Schiller, Hamburg mail steamer ; wrecked in a fog, \non rocks off the Scilly isles ; about 331 drowned, 7 May \n1875- \n\n\n\nduring a fog, 15 miles off Ushant ; 2 lives lost \n\n13 Aug. 1875 \n\nMistletoe, Mr. Heywood\'s pleasure yacht ; sunk by \ncollision with H.M.\'s steamer, Alberta (the queen \non board) ; in the Solent ; near Isle of Wight ; \nMiss Annie Peel and two others drowned \n\n18 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n[Coroner\'s inquest on Nathaniel Turner ; ver- \ndict, accidental death, with a note alleging \nerror of navigating officers, 10 Sept ; another \ninquest, closed without verdict, 7 Dec. 1875 ; \ncaptain Welch, of the Alberta, was repri- \nmanded ; 3000Z. paid to Mr. Heywood, and \nothers compensated ; announced, April,i876.] \nSee under Navy of England. \n\nH.M.S. Vanguard, double-screw iron-clad, 3774 \ntons ; cost about 350,000?. (captain Dawkins) \nstruck by ram of the Iron Duke during a fog off \nthe coast of Wieklow ; crew (about 400) saved ; \n50 in. past noon 1 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPacific, steamer, from Victoria, British Columbia, to \nCalifornia ; foundered off Cape Flattery ; above \n150 lost about 4 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGoliath, old man-of-war, fitted up as a training-ship \nfor poor boys ; burnt through a lamp falling on \nthe dirty floor of the lamp-room ; about a dozen \nlives lost out of about 500 ; the boys were highly \ncommended for their courage and discipline under \nthe command of captain Bourchier . 22 Dec. ,, \n\nMany wrecks autumn and winter, 1875. * \n\nWarspite, old training-ship of the Marine Society\'s \nboys, on the Thames between Woolwich and \nCharlton, burnt ; no loss of life ; good discipline \nshown 3 Jan. 1876 \n\nStrathclyde, Glasgow steamer, sunk by collision with \nHamburg ship Franconia, in Dover bay, in day- \nlight; about 17 lost; (verdict of manslaughter \nagainst Kuhn, captain of Franconia t) . 17 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nEdith, steamer, sunk by collision with the Duchess \nof Sutherland (both owned by the London and \nNorth Western Railway Company) off St. John\'s \nPoint, Ireland ; 2 lives lost. . . 8 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nShannon, mail steamer ; struck on a shoal, 80 miles \nS.S.W. of Port Royal, Jamaica ; no lives lost, \n\n8 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nWestern Empire, in Gulf of Mexico ; a leak sprung, \n13 Sept. ; vessel left (10 lost) . . 18 Sept. ,, \n\nGreat Queensland, with impure patent gunpowder, \nand ordinary gunpowder ; 569 persons on board ; \nsailed for Melbourne, 5 Aug. ; supposed to have \nexploded (pieces of wreck found), near Finisterre \n\nafter 12 Aug. ,, \n[Verdict of wreck commission against owners, \n21 July, 1877.] \n\nSt. Lawrence, troop-ship, capt. Hyde ; ran aground \nin St. Helena\'s bay, Africa ; no loss of life 8 Nov. ,, \n\nAmbassador, steamer ; sunk by collision with an \nAmerican ship, George Manson, returning from \nCalcutta; lat. 58\xc2\xb0 6\' N., Ion. 73 27\' E. ; 23 lost \n(crew, 43) 25 Dec. ,, \n\nCairo, iron ship ; bound for Australia ; carried \nmuch gunpowder ; (said to have been wrecked \noff Tristan or Gough island) ; disappeared about \nmiddle of Jan. 1877 \n\nCashmere, steamer (British India Steam Navigation \ncompany) ; wrecked off Guardaf ui ; 7 drowned \n\n12 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nEten, steam ship (Euglish Pacific Steam Navigation \ncompany) ; wrecked about 70 miles N. of Valpa- \nraiso ; about 100 (of 160) lost ; many rescued by \nH.M.S. Amethyst .... 15 July, ,, \n\nAvalanche, emigrant iron vessel ; from London to \nNew Zealand ; above 100 on board ; struck by \nForest (of Windsor, Nova Scotia), 21 crew ; both \nsank ; about 12 lives saved; in channel, 15 miles \nS. by W. of Portland, 9.15 p.m. . 11 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMany losses by severe gale . . 14, 15 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n\n\n* Deutschland, fine Atlantic steamer, from Bremen to \nNew York, during a gale, went on sandbank, the Kentish \nKnock, at mouth of the Thames ; about 70 lost (many \nemigrants), 6 Dec. 1875. The Liverpool, tug steamer, \nsaved a great many lives ; on investigation, it was shown \nthat there had been no delay in helping, and no robbery, \n31 Dec. The captain censured for error in navigation, \nand want of judgment. \n\nt Verdict quashed on appeal ; 7 judges (against 6), \ndecide against British jurisdiction, 13 Nov. 1876. \n\n\n\nWKECKS. \n\n\n\n1083 \n\n\n\nWRECKS. \n\n\n\nKnapton Hall, steamer ; sank through collision with \nLochfyne, to whose assistance she was coming ; 9 \n\nperish 15 Oct. 1877 \n\nAtacama, steamer ; wrecked 22 miles S. of Caldera, \n\nnear Copiapo ; about 104 lost . end of Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nEuropean, Clyde steamer, from Algoa Bay ; wrecked \n\noff Ushant ; diamonds, &c, lost ; no lives 5 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nMizpah, steamer ; sunk by collision with unknown \nvessel, 15 miles S. W. of Beachy Head ; above 6 \n\nlost ; early 6 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nC. M. Palmer, steamer, of Newcastle ; lost by colli- \nsion with Ludworth steamer, near Harwich ; about \n14 lives lost ; fog, 10 a.m.. . . 17 Feb. 1878 \n\nEurydice, H.M.S., frigate ; training ship ; returning \nfrom Bermudas ; founders off Dunnose headland, \nnear Ventnor, Isle of Wight ; through a squall ; \ncapt. A. S. Hare, lieut. Tabor, and about 300 men \n\nperish 24 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\n[Raised with much skill and labour, and taken \ninto Portsmouth, Aug.] \nChildivall Hall, Hull steamer ; wrecked near Cape \n\nSt. Vincent, Portugal ; about 14 lost 11 April,* ,, \nPrincess Alice (which see), run into by the screw \nsteamer, Bywell Castle, in the Thames, near Wool- \nwich, and sunk; between 600 and 700 lost; \n\nabout 7.40 p.m 3 Sept. ,, \n\nFanny, coastguard cruiser ; run down by National \nsteamer Helvetia, off Tuskar, Irish channel ; 17 \n\nlost 31 Oct. ,, \n\nMuch damage and loss of life by gales "8-io Nov.t ,, \nMesopotamia, steamer, run ashore at Peniche, coast \n\nof Portugal; 8 perished . . . 18 Dec. J ,, \nAva, British India Navigation Steam Company \nsteamer, sank by collision with sailing ship Brun- \nhilda, in the Bay of Bengal ; capt. Dickenson \nand about 70 perish ... 24 April, \xc2\xa7 1879 \nCity of London, Aberdeen steamer ; run down and \nsunk by the Vesta,, in the Thames, near Barking \nReach ; no lives lost .... 13 Aug. ,, \nBorussia, a Dominion steamer, left Liverpool 20 \nNov. ; sprang a leak in the Atlantic after leaving \nCorunna, 1 Dec. ; went down ; about 160 lost ; \n10 out of 184 saved by boats ... 2 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nValentine foundered in a gale near Falmouth ; \n\nabout 16 lost 8 Feb. 1880 \n\nMany wrecks in the North Atlantic during terrific \n\ngale (see Atalanta) .... 12-16 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nStrathnairn, of Dundee : collision with Edith \n\nHough, steamer, off Ushant ; all lost 13 Feb. ,, \nHindoo, steamer, from New York ; loaded with \ngrain, which shifted ; abandoned ; three officers \nlost and much cattle . . . .22 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nVingorla, steamer ; sprang a leak 70 miles N. of \nBombay ; captain and 65 persons perish : an- \nnounced 1 March, ,, \n\nBarita, British steamer, sunk in a fog by collision \nwith an Australian mail steamer near Galatz ; 16 \n\nperish .9 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAmerican, steamer (Union Steamship Company), \ncapt. Maclean Wait, foundered off Cape Palmas ; \nall passengers and crew escaped in boats : (picked \nup by vessels, and carried to Madeira, St. Paul \nde Loanda, the Canaries, &c.) . . 23 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \nHydaspes, sailing ship ; sank by collision with Cen- \nturion, screw steamer, off Dungeness, in a fog; \nboth blamed ; no lives lost . . 17 July,|| ,, \nJames Harris, steamer, loaded with iron ; sunk by \ncollision with the Andalusia, steamer, off the \nFeme isles 14 April,! 1881 \n\n* The German ironclad, Grosser Kurfilrst, sunk by \ncollision with Kbnig Wilhclm ; about 300 lost, 31 May, \n1878. \n\nt Pnmcrania, Hamburg-American mail steamer, sunk \noff Folkestone, by Mod Eilian, iron bark, of Carnarvon ; \n162 saved by boats ; about 48 missing ; a little after \nmidnight, 25 Nov., 1878. \n\nJ French steamer, Byzantin, sunk (losing above 200 \nlives) by collision with English steamer, Rinaldo, in Dar- \ndanelles, during a fearful gale, 18 Dec. 1878. \n\n\xc2\xa7 Arrogante, French ironclad battery, sank off Ilireres \nisles : 47 drowned ; 19 March, 1879. \n\n|| Vera Cruz, U.S. steamer ; foundered through hurri- \ncane in N. Atlantic, 30 miles from shore ; 11 out of 82 \nsaved ; 4 Sept. 1880. \n\nIT Oncle Joseph, French steamer, sunk by collision with \nOrtigia, Italian steamer, oil\' tpczzia ; about 50 out of 300 \nsaved; 24 Nov. 1880. \n\n\n\nH.M.S. Doterel destroyed by explosion in the \n\nStraits of Magellan (see Navy) . . 26 April, 1881 \nVictoria, steamer, on the Thames, Canada ; over- \nloaded : upset; several hundreds drowned ; be- \ntween 600 and 700 on board . . 24 May, ,, \nTen fishing boats sunk off the Shetland isles in a \n\nstorm ; about 58 lives lost . . . 20 July, , r \nTeuton, Union Company\'s mail screw steamer, struck \nonarock near Cape Agulhas, Cape of Good Hope; \nand foundered a few hours after ; of above 200 \npersons, not many saved; capt. E. Manning \nand most of the officers lost . . 30 Aug. , T \n\n[Inquiry : attributed to the captain\'s Imprudent \n\nnavigation I9 Sept.] \xe2\x80\x9e. \n\nGovino, British steamer ; about 13 perished, 7 Oct. , r \n130 wrecks (105 British) with great loss of life and \n\nproperty by the gales . . . 10-15 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nCorsica, steamer ; stranded near mouth of the \n\nTagus ; 21 deaths 11 Oct. ,\xe2\x80\x9e \n\n[The captain exonerated, 8 Nov.] \nCyprian, iron steamer, lost in Carnarvon bay; capt. \nStrachan and another drowned . . 14 Oct. ,, \n\n, Glasgow steamer, wrecked in the Irish sea ; \n\nmany lost .... about 20-22 Oct. ,\xe2\x80\x9e \nClan Macduff, steamer, capt. Webster ; foundered \noff the Irish coast (over-loaded) 32 lives lost \n[captain censured] .... 21 Oct. ,, \n\nAlbion, steamer, wrecked on the Atlantic coast of \n\nColumbia ; 32 lost 5 Nor. ,\xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCrown, British steamer, stranded near Jutland ; \n\n7 drowned 15 Nov. ,, \n\nSolway, channel steamer, capt. W. Fry ; during ,-f \nstorm off the Skerries ; greatly burned through \nignition of naphtha oil flooding the decks \nthrough bursting of casks, abotit 14 burned, and \n5 drowned (the steamer got back to Kingston \nharbour) ; officers exonerated from blame \n\n16 Nov. ,, \nCulzean, iron steamer ; capt. Pirnie, while being \ntowed to be repaired during a gale, stranded on \nrocks in the sound of Java; crew of 17 lost \n\n22 Nov. (> \nMany wrecks with loss of life and property during \n\na gale 26-27 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nKildare, barque, stranded off Aberdeen coast in \n\ngale Dec. ,, \n\nHelcnslea, barque, collision with Catalonia, Cunard \n\nsteamer ; 9 of the crew lost . . 25 Dec. ,, \n\nLanarkshire, screw steamer, stranded off Codling \n\nBank, Wicklow ; some of the crew lost 15 Jan. 1882 \nBahama, steamer, foundered between Porto Rico \n\nand New York ; 20 lives lost . . .4 Feb. ,, \nKosmos, steamer, sank oil Kilia ; captain and 20 of \n\ncrew drowned Feb. ,, \n\nLivadia, steamer, from Shields, sunk off Yarmouth ; \n\n23 lives lost 28 Feb. ,\xe2\x80\x9e \n\nDouro, royal mail steamer ; collision with Spanish \nsteamer, Yurrac Bal, both sunk ; about 23 Eng- \nlish and 36 Spanish lost, about n p.m. (captain \nof Douro blamed) . . . . 1 April, , t \nNovara, ship; on voyage from Newcastle to San \n\nFrancisco, burned ; 19 missing . . 13 April, ,, \nAlexandroonoe, Liverpool ship, wrecked orl Swan- \nage; crew all lost . . . early in May, , r \nPera, iron steamer ; foundered 30 miles S.W. Cape \n\nRace ; about 10 men lost . . . 10 June, ,,. \nEscambia, British screw steamer, wrecked nt Es- \ncambia, near San Francisco ; crew (about 20) \nlost, announced .... 20 June, rr \n\nAlice, steam-tug, wrecked on Bondecao rocks, Nor- \nthumberland ; 16 lives lost . . 29 June, ,, \nFlcurcs Castle, steamer, run aground, near Cape \n\nGuardafui, N.E. Africa; several perished, 9 July, ,, \nEthiopia, African mail steamer, run mi a reef 28 July, ,,. \nArmenian, Liverpool steamer, lust in the Baltic ; \n\ncrew about 23 perish, announced . . 23 Aug. ,,. \nPanama, Glasgow iron ship, foundered off Yar- \nmouth ; about 20 perish, announced 9 Sept. ,,. \nConstantia and City of Antwerp, steamers, sunk by \ncollision off the Eddvstone ; about 14 lives lost \n\n16 Oct, ,, \nWinton, lost off Ushant : 24 perish . 16 Nov. ,, \nWearmouth, steamer, lost off Magdalen Island \n\n21 Nov. ,, \n\n\n\n* Asia, N.W. transit service steamer, foundered be- \ntween Ontario and Saule Sainte Marie; about 9S lost> \n14 Sept. 1882. \n\n\n\nWEECKS. \n\n\n\n1084 \n\n\n\nWEECKS. \n\n\n\nCambronne, steamer, sunk by collision with Marion, \n\nnear Lundy 26 Nov. \n\nSt. George, steamer ; lost off Portreath, Cornish \n\ncoast ; 11 perish 29 Nov. \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Cedar Grove, steamer, lost off Cape Canto, Nova \n\nScotia ; 17 persons missing . about 30 Nov. \nMany wrecks, with loss ol life . . . Dec. \nLangrigg Hall, barque, wrecked off Wexford ; \n\n24 deaths 15 Dec. \n\n35 wrecks during a storm off Newfoundland \n\nabout 19 Dec. \nBritish Empire, ship, burnt off Alleppo ; several \n\npersons perish 5 Jan. \n\nCity of Brussels, sunk by collision with the Kirby \n\nHall, in the Mersey ; 10 drowned . . 7 Jan.* \nKenmure Castle, steamer, wrecked in Bay of Biscay ; \n\n30 drowned about 1 Feb. \n\nKing Arthur, Hull steamer, sunk near the mouth \n\nof the Bosphorus ; 14 lost ... 22 Feb. \nWrecks through gales in North sea, 382 lives lost, \n\n6 March, \nNavarre, Scotch steamer ; sunk near Christian sand ; \n\nabout 45 lost 7 March, \n\nDunstaffnage, Liverpool ship, wrecked off Aber- \ndeen ; 23 perished .... 17 March, \nWykeham, steamer, of Whitby, foundered near \n\nLisbon ; 22 drowned ; sailed from Cardiff March, \nBritish Commerce, sunk by collision with County of \n\nAberdeen, off Selsey Bill ; 25 perish . 24 April, \nGrappler burnt near Bute Inlet (Vancouver Island) \n\nabout 70 perish .... about 3 May, \nH.M.S. Lively stranded on rocks off Stornoway \n\n7 June, \n[Commander Parr dismissed, 28 June.] \nWaitara, sunk by collision with Hurunui (New \n\nZealand Steamship Co.,) off Beachy Head ; 25 \n\nperish 22 June, \n\nDaphne, coasting steamer, heeled over, during \n\nlaunch in the Clyde ; about 124 drowned 3 July, \n79 wrecks on British coasts reported through \n\nviolent gale . .... 1-2 Sept. \n\nHolyhead, L. & N. W. railway\'s cattle steamer and \n\nGerman barque, Alhambra, sailing vessel, sunk \n\nby collision between Dublin and Holyhead ; \n\n15 deaths ; midnight . . . .31 Oct. \nIris, sunk off Cape Villano ; about 35 perish ; an- \nnounced .8 Nov. \n\nAuk, Liverpool steamer, at South Henden ; 22 lives \nlost u Dec. \n\nSimla, wrecked by collision with the City of Luck- \nnow, both Glasgow Australian sailers, near the \nNeedles, English channel; about 20 perish ; 3 p.m. \n\n25 Jan. 1! \n\nVery many wrecks .... 23-27 Jan. \n\nNokomis, barque, struck on Black Rock, Antrim ; \n\n16 perish 26 Jan. \n\nJuno, iron ship, stranded in the Mersey by a gale ; \n\nthe crew (30) perish . . . . 26, 27 Jan. \n\nState of Florida, Glasgow steamer, and Ponema, \nbarque, sunk by collision in mid-ocean off Canada \ncoast ; about 123 perish . . . 18 April,! \n\nZaa*am(capt. Lothian), English steamer, and Gijon, \nCuban steamer, sunk by collision in a fog off \nCape Finisterre ; about 130 perish ; many picked \nup by Santo Domingo . . night, 21 July, \n\nDione, steamer, sunk by collision with Camden, \nsteamer, near Gravesend ; about 17 drowned ; \nsoon after midnight . . . -2-3 Aug. \n{capt. of the Dione punished for reckless navi- \ngation, Aug.] \n\nWasp, H.M. gun-boat (see under Navy). \n\nLittle Beck, stranded near the mouth of the Maas ; \n14 drowned ,_ 26 Oct \n\nIndus, P & O. company\'s steamer wrecked on coast \nof Ceylon 8 Nov. \n\n\n\n* Civibria, Hamburg steamer, sunk by collision with \nEnglish steamer, Sultan, off coast of Holland ; about \n454 perish, 19 Jan. 1883. \n\nt City of Columbus, U.S. passenger ship ; ran on reef \ncoast of Massachusetts ; 29 lives saved ; about 97 perish: \nalleged negligence; 18 Jan. 1884. \n\nt Daniel Steinmann, White Cross steamer, struck on \nrock off Sanibro\' Isle, Nova Scotia ; about 120 perish \nabout 3 April, 1884. \n\nSenorine, French brig, wrecked off Great Bank, \nNewfoundland ; about 62 perish, 6 May, 1884. \n\n\n\nDurango, screw steamer, run down by Luke Bruce, \niron barque, in the English channel ; 20 lives lost \n\n27 Nov. 1 \n\nPochard, steamer, foundered off Holyhead ; crew \nlost 7 Dec. \n\nMignonette, yacht ; sailed from Southampton to \nAustralia, 19 May ; foundered in a storm about \n1600 miles from the Cape ; 3 men and a boy \nescaped in a boat, without provisions, 5 July ; \nproposed killing of one by lot rejected by- \nBrooks, boy (Richard Parker) killed by captain, \nand eaten, 20th day, at seq. ; men picked up by \nGerman barque, Montezuma, 24th day, and \ncarried to Falmouth ; capt. Thos. Dudley, and \nEdwin Stephens, mate, tried for murder at \nExeter ; facts affirmed, 6 Nov. ; affirmed by lord \nchief justice and other judges in Queen\'s bench, \n4 Dec. ; sentence of death passed, 9 Dec. ; \nreprieved, 6 months\' imprisonment without \nlabour 13 Dec. , \n\nAdmiral Moorsom, L. and N. W. R\'s steamer, sunk \nnear Holyhead by collision with Santa Clara \n(American) ; capt. Weeks, and about 4 perish \n\n15 Jan. 1! \n\nCheerful, Liverpool steamer, collision with H.M.S. \nHecla in the Bristol channel, 13 lives lost in a \nfog, 4 a. m 21 July, \n\nYarra Yarra, Liverpool barque, 27 lives lost, \nannounced 11 Sept. \n\nDolphin, steamer (Gen. Nav. St. Co.), sunk by \ncollision with the Brenda, eight perish, 18 Sept. \n\nMerchantman, on Sand Heads ; about 70 lives lost, \n\nSept. \n\nAlbula, British ship, wrecked during typhoon off \nLoochoo islands, 10 perish ... 14 Oct. \n\nAlgoma, Canadian steamer, foundered in lake \nSuperior ; 45 lives lost .... 7 Kov. \n\nCorinth, Union line steamer, sunk by collision \nwith H.M.S. Firebrand . . . March, 1 \n\nOregon, Cunard steamer, foundered (without loss of \nlife), by collision with an unknown schooner \nnear Long Island in America ; schooner sunk with \nall on board 14 March, \n\nLy-ee-Moon, an iron steamer, Australasian steam \nnavigation company, wrecked off Green Cape, \nbetween Melbourne and Sydney ; 76 persons \ndrowned 30 March, \n\nFerntower, British steamer, foundered near Saigon ; \nabout 50 lives lost .... 26 Aug. \n\nMalleny, Liverpool iron steamer, foundered on the \nTuskar reef, Bristol channel ; all hands lost in \nthe gale (about 20) . . . . 15 Oct. \n\nMany vessels lost, many injured, and great loss of \nlife during a severe gale . . 14-16 Oct. \n\nTeviotdale, steamer of Glasgow, lost on the Carmar- \nthen coast; 18 lives lost . . . 15 Oct. \n\nKeilawarra and Helen Nicholl collision (42 lives \nlost) off the coast of Queensland ; announced \n\n9 Dec. \n\nSultan, British ironclad, and Ville de Victoria, \nFrench steamer, collision in Lisbon harbour ; \nthe latter vessel sunk ; 35 lives lost . 23 Dec. \n\nKapunda, emigrant ship for Australia, said to have \nfoundered by collision with Ada Melmore off \nBrazil ; about 298 perish, 3 a.m. 20 Jan. ; officers \nof the A da Melmore censured . . 29 March, ii \n\nVictoria, London & Brighton company\'s steamer, \nduring fog struck on rock at Point D\' Ailly ; no \nfog horn sounded, about 16 lives lost out of \n90 passengers through panic and recklessness ; \nthe rest saved by skill and courage of the captain \nand officers 13 April, \n\nTasmania, P. & O. steamer wrecked on Monachi \nrocks, Corsica ; 23 lives lost including captain \nPerrin 17 April, \n\nVolta, Eastern Telegraph company\'s steamer, \nwrecked off\' Myconos, Greece ; 12 lives lost, \n\n18 April, \n\nBenton, steamer, of Singapore, foundered, with \ncollision ; about 150 lives lost, announced \n\n28 April, \n\nDestruction of a Pearl fishing fleet, N. E. coast of \nAustralia, with a loss of 550 lives, in a hurricane \non 22 April ; reported ... 28 April, \n\nJohn Knox, British steamer, wrecked at St. John\'s ; \n27 lost 4 May, \n\nCity of ^Montreal (cotton ship), Inman steamer, \n\n\n\nWEECKS. \n\n\n\n1085 \n\n\n\nWEECKS. \n\n\n\nburnt 400 miles off Newfoundland on her way \nfrom New York to Liverpool . . 10 Aug. 1887 \nMonarch, pleasure yacht, founders near Ilfracombe ; \n\n11 lives lost 26 Aug. ,, \n\nFalls of Bruar, of Glasgow, sunk off Yarmouth ; \n\n24 lives lost 2 Sept. ,, \n\nLydia, British schooner, lost in a hurricane in \n\nthe North Atlantic ; 15 lives lost . Sept* ,, \nLanoma, iron barque, wrecked near Weymouth ; \n\n12 lives lost 8 March, 1888 \n\nCity of Corinth sunk by collision with Tasmania \n\nnear Dungeness .... 9 March, ,, \n\nSmyrna, sailing vessel, loses 12 men by collision \n\nwith the Moto, steamer, off Dorset coast, \n\n28 April, ,, \nTrevelyan, emigrant ship, sunk off Cape Agulhas, \n\nall on board lost ... .3 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nStar of Greece wrecked in Aldinga Bay, near \n\nAdelaide; 17 lives lost . . . i3July,t \xe2\x80\x9e \nEarl of Wemyss and Ardencaple, Glasgow barques, \n\ncollision, 16 lives lost .... 8 Sept. ,, \nCollision between La France (French) and Sud \n\nAmerica (Italian) off the Canary Islands ; about \n\n87 lives lost 13 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCollision between Glasgow steamer Neptune and \n\nRussian steamer Archangel at Christiania ; 18 \n\nlives lost 19 Oct. ,, \n\nNor, Norwegian barque, and Saxmundham, steamer \n\nfrom the Tyne ; collision ; 12 lives lost, 4 Nov. ,, \nSteamer Hartlepool wrecked on a rock at Naalevig ; \n\n17 lives lost 6 Dec.t ,, \n\nBritish steamer, The Priam, wrecked near Cape \n\nFinisterre ; about five lives lost . 12 Jan. 1889 \n\nNereid, steamer, of Newcastle, collision with the \n\nScotch ship Killochan off Dungeness ; 23 lives \n\nlost 3 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCollision of the Largo Bay with steamer Glencoe \n\nwhich founders off Beachy Head ; all hands lost, \n\n4 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nWreck of the Grimsby fishing fleet ; 73 lives lost, \n\n9 Feb.\xc2\xa7 \xe2\x80\x9e \nGerman and American war vessels wrecked off \n\nSamoa (see Storms) . . . 16 March, || ,, \nCotopaxi, Pacific steamer, struck on unknown reef, \n\nSmyth\'s channel, straits of Magellan, and \n\nfoundered ; no lives lost . . . 15 April, ,, \nAltimore, British steamer, struck on rocks off \n\nFiji islands ; about 12 persons drowned \n\n22 April, ,, \nThe German Emperor, screw steamer, ran into the \n\nBeresford, anchored off Dover, in a fog, and sank ; \n\nnine missing 21 May, ,, \n\nGettysburg, barque, of Aberdeen, wrecked on a coral \n\nreef off\' Morant Cayes, 33 miles from Jamaica, \n\nwith a crew of 16 hands, 30 March-i April ; \n\nby very great exertions, the captain and part of \n\nthe crew succeeded in getting on the desolate \n\nisle, where they stayed, living on shell-fish, &c. \n\nOn 22 April two men on a raft started for \n\n* W. A. Scholten, Dutch steamer, sunk by collision \nwith Rosa Mary of Hartlepool, at anchor off Dover ; \nabout 130 persons perish, many saved by the crew of \nthe Ebro of Sunderland. 19 Nov. 1887. \n\nAlfred D. Snow, American vessel, wrecked off Water- \nford ; 28 perish, 4 Jan. 1888. \n\nt Collision between Thingvalla and Geiser, German \nteamers, off Sable Island, N. Atlantic ; 105 lives in the \nGeiser, lost 14 Aug. 1888. \n\nI John Hanna, steamer, laden with cotton, burnt on \nthe Mississippi ; about 20 persons perish, 24 Dec. 1888. \n\n\xc2\xa7 The Comtcsse de Flandre cut in half by collision with \nthe Princess Henrictte, both Belgian mail boats ; the \ncaptain and 14 others killed, prince Napoleon Bonaparte \nescapes; about 1-45 p.m. 20 March, 1889. \n\n|| Danmark, Danish emigrant vessel sank in the Atlantic \nabout 800 miles from Newfoundland; captain Murrell \nof the Missouri, Atlantic transport line, and his crew, \nwith great energy rescued all on board (735), 6 April, \n1889. \n\n[He landed part on the Azores and part ill Phila- \ndelphia.] \n\nAt the Mansion House, on 24 May, 1889, captain \nMurrell, in the presence of distinguished company, \nreceived from the lord mayor a silver salver with \nan inscription, and a purse of money (about ynl.) from \nthe citizens of London ; the officers and crew also \nreceived testimonials. \n\n\n\nJamaica and landed seven miles from Morant \nBay, 24 April. On their reaching Kingston, \nH.M.S. Forward was sent off, and brought the \ncaptain and the rest of the crew to Kingston, \n27 April, whence they were conveyed to England\' \nhaving lost seven of their number, where they \n\nT arrived l8 May, 1880 \n\nIsaac Hoiiston, British schooner, foundered in a \nstorm off Milwaukee ; 16 lives lost ; reported \n\n14 June \n\nThe Papel steamer wrecked on Huamblin island, \nS. American coast ; n men drowned, reported, \n\n,-, 2 Aug. , \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nEarnmore, Newcastle steamer, foundered in a \ncyclone off the Bahamas ; the crew entered two \nboats, the captain, with 18 men, not heard of \nsince\xe2\x80\x94 the first mate and 6 men nearly starvin", \nwere picked up and landed at Nassau, near \nProvidence, 30 Sept 5 Sept. \n\nH.M.S. Lilly wrecked off Labrador coast (see Navy), \' \n\n16 Sept. ,, \n\nThe Florence, screw steamer, foundered off Calf of \nMan, 10 lives lost. . . . about 17 Sept. \n\nMinnie Swift, a Nova Scotian sailing ship, sunk \nby collision with the Geographique, off St. Pierre, \nFrance, 15 persons drowned . . 20 Oct. \n\nSantiago, British screw steamer, on her way from \nNew York to Hull, burnt; all hands saved by \nA. J. Fuller 2 g Nov. \n\nCleddy, steamer, sank after collision with Isle of \nCyprus, steamer, off St. Catherine\'s, about 13 \nlives lost 20 Dec. \n\nOvington, steamer, sunk by collision with Queen \nVictoria, near Greenock, six lives lost . 29 Dec. ,, \n\nLoch Moidart, British iron ship, run ashore at \nCallandzoog, near Dieppe ; 30 lives lost, reported, \n\n27 Jan. 1890 \n[See Storms in Jan. 1890.] \n\nHighgate, steamer, and Sovereign, ship, both sunk \nby collision off Lundy Island, 12 lives lost \n\n19 Feb. ,,. \n\nQuetta, Queensland liner, struck on unknown rock, \noff cape York, Torres strait, and sank ; about \n133 lives lost out of 282 ; captain exonerated, \n\n28 Feb. ,, \nVirent, steamer, wrecked off Ferrol, 15 lives lost, \n\nabout 22 March, ,, \n\nEthel Gwendoline, steamer, foundered off Battray- \nhead, Aberdeenshire ; 7 men drowned 21 March, ,, \n\nCity of Paris, Inman Atlantic steamer, with above \n680 passengers and 370 crew, left New York, 19 \nMarch, and was due at Queenstown, 26 March ; \non 25 March, about 5.45 p.m., the starboard en- \ngine broke down ; the inflow of water stopped \nthe other engine, and eventually the vessel was \nwithout machinery or sailing apparatus, a help- \nless log; a lifeboat was launched on 27 March, \nhelp arrived on 28 March, and without losing a \nsingle life, the vessel was towed into Queenstown \n\n29 Marcl , , T \n\nDacca, British India company\'s steamer, foundered \non a reef of rocks 400 miles from Suez ; passen- \ngers, mostly emigrants to Queensland, got on to \nthe reef, the officers and crew remained on board, \nwere saved by the Bosario steamer ; the Palam- \ncotta took those on the reef to Suez \n\n16 May et scq. ,, \n[The disaster attributed to the unskilful "naviga- \ntion of the chief officer, 30 June.] \n\nGulf of Aden, steamer, foundered on the way from \nLiverpool to Valparaiso ; 73 lives lost . 12 May, ,, \n\n*Ethel, barque, bound for Brisbane, sunk in the \nChannel near Portland, by collision with the \nUmbilo, screw steamer ; 4 lives lost . 25 June, ,, \n\nThe fishing fleets on the north and west coasts of \nScotland suffered much by disasters; about 6n \npersons perished, reported . . . 28 June, ,, \n\nEgypt, Atlantic liner, of Liverpool, left New York \n10 July ; burnt at sea, 17, 18 July ; all hands (95) \n\n* Prima Frederik, Dutch mail steamer, outward bound \nfor Java with troops and specie, sunk by collision with \n\nthe Marpessa, British steamer, in a dense fog in llie \n\nChannel. Great order maintained on the Prims Frederik\', \nonly 7 Dutch soldiers perished, out of the 170 persons \non board, 25 June ; the Marpessa, much injured, got to \nFalmouth, 27 June, 1890. \n\n\n\nWRECKS. \n\n\n\n1086 \n\n\n\nWREXHAM. \n\n\n\nsaved by the Gustav Oscar ; carried to Dover by \n\nthe Manhattan 24 July, \n\nHalcyon, British steamer, sunk by collision with \nRheubina, off coast of Spain ; 13 lives lost, re- \nported * 11 Aug. \n\nThe Portacnse, Liverpool steamer, founders during a \n\ncyclone, 250 miles from Barbadoes, the captain \n\nand most of the crew drowned . . 28 Aug. \n\nThe Melmerby, Liverpool barque, wrecked off Roys \n\nIsland ; 15 men in the long boat drowned 5 Oct.t \n\nH.M.S. Serpent, cruiser, wrecked off the coast of \n\nCorunna ; about 173 lives lost (see Navy) 11 Nov. \n\nCalypso, Bristol screw steamer, sunk by collision \n\nwith the Pinzon, Spanish steamer, off Folkestone, \n\n24 Nov. \nUppingham, Cardiff steamer, bound for China \nstruck on a rock below Hartland Quay, Corn- \nwall ; about 7 men drowned . . 23 Nov. \nWestbourne, Hull steamer, wrecked off Theodosia, \nBlack Sea ; 18 lives lost ... 24 Nov. \nTalookdar, British steel ship, sunk by collision \nwith the Libussa, German ship, between the Cape \nde Verde and Cape Rocque ; 22 lives lost 13 Dec. \n\xe2\x96\xa0Shanghai, China Navigation Co.\'s steamship (capt. \nMartin) near Ching Kiang, burnt ; nearly 300 \nlives said to be lost .... 25 Dec. \nSear, steamer, sunk by collision off St. Abb\'s Head, \n\nFirth of Forth ; 13 men drowned . 11 Jan. ] \nChiswick, London steamer, struck on a reef off \nScilly ; n out of 19 men drowned . . 5 Feb. \nThe Queen, British barque, sunk by collision with \nthe Ipsvjich, between Antwerp and Cardiff; the \ncaptain and 6 men drowned . 5 a.m. 21 Feb. \nBay of Panama, steel ship, from Calcutta, for Dun- \ndee (about 27 lives lost) ; Marana, iron steamer \n(about 22 lives lost), and about 13 other vessels \n(about 40 persons drowned) all wrecked off the \nFalmouth coast, during the great snowstorm, \n\ng, 10 March, \nThe Utopia, British steamer, capt. M\'Keague, con- \nveying 830 Italian emigrants, with 50 crew, from \nNaples to New York, sunk during a gale by col- \nlision with H.M.S. ironclad Anson, at anchor in \nthe Bay of Gibraltar ; about 538 passengers and \n\xe2\x96\xa026 of the crew drowned. Heroic exertions were \npromptly made by the crews of all the ships in \nthe harbour, to save life ; of these, two brave \nmen of the Immortalite, James Croton and George \nHales, were drowned, 7 p.m. 17 March ; above \ni,i5oZ. (Italian government, 200L) subscribed for \nthe relief of the survivors . . . March, \nThe marine court censures capt. M\'Keague for \ngrave error of judgment, . . 25 March, \n[The Utopia was raised under the direction of Mr. \nArmit, 8 July, 1891.] \nStrathairly, British steamer, wrecked off the coast \nof North Carolina ; 19 lives lost, reported, \n\n26 March, \nChapman, missionary schooner, wrecked off the \ncoast of Tahiti ; 16 persons drowned, reported, \n\n30 March, \nGlamorgan, steamer, sunk by collision with P. \nCalami, Dutch American steamer, in mid- \nchannel, between Dover and Folkestone, \n\n15 April, \n.St. Catharis, steamer, wrecked off the Caroline \nIslands, reported ; 90 persons drowned . April, \nLcstris and Mersey, two steamers, sunk by collision \nin the Mersey ; several lives lost . 23 May, \nDunholme, steamer, of W. Hartlepool, sunk by \ncollision with the Glasgow steamer Kinloch, near \nDover ; 17 lives lost . . 2.30 a.m. 7 July, \nGambler, screw-steamer, sunk by collision with \nthe Easby in Port Phillip Bay, Melbourne ; \nabout 21 lives lost .... 28 Aug. \nDunmurry, British steamer, sunk during a hurri- \ncane, 250 miles from Halifax, Nova Scotia ; 8 \nlives lost about 1 Sept. J \n\n\n\n* Ertogrul, Turkish government cruiser, and the \nMusasha Marv, Japanese mail steamer (crews lost), \nfounder in Japanese waters during a heavy gale (see \nTurkey and Japan), 18 Sept. 1890. \n\nt Collision of the Spanish steamer Vlzcaya with the \nCornelius Margraves, schooner, off New Jersey ; both \nvessels sunk ; the captain and about 60 persons of the \nVlzcaya drowned, 30 Oct. 1890. \n\nt The Taormina, Italian mail steamer, sunk by colli- I \n\n\n\nWol.vUtone, steamer, left Bristol for New York, 11 \nSept. ; disabled by a gale, crew takes to life \nboats, 22 Sept. ; 9 men rescued, the captain and \n\n11 men missing 15 Oct. \n\n30 vessels wrecked off the coast of Labrador, and \nabout 50 lives lost during a gale, reported, \n\n23 Oct. \n\nCharlunod, barque, sunk by collision with the \n\nBoston, near the Eddystone lighthouse ; 15 lives \n\nlost 4 a.m. 26 Oct. \n\nMoselle, royal mail steamer, struck on a reef, 10 \nmiles from Colon ; totally wrecked, only the \n\ncaptain drowned 28 Oct. \n\nParsie, schooner, coming from Funck island, \nwrecked on a reef ; 7 lives lost, reported 6 Nov. \nEnterprise, Indian marine steamer, founders off \nPort Blair, Andaman islands, during a cyclone ; \nabout 70 lives lost, 6 saved ... 2 Nov. \nBenvenue, full-rigged ship, bound for Sydney, \nwrecked off Sandgate ; 27 persons suspended in \nthe rigging for 16 hours, were saved with great \ndifficulty by the Sandgate lifeboat, and taken to \nFolkestone ; capt. James Moddrel and 4 men \n\ndrowned n Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMany wrecks during gales . . 10 Nov. et seq. ,, \nEnterkin, steel sailing ship sunk off Ramsgate, \nnear Galloper sands, during a gale ; about 27 \n\nlives lost 11 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAbyssinia, Guion screw-steamer, burnt, 5 days out \nfrom New York ; the passengers and crew rescued \nby the Spree . . . . . 18 Dec. ,, \nChildwall, barque, sunk by collision with Noord- \nlani, steamer, off Flushing : 15 men drowned, \n\n2 Jan. 1892 \nNamchoia, a British steamer, foundered off Cupchi \n\nPoint, China ; about 509 lives lost about 14 Jan.* \xe2\x80\x9e \nForest Queen, steamer, sunk by collision with the \nLoughborough, steamer, near Flamborough Head; \nabout 14 lives lost .... 24 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \nCounty of Salop, steamer, stranded in Wideniouth \nBay, Cornwall ; the 30 persons on board saved \nby the Bude Rocket Brigade . . 10 March, ,, \nWalmer Castle, Deal lugger, foundered near the \nIsle of Wight during a gale ; 7 men drowned, \n\n15 March, ,, \nEarl of Aberdeen, barque, wrecked on tire Pem- \nbrokeshire coast ; 16 lives lost . . 15 May, ,, \nPetroled, British petroleum steamer, blown up in \n\nBlaye harbour, near Bordeaux ; 18 deaths, 14 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nCity of Chicago, Inman Atlantic liner, run ashore \nnear Old Head of Kinsale, during a fog ; pas- \nsengers, &c, landed, 1 July; totally wrecked, 7 \nJuly ; Mr. Arthur Redford, the master\'s certifi- \ncate suspended for 9 mouths . . 21 July, ,, \nPeter Stuart, British ship, struck on a rock near \n\nYarmouth, Nova Scotia ; 14 deaths . 4 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nAjax, steamer, sunk by collision with Rundeberg, \n\nsteamer ; 35 deaths .... 9 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nThracia, barque, capsized near Port Erin, Isle of \n\nMan; 17 lives lost 14 Aug. ,, \n\nAnglia, Anchor Line steamer, capsized near the \nmouth of the Hoogly ; 12 lives lost . 24 Aug. ,, \n.WRECK COMMISSION, a new court esta- \nblished to inquire into the causes of shipwrecks ; \nfirst sat, 30 Oct. 1876, Mr. H. C. Rothery, presi- \ndent. \n\nWREXHAM, S. E. Denbighshire, the Saxon \nWrightesham, given to earl Warren by Edward T. ; \nmade a borough by the reform act, 1832. An ex- \nhibition of art treasures of North Wales, and the \nborder counties, was opened here by the duke of \nWestminster, 22 July, 1876. Musical festival here \n\nsion with the Greek steamer Thessalia, off Cape Sunium ; \nabout 60 lives lost, 2 a.m. 12 Sept. 1891. \n\n* Eider, German iron-screw steamer, six-masted (North \nGerman Lloyd\'s), from New York to Bremen, struck on \nrocks near the Isle of Wight during a fog, 31 Jan ; capt. \nHeineke, crew 166, and 227 passengers, together with the \nmails, bars of silver, and other parts of the cargo saved \nby the great exertions of the lifeboats, 1-3 Feb. ; the \nEider lifted off the rocks about 7 March, and floated to \nSouthampton, .29 March, 1892. \n\nThe German emperor presented 200L to the Lifeboat \nInstitution, and gold watches to some of the masters of \nlifeboats, April, 1852. \n\n\n\nWRITING. \n\n\n\n1087 \n\n\n\nWYOMING. \n\n\n\n1883, et seq. Population, 1881, 10,978 ; 1891, \n12,552. \n\nWRITING- Pictures are considered to be the \nfirst essay towards writing. The most ancient re- \nmains of writing are upon hard substances, such as \nstones and metals, used by the ancients for edicts, \nand matters of public notoriety. Athotes, or \nHermes, is said to have written a history of the \nEgyptians, and to have been the author of the \nhieroglyphics, 21 12 B.C. Usher. Writing is said to \nhave been taught to the Latins by Europa, daughter \nof Agenor, king of Phoenicia, 1494 B.C. Thucydides. \nCadmus, the founder of Cadmea, 1493 B.C., brought \nthe Phoenician letters into Greece. Vossius. The \ncommandments were written on two tables of stone, \n1491 B.C. Usher. The Greeks and Romans used \nwax table-books, and continued the use of them \nlong after papyrus was known ; see Papyrus, \nParchment, Paper. Thos. Astle\'s " History of \nWriting" was first published in 1784; Natalis de \nWailly\'s " Elemens de Paleographie," 1838; see \nDiplomatics and Type- Writers.* \nThe Palseographical Society was founded in 1873 ; Mr. \n\nBireh, of the British Museum, president. \n\nWROXETER (in Shropshire), the Roman city \nUriconium. Roman inscriptions, ruins, seals, and \ncoins were found here in 1752. New discoveries \nhaving been made, a committee for further investi- \ngation met at Shrewsbury on 11 Nov. 1858. Exca- \nvations were commenced in Feb. 1859, which were \ncontinued till May. Large portions of the old town \nwere discovered; also specimens of glass and pottery, \npersonal ornaments and toys, household utensils and \nimplements of trade, cinerary urns, and bones of \nman and of the smaller animals. A committee was \nformed in London in Aug. 1859, with the view of \n\xe2\x80\xa2continuing these investigations, which were re- \nsumed in 1861, through the liberality of the late \nBeriah Botfield, M.P. The investigations, stopped \nthrough want of funds, were resumed for a short \ntime in 1867. Mr. Thomas Wi\'ight published \n*\' Uriconium " in 1872. \n\nWURSCHEN, see Bautzen. \n\nWUNTHO, see Burmah, 1891. \n\nWtJRTEMBERG, originally part of Swabia, \nwas made a county for Ulric I., about 1265, and a \nduchy for Eberhard in 1494. The dukes were pro- \ntestants until 1722, when the reigning prince became \na Roman catholic. Wiirtemberg has been repeatedly \ntraversed by arrnies, particularly since the great \nFrench revolution of 1793. Moreau made his cele- \nbrated retreat, 23 Oct. 1796. The political consti- \ntution is dated 25 Sept. 1819. Wiirtemberg opposed \nPrussia in the war, June, 1866, but made peace, \n13 Aug. following ; in Oct. 1867, joined the Zoll- \nverein {which see), but sent a contingent to Prussia \nin the war, 1870. Population of Wiirtemberg in \n1871, 1,818,539; 1880, 1,971,118; 1885, 1,995,185; \n1890, 2,035,443. \' \n\n* " I would check the petty vanity of those who slight \ngood penmanship, as below the notice of a scholar, by \nreminding them that Mr. Fox was distinguished by the \nclearness and firmness, Mr. Professor Porson by the cor- \nrectness and elegance, and sir William Jones by the ease \nfind beauty of the characters they respectively employed." \nDr. Parr. \n\n\n\nDUKES. \n\n1494. Eberhard I. \n\n1496. Eberhard II. \n\n1498. Ulric ; deprived of his states by the emperor \n\nCharles V. ; recovers them in 1534. \n1550. Christopher the Pacific. \n1568. Louis the Pious. \n1593. Frederic I. \n1608. John Frederic ; joined the protestants in the Thirty \n\nyears\' war. \n1628. Eberhard III. \n1674. William Louis. \n1677. Eberhard Louis ; served under William III. \n\nIreland; and with the English armies on the \n\ncontinent. \n1733. Charles Alexander. \n1737. Charles Eugene. \n\n1793. Louis Eugene (joins in the war against France). \n1795. Frederic I., makes peace with France, 1796. \n1797. Frederic II. marries Charlotte, princess royal of \n\nEngland, 18 May; made elector of Germany, \n\n1803; acquired additional territories, and the \n\ntitle of king in 1805. \n\n\n\n1806. Frederic I. supplies a contingent to Napoleon\'s \nBussian army ; yet joined the allies at Leipsic in \n1813. Died in 1816. \n\n1816. William I., 30 Oct. ; son ; born 27 Sept. 1781. He \nabolished serfdom in 1818 ; instituted represen- \ntative government in 1819; entered into a con- \ncordat with Rome in 1857 ; was the oldest living \nsovereign, 1862 ; died 25 June, 1864. \n\n1864. Charles I., son; born 6 March, 1823; married \nprincess Olga of Russia, 13 July, 1846. No \nissue ; died 6 Oct. 1891. \n\n1891. William II., cousin ; born, 25 Feb. 1848; married, \n1. Marie, princess of Waldeck and Pyrmont, 15 \nFeb. 1877; 2. Charlotte, princess of Schaumburg \nLippe, 8 April, 1886; attempt on his life by \nMartin Miiller, lunatic anarchist, 20 Oct. 1889. \n\nWURZBURG (in Bavaria), was formerly a \nbishopric, and its sovereign one of the greatest \necclesiastic princes of the empire. It was given as \na principality to the elector of Bavaria in 1803 ; and \nby the treaty of Prosburg, in 1805, was ceded to the \narchduke Ferdinand of Tuscany, whose electoral \ntitle was transferred from Salzburg to this place. In \n1814 this duchy was again transferred to Bavaria, \nin exchange for the Tyrol, and the archduke Ferdi- \nnand was reinstated in his Tuscan dominions. \nMinisters from the second-rate German states met \nat Wiirzburg to promote union amongst them, 21-27 \nNov. 1859. Near here the archduke Charles de- \nfeated the French under Jourdan, 3 Sept. 1796; and \nthe Prussians defeated the Bavarians, 28 July, 1866. \n\nWYATT\'S INSURRECTION, see Rebel- \nlions, 1554. \n\nWYCLIFFITES, see Wickliffites. \n\nWYOMING, a western territory of the United \nStates of America, constituted in 1868, admitted \na state 1890. Capital, Cheyenne. Lynch Law has \nnot long been superseded. Women have been \nenfranchised. It includes Yellowstone park (which \nsee): The desolation of Wyoming, in Pennsylvania, \nby an incursion of Indians allied with the British, \n3 July, 1778, forms the subject of Campbell\'s poem, \n"Gertrude of Wyoming " published 1809. Wyo- \nming abounds in iron, coal, natural soda, mineral \noil, &c. Population 1880, 20,789; 1890, 60,705. \n\n\n\nX. \n\n\n\nXANTHIAN MAEBLES. \n\n\n\nXYLOTECHNOGEAPHICA. \n\n\n\nXANTHIAN MAEBLES, see British \n\n\n\nXANTHICA, a military festival observed by \nthe Macedonians in the month called Xanthicus \n(our April), instituted about 392 B.C. \n\nXANTHTTS, Lycia, Asia Minor, was taken by \nHarpagus for Cyrus, about 546 B.C., when the in- \nhabitants buried themselves in the ruins. It was \nbesieged by the Romans under Brutus 42 B.C. After \na great struggle the inhabitants set fire to their city, \ndestroyed their wives and children, and perished. \nThe conqueror wished to spare them, and offered \nrewards to his soldiers if they brought any of the \nXanthians into his presence, but only 150 were \nsaved. Plutarch. \n\nXENOPHON, see Retreat of the Greeks. \n\nXEEES DE LA ERONTERA (S.W. Spain), \nthe Asta Regia of the Romans, and the seat of the \nwine-trade in Spain, of which the principal wine is \nthat so well known in England as Sherry, an \nEnglish corruption of Xeres. The British impor- \ntations of this wine in 1850 reached to 3,826,785 \ngallons ; and in the year ending 5 Jan. 1852, to \n3,904,978 gallons. Xeres is a handsome and large \ntown, of great antiquity. At the battle of Xeres, \n26 July, 711, Roderic, the last Gothic sovereign \nof Spain, was defeated and slain by the Saracens, \ncommanded by Tarik and Muza. \n\n\n\nXEEXES\' CAMPAIGN. Xerxes crossed the \nHellespont by a bridge of boats, and entered Greece \nin the spring of 480 B.C., with an army which, \ntogether with the numerous retinue of servants, \neunuchs, and women that attended it, amounted \n(according to some historians) to 5,283,220 souls. \nHerodotus states the armament to have consisted of \n3000 sail, conveying 1,700,000 foot, besides cavalry \nand the marines and attendants of the camp. This \nmultitude was stopped at Thermopylae {which see) \nby the valour of 300 Spartans under Leonidas, 7-9 \nAug. 480 B.C. The fleet of Xerxes was defeated at \nAi-temisium and Salamis, 20 Oct. 480 B.C. ; and he \nhastened back to Persia, leaving behind Mardonius, \nthe best of his generals, who, with an army of \n300,000 men, was defeated and slain at Plataea, 22 \nSept. 479 B.C. Xerxes was assassinated by Arta- \nbanus, 465 B.C. \n\nXIMENA (S. Spain), the site of a battle be- \ntween the Spanish army under the command of \ngeneral Ballasteros, and the French corps com- \nmanded by general Regnier, 10 Sept. 181 1. The \nSpaniards defeated their adversaries ; the loss wa3 \ngreat on both sides. \n\nXYLOTECHNOGEAPHICA, a process for \nstaining wood various colours, invented and patented \nby Mr. A. F. Brophy ; announced early in 1875. \n\n\n\nY. \n\n\n\nYACHT. \n\nYACHT (from the Dutch jaght) ; a light vessel \nfor pleasure or races. \n\nYacht Races. \xe2\x80\x94 The America, an American yacht \nschooner, built on the wave principle, 171 tons ; \nat Cowes regatta, in a match round the Isle of \nWight, open to all comers, came in first by 8 \nmiles, gaining the Royal Yacht\'s Squadron\'s In- " \nternational queen\'s cup worth 100I. . 22 Aug. 1851 \n\nThree American yachts, the Henrietta, Vesta, and \nFleetwing, sailed from New York, 11 Dec. 1866, at \n1 p.m. The Henrietta arrived at Cowes at 5.40011 \n25 Dec. , the quickest voyage ever made in a sail- \ning vessel. Her rivals were only a few hours after \nher. \n\nIn a contest off the Isle of Wight, between the \nAmerican vessel Sappho and the English cutters \nAline, Cambria, Oimara, and Condor, the Oiinara \nwon 25 Aug. 1868 \n\nIn a triangular race between Sappho and Cambria, \nSappho won, 10 May ; no race, 14 May ; won \n\n17 May, 1870 \n\nIn a yacht race off Staten island, New York, for the \nsquadron or queen\'s cup, the Magic won, Cambria \nbeing the 8th in 16 Aug. ,, \n\nIn a series of matches off Staten island between \nMr. Ashbury\'s Livonia, and the vessels of the \nNew York Club, she was beaten by the Columbia, \n16, 18 Oct ; by the Dauntless, 21 Oct. The two \nvessels were disabled by a gale in attempting the \nrace 25 Oct. 1871 \n\nIn consequence of the collision of Mr. Heywood\'s \nyacht, Mistletoe, with her majesty\'s steam \nyacht, Alberta, 18 Aug. 1875 (see under Wrecks), \na letter was written on behalf of the queen to the \nmarquis of Exeter, commodore of the Royal \nVictoria Yacht Club, desiring yachts not to be* \nbrought too near to her majesty\'s, whether from \nloyalty or curiosity Sept. 1875 \n\nYacht Racing Association formed as a court of \nappeal . 17 Nov. ,, \n\nDeath of George Inman, of Lymington, head of \nthe firm which built the Alarm, and many other \nswift sailing yachts .... 20 Oct. 1883 \n\nMatch between the British Genesta and the \nAmerican Puritan ; the Puritan won by ij \nminutes 16 Sept 1885 \n\nGenesta beat the Dauntless in a race, 26-28 Sept. \n1885 ; the Mayflower beat the Galatea, 11 Sept. \n1S86. \n\nOcean yacht race from New York to Roche\'s Point, \nQueenstown, Ireland, between Coronet and Daunt- \nless (American), 12 March ; Coronet arrives at \nRoche\'s Point, 0^50 a.m. 28 March ; Dauntless \narrives 6-45 p.m 28 March, 1887 \n\nJubilee yacht race ; twelve yachts start from \nSouthend, 14 June ; the Genesta (sir Richard \nSutton) arrives at Dover at 5 a.m. ; the Sleuth- \nhound 1 1 "45 p.m. 27 June ; first prize i,ooogs. \n\nRace between the Scotch yacht Thistle and \nAmerican yacht Volunteer for American cup \nover the New York yacht club course ; Volunteer \nwins first race 27 Sept. ; second race 30 Sept. ,, \n\nYacht chtbs: \xe2\x80\x94 Royal Yacht Squadron, Cowes, \n1812 ; Royal Albert, 1864 ; Alfred, 1864 ; Barrow, \n1871 ; Channel Islands, 1863 ; Cinque Ports, 1872 ; \nClyde, 1856; Cork, 1720; Cornwall, 1871 ; \nDartmouth, 1866 ; Dorset, 1875 ; R. Eastern, \n1835; R. Forth, 1868; R. Harwich, 1843; \nR. Highland, 1881 ; R. Irish, 1846; R. London \n(Arundel, 1838), 1849; R. Mersey, 1844; R. \nNorthern, 1824 ; R. Portsmouth, 1880 ; R. \nSt. George, 1838 ; R. Southampton, 1875 ; R. \nSouthern, 1843 ; R. Thames, 1823 ; R. Tor bay, \n1875 ; R. Ulster, 1867 ; R. Victoria, 1844 ; R. \nWelsh, 1847 ; R. Western of England, 1827 ; \nR. Yorkshire, 1847 ; and a few others. \n\nYANKEE, from "Yengees," a corruption of \n\n\n\nYEAB. \n\n" English," the name originally given by the Mas- \nsachusetts Indians to the colonists : applied solely \nto the New Englanders by the British soldiers in the \nAmerican war (1775-81) ; afterwards by foreigners \nto all natives of the United States ; and latterly by \nthe confederates of the south to the federals of the \nnorth during the war 1861-64. \n\nYARD. The word is derived from the Saxon \ngeard, or gyrd, a rod or shoot, or from gyrdan to \nenclose, being anciently the circumference of the \nbody, until Henry I. decreed that it should be the \nlength of his arm ; see Standard Measures. \n\nYARMOUTH, Great (Norfolk), was a royal \ndemesne in the reign of William I., as appears from \nDomesday Book, 1086. It obtained a charter from \nJohn, and one from Henry III. In 1348, a plague \nhere carried off 7000 persons ; and did much havoc \nagain in 1579 and 1664. Population, 1881, 46,767; \n1891,49,318. . . \n\nTheatre built 1778 \n\nNelson\'s pillar, a fluted column 140 feet in height, \n\nerected 1817 \n\nSuspension chain bridge over the Bure, built by Mr. \nR. Cory, at an expense of about 4000\'. ; owing to \nthe weight of a vast number of persons who \nassembled on it to witness an exhibition on the \nwater, it suddenly gave way, and seventy-nine \nlives (mostly children) were lost . . 2 May, 1845 \nYarmouth disfranchised for bribery and corruption \n\nby the Reform Act Aug. 1867 \n\nThe prince of Wales opened a new grammar school, \n\n6 June, 1873 \nAquarium and winter garden opened . 5 Sept. 1876 \nNew municipal buildings opened by the prince of \n\nWales 31 May, 1882 \n\nReturns one M.P. by Act of 1885. \n\nYASHGAR, a country, Central Asia; Yakoob, \nits able despotic chief, was contending with China \nand Eussia, 1875. \n\nYEAR. The Egyptians, it is said, were the \n\nfirst who fixed the length of the year. \n\nThe Roman year introduced by Romulus, 738 B.C. ; cor- \nrected by Numa, 713 b.c ; and again by Julius Caesar, \n45 B.C. (see Calendar). \n\nThe solar or astronomical year was found to comprise 36 \ndays, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 51 seconds, and 6 decimals, \n265 b. o. \n\nThe lunar year (twelve lunar months, or 354 days, 8 \nhours, 48 minutes) was in use amongst the Chaldeans, \nPersians, and Jews. Once in every three years was \nadded another lunar month, so as to make the solar \nand the lunar year nearly agree. But though the \nmonths were lunar, the year was solar ; that is, the \nfirst month was of thirty days, and the second of \ntwenty-nine, and so alternately : and the month added \ntriennially was called Ve-Adar or the second Adar. \nThe Jews afterwards followed the Roman manner of \ncomputation. \n\nThe sidereal year, or return to the same star, is 365 days, \n6 hours, 9 minutes, n seconds. \n\nThe Jews dated the beginning of the sacred year in \nMarch, and civil year in September ; the Athenians \nbegan the year in June ; the Macedonians on 24 Sept. ; \nthe Christians of Egypt and Ethiopia on 29 or 30 Aug. ; \nand the Persians and Armenians on 1 1 Aug. Nearly \nall Christian nations now commence the year on 1 \nJanuary. \n\nIn Prance, the Merovingian kings began the year with \nMarch ; the Carlovingians sometimes began the year \nwith Christmas, 25 Dec. ; and sometimes with Easter, \nwhich, being a movable feast, led to much confusion. \n\nCharles IX. of Prance, in 1564, published an arret, the \nlast article of which ordered the year for the time to \n\n4 A \n\n\n\nYEAR-BOOKS. \n\n\n\n1090 \n\n\n\nYEW-TREE. \n\n\n\nsome to be constantly and universally begun, and \nwritten on and from i January. \n\nThe beginning of the year has been reckoned from the \nday celebrating the birth of Christ, 25 Dec. ; his cir- \ncumcision, 1 Jan. ; his conception, 25 March ; and his \nresurrection, Easter. \n\nThe English began their year on the 25th of December, \nuntil the time of William the Conqueror. This prince \nhaving been crowned on 1 Jan. gave occasion to the \nEnglish to begin their year at that time, to make it \nagree with the then most remarkable period of their \nhistory. Stoxv. Until the act for altering the style, \nin 1752 (see Style), when the year was ordered to \nbegin on Jan. 1, it did not legally and generally \ncommence in England until 25th March. In Scotland, \nat that period, the year began on the 1st of January. \nThis difference caused great practical inconveniences ; \nand January, February, and part of March sometimes \nbore two dates, as we often find in old records, 1745- \n1746, or 1745-6, or 1745. Such a reckoning often led \nto chronological mistakes ; for instance, we popularly \nsay the " revolution of 1688," as that event was com- \npleted in February, 1688, according to the then mode \nof computation : but if the year were held to begin, as \nit does now, on the first of January, it would be the \nrevolution of 1689. \n\nThe year in the northern regions of Siberia and Lapland \nis described in the following calendar, given by a \ntraveller : \xe2\x80\x94 "23 June, snow melts. 1 July, snow gone. \n\n9 July, fields quite green. 17 July, plants at full \ngrowth. 25 July, plants in flower. 2 Aug., fruits ripe. \n\n10 Aug., plants shed their seed. 18 Aug.. snow." \nThe snow continues upon the ground from 18th Aug. \nof one year to 23rd June of the year following, being \n309 days out of 365 ; so that while the three seasons of \nspring, summer, and autumn are together only fifty-six \ndays, or eight weeks, the winter is of forty -four weeks\' \nduration in these countries. \n\nSee New Style, Platonic Year, Sabbatical Year, Mahomet- \nanism, French Revolutionary Calendar. \n\nYear of our Lord ; see Anno Domini. \n\nYear of the Reign. From the time of William the \nConqueror, 1066, the year of the sovereign\'s reign has \nbeen given to all public instruments. The king\'s \npatents, charters, proclamations, and all acts of parlia- \nment have since then been generally so dated. The \nsame manner of dating is used in most of the European \nstates for all similar documents and records ; see List \nof Kings under England. \n\nYear and a Day. A space of time in law, and in many \ncases establishes and fixes a right ; as in an estray, on \nproclamation being made, if the owner does not claim \n\n1 it within the time, it is forfeited. The term arose in \nthe Norman law, which enacted that a beast found on \nanother\'s land, if unclaimed for a year and a day, be- \nlonged to the lord of the soil. It is otherwise a legal \nspace of time. \n\nYEAR-BOOKS contain reports in Norman- \nFrench of cases argued and decided in the courts \nof common law. The printed volumes extend from \nthe beginning of the reign of Edward II. to nearly \nthe end of the reign of Henry VIII., a period of \nabout 220 years ; but in this series there are many \nomissions. These books are the first in the long \nline of legal reports in which England is so rich, \nand may be considered as, to a great extent, the \nfoundation of our unwritten law, u Lex non scripta." \nIn 1863 et seq. various year-books of Edward I. \n(1292-1304) edited by Mr. A. J. Horwood, for the \nseries of the Chronicles and Memorials, were pub- \nlished at the expense of the British government. \n\nYEAST, a substance causing fermentation, was \ndiscovered by Cagniard de la Tour and Schwann, \nindependently, in 1836, to be a vegetable cell or \nfungus. \n\nYELLOW FEVER, an American pestilence, \nmade its appearance at Philadelphia, where it \ncommitted great ravages, 1699. It appeared in \nseveral islands of the West Indies in 1732, 1739, \nand 1745. It raged with unparalleled violence at \nPhiladelphia in Oct. 1762 ; and most awfully at \n. New York in the beginning of Aug. 1791. This \nfever again spread great devastation at Philadelphia \n\n\n\nin July 1 793 ; carrying off several thousand persons. \nHardie. It again appeared in Oct. 1797; and spread \nits ravages over the northern coast of America, \nSept. 1798. It reappeared at Philadelphia in the \nsummer of 1802 ; and broke out in Spain, in Sept. \n1803. The yellow fever was very violent at \nGibraltar in 1804 and 1814; in the Mauritius, July \n1815 ; at Antigua, in Sept. 1816 ; and it raged with \ndreadful consequences at Cadiz, and the isle of St. \nLeon, in Sept. 1819. A malignant fever raged at \nGibraltar in Sept. 1828, and did not terminate until \nthe following year. Yellow fever raging in the \nsouthern of the United States, Sept. Oct. 1878 ; at \nMemphis, autumn, 1879; in Florida (specially in \nJacksonville) and other southern states, autumn \n1888. Mr. R. A. Proctor, the astronomer, died of \nit at New York on his way from Florida to Eng- \nland, 12 Sept. 1888 ; the epidemic abating Oct. \n1888 ; 4,583 cases, and 396 deaths in Jacksonville to \nNov. 17, 1888. \n\nYELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK, \n\nabout 3300 square miles, in territory of Wyoming. \n\nIt includes Yellowstone lake, about 330 square miles, \nwith numerous geysers, volcanic and other grand \nnatural phenomena, rugged mountains, forests, mea- \ndows, rivers, and much beautiful scenery. Its forma- \ntion was authorised by congress in March, 1872. It \nwas visited by president Arthur in 1883. \n\nYELVERTON CASE, see Trials, 1861. \n\nYEMEN, a province of Asiatic Turkey, on the \nRed Sea, the Arabia Felix of the Romans; ste \nArabia. \n\nYENIKALE, see Azof. \n\nYEOMANRY, see under Volunteers. \n\nYEOMEN OF THE GUARD, a peculiar body \nof foot guards to the king\'s person, instituted at \nthe coronation of Henry VII. 30 Oct. 1485, which \noriginally consisted of fifty men under a captain. \nThey were called beef-eaters, a corruption of buffv- \ntiers, being attendants on the king\'s buffet or \nsideboard ; see Battle-Axe. They were of a larger \nstature than other guards, being required to be \nover six feet in height, and were armed with \narquebuses and other arms. The band was in- \ncreased by Henry\'s successors to one hundred men, \nand seventy supernumeraries ; and when one of the \nhundred died, it was ordered that his place should \nbe supplied out of the seventy. They were clad \nafter the manner of king Henry VIII. Ashmole\'s \nInstit. This is said to have been the first perma- \nnent military band instituted in England. John \nearl of Oxford, was the first captain in i486. Beat- \nson\'s Pol. Index. \n\nYERMUK (Syria). Near here the emperor \nHeraclius was totally defeated by the Saracens, after a \nfierce engagement, Nov. 636. Damascus was taken, \nand his army expelled from Syria. \n\nYEW-TREE (Taxits). The origin of planting \nyew-trees in churchyards was (these latter being \nfenced) to secure the trees from cattle, and in this \nmanner preserve them for the encouragement of \narchery. A general plantation of them for the use \nof archers was ordered by Richard III. 1483. Stow\'s \nChron. Near Fountains Abbey, Yorkshire, were \nseven yew-trees, called the Seven Sisters, supposed \nto have been planted before 1088 ; the circum- \nference of the largest thirty-four feet seven inches \nround the trunk. In 1851 a yew-tree was said to \nbe growing in the churchyard of Gresford, North \nWales, whose circumference was nine yards nine \ninches, being the largest and oldest yew-tree in the \nBritish dominions ; but tradition states that there \nare some yews in England older than the hitroduc- \n\n\n\nYEZIDIS. \n\n\n\n1091 \n\n\n\nYOKK. \n\n\n\ntion of Christianity. The old yew-tree mentioned \nin the survey taken of Richmond palace in 1649, is \nsaid to be still existing. \n\nYEZIDIS, an eastern tribe, living near the \nEuphrates, visited by Mr. Layard in 1841 : see \nDevil Worship. \n\nYEZDEGIRD, or Persian Era, was \n\nformerly universally adopted in Persia, and is still \nused by the Parsees in India, and by the Arabs, in \ncertain computations. This era began on the 26th \nJune, 632, when Yezdegird was elected king of \nPersia. The year consisted of 365 days only, and \ntherefore its commencement, like that of the old \nEgyptian and Armenian year, anticipated the Julian \nyear by one day in every four years. This difference \namounted to nearly 112 days in the year 1075, \nwhen it was reformed by Jelaledin, who ordered \nthat in future the Persian year should receive an \nadditional day whenever it should appear necessary \nto postpone the commencement of the following \nyear, that it might occur on the day of the sun\'s \npassing the same degree of the ecliptic. \n\nYNGLINGS (youths, or off-shoots), descend- \nants of the Scandinavian hero Odin, ruled Sweden \ntill 830, when the last of the pontiff kings, Olaf \nTraetelia, being expelled, led to the foundation of \nthe Norwegian monarchy. \n\nYOKE is spoken of as a type of servitude. The \n\xe2\x96\xa0ceremony of making prisoners pass under it was \npractised by the Samnites towards the Romans, \n321 B.C.; see Caudine Forks. This disgrace was \nafterwards inflicted by the Romans upon their van- \n\xe2\x96\xa0quished enemies. Dufresnoy. \n\nYOKOHAMA, see Japan. \n\nYORK (N. England), a town of the Brigantes, \nnamed Evrauc, settled by the Romans during the \n\xe2\x80\xa2second campaign of Agricola, about 79, and named \nEboracum or Eburacum, and became the metropolis \nof the north. See Population. \n\nThe emperor Severus died here . . 4 Feb. 211 \nHere Constantius Chlorus died, and his son Con- \n\nstantine the Great was proclaimed emperor, \n\n25 July, 306 \nAbbey of St. Mary\'s, founded by Seward the Dane 1050 \nYork burnt by the Danes, allies of Edgar Atheling, \n\nand all the Normans slain 1069 \n\nThe city and many churches destroyed by fire, \n\n3 June, 1 137 \nMassacre and suicide of many Jews . . . 1190 \nYork received its charter from Richard II., and the \n\nmayor was made a lord 1389 \n\nThe Guildhall erected 1446 \n\nRichard III. crowned again here . . 8 Sept. 1483 \nAt a parliament held here Charles I. professed his \n\nintention to govern legally . . 13 June, 1642 \nYork taken for the parliament, after the battle of \n\nMarston-moor 16 July, 1644 \n\nInjured during the civil war by Fairfax . April, ,, \nThe corporation built a mansion-house for the lord \n\nmayor 1728 \n\nThe castle was built by Richard III., 1484, and was \n\nrebuilt as a gaol 1741 \n\nThe York petition to parliament, to reduce the \n\nexpenditure and redress grievances . . Dee. 1779 \nYorkshire Philosophical Society established . . 1822 \nFirst meeting of the British Association held here \n\n27 Sept. 1831 \nBritish Association (2nd time) .... 1844 \n\nPopulation, 45,385 1861 \n\nFall of the iron bridge over the Ouse ; five persons \n\nkilled 27 Sept. ,, \n\nSocial Science Association met here . 22 Sept. 1864 \nFine Arts and Industrial Exhibition opened \n\n24 July, 1866 \nVisit of prince and princess of Wales . 9-1 1 Aug. ,, \nMeeting of the Church Congress . . 9 Oct. ,, \nThe provincial mayors gave a festival to the lord \n\nmayor of London, &c, at York . 25 Sept. 1873 \n\n\n\n1879 \n1881 \n\n\n\n18S5 \n\n\n\nPermanent Fine Art Exhibition opened by the \n\narchbishop 7 May, \n\nBritish Association jubilee meeting 31 Aug. -8 Sept. \nRoyal Agricultural Society\'s annual meeting, \n\n16 July, \nYorkshire Institute, memorial stone laid by the \n\nprince of Wales 18 July, 1883 ; opened by the \n\nmarquis of Lome .... 10 June, \nYorkshire college of science opened 26 Oct. 1874 5 \n\nnew building opened by the prince of Wales, \n\n15 July, ,, \nNew Courts of Justice, memorial stone laid by the \n\nduke of Clarence .... 16 July, 1890 \n\nDUKES. \n\n1385. Edmund Plantagenet (fifth son of king Edward \nIII.); created duke, 6 Aug. ; died 1402. \n\n1406. Edward (his son), was degraded by Henry IV. in \n1399, but restored in 1414 ; killed at Agincourt, \n1415 ; succeeded by his nephew, \n\n1415. Richard (son of Richard, earl of Cambridge, who \nwas beheaded for treason in 1415) ; became \nregent of France in 1435 ; quelled the rebellion \nin Ireland in 1449 ; claimed the throne, and was \nappointed protector in 1454 : his office was an- \nnulled, and he began the civil war in 1455, and \nwas slain after his defeat at Wakefield in 1460. \n\n1460. Edward (his son) afterwards king Edward IV. \n\n1474. Richard (his second son), said to have been mur- \ndered in the Tower, 1483. \n\n1494. Henry Tudor, afterwards Henry VIII. \n\n1605. Charles Stuart, afterwards Charles I. \n\nDUKES OF YORK AND ALBANY. \n\n1643. James Stuart (his second son), afterwards \nJames II. \n\n1716. Ernest (brother of George I.) ; died 1728. \n\n1760. Edward (brother of George III.) ; died 1767. \n\n1784. Frederic (son of George III.), born 16 Aug. 1763 \nMarries princess Frederica of Prussia, \n\n29 Sept. 1 79 1 \nCommands the British forces at Antwerp, \n\nS April, 1793 \nPresent at the siege of Valenciennes 23 May, ,, \nDefeated at Dunkirk ... 7 Sept. ,, \nAt Bois-le-Due, 14 Sept. ; and at Boxtel, \n\n17 Sept. 1794 \nAppointed commander-in-chief . . . 1798 \nDefeated near Alkmaar, 19 Sept. and 6 Oct. 1799 \nAccused by colonel Wardle of abuse of his \n\npatronage ; he resigns . . 27 Jan. 1809 \n\nBecomes again commander-in-chief . . 1811 \n\nStrongly opposes the catholic claims . . 1825 \n\nDies 5 Jan. 1827 \n\nPrince George of Wales created duke of York, \n\n34 May, 1892 \nSee Albany. \n\nYORK, Archbishopric of. The most an- \ncient metropolitan see in England, being, it is \nsaid, so made by king Lucius about 180, when \nChristianity was first partly established in England. \nThe bishop Eborius was present at the council of \nAries, 314. The see was overturned by the Saxons, \nand was revived by pope Gregory on their con- \nversion, and Paulinus is said to have been conse- \ncrated archbishop, 21 July, 625. York and Dur- \nham were long the only two sees in the north \nof England, until Henry I. erected a bishopric at \nCarlisle, and Henry VIII. another at Chester. \nYork was the metropolitan see of the Scottish \nbishops ; but during the time of archbishop Nevil, \n1464, they withdrew their obedience, and had arch- \nbishops of their own. Much dispute arose between \nthe two English metropolitans about precedency, as \nby pope Gregory\'s institutions it was thought he \nmeant, that whichever of them was first confirmed, \nshould be superior : appeal was made to the court \nof Rome by both parties, and it was determined in \nfavour of Canterbury. The archbishop of York was \nallowed to style himself primate of England, while \nthe archbishop of Canterbury styles himself primate \nof all England. The province of York now con- \ntains the dioceses of York, Carlisle, Chester, Duiv \n\n4 A % \n\n\n\nYOEK MINSTER. \n\n\n\n1092 \n\n\n\nYYEES. \n\n\n\nham, Sodor and Man, Manchester, and Ripor. \n{which see). York has yielded to the church of \nRome eight saints and three cardinals, and to \nEngland twelve lord chancellors, two lord trea- \nsurers, and two lord presidents of the north: It is \nrated in the king\'s books, 39 Henry VIII. 1546, at \n1609/. 19s. 2d. per annum. Beatson. Present in- \ncome 10,000/. \n\nARCHBISHOPS. \n\n1501. Thomas Savage, died, 3 Sept. 1507. \n\n1508. Christopher Bainbrigg, poisoned at Rome, 14 July, \n\n1514. \n1514. Thomas Wolsey, died, 29 Nov. 1530. \n1531. Edward Lee, died, 13 Sept. 1544. \n1545. Robert Holgate, deprived, 23 March, 1554. \n1555. Nicholas Heath, deprived. \n1561. Thomas Young, died, 26 June, 1568. \n1570. Edmund Grindal, translated to Canterbury, 10 Jan. \n\n1576- \n1577. Edwin Sands or Sandys, died, 10 July, 1588. \n1589. John Piers, died, 28 Sept. 1594. \n1595. Matthew Hutton, died, 16 Jan. 1606. \n1606. Tobias Matthew, died, 29 March, 1628. \n1628. George Mountaigne, died, 24 Oct. 1628. \n\n,, Samuel Harsnet, died, 25 May, 1631. \n1632. Richard Neyle, died, 31 Oct. 1640. \n1641. John Williams, died, 25 March, 1650. \n\n[See vacant ten years.] \n1660. Accepted Frewen, died, 28 March, 1664. \n1664. Richard Sterne, died, 18 June, 1683. \n1683. John Dolben, died, 11 April, 1686. \n[See vacant two years.] \n*688. Thomas Lamplugh, died, 5 May, 1691. \n1691. John Sharp, died, 2 Feb. 1714. \n1714. Sir William Dawes, died, 30 April, 1724. \n1724. Launcelot Blackburn, died, 23 March, 1743. \n1743. Thomas Herring, translated to Canterbury, Oct. \n\nJ 747- \n1747. Matthew Hutton, translated to Canterbury, March, \n\n1757- \n1757. John Gilbert, died, 1761. \n1761. Robert Hay Drummond, died, 10 Dec. 1776. \n1777. William Markham, died, 3 Nov. 1807. \n1808. Edward Venables Vernon, died, 5 Nov. 1847. \n1847. Thomas Musgrave, died, 4 May, i860. \ni860. Charles T. Longley, translated to Canterbury (from \n\nDurham), 1862. \n1862. William Thomson, translated from Gloucester; \n\ndied 25 Dec. 1890. \n1891. Wm. Connor Magee, translated from Peterborough, \n\nelected Feb., died 4 May, 1891. \n1891. William Dalrymple Maclagan, translated from \n\nLichfield, May. \n\nYOEK MINSTER (dedicated to St. Peter). \nThe first Christian church erected here, which \nappears to have been preceded by a Roman temple, \nwas built by Edwin, king of Northumbria, of wood, \nabout 625, and of stone about 635. It was damaged \nby fire in 741, and was rebuilt by archbishop \nAlbert, about 780. It Avas again destroyed by fire \nin the year 1069, and rebuilt by archbishop \nThomas, of Bayeux. It was once more burnt down \nin 1 137, with St. Mary\'s abbey, and 39 parish \nchurches in York. Archbishop Roger built the \nchoir, 1 154-81; Walter Gray added the south \ntransept in 1227; John de Romayne, the treasurer \nof the cathedral, built the north transept in 1260. \nHis son, archbishop Romanus, laid the foundation \nof the nave in 1291. In 1330, William de Melton \nbuilt the two western towers, which were finished \nby John de Birmingham in 1342. Archbishop \nThoresby, in 1361, began to rebuild the choir, in \naccordance with the magnificence of the nave, and \nhe also rebuilt the lantern tower. The minster was \nset on fire by Jonathan Martin, a lunatic, and the \nroof of the choir and its internal fittings destroyed, \n2 Feb. 1829; the damage, estimated at 60,000/., \nwas repaired in 1832 under sir Robert Smirke. An \naccidental fire broke out, and in one hour reduced \ntho belfry to a shell, destroyed the roof of the \nnave, and much damaged the edifice, 20 May, \n\n\n\n1840. This was restored by Sidney Smirke, at a \ncost of 23,000/., 1841. \n\nYOEK and Lancaster, Wars of, see \nHoses. \n\nYOEK (Upper Canada), founded in 1794; since \n1834 named Toronto. In the war between America \nand Great Britain, the United States\' forces made \nseveral attacks upon the province of Upper Canada, \nand succeeded in taking York, the seat of the \ngovernment, 27 April, 1813; but it was soon after- \nwards again retaken by the British. \n\nYOEKSHIEE Exhibition of Arts and Manu- \nfactures, opened at Leeds, by the duke of Edin- \nburgh, 13 May, 1875. The Yorkshire Registries \nAct passed 7 Aug. 1884. \n\nYOEK TOWN (Virginia, United States). \nLord Corn wal lis had taken possession of York town \nin Aug. 1 781 ; but after sustaining a disastrous \nsiege, he was obliged to surrender his army, con- \nsisting of about 7000 men, to the allied armies of \nFrance and America, under the command of general \nWashington and count Rochambeau, 19 Oct. 1781. \nThis mischance was attributed to sir Henry \nClinton, who had not given the garrison the \nnecessary succour they expected; and it mainly \nled to the close of the war. The centenary was \ncelebrated 16 Oct. 1881 et seq. On 19 Oct. the \nBritish flag was saluted generally. The town was \nstrongly fortified by the confederates in the American \ncivil war, but surrendered to M\'Clellan, May, 1862. \n\nYOUNG ENGLAND, a name given to a \nnumber of young tory gentlemen earnestly opposed \nto the repeal of the corn laws and other liberal \nmeasures, and very desirous of reviving the old \nrelations between the upper and lower classes \nmixing in rural sports, &c, yet preserving the due \ndistinctions (1842-6). Lord John Manners (Duke \nof Rutland, 1888), and the hon. G. Smythe, were \neminent leaders, and their ideas were favoured by \nMr. Disraeli (lord Beaconsfield) in his novel "Con- \ningsby," published 1844. \n\nYOUNG IEELAND, see Ireland, Young. \n\nYOUNG ITALY, see Italy, 1831. \n\nYOUNG MEN\'S CHEISTIAN ASSO- \nCIATION, for improvement of young men by \nmeans of classes, meetings, &c, founded 1844. \nExeter-hall, Strand, was bought for the associa- \ntion about July, 1880. Itmet there, 29 March, 1881. \nThe Young Men\'s Christian Institute bought the \nPolytechnic Institute, about Dec. 1881. The \nYoung Women\'s Christian As\xc2\xbbociation, founded \n\n\n\nYTTEIUM, a rare metal. The earth yttria \nwas discovered by professor Gadolin in a mineral at \nYtterby, in Sweden, 1794- The metal was first \nobtained by Wohler in 1828. It is of a dark grey \ncolour, and brittle, \n\nYUCATAN, Mexico, discovered by Hernandez \nCordova, 1517 ; conquered by Bernal Diaz, 1522; \ndeclared for independence, 1813. Its ancient cities \nare described in works by the American traveller \nStephens, 1838 and 1842. \n\nYVEES (now Ivry, N. W. France), where a \nbattle was fought, 14 March, 1590, between Henry \nIV. of France, aided by his chief nobility, and \nthe generals of the catholic league, over whom the \nking obtained a complete victory. \n\n\n\nz. \n\n\n\nZAGEAB. \n\n\n\nZAMBESI. \n\n\n\nZAGEAB (Hungary). Here Andrew III. de- \nfeated the invader Charles Martel, to whom the \npope had assigned his crown, 1292. \n\nZAHEINGEN (Baden), the seat of dukes, \nancestors of the grand duites of Baden, descended \nfrom Herman I., margrave, 1074 ; see Baden. \n\nZAMA (near Carthage, N. Africa), the scene of \nthe battle between the two greatest commanders in \nthe world at the time, Hannibal and Scipio \nAfricanus. The victory was won by Scipio, and \nwas decisive of the fate of Carthage, 202. It led \nto an ignominious peace, which closed the second \nPunic war, 201 B.C The Romans lost about 2000 \nkilled and wounded, while the Carthaginians lost \nin killed and prisoners more than 40,000 ; some \nhistorians make the loss greater; 202 b.c. \n\nZAMBESI, river of E. Africa, explored by \nLivingstone 1851-6, 1858-64. His book published, \nNov. 1865. \n\nBritish Zambesi a. \xe2\x80\x94 A charter was granted to \nthe British South Africa company 15 Oct., \nsigned 29 Oct., 1889, to settle the immense area \nlying between Lower and Central Zambesi on the \nnorth, and the Transvaal border on the south. \nThe company includes Mr. Cecil J. Rhodes, the \nAfrican explorer, the dukes of Abercorn and \nFife, earl Gifford, and other eminent persons. \nThe Portuguese exploring expedition under lieut. \nCordon ; he receives the allegiance of several \ntribes ; the limits of the districts sanctioned by \nroyal decree, and the province named Zumbo, \n\n7 Nov. 1889 \n\nThe marquis of Salisbury protests against the as- \nsumption of Zumbo by the Portuguese, referring \nto the agreement of Great Britain -with Loben- \ngula, ruler of Mashona and Makalakaland, of 11 \nFeb. 1888, and also to British agreements with \nother tribes (referred to by consul Johnston, 26 \nAug., and by consul Buchanan, 30 Sept. 1889), \nand to the results of British explorations, \n\n21 Nov. ,, \n\nSenhor de Barros Gomes, Portuguese foreign minis- \nter, in his reply sustains the claims of Portugal, \nleased on discoveries and consequent effective \noccupation of the territories in question for \ncenturies, relics of which still remain . 29 Nov. ,, \n\nMajor Serpa Pinto, with about 4,000 men with can- \nnon, forms a camp in the Makololo country, \nquarrels with the natives, conquers them, and \ncalls on the British settlers to submit to Portu- \' \ngal, reported by bishop C. A. Smythies 5 Dec. ,, \n\nLord Salisbury telegraphs to the Portuguese \ngovernment in relation to major Serpa Pinto\'s \naction, that they should not permit any such \nattacks on British settlements, or on any other \nsettlement under British protection or influence, \n\n17 Dec. ,, \n\nSen. Barros Gomes, in his reply, justifies the \nactions of major Serpa Pinto, by referring to the \ndisturbed state of the country . . 20 Dec. ,, \n\nLord Salisbury, in a despatch, declines to recog- \nnise the claims of Portugal as antiquated, and \nunsupported by action in modern times 26 Dec. ,, \n\nA peremptory note sent by lord Salisbury, re- \nquiring immediate withdrawal of major Serpa \nPinto, delivered 6 Jan. 1890 \n\nSen. Barros Gomes\' reply being deemed unsatisfac- \ntory, lord Salisbury declares that his government \nwill order that no acts of force be committed \nagainst any British settlements or others speci- \nlied by him, and requests that the matters in \n\n\n\ndispute be referred to a conference of the powers, \nin accordance with the treaty of Berlin 8 Jan. \n\nLord Salisbury, by telegram, requires to know that \nexplicit instructions have been sent from Mozam- \nbique for the immediate withdrawal of Portu- \nguese forces from the territories in question ; \nsen. Barros Gomes informs the British minister, \nMr. Petre, that such instructions had been sent \n9 Jan. Lord Salisbury, having learned from \nconsul Churchill at Mozambique, that majoi \nSerpa Pinto\'s forces still occupied his positions, \nand treated Nyassaland as a conquered country, \ndirects Mr. Petre to require acceptance of the \nBritish demands before 10 p.m. h Jan. ; if not \naccepted he is to order H.M.S. Enchantress, at \nVigo, to enter the Tagus, and to prepare for the \nwithdrawal of the British legation from Lisbon, \n\n10 Jan. \n\nThe council of state decide to yield under protest, \n\nreserving all Portuguese rights . . 12 Jan. \n\n[All the correspondence, from 16 Nov. 1889 to 13 \n\nJan. 1890, was published in the London Gazette, \n\n17 Jan. 1890.] \n\nThe surveying expedition under Mr. Selous, on \nbehalf of the British South Africa company, \nstarts Feb. \n\nThe Portuguese evacuate the disputed territory in \nthe Shire district, reported . . 8 March, \n\nTelegraph lines rapidly constructed, reported, \n\n11 June, \n\nExpedition of the South Africa company into \nMashonaland under lieut. -col. E. G. Pennefather, \nwith other military men, July ; favourable pro- \ngress, Aug. ; arrives at its goal at mount Hamp- \nden, well received by the natives, reported, 12 \nSept. ; the force disbands to occupy the land \ngranted them .... about 24 Oct. \n\nPart of the Manica country ceded to the company \nby the chief Umtasa, by treaty . 14 Sept. \n\nH.M.S. gunboats, the Herald and Musquito, enter \nthe Zambesi, accompanied by other vessels with \nstores 8 Oct. \n\nH.M.S. Redbreast, man-of-war, leaves Zanzibar, 3 \nSept., amid many difficulties and some Portu- \nguese opposition, with other vessels, proceeds up \nthe Zambesi, reaches Zumbo, and returns to \nZanzibar 17 Oct. \n\nMr. Colquhoun, the administrator of the company, \nassumes the government at Fort Salisbury, \n\n10 Oct. \n\nThe Anglo-Portuguese agreement of 20 Aug. with- \ndrawn, and a modus vivendi agreed on 14 Nov. \n\nCol. Paiva d\'Andrade and the baron de Rezendi, \nwith Gouveia, a half-breed native chief, and about \n300 followers, seize Umtasa\'s kraal at Massi \nKesse, and replace the British by the Portuguese \nflag, 8 Nov. ; major Forbes, with the company\'s \npolice, re-takes the kraal, restores the British \nflag, and temporarily imprisons the Portuguese \nofficers ; Gouveia, with his men, flee . 15 Nov. \n\nThe South Africa company ordered by the British \ngovernment to withdraw from Manica, \n\nabout 19 Dec. \n\nGungunhama, nominal king of Manica, said to have \nreplaced the Portuguese flag by the English, \nreported 31 Dec. \n\nGold discovered in Mashonaland ; many claims \nfor working and tracts assigned . Dec. et seq. \n\nCol. Paiva d\'Andrade arrives in Lisbon, and com- \nplains of the conduct of major Forbes and others \n(in Nov.), and denies the truth of the company\'s \nstatements respecting it . . 19 Jan. \n\nMr. H. H. Johnston appointed British resident of \nthe district N. of the company\'s territories, to be \ncalled " British Central Africa " . . March, \n\nThe Countess of Carnarvon, steamer, conveying \nMessrs. Jameson, Doyle, Stevens, and Moodie to \n\n\n\nZAMOEA. \n\n\n\n1094 \n\n\n\nZANZIBAE. \n\n\n\nCape Town, to meet Mr. C. Rhodes, captured by \na Portuguese customs\' steamer on the river \nLimpopo, which was declared open by the chief, \nGungunhama, free to British commerce, about \n8 March ; Gungunhama repudiates vassalage to \nPortugal 14 March, 1891 \n\nMr. Jameson and others at Delagoa Bay set free, \n17 March ; go to Cape Town . . March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe British steamer, Norseman, containing sir John \nWilloughby and party, with the imperial British \nmail for Mashonaland, stopped by the Portuguese \nat Port Beira, in the Pungwe river, although the \nprescribed duty of 3 per cent, on the stores had \nbeen offered, according to the modus vivendi ; the \nBritish flag replaced by the Portuguese. Two \nsteam launches seized, and the crews imprisoned, \nreported by sir John at Delagoa bay, 20 April ; \non the remonstrance of lord Salisbury the Portu- \nguese government declares the Pungwe river \nopen to British subjects ; three of H.M.\'s ships \nsent to the Pungwe, announced . 23 April, ,, \n\nMassi Kessi evacuated by the British by govern- \nment orders, reported . . . .30 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGungunhama, king of Gazaland, sends an embassy \nto Queen Victoria, soliciting perpetual alliance, \n\nApril, May, ,, \n\nTwo envoys honourably received, May, June ; by \nthe Queen at Windsor . . . .10 July, ,, \n\nPortuguese attack on the company\'s police post, \nW. of Massi Kesse, repulsed . . n May, ,, \n\nMr. Cecil Rhodes, commissioner, arrives at Fort \nSalisbury 16 Oct. ,, \n\nFirst annual meeting of the British South Africa \ncompany, the duke of Abercorn in the chair ; \nreport and balance-sheet accepted . 22 Dec. ,, \n\nThe British parliament votes 2o,oooZ. for a survey \nfor the construction of a railway from Mombasa \nto the Victoria Nyanza ... 10 March, 1892 \n\nAgreement between Great Britain and Portugal \nrespecting the navigation of the Zambesi, \n\nabout 19 March, ,, \nZAMOEA (Spain). Here Alphonso the Great \n\ndefeated the Moors, in 901. \n\nZ ANTE . One of the Ionian Islands {which see) . \n\nZANZALEENS. This sect rose in Syria, \nunder Zanzalee, 535 ; he taught that water baptism \nwas of no efficacy, and that it was necessary to be \nbaptized by fire, with the application of a red-hot \niron. The sect was at one time very numerous. \n\nZANZIBAE or ZANGUEBAE, an island, \neast Africa, metropolis of the possessions of the \nImaum of Muscat, and chief market for ivory, \ngum, coral, and cloves, and also for slaves. At the \ndeath of the Seyyid (or lord), miscalled "imaum" \nand " sultan," of Muscat, 1856, his dominions \nwere divided between his sons ; see Muscat. Majid \nobtained Zanzibar, after a contest with his brother, \nBarghash Seyyid, who, however, succeeded at his \ndeath, 7 Oct. 1870. An expedition for the pur- \npise of suppressing the slave trade was sent to \nZanzibar, under the command of sir Bartle Prere, \n20 Nov. 1872, arrived about 12 Jan. 1873. After \nsome delay and negotiation by Dr. Kirke, a treaty \nwas signed, abolishing the trade, 5 June, 1873. The \ncontract for the mail to Zanzibar was censured as \ntoo expensive in July, 1873, and altered. The \nSeyyid Barghash visited England in 1875, arrived \n9 June; received by the queen, 21 June; received \nfreedom of London, 12 July ; sailed for France, \n15 July. He decreed confiscation of slaves brought \nto Zanzibar, 18 April, 1876. The sultan\'s offer to \neoncede large territories on the mainland to sir "Win. \nMackinnon, founder of the British East Africa Com- \npany, not accepted by the British government, 1878. \nThe* sultan made knight of St. Michael and St. \nGeorge, 14 Sept. 1883. \n\nTreaty with Germany comes into force, 19 Aug. \n1886. The sultan\'s rights recognised by Anglo- \nGerman treaty ... 29 Oct. & 1 Nov. 1886 \n\n\n\nRupture with Portugal respecting non-cession of \nterritories (see Mozambique) . Feb.-Mareh, \n\nSeyyid Barghash died ; succeeded by his brother \nSeyyid Khalifah .... 26 March, \n\nDispute with Italy respecting cession of territories \nby the late sultan .... 6 June, \n\nTerritories ceded to the British Bast Africa com- \npany ; treaty signed .... 9 Oct. \n\nLieut. Cooper captures a dhow but is killed : \nmuch regretted 17 Oct. \n\nThe universities\' mission warned to retire from the \nmainland of Africa by government on account of \noperations against slave traders by England and \nGermany . , Oct. \n\nThe coast blockaded by Germany and England, \n2 Dec. ; the Germans make war on the chiefs \nwho burn Bagamoyo and retire . . 7 Dec. \n\nThe Arab slave dealers attack some German \nstations and carry off the freed slaves ; eight \nmissionaries killed . . . . n-i^Jan. \n\nMr. Brooks and 26 others, missionaries, murdered \nnear Saadani 21 Jan. \n\nMeeting of the sultan\'s bodyguard stopped by the \nintervention of Mr. Portal and gen. Mathews, \n\n19, 20 July, \n\nThe sultan signs a concession of territory to the \nBritish East Africa company (headquarters \nMombasa) 1 Sept. \n\nThe blockade on the coast abandoned after 1 Oct. \n\nOrdered that all native children born in Zanzibar \naften Jan. 1890, to be free subjects of the sultan Oct. \n\nThe marquis of Salisbury receives the two envoys \nfrom Zanzibar, 25 Oct. ; they are taken by Mr. \nBerkeley and capt. Gissing to AVindsor and other \nplaces, 26 Oct. ; received by the queen at Bal- \nmoral 29 Oct. \n\nMr. Gerald Portal, much respected by the sultan \nand Europeans, leaves Africa . . 14 Nov. \n\nMr. Stanley and party arrive at Zanzibar . 6 Dec. \n\nThe sultan receives grand cross of St. Michael and \nSt. George, and grand cross Red Eagle. 16 Dec. \n\nThe sultan surrenders all control over the British \nEast Africa company\'s territory for an annual \npayment, reported .... 26 Dec. \n\nTwelve H.M.\'s ships at Zanzibar . . 8 Jan. \n\nExpedition from Aden to Harrar under gen. Hogg, \nto chastise the Eesa tribe for a murderous raid \non Bulhar, Somaliland, a place under British \nprotection (17 Aug. 1889) on 11 Jan., reported \nsuccessful, with some loss ... 16 Feb. \n\nAdm. Fremantle, with 11 men-of-war, at Mom- \nbasa 31 Jan. \n\nDeath of the sultan, Seyyid Khalifah, by apoplexy, \nsucceeded by his brother, Seyyid Ali, 13 Feb. ; \nduly recognised 17 Feb. \n\nThe protectorate of Zanzibar, Witu, &c, assumed \nby Great Britain with the consent of the sultan, \nin conformity with the Anglo-German conven- \ntion, announced .... 18 June, \n\nAdm. Fremantle with fleet\'at Zanzibar ; the sultan \nreceived by the admiral on the Boadicea 25 July \n\nDecree of the sultan against slavery ; the sale, \npurchase, or exchange of slaves strictly pro- \nhibited ; slaves of persons dying without lawful \nheirs, declared free ; slaves not to be disposable \nby will, &c 1 Aug. \n\nSix houses of slave-brokers permanently closed, \n\n2 Aug. \n\nHerr Kiintzel and a party of Germans in Witu, or \nVitu, disarmed by the sultan . . 14 Sept. \n\nKuntzel\'s violent conduct leads to the massacre by \nthe natives of all the party except Menschel, \n\n15 Sept. \n\nRedress demanded by the British and Germans ; \nthe sultan of Witu refuses to surrender the \ncriminals .*.... 23 Oct. \n\nAn expedition under captain Curzen-Howe and \ncommander M\'Quhae; certain evacuated villages \non the coast burnt ; adm. Fremantle at Kipini ; \nthe admiral, with nearly 1,000 men, advances on \nWitu 25, 26 Oct. \n\nWitu captured and destroyed, the enemy disperse ; \nthere were 13 British wounded; the success of \nthe expedition was mainly attributed to capt. \nCurzon-Howe, the chief of the staff; between 80 \nand 90 natives were killed ... 27 Oct. \n\nCol. C. B. Euan-Smith, consul-general, made \nK.C.B., announced .... 10 Nov. \n\n\n\n1889 \n\n\n\nZAEA. \n\n\n\n1095 \n\n\n\nZOOLOGY. \n\n\n\nThe grand cross of the Star of India conferred on \n\nthe sultan of Zanzibar, invested . 14 Nov. 1890 \nDeath of the deposed sultan of Witu, reported, \n\n14 Jan. 1 891 \nSir C. B. Euan-Smith makes terms with the Witu \nchiefs ; a younger brother of the late sultan \nelected successor, announced, 26 Jan. ; peace and \namnesty proclaimed . . . about 29 Jan. \xe2\x80\x9e \nSir C. B. Euan-Smith leaves for Europe (succeeded \nby Mr. Gerald Portal, (K.C.M.G., 1892) consul- \n\n. general 6 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nThe sultan opens the Cooper Royal Naval Institute, \n\n8 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nTipoo Tib at Zanzibar, received by the sultan, \n\n20 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \nGreat increase of commerce under British pro- \ntectorate March\xe2\x80\x94 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nNew government formed, gen. Mathews, president, \n\n20 Oct. \xe2\x80\x9e \nImport duties, except on alcohol and dangerous \n\nobjects, abolished .... 20 Dec. \xe2\x80\x9e \nZanzibar declared a free port . . . 1 Feb. 1892 \n\nZAEA, capital of Dalmatia, a Eoman colony \ntinder Augustus. It revolted from Venice and was \nrecaptured, 18 Nov. 1202 ; unsuccessfully besieged \nby the Turks 1572, 1577 ; given up to Austria, 1791. \n\nZE, ZOW, ZIEEES, .for ye, you, and yours. \nThe letter a was retained in Scotland, and was \ncommonly written for the letter y so late as the \nreigu of queen Mary, up to which period many \nbooks in the Scottish language were printed in \nEdinburgh with these words, 1543. \n\nZEALAND, one of the 13 provinces which \nformed the League of Utrecht, 1579; see Holland, \nand New Zealand. \n\nZELA, N.E. Asia Minor, where Julius Csesar \ndefeated Pharnaces, king of Pontus, son of \nMithridates. Csesar, in announcing his victory, \nsent his famous despatch to the senate of Eome, in \nthese words : " Veni, vidi, vici," \xe2\x80\x94 " I came, I saw, \nI conquered" (perhaps the shortest despatch on \nrecord). This battle ended the war; Pharnaces \nescaped into Bosporus, where he was slain by his \nlieutenant, Asander ; Pontus was made a Itoman \nprovince, and Bosporus given to Mithridates of \nPergamus, 47 B.C. \n\nZELL (Hanover), see Denmark, 1772. \n\nZEND-AVESTA, ancient sacred books of the \nParsees; of which 3 out of 21 are extant. The \nage of these books is much disputed. Professor \nMax Miiller says that the MSS. had been preserved \nby the Parsee priests at Bombay, where a colony \nof fire-worshippers had fled in the 10th century. \nAnquetil Duperron\'s French translation, from a \nmodern Persian version, was published in 1771 ; \nedition by Eugene Burnouf, 1829-43. \n\nZENO or ZENON, see Stoics. \n\nZENOBIA, Queen of the East, see Palmyra. \n\nZENTA, in Hungary, the scene of a battle \nwhere the Germans, under prince Eugene, defeated \nthe Turks, 11 Sept. 1697. This victory led to the \npeace of Carlowitz, ratified January, 1699. \n\nZETETICAL SOCIETY, established in \n1S78, to afford opportunities for the unrestricted \ndiscussion of a variety of questions. \n\nZETUNIUM. After defeating Samuel king of \nBulgaria here, 29 July, 1014, the emperor Basil II. \nblinded his 15,000 prisoners, except one in a hun- \ndred, to whom he left one eye. The king died of \ngrief. \n\nZIDON, see Sidon. \n\n\n\nZINC. The ore of zinc, calamine or spelter, \nknown to the Greeks, who used it in the manufac- \nture of brass. It is said to have been known in \nChina also, and is noticed by European writers as \nearly as 123 1 ; though the method of extracting it \nfrom the ore was unknown for nearly five hundred \nyears after. The metal zinc is mentioned by \nParacelsus (died 1541). A mine of zinc was dis- \ncovered on lord Eibblesdale\'s estate, Craven, York- \nshire, in 1809. Zincography was introduced in \nLondon shortly after lithography became known in \nEngland, in 1 81 7; see Lithography. Zinc is much \nused in voltaic batteries; and its application in, \nmanufactures has greatly increased of late years ; \nsee Photozincography. \n\nZINC OBTAINED IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. \n\ntons. value. \n\nl8 75- \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x80\xa2 6,713 . . . 162,790/. \n\nl88 \xc2\xb0- \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 7. 162 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 . 123,544/. \n\nl88z - \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 16,130 . . . 286,710/. \n\nl88 5- \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 9.778 . . . 146,100/. \n\n1888. . . . 10,002 . . . 191,455/. \n\nl8 9\xc2\xb0- \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x80\xa2 8,582 . . . 203,358/. \n\nZIECONIUM, the metallic base of the earth \nZirconia, which was discovered by Klaproth in \n1789; from this Berzelius obtained the metal in \n1824. Zirconia is found in the sand of the rivers of \nCeylon. The metal exists in the form of a black \npowder. \n\nZIZYPHUS VTJLGAEIS. A shrub brought \nfrom the south of Europe about 1640. The \nZizyphas Paliurus shrub (Christ\'s Thorn) was \nbrought from Africa before 1596; see Flowers. \n\nZODIAC. Its obliquity was discovered, its \ntwelve signs named, and their situations assigned \nthem by Anaximander, about 560 b.c. The Greeks \nand Arabians borrowed the zodiac from the Hindoos. \nSir W. Jones. The zodiacal light was observed \nby Tycho Brahe, Descartes, and others, and named \nby Cassini, 1683. \n\nZOLLVEEEIN {Customs\' Union), the name \ngiven to the German commercial union, pro- \njected by Prussia 1818, and gradually joined by \nnearly all the German states except Austria. On, \n19 Feb. 1853, an important treaty of commerce and \nnavigation, between Austria and Prussia, to last \nfrom Jan. 1854 to Dec. 1865, was signed, to which \nthe other states of the Zollverein gave in their ad- \nhesion on 5 April, 1853. In Nov. 1861, Prussia \nthreatened to withdraw unless certain changes \nwere made. By the treaty of 8 July, 1867, be- \ntween the North German confederation, and the \nsouthern states (Bavaria, "Wurtemberg, Baden, and \nHesse), various changes were made, and by other \ntreaties signed in Oct. these states agreed to send \ndelegates to a customs parliament to be held at \nBerlin. A session of this parliament was opened \nby the king of Prussia, 27 April, and closed 23 May, \n1868. Federal chancellor, the count von Bismarck. \nImports, 1882, valued at 158,235,000/.; exports, \n1882, 162,235,000/. \n\nZOOLOGY (from zoon, Greek for animal) is \n\nthe division of biology which treats of animals ; \n\nAristotle (322-284 B.C.) the founder of the science. \n\nSystems of classification have been made by John \n\nRay (1628-1705), Charles Linne (1707-78), G. \n\nBuffon (1707-88), and George Cuvier (1769-1832). \n\nLinnaeus divided the animal kingdom into six classes, \n\xe2\x80\x94Mammalia, which includes all animals that suckle \ntheir young ; Aves, birds ; Amphibia, or amphibious \nanimals ; Pisces, fishes ; Insecta, insects ; Vermes, \nworms ; 1741. \n\nCuvier (died in Paris, 13 May, 1832), in his great work, \nEegne Animal, published in 1816, distributed the \n\n\n\nZOOPEAXISCOPE. \n\n\n\n1096 \n\n\n\nZULULAND. \n\n\n\nanimals into four great divisions, the Vertebrata (back- \nboned); the Mollusca (soft-bodied); the Articulata \n(jointed) ; and the Radiate, (the organs disposed round \na centre). \n\nIn 1859, professor Owen made known a system of \narranging the class Mammalia according to the nature \nof their brains. \n\nThe Zoological Society of London (originally the \nZoological Club) was founded in 1826 ; the society was \nmainly founded by sir Stamford Raffles, sir H. Davy, \nand its gardens in the Regent\'s Park were opened in \nApril, 1827 ; the society was chartered 27 March, \n1829. 2072 animals in the gardens, 31 Dec. 1871 ; \nabout 500 animals from India given by the prince of \nWales, May, 1876. \n\nDr. James Murie was appointed by the society to be \ntheir first "anatomical prosector," 3 May, 1865. \n\nNew reptile house opened, 6 Aug. 1883. 1 Jan. 1892 : \n\n2,985 members ; total receipts, 24,054?. \n\nOn the demolition of Exeter \'Change, in 1829, the \nmenagerie of Mr. Cross was temporarily lodged in the \nKing\'s Mews, whence it was removed to the Surrey \nZoological Gardens, 1832. \n\nThe Zoological Gardens of Dublin were opened, 1832. \n\nZoological Station for study, open to the public, esta- \nblished at Naples by professor Anton Dohrn, opened \n1 Oct. 1873. \n\nWombwell\'s (latterly Edmonds\') great collection of \ntrained animals sold, 29, 30 July, 1884. Bought by Mr. \nR. T. Barnum, Jan. 1S88. \n\nMr. Charles Jamrach, who succeeded his father, an \neminent importer of wild animals, which he supplied \nto the Zoological Society, and menageries, &c, died, \n6 Sept. 1891. \n\nSee Aquarium, Hippopotamus, Giraffe, and Acclimatisa- \ntion, &c. \n\nZOOPEAXISCOPE, optical apparatus in- \nvented by Mr. Eadweai-d J. Muybridge to exhibit \nphotographs of moving animals, about 1881. \nThe apparatus was successfuly employed at the Royal \nInstitution (in the presence of the prince of Wales) 13 \nMarch, 1882, and again in March and May, 1889; also \nat the Royal Society and other places in the same year. \nHis great work on the subject was published in 1887-9. \n\nZOENDOEFF, Prussia, where a battle was \nfought between the Prussian and Russian armies ; \nthe former, commanded by the king of Prussia, \nobtained a victory over the forces of the czarina, \nwhose loss amounted to 21,529 men, while that \nof the Prussians was about 11,000 : 25, 26 Aug. \n1758. \n\nZOUAVES and Foot Chasseurs. When \n\nthe French established a regency at Algiers, in \n1830, they hoped to find the employment of native \ntroops advantageous, and selected the Zooaouas, a \ncongregation of daring Arab tribes. In time, \nnumbers of red republicans, and other enthusiastic \nFrenchmen, joined the regiments, adopting the \ncostume, &c. : eventually the Africans disappeared \nfrom the ranks, and no more were added. Among \ntheir colonels were Lamoriciere and Cavaignac. \nThe French Zouaves formed an important part of \nthe army in the Crimean war, 1854-5.* \n\nZUG, the smallest canton of Switzerland, joined \nthe confederation, 1352, and the Sonderbund, 1846. \nPopulation, 1888, 23,029. \nMany persons killed by fall of about 27 houses into \n\nthe lake of Geneva .... 5-7 July, 1887 \n\nZUIDEE ZEE, or South Sea, a gulf in \n\nthe Netherlands, formerly a lake, united with the \nNorth Sea by inundations in the twelfth and \nthirteenth centuries. In 1875, the Dutch chamber \nvoted 9,500,000/. to reclaim the submerged land by \n\n* The Zouave organization and drill wore introduced \ninto the federal army in the great civil war in America, \nby Epliraiin E. Ellesworth, early in 1861. He was \nassassinated on 24 May same year, at Alexandria, just \nafter taking down a secession Hag. \n\n\n\ndrainage, and to erect a dyke, 26 feet high above \nthe water, and 25 miles long; thus adding 759 \nsquare miles to the country. The Dutch Texel \nfleet here surrendered to admiral Mitchell, 30 Aug. \n1799. \n\nZUINGLIANS, or Zwinglians, the followers \nof the reformer, Uiric Zuingli, who at Zurich \ndeclaimed against the church of Rome, and effected \nthe same separation for Switzerland from the papal \ndominion which Luther did for Saxony. He pro- \ncured two assemblies to be called ; by the first he \nwas authorised to proceed, by the second, the \nceremonies of the Romish church were abolished \n1519. Zuingli died in arms, being slain in a \nskirmish against Ms popish opponents, 11 Oct. 1531. \nThe Zuinglians were also called Sacramentarians. \n\nZULLICHAU (Prussia). Here the Russians, \nunder Soltikow, severely defeated the Prussians \nunder "Wedel, 23 July, 1759. \n\nZULPICH, see Tolbiac. \n\nZULU CELIBATE MILITAEY SYS- \nTEM, founded by Godongwana, confirmed by \nChaka and Dingaan ; completed by Cety wayo. \n\nZULULAND, South-east Africa; near the \nBritish colony, Natal, to which it has been annexed. \nIn the last century, the Zulus were a peaceful \npastoral people. \n\nGodongwana, a chief, (termed Dingiswayo, "the} \nWanderer," from his early life,) began a military \norganisation by forming a celibate army ; killed \nin battle and succeeded by his vigorous and merci- \nless ally, Chaka, styled king, by whom Zulu \nsupremacy was mainly established over the Fin- \ngoes and other tribes about 1 812 \n\nChaka assassinated ; succeeded by his brother Din- \ngaan, crafty, treacherous, and cruel ; at first \nfriendly with the British at Natal (which see) ; \nmade treaty with capt. Allen Gardiner. 6 May, 1S35 \n\nMassacres Retief, 70 Boers, and their servants \n(who had recovered his stolen cattle), 2 Feb., and \nabout 600 afterwards ; defeats the British and \nDutch in several encounters ; but is severely \nbeaten by Andries Preterms . . . Dec. 1838 \n\nDingaan again defeated ; killed by one of his chiefs ; \nsucceeded by his brother Umpanda, peaceful and \ncrafty; who keeps peace with the Engl ish and \nDutch 1840, ct seq. \n\nCetywayo (pronounced Ketchwayo) his eldest son, \nkills his brothers ; succeeds at his father\'s death ; \norganizes still further his army, named by Frere \n"the celibate man-slaying war-machine" . Oct. 1872 \n\nRecognized on behalf of the British by Mr. Shep- \nstone ; crowned 1 Sept. 1873 \n\nOpposes missionaries ; organizes armed resistance \nto the British ; when remonstrated with for out- \nrages, defies them 1876 \n\nSir Bartle Frere, governor of the Cape, requests \nhelp from England ; 90th regiment and a buttery \nsent Jan. 1878 \n\nCetywayo refuses to give up leaders of a raid on \nBritish territory (in July) ; and tenders a line ; sir \nBartle Frere, demands, as an ultimatum their \nsurrender within 30 days . . . . Dec. ,, \n\nThe time (extended) having elapsed, n Jan., the \nBritish, under lord Chelmsford, cross the Tugela \nand enter Zululand .... 12 Jan. 1879 \n\nCol. Pearson defeats the Zulus and advances to \nEchowe (which he fortifies) . . .21 Jan. ,, \n\nBritish camp at Isandula or Isandlwana, about 10 \nmiles from Rorke\'s Drift (on the Tugela), sur- \nprised and attacked by about 15,000 Zulus ; 5 com- \npanies of the 24th regiment, and many natives \nkilled ; with cols. Duniford and Pulleine, and \nother officers ; total loss about 837 ; 2000 Zulus \nsaid to have been killed ; (lieuts. Melville and \nCoghill perished while preserving the colours) \n\n22 Jan. ., \n\nRorke\'s Drift severely attacked ; successfully de- \nfended by lieuts. Chard ami Broinhead 22 Jan. ,, \n\n\n\nZULULAND. \n\n\n\n1097 \n\n\n\nZURICH. \n\n\n\nZulus attack Inkanyana ; defeated by col. Evelyn \nWood 24 Jan. 1879 \n\nReinforcements requested ; troops rapidly sent oft\' \nfrom England .... 19 Feb. et saq. ,, \n\nPrince Louis Napoleon requesting to join the \nBritish, permitted to go as a guest ; sails 27 Feb. ,, \n\nArrival of the Tamar with 800 men, &c, at Pieter- \nMaritzburg n March, ,, \n\nBritish convoy near Itombi river cut to pieces by \nZulus ; waggons and stores captured ; capt. \nDavid Moriarty killed . . . .12 March ,, \n\nCetywayo\'s brother Oham, with 600 men, joins the \nBritish ; announced . . . .18 March, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCol. Evelyn Wood attacks the Zulus on the Zlobani \nmountains ; suffers much loss, 28 March ; gains \nvictory at Kambula . . . .29 March, ,, \n\nBritish advance to relieve Echowe . 29 March, ,, \n\nZulus defeated at Ginghilovo . . .2 April, ,, \n\nCol. Pearson marches out of Echowe . 2, 3 April, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSir Garnet Wolseley appointed commander-in-chief, \ngovernor of Natal, &c, sails for the Cape May, ,, \n\nBritish total loss ; 1186 killed ; 86 died of disease ; \nannounced 27 May, ,, \n\nCetywayo said to have suppressed an insurrection, \nand retired to his kraal (or village) at Ulundi, \n\nMay, \n\nReconnoitring party, under capt. J. Brenton \nCarey, on Imbabani, near the Mozani river, sur- \nprised ; prince Louis Napoleon (acting as com- \nmander) killed 1 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nUltimatum sent to Cetywayo, requiring restitution \nof cannon, and total submission ; time expired, \n\n12 June, ,, \n\nSir G. Wolseley arrives at the Cape . 23 June, ,, \n\nStafford House South African aid committee formed, \n\nJune, ,, \n\nZulu raid on cattle ; which are recovered 25 June, ,, \n\nSir Garnet Wolseley sworn in as high commissioner \nat Pietermaritzburg . . . 28 or 29 June, ,, \n\nCetywayo totally defeated at Ulundi (ivMch see) ; \n\n4 Jul}\', ,, \n\nSir G. Wolseley receives chiefs . 12 July, et seq. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nLord Chelmsford resigns . . . .15 July, ,, \n\nSentence upon capt. Carey, respecting death of \nprince Napoleon, quashed . . .22 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nPursuit of Cetywayo : captured by major Richard \nMarter . 28 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nMeeting of Sir G. Wolseley with Zulu chiefs ; settle- \nment by treaty ; Zululand to be divided into 13 \nindependent districts ; John Dunn to be a chief ; \nlands reserved for the British ; British residents \nin each district (to be eyes and ears) ; celibate \nmilitary system abolished ; no arms to be im- \nported ; ancient laws and liberties retained ; \n[John Dunn, 20 years in Zululand ; conformed to \nZulu ways] 1 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSir G. Wolseley\'s despatch, announcing end of the \nwar, dated 3 Sept. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCetywayo arrives at Cape Town . . 15 Sept. ,, \n\nHis petition to the Queen for restitution declined, \n\nabout 11 July, 1881 \n\nJohn Dunn energetically subdues a revolting chief \n\nabout 30 July, ,, \n\nCost of Zulu war, 4,922, 141Z. . . . . \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nSir Evelyn Wood visits Zululand and makes im- \nportant changes * Sept. ,, \n\nReported fighting among the chiefs . . Nov. ,, \n\nThe country reported quiet by John Dunn . Dec. ,, \n\nCetywayo lands at Plymouth and proceeds to \nLondon 3 Aug. 188: \n\nVisited Mr. Gladstone 9 Aug. ; received by the \nQueen, 14 Aug. ; by the prince of Wales 16 Aug. ,, \n\nHis restoration to part of his kingdom with restric- \ntions, proposed by the British government Aug. ; \nsails from Southampton .... 1 Sept. ,, \n\nChanges made in the territories previous to Cety- \nwayo\'s return, announced -. . .29 Dec. ,, \n\nCetywayo\'s restoration accepted; proclaimed at \nUlundi 29 Jan. 188; \n\nStruggle between Cetywayo and chiefs, announced \n\n25 April, ,, \n\nCetywayo defeated by Oham and others with heavy \n\nloss, announced 16 May, ,, \n\nMr. Fynn, British resident, resigns, announced \n\nJune, ,, \n\nCetywayo is attacked at Ulundi, by Usibepu, 20 \nJuly ; and said to be killed . . 21 July, ,, \n\n\n\nUsibepu said to be all-powerful, Cetywayo a living \n\nfugitive, announced . . . .8 Aug. 1883 \n\nGreat battle ; Usibepu defeated by Cetywayo\'s \n\nsupporters, announced . . .16 Aug. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nCetywayo demands a British enquiry into his \n\ntreatment, announced . . . .20 Aug. , , \nCetywayo surrenders to Mr. Osborn, and is taken \n\nto Durban, about 15 Oct. ; at Ekowe . 5 Nov. \xe2\x80\x9e \nDefeats of Usibepu by other chiefs . . Nov. ,, \n\nFlight, and recapjture of Cetywayo . 27, 28 Jan. 1884 \nZibedu defeats Usutus . . about 31 Jan. ,, \nCetywayo dies of heart disease . . 8 Feb. ,, \n\nMuch warfare March-May, ., \n\nDinizulu, son of Cetywayo, crowned king by the \nBoers, in presence of 10,000 people ; grants an \namnesty, and promises fidelity to the British \n\n21 May, ,, \nUsibepu, severely defeated by the Boers and \n\nUsutus, flies, announced . . .14 June, ,, \nA Boer republic established ; Joubert, president \n\nAug. \xe2\x80\x9e \nBritish flag hoisted at St. Lucia\'s bay . . Dee. ., \nQuietness in Zululand reported . . . Jan. 1886 \nProposed annexation of Zululand to Natal declined, \nOct. ; British protectorate over the Zulu terri- \ntories planned by government . . Nov. ,, \nAgreement with the Boer republic announced, \n\n4 Nov. ., \nAnnexation of Zululand as a British possession ; \nthe governor to rule by proclamation, May ; \nproclaimed at Durban ... 21 June, 1887 \nTroubles with Dinizulu announced 5 Nov. ; his \nuncle Undabuko and others submit to sir Arthur \nHavelock, announced 7 Nov. ; military prepara- \ntions ; Dinizulu submits, 13 Nov.; Usibepu \nreinstated in his lands . . . 15 Nov. ,, \nThe chiefs attacked by the police and military \n\nfor stealing cattle .... 2 June, 1888 \nZulu rebels under Ishingana defeated after a severe \n\nconflict 2 July, \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nRebellion of Dinizulu announced . . 11 July, ,, \nSomkeli, the rebel chief, surrenders ; announced \n\n1 Aug. ,, \nDinizulu and about 1,000 rebels with cattle enters \ninto the Transvaal territory, 10 Aug. ; revolt \nended ; reported .... 29 Aug. ,, \nDinizulu surrenders conditionally to the Transvaal \n\ngovernment Sept. ,, \n\nSurrender of Undabuko, 19 Sept ; his trial began \n\n27 Sept. ,, \nIshingana, rebel chief, surrenders . 12 Nov. ,, \nTrial of Undabuko and Somkeli for treason, began \n\n15 Nov. ., \nDinizulu surrenders to the British . . Nov. .. \nSomhlolo sentenced to five years\' hard labourer \n\nhigh treason 22 Nov. ,, \n\nSeveral chiefs convicted of high treason and \n\nsentenced to imprisonment for five years, 1 Dec. ,, \nDinizulu sentenced to ten years\', Undabuko to 15 \nyears\', and Ishingana to 12 years\' imprisonment, \nJ 27 April, 18S9 \n\nDouglas M\'Kenzie, appointed bishop of Zululand \n\nin 1880, dies, announced ... 15 Jan. 1890 \nDinizutu, Undabuko, and others, transported to \nSt. Helena ...... 7 Feb. \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nGeneral tranquility of the country, reported, \n\n2 April, ,, \n\nZURICH was admitted a member and made \nhead of the Swiss confederacy, 1351, and was the \nfirst town in Switzerland that separated from the \nchurch of Rome ; see Zuinglians. A grave-digger \nat Zurich poisoned the sacramental wine, by which \n8 persons lost their lives and many others were \ngrievously injured, 4 Sept. 1776. The French, \nunder Massena, after repelling an attack of the \nAustrians, retired from Zurich, 5 June, 1799. The \nImperialists were defeated by Massena, the former \nlosing 20,000 men in killed and wounded, 25, \n26 Sept. 1799; see Switzerland. A new democratic \nconstitution was adopted, 18 April, 1869. Popula- \ntion, 1888 ; canton, 337,183 ; city, 90,088. \n\nOn 24 June, 1859, the Austrians were defeated by the \nallied French and Sardinian army at Solferino. \n\n\n\nZURICH. \n\n\n\n1093 \n\n\n\nZWITTATT. \n\n\n\nrreliminaries of peace were signed at Villa Franca by \nthe emperors of Austria and France on 12 July \nfollowing. \n\nA conference between the representatives of the powers \nconcerned having been appointed, the first meeting \ntook place at Zurich, on 8 Aug. \n\nAfter many delays a treaty was signed 10 Nov. Lom- \nbardy was ceded to Sardinia ; the formation of an \nItalian Confederation, under the presidency of the \npope, was determined on, and the rights of the ex- \nsovereigns of Tuscany, Modena, and Parma were re- \nserved. \n\nThe formation of the kingdom of Italy in 1861 annulled \nthe treaty of Zurich. \n\nSwiss National exhibition, 1 May \xe2\x80\x94 27 Dec. 1883. \n\nThe theatre destroyed by fire, no fatality ; attributed to \nan incendiary, 1 Jan. 1890. \n\n\n\nZITTPHEN, in Holland. At a battle here \n22 Sept. 1586, between the Spaniards and the Dutch, \nthe amiable sir Philip Sidney, author of "Arcadia," \n\xe2\x80\xa2was mortally wounded. He died 7 Oct. He was \nserving with the English auxiliaries, commanded \nby the earl of Leicester. \n\nZTJYDEK ZEE, see Zuider Zee. \n\nZTTYPER SLUYS (Holland). Here sir \nRalph Abereromby defeated an attack of the French \nunder Brune ; the latter suffered great loss, 9 Sept. \n1799. \n\nZWITTATT, Moravia. Here the Prussians de- \nfeated the Austrians and captured provisions, \n10 July, 1866. \n\n\n\nINDEX. \n\n\n\nThe references are to articles in the body of the work ; the italics refer to articles in this Index. The year given is \na.d. when B.C. is not mentioned ; two dates after the name, thus, 1508-82, signify the year of the person\'s birth \nand death ; 6., born ; d., died ; ft., flourished ; m., murdered ; k., killed. The year of the birth and death is \ngiven of many eminent persons who are not mentioned in the body of the work.] \n\n(Vincent\'s Dictionary of Biography was expressly compiled to give further details than tlwsc found in this Index.) \n\n\n\nAbbadies expl. Ethiopia, 1837-45 \nAbbas, Persia \n\nAbbot, abp.; Canterbury, 1611 \nAbbot, Charles; speaker, 1802 \nAbbot & Moulin ; Thessalonica, 1876 \nAbbott, E. ; concordance to Pope, \n\n1875 \nAbd-el-Kader ; Algiers, 1835 \nAbderahman I. \xe2\x80\x94 V., caliphs, 755- \n\n1023 \nAbdul-Medjid, Turkey, 1839-61 \nAbdul-Aziz, Turkey, 1839 \nAbdul-Rahman (or Abdur-rahman) ; \n\nAfghanistan, 1863-81 \nAbdul-Hamid ; Turkey, 1774, 1876 \nAbdul-Kerim,Russo-TurkishWar,II. \n\n1877 \nAbel, sir P. A., glyoxiline, 1866, gun \n\ncotton, explosives, Imperial Inst. \nAbel Oghlan, Dzoungeria, 1864 \nAbelard, d. 1142; Abelard, theology \nAbercorn, Jas. marquis of, 1811- \n\n1885; Ireland, Id. lieut., i866;(duke) \n\n1874 \nAbercromby, Jas., speaker, 1835 \nAbercromby, sir R., 1738 - 1801 ; \n\nTrinidad, Alexandria \nAberdeen, earl of, 1 784-1860; Aber- \ndeen adm., note ; Gladstone Adm. \n\n1886 \nAbernethy, J., surgeon, 1764-1831 \nAbingdon, earl of; trials, 1794 \nAbinger, Id., att.-geu., 1827; ex- \nchequer \nAbney, capt. ; photography, 1882 \nAbou Saoud ; Egypt, 1872 \nAbout, Edm. F. C, Nov. 1828-85 ! \n\nFrance, 1872 \nAbrantes, duke of; see Junot \nAbsalom, killed 1023 B.C. \nAbubeker; Ali, 632 \nAcacius, Acacians, henoticon, 482 \nAccum, F. ; adulterations, 1822 \nAchilli n. Newman ; trials, 1852-3 \nAchmet ; see Ahmed \nAcilius; statues, temples \nAckermann, R. ; lithography, 1817 \nAcland, Arthur, Gladstone adm. \n\n1892 \nAcron; aeromatics, 473 B.C. \nActon, Mrs., Royal Inst., 1838 \nActuarius ; purgatives, 1245 \nAdair, serj.; Junius, 1769 \nAdalbert, St.; Prussia, 997 \nAdam; duels, 1779 \nAdam, R. and bros., architects \n\n1728-92 \nAdam, W. M. ; mensuration \nAdam, W. P. ; Madras, 1880, whip \n\nGladstone adm., 1880 \n\n\n\nAdams r. Coleridge, trials, 1886 \n\nAdams, J. C, mathemat. 1819-92; \nNeptune, 1845. \n\nAdams ; J. (1797) and J. Q. (1825), \nUnited States (presidents) \n\nAdams v. Dundas; trials, 1831 \n\nAdderley, Mr.; Birmingham, 1856 \n\nAdderley, sir C. ; Disraeli adminis- \ntration. 1874 \n\nAddington, H.,1757-1844; Addington. \n\nAddison, Joseph, 1672-1719, Spec- \ntator, 1711; Stanhope administra- \ntion, 1717; allegory, Clio, clubs \n\nAdelais ; Adelaide ; England, queens \n(Henry I., William IV.) \n\nAdeodatus; pope, 672 \n\nAdolphus, Frederic ; Sweden, 1751 \n\nAdrian, Rome; emperor, 117; edicts, \npersecutions; popes \n\nAetius, Aetians \n\niEgeus; Athens, 1283 B.C. \n\niEgineta, Paulus ; surgery, 640 \n\niEgisthus; Mycense, 1201 b.c. \n\njEmilianus; Rome, 146 B.C. \n\niEneas; Italy, Alba, 1182 B.C. \n\niEschines, Gk. orator, 389-314 B.C. \n\njEschylus, Greek tragedy, 525-456 \nB.C.; drama \n\njEsop; fables (about 600 B.C.) \n\nAfranio, bassoon \n\nAfricanus ; see Scipio \n\nAgamemnon; Mycenae, 1201 B.C. \n\nAgatliocles, d. 289 B.C.; Carthage, \nSicily, Syracuse \n\nAge, proprietor of; trials, 1844 \n\nAgesander ; Laocoon \n\nAgesilaus; Sparta, 398 B.C. \n\nAgis; Sparta, 427 B.C. \n\nAgnew, Mr. Vans ; India, 1848 \n\nAgnodice ; midwifery \n\nAgricola; Britain, d. 93; Lancaster, \nCaledonia, Roman wall \n\nAgricola, John, d. 1566; Antino- \nmians \n\nAgrippa, d. 12 B.C.; Pantheon, 27B.C. \n\nAhmed I.\xe2\x80\x94 III.; Turkey, 1603, et se^. \n\nAhmed Vefik, Turkey, 1878 \n\nAholiab; sculpture \n\nAinsworth, W. H., Nov. 1805-82 \n\nAiry, Sir G. B., 1801-92; Greenwich, \n\'835 : pendulum, standard, Royal \nSociety, 1871 ; Albert medal, 1876 ; \nsun \n\nAislabie, Mr.; Sunderland adminis- \ntration, 1718; South Sea \n\nAkbar, India; 1556 \n\nAkenside, Mark, poet, 1721-70 \n\nAlacocque, M. M. ; sacred heart \n\nAlamayou, Abyssinia, 1868 \n\nAlarie. d. 410; Rome, France \n\n\n\nAlbemarle, Geo. Monk, duke of, \n\n1608-70; administration, 1660 \nAlberoni, card., 1664-1752; Spain, \n\nI 7 I S \nAlbert ; Austria, Bohemia, Germany, \n\nHungary \nAlbert I., assassination, 1308 \nAlbert (prince consort), 1819 - 61 ; \nEngland, 1840; regency bill, duel- \nling \nAlbert Edward; England (royal \n\nfamily), Wales \nAlbert Victor, prince, duke of Clar- \nence and Avondale, 1864-92; Wales \nAlbertus, Magnus ; automatons \nAlboin the Longobard, killed 573 \nAlbrecht; Austria, 1866; Custozza \nAlbuquerque (viceroy), d. 1515; In- \ndia, 1503 \nAlcantara, gen.; Venezuela, 1876 \nAlcibiades, killed 404 b.c; Athens \nAlcippe; Areopagitai \nAlcock, Mr. ; duelling, 1807 : sir R., \n\nJapan \nAlcuin (theologian), about 725-804 \nAldebert; impostors, 743 \nAldhelme; Salisbury, 705; ballads \nAlectus; Britain, 294 \nAleko pasha, Roumelia \nAlenqon, due d\'; Agincourt, 1415 \nAlexander of Paris ; Alexandrine \nAlexander the Great, 356-323 b.c. ; \nMacedon, Egypt, Gordon, Tyre, \nMemphis \nAlexander Severus ; Rome, em., 222 \nAlexander I., d. 1825; Russia, 1801; \n\nAusterlitz, 1805 ; Leipsic, 1813 \nAlexander II., Russia, 1855, assassi- \nnations \nAlexander III. ; Russia, 1881 \nAlexander ; Scotland (kings) ; Pope \nAlexander, sir W. ; Nova Scotia, \n\n1722 \nAlexius, East (emperors), 1081-1203 \nAllien, Victor, Ital. poet, 1 749-1803 \nAlfred the Great, 849-901 ; Ashdown, \nEngland, councils, clocks, crown, \nmilitia \nAlfred, prince ; Godwin, 1053 \nAlfred, duke of Edinburgh, b. 1844 ; \naquarium, England (royal family), \nmusic, Plymouth. \nAlibaud ; France, 1836 \nAlice, princess, 1843-78 ; England ; \n\nroyal family ; Hesse ; diphtheria \nAli Pacha ; Rosetta ; Turkey, 1820 ; \n\nAlbania \nAlison, Arch., hist., 1792-1867 ; \xe2\x80\x94 \nsir A. (soldier), Ashautees, 1874 \nEgypt, 1882 \n\n\n\n1100 \n\n\n\nINDEX. \n\n\n\nAllcard v. Skinner, trials, 1887 \nAllen, R., post-office, 1720 \nAllen and others ; Fenians, 1867 \nAlleyne, Edwd., d. 1617 ; Dulwich \nAllibone, Dr., bibliography, 1859 \nAlmagro ; Abancay, 1537 \nAlmansour ; Bagdad, 762 \nAlmeida, L. ; Madagascar, 1506 \nAlphonso ; Sicily, Spain, Portugal \n\n(kings) \nAlsop, Joseph ; trials, 1839 \nAlthorp, vise. ; Grey administration, \n\n1830 ; Melbourne, 1835 \nAlumayu, Abyssinia, 1868-79 \nAlva, duke of, 1508-82 ; Antwerp, \n\nHolland \nAlvanley, lord ; duel, 1835 \nAlvinzi, marshal ; Areola, 1796 \nAlyattes ; Lydia, 761 B.C. \nAlypius of Alexandria ; dwarfs \nAmadeus, Savoy ; annunciation \nAmadeus, duke of Aosta, h. 1845 ; \n\nking of Spain, 1870-3 \nAmalric, pantheism \nAmbrose, St., d. 397; anthems, Te \n\nDeum, liturgies \nAmbrosius ; Stonehenge \nAmenophis ; Egypt, 1821 B.C. \nAmericus Vespucius, 1451-1516; \n\nAmerica, note \nAmherst, lord; China, 1816 ; India, \n\n1823 \nAmmianus Marcellinus, Lat. hist., \n\nd. 390 \nAmontons, W. ; 1663-1705, telegraphs \nAmos, prophesies about 787 B.C. \nAmpere, O. M., 1775-1836; electricity \n\n(galvanism and telegraph) \nAmulius ; Alba, 974 B.C. \nAmurath ; Turkey, Beyrout \nAmyntas : Macedon, 540 b. c. \nAnacharsis, 592 B.C. ; anchors, \n\nbellows \nAnacletus ; pope, 78 \nAnaereon, Gr. poet, ft. abt. 557 B.C. \nAnastasius ; pope ; East ; emperors \nAnaxagoras, 480 B.C. \nAnaximander, 547 B.C. ; maps \nAnaximenes, 548 B.C. ; air \nAndersen, Hans C, Dan. novelist, \n\n1805-75 \nAnderson, J. ; slavery (in United \n\nStates), 1853 ; Wizard of the North, \n\nmasquerade, 1856 \nAnderson, Mrs. physic, 1865 \nAnderssen, chess, 1851-70 \nAnderwert, M. ; Switzerland, 1880 \nAndrassy, count Julius, 1823-90 ; \n\nHungary, 1867 \nAndre, maj. ; United States, 1780 \nAndrew ; Hungary, kings \nAndrews, H., d. 1820; almanacs \nAndrews v. Salt ; trials, 1873 \nAndronicus, 240 B.C. ; drama \nAndronicus; Eastern empire, n 13, \n\n1328 \nAngela, St. ; Ursuline nuns, 1537 \nAngerstein, J., d. 1823 ; National \n\nGallery \nAnglesey, Henry, marquis of, 1768- \n\n1854 ; Ireland (lord-lieutenant), \n\n1828, 1830 \nAngus, earl of ; Linlithgow \nAnjou, Plantagenet, Jarnac, 1569 ; \n\nNaples, 1266 \nAnkerstrdm (kills Gustavus III.), \n\nSweden, 1792 \nAnna, Santa ; Mexico, 1853-76 \nAnne of Brittany, d. 1514 ; maids of \n\nhonour \nAnne of Austria, d. 1666 ; iron mask \nAnne, queen, b. 1664 ; England, 1702- \n\n14 ; semper eadem \nAnsell, G. ; fire-damp, 1865 \nAnselm, abp. ; Canterbury, 1093 \nAnson, admiral; Acapulco, 1744; \n\nnaval battles, 1747 \nAnson, general ; India, 1857 \n\n\n\nAnthony ; monachism, 4th century ; \n\n\xe2\x80\x94arson, 1871 \nAntigonus ; Ipsus, 301 B.C. ; profiles \nAntiochus I. \xe2\x80\x94 X., 280-65 B.C. ; Syria, \n\nJews, 170 or 168 b.c. \nAntipater ; Cranon, 322 B.C. \nAntisthenes ; cynics, 396 B.C. \nAntonelli, card. 1806-76; Rome, 1848 \nAntonelli case, Italy, 1877-8 \nAntoninus Pius, Rome, emperors, \n\n138 ; Roman wall \nAntony, Mark, d. 30 ; Rome, 43 B.C.; \n\nArmenia, Philippi, 42 b.c. ; Aetium, \n\n31 B.C. \nAnviti, col., killed ; Parma, 1859 \nApelles, painter, 352-308 B.C. \nApollodorus ; Trajan\'s pillar, 114 \nApollonius ; Syria, 168 B.C. \nAppian, hist., ft. about 147 \nAppius Claudius ; Rome, 449 B.C. ; \n\naqueducts, decemviri, Virginia \nApplegath ; printing machines \nApries ; Egypt, 571 B.C. \nApsley, Id. ; North adminis., 1770 \nApuleius, Latin novelist, d. 174 \nAquinas, Thos., theol., d. 1274 \nArabi Bey ; Egypt, 1881-2 \nArago, I). F., nat. phil., 1786-1853 \nAram, Eugene; trials, 1759 \nAratus ; Achaia, 245 b.c. \nArbogastes ; Aquileia, 394 \nArcadius and Honorius ; eastern and \n\nwestern empire, 395 \nArch, J. ; agriculture, 1872 \nArchdale, J., quaker, 1699 \nArchelaus ; Cappadocia, 20 B.C. ; \n\nMacedon, 413 b.c. \nArchemorus ; NemEean games \nArcher, F. S. ; collodion, 1851 \nArchidamus ; Sparta, 648 b.c. \nArchilochus, 708 b.c. ; Iambic verse \nArchimedes, 287-212 B.e. ; circle, \n\ncranes, mechanics, mensuration, \n\norgans, reflectors, screw, spheres \nArch y tas ; math., about 400 B.C.; \n\nautomaton, pulley \nArdesoif, Mr. ; cockfighting, 1788 \nArdgillan, lord ; Disraeli adni., 1874 \nAretin, Gui ; musical notes, 1025 \nArfastus, chancellor, 1067 \nArfwedson, Mr. ; lithium, 18 17 \nArgyll, duke of ; Dunblane, 1715 ; \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nGladstone adm., 1868, 1880 \nAriarathes ; Cappadocia (kings) \nAxiobarzanes, 322 b.c. ; Cappadocia, \n\n93 B.C. \n\nAriosto, L. Ital. poet, 1474-1533 \nAris, gov. ; prisons, 1800 \nAristarehus, 156 B.C. ; sun, globe \nAristce.us ; conic sections, 330 B.C. \nAristides the Just, d. 468 B.C. ; \n\nAthens \nAristippus; Cyrenaic sect, 392 B.C. \nAristocrates ; Arcadia, 715 b.c \nAristodenras ; biarehy, 1102 B.C. \nAristophanes, d. 380 B.C. ; comedy \nAristotle, 384-322 B.C. ; Aristotelian \nphilosophy, acoustics, botany, \nMacedon, mechanics, metaphysics, \nphilosophy \nArius, </. 336 ; Allans \nArkwright, R., 1732-92 ; cotton, Man- \nchester, spinning \nArles-Dufour ; see Ditfour \nArlington, lord ; cabal, 1670 \nArmati ; Rome, 1875 \nArminius, or Hermann ; Teutoburg, 9 \nArminius, J., d. 1609; Arminians, \n\nDort \nArmitage, sir E. ; Manchester, 1876 \nArmstrong, sir W. G. ; electricity, \n\n1840 ; cannon, 1859 \nAl\'ne, T., music composer, 1710-78; \n\nRule Britannia \nAvnim, II.; Germany,Prussia,iS74-8i \nArnold, gen. ; United States, 1780 \nArnold, Matthew, poet, 1S22-88 ; \nculture \n\n\n\nArnold, Dr. Thos., hist., 1795-1842 \nArnott, Neil, 1788-1874 ; stove, 1821 \n\nbed, 1830 ; ventilators \nArrian, hist.,/?. 148 \nArsaces; Arsacidse, Parthia, 250 B.C. \nArsenius, Arsenians, 1261 \nArtabazus ; Pontus, 487 B.C. \nArtaxerxes ; Persia kings) \nArtemisia; mausoleum, 350 B.C. \nArtemon; battering-ram, 441 b.c \nArthur, king ; Britain, 506 \nArthur, prince ; Connaught, 1874 \nArtois, count d\' ; duelling, 1778 \nArundel, abp. ; Canterbury, 1397-9 \nArundel, Henry, earl of; adminis- \ntrations, 1547; Thos., Arundelian \nmarbles \nAscanius ; Alba, 1152 B.C. \nAscham, Roger, 1515-1568; archery \nAsdrubal ; see Hasdrubal \nAselli, G. ; lacteals (1622), lymphatics \nAsh, Dr. ; Birmingham, 1766 \nAsgill, Mr. ; translation, 1703 \nAshbourne, Id. chancellor, (Ireland), \n\n1885-1886 \nAshburton, lord ; Ashb. treaty, 1842 \nAshe, gen. ; Briar\'s creek, 1779 \nAshford, Mary ; appeal, 1818 \nAshley, lord ; cabal, 1670 \nAshley, sir Arthur ; cabbages \nAshton, colonel ; Wigan, 1643 \nAske; pilgrimage of grace, 1536 \nAslett, Rob. ; exchequer bills, 1803 \nAspden, J. ; Portland cement \nAspinall ; trials, 1876 \nAsquith, IL; Gladstone adm., 1892. \nAssheton, Wm. ; clergy charities \nAstley, lord ; Naseby, 1645 \nAston, sir A. ; Drogheda, 1649 \nAstyages ; Media, 594 b. c. \nAthanasius, d. 373 ; Athan. creed \nAthelstan ; England (king), 924 ; \n\nmint, 928 \nAthemcus, Greek, ft. 228, quotations \nAtherton. sir Wm., att. gen., 1861 \nAthol, duke of; Man, sold by, 1765 \nAthothes ; hieroglyphics, writing \nAtlay, bp., Hereford, 1868 \nAtossa ; marriage by sale \nAttalus, d. 197 b.c. ; seven churches \n\n(Pergamus), parchment \nAtterbury, bp. F. ; banished, 1723 \nAttila ; Hungary, Chalons, 451 \nAttwood, B. ; hospitals \nAttwood, T. ; chartists, 1838 \nAtwood, G., d. 1807 ; Atwood\'s ma- \nchine \nAtwcll, W. ; trials, 1857 \nAuber, D., music composer, 1784-1871 \nAuchmuty, sir Samuel ; Batavia, \n\n1811 ; Monte Video, 1807 \nAuckland, Id. bp. ; Bath and Wells, \n\n1854 \nAuckland, lord ; Grey administration, \n\n1830 ; India, 1835 \nAudiffret, see D\'Audiffret \nAudubon, J. J., 1780-1851 ; birds \nAuerbach, B., Ger. Nov., 1805-82 \nAugereau, gen. ; Castiglione, 1796 \nAugustenburg, duke of; Denmark, \n\n1863 \nAugustin, St. (of Hippo), 354-430 \nAugustin the monk, abp. Canterbury, \n\n602 ; Rochester \nAugustus (emperor); Rome, 27 B.C. ; \n\npraitorian guards ; calendar \nAulus Gellius, Latin misc.,/. 169 \nAumale, due d\' ; France, 1871-2 ; \n\nOrleans ; assassinations \nAurelian ; Rome, emp. 270 : Ale- \n\nmanni \nAurelius ; Rome, emp. t6i \nAurelle de Paladines, Franco-German \n\nwar ; d. 1877 \nAurungzebe ; India, 1658 \nAusonius, Lat. poet, d. 394 (?) \nAustin ; see Augustin \nAustin, capt. ; Franklin \n\n\n\nAustin, W. ; trials, 1855 \n\nAustria, John of; Lepanto, 1571 \n\nAverroes, med. writer,;?. 1149-1198 \n\nAvicenna, med. and phil., 980-1037 \n\nAvisa ; queens (John) \n\nAyeslia, Mahomet\'s widow ; camel, \n\nday of, 656 \nAyoob or. Ayoub Khan ; Afghanistan, \n\nHerat, and Candahar \nAyrton, A. A. ; Gladstone adm., 1868 \n\n\xe2\x80\x94 W. harmonica \nAzeglio, marchese d\' ; Italian patriot, \n\n1800-66 \nAzim ; Affghanistan, 1863 \n\n\n\nB. \n\n\n\nBabbage, C, 1792-1871 ; calculating \n\nmachine \nBabcock, general, United States, 1876 \nBaber; India, 1525 \nBabeuf, d. 1791 ; agrarian law \nBabrius ; fable \nBabyngton (which see), 1586 \nBach, A. ; resonator \nBach, J. Sebastian ; passion music ; \n\nmusic, 1685-1750 \nBachelier, M. ; encaustic, 1749 \nBacciocchi, princes Piombino \nBaclinieier, A.; pasigraphy, 1871 \nBack, G. ; north-w. passage, 1833 \nBacon, P., lord, 1561-1626; lawyers, \n\naeronautics \nBacon, sir Nicholas; keeper, Id., \n\n1558 ; baronet \nBacon, John, sculptor, 1740-99 \nBacon, Roger, 1214-1292 ; astrology, \ncamera lucida, loadstone, magic- \nlantern, magnet, optics, spectacles \nBacon, T. P. ; trials, 1857 \nBadcock, Mr, ; vaccination \nBaedeker, M. ; guide books \nBaez, B. ; Hayti, 1859-68 \nBaffin, W. M.; Baffin\'s Bay, 1616 \nBagehot, Walter, essayist, 1826-77 \nBaggallay, sir R. ; solicitor-general, \n1873 ; attorney-general, 1874 ; jus- \ntices, lords, 1875 \nBagnal, lieut. ; duel, 1812 \nBagot, bishop; Oxford, 1829 \nBagot will case, trials, 1878 \nBagration, pr.; Mohilows, 1812 \nBagster, Miss M. ; trials, 1828 ; E. lon- \ngevity, 1877 \nBailey, rev. W. ; trials, 1843 \nBaillie, col.; Arcot, 1780 \nBaillie, general; Alford, 1645 \nBaillie, Joanna, poet, 1762-1851 \nBailly, M., philos., executed, 1793 \nBainbrigg, abp.; York, 1508 \nBain, A. : education society \nBainbridge, W. ; flageolet \nBaines, sir Edward ; Leeds, 1890 \nBaines, M. T.; Palmerston adm. 1855 \nBaird, sir David ; Cape, 1806 ; Scringa- \n\npatam, 1799 \nBajazet; Turkey, 1389 \nBaker, B. ; Forth bridge \nBaker, colonel; Bull\'s Bluff, 1861 \nBaker, H. ; Bakerian lecture, 1765 \nBaker, sir S. W.; Africa, 1864; Egypt, \nslave trade, 1869-74 ; col. V., \ntrials, 1875 ; Russo-Turkish war \nII., 1878 ; Egypt, 1882 ; Soudan, \n1883-4 \nBaker v. Loder ; trials, 1872 \nBaker, gen. ; Char-asiab \nBaker pasha ; Turkey, 1879 ; Egypt, \n\nSoudan, 1883-4 \nBalard, M. ; amylene, 1844 \nBalchan, admiral; Aldemey, 1744 \nBaldwin I. \xe2\x80\x94 V.; Jerusalem, 1100-85; \n\nEast Flanders \nBaldwin, prof. ; balloons, 1887-8 \nBales, P. ; caligraphy \nBalfe, M. W., mus. comp., 1808-70 \n\n\n\nINDEX. \n\nBalfour, A. J., 6. 1848; Salisbury \n\nadm., 1885, 1886, Glasgow \nBalfour, John; Scotland, 1679 \nBall, John ; Alps \n\nBall, J. T. ; chancellor (Ireland), 1874 \nBallarat, Melbourne, 1854 \nBallard, John; Babyngton\'s con- \nspiracy, 1586 \nBallasteros, gen. ; Ximena, 181 1 \nBalliol, Edw. ; Scotland, kings, 1329 \nBalliol, John; Scotland, 1293; Ox- \nford, Dunbar \nBalmaceda, Jose M. ; Chili, 1886-91 \nBalmain, W. H. ; luminous paint \nBalmerino, lord ; rebellion, Scotland, \n\n1745; trials, 1746 \nBaltimore, lord; America, 1632; \n\ntrials, 1768 \nBancroft, abp. ; Canterbury, 1604 \nBancroft, G., Am. hist., 6. 1800 \nBancroft, Mr. and Mrs., theatres \n\n(Haymarket) \nBandmann, M. ; trials, 1878 \nBanks, sir J., 1743-1820; hort. soc, \n\nRoyal Institution, 1799 \nBannerman, H. C; Gladstone adm., \n\n1880, 1886, 1892 \nBannister, Mr., actor; retired, 1815 \nBar, due de ; Agincourt, 1415 \nBaradseus ; Eutychians, Jacobites \nBaranelli, L. ; trials, 1855 \nBarante, A. G. de,Fr. hist., 1787-1866 \nBarantz, north- west passage, 1594 \nBarbarossa, Fred. I.; emp. Germany, \n\n1152-90 \nBarbarossa, d. 1546; Tunis, Algiers \nBarbauld, Mrs. A. L., 1743-1825 \nBarber, Fletcher, Saunders, and \n\nDorey: trials, 1844, and note \nBarberini ; Portland vase \nBarbey, M.; France, 1883 \nBarbou; printers, 1539-1813 \nBarbour, J.; trials, 1853 \nBarbour, John, Scot, poet, 1316-95 \nBarclay, capt. ; pedestrianism, 1809 \nBarclay, Perkins, <fe Co. ; porter \nBarclay, Rob., 1648-90; quakers \nBarhain, lord; admiralty, 1805 \nBaring, Alex.; Peel administ. 1834; \n\nsir F. ; London Inst. 1805 ; Russell \n\nadm. 1846 \nBaring, Mr. ; Egypt, 1879 \nBarings (firm) ; London, 1890 \nBaring, sir Evelyn ; India, 1880 ; \n\nEgypt, 1883 \nBarker, J. T. ; Beaumont trust \nBarker, Robert; panorama, 1788 \nBarkly, sir H. ; cape, 1870 \nBarlaam; Barlaamites, 1337 \nBarlow; clocks, 1676 \nBarlow, rev. J.; Royal Institnt., 1842 \nBarlow, sir G.; India (governors), \n\n1805 \nBarlowe, William; compass, 1608 \nBarnard, general; India, 1857; judge, \n\nUnited States, 1872 \nBarnardo, Dr., Barnardo\'s homes, \n\ncoffee-palaces \nBarnes, T., 1785-1841; Times \nBarnett, Geo. ; trials, 1816 \nBarnum, P. T., 6. 1810 ; American \n\nshowman, elephants, menagerie \nBaroux, M. ; scratin \nBarraud and Lund : clocks, 1878 \nBarre, Isaac ; Rockingham adminis- \ntration, 1782 \nBarrett ; Cumberland, naval battles, \n\n181 1 ; Fenians, 1868 \nBarrie, capt. ; naval battles, 1811 \nBarrington, bp. ; Durham, 1791 \nBarrington, Mr.; duel, 1788 \nBarrington ; trials, 1790 \nBarrios, gen. R.; Guatemala, 1873; \n\nAmerica, Central, 1885 \nBarrot, Odilon, 1791-1873 ; France, \n\n1848 \nBaiTow, Isaac, theol. and philos., \n\n1630-77 \n\n\n\n1101 \n\nBarry, sir Charles, architect, 1795- \n1860; parliament, note; Reform Club \nBarth, Dr.; Africa, 1849 \nBarthelemy, E. ; trials, 1855 \nBartholdi, M., sculptor; United \n\nStates, 1884 \nBartlet, W. M.; trials, 1882 \nBarton, Bernard, poet, 1784-1849 \nBarton, Dr. ; insurance, 1667 \nBarton, Elizabeth; impostor, 1534. \nBaschi, Matt.; Capuchins, 1525 \nBasil, St., d. 380; Basilians \nBasil ; East. emp. 867 ; Russia \nBasilowitz ; Russia, czars, 1462 \nBass, M. T., Derby \nBastendorff ; trials, 1879 \nBastian, Dr., spontaneous generation \nBateman, J. F. ; Glasgow, 1859 ; tun- \nnels, 1869; water, 1867 \nBates, M. van Buren ; giants. 1871 \nBates, W. ; United States, 1872 \nBath, earl of; Bath admin., 1746 \nBathou; Transylvania, 1851, efce. \nBathurst, bp. ; Norwich, 1805 \nBathurst, earl ; Liverpool administra- \ntion, 1812 \nBathyllus ; pantomimes \nBatman, J.; Victoria, 7835 \nBatthyany; Hungary, 1848 \nBattus; Cyrene, 631 b.c. \nBaudin, M. Chas. ; France, 1851 \nBaumbos, C. E. ; mutinies, 1876 \nBaume, areometer, 1768 \nBaumgarten; aesthetics, 1750 \nBavaria, elector of; Ramilies, 1706 \nBaxter.sirD. 1793-1872; Dundee, 1863 \nBaxter, miss M. A.; Dundee, 1882 \nBaxter, G. ; printing in colours, 1836 \nBaxter, Rd., theologian, 1615-91 \nBaxter v. Langley ; trials, 1868 \nBayard, chevalier, killed, 1524 \nBayle, P., d. 1706; dictionary, 1697 \nBayley, lieut.; duel, 1818 \nBaynard, Geoffrey; combat \nBazaine, marshal, 1811-1888; Mexico, \n1863-6 ; Franco - Prussian war, \n1870-1 ; Metz ; France, 1873-4 \xc2\xbb \n1883 \nBazalgette. J. W., 1819-91; sewers, \n\nThames \nBeach, sir M. H., Disraeli adm. 1878 ; \n\nSalisbury adm., 1885, 1886 J \nBeaconsflekl ; see Disraeli \nBeadon, bishop ; Bath, 1802 \nBeamish, capt. , trials, navy, 1871 \nBean aims at the queen : trials, 1842 \nBeaton, card. ; assassinations, 1546 \nBeattie, Jas. ; poet, 1735- 1803 \nBeauclere, lord Charles, drowned \n\nwhile assisting at a wreck, 1861 \nBeauehamp, Henry de ; Wight \nBeauchamp, John de ; barons \nBeaufort, cardinal, d. 1447 \nBeauharnais, Eugene, 1781-1824 ; \nItaly, 1805 ; Mockern \xe2\x80\x94 Hortense, \n" Partant pour la Syrie" \nBeaulieu, general; Lodi, 1796 \nBeaumont, col.; air, 1880 \nBeaumont, sir G., painter, 1753-1827; \n\nNational Gallery \nBeaumont, Mr. ; duel, 1821-1826 \nBeaumont ; viscount, 1440 \nBeau Nash ; Bath, ceremonies \nBeauregard. P. G., b. 1818; United \n\nStates, 1861 \nBeaurepaire, gen.; Verdun, 1794 \nBeauvoir, sir J. de; trials, 1835 \nBeers, Dr. ; la Crosse \nBeck, T. ; volunteers, 1881 \nBeckett, T., m. 1170; Becket \nBeeket (Denison), sir E. (aft.) lord \nGrimthorpe ; bells, locks, trials, \n1881, Albans, St. \nBeekford, W. ; Fonthill abbey \nBeckwith, Agnes ; swimming, 1876 \nBedborough, A. ; aquarium, 1876 \nBede, Venerable, d. 735 \nBedford, duke of; duel, 1822 ; Ireland. \n\n\n\n1102 \n\nlord-lieutenants, 1490-1757 ; France, \n1422; admiralty, 1744; nobility, 1470 \n\nBedinglield, Ann; trials, 1763 \n\nBeeby, William ; longevity \n\nBeecher, rev. H. ; United States, \n\nJ874-5 \nBeeching, J.; lifeboat, 1851 \nBeethoven, L., mus. comp.,1770-1827; \n\nsonata \nBegum charge ; Chunar, 1781 \nBehem, Martin; Azores \nBehmeu ; see Bohme \nBehnes, Wm., sculpt., 1800-64 \nBehring, d. 1741 ; Behring\'s straits \nBela; Hungary, kings \nBelasyse, lord L. ; adm., 1687 \nBelcher, sir E., 1799-1877 ; circum- \nnavigation, 1836; Franklin \nBeleredi, count Rd., 6. 1823; Austria, \n\n1865 \nBelisarius, d. 565 ; Africa, east emp. \nBelknap, gen. ; United States, 1876 \nBell, And., 1752-1832; Lancasterian \n\nschools \nBell, sir C, 1774-1842; nerves \nBell, Henry; steam, 1812 \nBell, John Any Bird, the boy ; \n\ntrials, 1831. \nBell, Mr. ; cattle, 1873 \nBell, A. Melville ; visible speech \nBell, A. Graham ; telephone, 1877 ; \nphotophone, graphophone, phono- \ngraph \nBell, rev. Patrick; reaping machine, \n\n1826 \nBellamont, lord; duel, 1773 \nBellamy ; trial, 1844 \nBellarmine, card., 1.1542-1621 \nBellingham, Perceval adm., 1812 \nBellingham, sir Daniel, (mayor of \n\nDublin), 1665 \nBellini; Ital. music, 1802-35 \nBellot, lieut., d. 1853; Franklin \nBelochus; Assyria, 1446 B.C. \nBelt v. Lawes ; trials, 1881 et seq., \n\n1886 \nBeltcheff, M. ; Bulgaria, 1891 \nBelus; Assyria, 2245 B.C. \nBelzoni, J. B., traveller, d. 1823 \nBern, gen. Joseph, d. 1850; Hungary \nBenbow, adm.; naval battles, 1702 \nBenedek, L., 1804-81 ; Kbniggratz \nBenedict, Benedictines; popes, 574- \n\n1758 \nBenedict, sir Julius, mus. 1804-85 \nBennett, James ; Africa, 1872 \nBennett, sir John ; alderman, 1877 ; \n\nLondon, 1877 \nBennett, sir Wm. Sterndale ; mus., \n\n1816-75 \nBenson and others ; trials, 1877 \nBenson, bp. ; Truro, 1877 ; Canter- \nbury, 1883 \nBent, Theodore ; Mashona \nBentham Jer. (1748-1832); savings\' \nbanks; deontology; panopticon ; \nutilitarianism \nBentinck, lord Gr., 1802-1848; protec- \ntionists. \nBentinck, G. A. F. C. ; judge advo- \ncate, 1875 \nBentinck, Id. W. ; Assam, India, 1827 ; \n\nSuttee \nBentley, Rd., scholar, 1662-1742 \nBeranger, J. P. de, poet, 1 780-1 857 \nBerengaria, queen (of Richard I.), (7. \n\n1230 \nBerengarius ; fete de Dieu \nBerenger, Butt, lord Cochrane, and \n\nothers ; trials, 1814 \nBeresford, lord; Albuera, 1811 \nBeresford, lord J.; suicide, 1841 \nBeresford, Wm.; Derby adm., 1852 \nBeresford, lord C. ; Soudan, 1885 \nBerg, gen.; Poland, 1863 \nBergeret, gen.; France, 1871 \nBeriot, Ch. A. de ; was., 1802-70 \nBerkeley; trials, 181 1, 1858 \n\n\n\nINDEX. \n\nBerkeley, hon. C. ; duel, 1842 \n\nBerkeley, G. ; Antigua, Leeward Isles, \n1874 \n\nBerkeley, lord; admiralty, 1717 \n\nBerkeley, lord; America, N., 1644; \nBrest, 1694 ; Carolina \n\nBerlioz, L. H., Fr. mus., 1803-69 \n\nBernadotte, 1764-1844; Dcnnewitz, \nSweden (king) \n\nBernard, Claude, Fr. physiologist, \n1813-78 \n\nBernard, St., 1091-1153 \n\nBernard, S. ; trial, 1858 \n\nBernard, sir Thomas ; British Inst,, \n1805 ; Royal Institution, 1799. \n\nBernini, G. L., Ital. artist, 1598-1680 \n\nBerri, duke and duchess of; France, \n1820 & 1833, assassinations \n\nBerrington, rev. J. ; trials, 1873 \n\nBerry, lieut ; trials, 1807 \n\nBerry, G. ; Victoria, 1875 \n\nBerryer, P. A., Fr. advt., 1790-1868 \n\nBerthelot, P. M., b. 1827; acetylene, \ndefiant gas, 1862 \n\nBerthier, gen. ; marshal, 1753-1815 \n\nBerthollet, C. L., Fr. chemist, 1748- \n1822 ; chlorine \n\nBerthon, rev. E. L.; life-boat, 1882 \n\nBertie, lady G. C. ; lord great cham- \nberlain \n\nBerwick, duke of, d. 1734 ; Landen, \nAlmanza, Newry \n\nBerzelius, Jas., 1779-1848 ; chemistry, \nsilicium \n\nBesant, Mrs. A. ; trials, 1877 \n\nBessel, F. ; stars \n\nBessemer, H. ; iron, steel, steam, \nsteam-gun \n\nBessus ; Persia, 331 B.C. \n\nBest, capt. ; duel, 1804 ; Surat, 161 1 \n\nBeswick, F.; trials, 1869 \n\nBethell, bp. ; Gloucester, 1824 \n\nBethell, commander, marriage, 1888 \n\nBethell, sir R. , solicitor-gen., 1852, \nattorney-gen. , 1859 ( see Wesibury) \n\nBethencourt ; Canaries, 1400 \n\nBetty, master ; theatres, 1804 ; \nRoscius \n\nBeul^ ; France, 1874 \n\nBeust, F. F. v., 1809-1886; Austria, \n1866 \n\nBevern, prince ; Breslau, 1757 \n\nBewick, T., 1753-1828 ; wood en- \ngraving \n\nBexley, Vansittart, lord ; Liverpool \nadministration, 1812 \n\nBeza, Theodore, theologian, 1519- \n1605 \n\nBialobrzeski, abp. ; Poland, 1861 \n\nBianconi, C, d. 1875 ; carriages \n\nBiekersteth, R., bp. ; Ripon, 1856 \n\nBickersteth, E. H., bp.; Exeter, 1885 \n\nBiddulph, sir R.; Cyprus, 1881 \n\nBid wells and others ; trials, 1863 \n\nBidwell, S. ; telephotography \n\nBiela, W. von, comet, 1826 \n\nBig Sam ; giants, 1809 \n\nBingley, lord ; Oxford adm. 1711 \n\nBinney, rev. Thos., 1798-1874 \n\nBirch, J. W. ; Straits. 1875 \n\nBirch, S., 1813-85 ; biblical \n\nBirchall, J. R. ; Canada, 1890 \n\nBird, I. ; Japan \n\nBirde, W. ; canon \n\nBirkbeck, Dr. G., 1776-1841; mecha- \nnics\' institutes \n\nBiscoe, capt. ; southern continent, \n1832 \n\nBishop ; burking, 1831 \n\nBishop, A. ; derrick, 1857 \n\nBishop, sir H. 1786-1855 ; music, \nancient concerts ; home \n\nBishop, Irving ; thought reading \n\nBishop, J. F. ; Italy, 1862 \n\nBismarck, O. von, "b, 1813; Prussia, \n1862-76; France, 1870-3; Franco- \nPrussian War, Germany. \n\nBlack, Dr. ; duel, 1835 \n\n\n\nBlack, Jos. ; chemist, 1728-99 ; mag- \nnesia, air, balloon \nBlackburn, abp. ; York, 1724 \nBlackall, Mr. ; Queensland, 1868 \nBlackstone, sir W, 1723-80 ; law \nBlackwood, S. A. ; post-office secre- \ntary \nBlades, Wm. ; printing \nBlaine, James ; Panama, United \n\nStates, 1884-1892 \nBlair, Hugh, 1717-1800 ; rhetoric, \nverse ; \xe2\x80\x94 John, chronologist, d. 1797 \nBlake, adm. R., 1599-1657; Algiers, \nDover straits, Portland isle, Santa \nCruz \nBlakesley, Robt. ; trials, 1841 \nBlanc, Louis, 1811-82; France, 1848 \nBlanchard; balloon, 1784-1819 \nBlan chard, Laman ; suicide, 1845 \nBlanchard, T. ; timber bending, 1855 \nBland\'s Silver Bill, U. States, 1878 \nBlandy, Miss ; trials, 1752 \nBlanqui, France, 1872-79 \nBligh, captain ; bread fruit tree ; \n\nAdventure bay, Bounty mutiny \nBligh, captain, v. Mr. Wellesley Pole ; \n\ntrials, 1825 \nBligh, Mr. ; trials, 1806 \nBlizard, sir W.; Hunterian soc. \nBlomfield, bp. ; Chester, 1824 ; \n\nLondon, 1828 \nBlondin ; crystal palace, 1861 \nBlood, col., d. 1680; Blood, crown \nBlood, Mr. ; trials, 1832 \nBloomer, Mrs. ; dress, 1849 \nBloomfield, R., poet, 1 766-1823 \nBlucher, marshal, d. 1819 ; Jan- \n\nvilliers, Ligny, Waterloo \nBlum, R., shot in 1848 \nBlumenbach, J. F. ; physiol., 1752- \n\n1840 \nBlundell, lieut. ; duel, 18 13 \nBlunt, Wilfred ; Egypt, 1882-3 \nBoabdil, Abencerrages \nBoadicea, d. 61 ; Britain, Iceni \nBoardman, captain; duel, 18 11 \nBoccaccio, 1313-75; Decameron \nBoccold, John, anabaptists, 1534 \nBoddington ; trials, 1797 \nBoden, col; Sanscrit, 1832 \nBodley, T. ; Bodleian lib., 1602 \nBoehm, J. E., Tyndale mem. \nBoerhaave, H., med. writ., 1668-1738 \nBoethius, killed, 524 \nBcettcher (Bottcher) ; Dresden chin;* \n\n1700 \nBogle v. Lawson ; trials, 1841 \nBohme, or Behmen, J., mystic, i6is> \nBohemia, king of, "Ieh Dien;" \n\nCrecy, 1346 \nBoileau, Nic, Fr. poet, 1636-1711 \nBois de Chene, Mdlle. ; beards, 1834 \nBolam, Mr. ; trials, 1839 \nBolckow, H. W. ; Middlesborough \nBoldero, capt. ; duel, 1842 \nBoleslas ; Poland (kings), 992 \nBoleyn, Anne ; England (queen Hen. \n\nVIII.) \nBoleyn, earl of Wiltshire; adminis- \ntrations, 1532 \nBolingbroke, lord ; Oxford adminis- \ntration, 1 711; deism; schism act, \n\n1713 \nBolivar, gen., 1 783-1830; Columbia \nBolland, Acta Sanctorum, 1643 \nBonaparte family ; France \nBonaparte, P.; France, 1870;\xe2\x80\x94 Napo- \nleon, Jerome ; France, 1859-72 \nBonar, Mr. and Mrs. ; trials, 1813 \nBouaventura, 1221-74 ; conclave \nBonavisa, Anthony ; distaff, 1505 \nBond ; magnetism, 1668 \nBond, E. A. ; Brit. Museum, 1S78 \nBond, prof. ; photography, 1851 \nBonelli; electric loom, 1854 \nBonheur, Rosa, Fr. painter, b. 1822 \nBonneehose, Emile de, Fr. hist. \n1801-74 \n\n\n\nINDEX. \n\n\n\n1103 \n\n\n\nBonner, bishop of London ; adminis- \ntrations, 1554 \nBonnet, C, Fr. naturalist, 1720-93. \nBonnet-Duverdier ; France, 1877 \nBonny castle, J., mathematician, d. \n\n1821 \nBonpland, A., naturalist, 1773-1858 \nBontou and others ; France, 1882 \nBonwell, rev. J. ; trials, i860 \nBoole, G. ; logic \nBoon, colonel; America, 1754 \nBoosey: copyright, 1854; Dunniow, \n\n1876 \nBooth, B. ; book-keeping, 1789 \nBooth, Wilkes, assassin ; U. States, \n\n1865 \nBooth, Mr. ; theatres, 1817 \nBooth, W. ; salvation army \nBopp, F., Ger. linguist, 1781-1867 \nBorde, Andrew ; Merry-andrew \nBorden, Gail ; milk, meat \nBorelli ; mechanics, 1679 \nBorghese, H. ; diamond \nBorgia, Caesar, killed, 1507 \nBoroimhe, Brian ; Ireland, 1014 \nBorowlaski, ct. ; dwarf, 1739-1837 \nBorrington, lady ; trials, 1808 \nBorromeo, abp. Carlo, 1538-84 ; Milan, \n\n1576 \nBorrowes, major; trials, 1888. \nBorton, sir A.; Malta, 1878 \nBoscan, Span, poet, abt. 1496-1544 \nBoscawen, adm., 1711-60 ; Lagos \nBosquet, marshal, 1810-61 ; Inker- \n\nmann, 1854 \nBossuet, J., Fr. theol., 1627-1704 \nBoswell, sir A. ; duel, 1822 \nBoswell, James, 1740-95, "biography \nBosworth, rev. Jos., Ang.-Sax. \n\nscholar, 1790-1876 \nBothwell, earl of ; Scotland, 1567 \nBottle conspirators ; trials, 1839 \nBouch, sir T. ; Forth ; Tay bridge \nBouchet, Anthony ; illuminati \nBouchier ; Canterbury, abp. 1454 \nBouffiers, Fr. marshal; 1644-1711 \nBougainville, d. 181 1 ; circumnavi- \ngation, New Hebrides \nBouill6, marquis de ; Eustatia, \n\n1781 \nBoulanger, gen. G., 1837-91 ; France, \n\n1886-91 \nBoulby, Mr. ; China, i860 \nBoulton, Mat., d. 1809 ; Birmingham \nBoulton and others, trials, 1871 \nBoulton and Watt ; coinage, 1788 \nBourbaki, gen. ; Franco-Pruss. war, \n\n1870-1 \nBourbon family ; Bourbon, duke of ; \n\nduels, 1778 \nBourgeois, sir F. ; Dulwich, 1813 \nBourke, sir R. ; Victoria, Australia, \n\n1831 \nBourmont, marshal ; Algiers, 1830 \nBourne, Sturges ; Canning adminis- \ntration, 1827 \nBousfield, W. ; executions, 1856 \nBovill, sir W., 1814-73; com. pleas, \n\n1866 ; trials, 1871-72 \nBowdler, C. A. ; balloons, 1874 \nBowen, sir G. F. ; Queensland, 1859 > \n\nVictoria, 1873 \nBower, Mr. Elliott ; trials, 1852 \nBower, G.; gas light, 1884 \nBowes, Miss ; Strathmore, 1766 \nBowley, R. ; crystal palace, 1870 \nBowman, sir William ; Royal Insti- \ntution \nBowring, sir John, scholar, &c, \n\n1792-1872 ; Canton, China, Siam \nBowstead, bishop ; Lichfield, 1843 \nBowyer, bp. ; Ely, Chester, 1812 \nBoxall, sir W. ; national gallery \nBoyd, captain ; duel, 1808 \nBoyd, Hugh ; Junius \nBoydell, aid., d, 1804; British In- \nstitution \nBoyle, earl of Orrery ; orrery \n\n\n\nBoyle, Rob., 1626-91 ; phosphorus, \n\nRoyal Society \nBoyle, Henry ; Godolphiu adminis- \ntration, 1702 \nBoyton, capt., life-boat, &c, 1875 \nBrabant, duke of; merchants, 1296 \nBraddock, gen. ; Fort Duquesne \nBrabazon, lord, hospital Saturday, \n\n1874 ; playgrounds \nBradbury, H. ; nature-printing, \n\n1855-6 \nBradlaugh, C. ; Northampton, 1874 ; \n\ntrials, 1877, et seq. ; parliament, \n\n1880-4; oaths, 1880-9 \nBradley, admiral ; trials, 1814 \nBradley, G. G. ; Westminster (dean), \n\n1884 \nBradley, Jas., 1693-1762 ; aberration, \n\nastronomy, Greenwich \nBradwardine, abp. ; Canterbury, \n\n1349 \nBrady, capt. ; China, 1874 \nBraganza, John of : Portugal, 1640 \nBragg, gen. ; United States, 1862-3-76 \nBraham, John, singer, 1774-1856 ; \n\ntheatres \nBrahe, Tyeho, 1546-1601 ; astronomy, \n\nglobe \nBraid wood. Jas. ; fires, fc. 1861 \nBramah, J., 1749-1814; hydrostatics, \n\nplauing-machine, lock (addenda) \nBrain well, sir Frederick J.; Royal \n\nInstitution \nBramwell, baron George, judge, \n\n1808-92 \nBrand, H. B., speaker, 1872-84 ; \n\nvisct. Hampden, 1884 \nBrande, W. T., chemist, 1788-1866 ; \n\nRoyal and London Institutions \nBraniireth, the Luddite ; Derby \n\ntrials, 1817 \nBrandt, count ; Zell, 1772 \nBrandt ; cobalt, phosphorus, 1667 \nBrantome, P., historian, 1527-1614 \nBrassey, lady, book (cheap); d. 1887 \nBrassey, Thos. ; rail, eng., 1805-70 \nBrasidas; killed, Amphipolis, 422 B.C. \nBraun, K. nephoscope, 1868 \nBravo case, Bravo, 1876 \nBray, Dr. ; Bray\'s associates \nBreadalbane peerage ; trials, 1866-7 \nBreakspeare, Nicholas; pope, 1154 \nBrederode, H. de ; gueux, 1566 \nBremer, sir Gordon ; China, 1840 \nBremer, Fred., novelist, 1802-65 \nBrendon, St. ; Clonfert, 558 \nBrenn, captain ; Hibernia, 1833 \nBrennus ; Rome, 390 b.o. \nBrereton, col. ; Bristol, 1832 \nBrereton cases ; railways, 1881-4 \nBressa, C. A. ; Bressa prize \nBresson, count ; suicide, 1847 \nBrett, J. W. ; submarine telegraph, \n\n1845 \n\nBrett, sir W. B., solic. gen. 1868 ; \nmaster of rolls, 1883 \n\nBrewster, sir David, nat. phil., 1781- \n1868 ; kaleidoscope, British asso- \nciation ; lithoscope \n\nBridges, Mr.; pceul. people \n\nBrie, Mr. ; duel, 1826 \n\nBridgeman, Laura, blind \n\nBridgewater, earl ; admiralty, 1699 \n\nBridgewater, duke of, 1736-1803; \nBridgewater Canal \n\nBridport, lord ; L\'Orient, 1795 \n\nBrienne, M. de ; notables, 1788 \n\nBright, corpulency, 1809 \n\nBlight, John, 1811-89 : England; \nAuti-corn-law league, Adullam, \nagitators, peace congress ; Glad- \nstone adm., 1868, 1880 \n\nBright, sir Charles T. ; electrician, \n1832-88 \n\nBright, T. ; shorthand \n\nBrindley, Jas., 1716-72; tunnels, \nBridgewater canal, Barton \n\nBrinklett; trials, 1828 \n\n\n\nBrinvilliers, madame de, executed, \n\n1676 ; poisoning \nBristol, mayor of ; trials, 1832 \nBristol, John, earl of ; administ. 1621 \nBrock, C. F., fireworks \nBrodie, sir B. C, surgeon, 1783-1862 ; \n\n\xe2\x80\x94 (son) chemist, b. 1817; graphite, \n\n1862 ; ozone \nBroglie, due de ; France, 1873, 1879 \nBroke, captain; Chesapeake, 1813 \nBrome, Adam de ; Oriel, 1337 \nBromley, sir Thomas-; administra- \ntions, 1579 \nBrongniart, A., geol., 1770-1847 \nBrooke, sir James, 1803-68 ; Borneo \nBrooks, prof.; oysters \nBrothers, R., d. 1824 \nBrough, M. A. ; trials, 1854. \nBrougham, H., 1779-1868 ; chancellor, \n\ncharities, impeachment, social \n\nscience \nBroughton v. Knight, trials, 1873 \nBroughton, lord, 1786-1869 ; Russell \n\nadm., 1846, 1851 \nBrown, gen. ; Prague, 1751 \nBrown, H., trials, 1858 \nBrown, sir J. ; iron, 1867 \nBrown, captain John ; United States, \n\n1859 \nBrown, Mrs. ; fountain, 1875 \nBrown, R., d. 1630; Brownists, \n\nindependents \nBrown, Rob, botanist, 1773-1858 \n\nBrowniau \nBrown, W., 1783-1864 ; Liverpool, 1857 \nBrowne, American gen. ; Chippawa, \n\n1814 ; Fort Erie \nBrowne, col. H., China, 1874 \nBrowne, George ; Dublin, 1554 \nBrowne, Hannah ; trials, 1837 \nBrowning, R., poet, 1812-89 \nBrowning ; Mrs. E., 1809-1861 \nBrownrigg, Eliz. ; trials, 1767 \nBrownrigg, gen. ; Candy, 1815 \nBruck, baron ; Lloyd\'s, note \nBruce, David ; Scotland, king, 1328; \n\nNevill\'s cross, 1346 \nBruce, Edward ; Dundalk, 131 8 \nBruce, H. A. ; Gladstone adm. 1868 \nBruce, Michael; Lavalette, 1816 \nBruce, Robert, d. 1329 ; Scotland, \n\nking, 1306 ; Bannoekburn, 1314 \nBruce, com. ; Lagos, China, 185 1 \nBruce, V. , traveller, 1730-94; Africa, \n\nBruce, Nile, Palmyra \nBrucher, Antonio ; coinage, 1553 \nBrudenell ; trials, 1834 \nBrueys, admiral; Nile, 1798 \nBrunck, anthology, 1772-6 \nBrunei, I. K., 1769-18/19; blocks, \n\nsteam, Thames tunnel \nBrunei, I. K., jun., 1806-59; steam \nBrunetti, prof. ; burning dead, 1874 \nBruno, d. hoi ; Benedictines, Char- \ntreuse, Cologne, turnery \nBrunswick, duke of; Valmy, 1792; \n\nQuatre Bras, 1815 \nBrunt, Davidson, Thistlewood, Ings, \n\nand Tidd ; Cato-street, 1820 \nBrush, C. F. ; electric light, 1878-9 \nBrutus, Lucius Junius; consuls, \n\nRome, 508 \nBrutus and Cassius ; Philippi, 42 B.C. \nBryan (or Brian) Boroimhe ; harp, \n\nClontarf, Ireland, 1014 \nBryant, Win. C, Am. poet, 1784-1878 \nBryce, James ; Ararat, United \n\nStates, 1888 \nBubb ; opera-house, 1821 \nBuceleuch, duke of ; Granton \nBuchan, captain ; N.-W. passage, \n\n1819-22 \nBuchan, M. ; Buchanites, 1779 \nBuchanan, J., 1791-1868 ; pres. U. \n\nStates, 1856, \nBuchanan v. Taylor ; trials, 1876 \nBuckhurst, Thomas, lord; adminis- \ntrations, 1599 \n\n\n\n1104 \n\nBueklrarst peerage ; trials, 1876 \nBuckingham, Stafford, duke of; \n\nconstable, 1521 \nBuckingham, G. Villiers, duke of; \nadministrations, 161 5, 1621; dress : \nkilled, 1628 \nBuckingham, duke of; cabal ministry, \n1670 ; Peel administrations, 1841 ; \nduel, 1822 ; \xe2\x80\x94 (&. 1823) ; Disraeli \nadm. , 1868 ; Madras, 1875 \nBuckingham, marquis of; Ireland, \n\nlord lieutenant, 1787 \nBuckinghamshire, earl of; Liverpool \n\nadministration, 18 12 \nBuckland, F. ; fisheries, 1863 \nBuckland, rev. W. ; geologist, 1784- \n\n1856 \nBuckle, H. T. ; historian, 1822-62 \nBuckle, capt., Amoaful, 1874 \nBufalmaco ; caricatures, 1330 \nBuffet ; France, 1873-6 \nBuffon, G., 1707-88 ; geology, zoology, \n\n!749 \nBugeaud, marshal, 1784-1849 ; Mo- \nrocco, 1844 \nBulkeley, bishop ; Bangor, 1553 \nBull, J., " God save the King," 1606 \nBull, G., bishop, 1634-1710 \nBulwer, see Lytton, Id. \nBulwer, sir H. E. ; Natal, 1875 \nBunbury, E. H. ; geography \nBunning, J. B. ; coal-exchange, 1849 \nBunsen, baron C. J. ; Germ. hist. \n\nand phil., 1791-1860 \nBunsen, R. ; voltaic pile, 1842 ; spec- \ntrum, i860 \nBunyan, J., 1628-88; Bedford, alle- \ngory, pilgrim\'s progress \nBuonarotti, Michael Angelo, 1474- \n\n1564 \nBurbage, James ; plays, drama \nBurdett, sir F., 1770-1844; duel, \n1807 ; riots, trial, 1820. See Coutts \nBurdock, Mary Anne ; trials, 1835 \nBurdon, Mr. : trials, 1841 \nBurdwan, rajah of; Calcutta, 1878 \nBurger, G. ; Germ, poet, 1748-94 \nBurgers, T. F. ; Transvaal, 1872 \nBurgess, bishop ; David\'s, St. 1825 ; \n\nSalisbury \nBurgh, Hubert de ; Whitehall \nBurgoyne, gen. ; Saratoga, 1777; sir \nJ. F. 1782-1871 ; capt. H., Captain, \n1870 \nBurke, Edmund, 1729-97 ; Rocking- \nham administrations, 1782; Canada, \nJunius \nBurke, sir J. B., b. 1815; armorial \n\nbearings, heraldry \nBurke, R. ; Fenians, 1867-8 \nBurke and Wills ; Australia, 1860-3 \nBurleigh, lord ; administrations, 1558 \nBurlington, Rd. earl of, 1695-1753 \nBurmanu, P., thesaurus \nISuru, H. & others, trials, 1886 \nBurnaby, col. F. A. ; balloons, 1874 ; \n\nKliiva ; Soudan, 1885 \nBurnes, sir A., murdered ; India, \n\n1841 \nBurnet, Dr. ; antediluvians \nBurnet, bp. Gilbert, 1643-1715 \nBurnett, Mr., d. 1784; Burnett prizes \nBurns, R., Scot, poet, 1759-96 \nBurnslde, gen. A. ; U. States, 1862 \nBurr, colonel ; duel, 1804 \nBurrows, gen. J. ; Afghanistan, 1880; \n\nMaiwand \nBurton, P. W. ; national gallery, 1874 \nBurton, Robt. (Anat. of Melancholy), \n\n1576-1640 ; quotations \nBurton, Richd. F., sir, 1821-90; \n\nArabian Nights ; Midian \nBury, Richard de; libraries, 1341 \nBute, earl of, 1713-92 ; Bute adm. \nButler, bp. S. ; Lichfield, 1840 \nButler, bp. J., 1692-1752 \nButler, captain; Silistria, 1854 \nButler, Sam. (Hudibraa), abt. 1612-80 \n\n\n\nINDEX. \n\nButler, gen. B. ; New Orleans, 1862 \n\nButt, Mr. ; trials, 1871 \n\nButt, I., 1873-79; Ireland, home-rule, \n\n1871-8 \nButtevant ; viscount, 1385 \nButton, sir Thomas ; N.-W. passage, \n\n1612 \nBuxton, Mr. ; trials, 1829 \nBuxton, sir T. F., 1786-1845 ; prisons, \n\n1815 \nBuxton, E. N., metropolitan school \n\nboard, 1881 \nByng, adm. J., exec. 1757 ; Gibraltar, \n\nByng, 1757 \nByrne, Miss ; riot, 1819 \nByron, comm. ; port Egmont, 1765 \nByron, George, lord, poet, 1788-1824 ; \n\nGreece, Missolonghi, swimming ; \n\nByron national memorial, 1875 \nBysse, Dr. ; music (festivals) \n\n\n\nCabot, Sebastian and John; Ame- \nrica, 1497 \n\nCabral, Alvarez de ; Brazil, 1500 \n\nCabrera, general ; Ramon, 1810-77 ; \nSpain, 1840 \n\nCade, Jack; Cade\'s insurrection, \n\n1450 \nCadell, Captain; Australia, 1867 \nCadmus, 1453 B.C.; alphabet, Boeotia \nCadogan, earl; Salisbury adm., 1886 \nCadogan, captain; duels, 1809 \nCadwallader; Britain, 678 \nCsecilius Isidorus ; slavery in Rome, \n\n12 B.C. \n\nCsedmon ; Anglo-Saxons, 680 \nCsesar, Julius, 100-44 b.c; Rome, \nBritain, calendar, ides, Dover, \nPharsalia, Rubicon, Zela \nCsesar, Octavius, 63 b.c. -14 a.d. ; \nRome, Actium, massacres, tri- \numvirate, Philippi, emperor \nCsesalpinus; blood, circulation, 1569 \nCagliostro, d. 1795; diamond neck- \nlace \nCailletet, air, gases, 1877 ; hydrogen \nCaird, sir James, agriculturist, 1816- \n\n92 \nCaird v. Syme ; trials, 1887 \nCairns, Hugh, earl, 1819-85, att.-gen. \n\n1866, lord chan. 1868-1874 \nCairns, W. W. ; Queensland, South \n\nAustralia \nCairoli ministry, Italy, 1878, 1879-81 \nCaithness, earl of; steam-carriage, \n\ni860 \nCalaphilus; wandering Jew \nCalas, J., judicially murdered, 1761 \nCalder, sir Robt. ; naval batt., 1805 \nCalderon, P., Span, dramatist, 1601-87 \nCalderon, Peru, 1881 \nCalepino; dictionaries, 1500 \nCalhoun, Mr.; temperance soc., 1818 \nCaligula; Rome, emperor, 37 \nCalippus; Calippic period, 330 B.C. \nCalixtus, pope; Calixtins, 1656 \nCallaghan, T. ; Falkland isles, 1876 \nCallan ; trials, 1874, 1880 \nCallcott, J. W. ; music. 1 766-1821, \n\nglee-club \nCallicrates ; calligraphy \nCallimachus; abacus, architecture, \n\nCorinthian, 540 B.C. \nCallinicus; Greek fire, wildfire \nCallisthenes ; Chaldean, Macedon, \n\n328 B.C. \nCalonne; notables, 1788 \nCalthorpe, Id.; Birmingham, 1857 \nCalverly ; pressing to death, 1605 \nCalvert, F. Crace, d. 1873 ; carbolic \n\nacid \nCalvert and Co. ; porter, 1760 \nCalvin, John, 1509-64; Calvinism \nCambacerfes; directory, 1799 \nCambridge, dukes of; Cambridge \n\n\n\nCambridge, George, duke of, 6. 1819; \n\ncom. -in-chief, 1856; army, 1872 \nCambyses; Egypt, Persia, 525 B.C. \nCamden, lord; chancellor, Perceval \n\nadm., 1809; exchequer, Ireland \n\n(lord-lieut.) \nCamden, W., antiquary, 1551-1623 \nCamelford, lord; duel, 1804 \nCameron, H. I.; trials, 1858 \nCameron, V. L. ; Africa, 1872 \nCameron, consul; Abyssinia, 1863 \nCamillus, Rome; 391 B.C. \nCamoens, Port, poet, 1524-79 \nCampbell, bishop ; Bangor, 1859 \nCampbells; disciples of Christ, 1812 \nCampbell, sir C. ; see Clyde \nCampbell, John, lord i78i(?)-i86i ; \n\nattorney - general, king\'s bench, \n\nchancellor, Palmerston \nCampbell, J. F., sunshine recorder \nCampbell, Rev. J. ; trials, 1863 ; \n\nCampbellites, 1831 \nCampbell, major; duel, trials, 1808 \nCampbell, capt.; marriages, forced. \n\n1690 \nCampbell, Thos., poet, 1777-1844 \nCamper, Peter, 1722-89; facial angle \nCampion ; trials, 1857 \nCampos, M. Carthagena, 1873 ! Spain* \n\n1874, Cuba \nCanaris ; Greece, 1863-4-77 \nCanaletti, Yen. painter, 1697-1768 \nCanby, gen.; killed, Modoc, 1873 \nCanning, George, 1770-1827; Can- \nning, duel, 1809; grammarians, \n\nking\'s speech ; anti-jacobin \nCanning, viscount, 1812-62; India, \n\n1855 \nCanova, A., sculptor, 1757-1822 \nCanovas del Castillo, A. ; Spain, \n\n1874-6 \nCantillon ; wills (Napoleon\'s), 1821 \nCanton, J., d. 1772; phosphorus, \n\nphosphorescence, magnetism \nCantor, Theod. ; Cantor lectures, \n\n1853 \n\nCanute; England, 1017; Alney \n\nCape Town, Gray, bp. of; Africa, \n1866; Church of England \n\nCapel, H. ; admiralty, 1679 \n\nCapet family; France, 987 \n\nCapo d\'Istria, count ; Greece, 1831 \n\nCaprivi, G. von, count, b. 1831 ; Ger- \nmany, 1890 \n\nCar; augury \n\nCaraealla; Rome, emp. 211 ; Ale- \nmanni \n\nCaracci, L., painter, 1555-1619; An., \n1568-1609 \n\nCaraccioli, adm., executed, Naples, \n1799 \n\nCaractacus; Britain, 50 \n\nCaraffa, bishop; Theatines, 1524 \n\nCarapanos, M.; Dodona \n\nCarausius; Britain, 281 \n\nCardan, J., 1501-76; algebra \n\nCarden, Mr.; trials, 1854 \n\nCardigan, lord; duel, 1840; trials, \n1841 and 1863; Balaklava, 1854 \n\nCardross case ; trials, 1861 \n\nCardwell, Edward, visct., b. 1813 ; \nPalmerston adm., 1855-59; Glad- \nstone adm. 1868 ; army, 1872 \n\nCarey, bishop; St. Asaph, 1830 \n\nCarey, James ; Ireland, 1883 \n\nCarleton, sir Guy ; U. States, 1782 \n\nCarlingford, lord ; Gladstone adm., \n1880 \n\nCarlier, fire-annlhilator \n\nCarlile, R.; atheist; trials, 1819, \n1831 \n\nCarlisle, earl of; Ireland, lord-lieu- \ntenant, 1859 \n\nCarlos, don ; Spain, 1S33-73 \n\nCarlyle, Thos., phil. and hist., \n1795-1881; Carlyle \n\nCarmarthen, marquis of; adminis- \ntrations, 1689 \n\n\n\nCarnarvon, earl of; Salisbury acini., \n\n1885; Disraeli admin., 1874 \nCarnegie, Andrew ; Edinburgh, 1890 \nCarnot, L., French mathematician, \n\n1753-1823 \nCarnot, M. Sadi ; France, 1886 \nCaroline; queen (George II.), parks \nCaroline; queen (George IV.), Bran- \ndenburg-house, delicate investiga- \ntion \nCarpenter, W. B., physiologist, \n\n1813-85 ; deep sea \nCarpenter, W. Boyd ; bp. Bipon, \n\n1884 \nCarpenter, gen.; Preston, 1715 \nCarr, bishop; Worcester, 1831 \nCarr, Howell ; national gallery, 1824 \nCarrol, balloons, 1878 \nCarre; congelation, i860 \nCarstares, rev. W. ; thumbscrew \nCarte, D\'Oyly ; Savoy \nCartier; America, 1534 \nCartier, Bichard; alchemy, 1476 \nCarteret; circumnavigator, 1766 \nCarteret, lord; "Walpole adm., 1721 \nCarthage, St.; Lismore, 636 \nCartwright, major; trials, 1820 \nCarvilius, Spurius; divorces, 231 \n\nB.C. \n\nCasati, G. ; Africa, 1891 \nCasella, L. ; thermometer, 1861 \nCashin, Miss; quackery, 1830 \nCashman; Spafields, riots, 1816 \nCasimir; Poland \n\nCassagnac, P. de ; duels, France, 1877 \nCassander; Macedon, 316 b.o \nCassivelaunus ; Britain, 54; chariots \nCassini, 1625-1712; astronomy; Bo- \nlogna, latitude, Saturn, 1655 \nCassius; Philippi, 42 B.C. \nCastanos ; Spain, 1852 \nCastel, M.; Dartmouth, 1404 \nCastelar; Spain, 1869-73. \nCastillo, Canovas del Spain, 1879 \nCastlereagh, lord; union with Ire- \nland, 1800; Pitt admin., 1804; \nLiverpool admin., 1812 ; duel, 1809 ; \nsuicide, 1822 \nCastner, H. Y. ; Solium, Aluminium \nCatesby, Rob.; gunpowder, 1605 \nCatch v. Shaen, trials, 1870 \nCathcart, Id.; Copenhagen, 1807 \nCathcart, general ; Kaffraria ; Inker- \n\nmann, 1854 \nCathcart, Mrs. ; trials, 1891 \nCatherine ; England (queens, Hen. \n\nV., VIII, Charles II.) \nCatherine; Russia, 1725; Odessa; \n\nSebastopol \nCato (the censor) ; agriculture ; 149 \nB.C. ;\xe2\x80\x94 (the tribune), kills himself, \n46 b. c. \nCatullus, poet, d. abt. 47 B.C. \nCatulus ; Cimbri, 101 B.C. \nCaulaineourt ; Chatillon, 1814. \nCaus, S. de ; steam-engine, 1615 \nCautley, sir P., 1802-71 ; Ganges, \n\n1854 \nCavagnari, L. ; Afghanistan, 1878-9 \nCavaignac, general ; France, 1848 \nCavalier, camisards \nCavaliere, Emilio di; opera, recita- \ntive, 1600 \nCave, S.,judge-advocate,i874; Egypt, \n\n1875-6. \nCavendish, circumnavigator, 1586 ; \n\n" Whist " \nCavendish, H, 1731-1810 ; balloons, \nelectricity, chemistry, nitrogen, \nhydrogen, water \nCavendish, John de ; judges, 1382 \nCavendish, lord Frederick ; Glad- \nstone adm., 1880; murdered, Ire- \nland, 1882 \nCavendish, lord John ; Portland ad- \nministration, 1783 \nCavendish, W. ; Devonshire, 1618 \nCavill, Mr. ; swimming \n\n\n\nINDEX. \n\nCavour, Camille de, 1809-61 ; Sar- \ndinia, Austria, Italy \nCaxton, Wm., about 1412-91 ; print- \ning \nCayley, sir G. ; heat \nCaylus, count; encaustic painting, \n\n1765 \nCecil, Wm. ; administrations, 1572 \nCecrops ; Athens, 1556 B.C. \nCeleste, madame ; theatres, 1844 \nCelestin ; popes, 1143 \nCelman, Dr. : Argentine republic, \n\n1890 \nCelsus ; midwifery, &c, 37 \nCerdic ; Britain (Wessex) \nCerinthus ; apocalypse \nCernuschi, H. ; bi-metallism \nCervantes, M. S., 1547-1616 ; don \n\nQuixote \nCespedes, C. M. de ; Cuba, 1868 \nCetywayo, (Zulu chief) ; Transvaal, \n\nZululand, 1872-81, Ulundi \nChabannes, ecorcheurs, 1438 \nChacornac ; planets, 1853 \nChad, St. ; baths, 667 \nChadwick, sir E., 1800-90; sanitation \nChaffers, Alexander, statutory decla- \nration \nChalloner, T. ; alum, 1608 \nChalmers, Dr. T., 1780-1847 \nChamberlain, Joseph, Gladstone adm. \n1880, 1886 ; bankrupts ; Merchant \nshipping Act ; fisheries, United \nStates, 1887, radical programme \nChamberlain, sir N. ; Afghanistan \n\n1878, Khyber \nChambers, W. O., fish, 1884 \nChambers, bishop ;Peterborough,i54i \nChambers ; encyclopaedia, 1728, 1859 ! \nChambers\' journal; \xe2\x80\x94 R., 1802-71; \n\xe2\x80\x94 W., 1800-83 ; Edinburgh, 1883 \nChambers, John Gray; Aberdeen, \n\n1890 \nChambers, sir T. ; recorder, 1878 \nChambers, sir William ; Somerset- \n\nhouse, 1775 \nChambord, comte de, 1820-83 ; France, \n\n1870-6 ; flag \nChancellor, R. ; north-east passage \nChangarnier, general, 1793-1877 ; \n\nFrance, 1851, 1873 \nChanning, W., 1780-1842 \nChantrelle, E. M. ; trials, 1878 \nChantrey, F, sculpt., 1782-1841 ; \n\nRoyal Academy \nChanzy, Fr. gen., 1823-83 ; Franco- \nPrussian war, 1870-1 ; Algiers, 1878 \nChaplin, H. ; Salisbury adm., 1885, \n\n1889, Agriculture \nChapman, Mr. ; armada sermon \nChappe, M. ; telegraphs, 1793 \nChappell, Thos ; James\'s, St. , Hall, \n\n1859 \nChard and Bromhead, lieuts. ; Zulu- \nlaud, 1879 \nChares ; colossus, 288 B.C. \nCharlemagne, 742-814 ; academy, \ncouriers, Avars, Bavaria, Chris- \ntianity, France, Germany, Navarre \nCharles Albert ; Sardinia, 1831 ; No- \n\nvara, 1849 \nCharles ; England, France, Spain, \nSavoy, Germany, Sweden, Sicily, \n&c. \nCharles V. ; emperor, 1500-58; Spain, \n\nAustria, Germany, Spires \nCharles V. ; Bastile, 1369 \nCharles VI. ; picquet, 1390 \nCharles XII., 1682-1718; Sweden, \n\nFrederickshald \nCharles the Bald, Fontenaille \nCharles the Bold ; Burgundy, 1468, \n\nNancy, Liege \nCharles, archduke, 1771-1847; As- \n\nperne, Eckmiihl, Essling \nCharles of Anjou ; Naples, 1266 \nCharles of Lorraine; Lissa, 1757 \nCharles of Hohenzollern, prince of \n\n\n\n1105 \n\nRoumania, b. 1839 ; Danubian \nprincipalities ; Russo - Turkish \nwar II. 1877 \nCharles Stuart, prince ; pretender, \n\nCulloden, 1746 \nCharlesworth, J. C. ; trials, 1861 ; \xe2\x80\x94 \nCharlesworth, Mr. and Mrs. ; con- \nvalescent, 1866 \nCharlotte, queen, England (Geo. III.) \nCharlotte, princess of Wales, 1796- \n\n1817 ; Claremont \nCharlton v. Hay and others ; trials, \n\n1875 \nCharteris, col. ; trials, 1730 \nChasse, gen. ; Antwerp, 1832 \nChateaubriand, viscount, French \n\nwriter, 1768-1848 \nChatham, earl of, 1708-78 ; Newcas- \ntle admin., 1757 ; Chatham admin., \n1766 ; Walcheren, 1809 \nChatterton, T., poet, 1752-70 \nChaucer, G., 1328-1400; Canterbury \n\ntales \nChaves, marq. of; Portugal, 1826 \nChelmsford, Id. ; Derby adm., 1858 ; \n\nZululand, 1879, Ulundi \nClieltenham Chronicle ; trials, 1873 \nCherubini, music, comp., 1 760-1842 \nChesham, Sarah; trials, 1851 \nCheshire rioters ; trials, 1842 \nChesney, col. ; Assyria, 1835 ; Eu- \nphrates, 1850 \nChetwind, eapt. ; oil on waters \nChetwynd, sir G. v. Durham ; trials, \n\n1889 \nChevallier, M. , 1806-79 \'\xe2\x80\xa2 Albert medal, \n\n1875, Liverpool, 1875 \nChevreul, E., chemist, &c.,i 786-1 889 ; \ncandles, glycerine, Albert medal, \n1873 \nChicheley, archbishop ; Canterbury, \n\n1414-1443 \nChilde, H. L. ; dissolving views \nChilderic ; France (kings) \nChilders, H. C, admiralty; Glad- \nstone adins., 1868, 1880, 1886 ; \nGreenwich schools. 1870 ; nat. debt \nChillingworth, W., theol., 1602-44 \nChing Noung ; China, wine, 1998 \n\nB.C. \n\nChisholm, H. W. ; weights, 1877 \nChladni, E., 1756-1827; acoustics \nChoiseul, E., due de, 1719-85 \nCholmeley, sir R., Highgate \nCholniondeley, gen. ; horseguards, \n\n1693 \nChopin, F., Hung, mus., 1810-49 \nChosroes I. ; Persia, 531 \nChristian ; Denmark, Sweden, 1448 \nChristian IV. ; Christiania, 1624 \nChristian VII. ; Denmark, 1775. \n\nOldenburg \nChristie, life-raft, fee., 1875 \nChristie, W. H. ; Greenwich (astro- \nnomer royal) \nChristina ; Sweden, 1633 ; Spain, \n\n1833 \nChristine, M., twins \nChristophe ; Hayti, 1811 \nChristopher; Denmark (kings), 1252, \n\n1320 \nChristopher, Robt. Adam ; Derby \n\nadm., 1852 \nChrysostom ; fathers, 354-407 \nChubb, Mr., locks (addenda) \nChurch, dean, Church of England,. \n\n1881 \nChurchill, C. ; satires, 1731-64 \nChurchill, Id. R. ; fourth party, 18S0; \n\nSalisbury adm. 1885 \nCialdini, gen. ; Italy, i860 ; Castel \n\nFidardo, Gaeta \nCibber, C, 1671-1757; poet-laureate \nCicero, 106-43 B - c - ! Athens, Rome, \n\nCatiline, Philippics \nCid (Spanish hero), d. 1099 \nCimabue, painter, 1240-1300 \nCimarosa, musician, 1754-1801 \n\n4 B \n\n\n\n1106 \n\nCimon ; Eurymedon, 466 B.C. \nCincinnatus, dictator, 458 B.C. \nCinna, consul, killed, 84 B.C. \nClaniiy, Dr. Reid ; safety lamp, 1817 \nClanricarde, marq. of; postmaster, \n1846 ; Russell administration, \n1851 ; Palmerston administration) \n1855 \nClapperton, Hugh, traveller, 1788- \n1827 \n\nClare, John, poet, 1793-1864 \n\nClare, earl of ; duel, 1820 \n\nClarence, duke of; Anjou, Claren- \ncieux ; rebellion, 1478 ; admiralty, \n\n. 1827 \n\nClarendon, earl of (Hyde), 1608-74 \xe2\x80\xa2 \nadministrations, 1660, 1685 ; \xe2\x80\x94 earl \nof, G. F. Villiers, 1800-70 ;\xe2\x80\x94 Ire- \nland, lord-lieut.; Aberdeen, Pal- \nmerston \n\nClark, sir James, phys., 1788-1870 \n\nClarke, Adam, theol., 1760-1832 ; \xe2\x80\x94 \nSam., theol., 1675-1729 ; \xe2\x80\x94 Edw. D., \ntraveller, 1768-1822 \n\nClarke, sir Andrew ; Straits, 1874 \n\nClarke, sir E. ; sol. gen., 1886 \n\nClarke, M. A. ; trials, 1814 \n\nClarke, gen. ; Cape, 1795 \n\nClarke, J. Algernon ; automaton \n\nClarke, M. C, 6. 1809; Shakspeare, \nconcordance, 1847 \n\nClarkson, Thos., 1760-1846 ; slave- \ntrade, slavery \n\nClaude Lorraine, painter, 1600-82 \n\nClaudian, Latin poet, d. about 408 ; \narchery \n\nClaudius; Rome, emperor, 41 ; II., \nGoths, 269 ; Naissus \n\nClaudius, App. ; decemviri, 451 B.C. \n\nClaughton,bp.; Rochester, Albans.St. \n\nClausel, marshal ; Algiers, 1836 \n\nClausius, R. J., physicist, 1822-28 \n\nClaussen, chev. ; flax, 1851 \n\nClaverhouse ; Both well, 1679 \n\nClay, F., mus. comp., b. 1840 \n\nClay, Mr.; slavery, U. S., 1820; \nLiberia ; whist \n\nClayton, Mr. ; duel, 1830 \n\nClayton, Dr. ; gas, 1739 \n\nCleaver, bishop ; Bangor, St. Asaph, \n1806-1815 \n\nCleisthenes ; ostracism, 510 B.C. \n\nClemenceau, M., Fr. polit.; France, \n1882-4 \n\nClemens Romanus ; popes, 662 ; \xe2\x80\x94 \nAlexandrinus, d. abt. 213 \n\nClement ; popes, 91 ; IV. ; conclave, \n1268 ; \xe2\x80\x94 VII. ; pontiff, benefices, \nClementines, 1378 ; \xe2\x80\x94 VIII. ; index ; \n\xe2\x80\x94 XIV. (Ganganelli), 1769 ; Jesuits \n\nClement, Jacques; France, 1589; \xe2\x80\x94 \nJoseph ; planing machine, 1825; \xe2\x80\x94 \nJulian ; midwifery, 1663 \n\nClementi, M., music, d. 1832 ; sonata \n\nCleombrotus ; Sparta, 380 B.C. \n\nCleomenes ; Sparta, 520 b.c. \n\nCleon, Athenian demagogue, killed \n422 B.C. ; Amphipolis \n\nCleopatra : Egypt, 69-30 B.C. ; rose \n\nCleveland, Grover, fc. 1837; president \nUnited States, 1884 \n\nClifford, C. ; life-boat, 1856 \n\nClifford, J. ; trials, 1870 \n\nClifford, lord ; Roman Catholics, \n1829 ; \xe2\x80\x94 sir Tho., cabal, 1670 \n\nClifford, W. K.,mathemat.; dynamics \n\nClinton, H. Fynes, 1 781-1852 ; chro- \nnology \n\nClinton, sir H. ; Yorktown, 1781 \n\nClinton, Geoffrey de ; Kenilworth, \n1120 \n\nClive, Robt., lord, 1725-74; Arcot, \nIndia, Plassey \n\nCloncurry, lord, v. Piers ; trials, 1807 \n\nClose, Mr. ; duels, 1836 \n\nClotaire ; France (kings), 558 \n\nClovis (Chlodowig, Ludwig, Ludo- \nvicus. Louis) ; France, 481 ; Nor- \n\n\n\nINDEX. \n\nmandy, Paris, Clovis, Salique, \nfleur-de-lis, Alemanni \nCloots, Anacharsis, exec. 1794 \nClouet ; gas \nClune, &c. ; trials, 1830 \nCluseret, gen. ; Lyons, 1870 ; France, \n\n1871 ; Fenians, 1872 \nClutterbuck, rev. J. ; 1891 \nClyde, lord, 1792-1863 ; India, 1857 \nClymer ; printing-press, 1814 \nCobbett, William, 1762-1835; trials, \n\n1809, 1811, 1831 \nCobden, R., 1804-65 ; anti-eorn-law \nleague, free trade, French treaty, \npeace congress \nCobham, Id. ; Lollards, 1418 \nCoburg, prince of; Fleurus, 1794 (see \n\nSaxe-Coburcj) \nCochrane, lord (afterwards Dun- \ndonald), d. i860 ; Basque roads, \nstocks, trials, 1814 \nCockburn, sir A., 1802-80; solicitor- \ngeneral, 1858 ; attorney-general, \nking\'s bench, ch. j., Alabama \nCockerill, J. : Seraing \nCocking, Mr. ; balloons, 1837 \nCodrington, admiral sir E. ; Nava- \nrino, 1827 ; \xe2\x80\x94 sir W. J., 1804-84 ; \nCrimea \nCodrus ; Athens, 1092 B.C. \nCoe ; trials, 1876 \nCoggia; comets, 1874 ; planets, 1868, \n\n1878 \nCohn, Dr. , germ theory \nCohorn, B. van, military engineer, \n\n1641-1704 \nCoke, sir Edw., 1550-1634 ; parlia- \nments, 1592 \nColbert, J. B., 1619-83 ; tapestry \nColborne, sir John ; Canada, 1838 \nColclough, Mr. ; duels, 1807 \nColcutt, T. E. ; imperial institute \nCole andCox(police); parliament, 1885 \nColeman, St. ; Cloyne, 6th cent. \nColeman, Mrs. ; actress, 1656 \nColenso, bp\'., 1814-83 ; church of \nEngland, 1863 ; trials, 1866 ; Natal \nColeridge, Samuel T., poet, &c, \n\n1772-1834; method \nColeridge, sir J., solic.-gen. ; att.- \ngen., 1871, com. pleas, 1873; \nking\'s bench, 1880 \nColes, capt. Cowper, 1831-70 ; navy \n\nof England, 1855-70 ; Captain \nColet, J. ; Paul\'s school, 15 12 \nColigni, admiral, killed, 1572 \nCollard, dwarf, 1873 \nCollard, rear-adml. ; suicide, 1846 \nColley, sir G. P. ; Transvaal, Natal, \n\nMajuba \nCollie, Alex. ; London, 1875 \nCollier, J. P., 1789-1884; Shakspeare, \n\n1849 \nCollier, Jeremy; eccles.-hist., 1650- \n\n1726 \nCollier, sir R. P. ; att.-gen., 1868; \n\nbaron Monkswell, 1885 \nCollings, Jesse ; restitution bill \nCollingwood, lord, 1748-1810 ; Trafal- \ngar, 1805 ; naval battles, 1809 \nCollins, govr. ; Hobart Town, 1804 \nCollins, Wm. W., Nov. 1824-89 \nCollinson, sirR., 1811-83 ; Franklin, \n\n1850 \nCollucci, V. ; trials, 1861 \nColman, G., d. 1794 ;\xe2\x80\x94 G.,jun., 1762- \n\n1836; theatres, 1777 \nColonib, adm., fog \nColonna family flourish, 1288-1555 \nColonna, V., poetess, 1490-1547 \nColpoys, admiral; mutinies, 1797 \nColt, colonel ; pistols, 1853 \nColumba, St., 521-97, isles \nColuiubanus, d. 614 or 615 \nColumbiere ; armorial bearings, 1639 \nColumbus, Chr., 1436 or 1442-1506 ; \nAmerica, Bahama, Caraccas, \nChristopher\'s, Salvador, Domingo \n\n\n\nColumbus, Bartholomew ; maps, 1489 \nColumella, medical writer, abt. 46 \nColville, sir C. ; Cambray, 1815 \nColvin, sir A.; India and Egypt, \n\n1883 \nColvin, prof. S. ; ancient buildings - \n\nSlade prof. \nCombe, G., 1788-1858 ; craniology \nCombermere, Id. ; Bhurtpore, 1826 \nComines, Ph. de, Fr. hist., 1445- \n\nCommerell, comm. ; Ashantees, 1873 \nCommodus ; Rome, emperor, 180 \nComneni ; eastern emperors, 1057 ; \n\nPontus, Trebizond, 1204 \nComte, A., 1 795-1857 ; calendar, posi- \ntive philosophy \nComyn, Mr. ; trials, 1830 \nConcha, gen. ; Spain, 1868, 1874, Es- \n\ntella \nConcle, Louis ; Jarnac, 1569 \nConflans ; Quiberon, 1759 \nConfucius, 551 \xe2\x80\x94 477 B.C. Confuci- \nanism ; China \nCongleton, lord ; suicide, 1842 \nCongreve, R. ; positive phil. \nCongreve, W. , dramatist, 1670-1729 \nCongreve, sir Wm., 1772-1828 ; fire- \nworks, 1814 \nConnaught, duke of ; Egypt, 1882 \nConolly, J., 1795-1866; lunatics, \n\n1839 \nConon ; Sparta, 394 b. c. ; Argmusse \nConrad ; Germany, emperor, 911 \nConrad II. ; Germany, 1024 ; Bur- \ngundy \nConradin ; Naples, Germany, 1268 \nConstans ; Aquileia, 340 \nConstantine ; Rome, emp., 323 ; \nAdrianople, aruspices, banner, \nBritain, Eastern empire, Rome, \nYork, Scotland \nConstantine II. ; Aquileia, 340 \nConstantine IV. ; monasteries \nConstantius ; Rome, emps. , 303 \nContarini (doges at Venice), 104 1- \n\n1694 \nConway, sir Edw. ; administrations, \n1621 : \xe2\x80\x94 general, Chatham adminis- \ntration, 1766 \nCoode, sir John ; breakwater, 1890 \nCook, capt James, 1728-79 ; Austra- \nlia, Cook\'s voyages, Behring\'s- \nStraits, Botany Bay, Flattery Cape, \nNew Hebrides, New Zealand, Nor- \nfolk Island, Otaheite, Owhyhee, \nPort Jackson, Society isles \nCook, Mrs., murdered ; trials, 1841 \nCook, J. P., murdered; trials, 1856 \nCooke, sir George ; Chatham 1766 \nCooke, E. W., R.A., b. 1810 \nCooke, Eliz. ; trials, 1832 \nCooke, Geo. Fred., actor, 1755-1812 \nCooke, W. F, electric teleg., 1837 \nCooper, Astley, surgeon, 1 768-1841 \nCooper, J. Fenimore, Am. novelist. \n\n1789-1851 \nCooper, Mr. ; slave trade, 1787 \nCooper, P., philan.; New York, 1883 \nCooper; trials, 1805, 1842 \nCoote, sir Eyre ; India, Arcot, 1760: \n\nCarnatic, Cuddalore, Porto Novo \nCope, sir John; Prestonpans, 1745 \nCopernicus, Nic, 1473-1543; astro- \nnomy, attraction, solar system \nCopleston, bishop; Llandaff, 1827 \nCopley, J., painter, 1738-1815 \nCoram, capt. Thos., d. 1751; found- \nling hospital, 1739 \nCorday, Charlotte; France, 1793 \nCorder, William; trials, 1828 \nCordova, general de ; Granada, 1492 \nCorelli, A., musician, 1653-1713 \nCorin ; libertines, 1525 \nCoriolanus ; Rome, Volsci, 490 B. c. \nCormac ; Cashel, 901 \nCorneille, P., tragedy, 1606-84 \nCornelia, Maximiliana; vestals, 92 \n\n\n\nCornelius ; Spitzbergen, 1595 \nCornelius, P. von; Ger. paint., 1787- \n\n1867 \nCornell, E. ; Cornell univ., 1868 \nCornhill, Henry; sheriff, 1189 \nCornwall, bp. ; Worcester, 1808 \nCornwallis, abp.; Canterbury, 1768; \n\nLichfield, 1781 \nCornwallis, marquis, 1738-1805; ad- \nmiralty, India, America, Banga- \nlore, Ireland (lord-lieut.), Seringa- \npatam \nCornwallis, E.; Halifax, N.S. \nCorcebus; Olympiads, 776 B.C. \nCorreggio, A., painter, 1494-1534 \nCorry; duel, 1800 \nCorry, H. T. L., 1803-83; admiralty, \n\n1867 \nCort, H. ; iron, 1781 \nCorte Real ; America, north-west \n\npassage, 1500 \nC\'ortez, P., 1485-1554; Mexico, 1521 \nCoryate, Thomas ; forks, 1608 \nCosmo, I. ; Port Ferrajo, 1548 \nCosta, M., 1810-84; musician. \nCoster, L. ; printing \nCottenham, lord; chancellor, lord \n\nhigh, 1836 \nCottenot, planets, 1878 \nCottington, lord ; administrations, \n\n1635 \nCotton, R. ; Cottonian library, 1600 \nCotton, M. A.; poisoning, 1873 \nCotton, sir Stapleton; Villa Franca, \n\n1812 \nCotton, W. J. R. ; mayor, lord, 1875 \nCoulomb, C, 1736-1806; electricity, \n\n1785 \nCourbet ; China, 1884 ; Tonquin \nCourier, P. L. ; pamphlets \nCourtanvaux; ether, 1759 \nCourteuay, abp. Canterbury, 1381 \nCourtenay; Thomites, 1838 \nCourtenay, sir Wm. ; Exeter, 1469 \nCourtois, M. de; iodine, 1812 \nCourvoisier; trials, 1840 \nCousin, V., Fr. philos., 1792-1867 \nCoutts, baroness A. Burdett, b. 1814 ; \ntrials, 1847; Columbia market, 1869; \nChichester, 1874; Edinburgh, 1873; \nflower-girl brigade, 1880; children, \n1884; Baltimore \nCoventry, sir John; Coventry act, \n\n1670 \nCoventry; administrations, 1628-1672 \nCoverdale, Miles, 6. 1487; Bible, \n\n1535 \nCowan, Mr. ; Kookas, 1872 \nCowen, J., Newcastle, 1871 ; demo- \ncratic federals \nCowles, E. ; aluminium \nCowley, Abraham, poet, 1618-67 \nCowper, lord ; Burford, Halifax, \n\n1714 \nCowper, earl ; Gladstone adm., 1880 \nCowper, E. ; printing-machine, 1815 \n\n\xe2\x80\x94 E. A.; electric telegraph, 1879 \nCowper, Wm., poet, 1731-1800 \nCox, Walter; trials, 1811 \nCoxwell, Mr. ; balloons, 1862-73 \nCoyle, Mr. Bernard; duel, 1802 \nCrabbe, Geo., poet, 1754-1832 \nCrabtree, W. ; Venus \nCraggs, Mr. ; Sunderland admin., \n\n1718 \nCrampton, Mr.; United States, 1856 \nCrane, sir Francis ; tapestry, 1619 \nCranbrook, lord ; Salisbury adm., \n\n1885, i386 \nCranfield, Lionel, lord; administra- \ntions, 1621 \nCranmer, archbp., 1489-1556; Can- \nterbury, administrations, 1529 ; \nhomilies, martyrdom \nCranworth, lord; chancellor, 1852 \nCrassus, Marcus, slain; ovation, 53 \n\nB.C. \n\nCraterus; Cranon, 322 \n\n\n\nINDEX. \n\nCrawford, earl of ; Dunecht, trials, \n\n1882 \nCrawford, divorce case ; trials, 1886 \nCrawford, A. T. ; India, 1889 \nCrawfurd, earl of; Brechin, 1452 \nCrawley; trials, 1802-1863; steel \nCrellin, Miss ; trials, 1842 \nCrespigny, Mr.; duel, 1828 \nCresswell, sir C, 1794-1863; probate, \n\n1857 \nCresswell v. Walrond ; trials, 1877 \nCreswick, T.; paint., 1811-69 \nCrewe, bp. ; Bambrough, 1778 \nCrichton, Jas. (the admirable), m. \n\nabout 1560-1583 \nCrillon, due de; Gibraltar, 17S2 \nCrispi, sig. ; Italy, 1887 \nCristofalli, pianoforte \nCristovitch ; Roumelia, 1884 \nCrockatt v. Dick; trials, 1818 \nCrockett, Messrs. ; leather-cloth \nCroesus; Lj\'dia, 560 B.C. \nCroft; impostors, 1553 \nCroft, sir Richard; suicide, 1818 \nCrofts, Mr.; dwarfs, 1653 \nCroke, abp.; Ireland, 1881 \nCrollius ; calomel, 1608 \nCroly, Geo.; poet, 1780-1860 \nCrompton, Sam., 1753-1827; cotton; \n\nmule, 1779 \nCromwell, Oliver, 1599-1658; admin- \nistrations, 1653 ; Amboyna, agita- \ntors, commonwealth, England, \nDrogheda, Dundalk, mace, Ire- \nland, Marston Moor, Naseby, Wor- \ncester, Manchester, 1875 \nCromwell, Richard ; administrations, \n\n1658; England \nCromwell, T. , lord Essex; adminis- \ntration, 1532; registers \nCronin, Dr. ; murder ; United States, \n\n1889 \nCrookes, Wm.; thallium, 1861 ; spirit- \nualism, radiometer, light, otheo- \nscope, elements \nCrosbie, sir Edward; trials, 1798 \nCross, E. ; Surrey Gardens, 1831 \nCross, sir R. A. , viscount ; Disraeli \nadministration, 1874 ; Salisbury \nadm. 1885, 1886 \nCrossley, F. ; Halifax, 1857 \nCrouch; trials, 1844 \nCrowse, E. ; needles \nCrowther, bishop ; Niger \nCrowther, lieut. ; duel, 1S29 \nCrozier, capt. ; N.-W. passage, 1845 \nCruden, Alex.; concordance, 1737 \nCruikshank, G., 1792-1878; wood-en- \ngraving \nCtesias; hist., 398 b.c. \nCtesibius, 140 B.C. ; clock, organ, \n\npump \nCubitt, Mr. ; treadmill, 1817 ; J., \n\nBlackfriars, 1867 \nCullen, Paul, cardinal ; 1803-78 \nCullen, W., physician, 1712-90 \nCumberland, duke of; Closterseven, \n\nCulloden, Fontenoy, 1745 \nCumberland, R. ; comedies, 1732- \n\n1811 \nCumberland, S. ; thought reading \nCumming, lord de Roos v.; trials, \n\n1837 \nCumming, Gordon ; lion \nCumming, rev. Dr. John, 1810-81 \nCummins, Dr. ; reformed eiriscopal \n\nchurch \nCunard, Sam., 1787-1865; steam \nCurci, Father ; Italy, 1877 ; Jesuits \nCurio; amphitheatres, abt. 50 B.C. \nCurran, John Philpot, Irish orator, \n\n1750-1817; duel, 1790 \nCurrell, T. W. ; trials, 1887 \nCursor, Papirius; dials, 293 B.C. \nCurtius, prof. E. ; Olympieium, 1875 ; \n\nphilology \nCurtius, Quintius; earthquakes, 364 \n\nB.C. \n\n\n\n1107 \n\nCushing, C, United States, 1878 \nCuster, gen. ; Indians, 1876 \nCuthbert, St., d. 686; Canterbury \nCuthbert v. Browne ; trials, 1829 \nCuvier, G., naturalist, 1769-1832; \n\nzoology \nCuyp, A., painter, 1606-67 \nCyprian, father, m. 258 \nCyriacus ; Abrahamites \nCyril, father, d. 386 \nCyrus the Great, killed, 529 B.C. ; \n\nBactriana, Cyprus, Jerusalem, \n\nMedia, Persia \nCyrus the younger; Cunaxa, 401 B.C. \nCzermak, Dr. ; laryngoscope, 1861 \n\n\n\nD. \n\nDacier, mad., 1 654-1 720; Delphin \n\nDacre, lady Anne; Emmanuel hos- \npital, 1594 \n\nDasdalus; labyrinth, axe, 1240 B.C.? \n\nDagobert; Denis, St., 673 \n\nDaguerre, M., 1789-1851 ; photo- \ngraphy \n\nDahl, professor ; dahlias \n\nDale, Rev. T. P. ; public worship, \n1877-1881 \n\nDAlembert, Fr. phil., 1717-83; acous- \ntics \n\nDahlgren, J. A.; engin., 1809-70 \n\nDalhousie, marquis of; India (gov.- \ngen.), 1848; Gladstone adm., 1886. \n\nDallinger, W. H. ; animalcules, spon- \ntaneous generation \n\nDalmas, A.; trials, 1844 \n\nDalling, H. Bulwer, Id.; 1805-72 \n\nDalmatia; see Soidt \n\nDalrymple, sir Hew ; Cintra, 1808 \n\nDalton, John, chemist, 1766-1844 ; \natomic theory, 1808 \n\nDamasus, pope, 366; pontiff, crown, \npope, tiara \n\nDamian, accordion \n\nDamien, father; leprosy \n\nDamiens, Damiens\' attempt, 1757 \n\nDampier; circumnavigator, 1689 \n\nDampier, bishop; Ely, 1808 \n\nDamremont, marshal; Algiers, Con \nstantia, 1837 \n\nDana, R. H. ; United States, 1876 \n\nDanaus; Greece, 1485 B.C.? \n\nDanby, earl of ; administrations. \n1673; physic garden \n\nDangerfield ; meal-tub plot, 1679 \n\nDanican, chess, concerts \n\nDaniel prophesies, 606 B.C. \n\nDaniel, Sam. ; poet-laureate, 1619 \n\nDanneker, J., sculptor, 1758-1841 \n\nDannenberg, gen.; Oltenitza, 1854 \n\nDante, Alighieri, Italian poet, 1265- \n1321 \n\nDanton, G., exec. 1794; clubs, Fren. \n\nDarboy, abp. of Paris ; killed, France, \n1871- \n\nD\'Arblay, mad. (Burney), novelist, \n1752-1840 \n\nDarbon v. Rosser; trials, 1841 \n\nD\'Arcon, M. ; Gibraltar \n\nDardanus, Ilium, 1480 b.c. \n\nDargan, W, d. 1867; Ireland, Dublin \nexhibition, 1853 \n\nDarius; Persia, 521 B.C.; Greece \n\nDarling, Grace ; Forfarshire, 1838 \n\nDarling, sir C; Jamaica, 1857; Vic- \ntoria, 1863 \n\nDarmes; France, 1840 \n\nDarnley, lord; Scotland, 1565 \n\nDartmouth, earl of; Oxford adminis- \ntration, 1711 ; Rockingham admin., \n1766 \n\nDarwin, Charles R., naturalist, 1809- \n82 ; origin, species, development \n\nDarwin, Erasmus, naturalist, 1731- \n1802 ; lunar society \n\nDashwood, sir Fr. ; Bute admin. , \n1762 \n\n4 b 2 \n\n\n\n1108 \n\nD\'Aubigne, Merle, ecclesiastical hist., \n\ni 794-1872 \nDaubeny, C; 1795-1867; atomic the- \nory, 1850 \nD\'Audiffret Pasquier ; France, 1875-6 \nDauglish, Dr.; "bread, 1856 \nDaun, count, d. 1766, Hochkirehen, \n\nTorgau \nDavenant, William; drama, opera, \n\n1684 \nDavenport, Miss; theatres, 1844 \nDavey, sir H., sol. gen., 1886 \nDavid; Jews, 1065 b.c. \nDavid, George; impostors, 1556 \nDavid I.; Scotland, 1124; Carlisle \nDavid, J., painter, 1748-1825 \nDavies, C. L. ; phonopore \nDavies ; trials, 1890 \nDavila, E. C. , Italian historian, 1576- \n\n1631 \nDavis, Jefferson, 1808-89; confede- \nrate states ; United States, 1861-86 \nDavis, J. ; trials, 1887 \nDavis, sir John F., diplomatist, \n\n1795-1890 ; China, 1844 \nDavis; N.-W. passage, 1585; quad- \nrant, China \nDavis, N. ; Carthage, 1861, 1876 \nDavitt, M., and Wilson ; trials, 1870 ; \nFenian, 1870, 1881 ; Ireland, 1882 ; \nparliament, 1882 \nDavoust, marshal ; Krasnoi, Mo- \n\nhilow, Jena, Eckmiihl, 1809 \nDavy, sir Humphry, chemist, &c, \n1778-1829 ; Penzance, Royal Institu- \ntion, barium, electricity, calcium, \nmagnesium, potassium, sodium, \nsafety lamp, strontium \nDavys, bp. ; Peterborough, 1839 \nDawes, abp. ; York, 1714 \nDawkins, capt. ; navy of England, \n\n1875 \nDawkins, W. B. ; caves \nDawson, lieut. ; Africa, 1872 \nDawson, J. W. ; Eozoon \nDay (Kossuth\'s notes case), trials, \n\ni860 \nDay, Mr. ; Fairlop fair \nDaza, H., Bolivia, 1876 \nDeacle v. B. Baring ; trials, 1831 \nDeak, F. ; Hungary, 1865-75 \nDeane, abp.; Canterbury, 1501 \nDeane, adml. ; naval battles, 1653 \nDebain ; harmonium \nDe Balton; duels, 181 1 \nDe Blignieres, M. ; Egypt, 1879 \nDeBrazza; France, 1882 ; Congo, 1883 \nDe Broglie, France, 1879 \nDe Burgh, Hubert ; Whitehall \nDe Candolle, A., botanist, 1 778-1841 \nDecazes, due ; France, 1873-6 \nDecius Mus sacrifices himself, 295 B.C. \nDe Courcy, baron; peers, 1181 \nDee, Dr. J., d. 1608; astrology \nDeeming, F. B. ; Melbourne, 1892 \nDeerfoot, pedestrianism, 1861 \nD\'Etrees, see D\'Estrees. \nDe Fallieres, M. ; France, 1883 \nDe Foe, Daniel, 1663-1731; Robinson \n\nCrusoe, Juan, plague \nDe Foix, Gaston; Ravenna, 1512 \nDe Gasparis, A.; planets, 1849 \nDe Genlis, mad., 1746-1830 \nDe Giers, chancellor, Russia, 18S2 \nDe Grasse, admiral; Chesapeake. \n\nnaval battles, Tobago, 1781 \nDe Grey, earl; Ireland, lord lieu- \ntenant, 1427 \nDe Grey, Gladstone adm., 1868 \nDe Groof, V. ; balloons, 1874 \nDe Haven, lieut.; Franklin, 1850 \nDe Horsey, adm., Peru, 1877 \nDelabeche, H., 1796-1S55; geology \nDe la Clue, admiral; Lagos, 1759 \nDelafontaine, M., decipium \nDelambre, J., Fr. mathemat., 1749- \n\n1822 \nDe la Rive ; Swiss nat. phil., c7. 1873 \n\n\n\nINDEX. \n\nDe la Roche, Paul, Fr. paint., 1797- \n\n1856 \nDe la RoneiereleNoury,adm.; France, \n\n1875 \nDe la Rue ; trials, 1845 \nDe la Rue, Warren, physicist, 1815 \n-89 ; envelopes ; electric bat- \ntery ; photography, 1857; eclipse, \ni860 \nDe la Vigne, C. ; Parisienne \nDe l\'Epee, abbe, 1712-89; deaf \nDe Lesseps, M.; Suez, 1857 \nDelille, J., Fr. poet, 1738-1813 \nDelisle ; Venus \n\nDe Loundres, Henry ; Dublin, 1205 \nDe Meritens, electric light, 1879 \nDemetrius; Athens, Macedon, im- \npostors, Poland \nDemocritus, about 400 B.C. ; atoms \nDe Moivre; annuities, 1724 \nDe Morgan, A., mathemat., 1806-71; \n\nalmanacs, 1851 ; paradoxes, 1872 \nDemosthenes, about 382-322 B.C. ; \n\nphilippics \nDenayrouze, M. ; aerophore, 1875 \nDenison, archdeacon; trials, 1856; \nauricular confession, 1873, Church \nof England, 1873 \nDenison, bishop; Salisbury, 1801 \nDenison, E. B. ; bells, 1856 \nDenison, J. E. ; speaker, 1857 \nDenman, lord, 1779-1854; att.-gen. , \n\nking\'s bench \nDenmark, prince George, admiralty, \n\n1702, queens (Anne) \nDenner, J., clarionet, about 1690 \nDennis, W. ; fire engine \nDenny, J. ; trials, 1851 \nDepretis, A. ; Italy, 1876, 1884 \nDe Quincey, Thos., essayist, 1785- \n\n1859 \n\nDerby, countess of; Lathom-house, \n1644 \n\nDerby, earl of, races, 1779 \n\nDerby, earl of, 1799-1869 ; Derby \nadmin., 1852, 1858, 1866 \n\nDerby, earl of; Man, Wigan, Derby \n\nDerby, earl of, 0. 1826, see Disraeli \nadm. (Stanley), 1868, 1874 ; Edin- \nburgh, 1874 ; Brussels conference, \n1874 ; Turkey, 1876 ; Berlin, 1876 ; \nRusso-Turkish war, II. 1877 ; Tur- \nkey, 1876-7; Gladstone adm., 1880 \n\nDe Roos, lord, v. Cumming; trials, \n\n1S37 \nDe Rossi, catacombs \nDe Ruyter, adml.; Sheerness, 1667; \n\nChatham, Texel \nDervish pasha, Albania, Dulcigno \nDerwentwater, earl of, executions, \n\n1 71 6; Greenwich \nDes Cartes, Rene, 1596-1650; carte- \nsian, rainbow \nDesmoulins, Camille, exec. 1794; \n\nclubs, 1782 \nDesnoyers, L. ; charivari \nDessaix, general ; Marengo, 1800 \nDessalines; Hayti, 1803 \nDe Stael, madame, 1766-1817 \nD\'Estaign, count; Bencoolen, 1760; \n\nGeorgia \nD\'Esterre, Mr.; duels, 1815 \nD\'Estrees, adml.; Texel, 1673 \nDeucalion; deluge, 1503 b.c. \nDe Veres, earls of Oxford; Id. gt. \n\nchamberlain, marquis, duke \nDevigne, Hen.; billiards, 1571 \nDeville, H. St. C. ; aluminium, 1856; \n\nplatinum, 1859 \nDevon, W. R., earl of, 6. 1807; Dis- \nraeli, 1 868 \nDevonshire, duke of; Devonshire ad- \nministration, 1756 ; Cavendish col- \nlege \nDewar, prof. J. ; gases ; Royal Insti- \ntution, 1877 ; elements, 1880-1 ; \noxygen; cold ; alcohol \nDe Wimpffen, gen. ; Sedan, 1870 \n\n\n\nDe Winter, adm. ; Camperdown, 179 \nDe Winton, sir F. ; Congo, 1884 \n\nAfrica (British E.), 1890 \nDe Witt; chain shot, 1666; (pen- \nsionary) murdered, 1672 ; Hague \nDe Worms, baron ; sugar bounties \nDhuleep Singh ; India, 1849 ; Punjab \nDiaz, R, discovers Cape of Good \n\nHope, 1487 \nDiaz, P. ; Mexico, 1867-84 \nDi Bardi, Donato ; sculpture, 1383 \nDibdin, C, 1745-1814; ballads \nDibutades ; models \nDicey, W. T. ; steam, 1875 \nDick, Mr.; trials, 1818 \nDickens, Chas., novelist, 1812-70 \nDickinson, capt. ; trials, 1829 \nDickson, col. ; trials, 1859, 1863 \nDiderot, D., philos., 1713-S4 \nDidius Julianus ; Rome, emp. 193 \nDido; Carthage, 869 b.c. \nDidot, M. ; paper-making, stereotype \nDiebitsch, gen.; Balkan, 1829 \nDiefenbach, L. ,1806-83 ; philology \nDiesbach; prussic acid, 1709 \nDigby, E. ; gunpowder plot, 1605 \nDigges, L. ; optics, 1671 \nDilke, C. W.; Athenseum \nDilke, sir C, b. 1843 ; Gladstone \n\nadm. 1880 ; corporations \nDilke, lady ; burning dead, 1874 \nDillon, Mr. Luke; trials, 1831 \nDillon, Mr., Ireland, 1880-1 \nDimsdale and others ; trials, 1878 \nDiocletian; Rome, emp. 284; Dal- \n\nmatia \nDiodati, J., theologian, 1576-1649 \nDiodorus Siculus, 50B.C-13 a.d. ; Etna \nDiogenes, cynic, d. 323 B.C. \nDionysius ; Portugal, anno doinini, \n\ncatapultee \nDionysius Halicarnassus, Gr. poet, \n\nfl. 30 B.C. \nDionysius; Syracuse, 406 B.C. \nDiophantus; algebra, 370 \nDipcenus ; sculpture, marble \nDircks, H.; ghosts, 1858 \nDisraeli, I., 1767-1848 ; \xe2\x80\x94 Benjamin \n\n(earl of Beaconsfield, 1876), 1804-81 ; \n\nDerby admin. , 1852, 1858; Disraeli \n\nadmin., 1868, 1874 > cottage ; \n\npeople\'s tribute \nDitmar, C. ; dualin, 1870 \nDiver, Jenny; trials, 1740 \nDixblancs, M. ; trials, 1872 \nDixon, capt.; Apollo \nDixon, Hepworth, 1821-79 ; Ebelians, \n\nmormonites ; \xe2\x80\x94 v. Smith {Pall Mall \n\nGazette); trials, 1872 \nDixon, J. ; obelisks, (Cleopatra\'s \n\nneedle), 1877-S \nDixon, Mr. ; education, 1874, 1876 \nDobell, Sydney; poet, 1824-74 \nDobereiner, J. W, nat. phil., 1780- \n\n1849; diffusion, philos. lamp \nDockwra, Mr.; penny post, 1683 \nDodd, Mr.; steamer, 1815 \nDodd, Dr.; trials (executed for for- \ngery), 1777; Magdalens, forgery \nDodd, H. P. ; epigrams \nDoddridge, Philip, theol., 1702-51 \nDodsley, R. ; annual register, 1758 \nDodson, sir John ; admiralty court, \n\n1857; \xe2\x80\x94 J. G. ; Gladstoiuvadm. , 1880 \nDodwell, rev. H. J. ; trials, 1878 \nDoggett, Thos.; Doggett prize, 1715 \nDolbear, prof.; telephotography \nDolben, abp.; York, 1683 \nDolce, gen.; Spain, 1868-9 \nDolci, C., painter, 1616-86 \nDollinger, Dr. ; papal infallibility, \n\nold catholics, 1S71 \nDollond, John, 1706-61 ; achromatic \n\ntelescopes, 1753 ; optics \nDomeniehmo, Z., painter, 15S1-164X \nDomingue, M. ; Hayti, 1874 \nDominguez, L. ; Carthagena, Spain, \n\n1873-4 \n\n\n\nDominic, St. ; Dominicans, 1215 \nDomitian; Rome, emp. 81 \nDonald of the Isles; Harlaw, 141 1 \nDonaldson, W. J. ; balloons, 1875 \nDonatus, grammarian, fl. 355 \nDonders, phenophthalmoscope, 1870 \nDonizetti, G.; music, 1798-1848 \nDonkin, sir R. ; suicide, 1841 \nDonne, W. B., examiner (of plays), \n\n1857 \nDonovan; duels, 1779 \nDore, Gustave, artist, 1832-83 \nDoria, And., Genoese adml.,1468-1560 \nDormer, lord; Roman Catholics, \n\n1829 \nDorregaray, gen. ; Spain, 1874-5 \nDorset, duke of; administrations, \n1689; Pelham administration, 1744 \nD\'Orvilliers ; Ushant, 1778 \nDost Mahomed ; Afghanistan, 1829-42 \nDouay, gen. A. ; Wissembourg, 1870 \nDouglas, earl of; Homildon, 1402 \nDouglas, James; British Columbia, \n\n1858 \nDouglas, Wm. ; Otterburn, 1388 \nDouglass, sir John; delicate investi- \ngation, 1806 ; \xe2\x80\x94 sir James, Eddy- \nstone \nDoulton, strikes, 1876 \nDouw, Gerard, Dutch paint., 1613-74 \nDove, H., b. 1803; dichroscope, i860 \nDove, W.; trials, 1856 \nDowdeswell, William; Rockingham \n\nadministration, 1765 \nDoyle, sir John; Portugal, 182S \nDoyle, J.; caricatures ; \xe2\x80\x94 R., 1826- \n\n83 ; Punch \nDoyle v. Wright; trials, 1851 \nDraco, Athens, 621 B.C.; laws, Draco \nDrake, Francis, 1545-96; Armada, \nCadiz, California, Chatham, circum- \nnavigators, Drake\'s circumnaviga- \ntion, Deptford, New Albion \nDrayton, M., poet, 1563-1631 \nDrebbel ; optics, 1621 ; microscope, \n\nthermometer \nDred Scott case; slavery, U.S. \nDrentelen, Russia, 1878 \nDreyse, J. N., 1788-1867 ; needlegun \nDrouet; Varennes, 1791 \nDruitt, G.; trials, 1867 \nDrummond, abp.; York, 1761 \nDnvmmond, gen.; Chippawa, 1814 \nDrummond, lieut.; lime-light, about \n\n1826 \nDrummond, Mr., m.; trials, 1840 \nDruscovitch, N. ; and others (police) ; \n\ntrials, 1877 \nDryden, John, poet, 1631-1701 ; poet \n\nlaureate \nDrysdale, Dr. ; animalcules \nDubois, cardinal, 1656-1723 \nDuboscq, M. ; electric lamp, 1855 \nDu Breil de Rays ; Port Breton \nDubritius, St. ; Caerleon, Llandaff, 612 \nDuchesne, Pere, see Hebert \nDuchesne ; Belgium, 1875 \nDuckworth, sir J. ; Dardanelles, 1807 \nDuclerc, M.; France, 1882-3 \nDucrot, gen., France, 1878 ; Franco- \nGerman war, 1871 \nDucrow; theatres, Astley\'s, 1825 \nDudley, earl of Leicester; adminis- \ntrations, 1558 \nDudley, lord; administrat., 1551 \nDudley, Mrs. L. Y.; Fenians, 1885 \nDudley, W., Birmingham, 1876 \nDuell, William; trials, 1740 \nDufaure, J. A. S., France, 1876-9 ; \n\n1798-1881 \nDufay; electricity, 1733 \nDuff, captain ; trials, 1841 \nDufferin, Id.; Gladstone adm., 1868, \n1880 ; Canada, 1872 ; Egypt, 1883 ; \nTurkey, 1881-4 ; India, gov. gen., \n1884 ; Italy, 1890 ; France, 1891 \nDufferin lady ; India, 1887\'! \nDuffy, Ch. G. ; Ireland (Young) \n\n\n\nINDEX. \n\nDufour- Aries, J. B.; France, 1870-2 \nDugdale, W., antiquary, 1605-86 \nDuggan, Wm.; trials, 1832 \nDu Guesclin, B.; Montiel, 1369 \nDuilius defeats Carthaginians, 260 \n\nB.C. \n\nDulong, P. L., 1785-1838; acids \nDumas, A. D., Fr. nov., 1803-70 \nDumas, J. B., Fr. chemist, 1800-84 ; \nFaraday medal, 1869; Albert medal, \n1877 \nDumouriez, gen., 1739-1823; Jem- \n\nmappes, 1792 \nDun, John ; bailiff \nDunant, H., Geneva convention \nDuncan, H. ; savings-banks, 1810 \nDuncan, Dr. ; ichnology, 1828 \nDuncan; Burmah, 187*5 \nDuncan I. ; Scotland, 1033 \nDuncan, admiral lord ; Camperdown, \n\n1797 ; Texel \nDuncannon, viscount ; Melbourne ad- \nministration, 1834-5 \nDuneombe, F. ; sedan chairs, 1634 \nDundas, sir D. ; com. -in-chief, 1809 \nDundas, sir David ; solicitor-general, \n\n1846 \nDundas, Henry ; Pitt administration, \n\n1804 \nDundas, gen.; Kilcullen, 1798 \nDundas, lieut. -col.; Prescott, 1838 \nDundas, major; trials, 1831 \nDundas, sir R.; Baltic, 1855 \nDundee, vise; Killiecrankie, 1689 \nDundonald, earl, 1775-1S60 (see Coch- \nrane) \nDunn, sir David, vice-adm., 1786-1859 \nDunn, John, Zululand, 1879 \nDunn, Richard ; trials, 1847 \nDuns Scotus, d. 1308 ; burying alive, \n\nScotists \nDunstan, abp., d. 988; Canterbury, \n\n959; coronation \nDupanloup, F. A. P., bishop of \n\nOrleans, 1802-78 \nDupetit-Thouars ; Otaheite, 1843 \nDupont, gen. ; Baylen, 1808 \nDurandj\'sir II.; India, 1871 \nDurand, lieut. -col. ; India, 1891 \nDurazzo, Charles of, m. 1386 ; Naples, \n\nkings, 1381 \nDurer, A., 1471-1528; engraving \nDurham, Joseph, sculptor, 1813-77 \nDurham, earl of, 1 792-1840; Grey \n\nadmin., 1830; Canada, 1838 \nDuroc, marshal ; Bautzen, 1813 \nDuruof ; balloons, 1870-74 \nDutrochet, R.J. H., 1 776-1 847; en- \n\ndosmosis \nDu Val, Claude ; robbers, 1670 \nDuvernois, C. ; France, 1874 \nDwyer; trials, 1843 \nDyce, Wm. ; painter, 1806-64 \nDyke sir, W. H. ; Salisbury adm. \n\n1885 \nDymocke family ; championship \nDysart peerage, trials, 1881 \n\n\n\nE. \n\n\n\nEadbald ; convents, 630 \nEadmer, d. about 1124 \nEarle, gen.; Soudan, 1885 \nEastlake, sir C, 1793-1865; Royal \n\nAcademy ; National Gallery, 1850 ; \n\n\xe2\x80\x94 C. national gallery, 1878 \nEaton, Daniel; trials, 1796, 1812 \nEbdy v. McGowan ; trials, 1870 \nEckart ; mystic, 1251-1329 \nEddy, Mrs. ; mind cure \nEden, bp. ; Man, 1847 \nEdgar; England, kings, 958 \nEdgar, rev. Mr.; temperance, 1829 \nEdgeley, T. ; trials, 1868 \nEdgeworth, Maria ; novels, 1767-1849 \nEdinburgh, duke of, see Alfred, \n\nEddystone \n\n\n\n1109 \n\nEdison, T. E. ; electric pen, &c, \nmicrophone, micro-tasimeter,- pho- \nnograph, telephone \nEdmonds ; zoology \nEdmund; England, 940, 1016 \nEdmunds, Christiana ; poisoning, \n\ntrials, 1872 \nEdmunds, Mr. ; patents \nEdward the Confessor; England, \n\nkings, 1042 ; Danegeld \nEdward I. ; England, kings, 1272 ; \n\nLewes, Scotland, Wales \nEdward III.; England, kings, 1327, \n\nCressy, Sluys, garter \nEdward IV.; England, kings, 1461 ; \n\nBarnet, Tewkesbury, Towton \nEdward VI.; England, kings, 1547; \n\nChrist\'s hospital \nEdward, Black Prince, 1330-76; duke, \n\nCressy, Poitiers \nEdwardes, lieut.; India, 1848 \nEdwards, rev. T. , public worship ; \n\xe2\x80\x94Miss A. B., Nov., d. 1892; Egypt \nExploration Fund \nEdwy ; England, 955 \nEgan, Mr. ; trials, 1843 \nEgan, Patrick ; Chili, 1891 \nEgbert; England, kings, 828 \nEgerton, sir Thomas ; chancellor, lord \n\nhigh, 1596 \nEgerton, Mr. ; burnt, Dublin, 1880 \nEgg, Aug., painter, 1816-63 \nEglinton, earl of; Ireland, lord-lieu- \ntenant, 1852; tournament \nEgmont, lord; administrations, 1763 \nEgremont, earl of; Grenville adminis- \ntration, 1762 \nEhrenberg, C, naturalist, 1795-1876 \nEick, H. ; trials, 1859 \nEirinus, Dr., asphalt, 1712 \nEkenhead, lieut., swimming \nElcho. Id. (aft. earl of Wemyss), 6. \n1818; Adullam, 1866; cabs, volun- \nteers ; liberty and reform, 1884 \nElder, John ; Glasgow, 1883 \nEldon, lord, 1751-1838; chancellor \n\n1801 \nEleanor; queens (Edward I., Hen. II. \n\nand III.) \nElgin, Lord ; Elgin marbles ; d. 1841 ; \n\xe2\x80\x94James, lord, 1811-63; Canada, \n1846; China, 1857; Japan, Palmer- \nston, Lidia, 1861 ; govr.-gen., 1861 \nElgin, earl of ; Gladstone adm. 1886 \nElgin, lord, v. Ferguson ; trials, 1807 \nElijah prophesies about 910 B.C. \nEliott, gen. ; Gibraltar, 1781 \nEliott, sir Gilbert; North adminis- \ntration, 1770 \nElisha prophesies, 896 b. c. \nElizabeth, queen, 1533-1603; England, \n1558; goose, poor laws, Richmond, \nWhitehall \nElizabeth ; England, queens (Edward \n\nIV. and Henry VII.) \nElizabeth; France, trials, 1794 \nElkington ; gilding, electrotype \nEllenborough, lord; att.-gen., 1801 ; \nking\'s bench, delicate investiga- \ntion; lord (son), 1 790-1872; Wel- \nlington admin., 1828; India, govr.- \ngen., 1842, 1858, note ; Derby adm., \n1858 \nEllesmere, lord ; administrations, \n\n1615; chancellors, Id., 1603 \nEllice, E. ; Melbourne administra- \ntion, 1834 \nElliot, captain ; China, 1840 \nElliotson, Dr. J., 1785-1868 \nEllis, Agar ; trials, 1878 \nEllis, sir H, lib. Brit. Mus., 1777-1869 \nEllis, A. J., 1844-90; pliilol.; musical \n\npitch \nEllis, Wellbore ; Grenville adminis- \ntration, 1770 \nElphinstone, lord ; electric light, 1879 \nElphinstone, admiral ; Cape of Good \nHope, 1795; Saldanha \n\n\n\n1110 \n\nElsynge, Win. ; Sion college, 1340 \nElyot, sirT., "governour" \nElzevir family, printers, 1583-1680 \nEmerson, R.W. ; essayist,poe~t, 1803-82 \nEmin Bey ; Soudan, 1886 \nEmmet, Robert; rebellions, conspi- \nracies, trials, 1803 ; press \nEmpedocles ; suicide \nEncke, J. F., 1791-1865; comets, 1818 \nEnderby, Messrs. ; southern conti- \nnent, 1838 \nEngels, prof. ; lithofracteur, 1869 \nEnghien, due d\', executed, 1804 \nEnnius, 239-169 b.c. ; stenography \nEnraght, rev. R. ; public worship, \n\n1880 \n-Eotvos, Joseph; Hung. nov. 1813-71 \nEpaminondas, 371 B.C. ; Leuetra, \n\nMantinea \nEpictetus, philosopher, fl. 118 \nEpicurus, 342-270 B.c. ; atoms; phi- \nlosophy \nEpiphanius, St. abstinence, heresy \nErasistratus ; anatomy, ab. 30a B.C. \nErasmus, D., 1467-1536; Greek lan- \nguage, Rotterdam \nEratosthenes; degree, 250 b.c. ; ar- \n\nmillary sphere \nEratostratus (or Herostratus) fires \n\nDiana\'s temple, 356 b.c. \nErechtheus; Athens, 1383 b.c. \nEric; Denmark \n\nErich thonius ; Troy, 1449 B.C., car \nEricsson, capt. ; heat, 1853 \nErie, sir W. ; common pleas, 1859 \nErmeland, bp. of; Prussia, 1871 \nErnley, sir John; administrations, \n\n1685 \nErroll, earl of; constable of Scot- \nland, lord high \nErskine, lord; chancellor, lord \n\nGrenville administration, 1806 \nErskine, gen. ; India, 1795 \nEsdaile, E. ; trials, 1858 \nEsmonde case ; trials, 1868 \nEspartero, Marshal, Spain, 1841-75; \n\nBilbao, 1836 ; d. 1879 \nEsquirol, E. ; lunatics, 1810 \nEssex, earl of ; administrations, 1532, \n\n1579 ; Newbury, 1643 \nEste, sir Augustus d\' ; marriage act, \n. royal, 1844 \n\nEthelbert, 560, Canterbury \nEtheldreda ; Ely, 673 \nEthelred, 979 ; coronation, Danegeld \nEthersey, com. ; suicide, 1857 \nEtty, W. painter, 1787-1849 \nEuchidas ; pedestrianism \nEuclid ; geometry, 300 b. c. \nEugene, prince, 1663-1736 ; Belgrade, \n\nTurin, Zenta \nEugenie, empress ; France, 1853 ; \n\nMarseilles, 1882 \nEugenius ; popes, Aquileia \nEulenburg, count, Prussia, 1873 \nEulenstein, Jew\'s harp \nEuler, L., 1707-83; acoustics \nEumenes; parchment, 190 B.C. \nEumolpus ; Eleusinian mysteries \nEupion gas co. ; trials, 1876 \nEuripides, 480-406 b.c ; tragedy \nEurysthenes ; biarchy, 1102 B.C. \nEurystheus; Mycente, 1289 B.C. \nEusden, L. ; poet laureate, d. 1730 \nEusebius, of Ctesarea, ab. 275-340 \nEustachius ; thoracic duct, 1563 \nEuston divorce case ; trials, 1884 \nEuthalius ; accents, 458 \nEutyches, fl. 447 \nEvandcr ; Circensian games \nEvans, general de Lacy ; British \nlegion, 1835 ; Spain, 1835 ; Iran. \nSebastian \nEvans; trials, 1858 \nEvans, J. ; man, 1872 \nEvans, M. (G. Eliot), novelist, \n\n1820-80 \nEvans, W. E. ; harmonium, 1841 \n\n\n\nINDEX. \n\nEvelyn, J., 1620-1706; horticulture, \n\nlime-tree, trees \nExaminer, the ; trials, 1812 \nExmouth, lord ; Algiers, 1816 \nEyre, E. J. ; Jamaica, 1864-7 \nEyre, John ; transportation, 1771 \nEzekiel prophesies about 595 b. c. \n\n\n\nF. \n\nFaber, F. ; oratorians, 1848 \n\nFabius, Quintus ; painting, 311 b.c. ; \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x80\x94 Maximus; AUobroges, 121 B.C. \nFabii, killed, Cremera, 477 b.c ; \n\nFabii \nFabre, M.; France, 1883 \nFahrenheit, G. D., 1686-1736; ther- \nmometer, about 1726 \nFaidherbe, gen. ; Franco-Pruss. war, \n\n1871 ; St. Quentin, 1871 \nFairbairn, Mr. ; tubular bridge, 1849 \nFairfax, T. ; Naseby, 1645 \nFairland, Miss ; trials, 1874 \nFalck, Dr. ; steam-engine, 1779 \nFalconbridge ; London, 1453 \nFalconer, H. ; geologist, d. 1865 \nFalieri, Marini ; Venice, 1335 \nFalk ; Prussia, 1873 ; Germany, 1879 \nFalkland, visct. ; Newbury, 1643 \nFalstaff, sir John ; taverns \nFancourt, Samuel ; circulating li- \nbraries, 1740 \nFaraday, Michael, 1791-1867; Royal \nInstitution, chemistry, electricity, \ngas, magnetism, magneto-electri- \ncity, ice, Albert medal, Faraday \nFarewell, lieut., Natal, 1823 \nFarmer and Wallace, electric light, \n\n1879 \nFarquhar, Mr., buys Fonthill abbey. \n\n1822 \nFarr, Dr. W., 1807-83 ; annuities, \n\n1864 ; statistics \nFarragut, D., 1861-79, admiral, 1866 : \n\nUnited States, 1864 \nFarrar, F. A. ; trials, 1868 \nFarrell v. Gordons ; trials, 1873 \nFarren, Miss, actress, retires, 1797 \nFarrer ; trials, 1859 \nFatima ; Mahometanism, note \nFaulkner, G. ; newspapers, 1728 \nFauntleroy, H. ; forgery, 1824 \nFaure, Jules, electric battery, 1881 \nFaust, John ; printing, 1442 \nFaustin I. ; Hayti, 1849 \nFaustulus ; Alba, 770 B.C. \nFaux, Guy ; gunpowder plot, 1605 \nFavre, Jules ; France, 1870-2, d. 1880 \nFawcett, col. ; duel, 1843 \nFawcett, H., 1833-84 ; Gladstone \n\nadm., postmaster, 1880; parcel post \nFazy, J. J. ; Switzerland, 1878 \nFelix, popes, 269 et seq. \nFellows, C. ; Lycia, 1840 \nFelton assassinates Buckingham at \n\nPortsmouth, 1628 \nFenelon, abp., 1651-1715; Cambray \nFenning, Eliza ; executions, 1815 \nFenwick, J. ; executions, 1697 \nFeramoz ; Afghanistan, 1871 \nFerdinand ; Austria, Naples, Portu- \ngal, Sicily, Spain, Tuscany, Castile, \n\nCordova, Bulgaria \nFerdinand of Brunswick, Minden, \n\n1759 \n\nFergus ; Scotland, coronation \n\nFerguson, J. ; planets, 1854 \n\nFergusson, sir J. ; Bombay, 1880 ; \nSalisbury 2nd adm. \n\nFergusson, James, 1808-86 ; archi- \ntecture, 1874-76 \n\nFormat ; probability \n\nFerrand ; France, 1874 \n\nFerre ; France, 1871 \n\nFerrers, earl ; trials, 1760 \n\nFerrier, Dr. J., 1811-82; vivisection \n\nFerry, J. ; France, 1879-84 \n\n\n\nFessel ; gyroscope, 1852 \nFesting, col. ; Ashantees, 1873 \nFichte, Germ, philos., J. G., 1762- \n\n1814 ; Im. H., son, 1797-1879 \nField, Cyrus, 1819-1892 ; electric tele- \ngraph, 1868 \nField, Edward ; air, 1891 \nField, J., nocturne \nFielding, H., novelist, 1707-54; \n\nmagistrates \nFieschi ; France, 1836 \nFigueras ; Spain, 1873 \nFigueroa ; Spain, 1868 \nFillmore, M. ; United States, presi- \ndent, 1850 ; d. 1874 \nFinch, D. ; admiralty, 1680 \nFinch, sir John ; chancellor, lord ; \nadministrations, 1640 ; Heneage, \nchancellor, 1673 \nFiniguerra ; engraving, 1460 \nFinnerty, Peter; trials, 1808, 1811 \nFinnis, T. ; lord mayor, 1856 \nFinnis, col. ; India, 1857, ,l0 * e \nFirth, M., Sheffield, 1879 \nFish, W. ; trials, executions, 1876 \nFisher, bp. ; administrations, 1509 ; \n\nSalisbury ; executed, 1535 \nFisher; duels, 1806 \nFisk, James ; New York, 1871 \nFitzgerald, H. ; life-boat, 1856 \nFitzgerald, lord ; attainder, 1798 \nFitzgerald, lord, v. Mrs. Clarke ; \n\ntrials, 1814 \nFitzgerald, lord ; Wellington adminis- \ntration, 1830 \nFitz-Osborn ; justiciars, 1067 \nFitzpatrick ; Grenville administra- \ntion, 1806 \nFitzpatrick, Hugh ; trials, 1813 \nFitz-Roy, R., 1805-65; circumnavi- \ngation, 1826 ; New Zealand, 1843 ; \nmeteorology, 1857 \nFitz waiter, Robert de ; Dunmow, \n\n\n\n1806; Ireland (lord-lieut.); strikes, \n1875 \nFlad, Mr. ; Abyssinia, 1866 \nFlaminius ; Thrasymene, 217 B.C. \nFlamin, A. L. ; cryptography, 1875 \nFlammock ; rebellions, 1497 \nFlamsteed, J. ; Greenwich, 1745 \nFlanagan, Cath.; poisoning, 1884 \nFlavius ; Rome, emperors Vespasian, \n\nTitus, Domitian, 69-96 \nFlaxman, J., sculptor, 1 754-1826 \nFleischer, E. ; hydrostatics \nFleuss, diving, safety lamp \nFletcher of Saltoun, fl. 1700 ; ballads \nFletcher, will forger ; trials, 1844 \nFletcher, S. W., trials, 1881 \nFlight and Robson ; apollonicon, \n\n1817 \nFlinders, captain, explores New Hol- \nland, 1801 \nFlood, Mr. ; absentees, 1773 \nFloquet, M.; France, 1883 \nFlorence, Eliz. ; trials, 1822 \nFlores, gen. ; Uruguay, 1863-8 \nFloras, Rom. historian, fl. 106 \nFlotow, F. F. A. von ; Ger. 11ms., \n\n1812-83 \nFlourens, M. J. P., philos., 1794- \n\n1867 ; \xe2\x80\x94 Gustave ; France, 1870-1 \nFold ; China, 2240 b. c. \nFoix, Gaston de ; Ravenna, 15 12 \nFolengio, Theo. ; macaroni \nFoley, J. H., sculp., 1818-1S86; Al- \nbert mem., Faraday mem. \nFolkestone, lord ; arts, soc. of, 1754 \nFolkestone v. Ridsdale ; trials, 1876 \nFollett, sir Wm. ; solicitor-gen., at- \ntorney-gen., 1844 \nFolliott, bp. ; Hereford, 1803 \nFonseca, Deodoro da Marshall \n\nBrazil, 1889 \nFontaine, M., electric light, 1877 \nFontana, Mars, 1636 \n\n\n\nFoote, Sam., 1721-77; theatres \nFoote v. Hayne ; trials, 1824 \nForbes, lord ; horse guards, 1702 \nForbes, Edwd., naturalist, 1815-54 \nForbes, J. D., nat. philos., 1809-68 \nFord, sir H. C. ; Spain, 1888 \nForster, abp. ; Prussia, 1875 \nForster, Mr. ; Preston, 1715 \nForster, John ; South Kensington \n\nMuseum, 1876 \nForster, M. ; planets, i860 \nForster, W. E.; 1818-86, ^Gladstone \nadm., 1868, 1880; imperial fed.; \nIreland ; Education \nForsyth, sir D., Burmah, 1875 \nForsythe, Rev. Mr. ; fire-arms, 1807 \nForteseue, lord ; Ireland, lord-lieu- \ntenant, 1839 \nForteseue, C. S. ; Gladstone, 1868 \nForwood, S. (Southey) ; executions, \n\n1866 \nFoscaro, doge ; Venice, 1457 \nFoster, John, essayist, 1770- 1843 \nFottrell, capt. ; duels, 181 7 \nFoucault, J. B. L., 1819-68; pendu- \nlum, siderostat \nFouehe, J., due d\'Otranto, 1763-1820 \nFould, Achille, 1800-67; France, \n\n1S61 \nFoulis, E. & A., printers, 1740-76 \nFourdrinier, M. ; paper, 1807 \nFourier, C, d. 1837; Fourierism \nFourtou, M. de ; France, 1877 \nFowke, capt. ; exhibition, 1862 ; Al- \nbert hall \nFowler, H. ; Gladstone adm., 1892 \nFowler, Mr. ; canoe, 1878 \nFox & Henderson ; crystal palace, \n\n1851 \nFox, bishop of Winchester ; adminis- \ntrations, 1509; privy seal \nFox, Samuel ; umbrella \nFox, Charles James, 1749-1806 ; duel, \n1779 ; Portland admin., 1783; India \nbill, people \nFox, S. ; music college, 1889 \nFox, George, 1624-90 ; quakers \nFox, Henry ; Newcastle administra- \ntion, 1757 \nFox, sir Stephen ; Chelsea, 1628 \nFox, St. G. Lane ; electricity (lamp- \nlighting by), gas \xe2\x96\xa0 \nFoxe, John, martyrologist, 1517-87 \nFrancia, Dr., 1755-1840; Paraguay \nFrancis, St., 1182-1226 ; Cordeliers \nFrancis I., emperor ; Germany, 1745 ; \n\nAustria, 1804 \nFrancis I. ; France, 1515 ; duelling, \ncloth of gold, Marignan, Pavia, \nSicily \nFrancis Joseph ; Austria, 1848 ; as- \nsassinations, Himgary, 1848 \nFrancis ; trials, 1842 \nFrancis, John, Athenseum (journal) \nFrancis, sir Philip, 1740-1818 ; Ju- \nnius \nFrancis de Sales, St., 1567- 1622, "De- \nvout Life " \nFrancisco d\' Assise ; Spain, 1846 \nFrancke, A. ; orphan houses, 1698 \nFrankfort, lord, v. Alice Lowe ; trials, \n\n1842, 1852 \nFrankland, Edw. ; amyl, ethyl, \n\nmethyl, 1849 \nFranklin, Benjamin, 1706-90; elec- \ntricity, 1752; lightning \nFranklin, sir John ; north-west pas- \nsage, 1825 ; Franklin \nFranks ; suicide, trials, 1825 \nEraser v. Bagley ; trials, 1844 \nFrecinet, M. de ; France, 1885 \nFrederick, trials, 1874 \nFrederick, duke of York, 1762-1827; \n\nYork \nFrederick II. ; Corte Nuova, 1237 \nFrederick ; Germany, Prussia, Hesse, \nNuremberg, Palatinate, Prague, \nHochkirchen, Torgau \n\n\n\nINDEX. \n\nFrederick III. ; Germany, 1888 \nFrederick-Augustus ; Poland, 1697 \nFrederick-Charles, prince of Prussia, \n\nFranco-Pruss. war, 1870-1 ; Metz, \n\n1870 \nFrederick-Lewis, prince ; Wales, 1729 \nFrederick William, I. \xe2\x80\x94 IV. ; Prussia ; \n\nassassinations \nFreeling, S. ; Grenada, 1871 \nFreeman, E. A. , historian, 1823-92; \n\nconquest, 1870-6 \nFrelinghuysen, Mr.; United States, \n\n1881 \nFremantle, Rev. W. H. ; dissenters, \n\n1875 \nFremont, J. C, 1813-90; U. States, \n\n1856 \nFremy, M. ; steel, 1861 \nFrench, col. ; trials, 1820 \nFreney ; trials, 1749 \nFrere, sir Bartle, 1815-84 ; slave \n\ntrade, Zanzibar, 1872 ; cape, 1876 ; \n\nKaffraria, 1878, celibacy, \nFrere-Orban; Belgium, 1868, 1878 \nFrewen, abp. ; York, 1660 \nFreycinet, M. de, France, 1879 \nFrichot, ophicleide \nFrith, W. P., painter, t>. 1819 \nFrivell, Wm. , post-office, 1631 \nFrobisher, sir Martin, d. 1594; north- \nwest passage, 1576 \nFroggatt, E. ; trials, 1877-1879 \nFroissart, historian, 1337-1410 \nFrost, John, chartist ; Newport, 1839 \nFrost, W. E. R. A., 1810-77 \nFroude, J. A., historian, b. 1818 ; \n\nSouth African confederation, 1875 \nFrumentius ; Abyssinia, 329 \nFuad Pasha, 1814-69 ; Damascus, \n\nTurkey, 1860-9 \nFuller, J. ; Royal Institution, 1833 \nFuller case ; India, 1876 \nFulton, R., 3765-1815 ; steam-engine, \n\n1803 \nFurley, Mary ; trials, 1844 \nFurneaux, capt. ; Adventure Bay, \n\nNew Holland ; returns, 1774 \nFurness, Mrs. H. ; concordance, 1876 \nFuseli, H., painter, 1741-1825 \n\n\n\nG. \n\n\n\nGabelentz, H. C. von der ; language, \n\n1874 \nGage, gen. ; America, 1775 \nGaine, W. ; parchment paper, 1857 \nGainsborough, Thomas, painter, 1727- \n\n88 \nGalba ; Rome, emp. , 68 \nGale, balloons, gunpowder, 1865 \nGale, Sarah, and Greenacre ; trials, \n\n1857 , . \n\nGalen, 130-200 ; physic \n\nGalgacus, 84 ; Grampians \n\nGalileo di Galilei, 1564-1642 ; acous- \ntics, astronomy, falling bodies, \nharmonic curve, ice, inquisition, \npendulum, planets, sun, tele- \nscopes \n\nGall, J., 1758-1828; craniology \n\nGallagher, J.; trials, 1883 \n\nGalle, Dr. ; Neptune, 1846 \n\nGallien ; balloons, 1755 \n\nGallienus ; Rome, emp. 260 \n\nGalton, F.; composite portraits, 1877 ; \nheredity \n\nGalvani, Louis, 1737-98 ; electricity, \n1 791 ; voltaic pile \n\nGalway, earl of ; Almanza, 1707 \n\nGama, Vasco de, d. 1525 \n\nGambetta, L. 1838-82; France, 1870-81; \nopportunists, scrutin \n\nGambier, lord Basque Roads, 1809; \nCopenhagen \n\nGambier and Rumble, trials, 1869 \n\nGambrill, trials, 1878 \n\nGamgee, A.; Roy. Inst. 1884 \n\n\n\n1111 \n\nGamgee, J. ; glaciarium, 1876 \nGamond, Thome de ; tunnels, 1867 \nGanganelli; Clement XIV., popes, \n\n1769 \nGangeland ; apothecary \nGardiner, A. ; Natal, 1835 \nGardiner, bp. ; administrations, 1529 \nGardiner, lieut. Alan ; missions, 1850 \nGarfield, gen., J. A., United States, \n\n1 880 \nGaribaldi, Joseph, 1807-82 ; Italy, \n1859-76 ; Soiferino, Sicily, Naples, \nVolturno ; Franco-Prussian war, \n1870 \nGarnerin, M. ; balloons, 1802 \nGarnet ; gunpowder plot, 1605 \nGarnet, Dr. Thos. ; Royal Institu- \ntion, 1801 \nGarrett- Anderson, Mrs. ; physic, 1865 \nGarrick, David, 1716-79; theatres, \n\nDrury-lane, jubilees \nGarrison, W. L., 1804-79; slavery in \n\nUnited States, 1831 \nGarrod, A. H. ; Royal Institution, 1875 \nGarrow, Wm. ; att.-gen., 1813 \nGarth, Dr. ; Kit-Cat club, 1703 \nGaskell, Mrs. E. C. novelist; 1811-65 \nGassendi, 1592-1655 ; atoms, sun, \n\nsound \nGaston de Foix : Ravenna, 1512 \nGates, gen. ; Saratoga, 1777; Camden, \n\n1780 \nGauden, bp. ; eikon basilike, 1649 \nGauden, M. ; sapphire, 1857 \nGaunt, John of, 6. 1340 ; Ghent, \n\nroses, wars \nGausius, 335 b. c. ; caustic \nGavarni, French caric. 1801-66 \nGavestons, beheaded, 1312 ; rebellions \nGay, John, 1688-1732 ; fables, operas \nGay-Lussae, J., 1778-1850 ; balloons \nGayer, J., lion-sermon \nGed, William; stereotype, 1730 \nGeffcken, Dr. ; Prussia, 1888 \nGeffrard, gen. Fabre ; Hayti, 1858 \nGelasius I. ; popes 492 ; breviary, \n\npall ; Candlemas \nGellert, C. F., Germ, fabulist, 1715-69 \nGellius, Aulus, Latin miscellany, /. \n\n117-180 \nGelon : Syracuse, 485 B.C., Himera \nGenghis khan ; Tartary, 1206 ; Hun- \ngary ; India \nGenseric lands in Africa, 429 \nGeofFroy, M. H.; asbestos \nGeorge, David, d. 1536 ; family of love \nGeorge, St. ; garter \nGeorge I. \xe2\x80\x94 IV., England ; kings, \n\nassassinations \nGeorge I. \xe2\x80\x94 V. ; Hanover (kings) ; as- \nsassinations \nGeorge I. ; accession, 171 4 \nGeorge II. ; Dettingen, 1743 \nGeorge, H. ; land nationalization, \n\nUnited States, 1886-7 \nGeorge, king, Bonny \nGeorgi ; dahlia, 1815 \nGeramb, baron ; aliens, 1812 \nGerard, J. ; physic garden, 1567 \nGerbert, d. 1003 ; arithmetic \nGermaine, lord George Sackville ; \n\nMinden, 1759 \nGermanus ; Sodor, 447 \nGerstenzweig, general ; Poland, m. \n\n1861 \nGervinus, G. G., Genu. hist. 1805-71 \nGesler ; Switzerland, 1306 \nGeta ; Rome, emp. 211 \nGholam Hussein, Afghanistan, 1S78- \n\n81 ; India, 1881 \nGibbins, Mr., killed; riots, 1831 \nGibbon, Edward, historian, 1737-94 \nGibbons, Grinling, sculptor, 1 648-1721 \nGibbons, Orlando ; music, 1583-1625 \nGibbs, J., architect, 1674-1754 \nGibbs, sir V; attorney-gen., 1807; \n\ncommon pleas, 1814 \nGibbs, W. A. ; corn, 1868 ; hay, 1875 \n\n\n\n1112 \n\nGibbs, W. ; Keble college, Christ\'s \n\nhospital, 1877 \nGibson, J., sculptor, 1 791-1866; Royal \n\nacademy \nGibson, T. ; concordance, 1535 \nGibson, T. M., 1807-84; Palmerston \n\nadministration, 1859 \nGiesmar, general ; Praga, 183 1 \nGiffard, sir Hardinge S. ; solicitor- \ngeneral, 1875 ; chancellor, Id., \n\nHalsbury, 1885 \nGiffard, Paul ; cannon, 1890 \nGifford, lieut. ; Kildare, 1798 \nGifford, R. ; attorney-gen., 1819 \nGifford; steam-injector \nGifford, Win., 1757-1826; Quarterly \n\nRev., 1809 \nGilbert v. Enoch (Pall Mall Gaz.) \n\ntrials, 1873 \nGilbert, archbp. ; York, 1757 \nGilbert, sir Humphry, 1539-84; \n\nNewfoundland \nGilbert, Dr., 1540-1603; electricity, \n\n1600 ; magnetism \nGilbert, gen. ; Ferozeshah, 1845 \nGilbert, G. ; executions, 1862 \nGilbert, W. G. ; operas \nGilchrist, earl (of Angus), 1037 \nGilchrist, steel \nGildas, historian, 516-570 \nGill, D. ; star \nGillam, Rd. ; trials, 1828 \nGillespie, col. ; Vellore, 1806 \nGillespie, gen. ; Kalunga, duel, 1788 \nGillott, J. ; steel pens \nGillray, J. 1785-1815 ; caricatures \nGinckel, gen. ; Aughrim, 1691 \nGintl, Dr. ; electric telegraph (duplex) \n\n1853 \nGioberti, Italian writer, 1801-52 \nGioja, F. ; compass, 1302 \nGiotto, painter, 1276-1336 \nGiudetti, passion music \nGladstone, rev. Mr. ; trials, 1852 \nGladstone, J. H. ; copper-zinc couple, \n\n1872 ; physical society, 1874 ; edu- \ncation society \nGladstone v. Gladstone ; trials, 1875 \nGladstone, W. E. ; &. 1809, Gladstone \n\nadm. 186S, 1880, 1886, 1892 ; sus- \npensory act ; England, 1877-8 ; \n\nDublin, 1878 ; parliament, 1881 ; \n\nKilmainham \nGlaisher, J. ; meteorology, 1850 ; \n\nballoons, 1862 \nGlanville, R. de, eh. justice, 1180 \nGlas, capt., murdered; trials, 1766 \nGlas, John, 1698-1773 ; Glasites, 1727 \nGleichen, count ; England, 1877 \nGlendower, Owen ; Wales, 1400 \nGlenelg, lord (Charles Grant), d. 1866 ; \n\nWellington adm., 1828 \nGlerawley, lord, v. Burn ; trials, 1820 \nGloucester, duke of; marriage act, \n\n1772 \nGlover, col. ; Ashantees, 1874 \nGlover, E. A. ; trials, 1858 \nGlover, sir H. ; Leeward Isles \nGluck, C. ; music, 1714-87 \nGobelin, G. ; tapestry, Gobelins \nGoderich, lord, d. 1859 ; Goderieh \nGodfrey, M. ; bank of England, 1694 \nGodfrey of Bouillon ; Jerusalem, \n\n1099 \nGodolphin, earl; Godolphin adm. \n\n1684 \nGodoy, M., prince of the peace; \n\nSpain, 1806 ; d. 1851 \nGodwin, sir G. ; Pegu, 1852 \nGodwin, Wm., 1756-1836; politics, \n\nnovels \nGoethe, or Gothe ; German miscel. \n\n1749-1832 \nGoffart, M.; ensilage \nGog and Magog ; Guildhall \nGold, F. I., 1881, railways, 1881, \n\ntrials \nGoldoni, Ch., Ital. dramatist, 1707-93 \n\n\n\nINDEX. \n\nGoldschmidt (Jenny Lind), b. 1821 ; \n\nNightingale fund \nGoldschmidt, H., 1802-66 ; planets, \n\n1852 \nGoldsmids ; trials, 1873 \nGoldsmith, Oliver ; poet, miscel. 1728- \n\n74 \nGoncourt, naturalism \nGonsalvo de Cordova, gen., d. 1515 ; \n\nGarigliano \nGonzales, F. 0., Spain, 1879, Mexico, \n\n1880. \nGooeh, lady, trials, 1878 \nGood, Daniel ; trials, 1842 \nGoodenough, lieut. ; massacres, 1875 \nGoodrich, bp. ; administrations, \n\nGoodwin, bp., H., Carlisle, 1870 \n\nGoodyear, C. ; caoutchouc \n\nGordian ; Rome, emperors \n\nGordon, col.; duels, 1783 \n\nGordon, lord G., d. 1793; riots, libel, \ntrials, 1781, 1788 \n\nGordon, gen. Charles George ; China, \n1863; Egypt, 1874; Abysinnia ; \nBasuto, Congo, Khartoum, Soudan, \n1883-4 ! Gordon memorial \n\nGordon, sir A. H., 1833-85; Fiji, 1875; \nN. Zealand, 1880 \n\nGordons, L. and L. ; trials, 1804 \n\nGorgey, gen. ; Hungary, 1849 \n\nGorham v. bishop of Exeter ; trials, \n1849 \n\nGorst, E. G. ; Salisbury adm., 1885 \n\nGortschakoff, gen.; Kalafat, 1854; \nSilistria, Tehemaya \n\nGortschakoff, prince A., statesman, \n1798-1883 ; Vienna conference, \n1853; Poland, 1861 ; Russo-Turkish \nwar, II. 1877-8 ; Russia, 1856-83 \n\nGoschen, J. G., b. 1831; Gladstone \nadm., t868 ; Egypt, 1876; Turkey, \n1880-1 ; parliament, 1883 ; Salis- \nbury adm., 1887 \n\nGoss v, Whitlake, trials, 1870 \n\nGossett, sir W. ; trials, 1842 \n\nGosset, F. ; parliament, 1885 \n\nGosset, R. A. ; parliament, 1885 \n\nGough, sir Hugh, 1 772-1869 ; China, \n1841 ; India, 1846 ; Goojerat, So- \nbraon, Ferozeshah \n\nGoulard ; France, 1874 \n\nGoulburn, H. ; Wellington admin- \nistration, 1828 \n\nGould, J., 1804-81; birds, works on, \n1832-78 ; humming-birds, 1862 \n\nGould, Jay, New York, 1872 \n\nGould, Miss ; trials, 1822 \n\nGould, murderer; trials, 1840 \n\nGourko, gen. ; Russo-Turkish war, \nII. 1878 ; Schipka \n\nGourlay, captain ; duels, 1824 \n\nGowcr, earl ; Wilmington adm., 1742; \nNorth adm., 1770 \n\nGower, F. A., telephone, balloons, \n1883 \n\nGower, J., poet ; d. 1402 \n\nGracchus, Tiberius, slain, 133; \xe2\x80\x94 \nCaius slain, 121 b.c. \n\nGrady, Mr. ; duel, 1827 \n\nGrsebe and Liebermann, alizarine \n\nGrEevius, J. G. and G. ; thesaurus \n\nGrafton, duke of; Rockingham adm., \n1765: Grafton adm., 1767 \n\nGraham, bp. ; Chester, 1848 \n\nGraham of Claverhouse, 1650-89; \nKilliecrankie \n\nGraham, A. ; planets, 1848 \n\nGraham, C. C. ; Grenada \n\nGraham, gen. ; Barossa, i8ti ; Se- \nbastian, Bergen-op-Zoom \n\nGraham, Mr. ; pendulum, 1715 ; \nmagnetism, 1722 \n\nGraham, H. C, and others; trials; \n1886 \n\nGraham, Mr. ; duels, 1791 \n\nGraham, gen. sir Gerald ; Egypt, \n1882 ; Soudan, 1884 \n\n\n\nGraham, sir James, 1792-1861 ; Grey, \nPeel \n\nGraham, Thos., 1805-69; mint, dif- \nfusion, dialysis, atmolysis \n\nGrammont, due de, Dettingen, 1743 \n\nGranard, Arthur, earl of; Kilmain- \nham, 1675 \n\nGranby, marquis of; Chatham ad- \nminis., 1766 \n\nGrant, Alb. ; Leicester square, 1874 ; \ntrials, 1875-6 ; painting, 1877 \n\nGrant, capt. John ; cookery, 1857 ; \ncottager\'s stove \n\nGrant, sir Colquhoun ; duel, 1835 \n\nGrant, lieut. C. J. W. ; Manipur \n\nGrant, sirF., i8oe-78;RoyalAcademy, \n1866-78 \n\nGrant, G. B. ; calculating machine, \n1874 \n\nGrant, lieut. ; trials, 1816, 1844 ; \nCentral Africa, 1863 \n\nGrant, see Glenelg \n\nGrant, gen. Ulysses, 1828-85 ; United \nStates, 1863-73 : Pittsburg, 1862 \n\nGrantham, Id. ; Shelburne adm. 1872 \n\nGrantley, F. Norton, Id. ; attorney- \ngen., 1763 \n\nGranville, earl, 1815-91 ; Russell, \nPalmerston admin., 1851 ; Glad- \nstone adm. 1868, 1880, 1886 \n\nGratian; canons, 1140 \n\nGratian, Rome, emp. 367-83 \n\nGrattan, Henry, orator, 1750-1820; \nduelling, 1800, 1820 \n\nGrattan, T. Colley, novelist, 1796- \n1864 \n\nGrattoni, Alps (tunnel) \n\nGraves, adm. sir T., Basseterre, 1782 \n\nGray, bp. ; Bristol, 1827 ; see Cape- \ntown \n\nGray, Id. mayor, E. D.; Ireland, 1882 \n\nGray, E. ; telephone, 1873 \n\nGray, Thomas, poet, 1716-71 \n\nGreathead, Mr. ; life-boats, 1789 \n\nGreatrix, Val. ; impostors, 1666 \n\nGreaves, lord ; suicide, 1830 \n\nGrechi, prof. ; fire-detector \n\nGreeley, Horace, 1811-72; United \nStates, 1872 \n\nGreeley, lieut.; N. E. & W. pass., \n1S81-4 \n\nGreen, Charles, 1786-1870; balloons, \n1828 \n\nGreen, rev. S., public worship, 1880 \n\nGreen, J. R.; hist., 1837-83 \n\nGreen, J.; seraphiue \n\nGreenacre, J. ; trials, 1837 \n\nGreene, general ; Camden, 1781 \n\nGreenwell, canon ; Barrows, 1877 \n\nGreenwood, T. ; file, i860 \n\nGregg, Dr. ; reformed episcopal \nchurch \n\nGregoire, M. ; national convention, \n1792 \n\nGregory the Great ; chanting, \nChristianity \n\nGregory I. \xe2\x80\x94 XVI. ; popes, 590 et seq. \n\nGregory VII. ; Italy, 237 \n\nGregory XI. , pope ; pallium \n\nGregory XIII. ; calendar, 1582 \n\nGregory Nazianzen, Greek father, \n326-390? \n\nGrenfell, gen. sir F. ; Soudan, 1888 \n\nGrenville, George ; Newcastle ad- \nministration, 1754 ; Grenville ad- \nministration, 1763 \n\nGrenville, F. ; British Museum, 1846 \n\nGrenville, lord; Grenville admin., \n1806 ; delicate investigation \n\nGresham, sir T., d. 1579 ; Gresham \n\nGrevy, Jules, 1807-91, France, 1871-8 \n\nGrey, bp. ; Hereford, 1832 \n\nGrey, earl, 1764-1845 ; Grey, reform \n\nGrey, Henry, earl ; Russell adminis- \ntration, 1835 \n\nGrey, lady Jane, exec. 1554 ; Eng- \nland, queens \n\nGrey, lord ; Pomfret castle, 1483 \n\n\n\nGrey, sir George; Eussell admin., \n\n1846; Palmerston admin., 1855 \nGrey, sir G. ; Cape, 1856 \nGrey, Stephen ; electricity, 1720 \nGriesbach, J., critic, 1745-1812 \nGriffith, sir B., Griffith\'s valuation \nGrimaldi, Joseph, clown ; retires, \n\n1828 \nGrimm, Jacob, 1785-1863 ; Wilhelm, \n1786-1859 ; dictionary (German) ; \nGrimm\'s law \nGrimthorpe, lord ; see Beckett \nGrimwood, F., and Mrs. ; Manipur \nGrindall, abp. ; York, 1570; Canter- \nbury, liturgy \nGrinfield, general ; Demerara, 1803 ; \n\nTobago \nGrinnell, Mr. ; Franklin expedition, \n\n1850 \nGrinstead, Capt.; Princess Alice \nGrisi, madame, cl. 1869 \nGrissell, C. E., parliament, 1879-80 \nGrocyn, Wm. ; Greek, 1490 \nGrogan, col., captured ; U. States, \n\n1841 \nGronovius, J., thesaurus, 1657-1702 \nGros, baron ; China, 1858 \nGrote, G., historian, 1794-1861 \nGrotius, H., 1583-1645; philosophy \nGrove, sir G.; crystal palace, 1874; \n\nmusic (diet.), 1878 \nGrove, sir W. R., nat. phil. & judge, \n&. 181 1 ; voltaic battery, 1839; cor " \nrelation, 1842 ; continuity, 1866 ; \nantagonism \nGroves, W., electric balance, 1879 \nGrowse, Elias ; needles \nGuelph ; Bavaria, Brunswick \nGuericke, Otto von, 1602-1686 ; air, \n\nelectricity, 1647 ; Magdebui\'g \nGuerin-Meneville, silk (ailantine), \n\n1858 \nGuernsey, W. H. : trials, 1858 \nGuesclin, B. du, d. 1380 \nGuibert, abp.; France, 1876 \nGuibord, J. ; Montreal, 1875 \nGuicciardini, F, hist., 1482-1540 \nGuido, Aretino, fl. 1030 \nGuido, Reni, painter, 1575-1642 \nGuilford, earl of; trials, 1853 \nGuillemin, A. ; comets \nGuillermo ; Hayti, 1877 \nGuinness, sir B., 1798-1S68; Patrick, \n\nSt., 1863 \nGuinness, sir E. (baron Iveagh); arti- \nsans\' dwellings \nGuiscard ; Naples, 1059 ; conspira- \ncies, 1710 \nGuise, dukes of ; Guise \nGuiteau, C. J., assassin, United \n\nStates, 1881-2 \nGuizot, F., 1787-1874; France, 1840- \n\n48-70 \nGunter, E. ; Gunter\'s chain, 1606 \nGurney, G. ; Bude light, 1841 \nGurney, Messrs. ; trials, 1869 \nGurney, Russell ; recorder, 1856-78 \nGurwood, colonel ; suicide, 1845 \nGiissfeld, Dr. ; Africa, 1873 \nGustavus Adolphus, killed, Lutzen, \n\n1632 ; Sweden, Munich \nGustavus Vasa ; Sweden, 1521 \nGustavus I. \xe2\x80\x94IV. ; Sweden \nGutenberg, J., cl. 1467; printing \nGuter, of Nuremberg ; air, 1659 \nGutierrez, T., Peru, 1872 \nGuy Faux ; gunpowder plot, 1605 \nGuy, Thos. ; Guy\'s hospital, 1721 \nGuyton-Morveau ; balloons, 1784-04 \nGuzman, Dominic de ; beads, 1202 \nGwynne, Nell ; bell-ringing, 1687 \nGyges ; Lydia, 718 B.C. \nGylippus, 414 b.c. ; Syracuse \n\n\n\nINDEX. \n\n\n\nH. \n\nHabakkuk, prophet, ab. 326 B.C. \nHachette, Jeanne de la; Beauvais, \n\n1472 \nHacker, L. ; Sunday schools, 1740 \nHacker, Matilda, trials, 1879 \nHackett", Wm. ; impostors, 1591 \nHackman, Mr. ; trials, 1770 \nHaekworth, T. ; steam, 1825 \nHaddington, earl of; Ireland (lord- \n\nlieut.), 1834 \nHaden, Seymour ; burials, 1875 \nHadley ; quadrant, 1731 \nHadrian; Rome, emperor, 117 \nHasckel, prof. ; development \nHsecker ; magnetism, .1851 \nHafiz, Persian poet, fl. 14th century \nHaggai prophesies about 630 B.C. \nHaggart, David ; trials, 1821 \nHaggarty and Holloway ; trials, 1807 \nHahnemann, Sam., 1755-1843; \n\nhomoeopathy \nHakluyt, R. ; geog., 1553-1616 \nHakon ; Iceland \n\nHale, sir Matthew, judge, 1609-76 \nHales, Stephen, philosopher, 1677- \n\n1761 \nHalevy, J. E. F., mus. comp. 1799- \n\n1862 \nHalifax, earl of ; Halifax administra- \ntion, 1714; trimmer; see Wood \nHall, A. ; astronomy ; Mars, 1877 \nHall ; steam, 1840 \n\nHall, sir B. ; health, Palmerston ad- \nministration, 1855 \nHall, John. ; lead \nHall, sir C, vice-chancellor, 1873 \nHall, Marshall, physiol., 1790-1857 \nHall, Rev. Robert, 1764-1831 \nHall, Sam., d. 1862 ; lace \nHall v. Semple ; trials, 1862 \nHallam, Henry, hist., 1778-1859 \nHaller, A. von; physiol, 1708-77 \nHalley, Edmund, astronomer ; Green- \nwich, 1719 ; Venus \nHalloran, Dr. , transported for forging \na frank, 1818 [1886 \n\nHalsbury, Id. ; Salisbury adm., 1885, \nHamdi Pasha ; Turkey, 1878 \nHamel, J. ; Mont Blanc, 1820 \nHamilcar; Carthage, 237 b.c. \nHamilton ; duels, 1748, 1804 \nHamilton and Douglas cause ; trials, \n\n1769 \nHamilton, bp. ; Salisbury, 1854 \nHamiltou, duke of; duelling, 1712 ; \n\ntrials, 1813 \nHamilton, F. W., guards \nHamilton, Id. George ; Salisbury \n\nadm., 1885, 1886 \nHamilton, James, marquis of; ad- \n\nministrations, 1640 \nHamilton, J. ; court of honour \nHamilton, J. B. ; vocation \nHamilton, Mary ; trials, 1736 \nHamilton, sir W. ; Herculaneum \nHamilton, W. R. ; Elgin marbles \nHamilton, sir W. ; quaternions \nHammond, Mr. ; ambassadors, 1791 \nHampden, Richard ; administrations, \n\n1690 \nHampden, John, killed, 1643 ; ship- \nmoney, Chalgrove \nHanlan, E.; boat race, 1882 \nHancock, T. ; caoutchouc, 1843 \nHandcock ; trials, 1855 \nHandel, G. F, 1684-1759; Handel, \nopera, oratorios, Judas, Joshua, \nMessiah, Rule Britannia. \nHannen, sir James (aft. lord); divorce \nct., 1872 ; Parnellites, 1888 ; appeal \nHannibal, Carthaginian, 247-183 B.C. ; \nRome, Bernard, Saguntum, Spain, \nCannse, Carthage, Zama \n\n\n\n1113 \n\nHans Sachs, 1494-1578 ; minne- \nsingers \nHansom, Joseph ; cabs \nHanson, capt. ; duels, 1776 \nHanway, Jonas, d. 1786 ; marine \n\nsociety ; umbrella \nHarcourt, lady ; fete de vertu \nHarcourt, lord ; Oxford administra- \ntion, 1 71 1 \nHarcourt, sirW. V., solicitor-general, \n1873 ; Gladstone admin. , 1880, \n1892 ; London Municipal Bill \nHardicanute ; England, 1039 \nHarding, prof. ; planets, 1804 \nHardinge, sir Henry (aft. lord), 1846 ; \n\nIndia \nHardinge, Mr. ; journals, 1752 \nHardwicke, earl of; Pelham admin., \n1744; Derby admin., 1852 ; Ireland \n(lord-lieut.), 1801 \nHardy, Gathorne, vise. Cranbrook b. \n1S14 ; Disraeli administration, 186S \nand 1874 ; Salisbury adm., 1885 \nHare, R. ; blowpipe, 1802 \nHargan, W. A. ; trials, 1890 \nHargreaves, E. ; Australia, 1851 \nHargreaves, J. ; cotton, 1767 \nHarley, Robert ; Godolphin adminis- \ntration, 1702 ; Harleian library, see \nOxford \nHarley, R. W. ; Tobago, 1875 \nHarmodius kills Hipparchus, 514 B.C. \nHarney, gen. ; United States, 1855 \nHarold II. ; Hastings, 1066 \nHaroun-al-Raschid, caliph, 765-809 \nHarpur, W. ; Bedford, 1561 \nHarrington, J. ; oceana, 1656; trials \n\n1878 \nHarrington, earl of ; Pelliam admin- \nistration, 1744 \nHarriot, T., algebra, 1631 \nHarris, lord ; Bombay, 1889 \nHarris, Mr. ; organs, 16S2 ; clocks, \n\napples, fluxions, pendulum \nHarris, sir W. S., 1792-1S67; light- \nning conductors, 1820-54 \nHarrison, B. ; United States, 1888-92 \nHarrison, F. ; positive phil. \nHarrison, gen. ; United States, presi- \ndent, 1841 \nHarrison, J. ; pneumatic loom, 1864; \n\nHarrison, 1714 \nHarrison, Mr.; congelation, 1857, \n\n2873 \nHarrowby, earl of ; Pitt administra- \ntion, 1804 et seq. \nHarrowby, Dudley F., earl of; \n\nSalisbury adm., 1885 \' \nHarsnet, archbp. ; York, 1628 \nHai-tinger, Mr. ; duels, 1S20 \nHartington, marquis of; Gladstone \nadministration, 1868, 1S80, & 1882 \nHartland, sir R. ; Madras, 1771 \nHartmann, Russia, 1880 \nHarvey, B. Bagenal ; trials, 1798 \nHarvey, Dr. William, 1578-1657 ; \nblood, anatomy, midwifery, gene- \nration \nHarwood ; porter, 1730 \nHasokka, emperor\'s hymn, 1797 \nHasdrubal ; Carthage, Spain ; Me- \n\ntaurus, 207 b.c. \nHassall, A. H. ; food \nHassan and Hussan, drama \nHastings, marquis of; India, gov.- \n\ngen. 1813 \nHastings, Warren, 1733-1S18; India, \n\n1772 ; Chunar, Hastings \nHatchell, Mr. ; duels, 1814 \nHatfield fires at George III. ; trials, \n\n1800 \nHatfield ; executions, 1803 \nHatherley, Id. chancellor, 1868 \nHatton, sir Christopher, d. 1591 \xe2\x80\xa2 \nchancellor (lord high), master hi \nchancery \nHausmann, 1809-91 ; Paris, France, \n1870 \n\n\n\n1114 \n\nHaliy, R., 1 743-1822; crystallography \nHatty, V. ; "blind school, 1804 \nHavelock, gen. ; India, 1857 ; Cawn- \n\npore \nHawke, adm. ; naval battles, 1747 \nHawkesbury, lord ; administrations, \n\n1807 ; Amiens \nHawkey, lieut. ; duels, trials, 1846 \nHawkins, I. ; piano \nHawkins, sir John, d. 1=595 ; Guinea, \nslave trade, 1562; potatoes, \ntobacco, Chatham \nHawthorne, Nat., Amer. nov. 1804-64 \nHay, lord John ; British legion, \n\n1835 ; St. Sebastian\'s \nHaydn, Joseph [first compiler of this \n\nbook], d. 1856 \nHaydn, Joseph, mus. comp. ; 1732- \n\n1809 ; Creation, Emperor\'s hymn \nHaydon, Benj., painter, 1786-1846 \nHayes, Mr. ; duels, 1728, 1806; trials, \n\n1802 \nHayes, sir H. B. ; trials, 1800 \nHayes, B. B., ; United States, 1876 \nHayman, Dr. H. ; Rugby ; trial \n\n1874 \nHaynau, gen ; Hungary, 1849 \nHayter, sir G. ; painter, 1792-1871 \nHayter, sir Wm. , whip \nHay ward ; trials, 1821 \nHaywood, W. ; Holborn, 1869 \nH. B. ; caricatures \nHead, sir Francis ; Canada, 1836 \nHeadfort, marquis of ; trials, 1805 \nHearn, north-west passage, 1769 \nHeath, archbp. ; York, 1555 \nHeberden, Br. ; Humane Society, \n\n1774 \nHebert, J. E. (pere Duchesne), exe- \ncuted, 1794 \nHector of Troy, slain, 1183 b.c. \nHeenan, J. ; boxing, i860 \nHegel, G. , philosopher, 1770-1831 \nHehl ; animal magnetism, 1774 \nHeine, H, German poet, 1799-1856 \nHelena, St. ; cross, 328 ; Bethlehem \nHeliodorus, fl. 398 ; romances \nHeliogabalus ; Rome, emp. 218 ; \n\nsilk \nHelmholtz, H., b. 1821 ; ophthalmo- \nscope, 1851; acoustics \nHeloise, d. 1164; Abelard \nHelps, sir Arthur, hist, and miscel., \n\n1811-75 \nHelsham, capt ; duels, 1829 \nHemans, Felicia, poet, 1794-1835 \nHencke ; planets, 1845 \nHenderson,sirE., police, \xe2\x80\x94 . A.; pro- \nverbs \nHenderson, T. ; stars \nHeneage, B. ; Gladstone adm., 188 \nHengist ; octarch, Salisbury \nHenley, lord; Grenville admin., 1763 \nHenley, Jos. ; Derby adm., 1852 \nHenley, orator, d. 1756 \nHennessy, sir J. P., 1832-91 ; Bahama, \n1874 ; Barbadoes, 1875-6, etc. ; \nMauritius, 1882 \nHennis, Dr. ; duels, 1833 \nHenrietta ; queens (Charles I.) \nHenry ; kings ; England, France, \n\nGermany, Spain \nHenry I. ; Tinchebray, 1106 \nHenry V. ; Agincourt, 1415 ; Cher- \nbourg \nHenry VII. ; Bosworth, 1485 \nHenry VIII.; England, 1509; age, \ndefender, field, monasteries, spurs \nHenry II. , France ; tournaments, 1559 \nHenry III., France ; assassinations \nHenry IV. ; France, 1589 ; Nantes, \n\nRavaillae, Yvres, assassination \nHenry, Joseph, Am. nat. phil. 1797- \n\n187.8 \nHenry, Paul and Prosper; planets, \n\n1872-8 \nHenry the Lion ; Brunswick, 1139 \nHenshaw, Mr. ; duels, 1820 \n\n\n\nINDEX. \n\nHenty, Mr: ; Victoria, 1834 \nHepburn, ensign; trials, 181 1 \nHeraclitus, philosopher, fl. 500 B.C. \nHeraclius ; cross, 615 \nHerbert, adm. ; Bantry Bay, 1689 \nHerbert, George, ch. poet, 1593- \n\n1633 \nHerbert of Cherbury, lord, 1581- \n\n1648 ; deism \nHerbert, Sidney (aft. lord), 1810-61 ; \n\nPeel, Palmerston admins. \nHerbert, W., trials, 1880 \nHercules Tyrius ; purple \nHerder, J. G. von, philosopher, 1744- \n\n1803 \nHerkomer, M.; art schosl, 1883 \nHermann (Arminius), Germany, 9 \nHero of Alexandria, _#. 284-221 b-c. \nHerod ; Jews, 42 b.c. \nHerodian, hist.,/?. 173 \nHerodotus, b. 484 B.C. ; history \nHerophilus ; anatomy, 302 b.c. \nHerostratus fires the temple at \n\nEphesus, 356 b.c. \nHemes, J. C. ; Peel adm. 1834 \nHerring, abp. ; Canterbury, 1747 \nHerring, Mrs. ; trials, 1773 \nHerrmann, R. ; ilmenium \nHerschell, Id.; sol. gen., 1880; \n\nchancellor, Id., 1886, 1892 \nHerschel, J. F., 1792-1871 ; actino- \n\nmeter, photography \nHerschel, W., 1738-1822; Saturn, \n\nastronomy, telescope, sun, Uranus, \n\nnebular hypothesis \nHertford, earl of; administrations, \n\n1547; Pinkey \nHertford, marquis of ; his executors \n\nv. Suisse, trials, 1842 \nHertz, James ; cheque bank, 1873 \nHervie, H. ; doctors\' commons, \n\n1560 \nHesiod, Greek poet, fl. 850 b.c. \nHess, gen. ; Solferino, 1859 \nHewett, adm., Sir Wm.; Congo, 1875 ; \n\nEgypt, 1882; Soudan, 1884 \nHeytesbury, lord ; Ireland (lord \n\nlieut.), 1844 \nHeywood, Mrs. ; Manchester, 1875 \nHey wood ; pub. worship reg. act, \n\n1883 \nHibbert, R, ; Hibbert fund \nHicks ; life-boat, &c, 1874 \nHicks, col.; Soudan, 1883 \nHiero, Syracuse, 478-275 B.C. \nHieronymus, see Jerome \nHilary ; hymns, 431 \nHill, lord ; commander-in-chief, 1828 \nHill, rev. R., Surrey chapel \nHill, Rowland, b. 1795-1879 ; post- \noffice \nHill, bp. R. ; Man \nHillsborough, lord ; North adminis- \ntration, 1770 \nHilton, James ; chronogram \nHind, J. R., b. 1823; planets, 1847 : \n\ncomets \nHindes, lieut. ; duel, 1817 \nHinds, bp. ; Norwich, 1849 \nHinrichs, professor ; atomic theory, \n\n1855 \nHipparchus, fl, 162 B.C. ; astronomy, \n\nCanary, constellation, degrees, \n\nlatitude, longitude \nHippias ; ostracism, 510 B.C. \nHippocrates, d. 357 B.C. ; anatomy, \n\nsurgery, loadstone \nHirsch, baron ; Russia, 1887 ; Jews \nHoadley, B., bp., d. 1761 ; Ban- \n\ngorian \nHobart, lord ; Addington adm., \n\n1801 \nHobart, Pasha ; admiral, 1823-86 \nHobbema, painter, fl. 1681 \nHobbes, T., 1588-1679 ; academies \nHobhouse, sir J. C. (aft. lord \nBroughton), 1869 ; Melbourne \nadm., 1834 \n\n\n\nHoche, gen. ; Dunkirk, 1793 \nHochstade, C. von, Cologne, 1248 \nHocker, murderer ; trials, 1845 \nHodel ; Germany, Prussia, 1878 \nHodgson, gen. ; Belleisle, 1761 \nHodgson v. Greene ; trials, 1832 \nHofer, Andrew ; Tyrol, 1809-10 \nHoffmann, A., Kladderadatseh \nHofmann, Dr. A. W.,1818-92; chemis- \ntry, ammonia, aniline, crith, Fara- \nday \nHogarth, W., painter, 1697-1764 \nHogg, James, Sc. poet, 1772-1835 \nHolbein, Hans, Ger. paint. 1498- \n\n1543 \nHolcombe, lieut. ; India, 1875 \nHolcroft, T., 1745-1809; melodrama, \n\n*793 \n\nHoldernesse, earl of; Devonshire ad- \nministration, 1756 \n\nHolgate, abp. ; York, 1545 \n\nHolinshed, Ralph ; d. about 1580 \n\nHolkar ; India, 1804 \n\nHolker, sir J. ; solicitor-gen., 1874 ; \natt.-gen., 1875 \n\nHolland, lord; Melbourne adm., 1835 \net seq. ; trials, 1797 \n\nHolland, sir H., 1788-1873 ; pres. \nRoy. Inst., 1865-73 \n\nHoliest murderers ; trials, 1851 \n\nHolloway, T. ; Holloway hospitals, \n\n1873 \nHolmes, adm. ; Cape Coast, 1663 \nHolt, sir John ; king\'s bench, 1689 \nHolt ; trials, 1844 \nHoltz ; electricity, 1865 \nHolwell, Mr. ; suttees, 1743 \nHolyoake ; secularism \nHome or Hume, D. ; spiritualism; \n\ntrials, 1868 \nHome, lieut. ; Delhi, 1857 \nHomer, fl. 962 b. c (Clinton) ; poetry \nHompesch, baron ; duels, 1806 \nHone, Wm., 1779-1842 ; trials, 1817; \n\nalmanacs \nHoney and Francis ; riots, 1821 \nHonorius ; West, empire, 395 \nHood, admiral ; Madeira, 1S07 ; \n\nToulon \nHood, Thomas, comic writer, 1798- \n\n1845 ; Tom, son, 1835-74 \nHook, Theodore, novelist, 1788-1841 \nHook, W. F. J. D., dean, hist., 1798- \n\n1875 \nHooke, Rob., 1635-1702; air, boiling, \ncamera, clocks, geology, mechanics, \nmicroscope, telegraphs \nHooker, Rich., theol., 1553-1600 \nHooker, W., botanist, 1785-1865 ; \xe2\x80\x94 J. \nD. (son), b. 1816 ; Kew, 1865 ;\xe2\x80\x94 Gen. \nR., United States, 1862-3 ; Fre- \ndericksburg \nHopkins, miss Ellice ; white cross \n\narmy \nHopkins, Matthew ; witches, 1645 \nHopley, T. ; trials, i860 \nHorace, 65-8 b.c, Latin poet ; Athens, \n\nsatires \nHorler, H. ; trials, 1853 \nHormisdas ; Persia, 272 \nHorn, count ; Nordlingen, 1634 \nHome, G., bp. ; Norwich, 1790 \nHome, rev. T. H., bibl. critic, 17S0- \n\n1862 \nHome Tooke, John, d. 1812 ; Home \n\nTooke, &c. \nHorner, Fr. ; bullion, 18 10 \nHorniman, F.; Surrey Museum \nHornor, Mr. ; Colosseum, 1824 \nHornsby, Dr. ; Radclifle, observa- \ntory, 1 771 ; \xe2\x80\x94 Messrs., washing-ma- \nchine, 1862 \nHorrebow ; astronomy, 1659 \nHorrocks or Horrox, Jer., d. 1641 \n\nastronomy, Venus \nHorsfall, Mr. ; trials, 1813 \nHorsfall, Messrs. ; cannon, 1856 \nHorsley, bp. ; St. Asaph, 1802 \n\n\n\nINDEX. \n\n\n\n111,5 \n\n\n\nHorsman, Edwd., 1807-76 (sec. for \n\nIreland, 1855-7) : Adullam, 1866 \nHosea prophesies about 785 B.C. \nHoste, capt. Win. ; Lissa, 181 1 \nHotham, adm. ; naval battles, 1795 \nHotspur ; Otterburn, 1388 \nHoublon, sir J. ; bank of England, \n\n1695 \nHoudin, R. J. E., conjuror, 1815-71 \nHoughton, John, executed, 1535 ; \n\nCharterhouse \nHoughton, lord ; ancient buildings \nHoughton, lord ; Gladstone adm. 1892 \nHouston, Mr. ; Parnellites, 1888 \nHoward, C. ; trials, 1876 \nHoward, adm. sir Edward ; naval \n\nbattles, 1513 \nHoward, John, 1726-go; prisons; \xe2\x80\x94 \n\npotatoes \nHoward, Luke, d. 1864 ; clouds \nHoward, col. J. E.; quinine \nHoward of Effingham, lord ; armada, \n\n1588 \nHoward v. Gossett ; trials, 1842 \nHowards, ploughs \nHowe, sir William; Long Island, \n\n1776 \nHowe, lord, 1784; Pitt, 1783 ; Brest, \n\nUshant \nHowel Da ; Wales, 920 \nHowitt, Win., author, 1795- 18 79 \nHowley, Dr. , abp. ; Canterbury, \n\n1828 ; Lambeth \nHoyle, W., drunkards \nHuber, P., 1750-1831 ; bees \nHudson, sir James, 1810-1885 ; Italy, \n\n1863 \nHudson, Jeffrey, 1626 ; dwarf \nHudson, H. ; Hudson\'s Bay \nHugelmann, G. ; France, 1874 \nHuggins, Win. ; spectrum ; sun (co- \nrona), astronomy \nHughes, D. E. ; microphone \nHughes, sir E. ; Trincomalee, 1782 \nHughes, J., bp., Asaph, 1870 \nHughes, Mr., audiometer \nHughes, T. ; socialism, Ashdown, \n\nNew Rugby \nHugo, Victor, Fr. poet and novel., \n\n1802-85 ; France, 1876 ; literary \n\ncongress \nHugues, mad.; France, 1884 \nHullah, J., 1812-84; music, 1840 \nHumbert I.; Italy, 1878; Naples, \n\n1884 \nHumbert, gen. ; Killala, 1798 \nHumboldt, A. de., Ger. phil., 1769- \n\n1859 ; Andes \nHumboldt, W. de, Ger. lit., 1767- \n\n1835 \nHume, David, hist., 1711-76; \xe2\x80\x94 Jos., \n\npolitician, 1777-1855 ; see Home \nHumphrey, duke of Gloucester, d. \n\nat Bury, 1447 \nHungerford, sir T. ; speaker, 1377 \nHunniades, J. ; Hungary, 1442 ; \n\nTurkey, Varna \nHunt, Geo Ward, 1825-77 ; Disraeli \n\nadministrations, excheq., 1868; \n\nadmiralty, 1874-7 \nHunt, Henry, reformer ; trials, 1820 ; \n\nClerkenwell, Manchester \nHunt, John and Leigh ; trials, 181 1- \n\n1812 ; James, d. 1869, anthro- \npology. \nHunt, Wm. Holman, painter, 0. 1827; \n\npre-Raphaelite \nHunt, W. T. ; trials, 1875 \nHunter, John, surgeon, 1728-93; \xe2\x80\x94 \n\nW., 1718-83 \nHuntingdon, countess of, 1707-91 ; \n\nCheshunt, Whitefieldites \nHuntingford, bp. ; Hereford, 1802 \nHuntly, earl of ; Brechin, 1452 \nHunton, Jos., forgery; executions, \n\n1828 \nHurd, bishop ; Worcester, 1781 \nHuskisson, Wm., 1770-1830; Wel- \n\n\n\nlington admin., 1828; Liverpool, \n\n1830 \nHuss, John, burnt, 1415 ; Hussites \nHutchinson, Amy ; trials, 1750 \nHutchinson, John, d. 1737 ; Hutch- \n\ninsonians \nHutchinson, major; Alexandria, i8or \nHutchinson, J. H. ; Lavalette\'s \n\nescape, 1815 \nHutton, abp. ; Canterbury, 1757 \nHutton, W., d. 1815 ; geology \nHuxley, T. H., 0. 1825 ; abiogenesis, \n\nbathybius, Birmingham, 1874 ; \n\ngerm, minimisers, oysters, Roy. \n\nSoc. pres. 1883 \nHuyghens, d. 1695 ; astronomy, \n\noptics, pendulum \nHyaeinthe (Loyson) father, France, \n\n1869 \nHyde, capt. ; Chili, 1874 \nHyde, sir Edward ; chancellor, lord \n\nhigh, 1660 \nHyde, Laurence ; administrations, \n\n1689 et seq. \nHyder Ali, d. 1782 ; India, Arcot, \n\nCarnatie, Mysore \nHyginus, pope, 139; martyr \nHypatia, philosopher, m. 415 B.C. ; \n\nhydrometer \nHyperides ; Cranon, 322 B.C. \nHyrcanus, John, d. 106 B.C. ; Sa- \nmaritans \nHyslop and Denham ; trials, 1877 \n\n\n\nIbrahim Pacha, 1 789-1848; Antioch, \nBeyrout, Egypt, Greece, Syria, \nTurkey, Damascus, Wahabees \n\nIglesias ; Mexico, 1876-7; Peru, \n1883-4 \n\nIgnatief, M. ; Russia ; resigned, 1882 \n\nIgnatius, St., mart., 115 ; liturgies, \n250 \n\nIlbert bill, 1883-4 \n\nIlchester, Id. ; Oxford univ. ; Sla- \nvonia, 1876 \n\nImpey, major; duels, 1801 \n\nInaehus ; Argos, 1856 B.C. \n\nIncledon, C, d. 1826 \n\nInez de Castro ; Coimbra, 1355 \n\nIngham, sir J. T. ; magistrate, 1876 \n\nIngle, L., trials, 1880 \n\nInglefield, capt. ; Franklin, 1852 \n\nInglis, col. ; Albuera, 1811 \n\nIngram, Herbert, d. i860 ; Illust. \nLondon News, 1842 \xe2\x80\x94 W. J., print- \ning machine, 1877 \n\nInman, W. ; steam, 1850 \n\nInnocent I. \xe2\x80\x94 XII. ; popes, 402 et seq. \n\nInnocent III., pope, 1198; transub- \nstantiation \n\nIrenseus, martyr, 202 \n\nIrving, E., 1792-1834 ; Irvingites, \ntrial, 1832 ; unknown tongues \n\nIrving, H.; theatres (Lyceum), 1874 \nct seq. \n\nIrving, H. T. ; Antigua, 1873 ; Lee- \nward Isles, 1873 \n\nIrving, Washington, 1783-1859 \n\nIsaac, major ; tunnel (Mersey) \n\nIsabella; salique law, Spain, 1833 \n\nIsaiah prophesies about 760 B.C. \n\nIslip, abp. ; Canterbury, 1349 \n\nIsocrates, Gr. orator, 436-338 B.C. \n\nIturbide ; Mexico, 1821-1865 \n\nIvan ; Russia, 1462 ; czars \n\n\n\nJabloehkoff ; electricity (electric. \n\ncandles) \nJablonsky ; assassin ; Russia, 1883 \nJack, capt. ; Modoc, 1873 \nJackson, bp. ; Oxford, 1812 ; Lin- \n\n\n\ncoln, 1852; London, 1869-1885 ; \n\nauricular confession, 1873 \nJackson, gen. ; United States, 1829 \nJackson, C. T. ; ether, 1846 \nJackson, J. B. ; printing in colours, \n\n1720 \nJackson, Thos., "Stonewall," 1826- \n\n63 ; Manassas, United States, 1862 \n\nChancellorsville, Richmond, 1875 \nJackson, T. ; executions, 1861 \nJackson, Wm. L. ; Ireland, 1S92 ; \n\nSalisbury 2nd adm. \nJacob, Mr. A. j trials, 1891 \nJacob, Dr. ; Christ\'s hospital, 1854 \nJacobi ; Baltic, note, electrotype \nJacobs, S. ; abstinence \nJacquard loom, 1806 \nJames ; England, Scotland, Spain \n\n(kings) ; assassinations \nJames IV. ; Flodden, 1513 \nJames, sir H. , 1803-77; photozin- \ncography, i860 ; ordnance survey \nJames, sir H. ; sol.-general, att.-gen., \n\n1873, 1880 \nJames, W. H., companies, 1876 \nJamieson, G. ; volunteers (18th \n\nmeeting), 1877 \nJane, England, queens, 1554 ; Sicily \nJanisch, H. R. ; Helena, 1873 \nJansen, C, 1585-1638; Jansenism \nJanssen, M. ; eclipse, 1868 \nJanvier de la Motte ; France, 1872 \nJardine, sir Wm., naturalist, 1800-74 \nJarnac ; Jarnac ; France, 1874-5 \nJason, argonautic exp., 1263 B.C. \nJeans, J. S., steel \nJebb, Joshua, prison reformer, 1793- \n\n1863 \nJeffcott, sir John W. ; duels, 1833 \nJefferson, Thos., 1743-1826 ; United \n\nStates, president, 1801-8 \nJeffery, Robert ; Sombrero, 1807 \nJeffrey, Francis, critic, 1773-1850 \nJeffreys, George (afterwards lord) ; \n\nadministrations, 1 685 ; king\'s bench , \n\nchancellor, lord high, bloody as- \nsize ; d. 1689 \nJeffries, Dr. J., colour blindness \nJejeebhoy ; Bombay, 1859 ; Parsees \nJellachich ; Hungary, Vienna, 1848 \nJenkin, F., telpherage \nJenkins v. Cook ; trials, 1875-6 \nJenkins, Henry ; longevity, d. 1670 \nJenkinson, bp. ; David\'s, St., 1825 \nJenks, games, 1884 \nJenner, E., 1749-1823 ; vaccination \nJennings, Mr. ; tontines, 1798 \nJeremiah prophesies about 629 b. c \nJerningham, Mrs. ; blue-stockings \n\n1760 \nJerome, St. , Latin father, 345-420 ; \n\nascension, liturgies \nJerome of Prague ; burnt, 1416 \nJerrold, Douglas, Nov. Dram., 180-- \n\n1857 ; W. B., 1826-84 \nJersey, countess of ; delicate investi- \ngation, 1806 \nJervis, sir John, 1734-1823 ; Cape St. \n\nVincent; \xe2\x80\x94 solicitor-gen., at. -gen , \n\ncommon pleas, d. 1856 \nJervois, sir W. F. D. ; straits, and \n\nSouth Australia \nJessel, sir Geo. 1824-83 ; master of \n\nrolls, 1873 \nJevons, W. Stanley ; polit. econ. &c. \n\n1835-82; abecedarium, 1874; method \nJoan of Arc, burnt, 1431 ; Joan. \nJoan ; queens (Henry IV.), Naples \nJoel prophesies about 800 B.C. \nJohanni ; Abyssinia, 1872 \nJohn, St., d. 100 ; baptism, accusers, \n\nevangelists, gospels \nJohn I.\xe2\x80\x94 XXIII. ; popes, 523 et seq. \nJohn of Austria ; Lepanto, 1571 \nJohn, king; Bohemia, Portugal, \n\nSpain, France, Poitiers \nJohn, king ; England (1199), charter \n\nof forests, magna charta, " We " \n\n\n\n1116 \n\n\n\nINDEX. \n\n\n\nJohn of Leyden ; anabaptists, 1534 \nJohn the Fearless ; Burgundy, 1404 \nJohnson, A. ; boats \nJohnson, Andrew, 1809-75 ; United \n\nStates, 1865-8 \nJohnson, Sam., 1709-84 ; dictionary, \n\nliterary club, 1764 \nJohnson, capt. ; trials, 1846 \nJohnson, judge ; trials, 1805 \nJohnson, Mr. ; swimming \nJohnston, capt. ; steam, 1825 \nJohnston, gen. ; Boss, N, 1798 \nJohnston, Albt, 7c. Pittsburg, 1862; \n\n\xe2\x80\x94Jos., U. S., 1863 \nJohnston, Alex. K. , geographer, 1804- \n\n71, Africa, 1878 \nJghnston, H. H. ; Africa (Central) \nJohnston, Robert; trials. 1818 \nJohnston, sir John ; marriages, forced, \n\n1690 \nJohnston, W. ; orangemen, 1868 \nJoinville, Jean de, French historian, \n\n1224-1318 \nJoinville, prince de, 6. 1818 ; Ocean \n\nMonarch, 1848 \nJomini, baron H., strategist; 1779- \n\n1869 ; Brussels conf., 1874 \nJonah prophesies about 862 B.C. \nJones, colonel ; Dungan, 1647 > Bath- \nmines \nJones, H. Bence, 1813-73; Royal \n\nInstitution, i860 ; fluorescence, \n\nspectrum \nJones, Gale; trials, 1811 \nJones, sir Horace, 1819-1887 ; Billings- \ngate, foreign cattle market, guild- \nhall \nJones, Inigo, architect, 1572-1652 \nJones, Jane ; trials, 1842 \nJones, J. S., Kensington Mus. \nJones, J. ; trials, 1870 \nJones, J. W. ; Brit. Museum, 1866-78 \nJones, Mr. ; riots, 1819 \nJones, Owen, 1809-74, Alhambra, \n\n1842 ; James\'s-hall, St. \nJones, T. ; book-keeping, 1821 \nJones, Mr. Todd ; duel, 1802 \nJones, sir Wm., 1746-94; Asiatic, \n\nchess, Menu, Sanskrit \nJones v. Stannard, trials, 1881 \nJones, W. B. T., Davids, St., 1874 \nJonson, Ben, 1574-1637 ; poet-laur. \nJoquemin, M. ; picquet, 1390 \nJordan, J. B., barometer; sunshine \nJordan, Mrs. , actress, d. 1816 \nJordan, B., gold \n\nJoseph ; Germany, Namur, Portugal \nJosephine, empress, 1763-1814 ; \n\nPrance, 1809 \nJosephus, Jewish hist., 38-100 \nJotham ; fables, 1209 B.C. \nJoubert, gen. ; Novi, 1 799 ; Transvaal, \n\n1880 \nJoule, J. P., 1818-89, heat \nJourdan, marshal ; Cologne, Fleurus, \n\nVittoria, 1813 \nJovellar ; Spain, 1874-5 \nJovian, Rome, emps., 363 \nJoyce, family murdered, 1882 \nJuarez, B. ; Mexico, 1858-72 ; d. \n\n1872 \nJudas Maccabseus rides, 168-1 60 B.C. \nJudith ; Abyssinia, 960 \nJugurtha, d. 104 B.C. ; Numidia, \n\nJugurthine war \nJulian ; Rome, emp. , 360 ; edicts, \n\nParis \nJulianus Salvius ; edicts, 132 \nJulius v. bishop of Oxford, trials, \n\n1879 \nJulius Coesar ; see Cwsar, Julius \nJulius, Mr. ; duels, 1791 \nJulius II. ; popes, 1503 ; Rome, \n\nBologna, Laoeobn, Cambray \nJullien, M., concerts \nJung Bahadoor ; Nepaul, 1857-60 \nJuuot, marshal, 1771-1813; Cintra, \n\nVimiera, 1808 \n\n\n\nJussieu, A. L. de ; Fr. botanist, 1748- \n\n1836 \nJustin, emp. ; Rome, 518 and 565 \nJustin Martyr, 164 ; millennium \nJustin, St. ; Rochester, 604 \nJustinian ; eastern empire, 527 \nJuvenal, 59-128 ; satires \nJuvigny, flageolet \nJuxon, apb. ; administrations, 1640 ; \n\nCanterbury, 1660 \n\n\n\nKabba Rega ; Egypt, 1872 \nKalakaua, Sandwich Islands, 1874 \nKalkoff, N., journalist; Russia, \n\n1887 \nKalnoky, count G. ; Austria, 1881 \nKane, capt. ; Samoan isles \nKane, Dr. ; Franklin, 1843 \nKant, Imman., 1724-1804; metaphy- \nsics \nKaraman, Joseph; Syria, 1866-7 \nKarslake, sir J., 1821-81 ; att.-gen., \n\n1867-74 \nKaspary; humanitarians \nKassa; Abyssinia, 1871 \nKastenbein ; printing, 1872 \nKastner, F. ; pyrophone \nKauffman, harmonica \nKaufmann, gen. ; Samarcand, 1868 ; \nKhiva, 1873 ; Kliokand, 1875 ; d. \n1882 \nKaunitz, prince W. A., Aust. states- \nman, 171 1-94 \nKaye, bishop ; Bristol, 1820 ; Lincoln \nKean, Charles, 1811-68 ; theatres \nKean, Edmund, actor, 1787-1833 \nKeane, lord ; Ghiznee, 1839 \nKearney, D. ; California, 1878 \nKeats, John ; poet, 1 796-1821 \nKeble, rev. John ; poet, 1792-1866 ; \n\nKeble \nKeenan; trials, 1803 \nKeet v. Smith ; reverend, trials, 1876 \nKeith, George ; earl-marisehal of \n\nScotland, Aberdeen, 1593 \nKeith, George ; quakers, 1646 \nKeith Johnston v. Athemeum; trials, \n\n1875 ; see Johnston \nKeller, Dr. ; lake dwellings, 1865 \nKellerman, gen. ; Valmy, 1792 \nKellet, capt. ; Franklin, 1848 \nKellogg ; United States, 1874 \nKelly ; trials, 1869, 1871 \nKelly, Miss ; theatres, trials, 1816 \nKelly, Ned, Victoria, 1880 \nKelly, sir Fitzroy, 1 796-1 880 ; sol.- \ngeneral, att.-gen., ch. baron, 1866-80 \nKemble, Charles, actor, 1775-1854 \nKemble, Fanny, actress, b. 1811 \nKemble, John, actor, 1757-1823 \nKembles ; examiners (of plays) \nKemp, abp. ; Canterbury, 1452 \nKempe, John ; wool, 1331 \nKempenfeldt, adm. ; Boyal George, \n\n1782 \nKempis, T. h, 1380-1471 ; imitation, \n\ntheology \nKenealy, Dr. ; Englishman ; trials, \n\n1874 \nKennedy, alderman ; trials, 1858 \nKennedy, Mr. ; Franklin, 1851-53 \nKennedy, C. R. ; trials, 1858 note \nKennedy, sir A. E. ; Hong Kong, \n\n1872 \nKent, Constance, Boad murder \nKent, Edw. duke of, 1 767-1820 \nKent, Odo, earl of; treasurer, 1066 \nKent, G. ; knives (cleaner), 1844 \nKentigern, St. ; abstinence, Glasgow, \n\nAsaph, 560-83 \nKenyon, lord ; attorney-general, 1782 ; \n\nking\'s bench \nKepler, J., 1571-1630; optics, plane- \ntary motions, 1609 ; rainbow, tides, \nVenus \n\n\n\nKeppel, adm. ; Belleisle, Ushant, \ntrials, 1799 ; coalition, naval battles \nKeppel, commodore ; China, 1857 \nKeratry, gen. ; Franco-Pruss. war, \n\n1870 \nKerford, Mr., Victoria, 1875 \nKern ; davyum \nKeshub Sen, deism. \nKettel, E. ; trials, 1872 \nKettle well, C. ; Bartholomew\'s, St., \n\n1881 \nKeying ; China, 1842-58 \nKilligrew, Thos. ; drama, 1662 \nKilmarnock, lord ; rebellions, trials, \n\nexecutions, 1746 \nKilwarby, abp. ; Canterbury, 1272 \nKilwarden, lord ; king\'s bench ; trials, \n\n1803 \nKimberley, earl of, see Wodelwnse ; \n\nGladstone adm., 1868, 1880, 1886, \n\n1892 \nKing, Thos. ; ventriloquism, 1716 \nKing, Mr. Locke; administrations, \n\n1851 \nKing, Dr. ; Cesarean operation \nKing, E., bp. ; Lincoln, 1885 \nKing, col. ; suicide, 1850 \nKing, C. ; trials, 1855 >" o ems \xc2\xbb !86o \nKinglake, Dr. ; trials, 1870 \nKinglake, A. W. ; hist., 1812-91 \nKingsford, A. ; hermetic soc. \nKingsley, Rev. C. ; novels, &c, 1819- \n\n75 ; socialism ; \xe2\x80\x94 Henry, nov. 1830- \n\n76 \nKingston, duchess of ; trials, 1776 \nKingston, Evelyn, duke of ; Walpole, \n\n1 721 \nKingzett, C. T. ; sanitas \nKinnaird, A. ; cabmen\'s rest, 1875 \nKintore, earl of; Australia, 1891 \nKirby and Wade, capts. shot, 1702 ; \n\nnaval battles, note \nKircher ; iEolianharp, 1653 ; philoso- \npher\'s stone, trumpet \nKirchkoff, G. B. (1824-1887); spec- \ntrum \nKirkman; pianoforte \nKirwan, Richard B. ; trials, 1852 \nKiss, Karl, Ger. sculptor, 1802-65 \nKitchener ; Soudan, 1885 et seq. \nKlapka, general G., b. 1820 \nKleber, J. B., Fr. gen., 1754-1800; \n\nEl Arisch \nKlein, E. ; histology, germ theory \nKleist ; electricity, 1745 ; Leyden \nKlopstock, F. T., Germ, poet, 1724- \n\n1803 \nKluber ; cryptography \nKmety, gen. (Ismail Pacha), d. 1865 ; \n\nHungary, Kars \nKnatchbull, sir E. ; Peel administra- \ntions, 1S34-5 \nKneller, sir Godfrey, painter, 1648- \n\n1723 \nKnight, Chas., 1791-1873 ; hist., (fee- \ndiffusion soc, 1827 ; England \nKnight, G. ; magnetism, 1756 \nKnight, Mr. ; north-west passage, \n\n1602; South Sea bubble, bribery ; \n\nfree church \nKnight v. Wolcot ; trials, 1807 \nKnowles, James ; Nineteenth Century \nKnowles, J. S., dramat., 1784-1862 - \nKnox, John, 1505-72 ; Presbyterians, \n\ncongregation, queen, Scotland \nKnutsford, Id. (H. T. Holland); \n\nSalisbury adm., 1886 \nKnutzen, Matthias ; atheism, 1674 \nKoch, Dr. ; germ theory ; vivisection, \n\ntuberculosis \nKock, Charles Paul de, Fr. novelist, \n\n1794-1S71 \nKoffee Kalcalli ; Ashantees, 1874 \nKohl, F. ; execution, 1865 \nKomaroff, gen. : Russia, 18S5 \nKonig, F. ; printing machine, 1814 \nKonig, M. ; phonoscope, tonometer, \n\n\n\nKoroer, Tli., Germ, poet, 1791-1813 \nKortright, C. ; Demerara \nKosciusko; Poland, 1794 : Cracow \nKossuth, L., b. 1 802 ; Hungary, 1849- \n\n68 ; United States, 1851 \nRoster, Laurence ; printing, 1438 \nKotzebue; north-west passage, 1815 ; \n\nAug. , dramatist ; assassinations \nKouli Khan ; Moguls, India, Persia, \n\n1730 \nKrapotkine, prince, Kussia, 1878 ; \n\nFrance, 1883 \nKreli ; Kaffraria, 1877 \nKruger, P., Transvaal, 1879-81 \nKrupp, Alfred, .1810-1887; cannon, \n\nsteel \nKuenen, prof. ; Hibbert fund \nKullmann ; attempt to kill Bismarck, \n\nPrussia, 1874 \nKunckel, J., 1630-1703 ; phosphorus, \n\n1670 \nKutusoff, gen. M., 1745-1813; Russia, \n\nBorodino, Smolensko, 1812 \nKyhl, P. ; nature-printing, 1833 \n\n\n\nLaborde, A. de, "Partant pour la \n\nSyrie" \nLabouchere, Henry, lord Taunton ; \nBussell administration, 1846 ; Pal- \ntnerston administration, 1855 \nLabourdonnaye ; Tournay, 1792 \nJLa Bruyere, French essays, 1639-96 \nLaehaise, Pere, 1624-1709 ; cemetery \nLacon, W. S. ; seas \nLacordaire, Pere H. D., 1802-61 \nLactantius, d. abt. 325 ; fathers \nLadislas ; Bohemia, Hungary \nLadinirault ; France, 1873 \nLaennec, R., physician, 1781-1826 \nLafarge, Madame ; trials, 1840 \nLafayette, marq. ; 1757-1834 \nLafitte, d. 1844 ; wills (Napoleon\'s) \nLafurge ; Tontine \n\nLa Fontaine, J., Fr. fabulist, 1621-95 \nLagava, <fec. ; execution, 1856 \nLagny, circle, 1719 \nLa Grange, J. L., 1736-1813; acous- \ntics, astronomy, 1780 \nLaing, Sam., cryst. pal. 1852 ; India, \n\n1861-2 \nLaird, Mr. ; Birkenhead, Alabama, \n\nnavy, 1870 \nLake, gen. ; Bhurtpore, 1805 ; Delhi, \n\nLincelles \nLake, capt. ; Sombrero, 1807 \nLalande, J., astron., 1732-1807 \nLalanne ; abacus \n\nLally, gen. Thos. de ; beheaded, 1766 \nLamarck, 1744-1829 ; species \nLa Marmora, gen. A., 1804-78 ; Tcher- \n\nnaya, 1855 ; Italy, 1862 \nLamartine, A. de, 1792-1869, miscel. \n\nwriter ; France, 1848 \nLamb, C, 1775-1834 ; essays \nLamb, Dr., killed, 1628 ; riots \nLamballe, princesse de ; France, \n\n1792. \nLamberg, ct. ; Austria, 1848 \nLambert, Mr., d. 1809\'; corpulency \nLambert (Latham), J. ; trials, 1855 \nLambrecht, Mr. ; duels, trials, 1830 \nLambton, Mr. ; duels, 1826 \nLamennais, Pere, F. R. de, 1782-1854 \nLamirande, M. ; extradition, 1866 \nLamm, earl ; bellite \nLamorieiere, gen., 1806-65 ; France, \n\n1 85 1 ; Rome, i860\' \nLamplugh, archbp. ; York, 1688 \nLamson, Dr. G. H. ; trials, 1882 \nLancaster, capt. ; Bantam, 1603 \nLancaster, duke of; Lancaster \nLancaster, Joseph, 1771-1838; Lan- \n\ncasterian schools, education \nLander, Richard, 1804-34; Africa \n\n\n\nINDEX. \n\nLane, E. W., orientalist, 1801-76 \nLandseer, sirE., painter, 1803-73 \nLanfranc, archbp. Canterbury, 1070 \nLanfrey, Pierre, Fr. hist. 1828-77 \nLangalibalele ; Cape; Natal, 1873 \nLangara, adm. ; naval battles, 1780 \nLangdale, Id.; master of rolls, 1836 \nLangdale, sir M. ; Naseby, 1645 \nLange, sir D. ; Suez, 1858 \nLangewin, sir H. S. ; Canada, 1891 \nLangham, abp.; Canterbury, 1366 \nLangiewicz, M. ; Poland, 1863-5 \nLangley, Dr. Baxter ; recreative reli- \ngionists ; artisans, trials, 1877 \nLangley, prof. S. P. ; bolometer \nLangton, abp.; Canterbury, 1206 \nLangworthy, E. R. ; Owens College, \n\n1874 \nLankester, E. Ray; spontaneous \n\ngeneration, 1876-7 ; spiritualism \nLannes ; marshals, Asperne, 1809 \nLansdowne, marquis of, 1780-1863 ; \nsee Petty, Shelburne; Goderich \nadm. 1827; Russelladm. 1846, 1851; \nAberdeen adm. 1852; Palmerston \nadm. 1855, et seq.; Canada, 1883 \nLanyon, sir W. O., Transvaal, 1879 \nLaomedon; Troy, 1260 B.C. \nLaplace, P. de; Fr. matheniat., 1749- \n\n1827 \nLartigue, M. ; railway (balance) \nLasker ; Germany, 1884 \nLateau, L. ; abstinence \nLatham, R. G. ; philologist 1812-88 \nLatham, J. ; birds \nLatimer, bp., burnt, 1555; pro- \n\ntestants \nLatimer, viscount; administrations, \n\n1672-3 \nLatorre, col. ; Uruguay, 1876 \nLaud, William, abp., 1573-1645; Can- \nterbury, administrations \nLauderdale, duke of; cabal, 1670 \nLaura; Petrarch, 1327 \nLaurent ; carbolic acid, 1846 \nLautrec, Fr. gen., d. 1528 \nLavalette\'s escape, 1815 \nLavater, J., 1741-1801; physiognomy \nLavigerie, cardinal, France, 1890-2 \nLavoisier, A. , 1743-94; carbon, hydro- \ngen, nitric acid, phlogiston, water \nLaw, bishop ; Chester, Bath, 1824 \nLaw\'s bubble, 1720 \nLawes, H., mus. comp., 1600-62 \nLawless, Mr.; riots, 1828 \nLawrence, gen. H., 1800-57; India, 1-857 \nLawrence, sir J., aft. Id., 1811-79; \n\nIndia, 1863 \nLawrence, sir T. , painter, 1769-1830 \nLawson, sir Wilfrid ; permissive bill \nLayard, sir A. Henry, b. 1817 ; Nine- \nveh, Gladstone, 1868 ; Turkey, 1877 \nLayer\'s conspiracy, 1722; Layer \nLazareff, Russia, 1879 \nLazzaretti, David ; Italy, 1878 \nLeake, adm., d. 1720; admiralty, Gib- \nraltar, Mediterranean, Minorca \nLeatham, W. H. ; trials, 1861 \nLe Blanc, Nicholas, 1753-1806 ; \n\nalkalies \nLe Clere; critics, 1696 \nLecky, R. J., sunshine recorder \nLecomte, gen. ; France, 1871, 1876 \nLecoq de Boisbaudran ; gallium, 1875 \nLedochowski, abp. Prussia, 1873-6 \nLedruRollin, A. A., 1808-74; France, \n\n1848, 1874 \nLee, Alexander; theatres, 1830 \nLee, Ann, shakers \nLee, bp., J. D. ; massacres, 1858 ; \n\nMormonites \nLee Boo, prince; Pelew Islands, 1783 \nLee, C. C.; Leeward isles \nLee, John ; trials, 1885 \nLee, abp.; York, 1544 \nLee, W. ; stocking-frame, 1589 \nLee, gen. Robt., 1808-70; United \nStates, 1S62 \n\n\n\n1117 \n\nLeech, John, 1817-64; caricatures ; \n\nPunch \nLeeds, duke of; administrations, 1689 \nLeeke, H. ; Bushire, 1856 \nLeeuwenhoek, 1632-1723; animal- \ncules, polypus \nLefevre, C. Shaw (Id. Eversley) ; \n\nspeaker, 1839-57 \nLefevre, G. S.; Gladstone adm., 1880 \nLefroy, al. Mapleton, railways, 188 1 \nLeggatt, B. ; burning, 1612 \nLegge, bishop; Oxford, 1827 \nLegge, H. B., Newcastle adm., 1754 \nLe Gros, Raymond; Dublin, 1171 \nLeibnitz, Gottfried, 1646-1716; mathe- \nmatics, fluxions \nLeicester, earl of ; administrations, \n\n1558 ; national associations \nLeicester, earl of, v. Morning Herald ; \n\ntrials, 1809 \nLeighton, Fred. ; artist, b. 1830 ; \n\nRoyal Academy \nLeighton, J. & A. ; Christmas cards ; \n\nprinting surface, ballot \nLeighton, abp. Robt., 1613-84 \nLeighton, G. C. ; printing in colours, \n\n1849 \nLeitrim, earl of; murd., Ireland, 1878 \nLe Jay; polyglot, 1628-45 \nLelewel; Poland, 1863 \nLely, sir P., painter, 1617-80 \nLe Maire ; circumnavigator, 1615 \nLemoinne, J. ; France, 1873-6 \nLemon, Mark, humorist, 1809-70 ; \n\nPunch \nLennox, col.; duels, 1789 \nLennox, lord H. ; Disraeli adm., \n\n1874-6 \nLenoir; gas, 1861 \nLe Notre; James\'s-park, St., 1668 \nLeo ; popes, 440 ; Eastern empire, \n\n\n\nLeo IV. ; Leonine city \nLeo X.; popes, 1513; indulgences \nLeo XIII., 6. 1810 ; pope, 1878 \nLeon, Diego de; Spain, 1841 \nLeon, Ponce de; America, 1512 \nLeonarda of Pisa; algebra, 1202 \nLeonardo da Vinci, painter, 1452-1519 \nLeonidas ; Thermopylae, 480 b. c. \nLeopardi, Italian orat. 1 798-1837 \nLeopold, Germany; Morgarten, 1315; \n\nSempach, 1386; Belgium, 1830; \n\nSpain, France, 1870-84 \nLeopold, prince, 1853-84 ; England, \n\nend. ; Albany, 1881 \nL\'Epee, abbe de, 1712-89, deaf \nLepidus; triumvir, 43 B.C. \nLe Pique, M. : duels, 1808 \nLepsius, K. R., 1810-84 ; Egypt \nLerdo de Tejado ; Mexico, 1872 \nLerothodi, Basuto \nLe Sage, French novelist, 1668-1747 \nLeslie, C. R., painter, 1 794-1859 \nLeslie, H., music \nLesseps, M. ; Suez, 1852 ; Corinth, \n\n1 88 1 ; Panama \nLessing, G. E., German philosopher, \n\n1729-81 \nLestock, admiral ; Toulon, 1744 \nL\'Estrange, sir R. ; newspapers, 1663 \nLetheby, Henry, M.B., chemist, \n\n1816-76 \nLettsom, Dr. ; Humane soc, 1774 \nLever, sir Ashton ; museum \nLever, C. J., Irish novelist, 1809-72 \nLeverson, S. R. ; trials, 1868, 1878 \nLeverrier, U., 1811-77 ; Neptune, \n\n1846 \nLevy, Leoni ; statistical!, 1821-88 ; \n\n\n\nLevy, Mr. Lyon ; monument, 1810 \nLewes, Geo. Hen., philosopher, &c, \n\n1817-78 \nLewis, John Fred., R.A., 1805-76 \nLewis, Mr. ; theatres (Covent-garden), \n\n1773 \n\n\n\n1118 \n\n\n\nINDEX. \n\n\n\nLevis, sir G. Cornewall, 1806-63 ; \n\nPalmerston adm., 1855 \nLewis v. Higgins, trials, 1876 \nLewisham, vise. ; Addington adm., \n\n1801 \nLeybourne, William de ; admiral, 1297 \nLhoste, M., 1886-7 \nliiakut, Ali ; India, 1871-2 \nLibanius, Gr. orator, 314-390 \nLick, Jas. ; observatories \nLidderdale, Wm. ; London, 1890 \nLiddon, H. P., canon, 1829-90 \nLiddon, lieut. ; north-west passage, \n\n1819 \nLieber, T. ; Erastianism, 1523-84 \nLiebig, J., 1803-73; acids, agricul- \nture, chemistry, chloroform, \nchloral \nI.iebreich, O. ; chloral, 1869 \nLight, F. ; Penang, 1786 \nLightfoot, Joseph B., 1828-89, Dur- \nham, 1879 \nLigonier, lord; Bute, 1762 \nLilburne, col. ; \\evellers, Wigan, 1651 \nLilly, Wm., 1602-81 ; astrology, 1647 \nLily, George, d. 1559; charts \nLily, Wm., grammarian, d. 1523 \nLin ; China, 1840 \nL : naere, Dr., d. 1524; gardening, \n\nlectures, physicians \nLincoln, Abm., 1809-65; United \n\nStates, 1860-5 \nLincoln, bp. of; Canterbury, 1890-2 \nLincoln, earl of ; administrations, \n\n*759 \nLincoln, B. T. ; United States, 1889 \nLind, Dr. ; anemometer, wind \nLind, Jenny (Goldschmidt), 6. 1820- \n\n87 ; theatres \nLinfield, H. C. ; flying \nLindley, John; bot., 1799-1865; \n\nhorticulture \nLindsay, earl of; Edgehill, 1642 \nLindsay, sir C. ; Grosvenor gallery \nLindsay, sir John ; Madras, 1770 \nLingard, J., 1771-1851 ; historian \nLinlithgow, lord ; guards, 1660 \nLinne, Linn, C. von, 1707-78; botany, \n\nLhmsean, zoology \nLinnell, John ; jiainter, 1792-1882 \nLinus, poet, fl. 1281 B.C. \nLiprandi ; Balaklava, Eupatoria, 1855 \nLisle, lord; administrations, 1544 \nLisle, sir G. ; Colchester, 1648 \nLisle, visct. ; Portsmouth, 1545 \nLister, J. ; germ theory \nListon, J., actor, retires, 1838 \nLiszt, F. ; music, 181 1-86 \nLittle John ; Bobin Hood \nLittleton, Mr. ; Melbourne adminis- \ntration, 1834 \nLittre,M. O. E., 1801-81 ; dictionaries, \n\npositive philosophy \nLiverpool, earl of, 1770-1828 ; \xe2\x80\x94 Liver- \npool adm., 1812 \nLivingstone, D., 1813-77 ; Africa \n\n1856 ; Edinburgh, 1876 \nLivius, Titus, Boman hist., d. 18 \nLizarraga, gen. ; Spain, 1875-6 \nLlewelyn ; Wales, 1194 \nLloyd, bishop ; Oxford, 1827 \nLloyd, Catherine ; quackery, 1831 \nLloyd, Charles ; Junius, 1769 \nLloyd, W. ; Portland vase, 1845 \nLloyd, Clifford ; Egypt, 1884 \nLoch, sir H. B. ; Victoria, 1884 ; \n\nCape, 1889 \nLocke, J., 1632-1704; physics, car- \ntesian, coin \nLocke, W. ; ragged schools, 1844 \nLockwood, P. E. ; beer \nLockyer, major ; duel, 1817 \nLockyer, J. N. ; eclipse, 1866 ; Na- \nture, 1869; elements, 1878; meteors, \nastronomy \nLofting, John ; thimble, 1695 \nLoftus, Id. A., New S. Wales, 1879 \nLogeman ; magnetism, 1851 \n\n\n\nLogier, J. B. ; chiroplast \n\nLollard, Walter ; Lollards, 1315 ; \n\nburned, 1322 \nLomakine, gen. , Bussia, 1879 \nLombe, sir Thomas ; silk, 1714 \nLond, T. ; piano, 1802 \nLondon dock company ; trials, 1851 \nLondonderry, lord ; see Castlereagh ; \n\nsuicide, 1822 \nLondonderry, marquis of; Ireland, \n\nId. lieut,, 1886 \nLong, sir B. ; administrations, 1660 \nLong, Misses Tilney ; trials, 1825 \nLong, St. John ; quack, trials, 1830-1 \nLongden, J. B. ; Denierara, 1874 \nLongfellow, H.W. ; Am. poet, 1807-82 \nLongford v. Purdon ; trials, 1877 \nLonginus, Gr. philos., killed, 273 \nLongley, abp. York, i860 ; Bipon \nLongman, W. ; Paul\'s, St., 1873 ; Pub- \nlishers\' Circular \nLongstreet, gen. ; Chicamauga, 1863 ; \n\nU. States \nLonnten, M. E. ; Finland \nLonsdale, bishop ; Lichfield, 1843 \nLonsdale, earl of; duels, 1792; Derby \n\nadministration, 1852 \nLopez ; Cuba, 1850 ; United States \nLopez, gen. ; Paraguay ; Aquidaban, \n\n1870 \nLopez, sir Manasseh ; Grampound, \n\ntrials, 1819 \nLorenz, J. F. ; cryptography, 1806 \nL\'Orme, Philibert de ; Tuileries, 1564 \nLome, marquis of, England, end. \n\n1870-1; psalms, 1877 ; Canada,i878 ; \n\nUnited States, 1882 \nLorraine,cardinal ; assassination, 1588 \nLorraine, Chas. of; Lissa, Mohatz, \n\n1687 \nLorraine, duke of; Crecy, 1346 \nLorraine, Claude, painter, 1600-82 \nLosinga, H. ; Norwich, 1091 \nLothian, marquis of ; Salisbury adm. \n\n1887 \nLoudon, C. J., 1783-1843; botany \nLough, John G., sculptor, i8o4?-76 \nLoughborough; att.-gen., coalition, \n\n1783 \nLouis ; France, kings ; Spain, 1724 \nLouis I. \xe2\x80\x94 IV. ; landgrave, Hesse \nLouis XI. ; " Christian ; " blood, \n\nposts, 1470 ; Provence \nLouis XII. ; tester, 1513 \nLouis XIII. ; Louis d\'or, 1640 \nLouis XIV. ; Dieu-donne, Nantes, \n\n1685 \nLouis XV. : France, 1757 ; Damiens \nLouis XVIII. ; Hartwell, 1807-14 ; \n\nFrance \nLouis, king ; Hungary, Buda, 1526 \nLouis, prince of Conde ; Jarnac, 1569 \nLouis Bonaparte ; Holland, 1806 \nLouis Napoleon ; Bonaparte ; France, \n\n1848-70 ; see Napoleon III. \nLouis Napoleon, France, end ; Zulu- \nland, 1879 \nLouis Philippe; France, 1830; assas- \nsinations \nLouisa Maria, infanta ; Spain, 1846 \nLouise, queen ; Belgium, 1832 ; d. \n\n1850 \nLouth, lord; trials, 181 1 \nLoutherbourg, Mr. ; panorama \nLovat, lord ; conspiracy, trials, 1747 \nLovell ; trials, 1812 \nLover, Sam., Irish nov., 1797-1868 \nLovett, W. ; chartists \nLowe, Alice ; trials, 1842 \nLowe, B. , aft. viscount Sherbrooke, \n\n1811-92 ; Gladstone, 1868 ; London \n\nuniv. \nLowe, gen. Drury, 1882 \nLowell, J. Bussell, Amer. sat. poet, \n\n1819-91 \nLbwenthal, J. J. ; chess, 1876 \nLower, M. A., antiquary, 1813-76; \n\nnames \n\n\n\nLowther, vise. ; Wellington adm. . \n\n1828 \nLoyd ; see Overstone. \nLoyola, Ignatius, 1491-1556; Jesuits, \n\nI 534 \n\nLubbock, sir J. W. , mathemat. , 1803- \n6; \xe2\x80\x94 sir John, b. 1834; ancient \nmonuments, bank holidays, bees, \nproportional representation, bio- \nlogy, pre-historic ; early closing \n\nLuby, Thos. ; Fenian, trials, 1865 \n\nLucan, earl of; trials, 1856 \n\nLucan, killed, 65 ; Borne, Cordova \n\nLucas, Mr. ; steel, 1804 \n\nLueian, Gr. satirist, about 120-200 \n\nLuciani ; Bome, 1875 \n\nLucilius ; satire, 116 B.C. \n\nLucretia, d. 47 b.c. ; Bome, spinning \n\nLucretius, Lat. pb.il. poet, d. 52 B.C. ; \natoms \n\nLugard, capt. F. D., Uganda, 1891 \n\nLuie ; trials, 1874 \n\nLully; nitric acid, 1287; (music), \n1633-72 \n\nLumby ; Athanasian creed, confes- \nsions, 1874 \n\nLumley v. Gye ; trials, 1854 \n\nLumsden, sir P. ; Afghanistan, 1884 7 \nBussia, 1885 \n\nLunardi, M. ; balloons, 1784 \n\nLushington,.S. ; admiralty court, 1838. \n\nLusk, A. ; mayor, Id. 1873 \n\nLutatius ; naval battles, 241 B.C. \n\nLuther, Martin, 1483-1546 ; Aiisu\'- \ntins, Lutheranism, Dort, Protes- \ntantism, Augsburg, Calvinisls, \nWorms \n\nLuther, B. ; planets, 1852 \n\nLuvini, G. dietheroscope, 1876 \n\nLuxemburg, marshal; Enghien, 169c? \n\nLuxmoore, bishop ; Bristol, 1807 \n\nLycurgus ; Sparta, 881 B.C. \n\nLyell, sir Charles, 1797-1875 ; geo- \nlogy, man \n\nLyell v. Kennedy ; trials, 1886 \n\nLyly, W. ; euphuism, 1581 \n\nLynall, Thomas ; trials, 1877 \n\nLynch, murder; trials, 1817 \n\nLyndhurst, lord, 1772-1863; chancel- \nlor ; Canning adm. 1827 ; Welling- \nton adm. 1828 ; Peel adm., 1834, \n1841 \n\nLynedoch, lord ; Barrosa, 1811 ; Ber- \ngen-op-Zoom, St. Sebastian \n\nLyon, capt. ; north-west passage r \n1 82 1 ; \xe2\x80\x94 general Nathaniel, Spring- \nfield, 1861 \n\nLyon, col. F., killed ; Shoeburyness, \n1885 \n\nLyon, John ; Harrow school, 1571 \n\nLyons, lord ; Baris, 1887 \n\nLyons v. Thomas ; trials, 1869 \n\nLysander; Sparta, 405 B.C. \n\nLysimachus ; Ipsus, 301 B.C. ; Corns \n\nLysippus ; Lysistratus, sculpture, \nbusts, 328 B.C. \n\nLyttelton, lord; chancellor, Id., 1641 \n\nLyttelton, Geo., lord; dreams, 1779 \n\nLytton, E. Bulwer, Id., novelist ami \npoet, 1805-73 : guilds \n\nLytton, B. B., lord, 1831-91 ; India \n1876 \n\n\n\nM. \n\nMacadam, J. ; macadamising, 1819 \n\nMacarthy, sir Charles ; Sierra Leone. \nAshantees, 1824 \n\nMacartney, earl; duel, 1786; China. \n1793 ; India \n\nMacaulay, T. B., Id., 1S00-1859 : Mel- \nbourne adm., 1837 \n\nMacbeth ; Scotland, 1057 \n\nMcCabe, abp., Ireland, 1879-80 ; car- \ndinal, 1882 ; d. 1885 \n\nMacCabe ; robbers, 1691 \n\nMcCarthy, Justin, home rule \n\n\n\nMeHale, abp., 1791-1881 \nMacClellan, gen. George, B. 1826-85 ; \n\nUnited States, 1 861-4 \nMacclesfield, earl of; chancellor, lord \n\nhigh, 1718 \nMacCormack ; reaping machine, 1831 \nMacdonald, marshal ; Parma, Trebia, \n\n1799 \nMacdonald, Mr. ; Times, printing \nMacdonald, capt. ; Prussia, 1861 \nMacdonald, sir J., 1815-91 ; Canada, \n\n1873 \nMacdonalds massacred ; Glencoe,i6g2 \nMacdonnel, quotations \nMacDowell, gen. J. ; Manassas, 1861 \nMacduff, Mr. ; duel, 1790 \nMaceo, gen. ; Spain, 1882 \nMacfarlane, S. ; trials, 1844 \nMacfarren, sir George, 1813-87; royal \n\nacademy of music, oratorio, opera \nMacGrath ; dogs \nMacgregor, J. ; bank, British, 1849 > \n\ncanoe, 1865 \nMachiavelli, N., 1469-1527 \nMachiewicz, abbe ; Poland, 1863 \nMack, gen. ; Ulm, 1805 \nMackay, gen. ; Killiecrankie, 1689 \nMackay and Vaughan ; trials, 1816 \nMackenzie, Alex. ; Canada, 1892 \nMackenzie, G. S. ; Africa (British E.) \n\n1890 \nMackenzie, Henry, novelist, 1745- \n\n1831 \nMackenzie, bp. C. F. ; Africa, i860 \nMackenzie, sir Morell ; Germany, \n\n1887-0. \nMackenzie, Win. ; Africa (British E.), \n\n1888 \nMackie, A. ; printing, 1871 \nMackinnon, sir Wm. ; Zanzibar, \n\nAfrica (British E.) \nMackintosh, sir James, 1765-1872 \nMacklin, C, actor, d. 1797 \nMacklin ; Bible, books \nMackonochie, rev. Mr. ; Church of \n\nEngland, 1867-76; trials, 1867; \n\nritualists, public worship, holy \n\ncross \nMacLachlan, Jessie ; trials, 1862 \nMaclagan, bp. ; Lichfield, 1878 \nMaclagan, Dr. ; germ theory \nMaclean, B. ; trials 1882 \nMacleod, H. D. ; trials, 1858 \nMacleod, Mr. ; United States, 1841 \nMacleod, Norman, D.D., 1812-72 \nMacleod, Dr. ; glaciarium \nMaclise, D., painter, 1811-70 \nM\'Clure, capt. ; Franklin, 1850 ; \n\nnorth-west passage \nMacMahon, marshal, b. 1808 ; Magen- \nta, 1859 ! Franco-Prussian, Sedan, \n\nFrance, 1873-8 \nMcMillan, J. ; trials, 1861 \nMacNamara, capt. ; duels, 1803 \nM\'Culloch, J. R., polit. econ., 1789- \n\n1864 \nMcCulloch, sir Jas., Victoria, 1875-6 \nM\'Neill, sir J. ; Sebastopol, 1855 \nMcCarty, gen. ; Enniskillen, 1689 \nMcClintock, capt. ; Franklin, 1859 \nMcGill, Mr. ; trials, 1842 \nMcKendrick, J. G. ; Boy. Inst., \n\n1881-4 \nMcKenzie, Mr. ; duel, 1788 \nMcNaghten, sirW., killed, 1841 \nMcNaughten, Mr. ; trials, 1761, 1843 \nMcSwiney, Mr., Ireland, 1875 \nMacready, W. ; actor, 1793-1873 \nMacreath, Mr. ; trials, 1841 \nMacrobius ; Lat. writer, d. 415 \nMadan, bp. ; Peterborough, 1794 \nMadiai, the ; Tuscany, 1852 \nMadison, James ; United States, \n\npresident, 1809 \nMaecenas, d. 8 ; dedications, baths \nMa;lzel, J. ; metronome, 1815 \nMagee, J. ; trials, 1813 ; Guatemala, \n\n1874 \n\n\n\nINDEX. \n\nMagee, W. C, bp. Peterborough, \n\n1868 \nMagellan ; killed, 1521 ; circumnavi- \ngation, Philippine \nMagi ; fire worshippers, Epiphany \nMagnin, C. ; puppets, 1872 \nMagnus ; king, Norway, Sweden \nMaguire, capt. ; Franklin, 1848 \nMagus, Simon ; Simonians, heretics \nMahdi ; Soudan \n\nMahomet, 570-632 ; Hegira, 622 ; \nMahometanism, Mecca, Medina, \nBeder, Turkey, Koran \nMahomet II., d. 148 1 ; eastern empire, \nTurkey, Adrianople, Constantino- \nple, Albania \nMahony, F. (Prout), d. 1866 \nMaYmonides (Maimoun), Moses, \n\nJewish writer, d. 1208 \nMaine, sir H. J. S. ; jurist, 1822-8S \nMaitland, capt. ; France, 1815 \nMaitland, sir Fred. ; China, 1838 \nMajendie, bishop ; Chester, 1800 \nMajor ; conchology, 1675 \nMajorian, coronation \nMakart, J. ; painter, 1840-1884 ; \n\nAustria \nMakomo, Kaffraria, 1873 \nMalachi prophesies about 397 b. c. \nMalcolm ; Scotland, kings, clanships, \n\nAlnwick, Dunsinane \nMalcolm, Jas. ; trials, 1885. \nMalebranche, N. ; philos., 1638-1715 \nMalet, sir E. ; Egypt, 1881 ; Ger- \nmany, 1884 \nMalherbe ; Fr. poet, 1556-1628 \nMalibran, madame ; music, 1808-36 \nMallet, B. ; earthquakes, seismo- \nmeter, 1858 \nMallory, W. H. ; screw-propeller, \n\n1878 \nMalmesbury, lord, b. 1807 ; Derby \nand Disraeli adms. 1852, 1858, 1874 \nMalou ; Belgium, 1871 ; 1884 \nMalpighi, M. ; anatomist, 1628-94 \nMaltby, bishop ; Durham, 1836 \nMalthus, T., 1 766-1834, polit. econ. \nManasseh, Ben Israel ; Jews, 1657 \nManby, capt. ; life-preserver, 1809 \nMance, H. , heliography \nManchester, bp. of, pub. worship \n\nreg. act, 1883 \nManchester, earl of; administrations, \n\n1620 \nManchester will ; trials, 1854 \nMandeviHe, visct. ; administrations, \n\n1620 \nManes, killed, 274 ; Manicheans \nManfred, killed, 1266 ; Naples \nManlius ; Cimbri, 102 B.C., Rome \nMann, Wm., air (compressing), 1829 \nManners, lord John, b. 1818; Derby \nadm., 1852, 1858, 1866; Disraeli \nadministrations, 1868, 1874 ; Re- \nform, 1884 ; Salisbury adm., 1885, \ni836, (duke of Rutland, 1888) \nManning, H., cardinal, 1809-92 ; \n\narchbishop, 1865 ; Westminster \nMannings ; murderers, trials, 1849 \nManny, sir W. ; charter-house, 1371 \nMansel, bisliop ; Bristol, 1808 \nMansell, T. ; executions, 1857 \nMansfield, lord ; att.-gen. 1754 ; \n\nfictions in law, king\'s bench \nMansfield, C.B. ; benzole, 1849 \nMantegazza, marchese, Italy, 1876 \nMantell, G. A., weald \nManteuftel, gen., Franco-Pruss. war, \n\n1870-1 \nManuel ; Eastern empire, Trebizond \nManutius, see Aldus \nManzoni, A., Ital. nov., 1784-1873 \nMapleson, Mr., national opera house, \n\n1875 \nMar, earl of; Harlaw, 141 1; Dum- \n\nblain, 1715 \nMar, earl of ; trials, 1831 \nMarat, stabbed; France, 1793 \n\n\n\n1110 \n\nMarbeck, J., concordance, 1550 :: \n\nchanting \nMarceau, gen., killed, Altenkirchen,. \n\nMarcel, S. ; communes, 1356 \nMarcellus; Borne, 212 B.C. \nMarch, H. ; executions, 1877 \nMarch, Roger, earl of; rebellions: \n\n1398 \nMarch, R. ; rope-making, 1784 \nMarehmont; trials, 1858 \nMarcion ; Marcionites, 140 \nMarcus Aurelius ; Rome, emp. 161 \nMarcus Curtius ; Rome, 362 B.C. \nMardonius ; Myeale, Plata;a, 497 b.c. \nMargaret ; England, queen of Ed- \nward I. \nMargaret of Anjou, England (queen, \nof Henry VI.), d. 148 1 ; Tewkes- \nbury, Towton, Wakefield \nMargaret of Norway ; Calmar, 1393 \nMargaret (governess of the Nether- \nlands, 1559) ; beards \nMargary, Mr., killed ; China, 1875-7 \nMargraff; beet-root, 1747 \nMaria da Gloria ; Portugal, 1826 \nMaria Louisa, d. 1847 ; France, i8io\xe2\x80\x9e \n\nfirst empire ; wills (Napoleon\'s) \nMaria Theresa ; Germany, 1711 \nMarie Antoinette ; France, 1793 - \n\ndiamond necklace \nMariiio, Hayti, 1880 \nMarius, d. 86 b.c. ; Ambrones, Cimbrf. \nMario, G. ; Italian singer, 1808 (?) -8--\\ \nMarius ; pianoforte \nMarkham, abp. ; York, 1776 \nMarks, I. ; execution, 1877 \nMarlborough, earl of; administra- \ntions, 1628 \nMarlborough, duchess of, Ireland. \n\n1880 \nMarlborough, duke of, 1650-1722 r \ncom. -in-chief, marshals, Blenheim \' r \nDouay, Liege, Lisle, Malplaquet r \nOudenarde, Ramilies \nMarlborough, John, duke of, 6. 1822 ; \nDerby adm., 1867; Disraeli adm. r \n1868, 1878, gems \nMarlowe, Chr. ; dramatist, d. 1593 \nMarmont, marshal ; Salamanca, 1812 \nMarmontel, J. F., Fr. novel. 1723-99 \nMarot, Clement; Fr. poet, 1495- \n\n1544 \nMaroto, gen., Spain, Vergara, 1839 \nMarsden, Wm. ; cancer hospital. \nMarsh, bp. ; Llandaflj 18 16 \nMarsh, Catherine, convalescent insti- \ntution, 1866 \nMarsh, professor ; Indians \nMarshal, T. R. ; trials, 1859 \nMarshall, Mr. ; California, 1847 \nMarshall, capt., naval battles, 1778 \nMarshall, John, physiol., 1818-91 ; \n\nRoyal Institution \nMartel, Charles ; France, 714 \nMartel, France, 1879 \nMarten, Maria ; trials, 1828 \nMarth ; planets, 1854 \nMartial ; epigrams, fl. 100 \nMartin, John, painter, 1 790-1854 \nMartin, Jon. ; York minster, 1829 \nMartin, L. H. ; Fr. hist., 1810-1883 \nMartin ; popes, 640 et seq. \nMartin, Rd. ; animals, 1822 \nMartin, rev. G. ; suicide, i860 \nMartin v. Mackonochie, Church of \n\nEngland, 1867-76 \nMartin, sir Theodore, b. 1816 ; Albert \nMartineau, Harriet, hist, novelist, \n\n<fcc. , 1802-76 \nMartyr, Peter, reformer, 1500-62 \nMarvell, And. , d. 1678 ; ballot \nMarvin, C. ; trials, 1878 \nMarx, C., socialists \nMary I., 1516-58; England (queen), \n\n1553 ; Calais \nMary II., 1662-94; England (queen\'), \n\n\n\n1120 \n\nMary, queen of Scots, 1542-87; \nScotland, Carlisle, Edinburgh, \nsycamore, Langside, Lochleven- \ncastle, Fotheringay \n\nMaryborough, lord ; postmaster, 1835 \n\nMasaniello ; Naples, 1647 \n\nMaskelyne, J. N., automaton, 1875 \n\nMaskelyne, N, astronomer,i732-i8n; \nGreenwich, 1765 ; almanacs, Schie- \nhallien, Venus \n\nMason, Mr. ; U. States, 1861 \n\nMason and Hamlin ; American organ \n\nMason, Josiah, orphan houses, Bir- \nmingham, 1869-75 \n\nMassena; Zurich, 1799; Almeida, \nBusaco \n\nMassey v. Headfort ; trials, 1804 \n\nMassey, W. ; India, 1865 \n\nMassillon, J. B. ; Fr. preacher, 1663- \n\nJ 74 2 \xe2\x80\x9e \nMasupha, Basuto \n\nMathew, Theobald, d. 1856; tem- \nperance \nMathews, Chas. ; actor, 1776-1835 ; \n\n(son) C. J., 1803-78 \nMathias ; anabaptists, 1534 \nMatilda; England (queen of, Wil- \nliam I.) ; Bayeux tapestry, 1066 \nMatilda ; England (queen of Stephen) \nMatilda (empress) ; England, 1135 \nMatilda; Denmark, 1772 ; Zell \nMatilda, countess ; Canossa, 1077 ; \n\nItaly \nMatthew, T., abp. ; York, 1606 \nMatthews, adm. ; Toulon, 1744 \nMatthews, H. ; Salisbury adm., \n\n1886 \nMaud ; see Matilda \nMaule, Fox (lord Pan mure); Kussell \n\nadministration, 1846 \nMaule, J. B., prosecutor \nMaunsell, bookseller ; meal-tub plot, \n\n1679 \nMaunsell, Capt. C. S. ; trials, 1874 \nMaupertuis, P. L. de, 1698-1759 ; \n\nlatitude \nManrer, J. and G. (German enthu- \nsiasts), killed ; Brazil, 1874 \nMaurice, rev. F. D., 1805-72 ; broad \nchurch, working-men\'s college, 1854 \nMaury, lieut. M., 1806-73 ; sea \nMausolus, 377 b.c. ; mausoleum, \n\nwonders \nMaximilian ; emperors, Germany, \n\n1493 ; Mexico, 1864-67 \nMaximin ; Rome, emp. 235 ; giants, \n\npersecutions \nMay, G. A. C. ; king\'s (or queen\'s) \n\nbench, 1877 \nMay, S. E. ; parliament, 1886 \nMaybrick, Mrs. ; trials, 1889 \nMayhew, H. (1812-1887); poor, \n\ni5S 1-2 \nMayne, sir Richd., 1796- 1868 ; police, \n\n1829 \nMayo, earl of, 6. 1822 ; Disraeli adm. \n\n1868 ; assassinated, 1872 ; India, \n\nAndaman \nMazarin, cardinal ; France, 1643 ; \n\ntontines ; jirinting, 1450 \nMazzini, J., Ital. patriot, 1808-72; \n\nRome, 1831 ; triumvirate, 1849 \nMazzuoli, F. ; engraving, 1532 \nMead,Dr. Rich. , 1673-1 754; inoculation \nMead, Geo., gen., 1816-72 ; United \n\nStates, 1863 \nMeagher ; Ireland, 1848 \nMecklenburg, grand duke, Franco- \n\nPruss. war, 1870-1 \nMedail, M. ; Alps (tunnel), 1848 \nMedici ; Medici family \nMedicis, Catherine de, d. 1589 ; Bar- \ntholomew, St. \nMedina-Sidonia, duke of ; armada \nMedon ; Athens, 1044 B.C. \nMehemet Ali ; Egypt, Syria \nMehemet Ali ; Russo-Turkish war, \n\nII., 1877 \n\n\n\nINDEX. \n\nMehemet Ruchdi, Turkey, 1371-2 \nMeikle, A., threshing machine, 1776 \nMelanchthon, Philip, 1497-1560 ; \nadiaphorists, Augsburg confession \nMelas, general ; Marengo, 1800 \nMelbourne, viscount, 1779-1849 ; Mel- \nbourne ; trials, 1836 \nMelikoff, L. Alad.ja Dagh; Russo- \nTurkish war, II., 1877 ; Russia, \n1880-1 \nMellon, Miss (afterwards duchess of \nSt. Alban\'s), first appearance, 1795 \nMelloni, M., 1798-1854; electricity \nMelville, lord ; impeachment, 1806 \nMemnon said to invent alphabet, \n\n1822 B.C. \nMenabrea, count L. F. ; Italy, 1867 \nMenander, d. 291 B.C. ; drama \nMendelssohn, F. Bartholdy, 1809-47 \nMendiri ; Spain, 1874-5 \nMendizabal ; Spain, 1835 \nMendoza, Pedro de; Buenos Ayres, \n\nMenier ; balloons, 1874 \nMenou, general ; Alexandria, 1800 \nMenschikoff, prince ; holy places, \n1853 ; Russia, Alma, Russo-Turk- \nish war \nMercadier, M., teleradiophone \nMercator, Ger., 1512-94 ; charts \nMercedes (queen) ; Spain, 1878 \nMercier, C. H. ; hospital Saturday, \n\n1874 \nMercier, Honore; Quebec, 1891 \nMerimee, Prosper, Fr. hist., 1803-70 \nMeroveeus ; Merovingians,\' France, 448 \nMesentzoff, gen. ; assassinated, \n\nRussia, 1878 \nMesmer, Frederic Ant.; mesmerism, \n\n1766 \nMetastasio, Pet, It. poet, 1698-1782 \nMetellus; Achaia, 147 B.C. \nMetius; telescopes, 1590-1609 \nMeton ; golden number, 432 B.C. \nMetternich, prince, Aust. statesman, \n\n1773-1859 \xe2\x80\xa2 \nMetz, M. de; reformatory, 1839 \nMeux and Co. ; porter \nMeyer, H. dr. ; Kilima Njaro, 1889 \nMeyer, H. von, archaeopteryx, 1861 \nMeyer, Simon; Saturn, 1608-9-10 \nMeyerbeer, J. M., Germ, mus., 1794- \n\n1864 \nMeyerstein, E. ; printing (in colours), \n\n1876 \nMezentius ; indiction, 312 \nMiall, E., 1809-81 ; nonconformists \nMicah, prophesies about 750 B.C. \nMichael Angelo Buonaroti, Ital. ar- \ntist, 1474-1564 \nMichael; eastern empire, assassina- \ntions, Servia, 1860-8 \nMichael, grand duke ; Russo-Turkish \n\nwar, 1877 \nMichaelis, J. W., bib. critic, 1717-91 \nMiehaud, abbe ; old catholics, 1872 \nMichel, Louise ; France, 1883 \nMichelet, J., Fr. hist., b. 1798 \nMiddlesex, earl of; administrations, \n\n1621 \nMiddleton, Con.; (Cicero), 1683-1750 \nMiddleton, gen., Canada, 1885 \nMiddleton; N.W. passage, 1742 \nMiddleton (or Myddelton), sir Hugh, \n\n1565-1631 ; New River \nMiddleton, John; giants, 1578 \nMiddleton, rev. T. ; Manchester, 1876 \nMidhat Pasha, Turkey, 1878-81, Syria \nMiecislas; Poland, 962 \nMieroslawski, L.; Poland, 1863 \nMignet, Francois, Fr. hist., 1796- \n\n1884 \nMiguel, dom, 1802-66; Portugal, 1824 \nMilan ; Servia \n\nMildmay, sir J. H. ; trials, 1814 \nMildmay, sir Walter; administra- \ntions, 1579 \nMill, Jas., hist, of Ind., 1773-1836 \n\n\n\nMill, John Stuart, 1806-1873, logic \nMillais, J. E., painter, &. 1829; pre- \n\nRaphaelites \nMiller, Hugh ; geology, suicide, 1856 \nMiller v. Salomons ; trials, 1852 \nMiller, W.; trials, 1870 \nMillie, Mr.; trials, 1839 \nMilman, H. H, 1791-1868; poet and \n\nhist. \nMilosch; Servia, 1815 \nMiltiades; Marathon, 490 B.C. \nMilton, John, 1608-74; Paradise Lost, \n\nCripplegate ; press, liberty of \nMina, gen., d. 1836; Spain, 1835 \nMinghetti ministry ; Italy, 1873-6 \nMinos; Crete, 1015 B.C. \nMinto, earl of; India, gov. -gen., 1807 \nMiramon, gen.; Mexico, 1859 exe- \ncuted, 1867 \nMires, M; Mexico, 1861 \nMirsky, L., Russia, 1879 \nMister, Josiah ; trials, 1841 \nMitchell, sir F. ; monopolies, victual- \nlers, 1 62 1 \nMitchell, D.; aquarium, 1853 \nMitchell, adm.; Bantry bay, 1801-2 \nMitchell, J. ; Ireland, 1848, 1874 \nMitchell, S. ; Glasgow, 1874 \nMitford, sir John ; att. -general, 1800 ; \nspeaker, 1801 ; \xe2\x80\x94 W., hist, of Greece, \n1744-1827 \nMithridates the Great, 131-63 B.C. ; \nPontus, comets, electuary, massa- \ncres, omens \nMitre, gen. B.; Buenos Ayres, 1859-75 \nMorfat, colonel; wrecks, 1857 \nMoffat, Dr. C. ; ammoniaphone \nMoffat, Rev. R., 1790-1882 ; mission- \nary; Africa \nMohun, lord; duels, 1712 \nMoir, capt.; trials, 1830 \nMbira, earl of; India, gov.-gen., 1813 \nMoiroso, Basuto \nMole, count, d. 1855 \nMolesworth, sir William; Aberdeen \n\nadm., 1852 \nMoliere, Fr. comic dram., 1622-73 \n\neomedie Frang. \nMolinos, 1627-96 ; quietists \nMolteno, Mr. ; Cape, 1875 \nMoltke, Hellmuth, strategist, 1800- \n91 ; Franco-Prussian war ; Ger- \nmany, 1890 \nMolyneux, Mr.; absentee, 1738 \nMompesson, Giles ; monopolies, vic- \ntuallers, 1621 \nMonasterio, mad. ; France, 1883 \nMoncasi, J. O., Spain, 1878 \nMonck, viset. C. S., 6. 1819; Canada, \n\n1861 \nMoncrieff, capt.; cannon, 1868, 1872 \nMonge, gas \nMonk, general ; administrations, \n\n1660; guards; d. 1670 \nMonk, bishop ; Gloucester, 1830 \nMonmouth, duke of, 1649-S5 ; Mon- \nmouth, Bothwell, Sedgemoor, iron \nmask \nMonro, James, ; police, 1888 \nMonroe, Mr.; United States, presi- \ndent, 1817-21 \nMonstrelet, E. de, French historian, \n\nd- 1453 \nMontacute, marquis of; Man, 1314-43 \nMontagu, lord ; administrations, \n\n1660-89 \nMontagu, lady M. W. ; inoculation, \n\n1718 \nMontague, Mrs., d. 1800; May-day \nMontaigne, M. de, Fr. essayist, \n\nI533-9 2 \nMontalembert, comte de; 1810-70; \n\nFrance, 1858 \nMontanus ; Montanists, polyglot, 1559 \nMonteliore, sir Moses, 1784-1885 ; \n\nJews, 1837 ; 1883-4 \nMontemolin, comte de ; Spain, 1860-1 \nMontero, pres. Peru, 1882 \n\n\n\nINDEX. \n\n\n\n1121 \n\n\n\nMontesquieu, C. de L., Fr. pliil., \n\n1689-1755 \nMonteverde; opera, 1607 \nMontfort, Amauri de ; Albigenses, \n\n1268 \nMontfort, Simon de; barons\' war, \ncommons, Kenilworth, steward, \nlord high, speaker, Lewes; killed \nat Evesham, 1265 \nMontgolfier, M. ; balloons, 1782 \nMontgomerie, comte de ; tourna- \nments, 1559 \nMontgomery, Mr. ; suicide, duels, \n\n1803 ; trials, 1873 \nMontholon, comte de; will (Napo- \nleon\'s), 1821 \nMonti, Ital. poet, 1754-1828 \nMontpensier; France, Spanish mar- \nriage, 1846; Spain, 1868-72 \nMontrose, duke of; Pitt adm. 1804, \n\nDerby adm. , 1866 \nMontrose, marquis of, executed, 1650 ; \nCorbiesdale, Scotland, Alford, \nPhiliphaugh \nMontt, J. ; Chili, 1891 \nMoody and Sankey ; revivals, 1875 \nMoore, abp. ; Canterbury, 1783 \nMoore; almanac, 1698-1713 \nMoore, murdered ; trials, 18S3 \nMoore, capt. ; Franklin, 1848 \nMoore, Serjeant; leases, 1535 \nMoore, Anne; abstinence, 1808 \nMoore, Geo. ; mansion house fund, \n\n1871 \nMoore, sir John, 7;. at Corunna, 1S09 \nMoore, sir Jonas ; Greenwich \nMoore, Thos., poet, 1780-1852 \nMorales, H. A., Bolivia, 1872 \nMordaunt, Charles, viscount; ad- \nministrations, 1689 \nMordaunt divorce ; trials, 1S70, 1874-5 \nMore, sir Thomas, 1478 -1535; ad- \nministrations, 1529 ; chancellor, \nsupremacy ; Utopia \nMore, Hannah, 1745-1833 \nMore, Roger; rebellion, 1651 \nMoreau, general, 1763-1813 ; Ales- \nsandria, Augsburg, Wurtemberg, \nDresden \nMorelli; tourniquet, 1674 \nMoreton, John, earl of; Ireland, 1177 \nMorgan ; buccaneer, 1668 \nMorgan, colonel; Lincoln \nMorgan, confederate general ; U. \n\nStates, 1862 \n- Morgan, Pritchard ; gold, 1887 \nMoriarty, bp. Ireland, 1877 \nMorier, sir R. ; Prussia, 1888 \nMoriones, gen. ; Spain, 1S73-5 \nMorland, Sam., d. 1695 ; capstan, \n\nspeaking-trumpet \nMorland, Geo., animal painter, 1763- \n\n1804 \nMorley, Arnold; Gladstone adm., \n\n1892 \nMorley, J., b. 1838 ; anti-aggressive ; \nPall Mall; Gladstone adm., 1886, \n1892 \nMorley, T.; music; d. 1604 \nMorley, Id. ; Gladstone adm., 1886 \nMorning Chronicle ; trials, 1810, 1830 ; \n\nFrance, 1862 \nMorning Herald ; trials, i8oq \nMorning Post; libel, 1792 \nMornington, lord; India, 1798 \nMorpeth, viscount (aft. earl of Car- \nlisle); Melbourne adm., 1835; Ire- \nland, lord-lieut. \nMorris, George; flowers, 1792 \nMorris, Mr.; theatres, 1805 \nMorrison, E. ; Australia, 1882-3 \nMorse, S. F. B., Am. electrician, \n\n1791-1872 \nMortara, E. ; Jews, 1858 \nMortier, mar.; Romainville, 1814 \nMortimer, E. A.; trials, 1859 \nMortimer, earl of March; Berkeley, \n1327 \n\n\n\nMorton, arch. ; Canterbury, i486 \nMorton, earl of, regent of Scotland, \n\n1572 ; Tulchan bishops \nMorton, sir Albert ; administrations, \n\n1628 \nMorton, Thomas; ether, 1846 \nMorton; trials, 1852 \nMoryson, Fynes; forks \nMoscrop, E. H., salmon ova \nMoseley, Wolf, &c. ; trials, 1819 \nMoses, 1572-1451 B.C. \nMoshesh, cape of G. H., 1870 \nMosquera, gen. ; New Granada, i36i \nMoss, bishop ; Oxford, 1807 \nMosse, Dr.; lying-in hospital, 1745 \nMossol, M., plethysmography \nMost, J., trials, 1881 \nMothe-Guyon, madame de la ; quiet- \n\nists, 1697 \nMotley, J. L., Am. historian, 1814-77 \nMouchot, M., sun, 1880 \nMoule, Rev. H. ; Kimmeridge \nMountaigne, abp.; York, 1628 \nMount-Sandford, lord, killed ; trials, \n\n1828 \nMouravieff; Kars, 1855 \nMourzoufle; Constantinople, eastern \n\nempire, 1204 \nMozart, W. A.; music, 1756-91 \nMudie, C, 1818-90; circulating li- \nbrary, 1842 \nMuirhead, J. G.; trials, 1825 \nMukhtar Pasha, Turkey, 1876 ; Russo- \n\nTurkish war, II. 1877-S \nMulgrave, earl ; Liverpool adm., 1812 ; \n\nIreland, lord-lieut. \nMullens, J.; trials, i860 \nMidler, F.; execution, 1864 \nMiiller, F. Max, &. 1823; Vedas, San- \nskrit, language, Hibbert fund \nMiiller, Geo. ; b. 1805 ; orphan houses ; \n\nscripture knowledge \nMulot, M. ; Artesian well, 1841 \nMulready, Win.; painter, 1786-1863 \nMummius, L. ; Corinth, 146 B.C. ; \n\npainting \nMundella, A. J. ; Gladstone adm., \n\n1886, 1892 \nMundy, R. M., Honduras, 1874 \nMunich, marshal; Perekop, 1736 \nMuiioz, duke ; Spain, 1833, 1873 \nMunro, H. ; Buxar, 1764 \nMunster, earl of; suicide, 1842 \nMunzer, T. ; anabaptists, 1524-5, level- \nlers ; Frankenhausen \nMurat, Joachim, 1771-1815; Erfurt, \n\nNaples \nMuratori, L.; hist., 1672-1750 \nMurchison, sir Roderick I., 1792- \n\n1871 ; geology, Brit. Assoc. \nMurdoch, Mr.; gas, 1792 \nMurillo, Bravo, Spain, 1S65, 1868 \nMurillo, B. S., Sp. painter, 1618-82 \nMurray, R. ; post-office, 1681 \nMurray, earl of; Scotland, 1567 \nMurray, lady Aug. ; marriage act, 1793 \nMurray, B. ; trials, 1841 \nMurray, bishop; David\'s, St., 1800 \nMurray, James, earl of, Scotland, \n\n1567 ; assassinations \nMurray, John ; lighthouse \nMurray, sir Geo. ; Peel adm., 1S34 \nMurray, sir James ; Tarragona, 1813 \nMurray, Dr. J. H. ; dictionaries. \nMurrell, capt. ; wrecks, 1889 \nMusa; Spain, 712 \nMusreus, fl. 1413 B.C. \nMusgrave, abp.; Hereford, 1837 \nMusgrave, sir Richard ; duel, 1802 ; \xe2\x80\x94 \nsir A., Jamaica, 1876 ; Queensland, \n1883 \nMushat, Mr. ; steel, 1800 \nMuswell Hill, burglary ; trials, 1889 \nMuybridge, E. J. ; photography, \n\n1881 ; zoopraxiscope \nMyall, rhubarb \n\nMyddelton, sir Hugh, is65?-i63i; \nNew River \n\n\n\nMylne,R.; architeet,i734-i8n; Black- \nfriars \nMyron, sculptor, fl. 480 B.C. \nMytton, general; Wales, 1645 \n\n\n\nN. \n\n\n\nNabis; Sparta, 206 b.c. \n\nNabonasser, fl. 747 b. c. ; astronomy \n\nNachimoff, admiral ; Sinope, 1853 \n\nNadar; balloon, 1863 \n\nNadir Shah ; Persia, 1732 ; Delhi, \nAfghanistan, Cabul \n\nNagel, H., trials, 1872 \n\nNahum prophesies about 713 B.C. \n\nNana Sahib ; Cawnpore, India, 1857 \n\nNansen, Dr. ; Greenland \n\nNapier of Merchiston ; logarithms ; \nNapier\'s bones, 1614 \n\nNapier, admiral sir C. ; Portugal, \nSidon, cape St. Vincent, Baltic, \n1854 \n\nNapier, gen. sir C. ; Meeanee, 1843 \n\nNapier, lord ; China ; Edinburgh ; \nUnited States, 1856 \n\nNapier, Mr. ; coin, 1844 \n\nNapier, sir R., aft. lord (of Magdala), \n1810-90; Abyssinia, 1867 ; Arogee, \nMagdala, Gibraltar, 1876 \n\nNapoleon, Jerome, 1784- 1860 ; son, \n1822-91, France, 1861-76 ; Bonaparte \n\nNapoleon I., 1 769-1 821, France, abat- \ntoirs, Bonaparte, confederation, \nlegion of honour, models, notables, \nCairo, Egypt, Elba, Fontainebleau, \nMalta, Mamelukes, St. Helena, \nSimplon, vaccination ; his battles : \nAcre, Areola, Asperne, Auerstadt, \nAusterlitz, Bautzen, Borodino, \nCastiglione, Charleroi, Dresden, \nEekmiihl, Essling, Eylau, Fried- \nland, Hanau, Italy, Jena, La \nRothiere, Leipsic, Ligny, Lodi, \nLutzen, Marengo, Montereau, \nNational guard, Pultusk, St. \nDizier, Simplon, Tilsit, Troyes, \nVienna, Waterloo, Wurtzburg \n\nNapoleon II. , king of Rome ; France, \np. 380 \n\nNapoleon III., 1808-73: France, \n(sovereigns) ; Boulogne, Strasbnrg, \nCherbourg, Italy, Magenta, Sol- \nferino, Sedan, wills, assassinations \n\nNapoleon, imperial prince, 1856-79 ; \nBonaparte ; France, 1873-6, Saar- \nbrtick \n\nNares, capt., deep sea, 1872 ; north- \nwest passage, 1874-8 ; soundings \n\nNarses ; East, empire, 552 ; Goths, \nItaly, Rome \n\nNarvaez, gen. Ramon, 1800-1S68 ; \nSpain, 1846 \n\nNash, Beau, 1674-1761 ; Bath, cere- \nmonies \n\nNash, Mr. ; theatres, parks, 1818 \n\nNash., Jos., architect, 1812-78 \n\nNasmyth, J. ; steam-hammer, 1838 ; \nmoon \n\nNasmyth, lieut. ; Silistria, 1854 \n\nNasr-ed-Din ; Persia, 1848-73 \n\nNaville, M. Egypt, expl. fund \n\nNearchus ; sugar, 325 B.C. \n\nNeave and others, trials, 1875 \n\nNebuchadnezzar; Jews, 605 B.C., \nTyre, Babylon \n\nNecho ; Egypt, 634 b.c. \n\nNeil, col. ; India, 1857 ; Allahabad, \nBenares \n\nNeild ; legacy to the queen, 1852 \n\nNeilson, J., 1792-1865; blowing- \nmachine, 1828 \n\nNeison, Edm. ; moon, 1876 \n\nNelson, Horatio, admiral lord, 175S- \n1805 ; Nelson \n\nNero ; Rome, emperor, 54 \n\nNessekode, comte de, Russian states- \nman, 1 780-1 862 \n\n4 c \n\n\n\n1122 \n\nNettlefold, Mr. ; trials, 1892 \nNewall, B. S. ; electric telegraph, \n\n1840 \nNewcastle, marquis of; Marston- \n\nmoor, 1644 \nNewcastle, duke of: Pelham adm , \n1749 ; Newcastle adm., 1754 ; Aber- \ndeen adm., 1852 \nNewcomb, prof. S. ; photo-tacho- \nmeter \nNewcomen, T., steam, 1712 \nNewenham, W. B. ; trials, 1844 \nNewington, H. (Flora Davey), trials, \n\n1871 \nNewman, cardinal John Henry, \n1801-90; trials, 1852; Tractarians \nNewport, sir John ; exchequer, 1834 \nNewsham, B. ; Preston, 1883 \nNewton, sir C. T., mausoleum \nNewton, sir Isaac, 1642-1727 ; air, \nbinomial, coin, diamond, astro- \nnomy, royal society, hydrostatics, \ngravitation, mechanics \nNey, marshal, 1769-1815 ; Dennewitz, \n\nFrance, Quatre-Bras, Ulm, Ney \nNeyle, archbp. ; York, 1632 \nNez Perces, Indians \nNiccoli, Nicholas ; libraries, 1436^ \nNicephori, emperors ; east, empire, \n\n802-963 \nNicephorus ; comets \nNicholas I., Bussia, 1825-55 \nNicholas V. ; popes, 1447-55 ; St. \n\nPeter\'s, Borne \nNicholas, grand duke, Busso-Turkish \n\nwar II., 1877 \nNicholls, comm. navy, 1884 \nNichols, col. ; New York, 1664 \nNichols, H., Manchester, 1875 \nNicholson ; trials, 1813 \nNiebuhr, B. H. ; hist., 1776-1831 \nNiepce ; photography, 1814, veloci- \npedes, 1818 \nNiger, P. ; Borne, emp. ; killed, \n\n127 \nNightingale, F., 6. 1820 ; Scutari, \n\nNightingale \nNikita, Montenegro, i860 \nNillson, Mr. , prehistoric archeology \nNinus ; Assyria, 2059 B.C. \nNisbet, sir John ; advocates, 1685 \nNixon, Alf. ; velocipede, 1882 \nNoad, H. M. ; electricity, 1855 \nNoah, 2347 B.C. ; ark, Armenia \nNoailles, marshal ; Dettingen, 1743 \nNobel, Alf. ; nitro-glycerine, 1864, \ndynamite, 1868; blasting gelatine \nNobel, L. & B. ; petroleum, 1875 \nNobert, F. A. ; ruling machine \nNobiling, Dr. ; Germany, 1878 \nNoble, Matt., sculptor, 1820-76 \nNordenskibld, professor, north-east, \n\n&c, 1872-3 \nNorfolk, duke of; administrations, \n1540 ; people ; catholic union, \n1871 \nNorman, sir H. ; Jamaica, 1883 \nNorman, sir J. ; mayor, 1453 \nNorman, Bobert ; magnet, 1576 \nNorman, justice, murdered, India, \n\n1871 \nNormanby and Buckingham, duke \n\nof; Godolphin adm., 1702 \nNormanby, marquis of, b. 15 May, \n1797 ; (J.28 July, 1863 ; Ireland (lord- \nlieut.), 1835 ; Queensland, 1871 ; N. \nZealand, 1874-8 ; Victoria, 1879 \nNormandy, Dr.; filterers, water \nNorth, bishop ; Winchester, 1781 \nNorth, lord ; North adm., 1770 \nNorth, sir F. ; king\'s counsel, 1663 \nNorth, miss M. ; Kew, 1882 \nNorthampton, Henry, earl of; ad- \nministrations, 1609 \nNorthbrook, Id., India, 1872; earl of, \n\nadmiralty, 1880, 1885 \nNorthcotc, sir Stafford, 1818-87 : \nDerby adm., ig66 ; Disraeli adm., \n\n\n\nINDEX. \n\n1868, 1874 ; parliament, 1881 ; Suez, \n1883 ; earl of Iddesleigh, Salisbury \nadm. 1885, 1886 \n\nNorthcott and others, trials, 1876 \n\nNorthinore, gas \n\nNorthumberland, Algernon, duke of ; \nDerby administration, 1852 ; \xe2\x80\x94 \nAlgernon George, Disraeli adminis- \ntration, 1878 ; Boyal Institution \n\nNorthumberland, Dudley, duke of; \nadministrations, 1551 \n\nNorthumberland, Hugh, duke of; \nIreland (lord-lieut.), 1763 \n\nNorthumberland, earl of; coaches, \nMan \n\nNorton, sir Fletcher ; att.-gen., 1763 \n\nNorton, Jeffrey de ; recorder, 1298 \n\nNorton v. lord Melbourne ; trials, 1836 \n\nNostradamus ; almanacs, 1566 \n\nNott, gen. ; Ghiznee, 1842 \n\nNottingham, earl of; administra- \ntions, 1684 \n\nNovaliches, marquis de, Spain, 1868, \nAlcolea, 1868 \n\nNubar Pacha, Cairo, Egypt, 1876-9 \n\nNuma Pompilius ; Borne, kings, 715 \nB.C. ; calendar \n\nNumitor, Alba, 795 B.C. \n\nNunez, A. ; Paraguay, 1535 \n\n\n\nO. \n\n\n\nOakley, sir Charles ; Madras, 1792 \n\nOakley, B. B., trials, 1876 \n\nOates, T. ; Oates\' plot, 1678 \n\nObadiah prophesies about 587 B.C. \n\nObeid-ullah, Kurdistan \n\nO\'Brien, king; Limerick, 1200 \n\nO\'Brien, W. ; Ireland, 1886 et seq. ; \ntrials, 1889 \n\nO\'Brien, W. S. ; Ireland, 1846, 1848 \n\nO\'Brien, giants, 1785 \n\nO\'Connell, Mr. Daniel, 1775-1847 ; \nduels, 1815 ; agitators, emancipa- \ntion, repeal, trials (1831, 1844), \nIreland ; Dublin, 1883 \n\nO\'Connell, Mr. Morgan ; duels, 1835 \n\nO\'Connor, Arthur; press, riots, \ntrials, 1798 \n\nO\'Connor, Fergus, d. 1855 ; chartists \n\nO\'Connor, Boger; trials, 1817 \n\nOchus ; Persia, 359 B.C. \n\nOctavius; Borne, 37 B.C. \n\nOdin; Sweden, 70B.C. \n\nOdo, earl of Kent ; treasurer \n\nOdo, abp. ; Canterbury, 941-58 \n\nOdoacer ; Italy, 476, Heruli \n\nO\'Donnell, marshal Leopold, 1808-67 ; \nSpain 1841 \n\nO\'Donnell, Mr. ; parliament, 1882 \n\nO\'Donnell v. Walter ; Parnellites, \n1888 \n\nCEdipus ; Bosotia, 1266 B.C. \n\nGmotrus ; Arcadia, Greece, 1710 B.C. \n\nOersted, H. C, 1777-1851 ; elec- \ntricity, 1819 \n\nOfenheim (financier), Austria, 1875 \n\nOgle, George ; duel, 1802 \n\nOglethorpe, gen. ; Georgia, 1732 \n\nO\'Grady, Mr. ; duels, 1803 \n\nOgyges ; deluge, 1764 B.C. \n\nO\'Hagan, lord chancellor (Ireland) \n1868 ; Boman catholics ; d. 1883 \n\nO\'Halloran, Dr. ; trials, 1818 \n\nO\'Keefe ; trials, 1825 \n\nO\'Keeffe v. Cullen, trials, 1873 \n\nO\'Kelly, Mr. ; parliament, 1883 \n\nOken, German union, 1822 \n\nOkubo, Japan, 1878 \n\nOlbers, M. ; planet, 1802 \n\nOldcastle, sir J. , burnt, 1418 ; Lollards \n\nO\'Leary, pedestrianism, 1877 \n\nOliphant, sir Win. , advocate \n\nOlivarez governs Spain, 1621-43 \n\nOliver ; trials, 1858, 1869 \n\nOllendorff, H. G. (linguist); 1803-6 5 \n\n\n\nOllivant, bp. ; Llandaff, 1849 \nOllivier, E. ; France, 1870 \nO\'Loghlen, sir M. ; Boman catholics, \n\n1836 \nOlozaga, Spain, 1871 \nO\'Mahony, Fenians, 1877 \nOmar, caliph, 634 : Alexandria, Ali \nOmar Pacha ; Citate, Montenegro, \nOltenitza, Ingour, Busso-Turkish \nwar, 1855 \nOmmaney, capt. ; Franklin, 1850 \nO\'Moore, Bory ; Carlow, 1577 \nO\'Neil, rebellion ; massacre, Black- \nwater, 1598 \nO\'Neil, Miss (lady Becher), appears \n\nat Covent Garden, 1814 ; d. 1872 \nOnslow, G. and Whalley, G. H. ; trials \n\n1872 \nOnslow, sir B. ; Halifax adm., 1714 \nOpie, John; painter, 1761-1807 \nOppian, poet,/?. 171 \nOrange, William, prince of; Holland, \nMaestri cht, revolution, 1572 ; Eng- \nland, 1689 ; assassinations \nOrange, prince of; Quatre Bras, 1815 \nOrbelliana ; Circassia, 1857 \nOrd, sir H. St. G., West Australia, \n\n1877 \nOrellana; Amazonia, 1540 \nOrestes ; Mycenae, Sparta, n 75 B.C. \nOrfila, M. J. ; physician, 1787-1853 \nOrford, earl of; admiralty, 1709 \nOrloff, count; diamonds, 1772 \nOrmerod, Miss, entomology \nOrmond, James, duke of; Ireland, \n\nlord-lieuts. , 1643 et seq. \nOrmond, earl of; combat, 1446 \nOrmond, marquis of ; Bathmines, \n\n164Q \nOrr, Win. ; trials, 1797 \nOrrery, earl of ; orrery \nOrrock ; trial, 1884 \nOrsini, Felix, 1819-58 ; France, 1858 \nOrtega, gen. ; Spain, i860 \nOsborn, Sherard ; Franklin, 1854 \nOsborne, Mrs. (Miss E. F. Elliot), \n\ntrials, 1891 \nOsborne, sir Thomas ; administra- \ntions, 1672 \nOsborne, T., Ireland, young \nOscar ; Sweden, 1844 \nOsgodeby, Adam de ; master of the \n\nrolls, 1295 \nOsman Digna ; Soudan \nOsman Pacha, Plevna, Busso-Turkish \n\nwar II., 1877 \nOspina ; New Grenada, 1857 \nOssory, lord ; tea, 1666 \nOsymandyas ; Egypt, 2100 B.C. ; ob- \nservatories, painting \nOthman ; Turkey, 1298 \nOtho; Bome, emp., 69; Germany, \n\n936 ; Greece, 1832-62 \nOtto, gas (engine) \nOtto, M. ; Amiens, 1802 \nOttocar ; Bohemia, 1197 \nOudinot, marshal ; Bome, 1849 \nOudry, cafeine \nOutram, sir James; 1803-63; Mo- \n\nhammerah, India, 1857 \nOuvry, F. ; antiquaries, 1876 \nOverbury, sir T., poisoned, 1613 \nOverdank ; assassin., Austria, 1881 \nOverend, Gurney, & Co. ; trials, 1867 \nOverstone, S., Jones Loyd, lord, \nfinancier, 1796-1883 ; metric sys- \ntem, 1855 \nOvid ; poet, d. 18 \nOwden, J. S., mayor, 1877-8 \nOwen, W. D. ; trials, 1858 \nOwen, Bobert ; socialists, 1834 \nOwen, Bichard, 6. 1804 ; odonto- \nlogy, palseontology, zoology \nOwen, sir P. C. ; colonial exhibition \n\n1886 \nOwens, J., Owens college \nOxenden, sir George ; Surat, 1664 \nOxford, Edward ; trials, 1840 \n\n\n\nOxford, earl of; Godolphin adm., \n\n1702 ; Oxford adm. \nOxford, John, earl of; yeomen, \n\ni486 \nOxley ; Brisbane, Queensland, 1823 \n\n\n\nPaciolo ; algebra, 1494 \n\nPaddon, lieut., takes Cerbere, 1800 \n\nPaderborn, bp. of ; Prussia, 1874 \n\nPage, Flood, crystal palace, 1874 \n\nPage, telephone, 1837 \n\nPaget, lord ; duels, trials, 1809 \n\nPaget, lord Win, v. Cardigan ; trials, \n\n1844 \nPaget, sir A. ; trials, 1808 \nPaget, J. ; paradoxes \nPaget, sir William; administns., \n\nJ S47 \nPain, O. ; Soudan, 1885. \nPaine, Thomas ; trials, 1792 \nPakington, sir John, b. 1799; Derby \n\nand Disraeli adm. \nPalafox, gen. ; Saragossa, 1809 \nPalamedes ; alphabet, backgammon, \n\nbattle, dice, chess, 680 b.c. \nPalestrina, 1529-94 ; music ; recpiiem \nPalisa, J. ; planets \nPalladio, A. ; architect, 1518-80 \nPallavicino, G., Italy, 1878 \nPalles, Christ. ; exchequer (Ireland), \n\n1874 \nPalliser, eapt., cannon, 1866 \nPalliser, sir Hugh ; Ushant, 1778 \nPalm, the bookseller ; trials, 1806 \nPalm, cardinal, shot ; Rome, 1848 \nPalmer, Edwin ; Egypt, 1889 \nPalmer, J. ; mail coaches, 1784 \nPalmer ; duels, 1815 ; trials, 1856 \nPalmer, prof., and others murdered \n\nEgypt, 1882 ; Paul\'s, St. \nPalmer, Roundell ; see Selbome \nPalmer, S., Times (index) \nPalmerston, Henry, vise. ; 1784-1865 ; \n\nPalmerston, lady, d. 1869 \nPanckoucke, C. J. ; Moniteur, 1789 \nPanitza, major ; Bulgaria, 1890 \nPanizzi, sir Antonio ; British Mu- \nseum, 1859 \nPanmure, lord ; Russell adm., 1851 \nPaoli, Pascal; Corsica, 1753 \nPapachin, adm. ; flag, 168S \nPapin ; steam-engine, 1681 \nPapineau ; Canada, 1837 \nPapirius Cursor ; sun-dial, 293 b.c. \nPappa, D. ; trials, 1870 \nParacelsus, 1493-1541 ; alchemy, phy- \nsic, theosophists \nPardo, president, Peru, 1879 \nPareja, adm. ; Chili, 1865 \nParini, Guis., Ital. poet, 1729-99 \nParis, count of, b. 1838 ; Orleans \nParke, Mungo, d. 1805 ; Africa \nParke v. Lewis and others ; trials, \n\n1873 \nParker, Emily ; swimming, 1875 \nParker, adm. ; Copenhagen, 1801 \nParker, Dr. ; temple \nParker, abp. Matthew ; Canterbury, \n\n1558 ; liturgy, Nag\'s Head \nParker (mutineer) ; trials, 1797 \nParker, capt. ; Boulogne \nParker, J. H, Rome \nParker, sir Peter ; Bellair, 1814 \nParker, Thomas, lord; chancellor, \n\nlord, 1 718 \nParkes, sir Henry ; New South \n\nWales, Australasia \nParkes, sir H., 1828-85; consul; \n\nChina, 1860-1883 \nParma, duke of ; Parma \nParma, prince of; Antwerp, 1585 \nParmenio ; Macedonia, 329 B.C. \nParnell, sir Henry ; Melbourne adm. \n\nX835 \n\n\n\nINDEX. \n\nParnell, C. S., 1846-91; Biggar, and \nothers ; parliament (obstructives), \n1877-81 ; home rule, 1880 ; trials, \n1880-1 ; Ireland, 1883, et seq. ; Kil- \nmainham ; Home Rule ; Parnellites \nParr, Thomas; 1483-1635? longevity \nParrhasius; painting :jL 397 B.C. \nParrot, Dr., Ararat \nParry, bp. , church of England \nParry, E. ; north- west passage, 1818 \nParsons, bp. ; Peterborough, 1813 \nParsons, P.M., brass, manganese, \n\nbronze \nParsons family ; cock-lane ghost, im- \npostors, 1762 \nPascal, B. ; 1623-62 ; air, calculating \nmachine, barometers, probability, \nhydrostatics \nPassaglia, father, 1814-87 ; Italy, \n\n1862. \nPassanante, G., Italy, 1878 \nPaskiewitch ; Silistria, 1854 \nPasta, mad., vocalist, 1798-1865 \nPasteur, Dr. L. ; fermentation, 1861 ; \ngerm theory ; hydrophobia ; vacci- \nnation \nPatch, Mr. ; trials, 1806 \nPate, lieut. ; trials, 1850 \nPaterculus, Rom. hist., d. 31 \nPaterson, W. ; bank, 1694 ; Darien \nPaton, Miss, at Haymarket, 1822 \nPaton, Dr. ; pyroleter \nPatrick, St. , 373-433 ? ; Ardagh, \n\nArmagh, Dublin, isles, shamrock \nPatrocinio, nun ; Spain, 1861, 1866, \n\n1891 \nPatten, col. John W., 6. 1802; Dis- \nraeli adm. \nPatteson, J. C, Melanesia, murdered, \n\n1871 \nPaul, St., martyred, 65 \nPaul, see Sarpi \nPaul I. ; Russia, 1796 \nPaul II. ; popes, 1464 ; purple \nPaul, sir J., <fcc. ; trials, 1855 ; \n\nfraudulent trustees \nPaulinus ; bells, 400 \nPaull, Mr. ; duels, 1807 \nPaululio, Anafesto ; doge, 697 \nPaulus jEmilius ; Canna;, 216 B.C. \nPaulus, Marcus ; compass, 1260 \nPaulus ; Abrahamites \nPauncefote ; United States, 1889 \nPausanias ; Sparta, 480 B.C. ; Plateea, \n\nMacedon, 336 B.C. \nPausias of Sicyon, 360-330 b.c. ; \n\npainting \nPavey, G., trials, 1880 \nPavia, gen. ; Spain, 1873-4 \nPaxton, sir Joseph, 1803-65 ; exhibi- \ntion of 1851 ; crystal palace \nPayne, L., trials, 1879 \nPayne, Mr. G. ; duels, 1810 \nPayne, J. H. ; home ! \nPeabody, G., 1795-1869; Peabody \nPeace, C., trials, 1878 \nPeace, the prince of the ; Spain, 1806 \nPearce, &c. ; gold robbery, 1857 \nPearson, col., Zululand, 1879 \nPease, W., Ben well \nPeaucillier ; motion \nPeckham, abp. ; Canterbury, 1279 \nPedro ; Portugal, Brazil, 1822 \nPeek v. Gurney ; trials, 1871 \nPee), A. W. ; speakerH. O, 1884 \nPeel, capt. sir P. ; India, 1858 \nPeel, col. ; West Australia, 1828 \nPeel, sir Robert ; cotton manuf. , \n1750-1830; \xe2\x80\x94 (son) statesman, 1788- \n1850 ; Peel adm. (see note), 1834- \n1841 ; acts of parliament, conserva- \ntive, com bill, duels, 1815 ; in- \ncome-tax, tariff; \xe2\x80\x94 (grandson), b. \n1822 \nPeele, James ; book-keeping, 1509 \nPeixoto, Floriano ; Brazil, 1891 \nPelegrini, Dr. ; Argentine republic, \n\n\n\n1123 \n\nPelham, H. ; Wilmington adm., 1742 ; \n\nPelham adm. , 1744 \nPelham, bp. ; Bristol, 1807; Norwich, \n\n1857 \nPelham, sir W. ; engineers, 1622 \nPelissier, due de Malakhoff; 1794- \n\n1864 ; Algiers, Dahra \nPell, Mr. ; education, 1876 \nPelletier ; quinine, 1820 \nPellew, sir Ed. ; naval battles, 1795 \nPelouze, P. J., 1807-1S67 ; formic acid \nPeltier, M. ; libel, trials, 1803 \nPeltzen, A. & L., murderers ; Bel- \ngium, 1882 \nPemberton, sir Francis ; king\'s bench, \n\n1681 \nPembroke, earl of; Godolphin adm. \n1702 ; lord - lieutenant, Lincoln, \nprotectorates, Salisbury, admir- \nalty \nPengelly, AV. ; man ; Torquay \nPenn, admiral ; Jamaica, 1655 \nPenn, Wm., 1644-1718 ; Pennsylva- \nnia, Quaker \nPenny, captain ; Franklin, 1850 \nPenzance, lord (Wilde); arches, 1876 ; \n\npublic worship \nPepe, gen. F. ; Naples, 1820 \nPepin ; France, 752 ; Ferara \nPepper, prof., Polytechnic, telephone \nPepys, bp. ; Worcester, 1841 ; Pepys \nPerceval, Spencer; Perceval \nPercy (Hotspur) ; Otterburn, 1388 \nPercy, lord; Durham, 1346; Homildon \nPercy, John; metallurgist, 1817-89 \nPerdiccas ; Macedon, 454 b.c. \nPerdita, Mrs. Robinson ; theatres, \n\nlast app. , 1779 \nPereire, M. ; credit mobilier \nPereyra ; Uruguay, 1856 \nPericles ; Athens, 469 b.c. \nPerier, C. ; France, 1874-6 \nPerillus ; brazen bull, 570 B.C. \nPerkin Warbeck ; Warbeck, 1492 \nPerkin, W. H. ; aniline, 1857 \nPerkins ; engraving, copper-plate \n\nprinting, 18 19 \nPerreaus ; forgery, trials, 1776 \nPerring, John ; mayor, 1803 \nPerrotin ; planets \nPerry, Mr. ; trials, 1810 \nPerry, lieut. ; trials, 1854 \nPersano, adm. ; Lissa, Italy, 1S66-7 \nPerseus: Pydna, 168 b.c \nPersigny, J. G., 1808-72; France, \n\ni860 \nPersius, 34-62 ; satires \nPerugino, Paolo, 1446-1524 \nPeter the Cruel ; Montiel, 1369 \nPeter the Great ; 1672-1725 ; Russia, \nDeptford, Petersburg, Narva, Pul- \ntowa, wills \nPeter the Hermit ; crusades, 1094 \nPeters, C. H. F., 1813-90; planets, \n\n1862 et seq. ; astronomy \nPeters, Dr. C. ; Zanzibar, 1889 ; \n\nAfrica (German E.), 1884 \nPetion ; Port-au-Prince, 1806 \nPeto, sirS. M., 1809-89; diorama, 1855 \nPetrarch, 1304-74 ; Petrarch, sonnets, \n\nhumanism \nPetre, sir Wm. ; administrations, 1547 \nPetronius ; Ethiopia, 22 B.C. \nPetronius Arbiter, Lat. satirist, d. 66 \nPettigrew, T. ; epitaphs, 1857 \nPetty, lord H. ; Grenville adm., 1807 \nPetty, Wm. ; Royal Society, 1660 \nPezet, J. A. ; Peru, 1863-5 \nPluudrus writes fables, 8 \nPhalaris, brazen bull, 599 B.C. \nPharamond ; France, 418? \nPharaohs ; Egypt, 1899 B.C. \nPharnacus ; Pontus, Cappadocia, 744 \n\nB.C. \n\nPhayre, col. ; India, 1874 \nPliayre, sir A. P. ; Mauritius, 1874 \nPheidon,^. 869 b.c. ; coinage, silver, \nscales, weights \n\n4 c 2 \n\n\n\n1124 \n\nPhelps, Mr. S., 1S04-78 ; theatres \n\n(Sadler\'sWells), 1844, 1878 \nPhepoe, Mrs. ; trials, 1797 \nPhidias, fl. 43 B.C. ; statues \nPhilidor, concerts, chess \nPhilip ; France, Macedon, Spain, \n\nHesse, Orleans, 1640 \nPhilip Neri, St. ; oratorios, 1550 \nPhilip the Good; Burgundy, Hol- \nland, 1419-67 \nPhilip the Great, killed 336 B.C. ; \nMacedon, JEtolia, Chseronfea, Lo- \ncri, Thessaly \nPhilip II. ; Spain, 1556 \nPhilippa, England, queen (Ed- \nward III.); Durham, 1346 \nPhilipps, T. ; Newport, 1839 \nPhillimore, sir R. J., 1810-85 ; admi- \nralty \nPhillip, gov. ; Australia, 1788 \nPhillips, J. ; Brit. Assoc, 1831 ;\xe2\x80\x94 \n\nfire-annihilator, 1849 \nPhillips, John, geologist ; Vesuvius, \n\n1869 \nPhillips v. Eyre ; trials, 1869-70 \nPhillips, Wendell ; United States, \n\n1884 \nPhilopcemen ; Achaia, 194 B.C. \nPhilpott ; bp. ; Worcester, 1861 \nPhilpotts, H., bp. ; Exeter, 1830 \nPhilpotts v. Boyd ; reredos, 1875 \nPhipps, capt. ; north-west passage, \n\n1773 \nPhocas ; east. emp. , 602 \nPhocion, killed 317 B.C. \nPhoroneus ; Argos (1807 B.C.), sacri- \nfice, laws \nPhotiades, C. J. ; Samos \nPhotius, Gallus ; rhetoric, 87 B.C. \nPiastus ; Poland, 842 \nPiazzi, M. ; planet, 1801 \nPicard, sir H. ; lord mayor, 1357 \nPichegru; Manheim ; suicide, 1804 \nPictet, B., air, gases, 1877, oxygen, \nhydrogen, distillation ; nav. archi- \ntecture \nPicton, gen. ; trials, 1806 ; Quatre- \n\nBras, Waterloo, 1815 \nPierce ; United States, president, \n\n1853 \nPierola, N. de, Peru, 1876-82 \nPierre, adm. ; Madagascar, 1883 \nPierrepoint, Mr. ; United States, 1876 \nPiers, abp. ; York, 1589 \nPigot, David Richard; exchequer, \n\n1846 \nPigot, Id. ; India, Pigot diamond, \n\n1802 \nPigot, major-gen. ; Malta, 1800 \nPigott, Mr. ; trials, 1871 \nPigott, R. ; Parnellites, 1889 \nPike, Miss ; Cork, trials, 1800 \nPilkington, bishop ; liturgy \nPilpay ; Anvar, fables \nPinchbeck, C. ; pinchbeck \nPindar, abt., 522-439 B.C., Odes \xe2\x80\x94 \nPeter(Dr.Wolcot),i738-i8i9; trials, \n1807 \nPine, sir B. C. ; Natal, 1873 \nPinel, M. ; lunatics, 1792 \nPinto, Serpa; Zambesi, 1889 \nPinzon; America, S., 1500; Peru, \n\n1863 \nPisander naval battles, 394 b.c. \nPisistrat Athens, 527 b.c \nPitman, I. ; phonography, 1837 ; ste- \nnography \nPitt ; diamond, 1720 \nPitt, Wm. ; see Chatham, earl of \nPitt, Wm., 1759-1806; Pitt adm., \n1783; India company, E., reform, \nduels, 1798; income-tax \nPius ; popes, 142 et seq. \nPius IV. ; confession, 1504 \nPius VII. ; concordat, 1801 \nPius IX. 1792-1878 ; popes ; 1846-78 ; \n\npapal aggression, conception \nPizarro; America, 1524 \n\n\n\nINDEX. \n\nBlanche, J. R., 1796-1880; dress \nPlato, Gr. phil., 429-347 b.c ; acade- \nmics, anatomy, antipodes, names, \nSicily \nPlatts, John ; executions, 1847 \nPlante, G., electric battery, i860 \nPlautus, Lat., h. 184 b.c ; drama \nPlayfair, Lyon ; Gladstone adm., \n\n1880 (baron, 1892) \nPlimpton ; rink, 1875 \nPlimsoll, S.; parliament, seamen, \n\n1873 \nPliny the elder, 23-79 > pearls, Vesu- \nvius ; \xe2\x80\x94the younger, d. 100 \nPlowden, Mr. ; Abyssinia, 1849 \nPlumer, sir Th. ; att.-gen., 1812 \nPlummer, Eugenia ; trials, i860 \nPlunket, lord ; chancellor, lord (Ire- \nland), 1830 \nPlunket, D. R. ; Salisbury adm., \n\n1886 \nPlutarch, fl. 80 ; biography \nPocock, admiral ; Cuba, 1762 \nPoerio, C. ; Naples, 1850-59-60 \nPogson, N. ; planets, 1856 \nPoitevin, M. ; balloons, 1852-58 \nPoitiers, Roger de ; Liverpool, 1089 \nPole, Wellesley; mint, trials, 1825 \nPole, abxx ; Canterbury, 1556 \nPolignac, prince de ; France, 1830 \nPolk, Jas. ; United States, president, \n\n1845 \nPollen, J. G. ; furniture, 1874 \nPollio, C. ; slavery, 42 b.c. \nPollock, gen. G. ; Afghanistan, India, \n\n1842 ; tower \nPollock, sir Frederick, 1783-1863 ; at- \ntorney-general, exchequer, 1834- \n\n1844 \nPolo, Marco, writes about 1298 \nPolybius, 207-122 (?) b.c ; signals, \n\ntelegraphs, Achaia, physic \nPolycarp martyred, 166 \nPolydorus ; Laocoon \nPomare ; Otaheite, 1799 \nPompey, killed 48 b.c; Rome, Spain, \n\nPharsalia \nPond, J. ; Greenwich, 1811 \nPonti, G. ; academies \nPontius, C. ; Caudine forks, 321 B.C. \nPook, E. ; trials, 1871 \nPoole, bp. ; Japan, 1883 \nPoole, A. ; auricular confession, 1858 \nPoole, R. S. ; Egypt, expl. fund \nPope, Alex., 1688-1744; Alexandrine \n\nverse, satire ; Homer, 1714 \nPope, gen. J. ; Manassas, United \n\nStates, 1862 \nPopham, sir Home ; Buenos Ayres, \n\nCape, trials, 1807 \nPopoff, adm. ; circular ironclads, 1875 \nPopp, V., clocks, 1881 \nPoppasa (wife of Nero) ; masks \nPorsenna ; labyrinth, 520 B.c \nPorson, prof, 1759-1808 ; writing \nPortal, Gerald ; Zanzibar \nPorter, sir Charles ; Limerick \nPorteus, bp. ; London, 1787 \nPortland, duke of, Portland adm., \n\n1783 ; Ireland (lord - lieutenant), \n\nJunius \nPortman, sir Wm. ; king\'s bench, \n\n1554 \nPortsmouth, earl of ; trials, 1823 \nPorus, Hydaspes, 327 b.c. \nPosidonius, fl. 86 b.c ; atmosphere, \n\nmoon, tides, air \nPotamon ; eclectics, about 1 \nPotter, abp. ; Canterbury, 1737 \nPotter, Edm. ; Manchester, 1883 \nPottinger, sir H. ; China, 1841 \nPouchet, M. ; spout, generation, 1859 \nPouillet, C. S. M., Fr. nat. phil., \n\n1791-1868 \nPoussin, N. ; painters, 1594-1665 \nPouyer-Quertier ; France, 1871 \nPowell, Langharne, and Poyer, colo- \nnels ; Wales, 1647 \n\n\n\nPowell ; balloons, 1881-3 \nPower, Mr. ; wrecks, 1841 \nPower, Frank ; Soudan, 1884 \nPowys, bishop ; Man, 1854 \nPoyer, colonel ; Wales, 1647 \nPoynter, E. J., R.A., b. 1836 \nPrado, M. ; Peru, 1824-67 \nPrado, murderer ; France, 1888 \nPraslin murder, 1847 \nPraxiteles, fl. 363 b.c ; mirrors \nPremislaus ; Poland, 1295 \nPrendergast, gen. H. N. ; Burmah, \n\n1885 \nPrescott, Wm., 1796-1859 \nPreston, lord ; conspiracy, 1691 \nPretender, old, 1688-1765 ; young, \n1720-88 ; Pretender, Falkirk, Pres- \ntonpans, Culloden \nPreforms, Natal, 1838 ; Transvaal, \n\n1880 \nPretsch, P. ; photo-galvanography, \n\n\'1854 \nPrevost, sir George; Plattsburg, 1814 \nPriam; Ilium, Troy, 1224 B.C. \nPrice, Mr. ; duels, 1816 ; alchemy ; \n\nannuities \nPrice, bp. ; B. Free church \nPrice, adm. ; Petropaulovski, 1854 \nPrichard, Dr., 1785-1848 ; ethnology \nPride, col. ; Pride\'s purge, 1648 \nPriessnitz, V. ; hydropathy, 1828 \nPriestley, Joseph, 1733-1804 ; earth- \nquakes, eudiometer, lunar society, \nnitrous gas, oxygen, fluorine, colour \nblindness \nPrim, gen. Juan, 1814-70 ; Castel- \nle.ios, Guad-el-ras, i860 ; Spain, \n1S66-70 ; assassinations, 1870 \nPrince, H. J. ; agapemone, 1845 \nPrior, M., poet, 1 664-1 721 \nPriscillian ; gnostics, 384 \nPritchard, Dr. E. W. ; trials, exe- \ncution, 1865 \nProbert ; trials, 1824 \nPro bus ; Rome, emp. 276 ; massacre \nProcles ; biarch, 1102 B.C. \nProcopius ; Nacolea, 366 \nProcopius, Lat. hist. 500-565 ; Hus- \nsites, 1431 \nProcter, poets ; Bryan W. (Barry \nCornwall), 1790-1874; Adelaide, \ndaughter, 1835-64 \nPropertius, Lat. poet, 26 b.c \nProudhon, P., socialist, 1809-65 ; \n\nanarchy \nPrynne, W., legal antiquary, 1600-69 \nPsalmanazar, G. ; Formosa, 1704 \nPsammetichus, 650 B.C. ; Egypt, \n\nlabyrinth, languages, sieges \nPseusennes, 971 b.c ; Egypt \nPsycho ; automaton, 1875 \nPtolemy (astronomer), d. 161 \nPtolemy ; Egypt, Bible, Septuagint, \nIpsus, pharos, arithmetic, acade- \nmies \nPtolemy Epiphanes, 205 b.c; Egypt, \n\nRosetta \nPuckering, sir John ; chancellor, lord \n\nhigh, 1592 \nPugin, A. W., 1811-52, decorat. art; \n\nE. W. ; trials, 1874 \nPullan, R. P., dilettanti, 1861-70; \n\nPriene \nPullen, capt. ; Franklin, 1852 \nPullinger, G. ; banks, joint stock, \n\ni860 \nPulteney, Mr. ; Halifax adm., 1714 \nPulteney, sir James ; Ferrol, 1800 \nPunshon, R. ; gunpowder, 1872 \nPurcell, Henry; music, 1658-95 \nPurehas, Sam. ; 1577-1628 \nPurdon, col. ; Ashantees, 1826 \nPurefoy; duels, 1788; trials, 1794 \nPusey, Dr. E., 1800-82; Puseyism ; \n\nOxford univ. \nPyat, F., France, 1880 \nPye, Henry J. ; poet-laureate, 1790 \nPye, J. ; engraver, d. 1874 \n\n\n\nPym, J. ; politician, d. 1643 \nPyrrho ; sceptics, 334 B.C. \nPyrrhus ; Macedon,~287 B.C. ; Epirus, \n295-272 B.C. ; Tarentum, Asculuni, \n\n2 79 \nPythagoras, fl. 555 b.c. ; acoustics, \nastronomy, Copernicus, Egypt, the \nglobe, harmonic strings, shoes, \nsolar system, spheres \n\n\n\nQuaritck, B. ; books, 1S82 \n\nQueen v. Lords of Treasury; trials, \n\n1872 \n<Juekett, prof. ; histology, 1857 \nQuentin, col. ; duels, 1815 ; trials, \n\n1814 \nQuesnay, 6conomistes- \nQuevedo, Span, writer, 1580-1645 \nQuinet, Edgar, Fr. philos., 1803-75 \nQuintitia; Quintilians \nQuintiu; libertines, 525 \n\xe2\x80\xa2Quinton, J. W. ; Manipur \n<Juintus Pabius, 291 B.C.; painting \nQuiros; New Hebrides, 1606 \n\n\n\nB. \n\nRabelais, F., satirist, 1483-1553 \nBachel, mademoiselle, d. 1858; \xe2\x80\x94 ma- \ndame; enamelling; trials, 1868, 1878 \nRacine; J.; Fr. dramat., 1639-99 \nRadeliffe, Dr. John ; Radclitfe library, \n\n1737 \n\nBadetsky, marshal, 1766-1858; Aus- \ntria, Custozza, Novara, Italy \n\nBadetsky, gen., Busso-Turkish war \nII., 1878 \n\nBadnor, earl of ; administrations, 1684 \n\nBae, Dr. ; Franklin, 1848 \n\nBaffles, sir T. S. ; Java \n\nBaglan, lord; Busso-Turkish war, \n\n1857 \nRagotski ; Transylvania \nRaikes, Mr., 1781; Sunday-schools, \n\neducation, infanticide \nRaikes, H. C. ; Salisbury adm., 1886 \nRaleigh, sir "Walter, 1552-1618; dress, \nPennsylvania, Trinidad, Virginia, \nEngland \nRalston, W. C. ; California, 1875 \nRameses; Egypt, 1618 \nRamirez II.; Seinincas, 938 B.C. \nRamsay, David; combat, 1631 \nRamsay, sir George; duels, 1790 \nRamsden, Jesse, 1735-1800; theodo- \nlite, 1787 \nRanee; trappist, 1662 \nRandolph, T. ; post-office, 1581 \nRandolph, bishop ; Bangor, London, \n\n1809 \nRanger, M. ; cotton (a speculator) ; \n\n1883 \nRankin, J., velocipedes, 1878 \nRansome ; Ransome, filterers, \n\nploughs \nRaphael, 1483-1520; cartoons \nRaphael, Alex.; Roman catholics, 1834 \nRapieff, electric light, 1S78 \nRarey, J. S. ; horse, 1858 \nRassam, H. ; Abyssinia, 1864 ; \n\nNineveh ; Brit. Mus. \nRathbone, Win. ; Liverpool, 1S77 \nRattazzi, U., 1808-73; Italy, 1862 \nRauch, C. ; sculptor, 1777-1857 \nRauscher, card. ; Austria, d. 1875 \nRavaillae kills Henry IV., 1610 \nRawdon, lord; Camden, 1781 \nRawlinson, col. sir H, b. 1810; As- \nsyria, Babylon, Behistiin, 1844 \nRay, John, naturalist, 1628-1705 \nRay, Peter ; volunteers (19th meet- \ning), 1878 \nRayhere; Bartholomew\'s, 1100 \n\n\n\nINDEX. \n\nEayleigh, lords, 1879 \n\nRaymond, lord; attorney - general, \n\n1725; king\'s bench \nBayneckers, L. ; fuel \nReade, Chas. ; Nov. 1814-84 \nReaumur, d. 1757; light, steel \nReay, Miss, killed; trials, 1779 \nReay, lord; combat, 1631 \nReay, lord ; Bombay, 1884 ; London \n\nUniversity \nRebeccaites ; trials, 1843 \nRedanies, D. ; execution, 1857 \nRede, sir E. ; Bede lecture \nBedesdale, lord; att.-gen., 1800; \n\nparliament, 1886 \nBedpath, L. ; trials, 1857 \nBed wood, T. ; analysts, 1874 \nBeece, B. ; bogs, 1849 ! congelation, \n\n1868 \nBeed, Andrew, 1787-1862 ; orphan, \n\nidiots, incurables \nBeed, sir C. ; metropolitan school \n\nboard, 1873-81 \nBeed, sir E. J., navy, 1862-71 ; Chan- \nnel tunnel, 1890 \nBeeves, Mr. John; levellers, 1792 \nBegnier, gen. ; Kalitsch, Maida, \n\nXimera, 181 1 \nRegulus, 250 B.C.; Carthage \nBeich, F. , and Richter, T. ; indium, \n\n1863 \nBeichardt, "Wacht \nBeiehenbach, C, 1788-1869; para- \n\nffine, 1831; odyl \nBeichenstein; tellurium, 1782 \nReichstadt, duke de, 1811-32 , France \n\n(empire) \nReid, gen.; India, 1857 \nReid, R. T. ; vivisection \nReinbauer; trials, 1829 \nReinkens, Old Catholic bishop ; \n\nPrussia, 1873 \nReis, P. ; telephone, 1861 \nRelly, Jas.; universalists, 1760 \nRembrandt, Paul; painter, 1608-69 \nBemigius de Feseamp ; Lincoln, 1086 \nRemington, type-writers \nBemusat, C. de; France, 1871-3 \nRemy, St.; Rheims \nRenard, eapt. ; balloons, 1884 \nRenata, Maria; witchcraft, 1749 \nRenaudot, M. ; newspapers, 1631 \nRendel, J.; Holyhead, Portland \nRennie, J. (1761-1S21), and sir J.; \n\nbreakwater, 1812; Waterloo-bridge, \n\nLondon-bridge \nBepton, Humphry, landscape gar- \ndener, 1752-1S18 \nBeschid Pacha ; Turkey, 1853 \nReuchlin, J., reformer, d. 1522; Talmud \nBeuss; engraving \nBeuter, J. de; Persia, 1872 \nBeville, Mrs., Slough \nBeynei\'e, Richard; sheriff, 1189 \nBeynolds, sir Joshua, 1723-92; royal \n\nacademy, 1768 \nBeynolds, abp. ; Canterbury, 1313 \nBeynolds, capt. ; trials, 1840 \nBeynolds, George; duels, 1788 \nBeynolds, O. ; explosives \nRhodes, Cecil ; Cape of Good Hope, \n\n1890 ; Zambesi \nBhodes, R. G., audiphone \nRhodes, W. B., free hospital, life-boat \nBiall, gen. ; Chippawa, 1814 \nBicard ; France, 1876 \nBicasoli, B., b. about 1803; Italy, \n\n1861-7 \nBice, Spring (lord Monteagle); ad- \nministrations, 1834 \nBich, Richard, lord ; chancellor, lord, \n\n1547 \n\nRichard I., England, 1189; Acre, \nAscalon, Cceur de Lion, Dieu et \n111011 droit, laws, Oleron, naviga- \ntion laws \n\nRichard III., k. 1485; Bosworth \n\nRichard, H. ; AVales, 1888 \n\n\n\n1125 \n\nBichards, Miss ; pedestrianism, 1874 \nRichardson, B. W. ; hygeiopolis, 1876 \nRichardson, sir John ; naturalist, \n\n1783-1865; Franklin \nRichardson, H. ; life-boat, 1852 \nRichardson, Sam.; novels, 1689-1761 \nBiehelieu, card., 1585-1642; France, \n\n1624 \nBiehelieu, duke of ; Closterseven, 1757 \nRichmond, duke of; Bockingham ad- \nministration, 1782, &c. ; Ireland, \nduels : Derby and Disraeli admin- \nistrations ; Salisbury adm. 1885 \nRichter, J. Paul, Ger. novel., 1763-1825 \nBidding, Geo., bp. ; Southwell \nBidel, Stephen, 1189 ; chancellor, \n\nlord, Ireland \nEider, William ; silk hose \nBidgeway, C. de, abstinence \nRidley, bp., burnt, 1555 \nRidsdale, Bev. C. J. ; public worship \n\nact, 1876 \nRiego put to death ; Spain, 1823 \nBiel, L. ; Hudson\'s bay ; Canada, Ad- \ndenda \nBienzi, N, m. 1354; tribune, Borne \nBigg, rev. A., technical education \nBigoni, M. ; canal boats \nBiguet, M.; tunnels \nBinuccuii, Oetavio, b. 1621 ; opera \nRipon, earl of, 1782-1859; Goderich \nadministration, 1827 ; \xe2\x80\x94 marquis \nof ; freemasonry ; Gladstone adm. \n1873, 1886, 1892 ; India, 1880 \nRisakoif, Russia, 1881 \nRisk Allah; trials, 1868 \nRistieh, Servia, 1880 \nRitchie, D. T. ; Salisbury adm., \n\n1886 ; local government \nRitson, Joseph, critic, 1752-1803 \nBitter, Karl, geographer, 1779-1859 \nBitter, J. W., electricity, 1812 \nRivers, earl, m. 1483 ; Pomfret \nRivers, Mr., Egypt, 1879 \nRiviere, R. T. ; Tonquin, 1S83 \nRizzio, David, m. 1566 ; Scotland, \n\nFrance, Naples \nRobert, duke of Normandy ; Tiuche- \n\nbray, 1106; Scotland, 1306 \nRobert II. ; pilgrimages, 1060 \nRoberts, D., R.A., 1796-1864 \nRoberts, J. J., Liberia \nRoberts, sir F., Afghanistan, 1878-80; \n\nBurmah 1886 ; Mazra \nBobertson, capt.; trials, 1862 \nRobertson, J. P. B. ; Scotland, 1889 \nRobertson, T. W., dramatist, 1829-71 \nRobertson, Dr. Win., hist., 1721-93 \nBobertson, W., trials, 1878 \nRobespierre, F. M. ; reign of terror, \n\nFrance, 1793-4 \nRobin Hood; robbers, archery, 1189 \nRobinson; see Perdita \nRobinson, F. ; Goderich, note \nBobinson, H. G. E., New Zealand, \n\n1878 ; Cape, 1880 \nRobinson, James ; ether, 1848 \nBobinson, B., 1735-90; independents \nBobinson, sir Thomas ; Newcastle \n\nadministration, 1754 \nBobinson of York, murdered ; trials, \n\n1S53 \nBobinson, sir W. C. F.; Straits, 1877 \nEobiquet and Colin ; alizarine, 1831 \nRobson, W.; trials, 1856 \nRochambeau; Yorktown, 1781 \nRochebouet, gen. ; Fiance, 1877 \nBoehefort, H. ; France, 1870-81 ; \n\nTunis, 1881 \nRochefoucauld, F. Do la, phil. 1630-80 \nRochester, earl of; administrations, \n\n1679 \nRochfort, A. H. ; cryptograph y, 1836 \nBock, Dan., 1779-1871; mass \nBockingham, niarq. of; Bockingham \n\nadministrations, 1765 \nRoderick ; Spain, 709 ; Wales, 843 \nRodney, G.; Eustatia, 781 \n\n\n\n1126 \n\nRodolph of Hapsbnrg ; Austria, 1278 \nRodolph of Nuremberg; wire, 1410; \n\nof Suabia, k. Fladenlieim, 1080 \nRoe, Henry ; Dublin, 1878 \n\nBoebling, Mr. & Mrs. ; New York, \n\n1883 \nRoebuck, J.; duel, 1835; Sebastopol \n\nRcemer, light, 1676 \n\nRoger; Sicily, Naples, 1130 \n\nRogers and others ; trials, 1882 \n\nRogers, John, burnt, 1555 \n\nRogers, Sam., poet, 1763-1855 \n\nRogers, Messrs. ; gas lights \n\nRogers, J. E. T. ; wages \n\nRoget, P. M., M.D., philologist, 1799- \n1869 \n\nRoggewein, circumnavigator; Easter \nIsland, 1722 \n\nRogier, Charles, d. 1885 ; Belgium, \n1857 \n\nRohan, card. ; diamond necklace, \n1786 \n\nRoliin, Chas., Fr. hist., 1661-1741 \n\nRolt, sir J.; att.-gen., 1866; justice \nof appeal, 1867 \n\nRomain, M. ; balloons, h. 1785 \n\nRomilly, sir Samuel; criminal law, \nsuicide, 18 18 \n\nRomilly, sir J., aft. Id.; 1802-74; \nsolicitor-gen., master of the rolls, \n1851 \n\nRomney, Geo.; painter, 1734-1S02 \n\nRomulus; Rome, 753 B.C.; calendar, \nAlba, arusjjices \n\nRomulus Augustulns; western em- \npire, 475 \n\nRonalds, F, 1788-1873; electric tele- \ngraph, 1823 \n\nRonge, J.; kinder-garten, 1851 \n\nRooke, sir George; Gibraltar, 1704; \nsnuff, Alderney, Cadiz, Cape la \nHogue, Cape St. Vincent, Vigo \n\nRoper, colonel; duels, 1788 \n\nRosa, Carl; opera, 1889 \n\nRosas; Buenos Ayres, 1852 \n\nRoscoe, sir H. E., indigo ; technical \neducation \n\nRoscoe, W., hist., 1753-1831 \n\nKose, German chem., Gustav, 1798- \n1873 ; Heinrich, 1795-1864 \n\nRose, sir Hugh; India, Calpee,i858 \n\nRosebery, earl of; Gladstone adm., \n1880, 1886, 1892 \n\nRoseberry, countess of; trials, 1814 \n\nRosencrans, gen.; United S., 1862 \n\nRoss, sir J.; Franklin, north-west \npassage, 1848 \n\nRoss, colonel; duelling, 1817 ; British \nmuseum, 1876 \n\nRoss, gen.; Baltimore, Washington, \n1814 \n\nRossa, O\'Donovan ; Fenians, 1868-83 \n\nRosse, earl of, 1800-67; telescopes, \n1828 ; Royal Society, 1848 \n\nRossel, France, 1871 \n\nRosser, Mr. and Miss Darbon ; trials, \n1841 \n\nRossi, count, Rome, 1848; assassina- \ntions \n\nRossini, G., mus. comp., 1792-1868 \n\nRostopchin; Moscow, 1812 \n\nRothery, H. C, Tay-bridge \n\nRothsay; duke, Scotland, 1401 \n\nRothschild, Anselm (the first), d, \n1812 ; Rothschild, Evelina hosp. \n\nRothschild; Jews, 1849; deaf and \ndumb, 1872 \n\nRoubiliac; sculptor, 1695-1762 \n\nRouher, E., 1814-84 ; France, 1863-81 \n\nRoupell, W., M.P.; trials, 1862 \n\nRous, F. ; psalms \n\nRousseau, J. J., Fr. phil., 1712-1778 \n\nRoustan, M., Tunis, 1881 \n\nRoutledge v. Lowe; copyright, 1868 \n\nRouvier, M. ; France, 1887 \n\nRowan, A. H. ; trials, 1794, 1805 \n\nRowe, Nicholas, 1673-1718 ; poet- \nlaureate, d. 1715 \n\n\n\nINDEX. \n\nRowlandson, Thos., caricaturist, 1756- \n\n1827 \nRowley, admiral J.; Bourbon, 1810 \nRowsell, C. J. ;- graphoscope \nRoxana; Macedon, 311 B.C. \nRoxburgh, duke of, 1812 ; Boccaccio \nRozier, M. ; balloons, 1783 \nRubens, P. P.; painter, 1577-1640 \nRubery v. Grant ; trial, 1875 \nRuchdi Pasha ; Turkey, 1866-71 et \n\nseq. \nRudbeck, 01. ; thoracic duct \nRudini, marquis, di ; Italy, 1891 \nRudolph; Austria, Germany \nRuhmkorff, induction coil, 1851 \nRumford, Benjamin Thompson, \n\ncount, 1752-1814 ; Royal Institu- \ntion \nRunge, cafeine (eng. caffeine) \nRunjeet Singh; Afghanistan, 1818; \n\ndiamonds \nRupert, prince, 1619-82; engraving, \n\nBirmingham, Edgehill, Marston- \n\nmoor, Naseby, Newark \nRuric ; Russia, 862 ; Varangians \nRush, Bloomfield, murderer; trials, \n\n1849 \nRushworth, E. E. ; Jamaica, 1877 \nRuskin, John, art critic, b. 1819 ; \n\nSheffield \nRussell, C. : suicide, 1856 \nRussell, colonel ; guards, 1660 \nRussell, adm. Edw. ; La Hogue, \n\n1692 \nRussell, J. Scott, engineer, 1808-82; \n\nfires, steam-nav., Vienna, wave \nRussell, earl, case ; trials, 1891 \nRussell, lord John, aft. earl, 1792- \n\n1878 ; Russell administration, note, \n\nAberdeen ; Germany, 1874 ; papal \n\naggression ; reform \nRussell, Odo, Id. Ampthill ; Ger- \nmany, 1871-84 \nRussell, sir C., att.-gen., 1886; \n\nParnellites, 1888. \nRussell, lord W., trials, 1840 \nRussell, bp. W. A. ; China, 1872 \nRussell, W. H. ; Times, 1854, 1857, \n\n1861 \nRutherford, J. ; lectures \nRuth ven, Mr. ; duels, 1836 \nRutland, duke of; Ireland (lord \n\nlieutenant), 1784 ; see Manners \nRuyter, see De kuyier \nRyder, bp. ; Gloucester, 1815 \nRyder, sir Dudley, king\'s bench, \n\n1754 \nRye, Miss ; emigration \nRymer- Jones, A. M., temnograpli \nRyves, Mrs. ; trials, 1866 \n\n\n\nS. \n\n\n\nSabatta, Levi, 1666 \n\nSabine, gen. sir Edw., 1788-1883 ; \n\nRoyal Society, 1861 ; magnetism \nSacheverel, Br. ; high church, 1709 \nSackville, lord George ; Minden, 1759 \nSadleir, J.; suicide, 1856; \xe2\x80\x94 Dr., \n\n1858 \nSadler, Mr. ; balloons, 1812 \nSadler, Mr. ; Sadler\'s Wells, 1863 \nSadler, sir Ralph; administrations, \n\niS4\xc2\xb0 \nSadyk ; Turkey, 1S78 \nSafford, Mr. ; planets, 1862 \nSafvet Pasha ; Turkey, 1877-8 \nSagarelli ; Apostolici, 300 \nSagasta, Spain, 1871-89 \nSaget, gen. ; Hay ti, 1870 \nSt. Amaud, marshal ; Russo-Turkish \n\nwar, Alma, 1854 \nSt. Charo ; concordance, 1247 \nSt. Clair, Bella ; pedestrianism, 1S76 \nSt. Cyr, marshal ; Dresden, 1813 \nSt. George, Mr. ; trials, 1798 \n\n\n\nSt. John, John de ; treasurer, 121 7 \n\nSt. John Long ; quack, 1830 \n\nSt. John, Henry, aft. lord Boling- \n\nbroke ; Oxford adm., 171 1 \nSt. John, O. ; benevolences, 1615 \nSt. John, William; chancellor, lord \n\nhigh, 1547 \nSt. Leonards, lord, 1781-1875 ; chan- \ncellor, lord high, 1852 \nSt. Mars, M. de ; iron mask \nSt. Ruth, general ; Aughrim, 1691 \nSt. Vincent, earl ; admiralty, 1801 ; \n\nCape St. Vincent \nSakya Muni, Buddhism \nSaladin, sultan, 1136-1193; Ascalon, \n\nDamascus, Egypt, Syria, Aleppo \nSalar Jung, Hyderabad \nSale, lady ; Cabul, India, 1842 \nSale, sir Robert ; Moodkee, 1845 \nSalgar, E., Colombia, 1871 \nSalisbury, bishop of; assay \nSalisbury, countess of; garter \nSalisbury, Robert, earl of; adminis- \ntrations, 1603 \nSalisbury, earl of, 1604; coronets, \n\nOrleans \nSalisbury, Robert A. T. G. Cecil, \nmarquis of; b. 1830; Derby ad- \nministrations, 1852, 1858 ; Disraeli \nadministration, 1874 ; Turkey, \n1877; Berlin conference ; conserva- \ntives, 1881 ; Salisbury adm., 1885, \n1886; Zambesi, 1889 \nSalkeld ; Delhi, 1857 \nSallo, Denis de ; critics, reviews, \n\n1655 \nSallust, Lat. hist., d. 34 B.C. ; Mauri- \ntania, Catiline \nSalmasius ; anthology, 1606 \nSalmeron ; Spain, 1873 \nSalnave, gen. ; Hayti, 1865-70 \nSalomons, D. ; Jews, 1835 ; mayor \nSalt, Titus; 1803-76; alpaca, 1852, \n\nBradford \nSalvator Rosa ; painter, 1615-1673 \nSalviati, Dr. ; mosaic, 1861 \nSalvino degli Armato ; spectacles \nSalvius Julianus ; edicts, 132 \nSampson, II. ; advertisements, 1874 \nSamuel rules Israel, 1140 b.c. \nSamuelson, sir B. ; technical educa- \ntion \nSanballat ; Samaritan, 332 B.C. \nSancho, king ; Portugal, Spain, 970 \nSancroft, abp., Canterbury, 1678; \n\nbishops, England \nSandeman, col. sir R. G. ; Beloo- \n\nchistan \nSandeman, R. ; Glasites \nSanderson, Dr. J. B. ; Brown Institute \nSanders, will-forger ; trials, 1844 \nSandilli ; Kaffraria, 1877-8 \nSandon, lord ; Disraeli admin., 1874, \n1878 ; elemen. education, 1876 ; see \nHarrowby \nSandwich, earl of; administrations, \n1660 ; naval battles, Soiebay, Aix- \nla-Chapelle \nSandys ; administrations, 1742, 1767 \nSandys, Edwin, abp. ; York, 1577 \nSanta Anna ; Mexico, 1853-76 \nSapor ; Persia, 240 \nSappho writes 611 B.C. ; Sapphic \nSardanapalus ; Assyria, 876 B.C. \nSarmiento, col. D., Argentine confed., \n\n1868 \nSarpi, Paul, 1552-1623; thermome- \nter, blood \nSassoon, sir A., Bombay, 1879 \nSassulitch, V. ; Russia, 1878 \nSaul, Jews, 1096 b.c. ; Ammonites \nSaumarez, sir James ; Algesiras, 1801 \nSaunders ; trials, 1853 \nSaunders, coin. ; Franklin, 1849 \nSaunders, sir Charles ; Chatham \n\nadministration, 1766 \nSaussure, 1740-1799 ; hygrometer \nSaurip. v. Star; trials, 1S69 \n\n\n\nSavage, John ; Babyngton\'s con- \nspiracy, 1586 \nSavage, abp. ; York, 1501 \nSavage, Kieh., poet, 1698?- 1743 \nSavage, W. ; i>rinting in colours, \n\n1819-22 \nSavary, trials, 1825 \nSavary, capt. ; steam-engine, 1698 \nSavas Pasha, Turkey, 1880-1 \nSavonarola, Jerome"; burnt, 1498 \nSaward, J. ; trials, 1857 \nSawtre, sir William; burning alive, \n\n1401 ; Lollards \nSawyer ; arithmetic, 1878 \nSaxe, count ; Fontenoy, 1745 ; Laf- \n\nfeldt, 1747 \nSay, Leon ; France, 1873-7 \nSay, T. ; Colorado beetle \nSayce, A. H. ; Accadians Assyria, \n\n1875 ; Babylonia \nSaye and Sele, lord ; administrations, \n\n1660 \nSaye, lord, beheaded, 1450 ; Cade \nSayers, T. ; boxing, i860 \nScanderbeg ; Albania, 1443 \nScanlan, Mr. ; trials, 1820 \nScarlatti, D. ; spinet \nSchamyl; Circassia, 1859 \nScheele, 1742-86; nitrogen, oxygen, \n\nprussic acid, tartaric acid, pho- \ntography, glycerine, chlorine \nScheffer, Ary ; painter, 1795-1858 \nScheibler M. ; tonometer, 1834 \nScheiner, Chr. ; heliometer, 1625 \nSchenck, gen. ; United States, 1870, \n\n1876 \nScheutz ; calculating machine, 1857 \nSchiaparelli ; planets, 1861 ; comets, \n\n1866 \nSchiff, Dr. ; vivisection \nSchilders, general ; Silistria, 1854 \nSchiller, F., Ger. poet, 1 759-1 Sos \nSchimmelpenninck ; Holland, 1805 \nSchlegel, W., German writer, 1767- \n\n1845 ; \xe2\x80\x94 F., 1772-1829 \nSchleyer ; volapuk \nSchlickmann, gen. ; Transvaal, 1876 \nSchliemann, Dr., 1822-90; Myceuse, \n\nTroy, 1872 \nSchmidt ; organs, 1682 ; moon, 1874 ; \n\n\xe2\x80\x94 shot, Spain, 1874 \nSehceffer, Peter ; printing, 1452 \nSchonbein, M. ; 1797-1868 ;gun cotton, \n\n1840 ; ozone, 1846 \nSchomberg, capt. ; naval battles, \n\n1811 \nSchomberg, duke of ; Boyne, Ireland, \n\nLondonderry, Carrickfergus, 1689 \nSchomburgk, sir R. ; Victoria regia, \n\n1838 \nSchopenhauer, A., pessimism \nSchreiber, Lady ; fans \nSchroter ; pianoforte, 1717 \nSehrotter ; phosphorus, 1845 \nSchouten ; Cape Horn, 1616 \nSchouvaloff, count, Russia, 1879 \nSchubert, F. P. ; Ger. mus., 1797- \n\n1828 \nSchumann, Robert ; Ger. mus., 1810- \n\n56 \nSchwabe, sun \n\nSchwann ; cell theory, 1839 \nSchwartz, C, missionary, a. 1798 \nSchwartz, M. ; gunpowder, 1320 \nSchwartzenberg, prince of ; Dresden, \n\n1813 \nSchwatka, lieut., Franklin search, \n\n1879-81 \nSchwerin, marshal ; Prague, 1757 \nScialoia, A. ; Naples. 1877 \nSeipio Africanus : honour, Numantia, \n\nRome, Zama, 202 B.C. \nScindiah, Gwalior \nScobelefif, gen. ; Russo - Turkish \n\nwar, 1878 ; Russia, 1882 \nScott, sir G. Gilbert ; architect, 1811- \n\n1878 ; Alban\'s; Asaph\'s ; midland \nScott, R. H. ; meteorology, 1865 \n\n\n\nINDEX. \n\nScott, gen. Winfleld, 1786-1866 ; \nMexico, 1847 ; United States, \n1861-2 \nScott ; duelling, 1821, 1836 \nScott, Walter, 1771-1832 ; Waverley \nScott, Dred ; United States, 1857 \nScott, Miss C. A., Girton college \nScribe, E., dramatist, d. 1861 (at. 80) \nScudamore, lord ; apples \nSeabury, Samuel ; bishoprics, 1784 \nSeaforth, earl of ; thistle, 1687 \nSeal, J. ; trials 1858 \nSearle ; planets, 1858 \nSebacon; Egypt, 737 b.c. \nSebastiani, marshal; Talavera, 1809 \nSebert ; Westminster Abbey \nSebright marriage ; trials, 1886 \nSecchi, Padre, A., nat. phil., 1818-78 \nSeeker, abp. ; Canterbury, 1758 \nSecocoeni ; Transvaal, 1876-82 \nSedgwick, Adam, d. 1873, geology \nSefton v. Hopwood ; trials, 1855 \nSejanus, d. 31 \n\nSelborne, chancellor, Id. (aft. earl), \n1872-4, appeal ; Gladstone adm., \n1880 \nSelden, J., 1584-1654 ; seas, poet- \nlaureate \nSeleucus Nicator; Seleucides, Syria, \n\nomens, Ipsus, 311 B.C. \nSelim ; Turkey, Syria, 1512 \nSelkirk, Alexander ; Juan Fernandez, \n\n1705 \nSellis, the valet ; suicide, 1810 \nSelmer, M. ; Norway, 1 881-4 \nSelwyn, sir C. J., justice, Id., 1868 \nSemiramis ; Assyria, eunuchs, 2007 \n\nB.C. \n\nSemmes, capt., Alabama, 1862 \n\nSemple ; trials, 1795, 1862 \n\nSen, Baboo, deism, 1869 \n\nSenaputti ; Manipur \n\nSeneca, put to death, 65 ; Cordova \n\nSennacherib; Assyria, 710 B.C. \n\nSennef elder ; lithography, 1796 \n\nSergius ; popes, nativity, 690 ; puri- \nfication, Koran \n\nSerrano, marquis de, and duke de la \nTorre. Spain, 1868-75,1882; Alcolea, \n1868 \' \n\nSerrin ; electric lamp \n\nSerturner, morphia, 1803 \n\nServetus, Michael, burnt, 1553 ; \nUnitarians, Arians, blood \n\nServius Tullius ; coins, census, 566 \n\nB.C. \n\nSesostris ; Egypt, 1618 B.C. \n\nSetalla ; burning glasses \n\nSeverus ; Rome ; emp. 193 ; Britain, \n\nRoman walls, Memphis, 202 \nSextus Pompeius ; Mylse, 36 b. c. \nSeymour, sir Edw. ; speaker, 1678 \nSeymour, sir M. ; China, 1856 \nSeymour v. Butterworth ; trials, \n\n1862 \nSeymour, Edward, duke of Somerset ; \n\nadministrations, 1547 ; protectors, \n\nadmiralty \nSeymour, lord ; duels, 1835 \nSeymour, lady ; tournament, 1839 \nSeymour, adm. sir H. (aft. lord Al- \n\ncester), Egypt, 1882 \nSforza, cardinal ; Naples, 1877 \nShadwell, Thomas ; poet-laureate, d. \n\n1692 \nShaftesbury, earl of; administrations, \n\n1672; (1801-1885) Chichester; cos- \n\ntermongers, Shaftesbury estate \nShakspeare, W., 1564-1616; Shak- \n\nspeare, drama, mulberry-tree \nShalinaneser; Assyria, 730 b.c. \nShapira, M. ; bible, note \nSharp, A.; circle (squared), 1717 \nSharp, archbp. ; Scotland, 1679 \nSharp, Granville; slavery, 1772 \nShaw, rev. Mr. ; Madagascar, 1883 \nShaw, sir James ; mayor, 1805 \nShaw, sir John ; Greenock \n\n\n\n1127 \n\nShaw, capt. ; fire brigade \n\nShaw, W., home-rule, 1879 \n\nSheares, the Messrs.; trials, 1798 \n\nShedden v. Patrick; trials, i860 \n\nSheepshanks, R.; astronomy, stand- \nard, 1855; Sheepshanks\' donations, \n1857-8 \n\nSheil, R. L. ; mint, 1846 \n\nShelburne, earl of ; Shelburne ad- \nministration, 1782; duel, 1780 \n\nSheldon, abp. ; Canterbury, 1663 \n\nSheldon, William ; tapestry \n\nShelley, Percy B., poet, 1792-1822 \n\nShepherd v. Bennett ; trials, 1870 \n\nSheppard, Jack; execution, 1724 \n\nShepstone, sir T. ; Transvaal, 1876-7 \n\nShere Ali, Afghanistan, 1863, 1879; \nCandahar \n\nShere Ali, kills Id. Mayo, 1872 ; An- \ndaman, India \n\nSheridan, gen. ; United States, 1833, \n1885, d. 1888 \n\nSheridan, Richard Brinsley, 1751- \n1816 ; Grenville administration, \ncomedy, theatres \n\nSheridan, Dr. ; trials, 1811 \n\nSherman, gen. Wm. T. ; d. 1891 ; \nUnited States, 1861 \n\nSherward, Wm. ; Norwich, 1869 \n\nShield, Mr. ; oil oil waters \n\nShillibeer, G., 1807-66; omnibuses, \n1829 \n\nShipley ; arts, soc. of, 1754 \n\nShirley, bishop ; Man, 1846 \n\nShort, bishop ; Man, St. Asaph, \n1841 \n\nShovel, sir Cloudesley; Stilly, 1707 \n\nShrapnel, bombs \n\nShrewsbury peerage cases ; trials, \n1858, 1859 \n\nShrewsbury, duke of; administra- \ntions, 1714 \n\nShrewsbury, earl of ; Patay, 1429 ; \nCastillon, 1453 \n\nShuttleworth, sir U. K. ; Gladstone \nadm., 1886 \n\nSibour, abp. ; France, 1857 \n\nSicard, abbe ; deaf and dumb, 1742 \n\nSiddons, Sarah, actress; retired, \n1819 \n\nSidmouth, Henry Addington, vis- \ncount, d. 1844 ; Addington adm., \n1800 ; green bag, speaker \n\nSidney, sir P., 1554-86; Algernon, \n1617-83 ; Rye house plot \n\nSiemens, sir C. Wm., 1822-83 > heat, \npyrometer, 1871; Albert medal, \n1874; attraction, bathometer, elec- \ntric telegraph, heat, light, light- \nhouses, 1878 \n\nSiemens, F. ; glass, 1885 \n\nSiemens, Werner, electricity, electric \nrailway, 1881 \n\nSieyes, abbe ; directory, France, 1799 \n\nSigismond ; German}\', Bohemia, \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 Hungary.Nicopolis, Poland, Prussia \n\nSilius, Italicus, poet, about 25-99 \n\nSillim, Mr. ; trials, 1863 \n\nSimeon the Stylite ; abstinence \n\nSimmonds ; flying, 1875 ; balloons, \n1883 \n\nSimmons ; trials, 1808 \n\nSimmons, sir J. L. ; Malta, 1884 \n\nSimnel, Lambert; conspiracies, re- \nbellion, i486 ; Stoke \n\nSimon Magus ; Simonians, 41 \n\nSimon, J. ; France, 1876-7 \n\nSimonides ; letters, mnemonics, 477 \n\nB.C. \n\nSimplicius, St. ; collar of SS. , 1407 \nSimpson, Dr. ; chloroform, 1848 \nSimpson, traveller ; suicide, 1840 \nSims, G. R. ; London, 1883 \nSindercomb ; conspiracy, 1756 \nSingh, Runjoor ; Aliwai, 1846 \nSismondi, C, hist., 1773, 1842 \nSisyphus; Corinth, 1326 B.C. \nSixtus : popes. \n\n\n\n1128 \n\n\n\nINDEX. \n\n\n\nSixtus V., pope ; interdict, 1588 \nSkene, J. H. ; Hittites \nSkipwith, Mr. ; trials, 1872 \nSkobeleff, gen., Russia, 1880, Senova \nSkrzyneeki, gen. ; Praga, Wawz, 1S31 \nSlade, Dr. ; spiritualism, 1876-7 \nSlade, P., Slade \n\nSlater ; forgery case ; trials, 1888 \nSlidell, Mr. ; United States, 1861 \nSligo, marquis of; trials, 181 2 \nSloane, sir Hans, 1660-1752 ; apothe- \ncary, Jesuits\' bark, British Mu- \nseum, Chelsea \nSloanes ; trials, 1851 \nSmart, A. ; suicide, 1856 \nSmart, sir G. T., mus., 1776-1867 \nSmart ; chimneys, 1805 \nSmeaton, Mr. ; Eddystone, canal, \n\n1 759 \nSmeaton, sir John ; Wigan, 1643 \nSmethurst, T. ; trials, 1859 \nSmee, trials, 1879 \nSmirke, B. ; 1780-1867; post-office, \n\n1825 \nSmirke, S. ; Bethlehem, British Mu- \nseum, d. 1877 \nSmith, Adam, 1723-90 ; political \n\neconomy, 1776 \nSmith, Mr. Beaumont ; exchequer, \n\ntrials, 1841 \nSmith, Benjamin Leigh ; north- west \n\npassage, 1871-82 \nSmith, capt. ; duel, trials, 1830 \nSmith, sir C. Euan ; Zanzibar, Mo- \nrocco \nSmith, P. P. ; screw propeller, \n\n1836 \nSmith, Geo. ; Assyria, 1866-75 ; Brit. \nMuseum, 1873 ; forks ; Nineveh ; \nHittites; d. 1876 \nSmith, col. Holled ; Soudan, 1891 \nSmith, sir J. E. ; botanist, 1759-1828 ; \nhis widow, Pleasance, longevity, \n1877 \nSmith, prof. W. Robertson, free \n\nchurch of Scotland \nSmith, J. ; bribery, trials. 1854 \nSmith, Joseph ; savings bank \nSmith, Joseph ; Mormonites, 1823 \nSmith, Madeleine ; trials, 1857 \nSmith, Miss v. earl Ferrers ; trials, \n\n1846 \nSmith, Dr. R. Angus; chemist, 1817- \n\n84 ; air, 1858 \nSmith, Dr. Southwood, 1790-1861 ; \n\nsanitary legislation, 1832 \nSmith, sir Sidney ; Acre, 1799 \nSmith, rev. Sydney, 1769-1845 \nSmith, rev. S. ; trials, 1858 \nSmith, Sam. Sidney ; trials, 1843 \nSmith, sir C. Eardley; evangelical \n\nalliance, 1845 \nSmith, sir Harry; India, Aliwal, \n\nKafTraria, 1850 \nSmith, Mr. Thomas ; customs \nSmith, Thomas ; lord mayor, 1809 \nSmith, Win. ; geology, d. 1840 \nSmith, W. H., 1825-91 ; admiralty, \n\n1877 ! Salisbury adm. 1885, 1886 \nSmith v. earl Brownlow ; trials, 1869 \nSmith, and Markham, captains; duels, \n\ntrials, 1830 \nSmithson, J. ; Smithsonian Institu- \ntion, 1846 \nSmollett, Tobias, novelist, 1721-71 \nSmyth (will case) ; trials, 1855 \nSmyth, W. H, astron., 1788-1865 \nSnellius ; optics, 1624 \nSnider, Jacob, d. 1866 ; fire-arms \nSnorri, Sturleson ; Iceland, killed, \n\n1241 \nSnow, Dr. ; amylene, 1856 \nSoames ; cocoa-nut tree oil, 1829 \nSoane, sir J., architect, 1753-1S37 \nSobieski, John ; Poland, Cossacks, \n\nHungary, Vienna \nSnbolelf, gen., Bulgaria, 1883 \nSobrero, nitro-glycerinc, 1847 \n\n\n\nSocinus, Lselius (d. 1562), and Faus- \ntus (d. 1604) ; anti-trinitarians, \narians, unitarians \n\nSocrates, 468-399 B.C. ; Athens, philo- \nsophy \n\nSoleil, saccharimeter \n\nSolomon ; Jerusalem, 1004 b. c. \n\nSolon ; Athens, 594 B.C. ; laws, tax \n\nSolovieff, A., Russia, 1879 \n\nSolyman ; Turkey, Belgrade, Vienna, \n\n1529 \nSolyman II. ;_ Hungary, Buda, Mo- \n\nhatz, 1526 \nSomers, lord ; administrations, 1690 ; \n\ncorn \nSomers, sir George ; Bermudas, 1609 \nSomerset the black declared free, \n\n1772 ; slavery in England \nSomerset, see Seymour; admiralty, \n\n1859 \nSomerville, Mary, mathemat., <fcc. \n\n1780-1872 \nSonzogno, R. ; murdered, Rome, 1875 \nSophia, princess ; Hanover, 1659 \nSophia Dorothea, d. 1796 ; England \n\n(queens, Geo. I.) \nSophocles, 495-405 b.c. ; tragedy, \n\ndrama \nSorel, Agnes ; jewellery, 1434 \nSoro, Zuan ; cipher, 1516 \nSostratus ; pharos, 280 B.C. \nSoto, Ferdinand de ; Louisiana, 1541 \nSoult, marshal, 1769-1851 ; Albuera, \n\nOporto, Orthes, Pyrenees, Tarbes, \n\nToulouse, Villa Franca, Douro \nSouthey, Rob., 1774-1843 ; poet-lau- \nreate \nSouthwell, W. ; piano, 1S07 \nSoyer, A. (cook), d. 1858 \nSpalding, Mr. ; diving-bell, 1783 \nSparks, George ; trials, 1853 \nSpeilman, sir John ; paper-making, \n\nDartford, 1590 \nSpeke, capt., 1827-64 ; Africa, 1863-4; \n\n\xe2\x80\x94 B. ; London, 1868 \nSpencer, D.; Coventry, 1883 \nSpencer, earl; Grenville adm., 1806; \n\nRoxburghe club ; Gladstone adm., \n\n1868, 1880, 1886, 1892; Ireland, \n\n1868-73, 1882 \nSpencer, Mr. ; electrotype, 1837 \nSpener, Phil. J. ; theol\'og. 1635-1705; \n\npietists \nSpenser, E., 1553-98; allegory, \n\nfaery queen, poet-laureate, verse \nSpert, sir Thos. ; Trinity-house, 1512 \nSpina, Alexander de ; spectacles, \n\n1285 \nSpinass, J. ; trials, 1870 \nSpinoza, B. de, 1632-77 ; atheism \nSpohr, L., mus. comp., 1 783-1859 \nSpollen, Jas. ; trials, 1857 \nSpottiswoode, Win. 1825-83 ; optics, \n\n1871, British association, 1878, \n\nRoyal institution, 1865, 1873 ; \n\nRoyal society, 1878 \nSprengel, Dr. ; air-pump, note \nSprigg, J. G. ; Cape, 1878 \nSpurgeon, C. H., 1834-92; baptists, \n\nSurrey gardens, crystal palace, \n\ntabernacle \nSpurzheim, J. G. ; craniology, 1800 \nStackpole, capt. ; duel, 1814 \nStaekpoles, trials ; 1853 \nStael, mad. de, novelist, d. 1817 \nStafford, abp. ; Canterbury, 1443 \nStafford, lord ; popish plot, 16S0 \nStafford, marquis of, d. 1803 ; Blooms- \nbury \nStahl, G. E. ; chemist, 1660-1723 ; \n\nphlogiston \nStaines, sir William ; lord mayor, 1800 \nStair, earl of; Glencoe, 1692 ; Det- \n\ntingeu, 1743 \nStaite ; electric light, 1848 \nStalker, gen. ; Bushire, suicide, 1857 \nStambouloff ; Bulgaria, 18S6 \nStanberry, John ; Eton, 1448 \n\n\n\nStanden, T. ; pedestrianism, 181 1 \nStanhope, earl; Halifax adm., 1714 \nStanhope, Charles, earl, 1753-1S16 ; \nprinting-press ; Philip Henry, earl \n(formerly lord Mahon, historian), \n1805-75 ; antiquaries \nStanhope, col. ; trials, 1816 \nStanhope, hon. col. ; suicide, 1825 \nStanhope, lieut.-gen. ; Minorca, 1708 \nStanhope, Edward ; Salisbury adm. \n\n1885-6 \nStanislaus ; Poland, 1704 \nStanley, dean A. P., 1815-81 ; Sun- \nday, 1877 \nStanley, colonel F. A. ; Disraeli, 2nd \nadm., 1878 ; Salisbury adm., 1885, \n1886, (Id. Stanley of Preston) \nCanada, gov. -gen., 1888 \nStanley, bishop, Norwich, 1837 \nStanley, H. M. ; b. 1841 ; Africa, \n1872-82 ; Congo ; Soudan, 18&7 ; \nNile \nStanley, sir John ; Man, 1406 \nStanley, sir W. ; chamberlain; Bos- \nworth, 1485 \nStanley, lord ; see Derby \nStanley, lord, of Alderley, b. 1802 ; \n\nAberdeen, Palmerston adm. \nStanley, Edw., lord, b. 1826 ; Derby, \n1866 ; Disraeli adm. 1868, see \nDerby \nStansfield, James ; Gladstone adm. , \n\n1886 \nStanton, Mr. ; velocipede, 1874 \nStapleton, J. ; trials, 1858 \nStapleton, Walter, bp. ; Exeter, 1319 \nStark ; electric telegraph, 1858 \nStatius, Lat. poet, fl. 79 \nStaunton, L. & P., etc. ; trials, 1S77 \nStaunton, Mr. ; China, 1840 \nStead, W. T. ; trials, 1885 \nStearns ; electric telegraph \nSteele, sir R., 1671-1729 ; Tatler, \n\nSpectator, clubs, Kit-Cat club \nSteele, Mr. ; murdered, trials, 1807 \nSteell, sir J. ; Scotland, 1S76 \nSteenchel, Magnus ; Sweden, 1314 \nStein, Germany, 1819 \nSteinmetz ; chess, 1873, 1883 \nStenhouse, J. ; dyes, charcoal, 1853 \nStephen ; popes, England, Hungary, \n\n997 ; Poland \nStephen, Leslie ; biography \nStephens, G. ; Runes \nStephens, Miss ; theatres, Covent- \n\ngarden, 1813-1882 \nStephens, rev. Mr. ; trials, 1839 \nStephens, Robert ; Bible, 1551 \nStephenson, George, 1781-1848 ; rail- \nways, Chatmoss ; steam, 1814 ; New- \ncastle, 1881 \nStephenson, Robert, 1803-59 ; tubular \n\nbridges \nStepniak ; Russia, 1884 \nSterne, Laurence, humorist, 1713-68 \nSternhold, T. , d. 1549; Psalms \nStesichorus ; choruses, 556 B.C. \nStevens, A. ; Wellington (monument), \n\n1858 \nStevenson, Messrs.; Grautou \nStewart, col. ; Trincomalee, 1795 \nStewart, gen. ; Madras, 1783 \nStewart, sir D., Afghanistan, 1880 \nStewart, capt. ; Franklin, 1850 \nStewart, col.; Soudan, 1882 \nStewart, gen. II.; Soudan, 1S84-5 \nStewart, Dugald, phi!., 1753-1828 \nStewart, Duncan ; Ca;sarean \nStewarts ; trials, 1829 \nStifelius ; algebra, 1544 \nStigand, abp. ; Canterbury, 1052 \nStillingfleet, B. ; blue-stocking \nStirling, W. ; Glasgow, 1791 \nStirling, capt. "Atalanta" \nStock, Thos. ; Sunday-schools \nStockdale; trials, 1826 \nStoddart, Dr.; Times, 1812 \nStoecklin ; Boulogne, 1878 \n\n\n\nINDEX. \n\n\n\n1129 \n\n\n\nStokes, E. S. ; New York, 1872 \n\nStokes, sir, G. G., sunshine recorder ; \nRoyal society, 1885 \n\nStone, D. H. ; mayor, lord, 1874 \n\nStopford, adm. ; Acre, Sidon, 1840 \n\nStorace, madame, d. 1814 \n\nStorck; anabaptists, 1524; levellers \n\nStorks, sir H.; Ionian Isles, 1859 ; \narmy, 1868 \n\nStormont, vise; Portland adm., 1783 \n\nStrabo, geog., writes, 14 \n\nStraelian, admiral sir Richard; Havre, \nWalcheren, 1809 \n\nStraduarius; viol., 1700-22 \n\nStrafford, lord, administrations, 1640; \nbeheaded, 1641 \n\nStrafford, earl; admiralty, 1712 \n\nStrahan, sir G. C. ; Gold Coast, 1874 ; \nWindward isles, 1876 ; Grenada, \n1877 ; Van Diemen\'s land, 1881 \n\nStrangford, lord; bribery, 1784 \n\nStratford, abp. ; Canterbury, 1333 \n\nStratford de Redeliffe, lord, diplo- \nmatist, 1788-1880 \n\nStrauch, capt. ; Congo \n\nStreet, Geo. E., 1824-81; architect, law \ncourts \n\nStrelnikoff, gen., assassinated ; Rus- \nsia, 1882 \n\nStrickland, Hugh; uat. hist., 1811- \n\n53 \nStroh, A. ; acoustics \nStromeyer; club-foot, 1831 \nStrongbow; Ireland, n 76 \nStrousberg, Dr. H. B. ; Russia, 1875- \n\n6 ; d. 1884 \nStruensee, count; Zell, 1772 \nStrutt, Edw. ; Aberdeen adm., 1852 \nStruve, F., astron., 1793-1864 \nStrzelecki, count ; Australia, 1838 ; \n\nd. 1873 \nStuart, Alexander; marquis \nStuart, conf. gen. ; United States, \n\n1862 \nStuart, gen. ; Cuddalore, 1783 \nStuart, sir John; Maida, 1806 \nStukeley, Dr. ; earthquakes \nStum, P.; trials, 1882 \nSturmius ; magnet \nSturt, capt. ; South Australia, 1830 \nSuccoth (St. Patrick) preaches, 433 \nSuchet, marshal; Valencia, 1812 \nSudbury, abp.; Canterbury, 1375 \nSudeikin, lieut., murdered ; Russia, \n\n1883 \nSue, Eug., Fr. novelist, 1804-57 \nSuetonius, C. T., Lat. hist., 118 \nSuetonius Paulinus ; Menai, 61 \nSuffolk, Thomas, earl of; adminis- \ntrations, 1540 \nSuffrein, Thos.; Trincomalee, 1782 \nSugden, sir Edward (aft. lord St. \n\nLeonards); chancellor, lord, 1852 \nSugden ; trials, 1875 \nSuisse, Nicholas; trials, 1842 \nSuleiman Pasha, Russo-Turkish war \n\nII., 1877-8 ; Turkey, 1877 \nSuleiman, Senova, Turkey, 1878 \nSullivan, sir A.; mus. com., b. 1842 ; \n\noperas, Savoy \nSullivan, sir E. ; chancellor (Ireland) \n\n1883 \nSullivan, Mr.; Lima, 1857 \nSully, J. , pessimism \nSulpicius, Servius ; civil law, codes, \n\n53 B.C. \nSumner, archbp., J. B., 1780-1862 ; \n\nChester, 1828; Canterbury, 1848 \nSumner, bishop, C. R., 1790-1874 ; \n\nLlandaff, 1826 ; Winchester, 1827 \nSumner, C. ; United States, 1856 \nSunderland, earl of ; administrations, \n\n1684 ; libraries \nSurajah Dowlah; Black-hole, India, \n\nPlassey, 1757 \nSuit, Mrs. ; Paul\'s school \nSurrey, earl of; Flodden, 1513; Ro- \nman catholics, 1829 \n\n\n\nSusarion and Dolon; comedy, 562 \n\nB.C. \n\nSuso, H. ; mystic, 1300-65 \nSussex, Aug. Fred., duke of, 1773- \n1843; marriage, 1793; Royal So- \nciety \nSuter, Mr., Turkey, 18S1 \nSutter, capt.; California, 1847 \nSutton; air-pipe, 1756 \nSutton, abp.; Canterbury, 1805 \nSutton, C. M. ; speaker, 1817 \nSutton, Thos.; charter-house, 1611 \nSuwarrow, marshal, 1730-1800; Ales- \nsandria, Ismael, Novi, Parma, Po- \nland, Praga, Warsaw, Trebia, 1799 \nSwan, Mr., M.P. ; bribery, 1819 \nSwan, J. W, electric light, 1880 ; \n\nSavoy \nSwete, H. ; cottage hospitals \nSweyn ; Denmark, 985 ; England \nSwift, Dean J., 1667-1745; Drapier, \n\nSeriblerus, Mars \nSwindlehurst, C. ; trials, 1877 \nSwynfen ; trials, 1858 \nSydenham, Floyer, d. 1788; literary \n\nfund \nSydenham, lord ; Melbourne adminis- \ntration, 1834 \nSydenham, Thos., physic, 1624-89 \nSydney, Henry, viscount; Ireland, \n\nlord-lieutenant, 1690 \nSydney, see Sidney \nSykes and Rumbold, Messrs. ; bri- \nbery, 1776 \nSylla; Rome, Athens, 86 B.C. \nSylvester, prof. J. J. ; motion \nSymington; steam-engine, 1789 \nSymonds, rev. Symon ; Bray, 1533-58 \nSymons, G. J.; rainfall \nSynge, Mr. and Mrs., Turkey, 1880 \n\n\n\nTabak ; diamond robbery, 1886 \n\nTainter, S., photophone \n\nTacitus, M. C, Latin hist., about \n62-117; Rome, emp., 275 \n\nTait, bp. ; London, 1856; abp. Can- \nterbury, 1S68 \n\nTalbot, Miss Augusta; trials, 1851 \n\nTalbot, H. F.; photography, calo- \ntype, &c, 1840 \n\nTalfourd, sirT. N, poet, judge; 1795- \n\n1854 \nTallard, marshal; Blenheim, 1704 \nTalley, Wm. ; trials, 1875 \nTalleyrand, 1754-1838; Benevento \nTallis, Thos., musician, d. 1585- \nTalma, Fr. actor, d. 1826 \nTamerlane, d. 1405 ; India, Damascus, \n\nTamerlane \nTancred, sir T. ; Forth bridge ; Asia \n\nMinor \nTandemus ; Adamite \nTankerville, Ford, earl of; adminis- \ntrations, 1699 \nTanner, Dr., abstinence \nTantia Topee ; India, 1857 \nTarquin; Rome, kings; Sibylline \n\nbooks \nTarquinius Priscus ; Rome, kings, \n\ncloaca, 588 b.c. \nTasman, Abel ; circumnavigator, \n\nAustralia, 1642 ; New Zealand, \n\nVan Diemen\'s Land \nTasso, Torquato ; It. poet, 1544-95 ; \n\nJerusalem Delivered \nTate, Henry ; National Gallery \nTate, Nahum, d. 171 5 ; poet-laureate \nTatian, about 170 ; aquarians, encra- \n\ntites \nTattersall, R. ; races, 1766 \nTauler, J. ; mystic, 1290-1361 \nTavernier ; pearls, 1633 \nTawell, John ; trials, 1845 \nTaylor, H.; trials, 1882 \n\n\n\nTaylor, I.; alphabet \n\nTaylor, Mrs.; bells, 1882 \n\nTaylor, bp. Jeremy, 1613-67 \n\nTaylor, gen. Zachary ; presidents, \n\nUnited States, 1849 \nTaylor, Messrs. ; oil-gas \nTaylor, Dr. Brook ; acoustics, 1714 \nTaylor, rev. Robert ; atheism, trials, \n\n1S27, 1831 \nTaylor, col. T. E. (after. Id. Ardgillau) \n\nDisraeli adm. 1874 \nTaylor, rev. W. ; blind, bells, 1855-6 \nTaylor, sir W. T. ; Andrew\'s, St., \n\n1883 \nTchemayeff ; Turkey, 1876 ; Russia, \n\n1882 \nTeba, countess ; (empress) France, \n\n1853 \n\nTeleki; Austria, i860; Hungary, \n1861 \n\nTelesphorus ; pope, 127 . \n\nTelford, T. 1757-1834; chain-bridges, \n1819 \n\nTell, William ; Switzerland, 1307 \n\nTempel ; planets, 1861 \n\nTemple, earl ; Newcastle adm., 1757 \n\nTemple, sir R. ; India, 1869-72 ; \nBengal, 1874 \n\nTempter, major ; trials, 1S8S \n\nTenters, D. (two), 1582-1694 \n\nTenison, abp. ; Canterbury, 1694 \n\nTennant, Mr. ; bleaching, 1798 \n\nTennent, sir J. E. ; 1864-69 ; Ceylon \n\nTenniel, John, b. 1S20 ; Punch \n\nTennyson, Alfred, lord 1809-92 ; poet- \nlaureate \n\nTenterden, lord; king\'s bench, 1818 \n\nTerence, 105-159 B.C. ; drama \n\nTerentius Varro ; Cannae, 216 B.C. \n\nTerry v. Brighton aquarium comp., \ntrials, 1875 \n\nTerry, Mr. ; boat (tricycle) \n\nTertiillian writes 197 ; cross, Monta- \nnists \n\nTeucer; Trov, 1502 B.C. \n\nTewfik, Egypt, 1879-92 \n\nTexier, F. ; drowning \n\nTeynham, lord ; trials, 1833 \n\nThackeray, W. M., novelist, 1S11-63 \n\nTluikombau, Fiji, 1859-74 \n\nThales, Miletus; globe, 640 b.c \nIonic sect, moon, water, world \n\nThalestris ; queens \n\nThanet, earl of ; riots, 1799 \n\nThebau ; Burmah, 1817-85 \n\nThecla ; Alexandrine codex \n\nThemistocles ; Marathon, Salamis, \n480 b. c. \n\nTheobald; civil law, 1138 \n\nTheocritus ; verse, 265 b. c. \n\nTheodore ; Corsica, 1736 Samos, \nkeys, lathe \n\nTheodore, emperor, 1818-68; Abys- \nsinia, 1S55-68 ; Magdala \n\nTheodoric ; Spain, Goths, 553 \n\nTheodosius ; Eastern emp. , 379 ; \nAquileia, Ostrogoths, massacre, \npaganism \n\nTheodosius, the younger ; academies, \nBologna \n\nTheophilus ; Antioch, chronology \n\nTheophrastus, nat. ph., 370-287 b.c \n\nTheopompus ; Ephori, funeral ora- \ntions, Sparta, 353 B.C. \n\nTheseus; Athens, 1235 B.C. \n\nThesiger, sir F. ; solicitor-general, \n1844; attorney-general, chanc, \nlord high, 1858 ; trials, 1850 ; d. \n1878 \n\nThesiger, gen. ; Kaffraria, 1878 \n\nThespis ; drama, 536 B.C. \n\nThevenot, M. ; coffee, 1662 \n\nThierry ; Holland, 936 \n\nThiers, A., 1798-1877; France, 1836, \n1871-8 ; Bordeaux \n\nThirleby; Westminster, 1541 \n\nThirlwall, bp., Connop, 1797-1S65 ; \nSt. David\'s, 1840-74 \n\n\n\n1130 \n\n\n\nINDEX. \n\n\n\nTliistlewood, A., Cato street consp. \nThorn, James, sculptor, 1799-1850 \nThomas, 01. ; France, 1S71, 1876 \nThomas, col. ; duel, 1783 \nThomas & Gilchrist, steel \nThomas, Mrs., Richmond \nThome de Gammond, tunnels, 1867 \nThompson, E. ; life-raft, 1874 \nThompson, Eliz.; scientific assoc. \nThompson, sir H. ; burning dead, \n\n1873 \nThompson, Miss ; trials, 1821 \nThompson, major ; suicide, 1832 \nThompson, William ; lord mayor, \n\n1828 \nThorns, W. J.; folk lore, longevity, \n\nnotes and queries, wills \nThomson or Thomas ; dynamite, 1873 \nThomson, sir C. Wyville, 1830-82 ; \n\ndeep sea, 1868-76 \nThomson, Mr. Poulett ; Melbourne \n\nadministration, 1835 ; calico \nThomson, R., road steamers, 1868 \nThomson, Jas. (the "Seasons"), \n\n1700-48 ; Richmond, Rule Britannia \nThomson, J. B.; bleaching \nThomson, sir William (aft. baron \n\nKelvin), 6. 1824 ; electricity, tides ; \n\natoms \nThomson, Joseph, Africa, 1880-2, 1891 \nThornton, Abraham ; appeal, 1817 \nThornton, sirE.; Turkey, 1884 \nThorpe, William de ; bribery, 1351 \nThorpe, John T. ; lord mayor, 1820 \nThorwaldsen, Alb., sculp., 1777-1844 \nThoth ; mythology, 152 B.C. \nThouvenel, E. A, Fr. statesman, \n\n1818-66 \nThrasybulus ; Athens, 403 B.C. \nThrupp, G. ; carriages, 1877 \nThucydides, Gr. hist., 470-404 B.C. \nThuriow, lord ; chancellor, lord high, \n\n1778 : great seal \nThurtell, J. ; executions, 1824 \nThwaites, sir John, 1815-70 ; metrop. \n\nboard of works \nThyra, Dannawerke \nTiberius, 903 B.C. ; Capri, Rome, \n\nemp. 14 \nTiberius Gracchus ; agrarian law, \n\n132 B.C. \nTibullus, Lat. poet, 50-18 B.C. \nTiehborne, trials, 1871-3 \nTicknor, G., amer. hist. 1791-1861 \nTieck, L., Ger. poet, 1773-1853 \nTierney, George ; duel, 1798 ; Gode- \n\nrich \nTighe, Mr. ; trials, 1800 \nTigranes ; Armenia, 93 B.C. ; Pontus \nTilden, S. J. ; United States, 1876 \nTildesley, sir Thomas ; Wigan, 1651 \nTilghman, B. C. ; sand-blast, 1871 \nTilloch, Mr. ; stereotype \nTillotson, abp. ; Canterbury, 1691 ; \n\nuniversalists \nTilly ; Magdeburg, 1631 ; Palatinate, \n\nLech \nTimes newspax>er; Times, trials, 1790 \nTimoleon ; Syracuse, 343 B.C. \nTimour ; see Tamerlane \nTindal and C\'overdale ; Bible, 1526 \nTippoo Sahib ; Arikera, Madras, \n\nSeringapatam, Mysore, 1792 \nTirard ; France, 1888 \nTissamiier and others ; balloons, 187=;; \n1883 /b \' \n\nTisza ; Hungary, 1875-8 \nTitian, painter, 1477-1576 \nTitus, Rome, emp. 79 ; Jerusalem, \n\nTyre, arches \nTodd v. Lyne ; trials, 1873 \nTodhunter, I. ; math. 1820-84 ; pro- \nbability \nTodleben, gen., 1818-84; Sebastopol ; \n\nPlevna, 1877 ! Russo-Turkish war \nII, etc., 1877-8 \nTofts, Mary; impostor, 1726 \nToler, Mr. ; m., trials, 1853 \n\n\n\nTolly, Barclay de ; Smolensko, 1812 \n\nTolmidas ; Coronea, 447 B.C. \n\nTomline, bp. ; Lincoln, Winchester, \n1820 \n\nTolstoi, count ; Russia, 1882 ; (mini- \nster) Russia, 188S-9 \n\nTom Thumb ; dwarfs, 1846 \n\nTompion, Thos. ; clocks, 1695 \n\nTone, Theobald W. ;* trials, 1798 \n\nTonson, Jacob, bookseller, d. 1736 \n\nTonti, Laurence ; Tontines \n\nTooke, J. Home, 1736-1812 ; "diver- \nsions of Purley," 1786 \n\nTooke, W. ; prices \n\nTooth, rev. A. ; public worship, 1876 \n\nTopete, adm., Spain, 1868-73 \n\nToro, M. M., Colombia, 1872 \n\nTorpey, trials, 1870 \n\nTorrence, Mrs. ; trials, 1821 \n\nTorrens, lieut. ; duel, 1806 \n\nTorres ; Australasia, 1606 \n\nTorricelli; d. 1647; air, micro- \nscopes \n\nTorrington, Herbert, lord ; Walpole \nadmin., 1727 \n\nToselli, diving, 1871 \n\nTotila ; Italy, 541 \n\nTourgeniff, T. S., 1818-83 ; Rus - nov -> \nnihilists \n\nToussaint, 1794 ; Hayti, St. Do- \nmingo \nTower, Mr. ; volunteer, 1803, i860 \nTownley, G. V. ; trials, 1863 \nTownshend, lord ; duel, 1773 ; Ire- \nland \nTownshends ; Rockingham, Chat- \nham, and Grafton admins., 1765-7 \nTrain, G. F. ; street railways, i860 ; \n\nIreland, 1868 \nTrajan; Rome, emp., 98; Trajan\'s \n\npillar, Dacia \nTraugott, R. ; Poland, 1864 \nTravers, Samuel ; poor knights of \n\nWindsor \nTreby, George ; Walpole, 1721 \nTresylian ; king\'s bench \nTrevelyan, sir C. ; Madras, 1859-60 \nTrevelyan, sir, G. O. ; household suf- \nfrage ; Gladstone adm., 1880, 1886 ; \n1892 ; Ireland, 1882 \nTrevelyan, W. C. ; phonography \nTrevethick ; steam engine, 1802 \nTrevor, sir John ; speaker, 1694 \nTribe, A. ; copper-zinc couple, 1872 \nTricoupis, M. ; Greece, 1878 \nTroas ; Troy, 1374 B.C. \nTrochu, gen., France, 1870-1, defence \nTrollope, A.; nov., &c, 1815-82 \nTrollope, Messrs.; tapestry \nTropman, France, 1869 \nTroubridge, sir T. ; wrecks, 1807 \n" True Sun," prop, of; trials, 1834 \nTruman, Hanbury, & Co. : porter, 1815 \nTrumbull, Jonathan \nTruro, lord ; chancellor, lord, 1850 \nTseng, marquis, China, 1879-80 \nTucker, E. ; vine disease, 1845 \nTuckett, capt. Harvey ; duel, 1840 \nTufnell, E. C, training schools \nTuite, murderer ; trials, 1813 \nTuke, W. ; lunatics, 1792 \nTull, William ; posting \nTulloch, col. ; Sebastopol, 1855 \nTullus Hostilius ; Alba, saturnalia \nTunstall, bp. ; administrations, 1529 ; \n\narithmetic, privy seal \nTupper, M. F., 1810-89; proverbs \nTurenne, marshal, 161 1-75 \nTurner, Joseph Mallord William, \n\n1775-1851 \nTurnerelli, T., people\'s tribute \nTurnbull, Dahomey, 1876 \nTurn bull, W. B. ; trials, 186 1 \nTurner, J. W. : painter, 1775-1851 \nTurner, Miss ; trials, 1827 \nTurner, Richard ; teetotaller, 1831 \nTurner, rev. Sydney; 1814--Q; refor- \nmatory schools, 184Q \n\n\n\nTurner; trials, 1817 \n\nTnrpin, or Tilpin, bp. ; writes, 818 \n\nTurton, bishop ; Ely, 1S45 \n\nTussaud, Mad. ; waxwork \n\nTusser ; agriculture, 1562 \n\nTwycross v. Grant ; trials, 1876 \n\nTyce, John ; taffety, 1598 \n\nTycho Brahe, 1 546-1 601 ; astronomy, \nplatonic year, globe \n\nTyler, John ; United States presi- \ndent, 1841 \n\nTyler, Wat ; killed, 1381 \n\nTyndale, Wm. ; martyred, 1536 \n\nTyndall, J. ; Roy. Inst., 1853; mag- \nnetism, Mont Blanc, 1857 ; calor- \nescence, sound, dust, Niagara, \nUnited States, 1872, spontaneous \ngeneration, germ theory \n\nTyndarus ; Sparta, 1490 B.C. \n\nTyrconnel, earl of; Ireland, 1687 \n\nTyrone ; rebellion, 1599 \n\nTysias, or Stesichorus ; choruses, \nepithalamium, 536 b.c. \n\n\n\nU. \n\n\n\nUchatius, gen. von ; cannon, 1875 \nUdine ; stucco-work, 1530 \nUfzul ; Afghanistan, 1863 \nUgolinus, B. ; thesaurus \nUlfilas, bp. ; Bible, about 373 \nUlloa, Antonio ; platinum, 1741 \nUlpian (lawyer) ; slain, 228 \nUlysses ; Trojan war \nUnion Bank ; trials, 1875 \nUpton, colonel ; Sebastopol, 1830 \nUrban ; popes, 223 \nUrban II. ; communion, crusades, \n\n1094 \nUrban VIII., pope, "Eminence, \n\n1630 \nUrich, gen. ; Strasburg, 1870 \nUrsula, St. ; Cologne, Ursulines, \n\n1537 \nUriarte, H. ; Paraguay, 1877 \nUsher, abp. ; articles, 1614 \nUsher, H. T. ; Labuan, 1875 \n\n\n\nV. \n\n\n\nValens ; eastern empire, western \n\nempire, 364 \nValentia, lord ; duel, 1798 ; trials, \n\n1796 _ \n\nValentia cause ; trials, 1772 \nValentine, B. ; antimony, 1410 \nValentinian ; western empire, 364 \nValerian ; persecutions, 257 \nVallaret, Foulques de ; Malta, 1310 \nValliere, madame de la ; midwifery, \n\n1663 \nValverde, gen. ; Hayti, 185S \nVan Artevelde ; Ghent, 1379-83 \nVanbrugh, sir J. ; 1670-1726, Claren- \ndon printing office, opera \nVan Buren M. (president); United \n\nStates, 1837 \nVance & Snee ; trials, 1876 \nVancouver ; north-west passage, \n\nVancouver, 1790 \nVan de Weyer, M. ; Belgium, 1874 \nVan der Hey den ; fire engines, 1663 \nVan der Heydt ; Prussia, 1862, 1874 \nVan der Weyde ; photography, 1876 \nVanderbilt, Mr. ; United States, 1885 \nVandersmissen, M. ; Belgium, 1886 \nVandyck, painter, 1599-1641 \nVane, sir Henry ; administrations, \n\n1640 \nVanes ; trials, 1876 \nVan Eyck ; painting, 1366 \nVan Horn ; buccaneer, 1603 \n\n\n\nINDEX. \n\n\n\n1131 \n\n\n\nVan Leyclen ; engraving on wood, 1497 \nVan Marum ; electricity, 1785 \nVan Mildert, bishop ; Llandaff, Dur- \nham, 1826 \nVan Praagh, W. ; deaf and dumb, \n\n1871 \nVansittart, Nicholas ; Liverpool \n\naclm., 1812 \nVan Tromp ; Holland, naval battles, \n\nPortland Isle, 1653 \nVarley, C. F., 1828-83 ; electricity, \n\ntelephone, 1870-7 \nVarley, John ; water colour painter, \n\n1778-1842 \nVarley, Cornelius ; nat. phil., 1781- \n\n1873 \nVarole, M. ; optic nerves, 1538 \nVarro; writes "de Re Rustica," 37 \n\nb.c. ; grammarians, illuminated \n\nbooks \nVarus, Alfrenus ; civil law, 66 B. c. ; \n\ncode, digest \nVasali, or Basil ; Russia, 1270 \nVasco da Gama ; Cape, 1497 ; India \nVattel, E. de, xmblicist, 1714-67 \nVauban, S., 1633-1707; fortifications, \n\nCherbourg \nVaughan, sir Thos. ; Pomfret, 1483 \nVaughan, Mackay, &c. ; trial, 1816 \nVauquelin ; chromium, glucinum, \n\n1798 \nVaux, Jane, Mrs. ; Vauxhall, 1615 \nVega, G. de, 1503-36 ; \xe2\x80\x94 Lope de, \n\n1 562- 1 635, poets \nVelasquez, painter, 1599-1660; Cuba, \n\n1511 \nVenables, Wm. ; lord mayor, 1825 \nVenner, T. ; anabaptists, 1661 \nVenn, J., logic \nVergara, gen. ; New Grenada \nVergennes, M. de; notables, 1788 \nVermandois, count de ; iron mask \nVermuj\'den, Cornelius; levels, 1621 \nVernet, C. J., 1714-89; A. C. H., \n\n1758-1836; J. E. Horace, 1789-1863; \n\npainters \nVernon, adm. ; grog, Portobello, 1739 \nVernon, abp. ; York, 1808 \nVerres ; Sicily, 70 b. c. \nVerrocchio, Andrea; plaster, 1466 \nVesalius, 1514-64 ; anatomy, surgery, \n\nphysic \nVespasian; Rome, emp. 69; amphi- \ntheatres, Coliseum, Rhodes \nVespucius, Americus, 1498 ; America \nVeuillot ; France, 1883 \nVictor Amadeus ; Sardinia, 1630 \nVictor Emmanuel, 1820-78; Sardinia, \n\n1849 ; Italy, i860 \nVictor, marshal ; Talavera, 1809 ; Bar- \n\nrosa, "Witepsk \nVictor; pope, 193 \nVictoria, queen, 0. 1819; England, \n\nScotland, Ireland, India \nVictory, Espartero, duke of; Spain, \n\n1840-72 \nVidil, baron de; trials, 1861 \nVieta, Francis; algebra, 1590 \nVigilius; pope, 537 \nVillars, marshal; Malplaquet, 1709 \nVilleneuve, adm. ; Trafalgar, 1805 \nVilleroy, marshal; Brussels, 1695; \n\nRamilies, 1706 \nVilliers, sir George; administrations, \n\n1615 \nVilliers, bp. ; Durham, i860 \nVincent de Paul, 1576-1660; sisters of \n\ncharity \nVincent, B., Royal Inst, library cata- \nlogue, 1857 : bible index, 1848 \nVincent, C. W., electric light, 1879 \nVincent, sir Edgar ; Egypt, 1888 ; \n\nTurkey \nVincent, H.; chartists \nVincent, Howard ; police, 1884 \nVincent, Z. W. ; Csecilian society \nVinoy, gen. ; France and Franeo- \n\nPruss. war, 1870-71 ; d. 1883 \n\n\n\nVirchow, prof. ; development, man ; \n\nGermany, 1891 \nVirgil, Lat. poet, 70-19 B.C. \nVirginia; killed, 449 b.c. \nVitalianus ; pope, 537 \nVitellius, Rome, emp., 69 \nVitruvius, abt. 27 a, a; ink \nVivier; trials, 1842 \nVolta, Alex.; 1745-1826; electricity, \n\nVolta \nVoltaire, F. M. A. de; 1694-1778 \nVon Fuchs, Dr., d. 1856; water-glass, \n\nstereochromy \nVon der Tann, gen. ; Franco-Prussian \n\nwar, 1870-1; Coulmiers, Orleans \nVon Gceben, gen. ; Saarbriick, Franco- \nPrussian war, 1870-1 \nVon Groof ; flying, 1874 \nVon Mohl ; protoplasm \nVon Moltke, gen.; Franco-Prussian \n\nwar, Sedan, 1870 \nVon Miihler, Prussia, 1872 \nVon Stein, Prussia, 1807 \nVon Swab ; blowpipe \nVon Vincke ; Prussia, 1874 \nVortigern; Wales, 447 \nVoss, poet, 1751-1826 \nVoysey, C. ; trials, 1870 ; Voysey \n\nestablishment fund \nVyse, Mrs. A.; trials, 1862 \n\n\n\nW. \n\nWaddington ; trials, 1820 : France, \n\n1877-8-9 \nWade, Sir T., China, 1875 \nWager, C. ; admiralty, 1733 \nWaghorn, lieut., 1800-50; Waghorn \nWagner, R., 1813-83 ; music (of the \n\nfuture) \nWainwright, Whitechapel ; trials, \n\n1875 \nWaithman, Robert ; lord mayor, 1823 ; \n\nobelisk, bank \nWake, abp.; Canterbury, 1715 \nWakefield, Eliz. ; savings banks, 1804 \nWakefield, Ed. Gibbon; marriages, \n\nSouth Australia, trials, 1827 \nWakley, T., Lancet, 1823 \nWaldegrave, earl of; trials, 1841 \nWaldegrave, bp. ; Carlisle, i860 \nWaldemar; Denmark, 1157 \nWalden, abp.; Canterbury, 1398 \nWales, George, prince of, v. Times; \n\ntrials, 1790; regency \nWales, Albert Edward, prince of; \n\nEngland ; Wales \nWalker, A. ; Liverpool, 1877 \nWalker, Mr.; Vauxhall, congelation, \n\nice, 1782 \nWalker, George, Londonderry, Boyne, \n\n1689 \nWalker, gen. ; filibusters, Nicaragua, \n\n1855, executed, i860 \nWall governor ; trials, 1802 ; Goree \nWall, Mr. Baring ; trials, 1833 \nWall, Jas. ; copying-machine \nWallace, A. R. ; development, 1S70 \nWallace, sir W. ; exec. 1305 ; Fal- \nkirk, Cambuskenneth, 1297 \nWallace, D. M. ; Molokani \nWallace, sir Richard, philan., 1818- \n\n90 ; Bethnal Green \nWallaces ; trials, 1841 \nWallenstein, Albert, general, 1583- \n\n1634 ; Mecklenburg \nWaller, G., velocipede \nWaller, sir W. ; Abingdon, 1644 \nWallis, circumnavigator ; Otaheite, \n\nWallis, 1766 \nWallis, sir Provo W. P., 1791-1892, \n\nChesaiieake \nWallon ; France, 1875 \nWalpole, Horace, 1717-97 ; letters \nWalpole, sir Robert, 1676-1745 ; Wal- \npole, adm. ; sinking fund \n\n\n\nWalpole, Spencer-Horatio, 6. 1806; \n\nDerby adm., 1852-66 \nWalsh, "abp. ; Parnellites, 1889 \nWalsh, Mrs. ; murdered, trials, 1832 \nWalsh, Nicholas ; printing, 1571 \nWalsingham, lord ; att.-gen., 1766; \n\nfarmers\' union, 1874 \nWalsingham, sir F. ; administra- \ntions, 1587 \nWalter, E. ; commissionaires, 1859 \nWalter, J., 1739-1812 ; Times, 1785 ; \n\nprinting, 1872 \nWaltheof ; beheading, 1076 \nWalton, Brian, 1600-61 ; polyglot \nWalton, Izaac, 1593-1683 ; angling \nWalworth ; Blackheath, mace, 1381 \nWarburton, Eliot (lost), Amazon, \n\n1852 \nWard, Mr. ; forgery, 1726 \nWard, E. M., R. A., d. 1879 \nWard, N. B. ; aquarium, Ward\'s \n\ncases, 1829 \nWardle, col. ; impeachment, Wardle \n\nv. duke of York ; trials, 1809 \nWardley, James ; shakers \nWarenne, earl of; Dunbar, 1296 \nWarham, abp. ; Canterbury, 1503 ; \n\nadministrations, 1509 \nWarington, R. ; aquarium, 1850 \nWarner, Mrs., d. 1854; theatre \nWarner, Messrs. ; bells, 1856 \nWarren, admiral sir John Borlase ; \n\nnaval battles, 179S \nWarren, sir Chas. ; Soudan, 1886 ; \n\nBechuanaland ; police \nWarren, Sam., novelist, 1807-77 \nWarrington gang ; trials, 1806 \nWarsop, Geo. ; aero-steam engine, \n\n1869 \nWarton, Thomas ; poet-laureate, 1785 \nWarwick, earl of ; Barnet, St. Albans, \n\nWakefield, 1460 \nWarwick, John Dudley, earl of ; ad- \nministrations, 1551 \nWashington, George, 1732-99 ; United \n\nStates, York Town, Virginia \nWason, Rigby ; trial, 1867 \nWaterhouse, Mr. ; Paul\'s school, St. \nWaterland, Dr. ; Athanasian Creed, \n\nJ 7 2 3 \n\nWaters, M. ; infanticide, trials, 1870 \nWaterton, Chas. ; naturalist, 1782- \n\n1865 \nWathen, capt. ; trials, 1834 \nWatson, admiral; India, 1756 \nWatson, J. C. ; planets, 1862 \nWatson, rev. J. S. ; trials, 1871 ; d. \n\n1884 \nWatson, bishop ; Llandaff, 1782 ; \n\nphlogiston \nWatson, Thos., M.D., 1792-1882 \nWatson, sir Wm. ; electricity, 1740 ; \n\nlightning conductor ; trials, 181 7 \nWatt and Downie ; trials, 1794 \nWatt, Jas., 1736-1819; lunar society, \n\nsteam engine \nWatteau, Ant., French painter, 1684- \n\n1721 \nWatts, H., 1815-84 ; chemistry \nWatts, Isaac, 1674-1748 ; hymns \nWatts ; theatres, trials, 1S50; suicide \nWatts, T. ; newspapers, 1766 \nWeare, Mr. ; trials, 1824 \nWeathershed, abp. ; Canterbury, \n\n1229 \nWebb, capt. ; swimming, 1875 \nWebbe, Sam., music, 1740-1817 \nWeber, Carl von, 1 786-1826 ; music \nWeber, W. & E., physicists, undu- \n\nlatory theory \nWebster, C, Richmond murder \nWebster, Daniel, d. 1852 ; United \n\nStates \nWebster, Dr. ; trials, 1842 \nWebster, sir Godfrey ; trials, 1797 \nWebster, Mr.; aluminium \nWebster, sir R. E., att.-gen, 1885, \n\n1886 ; Parnellites, 1888 \n\n\n\n1132 \n\n\n\nINDEX. \n\n\n\nWebster, T. ; painter, 1800-86 \nWedgwood, Josiah, 1730-95 ; earthen- \nware, Wedgwood (porcelain) \nWedgwood, T. ; photography, 1802 \nWeed, Thurlow; United States, d. \n\n1882 \nWeekes, H., R.A., 1807-77 \nWeld, Mr. ; trappists \nWeldon, Mrs.; trials, 1884-8 \nWeldon, Walter ; alkalies, 1877 \nWellesley, sir A. ; see Wellington \nWellesley, marquis; India, 1798 \nWellesley, Mr. Long ; duel, 1828 \nWellesley, Pole, v. Misses Long ; \n\ntrials, 1825 \nWellesley v. Paget ; trials, 1809 ; v. \n\nMornington, trials, 1868 \nWellington, duke of, 1769-1852 ; \nWellington ; commander-in-chief, \nduelling, 1824 ; duels, 1829 ; trials, \n1830 \nWells, W. ; dew, 1814 \nWells, lord Lyon ;]Ireland (lord lieut. ), \n\n1438 \nWeltmann, poisoning, 1859 \nWemyss, see Elcho \nWenham ; heat \n\nWensleydale, lord ; lords, note \nWerdermann, electric light, 1878 \nWerner, A. G., 1750-1817; geology, \n\n1775 \n\nWerner, eapt. ; Spain, 1873 \nWeskett, John; commerce, chambers \n\nof, 1782 \nWesley, J., 1703-91 ; Wesleyans \nWest, Benj., 1738-1820; Royal Acade- \nmy, 1792 \nWestbury, lord chancellor ; Palmers- \nton adm., 1861 ; 1873-80 \nWesterton v. Liddell ; trials, 1855 \nWestmacott, sir R., sculpt., 1775- \n\n1856; R. 1799-1872 \nWcstmeath, lord ; trials, 1 796 \nWestmoreland, earl of ; Ireland (lord- \n\nlieut.), 1790 \nWeston, E. P.; pedestrianism, 1874-7 \nWeston, Richard lord ; administra- \ntions, 1628 \nWetherell, sir Chas. ; attorney-gen., \n\n1826; Bristol \nWetherell, rev. Mr. ; trials, 1845 \nWeyland, Thomas de ; bribery, 1288 \nWeymouth ; North- West passage, \n\n1602 \nWeymouth, visct. ; Grafton adm. 1767 \nWhalleywillcase; trials, 1883-4 \nWharncliffe, Id. ; Peel adm., 1834 \nWharton, Thomas, marquis of ; \n\nHalifax adm., 1714 \nWharton, Miss; marriages, i6yo \nWhately, abp. R., 1787-1863 ; logic, \n\npolitical economy, <fec. \nWheatstone, sir C., 1802-75; cryp- \ntography ; stereoscope, electricity, \n1834 ; electric telegraph, and clock, \nmicrophone, telephone \nWheeler, sir Hugh ; Cawnpore, 1857 \nWheeler, al. Pearcey, Mrs. ; trials, \n\n1890 \nWhewell, Rev. W., philosopher, 1794- \n\n1866 ; international law \nWhistler v. Ruskiii, trials, 1S78 ; im- \npressionists \nWinston, W., theol., d. 1752 \nWhitaker ; almanack, 1874 \nWhiibread, Samuel; suicide, 1S15 \nWhite, H. K., poet, 1785-1806 \nWhite, Thos. , Sion College, 1623 ; \n\nmayor, 1876 \nWhite, sir W. ; Turkey, 1886 \nWhiteneld, G, 1714-70; Whitefleld- \n\nites, Wesleyans, 1741 \nWhitehead, Jas. ; Id. mayor, 1888 ; \n\nvolunteers, 1889 \nWhitehead, W. d. 1785 ; poet laureate \nWhitelock, gen. ; Buenos Ayres, 1807 \nWhitgift, abp. ; Canterbury, 1583 \nWhitman, Walt, Am. poet\'; 1819-92 \n\n\n\nWhitney, Eli ; cotton, 1793 \n\nWhittall ; coins, 1884 \n\nWhittington ; lord mayor, 1465 ; \n\nLeadenhall \nWhittlesey, archbp. ; Canterbury, \n\n1268 \nWhitworth, sir Joseph, 1803-87 ; \ncannon, plane, Shoeburyness, 1861; \nWhitworth \nWhitworth, earl; Ireland, 1813 \nWhymper, E., Andes ; Matterhorn \nWhyte, mag. - gen. ; Demerara, \n\n1796 \nWickens, sir J. ; vice-chancellor, \n\n1871 \nWickham, William of, 1 324-1405 ; \n\neducation, Oxford, Winchester \nWickliffe (Wycliffe), John, 1324-87; \n\nWickliffltes, Bible \nWicklow peerage, trials, 1870 \nWieland, C. ; Germ, niiseel., 1733- \n\n1813 \nWigram, bp. ; Rochester, i860 \nWilberforce, bp. ; Oxford, 1846 \nWilberforce, W., 1759-1833 ; slave- \ntrade ; \xe2\x80\x94 S. , Winchester, bp. \nWilberforce, bp. E. R., Newcastle- \n\non-Tyne, 1882 \nWild, Jonathan; executed, 1725 \nWilde, sir James, 6. 1816; probate \n\ncourt, 1863 ; see Penzance \nWilfride, bp. ; Chichester, 673 \nWilkes, capt. ; circumnavigation, \n\n1838; United States, 1861 \nWilkes, John; North Briton, obe- \nlisk, warrants; duel, 1763; trials, \n1764 \nWilkie, sir D., painter, 1785-1841 \nWilkins, Dr.; Wadhani, 1613 \nWilkinson, Catherine ; baths, 1832 \nWilkinson, sir John Gardner, Egyp- \ntologist, 1797-1875 \nWilkinson, bp. G. H.; Truro, 1883 \nWilkinson, Is. ; air (compressing), \n\n1757 \n\nWilliam I., England, 1066; Battle- \nabbey, conquest, Domesday, castles \n\nWilliam II. ; England, 1087 \n\nWilliam III.; England, 1689, revolu- \ntion. Boyne, Enghien, Je main- \ntiendrai, New Forest \n\nWilliam IV.; England, kings, 1830; \nadmiral \n\nWilliam I.; emperor; Prussia, 1861 ; \nGermany, 1870-88 ; assassinations \n\nWilliam II. ; Germany, 1888. \n\nWilliam; Holland, Scotland \n\nWilliams, prof.; Indian hist. \n\nWilliams, Ann; trials, 1753 \n\nWilliams, David, d. 1816 ; literary \nfund \n\nWilliams, Mr. ; Manchester, 1882 \n\nWilliams, John, dean ; adminis., 162 1 \n\nWilliams; see Burking \n\nWilliams, Roger; America, 1635 \n\nWilliams, gen. W. F. ; Kars, 1855 \n\nWilliamson, sir Joseph; administra- \ntions, 1629 \n\nWilloughby, sir Hugh ; north-east \npassage, 1553 \n\nWilloughby de Eresby, lord; cham- \nberlain, lord great, 1626 \n\nWilloughby, lieut. ; Delhi, 1857 \n\nWills, gen.; Preston, 1715 \n\nWilmot, lieut. E. ; Ashantees, 1S73 \n\nWilmot, M. A., trials, 1881 \n\nWilmington, earl of ; Wilmington \nadm., 1742 \n\nWilson, capt.; Pelew Islands, 1783 \n\nWilson, sir A.; Delhi, 1857 \n\nWilson, sir James Erasmus, 1809-84 ; \nAberdeen ; obelisks (Cleopatra\'s \nneedle), 1877-8 ; Egypt expl. fund \n\nWilson, rev. Carlyle ; church army \n\nWilson, G., colour blindness \n\nWilson, H. H. ; Sanskrit professor, \n1832 \n\nWilson, sir C; Soudan, 1883 \n\n\n\nWilson, sir Daniel, antiquary, 1816-92 \nWilson, sir Robert; Lavalette, 1815 \nWilson, prof. John, 1785-1854 \nWilson, sir John M., Hampstead \nWilson, Mrs. C. ; poisoning, trials, \n\n1862 \nWilson, capt. W. ; United States, \n\n1862, note \nWilson, M. ; France, 1387-8. \nWilson, Dr. ; sun \nWilton, earl of; trials, 1859 \nWimshurst, James ; electricity, 1882 \nWinchelsea, abp. ; Canterbury, 1293 \nWinchester, gen.; Frenchtowii, 1813 \nWinchester, Henry ; mayor, lord, \n\nl8 34 , . . \n\nWinchester, W., marquis of; adminis- \ntrations, 1554 \n\nWinchilsea, earl of; duel, 1829 \n\nWinchilsea, earl of ; Wilmington \nadm., 1742; Bath adm., 1746 \n\nWindebank, sir Francis ; administra- \ntions, 1635 \n\nWindham, general; India, 1857 \n\nWindham, W. F.; trials, 1861-2 \n\nWindham, Wm.; Grenvilleadm., 1806 \n\nWindisehgratz, prince; Vienna, 1848 \n\nWinsor, Charlotte; trials, 1865 \n\nWinstanley ; Eddystone, 1696 \n\nWinslow, E. D. ; extradition, 1876 \n\nWinslow, Dr F.; trials, 1884 \n\nWinter, T. ; boxing \n\nWinwood, sir Ralph ; administra- \ntions, 1612 \n\nWinzengerode, gen. ; Kalisch, 1813 \n\nWise, prof. ; balloons, 1873 \n\nWiseman, cardinal Nicholas, 1802-65; \necclesiastical titles, papal aggres- \nsion, Rome, Ireland, 1S58 \n\nWissman, capt. ; Zanzibar, 1889 ; \nAfrica (German E.), 1889 \n\nWithers, Dr. ; libel, 1789 \n\nWitherings, Thomas; post-office, 1631 \n\nWithering-ton, W., painter, 1786-1865 \n\nWithing, Richard ; Glastonbury, 1539 \n\nWitikind (Saxon chief), d. after 793 \n\nWittgenstein, gen. ; Polotsk, Witepsk, \n1812 \n\nWitts, De ; massacred, 1672 \n\nWodehouse, lord ; Ireland (lord- \nlieut.), 1864 \n\nWodehouse, sir P. ; Bombay, 1872 \n\nWodehouse, col. ; Soudan, 1889 \n\nWoden ; Wednesday \n\nWohler, F., 1800-82 ; aluminium, 1827 \n\nWolcot, Dr., alias Peter Pindar; \ntrials, 1807 \n\nWolf, F. A. ; Homer \n\nWolfe, gen. ; Quebec, 1759 \n\nWolff, Dr. J. ; Bookhara, 1884 ; sir \nH. D., fourth party; Turkey, \n1885 ; Persia. \n\nWolfius ; anemometer, 1709 \n\nWollaston, Wm. ; 1766-1828 ; cryo- \nphorus, camera, blow pipe, pal- \nladium, rhodium, hypsometer \n\nWolseley, sir Charles ; trials, 1820 \n\nWolseley, sir Garnet (aft. Id.) b. 1833; \nHudson\'s Bay, 1870 ; Ashantee, \n1873 ; Amoafui, 1874 ; West Africa, \n1873 ; Cyprus, 1878; Natal; Zulu- \nland, 1879 ; Egypt, 1882 ; Tel-el- \nKebir, 1882 ; Soudan, 1884 \n\nWolsey, cardinal, 1471-1530 ; adms., \n1514 ; Hampton, Whitehall, York \n\nWolverton, Id. ; Gladstone adm., \n1886. \n\nWombwell ; zoology \n\nWood, sir Charles (aft. lord Halifax) ; \nRussell adm., 1846 ; Palmerston \nadm., 1855 \n\nWood,col. sirEvelvn, Zululand, 1S79; \nEgypt, 1882 \n\nWood v. Cox ; races, 1888. \n\nWood, Matthew : mayors of London, \n1815 \n\nWood, sir W. P., justice, chancellor, \n\n\n\nINDEX. \n\n\n\n1133 \n\n\n\nWood ; Palmyra, 1751-53 \nWoodford, bp. J. R. ; Ely, 1873 \nWoodfall, Mr. ; trials, 1786 \nWoodmason ; ruling machines \nWooler, Mr: ; trials, 1817, 1855 \nWoolley, Mr. ; trials, 1863 \nWorburton ; trials, 1885. \nWorcester, marquis of; steam, tele- \ngraph, 1663 \nWorcester, Edward, earl of; adms., \n\n1621 \nWordsworth, Wm. ; 1770-1850 ; poet- \nlaureate \nWortley, col. H. Stuart; mansion- \nhouse fund, 1871 \nWotton, sir Edward ; sugar, 1546 \nWouvermanns, painters, 1620-83 \nWray, sir C. ; King\'s Bench, 1573 \nWrede, gen. ; Hanau, 1813 \nWren, sir Christopher, architect, \n1632-1723 ; Chelsea, engraving, \nGreenwich, monument, St. Paul\'s, \nWalbrook \nWren, Matthew ; Royal Society \nWrench, Mr. ; theatres, 1809 \nWright ; Mereator\'s charts, 1556 \nWright, sir Rob. ; King\'s Bench, 1687 \nWright and Doyle ; trials, 1851 \nWriothesley, lord ; administrations, \n\n1547 \n\nWurmser, gen. ; Castiglione, 1796 \nWurtz,prof. K. A., 1817-84; chemistry; \n\nFaraday medal, 1878 \nWyatt, sir Thos. ; rebellions, 1554 \nWybrow ; aquarium, 1876 \nWyld, J. ; globe, 1851 \nWynkyn de Worde ; angling, 1496 ; \n\nprinting \nWynn, W. ; Canning adm., 1827 \nWyon, W., medallist, 1795-1851 \nWyse, L. A. B. ; Panama \n\n\n\nXavier, Francis ; 1506-52 ; Jesuits \n\nXenophanes, d. 465 b.c. ; Eleaticsect, \nPantheism \n\nXenophon ; anatomy, couriers, cym- \nbals, retreat of the Greeks, 401 B.C. \n\nXerxes ; Persia, 485 B.C. ; Mycale, \nSalamis \n\nXimenes, card., 1437-1517; polyglot \n\n\n\nYakoob, Afghanistan, 1867-79, Kash- \n\ngar \nYale, Elisha ; auctions, 1700 \nYarrow, Mr. ; spirit motor \nYates, E., nov. ; trials, 1884-5 \nYeh, commissioner ; China, 1857 \nYelverton, major ; trials, i860 \nYonge, sir Geo. ; Shelburne adm., 1783 \nYonge, miss C. ; names \nYork, bishop ; Ely, 1781 \nYork, cardinal ; Scotland, 1807 \nYork, Fred., duke of, 1763-1827 \n\nYork \nYork, James, duke of; Solebay, 1672 \nYorke, Charles, chancellor, lord high, \n\n1770 \nYorke, sir Philip; att.-gen. ; king\'s \n\nbench, 1733 \nYorke, Mr. Redhead ; trial, 1795 \nYoul, J. A., salmon ova \nYoung ; impostors, 1692 \nYoung, Brigham, 1801-77 ; Mormon- \n\nites \nYoung, major ; Prescott, 1838 \nYoung, Charles ; theatre, 1807 \n\n\n\nYoung, Edw., poet, 1684-1765 \nYoung, Thos., 1773-1829 ; Royal In- \nstitution, colour, spectrum \nYoungman, W. ; executions, i860 \nYule, sir H., 1820-89 ; orientalist \n\n\n\nZabala ; Spain, 1874 \n\nZacharias ; pope, 741 \n\nZaleucus; sumptuary laws, 450 B.C. \n\nZamoyski, count ; Poland, 1862 \n\nZankoff; Bulgaria \n\nZasulitch, V. ; Russia, 1S78 \n\nZazel ; Aquarium \n\nZechariah prophesies about 520 b.c. \n\nZeno (stoic), fl. 299 b.c. ; eastern \nempire, 474 \n\nZenobia ; Palmyra, 263 \n\nZenon ; Armenia, 18 \n\nZephaniah prophesies abt. 630 B.C. \n\nZephyrinus ; pope, 202 \n\nZetland, earl of; Salisbury adm., \n1886 ; Ireland, Id. lieut., 1889. \n\nZeuxis, fl. 455-400 b.c. ; painting \n\nZimmerman ; physiognomy, 1776 \n\nZinzendorf, 1700-60 ; Moravians \n\nZiska; Bohemia, 1417 \n\nZoh ; eastern empire, 1034 \n\nZola, E. , naturalism \n\nZollicoffer, gen. ; 0". States, 1861 \n\nZorilla, R.; Spain, 1872-3 \n\nZoroaster (supposed author of " Zen- \ndavesta"); about 555 B.C., fire- \nworshippers \n\nZosimus ; alchemy, 410 \n\nZukkertort, J. S., chess \n\nZumalacarregui (Carlist) ; killed near \nBilbao, 1835 \n\nZumpie, M. ; pianoforte, 1766 \n\nZurbano, gen. ; Spain, 1844 \n\n\n\nADDENDA. \n\n\n\nPAGE \n\n8. AFGHANISTAN. \xe2\x80\x94 The ameer\'s encroach- \nments on the Hazaras (checked by the In- \ndian government) lead to frequent con- \nflicts, and insurrection of other tribes, May, \nJune; the ameer unsuccessful. Rebels join \nthe Hazara tribes .... July, \n\nThe Indian government proposes to send to \nthe ameer a deputation headed by lord \nRoberts : he approves, but defers receiving \nit, about 7 Aug. ; the ameer\'s army about \n40,000, reported .... Aug. \n\nThe governor of Candahar and his troops re- \npulsed by the Hazaras, reported . 22 Aug. \n\nThe ameer\'s troops capture Kamsin from the \nrebels, reported 30 Aug. ; the war continues \nwith varying results . . . Sept. \n\n19. AFRICA.\xe2\x80\x94 Capt. W. Grant Stairs, able com- \n\npanion of Mr. H. M. Stanley, commander of \nan expedition sent out by the Katanga com- \npany with 380 natives, May, dies when re- \nturning to Zanzibar ; capt. Bodson, his \ncolleague, dies in May ; conflicts with \nnatives reported ; the marquis de Bonchamp \nand others return to France reporting great \nsufferings .... about 24 July, \n\n20. AFRICA, GERMAN EAST.\xe2\x80\x94 Emin pasha\'s \n\ngeographical expedition starts from Kahura, \n22 March, with Dr. Stuhlmann; suffers by \nwant of provisions, &c, Dec. 1891 ; expedition \ndivides, Emin ill, left behind by Dr. Stuhl- \nmann, who goes to the German station on \nlake Victoria, 15 Feb., reported . May, \nAn expedition defeated by the natives in Moshi \nterritory, near Kilima Njaro, baron von \n\n\n\nBillow, lieut. Wolfram and 30 men killed, \n\xe2\x80\xa2 10 June et seq. , the station at Kilima Njaro \n\nabandoned, reported, 30 June ; re-occupied \nwithout fighting ... 29 July, \n\nDr. Stuhlmann at Bagamoyo . . 1 Aug. \n20. AFRICA, BRITISH EAST. \xe2\x80\x94 Witu tran- \nquilized by Mr. Berkeley ; the ex-sultan \nsubmits, reported . . .10 June, \nThe company\'s new courts of justice at Mom- \nbasa opened by judge Cracknall . 10 June, \nTreaty of the company with the king of \nUganda (which see) i\xc2\xa3 \n\n49. ARABIA.\xe2\x80\x94 -Iman Ahmed Eddin, or Hamid- \nEddin, killed ; the rebellion quelled, and \nthe province Yemen pacified by the Turkish \ngovernor, reported .... 7 Sept. \n59. ARMY. \xe2\x80\x94 Manoeuvres (regulars and volunteers) \n- in Surrey, Hants, and Berks ; battles, &c, \ncommanders, sir Evelyn Wood and others, \n18 July \xe2\x80\x94 20 Aug. \nMr. Henry Campbell-Bannerman appointed \nsecretary for war . . . 18 Aug. \n87. BALLOONS.\xe2\x80\x94 Capt. Wm. Duncan Dale and \n3 others ascend in a balloon at the Crystal \npalace ; the balloon bursts ; capt. Dale killed \nby the fall, 29 June ; Mr. Cecil V. Shadbolt \ndies, 8 July ; William Dale (son) and Mr. \nJohn Macintosh much injured, recover, July, \n[Capt. Dale had made nearly 200 ascents.] \n113. BEHRING STRAITS.\xe2\x80\x94 Seven arbitrators ap- \npointed to settle the dispute : British, lord \nHannen and sir John Thompson ; American, \nMr. justice Harlan and senator Morgan ; \n\n\n\n1892 \n\n\n\n1134 \n\n\n\nADDENDA. \n\n\n\nFrench, baron Alphonse de Courcel ; Italian, \nmarquis Yisconti Venosta ; one Swedish, \n\nJuly, Aug. \n\nThe British steamer Coquittam, and 25 sealers \nbelonging to Victoria, British Columbia, \nseized by the U. S. cutter, Comvin, 22 June ; \nthe Canadian government protests . July \n\nThe British schooner Winifred seized by the \nU. S. Rush 20 July, \n\nSeveral Victoria sealers seized by a Russian \ngunboat, as being in Russian waters ; the \ncrews made to sign papers and dismissed, \nJuly ; Canadian government protests, \n\nSept. -Oct. \n\n133. BOHEMIA. \xe2\x80\x94 Fire in the great silver mine, \n\nBirkenberg, near Przibram, about 319 \n\ndeaths 31 May, \n\n158. BULGARIA.\xe2\x80\x94 Trial of 18 persons connected \nwith the conspiracy against prince Fer- \ndinand and the assassination of M. Beltcheff \n(27 March, 1891), 30 June \xe2\x80\x94 18 July ; sen- \ntences, imprisonment : M. Petko Karaveloff, \nex-premier and regent, five years ; Ghorghi \nVelikoff, 15 years ; three persons, 9 years ; \none, s years ; one, three years ; one, sixteen \nmonths ; six acquitted ; Sweetoslaw Milaroff, \nConstantin Popoff, Toma Gheorghieff, and \nAlexander Karaguloff sentenced to death, \n\n18 July ; executed . . , 27 July, \nM. Stambouloff, invited by the sultan, warmly \n\nreceived at Constantinople . 12, 14 Aug. \n\nFirst Bulgarian exhibition opened at Philip- \n\npopolis by prince Ferdinand . 27 Aug. \n\n162. BURMAH.\xe2\x80\x94 Amnesty to the Tsawbwa of \n\nWuntho and his followers ; he enters China \n\nabout 15 May, \n\nLieut. Nightingale repulses an attack on \nLwekaw, in the S. Shan States . 25 June, \n184. CARDINALS.\xe2\x80\x94 Edward Henry Howard, an \nEnglish cardinal, died, 16 Sept. 1892, aged 63. \n209. CHINA. \xe2\x80\x94 Bill for the stringent exclusion of \nChinese immigrants from the United States, \nN. A., passed by the congress . early May, \n\nRenewed outrages on European missionaries, \n27 April, reported ... 14 June, \n211. CHOLERA, 1892. \xe2\x80\x94 The disease appeared in \nIndia in March ; about 6,000 deaths in Cabul \nand 2,000 deaths in Herat were reported ; \nand about 3,000 deaths in Cashmere up to \n3 June, \n\nPersia : Total deaths reported, 30,000, May- \nSept, (deaths in Teheran rose from 20 to 800 \ndaily, 7-21 Aug., and gradually decreased). \n\nRussia: The disease appeared in the south \nand. thence traversed the empire, June. It \nwas severe in Baku and neighbouring dis- \ntricts ; St. Petersburg, total deaths up to \n31 Aug., 550 ; decrease ; n deaths, 19 Sept. ; \n5 deaths ...... 8 Oct. \n\nAll Russia : 1,302 deaths up to 25 July; 107,647 \ndeaths up to 22 Aug. (1,326 deaths 10 Sept.) \n\nFrance : Paris, choleraic disease, 305 deaths, \nJune-s Sept. ; 6 deaths, 19 Sept. ; 6 deaths, \n\n8 Oct. \n\nHavre : 333 deaths, 30 July-6 Sept. ; 6 deaths, \n\n19 Sept. ; 1 death . . . .2 Oct. \nHamburg State: 7,536 deaths, 21 Aug.-i Oct. ; \n\n83 deaths, 21 Aug. ; 200 deaths, 22 Aug. ; 67 \ndeaths, 19 Sept. ; 23 deaths, 26 Sept. ; 2 \ndeaths 8 Oct. \n\nAntwerp: 14 deaths up to 25 Aug. ; 47 deaths \nup to 19 Sept. \n\nGreat Britain : a few isolated cases, chiefly \nforeigners, some fatal . . Aug. -Sept. \n228. COAL. \xe2\x80\x94 Accidents, 1892. Explosions, &c. \nYniscelyn colliery in Ystradgynlais, Brecon, \nderangement of machinery, 7 deaths, 24 \nAug. Park Slip colliery, Aberkenfig-cefn, \nnear Bridgend, S. Wales ; out of 151 persons, \nthere were 112 deaths, 26 Aug. Mr. Asquith, \nthe home secretary, visited the place, \n\n28 Aug. \n\nAgrappe colliery, Frameries, Belgium ; 25 \ndeaths 1 Sept. \n\n134. COLOUR. (Foot note.)\xe2\x80\x94 The Royal Society \n\ncommission appointed in March to consider \n\n\n\n1892 \n\n\n\nxEo-j \n\n\n\nPAGE \n\ncolour blindness, reported in May, 1892 ; \nHolmgren\'s method of testing by the use of \nskeins of coloured wool was recommended. \n236 COMMERCE.\xe2\x80\x94 The proposal to establish " a \nchamber of arbitration," or "tribunal of \ncommerce" at Guildhall, London, for the \ncity, to decide on cases of arbitration, &c, \nwas adopted, July ; its functions to com- \nmence Nov. \n\n242. CONGO.\xe2\x80\x94 The killing of M. de Poumayrac in \ndebatable land causes a territory dispute \nbetween France and Belgium ; the Congo \nstate declines responsibility ; arbitration pro- \nposed and deferred, July, Aug. ; the French \ndemand indemnity and evacuatior. of the land, \n7 Aug. ; the death of M. Poumayrac and some \nof his party, attributed to indiscreet dealings \nwith the natives .... Sept. \n\nReported rising of the Arabs in the Upper \nCongo, and massacre of Europeans, anti- \nslavery agents, &c, including M. Hodister, \nan able officer of the Katanga company, 12 \nAug. ; fighting with slave-traders, conflicting \nreports, Aug. ; report of the massacre of M. \nHodister confirmed . . .14 Sept. \n\nMajor de Wagis, vice-governor, appointed \ngovernor .... about 26 Aug. \n\n254. COSTA RICA. \xe2\x80\x94 President Rodriguez declares \nhimself dictator and arrests opponents \n\n13 Sept. \n270. DAHOMEY. \xe2\x80\x94Col. Dodds, commander of the \nFrench expedition, arrives at Kotonou, 28 \nMay ; Whydah occupied by 4,000 French \ntroops, 11 June ; the coast blockaded, 16 \nJune ; several villages bombarded, about 5 \nJuly ; the coast bombarded, 9 Aug. et seq. \nTaku captured, 20 Aug. ; Katngu taken, 24 \nAug. ; reinforcements from France arrive, \n24 Aug. ; about 4,000 Dahomeyans defeated \nwith heavy loss in an attack on col. Dodds\' \ncolumn at Dogba ; French loss slight ; com- \nmandant Faurax killed, 17 or 19. Sept. ; \nDahomeyans again defeated . 4 Oct. \n\n298. DUBLIN. \xe2\x80\x94 New city market, shops, &c, de- \nstroyed by fire, very great loss, 27 Aug. ; \npublic meeting to raise a fund for restora- \ntion ...... 29 Aug. \n\n307. EARTHQUAKES. \xe2\x80\x94San Cristobal, Mexico, \nevery building destroyed, thousands homeless, \n30 July, \n\nShocks in W. and S. W. England, from Swan- \nsea to Cornwall and Ireland ; little damage ; \nboats injured by tidal wave . 17, 18 Aug. \n341. ENGLAND. \xe2\x80\x94 Dissolution of parliament, 28 \nJune ; general election : conservatives, 268 ; \nliberal unionists, 47 (315) ; liberals (Glad- \nstonians), 270 ; Parnellites, 9 ; anti-Parnell- \nites, 72 ; labour members, 4 (355) ; total, 670 \n23 July, \n\nDeath of Robert Lowe, viscount Sherbrooke, \nstatesman, aged 80 . . . 27 July, \n\nVisit of the German emperor . . 1-8 Aug. \n\nMeeting of parliament, 4 Aug. ; want of con- \nfidence in the Salisbury ministry voted \n(350 \xe2\x80\x94 310), 11 Aug. ; the ministry resigns, \n\n13 Aug. \n\nMr. Gladstone\'s ministry conatituted, \n\n18 Aug. et seq. \n\nParliament prorogued till 4 Nov . 18 Aug. \n\nDeath of Alfred, lord Tennyson, poet-laureate, \n6 Oct. ; aged 83. \n357. EXECUTIONS.\xe2\x80\x94 Henry Pickering, murder of \nwife ; Leeds .... 14 June, \n\nJohn Gurd, alias Louis Hamilton, murder of \nHenry Richards : Devizes . . 26 July, \n\nJohn G. Wenzel, murder of Joseph Joyce, a \npolice officer ; and James Taylor, murder of \nwife ; Newgate .... 16 Aug. \n\nPatrick Gibbons, murder of mother; Liver- \npool . . ... 17 Aug. \n\nEXPORTS.\xe2\x80\x94 1891, 247,23^150^. \n\n\n\n1S92 \n\n\n\n60. \n374- \n\n\n\nFIRES IN LONDON.\xe2\x80\x94 Mr. S. Burrows\' danc- \ning academy, Hargrave-park-road, Upper \nHolloway ; Win. Smart and Wm. Abernetliy, \nfiremen, killed .... 10 June, \n\nJewin-street and crescent, Aldersgate-street, \n\n\n\nADDENDA. \n\n\n\n113.5 \n\n\n\npremises belonging to the Goldsmiths\' com- \npany, tenanted by the London Printing and \nPublishing Alliance, and others . 29 Aug. 1 \n407. FRANCE. \xe2\x80\x94 Tour of president Carnot ; present \nat the Nancy fetes . . . 5, 6 June, 1 \nThe due de la Rochefoucauld\'s declaration of \nsubmission to the pope in matters of the \nfaith, but not in state affairs, signed by 40 \nof the 70 royalist deputies . . 9 June, \nRavachol, on his confession of robbing and \nmurdering Jean Rivollier, an aged hermit \nat Varizelle, sentenced to death at Mont- \nbrison, 23 June ; executed . 11 July, \n31. Godefroy Cavaignac, minister of marine, \nresigns (censured in relation to Dahomey) ; \nsucceeded by M. Burdeau . . n July, \nM. Ressmann, new Italian ambassador, re- \nceived by the president . . 11 July, \nGovernment protest against the presence of \nProtestant missionaries in Algeria, \n\nabout 5 July, \nDecree signed for the Universal exhibition, \n5 May\xe2\x80\x94 31 Oct. 1900 . . . 13 July, \n\nNaval manoeuvres near Brest, &c, \n\n24 July et seq. \nFaugoux and three other anarchists, sen- \ntenced to penal servitude (for 20, 10, 6, 5 \nyears) for stealing dynamite . 28 July, \nDisputes between the mining company at Car- \nmaux, in the department of Tarn, and their \nworkmen respecting the dismissal of M. \nCalvignac, a socialist workman and secre- \ntary of the miners\' union, who had been \nelected mayor, and consequently neglected \nhis work ; a general strike with much riot- \ning ensues, Aug.-Sept. ; great meeting at \nParis to support the strike 7 Sept. ; order \nmaintained by the military . about 27 Sept. \nCentenary of the proclamation of the first re- \npublic celebrated by the people at Paris, \nLyons, and other cities . . 22 Sept. \nDeath of Ernest Renan, scholar . 2 Oct. \n438. GERMANY. \xe2\x80\x94 The government warns its re- \npresentatives abroad against prince Bis- \nmarck\'s strictures on its policy, May \xe2\x80\x94 July, ii \nPrince Bismarck visits Jena, makes defensive \nspeeches . . . . 30, 31 July, \nThe emperor visits England . 1-8 Aug. \nThe armour-clad Hildebrand, and the iron-clad \nWorth, launched at Kiel . . 7 Aug. \n444. GLASS. \xe2\x80\x94 The manufacture of Venetian glass \nprobably introduced from Constantinople \nand perfected in the 15th and following cen- \nturies. Venetian glass is now manufactured \nat Venice and in England (1892) by Dr. Sal- \nviati ; he presented a splendid glass vase to \nthe queen on the anniversary of her corona- \ntion day, 28 June, 1892. See Mosaics. \n472. HEAT, see United States, July, 1892. A wave \nof intense heat passed over Europe, causing \nmany deaths, 19-22 Aug. 1892. Tempera- \nture in the shade, Paris, gC\'^ 19 Aug. ; \nTrieste, no\xc2\xb0, 21 Aug. ; Vienna, icv" 1 , 18 Aug. ; \n102\xc2\xb0, 21 Aug. ; Berlin, 95\xc2\xb0, 20 Aug. ; Madrid, \n106\xc2\xb0, 17 Aug. ; Seville, 120\xc2\xb0, 15 Aug. \n480. HOLLAND. \xe2\x80\x94 A section of the Merwede canal \nfrom Amsterdam to the north of the Leek, \nopened in presence of the queen and queen- \nregent 4 Aug. 1 \n\n494. IDAHO. \xe2\x80\x94 Conflicts among the miners at \nCoeur d\'Alene ; 4 non-union men killed, \n11 July; union men victors, state of re- \nbellion declared ; several soldiers and \nunionists killed ; martial law ; railway \nbridges blown up to stop troops coming, \n14, 15 July ; insurrection suppressed by \npresident Harrison\'s proclamation, \n\n15-18 July, 1 \n508. INDIA.\xe2\x80\x94 Petition of the Currency Association \nto parliament respecting the depreciation of \nthe rupee largely signed at Calcutta, Bom- \nbay, Madras, <fcc. .... Aug. 1 \nEarl of Kimberley appointed secretary for \n\nIndia 18 Aug. \n\nExpedition (5000 men) against the Black Moun- \ntain tribes organized under col. sir W. Lock- \nhart ... ... Sept. \n\n\n\n526. IRELAND.\xe2\x80\x94 Elections : Parnellites, 9; anti- \n\nParnellites, 72 . . . . j u]yi l8g2 \nLord Houghton appointed . lord lieutenant, \nMr. John Morley chief secretary . 18 Aug. \nOperation of the Crimes act in county Mayo \' \nand other formerly disturbed counties sus- \npended, 12 Aug.; in all Ireland, and the \nNational League declared legal . 13 Sept. \nOutrages by "moonlighters" near Macroom\' \' \n\nCork x g s e pt\' \n\nMr. John Morley, in a letter to Mr. Justin M\'Carthv\', " \n\nannounces the coming appointment of "a \n\ncommission to inquire into the position of \n\nevicted tenants .... 26 Sept. \n\n537. ITALY.\xe2\x80\x94 Ministerial victory in the chambers\' \n\n(majority, 194) . . . . It June! l8 \nI he king and queen received at Potsdam by \nthe German emperor . . 20-24 June \nDeath of general Cialdini, duke of Gaeta, emi- \' \nnent patriot and soldier, aged 81 . 8 Sept \n\n578. LIBERIA.\xe2\x80\x94 Martha Anna Ricks, a freed \' \n\nnegress, aged 76, from Liberia, received by \nthe queen at Windsor, 16 July ; the queen \nand Mrs. Ricks exchange portraits . Sept. 1802 \n\n579. LIBRARIES. \xe2\x80\x94 The magnificent Althorp \n\nlibrary, collected by George John, earl \nSpencer, was described and "illustrated by \nDr. T. F. Dibdin in his " Bibliotheca Spen- \ncenana," 7 vols., published 1814-23. It \nwas privately sold by the present earl to \nMrs. Rylands, widow of John Rvlands, a \ncotton manufacturer, and added to a public \nlibrary, founded by her in Manchester as a \nmemorial of her husband ; announced, Auk. 1802 \n\n587. LIVERPOOL.-Mr. W. B. Levy and Mr. G. \nJ. Cohen, residuary legatees of Mr. David \nLewis, merchant, in accordance with his \nwishes, present about 350,000?. to the work- \ning-classes of Liverpool and Manchester ; \n\nannounced, June, 1892 \n\n596. LONDON UNIVERSITY\xe2\x80\x94 The establishment \nof a "Professoral university" for London \nwas proposed in June, 1892, by sir H. E. \nRoscoe, professors Rucker, E. Ray Lan- \ncaster, and others. \n\n617. MANSION-HOUSE FUNDS.\xe2\x80\x94 St. John\'s, New- \nfoundland, fire, relief fund for the sufferers \nstarted 12 July; received up to 15 July, \n6,oooL (the queen 50?. the prince of Wales \n16I. 5s., city of London corporation 210Z., \nGoldsmith\'s company 500?., and other com- \npanies ; sir Donald A. Smith i,oool.); \n2i,oooZ., 20 Aug. ; 22,359;. . 27 Sept. 1892 \n\nPark Slip colliery relief fund opened, 29 Aug. ; \nthe queen, 100Z. ; the marquis of Bute, 500?. ; \nthe lord mayor, D. Evans, 500?. ; received \nup to 14 Sept. 3,300?. . . . Sept. ,, \n\n65L MOROCCO.\xe2\x80\x94 Sir C. Euan Smith\'s negocia- \ntions for a commercial treaty fail; the \nmission withdraws to Tangier, 12 July et seq. 1892 \nRebellion of 1,200 Angherites, or Anjerites, \nheaded by Hmam, a desperate fanatic \n(chiefly against the governor), near Tangier, \nabout 27 July ; indecisive conflicts, July, \nAug. ; negociations, 16, 17 Aug. ; the An- \ngherites defeated after severe fighting; \nthey sue for peace, 4 Sept. ; a new governor \nappointed, reported 13 Sept. ; peace pro- \nclaimed T g Sept. ,, \n\n672. NAVY OF ENGLAND.\xe2\x80\x94 St. George, first-class \n\nbattleship, launched at Hull . 23 June, 1892 \nNaval manoeuvres, 5-13 Aug. 19 battleships \nand 17 other vessels engaged. Red squadron : \n2 divisions under adm. H. Fairfax and rear- \nadm. R. O\'B. Fitzroy ; Blue squadron under \nH. C. St. John. Manoeuvres in theSt. George\'s \nChannel and Irish Sea. The two Red divi- \nsions eventually unite and capture the Blue \nsquadron, the proposed object . 11 Aug. ,, \nBarfleur, ironclad, launched at Chatham, \n\n10 Aug. ,, \nRoyal Naixd Fund for the relief of widows and \norphans was founded by means of the sur- \nplus from the Naval exhibition of 1891 \n{which sec) . . . . . 29 June, \xe2\x80\x9e \nThe Leda and Alarm, gunboats, launched at \nSheerness . . . I3 Sept. , \n\n\n\nTHE WORLD\'S PROGRESS. \nJuly, 1867, to July, 1877. \n\nBEING AN ALPHABETICAL RECORD OF IMPORTANT PACTS AND OCCURRENCES DURING THOSE \nYEARS ; INCLUDING ALSO TOPICS OMITTED IN FORMER EDITIONS. \n\n\n\nABATTOIR. December 28, 1871, was opened at Deptford, a market and \nslaughter- house, where all foreign cattle for London consumption must \nbe landed and slaughtered. Cost, more than \xc2\xa3194,000. \n\nABYSSINIA. Theodore, the native King of Abyssinia, having imprisoned \nseveral English subjects, an expedition under Sir Robert Napier invaded \nthe country, and on April 13, 1868, stormed Magdala, the king\'s strong- \nhold, on which he killed himself. Cost of the war to England, \xc2\xa38 ,300,000. \nNapier was created Baron Napier of Magdala, with a pension of \xc2\xa32,000 \na year. King John, or Johanni, a successor of Theodore, has. since his \ndeath, maintained a defensive war against the Khedive of Egypt, whose \ntroops entered Abyssinia, but were surprised and defeated with much \nslaughter, in 1874 or 1875. In 1870, however, John was totally defeated, \nand treated for peace ; was again defeated after breaking truce ; but the \nlater results of the war have been indecisive. \n\nACCAD. Accad or Akkad, and Sumer or Sumir, are the names given to \ntwo pre-historic countries, whose people, called Accadians and Sumerians, \nare supposed to have used two differing dialects found in the cuneiform \ninscriptions of Assyria. No dates are ascertained about them, but the \nformer were in the southeast of Babylonia, while the Sumer were in the \nnortheast. \n\nACCIDENTS. (See also Collisions, Earthquakes, Exphsions, Fires, Floods, \nRailroad Accidents, S/iipwrecIcs, Storms ) From 1864 to 1874 inclusive, \nabout 11,000 deaths by accident took place in England and Wales, a large \nproportion of them from coal-mine casualties. January 15, 1867, the ice \nbroke uuder the skaters on the lake in the Regent\'s Park, London, letting \nseveral hundred persons into the water. Forty were drowned. July 31 , 1868, \na false alarm of fire was raised in Lang\'s Victoria Music Hall, at Manches- \nter. England, and in the panic rush to escape, between twenty and thirty \nwere killed. July 27, 1869. Rev. J. M. Elliott, an Englishman, lost his \nfoothold, and fell from near the summit of the Schreckhorn, in Switzer- \nland, a distance of 1,000 feet or more, and was killed. October 1, 1869, a \nfirework dealer\'s shop, in Bayswater, London, blew up, killing seven out \nof thirteeu persons then asleep in the house August 2, 1870, on Mont \nBlanc, an English lady, Mrs. Marke, and her guide fell into a crevasse, \nand were killed. August 11, 1871, at Stowmarket, England, an explosion of \ngun-cotton stored there kill ed 24 and wounded 72 persons. December 30, \n\n\n\nTHE WORLDS PROGRESS. \n\n\n\n1871, at Glasgow, a road locomotive, known as Yuille\'s Traction Engine, \nused to drag heavy machinery for shipping, exploded its boiler, killing five \npersons and wounding some 40 more, mostly children, who had gathered \nround it out of curiosity. \n\nADMINISTRATIONS. England. (See pp. 71, 208-210.) Disraeli resigns, \nand Gladstone becomes premier, December 2, 1868 ; Robert Lowe, John \nBright, G. J. Goschen, W. E. Forster, and others becoming members of \nthe Government. This ministry carried the disestablishment of the \nIrish Church, in 1869, and the ballot in 1872. Mr. Gladstone, having \nlost his majority at the election of February, 1874, resigned, February 14, \nand Mr. Disraeli resumed the premiership, his cabinet consisting of the Ear] \noi Derby, the Marquis of Salisbury, etc. \n\nADMINISTRATIONS. United States. ^See pp. 70, 205.) \n\n\n\nUlysses S. Grant, \nSchuyler Colfax, \nHamilton Fish, \nGeo. S. Boutwell, \n\nA. E. Borie, \nGoo. M. Robeson, \nGen. Schofleld, \nGen. J. A. Rawlins, \nGen. W. W. Belknap, \nJames Harlan, \nGen. J. D. Cox, \nColumbus Delano, \nJ. A. J. Creswell, \nE. R. Hoar, \nA. T. Akerman, \nGk H. Williams, \n\n\n\nGrant\'s First Administration. \nIllinois, March 4, \n\nIndiana, March 4, \n\nNew York, March, \n\nMassachusetts, March, \n\n\n\nPennsylvania, \nNew Jersey, \n\nIllinois, \n\nIowa, \n\nIowa, \n\nOhio, \n\nOhio, \n\nMaryland, \n\nMassachusetts, \n\nGeorgia, \n\nOregon, \n\n\n\nMarch. \n\nJune 25, \n\nMarch, \n\nMarch, \n\nSept., \n\nMarch, \n\nJune, \nMarch, \n\n\n\n1869 \n\n1869 \n1869 \n1869 \n\n1869 1 \n\n1869 f \n1869 \n1809 \n1869 \n1869) \n\n1870 > \n1870 \\ \n1869 \n1869 \n1871 \n1871 \n\n\n\nPresident. \nVice-President. \nSecretary of State. \nSecretary of the \n\'Treasury. \n\nSecretaries of Navy. \n\n\n\nSecretaries of War. \n\nSecretaries of Inte- \nrior. \nPostmaster General. \n\nAttorneys-General. \n\n\n\nUlysses S. Grant, \nHenry Wilson, \nThos. W. Ferry, \n\nHamilton Fish, \nWm. A. Richardson, \nBenj. J. Bristow, \nLot M. Morrill, \nWm. W. Belknap, \nJ. D. Cameron, \nGeo. M. Robeson, \nColumbus Delano, \nZach. Chandler. \nGeo. H. Williams, \nEdwards Pierrepoint, \nAlphonso Taf t, \nJohn A. J. Creswell, \nMarshall Jewell, \nJames N. Tyner, \n\n\n\nRutherford B . Hayes, \nWm. A. Wheeler, \nWm. M. Evarts, \nJohn Sherman, \n\nGeo. W. McCrary, \nRichard W. Thompson, \nCarl Sctmrz, \nCharles Devens, \nDavid M. Key, \n\n\n\nGrant\'s Second Administration. \n\nIllinois, March 4, 1S73 \n\nMassachusetts, March 4, 1873 \n\nMichigan, \n\n\n\nNew York, \n\nMassachusetts, \n\nKentucky, \n\nVermont, \n\nIowa, \n\nPennsylvania, \n\nNew Jersey, \n\nOhio, \n\nMichigan, \n\nOregon, \n\nNew York, \n\nOhio, \n\nMaryland, \n\nConnecticut, \n\nIndiana, \n\nHates\' Administration. \n\n\n\nMarch 4, 1869 \n\n\n\nPresident. \nVice-President. \nPresident of Senate \n\npro tern. \nSecretary of State. \n\nSecretaries of Tread \nury. \n\n!\xe2\x80\xa2 Secretaries of War. \n\nSecretary of Navy. \n(Secretaries of Inte \n( rior. \n\n> Attorneys- General. \n\n> Postmasters-General. \n\n\n\nOhio, \n\nNew York, \nNew York, \nOhio, \n\nIowa, \n\nIndiana, \n\nMissouri, \n\nMassachusetts, \n\nTennegsaa, \n\n\n\nMarch 4, 1877 \nMarch 4. 1877 \n\n\n\nPresident. \nVice-President. \nSecretary of State. \nSecretary of Treas- \nury. \nSecretary of War. \nSecretary of Navy. \nSecretary of Interior \nAttorney-Gene cat \nPostmaster-Qe: tral \n\n\n\n1867-77. 5 \n\nAFGHANISTAN. (See p. 213. ) Runjeet Singh, a Sikh by race, and King \nof Lahore, conquered most of Afghanistan about 1818; Dost Mohammed \nbecame ruler of it, 1829 ; took Herat May 26, 1863 ; succeeded by his son, \nShere Ali, June 9, 1863 ; who has had much trouble and warfare with \ndivers of his fifteen brothers and his other relatives, and has only been \nmaintained by English aid. \n\nAFRICA. (See pp. 72, 213.) Zambesi River explored by Livingstone, 1851-6 \nand 1858-64 ; his book published November, 1865. Stanley, sent by \nBennett of the New York Herald, reported having met Livingstone at \nUjiji. November 10, 1871, and having remained with him until March 14, \n1872. Livingstone died at Itala, in Central Africa, May 1, 1873 ; his \nremains were brought to England and buried in Westminster Abbey, \nApril 18, 1874; his last journals published December, 1874. Lieut. \nCameron crossed Africa from Zanzibar westward to the Portuguese settle- \nments on the west coast, arriving November 21, 1875. Stanley\'s second \nexpedition for the New York Herald and London Telegraph, 1875-6. \n\nAGRICULTURE. (See pp. 73, 214.) Farm products of the United States, \nexclusive of live stock, year ending June 1, 1870, $2,445,000,000. A \n"Union" of English agricultural laborers to secure better wages and \nsocial amelioration generally, was established mainly by the efforts of \nJoseph Arch, himself formerly a laborer, at Leamington, Warwickshire, \nMarch 29, 1872, and has attained some influence. \n\nALABAMA CLAIMS. The Alabama rebel armed steamer, Raphael Semmea \ncommander, was built by Messrs. Laird, of Birkenhead, England, for the \nRebel States of America, and launched May 15, 1862, and sailed July 28, \n1862, one day before the English government telegraphed to detain her. \nShe was destroyed and sunk in a sea-fight off Cherbourg by the U. S \nsteamer-of-war Kearsarge, Capt. Winslow, June 19, 1864, after having \ndone immense damage to American commerce. During 1865 the United \nStates and English governments discussed the question of English respon- \nsibility for this damage ; a convention was agreed upon on the subject \nNovember 10, 1868, which came to nothing ; another, signed by Lord \nClarendon and Mr. Reverdy Johnson, January 14, 1869, was rejected by \nthe United States Senate April 13, 1869 ; a joint convention on this and \nother matters signed a treaty at Washington, May 8, 1871, providing \na mode of settlement by arbitration ; Arbitration Commission met \nformally at Geneva, December 18, 1871, and the American and British \ncases were presented December 20. Indirect claims and the whole \nattitude of the English Government caused much excitement in England ; \nindirect claims mutually resigned by supplementary treaty, appr ved by \nSenate May -5, 1872. The arbitration tribunal, composed of Count \nFrederic Sclopis, for Italy, President ; Baron Staempfli, for Switzer- \nland ; Viscount d\'ltajuba, for Brazil ; Sir Alexander E. Cockburn, for \nEngland ; Mr. C. F. Adams, for the United States, met at Geneva and \nopened business June 15, 1872. After presentation of cases and argu- \nment, the final meeting was held September 14, 1872, and damages \nawarded to the United States, unanimously for injuries by the Alabama, \nby four arbitrators for those by the Florida, and by three for those by \nthe Shenandoah. Total of award, $15,000,000. The total of the United \nStates claims, after dropping the indirect claims, was about three times \nas much. The English arbitrator, Sir A. E. Cockburn, refused to sign \nthe j ldgment, mainly on the ground that the Florida and Shenandoah \n\n\n\n6 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. \n\nclaims were improperly allowed. A large proportion of this sum remained \nafter all the awards of the Court of Claims established by the Unitec \nStates to decide who should receive the money, which as yet (August, \n1877), remains in the U. S. Treasury. \n\nALASKA. Bought from Russia by the United States by treaty of March \n13, 1867, for $7,200,000, which was paid August 1, 1868. Principal \nsettlement, Sitka. The United States military occupation discontinued \nin 1877. \n\nALSACE. Alsace (German, Blsass), was anciently part of Austrasia ; joined \nto the German empire in tenth century ; part recovered by France, 1648 ; \nthe rest, 1697; conquered and occupied by the Germans, 1870-1 ; ceded \nby France to Germany by treaty of May 10, 1871 ; the law completing \nthe annexation passed June 9, 1871. The people allowed to choose their \nnationality, and those preferring France to emigrate with their property \nbefore September 30, 1872. Many did so. Part of Lorraine (which see) \nincluding Metz and Thionville, was ceded and annexed with Alsace. \n\nANILINE. Discovered by Unverdorben in 1826, in distilling indigo ; ob- \ntained from benzole by Bechamp, 1856; "mauve" applied in dyeing by \nW. A. Perkin, 1856 ; since used to produce red, blue, violet, and green \ncolors. \n\nANIMALS, CRUELTY TO. (See p. 76.) The establishment of societies for \npreventing cruelty to animals in England and Europe was followed by the \norganization of a similar one, chiefly by the efforts of Mr. Henry Bergh, in \nNew York City, incorporated April 10, 1866, and of one in Boston, incor- \nporated March 23, 1868, which have been efficient. \n\nARCH. The arch was long supposed a Roman invention ; but very ancient \narches have been found in bridges in China, and in temples and other \nstructures in Egypt and Assyria. Tbe arching in the Cloaca Maxima at \nRome is thought the oldest in Europe, and dates to about 588 B c. ; and \nthose found in the ruins of Assyrian cities are considered the oldest in the \nworld. \n\nARCHAEOLOGY. (See Curium; Mycenae; Olympia ; Pre-historia Man; \nTroy.) \n\nARCH.330PTERYX. (" Primeval bird.") Fossil remains found at Sol- \nenhofen in Bavaria, in 1861, by H. Von Meyer and Dr. Haberlein. It had \nsome reptilian traits in its structure- -teeth in its jaws, and a tail with \nfeathers radiating from it. It was described by Owen in 1863. \n\nARCTIC EXPLORATIONS. (See pp. 78, 229.) Captain C. F. Hall\'s first \nvoyage of discovery was 1860-62 ; he ascertained that Frobisher\'s so- \ncalled strait is a bay, and gained experience of Eskimo life. His second \nvoyage, in the Monticello, began June 30, 1864; results nob remarkable. \nHis third, in the Polaris, began July 3, 1871, and he took his ship to 82\xc2\xb0 \n16\' north latitude, the northernmost point so far. He died in the Arctic \nregions, November 8, 1871. Polaris wintered at northernmost point so \nfar, 81\xc2\xb0 38\' ; set out to return under Budington, August 12, 1872; in a \npanic in the ice, October 15, Tyson and nineteen more were left on a floe, \nand were rescued April 30, 1873, after a remarkable drift. Tbe ship re- \nmained with the other fourteen persons a second winter ; they left in \nboats built from her materials, June 3, 1873, and were picked up by a \nwhaler. The " first German expedition," under Capt. Karl Koldewey, of \neleven men only, in the Germania, to the east coast of Greenland and \n\n\n\n18(37-77. 7 \n\nSpitzbergen, set out September 80, 1868. The \' \' second German expedi- \nwon," in the Germania^oA. Hansa, under Koldewey, sailed from Bremer- \nhaven, June 15, 1869. Hansa was lost in the ice, crew escaping ; coal \ndiscovered in east Greenland ; Oermania wintered at Sabine Island ; \nsledge parties reached 77\xc2\xb0 1\' N. L. Expedition reached home September \n11, 1870. The "Austrian expedition" in the Teyetthoff, under Wey- \nprecht and Payer, by way of the seas between Spitzbergen and No- \nvaia Zemlia (Nova Zembla), left Tromsoe in Norway, July 14, 1872 ; dis- \ncovered Franz Josef Land, in 79 43\' N., August 30, 1873 ; reached 79\xc2\xb0 \n58\' N. ; left the Tegetthoff in the ice, May. 20, 1874, and escaped in boats, \nreaching Europe early in September, 1874. Captain (afterwards Sir George) \nNares\'s expedition, in the Alert and Discovery, left Portsmouth, May 29, \n\n1875. September 1st, she reached 82\xc2\xb0 24\', and wintered in 82\xc2\xb0 27\' north, \nthe furthest point reached by any ship. That winter was noted the \nseverest cold ever known in Arctic regions, reaching to 73 -7 below \nzero ; a mean for seven days of 58 17 ; for thirteen days of 58"9 ; and \nfor five days of 66 29 degrees below zero. Ascertained tbat there is no \n" open Polar sea." but instead, a " palseocrystic sea," or " sea of ancient \nice," which is, it was found, almost impossible to traverse. Sledge parties \nexplored the coast eastward and westward, and another reached the \nnorthernmost point yet attained by man, being 83\xc2\xb0 20\' 26", within 400 \nmiles of the North Pole. The expedition returned to England in October, \n\n1876. A sharp controversy followed as to the proper victualling of the \nexpedition, and the responsibility for the severe attacks of scurvy which \nhad been suffered by most of the party. \n\nARGENTINE REPUBLIC. (See p. 79.) Don Domingo F. Sarmiento was \nelected President for six years, October 12, 1868 ; Dr. Avellaneda was in- \naugurated for six years, October 12, 1874 ; an insurrection under Mitre at \nBuenos Ayres was ended by his submission, December 2, 1874 ; the Na- \ntional Bank stopped and the government suspended specie payments, \nMay 16, 1876. \n\nARMY, English. (Seep. 232.) In 1869, it was stated in the English \nParliament that each regular soldier cost per year in Prussia, \xc2\xa333 ; in \nFrance, \xc2\xa337; in England, \xc2\xa3100; being nearly $165, $185, and $500. By \nOrder in Council, 1870, Queen Victoria surrendered the royal prerogative \nof governing the army, and the General-in-Chief, instead of continuing an \nagent of the crown, was formally declared subordinate to the Minister of \nWar. November 1, 1871, the practice of buying and selling commissions \nin the British army was stopped by royal warrant, dated July 20, 1871. \nAppointment and promotion by examination, merit, and seniority were \nsubstituted. \nThe English military force in 1876 was thus constituted : \n\nArm} 7 in United Kingdom 36,275 \n\n" inlndia :... 62,850 \n\nMilitia 274,175 \n\nYeoman cavalry 15,078 \n\nVolunteers 168,750 \n\nEnrolled pensioners and army reserve 31,000 \n\nTotal men 648,128 \n\nThe sum voted for military purposes for the year 1876-7, was \xc2\xa315,282,- \n000 ; that for 1855-6 (Russian war), \xc2\xa332,006,603 ; and that for 1815 (la\xc2\xbbt \nyear of wa- with Napoleon), \xc2\xa339,150,000. \n\n\n\nTHE WORLDS PROGRESS. \n\n\n\nAEMY, European. Estimated total of European armies in 1863. \nlion men, one million horses, 11,000 cannon. European armies \nwere nearly as follows : \n\nWab \n\nFOOTING. \n\n838,700 \n\n100,000 \n\n48.936 \n\n1,750,000 \n\n2,800.000 \n\n748,128 \n\n\n\nPeace \nfooting. \n\nAustro-Hungary 278,470 \n\nBelgium 40,000 \n\nDenmark ... 35,(557 \n\nPrance 430,703 \n\nGermany 419,738 \n\nGreat Britain 288,781 \n\nGieece (nominal). . . 14,061 \n\nItaly 199,557 \n\nNetherlands 97, 359 \n\nPortugal 18,195 \n\n\n\n750,000 \n208,359 \n68,450 \n\n\n\nPeace \n\nFOOTING \n\nRussia 765,872 \n\nSpain 151,668 \n\nSweden 132,775 \n\n(Norway) 12,750 \n\nSwitzerland \n\nTurkey. 170,376 \n\nBonmanm 34,647 \n\nServia 4.000 \n\n\n\nsix mil\' \n\nin 1876, \n\nWab \n\nFOOTING. \n\n3,300,000 \n\n\n\nTotals 3,094,609 \n\n\n\n\nPeace footings not carried forward 345,891 \n\n\n\nTotal war armies of Europe more than 11,723,081 \n\nAEMY, U. S. (See p. 79.) Expenses of the War Department for \n\n\n\n1872 $35,372,157.20 \n\n1873 46,323,138.31 \n\n1874 42,313,927.22 \n\n1875 41,120,645.98 \n\n1876.. 38,070,888.64 \n\n\n\n1867 $95,224,415.63 \n\n1868 123,246,648.62 \n\n1869 78,501,990.61 \n\n1870 57,655,675.40 \n\n1871 35,799,991.82 \n\nRegular army in 1877 about 25,000 men, and this total in process of re- \nduction. \n\nARTILLERY. (See Ordnance.) \n\nASHANTEE. The Ashantees defeated Sir Charles M\'Carthy at Accra, \nJanuary 21, 1824, and carried off his skull as a trophy. Col. Purdon \ntotally defeated them August 7, 1826. War was begun against them \nagain by the English in 1863, but suspended from sickness of troops. \nExpedition under Sir Garnet Wolseley sailed from England September \n12, 1873 ; English force, after a severe campaign, entered Coomassie, \nthe Ashantee capital, February 4, 1874 ; the king, Koffee Kalcalli, re- \nfusing proposals, his palace and city burned February 6th ; a treaty, \nprohibiting human sacrifices, and providing for 50,000 ounces of gold \nindemnity to the English, signed February 13th. The expedition cost \nabout \xc2\xa3900,000. \n\nASSASSINATIONS. June 6, 1867, one Berezowski, a Pole, fired two \nshots at the Czar of Russia, then in Paris, but missed. He was trans- \nported for life. Michael Obrenovitch, Prince of Servia, was assassinated \nat Belgrade. June 10, 1868, as was believed in consequence of a con- \nspiracy to place Prince Karageorgewictz on the throne. March 12, 1868. \nin New South Wales, at a public picnic, one O\'Farrell shot the Duke of \nEdinburgh in the back, intending to kill him. O\'Farrell, who avowed \nhimself a Fenian, was hanged. April 7, 1868, Hon. Thomas D\'Arcy M\'Gee \nwas shot dead from behind at his own door, by one Whelan, a Fenian, in \nconsequence of his opposition to the Fenians. December 28, 1870, \nMarshal Prim was shot by night in the streets of Madrid, the assassin \nescaping, and died in two days. September 20, 1871, at Calcutta, Mr. \nJustice Norman, acting Chief Justice, was murdered, being stabbed by \na native. February 8, 1872, Lord Mayo, Governor-General of India, \nassassinated at Port Blair, on the Andaman Islands, by a Mol lammedan \nconvict named Shere Ali. \n\nASSYRIA. (See pp. 234-235.) The results of Mr. Layard\'s investigations \n\n\n\n1867-77. 9 \n\nat Nineveh were published in his " Nineveh and its Remains," 1848, and \nin his "Discoveries," 1853. Botta\'s explorations at Khorsabad began \n1843; his " Monuments de Ninive " appeared 1849-50. Mr. George \nSmith\'s "Assyrian Discoveries" appeared\' 1875, and his \'\'Ohaldean \nAccount of Genesis" in 1876. Mr. Smith died at Aleppo, August 19, \n1876, while pushing further investigations. An Assyrian grammar (of \nthe language of the cuneiform or arrow-headed inscriptions) was pub- \nlished by Mr. A. H. Sayce in 1875; an Assyrian dictionary by Norris, in \n1868 ; and eight volumes of (translated) Assyrian Teste, bv Birch, in \n1874-77. \n\nASTRONOMY. (See pp. 81, 235.) The planet Neptune wa3 discovered \nSeptember 23, 1846 ; the moon was photographed by Bond, 1851 ; spec- \ntrum analysis first used in astronomy in 1861 ; Warren De la Rue\'s first \nlarge photograph of the moon was made in 1863. The transit of Venus \nof December 9 (astronomical day, December 8), 1874, was extensively \nobserved at the expense of several governments, with good results. From \nApril, 1868, to August 29, 1876, were discovered Nos. 98 to 167 of the \nasteroids. \n\nATCHINESE WAR. Atchin or Acheen, a native state of Sumatra. The \nDutch hostilities against it took place from April, 1873 to 1876, ending in \nvictory by the Dutch. \n\nATHANASIAN CREED. (Seep 236.) It is asserted in Lumby\'s "His- \ntory of the Creeds " (1874), that this creed was not composed by Athana- \nsius, but consists of two distinct parts ; was put into its present form \nbetween ad. 813 and 850, first imputed to Athanasiua by any respect- \nable authority 809, and accepted by the Greek Church about 1200. Much \nopposition to the use of this creed in England, and efforts to stop com- \npulsory reading of it in public, 1870 to 1873. \n\nATOMIC THEORY,, Dalton\'s system of atomic weights assumes hydrogen \nas 1 ; that of Berzelius assumes oxygen as 100, and is that used on the \ncontinent of Europe. \n\nATOMS. The number of ultimate atoms in one drop of water has been \nrecently computed by Sir William Thomson, at 100,000,000,000,000,000,- \n000.000,000, or one hundred trillions of quadrillions. \n\nAUSTRIA. (See pp. 82. 239.) Francis Joseph, October 20, 1860, issued a \n"\xe2\x80\xa2diploma," which gave legislative power to the assemblies of the provin- \ncial states, constituting Austria, and also to the Reichsrath or Council of \nthe Empire. Hungary was granted self-government February 17, 1867. \nBy decree of November 14, 1868, Austria assumed the official name o\xc2\xa3 \n"The Austro-Hungarian Monarchy." The population of Austria, Decem- \nber 31, 1869, was: \n\nCis-Leithan provinces 20,394,980 \n\nTrans-Leithan provinces 15,509,455 \n\n35,904,435 \nThe Cis-Leithan provinces (viz., those reckoned on the hither side of \nthe river Leithe), are : Galicia, Bohemia, Silesia, Moravia, the two \nAustrias (Upper and Lower), Styria, the Tyrol and Vorarlberg, Salzburg-, \nCarinthia, Carniola, Trieste and Istria, Dalmatia, the Bukovina. The \nTrans-Leithan are : Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia, Slavonia, and the \ncity of Fiuice. The Reichsrath became a national representative assem- \nbly by reform bill of March 10, 1873. \n\n\n\nTHE WORLD S PROGRESS. \n\n\n\nB. \n\n\n\nBABISM. A Persian religious doctrine, first promulgated, 1843, at Shiraz, \nby Mirza Ali Mahornmed, who called himself the Bab (gate) of knowl- \nedge, gave a new exposition of the Koran, and claimed to be an incarna- \ntion of the Holy Spirit. The " Babis" were tolerated by Shah Mahorn- \nmed, but were nearly all killed by his successor, the present Shah, in \n1848-9, the Bab bimself being exeouted, July 15, 1849. The sect is said \nto be now (1877) quite numerous again. \n\nBABY FARMING. September 23, 1870, in England, Margaret Waters was \nconvicted of the wilful murder of a child entrusted to her. She had been \nin the baby farming busines3 four years, and confessed to having received \nsome forty children. She was condemned to death, and hanged October \n11, after having confessed that five others of the children in her care had \ndied. \n\nBALLOONS. (See pp. 83, 243. ) Used with a good deal of success during the \nsiege of Paris by the Germans, September and October, 1870, for carrying \nmail matter out of the city, and for escapes by individuals. Up to April, \n1867, Mr. Coxwell is said to have made 550 successful ascents ; and Charles \nGreen, who died March 27, 1870, aged 84, had made 600. In an ascent \nfrom near Paris, April 15, 1875\', by Messrs. Tissandier, Croce, Spinelli, \nand Sivel, after having reached a height of 26,160 feet (nearly five miles), \nCroce threw out ballast and they ascended rapidly to an unknown height. \nBut the latter two men died there of suffocation, and Tissandier only got \ndown alive. Glaisher and Coxwell, at Wolverhampton, July 17, 1862, \nhad ascended about 7 miles, but at 5f miles Glaisher became insensible, \nand Coxwell lost the use of his hands, and only escaped death by opening \nthe valve with his teeth and thus bringing down the balloon. \n\nBALLOT. (Seep. 83.) Secret ballot was adopted in Victoria (Australia), \n1856; employed in electing school-board in nine districts in London, No- \nvember 29, 1870 ; recommended for general use in the Queen\'s speech, \nFebruary 9, 1871, and bill for it passed the Commons and rejected in the \nLords, 97 to 48, August 10, 1871. Bill providing for its use until Decem- \nber 31, 1880, became a law July 13, 1872 ; Mr. H. B. Childers was chosen \nmember of Parliament for Pontefract by ballot August 15, 1872, with no \ndifficulty ; the method has worked well enough since. \n\nBAMPTON LECTURES. Delivered annually at Oxford, on theological \nsubjects, and paid for by funds left for the purpose by Rev. John Bamp- \nton, who died 1751. The first lecture was by Rev. Dr. Bandinel, in 1780. \n\nBANKRUPTCY. (See pp. 84, 245.) Bankrupt peers decided incompetent \nto sit in English House of Lords, February 10, 1871, and a law expressly \nso providing was passed July 13, 1871. In the United States and Canada \nthere were failures and liabilities as follows : \n\nFAILUKES. LIABILITIES. \n\nYear ending June 30. 1876. 8,776 $233,632,516 \n\nYear ending June 30, 1877. 9,241 182,308,435 \n\nBATHOMETER, for deep-sea sounding without lead and line, invented and \nimproved 1861-76, by Dr. C. W. Siemens. It operates by registering thf \nlessening of the earth\'s attraction of gravitation on the surface of the \nocean from what it would be on solid ground, in consequence of the less \ndensity of water. \n\n\n\n1867-77. \n\n\n\nBATHYBIUS HAEGKELII, found at the bottom of the sea in recent deep- \nsea soundings, and so named by Huxley ; a gelatinous substance, supposed \nthe lowest form of animal life. Since believed to have been proved a \nmineral. \n\nBATTLES. (See pp. 84, 248.) \n\n\n\nFRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. \n\n\n\nSaarbruck, French victorious, Aug. 2, 1870 \nWissembourg, Germans " Aug. 4, 1870 \nWoerth, " " Aug. 6, 1870 \n\nSaarbruck or Forbach, Germans, Aug. 6, 1870 \nCourcelles or Pange, " Aug. 14, 1870 \n\nStrasburg, Germans victorious, Aug. 16, 1870 \nVionville or Mars-la-Tour, Ger\'s, Aug. 16, 1870 \nGravelotte, Germans victorious, Aug. 18, 1870 \nBeaumont, " " Aug. 30, 1870 \n\nCarignan, " " Aug. 31, 1870 \n\n\n\nMetz, Germans victorious, Aug. 31, 187$ \n\nSEDAN, " Aug. 31-Sep. 1, 1870 \n\nBefore Paris, " victorious, Sept. 30, 1870 \nThoury, French " Oct. 6, 1870 \n\nSt. Remy, Germans " Oct. 5, 1870 \n\nChateaudun, " " Oct 18, 1870 \n\nCoulmiers,ne.ar Orleans, Frenclj.Nov. 9-10, 1870 \nBefore Orleans, Ger\'s victorious, Dec. 4, 187C \nSt. Quentin, " " Jan. 19, 1871 \n\nParis (Trochu\'s sortie), Germans, Jan. 19. 1871 \n\n\n\nOTHER \n\nOroquieta, Spain, Carlists defeated, May 4, 1872 \nElmina, British defeat Ashantees, \n\nJune 13, 1873 \nElqueta, Spain, Carlists claim victory, \n\nAug. 5-6, 1873 \nMafieru, Spain, indecisive, Oct. 6, 1873 \n\nAbrakampra, Ashantees defeated Nov.5-6,1873 \n\n\n\nBATTLES. \n\nAbyssinians defeat Egyptians in Nov., \nIrun, Spain, Laserna defeats Carlists, \n\nNov. 10, \nSorota, Peru, Pierota and insurgents \n\ndefeated Dec. 3, \n\nTolosa, Spain, Carlists repulse Loma, \n\nDec. 7-8, \nKhokand, Russians defeat Khan of \n\nKhiva Sep. 4-21, \n\nAssake, Russians defeat Khokand \n\nforce Jan. 30, \n\nServian-Turkish war begins July 1, \n\nSaitschar, Servians retreat . . . July 2-3, \nUrbitza, Montenegrins defeat Turks, \n\nJuly 28, \n\n\n\n1874 \n\n1874 \n\n1874 \n\n1874 \n\n1875 \n\n1876 \n1876 \n1876 \n\n1876 \n\n\n\nBorborassie, " " Jan. 29, 1874 \n\nAmoaful, " " Jan. 31, 1874 \n\nBocquah, " " Feb. 1, 1874 \n\nFommanah, " " Feb. 2, 1874 \n\nOrdahsa, " " Feb. 4, 1874 \n\nBilbao, Spain, several days; Concha \nenters May 2, 1874 \n\nEstella, Spain, Carlists retreat, but Con- \ncha killed June 25-27, 1874 \n\nBAYREUTH. The Wagner Festival, or Blihnenfestspiel. The perform- \nance of Wagner\'s " Ring des Mbelungen," took place here on August 13, \n14, 16. and 17, 1876. The four successive portions of the work are: 1. \nDas Rheingold ; 2. Die Walkiire; 3. Siegfried; 4. Gotterdammerung. \nGreat difference of opinion as to the music by itself ; but the whole rep- \nresentation very magnificent. All deficiencies in receipts made up by the \nKing of Bavaria. \n\nBBHISTUN. The trilingual inscriptions here were deciphered and trans- \nlated by Sir H. Rawlinson in 1844-6, the first great step being thus made \ntowards interpreting the so-called cuneiform inscriptions. \n\nBELFORT. A strong fortified town in Alsace, invested by the Germans \nNovember 3, 1870 ; capitulated February 16, 1871 ; reserved to France at \nthe cession of Alsace to Germany ; and the Germans left it in August, 1873. \n\nBESSEMER STEEL. (See Steel.) \n\nBIBLE. (See pp. 86, 257.) First meeting of the Convocation for Revising \nthe English Bible, at Westminster, England, June 22, 1870. Among Bible \nDictionaries should be mentioned McClintock and Strong\'s "Biblical and \nTheological Encyclopaedia." " The Codex Sinaiticus," a Greek MS. of the \nBible, probably written in the fourth century, was found by Prof. Tis- \nchendorf at St. Catherine\'s monastery on Mt. Sinai in 1844 and 1859, and \nprocured by him for the Czar of Russia, who caused it to be printed in \n1862. The first version of the Bible (the Syriac), is supposed to have \nbeen made in the first or second century ; the Old Latin, early in the \nsecond, and revised by Jerome in 384 ; Jerome\'s own version, the Vulgate, \n1* \n\n\n\n12 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. \n\ncompleted 405. First printed edition (Mazarin or Mentz Bible), about \n1455 or 1456, without date ; and a copy of this, at the Perkins sale in Eng- \nland, June, 1873, brought about $16,000, the largest price ever paid for one \nprinted book. \n\nBOKHARA. Ancient Sogdiana. Murder of the English envoys, Stoddart \nand Conolly, by the Khan, 1843. A war with Russia began 1866, the \nKhan repeatedly beaten, and peace made July 11, 1867. There was more \nfighting in 1868 ; the Russians entered Samarcand May 26th ; and in \nNovember, 1868, annexed it by treaty. A new treaty between Bokhara \nand Russia was published December, 1873. \n\nBLUE LAWS OF CONNECTICUT. First mentioned by Samuel Andrews \nPeters, a tory Episcopalian clergyman, of Hebron, Conn., in a " Histoiy of \nConnecticut," published at London, 1781. Peters built his story on the \nbasis of the actual laws, but with great additions invented by him. The \ntext-book on the subject, by J. H. Trumbull, Hartford, Conn., 1876. \n\nBOOKS, Book Trade. (See pp. 20, 208.) In Great Britain were pub- \nlished as follows : \n\nNEW BOOKS. NEW EDITIONS. \n\n1871 ....\'. 3,547 1,288 \n\n1872 3,419 1,100 \n\n1874 3,351 961 \n\n1875 3,573 1,331 \n\nThe number of publishers and booksellers in Germany is (in 1876), 3,473, in \n786 towns. In Leipzig, the emporium of the German book trade, there \nare 105 commission agents, who act for 4,202 booksellers, of whom 1,143 \nare in Austria, France, Russia, Holland, England, and America. Number \nof books published in the United States, about 2,500 a year. \n\nBOSTON. (See pp. 88, 268.) Annexations to the city of Boston were : \nRoxbury, September 9, 1867 ; Dorchester, June 22, 1869 ; Charlestown, \nBrighton, and West Roxbury, October 7, 1873. Great peace jubilee, with \nover 10,000 voices, and 1,094 instruments, June 15, 1869. International \npeace jubilee, with chorus of about 20,000 voices, and orchestra of 1,000 \ninstruments, June 17 to July 4, 1872. Great fire, burning about eighty \nacres of buildings in the thickest business part of the city, November 9, \n10, 11, 1872; 959 houses, of which 125 dwellings, were destroyed, and 35 \npersons killed. Boston Public Library has, in 1877, about 320,000 vol- \numes ; has six branches, and two "delivery agencies," besides the central \ncollection, and circulates free of all expense about 1,300,000 volumes a \nyear ; staff, about 130 persons ; salaries, about $60,000 a year ; annual \ncost, about $130,000, of which all but about $6,000 is paid by the city \nof Boston by an annual appropriation, the rest coming from trust funds \nof about ,1105,000. \n\nBOSNIA, incorporated with Turkey, 1463. A rebellion broke out in 1849, \nwas put down by Omar Pasha in 1851. In September, 1875, the Bosni- \nans joined the Herzegovinian insurgents. Its area is 23,100 square miles ; \npopulation, 1,357,984, of which about one-third only is Mohammedan. \n\nBRAZIL. (See pp. 89. 272.) The war with Paraguay was ended by the \ndefeat and killing of Lopez, the Paraguayan dictator, at Aquidaban, \nMarch 1, 1870 ; treaty of peace with Paraguay, June 20, 1870. Dom \nPedro, the emperor, and his empress visit Europe June, 1871, and March, \n1872. Gradual slave emancipation bill passed by the Brazilian senate, \nSeptember 27-28, 1872. Dom Pedro and the empress were present at the \n\n\n\n1867-77. i3 \n\nopening of the Philadelphia Exhibition May 10, 1876, and afterwards \ntravelled extensively in America and Europe. Population of Brazil, 1872 \n(partly estimated), 9,448,233, besides about another million of savage \nnatives. Number of slaves in May, 1874, 1,016,262. \n\nBRIGANDS. (See also Molly Maguires.) April 21, 1870, some English \nladies and gentlemen, and an Italian, were taken near Athens by brigands, \nwho demanded $125,000 ransom, which was ready ; but the Greek Gov- \nernment, contrary to promise, sending troops against the robbers, the \ntourists were all murdered. In June, 1870, two Englishmen, of Gibral- \ntar, were seized by brigands, and made to pay \xc2\xa35,200 ransom, part of \nwhich was afterwards recovered, and some of the robbers killed, by the \nSpanish civic guard. The Mafia, an organized system of spying, murder, \nand brigandage g-ot into possession of almost unlimited power in Sicily \nabout 1860, and has since remained so. \n\nBRIDGES. (See pp. 89, 274.) The proposed New York and Brooklyn \nsuspension bridge is to be 5,862 feet long, with a central span of 1,600 \nfeet, at 185 feet above high-water mark. The Victoria railway bridge \nover the St. Lawrence, at Montreal, about two miles long, an iron tubular \nbridge, begun May 24, 1854, formally opened August 25, 1860, and cost \n\xc2\xa31,700,000. \n\nBURIAL. (See Cremation.) The " earth to earth" system of burial, ad- \nvocated by Mr. Seymour Haden, and wicker coffins, exhibited in 1875 at \nLondon. \n\nC. \n\nCANADA. (See pp. 91, 288.) The act creating "the Dominion of Can- \nada " was passed March 29, 1867. The Dominion contains Ontario, or \nUpper Canada, Quebec, or Lower Canada, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, \nManitoba, British Columbia, and Prince Edward Island, and provision is \nmade for admitting Newfoundland. Lord Monck, first Governor-General, \nopened the first session of the Dominion Parliament, at the capital, \nOttawa, Nov. 7, 1867. Population by census of 1871 : Ontario, 1,620,- \n851; Quebec, 1,191,516; Nova Scotia, 387,800; New Brunswick, 285,- \n594 ; Manitoba, 11,953 ; British Columbia. 10,586 ; Prince Edward Island, \n94,021 ; total, 3,602,321. \n\nCANALS. (See Suez Canal.) Recent surveys have shown that the ques- \ntion of a canal across the Isthmus of Darien, or that of Tehuantepec, is \nonly one of cost, not of practicability. In April, 1870, a French company \nwas empowered to cut a canal across the Isthmus of Corinth, to be done \nin six years. \n\nC ANDI A, the Ancient Cbete. (See pp. 289, 338.) Insurrections against \nTurkish oppression, 1841\xc2\xab; again, and quieted by conciliation, 1858. \nChristians persecuted, 1859 ; a general assembly rejects Turkish authori- \nty and declares union with Greece, September 2, 1866; after obstinate \ncontests the insurgents yield from exhaustion, and Turkish authority re \nestablished March 8, 1869. \n\nCANOPUS. An ancient city of Egypt, on the sea-coast, east of Alexan- \ndria. The " Decree of Canopus" was put forth B. c. 238, by Ptolemy \nEuergetes, to constitute his deceased daughter, Berenice, a goddess, and \nto establish an annual festival and a service of priests in her honor. A \n\xe2\x80\xa2copy of this, in hieroglyphics and Greek, was discovered at Tanis, 1866. \n\n\n\n14 \n\n\n\nTHE WORLD S PROGRESS. \n\n\n\nCAPITAL PUNISHMENT. (See Death, Punishment of, pp. 108, 344.) Abol \nished in Saxony, April 1. 1868; abolition of it refused in Belgium, Janu- \nary 18, 1867 ; in English House of Commons, by 127 to 23, April 21, \n1868 ; by 118 to 58, July 29, 1869 ; by 167 to 54, July 24, 1872 ; refused \nby French Senate, June 21. 1876. It was prohibited in Michigan, 1846 ; \nRhode Island, 1852 ; Wisconsin, 1853 ; Iowa, 1872 ; Maine, February 18. \n1876, and is practically disused in some other States. The effect of such \ndisuse on crime is undetermined. In thirteen years next after the repeal \nof the law inflicting it in Michigan, there were 30 convictions for mur- \nder, and in the next fourteen years, with a population 50 per cent, greater, \nonly 26. But in New York City, during 1871-6, only seven murderers were \nhanged, while there were 281 murders. And in 1871 there were no hang- \nings, but in the next year the murders increased from 41 to 55, and when \nin 1873. two murderers were hanged, the murders decreased in like man- \nner from 53 to 39. \n\nCATHOLICS. (See Concordat; Infallibility ; Old Catholics; Romanism; \nVatican Council.) \n\nCENSUS. (See pp. 94, 299.) The English census, taken April 2, 1871, \nshowed a population in the United Kingdom (England, Wales, Scotland, \nand Ireland), of 31,465,480. For Census of United States, 1870, see \nUnited States. \n\nCENTENNIAL. An immense number of Centennial celebrations took place \nin the United States during 1875 and 1876, beginning with that of June \n19, 1875, for the battle of Lexington. The Centennial International Ex- \nhibition at Philadelphia was opened by President Grant, May 10, 1876, \nand closed November 10. \n\nOf the growth of the United States in the first century, the following \nfigures show a few illustrations : \n\n1776. 1876. \n\nPopulation 2,750,000 44,675,000 \n\nArea square miles 800.000 3,603,844 \n\nAnnual manufactures $20,000,000 $4,200,000,000 \n\nBanks 6,066 \n\nColleges 9 374 \n\n\n\nPARITIES. \n\nas follows : \n\n\n\n(See pp. 95, 302.) George Peabody\'s public charities were \n\n\n\n$2,500,000 for the poor of London. \n\n$2,000,000 for education in the South- \nern States. \n\n$.300,000 for museums at Yale and Har- \nvard Colleges. \n\n$50,000 for a free museum at Salem, \nMass. \n\n\n\n$20,000 to Kenyon College. \n\n|250,000 to the State of Maryland. \n\n{500,000 for a free library and educa- \ntional institute at Danvers (afterwards \nnamed Peabody), Mass. \n\n\xc2\xa31.000.000 for the Peabody Institute, \nat Baltimore, Md. \n\n\n\nDecember 2, 1871, was opened at Dublin the Brown Institution, endowed \nby a bequest left for the purpose by a Mr. Brown, of Dublin, as a hospital \nfor the study and treatment of the diseases of quadrupeds and birds useful \nto men. Mr. Vanderbilt had, during his life, endowed a college in Ten- \nnessee, with about $1,000,000, and supported the " Church of the Stran- \ngers," in New York. Daniel Drew, a leading New York stock operator, \nendowed (nominally) Drew Theological Seminary in New Jersey, but \nafterwards losing his money, the funds were never paid over. A. T. \nStewart left at his death, unfinished, a great hotel for working- women i\xc2\xbb \nNew York, which was completed by his widow. \n\n\n\n1867-77. i5 \n\nCHICAGO. (See p. 95.) Great Fire, October 8-11, 1871. About 250 \npersons perished, about 98,500 were rendered destitute, and" the loss wu \nestimated at $290,000,000. Some 25,000 buildings were destroyed. \nLarge contributions were made in American and English cities towards \nrelieving the sufferers, and great energy was shown in rebuilding. \n\nCHILDREN. Under eight years old, forbidden to be employed in agricul- \nture in England, by act of August 5, 1873. \n\nCHINA. (See pp. 95, 305.) Chinese embassy, with Anson Burlingame (of \nMassachusetts) at its head, received at Washington, June 5, 1868 ; at \nParis, January 24, 1869 ; Mr. Burlingame died at St. Petersburg, Feb- \nruary 22, 1870. Massacre of French priests and about fifty others by a \nmob at Tientsin, June 21, 1870; the leaders were executed October 26, \n1870. Emperor Tsai tien (altered to Kwang-Sii), son of Chun and nephew \nof Prince Kung, succeeds Toung-Chi, February 4, 1875. First railway in, \neleven miles long, from Shanghae to Oussoon, publicly opened June 30, \n1876. Chinese emigration to America began in 1850 ; and there are now \n(1877) supposed to be nearly 50,000 Chinese in San Francisco, and from \n125,000 to 150,000 in California, mostly males. In California this emi- \ngration, and the Chinese, after coming, are chiefly controlled by the " Six \nCompanies," which are a kind of corporations, and whose names are Sam \nYup, Yung Wo, Kong Chow, Ning Yeung, Yan Wo, and Hop Wo. \n\nCHURCH OF IRELAND. (See p. 310.) Royal assent to Mr. Gladstone\'s \nbill disestablishing it, July 26, 1869, took effect January 1, 1871. \n\nCH CRCH-RATES. ( See p. 97. ) Compulsory church-rates in England were \nabolished by act of Parliament, introduced by Mr. Gladstone, and passed \nJuly 31, 1868. \n\nCIVIL SERVICE, English. August 31, 1870, went into operation an \nEnglish Order in Council that all entrance appointments to civil service \nexcept the Foreign Office and posts requiring professional knowledge, \nshould be filled by open competition. Persons in the English Civil Service \n(treasury, home, foreign, colonial, post, revenue, etc., officers), about \n17,000; cost of same yearly, estimated for 1877 at \xc2\xa313,309,100. \n\nCIVIL SERVICE REFORM, United States. Measure to secure, in- \ntroduced into Congress by T. A. Jenckes, of Rhode Island, January 20, \n1867. Act for rules to be prescribed by the President for civil service \nexaminations, passed March 3, 1871. Commissioners to prepare rules \nappointed by President, June 4th, met and G. W. Curtis chosen chairman, \nJune 28, 1871. Rules prepared, but less was accomplished by them than \nwas expected. In the summer of 1877, President Hayes ordered that all \nnational office-holders should resign any situations thej^ might hold as party \npolitical managers, or else resign their offices, his purpose being l \' to take \nthe office-holder out of politics." This order was promptly obeyed. \n\nCLOCKS AND WATCHES. (See pp. 97, 314, 646.) Imported into Great \nBritain in 1870, 258,628 clocks, 372,420 watches. The Boston Watch Com- \npany, the first factory for making watches by machinery, was founded by \nMr. Dennison in 1854 ; it failed 1856, and was bought by Mr. Bobbins, who \nchanged the name to American Watch Company, often called the Waltham \nWatch Co. In 1876 there were eleven such watch factories. That at \nWaltham, with 900 workmen, turns out about 425 movements a day ; the \nnext largest, at Elgin, 111., about 300 movements. The effect of the \nAmerican watch business on the importation of Swiss watches i3 shown \n\n\n\n1 6 THE WORLD\'S PROGRESS. \n\nas follows : Swiss watches imported into the United States in 187$, \n366,000; 1873, 204,000; 1874, 187,000; 1875, 134,000; 1876, 75,000. \n\nCLUBS. (See p. 97.) Recent London clubs were formed at following \ndates : Cobden Club (free trade), 1866 ; Scientific, Wanderers (travellers, \nDevonshire (Liberal political), Verulam (literary and scientific), 1874 \xe2\x80\xa2 \nByron, 1875 ; Hanover Square (new Liberal), 1876. \n\nCOAL. (See pp. 98, 315.) Consumption of anthracite from the Pennsyl- \nvania coal fields began with 365 tons, in 1820, and was in 1875, 18,083,294 \ntons. By periods of ten years the production was as follows, inclusively : \n\n1820-29 tons 359,190 11850-59 tons 68,333,469 \n\n1830-39 " 5,210,685 1860-69 " 106,883,488 \n\n1840-49. " 18,954,678 | 1870-75 " 105,627,240 \n\nThe anthracite east of the Mississippi is all in seven counties in Pennsyl- \nvania, viz : Schuylkill, Carbon, Luzerne, Columbia, Northumberland, \nDauphin, and Lebanon, and mostly in the first thsee of these. Estimates \nof the time when these anthracite deposits will be exhausted vary from \n77 years to 650 years. Tons of coal raised in Great Britain and the \nUnited States in 1870 and 1874 : \n\nGEEAT BRITAIN. UNITED STATES. \n\n1870 113,000,000 32,000,000 \n\n1874 125,000,000 50,000,000 \n\nArea of all coal fields in the United States estimated at 196,000 square \nmiles. Proportions of anthracite and bituminous coal mined in the \nUnited States in 1870 and 1875 : \n\n1870. 1875. \n\nAnthracite, tons. 13,985,960 20,654,509 \n\nBituminous, " 15,231,668 26.031.726 \n\nCOINAGE. (See pp. 99, 317.) Total coinage of United States \\io and \nincluding 1876: \n\nIn 1876. \n\nGold $945,477,022.30 $38,178,962.50 \n\nSilver 180,322,356.40 19,126,502.50 \n\nCents, etc 12.822,538.55 260.350.00 \n\n\n\nTotal $1,138,621,917.25 $57,565,815.00 \n\nCOLLEGES in United States in 1875, 355; schools of science (and \ncollegiate departments), 75; theological schools (and departments), 123; \nlaw schools (and departments), 43 ; medical, dental, etc., schools (and \ndepartments), 106. \n\nCOLOMBIA. (See p. 319.) General Salgar, President, 1871 ; M. M. Toro, \nApril 1, 1872; S. Perez, April 1, 1874. Population in 1864, 2,794,473; \nin 1870, 2,910,329. \n\nCOLONIES. (See pp. 99, 320.) Great Britain has sixty-nine colonies and \nforeign possessions, whose population was estimated in 1861 at 142,952,- \n243, all but about 7,500,000 being in the East Indies. Their revenue in \n1865 was about \xc2\xa351.497,000. and expenditures, \xc2\xa359.353,000. All slaves \nin all British colonies emancipated August 1, 1834. In recent times the \nEnglish home policy towards the colonies has steadily become more com- \nplying and indulgent. The earliest acquired of the present colonies waa \nNewfoundland, about a.d. 1500 ; the latest, the Fiji Islands, October 25, \n1874. \n\nCOLORADO proclaimed a State August 1, 1876. \n\n\n\n1867-77. i7 \n\nCOMETS. (See pp. 100,321.) 17,500,000 comets estimated to be in the \nsolar system. More than 600 recorded as having been seen. Sohiaparelli \nof Milan has discovered that the August meteors move round the sun in \nan orbit almost identical with that of the second comet of 1862-6. The \ngreat comet of 1861 had a nucleus of about 400 miles diameter, a long, \nbushy tail, and moved about ten million miles a day. On June 30, 1861, \nit was suggested that the earth was in this tail, as there was seen a \n"phosphorescent auroral glare." \n\nCOMMANDER-IN-CHIEF. General Sherman appointed, 1869. \n\nCOMMERCE OF UNITED STATES. (See also Cotton, Failures, etc.) \n\nExports. Imports. \n\n1869 $394,fi44,335 $414,256,243 \n\n1870 392.771,178 452,875,665 \n\n1871 460,331,614 572,509,314 \n\n1872 444,177,568 626,595,077 \n\n1873 522,479,317 692,136,210 \n\n1874 633,339,368 567,406,342 \n\n1875 658,691,291 553,906,153 \n\nOf the years 1874 and 1875, nearly half this commerce was with Great \n\nBritain, viz. : \n\nExports to O. B. Imports from (J. B. \n\n1874 $341.034,049 $180,042,8 3 \n\n1875 366;799,869 157,047,827 \n\nChambers of Commerce now exist in the chief commercial cities of Chris- \ntendom. Twenty-seven of the English ones met for consultation, Febru- \nary 21, 1865 ; the meeting became annual ; in 1873 (February 18th), 46 \nmet. \n\nCOMMUNE OF PARIS. Proclaimed March 28, 1871 ; ended at the cap- \nture of the city by the government forces, May 28th, following. \n\nCONCORDANCE. (See pp. 100, 324.) The first concordance to the Bible \non which was based that of St. Caro, seems to have been made by An- \nthony of Padua. Cruden\'s (the best), first published in London, 1737. \nMrs. Furness\'s Concordance to Shakespeare\'s poems, 1874. Todd\'s Verbal \nIndex to Milton, 1809, and Cleaveland\'s Concordance to Milton. 1867. \nBrightwell\'s Concordance to Tennyson, 1869 ; Abbott\'s to Pope, 1875. \n\nCONCORDAT. (See p. 324.) The Concordat between Rome and Austria, \nAugust 18, 1855, gave the former much authority over the Austrian \nChurch, and thus excited great dissatisfaction in Austria. In 1868 the \nAustrian and Hungarian legislatures practically abolished it, and it was \nformally declared suspended, July 30, 1870, in consequence of the procla- \nmation of papal infallibility. \n\nCONFESSION, Auricular. (See p. 325.) Introduced in England by the \nPuseyites, Tracfcarians, or Ritualists. Rev. A. Poole suspended for prac- \nticing it, June, 1858 ; Rev. T. West tried to introduce it, causing much \nexcitement, September, 1858; 483 Anglican clergymen petitioned convo- \ncation for its establishment, May, 1873, but the bishops were strongly \nopposed to it ; Archdeacon Denison\'s letter against all who oppose it, \nAugust 22, 1873. A secret book used by the English ritualists, with \nshameful questions to be put to married women and young persons, dis- \ncovered June, 1877, and great indignation aroused. \n\nCONSTELLATIONS. (See p. 327.) Now reckoned as 29 northern, 45 \nsouthern, 12 zodiacal. \n\n\n\nI<5 .THE WORLDS I-ROGKJES>. \n\nCONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. (See pp. 102,328.) The \ndates and subjects of the fifteen amendments were as follows : 1. Pro- \nposed 1789, Freedom of religion, press, assembling, and petition. 2. 1789, \nRight to bear arms. 3. 1789, Quartering soldiers on people. 4. 1789, \nSearches and seizures of persons, houses, etc. 5. 1789, Indictment, mar- \ntial law, legal process, eminent domain. 6. 1789. Criminal prosecutions \nto be speedy; privileges of accused. 7. 1789, Jury trial for anything over \n$20, in common-law suits. 8. 1789, Bail, fines, cruel and unusual punish- \nments. 9. 1789, Enumeration of rights in Constitution does not impair \nothers. 10. 1789, State rights. 11. 1794, Judicial power of United \nStates as against States. 12. 1803-5, Election of President. 13. Ratified \nDecember 18, 1865, abolishes slavery. 14. Ratified July 28, 1868, civil \nrights, representative basis, rebel disfranchisement, public and rebel debt. \n15. Ratified March 30, 1870, negro suffrage. \n\nCONTAGIOUS DISEASES ACT. Providing for periodical medical examina- \ntions of women\'s persons at military and naval stations, passed in English \nParliament June, 1866. Great opposition has been made to it; a royal \ncommission to inquire into it reported July, 1871. Alterations have been \nproposed, and repeal has been attempted, but failed by 126 to 308 June, \n1875, and 102 to 224, July, 1876. \n\nCONVENTS (for nuns ; " monasteries " are for monks). (Seep. 328.) In \n18S2 there were 16 convents in England ; in 1870, 233, besides 70 monas \nteries. A large Church of England convent opened at Bournemouth, \nOctober 3, 1875. \n\nCONVOCATION. The English Convocation consists of the upper house (of \nbishops), and the lower (of the inferior clergy). It formerly possessed \npower over various church matters, but was deprived of these by a statute \nof Henry VIII., and again in 1716, when it ceased meeting. Formal \nmeetings of the Anglican clergy have been held since 1854, and attempts \nmade in vain to regain power over church interests. In February, 1872, \nconvocations were authorized to deliberate upon changes in the liturgy, \nand this was done in March following. \n\nCO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES (for economical supply of goods to members) \nRochdale Equitable Pioneers\' Society began 1844. In 1862 there were \n332 in England; on December 31, 1866, 749. Annual congresses have \nbeen held, the seventh at London, March 29, 1875. Similar organizations \nin the United States have not been very successful. There were in \nMassachusetts in 1875, however, fifteen such, of which eight had a member- \nship of 1,650, share capital $50,000, assets $100,000. and selling $500,000 \nof goods yearly. These were at Fall River (organized 1866). Worcester \n(1867), New Bedford (1867), Lynn (1870), Wakefield (1866;, Holyoke \n(1873), Gardner (1874), Natick (1869 ?). On the continent of Europe such \norganizations are numerous and efficient. \n\nCOPYRIGHT. (See pp. 102, 103, 330.) An international copyright bill \nbrought into Congress, February 21,, 1868, but could not pass. English \nHouse of Lords decided in Routledge vs. Low, in favor of the copyright \nof a foreign author. The Copyright Association of England was founded \nby leading London booksellers, March 19, 1872. \n\nCORNELL UNIVERSITY. Founded by Ezra Cornell in 186b. \n\nCORONERS. (See p. 332.) In consequence of abuses and annoyances from \nthe ignorance and incompetence of coroners, they >vere suppressed iD \n\n\n\n1867-77. i9 \n\nMassachusetts by act of legislature, May 9, 1877, and "medical exami- \nners" substituted, to be appointed by the Governor and Council, and to \nbe "able and discreet men, learned in the science of medicine." \n\nOOTTON MANUFACTURE IN UNITED STATES : \n\n\n\n\n\nZooms. \n\n\nIn So2ith. \n\n\nSpindles. \n\n\nIn South. \n\n\nMills \n\n\n1870 \n\n\n153,534 . \n\n\n5,852 . . \n\n\n. 7,114,000 . \n\n\n. . . 262,221 . \n\n\nWi \n\n\n1874 \n\n\n186,975 . \n\n\n... 10,945 .. \n\n\n. . 9,415,383 . \n\n\n. . . 487,629 . . \n\n\n.. 847 \n\n\n\nCotton mill first in India, built 1863 ; and the number had increased in \n1876 to reach a consumption of 3,000 bales cotton per week. Estimated \nconsumption of cotton for manufacturing purposes in the world, for I860 \nand 1876, in bales of 400 pounds : \n\n1860. 1876. Increase. \n\nGreat Britain 2,817,080 3,187,000 370,000 \n\nContinent of Europe 1,794,000 2,362,000 568,000 \n\nUnited-States 1,088,000 1,441,000 353,000 \n\nBombay and rest of India 164,000 164,000 \n\nThis increase is about 13 per cent, for Great Britain, and 37\xc2\xa3 per cent. \nfor the other manufacturing countries. \n\nCOUNCILS, CHURCH. (See p. 335: also Vatican Council.) \n\nCREDIT FONCIER. Name given to organizations for advancing money to \nreal estate owners on the security of their estates. Such a plan was set \nin operation by Frederick the Great in Prussia in 1763. Companies for \nthe purpose have existed in Hamburg (1782). Prussia (1787), Belgium, \n(1841), France (1852), England (1863), and elsewhere. \n\nCREDIT MOBILIER. (Seep. 104.) The original Credit Mobilier at Paris \nfailed, and the capital was said to have "disappeared," October, 1867. \nThe Pereires, and other directors held liable August 1, 1868. -i Credit \nMobilier of America," incorporated in Pennsylvania March 15, 1865 ; as- \nsumed a contract to build 100 miles of the Union Pacific R. R. westward \nfrom the Missouri River, in which Hoxie had failed. Improper distribution \nof its stock to members of Congress in December, 1867 and afterwards, was \ncharged, and an investigation by a committee of the House of Representa- \ntives took place in 1872-73. \n\nCREMATION advocated, instead of burial, by Sir Henry Thompson and \nothers in England, 1873. Societies for it established in London, Vienna, \nand Berlin in 1874. The body of Sir C. Dilke\'s wife, burned at Dresden \nOctober 10, 1874 ; the ashes of the body and coffin together being about \nsix pounds. Baron de Palm\'s remains burnt in like manner in America \nin 1876, and Dr. Winslow\'s in 1877. \n\nCRETE. Now Candia, which see. \n\nCRIME. (See pp. 105, 338; also Ticket of Leave.) International Congress \nfor Prevention and Repression of Crime, met at London, July 3, 1872. In \nEngland a great decrease in crimes of violence in proportion to the p\xc2\xbbpu- \nlation has been observed from 1861 to 1871. \n\nCRISPINS. (Bee Si. Crispin.) \n\nCROWN. (See p. 340.) The crown of England contains 1 large ruby, 1 \nlarge sapphire, 16 sapphires, 11 emeralds, 4 rubies, 1,363 brilliants ^dia- \nmonds), 1,273 rose-diamonds, 147 table diamonds, 4 drop-shaped pearls, \n273 pearls. \n\nCRUELTY TO ANIMALS. (See Animals.) \n\n\n\n20 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. \n\nCRYOLITE. A fluoride of aluminium and sodium, found in quantities in \nGreenland, and used to manufacture metallic aluminium. \n\nCUBA. (See pp.106, 340.) Insurrection began soon after the Spanish revo- \nlution, September, 1868 ; checked, June, 1870 ; not suppressed, January, \n1872 ; still in full activity, August, 1877. \n\nCUMULATIVE VOTE. Under the English Reform Aft of 1867, cumulative \nvoting, to allow " minority representation," was allowed in London, Glas- \ngow, Manchester, Liverpool, and Leeds, and in such counties as returned \nthree members each. In the counties, and in some of these cities, the \xe2\x96\xa0 \nresult was to admit minority candidates. Used in electing members of the \ngovernment of Harvard and Yale Colleges. \n\nCUNEIFORM LANGUAGES. (See Assyria.) \n\nCURIUM. General L. P. di Cesnola discovered in 1875, in the ruins of this \nvery ancient city, in Cyprus, a treasure supposed to have been that of a \ntemple, deposited in four subterranean rooms, and consisting of over 7,200 \nornaments, statues, and other articles of gold, silver, bronze, terra cotta, \nivory, glass, etc., etc., which have been secured for the Metropolitan Art \nMuseum in New York. \n\nCURRENCY, United States. National bank notes outstanding, De- \ncember 31, 1876, $319,860,304 ; greenbacks outstanding, same date, $366,- \n911,000. \n\nCYCLONE. A circular hurricane, common in the tropics. In a cyclone at \nCalcutta, October 5, 1864, about 100 ships lost, and 60,000 persons per- \nished. One at Nassau, in the Bahamas, October 1 and 2, 1866, destroyed \nover 600 houses and other buildings, dismasted many ships, and killed \nfrom 60 to 70 persons. August 21, 1871, a oyclone devastated Antigua, \nSt. Kitte, and other islands, inflicting enormous damages. In a flood and \ncyclone in the Backergunge district, in India, near the mouth of the Gan- \nges, 5,000 persons are supposed to have perished, October 31, 1876. \n\nCYPRUS. (See Curium.) \n\nCZECHS. Name of the natives of Bohemia and Moravia. In Bohemia there \nis a violent opposition between the Czechs and Germans. \n\n\n\nD. \n\nDANUBIAN PRINCIPALITIES. (See Roumania.) \n\nDARIEN CANAL. (See Canals.) \n\nDARWINISM. A " development " theory was put forth by Wolff, 1759; \nand one by Lamarck, 1809, and one in the " Vestiges of Creation," 1844. \nOrigin of mammals from an egg, not a hundredth part of an inch diameter, \nproved by von Baer. 1827. Mr. Darwin\'s doctrines are contained in his \n\'\xe2\x96\xa0 Origin of Species," 1859, and " Descent of Man,". 1871. His follower. \nHaeckel, published a " History of Creation,\' 1 1873, appeared in English, \n1875. Mr. A. R. Wallace\'s " Natural Selection" appeared 1870. \n\nDEACONESSES. Discontinued in the Western Church in the fifth and \nsixth centuries, and in the Eastern in the twelfth ; recently revived in \nGermany. Pastor Fliedner\'s Institution for training deaconesses at Kais- \nerswerth founded 1835. Advocated in England by the Bishop of Ely, \n\n\n\n1867-77. \n\n\n\n1853, and some appointed. Di;cesan Deaconess Institution at London, \nestablished 1861. In 1866 the Kaiserswerth Institution had connected \nwith it 139 stations and 491 sisters or deaconesses. \nDEATHS, noticeable, 1867-1877, in alphabetical order of names: \n\n\n\nAgassiz. L., naturalist, Dec. 15. 1873. \nAfford, Rev. H., critic, poet, and divine, Jan. \n\n12, 1871. \nAlison, Sir A.., historian, May 23, 1867. \nimberley, Viscount, Jan. 10, 1876. \nAntonelli, Cardinal, priest and statesman, \n\nNov. 6, 1876. \nApplegath A., inventor of printing machinery, \n\ncounterfeit-proof bank notes, etc., Feb. 14, \n\n1871. \nAspinwall, Col. Thomas, Aug. 11, 1878. \nAuber, D. P. E., composer, May 13, 1871. \nAubigne, Merle d\', clergyman and historian, \n\nOct. 19, 1872. \nAustin, Mrs. Sarah, authoress, Aug. 8, 1867. \nBabbage, C, mathematician, Oct. 18, 1871. \nBaird. James, Scotch iron master, June 21, \n\n1876. \nBailev, Theodorus, admiral, U. S. N., Feb. 10, \n\n1877. \nBedfo/d, Paul, actor, Jan. 11, 1871. \nBentlb/, E., publisher. Sept. 10, 1871. \nBerrye/, P. A., French advocate and orator, \n\nNov. 29, 186S. \nBlair. F P., senior, editor and politician. Oct. \n\n18, 187ft. \nBlitz, Aircouio, "magician," Jan. 28, 1877. \nBrag^, B. L., rebel general, Sept. 27, 1876. \nBrewster, SirD., physicist, Feb. 10, 1868. \nBrongniart, A. T., scientist and author, Feb. \n\n20,\' 1876. \nBrooke, Sir J., Bajah of Sarawak, June 11, \n\n1868. \nBrougham, Lord, advocate, orator, writer, phil- \nanthropist, May 7. 1S6S. \nBroughton, Lord (Sir J. C. Hobhouse), author \n\nand official, June 3, 1869. \nBrownlow, W. G., editor and politician, April \n\n29, 1877. \nBrownson, 0. A., writer and jeurnalist, April \n\n17, 1876. \nBuchanan, J., ex-President, June 1. 186S. \nBurgoyne, Sir John, soldier, Oct. 7, 1871. \nBurns, Jaboz, Methodist clergyman, Jan. 31, \n\n1876. \nBushnell, Horace, clergyman and writer, Feb. \n\n17, 1876 \n\n\n\nDerby, Earl of, statesman, Oct. 23, 1869. \n\nDickens, Charles, novelist, June 9, 1870. \n\nDidot. A., publisher, Feb. 20, 1876. \n\nDumas. Alexandre, novelist and dramatist, \nDec. 5, 1870. \n\nDurbin, J. P., Methodist clergyman, Oct. 19, \n1876. \n\nEllenborough, Earl of, statesman and admin- \nistrator,. Dec, 1871. \n\nEllet, Mrs. Elizabeth F., authoress, 1S77. \n\nEmerson-Tennent, Sir J., author and official, \nMarch 6, 1869. \n\nEvans, Sir De Lacy, soldier, Jan. 9, 1870. \n\nExeter, Bishop of (Henry Phillpotts), Sept. 8, \n1S69. \n\nFaraday, M., physicist, Aug. 25, 1867. \n\nForrest, Edwin, actor, Dec. 12. 1872. \n\nForster, John, author, Jan. 31, 1876. \n\nFreiligrath, F., poet, March 19, 1876. \n\nGalliera, Duke of, wealthy Italian nobleman, \nNov. 24, 1876. \n\nG-ough, Lord, soldier, March 2, 1S69. \n\nGreenfield, Elizabeth T., the " black swan," \ncolored singer, March 31, 1876. \n\nG-risi, Giulia, singer, Nov. 25, 1869. \n\nGrote G., historian of Greece, June 18, 1871. \n\nGuizot, F., statesman and historian, Sept. 12, \n1873. \n\nHall, W. W., medical writer and editor, May \n10, 1876. \n\nHarper, Fletcher, last of four brothers, pub- \nUshers, May 29, 1877. \n\nHemmenway, A., merchant and capitalist, \nJune 16, 1876. \n\nHerschel, Sir J. F. W., astronomer, May 11, \n1871. \n\nHowe, Dr. S. G., physician and philanthro- \npist, Jan. 9, 1876. \n\nHudson. George, the " Railway King," Dec. \n14, 1871. \n\nJohnson, Andrew, ex-President, January 10. \n1876. \n\nJohnson, Reverdv, lawyer and statesman, Feb. \n\n10, 1876. \nJohnston, Keith, geographer, July 9. 1871. \n\nJones, Ernest, chartist, Jan. 26, 1869. \n\nJuarez, B., ex-president of Mexico, July 18, \n1872. \n\n\n\nCapponi, Marquis, author, Feb. 4, 1876. \n\nCardigan, Lord, of Balaklava notoriety. March \' Kean, Charles, Jr.. actor, Jan. 22, 1868. \n\n28, 1868. \' Kerr, Michael C, politician, Aug. 19, K376, \n\nChambers, Robert and William, publishers and Kock, Paul de, French novelist, Aug., 1871. \n\n\n\nauthors, March 17 and 20, 1871. \nClarendon, Earl of, diplomatist and statesman, \n\nJune 27, 1870. \nCousin, Victor, historian and philosopher, Jan. \n\n14. 1867. \nCushman, Charlotte, actress, Feb. 18, 1876. \nCuster, Gen., July 2, 1876. \nDavies, C. mathematician, Sept. 17, 1876. \n\n\n\nLahrbush, Frederick A., soldier, claiming ta \nbe 111 years and 25 days old, April 3, 1877. \n\nLamartine, A. de, poet, historian, and states- \nman, Feb. 28, 1S69. \n\nLandseer, Sir E., painter, Oct. 1, T873. \n\nLane, E. W., Arabic scholar, Aug. 10, 1876. \n\nLee, R. E., rebel general, Oct. 13, 1870. \n\nLick, James, capitalist, Oct. 1, 1876. \n\n\n\nDavis, C. H., admiral U.S. Navy, Feb. 18, 1877. ] Lowenthal, J. J., chess-player, July 21, 1876 \nDeak, Francis, Hungarian statesman, Jan. 29, Lytton, Lord, novelist, Jan. 18, 1873. \n\n1876. Lemaitre, F., actor, Jan. 27, If 76. \n\nDe Morgan, A., mathematician, March 18, | Lemon, Mark, editor, May 23, 1870. \n\n1871. \' Maclise, Daniel, painter, Apr: 25, 1870 \n\n\n\nTHE WORLDS PROGRESS. \n\n\n\nMansel, H. L., divine and metaphysician, July \n31,1871. \n\nMarochetti, Baron, sculptor, Dec. 29, 1867. \n\nMartiueau, Harriet, writer, June 27, 1876. \n\nMayo, Lord. gov. gen. of India, assassinated, \nFeb. 8, 1872. \n\nMayo, Dr. Thomas, physician and medical \nwriter, Jan. 13, 1871. \n\nMaximilian I., Emperor of Mexico, June 19, \n1867. \n\nMaxwell, Lady (Mrs. Caroline Norton), June \n14, 1877. \n\nMazzini, G., Italian, republican agitator and \nconspirator, March 10. 1872. \n\nMelvill, Rev. Henry, divine, Feb. 9, 1871. \n\nMichael III., Prince of Servia, assassinated \nJune 10, 1868. \n\nMil man, Dr. H. H., author and divine, Sept. \n27, 1868. \n\nMontalembert, Count de, author and states- \nman, March 13, 1870. \n\nMurchiscn, Sir R. I., geologist, Oct. 22, 1871. \n\nNapoleon III., ex-Emperor, Jan. 9. 1S73. \n\nNarvaez, Spanish soldier and ruler, April 23, \n1868. \n\nNeal, John, writer, June 20. 1876. \n\nOmar Pasha, soldier, April 18, 1871. \n\nPatteson, J. C. missionary, Bishop of Melan- \nesia, Sept. 20, 1871. \n\nPeabody. George, banker and public benefac- \ntor, Nov. 4, 1869. \n\nPerier, Casimir, French statesman, July 6, \n1876. \n\nPoggendorff, J. C, physicist, 1877. \n\nPollock, Sir Frederick, judge, Aug. 23, 1870. \n\nPrevost-Paradol, M., author, July 19, 1870. \n\nPrim, J., Spanish soldier and statesman, as- \nsassinated Dec. 28, 1870. \n\nPug\'h, George E., lawyer and politician, July \n19, 1S76. \n\nPutnam, George P., publisher, Dec. 19, 1S72. \n\nRandall, H. S., agricultural and educational \nwriter, Aug. 19, 1876. \n\nRhett. R. B., politician. Sept. 14, 1876. \n\nDEVELOPMENT. (See Darwinism.) \n\nDIAMONDS. The Kohinoor, reduced by its first unskilful cutting from \nnearly 800 carats to 279 carats, was recut in 1852 down to 102\xc2\xa3 carats. \nThe " Star of the South," brought from Brazil 1855, weighed 2044- carats, \nof which half was lost in cutting. Diamonds were found in Cape Colony, \nSouth Africa, in March, 1867, and one, the " Star of South Africa," \nfound in 1869, weighed 46^ carats, and was valued in June, 1870, at \' \n\xc2\xa325,000. Other diamond fields discovered near Vaal and Orange Rivers, \nSeptember, 1870 ; a great rush of diggers. November, 1870. The value of \n141 diamonds found in Africa, 1869, was \xc2\xa37,405; of 5,661 in 1870, \n\xc2\xa3124,910. Diamond drill for piercing stone, patented by Hermann in \nFrance, 1854 ; a subsequent improvement by setting the diamond in the \nrim of a tube to turn, and thus cut out a core, used in Mt. Cenis tunnel \nand at Hellgate mine. \n\nDISESTABLISHMENT. (See also Ghurch of Ireland.) A conference was \nheld at Birmingham, October 1, 1872. to promote immediate action for \nthe disestablishment of the English and Scotch national churches. \n\nDRAMA. January 28, 1869, the Lord Chamberlain of England sent an offi \n\n\n\nRobertson, T. W.. dramatist, Feb., 1871. \n\nRobinson, W. S., journalist, March 11, 1876. \n\nRosas, Manuel, ex-dictator of Buenos Ayrea, \nMarch 14, 1877. \n\nRosse, Earl of, astronomer, Oct. 31, 1867. \n\nRossini, G. A., composer, Nov. 13. 1868. \n\nRothschild, Sir Anthonv, capitalist, Jan. 4, \n1876. \n\nRyves, Mrs., daughter of the self-styled " Prin- \ncess Olive, of Cumberland," Dec. 7, 1871. \n\nSainte-Beuve, C. A. literary critic, Oct., 1869. \n\nSaldanha, field marshal, Poituguese, soldiel \nand statesman, Nov. 21, 1876. \n\nSalt Sir Titus, manufacturer, Dec. 29, 1876. \n\nSand, George (Mme. Dudevant), June 8, 1876. \n\nSanta Anna, Antonio L., Mexican general and \nruler, June 20, 1876. \n\nSchamyl, Circassian chief, April, 1871. \n\nSmart, Sir George, musician, Feb. 23, 1867. \n\nSmith, Alexander, poet, Jan. 5, 1867. \n\nSmith, F. 0. J., telegraph capitalist, Oct. 14, \n1876. \n\nSmith, Geo., Assyrian scholar, Sept. 5, 1876. \n\nSmith, Henry B., presbyterian clergyman, pro- \nfessor, editor, and author, Feb. 7, 1877. \n\nSmith, William, connoisseur and antiquary in \nengravings, Sept. 13. 1876. \n\nSmirke, SirR., architect, April 18, 1867. \n\nStanfield, Clarkson, marine painter. May 18, \n1867. \n\nStewart, A. T., merchant, April 10. 1876. \n\nStrangford, Viscount, diplomatist, Jan. 9, 1869. \n\nStrauss. F., theologian, Feb. 8. 1873. \n\nSumner, C, statesman, March 11, 1S73. \n\nThompson, Jeff., rebel general, Sept. 5, 1876. \n\nTischendorf. C, biblical scholar, Dec. 7. 1873.4 \n\nVanderbilt, C railroad owner and capitalist, \nJan. 4, 1877.\' \n\nWhittingham, C, printer, April 21, 1876. \n\nWilkes, Charles, admiral, U. S. N., Feb. 8, \n1S77. \n\nWilson, Henry, vice-president. Jan. 20. 1S76. \n\nWinship, G. B., strong man, Sept. 12. 1S76. \n\nWise, H. A., politician, Sept. 11, 1876. \n\n\n\n1867-77. 2 3 \n\ncial warning to all the London managers against \' the impropriety of cob- \nturne of the ladies in the pantomimes, burlesques, etc.," usual on the stage. \nDramatic College, for distressed actors and their children, founded at May- \nbury, near Woking, in England, June 1, 1860, and seven persons installed \nas beneficiaries, September 29. 1862. A somewhat similar institution was \ndirected to be established by Edwin Forrest, the American actor, in his \nhouse at Philadelphia, but there appeared to be none to apply for the \nbenefit of the asylum. \n\nDUALIN. (See Explosives. ) \n\nDUELS. March 12, 1870. the Duke de Montpensier challenged Don Enri- \nque de Bourbon, for personalities having reference to the throne of Spain, \nand at the third shot killed him. The Duke was tried by court-martial, \nand sentenced to one month\'s banishment from Madrid and $6,000 fine, \nto be paid to Don Enrique\'s family. Duels are still (1877) frequent in \nFrance, but have become rare in England and America. A clumsy and \nunsuccessful one took place in 1877, between J. G-. Bennett, the owner of \nthe New York Herald, and one May, of New York ; neither was damaged, \nand Bennett went off to Europe, where he remained a number of months. \n\nDZOUNGARIA, or SOONGARIA. A country north of China, inhabited \nby about two million warlike and fanatical Mohammedans. They were \ntributary to China, rebelled 1864. making Abel Oghlan sultan. In conse- \nquence of their depredations Russia attacked them, April, 1871, the Sultan \nsurrendered himself July 4, and the country was annexed to Russia. \n\n\n\nEARTH. The estimated average density, 5-ftj- that of water ; weight, \n6,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 tons. \n\nEARTHQUAKES. (See pp. 112, 358.) August 13-15, 1868, terrible earth- \nquakes totally destroyed Arica, Arequipa, Islay, Iquique, Pisco, and \nmany other towns of Peru and Ecuador. Estimated lives lost, 20,000 ; \nestimated loss of property, \xc2\xa360,000,000, including many ships along the \ncoast and at the Chincha Islands. It was believed that more than 300,000 \npersons were deprived of shelter and food. An earthquake on the Sind \nfrontier of India. December 14 and 15, 1872, killed about 500 persons. May \n16-18, 1875, one on the Colombia frontier, near Santander, is said to have \nkilled 14,000. From 1783 to 1857, the kingdom of Naples lost, out of a \npopulation of about six million, over 1,000 persons a year, in all 110,000. \nAbout 255 earthquakes, all slight, are known to have occurred in the Brit- \nish Islands. \n\nEAST INDIA COMPANY. Its government of India ceased October 1, \n1858. Finally abolished June 1, 1874. \n\nECLIPSES. August 17 and 18, 1868, there was an eclipse of the sun, visi- \nble in many parts of the East, and very important for study, because its \nobsciiration was for the longest period ever observed, reaching on the east \ncoast of Bengal 5 minutes 49 seconds, and owing to the sun\'s great dis- \ntance and the moon\'s small distance from the earth, the obscuration was \nalso very complete. Very important observations were made, especially \nspectroscopic ones, as to the material structure of the sun . August 7, \n\n\n\n24 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. \n\n1869, solar eclipse generally observed in North America. There is a sort \nof series of about 70 eclipses that comes round once every 18 years 10^ \ndays. Except on August 12, 1889, no total eclipse of the sun will be visi- \nble in England for 250 years from July, 1871. \n\nECUADOR. Presidents: G-en. Franco, August 21, 1859; Dr. G. G. \nMoreno, January, 1861 ; G. Carrion, August 4, 1865 ; resigns December, \n1867 ; Dr. X. Espinosa, September 13, 1867 ; Dr. G. G. Moreno, end of \n1872 ; assassinated August 6, 1872 ; X. Leon, Vice-President, September, \n1875. Population estimated at about 1,500,000. \n\nEDUCATION in U. S. (See pp. 113, 362. ) A Department of Education \ncreated by Act of Congress, approved March 2, 1 867 ; afterwards made \na Bureau in the Department of the Interior. Commissioner, Henry \nBarnard; succeeded in 1870 by Gen. John Eaton. In 1870, in the \nUnited States, were persons over 10 years old unable to read, 4,528,084 ; \nunable to write, 5,658,144; school children, 7,209,038 ; schools, 141,629; \nteachers (127,713 female), 221,042; income of schools, $95,402,726, of \nwhich public money, $61,746,039. The census of 1870 showed that the \nwealth of the country was owned where the education was highest, and \nthat poverty and illiteracy go together. Compulsory free schools, and \ndisfranchisement of all who cannot read and write English, by Federal \nauthority, recommended by President Grant in his message, December 5, \n1876. \n\nEDUCATION IN ENGLAND. (See p. 362 ) National Education Leagues \n(for compulsory education) first met October 12 and 13, 1869 ; Metropolitan \nSchool Board (for London), elected November 29, 1870, Miss Garrett, M.D., \nbeing chosen member by a large majority. Elementary Education Bill of \nMr. W B. Forster became law August 9, 1870 ; amended 1872, 1873, 1876 ; \nCompulsory Attendance Bill of Mr. Dixon rejected, 320 to 16. July 1 , \n1874, and again, 281 to 260, April, 1876. Primary schools in Gre\'.t \nBritain in 1855, 4,8<0 ; in 1860, 7,272 ; in 1870, 10,949 ; annual parlia- \nmentary grant for same, in 1870, about $4,500,000. \n\nEGYPT. (Seo pp 113,362.) See also Sues Canal. June 6. 1867. the \nKhedive (viceroy) of Egypt arrived in London : his visit lasted until the \n18th He made a second visit in 1869. landing June 22, and remaining \neight days A controversy with the Sultan was adjusted December 18, \n1869 : a firman makes the Khedive practically independent June 8, 1873 ; \nbut he must not coin money, make treaties, or build iron-clad ships. The \nsuccession of the Khedives is : Mehemet Ali Pacha, abdicated September, \n1843 ; dies August 2, 1849 ; Ibrahim, .his adopted son, September, 1848 ; \ndies November 9 or 10, 1848 ; Abbas, his son. succeeds ; dies July 14, \n1854 : Said, Abbas\'s brother, dies January 18, 1863 ; Ismail, Said\'s \nnephew, succeeds. Mr. Cave\'s reporc to English Government (April, \n1876), calls Ismail "intelligent, industrious, hospitable, and frugal." \nThe principal points as to ancient Egyptian history settled thus far are : \n1. Hieroglyphics are partly pictorial (and of these some are special and \nsome general or determinative) and partly alphabetic. 2. Menes was \nbelieved by the ancient Egyptians to be historical, the first known king of \nEgypt ; and there is more evidence for his existence than for that of \nKing Arthur. 3. The great pyramid dates from the 4th dynasty, say 300 \nor 400 years after Menes. 4. Manetho\'s dynasties were mostly consecu- \ntive, not contemporary. 5. Roving tribes from the East (the Hyksos) con- \nquered Lower Egypt and ruled in the Delta for centuries ; they were \n\n\n\n1867-77. \n\n\n\n25 \n\n\n\nexpelled by Aahmes, or Amasis I. Under the 18th dynasty, which began \nwith this king, Egypt was greatest. Thotmes III. was the greatest of its \nkings. Ramses II., or Sesostris, of the 19th dynasty, was, however, as \ngreat. 6. Important synchronisms have been determined of the later \nperiod of Egyptian empire, with Syrian and Persian history. \xe2\x80\x94 (Bev. J. P. \nTJiompson. ) \nELECTORAL COMMISSION. The votes of Florida, Louisana, and Ecuth \nCarolina in the Presidential election. of November, 1876, were disputed, \nand were finally referred for adjudication to an Electoral Commission by \nAct approved January 29, 1877. The commission consisted of Justices \nClifford. Strong, Miller, Field, and Bradley, of the United States Supreme \nCourt; United States Senators Edmunds, Morton, Frelinghuysen, Thur- \nman, Bayard ; United States Representatives Payne. Hunton, Abbott, \nGarfield, Hoar. The Commission began operations February 7, 1877; \nacted on the three votes above named, the critical questions being mostly \ndetermined by a vote of eight to seven, corresponding nearly with the \nknown political opinions of the members of the commission, and the \ndeciding vote being usually that of Justice Bradley. The result of the \nCommission was the crediting of the votes in question to Hayes and \nWheeler, who were in consequence elected President and Vice-President \nof the United States by one electoral vote majority, viz. , by 185 votes to \n184. \n\n\n\nLEMENTARY \n\n\nSUBSTANCES \n\n\ni. The \n\n\nelementary substances now known \n\n\nare sixty-five \n\n\nin number, as \n\n\nfollows \n\n\n; those after \n\n\nsulphur being in th* \n\n\norder of their \n\n\ndiscovery from \n\n\nantimony, 1490 down to 1877. \n\n\nGold,\' \n\n\nPlatinum, \n\n\n\n\nTungsten, \n\n\nLithium, \n\n\nSilver, \n\n\nNickel, \n\n\n\n\nTellurium, \n\n\nSelenium, \n\n\nMercury, \n\n\nSodium, \n\n\n\n\nUranium, \n\n\nCadmium, \n\n\nCopper, \n\n\nPotassium, \n\n\n\n\nZirconium, \n\n\nBromine, \n\n\nIron, \n\n\nLime (calcium), \n\n\nTitanium, \n\n\nThormum, \n\n\nTin, \n\n\nSilex, \n\n\n\n\nStrontium, \n\n\nVanadium, \n\n\nLead, \n\n\nAlumina, \n\n\n\n\nYttrium, \n\n\nLanthanum, \n\n\nCarbon, \n\n\nMagnesia, \n\n\n\n\nChromium, \n\n\nBidymium, \n\n\nSulphur, \n\n\nHydrogen, \n\n\n\n\nGlucinum, \n\n\nErbium, \n\n\nAntimony, \n\n\nFluorine, \n\n\n\n\nTantalum, \n\n\nRuthenium, \n\n\nBismuth, \n\n\nNitrogen, \n\n\n\n\nCerium, \n\n\nNiobium, \n\n\nZinc, \n\n\nChlorine, \n\n\n\n\nPalladium, \n\n\nCaesium, \n\n\nPhosphorus, \n\n\nOxygen, \n\n\n\n\nRhodium, \n\n\nRubidium, \n\n\nBorax, \n\n\nManganese, \n\n\n\n\nIridium, \n\n\nThallium, \n\n\nArsenic, \n\n\nBarium, \n\n\n\n\nOsmium, \n\n\nIufdium, \n\n\nCobalt, \n\n\nMolybdenum, \n\n\nIodine, \n\n\nJargon mm, \n\n\n\n\n\n\nGallium. \n\n\n\n\n\nELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. The electric telegraphs of the world are (in \n1877) 391,360 miles long. Of these, the United States contain 79,000 \nmiles; Great Britain and Ireland, 75,000; Russia, 31,459; France, \n28,784; Austro-Hungary, 28,148; Germany, only 19,152. \n\xe2\x80\xa2EMIGRATION and IMMIGRATION. Immigration into United States \nsince 1861 (by Government fiscal years) : \n\n1867 293,601 \n\n1868 889,145 \n\n1869 3S5.287 \n\n1870 356,303 \n\n1S71 346.938 \n\n\n\n1861 89,720 \n\n1862 89,005 \n\n1863 174.523 \n\n1864 193,191 \n\n1865 248,394 \n\n1866 314,840 \n\n\n\n1872 437,750 \n\n18?3 422.546 \n\n1S74 260,814 \n\n1875 191,231 \n\n1876 237,991 \n\n\n\nTotal in sixfceen years, 4.331,278. Whole emigration into United States \nto end of 1875, including the estimated total of 250,000 before 1320, \n9,526,966. For Chinese immigration to California, see China. \n\n\n\n20 \n\n\n\nTHE WORLD\'S PROGRESS. \n\n\n\n\n\nEmigration from Great Britain and Ireland for Ten Tears. \n\n\n\n\nTo North Ameri- \ncan Colonies. \n\n\nTo United States. \n\n\nTo Australia. \n\n\nTotal. \n\n\n1866 \n\n\n13,255 \n\n\n161,000 \n\n\n24,097 \n\n\n204,882 \n\n\n1867 \n\n\n15,503 \n\n\n159,275 \n\n\n14,466 \n\n\n195,953 \n\n\n1868 \n\n\n21,062 \n\n\n155,532 \n\n\n12,809 \n\n\n196,325 \n\n\n1869 \n\n\n33,891 \n\n\n203,001 \n\n\n14,901 \n\n\n258.027 \n\n\n1870 \n\n\n35,295 \n\n\n196,075 \n\n\n17,065 \n\n\n256.940 \n\n\n1871 \n\n\n32,671 \n\n\n198,843 \n\n\n12 227 \n\n\n252 435 \n\n\n1872 \n\n\n32,205 \n\n\n233,747 \n\n\n15,876 \n\n\n295,213 \n\n\n1873 \n\n\n37,208 \n\n\n233,073 \n\n\n26,428 \n\n\n310,612 \n\n\n1874 \n\n\n25.450 \n\n\n148,161 \n\n\n53,958 \n\n\n241,014 \n\n\n1875 \n\n\n17,378 105,046 35,525 \n\n\n173,809 \n\n\n\nENCUMBERED ESTATES ACT, to provide for disposal of encumbered \nreal estate in Ireland, passed July, 1849 ; proceedings under it October, \n1849, to July, 1858: 2,380 estates sold, and brought \xc2\xa322,000,000. The \nIrish Land Bill, passed 1870, further recognized the Irish customs as to \ntenure of land, and gave the tenant a right in his improvements, and \ndamages for being "wrongfully evicted. \n\nEOZOON CANADENSE. A foraminifer found by J. W. Dawson, of Mont- \nreal, in the Laurentian limestone in 1858; asserted to be the earliest \nknown form of animal life. \n\nEPHESUS. Mr. Wood\'s search for the ruins of the temple of Diana began \n1863 ; he ascertained the site 1870, and shipped 60 tons of marble to the \nBritish Museum in 1872. \n\nEUROPE. Population (census years 1860 to 1875 in different countries), \n265.374,470; an estimate for 1872, for all these countries, gives 301,700,- \n000. \n\nEVOLUTION theory ; includes the nebular theory, and the Darwinian theory \nof the descent of man and natural selection. \n\nEXECUTION. (See also Capital Punishment.) The execution of Michael \nBarrett, for being concerned in the plot to blow up Clerkenwell Prison, \nDecember 13, 1867, at Newgate, London, May 26, 1868, was the last \npublic execution in England. On September 8th following, the first \nprivate execution took place, inside of Newgate, being that of ono \nMackay, for murder. \n\nEXHIBITIONS, INTERNATIONAL. London (South Kensington), opened \nMay 1, closed November 1, 1867; visitors, 6,117,450. Paris, opened April \n1, closed November 3, 1867. Vienna, opened May 1, closed November 2, \n1873. Philadelphia, opened May 10, closed November 10, 1876. The \nPhiladelphia Exhibition (most single admissions, 274,919, on September \n28, 1876) compares with the other chief similar ones as follows : \n\n\n\nPlace. \n\n\nYear. \n\n\nDays open. \n\n\nAdmissions. \n\n\nReceipts. \n\n\n\n\n1851 \n1862 \n\n1855 \n1867 \n1873 \n1876 \n\n\n141 \n172 \n200 \n217 \n186 \n159 \n\n\n6,039,191 \n6,211,103 \n\n5,162,330 \n8,805,969 \n6,740,500 \n9,789,392 \n\n\n$2,530,500 \n\n2,042; 650 \n\n640,495 \n\n\nVienna \n\n\n2,103,675 \n1,032,385 \n3,813,749.75 \n\n\n\nExhibitors at Philadelphia, 30,864, from 50 countries ; whole outlay about \n$8,830,000. \n\n\n\n1867-77. 2 7 \n\nEXPLOSIONS. (See Hellgate.) Explosion of steam on the ironclad Thun- \nderer, at Portsmouth, England, kills 77 persons. One Thomas, Thomas- \nsen, or Thomson, said also to be in fact named Alexander Keith, Jr., and \na native of Halifax, N. S., sent a cask of dynamite to be shipped by the \nsteamer Mosel, at Bremerhaven, and with it a clock-train set to run eight \ndays and the"h explode the dynamite and destroy the ship, which would \nthen be well out at sea. The machine, however, exploded on the dock \nDecember 11, 1875, killing over 80 persons and wounding about 200. \nThomassen killed himself, after confessing that his object had been \nmerely to obtain a small insurance. \n\nEXPLOSIVE BULLET TREATY, adopted in November 1868, at St. Peters- \nburg, by Bavaria, Belgium, Denmark, England, France, Greece, Holland, \nItaly, Persia, Portugal, Austria, Prussia, Russia, Sweden, Switzerland, \nTurkey, and Wiirtemberg, agreed not to use in any war amongst them- \nselves, by land or sea, any explosive missiles of any kind of less than 400 \ngrammes weight, viz. , about 13 oz. avoirdupois. \n\nEXPLOSIVES. Dynamite (or giant powder), looks like rather fine brown \nsugar, and is made of powdered silex, silicious ashes or infusorial earth, \nmixed with three times its weight of nitro-glycerine. Dualin, made \nknown by Carl Ditniar, a Prussian, in 1870, consists of cellulose, nitro- \nBtarch, nitro-mannite, and nitro- cellulose ; and the dualin invented by \nNobel is composed of ammonia and sawdust, treated with nitro-sulphuric \nacid. Nitro-glycerine, an amber-colored fluid, discovered by Sobrero, \n1847 ; made by gradually adding glycerine to a mixture of one part nitric \nand two parts sulphuric acid. It explodes with thirteen times the force \nof gunpowder, besides a great gain in its speed of action. Gun-cotton, \ninvented by Schonbein, and made known 1846 ; it is made by steeping \ncotton in mixed nitric and sulphuric acids (equal parts). Lithofracteur is \na modification of dynamite, invented by Engels, of Cologne, 1869. Gly- \noxyline, invented by F. A. Abel, in England, in 1867, is a mixture of gun- \ncotton, saltpetre, nitro-glycerine, and pulp. It was superseded by com- \npressed gun-cotton. \n\nEXTRADITION TREATY between England and the United States, negoti- \nated 1842 ; abrogated May 2, 1876, in consequence of England\'s refusing, \nApril 18, 1876, to surrender the forger Winslow, and of a disagreement \nabout trying one Lawrence, delivered by England under the treaty, the Eng- \nlish position being that there were improper efforts to try him for offences \nother than that for which he was delivered ; while the United States \nclaimed that England had wrongly applied a home English statute of 1870, \ndefining extradition offences, to this treaty, which was international. An \nextradition treaty between the United States and Spain was proclaimed \nFeb. 21, 1877. \n\nEXPORTS and IMPORTS. (See pp.118, 373.) See Commerce. \n\n\n\nF. \n\nFAILURES (See Commercial Failures, W. P. , p. 100,) in the United State* \nfor the ten years 1867-76, were as follows : \n\n9 \n\n\n\n\n\nAverage \n\n\nWhole Amount. \n\n\nIndebtedness. \n\n\n$86,218,000 \n\n\n$36,134 \n\n\n6y, 774,000 \n\n\n24,452 \n\n\n75,054,000 \n\n\n26,814 \n\n\nS8,242.000 \n\n\n24,849 \n\n\nS5,252,000 \n\n\n...". 29,245 \n\n\n121,056,000 \n\n\n29,750 \n\n\n228,499,000 \n\n\n44,085 \n\n\n135,239,000 \n\n\n26,627 \n\n\n201,060.353 \n\n\n25,978 \n\n\n191,117,786 \n\n\n21,020 \n\n\n\n2 8 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. \n\n\n\nNumber. \n\n1867 2,386 \n\n1868 2,608 \n\n1869 2,799 \n\n1870 3,551 \n\n1871 2,915 \n\n1872 4,069 \n\n1873 5,183 \n\n1874. 5,830 \n\n1875 7,740 \n\n1876 9,092 \n\nFAMINE. (See p. 375.) In Orissa, 750,000 persons perished of famine, \n1865-6; wry severe in Persia, 1871-2; in Bengal, from drought, 1874; \nin Asia Minor, 1874-5 ; in several parts of India, 1876-7. \n\nFENIANS. October 10, 1869, Edward Martin, a Fenian official, was buried \nin London, with a Fenian demonstration consisting of a funeral procession \nof various organized bodies, in all about 6,000 men. In 1870, Parliament \namnestied the Fenian prisoners at Portland, but on condition of banish- \nment for life from the United Kingdom. A Fenian force of some 2,000 \nstrong, under O\'Neill, entered Canada from Vermont, May 25, 1870, but \nremained beyond the lines only ninety minutes, being repulsed and driven \nback by a few English and Canadian troops. Another company crossed \nthe line at Malone, N. Y. , on the 27th, and were driven back in a similar \nmanner. One Fenian killed at each place was the whole loss on both \nsides. July 13, 1871, Head Constable Talbot, of Dublin, who had been \nvigorous and successful in breaking up the plans of the Fenians, was \nassassinated by a pistol-shot, dying on the 16th. One Kelly, who was sup- \nposed to have shot him, was acquitted, to the great joy of the FeDians. \n\nFIJI ISLANDS. Ceded to England, September 30, 1873 ; Sir A. H. Cordon \nfirst Governor, 1875. \n\nFILIOQUE. A word adopted into the Western creeds, in the Council of \nToledo, 589 ; rejected by the Eastern churches since 662. It implies that \nthe Holy Ghost proceeds both from the Father " and from the Son." The \nold Catholic Conference, Bonn, August, 1875, debated its omission, but did \nnot omit it. \n\nFIRES. (See pp. 120, 378.) December 6, 1867, Her Majesty\'s Theatre, Lon- \ndon, was burned down. It was reckoned the best existing building of its \nclass for hearing music in. June 5, 1870. a great fire in Pera, one of the \nsuburbs of Constantinople, destroyed many houses, immense quantities of \nproperty of Armenian merchants, the English Embassy buildings, and (by \nestimate) 2,000 lives. January 12, 1870, the Star and Garter Hotel at \nRichmond, near London, for many years a favorite resort of pleasure- \nparties, was totally burnt ; the manager, Mr. Lever, being burnt also. \nMay 24, 1870, at Quebec, a fire in the suburb of St. Roch destroyed 400 \nhouses, left 8,000 persons homeless, and consumed $1,000,000 worth of \nproperty. March 10, 1871, a fire at Holker Hall, Devonshire, a seat of \nthe Duke of Devonshire, destroyed, among many other valuable and \ncurious articles, seventy-two very fine paintings, by some of the best \nmasters, ancient and modem. June 17, 1871, the steam in an immense \nboiler, some thirty feet long, in the Trinity Works in Sheffield, was found \nto continue to fill the boiler at night after the fires were withdrawn. On \nexamination it was found that the boiler, which had been noticed to be \nsinking for some time, was kept hot by the slow burning of a seam of \n\n\n\n1867-77. 2 9 \n\nshale and coal extending immediately under the building. The fire must \nhave been long burning, perhaps for years, and was quietly at work under \nthe street and under the houses opposite. It took a considerable time \nand a large force of men to put it out. December 3, 1871 , a fire at War- \nwick Castle consumed the whole of the east wing and the centre, the \nwest wing being saved with great difficulty. Many valuable works and \nhistoric pictures and relics were destroyed. December 14, 1871, a fire \nat Rotherhithe, near London, in Bennett & Co. \'s granaries, among the \nlargest in England, destroyed to the value of \xc2\xa3150,000. November 24, \n1876, fire at Tokio, Japan, destroys some 5,000 homes; about fifty per- \nsons killed; loss of property about $10,000,000. December 5, 1876, \nBrooklyn Theatre burned ; 315 lives lost. For Boston and Chicago fires, \nsee Boston, Chicago. \n\nFLOGGING. Abolished in the English army (in time of peace) in the \nannual mutiny bills of 1868. The Act provides that \'\'no court-martial \nshall have power to sente ce any soldier or marine on shore to corporal \npunishment in time of peace." \n\nFLOODS. (See Inundations, pp. 132, 426.) Great floods in France in Sep- \ntember, 1866 ; in North of England, November 16 and 17, 1866 ; at Rome, \nDecember 28 and 29, 1870 ; in Northern Italy, October, 1872 ; at Toulouse, \nin France (1,000 lives lost), June 23, 1875 ; in midland and western coun- \nties of England, July, October and November, 1875; in India, September \n22-24, 1875 ; in Holland and France, March, 1876. Reservoir at Mill \nRiver. Mass., burst, destroying several villages and about 150 lives, May \n16, 1874. A flood in the rivers of Western Pennsylvania, July, 1874, \ndrowns about 220 persons. The Worcester, Mass.. reservoir burst March \n30, 1876, but having been expected, no lives were lost, though great \ndamage was done. \n\nFLORENCE, or FIRENZE. (See p. 378.) People vote for annexation to \nSardinia, March 11 and 12, 1860, and on April 7, the King enters Flor- \nence : it is made the capital of Italy until Rome shall be acquired, De- \ncember 11, 1864, and the King and Court established there May 13. 1865. \n600th anniversary of Dante\'s birth celebrated May 14, 1865 ; first Italian \nparliament November 18, 1865 ; government removes to Rome, July, 1871. \n400th anniversary of Michael Angelo, September 12, 1875. \n\nFLUORESCENCE. The luminousness which takes place in uranium-glass, \nand in solutions of quinine, horse-chestnut bark, or stramonium datura, \nwhen the invisible chemical rays of the blue end of the solar spectrum are \nsent through them. Discovered and named by Stokes, 1852. \n\nFRANCE. (See, for events, etc., in the Chronological Tables, following the \n" Dictionary of Dates.") \n\nG. \n\nGAMING. Gaming-houses licensed in Paris until 1838. Betting-houses \nsuppressed in London, 1830. Public gaming-tables suppressed at Wies- \nbaden, Hamburg, and other European watering-places, leaving Monaco \nthe only such place of resort, December 31, 1872. Pool-selling forbidden \nby law in New York, 1876. \n\n.GATLLNG GUN. Invented in America ; patents 1861-1865 ; exhibited at \nParis 1867 ; rejected in England as inferior to a field-gun firing shrapnel ; \n\n\n\n30 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. \n\na similar machine, the mitrailleuse, tried at Vincennes, 1869, and used by \nthe French in the war of 1870-1871. \n\nGENEVA. (See p. 388.) The ex-Duke of Brunswick dies here August \n18, 1873, and leaves all his property (over \xc2\xa3764,000) to the city. \n\nGENEVA CONVENTION, on care of wounded, etc. , in war, of delegates \nfrom fourteen governments, met October 26, 1863 ; their code adopted by \nall civilized powers except the United States, August, 1864. The Inter- \nnational or "\'Red Cross" Society, established inconsequence, did much \nin relieving the sick and wounded in the Franco-Prussia war, 1870-1871, \nsome 13,000 volunteers attending them at a time. \n\nGERMANY. (See pp. 124, 390.) The Germanic Confederation, succeeding \nNapoleon\'s " Confederation of the Rhine,\'\' was formed June 8, 1815 ; its \nfirst diet was at Frankfort, November 16, 1816 ; announced dissolved by \nPrussia, June 14, 1866, but continued ; was, however, given up by Austria \nat the peace of Nikolsburg, after Sadowa, July 26, and the last meeting \nof the diet, August 24, 1866. Instead was established the North German \nConfederation, without Austria and the other South German States, Au- \ngust 18, 1866. North German Parliament met at Berlin, February 24, \n1867 ; the confederation ceased on the re -establishment of the German \nEmpire, January 1, 1871. Population of the Empire, December 1, 1875, \n42,726,844. \n\nGOLD. (See pp. 125.395.) Of 98,000,000 sovereigns coined in England \nfrom 1850 to 1869, 44,000,000 had in the latter year disappeared from \ncirculation; and it was computed that in 1869 31| P er cent, of the sov- \nereigns and 40 per cent, of the half-sovereigns circulating were of light \nweight. Estimated value of gold extant in the world, in 1848, about \n$2,800,000,000 ; in 1875, about $5,000,000,000. \n\nGOOD TEMPLARS. A secret society of total abstinents. The first Eng- \nlish lodge formed at Birmingham, May, 1868 ; in 1874 said to be 3,745 \nlodges and 210,255 members in the United Kingdom. \n\nGOTHENBURG SYSTEM. Introduced with excellent results at Gothen- \nburg, Sweden, for controlling the use of intoxicating liquors. It consists \nof a monopoly of the sale by a company of reputable citizens, under care- \nful restrictions, and without any gain beyond usual wages, to the sellers, \nwho must live by their other business as victuallers, etc. \n\nGRANGERS. (See Patrons of Husbandry.) \n\nGREAT BRITAIN. (For principal occurrences, see in Chronological \nTables, following the Dictionary of Dates. ) \n\nGREEK CHURCH. Patriarch of Constantinople declines the Pope\'s invita- \ntion to an oecumenical council, October, 1868. A Greek church at Liver- \npool consecrated by an archbishop, January 16, 1870. \n\nGRETNA GREEN. Here Scotch marriages (an acknowledgment before \nwitnesses was a valid marriage in Scotland) used to be celebrated for run- \naways. An Act of Parliament in 1856, however, destroyed the business, \nby providing that one party to such marriage must have lived in Scotland \ntwenty-one days. \n\nGUATEMALA. (See p. 126. ) Recent Presidents : Vincent Cerna, succeeded \nCarrera, May 3, 1865, to 1869; M. G. Granedos, December, 1872; R. Bar- \nnes, May 7, 1873. Population, about 1,180 000. \n\n\n\n1867-77. 3i \n\nGYPSIES. Esther Faa crowned Queen of the Gypsies at Blyth, in York- \nshire, November 18, I860. \n\n\n\nH. \n\nHAYTI, OR St. Domengo. (See pp. 127, 406.) Hayti and St. Domingo are \nused as names for the whole island. Hayti is the western or French \npart, and San Domingo (which see) the eastern or Spanish part. Gef- \nfrard became President of Hayti, January 23, 1859 ; a military insurrection \nagainst him, under Salnave, broke out May, 1865 ; Geffrard beaten and \nbanished. Salnave President, March 27, 1867 ; after one or two risings \nare put down, Salnave proclaims himself Emperor, August, 1868, but is \ndefeated by insurgents, taken, tried, and shot, January 15, 1870. General \nNissage Saget elected President, March 19, 1870 ; lives out his term. M. \nDomingue elected June 14, 1874; an insurrection expels him, April, 1876, \nand Boisrond Canal elected July, 1876. Population (estimated) 572,000. \n\nHEAT. Count Rumf ord, about the beginning of this century, asserted that \nheat consists in motion among the particles of matter. Tyndall\'s book \non the same theme appeared February, 1863, and this is at present the \nreceived doctrine. \n\nHELLGATE. The reef at Hallett\'s Point, which was the principal obstruc- \ntion at Hellgate, in East River, near New York, was mined during seven \nyears under the management of General Newton, of United States \nEngineers, by a system of galleries and pillars between, to an extent of \n4,857 feet of tunnelling and 2,568 feet of galleries, covering two and \nthree-quarter acres of ground, leaving ten feet of rock above, supported \nby 173 piers of about ten feet diameter each, and the whole system \nradiating fanwise outward from the "entrance-shaft at the shore. All \nthese pillars were then drilled and charged with a total number of 3,680 \ncharges of dynamite, vulcanite, or rend-rock powder, and the whole were \nconnected with a battery on shore by wires, so as to insure simultaneous \ndischarge. This took place on September 24, 1876. with complete suc- \ncess, the final connection which exploded the whole mass being made by \nthe finger of General Newton\'s baby daughter pressing a battery-key. A \nsmaller explosion was the blowing up of Blossom Rock, in the Golden \nGate (San Francisco harbor), April 23, 1870, in which 43,000 pounds of \ngunpowder were used, packed in one large chamber in the rock. \n\nHEPTARCHY. Seven Saxon kingdoms in England, about a.d. 450-850, \nviz.: Kent; South Saxons (Sussex and Surrey); West Saxons (Berks, \nHampshire, Wilts, Somerset, Dorset, Devon, part of Cornwall) ; East \nSaxons (Essex, Middlesex, part of Herts) ; Northumbria (Lancaster, York, \nCumberland, Westmoreland, Durham, Northumberland) ; East Angles \n(Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridge, Ely) ; and Mercia (Gloucester, Hereford, \nChester, Stafford, Worcester, Oxford, Salop, Warwick, Derby, Leicester, \nBucks, Northampton, Notts, Lincoln, Bedford, Rutland, Huntingdon, \npart of Herts). \n\nHERAT. A strong city, called the key of Afghanistan, near the Persian \nfrontier. The Persians failed to take it, 1838 ; took it, October 25, 1856 j \ncontrary to the treaty of 1853 ; were forced to restore it by the English \nJuly 27, 1857. \n\n\n\n32 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. \n\nHERZEGOVINA. An insurrection against the Turks broke out December, \n1861 ; subdued September, 1862. Another broke out July 1, 1875, and \nthe country has been in an unsettled state ever since (1377), sympathizing \nwith its neighbors Montenegro, Bosnia, and Servia. \n\nHIEROGLYPHICS. (See p. 409; see also Egypt.) The researches of \nChampollion and others, greatly assisted by the discovery of the Rosetta \nStone (see p. 103), have now made the Egyptian hieroglyphic language a \nreasonably well understood one, with dictionaries and grammars. \n\nHOLLAND. (See p. 410.) William III. succeeded his father, William II., \nMarch 17, 1849. A Roman Catholic hierarchy re-introduced, 1853. \nSlavery abolished in Dutch West Indies (to take place July 1, 1863), \nAugust 6, 1862. Canals begun to connect Amsterdam and Rotterdam \nwith the North Sea, 1865. Population (December 31, 1875), 3,809,527, of \nwhich over 1,200,000 is in cities having more than 20,000 inhabitants. \nThe town population of Holland is proportionately larger than in anj \nother European country. \n\nHOME RULE (for Ireland). The Home Government Association, estab- \nlished at Dublin, 1870, with both Catholic and Protestant members ; Mr. \nIsaac Butt, a leader, elected to Parliament from Limerick. September 20, \n1871 ; agitation in and out of parliament from that time, without much \nresult ; parliamentary " filibustering," with much inconvenience to busi- \nness, carried on by Home Rule members, July, 1877. \n\nHORSE. (See p. 413.) Rarey\'s mode of training horses shown by him \nin England with great success, 1858-9-60. Horseflesh used as food in \nParis, 1866, and since. Goodenough\'s American machine-made horse- \nshoes (patented I860), to put on cold, adopted by the London General \nOmnibus Co., 1870. A horse epidemic, called the epizootic, coming from \nCanada, caused much inconvenience in Northern States, October, 1872. \n\nHUNGARY. (See pp. 129, 414.) The Emperor and Empress of Austria were \ncrowned king and queen of Hungary, at Pesth, June 8, 1867. The \n1 \' Act of Grace " issued on the occasion annulled all sentences and stopped \nall proceedings for political offences, restored forfeited estates, and al- \nlowed the banished to return. Croatia united with Hungary, May 27, \n\n\n\nHURRICANE. (See also Cyclone.) Oct. 29, 1867, a violent hurricane \nstruck St. Thomas (W. I. ) and vicinity. At St. Thomas alone, some 80 \nvessels were sunk or driven ashore, 100 lives lost on the island by fall of \nhouses, etc., and several times as many on the shipping. March 11, \n1868, a hurricane at Mauritius drove ashore 20 ships, destroyed or un- \nroofed many buildings, destroyed immense quantities of growing sugar, \ncane and stored sugar, blew down a railroad bridge, etc. \n\nI. \n\n[CE-MACHINE. Machines for making ice act either : 1, by rapid evapora- \ntion, as in Carre\'s, Harrison\'s, Twining\'s, etc. , patents ; or 2, by lique- \nfaction of a freezing mixture, as in the common way of making ice-cream \nwith ice and salt ; or 3, by use of vacuum and absorption of heat in conse- \nquence from the article to be frozen. Several of these machines have \nbeen commercially successful. \n\n\n\n1867-77. 33 \n\nICELAND. (See p. 417.) A new constitution, granted and put in opera- \ntion at King Christian\'s visit, Aug. 1, 1874, when the 1000th anniversary \nof the settlement was celebrated at Reykjavik. Cleasby\'s Icelandic-Eng- \nlish dictionary, published 1869-74. A volcanic eruption March 29, 1875, \ndevastated much pasture-land. \n\nIMPEACHMENT. The House of Representatives voted (126 to 41) to im- \npeach President Johnson, Feb. 24, 1868, of high crimes and misdemean- \nors, in having violated the Tenure of Office Act, and in other doings. \nAfter trial before the Senate, he was on May 16th acquitted oh one ar- \nticle (the 11th), only 35 Senators voting for conviction (one less than the \ntwo-thirds requisite), to 19 for acquittal. On the 26th he was acquitted \non the remaining articles. \n\nINCOME TAX, United States. Expired by limitation, end of 1871. \nReceipts from it, 1867. $27,418,000 ; 1868, $23,390,000 ; 1869, $27,353,000; \n1870, $26,150,000 \n\nINDIA. (See pp. 131, 421.) Order of the Star of India established June 25, \n1861. Growth of cotton greatly increased in consequence of American \ncivil war stopping the supply, 1862. Government support of heathen \nreligion stopped December, 1863. Indo-European telegraph opened, \nMarch 1, 1865. About 1.500,000 persons die of famine in Orissa, August \nto November, 1866. The Brahmo Somaj, a sect holding tenets much \nlike the Unitarian, appear in 1869, and open a house of worship August \n24. Their leader, Keshub Chunder Sen, afterwards (1870) visits London, \nand preaches in a Unitarian chapel. Mr. Dall, a Unitarian missionary to \nIndia, joins the Brahmo Somaj. Much distress from famine in Bengal, \nspring of 1874, but only a few lives lost. Estimated expense of relief \noperations \xc2\xa36,500,000. Prince of Wales\'s visit ; he sails from England \nOctober 11, 1875, reaches Bombay, November 8 ; grand reception of Indian \nrulers, December 24 ; sails from Bombay to return, March 13, 1876. Queen \nVictoria proclaimed Empress of India in London, May 1, 1876 ; at Delhi, \nJanuary 1. 1877. British India (immediate and feudatory states inclusive) \ncontains about 1,500,000 square miles, and population (census 1871-2) \nabout 240,000,000. \n\nINDIANS. (See pp. 131,422; also Modocs.) Gen. Custer ambushed, de- \nfeated and killed, and his command of 17 officers and 315 rank and file \nutterly exterminated by the Indians under Sitting Bull, at Little Horn \nRiver, July 2, 1876. Hostilities continue against the Indians, who, under \nSitting Bull, flee into British territory at end of campaign of 1876. In \nthe summer of 1877 Joseph, an Idaho chief, and a small band commence \nhostilities in that State. \n\nINFALLIBILITY of the Pope alone, voted by the Vatican Council, July 18, \n1870. Dr. von Dollinger excommunicated for opposing it, April 18, 1871 ; \nand chosen rector of the University of Munich, July 29, 1871. The Bava- \nrian government protests against the doctrine, September 27, 1871 ; an \n\'"Old Catholic" church opened at Munich, in September, 1871. \n\nINSOLVENCY. (See Bankruptcy. ) \n\nINSURANCE. First fire insurance company in United States, the Phila- \ndelphia Contributionship, 1752. First state insurance department in \nMassachusetts, 1854 ; next in New York, 1860. Capital in fire insurance \n\n\n\n34 the world\'s progress. \n\nbusiness in United States in 1860, $32,358,000; in 1806, $44,410,000 ; in \n1876, $55,883,000. Lost by the great fires of 1871 and 1872, over $15,- \n000,000. Comparison of the business in years 1865 and 1875 : \n\n1S65. 1875. \n\nProperty insured $3,428,000,000 $6,273,000,000 \n\nPremium receipts 29,529,000 64, 900, 000 \n\nLosses paid over. 17, 2(i5.0UU 91,960,000 \n\nWhole losses by fire in United States in 1875, $78,000,000, of which in \nsured, $39,000,000. \n\nINTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT. (See Copyright.) \n\nINTERNATIONALISTS. An organization of a communist or socialist \nnature, first established by some German socialists in London, 1847 ; \ndefinitely organized at London, September 28, 1864, George Odger first \npresident. Professes to operate for the emancipation of labor from the \ntyranny of capitalists. It has had congresses, sometimes ludicrously dis- \norderly, at Geneva, September, 1866 ; Lausanne, September, 1867 ; Brus- \nsels, September, 1868; Basle, September, 1869; Barcelona, June, 1870; \nHague, September, 1872. This last was particularly quarrelsome, and \nthe political part seceded from the trade part, and adjourned to New \nYork. At this time the society reported failing in England. Geneva \nmeeting September, 1873, and at Brussels again, September, 1874. Has \nclaimed the absurd number of 2,500,000 members, and to be affiliated \nwith the Fenians and other secret societies. \n\nINTEREST. (See pp. 132, 426.) In England was 8 per cent, by law of \n1623 ;. 6 per cent., 1651 ; 5 per cent., 1713 ; and law totally repealed 1854, \nleaving interest a matter of agreement. \n\nINUNDATIONS. (See Floods.) \n\nIONIAN ISLANDS. (See pp. 133, 427.) Declare for annexation to Greece, \nin March, J 861, and April, 1862. England acquiescing, annexation takes \nplace accordingly, May 28, 1864, and the British troops leave June 2. \nPopulation about 200,000. \n\nIRELAND. (Seep. 428; see also Church of Ireland; Encumbered Es- \ntates Act ; Fenians; Home Rule.) Queen Victoria visits Ireland, Au- \ngust, 1849 ; again, August, 1853. Agitation against national school \nsystem, 1859. Agricultural distress and agrarian murders, 1862 and 1863 ; \nemigration very extensive, 1860-1864. Prince and Princess of Wales \nvisit Ireland, April, 1868. Agrarian murders, 1869 and 1870. \n\nIRON. (See pp. 133, 428. ) The iron and steel production of the United \nStates for three years, 1874-5-6, was as follows : \n\n1874. 1875. 1876. \n\nPig iron, tons (of 2,000 lbs.) 2.689,413 2,266,581 2,093,236 \n\nAll rolled iron, tons 1,839,560 1,890,379 1,921,730 \n\nRails, all kinds, tons 729,413 792,512 S79.629 \n\nRails, Bessemer steel, tons 144,944 290,863 412,461 \n\nGut nails and spikes (included in " rolled iron ") kegs 4,912,180 4,726,881 4, 157.81 4 \n\nIron produced in Great Britain in 1875, tons, 6,566,451. \n\nIKON SHIPBUILDING. (See also Navies.) This industry began in the \nUnited States in 1868, and up to 1877 have been built 251 iron vessels of \na total capacity of 197,500 tons. Present annual value (1877) of iron \nvessels built in United States, from twelve to fifteen million dollars. Is \n/876 were built 25 vessels as follows : \n\n\n\n1867-77. 35 \n\nPlace. Number. Total Tonnage \n\nabout. \n\nBuffalo 3 140 \n\nBurlington, N. J 1 13 \n\nDelaware (State) 9 8,298 \n\nNew Orleans 2 915 \n\nPhiladelphia 11 11,981 \n\nBesides 9 other large vessels and a considerable number of smaller ones \nbuilding. \nITALY. (See pp. 133, 429.) September 23, 1867, G-aribaldi, persisting in hig \nmarch upon Rome, was arrested by the Italian authorities at Sinalunga, \nnear Sienna, as he was about entering the Papal territory. He was im- \nprisoned in Alessandria, but afterwards sent to his island of Caprera and \nwatched by ships of war. He escaped, however, resumed his enterprise, \nand was at Monte Rotondo, near Rome, in the end of October, and on the \npoint of advancing, when (October 28) a French fleet reached Civita Vec- \nchia, and October 30, a French force occupied Rome., to prevent the pro- \nposed revolution. November 3, Garibaldi was decisively beaten at Mentana \nby the French, and he was again arrested and imprisoned. In September, \n1870, the Italian troops marched upon Rome, under Gen. Cadorna, and \non the 20th, after four hours\' cannonade, entered and occupied the city. \nOctober 2, a popular vote was held in the States of the Church, on the \nquestion of uniting them and Rome with Italy, and making Rome the \ncapital. The vote was 133,681 affirmative, and,l,507 negative. Decem- \nber 5, the Italian Parliament at Florence voted 192 to 18 to remove the \ncapital to Rome. Victor Emanuel made a formal public entrance into \nRome, December 31, 1870. \n\n\n\nJAMAICA. (See p. 431.) Negro rising, October 11, 1865, put down with \nmuch bloodshed and many punishments, by Gov. Eyre, October and No- \nvember, 1865. Gov. Eyre suspended ; a government commission reported, \nApril 9, that great, wanton and unnecessary cruelty and violence had been \nused. Eyre was afterwards indicted in England, and sued for damages ; \nbut the grand jury threw out the bills, and an act of indemnity gave him \nthe suit. In 1873 the island was reported more prosperous. Population, \n1871, 506,154. \n\nJAPAN. (See pp. 134, 432.) Jeddo (now called Tokio) and other places \nopened to trade according to treaty, April 25, 1867 ; Osaka and Hiogo the \nsame, January 1, 1868. Insurrection of the daimios, or provincial princes. \n1868, ending in their overthrow in 1869. This left the government sub- \nstantially an absolute monarchy under the Mikado, who, however, had \nfirst to overcome also the Tycoon, or spiritual sovereign. This was accom- \nplished December, 1869. An embassy of distinguished Japanese reached \nWashington March 4, and London, August 17, 1872. First railway in \nJapan opened October, 1872. New constitution, arranging a form of \ngovernment somewhat like the imperial French Government, April 14, \n1875. The present Mikado, or Emperor, Moutsu or Mutsu Hito, born \n1852, succeeded his father, Komei Tenno, in 1867. Population in 1875 \n(estimated), 32,794,897. \n\nJERUSALEM. (Seep. 433.) Population estimated (in 1877) as follows: \nJews, 10,600; Christians, 5,300 ; Mohammedans, 5,000 ; total, 20,900. A \nProtestant bishopric was established here under protection of England and \n2* \n\n\n\n36 THE WORLD\'S PROGRESS. \n\nPrussia, 1846 ; Wilson and Warren\'s excavations, ascertaining many points \nof interest about the ancient city, 1867-71. \n\nJESUITS. (See pp. 134, 433.) Expelled from Belgium, 1818; Russia, \n1820: Spain, 1820 and 1835; France, 1831 and 1845; Portugal, 1834; \nSardinia and Austria, and some other States, 1848 ; Italy and Sicily, 1860 ; \nEmpire of Germany, 1872 ; Italy again, 1873. In 1866 whole number \nof Jesuits reported to be 8,167, of which in France 2,422. \n\nJEWS. (See pp. 134, 434.) Oppressive Austrian laws against them annulled \nJanuary, 1860; Hungary emancipates, 1867; Disraeli, a Jew, English \npremier, 1868; Jews admitted into Spain, 1868; Sir G. Jessel, a Jew, \nEnglish solicitor -general, 1871 ; master of the rolls, 1873. Jews in \nGreat Britain (estimated) in 1876, 51,520, and in London, 39,833. Jews \nin the world, 1869, estimated at 7,000,000. \n\nJUTE. Fibre from two plants cultivated in Bengal (viz. , chonch, or cor- \nchorus olitorius, and isbund, or C. capsularis). Used for mats, gunny- \ncloth, and other coarse textile fabrics. Imported into the United King- \ndom in 1871, 3,454,120 cwt. ; 1874, 4,270,164 cwt. ; in 1875, 3,416,617 \ncwt. \n\nK. \n\nKARAITE JEWS. A kind of Protestant sect, who adhere to the Hebrew \nScriptures alone, rejecting the Talmud and Rabbinical tradition. They \nare found mostly in Turkey, Poland, and the Crimea. \n\nKEET, Rev. Mr. (See Reverend.) \n\nKHEDIVE. (See Egypt.) The title is supposed to mean something more \nthan vali or viceroy. It was given to the ruler of Egypt, May 14, 1867. \n\nKHIVA. The Czar Nicholas sent an expedition against it, which perished \nin the cold of the winter of 1840. Another, 1873, took Khiva after de- \nfeating the Khan, who became subordinate to the Czar. The country has \nsince been pretty much made a Russian province. \n\nKHOKAND entered by Russian troops, February, 1876, and the khanate \nannexed to Russia by the name of Ferghana. \n\nKINEMATICS. A recent subdivision of physical science, being the science \nof motion. Professor Reuleaux\'s Kinematics of- machinery, an important \nwork on the application of this science, published in Germany ; a transla- \ntion appeared in London, 1876. \n\nKU-KLUX KLAN. A secret organization in the Southern States to oppose \nthe ruling party, or Republicans, by threats and violence, particularly \nagainst such colored persons as should vote the Republican ticket. Their \noperations were very efficacious, 1868-1871, when, under the pressure of. \nlegal and military measures, they disappeared, other forms of the same \nkind of activity being adopted. \n\nL. \n\nLABOR. (See Internationalists ; Strikes; Working mil.) \nLAMBESSA. An island on the coast of Algeria, used as a prison for some \nof the victims of Napoleon III., of December 2, 1851, and for other po- \nlitical exiles. \n\n\n\n1867-77. 37 \n\nLATIN UNION, to maintain a uniform coinage, 1865 to 1880, consists of \n\nFrance, Italy, Belgium, and Switzerland. \nLEONINE CITY. That part of Rome assigned to the Pope at tie entrance \n\nof the Italian troops, in Sept., 1870. It includes the castle of San Angelo, \n\nthe hospital of San Spirito, the Vatican palace and gardens, and St. \n\nPeter\'s. \n\nLIBERIA. (See pp. 136,451.) Presidents: D. B. Warner, 1864; J. S. \nPayne, 1868; E. J. Roy, 1870 (deposed Oct., 1871); J. J. Roberts (the \nfirst President), 1872 and 1874; he died 187(5. Population about 720,000, \nof which about 19,000 are of American birth or descent. In July, 1877, \nit was reported that 30,000 negroes in South Carolina were enrolled to go \nto Liberia, in consequence of apprehensions from the white supremacy in \nthat State. \n\nLIBRARIES. (See pp. 136, 451.) The great Report of the Education \nBureau on Public Libraries in the United States for 1876, gives a list of \n3,469 public libraries in the United States having over 300 volumes (not \nincluding common or district school, parish, and Sunday-school libraries). \nIn these were reported in all : \n\nVolumes 12,276,964 \n\nIn common school, etc., libraries, additional, more than 1.365.407 \n\nTotal volumes 13,642,371 \n\nAdd pamphlets, only part reported, up to about 1,500,000 \n\nOf these, 1,510 libraries report 434,339 volumes annually added ; 742 re- \nport 8,879,869 volumes, annual use ; 1,722 report $6,105,501 permanent \nfunds ; 830 report $1,398,756 total yearly income ; 769 report $562,407, \nannually spent for books, and 643 report $682,166 annually spent for \nsalaries and incidentals. The Boston Free Public Library, the largest on \nthe American continent, contained, July 1, 1877, about .333,000 volumes, \nbesides about 150,000 pamphlets. \n\nLIFE-SAVING APPARATUS. Patent for life-boat to Wm. Lukin. 1785 ; \nH. Greathead, 1788, obtained reward of a South Shields committee for \nbest life-boat ; also \xc2\xa31,200 from parliament. It first put to sea January \n30, 1790. Up to 1804, 31 life-boats built and 300 lives saved. Richard- \nson\'s tubular life-boat, Challenger, patented 1852, in England. English \nNational Life-boat Institution, founded 1824 ; in 1876 had 2,541 life- \nboats in operation, and lives saved, 1824-1875, inclusive, 23,789. An \nAmerican \' \' life-raft " of cylinders, filled with air and lashed together, \nnavigated from New York to Southampton, June 4 to July 25, 1867. \nManby\'s apparatus for throwing a shot from a mortar over vessels in dis- \ntress, and thus getting a line to them, put in use February, 1808 ; in 20 \nyears it saved 58 vessels and 410 persons. Boyton\'s life-preserving \ndress and signalling apparatus exhibited in America and Europe. 1874- \n1877 ; he crossed the English Channel in it in 23\xc2\xa3 hours, May 28 and 29, \n1875. The United States Life-saving Service, as organized 1871, is in 11 \ndistricts on the ocean and great lakes. It has 108 stations, with mortar, \nshot-line, life-car, and ample equipments, and 24 of them with a life- \nboat besides. There is a superintendent for each district, and a keepei \nand six surfmen for each station. In five years, ending June 30, 1876, \nthere were on these coasts 273 wrecks ; property saved by the Life-sav- \ning Service, $5,254,300; lives saved, 3,189; lost, 41. Ottinger\'s shot- \nline gun will carry 631 yards. \n\n\n\n38 THE WORLD\'S PROGRESS. \n\nLIGHT. Velocity nearly 200,000 miles per second. Comes from the sun \nto the earth, therefore, in a little over eight minutes. The greatest prog- \nress in the science of optics since Newton has been in this century, in- \ncluding the development of the undulatory theory, polarization, actinism \nor chemical action of light, spectroscopic investigations, etc. \n\nLOANS. (See pp. 137 - , 456.) French loan for Crimean war, for $150,000,- \n000, authorized by law, July 9, 1855 ; on the 30th, nearly five times the \nrequired amount had been taken in France, besides nearly the whole \namount in foreign subscriptions. French loan of $100,000,000, for the \nItalian campaign of 1859, raised without difficulty ; for that of $400,000,- \n000, in 1871, for German indemnity, and for subsequent one of $600,000,- \n000, to close out the same and end the German occupation, twice the \nrequired amount was promptly subscribed within France. The success \nof these French loans arises from the small sums receivable, and the con- \nfirmed habit of the people to hoard specie. \n\nLONDON. (See pp. 137, 458.) Estimated area in 1860, 121 square miles, or \neleven miles square. Total population, 1871, 3,885,641 ; in 1877, probably \nconsiderably over 4,000,000. The first charter of London, given by William \nthe Conqueror, is still preserved in the city archives. It is on a slip of parch- \nment six inches long and one broad, beautifully written in Saxon, and is in \nEnglish as follows: "William the King greeteth William the bishop and \nGodfrey the portreve and all the burgesses within London friendly. And I \nacquaint you that I will that ye be all there law-worthy as ye were in \nKing Edward\'s days. And I will that every child be his father\'s heir \nafter his father\'s days. And I will not suffer that any man do you any \nwrong. God preserve you." \n\nLONGEVITY. (See Old Age.) \n\nLORRAINE. Anciently, Lotharingia ; German, Lothringen. United to \nFrance, 1766 ; about one-fifth of it, including Metz and Thionville, an- \nnexed to Germany, along with Alsace, at end of Franco-Prussian war, \nFebruary 26, 1871. \n\nLUXEMBURG. According to treaty at London, by the great powers, May \n1867, the Prussian garrison left the fortress. November, 1867 ; fortifica- \ntions dismantled. August, 1870, and transformed for civil purposes, 1874. \nThe grand duchy was declared neutral by the treaty of 1867 ; its popula- \ntion, December 1, 1871, was 197,528; area, 1,592 square miles. \n\nM. \n\nMAFIA or MAFFIA. (See Brigands.) \n\nMAGDALA. A very strong Abyssinian mountain fastness, stormed by the \nBritish under Sir R. Napier (afterwards Lord Napier of Magdala), April \n13, 1868, when Theodore, the Abyssinian king, killed himself. The \nplace was burned, April 17th. \n\nMAGNESIUM. The metal first obtained from magnesia, by Davy, 1808; \nproduced in large quantities by Sonstadt, 1862-4. It burns easily, with \na singularly brilliant flame, by which photographs can be taken, as was \ndone in the interior of the Pyramids, 1875. \n\nMAN, Antiquity of. (See Pre-Mstoric Man.) \n\n\n\n18(37-77. 39 \n\nMANITOBA. Rupert\'s Land made a province, and named Manitoba, 1870. \nOne Kiel and others (Catholics) resisted annexation to the Dominion of \nCanada, in January, 1870; proclaimed the "Red River Republic," and \nmurdered one Scott, who opposed them. On the appearance of a mili- \ntary force from Canada, however, in July, Riel yielded without resistance, \nand ran away. The annexation was accomplished, and A. G. Archibald, \nthe first Lieutenant-Governor of Manitoba, arrived in September. An in- \ntended Fenian raid on this colony suppressed by United States troops, \nOctober, 1871. The Red River settlement is in the geographical centre of \nNorth America. \n\nMELANESIA. The South-west Pacific Islands. Their missionary bishop, \nPatteson, and his chaplain, Atkin, murdered by the natives at Santa \nCruz, one of the Queen Charlotte group, September, 1871, as supposed in \nrevenge for kidnapping, which the bishop had strenuously opposed. \n\nMENTANA. Garibaldi defeated, November 3, 1867. \xe2\x99\xa6 \n\nMERCURY. (See p. 477.) The new Almaden mine, in California, produced \nfrom July, 1850, to end of 1873, 351,897,055 pounds of quicksilver. From \none to two pounds are lost for every ton of the ore that is worked with it. \n\nMERV. A miserable town in Turkistan, just north of the Persian frontier, \nof no importance except as a possible military station, on the line to India \nwhich might be followed by the Russians. \n\nMETEOROLOGY. Meteorological Society established in England, 1850, \nchartered 1866. A department for this science, of the English Board of \nTrade, under Admiral Fitzroy, organized 1855 ; it has done much to- \nwards foretelling the weather for commercial and scientific purposes. \nThe United States Signal Service department sent and received in the \nyear 1873-4, 529,958 letters and documents ; issued of all its publica- \ntions 4,494,320 copies, of which 3,491,046 were " farmers\' bulletins." It \nhad in that year 108 stations and 247 observers. It has been from the \nbeginning under the able management of General Albert J. Myer, who or- \nganized it. \n\nMETEORS. The dates of the usual annual meteoric displays are : January \n2d, July 29th, August 3d and 9th to 12th, November 8th to 14th, Decem- \nber 11th. Meteors are now supposed to be small bodies revolving around \nthe sun in space, and the displays of them to be in consequence of the \nearth\'s passing through a belt or group of them, when the swiftness of \ntheir motion through the earth\'s atmosphere inflames them. \n\nMETRIC SYSTEM. Based on the metre, one ten-millionth of a quarter \nof the earth\'s circumference in latitude (3.2808 English feet). Unit of \nsurface is the centiare or square metre. The are is 100 square metres. \nUnit of solidity is the stere, a cubic metre. Unit of capacity, the litre, a \ncubic decimetre. Unit of weight, the gramme, a cubic centimetre of dis- \ntilled water. Unit of money, the franc, weighing 5 grammes. Prefix to \neither of these (except franc) deoa- for ten times; hekato-, 100 times ; \nMlo-, 1,000 times; myria-, 10,000 times. Also, deci- for one -tenth ; centi-, \none-lOOth; milli- for one -1,000th. Adopted to more or less extent (be- \nsides being the only legal system in France) by convention, May 20, 1875, \nin the following countries : Austria, Germany, Russia, Italy, Spain, \nPortugal, Turkey, Switzerland, Belgium, Sweden, Denmark, United \nStates of America, Argentine Republic, Brazil, Peru. \n\n\n\n40 THE WORLD\'S PROGRESS. \n\nMETROPOLITAN MUSEUM of ART, New York, chartered April, 1870, \na site in the Central Park and $500,000 for a building granted by tha \nState, April, 1871. First collection (of paintings) opened in temporary \ngallery, February 20, 1872. Greatly enlarged by the antiquities collected \nby General di Cesnola at Curium and elsewhere in Cyprus. 1873-5. \n\nMBTZ. Surrendered, October 27, 1870, by iazaine with 3 marshals, 66 \ngenerals, 6,000 officers, 173,000 men, 400 guns, 100 mitrailleuses, 53 \neagles. \n\nMEXICO. (See pp. 142, 479.) French evacuated Mexico. March, 1867. \nJuarez (a full-blooded Indian), president until his death, July 18, 1872 ; \nLerdo de Tejada, president ; his government overthrown by Porfirio Diaz, \nNovember 16, 1876. \n\nMILK. Condensed milk process invented by Gail Borden, 1849, since which \ntime a great business has grown up in it, both as supplied in bulk in cities \nand put up in sealed cans for voyages and store purposes. \n\nMINES, MINING. (See pp, 143, 481.) Value of minerals and metals mined \nin the United Kingdom in 1874, \xc2\xa367,834,313; in 1875, \xc2\xa367,487,688. \nCoal, iron and lead were the three greatest mining products, coal being \nover two-thirds of the whole in value, and iron almost three-fourths of \nthe other third. Mining products of the United States in 1870, $152,- \n598,994, of which just about half were from Pennsylvania alone. \n\nMINORITY REPRESENTATION. (See Cumulative Vote.) \n\nMISSISSIPPI RIVER. (See pp.144, 482.) Improvements to make the \nSouth Pass of the river navigable and to keep it so, by Capt. Eads\'s plan \nof jetties carried out from the natural mouth of the pass so as to keep the \nmam river stream together and thus scour a passage out to deep water, \nwere bpgun in 1875. In 1877 a twenty-foot channel is secured and main- \ntained by the river itself, where there was before only eight feet of water, \nand the jetty plan is considered successful. Humphreys\' aod Abbott\'s \nelaborate and valuable hydrographic and hydraulic survey of the river, \npublished 1861. \n\nMITRAILLEUSE. (See Qathng Gun.) \n\nMOABITF STONE. Discovery announced January, 1870, having a Phoe- \nnician or ancient Hebrew inscription, said to be by order of Mesha, King \nof Moab, referred to in 2 Kings, iii. , and to narrate his victories over Israel. \nDr. Ginsburg has published an excellent monograph of it, second edition, \n1871. \n\nMODOCS defeated the United States troopK, January, 1873 ; murdered Gen. \nCanby and about forty more by treachery, April 11 ; after long and des- \nperate fighting in almost impregnable volcanic \'\'lava-beds," the remaining \nModocs were captured,\' and their chief, Captain Jack, was tried, and ex- \necuted October 3, 1873. \n\nMOLLY MAGUIRES. Said to be a branch of a secret society called the \nAncient Order of Hibernians, but practically a murdering secret society \namong the miners of Eastern Pennsylvania. The name and the organiza- \ntion first came into notice about 1862, and for fourteen years they pur- \nsued a career of violence and murder in Carbon. Schuylkill, and the other \nneighboring mining counties. In December, 1862. they attacked Mr. \nG-oyne\'s mine in Cass township, stopped the works and beat those who \nopposed them ; June 14, 1862, they murdered F. W. S. Langdon, neai \n\n\n\n-LOOI-, I. 4I \n\nAudenreid, and in November, 1863, George K. Smith, in the Stone vicinity ; \nattacked Mr. Northall\'s house, February 11, 1867, in order to kill him, he, \nhowever, being away ; July 5, 1875, shot and killed policeman Yost, of \nTamaqua ; September 1, 1875, murdered Sanger and Uren, two miners, \nat Raven Run ; Sep\' ember 3, murdered John P. Jones at Lansford ; and \nthere were many other cases of murder and violence, usually in the nature \nof revenge for some action about wages or employment of which the order \nchose to disapprove. By means of detectives, a number of them were, \nhowever, seized and tried, and June 21, 1877, ten of them were hanged. \n\nMONEY. (See p. 484. See also Coinage ; Currency ; Gold; Silver.) \n\nMONT CENIS TUNNEL. (See runnels.) \n\nMONTENEG-RO rebelled against the Turks early in 17th century ; inde- \npendent ever since, though without the consent of Turkey, and in spite \nof repeated furious Turkish attacks. Several of these, however, would \nhave overwhelmed the brave little principality, without the intervention \nof the great powers. Area, 1,770 square miles ; population in 1871, about \n195,600. \n\nMOODY AND SANKEY. (See Revivals.) \n\nMOORSOM\' S METHOD of measuring the tonnage of merchant shipping \nwas adopted in the English Merchant Shipping Act of 1854, and is the \nmethod used for ascertaining the tonnage on which dues are payable at \nthe Suez Canal. \n\nMORMONS. (See pp. 145, 485.) One Lee, a Mormon bishop, tried and \ncondemned to death in 1877, for having participated in the Mountain \nMeadows massacre, Sept. 18, 1858, of 136 emigrants, by order of the \nMormon leaders. \n\nMOUNTAIN. Mount Everest, in the Himalayas, 29,002 feet high, is the \nhighest mountain known in the world. \n\nMURDERS in England and Wales for ten years : \n\n1869 265 I 1872 257 \n\n1870 222 I 1873 223 \n\n1871 226 I 1874 223 \n\nMUSIC. (See pp. 146, 487.) Musical pitch fixed in France, 1860, the mid- \ndle C to be 522 vibrations in a second. Various different pitches have \nsince been adopted, and "concert pitch" is now (1877) not a settled \nthing. Tonic sol-fa system invented by Miss Glover ; improved about \n1847 by Curwen. For Wagner\'s Ring des Nibelungen, see Bayreuth. \n\nMYCEN^l. 1874 to 1876, Dr. Schliemann explored the site of the Acro- \npolis of ancient Mycente, discovering five tombs, which he believes those \nof Agamemnon, Eurymedon, Cassandra, and their followers. In these was \na great collection of golden and other precious articles of ornament and \nuse, extremely ancient, interesting, valuable, and archasologically impor- \ntant. They are deposited with the Greek authorities at Athens. \n\n\n\nN. \n\nNATIONAL DEBT op United States. (See pp. 147, 490.) Deducting \ncash in the Treasury, Dec. 1, 1876, was $2,089,336,099.42. Increase of \nthe debt in the month preceding, $457,662.64. Decrease since June 30, \n\n\n\n1865 \n\n1S66 \n\n\n226 \n\n272 \n\n\n1867 \n\n\n255 \n\n\n1868 \n\n\n261 \n\n\n\n42 \n\n\n\nTHE WORLD\'S PROGRESS. \n\n\n\n1876, $10,103,245.57. Decrease since 1866, $683,900,074.27. State and \nterritorial debts, June, 1876, estimated at $350,000,000. \n\nNATIONAL DEBTS. (See pp. 147, 490.) An estimate in the Westminster \nReview, of the national debts of the world in 1875, was as follows (at \n$5.00 to the pound sterling) : \n\n\n\nGreat Britain $3,875,000,000 \n\nEurope 13,865,000,000 \n\nAmerica 3,870,000,000 \n\nAsia 655,000,000 \n\n\n\nAustralasia . \nAfrica \n\n\n\n200,000,000 \n375,000,000 \n\n\n\nTotal $22,840,000,000 \n\n\n\nEuropean national debts are about as follows (at $5.00 to the pound \nsterling) : \n\n\n\nAustro-Hungary (1876) \n\nBelgium (January 1, 1876). . . . \n\nDenmark (March 31, 1875) \n\nPrance ( Januai-y 1, 1875) \n\nGerman Empire, none, or a tri- \nfling one. \n\nBut Prussia (January 1, 1876). \nBavaria (January 1, 1874). \nWiirtemberg (May 10, 1874) \n\nSaxony (end of 1876) \n\netc., etc. \n\nGreat Britain (March 31. 1876) \n\n\n\n$1,709,634,530 \n\n33,656,000 \n\n51,620,005 \n\n4,687,921,400 \n\n\n\n829,852, 375 \n\n156,688,045 \n\n73,496,1120 \n\n85,222,010 \n\n3.884,852,720 \n\n\n\nGreece (partly estimated, Jan., \n\n1, 1876) 106,800,515 \n\nItaly (end of 1875, estimate) . . . 2,000,000,000 \n\nNetherlands (beginning of 1875) 386.383,365 \n\nPortugal (June 30, 1876) 395,308, 900 \n\nRussia (estimate, Jan. 1, 1876).. 1,254,810,000 \n\nSpain (estimate, end June, 1875) 2,650,000,000 \n\nSweden (January 1, 1876). . . . 38,929,680 \n\nAnd Norway (end of 1875) 13,418.775 \n\nSwitzerland (beginning of 1876) 5,520.000 \nTurkey ( June,1876 ; much more \n\nsince) 927,000.000 \n\n\n\nNATURAL SELECTION. (See Darwinism.) \n\nNATURALIZATION. (See pp. 147, 490.) In 1870 there were about 9,500 \nAmericans in England, and about 2,500,000 British subjects in the United \nStates. Under English laws passed May 12, 1870, and July 25, 1872, the \nlatter were empowered to renounce their allegiance ; and by the conven- \ntion of February 3, 1871, the nationality of British subjects was made \ndependent on choice, and not on birth. \n\nNAVIES. (See pp. 148, 495.) The English navy contains in all about 240 \nvessels. Of iron-clad war-ships, there are, including those now (1877) \nbuilding, about as follows in the world : \n\n\n\nNation. \nEngland . . \nFrance . . . \nRussia. . . . \n\nItaly \n\nTurkey... \nGermany , \nHolland . . \n\n\n\nShips. \n59 \n53 \n29 \n16 \n24 \n13 \n17 \n\n\n\nTotal tonnage. \n317,000 \n184.000 \n\n89,000 \n\n89,000 \n\n65,000 \n\n61,000 \n\n23,000 \n\n\n\nAlso, Austria, 14 ; Spain, 7 ; Denmark, 6 ; United States, 27 ; Sweden \nand Norway, 8; Portugal, 1; Greece, 2; Brazil, 17; Peru, 6; Chili, 2; \nArgentine Confederation, 2 ; Japan, 2. Whole number of iron-clad ships of \nwar, 305 ; of these, England has 21 first-rates, thickest armor on any of \nthem, 24 inches ; and France, 23 first-rates. The thickest armor used by \nany German ship is 10 inches; Russia and Turkey, 12 inches; Italy, 22 \ninches (on the Duilio, launched May 8, 1876, and considered the most \npowerful war-ship ever built). The United States navy, besides 27 iron- \nclad ships, has 70 other steamers and 25 sail-vessels. \n\nNEBULAR HYPOTHESIS. Published by Sir William Herschel, 1811 la \nOctober, 1860, the " dumb-bell nebula" was reported by Lassell to show \nno signs of consisting of stars. In 1865, Huggins reported certain rebulas \nshown by the spectroscope to be entirely gaseous. \n\n\n\n1867-77. 43 \n\nNEPTUNE (Pi,anet). First observed by Dr. Galle, at Berlin, September 33, \n1846, where Le Verrier told him to look for it, having calculated that the \nirregular motions of Uranus called for such a planet. Mr. J. C. Adams, \nof Cambridge, had made similar calculations about the same time. \n\nNETHERLANDS. (See Holland.) \n\nNEW CALEDONIA. Occupied by the French, September 20, 1853,, and \nsince used by them as a penal colony. \n\nNEWSPAPERS. (See pp. 149, 500.) Newspapers in Great Britain, 1876, \n1,642. In the United States, 1875, 7.870 periodicals, of which 5,951 \nweeklies. In British America, 1,478, being in America, north of Mexico, \n8,348 periodicals. Among the remarkable enterprises of newspaper con- \ncerns within the last few years, are: Stanley\'s expedition into Central \nAfrica, for the New York Herald ; Mr. George Smith\'s explorations in \nAssyria, partly for the London Telegraph ; the destruction of the very \npowerful and wealthy criminal combination called the New York "Ring," \nin consequence of revelations in the New York Times by Sheriff O\'Brien. \nWorks od the English periodical press : Andrews\' British Journalism, 1855, \nand Hunt\'s Fourth Estate, 1850 ; on that of America, Hudson\'s Journalism \nin the United States, 1873, which supersedes in most respects the infor- \nmation in Buckingham\'s and Thomas\'s works. \n\nNEW YORK CITY (See pp. 150,499.) Barnum\'s old museum burnt, July \n13, 1865 ; money panic in Wall Street, from the gold-buying operations of \nFisk and Gould, September 22-26, 1869; revelations of the "Tweed \nRing " corruptions in the city government. August and September, 1871 ; \nFisk murdered by Stokes, January 7, 1872 ; the Ei\\e railway administra- \ntion, controlled by Fisk and Gould, breaks down, March, 1872 ; trouble \nfrom epizootic, or horse disease, October, 1872 ; great panic in business \nthroughout the country, begins with stoppage of Jay Cooke & Co., Sep- \ntember, 1873 ; Tweed convicted of embezzlement, and sentenced to \ntwelve years\' imprisonment, November 19, 1873 ; escapes, December, \n1873 ; damages of $6,537,000 awarded against him in civil suit, March 8, \n1876 ; arrested at Vigo, in Spain, September 8, 1876, and returned to \njail. \n\nNEW ZEALAND. Discovered by Tasman, 1642 ; recognized as belonging \nto Great Britain, 1814 ; first English governor lands, January 29, 1829 ; \ncolony and bishopric established 1841 ; towns founded : Auckland, 1840, \nNelson and Turanaki, 1841, Otago, 1848, Canterbury, 1S50; native insur- \nrection from land troubles, March, 1860 ; suppressed, after much fighting \nand trouble, March, 1861 ; another native war, May, 1863, continued \nmore or less until July. 1866. The New Zealand group is about 1,000 \nmiles long and 200 wide ; area of land, about 102,000 square miles ; white \npopulation, 1851, 26,707 ; December 31, 1876, about 375,856, besides \nabout 45,470 natives or Maoris. \n\nNICSICS. A strong Turkish fortress standing at that narrow neck of land \nwhich joins the two main portions of Montenegro, and therefore an im- \nportant military position. \n\nNILE. (See p. 502.) From the time of Bruce\'s explorations in 1768 -70, no \ndiscovery of importance about the source of the Nile was made until \nSpeke and Grant discovered the great lake Victoria Nyanza, 1863. Bakei \ndiscovers the Albert Nyarza, March 14, 1864. Livingston\'s letter from \n\n\n\n44 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. \n\nUjiji, dated November, 1871, to Mr. Bennett, says the Nile springs are \nabout 600 miles south of the Victoria Nyanza. \n\nNITRO-GLYCERINE. Explosion of, June 30, 1869. Two cart-loads of \nnitro-glycerine exploded in the vale of Llanberris, on the road to a quarry \nthere. Five persons were killed, they and the horses being so blown to \npieces that only fragments were found, as a heart, a foot, a chin with the \nbeard on it. Roofs, doors, and windows were destroyed everywhere for \ntwo miles around, and where each cart blew up was left a circular pit in \nthe road, seven and a half feet across and seven feet deep. \n\nNORFOLK ISLAND. (See p. 503.) After the English penal colony was \nremoved, the descendants of the mutineers of the Bounty (198 souls) \nwere in June, 1856, carried from Pitcairn\'s Island and established here. \nIn December, 1875, the new colony was prosperiug. \n\nNORWAY. (See Sweden.) \n\nO. \n\nOCEAN EXPLORATION. Deep-sea soundings and dredgings have been \nmade by Sars, off the coast of Norway ; by Carpenter and Thompson, near \nthe Faroe Islands, 1868-9 ; by Carpenter, in the Mediterranean, 1870. \nThe voyage of the Challenger, for ocean exploration, was December 21, \n1872, to May 25, 1876; she sailed about 80,000 miles. These investiga- \ntions have greatly added to knowledge. Deepest soundings thus far, \n3,875 fathoms (4 miles, 710 yards), in the Atlantic north of St. Thomas, \nMarch 24, 187B. Living creatures have been found at the depth of three \nmiles. \n\nOLD AGE. (See Longevity, pp. 137,458.) Sir G. C. Lewis. Prof. Owen, \nand W. J. Thorns (his "Human Longevity" published 1873,) have dis- \nproved many alleged cases of old age, and few of over 100 years can be \nbelieved in. A few recent ones are as follows : Anthony Beresford died \nin England, aged 101, March 3, 1874 \xe2\x80\x94 considered authentic; Count Wal- \ndeck, traveller and artist, died aged 109, at Paris, April 29, 1875 ; Captain \nFrederic Lahrbush, soldier, died aged 111 years, (age disputed), April 3, \n1877, at New York. \n\nOLD CATHOLICS organized September, 1871, at Munich. Third annual \nsynod at Bonn, in summer of 1876, 50,000 members and adherents were \nreported, but action on the question of clerical celibacy was declined. \nThe movement grew out of opposition to the new dogma of papal infalli- \nbility ; but it does not now (1877) show signs of great success. \n\nOLYMPIA. Explorations at Elis, on the site of the Olympian games, planned \nby Curtius, begun by Hirschfeld and Bcittiger, October, 1875. The Ger- \nman Government pays expenses, and has casts of objects found, the orig- \ninals to be the property of the Greek Government. Many interesting \ndiscoveries of statues, parts of the pediments of the great temple of \nJupiter Olympus, etc., have been made. \n\nORDNANCE. (See Cannon, pp. 92, 290.) The Rodman gun, a smooth- \nbore, 20-inch calibre, weighing 58 tons, and throwing a 1,000-pound round \nshot, cast at Pittsburg^ 1864 ; a stream of cold water was kept running \nthrough the core during casting and cooling, so as to chill and harden the \ninside of the gun. Trials of Armstrong, Whitworth, and Horsfall guns \nat Shoeburyness, England, in 1862-3, against various targets representing \n\n\n\n1867-77. 45 \n\nironclad ships, up to an aggregate thickness of 15 inches (in three plates) \nof wrought iron. The Hercules target, 4 feet 2 inches thick, with 11^ \ninches of iron. Palliser\'s patent for chilled metal shot (cast in cold iron \nmoulds), dated May 27, 1827. More experiments at Shoeburyness, 1867-8, \nwhere a 10-inch English gun is found better than Prussian and American \nguns, and a 23-ton gun, 12-inch bore, throwing Palliser shot, is resisted \nby a model fort defended by 15-inch iron plates. The "Woolwich In- \nfant," 35 tons, cast in 1870, 16 feet 3 inches long, to carry a 700-pound \nshot, with 120-pouud charge. In 1875-6 an 81-ton gun tried, with a 1,250- \npound shot and 190-pound charge. The shot penetrated 50 feet of sand. \nA charge of 370 pounds afterwards used. The Uchatius guns of \' \' steel \nbronze," used in the Austrian army, first made at Vienna, 1875. Suc- \ncessful trials of 100-ton Armstrong gun, throwing a 2,000-pound shot, at \nSpezzia, in Italy. The gun is for the Italian iron-clad Duilio. Rifled \nguns first used for siege purposes, Sebastopol. 1854-5. The Armstrong \nbreech-loading rifled gun first used in China campaign, 1860. The Ger- \nman army is now supplied with breech-loading artillery. \n\nORIGIN op SPECIES. (See Darwinism.) Book by Darwin published \nNovember, 1869. \n\nOXFORD UNIVERSITY. Total income of the University, 21 colleges and \n5 halls, in 1871, \xc2\xa3483,842, 16s. 6d. \n\nOXYGEN. The most abundant substance, being one-third of the earth, \nnine-tenths of the water, and one-fifth of the air. \n\nOZONE. (See p. 153.) In 1872 Brodie showed that Odling\'s suggestion \nwas correct, viz. : that ozone is oxygen condensed into two-thirds the \nspace it would naturally occupy. \n\n\n\nPACIFIC RAILWAY, 1,700 miles long, from Omaha to San Francisco, \nopened for traffic May 12, 1868. \n\nPALESTINE EXPLORATION. Fund established 1865 ; explorations under \nit began in 1866 ; a systematic trigonometrical survey begun December, \n1871 ; a similar fund established at New York, same year. \n\nPAMIR. A region sometimes called the roof of the world, being a very lofty \nwater-shed in Central Asia, north of the Himalayas, at the west end of Lit- \ntle Thibet, and constituting a kind of focus from which diverge the chief \nAsiatic mountain ranges. It is the source of the Oxus and other rivers. \n\nPAN-ANGLICAN Conference of seventy-five bishops, English, Colonial, \nand American, met at Lambeth, September 24, 1S67, and issued an addresa \nand resolutions of a pretty general and safe character. Another is pro- \nposed for July, 1878. \n\nPANTECHNICON. A building in London used for storage. Burned Feb- \nruary 13 and 14, 1874, when many valuable paintings and other costly \narticles were destroyed. \n\nPAPAL INFALLIBILITY. (See Infallibility.) \n\nPARAGUAY. (Seep. 155.) Francis S. Lopez succeeded his father as dic- \ntator, September, 1862. Brazil attacked Paraguay, December, 1864, it \nconsequence of seizure of a Brazilian steamer, on November 11, 1864 ; de- \nfeated Lopez in several battles, and he was killed at Aquidaban. March 1 \n\n\n\n4C THE WORLD S PROGRESS. \n\n1870. Peace signed June 20, 1870. S. Jovellanos chosen president fol \nthree years, December 12, 1871, and J. B. Gil for three years, November \n25, 1874. Population in 1857 returned at 1,337,439, and another return \nin 1873 indicated the devastation of the war by showing only 221,079 souls, \nof which men over 15 only 28,746, and women 106,254, the other 86,079 \nbeing children. \n\nPASSION PLAY. A drama representing the passion of Christ, represented \nfrom time time at Oberammergau, in Bavaria ; said to have been so rep- \nresented there ever since 1633. \n\nPASSPORT SYSTEM. Introduced in the United States August 19, 1861, \non account of the civil war. Abolished in Norway, 1809 ; Sweden, 1860; \nItaly, 1862; Portugal, 1863; in France, abolished as to British subjects. \nDecember 16, 1860 ; revived in the war, August 1, 1870 ; abolished again \nApril 10, 1872. \n\nPATRONS OF HUSBANDRY. Popularly known as Grangers. A secret \nsociety in the United States professing to be for the promotion of agri- \ncultural interests. Said to have been- first organized by one Saunders, \nwho established the national "grange" (or lodge) in December, 1867. \nSubordinate granges were established, 10 or 11, in 1868; 39 in 1869 ; 38 \nin 1870 ; 125 in 1871 ; 1,105 in 1872 ; 8,400 in 1873 ; and for a year or \ntwo after this time the order had much political influence, and did some- \nthing to establish co-operative organizations for the supply of goods. Legis- \nlation in Iowa (1874) and elsewhere, at the requirement of the " Grangers," \nto fix transportation prices by railroad, has proved a mistake and a bad \nfailure. \n\nPAUPERS. (See Poor Laws, p. 535.) Paupers and their cost in England \n\nand Wales for ten years (poor-rate only, and not including charity) : \n\nPaupers. Poor-rate. \n\n1866 916,152 \xc2\xa36,439,517 \n\n1867 931,546 6.959,840 \n\n1868 1,034,723 7,498,059 \n\n1869 1,039,549 7,673.100 \n\n1870 1,079.:-;91 7,644,307 \n\n1871 1,071.926 7,886,724 \n\n1872 977,664 8 007,403 \n\n1873 890,372 7,692,169 \n\n1874 829,281 7,664,957 \n\n1875 815,587 \n\nPAUPERS in United States, 1870, 116,102. \n\nPEABODY FUND. (See Charities.) \n\nPEABODY MEMORIAL. A statue of Mr. George Peabody was publicly \ninaugurated in London, July 23, 1869. \n\nPEACE JUBILEE (See Boston.) \n\nPEERAGE. In 37 years, 1832-69, an average of 2\\ commoners a year were \ncreated peers in England. \n\nPERU. (See pp. 157, 523.) Presidents: CanBeco succeeds Pezet, Novem- \nber, 1865. Prado subsequently appointed dictator, and February 15, \n1867, made president; resigns in consequence of an insurrection, and \nGen. La Puerta succeeds him, January 18, 1868 ; Col. Balta next August \n1, 1868; Gutierrez dictator, July 22, 1872, but killed 26th; Pardo \nelected, August 2. and Prado succeeds him, August, 1876. The Peru- \nvian railways, in establishing which the American. Henry Meiggs, has been \n\n\n\n1867-77. 47 \n\nprominent, at end of 1876 open for trade, or in course of completion, were \n22 lines, 2,030 miles in length. \n\nPESSIMISM. A gloomy system of philosophy and belief put forth by \nArthur Schopenhauer in Germany, 1819 to 1851, and which has found some \nacceptance. Its most eminent expositor is Hartmann. \n\nPITCAIEN\'S ISLAND. (See p. 528 ; also Norfolk Island.) \n\nPLANCHETTE. (See Spiritualism.) \n\nPLANETS. (See Astronomy.) \n\nPOLAND. (Seep. 532.) The separate government of Poland abolished, \nand administrative union with Eussia perfected February 29, 1868. \nPolish language prohibited in public places, July, 1868 ; in courts of law \nand public offices, June, 1876. These measures followed a severe mili- \ntary repression of hopeless but determined military efforts against Russia, \nwhich had continued most of the time since 1830. \n\nPOOR. (See Paupers.) \n\nPOPULATION. (See pp. 161,537.) Total population of the world esti- \nmated at 1.377,000,000. Another estimate, by statistical authorities at \nWashington, 1874, made it 1,391,032,000. \n\nPOSITIVISM. A philosophy put forth by Auguste Comte (born about \n1795, died 1852), which rejects metaphysics and claims to deal wholly \nwith facts. Its chief historical principle is that there are three stages of \nhuman belief, the theological, the metaphysical, and the positive, the \nformer two being erroneous, and the last the only valid one, at which \nEurope is just now arriving. \n\nPOST-OFFICE; Postal Affairs. Book-post established in England, \n1855. Money-order office established 1792 ; little used until 1840, but \nvery largely since. English electric telegraphs purchased by government \nand run as part of post-office system, 1869. Postal cards first issued \nOctober 1, 1870. Post-office savings-banks (Government responsible to \ndepositors) established 1861 ; deposits in them, December 31, 1874, \n\xc2\xa323,157,469 18s. lOd. An International Postal Congress met at Bern, \nSwitzerland, January 27, 1874. and signed a convention, October 9, for a \nuniversal international postage rate of 25 centimes, or 2-J pence, or 5 cents \nfor each half-ounce letter rate ; 1 penny, or 2 cents, or 10 centimes for \neach newspaper rate, etc. In the United States Post-office Department : \nPostage stamps issued, year ending June 30, 1876, 700,089,437, worth \n$19,718,708.75; stamped envelopes (not official) issued, 147,021,500, \nworth $4,359,907.04; newspaper wrappers, 18,498,750, worth $273,723.- \n50; postal cards, 150,815,000, worth $1,580,150 ; official postage stamps, \n17,082.665, worth $663,831.50, and official stamped envelopes and wrap- \npers, 15,690,155, worth $129,110.93. Total number\'of these issues, 1,049,- \n797,507, worth $26,953,421.72. \n\nPRAYER-GAUGE DEBATE originated in a proposition by Sir Henry \nThompson, July, 1872, that some certain hospital ward or wards should \nbe chosen, special prayers offered for the patients in them, and the result, \nas compared with other wards, to show whether prayer is efficacious to \nheal the sick. There was a long and energetic debate in print on thia \nsuggestion, 1872-3, but the experiment was not tried. \n\nPREHISTORIC MAN. Burnt bricks found in Egypt have been reckoned \n20,000 years old human bones found in Florida 30,000 years old. Recent \n\n\n\n4o THE WORLDS PROGRESS. \n\ndiscoveries of worked flints by Boucher de Perthes, near Abbeville, 1836, \nand similar ones and of various other articles in various parts of Europe, \nhave led to the belief by many scientific men that human life has exetisd \non the earth for many ages. The prehistoric period has been divided \ninto the stone, iron, and bronze ages. See Lubbock\'s " Prehistoric \nTimes" (1865), Dawkins\'s \'\' Cave- Hunting." Evans\'s "Ancient Stone Im- \nplements " (1872), etc. An International Congress of Prehistoric Archae- \nology meets annually and publishes transactions. \n\nPRE-RAPHAELITES. A school of painters that arose in England about \n1850, including Millais, Hunt, Rossetti, etc. Their peculiarity was a \npurpose to pursue real art by representing;\' nature as they saw it, instead \nof following the antique. With some extravagance, their influence on art \nhas on the whole been good. \n\nPRINTING-PRESS. (See p. 164.) The Walter press, an English inven- \ntion, is said to print both sides of from 15,000 to 17,000 copies per hour \nof a newspaper. The Campbell press is said, however, to print 50,000 \nsuch copies per hour. Copper-faced type introduced about 1850. Several \nmachines for composing and distributing type invented, 1858-1875 ; some \nof them are in fact used for the more uniform kinds of work. A Caxton \ncelebration, with exhibition of many rare and curious books, on fourth \ncentennial of establishment of his press in England, at London. July, \n1877. \n\nPRUSSIA. (See pp. 165, 549.) North German Confederation (see Ger- \nmany), formed August 1, 1866. King refuses to receive the French \nminister Benedetti in consequence of improper demands, July 13, 1870; \nFrench declaration of war delivered at Berlin, July 19 ; first hostilities \nat Niederbronn, July 26 ; first battle at Saarbriick, July 80 (for events of \nthe war see Chronological Tables) ; capitulation of Napoleon and of McMa- \nhon\'s army at Sedan, September 2, 1870 ; surrender of Metz by Bazaine, \nOctober 27 ; Paris capitulates, January 28, 1871 ; treaty of peace signed, \nFebruary 26 ; King of Prussia proclaimed Emperor, of Germany at Ver- \nsailles, January 18 ; imperial diet opened, Berlin, March 21, 1871. \nPrussian nationality and administration remain substantially intact, while \nit is a member of the new empire of Germany. \n\nPURCHAS CASE. February 23, 1871, the judgment of the English Privy \nCouncil was given on the charges of heresy against Mr. Purchas, the \nritualist. He was found guilty of violating the ecclesiastical law " by \nwearing the chasuble, alb, and tunicle during the communion service ; \nby using wine mixed with water, and wafer-bread in the administration \nof the communion ; and by standing with his back to the people, between \nthe communion-table and the congregation, during the consecration prayer. " \nHe was held to pay costs. \n\nPUSEYISM. (See Ritualism ; also Tractarianism, p. 191.) \n\nQ. \n\nQUEENSLAND. Made a separate colony, 1859. Governor, 1876, Sir A. \nE. Kennedy. Includes the northeast part of Australia and adjacent \nislands. Capital, Brisbane. First settlement (by convicts sent out), 1825. \nPopulation of European descent, May 31, 1876, 173,180, besides natives, \nChinese, and South Sea Islanders. Area about 678, 600 square miles, oi \none-fifth as much as all Europe. \n\n\n\n1867-77. 49 \n\n\n\nRADIOMETER. A delicate vane with four fans, each black on one side, \nhung in a vacuum, usually in an hermetically sealed glass globe. In- \nvented by Wm. Crookes, 1873-6. When light falls on it the vane turns, \nand this movement was at first supposed to demonstrate the mechanical \naction of light. Further investigation indicated, however, that the \nmotion was caused by heat acting on the small portion of air left in the \napproximate vacuum. \n\nRAGGED SCHOOLS. (See p. 167.) Average attendance at 226 Ragged \nSchools in London, in 1867, 26,000. The buildings exempted from rates, \n1869. At present the London School Board Schools are gradually repla- \ncing these. \n\nRAILWAYS. August 21, 1867, a locomotive and two carriages passed over \nthe whole length of the Mount Cenis Railway, 48 miles. This road \ncrosses the mountain nearly in the track of the road built by Napoleon I. \n\nRailways in the world, end o/1876 : \n\nAfrica miles, 1,451 I Europe miles, 88,745 \n\nAsia , " 7,643 I North America " 79,519 \n\nAustralia " 1,752 I South America " 3,701 \n\nCentral Am. and W. Indies. -1 559 | \n\nTotal 183,370 \n\nAnother authority makes this total 194.836. \n\nOf the North American total, the United States contains 74,658 (another \nauthority says 77,470) miles, Canada 4,484, Mexico 377. About one- \nfourth the railroads built in the United States in 1876 were narrow-gauge. \nSteam on street railroads was successfully introduced in Philadelphia in \nthe spring of 1877. Railways of upper Italy to be bought by the govern- \nment ; bill passed, 344 to 35, June 27, 1876. First narrow-gauge railway \nbuilt as a tram-way for horse-power, at Festiniog. in Wales, 1832 ; loco- \nmotives used on it, 1863. \n\nRAILWAY ACCIDENTS. August 20, 1868, the Irish day mail express \ntrain ran into a freight train with petroleum near Abergele, in Wales, and \nthe oil taking fire from the engines, thirty-three persons were burned \nalive in the cars, having (apparently! been smothered in the smoke, as not \na scream nor a word was heard from one of them. June 21. 1870, by the \ncollision of two trains on the Great Northern Railway, near Newark, Eng- \nland, in consequence of a defective axle, 18 persons were killed and 40 or \n50 more or less injured. December 29. 1876, disaster at Ashtabula, on \nthe Lake Shore Railroad, Ohio, by breaking of a bridge; 60 persona \nburned or frozen, 60 or 70 others injured. In 1866-8, one traveller on \nrailroads out of each 12,941,170 killed by accident not his own fault. \n\nRATTENING. Stealing and hiding a man\'s tools because he opposes \ntrades-unions or does not pay dues to them. An English practice ; much \nof it proved before the Commission of Inquiry, Sheffield and Manchester, \nJune and September, 1867. (See Sheffield.) \n\nRECONSTRUCTION. Immediately after the rebel surrender, 1865, the \nSouthern States began to pass laws discriminating in social and political \naffairs against the negroes. In 1868 Arkansas was readmitted into the \nUttion over President Johnson\'s veto, on condition that the State should \n\n\n\n50 THE WORLD\'S PROGRESS. \n\nnever deprive negroes of their right to vote. Another bill, passed in likt \nmanner over the veto, readmitted North Carolina, South Carolina, \nGeorgia, Louisiana, Florida, and Alabama, the provision being requisite \nin consequence of the discriminations aforesaid. July, 1868, President \nJohnson by proclamation pardoned all who had been in rebellion, except \nthose actually under indictment for treason-felony. During President \nGrant\'s administration, the Republican State governments, in Louisiana \nand South Carolina especially, were supported by national troops. Presi- \ndent Hayes withdrew these, with the result that these States *t once \npassed under democratic administrations \n\nRED RIVER. (See Manitoba. ) \n\nRELIGIONS IN THE "WORLD. Estimating the population of the world \nat 1,377,000,000, the believers in its religions rank as follows in point of \nnumbers : 1. Pagans ; 2. Christians ; 3. Mohammedans ; 4. Jews. Atheists \nnot counted ; there are very few. The numbers of the above four classes \nare estimated as follows : \n\n:, viz. : \n\nBuddhists 455,000,000 \n\nOthers 425,600,000 880,600.000 \n\n\n\nChristians, viz. : \n\nRoman Catholics 201,200,000 \n\nProtestants 106,300,000 \n\nEastern Churches 81,900,000 389,4CO,000 \n\n\n\nMohammedans (some sav 165 millions) 100,0(> J,00(3 \n\nJews 7,000,000 \n\nl,377,O0.),U00 \n\nREPUBLICAN PAWfEft. The following table of the popular and electoral \nvotes for Presiden\xc2\xa3*\xc2\xa5/ill show the numerical history of the Republ: an \nparty, 1856-1876 : \n\nPopular \n\n1856. Buchanan 1,838,169 \n\nFremont 1,341,264 \n\nFillmore 874,534 \n\nI860. Lincoln 1,866,352 \n\nDouglas 1.375,157 \n\nBreckenridge 845,763 \n\nBell 589,5S1 \n\n1864. Lincoln 2,216.067 \n\nMcClelJan 1, 80S, 725 \n\n1868. Grant 3,015,071 \n\nSeymour 2,709,613 \n\n\n\nectoral \n\nVote. \n\n174 \n\n\n\n\n\n\nPopular \nVote. \n\n\nElectoral \nVote. \n136 \n\n\n114 \n\n8 \n\n180 \n\n12 \n\n\nGreeley \nfore th \n\nHendric \n\nBrown \n\nJenkins \n\n\n(died be- \ne electoral \n\nks .. . \n\n\n3 \n\n42 \n\n\n72 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n18 \n\n\n39 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n2 \n\n\n212 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1 \n\n\n21 \n214 \n\n71 \n\n\n1376. Hayes \nTilden \nCooper \n\n\n\n\n4,033,295 \n4,284,265 \n\n. . . . 81,737 \n\n\n185 \n184 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n9,522 \n\n\n\n\n\n\nBy this table the successive proportions between the Republican party \nand its chief adversary, neglecting third parties and odd numbers, are as \nfollows : 1856, 13 to 18 ; 1860, 18 to 13 ; 1864, 22 to 18 ; 1868, 30 to 27 ; \n1872, 35 to 28 ; 1876, 40 to 42 (Hayes having come in by a minority pop- \nular vote). \n\nBEPUDIATION. President Johnson, in his message of December 7, 1868, \nrecommended a form of repudiation of the national debt, saying that \n" it would seem but just and equitable that the six per cent, interest now \npaid by the Government should be applied to the reduction of the princi- \npal in semi-annual instalments." In reply, the House of Representative- \nvoted by 154 to 6 that all forms of repudiation of the national debt were \n\n\n\n1867-77. 5 i \n\nodious to the American people, and that nothing less than was agreed \nwould be offered to the national creditor. The States of Virginia , North \nCarolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisi- \nana, Texas, Arkansas and Tennessee, do not pay the interest on their \ndebts. Some of bhem, and Minnesota also, have repudiated more or less \nof the principal of the same. Counties and towns in Missouri and Illi- \nnois have also repudiated. The debt of North Carolina is (1877) about \n$39,000,000, and in a conference in that year between the creditors and \nthe authorities of the State, the latter offered to fund $6,000,000 of the \ndebt, at three and six per cent interest, to be in full. The creditors de- \nclined, but offered to accept half ; but nothing was done. The whole debt \nof South Carolina was, in 1873, stated at $25,770,611.44, and in this \nyear a law was passed rejecting a part of this as illegal, and repudiating \nhalf of the rest by settling with the holders at 50 per cent. The payment, \neven at this rate, has not been made. Turkey repudiates all payments on \naccount of public debt until times shall be better, July 9, 1876. Penn- \nsylvania, which used to be abused for repudiating, never did so, the only \npretext being a delay upon certain payments, which were afterwards \nmade in full. The United States has practically repudiated the French \nspoliation claims, having received, in 1803, the consideration paid by \nFrance for those claims, but having never paid the persons owning the \nclaims. \n\nRESUMPTION. By Act of Congress, approved January 14, 1875, the \nGovernment of the United States is to resume specie payment January \n1, 1879. This purpose has been firmly adhered to notwithstanding vio- \nlent efforts in different parts of the country to rescind this action, which \nefforts are in more or less close connection with the attempt to keep up ox \nenlarge the quantity of paper money, and even to keep the same irre- \ndeemable. \n\nREVENUE. Revenue and expenditure of the United States for ten years \n1867-76 (items of total revenue other than customs and internal revenue \nare not specified, though included in \'\'total.") \n\nCustoms. Intern. Rev. Total. Expenditures. \n\n1867 |176,41T,810.S8 $266,007,537.43 f 462,846,679.92 $340. 729, 324.76 \n\n1868 164.464.599.56 191,087.589.41.. \n\n1869 180,048,426.63 158,356. 460.86. . \n\n1870 194,538,374.44 184.899,756.49.. \n\n1871 206.270.408.05 143,098,153.63.. \n\n1872 216.370,286.77 130.642,177.72.. \n\n1873 188,089,522.70 113,729,314.14. . \n\n1874 163,103,833.69 102,409.784.90.. \n\n1875 157,167.722,35 110,007,493.58. \n\n\n\n376.434,453.82 370,339,133.8? \n\n357,188,255.64 321,190,597.75 \n\n395,959.833.87 293,657,C05.7G \n\n374,431.104.94 283.160,393.51 \n\n364,694,229.91 270,559.695,91 \n\n322,177,673.78 285,239,325.34 \n\n299,941,090.84 285,738,800.21 \n\n284,020,771.41 272.693.573.84 \n\n\n\n1876 148,071,984.61 116,700,732.03 283,758,493.36 258,459,797.10 \n\nREVENUE AND EXPENDITURE of Great Britain (United Kingdom), \nyears 1868 to 1876, ending March 31 : \n\nRevenue. Expenditure. Revenue. Expenditure \n\n1*68 \xc2\xa369,600,218 \xc2\xa371,236,242 I 1873 \xc2\xa376,608,770 \xc2\xa370,714,448 \n\n1869 72,591,991 74,971,816 1874 77.335,657 76,466,510 \n\n1870 75,434.252 68,864,752 | 1875 74,921,873 74,328.040- \n\n1871 69,945,220 69,548,539 | 1876 77.131,693 76,621.778 \n\n1872 74,70S,314 71,490,020 \n\nREVEREND. The Bishop of Lincoln, 1874, refused to Rev. Mr. Keet, a \nWesleyan clergyman, permission to put the title "Reverend " on the grave- \nstone of a dissenter. The Archbishop of Canterbury allowed it. On trial \nin the Ecclesiastical Courts, the Chancellor of Lincoln decided against Mr. \n3 \n\n\n\n52 THE WORLD\'S PROGRESS. \n\nKeet ; on appeal, Sir R. Phillimore, in the Court of Arches, July ill, 1875 \nsustained the refusal ; but on appeal again, the Privy Council. January 2 1 , \n1 876, reversed both decisions, and gave judgment that the title is lauda- \ntory only, and that no law restricts it to ministers of the Church ol \nEngland. \n\nREVIVALS. Moody and Sankey\'s revival meetings in England, 1874-0 \nIn March, 1875, in London, present about 15,000 persons ; farewell meet \ning, July 12, 1875. In New York city, February 7 to April 19, 1876 ; in \nBoston, March to June, 1877. Great results were asserted to have been \nobtained. \n\nRIOTS. (See pp. 170,565.) Riots in various English towns, by Roman- \nists, against the lectures of one Murphy, 1867-1871 ; at White Haven, \nApril 20, 1871, he was cruelly beaten. Riots by artisans out of work at \nGreenwich and Deptford, England, Jan. 24 and 25, 1867 ; in November \nfollowing, in the west of England, from dearness of provisions ; Oct. 30, \n1868, at Blackburn, between Liberals and Tories ; June 2, 1869, a furious \nriotous attack by 2,000 Welsh on military and police in charge of some \ncolliers convicted of assault ; mob only dispersed by being fired on, from \nwhich 4 were killed and 26 badly wounded. August 7, and September 8, \n187. , much rioting at Dublin, in connection with a meeting in Phoenix \nPark to ask for relief of Fenian prisoners. April 20, 1876, agrarian riots \nbreak out, lasting some weeks, among the negroes in Barbadoes Furious \nrioting by Romanists at Montreal, Sept. 1875, to prevent burial of one Gui- \nbord in a Romanist cemetery. The right to it being, however, proved at \nlaw, he was so buried under military protection, Nov. 16, 1873. \n\nRITUALISM. The Public Worship Regulation Act, for repressing ritualism \nin the Church of England, became a law August 7, 1874. to go into opera- \ntion July 1, 1875. The Ridsdale case was the first under the act, in \nwhich judgment was given in the ecclesiastical court against Rev. C. J. \nRidsdale for ritualistic proceedings. In the cases of Rev. A. Tooth, and \nRev. T. P. Dale, monitions issued to discontinue such practices. Rev. \nArthur Tooth, vicar of St. James\'s at Hatcham, in England, was lawfully \ncommanded to desist from processions, tolling the bell, singing certain \nmusic, and other ritualistic and unlawful practices. Disobeying, he was \non Dec. 17, 1876, inhibited from performing divine service or otherwise \nofficiating in the parish. Disobeying again, he was imprisoned. For a \nsimilar case before the act, see Purchas Case. \n\nROMANISM. (See pp. 171, 566; see also Infallibility ; Old Catholics; \nVatican Council.) The "emancipation" of the Romanists has steadily \nadvanced in England during this century. Their priests might be chap- \nlains to gaols, by act July, 1863; Justice Shee, of the Queen\'s Bench, \n(Dec. 15, 1863) was the first Romanist judge in England since the Refor- \nmation. O\'Hagan, Lord Chancellor of Ireland (Dec, 1868), was the first \nKomanist in that office since 1688 ; the first Romanist master of arts \nsince the test acts were abolished, was made at Oxford, June 22, 187 1 ; \nEcclesiastical Titles Act repealed July 24, 1871. Meanwhile Romanist \nbishops (at Dublin, Oct. 17, 1867) adhere to the policy of separate educa- \ntion under priests ; refuse a Romanist university to be endowed by the \nState, because they cannot have entire control, March, 1868, and October, \n1871. In Germany, the " Falk laws,\'\' to subject ecclesiastical affairs to \na royal tribunal, passed May 11. 1873. and an obstinate though not noisy \nstruggle between the German Empire and the Romanist hierarchy sets in. \n\n\n\n1867-77. 53 \n\nwhich is still (1877) in full activity, the State having fined, imprisoned, \nand banished various prelates, and the Pope having cursed various offi- \ncials. In the United States there is a regular policy by the Romanists to \nobtain a share of public money for their sectarian schools, which has not \nthus far succeeded. For Romanist riots, see Riots. \n\nROME. French enter, Oct. 30, 1867. They march out, August 21, 1870. \nItalian troops occupy, Sept. 20, 1870 ; united to kingdom of Italy along \nwith Papal States, Oct. 9, 1870. and the Pope\'s authority restricted to \nthe Leonine City (which see). The vote on union with Italy was as fol- \nlows : Out of 167,548 votes : for union, 133,681 ; against, 1,507 ; the rest \ndid not vote. The Pope has hitherto (1877) wholly refused the restricted \nsovereignty and guaranties offered him. \n\nROSICRUCIANS. There appears to have been a genuine society of this \nname in the thirteenth century, a religious organization of some kind. \nThe Rosicrucians of the seventeenth century, however, were a hoax, im- \nagined by one Andrese or Andreas, who published a solemn pretended \naccount of them, 1615. \n\nROUMANIA. Union of Wallachia and Moldavia under this name acknowl- \nedged by Turkey, December, 1861 ; Alexander Couza, hospodar; he \nabdicates (by force) February 22, 1866; crown of Roumania declined by \nPrince of Flanders, February 8, and Prince Charles of Hohenzollern-Sig- \nmaringen elected hospodar, April 20, and recognized hereditary hospodar \nby the Sultan. October 24, 1866. Declared independent of Turkey, and \ntitle <A king assumed by the hospodar during Russian invasion, summer \nof 1877. \n\nRUSSIA. (See pp. 173, 569.) Imperial serfs emancipated in part, July \n2, 1858. Decree for emancipation of all Russian serfs (twenty-three \nmillion) in two years, March 3, 1861. 1000th anniversary of foundation \nof Russian empire by Rurik, at Novgorod, celebrated September 20, 1862. \nCircassian war declared ended, June 2, 1864. War with Bokhara begun, \n1866. Samarcand taken, May 26, 1868. Circular of Prince Gortscha- \nkoff, repudiating treaty clauses of 1856 as to the Black Sea, October 31, \n1870; clauses abrogated by London Conference, March 13, 1871. Com- \nmercial panic from failure of Strousberg, November, 1875. Prosecution \nof the sect of Skoptzi, April, 1876. Khokand annexed as Ferghana, Feb- \nruary 29, 1876. Southern Russian army mobilized by decree of Novem- \nber 15, 1876 ; war with Turkey, having been declared, the Russians enter \nRoumania ; cross the Danube, June 27, 1877 ; Gen. Gourkha, with a \nstrong advanced guard, passes the Balkans, July 4. Result of the paral- \nlel Russian campaign in Armenia, however, up to August 1, 1877, only \nan advance to within a few marches of Erzeroum, a defeat by Mukhtar \nPasha, and a retreat to Russian territory. \n\n\n\nBADOWA, or Koniggratz, in Bohemia. Decisive battle of the " Seven \nWeeks\' War," or war of 1866, between Prussia and Austria, fought July \n3, 1866. About 400,000 men engaged; the Austrians lost 174 guns, \n40,000 killed and wounded, and 20,000 prisoners. The battle decided \nthe war, gave Prussia the leadership in Germany, secured unity to the \nNorth German nations, gave Venetia to Italy, and led to the legislative \nindependence of Hungary. \n\n\n\n54 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. \n\nST. CRISPIN, Knights of. This trade union of boot and shoe making \noperatives was first formed in Milwaukee, about 1870, and quickly spread \ninto other States, having in 1873, in Massachusetts alone, 40,000 mem- \nbers. They have operated by strikes and the like means, with the general \nobject of keeping up wages of operatives as against employers. \n\nSAN DOMINGO. (See p. 175.) Present name of the Spanish part of the \nisland of San Domingo, or Hayti. For the French part, see Hayti. \nDominican Republic proclaimed, February, 1844, after the deposition of \nPresident Boyer. Baez was President, 1849-1853 ; Santana, 1853-6 ; \nBaez again, 1856-8 ; Valverde, March, 1858-May, 1861 ; reunion with \nSpain decreed by the Queen, May 20, 1861 ; insurrection against Spain, \nAugust, 1861 ; insurgents generally defeated, but Spain renounces the \ncolony, May 5, 1865; Oabral President, September, 1865; Baez, Novem- \nber, 1865 ; Cabral again, June, 1867 ; San Domingo City nearly destroyed \nby a hurricane, October 30, 1867 ; Baez President again, March, 1868 ; \nG-anier d\'Aton, October, 1873 ; Gonzalez ; Baez, December 10, 1876. \nPopulation estimated at about 250,000. \n\nSAN JUAN Arbitration between Great Britain and the United States, \nfor ownership of the island, which commands the strait between British \nColumbia and the United States territory. Decided by the Emperor of \nGermany, October, 1872, in favor of the United States, and the British \ntroops left accordingly, November 22 following. \n\nSAN SALVADOR. One of the Central American republics, independent \nsince its federal union with Honduras and Nicaragua was dissolved, 1853. \nGovernment, nominally republican; but there is most frequently some \nrevolution. Population, variously estimated at from about 430,000 to \n600.000, all Indian, or mixed, except about 10,000 whites. \n\nSARAWAK. A territory on the north-west coast of Borneo, about 300 \nmiles along the sea and reaching 100 miles inland, with about 300,000 \npopulation. Was under government of Rajah Brooke, an Englishman, \n\n1841-1868. \n\nSAYINGS-BANKS. (See pp. 176, 575.) Deposits in savings-banks of Great \nBritain and Ireland, 1872, \xc2\xa340,088,348. For English postal savings, see \nPost- Office. In the savings-banks of New England, New York, New \nJersey, and California together there were, in the year 1874-5. deposits \namounting to $810,096, 745, of which the bankers of New York held over \n$303,000,000, and those of Massachusetts over $217,000,000. \n\nSCHELDT DUES abolished for a compensation, 1867, and the navigation \nof the river made free. \n\nSEAMEN. On Mr. S. Plimsoll\'s motion, a commission of inquiry to investi- \ngate the practice of employing unseaworthy ships, appointed March 4, \n1873; reported July 2, 1874; a merchant shipping survey bill rejected. \nJune 24, 1874 ; great excitement in and out of Parliament on the subject ; \nan act finally passed empowering the Board of Trade to stop unseaworthy \nships, August 13, 1875, and a merchant shipping act, August 15. 187\'i. \n\nSECULARISM. A non- Christian, free-thinking system, " seeking morality \nin naUare, and happiness in duty," and claiming to be " not against Chris- \ntianity, but independent of it. 1 \' Advocated in England by Messrs. Hol- \nyoake about 1846 ; subsequently by Mr. Bradlaugh. A small number of \nsecularists are to Ve found in the United States. \n\n\n\n186,7-77. 55 \n\nSEDAN. An ancient city, reckoned a very strong fortress in old times, on \nthe Meuse, in the north-east of France, and the seat of a little principal- \nity held by the Dukes of Bouillon who were Princes of Sedan Ceded to \nthe French crown, 1642. A Protestant university here abolished after re- \nvocation of the edict of Nantes, in 1685. Here was taken, destroyed, or \nsurrendered, August 29th to September 2d, the whole of the French \nArmy of the North, 150.000 strong, with Napoleon III. himself in com- \nmand. Men actually surrendered, 83,000, with 70 mitrailleuses, 400 field- \npieces, and 150 fortress guns. \n\nSERVIA. (See p. 178.) Alexander Karageorgevitch (i. e., son of Black \nG-eorge), the hospodar, forced to abdicate, and Milosch Obrenovitch (re- \nelected) prince in his stead, December 23, 1858 ; succeeded by his son, \nMichael Obrenovitch, September 26, 1860; movement begins about this \ntime for independence of Turkey ; disputes at Belgrade ; Turkish Pasha \nbombards the city, and is dismissed, 1862 ; on a conference of the powers, \nat Constantinople, the Porte makes concessions to Servia, October, 1862. \nOn further demands by Servia, Turkish garrisons withdrawn ; Prince Mi- \nchael assassinated, June 20, 1868, and his nephew Milan Obrenovitch suc- \nceeds; war against Turkey breaks out, July, 1876 ; complete subjection \nof Servia by Turks only averted by interference of the powers, November \n1, 1876. Area of Servia, about 16,000 square miles, and population, by \ncensus December 31, 1874, 1,352,523. \n\nSHEFFIELD, England. An abominable practice of persecution by " rat- \ntening." or stealing tools, and other outrages, and even, in several in- \nstances, by murder and attempts to murder, at (Sheffield and Manchester, \nall reduced to a system and paid for regularly, in order to punish oppo- \nnents of trade-unions, revealed before a parliamentary commission, June \nand July, 1867. The worst criminal was one William Broadhead, Secre- \ntary to the Saw-Grinders\' Union, who planned these proceedings and paid \nfor them. \n\nSHIPPING. (See also Navies.) Sail and steam vessels of Great Britain \nand Ireland, not including river steamers, in 1875 : \n\nMen \nVessels. Tonnage. employed. \n\nSail 17,221 4,044,504 126,240 \n\nSteam 2,970 1,847,188 73,427 \n\n20,191 5,891,692 199,667 \n\nOn June 30, 1875, the shipping of the United States were as follows : \n\nVessels. Tonnage. \n\nSail 17,226 2,257,154,23 \n\nSteam 3,958 1,116,425,42 \n\nUnrigged (barges, etc) 7,803 890,858,07 \n\nCanal -boats, etc 2,936 331,445,74 \n\n\n\n31,9213 4,595,883,46 \n\nJune, 1876, the total tonnage was 4,853,752. \n\nSHIPWRECKS. (See Wreaks.) \n\nSIAMESE TWINS. (See p. 181.) They were exhibited a second time in \nLondon, February, 1869. They died in January, 1874, one about two \nhours before the other. A post-mortem examination showed that there \nwas an actual communication of their nervous and circulating systems \nthrough the band that connected them. \n\n\n\n56 THE WORLD\'S PROGRESS. \n\nSILKWORM. (See p. 585.) In 1856 the French silk crop, which should \nhave been worth about $25,000,000, was reduced to one-third that value \nby the destruction of the silk-worms, which were killed off by a sort of \nepizootic called pebrine, which turned out to be parasitic. Scientific in- \nvestigations by order of the government resulted in a method, devised by \nPasteur, which has nearly destroyed the disease. \n\nSILVER. (See pp. 181,585. See Coinage ; Money.) Silver produced in \nthe United States, 1848-1873, $156,050,000. In 1875, Nevada alone pro- \nduced $40,478,369 of the precious metals, of which nearly all was silver. \nIn 1876 an important fall took place in the value of silver, since which \ntime the question of the standard of money has been vigorously debated, \nwith a tendency to make gold the only standard, thus leaving silver more \na merchandise than a currency, except for small change. \n\nSINAI, MT. Ordnance survey by Wilson and Palmer, published 1872. \nSINAITIC MS. of the Bible, or Codex Sinaiticus. (See Bible.) \n\nSKOPTZI, or White Doves. A South Russian fanatical sect, who prac- \ntice emasculation as the Shakers do celibacy. \n\nSLAVERY. Abolished by the Dutch in their West India colonies, from \nJuly, 1863; slave trade, by the Seyyid (or ruler) of Zanzibar, by treaty \nwith England, June 5, 1873 ; on the Gold Coast, by agreement with several \nchiefs, November 3, and proclamation made by Gov. Stiahan, December \n17, 1874; slavery, by the Sultan of Turkey, November 23, 1876. \n\nSLAVONIA, a province of Austria. The Slavonian family of languages in- \ncludes Bohemian, Bulgarian, Polabic, Polish, Russian, Servian, Slovak, \nand Wend. The Slavic races in Europe are estimated to number, in 1875, \nas follows: Russians and Ruthenians, 66,129,590; Serbo-Croats, 5,940.- \n539; Bulgarians, 5,123,952; Slovenes, 1,260,000; Slovaks, 2,223,830; \nCzechs (i. e., Bohemians), 4,815,154 ; Poles, 9,492,162 ; total, 90,365,633. \nA so-called "Pan-Slavist " movement has of late years been set on foot, \nwith rather vague designs, and a congress of Slavonic deputies met at \nMoscow, 1867, but with no distinct results. \n\nSOCIAL SCIENCE, or Sociology, has become a distinct department of study \nwithin fifty years, and especially since 1857. Annual meetings of the \nEnglish Social Science Association have been held, beginning with that at \nBirmingham. October, 1857, and an annual volume of its transactions \nhas been published. The American Social Science Association, whose \nheadquarters are at Boston, Mass. , has issued, besides a tract on emigra- \ntion and one on free libraries, annual numbers of its Journal, beginning \nwith June, 18G9. It holds annual meetings, where papers are read and \ndebate is had. \n\nSOONGARIA. (,See Dzoungaria.) \n\nSOUND DUTIES, levied by Denmark at Elsinore on all ships passing the \nSound there, until 1855, when the United States decided to pay them no \nlonger, and the Danish Government gave them up for a compensation. \n\nSPAIN. (See pp. 184, 591.) The Government, since 1867, has changed as \nfollows : Queen Isabella leaves Spain, September 30, 1868 ; Provisional \nRepublican government established; Marshal Serrano regent, 1869; \nQueen Isabella abdicates January 25, 1870 ; crown declined by Leopold \nof Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, July 4; Prince Amadeo of Italy chosen \nking November 16, 1870; abdicating, a republican government restored. \n\n\n\n1867-77. 57 \n\n1873 ; Marshal Serrano President, 1874 ; Alfonso XII., son of Queen Isa \nbella, king, 1875 ; the present constitution proclaimed June 30, 1876. \nAn attempt by Don Carlos, calling- himself Carlos VII., to obtain the \nthrone ; he enters Spain, May. 1 872, and maintains hostilities with more \nor less success against whomsoever it may concern until February, 1870, \nwhen, after many reverses, he leaves Spain and surrenders to the \nGovernor of Bayonne, February 27, 1876. Don Carlos (born 1848), is son \nof Don Juan, who was brother of the Count of Montemolin, or Carlos VI. , \nwho was son of Carlos V., the brother of Ferdinand VII. Carlos VI. \nrenounced his rights in favor of Don Juan, and the present Don Carlos \ntherefore claims under Carlos V. \n\nSPECIE PAYMENT. (See Resumption.) \n\nSPECTROSCOPE. First constructed and used by Kirchhoff and Bunsen, \n1861 ; since variously improved. Spectrum analysis, or the examination \nof light through the spectroscope, has resulted in many remarkable dis- \ncoveries, particularly in astronomy, such as the determination of the\' sub- \nstances composing the sun, some nebulas, fixed stars, comets, etc. ; and \nalso in analytical chemistry, including the discovery of two new metals, \ncaesium and rubidium. \n\nSPELLING REFORM. The Spelling Reform Association was organized in \nPhiladelphia, August 17, 1876, for " the simplification of English ortho- \ngraphy." President, F. A. March, Lafayette College, Easton. Pa ; Cor- \nresponding Secretary, D. P. Lindsley, Fernwood, Pa. Efforts in the same \ndirection have for some years been made in England. \n\nSPIRITUALISM, or SPIRITISM. The so-called "spiritual manifesta- \ntions" began at Rochester, New York, about 1848; about 1851 much \nattention was given in England to the raps, "table-turning," etc. Some \ntime afterwards a little machine called " Planchette" was a leading \ntopic of interest. Various sorts of u test-mediums " and "manifesta- \ntions" have appeared, and it is confessed, even by the most ardent \nspiritists, that a great share of the phenomena exhibited are fraudulent. \nThe "Spiritual Magazine," London, began January, 1860; the " Spirit- \nualist," November, 1869. Many very intelligent people believe in some \nof the "manifestations," but Spiritism has not thus far (1877) been \ndemonstrated either good morally, or true scientifically. \n\nSTADE DUES. Levied on the Elbe by Hanover, on all vessels passing \nStade. Resisted by the United States, 1855 ; abolished. 1861, for a sum \nof \xc2\xa33,000,000. \n\nSTANDARD GOLD AND SILVER. English standard gold is 22 parts (by \nweight) gold, and 2 parts either silver or copper ; standard silver, 37 of \nsilver to 3 of copper. The old-established proportion of silver to gold \nwas 15^- of silver equal to one of gold by weight. \n\nSTE. L. Bessemer\'s process patented 1856. Tungsten steel made in \nGermany, 1859. Steel is very rapidly coming into use (1877) for railroad \nrails, cannon, and other purposes for which iron has heretofore served. \n\nSTORM SIGNALS. {See Meteorology.) \nSTORMS. (See Cyclones; Hurricanes.) \n\nSTRASBURG. Invested by the Germans, August 10, 1870; surrendered \nby Gen. Uhrich with 17,500 men and 400 officers, September 27. The \n\n\n\n58 THE WORLT \'\'", PROGRESS. \n\nancient and very valuable library was destroyed during the siege, and \nthe cathedral much injured. \n\nSTREET RAILWAYS, Steam on. (See Eaihoays.) \n\nSTRIKES. (See page 186 ; see also St. Crispins.) In 1824, combinations by \nworkmen against masters ceased to be criminal by English law, and the \nhistory of workingmen since that time has been increasingly a history \nof strikes, which have occurred in great numbers, especially in Great \nBritain and the United States. In March, 1867, the farm-laborers of \nBuckinghamshire struck for higher wages, and with some measure of \nsuccess. Same month, the engine-drivers on the London and Brighton \nRailway struck for higher wages and some other concessions. Result, a \ncompromise. April 10, the engine-drivers and others on the (English) \nNortheastern Railway struck in consequence of the refusal of indoor- \nwork to some of tbem \xe2\x80\x94 in all, 1,100. The strike was defeated. April \n28j the London journeymen tailors struck for higher wages, but returned \nto work on the employers\' terms after a number of months. In a crial \narising from this strike the practice of \' \' picketing " or watching for, fol- \nlowing, and abusing non-union men was exposed. September, 1868, the \nLondon cab-drivers and owners struck work, because certain so-called \n"privileged" cabs only were allowed upon the premises of the railways. \nThe strike failed. January, and again March, 1870, the workmen of Schnei- \nder\'s great iron and steel works, at Creuzot, in France, struck in conse- \nquence of a quarrel about a benefit fund and the dismissal of a troublesome \nworkman. A military force put down the movement. In the same year, \n16,000 work-people struck at Mulhouse, and before the troops sent could \nrestore quiet, a large factory was burnt. Other strikes had already \ntaken place at Marseilles, Perpignan, and other places in the south ol \nFrance. December 8, 570 telegraph clerks of the Manchester, Dublin, \nEdinburgh, Glasgow, and Belfast, and some otber post-offices struck by \narrangement, in consequence of the removal by government of certain \nclerks for joining a \' L protective association." The strikers were mostly \nreinstated after making written apologies and leaving the association. \nOctober 9, 1871, the monster strike of some 8,000 engineers and other \nworkmen at Newcastle, England, having lasted since the end of May, \nended by the reduction of working hours from ten to nine, the wages re- \nmaining the same. The Newcastle strike of 1871 was of 9,050 engineers \nfor nine hours instead of ten, at same wages. The trade-unions main- \ntained these 9,050 men for sixteen weeks, and did much to prevent \nothers from taking their places. At one time during this year were on \nstrike these engineers, the Newcastle police, the collies of Northumber \nland, Dean Forest, and Gloucestershire, the iron-work\xc2\xabrs of North Staf- \nfordshire, the dyers of Bradford, the quarrymen of Leeds, and the crate- \nmakers of the potteries. The New York strike, m 1872, for the \neight-hour working day, included 90,000 workmen. March 25, 1873, \n60,000 Welsh colliers struck against a 10 per cent, reduction in wages. \nMany strikes occurred in the United States about 1874, ap wages began \nto be lowered from the high standard maintained since the war. Apri, \n12, 1876, 20,000 miners struck in Yorkshire. At Fall River, Mass., the \nmill-hands were on strike for several months in the summer of 1876, but \nultimately in part resumed work without obtaining their demands. \nFebruary 12, 1877, the engineers of the Boston and Maine Railro<\\d, be- \nlonging to a general " Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers," presided \nover by one Arthur, an Englishman, struck without notice. They were \n\n\n\n1867-77. 59 \n\nnot taken back, and the road in a few days obtained other men. Report \nof the Massachusetts Railroad Commissioners on this strike, recommend- \ning penal statutes against such action in future, was published February \n21, 1877. The success of the railroad, and some subsequent similar \ncases, pretty much broke the power of the "Brotherhood." Extensive \nseries of riots and railroad and other strikes in the United States, begin- \nning at Martinsburg. in West Virginia, on the Baltimore and Ohio Rail- \nroad, July 16, 1877. The strikers were in many places joined by outlaws \nand criminals, who set fires, robbed, and committed violence of various \nkinds. State and National troops were called out in large numbers, and \nthe trouble gradually ceased, but not without the destruction of vast \namounts of property and great interruption of travel, transportation, and \ncommunication. It was reckoned that about 9,000 miles of railroad were \nblocked on this occasion, and no through line to the sea-coast within the \nUnited States was left open. Board of Arbitration for amicable settle- \nment of questions between workingmen and employers, formed by Act \nof Parliament in Great Britain in 1866, after a great strike in that year, \nbut its usefulness was only temporary. \n\nSUEZ CANAL. (See p. 186.) "Work commenced 1858. First ship goes \nthrough, February 17, 1867. Canal formally opened, November 17, 1868. \n\xc2\xa34,080,000 voted by the House of Commons, for the purchase by England \nof the canal shares belonging to the Khedive of Egypt; purchase an- \nnounced, November 26, 1875. \n\nSUICIDES. (See p. 602.) Inquests on suicides in England and Wales in \nten years : \n\n1870 1,517 \n\n\n\n1865 1,397 \n\n1866 1,360 \n\n1867 1,356 \n\n1868 1,546 \n\n1869 1,562 \n\n\n\n1871 1,464 \n\n1872 1,455 \n\n1873 1,481 \n\n1874 1,549 \n\n\n\nSUN. (See p. 603.) Cycle of changes in number of sun\'s spots fixed at \n11 years by Schwabe and others, 1826-51. Red flames at edge of sun \nduring an eclipse, shown to be burning hydrogen by Janssen, August 18, \n1868. Unknown substance believed to exist in the sun, corresponding to \nline 1474 of the spectrum, 1870-71. Substances already shown by the \nspectroscope to exist in the sun: Aluminium, barium, cadmium, calcium, \ncerium, chromium, cobalt, copper, hydrogen, iron, lead, magnesium, \nmanganese, nickel, sodium, strontium, titanium, uranium, zinc \xe2\x80\x94 all fused \ninto a liquid or even vaporous state. \n\nSUNDAY ; Sunday Laws. Scientific lectures with a bearing on natural \nreligion were given in London in January, 1867, by Huxley, Carpenter, \nand others, with sacred music in the intermissions. On legal inquiry \n(case of Baxter v. Baxter Langley, Nov. 19, 1868), held that this was not an \ninfraction of the Sunday Act of 21, George III. The Boston Publi* \nLibrary Reading-Room opened to the public on Sunday, after much op- \nposition, February, 1873. \n\nSWEDEN and NORWAY. (See pp. 189, 604.) Religious toleration to \nsome extent (previously a rigid and exclusive state Lutheranism pre- \nvailed), 1860. New constitution, December, 1864. Charles XV. dies \nSept. 18, 1872. Oscar II., his brother, succeeds. Population of Sweden, \nDec. 31, 1875, 4,383,291, and Norway 1,817,237. \n\nSWIMMING DRESS, Boyton\'s. (See Life-Saving.) \n3* \n\n\n\n6o THE WORLD\'S PROGRESS. \n\nSWITZERLAND. (See pp. 189, 606.) Mermillod, papal nuncio, expelled, \nJanuary 16, 1873 Revised federal constitution adopted, April 19, 1874 \nSwiss National Catholic Church ("Old Catholic") established June, 1874 \nCivil marriage law adopted, May 23, 1875. Population, 1870, 2,669,147. \n\nSYLLABUS of errors in modern times, issued along with an encyclical let- \nter by Pope Pius IX., December 8, 1864, condemned heresy, modern \nphilosophy, political liberalism, etc. Adopted by the Vatican Council, \n1870. \n\nTALMUD. (See p. 609.) The Talmud has been translated into Arabic, \nand parts of it into Latin and into modern languages. Raphall and de \nSola translated eighteen treatises of the Mishna or text into English, Lon- \ndon, 1847. \n\nTAXES. (See pp. 189,610; also Revenue : National Debt ; etc.) National, \nState, and municipal taxes in United States, estimated in 1876 at $730,- \n000,000 a year, or about $19.00 for each soul. \n\nTEA. (See pp. 189, 610.) Importation into the United States, and value, \n1869-1876 : \n\nLbs. Value. \n\n1869 39,141,755 $13,687,750 \n\n1870 40,812,188 13,871,546 \n\n1871 46,972,787 17,254,617 \n\n1872 56,974,100 22,943,575 \n\n1873 57,870,700 24,466,170 \n\n1874 49,831,800 21,112,234 \n\n1875 64,856,899 22,673,703 \n\n1876 62,887,153 19,524,166 \n\nImported into England in 1875, 197,505,316 lbs. ; worth \xc2\xa313,766,961. \n\nTELEGRAPH. The English Government in 1869 bought out the English \ntelegraph companies on the basis of paying twenty years\' profits for the \nproperty. The companies claimed \xc2\xa37,035,977 ; on a valuation this sum \nwas reduced to \xc2\xa35,715,047, of which the profit item was \xc2\xa35,220,109. \n\xc2\xa3700,000 were also paid to railroad companies for telegraph rights, and \nsome other items carried the whole government expenditure to about \n\xc2\xa36,750,000, or $33,750,000. The government estimate of returns was, \nannual revenue expected, \xc2\xa3673,838; expenses, \xc2\xa3359,484; net profit. \n\xc2\xa3314,354 ; and deducting three and one-half or four per cent, interest on \nthe government securities issued to buy with, there would remain a sur- \nplus of \xc2\xa377,000 or \xc2\xa344,000, as the case might be. The result, however, \nhas been thus far (1877) a loss instead of a profit. February 16, 1871, at \n9.8 P.M., a telegram was received at London which was sent from Kur- \nrachee, in India, at 12.43 in the morning of the next day. \n\nTELEPHONE. Bell\'s, Gray\'s, and Edison\'s telephones were brought before \nthe public in 1876 and 1877. One was invented by Philip Reiss, a Ger- \nman, about 1862. Bell\'s operates by means of talking and listening into \na "funnel" or small drum-head (or an equivalent mechanism), which \nvibrates over an electro -magnet in an electric circuit. Gray\'s acts by the \nvibrations of tuning-forks. They are all contrivances to convey sound \nalong an electric circuit. \n\nTELESCOPE. (See p. 611.) Lord Rosse\'s great telescope, Efty-two feet \nlong, seven feet diameter, erected 1828-45, cost over \xc2\xa320,000. Newall\'g \ntelescope, with jbject-glass 25 inches aperture, set up at Gateshead, Eng- \nland, 1870. \n\n\n\n-180T\xe2\x80\x94 7 7 . 6r \n\nTENURE of OFFICE ACT. Passed March 2, 1867, in order to limit tha \npower of President Johnson. It required the consent of the Senate to re- \nmove as well as to appoint officials. \n\nTHOMASSEN. (See Explosions ) \n\nTICHBORNE CASE. May 11, 1871, this case, in which the claimant of \nthe Tichborne estate, calling himself Sir Roger Tichborne, was asserted \nby the defendants to be a butcher named Arthur Orton, came on for trial. \nAfter occupying 103 days (the Attorney-General, Sir J. D. Coleridge, \nspoke twenty-six days), claimant nonsuited, and held for perjury and \nforgery; trial began April 23, 1872; verdict of perjury, February 28, \n1874. Longest trial known in England ; sentence fourteen years at bard \nlabor. \n\nTICKET op LEAVE. A permit granted to convicts supposed likely to \nbehave well. 2,666 persons thus liberated in England in 1856. In 1861-3 \nthe system appeared a failure, these liberated convicts committing many \ncrimes, and the device was practically discontinued by the Penal Servitude \nAct, 1864. \n\nTORPEDO. For submarine warfare, invented by David Bushnell, of Say- \nbrook, Conn., and tried on British vessels unsuccessfully, except that it \ngreatly frightened thom, 1777 ; much used in rebellion, 1861-5. Torpedc \ndepartments have, since the introduction of iron- clad war-ships, been in- \ntroduced into all navy organizations. \n\nTRADES-UNIONS. (See Battening ; Strikes.) National Federation of \nEmployers formed in England, to counteract Trades-Unions. Parliamen- \ntary report on persecutions by the Saw-Grinders\' Union of Sheffield, and \nsimilar practices, dated August 21, 1867. Forty-five trades-unions in \nNew York City in 1869 had 24.425 members ; in 1876 many of them had \nbeen discontinued, and the membership was less than 15,000. The whole \nnumber in the United States in 1872-3 was estimated at 1,500, of which \neleven had a national organization, and ten an international one. The \nfifth annual Trades-Union Congress of Great Britain and Ireland, at \nLeeds, January 13, 1873, included representatives from ninety-nine socie- \nties, one of which contained 140.000 members. \n\nTREASON-FELONY. Term applied in an English Act of 1848, to certain \ntreasons mitigated to felonies, and made punishable by imprisonment or \ntransportation. The Fenians were tried under this act in 1865. \n\nTRIALS. (See pp. 191, 623; also Ticliborne Case, ; Ritualism, and Fn-chas \nCase.) Saurin v. Starr, \' the convent case,\' 1 by an ex-inmate of a U >man \nCatholic convent at Hull. England, against the Superior and others, for \nconspiracy, etc., occupied three weeks in trying, in the year 1889. The \nplaintiff recovered \xc2\xa3500. July 15, was tried at Carmarthen. Wales, the \n" Welsh Fasting Girl Case." The girl\'s parmts, Evan and Hannah \nJacobs, had made a show of their daughter, pretending that she had lived \nfor months without food; and when some competent persons were sent \nfrom Gray\'s Hospital to watch the child, the parents let her die. They \nwere convicted, and imprisoned at hard labor, the father for twelve, and \nthe mother for six months. November 26, 1870, Rev. Mr. Mackonochie, \na " ritualist," incumbent of St. Albans, Holborn, London, was suspended \nfor three months from clerical duty, and sentenced to pay costs, for dis- \nobeying the monitions of the Privy Council about elevating the paten and \nprostrating himself before the consecrated elements. February, 1870, \n\n\n\n62 THE WORLD\'S PROGRESS. \n\nthe case of Lady Mordaunt, whose husband had sued for a divorce, r\xc2\xa9> \nsuited in a stay of proceedings on the ground of Lady Mordaunt\'s insanity. \nThe Prince of Wales had been reported concerned in the scandal, but \ndenied it on the witness-stand. November 10, 1871, there was a curioua \nlibel suit at London. One John Hampden, who maintains that the earth \nis flat and not round, had bet \xc2\xa3500 with a Mr. Wallace on this question, \nand the money had been paid to Mr. Wallace by the referee on deciding \nthe bet, as agreed. Upon this Hampden began a system of sending \nabout libellous postal cards, accusing the referee of fraud. On trial \nhe made an ample apology, and was let off. February 11, 1871, judgment \nwas given by the judicial committee of the Privy Council in the Voysey \ncase, in which Rev. C. Voysey was prosecuted for heresy in maintaining \nand teaching various alleged infidel doctrines. The tribunal found that \nhe contradicted and impugned the thirty -nine articles in respect to original \nsin, the incarnation, the atonement, the trinity, the authority of scripture, \nand other points, and sentenced him to deprivation and payment of costs. \nBy final decisions in 1877, Mrs. Gaines, after forty years\' litigation, \nobtains title to a great mass of real estate in New Orleans. \n\nTRICHINA. A minute worm living in the muscles of hogs and other \nanimals ; transferred into those who eat the infected meat, and causes a \ndisease, sometimes fatal, called trichiniasis. First found in human mus- \ncle by Owen, 1832. Thorough boiling kills them. Much attention to the \nsubject, 18(55-6. \n\nTROY. Dr. Schliemann, 1872-3, discovered on the hill of Hissarlik re- \nmains of three different ancient cities, one over the other, and much an- \ncient treasure, part of which he called the " treasure of Priam." He be- \nlieved the site to be that of ancient Troy ; his book translated and pub- \nlished in English, 1875. \n\nTUNNEL. Mont Cenis tunnel, seven and one-half miles long ; began \nAugust 31, 1857; boring completed, December 25, 1870; cost about \n$13,000,000. A tunnel under the English Channel, from Dover to Ca- \nlais, proposed, August, 18(59, by Bateman and Revy ; plans by Thome de \nGamond shown in Paris, 1867 : a convention in favor of it signed for \nFrance by M. Chevalier, January. 1875, and a thirty years\' monopoly \ngranted ; French and English companies formed ; experimental borings \nin the chalk at the sides of the channel indicate that the rock is such as \nto make the scheme practicable. Hoosac Tunnel, under Hoosac Moun- \ntain, in Western Massachusetts, begun 1856 ; completed, 1873 ; four and \nthree-fourths miles long. Sutro Tunnel, to drain the Comstock Lode \nand other silver mines in Nevada, estimated cost, $8,000,000 ; to be 21,- \n178 feet, and with all branches and shafts, 43,088 feet. \n\nTURKEY. (See pp. 192, 626.) Insurrection in Herzegovina, June, 1875, \nextending more or less into Montenegro, Bosnia, and Servia The " An- \ndrassy note," suggesting reforms in Turkey, presented to the Sultan\'s \nGovernment by the Austro-Hungarian. German, Italian, and Russian am- \nbassadors, January 31, 1876. On the 6th February, an answer promises \nreligious liberty and other reforms. February 14, decree issued order- \ning them. Risings in Bosnia, early in March, 1876. Insurgents in Herze- \ngovina blockading Nicsics ; defeat Turks under Mukhtar Pasha, April 15, \n1876. Turks defeat insurgents at Prejeska, April 23. In May, 1876, \nrisings in Bulgaria put down by the Turks with frightful cruelty and out- \nrages. Consuls of France and Germany assassinated at.Salonica, by Mo- \n\n\n\n1867-77. \n\n\n\n6 3 \n\n\n\nhammedan fanatics, May 6, 1876. May 11, 1876, the " Berlin memo- \nrandum," agreed on by Russia, Germany, and Austria, at Berlin, requir- \ning prompt fulfilment of the Turkish promises made in reply to the \nAndrassy note. England refused to join in this demand, and it was \ndropped. May 12, 1876, riots at Constantinople, headed by the softas \n(students of law and religion), against the government. Abdul Aziz de- \nthroned by his ministers, May 27th, and was found dead (said to have \ncommitted suicide), June, 1876. Murad, nephew of Abdul Aziz, made \nSultan, May 30th ; deposed, August 31, 1876, and succeeded by his \nyounger brother, Abdul-Hamid II. June 12. 1876, Prince Milan of Servia \nproclaims that the insurrections around him force him to put Servia under \narms. June 15, 1876, Hassan Bey, a Circassian captain in the Turkish \narmy, enters the ministerial council-room, shoots dead the Ministers of \nWar and of Foreign Affairs, and killed or wounded six other officials be- \nfore he was secured. He was hanged two days afterwards. Prince of \nServia and Hospodar of Montenegro jointly declare war against Turkey, \nJuly 2, 1876. Turkey announces that no payments can be made on the \npublic debt " until the internal affairs of the empire have become more \nsettled," July 9, 1876. Decisive defeat of the Servians by the Turks at \nAlexinatz, October 28, 1876, and Alexinatz occupied the 31st by the vic- \ntors. Mr. Gladstone\'s powerful pamphlet on the Bulgarian atrocities, \npublished September 6, 1876. Armistice for six weeks with Servia \ngranted by Turkey, under pressure from the powers, November 1, 1876. \nConferences of the powers at Constantinople to try to avert war begun \nDecember 11, 1876. Represented : Great Britain, Austro-Hungary, France, \nGermany, Italy, Russia, Turkey. A constitution, providing for represen- \ntatives, a legislative assembly, etc., proclaimed, December 2.4, 1876, in \norder to avert European intervention. For the war, see Russia. \n\n\n\nU. \n\n\n\nUNITED STATES. (See pp. 193, 631 ; also Centennial, etc.; Chronological \nTables, p. 205, etc.) In 1870 there were in the TJnitod States, 3,603,844 \nsquare miles or 1,942,000,000 acres, half of it public lands, and less than \none-tenth of it cultivated. Population, 1870, without Indians, 38,558,371 ; \nestimated, June 1, 1876, 45,627,000 ; expected at census of 1880 to be \nfifty millions. Value of all real and personal property (1870), $30,068- \n518,507; paupers, 116,102; convicted of crime, 36,562; in prison, June \n1, 1870, 32,901 ; religious congregations of all kinds, 72,459; church edi- \nfices 63,082; sittings, 21,665,062, or 4 to every 7 souls. \n\nUNIVERSITIES. Students and professors, etc. , in German ones, June, 1876 : \n\n\n\n\n\nProfessors \n\n\n\n\n\n\nand Teachers. \n\n\nStudents. \n\n\n\n\n197 \n\n\n2,143 \n\n\n\n\n100 \n\n\n707 \n\n\n\n\n107 \n\n\n. ... 1,116 \n\n\n\n\n54 \n\n\n429 \n\n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\x9e69 ... \n\n\nS74 \n\n\n\n\n54 \n\n\n315 \n\n\n(Jottingen . \n\n\n\n\n\n\nGreif swald . \n\n\nM \n\n\n444 \n\n\nHalle \n\n\n98 \n\n\n870 \n\n\nHeidelberg. \n\n\n104 \n\n\n488 \n\n\n\n\n73 \n\n\n440 \n\n\n\n\n61 \n\n\n202 \n\n\n\nProfessors \nand Teachers. \n\nKonigsberg 83 \n\nLeipzig 156 \n\nMarburg 65 \n\nMunich 116 \n\nMunster 29 \n\nKostock 39 \n\nStrassburg 90 \n\nTubingen 84 \n\nWurzburg 67 \n\n\n\n21 \n\n\n\n1,800 \n\n\n\nStudents. \n611 \n\n2,925 \n401 \n\n1,203 \n431 \n153 \n677 \n823 \n984 \n\n. 16,625 \n\n\n\n64 THE WORLD\'S PROGRESS. \n\nAdd to these 2,377 unmatriculated, "permitted to attend lectures" (oi \nwhich 1,963 at Berlin alone), and there are 18,999 students; 14 universi- \nties are Protestant ; the theological faculty being Roman Catholic at Frei- \nburg, Munich, Minister, and Wurzburg, and mixed at Bonn, Breslau, and \nTubingen. \n\n\n\nVATICAN COUNCIL, called the Twenty-first (Ecumenical or General \nCouncil, summoned by encyclical letter of September 8, 1868 ; met at \nRome, December 8, 1869; present, 803 members; there were four public \nsessions, and from 90 to 100 " congregations." New canons issued April \n24, 1870; the infallibility of the Pope affirmed by 547 to 2, and the \ndoctrine promulgated July 18, 1870. \n\nVEDAS. Hindoo sacred books, consisting of hymns, prayers, and liturgies. \nThere are three portions of them \xe2\x80\x94 the Rig- Veda, Yajur-Veda, and Atharva- \nVeda \xe2\x80\x94 the first being much the oldest and dating to 1,000 or more years \nB.C. Max Midler\'s edition (in Sanscrit) began to appear 1849; Wilson\'s \ntranslation, 1850. \n\nVELOCIPEDE. One invented by Blanchard, the" aeronaut, about 1779 ; \none by Niepce, 1818 ; came into use again about 1861, and are still (1877) \nmore or less employed. \n\nVENDOMB COLUMN. Pulled down by the communists, May 16, 1871 ; \nrestored August 31, 1874; statue of Napoleon replaced at top, December, \n\n1875. Courbet the painter was condemned to a fine of 30,000 francs for \nhis participation in overturning it. \n\nVENEZUELA. (See p. 634.) Presidents: Falcon, March 18,1865; Mo- \nnagas, June to November, 1865 ; Pulgar, December, 1865 ; Blanco, July, \n1870. and re-elected 1873, 1875. Conflict with Roman Catholic Church on \ncivil marriage ; papal authority renounced by the government, September, \n\n1876. Area about 403,261 square miles ; population (1873), 1,784,194. \nVENUS, Transit op. (See Astronomy.) \n\nVESUVIUS. (See pp. 194, 636.) Recent eruptions: spring and sum- \nmer, 1860 ; December, 1861 ; February, 1865 ; November 12, 1867 to \nApril, 1868 ; October 8 to November 20, 1869; April 23 to May 3, 1872. \n\nVICTORIA, in Australia. (See p. 194.) Capital, Melbourne. Popula- \ntion, estimated March 31, 1876, at 829,824. \n\nVISIBLE SPEECH. A universal system of delineating sounds in which \neach letter is a diagram of the position of the vocal organs in uttering it. \nInvented by A. M. Bell ; explained by him, and a book on it published, \nLondon, 1866 ; introduced in America by him and his son, J. G. Bell, \nthe inventor of a telephone, about 1872. \n\nVIVISECTION. Efforts to prevent it have been made since 1859 ; gener- \nally opposed by scientific physiologists and medical men. Bill to regulate \nit in Great Britain, August 15. 1876, by restricting it to licensed persons. \n\nW. \n\nWAGES. (See pp, 196, 640; also Strikes, Trades- Unions.) In New York, \nfrom 1870 to 1876, wages in fifty eight trades fell from 10 to 20 per cent. \n\n\n\n1867-7?. 6 5 \n\nIn England, wages were often raised by the strikes, 1874-75. Yearly \ntotal of wages paid in United Kingdom, 1866, estimated at from \xc2\xa3250,- \n000,000 to \xc2\xa3418,300,000, earned by 10,697,000 working people, between \n20 and 60 years of age. \n\nWAHABEES. Fanatical reforming Mohammedans, a kind of Puritans ; \narose in Arabia about 1750 ; in 1803 seized Mecca and Medina ; were \ndefeated by Egyptian forces 1818 ; are at present prosperous in Arabia, \nand there are some of them in India. Palgrave\'s Journey in Arabia, 1865, \nis a good account of them. \n\nWAR. (See pp. 196, 643 ; a\\&oArmy ; Battles ; Navy ; National Debt ; etc.) \nAn estimate from 1853 to 1877 shows the following deaths and expenses \nin one quarter-century of Christian war. \n\n\n\nCrimean war $1,700,000,000 \n\nItalian war (1859) 300.000,000 \n\nU. S. rebellion (North) 4,700,000,000 \n\nU. S. rebellion (South) 2.300,000,000 \n\nSchleswig-Holstein war .... 35,000,000 \n\n\n\nAustro-Prussian war (1866) 330,000,000 \n\nFranco-Prussian 2,500.000,000 \n\nOther wars, etc 200,000,000 \n\n\n\nTotal cost |12,065,000,000 \n\n\n\nAnd deaths (not complete). \n\nCrimean war 475,000 | Austro-Prussian war of 1866 . . 45,000 \n\nItalian war 1859 45,000 Franco-Prussian war 215,000 \n\nSchleswig-Holstein war 3,000 - \n\nU. S. rebellion 800,000 | Total deaths 1,183,000 \n\nThese deaths are nearly all of the . strongest young men, from 25 to 35 \nyears old. \n\nWATCHES. (See p. 646 ; also Clocks and Watches.) \n\nWESTERN AUSTRALIA. Includes all New Holland west of 190\xc2\xb0 E. \nlongitude, being estimated at 978,000 square miles. The settled part is \nnot more than one-eighth of this area. Population, March 31, 1870, in- \ncluding 1,470 convicts, 24,785. First settled 1829, and was then called \nthe Swan River Settlement. \n\nWOERTH. Defeat of the French under McMahon by the Germans under \nthe Crown-Prince of Prussia, after most obstinate and bloody fighting, \nAugust 6, 1870. The French said to have charged the German line and \nbroken it eleven times, always, however, finding fresh troops behind. \n\nWRECKS. (See pp. 198, 658; also Life-Saving Seamen.) Of 1803 casual- \nties to vessels on the British coast in the year 1873-74, 346 were total \nwrecks, and 506 lives were lost. Lives (saved chiefly by life-boats), in \n1871, on British coast, 4,336. \n\n\n\nYACHT. (See p. 199.) July 4, 1870, an " international " yacht race was \nbegun, from Cork to New York, between the English yacht Cambria and \nthe American one Dauntless. The Cambria won, arriving at 4 P.M. of \nJuly 27, the Dauntless, taking a more northerly route, came in two hours \nlater. October 16, 1871, and six subsequent days, took place an inter- \nnational yacht race between the English yacht the Livonia and the yachts \nof the New York Yacht Club. The Columbia and Sappho, of New York, \nwon four out of the first five races, deciding the match. \n\n\n\n66 the world\'s progress. \n\n\n\nz. \n\nZANZIBAR. Set off from Muscat, 1806, for Majid, a son of the Seyyid \n(lord) of Muscat. At Majid\'s death, October 7, 1870, Barghash, his \nbrother, succeeded. Treaty with England abolishing slave trade, June 5, \n1873. \n\nZEND AVESTA. The present Zend Avesta is said by the Parsees to be \nonly three out of the original twenty-one nosks or books. It consists of \nhymns, prayers, and liturgies, much as the Vedas do, and is in three \nparts, the Vispered, Vendidad, and Yacnas. The five G-athas or hymns \nin the Vendidad are considered the oldest part. Their age is very doubt- \nful, though in part unquestionably great. Anquetil Duperron\'s French \nversion, 1771 ; Burnouf\'s, 1829-43 ; Spiegel\'s, in German, a later one. is \nthe best ; and an English version of this by Bleeck was published at \nHertford, England, 1864. \n\n\n\nBUREAU OF STATISTICS, U. S. TREASURY DEPARTMENT. \n\n\n\n[Forf the following ptatietics w 3 are indebted to the courtesy of Hon. Alex ANt er Del* ae \nDirector of the Bureau.] \n\nCUSTOMS Duties Received in 1866. \n\n* During the Quarter ending March 31, 1866 $46,645,597.83 \n\n* " " June 30, " 46,175,132.33 \n\n* " " Sept. 30, " 50,843,774.24 \n\nt \' 4 " Dec. 81, " 37,803,027.54 \n\n$181,467,531.94 \n* Official. t Commercial and Financial Chronicle, March 30, 1867. \n\n\n\nYear. \n\n1860, \n\n1861, \n\n1862, \n\n1863, \n\n1364, \n\n1865, S \n1865, I \n\n1866, \\ \n1866, } \n\n\n\n[G Statistics: \n\n\nTonnage of \n\n\nthe United States. \n\n\nRegistered. \n\n\nEnrolled and Licensed. \n\n\nSail. \n\n\nSteam. \n\n\nSail \n\n\nSteam. \n\n\n2,448,941 \n\n\n97,296 \n\n\n2,036,990 \n\n\n770,641 \n\n\n2,540,020 \n\n\n102,608 \n\n\n2,122,589 \n\n\n774,596 \n\n\n2,177,253 \n\n\n113,998 \n\n\n2,224,449 \n\n\n596,465 \n\n\n1,892,899 \n\n\n133,215 \n\n\n2,660,212 \n\n\n439,755 \n\n\n1,475,376 \n\n\n106,519 \n\n\n2,550,690 \n\n\n853,816 \n\n\nold, 1,031,465 \n\n\n60,539 \n\n\n1,794,372 \n\n\n630,411 \n\n\nnew, 482,110 \n\n\n28,469 \n\n\n730,695 \n\n\n338,720 \n\n\nold, 341,619 \n\n\n42,776 \n\n\n443,635 \n\n\n114,269 \n\n\nnew, 953,018 \n\n\n155,513 \n\n\n1,489,194 \n\n\n770,754 \n\n\n\nTotal. \nTonnage. \n5,353,868 \n5,539,813 \n5,112,165 \n5,126,081 \n4,986.401 \n3,516,787 \n1,579,994 \n\n942,299 \n3,368,479 \n\n\n\nEXPORTS OF GOLD AND SILVER from New York during the vear ending \nJune 30, 1 867 \n\nDomestic. Foreign. Total. \n\nIn Am. Vessels. In For. Vessels. In Am. Vessels. In For. Vessels. \nGold Bullion,... 298,854 8,425,227 \n\nGold Coin, 1,500,041 1 5,800,152 \n\nSilver Bullion,. 706,081 8,186,837 \n\nSilver Coin 248,978 1,581,753 \n\n\n\nTotal, \n\n\n\n2,753,954 \n\n\n\n33,993,969 \n\n\n\n\n1,490,761 \n\n\n\nnone. \n1,418,853 \n18,939 \n1,521,062 \n\n\n\n2,958,854 41,197,538 \n\n\n\n8,724,081 \n\n19,902,62e \n\n8,911,857 \n\n3,658,974 \n\n\n\nCOFFEE Statistics. Statement exhibiting the consumption of coffee in the \n\nUnited States during the years ending December 31, .861, 1862, 1863, 1861, \n1865, and 1866 : \n\nTear. Pounds. Tear. Pounds. \n\n1861, 187,046,00& 1864, 1081,087,004. \n\n1862, 88,990,000 1H65, 128,146,000 \n\n\n\n863, \n\n\n\n79,720,000 \n\n\n\nH65, \n1866, \n\n\n\n169.915.840 \n\n\n\n68 \n\n\n\nUNITED STATES TREASURY STATISTICS \n\n\n\nSee page 68, Reports of Revenue Commission, 1865-66. The quantities given \nfor the first five years are substantially those named in the Annual Report of the \nNe~j> York Chamber of Commerce for 1866-66. \n\nThe quantity for 1866 is taken from tfc\xc2\xbb Supplement to H E. Mbring\'s Monthly \nCoffee Circular, 1867. \n\n\n\n\'OX Statistics. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nProduction. \n\n\nExported. \n\n\n\n\nAoerage Prict \n\n\nTear. \n\n\n\n\nBales. \n\n\nPounds \n\n\nBales. \n\n\nper pound. \n\n\n1860-61, \n\n\n\n\n3,656,086 \n\n\n\n\n3,126,622 \n\n\n17A2 cents. \n\n\n1861-62, \n\n\nest. \n\n\n4,800,000 \n\n\n5,064,564 = say \n\n\n12,000 \n\n\n42.15 " \n\n\n1862-63, \n\n\nest. \n\n\n1.500,000 \n\n\n11,384,986 - say \n\n\n26,000 \n\n\n71 08 " \n\n\n1863-64, \n\n\nest. \n\n\n\'500,000 \n\n\n10,830,534 = say \n\n\n25,000 \n\n\n$111.14 " \n\n\n1864-65, \n\n\nest. \n\n\n300,000 \n\n\n6,607.186 = say \n\n\n15,000 \n\n\n75.75 \n\n\n1865-66, \n\n\n\n\n2,214,476 \n\n\n\n\n1,554,744 \n\n\n44. " \n\n\n1866-67, \n\n\nest. \n\n\n1,900,000 \n\n\nest. \n\n\n1,500,000 \n\n\n32.5 " \n\n\n\nThe figures relative to production, except for ] 866-6*7, were derived from \nNeil Bros. & Co.\'s Cotton Circular for October 16, 1866. The receipts at all \nports from September 1, 1866, to July 6, 1867, are given as 1,863,000 bales, and \nthe total exports for the same period as 1,463,000 bales. Messrs. Cornwall & \nZerega in their Circular give the receipts from September 1, 1866, to July 12, \n1867, as 1,809,500 bales. \n\nThe number of pounds exported are taken from Table 19, page 349, Finance \nReport, 1866. The same table gives the exports for 1860-61, as only 307,528,- \n489 pounds, or say 720,000 bales. The Rev. Com. (see Report, p. 74), gives the \n<xports for 1860-61, including stock on hand, as 2,812,346 bales. \n\n\n\nEA Statistics. Statement exhibiting the consumption of tea in the United \nStates during the years ending December 31, 1861, 1862, 1S63, 1864, 1865, \nand 1866 : \n\nTear. Oreen, Japan. Black. Total. \n\nPounds. Pounds. Pounds. \n\n1861, 7,485,000 18,035,000 25,520,00 i \n\n13,871,600 13,597,000 27,468,600 \n\n14,490,680 12,415,685 26,906,865 \n\n13,564,295 9,573,251 23,137,546 \n\n18,874,199 10,979,234 29,853,433 \n\n29,643,187 \n\nSee Reports of Revenue Commission, 1865-66, pp. 53, 55. The above are \nestimates made from data furnished the Commission by parties in the trade in \nNew York, except for 1866, which is taken from Messrs. Montgomery\'s Tea Cir- \ncular. The Commission estimated the consumption for 1866 at 30,000,000 \npounds. \n\nThe Pacific States are not included in the above, except for 1866, nor is any \nallowance made for smuggling. The estimated consumption in 1860, was one \npound per capita. \n\n\n\n1H62, \n1863, \n1864, \n1865, \n1866, \n\n\n\nOBAC( \n\n\nX) Statistics. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nYear \n\n\nProduction \n\n\nExported. \n\n\n\n\nAverage prict \n\n\n\n\nPounds. \n\n\nLeaf, pounds. \n\n\nManuf\'d, lbs. \n\n\nTotal. \n\n\nper lb., LeaJ \n\n\n1861, \n\n1862, \n1863 \n1864 \n1865, \n\n\nest 200,000,000 \n136,736,596 \n276,850,870 \n197,460,229 \n185,316 953 \n\n\xc2\xab\xc2\xabt 330. 501 ,\'500 \n\n\nest. 160,000,000 \nest. 107,000,000 \nest. 112,000,000 \nest, 110,000,0\xc2\xab \near,. 149,COS,0\xc2\xab* \n\nian,\'s?a m \n\n\n14,783,363 \n4,071,963 \n\n7,025,248 \n8,586,494 \n7,294. \'65 \n6,515.709 \n\n\n174,783,363 \n111,071,963 \n119,025,248 \n118,586,49-1 \n156.294,105 \n197.3-H.957 \n\n\n9. centH. \n11 9 " \n14 9 " \n14.85 " \n12.6 " \n13 " \n\n\n\nTHE WORLD\'S PROGRESS. 69 \n\nThe production for 1862, 1863, 1864 and 1865 is given as found in the Re \nports of the Department of Agriculture. The estimated production for 1866 is \ntaken from the Tobacco Circular of M. Rader & Son. \n\nThe quantities of leaf tobacco exported are estimated from the returns oi \ncommerce a.nd navigation for the years 1861, 1862, 1863, 1864, and 1865. The \nquantities of leaf for 1866, and of manufactured tobacco for each year specified, \nare taken from the returns of commerce and navigation for those years. \n\nIn 1862, the production of only twenty-one States is given, Kentucky and \nthe disloyal States being omitted. In 1863, 1864, and 1865 Kentucky is included, \nand in 1866 all the States. \n\n\n\n:at \n\n\nStatistics. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nTear \n\n\ns. Production. \n\n\nExported. \n\n\nAv. Frice per bu \n\n\n\n\nBushels. \n\n\nWheat, bushels. \n\n\nFlour, bbls. \n\n\nat 1\'ew York. \n\n\n1861, \n1862, \n1863, \n1864, \n1865, \n1866, \n\n\n189,993,500 \n191,068,239 \n171,695,823 \n159,522,827 \n151,999,906 \n\n\n31,238,057 \n37,289,572 \n36,160,414 \n23,681,712 \n9,937,152 \n5,579,103 \n\n\n4,323,756 \n4,882,038 \n4,390,055 \n3,557,347 \n2,604,542 \n2,183,050 \n\n\n$1,18 to $1.46 \n1.30 to 1.50 \n1.83 to 1.58 \n1.48 to 1.83 \n2.22 to 2.70 \n1.85 to 2.75 \n\n\n\nNo returns of the pVoduction of 1861 are to be had, although inquiry was \naaade at the Department of Agriculture. \n\nThe figures relative to production in 1862, 1863, 1864, 1865, and 1866 are \ntaken from the Monthly and Annual Reports of the Department of Agriculture, \nand embrace 22 States and Nebraska Territory, except 1866, which embraces 29 \nStates and Nebraska Territory. There being no returns from California in 1864 \nand 1865, the crop for each year is estimated at 11,000,000 bushels, which is \nbelieved to be a low estimate, the crop for 1863 being 11,664,203 bushels. A \nbarrel of flour is considered as equal to 5 bushels of wheat. \n\n\n\nSTATISTICS, TEARS 1867-77. \n\n\n\n(From public documents and other standard sources.) \n\nREVENUE of the United States from customs for ten years (to June 30), \n1867-1876. \n\n1867 $176,417,810.88 \n\n1868 164,464,599.56 \n\n1869 180,048.426.63 \n\n1870 194,538,374.44 \n\n1871 206,270,408.05 \n\nFor the first five months of the years ending June 30, 1877 and 1876, the \nrevenue from customs was as follows : \n\n1877. 1876. Decrease. \n\n$57,801,772.50 $68,170,576.48 $10,368,803.98 \n\n\n\n1872 $216,370,286.77 \n\n1873 188,089,522.70 \n\n1874 163,103,833.69 \n\n1875 157,167,722.35 \n\n1876 148,071,984.61 \n\n\n\nCOIN and BULLION exported from the United States for seven years, \n1868-9 to 1874-5, ending June 30. \n\n1868-9 $42,915,966 I 1872-3 ...$73,905,546 \n\n1869 70 43,881,861 1873-4 59,699,686 \n\n1870-1 84.403,359 I 1874-6 83,857,139 \n\n1871-2 72,798,240 | \n\n\n\n7\xc2\xb0 \n\n\n\nUNITED FTA.TES TREASURY STATISTICS. \n\n\n\nCOTTON. Production and exports of United States for nine years (ending \nJune 30), 1868 to 1876. \n\nProduction, bales \xe2\x80\x94 . , \n\nO/440 lbs. Exported, pounds. \n\n1868 2,593,993 784,763,633 \n\n1869 2,439,039 644,327,921 \n\n1870 3,154,946 958,558,523 \n\n1871 4,352,317 1,462,928,024 \n\n1872 2,974,351 933,537,413 \n\n1873 3,930,508 1,200,063,530 \n\n1874 4,170,388 1,358,602,303 \n\n1875 3,832,991 1,260,418,903 \n\n1876 4,600,000 1,491,405,336 \n\n\n\nSHIPPING of the United States, \n\n\nnine years, 1867-18\' \n\n\nrs. \n\nrchant Marh \n\n\n\n\nRegistered (tons). \n\n\n\n\n\n\nTotal Me \n\n\nle (tons). \n\n\n\n\n\n\nEnrolled \n\n\nLicensed \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSail. \n\n\nSteam. \n\n\nLicensed. \n\n\n20 tons. \n\n\nSail. \n\n\nSteam. \n\n\nAll. \n\n\n1867 \n\n\n1,187,714 \n\n\n165,522 \n\n\n2,563,232 \n\n\n41,047 \n\n\n2,834,565 \n\n\n1,122,980 \n\n\n3,957,515 \n\n\n1868 1,310,844 \n\n\n221,939 \n\n\n2,733,167 \n\n\n52,860 \n\n\n8,118,895 \n\n\n1,199,415 \n\n\n4,318,310 \n\n\n1869, 1,353,170 - \n\n\n213,252 \n\n\n2,526,093 \n\n\n62,126 \n\n\n3,041,073 \n\n\n1,103,568 \n\n\n4,144,641 \n\n\n18701 1,324.256 \n\n\n192,544 \n\n\n2,677,940 \n\n\n51,767 \n\n\n4,171,412 \n\n\n1,075,095 \n\n\n4,246,507 \n\n\n1871 1,244,228 \n\n\n180,914 \n\n\n2,805,374 \n\n\n62,191 \n\n\n3,194,970 \n\n\n1,087,637 \n\n\n4,282,607 \n\n\n1872 1,232,982 \n\n\n177,666 \n\n\n2,971,309 \n\n\n55,790 \n\n\n3,326,194 \n\n\n1,111,553 \n\n\n4,437,747 \n\n\n18731 1,229,865 \n\n\n193,423 \n\n\n3,215,915 \n\n\n56,824 \n\n\n6,539,584 \n\n\n1,156,443 \n\n\n4,696,027 \n\n\n18741 1,233,678 \n\n\n195,245 \n\n\n3,312,146 \n\n\n59,583 \n\n\n3,615,042 \n\n\n1,185,610 \n\n\n4,800,652 \n\n\n1875! 1.362,138 \n\n\n191,689 \n\n\n3,238,390 \n\n\n61,615 \n\n\n3,685,064 \n\n\n1,168,668 \n\n\n4,853,732 \n\n\n\nTOBACCO. \n\n1876. \n\n\n\nProduct and exportation of United States, ten years, 1867- \n\n\n\n1867. \n1868. \n1869. \n1870. \n\n1871. \n1872. \n1873. \n1874. \n1875. \n1876. \n\n\n\nProduction, lbs. \n313,724,000 \n320,982,000 \n273,775,000 \n250,628,600 \n263,196,100 \n342.304,000 \n372,810,000 \n178,355,000 \n379,347,000 \n\n\n\nExported. Leaf, lbs. \n\n\n\n181,537,630 \n1S5,747,181 \n215,667,604 \n234,936,892 \n213,995,176 \n318,097,804 \n223,901,713 \n218,310,265 \n\n\n\nWHEAT. Product and exportation of the United States, nine years, end \ning June 30, viz., 1867-1875 (in bushels). \n\n\n\nProduction. \n\n1867 212,441,400 \n\n1868 224,036,600 \n\n1869 ." 260,146,900 \n\n1870 235,884,700 \n\n1871 230,722,400 \n\n1872 240,997,100 \n\n1873 280,372,700 \n\n1874 306,102,70\') \n\n187\xc2\xbb- \n\n\n\nAs Wheat. \n6,146,411 \n15,940,899 \n17,557,836 \n36,584,115 \n34,304,906 \n26,423,080 \n39,204.285 \n71,039.928 \n63,047,175 \n\n\n\nExports. \n\n\n\nAs Flour. \n6,500,530 \n10,382,116 \n12,129,365 \n57,273,926 \n18,269,205 \n12,572,675 \n12,810,430 \n20,470,470 \n19,765,430 \n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL D\'DEX \n\nTO \n\nUNIVERSAL HISTORY. \n\n\n\nff. B. Tliis list of remarkable persons, from the earliest period, is not, of course, intended \nto include every name mentioned in history, but merely the most important in theii \nseveral departments. The names of Sovereigns are referred to occasionally only, as full \nlists are given in their proper place. \n\nThis list may be useful in two ways, viz. . \n\nFirst, as an Index to the names mentioned in the Chronological Tables in the " World\'i \nPr -gross ; " and \n\nSecondly, to indicate, by reference to those tables, the chief political events and con- \ntei aporary public characters during the life of each person in the list. \n\nThus : Socrates, the Greek philosopher, was born 470, and died 400 b. o. The tablei \nan page 20 to 24 show who lived, and what happened, during the seventy years of Socrates\' \nUfe. \n\nMilton was born a. d. 1608, one year after the first settlement at Jamestown, "Virginia ; \nsix years after the East India Company was founded ; five years after James I. ascended \nthe throi.e ; the same year that the Protestant Union was formed in Germany ; one year \nbefore Gustavus Adolphus became king of Sweden ; two years before Louis XIII, became \nking of France. He was 12 years old when the Puritans first landed at Plymouth ; he \nwas 17 when Charles L succeeded James, and he was 41 years old when Charles was be- \nheaded. Among his contemporaries were Lord Bacon, Inigo Jones, Jeremy Taylor, \nAlgernon Sydney, Sir C. Wren, Butler, Waller, Dryden, Henry More, Baxter, and Boyle, in \nEngland ; Peier Stuyvesant, Winthrop, Cotton,and Eliot, in America; Richelieu, Mazarine, \nColbert, Rubens, Kepler, Descartes, Moliere, Corneille, Racine, Pascal, on the Continent. \nHe died a. d. 1674, nine years after tlie great plague in London, 14 years after Charles II. \nwhs restored, and 7 years after New York was ceded to the English. \n\nAnd thus, of any person mentioned in the Index, a great variety of particulars may be \nfound at a glance, on referring to the tables. \n\nAbbreviations. \xe2\x80\x94 See list in the Introduction. Bar. (Barbarian) includes several different \nnatiotis, some not entirely civilized, f. is used for flourished. The dates before Christ \nare indicated by b. o. ; all others are A. d. In some cases the dates are necessarily left \n\nblank. \n\nNATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nDan. Aagesend, Svind, historian .... \nJew. Aaron, the first high-priest . . . \n\nGr. Aaron, of Alexandria, physician . . \n\nEgypt Abbas, pasha, viceroy of Egypt (grandson of Mehemet-All) \nEng. Abbot, George, archbishop of Canterbury and author . \nAmer. Abbott. Benjamin, distinguished educationist \nAmer. Abbott Jacob, author of biographical and religions works . \nAmer. Abbott, Jno. S. C, historian and biographer . . \n\nArab. Abd\'el Kader, distinguished warrior . . ,, \n\nTurk. Abdul Medjid, sultan of Turkey . . , \n\nEng. A\'Becket, Gilbert A., comic writer . . , \n\nAmer. Abeel, David, missionary and author of travels , \n\nNor. Abel, Nicholas H\xe2\x80\x9e mathematician . , , \n\n\n\nBORN. \n\n\nDIED. \n\n\n. f. 1188 \n\n\n\n\nb. c. 1570 \n\n\n1453 \n\n\n. r. 022 \n\n\n\n\n1813 \n\n\n1854 \n\n\n. 1562 \n\n\n1623 \n\n\n1763 \n\n\n1849 \n\n\n1808 \n\n\n\n\n1805 \n\n\n\n\n1806 \n\n\n1866 \n\n\n1822 \n\n\n\n\n1810 \n\n\n1856 \n\n\n1804 \n\n\n1844 \n\n\n1802 \n\n\n\n\n71 \n\n\n\n\n\nTHE WORLD\'S PROGRESS. \n\n\n\n8p. \n\nEng. \n\nScot. \n\nEng. \n\nEng \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nJew. \n\nFr. \n\nDan. \n\nAia. \n\nSyr. \n\nRom. \n\nItaL \n\nGer. \n\nPruss. \n\nGr. \n\nGr. \n\nItal. \n\nGr. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nGer. \n\nEng. \n\nIre. \n\nRom. \n\nEng. \n\nGr. \n\nGr. \n\nGr \n\nGr. \n\nGr. \n\nRom. \n\nRom. \n\n\n\nNAME AND PBOFESSIO.N. \n\nAbenezra, an astrono-aer, philosopher, poet, philologist, &o. \n\nAberdeen, Earl of, statesman and antiquary \n\nAberc:-ombie, John, author of \' Intellect ualPowers\' \n\nAbercromby, Sir Ralph, military commander \n\nAbernethy, John, eminent physician and medical writer \n\nAblai-court, N. P. D., translator of the Classics \n\nAbout, Edmond, novelist, traveller, &c. \n\nAbra.\'.;i.m, the great progenitor of the Jewish nation \n\nAbrantes, duchess d 1 , biographer \n\nAbsalom (real name Axcel) archbishop of Den., Sw., and Nor. \n\nAbubeker, father-in-law and successor of Mahomet \n\nAbulfoda, the geographer .... \n\nAccius, or Attius, a tragic poet (works not extant) \n\nAccursius, or Accorso, an eminent critic \n\nAccum, Fred., operative chemist (in England) . \n\nAckerman, Rudolph, introduced gas-lighting and lithog. in London 1764 \n\nAchilles, one of the leaders in the Trojan war . f. b. \n\nAchilles Tatius (of Alexandria), Christian bishop and author \n\nAchilli, Gicvanni G., protestant preacher \n\nAcropolita, of Constantinople, statesman and historian \n\nAdum. Alexander, schoolmaster and author . , \n\nAdam. Robert, an architectural author \n\nAdapts, John, patriot and statesman, 2d Pres. U. S. \n\n, John Quincy, diplomatist, poet, Pres. U. S. \n\n, Samuel, one of the patriotic founders of the republic \n\nAddison Joseph, one of the ornaments of English literature \n\nAdeiung, John C, philologist and lexicographer \n\nAdolphus, John, author of history of England, &o. . \n\nAdrr.in, Robert, mathematician (at New York, &c.) \n\nAdrian, the 15th emp. (born in Spain) \n\nJSlfrie, archbishop of Canterbury, author rf Anglo-Saxon works \n\niEluui, the historian and rhetorician \n\n^Encas, son of Priam, king of Troy . . . f. b. \n\n^Esohines, of Athens, philosopher, disciple of Socrates \n\n, orator . . . b. \n\n\n\njEsop, of Phrygia, the prince of fabulists . . . f. B. \n\n^Etius, military commander (defeated Attila) \n\nAfricanus, Julius, historian .... \n\nSp.Moor , Leo, author of travels in Africa \n\nGr. Agamemnon, " the king of kings" \n\nGr. Agathius, historian and poet . , . . f \n\nSwiss. Agassiz, Louis, naturalist .... \n\nGr. Agesilaus II., king of Sparta (defeats the Per., Egypt., and Greeks) \n\nScot. Aginhard or Eginhard, Hist, of Charlemagne \n\nGr. Agis rV., the greatest of the Spartan kings . . . \n\nEng. Aglionby, one of the translators of the Bible \n\nRom. Agricola, Cneius Julius, military commander . \n\nGer. Agricola, John, a divine, founder of the Antinomiane . , \n\nRom. Agrippa, military commander, governor of Judea . , \n\nFr. , Cornelius, philosopher, &c. \n\nB. Jew Aguilar, Grace, novelist ..... \n\nPers. Ahasuerus, king of Persia (Artaxerxes Long.) \n\n\n\nBOSN. \n\n\nDIED \n\n\n1119 \n\n\n1174 \n\n\n1784 \n\n\nI860 \n\n\n1781 \n\n\n1844 \n\n\n1738 \n\n\n1801 \n\n\n1764 \n\n\n1831 \n\n\n1606 \n\n\n1664 \n\n\n:. 1995 b. \n\n\nD. 1821 \n\n\n17S1 \n\n\n1838 \n\n\n1128 \n\n\n1203 \n\n\n561 \n\n\n02-1 \n\n\n1273 \n\n\n1S45 \n\n\nJ. 171 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1228 \n\n\n1769 \n\n\n183 i \n\n\ni 1764 \n\n\n1S34 \n\n\n3. 1100 \n\n\n\n\n3d cent \n\n\n\n\n1803 \n\n\n\n\n1220 \n\n\n1282 \n\n\n1741 \n\n\n1809 \n\n\n1728 \n\n\n17J4 \n\n\n1735 \n\n\n1826 \n\n\n1767 \n\n\n1818 \n\n\n1726 \n\n\n1800 \n\n\n1672 \n\n\n1719 \n\n\n1732 \n\n\n1806 \n\n\n1766 \n\n\n1845 \n\n\n1775 \n\n\n843 \n\n\n76 \n\n\n138 \n\n\n\n\n\n10f5 \n\n\n160 \n\n\n\n\no. 11. -3 \n\n\n\n\n0. 393 B. \n\n\no. 323 \n\n\n0. 600 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n454 \n\n\n\n\n232 \n\n\n1487 \n\n\ni52e \n\n\n\n1807 \n\n\n\nB. \n\n\n. \n\n\n. 361 \n\n\n771 \n\n\n\n\n839 \n\n\nB. \n\n\n0. \n\n\n251 \n\n1610 \n\n\n40 \n\n\n\n\n98 \n\n\n1490 \n\n\n\n\n15C6 \n\n\n40 \n\n\n\n\n91 \n\n\n1486 \n\n\n\n\n1535 \n\n\n1816 \n\n\n\n\n1847 \n\n\nB. \n\n\n\n\n\n45e \n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. \n\n\n\n73 \n\n\n\nNATION \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nFr. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nTartar. \n\nEng. \n\nSwe. \n\nBar. \n\nSpan. \n\nEng. \n\nGer. \n\nItal. \n\nGer. \n\nBar. \n\nitaL \n\nPort. \n\nGr. \n\nrt&i. \n\nGr. \nGr. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\niing. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nFr. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nRom. \n\nBar. \n\nRus. \n\nnus. \n\nXus. \n\nitaL \n\nEng. \n\nItaL \n\nBar. \n\nBar. \n\nScot. \n\ngcot. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nBar. \n\n\n\nNAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nAikiii, John, M. D. f an elegant writer, editor of poets, dec \n\n, Lucy, biographer and historian . , \n\nAime-Marlin, Louis, writer on education \n\nAinsworth, Robert, grammarian and lexicographer , \n\n, Wm. Francis, traveller, geologist, &o. . \n\n, Wm. Harrison, novelist \n\nAiry, Geo. B., astronomer-royal \n\nAkbar, Mohammed, a great Mogul sovereign \xe2\x80\x9e . \n\nAkenside, Mark, a popular poet . , \n\nAkenblad, philologist .... \n\nAlaric I., king of the Vieigoths . . , \n\nAlberoni, Julius, cardinal statesman \n\nAlbert Edward, Prince of Wales, heir to the British throne \n\nAlbert, Prince, husband of the Queen of England . \n\nAlberti, an eminent writer, painter, sculptor, &c. \n\nAlbertus-Magnus, philosophic writer, tutor of Aquinas \n\nAlboiu, the Lombard conqueror . \n\nAlboni, Mar.etta, eminent contralto singer \n\nAlbuquerque (the great) military commander . \n\nAlcaeus, of Lesbos, a lyric poet . . . \n\nAlciati, of Milan, an eminent civilian and author . \n\nAlcibiades, a famous Athenian general and statesman . \n\nAlciphron, author of Letters, &c. \n\nAlcott, A. Bronson, philosopher and educationist . \n\n-\xe2\x96\xa0 , Wm. A., writer on education and philosopher \n\nAlcuinus, founder of schools at Paris, &c. . \n\nAlden, John, one of the first Plymouth Colony \nAldhelm, St., an eminent scholar and poet . , \n\nAldus, see Manulius .... \nAlembert, John Le Rond d\', math., hist., and philosopher \nAlexander, A. H., claiming to be Earl of Stirling \n\n, Archibald, theologian and author . \n\n, J. Addison, theologian and commentator \n\n\xe2\x80\x94 , James W., theologian . . . \n\n, Severu6, emperor \n\nthe Great, founder of the Macedonian Empire \n\n, Nevskoi, a saint and hero ; def. of the Tartars, \n\n, I., emperor (coalition against Napoleon) \n\n, II., (became emperor 1855) , , \n\n\n\nAlexius Commenus, emperor of the East . \n\nAlfieri, an eminent tragic poet . , . \n\nAlfred, justly called the Great, king , \n\nAlgarotti, a general, scholar, and critic . \xc2\xab \n\nJ i Bey, gov. of Egypt, revolted against the Turks \n\nAli Tepe\'hii, pasha of Jannina . . . \n\nAlison, Archibald, rev., \' Essays on Taste\' \n\n, Archibald, sir, \' History of Europe,\' \' Essays \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nAllen, Ethan, an intrepid officer in the Revolution . \n\n, Wm., author of Amer. Biog. Dictionary . \n\nAlleyn, Edward, actor and manager (temp. Shakspeare) \nAllston, Washington, painter and poet \nAlmamon, caliph, patron of learning \n\n\n\nBORN. \n\n\nDIED. \n\n\n747 \n\n\nla\'iS \n\n\n\n\n1846 \n\n\n1660 \n\n\n1743 \n\n\n1807 \n\n\n\n\n1805 \n\n\n\n\n1801 \n\n\n\n\n1655 \n\n\n1606 \n\n\n1721 \n\n\n1770 \n\n\n, \n\n\n1819 \n\n\n\n\n411 \n\n\n1664 \n\n\n175\' \n\n\nldil \n\n\n\n\n1819 \n\n\n1861 \n\n\n1398 \n\n\n1490 \n\n\n1205 \n\n\n1280 \n\n\n\n\n574 \n\n\n1826 \n\n\n\n\n1452 \n\n\n1515 \n\n\nf. B. o. 606 \n\n\n\n\n1492 \n\n\n1560 \n\n\nB. 0. 450 b. \n\n\n0. 404 \n\n\n. f. 170 \n\n\n\n\n1799 \n\n\n\n\n1798 \n\n\n\n\n732 \n\n\n804 \n\n\n1598 \n\n\n1687 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n709 \n\n\n1717 \n\n\n1783 \n\n\n. 1783 \n\n\n\n\n1772 \n\n\n1851 \n\n\n1809 \n\n\n1860 \n\n\n1804 \n\n\n1859 \n\n\n209 \n\n\n235 \n\n\nB. 0. 356 b \n\n\n0. 323 \n\n\n&0. . 1218 \n\n\n1262 \n\n\n1777 \n\n\n1826 \n\n\n1818 \n\n\n\n\n1048 \n\n\n1118 \n\n\n1749 \n\n\n1803 \n\n\n849 \n\n\n900 \n\n\n. . 1712 \n\n\n1769 \n\n\n. 1728 \n\n\n1773 \n\n\n1744 \n\n\n1822 \n\n\n1757 \n\n\n1839 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n1867 \n\n\n1737 \n\n\n1789 \n\n\n1784 \n\n\n\n\n1566 \n\n\n1624 \n\n\n. 1779 \n\n\n1843 \n\n\n\n74 \n\n\n\nTHE WORLD\'S PROGRES3. \n\n\n\nNATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nBai. Almansor, caliph, patron of learning , , \n\nEng. Almon, Jolin, political writer . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nMex. Almonte, J uanet, general and statesman . . \n\nSpan. Alphonso X., king of Castile, Leon, and author . . \n\nPort. Alphonso L, Henriques, founder of the Portuguese monai ehy \n\nAmer. Alsop, Richard, poet and linguist . . . \n\nEng. Althcrp, Viscount, statesman and book collector . \n\n8pan. Alva, duke of, celebrated and barbarous military commander \n\nMex. Alvarez, Juan, leader of Mexican Revolution . . \n\nGer. Amalie, duchess of Saxony, dramatic poet . . \n\nJew. Amaziah, king of Judah ...\xc2\xbb \n\nI+al. Ambrose, St., bishop of Milan, author \xe2\x80\xa2 . \n\nItal. Americus Vespucius (of Florence), explored the S. American \n\ncoast ...... \n\nAmer. Ames, Fisher, a statesman and orator . . \n\nAmer. , Nathan P., maohinist and bronze founder . \n\nEng. Amherst, Jeffrey, lord, mil. com. in America, &c. \xc2\xab \n\nRom. Ammianus, Marcellinus, historian . . . \n\nGer. Aramon, Christ. P. von, Protestant theologian . \n\nGr. Ammonius, a peripatetic philosopher . . \n\nEng. Amory, Thomas, humorous writer, \' Jno. Bunole\' \n\nFr. Ampere, Jean J., traveller and essayist . . \n\nFr. , Jean Marie, mathematician and nat. philosopher \n\nFr. Amyot, James, bishop of Auxerre, translator of Plutarch \n\nBar. ^.nacharsis, a Scythian philosopher and disciple of Solon \n\nGr. Anacreon, a celebrated poet . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nGr. Anastasius I., emperor of the East \n\nGr. Anaxagoras, a philosopher .... \n\nGr. Anaxarchus, a philosopher, companion of Alexander the Great b. c \n\nGr. Anaximander, of Miletus, an Ionic philosopher . \n\nGr. Anaximenes, of Miletus, an Ionic philosopher \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nFr. Ancelot, J. A. P. F., poet and novelist . . \n\nPruss. Ancillon, J. P. F., historian and statesman . . \n\nDan. Andersen, Hans Christian, poet and novelist . \n\nScot. h. Anderson, Adam, commercial writer . . \n\nEng. , Sir Edmund, a judge and author . \n\nSwe. Andersson, Chas. John, explorer in Africa . \xc2\xbb \n\nFr. Andral, G. A., writer on anatomy and medicine . \n\nEng. Andre, John, British officer in American war . . \n\nEng. Andrews, Lancelot, bishop of "Winchester . \n\nGr. Andronicus, of Rhodes, a peripatetic philosopher, . \n\nA^ier. Angell, Jos. K., author of legal works \n\nEsg. Anglesey, Henry W., marquis of, general at Waterloo . \n\nFr. Angouleme, duchess d\', daughter of Louis XVT. \n\nItal. Anielo, Thomas (commonly called Masanielo), a fisherman of \n\nNaples, who rose to great power . \n\nGr. Anna Commena, daughter of the Emperor Alexis L, historian \n\nAtist. Anne of Austria, wife of Louis XIII. of France . \n\n.Tng Anne Boleyn, second wife of Henry VIII. . . \n\niCng Annet, Peter, a deistical writer . . . \n\nCar Annibal, or Hannibal, a celebrated Carthaginian general . \n\nFr. Anquetil du Perron, a classical scholar and author \n\n\n\nBOBN. \n\n\nDISS \n\n\n712 \n\n\n77J \n\n\n1728 \n\n\n1805 \n\n\n**t, 180) \n\n\n\n\n1203 \n\n\n1284 \n\n\n1094 \n\n\n1185 \n\n\n1761 \n\n\n1815 \n\n\n1758 \n\n\n1834 \n\n\n1508 \n\n\n1582 \n\n\n1790 \n\n\n\n\n1794 \n\n\n\n\nB. \n\n\nO. 8b9 \n\n\n340 \n\n\n387 \n\n\nn \n\n1451 \n\n\n1517 \n\n\n1750 \n\n\n1808 \n\n\n1803 \n\n\n1847 \n\n\n1717 \n\n\n1797 \n\n\n\n\n30 \n\n\n1766 \n\n\n185 \n\n\n. B. \n\n\nC. 24 \n\n\n1719 \n\n\n1789 \n\n\n, 1800 \n\n\n18<y \n\n\n1775 \n\n\nIR 5 S \n\n\n1513 \n\n\n1593 \n\n\nB. O. 692 \n\n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 B \n\n\n0. 474 \n\n\n\n\n518 \n\n\nB. 0. 500 B. \n\n\no. 428 \n\n\nB. c. 840 \n\n\n\n\nB. O. 611 B \n\n\no. 547 \n\n\n. B. \n\n\no. 504 \n\n\n1794 \n\n\n\n\n1767 \n\n\n1837 \n\n\n1895 \n\n\n\n\n1692 \n\n\n1765 \n\n\n\n\n1605 \n\n\n\n\n1856 \n\n\n1797 \n\n\n\n\n1751 \n\n\n1780 \n\n\n1555 \n\n\n1626 \n\n\nr . B, O. 63 \n\n\n\n\n1794 \n\n\n1857 \n\n\n1768 \n\n\n1854 \n\n\n1778 \n\n\n1801 \n\n\n1623 \n\n\n1646 \n\n\n1083 \n\n\n1148 \n\n\n1604 \n\n\n1666 \n\n\n1500 \n\n\n153fl \n\n\n1703 \n\n\n1778 \n\n\nB. O 247 a. \n\n\no. 183 \n\n\n17&: \n\n\nisu: \n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. \n\n\n\n75 \n\n\n\nJAT10N. NAME AND PBOFESSION \n\nEng. Anselrn, archbishop cf Canterbury, a learned divine \n\nEng. Alison, George, lord, celebrated naval commander \n\nBng. Anspach, Eliz., margravine of, author of memoirs . \n\nIrish. Ai.ster, Jno., translator of \' Faust \' \n\nAmer. Anthon, Charles, classical scholar and author \n\nEgypt, Anthony, St., the founder of monastic institutions \n\n\n\nItal. \nMace. \n\n\n\nGr. \n\nrial \n\nRom. \n\nRom. \n\nRom. \n\nPers. \n\nFr. \n\nRom. \n\n\n\n, of Padua, a divine . . . \n\nAntigonus, one of the generals of Alexander the Great \nAntipater, one of the generals of Alexander the Great . \nAntisthenes, a philos., founder of the sect of Cynics \nAoitonelli, Giacomo, cardinal, premier of Pius IX. \nAntoninus Pius, emperor \n: \xe2\x80\x94 , Marcus Aurelius, emperor, surnau-.ec the philosopher \n\n\n\nAntony, Mark, military commander and statesman \nAnveri, a celebrated poet . . . \n\nAnville, Jean B. d\', geographer \nApicius, the name of three Roman epicures \nEgypt. Apion, a grammarian and bitter enemy of the Jews \n\n\n\nGr. \nGr. \n\nGr. \nGr. \nGr. \n\n\n\nApollodorus, the name of several writers and statesmen \nApollonius, surnanied Rhodius, a poet . \n\n, Pergamensis, a geometrician . . \n\n, Tyaneus, a Pythagorean philosopher \n\n\n\nAppian, an historian ..... f. 143 \n\nAmer. Appleton, Jesse, president of Bowdoin College and theologian . 1772 \n\nRom. Apulcius, a Platonic philosopher and writer . . a. d. \n\nItal. Aquinas, St. Thomas, a celebrated theologian . . 1224 \n\nFr. Arago, Dom. Fr. Jean, astronomer and statesman . . 1786 \n\nEng. Aram, Eugene, a learned schoolmaster, executed for murder . 1705 \n\nGr. Aratus, of Sicyon, mil. com. and statesman . . b. o. 273 \n\nScotch. Arbuthnot, John, Dr., a poet . .... \n\nGr. Archelaus, Ionic philosopher . . . . f. b. o. 450 \n\nGr. Archius, a poet . . . . . f. b. c. 719 \n\nGr. Archilochus, a poet . . . , . f. b. o. 685 \n\nGr. Archidemes, a celebrated mathematician . . b. c. 287 \n\nGr. Archytas, a mathematician . . . . b. c. 408 \n\nIti. Aretino, Guid:, inventor of the gamut of music . . 995 \n\nItal. , Leonard, an historian .... 1369 \n\nItal. , Peter, a satirist ..... 1492 \n\nEng. Argall, Samuel, early colonist and deputy -governor of Virginia 1572 \n\nPruss. Argelander, F. W. A., astronomer . . . 1779 \n\nSpan. Argensola, Lupercio, historian and poet , . . 1565 \n\nSpan. , Bartholomew, historian ... 1566 \n\nScotch. Argyle, duke of, chief of clan Campbell, statesman . . 1678 \n\nItal. Ariosto, Lewis, a celebrated poet . . . 1474 \n\nMex. Arista, Mariano, general under Santa Anna . . . 1802 \n\nGr. Aristarchus, of Samos, mathematician and philosopher . f. b. 0. 280 \n\nGr. 1 grammarian and critic . . . B. 0. 160 \n\nGr. Aristides, an Athenian statesman . . . \n\nGr. , -<EliuB, an orator and sophist . . . 129 \n\nGr. , one of the fathers of the church f . 127 \n\nGr. Aristippus, of Oyrene, philosopher, founder of the Cyreniace f. & 0. 392 \n\nGr. Arifctomenes, a warrior and patriot . . f. b. 0. 662 \n\n\n\nBORN. \n\n1083 \n1697 \n1750 \n1793 \n\n1797 \n251 \nUS5 \n\n\n\n1. 423 \n\n1806 \n\n86 \n\n121 \n\n\n\nB. c. \n\n\n\ndibb. \n\n1109 \n1762 \n1828 \n\n1867 \n359 \n\n1231 \nB. a. 301 \nb. 0. 319 \n\n\n\n161 \n\n180 \n\nB. 0. 30 \n\n1201 \n\n1782 \n1st cent. \n\n\n\n16S7 \n\nA. D. \n\n\xc2\xa3 80 \nB. 0. oth to 2d cent. \n\nB. c. 194 \nf. b. 0. 242 \n\n\n\n97 \n\n1819 \n2d cent \n1274 \n1853 \n1759 \nB. c. 211 \n1735 \n\n\n\nB. 0. 212 \n\nb. 0. H60 \n\n\n\n1414 \n1556 \n\n\n\n1613 \n1631 \n1743 \n1533 \n1855 \n\n\n\n0. 467 \n\n185 \n\n\n\ny6 \n\n\n\nTHE WORLD\'S PROGRESS. \n\n\n\nNATIOB \n\nGr. \n\nGr. \n&r. \n\nSpan. \n\nEng. \n\nFr. \n\nGer. \n\nDutch. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nItal. \n\nSt. \n\nEng. \n\nGr. \n\nPruss. \n\nAmei. \n\nItal. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nScot. \n\nGr. \n\nEng. \n\nBar. \n\nBar. \n\nBar. \n\nFlem \n\nEng. \n\nA.mer \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nBar. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nGr. \n\nEng. \n\nGer. \n\nGer. \n\nAmer, \n\nGr. \n\nGr. \n\nGr. \n\nGr. \n\nBar. \n\nar. \n\n2ng. \nJlom. \nF.. \n\n\n\nNAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nAristophanes, an Athenian comic poet . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nAristotle, philosopher, founder of tbe Peripatetics . \n\nArius, of Alexandria, the founder of the Arian sect . \n\n_ Montanus, Benedict, orientalist . . \n\nArkwright, Sir Richard, inventor of spinning jennies . \n\nArlinoourt, Victor, vicomte d\', novelist \n\nArminius, the deliverer of Germany . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n, James, a celebrated divine, founder of a sect \n\nArmstmg, John, M D., poet . . . \n\n, John, general, statesman, and historian . \n\nArnaud, Daniel, troubadour .... \n\n, Francis Baculard, dramatist and poet . . \n\nArne, Thomas Augustus, musical composer \n\nArnobius, a defender of Christianity \n\nArnim, L. A., poet and novelist \n\nArnold, Benedict, major-general, the traitor to his country . \n\n, of Brescia, a learned monk, disciple of Abelaid \n\n, Matthew, poet, professor of poetry, Oxon. \n\n, Thomas, D. D., theologian, historian, and philologist \n\n, Thomas K., author of classical text-books . \n\nArnott, J. T iel, popular scientific writer . . . \n\nArrian, historian, disciple of Epictetus . . . \n\nArrowsmith, Aaron, constructor of maps and charts , \nArsaces I., the founder of the Parthian monarchy . . \n\nArtaxerxes I., king of Persia . . . \n\n, founder of the new Persian kingdom . . \n\nArtevelie, Philip van, revolutionary popular leader . \nArthur, a prince celebrated in fable . . . \n\nArthur. Timothy S., author of tales and essays \nArundel, Thos. H\xe2\x80\x9e earl of, importer of the Arundelian marbles \nAsbury, Francis, first Methodist bishop in the United States \nAscbain, Jtoger, a learned writer .... \nAsdrubal, a Carthaginian general . . . \n\nAshburton, Alex. Baring, lord, statesman . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nAsh/nun, John K., jurist, professor of law . . \n\nAskew, Anne, protestant, burned at Smithfield . . \n\nAspasia, tbe accomplished wife (?) of Pericles . . \n\nAsse:-, John, historian ..... \nAst, George A. F., philologist, \' Lexicon Platonicum\' . \nAstor, John Jacob, wealthy merchant at New York . \n\nA\' chison, David I., senator, United States, from Missouri \nAthanasius, St., ote of the fathers of the church \nAthenagoras, philosopher .... \nAthenais, Empress o* the West and authoress, called also Eu \n\ndoxia ..... \n\nAthenaeus, a celebrates grammarian, the Greek Varro . \nAttalus, founder of thi monarchy of Pergamus, inventor of \n\nparchment ..... \n\n\n\nBOBN. \n\n\n9IBB \n\n\nB. o. 889 \n\n\n\n\nB. o. 384 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n431 \n\n\n1527 \n\n\n^598 \n\n\n1732 \n\n\n1792 \n\n\n1789 \n\n\n1858 \n\n\n\n\n20 \n\n\n1560 \n\n\n1610 \n\n\n1709 \n\n\n1779 \n\n\n1758 \n\n\n1843 \n\n\n\n\n1220 \n\n\n1718 \n\n\n1805 \n\n\n1710 \n\n\n1778 \n\n\nf. 303 \n\n\n\n\n1781 \n\n\n1831 \n\n\n1740 \n\n\n1801 \n\n\n\n\n1555 \n\n\n1822 \n\n\n\n\n1795 \n\n\n1842 \n\n\n1800 \n\n\n1853 \n\n\n1788 \n\n\n\n\nf. 140 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1823 \n\n\n. B. c. 250 \n\n\n\n\n. B. \n\n\n0. 425 \n\n\n\n\n1832 \n\n\n472 \n\n\n542 \n\n\n1809 \n\n\n\n\n1 \n\n\n1646 \n\n\n1745 \n\n\n1816 \n\n\n1515 \n\n\n1568 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 B. \n\n\nc. 220 \n\n\n1774 \n\n\n1848 \n\n\n1800 \n\n\n1833 \n\n\n\n\n154" \n\n\n\n\n909 \n\n\n. 1778 \n\n\n1"41 \n\n\n1763 \n\n\n1848 \n\n\n1807 \n\n\n\n\n296 \n\n\n371 \n\n\n. f. 177 \n\n\n\n\n\nRhodius, mathematician \n\n\n\nAtterbury, Francis, bishop of Rochester, exiled for conspiracy \nAtticus, a knight and author (works lost) \nAuber, D. F. B., famous musical composer \n\n\n\nf. 190 \n\n\n\n. o. 173 \n\n1662 \n\nO. 109 \n\n1784 \n\n\n\nB. C. lU* \n\n\n\n1731 \n\nb. o. as \n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL, INDEX. \n\n\n\n77 \n\n\n\nHAriOX NAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nSwiss. Aobigne J. H. Merle d\', historian of Reformation . \nEng. Auckland, William, lord, statesman . , \n\nFr. Audoin, J. F. zoologist . . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nFr. Augereau, Castiglione, duke of, mil. com \nG. Jew. Auerbach, Berthold, novelist . . , \n\nAugustine, St., a celebrated father of the church. \n\n, the Apostle of the English \xe2\x80\x94 1st archbishop of Oante \n\nRom. Augustulus Romulus, the last emperor of the West \nRom. Augustus, Caius Julius Caesar Octavius\xe2\x80\x94 1st emperor \n\nAurungztbe, last Mogul emperor in India . , \n\nRom. Ausonius, Decimus Magnus, poet . . . \n\nEng.. Austen, Jane, novelist, . . . \n\nEng. , Sarah, essayist and trans ntor . \n\nAmer. Austin, Stephen F., founder of first American colony in Texas . \n\nFr. Auvergne, Theophilus\xe2\x80\x94 republican\xe2\x80\x94 military commander \n\nAra. Averroes, philosopher, physician, and author . \n\nItal. Avezzana, Joseph, patriot soldier, refugee in New York \n\nAra. Avicenna, philosopher, physic an ai:d author . \n\nEng. Ayscough, Samuel, compiler of Index to Shakespeare, &o. \n\nScot. Aytoun, Wm. E., professor, poet, and essayist \n\nFr. Azais, Pierre H. philosophic writer \n\nItal. Azeglio, Massimo T. marquis d\', statesman and author \n\n\n\nl \xc2\xbbRN. \n\n\nL>lBi \n\n\n1794 \n\n\n\n\n. \n\n\nLeH \n\n\n1797 \n\n\nl i] \n\n\n.757 \n\n\ni8ie \n\n\nrU2 \n\n\n\n\n3-J4 \n\n\n430 \n\n\nte.\' iry \n\n\n604 \n\n\n\n\n476 \n\n\nJ. o. 63 \n\n\n14 \n\n\n1318 \n\n\n1707 \n\n\n\n\n394 \n\n\n1775 \n\n\nI8i: \n\n\n(abt) 1800 \n\n\n\n\nB . \n\n\n1836 \n\n\n17*3 \n\n\n1800 \n\n\n. \n\n\n1197 \n\n\n1797 \n\n\n\n\n980 \n\n\n1037 \n\n\n\n\n1804 \n\n\n1813 \n\n\n1865 \n\n\n1736 \n\n\n1845 \n\n\n17C\xc2\xb0 \n\n\n1866 \n\n\n\nEng. Babbage, Charles, mathematician and machinist \n\nFr. Babeuf, Franc. N. agrarian and socialist author \n\nPort. Baccellar, a civilian, historian, and lyric poet . \n\nOr. Bacchylides, lyric poet . . . . \xc2\xa33 \n\nAmer. Bache, Alex. D. scientific engineer and writer \n\nAmer. Bachman, John, naturalist and theologian \n\nEng. Back, Geo. Capt. R. N., Polar navigator and author \n\n^.mer. Backus, Isaac, a divine and historian \n\nAmer. Bacon, Delia, writer on Shakespeare . . \n\nAmer. Bacon, Leonard, theological writer and preacher \n\nEng. , Roger, a monk celebrated for his scientific knowledge \n\nEng. , Francis, Lord Verulam, the celebrated philosopher and t\' \n\nman ...... \n\nDan. Baden, .Tames, one of the founders of Danish literature \n\nEng. Baffin, Wm., navigator, discoverer of Baffin\'s Bay \n\nGer. Bahr, John C. F., classical philologist \n\nAmer. Bailey, Jacob W., professor of chemistry, botany, &c. . \n\nEng. , Nathan, a grammarian and lexicographer . \n\nEng. , Philip James, poet, author of Festus . \n\nEr.g. , Samuel, metaphysician and political essayist ,. . \n\nFr. Baillet, a learned theologian, historian, and miscellaneous writer \n\nEng. Baillie, Joanna, poet and novelist \n\n80 t , Matthew, physician and anatomist . \n\nFt. Bailly, John Silvain, a learned author, and a leader in the revo- \nlution ..... \n\nEn*. Baily, Francis, astronomer and mathematician \n\nAmer. Bainbridge William naval commander (Princeton) \n\n\n\n17 *) \n\n1731 \n\n1724 \n\n450 \n\n1806 \n17S0 \n1796 \n1724 \n\n1802 \n1214 \n\n1561 \n1735 \n1584 \n179? \nl\xc2\xa3U \n\n\n\n178\'/ \n1649 \n1762 \n1761 \n\n1736 \n1774 \n1774 \n\n\n\n1797 \n\n1806 \n\n\n\n1867 \n\n\n\n1292 \n\n1626 \n1804 \n1622 \n\n1857 \n1742 \n\n\n\nx70\xc2\xab \n1351 \niS23 \n\n1793 \n1344 \ni33l \n\n\n\n78 \n\n\n\nTHE WORLD\'S PBOORKSS \n\n\n\nFA1IOH. NAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nAmer. Baird, Robert, D. D., author of travels . . \n\nB^ot. , Sir David, military commander \n\nTark, Baja".et, sultan\xe2\x80\x94 conquered by Tamerlane . \n\nAmsr. Bakt r, Edward D., U S. senator and general . (Ball\'s Bl \n\nIial. Balbi, Adrian, geographer and ethnographer \n\nSpan. Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, early navigator to South America \n\nFr. Baldwin, who became emperor of the East . . \n\nIrish. Balfe, "./m. Michael, musical composer . . \n\nScot. Baliol, intriguing rival of Robert Bruce . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nScot. Ballantyne, Jas., printer, publisher for Sir Walter Scott \n\nAmer. Ballou, Hosea, universalist minister and author . . \n\nEng. Baltimore, Geo. Calvert, 1st lord, founder of Maryland \n\nFr. Baluc, Jean de la, cardinal, premier of Louis XI. . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nFr. Balzac, Honore de, novelist \n\nAmer. Bancroft, George, historian of the U. S., secretary of navy, &o. \n\nSwe. Banier or Banner, a celebrated military commander . \n\nIrish. Banim, John, novelist .... \n\nAmer. Bangs, Nathan, D. D., minister of Methodist church and author \n\nAmer. Banks, Nath. P., speaker of House of Rep., U. S., gov. of Mass. \n\nEng Banks, Sir Joseph, navigator, president Royal Society . \n\nFr. Baraguay d\' Hilliers, Achille, marshal of France \n\nFr. Baraute, A. G. P. B., baron, historian . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nPruss. Baratier, a Hebrew lexicographer before ten years of age \n\nEng. Barbauld, Anna Letitia, a popular miscellaneous writer . \n\nTurk. Barbarossa, the celebrated corsair, usurper of Algiers \n\nAmer. Barber, Francis, officer in revolutionary army . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nFr. Barbeyrac, John, miscellaneous writer . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nAmer. Barbour, James, statesman and diplomatist . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nAmer. Barbour, P. P., statesman and judge of Supreme Court . \n\nEng. Barclay, Robert, the celebrated vindicator of the Quakers . \n\nItal. Baretti, Joseph, lexicographer\xe2\x80\x94 author of Travels, &c. \n\nEng. Baiham, Richard Henry, humorist \xe2\x80\x94 \' Ingoldsby Legends\' \n\nAmer. Barker, Joseph, noted financier ... \n\nAmer. Barlow, Joel, a statesman and poet . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nAmer. Barnard, Henry, distinguished educator . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n^mer. Barnes, Albert, theologian and commentator ,. \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nKng. , Joshua, an eminent Greek scholar \n\nAmer. , Daniel H. a distinguished conchologiut . . \n\nDutch. Barneveldt, John, statesman, (beheaded) \n\nAmer. Barney, Joshua, a distinguished naval commander . \n\nFr. Barras, Paul, count de, mem. of the direct, in the Revolution \n\nEng. Barre, Isaac, colonel, M. P., friend of America . . \n\nIrish. Barrington, Sir Jonah, lawyer and author \n\nAmer. Barron, James, commodore (in the affair of the Chesapeake) \n\nEng. , Isaac, a divine and mathematician . . \n\nEng. , Sir John, traveller, author, secretary to Admiralty . \n\nIvish. Barry, John, the first American commodore \n\nEng. , Sir Charles, architect of houses of parliament \n\nAmer. , W. T., statesman and diplomatist, . . \n\nGer. Barth, flenry, traveller in Africa . . , \n\nFr Barthelemy, John James, author of \' Anacharsie,\' &o. . \n\nAmer Bartlett, John R., author o 1 explorations, Ac . , \n\n\n\nBOBS. \n\n\nB1KJ1. \n\n\n1798 \n\n\n1864 \n\n\n1757 \n\n\n1829 \n\n\n\n\n1413 \n\n\naS) 1811 \n\n\n1861 \n\n\n1782 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1517 \n\n\n\n\n1205 \n\n\n1808 \n\n\n\n\n1259 \n\n\n1314 \n\n\n\n\n1833 \n\n\n1771 \n\n\n1852 \n\n\n1582 \n\n\n1632 \n\n\n1799 \n\n\n1850 \n\n\n1800 \n\n\n\n\n1596 \n\n\n1641 \n\n\n1800 \n\n\n1842 \n\n\nr 1778 \n\n\n1862 \n\n\n5. 1816 \n\n\n\n\n1743 \n\n\n1820 \n\n\n1795 \n\n\n\n\n1782 \n\n\n\n\n1721 \n\n\n1740 \n\n\n1743 \n\n\n1825 \n\n\n\n\n1518 \n\n\n1751 \n\n\n1783 \n\n\n1674 \n\n\n1728 \n\n\nVa. 1775 \n\n\n1842 \n\n\nVa. 1783 \n\n\n1841 \n\n\n1648 \n\n\n1690 \n\n\n1716 \n\n\n1789 \n\n\n1788 \n\n\n1845 \n\n\n1779 \n\n\n\n\n1756 \n\n\n1812 \n\n\n1811 \n\n\n\n\n1798 \n\n\n\n\n1654 \n\n\n1712 \n\n\n\n\n1818 \n\n\n1547 \n\n\n1619 \n\n\n1759 \n\n\n1818 \n\n\n1755 \n\n\n1829 \n\n\n1726 \n\n\n1802 \n\n\n1767 \n\n\n1834 \n\n\n1768 \n\n\n1851 \n\n\n1630 \n\n\n1667 \n\n\n1764 \n\n\n1848 \n\n\n1746 \n\n\n1803 \n\n\n1795 \n\n\n1860 \n\n\nVa, 1785 \n\n\n1838 \n\n\n1821 \n\n\n\n\n1716 \n\n\n1791 \n\n\n1805 \n\n\n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. \n\n\n\n79 \n\n\n\nRATION, NAME AMD PROFESSION. \n\nAmer. Barilett, Josiah, statesman, gov. N. n., &c. . . \n\nEng. , Wm. H., artist and author \n\nAmer. Barton, Benj. Smith, M. D., a learned physician and botanist \n\nEng. , Bernard, the Quaker poet \n\nAmer. Bartram, John, an eminent botanist . . . \n\nGr. Basil, St., a celebrated father of the Greek church . \n\nEng. Baskerville. John, eminent printer and publisher . \n\nFr. Basnage, de Beauval, James, historian \n\nFr. Bassano, H. B. M., duke of, political writer and statesman \n\nFr. Bastiat, Frederick, political economist \n\nAmer. Bates, Edward, statesman and jurist . . . \n\nAmer. Bates, Joshua, banker, (Baring Bros.) in England, \n\nEng. Bath, "William Pulteney, earl of, statesman . . \n\nEng. Bathurst, earl of, statesman, friend of Pope, &c. \n\nFr. Batteux, Charles, rhetorician and miscellaneous writer \n\nHung. Batthyani, Kasimir, count, statesman \n\nHung. , Lajos, statesman, (shot by Haynau) . \n\nGer. Bauer, Bruno, an audacious opposer of Christianity \n\nGer. Baur, Ferd. Christ., professor of theology and author . \n\nEng. Baxter, Richard, an eminent divine and author \n\nFr. Bayard, Peter, military commander . . . \n\nAmer. , James A., a distinguished statesman and lawyer \n\nGer. Bayer, John, astronomer .... \n\nGer. , Theophilus, chronologist and historian \n\nFr Bayle, Peter, an eminent philosopher and critic, (\' Bayle\'e D \n\ntionary\') ..... \n\nEng. Bayly, Thos. Haines, poet . \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nEng. Beattie, James, L.L.D., poet . \xe2\x80\x9e . \n\nFi. Beauharnais, Hortense, ex-queen of Holland . \n\nFr. , Eugene, son of the Empress Josephine, mil com. \n\nviceroy of Italy, &c. .... \n\nFr. Beaumarchais, P. A. C. de, an eminent dramatist . \n\nFr. Beaumont, Elie de, mineralogist and geologist . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nEng. \xe2\x80\x94 , Francis, dramatic writer . . \n\nFr. Beauzee, Nicholas, an eminent grammarian . . \n\nItal. Beccaria, John Baptist, an ecclesiastic and philosopher \n\nItal. , Marquis, professor of political economy and author \n\nAmer. Beck, Lewis 0., chemist and mineralogist \n\nAmer. , Theo. Romeyn, author of medical jurisprudence . \n\nEng. Becket, Thomas a, celebrated prelate and statesman \n\nEng. Beckford, Wm., traveller and novelist (\' Vathek\') * \n\nGer. Beckmann, Johann, \' History of Inventions,\' &o. . \n\nFr. Becquerel, An toine Cassar, natural philosopher \n\nBrit. Bede, styled the Venerable, a learned Saxon monk and historian \n\nAmer. Bedell, Gregory T., D. D., eloquent pulpit orator . \n\nEng. Bedford, John, duke of, military commander \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nAmer. Beecher, Edward, theologian, (son of Lyman) . . \n\nAmer. , Henry "Ward, theologian and politician . \n\nAmer. , Lyman, theologian and preacher . . \n\nEng. Beechey, Frederick "W., admiral, Arctio voyager . \n\nPrnM Beer, Michael, dramatic poet, (brother of Meyerbeer) \n\nOer. Beethoven, Ludwig von, celebrated musical composer \n\n\n\nBORN. \n\n1729 \n1809 \n1766 \n17*4 \nIV 1 \nS26 \n1706 \n1653 \n1758 \nlfl \n1790 \n17*8 \n1682 \n1684 \n1713 \n1S07 \n18<P \n18UV \n1792 \n1615 \n1476 \n1767 \n\n1694 \n\n1647 \n1797 \n1735 \n\n\n\nil \n1733 \n17 \xc2\xbb8 \n1-55 \n1,-4 \n1716 \n1735 \n1800 \n1791 \n1119 \n1760 \n1739 \n1788 \n672 \n1798 \n\n\n\n1766 \n1800 \n\n1770 \n\n\n\nDIED. \n\n179i \n1854 \n\n1813 \n\n1849 \n1777 \n379 \n177J \n172* \n183S \n185f \n\n1864 \n1764 \n1775 \n1780 \n1854 \n1849 \n\n\n\n1691 \n1524 \n1815 \n1627 \n1738 \n\n1706 \n1839 \n1803 \n1837 \n\n1824 \n1799 \n\n1616 \n1789 \n1781 \n1793 \n1853 \n1855 \n1170 \n1844 \n1811 \n\n735 \n1834 \n143$ \n\n\n\n1868 \n1856 \n\n1838 \n\n1821 \n\n\n\n8o \n\n\n\nTHE WORLD\'S PROGRESS. \n\n\n\nNATIOH. NAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nGer. Behaim, or Beliem, navigator and geographer . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nErg. Behn, Aphra, dramatic writer . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nRuss. Behring, Vitus, Arctic navigator . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nGer. Bekker, Emmanuel, philologist . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nEng. Belcher, Sir Edward, admiral, Arctic navigator . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nRem. Belisarius, a celebrated general and conqueror \nItal. Belgiojoso, Christina, princess of, accomplished & philanthropio \nAmer. Belknap, Jeremy, D. D., historian of New Hampshire . \nScot. Bell, Henry, first successful steam navigator in Europe \nAmer. \xe2\x80\x94 , John, statesman .... \n\nfeco,. , John, surgeon, anatomist, and physiologist \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nfcJcot. , Sir Charles, anatomist and physiologist . . \n\nArcer. Bellamy, Joseph, D. D., a learned divine and author . \n\nIta.. Bellarmin, cardinal, the champion of the Roman Catholic church \nFr. Bellau, Remi, poet ..... \nFr. Beileisle, count de, military commander . . . \n\nEDg. Bel ling-ham, Richard, royal governor of Massachusetts . \nItal. Be\'lini. Vincenzo, musical composer . . * \n\nAmer. Bellows, Henry W., Unitarian clergyman and author . \nEng. Beloe, Wm., a divine and critic, translator of Herodotus, &c, \n\nBel&ii, "William, naturalist and traveller . \n\nBelst im, "William, historical, political and miscellaneous writer \n\nBelzoni, the celebrated traveller in Egypt \n\nBern, Josef, general in Hungarian war against Austria . \n\nBeml o, cardinal, one of the restorers of literature , \n\nBemb ?, John, a gallant admiral .... \n\nBenectct, St., one of the originators of monasteries . \n\n, XIII., pope, theological writer . . . \n\n, XIV., " \xe2\x80\xa2\' " \n\n\n\nFr. \nEng. \n\nItal. \n\nPol. \n\nItal. \n\nEng. \n\nItal. \n\nItal. \n\nItal. \n\nFr. \n\nGer. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nSp. Jew \n\nBar. \n\n\n\nBenezet, Antony, philanthropist and historian, (diedin America) \n\nBengsl, Johann A., Lutheran theologian and philologist \n\nBengar, Elizabeth Ogilvy, author of historical memoirs \n\nBenjp.min, Park, poet, lecturer and journalist . . \n\n, of Tudela, rabbi, traveller in the East . < \n\nBtntadad, king of Syria .... \nScot ;h. Bennett, James Gordon, journalist ... \n\nFr. Benserade, Isaac, a wit and poet . . . \n\nEng. Bentham, Jeremy, a political and philosophical writer , \n\nBentley, Richard, an eminent critic and scholar . \n\nBenton, Thomas Hart, statesman and historian . . \n\nBeranger, Pierre Jean de, lyrical poet . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nBerenger, A. M. M. F., statesman and jurist . . \n\nEgypt. Berenice, the name of seven different queens of Egypt and Syria \nGor. Berghaus, Henry, mathematician and geographer . \n\nBergman, professor of chemistry at UpBal \n\nBeriot, Charles A. de, violinist and composer . . \n\nBerkley, George, bishop, an eminent prelate and philosopher \n\n, William, governor of Virginia \n\nBerlioz, Hector, musical composer . . . \n\nBernadotte, J. B. J., elected king of Sweden, as Charles XIV. \n\nBernard, Edward, divine, astronomer and author . . \n\n, Francis, governor of Massachusetts . . \n\n\n\nEng. \nAmer. \n\nFr. \nFr. \n\n\n\nSwe \n\n3eL \n\nIvfc\'&. \n\nA mar \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nEng. \n\na.mer \n\n\n\nbosh \n\n1459 \n1640 \n1680 \n1T85 \n1799 \n\n1808 \n1744 \n1767 \n1797 \n1763 \n1781 \n1719 \n1542 \n1528 \n1684 \n1634 \n1808 \n1814 \n1756 \n1518 \n1752 \n1778 \n1795 \n1470 \n1650 \n480 \n1649 \n1675 \n1713 \n1687 \n1778 \n1809 \n\n\n\nDIMS \n\n160\xc2\xab \n168? \n1741 \n\n\n\n565 \n\n1798 \n1830 \n\n1825 \n1842 \n1790 \n1626 \n1577 \n17\'1 \n1"72 \n1 35 \n\n1817 \n1564 \n1827 \n1823 \nl>5 r \n1542 \n1702 \n547 \n1728 \n1758 \n17\xc2\xab4 \n1752 \n1827 \n18u4 \n1173 \n\n\n\nB. 0. \n\n\n\n1691 \n1832 \n1742 \n1858 \n1S57 \n\n\n\n1800 \n1612 \n1742 \n1662 \n1782 \n178i \n1.85 \nB. o. 1st to 3d cent \n1797 \n\n1735 1714 \n1802 \n\n1684 1753 \n1667 \n.\xe2\x80\xa203 \n\n84 1844 \n\n1638 1697 \n\n1771 \n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. \n\n\n\n81 \n\n\n\ntjLtion. \n\nDutch. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nAmer. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nAmer. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nEng. \n\nSwe. \n\nGer. \n\nFr. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nItaL \n\nEn\'. \n\nEng. \n\nFt. \n\nItaL \n\nGr. \n\nFr. \n\nIrish. \n\nEn & . \n\n\n\nNAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nBernard, John Frederick, bookseller, editor and author \n\xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 , St., preacher of Crusades and author . \n\n\n\n1J91 \n1779 \n1781 \n\n\n\n, Simon, engineer and military commander . \n\nBerrien, John McPherson, U. S. Senator from Georgia \nBerruyer, a Jesuit, author of a \' History of the People of God,\' \n\nin 11 vols. 4to . . . . . 1681 \n\nBerry, Charles F., duke of, 2d son of Charles XL, (assassinated) 1778 \n\n, Duchess of (wife of the above), intriguing politician 1798 \n\n, Hiram George, general, war against secession (from Maine) 1814 \n\n\n\nBerryer, Pierre A., statesman .... \nBerthier, Alexander, a distinguished military commander \nBertholett, Claude Louis, an eminent chemist . . \n\nBertrand, Henri G., general in Napoleon\'s army \nBerwick, duke of, military commander (killed at Phillipsburg) \nBerzelius, John James, chemist .... \nBessel, Frederick William, astronomer \nBessieres, duke of Istria, military commander, (killed at Lutzen) \nBethune, George W., D. D., theologian and poet \nBetterton, Thomas, famous actor .... \nBettinelli, Xavier, an elegant miscellaneous writer . \n\nBetty, William Henry W., actor, the \'Young Roscius\' . \nBewick, Thomas, naturalist and wood engraver . \n\nBeza, Theodore, an eminent reformer . , . \n\nBezout, mathematician .... \n\nBiauchini, Francis, mathematician and author . . \n\nBias, one of the seven sages .... \nBichat, an eminent anatomist and physiologist . . \n\nBickerstarT, Isaac, dramatist .... \nBickersteth, Edward, theological writer . . . \n\n\n\nAmer. Biddle, James, a commodore in the United States Navy \n\n\n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nArr . \n\nFr. \n\n*ir. \n\nGr. \n\nFr. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\n\n\n-, John, an eminent Socinian writer . \n\n-, Nicholas, a captain in the United States Navy \n\n-, " , financier and litterateur . \n\n\n\nBiela, Willhim, baron von, astronomer . . \n\nBigelow, John, medical writer . . . \n\nBignon, Louis E., historian .... \nBion, pastoral poet .... \n\n, of Borysthenes, philosopher, (Cyreniao) \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nBiot, Jean B., mathematician . . . \n\nBirheck, George, M. D., founder of mechanics\' institutions \nBird, Robert M., M. D., novelist . . . \n\n\n\nAmer. Birr 3V, James G., anti-slavery politician . . \n\nFr. Biro: , ike of, military commander, (beheaded for conspiracy) \n\nEng. Bish -\\ , Sir Henry R., musical composer . . \n\nAmer. Bissell, "William H., governor of Illinois, volunteer in Mexico \n\nScot. Bisset, Robert, historian and biographer . . \n\nFr. Bissot, John, a revolutionist and author ... \n\n8^ an. Bivar, Don Rodrigo, known in history and romance under the \n\nname of tho Cid ..... \n\nBcot. Black, Adam, publisher M. P. provost of Edinburgh . \nIn.Am. Blac". Hawk, Indian Chief .... \n\nB"tjj. Blaokstone, Sir William, an eminent lawyer and author \n\n\n\n1790 \n1753 \n1748 \n1778 \n1670 \n1776 \n1784 \n176.? \n1805 \n17% \n1\'\'18 \n1791 \n1758 \n\n*ae \n\n173C \n\n1662 \n\n: 606 \n\n1771 \n\n1733 \n\n".786 \n\n1783 \n\n1815 \n\n1750 \n\n1786 \n\n782 \n\n"87 \n\n\n\n1774 \n1776 \n1803 \n1792 \n1561 \n1775 \n181" \n175P \n1767 \n\n1040 \n1784 \n1768 \xc2\xbb \n1723 \n\n\n\nU.\'KD \n\n1751 \n\nirs \n"-fil \n\n1S20 \n\n186? \n\n\'8)6 \n1823 \n1*44 \n\n\n\n187 \n18<5-1 \n1810 \n1801 \n\n1828 \n1605 \n1783 \n17W \n\n180". \n\n1 7 87 \n1860 \n1\xc2\xbb48 \n1662 \n1778 \n\'.844 \n!856 \n\n841 \nC. 300 \n3 240 \n1862 \n1841 \n\'854 \n1857 \n1502 \nf.S6* \n\n180t \n*79? \n\nifXi \n\n183S \n1784 \n\n\n\n82 \n\n\n\nTHE WOBLD\'S PBOGRESS, \n\n\n\nIATION \n\nEng. \n\nScot. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nSoot. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nBcot. \n\nAmer. \n\nIrish. \n\nEng. \n\nPrus. \n\nGer. \n\nSwe. \n\nBrit \n\nItaL \n\nItal. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nEng. \n\nGer. \n\nGer. \n\nDutch.. \n\nRom. \n\nGer. \n\nFr. \n\nEng. \n\nItal. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nColom. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nSwiss. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nFr. \n\nKng. \n\nAmer. \n\n\n\nSAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nBlackwell, Eliz., first female M. D. in the United States . \nBlair, Dr. Hugh, a divine and rhetorician \n\n, Francis P., journalist and politician . \n\n, Francis P., jr., leader of Missouri free-soilers \n\n, Robert, a divine and poet .... \n\nBlake, John L. Rev. author of Dictionary, &c. \n\nBlake, Robert, a celebrated admiral \n\nBlanchard, Laman, essayist and journalist \n\nBleecker, Ann Eliza, poet and essayist \n\nBlessington, Marguerite, countess, novelist and litterateur \n\nBloomtield, E. V., classical scholar . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n, Robert, a poet . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nBlucher, a celebrated military commander . . \n\nBlum, Robert H , publicist and politician . . \n\nBlumenback, John Fred., naturalist . . . \n\nBoadicea, the warlike queen of the Iceni . . \n\nBoccacio, one of the great classic writers of modern Italy . \nBoccalina, a satirist .... \n\nBochart, Samuel, an eminent divine and orientalist . \n\nBodin, John, a lawyer and author . . . \n\nBodley, Sir Thos., founder of library . , \n\nBoehmen, Jacob, a fanatic and author . , \n\nBoekh, Augustus, classical philologist \n\nBoerhaave, oneof the most eminentof modern physicians . \nBoethius, a statesman and philosopher - . \n\nBogatzky, Chas. Henry theologian, (\' Golden Treasury\') . \nBohemond, a Norman adventurer \n\nBonn, Henry G., publisher and editor . . . \n\nBojardo, Mathew M., poet, (\' Orlando Innamorato\') . \nBoileau, Nicholas, an eminent poet . . . \n\nBoissard, Jean J., fabulist .... \nBoissy, Louis de, author of comedies . . . \n\n, d\'Anglas, F. A., count of, statesman and revolutionist \n\nBoleyn, Anne, wife of Henry VIII., \n\nBolingbroke, Henry St. John, poet and deistical writer \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nBolivar, the heroic deliverer of his country . . \n\nBonaparte, Jerome, ex-king of Westphalia . , \n\n, Joseph, ex-king of Naples and Spain . \n\n, Louis, ex-king of Holland \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 , Louis Napoleon, 1st president republic of France and \n\nemperor .... \n\n. , Lucien, Prince of Canino . . \n\n, Maria Letitia, mother of Napoleon . \n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x96\xa0 , Napoleon, emperor of France \n\nBond, William C, astronomer \nBonner, bishop, the persecutor of Protestants \nBonnet, Charles, a celebrated naturalist \nBonnycastle, Charles, mathematician , \n\n, John, " \n\nBonpland, Aime, traveller and botanist \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nBooth, Junius Brutus, tragedian . \n\nBoone, Daniel, the fi-st settler in Kentucky , \n\n\n\nBOB.B. \n\n\ntin. \n\n\n1821 \n\n\n\n\n1718 \n\n\nI860 \n\n\n1791 \n\n\n\n\n. 1821 \n\n\n\n\n1699 \n\n\n1777 \n\n\n1788 \n\n\n1857 \n\n\n1599 \n\n\n1651 \n\n\n1803 \n\n\n184* \n\n\n1757 \n\n\n1783 \n\n\n1789 \n\n\n184P \n\n\n1788 \n\n\n1846 \n\n\n1766 \n\n\n1828 \n\n\n1742 \n\n\n1819 \n\n\n1807 \n\n\n1848 \n\n\n1752 \n\n\n1840 \n\n\n\n\n6! \n\n\n1313 \n\n\n1373 \n\n\n1556 \n\n\n161? \n\n\n1509 \n\n\n1567 \n\n\n1530 \n\n\n1596 \n\n\n1544 \n\n\n1612 \n\n\n1575 \n\n\n1624 \n\n\n1668 \n\n\n1738 \n\n\n455 \n\n\n526 \n\n\n1690 \n\n\n1744 \n\n\n\n\n1111 \n\n\n1434 \n\n\n1494 \n\n\n1636 \n\n\n1711 \n\n\n1743 \n\n\n18S1 \n\n\n1694 \n\n\n1758 \n\n\n1756 \n\n\n1826 \n\n\n1507 \n\n\n1536 \n\n\n.1678 \n\n\n1751 \n\n\n1785 \n\n\n1831 \n\n\n1784 \n\n\n1859 \n\n\n1768 \n\n\n1844 \n\n\n1778 \n\n\n184\xc2\xab \n\n\n1808 \n\n\n\n\n1776 \n\n\n1840 \n\n\n1760 \n\n\n1836 \n\n\n1769 \n\n\n1821 \n\n\n1T89 \n\n\n1859 \n\n\n\n\n1569 \n\n\n1720 \n\n\n1793 \n\n\n\n\n1840 \n\n\n\n\n1821 \n\n\n\n\n1840 \n\n\n1796 \n\n\n185:1 \n\n\n1730 \n\n\n182.\' \n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. \n\n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 ATIOH. NAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nGer. Bopp, Francis, Sanscrit scholar . . . \n\nItaL Bregli, philosopher and mathematician . a \n\nItal. Borghesi, Bartolomeo, count, antiquarian \n\nItaL Borgi, Giovanni, originator of ragged schools \n\nItal. Borgia, Caesar, son of the infamous Pope Alexander VL \n\nItaL , Lucrezda, infamous daughter of Pope Alexander VL \n\nItaL Borromeo, Cardinal, theological writer \n\nEng. Borrow, George, author of \' Gipsies of Spain \' . \n\nFr. Bosc, Louis A W., naturalist \n\nEng. Boscawen, Edward, brave and skilful admiral . \n\nItaL Boecovitch, mathematical and philosophical writer \n\nFr. Bossuet, Marie Jos., marshal of France \n\nFt. Bossuet, James B., a divine and historian . \n\nFr. Bossut, Charles, mathematician . . \n\nScot. Boston, Thomas, a divine and author \n\nEng. Boswell, James, the biographer of Dr. Johnson \n\nEng. Bosworth, Joseph, D. D., Anglo-Saxon lexicographer \n\nItal. Botta, Carlo G. G., historian . . \n\nItal. Bottiger, archaeologist and antiquarian . \n\nAmer. Botts, John Minor, politician , \n\nGr. Bozzaris, Marco, a gallant leader in the new revolution \n\nAmer. Boudinot, Elias, a statesman and philanthropist \n\nFr. Bougainville, Louis A., military commander and author \n\nFr. Boufflers, Duke of, military commander \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nFr. Boulainvilliers, Henry, count of, historian , \n\nEng. Boulton, Matthew, an eminent engineer . . \n\nFr. Bourcet, Peter J. de, an officer and topographer \n\nIrish. Boucicault, Dion, dramatist . . . \n\nFr. Bcurdaloue, a noted preacher . . \n\nFr. Bourdon, Pierre L. M. mathematician . . \n\nFr. Bourignon, Antoinette, a fanatical author . \n\n]?r. Bourmont, L. A. V., count of, marshal of Franoe \n\nFr. Bourne, Vincent, an elegant Latin poet , \n\nFr. Bourrienne, biographer of Napoleon . . \n\nFr. Bousmard, M. de, a military engineer \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nFr. Boursingault, Jean B. V. D., chemist \n\nGer. Bouterwek, Fred., \' Hist. Spanish Literature\' \n\nAmer. Bouvier, John, jurist and legal author . . \n\nAmer. Bowditch, Nafh., astronomer, mathematician, &o. \n\nEng. Bowv\'ler, Thomas, editor Shakespeare, &c. \n\nAmer. Bowdoin, James. LL. D., philosopher and statesman \n\nAmer. , John, (son of the last), ambassador to Spain \n\nAmer. Bowen, Francis, biographical and metaphysical author \n\nEng. Bowles, "William Lisle, poet \n\nEng. Bo<vring, James, statesman, poet and linguist \n\nScot. Boyd, Mark Alexander, a poet . . . \n\nEng. Boydell, John, alderman, art publisher . \n\nFr. Boyer, Abel, lexicographer \n\nFr. , Jean Pierre, president of Hayti (died at Paris) \n\nIrish. Boyle, Robert, an eminent philosopher \n\nAmer. Boylston, Zabdiel, an eminent physician \n\nAmer. Bozman, John Leeds, historian and jurist . . \n\n\n\nSORB. \n\n\nDIJSD \n\n\n1731 \n\n\n\n\n1507 \n\n\n\n\n1781 \n\n\n\n\n1736 \n\n\n1S0J \n\n\n1608 \n\n\n167C \n\n\n15th Cent. \n\n\n1538 \n\n\n1584 \n\n\n1803 \n\n\n\n\n1759 \n\n\n1821 \n\n\n1711 \n\n\n1761 \n\n\n1711 \n\n\n1787 \n\n\n1810 \n\n\n186- \n\n\n1627 \n\n\n1704 \n\n\n1730 \n\n\n.814 \n\n\n1676 \n\n\n1732 \n\n\n1710 \n\n\n1795 \n\n\n1788 \n\n\n\n\n1766 \n\n\n1837 \n\n\n\n\n1835 \n\n\n1802 \n\n\n\n\n178C \n\n\n1823 \n\n\n1740 \n\n\n1821 \n\n\n\'.729 \n\n\n.811 \n\n\n1544 \n\n\n1711 \n\n\n1658 \n\n\n1732 \n\n\n1728 \n\n\n1809 \n\n\n1700 \n\n\n17\xc2\xa30 \n\n\n1822 \n\n\n\n\n1632 \n\n\n1704 \n\n\n1799 \n\n\n1854 \n\n\n1616 \n\n\n16S0 \n\n\n1773 \n\n\n1846 \n\n\n\n\n1747 \n\n\n\n\n1834 \n\n\n\n\n1807 \n\n\n1802 \n\n\n\n\n1766 \n\n\n1S28 \n\n\n1787 \n\n\n:S51 \n\n\n177S \n\n\n1838 \n\n\n1754 \n\n\n1825 \n\n\n1727 \n\n\n1790 \n\n\n1752 \n\n\n1811 \n\n\n1811 \n\n\n\n\n1762 \n\n\n1850 \n\n\n1792 \n\n\n\n\n1562 \n\n\n1601 \n\n\n1719 \n\n\n1804 \n\n\n1667 \n\n\n1729 \n\n\n1776 \n\n\n1850 \n\n\n1626 \n\n\n1691 \n\n\n1680 \n\n\n1776 \n\n\n1767 \n\n\n182* \n\n\n\n84 \n\n\n\nTHE WOELD\'s PROGRESS. \n\n\n\nUiriON \n\nAmer. \n\nAiner. \n\nring. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nAn\'er. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nBug. \n\nEng. \n\nDan. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nN.A.In \n\nFr. \n\nMer. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nGer. \n\nfevve. \n\nBar. \n\nScot. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nEng. \n\nGer. . \n\nA mer. \n\nEng. \n\nFr. \n\nEug. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nIrish. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmei. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nFr. \n\nEng. \n\n\n\nNAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nBrace, Charles Loring, philanthropist and traveller \nBrt,ckenridge, Henry M., jurist and diplomatist \nBrad dock, Edward, general, defeated and killed in Virginia \nBradford, Alden, author of \'History of Massachusetts \' \n\n\xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 , Andrew, printer and publisher of first newspaper in Phil \n\n, William, attorney-general of the U. S. \n\n, William, first printer in Pennsylvania \n\n, William, second governor of.Plymouth eolony \n\nBradley, Dr. James, astronomer and mathematician \nBradstreet, Anne, poetess, daughter of Governor Dudley \nBradwardine, mathematician and theologian . . \n\nBrady, Robert, physician and historian \nBrahe, Tycho, a celebrated astronomer . . \n\nBrainard, David, misionary to the Indians \n\n, J. G. C, a poet .... \n\nBrant, Joseph (Thayendauega), a Mohawk chief \n\nBran tome, Pierre de B., biographer and chronicler . \n\nBravo, Leonardo, a revolutionary patriot . \n\nBray, Ann Eliza, novelist . . . \n\nBreckinridge, John, D. D., theologian ., . \n\n, John C, Vice-President U, S. . . \n\n, Robert J., D. D., Presbyterian theologian \n\nBreitk. cpf, John G. E\xe2\x80\x9e, an eminent printer and type-founder \nBremer, Fredrica, novelist . \n\nBrennus, the leader of the Gauls . ... \n\nBrewster, Sir David, natural philosopher . \n\n, W*Uiam, elder of the Plymouth Pilgrims . \n\nBridgewater, \'\'. uke of, introducer of canals in England \n\n, .\'-ancis H. E., duke of, founder of \'Treatiser\' \n\nBriggs, Cjarlas F., novelist and journalist \n\n, E\'en y, mathematician \n\nBrigham, A.\xc2\xb1 lariah, writer on insanity and philanthropist \nBright, John, reform politician and M. P. \nBrinvi\'liers, Marie, marchioness of, poisoner \nBris" >n, Mathurin James, naturalist . . . \n\nBrittan, John, architectural and antiquarian writer \nBrockhaus, Fried. A., founder of the publishing house . \nBrodhead, John R., author of \' History of New York\' \nBrodie, Sir Benj. C, F. R. 8., surgeon and surgical author \nBroglio, due de, statesman .... \nBronte, Anne, \'Acton Bell.\' novelist . . \n\n, Charlotte, novelist .... \n\n\xe2\x80\x94 , Emily Jane, \' Ellis Bell,\' novelist . \n\nBrooke, Henry, miscellaneous writer . \n\n, Sir James, rajah of Sarawak, and author . \n\nBrooks, Charles T., author of \' Translations from German \' \n\n, Erastus, journalist and politician. . \n\n, James, journalist and politician . . \n\n, John, LL.D., governor of Massachusetts . \n\n\n\n, Maria, poet, (\' Maria del Occidente \') \n\nBrotier, G., a Jesuit, editor of \' Tacitus \' \nBrougham, Henry, lord, statesman axid jurist \n\n\n\nBOBN. \n\n\nDW> \n\n\n1826 \n\n\n\n\n1786 \n\n\n\n\ni . 1716 \n\n\n1768 \n\n\n1715 \n\n\n1753 \n\n\nin Phila. 1686 \n\n\n1742 \n\n\n1755 \n\n\n1795 \n\n\n1659 \n\n\n1753 \n\n\n1588 \n\n\n1657 \n\n\n1692 \n\n\n1762 \n\n\n1612 \n\n\n1672 \n\n\n. \n\n\n1349 \n\n\n1709 \n\n\n\n\n1546 \n\n\n*1661 \n\n\n1718 \n\n\n1747 \n\n\n1697 \n\n\n1826 \n\n\n- 1742 \n\n\n1807 \n\n\n1540 \n\n\n1614 \n\n\n1692 \n\n\n1854 \n\n\n. (abt.) 1800 \n\n\n\n\n1797 \n\n\n1841 \n\n\n1821 \n\n\n\n\n1800 \n\n\n\n\nler . 1710 \n\n\n1734 \n\n\n1802 \n\n\n1865 \n\n\n. f. B. 0. 390 \n\n\n\n\n1785 \n\n\n\n\n1560 \n\n\n16.4 \n\n\n1736 \n\n\ni u C3 \n\n\n1753 \n\n\n1829 \n\n\n1536 \n\n\n1630 \n\n\n173o \n\n\n1849 \n\n\nloll \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1676 \n\n\n1723 \n\n\n18)8 \n\n\n1771 \n\n\n\'857 \n\n\n1772 \n\n\nla23 \n\n\n1814 \n\n\n\n\n1783 \n\n\n1862 \n\n\n1785 \n\n\n\n\n1820 \n\n\nlo49 \n\n\n1816 \n\n\n1855 \n\n\n1818 \n\n\n184o \n\n\n. 1706 \n\n\n17*\' \n\n\n1803 \n\n\n\n\n1813 \n\n\n\n\n1815 \n\n\n\n\n1810 \n\n\n\n\n1752 \n\n\n182S \n\n\n1795 \n\n\n1846 \n\n\n1723 \n\n\n1788 \n\n\n177S \n\n\n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. \n\n\n\n\xc2\xa75 \n\n\n\nIrish. \n\nPr. \n\nFr \n\nFr. \n\nIr.Am. \n\nAmer. \n\nArner. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nScot. \n\n\\rner. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nScot. \n\nEng. \n\nScot. \n\nIrish. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nScot. \n\nSoot. \n\nFr. \n\nEng. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nEng. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nRubs. \n\nGer. \n\nGer. \n\nEng. \n\nRom. \n\nRom. \n\nFr. \n\nDutch \n\nEng. \nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\n\n\nMJLMK AND PROFESSION. \n\nBrougham, John, actor and author . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nBrougniart, Alexander, mineralogist and geologist \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n, Adolphe T., botanist, . \n\nBroussais, P. J. V., medical and physiological writer . \n\nBrown, Alex., father of the eminent merchants \'Brown Brothers \n\n, Arthur, a distinguished scholar and barrister \n\n, (BJackwell), Antoinette L., preacher and philanthropist \n\n, Charles Brockden, a novelist \n\n, Captain John, abolitionist and martyr . \n\n-, Dr. Thomas, metaphysician and poet \n\n, Goold, grammarian, . . \n\n, Henry Kirk, sculptor \n\n, James, senator, minister to France \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n, James, eminent publisher (Boston) . \n\n, John, D. D., a miscellaneous writer \n\n\n\n-, John, a divine and author . \n\n-, Major-General Jacob, general in war of 1812 \n\n-, Nicholas, principal patron Brown University \n\n-, Robert, eminent botanist \n\n\xe2\x80\x94 , Samuel, chemist and poet \n\n-, Thomas, satirist, . . \xe2\x80\xa2 . \n\n\n\n9 Thomas, metaphysician . . \n\nBrowne, George, count de, an officer in the Russian service \n\n, Sir Thomas, a physician, and philosophic writer \n\n, "William George, a traveller in Africa, &c. \n\nBrownell, Thomas C, Prot. Episcopal Bishop of Connecticut \nBrowning, Elizabeth Barrett, poet, . \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n, Robert, poet, \xe2\x80\x9e . \n\nBrownson, Orestes A., metaphysical writer \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nBruce, James, a celebrated traveller . , 9 \n\n, Robert, the deliverer of his country \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nBrueys, Francis Paul, admiral . . . \n\nBiummell, George Bryan, \xc2\xab Beau Brummell\' . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nBrumoy, Peter, a Jesuit and author . . . \n\nBrune, William Mary Ann, marshal and revolutionist \nBrunei, Isambaid K., engineer of Great Eastern, &c. < \n\nBrunei, Sir M. I., engineer of Thames tunnel, &c. \nBrunet, Jacques Charles, \'Bibliographer\'s Manual\' . \n\nBruno, St., founder of the Chartusian order \nBrunnow, Baron, diplomatist . . . \' . \n\nBrunswick, Ferdinand, duke of, military commander . \n\n, Luneburg, Charles Win. Fer., duke of, military com\' \n\nmander ... ... \n\nBrunton, Mary B., novelist, \' Discipline, \' &c. \n\nBrutus, Lucius Junius, founder of the republican government \n\n, Marcus Junius, conspirator against Caesar . . \n\nBruyere, John de la, a celebrated writer . * \n\nBruyn, Cornelius de, traveller . . \xe2\x80\xa2 . \n\nBryan, Michael, \' Dictionary of Painters\' . . \n\nBryant, Jacob, a philologist and antiquary . . \n\n, William Culler., poet, traveller . . \n\nBrydges, Sir Egerton, eccentric litterateur , \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n\nBOfiN \n\n1810 \n1770 \n1801 \n1772 \n1764 \n\n1825 \n1771 \n1800 \n1777 \n1791 \n1814 \n1766 \n1800 \n1715 \n1722 \n\n1769 \n1781 \n1817 \n1663 \n1778 \n1698 \n1605 \n\n1779 \n1809 \n1812 \nH0S \n1730 \n\n..750 \n\n1778 \n\n168 ^ \n\n176S \n\n180 \n\n176\xc2\xa3 \n\n\n\n183* \n\n1801 \n\n1810 \n1859 \n1820 \n1857 \n\n1835 \n1855 \n1766 \n1787 \n1828 \n1"41 \n1858 \n1856 \n1704 \n1820 \n1792 \n1682 \n1814 \n1865 \n1860 \n\n\n\n179\' \n1329 \n1798 \n1840 \n1742 \n1815 \n1853 \n184f \n\n1444 \n\n\n\n1377 \n1797 \n\n1721 1792 \n\n1735 laOS \n\n1778 1818 \nb 0. 505 \n\xc2\xbb 0. 4J \n\n1644 1697 \n\n1652 \n\n1757 "859 \n\n1715 1804 \n\n1794 \n\n1762 187 \n\n\n\n86 \n\n\n\nTHE WOBIiD\'s PROGRESS, \n\n\n\n5 HOIT NAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nFr. Buat N"an$,ay, Louis G., count de, a learned writer \n\nFr. Bueer, Martin, one of the fathers of the Reformation \nGer. Buch, Leopold von, geologist . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nScot. Buchan, William, a physician and author . \nSect. Buchf.nan, Claudius, a divine . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nSect. , George, an eminent writer . . \n\nAmer. 1 James, 15th president of the United States . \n\nEng. Buckingham, George Villiers, duke of, statesman . \n\nEng. , George Villiers, son of the former \n\nJing, -, James Silk, traveller and author \n\nAmer. , Joseph T., journalist and author . . \n\nEng. Buckland, Wm,, D. D., geologist. . . \n\nAmer. Buckminster, Joseph, D. D., theologian . . \n\nAmer. , Joseph S., author of \' Sermons,\' &c \n\nEng. Buckstone, John B., actor and playwright . . \n\nAmer. Buel, Jesse, agricultural writer . . . \n\nPolish. Burner, Claude, a Jesuit and miscellaneous writer \n\n.rr. ButTon, George Leclero, count of, celebrated naturalist \n\nFr. Bugeaud,T. R., marshal of France . \n\nGer. Buhle, J. G., \' History of Philosophy,* &c. \n\nEng. Bull, Geo., Greek scholar and dramatist . \xe2\x96\xa0 \n\nEr.g. , Geo., Bishop of St. David\'s, theological writer \n\n^ or , Ole, famous violinist .... \n\nSwLs. Bullinger, reformer and author \n\nAmer. Bullions, Peter, D. D., authw of educational works . \n\nFng. Bulwer, Sir Henry L. diplomatist and political writer \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0, (now Sir Edward Lytton), novelist and dramatist \n\n, Lady Bulwer Lytton, novelist \n\n\n\nErg. \n\nEng. \n\nAust. \n\nRuss. \n\nEng. \n\nGer. \n\nSwiss \n\n\n\nBuol-Sehauenstein, K. F., count of, statesman . \n\nBu: on, C. C. J., chevalier de, diplomatist and historian \nBunyan, John, author of \' Pilgrim\'s Progress\' \nBurekhardt, John Charles, mathematician . . \n\n-, John Louis, oriental traveller . \n\n\n\nScot. Am. Burden, Henry, inventor and mechanio \n\nEng. Burdett, Sir Francis, politician \n\nGer. B: l ger, G. A., poet \n\nEn". i urges, Geo., Greek scholar and dramatist \n\nAmer. Burges, Tristram, statesman and orator \n\nEng. Burgess, Thomas, Bp. of Salisbury, classical and theological \n\nEng. Burgh, James, author \' Dignity Human Nature \' \n\nEng. Burgoyne, John, military commander and author \n\nIrish. Burke, Edmund, a great statesman and writer . \n\nSwiss. Burlamaqui, John James, writer on civil law . \n\nEng. Burleigh, William Cecil, lord, eminent statesman . \n\nI)u\' ih. Burman, Peter, critic and editor \n\nv>e . Burmeister, He; man, naturalist . . . \n\nj\xc2\xb1m*r. Burnap, George W., clergyman and author \n\n\xc2\xa3i,ot. Burnes, Sir Alex., \'Travels in Bokhara, Cabool,\' &o. \n\nBurnet, Gilbert, a divine and historian, Bishop cf Salisbury \n\n, Jacob, pioneer of Cincinnati and authoi \n\n, John, engraver, painter, andoritio , \n\n\n\nSoot. \nAmer. \nEng. \nKng. \n\n\n\nBurney, Charles, a doctor of music \n\n\n\n1191 \n\n\n1551 \n\n\n1774 \n\n\n1853 \n\n\n1729 \n\n\n1791 \n\n\n1766 \n\n\n1805 \n\n\n1506 \n\n\n1582 \n\n\n1791 \n\n\n\n\n1592 \n\n\n1628 \n\n\n1627 \n\n\n1688 \n\n\n1784 \n\n\n1855 \n\n\n1779 \n\n\n\n\n1784 \n\n\n1856 \n\n\n1751 \n\n\n1812 \n\n\n1784 \n\n\n1812 \n\n\n1800 \n\n\n\n\n1778 \n\n\n1839 \n\n\n1661 \n\n\n1737 \n\n\n1707 \n\n\n1788 \n\n\n1784 \n\n\n1849 \n\n\n, 1763 \n\n\n\n\n1786 \n\n\n1864 \n\n\n1634 \n\n\n1710 \n\n\n. f 1810 \n\n\n\n\n1504 \n\n\n1575 \n\n\n1791 \n\n\n1864 \n\n\n1803 \n\n\n\n\n1807 \n\n\n\n\n1797 \n\n\n\n\n1791 \n\n\nI860 \n\n\n1628 \n\n\n1688 \n\n\n1773 \n\n\n1815 \n\n\n1784 \n\n\n1815 \n\n\n1791 \n\n\n\n\n1770 \n\n\n1844 \n\n\n1748 \n\n\n1794 \n\n\n1786 \n\n\n1864 \n\n\n1770 \n\n\n1853 \n\n\nal author 1756 \n\n\n183\' \n\n\n1714 \n\n\n1775 \n\n\n. \n\n\n1792 \n\n\n1730 \n\n\n1797 \n\n\n1694 \n\n\n1748 \n\n\n1520 \n\n\n1598 \n\n\n1668 \n\n\n1741 \n\n\n1807 \n\n\n\n\n1802 \n\n\n\'359 \n\n\n1805 \n\n\n1841 \n\n\ny . 1643 \n\n\n1726 \n\n\n1776 \n\n\n1858 \n\n\n1784 \n\n\n\n\n172\xc2\xab \n\n\n1814 \n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. \n\n\n\n87 \n\n\n\nSTATIC*. BAME AND FBOFESSSON. \n\nEng. Burney, Frances, (see Mme. dArblay), noveliit . \n\nEng. , James, admiral and author . , , \n\nScot. Burns, a popular and national poet \n\nAmer. Burr, Cul. Aaron, vice-president U. S. . . \n\nAmer. Burritt, Elihu, \'the learned blacksmith\' and philanthropist \n\nAmer. Burroughs, Stephen, notorious adventurer . . \n\nEng. Burton, Robert, author of the \' Anatomy of Melancholy\' \n\nEng. , Wm. E., actor and author \n\nGer. Busching, Anthon Frederick, philosopher and geological writer \n\nAmer. Bush, George, D.D., theological and philosophical writer . \n\nAmer. Bushnell, Horace, CD., theological and metaphysical author \n\nMex. Bustamente, Anastasio, president of Mexico \n\nEng. Bute, John Stuart, earl of, statesman, premier \n\nIrish. Butler, Alban, \' Lives of Saints\' \n\nAmer. , Andrew P., United States senator from South Carolina \n\nAmer. , Benj. F., statesman and jurist, attorney-general U. S. \n\nAmer. , Benj. F., major-general U. S. army in war for Union \n\nEng. , Charles, Catholic historian and jurist \n\nEng. , Joseph, bishop, an eminent prelate and author \n\nEng. , Samuel, bishop of Litchfield, editor of "uBschylus," &c, \n\nEng. , Samuel, a humorous poet \n\nAmer. , Richard, colonel, an officer in the Revolution \n\nAmer. , Wm. Allen, poet \n\nAmer. , Wm. O., statesman and general . . \n\nGer. Buttman, Philip C, philologist . . \n\nEng Buxton, Sir Thomas Powell, legisl. and philanth. \n\nGer. Buxtorf, John, a Hebrew and Ohaldaic lexicographer \n\nGer. , John, (son of the preceding,) lexicographer \n\nAmer. Byles, Mather, clergyman and author \n\nEng. Byng, Honorable John, admiral \n\nEng. Byron, George Gordon, lord, a popular poet \n\nEng. , Honorable John, admiral . . \n\nEng. , Lady Noel, wife of the poet \n\n\n\nJOBS. \n\n1752 \n1739 \n1759 \n1756 \n1811 \n1765 \n1576 \n.804 \n1721 \n1796 \n1802 \n^782 \n:."38 \n1710 \n1796 \n\n\n\n1750 \n1692 \n1774 \n1612 \n\n1825 \n1793 \n1764 \n1786 \n1564 \n1599 \n1706 \n1704 \n1788 \n1723 \n1793 \n\n\n\nDIFX \n\n184C \n1820 \n1796 \n1836 \n\n1840 \n1639 \n1860 \n1893 \n1859 \n\n1851 \n1792 \n1773 \n1857 \n185? \n\n1831 \n175S \n\n184- \n168. \n1791 \n\n\n\n1829 \n184ft \n1629 \n1644 \n1788 \n1757 \n1828 \n1786 \n1860 \n\n\n\nft \n\n\n\nFt. Cabet, Etienne, communist . . \xe2\x80\xa2 . \n\nEng. Cabot, John, navigator and discoverer 0/ North America \n\nEng. , Sebastian (son of John), navigator \n\nPort. Cabral, Pedro Alvarez, navigator \n\nSpan. Cabrera, Don Ramon, military commander for Don Carlos \n\nItal. Cadamosta, Louis da, navigator \n\nEng. Cade, the noted rebel, \' Jack Cade \' . . \n\nScot. Cadell, Thomas, publisher of Scott\'s works, Ac. \n\nFr. Cadet de Grassicourt, Charles L., chemist and philosopher \n\nCadmon, Anglo-Saxon poet \n\nAmei Cadwallader, John, officer in the Revolution . . \n\nRom. Cassar, Caius Julius, warrior, statesman, and author \n\nItal. Cagliostro, Alex., count, swindling adventurer . \n\nFr. Cailliaud, Frederic, traveller . . . \n\nPr. Oail!S, Ren6, \' Voyage a Timboucto,\' &a. . , \n\n\n\n. 1788 \n\n\n1866 \n\n\n1477 \n\n\n1557 \n\n\n1500 \n\n\n\n\n1810 \n\n\n\n\nf. 1456 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1450 \n\n\n1742 \n\n\n1803 \n\n\n1769 \n\n\n1821 \n\n\n\n\n680 \n\n\n1743 \n\n\n1786 \n\n\nB O. 100 B. \n\n\n0. 44 \n\n\n1743 \n\n\n179S \n\n\n1787 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1881 \n\n\n\n88 \n\n\n\nTHE WORLD\'S PROGRESS. \n\n\n\nNA7IOB \n\nItal. \n\nGr. \n\nEi.g. \n\nSpan. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nItal. \n\nAmer. \n\nRom. \n\nGr. \n\nG?r. \n\nGr. \n\nGr. \n\nFr. \n\nItal. \n\nFz. \n\nFr \n\ntimer. \n\nWaxier. \n\n5\'r. \n\nEng. \n\nPers. \n\nJug. \n\nScot. \n\nScot. \n\nFort. \n\nFr. \n\nAmer. \n\nScot. \n\nScot. \n\nScot, \n\nScot. \n\nScot. \n\nScot. \n\nGer. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nEng. \n\nFr. \n\nItal. \n\nDan. \n\nFr. \n\nEng. \n\nSpan. \n\nGr. \n\nRom. \n\nItal. \n\nBrit \n\nBrit. \n\nItal. \n\nBug. \n\nFr. \n\n\n\nNAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nCajetan, Cardinal, diplomatist and author \nOalaber, iT; lintus ..... \nCalamy, Elrrund, Presbyterian divine and author . \nCalderon ce la Barca, Don Pedro, dramatist . . \n\nCaldwell, Charles, eminent physician and author \n\n, Rev. James, revolutionary patriot \n\nCalepino, Ambrose, author of a lexicon in 11 languages \n\nCalhi un, John C, senator of the United States \n\nCaligula, Roman Emperor \n\nCalipptn, astronomer and mathematician . . f . b \n\nCalixius, Geo., Lutheran theologian \n\nCalli: lachus, a poet . . \xe2\x80\xa2 . f. b. \n\nCallnihenes, philosopher and historian . , \n\nCa\'ir.at, Augustine, an erudite divine and author . \n\nCf/ogera, Angelo, a learned monk and author \n\n(Monne, Charles Alexander de, minister of state \n\nCalvin, John, of the Apostles of the Reformation . \n\nCalvert, George Henry, belle-lettres author \n\n, Leonard, first governor of Maryland (see Baltimore) \n\nCambaceres, John J. A., distinguished revolutionist \n\nCambridge, Duke of, sixth son of George III. \n\nCambyses, second king of Persia \n\nCamden, William, an eminent antiquary and historian \n\nCameron, Richard, \'Covenanter, 1 founder of Cameronians \n\n, Sir Evan, lord of Lochiel \n\nCamoens, Louis, the most eminent poet of his country \nCampan, Jeanne L. H. J., educationist and author \nCampbell, Ales., founder of a religious sect \n\n\'\xe2\x96\xa0 \xe2\x80\x94 , George, a divine and author \n\n, John, a multifarious writer, \'Admiral,\' &c. \n\n, John, 2d duke of Argyle and Greenwich \n\n, John, lord chancellor, jurist, \' Lives of Chancellors \n\n, Sir Colin, British com. in India, &c, Lord Clyde \n, Thomas, poet, \' Life of Petrarch, 1 &c. \n\n\n\nCamper, Peter, an eminent naturalist . . . \n\nCam piston, John G. de, dramatist . . \n\nCange, Charles Dufresne, sieur du, historian \n\nCanning, George, statesman, orator, and poet \n\nCanrobert, Franc. C, general in Crimea \n\nCantu, Cesare, historian, poet, and philosopher \n\nCanute, King of Denmark and of England, \' the Great \' \n\nCarefigue, A. H. A., historian \n\nCapell, Edward, editor of Shakespeare . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nCapmany, Don Antonio, historian \n\nCapo d 1 Istria, president of Greece, 1827-31 . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nCaracalla, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, emperor . \n\nCaraccioli, Neopolitan admiral, hanged by Kelson \n\nCaractacuB, prince of the Silures, a brave warrior. \n\nCarausius, usurper of Empire in Britain \n\nCardan, Jerome, philosopher, mathematician and physician \n\nCardigan, J. P. B., earl of, general of cavalry at Balaklava \n\nCardonne, Dennis D., an eminent orientalist \n\n\n\n(at \n\n\n\nBOBN. \n1510 \n\n1600 \n1600 \n1772 \n1731 \nU35 \n1782 \n12 \n\nC, 830 \n1586 \n\nc. 150 \n\n1672 \n1699 \n1734 \n1509 \n1803 \n\n1763 \n\n1774 \n\n\n\n1617 \n1752 \n1792 \n1709 \n1708 \n1678 \n1778 \n1791 \n1777 \n1722 \n1656 \n1610 \n1770 \n1809 \n1805 \n\n995 \n1799 \n1713 \n1754 \n1776 \n\n188 \n\n1770 \n\nt.) 100 \n\n260 \n1601 \n1797 \n1720 \n\n\n\nD3Ei \n\n1593 \n26C \n1666 \n1687 \n1853 \n1781 \n1511 \n1850 \n11 \n\n1656 \n\no. 328 \n1757 \n1768 \n1802 \n1623 \n\n1676 \n1824 \n1850 \n0. 521 \n1623 \n16B0 \n1719 \n1579 \n1822 \n\n1796 \n1775 \n1713 \n1861 \n1863 \n1844 \n1789 \n1723 \n1688 \n1827 \n\n\n\n1036 \n\n1781 \n1810 \n1831 \n217 \n1799 \n\n293 \n1571 \n\n178S \n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. \n\n\n\nRATIOS. \n\nFr. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nEn<?. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nItal. \n\nIrish. \n\nIrish. \n\nItal. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nSpan. \n\nSpan. \n\nG-er. \n\nSoot. \n\nScot. \n\nGr. \n\nPr. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nFr. \n\nGua. \n\n-Auier. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nGer. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nSpan. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nFr. \n\nItal. \n\nHorn. \n\nEng. \n\nItal. \n\nPort. \n\nItal. \n\nEng. \n\nRus. \n\nRu8. \n\nSpan.E \n\nSpan. \n\nEng. \n\nIt. Fr. \n\nEng. \n\nRom. \n\n\n\nNAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nCareme, Murk Antony, famous cook . . \n\nCarew, Bamfylde Moore, \'king of the beggars\' \nCarew, Thomas, poet .... \n\nCarey, Alice, author of poems and tales . . \n\n, Henry, earl of Monmouth, translator . . \n\n, Henry C, political economist . , \n\n, Matthew, philanthropist, publisher, &c , \n\n, William, missionary to India \n\nCarissimi, James, musical composer . \xe2\x80\x9e , \n\nCarleton, Wm., novelist . . , \n\n, Sir Guy, military commander, and governor of Canada \n\nCarli, John Rinaldo, count de, author \n\nCarlisle, G. W. F., 7th earl of, statesman and author . \n\n, Sir Anthony, physician and medical writer \n\nCarlos, Don, son of Philip II., (hero of Schiller\'s tragedy,) \n\n, Don Maria Isidor, pretender to the throne . \n\nCarlotta, wife of Maximilian, emperor of Mexico . \n\nCarlyle, Rev. Alex, D. D., \' Memoirs of his Times\' . \n\n. Thomas, historian and metaphysician . \n\nCarneades, philosopher, founder of the 3d Academy \nCarnot, Lazarus Nicholas, revolutionist . . \n\nCarpenter, Laut, Unitarian minister and author . \n\n, Wm. B., physiologist . . . \n\nCarrel, Armand, historian and metaphysician . \n\nCarrera, Rafael, ruler of Guatemala . . . \n\nCarroll, Chas., last surviving signer of the Deo. of Indep. \nCarter, Elizabeth, a learned translator . , \n\n, Nathaniel H., a scholar and traveller . \n\nCart-wright, Thomas, puritan divine . \n\nCarus, C. G., writer on anatomy and physiology \n\nCarver, John, 1st gov. Plymouth colony . . \n\n, Jonathan, traveller and author \n\nCary, Henry F., poet, translator of \' Dante\' . . \n\nCasas, Bartholomew de las, philanthropist and historian \nCass, Lewis, statesman and diplomatist . . , \n\nCassin, John, ornithologist . . . \n\nCassini, John Dominic, astronomer . . . \n\nCassiodorus, Marcus Aur. statesman and historian \nCassius, Longinus Caius, conspirator against Cassar , \nCastell, Edmund, divine and lexicographer . \n\nCastiglione, Balthasar, statesman and author . . \n\nCastro, Inez de, wife of Pedro, king of Portugal , \nCatalini, Madame, eminent vocalist . . . \n\nCatesby, Mark, naturalist . , , \n\nCatherine I., wife of Peter the Great . . \n\nII., empress the " Great " and the vicious \n\n, of Arragon, wife of Henry VIII. . , \n\n\n\n, of Braganza, queen of Charles II. of England \n\n\xe2\x80\x94 ^\xe2\x80\x94 ^\xe2\x80\x94 Howard, queen of Henry VIII. . . \n\nde Medici, wife of Henry II. of France . \n\n, Parr, 6th and last wife of Henry VIIL . \n\nCatiline, Lucius Sergius, patrician conspirator . \n\n\n\nBORN. \n\n\n->rKD, \n\n\n178\' \n\n\n13f \n\n\n165.3 \n\n\n1773 \n\n\n1589 ? \n\n\n16*9 \n\n\n1822 \n\n\n\n\n1596 \n\n\n7661 \n\n\n1792 \n\n\n\n\n1760 \n\n\niSd9 \n\n\n1761 \n\n\n1622 \n\n\n1600 \n\n\n16,5 \n\n\n1798 \n\n\n\n\n1724 \n\n\n1803 \n\n\n1720 \n\n\n173S \n\n\n1802 \n\n\n1884 \n\n\n1768 \n\n\n1840 \n\n\n1545 \n\n\n1568 \n\n\n1788 \n\n\n1856 \n\n\n18\xe2\x80\x94 \n\n\n\n\n1721 \n\n\n1805 \n\n\n1795 \n\n\n\n\n. 218 b. \n\n\nO. 128 \n\n\n1753 \n\n\n1823 \n\n\n1780 \n\n\n1840 \n\n\n18\xe2\x80\x94 \n\n\n\n\n1800 \n\n\n1836 \n\n\n1814 \n\n\n\n\n1737 \n\n\n1832 \n\n\n1717 \n\n\n1806 \n\n\n\n\n1830 \n\n\n1535 \n\n\n1608 \n\n\n1789 \n\n\n\n\n1732 \n\n\n1780 \n\n\n\n\n1621 \n\n\n1772 \n\n\n1840 \n\n\n1474 \n\n\n1564 \n\n\n1782 \n\n\n1866 \n\n\n1813 \n\n\n\n\n1625 \n\n\n1712 \n\n\n470 \n\n\n616 \n\n\nB. \n\n\n0. 42 \n\n\n1606 \n\n\n1685 \n\n\n1468 \n\n\n1525 \n\n\n\n\n1355 \n\n\n1782 \n\n\n1849 \n\n\n1680 \n\n\n1749 \n\n\n1682 \n\n\n1727 \n\n\n1729 \n\n\n1796 \n\n\n1483 \n\n\n1536 \n\n\n1638 \n\n\n1703 \n\n\n1521 \n\n\n1542 \n\n\n1619 \n\n\n1689 \n\n\n\n\n1548 \n\n\nB.O. 6S \n\n\n\n9\xc2\xb0 \n\n\n\nTHE WORLL S PROGRESS. \n\n\n\nBA1IOH NAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nFt. Cat: uat, Nicholas, military commander . . \n\nAmer. Catlin, George, artist and traveller among Indians . \n\nRom. Cato, Mar jus Portius, the censor, statesman and author \n\nRom. , Marcus Pore: us, of Ulica, statesman . \n\nRom. Catullus, Caius Valerius, poet . . \n\nFr. Cauchy, Aug. Louis, mathematician . . \n\nFr. Caulaincourt, A. A., Duke of Vicenza, diplomatist . \n\nFr. Caussin, Nicholas, a Jesuit, author of the \' Holy Court \' \n\nFr. Cavaignac, Louis E., general-in-chief of the republic, 1848 \n\nItal. E. Carallo, Tiberius, electrician, author Natural Philos. \n\nEng. Cave, Edward, printer, bookseller and author . , \n\nEng. Cavendish, Sir William, courtier aud writer . \n\nEng. , Thomas, navigator \n\nItal. Cavour, Camille di, count, Sardinian statesman \n\nEng. Caxton, William, the introducer of printing into England \n\nFr. Caylus, A. C. P., count de, miscellaneous writer \'. \n\nFr. Cazales, James A. M. de, an eloquent orator . . \n\nEng. Cecil, Rev. R., religious writer . . . \n\nEng. , Robt., earl of Salisbury, statesman . . \n\nEng. , Win., Lord Burleigh, statesman \n\nRom. Cecilia, a saint in the Roman Catholic Church, patron of music \n\nGr. Cecrops, 1st king of Athens .... \n\nItal. Cellini, Benvenuto, artist, jeweller, patron of music . \n\nRom. Ceisus, Auielius Cornelius, a celebrated physician . \n\nGr. , an Epicurean philospher ... \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nItal. Cenci, Beatrice, Roman maiden, tragically famed . , \n\nRom. Censbrius, a critic and grammarian . . . \n\nIrish. Centlivre, Susanna, a dramatic writer . . , \n\nSpan. Cervantes-Saavedra, Michael, author of \' Don Quixote\' \n\nItal. Cesare, Giuseppe, cavaliere de, historian . . \n\nItaL Cesarotte, Melchior, a voluminous author . \n\nEng. Chalmers, Alex., \' General Biographical Dictionary,\' &o. \n\nScot. , George, miscellaneous writer . \n\nScot. , Thomati, D. D., theologian and political economist \n\nScot. Chambers, Robert, publisher and author \n\nEng. , Sir "William, an architeot . . \n\nScot. \xe2\x80\x94 , William, publisher and author \n\nFr. Chambord, H., count of, last scion of the house of Bourbon \n\nGer. Chamisso, A. von, author of \'Peter Schlemihl,\' &c. \n\nFr. Champollion, the younger, \'Monuments de l\'Egypte,\' &c, \n\nFr. , Figeac, historian and antiquary . \n\n\' Amer. Channing, Edward T., essayist and reviewer \n\nAjuer. f William Ellery, D. D., theologian and philanthropist \n\nAmei. , William Henry, Unitarian minister and author \n\nEng. Chantry, Sir Francis, sculptor \nAmer. Chapin, Edwin H., eloquent clergyman and orator \n\nEng. Chapman, George, poetical translator . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nEng. Chapone, Hester, miscellaneous writer . . \n\nFr. Chaptal, J. A. C, chemist .... \n\nFr Charlemagne, emperor of the West and King of Franoe \n\nGer, Charles V. the Great, see Prescott\'s History, &o. . \n\nBwe. Charles XII., king, a celebrated warrior . \n\n\n\nBORN. \n\n\nD1H> \n\n\n1637 \n\n\n1713 \n\n\nB o. 232 b. \n\n\n0. 147 \n\n\nB. 0. 95 B. \n\n\nO. 40 \n\n\nB. o. S6 \n\n\n\n\n178f) \n\n\n1857 \n\n\n1773 \n\n\n1807 \n\n\n1583 \n\n\n1661 \n\n\n1802 \n\n\n1857 \n\n\n1749 \n\n\n1809 \n\n\n1691 \n\n\n1751 \n\n\n1505 \n\n\n1557 \n\n\n1564 \n\n\n1591 \n\n\n1809 \n\n\n186!. \n\n\n1410 \n\n\n1492 \n\n\n1720 \n\n\n1765 \n\n\n1752 \n\n\n1805 \n\n\n1748 \n\n\n1810 \n\n\n(abt.) 1550 \n\n\n1612 \n\n\n1520 \n\n\n1598 \n\n\nic 2d cen \n\n\n\n\n(abt.) b. \n\n\no. 1500 \n\n\n1500 \n\n\n1570 \n\n\nf. 30 \n\n\n\n\n. f. 50 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1599 \n\n\n. f. 240 \n\n\n\n\n1667 \n\n\n1723 \n\n\n1547 \n\n\n1616 \n\n\n1783 \n\n\n1856 \n\n\n1730 \n\n\n1808 \n\n\n1759 \n\n\n1854 \n\n\n1744 \n\n\n1825 \n\n\n1770 \n\n\n1846 \n\n\n1802 \n\n\n\n\n1726 \n\n\n1796 \n\n\n1800 \n\n\n\n\n1820 \n\n\n\n\n1781 \n\n\n\n\n1790 \n\n\n1832 \n\n\n1779 \n\n\n\n\n1790 \n\n\n1856 \n\n\n)ist 1780 \n\n\n1842 \n\n\n1810 \n\n\n\n\n1781 \n\n\n1841 \n\n\n1814 \n\n\n\n\n1557 \n\n\n1634 \n\n\n1727 \n\n\n1801 \n\n\n1756 \n\n\n1832 \n\n\n742 \n\n\n814 \n\n\n1600 \n\n\n158K \n\n\n168? \n\n\n176j \n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL INDUE. \n\n\n\n9 1 \n\n\n\nS ATI B NAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nEnfr. Charles Edward, grandson of James II. and Pretender , \n\nFr , J. A. 0.| natural philosopher . . . \n\nFr. Charlevoix, Peter F. X., a Jesuit historian \n\nAmer. Chase, Philander, bisl. op of Prot. Kpis. Church, Ohio . \n\n..uner. , Salmon P., senator of United States and governor of Ohio \n\nFr. Cliasles, V. E. Philarete, miscellaneous writer . . . \n\nDutch. Chass6, David H., baron, military commander . . \n\nFr. Chastelet, Gabrielle, marchioness, scientific author . , \n\nFr. Chasteilux, F. J., marquis de, general and author \n\nFr. Chateaubriand, F. P., vicomte de, poet, statesman and traveller \n\nFr. Chatel. Abbe, Fer. F., theological reformer \n\nFr. Chatelej, 2 aul du Hay, lord of, (Bertrand Duguesclin) . \n\nEng. Chatharr, Wm. Pitt, earl of, statesman \n\nEng. Chattertoii, Thomas, famed for precocious learning . \n\nEng. Chaucer, Geoffrey, the father of English poetry . . \n\nAmer. Chauncay, Charles D. D., president of Harvard College \n\nAmer. , Commodore Isaac, naval commander . , \n\nAmer. Chesebro, Caroline, novelist and essayist \n\nAmer Cheever, Geo. B., congregational clergyman and author . \n\nEng. Cheselden, William, an eminent anatomist \n\nEng. Chesterfield, Philip D. Stanhope, earl of, statesman and writer \n\nItaL Cherubini, M. L. C, musical composer \n\nFr. Chevalier, Michael, engineer, traveller and statesman . \n\nFr. Chevreul, M. E., chemist .... \n\nAr er. Child, Lydia Maria, author of various works . . \n\nEn\xc2\xa3. Chillingworth, Wm., theologian and author \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2\' r. Chilo, Euphorus of Sparta, one of the seven wise men . f. \n\n^cner. Chipman, Nathaniel, jurist and statesman \n\nErg. Chitty, Joseph, author of numerous works on law . \n\nPol. Ohlopicki, J., military commander, dictator of Poland . \n\n.-.mer. Choate, Rufus, advocate, jurist and senator \n\nFr. Choiseul-Stainville C. A. G., duke of, statesman and author \n\nEng, Choules, John Overton, D. D., Baptist minister and author \n\nfewe. Christina, queen, (daughter of G. Adolphus) . \n\nAfr;c. Christophe, a slave, afterwards King of Hayti . \n\nGr. Chrysiphus, a stoic philosopher . . . B. \n\nOr. Chiysostom, John, Christian father and orator \n\nAmer. Church, Benj., military commander and author . \n\nEng. Churchill, Charles, a satirical poet . . . \n\nEng. Cibber, Colley, tragic and comic actor and poet \n\nRom. Cicero, Marcus Tullius, one of the greatest of orators . B, \n\nItal Cimarosa, Dominic, dramatic and music composer . \n\nGr. Cimon, an Athenian general .... \n\nRom. Cincinnatus, Lucius Quintius, the patriot . . f. B, \n\nRom. Cinna, Lucius, Cornelius, partisan of Marius . \xc2\xa3 b \n\nItaL Clrillo, Dominic, a botanist and physician \n\nAmer. Clair, Arthur St., a distinguished officer in the revolution , \n\nFr. Clairaut, Alexis Claude, geometrician \n\nAmer. Clap, Thomas, president of Yale College . , \n\nScot. Clapperton, Hugh, traveller in Africa . . \n\nEng. Clare, John, poet .... . \n\nBug. Clarendon, G. W. F., Villiers, earl of, statesman . \n\n\n\nBOBN. \n\n1720 \n1746 \n1682 \n1775 \n1808 \n1799 \n1765 \n1706 \n1734 \n1769 \n1795 \n1693 \n1708 \n1752 \n1328 \n\n\n\n1807 \n1688 \n1694 \n1760 \n1806 \n1786 \n1802 \n1602 \n. 598 \n1752 \n1776 \n1772 \n1799 \n1762 \n1801 \nl&W \n176\'. \n230 \n34-1 \n163S \n1731 \n1671 \n105 \n1754 \nI \n\n456 \n\n8\'* \n\n1734 \n\n1713 \n1703 \n1788 \n1703 \n1800 \n\n\n\nDIBB \n\n178? \n\n1826 \n1761 \n\n1852 \n\n\n\n1849 \n1749 \n1788 \n1848 \n185; \n\'638 \n1778 \n1770 \n1400 \n1671 \n1940 \n\n\n\n1752 \n1773 \n1840 \n\n\n\n1644 \n\n1843 \n1841 \n\n1854 \n1859 \n\n1856 \n\n1689 \n\n1820 \n\n207 \n\n407 \n\n1718 \n\n1764 \n\n1757 \n\nC. 43 \n\n1S01 \n\no. MO \n\n\n\n1799 \n1818 \n1783 \n1767 \n1827 \n\n\n\n9 2 \n\n\n\nTHE WORLD\'S PROGRESS. \n\n\n\nBAT101, NAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nAmcr. Clark, Louis Gaylord, editor of \' Knickerbocker* . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nAi:.t". , Willis Gay lord, poet and essayist . \n\nArr .r. , Wm,, general, explorer of Rocky Mountains . \n\nEi_g. Clarke, Dr. Adam, a celebrated theologian and commentator \n\nEng. , Dr. Edward Daniel, traveller and mineralogist \n\nAmer. Clarke, James Freeman, clergyman and author \n\nEng. , Mary Cowden, author of \' Concordance to Shakespeare, \n\nAirier. , McDonald \' the crazy poet,\' . . \n\nEng. , Rev. Samuel, \'Annotations on the Bible\' . \n\nEng. , Samuel D., theologian and philosopher . \n\nEue. - . , Sir James, medical author . . , \n\nEng. Clarkson, Thomas, philanthropist . * \n\nRot Claudius, Appius, decemvir ... \nEng. Claverhouse, John Graham of, Viscount Dundee \nSpan. Clavigero, Francis X., historian of Mexico . . \n\nAmer. Clay, Casaius M., anti-slavery politician \n\nAmer. , Clement C, ex-senator of U. S. from Alabama . \n\nA m er. , Henry, statesman and diplomatist . . \n\nAmer. Clayton, John, an eminent physician and botanist \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nAmer. Clayton, John M., senator and secretary of state . \nGr. Cleanthes, a stoic philosopher . . . \n\nAmer. Cleaveland, Parker, mineralogist and chemist \nAmer. Clemens, Jeremiah, U. S. senator from Alabama \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nClement, the name of 14 popes and 3 antipopes \n\nGr. , of Alexandria, a \' father of the church\' . \n\nGr. dementi, Muzio, musical composer . \n\nGr. Cleobolus, one of the seven wise men . . \n\nItal. Cleon, an Athenian politician and demagogue . \n\nEgypt. Cleopatra, a voluptuous queen . . . \n\nSwiss. Clerc, Jean le, theological writer \n\nFr. Arr . , Laurent, the oldest living teacher of deaf mates . \n\nAmer. Clinton, Dewitt, governor and benefactor of New York \n\nAmer. , James, general Amer. Rev. \n\nAmer. , George, governor of New York and vice-president of U \n\nEng. \'.live, Robert, lord, military commander \nFr. Cloquet, Hyppolite, (brother of Jules), anatomist . \nFr. Clot, or Clot-Bey, surgeon and medical writer in Egypt \n\nAmer. Gobb, Lyman, lexicographer and author . . , \n\nEng. Cobbett, William, political writer . \xe2\x80\xa2 , \n\nEng. Cobden, Richard, statesman and reformer . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nEng Cobham, Sir Jno. Oldcastle, lord, martyr . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nEng Cochrane, Earl Dundonald, naval commander . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nEng. Oodrington, Sir Edward, vice-admiral . . \n\nEng. Coffin, Sir Isaac, admiral, (b. in Nantucket) . . \n\nEng. Cogan, Thomas, physician and miscellaneous writer . \nEng. Ccke, Sir Edward, a learned judge . . . \n\nFr. Colbert, John Baptist, an eminent statesman . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nA.mer. Colburn, Warren, mathematician, arithmetician, &o. . \n\nAmer. , Zerah, precooious arithmetician \n\nImer. Colden, Cadwallader, an eminent botanist, astronomer, &o. \n\nAmer. , Cadwallador D., statesman, biographer of Pulton, &o. \n\n#ng. Coleridge, ffartley, author and poet \n\n\n\nBOSH. \n\n\nMBA \n\n\n1800 \n\n\n\n\n1810 \n\n\n1541 \n\n\n1770 \n\n\n183? \n\n\n1760 \n\n\n1833 \n\n\n1767 \n\n\n1821 \n\n\n1810 \n\n\n\n\n,\' &c. 1809 \n\n\n\n\n1798 \n\n\n1842 \n\n\n1627 \n\n\n1701 \n\n\n1675 \n\n\n172.; \n\n\n1761 \n\n\n1846 \n\n\n\n\nB. 0. 450 \n\n\n1627 \n\n\n1701 \n\n\n1720 \n\n\n1793 \n\n\n1810 \n\n\n\n\n1789 \n\n\n\n\n177T \n\n\n1852 \n\n\n171.5 \n\n\n1773 \n\n\n1796 \n\n\n1R5C \n\n\n. f. 260 \n\n\n\n\n1780 \n\n\n15S \n\n\n1814 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n220 \n\n\n\n\n1832 \n\n\n. f. 559 \n\n\n\n\n\n\nb. o 442 \n\n\n\n\nB. c. 30 \n\n\n1656 \n\n\n1756 \n\n\n1785 \n\n\n\n\n1769 \n\n\n18" \n\n\n1736 \n\n\n1812, \n\n\nr. S. 1739 \n\n\n\'81 \'4 \n\n\n1725 \n\n\n!T7i \n\n\n1787 \n\n\n\n\n1795 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n186& \n\n\n1762 \n\n\n1835 \n\n\n1804 \n\n\n1865 \n\n\n. 1360 \n\n\n1417 \n\n\n1775 \n\n\n1860 \n\n\n1770 \n\n\n1851 \n\n\n1759 \n\n\n1839 \n\n\n1736 \n\n\n1818 \n\n\n1549 \n\n\n1634 \n\n\n1619 \n\n\n1683 \n\n\n, 1793 \n\n\n1823 \n\n\n1804 \n\n\n1840 \n\n\n1688 \n\n\n1776 \n\n\n1769 \n\n\n1834 \n\n\n1797 \n\n\nHilt \n\n\n\nBIOGKAPUICAL INDEX. \n\n\n\n93 \n\n\n\nvinoi. \nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nFr- \n\nEng. \n\nBug. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nFr. \n\nAmor. \n\nEng \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nIta). \n\nScot. \n\nScot. \n\nFr. \n\nilex. \n\nAmer. \n\nFr. \n\nAmer. \n\nSpan. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nAmer. \n\nChin. \n\nEng. \n\nGr. \n\nAmer. \n\nFr. \n\nScot. \n\nFr. \n\nGr. \n\nGr. \n\nGr. \n\nIr. Am \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\n\n\nSAMS AND PROFESSION. \n\nColeridge, Henry Nelson, litterateur \n\n, Sarah, daughter of Samuel T., author \n\n, Samuel T., pool and metapb.ys.cian \n\nColigui, Gaspard de, admiral \n\nOollingwood, Cuthbert, lord, admiral \n\nCollins, William, a popular poet \n\nColeman, Benjamin, a learned divine, (in Boston) \n\n, George, dramatic writer . . \n\n, George, (the younger), dramatist \n\n\n\nBORN. \n\n(8ht.) 1800 \n1303 \n177" \n1 F 17 \n1743 \n1720 \n1673 \n1733 \n1762 \n\n(abt.) 1800 \n1788 \n1773 \n1818 \n1797 \n1441 \n1797 \n1778 \n1446 \n1812 \n1789 \n1798 \n1802 \n1800 \n1621 \n1715 \n1743 \n1785 \nB. c. 550 \n1772 \n\n\n\nColombat, de l\'lsere, medical writer \n\nColton, Calvin, clergyman and political writer \n\n, C. C, author of \'Lacon\' \n\n, George H., author of \' Tecumseh,\' dec. \n\n, Waiter, Rev. author of voyages and travels . \n\nColumbus, Christopher, the discoverer of America , \n\nCombe, Andrew, medical and physiological writer , \n\n, George, phrenologist and philosopher . . \n\nComines, Philip de, statesman and historian . . \n\nComonfort, Ygnacio, President of Mexico . . \n\nComstock, John L., author of popular school-books \n\nCompte, Auguste, metaphysician, founder of " Positivelsm " \n\nConant, Thomas J., D. D., biblical scholar and critic \n\nConcha, Jose de la, captain-general of Cuba . , \n\nConde, Louis II. of Bourbon \n\nCondillac, Stephen Bonnet de, metaphysical writer , \n\nCondorcet, M. J. A. N., Marquis of, metaphysician . \n\nCone, Spencer Houghton, baptist clergyman \n\nConfucius, a celebrated philosopher \n\nCongreve, Sir William, inventor of the \xe2\x80\xa2 Congreve rocket \' \n\nConon, an Athenian general .... ;>. \n\nConrad, Robert T., judge, politician and poet \xe2\x80\x9e . . I81i \n\nConsiderant, Victor, socialist philosopl er . . 180. r \n\nConstable, Archibald, publisher of Scott\'s poems, miscellany, &o. 1776 \n\nConstant, Benjamin, statesman and metaphysician . . 1767 \n\nConstantiue, (the Great), the first Christian emperor . 274 \n\n, VII., (Porphyrogenitus) emperor and author . 905 \n\n, XII. (Paleologus), the last of the Greek emperors 1403 \n\nConway, Thomas, maj. gen. in Revolution a \' cabaler,\' &c. . (abt. \n\nConybeare, Wiliiam D., clergyman and geologist , 1787 \n\n\xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 , William G. (son of the above), author of \' Life of St. Paul\' \n\nCook, Eliza, poetess ..... 1818 \n\n, James, a celebrated circumnavigator . . 1728 \n\nCooke, George F., an eminent actor . . . 1756 \n\n, George Mnsgrove, \' History of Party\' . . 1814 \n\n, John Esten, novelist and poet . . . 1830 \n\n, Philip P., poet ..... 1816 \n\n, T. P., actor .... . 1786 \n\nCooper, Bramsley, surgeon and author . . 1792 \n\n, James Fenimore, novelist, traveller and historian , 1789 \n\n, Peter, merchant and philanthropist founder of Institute 1791 \n\n, Samuel, D. D., a divine and political writer . . 1726 \n\nSir Astley Paxkm, physician and medic?" trrtwr , 1768 \n\n\n\n1844 \n1853 \nP>34 \n1573 \n1810 \n1758 \n1747 \n1784 \n1836 \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0".857 \n1832 \n1847 \n1861 \n1508 \n1847 \n1858 \n\n\n\n_d58 \n\n"Ml \n\n\n\n1683 \n\n1780 \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2794 \n\n1S55 \n\nr.828 \n;. 390 \n1856 \n\n1827 \n:<.830 \n337 \n959 \n1453 \n1778 \n1857 \n1857 \n\n1776 \n1812 \n186 r \n\nI860 \n1364 \n1453 \n1851 \n\n1783 \n184\' \n\n\n\n94 THE WORLD\'S PROttRfiSA. \n\nKAI10S, NAME AND PBOFESSION. \n\nEng. Cooper, Thomas, chemist, jurist, and politician (in Anier.) . \n\nEng. , Thomas A., acloi ..... \n\nIrish. Ooote, Sir Eyre, commander in India . . . \n\nPruss. Oope-nicus, Nicholas, a celebrated astronomer, the reviver of the \n\nPythagorean system of the universe \n\nEng. Copley, John Singleton, Lord Lymihurst (born in Boston, U.S.) \n\nFr. Corday d\'Armans, M. Charlotte de, guillotined in Revolution . \n\nGer. Corinna, a poetess, flourished in the fifteenth century before Christ \n\nRom. Coriolanus, Caius Marcius, a warrior .... \n\nFr. Cormenin, L. M. de la Haye, vicompte de, political writer \n\nItal. Cornaro, Louis, a noble author of a book on temperance , \n\nEng. Cornbury, Ed. Hyde, lord, governor of New York . . \n\nFr. Corneille, Peter, an eminent dramatic writer . . . \n\nFr. \xe2\x80\x94 , Thomas (brother of Peter), poet and dramatist . \n\nFr. Cornelli, Mark Vincent, a Venetian geographer and historian \n\nEng. Cornwallis, Charles, marquis, military com. in Amer. and India \n\nSpan Cortez, Fernando, the brutal conqueror of Mexico . \xe2\x80\x9e \n\nAmer. Corwin, Thomas, statesman, sec. of treasury, gov. of Ohio . \n\nItal. Cosmo I. de Medici, grand duke of Tuscany . \nItal. " II. " \xc2\xbb " . \n\nItal, " III. " \xc2\xab "... \n\nItal Costa, Paolo, litterateur ..... \nEng Costello, Dudley, author and journalist . \n\nIrish. , Louisa Stuart, author of memoirs \n\nDutch. Coster, John Lawrence, one of the supposed inventors of printing \n\nGer Cotta, Baron F., publisher and statesman . \n\nEng. Cottenham, C. J. Pepys, lord chancellor . . \n\nFr. Cottin, Sophie, Madame, a novelist .... \n\nEng. Cottle, Amos, versifier ..... \n\nEng. , Jos., publisher \' Recollections of Coleridge \' \n\nEng. Ccton, Charles, humorist and poet . . , \n\nAmer. , John (of Boston), a learned divine . . \n\nEng. , Sir Stapleton, Viscount Combermere, general . \n\nFr. Coulomb. Charles Augustine de, philosopher . . . \n\nFr. Eng. Courayer, P. Francis le, Koman Catholic theologian . \n\nFr. Courier, Paul Louis, poet and satirist .... \n\nFr. , Paul Louis, political writer . . . \n\nFr. Court de Gebelin, Anthony, an antiquarian and author \xe2\x80\xa2 . \n\nFr. Cousin, Louis, historian ..... \n\nEr. , Victor, statesman and metaphysician . . , \n\nEng. Coverdale, Miles, Bishop of Exeter, trans. Bible . . \n\nEng. Cowley, Abraham, poet ..... \n\nSag. Cowper, William, lord chancellor .... \n\nEng. , William, poet ..... \n\nAmer. Coxe, Arthur Cleveland, episcopal bishop and poet . . \n\nAmer. , Samuel H., presbyterian author and clergyman . \n\nAmer. Coxe, Tench, writer on political economy . . . \n\nEng. , William, traveller and historian . . , \n\nAmer. Cozzens, Fred S., author of essays and poems . , \n\nEng. Crabb, George, philologist, author of synonyms . . \n\nEng. Crabbe, Rev. George, poet \xe2\x80\xa2 . , \n\nBer. Cramer, John Andrew, miscellaneous writer . \xe2\x96\xa0 , . . \n\n\n\n0BH. \n\n\nBIBB \n\n\n1759 \n\n\n1844 \n\n\n1776 \n\n\n184* \n\n\n1726 \n\n\n1783 \n\n\n1473 \n\n\n1544 \n\n\n1772 \n\n\n1863 \n\n\n1768 \n\n\n1793 \n\n\nB. \n\n\nO. 488 \n\n\n1788 \n\n\n\n\n1467 \n\n\n1561 \n\n\n\n\n1723 \n\n\n1606 \n\n\n1684 \n\n\n1625 \n\n\n1708 \n\n\n\n\n1718 \n\n\n1738 \n\n\n1805 \n\n\n1485 \n\n\n1554 \n\n\n1794 \n\n\n\n\n1519 \n\n\n1594 \n\n\n1590 \n\n\n16-21 \n\n\n1642 \n\n\n1723 \n\n\n1771 \n\n\n1836 \n\n\n1803 \n\n\n1865 \n\n\n1815 \n\n\n\n\n1370 \n\n\n1440 \n\n\n1764 \n\n\n1832 \n\n\n1781 \n\n\n1851 \n\n\n1773 \n\n\n1807 \n\n\n\n\n1800 \n\n\n1770 \n\n\n1853 \n\n\n1630 \n\n\n1687 \n\n\n1585 \n\n\n1652 \n\n\n1773 \n\n\n1865 \n\n\n1736 \n\n\n1806 \n\n\n1681 \n\n\n1776 \n\n\n1772 \n\n\n1S25 \n\n\n1774 \n\n\n1825 \n\n\n1725 \n\n\n1784 \n\n\n1627 \n\n\n1707 \n\n\n1792 \n\n\n1867 \n\n\n1485 \n\n\n1565 \n\n\n1618 \n\n\n1667 \n\n\n1664 \n\n\n1723 \n\n\n1731 \n\n\n1800 \n\n\n1818 \n\n\n\n\n1793 \n\n\n\n\n1756 \n\n\n1824 \n\n\n1747 \n\n\n1828 \n\n\n1818 \n\n\n\n\n1778 \n\n\n1854 \n\n\n1754 \n\n\n1832 \n\n\n1728 \n\n\nn\xc2\xab \n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. \n\n\n\n95 \n\n\n\nRATIOS. IAMB AND FBOFESSIOR". \n\nEng. Cramer, J. Baptist, musical composer . . , \n\nEng. , Francis, " \xc2\xab\xe2\x80\xa2 . , \n\nAmer. Cranch, "Wm. jurist, judge U. S. District Court D. 0. . \n\nEng. Cranmer, Thomas, a celebrated reformer . , \n\nEng. Crashaw, Richard, poet and divine . . . \n\nRom. Crassus, Marcus Lucinius, (the rich) military commander \nAmer. Crawford, William B.., statesman and jurist . . \n\nFr Crebillon, Prosper Jolyot de, tragic poet . , \n\nGer. Oeuzer, Geo. Fred., philologist and antiquary . . \n\nFr. Crevier, John Baptist Lewis, historian . . \n\nCrcesus, King of Lydia, famed for riches . . . \n\nEng. Croft, Wm., musical doctor and composer . . \n\nIrish. Croker, John Wilson, statesman and author . . \n\nIrish. , Thos. Crofton, author of \' Fairy Legends,\' &o. \n\nEng. Croly, Rev. George, poet and novelist . . , \n\nEng. Cromweli, Oliver, military commander and statesman . \n\nEng. , Thomas, earl of Essex, successor to Wolsey , \n\nEng. Crowe, Catherine, author of \'Nightside of Nature\' . \nEng. Cruikshank, George, artist, chiefly caricature . . \n\nEng. - , Robert, humorous artist \n\nScot Cruden, Alexander, author of a \' Concordance to the Bible \xe2\x80\xa2 \nEng. Cudworth, Ralph, philosopher \n\nAmer. Cuffee, Paul, philanthropic sea-captain . . . \n\nScot. Cullen, William, an eminent physician . , \n\nEng. Cumberland, Richard, a multifarious writer . . \n\nEng. , William Augustus, duke of, military commander \n\nScot. Cumming, John, popular preacher and theological author . \n\nScot. , Rouallyn W. G., sportsman, traveller, and author \n\nScot. Cunningham, Allan, poet, biographer, &c. . . \n\nIrish. Curran, John Philpot, a celebrated barrister and orator \nAmer. Curtis, Benj. R., jurist and judge of Supreme Court U. 8. \n\nAmer. , Geo. Ticknor, political writer and jurist . . \n\nAmer. , Geo. Wm., essayist, traveller, and critio \n\nRom. Curtius, Rufus Quintus, historian. . . , \n\nAmer. Cushing, Caleb, statesman and jurist . . \n\nAmer. Cushman, Charlotte S., actress .... \n\nE. Am. , Robert, one of the founders of Plymouth . \n\nAmer. Custis, Geo. W. Parke, adopted son of Washington . \n\nFr. Cuvier, George, baron, one of the greatest of naturalists \nFr. , Fred., (brother of the baron) naturalist \n\nCyprian, bishop of Carthage, an eminent father of the church \n\nCyril, of Alexandria, saint and patriarch, and theol. writer . \n\n, of Jerusalem, saint and archbishop, and author . \n\n, St., the apostle of the Sclavi . . . \n\nPers. Cyrus, the Elder, founder of the Persian empire \n\nPers. , the Younger, (son of Darius Nothus) king of Persia . \n\nPol. CzartorysM, Adam, prince, head of the Polish nation. \n\n\n\nFr. Dacler, Anne, a celebrated classical scholar . \n\nFr. Daguerre, Louis J. M., Inventor of daguerreotyplng \nAmer. Dahlgren, John A., naval officer and author . \n\n\n\nBORN. \n\n\nIIBT. \n\n\n1771 \n\n\n185!; \n\n\n1772 \n\n\n184? \n\n\n1779 \n\n\n1855 \n\n\n1489 \n\n\n1556 \n\n\n\n\n1650 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 B \n\n\n0. 53 \n\n\n1772 \n\n\n1824 \n\n\n1674 \n\n\n1762 \n\n\n1771 \n\n\n1858 \n\n\n1693 \n\n\n1"63 \n\n\nb. o. 6th Cent. \n\n\n1657 \n\n\n1727 \n\n\n1780 \n\n\n1357 \n\n\n1798 \n\n\n1854 \n\n\n1780 \n\n\n1360 \n\n\n1599 \n\n\n1658 \n\n\n1490 \n\n\n*540 \n\n\n1780 \n\n\n\n\n1794 \n\n\n1856 \n\n\n1701 \n\n\n1770 \n\n\n1617 \n\n\n1S88 \n\n\n1759 \n\n\n1818 \n\n\n1712 \n\n\n1730 \n\n\n1732 \n\n\n1811 \n\n\n1721 \n\n\n1765 \n\n\n1810 \n\n\n\n\n1820 \n\n\n\n\n1768 \n\n\n1842 \n\n\n1750 \n\n\nis 1 : \n\n\n1809 \n\n\n\n\n1812 \n\n\n\n\n1824 \n\n\n\n\n1800 \n\n\n\n\n1816 \n\n\n\n\n1580 \n\n\n1615 \n\n\n1781 \n\n\n1857 \n\n\n1769 \n\n\n1832 \n\n\n1773 \n\n\n1838 \n\n\n\n\n258 \n\n\n376 \n\n\n444 \n\n\n315 \n\n\n380 \n\n\n\n\n822 \n\n\n. B. \n\n\n0. 559 \n\n\nS. \n\n\n0. 400 \n\n\n. 1770 \n\n\n186* \n\n\n1661 \n\n\n172* \n\n\n. 1789 \n\n\n186. \n\n\n\n9 6 \n\n\n\nTHE WORLD\'S PROGRESS. \n\n\n\nHA.HOH. KAME AND PROFESSION \n\nAmer. Dahlgien, CoL Ulr c, milit. officer \n\nSwe. Dahlman, Fred C, historian \n\nAiner. Dale, Richard, commodore in Revol. war \n\nBvve. Dalin, Claus von, the father of Swedish poetry \n\nAmer. Dallas, Commodore A. J., naval commander . \n\nAmer. , Geo., M., vice-pres. U. S. and diplomatist \n\nAmer. , John Alexander, secretary treasury U. 3. \n\nEng. Dalton, John, chemist and mathematician . \n\nGer. Damm, Christian Tobias, Greek lexicographer \n\nEng. Dampier, William, an eminent navigator \n\nAmer. Dana, James D., mineralogist, geologist, Ac. \xc2\xab \n\nAmer. , Richard H., poet and essayist \n\nAmer. , Richard H. Jr., advocate and traveller \n\nAmer. , Samuel L., agricultural chemist \n\nVenet. Dandolo, Enrico, doge of Venice . . \n\nAmer. Dane, Nathan, jurist and legal author \n\nEng. Daniell, John F., chemist .... \n\nEng. , W., R. A., author of pictorial works on India . \n\nGer. Dannecker, sculptor (\' Ariadne,\' &c.) . . \n\nItaL Dante Alighieri, the sublimest of the Italian poets . \n\nFr. Danton, Geo. Jacques, leading revolutionist . \n\nItal. Da Ponte, Lorenzo, poet and dramatist (d. at N. Y.) . \n\nEng. D\'Arblay, Madame, (Fanny Burney) novelist . \n\nEng. Darling, Grace, famed for rescue of nine persons wrecked . \n\nAmer. Darlington, Wm., botanist and politician . \n\nEng. Daubeny, Chas. J. B., natural philos. and geologist \n\nAust. Daun, Leopold Joseph Mary count de, military commander . \n\nFr. Duunou, P. C. F., statesman and litterateur \n\nEng. Davenant, Sir Wm., dramatist . \n\nAmer. Davidson, Lucretia M., a youthful poetess of uncommon genius \n\nAmer. Davidson, Margaret Miller (sister of above), poet \n\nAmer. Davies, Charles, mathematician .... \n\n, Samuel, president of Princeton College, theol. writer \n\nItal. Davila, Henry Catharine, an historian \n\nAmer. Davis, Andrew J., clairvoyant and writer on spiritualism \n\nAmer. 1 Charles H., mathematician and naval officer \n\nAmer. > Jefferson, general and U. 8. senator from Mississippi \n\nEng. f John, a navigator, discoverer of Davis Straits . \n\nAmer. , Matthew L., biographer of Burr, &c. \n\nFr. Davoust, Louis N., one of Bonaparte\'s generals . . \n\nEng. Davy, Sir Humphrey, eminent chemist \n\nA mer. Day, Stephen, the first printer in New England . . \n\nAmer. Dayton, Wm. Lewis, jurist and statesman \n\nAmer. Deane, Silas, minister of the U. S. to France . . \n\nAmer Dearborn, Henry, a distinguished officer of the two American wars 1751 \n\nAme - De Bow, J. D. B., journalist and statistician \n\nFr. Debruce, "William Francis, a bookseller and bibliographer \n\nSwiss. Decandolle, A. P., botanist \n\nAmer. Decatur, Stephen, a gallant commodore in the U. S. navy \n\nEng. Decker. Thomas, dramatic poet \n\nEng. Dee, John, mathematician and astrologer \n\nEng. Defoe, Daniel, miscellaneous writer . . \n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa20AM. \n\n\nDIM* \n\n\n1842 \n\n\n1864 \n\n\n1785 \n\n\n\n\n1756 \n\n\n182- \n\n\n1708 \n\n\n1753 \n\n\n1791 \n\n\n1844 \n\n\n1792 \n\n\n\n\n1759 \n\n\n1817 \n\n\n1766 \n\n\n1844 \n\n\n1699 \n\n\n1778 \n\n\n1652 \n\n\n1711 \n\n\n1813 \n\n\n\n\n1787 \n\n\n\n\n1815 \n\n\n\n\n1795 \n\n\n\n\n1110 \n\n\n1205 \n\n\n1752 \n\n\n1835 \n\n\n1790 \n\n\n1845 \n\n\n\n\n1837 \n\n\n1758 \n\n\n1841 \n\n\n1265 \n\n\n1321 \n\n\n1759 \n\n\n1794 \n\n\n1749 \n\n\n1838 \n\n\n1752 \n\n\n1840 \n\n\n1815 \n\n\n1842 \n\n\n1782 \n\n\n\n\n1705 \n\n\n1766 \n\n\n1761 \n\n\n1840 \n\n\n1605 \n\n\n1688 \n\n\n1808 \n\n\n1840 \n\n\n1823 \n\n\n1838 \n\n\n1798 \n\n\n\n\n1724 \n\n\n1761 \n\n\n1576 \n\n\n1631 \n\n\n1826 \n\n\n\n\n1807 \n\n\n\n\n1808 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1605 \n\n\n1766 \n\n\n1850 \n\n\n1770 \n\n\n1823 \n\n\n1778 \n\n\n1829 \n\n\n1611 \n\n\n1663 \n\n\n1807 \n\n\n\n\n1758 \n\n\n1789 \n\n\nrars 1751 \n\n\n1829 \n\n\n1820 \n\n\n\n\n1731 \n\n\n1782 \n\n\n1778 \n\n\n1841 \n\n\n1779 \n\n\n1820 \n\n\n\n\n1638 \n\n\n1527 \n\n\n1618 \n\n\n1661 \n\n\n1781 \n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. \n\n\n\n97 \n\n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0ATIOH. SAME AND PBOFESSION. \n\nG. Am. DeKalb, John, baron, raaj.-gon. in Am. revoL army \n\nEng. De la Beche, Sir Henry T., geologist \n\nFr. Delambre, John Baptist Joseph, astronomer , \n\nAmer. Delancey, William H., Epis. Bishop West New York \n\nFr. Delavigne, Casimir, dramatist .... \n\nFr. Delille, James, a celebrated poet . . \n\nFr. Delisle, Joseph Nicholas, an eminent astronomer . . \n\nSwiss. Delolme, Jean L., author of a work on the English Constitution \n\nSwisz. Deluc, Jean Andre, natural philosopher \n\nPol. Dembinski, Henry K., general in Hungarian revolt \n\nDemetrius Phalereus, Athenian orator and statesman . \n\n\n\n-, Poliorcetes, one of the successors of Alex, the Great \n\n\n\nDemocritus, a celebrated philosopher \nDe Morgan, Augustus, mathematician . . \n\nDemosthenes, one of the greatest of orators \nDenham, Lieut.-Col. Dixon, an enterprising traveller \nDenina, Charles John Maria, an historian \nDenman, Thomas, lord chief justice of England . \nDennie, author and editor of \' Portfolio,\' &c. \n\n\n\nGr. \n\nMaced. \nGr. \n\nEng. \nGr. \n\nEng. \n\nItal. \n\nEng. \n\nAm el \n\nAmer. Dennis, John, critic, embalmed in \' Dunciad \' \n\nFr. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nRuse. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nAfric, \n\n\n\nD\'Eon, Chevalier, equerry to Louis XV. . \n\nDeQuincy, Thomas, essayist and critic . . \n\nDerby, Edw. G. S. Stanley, fourteenth earl of, statesmar, \n\nDerzhavine, Gabriel R., a poet and statesman \n\nDe6aix, Louis Charles Anthony, military commander . \n\nDescartes, Rene, an eminent philosopher . \n\nDesmoulins, Camille, revolutionist and author . \n\nDessalines, John James, Emperor of Hayti . \n\nDe Soto, Fernando, discoverer of the Mississippi \n\nDestouches, Philip Nericault, dramatic writer \nDutch. Deurhoff, William, founder of a sect, and an author \nDan. Am. De Vere, Maximilian Scheie, philologist and essayist \nEng. Devereux, Robert, third Earl of Essex, parliamentary genei \n\nDe Vigny, Alfred, count, poet and novelist \n\nDewees, W. P., medical writer \n\nDe Wette, William M. L., theologian and biblical critic \n\nDewey, Orville, Unitarian divine and essayist \nDutch. De Witt, John, an eminent statesman \nPort. Diaz, Bartholomew, discoverer of the Cape of Good Hope \n\n, del Castillo, Bernal, adventurer and chronicler \n\nDibdin, Charles, a dramatic and musical composer . \n\n, Thomas (son of Charles), dramatist and song writer \n\n, Thomas Frognall, bibliographer \n\n\n\nFr. \n\n\n\nFr. \n\nAmer. \nGer. \nAmer. \n\n\n\nSpan. \nEng. \nEng. \nEng. \nBoot. \nEng. \n\n\n\nDick, Thomas, author of \' Christian Philosopher\' \nDickens, Charles, novelist \n\n\n\nAmer. Dickinson, Daniel S., statesman \n\n\n\nAmer. \n\nFt. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \nFt. \n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\x94 John, author of \' Farmer\'s Letters * \n\n\n\nDiderot, Denis, first editor of Encyclopedie Methodique\' \nDidot, Francis A., a celebrated printer and type-founder \n\nt Firmin, publisher and men ber of Deputies \n\n, Amb. Firmin, publisher and traveller \n\n\n\nEgypt. Didymus, who wrote from 3,000 to 6,000 works \n\n\n\n\xc2\xbboas. \n1132 \n1796 \n1749 \n1797 \n1794 \n1738 \n1688 \n1740 \n1727 \n1791 \nb. c. 345 \n\nB. c. 460 \n\n1806 \nB. c. 381 \n\n1786 \n\'.73 \n\nID? \n1767 \n1728 \n1786 \n1799 \n1743 \n1768 \n1596 \n1762 \n1760 \n1500 \n1680 \n1650 \n1820 \n1592 \n1799 \n1768 \n17*) \n1794 \n1625 \n\n>bt ) 1560 \n1748 \n1771 \n1770 \n1772 \n1812 \n1S00 \n1732 \n1713 \n1730 \n1764 \n179U \nt a. c. SO \n\n\n\nOIBD \n\n1780 \n1855 \n1822 \n186- \n1843 \n1813 \n1768 \n1806 \n1817 \n1864 \nB. o. 283 \nB. 0. 283 \n\n\n\nj. 0. 322 \n1828 \n1813 \n1854 \n1812 \n1783 \n1810 \n1859 \n\n1816 \n1800 \n1H50 \n1794 \n1806 \n1542 \n1754 \n1717 \n\n1646 \n1863 \n1841 \n1849 \n\n1672 \n1500 \n\n1814 \n1841 \n1847 \n1859 \n\n1865 \n1808 \n1784 \n1804 \n1\xc2\xabM \n\n\n\nTHE WOBLD\'S PROGRESS. \n\n\n\nRATIOS. \n\nPruss. \nGer. \n\nBpan. \n\nEng. \n\nGer. \n\nMaced. \n\nRom. \n\nGr. \n\nSwiss. \n\nGr. \n\nGr. \n\nGr. \n\nGr. \n\nGr \n\nG~. \n\nGr. \n\nGr. \n\nGr. \n\nGr. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nGer. \n\nSpan. \n\nRom. \n\nScot. \n\nItal. \n\nItal. \n\nEng- \n\nEng. \n\nItal. \n\nAmer. \n\nFr. En \n\nHind. \n\nEng. \n\nScot. \n\nAmer. \n\nScot. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nGr. \n\nBug. \n\n\n\nNAJfa AHD PROFESSION. \n\nDiebitsch-ZabaJkansky, count, military commander \n\nDiffenbach, John Fred., surgeon and surgical author \n\nDiez, John Martin, a patriotic military commander \n\nDilke, Charles W., journalist, editor of Aihenaeum\' \n\nDindorf, William, philologist \n\nDinocrates, an architect; built Alexandria, <fcc. \n\nDiocletian, Valerius, emperor \n\nDio-Ohrysostom, a rhetorician and philosopher \n\nDiodati, Giovanni, theologian, translator of Bible . \n\nDiodorus Siculus, a historian \n\nDiogenes, the cynic, philosopher. \n\n, Laertius, biographer . , . \n\nDion-Cassius, author of \xc2\xab Roman History \' . \n\nDionysius, a geographer . \n\n, of Alexandria, saint and bishop of the Church \n\n, the Areopagite, learned Athenian Christian \n\n\xe2\x80\x94 , the elder, tyrant of Syracuse \n\n, of Halicarnassus, critic and historian . \n\n, the younger, tyrant of Syracuse . \n\nDisraeli, Isaac, \'Curiosities of Literature\' \n\nDix, D\'r thea L., philanthropist, founder of asylums . \n\n, John Adams, U. S. senator from New York, &c. \n\nDixon, Y \'lliam Fepworth, author and critic . . 1821 \n\nDoane, jreo. W., Prot. Epis. Bishop of New Jersey, poet, &o. . 1799 \n\nDobell, r> dviey, poet ..... 1824 \n\nDodd, Dr. ^ illiam, miscellaneous writer (executed for forgery) 1729 \n\nDoddridge, ihL\'ip, a gifted and pious divine and writer . 1702 \n\n1703 \n1780 \n1170 \n62 \n1800 \n1383 \n1797 \n1573 \n1798 \n1468 \n\n\n\nBORN \n\n\n\n\nDl8,"j \n\n\n1785 \n\n\n\n\n1831 \n\n\n1792 \n\n\n\n\n1841 \n\n\n1775 \n\n\n\n\n1823 \n\n\n1810 \n\n\n\n\n1864 \n\n\n1802 \n\n\n\n\n\n\nf, b C. 350 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n245 \n\n\n\n\n313 \n\n\nf. b. c. 30 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1576 \n\n\n\n\n1649 \n\n\nf. B. o. 10 \n\n\n\n\n\n\nb. o. 413 \n\n\nB. \n\n\n0.323 \n155 \n\n\nf.140 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n265 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n. A. D. 1st \n\n\ncent. \n\n\nB. o. 430 \n\n\nB. \n\n\n0.367 \n53 \n\n\nB. O. 367 \n\n\nB. \n\n\n0.343 \n\n\n1767 \n\n\n\n\n1848 \n\n\n\nDodslej, Bibert, publisher and author \n\nDoeberefinc, J W., chemist .... \n\nDominic De juzman, founder of preaching friars . \n\nDomitian, e\'nperor ..... \n\nDon, David, ootanist .... \n\nDonatsllo (/ cneto di Bel-lodi Bardi) sculptor , \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nDonizetti, Gaetano, musical composer . . \n\nDonne, John, poet and theologian . , . \n\nDonovan, Edward, writer on natural history . , \n\nDoria, Andrew, the deliverer of his country, (Genoa) . \n\nDorr, Tr cmas "W., politician, elected (?) governor of Rhode Island 1805 \n\nD\'Orsay, Couiit Alfred, author, artist, and \' beau\' . 1798 \n\nDost-Mo\'m mmed, emir of Caboo . 1785 \n\nDouce, Fir ncis, antiquarian and author . . . 1762 \n\nDouglas, Gawin, a poet and translator . . . 1474 \n\n, Frederick, abolitionist, politician and editor . 1817 \n\nSir Howard, general, military and naval author - 1776 \n\n, Stephen Arnold, United States senator from Illinois 1813 \n\nDow, Lorenzo, an eccentric preacher .... 1777 \nDownes, John, commodore in the United States navy . 1786 \n\nDowning, Andrew J., author of works on landscape gardening \n\nand horticulture . . . . . 1815 \n\nDowse, Thomas, a leather dresser, collector of a rare library 1772 \n\nDraco, an Athenian legislator ... f. 623 \n\nDrake Dr. Nathan, physician and essayist . . 1766 \n\n\n\n1859 \n\n1777 \n1756 \n1764 \n\n1221 \n93 \n1840 \n1466 \n1848 \n1631 \n1837 \n1560 \n1854 \n18. r :2 \n1863 \n1834 \n1521 \n\n1861 \n1861 \n1834 \n1855 \n\n1851 \n185\xc2\xab \n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, \n\n\n\n99 \n\n\n\nRATIO* \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nE. Am. \n\nEng. \n\nDutch. \n\nEng. \n\nFr \n\nFr. \n\nScot. \n\nEng. \n\nScot \n\nRom. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nSwiss. \n\nFr. \n\nScot. \n\nScot. \n\nScot \n\nScot \n\nScot. \n\nScot \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nScot. \n\nEng. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nAmer. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nOer. \n\n\n\nNAME AND .PROFESSION. \n\nDrake, Joseph Rodman, poet \n\n. Samuel G., historian of the Indians, Boston, Ao \n\n, Sir Francis, a celebrated circumnavigator . \n\nDraper, John W., chemist and physiologist \n\nDrayton, Michael, poet, \'Poly-olbion\' \n\nDrebbel, Cornelius van, inventor of the thermometer \n\nDrew, Samuel, methodist divine and theological author \n\nDrouyn de l\'Huys, Edward, statesman \n\nDroz, Joseph, historical and political writer \n\nDrummond, Captain Thomas, inventor of Drummond lights \n\n, Sir William, scholar, author and diplomatist \n\n\n\n-, William, poet \n\n\n\nDrusus, Claudius Nero, general in Gaul and Germany \n\nDryden, John, an eminent poet . \n\nDuane, William, politician and author of \' Aurora \' \n\nDucange, Charles Dufresne, historian and philologist \n\nDucas, Michael, Byzantine historian . . . \n\nDuehatel, C. M. T., count, statesman and author . \n\nDuchesne, Andrew, a historian \n\nDuclos, Charles Pineau, an historian \n\nDuganne, Augustine J. H., poet, novelist and politician \n\nDugdale, Sir William, antiquarian author . . \n\nDuguesclin, Bertrand, military commander . . \n\nDuhalde, Jean B., geographer \n\nDumas, Alexandre, novelist, traveller, &c \n\n, Alexandre, (the younger), novelist and dramatist \n\n, J. B., chemist .... \n\nDumont d\'Urville, J. 8. C, circumnavigator . \n\nDumont, John, traveller and political writer . \n\n, P. S. L., writer on legislation \n\nDomouriez, Charles Francis Duperier, military commander \nDunbar, George, professor at Edinburgh, \'Greek Lexicon\' \n\n, William, poet .... \n\nDuncan, Adam, viscount, successful admiral . \n\n, William, logician and translator \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nDundas, Henry, Viscount Melville, statesman \nDundonald, Earl of, (\' Lord Cochrane \') admiral \nDunglisson, Robiey, M. D., medical author . . \n\nDunlap, William, painter and historian \nDunning, John, Lord Ashburton, lawyer \nDuns Scotus, John, scholastic theologian . \nDunstan, Saint, ahhot of Glastonbury and politician \nDupin, A. M. J. J., jurist and statesman . \n\n, Charles, baron, jurist and statesman . . \n\n, Louis Elie, an ecclesiastical historian \n\nDuponceau, P. S., philologist, jurist, &c., (at Philadelphia) \n\nDupont, Samuel Francis, admiral . \n\nDupuytren, surgeon and anatomist \n\nDuquesne, Abraham, a gallant admiral . . \n\nDurand, Asher Brown, painter and engrave; . \n\nDurbin, John P., methodist divme and author . \n\nDurer, Albert, painter and engtaver . . \n\n\n\n\n\nBORN. \n\n\n">rg-> \n\n\n\n\n1795 \n\n\n1S2J \n\n\n\n\n1798 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1545 \n\n\n15W \n\n\n\n\n1811 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1563 \n\n\n16?i \n\n\n\n\n1572 \n\n\n1604 \n\n\n\n\n1765 \n\n\n183; \n\n\n\n\n1806 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1773 \n\n\niS5C \n\n\ns \n\n\n1797 \n\n\n1840 \n\n\n\n\n1760 \n\n\n1835 \n\n\n\n\n1585 \n\n\n1.649 \n\n\n\n\nB c. 38 \n\n\n\xc2\xa3 \n\n\n\n\n1631 \n\n\n1700 \n\n\n\n\n1760 \n\n\n1835 \n\n\n\n\n1610 \n\n\n1688 \n\n\n\n\n. 15th cent \n\n\n\n\n.803 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1584 \n\n\n1640 \n\n\n\n\n1704 \n\n\n1722 \n\n\n\n\n1823 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1605 \n\n\n1686 \n\n\n\n\n1314 \n\n\n1380 \n\n\n\n\n1674 \n\n\n1743 \n\n\n\n\n1803 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1824 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1800 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1790 \n\n\n1842 \n\n1726 \n\n\n\n\n1759 \n\n\n1829 \n\n\nr \n\n\n1730 \n\n\n1823 \n\n\n\n\n1774 \n\n\n1851 \n\n\n\n\n1465 \n\n\n1535 \n\n\n\n\n1731 \n\n\n1804 \n\n\n\n\n1714 \n\n\n1760 \n\n\n\n\n1741 \n\n\n1811 \n\n\n\n\n1775 \n\n\n1860 \n\n\n\n\n1798 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1766 \n\n\n1839 \n\n\n\n\n1731 \n\n\n1783 \n\n\n\n\n1.274 \n\n\n1308 \n\n\n\n\n925 \n\n\n988 \n\n\n\n\n1783 \n\n\n1865 \n\n\n\n\n1784 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1637 \n\n\n1719 \n\n\n\n\n1760 \n\n\n1844 \n\n\n\n\n1803 \n\n\n1865 \n\n\n\n\n1778 \n\n\n1835 \n\n\n\n\n1610 \n\n\n1638 \n\n\n\n\n1796 \n\n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n1800 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1471 \n\n\niOiS \n\n\n\nTHE WORLD\'S PROGRESS. \n\n\n\nKiTIOK. NAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nAmer. Durfee, Job, priest and author .... \n\nEng. Durfey, Thomas, dramatic author \n\nEug. Durham, J. G., Lambton, earl of, governor-general of Canada \n\nFr. Duroc, Michael, Duke of Friuli, military commander \n\nAmer. Dwight, Dr. Timothy, an eminent divine and writer \n\nAmer. , Theo., author and journalist \n\namer. , The\xc2\xa9., (son of the above), ethnologist and historian \n\nAmer. Duyckinck, Evert Aug., author and critic \n\nAmer. , Geo. Long, author and critic . . \n\nScot. Dye 3, Alex., author and critic . . \n\nEng. Dyer, John, poet, \'The Fleece\' \n\nEng. Dvmond, Jona, writer on ethics and philanthropist \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n\nBOKB. \n\n\nDIED \n\n\n1790 \n\n\n1841 \n\n\n1628 \n\n\n172E \n\n\n1792 \n\n\n184C \n\n\n1772 \n\n\n1813 \n\n\n1752 \n\n\n1817 \n\n\n1765 \n\n\n184b \n\n\n\n\n1866 \n\n\n1816 \n\n\n\n\n1823 \n\n\n1863 \n\n\n1797 \n\n\n\n\n1700 \n\n\n1758 \n\n\n1796 \n\n\n1720 \n\n\n\nAmer. ^astburn, Manton, Episcopal Bishop of Mass. . . \n\nEng. Eastlake, Sir Charles L., painter and art-critic . \n\nAmer. Eaton, Amos, botanist ..... \n\nAmer. , Wm., military officer and consul in Africa . \n\nGer. Fckenoan, John Peter, litterateur \n\nAmer. Eckfurd, 7Ienry, eminent shipbuilder . . . . \n\nGer. Eckhard, John George, an antiquary and historian . \n\nIrish. Edgeworth, Maria, novelist . . . . \n\nEng. Edward, the Black Prince, a warrior . . . \n\nAmer. , i ula B., theologian and miscellaneous author . . \n\nEng. Edwards, 73-yan, an historian .... \n\nAmer. \' ohn W., jurist and writer on spiritualism . . \n\niimer. , jcnathau, an able divine and metaphysician \n\n, Milne, (son of W. F.,) naturalist \n\n, W. IP., anatomist and physiologist (born at Jamaica) \n\nGer. Eginhard, &c historian, biographer of Charlemagne \n\nFlem. Egmont, 7 amoral, count, patriot and martyr . . \n\nGer. Ehrenberg, C. J., naturalist ..... \n\nGer. Eiehbom, F 0., theologian and jurist . . . \n\nEng. Eldon, L. :J, lord chancellor of England \n\nScot. Elgin, T., 3ruce, earl of, diplomatist \xe2\x80\x94 remover of \' Elgin\' marbles \n\nEng. Elizabeth, queen ...... \n\nAmer. Eliot, Sarjjel, author of \' History of Liberty\' \n\nEng. Ellenboro\':gh, Edw. Law, lord chief-justice . . \n\nEng. , Edw. L., earl of, governor-general of India \n\nAmer. EMery, Wm., signer of Declaration of Independence \n\nEng. Ellesmere. Fr., Egerton, earl of, statesman and author \n\nAmer. Ellet, Eliza F., biographer and critic \n\nAmer. Elliot, John, \'the apostle to the Indians\' . \n\nEng. Elliotson, John, physician and physiologist . . (abt.) \n\nAmer. Elliott, Charles Loring, portrait painter \n\nAmer. Charles Wyllys, author of \' History of New England\' \n\nEng. , Ebenezer, poet \' Corn Law Rhymes\' \n\nAmer. , J. D., commodore ir American navy \n\nAmer. , Stephen, naturalist ...\xc2\xbb \n\nAmer Ellis, Geo. E., Unitarian clergyman ana autr.or \n\nKd.8- \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 ; Sir Henrv- antionary and author \n\n\n\n1801 \n\n\n\n\n1793 \n\n\n\n\n1776 \n\n\n1842 \n\n\n1764 \n\n\n1811 \n\n\n1792 \n\n\n1852 \n\n\n1775 \n\n\n1832 \n\n\n1674 \n\n\n1730 \n\n\n1767 \n\n\n1849 \n\n\n1330 \n\n\n1376 \n\n\n1802 \n\n\n\n\n1743 \n\n\n1800 \n\n\n1799 \n\n\n\n\n1703 \n\n\n1757 \n\n\n1777 \n\n\n\n\n771 \n\n\n840 \n\n\n1552 \n\n\n1568 \n\n\n1795 \n\n\n\n\n1781 \n\n\n1854 \n\n\n1750 \n\n\n1838 \n\n\n1771 \n\n\n1841 \n\n\n1533 \n\n\n1603 \n\n\n1821 \n\n\n\n\n1750 \n\n\n1818 \n\n\n1790 \n\n\n\n\n1727 \n\n\n1820 \n\n\n1800 \n\n\n1857 \n\n\n1604 \n\n\n169u \n\n\n1795 \n\n\n\n\n1812 \n\n\n\n\n1817 \n\n\n\n\n1781 \n\n\n\n\n1785 \n\n\nim \n\n\n1771 \n\n\n1&30 \n\n\n1815 \n\n\n\n\n1777 \n\n\n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. \n\n\n\nRATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nEng Ellis, Wm. Rev., missionary and author . . (abt, \n\nEng. Elliston, Robert "W., actor .... \n\nAmer. Ellsworth, Elmer E., military offloer in Union army . \n\nAmer. , Oliver, a distinguished chief-justice of the U. S. \n\nEng. Elmes, James, architect and author . . , \n\nScot. Elphinstone, Mount Stuart, history of India . , \n\nFr. Elesler, Fanny, danseuse .... \n\nDutch. Elzevir, Louis M. G. B., and A., printers 16th and 17th centuries \n\nAmer. Embury, Emma E., poet .... \n\nAmer. Emerson, Geo. B., educator and author . . , \n\nAmer. , Ralph "Waldo, poet and essayist . . \n\nEng. "William, a distinguished mathematician . , \n\nIrish. Emmet, Robert, \' United Irishman\' (executed) \n\nIrish. , Thomas Addis, an eminent lawyer and orator . \n\nAmer. Emmons, Eben, geologist and author \n\nAmer. -, Nathaniel, D. D., theologian and author . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nGr. Empedocles, a Pythagorean philosopher . . \n\nEncke, John Francis, astronomer . . . \n\nAmer. Eudicott, John, governor of Massachusetts . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nGer. Endlicher, Stephen L., botanist and linguist . . \n\nEng. Enfield, "William, miscellaneous writer . . \n\nFr. Enghien, Louis EL de Bourbon, duke of, (executed) \n\nFr. Eondu Beaumont, chevalier, an eccentric writer and ^cidier \n\nGr. Epaminondas, an illustrious Theban general . . \n\nGr. Epictetus, a stoic philosopher \n\nGr. Epicurus, founder of the Epicurean sect of pi Loi\'pk^te . B \nDutch. Erasmus, Desiderius, a celebrated scholar and rtl. r . \n\nGer. Erastus, Thomas, founder of \' Erastianism\' theOiO^y . \n\nGr. Eratosthenes, astronomer, geologist, poet and philosopher I \n\nSpan. Ercilla, Don Alonzo, a poet . . . \n\nSpan. Ericcira, Ferdinand, a statesman and historian . \n\nS. Am. Ericsson, John, inventor and engineer in America . . \n\nEng. Erigenus, John, a learned writer of the ninth century . \n\nPruss. Erman, A. G., \'Travels in Siberia,\' &c. . . . \n\nGer. Ernesti, John Augustus, an eminent critio . . \n\nScot. Erskine, Ebenezer, theologian . . . . \n\nScot. , Ralph, divine, \' Gospel Sonnets\' . \n\nScot. , Thomas, lord, a celebrated forensic orator \n\nAssyr. Esarhaddon, son and successor to Sennacherib, kin ot Assyria \n\nSpan. Escobar y Mendoza, Anthony, a celebrated casuist \n\nSpan. Espartero, J. B., Duke of "Vittoria, statesman and soldier \n\nAmer. Espy, James P., meteorologist and author . , . \n\nFr. Esquirol, J. E. D., writer on insanity . . , \n\nGer. Ess, L. Van, theological writer .... \n\nEng, Essex, Robert Devereux, earl of, a warrior . . \n\nFr. Estaing, Charles H., count d\', naval commander . , \n\nAuet. Esterhazy, Prince Paul, wealthy statesman . . \n\nEng. Etheredge, Sir George, comic author and dramatist . \n\nAfric. Euclid, an eminent geometrician . , f. \n\nFt. Eugene-Francis, prince, a great warrior in the German service \n\nBpan. Eugenie, Marie de Gusman, Empress of France , \n\nSwiss Enler, Leonard, an eminent mathematician . . \n\n\n\nt.) 1795 \n\n\n\n\ni77l \n\n\n1881 \n\n\n1837 \n\n\n1861 \n\n\n174S \n\n\n180? \n\n\n1782 \n\n\n\n\n1778 \n\n\n1855 \n\n\n1811 \n\n\n\n\n)B \n\n1806 \n\n\n1863 \n\n\n1797 \n\n\n\n\n1803 \n\n\n\n\nnor \n\n\n1782 \n\n\n1780 \n\n\n1803 \n\n\n1764 \n\n\n1827 \n\n\n179?. \n\n\n1863 \n\n\n174S \n\n\n1840 \n\n\n1791 \n\n\n1865 \n\n\n1589 \n\n\n1665 \n\n\n1804 \n\n\n1849 \n\n\n1741 \n\n\n1797 \n\n\n1772 \n\n\n1804 \n\n\n1728 \n\n\n1810 \n\n\nB. \n\n\no. 363 \n\n\n. f. 40 \n\n\n\n\nl. 0. 342 b. \n\n\no. 371 \n\n\n1467 \n\n\n1536 \n\n\n1524 \n\n\n1583 \n\n\nJ. o. 276 B. \n\n\no. 196 \n\n\n1525 \n\n\n1595 \n\n\n1614 \n\n\n1699 \n\n\n1803 \n\n\n\n\nisoe \n\n\n\n\n1707 \n\n\n1781 \n\n\n1680 \n\n\n1756 \n\n\n1685 \n\n\n1752 \n\n\n1750 \n\n\n1823 \n\n\nb. c. 7th cent. \n\n\n1589 \n\n\n1669 \n\n\n1792 \n\n\n\n\n1785 \n\n\n1860 \n\n\n. . 1772 \n\n\n1840 \n\n\n1770 \n\n\n1847 \n\n\n1567 \n\n\n1601 \n\n\n1729 \n\n\n1794 \n\n\n1636 \n\n\n\'-694 \n\n\nB. 0. 300 \n\n\n\n\n166S \n\n\n173C \n\n\n1826 \n\n\n\n\n1707 \n\n\n179* \n\n\n\nTHE WORLD S PROGRESS. \n\n\n\nMATIGN. NAME AND PROFESSION \n\n(St. Lu\'ipides, a celebrated tragic poet . . . 1 \n\nOr. Euferr\'us, bishop of Caesarea, a learned father of the church, and \n\necclesiastical historian. \nRom. Euti opias, an historian .... \n\nRom. Eutyches, an ecclesiastic, founder of a sect . \n\nAmer. Evanc, Oliver, inventor and engineer . . . \n\nAmer. Evar+s, Jeremiah, (see Amer. B. C. for Missions) \n\'. ig. EvelyD, John, miscellaneous writer . \nAmer. Everett, Alex. H., essayist and diplomatist \n\nAmer. , Edward, statesman, diplomatist, and author . \n\nfr\'er. Ewald, Geo. H. A. von, orien\'alist and theologian . \n.\'\xe2\x96\xa0\'li.Am. Ewbank, Thos., writer on practical mechanics . \n\nAmer. Ewing, Th "\'3., statesman and jurist . . \n\nEng. Exmouth, iw. Pellew, viscount, admiral . " . \n\n\n\nEng. Faber, Geo\xc2\xab \xc2\xa3 e Stanley, theological writer . . \n\ng n g t Frederick Wm., Roman Catholic priest and theological \n\nauthor ..... \n\nRom. Fabius, Quintus M. V., a skilful warrior . \n\nGer. Fabricius. John Albert, a critic and bibliographer . \n\njtal. 1 JoLn Christian, a celebrated entomologist \n\nltal. Fabroni, Angelo, a learned biographer \n\nEng. Fabyan, Rob>\xc2\xbb.t, chror 5 ".ler \n\nltal. Faociolato, 01 \' , acciol..ti. Jat., philologist \n\nPruss. Fahrenheit, G<voriel Daniel, an experimental philosopher \n\nEng. Fairfax, Edw:-\' -d, poet, translator of Tasso \n\nEng. , Thomas, lo\'-3, a general in the civil war . \n\nBng. Falconer, William, a poet .... \n\nltal. Faliero, Marino, doge of Venice, (beheaded) \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nEng. Falkland, Luci\'ir \'^v. viscount, polilician and author \n\nEng. Fanshawe, Sir Kionara, poet and diplomatist \n\nTrisli. Faraday, Michael, chemist .... \n\nPort. Faria y Souza, Manuel, an historian and poet \n\nEng. Farmer, Hugh, the logian .... \n\nAmer. Farnham, Mrs. ElUa W., traveller and philanthropist \n\nIrish. Farquhar, George, i dramatist \n\nAmer. Farrar, John, irpt\'ct . atician and author . . \n\nFr. Faucher, Leon pm\'tioal economist \n\nFr. Fauriel, Claude, historian and belles-lettres author \n\nHer. Faust, John, me of the inventors of printing . \n\nIt. Favre, J. C. Jules, lawyer and politician . , \n\nEng. Fawkes, Francis, a poet and translator . \n\nAracr. Fay, Theo. S., author and diplomatist . . \n\nFr. Fayette, Mary M., countess of, miscellaneous writer \n\nEng. Fellows, Sir Charles, traveller in the East \n\nAmer. Fel\'on. Cornelius C, scholar and critic, president of Harvard \n\nCollege ..... \n\nFr, Fe^e\'ion, Francis de Salignac de la Motto de, an able writer and \n\ncue of the most virtuous of men . . . \n\nBwe. Ferber, John James, an eminent mineralogist . \n\n\n\nBOBN. MED \n\n0. 480 3 404 \n\n\n\nf. 860 \n\n1755 1818 \n\n1781 1831 \n\n1620 1651 \n\n1790 1847 \n\n1794 1869 \n\n1803 \n\n1792 \n\n1789 \n\n1757 1833 \n\n\n\n1773 \n\n\n\n1815 \n\n\n\n1854 \n\n\n\nB \n\n\no. 204 \n\n\n1668 \n\n\n1736 \n\n\n1742 \n\n\n1807 \n\n\n1732 \n\n\n1803 \n\n\n1450 \n\n\n1515 \n\n\n1684 \n\n\n1760 \n\n\n1686 \n\n\n1736 \n\n\n\n\n1633 \n\n\n1611 \n\n\n1671 \n\n\n1730 \n\n\n1769 \n\n\n\n\n1355 \n\n\n1610 \n\n\n1643 \n\n\n1608 \n\n\n1666 \n\n\n1790 \n\n\n1867 \n\n\n1588 \n\n\n1647 \n\n\n1714 \n\n\n1787 \n\n\n1815 \n\n\n1864 \n\n\n1678 \n\n\n1707 \n\n\n1779 \n\n\n1853 \n\n\n1803 \n\n\n1854 \n\n\n1772 \n\n\n1844 \n\n\n\n\n1466 \n\n\n1809 \n\n\n\n\n1632 \n\n\n1693 \n\n\n1807 \n\n\n\n\n1632 \n\n\n1691 \n\n\n1799 \n\n\n\n\n\n1607 \n\n\n\n1351 \n1743 \n\n\n\n1713 \n1701 \n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. \n\n\n\nJUtTIOW, NAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nScot. Ferguson, Adam, an historian and moral philosopher \n\nScot. , James, a self-educated astronomer, philosophet, &c. \n\nScot. Fergusson, James, architect and writer on art \n\nSpan. Fen-eras, John de, a celebrated historian . \n\nBcot. Ferrier, Mary, novelist .... \n\nFt. Fesch, Joseph, senior, priest, cardinal, archbishop of Lyons \n\nAmer. Fessenden, Thos. Green, author and journalist \n\nAmer. , Wo. Pitt, U. S. senator from Maine, ex sec. treas. \n\nGer. Eeuerbach, Ludwig, philosopher and author \n\nGer. Feurbach, Paul John A. von, statesman and jurist . \n\nSpan. Feyjoo y Montenegro, an able miscellaneous writer \n\nGer. Fichte, John G., philosopher . . . \n\nItal. Ficino, Marsilius, a Platonic philosopher . . \n\nAmer. Field, Cyrus W., promoter of Atlantic telegraph . \n\nAmer. Field, David Dudley, jurist and advocate \n\nAmer. , Henry Martyn, clergyman, journalist, and author \n\nEng. Fielding, Copley Vandyke, painter in water colors . \n\nEng. , Henry, a humorous novelist and dramatist \n\nItal. Fiesco, John Louis, the conspirator against Doria . \n\nAmer. Fillmore. Millard, 13th president U. 8. . \n\nAmer. Finney, Charles G., preacher and theological writer . \n\nPeru. Firdusi or Ferdusi, poet, author of 60,000 verses \n\nAmer. Fisk, Wilbur, president Wesleyan University, \' Travels,\' &o. \n\nAmer. Fitch, John, inventor, pioneer of steam navigation . \n\nRom. Flaminius, Titus Quintus, general and consul . \n\nRom. , Caius, genera], consul, and censor of tribune \n\nEng. Flamsteed, John, first astronomer royal . . \n\nEng. Flatman, Thomas, poet .... \n\nEng. Flavel, John, an eminent non-oenformist divine . \n\nFr. Flechier, Esprit, a celebrated prelate . . \n\nGer. Fleischer, H. L., orientalist .... \n\nScot. Fleming, John, naturalist . . \n\nScot. Fletcher, Andrew, of Saltoun, statesman and author . \n\nEng. , Giles, poet .... \n\nEng. , John, a dramatist . \n\nEng. , Phineas, poet . . \n\nFr. Floury, Andrew Hercules de, a cardinal and statesman \n\nj T . , Claude, a divine and historian \n\nAmer. Flint, Rev. Timothy, novelist and historian \n\nFr. Florian, John Peter Claris de, miscellaneous writer \n\nGer. Flugel, G. L., philologist and historian . . \n\nG-er. , John G., lexicographer \n\nGer. Follen, C T. C, theologian and philologist (in U. S.) . \n\nFr. Fonblanque, J. S. M., jurisprudence \n\nFr. Fontenelle, Bernard le Bouvier de, miscellaneous writer \n\nAmer. Foote, Andrew Hull, admiral and author . . \n\nEng. , Samuel, a comic writer and actor . . \n\nEng. Forbes, Edward, naturalist and author . . \n\nEng. -, John, M. D., medical writer . . . \n\nAmer. Force, Peter, journalist and historian . . \n\nItal Forcellini, Giles, a Latin lexicographer , . \n\nEng Ford, Johr, an early dramatic author . . \n\n\n\nBOBN. \n\n1724 \n1710 \n1808 \n1652 \n1782 \n1763 \n1771 \n1806 \n1804 \n1775 \n1701 \n1762 \n1433 \n1819 \n1805 \n1822 \n1787 \n1707 \n\n1800 \n1792 \n940 \n1792 \n1743 \n. 0. 230 B. \nB. \n1646 \n1633 \n1627 \n1632 \n1801 \n1785 \n1658 \n1580 \n1676 \n1584 \n1653 \n1640 \n1780 \n1755 \n1802 \n1788 \n1796 \n1787 \n1657 \n1806 \n1721 \n1815 \n1787 \n1790 \n1688 \n1586 \n\n\n\nDTED \n\nme \n1.1* \n\nMM \n\n1854 \n1839 \n1837 \n\n\n\n1833 \n1764 \n1814 \n1498 \n\n\n\n1856 \n1754 \n1547 \n\n\n\n1020 \n\n1839 \n\n1798 \n\n0. 17 \n\no. .17 \n\n719 \n\n16r,8 \n\n16.1 \n\n1710 \n\n1857 \n1716 \n1627 \n1626 \n1650 \n1743 \n1722 \n1840 \n1794 \n\n1855 \n1846 \n1865 \n1757 \n1863 \n1771 \n1864 \n\n\n\nIMt \n\n\n\nio4 \n\n\n\nTHE WORLD\'S PROGRESS. \n\n\n\nFiTTON. NAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nEng. Ford, Richard, author of works on Spain \nIta\' Foresti, B. Felice, patriot and litterateur . \nAmer. Forrest, Edwin, actor . . . \n\ni.\'c\xe2\x80\x9e Forster, John, journalist and author . \n\nGer. , John R., traveller and naturalist \n\nAmer. Forsyth, John, diplomatist and statesman . \n\nEng. Fosbrooke, Rev. T. D., archaeologist (Ency. Autiq.) \n\nTtal. Foscari, Francesco, 45th doge of Venice \n\nItal. Foscolo, Nicol Ugo, poet and musical author . \n\nEng. Foster, John, essayist \n\nVr. Fouche, Joseph, Duke of Otranto, a brutal revolutionist \n\n6er. Fouque, Fried H. L. de la Motte, author of \' Undine,\' &o, \n\nFt. Fourier, Charles, founder of the \' social \' system \n\nFr. , Francis M. C, writer on social science \n\nAmer. Fowler, Orson S., phrenologist \n\nEng. Fox, Charles James, one of the greatest of statesmen and (irators \n\nEng. , George, the founder of the society of Friends or Quakers \n\nEng. , John, a divine, author of the \' Book of Martyrs \' \n\nEng. , Sir Charles, engineer, builder of Crystal Palace . \n\nItal. Fra Diavolo (Michael Pezza), Neapolitan bandit . \xc2\xbb \n\nFrancia, Jos6 G. R., dictator of Paraguay . . \n\nAmei Francis, John W., physician and author . . \n\nItal. , Saint, founder of \' Franciscans \' . \n\nSavvy. , de Sales, saint and bishop . \xe2\x80\xa2 . \n\nIrish. , Sir Philip, political writer \n\nAmer. Franklin, Benjamin, a celebrated philosopher and statesman \n\nEn t . , Sir John, admiral and Arctic explorer \n\nScot. Frazer, Simon, Lord Lovat, Jacobite leader, beheaded . \nl:uss. Frederick II., the Great, King, an able general and author . \nAmer. Freeman, James, D.D., first Unitarian minister in U. 8. \nAmer. Frelir.ghuysen, Theo., statesman \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nAmer. Fremont, John Charles, explorer and statesman \nAmer. Freneau, Philip, poet and journalist . . . \n\nEng. Frere, John Hookman, poet and diplomatist . . \n\nGer. Freytag, G. W. F.\xe2\x80\x9e \' Arabic Dictionary,\' &c. . . \n\nEng. Frobisher, Sir Martin, a celebrated navigator . . \n\nFer. Froebel, Julius, traveller and author . . \xc2\xbb \n\nFr. Froissart, John, a chronicler and poet . . \n\nAmer. Frothingham, Eichard, Jr., historian and journalist . \n\nEng. Fry, Elizabeth, philanthropist \n\nAmer. \xe2\x80\x94 , Wm. Henry, composer and journalist . . . \n\nEng. Fuller, Andrew, an eminent Baptist minister . . \n\nAmer. , Richard. D. D., Baptist preacher and author \n\nAmer. , Sarah Margaret, Marchioness d\'Ossoli, litlirateur \n\nEng. , Thomas, a divine and historian \n\nEng. Fullerton, Lady Georgiana, novelist . . . \n\nFr. Furetiere, Anthony, a philosopher \n\nAmer. Furness, William Henry, D. D., Unitarian preacher and author \n\nB-er. Furst, Julius, orientalist and philologist . \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0wiflg. Fuseli, Henry, painter and writer on art . \n\n\n\nBOXN \n\n\n<M\xc2\xab* \n\n\n1796 \n\n\n185t \n\n\n1793 \n\n\n1851 \n\n\n1806 \n\n\n\n\n1812 \n\n\n\n\n1729 \n\n\n1798 \n\n\nJ 780 \n\n\n1841 \n\n\n1770 \n\n\n1842 \n\n\n1372 \n\n\n1451 \n\n\n1777 \n\n\n1821 \n\n\n1770 \n\n\n18\xc2\xab \n\n\n17G3 \n\n\n1820 \n\n\n1777 \n\n\n1843 \n\n\n1772 \n\n\n13S6 \n\n\n1772 \n\n\n183*i \n\n\n1809 \n\n\n\n\nors 1748 \n\n\n1806 \n\n\n1624 \n\n\n1690 \n\n\n1517 \n\n\n1581 \n\n\n1810 \n\n\n\n\n1769 \n\n\n1806 \n\n\n1757 \n\n\n1840 \n\n\n1789 \n\n\n1861 \n\n\n11S2 \n\n\n1228 \n\n\n1567 \n\n\n1622 \n\n\n1740 \n\n\n1808 \n\n\n1706 \n\n\n1790 \n\n\n1786 \n\n\n1841 \n\n\n1667 \n\n\n1741 \n\n\n1712 \n\n\n1786 \n\n\n1759 \n\n\n1S35 \n\n\n1787 \n\n\n1862 \n\n\n1813 \n\n\n\n\n1752 \n\n\n1832 \n\n\n1769 \n\n\n1846 \n\n\n1778 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1594 \n\n\n1806 \n\n\n\n\n1333 \n\n\n1400 \n\n\n1812 \n\n\n\n\n1780 \n\n\n1845 \n\n\n1815 \n\n\n1864 \n\n\n1754 \n\n\n1815 \n\n\n1808 \n\n\n\n\n1810 \n\n\n1850 \n\n\n1608 \n\n\n1661 \n\n\n1812 \n\n\n\n\n1620 \n\n\n1681 \n\n\n>r 1802 \n\n\n\n\n1805 \n\n\n\n\n1741 \n\n\n1821 \n\n\n\nORN. \n\n\nDISI) \n\n\n1724 \n\n\n180( \n\n\n1788 \n\n\n1858 \n\n\n\n\n1787 \n\n\n1670 \n\n\n174C \n\n\n175;. \n\n\n1829 \n\n\nl n OA \n\n\n1806 \n\n\n17/" \n\n\n1849 \n\n\n\n\n1st cent, \n\n\n131 \n\n\n\n\n1786 \n\n\n\n\n1564 \n\n\n1642 \n\n\n1758 \n\n\n182S \n\n\n1808 \n\n\n\n\n1761 \n\n\n1844 \n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL LNDEX, 105 \n\n\n\nSATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nAmer. Gadsden, Christopher, revolutionary statesman \n\nAmer. , James, statesman and negotiator . , \n\nEng. Gage, Thomas, last royal governor of Massachusetts \xe2\x80\xa2 . \n\nFr. Gagnier, John, an orientalist and author . . . \n\nFr. Gail, J. B., philologist ..... \n\nFr. Gaillard, Gabriel Henry, miscellaneous writer and historian \n\nAmer. Gaines, Major-General B. P., military commander . . \n\nRom. Gaius, or Caius, jurist and legal writer . . . \n\nGr. Galen, Claudius, a celebrated physician . . . \n\nEn. Am. Gales, Joseph, founder of \' National Intelligencer * . \n\nItal. Galileo, an illustrious philosopher and astronomer \n\nGer. Gall, John Joseph, a celebrated physiologist, and founder of the \nscience of phrenology .... \n\nAmer. Gallagher, William D., journalist and poet \n\n8. Am. Gallatin, Albert, statesman, diplomatist, philologist, and ethnoL \n\nAmer. Gallaudet, Thomas H., founder of the first American asylum for \n\ndeaf and dumb . . . . . 1787 1851 \n\n\\Buss. Gallitzin, the name of several distinguished princes . . 16th to 17th cent. \n\nRuss. , Demetrius Aug., a noble missionary priest . \n\nScot. Gait, John, novelist ...... \n\nItaL Galvani, Louis, a physician and experimental philosopher, dis- \ncoverer of galvanic electricity .... \n\nPort. Gama, Vasco, navigator, first who doubled the Cape of Good Hope \n\nJew. Gamaliel, a Pharisee, doctor of the law \n\nGer. Gans, Edward, jurist ..... \n\nSpan. Garcia, Manuel, musical composer .... \n\nSpan. Garcias-Lasso de la Vega, the prince of Spanish poetry . \n\nSpau. Garcilasso de la Vega, one of the conquerors of Pern \n\nEng. Gardiner, Stephen, Roman Catholic prelate . . \n\nItal. Garibaldi, Giuseppe, patriotic general and leader . . \n\nPr. Gamier, Count Germain, jurist .... \n\nEng. Garrick, David, a celebrated actor and dramatist . . \n\nAmer Garrison, William Lloyd, abolitionist politician \n\nEng. Garth, Sir Samuel, physician and poet \n\nEng. Gascoigne, Sir William, the judge who imprisoned Henry, Prince \nof Wales, for a misdemeanor .... \n\nEng. Gaskell, Elizabeth C, novelist ..... \n\nFr. Gassendi, f\'eter, a celebrated philosopner \n\nGaston de Foix, duke of Nemours, general, \n\nAmer. Gates, Horatio, a distinguishes officer in the Revolution \n\nFr. " Gavarni," real name Sulpice Paul Chevalier, caricaturist \n\nEng. Gay, John, a popular poet ..... \n\nFr. Gay-Lussac, N. F. chemist .... \n\nSpan. Gayangos, Pascal de, Oriental scholar and historian \n\nAmer. Gayarre, Charles A., historian .... \n\nEng. Gell, Sir William, scholar and antiquary (Pompeii and Rome) \n\nGer. Gellert, Chrisiian Furchtegott, a poet and miscellaneous writer \n\nRom. Gellius, Aulius ; gra.nmarian .... \n\nPr Genest, o: &enet, Edwarrt C , diplomwif : \n\n\n\n1770 \n\n\n1840 \n\n\n1779 \n\n\n1.8*9 \n\n\n1737 \n\n\n\'798 \n\n\n\n\ni52- \n\n\n\n\n88 \n\n\n1798 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2.841 \n\n\n1779 \n\n\ni83? \n\n\n1503 \n\n\n153*! \n\n\n\n\n155\xc2\xab \n\n\n1483 \n\n\n1565 \n\n\n1806 \n\n\n\n\n1754 \n\n\n1821 \n\n\n1716 \n\n\n17\',9 \n\n\n1805 \n\n\n\n\n1718 \n\n\n\n\n1350 \n\n\n1413 \n\n\nIS\'20 \n\n\n186ft \n\n\n1592 \n\n\n1656 \n\n\n1489 \n\n\n1512 \n\n\n1728 \n\n\n1806 \n\n\n1801 \n\n\n\n\nJ68S \n\n\n17&2 \n\n\n1778 \n\n\n1850 \n\n\n1809 \n\n\n\n\n1805 \n\n\n\n\n1777 \n\n\n1834 \n\n\n1715 \n\n\n1764 \n\n\nA. D. \n\n\n2d cent. \n\n\n1765 \n\n\n1834 \n\n\n\nto6 \n\n\n\nTHE WORLD\'S PROOREHS. \n\n\n\nKAIfOX. NAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nBai. Genghie Khan, a celebrated conqueror \n\nFr. Genlis, Stephania Felicite, Countess de, miscellaneous writer \n\nEng. Geoffrey of Monmouth, an historian of the 12th century \n\nFr. Geoffroy-Saint Hilaire Etienne, zoologist . . , \n\nFr. Gerando, Baron de, writer on education, &c. . \n\nFr. Gerard, Etienne Maurice, count, marshal of France , \n\nRom. Gsrmanicus, Tiberius Drusus Cajsar, military commander \n\nAmer. Gerry, Elbridge, a distinguished patriot, vice-president U. S. \n\nFr. Gerson, John Chattier de, an ecclesiastic and author , \n\nAmer. Gerstacker, Fried, novelist and traveller \n\nGer. -iervinus, George Gottfried, historian and politician \n\nGer. <3esenius, Fred. Hein. William, orientalist and biblical critic \n\nSwiss. Gessner, Conrad, an eminent naturalist . . . \n\nGer. , John Matthias, a philologist \n\nItal. Giannone, Peter, an historian . . . . \n\nAme- Gibbes, Robert Wilson, physician and author \n\nEng. Gibbon, Edward, one of the greatest of England\'s historians \n\nAmer. Gibbs, Josiah "W., philologist .... \n\nAn.br. Gibson, Colonel John and Col. George, both officers in the Revo \n\nlution ...... \n\nEng. , Thomas Milner, statesman . . \n\nAmer. Giddings, Joshua Reed, statesman . . . \n\nEng. Giflbrd, William, a critic and poet \n\nEng , John, an historical and political writer . \n\nGer. Gieseler, John K. L., church historian \n\nEng. Gilbert, James W., writer on banking \n\nEng. , Sir Humphrey, one of the earliest adventurers in Amer. \n\nHcot. Gilfillan, George, clergyman and author \n\nEng. Gill, John, a divine, oriental scholar and author \n\nAmer. Gillespie, Wm. M., professor and author on engineering \n\nScot. Gillies, John, \' History of Greece,\' &c. \n\nAmev. Gilman, John T., noted governor of New Hampshire \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nAmer. , Samuel, Unitarian clergyman and author . \n\nEng. Gilpin, Bernard, \' apostle of the North \' . . \n\nEng. , Wm., writer on the picturesque \n\nEng. O-ilray, James, engraver and caricaturist \n\nItal. Oloberti, Vincenzo, philosopher, priest, and statesman \n\nItal. Gioja, Melchior, writer on economical sciences \n\nSw. Am. Girard, Charles, naturalist \n\nFr.Am, , Stephen, merchant, banker, millionaire , \n\nFr. Girardin, Emil de, journalist . . . \n\nEng. Gladstone, Wm. Ewart, statesman and author . \n\nEng. Glanvill, Joseph, divine, philosopher, and author . \n\nEng. Gleig, Geo. Robt., clergyman and author . . \n\nWelsh Glendower, Owen, chieftain . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nEng. Gliddon, Geo. Robins, Egyptologist and author . \n\nGer. Gluck, Christop W. von, musical oomposer \n\n6we. Gmelin, John Frederick, chemist \n\nFt. Godfrey, of Bouillon, or Boulogne, a celebrated leader In the \n\nCrusades ..... \n\nAmer. Godman, John, M. D., a distinguished naturalist, <fcc. \n\nEng. Godolphin, Sidney, earl of statesman . , \n\n\n\nBOBN. \n\n\nBUI \n\n\n1164 \n\n\n1225 \n\n\n1746 \n\n\n1830 \n\n\n1772 \n\n\n1844 \n\n\n1770 \n\n\n1842 \n\n\n1773 \n\n\n1852 \n\n\n\n\n19 \n\n\n1814 \n\n\n\n\n1363 \n\n\n1429 \n\n\n1816 \n\n\n\n\n1805 \n\n\n\n\n1786 \n\n\n1842 \n\n\n1516 \n\n\n1565 \n\n\n1691 \n\n\n1761 \n\n\n1676 \n\n\n1758 \n\n\n1809 - \n\n\n\n\n1737 \n\n\n1794 \n\n\n1790 \n>\xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n\n\n1807 \n\n\n\n\n. 179E \n\n\n1860 \n\n\n1757 \n\n\n1826 \n\n\n1758 \n\n\n1818 \n\n\n1792 \n\n\n1854 \n\n\n1794 \n\n\n1868 \n\n\nr. \n\n\n1583 \n\n\n1813 \n\n\n\n\n1697 \n\n\n1771 \n\n\n. 1816 \n\n\n\n\n1747 \n\n\n1836 \n\n\n1759 \n\n\n1828 \n\n\n1701 \n\n\n1858 \n\n\n16 7 \n\n\n1583 \n\n\n17^4 \n\n\n1804 \n\n\n1757 \n\n\n1815 \n\n\n1801 \n\n\n1852 \n\n\n1767 \n\n\n1829 \n\n\n1822 \n\n\n\n\n1750 \n\n\n1831 \n\n\n1802 \n\n\n\n\n1809 \n\n\n\n\n1636 \n\n\n16S4 \n\n\n1796 \n\n\n\n\n1349 \n\n\n1413 \n\n\n1809 \n\n\n1857 \n\n\n1714 \n\n\n1781 \n\n\n1748 \n\n\nISOi \n\n\n\n\n1106 \n\n\n1794 \n\n\n1836 \n\n\n1640 \n\n\n1713 \n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL IND&S. \n\n\n\n107 \n\n\n\nRATIO* \n\nSpan. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nGer. \n\nItal. \n\nIrish. \n\nDutch. \n\nSpan. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nScot. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nHung. \n\nGr. \n\nRuss. \n\nlines. \n\nAmer. \n\nEn.Am \n\nIrish. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nFr. \n\nEng. \n\nRom. \n\nRom. \n\nGer. \n\nScot, \n\nScot. \n\nScot. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nScot. \n\nScot \n\nScot. \n\nSpan. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nItal. \n\nIrish. \n\nDutch. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer, \n\n\n\nNAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nGodoy, Manuel de, statesman, \' prince of the peace\' , \n\nGodwin, Parke, journalist and historian . . \n\n, William, novelist and metaphysician . , \n\nGoethe, John Wolfgang, poet and novelist \nGoldoni, Charles, the Italian Moliere . . . \n\nGoldsmith, Oliver, celebrated poet and miscellaneous writer \nGolius, James, orientalist and lexicographer . \n\nGonsalvo, of Cordova, a celebrated warrior . . \n\nGood, John Mason, physician and author . . , \n\nGoodrich, Chauncey A., scholar and divine . . \n\n, Frank B., (son of Samuel G.,) author \n\n, Samuel Giiswold, \'Peter Parley,\' voluminous author \n\nGoodyear, Charles, inventor and India-rubber patentee \nGordon, \' lord George,\' political agitator \n\n, Wm., author of History of the United States . \n\nGore, Catharine G., novelist \n\nGorges, Sir Ferdinando, \' lord proprietor of Maine\' . \nG5rgey, Arthur, general in the Revolution, (supposed traitor) \nGorgias, an orator and sophist .... \nGorton nkoff, Michael, prince, general in Crimea, dtc . \n, Alexander, prince, diplomatist . . \n\n\n\nGorton, Samuel, enthusiast and author . . \n\nGough, John B., lecturer on temperance . . \n\n, Hugh, viscount, general in India. &o. . . \n\nGould, Augustus A., naturalist and physician \n\n, Hannah F., poet . . . . \n\n, John, naturalist and author \n\nGourgaud, Gaspard, haron, one of Napoleon\'s generals \nGower, John, one of the earliest English poets \nGracchus, Tiberius Sempronius, a celebrated democrat \n\n, Caius Sempronius \n\nGraefe, or Graevius, an erudite classic writer . \n\nGrahame, John, viscount of Dundee, lord Grahame of Claver \n\nhouse, general ..... \n, James, a poet .... \n\n\n\n-, James, author of \' History of the United States \' \n\n\n\nGrammont, Count Philibert, licentious author of Memoirs\' \nGrandville, J. S. G., caricaturist and artist . . \n\nGranier, Adolphe, journalist and historian \nGrant, Anne, (of Laggan,) novelist, essayist, &o. . \n\n, James, journalist and author . . , \n\n, James, novelist .... \n\nGranvelle, Ant. Pierre, cardinal de, statesman . . \n\nGranville, Q. G. Leweson Gower, 2d earl of, statesman . \n\n, John Carteret, earl, statesman . . \n\nGratian, a monk, compiler of the canon law . , \n\nGrattan, Henry, a distinguished orator and statesman . \n\n, Thomas Colley, novelist . . , \n\nGravesande, "Wm. Jacob, a geometrician and philosopher \nGray, Asa, botanist, prof, in Harvard, author of \xe2\x80\xa2 Flora,\' &o, \n\n, Henry Peters, painter. . . . \n\n, John Edward, naturalist . . . . \n\n\n\nBOBH. \n\n1767 \n1816 \n1755 \n1749 \n1707 \n1731 \n1596 \n1443 \n1764 \n1790 \n1826 \n1793 \n1800 \n1750 \n1730 \n1799 \n\n\n\n1818 \n\nf. B. O. \n\n1792 \n1800 \n1600 \n1817 \n1779 \n1805 \n(abt.) 1800 \n1804 \n1783 \n\n\n\n1632 \n\n\n\n1643 \n1765 \n1770 \n1621 \n1803 \n1805 \n1755 \n1806 \n1822 \n1517 \n1816 \n1690 \nf. 12th \n1750 \n1796 \n1688 \n1810 \n1819 \n(abt.) 1800 \n\n\n\nHMD. \n\n1861 \n\n1834 \n\n1831 \n1793 \n1774 \n1667 \n1516 \n1827 \n1860 \n\n1860 \n1860 \n1793 \n1807 \n\n1647 \n\n6th cent \n1861 \n\n1077 \n\n\n\n1866 \n\n1853 \n\n1402 \n\nB. 0. 133 \n\nB. 0. 121 \n\n1708 \n\n1689 \n1811 \n1842 \n1707 \n1847 \n\n1838 \n\n\n\n1588 \n1793 \n\n\n\ncent. \n\n\n\n1821 \n1864 \n1741 \n\n\n\nio8 \n\n\n\nTHE WORLD\'S PROGRESS. \n\n\n\nKATIOA. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIES \n\nEng. Gray, Thomas, poet .... . 1716 1771 \n\nAirier. Graydon, Alex., author of \' Revolutionary Memoirs \' \xe2\x80\xa2 1762 1818 \n\nAmer. Greeley, Horace, journalist and politician . . .1811 \n\nFr. Gregory L, the Great, pope, author . . 544 604 \n\nItal. , VIL, the Great, pope Hildebrand, celebrate^ despot . 1085 \n\nScot. , David, philosopher and mathematician . . 1661 1710 \n\nIrish. , George, D. D., miscellaneous writer . . . 1754 1808 \n\nSoot. , James, philosopher and mathematician . . 1648 1685 \n\n, Nazianzen, St. Christian, writer . . . 328 389 \n\n\xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 of Nyssa, St. Christian, writer . . . 331 396 \n\nEng. , Olinthus, mathematician and religious writer . 1774 1841 \n\nFr. of Tours, historian . . . . 544 593 \n\nAmer. Green, Ashbel D. D., clergyman and author . . 1762 1848 \n\nAmer. , Horace, physician, author of medical works . 1802 1866 \n\nAmer. Greene, Chas. G., journalist and politician . \xe2\x80\xa2 1804 \n\nAmer. , Geo. Washington, scholar and critic . . 1811 \n\nEng. , Matthew, poet ..... 1696 1737 \n\nAmer. , Nathaniel, maj. gen., distinguished in the Revolution 1741 1786 \n\nAmer. , Nathaniel, author and journalist . . . 1797 \n\nEng. \xe2\x96\xa0 , Robt., dramatist .... 1560 1592 \n\nAmer. Greenhow, Robert, historical writer .... 1800 1854 \n\nAmer. Greenleaf, Simon, jurist and author . . . 1783 1858 \n\nAmer. Greenough, Horatio, sculptor and author . . . 1805 1852 \n\nEng. Greville, Sir Fulke, (Lord Brooke), statesman and author . 1554 1628 \n\nEng. Grey, Earl, statesman, whig premier for William IV. . 1764 1845 \n\nEng. , Lady Jane, the accomplished victim of another\'s ambition 1537 1554 \n\nGer. Griesbach, John James, an eminent theologian and philologist . 1745 1812 \n\nAmer. Griffin, Edward D., D. D., theologian , . . 1770 1837 \n\nIrish, , Gerald, novelist . . . . . 1803 1840 \n\nAmer. Giimke, Thomas S., jurist . , . 1786 1834 \n\nGer. Grimm, J. M. C, miscellaneous writer . . . 1785 1863 \n\nAmer. Griscom, John, educator, philanthropist . . . 1774 1852 \n\nAmer. Griswold, Alex, V., bishop Prot. Epis. Church, New England . 1766 1843 \n\nAroer. _ \xe2\x80\x94 . , Uufus Wilmot, author and oritio . . 1815 1857 \n\nDutch. Gronovius, James, an erudite critic .... 1645 1716 \n\nEng. Grose, Francis, antiquary and author . . . 1731 1791 \n\nAmer. Gross, Samuel D., physician, surgeon, and author . . 1805 \n\nEng. Grote, George, author of History of Greece . . 1794 \n\nGer. Grotefend, G F., philologist .... 1775 1836 \n\nDutch. Grotius or DeGroot, Hugh, an eminent scholar . . 15S3 1645 \n\nFr. Grouchy, Emanuel, count, marshal of France . . 1776 1S47 \n\nAmer Grundy, Felix, senator of the U. S. . . (Tenn.) 1777 1840 \n\nGer. Gryph, Andrew, a dramatist .... 1616 1664 \n\nItal. Guarini, John Baptist, a poet .... 1537 1612 \n\nGer. Guericke, Otto, experimental philos., inventor of the air-pump . 1602 1686 \n\nItal. Guerrazi, Francesco D., author and politician . . 1805 \n\nItal. Guiccardini, Francis, an historian .... 1482 1540 \n\nFr. Guillotin, Joseph T.. benevolent physioian, inventor of the guillotine 1738 1814 \n\nFr. Guise, Charles of, cardinal, a bigoted and ambitious statesman 1525 1574 \n\nFr. , Francis of Lorraine, duke of, celebrated warrior . 1519 1663 \n\nFr. ., Henry of Lorraine, duke of, an ambitious warrior . 1550 1681 \n\nWt. Guiaot, Francis, statesman, historian, and metaphysician . 1787 \n\n\n\nBIOG11APHICAL INDEX. \n\n\n\n109 \n\n\n\nUATIOK, \n\nNor. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nfol \n\nEng. \n\nSwe. \n\nSwe. \n\nSwe. \n\nSwe \n\nAmer. \n\nScot. \n\nGer. \n\nPruss. \n\nFr. \n\nEng. \n\n\n\nNAME AND PROFESSION. B0RH. \n\nGuiscard, Robert, a Norman warrior .... 1015 \nGunter, Edmund, a mathematician, inventor of the Gunter scale 1581 \nGurney, Jo3eph John, philanthropist . (Soc. Friends) 1788 \n\nGurowsky, Adam de, count, publicist and author . . 1805 \n\nGurwood, John, Col, editor of Wellington\'s Despatches . 1791 \n\nGustavus L, (Gustavus Vasa) king of Sweden \n\n1L, Adolphus, king of Sweden ; able warrior \n\nIII., king of Sweden . . , . \n\nIV., Adolphus, king of Sweden . . \n\n\n\nGuthrie, James, secretary of the treasury to Pierce \n\n, "William, author of a history of England, Scotland, &c. \n\n\n\nGuttenberg, John, one of the inventors of printing \nGutzlaff, Charles, traveller and historian of China \nGuyon, Jeanne M. \xc2\xa3., de la Motte, mystical teacher and writer \n, Richard D., general in the service cf Hungary, &c. \n\nSw.Ain.Guyot, Arnold H., writer on physical geography \n\nEng. Gwynn, Eleanor, (\' Nell Gwynn \') mistress of Charles II. \n\nHg. Au.GyuIai, Francis, count, commander of Austrian army in Italy \n\nEng. Habington, Wm., poet .... \n\nAmer. Hackett, Horatio B., biblical critic . . . \n\nAmer. , James H., actor . . . . \n\nPers. Hafiz, Mohammed, the Anacreon of Persia \xc2\xbb \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nGer. Hagenbach, Karl L., ecclesiastical historian . . \n\nGer. Halm, August, theological writer .... \n\nGer. , Simon Frederick, an historian . . . \n\nGer. Hahneman, founder of \'Homeopathy \' in medicine . \n\nGer. Hahn-Hahn, Ida, countess of, traveller and novelist \n\nEng. Hakluyt, Richard, author of voyages, &c, of the English . \n\nScot. Haldane, Robert, philanthropist and theologian \n\nScot. Haldeman, S. S., naturalist and philologist \n\nAmer. Hale, Benj., D.D., educator and author \n\nAmer. , David, journalist, founder of N. Y. Journal of Commerce \n\nAmer. , Nathan, revolutionary patriot, executed as a spy \n\nAmer. , Nathan, journalist, Boston Daily Advertiser . \n\nAmer. , Sarah J., poet and prose writer . . . \n\nEng. , Sir Matthew, eminent and incorruptible judge \n\nFr. Halevy, J. F. C, musical composer . . . \n\nEng. Halford, Sir Henry, physician and medical writer . \n\nEng. Haliburton, Thos. C, humorous writer, \xe2\x80\xa2 Sam Slick\' . \n\nEng. Hall, Capt. Basil, author of Travels, &c. \n\nAmer. , Gordon, first American missionary in Bombay . \n\nAmer. , James, jurist and author \n\nAmer. , James, geologist and palaeontologist . . . \n\nEng. , Joseph, bishop of Norwich, theological author \n\nEng. , Rev. Robert, theologian and pulpit orator . . \n\nEng. Hallam, Henry, historian .... \n\nAmer. Halleck, Fitz Greene, poet \n\nSwiss Haller, Albeit von, miscellaneous wi iter \n\nEng. nalley, Edmund, an eminent astroi Dmer and matbematiolan \n\nEng. Halliwell, James Orchard, archteologist and author \n\nScot. Halyburton, Thomas, theological writer . \xe2\x80\xa2 . \n\nGarth. Hamilcar Barca, a Carthaginian general \n\n\n\n1496 \n1594 \n1746 \n1778 \n1793 \n1708 \n1400 \n1803 \n1648 \n1813 \n1807 \n1650 \n1798 \n1605 \n1808 \n1800 \n\n1801 \n1807 \n1692 \n1755 \n1805 \n1553 \n1764 \n1812 \n1797 \n1791 \n1758 \n1784 \n1795 \n1609 \n1799 \n1766 \n1803 \n1788 \n1784 \n1793 \n1811 \n1574 \n1764 \n177T \n1795 \n1708 \n1656 \n1820 \n1674 \n\n\n\nPil-.L. \n\n1084 \n1619 \n\n1S47 \n1866 \n1845 \n1560 \n1633 \n1792 \n1837 \n\n1770 \n\n146S \n1851 \n1717 \n1856 \n\n1687 \n1866 \n164\xc2\xa3 \n\n\n\n1389 \n\n1857 \n1729 \n1843 \n\n1616 \n1842 \n\n\n\n1849 \n1776 \n1863 \n\n167C \n18G2 \n1844 \n1865 \n1814 \n1821 \n\n\n\n1656 \n1831 \n\n1859 \n\n1777 \n1741 \n\n17M \n\ni. 23\xc2\xab \n\n\n\nTHE WORLD\'S PROGRESS. \n\n\n\nMAT ION \n\nAraer. \n\nIrish. \n\nAmer. \n\nSoot. \n\nScot. \n\nIrish. \n\nScot. \n\n\xc2\xa3ng. \n\nGer. \n\nBng. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nAraer. \n\nAmer. \n\nGer. \n\nGarth. \n\nCarth. \n\nNor. \n\nAmer. \n\nGer. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nBar. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nGer. \n\nGer. \n\nGer. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nGer. \n\nFr. \n\nEng. \n\nFr. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nEr *. \n\n\n\nSAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nHamilton, Alexander, statesman, first secretary of treasury, U. 8, \n\n, Elizabeth, a talented miscellaneous writer \n\n, James, statesman, U. S. senator from South Carolina \n\n, Sir Wm., diplomatist and antiquary \n\n, Sir Wm., metaphysician .... \n\n, Sir Wra. Rowan, mathematician and philosopher \n\n, Thos., Capt., novelist, \' Men and Manners in America \n\n, William Richard, archsBologist . \n\n\n\nBOB8. \n\n1757 \n1758 \n1786 \n1730 \n1788 \n1805 \n1789 \n1777 \n1774 \n1710 \n1807 \n1594 \n1755 \n1737 \n1684 \nB. c. 247 \nb. o. \n\n\n\nHammer, Baron von, historian and orientalist . . \n\nHammond, James, poet ..... \n\n, James H., U. S. senator from South Carolina \n\nHampden, John, a celebrated patriotic statesman . \n\nHampton, Wade, general in revolution \n\nHancock, John, a distinguished patriot, president of Congress \n\nHandel, Geo. Frederick, one of the greatest musical composers \n\nHannibal, or Ann ibal, general against Rome . \n\nHanno, navigator ...... \n\n, the Great, general and statesman . . . \n\nHanstein, G.. mathematician and astronomer . . . 1784 \n\nHarbaugh, Henry, author of religious works . , 1817 \n\nHardenbergh, Karl A. von, statesman . . . 1750 \n\nHarding, Chester, portrait painter . . . 1792 \n\n, James D., artist and author on art . . . 1798 \n\nHardinge, Henry, viscount, general and governor-general of India 1785 \n\nHardwicke, Charles, theological writer . . . 1821 \n\nHare, Julius Charles, archdeacon, theological writer . . 1795 \n\n, Robert, chemist and physicist . , . 1781 \n\nHarlan, Richard, M. D., naturalist .... 1796 \n\nHarley, Robert, earl of Oxford, celebrated statesman . 1661 \nHaroun Al Raschid, caliph, a patron of learning \n\nHarper, James, John, J. Wesley, and Fletcher, publishers, born 1795, \n\nHarrington, James, political writer .... 1611 \n\nHarriott, Thos., mathematician and voyager to Virginia . 1560 \n\nHarris, James, compiler of the first Cyclopedia, dec. . . 1670 \n\n, John, theological writer .... 1804 \n\n, Thaddeus Wm., naturalist .... 1795 \n\nHarrison, Gen. Wm. H., military commander and president U. S. 1773 \nHarvard, John, founder of Harvard College \n\nHarvey, William, discoverer of the circulation of the blood 1569 \n\nHase, Henry, classical antiquary . . . 1789 \n\n, Karl Aug., theological author . . . 1800 \n\nHassenclever, John Peter, painter (Dusseldorf school) . . 1810 \n\nHaslam, John, writer on insanity .... 1764 \n\nHastings, marquis Of, military commander . . . 1754 \n\n, Warren, governor-general of British India . 1733 \n\nHauser, Casper, a mysterious " wild boy " . . . \n\nHauseez, Baron, minister of Charles X., traveller . . 1778 \nHatton, Sir Christopher, lord chancellor . , \n\nHauy, Rene Just, mineralogist .... 1742 \n\nHavelock, Henry, general in India . . \xe2\x96\xa0 1795 \n\nHaven, Alice B., author of juvenile books . . . 1828 \n\nHaviland, Jobr, architect .... 1792 \n\n\n\n1804 \n1816 \n1857 \n1803 \n1858 \n\n1842 \n1859 \n1856 \n1742 \n\n1643 \n\n1835 \n\n1793 \n\n1758 \n\n3. o. 183 \n\n5th cent. \n\nb. c. 202 \n\n\n\n7, I \n\n\n\n1822 \n1866 \n1863 \n1856 \n1859 \n1855 \n1858 \n1843 \n17-24 \n808 \n:01,\'4 \n1677 \n1621 \n1719 \n1856 \n1856 \n1841 \n1688 \n1658 \n1842 \n\n1853 \n1844 \n1825 \n1818 \n1833 \n\n1591 \n1822 \n1857 \n1866 \n1651 \n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. \n\n\n\n\xc2\xbb ATIOS. NAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nAmer. Hawes, Joel, Congregational clergyman and author , , \n\nEng. Hawke, Edward, lord, a brave and successful admiral . \n\nEng. Hawksworth, Dr. John, miscellaneous writer . . . \n\nEng. Hawkins, Sir John, a navigator, originator of the slave trade \n\nEng. , Sir John, author of \' History of Music,\' &c. . . \n\nAmer. Hawks, Francis Lister, Episcopal divine and historian , \n\nAmer. Hawthorne, Nathaniel, novelist .... \n\nGer. Haydn, Joseph, a celebrated musical composer . . \n\nEng. Haydon, Beuj. A,, historica painter .... \n\nAmer. Hayes, Isaac, Arctic navigator and author \n\nEng. Hayley, "William, a poet and miscellaneous writer . . \n\nAmer. Hayne, Bobert T., governor of South Carolina and senator U. S. \n\nAmer. Haynes, Lemuel, colored preacher and patriot \n\nEng. Haywood, Abraham, translator of \' Faust \' . . \n\nEng. Hazlitt, Wilnam, essayist and critic .... \n\nEng. Head, Sir Francis B., author of Travels, &c . , \n\nEng. , Sir George, author of * Rome,\' &c. . . . \n\nAmer. Headley, Joel T., author of biographies and histories \n\nAmer. Heath, Wm., major-general in the revolution, author of Memoirs \n\nEng. Heber, Reginald, a divine and poet . . , \n\nEng. , Richard, bibliomaniac and book collector . . \n\nGer. Hecker, Fred. K. P., politician .... \n\nAmer. , Isaac F., Roman Catholic clergyman and author . \n\nEng. Heckwehler, John, Moravian missionary and author . \n\nGer. Hederick, Benjamin, a lexicographer ... \n\nAmer. Hedge, Fred. H., clergyman and author . . . \n\nGer. Hedwig, John, a physician and botanist . , \n\nGer. Heeren, A. H. L., historian .... \n\nGer. Hegel, G. W. F., metaphysician .... \n\nGer. Heine, Henry, poet and litterateur ... \n\nGer. Heineccius, Jno. G.. juridical author . , \n\nRom. Helena, St., wife of Constantius Chlorus, emperor . . \n\nGr. Heliodorus (of Emessa) the first romance writer . fl. \n\nFr. Heloise, abbess of the Paraclete, famed for intrigue with Abelard \n\nEng. Helps, Arthur, essayist and dramatist , , , \n\nFr. Helvetius, Claude A., philosopher . . . \n\nGer. Helvicus, Christopher, a chronologist , . \n\nEng. Hemans, Felicia D., poetess .... \n\nEng. Henfey, Arthur, botanist ..... \n\nGer. Hengstenberg, E. W., metaphysician, antiquary and theologian \n\nEng. Henley, John, clergyman and author, \' orator Henley\' \n\nFlem. Hennepin, Louis, missionary and explorer of N. A. . \n\nEng. Henningsen, Chas. Fred., author and soldier , \n\nFr. Henry IV., an able and popular monarch . , . \n\nAmer. , Caleb S., clergyman and author . . . \n\nAmes. , Joseph, physicist, director of Smithsonian Institute \n\nAmer. , Matthew, author of \' Comment, on the Bible \' . . \n\nPort. , the Navigator, prince, 3d son of John I. \n\nScot. , Robert, an historian \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 . . \n\nAmer. \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 , Patrick, an orator and patriot . , \n\nAmer Hentz, Caroline Lee, novelist \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 . \n\nRom. Heraclius (born in Cappadooia), emperor of the East . \n\n\n\nBOBS. \n\n\nDnm \n\n\n1789 \n\n\n188H \n\n\n1713 \n\n\n178\' \n\n\n1715 \n\n\n177S \n\n\n1520 \n\n\n1595 \n\n\n1719 \n\n\n1783 \n\n\n1798 \n\n\n186ft \n\n\n1804 \n\n\n1862 \n\n\n1732 \n\n\n1809 \n\n\n1786 \n\n\n1840 \n\n\n1745 \n\n\n1820 \n\n\n1791 \n\n\n1835 \n\n\n1758 \n\n\n1834 \n\n\n1800 \n\n\n\n\n1778 \n\n\n1830 \n\n\n1793 \n\n\n\n\n1782 \n\n\n1855 \n\n\n1814 \n\n\n\n\n1737 \n\n\n1814 \n\n\n1783 \n\n\n1826 \n\n\n1773 \n\n\n1833 \n\n\n1811 \n\n\n\n\n1819 \n\n\n\n\n1743 \n\n\n1823 \n\n\n1675 \n\n\n1748 \n\n\n1805 \n\n\n\n\n1730 \n\n\n1799 \n\n\n1760 \n\n\n1842 \n\n\n1770 \n\n\n1831 \n\n\n1799 \n\n\n1856 \n\n\n1681 \n\n\n1741 \n\n\n247 \n\n\n327 \n\n\n4th cent \n\n\n\n\n1101 \n\n\n1164 \n\n\n1817 \n\n\n\n\n1715 \n\n\n1771 \n\n\n1581 \n\n\n1617 \n\n\n1794 \n\n\n1835 \n\n\n1800 \n\n\n\n\n1802 \n\n\n\n\n1692 \n\n\n1756 \n\n\n1640 \n\n\n1699 \n\n\n1815 \n\n\n\n\n1553 \n\n\n1610 \n\n\n1804 \n\n\n\n\n1797 \n\n\n\n\n1662 \n\n\n1T14 \n\n\n1394 \n\n\n1463 \n\n\n1718 \n\n\n1790 \n\n\n1736 \n\n\n1799 \n\n\n\n\n1851 \n\n\n576 \n\n\n641 \n\n\n\nTHE WOKLD\'b PROGRESS. \n\n\n\nHAT30JT. NAME AND PROFESSION. CORN. \n\nGr. Heraclitus, a philosopher . . . . f. B. o. 504 \n\nEng. Herbert, Edward, Lord of Cherhury, diplomatist and philosopher 1581 \n\n\n\nEng. Herbert, George, clergyman and poet \n\nEng.Am, , Henry Wm. novelist and miscellaneous author \n\n\n\nEng. \nEng. \nEng. \nG<*r. \nScot. \nGer. \nGer. \nGr. \n\n\n\n, Sidney, statesman \n\n, Wm., (3rd Earl of Pembroke) poet \n\n\xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 , Wm., dean of Manchester, poet and philosopher \nHerder, John Godfrey, a philosophical writer \nHeriot, George, goldsmith, founder of school \nHermann, Ch. F., philologist, \xc2\xab History of Philosophy\' &o. \n, J. G. J., philologist \n\n\n\nHermogenes, a rhetorician . . . \n\nAmer. Herndon, Wm. L., naval commander and explorer . \n\nHerod, Agrippa I, King of Judea, (grandson of Herod the Great) b \n, the Great, King of the Jews \n\n\n\nGr. \n\nGr. \n\nFr. \n\nSpan, \n\nMex. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nJew. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nRuss, \n\nGr. \n\nGer. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\n\n\n1593 \n\n1807 \n\n1810 \n\n1580 \n\n1778 \n\n1744 \n\n1563 \n\n1804 \n\n1772 \n\n180 \n\n1813 \n\nc. 7 \n\nB. 0. 71 \n\nf. 230 \n\n\n\nHerodian, an historian .... \n\nHerodotus, the earliest of the Greek historians whose works are \n\nextant . . . . . \xe2\x80\xa2 b. o. 484 \n\nHerold, L. G. F., musical composer . . , 1792 \n\nHerrera, Anthony, an historian . \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 . 1659 \n\n, Jose J. de, president of Mexico \xe2\x80\xa2 . . \n\nHerrick, Robert, poet ..... 1591 \n\nHerschel, Caroline L., astronomer . . . 1750 \n\n, Sir William, one of the greatest of astronomers . 1738 \n\nHerschell, Dr. Solomon, chief rabbi of the Jews in England 1760 \n, Sir J. F. "W., astronomer and natural philosopher \n\n\n\nHervey, James, a pious and amiable divine and writer \n\n, Thomas K. , poet and prose writer \n\nHerzen, Alexander, publicist, editor and author . \n\n\n\nHesiod, a poet, contemporary of Homer . , \n\nHeyne, C. G., a learned critic and writer . , \n\nHeywood, Thomas, humorist and dramatist . . \n\nHickes, George, a theologian and philologist . \n\nAmer. Hickok, Laurens P., metaphysical author . . \n\nAmer. Hicks, Elias, preacher of the Society of Friends \nAmer. Hildreth, Richard, author of History of the United States \nFr. Hilaire, Geoff. St., naturalist . , \n\nEng. Hill, Rowland, author of cheap postage in England \nEng. Hill, Rowland, Rev., eccentric clergyman . \n\nEng. , Rowland, viscount, general in Spain and at Waterloo \n\nEng. , Sir John, a botanist and multifarious writer . \n\nAmer. Hillard, George S., author and journalist . . \n\nJew. Hiilel, the elder, compiler of the Talmud . \n\nAmer. Hillhouse, James A., poet .... \n\nEng. Hind, John Russell, astronomer \n\nEng. Hinton, John Howard, author of History of United States \n\nGr. Hipparclrus, astronomer .... \n\nGr Hippocrates, the father of medicine . . . \n\nHippolytus, Saint, ecclesiastical writer \nAmer. Hitchcock, Edward, D. D, theologian and geologist . \n\n, Roswell D., theologian, orator, and patriot \n\nKng. Hoadley, William, a celebrate*! prelate a^ author . \n\n\n\n1713 \n1799 \n1812 \n. 907 \n1729 \n1650 \n1642 \n1798 \n1748 \n1807 \n1772 \n1795 \n1744 \n1772 \n1716 \n1808 \nB. 0. 112 \n1789 \n1823 \n1800 \nb. o, \nB. c. 460 \n\nA. D \n\n1793 \n1670 \n\n\n\nDIB6 \n\n1646 \n1632 \n\n1858 \n\n1630 \n1847 \n1803 \n1624 \n\n1848 \n\n1859 \n\nJ\xc2\xbb. 44 \n\n4 \n\n\n\n1833 \n1625 \n1851 \n1674 \n1848 \n1822 \n1842 \n\n1758 \n1859 \n\n\n\n1715 \n\n1830 \n1863 \n1844 \n\n1833 \n1842 \n1775 \n\n\n\n1841 \n\n2d cent \n3d cent, \n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. \n\n\n\n"3 \n\n\n\nJUTIOH NAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nAmer. Hobart, John Henry, bishop of New York . . \n\nEng. Hobbes, Thomas, a philosopher and translator. . \n\nEng. Hobhouee, John Cam., Lord Broughton, author and statesman \nFr. Hoche, Lazarus, a military commander . . . \n\nAmer. Hodge, Charles, Rev., theological writer . . \n\nAmer. Hoe, Richard M., an inventor of printing presses , , \n\nSwiss. Hofer, Andrew, a Tyrolian patriot . . . \n\nEng. Hofland, Barbara, novelist .... \n\nEng. Hoffman, David, lawyer and author . . . \n\nAmer. Hoffman, Charles Fenno, poet and novelist , . \n\nScot. Hogg, James, \' the Ettrick Shepherd,\' poet . . \n\nHung. Hohenlohe, prince of, prelate, and alleged miracle worker . \nDan. Holberg, Louis, baron de, an historian . . \n\nAmer, Holbrook, John E., naturalist .... \nEng. Holcroft, Thomas, a dramatist and miscellaneous writer \nEng. Hole, Matthew, writer on the Liturgy \nEng. Holingshed, chronicler .... \n\nAmer. Holland, JosiahG., journalist, poet and essayist . , \n\nEng. , Lord, statesman and litterateur . . \n\nEng. \xe2\x96\xa0, Philemon, a translator .... \n\nAmer, Hollis, Thomas, benefactor of Harvard College . \n\nAmer. , Thomas, philanthropist (life, 2 vols., 4to) . . \n\nEng. Holman, James, a blind traveller and author . . \n\nAmer. Holmes, Abiel, D. D., \' Annals of America\' . . \n\nAmer. , Oliver Wendell, physician, poet and essayist , \n\nEng. Holt, Sir John, lord chief justice . . . \n\nAmer. Holyoke, Edward Aug., physician and naturalist , \n\nScot. Home, Henry, Lord Kaimes, \' Criticism\' . . \n\nScot. , John, a divine, dramatist and historian . \n\nGr. Homer, the greatest of poets, supposed to have flourished \nEng. Hone, Wm., author of \' Every Day Book,\' and political works \nEng. Hood, Samuel, viscount, a naval officer \n\nEng. , Thomas, poet and humorist . . . \n\nDutch. Hoogvliet, Arnold, a poet .... \n\nEng. Hook, Robert, a mathematician . , . \n\n, Theo. E., novelist and humorist . . . \n\nHooke, Nathaniel, author of a Roman history . \n\nHooker, Joseph D., physician and botanist . . \n\n, Richard, an eminent divine . . . \n\n, Sir W. J., botanist .... \n\n\n\nEng. \nEng. \nEng. \nEng. \nEng. \nEng. \nEng. \nEng. \n\n\n\nHoole, John, a poet and translator . . \n\nHooper, John, one of the first Protestant martyrs . \n\nHope, Thomas, a miscellaneous writer, " Anastasvas " . \nAmer. Hopital, Michel de ]\', chancellor of France \nAmer. Hopkins, Ezek., first commodore TJ. S. Navy \n\nAmer. , John H., protestant episcopal bishop of Vt. and author \n\nAmer. , Mark, clergyman and author \n\nAmer. , Samuel, an eminent divine and author \n\nAmer. , Stephen, signer of the Declaration of Independence \n\nAmer. Hopkinson, Francis, signer of the Dec. of Independe nee and author 1737 \n\nAmer. , Joseph, jurist and statesman \n\nRom. Horace, Quintus Flaccus, eminent poet \n\n\n\nBORN. \n\n\nDIBS. \n\n\n1776 \n\n\n1830 \n\n\n1588 \n\n\n1797 \n\n\n1786 \n\n\n\n\n1768 \n\n\n1797 \n\n\n1797 \n\n\n\n\n1812 \n\n\n\n\n. 1765 \n\n\n1510 \n\n\n1770 \n\n\n1844 \n\n\n1784 \n\n\n1854 \n\n\n1806 \n\n\n\n\n1772 \n\n\n1835 \n\n\n1793 \n\n\n1849 \n\n\n1685 \n\n\n1754 \n\n\n1795 \n\n\n\n\n1744 \n\n\n1809 \n\n\n1640 \n\n\n1730 \n\n\n\n\n1582 \n\n\n1819 \n\n\n\n\n1773 \n\n\n1840 \n\n\n1551 \n\n\n1636 \n\n\n1659 \n\n\n1731 \n\n\n1720 \n\n\n1774 \n\n\n1787 \n\n\n1857 \n\n\n1763 \n\n\n1837 \n\n\n1809 \n\n\n\n\n1642 \n\n\n1709 \n\n\n1728 \n\n\n1829 \n\n\n1696 \n\n\n1782 \n\n\n1724 \n\n\n1808 \n\n\nB. o. 907 \n\n\n\n\n1779 \n\n\n1842 \n\n\n1724 \n\n\n1816 \n\n\n1798 \n\n\n1845 \n\n\n1687 \n\n\n1763 \n\n\n1635 \n\n\n1702 \n\n\n1788 \n\n\n1841 \n\n\n1690 \n\n\n1763 \n\n\n1816 \n\n\n\n\n1553 \n\n\n1600 \n\n\n1785 \n\n\n1865 \n\n\n1717 \n\n\n1803 \n\n\n1495 \n\n\n1555 \n\n\n1770 \n\n\n1831 \n\n\n1505 \n\n\n1573 \n\n\n1718 \n\n\n1803 \n\n\nr 1792 \n\n\n\n\n1802 \n\n\n\n\n1721 \n\n\n1803 \n\n\n1707 \n\n\n1785 \n\n\nthor 1737 \n\n\n.791 \n\n\n1770 \n\n\n1843 \n\n\nb. o. 64 \xe2\x80\xa2. \n\n\n0. 1 \n\n\n\nH4 \n\n\n\nTHE WOEID\'S PROGRESS. \n\n\n\nHATICN \n\nFlem. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nRom. \n\nAmer. \n\nHeb. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\n\n\nNAME AND PBOFESSIOH. \n\nHorn, Philip de Mont, count of, 6oldier and statesman \nHome, George, a learned prelate, bishop of Norwich \n\n, Richard H., poet and essayist \n\n, Thomas Hartwell, biblical critic and historian \n\nHorner, Francis, statesman and essayist \n-, Leonard, geological writer \n\n\n\nHorsley, Samuel, a prelate and mathematician \n\nHortensius, Quintus, orator \n\nHosaek, David, M. D., medical and scientific writer \n\nHosea, prophet . \n\nHoudin, Robert, conjurer . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nHoudon, Jean Antoine, sculptor . \n\nHoussaye, Arsene, miscellaneous writer . \n\nAmer. House, Samuel G., physician and philanthropist \nAmer. Houston, Sam., general, governor, and ex-governor of Texas \nEng. Howard, John, a celebrated philanthropist \n\nAmer. , John Eager, i evolutionary soldier and statesman \n\nAmer. Howe, Elias, jr., inventor of sewing machines \n\n\n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nSwiss, \n\nFr. \n\nEng. \n\nFr. \n\nGer. \n\nFr. \n\n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 , Geo. Aug., general in colonial war \n\n, Richard, lord, earl, admiral . . \n\n, Sir Win., commander-in-chief in America \n\nHowell, James, author of \'Letters\' . \nHowitt, Mary (wife of "Wm.), novelist and poet \n, "William, traveller, essayist, &c. \n\n\n\nHowley, \'William, archbisl op of Oa. terbury . \n\nHoyle, Edmund, writer on games . . . \n\nHuber, Francis, naturalist . . . \n\nHue, Evariste R., Catholic missionary and author \nHudson, Henry, discoverer of Hudson river \nHuet, Peter Daniel, ah erudite prelate and author \nHufeland, Chris. W., medical author \nHugh Capet, founder of the Capetian line of French kings \nIrish-Am. Hughes, John, Catholic Archbishop N. T. \n\n\n\nFr. \n\nAmer, \n\nAmer. \n\nGer. \n\nPruss. \n\nScot. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\n\n\nHugo, Victor M., novelist, poet, and statesman \n\nHull, Commodore Isaac, naval commander (Const, and Guer, \n\n, Wm., general in War of 1812 . \n\nHumboldt, Karl "Wilhelra, baron, statesman and author \n, F. H. A*, baron, traveller, geographer, and nat, \n\n\n\nHume, David, an historian and philosopher \n\n, Jos., statesman and reformer \n\nHumphrey, Heman, theologian and author \nAmer. Humphreys, David, poet and diplomatist . \nHung. Hunniades, John, a celebrated warrior \nAmer. Hunt, Freeman, author aid journalist \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0Eng. , James Henry Leigh, poet and essayist \n\nEng. \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 , Leigh, poet anVl essayist \n\n, Thomas S., chemist and geologist \n\nHunter, John, surgeon and medical author \n, Robert M. T., U. S. senator from Virginia \n\n\n\nAmer. \n\nScot. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nEng \n\nAco\xc2\xabr. \n\n\n\nHuntington, Selina, countess of, patron of Methodist* \n\n, Wm., Antinomian preacher \n\xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 ( Jeded. V., poet and novelist . \n\n\n\n\n\nBOHH. \n\n\nmkj\xc2\xbb \n\n\n\n\n1522 \n\n\n156S \n\n\n\n\n1730 \n\n\n1762 \n\n\n\n\n1803 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1780 \n\n\n1862 \n\n\n\n\n1778 \n\n\n1817 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n1785 \n\n\n1864 \n\n\n\n\n1736 \n\n\n1806 \n\n\n\n\nB. C. 114 B. \n\n\nc. 50 \n\n\n\n\n1769 \n\n\n1835 \n\n\n\n\n8th cent \n\n\nB. G. \n\n\n\n\n1805 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1741 \n\n\n1828 \n\n\n\n\n1815 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1801 \n\n\n\n\nIS \n\n\n1793 \n\n\n1862 \n\n\n\n\n1726 \n\n\n1790 \n\n\n\n\n1752 \n\n\n1827 \n\n\n\n\n1819 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1724 \n\n\n1758 \n\n\n\n\n1726 \n\n\n1799 \n1814 \n\n\n\n\n1596 \n\n\n1666 \n\n\n\n\n1804 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1795 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1765 \n\n\n1848 \n\n\n\n\n1672 \n\n\n1769 \n\n\n\n\n1750 \n\n\n1S31 \n\n\n\n\n1813 \n\n\nI860 \n1611 \n\n\n\n\n1630 \n\n\n1721 \n\n\n\n\n1762 \n\n\n1836 \n\n\n\n\n946 \n\n\n996 \n\n\n\n\n1798 \n\n\n1864 \n\n\n\n\n1802 \n\n\n\n\nr.),& \n\n\nc. 1775 \n\n\n1845 \n\n\n\n\n1T53 \n\n\n1825 \n\n\n\n\n1767 \n\n\n1835 \n\n\nphil. \n\n\n1769 \n\n\n1859 \n\n\n\n\n1711 \n\n\n1776 \n\n\n\n\n1777 \n\n\n1855 \n\n\n\n\n1779 \n\n\n1859 \n\n\n\n\n1753 \n\n\n1818 \n\n\n\n\n1400 \n\n\n1456 \n\n\n\n\n1804 \n\n\n1S58 \n\n\n\n\n1784 \n\n\n1859 \n\n\n\n\n1785 \n\n\n1859 \n\n\n\n\n18-26 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1728 \n\n\n1792 \n\n\n\n\n1809 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1707 \n\n\n1791 \n\n\n\n\n1744 \n\n\nim \n\n\n\n\n1815 \n\n\n\n\n\n\' A \n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. \n\n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0AXIOM \n\nAmer \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\n(Jer. \n\nIrish. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nGer. \n\nEng. \n\nScot. \n\nDutch. \n\nFr. \n\nInd. \n\nGr. \n\nJew. \n\n\n\nNAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nHuntington, Fred. D., clergyman and author . \nHurd, Richard, bishop of Worcester, &c. , \nHuskisson, Rohon "William, able statesman . \nHuss, John, the great Bohemian reformer \nHutcheson, Francis, a philosophical writer \nHutchinson, Anne, founder of N". E. Antinomiana \n, John, Colonel (Life by hie widow) \n\n\n\n-, Thomas, a distinguished gov. of Mass. and historian \n\n\n\nHutten, Ulrich von, scholar and reformer \nHutton, Charles, an eminent mathematician \n\n, James, a geologist and philosopher \nHuygens, Christian, a scientific author \nHyde de Neuville, F. G., baron de, politician \nHyder A V, a celebrated warrior \nHypatia, Neo, Platonic philosopher . \nHyrcanup T . and IL, high priests \xc2\xab \n\n\n\nBORN. \n\n\nDIKD \n\n\n1819 \n\n\n\n\n1721 \n\n\n1808 \n\n\n1769 \n\n\n1830 \n\n\n1376 \n\n\n1416 \n\n\n1694 \n\n\n1747 \n\n\n\n\n1643 \n\n\n161T \n\n\n1664 \n\n\nn 1711 \n\n\n178C \n\n\n1488 \n\n\n1523 \n\n\n1737 \n\n\n1823 \n\n\n1726 \n\n\n1797 \n\n\n1629 \n\n\n1705 \n\n\n1776 \n\n\n1857 \n\n\n1717 \n\n\n1782 \n\n\n370 \n\n\n415 \n\n\n1st and 2d cent \n\n\n\nIamblichus, Neo, Platonic philosopher , \n\nTurk. Ibrahim Pasha, viceroy of Egypt , \n\nGr. Ibycus, a lyric poet . . . . f. b. o. \n\nSpan. Ignatius de Loyola, the founder of the Jesuits \n\n, Saint, primitive father of the church \n\n, St., patriarch of Constantinople . \n\nEng. Inchbald, Elizabeth, dramatist and novelist , \n\nPort. Inez de Castro, queen of Portugal \n\nAmer. Ingersoll, Charlea J., statesman and historian \n\nAmer. , Joseph It., statesman and lawyer \n\nScot. Inglia, Henry D., traveller and author . \n\nEng. Ingram, Rev. Dr. James, Saxon scholar \nAmei. Inman, Henry, portrait and landscape painter \nAmer. , John, journalist and litterateur \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nInnocent, the name of thirteen popes . , \n\nIrenasus, saint, a Gallic bishop, and author \nEng. Ireland, Samuel \' Picturesque Tour \' . . . \n\nEng. , W. H., author of the \' Shakespeare Forgeries\' \n\nGr. Irene, a Byzantine empress .... \n\nEng. Ireton, Henry, son-in-law of Cromwell, and one of his generals \n\nAmer. Irving, John Treat, author of travels and novels . \n\nAmer. , Peter, author (brother of Washington) . . \n\nSoot. , Rev. Edward, theological writer . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nAmer. , Theodore, author of Conquest of Florida\' . \n\nAmer. , "Washington, historian and essayist . . \n\nAmer. , William, one of the authors of Salmagundi . . \n\nSpan. Isabella, the Catholic, queen of Spain, patron of Columbus \n\nSpan. IL, queen of Spain \xe2\x80\xa2 . \xe2\x80\xa2 . \n\nGr. Isseus, an orator . . . . \xc2\xbb \n\nHeb. Isaiah, the greatest of the Hebrew prophet* . . \n\nFr. Isambert, Franc A., politician and jurist . , \n\nGr. Isocrates, an orator . . , \n\nSpan. Iturbide, emperor of Mexico . a \n\n\n\nA. D. \n\n\n4th cent. \n\n\n1789 \n\n\n\n\n1848 \n\n\n550 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1491 \n\n\n\n\n1556 \n\n107 \n\n\n779 \n\n\n\n\n877 \n\n\n1756 \n\n\n\n\n1821 \n1355 \n\n\n1782 \n\n\n\n\n1862 \n\n\n1786 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1795 \n\n\n\n\n1835 \n\n\n1774 \n\n\n\n\n1850 \n\n\n1801 \n\n\n\n\n1846 \n1850 \n\n\n402 \n\n\nto \n\n\n1687 \n\n\n2d cent. \n\n\n1750 \n\n\n\n\n1800 \n\n\n1777 \n\n\n\n\n1835 \n\n\n752 \n\n\n\n\n803 \n\n\n1610 \n\n\n\n\n1651 \n\n\n1810 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1771 \n\n\n\n\n1838 \n\n\n1792 \n\n\n\n\n1834 \n\n\n1809 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1783 \n\n\n\n\n185\xc2\xab \n\n\n1766 \n\n\n\n\n1821 \n\n\n1451 \n\n\n\n\n1604 \n\n\n1830 \n\n\n\n\n\n\nC. 418 \n\n\n\n\n\n\nB. 0. (ibt) 800 \n\n\n1792 \n\n\n\n\n1857 \n\n\n0.436 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1784 \n\n\n\n\n1824 \n\n\n\nn6 \n\n\n\nTHE WORLD\'S PROGRESS. \n\n\n\nRATIOS. NAME AMD PROFESSION. BORN, \n\nAmer. Ives, Levi 8., ex-protestant episcopal bishop of North Carolina 1797 \n\nAirier. Izard, Ralph statesman (of South Carolina) . \xe2\x80\xa2 < 1742 \n\n\n\n1804 \n\n\n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nHeb. \n\nGer. \n\nGer. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nDutch. \n\nGer. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\n\n\nEng. \n\nScot. \n\nPers. \n\nScot. \n\nFr. \n\nDutch. \n\nItal. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nFr. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nFr. \n\nGer. \n\nIrish. \n\nAmer. \n\nScot. \n\nEng. \n\nHind. \n\nAust. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nScot. \n\nHeb. \n\n\n\nJackson, Charles T., chemist, mineralogist, geologist. . \n\n, James, eminent physician \n\n, Gen. Andrew, military commander, president TJ. S. \n\n, Patrick T., eminent merchant \n\n, Thomas Jonathan (\' Stonewall \'), rebel general \n\n, William (\' of Exeter \') musical composer \n\n\n\nJacob, the Patriarch ..... \n\nJacobi, Fred. H., philosopher, novelist, &o. . . \n\nJacobs, Fred., classical philologist . . . \n\nJacotot, Jean J., educational writer . . . \n\nJacquard, Jos. M., inventor of the Jacquard loom . \nJacquemont, Victor, traveller and naturalist . . \n\nJacquin, Nicholas Joseph, a botanist \nJahn, John, an eminent oriental scholar . . \n\nJames, G. P. R., novelist and historian . . . \n\n, Henry, philosophical writer . . . \n\n, John Angell, congregational clergyman and author \n\n, St., the Elder, apostle \n\n, St., the Less, " \n\nJameson, Anne, essayist and writer on art \n\n, Robert, naturalist and author . . . \n\nJami, or Djami, poet .... \n\nJamieson, John, D. D., miscellaneous author . . \n\nJanin, Jules, litterateur .... \n\nJansen, Cornelius, founder of a sect . . . \n\nJanuarius, patron saint of Naples . . . \n\nJarves, James J., traveller and author . . . \n\nJarvis, Samuel F., D. D., historian and theologlst \nJasmin, Jaques, barber-poet .... \n\nJasper, "William, heroic soldier of the Revolution \n\n, John, a distinguished patriot and statesman . \n\nJay, William, judge, anti-slavery philanthropist \n\n, Wiliam, D. D., religious writer . . \n\nJeanne d\'Arc, \' Maid of Orleans,\' heroine . . \n\nJean, Paul, see Richter, novelist and metaphysician \n\nJebb, John, Bishop of Limerick, theological writer \n\nJefferson, Thomas, a patriotic statesman, 3d pres. of the U. S. \n\nJeffrey, Francis, lord, essayist and critic \n\nJeffreys, George, infamous judge \n\nJejeebhoy, Sir Jamsetjee, Parsee merchant and philanthropist \n\nJellachich, de Buzim, baron, ban of Croatia \n\nJenkinson, B. B., earl of Liverpool, premier \n\nJenkyns, William, non-conformist (\' on Jude \') \n\nJenner, Edward, introducer of the vaccine innoculatico \n\nJenyns, Soame, poet and miscellaneous writer . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nJerdan, William, journalist .... \n\nJeremiah, prophet . . . , . fl \n\n\n\n1805 \n\n\n\n\n1777 \n\n\n\n\n1767 \n\n\n1845 \n\n\n1780 \n\n\n1847 \n\n\n1826 \n\n\n1863 \n\n\n1730 \n\n\n1803 \n\n\nB. 0. 1836 B. \n\n\no. 1689 \n\n\n1743 \n\n\n1819 \n\n\n1764 \n\n\n1847 \n\n\n1770 \n\n\n1840 \n\n\n1752 \n\n\n1834 \n\n\n1801 \n\n\n1832 \n\n\n1727 \n\n\n1817 \n\n\n175J \n\n\n1817 \n\n\n1801 \n\n\n1860 \n\n\n1811 \n\n\n\n\n1785 \n\n\n1859 \n\n\n\n\n44? \n\n\n\n\n66? \n\n\n1797 \n\n\n1860 \n\n\n1774 \n\n\n1854 \n\n\n1414 \n\n\n1492 \n\n\n1759 \n\n\n1838 \n\n\n1804 \n\n\n\n\n1585 \n\n\n1638 \n\n\n272 \n\n\n305 \n\n\n1818 \n\n\n\n\n1786 \n\n\n1851 \n\n\n1798 \n\n\n1864 \n\n\n1750 \n\n\n1779 \n\n\n1745 \n\n\n1829 \n\n\n1779 \n\n\n1858 \n\n\n1769 \n\n\n1853 \n\n\n, 1412 \n\n\n1431 \n\n\n1763 \n\n\n1825 \n\n\n1736 \n\n\n1775 \n\n\n1743 \n\n\n1826 \n\n\n1773 \n\n\n1850 \n\n\n164S \n\n\n1689 \n\n\n1783 \n\n\n1859 \n\n\n1S01 \n\n\n1859 \n\n\n1770 \n\n\n182* \n\n\n1612 \n\n\n1685 \n\n\n1749 \n\n\n1823 \n\n\n1704 \n\n\n1787 \n\n\n1782 \n\n\n\n\n. b. o. 678 \n\n\n571 \n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. \n\n\n\nIr 7 \n\n\n\nSATJCH HAME ASTO PEOFESSIOH. \n\nJerome, St one of the fathers of the church \n\nGer. , ol Prague, reformer, companion of Hubs . \n\nEng. Jerrold, Douglas, essayist \n\nEng. Jervis, sir John, earl St. Vincent, admiral . \n\nEng. Jewell John, learned prelate and author . \n\nEng. Jewsbury, Maria J., essayist . . . \n\nFr. Joan of Arc, \'the greatest of heroines\' \n\nItaL Joanna, queen of Naples . . . \n\nHeb. Joel, the prophet .... \n\nHoL Johannes Secundus (Johannes Everardj, poet \n\nFr. Johannot, Tony, artist and designer . \n\nHeb. John, the Evangelist .... \n\nEng. , of Gaunt (or Ghent), duke of Lancaster \n\nGer. , king of Saxony and author . . \n\nPol. , III., Sobieski, king of Poland, and general \n\nEng. , Edward, historian of N. England \n\nEng. Johnson, Samuel, a divine and writer i the cause of liberty \n\nEng. , Samuel, \' the Colossus of English literature\' \n\nAmer. , Alex. B., philologist and miscellaneous writer \n\nAmer. , Andrew, president U. S. . . , \n\nAmer. , Reverdy, jurist and statesman \n\nAmer. , Richard M., general and statesman, vice-president U. 8, \n\nAmer. , Samuel, first president Columbia College and author \n\nAmer. , Walter R.. physicist .... \n\nTr. Amer. Johnson, Sir William, geueral and governor in North Amerioa \nAmer. Johnston, Albert Sydney, rebel general . . . \n\nScot , Alex. K., geographer . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nScot. , George, writer and naturalist \n\nycot. , James F. W., chronicler and agricultural author \n\nFr. Joinville, Jean, sire de, chronicler \n\nFr. , Francois, prince de, third son of Louis Philippe \n\nFr.Am. Jolliet, Louis, one of the discoverers of the Mississippi \n\nItal. Jomelli, Nicholas, dramatic and musical composer \n\nSwiss. Jomini, Henry, baron de, military writer . \n\nHeb. Jonah, the prophet . \n\nAmer. Jones, Anson, last president of the republics of Texas \n\nEng. , Inigo, an eminent architect . . , \n\nAmer. , Jacob, commodore in the 0. S. navy \n\nScot. , John Paul, captain in the navy of the United States \n\nEng. , Owen, architect and decorator \n\nfcng. , Thomas Rynier, writer on anatomy and physiology \n\nEng. \xe2\x96\xa0 , Sir William, an eminent poet, scholar, and lawyer \n\nEng. , Rev. William, * of Nayland,\' Hutehinsonian divine \n\nEng. , William, divine and author \n\nEng. Jonson, Benjamin, celebrated poet and dramatist \n\nIcel. Jonsson, Finnur, Icelandic historian \n\nIrish. Jordan, Dorothy, actress, mistress of William IV. . \n\nDan. Jorgenson, Jorgen, adventurer and author \n\nEng. Jortin, Dr. John, learned theologian and author \n\nFr. Josephine, empress of the French (born in Martinico) \n\nJew. Josephus, celebrated historian and warrior . . \n\nHeb. Joshua, successor of Moses as leader of the Israelites \n\n\n\nWKN. DIED \n\n42C \n1416 \n1782 1857 \n1774 1823 \n1522 1571 \n1833 \n1410 1431 \n\n\n\nO. 800 \n1511 \n\n1803 \n\n\n\n1539 \n\n1852 \n100 \n\n1340 1399 \n1801 \n\n1629 1696 \n\n1600 1672 \n\n1649 1703 \n\n1709 1784 \n1786 \n1808 \n1796 \n\n1780 1850 \n\n1696 1772 \n\n1794 1852 \n\n1715 1744 \n\n1803 1862 \n1804 \n\n1798 1856 \n\n1796 1855 \n\n1224 1319 \n1818 \n\n1730 \n\n1714 1744 \n1775 \n\nf. B. o. 862 \n\n1798 1858 \n\n1572 1652 \n\n1770 1850 \n\n1736 1792 \n1809 \n1810 \n\n1746 1794 \n\n1726 1800 \n\n1726 1800 \n\n1574 1637 \n\n1704 1789 \n\n1762 1814 \n\n1779 1830 \n\n1698 1770 \n\n1761 1814 \n\n87 94 \nB.O. 15M \n\n\n\nu8 \n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. \n\n\n\nHAf.Ul \n\nHeb. \nHeb. \nFr. \nFr. \n\nGer. \nIlex. \n\n\n\nJew. \nHeb. \nAmer. \n\nAmer. \nAmer. \nAmer. \n\nAmer. \nDan. \n\nBom. \n\nFr. \n\nSwiss. \n\nHind. \n\nGer. \n\nGer. \n\nDutch. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nGr. \n\nRom. \n\nGr. \n\nGr. \n\nRom. \n\n\n\nNAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nJosiah, 17tb kiug of Judah \n\nJotham, king of Judah \n\nJouffroy, Theo. S., metaphysician and statesman \n\nJourdan J. B., marshal of France \n\nJovianus, Flavius C, emperor \n\nJuan, or John, of Austria, don, warrior . \n\nJuarez, Benito, statesman and president , \n\nJuba, king of Numidia . \n\n-, king of Mauritania and historian . \n\nJudah, Hakkadosch, famous rabbi and Talmudist \nJudas Maccabeus, patriot . . , \nJudd, Sylvester, author of \' Margaret \' \nJudson, Adoniram, missionary in India \n, Ann Hazeltine, first wife of the above \n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\x94 , Emily Chubbuck, third wife of above, and author \n\n\n\n(\' Fanny Forester \') \n, Sarah Boardman, second wife of above \n\n\n\nJuel, Nicholas, celebrated admiral \n\nJugurtha, Numidian king \n\nJulian, Flavius Claudius, Roman emperor and author \n\ntate\' ..... \nJulien, A. J., orientalist . . . \n\nJul liei i, Louis G., musical composer, &o. . \n\nJung-Bahadoor, prime minister of Nepaul . . \n\nJunge, Joachim, philosopher . . \n\nJung-Stilling, John H., mystic author \' . . \n\nJunius, Adrian, voluminous writer \nJunot, Andoche, duke d\'Abrantes, military officer \n\n, Madame, duchess d\'Abrantes, biography, &o. \n\nJusaieu, A, L. de, botanist \n\nJustin Flavius, A. J. \' the Elder,\' Byzantine emperor \n\n, Latin historian . \n\n, Martyr, one of the fathers of the church \n\nJustinian, Flavius A. J., \' the Byzantine \' emperor \nJuvenaL, Decius Junius, the most vehement of satiristB \n\n\n\nApOB \n\n\n\nBOBN. \n\n\nDIKD \n\n\nB. 0. 643 \n\n\nB. O. 60S \n\n\nB. c. 783 \n\n\nb. o. 742 \n\n\n1796 \n\n\n1842 \n\n\n1762 \n\n\n1833 \n\n\n\n\n364 \n\n\n1546 \n\n\n1578 \n\n\n1807 \n\n\n\n\n\n\nb. c. 46 \n\n\n\n\nB. c. 18 \n\n\n129 \n\n\n194 \n\n\n\n\nB. 0. 160 \n\n\n1813 \n\n\n1853 \n\n\n1788 \n\n\n1850 \n\n\n1789 \n\n\n1826 \n\n\n1817 \n\n\n1854 \n\n\n1803 \n\n\n1845 \n\n\n1629 \n\n\n1697 \n\n\n\n\nb. 0. 104 \n\n\n331 \n\n\n363 \n\n\n1799 \n\n\n\n\n1812 \n\n\n1860 \n\n\n1816 \n\n\n\n\n1587 \n\n\n1657 \n\n\n1740 \n\n\n1817 \n\n\n1512 \n\n\n1575 \n\n\n1771 \n\n\n1813 \n\n\n1784 \n\n\n1839 \n\n\n1748 \n\n\n1836 \n\n\n450 \n\n\n527 \n\n\nB. o. 200 \n\n\n\n\n91 \n\n\n16s \n\n\n482 \n\n\n665 \n\n\n\n\n128 \n\n\n\nGer. \nGer. \n\nFr. \nBwe. \n\n\n\nBoot, \n\nAmer. \n\nGer. \n\nRuss. \n\nFr. \n\n\n\nK \n\nKaempfer, naturalist, traveller and historian \nKaestner, Abraham Gothelf, mathematician and astronomer \nKalb, baron de, who generously aided the American cause \nKalm, Peter, traveller and botanist .... \nKamehameha (or Famehameha) L first king of the Sandwich \n\n\n\nIslands . ... \n\n, II. king, introduced Christianity \n\n, III. introduced Constitution . , \n\n, IV. (Alex. Liholiho) \n\nKames, Henry Home, lord, judge and author . \n\nKane, Elisha Kent, arctic explorer and author . \nKant, Emanuel, metaphysician \n\nKarasmin, Nicholas M. historiographer of the empire \nKarr, J. B Alphonse, miscellaneous author \n\n\n\n(abt) \n\n\n\n1651 \n\n\n1716 \n\n\n1719 \n\n\n1798 \n\n\n1717 \n\n\n1780 \n\n\n1715 \n\n\n1779 \n\n\n1800 \n\n\n\n\n1824 \n\n\n\n\n1817 \n\n\n1854 \n\n\n1834 \n\n\n\n\n1596 \n\n\n1827 \n\n\n1820 \n\n\n1857 \n\n\n1724 \n\n\n1804 \n\n\n1766 \n\n\nim \n\n\n1808 \n\n\n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. \n\n\n\n119 \n\n\n\nIrish. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nIrish \n\nScot. \n\nFr. \nFt. \n\nIrish. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nGer. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\n\n\nNAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nKater, Henry, mathematician . . , \n\nKavanagh, Julia, novelist .... \nKean, Charles John, actor . . . \n\n, Edmund, tragedian .... \n\n, Ellen Tree, wife of C. J. Kean, actress . \n\nKearny, Philip, Union general in war against rebellion \nKeats, John, a poet .... \n\nKeble, John, divine and poet .... \nKeighfley, Thos., miscellaneous author . . \n\nKeith, Geo. K. Elphinston, admiral \n\n, James, an officer in the Russian and Prussian service \n\n, Thos., mathematician, (\' Use of Globes\') , \n\nKellerman, Frank C, duke of Valmy, general \n\n, Franc Etienne, son of above, general . \n\nKelly, Michael, composer and singer . . \n\nKembie, Charles, actor .... \n\n, Frances Anne, actress and author , \n\n, John M., scholar and historian . , \n\ni , John Philip, celebrated tragedian \n\n\n\nKemfelen, Wolfgang, baron, author of the automaton chess-player \nKempis, Thomas a, supposed author of the \'Imitation of Christ\' \nKen, Thos., bishop or Bath and Wells, theological writer \nAmer. Kendall, Amos, statesman and author . \xc2\xbb \n\nAmer. , George W., journalist and author . . \n\nAmer. Kendrick Asahel C, Greek scholar and author \nScot. Kennedy, Grace, writer, (Father Clement) . . \n\nAmer. Kennedy, John Pendleton, statesman and novelist \xe2\x80\xa2 \nEng. Kennet, White, learned prelate and author . . \n\nEng. Kennicott, Benjamin, a divine and Biblical critio . \nIr.-Am.Kenrick, Francis P., Catholic prelate and author . \n\nKent, Edward, Aug., duke of, father of Queen Victoria \n\nAmer. , James, jurist, chancellor of New Tork . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nAmer. , William, judge, esteemed jurist . , \n\nEng. Kenyon, Lloyd, lord, jurist .... \n\nEng. , John, poet .... \n\nGer. Kepler, John, eminent astronomer . . . \n\nEng. Keppel, Aug., viscount, admiral \n\nScot. Kerr, Robert, miscellaneous writer . . . \n\nAmer. Key, Francis S., author of \xe2\x80\xa2 Star Spangled Banner* \nEng. Kidd, Wm., noted pirate, executed . . . \n\nEng. Killigrew, Henry, dramatist . . , \n\nScot. Kilmarnock, Wm. 4th, earl, Jacobite, beheaded . \n\nAmer. Kimball, Richard B., author , . . \n\nAmer. King, John A., ex-governor of New Tork - , \n\nAmer. , Rufus, statesman and diplomatist \n\nAmer. , Thomas Starr, author .... \n\nAmer. , William R., diplomatist, senator, and vice-president \n\nEng. Kinglake, Alex. Wrn., M. P., author of \'Eothen\' \n\nIrish. Kingsborough, Lord, patron of great work on Mexican antiquities \n\nEng. Kingsley, Charles, clergyman, novelist and poet , \n\nAmer. Kip, "Wm. Ingraham, Prot. Epis. bishop and author \n\nAmer Kirkland, Caroline M. author of travels and essays \n\n\n\nBOBH \n\n1777 \n1824 \n1S11 \n1787 \n1805 \n1815 \n1796 \n1790 \n1800 \n1746 \n1696 \n1759 \n1735 \n1770 \n1762 \n1775 \n1811 \n1807 \n1757 \n1754 \n1380 \n1637 \n1789 \n1810 \n1809 \n1782 \n1795 \n1660 \n1718 \n1797 \n1767 \n1763 \n\n1732 \n1783 \n1571 \n1726 \n\n1779 \n\n1612 \n1702 \n1818 \n1789 \n1755 \n1824 \n1788 \n1802 \n1795 \n1819 \n1811 \n\n\n\nDIET. \n\n1835 \n\n\n\n1838 \n\n\n\n1862 \n1820 \n\n\n\n1820 \n1768 \n1824 \n1820 \n1835 \n1826 \n1854 \n\n1857 \n1823 \n1806 \n1471 \n1711 \n\n\n\n1825 \n\n1728 \n1783 \n1863 \n1820 \n184T \n1861 \n1802 \n1856 \n1630 \n1786 \n1814 \n1843 \n1701 \n1690 \n1746 \n\n1867 \n1827 \n1864 \n\n1S53 \n\n183T \n\n\n\n1864 \n\n\n\nTHE WORLD\'S PROGRESS. \n\n\n\nKATIOM. NAME AND PROFESSION \n\nEng. Kitohine,Williflm, writer on Cookery \n\nEng. Kitto, John, biblical scholar and author \n\nHung. Klapka, George, patriot, soldier and author \n\nPrusB. Klapioth, Henry J., philologist atd ethnologist \n\nFr. Kleber, John Baptist, military officer \n\nGer. Klopstock, the \' Milton of Germany \' \n\nGer. Knapp, Geo., Christ, theologian . . \n\nAmer. , Samuel L., miscellaneous writer \n\nEng. Knight, Charles, publisher, editor, and author \n\nEng. , Richard Payne, miscellaneous writer . \n\nIrish. Knowles, Jas. Sheridan, dramatic author and actor \n\nEng. Knox, Dr. Vicesimus, divine and miscellaneous author \n\nAmer , Henry, military officer and statesman \n\nGer. Knyphausen, baron, general in British servioe . \n\nGer. Koch, Christopher "William, historian \n\nFr. Kock, Charles Paul de, novelist and dramatist . \n\nGer. Kohl, Johann George, traveller and author . . \n\nDan. Koppen, Adolph Louis, historical writer and lecturer \n\nGer. Korner, or Koerner, Charles T., poet \n\nPol. Kosciusko, Thaddeus, warrior and p itriot, served in the Ameri \n\ncan army during the Revolution \n\nHung. Kossuth, Lajos (Louis), late governor of Hungary \n\nGer. Kotzebue, Augustus Frederick Fer. von, historian, &c. . \n\nHung. Kraitsir, Charles, philologist \n\nPol. Krasinski, Valerian, count, author . . . \n\nGer. Krummacher, Fred. Adolph., poet and theologian ,. \n\n(j er . . , Fred. William, religious writer . . \n\nRuss. Krusenstern, Adam Jean, navigator . \n\nGer. Kugler, Franz Theodore, writer on art, &c. . . \n\nGer. Kuhnoel, Christ. F., critic . . . . \n\nGer. Kunih, Charles S., botanist .... \n\nRuss. Kutusofi, Michael L. G., field-marshal . . \n\nIi. \n\nFr. Labat, Jean B., missionary and historian . . \n\nItal. Lablache, Luigi, renowned vocalist , . . \n\nEng. Labouchere, Henry, Baron Taunton, statesman \n\nFr. Laborde, A. L. G., comte de, traveller, &c. \n\nFr. Labruyere, see Bruytre .... \n\nFr. Lacepede, Bernard G. S. Delaville, count de, naturalist \n\nFr. Lacordaire, Jean B. H., Catholic theologian and author \n\nFr. Lacretelle, Charles, traveller and litterateur \n\nFr. Lacroix, Sylvestre F., mathematician \n\nLactantius, a father of the Church styled the Christian Cicero \n\nRom. Laelius, Caius, publicist, tribune, praetor and consul \n\nFr Laennel, an eminent physician .... \n\nFr. Lafarge, Marie C, notorious as a poisoner \n\nFr. La Fayette, G. M., marquis, &c, military commander and states- \nman ..... \n\nFr, \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 . -, George "W., statesman . \n\nFr. Lafltte, Jacques, wealthy banker and statesman \n\nFt. 1 Jean, corsair, privateer, or pirate \n\n\n\n5( c tl . \n\n\nDlia \n\n\n\n\n183* \n\n\n1804 \n\n\n1864 \n\n\n1820 \n\n\n\n\n1784 \n\n\n1830 \n\n\n1754 \n\n\n1800 \n\n\n1724 \n\n\n1803 \n\n\n1753 \n\n\n1825 \n\n\n1784 \n\n\n1838 \n\n\n1791 \n\n\n\n\n1750 \n\n\n1824 \n\n\n1784 \n\n\n1862 \n\n\n1752 \n\n\n1821 \n\n\n1750 \n\n\n1806 \n\n\n1730 \n\n\n1789 \n\n\n1737 \n\n\n1813 \n\n\n1794 \n\n\n\n\n1808 \n\n\n\n\n1804 \n\n\n\n\n1791 \n\n\n1813 \n\n\n1746 \n\n\n1817 \n\n\n1802 \n\n\n\n\n1761 \n\n\n1819 \n\n\n1804 \n\n\n1860 \n\n\n1780 \n\n\n1855 \n\n\n1768 \n\n\n1845 \n\n\n1770 \n\n\n1846 \n\n\n1808 \n\n\n1858 \n\n\n1768 \n\n\n1841 \n\n\n1788 \n\n\n\n\n1745 \n\n\n1813 \n\n\n1663 \n\n\n1738 \n\n\n1794 \n\n\n1858 \n\n\n1798 \n\n\n\n\n1774 \n\n\n1842 \n\n\n1756 \n\n\n1828 \n\n\n1802 \n\n\n\n\n1766 \n\n\n1817 \n\n\n1765 \n\n\n1833 \n\n\n\n\n325 \n\n\nt. 186 B. \n\n\n3, 115 \n\n\n1782 \n\n\n1826 \n\n\n1816 \n\n\n1852 \n\n\n\n1757 \n\n\n\n1768 \n1780 f \n\n\n\n1834 \n\n\n\n1844 \n1831 \n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL INDEX \n\n\n\nNATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nGer. La Fontaine. Aug. J. H., author of 200 volumes miscellaneous \n\nFr. Lafontaine, Jean de, an inimitable fabulist \n\nItal. Lagrange, Joseph Limis, able mathematician \n\nFr. La Gueronniere, Louis E. A., viscount de, publicist . \n\nFr. Laharpe, John Francis de, dramatist, critic, &c. \n\nScot. Lai tig, Malcolm, historian . . . \n\nFr. Lalande, Joseph J. le Francis de, astronomer . \n\nAmer. Lamar, Mirabeau B., second president of the republio of Texas \n\nFr. Lamarck, J. B. A. P., naturalist . . \n\nFr. Lamarque, Maxim., general of the revolution of 1789 \n\nFr. Lamartine, Alphonse de, poet, historian, traveller, and states \n\nman ..... \n\nEng. Lamb, Charles, poet and essayist .... \n\nEng. , Lady Caroline, novelist . . . \n\nItal. Lamballe, Marie, princess of, victim of the revolution . \n\nEng. Lambert, A. B., botanist .... \n\nEng. , Daniel, noted for corpulency, 789 pounds . \n\nFr. Lammenais, F. R., abbe de, theological and political writer \n\nFr. Lamoriciere, Christ. L. J. de, general . . . \n\nFr. Lamotte Fouque, Fred., baron de, novelist \' Undine\' \n\nEng. Lancaster, Joseph, founder of system of education . . \n\nAmer. Lander, Fred. W, military officer (k. at Ball\'s Bluff ) . \n\nEng. \xe2\x80\x94 : , Richard and John, travellers in Africa . , \n\nFr. Landon, C. P., author of works on the fine arts . \n\nEng. , (Maclean), Letitia E., poet and novelist . . \n\nEng. Landor, Walter Savage, poet and essayist \n\nEng. Landseer, John, engraver and author \n\nEng. Lane, Edw. Wm., orientalist, author of \' Modern Egyptians,\' &c. \n\nAmer. , James, general, U. S. senator for Oregon . . \n\nGer. Lange, commentator on scripture . . . \n\nAmer. Langdon, gov. New Hampshire, U. S. senator . , \n\nItal. Langfranc, learned archbishop of Canterbury . . \n\nEng. Langhorne, John, miscellaneous author . . , \n\nEng. Langton, Stephen, cardinal and archbishop of Canterbury \n\nFr. Lai, nes, Jean, duke of Montebello, marshal of France . \n\nEng. Lansdowne, Henry Petty, marquis of, president of Council \n\nEng. > William Petty, marquis of, premier \n\nItal. Lanzi, Luigi, writer on art .... \n\nFr. La Perouse, Jean F., count, navigator \n\nFr. Laplace, Peter Simon, marquis of, eminent astronomer and geo \nmetrician ..... \nLappenberg, Johann M., historian . - . \n\nIrish. Lardner, Dionysius, writer on physical science . \n\nEng. , Nathaniel, a learned dissenting divine . . \n\nFr. Larrey, Dominique J., baron, surgeon and author \n\nFr. La Salle, Robt. C, sieur de, navigator and author . . \n\nSpan. Las Casas, Barth de, missionary and historian . . \n\nFr. , biographer of Napoleon, &c. . . . \n\nNor. Lassen, Chris., oriental philologist and historian . \n\nEng. Latimer, Hugh, a prelate, martyred for being a reformer \n\nEng Latham, John, ornithologist .... \n\nEdjj. , Eobert G., philologist and ethnologist \n\n\n\nBO&K. \n\n\nDIKD. \n\n\n1756 \n\n\n1831 \n\n\n1621 \n\n\n1695 \n\n\n1736 \n\n\n1813 \n\n\n1816 \n\n\n\n\n1739 \n\n\n1793 \n\n\n1762 \n\n\n1818 \n\n\n1732 \n\n\n1801 \n\n\n1798 \n\n\n185S \n\n\n1732 \n\n\n1S07 \n\n\n1770 \n\n\n1832 \n\n\n1802 \n\n\n\n\n1776 \n\n\n1834 \n\n\n1785 \n\n\n1828 \n\n\n1748 \n\n\n1792 \n\n\n1761 \n\n\n1842 \n\n\n1770 \n\n\n1809 \n\n\n1782 \n\n\n1854 \n\n\n1806 \n\n\n1868 \n\n\n1777 \n\n\n1848 \n\n\n1771 \n\n\n1839 \n\n\n1822 \n\n\n1862 \n\n\n\n\n1834 \n\n\n\n\n1826 \n\n\n.1802 \n\n\n1839 \n\n\n1775 \n\n\n1864 \n\n\n1769 \n\n\n1852 \n\n\n\n1867 \n\n\n\n1739 \n\n\n1819 \n\n\n1605 \n\n\n1689 \n\n\n1735 \n\n\n17- \n\n\n\n\n1228 \n\n\n1769 \n\n\n1809 \n\n\n1780 \n\n\n1863 \n\n\n1737 \n\n\n1805 \n\n\n1732 \n\n\n1810 \n\n\n1741 \n\n\n1789 \n\n\n1749 \n\n\n1827 \n\n\n1794 \n\n\n\n\n1793 \n\n\n1859 \n\n\n1684 \n\n\n1768 \n\n\n1760 \n\n\n1842 \n\n\n1635 \n\n\n\'.6S7 \n\n\n1474 \n\n\n156\xc2\xa3 \n\n\n".762 \n\n\n1843 \n\n\n1800 \n\n\n\n\n1470 \n\n\n1663 \n\n\n1740 \n\n\n186! \n\n\n1812 \n\n\n\n\n\nTHE WORLD\'S PROGRESS. \n\n\n\nRATIOS. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN, \n\nEng. Land, "William, prelate, famed for his tyranny and superstition . 1573 \n\nScot. Lauder, Sir Thos. Dick, writer on Natural History . 1784 \n\nAmer. Laurens, Jobn, lieutenant colonel in Revolutionary war . 1756 \n\nAmer. , Henry, patriot and statesman . . . 1724 \n\nFr. Lava.ette, M. C, count de, military commander . . 1769 \n\nFr. La Valliere, F. L., duchesse de, mistress of Louis XIV . 1644 \n\nSwiss. Lavater, John Caspar, celebrated physiognomist . \xe2\x80\xa2 1741 \n\nFr. Lavoisier, Anthony L., celebrated chemist . . 1743 \n\nScot. Law, John, financier of the \' Mississippi Bubble * \xe2\x80\xa2 . 1671 \n\nEng. , "Win., religious and mystical author . . . 1686 \n\nAmer Lawrence, Abbott, merchant and diplomatist . . . 1792 \n\nAmer. , Amos, merchant and philanthropist \xe2\x80\xa2 . 1786 \n\nAmer. , James, captain in U. S. Navy . . . 1781 \n\nEng. Layard, Austen H., traveller and explorer of Nineveh . 18 I 7 \n\nAmer. Lea, Isaac, naturalist and publisher .... 1792 \n\nEng. Leake, Wm. M., traveller and philhellenist . . 1777 \n\nAmer. Lear, Tobias, secretary to Washington, diplomatist . . 1760 \n\nFr. Lebrun, Pontius D. E., poet .... 1729 \n\nSwiss. Leclerc, Jobn, eminent critic ... . . 1657 \n\nAmer. Le Conte, John, naturalist .... 1784 \n\nAmer. , John L. M. D., naturalist, (son of preceding) . 1825 \n\nAmer. , John, M. D., naturalist, (Georgia) . . 1818 \n\nFr. Ledru-Rollin, Alex A., jurist and politician ... 1808 \n\nAmer. Ledyard, John, intrepid and enterprising statesman . 1751 \n\nAmer. Lee, Arthur, M.D., statesman .... 1740 \n\nAmer. , Charles, officer in the Revolution . . . 1730 (7) \n\nAmer. , Eliza B., miscellaneous writer . . . (abt.) 1800 \n\nAmer. , Francis Lightfoot, signer Dec. Independence . . 1734 \n\nEng. , Harriet, Miss, (sister of Sophia), novelist . \xe2\x80\xa2 . 1750 \n\nAmer. , Henry, general in Revolutionary War . . 1756 \n\nAmer. , Robert E., commander in chief of rebel armies \xc2\xab . 1808 \n\nAmer. , Richard Henry, pres. of Congress . . . 1732 \n\nEng. \xe2\x80\x94 , Samuel, D. D., oriental scholar .... 1783 \n\nEng. , Sophia, Miss, novelist * . 1750 \n\nEng. Leech, John, humorous artist in Punch, &c. . . . 1817 \n\nFr. Lefebvre, Francois Joseph, duke of Dantzick, marshal of France 1755 \n\nAmer. Legare, Hugh S., jurist, statesman and litterateur . . 1797 \n\nFr. Legendre, Adrian M., mathematician . . . 1753 \n\nAmer. Leggett, William, political and miscellaneous writer . . 1802 \n\nGer. Leibnitz, Godfrey William, able and learned philosopher , 1646 \n\nEng. Leicester, Robert Dudley, earl of, favorite of Queen Elizabeth . 1532 \n\nEng. Leicester, T. W. Coke, earl of, agriculturist . . . 1752 \n\nScotch. Leighton, Robert, able prelate .... 1613 \n\nAmer. Leisler, Jacob, political adventurer \n\nAmer. Leland, Charles G., essayist and humorist . \n\nEng. , John, eminent divine and author . \n\nIrish. -, Thomas, eminent divine and author \n\nPoL Lelewel, Joachim, historian \n\nFr. Lemaitre, Fred., actor , . . \n\nEng. Lemon, Mark, humorist, editor of \' Punch \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nEng. Lempriere, John, biographer and lexicographer \n\nVr. L\'EdoIob, Ninon de, noted courtesan \n\n\n\n1824 \n1691 \n1772 \n1786 \n1798 \n1809 \n1824 \n1615 \n\n\n\nore ii \n\n164i \n1848 \n1782 \n179:1 \n1830 \n1710 \n1801 \n1794. \n1729 \n1761 \n1855 \n1852 \n1813 \n\n\n\n1860 \n1826 \n1807 \n\n1736 \n\n\n\n1788 \n1782 \n1782 \n\n1797 \n1824 \n1816 \n\n1791 \n1852 \n1824 \n1864 \n1820 \n1843 \n1833 \n1840 \n1716 \n1588 \n1842 \n1684 \n1691 \n\n1768 \n\n1786 \n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. \n\n\n\nI23 \n\n\n\nSATIOK \n\nDutch. \nDutch. \nEng. \nFr. \n\nItaL \n\nGer. \n\nGr. \n\nGer. \n\nGer. \n\nGer. \n\nGer. \n\nRom. \n\nGer. \n\nRuss. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nEng. \n\nScot, \n\nScot. \n\nFr. \n\nGer. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nIrish. \n\nAmer. \n\nFr. \n\nAmer. \n\nScot. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nBoot \n\nPr. \n\nGer. \n\nAmei \n\nGer. \n\nRubs. \n\nEng. \n\nDutch \n\nItaL \n\nKng. \n\nEng. \n\nBng. \n\n\n\nNAME AMD PROFESSION. \n\nLennep David J. van, jurist and poet . \' , \n\n, Jan van, poet and novelist . , \n\nLennox, Charlotte, authoress, (born in N. T.) . , \n\nLenormand, Marie A., fortune-teller and biographer \n\nLeo, the name of twelve pupes and six Byzantine emperors \n\nLeo X, pope (John de Medici), a patron of injustice and the arts \n\nLeo, Henry, historian . . \n\nLeonidas I., king of Sparta, the hero of Thermopylae . f, \n\nLeopold I, king of the Belgians . . \n\nI, emperor of Germany .... \n\nVI, " " . . \n\nII. "".... \n\nLepidus, noted Roman family \n\nLepsius, Karl Rich., traveller and Egyptologist \n\nLermontotf, Michael, poet .... \n\nLeroux, Pierre, philosopher and socialist . . \n\nLeroy de St. Arnaud, J. A, marshal of France, general in chief \n\nLesage, Alain Rene, novelist and dramatist, \' Gil Bias\' \n\nLeslie, Charles Robt., artist and author . . \n\n, John, bishop, theological writer . . \n\n, John, mathematician and natural philosopher . \n\nLesseps, Ferdinand de, diplomatist . . , \n\nLessing, Gotthold E., critic and author . . ." \n\nLester, Charles E., miscellaneous author . . \n\nLEstrange, Sir Roger, political writer . . . \n\nLeuret, Francis, anatomist .... \nLe Vaillant, Fran.;, traveller and ornithologist . . \n\nLever Chas. Jas., novelist .... \nLuverett, Fred. P., classical scholar and author . \nLeverrier, Urbain J. J., astronomer \n\nLe Vert, Octavia W., authoress . . ... \n\nLevizac, Sir John, mathematician and natural philosopher \nLewes, George Henry, miscellaneous author \nLewis, Francis, signer of the Declaration of Independence \n\n, Major-Gen. Morgan, military commander, jurist, &c. \n\n, Matthew Gregory, miscellaneous writer. Monk Lewis \n\n, Meriwether, soldier, explorer, and author . \n\n, Samuel, educationist \n\n, Sir George Cornwall, author and statesman , \n\n\xe2\x80\x94\xe2\x80\x94\xe2\x80\x94, Taylor, classical scholar and author \n\n\n\nLeyden, John, author . . , \n\nL\'Hopital, Michel de, chancellor of France \n\nLichtenberg, George C, experimental philosopher \n\nLieber, Francis, publicist, political philosopher (born In Berlin) \n\nLiebig, Justus, baron, chemist . . . \n\nLi even, Dorothea, princess of, diplomatist . . \n\nLightfoot, John, learned divine and author . , \n\nLigne, Charles Joseph, military officer and anthor , \n\nLiguori, Alfons M. de, saint and theological writer \n\nLilly, George, dramatist ... , \n\n\xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 , John, the Euphuist dramatic writer . , \n\n\xe2\x96\xa0, William, astrologer .... \n\n\n\nBOBS. \n\n\nDIM \n\n\n. 1774 \n\n\n\n\n1802 \n\n\n\n\n1710 \n\n\n1804 \n\n\n1772 \n\n\n1843 \n\n\ns. 1475 \n\n\n1521 \n\n\n1T99 \n\n\n\n\nB. 0. 491 \n\n\n\n\n1790 \n\n\n186- \n\n\n1640 \n\n\n1705 \n\n\n1747 \n\n\n1192 \n\n\n1797 \n\n\n\n\nB. 0. 200 \n\n\n36 \n\n\n1811 \n\n\n\n\n1811 \n\n\n1841 \n\n\n1798 \n\n\n\n\nf 1801 \n\n\n1854 \n\n\n1668 \n\n\n1747 \n\n\n1794 \n\n\n1859 \n\n\n1570 \n\n\n1671 \n\n\n1766 \n\n\n1832 \n\n\n1805 \n\n\n\n\n1720 \n\n\n1781 \n\n\n1815 \n\n\n\n\n1616 \n\n\n1704 \n\n\n1797 \n\n\n1851 \n\n\n1753 \n\n\n1824 \n\n\n1806 \n\n\n\n\n1803 \n\n\n1836 \n\n\n1811 \n\n\n\n\n1820. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1813 \n\n\n1817 \n\n\n\n\n1713 \n\n\n1803 \n\n\n1754 \n\n\n1832 \n\n\n1773 \n\n\n1818 \n\n\n1774 \n\n\n\n\n1799 \n\n\n18M \n\n\n1806 \n\n\n\n\n1802 \n\n\n\n\n1775 \n\n\n1811 \n\n\n1504 \n\n\n1573 \n\n\n1742 \n\n\n1790 \n\n\n1800 \n\n\n\n\n1803 \n\n\n\n\n1784 \n\n\n1857 \n\n\n1735 \n\n\n1814 \n\n\n1735 \n\n\n1814 \n\n\n1696 \n\n\n1787 \n\n\n1693 \n\n\n1739 \n\n\n1553 \n\n\n1600 \n\n\n1002 \n\n\n1681 \n\n\n\n124 \n\n\n\nTHE WOULD\'S PROGRESS. \n\n\n\nRATION \n\nDutch. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nSwe. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nScot, \n\nSwe. \n\nEng. \n\nFr. \n\n\n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nHung. \n\nEng. \n\nGer. \n\nAmer \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nScot. \n\nRom. \n\nSpan. \n\nEng. \n\nFr. \n\nEng. \n\nScot. \n\nEng. \n\nInd. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nIrish. \n\nRuss. \n\nIrish. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nGr. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nFr. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nBpan. \n\n\n\nNAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nLimborch, Philip, theologian and authoi \n\nLincoln, Abraham, statesman, 16th president of the U. S, \n\n, Benjamin, major-general in ihe Revolutionary War \n\n, Levi, attorney -general oi the U. S. (irom Mass.) \n\n-, Levi, governor of Massachusetts \n\n\n\nLind, (Goldschmidt) Jenny, vocalist \n\nLindley, John, botanist \n\nLindsay, Alexander W. Crawford, lord, author of Travels, &a \n\n, Sir David, poet \n\nLing, Peter E., physiologist and poet \nLingard, John, author of \' History of England \' \nLinguet Simon N. H., political writer anil historian \nLinnseus, Charles von, the most celebrated of naturalists \nLipsius, Justus, critic .... \n\nLister, Thomas Henry, novelist and biographer of Clarendon \nListon, John, comic actor . ... \n\nLiszt, Franci6, performer on piano \nLittleton, Sir Thomas, jurist \n\nLittrow, John J., writer on mathematics and astronomy \nLivermore, Abiel A., clergyman, journalist and author \nLiverpool, Robert Banks Jenkinson, earl of, premier \nLivingston, Brockholst, soldier and jurist \n\n, Edward, jurist, diplomatist, and statesman \n\n, Philip, signer of the Declaration of Independence \n\n, Robert R., statesman and jurist \n\n, William, governor of New Jersey and poet \n\nLivingstone, David, traveller and missionary in Africa \nLivius, or Livy, Titus, celebrated historian \nLlorente, Don Juan, antiquary, historian, &o. \nLloyd, Henry, soldier and author \nLobau, count, marshal of France . . \n\nLocke, John, eminent philosopher and metaphysician \nLockhart, J. G., critic and novelist, editor of \' Quarterly \n\' Lodge, Edmund, herald and antiquary, \' Portraits \' \nLogan, English name of a famous Indian chief \n\n, James, colonial statesman and author \n\n, John A, major-general in Sherman\'s campaign, M. O \n\nLofft, Capel, author .... \nLola-Montez, Maria, countess of Lansfeldt, adventurer \nLollard, Walter, Protestant martyr at Cologne \nLomonozoff, Michael V., poet and historian \nLondonderry, Robert Stewart, marquis of, statesman \nLong, Stephen H., engineer, traveller, and author \nLongfellow, Henry W., poet and novelist \nLonginus, Dionysius Cassius, critic and philosopher \nLongman, Thomas, founder of the publishing house \nLongstreet, Aug. B., jurist and author . . \n\n\xe2\x80\x94 , James, rebel general \n\nLongueville, Anne G., duchess, politician . . \n\nLongworth, Nicholas, extensive wine manufacturer \nLoumis, Elias, physicist, astronomer \nLope de Vega, Carpio Felix, poet and dramatist \n\n\n\nBO KB. \n\n\n\xc2\xbbi&2 \n\n\n1633 \n\n\n171* \n\n\n1809 \n\n\n1665 \n\n\n1733 \n\n\nISM \n\n\n1749 \n\n\nU\'Jt \n\n\n1782 \n\n\n\n\n1821 \n\n\n\n\n1799 \n\n\n\n\n1812 \n\n\n\n\nibt) 1490 \n\n\n155* \n\n\n1776 \n\n\n183s \n\n\n1771 \n\n\n185v \n\n\n1736 \n\n\n174s. \n\n\n1707 \n\n\n1778 \n\n\n1547 \n\n\n1606 \n\n\n1801 \n\n\n1842 \n\n\n1776 \n\n\n1846 \n\n\n1811 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1481 \n\n\n1781 \n\n\n1840 \n\n\n1811 \n\n\n\n\n1770 \n\n\n1828 \n\n\n1757 \n\n\n1823 \n\n\n1764 \n\n\n1836 \n\n\n1716 \n\n\n1778 \n\n\n1747 \n\n\n1813 \n\n\n1723 \n\n\n1790 \n\n\n1815 \n\n\ni86e \n\n\nB. 0. 59 \n\n\n. 0. 17 \n\n\n1756 \n\n\n1823 \n\n\n1729 \n\n\n1783 \n\n\n1770 \n\n\n1838 \n\n\n1632 \n\n\n1704 \n\n\n1794 \n\n\n1854 \n\n\n1756 \n\n\n1839 \n\n\n\n\n1780 \n\n\n1674 \n\n\n1751 \n\n\n1751 \n\n\n1824 \n\n\n1824 \n\n\n1861 \n\n\n\n\n1322 \n\n\n1711 \n\n\n1765 \n\n\n1769 \n\n\n1822 \n\n\n1784 \n\n\n\n\n1807 \n\n\n\n\nB. c. 250 \n\n\n\n\n1699 \n\n\n1761 \n\n\n1790 \n\n\n\n\n1619 \n\n\n1679 \n\n\n1782 \n\n\n186S \n\n\n1811 \n\n\n\n\n1562 \n\n\n1631 \n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAT, INDEX. \n\n\n\n5TATIOJT. NAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nFr. Lorraine, Charles de, cardinal and politician \n\nAmer. Lossing, Benson J., historian and artist \nSoot. Loudon, J. C, voluminous writer on horticulture, agrioultn\xc2\xbb \nand architecture \n\nEnff. , Mrs. Jane W., horticultural writer \n\nFrench. LOUTS, the name of eighteen kings of Franc\xc2\xa9 \nLouis I., the Debonnaire \n\n" IX, Saint \n\n" XL, 6th of house of Valois \n\n" XII., 8th " " \n\n- XIII., 2d Bourbon \n\n" XIV., 3d " \n\n" XV., 4th \'\xc2\xab \n\n" xvr. \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2\xc2\xab XVII. .... \n\n" XVIII. .... \n\nFr. Louis, baron, eminent surgeon . . , \n\nFr. Phiiippe, king of the French \n\nFr. Napoleon. Sec Bonaparte. \n\nScot. Lovat, Simon Fraser, lord, executed for treason \n\nAmer. Lovejoy, Owen, statesman and abolitionist \n\nAmer. , Rev. E. P., abolitionist journalist \n\nIrish. Lover, Samuel, novelist and song writer \n\nIrish. Lowe, Sir Hudson, general, jailor of Napoleon \n\nAmer. Lowell, Charles, clergyman and author \nAmer. , James Russell, poet and critic . \n\nAmer. , John, lawyer and philanthropist \n\nAmer. \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 , John, jr., founder of Lowell Institute \n\nAmer. \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94- , Mary, Mrs. Putnam, of Boston, learned writer \n\nAmer. Lowndes, Rawlins, statesman, opposed the Union \n\nAmer. , William J , statesman \n\nEng. , William Thomas, \'Biblio- Manual\' . \n\nEng. Lowth, Robert, eminent divine and author \n\nSpan Loyola, Saint Ignatius de, founder of the Jesuits \n\nEng. Lucan, G. C. Bingham, earl of, general in Crimea . \n\nRom. , Marcus AnnaBiis, Latin poet . . \n\nOr. Lucian, celebrated writer . . . \n\nRom. Lucilius, the earliest Roman satirist . . \n\nGer. Lucke, Gott C. F., theologian . , \n\nRom. Lucretius, Caius Titus, eminent poet \n\nRom. Lucullus, wealthy warrior . . . \n\nEng. Ludlow, Edmund, republican judge of Charles L \n\nSpan. Lully, Raimond, \' the enlightened doctor\' \n\nAmer. Lundy, Benjamin, abolitionist . . \n\nAmer. Lunt, George, poet, essayist, and journalist \n\nGer. Luther, Martin, the parent of the Protestant refora \xc2\xbbtion \n\nIrish. Luttrell, Henry, poet .... \n\nFr. Luxemburg, duke of, military officer . \n\nGr. Lycurgus, the Spartan legislator \n\nEng. Lydgate, John, poet (Benedictine monk) . \n\nScot Lyell, Sir Charles, geologist and traveller \n\nAmer. Lynch, Thomas J., signer of the Declaration of Independence \n\n\n\nBORN \n\n\nDIED \n\n\n1524 \n\n\n1574 \n\n\n1813 \n\n\n\n\n1783 \n\n\n1813 \n\n\n1800 \n\n\n1858 \n\n\n778 \n\n\n84C \n\n\n1215 \n\n\n1270 \n\n\n1423 \n\n\n148? \n\n\n1462 \n\n\n1515 \n\n\n1601 \n\n\n1643 \n\n\n1638 \n\n\n1715 \n\n\n1710 \n\n\n1774 \n\n\n1754 \n\n\n1793 \n\n\n1785 \n\n\n1795 \n\n\n1755 \n\n\n1824 \n\n\n\n\n1837 \n\n\n1773 \n\n\n1850 \n\n\n1667 \n\n\n1747 \n\n\n1811 \n\n\n1864 \n\n\n1802 \n\n\n1837 \n\n\n1797 \n\n\n\n\n1769 \n\n\n1844 \n\n\n1782 \n\n\n1861 \n\n\n1819 \n\n\n\n\n1769 \n\n\n1840 \n\n\n1799 \n\n\n1838 \n\n\n1810 \n\n\n\n\n1722 \n\n\n1800 \n\n\n1782 \n\n\n1861 \n\n\n\n\n1843 \n\n\n1710 \n\n\n1787 \n\n\n1491 \n\n\n1556 \n\n\n1800 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n37 \n\n\n120 \n\n\n210 \n\n\nB. O. 148 B. \n\n\no. 191 \n\n\n1792 \n\n\n1855 \n\n\nb. c. 95 \n\n\n\n\nB. 0. 11.\') B. \n\n\n0. 49 \n\n\n1620 \n\n\n1693 \n\n\n1235 \n\n\n1316 \n\n\n1789 \n\n\n1838 \n\n\n1484 \n\n\n1548 \n\n\n\n\n1851 \n\n\n1628 \n\n\n1696 \n\n\nB. 0. 898 \n\n\n\n\n1375 \n\n\n1461 \n\n\n1797 \n\n\n\n\n1749 \n\n\n1*11 \n\n\n\n1 26 \n\n\n\nTHE WORLD\'S PROGRESS. \n\n\n\nNATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. \n\nAmer. Lynch, William P., captain U. S. navy, author of \' Dead Sea, &o. 1806 \n\nEng. Lyiidhurst, lord, statesman and jurist (born in Boston) \n\nAmer. Lyon, Mary, teacher and philanthropist \n\nAmer. , Matthew, politician .... \n\nAiner. , Nathaniel, Union general, fell at Wilson\'s Creek \n\nGr. Lysander, famous Spartan general . . \n\nGr. h\\ sias, orator ... . . \n\nGr. Lysimachus, one of Alexander\'s generals . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nEng. Lyttleton, George, lord, poet and historian . \n\n\n\n1772 \n\n\n\n\n1797 \n\n\n1849 \n\n\n1746 \n\n\n1822 \n\n\n1819 \n\n\n1861 \n\n\n. \n\n\nB. o. 395 \n\n\nb. o. 459 \n\n\n\n\nB. c. 360 \n\n\nB. o. 281 \n\n\n1709 \n\n\n1763 \n\n\n\nM. \n\nPr. Mabillon, Jean, ecclesiastical author . . 1632 1707 \n\nBoot. Macadam, John, originator of Macadamized roads . . 1756 1836 \n\nIrish. Macartney, Geo., earl of, diplomatist . . . 1737 1806 \n\nEng. Macaulay, T., Babington, essayist, historian, critic and statesman 1800 1859 \n\nEng. Macaulay, Zachary, anti-slavery statesman . . . 1768 1838 \n\nEng. Macauley, Catherine, miscellaneous writer . . 1733 1791 \n\nScot. Macbeth, chieftain of the 11th century . . . \n\nIrish. MacClintock, Sir F. L., Arctic navigator . . . 1819 \n\nIrish. MacClure, Sir R. J., discoverer of North-west passage . 1807 \n\nAmer. Macconnell, John L., novelist .... 1826 \n\nAmer. Maccorst, David J., political writer . . , 1797 1855 \n\nScot. Maccosh, James, clergyman and author . . . 1810 \n\nScot. Macculloch, J. R., political economist and statistician . 1789 1864 \n\nAmer. McClellan, Geo. B., commander-in-chief Union armies . . 1826 \n\nAmer. McCook, father and three sons from Ohio, generals in Union Army \n\nEng. McCulIoch, John, M. D., geologist, &c. . . . 1773 1835 \n\nScot. Macdiarmid, John, author ..... 1779 1808 \n\nScot. Macdonald, Flora, adventurous heroine . . . 1720 1790 \n\nFr. Macdnna\'d, S. T. A., marshal of France . . . 1765 1840 \n\nAmer. Macdonough, Thos., commodore in U. S. Navy, victor on Lake \n\nChamplain ..... 1783 1825 \n\nAmer. McDowell, Irwin, commander Onion Army . . .1818 \n\nAmer. Macduffie, Geo., U. S. senator from South Carolina . . 1788 1851 \n\nScot Macgillivray.Wm., naturalist .... 1796 1852 \n\nScot. Macgregor, John, statistical and political author . . 1797 1S57 \n\nItal. Machiavel, Nicholas, celebrated writer on politics . . 1469 1527 \n\nScot. Mackay, Charles, poet and miscellaneous writer . . 1812 \n\nAmer. Mackean, Thos., jurist, statesman, signer of Dec. of Ind. 1734 .1817 \n\nAmer. Mackenzie, A. Slidell, naval commander, author of travels \' 1803 1849 \n\nScot. Mackenzie, Henry, the Addison of the North . . . 1745 1831 \n\nIrish. Mackenzie, Robt. S., journalist, &c. . . . 1S09 \n\nAmer. Mackintosh, Maria J., novelist . . . (abt ) 1810 \n\nScot. Mackintosh, Sir James, celebrated literary character . . 1766 1832 \n\nIrish. Macklin, Charles, actor and dramatist . . . 1690 1796 \n\nScot Macknight, James, divine and author .... 1721 1800 \n\nAust. Mack von Liebenich, Karl, baron, general . 1752 182$ \n\nAmer. MacLane, Louis, statesman and diplomatist . . \xe2\x80\xa2 1786 1857 \n\nScot. Maclaurin, Colin, mathematician .... 1698 174* \n\nAmer Maclean, John, statesman, judge of U. S. Supreme Conrt . 1785 \n\nEng. MacLean, L. E. L., (Misp Landon), poet and novelist . 1804 1834 \n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 1 27 \n\nSATTOW. NAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nIrish. Mac.ise, Daniel, historical painter . . , \n\nAmer. Macleod, Alex., clergyman and author . , . \n\nAmer. Macleod, Xavier Donald, miscellaneous writer . \n\nScot. Maclure, William, geologist, &c . . , \n\nPr. MacMahon, M. E. P., duke of Magenta, marshal . \n\nScot. MacNab, Sir Allan, Canadian Statesman . \n\nIrish. MacNeven, Wm. J., patriot and physician, (died at N. Y.) \n\nAmer. Macomb, Major-Gen eral Alex., military commander . \n\nAmer. Macon, Nathaniel, member of Congress for N. Carolina 37 years \n\nScot. Macpherson, James, miscellaneous writer . \n\nAmer. Macpherson, Jas. B., Union general in rebellion . \n\nEng. Macready, "Wm. Chas., tragedian . . . \n\nScot. Macrie, Thomas, D.D., clergyman and author, biographer of Knox \n\nEng. Madden, Sir Fred., antiquarian author \n\n^Ger. Maddler, Johann Henry, astronomer . . . . \n\nAmer. Madison, James, 4th president of United States . . \n\nWelsh. Madoc, prince, said to have discovered America . \n\nSpan. Madoz, Pascuale, statesman and author . \n\nRom. Maecenas, Caius C, minister of Augustus and patron of literature \n\nItal. Mafl\'ei, Franc S., marquis, author of 21 vols. \n\nAmer. Maffitt, John Newland, noted Methodist preacher . ~~ . \n\nIrish. Magee, "Wm., arcnbishop Dublin, (on Atonement) , . \n\nPort. Magellan, Ferdinand, celebrated navigator . . \n\nFr. Magendie, Francis, physiologist .... \n\nIrish. Maginn, William, classical and miscellaneous writer and critic \n\nFr. Magnan, Bernard Pierre, marshal of France . . \n\nAmer. Magoon, Elisha L., clergyman and author \n\nSar. Mahomet, or Mohammed, founder of the religion which bears his \nname ...... \n\nTurk. Mahomet II., 7th Turkish Sultan, conqueror of Constantinople \n\nFr. Maimbourg, Louis, historian .... \n\nJew. Maimonides, Moses, celebrated rabbi \n\nFr. Maintenon, Frances d\'Aubigne, queen . . . \n\nItal. Maio, Angelo. discoverer and editor of Latin classics \n\n[tal. Maistre, Joseph de, statesman and author . \xe2\x80\xa2 . \n\nEng. Maittaire, Michael, bibliographer, &c. . . . \n\nHeb. Malachi, the prophet ..... \n\nSwiss. Malan, Caesar H. A., theologian and author . . \n\nAmer. Malcom, Howard, clergyman and author . . \n\nScot. Malcolm, Sir John, \' History of Persia and India\' . \n\nFr. Malebranche, Nicholas, metaphysician \n\nFr. Malesherbes, C. G. de, statesman, (executed) . \n\nItal. Malibran, M. F., Madame, vocalist .... \n\nFr. Malherbe, Franc de, poet .... \n\nScot. Mallet, David, miscellaneous writer .... \n\nSwiss. Mallet, Paul Henri, historian .... \n\nEng, Malmesbury, Jas. Harris, earl of, diplomatist . . \n\nEng. , Jas. H.H., (eon of above), statesman . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nEng. , William of, historian .... \n\nEng. Malone, Edward, dramatic commentator . . \n\nItaL Malphighi, Marcellus, naturalist and anatomist . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nEng. Maltby, Edw., bishop of Durham, philologist \xe2\x80\xa2 . \n\n\n\nBORN. \n\n\nDISS \n\n\n1811 \n\n\n\n\n1774 \n\n\n183* \n\n\n1821 \n\n\n\n\n1763 \n\n\n1840 \n\n\n1807 \n\n\n\n\n1798 \n\n\n\n\n1763 \n\n\n1841 \n\n\n1782 \n\n\n1841 \n\n\n1757 \n\n\n1837 \n\n\n1738 \n\n\n1798 \n\n\n1828 \n\n\n1864 \n\n\n1793 \n\n\n\n\n: 1772 \n\n\n1835 \n\n\n1801 \n\n\n\n\n1794 \n\n\n\n\n1751 \n\n\n1836 \n\n\n12th 1 \n\n\n;<at. \n\n\n1806 \n\n\n\n\n\n\nB. 0. \n\n\n1675 \n\n\n1755 \n\n\n1794 \n\n\n1850 \n\n\n1765 \n\n\n1831 \n\n\n\n\n1521 \n\n\n1783 \n\n\n1855 \n\n\n1793 \n\n\n1842 \n\n\n1791 \n\n\n1864 \n\n\n1810 \n\n\n\n\n569 \n\n\n632 \n\n\n1430 \n\n\n1480 \n\n\n1610 \n\n\n1686 \n\n\n1131 \n\n\n1204 \n\n\n1635 \n\n\n1719 \n\n\n1753 \n\n\n1821 \n\n\n\' 1668 \n\n\n1747 \n\n\nB. C \n\n\n5th cent. \n\n\n1787 \n\n\n1864 \n\n\n1799 \n\n\n\n\n1769 \n\n\n1833 \n\n\n1638 \n\n\n1715 \n\n\n1721 \n\n\n1794 \n\n\n1808 \n\n\n1836 \n\n\n1555 \n\n\n1628 \n\n\n1702 \n\n\n1763 \n\n\n1730 \n\n\n1807 \n\n\n1746 \n\n\n1826 \n\n\n1807 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1143 \n\n\n1741 \n\n\n1819 \n\n\n1628 \n\n\n1694 \n\n\n1770 \n\n\n186t \n\n\n\n128 \n\n\n\nTHE WORLD\'S PROGRESS. \n\n\n\nH A1IOH, \n\nGer. \n\nGer. \n\nEng. \n\nItal. \n\nEng. \n\nPers. \n\nItal. \n\nItal. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nGer. \n\nAmer. \n\nScot. \n\nEng. \n\nItal. \n\nItal. \n\nItal. \n\nItal. \n\nPr. \n\nRom. \n\nItal. \n\nA.rr<er. \n\nPt-B. \n\nSt. \n\nJP>. \n\nGer. \n\nDan. \n\nFr. \n\nAuat. \n\nBpan. \n\nItal. \n\nSpan. \n\nGer. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nItal. \n\nAmer. \n\nRom. \n\nEng. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\n&roer. \n\n\n\nHAME AND PBOFESSIOK. \n\nMalte Bran, Conrad, poet and geographer . \n\n\xe2\x80\x94 , M., geographer . . , \n\nMalthus, T. R., political economist . . \n\nMamiani, Terenze, count, statesman and author \nMandeville, Sir John, traveller and author \nManes, or Manichseus, founder of the Maniohasan sect \nManfred, prince of Tarentum, king of Two Sicilies \nManin, Daniele, Venetian statesman . . \n\nMann, Horace, statesman and educationist . . \n\nManning, Henry E., clergyman and author \nMansel, Henry L., metaphysician and theologian . \nMansfeld, Ernest of, warrior . \nMansfield, Jos. K., Union general . \n\n, \xc2\xa5m. Murray, Earl of, jurist and statesman \n\nMantell, G. A., geologist \n\nManutius Aldus, celebrated printer and author \n\n, the Younger, printer and author . \n\n\n\nPaulus, (son of Manutius), printer \n\n\n\nBOXH. \n\n. 1775 \n\n1766 \n1799 \n1300 \n239 \n(abt.) 1231 \n1804 \n1796 \n1812 \n1816 \n1585 \n1803 \n1705 \n1790 \n1447 \n1547 \n1512 \n1784 \n1754 \nB. o. 267 \n1256 \n1786 \n\n\n\nManzoni, author of T. PromesBi Sposi . . \n\nMarat, John Paul, infamous revolutionist . \n\nMarcellus, Marcus Claudius, general . \n\nMarco Polo, Venetian traveller . . \n\nMarcy, Wm. Learned, statesman . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nMardonius, Persian general in Greece \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nMargaret of Angouleme, queen of Navarre . . 1492 \n\nMargaret of Anjou, queen of Henry VI. of England . . Ii29 \nMargaret of Austria, daughter of Maximil. I. and Mary of Burgundy 1480 \n\nMargaret, queen of Denmark:, &c, * Semiramis of the North \' . 1353 \n\nMargaret of Valois, queen of Henry IV. of France . . 1552 \nMaria Louisa, empress of France, afterwards Duchess of Parma 1787 \n\nMaria Christina, queen dowager of Spain, (born at Naples) . 1806 \n\nMaria de Medici, queen of Henry IV. of France . . 1574 \n\nMariana, John, celebrated historian . . . . 1537 \n\nMaria Theresa, empress of Germany . . . 1717 \n\nMarie- Amelie, queen of the French, (Louis Philippe) . . 1782 \n\nMarie Antoinette, queen of France, (Louis XVI) . . 1755 \n\nMariette, Aug. E., Egyptologist and explorer . . . 1821 \n\nMario, Giuseppe, marquis of Candia, vocalist . , 1810 \nMarion, Francis, distinguished officer in the Revolution \n\nMarius, Caius, famous general and demagogue . B. o. 153 \n\nMarlborough, John Churchill, duke of, able warrior . . 1650 \nMarmont, A. F. V., duke of Ragusa, marshal of France and \n\ntraveller ...... 1773 \n\nMarmontel, John Francis, celebrated writer . . . 1723 \n\nMarlowe, Christ, or Kit, dramatio poet . \xe2\x80\xa2 . 1564 \nMapes, James J., agriculturist .... \n\nMarquette, Jacques, early explorer of the Mississippi . 1637 \n\nMarrast, Armand, journalist and politician . , . 1800 \n\nMars, Mademoiselle, actress . . \xe2\x80\xa2 1778 \n\nMarsden, oriental traveller and historian . , . 1755 \n\nMarsh, Anne, novelist ..... (abt.) 1800 \n\nMarsh, Geo. Perkins, philff\'ogist and diplomatist . . 1801 \n\n\n\ndud. \n\n1828 \n\n\n\n186- \n\n\n\n1372 \n21 \n\n\n\n1857 \n1859 \n\n\n\n1628 \n1862 \n1793 \n185- \n1517 \n1597 \n1574 \n\n1793 \nB. c. 208 \n1323 \n1857 \nB. 0. 479 \n1549 \n1481 \n1530 \n1412 \n1612 \n1847 \n\n1642 \n1624 \n1780 \n\n1793 \n\n\n\n1795 \n\nb. o. 86 \n\n1722 \n\n1852 \n1799 \n1593 \n1865 \n1675 \n1852 \n1847 \n1884 \n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. \n\n\n\n129 \n\n\n\nBATI0M. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nRom. \n\nEng. \n\nFr. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nPrus. \n\nSpan. \n\nGer. \n\nEng. \n\nItaL \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nScot. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nInd. \n\nFr. \n\nEng. \n\nFr. \n\nScot. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nIrish. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nFr. \n\nIrish. \n\nEng. \n\nFr. \n\nHoi. \n\n\n\nNAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nMarsh, Herbert, bishop of Peterborough, theological writer \n\nMarsh, James, metaphysician \n\nMarshall, John, chief-justice of U. S., biographer \n\nMarshman, Joshua, missionary in India, and author \n\nMarston, John, poet and dramatist . . \n\nMartial, Marcus Valerius, epigrammatist . \n\nMartin, Benj., optician and author . , \n\nMartin, Bon Louis Henry, historian . \n\nMartin, Francis Xavier, jurist and historian . \n\nMartineau, Harriet, miscellaneous authoress . \n\n\n\n, James, (brother of Harriet), clergyman and author \n\nMartos, Ivan P. , sculptor . . \n\nMartinez de la Rosa, don Franc, statesman and litterateur \n\nMai tius, C. F. P. von, botanist and traveller \n\nMartyn, Henry, missionary in India and Persia . \n\nMartyr, Justin, Christian apologist . . \n\n, Peter, reformer aDd theologian . . \n\nMarvell, Andrew, author and statesman . . \n\nMary I., first queen regnant of England . . \n\n, II., queen regnant with Wm. of Orange - . \n\nStuart, queen of Scots .... \n\nMarryatt, Captain, novelist and traveller . , \n\nMaseres, Francis, \'baron,\' mathematician . , \n\nMaskeleyne, Nevii, astronomer . . . \n\nMason, George, statesman .... \n\n, Jeremiah, lawyer and statesman \n\n, John, maj. gen. Connecticut colonial forces . \n\n, John, divine and author . \n\n, John M., eminent divine . . , \n\n, John, M., senator from Viiginia, rebel \n\n, John Y., statesman and minister to France \n\n, Lowell, musical teacher and composer . \n\n, William, divine and poet . . . \n\nMassasoit, sachem of the Wampanoags \nMassena, Andrew, one of the ablest of Napoleon\'s marshals \nMassey, Gerald, poet .... \n\nMassillon, John Baptist, eloquent divine . . \n\nMassinissa, king of Numidia .... \nMasson, David, biographer and essayist . . \n\nMaunder, Samuel \' Treasury of Knowledge * . , \n\nMather, Cotton, divine and author \n\n, Increase, clergyman and author . , \n\nMathew, Theobald, \' Apostle of Temperance \' \nMathias, Thomas, author of * Pursuits of Literature\' . \nMatthew of Westminster, historian \nMatthews, Charles, actor and humorist . . \n\n1 Matthias \' (Robert Matthews), religious Impostor . \nMatter, Jacques, philosopher and historian . , \n\nMaturin, Charles Robert, divine, dramatist and poet \nMaundrell, Rev. Henry, traveller in the East . . \n\nMaupertuis, Peter L. M., geometrician and astronomer. \nMaurioe, Count of Nassau, and Prince of Orange, stadtholder \n\n\n\nBOBM. \n\n\n1*1 ID, \n\n\n;er 1768 \n\n\n1888 \n\n\n1794 \n\n\n1841 \n\n\n1755 \n\n\n183S \n\n\n1767 \n\n\n1837 \n\n\n(abt.) 1670 \n\n\n1634 \n\n\n40 \n\n\n100 \n\n\n1704 \n\n\n1782 \n\n\n1704 \n\n\n1782 \n\n\n1810 \n\n\n\n\n1764 \n\n\n1846 \n\n\nithor 1800 \n\n\n\n\n1753 \n\n\n1836 \n\n\n1786 \n\n\n\n\n1781 \n\n\n1812 \n\n\n103? \n\n\n1679 \n\n\n1500 \n\n\n1561 \n\n\n1621 \n\n\n1678 \n\n\n1515 \n\n\n1558 \n\n\n1662 \n\n\n1694 \n\n\n1542 \n\n\n1587 \n\n\n1792 \n\n\n1848 \n\n\n1731 \n\n\n1824 \n\n\n1732 \n\n\n1811 \n\n\n1726 \n\n\n1792 \n\n\n1768 \n\n\n1848 \n\n\n1600 \n\n\n1672 \n\n\n1706 \n\n\n1763 \n\n\n1770 \n\n\n1829 \n\n\n1795 \n\n\n1859 \n\n\n1792 \n\n\n\n\n1725 \n\n\n1797 \n\n\n\n\n1661 \n\n\nals . 1758 \n\n\n1817 \n\n\n1828 \n\n\n\n\n1663 \n\n\n1742 \n\n\n(abt) b. 0. 240 b. \n\n\n0. 148 \n\n\n1823 \n\n\n\n\n1790 \n\n\n1849 \n\n\n1663 \n\n\n1728 \n\n\n1639 \n\n\n1723 \n\n\n1790 \n\n\n1856 \n\n\n1750 \n\n\n1835 \n\n\n. 13th cent. \n\n\n1776 \n\n\n1835 \n\n\n. \'abt) 1790 \n\n\n183- \n\n\n1791 \n\n\n\n\n1782 \n\n\n182S \n\n\n1650? \n\n\n1710 \n\n\n1698 \n\n\n176S \n\n\n\n1667 \n\n\n\n162? \n\n\n\ni3\xc2\xb0 \n\n\n\nTHE WORLD\'S PROGRESS. \n\n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0ATIGJI. NAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nEng. Maurice, Jno. Fred. D., clergyman and author \n\nEng. , Thos. Rev., history of Hindostan, &c. \n\nMauricius, Flavius Tib., Byzantine emperor \nAmer. Maury, Matthew E., naval officer, astronomer, rebel, &c \n\nPr. , John Siffrein, cardinal and statesman \n\nEng. Mavor, Rev. Wm., writer and compiler, voyages, &c. \nGer. Mavrocordato, statesman \n\nEng. Mawe, Joseph, mineralogist and conchologist . \nGer. Maximilian I., emperor of Germany . , \n\nGer. 1 prince, emperor of Mexico \n\nRom. Maximinus, Caius J. V., emperor of Rome , \n\nEng. Maxwell, Wm. R., \'Life of Wellington.\' &c. . \nAmer. Mayer, Brantz, lawyer and historical writer \nGer. Mayer, Johann T., astronomer \nEng. Mayhew, Henry, Edward, Thomas, and Horace, brothers, \nmorous and miscellaneous writers \n\nAmer. , Jonathan, clergyman and author \n\nFr. Mazarin, Julius, cardinal, able statesman . , \n\nMazeppa, John, prince of the Cossacks \nItal. Mazzini, Giuseppe, democratic politician (Genoa) . \nAmer. Meade, Geo. G., commander army of Potomac \n\nAmer. , Wm., episcopal bishop of Virginia and author \n\nI.Amer.Meagher, Tbos. F., gen. in Union armies, gov. Idaho \nEng. MedhurBt, Walter H., oriental scholar and missionary \n\nMedici, Hippolytus, cardinal . \n\n, Cosmo de, the Great, first Gd Duke Tuscany \n\n\xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 , \' pater patriae,\' Florence . \xe2\x96\xa0 \n\n\n\nItal. \n\nItal. \n\nItal. \n\nItal. \n\nItal. \n\nTurk. \n\nGer. \n\nGer. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nScot. \n\nGr. \n\nGer. \n\nGer. \n\nPort. \n\nSpan. \n\nGer. \n\nGer. \n\nRuss. \n\nBuss. \n\nGer. \n\nGer. \n\n\n\n, Lorenzo de, poet, gov of Florence, and patron of \n\n, Pietro, successor of Cosmo, patron of arts \n\nMehemet-Ali, pasha of Egypt \n\nMeiners, Christopher, historian \n\nMelanchthon, Philip, celebrated reformer . , \n\nMelbourne, \\Vm. Lamb, Viscount de, statesman . \n\nMellen, Grenville, poet .... \n\nMelmoth, Wm., \'Letters,\' translation of Cicero, &c. \n\n,\' Religious Life\' . \n\nMelville, Andrew, religions reformer . \n\n, Herman, author of travels, romances \n\n, Sir Jas., soldier, statesman, and author \n\nMenander, comic poet .... \nMendelssohn, Bartholdy Felix, musical composer \n\n, Moses, Jewish scholar and philosopher \n\nMendez-Pinto, Fernam, adventurer, unjustly famed for \nMendoza, Diego H. de, scholar, author, and statesman \nMengs, Anton Rafael, painter and writer on art \nMeninski, Francis M., learned orientalist . \nMentchikoff, Alex., prince, statesman \n, Alex., S., admiral \n\n\n\nMenno-Simonis, reformer, founder of \' Mennonites\' \nMenzel, Wolfgang, critic and historian \n\nDutch. Mercator, Gerard, geographer \n\nAm\xc2\xbbT. Mercer, Hugh, general in the Revolutionary war \n\n\n\n(sho \n\n\n\nhu- \n(abt) \n\n\n\nlying \n\n\n\nBOKS. \n\n\nDIES \n\n\n1805 \n\n\n\n\n1755 \n\n\n1821 \n\n\n539 \n\n\n602 \n\n\n1806 \n\n\n\n\n1746 \n\n\n1811 \n\n\n1758 \n\n\n1837 \n\n\n1790 \n\n\n\n\n1755 \n\n\n1828 \n\n\n1459 \n\n\n1519 \n\n\nl 1834 \n\n\n1867 \n\n\n\n\n233 \n\n\n1795 \n\n\n1851 \n\n\n\n1723 \n\n\n\n1762 \n\n\n\n1812 \n\n\n\n\n1720 \n\n\n1766 \n\n\n1602 \n\n\n1661 \n\n\n\n\n1709 \n\n\n1809 \n\n\n\n\n1815 \n\n\n\n\n1789 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1S67 \n\n\n1796 \n\n\n1857 \n\n\n1511 \n\n\n1535 \n\n\n1519 \n\n\n1574 \n\n\n1389 \n\n\n1464 \n\n\n1443 \n\n\n1492 \n\n\n\n\n14t9 \n\n\n1769 \n\n\n1S49 \n\n\n1747 \n\n\n1810 \n\n\n1497 \n\n\n1560 \n\n\n1779 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa21848 \n\n\n1799 \n\n\n1841 \n\n\n1710 \n\n\n1799 \n\n\n1666 \n\n\n1743 \n\n\n1545 \n\n\n1622 \n\n\n1S19 \n\n\n\n\n1535 \n\n\n1607 \n\n\n342 B. \n\n\nc. 290 \n\n\n1809 \n\n\n1S47 \n\n\n1729 \n\n\n17S6 \n\n\n1510 \n\n\n1580 \n\n\n1508 \n\n\n1575 \n\n\n1728 \n\n\n1779 \n\n\n1623 \n\n\n1698 \n\n\n1672 \n\n\n1769 \n\n\n1789 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1561 \n\n\n1798 \n\n\n\n\n1512 \n\n\n1594 \n\n\n172f \n\n\n177! \n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. \n\n\n\n131 \n\n\n\nHATIOH. NAME AMD PROFESSION \n\nAmer. Meigs, Return J., revoL oflicer . . \n\nAmer. Meriam, Eben, statistician and meteorologist \n\nFr. Merim<5e, Prosper, novelist . . . \n\nEng. Merivale, Charles, historian \xe2\x80\xa2 . . \n\nEng. , Jolm Herman, poet . . \n\nSwiss. Merle d\'Aubigne, J. H., D. D., historian . , \n\nFr. Merovasus, founder Merovingian dynasty \n\nFr. Mery, JosepTi, poet and novelist . . . \n\nGer. Mesmer, Fred. A., founder of \' Mesmerism \' \n\nItal. Metastasio, Peter B., celebrated poet \n\nEng. Metcalfe, Charles T., baron, gov. in India and Canada \n\nBom. Metellus, the name of several famous plebeians \n\nAnst. Metternich, Prince, statesman, and diplomatist \n\nDutch. Meursius, John, erudite critic \n\nGer. Meyerbeer, musical composer . . \n\nEng. Meyrick, Sir Saml. R., antiquarian author \n\nFr. Mezerai, Francis de, historian . . \n\nItal. Mezzofanti, Cardinal, celebrated linguist . . \n\nGr. Miaulis, naval commander . . . \n\nHeb. Micah, the Prophet .... \n\nItal. Micari, Guiseppe, historian . . \n\nGer. Michaelis, John David, learned orientalist and oritio \n\nFr. Michaud, Joseph, historian \xe2\x96\xa0 \n\nFr. Michaux, Andre, botanist, (\' Sylva Americana \') . \n\nFr. Michel, Francisque, archaeologist \n\nFr. Michelet, Jules, historian .... \n\nGer. Michelet, Karl Ludwig, philosophical writer . . \n\nPol. Mickiewicz. Adam, poet .... \n\nEng. Mickle, William J. poet, translator of \' Lusiad,\' to. \n\nEng. Middleton, Conyers, divine and elegant writer \n\nAmer. , Arthur, patriot and statesman . , \n\nEng. , Thomas, dramatist \n\nAmer. Mifflin, Thomas, general in Revolutionary war \n\nFr. Mignet, F. A., historian ..... \n\nPort. Miguel Don, rival of Don Carlos to the throne of Portugal \n\nAmer. Milburn, William Henry, \'blind preacher\' and author \n\nScot. Mill, James, historian of British India and political economist \n\nEng. , John Stuart, political philosopher . . . \n\nEng. Millais, John Everett, \' pre-Raphaelite \' painter . \n\nAmer. Miller, James, general at Chippewa, &c, (\' I\'ll try, sir\') \n\nEng. , Joseph, comic actor, putative parent of jests \n\nScot. , Hugh, geologist ...... \n\nAmer. , William, founder of the \' Millerites,\' or second adventists \n\nFr. Milleroye, Charles Hubert, poet . . . . \' . \n\nFr. Millin, Anbin Louis, naturalist, &c ..... \n\nEng. Millnian, Henry Hart, Rev., poet and historian . \n\nFr. Millot, Claude Francis Xavier, historian . , , \n\nEng. Mills, Charles, historian ...... \n\nFr. Milne-Edward, Henri, naturalist . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nEng. Milnes, Richard Monckton, poet and statesman . . \n\nEng. Milner, Joseph, author of \' Church History \' . , \n\nAmer Milnor, James, D. D., episcopal clergyman . . \n\n\n\nBOKN. \n\n\nWKP \n\n\n1740 \n\n\n1822 \n\n\n1794 \n\n\n1864 \n\n\n1800 \n\n\n\n\n1779 \n\n\n1844 \n\n\n1794 \n\n\n\n\n411 \n\n\n457 \n\n\n1798 \n\n\n\n\n1734 \n\n\n1815 \n\n\n1698 \n\n\n1782 \n\n\n1785 \n\n\n1846 \n\n\n. 250 \n\n\n69 \n\n\n1773 \n\n\n1859 \n\n\n15V9 \n\n\n1639 \n\n\n1791 \n\n\n\n\n1783 \n\n\n1848 \n\n\n1610 \n\n\n1682 \n\n\n1774 \n\n\n1849 \n\n\n1772 \n\n\n1835 \n\n\nf. B \n\n\n0. 750 \n\n\n\n\n1839 \n\n\n1717 \n\n\n1791 \n\n\n1767 \n\n\n1839 \n\n\n1746 \n\n\n1802 \n\n\n1809 \n\n\n\n\n1798 \n\n\n\n\n1801 \n\n\n\n\n17HS \n\n\n1855 \n\n\n1734 \n\n\n1788 \n\n\n1683 \n\n\n1750 \n\n\n174S \n\n\n1787 \n\n\n\n\n1627 \n\n\n1744 \n\n\n1800 \n\n\n1798 \n\n\n\n\n1802 \n\n\n\n\n1823 \n\n\n\n\n1775 \n\n\n1838 \n\n\n1806 \n\n\n\n\n1829 \n\n\n\n\n1776 \n\n\n1851 \n\n\n1684 \n\n\n1738 \n\n\n1802 \n\n\n1856 \n\n\n1781 \n\n\n1849 \n\n\n1782 \n\n\n1816 \n\n\n1759 \n\n\n\n\n1791 \n\n\n\n\n1726 \n\n\n1785 \n\n\n1788 \n\n\n1826 \n\n\n1800 \n\n\n\n\n1809 \n\n\n\n\n1744 \n\n\n1797 \n\n\n1773 \n\n\n1844 \n\n\n\n132 \n\n\n\nTHE WORLD\'S PROGRESS, \n\n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 ATION \n\nGr. \n\nEng. \n\nFr. \n\nAmer. \n\nRom. \n\nMex. \n\nSpau. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nGer. \n\nGer. \n\nTurk. \n\n8ar. \n\nGer. \n\nGer. \n\nScot \n\nIF.-. \n\nHoi. \n\nEng. \n\nFr." \n\nFr. \n\nSpan. \n\nSoot. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nBwiss \n\nSwiss. \n\nAmer. \n\nGer. \n\nFr. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nGer. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\n\n\nHAMK AND PROFESSION \n\nMlltiades, illustrious Athenian general , \n\nMilton, John, the Homer of Britain . . \n\nMini6, Claude E., inventor of the Minie rifle-bullet \nMinot, George R., historian . . . . \n\nMinutius-Felix, Marcus, christian writer \nMiramo. i, Miguel, military leader . . . \n\nMiranda, Francis, revolutionary general \n\n\n\nBORN. \n\n\n\nB. \n\n\n\n1608 \n1810 \n1758 \n3d cent, \n(abt.) 1830 \n1750 \n\n\n\nMirabeau, H. G. Riquetti, count de, celebrated chameter in the \n\nRevolution and author ..... \nMirbel, Charles F. B. de, naturalist . . . \nMitchel, Ormsby M., astronomer and patriotic general . \nMitchell, Donald G., essayist .... \n, Maria, astronomer ..... \n\n\n\n, Samuel L., celebrated physician and naturalist \n\n, Thomas, classical scholar and critic \n\nMitford, Mary Russell, novelist and essayist . \n\n, Rev. John, editor of poets, .... \n\n, William, historian and philologist . . \n\nMithridates, king of Pontus, warrior .... \nMitscherlich, E., chemist ..... \n\nMittermaier, Karl J. A., jurist and statesman \nMohammed-Ali, Pasha of Egypt, (See Mahomet and Mehemet) \n\nBen Abd Al Wab, sheik, founder sect Wahabites \n\nMohler, Johann Adam R., catholic theologian . . \n\nMohs, Frederick, mineralogist . , . . \n\nMoir, David Macbeth, miscellaneous writer . . \n\nMoll6, M. L., comte, statesman .... \n\nMoleschott, Jacob, physiologist and naturalist . . \n\nMolesworth, Sir William, statesman and author . \n\nMoleville, Anthony F. de Bertrand, count de, historian \nMoliere, John Baptist, celebrated dramatist \nMolina, Luis, Jesuit theologian and author . . . \n\nMonboddo, lord, judge and philologist . . . \n\nMontfort, Simon de, earl of Leicester, statesman . . \n\nMonk, George, duke of Albemarle, military officer . \n\nMonod, Adolphe, \' reformed pastor \' and author , . \n\n, Dr. Frederick, \' reformed pastor\' at Paris . . \n\nMonroe, James, statesman, 5th president U T,i *\xc2\xb0 rl States \nMonse, Gaspar, eminent geometrician . \n\nMonstrelet, Enguerrand de, chronicler \nMontagu, Basil, lawyer and author \n\n, Elizabeth, author of \' dialogues,\' &o. \n\n, Lady Mary Wortley, elegant writer \n\nMontague, Charles, earl of Halifax, statesman and poet . \nMontaigne, Michel de, eminent essayist \nMontalembert, Charles F , count, statesman and author \nMontcalm, Louis, marquis de, general in Canada \nMontebello, John Lannes, duke of, marshal, . . . \n\nMontecuculi, Raimond, warrior .... \n\nMontespan, Franc, marquise de, mistress Louis XIV. \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nMontesqieu, Charles baron de, able writer \nMontes, Lola, female adventurer . . , \n\n\n\n1749 \n1776 \n1810 \n1822 \n1818 \n1763 \n1783 \n1786 \n1781 \n1734 \n\nO 123 \n1794 \n1787 \n1769 \n\nf. 1650 \n1796 \n1774 \n1798 \n1781 \n1822 \n1810 \n1754 \n1622 \n1585 \n1714 \n\n1608 \n1802 \n1794 \n1759 \n1746 \n1390 \n1770 \n1720 \n1690 \n1661 \n1533 \n1810 \n1712 \n1769 \n1609 \n1641 \n1689 \n1824 \n\n\n\nDDL \n\nO. 48S \n1674 \n\n1803 \n\n1867 \n\ni8ia \n\n1791 \n1854 \n186- \n\n\n\n1831 \n1845 \n1855 \n1859 \n1827 \n1. 64 \n1863 \n\n1850 \n\n\n\n1839 \n1851 \n1855 \n\n1855 \n1817 \n1673 \n1600 \n1799 \n1265 \n1670 \n1856 \n1863 \n1831 \n1818 \n1453 \n1851 \n1802 \n1762 \n1715 \n1592 \n\n1759 \n1808 \n1681 \n170; \n175S \n1861 \n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL, INDEX. \n\n\n\n!33 \n\n\n\nSAIION. NAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nMex. Montezuma I, the greatest of Mexican sovereigns . \n\nMex. II, last Atzec emperor . . . \n\nFr. Montfaucon, Bern, de, archaeologist and author \n\nLug. Montgomery, James, poet .... \n\nAmer. , Richard, intrepid military officer \n\nEng. . , Robert, poet .... \n\nFr. Montholon, comte, secretary and "biographer of Napoleon \n\nFt. Montmorenci, Anne de, constable of France . \n\nItal. Monte, Vincent, poet .... \n\nFr. Montmorency, noble family of France . . . \n\nFr. Montpensir, Madame, author of Memoirs &o \n\nScot. Montrose, Jas. Grahame, marquis of, military leader . \n\nAmer, Moore, Geo. H., author .... \n\nAmer. , Frank H , author .... \n\nAn jr. , Clement C, writer of verses, Ac. . . \n\nAmer. , Jacob Bailey, journalist and author \n\nScot. , John, miscellaneous author \n\nScot. , Sir John (son of above,) general, killed at Corunna \n\nItal. Morata, Olympia, Prot. writer \n\nEng. More, Hannah, poet, essayist and moralist, . . \n\nEng. , Henry, mystical divine and philosopher \n\nFr. Moreau, John Victor, celebrated general . . \n\nAmer. Morfit, Campbell, chemist and author \n\nAmer. Morgan, Daniel, brig, gen., in revolutionary war . \n\nAmer. , Jno. Henry, rebel fillibuster general . \n\nEng. , Lady Charles, author of novels, travels &o. \n\nEng. , Sir Henry J., buccaneer \n\nEng. Morier, James, novelist, \' Hajji Baba \' &c. \n\nEng. Moruington, G. Wellesley, earl of, musical composer \n\nE\'r. Morny, Chas. A. count of, minister of Napoleon III. . \n\nAmer. Morphy, Paul Charles, famous chess-player \n\nEng. Morrell, Thos., lexicographer and classical writer . \n\nAmer. Morris, Geo, P., poet and journalist \n\nAmer. , Gouverneur, distinguished .statesman . \n\nAmer. , Lewis, signer of the Declaration of Independence \n\nAmer. , Robert, signer Declaration Independence and financier \n\nEng. Morrison, Robert, Chinese traveller and philologist \n\nEng. , Robert D. D., missionary and philologist \n\nAmer. Morse, Jedcdiah, geographer and statistical writer \n\nAmer. , Samuel F. B., artist and inventor of telegraph \n\nAmer. , Sidney E., journalist and geographer \n\nPp. " Mortier, marshal of France, killed by Fieschi . \n\nScot. Morton, Jas. Douglas, earl of, regent \n\nAmer. , John, signer of Declaration of Independence \n\nAmer. , Samuel Geo., anatomist and ethnologist \n\nAmer. , Wm. T. G. dentist, discoverer of the use of ether (?) \n\nHeh. Moses, lawgiver of the Jews \n\nGer. Mosheim, John Lawrence, ecclesiastical historian . \n\nScot. Motherwell, William, poet \n\nAmer. Motley, John Lothrop, historian \n\nAmer. Mott, Lucretia, minister of \' Friends\' and philanthropist \n\nAmer. \xe2\x96\xa0\xe2\x96\xa0> Valentine, surgeon and author \n\n\n\n\n\nBOHN". \n\n\nDied. \n\n147: \n\n\n. \n\n\n1480 \n\n\n1520 \n\n\n\n\n1655 \n\n\n1741 \n\n\n. \n\n\n1771 \n\n\n1854 \n\n\n\n\n1737 \n\n\n1775 \n\n\n. \n\n\n1807 \n\n\n1855 \n\n\n\n\n1783 \n\n\n1853 \n\n\n. \n\n\n1493 \n\n\n1567 \n\n\n\n\n1753 \n\n\n1828 \n\n\n10th to 19th century \n\n\n\n\n1627 \n\n\n1692 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n1612 \n\n\n1651 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n1779 \n\n\n1863 \n\n\n. \n\n\n1797 \n\n\n1853 \n\n\n\n\n1738 \n\n\n1802 \n\n\n1 \n\n\n1761 \n\n\n1809 \n\n\n\n\n1526 \n\n\n1555 \n\n\n. \n\n\n1744 \n\n\n1833 \n\n\n\n\n1614 \n\n\n1687 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n1763 \n1820 \n\n\n1813 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n1736 \n\n\n1802 \n\n\n\n\n1780 \n\n\n1859 \n\n\n\n\n1637 \n\n\n1690 \n\n\n. \n\n\n1780 \n\n\n1849 \n\n\n\n\n1720 \n\n\n1784 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n1811 \n1837 \n\n\n1865 \n\n\n. \n\n\n1703 \n\n\n1784 \n\n\n\n\n1802 \n\n\n1864 \n\n\n. \n\n\n1752 \n\n\n1816 \n\n\n\n\n1726 \n\n\n1798 \n\n\nicier \n\n\n1703 \n\n\n1806 \n\n\n\n\n1782 \n\n\n1834 \n\n\n. \n\n\n1782 \n\n\n1834 \n\n\n\n\n1761 \n\n\n1827 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n1791 \n1794 \n\n\n\n\n. \n\n\n1768 \n\n\n1835 \n\n\n\n\n1530 \n\n\n1581 \n\n\n(Penn) \n\n\n1724 \n\n\n1777 \n\n\n\n\n1799 \n\n\n1851 \n\n\n?) \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n1819 \n\n\n\n\n. B. 0. \n\n\n1571 b \n\n\n0. 1451 \n\n\n. \n\n\n1695 \n\n\n1755 \n\n\n\n\n1797 \n\n\n1836 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n1814 \n1793 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1786 \n\n\n18\xc2\xabf \n\n\n\n*34 \n\n\n\nTHE WORLD\'S PROGRESS. \n\n\n\nNATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nPr. Motte, Cadillac, Ant de la, founder of Detroit . . \n\nGer. Moschus, bucolic poet . . . . f. b. o. \n\nAmer. Moultrie, Wm,, general and statesman . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nMouradgea, D\'Ohason, Armenian historian . \n\nAmer. Mowatt (Ritchie), Anna Cora, actress and authoress . (abt) \n\nGer. Mozart, C. W. T., eminent composer \n\nEng. Mudie, Robert, author of various works on Natural History, \n\nGer. Muller, C. O., historian, archaeologist classical scholar . \n\nSwiss. Muller, John von, oelebrated historian, \' Universal History\' \n\nGer. , John, physiologist .... \n\nGer. Munchhausen, J. C. E., proverbial for \'stories\' . \n\nEng. Manden, Jos. S., comedian .... \n\nFr. Murat, Joachim, intrepid marshal and king of Naples \n\nItaL Muratori, Louis Anthony, historian . . \n\nIrish. Murphy, Arthur, dramatist and translator \n\nScot. Murray, Alex., self-taught linguist . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nScot. \xe2\x80\x94 : , Hugh, geographer (Encyclo) \n\nScot. , or Moray, Jas. Stuart, earl of, regent . \n\nEng. , John, the elder, eminent publisher \n\nAmer. , Lindley, grammarian . . \n\nAmer. , Wm., Vans, statesman . . \n\nGr. Musaeus, Athenian poet . . . \n\nFr. Musset, Louis C. A. de, poet . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n\nB0R1 \n\n\nDIM \n\n\n1660 \n\n\n171! \n\n\n160 \n\n\n\n\n1731 \n\n\n180S \n\n\n1740 \n\n\n1801 \n\n\n1826 \n\n\n\n\n1756 \n\n\n1793 \n\n\n1777 \n\n\n1842 \n\n\n1797 \n\n\n1840 \n\n\n1752 \n\n\n1809 \n\n\n1801 \n\n\n1858 \n\n\n1720 \n\n\n1797 \n\n\n1758 \n\n\n1832 \n\n\n1771 \n\n\n1815 \n\n\n1672 \n\n\n1750 \n\n\n1727 \n\n\n1805 \n\n\n1775 \n\n\n1813 \n\n\n1779 \n\n\n1846 \n\n\n1531 \n\n\n1570 \n\n\n1778 \n\n\n1843 \n\n\n1745 \n\n\n1826 \n\n\n1761 \n\n\n1803 \n\n\n1243 \n\n\n\n\n1810 \n\n\n1857 \n\n\n\nN. \n\n\\ssyr. Nabonassar, first king of the Chaldeanu . . \n\nAssyr. Nabopolassar, king of Babylon . . . \n\nPers. Nadir Shah, or Thamas Kouli Kahn, warrior and king . \n\nHeb. Nahurn, prophet .... \n\nIrish. Napier, Chas. Jas., general in India, &c. . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nScot. , John, baron, inventor of logarithms \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nEng. , Sir Charles, admiral .... \n\nFr. Napoleon I., (Bonaparte) . . . \n\nFr. \xe2\x80\x94 , II., king of Rome, (see Bonaparte) . . \n\nFr. , III., (Louis Napoleon), emperor . \n\nEng. Nares, James, musical docto\' - , composer . . \n\nEng. , Rev. Edmund, \' Thinks I to myself \n\nPers. Narses, warrior in the service of Justinian I., the emperor \n\nSpan. Narvaez, don Ramon, duke of Valentia, statesman . \n\nEng. Nash, Richard, styled \' Beau Nash \' . . . \n\nDutch. Nassau, prince Maurice of, able general \n\nPers. Nassir Eddyn, celebrated astronomer . \n\nSpan. Navarrete, Martin F. de, \' Collect of Voyages\' \n\nEng. Neal, Daniel, author of the \' History of the Puritans,\' &\xc2\xab \n\nAmer. , John, novelist .... \n\nAmer. , Joseph C, litterateur .... \n\nGer. Neander, J. W. Augustus, ecclesiastical historian . \n\nGr. Neaichus, admiral and voyager . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nChald. Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon . . , \n\nFr. Necker, James, eminent financier and statesman . \n\nSwitw. , Madame J. C, wife of James, essayist . \n\n\n\nfl. B. c. 747 \n\n\n\n\n. fl. b. o. 626 \n\n\n\n\n1688 \n\n\n1747 \n\n\n. f. B. C. \n\n\n7th cent. \n\n\n1782 \n\n\n1853 \n\n\n1550 \n\n\n1617 \n\n\n17S6 \n\n\n1860 \n\n\n1769 \n\n\n1821 \n\n\n1811 \n\n\n1832 \n\n\n1808 \n\n\n\n\n1715 \n\n\n1783 \n\n\n1762 \n\n\n1841 \n\n\n\n\n567 \n\n\n1795 \n\n\n\n\n1674 \n\n\n1761 \n\n\n1567 \n\n\n1625 \n\n\n1201 \n\n\n1274 \n\n\n1765 \n\n\n1844 \n\n\n1678 \n\n\n1743 \n\n\n1794 \n\n\n\n\n1807 \n\n\n1848 \n\n\n. 1789 \n\n\n1850 \n\n\n. b. a \n\n\n4th cent. \n\n\n\n\nB. 0. 462 \n\n\n.\' 1732 \n\n\n1804 \n\n\n1739 \n\n\n1794 \n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. \n\n\n\n135 \n\n\n\nNAME AND PBOFESSION. \n\nNeele, Henry, po;t and miscellaneous writer , , \n\nNeff, Felix, apostle of the Alps . . , \n\nNehemiah, governor of Judea . . , \n\nNelson, Horatio, viscount, celebrated admiral , \n\nNepos, Cornelius, historian .... \nNero, infamous emperor . . , \n\nNerva, emperor ..... \n\nNesselrode, Charles R., count, statesman and diplomatist \nNestorius, patriarch o-f Constantinople, founder of Nestorians \nNeukomm, Sigism. chevalier, composer \n\nNeuwied, Maximilian, prince of, traveller in North America, &c \nNewton, John, Calvinistic divine and writer \n\n, Sir Isaac, the greatest of philosophers . \n\n, Thomas, learned prelate, (on Prophecies) . \n\nNey, Michael, marshal, \' the bravest of the brave * \nNicephorus, Greg., Byzantine historian . . \nNicholas I., emperor, (1825-55) . . . \nNichols, John Bowyer, printer and archaeologist . \nNicholson, Peter, architect and political mechanic , \n, William, writer on natural philosophy and chemistry \n\n\n\nGer. \nEng \nGer. \nGer. \nPol. \nEng \n\n\n\nNicolai, Chris. Fred., bookseller and author \nNicolas, Sir Harris, antiquary . . \nNiebhur, B. G., statesman and historian \n, Carsten, celebrated traveller \n\n\n\nNiemcewiez, Julius U., military commander and author \nNightingale, Florence, practical philanthropist . , \n\nAmer. Niles, Hezekiah, journalist \'Register\' . . \n\nSwe. Nilston, Sven, zoologist ..... \n\nAmer. Noah, Mordecai M., journalist, politician and author . \n\nGer. Noehden, G. H., grammarian and miscellaneous writer . \n\nFr. Nodier, Charles, novelist .... \n\nGer. Am. Nordheimer, Hebrew scholar and author \n\nEng. Normanby, C. G. Phipps, marquis of, novelist and statesman \n\nEng. North, Francis, 1st lord Guilford, \'lord keeper\' . . \n\nEng. , Frederick, lord, prime minister of George IIL . \n\nEng. Northcote, James, artist and biographer . . . \n\nAmer. Norton, Andrews theological, Unitarian author . \n\nEng. , Hon. Mrs., poetess .... \n\nAmer. Nott, Abner Kingman, remarkable Baptist preacher . \n\nAmer. , Eliphalet, D. D., president of Union College and author \n\nEng. \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 , John, poet and translator \n\nGer. Novalis, or Fred, von Hardenberg, author . , \n\nEng. Novello, Vincent, musician (life by Mrs. Clarke) . \n\nAmer. Noyes, Wm. Curtis, jurist and patriot . . , \n\nIrish. Nugent, lord, author of \' Life of Hampden,\' &o. . \n\nRom. Numa Pompilius, second king of Rome . . f. \n\nSpan. Nunez, Alva C. de Vaca, explorer . . . \n\n\xc2\xa9. \n\n\n\nVr, \n\n\n\nOates, Titus, infamous pretender of the \' Popish plot \nOberlin, John Fred., philanthropist . . \n\n\n\nBOEN. \n\n\nl-ED \n\n\n. 1798 \n\n\n1828 \n\n\n1798 \n\n\n1828 \n\n\n1. B. 0. 444 \n\n\n\n\n1758 \n\n\n180a \n\n\n\n\nB. 0. 30 \n\n\n37 \n\n\n68 \n\n\n32 \n\n\n98 \n\n\n1780 \n\n\n1862 \n\n\nl . \n\n\n439 \n\n\n1778 \n\n\n1857 \n\n\n&C. 1782 \n\n\n\n\n1725 \n\n\n1807 \n\n\n1642 \n\n\n1727 \n\n\n1704 \n\n\n1782 \n\n\n1769 \n\n\n1815 \n\n\n14bh cent. \n\n\n1796 \n\n\n1855 \n\n\n1807 \n\n\n1863 \n\n\ntry 1753 \n\n\n1815 \n\n\n1786 \n\n\n1842 \n\n\n, 1733 \n\n\n1811 \n\n\n1799 \n\n\n1848 \n\n\n1776 \n\n\n1830 \n\n\n1733 \n\n\n1815 \n\n\n1756 \n\n\n1841 \n\n\n. 1777 \n\n\n1839 \n\n\n1787 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1851 \n\n\n1770 \n\n\n1826 \n\n\n1783 \n\n\n1844 \n\n\n1797 \n\n\n186.\' \n\n\n1637 \n\n\n1684 \n\n\n1732 \n\n\n1791 \n\n\n1746 \n\n\n1837 \n\n\n1790 \n\n\n1835 \n\n\n1834 \n\n\n1859 \n\n\n1773 \n\n\n1866 \n\n\n1751 \n\n\n1826 \n\n\n1772 \n\n\n1801 \n\n\n1781 \n\n\n1861 \n\n\n1805 \n\n\n1864 \n\n\n\n\n1850 \n\n\nB. 0. 714 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1564 \n\n\n1619 \n\n\n\' 1701 \n\n\n1740 \n\n\n189\xc2\xab \n\n\n\n136 \n\n\n\nTHE WORLD\'S PROGRESS. \n\n\n\nNATION. NAME AND PROFESSIOH. \n\nIi-iBh. O\'Brien, Fitz-James, poet .... \n\nIiish. , Wm. Smith, political agitator . . \n\nIrish. O\'Connell, Daniel, political agitator . , . \n\nIrish. O\'Connor, Fergus, chartist orator . . . \n\nEng, Ockley, Simon, orientalist , \n\nArab. Odenatus, warrior, husband of Zenobia . \n\nFr. Odilon-Barrot, C. H., statesman . , , \n\nBar. Odoacer, Gothic king of Italy \n\nDan. Oersted, Hans Ch,, discoverer of electro-magnetism \n\nEng. Oglethorpe, J. E., founder of Georgia . . \n\nIrish. O\'Keefe, John, dramatist \n\nGer. Oken, Louis, naturalist . , . . \n\nGer. Olbers, H. W. M., astronomer \n\nEng. Oldcastle, Sir John, Lord Cobham . . . \n\nAmer. Olin, Stephen, D. D., Methodist theologian and author \n\nSpan. Olivan, don Aless., publicist .... \n\nAmer. Olmsted, Denison, professor, astronomer, &c. \n\nGer. Olshausen, Hermann, protestant theologian . ., \n\nArab. Omar I., caliph, captor of Jerusalem . . \n\nIrish. O\'Meara, Barry, surgeon to Napoleon and author \n\nEng. Onslow, Arthur, speaker House Commons \n\nEng. Opie, Mrs. Amelia, writer on morals and education \n\nGr. Oppian, poet ..... \n\nDutch. Orange, William I., of Nassau, prince of, founder of Dutch republic 1533 \n\nDutch. , William IL, prince of, stadtholder . \n\nDutch. , William III., prince of, stadtholder, and king of England \n\nSpan. Orfila, M. J. B., chemist and toxicologist . . \n\nOrigen, one of the fathers of the church . . \n\nFr. Orleans, L. J. P., duke of \' Egalite,\' guillotined . . \n\nFr. , Fer. P. L., duke of, heir of Louis Philippe \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nBuss Orloff, Gregory, count, favorite Catherine II. . \nEng. Orme, Robert, historian of India .... \nEng. Ormond, James Butler, duke of, statesman . , . \nGr. Orpheus, poet, sometimes siyled the \'father of poetry \' \xe2\x80\xa2 \nIrish. Orrery, Charles, 4th earl of, natural philosophy \n\nIrish. , Roger Boyle, 1st earl of, statesman and author . \n\nEng. Orton, Job, dissenting divine and author \n\nAmer. Osgood, Frances, poetess .... \n\nAmer. , Samuel, D. D., Unitarian divine and author \n\nPort. Osorio, Jerome, philosopher, historian, and theological writer \nScot. Ossian, Gaelic bard, supposed to have lived in the 3d century \nEgypt. Osymandias, king of Egypt .... \n\nAmer. Otis, James, patriot and statesman . . . \n\nAmer. , Harrison Gray, statesman and jurist . . \n\nGer. Otho I., king of Greece (born in Bavaria) . . \n\nEng. Ottley, \xc2\xa5tii, Young, writer on art . . \n\nEng. Otway, celebrated dramatist, \' Venice Preserved \' \n\nFr. Oudinot, Charles N., marshal of France . . . \n\nEng. Ouseley, Sir Gore, diplomatist . . \n\nGer. Overbeck, Fred., founder of modem religioui school of art \n\nEng. Overbury, Sir Thos., (poisoned in the Tower) . \n\nBom. Ovid, Publius N iso, poet .... \n\n\n\nSOB-N. \n\n\nDIED \n\n\n\n\n1864 \n\n\n1806 \n\n\n186- \n\n\n1775 \n\n\n1841 \n\n\n1795 \n\n\n185S \n\n\n1678 \n\n\n1720 \n\n\n\n\n267 \n\n\n1791 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n493 \n\n\n1777 \n\n\n1851 \n\n\n1698 \n\n\n1785 \n\n\n1748 \n\n\n1833 \n\n\n1778 \n\n\n1851 \n\n\n\n\n1S40 \n\n\n1360 \n\n\n1417 \n\n\n1797 \n\n\n1851 \n\n\n1791 \n\n\n1859 \n\n\n1796 \n\n\n1839 \n\n\n581 \n\n\n644 \n\n\n1778 \n\n\n1836 \n\n\n1691 \n\n\n1768 \n\n\n1771 \n\n\n1853 \n\n\nf. 150 \n\n\n\n\npublic 1533 \n\n\n15S4 \n\n\n1626 \n\n\n1650 \n\n\nland 1650 \n\n\n1702 \n\n\n1787 \n\n\n\n\n185 \n\n\n253 \n\n\n1747 \n\n\n1793 \n\n\n1810 \n\n\n1842 \n\n\n1734 \n\n\n1783 \n\n\n1728 \n\n\n1801 \n\n\n1610 \n\n\n16SS \n\n\n1676 \n\n\n1731 \n\n\n1621 \n\n\n1679 \n\n\n1717 \n\n\n1783 \n\n\n1812 \n\n\n1850 \n\n\n1812 \n\n\n\n\n1502 \n\n\n1580 \n\n\n(abt.) 1500 \n\n\n\n\n1725 \n\n\n1772 \n\n\n1767 \n\n\n1848 \n\n\n1815 \n\n\n1867 \n\n\n1771 \n\n\n1836 \n\n\n1651 \n\n\n1685 \n\n\n1767 \n\n\n1847 \n\n\n1769 \n\n\n1844 \n\n\n1780 \n\n\n\n\n1581 \n\n\n161S \n\n\nB. 0. 43 \n\n\n11 \n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. \n\n\n\n137 \n\n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0ATIOlf. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. \n\n6pa>\\ Oviedo. J. G., bishop of, author of \' Voyages in the West Indies\' \n\nAmer. Owen, David Dale, geologist .... 1807 \n\nEng. , John, independent theologian . . , 1616 \n\nEng. , Richard, surgeon and naturalist . , , \n\nWelsh. , Robert, political theorist .... 1771 \n\nAmer. , Robert Dale, statesman and author . . \n\nEng. Oxford, Horace Walpole, earl of, author . . . 1717 \n\n\n\nP. \n\nAmer. Paine, Elijah, jurist ..... \n\nAmer. , Elijah (son of above), jurist . . . \n\nAmer. , John Howard, dramatist, \' Home, Sweet Home* \n\nAmer. \xe2\x80\x94 \'^- \xe2\x80\x94 , Robert Treat, lawyer and patriot . . , \n\nAmer. , Robert Treat, son, poet, . . . \n\nEng. , Thomas, political and deistical writer . . \n\nFr. Paixhan, general, inventor of guns bearing his name . \n\nVen. Paez, military commander and president Venezuela , \n\nItal. Paganini, Nicolo, famous Violinist . . . \n\nEng. Paley, William, eminent divine and author . . \n\nEng. Palgrave, Sir Francis, antiquarian author . , \n\nFr. Palisset de Montenoy, Charles, satirist . . , \n\nFr. Paliesy, Bernard, \' the Potter\' . . . \n\nItal. Palladio, Andrew, architect .... \n\nPruss. Pallas, Peter Simon, traveller and naturalist . , \n\nEng. Palmerston, Henry Temple, viscount, statesman . . \n\nGer. Panzer, G. W. F., bibliographer . . , \n\nItal. Paoli, Pascal, Corsican patriot and general . , \n\nCan. Papineau, L. J , politician and patriot , . \n\nRom. Papinian, ^Emil ius, civil lawyer .... \n\nSwiss. Paracelsus, A. P. T. B. de II., alchemist , . \n\nEng. Pardoe, Julia, Miss, novelist .... \n\nFr. Paris, count of, Louis Ph. Al., grandson of Louis Philippe \n\nEng. , Matthew, historian .... \n\nScot. Park, Mungo, celebrated traveller \n\nAmer. Parker, Theodore, Unitarian preacher and oriental scholar . \n\nEng. Parkes, Samuel, chemist and author . \n\nItal. Parma, Alexender Farnese, duke of, regent of the Netherlands \n\nIrish. Parnell, Thos., poet and divine \n\nEng. Parr, Samuel, learned divine and philologist . . \n\nEng. , Thomas, lived 152 years . , \n\nEng. Parry, Capt. Edward, Arctic navigator . . . \n\nAmer. Parsons, Theophilus, jurist .... \n\nAmer. , Theophilus (son), jurist .... \n\nAmer. Parton, James, biographer, historian, and essayist . \n\nAmer. , Mrs. Sarah, \' Fanny Fern,\' authoress . * \n\nFr. Pascal, Blaise, eminent geometrician and writer . \n\nRubs. Paskewitsch, Ivan F., prince of "Warsaw, general . , \n\nEng. Pasley, Gen. Sir Chae. "W., engineer . . . \n\nFr. Pasquier, Etienne D., count, chancellor of France . . \n\nGer. Passow, Francis L. C. F., philologist and lexicographer (Greek lex.) \n\nRom. Paterculus, Cains Velleiue, historian . . (abt.) b. 0. \n\n\n\nDIED. \n\n1540 \nI860 \n1683 \n\n1860 \n\n1797 \n\n\n\n1757 \n\n\n1842 \n\n\n1796 \n\n\n1853 \n\n\n1791 \n\n\n1851 \n\n\n1731 \n\n\n1814 \n\n\n1773 \n\n\n1811 \n\n\n1736 \n\n\n1809 \n\n\n1782 \n\n\n1854 \n\n\n1787 \n\n\n\n\n1784 \n\n\n18S5 \n\n\n1745 \n\n\n1805 \n\n\n1788 \n\n\n1861 \n\n\n1730 \n\n\n1815 \n\n\n1510 \n\n\n1590 \n\n\n1518 \n\n\n1580 \n\n\n1741 \n\n\n1811 \n\n\n1784 \n\n\n1865 \n\n\n1729 \n\n\n1812 \n\n\n1726 \n\n\n1806 \n\n\n1789 \n\n\n\n\n145 \n\n\n212 \n\n\n1493 \n\n\n1541 \n\n\n1812 \n\n\n1862 \n\n\n1838 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1259 \n\n\n1771 \n\n\n1804 \n\n\n1810 \n\n\n1860 \n\n\n1759 \n\n\n1829 \n\n\n1546 \n\n\n1592 \n\n\n1679 \n\n\n1717 \n\n\n1746 \n\n\n1825 \n\n\n1483 \n\n\n1635 \n\n\n1790 \n\n\n1856 \n\n\n1750 \n\n\n1818 \n\n\n1811 \n\n\n\n\n1623 \n\n\n1662 \n\n\n1782 \n\n\n1856 \n\n\n1781 \n\n\n1861 \n\n\n1767 \n\n\n1833 \n\n\n1786 \n\n\n1881 \n\n\n90 \n\n\n\n\n\ni 3 8 \n\n\n\nTHE WORLD\'S PROGRESS. \n\n\n\nNATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nBng. Patinore, Coventry, poet \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 . \n\nIrish. Patrick, St., apostle of Ireland \n\nEng. , Simon, bishop of Chichester, Bible commentary \n\nPaul, Father, (see Sarpi) . . , \n\nHeb. , St., Apostle to the Gentiles . . . \n\nFr. , St. Vincent de, Catholic missionary \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nAmer. Paulding, James Kirke, novelist and essayist . . \n\nRom. Paulus-^Emilius, Lucius, fell at Cannae . , \n\nGr. Pausanias, spartan commander . . \n\nGr. , topographical writer . . , \n\nEng. Paxton, Sir Joseph, horticulturist and architect . \n\nEng. Payne, Roger, noted book-binder . . . \n\nAmer. Payson, Edward, D. D., congregational divine . \n\nAmer. Peabody, Eliz P., educational writer . . \n\nAmer. , O. W. B., reviewer and biographer \xc2\xbb \n\nEng. Peacock, George, dean of Ely, mathematician . \n\nEng. Pearson, John, bishop of Chester, \' On the Creed \' \n\nPort. Pedro, V., king of Portugal, (son of Donna Maria IL) \n\nPort. , don, claimant to the throne of Portugal \n\nEng. Peel, Sir Robert, 1st baronet, cotton manufacturer . \n\nEng. , Sir Robert, 3d baronet, statesman . . \n\nEng. Peele, George, poet, (Life by Dyce) . \n\nBrit. Pelagous, monk, founder of a sect . \n\nSpan. Pelayo, first king of Asturias \n\nFr. Pelissier, A. J. J., duke of Malakoff, marshal \n\nItal. Pellico, Silvio, poet and patriot \n\nGr. Pelopidas, illustrious Theban general \n\nFr. Pelouze, Theodore Jules, chemist \n\nEng. Pembroke, Mary Sidney, countess of \n\nEng. Penn, Granville, author \n\nEng. , William, admiral, father of founder of Pennsylvania \n\nEng. , William, founder and legislator of Pennsylvania . \n\nEng. Pennant, Thomas, naturalist and antiquary . \n\nCtal. Pepe, William Florestan, general . . . \n\nAmer. Pepperell, Sir William, general . . . \n\nItal. Pepoli, Charles, litterateur , \n\nEng. Pepys, Samuel, secretary to Admiralty, author of \' Diary\' \n\nEng. Perceval, Spencer, prime minister, assassinated . . \n\nAmer. Percival, James Gates, poet, geologist and critic \n\nEng. Percy, Thomas, bishop of Dromore, \'Religious Ant, Poetry\' \n\nFr. Perefixe, Hardouin de Beaumont de, historian . \n\nEng. Pereirea, Jonathan, M. D., \'Materia Medica\' , , \n\nItal. Pergolese, John B., musical composer . . \n\nGr. Pericles, able Athenian orator and statesman . , \n\nAmer. Perit, Pelatiah, merchant and philanthropist \n\nEng. Perkins, Hugh, eccentric preacher and roundhead (executed) \n\nAmer. , Jacob, inventor of steam-gun, &c. \n\nKug. , Thomas H., eminent merchant and philanthropist \n\nFr. Perouse, John F. Galaup, circumnavigator . . \n\nFr. Perrier, M. Casimir, statesman . . . \n\nAmer. Perry, Matthew G., commodore, (\'Japan\') , , \n\nAmer. \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 , Oliver Hazard, commodore U. S. navy \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n\nBORN. \n\n\nDISC \n\n\n1823 \n\n\n\n\n372 \n\n\n493 \n\n\n1626 \n\n\n1707 \n\n\n1552 \n\n\n1623 \n\n\n\n\n65? \n\n\n1576 \n\n\n1669 \n\n\n1779 \n\n\n1860 \n\n\nB \n\n\no. 216 \n\n\nB. \n\n\nC. 470 \n\n\nf. (abt.) 120 \n\n\n1802 \n\n\n1865 \n\n\n1739 \n\n\n1797 \n\n\n1783 \n\n\n1827 \n\n\n1802 \n\n\n\n\n1799 \n\n\n1848 \n\n\n\n\n1858 \n\n\n1613 \n\n\n168\xc2\xab \n\n\n1837 \n\n\n1&6- \n\n\n\n\n1831 \n\n\n1750 \n\n\n1S30 \n\n\n\n\n1850 \n\n\n1552 \n\n\n1598 \n\n\n354 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n757 \n\n\n1794 \n\n\n1864 \n\n\n1789 \n\n\n1854 \n\n\nB. \n\n\nO. 361 \n\n\n1807 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1621 \n\n\n1761 \n\n\n1844 \n\n\n1621 \n\n\n1670 \n\n\n1644 \n\n\n1718 \n\n\n1726 \n\n\n1798 \n\n\n1780 \n\n\n1855 \n\n\n1697 \n\n\n1759 \n\n\n180! \n\n\n\n\n1632 \n\n\n1703 \n\n\n1762 \n\n\n1812 \n\n\n1795 \n\n\n1857 \n\n\n1728 \n\n\n1811 \n\n\n1605 \n\n\n1670 \n\n\n1804 \n\n\n1853 \n\n\n1710 \n\n\n1736 \n\n\nB. c. 490 I \n\n\n0. 429 \n\n\n1785 \n\n\n1864 \n\n\n1599 \n\n\n1660 \n\n\n1766 \n\n\n1S49 \n\n\n1764 \n\n\n1854 \n\n\n1741 \n\n\n1788 \n\n\n1777 \n\n\n1832 \n\n\n1795 \n\n\n1858 \n\n\n1T86 \n\n\n18M \n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL INDEX 1 39 \n\nSATIOB NAME AND PROFESSION. BOBN. DIBtt \n\nFr. Pel signy, Jean G. V M politician and diplomatist . 1808 \n\nRom. Persius, FJaccus Aulus, satirist . . 34 GJ \n\nGer. Perthes, Christian Frederick, bookseller, (life by son) 1772 1843 \n\nRom. Pertinax, emperor . . .... 126 193 \n\nSwiss. Pestalozzi, Henry, introducer of a new system of education 1745 1827 \n\nRubs. Peter I., the great, statesman and warrior . . . 1672 1725 \n\nFr. the Hermit, first mover of the crusades . . 1050? 1115 \n\nEng. Peters, Hugh, \' fanatic \'..... 1599 1660 \n\nEng. Peterborough, Charles Mordaunt, earl Of, warrior . . 1668 1735 \n\nGer. Petermann, August H., geographer . . \xe2\x80\xa2 . \n\nAmer. Petigrew, James Louis, of S. C, Union statesman . . 1789 1863 \n\nPetion, Alexander, mulatto, president Hayti . , . 1770 1818 \n\nCtal. Petrarch, Francis, one of the four greatest of Italian poets . 1304 1374 \n\nFr. Peyronnet, Pierre D., count de, minister of Charles X. and historian 1778 1854 \n\nGer. Pfeiffer, Ida, traveller and author . . . 1795 1858 \n\nRom. Phsedrus, fabulist . . . , . . f. 30 \n\nFr. Philidor, Andrew, writer on chess . . . 1726 1796 \n\nPhilip II., king of Macedon, warrior . . . b. 0. 383 a. 0. 336 \n\nSt., of Neri, founder of the Oratory . . 1515 1595 \n\nEng. Phillimore, JohnG., author on law , . . 1809 1865 \n\nEng. Phillips, Ambrose, poet aud dramatist . , , 1749 \n\nEng. , John, poet \'Splendid Shilling* . . . 1676 1708 \n\nEng. , Sir Richard, bookseller and compiler . . 1768 1840 \n\nJe\\r Philo-Judaeus, learned Jewish writer of Alexandria . . f. A. D. 40 \n\nGr. Philopcemen, celebrated general . . . . b. o. 253 B. o. 183 \n\nEng. Phipps, Sir William, colonial governor Massachusetts ., 1651 1695 \n\nGr. Phocion, eminent Athenian general . . . b. o. 400 a. o. 318 \n\nPhotius, learned patriarch of Constantinople . . 815 891 \n\nAjner. Physic, Philip Syng, M. D. . . . 1768 1837 \n\nItal. Piazzi, Joseph, astronomer .... 1746 1826 \n\nFr. Picard, Louis Benedict, dramatist and novelist . . 1769 1824 \n\nFr. Pichegru, Charles, eminent general .... 1761 1804 \n\nAmer. Pickering, Timothy, distinguished statesman . . 1746 1829 \n\nAmer. , John, philologist . 1772 1846 \n\nSwiss. Pictet, Benedict, theological and historical writer . 16")5 1724 \n\nEng. Pictou, Sir Thomas, general .... 1816 \n\nAmer. Pierce, Franklin, general, 14th president U. S. . . 1804 \n\nRom. Pilate, Pontius, Roman governor of Judea . . . 387 \n\nAmer. Pinckney, Charles Cotesworth, general and diplomatist . 1825 \n\nAmer. , William, distinguished orator and diplomatist . 1765 1822 \n\nGr. Pindar, the greatest of lyric poets . . b. o. 522 a o. 442 \n\nScot. Pinkerton, John, fertile and eccentric author . . 1758 1826 \n\nSpan. Pinzou, Vincent Tanez, navigator, discovered Brazil . 1. 1500 \n\nAmer. Piozzi, Hester L., miscellaneous writer, friend of Dr. Johnson 1789 1821 \n\nFr. Piron, Alexis, poet dramatist, and wit . . . 1689 1773 \n\nGr. Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens . . . . b. 0. 527 \n\nAmer. Pitkin, Timothy, historian and statistician . . 1765 1847 \n\nEng. Pitt, Christopher, poet and translator . . . 1699 1748 \n\nEng. , William, 1st earl of Chatham, statesman . . 1708 1778 \n\nEng. , "Wiliam, celebrated statesman, son of Lord Chatham . 1759 1806 \n\nGr. Pittacus, of Mitylene, one of the seven sages . . B. O. 660 B. C 671 \n\nItal. Pius IX., pope, (Giov. Mastai Ferretti) . . . 1792 \n\n\n\n140 \n\n\n\nTHE WORLD\'S PROGRESS. \n\n\n\nNATION NAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nSpan. Pizarro, Francis, conqueror of Peru . . , \n\nEng. Platoche, James R., dramatist and miscellaneous writer . \n\nGr. Plato, illustrious philosopher, founder of the Academic sect b. \n\nRom. Plautus, comic poet b \n\nEng. Playfair, John, eminent mathematician and natural philosopher \n\nEng. , Lyon, chemist, (born in Bengal) \n\nEom. Pliny, the elder, or C. P. Secundus, author of natural history \n\nRom. , the younger, warrior and author . . \xe2\x96\xa0 \n\nEgypt. Plotinus, Platonic philosopher . . . \n\nIrish. Plunket, W. C, lord chancellor of Ireland . \xe2\x80\xa2 . \n\nGr. Plutarch, celebrated biographer . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nInd. Pocahontas, daughter of Powhatan, of Va. . . , \n\nEng. Pocock, D. E., learned critic and commentator * . \n\nEng. \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 -, D. E., learned prelate and traveller . . . \n\nAmer. Poe, Edgar A., poet, critic and novelist . . . \n\nGer. Poggendorf, John Chris., physicist and chemist \n\nAmer. Poinsett, Joel R., statesman, diplomatist, and author \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nFr. Poisson, D. S., mathematician .... \n\nEng. Pole, Reginald, cardinal archbishop of Canterbury . \n\nFr. Polignac, J. A. M., prince, minister of Charles X. . . \n\nFr. , Melchior de, cardinal and statesman . . \n\nAmer. Polk, Jas. Knox, president U. S. \n\nAmer. . Leonidas, Bp. of La., and rebel general \n\nEng. Pollok, Robt., poet, \' Course of Time \' \n\nItal. Polo, Marco, celebrated Venetian traveller \n\nGr. Polybius, eminent historian \n\nPolycarp, bishop of Smyrna, Christian martyr ; \n\nPort. Pombal, Seb., marquis of, statesman . \n\nEng. Pomfret, John, poet \n\nFr. Pompadour, J. A. P., Marchioness of . \n\nRom. Pompey, Cneus, statesman and warrior \n\nSpan. Ponce de Leon, discoverer of America \n\nPol. Poniatowski, Joseph, prince, general, marshal of France . \n\nPol. , Stanislaus Aug., last king of Poland . , \n\nInd. Pontiac, Indian chief ..... \n\nEng. Poole, John, author of \' Paul Pry,\' &o. . . \n\nEng. , Matthew, able divine and author . . . \n\nEng. Pope, Alexander, celebrated poet .... \n\nAmer. , John, Union general, com. army Potomac aud 4th mil. dist. \n\nPorphyry, Platonic philosopher .... \n\nEng. Porson, Richard, eminent hellenist and critic . . \n\nItal. Porta, John Baptist, natural philosopher . . . \n\nEng. Porter, Anna Maria, novelist .... \n\nAmer. , David, commodore, U. S. Navy . . \n\nAmer. , David D., rear-admiral .... \n\nEng. , Jane, novelist, . . . . . \n\nEng. , Sir Robert Ker, author of \' Travels,\' &o. . . \n\nEng. Porteus, Beilby, eminent prelate .... \n\nAmer. Potter, Alonzo, D. D., epis. bp. of Pennsylvania, and educa- \ntional author ..... \n\nAmer. Horatio, D. D., episc. bishop of New York . . \n\nHng. , John, archbishop of Canterbury. \' Gr. Antiq.\' . \n\n\n\nand author \n\n\n\n(\' The Great.\') b. \n\n\n\nBORN. \n\n\ndik a \n\n\n1475 \n\n\n1541 \n\n\n1796 \n\n\n\n\n0. 430 \n\n\nD. c. 347 \n\n\n0. 227 \n\n\nB. O. 18* \n\n\n1749 \n\n\n1818 \n\n\n1819 \n\n\n\n\n23 \n\n\n7\xc2\xbb \n\n\n61 \n\n\n115 \n\n\n203 \n\n\n270 \n\n\n1765 \n\n\n1854 \n\n\n50 \n\n\n120 \n\n\n\n\n1617 \n\n\n1604 \n\n\n1691 \n\n\n1704 \n\n\n1765 \n\n\n1811 \n\n\n1856 \n\n\n1796 \n\n\n\n\n1778 \n\n\n1851 \n\n\n1781 \n\n\n1840 \n\n\n1500 \n\n\n1558 \n\n\n1780 \n\n\n1S17 \n\n\n1611 \n\n\n1741 \n\n\n1795 \n\n\n1849 \n\n\n1806 \n\n\n1864 \n\n\n1799 \n\n\n1827 \n\n\n1250 \n\n\n1323 \n\n\nc. 205 \n\n\nb. 0. 123 \n\n\n\n\n169 \n\n\n1699 \n\n\n1782 \n\n\n1667 \n\n\n1703 \n\n\n1772 \n\n\n1764 \n\n\n0. 106 \n\n\nB. C. 48 \n\n\n1460 \n\n\n1521 \n\n\n1763 \n\n\n1S13 \n\n\n1732 \n\n\n1798 \n\n\n1712 \n\n\n1769 \n\n\n1624 \n\n\n1779 \n\n\n1688 \n\n\n1744 \n\n\n1823 \n\n\n\n\n233 \n\n\n304 \n\n\n1759 \n\n\n1808 \n\n\n1540 \n\n\n1616 \n\n\n1781 \n\n\n1832 \n\n\n1780 \n\n\n1843 \n\n\n1776 \n\n\n135C \n\n\n1780 \n\n\n1845 \n\n\n1731 \n\n\n1808 \n\n\n1800 \n\n\n1863 \n\n\n167* \n\n\n1741 \n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. \n\n\n\n141 \n\n\n\nSTATION. HAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nEng. Potter, Robert, divine, poet, aud translator \n\nEng. Pottenger, Sir Henry, diplomatist \n\nIrish. Power, Tyrone, comic actor . \n\nRuss. Pozzo di Borgo, diplomatist . . , \n\nEng. Praed, Winthrop Mackworth, poet \n\nAmet, Pradt, Abbe Dominique de, political writer \n\nAmer. Preble, Edward, commodore in the U. S. Navy \n\nAmcr. Prentiss, Sargent 8 , lawyer and politician, famed for eloque \n\nAmer. Prescott, Wm. Hiekling, historian \n\nAmer. Preston, Wm. C, U. S. senator for South Carolina . \n\nEng. Price, Dr. R., writer on civil liberty , \n\nEng. , Sir Uvedale, writer on the Picturesque . \n\nEng. Prideaux, Humphrey, learned divine\'. . . \n\nGer. Priessnitz, Vincent, founder of Hydropathy . \n\nEng. Priestley, Joseph, eminent philosopher and writer \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nAmer. Prince, Rev. Thos., historian of N. England \n\nEng. Pringle, Thos., poet and traveller . . . \n\nEng. Prinsep, Chas. R., political economist . . \n\nEug. Prior, Mathew, poet and statesman . . , \n\nEng. Pritchard, J. C\xe2\x80\x9e ethnologist, \' Natural History of Man\' \n\nRom. Probus, Marcus Aureiius, emperor . . \n\nItal. Procida, John of, patriot . . . \n\nGr. Probus, a Platonic philosopher . , . \n\nProcv ~>ius, historian .... \n\nRom. , Ant\'nemius, emperor . . , \n\nEng. Proctor, Miss Ade aide A., poetess \n\nEng. , Bryan W. (\' Barry Cornwall \'), poet and critic \n\nRom. Propertius, Sextus Aureiius, poet \n\nFr. Proudhon, Pierre Jos., political theorist and socialist . \n\nEng. Prynne, learned lawyer, political writer, and antiquary \n\nFr. Psalmanazwr, George, literary impostor \n\nEgypt. Ptolemy, Claudius, eminent astronomer and geographer \n\nGer. Puckler-Muskau, H. L. H., prince of, author of Travels, &o. \n\nGer. Puffendorf, Samuel, baron de, publicist and historian \n\nEng. Pugin, Augs. Welby, architectural writer \n\nPole. Pulaski, Casimir, count, genl. in the U. S. service . \n\nItal. Pulci, Louis, poet ..... \n\nflung. Pulszky, Franz, politician and author . . \n\nEng. PurcelL Henry, musical composer . . . \n\nEng. , Thos., musical composer . \n\nEng. Pnrchas, divine, editor of Voyages and Pilgrimage . \n\nAmer. Pursh, Fred., botanist .... \n\nEng. Pusey, Edward Bour, D.D., founder of \' Puseyites \' \n\nAmer. Putnam. Israel, distinguished officer in the Revolution \n\nAmer. , Rufus, pioneer settler of Ohio \n\nBng. Puttenham, George, poet and critic, \' Art of Eng. Poesie\' \n\nEng. Pye, Henry James, poet laureate \n\nEng. Pym, John, republican politician . \n\nAmer Pynchon, "Wm., f junder of Springfield, Ma--s. , \n\nGr. Pyrrho, philosopher, founder of Sceptic Sect . \n\nPyrrhus, king of Epiruj . . . . \n\nOr Pythagoras, celebrated philosopher \n\n\n\nBOBN. \n\n\nDIED \n\n\n1721 \n\n\n1S04 \n\n\n1787 \n\n\n1859 \n\n\n1795 \n\n\n1841 \n\n\n1768 \n\n\n1841 \n\n\n:so2 \n\n\n1839 \n\n\n1759 \n\n\n1837 \n\n\n1761 \n\n\n1807 \n\n\nrueoce 1810 \n\n\n1850 \n\n\n1796 \n\n\n1859 \n\n\n1794 \n\n\n1860 \n\n\n1728 \n\n\n1791 \n\n\n1747 \n\n\n1829 \n\n\n1648 \n\n\n1724 \n\n\n1799 \n\n\n1851 \n\n\n1733 \n\n\n1804 \n\n\n1687 \n\n\n1758 \n\n\n1789 \n\n\n1834 \n\n\n1788 \n\n\n1864 \n\n\n1664 \n\n\n1721 \n\n\n1785 \n\n\n1848 \n\n\n232 \n\n\n282 \n\n\n1225 \n\n\n1303 \n\n\n410 \n\n\n487 \n\n\n410 \n\n\n487 \n\n\n\n\n472 \n\n\n\n\n1864 \n\n\n1787 \n\n\n\n\nB. 0. 52 \n\n\nB 0. 12 \n\n\n1809 \n\n\n1865 \n\n\n1609 \n\n\n1669 \n\n\n1679 \n\n\n1763 \n\n\n70 \n\n\n\n\neo. . 1785 \n\n\n\n\n1632 \n\n\n1794 \n\n\n1811 \n\n\n1852 \n\n\n1747 \n\n\n1779 \n\n\n. . 1432 \n\n\n1487 \n\n\n1814 \n\n\n\n\n1658 \n\n\n1695 \n\n\n\n\n1682 \n\n\n1577 \n\n\n1628 \n\n\n1774 \n\n\n1820 \n\n\n1800 \n\n\n\n\n1718 \n\n\n1790 \n\n\n1738 \n\n\n1824 \n\n\n\n\n1600 \n\n\n1745 \n\n\n1813 \n\n\n1584 \n\n\n1643 \n\n\n159JI? \n. f. B. 0. 300 \n\n\n1662 \n\n\n\n\nB. 0. 271 \n\n\na. 0. 686 \n\n\n\xc2\xbb. c. 491 \n\n\n\n142 \n\n\n\nTHE WOKLD\'S PROGRESS. \n\n\n\nKAKOH, NAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nEng. Qaaln, Jones, M. D., anatomist . , , \n\nEng. Quarles, Francis, poet, author of \'Emblems\' . \n\nFr. Quatremere, E. M., orientalist . . . \n\nQuekett, John, microscopist . . , \n\nFr. Quesne, Abraham du, admiral . , . \n\nQuesnel, Peter, \' History of Jesuits\' . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nBelg. Quetelet, L. A., mathematician and statistician . \n\nSpan, Quevedo de Villegas, Francis, poet . . \n\nEng. Quin, James, actor . . ... . \n\nFr. Quinault, Philip, lyrical dramatist \n\nAmei. Quincy, Josiah ex-pres. Harvard Univ., and author \n\nAmer. , Josiah, Jr., ex-mayor of Boston, and financier \n\nFr. Quinet, Edgar, littirateur \n\nSpan. Quintana, Jose Manuel de, poet and historian \n\nRom. Quintilian, Marcus Fabius, celebrated orator \n\nRom. Quintus-Curtius, historian . . f. time \n\nAmer. Quitman, John A., general and gov. of Mississsipi \n\n\n\nFr. Rabelais, Francis, wil and satirist . . . \n\nFr. Racine, John, eminent dramatist . . \n\nFr Rachel, Eliza Rachel Felix, actress \n\nEng. Radclifie, Anne, romance writer, \' Mysteries of Udolpho \n\nAust. Radetzky, Joseph, count, commander in Italy \n\nEng. Raffles, Rev. Thos., independent minister and collector \n\nEng. , Sir Thos. Stamford, author of \xc2\xab History of Java,\' &o \n\nAmer. Rafinesque, S. C. J., botanist \n\nDan. Rafn, C. C, historian and antiquary . \n\nEng. Raglan, J. H. Fitzroy Somerset, lord, general in Crimea \n\nAmer. Ragnet, Condy, political economist . \n\nEng. Raikes, Robt, printer, founder of \' Sunday schools \' \n\nEng. Raleigh or Ralegh, Sir Walter, * a man illustrious in arms \n\nliterature\' \xe2\x80\xa2 . \n\nHind. Rammohun, Roy, philanthropist . \n\nScot. Ramsay, Allan, poet .... \n\nAmer. , David, historian \n\nSpan. Ramuiiio, John Bapt, \' Collect, of Voyages \' \n\nAmer. Randolph, John, of Roanoke, eccentric statesman \n\nAmer. , Peyton, first president of Congress \n\nGer. Ranke, Leopold, historian \n\nFr. Raoul, Rochette, archaeologist and traveller \n\nHeb. Raphall, Morris J., learned rabbi and preacher \n\nFr. Rapin de Thoyrae, author of \' History of England\' \n\nRapp, Geo., founder of \' Sect of Harmonists . \n\nDan. Rask, E. C, philologist and lexicographer \n\nB\'r. Raspail, F. V., chemist and radical statesman \n\nPruss. Rauch, Fred. A., metaphysician \n\nGer. Raumer, Fred. L. G. von, historian . . \n\nAmer. Rawle, William, jurist .... \n\n\n\nBOEH. \n\n\nDMCT. \n\n\n\n\n1864 \n\n\n.. 1592 \n\n\n1644 \n\n\n1782 \n\n\n1857 \n\n\n1815 \n\n\n1861 \n\n\n1610 \n\n\n1688 \n\n\n1699 \n\n\n1774 \n\n\n. 1796 \n\n\n\n\n1580 \n\n\n1645 \n\n\n1693 \n\n\n1766 \n\n\n1635 \n\n\n1668 \n\n\n1772 \n\n\n1864 \n\n\n1802 \n\n\n\n\n1803 \n\n\n\n\n1772 \n\n\n1857 \n\n\n42 \n\n\n122 \n\n\nespasian \n\n\n1st Cent. \n\n\n1799 \n\n\n1858 \n\n\n1483 \n\n\n1553 \n\n\n1589 \n\n\n1699 \n\n\n1820 \n\n\n1858 \n\n\n1764 \n\n\n1823 \n\n\n1766 \n\n\n1858 \n\n\n1788 \n\n\n1863 \n\n\n0. . 1781 \n\n\n1826 \n\n\n1784 \n\n\n1842 \n\n\n1795 \n\n\n\n\n1788 \n\n\n1855 \n\n\n1784 \n\n\n1842 \n\n\n1785 \n\n\n1811 \n\n\n3 and \n\n\n\n\n1552 \n\n\n1618 \n\n\n1776 \n\n\n1833 \n\n\n1685 \n\n\n1758 \n\n\n17-19 \n\n\n1812 \n\n\n1485 \n\n\n1557 \n\n\n1773 \n\n\n1833 \n\n\n172E \n\n\n177E \n\n\n1795 \n\n\n\n\n1790 \n\n\n\n\n1798 \n\n\n\n\n1661 \n\n\n1726 \n\n\n1770 \n\n\n1847 \n\n\n1784 \n\n\n183S \n\n\n1794 \n\n\n\n\n1806 \n\n\n1841 \n\n\n. 1781 \n\n\n\n\n1759 \n\n\n1834 \n\n\n\n&0. \n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. \n\nKATIOH. HAME AND PROFESSIOH. \n\nEng. Rawllnson. Sir Henry C, geographer and orientalist \n\nEng. Bay, John, naturalist and author \n\nFr. Raynal, William Thomas Francis, historian and philosopher \n\nBoot. Reach, Angus B., journalist and author \n\nAmer. Read, Geo. Campbell, admiral \n\nEng. Reade, Charles, novelist . . \n\nFr. Recamier, Mme Jane F. A. . \n\nEng. Redding, Cyrus, journalist and author \n\nAmer. Redfield, William C, meteorologist \n\nRed Jacket, Thayendanega, Indian Chief . \n\nAmer. Reed, Henry, metaphysician and essayist \n\nEng. , Isaac, critic and editor \n\nAmer. , Joseph, general in revolution . \n\nAmer. \xe2\x80\x94 ; \xe2\x80\x94 , Win. B., politician and author . \n\nEng. Rees, Dr. Abraham, editor of an encyclopffldi \n\nEng. Beeve, Clara, novelist, \'Old English Baron\' \n\nEng. , John, comic actor \n\nEng. , Lovell A., conchologist and publisher \n\nFr. Begnard, John Francis, comic writer \n\nFr. Regnault, Henry Vict., chemist . . \n\nGer. Reichenbach, Charles, baron de, naturalist \n\nIrish. Reid, Capt. Mayne, novelist \n\nScot. , Col., Sir Wm., engineer andmetereologist, \' Use of Storms \n\nAmer. -, Samuel 0., naval commander \n\nScot. , Thomas, celebrated metaphysician . \n\nGer. Reinhard, Francis V., (founder of Christ.) \n\nFr. Rem usat, J. P. A., historian and linguist . \n\nFr. Rene, duke of Anjou, king of Sicily . \n\nEng. Rennel, Major J., geographer and traveller \n\nScot. Rennie, John, eminent engineer and architea \n\nAmer. Reno, Jesse L., general in Union army \n\nEng. Eepton, Humphrey, landscape gardener \n\nTurk. Reschid Pasha, statesman, premier of Turkey \n\nFr. Retz, John F. P., de Gondi, cardinal de, minis\' \n\nGer. Retzsch, Fred., A. M., printer and designer \n\nAmer. Reynolds, John F., Union general, killed at Gettysburg \n\nEng. Ricardo, David, writer on political economy and finance \n\n, Joseph Lewis, (on International law) \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nFr. Ricaut, Sir Paul, traveller and historian . . \n\nEng. Rich, Obadiah, bibliographer . , . \n\nEng. Richard I, Coeur de Lion, king of England \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nEng. \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 III, king, killed at Bosworth \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nEng, Richardson, Charles, philologist (Eng. Diet.) . \n\nScot. , James, traveller in Africa . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nEng. , Samuel, eminent novelist . . \n\nScot. , Sir John, naturalist and Arctic explorer \n\nFr. Richelieu, A. J., du Plessis, cardinal and duke, statesman \n\nGer. Richter, John Paul Frederick, novelist dec. . \n\nEng. Ridley, Nicholas, bishop and prot. martyr . . \n\nSpan Riego y Nunez, Raphael de, patriot . ( \n\nItaL Rienzi, Nicholas Gabrino de, political reformer . \n\nItal. Ristori, Adelaide, actress . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n\nerof Louis XV. \n\n\n\n\n\n143 \n\n\nBOB* \n\n\nDIED, \n\n\n1810 \n\n\n\n\n1628 \n\n\n1701 \n\n\n1713 \n\n\n1798 \n\n\n1821 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n186a \n\n\n1777 \n\n\n1849 \n\n\n1785 \n\n\n\n\n1789 \n\n\n1857 \n\n\n1759? \n\n\n1830 \n\n\n1808 \n\n\n1854 \n\n\n1742 \n\n\n1807 \n\n\n1748 \n\n\n1785 \n\n\n1743 \n\n\n1825 \n\n\n1723 \n\n\n1803 \n\n\n1799 \n\n\n1838 \n\n\n1814 \n\n\n1865 \n\n\n1647 \n\n\n1709 \n\n\n1810 \n\n\n\n\n1788 \n\n\n\n\n1818 \n\n\n\n\n1791 \n\n\n1858 \n\n\n1783 \n\n\n1861 \n\n\n1710 \n\n\n1796 \n\n\n1753 \n\n\n1812 \n\n\n1788 \n\n\n1832 \n\n\n1409 \n\n\n1480 \n\n\n1742 \n\n\n1830 \n\n\n1761 \n\n\n1821 \n\n\n1825 \n\n\n1862 \n\n\n1752 \n\n\n1818 \n\n\n1802 \n\n\n1858 \n\n\n1614 \n\n\n1679 \n\n\n1779 \n\n\n1859 \n\n\n1820 \n\n\n1863 \n\n\n1772 \n\n\n1823 \n\n\n1812 \n\n\n1862 \n\n\n\n\n1700 \n\n\n\n\n1850 \n\n\n1157 \n\n\n1199 \n\n\n1450 \n\n\n1485 \n\n\n1775 \n\n\n186S \n\n\n\n\n1851 \n\n\n1689 \n\n\n1761 \n\n\n1787 \n\n\n1865 \n\n\n1585 \n\n\n1642 \n\n\n1763 \n\n\n1825 \n\n\n1500 \n\n\n1555 \n\n\n1783 \n\n\n1825 \n\n\n1313 \n\n\n13W \n\n\n1821 \n\n\n\n\n\n144 \n\n\n\nTHE WORLD\'S PROGRESS. \n\n\n\nflATTON. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nGer. \n\nGer. \n\nSpan. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nSoot. \n\nSoot \n\nFr. \n\nAmer. \n\nScot. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nFr . \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nRom. \n\nGer. \n\nEng. \n\nSpan. \n\nSpan. \n\nRom. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nGer. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nItal. \n\nAmer \n\nGer. \n\nGer. \n\nItal. \nEng. \nKng. \nEng \nUaL \n\n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0AME AND PROFESSION- \n\nRitchie, Leitch, journalist and author . \n\nRitchie, Thomas, journalist, \' Richmond Enquirer" \nRitson, Joseph, lawyer, antiquary and critic . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nRittenhouse, David, philosopher and astronomer . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nRitter, Aug. H., \'History of Philosophy\' \n\n, Charles, geographer \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nRivas, Angel de Saavedra, duke of, soldier, statesman, poet \nRives, M. C. (of Va.) statesman and diplomatist \nRives, John C, journalist, \' Washington Globe \' \nRivington, Jas., royalist printer of N. T. . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nRoberts, David, landscape painter and author \nRobertson, William, celebrated historian . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nRobespierre, F. M. J. L., \'the terrorist\' of the revolution \nRobinson, Edward D. D., biblical geographer and philologist \n\n\n\nRob Roy (Robert Macgregor) highland freebooter . (abt) \n\nRochambeau. J. B. D., count de, marshal \nRochefoucauld-Li ancourt, F. A. F., duke de la . \n\nRochejacquelin, H. de la, royalist leader . . \n\nRodgers, John, commodore U. S. navy . . \n\nRodney, Geo. Brydges, lord, able admiral . \n\nRoebuck, John Arthur, statesman \nRogers, Henry, theologian and critic \n\n, Henry Darwin, naturalist, professor in Glasgow \n\n, Samuel, poet \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nRoget, Peter Mark, physiologist and philologist \nRoland de la Platriere, J. M., revolutionist and author \n\n, M. J. P., Madame, martyr of the revolution . \n\nRollin, Charles, celebrated historian \n\nRomaine, "William, divine and author . . . \n\nRomilly, Sir Samuel, jurist and statesman . \n\nRomulus, founder and first king of Rome . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nRonge, Johannes, educational and religious reformer \n\nRooUe, Sir George, admiral . \n\nRosa, don Francisco Martinez de la, statesman, poet, historian <fcc \n\nRosas, don Juan, Manuel de, ruler of Buenos Ayres . \nRoscius Quintus, actor of proverbial talent \nRoseoe, Henry, biographer .... \n( William, biographer and miscellaneous writer \n\nRoscommon, Dillon Wentworth, earl of, poet . \n\nRose, Gustave, chemist .... \n\n-, Hugh James, \' B\'ograph. Diet.\' \n\nt Wm. Stuart, translator of Ariosto . \n\nRosellini, Hypolito, author of \' Monuments of Egypt,\' &o. \n\nRosecrans, W. S., gen. in Union army . \n\nRosenkranz, Jonas K. F., metaphysician and professor of phil \nosophy . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nRosenmuller, E. F. C, orientalist \n\nRosetti, Gabriele, poet, artist and critic \n\nRoss, Admiral Sir John, Arctic navigator \n\n, Sir James Clark, Arctic explorer \n\nRosse, Wm. Parsons, earl of, astronomer \n\nRossini, Joachim, musical composer \n\n\n\nBOBS. \n\n\nDraft \n\n\n1800 \n\n\n1861 \n\n\n1778 \n\n\n1854 J \n\n\n1752 \n\n\n1803 \n\n\n1731 \n\n\n1798 \n\n\n1791 \n\n\n\n\n1779 \n\n\n1859 \n\n\n1791 \n\n\n\n\n1796 \n\n\n1864 1 \n\n\n1724 \n\n\n1802 j 1 \n\n\n1796 \n\n\n1864 \n\n\n1721 \n\n\n1793 \n\n\n1759 \n\n\n1794 \n\n\n1794 \n\n\n1864 \n\n\nt) \n\n\n1763 ! \n\n\n1725 \n\n\n1807 j \n\n\n1747 \n\n\n1827 1 \n\n\n1773 \n\n\n1794 | \n\n\n1771 \n\n\n1838 \n\n\n1717 \n\n\n\' 1792 1 \n\n\n1802 \n\n\n1 \n\n\n1806 \n\n\n! \n\n\n1763 \n\n\n1853 | \n\n\n1779 \n\n\nl \n\n\n1733 \n\n\n1793 ! \n\n\n1754 \n\n\n1793 | \n\n\n1661 \n\n\n1741 I \n\n\n1714 \n\n\n1795 \n\n\n1757 \n\n\n1818 I \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 B \n\n\n0. 716 \n\n\n1813 \n\n\nII J \n\n\n1650 \n\n\n170S | \n\n\nfcc. 1789 \n\n\n1 \n\n\n1793 \n\n\ni \n\n\nB \n\n\nO. 61 ! \n\n\n1800 \n\n\n1836 j \n\n\n1751 \n\n\n1831 i \n\n\n1633 \n\n\n1684 | \n\n\n1795 \n\n\n\n\n1795 \n\n\n1838 \n\n\n1775 \n\n\n1843 \n\n\n1800 \n\n\n1843 \n\n\n1819 \n\n\n| \n\n\n11- \n\n1805 \n\n\n\n\n1768 \n\n\n1835 \n\n\n1783 \n\n\n1854 1 \n\n\n1777 \n\n\n1856 1 \n\n\n1800 \n\n\n1861 i \n\n\n1800 \n\n\n\n\n1792 \n\n\nj] \n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. \n\n\n\nUS \n\n\n\nKATIOK. MAME AND PKOFESSIOH. Bl \n\nGer.J w.Rothsehild, Meyer Arise hn, founder of the great banking-house \n\n, Anselm at Frankfort, Nathan at London (d 1836) and \n\nSolomon, sous ot Meyer Anselm Rothschild . \n\nGei. Rotteck, Chas. W, R. von, historian . . . , \n\nFr. Rousseau, John Baptist, poet .... \n\nFr. , John James, eloquent and paradoxical writer . \n\nEng. Rowe, Nicholas, poet laureate and dramatist . . \n\nItaL Rubini, Jno. Baptist, tenor vocalist .... \nGer. Ruckert, Frederick, poet .... \n\nAmer. Rumford, Benjamin Thompson, count, officer (in foreign service)and \n\nphilosopher ..... \n\nAmer. Rumsey, James, inventor . \xe2\x80\xa2 . . . \n\nGer. Rupert, prince, warrior ..... \nAmer. Ruschenberger, W. S. W., author of voyages and scientific works 1807 \nAvner. Rush, Richard, diplomatist .... \n\nEng. Rushworth John, \' Historical Collections \' . . \n\nAmer. Rusk, Thos, J., U. S. senator from Texas ... \nEng. Ruskin, John, writer on art .... \nEng. Russel, Lady Rachel (wife of lord Wm.), author of \' Letters * \n\nEng. , Lord William, one of the martyrs of liberty \n\nScot. Russell, John Scott, engineer, builder of \' Great Eastern \' . \n\nEng. , Lord John, now Earl Russell, statesman and author \n\nScot. , William, historian of modern Europe . . \n\nIrish. , William H., Times correspondent and author . \n\nAmer. Rutledge, Edward, statesman .... \n\nAmer. , John (brother of above), statesman . . \n\nDutch. Ruyter, M. A. de, admiral .... \n\nEng. Rymer, Thomas, antiquary, \'Federa\' . . \n\n\n\nuna, \n1780 \n\n\nvuw \n\n182} \n\n\n1775 \n\n\n1840 \n\n\n1670 \n\n\n1741 \n\n\n1712 \n\n\n1778 \n\n\n1673 \n\n\n1718 \n\n\n1795 \n\n\n1854 \n\n\n1789 \n\n\n\n\n1753 \n\n\n1814 \n\n\n1743 \n\n\n1792 \n\n\n1619 \n\n\n168\xc2\xb0 \n\n\n1807 \n\n\n\n\n1780 \n\n\n\n\n1607 \n\n\n1690 \n\n\n1803 \n\n\n1857 \n\n\n1819 \n\n\n\n\n1636 \n\n\n1723 \n\n\n1641 \n\n\n1683 \n\n\n1808 \n\n\n\n\n1792 \n\n\n\n\n1746 \n\n\n1794 \n\n\n1821 \n\n\n\n\n1749 \n\n\n1800 \n\n\n1739 \n\n\n1800 \n\n\n1607 \n\n\n1679 \n\n\n1713 \n\n\n\n\n\ns. \n\nEng. Sabine, Major-General Edward, physicist . \n\nEng. Sacheverell, Henry, tory divine, impeached for sedition \n\nFr. Sacy, Louis Isaac, Jansenist, translator of Bible . \n\nFr. , Sylvester, baron de, orientalist . . \n\nPers. Sadi, or Saadi, poet ..... \n\nEng. Sadler, Sir Ralph, diplomatist and historian . , \n\nTurk Said Pasha Mohammed, viceroy of Egypt . . \n\nFr. Saint- Arnaud, J. A. Leroy de, marshal . . \n\nAmer. St. Clair, Arthur, general in Revolution . . \n\nFr. St. Hilaire. Auguste de, botanist . . , , \n\nFr. , Geoff. S., naturalist and anatomist \n\nFr. St. Pierre, Bernardin de, author of \' Paul and Virginia,\' &c. \n\nItaL St. Real, Cassar Vichara abbi de, historian \n\nFr. St. Simon, Claudius, count de, philosopher . \n\nEng. St. Vincent, John Jervis, earl of, admiral . \n\nFr. Saintine, Xavier B., writer of tales . . \n\nBng. Sala, Geo. Augustus, journalist and author \n\n8ar. Saladin, sultan of Egypt and Syria, celebrated warrior \n\nEng. Sales, George, historian and translator of the Koran \n\nEng. Salisbury, Robert Cecil, earl of, statesman . \n\nRom. Sallust, Caius CrisDus, historian . \n\n\n\nf. B. 0. \n\n\n\n1790 \n\n\n\n\n1672 \n\n\n1724 \n\n\n1613 \n\n\n1684 \n\n\n1758 \n\n\n1838 \n\n\n1175 \n\n\n1296 \n\n\n1567 \n\n\n1587 \n\n\n1822 \n\n\n1863 \n\n\n1798 \n\n\n1854 \n\n\n1735 \n\n\n1813 \n\n\n1799 \n\n\n1861 \n\n\n1772 \n\n\n1844 \n\n\n1736 \n\n\n1814 \n\n\n1639 \n\n\n1693 \n\n\n1760 \n\n\n1823 \n\n\n1734 \n\n\n1823 \n\n\n1790 \n\n\n\n\n1827 \n\n\n\n\n1137 \n\n\n1193 \n\n\n1680 \n\n\n1736 \n\n\n1650 \n\n\n161S \n\n\n86 B. \n\n\nO. Si \n\n\n\n146 \n\n\n\nTHE WORLD\'S PROGRESS. \n\n\n\nKA\'IO*. HAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nPr. Salmasius, Claudius, scholar and author ... \n\nFr. Balvandy, N, A., comte de, statesman .... \n\nF*. Salverte, miscellaneous writer .... \n\nHeb. Samson, judge of Israel ..... \n\nHeb. Samuel, lasA judge of Israel .... \n\nPhoe. Sanconiatho, philosopher and historian \n\nFr. Sand, George (Madame Dudevant), novelist . , \n\nAmer. Sanderson, John, litterateur . . . . . \n\nAmer. Sands, Robt. 0., poet and littirateur \n\nEng. Sandwich, Edward Montague, earl of, naval officer \n\nFr. Sanson, Nicholas, geographer and engineer . . \n\nMex. Santa Anna, Antonio Lopez de, general and ex-president . \n\nGr. Sappho, poetess . . . . . f. b. \n\nChald. Saidanapalus, king of Nineveh .... \n\nItal. Sarpi, Peter, better known as Father Paul, patriot and historian \n\nSaul, 1st king of Israel ..... \n\nSauley, Louis F. J., count de, antiquarian . . \n\nSaumarez, James, lord de, admiral .... \n\nSaurin, divine and sermon-writer .... \n\nSaussure, H. B. de, naturalist and traveller . . . \n\n, Nieh. Theo. de, chemist, geologist, &o. . . \n\n\n\nHeb. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nEng. \n\nFr. \n\nGer. \n\nItal. \n\n\n\nSavage, Richard, poet ..... \n\nSavary, Nicholas, \'Life of Mahomet,\' \' Letters on Egypt\' . \nSavigny, Fred. C. von, historian of Roman law \nSavonarola, Jerome, monk, famed for zeal and eloquence . \nPole-Fr. Saxe, Maurice, count de, celebrated general in the French service \nGer. Saxe-Weimar, Bernard, duke of, warrior \nDan. Saxo-Grammaticua, historian . . \n\nFr. Say, Horace Emile, political economist, son of J. B. Say \nFr. \xe2\x80\x94 , Jean Baptiste, writer on political economy \nAmer. \xe2\x80\x94 , Thomas, naturalist . . . \xe2\x80\x9e . \n\nItaL Scaliger, Joseph Justus, critic and historian \nItal. , Julius Caesar, learned critic .... \n\nScandenberg (real name Geo. Castriot), Albanian prince and warrior 1404 \nGer. Scapula, John, lexicographer \n\nEng. Scarlett, James, 1st lord Abinger, jurist . . . \n\nFr. Scarron, P , comic poet and satirist \n\nGer. Schadow, Julien Gottfried, sculptor . , , \n\nSwe. Scheele, Charles Win., eminent chemist . . \n\nGer. Schelling, Fred. Augs., novelist .... \n\nGer. , Fred. W. J., philosopher . \n\nAmer. Schenck, Robert C. statesman and general, (Ohio) . \nPruss. Schfll, Ferdinand von, intrepid and patriotic officer \nGer. Schiller, John Frederic C, eminent historian and dramatist \n\nSchimmelpenninck, Mary A., \' Mem. Port Royal \' \n\nSchlegel, A. W. von, critic and essayist \n\n\xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 , Fred. C. W. von, critic and historian . \n\n\n\nGer. \nGer. \nGer. \nGer. \nGer. \n\n\n\nSchliermacher, F. D. E., classical philologist and theologian \n\nBchlosser, M. S. F., historian \n\nSchmidt, Michael Ignatius, historian . . . \n\nAmer, Schofleld, major-general and governor Virginia . \n\nGer. Sclioll, historian ..... \n\n\n\nBOKR. \n\n\nDilfii \n\n\n1588 \n\n\n1653 \n\n\n1795 \n\n\n1856 \n\n\n1771 \n\n\n1839 \n\n\nb. 0. 12th Cent. \n\n\nB. c. 11th \n\n\nCent. \n\n\nf. B. C \n\n\n. 760 \n\n\n1804 \n\n\n\n\n1785 \n\n\n. 1844 \n\n\n1790 \n\n\n1832 \n\n\n1623 \n\n\n1672 \n\n\n1600 \n\n\n1667 \n\n\n1798 \n\n\n\n\n3. 606 \n\n\n\n\nB. 0. \n\n\n876 S \n\n\n1522 \n\n\n1623 \n\n\nB. C \n\n\n. 1055 \n\n\n1807 \n\n\n\n\n1757 \n\n\n1836 \n\n\n1677 \n\n\n1730 \n\n\n1740 \n\n\n1799 \n\n\n1767 \n\n\n1845 \n\n\n1697 \n\n\n1743 \n\n\n1750 \n\n\n1788 \n\n\n1779 \n\n\n1861 \n\n\n1452 \n\n\n1498 \n\n\n.1696 \n\n\n1750 \n\n\n1600 \n\n\n1639 \n\n\n1134 \n\n\n1208 \n\n\n1794 \n\n\n\n\n1767 \n\n\n1832 \n\n\n1787 \n\n\n1824 \n\n\n1540 \n\n\n1609 \n\n\n1484 \n\n\n1558 \n\n\nr 1404 \n\n\n1467 \n\n\n1540 \n\n\n1600 \n\n\n1769 \n\n\n1844 \n\n\n1610 \n\n\n1660 \n\n\n1764 \n\n\n\n\n1742 \n\n\n1786 \n\n\n1766 \n\n\n1839 \n\n\n1775 \n\n\n1854 \n\n\n1773 \n\n\n1809 \n\n\n1769 \n\n\n1805 \n\n\n1778 \n\n\n1856 \n\n\n1767 \n\n\n1845 \n\n\n1172 \n\n\n1829 \n\n\n17ii8 \n\n\n183-1 \n\n\n1776 \n\n\n18G \n\n\n1736 \n\n\n179, \n\n\n\n1706 \n\n\n\n1831 \n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. \n\n\n\n147 \n\n\n\nHATiOB NAME AND PROFESSION. B0BN. DIED \n\nDutch, bchoniberg, Armand Frederick, warrior . . . 1619 169C \n\nGer. Schomburgk, Sir Robert H., naturalist and traveller . 1801 186i \n\nAmer. Schoolcraft, Henry R., traveller and historian of the Indians 1793 1864 \n\nGer. Schopenhauer, J. F., novelist .... 1770 1833 \n\nDutoh. Schrevelius, Cornelius, lexicographer . . . 1615 1667 \n\nGer. Schullembourg, John Matthias, warrior . . . 1661 1747 \n\nDutch. Schumacher, H. C, astronomer .... 1780 185C \n\nGer. Schu^z, C. G., critic and litterateur .... 1747 \n\nAmer. Sohuyler, Philip, general officer in Revolution . . 1731 1804 \n\nGer. Schwartzenberg, Chas. Ph., prince, general . . . 1771 1820 \n\nGer. , prince F., premier of Austria . . 1800 1852 \n\nGer. Scioppius, Gaspar, philologist and grammarian . . 1576 1649 \n\nRom. Scipio, jEmilianus Publius, able warrior, (minor) . b. 0. 128 \n\nRom. , Publius Cornelius, surnamed Africanus, able warrior, (major) B.C. 189 \n\nScot. Scott, Michael, philosopher, supposed magician . . 1291 \n\nEng. , Thomas, divine and bible commentator , . . 1747 1821 \n\nScot. , Sir "Walter, one of the most eminent, voluminous and popular \n\nwriters of modern times .... 1771 1832 \n\nAmer. , "Winfield, lieutenant general commander-in-chief U. 8. army 1786 1866 \n\nFr. Scribe, Eugene, dramatist .... 1791 1861 \n\nFt. Sebastian, count Horate, marshal of France, statesman . 1775 1851 \n\nEng. Seeker, Thomas, eminent prelate . . . 1693 1768 \n\nDutch. Secundus, John, Latin poet . ; 1511 1536 \n\nAmer. Sedgewick, Catharine M., Miss, novelist and philanthropist 1790 1867 \n\nAmer. , John, (of Conn.) Union general . . 1815 1864 \n\nAmer. , Theodore, statesman and political economist . 1780 1839 \n\nAmer. , Theodore, (son) lawyer and writer . . 1811 1859 \n\nEng. Sedley, Sir Charles, poet .... 1639 1701 \n\nFr. Segur, count Louis de, diplomatist and writer . . 1753 1830 \n\nEng. Selden, John, antiquary and historian . . . % 1584 1654 \n\nScot. Selkirk, Alexander, seaman and adventurer t . 1723 \n\nScot. Selwyn, George Augustus, (Life by Jesse) \n\nChald. Semiramis, queen of Assyria . . , f. b. 0. 1250 \n\nRom. Seneca, Lucius Annasus, philosopher, statesman and moralist b. c. 2 65 \n\nEng. Sen:or, Nassau W., political economist . . . 1790 1S64 \n\nGer. Sennefelder, Aloys, of Munich, inventor of lithography . 1771 1884 \n\nSpan. Sepulveda, John Ginez de, historian . . . 1490 1572 \n\nAmer. Sergeant, John, jurist and statesman . . . 1779 1852 \n\nRom. Sertorus, Quintus, warrior and naval commander . . b. 0. 73 \n\nSpan. Servetus, Michael, polemical writer against Calvin . 1509 1553 \n\nEgypt, Sesostris, king of Egypt . . . . f. b. c. 1500 \n\nFr. S6vigne, Mary de, marchioness of, epistolary writer . 1627 1696 \n\nEng. Seward, Anna, poetess, (Letters) . . . 1747 i$09 \n\nAmer. , William H., statesman, U. S. senator from N. Y., sec of state 1801 \n\nEag. Shadwell, T., poet laureate .... 1640 1692 \n\nEng. Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, earl of, statesman . 1621 1683 \n\nEng. , Anthony A. Cooper, 3d earl, \'Characteristics\' 1671 1713 \n\nEng. Shakespeare, John, orientalist .... 1774 1858 \n\nEng. , William, the greatest of dramatic poets . 1564 1616 \n\nEng. Sharp, Granrille, philanthropist . . . 1734 1813 \n\nScot. , James, archt. St. Andrews, assassinated . . 1618 1671) \n\nKng. Shaw, George, naturalist ... . 1741 181? \n\n\n\n148 \n\n\n\nTHE WORLDS PROGRESS. \n\n\n\nBUTIOM. NAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nAmer. Shays, Daniel, leader in Shay\'s rebellion . . \n\nAmer. Shedd, "W. G., D. D., theologian, historian, and critio \n\nEng. Sheepshanks, John, founder of picture gallery . , \n\nEng. Shelley, Mary W. widow of P. B., the poet, novelist . \n\nEng. , Percy Bysshe, eminent poet and atheist . . \n\nEng. Shenstone, William, poet .... \n\nAmer. Sheridan, Philip H. general, and governor military department \n\nEng. , Richard Brinsley, dramatist and orator \n\nEng. , Thomas, actor, and author . . \n\nEng. Sherlock, Thomas, bishop of London . . \n\nAmer. Sherman, Roger, patriot and self-taught statesman . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nAmer. , John, U. S senator from Ohio ... \n\nAmer. , William T., general . . . \n\nEng. Sherwood Mrs., novelist .... \n\nIrish. Shiel, Richard Lalor, statesman and dramatist . . \n\nEng. Shirley, James, dramatist . . . \n\nEng. Shovel, Sir Cloudesley, able naval officer . . \n\nAmer. Shubrick, John Templar, naval officer . . \n\nAmer. , William B., rear admiral . . . \n\nEng. Shuckford, Rev. Samuel, \' Connect. Old and New Tesament\' \n\nEng. Sibbes, Richard, theologian, \' Bruised Reed \' \n\nEng. Siddons, Sarah, the most eminent of tragic actresses \n\nEng. Sid mouth, viscount, (H. Addington) statesman . \n\nEng. Sidney, Algernon, martyr of liberty and author . , \n\nEng. , Sir Philip, accomplished officer and author . \n\nGer. Siebold, Ph. F. Von, naturalist and botanist . . \n\nAmer. Sigel, Franz, general in Union army, war 1861-66 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nAmer. Sigourney, Lydia H., poet and essayist . . . \n\nAmer. Silliman, Benjamin, chemist and geologist . . \n\nAmer. , Benjamin (son), chemist and geologist . \n\nEng. Simeon, Rev. Charles, theological writer and editor \xe2\x96\xa0 \n\n, Simon Stylites, Syrian Ascetic \n\nAmer. Simms, William Gilmore, novelist and poet . . \n\nGr. Simonides, of Amorgus, Iambic poet . . \n\nGr. , of Eos, lyric poet .... \n\nScot. Simpson, Robert, mathematician . . . \n\nEng. , Thomas, " ... \n\nEng. Sinclair, Catharine, authoress . . . \n\nHind. Sing, M, rajah Runjeet, chief of Lahore and Cashmere ." \n\nSwiss. Sismondi, J. C. L., historian \n\nEng. Skelton, Jolm, poft laureate to Henry VIII \n\nGer. Sleidan John Pbilipson, historian . . . \n\nEng. Sloane, Sir Hans, eminent naturalist \n\nScot. Smith, Adam, celebrated writer on morale and political eoonomy \n\nScot. , Alex, poet ..... \n\nEng. , Charlotte, poet .... \n\nAmer. , General Samuel, military commander and etatesman \n\nEng. , Horace, poet, * Rejected Addressee,\' dec. \n\nSng. , James, poet, " " . . \n\nEng. , John, * History Viginia\' . . \n\nEng. , John Pye, theological writer . . . \n\nliner. , Joseph, Mormon prophet . . . \n\n\n\nBORN. \n\n\nBBS \n\n\n1740 \n\n\n182J \n\n\n1787 \n\n\n1869 \n\n\n1798 \n\n\n1851 \n\n\n1792 \n\n\n1822 \n\n\n1714 \n\n\n1763 \n\n\n1751 \n\n\n1816 \n\n\n1722 \n\n\n1788 \n\n\n1678 \n\n\n1761 \n\n\n1721 \n\n\n1793 \n\n\n1775 \n\n\n1862 \n\n\n1792 \n\n\n1851 \n\n\n1594 \n\n\n1666 \n\n\n1650 \n\n\n1705 \n\n\n1778 \n\n\n1815 \n\n\n\n\n1754 \n\n\n1577 \n\n\n1636 \n\n\n1755 \n\n\n1831 \n\n\n1757 \n\n\n1844 \n\n\n1620 \n\n\n1683 \n\n\n1554 \n\n\n1586 \n\n\n1796 \n\n\n\n\n1824 \n\n\n\n\n1791 \n\n\n1865 \n\n\n1779 \n\n\n1864 \n\n\n1759 \n\n\n1836 \n\n\n392? \n\n\n461? \n\n\n1806 \n\n\n\n\nB. 0. 660 p \n\n\n\n\n550? \n\n\n\n\n1687 \n\n\n1768 \n\n\n1710 \n\n\n1761 \n\n\n1800 \n\n\n1864 \n\n\n1779 \n\n\n1839 \n\n\n1773 \n\n\n1842 \n\n\n1450 p \n\n\n1529 \n\n\n1506 \n\n\n1556 \n\n\n1660 \n\n\n1752 \n\n\ny 1723 \n\n\n1790 \n\n\n1830 \n\n\n\n\n1749 \n\n\n1808 \n\n\n1752 \n\n\n1839 \n\n\n1779 \n\n\n1849 \n\n\n1775 \n\n\n183\xc2\xbb \n\n\n1679 \n\n\n1031 \n\n\n1774 \n\n\n1851 \n\n\n1806 \n\n\n1844 \n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. \n\n\n\n149 \n\n\n\nNATION. ,\xc2\xbbAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nEng. Smith, Rev. Sidney, essayist, critic and moralist . . \n\nEng. , Sir James E., botanist and naturalist . , \n\nEng. , Sir William Sidney, military commander . \n\nEng. , T. South-worth, writer on sanitary reform \n\nEng. , William, classical scholar and author \n\n,Eng. Smithson, James, founder of the Smithsonian Institute (U S.) \n\nScot. Smollett, Dr. Tobias, novelist and historian \n\nEng. Smyth, Wm., Pr. of History at Cambridge, author, lecturer \n\nEng. , Wm. Henry, admiral, scientific writer . . \n\nEng. Soane. Sir John, architect and virtuoso \n\nPol. Sobieski, John III., king of Poland, warrior . . \n\nItal. Socinus, Paustus, founder of the Socinian sect . \n\nGr. Socrates, one of the greatest of ancient philosophers \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nGr. , ecclesiastical historian . . . \n\nSpan. Solis, Antonio de, historian of Mexico . . . \n\nHeb. Solomon, king of Israel and author of Proverbs . \n\nGr. Solon, the illustrious legislator of Athens . . . \n\nEng. Somers, Lord John, chancellor and political writer \n\nEng. Somerville, Mrs. Mary, astronomer . . . \n\nEng. , Wm., poet, \'The Chase\' . \n\nGer. Sontag, Henrietta, countess de Rossi, vocalist . . \n\nGr. Sophocles, eminent tragic poet \n\nFt. Sorbonne, R. de, theologian, founder of the 8. College at Paris. \n\nAmer. Soule, Pierre, TJ. S. senator from Louisiana, and diplomatist \n\nFt. Souli6, Frederick, novelist and dramatist . \n\nBoulouqne, Faustin, ex-emperor of Hayti \n\nFr. Soult, Nicholas J. de D., duke of Dalmatia, marshal of France \n\nand statesman .... \n\nEng. South, Robert, eminent divine \n\nAmer. Southard, Samuel L., sec. navy, and senator U. 8., N. Y. \n\nEng. Southcott, Joanna, fanatic, (her sect not yet extinct) \n\nEng. Southerne, J., dramatic writer and poet \n\nEng. Southey, Mrs. Robt., (Caroline Bowles), poet . . \n\nEng. , Robert, poet, historian, biographer . \n\nFr. Souvestre, Emile, essayist .... \n\nFr. Soyer, Alexis, famous cook and writer on Cookery . \n\nGr. Sozomen, ecclesiastical historian . . . \n\nAmer. Sparks, Jared, historian and biographer \n\nEng. Speke, Capt. John H., explorer, discov. source of Nile . \n\nEng. Spelman, Sir Henry, historian and antiquary . \n\nEng. Spence, "Wm., entomologist .... \n\nAmer. Spencer, Ambrose, chief-justice of New York \n\nEng. , earl of, statesman .... \n\nAmer. , John C, jurist and seo. navy . , \n\nEng. , Wm. R., translator .... \n\nEng. Spenser, Edmund, eminent poet . . \xc2\xab \n\nSpan. Spinola, Ambrose, marquis de, warrior . \n\nDutch. Spinoza, Bened., metaphysician, (atheistt) . . \n\nGer. Spohr, Louis, musical composer . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nAmer. Spooner, Shearjashub, (Diet 0/ Painters) . . \n\nGer. Sprengel, Kent, botanist .... \n\nEng. Spurgeon, Rev. Charles, popular Baptist clergyman \n\n\n\nBORN. \n\n\nDIED, \n\n\n1768 \n\n\n1841 \n\n\n1759 \n\n\n1828 \n\n\n1764 \n\n\n1840 \n\n\n1790 \n\n\n1861 \n\n\n1814 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1835 \n\n\n1721 \n\n\n1771 \n\n\n1764 \n\n\n1849 \n\n\n1788 \n\n\n1865 \n\n\n1753 \n\n\n183T \n\n\n1629 \n\n\n1698 \n\n\n1539 \n\n\n1594 \n\n\nB. c. 470 s \n\n\nc.400 \n\n\n. 5th cent \n\n\n, A. D \n\n\n1610 \n\n\n1686 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 B. \n\n\n0. 975 \n\n\nf. B. \n\n\nc. 598 \n\n\n1650 \n\n\n1716 \n\n\n1790 \n\n\n\n\n1692 \n\n\n1743 \n\n\n1804 \n\n\n1854 \n\n\nB. 0. 495 B. \n\n\nO.404 \n\n\n1201 \n\n\n1274 \n\n\n1800 \n\n\n1847 \n\n\n1788 \n\n\n\n\n1769 \n\n\n1851 \n\n\n1638 \n\n\n1716 \n\n\n1787 \n\n\n1842 \n\n\n1750 \n\n\n1814 \n\n\n1662 \n\n\n1746 \n\n\n1787 \n\n\n1854 \n\n\n1775 \n\n\n1843 \n\n\n1806 \n\n\n1854 \n\n\n1800 \n\n\n1S58 \n\n\n\n\n450 \n\n\nabt.) 1794 \n\n\n1866 \n\n\n1827 \n\n\n1864 \n\n\n1561 \n\n\n1643 \n\n\n1783 \n\n\n1860 \n\n\n1765 \n\n\n1848 \n\n\n1758 \n\n\n1835 \n\n\n1788 \n\n\n1855 \n\n\n1770 \n\n\n1834 \n\n\n1553 \n\n\n1598 \n\n\n. 1571 \n\n\n1630 \n\n\n1633 \n\n\n1677 \n\n\n1788 \n\n\n\n\n1786 \n\n\n1888 \n\n\n1884 \n\n\n\n\n\n150 THE WORLD\'S PROGRESS. \n\nNATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. \xc2\xbb \n\nGer. Spnrzheim, Dr., celebrated phrenologist, (died at Boston) \n\nAmer. Sprague, Charles, poet \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nAmer. , Wm. B., D. D., Presbyterian clergyman and historian . \n\nAmer. Squier, E. Geo., traveller and antiquary \n\nEiig. Stackhouse, Thomas, divine and author, \' Hist Bible * . \n\nFr. Stael-Holstein, Anne L. G., baroness de, authoress \n\nFr. , Madame, talented writer .... \n\nEng. Standish, Miles, military leader Pilgrims in N. E . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nEng Stanfleld, Clarkson, marine painter \xe2\x80\xa2 . \n\nEng. Stanhope, Charles, earl, politician and inventor \n\nEng. Stanhope, Lady Esther, eccentric traveller \n\nEng. , Phil., Hon., earl of, known as Lord Mahon, historian \n\nAmer. Stanton, Edwin M., secretary of war .... \n\nAmer. Stark, John, distinguished officer in the Revolution \n\nRom. Statins, Publius Pepinus, poet . . . . \n\nEng. Staunton, Sir Geo. L. \' Embassy to China \' . . . \n\nIrish. Steele, Sir Richard, essayist and dramatist \n\nEng. Steevens, Geo., \'Comment, on Shakespeare\' ,. \n\nEng. Stephen, Henry, Prof. Hist., statesman and author \n\nFr. Stephens, Anthony, Charles, Robert and Henry, printers \n\nAmer. , John L., traveller and author . . . \n\nEng. Stephenson, George, engineer .... \n\nEng. .Robert, " \n\nScot. Sterling, Wm., M. P., bibliographer and critic . . \n\nGer. Sternberg, Alex., baron von, miscellaneous author . . \n\nIrish. Sterne, Lawrence, miscellaneous writer \n\nEng. Sternhold, Thos., versifier of Psalms .... \n\nPruss. Steuben, Fred. W. A , baron, who generously aided the American \n\ncause ...... \n\nAmer. Stevens, Robt. Livingston, inventor . . ....-\'. \n\nAmer. Stevenson, Andrew, of Va., minister to England \n\nAmer. Stewart, Charles S., Rev., chaplain in the U. S. Navy and author \n\nScot. , Dugald, eminent philosopher and writer \n\nAmer. Stilus, Ezra, theologian and historian \n\nEng. Stillingfleet, Dr. E., bishop of Worcester and author \n\nAmer. Stone, Wm. L., historian of \' Six Nations,\' \' Brandt,\' and \' Red \n\nJacket\' ..... \n\nRuss. Storch, Henry F., political economist . \n\nAmer. Story, Joseph, jurist and writer on jurisprudence . \n\nEng. Stow, John, antiquary and historian . \n\nAmer. Stowe, Calvin E., biblical critic . . \n\nAmer. , Harriet Beecher, Mrs., novelist . \n\nEng. Stowell, lord, jurist .... \n\nGr. Strabo, eminent geographer . \n\nEng. Strafford, Thomas Wentworth, earl of, statesman . \n\nEng. Stratford de Redcliffe, viscount, diplomatist \n\nGer. Strauss, Dav. Fred., author of sceptical \' Life of Jesus\' \n\nGer. , Ger. Fred. Alb., prof, of theology and author \n\nEng. Strickland, Agnes, historian of \' Queens of England\' \n\nEng. Stryp", John, theologian, biographer and historian \n\nBuss. Struve, Fred. Geo. "Wm., astronomer . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nScot. Stuart, Gilbert, historian \n\n\n\nBORN. \n\n\n3113 \n\n\n1778 \n\n\n1881 \n\n\n1791 \n\n\n\n\n1795 \n\n\n\n\n1820 \n\n\n\n\n1680 \n\n\n175 J \n\n\n1766 \n\n\n1817 \n\n\n1693 \n\n\n1750 \n\n\n1584 ? \n\n\n1656 \n\n\n1798 \n\n\n1867 \n\n\n1753 \n\n\n1816 \n\n\n1776 \n\n\n1839 \n\n\n1805 \n\n\n\n\n1728 \n\n\n1822 \n\n\n61? \n\n\n96? \n\n\n1737 \n\n\n1801 \n\n\n1671 \n\n\n1729 \n\n\n1736 \n\n\n1800 \n\n\n1789 \n\n\n1859 \n\n\n16th \n\n\ncent. \n\n\n1805 \n\n\n1>52 \n\n\n1788 \n\n\n1848 \n\n\n1803 \n\n\n1859 \n\n\n1806 \n\n\n1S44 \n\n\n1806 \n\n\n\n\n1713 \n\n\n1768 \n\n\n\n\n1549 \n\n\n\n\n1794 \n\n\n1749 \n\n\n1838 \n\n\n1784 \n\n\n1857 \n\n\n1798 \n\n\n\n\n1753 \n\n\n1828 \n\n\n1727 \n\n\n1795 \n\n\n1633 \n\n\n1699 \n\n\n1793 \n\n\n1844 \n\n\n1766 \n\n\n1835 \n\n\n1779 \n\n\n1845 \n\n\n1525 \n\n\n1605 \n\n\n1814 \n\n\n\n\n1746 \n\n\n1839 \n\n\n19 \n\n\n\n\n1593 \n\n\n1641 \n\n\n1788 \n\n\n\n\n1808 \n\n\n\n\n1786 \n\n\n\n\n1806 \n\n\n\n\n1643 \n\n\n17ST \n\n\n1793 \n\n\n1864 \n\n\n1742 \n\n\n178f \n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. \n\n\n\n151 \n\n\n\nRATIO NAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nEng. 8fc art, James, architect and author . . \n\nAmer. , James E. B., Confederate general , \n\nAmer. , Moses, theologian and philologist . . \n\nEng. Sturge, Joseph, philanthropist . . . \n\nGer. Sturm, Christopher C, theol. writer, \' Reflections,\' &c. \nDutch-Amer. Stuyvesant, Peter, last Dutch gov. N. Netherlands \n\n\n\nFr. \n\nEng. \n\nFr. \n\nRom. \xe2\x96\xa0 \n\nRom. \n\nDan. \n\nGr. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nFr. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nVng. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nRuss. \n\n\n\nSuchet, Louis Gabriel, celebrated marshal . , \n\nSuckling, Sir John, poet and dramatist . \n\nSue, Eugene, novelist .... \nSuetonius, Paulinus, warrior . . , \n\n, Tranquillus Caius, historian a , \n\nSuhm, Peter Fred., eminent historian . \n\nSuidas, Greek lexicographer . . , \n\nSullivan, Jas., gov. Mass., political writer \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n, John, revolutionary general . , \n\n, Wm. LL. D., political writer \n\nSully, Maximilian de Bethune, duke of warrior and statesman \n\n, Thomas, portrait painter \n\nSummerfield, John, eloquent Methodist preacher \n\nSumner, Charles, U. S. sen. from Mass., orator and philanthropist \n\nEdwin Vose, Union general . \n\nJohn Bird, archbishop of Canterbury and author \n\n\n\nBORN. \n\n\nDIED. \n\n\n1713 \n\n\n178S \n\n\n1832 ? \n\n\n1864 \n\n\n. 1780 \n\n\n1861 \n\n\n. \n\n\n185S \n\n\n1740 \n\n\n1786 \n\n\n1602 \n\n\n1682 \n\n\n1772 \n\n\n1826 \n\n\n1613 \n\n\n1641 \n\n\n. 1808 \n\n\n1857 \n\n\n37 \n\n\n\n\nt 100 \n\n\n\n\n1728 \n\n\n1798 \n\n\nt abt 1000 \n\n\n\n\n1744 \n\n\n180& \n\n\n1740 \n\n\n1795 \n\n\n1774 \n\n\n1839 \n\n\nin 1560 \n\n\n1641 \n\n\n1783 \n\n\n\n\n1798 \n\n\n1826 \n\n\nopist 1811 \n\n\n\n\n1796 \n\n\n1863 \n\n\n1780 \n\n\n1862 \n\n\n1734 \n\n\n1832 \n\n\n. 1641 \n\n\n1702 \n\n\n1515 \n\n\n1547 \n\n\n1779 \n\n\n1834 \n\n\n1773 \n\n\n1843 \n\n\n1755 \n\n\n1828 \n\n\n\nSumter, Thomas, Revolutionary gen. of S. C. \n\nSunderland, Robt. Spencer, 2d earl, statesman ., \n\nSurrey, Henry Howard, earl of, poet \n\nSurtees, Robt., antiquary aud poet . , \n\nSussex, Aug. Fred., duke of, son of Geo. IIL . \n\nSutton, Chas. Manners, arch, of Canterbury . \n\nSuvaroff, or Suwarow, prince Alexander, celebrated and cruel war- \nrior . . . . . . . 1730 \n\nEng. Swain, Charles, poet . \xe2\x80\xa2 . . . . 1803 \n\nDutch. Swammerdam, John, naturalist and anatomist . . \n\nSwe. Swedenborg, Emanuel, founder of a sect . \nIrish. Swift, Jonathan, celebrated satirist , , , \n\nEng. Swinburne, Algernon, poet . . . \n\nAmer. Swinton, Wm., critic and historian, \' Army of Potomac\' \nEng. Sydenham, C. W- Poulett, lord, gov. gen. of Canada, &c \nRom. Sylla, Lucius Cornelius, warrior and b rutal usurper . \nEng. Syms, Michael Col., \' Embassy to A va\' , . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nAfric. Syphax, Numidian prince .... \n\n\n\nRom. Tacitus, Caius Cornelius, eminent historian . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nRom. , Marcus Claudius, emperor . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nSwe. Taglioni, Marie, dansuese . . . \n\nEng. Talbot, Jno., 1st earl of Shrewsbury, gen. in France . \n\nAmer. , Silas, mil. and naval officer in Revolution . \n\nEng. Talfourd, Thomas Noon, jurist, dramatist, and essayist \n\nFt. Talleyrand, prince, statesman, and diplomatist \n\nEng. Tallis, Thos., musical composer . . . \n\nAmer. Tallmadge, Benj., RevoL officer . . . \n\nWr. Talma, Fr\xc2\xb0icis Joseph, one of the greatest of actors . \n\n\n\n1800 \n\n\n\n1637 \n\n\n1681 \n\n\n1689 \n\n\n1772 \n\n\n1667 \n\n\n1745 \n\n\n1793 \n\n\n1841 \n\n\n. 137 b. \n\n\n0. 78 \n\n\n\n\n1809 \n\n\nB. \n\n\n0. 201 \n\n\n56 \n\n\n185 \n\n\n200 ? \n\n\n276 \n\n\n1804 \n\n\n\n\n1373 \n\n\n1463 \n\n\n1750 \n\n\n1813 \n\n\n1795 \n\n\n1854 \n\n\n1754 \n\n\n183$ \n\n\n1529 \n\n\n1588 \n\n\n1754 \n\n\n1836 \n\n\n1768 \n\n\n182\xc2\xab \n\n\n\n!52 \n\n\n\nTHE WORLD\'S PROGRESS. \n\n\n\nNATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nTartar. Tamerlane, Timur Beg or Timoor, celebrated Tartar prince \nand conqueror . ... \n\nAmer. Taney, Roger B., chief-justice U. S. . \n\nScot. Tannahill, Robt., poet .... \n\nSpan. Tapia, Eugenio, miscellaneous writer \n\nEng. Tarleton, Bannastre, royalist officer in America . \n\nItal. Tasso, Bernardo, poet, author of Amadis de Gaul \n\nItaL , Torquato, one of the greatest of Italian poets \n\nGer. Tauchnitz, Bernard, publisher at Leipsic \n\nGer. , Karl, eminent publisher at Leipsic . \n\nAmer. Taylor, Bayard, traveller, poet, and lecturer . \n\nEng. , Isaac, essayist . . . \n\nEng. , Jeremy, prelate and eloquent writer \n\nEng. , John, \' the Water Poet \' . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nEng. , Sir Robert, sculptor and architeo\'t \n\nEng. , Thomas, editor of Plato and other classics . \n\nEng. , Tom, dramatist . . \n\nEng. , Wm., miscellaneous writer. \n\nAmer. , Zachary, major-general U. 8. Army, victor in Mexico \n\npres. U. S. . \n\nTecumseh, Indian chief (k. at Tippecanoe) \n\nEng. Telford, Thomas, civil engineer . \n\nSwiss. Tell, William, one of the champions of Swiss liberty \n\nEng. Temple, Sir "William, statesman and writer \n\nAmer. Tennent, Gilbert, clergyman and writer \n\nAmer. , Rev. Wm., famous for \' France\' \'. \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nEng. , Sir Jas. Emerson, statesman and writer \n\nGer. Tennyman, William T., \' Hist, of Philosophy\' . \n\nEng. Tennysou, Alfted, poet laureate \n\nEng. Tenterden, Chas. Abbott, lord, jurist, chief-justice K. B \n\nRom. Terence, or Terrentius, comic writer . \n\nTertullian, Q. S. P., one of the most learned of the Fathers of \nthe Church ..... \n\nAmer.. Terry, Alfred H, of Ct., Union general, victor at Fort Fisher . \n\nEng. Thackeray, Wm. Makepeace, writer and essayist . . \n\nGer. Thaer, Albert, writer on agriculture .... \n\nGer. Thalberg, Sigismund, pianist .... \n\nGer. Thales, one of the seven sages, founder of the Tonic school of \nPhilosophy ..... b. \n\nGr. Themistocles, eminent Athenian . . . . b. \n\nFr. Thenard, chemist and statesman \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nGr. Theocritus, pastoral poet . . . . . f. b. \n\nEng. Theobald, Lewis, comment, on Shakspeare . \xe2\x96\xa0 . . \n\nGr. Theodoret, ecclesiastical historian . . . \n\nRom. Theodosius, Flavi us, Roman emperor and warrior . \n\nGr. Theophrastus, celebrated philosopher . . B. \n\nSpan. Theresa, St., Carmelite nun and mystical writer . \n\nEng. Thesiger, Sir Fred., attorney-general of England . . \n\nGr. Thespis, poet, said to be the inventor of tragedy . b. \n\nFr. Thibaudeau, A. C, count, historian .... \n\nFt. Thierry, Jas. Nich. Augustine, historian ... \n\nFr. , Amedee S. D., historian .... \n\n\n\n1777 \n\n\n1864 \n\n\n1774 \n\n\n1810 \n\n\n1754 \n\n\n1833 \n\n\n1493 \n\n\n1569 \n\n\n1544 \n\n\n159\xc2\xa3 \n\n\n\n\n1836 \n\n\n1825 \n\n\n\n\n1787 \n\n\n1865 \n\n\n1613 \n\n\n1667 \n\n\n1580 \n\n\n1654 \n\n\n1714 \n\n\n1788 \n\n\n1758 \n\n\n1835 \n\n\n1817 \n\n\n\n\n1800 \n\n\n1S49 \n\n\n1784 \n\n\n1850 \n\n\n\n\n1813 \n\n\n1757 \n\n\n1S34 \n\n\n\n\n1354 \n\n\n1628 \n\n\n1698 \n\n\n1703 \n\n\n1764 \n\n\n1705 \n\n\n1777 \n\n\n1804 \n\n\n\n\n1761 \n\n\n1819 \n\n\n1810 \n\n\n\n\n1762 \n\n\n1S32 \n\n\n0. 192 \n\n\n\n\n\n1811 \n\n\n1S63 \n\n\n1752 \n\n\n1828 \n\n\n1812 \n\n\n\n\n0. 639 b. \n\n\n0. 543 \n\n\n0. 535 b. \n\n\n0. 470 \n\n\n0. 285 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1744 \n\n\n386 \n\n\n457 \n\n\n346 \n\n\n39! \n\n\no. 371 \n\n\n\n\n1515 \n\n\n1583 \n\n\n1794 \n\n\n\n\no. 576 \n\n\n\n\n1795 \n\n\n18M \n\n\n1787 \n\n\n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. \n\n\n\nJ 53 \n\n\n\ntfATlOH. \n\nFr. \nGer. \n\nGer. \nGer. \n\nAmer. \n\nScot. \n\nAmer. \n\nScot. \n\nScot. \n\nAmer. \n\nDan. \n\nGr. \n\nGr. \n\nEng. \n\nBom. \n\nEom. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nGer. \n\nEng. \n\nGer. \nGr. \n\nTart \n\nHind. \n\nSwiss. \n\nRom. \n\nEng. \n\nFY. \n\nEng. \n\nRuss. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nIrish. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nSpan. \n\nIrish. \n\nAmer. \n\n\n\nNAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nThiers, .Adolphe, historian and statesman . , \n\nThiersch, F. W., Greek philologist, &c. . . \n\nThirwall, Dr. Conop, bishop of St. David\'s, historian \nTholuck, Fred. Aug., theologian \nThompson, Benj. See Rumford . \n\n, Col. Thos. Peyronnet, political reformer and author \n\nThomson, Anthony T., medical and misc. writer \n\n, Chas., president of Congress . . \n\n, Dr. Thomas, chemist ... \n\n\n\nAmer. \nAmer. \n\nEng. \nFr. \n\nEng. \nRom. \n\n\n\n, James, popular poet \n\nThoreau, Henry D., naturalist, geologist and essayist . \n\nThorwaldsen, Albert, sculptor \n\nThrasybulus, Athenian general \n\nThucydides, historian .... \n\nThurlow, Edward, lord, lord chancellor . . \n\nTiberius, Claudius Drusus Nero, warrior and emperor \n\nTibullus, Aulus Albius, elegiac poet . . . \n\nTiekell, Thomas, poet *nd essayist in Spectator . \n\nTicknor, George, historian of Spanish literature \n\nTieck, Ludwig, poet and essayist . \n\nTighe, Mrs. Mary, poetess, \' Psyche\' . . . \n\nTillotson. John, eminent prelate and archb. Canterbury \n\nTilly, John F, count de, military commander. . \n\nTimoleon, of Corinth, liberator of Syracuse \n\nTimour Beg. See Tamerlane . . . \n\nTippoo-Saib, sultan of Mysore, Indian warrior . \n\nTissot, Simon A., medical writer \n\nTitus, Sabinus Vespasianus Flavius, emperor, father of his people \n\nTobin, John, dramatist, \' Honey Moon \' \n\nTocqueville, Alexis de, publicist and statesman . \n\nTodd, Robt B., * Medical Cyclopasdia \' &c. \n\nTodleben, Fr. Edw., gen. of engineers . . \n\nTomline, Geo., prelate and writer, bishop of "Winchester \n\nTompkins, Daniel D., vice-pres. U. S. \n\nTone, Theobald Wolfe, gen. in Irish rebellion \n\nTooke, John Home, politician and philologist . . \n\n, Tho?., \' History of Prices\' . . \n\n, Win., miscellaneous writer . . . \n\nToplady, Augustus M, eminent divine . . \n\nTorquemada, Thos. de, Inquisitor general . . \n\nTorrens, colonel, novelist and political economist \n\nTorrey, John, botanist and chemist . . . \n\nTorricelli, Evangelista, mathematician, inv. of barometer \n\nTotila, king of the Ostrogoths, captor of Rome . \n\nTotten, Joseph G, military engineer \n\nTouro, Judah, Hebrew philanthropist . . \n\nToussaint l\'Ouverture, negro, pres. of Hayti \n\nTownsend, Geo., prebendary, \' Comment on Bible * \n\nTracy, A L. C. Destutt, comte de, writer on Education and Phi \n\nlosophy ..... \nTraill, Thos. J., editor \' Encyclo. Britannica \' . , \n\nTrajan, Marcus U. C, able emperor and warrior . \n\n\n\nBORN \n\n\nBiXD \n\n\n1798 \n\n\n\n\n1784 \n\n\n1860 \n\n\n1797 \n\n\n\n\n1799 \n\n\n\n\nr 1783 \n\n\n\n\n1778 \n\n\n1848 \n\n\n1729 \n\n\n1824 \n\n\n. 1773 \n\n\n1852 \n\n\n1700 \n\n\n1748 \n\n\n1817 \n\n\n1862 \n\n\n1771 \n\n\n1844 \n\n\nB. \n\n\n0. 389 \n\n\nB. 0. 469 B \n\n\no. 400 \n\n\n1732 \n\n\n1806 \n\n\nb. c. 84 \n\n\n37 \n\n\nb. c. 30 \n\n\n\n\n1686 \n\n\n1740 \n\n\n1791 \n\n\n\n\n1773 \n\n\n1853 \n\n\n1774 \n\n\n1810 \n\n\n1630 \n\n\n1694 \n\n\n1559 \n\n\n1632 \n\n\nB. \n\n\n0. 337 \n\n\n1739 \n\n\n1799 \n\n\n1728 \n\n\n1797 \n\n\npie 40 \n\n\n81 \n\n\n1770 \n\n\n1804 \n\n\n1805 \n\n\n1859 \n\n\n1810 \n\n\n1866 \n\n\n1818 \n\n\n\n\n1750 \n\n\n1787 \n\n\n1774 \n\n\n1825 \n\n\n1763 \n\n\n1798 \n\n\n1736 \n\n\n1812 \n\n\n1774 \n\n\n1858 \n\n\n1744 \n\n\n1820 \n\n\n1740 \n\n\n1778 \n\n\n\n\n1498 \n\n\n1783 \n\n\n184f \n\n\n1608 \n\n\n1647 \n\n\n. \n\n\n352 \n\n\n1788 \n\n\n\n\n1776 \n\n\n1854 \n\n\n1745 \n\n\n180* \n\n\n[. \n\n\n1857 \n\n\n1754 \n\n\n1836 \n\n\n. 1781 \n\n\n1862 \n\n\n62 \n\n\n117 \n\n\n\n!54 \n\n\n\nTHE WORLD\'S PROGRESS. \n\n\n\nNATIUN. NAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nEng. Tredgold, Thos., civil engineer and author \n\nEng. Trench, Rev. Rich. Chenevix, poet, philologist and theologian \n\nGer. Trenck, Fred., baron de, celebrated for his adventures . \n\nEng. Trimmer, Mrs. Sarah, misc. writer . . \n\nFr Tristan, l\'Hermite, Francis, poet . . . \n\nEng. Trol lope, Mrs. Frances, novelist and traveller . \n\nDutch. Tromp, Martin H. van, celebrated admiral . , \n\nAmer. Trooet, Gerard, chemist and geologist \n\nAmer. Trumbun. Col. John, statesman and hist, painter . \n\nAmer. , Benj., historian of Connecticut . . \n\nAmer. , Jonathan, statesman, gov. Connecticut . \n\nAmer. , John, poet, born in Ct. \n\nEng. Truro, Thos., baron (Sir T. Wilde), ex-lord-chancellor . \nAmer. Trustor), Thos., naval commander . . \n\nEng. Tucker, Abraham, metaphysical writer \n\nAmer. , Beverley, lawyer and novelist . . \n\nAmer. Tuckerman, Henry T., critic and essayist . . \n\nAmer. , Jos., writer and philanthropist \n\nAmer. Tudor, Win., editor N. Amer. Rev. and biographer . \n\nEng. Tupper, Martin Farquhar, poet and essayist \nFr. Turenne, Viscount de, eminent warrior . . \n\nFr. Turgot, Anne Eobt. Jas., statesman . . \n\nEng. Turner, Dawson, botanist and antiquary . . \n\nEng. , Edward, \'Elements of Chemistry \' . \n\nAmer. , Samuel H., Rev., theologian and critic . \n\nEng. , Sharon, \'History of England\' .\' . \n\nAmer. , Wm. W., printer and philologist . \n\nTurretin, Benedict, theologian, (Prof, at Geneva) , \n\n, Francis, (son) " " " \n\n, John A. (son) " " " \n\nEng. Tusser, Thos., author of \' 500 points of Good Husbandry\' \nAmer. Twiggs, David E., rebel general . \n\nEng. Twining, Rev. Thos., translator of Aristotle . . \n\nAmer. Tyler, John, ex-pres. U. S., and rebel \n\nEng. Tyndaie, Wm., reformer and first translator of the Biblft /nto \nEnglish ..... \n\nAmer. Tyng, Stephen H., D. D., epis. divine and author . . \n\nEng. Tyrrell, James, historian .... \n\nGr. Tyrtasus, poet . . ... . f. \n\nScot. Tytler, Alex. Fraser, historical and misc. writer \n\ng co t. , Patrick Fraser, historian, \' Life Mary Queen of Scots\' \n\nB C0 t, , Wm., historical and misc. writer . . \n\n\n\nGer. Uhland, Ludwig, poet \n\nSpan. Ulloa, Don Anthony de, navigator and author . \n\nUncas, North American Indian chief (Mohegans) \n\nEng. Upcott, William, autograph collector and historian \n\nAmer. Upshur, Abel P., of Va., judge and secretary of state \n\nScot. Uie, Andrew, M. D., chemist and author . \n\nIrish. Usher, James, learned divine and historian \n\n\n\nBfrBN. \n\n1788 \n1807 \n1726 \n1741 \n1601 \n1778 \n1597 \n1776 \n1756 \n1735 \n1740 \n1750 \n1782 \n1755 \n1705 \n1784 \n\n1778 \n1778 \n1810 \n1611 \n\n1727 \n\n1798 \n1791 \n1768 \n1810 \n1588 \n1623 \n1671 \n1500 \n1790 \n1784 \n1790 \n\n1500 \n1800 \n1642 \n. D. 668 \n1747 \n1790 \n1711 \n\n\n\nDixit \n\n1829 \n\n1794 \n1810 \n1655 \n1863 \n1652 \n1850 \n1843 \n1820 \n1809 \n1831 \n1853 \n1822 \n1774 \n1851 \n\n1840 \n1830 \n\n1675 \n17S1 \n1858 \n1839 \n1861 \n1847 \n1859 \n1631 \n1687 \n1737 \n1536 \n1862 \n1804 \n1662 \n\n1536 \n\n1718 \n\n1813 \n\n1849 \n1792 \n\n\n\n1787 \n\n\n\n\n1716 \n\n\n17Bc \n\n\n1680 \n\n\n\n\n1779 \n\n\n1846 \n\n\n\n\n1844 \n\n\n1778 \n\n\n185^ \n\n\n1680 \n\n\n165\xc2\xab \n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. \n\n\n\n155 \n\n\n\nBATUMI. NAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nFr. Vailliant, Sebastia.!, eminent botanist . . \n\nDutoh. Valcknenaer, Louis Gaspar, able philologist and oritio . \n\nFt. Valdo, Peter, founder of the sect of Waldenses . \n\nValentia, George A., viscount, \' Voyages and Travels \' \n\nRom. Valerian, emperor .... \n\nRom. Valerius Flaccus, poet .... \n\nRom. Maximus, historian . . . \n\nItal. Valla, Laurence, eminent philologist . . \n\nAmer. Van Buren, Martin, president of the United States \n\nEng. Vancouver, George, navigator . . . \n\nEng. Vandenhoff, John, actor . . . \n\nAmer. Vanderlyn, John, historical painter . . . \n\nDutch. Van Diemen, Anthony, governor of India \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nAmer. Van Dorn, Earl, confederate general . , \n\nEng. Vane, Sir Henry, advocate of republicanism \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nAmer. Van Ness, Cornelius P., jurist and diplomatist . \n\nAmer. Van Rensselaer, Stephen, \' the Patroon \' . \n\nRom. Varro, Marcus T., the most learned of the Romans \n\nItal. Vasari, George, architect and biog., \xe2\x80\xa2 Lives of the Painters\' \n\nGer. Vater, John Severinus, eminent physiologist \n\nFr. Vattel, F. de, jurist, author of Law of Nations , \n\nFr. Vaughan, S. le P. de, marshal, military engineer \n\nEng. Vauban, Rev. Robert, D. D., \' dissenting\' divine and historian \n\nSpan. Vega, Garcilasso de, poet ... \n\nSpan. , Lopez de, dramatic poet \xe2\x96\xa0 . . \n\nFr. Velpeau, Alfred A. L. M., eminent surgeon . \n\nFr Vendome, Louis Joseph, duke of, warrior . . \n\nEng. Venn, Rev. Henry, \'Whole Duty of Man\' . \n\nItal. Verdi, Giuseppe, musical composer . . . \n\nEng. Vere, Sir Aubrey de, dramatic poet . . \n\nFr. Vernet, Horace, historical painter . . . \n\nEng. Vernon, Edward, admiral . . . \n\nEng. , Robert, founder of Vernon Gallery . \n\nFr. V6ron, Louis D6sire, author and journalist . \n\nAmer. Verplanck, Gulian C, scholar and critic \n\nFr. Vertot, Rene Hubert, abbe de, historian . . \n\nEng. Vertue, George, engraver and antiquary . . \n\nRom. Vespasian, Titus Flavius, warrior and emperor \n\nItal. Vespucius, Americus, navigator, whose name was unjustly given \n\nto the new world .... \n\nEng. Vestris, Madame (Mrs. Mathews), actress . \n\nItal. Victor Emanuel II., king of Italy . . . \n\nEng. Victoria Alexandrina, queen of Great Britain . \n\nEng. Vicars, Hedley H., capt. - . . . \n\nItal. Vida, Mark Jerome, Latin poet . . . \n\nFr. Vidocq, Eugene, French chief detective police . \n\nFr. Vieuxtemps, Henri, violinist . , , \n\nFr, Vigny, Alfred, count de, poet and critie . , \n\nFr. Villars, Louis Hecttr, duke of, able general \n\nSt. Villemain, Abel, Fr. politician and author , , \n\n\n\nBORN. \n\n\nDIES \n\n\n1660 \n\n\n1722 \n\n\n1715 \n\n\n1785 \n\n\nf. 12th cent. \n\n\n1770 \n\n\n1844 \n\n\n\n\n260? \n\n\n\n\n88! \n\n\nf. 30 \n\n\n\n\n1406 \n\n\n1457 \n\n\n1782 \n\n\n1864 \n\n\n1750 \n\n\n1798 \n\n\n1790 \n\n\n\n\n1776 \n\n\n1852 \n\n\n1593 \n\n\n1645 \n\n\n1823 \n\n\n1863 \n\n\n1612 \n\n\n1662 \n\n\n1781 \n\n\n185* \n\n\n1764 \n\n\n1839 \n\n\ne. 116 \n\n\nb. c. 27 \n\n\n1512 \n\n\n1574 \n\n\n1771 \n\n\n1826 \n\n\n1714 \n\n\n1767 \n\n\n1633 \n\n\n1707 \n\n\n1503 \n\n\n1536 \n\n\n1562 \n\n\n1636 \n\n\n1795 \n\n\n\n\n1654 \n\n\n1712 \n\n\n1725 \n\n\n1797 \n\n\n1814 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n1846 \n\n\n1789 \n\n\n1864 \n\n\n1684 \n\n\n1759 \n\n\n1774 \n\n\n1849 \n\n\n1798 \n\n\n\n\n1655 \n\n\n1736 \n\n\n1684 \n\n\n1756 \n\n\n\n\nT\xc2\xbb \n\n\n1451 \n\n\n1516 \n\n\n1797 \n\n\n1858 \n\n\n1820 \n\n\n\n\n1819 \n\n\n\n\n1826 \n\n\n1856 \n\n\n1490 \n\n\n1566 \n\n\n1775 \n\n\n1850 \n\n\n1820 \n\n\n\n\n1799 \n\n\n\n\n1653 \n\n\n17M \n\n\n1701 \n\n\n\n\n\ni56 \n\n\n\nTHE WORLD\'S PBOGEESS. \n\n\n\nRATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nEng. Vlncey Samuel, eminent mathematician and astronomer \n\nFr. Vinet, Alex. R., theologian \n\nRom. Virgil, or Publius Virgilius Maro, the greatest of Roman poets \n\nItal. Visconti, Phil. Aur., antiquary \n\nItal. Vitruvius Pollio, Marcus, architect . i \n\nItal. Vittoria Colonna, scholttr . . \n\nRuse. Vladimir the Great, grand duke . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nDutch. Voet, John, jurist at Leyden . . \n\nDutch. , Paul, jurist at Utrecht , \n\nGer. Vogel, Dr. Edward, botanist . , \n\nFr. Volney, count, celebrated writer . , \n\nItal. Volta, Alexander, natural philosopher (Battery) \n\nFr. Voltaire, Francis Marie Arouet, celebrated poet, \n\nand historian , \n\nGer. Voss, J. G., historical painter . . \n\n\n\nmer \n\n\nBOB.N. \n\n\nDIED \n\n1821 \n\n\n\n\n1797 \n\n\n1847 \n\n\noman poets \n\n\nB. c. 70 \n\n\nB. C. 1\xc2\xbb \n1831 \n\n\n\xc2\xa3 \n\n\nB. c. 27 \n\n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n1490 \n\n\ni547 \n1015 \n\n\n, \n\n\n1647 \n\n\n1714 \n\n\n. \n\n\n1619 \n\n\n1667 \n\n\n, \n\n\n1829 \n\n\n1856 \n\n\n. , \n\n\n1757 \n\n\n1820 \n\n\n. . \n\n\n1745 \n\n\n1826 \n\n\nphilosopher, \n\n\n\n\n\n\n. \n\n\n1694 \n\n\n1778 \n\n\n. . \n\n\n1677 \n\n\n1640 \n\n\n\nw \n\nGer. Waagen, Gustave Fried., art critic . . \n\nA mer. Wadsworth, James, wealthy philanthropist \n\nA mer. , James S. (sou), patriotic general , \n\nGer. Wagner, Rudolph, physiologist \n\nAmer. Wainwright, Jon. M., epis. bishop of New York , \n\nEng. Wakefield, Edward Gibbon, political economist \n\nEng. . Gilbert, scholar and critic . , \n\nAmer. Waldo, Daniel, rev., centenarian . - . \n\nFr. Walewski, Florian, count, statesman . . \n\nEng. Walker, John, lexicographe" \n\nAmer. , Robert J., politician, ex-secretary of treasury \n\nAmer. , "William, \' filibustering\' adventurer \n\nAmer. Wallace, Horace Binney, scholar and essayist \n\nScot. , William, patriot and hero . . \n\nIrish. , William Vincent, musical composer . \n\nGer. Wallenstein, A. E. V., celebrated general . \n\nEng. Waller, Edward, elegant poet . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nEng. , Sir William, parliamentary general . \n\nEng. Walpole, Horace, earl of Oxford, author , \n\nEng. , Robert, earl of Oxford, statesman . \n\nAmer. Walsh, Robert, author and journalist . . \n\nEng. Walsingham, Sir Francis, statesman . \n\nAmer. Walworth, Reuben H, jurist, ex-chancellor of New Tork \n\nEng. Walton, Brian, divine and orientalist \n\nEng. \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 , Izaak, angler and biographer \n\nAmer. Walworth, Reuben H., jurist, ex-chancellor of N. T. \n\nEng. Warburton, William, eminent prelate and writer . \n\nAmer. Ward, Artemas, officer in the Revolution \n\nBcot. Wardlaw, Rev. Ralph, theologian \n\nAmer. Ware, Henry, rev., Unitarian theologian and author \n\nAmer. , Henry, rev., jr., Unitarian theologian and author \n\nAmer. , William, novelist, * Zenobia,\' &c. \n\nAmer. Warren, John Collins, eminent surgeon \n\nAmei. , Joseph, patriotic general, fell at Bunker Hill \n\n\n\n1794 \n\n\n\n\n1768 \n\n\n1844 \n\n\n1807 \n\n\n1864 \n\n\n1805 \n\n\n\n\n1792 \n\n\n1854 \n\n\n1796 \n\n\n1862 \n\n\n1756 \n\n\n1801 \n\n\n1762 \n\n\n1864 \n\n\n1810 \n\n\n\n\n1732 \n\n\n1807 \n\n\n1801 \n\n\n\n\n1824 \n\n\n1860 \n\n\n1817 \n\n\n1852 \n\n\n1276 \n\n\n1305 \n\n\n1815 \n\n\n1865 \n\n\n1583 \n\n\n1634 \n\n\n1603 \n\n\n16S7 \n\n\n1597 \n\n\n16SS \n\n\n1718 \n\n\n1797 \n\n\n1676 \n\n\n1745 \n\n\n1784 \n\n\n1858 \n\n\n1536 \n\n\n1590 \n\n\n1815 \n\n\n1865 \n\n\n1600 \n\n\n1661 \n\n\n1593 \n\n\n1683 \n\n\n1789 \n\n\n\n\n1698 \n\n\n1779 \n\n\n1748 \n\n\n1800 \n\n\n1780 \n\n\n1853 \n\n\n1764 \n\n\n1846 \n\n\n1794 \n\n\n1843 \n\n\n1797 \n\n\n1853 \n\n\n1778 \n\n\n1866 \n\n\n1741 \n\n\n1771 \n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. \n\n\n\n157 \n\n\n\nSATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nAmer, "W&ueu, MrB. Mercy, historian, \' Amer can Review\' \n\nEng. , Samuel, jurist and novelist, \' 10,000 a Tear\' \n\nEng. Sir John Borlase, naval officer \nEng. Warton, Joseph, poet and critic \n\nEng. , ThoniaB, poet and critic \n\nEng. "Warwick, R. Neville, earl of, general and statesman, \' king-maker\' \n\nAmer. Washington, Bushrod, jusiice of supreme court of U. S. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nScot. \n\nEng. \n\nScot. \n\nScot. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\n\n\n, George, the father of his country \n\n, "Wm. Aug. officer in the Revolution \n\nWaterland, Rev. Dr., theological and polemical writer \nWatson, Elkanali, merchant, agriculturist, and historian \n\nRobert, historian \n\n, Richard, eminent prelate and writer . \n\nWatt, James, celebrated natural philosopher and engineer \n\n, Robert, bibliographer \n\nWatts, Alaric Alex., poet and journalist \n\nDr. Isaac, divine, poet, and miscellaneous writer \n\n\n\nAmer. Wayland, Francis, D. D., metaphysician, theol. and polit. aeon. \n\nAmer. Wayne, Anthony, distinguished officer in Revolution \n\nEng. Weale, John, publisher and editor, engineering, &c. . \n\nAmer. Webber, Charles W., naturalist and author . . \n\nGer. Weber, Carl Maria von, eminent composer . , \n\nEng. Weber, Henry William, antiquary and critio . \n\nEng. Webster, John, dramatic poet . ( \xe2\x80\xa2 . \n\nAmer. , Daniel, statesman .... \n\nAmer. , Noah, author of English Dictionary . . \n\nScot. Wedderburn, Alex., earl Rosslyn, lord chancellor . . \n\nEng. Wedgewood, J., scientific manufacturer of porcelain . \n\nAmer. Weems, Rev. Mason L., author of school biographies . \n\nAmer. Welby, Amelia B., of Kentucky, poetess . \n\nIrish. Wellesley, marquis of, governor-general of India, and lord-lieut. \nof Ireland ... . \n\nEng. Wellington, Arthur "Wellesley, duke of, mil. com. and statesman \n\nAmer. Wells, David A., editor, statistician, and author \n\nEng. , Edward, theologian and scholar . , \n\nAmer. , Horace, dentist, discoverer of anaBsthesia \n\nScot. "Welsh, David, D. D., founder of North British Review \n\nEng- Am. Wentworth, Sir John, gov. of N. Bamp., also gov. of Nova Scotia 1736 \n\nEng. , Sir Thomas, Earl of Stafford \n\nGer. Werner, Abraham Theophilus, mineralogist . . \n\nOer. , Fred. L. Z., poet and dramatist \n\nEng. Wesley, Rev. Charles, \' Hymns \' ... \n\nEng. , John, founder of Methodist society . . . \n\nEng. "Westall, Richard, historical painter . . . - \n\nEng. Whateley, Richard, archbishop of Dublin, theological and edu- \ncational writer \n\nAmer. Wheatley, Phillis, negro poetess .... \n\nfing. , Rev. Charles, on \' Book of Commjn Prayer\' \n\nAmer. Wheaton, Henry, jurist, diplomatist and law commentator . \n\nEng. Wheatstone, Charles, electrician .... \n\nAmer. "Wheelock, Eleazar, D. D. founder of Dartmouth College \n\nEng. Whewell, Rev. William, theol., scientific and educational writer \n\n\n\nBORN. \n\n\nDlKJj. \n\n\n1728 \n\n\n18 M \n\n\n1807 \n\n\n\n\n1754 \n\n\n1822 \n\n\n1720 \n\n\n1800 \n\n\n1728 \n\n\n1790 \n\n\n\n\n1471 \n\n\n1759 \n\n\n1829 \n\n\n1732 \n\n\n1799 \n\n\n1752 \n\n\n1810 \n\n\n1683 \n\n\n1740 \n\n\n1758 \n\n\n1842 \n\n\n1730 \n\n\n1780 \n\n\n1737 \n\n\n1816 \n\n\n1736 \n\n\n1819 \n\n\n1774 \n\n\n1818 \n\n\n1799 \n\n\n1864 \n\n\n1674 \n\n\n1748 \n\n\n1796 \n\n\n1866 \n\n\n1745 \n\n\n1796 \n\n\n1792 \n\n\n1862 \n\n\n18i9 \n\n\n1856 \n\n\n1786 \n\n\n1826 \n\n\n1783 \n\n\n1813 \n\n\n17th cent. \n\n\n1782 \n\n\n1852 \n\n\n1758 \n\n\n1843 \n\n\n1733 \n\n\n1805 \n\n\n1731 \n\n\n1795 \n\n\n\n\n1825 \n\n\n1821 \n\n\n1852 \n\n\n1760 \n\n\n1842 \n\n\n1769 \n\n\n1852 \n\n\n1663 \n\n\n1727 \n\n\n1815 \n\n\n1S48 \n\n\n1794 \n\n\n1845 \n\n\na 1736 \n\n\n1820 \n\n\n1593 \n\n\n1641 \n\n\n1750 \n\n\n1817 \n\n\n1768 \n\n\n1823 \n\n\n1708 \n\n\n1788 \n\n\n1703 \n\n\n1791 \n\n\n1765 \n\n\n1837 \n\n\n1787 \n\n\n1863 \n\n\n1753 \n\n\n1794 \n\n\n16S6 \n\n\n1743 \n\n\n1785 \n\n\n1848 \n\n\n1802 \n\n\n\n\n1711 \n\n\n1779 \n\n\n1795 \n\n\n186* \n\n\n\n158 \n\n\n\nTHE WORLD\'S PROGRESS. \n\n\n\nRAIIOH. NAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nAmer. Whipple, Edwin P., critic and essayist . . \n\nAmer. Whistler, George Wm., engineer of Russian railways \n\n\xc2\xa3ng. Whiston, Wm., divine, mathematician and translator . \n\nEng. Whitby, David, learned divine, commentator of New Testament \n\nEng. White, He.ry Kirke, poet .... \n, Rev. Joseph Blanco, priest and English author \n\nEng. , William, one of the two first bishops of the P. E. church \n\nin United States \n\nEng. Whitefield, George, founder of the Calvanistic Methodists \n\nAmer. Whitney, Eli, inventor of cotton gin . \n\nAmer. Whittier, John Greenleaf, poet and essayist \n\nAmer. Whittingham, Wm. R., epis. bp.of Maryland and author \nWhittington, Sir Richard, lord mayor of London \nWickliffe, or Wicklif, John, the morning star of the Reformation \nWieland, Christopher, able and fertile writer \nWiffen, J. H., poet and historian . . * \nWilberforce, Samuel, bp. of Oxford and author \n, William, statesman and philanthropist , \n\n\n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nGer. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nScot. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nEn. Am. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer \n\nScot. \nEng. \nEng. \nScot. \nEng. \nGer. \nAust. \nEng. \nGer. \n\n\n\nWilde, Richard Henry, poet and litterateur \n\nWilkes, John, celebrated political character . . \n\nWilkie, Sir David, historical painter \n\nWilkins, John, bp. of Chester, mathematician and theologian \n\n, Sir Charles, oriental philologist \n\nWilkinson, James, general in Revolution and author . \n\n, Sir John Gardner, Egyptologist \n\nWilliams of Wykeham, arch-ecclesiast and statesman \nWilliams, Eleazar, rev., alleged to be Louis XVIL \n\n, Helen Maria, miscellaneous writer . . \n\n, John, missionary and author . . \n\n, Major-gen. Sir Fenwick, defender of Kars . \n\n, Otho H., general \n\n-, Roger, colonizer of Rhode Island \n\nWilliamson, Hugh, physician and historian of N. Carolina \nWillis, Nath. Parker, poet, novelist, essayist, critic and jour \nnalist ...... \n\nWilson, Alex., celebrated naturalist \n\n, Daniel, bishop of Calcutta . . . \n\n\xe2\x80\x94 , Horace H., orientalist, professor of Sanscrit \n\n, John (Christopher North), poet, critic and essayist \n\n\n\n, Mrs. Cornwall Barron, author \n\nWinckelman, John Joachim, \' History of Art \' \nWindischgratz, Charles Alfred, prince de, generalissimo \nWindham, William, statesman . . . \n\nWiner, George Bened., prot. theologian . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nSwiss. Winkelried, Arnold von, patriot . . . \n\nEn. Am. Winslow, Edward, governor of Plymouth colony . \n\nEng. \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 , Forbes, physician and writer on insanity , \n\nAmer. , Hubbard, D. D., editor and author \n\nAmer. , Miron, D. D., missionary and orientalist . \n\nBug. Winterhalter, Franz Xavier, \' court painter \' . \n\nfen. Am. Winthrop, John, governor of colony of Mass. . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\ntLh.Aia \xe2\x80\xa2-, John (son), governor of Connecticut . \n\n\n\nBOEN. \n\n1819 \n\n180C \n1667 \n1638 \n1785 \n1775 \n\n1747 \n1714 \n1765 \n1808 \n1805 \n\n1324 \n1733 \n1792 \n1805 \n1759 \n1789 \n1717 \n1785 \n1614 \n\n1757 \n\n1797 \n\n1324 \n\n17871 \n\n1762 \n\n1796 \n\n1800 \n\n1748 \n\n1606 \n\n1735 \n\n1807 \n1766 \n1778 \n1808 \n1785 \n\n1717 \n17S7 \n1750 \n1789 \n\n1695 \n1810 \n1800 \n1789 \n\n1588 \n1606 \n\n\n\nDtSt \n\n184S \n1752 \n\n1726 \n1806 \n\n1841 \n\n\n\n1770 \n1820 \n\n\n\n1419 \n1384 \n1813 \n1836 \n\n1853 \n1847 \n1797 \n1841 \n\n1672 \n1836 \n1825 \n\n1404 \n1S58 \n1827 \n1839 \n\n1794 \n16S3 \n1819 \n\n1867 \n\n1813 \n1858 \n1860 \n1854 \n1S46 \n1768 \n1862 \n1810 \n1858 \n1388 \n1655 \n\n1864 \n1864 \n1803 \n1649 \n1673 \n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL, INDEX. \n\n\n\n159 \n\n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 ATIOM. NAME AMD PROFESSION. \n\nWinthrop, Major Theodore, novelist and patriot \nAmer. Wirt, William, attorney -general U. S. and biographer \nEng. Wiseman, Nicholas, cardinal, Roman catholic theol. and author \nAmer. Wistar, Caspar, eminent physician and anatomist \nEng. Withers, George, poet .... \nAmer. Witherspoon, John, able divine and patriot \nDutch. Witzius, Herman, theologian . . . \n\nScot. Wodrow, Robert, ecclesiastical historian \nIrish. Woflington, Margaret (Peg W.), actress . . \n\nEng. Wolcott, John, known as Peter Pindar, poet . \n\nAmer. , Oliver, patriot, signer of Declaration of Independence \n\nAmer. , Roger, colonial governor of Conn. \n\nEng. Jew. Wolf, Dr. Joseph, missionary and traveller . \n\nGer. , Fred. Aug., classical author and critic . . \n\nEng. Wolfe, James, distinguished general . . \n\nEng. , Rev. Charles, poet, \' Sir John Moore \' . . \n\nGer. Wolff, John Christian, philosopher aud mathematician \nEng. Wollaston, William Hyde, experimental philos. . \n\nEng. "Wolsey, Thomas, cardinal, celebrated statesman \nEng. Wollstoneeroft, Mary (Mrs. Godwin), author . , \n\nEng. Wood, Anthony, antiquary and biographer . \n\nEng. , Robert, archaeologist and secretary of state \n\nAmer. Woodbury, Levi, statesman and jurist . . \n\nEng. Woodfall, William, newspaper publisher (Junius) , \n\nEng. Woodhouse, Robert, mathematician and astronomer \nScot. Woodhouselee, Alex. Fraser Tytler (.seeTytler) historian \nAmer. Woods, Leonard, theologian \xe2\x80\xa2 . . \n\nEng. Woodville, Elizabeth, queen of Edward IV. . . \n\nAmer. Woodwortb, Samuel, poet, \' Oaken Bucket \' . \n\nAmer. Wool, John E., major-general U. S. army . . \n\nAmer. Woolrnan, John (Quaker), philanthropist , \n\nAmer Wooster, David, Revolutionary general . . \n\nWorcester, Edward J., marquis of, \'Century of Inventions \n\n, Joseph E., geographer and lexicographer \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nWordsworth, Rev. Christ., \' Ancient Greece \' . \n\n\n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer, \n\nEng. \n\nAust. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\n\n\n- , William, poet laureate . . \n\nWorth, William J., major-general TJ. S. army \nWortley, Lady Emeline C. E., traveller and author . \nWotton, Sir Henry, statesman and poet . . \n\nWraxall, Sir Nathaniel W., traveller and historian \nWren, Sir Christopher, celebrated architect \xe2\x80\xa2 . \nWright, Fanny (Madame Darusmont), \' Social Reformer \' \n\xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 , Silas, governor of New York and senator U. 8. \n\n, Thomas, antiquarian author , . \n\nWunnser, D. S., field-marshal in Austrian army . \nWyatt, Matthew Digby, architect and author , \n\n, Sir Thomas, poet and statesman . . \n\nWycherley, William, dramatic poet . . , \n\nWycliffe, see Wickliffe, reformer . , \n\nWykeham, M., bishop of Winchester, statesman and phllanth \nWyndham, Sir William, statesman \n\n\n\nBOBN. \n\n\nDIED, \n\n\n1828 \n\n\n1861 \n\n\n1772 \n\n\n183d \n\n\nlthjr 1802 \n\n\n1865 \n\n\n1761 \n\n\n1818 \n\n\n1590 \n\n\n1667 \n\n\n1722 \n\n\n1794 \n\n\n1636 \n\n\n1708 \n\n\n1679 \n\n\n1734 \n\n\n1719 \n\n\n1760 \n\n\n1738 \n\n\n1818 \n\n\nnoe 1727 \n\n\n1797 \n\n\n1679 \n\n\n1767 \n\n\n1795 \n\n\n1862 \n\n\n1759 \n\n\n1824 \n\n\n1726 \n\n\n1759 \n\n\n1791 \n\n\n1823 \n\n\n1679 \n\n\n1754 \n\n\n1766 \n\n\n1828 \n\n\n1471 \n\n\n1530 \n\n\n1759 \n\n\n1797 \n\n\n1632 \n\n\n1695 \n\n\n1716 \n\n\n1771 \n\n\n1789 \n\n\n1851 \n\n\n1745 \n\n\n1822 \n\n\n1773 \n\n\n1827 \n\n\n1747 \n\n\n1813 \n\n\n1770 \n\n\n1851 \n\n\n\n\nI486! \n\n\n1785 \n\n\n1842 \n\n\n1789 \n\n\n\n\n1720 \n\n\n1773 \n\n\n1710 \n\n\n1777 \n\n\n\n\n1667 \n\n\n1784 \n\n\n1865 \n\n\n1770 \n\n\n1850 \n\n\n1770 \n\n\n1850 \n\n\n1794 \n\n\n1849 \n\n\n1806 \n\n\n1855 \n\n\n1568 \n\n\n1689 \n\n\n1751 \n\n\n1831 \n\n\n1632 \n\n\n1723 \n\n\n1796 \n\n\n1853 \n\n\n1795 \n\n\n1847 \n\n\n1810 \n\n\n\n\n1717 \n\n\n1797 \n\n\n. 1820 \n\n\n\n\n1503 \n\n\n1540 \n\n\n1640 \n\n\n1716 \n\n\n1324 \n\n\n1404 \n\n\ntb 1324 \n\n\n1404 \n\n\n1687 \n\n\n1741 \n\n\n\nl6o THE WOBLD\'S PB0GRES8. \n\nRATIOS. NAME AND FBI FESSION. BOBS. DIM! \n\nEng. Wyse, Sir Thomas, M. P., writer on education . \n\nAmer. Wytfce, George, eminent lawyer, statesman and patriot . 1801 \n\n\n\nFr. Xavier, St. Francis, \'Apostle to the Indies\' . , \n\nGi\'. Xenocrates, philosopher . . . \n\nGr. Xenophanes, philosopher, founder of the Eleatics \n\nGr. Xenophon, celebrated philosopher, historian and general \n\nPers. Xerxes L, king of Persia .... \n\nPers. II., king of Persia \n\nSpan. Ximenes, Francis, cardinal, eminent statesman \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n\nAmer. Yale, Elihn, early patron of Yale College . , \n\nEng. Yarrell, "William, naturalist and author. , , \n\nEng. Youatt, William, author of works on the horse , \n\nAmer. Young, Ales., D. D., historian of Pilgrims . .. \n\nEng. , Arthur, agricultural writei . . . \n\nAmer. , Brigham, leader of the Mormons . , . \n\nEng. \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 , Charles, actor . \n\nEng. , Edward, poet and miscellaneous writer . . \n\nEng. , Thomas, phy&ician and philosopher \n\nGr. Ypsilanti, prince Alexander, leader in the Greek modern rev. \n\nSpan. Y riarte, don Thomas de, eminent poet \n\n\n\nItal. Zaccaria, Francis A, voluminous writer . , \n\nHeb. Zechariah, the prophet ...\xc2\xbb \nItal. Zeno, Apostolo, eminent writer . , \xc2\xbb \n\nGr. Zeno of Elea, philosopher ...\xc2\xbb \nGr. , founder of the sect of Stoics . . \n\nZenohia, Septiinia, queen of Palmyra, conqueror, and patroness of \nthe arts ...... \n\nHeb. Zephaniah, the prophet . . . . , \xc2\xa3 B. o. 520 \n\nGer. Zimmerman, E. A. W. von, naturalist . , \n\n, John George, miscellaneous writer . \n\n\n\n. \n\n\n1506 \n\n\n\n\n1552 \n\n\nB. \n\n\n0. 406 \n\n\nB \n\n\n0. 314 \n\n\nLb. \n\n\nO. 540 \n\n\n\n\n\n\nB. 0. 446 \n\n\nB \n\n\nC. 360 \n\n\n\n\n\n\nB \n\n\n0. 465 \n\n\n\n\n\n\nB. \n\n\n0. 425 \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n1457 \n\n\n\n\n1517 \n\n\n\n\n1648 \n\n\n\n\n1721 \n\n\n\n\n1784 \n\n\n\n\n1856 \n\n\n. \n\n\n1777 \n\n\n\n\n1847 \n\n\n\n\n1800 \n\n\n\n\n1854 \n\n\n. \n\n\n1741 \n\n\n\n\n1S20 \n\n\n\n\n1801 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n. \n\n\n1777 \n\n\n\n\n1856 \n\n\n\n\n1681 \n\n\n\n\n1765 \n\n\n\n\n1774 \n\n\n\n\n1829 \n\n\n\n\n1792 \n\n\n\n\n1828 \n\n\n\' \n\n\n1750 \n\n\n\n\n1780 \n\n\n\n\n1714 \n\n\n\n\n179\xc2\xbb \n\n\nf. B. \n\n\n0. 520 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1668 \n\n\n\n\n1750 \n\n\nB. \n\n\n0. 463 \n\n\n\n\n\n\nB. \n\n\n0. 362 \n\n\nB. \n\n\n0. 264 \n\n\n\nGer. Zinzendori, N. L., count, chief of the Moravians , \n\nSwiss. Zolikofer, G. J., theologian . . . \n\nZoroaster, famous Eastern philosopher . . \n\nEng. Zouch, Thomas, theologian and biographer \n\nGr. Zozimus, historian ..... \n\nGer. Zschokke, John Henry D., miscellaneous writer, \xc2\xab Tales \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nSwiss. Zuinglius, Ulric, enlightened reformer . . \n\n0er. Zumpt, Karl, author of Latin Grammar . . \n\n\n\n1743 \n\n\n1815 \n\n\n1728 \n\n\n1795 \n\n\n1700 \n\n\n1760 \n\n\n1730 \n\n\n1788 \n\n\n1737 \n\n\n1816 \n\n\nf. 400 \n\n\n\n\n1771 \n\n\n1848 \n\n\n1484 \n\n\n1531 \n\n\n1703 \n\n\nISM \n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. ARTISTS. \n\n\n\n161 \n\n\n\nARTISTS. \n\n\n\nPAINTERS\xe2\x80\x94 ENGRAVERS\xe2\x80\x94 SCULPTORS\xe2\x80\x94 ARCHITECTS. \n\n\n\nNATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. B \n\nOr. Agatharcus, inventor of perspective scenery in theatres. Painter. \n\nOr. Ageldas ..... Sculptor, f. \n\nOr. Agesander, sculptor of \'Laocoon and his Children\' Sculptor. \n\nItal. Albano, Francis, \' the painter of the Graces \' . Painter. \n\nItal. Alberti, Leo Baptist, a Florentine . Pa., Sc, and Arohit. \n\nItaL Albertinelli, Mariotto .... Painter. \n\nGr. Alcarmenes (pupil of Phidias) . . Sculptor. \n\nScot. Allan, Sir "William .... Painter. \n\nAmer. Allston, Washington . . Port, and Histor. Painter. \n\nItal. Andrea del Sarto .... Painter. \n\nItal. Angelo, Michael (Buonarotti), a pre-eminent Pa., Sc, and Arch. \n\nItal. Angelo, Michael (Caravaggio) . . . Painter. \n\nGr. Apelles, the most celebrated of ancient painters . Painter. \n\nGr. Apollodorus, an Athenian . . . Painter. \n\nItal. Appiani, of Milan .... Painter. \n\nGr. Aristides, of Thebes .... Painter. \n\nFr. Audran, Gerard, celebrated . . Histor. Engraver. \n\n(Eight painters and engravers named Audran nearly contemporary.) \n\n\n\nIOB.N. \n\n\nDIED, \n\n\nB. \n\n\no. 48C \n\n\nb. o. 6th Cent. \n\n\nb. o. 5th Cent. \n\n\n1578 \n\n\n1660 \n\n\n1400 \n\n\n149f \n\n\n\n\n152C \n\n\nf. B. \n\n\nO. 450 \n\n\n1781 \n\n\n1850 \n\n\n1779 \n\n\n1843 \n\n\n1488 \n\n\n1530 \n\n\n1474 \n\n\n1568 \n\n\n1569 \n\n\n1609 \n\n\nf. B. \n\n\nO. 330 \n\n\nf. B. \n\n\n0. 408 \n\n\n1754 \n\n\n1817 \n\n\nf. B. \n\n\n0. 240 \n\n\n1640 \n\n\n1703 \n\n\n\nItal. \n\n\nBaccio-Della Porta, known as San Marco (Fra Bartolo- \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nmeo) . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n. . Painter. \n\n\n1469 \n\n\n1517 \n\n\nEng. \n\n\nBacon, John \n\n\nSculptor. \n\n\n1740 \n\n\n1799 \n\n\nAmer. \n\n\nBaker, Geo. A. (N. Y.) \n\n\n. Port. Painter. \n\n\n\n\n\n\nFlem. \n\n\nBalen, Henry van . . \n\n\n, . Painter. \n\n\n1560 \n\n\n1(32 \n\n\nItal. \n\n\nBandinelli, Baccio . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n. Sculptor. \n\n\n1489 \n\n\n1559 \n\n\nEng. \n\n\nBanks, Thomas . \n\n\n, . Sculptor. \n\n\n1745 \n\n\n1805 \n\n\nDutch. \n\n\nBarents, Dietrich \n\n\nHistor. Painter. \n\n\n1534 \n\n\n1582 \n\n\nIrish. \n\n\nBaiter, Ttobert, inventor of panoramas \n\n\n. . Painter. \n\n\n1740 \n\n\n1806 \n\n\nIrish. \n\n\nBarry, James . . . \n\n\n. Painter. \n\n\n1741 \n\n\n1805 \n\n\nEng. \n\n\nBarry, Sir Chas. . . , \n\n\n, . Architect. \n\n\n1795 \n\n\n1860 \n\n\nItal. \n\n\nBartolini, Lorenzo . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\nSculptor. \n\n\n1777 \n\n\n1850 \n\n\nItaL \n\n\nBartolozzi, Francesco \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\nEngraver. \n\n\n1730 \n\n\n1813 \n\n\nItal. \n\n\nBartolomco, Fra di San Marco . \n\n\nPainter. \n\n\n1469 \n\n\n1517 \n\n\nItal. \n\n\nBassanio, Jas., Fran., Jerome, John, and Leander Painters. \n\n\n16th Century. \n\n\nItaL \n\n\nBatoni, Pompey . . . \n\n\n. . Painter. \n\n\n1708 \n\n\n1787 \n\n\nGer. \n\n\nBauer, Ferdinand . . . \n\n\nBotanical Painter. \n\n\n\n\n1826 \n\n\nEng. \n\n\nBeechy, Sir "William . \n\n\n. Landscape Painter. \n\n\n1753 \n\n\n1838 \n\n\nAmei. \n\n\nBeard, Wm. H. (N. Y.) \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 Painter. \n\n\n\n\n\n\nEng. \n\n\nBeaumont, Sir George H. , \n\n\nPainter. \n\n\n1753 \n\n\n1827 \n\n\nItal. \n\n\nBella, Stefano Delia, Florentine . \n\n\n. Engraver, \n\n\n1610 \n\n\n1684 \n\n\n\noatH. \n\n\nDiaa \n\n\n1462 \n\n\n1513 \n\n\n1421 \n\n\n1501 \n\n\n1598 \n\n\n16SC \n\n\n1624 \n\n\n16S9 \n\n\n\n162 THE WORLD\'S PKOGBES8. \n\nNATIOH. SAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nItal Belliiri. Giav., founder of the Venetian school . Painter. \n\nItaL Bellini Gentine .... Portrt \'\xe2\x99\xa6. Painter. \n\nItal. Benini, Giovanni L. . . Painter, Sculp\'r, and Aren\'t. \n\nFlem Berchem, Nicholas . . . Engraver. \n\nEng. Bewick. John, publisher of various works with wood- \nouts .... Wood Engraver. 1760 179f \n\nAmer. Bierstadt, Albert (N. Y.) . . Landscape Pa. nter. \n\nEng. Bird, Edward ..... Painter. 1772 1819 \n\nEng. Blake, William . . . Painter and Engraver. 1757 1826 \n\nFlem. Bologna, John of (in Italy) . Sculptor and Architect. 1524 1608 \n\nEng. Bone, Henry ... Enamel Painter. 1755 1834 \n\nItaL Bordone, Paris ..... Painter. 1503 15S8 \n\nDutch. Both, John and Andrew . . . Painters. 1610 1650, \'56 \n\nFr. Bourdon, Sebastian . . Painter and Engraver. 1616 1671 \n\nSwiss. Bourgeoise, Sir Francis (born in London). . Painter. 1756 1811 \n\nEng. Boydell, Jno. (printseller and lord mayor of London) Engraver. 1719 1804 \n\nDutch. Brentel, Francis .... Painter, f. 1635 \n\nItal. Bramante D\'Urbino, Francis L., (1st of St, Peter\'s \n\nChurch) .... Architect. 1444 1514 \n\nAmer. Brevoort, J. K. (N. Y.) . . Landscape Painter. \n\nDutch. Brill, Matthew .... Painter. 1550 1584 \n\nDutch. Brill, Paul . . . Landscape Painter. 1556 1626 \n\nAmer. Brown, Geo. L. . , , . Painter. \n\nAmer. Brown, Henry Kirke , . . \xe2\x80\xa2 Sculptor. 1814 \n\nFlem, Bruges, John of, or John Van Eyck . . Painter. 1370 1441 \n\nItal. Brunelleschi, Ph., Pitti Palace at Florence . Architect. 1377 1444 \n\nItaL Buonarotti, see Angelo \n\nEng. Burnett, James . . , Landscape Painter. 1788 1816 \n\nC \n\nItal. Cagliari, Paul, known as Paul Veronese, celebrated Painter. 1532 15S8 \n\nItal. Cagliari, Benedict, Carlotto, and Gabriel, brothers and \n\nsons of Paul \n\nEng. Calcott, Sir A. W. . . Landscape Painter. 1779 1844 \n\nItaL Caldara, or Polydore Caravaggio . . . Painter. 1495 1543 \n\nGr. Calimachus . . . Sculptor and Architect. f. a 0. 540 \n\nItal. Cambiaso, Lucus, a Genoese . . . Painter. 1527 15S7 \n\nItaL Canaletto, or Canale, Anthony, a Venetian Lands. Painter. 1697 1768 \n\nItal. Canova, Antonio .... Sculptor. 1757 1822 \n\nItal. Caracci, Ludovico .... Painter. 1555 1619 \n\nItaL Caracci, Agostino .... Painter. 1558 1601 \n\nItal. Caracci, Annibale .... Painter. 1560 1609 \n\nItaL Caracci, Anthony .... Painter. 1583 1618 \n\nItaL Caravaggio, see Angelo .... \n\nItal. Carpi, Ugo da, discoverer of the art of printing in Chiaro-oseuro \n\nwith three plates to imitate drawings . . 1486 1530 \n\nFi, Casas, Louis Francis . . Painter and Architect. 1756 1827 \n\nAmer. Oasilear, John W. (N. Y.) . . Lands. Painter. \n\nBpan. Castillo y Saavedra, Anthony . . Painter. 1603 1667 \n\nItaL Oaven lone, James . . . Fresco-Painter. 1677 1508 \n\nItal. Cellini, Benvenuto, Florentine artist, author of auto- \nbiography . ... Painter. 1600 167C \n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. ARTISTS. \n\n\n\n163 \n\n\n\nflATIOH \n\n\nNAMB AMD PROFESSION. \n\n\nBORN. \n\n\nDIED. \n\n\nSpan. \n\n\nCespedes. Paul de \n\n\nPainter, Sculptor, Architect. \n\n\n1538 \n\n\n160\xc2\xbb \n\n\nFleni. \n\n\nChampagne, Philip de \n\n\n, . . Painter. \n\n\n1604 \n\n\n1674 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n. , . Painter. \n\n\n1643 \n\n\n168$ \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nEng. \n\n\nChantry, Sir Francis . \n\n\n, , . Sculptor. \n\n\n1781 \n\n\n184^ \n\n\nAmei \n\n\nChapman, John G. \n\n\n, , . Hist. Painter. \n\n\n\n\n\n\nGr. \n\n\nChares . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n, . . Painter. \n\n\nf. 1. \n\n\n0. S0G \n\n\nFr. \n\n\nChaudet, Anthony Denis \n\n\n. , Painter and Sculptor. \n\n\n1763 \n\n\n1810 \n\n\nAmei. \n\n\nChurch, Fred. E. \n\n\n, . Lands, fainter. \n\n\n\n\n\n\nital. \n\n\nCignani, Carlo \n\n\n. , . Painter. \n\n\n1628 \n\n\n1719 \n\n\nItal. \n\n\nCimabue, Giov., Florentine \n\n\n, , Painter. \n\n\n1240 \n\n\n130<? \n\n\nItal. \n\n\nClaude Gelee\xe2\x80\x94 called Claude Lorraine . . Painter. \n\n\n1600 \n\n\n1682 \n\n\nGr. \n\n\nCleomenes, an Athenian, (the \n\n\nMedicean Venus) . Sculptor. \n\n\nf.B. \n\n\nO. 180\' \n\n\nAmer. \n\n\nClevenger, Shobal Vail \n\n\nSculptor. \n\n\n1812 \n\n\n1844 \n\n\nAmer. \n\n\nCole, Thomas . . \n\n\nLands, and Hist. Painter. \n\n\n1802 \n\n\n1848 \n\n\nEng. \n\n\nCollins, William \n\n\n. Lands, and Fam. life Painter. \n\n\n1788 \n\n\n184T \n\n\nAmer. \n\n\nColman, Saml. (N. T.) . \n\n\nLands. Painter. \n\n\n\n\n\n\nEng. \n\n\nConstable, John \n\n\nPainter. \n\n\nm\xc2\xa7 \n\n\n1837 \n\n\nEng. \n\n\nCooper, Samuel . \n\n\n. Miniature Painter. \n\n\n16S9 \n\n\n1776 \n\n\nAmer. \n\n\nCopley, John Singleton (horn \n\n\nin Boston) . Painter. \n\n\n1737 \n\n\n1815 \n\n\nGer. \n\n\nCornelius, Peter von \n\n\nPainter. \n\n\n1787 \n\n\n\n\nItal. \n\n\nCorreggio, Ant., founder of the Lombard school Painter. \n\n\n1493 \n\n\n1534 \n\n\nDutch. \n\n\nCort, Cornelius . \n\n\n. Engraver. \n\n\n1536 \n\n\n1578 \n\n\nItal. \n\n\nCortona, Pietro da. Tuscan \n\n\n. Paintei. \n\n\n1596 \n\n\n1669 \n\n\nEng. \n\n\nCosway, Richard . \n\n\n. . Painter. \n\n\n1740 \n\n\n1828 \n\n\nFr. \n\n\nCourtois, James, known as 11 Borgognone . Painter. \n\n\n1621 \n\n\n1673- \n\n\nFr. \n\n\n\xe2\x96\xa0 TVilliiim (brother} \n\n\n. Painter. \n\n\n1628 \n\n\n167? \n\n\n\n\n\n\nFr. \n\n\nCouture \n\n\nPainter. \n\n\n\n\n\n\nFr. \n\n\nCouston, Nicholas (also his brother William) . Sculptor. \n\n\n1658 \n\n\n1731 \n\n\nFr. \n\n\n, William \n\n\nSculptor and Architect. \n\n\n1716 \n\n\n177T \n\n\nFr. \n\n\nCousin, John \n\n\nPaint., Sculp., etc \n\n\n1500 \n\n\n1590* \n\n\nEng. \n\n\nCox, David \n\n\n, . Lands. Painter. \n\n\n1723 \n\n\n1859> \n\n\nGer. \n\n\nCranach, Lucas . \n\n\nEngraver. \n\n\n1470 \n\n\n1553- \n\n\nAmer. \n\n\nCranch, Christr. P. \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n, . . Painter. \n\n\n\n\n\n\nAmer. \n\n\nCrawford, Thomas \n\n\n, . . Sculptor. \n\n\n1814 \n\n\n1857 \n\n\nAmer. \n\n\nCropsey, Jasper F. (N. Y.) \n\n\n. . Lands. Painter. \n\n\n\n\n\n\nDutch. Cuyp, Jacob G. . \n\n\n. Lands, and Cattle Painter. \n\n\n1568 \n\n\n1649\' \n\n\nDutch. \n\n\n, Albert (son of Jacob) \n\n\n, Lands, and Cattle Painter. \n\n\n1606 \n\n\n1667 \n\n\nDutch \n\n\n, Benjamin . \n\n\n, . . Hist. Painter. \n\n\n1650 \n\n\n\n\n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nGer. \n\nAmer, \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\ni-r. \nft. \n\n\n\nDanby, Francis . 1 \xe2\x80\xa2 Painter. \n\nDaniel, Thomas . . Lands. Painter. \n\nWm. . . . \xe2\x80\xa2 Lands. Painter. \n\nDannecker, John Henry, \' Adriadne,* &c. . Sculptor. \n\nDarley, F. O. C. . \xe2\x80\xa2 Painter and Designer. \n\nDavid, James Louis .... Painter. \n\n, Peter John, of Angers (founder of recent French \n\nschool) . . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \xe2\x80\xa2 Sculptor. \n\nDelacroix, F. V. E. . . . . Painter. \n\nDelaroche, Paul . . . Hist. Painter. \n\n\n\n1793 \n\n\n1862 \n\n\n1749 \n\n\n1840 \n\n\n1769 \n\n\n1837 \n\n\n1758 \n\n\n1841 \n\n\n1822 \n\n\n\n\n1750 \n\n\n1826^ \n\n\n1789 \n\n\n1858 \n\n\n1798 \n\n\n1863 \n\n\n1797 \n\n\n195\xc2\xab \n\n\n\n164 THE WORLD\'S PROGRESS. \n\nSATIO NAME AND PEOFESSIOS. BORN. DIES \n\nGer. Denner, Balthasar .... Port. Painter. 1685 1741 \n\nDutch. De Witt, James .... Painter. 1696 174? \n\nGr. Dinocrates, a Macedonian (builder of Alexandria, &c.) Architect. f. & a 330 \n\nItal. Dolci, Carlo .... Scripture Painter. 1616 1689 \n\nItal. Domenichino, Dominic Zampieri (excelled in expression) Painter. 1581 1641 \n\nItal. Donatello, or Donato . . . Florentine Sculptor. 1383 1466 \n\nFr. Dore, Gustave . . . Painter and Designer. \n\nAmer. Doughty, Thomas . - . Lands. Painter. 1793 1856 \n\nDutch. Douw, or Dow, Gerard . . Familiar Life Painter. 1618 1674 \n\nFt. Dubuffe, .... Hist. Painter. \n\nFr. Dufresnoy, Charles Alphonse . . Painter. 1611 1666 \n\nAmer. Dunlap, William . . Hist, Painter. 1766 1838 \n\nAmer. Dnrand, Asher B. (N. T.) . . Painter and Engraver. \n\nGer. Dnrer, Albert (and author) . Paint., Eng., 8c, and Arch 1471 1528 \n\n\xc2\xa3 \n\nEng. FAstlake, Chas. L. . . . . Painter. 1793 1865 \n\nGer. Eberhardt, Conrad .... Sculptor. 1768 1859 \n\nEng. Eginton, Franois, restorer of the art of painting on \n\nglass ..... Painter. 1737 1806 \n\nAmer. Ehninger, John W. (N. Y "* . . . Painter. \n\nAmer. Elliott, Chas. L. (N. T.) . . . Port. Painter. \n\nEng. Etty, Wm. . \xe2\x80\xa2 . . . Painter. 1787 1849 \n\nGr. Eupompus (founder of school at Sioyon) . Painter. \n\nDutch. Eyck, John van (said to have invented painting In oil) Painter. 1370 1441 \n\n\n\nItal.Am.Fagnani, G. \n\n\n\n\nPort. Painter. \n\n\n\n\n\n\nEng. \n\n\nFielding (Copley Vandyke) . \n\n\n\n\n. Lands. Painter. \n\n\n\n\n\n\nEng. \n\n\nFlaxman, John . \n\n\n\n\n. Soulptor and Artist. \n\n\n1T55 \n\n\n182* \n\n\nEng. \n\n\nFinden, Wm. \n\n\n. \n\n\nEngraver. \n\n\n1787 \n\n\n1853 \n\n\nAmer. \n\n\nForbes, Edwin . \n\n\n\n\nPainter. \n\n\n\n\n\n\nScot. \n\n\nForrest, Robert \n\n\n. \n\n\nSculptor. \n\n\n1790 \n\n\n1852 \n\n\nFr. \n\n\nFrere, Edouard \n\n\n\n\nGenre Painter. \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSwiss. \n\n\nFuseli, Henry (resided in England \n\n\n\n\nPainter. \n\n\n1741 \n\n\n182-j \n\n\nSwiss. \n\n\n, John G. . \n\n\n\n\n. . Painter. \n\n\n1706 \n\n\n1781 \n\n\nEng. \n\n\nGainsborough, Thomas \n\n\n\xc2\xa9 \n\n\n. Lands. Painter. \n\n\n1727 \n\n\n1788 \n\n\nFr. \n\n\nGerard, Fran. P. S., baroi* \n\n\n\n\nPainter. \n\n\n1770 \n\n\n1837 \n\n\nFr. \n\n\n, John I. (Granville) . \n\n\n\n\nCaricaturist. \n\n\n1803 \n\n\n1847 \n\n\nItal. \n\n\nGhiberti, Lawrence \n\n\n\n\n. Florentine Sculptor. \n\n\n1378 \n\n\n1456 \n\n\nEng. \n\n\nGibbons, Grinling, famed for carving in oak . Sculptor. \n\n\n1648 \n\n\n1721 \n\n\nEng. \n\n\nGibson, John . . . \n\n\n\n\nSculptor. \n\n\n1791 \n\n\n1867 \n\n\nAmer. \n\n\nGifford, Sanford R. . \n\n\n. \n\n\n. Lands. Painter. \n\n\n\n\n\n\nFr.An \n\n\n. Gignoux, Regis \n\n\n\n\nLands. Painter. \n\n\n\n\n\n\nItal. \n\n\nGiordani, Luke (the Proteus of Pali- ting) . Painter. \n\n\n1629 \n\n\n1704 \n\n\nItal. \n\n\nGiorgione, Barbarelli . . \n\n\n\n\nPainter. \n\n\n1477 \n\n\n1511 \n\n\nItal. \n\n\nGiotto (one of the earliest modern) \n\n\n\n\nPaint. Sculp, and Arch. \n\n\n1276 \n\n\n1331 \n\n\nFr. \n\n\nGirardon, Franois \n\n\n\n\nSculp, and Arch. \n\n\n1630 \n\n\n171fi \n\n\nFr. \n\n\nGirodet, Trioson Aime Loai\xc2\xab \n\n\n\n\nPainter. \n\n\n1767 \n\n\n182; \n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHIoAii INDEX. ARTISTS. \n\n\n\nI6 5 \n\n\n\nBATION. NAME AJTD PB0PESS10H. \n\nltal. Giulio Romano (Pippi) .... Painter. \n\nFr. Goujon, John, the French Phidias . . Sculptor. \n\nAmer. Gray, Henry Peters . . Port, and Hist. Painter. \n\nAmer. Greenough, Horatio . \xe2\x80\xa2 . Sculptor. \n\nAmer. Greene, E. D. E. . . . Port Painter. \n\nFr. Greuze, Jean Baptiste . . . Painter \n\nltal. Guercino, real name Francis Barbieri . . Painter. \n\nIta I. Guido, Reni (excelled in beauty of expression and grace) Painter. \n\n\n\nSORB. \n\n\nD1XD, \n\n\n1492 \n\n\n1546 \n\n\n1515 \n\n\n1573 \n\n\n\n1806 \n\n1726 \n1590 \n1574 \n\n\n\n1854 \n\n1805 \n1606 \n1642 \n\n\n\nEng, Harlow, Geo. Henry \n\nAmer. Hart, "Wm., b. in Scotland \n\nAmer. Hart, Jas. M. " \n\nAmer. Haseltine, W. Stanley \n\n\xc2\xa3ng. Haviland, John . \n\nEng. Haydon, R. B. \n\nAmer. Healy, Gr>o. P. \n\nEng. Heath, Charles \n\nAmer. Hennessy, W. L \n\nAmer. Hicks, Thos. \n\nEng. Hilton, William . \n\nFlem. Hobbema, Mynderhout \n\nEng. Hogarth, William \n\nSwiss. Holbein, Hans \n\nGer. Hollar, Wenceslaus, executed 2,400 plates \n\nAmer Homer, "Winslow .... Painter. \n\nFlem. Honthorst, Gerard (called Gherarda del Notte) . Painter. \n\nAmer. Hosmer, Harriet .... Sculptor. \n\nDutch. Houbraken, Jacob (600 portraits) . . . Engraver. \n\nFr. Houdon (executed statue of Franklin) . Sculptor. \n\nFr. Houel, John, Travels, &c. Picturesque Painter and Engraver. \n\nAmer. Hubbard, Rich. W. .... Painter. \n\nAmer. Hughes, Ball (b. in England) . . . Sculptor. \n\nAmer. Huntington, Dan. . . . Painter. \n\nEng. Hunt, Wm. H. (Pre-Raphaelite) . . . Painter. \n\nDutch. Huysum, John van (flowers and fruit) . Painter. \n\nDutch. , Justus (The Old) . , . Painter. \n\nDutch. (The Young) . . Painter. \n\n\n\nPainter. \n\nPainter. \n\n. . Painter. \n\nLandscape Painter. \n\n. . . Architect. \n\nHistorical Painter. \n\n. . . Painter. \n\n. . Engraver. \n\n. . . Painter. \n\nPainter. \n\nHistorical Painter. \n\nLandscape Painter. \n\nPainter. \n\nPortrait and Historical Painter. \n\nEngraver. \n\n\n\n1787 \n1828 \n1828 \n\n1792 \n1786 \n1808 \n\n\n\n1823 \n1786 \n1611 \n1697 \n1498 \n1607 \n\n1592 \n1831 \n1698 \n1746 \n1736 \n\n1806 \n1816 \n1827 \n1682 \n1659 \n1684 \n\n\n\n1819 \n\n\n\n1859 \n1846 \n\n\n\n1849 \n\n\n\n1839 \n1699 \n1764 \n1554 \n1677, \n\n1660 \n\n1780 \n1828 \n1813 \n\n\n\n1749 \n1716 \n1706 \n\n\n\nAmer. Inman, Henry \n\n\n\nPortrait and Landscape Painter. 1801 \n\n\n\n.846 \n\n\n\nAmer. Jarvis, J. W. \n\nAmer. Johnson, Eastman (N. Y.> \n\nAmer. , David (N. Y.) \n\nFr. Johannot, Chas. H. A. \n\nFr. -: , Tony (brother) \n\nAmer. Jones, Alfred, N. Y. \n\n\n\nAmer. \n\n\n\n\xe2\x80\x94 , Inigo \n\xe2\x80\x94 , Thos. D. \n\n\n\nPortrait Painter. \n\n\n\n\n\n\nPainter. \n\n\n\n\n\n\nPainter. \n\n\n\n\n\n\nPainter and Designer. \n\n\n1800 \n\n\n1887 \n\n\nPainter and Designer. \n\n\n1803 \n\n\n186) \n\n\nEngraver. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n. Architect. \n\n\n1673 \n\n\n1661 \n\n\nSculptor. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1 66 ithe world\'s progress. \n\nKATIOB. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. OIEi. \n\nFlem. Jordaens, Jaoob . . . . Painter. 1696 167\xc2\xbb \n\nItal. Julio, Romano . . . Painter and Architect 1492 154* \n\nK \n\nSwiss. Kauffinau, M. A- Angelica O. (to England) Poetical Painter. 1747 180 \n\nAmer. Kensett, John F. .... Painter. 1818 \n\nGer. Kiss, August .... Sculptor. 1802 1864 \n\nGer. Kneller, Sir Godfrey (resided in England) . Painter. 1648 172? \n\n!\xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nDutch. Lairesse, Gerard (excelled to expedition) Painter and Engraver. 1640 1711 \n\nFr. Landon, C. P. . . Writer on Art and Painter. 1826 \n\nEng. Landseer, Chas. . . . Painter of Genre. \n\nEng. , John .... Engraver. 1769 186S \n\nEng. , Sir Edwin .... Painter. 1808 \n\nAmer. Lang, Louis (b. in Germany) . . . Painter. 1814 \n\nEng. Lawrence, Sir Thoe. .... Painter. 1769 1830 \n\nFr. Lebrun, Charles (painter to Louis XIV.) . . Painter. 1619 169e \n\nEng. Leech, John . . . Humorist Artist. 1816 \n\nGr. Lely, Sir Peter (painter to Charles II. of England) Painter. 1618 1680 \n\nFr. Le Sieur, Eustace (the Frenoh Raphael) . . Painter. 1617 1656 \n\nAmer. Leslie, Chas. R. (resided in England) . . Painter. 1794 1869 \n\nGer. Lessing, Carl Fred. .... Painter. 1808 \n\nAmer. Leutze, Emanuel (b. in Germany) . . Painter. 1816 \n\nFr. Leyden, Lucas Damrnesz . . Painter and Engraver 1494 1533 \n\nEng. Liverseege, Henry . . . - . Painter. 1803 1832 \n\nGr. Lysippus (made 600 statues) . . Sculptor. f. b. o. 324 \n\nhi; \n\nAmer. Malbone, Edward G. . . . Miniature Painter. 1777 1807 \n\nScot. Marshall, Wax. O. . . . . Sculptor. 1813 \n\nAmer. , Wm, C. . . . . Engraver. \n\nEng. Martin, John ... . Painter. 1789 1854 \n\nItal. Masaccio ..... Painter. 1402 1427 \n\nFlem. Matsys, Quintin . . . . Painter. 1460 1529 \n\nGer. Mayer ..... Sculptor. \n\nItal. Mazzuolo, Francis .... Painter. 1603 1540 \n\nAmer. McEntee, Jervis .... Painter. \n\nFr. Meissonier, Justus A . Painter, Sculptor, and Architect. \n\nFr. , Jean L. Painter. \n\nGer. Mengs, Anthony R (the Raphael of Germany) . Painter. \n\nDutch. Metzu, Gabriel . . . Familiar Life Painter. \n\nDutch. Mieris, Franols . . Familiar Life Painter. \n\nFr. Mignard, Peter .... Painter. \n\nAmer. Mignot, Louis R. .... Painter, \n\namer. Mills, Clark ..... Sculptor. \n\nSwiss. Mind, Gottfried ..... Painter. \nItal. Morghen, Raphael .... Engraver. \n\nAmer. Morse, Samuel F. B. . . . Painter. \n\nAmer. Mount, William Sidney . . . Painter. \n\nEng. Moreland, George ... Painter. \n\nSpan. Murillo. Bartholomew 8. . . . Painter. \n\n\n\n1695 \n\n\n1760 \n\n\n1815 \n\n\n\n\n1729 \n\n\n1779 \n\n\n1615 \n\n\n1669 \n\n\n1635 \n\n\n1681 \n\n\n1610 \n\n\n1686 \n\n\n1815 \n\n\n\n\n1768 \n\n\n1814 \n\n\n1758 \n\n\n1833 \n\n\n1807 \n\n\n\n\n1764 \n\n\n1804 \n\n\n1618 \n\n\n108! \n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. ARTISTS. \n\n\n\n167 \n\n\n\nkATIOH. HAMS AND PROFESSION. BORN. \n\nDutch. Neefs, Peter . . . Architectural Painter. 1570 \n\nEng. Newton, Gilbert (Stuart) . . Historical Painter. 1785 \n\nEng. Nolle kins, Joseph .... Sculptor. 1737 \n\n\n\nBng Northcote, James \n\n\n\nPainter. 1746 \n\n\n\nDIED \n1051 \n\n1833 \n\n1823 \n1831 \n\n\n\nBng. Opie, John . . \n\nDutch. Ostade, Adrian van (interiors) \nDutch. Ostade, Isaac (winter scenes) \nEng. Owen, William . . \n\n\n\nPainter. 1761 1807 \n\nFamiliar Life Painter. 1610 1686 \n\nPainter. 1617 1671 \n\n. Painter. 1769 1826 \n\n\n\nAmer. \n\nFr. \n\nItal. \n\nSpan. \n\nItal. \n\nOr. \n\nAmfei\'. \n\nAmer. \n\nFr. \n\nItal. \n\nSwiss. \n\nBeL \n\nBel. \n\nBel. \n\nGr. \n\nEng. \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nItal. \n\nFr. \n\nItal. \n\nItaL \n\nGr. \n\nItal. \n\nDutch. \n\nFr. \n\nItal. \n\nItal. \n\nAmer. \n\nFr. \n\nAmer, \n\nGr. \n\nEng \n\nFr. \n\nFr. \n\nEng. \n\n\n\nPage, Wm. . . . \n\nPajou, Augustin . . \n\nPalladio, Andrew . . \n\nPalomino de Castro y Velasco A. A. \n\nPannini, Giov. Paolo \nParrhasius, of Ephesus . \n\n\n\n, , Painter. \n\n, Sculptor. \n\n, . Architect. \n\n, . Painter. \n\nArchitectural Painter. \n\nPainter. \n\n\n\nPeale, Charles W. . Historical and Portrait Painter. \n\n, Rembrandt .... Painter. \n\nPerrault, Claudius (designed the front of the Louvre; Architect. \n\n\n\nPerugino, Pete.- (the master of Raphael) \nPetitot, John (excelled in enamel) . \n\nPeters, Bonaventura . . , \n\n, Francis Lucas . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n, John . . \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\nPhidias (the most famous of ancient sculptors) \n\nPhillips, Thomas, R. A, . . \n\nPicart, Bernard \n\nPigalle, John Baptist . . \n\nPietro, da Pietre . . \n\nPiles, Roger de . , \n\nPiranesi, John Baptist (16 volumes folio) \n\nPolidors, da Caravaggio . . . \n\nPolycletus (statue of Juno at Argos) . \n\nPordenone, Regillo da \n\nPotter, Paul (unequalled in animal painting) \n\nPoussin, Nicholas (excelled in landsoape painting) \n\nPoussin, Gaspar (Dughet) \n\nPiombo, Sebastiano del \n\n\n\nPainter. \n\nPainter. \n\nMarine Painter. \n\nPainter. \n\nMarin* Painter. \n\nSculptor, b. \n\nPort. Painter. \n\nEngraver. \n\nSculptor. \n\nHist. Painter of Rome. \n\nAuthor and Painter. \n\nEngraver. \n\n, Painter. \n\n\n\nPowers, Hiram \n\nPradier, Jacques \n\nPratt, Mathew \n\nPraxiteles \n\nProut, Samuel , \n\nPrudhon, of Cluny \n\nPuget \n\nPugin, Augustus A. W. \n\n\n\nSculptor, b. \n\nPainter. \n\nPainter. \n\nPainter. \n\n. Landscape Painter. \n\n. . Painter. \n\n, . . Sculptor. \n\n, . Sculptor. \n\n, . . Painter. \n\n. . Sculptor, f. \n\n. , Water-oolorist. \n\n. , . Painter. \n\nSculptor, Painter and architect. \n\n. Architect \n\n\n\n1811 \n\n1730 \n\n1518 \n\n1653 \n\n1691 \nf. B. \n\n1741 \n\n1778 \n\n1613 \n\n1446 \n\n1607 \n\n1614 \n\n1606 \n\n1635 \n0.498 B. \n\n1770 \n\n1663 \n\n1714 \n\n1671 \n\n1635 \n\n1707 \n\n1495 \nC.430 \n\n1484 \n\n1625 \n\n1594 \n\n1613 \n\n1485 \n\n1805 \n\n1798 \n\n1734 \nB. 0. 390 \n\n1783 \n\n1760 \n\n1622 \n\n1811 \n\n\n\n1809 \n1580 \n1726 \n1764 \n\nO, 420 \n1827 \n1860 \n1688 \n1524 \n1691 \n1652 \n1654 \n1677 \n\n0.431 \n1845 \n1733 \n1785 \n1716 \n1709 \n1778 \n1543 \n\n1540 \n1654 \n1665 \n1675 \n1547 \n\n1852 \n\n1805 \n\n1S52 \n182S \n1694 \n\n18M \n\n\n\ni68 \n\n\n\nTELE WORLD\'S PROGRESS. \n\n\n\nRATION. \n\nItaL \n\nItaL Raphael da Rhegio (Raffaelino) \n\nGer. Rauch, Christian David \n\nDutch. Rembrandt van Ryn, Paul Geritz \n\nGer. Retsch, Moritz . . \n\nEng. Reynolds, Sir Joshua \n\nEng. Richardson, Jonathan , \n\nGer. Riedinger, John Elias . \n\nFr. Rober, Fleury , . \n\nBoot. Roberts, David . . . \n\nFr. Roland, Philip (Homer in the Louvre) \n\nEng. Romney, George . . \n\nFlem. Roos, Philip Peters . . \n\nItaL Rosa, Salvator . \n\nAmer. Rossiter, Thomas P. , \n\nFr. Roubilliac, L. F. \n\nFr. Rousseau, James \n\nEng. Rowlandsou, Th. (caricature\xe2\x80\x94 Dr. Syntax, &c.) Paint, and Eng. \n\nFlem. Rubens, Peter Paul .... Painter. \n\nScot. Runciman, Alexander . . . Painter. \n\nDutch. Ruysdael, Jacob , . Landscape Painter. \n\nDutch. Ruysdael, Solomon .... Painter. \n\nDutch. Ryckaert, David .... Painter. \n\nDutch. Ryckaert, Martin . . Landscape Painter. \n\nDutch. Rysbraeck, Ieter . . . Landscape Painter. \n\nEng. Rysbrach, John M. (works In Westminster Abbey) Sculptor. \n\n\n\nWAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nRaphael, d\' Orblno (real name Sanzio) A prominent Painter. \n\nHist, and Port. Painter. \n. . Sculptor. \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 . Art Designer. \n\nPainter \n\nWriter on Art and Painter. \n\nAnimal Painter. \n\n. . Painter. \n\n. \xe2\x80\xa2 Painter. \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 Sculptor. \n\n. Painter. \n\n. Painter. \n\n. Paints. \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 Painter. \n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 Sculptor. \n\nPainter. \n\n\n\nBOEN. \n\n14* \n1552 \n1781 \n1606 \n1779 \n1723 \n1665 \n1695 \n1797 \n1796 \n1746 \n1734 \n1655 \n1614 \n\n1695 \n1630 \n1756 \n1577 \n1736 \n1636 \n1616 \n16!5 \n1591 \n1657 \n1694 \n\n\n\n0IBR \n\n1524 \n158C \n1859 \n1669 \n1859 \n1792 \n1745 \n1767 \n\n1864 \n1816 \n1802 \n1705 \n1673 \n\n\n\n1827 \n1646 \n1785 \n1684 \n1670 \n1677 \n1636 \n1716 \n1770 \n\n\n\nItaL \n\nItaL \n\nItaL \n\nItaL \n\nEng. \n\nItaL \n\nPruss. \n\nGer. \n\nGer. \n\nDutch. \n\nGer. \n\nItaL \n\nGr. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nEng. \n\nEng. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\nAmer. \n\n\n\nSalvi, John Baptist (Sassoferrato) . \n\nSalvi, Nicholas \nSanmicheli, Michael \nSarto, Andrea del, see Vawwccki . \n\nSavage, James . . \n\nSeamozzi, "Vincent . . \n\nSchadow, J. G. . , \n\nSchadow, Godenhaus F. W. . \n\nSchadow, Rudolf . . \n\nSchalken, Godfrey (Candlelight Scenes) \nScheffer, Ary \nSchidone, Bartolomeo . . \n\n\n\nPainter. 1605 16S5 \n\nArchitect. 1699 1752 \n\nArchitect. 1484 1559 \n\n\n\nSharp, William . . . \n\nShattuck, Aaron D. . . , \n\nShee, Sir M. A., president Royal Academy \nSherwin, John Keyse ... \nSmillie, James ... \n\n, George H. , , , \n\n\xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 \xe2\x80\x94 , James D. . , \n\n\n\nArchitect. \n\n\n1778 \n\n\n1S52 \n\n\nArchitect. \n\n\n1550 \n\n\n1616 \n\n\nSculptor. \n\n\n1764 \n\n\n1850 \n\n\nPainter. \n\n\n1789 \n\n\n\n\nSculptor. \n\n\n1786 \n\n\n1822 \n\n\nPainter. \n\n\n1643 \n\n\n1706 \n\n\nPainter \n\n\n1795 \n\n\n1858 \n\n\nPainter. \n\n\n1560 \n\n\n1616 \n\n\nSculptor, b. \n\n\n0.460 B. \n\n\n0. 353 \n\n\nEngraver. \n\n\n1740 \n\n\n1824 \n\n\nPainter. \n\n\n\n\n\n\nPainter. \n\n\n1795 \n\n\n1850 \n\n\nEngraver. \n\n\n1751 \n\n\n1791 \n\n\nEngraver. \n\n\n\n\n\n\nPaintei. \n\n\n\n\n\n\nPainter. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nBIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. ARTISTS. \n\nHATIOM. NAME AND PROFESSION. \n\nAmer. Smybert, John (b. in Scotland) . . . Painter. \n\nFlem. Snyders. Francis . Landscape and Animal Painter, \n\nFr. Soulflot, J. G. (church of St. Genevieve at Paris) Architect. \n\nDutoh. Spaendonck, Gerradvan . . Flower Painter. \n\nSpan. Spagnoletto, Giuseppe Ribera la . , . Painter. \n\nDutch. Steen, Jan . ... Painter. \n\nAmer. Stone, William O.. \xe2\x80\xa2 , . Portrait Painter. \n\nScot. Strange, Robert . \xe2\x80\xa2 . . Engraver. \n\nAmer. Strickland, William , . . Architect. \n\nBng. Strutt, Joseph, .... Author and Painter. \nEng. Stuart, James, author of the Antiquities of Athens Architect. \nAmer. Stuart, Gilbert, pupil of Benjamin West . Port. Painter. \n\nGer. Sunder, Lucas (see Cranach) . . , Engraver. \n\n\n\n169 \n\n\n\n1684 \n\n\n1751 \n\n\n1679 \n\n\n1667 \n\n\n1714 \n\n\n1781 \n\n\n1746 \n\n\n182* \n\n\n1589 \n\n\n1066 \n\n\n1636 \n\n\n1689 \n\n\n1721 \n\n\n1792? \n\n\n\n\n1864 \n\n\n1749 \n\n\n180S \n\n\n1713 \n\n\n1788 \n\n\n1756 \n\n\n1828 \n\n\n\nItaL \n\n\nTenerani, Pietro \xe2\x80\x9e . . \n\n\n\xe2\x80\xa2 Sculptor. \n\n\n1789 \n\n\n\n\nFlem, \n\n\nTeniers, David, the elder (pupil of Rubens) \n\n\n\xe2\x80\x9e . Painter. 1 \n\n\n1582 \n\n\n1049 \n\n\nFlem. \n\n\nTeniers, David, the younger (pupil of Rubens) . Painter. \n\n\n1610 \n\n\n1694 \n\n\nScot. \n\n\nThorn, Jas. (Tarn O\'Shanter, &c.) \n\n\nSculptor. \n\n\n1790 \n\n\n1850 \n\n\nEng. \n\n\nThornhill, Sir Jas. . \n\n\nHistorical Painter. \n\n\n1676 \n\n\n1732 \n\n\nDan. \n\n\nThorwaldsen, Albert \n\n\nSculptor. \n\n\n1772 \n\n\n1844 \n\n\nGer. \n\n\nTieck, Christ Fried . \n\n\nSculptor. \n\n\n1776 \n\n\n1851 \n\n\nGr. \n\n\nTimanthes (contemporary with Parrhasius) \n\n\n. Painter. \n\n\nf. B. \n\n\nc. 240 \n\n\nItaL \n\n\nTintoretto (Venetian\xe2\x80\x94 pupil of Titian) \n\n\n. Painter. \n\n\n1480 \n\n\n1579 \n\n\nItal. \n\n\n\n\n. Painter. \n\n\n1512 \n\n\n1594 \n\n\n\n\nItaL \n\n\nTitian, the greatest of the Venetian school \n\n\n, Painter. \n\n\n1480 \n\n\n1579 \n\n\nFr. \n\n\nTroyon, Constantino . . . \n\n\nPainter. \n\n\n1813 \n\n\n1865 \n\n\nAmer. \n\n\nTmmbull, John . , , \n\n\nHistorical Painter. \n\n\n1756 \n\n\n1843 \n\n\nEng. \n\n\nTurner, J. W. M. . . , \n\n\n.. . Painter. \n\n\n1775 \n\n\n1851 \n\n\n\nEng. Uwins, Thomas, R. A. . . . Paint a. 1783 1867 \n\n\n\nAmer. Van Beest (b. in Holland p) . . Marine Painter. \n\nEng. Vanbrugh, Sir John (Blenheim and Castle Howard) \n\nAmer. Vanderlyn, John \n\nDutch. Vander Neer, Arnold . . \n\nDutch. Vander velde, Adrian . . \n\nDutch. , the younger . \n\nDutch. \xe2\x80\x94 , Wm., marine and battle \n\nDutch. Vanderwrrf, Adrian \n\nFlem. Vandyke, Sir Anthony, the greatest of portrait \n\nDutch. Vaneyck, Hubert \n\nDuJoh. Vaneyck, John, brothers (John of Bruges) \n\nItal. Vannucohi, or Andrea del Sarto . \n\nItal. Van Vitelli, Louis, a Neapolitan \n\nItal. Vasari, George, biographer of artists \n\nBio. Vasi, Joseph \n\n\n\ntie Howard) Aren\'t. \n\n\n1672 \n\n\n1726 \n\n\nHistorical Painter. \n\n\n1776 \n\n\n1862 \n\n\nLandscape Painter. \n\n\n1619 \n\n\n1683 \n\n\n. Landscape Painter. \n\n\n1639 \n\n\n1672 \n\n\n, . Painter. \n\n\n1633 \n\n\n1707 \n\n\n. . Painter. \n\n\n1610 \n\n\n1693 \n\n\nHistorical Painter. \n\n\n1654 \n\n\n1718 \n\n\nortrait Painter. \n\n\n1598 \n\n\n1646 \n\n\nPainter. \n\n\n1366 \n\n\n1426 \n\n\nes) . Painter. \n\n\n1370 \n\n\n1441 \n\n\n. . Painter. \n\n\n1488 \n\n\n1630 \n\n\nArchitect. \n\n\n1700 \n\n\n1773 \n\n\nArchitect and Painter. \n\n\n1512 \n\n\n1674 \n\n\nDesigner and Engraver. \n\n\n1710 \n\n\n1711 \n\n\n\n170 \n\n\n\nTHE WORLD\'S PROGRESS. \n\n\n\nRATIOS \n\nSpan. \n\nFlem. \n\nAmer. \n\nFt. \n\nFr. \n\nItal. \n\nItal. \n\nEng. \n\nItal. \n\nItal. \n\nOr. \n\nItaL \n\nFr. \n\n\n\nNAME AND PEOFE88IOS. \n\nVelasquez, Jas. R. de Sylvia y . . . Painter. \n\nVerboeckhoven, Eugene . . Painter of animals. \n\nVer Bryck, C. . . . Landscape Painter. \n\nVernet, Horace . . . Historical Painter. \n\nVernet, J oseph ..... Painter. \nVeronese, Paul (see Cagliari) \nVerrochio, Andrew, inventor of the method of taking \xe2\x80\xa2 \n\n\n\n166* \n\n\n\nBORK \n\n1699 \n\n1799 \n\n1813 1844 \n\n1789 1863 \n\n1714 178e \n\n\n\n1422 \n1684 \n1607 \n1452 \n\n\n\nfeatures in a plaster mould . . Sculptor. \n\nVertne, George (600 plates) . . . Engraver. \n\nVignola, Jas., Caprarola palace and Bt. Peter\'s Arohitect. \n\nVinci, Leonardo da ... Painter. \n\nVitruvius, contemporary of Augustus . Architect. \n\nVolpato, John ..... Engraver. \n\nVouet, Simon, founder of French school, contempora- \nry of Charles L . . . Painter. 1682 \n\n\n\n1488 \n1756 \n1575 \n1519 \n\n\n\nf B. 0. 30 \n1733 1802 \n\n\n\nFr. Wailly, Charles de \n\nAnier Ward, J. Quincy A. \n\nEng. Warren, Charles, perfect\xc2\xa9* of engraving on steel \n\nFr. Watteau, Antoine \n\nAmer. "Weir, Robt. W. . \n\nAmer. , James F. \n\nDan. Wertmuller, (p) (painted in America) \nAmer. West, Benjamin \nEng. Westall, Richard . \n\nEng. , William R. A. br. \n\nAmer. White, Edwin \n\nAmer. Whittredge, Worthington . . \n\nSoot, Wilkie, David \n\nEng. Wilson, Richard \n\nEng. Woollett, William \n\nDutch. Wouverman, Philip \n\nEng. Wren, Sir Christopher (St. Paul\'s, &o.) \n\nEng. Wyatt, James (Pantheon, Eew Palaee, &e.) \n\nEng. "Wyatt, R. J. . \n\n\n\nArohitect. \n\n\n1729 \n\n\n1798 \n\n\nSculptor. \n\n\n\n\n\n\nan steel Engraver. \n\n\n\n\n1828 \n\n\nPainter. \n\n\n1684 \n\n\n1721 \n\n\n. Painter. \n\n\n1803 \n\n\n\n\nPainter. \n\n\n\n\n\n\nPort. Painter. \n\n\n\n\n\n\nPainter. \n\n\n1738 \n\n\n182C \n\n\nHistorical Painter. \n\n\n1781 \n\n\n1886 \n\n\nDesigner. \n\n\n1781 \n\n\n185\xc2\xab \n\n\nPainter. \n\n\n\n\n\n\nLandscape Painter. \n\n\n\n\n\n\nFamiliar Life Painter. \n\n\n1786 \n\n\n1841 \n\n\nLandscape Painter. \n\n\n1713 \n\n\n1782 \n\n\nEngraver. \n\n\n1736 \n\n\n1785 \n\n\nPainter. \n\n\n1620 \n\n\n1668 \n\n\nArchitect. \n\n\n1632 \n\n\n1723 \n\n\n.) . Architect. \n\n\n1743 \n\n\n1813 \n\n\n. . Sculptor. \n\n\n1796 \n\n\n1850 \n\n\n\nSpan. Ximenes, Fran. \n\n\n\nPainter. \n\n\n\n169S \n\n\n\n1.666 \n\n\n\nFlem Yplen, Charles de \n\n\n\nPainter. \n\n\n\n1610 \n\n\n\n166A \n\n\n\nItal Zablia, Nicholas \n\nQt. Zeixis, celebrated ancient \n\nGer. Zinoke \n\nItaL Zucoaro, or Zucohero, Frederigo \n\nItaL Zuocaro, or Zucohero, Taddeo , \n\nItal. Zaecarelli . \n\n\n\nArchitect. \n\n. Painter. \n\nEnamel Portrait Painter. \n\n. Painter. \n\nPainter. \n\nPainter. \n\n\n\n1674 1660 \n\no. 490 b. c. 400 \n1684 1769 \n\n1539 1639 \n\n1529 166\xc2\xab \n\n1710 1781 \n\n\n\n\n\n\nC 697 \n\n\n\n'